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PEACH-GEOWING 


Efje  i^ural  Science  Series 

Edited  by  L.  H.  Bailet 

The  Soil.     King. 

The  Spraying  of  Plants.     Lodeman. 

Milk  AND  Its  Products.    Wing.   Enlarged  and  Revised. 

The  Fertility  of  the  Land.     Boberts. 

The     Principles    of    Fruit-growing.     Bailey.     20th 

Edition,  Bevised. 
Bush-fruits.     Card.     Bevised. 
Fertilizers.     Voorhees.     Bevised. 
The  Principles  of  Agriculture.     Bailey.     Bevised. 
Irrigation  and  Drainage.     King. 
The  Farmstead.     Boberts. 
Rural  Wealth  and  Welfare.     Fairchild. 
The  Principles  of  Vegetable-gardening.   Bailey. 
Farm  Poultry.    Watson.    Enlarged  and  Bevised. 
The    Feeding    of    Animals.       Jordan.       (Now   Rural 

Text-Book  Series.) 
The  Farmer's  Business  Handbook.     Boberts. 
The  Diseases  of  Animals.     Mayo. 
The  Horse.     Boberts. 
How  to  Choose  a  Farm.     Hunt. 
Forage  Crops.     Voorhees. 

Bacteria  in  Relation  to  Country  Life.     Lipman. 
The  Nursery-book.     Bailey. 
Plant-breeding.     Bailey  and  Gilbert.     Bevised. 
The  Forcing-book.     Bailey. 

The  Pruning-book,  Bailey.   (Now  Rural  Manual  Series.) 
Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions.   Paddock  and  Whipple. 
Rural  Hygiene.      Ogden. 
Dry-farming.     Widtsoe. 
Law  for  the  American  Farmer.     Green. 
Farm  Boys  and  Girls.     McKeever. 
The  Training  and  Breaking  of  Horses.    Harper. 
Sheep-farming  in  North  America.     Craig. 
Cooperation  in  Agriculture.     Powell. 
The  Farm  Woodlot.     Cheyney  and  Wentling. 
Household  Insects.     Herrick. 
Citrus  Fruits.      Coit. 

Principles  of  Rural  Credits.     Morman. 
Beekeeping.     Phillips. 

Subtropical  Vegetable-gardening.     Bolfs. 
Turf  for  Golf  Courses.     Piper  and  Oakley. 
The  Potato.     Gilbert. 
Strawberry-growing.     Fletcher. 
Western  Live-Stock  Management.     Potter. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2010  with  funding  from 

University  of  British  Columbia  Library 


http://www.archive.org/details/peachgrowingOOgoul 


PEACH-GROWING 


BY 


H.    P.    GOULD 


FOMOLOGIST    IN    CHARGE    OF    FRUIT    PRODUCTION    INVESTIGATIONS, 
BUREAU    OF    PLANT   INDUSTRY,    U.    8.    DEPART- 
MENT   OF    AGRICULTURE 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1918 

All  righta  reserved 


COPYKIGHT,  1918, 

By  the   MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  November,  1918. 


Norinoot)  I^tcss 

J.  8.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  MsBS.,  U.S.A. 


Bo  tfie  "jE^tmort!  of 
WELTON    MARKS    MUNSON 

INBTBtrCTOR  IN  HOKTIOULTUBK  IN  CORNULL  UKI- 

TEB8ITT,    AND    LATER    PB0FBS80E    IN 

THE    UNIVERSITY   OP   MAINE 


TEACHER  AND  FRIEND,  UNDER  WHOM 
THE  AUTHOR  RECEIVED  HIS  FIRST  HOR- 
TICULTURAL INSTRUCTION,  AND  WHOSE 
INFLUENCE  EXERCISED  UNCONSCIOUSLY 
THROUGH  A  BRIEF  PERIOD  HAS  CON- 
TRIBUTED   GREATLY    TO    THE    YEARS 

THAT    HAVE    FOLLOWED 
THIS   BOOK    IS    GRATEFULLY   DEDICATED 


PREFACE 

Although  the  development  of  peach-growing  in  the 
United  States  has  been  coincident  with  the  development  of 
the  country,  peach  literature  is  notably  limited  except  as  it 
appears  in  experiment  station  bulletins  and  reports.  Of 
these  there  are  many. 

The  motive  of  this  book  is  to  present  in  a  fairly  compre- 
hensive way  the  principles  and  practice  of  successful  peach 
production.  The  amount  of  detail  that  enters  into  some 
parts  of  the  discussion  may  seem  unnecessary  and  prove 
wearisome  to  the  experienced  grower,  but  the  author's  con- 
ception of  the  book  is  based  largely  on  a  rather  extensive 
observation  of  fruit-growing  problems  and  the  impressions 
that  have  come  from  the  handling  of  a  wide  range  of  corre- 
spondence. So  far  as  this  effort  proves  of  service  to  the 
reader  who  is  seeking  help  in  the  growing  of  peaches,  the 
book  will  accomplish  its  intended  mission. 

It  is  difficult  to  make  full  acknowledgment  of  all  credit 
that  should  be  given.  Experiment  station  literature  has 
been  drawn  upon  very  freely.  Most  of  the  ripening  dates 
in  the  chapter  on  varieties  were  supplied  by  peach-growers. 
The  chapter  on  pruning  was  reviewed  by  S.  H.  Fulton,  of 
West  Virginia,  a  peach-grower  of  large  experience ;  and  the 
one  on  insects  and  diseases,  by  W.  M.  Scott,  formerly  con- 
nected with  the  fruit  disease  investigations  of  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  and  himself  a  peach-grower  of 
large  interests. 


vili  Preface 

The  photographs  from  which  most  of  the  illustrations  were 
made  are  from  the  files  of  the  OfBce  of  Horticultural  and 
Pomological  Investigations,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  are  here  used  with  the 
approval  of  the  Chief  of  that  Office.  Although  most  of 
them  were  taken  by  the  author,  credit  for  their  use  belongs 
to  the  Department.  Further  acknowledgment  is  made 
in  the  List  of  Illustrations.  Finally,  the  Editor  and  Pub- 
lishers have  made  concessions  that  should  not  pass  unre- 
corded. 

H.  P.  Gould 

Washington,  D.C, 
June  8,  1918 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 

PAGES 

Historical  Notes 1-12 

Introduction  into  America 4-12 

CHAPTER  II 

Economic  Status  and  Extent  of  the  Peach  Industry  13-25 

Yields 13-14 

Disposition  of  the  crops 14-17 

Distribution  of  peach  production 17-24 

North  America 18-20 

United  States 18-19 

Canada 19 

Mexico,  Central  America,  West  Indies      .        .  20 

South  America 20-21 

Argentina 20 

Chile 20 

Uruguay 20 

Peru 20 

Europe 21-22 

Austria-Hungary 21 

France 21 

Germany 21 

Italy 21 

Russia 22 

Turkey .  22 

Spain 22 

United  Kingdom 22 

ix 


X  Contents 

PAOXS 

Asia 22-23 

Japan 22 

Formosa 23 

Persia 23 

Africa 23 

British  South  Africa 23 

Tunis 23 

Oceania 23 

Austraha 23 

Who  will  succeed  in  peach-growing         ....  24-25 

CHAPTER  III 

Location  and  Site  of  the  Orchard         ....  26-46 

Liocations  for  peach  orchards 27-37 

Locations  with  reference  to 

range  of  the  species 27-28 

chmatic  conditions 28-33 

accessibihty  of  markets 33-34 

community  interests  and  economic  conditions  34-35 

the  ripening  of  the  fruit 35-36 

Orchard  sites 37-46 

Soil 37-39 

Topography,  elevation,  slope,  and  local  climate       .  39-46 

CHAPTER  IV 

Propagation  of  Peach  Trees ,  47-63 

Stocks 48-54 

Budding 55-63 

Selecting  the  buds 55-56 

Details  of  budding 56-60 

Growing  the  trees  from  the  bud 61-62 

Dormant  budding 62-63 


Contents 


XI 


CHAPTER  V 

PAGES 

Details  of  Planting  an  Orchard 64-96 

Trees  for  planting 64-71 

Varieties 64-66 

Tree  grades  and  sizes 66-70 

Where  to  obtain  trees 70-71 

Time  of  planting 71-74 

Handling  the  trees  when  received  from  the  nursery        .  74-77 

Preparing  the  land  for  the  trees 77-79 

Laying  off  the  land 79-83 

Distance  between  trees 80-81 

Making  the  holes  for  the  trees 84-88 

Planting  the  trees 88-96 

CHAPTER  VI 

Orchard  Management 97-100 

Period  of  profitable  productivity 98-99 

Maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil         ....  99-100 


CHAPTER  VII 

The  Tillage  of  Peach  Orchards 101-110 

Tillage  implements 108-110 

CHAPTER  VIII 

Inter-planted  Crops llJ-148 

Filler-crops 113-117 

Cover-,  green-manure,  and  shade-crops  ....  117-126 

Leguminous  crops 126-143 

Cowpeas 127-129 

Hairy  vetch 129-131 

Common  vetch 131-132 

Crimson  clover 132-134 


xu 


Contents 


PAOEa 

Soybeans          134-135 

Velvet  beans     .......  135-136 

Field  peas 136-138 

Red  clover         . 138-139 

Alfalfa 139-140 

Bur,  button,  Japan  (or  Lespedeza),  bitter,  and 

sweet  clovers          ......  140-143 

Other  legumes 143 

Non-leguminous  crops 143-148 

Rye           . 144-145 

Oats 145 

Buckwheat 145 

Rape,  cowhorn  turnips 145-146 

Millet,  corn,  cane 146-148 

Other  cover-crops 148 


CHAPTER  IX 
Fertilizers  for  Peach  Orchards 


.    149-175 


CHAPTER  X 


Pruning  Peach  Trees 


When  to  prime        .... 
Some  general  principles  of  pruning 
Pruning  tools  ..... 
Pruning  the  first  year 
Pruning  the  second  year 
Pruning  the  third  and  subsequent  years 
Summer  pruning     .... 
Pruning  in  relation  to  winter  injury 
Pruning  to  overcome  winter  injury 
Pruning  to  renew  the  tops 

Renewal  by  heavy  pruning 


176-217 

178 
178-180 

180 
181-185 
185-187 
187-199 
199-203 
203-206 
206-210 
210-211 
211-214 


Contents  xiii 


PAGES 


Renewal  by  top-budding 215-216 

Renewal  by  top-grafting 216-217 

CHAPTER  XI 

Insect  and  Disease  Control 218-294 

Peach  insects 219-254 

Plum  curculio 219-222 

Peach-tree  borer       ••■>..,,  222-225 

Lesser  peach-tree  borer 225-227 

California  peach-tree  borer 227-228 

Fruit-tree  bark-beetle,  or  shot-hole  borer         .        ,  228-230 

Peach-tree  bark-beetle 231-232 

Peach-twig  borer,  or  peach-worm     ....  232-233 

Black  peach-aphis 233-235 

Green  peach-aphis 235-236 

San  Jose  scale 236-241 

White  or  West  Indian  peach-scale   ....  241-242 

Terrapin  scale,  or  peach-lecanium    ....  242-245 

Peach-  and  plum-slug 245-246 

Peach  saw-fly 246-247 

Brown-mite 247-248 

Red-spider       .        .        .        .        .        .        .        ,  248-249 

Oriental  peach-moth 249-251 

Peach  bud-mite 251-252 

Other  insects 252-253 

The  nematode 253-254 

Peach  diseases 255-279 

Brown-rot 255-257 

Peach-scab 257-258 

Leaf-curl 258-259 

Peach-yellows 260-262 

Little-peach ^  262-264 

Peach-rosette  .        .         .        .  •     ,        ,        .        _  264-265 

Shot-hole,  leaf-blight,  leaf-spot        ....  265-266 


xiv  Contents 

PAGES 

Bacterial  leaf-spot,  bacterial  shot-hole,  bacteriosis, 

black-spot 266-268 

Powdery-mildew      . 268-269 

Frosty-mildew 269 

Rust 269-270 

California  peach-blight,  or  coryneum-blight     .        .  270-272 

Crown-gall       .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .  272-273 

Die-back 274-275 

Root-rot .  275-276 

Gummosis 276-277 

Little-leaf,  or  California  yellows       ....  277-278 

Other  diseases 278-279 

Insecticides,  fungicides,  spraying 279-293 

Insecticides 279-284 

Concentrated  lime-sulfior  mixture     .        .        .  279-282 

Miscible  oils 282 

Tobacco  extracts 282-283 

Linseed  oil  emulsion 283-284 

Arsenate  of  lead 284 

Fungicides 285-288 

Self-boiled  lime-sulfur  mixture  ....  285-287 

Atomic  sulfiu" 287 

Bordeaux  mixture 287-288 

Other  insecticides  and  fungicides      ....  288 

Spraying 289-293 

Schedule  of  applications 290-292 

Spraying  equipment 292-293 

Dusting  peaches  to  control  insects  and  diseases       .  293-294 

CHAPTER  XII 

Thinning  the  Fruit 295-304 

Method  of  thinning 300 

When  to  thin 300-303 

Distance  between  fruits ,  303-304 


Contents  xv 
CHAPTER  XIII 

PAGES 

Irrigating  Peaches 305-312 

Systems  of  distributing  water 306-307 

When  to  irrigate 308-311 

Amount  of  water  to  apply 311-312 

CHAPTER  XIV 

A  Consideration  of  Adverse  Temperatures  .        .        .  313-337 

Cultural  methods  in  relation  to  winter  injury         .        .  316-321 

Banking  the  trees 321 

Covering  with  sheds 322 

Wrapping  the  trees 322-323 

Whitewashing  the  tree  as  a  means  of  protection     .        .  323-325 

Laying  down  peach-trees 325-329 

Orchard  heating 329-335 

Artificial  covering 330 

Smudging 330 

Heating  the  air 330-335 

Does  orchard  heating  pay  ?     .        .        ...        .        .  335-336 

CHAPTER  XV 

Annual  Cost  Factors  in  Growing  Peaches   .        .        .  338-349 

CHAPTER  XVI 

Peach  Varieties,  Botany  and  Classification         .        .  350-392 

Varietal  characteristics 373-377 

An  inventory  of  varieties 377-380 

Varieties  offered  to  the  nursery  trade  in  1916     .        .  378-380 

Botany  of  the  peach 380-382 

Classification  of  peaches 382-392 

Peen-torace 384-385 

South  China  race 385-386 


xvi  Contents 

FAQES 

Spanish  race 386 

North  China  race 387-389 

Persian  race 389 

Characteristics  of  the  diiferent  races         ....  390-392 

CHAPTER  XVII 

Picking  and  Packing  the  Fruit 393-404 

Picking  the  fruit 394-397 

Packing  the  fruit 397-404 

Packing  houses 397-399 

Packages          399-400 

Sizing  and  grading 401-403 

Details  of  packing 403-404 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

Transportation,  Storage,  Marketing      ....  405-414 

Transportation 405-409 

PrecooHng 406 

Loading  the  cars 407-409 

Cold  storage 409^10 

Marketing 410-414 

Distribution  of  the  fruit 411-414 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

PLATES 

Plate  I.  —  A  peach  orchard  location  in  the  Alleghany  Moun- 
tains. Elevation  1200  to  1400  feet.  (Farmers'  Bulletin 
631) Frontispiece 

PAOE 

Plate  II.  —  A  peach  orchard  location  in  a  foothill  region  in  Cali- 
fornia.    (Farmers'  Bulletin  631) 1 

Plate  III.  —  Atmospheric  drainage  shown  by  smoke  drifting 
down  a  slope.  A  thin  stratum  of  soil  underlaid  by  a  stratum 
of  rock  —  a  poor  orchard  site.     (Hort.  and  Pom.  files)     .         .       14 

Plate  IV.  —  An  orange  tree  injured  by  a  freeze  and  which  shows 
the  stratification  of  the  air  according  to  temperature.  (Hort. 
and  Pom.  files) 28 

Plate  V.  —  An  orchard  site  in  east  central  Georgia ;  the  topog- 
raphy is  more  or  less  rolling;  the  elevation  about  500  feet. 
(Hort.  and  Pom.  files) 40 

Plate  VI.  —  A  peach  orchard  in  a  broad  portion  of  the  Gunnison 
Valley  in  Colorado.  The  elevation  is  about  5000  feet. 
(Hort.  and  Pom.  files) 54 

Plate  VII.  —  A  block  of  "June  budded  "  peach  trees  in  a  Florida 
nursery.  An  orchard  site  on  the  slope  of  a  ridge  in  the  Alle- 
ghany Mountains.  Elevation  about  1500  to  2100  feet. 
(Hort.  and  Pom.  files) 66 

Plate  VIII.  —  Orchard  sites  at  different  levels  in  the  valley  of  the 
North  Fork  of  the  Gunnison  River  in  Colorado.  Elevation 
5600  to  5700  feet.     (Hort.  and  Pom.  files)       ....       80 

Plate  IX.  —  A  peach  tree  root  19  feet  long ;    one  on  the  oppo- 
site side  was  16  feet  long.     The  roots  of  adjacent  trees  are 
likely  to  crowd  before  the  tops  do.     (Hort.  and  Pom.  files)       .       92 
xvii 


xviii  List  of  Illustrations 

PAQE 

Plate  X.  —  An  Oldmixon  peach  tree  about  fifty-four  years  old. 

(Hort.  and  Pom.  files) 106 

Plate  XI.  —  A  disk  harrow  and  team  for  orchard  tillage.  (Farm- 
ers' Bulletin  631.)  A  tractor  used  in  tillage  operations. 
Soybeans  interplanted  in  drills  as  a  green-manure  crop. 
(Hort.  and  Pom.  files) 118 

Plate  XII.  —  Red  clover  used  as  a  mulch-crop  in  a  peach  or- 
chard. Cow'peas  broadcasted  as  a  green-manure  crop. 
(Hort.  and  Pom.  files) 132 

Plate  XIII.  —  Pruned  to  a  low  spreading  head.  A  one-year- 
old  tree  cut  back  to  a  straight  stem  when  planted  now  in 
July  of  its  first  season's  growth  in  the  orchard.  (Hort. 
and  Pom.  files) 154 

Plate  XIV.  —  A  tree  in  July  of  its  second  season's  growth. 
The  details  of  pruning  during  a  series  of  years.  (Hort.  and 
Pom.  files) 166 

Plate  XV.  —  Buds  in  singles  —  Chili  variety.     Buds  in  pairs 

—  Waldo  and  Angel  varieties.     (Hort.  and  Pom.  files)  .     180 

Plate  XVI.  —  Fruit-buds  of  peach  starting  into  growth  with 
leaf-buds  at  base  of  fruit-buds  also  starting  to  grow.  (Hort. 
and  Pom.  files) 194 

Plate  XVII.  —  Pruning.  The  limbs  have  not  been  cut  back 
but  the  side  branches  at  base  of  limbs  have  been  removed. 
Skillfully  pruned  Levy  peach  tree  with  good  bearing  surface 
throughout  the  top.     (Farmers'  Bulletin  632)        .         .         .206 

Plate  XVIII.  —  Well-pruned,  spreading  heads.  (Farmers'  Bul- 
letin 632.)  Limbs  "leggy"  and  not  well  formed  for  sustain- 
ing heavy  crops  of  fruit.     (Hort.  and  Pom.  files)    .         .         .     220 

Plate  XIX.  —  Salwey  trees  well  pruned  with  a  view  to  develop- 
ing large  bearing  surface.  (Farmers'  Bulletin  632.)  An  open 
head  but  bearing  surface  largely  at  the  extremities  of  the 
limbs.     (Hort.  and  Pom.  files) 232 


List  of  Illustrations  xix 

PAQB 

Plate  XX.  —  A  sled  used  in  removing  brush  from  an  orchard. 
PhilHps  peach  trees  with  dense  tops.  Limbs  propped  to 
prevent  breaking  from  weight  of  a  heavy  crop.  (Farmers' 
Bulletin  632) 246 

Plate  XXI.  —  Renewal  from  the  trunk  following  removal  of 
entire  top.  A  symmetrical  vigorous  growth  near  the  end 
of  the  first  season  after  being  deheaded.  (Farmers'  Bul- 
letin 632)        258 

Plate  XXII.  —  Limbs  cut  back  into  wood  that  was  too  old,  some 
of  the  stubs  failing  to  make  new  growth.  A  vigorous  tree 
which  has  been  deheaded  three  times.    (Farmers'  Bulletin  632)     272 

Plate  XXIII.  —  A  peach  tree  laid  down  during  winter  and  cov- 
ered for  protection,  now  being  gradually  uncovered  in  spring. 
(Colo.  Expt.  Sta.)  Renewal  by  top-budding.  (Farmers' 
Bulletin  632) 286 

Plate  XXIV.  —  A  spray-house  equipped  for  extensive  opera- 
tions. Heaters  distributed  in  an  orchard  ready  for  use. 
A  young  apple  orchard  furrowed  for  irrigation.  (Hort.  and 
Pom.  files) 300 

Plate  XXV.  —  Heaters  of  the  "lard-pail"  type  awaiting  storage. 
A  cement  storage  reservoir  for  oil.  Sheet-metal  storage  tanks. 
(Hort.  and  Pom.  files) 314 

Plate  XXVI.  —  Gilbert  Onderdonk.     (Hort.  and  Pom.  files)     .     326 

Plate  XXVII.  —  Fruits  of  different  peach  races.     (Hort.  and 

Pom.  files) 340 

Plate  XXVIII.  —  A  desirable  orchard  wagon  and  convenient 
picking-baskets.  Packing  in  the  orchard  in  one-half  bushel 
Delaware  baskets.  A  wagon  loaded  with  Delaware  baskets. 
(Hort.  and  Pom.  files) 352 

Plate  XXIX.  —  Packing  houses  and  equipment.  Exterior 
view.  Interior  view.  A  canvas-topped  packing-table. 
(Hort.  and  Pom.  files) 364 


XX  List  of  Illustrations 

PAGB 

Plate  XXX.  —  Georgia     6-basket     carriers.       Twenty-pound 

boxes.     (Hort.  and  Pom.  files) 374 

Plate  XXXI.  —  Loading  in  the  car.  Bushel  baskets  properly 
stacked.  Georgia  carriers  braced  to  prevent  movement  of 
packages  in  transit.     (Hort.  and  Pom.  files)  ....     386 

Plate  XXXII.  —  Peach  packages.      Flats  properly  stacked  in 

the  car.    Climax  baskets.     (Hort,  and  Pom.  files)        .        .    398 

FIGURES 

1.  Details  of  budding.     (Adapted  from  the  Fruit-Grower)  .      57 

2.  A  "bud-stick"  showing  manner  of  removing  buds  .         .      58 

3.  Different  grades  of  nursery  stock.     (Adapted  from  Farmers' 

Bulletin  631) 68 

4.  Peach  trees  heeled  in 75 

5.  The  top  of  a  well-grown  one-year  peach  tree  as  it  came  from 

the  nursery.  (Drawn  from  photo  N.  Car.  Dept.  of  Agri. 
Bull.  227) 89 

6.  The  tree  shown  in  figure  5  after  the  branches  which  are  to 

form  the  permanent  top  have  been  selected  and  the  others 
cut  away.  (Drawn  from  photo  N.  Car.  Dept.  of  Agri. 
Bull.  227) 90 

7.  The  tree  in  figure  6  with  the  branches  cut  back  to  stubs. 

(Drawn  from  photo  N.  Car.  Dept.  of  Agri.  Bull.  227)        .      91 

8.  A  view  looking  directly  downward  on  the  top  of  the  tree  in 

figure  7.  (Adapted  from  photo  N.  Car.  Dept.  of  Agri. 
Bull.  227) 91 

9.  A  leveler  used  for  filling  irrigation  furrows  and  pulverizing 

the  soil.     (Farmers'  Bulletin  631) 109 

10.  A  peach  tree  in  July  of  its  first  season's  growth  in  a  southern 

orchard 182 


List  of  Illustrations  xxi 

PAGE 

11.  The  tree  in  figure  10  after  being  heavily  pruned  in  midsum- 

mer      183 

12.  A  desirable  method  of  supporting  the  branches  to  prevent 

breaking  when  heavily  loaded  with  fruit     .        .        .         .198 

13.  A  brush  burner 199 

14.  A  peach  tree  in  need  of  corrective  pruning.     (Drawn  from 

Farmers'  Bulletin  632)        . 210 

15.  The  tree  in  figure   14  after  receiving  corrective  priming. 

(Drawn  from  Farmers'  Bulletin  632)         ....     211 

16.  A  peach  tree  eight  years  old  with  bearing  surface  mostly  at 

the   extremities   of   the   Kmbs.     (Drawn   from   Farmers' 
Bulletin  632) 212 

17.  The  tree  in  figure  16  after  being  deheaded.     (Drawn  from 

Farmers'  Bulletin  632) 213 

18.  Peach  trees  laid  down  and  covered  with  burlap  and  soil  for 

protection    during    winter.       (Drawn    from    photo   Colo. 
Expt.  Sta.) 328 

19.  Diagram  showing  the  "peach  season"  in  the  different  states. 

(Adapted  from  Dept.  of  Agri.  Bull.  298) 413 


PEACH-GROWING 

CHAPTER  I 
HISTORICAL  NOTES 

The  peach  has  been  in  cultivation  since  ancient  times,  so 
long  in  fact  that  it  is  said  commonly  to  be  unknown  in  the 
wild  state.  For  an  indefinite  period  it  was  supposed  to  be 
native  to  Persia.  Evidently  the  Ancients  so  regarded  it,  since 
more  than  three  centuries  before  the  Christian  Era  the  peach 
was  referred  to  by  Theophrastus  as  a  Persian  fruit.^  De 
Candolle  opposes  this  view  with  the  contention  that  the  peach 
originally  came  from  China.  Perhaps  no  one  can  speak  in 
this  matter  with  greater  authority  than  this  author. 

The  peach  was  received  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  soon 
after  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  Era.  De  Candolle 
reasons  that,  had  it  been  grown  in  antiquity  in  Persia,  it 
would  have  reached  these  peoples  at  an  earlier  time.  He 
also  places  much  significance  in  the  fact  that  there  are  no 
Sanskrit  or  Hebrew  names  for  it.  He  was  convinced  such 
names  would  have  existed  had  the  peach  been  indigenous  to 
Persia,  since  the  Hebrew-  and  Sanskrit-speaking  people,  as 

1  De  Candolle,  Alphonse,  "Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants  "  (1884 
English  Translation),  p.  222. 


2  Peach-Gromng 

well  as  those  of  ancient  Greece,  radiated  from  Persia  and 
the  upper  Euphrates  Valley  or  were  in  communication  there- 
with from  the  earliest  times.  **  On  the  other  hand,"  writes 
De  Candolle,^  "  it  is  very  possible  that  the  stones  of  a  fruit 
tree  cultivated  in  China  from  the  remotest  times  should  have 
been  carried  over  the  mountains  from  the  center  of  Asia  into 
Kashmir,  Bokhara,  and  Persia.  The  Chinese  had  very  early 
discovered  this  route." 

Although  in  different  parts  of  Asia,  in  the  region  of  the 
Caucasus,  in  the  Crimea,  and  in  other  regions,  the  peach 
has  sometimes  been  reported  as  occurring  in  the  wild  state, 
there  always  arises  a  very  definite  doubt,  amounting  to  a 
practical  certainty,  that  it  has  been  introduced  and  the 
trees,  escaping  cultivation,  have  become  naturalized. 

Furthermore,  De  Candolle  traces  evidence  of  the  existence 
of  the  peach  in  China  at  a  much  earlier  period  than  in  any 
other  country.  He  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  peach 
was  referred  to  in  the  writings  of  Confucius  in  the  fifth 
century  before  the  Christian  Era,  and  also  in  other  writings 
in  the  tenth  century  preceding  and,  he  adds:  "The  peach 
spreads  easily  in  the  countries  in  which  it  is  cultivated,  so 
that  it  is  hard  to  say  whether  a  given  tree  is  of  natural  origin 
and  anterior  to  cultivation,  or  whether  it  is  naturalized.  But 
it  was  certainly  first  cultivated  in  China ;  it  was  spoken  of 
there  two  thousand  years  before  its  introduction  into  the 
Greco-Roman  world,  a  thousand  years  perhaps  before  its 
introduction  into  the  lands  of  the  Sanskrit-speaking  race." 
Thus,  if  sacred  and  profane  writings  be  correlated,  it  would 
seem  that  the  peach  was  known  in  that  part  of  the  world 
which  later  came  to  be  called  China  at  the  time  when  Lot 

iDe  Candolle,  Alphonse,  "Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants"  (1884 
English  Translation),  p.  221, 


Historical  Notes  3 

was  separating  himself  from  Abram  because  of  the  conten- 
tion between  their  herdsmen.^ 

De  Candolle's  conviction  that  the  peach  originated  in 
China  was  expressed  as  early  as  1855.^  In  the  following 
thirty  years,  additional  evidence  tending  to  confirm  his 
earlier  views  has  accumulated.  Moreover,  in  his  agricul- 
tural explorations  in  northern  and  eastern  China  within 
the  past  few  years,  for  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Frank  N.  Meyer  has  discovered  at  least  one 
wild  species  of  peach  ^  (and  possibly  others)  which  may  be 
the  prototype  of  the  cultivated  peach,  thus  strengthening 
still  further  the  probability  of  a  Chinese  origin. 

In  his  explorations  in  Hupeh  and  Szechuan  in  western 
China,  E.  H.  Wilson  found  peaches  commonly  cultivated 
from  river-level  to  an  altitude  of  9000  feet.  Not  only  are 
they  grown  in  orchards  and  about  the  houses,  but  they  have 
sprung  up  almost  spontaneously  in  many  places  along  the 
roadsides  and  on  cliffs  where  they  have  become  practically 
naturalized.  Wilson  also  refers  to  the  antiquity  of  the  peach 
in  China  and  mentions  the  now  commonly  accepted  view  of 
its  origin  in  that  country.  It  is  his  opinion,  however,  that 
"the  type  of  garden  peach  is  no  longer  to  be  found  in  the 
wild  state,"*  the  nearest  approach  to  it  being,  in  his  judg- 
ment, the  subspontaneous  form  naturalized  along  the  road- 
sides and  other  places  in  the  provinces  above  named. 

L.  H.  Bailey  found  the  peach  wild  in  the  mountains  sepa- 
rating the  drainage  of  the  Yang-Tze  and  Hwai-Ho  rivers, 

1  Genesis  13  :  1-13. 

2  De  CandoUe,  Alphonse,  "Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants"  (1844 
English  Translation)  p.  221. 

'  Yearbook  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  for  1915,  p.  218. 
^(Wilson,  E.  H.,  "A  Naturalist  in  western  China,"  II,  p,  26; 
also,  "Plantse  Wilsonianse,"  Part  I,  p.  273). 


4  Peach-Growing 

and  also  in  the  low  mountains  of  west-central  Honan,  grow- 
ing in  the  same  situations  as  other  plants  undoubtedly 
native,  sometimes  fruiting  as  small  bushes  among  the  rocks. 
Whether  the  peach  is  indigenous  in  these  regions  he  considers 
as  very  doubtful,  inasmuch  as  China  has  been  the  scene  of 
human  occupation  for  thousands  of  years,  and  it  is  difficult 
to  trace  food  plants  to  their  exact  origins  there. 

INTRODUCTION  INTO   .AMERICA 

The  time  of  introduction  of  the  peach  into  America,  or 
from  whence  or  by  whom  it  came,  seems  not  to  be  a  matter  of 
definite  record.  That  it  was  within  a  few  years  after  the 
landing  of  the  Pilgrim  fathers  appears  certain  and  that  the 
first  introduction  was  in  the  form  of  seeds  from  England  is 
a  presumption  that  seems  both  natural  and  logical,  although 
it  may  also  have  had  a  Spanish  introduction. 

A  most  interesting  resume  of  the  references  in  early  liter- 
ature to  the  beginnings  of  peach-growing  in  America  has 
been  made  by  Smith,^  from  which  the  following  paragraphs 
are  selected  as  showing  the  beginning  and  the  dissemina- 
tion of  peach-growing  among  the  early  colonists  : 

"It  is  uncertain  when  peach  trees  were  first  introduced 
into  this  country,  but  it  was  prior  to  1633.  From  two 
entries  in  the  records  of  the  Governor  and  Company  of  the 
Massachusetts  Bay  in  New  England,^  it  is  probable  that  they 
were  introduced  into  the  New  England  region  soon  after  the 
year  1629.  On  page  24  of  the  first  volume  of  these  records 
is  an  undated  memorandum  of  things  'to  prouide  to  send 

1  Smith,  Erwin  F.,  "Peach  Yellows:  A  Preliminary  Report," 
Div.  of  Botany,  Bull.  9,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  (1888)  pp.  10-17. 

2  Vol.  I,  1628-1641.  Edited  by  N.  B.  Shurtleff,  M.  D.,  and 
published  by  the  Commonwealth,  Boston,  1853. 


Historical  Notes  5 

for  New  England,'  among  which  are  included  'stones  of  all 
sorts  of  fruits,  as  peaches,  plums,  filberts,  cherries.'  Some- 
what later,  in  a  letter  of  April  17,  1629,  from  Gravesend, 
England,  by  the  governor  and  deputy  of  the  New  England 
Company  to  Capt.  John  Endicott,  then  governor  and  council 
for  London's  plantation  in  the  Massachusetts  Bay  in  New 
England,  we  read  (p.  392) : 

"  'As  for  fruit  stones  and  kernels,  the  time  of  the  year  fits  not 
to  send  them  now,  so  we  propose  to  do  it  pr.  our  next.' 

"In  1633  the  Dutch  sea-captain,  De  Vries,  found  peach 
trees  in  Virginia  in  the  garden  of  George  Minifie,  on  the 
James  River,  between  Blunt  Point  and  Jamestown.  They 
were  the  first  seen  by  him  in  North  America.  The  following 
is  copied  from  the  entry  in  his  journal : 

"'Arrived  at  Littletown,  where  Menifit  lives.  He  has  a 
garden  of  two  acres,  full  of  primroses,  apple,  pear  and  cherry 
trees.  .  .  .  Around  the  house  there  are  plenty  of  peach  trees, 
which  were  hardly  in  bloom.' 

"Minifie  settled  there  in  1623.^  In  1635  appeared  the 
following  mention  of  peach-growing  in  Maryland : 

"'Although  there  be  not  many  that  do  apply  themselves  to 
plant  gardens  and  orchards,  yet  those  that  do  it  find  much  profit 
and  pleasure  thereby.  They  have  peares,  apples,  and  several 
sorts  of  plummes,  peaches  in  abundance,  and  as  good  as  those 
in  Italy.  ^ 

1  "The  Founders  of  Maryland,"  etc.,  by  Rev.  Ed.  D.  NeiU,  A.B. 
Albany,  Joel  Munsell,  1876,  pp.  52,  53. 

^  "A  Relation  in  Maryland."  Author  unknown.  Reprinted 
from  the  London  edition  of  1635,  with  a  prefatory  note  and  an  ap- 
pendix by  Francis  L.  Hawks,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.  New  York,  Joseph 
Sabin,  1865,  p.  28. 


6  Peach-Growing 

"  In  1656  John  Hammond  wrote  of  an  earlier  period  :  ^ 

"  *  Orchards  innumerable  were  planted  and  preserved '  (p.  9) 

and  of  his  own  time : 

"'The  comitry  is  full  of  gallant  orchards,  and  the  fruit 
generally  more  luscious  and  delightful  than  here.  Witness  the 
peach  and  quince.  The  latter  may  be  eaten  raw  savourily; 
the  former  differs  and  as  much  exceeds  ours  as  the  best-relished 
apple  we  have  doth  the  crab,  and  of  both  most  excellent  and 
comfortable  drinks  are  made  (p.  13). ' 

"To  the  effect  that  previous  to  1683  peach  trees  were 
growing  thriftily  in  considerable  numbers  in  other  parts  of 
the  country,  there  are  statements  by  at  least  four  persons, 
Thomas  Campanius,  1643-1648 ;  ^  Louis  Hennepin,  1679- 
1682 ;  3  Mahlon  Stacy,  1680 ;  ^  and  William  Penn,  1683.^ 

"  Campanius  records  finding  peaches  in  three  places  along 
the  Delaware." 

The  statements  by  Stacy  are  of  special  interest.  W^riting 
from  New  Jersey,  he  says,  as  quoted  by  Smith  : 

^  "Leah  and  Rachel;  or  the  Two  Faithful  Sisters,  Virginia  and 
Maryland,"  by  John  Hammond.  London,  1656.  Reprinted  in 
Force's  Historical  Tracts.     Vol.  3,  Washington,  D.  C,  1844. 

2  "A  Short  Account  of  New  Sweden"  (in  Swedish),  Stockholm, 
1702.  Cf.  a  synopsis  in  Tr.  Am.  Philosophical  Soc,  Phila.,  1816; 
and  a  translation  by  Du  Ponceau,  Phila.,  1834. 

^  Nouvelle  decouverte  d'un  tres,  grand  pays,  situe  dans  1'  Ame- 
rique,  entre  le  Nouveaux  Mexique  et  la  Mer  Glaeiale,  etc. 
Utrecht,  1697,  p.  300  and  elsewhere. 

■*  "History  of  Pennsylvania  in  America,  etc.,"  by  Robert  Proud. 
Philadelphia,  1797,  Vol.  1,  p.  153;  "History  of  New  Jersey,"  by 
John  O.  Raum,  p.  108.  Stacy's  letter  was  written  from  "Falls 
of  the  Delaware,"  April  26,  1680,  to  his  brother  Revell  and  others 
in  England. 

'  "History  of  the  Peach  in  America,"  Loren  Blodgett.  The 
Gardeners'  Monthly.  Philadelphia,  1882,  p.  347 ;  see  also  Proud's 
"History  of  Pennsylvania  in  America,"  Vol.  1,  p.  249. 


Historical  Notes  7 

"  *  I  have  traveled  through  most  of  the  places  that  are 
settled,  and  some  that  are  not ;  and  in  every  place  I  find  the 
country  very  apt  to  answer  the  expectation  of  the  diligent. 
I  have  seen  orchards  ladened  with  fruit  to  admiration ;  their 
very  limbs  torn  to  pieces  by  the  weight,  and  most  delicious 
to  the  taste  and  lovely  to  behold.  I  have  seen  an  apple  tree 
from  a  pippin  kernel  yield  a  barrel  of  curious  cider,  and 
peaches  in  such  plenty  that  some  people  took  their  carts 
a  peach  gathering;  I  could  not  but  smile  at  the  conceit  of 
it;  they  are  very  delicate  fruit,  and  hang  almost  like  our 
onions  that  are  tied  on  ropes.'  " 

"According  to  Robert  Beverly,^  peaches  grew  abundantly 
in  Virginia  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
He  says : 

"'Peaches,  nectarines,  and  apricots,  as  well  as  plumbs  and 
cherries,  grow  there  upon  standard  trees.  They  commonly 
bear  in  three  years  from  the  stone,  and  thrive  so  exceedingly 
that  they  seem  to  have  no  need  of  grafting  or  inoculating,  if 
anybody  would  be  so  good  a  husband ;  and  truly  I  never  heard 
of  any  that  did  graft  either  plumb,  nectarine,  peach,  or  apricot 
in  that  country,  before  the  first  edition  of  this  book  [London, 
1705].' 

"  In  1733  peaches  grew  plentifully  in  Georgia,  as  indicated 
by  the  following  quotation  :  ^ 

1  "  The  History  of  Virginia,"  by  Robert  Beverly,  a  native  and 
inhabitant  of  the  place.  Reprinted  from  the  author's  second 
revised  edition,  London,  1722.  J.  W.  Randolph,  Richmond,  Va., 
1855,  p.  259. 

^"A  New  and  Accurate  Account  of  the  Provinces  of  South 
Carolina  and  Georgia."  London,  1733.  Said  to  be  by  General 
Oglethorpe.  Reprinted  in  Collections  of  the  Georgia  Historical 
Society.     Vol.  1,  Savannah,  1840. 


8  Peacli-Gr  owing 

"'Mulberries,  both  black  and  white,  are  natives  of  this  soil, 
and  are  found  in  the  woods,  as  are  many  other  sorts  of  fruits  of 
excellent  kinds,  and  the  growth  of  them  is  surprisingly  swift; 
for  a  peach,  apricot,  or  nectarine  tree  will,  from  the  stone,  grow 
to  be  a  bearing  tree  in  four  or  five  years'  time  [p.  50].' 

" '  They  have  oranges,  lemons,  apples,  and  pears,  besides  the 
peach  and  apricot  mentioned  before.  Some  of  these  are  so 
delicious  that  whoever  tastes  them  will  despise  the  insipid, 
watery  taste  of  those  we  have  in  England ;  and  yet  such  is  the 
plenty  of  them  that  they  are  given  to  the  hogs  in  great  quantities 
(p.  51).' 

"In  1741  Sir  John  Oldmixon  writes  of  Virginia:* 

" '  Here  is  such  plenty  of  peaches  that  they  give  them  to  their 
hogs  ;  some  of  them,  called  malachotoons,  are  as  big  as  a  lemon 
and  resemble  it  a  little.' 

"In  one  of  his  chapters  on  the  'General  State  of  Penn- 
sylvania between  the  years  1760  and  1770,'  Proud  says  :  ^ 

"'In  some  places  peaches  are  so  common  and  plentiful  that 
the  country  people  feed  their  hogs  with  them.' 

"In  1795  Winterbotham  writes :  ^ 

1  "The  British  Empire  in  America,"  by  John  Oldmixon.  Second 
edition,  London,  1741.     Vol.  1,  pp.  440  and  515. 

^  "The  History  of  New  Sweden,  or  the  Settlements  on  the  River 
Delaware,"  by  Israel  Acrelious.  Stockholm,  1759.  Translated 
from  the  Swedish  by  William  M.  Reynolds,  D.  D.,  Philadelphia, 
1876,  being  Vol.  XI  of  the  Memoirs  of  the  Historical  Society  of 
Pennsylvania,  pp.  151,  152. 

'  "An  Historical,  Geographical,  Commercial,  and  Philosophical 
View  of  the  American  United  States,"  etc.,  by  W.  Winterbotham. 
London,  1795.     Vol.  III. 


Historical  Notes  9 

" '  The  apples  of  this  State  [Maryland]  are  large  but  mealy ; 
the  peaches  plenty  and  good.  From  these  the  inhabitants  dis- 
till cider  and  peach  brandy  (p.  36).' 

"'In  some  counties  [of  Virginia]  they  have  plenty  of  cider, 
and  exquisite  brandy  distilled  from  peaches,  which  grow  in 
great  abundance  upon  the  numerous  rivers  of  the  Chesapeake 
(p.  84).'" 

These  abstracts  and  many  other  similar  references  made 
by  Smith  set  forth  the  fact  that  the  early  development  of 
peach-growing  in  America  was  practically  coincident  with 
the  development  of  the  colonial  settlements  following  the 
landing  of  the  Pilgrims  in  1620,  and  that  by  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century  peach  trees  were  widely  distributed 
from  IVIassachusetts  to  Georgia.  There  appears  to  be 
evidence,  in  fact,  that  they  were  grown  in  Southern  Canada 
at  an  early  date.  In  1748  Peter  Kahn  ^  writing  under  date 
of  October  27  said,  as  quoted  by  Smith  :  - 

"In  the  morning  I  set  out  [from  Philadelphia]  on  a  little 
journey  to  New  York,  in  company  with  Mr.  Peter  Cock,  with 
a  view  to  see  the  country,  and  to  inquire  into  the  safest  road 
which  I  could  take  in  going  into  Canada."  .  .  . 

In  a  footnote,  Smith  states  that : 

"Later,  when  Kahn  was  in  Canada,  he  notes  the  reported 
occurrence  of  peaches  in  the  southern  parts  of  Canada,  and  to 
the  southwest  in  the  Mississippi  region,  but  makes  no  mention 
of  having  himself  seen  them  in  Canada." 

1  "Travels  into  North  America,"  by  Peter  Kahn;  translated 
into  English  by  John  R.  Forster,  F.  A.  S.    Warrington  :  1770,  Vol.  I. 

2  Smith,  Erwin  F.,  "Peach  Yellows;  A  Preliminary  Report." 
Div.  of  Botany,  Bui.  9,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  1888,  pp.  10-17. 


10  Peach-Growing 

Early  records  of  peach-growing  in  Canada  evidently  are 
rare  since  the  first  note  to  come  to  the  attention  of  the  au- 
thors of  a  recent  bulletin  from  the  Ontario  Department  of 
Agriculture  ^  bears  the  date  of  July  2,  1793.  It  is  taken 
from  the  diary  of  one  Mrs.  Simcoe  of  Niagara,  Ontario,  and 
reads : 

"We  treated  them  with  cherries,  we  having  large  May 
Duke  cherry  trees  behind  the  house  and  three  standard 
peach  trees  which  supplied  us  last  autumn  for  tarts  and 
desserts  during  six  weeks  besides  the  number  the  young  men 
ate."  The  next  record  here  mentioned  appears  in  the  journal 
of  a  Captain  Langslow  who  visited  Niagara  in  1817  and  who 
spoke  of  peaches  being  "very  plentiful."  However,  it  was 
not  until  as  recently  as  1890,  according  to  these  authorities, 
that  the  planting  of  peaches  became  general  in  the  province 
of  Ontario,  and  apparently  but  few  have  ever  been  planted 
in  Canada  outside  of  this  province. 

Dating  from  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  or  early  years  of 
the  nineteenth  centuries,  the  planting  of  peach  orchards  of 
considerable  size  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States  be- 
came more  or  less  common,  though  the  commercial  orchard, 
as  conceived  of  today,  was  an  enterprise  of  later  develop- 
ment. The  planting  of  peach  trees  in  Maryland  a  hundred 
years  ago  was  doubtless  typical  of  what  was  going  on  at  that 
time  in  fruit-growing  in  other  states.  A  few  illustrations 
in  this  connection  will  suffice.  The  first  large  peach  orchard 
in  Maryland  appears  to  have  been  planted  by  James  Rob- 
inson about  the  year  1800.^  It  was  located  in  Anne  Arundel 
County  some  twenty  miles  south  of  Baltimore.     This  orchard 

1  Clement,  F.  M.,  and  Harris,  A.  G.     "Peach  Growing  in  On- 
tario."    Bull.  241,  Ont.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  July,  1916,  pp.  1-2. 
» Md.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  72. 


Historical  Notes  11 

consisted  of  18,000  to  20,000  trees,  all  of  which  were  seed- 
lings. Those  were  days  of  peach  brandy,  and  the  entire 
product  of  this  orchard  is  said  to  have  been  used  in  making 
this  commodity.  Within  the  next  few  years  several  other 
small  orchards  were  planted  in  the  vicinity  of  Baltimore.  It 
was  apparently  not  until  later  that  commercial  orchards 
of  importance  were  planted  on  the  Eastern  Shore  of  Mary- 
land, but  it  is  said  that  about  1830  an  orchard  of  some  6000 
trees  was  planted  in  Kent  County,  while  about  the  same  time 
one  of  50,000  trees  was  planted  in  Cecil  County  along  the 
Sassafras  River,  and  from  time  to  time  others  were  put  out 
at  different  points.  Thus  the  industry  developed,  but  com- 
mercial peach-growing  in  the  modern  sense,  in  eastern  Mary- 
land, appears  to  have  been  developed  during  the  past  j&fty 
years,  or  since  the  Civil  War.  It  probably  reached  its  zenith 
during  the  years  from  about  1875  to  1890,  after  which  for 
various  reasons,  but  especially  on  account  of  the  spread  of 
"peach  yellows,"  the  industry  declined.  While  there  has 
been  something  of  a  revival  of  peach  planting  in  this  part 
of  the  country  in  recent  years,  there  are  some  counties  in 
eastern  Maryland  in  which  there  are  now  practically  no 
commercial  orchards  where  once  a  traveler  could  hardly  pass 
beyond  the  view  of  one  or  more.  In  large  districts  nearly 
every  farm  had  its  commercial  peach  orchard. 

It  would  require  many  pages  in  which  to  write  in  full  the 
history  of  peach-growing  in  America.  The  industry  has  been 
extended  from  time  to  time  into  new  sections  until  there 
is  now  not  a  state  —  hardly  a  county  —  in  which  peach 
trees  have  not  been  planted.  The  development  of  peach- 
growing  in  each  important  section  has  its  own  story,  in  many 
instances  it  is  a  story  of  pluck  and  struggle  and  finally  the 
realization  of  a  vision  that  came  to  the  mind  of  some  enter- 


12  Peach-Growing 

prising  personality.  For  the  student  of  pomology,  the 
history  of  the  growth  and  development  of  such  an  industry 
holds  a  great  fascination,  but  present  purposes  would  not 
be  served  by  following  this  course  farther.  Enough  has 
been  presented  to  show  that  the  development  of  the  peach 
industry  has  been  practically  coincident  with  the  growth 
and  development  of  the  country  itself  since  the  beginning 
of  colonial  times. 


CHAPTER  II 

ECONOMIC  STATUS,   AND   EXTENT   OF    THE 
PEACH   INDUSTRY 

The  peach  is  by  far  the  most  important  of  the  "stone- 
fruits."  Plums  (including  prunes)  and  cherries  are  next 
to  the  peach  in  the  value  of  the  crops  in  the  United  States, 
although  these  fruits  fall  far  below  the  peach  in  this  respect. 
According  to  the  Thirteenth  Census,  the  value  of  the  peach 
crop  (including  nectarines,  which  are  negligible)  for  1909 
in  this  country  was  $28,781,078;  of  plums  and  prunes, 
$10,299,495;  and  of  cherries,  $7,213,160.  The  apricot,  the 
only  other  stone-fruit  of  commercial  importance,  for  the 
same  year,  was  valued  at  $2,884,119. 

YIELDS 

The  peach  crop  for  1909,  as  reported  by  the  Thirteenth 
Census,  amounted  to  35,470,000  bushels,  of  which  more 
than  one-fourth,  or  9,267,000  bushels,  were  produced  in  Cali- 
fornia, with  a  value  of  $4,574,000.  Georgia,  the  second 
state,  both  in  yield  and  value  of  crop,  produced  2,555,000 
bushels  worth  $2,183,000.  Though  the  yield  in  New  York 
was  under  2,000,000  bushels,  the  reported  value  was  but 
little  less  than  that  of  the  Georgia  crop.  The  yield  for  Cali- 
fornia in  1909  was  about  three  per  cent  larger  than  the 
estimated  average  crop  for  the  years  1909  to  1916,  inclusive. 

13 


14  Peach-Growing 

The  estimated  average  crop  for  Georgia  for  the  same  period 
was  in  excess  of  4,000,000  bushels,  the  annual  extremes 
ranging  from  the  maximum  of  6,175,000  bushels  in  1912  to 
a  minimum  of  1,950,000  bushels  the  following  year.  Other 
states  of  notably  large  average  annual  yields  for  this  eight- 
year  period  are  Arkansas,  Texas,  Michigan,  and  New  York, 
in  the  order  named.  For  these  years,  also,  the  estimated 
average  yield  for  the  United  States  was  45,714,000  bushels, 
as  compared  with  35,470,000  bushels  for  the  Census  year 
(1909),  the  annual  range  in  the  crop  during  the  period  1909 
to  1916  being  from  an  estimated  yield  of  34,880,000  bushels 
in  1911  to  that  of  64,097,000  bushels  in  1915.  These  figures 
serve  to  emphasize  the  variability  of  the  crop  from  year  to 
year  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 

DISPOSITION   OF  THE  CROPS 

That  the  great  bulk  of  the  peach  crop  is  used  in  the  fresh 
state,  a  large  proportion  of  it  being  shipped  from  centers  of 
production  to  distant  markets,  is  a  fact  too  well  recognized 
to  require  more  than  passing  mention.  There  are  many 
secondary  ways,  however,  of  utilizing  the  fruit,  but  only 
two  of  them  are  of  sufficient  importance  commercially  to 
call  for  attention  here. 

The  drying  of  peaches  has  become  a  very  important  factor 
in  California  within  comparatively  recent  years.  While 
formerly  a  large  number  of  peaches  were  evaporated  in  the 
eastern  peach  districts,  the  development  of  the  dried  peach 
industry  in  California  introduced  an  economic  situation  which 
the  growers  in  humid  regions  could  not  successfully  meet. 
The  fruit  is  sun-dried  in  that  state.  In  humid  regions  the 
cost  of  the  necessary  fuel  and  evaporator  equipment  so  in- 


Plate  III.  —  Top,  atmospheric  drainage  shown  by  smoke  drifting 
down  a  slope  ;  bottom,  a  thin  stratum  of  soil  underlaid  bj'  a  stratum  of 
rock  —  a  ooor  orchard  site. 


Economic  Status,  and  Extent  of  the  Peach  Industry     15 

creases  the  expense  of  drying  that  profitable  competition 
with  the  sun-dried  fruit,  in  the  absence  of  some  compensat- 
ing feature,  is  impossible. 

The  importance  of  this  industry  in  connection  with  the 
California  peach  crop  is  indicated  in  the  fact  that  for  the 
five-year  period  1912  to  1916  ^  there  were  dried  in  that  state 
an  annual  average  of  30,000  tons  of  fruit,  or  an  equivalent  of 
120,000  to  150,000  tons  of  fresh  fruit.  During  this  period 
the  output  of  dried  fruit  ranged  from  23,000  tons  in  1913 
to  37,000  tons  the  following  year.  The  size  of  the  crop  in 
that  state,  and  the  demand  of  the  fruit  for  canning  and  ship- 
ping fresh,  influence  the  quantity  dried. 

The  second  method  of  utilization  referred  to  is  canning. 

The  figures  in  Table  I  give  some  idea  of  the  importance 
of  the  peach  canning  industry  in  handling  the  California 
crop: 


Table  I.  —  Number  op  cases   op   freestone   and    clingstone 

PEACHES    CANNED    IN    CaLIPORNIA    IN    DIFFERENT    YEARS  ^ 


Number  op  Cases 

Total 

Yeab 

Freestone  Varieties 

Clingstones 

1911 
1912 
1913 
1914 
1915 

738,400 
583,800 
768,750 
888,125 
667,375 

1,352,725 
1,630,255 
1,629,800 
2,621,655 
2,149,375 

2,091,125 
2,214,055 
2,398,550 
3,509,780 
2,816,750 

Average : 

729,290 

1,876,762 

2,606,052 

1  Calif.  Fruit  News,  Vol.  54,  No.  1486    (Dee.  30,  1916). 

2  Figures  from  Calif.  Fruit  News,  Vol.  50,  No.  1381   (Dec.  29, 
1914),  and  Vol.  54,  No.  1486  (Dec.  30,  1916). 


16 


Peach-Growing 


While  canning  is  of  considerable  importance  commercially 
in  several  states,  California  is  far  in  the  lead  of  any  other  in 
the  quantity  handled  in  this  way.  Many  "  freestone  "  peaches 
are  canned,  but  by  far  the  larger  proportion  of  the  output  is 
is  made  up  of  "clingstone"  varieties,  which  in  some  sections 
are  planted  especially  for  canning,  as  are  certain  sorts  planted 
for  drying. 

Of  the  other  states  in  which  the  canning  of  peaches  is 
an  important  factor  in  handling  the  crop,  Maryland  is 
far  in  the  lead,  though  falling  much  below  California,  as 
is  evident  from  Table  II,  which  follows  :  ^ 


Table  II.  —  Number  op  cases  and  value  of  canned  peaches 
IN  the  United  States   and  in  certain  individual  states 

PACKED    IN    1909 


State 

No.  Cases  Canned 
IN  1909 

Value  op  Canned 
Product 

United  States 

California 

Maryland 

Michigan 

Georgia 

New  York 

1,467,213 
1,149,590 
80,489 
74,595 
71,931 
41,727 

$3,753,698 
3,013,203 
158,839 
175,386 
156,282 
141,142 

In  no  state,  aside  from  those  named  in  Table  II,  were 
there  canned  in  the  Census  year  as  much  as  8000  cases. 
There  is  much  variation  from  year  to  year  in  the  quantity 
canned  in  the  different  states.  For  instance,  in  contrast 
to  the  figures  above  given,  there  were  packed  in  California 
in  1904  2  but  744,715  cases,  while  in  Maryland  352,244  cases 
were   canned  —  more  than   four  times   as   many  as  were 

^  Figures  from  Thirteenth  Census  (Crop  year  1909). 

'  Bur.  of  the  Census  Bull.  61,  Census  of  Manufactures,  1905. 


Economic  Status,  and  Extent  of  the  Peach  Industry       17 

packed  in  1909  —  and  in  New  York  but  10,000  cases  were 
put  up  as  against  more  than  40,000  in  1909.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  Michigan  there  was  a  difference  of  only  a  very  few ' 
thousand  cases  in  the  two  years. 

A  comprehensive  survey  of  the  economic  status  of  the 
peach  industry  would  require  consideration  of  the  capital 
invested  in  the  orchards,  packing-houses,  and  other  equip- 
ment used  in  growing  and  handling  the  crop  on  the  farm ; 
the  baskets,  carriers,  crates,  and  the  like  used  in  packing 
the  fruit  for  shipment  and  their  manufacture;  the  move- 
ment of  the  fruit  from  the  point  of  production  to  the  market, 
involving  for  a  large  proportion  of  the  commercial  crop  long 
railroad  hauls ;  the  wages  paid  in  connection  with  all  these 
activities,  including  also  the  canning  and  drying  of  large 
quantities  of  fruit;  as  well,  also,  the  financing  and  manag- 
ing of  other  enterprises  that  are  directly  or  indirectly  con- 
cerned in  the  peach  industry.  But  for  the  present  purpose 
this  partial  enumeration  of  the  features  involved  will  suffice, 
even  though  there  were  available  sufficient  data  (which  there 
are  not)  on  which  to  base  a  concrete  consideration  of  these 
aspects.  The  investment  represents  many  millions  of  dol- 
lars ;  the  production  and  handling  of  the  crop  from  the  or- 
chard to  the  consumer  requires  the  annual  expenditure  of 
millions  more. 

DISTRIBUTION   OF  PEACH  PRODUCTION 

While  detailed  statistics  regarding  production  are  lacking 
for  most  countries,  some  idea  of  the  wide  distribution  of 
the  peach  and  its  importance  in  the  economic  affairs  of  dif- 
ferent peoples  can  be  gained  by  such  statistics  as  have  been 
compiled.  The  following  statements  regarding  peach-grow- 
ing in  different  countries,  aside  from  those  relating  to  the 


18 


Peach-Growing 


United  States,  are  an  epitome  of  a  recent  bulletin  published 
by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.^ 

North  America. 

United  States.  —  The  most  comprehensive  statistical  data 
available  regarding  peach-growing  in  the  United  States  are 
those  supplied  by  the  Thirteenth  Census  (1910).  There 
were  then  94,506,657  peach  trees  of  bearing  age  and 
42,266,243  not  of  bearing  age.  Table  III  shows  the  five 
leading  states  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of  bearing  trees 
in  each ;  also  the  number  of  trees  in  each  of  these  states  not 
of  bearing  age : 

Table  III.  —  Number  of  peach  trees  of  bearing  age  in  the 
United  States  and  in  the  five  states  which  lead  in  this 
respect;  also  number  of  trees  not  of  bearing  age 


No.  Trees  of 

No.  Trees  not 

State 

Beajring  Age 

OP  Bearing 

1910 

Age  1910 

United  States     .     .     . 

94,506,657 

42,266,243 

136,772,900 

Georgia 

10,609,119 

1,531,367 

12,140,486 

Texas 

9,737,827 

2,958,813 

12,696,640 

California      .... 

7,829,011 

4,409,562 

12,238,573 

Arkansas  

6,859,962 

2,884,927 

9,744,889 

Missouri 

6,588,034 

1,404,429 

7,992,463 

It  will  be  observed  that  on  the  basis  of  the  total  number 
of  trees  in  these  five  states,  the  order  would  be  changed  some- 
what, Georgia  following  California.  On  the  basis  of  the 
number  of  trees  not  of  bearing  age  the  five  leading  states 
would  stand  in  order :  California,  Michigan  (which  had 
approximately    3,000,000    non-bearing   trees,    this    number 

1  Ruddeman,  H.  D.,  "  Statistics  of  Fruits  in  Principal  Countries." 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bull.  483  (Feb.  14,  1917),  40. 


Economic  Status,  and  Extent  of  the  Peach  Industry    19 

being  slightly  in  excess  of  the  number  of  bearing  age),  Texas, 
Arkansas,  and  New  York  (the  latter  with  more  than  2,200,000 
trees  not  of  bearing  age). 

There  is  no  state  in  the  Union  in  which  peach  trees  do  not 
occur,  the  smallest  number  reported  by  the  census  in  any  one 
state  being  465  (including  trees  of  all  ages)  in  Wyoming. 
The  interests  are  on  a  commercial  basis  in  approximately 
thirty-five  states,  while  in  at  least  twenty-five  of  them  they 
are  of  sufficient  magnitude  to  form  an  important  factor  in  the 
agricultural  enterprises  of  those  states.  Moreover,  there  is 
much  variation  from  one  decade  to  another  in  the  status 
of  the  peach  industry  in  different  regions.  For  example,  in 
certain  valleys  in  the  Northwest  there  have  been  large 
peach  interests,  but  the  trees  were  planted  mostly  as  fillers 
in  apple  orchards.  As  the  apple  trees  have  attained  the 
age  when  they  required  all  the  space,  the  peach  trees  have 
been  removed,  certain  centers  thus  ceasing  very  largely 
to  be  peach-producing  points.  In  a  similar  manner,  but 
for  different  reasons,  the  industry  in  districts  in  some  of  the 
older  peach-producing  states,  where  there  were  formerly 
extensive  orchards,  has  been  discontinued.  For  instance,  in 
certain  counties  in  eastern  Maryland,  where  twenty  to  thirty 
years  ago  almost  every  farm  had  a  commercial  orchard, 
there  is  now  practically  no  commercial  peach-growing. 

Canada.— The  Census  of  1911  reported  839,288  peach 
trees  of  bearing  age,  with  a  yield  in  1910  of  646,826  bushels. 
Commercial  peach-growing  in  Canada  exists  principally  in 
the  lake  shore  districts  of  the  province  of  Ontario,  which 
contain  794,192  trees  of  bearing  age,  leaving  less  than 
15,000  trees  in  all  other  parts  of  the  Dominion.  In  On- 
tario there  were  also  reported  890,455  trees  not  of  bearing 
age,  thus  making  a  total  of  1,684,647  trees  in  that  province. 


20  Peach-Growing 

Mexico,  Central  America,  West  Indies.  —  In  some  parts  of 
Mexico,  where  the  cHmate  is  temperate,  peaches  are  grown 
to  a  Hmited  extent  but  do  not  constitute  any  important  com- 
mercial enterprise.  In  the  subtropical  and  tropical  parts  of 
Mexico,  Central  America,  and  the  West  Indies,  peaches  are 
of  only  negligible  importance. 

South  America. 

Argentina.  —  No  more  recent  figures  are  available  than  the 
Census  of  1908  when  7,908,000  peach  trees  were  reported. 
Buenos  Aires  was  the  leading  province  in  the  production  of 
peaches,  32,017  acres,  carrying  4,839,000  trees,  representing 
the  industry.  They  are  also  grown  in  a  limited  way  in  the 
regions  of  San  Juan  and  Mendoza. 

Chile.  —  No  statistics  available  show  the  extent  to  which 
peaches  are  grown  in  Chile,  but  they  are  more  or  less  widely 
planted.  During  the  four  years  1910-1913  the  average 
annual  production  of  dried  peaches  was  2,365,000  pounds. 

Uruguay.  —  The  peach  is  a  relatively  important  fruit 
crop  in  Uruguay.  In  1908  nearly  one-half  the  acreage  that 
was  in  fruits  was  devoted  to  peaches,  or  33,418  acres  out  of 
a  total  of  68,125  in  tree-fruits.  The  number  of  trees  was 
2,065,597  and  the  production  14,230,000  pounds.  The  peach 
is  one  of  the  principal  fruits  exported,  the  others  being 
oranges,  pears,  olives,  and  cherries. 

Peru.^  —  In  some  parts  of  Peru  peaches  are  grown  to  a 
limited  extent,  but  they  are  probably  all  produced  on  seed- 
ling trees  and  as  a  rule  are  of  rather  indifferent  quality. 
Commercially  they  are  unimportant  except  perhaps  for 
very  local  markets. 

1  From  notes  by  W.  F.  Wight.  Bull,  of  the  Pan  American 
Union,  Jan.  1914,  p.  20. 


Economic  Status,  and  Extent  of  the  Peach  Industry    21 

In  the  countries  in  South  America  not  mentioned  peaches 
are  grown,  if  at  all,  in  such  small  quantities  as  to  be  a  neg- 
ligible factor  in  the  fruit  industry. 

Europe. 

Austria-Hungary.  —  Only  fragmentary  data  regarding  the 
extent  of  fruit-growing  in  this  country  are  accessible.  The 
average  annual  value  of  peaches  exported  during  the  period 
1909-1913  was  $13,000. 

France.  —  The  average  annual  production  of  peaches  in 
France  for  the  ten-year  period  1904-1913  was  31,967  tons, 
or  1,332,000  bushels;  for  1914  it  was  about  22,000  tons; 
and  in  1915  about  15,000  tons. 

Germany.  —  In  1913  there  were  reported  to  be  in  Ger- 
many 1,285,000  peach  trees  of  bearing  age  and  735,000  not 
of  bearing  age.  During  the  five  years  1909  to  1913,  Ger- 
many imported  fresh  peaches  to  the  extent  of  an  average 
annual  value  of  $485,000,  obtained  mostly  in  Italy,  and 
dried  peaches  and  apricots,  mostly  from  the  United  States, 
with  an  average  annual  value  of  $748,000.  According  to 
the  Census  of  December  1,  1913,^  there  were  in  the 
several  provinces  of  Prussia,  peach  trees  in  number 
as  follows:  in  Silesia,  117,037;  Saxony,  92,144;  Rhine, 
351,382;  and  in  other  districts  not  specifically  designated, 
495,595. 

Italy.  — The  statistics  showing  the  production  of  "stone- 
fruits"  in  Italy  do  not  segregate  the  different  kinds.  The 
average  annual  production  for  the  five  years  1909-1913  of 
peaches,  apricots,  cherries,  and  the  like  was  117,000  tons: 
126,000  tons  in  1914  and  130,000  tons  in  1915.  For  the 
years  1909-1913  peaches  were  exported  in  average  annual 
1  Daily  Consular  and  Trade  Rept.,  Oct.  30,  1916,  p.  390. 


22  Peach-Growing 

value  of  $559,000.  A  very  large  proportion  of  the  fruit  was 
shipped  to  Germany  as  above  indicated. 

Russia.  —  Considerable  quantities  of  peaches  are  grown 
in  some  parts  of  Russia,  but  no  statistics  are  available. 

Turkey}  —  No  statistics  are  available,  but  according  to 
the  report  noted  they  are  grown  in  a  limited  way  in  the 
region  of  Constantinople,  especially  along  the  Bosphorus 
and  the  Marmora  Sea.  Evidently  the  climate  is  not  un- 
favorable in  some  parts  of  Turkey  for  peaches ;  at  least  in 
1911  more  than  1,000,000  ^  pounds  of  dried  apricots  were 
exported.  Doubtless,  peaches  could  be  grown  wherever 
the  apricot  succeeds. 

Spain. — The  latest  official  figures,  which  are  for  1910,  show 
an  area  of  13,000  acres  devoted  to  peaches,  which  yielded 
(supposedly  in  1910)  about  21,000  tons  of  fruit.  For  the 
years  1909-1913,  peaches  having  an  average  annual  value 
of  $23,000  were  exported. 

United  Kingdom.  —  About  93  per  cent  of  the  acreage 
devoted  to  fruit  in  the  United  Kingdom  is  in  England. 
Peaches,  however,  in  the  limited  extent  to  which  they  do 
occur  are  grown  mostly  in  gardens  and  against  walls.  The 
peach  is  used  but  little  in  the  United  Kingdom  evidently, 
since  the  average  annual  value  of  the  imports  of  both  apri- 
cots and  peaches  for  the  years  1909-1913  was  barely  more 
than  $200,000. 

Asia. 

Japan.  —  The  average  number  of  peach  trees  in  Japan 
during  the  five  years  1909  to  1913  was  about  6,330,000, 

^  Reported  by  Consul  General  G.  Bie  Ravndal,  Daily  Consular 
and  Trade  Rep.,  Dec.  13,  1915,  p.  1020. 
2  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  BuU.  483. 


Economic  Status,  and  Extent  of  the  Peach  Industry      23 

with  an  average  yearly  production  for  the  same  period  of  ap- 
proximately 83,000,000  pounds.  In  1914  the  number  of  trees 
increased  to  7,100,000  and  the  yield  was  86,500,000  pounds. 

Formosa}  —  Peaches  were  not  grown  in  Formosa  (Taiwan) 
prior  to  the  Japanese  occupation,  but  since  then  they  have 
been  planted  in  limited  numbers  especially  in  the  northern 
part.  For  the  years  1910  to  1913,  the  number  of  trees  ranged 
from  40,000  to  46,000;  in  1914,  it  was  about  doubled. 
During  these  years  the  yield  has  averaged  about  500,000 
pounds  annually. 

Persia.  —  A  wide  range  of  fruits  is  grown  in  Persia  which 
includes  peaches,  apricots,  plums,  dates,  grapes,  and  oranges. 
The  importance  of  the  fruit  industry  is  indicated  by  the 
fact  that  for  1909-1913  the  quantity  exported  averaged  an- 
nually more  than  60,000  tons,  valued  at  $7,000,000.  No 
separate  data  for  peaches  are  available. 

Africa. 

British  South  Africa.  —  Only  fragmentary  figures  are 
available.  These  show  the  value  of  peaches  exported  in 
1914  to  have  been  $44,000. 

Tunis.  —  No  data  on  peaches  are  available.  This  fruit 
is  enumerated  in  a  list,  which  includes  all  the  principal  de- 
ciduous and  subtropical  fruits,  as  being  grown  there. 

Oceania. 

Australia.  —  Peaches  are  grown  more  or  less  widely  in 
various  parts  of  the  Commonwealth.  The  average  annual 
production  of  nectarines  and  peaches  (these  fruits  are  com- 
bined) for  the  season  of  1912-1913  was  924,000  bushels. 

1  Huggins,  H.  C,  Vice  Consul,  Daily  Consular  and  Trade  Repts., 
June  3,  1916. 


24  Peach-Growing 

In  the  foregoing  sketch  of  the  distribution  of  peach  pro- 
duction, a  general  view  of  the  importance  of  this  fruit  in 
the  principal  countries  of  the  world  is  presented.  No  at- 
tempt is  made  to  give  minute  details ;  the  peach  is  of  local 
importance  in  many  regions  that  are  not  named  in  this  enu- 
meration, but  so  far  as  known  those  in  which  the  fruit  enters 
into  commerce  in  any  important  way  are  included. 

WHO  WILL  SUCCEED   IN  PEACH-GROWING 

This  is  a  very  pertinent  and  wholesome  question  for  the 
one  who  is  beginning  to  consider  the  problem  for  himself. 
Not  every  one  will  succeed  who  plants  a  peach  orchard,  any 
more  than  does  every  one  succeed  who  tries  to  run  a  bank, 
or  to  practice  law,  or  to  conduct  a  mercantile  establishment, 
or  to  preach  a  sermon.  The  "  personal  equation  "  is  a  mighty 
factor  in  the  economics  of  any  enterprise  or  in  any  line  of 
human  endeavor,  but  perhaps  in  no  other  line  more  than 
in  fruit-growing. 

Commercial  peach-growing  is  a  highly  specialized  farm 
enterprise,  and  for  one  to  succeed  in  it  above  mediocrity, 
he  must  possess  the  ability  to  become  a  specialist.  The 
love  of  financial  gain  which  such  an  enterprise  is  expected 
to  return  will  not  of  itself  be  a  sufficient  inspiration  to  win 
success.  The  grower,  in  addition  to  this,  must  have  some 
real  aptitude  for  the  work.  Without  it  he  is  not  likely  to 
devote  to  the  problems  the  continuous  and  intelligent  con- 
sideration, the  energy,  foresight  and  good  judgment  that 
are  essentials  of  success ;  or  if  he  is  thus  able  to  bring  into 
play  sufficient  acquired  ability  to  attain  in  a  measure  the 
desired  end,  the  work  is  only  drudgery  and  his  one  reward 
is  the  accumulated  profits,  with  but  little  joy  in  the  process. 


Economic  Status,  and  Extent  of  the  Peach  Industry    25 

The  answer  to  the  question  "Who  will  succeed?"  is  in 
the  substance  of  the  admonition  given  to  a  class  of  horti- 
cultural students  by  one  of  the  best-known  grape-growers 
of  his  time,  in  a  state  of  large  grape  interests,  when  he  said : 
"To  succeed  in  grape-growing  one  must  love  his  vines.  He 
must  feel  that  they  are  glad  to  see  him  when  he  goes  into  the 
vineyard  in  the  morning  and  that  they  are  sorry  when  he 
leaves  them  at  night."  With  such  a  sentiment  for  his  in- 
spiration a  peach-grower  will  gain  satisfaction  from  his 
endeavor,  which  is  more  than  financial  gain,  and  it  will 
help  to  insure  the  latter. 

One  is  also  to  consider  the  location  in  which  one  lives, 
the  soil,  and  climate.  Success  or  failure  may  turn  on  the 
farm  scheme,  what  part  the  peach  crop  shall  occupy  among 
other  crops,  how  it  is  related  to  the  subdivisions  of  the  busi- 
ness, to  the  labor  supply,  to  horse  help,  and  to  many  other 
questions.  Only  rarely  does  it  pay  to  grow  peaches  ex- 
clusively, as  a  separate  business ;  even  then,  the  business  is 
full  of  risks.  To  the  vast  majority  of  peach-growers,  the 
business  must  be  only  one  part  of  a  plan  of  farm  manage- 
ment, utilizing  much  of  the  general  capital  and  equipment 
of  the  place  and  footing  up  at  the  close  of  the  year  with  the 
other  farming  enterprises. 


CHAPTER  III 
LOCATION  AND  SITE  OF  THE  ORCHARD 

The  material  success  of  a  commercial  peach  orchard 
depends  in  a  large  degree  on  its  location  and  site.  The 
standard  by  which  the  success  of  a  commercial  orchard  is 
measured  is  a  money  standard.  Such  an  orchard  is  suc- 
cessful in  the  degree  in  which  it  yields  the  owner  dollars  and 
cents.  A  home  orchard  fulfills  its  purpose  if  it  produces  a 
supply  of  fruit  for  family  use.  The  measure  of  success  in 
this  case  is  not  that  of  financial  gain. 

It  is  not  enough  that  a  commercial  orchard  produces  fruit, 
even  abundantly  and  regularly,  as  it  may  be  expected  to  do, 
other  things  being  equal,  if  it  occupies  a  good  site.  The 
location  must  be  such  that  the  fruit  can  be  marketed  or 
otherwise  utilized  to  advantage.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
location  may  be  admirable,  but  the  site  so  unsuited  to  the 
purpose  that  the  trees  fail  to  produce  well.  Either  condi- 
tion is  disastrous  according  to  the  standard  that  a  commer- 
cial orchard  is  successful  in  proportion  to  the  financial  prof- 
its that  accrue  from  it. 

While  some  factors  are  common  to  both  location  and  site, 
others  are  peculiar  severally  to  each.  The  location  is  general. 
It  is  the  place  of  an  orchard  on  the  map.  It  concerns  the 
relation  of  the  place  to  natural  objects  such  as  mountain 
ranges,  valleys,  or  bodies  of  water;    and  to  the  town,  the 

26 


Location  and  Site  of  the  Orchard  27 

shipping  station,  the  transportation  facilities,  and  inciden- 
tally to  the  markets.  The  location  of  an  orchard  is  its 
geography. 

The  site  is  specific.  It  has  to  do  with  the  exact  spot  on 
the  farm  occupied  by  the  orchard  —  the  land  on  which  the 
trees  are  planted. 

All  over  the  country  wherever  peaches  are  grown,  there 
are  orchards  (and  many,  of  which  the  epitaphs  have  dis- 
appeared entirely)  that  tell  the  sad  story  of  poorly  chosen 
locations  and  sites.  Not  infrequently  orchards  are  planted 
and  cared  for  with  all  due  regard  to  the  essentials  of  good 
management,  only  to  demonstrate  in  later  years  that  faulty 
location  or  site  or  both  make  success  impossible.  Thus, 
it  follows  that  the  future  of  an  orchard  is  determined  in  no 
small  way  by  the  wisdom  and  discrimination  exercised  pre- 
liminary to  the  actual  beginnings  of  the  enterprise.  The 
factors  having  to  do  with  the  selection  of  locations  and  sites 
call  for  further  consideration. 


LOCATIONS  FOR  PEACH  ORCHARDS 

Locations  should  be  chosen  with  reference  to  the  geo- 
graphical range  of  the  species,  the  climatic  conditions  which 
obtain,  their  accessibility  to  the  markets,  the  community 
interests,  the  economic  conditions,  and  in  many  instances 
the  sequence  in  which  the  varieties  one  desires  to  grow  will 
ripen  in  comparison  with  those  shipped  from  other  locations 
or  regions  and  with  which  competition  may  be  experienced. 

Locations  with  reference  to  range  of  the  species. 

The  peach  is  distinctly  a  temperate-zone  fruit  and  within 
that  zone  in  its  numerous  varieties  it  has  a  remarkably  wide 


28  Peach-Growing 

range  which  in  North  America  extends  from  southern  Canada 
in  the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  in  British  Columbia,  on 
the  north,  to  Florida,  southern  Texas  and  even  into  the  higher 
elevations  in  Mexico,  on  the  south,  and  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Pacific  oceans.  However,  within  these  geographical 
boundaries  there  are  many  limitations  and  restrictions  that 
rather  definitely  fix  the  local  distribution.  The  most  potent 
limiting  factor  is  climate,  of  which  temperature  is  the  most 
important  element.  The  cold  of  winter  limits  extension 
northward,  while  the  heat  of  the  subtropical  sections  limits 
the  extension  southward,  and  in  parts  of  the  western  Great 
Plains  area  the  limiting  factor  is  a  combination  of  moderately 
low  winter  temperatures,  a  scanty  moisture  supply,  and 
sometimes  desiccating  winds. 

Locations  with  reference  to  climatic  conditions. 

The  one  leading  question  habitually  asked  by  the  prospec- 
tive but  inexperienced  peach-grower,  when  considering  a  loca- 
tion, is  whether  the  soil  is  adapted  to  peaches.  This  is  asked 
in  the  belief  that  if  only  the  soil  is  suitable,  the  fitness  of  a 
location  for  the  purpose  is  settled.  The  soil  is  important 
with  regard  to  the  site,  but  not  fundamentally  so  with  regard 
to  location.  The  climate  is  the  primary  factor,  so  far  as 
growing  the  fruit  is  concerned. 

The  general  facts  have  been  stated.  Further  amplifica- 
tion will  serve  to  call  attention  to  other  important  considera- 
tions that  are  more  or  less  local  in  their  application. 

Unfavorable  temperature  conditions  are  represented  by 
different  extremes.  A  region  in  which  the  winter  minimum 
is  20°  below  zero  is  too  cold  for  peaches  when  the  object 
of  the  planting  is  financial  gain.  The  fruit-buds  would  be 
killed  too  often  for  an  orchard  so  located  to  be  profitable. 


^  i;- 


Plk        1\       -   \        I    ii_  „         I  tiooze  .itid  will   h   -I 

the  stiatihtatiou  ot  the  air  actordiag  to  temperature. 


Location  and  Site  of  the  Orchard  29 

In  fact,  when  the  temperature  drops  lower  than  — 10°, 
commercial  peach-growers  begin  to  speculate  on  the  chances 
of  a  crop  the  coming  season.  On  the  other  hand,  one  fre- 
quently hears  of  a  peach  tree  passing  through  a  temperature 
of  30°  below  zero  or  perhaps  even  lower  and  still  producing 
some  fruit  the  next  season.  The  condition  of  the  tree  at 
the  time  such  extreme  temperatures  occur  determines  to 
some  extent  the  results.  If  the  buds  are  perfectly  dormant 
and  the  trees  vigorous  and  thrifty,  the  effects  of  an  adverse 
temperature  are  much  less  serious  than  when  opposite  con- 
ditions of  tree  and  buds  prevail.  Moreover,  a  menacing 
temperature  may  cause  little  or  no  damage  to  the  buds  if 
its  period  of  duration  is  short,  when  at  another  time  a  tem- 
perature even  less  severe  will  cause  great  loss  if  it  lasts  for  a 
considerable  length  of  time.  It  may  be  noted  that  in  case 
of  injury,  the  fruit-buds  are  the  first  to  be  affected.  The 
tree  usually  will  withstand  without  injury  considerably 
lower  temperatures  than  the  fruit-buds. 

In  contrast  to  locations  that  are  limited  by  too  great  cold 
in  winter,  those  limited  by  subtropical  temperatures  require 
mention.  While  the  varieties  of  certain  races  of  peaches 
can  be  grown  where  the  climate  is  very  mild  all  the  year, 
they  do  not  thrive  where  it  is  not  sufficiently  cold,  for  a  short 
period  at  least,  to  induce  a  dormant  condition.  Thus  it 
follows  that  the  southern  extension  of  peach-culture,  as 
well  as  the  northern,  is  limited  by  temperature,  but  by  the 
opposite  extreme. 

Even  more  important,  perhaps,  than  either  of  the  ex- 
tremes of  temperature  mentioned  is  a  combination  of  com- 
paratively mild  extremes  at  certain  periods.  For  example, 
in  certain  sections  of  the  country,  including  some  in  which 
large  peach  interests  have  been  developed,  very  mild  spells 


30  Peach-Growing 

of  weather  are  apt  to  occur  in  January  or  February,  alter- 
nating with  periods  of  seasonable  winter  weather.  So  long 
as  the  latter  continues,  the  peaches  are  safe,  but  with  the 
occurrence  of  the  warm  spells  the  buds  swell  enough  to  be- 
come tender  and  are  killed  later  by  lower  temperatures 
which  are  not  unseasonable,  and  which  would  cause  no  in- 
jury with  the  buds  in  a  dormant  state.  The  loss  or  partial 
loss  of  crops  from  this  combination  of  temperature  condi- 
tions is  more  serious,  perhaps,  in  the  southern  peach  dis- 
tricts than  is  the  loss  from  extremely  low  temperatures  in 
the  northern  districts,  and  in  which  disastrously  warm 
periods  in  winter  rarely  occur. 

Another  factor  of  temperature  that  sometimes  causes 
great  loss  to  peach-growers  is  late,  or  untimely,  spring 
frosts  that  occur  during  the  blossoming  period.  Some 
regions  are  rendered  unfit  for  commercial  peach-growing 
by  the  frequency  with  which  the  blossoming  period  of  the 
trees  and  the  occurrence  of  killing  frosts  coincide.  Other- 
wise, good  crops  of  fruit  could  be  produced  in  them  with 
reasonable  regularity.  Regions  having  low  altitude,  or 
level  topography,  either  of  which  may  presage  poor  atmos- 
pheric drainage,  and  in  which  the  climatic  conditions  com- 
monly induce  early  blossoming,  are  very  apt  to  be  poorly 
adapted  to  peach-growing  for  the  above  reason.  Obviously 
a  prospective  peach-grower  in  seeking  a  desirable  location 
should  aim  to  correlate  the  spring  frost  factor  with  the 
average  blossoming  dates  of  peaches  in  any  locality  that  he 
may  consider.  If  it  is  found  that  in  a  locality  the  average 
date  of  last  killing  frost  in  the  spring  occurs  during  or 
after  the  average  dates  of  blossoming  of  peaches,  it  becomes 
apparent  at  once  that  frequent  loss  of  the  crops  might  be 
expected  should  an  orchard  be  planted  there,  unless  it  oc- 


Location  and  Site  of  the  Orchard  3l 

cupies  a  site  less  subject  to  frosts  than  the  general  average 
of  the  region. 

It  is  true,  of  course,  that  practically  all  the  important 
peach-producing  regions  suffer  losses  from  time  to  time  from 
adverse  temperatures.  The  fruit-buds  are  killed  by  an  ex- 
ceptionally low  winter  temperature,  or  as  a  result  of  an  un- 
usually warm  spell  during  which  the  buds  start  enough  to 
become  tender,  or  by  a  frost  or  occasionally  even  a  freeze 
that  comes  after  the  trees  are  somewhat  advanced  in  the 
spring.  Sometimes  even  a  snowstorm  may  come  when  the 
trees  are  in  blossom.  This,  however,  may  prove  fortunate 
in  case  of  a  freeze.  If  the  blossoms  are  full  of  snow  when 
the  freeze  occurs,  it  practically  insures  a  very  gradual  thaw- 
ing of  the  frozen  parts,  and  under  this  combination  of  con- 
ditions enough  buds  may  escape  injury  to  make  a  profitable 
crop  of  fruit.  If,  in  addition,  it  remains  cloudy  until  thaw- 
ing is  completed,  surprisingly  little  injury  may  actually 
occur. 

A  location  having  a  relatively  high  elevation  is  generally 
to  be  preferred  to  one  having  a  low  elevation.  This  factor 
has  special  significance,  however,  with  regard  to  selecting 
a  site  and  it  is  considered  at  greater  length  under  that 
topic. 

In  further  consideration  of  the  climate  in  its  relation  to 
suitable  locations  for  peach-growing,  reference  needs  to  be 
made  to  the  influence  of  large  bodies  of  water  on  local  cli- 
matic conditions.  However,  to  have  an  appreciable  effect, 
not  only  must  the  area  of  such  bodies  be  large  but  the  water 
must  be  deep.  Because  the  water  warms  up  in  the  spring 
more  slowly  than  the  atmosphere,  it  acts  in  effect  as  an  im- 
mense refrigerator,  making  the  temperature  in  its  immediate 
vicinity  colder  than  it  is  at  points  somewhat  distant  from 


32  Peach-Growing 

it.  For  this  reason,  vegetation  within  the  zone  of  this  in- 
fluence advances  more  slowly  in  the  spring  than  it  does  out- 
side of  it.  The  tendency,  frequently  very  marked,  is  for 
the  blossoming  of  peach  trees  situated  within  the  zone  to  be 
delayed  until  after  the  season  of  spring  frosts  is  past. 

In  the  fall,  frosts  are  delayed  in  a  similar  manner,  except 
that  the  large  body  of  water,  having  absorbed  much  heat 
during  the  summer,  cools  off  more  slowly  than  the  atmos- 
phere, and  hence  tends  to  keep  the  temperature  within 
its  zone  of  influence  warmer  than  it  would  otherwise  be. 
In  some  cases  the  winter  temperatures  are  also  modified 
by  large  bodies  of  water,  even  though  they  may  be  frozen 
over  for  long  periods. 

It  is  because  of  these  reasons  that  peaches  are  grown  with 
marked  success,  and  injury  to  the  crops  by  adverse  tem- 
perature conditions  is  comparatively  infrequent  in  the 
parts  of  New  York  and  Ontario  that  border  Lake  Ontario ; 
in  Ohio  along  Lake  Erie ;  ia  southwestern  Michigan  on 
Lake  Michigan ;  and  in  some  other  districts  which  are  ad- 
jacent to  large  bodies  of  water.  As  a  rule,  the  zone  of  in- 
fluence of  bodies  of  water,  such  as  those  named,  is  rather 
narrow,  usually  not  extending  back  from  the  shore  more 
than  a  few  miles.  However,  the  topography,  and  especially 
the  degree  of  the  slope  of  the  land  from  the  water,  deter- 
mines very  largely  the  extent  of  the  area  affected  thereby. 

A  striking  illustration  of  the  ameliorating  effect  of  water 
is  in  the  difference  in  the  winter  temperatures  that  prevail 
on  opposite  shores  of  Lake  Michigan.  One  of  the  most 
regularly  successful  peach-growing  regions  in  the  United 
States  is  a  narrow  belt  along  the  lake  shore  in  western  Michi- 
gan, the  belt  extending  as  far  north  as  Grand  Traverse  Bay. 
The  winter  temperature  in  this  belt  rarely  drops  much  be- 


Location  and  Site  of  the  Orchard  33 

low  zero,  while  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  lake  in  a  corre- 
sponding zone  in  Wisconsin  peach-growing  is  prohibited  by 
the  severity  of  the  winter  temperatures.  The  difference 
is  in  the  ameliorating  effect  of  the  water,  which  never  freezes 
over  entirely,  on  the  cold  winds  that  sweep  over  it  from  the 
North  and  West  and  which  are  unmodified  as  they  reach  the 
Wisconsin  lake  shore. 

Locations  with  reference  to  accessibility  of  markets. 

The  advantages  that  come  from  a  location  that  is  in 
rather  close  proximity  to  a  shipping  station  do  not  need  to 
be  enumerated  to  become  apparent.  Such  a  location  is  not 
only  desirable  but  it  is  essential.  Moreover,  the  restric- 
tions in  this  regard  are  rather  narrow.  A  haul  of  four  or 
five  miles  from  the  orchard  to  the  shipping  point  has  usually 
been  about  the  limit  in  the  past  and  unless  the  roads  over 
which  the  fruit  must  be  hauled  are  much  better  than  those 
in  the  country  commonly  are,  the  cost  of  delivering  the  fruit 
to  the  station  might  represent  an  expense  which  would  cut 
seriously  into  the  profits  and  which  would  place  the  owner 
under  a  tremendous  disadvantage  in  comparison  with  an 
orchard  located  within  a  short  haul  of  the  station  or  loading 
switch. 

Of  course,  where  a  peach-grower  sells  his  fruit  in  a  local 
market,  and  personal  deliveries  are  made  so  that  the  cost 
of  the  haul  represents  the  entire  transportation  charge,  a 
greater  distance  than  four  or  five  miles  from  the  orchard 
to  point  of  delivery  may  not  be  impracticable,  with  good 
roads,  although  distance  is  a  great  consumer  of  time  and  not 
infrequently  it  is  the  limiting  factor  in  marketing  operations. 
Even  short  hauls  over  poor  roads  are  likely  to  prove  ruinous 
to  the  fruit. 


34  Peaxih-Growing 

The  coming  of  the  auto-truck  and  improved  roads  tend 
to  eliminate  distance  as  a  factor,  so  that  where  both  the  auto- 
truck and  good  roads  can  be  combined,  much  longer  hauls 
to  local  markets  and  to  shipping  stations  are  not  only  pos- 
sible, but  much  more  practicable  than  formerly. 

For  most  locations,  accessibility  of  markets  is  measured 
by  the  character  of  the  transportation  facilities  available 
rather  than  by  the  distance  in  miles  between  points  of  pro- 
duction and  the  points  where  the  fruit  is  marketed.  De- 
liveries to  remote  markets  may  be  made  in  a  shorter  time 
where  the  routes  are  direct  than  is  possible  where  the  dis- 
tances to  be  covered  are  much  less  but  transfers  to  several 
different  railroads  are  necessary. 

If  a  location  is  served  by  more  than  one  line  of  railroad, 
it  is  usually  advantageous  to  the  shipper,  whether  the  dif- 
ferent lines  are  competing  or  make  accessible  important 
markets  that  could  not  be  reached  readily  with  a  single 
line.  Locations  that  have  both  water  and  rail  transporta- 
tion are  likewise  situated  fortunately  in  many  cases  with 
regard  to  placing  perishable  products  quickly  on  the  market. 

In  numerous  instances  the  development  of  peach  orchards 
(as  well  as  other  fruit  interests)  has  followed  the  building 
of  railroads  through  a  section  of  country,  and  there  are  still 
countless  locations  which  are  no  doubt  as  well  suited  natu- 
rally to  peach-growing  as  those  in  which  such  enterprises 
have  been  developed  but  which  are  not  available  for  this 
purpose  in  the  absence  of  adequate  transportation  facilities. 

Locations  with  reference  to  community  interests  and  economic 
conditions. 

Community  interests  may  also  be  important  in  the 
success   of  a  peach   orchard.     If   the   orchards   are   com- 


Location  and  Site  of  the  Orchard  35 

paratively  small,  the  individual  growers  may  be  unable  to 
load  entire  cars  at  any  one  time,  whereas  it  is  possible  for 
a  community  of  growers  to  eliminate  the  necessity  of  express 
or  broken  car  shipments.  And  further,  a  community  or 
locality  in  which  there  are  large  peach  interests  attracts 
more  fruit  buyers  and  sometimes,  doubtless,  more  expert 
laborers.  The  possibility  of  organization  and  cooperation 
among  the  growers  for  mutual  benefit  in  selling  the  fruit 
and  in  purchasing  supplies  offers  very  definite  advantages 
in  many  respects  which  cannot  be  realized  where  the  orchards 
are  isolated  with  regard  to  one  another. 

In  locating  an  orchard,  it  should  be  anticipated  that  dur- 
ing "peach  season"  a  relatively  large  number  of  laborers 
are  required  to  pick,  pack,  and  handle  the  crop.  The  grower 
should  see  to  it  before  the  location  is  finally  determined  on 
that  the  community  affords  ample  facilities  for  taking  care 
of  the  laborers,  or  else  arrangements  for  housing  and  provid- 
ing for  them  at  the  orchard  should  be  included  in  the  initial 
plans  of  development. 

Locations  tvith  reference  to  the  ripening  of  the  fruit. 

The  factor  here  involved  is  economic  rather  than  pomologi- 
cal  in  its  significance.  While  many  varieties  of  peaches  are 
in  cultivation,  there  is  probably  no  other  fruit  industry  with 
wide  geographical  distribution  that  is  built  up  so  largely 
on  a  single  variety  as  is  the  peach  industry  at  the  present 
time.  In  practically  all  peach-growing  districts  in  the  United 
States,  with  the  exception  of  those  in  California  in  which 
a  number  of  different  varieties  are  grown  for  special  pur- 
poses, and  in  the  extreme  South  where  a  subtropical  climate 
restricts  the  choice  of  varieties,  the  Elberta  has  come  to  be 
by  far  the  most  extensively  planted  of  any  variety.     In 


36  Peach-Growing 

many  sections  earlier  varieties  are  grown  to  a  limited,  extent 
and  in  others  both  earlier  and  later  sorts  are  grown.  How- 
ever, with  but  comparatively  few  exceptions  other  than 
those  noted,  the  main  crop  consists  of  the  Elberta  and  as 
this  variety  comes  "in  season"  in  its  progressive  sequence 
northward,  it  virtually  marks  the  end  of  the  "peach  season" 
for  the  year  in  the  more  southern  districts.  In  the  practical 
working  out  of  the  matter,  the  profitableness  of  peach- 
growing  in  any  location  depends  in  no  small  measure  on  the 
sequence  in  which  the  Elberta  peach  ripens  there  in  compari- 
son with  its  ripening  period  in  other  localities  with  which  it 
comes  in  competition  in  the  markets.  Thus,  a  location  in 
which  the  variety  or  varieties  planted  ripen  during  a  period 
when  the  market  s  are  already  fully  supplied  with  fruit  is 
not  likely  to  prove  as  satisfactory  from  a  financial  stand- 
point as  one  in  which  the  fruit  ripens  at  a  time  when  the 
markets  are  not  overstocked  with  fruit  from  other  districts. 
This  factor  is  of  much  greater  importance  than  is  sometimes 
supposed.  Of  course,  something  depends  in  this  connection 
on  the  selection  of  varieties.  A  grower  is  not  restricted  to 
the  Elberta,  but  its  wide  range  of  adaptability  and  its  ex- 
cellent shipping  qualities  are  apt  to  give  it  first  choice  in  the 
average  commercial  orchard. 

The  accompanying  illustrations,  which  show  typical  peach 
orchard  locations  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  serve 
to  emphasize  some  of  the  important  factors  that  have  been 
presented  under  this  topic. 

Plate  I  (Frontispiece)  shows  an  orchard  located  in  the  Alle- 
ghany Mountains.  The  location  is  representative  of  a  large 
region  in  which  extensive  peach  interests  have  been  developed 
within  the  past  twenty  years.  The  elevation  of  the  mountain 
ridges  insures  good  atmospheric  drainage,  and  the  rolling, 


Location  and  Site  of  the  Orchard  37 

broken  topography  of  the  individual  sites  is  favorable  to  the 
same  end.  In  most  of  this  region  the  land  has  been  cleared 
expressly  for  the  planting  of  the  orchards.  Plate  II  shows  a 
region  similar  in  much  of  its  local  topography  to  that  in  Plate 
I.  It  is  a  foothill  location  in  California.  Though  the  topog- 
raphy is  much  broken,  the  orchards  are  irrigated. 

These  two  illustrations  are  typical  of  the  mountain  peach 
districts  of  the  country  which,  because  they  possess  in  a  high 
degree  the  essential  features  of  good  locations,  have  proved 
admirably  suited  to  peach-growing. 

OECHAED   SITES 

An  orchard  site  is  the  very  piece  of  land  on  which  the 
trees  are  planted.  The  site  has  to  do  chiefly  with  the  soil, 
topography,  elevation  (relative  rather  than  actual,  though 
both  may  be  important),  and  local  climatic  conditions. 
Obviously,  some  of  the  "location  factors"  are  also  "site 
factors."  In  the  latter  connection  rather  detailed  considera- 
tion is  needful. 

Soil 

It  is  current  opinion  that  peaches  should  be  planted  on 
sandy  or  some  of  the  lighter  types  of  soil.  It  is  doubtless 
true  that  such  types  largely  prevail  in  some  of  the  most 
important  and  most  successful  peach  regions,  and  that  fruit 
of  remarkably  high  quality  and  color  is  commonly  produced 
on  such  types.  It  is  likewise  true  that  peach  trees  thrive 
and  produce  good  fruit  on  a  rather  wide  range  of  soil  types, 
including  some  of  the  gravels,  shales,  loams,  and  even  the 
clays,  if  they  are  not  so  heavy  and  impervious  as  to  be  poorly 
drained.     However,  soils  that  induce  an  extremely  heavy 


38  Peach-Gr  owing 

growth  of  wood  and  foliage  are  apt  to  be  objectionable  be- 
cause these  results  are  not  always  conducive  to  the  produc- 
tion of  the  best  crops,  nor  of  fruit  of  the  highest  quality 
and  appearance.  It  is  doubtless  a  fact,  fully  supported  by 
experience,  that  the  well-drained  warm  soils  preserve  the 
best  balance  between  vegetative  growth  of  tree  and  fruit 
production.  It  obviously  follows  that  such  soils  usually 
represent  the  lighter  types.  The  heavy  types  are  likely 
to  lack  adequate  drainage. 

In  addition  to  the  type  as  indicated  by  the  surface,  the 
subsoil  is  of  the  very  greatest  importance  —  greater  even 
than  that  of  the  surface.  The  surface  may  have  every  ap- 
pearance of  being  a  good  "peach  soil"  and  yet  the  subsoil 
be  of  such  a  character  as  to  make  the  site  quite  impossible 
for  the  successful  production  of  peaches.  For  instance,  a 
thin  stratum  of  soil  underlaid  by  rock,  as  Is  shown  in  Plate 
III,  makes  a  soil  condition  entirely  unsuited  for  orchard  pur- 
poses. Under  the  most  favorable  moisture  conditions,  an 
orchard  planted  on  such  a  site  may  do  well,  but  in  times  of 
severe  drought  it  is  likely  to  suffer  because  the  reservoir 
of  soil-moisture  is  so  limited ;  in  times  of  excessive  rains, 
difficulties  resulting  from  poor  drainage  conditions  are  likely 
to  occur.  Many  orchards  have  failed  because  the  soil 
stratum  above  a  hard  pan  or  solid  rock  was  too  thin. 

The  surface  soil  can  also  be  modified  considerably  by  the 
way  in  which  it  is  handled,  but  the  subsoil  admits  of  only 
slight,  or  even  no  modification,  by  ordinary  means,  except 
perhaps  as  it  may  be  changed  by  drainage,  or  by  the  growing 
on  it  of  deep-rooted  plants  such  as  alfalfa. 

If  the  subsoil  is  very  gravelly  and  porous,  it  is  likely  to 
feel  severely  the  effects  of  even  moderate  droughts  and  be 
unsatisfactory   on   this   account.     The   other   extreme  —  a 


Location  and  Site  of  the  Orchard  39 

heavy  clay  subsoil  —  is  likely  either  to  be  poorly  drained  or 
so  retentive  of  moisture  as  to  induce  a  stronger  growth  of 
wood  and  leaves  than  is  desirable. 

A  soil,  whatever  the  type,  must  be  thoroughly  well  drained, 
yet  not  droughty.  It  needs  to  be  well  supplied  with  humus, 
otherwise  its  physical  condition  will  be  impaired,  it  will  be 
quickly  affected  by  drought,  and  its  fertility  reduced  below 
an  effective  standard.  Moreover,  a  soil  should  be  moderately 
fertile.  One  excessively  rich  in  nitrogen  is  not  to  be  desired 
as  a  general  rule,  since  it  is  likely  to  induce  a  superabundant 
growth  of  foliage.  On  the  other  hand,  the  impression  which 
is  somewhat  common  that  a  poor,  unfertile  soil  is  "good 
enough  for  peaches"  is  erroneous.  In  districts  where  alkali 
soils  occur,  sites  should  be  selected  with  a  view  to  avoiding 
them.  While  peach  trees  will  withstand  a  very  limited 
amount  of  alkali  salts  in  the  soil,  they  cause  disaster  if  pres- 
ent in  large  quantities.  It  is  safer,  therefore,  to  avoid  them 
entirely. 

Topography,  elevation,  slope,  and  local  climate. 

While  each  of  these  factors  has  its  individual  bearing  on  the 
problem  and  each  is  fundamentally  important  in  selecting  an 
orchard  site,  their  influences  on  the  prevailing  conditions  are 
so  interrelated  that  they  need  to  be  considered  together. 

With  the  soil  problem  settled,  the  outstanding  require- 
ment in  choosing  a  site  for  a  peach  orchard  is  good  atmos- 
pheric drainage.  It  is  often  of  greater  importance  even  than 
the  soil  on  account  of  its  relation  to  freedom  from  spring 
frosts.  That  air  of  a  given  temperature  is  heavier  than  air 
of  a  higher  temperature  is  a  most  familiar  fact.  For  this 
reason  cold  air  settles  to  the  lower  levels  and  frosts  form  in 
"bottom  lands"  when  higher  up  on  the  slopes  above  the 


40  Peach-Growing 

"bottoms"  none  occurs  and  perhaps  tender  vegetation  is 
green  for  days  or  even  weeks  in  the  autumn  after  all  but 
the  hardiest  plants  in  the  low  places  are  dead  from 
frosts. 

The  stratification  of  air  according  to  its  temperature  is 
visualized  in  a  remarkable  manner  in  Plate  IV.  It  shows  an 
orange  tree  injured  by  a  low  temperature  in  December,  as 
it  appeared  the  following  February.  It  is  well  known  that 
when  green  foliage  is  entirel}'^  killed  by  a  sudden  and  very 
severe  freeze  or  frost,  it  will  dry  up  on  the  tree  and  may 
cling  to  it  for  a  long  time;  whereas  a  temperature  that  is 
barely  low  enough  to  kill  the  foliage  v\^ill  result  in  the  leaves 
dropping  at  once.  These  conditions  are  indicated  in  Plate  IV. 
The  leaves  on  the  lower  branches  were  so  severely  frozen 
that  they  dried  up  and  remained  on  the  tree.  The  stratum 
of  air  having  this  severe  temperature  apparently  extended 
from  the  ground  to  a  level  just  above  the  height  of  a  man's 
head.  In  the  middle  section  of  the  tree,  the  temperature 
was  low  enough  only  to  cause  the  foliage  to  drop,  while  at 
the  level  of  the  upper  third  of  the  top  no  injury  is  apparent. 
Thus,  within  the  height  of  the  tree  there  were  strata  of  air 
having  three  different  temperatures,  each  resulting  in  a 
different  expression  in  terms  of  tree  life.  In  reality  these 
results  were  due  directly  to  differences  in  elevation. 

The  same  expression  is  indicated  in  Plate  III.  The  orchard 
is  situated  on  the  slope  of  a  mountain  ridge.  The  illustra- 
tion was  made  early  in  the  morning  when  there  was  no  wind, 
but  a  current  of  cold  air  settling  down  the  slope  to  a  lower 
level  is  carrying  with  it  the  smoke  from  a  burning  stump. 

Attention  may  now  be  called  to  the  fact  that  topography 
refers  to  the  general  conformation  of  the  surface.  In  ref- 
erence to  orchard  sites,  it  has  to  do  with  the  physical   fea- 


Location  and  Site  of  the  Orchard  41 

tures  of  the  land.  Sites  where  the  topography  is  rolling  and 
broken,  as  those  suggested  in  Plates  I  and  II,  have  better  air 
drainage  and  sometimes  better  soil  drainage  than  where  the 
topography  is  level  as  suggested  in  Plates  V  and  VI.  There 
is  no  lower  level  into  which  the  cold  air  can  drain  from  these 
sites.  The  topography  of  the  sites  in  these  two  illustra- 
tions is  similar,  though  the  elevations  above  sea  level  and  the 
general  locations  are  very  different.  Plate  V  shows  an  or- 
chard site  in  the  east  central  part  of  Georgia  where  the  ele- 
vation above  sea  level  is  about  500  feet ;  Plate  VI,  a  valley 
orchard  in  Colorado  with  an  elevation  of  about  5000  feet 
above  sea  level. 

It  needs  to  be  emphasized  that  a  high  elevation  above  sea 
level  in  itself  does  not  signify  good  atmospheric  drainage. 
The  relative  elevation  of  the  site  compared  with  the  sur- 
rounding area  is  of  real  importance. 

From  the  standpoint  of  good  air  and  soil  drainage,  sites 
along  the  slopes  of  mountains  where  the  contours  are  regular 
as  in  Plates  III  (top)  and  VII  (bottom)  are  ideal,  except 
the  steepness  of  the  slope  which  makes  tillage,  spraying,  and 
other  orchard  operations  difficult  and  more  expensive  than 
where  the  site  is  more  nearly  level.  Extremes  in  steep  or 
broken  topography  need  to  be  guarded  against.  While  a 
topography  like  that  shown  in  Plate  VII  has  its  objections, 
the  soil  and  subsoil  are  of  such  character  that  erosion  does 
not  occur.  Many  types  of  soil  would  wash  irretrievably 
under  such  conditions,  and  where  the  surface  is  too  uneven 
the  inconvenience  in  carrying  on  necessary  orchard  operations 
is  excessive.  Therefore,  although  a  broken  topography  is 
much  more  to  be  desired  than  a  dead  level,  for  reasons 
given,  there  is  a  limit  in  this  direction  beyond  which  the 
disadvantages  more  than  equal  the  advantages. 


42  PeacTi-Grovnng 

Other  sites  suggestive  of  good  local  atmospheric  drainage 
are  shown  in  Plate  VIII.  These  orchards  are  in  a  valley  loca- 
tion in  Colorado  where  plantings  have  been  made  on  small 
mesas  at  three  or  four  different  elevations  above  the  floor 
of  the  valley.  In  the  light  of  the  foregoing  discussion,  it  is 
apparent  that  frosts  might  do  serious  damage  in  the  lower 
orchards  while  those  on  the  higher  mesas  would  escape 
entirely. 

It  remains  now  to  state  that  both  topography  and  eleva- 
tion in  their  relation  to  orchard  sites  are  expressions  pri- 
marily of  very  local,  though  often  very  potent,  climatic 
differences.  If  an  orchard  site  having  a  relatively  high  ele- 
vation produces  more  regularly  than  one  with  a  lower  ele- 
vation, other  things  being  equal,  it  is  because  of  the  local 
climatic  differences  which  are  incident  to  the  different  ele- 
vations. Thus  it  is  that  the  elevation  factor  is  funda- 
mentally a  climatic  factor  in  its  relation  to  orchards. 

Where  the  topography  is  greatly  broken,  much  care  and 
wise  discrimination  are  necessary  in  selecting  orchard  sites 
because  of  inequalities  that  may  not  be  apparent  on  the 
surface.  Sites  such  as  those  shown  in  Plates  I  and  II  are  likely 
to  have  "pockets"  into  which  the  cold  air  will  settle,  or  the 
soil  may  vary  widely  and  be  unsuited  in  some  places  for 
orchard  purposes,  or  for  other  reasons  the  problem  of  site 
selection  is  likely  to  be  more  complicated  than  where  the 
topography  is  uniform. 

Emphasis  has  been  placed  on  the  importance  of  relatively 
high  elevations,  and  in  recent  years  their  advantages  in  com- 
parison with  elevations  that  are  low  in  relation  to  surround- 
ing areas  have  been  repeatedly  and  unequivocally  demon- 
strated by  the  frequent  frost  injuries  in  orchards  situated 
on  the  latter  in  contrast  with  the  infrequent  injury  where 


Location  and  Site  of  the  Orchard  43 

orchards  have  been  relatively  high.  Yet  there  are  excep- 
tions under  certain  conditions,  though  these  do  not  in  any 
degree  affect  the  prevailing  preference  for  the  higher  ele- 
vations. 

Sometimes  in  periods  of  rather  intense  cold  that  are  ac- 
companied by  high  winds,  the  fruit-buds  will  be  killed  at 
the  higher  points  and  escape  injury  at  the  lower  places. 

Another  condition  due  to  the  modification  of  temperature 
by  elevation  is  suggested  by  what  occurs  repeatedly  in  the 
orchard  shown  in  Plate  VII.  The  orchard  extends  to  the  crest 
of  the  ridge,  which  is  about  2100  feet  above  sea  level.  The 
lower  side  of  the  orchard  drops  below  the  crest  400  or  500 
feet,  while  the  floor  of  the  valley  is  several  hundred  feet 
below  the  orchard.  WliUe  the  cold  air  obviously  drains 
from  the  orchard  to  the  floor  of  the  valley  and  during  the 
winter  and  early  spring  the  temperature  in  the  valley  is 
doubtless  lower  than  at  any  point  on  the  part  of  the  slope 
occupied  by  the  trees,  the  warmest  zone  is  evidently  some- 
where between  the  orchard  and  the  valley  floor.  Not  infre- 
quently the  trees  in  the  lower  part  of  the  orchard  blossom 
two  or  three  days  earlier  than  at  the  upper  side  and  there 
is  a  corresponding  difference  in  the  ripening  of  the  fruit  in 
some  seasons.  Thermometer  records  made  at  different 
elevations  along  the  slope  show  consistent  temperature 
differences  that  correspond  with  the  behavior  of  the  trees. 

These  phenomena  might  at  first  appear  to  contradict 
the  statements  made  above  in  regard  to  the  importance  of 
relative  elevation  in  orchard  sites.  They  are  in  perfect 
harmony,  however,  with  the  well-known  fact  that  above 
certain  limits  of  elevation  the  air  becomes  increasingly  colder 
until  the  line  of  perpetual  snow  is  reached  in  the  higher 
mountains,  even  though  a  tropical  or  subtropical  climate 


44  Peach-Growing 

may  prevail  in  certain  zones  farther  down  towards  the 
valley.  This  line  of  reasoning  applied  to  the  orchard  in 
Plate  VII  suggests  that  were  the  mountain  on  which  the 
orchard  is  located  some  hundreds  of  feet  higher,  a  limit  of 
elevation  would  be  reached  where  the  temperature  factor 
would  preclude  the  growing  of  peaches  and  which  would  not 
be  counteracted  by  atmospheric  drainage. 

Yet  another  factor  of  some  importance  is  slope  or  aspect 
—  the  points  of  the  compass  towards  which  the  site  inclines. 
The  preferred  slope  for  a  peach  orchard  has  been  much 
discussed,  but  cannot  be  settled  in  any  dogmatic  manner. 
The  question  admits  of  no  direct  answer.  No  one  slope  is 
preferable  under  all  conditions  and  in  all  regions.  In  fact, 
the  influence  which  a  particular  exposure  may  have  in  the 
success  of  an  orchard  is  probably  much  over-emphasized 
in  the  popular  mind. 

As  a  rule,  it  is  doubtless  safe  to  assume  that  a  site  having 
a  moderate  slope  in  some  direction  is  to  be  preferred  for 
orchard  purposes,  other  things  being  equal,  to  one  that  is 
level.  One  having  a  slope  will  usually  have  better  drainage 
of  soil  and  atmosphere  than  a  level  area ;  but  so  far  as  these 
factors  are  concerned  in  the  abstract,  one  slope  may  be  as 
good  as  another. 

An  orchard  that  occupies  a  site  which  slopes  away  from 
the  prevailing  wind  may  be  afforded  a  certain  amount  of 
protection  therefrom  in  some  cases,  and  in  some  regions 
there  are  well-marked  soil  differences  on  the  different  slopes 
of  the  ridges.  These  differences  may  be  such  as  to  make 
one  slope  better  adapted  to  peach-growing  than  another. 

Probably  in  the  minds  of  most  fruit-growers  the  chief 
difference  between  the  slopes  in  their  relation  to  fruit-grow- 
ing is  assumed  to  be  a  matter  of  temperature.     That  differ- 


Location  and  Site  of  the  Orchard  45 

ent  slopes  may  have  different  temperatures  seems  to  be  made 
evident  in  the  common  observation  in  many  peach  districts 
by  the  rapidity  with  which  snow  melts  on  southern  slopes 
in  comparison  with  corresponding  northern  slopes.  But 
this  evidence  is  at  the  surface  of  the  ground.  A  few  feet 
above  the  ground,  where  the  air  has  perfectly  free  circula- 
tion, the  difference  in  temperature  that  may  exist  at  the 
surface  on  two  opposing  slopes,  if  they  are  not  too  steep, 
largely  disappears.  Hence,  the  tops  of  the  trees  on  different 
slopes  may  be  in  essentially  the  same  temperature  even 
though  there  are  appreciable  differences  at  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  However,  the  slope  factor  is  largely  one  of 
degree,  so  far  as  it  requires  consideration  in  selecting  orchard 
sites.  Peach  trees  on  a  site  having  a  very  steep  southern 
slope  will  usually  blossom  and  the  fruit  will  ripen  somewhat 
earlier  than  on  a  corresponding  northern  slope,  but  where 
the  differences  in  slope  are  only  moderate  their  relative 
influence  on  the  time  of  blossoming  and  ripening  is  not  very 
marked.  Whether  early  or  late  blossoming  is  desirable 
is  largely  a  local  matter  and  depends  primarily  on  the  rela- 
tive dates  of  blossoming  and  the  usual  occurrence  of  spring 
frosts  in  any  locality  or  on  any  site.  The  slope  is,  therefore, 
fundamentally  but  another  factor  which  goes  to  make  up 
local  climate. 

The  local  climate  of  a  site  may  be  influenced  at  times  or 
perpetually  modified  by  still  other  factors.  Its  slope  with 
reference  to  the  prevailing  winds,  the  presence  of  shelter 
belts,  windbreaks,  or  natural  barriers  such  as  mountain 
ranges,  may  have  a  modifying  influence  and  where  they 
occur  should  be  taken  into  account  in  selecting  a  site. 

The  best  site,  other  things  being  equal,  is  the  one  where 
the  natural  conditions  are  so  combined  in  their  favorable 


46  Peach-Gromng 

influence  on  the  orchard  that  the  latter  produces  abundant 
crops  with  the  greatest  degree  of  regularity.  An  orchard 
that  is  moderately  but  regularly  productive,  in  the  long  run, 
is  much  to  be  preferred  to  one  that  produces  great  crops  at 
irregular  intervals. 


CHAPTER  IV 
PROPAGATION  OF  PEACH   TREES 

The  growing  of  nursery  stock  is  a  business  quite  distinct 
from  that  of  orcharding.  While  some  nurserymen  grow  fruit 
and  some  orchardists  also  produce  nursery  stock,  the  average 
fruit-grower  will  usually  find  it  to  his  advantage  to  purchase 
his  trees  from  one  who  is  a  specialist  in  the  art  of  growing 
them  rather  than  to  propagate  his  own.  He  will  usually 
obtain  better  trees  thereby,  and  in  the  end  probably  they  will 
cost  less.  However,  the  fruit-grower  ought  to  have  a  gen- 
eral knowledge  of  nursery  methods  and  practice,  even  though 
he  may  not  want  to  use  that  knowledge  in  the  actual  produc- 
tion of  trees.  He  will  be  the  better  able  to  handle  his  trees 
if  he  knows  how  they  are  propagated.  Moreover,  it  will 
enable  him  to  judge  better  the  grades  and  standards  of  the 
nursery  stock  with  which  he  has  to  deal. 

The  methods  by  which  peach  trees  are  usually  propa- 
gated are  simple,  yet  they  involve  many  details  requiring 
careful  attention.  The  disregard  of  any  one  of  them  may 
prove  extremely  costly  in  the  results.  Propagation  is  almost 
universally  by  budding  on  seedling  stocks,  the  ordinary 
"T"  or  shield-bud  method  being  used.  The  various  steps 
in  the  operation  from  the  growing  of  the  stocks  on  which 
the  buds  are  placed  until  the  trees  are  ready  for  delivery 
is  concisely  described  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

47 


48  Peach-Gromng 

STOCKS 

Peaches  are  most  commonly  propagated  on  their  own 
roots,  that  is,  on  peach  seedlings,  and  under  most  condi- 
tions this  is  probably  the  best  method.  However,  in  some 
regions,  particularly  in  California,  other  stocks  have  been 
used  to  some  extent,  it  being  claimed  that  the  hard-shelled 
almond  produces  a  hardier,  stronger  tree,  especially  for 
growing  where  the  soil  is  very  light  and  dry,  than  when  prop- 
agated on  peach  stocks.  Formerly  St.  Julian  and  Myro- 
balan  plum  stocks  were  used  to  some  extent  in  California. 
They  were  supposed  to  be  better  than  peach  stocks  for 
planting  on  soil  that  was  excessively  moist.  However,  the 
peach  top  is  likely  to  over-grow  the  plum  root  and  to  develop 
a  weakness  at  the  point  of  union.  For  this  and  possibly 
other  reasons,  plum  stocks  are  not  now  much  recommended. 

Recently  still  another  species  has  been  receiving  favorable 
comment  as  a  stock  for  peaches  and  some  other  stone-fruits. 
This  is  the  "wild  peach  of  China"  {Prunus  or  Amygdalus 
Davidiana),  seed  of  which  in  some  quantity  was  introduced 
into  the  United  States  from  China  in  1907  by  the  Federal 
Department  of  Agriculture,  although  it  was  grown  in  this 
country  before  that  date.  The  following  note  relates  to 
the  behavior  of  the  plant  at  the  Michigan  Agricultural  Col- 
lege in  the  winter  of  1887-1888  :  "  Prunus  Davidiana  endured 
the  winter  without  injury  so  far  as  the  wood  was  concerned, 
but  the  flower-buds,  of  which  there  were  many,  were  all 
killed.  A  plant  wintered  in  a  shed  blossomed  profusely 
April  28th,  a  very  early  date  this  season.  If  the  tree  had 
been  out  of  doors,  where  it  must  have  bloomed  earlier,  the 
flowers  would  have  been  nipped  by  frost.  All  the  flowers 
on  the  tree  in  question  were  imperfect,  the  pistils  being 


Propagation  of  Peach  Trees  49 

undeveloped."  These  earlier  introductions  need  not  be 
further  considered  as  they  apparently  have  no  relation  to 
the  use  of  the  species  for  stocks. 

This  peach  {Prunus  Davidiana)  is  an  excellent  stock 
to  bud,  as  it  "  works  "  very  easily  and  is  not  especially  sensi- 
tive to  climatic  changes  during  the  summer;  that  is,  the 
bark  does  not  set  during  ordinary  periods  of  drought;  it 
is  a  strong  grower  in  some  sections  and  trees  propagated  on 
it  make  a  vigorous  growth  when  young,  though  it  appears 
to  have  a  slight  dwarfing  effect  on  the  ultimate  size  of  the 
tree.  Moreover,  it  occurs  in  China  where  it  seems  to  be 
in  a  high  degree  resistant  to  drought  and  alkali. 

Sufficient  time  has  not  yet  elapsed  since  this  species 
was  first  used  in  this  country  as  a  stock  to  determine  whether 
the  trees  will  develop  weaknesses  with  age  that  are  trace- 
able to  the  stock,  nor  has  its  range  of  adaptability  yet  been 
determined.  There  are  other  problems  connected  with  its 
use,  but  thus  far  favorable  as  well  as  unfavorable  results 
have  been  wadely  reported.  The  unfavorable  results  have 
been  due  evidently  to  the  stock  not  being  adapted  to  the 
conditions  where  grown.  This  emphasizes  the  necessity 
of  carefully  determining  its  range  before  it  is  used  com- 
mercially. 

The  Sand  cherry  of  the  West  (Prunus  Besseyi)  has  been 
used  in  a  very  small  way  as  a  dwarfing  stock,  but  its  real 
value  and  practicability  as  such  are  not  yet  determined. 

The  use  of  peach  seedlings  in  propagating  peaches  so 
largely  predominates  that  the  handling  of  them  alone  will 
be  given  consideration  in  the  further  discussion  of  peach 
propagation. 

Peach  pits,  or  seeds,  for  use  in  growing  stocks  are  obtained 
mainly  in  two  ways  :  from  canning  factories  and  from  "  nat- 


50  Peach-Growing 

ural,"  that  is,  seedling,  peach  trees  and  orchards  that  abound 
in  the  Appalachian  Mountain  districts  and  adjacent  areas 
of  North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  and  certain  other  states. 
The  latter  source  is  usually  considered  much  the  more  pref- 
erable. Pits  secured  at  canneries  may  have  come  from  fruit 
produced  on  "diseased"  trees  —  the  disease  most  feared 
being  "peach  yellows."  However,  this  disease  has  not 
reached  the  Pacific  Coast  so  far  as  known,  and  no  serious 
difficulties  appear  to  follow  the  use  of  pits  from  canneries 
in  this  part  of  the  country.  Pits  of  certain  varieties,  such 
as  the  Salwey,  are  generally  preferred.  It  may  here  be  said 
that  pits  from  fruits  that  definitely  show  "yellows"  will 
very  rarely  germinate ;  this  may  not  apply,  however,  to  pits 
from  fruits  grown  on  the  apparently  healthy  part  of  a  tree 
that  is  just  beginning  to  show  this  disease  on  a  part  of  its 
limbs. 

For  many  years  the  seedling  peach  orchards  above  referred 
to  as  growing  in  some  parts  of  the  South  have  been  favorite 
sources  for  peach  pits  from  which  nurserymen  have  grown 
their  seedling  stocks.  The  pits  are  gathered  in  the  late 
summer  and  early  fall,  frequently  a  bushel  here  and  a  half 
bushel  there,  or  in  larger  quantities  as  conditions  may  per- 
mit, assembled  at  central  points,  as  at  a  country  store,  and 
subsequently  taken  over  by  nurserymen  or  others  who 
make  a  specialty  of  supplying  peach  seed  to  the  nursery 
trade. 

The  advantage  claimed  for  the  natural  peach  pits  over 
those  from  "budded  varieties"  is  smaller  size,  greater  uni- 
formity in  size,  thus  making  machine  planting  easier  and 
more  satisfactory,  and  also  a  greater  uniformity  and  vigor 
in  the  seedlings  that  grow  from  them  in  comparison  with 
those  from  cannery  pits.     Besides,  the  best  grades  of  natural 


Propagation  of  Peach  Trees  51 

pits  run  about  7000  seeds  to  the  bushel,  while  those  from 
budded  trees  may  drop  as  low  as  2200  to  the  bushel  on 
account  of  their  larger  size. 

In  planting  the  pits  there  is  wide  variation  in  the  prac- 
tices of  different  nurserymen  and  in  different  sections.  Per- 
haps the  simplest  method  is  when  the  pits  are  planted  in 
the  autumn  in  drills  where  it  is  intended  to  grow  the  nursery 
trees.  When  this  is  the  case,  the  site  needs  to  be  selected 
with  discrimination.  A  thoroughly  well-drained  site  is  essen- 
tial ;  the  soil  needs  to  be  abundantly  supplied  with  humus, 
and  fertile,  otherwise  the  trees  will  not  make  adequate 
growth.  A  heavy  soil  is  objectionable,  as  is  usually  a  very 
sandy  one.  Moreover  the  soil  must  be  deep,  else  the  roots 
will  not  develop  well.  The  drills  are  usually  placed  3i  or 
4  feet  apart.  The  pits  may  be  dropped  by  hand  6  or  8  inches 
apart  in  shallow  furrows  that  have  been  opened  to  receive 
them  or  the  dropping  may  be  done  with  a  peach-pit-planter 
—  usually  so  constructed  that  it  will  drop  two  rows  at  once. 
The  quantity  of  pits  used  to  the  acre  may  vary  from  7  or 
8  bushels  to  a  much  larger  amount,  depending  primarily 
on  the  size  of  the  pit.  The  usual  type  of  peach-planter 
will  drop  150  bushels  a  day  of  the  smaller  sized  seed. 

The  pits  are  planted  about  1^  or  2  inches  below  the  level 
of  the  surface.  In  covering,  when  planted  in  the  fall,  espe- 
cially in  the  North,  the  rows  are  commonly  ridged  slightly 
so  that  the  pits  are  covered  with  about  3  inches  of  soil.  In 
the  spring  the  ridges  are  leveled  down,  leaving  the  pits 
covered  with  2  inches  or  a  little  less  of  soil. 

The  moisture  in  the  soil  aided  by  the  freezing  (in  the 
colder  parts  of  the  country)  will  crack  the  pits  during  the 
winter  and  early  spring,  and  with  the  return  of  the  growing 
season  the  kernels  will  germinate. 


52  Peach-Growing 

There  are  still  other  methods  of  handling  the  pits.  One 
of  the  more  common  ones  is  to  "bed"  them  either  in  mid- 
summer or  in  the  autumn.  If  in  the  summer,  it  presupposes 
that  the  supply  of  pits  was  procured  the  preceding  season. 
The  current  season's  crop  of  pits  would  not  then  be  avail- 
able. 

Bedding  is  done  about  as  follows  with  such  individual 
variations  as  different  nurserymen  may  make :  A  well- 
drained  site  for  the  bed  is  selected,  where  an  excavation  12 
or  15  inches  deep  is  made.  A  convenient  width  for  the  bed 
is  about  6  feet  since  the  center  can  then  be  reached  readily 
from  either  side ;  the  length  to  correspond  with  the  quantity 
of  pits  to  be  bedded.  Then  the  pits  are  mixed  with  a  liberal 
proportion  of  moist  sand  and  filled  into  the  bed,  where  they 
are  finally  covered  with  3  or  4  inches  of  sand.  Or,  instead 
of  mixing  the  pits  with  sand,  the  pits  and  sand  are  placed 
in  the  bed  in  alternate  layers  about  2  inches  thick  and 
finally  covered  with  several  inches  of  sand,  as  described 
above.  This  is  commonly  called  "stratification"  of  seeds. 
It  is  a  method  used  in  handling  many  kinds  of  seeds  and 
nuts. 

The  bedding  of  the  pits  may  be  done  in  the  fall  instead 
of  in  midsummer.  Whatever  the  details  thus  far,  the  seeds 
are  left  in  the  bed  until  the  next  spring.  The  moisture  and 
the  freezing  during  the  winter  will  crack  the  pits  the  same 
as  when  they  are  planted  in  the  autumn  where  they  are  to 
grow. 

With  the  return  of  the  "planting  season"  the  next  spring, 
the  kernels  are  separated  from  the  pits  and  sand  by  sifting 
or  otherwise,  and  are  then  planted  in  drills  and  covered  from 
1  to  2  inches  deep. 

The  advantages  for  bedding  over  fall  planting  are  that 


Propagation  of  Peach  Trees  53 

the  conditions  are  under  control  in  the  bed,  and  a  more  uni- 
form cracking  of  the  pits  may  be  secured.  The  kernels 
being  brought  to  view,  the  planting  can  be  governed  by  their 
condition  and  quality  rather  than  by  the  appearance  of  the 
pits  alone.  If  many  of  the  pits  contain  imperfect  kernels, 
it  becomes  evident  and  the  planting  can  be  gauged  accord- 
ingly. Thus  it  may  be  possible  to  secure  a  better  stand 
of  seedlings  by  the  stratification  method  than  by  planting 
the  pits  in  the  fall  where  the  seedlings  are  to  grow. 

The  foregoing  methods,  or  some  incidental  modifications 
of  them,  are  followed  in  the  regions  where  the  winter  tem- 
peratures are  sufficiently  low  to  freeze  the  pits,  either  when 
stratified  or  planted  in  the  autumn,  the  freezing  aiding  in 
separating  the  pits  along  the  sutures. 

In  the  South,  however,  where  mild  winter  temperatures 
constantly  prevail,  peach  pits  are  commonly  planted  in 
September  or  October  where  the  seedling  stocks  are  to 
grow,  in  the  same  manner  as  when  planted  in  the  fall  in  the 
North.  Or  the  seeds  may  be  stratified  in  a  bed  with  sand 
in  about  the  same  way  as  in  the  North,  but  special  attention 
is  given  to  keeping  the  bed  moist,  since  the  cracking  of  the 
pits  is  dependent  on  the  moisture  alone  without  assistance 
from  the  freezing,  which  is  of  very  material  aid  in  the  colder 
sections. 

In  the  course  of  several  months,  usually  in  January  and 
February,  the  pits  will  begin  to  crack  open  as  a  result  of  the 
continuous  influence  of  the  moisture  which  surrounds  them. 
As  soon  as  they  crack  in  considerable  numbers,  they 
are  separated  from  the  sand  and  planted  as  already 
described. 

Other  southern  nurserymen  plant  the  pits  in  October 
where  they  wish  the  seedling  stocks  to  grow.     However, 


54  '  Peach-Growing 

many^of  the  pits,  when  handled  in  this  manner  in  warm 
climates,  do  not  crack  the  first  season,  hence  do  not  germi- 
nate. Therefore,  the  usual  course  by  this  method  is  to  plant 
the  seeds  more  thickly  than  when  planting  kernels  that  have 
been  separated  from  the  pits  with  a  view  to  using  the  first 
season's  seedlings  the  summer  following  the  planting ;  then 
by  the  second  spring  the  seeds  that  did  not  grow  the  year 
before  will  germinate.  Thus  two  successive  crops  of  seed- 
lings are  grown  from  the  one  planting  and  accordingly  two 
successive  crops  of  nursery  stock  are  produced  on  the  same 
piece  of  land. 

Thus  it  follows  that,  contrary  to  common  belief,  freezing 
is  not  a.  necessary  agent  in  the  cracking  of  the  pits,  but  if 
they  are  soaked  a  sufficient  length  of  time  (it  may  require 
several  weeks  or  even  months  to  soften  them  at  the  suture 
if  they  are  extremely  dry  and  for  the  kernels  to  become  so 
plump  from  the  absorption  of  moisture  as  to  force  them 
open),  the  kernels  will  germinate  the  same  as  when  the 
pits  are  cracked  by  freezing. 

With  the  pits  or  kernels  planted,  by  whatever  method, 
they  should  germinate  readily  in  the  spring  with  the  return 
of  good  growing  conditions.  Under  favorable  circumstances 
the  seedlings  will  grow  rapidly,  and  before  the  end  of  July 
a  large  proportion  should  be  i  inch  in  diameter  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  and  large  enough  to  begin  budding.  This 
operation  may  be  continued  through  July,  August,  and 
into  September,  provided  growing  conditions  are  favorable. 
In  case  of  severe  drought  in  midsummer,  the  bark  may 
"set"  at  almost  any  time  during  the  months  named  for  bud- 
ding, and  thus  bring  to  an  end  the  budding  period  for  the 
season  unless  growth  is  renewed  later  by  the  return  of  fa- 
vorable conditions. 


Propagation  of  Peach  Trees  55 

BUDDING 

Selecting  the  buds. 

As  previously  stated,  the  peach  is  propagated  almost 
exclusively  by  budding,  the  shield  or  "T"  bud  method 
being  used.  The  buds  for  this  purpose  are  taken  from 
the  growth  of  the  current  season.  They  should  be  well 
matured,  hence  those  near  the  terminal  end  of  the 
limbs  may  need  to  be  discarded,  especially  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  budding  season.  Furthermore,  the  buds 
should  be  selected  with  great  care  both  as  to  health  and 
vigor  of  bud  and  identity  of  variety.  Special  regard  should 
be  taken  for  "peach  yellows."  If  buds  are  taken  from  a 
branch  that  actually  shows  this  disease  developing,  it  is 
probable  that  little  if  any  harm  will  result  subsequently 
to  the  orchard  since  few  of  the  buds  are  likely  to  grow, 
or  if  they  do  start,  they  will  not  live  long  enough  to  reach 
the  orchard.  But  if  buds  are  taken  from  the  apparently 
healthy  part  of  a  tree  in  the  early  stages  of  this  disease,  the 
buds  may  be  expected  not  only  to  develop  into  trees,  but 
in  course  to  develop  the  disease  themselves  before  they  have 
produced  much  fruit.  It  is,  therefore,  of  the  very  greatest 
importance  that  buds  be  selected  from  trees  that  are  entirely 
free  from  disease  in  every  respect.  The  significance  of  this 
admonition  is  now  generally  appreciated,  though  this  was  not 
the  case  formerly. 

And  again,  a  wide  difference  in  the  bearing  habits  of 
peach  trees  growing  under  identically  the  same  conditions 
is  frequently  observed.  Some  trees  habitually  bear  heavy 
crops  of  especially  high  grade  fruit  of  the  variety;  others 
may  bear  an  undesirable  grade ;  while  others  may  be  habit- 
ually barren  or  nearly  so.     Investigations  of  such  differences 


56  Peach-Groimng 

in  the  behavior  of  fruit-trees  point  strongly  to  the  conclusion 
that,  in  part  at  least,  these  differences  are  inherent  tree 
qualities  and  to  the  extent  that  this  is  true  they  are  doubt- 
less transmitted  to  trees  propagated  from  them.  While 
the  truth  of  this  with  regard  to  peaches  has  not  been  demon- 
strated it  appears  to  have  been  proved  beyond  reasonable 
doubt  with  regard  to  citrus  fruits.^ 

This  matter  has  too  great  potential  possibilities  to  warrant 
its  being  ignored  when  propagating  deciduous  fruits.  To 
take  advantage  of  it,  buds  for  use  in  propagating  peaches 
should  be  selected  from  trees  that  bear  the  best  crops  of  the 
most  desirable  fruit  of  the  variety  and  which  produce  them 
with  the  greatest  regularity. 

Details  of  budding. 

The  details  of  budding  are  shown  in  Figs.  1  and  2.  A 
single  bud  is  inserted  on  the  seedling  stock  at  a  point  just 
above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  for  convenience  in 
cultural  operations,  the  point  of  insertion  is  on  the  same  side 
of  all  the  stocks.  If  necessary,  the  small  branches  that 
have  developed  near  the  ground  are  stripped  off  before  the 
actual  operations  of  budding  begin. 

As  may  be  seen  at  "A"  in  Fig.  1,  a  vertical  slit  about 
1  inch  long  is  made  through  the  bark  of  the  stock  and  at  its 
upper  end  a  short  horizontal  cut  is  also  made.  " B"  in  Fig. 
1  shows  the  next  stage,  which  is  merely  A  with  the  bark 
along  the  lines  of  the  "T"  slightly  raised  ready  to  receive 
the  bud.     Figure  2  shows  a  "bud  stick."     It  is  the  end 

1  Shamel,  A.  D.,  "Citrus-Fruit  Improvement."  Farmers'  Bull. 
794.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bull.  623,  "  Citrus  Fruit  Improvement : 
A  Study  of  Bud  Variation  in  the  Washington  Navel  Orange,"  and 
Bull,  624,  having  a  similar  title  but  relating  to  the  Valencia  orange. 


Propagation  of  Peach  Trees  57 

of  a  limb  which  grew  the  current  season  and  from  which  the 
leaves  have  been  cut  with  a  small  portion  of  the  stem  — 
about  ^  inch  —  being  left  on  each  one  to  serve  as  a  handle 
when  the  bud  is  removed  from  the  "stick."  As  shown  in 
the  figure,  removal  of  a  bud  is  effected  by  cutting  upward, 
beginning  at  a  point  ^  inch  or  so  below  the  bud  and  extending 
about  the  same  distance  above,  and  deep  enough  so  that  a 


Fiu.  1.  —  Details  of  budding. 

very  thin  shield  of  wood  just  beneath  the  bud  is  removed 
with  it.  This  small  piece  of  wood  is  sometimes,  though  not 
usually,  removed  before  the  bud  is  inserted  as  shown  in 
"C,"  Fig.  1.  Ordinarily  each  bud  is  cut  from  the  stick 
as  the  budder  is  ready  to  slip  it  into  the  "matrix,"  as  the 
cut  is  sometimes  called.  Or  the  buds  may  be  partially  cut 
before,  and  the  removal  completed  at  the  time  of  insertion. 
The  bud,  with  its  shield  of  bark,  is  slipped  entirely  into  the 
matrix.  The  next  and  final  step  is  tying.  This  is  shown 
in  "2)/'  Fig.  1.    A  piece  of  cotton  twine  (about  No.  18) 


58 


Peach-Growing 


is  used  for  this  purpose.  The  twine  is  cut  into  pieces  about 
10  inches  long  and  carried  in  small  bundles  of  convenient 
size  attached  to  the  person  of  the  budder. 
Tying  consists  in  winding  the  string  closely, 
but  not  tight  enough  actually  to  girdle, 
about  the  part  of  the  stock  containing 
the  bud,  passing  it  around  usually  three 
or  four  times  both  above  and  below  the 
bud.  This  binds  the  parts  together 
firmly  and  holds  the  bud  in  perfect 
contact  with  the  tissue  of  the  stock  im- 
mediately beneath  the  bud.  Without  this 
close  contact  the  bud  and  stock  would 
not  unite. 

Tying  is  done  from  the  lower  part  of 
the  bud  upward.  It  is  accomplished  by 
passing  the  second  turn  over  the  free  end 
of  the  string,  and  continuing  until  the 
parts  of  the  wound  are  all  brought  closely 
into  position.  The  finish  is  similar  to 
the  beginning  in  that  the  end  is  passed 
under  the  last  turn  of  the  string  about 
the  stock  and  drawn  down  tightly.  Thus 
both  ends  of  the  string  are  made  fast 
without  the  necessity  of  tying  any  knots. 
In  commercial  operations,  the  budder 
cuts  the  matrix  and  handles  the  buds, 
putting  them  in  position  in  the  stocks ; 
a  helper,  commonly  a  boy,  does  the  tying. 
If  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  lower  leaves  or  small  limbs 
on  the  stocks  in  order  to  expedite  the  budding,  it  should 
not  be  done  more  than  a  day  or  two  in  advance,  smce  it 


Fig.  2.  — A  "bud- 
stick  ' '  showing  man- 
ner of  removing 
buds. 


Propagation  of  Peach  Trees  59 

might  cause  the  bark  to  "set"  under  some  conditions  if 
done  too  long  before  the  budding. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  buds  be  kept  in  a  perfectly 
fresh  condition  after  the  sticks  are  taken  from  the  trees. 
The  supply  which  the  budder  carries  with  him  is  usually 
kept  in  a  moistened  piece  of  burlap  slung  across  the  back  or 
in  a  bag  of  some  kind  where  the  sticks  can  be  reached  con- 
veniently, but  only  one  is  carried  in  the  hand  at  a  time, 
unless  the  varying  size  of  the  stocks  makes  it  desirable  to 
have  in  hand  buds  bearing  shields  of  bark  of  sizes  to  corre- 
spond with  the  stocks.  Then  a  budder  may  carry  in  his 
hand  at  the  same  time  several  bud  sticks  of  different  sizes. 

The  skill  of  budders  varies  greatly,  as  is  often  evident  from 
the  varying  percentages  of  failure  which  appear  in  rows  of 
stocks  budded  by  different  men;  their  deftness  also  varies 
greatly.  A  rapid  budder  with  a  helper  to  tie  will  put  in 
2500  to  3000  buds  in  a  day,  occasionally  considerably  more, 
but  such  budders  are  quite  exceptional. 

In  ten  to  fourteen  days  after  the  budding  is  done,  the  bud 
will  have  "taken,"  that  is  it  will  have  united  with  the  stock 
if  it  is  to  grow,  or  it  will  have  become  dry  if  it  fails  to  "take." 
At  the  end  of  this  period  (ten  to  fourteen  days  after  budding), 
the  string  is  cut  by  passing  a  sharp  knife  over  it  on  the  side 
opposite  the  bud.  This  is  to  prevent  girdling  the  stock  and 
strangling  the  bud;  but  the  bud  should  remain  dormant 
until  the  next  spring,  at  least  when  the  budding  is  done 
during  the  period  mentioned  above. 

In  some  sections,  particularly  in  the  South  where  the 
growing  season  is  very  long,  "June"  or  "summer"  budding 
is  practiced  to  some  extent.  The  stocks  in  those  regions 
where  the  season  of  growth  begins  early  attain  a  sufficient 
size  to  bud  as  early  as  June.    Well-matured  buds  of  the 


60  Peach-Growing 

current  season's  growth  or  buds  from  the  previous  season 
that  have  been  kept  dormant  by  holding  in  cold  storage 
are  used  when  "June  budding"  is  used.  The  details  of 
the  operation  are  the  same  as  when  done  later,  but  thus 
early  in  the  season  the  buds  should  start  into  growth  at 
once  instead  of  remaining  dormant  until  the  following  spring. 
In  the  far  South,  June  or  summer  budding  can  be  done  until 
about  July  10,  but  later  than  this  the  buds  will  remain  dor- 
mant till  the  next  spring. 

By  autumn  such  early  budded  trees  should  be  large  enough 
to  plant,  though  naturally  not  as  large  as  those  which  have 
an  entire  season  in  which  to  grow.  Thus,  in  June 
budding  a  year  is  gained  in  the  nursery  and  some  growers 
find  such  trees  eminently  satisfactory.  They  should  be 
somewhat  cheaper  in  price,  of  course,  than  the  older  trees. 

The  removal  of  the  top  of  the  seedling  stock,  the  part 
above  the  bud  that  has  been  inserted,  is  a  detail  requiring 
care.  In  the  case  of  trees  budded  at  the  usual  time,  the 
seedling  top  is  cut  off  the  following  spring  about  as  the  bud 
which  is  to  give  rise  to  the  new  top  starts  into  growi:h  —  or 
just  after  it  starts.  The  cut  should  be  made  just  above 
the  bud,  leaving  only  so  much  of  the  wood  above  the  bud 
itself  as  may  be  necessary  to  prevent  drying  out.  If  too 
long  a  stub  is  left,  it  will  not  heal  over  well.  The  point 
of  removal  is  shown  in  "^,"  Fig.  1. 

In  the  case  of  June  budding,  the  seedling  tops  are  removed 
at  the  time  the  string  with  which  the  buds  are  tied  is  cut, 
but  any  leaves  or  small  branches  that  may  develop  from 
points  below  the  bud  are  allowed  to  remain  until  the  bud 
has  made  a  growth  of  3  or  4  inches,  and  then  they  are  re- 
moved. Plate  VII  shows  a  block  of  June  buds  in  a  Florida 
nursery  as  they  appeared  about  the  middle  of  September. 


Propagation  of  Peach  Trees  61 

The  budding  was  done  about  the  middle  of  the  preceding 
June. 

Some  nurserymen  in  removing  the  seedling  stock  above 
the  bud,  make  two  cuttings  —  the  first  some  3  or  4  inches 
above  the  bud  at  the  time  growth  is  starting  in  the  spring ; 
and  the  second,  after  the  bud  has  grown  a  few  inches.  The 
second  cut  removes  the  stub  close  to  the  bud.  Less  danger 
of  the  bud  drying  out  is  claimed  for  this  method.  The  same 
thing  is  accomplished  by  cutting  the  stock  partially  off  and 
lopping  it  over  for  a  time  and  later  removing  it  entirely. 

In  nursery  practice  it  frequently  happens  that  the  stocks 
prior  to  budding  do  not  grow  uniformly  in  size  so  that  it 
becomes  necessary  to  bud  over  a  block  a  second  time  in 
order  to  "work"  the  stocks  that  were  not  large  enough  at 
first.  The  stocks  on  which  the  buds  have  failed  to  take 
are  rebudded  at  the  time  the  strings  are  cut. 

Growing  the  trees  from  the  bud. 

The  growing  of  the  trees  in  the  nursery  is  primarily  a 
matter  of  good  culture.  A  fairly  rapid  growth  is  essential 
to  the  production  of  high-grade  trees.  As  in  the  case  of 
almost  any  crop  where  similar  ends  are  in  view,  the  soil 
must  be  maintained  in  a  fertile  condition,  and  very  frequent 
tillage,  especially  during  the  early  part  of  the  season,  is 
necessary.  If  the  growth  which  the  trees  are  making  justi- 
fies it,  tillage  operations  can  be  reduced  somewhat  toward 
the  close  of  the  season.  The  trees  must  be  so  managed  in 
this  respect  that  they  will  ripen  well  for  fall  digging. 

However,  certain  other  details  are  necessary  in  order  to 
produce  high-grade  trees.  As  the  bud  on  each  stock  starts 
into  growth,  there  develops  from  it  a  single  shoot  which  in 
turn  becomes  the  leader  or  central  axis  of  the  tree.     By  the 


62  Peach-Growing 

time  this  shoot  has  reached  a  height  of  12  to  15  inches,  small 
side  branches  will  begin  to  develop.  From  time  to  time, 
until  the  height  at  which  the  head  is  to  be  formed  is  reached, 
these  side  branches  are  removed,  in  order  to  produce  a  straight, 
smooth  trunk.  These  branches  are  tender  and  are  usually 
pulled  or  snapped  off,  since  the  wounds  made  by  removing 
them  in  this  manner  heal  better  and  more  smoothly  than 
when  they  are  removed  with  a  knife.  Moreover,  in  rapid 
work  with  a  knife  it  would  be  difficult  not  to  leave  many 
short  stubs  that  would  not  heal  well. 

At  the  end  of  one  season's  growth  in  the  nursery,  the 
trees  are  ready  for  planting  permanently  in  the  orchard. 
Those  that  were  budded  early  in  the  summer  and  the  buds 
started  into  growth  at  once  are  usually  referred  to  as  "June 
buds."  Those  that  were  budded  later  and  the  buds  remained 
dormant  until  the  following  spring  are  designated  at  the 
end  of  the  one  season's  growth  in  the  nursery  as  "one-year- 
olds."  These  trees  make  up  the  great  bulk  of  the  peach 
stock  delivered  by  nurserymen  for  both  fall  and  spring 
planting,  though  in  some  sections  "June  buds"  are  con- 
siderably in  favor. 

Dormant  budding. 

A  method  of  dormant  budding  developed  by  Ness  of 
the  Texas  Experiment  Station  and  described  by  Price  ^ 
is  substantially  as  follows :  At  the  point  on  the  stock 
where  the  bud  is  to  be  placed,  a  slip  is  cut  extending 
downward  for  about  an  inch  and  deep  enough  so 
that  a  thin  shaving  of  wood  remains  on  the  "tongue"  or 
flap  of  bark  thus  made.     The  tongue  remains  attached  at 

1  Price,  R.  H.,  "The  Peach,"  Bull.  39,  Tex.  Exp.  Sta.  (July, 
1896),  p.  839. 


Propagation  of  Peach  Trees  63 

the  lower  end  of  the  cut,  but  the  upper  half  or  two-thirds 
is  removed.  The  bud  to  be  inserted  is  cut  in  about  the 
same  manner  as  for  shield-budding  above  described.  In 
putting  the  bud  in  position  on  the  stock,  its  lower  end  is 
placed  under  the  portion  of  the  tongue  that  remains  and 
then  the  bud  is  bound  to  the  stock  by  closely  wrapping  it 
with  raflSa  or  cotton  twine  in  much  the  same  way  that  the 
buds  are  wrapped  in  shield-budding.  In  placing  the  bud, 
however,  much  care  must  be  exercised  to  bring  the  cambium 
layers  of  the  bud  and  stock  into  as  complete  contact  as  is 
possible.  If  they  are  not  in  contact,  no  union  of  bud  and 
stock  can  occur.  In  due  course  the  raffia  or  cord  used  in 
wrapping  the  bud  should  be  removed. 

Though  this  method  was  apparently  devised  by  Ness 
working  independently,  it  was  found  later  to  have  been  used 
in  Europe  in  its  essential  details  at  an  earlier  date.  In 
principle,  it  is  a  niodification  of  patch-budding,  though 
that  method  is  used  generally  when  the  bark  "slips"  readily. 
The  special  advantage  of  this  dormant  method  is  that  it 
admits  of  budding  when  for  any  reason  the  bark  of  the 
stock  is  not  slipping.  Price  speaks  of  budding  peaches  by 
this  method  in  January,  in  which  case  not  only  the  stocks 
but  the  buds  must  have  been  dormant. 


CHAPTER  V 

DETAILS  OF  PLANTING  AN  ORCHARD 

The  essentials  of  a  good  location  and  a  suitable  site  for 
a  peach  orchard  have  been  considered  and  the  propagation 
of  peach  trees  has  been  discussed  in  some  detail.  In  pre- 
ceding chapters  the  relation  of  each  of  these  factors  to  suc- 
cessful peach  production  has  been  presented.  In  establish- 
ing a  peach  enterprise,  the  planting  of  the  orchard  is  logically 
the  next  step.  This  part  in  the  development  of  a  project 
is  fundamentally  a  series  of  details.  The  grower  may  exer- 
cise a  wide  range  of  personal  choice  and  preference  in  work- 
ing them  out,  but  within  that  range  there  are  numerous 
requirements  which  must  be  fully  and  intelligently  regarded ; 
otherwise,  costly  mistakes  which  cannot  be  corrected  later, 
and  which  will  reflect  adversely  throughout  the  life  of  the 
orchard,  are  bound  to  occur. 

TREES   FOR  PLANTING 

Varieties. 

In  the  important  matter  of  securing  trees  for  planting 
an  orchard,  the  choosing  of  varieties  obviously  calls  for 
critical  consideration.  Several  fundamental  factors  enter 
into  the  making  of  a  wise  selection.  They  include:  (1) 
adaptability  to  the  conditions;  (2)  suitability  for  the  mar- 
kets where  the  fruit  is  to  be  sold  or  to  the  purpose  for  which 

64 


Details  of  Planting  an  Orchard  65 

it  is  to  be  used ;  (3)  sequence  of  ripening  of  different  varieties 
either  in  the  same  orchard  or  in  relation  to  fruit  from  other 
regions  with  which  it  may  come  in  competition  in  the  mar- 
kets. Selection  with  reference  to  the  latter  point  is  of  much 
greater  import  than  is  sometimes  realized. 

Amplifying  these  several  factors,  it  is  obvious  that  a  variety 
to  be  profitable  must  be  sufficiently  well  adapted  to  the 
conditions  where  it  is  to  be  grown  to  reach  a  good  degree 
of  perfection  in  development,  otherwise  the  fruit  must 
fail  in  the  markets  where  it  comes  in  competition  with  that 
which  is  better.  In  many  sections  hardiness  of  fruit-buds 
is  a  dominating  consideration  and  in  such  sections  varieties 
should  be  selected  with  that  in  view. 

If  distant  markets  are  to  be  served,  it  is  of  primary  im- 
portance that  a  variety  possess  good  shipping  and  carrying 
qualities.  Some  of  the  leading  commercial  varieties  have 
gained  their  prominence  mostly  on  account  of  these  qualities, 
though  their  attractive  appearance  has  been  a  factor. 

Moreover,  a  variety  to  be  of  value  commercially  must 
be  highly  productive,  but  for  home  use  productiveness  is 
of  minor  importance,  since  the  standard  of  its  value  is  not 
a  money  one.  If  need  be,  quantity  can  be  sacrificed 
for  high  dessert  quality.  There  is  also  choice  in  varieties 
for  dessert  purposes  and  for  canning,  drying,  and  other 
uses. 

When  a  grower  is  heavily  engaged  in  the  peach  business 
and  desires  to  ship  throughout  the  longest  possible  period, 
it  is  important  that  his  varieties  ripen  uniformly  in  contin- 
uous sequence.  Otherwise  he  cannot  use  his  crew  economi- 
cally and  to  the  best  advantage.  Unless  his  varieties  are 
well  chosen,  he  may  have  several  sorts  ripening  together  and 
consequently  with  a  large  quantity  of  fruit  on  some  days 


66  Peach-Growing 

and  none  at  all  on  others.  Or  if  he  has  only  a  few  varieties, 
it  is  important  that  they  ripen  at  a  period  when  the  markets 
are  not  overstocked  with  fruit  from  other  sections  with 
which  he  cannot  successfully  compete.  For  instance,  the 
Greensboro  peach  in  some  parts  of  New  Jersey  ripens  with 
the  Elberta  in  some  of  the  peach  sections  of  Georgia.  They 
commonly  reach  the  same  markets  with  the  competition  in 
favor  of  the  Elbertas.  But  some  of  the  New  Jersey  growers 
may  feel  that  they  can  risk  something  on  the  Greensboro  in 
the  chance  of  the  Georgia  crop  being  injured  by  adverse 
climatic  conditions.  In  the  same  manner  the  Salwey  peach 
was  formerly  an  important  variety  in  certain  sections  in 
California,  but  it  ripens  with  the  Elberta  in  the  Grand  Valley 
in  Colorado.  As  the  two  varieties  commonly  reach  the 
same  markets  with  the  competition  in  favor  of  the  Colorado- 
grown  Elbertas,  the  Salwey  now  rarely  occurs  in  the  younger 
orchards  in  these  California  sections. 

The  behavior  of  a  variety  in  any  location,  that  is,  its 
adaptability  to  the  conditions  where  grown,  is  likewise  a 
very  definite  element  in  the  problem  of  varieties.  Varieties 
respond  differently  to  different  conditions.  Those  poorly 
adapted  to  the  conditions  where  grown  or  to  the  purpose 
for  which  they  are  desired  may,  therefore,  if  planted,  fore- 
shadow the  failure  of  an  orchard.  The  experience  of  other 
growers  in  the  locality,  or  in  regions  where  conditions  are 
similar  to  those  that  may  be  in  question  at  any  time,  is  the 
best  guide  in  this  respect. 

Tree  grades  and  sizes. 

It  is  a  common  opinion  that  nursery  trees  are  good  in 
proportion  as  they  are  big,  but  for  ordinary  purposes  this  is 
a  mistaken  idea.    The  opposite  extreme  is  equally  to  be 


Plate  VII.  —  Top,  a  block  of  "June  budded"  peach  trees  in  a 
Florida  nursery ;  bottom,  an  orchard  site  on  the  slope  of  a  ridge  in  the 
Alleghany  Mountains.     Elevation  about  1500  to  2100  feet. 


Details  of  Planting  an  Orchard  67 

avoided.  As  a  rule,  medium-sized,  thrifty,  well-grown,  well- 
rooted  one-year-old  trees  that  are  free  from  insect  pests 
and  fungous  diseases  should  be  selected.  It  was  stated, 
however,  in  the  chapter  on  propagation  that  "June  buds" 
were  popular  with  some  growers  (page  62).  This  grade 
of  tree  is  not  extensively  planted,  but  it  has  proved 
very  satisfactory  in  some  sections,  more  especially  in  the 
middle  latitudes  and  the  South.  The  trees  are  light  to 
handle;  as  the  nurseryman  gains  a  year's  time  in  the  use 
of  the  land,  he  can  sell  them  for  less  than  yearling  trees; 
and  under  favorable  conditions  but  very  small  loss  occurs 
in  transplanting,  and  they  are  but  little  if  any  behind  one- 
year-old  trees  in  bearing  when  planted  at  the  same  time. 
As  a  rule  June  buds  make  a  late  growth  in  the  nursery; 
therefore,  they  should  not  be  dug  as  early  as  one-year-old 
trees  sometimes  are  handled. 

In  California  "dormant  buds"  are  sometimes  planted. 
They  consist  of  the  dormant  buds  that  were  "worked" 
on  seedling  stocks  the  previous  August  or  September  and 
which,  if  allowed  to  grow  in  the  nursery  another  season, 
would  make  the  ordinary  one-year  tree.  While  these  are 
not  much  used,  they  are  said  to  give  good  results  under  fa- 
vorable conditions,  especially  in  California. 

Further  reference  to  one-year  trees  which  make  up  the 
great  bulk  of  those  that  are  planted  is  needed.  The  dif- 
ferent grades  are  commonly  designated  by  the  height  of 
the  trees,  as  3  to  4  feet,  4  to  5  feet,  5  to  6  feet.  The  size  of 
the  trunk,  or  caliper,  is  sometimes  considered  and  desig- 
nated as  follows  :  f ,  4  to  5  feet ;  f  up,  5  to  7  feet.  Here  the 
fractions  denote  in  parts  of  an  inch  the  diameter  of  the 
trunk  just  above  the  point  of  union  of  stock  and  bud,  and 
the  whole  numbers  indicate  the  height  of  the  trees.     In  the 


68 


Peach-Growing 


last  form,  "f  up"  means  a  tree  having  a  diameter  of  trunk 
of  f  inch  or  more.  Still  another  method  is  when  the  height 
of  the  different  grades  overlaps,  as  4  to  5  feet,  4^  to  6  feet, 
5  to  7  feet,  these  terms  being  equivalent  to  small,  medium, 


Fig.  3. 


Different  grades  of  nursery  stock  :  A,  3  to  4  foot,  B,  4  to 
5  foot,  C,  5  to  7  foot  grades. 


large.  These  grade  designations  are  based  on  caliper  as 
well  as  height,  though  the  caliper  is  not  stated.  Thus,  a 
tree  6  feet  high,  if  it  has  sufficient  caliper,  goes  in  the  5  to 
7  foot  grade ;  otherwise,  it  may  be  put  in  the  4|  to  6  foot  or 
medium  grade. 

The  relative  size  and  height  of  trees  of  different  grades 
are  made  apparent  in  Fig.  3.     The    heaviest    grade   (C) 


Details  of  Planting  an  Orchard  69 

is  composed  of  larger,  more  heavily  branched  trees  than 
the  smaller  ones ;  but  they  are  more  bulky  and  heavier  to 
handle,  and  it  is  a  question  whether  they  will  develop  into 
any  better  trees  ultimately  than  the  medium-sized  grade. 
A  larger  percentage  of  loss  in  transplanting  is  likely  than 
when  the  next  smaller  grade  is  used.  The  smallest  grade 
(A)  is  composed  of  fairly  good  trees,  but  some  of  them  may 
be  lacking  in  vitality  or  have  poor  root  systems.  Sometimes, 
for  the  sake  of  reducing  the  first  cost,  a  grower  buys  even 
smaller  trees  than  the  3  to  4  foot  grade,  but  in  most  cases 
this  proves  to  be  false  economy.  A  few  cents  a  tree  of  addi- 
tional cost  means  comparatively  little  in  the  initial  expense 
of  starting  an  orchard,  but  it  may  mean  a  vast  sum  later 
in  the  life  of  the  orchard  in  the  better  development  of  good, 
vigorous  trees. 

While  it  is  of  importance  that  the  tops  be  symmetrical 
and  free  from  ungainly  branching,  which  cannot  be  corrected 
in  shaping  the  trees  when  planted,  the  condition  of  the 
roots  is  of  even  greater  concern.  They  must  be  abundant ; 
there  should  be  many  fibrous  roots,  but  everything  in  the 
nature  of  "crown-gall"  should  be  avoided.  This  is  a  corky 
or  wart-like  excrescence,  sometimes  of  considerable  size,  that 
forms  on  the  larger  roots  or  on  the  crown  of  the  tree  just  at 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  Wliile  there  is  a  wide  difference 
of  opinion  and  experience  concerning  the  seriousness  of 
this  trouble,  it  is  by  far  the  safer  plan  to  discard  trees  so 
affected  ;  the  roots  in  any  event  are  abnormal,  and  if  planted 
there  is  always  the  possibility  that  the  trouble  will  develop 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  affect  seriously  the  vigor  and  dura- 
bility of  the  tree.  All  trees  showing  crown-gall  or  abnormal 
growths  of  any  kind  should  be  rejected.  The  risk  is  too 
great  to  justify  one  in  doing  otherwise. 


70  Peach-Growing 

Before  planting  an  orchard,  every  prospective  peach- 
grower  who  has  important  interests  at  stake  should  form  an 
accurate  conception  of  what  constitutes  good  nursery  trees 
in  every  respect.  He  should  thoroughly  familiarize  himself 
with  the  appearance  of  the  insects  and  diseases  that  are 
recognized  as  likely  to  be  disseminated  on  nursery  stock, 
and  he  should  give  particular  attention  to  the  character  of 
the  roots  and  their  freedom  from  diseases  and  insects.  Pow- 
dery mildew,  bud  mite,  peach  stop-back,  and  black  peach 
aphis  are  the  more  common  parasitic  troubles  in  the  nursery. 
These  are  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  insect  and  disease 
control. 

Where  to  obtain  trees. 

It  is  often  a  problem  with  prospective  peach-planters 
whether  to  secure  their  trees  from  the  North,  from  the  South, 
or  whether  their  having  been  grown  in  some  particular 
section  of  the  country  is  of  material  advantage  in  the  future 
value  of  the  orchard.  A  good  well-grown  tree  typical  of 
the  variety,  and  which  is  free  from  insects,  diseases,  and 
other  defects,  is  such  regardless  of  the  place  or  section  where 
grown.  The  growing  of  trees  having  these  qualities  depends 
on  favorable  conditions  and  proper  management  in  the 
nursery.  These  factors  are  not  peculiar  to  any  particular 
section  or  sections. 

The  inherent  qualities  of  a  variety  do  not  change  when 
the  trees  are  grown  in  different  regions.  If  the  variety  is 
hardy,  it  will  continue  to  be  so ;  if  it  is  susceptible  to  some 
disease,  it  is  not  made  less  so  by  growing  the  tree  during  its 
nursery  period  in  some  particular  place  or  region. 

Economy  in  transportation  expenses  suggests  the  wis- 
dom of  purchasing  trees  as  near  the  place  where  they  are  to 


Details  of  Planting  an  Orchard  71 

be  planted  as  is  practicable.  Moreover,  trees  shipped  long 
distances  sometimes  suffer  injury  if  they  are  not  properly 
packed  or  if  they  pass  through  severe  extremes  of  tempera- 
ture while  in  transit.  And,  other  things  being  equal,  the 
nearer  the  nursery  is  to  the  site  where  the  trees  are  to  be 
planted  the  shorter  the  period  of  time  during  which  they 
are  out  of  the  ground.  While  this  is  not  a  matter  of  serious 
import,  it  is  sometimes  well  worth  consideration.  On  the 
other  hand,  differences  in  the  price  of  trees  of  the  same 
grade  offered  by  various  nurserymen,  the  desire  to  secure 
trees  of  some  special  varieties,  or  some  other  reason  may 
make  it  preferable  to  ignore  the  relative  proximity  of  nurs- 
ery and  orchard  site  and  to  be  governed  by  other  factors 
in  placing  the  order  for  trees. 

Furthermore,  it  is  always  a  good  plan  to  deal  direct  with 
the  nurseryman  rather  than  with  the  traveling  tree  peddler. 
It  is  never  certain  where  or  how  the  jobber  obtains  his  stock. 
It  is,  therefore,  better  business  to  deal  with  a  permanently 
established  nursery,  the  success  of  which  is  dependent  on 
the  character  of  service  it  renders  its  patrons.  The  jobber 
or  the  peddler  as  a  rule  has  no  fixed  place  of  business  beyond 
the  season's  activities.  He  can  move  to  new  territory  with- 
out loss  of  assets. 

TIME   OF  PLANTING 

There  is  a  wide  range  in  the  time  when  peach  trees  may 
be  planted  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  the  range  de- 
pending mostly  on  climatic  conditions.  No  arbitrary  direc- 
tions as  to  the  time  can  be  given.  In  general,  it  may  be 
stated  that  in  the  northern  latitudes,  or  wherever  the  winters 
are  severe,  either  from  low  temperatures,  the  prevalence 
of  much  drying  wind,  or  the  habitual  occurrence  of  other 


72  Peach-Gromng 

atmospheric  conditions  that  induce  high  evaporation,  plant- 
ing in  the  spring  as  early  as  the  soil  can  be  put  in  suitable 
condition  and  after  the  danger  of  hard  freezes  is  past  is  to 
be  advised.  But  in  the  middle  and  southern  latitudes  and 
in  regions  generally  where  the  winters  are  mild  and  where 
the  fall  season  is  favorable  for  working  the  soil  until  late, 
the  planting  of  trees  at  that  season  of  the  year  is  generally 
successful  and  by  many  is  preferred  to  spring  planting. 

The  planting  should  be  delayed  until  thoroughly  well 
and  naturally  ripened  trees  can  be  obtained,  but  before  the 
advent  of  really  cold  weather.  In  some  of  the  milder  parts 
of  the  country,  where  the  soil  seldom  freezes  deep  and 
rarely  remains  frozen  for  more  than  a  few  days  at  a  time, 
peach  trees  are  commonly  planted  at  almost  any  time  dur- 
ing the  winter,  excepting  possibly  for  a  few  weeks  during 
the  coldest  weather,  when  conditions  are  unfavorable  for 
working  the  soil. 

Kyle  ^  states  that  in  Texas  peach  trees  may  be  planted 
from  the  first  of  November  until  the  middle  of  March,  with 
a  preference  for  the  month  of  December  because  of  the  soil 
and  climatic  conditions  that  usually  obtain  then. 

Some  peach-growing  regions  are  virtually  on  the  "border 
line"  between  fall  and  spring  planting.  Whitten,  who  has 
perhaps  given  this  matter  more  experimental  attention  than 
other  investigators  in  this  country,  finds  that  in  central 
Missouri  peach  trees  planted  in  the  fall  have  made  a  better 
growth  the  next  season  when  the  planting  has  been  followed 
by  a  favorable  winter,  but  if  followed  by  a  severe  winter, 
the  trees  have  dried  out  and  winter-killed  to  some  extent. 
In  southern  Missouri,  on  the  other  hand,  fall  planting  has 
proven  regularly  to  be  preferable. 

1  Tex.  Exp.  Sta.  BuU.  80,  p.  10. 


Details  of  Planting  an  Orchard  73 

In  Whitten's  work,  late  fall  planting,  that  is,  during  early 
December,  has  been  much  more  satisfactory  than  earlier, 
October  15  to  November  15.  This  appears  to  be  because  the 
roots,  contrary  to  common  belief,  begin  no  action  until 
after  the  surface  of  the  ground  starts  to  freeze;  and  when 
the  trees  are  planted  a  month  or  six  weeks  before  it  gets 
cold  enough  to  freeze  the  soil,  the  trees  dry  out  and  lose 
vitality.  The  late  fall-planted  trees  start  root  action  as 
soon  as  those  planted  early,  and  they  escape  the  period  of 
several  weeks  of  desiccation  suffered  by  the  latter.  It 
appears  even  that  trees  transplanted  late  may  endure  a 
severe  winter  better  than  when  left  in  the  nursery.  It  has 
been  suggested  that  the  slight  desiccation  of  the  top  which 
doubtless  occurs,  even  when  planted  late,  may  give,  indi- 
rectly, a  greater  cold  resistance  to  the  tree. 

In  the  milder  sections,  where  the  ground  does  not  freeze 
to  the  depth  occupied  by  the  roots,  more  or  less  root  develop- 
ment occurs  all  winter  on  newly  planted  trees.  Thus,  when 
growing  conditions  return  in  the  spring,  the  trees  are  in  good 
condition  for  immediate  starting  into  growth  with  the  roots 
fully  supporting  it. 

In  case  of  spring-planted  trees,  the  leaf-buds  sometimes 
begin  to  push  before  there  is  enough  root  action  to  support  the 
growth,  thus  resulting  in  a  slow  development  of  new  wood 
growth  for  a  time.  Yet  in  the  colder  sections  of  the  coun- 
try, spring  planting  only  is  possible  as  the  trees  if  planted 
in  the  fall  would  winter-kill. 

Blake  ^  advises  that  fall-planted  trees  be  cut  back  quite 
heavily  but  not  within  three  inches  or  more  of  the  points 
to  which  they  will  need  ultimately  to  be  cut  back  the  follow- 
ing spring.  In  the  latitude  of  New  Jersey  both  fall  and 
1  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.  BuU.  219,  p.  13. 


"74  Peach-Growing 

spring  planting  are  practiced,  but  fall  planting  can  be  de- 
pended on  only  in  well-protected  locations  and  in  the  milder 
part  of  the  state.  Fall-planted  trees  sometimes  suffer  when 
on  exposed  sites  by  being  whipped  about  by  the  winds. 
The  motion  of  the  trees  in  the  wind  loosens  the  soil  from 
about  the  trunk,  thus  allowing  water  to  collect  in  some 
quantity,  which  if  it  freezes  may  cause  injury  to  the  tree. 

On  the  Pacific  coast,  where  the  annual  climatic  cycles 
divide  the  year  into  alternating  "rainy"  and  "dry"  seasons, 
the  planting  needs  to  be  done  with  some  reference  thereto. 
The  condition  of  the  soil  and  the  complete  dormancy  of  the 
trees  are  the  primary  factors  to  be  considered.  Because 
of  the  tendency  for  trees  to  grow  very  late  in  the  season  in 
California  nurseries,  fall  planting  is  not  desirable.  In  many 
parts  of  California,  after  the  first  rains  have  moistened  the 
soil  well,  usually  early  in  January,  the  planting  may  be  done 
to  advantage,  though  some  soils  may  be  too  cold  and  uncon- 
genial at  that  time  to  make  it  advisable.  Planting  is  usually 
deferred  in  such  cases  until  early  spring,  though  there  is 
then  some  danger  of  the  trees  starting  into  growth  before 
the  soil  reaches  a  suitable  condition  to  be  properly  handled, 
especially  since  the  period  is  short  in  that  state  when  peach 
trees  are  thoroughly  dormant. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  time  of  planting  is  a  matter 
that  calls  for  discretion.  It  is  another  illustration  of  the 
intimate  relationship  between  climatic  conditions  and  plant 
life.  The  principles,  however,  on  which  the  decision  should 
be  based  are  fairly  well  defined. 

HANDLING  THE  TREES  WHEN  RECEIVED  FROM  THE  NURSERY 

When  received  from  the  nursery,  the  trees  are  usually 
packed  in  boxes  if  the  order  is  large,  or  in  bales  or  bundles 


Details  of  Planting  an  Orchard 


75 


if  only  a  few  trees  are  to  be  planted.  Whatever  the  manner 
of  packing,  the  trees  should  be  unpacked  at  once  on  delivery 
at  destination  and  so  handled  that  there  will  be  the  least 
possible  drying  out  of  the  roots.  If  the  order  consists  of 
only  a  few  trees  and  they  are  to  be  planted  immediately, 
a  little  moist  soil,  wet  straw,  or  even  moistened  burlap  or 
gunny  sack  can  be  thrown  over  the 
roots  and  adequate  protection  thus 
provided.  But  if  there  is  any  con- 
siderable number  of  trees,  or  if  there  is 
to  be  any  delay  in  setting  them  out,  they 
can  be  protected  best  by  heeling  them 
in.     The  manner  in  which  this  is  done 


Fig.  4.  —  Peach  trees  heeled  in. 

is  suggested  in  Fig.  4.  A  thoroughly  well-drained  place 
is  required  where  the  soil  is  deep  and  preferably  a  sandy 
loam,  though  any  type  that  can  be  easily  worked  and 
finely  pulverized  will  do.  If  the  site  is  protected  from 
prevailing  winds  or  is  a  shaded  area,  it  is  all  the  better  for 
the  purpose. 

A  trench  is  opened,  commonly,  with  a  plow,  the  latter 
being  run,  if  need  be,  several  times  in  the  same  furrow. 


76  Peach-Growing 

The  furrow  or  trench  should  be  wide  and  deep  enough  to 
receive  the  roots  readily.  The  roots  of  the  trees  are  placed 
in  the  trench  with  the  trunks  extending  at  right  angles  to 
it  and  across  the  sloping  or  "land"  side  of  the  trench.  If 
the  trees  are  tied  in  bundles,  as  is  often  the  case,  they  should 
be  separated,  at  least  the  lower  portions  of  the  bundles  should 
be  released,  so  that  the  roots  can  be  parted  sufficiently  to 
permit  working  finely  pulverized  soil  very  thoroughly  in 
among  them.  Otherwise,  air  spaces  will  exist  and  the  roots 
are  likely  to  dry  out  to  a  serious  extent. 

If  a  large  number  of  trees  are  to  be  heeled  in  at  the  same 
place,  it  will  usually  be  convenient  to  place  them  in  closely 
adjacent  rows.  When  this  is  done,  the  trees  in  one  row,  for 
convenience,  may  be  covered  with  the  soil  which  is  removed 
in  opening  the  next  adjacent  trench. 

Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  leave  trees  heeled  in  over 
winter.  It  is  then  well  to  place  them  in  a  nearly  horizontal 
position,  so  that  the  entire  portion  of  the  trunks  and  even 
some  of  the  larger  branches  can  be  readily  covered  with  soil 
for  the  purpose  of  protection.  Such  protection  is  of  par- 
ticular importance  in  the  colder  peach-growing  districts. 
The  soil  should  be  made  rather  firm  about  the  trunks  and 
roots,  so  that  harbors  for  mice  will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum, 
as  well  as  to  give  the  best  possible  protection  to  the  roots. 
In  completing  the  heeling  in,  soil  to  a  depth  of  several  inches 
should  be  heaped  over  the  roots. 

Perhaps  the  one  exception  to  the  rule  for  the  immediate 
unpacking  of  trees  on  arrival  at  their  destination  is  when 
the  shipment  has  been  made  during  a  period  of  low  tempera- 
tures and  the  trees  have  been  frozen  in  transit.  The  better 
course  to  follow  in  such  a  case  is  to  place  the  box  or  bale 
without  unpacking  in  a  cellar  where  there  is  no  direct  sun- 


Details  of  Planting  an  Orchard  77 

light,  and  the  temperature  is  but  very  slightly  above  freez- 
ing. Under  such  surroundings  the  trees  will  thaw  very 
gradually  in  a  uniform  temperature  and  with  less  danger 
of  serious  injury  as  a  result  of  the  freezing  than  if  handled 
in  any  other  way  that  can  be  suggested.  Under  some  condi- 
tions, as  where  no  cellar  having  a  suitable  temperature  is 
available,  the  trees  may  be  buried  for  a  time  before  they 
are  unpacked.  In  either  case  they  ought  to  be  unpacked 
and  properly  handled  as  soon  as  they  have  thawed. 

If  trees  are  received  in  a  badly  dried  out  condition  so  that 
the  bark  is  somewhat  shrunken  and  shriveled,  they  can  be 
saved  sometimes  by  burying  them  at  once  in  moist  soil 
and  allowing  them  to  remain  some  days,  or  until  the  bark 
has  regained  its  normal  condition  and  appearance.  Sub- 
merging them  in  water,  especially  running  water,  for  a  brief 
period  is  sometimes  recommended  for  a  similar  purpose. 
However,  every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  guard  against 
adverse  temperatures  or  the  drying  of  the  trees  in  transit. 
The  methods  of  treatment  suggested  for  such  cases  are 
only  "last  resort  methods."  which  may  prevent  entire  loss 
of  trees  so  injured. 

PREPARING  THE  LAND  FOR  THE  TREES 

The  ideal  preparation  of  the  soil  where  peach  trees  are 
to  be  planted  consists  of  deep  plowing  and  thorough  pul- 
verizing with  the  harrow  or  cultivator.  The  preparation 
should  be  hardly  less  thorough  than  for  planting  corn, 
potatoes,  or  root-crops.  It  is  also  of  the  highest  importance 
that  the  soil  be  rich  in  humus.  For  this  reason  it  is  likely 
to  be  an  advantage  if  the  site  to  be  planted  has  recently 
been  occupied  by  clover,  cowpeas,  or  some  other  green-manure 


78  Peach-Grovring 

crop  which  has  been  turned  under.  For  a  similar  reason, 
in  part  at  least,  newly  cleared  land,  which  in  some  sections 
is  used  for  peach  orchards,  gives  excellent  results.  It  has 
not  been  depleted  of  its  supply  of  humus. 

Because  the  trees  occupy  but  a  very  small  portion  of  the 
ground  space,  when  first  planted,  there  is  always  a  tempta- 
tion to  set  the  trees  with  a  minimum  of  preparation  of  the 
soil,  but  it  is  doubtful  economy  to  slight  this  operation.  On 
the  other  hand,  some  degrees  of  compromise  may  be  resorted 
to  in  this  matter  of  the  preparation  of  the  soil  and  still  not 
defeat  the  end  in  view.  For  example,  the  removal  of  stumps 
from  newly  cleared  land  is  generally  costly,  except  as  it 
can  be  done  with  the  regular  force  employed  in  the  orchard 
and  at  times  when  other  routine  operations  do  not  require 
attention.  Wliere  such  land  is  to  be  devoted  to  peaches, 
it  is  practicable  to  remove  the  stumps  from  a  narrow  strip 
along  the  line  of  each  row  of  trees.  This  course  admits 
of  a  good  preparation  of  the  soil  in  the  strips  before  the  trees 
are  planted  and  thorough  tillage  throughout  the  following 
season.  Each  season  thereafter,  the  strip  freed  from  stumps 
should  be  widened  with  a  view  to  extending  the  cultivation 
accordingly.  By  the  time  the  trees  come  into  bearing, 
the  stumps  should  be  fairly  well  cleared  from  the  entire 
area. 

A  thorough  preparation  of  the  soil  before  planting  will 
tend  not  only  to  make  conditions  favorable  subsequently 
for  a  good  growth  of  tree,  but  the  operation  of  planting  will 
be  materially  aided  thereby.  The  holes  can  be  dug  better, 
and  the  refilling,  after  the  trees  have  been  put  in  position, 
can  be  done  to  better  advantage  when  the  soil  has  been 
thoroughly  and  deeply  pulverized  than  when  less  attention 
has  been  given  to  its  preparation.     For  a  similar  reason 


Details  of  Planting  an  Orchard  79 

it  is  obvious  that  newly  broken  sod  land  cannot  be  as  readily 
fitted  for  the  planting  of  trees  as  land  that  has  been  plowed 
a  sufficient  length  of  time  for  the  sod  to  become  well  rotted. 


LAYING   OFF  THE   LAND 

The  trees  should  always  be  planted  in  straight  rows  or 
in  some  other  definite  and  systematic  order.  This  not 
only  makes  a  nicer  looking  orchard,  and  is  worth  while  for 
this  reason  alone,  but  any  considerable  irregularity  in  the 
placing  of  the  trees  will  cause  inconvenience  and  annoyance 
in  caring  for  them. 

Laying  off  the  land  consists  in  determining  on  and  mark- 
ing the  exact  spot  where  each  tree  should  stand.  There 
are  various  systems  of  arranging  the  trees  in  the  orchard : 
the  "square"  in  which  the  trees  are  so  placed  that  any  four 
opposing  trees  in  adjacent  rows  indicate  the  corners  of  a 
square;  the  "alternate,"  where  the  distances  between  the 
rows  and  the  trees  in  the  row  are  the  same,  but  the  trees 
alternate  instead  of  checking  in  squares,  each  tree  in  the 
row  standing  opposite  the  center  of  the  space  between  two 
trees  in  adjacent  rows;  the  "triangular,"  or  "hexagonal" 
system,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  where  the  trees  are  arranged 
as  in  the  alternate  system  but  each  tree  is  equidistant  from 
every  other  tree.  In  this  system  the  rows  are  not  quite 
as  far  apart  as  are  the  trees  in  the  row,  and  thus  the  sides 
of  a  triangle  indicated  by  a  tree  and  the  two  nearest  it  in 
an  adjacent  row  are  equal.  The  term  "hexagonal  system" 
is  applied  because  a  line  joining  any  six  trees  surrounding 
a  seventh  as  a  center  forms  a  hexagon.  By  this  system  a 
somewhat  larger  number  of  trees  can  be  planted  on  a  given 
area  of  land  than  by  any  of  the  others  and  without  placing 


80  Peach-Growing 

them  any  nearer  together  than  the  distance  between  the 
trees  in  the  row. 

Of  these  systems,  however,  the  first  one,  planting  in  squares, 
is  used  so  largely  in  setting  peach  orchards  that  the  others 
require  no  consideration  in  detail  here. 

Distance  between  trees. 

Obviously  in  laying  off  the  land  by  any  system,  the  first 
decision  must  be  in  regard  to  spacing  the  trees.  Common 
distances  are  18  by  18  feet,  18  by  20  feet,  or  20  by  20  feet, 
requiring  respectively  134,  121,  and  108  trees  to  the  acre. 
Closer  planting  is  sometimes  practiced,  but  it  is  rarely  ad- 
visable, while  under  some  conditions  24  by  24  feet  probably 
does  not  allow  the  trees  more  space  than  they  need.  The 
latter  distances  are  perhaps  used  in  California  more  often 
than  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  Authorities  in  that  state 
advise  never  to  plant  closer  than  24  feet  apart  each  way 
unless  on  sandy  soil.  Moreover,  the  topography  of  the  land, 
the  fertility  of  the  soil,  the  varietal  characteristics  of  the  trees, 
and  the  preferences  and  convictions  of  individual  growers,  are 
all  factors  to  be  considered. 

When  the  site  is  a  steep  even  slope,  such  as  is  shown  in 
Plates  III  and  VII,  the  trees  may  stand  a  little  closer  together 
in  the  rows  running  up  and  down  the  slope  than  in  those  par- 
allel with  the  slope,  since  in  the  former  direction  each  tree 
is  somewhat  elevated  above  its  neighbor  below  and  not  as 
much  shaded  as  if  standing  on  the  same  level. 

The  reason  for  allowing  liberal  distances  between  trees 
is  suggested  in  Plate  IX.  This  shows  a  peach  tree  when  about 
five  years  old.  Its  branches  spread  18  feet;  its  roots  ex- 
tended at  least  36  feet.  They  were  traced  19  feet  on  one 
side  and  17  on  the  opposite  side.     The  branches  of  trees 


Details  of  Planting  an  Orchard  81 

this  size  would  have  nearly  interlocked  between  the  rows 
if  planted  20  by  20  feet.  And  more  than  this,  the  roots 
of  adjacent  trees  would  have  overlapped  and  competed  for 
moisture  and  plant-food,  long  before  the  branches  of  oppos- 
ing trees  would  have  interfered  with  one  another.  In  other 
words,  the  roots  of  opposite  trees  are  likely  to  crowd  much 
earlier  in  the  life  of  an  orchard  than  are  the  branches  of  the 
same  trees,  when  planted  at  the  usual  distances. 

The  distances  between  the  trees  decided  on,  any  one  of 
several  methods  of  determining  the  proper  spot  at  which 
to  plant  each  tree  may  be  used.  Doubtless  the  simplest 
and  most  accurate  way  is  by  the  use  of  a  surveyor's  compass 
and  chain.  A  crew  of  four  men  can  do  the  work  expedi- 
tiously and  well,  one  to  sight  the  compass  and  align  the 
placing  of  a  stake  for  each  tree,  two  to  handle  the  chain  and 
another  to  carry  and  drive  the  stakes  at  the  proper  points 
as  designated  by  the  head  chainman  and  in  correct  align- 
ment as  indicated  by  the  man  at  the  compass. 

In  the  absence  of  a  compass,  if  the  land  is  fairly  level, 
a  simple  home-made  device  can  be  used.  This  consists 
merely  of  two  narrow  strips  of  board  18  to  24  inches  long 
which  are  placed  crosswise  to  each  other  at  the  center  and 
secured.  A  small  nail  is  then  driven  through  each  of  the 
four  ends  of  the  cross  thus  made,  care  being  taken  so  to 
place  the  last  nail  that  in  sighting  over  the  nail  points  length- 
wise the  lines  of  vision  will  be  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 
This  cross  is  then  attached  in  a  horizontal  position,  nail 
points  uppermost,  to  the  end  of  a  small  stake  of  such  length 
that  when  stuck  in  the  ground  firmly  enough  to  retain  its 
position  the  cross  or  "head"  will  be  at  a  height  convenient 
to  sight  over.  This  device  is  used  in  the  same  way  that  a 
compass  is  used,  the  nail  points  serving  as  the  crosshairs 
o 


82  Peach-Grmving 

in  the  compass,  and  the  two  arms  of  the  "head"  taking  the 
place  of  the  90°  turn  of  the  compass.  While  the  distance 
which  can  be  sighted  with  this  arrangement  may  be  limited, 
it  can  be  moved  from  place  to  place,  and  readjusted  quickly. 

However,  the  more  common  w^ay  of  laying  out  a  field 
on  the  square  system  is  as  follows  :  A  base  line  is  run  on  one 
side  of  the  field.  This  may  well  be  the  line  of  the  first  row 
of  trees  on  that  side.  A  stake  several  feet  in  length  is  driven 
into  the  ground  at  each  end  of  the  line.  About  midway 
between  them  a  third  stake  is  placed  in  line  by  sighting  over 
the  two  end  stakes.  If  the  row  is  very  long  or  the  land  un- 
even, it  may  be  advisable  to  place  several  stakes  at  inter- 
vals between  the  two  end  ones.  Then  in  line  with  this  row 
of  stakes  the  distances  between  the  trees  are  measured  off 
and  a  small  stake  driven  down  to  mark  the  spot  where  each 
tree  is  to  stand.  Four  men  working  together  can  do  this 
part  of  the  work  advantageously.  Two  members  of  this 
crew  carry  the  measuring  rod,  chain,  or  tape  on  which  is 
marked  the  distance  between  trees ;  a  third  aligns  the  chain- 
men  by  sighting  over  the  tall  stakes  previously  set,  while 
the  fourth  carries  the  supply  of  small  stakes  and  drives  them 
into  the  ground  at  the  proper  places  as  indicated  by  the  head 
chainman. 

Then,  in  turn,  border  rows  are  staked  out  in  the  same 
manner,  running  at  right  angles  to  the  base  row  first  located, 
and  finally  a  fourth  row  parallel  to  the  first  one  and  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  field  is  staked  out.  If  the  field  is  irregu- 
lar in  shape,  a  square  or  rectangular  block  is  staked  out  in 
the  manner  described  and  the  irregular  corners  and  sections 
filled  in  later. 

If  the  field  is  very  large,  it  may  be  best  to  stake  in  several 
cross  rows,  with  the  tall  stakes  as  described  in  locating  the 


Details  of  Planting  an  Orchard  83 

base  line  in  the  beginning.  By  following  this  course,  there 
are  provided  at  least  two  stakes  (and  more  if  the  cross  rows 
have  been  filled  out)  over  which  one  may  sight  in  aligning 
the  trees  when  they  are  being  planted.  The  spot  where 
each  tree  in  each  row  is  to  be  placed  may  be  marked  in  the 
same  way  as  described  for  the  basal  row. 

A  less  accurate  way  of  laying  off  land  for  an  orchard,  but 
not  infrequently  used,  is  to  strike  small  furrows  with  a  light 
plow  along  the  line  of  the  rows,  the  plowman  being  guided 
as  accurately  as  possible  by  conspicuous  stakes  placed  at 
intervals  along  the  course  of  the  rows  as  previously  described, 
and  then  checking  in  the  opposite  direction  at  the  proper 
distances  in  a  similar  manner,  or  perhaps  by  a  man  dragging 
a  heavy  chain,  the  points  of  intersection  of  the  furrows  or 
other  marking  being  the  approximate  spots  where  trees 
should  be  placed. 

While  there  are  various  other  ways  in  which  an  area  may 
be  laid  out  for  planting  to  trees,  and  perhaps  under  some 
topographic  conditions  others  would  prove  preferable,  the 
methods  described  may  be  suggestive. 

Where  the  topography  is  very  steep  and  broken,  especially 
if  there  is  danger  of  the  soil  washing,  it  is  advisable  to  run 
the  rows  with  the  contours  rather  than  to  plant  in  squares. 
When  this  is  done  it  is  impossible  to  follow  any  regularity 
in  placing  the  trees.  With  the  rows  following  the  contours, 
it  is  obvious  that  the  distance  between  them  will  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  irregularities  of  the  surface.  While  it  is  pos- 
sible to  place  the  trees  at  a  specified  distance  apart  in  the 
rows,  a  compromise  may  be  necessary  in  locating  the  rows 
between  conformity  with  the  contours  and  such  a  departure 
therefrom  as  can  be  made  and  yet  afford  protection  against 
washing  in  the  management  of  the  orchard. 


84  Peach-Growing 

MAKING  THE  HOLES  FOR  THE  TREES 

Making  the  holes  where  the  trees  are  to  stand  is  a  simple 
matter,  if  the  land  has  been  well  prepared,  but  it  is  never- 
theless an  important  one.  They  should  be  large  enough 
to  receive  the  roots  without  bending  them  from  their  normal 
position  and  deep  enough  so  that  when  filled  the  trees  will 
stand  two  or  three  inches  deeper  than  they  stood  originally 
in  the  nursery  row.  This  deeper  planting  has  no  adverse 
results  unless  the  soil  is  very  heavy,  when  about  the  same 
depth  as  in  the  nursery  row  may  be  advisable.  Fairly  deep 
planting  insures,  in  a  measure  at  least,  against  the  roots 
becoming  exposed  through  the  washing  of  the  soil  from  the 
trees  or  its  being  worked  away  in  the  subsequent  tillage  of 
the  orchard.  Trees  that  are  planted  too  shallow  do  not 
thrive  as  a  rule. 

The  inexperienced  planter  frequently  raises  a  question 
about  the  advisability  of  making  the  holes  considerably 
larger  than  the  roots  and  filling  in  with  rich  soil.  While 
there  can  be  no  objection  to  doing  this,  it  adds  materially 
to  the  expense  of  planting  the  trees,  and  there  is  probably 
little  to  be  gained  by  it  if  the  soil  is  in  suitable  condition  and 
the  subsoil  is  well  adapted  to  the  object  in  view. 

The  making  of  the  holes  is  generally  accomplished  in  one 
or  the  other  of  two  ways.  After  the  site  has  been  laid  out 
as  described,  men  with  shovels  or  spades,  and  picks  if  need 
be,  dig  holes,  or  deep  furrows  are  opened  by  running  a  plow 
two  or  more  times  along  the  line  of  each  row,  thus  throwing 
out  the  soil  and  leaving  but  little  more  to  be  done  with  a 
spade  at  the  points  where  the  trees  are  to  be  placed.  By 
the  former  method,  if  the  ground  is  in  good  condition  for 
planting,  a  man  should  dig  at  least  100  holes  in  a  ten-hour 
day.     Not   infrequently   a   considerably  larger  number  is 


Details  of  Planting  an  Orchard  85 

dug.  When  the  latter  method  is  followed,  it  assumes  that 
the  rows  and  the  trees  in  the  rows  will  be  located  mostly 
by  sighting  over  relatively  tall  stakes  properly  placed  at 
the  ends  of  the  rows,  checking  in  both  directions. 

On  account  of  the  holes  or  furrows  drying  out  badly,  it 
is  probably  better  not  to  make  them  too  far  in  advance  of 
the  planting. 

The  use  of  dynamite  in  preparing  the  holes  where  fruit- 
trees  are  to  be  planted  has  been  much  advocated  in  recent 
years.  Some  of  those  who  have  had  dynamite  to  sell  have 
been  particularly  enthusiastic  in  claiming  advantages  for 
it.  This  method,  in  brief,  consists  in  exploding  from  a  half 
stick  to  a  stick  of  low  grade  dynamite,  a  25  to  40  per  cent 
grade,  at  the  point  where  each  hole  is  to  be  made,  the  hole 
for  the  explosive  being  made  with  a  crowbar  or  some  other 
similar  implement,  usually  about  30  inches  deep  and  large 
enough  to  admit  readily  a  stick  of  dynamite  of  the  usual 
size.  The  explosion  is  effected  by  use  of  a  percussion  cap 
and  fuse  as  when  employed  for  other  purposes.  The  ad- 
vantages commonly  claimed  for  this  method  are  that  the 
subsoil  is  shattered,  thus  making  it  easy  for  the  roots  to  pene- 
trate it  as  they  grow;  it  is  pulverized,  thus  increasing  the 
area  in  which  the  roots  may  forage ;  it  increases  the  water- 
holding  capacity  of  the  soil ;  it  assists  in  soil  drainage  and 
gives  benefits  in  other  ways,  —  all  of  these  factors  resulting 
in  a  smaller  loss  of  trees  through  failure  to  grow ;  larger 
growth,  earlier  fruiting,  and  still  other  advantages.  Also, 
it  so  loosens  the  soil  as  to  render  it  possible  to  dig  the  holes 
for  the  trees  with  a  spade  alone,  no  pick  or  other  implement 
for  lightening  the  soil  being  necessary,  and  thus  materially 
lessening  the  labor  and  expense  of  excavating  where  the  trees 
are  to  stand. 


S6  I*  each-Growing 

These  claims  in  part  may  or  may  not  be  realized.  Much 
depends  on  the  character  of  the  soil  and  subsoil  and  their 
condition.  The  condition  of  the  subsoil  at  the  time  the 
blasting  is  done  is  of  particular  importance.  The  great 
danger  of  this  method  is  that  the  claims  made  for  it  will 
be  accepted  without  the  necessary  qualifications  that  should 
accompany  them,  and  dynamite  used  without  due  discrim- 
ination and  in  anticipation  of  its  being  effective  in  making 
any  sort  of  an  impossible  soil  condition  fully  suitable  for 
peaches  or  other  fruits.  It  may  be  questioned  consistently 
whether  a  soil  that  is  inherently  unsuited  for  peaches  can  be 
adequately  and  permanently  improved  by  its  use,  or  whether 
one  that  is  well  suited  for  peaches  will  be  materially  benefited 
by  it.  Yet  in  some  cases  there  has  been  some  benefit  in  the 
growth  of  the  trees  during  the  first  year  or  two  which  is  un- 
mistakably traceable  to  the  effect  of  the  dynamite  used  in 
preparing  the  holes.  It  is  true  also  that  the  fitness  or  unfit- 
ness of  soils  for  the  growing  of  peaches  is  relative.  All  de- 
grees towards  either  extreme  may  exist,  at  least  in  the  abstract. 

Perhaps  the  one  condition  that  is  unmistakably  amenable 
to  a  beneficial  effect  of  blasting  with  dynamite  is  where  there 
is  a  stratum  of  hardpan  a  few  inches  below  the  surface  and 
below  which  the  subsoil  is  satisfactory  and  the  conditions 
otherwise  favorable.  The  hardpan  stratum  can  usually  be 
broken  up  with  dynamite  and  the  conditions  thus  materially 
and  perhaps  permanently  improved.  On  the  other  hand, 
positive  injury  may  and  usually  does  follow  if  the  subsoil  is 
too  moist  when  the  explosive  is  used  and  especially  when  it 
contains  considerable  clay.  Instead  of  shattering  and  pul- 
verizing the  soil  the  explosion  creates  a  chamber,  thereby 
greatly  compacting  the  soil  within  the  radius  of  its  effect, 
thus  making  conditions  worse  than  in  the  beginning. 


Details  of  Planting  an  Orchard  87 

The  advice  commonly  is  to  do  the  blasting  some  months  in 
advance  of  the  planting  so  as  to  allow  time  for  the  soil  to 
settle.  This  may  correct  some  of  the  troubles  otherwise  en- 
countered, but  the  question  that  inevitably  presents  itself  is 
whether  it  is  worth  while  in  the  long  run  to  invite  trouble  in 
this  way.  Whether  the  use  of  dynamite  is  advantageous  or 
otherwise  is  fundamentally  a  question  of  soil  conditions,  and 
where  used  it  must  be  done  with  keen  discrimination  if  dis- 
appointing results  are  to  be  avoided. 

In  the  practical  application  of  this  method  of  preparing  the 
holes,  results  vary  greatly.  There  are  those  who  are  con- 
vinced by  their  experience  in  using  it  on  a  large  scale  that 
it  is  a  highly  desirable  practice.  Others  have  gained  nothing 
from  it.  One  extensive  grower  says,  "  We  have  used  dyna- 
mite but  do  not  as  yet  see  sufficient  difference  in  the  trees 
to  warrant  the  additional  cost."  Another  grower,  six  years 
after  using  dynamite  in  part  of  a  planting  of  20,000  peach 
trees,  affirms  that :  "  The  cost  of  dynamiting  was  three  times 
that  of  digging,  and  no  difference  in  grow^th  of  trees  planted 
by  the  two  methods  developed.  This  experience  coupled 
with  observation  elsewhere  leads  me  to  believe  that  on  good 
peach  soil  no  advantage  will  result  from  dynamiting  the 
holes." 

The  results,  in  general,  obtained  by  the  New  Jersey  Ex- 
periment Station  in  a  series  of  experiments  under  different 
soil  conditions  in  several  places  in  the  state  have  been  con- 
flicting. In  one  case  the  blasting  has  been  without  ap- 
preciable effect ;  in  another,  the  results  have  been  profitable 
without  question ;  while  with  many  trees  differences  in  growth 
in  favor  of  dynamiting  during  the  first  two  years  after  plant- 
ing are  equalized  by  the  time  the  trees  are  five  or  six  years 
old.     In  some  cases  the  trees  planted  in  dynamited  holes 


88  Peach-Growing 

have  at  first  developed  larger  and  deeper  root  systems  than 
those  planted  in  the  usual  way,  but  this  appears  to  be  without 
important  significance  in  soils  that  are  suitable  for  peach- 
growing.  The  situation  is  summed  up  briefly  in  the  state- 
ment that :  "  There  are  soil  conditions  where  dynamiting  is 
beneficial  for  tree  planting.  There  are  other  conditions  where 
no  distinctly  beneficial  results  would  be  obtained." 

In  view  of  the  conflicting  results  which  are  based  on  wide 
experience  in  preparing  the  holes  with  dynamite,  the  ques- 
tion of  whether  to  use  it  or  not  is  still  an  open  one  and  must 
be  settled  evidently  on  the  basis  of  the  conditions  in  each 
case.  The  problem  has  been  stated  and  some  of  the  factors 
that  bear  on  it  have  been  mentioned.  The  prospective 
planter  must  know  his  soil  if  he  is  to  handle  it  to  the  best 
advantage  possible. 

PLANTING  THE  TREES 

The  grower  has  prepared  his  soil,  laid  out  the  site  for  plant- 
ing, and  has  made  the  holes  for  planting  the  trees  or  is  prepared 
to  do  so  as  the  work  of  planting  progresses. 

The  details  that  have  to  do  with  putting  the  trees  in 
position  in  the  places  marked  for  them  in  laying  out  the  site 
are  numerous  and  require  careful  attention  but  in  execution 
may  be  widely  varied.  The  following  presentation  of  de- 
tails should  be  considered  as  suggestive  only  and  to  be  varied 
in  practice  as  the  individual  planter's  condition  and  prefer- 
ences dictate. 

As  stated  in  another  place,  one-year-old  peach  trees,  that 
is,  those  that  have  made  one  season's  growth  from  the  bud  in 
the  nursery,  are  generally  used  in  planting  peach  orchards. 

In  digging  trees  from  the  nursery  a  considerable  part  of  the 
root  system,  especially  many  of  the  fine  fibrous  roots,  ig 


Details  of  Planting  an  Orchard 


89 


habitually  left  in  the  ground,  and  the  larger  roots  that  remain 
attached  to  the  tree  are  apt  to  be  more  or  less  broken  and 
perhaps  bruised  to  some  extent.  In  preparing  a  tree  for 
planting,  all  portions  of  the  roots  which  have  been  mutilated 
in  digging  the  trees  or  injured  by  any  other  means  should  be 
trimmed  off,  and  long  slender 
roots,  if  they  occur,  are  usually 
cut  off  to  correspond  with 
the  length  of  the  general  root 
system. 

Unless  the  trees  are  of  the 
larger  grades,  all  the  branches 
are  commonly  removed,  leaving 
only  a  single,  unbranched  stem. 
This  stem  should  be  headed  back 
to  correspond  with  the  height  at 
which  it  is  desired  to  form  the 
head  of  the  tree. 

However,  when  the  larger 
grades  are  planted,  those  which 
are  6  feet  or  more  in  height, 
and  correspondingly  large  in 
caliper,  it  is  usually  safer  not 
to  trim  to  a  single  unbranched 
stem.  There  might,  then,  not  remain  enough  buds  which 
would  give  rise  to  branches  properly  placed  to  make  a  good 
symmetrical  head.  It  is,  therefore,  wise  to  select  from  three 
to  five  branches  as  well  distributed  about  the  main  stem  as 
possible,  from  which  to  develop  the  head.  The  limbs  thus 
selected  for  the  foundation  of  the  top  should  be  headed  back 
to  short  stubs,  but  on  each  there  must  be  left  at  least  one 
well-developed  bud  to  insure  a  starting  point  for  the  growth 


Fig.  5.  —  The  top  of  a  well- 
grown  one-year  peach  tree  as  it 
came  from  the  nursery. 


90 


Peach-Growing 


of  the  branch.  With  small  and  medium-sized  grades,  there 
is  little  danger  that  an  abundant  growth  of  desirable  character 
will  not  develop  from  the  main  stem;  yet  there  is  an  in- 
creasing tendency  with  some  growers  to  cut  the  branches 
back  to  stubs  instead  of  trimming  the  tree  to  a  single  stem 

when  using  even  some  of  the  smaller 
sizes. 

The  pruning  of  large  grade  trees 
when  planting  them  is  illustrated  in 
Figs.  5  to  8.  Figure  5  shows  the  top 
of  a  tree  as  it  came  from  the  nurs- 
ery. The  same  tree  with  certain 
branches  selected  as  the  foundation 
of  the  permanent  top  and  the  dis- 
carded part  removed  is  to  be  seen  in 
Fig.  6.  The  next  step  with  the 
framework  branches  cut  back  to 
stubs  appears  in  Fig.  7,  while  Fig.  8 
is  the  same  as  the  one  preceding 
viewed  from  a  point  directly  above 
it.  The  symmetrical  arrangement 
of  the  limbs  selected  to  form  the 
permanent  top  is  here  seen. 
In  this  case  five  branches  have  been  reserved  as  the  founda- 
tion of  the  new  top.  Some  growers  of  wide  experience  affirm 
that  three  branches  are  sufficient  and  that  a  top  formed  of  a 
larger  number  of  main  framework  limbs  requires  more  prun- 
ing, that  it  is  more  difficult  and  expensive  to  keep  the  top 
well  opened  to  sunlight  and  air,  and  for  which  there  are  no 
adequate  compensating  features. 

The  top  in  Fig.  8  could  have  been  reduced  to  three  frame 
branches  by  removing  completely  stubs  two  and  four,  or  such 


Fig.  6.  —  The  tree  shown 
in  Fig.  5  after  the  branches 
which  are  to  form  the  perma- 
nent top  have  been  selected 
and  the  others  cut  away. 


Details  of  Planting  an  Orchard  91 

other  two  as  would  result  in  a  symmetrical  spacing  of  the 
limbs.  A  space  of  several  inches  between  the  stubs, 
vertically  up  and  down  the  stem,  is  desirable, 
since  a  stronger  tree  will  result  than  when  the 
framework  branches  all  start  from  the  trunk  at 
about  the  same  height. 

In  planting  the  larger  grades  of  trees,  the 
tops  obviously  must  be  formed  at  a  height 
determined  by  the  position  of  branches  suitable 
for  the  framework,  but  the  common  extremes 
for  heading  peach  trees  as  preferred  by  most 
growers  range  from  12  to  18  inches  up  to  24  or 
30  inches.  Some,  however,  have  favored  forming 
the  heads  within  6  inches  of  the  ground,  thinking  Fig.  7.  — 
thereby  to  bring  the  bearing  surface  correspond-  pjj^  e^^  with 
ingly  near  the  ground.  But  there  are  disad-  the  branches 
vantages  in  forming  the  heads  too  low,  of  which  g^^^^g  ^°  ° 
perhaps  the  most  serious  is  in  digging  out  borers. 

The  effect  of  pruning  peach  trees  at  different  heights  when 
planted  has  been  investigated  by  Blake.^  His 
final  summary  of  results  affirms  that  "Peach 
trees  at  the  time  of  planting  should  be  pruned 
somewhat  according  to  grade  and  the  character 
of  the  stock,  and  not  according  to  some  definite 
Fig  8. —  A    height   regardless   of  all   other  factors."     He 

view      looking     n    j       i  •  p-ii  i      •        i 

directly  down-    fands  there  IS  a  rairly  close  correlation  between 
ward   on    the    the  size  of  the  trees  and  the  number  of  buds 

top  of  the  tree       , 

in  Fig.  7.  that  occur  on  the  mam  stem  at  different  heights 

and  that  a  tree  will  start  into  growth  better  and 

will  develop  a  better  formed  head  the  first  season,  if  the  main 

stem  is  well  supplied  with  buds  just  below  the  point  at  which 

1  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  293. 


92  Peach-Growing 

it  is  cut  back.  The  obvious  suggestion  is  that  in  planting 
peach  trees  the  grower  should  treat  each  tree  with  some  re- 
gard to  its  individual  qualities  and  characteristics  rather  than 
by  any  arbitrary  rule. 

Sometimes  after  the  roots  are  trimmed  and  before  the  trees 
are  planted,  there  is  danger  of  their  becoming  too  dry,  es- 
pecially the  smaller  roots.  This  danger  can  be  largely  elimi- 
nated by  puddling  them.  This  consists  in  dipping  the  roots 
in  a  puddle  of  clay  which  should  be  of  such  consistency  that 
a  thin  layer  of  mud  will  adhere  to  them.  Such  a  coating 
of  mud  will  afford  considerable  protection  against  undue 
drying  out  from  unavoidable  exposure  to  the  sun  and  wind. 
Every  possible  precaution,  however,  should  be  taken  to  pre- 
vent exposure.  Sometimes  a  large  piece  of  burlap,  kept  well 
moistened,  is  convenient  to  throw  over  the  roots  of  trees  that 
are  awaiting  planting. 

However,  in  large  scale  operations  it  is  a  good  practice  to 
haul  the  trees  to  the  site  where  the  planting  is  to  be  done  with 
the  roots  packed  in  moist  straw  in  the  body  of  a  wagon,  and 
then  to  distribute  them  not  much  faster  than  they  are  planted. 

The  manner  of  staking  out  a  site  for  making  the  holes  has 
been  discussed  in  a  previous  section.  The  tall  guide  stakes 
there  described  should  remain  in  position  until  the  trees  are 
planted.  The  present  course  of  procedure  presupposes  that 
the  holes  for  the  trees  have  already  been  dug. 

In  planting  the  trees,  four  men  make  a  good  crew.  One 
goes  ahead,  distributes  the  trees  and  prunes  them  ready  for 
planting.  (The  pruning  of  the  tops  can  be  deferred  till  later 
if  need  be.)  Another  man  places  the  tree  in  the  hole,  aligns 
it  in  one  direction  by  sighting  over  the  guide  stakes,  or  over 
trees  already  planted,  after  the  work  has  made  some  progress. 
One  of  the  other  men  aligns  the  tree  in  a  similar  manner  by 


Details  of  Planting  an  Orchard  .       93 

sighting  in  the  opposite  direction,  then  the  latter  and  the 
fourth  man  fill  the  hole  with  finely  pulverized  soil,  while  the 
one  who  is  handling  the  tree  works  the  soil  in  among  the 
roots  very  completely  and  packs  it  down  firmly.  When  the 
hole  is  filled  even  full,  the  tree,  as  previously  pointed  out, 
usually  should  stand  a  few  inches  deeper  than  it  stood  in  the 
nursery. 

Special  precautions  should  be  taken  in  planting  trees  to 
insure  the  close  packing  of  the  soil  about  the  roots.  Nothing 
is  so  good  as  the  fingers  with  which  to  work  the  soil  in  among 
them,  though  very  slightly  moving  the  tree  up  and  down  after 
a  few  shovelfuls  of  soil  have  been  placed  in  the  hole  will  help. 
Usually  tamping  the  soil  with  the  feet  from  time  to  time  will 
effect  such  firming  of  it  as  is  necessary. 

A  crew  of  four  men  working  as  above  outlined  should  plant 
at  least  500  trees  in  a  day  of  ten  hours.  Under  very  favorable 
conditions,  a  particularly  efficient  crew  may  plant  two  or  even 
three  times  that  number.  However,  when  these  larger 
numbers  are  planted,  the  holes  may  not  be  filled  completely 
at  the  time,  since  if  enough  soil  is  put  in  place  to  cover  the 
roots  well,  the  filling  can  be  completed  later  and  if  need  be  by 
less  experienced  men.  Finishing  the  work  should  not  be  too 
long  delayed,  especially  if  conditions  are  such  that  the  soil 
is  losing  moisture  rapidly.  Otherwise  the  roots  may  become 
dry. 

While  the  methods  described  above  for  preparing  peach 
trees  for  planting  and  the  details  mentioned  are  those 
commonly  followed,  other  practices  are  employed  more  or 
less.  One  of  the  widest  departures  from  common  practice 
is  the  " Stringf ellow  method"  of  root  pruning  in  planting, 
so  called  from  the  name  of  its  discoverer  and  chief  advocate, 
the  late  H.  M.  Stringfellow  of  Texas.     The  distinguishing 


94  Peach-Growing 

feature  of  the  method  consists  in  pruning  off  all  the  roots, 
leaving  only  the  merest  stubs  an  inch,  or  even  less  in  length. 
The  top  of  the  tree  is  also  cut  to  a  single  stem  12  to  18  inches 
high.  The  most  important  claims  for  this  system  were  ease 
of  planting,  vigor  and  strength  of  growth,  longer  life,  a  more 
downward  course  for  the  roots,  and,  because  of  the  latter,  the 
roots  less  subject  to  the  varying  influences  of  heat,  cold,  and 
drought. 

In  the  early  nineties,  while  this  method  was  being  some- 
what strenuously  exploited,  a  number  of  experiment  stations 
as  well  as  commercial  peach-growers  made  some  compre- 
hensive tests  of  it,  in  some  instances  planting  a  series  of  trees 
with  the  roots  pruned  different  lengths  ranging  from  the 
usual  practice  to  the  opposite  extreme  of  the  Stringfellow 
method.  In  the  main,  the  results  were  adverse  for  this 
method,  only  the  first  claim  being  realized.  Since  the  roots 
were  all  pruned  off  to  the  nearest  stubs,  the  holes  were  made 
with  a  crowbar,  and  obviously  with  very  small  cost.  Many 
of  the  trees  so  planted  failed  to  grow;  others  grew,  but  not 
as  well  as  those  planted  in  the  usual  way.  As  a  rule,  the 
method  gave  better  results  in  the  South  than  in  the  North. 
In  some  sections  in  the  South  it  has  been  used  successfully 
to  some  extent  on  a  commercial  scale.  The  results  are 
summed  up  thus:  "Reviewing  all  the  data  available,  it 
would  seem  that  in  certain  localities,  particularl}'  in  warm, 
moist,  loamy  soils,  the  stub-root  method  of  pruning  back  the 
trees  may  give  entirely  satisfactory  results,  but  station  evi- 
dence is  generally  in  favor  of  less  severe  pruning.  It  has 
been  clearly  shown,  however,  that  leaving  on  all  the  long 
roots  of  peach  nursery  stock  is  unnecessary  and  useless."^ 

1  Smith,  C.  B.,  "Experiment  Work  with  Peaches,"  in  Ann.  Rept. 
Office  of  Exp.  Stations,  year  ending  June  30,  1906,  pp.  416-419. 


Details  of  Planting  an  Orchard  95 

While  in  the  experimental  work  many  of  the  trees  with  stub- 
pruned  roots  made  good  trees,  one  station  in  the  South  re- 
porting that  neither  increase  nor  decrease  of  vigor  could  be 
detected  as  a  result  of  the  practice,  the  weight  of  evidence  is 
in  favor  of  leaving  the  roots  at  least  3  inches  long  and  from 
that  up  to  6  or  8  inches,  unless  previous  experience  in  a  given 
locality  and  under  known  conditions  has  produced  evidence 
that  the  close  stub-pruning  is  satisfactory. 

Another  departure  from  the  usual  course  is  in  the  planting 
of  "dormant  buds."  This  method  is  sometimes  used  in  Cali- 
fornia; rarely,  if  ever,  elsewhere  in  this  country.  The 
details  of  handling  dormant  buds  as  described  by  P.  W. 
Butler  of  Placer  County,  California,  and  quoted  by  Wickson  ^ 
are  as  follows  :  "  Have  the  ground  prepared  and  stakes  placed 
in  position  in  the  orchard  in  early  February,  if  possible,  and 
begin  the  planting  at  once,  while  the  trees  are  dormant  in  the 
bud.  Take  no  more  trees  from  the  nursery  than  can  be 
planted  in  half  a  day.  Plow  a  furrow  on  each  side  of  the 
row,  6  inches  from  the  trees,  turning  the  soil  from  them,  then 
two  men  with  heavy  spades  or  shovels,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  tree,  can  readily  take  it  up  without  breaking  many  of  the 
roots ;  and  what  are  so  broken  should  be  smoothly  trimmed 
with  a  sharp  knife.  Place  the  trees  in  a  tub  of  water,  near 
where  they  are  to  be  planted,  and  take  them  from  it  only  a 
few  at  a  time.  Put  them  in  a  basket  or  box  and  cover  with 
wet  sack,  that  they  may  be  kept  moist  until  placed  in  the 
ground. 

"  On  planting,  place  the  bud  1  inch  below  the  level  of  the 
ground  but  do  not  cover  it  until  after  it  has  grown  to  the 
height  of  a  few  inches.  The  stock  should  be  cut  off  at  the 
bud  with  a  thin,  sharp  knife  (not  with  shears,  as  is  often  done, 

» Wickson,  E.  J.,  " CaUfornia  Fruits."     (Seventh ed.,  1914),  p.  239. 


96  Peach-Growing 

as  the  latter  method  will  sometimes  split  the  tree,  when  it  will 
take  in  moisture,  and  not  heal  readily)." 

Wickson,  in  the  same  connection,  states  that  some  growers 
do  not  cut  off  the  stock  until  the  bud  has  made  some  growth, 
the  stock  being  girdled  above  the  bud  to  force  the  growth  of 
the  latter.  This  gives  the  tender  shoot  as  it  puts  forth  from 
the  bud  protection  to  some  extent.  The  growing  shoot  may 
even  be  tied  to  the  stock  for  a  time  but  the  cutting  off  of  the 
stock  should  not  be  delayed  too  long  else  the  wound  made 
thereby  will  not  heal  over  entirely  during  the  first  season. 
While  dormant  buds  handled  in  this  way  require  considerable 
care,  according  to  Wickson  they  sometimes  outgrow  one- 
year-old  trees  planted  at  the  same  time. 


CHAPTER  VI 
ORCHARD  MANAGEMENT 

The  usual  operations  that  have  to  do  with  the  main- 
tenance of  peach  orchards  include  tillage,  the  interplanting 
of  crops,  fertilizing,  pruning,  insect  and  disease  control, 
and  in  some  regions  irrigation.  But  little  differentiated 
from  these  operations  are  such  more  or  less  specialized  fea- 
tures of  management  as  thinning  the  fruit,  winter  protec- 
tion, heating  or  smudging  to  prevent  injury  from  frosts 
during  the  blossoming  period  or  from  other  untimely  tem- 
perature conditions,  and  other  operations  as  occasion  may 
require. 

While  each  of  these  major  operations  requires  rather  full 
discussion  in  separate  chapters,  their  inter-relationships 
are  so  important  and  far  reaching  that  brief  reference  to 
them  from  that  standpoint  should  be  made  in  the  present 
connection. 

To  a  very  considerable  extent  regularity  of  bearing, 
productiveness,  and  longevity  of  the  trees  are  a  reJSection 
of  good  management,  especially  with  respect  to  tillage, 
fertility  maintenance,  pruning,  and  insect  and  disease  con- 
trol. The  response  made  by  the  trees  is  nearly  proportionate, 
at  least  within  certain  limits,  to  the  care  which  they  receive, 
the  better  the  care  and  the  wiser  the  management,  the  more 
regularly  productive  during  the  longest  period  of  time  and 
therefore  the  more  profitable. 

H  97 


98  Peach-Growing 

PERIOD   OF  PROFITABLE   PRODUCTIVITY 

Aside  from  the  influence  of  good  management  on  the  period 
of  productivity,  there  are  apparently  regional  influences 
that  are  more  or  less  potent.  Under  favorable  conditions, 
an  orchard  may  produce  considerable  fruit  in  almost  any 
region  in  its  third  year,  but  on  the  other  hand  the  fourth 
season  after  planting  is  as  early  as  most  growers  expect  a 
crop  of  commercial  importance.  If  the  trees  fruit  earlier, 
the  grower  is  merely  that  much  ahead.  But  in  the  duration 
of  the  trees  there  is  a  rather  wide  range.  As  above  noted, 
good  care  counts  for  much,  since  depletion  from  the  lack  of 
tillage,  neglect  of  pruning,  impoverished  soil,  and  the  en- 
croachment of  insects  and  disease  tend  to  shorten  materially 
the  productive  life  of  peach  trees.  In  general,  even  under 
good  care,  an  orchard  that  has  been  planted  twenty  years 
is  regarded  as  old.  Few  orchards  in  fact  attain  that  age  before 
many  of  the  trees  are  badly  broken  to  pieces  or  otherwise 
rendered  of  no  account,  and  in  some  sections  they  are  rarely 
regarded  as  profitable  after  they  reach  the  age  of  twelve  to 
fifteen  years,  the  age  being  reckoned  always  from  the  time 
the  trees  are  planted.  The  stimulation  of  new  wood  growth 
by  tillage,  fertilizing,  and  proper  pruning,  however,  may  add 
a  considerable  number  of  years  to  what  would  otherwise 
be  the  end  of  the  profitable  duration  of  an  orchard. 

Under  the  latter  conditions  and  in  some  regions,  an  orchard 
occasionally  reaches  the  age  of  twenty-five  years  in  a  fairly 
profitable  state.  An  extreme  case  of  this  sort  occurred  some 
years  ago  in  one  of  the  older  peach-growing  regions  of  the 
country  where  an  orchard  which  was  then  more  than  twenty- 
five  years  old  was  not  only  in  fairly  good  condition,  but  it 
was  the  third  peach  orchard  which  had  occupied  the  same 


Orchard  Management  99 

piece  of  land  without  the  intervention  of  other  crops  of  im- 
portance. Usually  on  account  of  the  condition  of  the  soil, 
it  is  not  regarded  as  good  practice  to  replant  an  orchard 
site  with  trees  until  after  some  time  has  elapsed  and  the 
condition  of  the  soil  has  been  improved.  Even  the  making 
of  replants  after  an  orchard  has  reached  bearing  age  is  usually 
a  doubtful  practice,  though  because  of  the  unfavorable 
competition  of  the  young  trees  with  the  older  ones,  rather 
than  because  of  soil  depletion. 

An  extreme  case  of  old  age  in  a  peach  tree  is  indicated 
in  Plate  X,  which  shows  an  Oldmixon  Free  tree  in  Caroline 
County,  Maryland,  which  was  fifty-four  years  old  when  the 
picture  was  taken.  The  tree  lived  for  several  years  after 
that  time. 

The  effect  of  actively  stimulating  vegetative  growth  either 
by  tillage  or  the  use  of  nitrogenous  fertilizers,  or  both  com- 
bined, may  result  in  a  material  delay  in  the  ripening  of  the 
fruit.  So  well  is  this  recognized  by  some  growers,  that  they 
definitely  aim  to  extend  considerably  their  "peach  season" 
by  these  means  even  when  only  a  single  variety  is  planted. 

MAINTAINING  THE   FERTILITY  OF  THE   SOIL 

Fundamentally,  the  methods  of  maintaining  or  increasing 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  in  a  peach  orchard  are  the  same  as 
those  used  in  the  culture  of  other  fruits  or  general  farm  crops, 
except,  of  course,  that  so  far  as  the  latter  are  concerned  there 
is  an  opportunity  for  crop  rotations  that  are  not  possible 
in  an  orchard. 

It  is  always  far  better  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
at  a  high  standard  than  to  permit  it  to  become  depleted  to 
such  an  extent  that  restoration  is  necessary.     Good  tillage 


100  Peach-Growing 

and  the  maintenance  of  an  ample  supply  of  humus  or  decay- 
ing vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  will  do  much  to  keep  it  in 
a  sufficiently  productive  condition  for  peach-growing.  The 
application  of  manures  or  fertilizers,  however,  is  not  infre- 
quently necessary  for  the  best  and  the  most  profitable  re- 
sults. In  fact,  peach  trees  doubtless  fail  of  the  expectations 
entertained  for  them  much  more  often  from  a  lack  of  suflB- 
cient  available  plant-food  in  the  soil  than  is  commonly 
supposed.  While  a  soil  that  is  so  fertile  as  to  induce  an  ex- 
tremely vigorous  growth  and  rank  foliage  is  not  desirable, 
the  opinion  commonly  expressed  that  almost  any  soil, 
however  poor  in  fertility,  is  good  enough  for  peaches  is  not 
supported  by  the  best  experience. 

Tillage,  cover-crops,  and  the  use  of  manures  and  fer- 
tilizers comprise  the  peach-grower's  agencies  for  maintaining 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  in  his  orchard. 

Other  inter-relationships  of  the  major  operations  in 
orchard  management  exist,  but  they  may  be  passed  over  at 
this  time. 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE   TILLAGE  OF  PEACH  ORCHARDS 

Tillage  refers  to  the  work  done  with  the  plow,  harrow, 
cultivator,  or  such  other  implement  as  may  be  used  in  work- 
ing the  soil  after  the  trees  are  planted.  The  word  "cultiva- 
tion" is  commonly  used  in  the  same  sense,  but  as  it  is  also 
given  a  broader  meaning  in  some  cases,  the  term  "tillage" 
is  the  more  specific  one  in  the  present  connection.  The 
effects  of  tillage  have  been  comprehensively  summarized 
by  Bailey  ^  as  follows  : 

(1)  Tillage  improves  the  physical  condition  or  structure  of 
the  land,  (a)  by  fining  or  comminuting  the  soil,  and  thereby 
presenting  greater  feeding  surface  to  the  roots ;  (b)  by  increas- 
ing the  depth  of  the  soil  and  thereby  giving  a  greater  foraging 
and  roothold  area  to  the  plant ;  (c)  by  warming  and  drying  the 
soil  in  spring ;  (d)  by  reducing  extremes  of  temperature  and 
moisture;  (e)  by  supplying  air  to  the  roots  (and  thus,  among 
other  things,  promoting  biological  activities  that  enhance  soil 
fertility). 

(2)  Tillage  may  save  moisture,  (/)  by  increasing  the  water- 
holding  capacity  of  the  soil ;    (g)  by  checking  evaporation. 

(3)  Tillage  may  augment  chemical  activities,  (h)  by  aiding  in 
setting  free  plant-food;    (i)  by  promoting  nitrification;    (j)  by 

1  "Principles  of  Fruit-Growing,"  20th  Ed.,  1915. 
101 


102  Peach-Growing 

hastening  the  decomposition  of  organic  matter ;    {k)  by  extend- 
ing these  agencies  {h,  i,  j)  to  greater  depths  of  the  soil. 

(4)  Tillage  indirectly  protects  the  plantation,  (/)  by  destroy- 
ing weeds ;  {m)  by  destroying  insects  and  breaking  up  their 
breeding  places ;  (??)  by  tending  to  reduce  plant  diseases,  in 
the  removal  of  host  plants,  burying  of  affected  leaves  and  fruits, 
and  the  like ;  (o)  by  aiding  in  the  keeping  down  of  mice,  rabbits, 
and  other  pests. 

It  follows  as  a  natural  sequence  that  if  there  is  sufficient 
and  suitable  tillage  to  maintain  the  soil  in  the  best  physical 
condition  and  to  conserve  the  soil-moisture  well,  the  other 
objects  named  in  this  summary  will  probably  also  be  realized. 
An  orchard  should  be  tilled,  if  at  all,  for  the  sake  of  the  trees 
and  their  product,  not  for  the  sake  of  the  tilling.  If  the  soil 
conditions  which  are  subject  to  influence  by  tillage  exist 
in  a  particular  orchard  without  it  to  an  extent  adequate  for 
the  needs  of  the  trees  and  the  production  of  good  crops, 
then  perhaps  nothing  is  to  be  gained  by  tillage  in  that  or- 
chard so  long  as  the  results  obtained  are  satisfactory  and 
the  trees  remain  in  a  vigorous,  thrifty  condition. 

Too  much  emphasis  can  hardly  be  placed  here  on  the  im- 
portance of  conserving  soil-moisture,  especially  during  the 
period  of  most  active  growi;h  of  the  trees  and  the  develop- 
ment of  the  fruit.  The  quantity  of  moisture  required  by 
the  tree  during  this  period  is  almost  beyond  belief.  It 
should  be  remembered  also  that  all  mineral  plant-foods  are 
taken  up  by  the  tree  in  solution,  being  dissolved  in  the  soil- 
moisture.  An  insufficient  supply  of  moisture  in  the  soil 
may  mean,  therefore,  that  the  tree  is  not  being  supplied  with 
adequate  plant-food  materials,  or  that  it  is  getting  them  in 
a  solution  that  is  too  concentrated,  as  well  as  the  more  evident 
effects  that  may  be  manifest  in  the  wilting  of  the  foliage  in 


The  Tillage  of  Peach  Orchards  103 

extreme  cases  due  to  larger  quantities  of  moisture  being 
transpired  through  the  leaves  than  is  replaced  by  absorp- 
tion through  the  roots. 

The  continuous  clean  tillage  of  apple  orchards  is  a  mooted 
point  with  many  growers.  The  exponent  of  each  of  the 
different  methods  of  maintenance,  which  include  clean 
tillage,  tillage  and  cover-crops,  sod  mulch,  and  the  like, 
becomes  skillful  in  adducing  evidence,  which  to  him  is  con- 
vincing, in  support  of  his  favorite  system.  The  fact  is  not 
as  well  recognized  as  it  ought  to  be  that  each  system  where 
effectively  maintained  in  an  orchard  is  an  expression  of  the 
operation  of  fundamental  principles.  If  clean  tillage  is 
the  best  system  under  certain  conditions  and  the  sod-mulch 
system  proves  best  under  other  conditions,  the  important 
thing  is  to  determine  what  the  relation  of  the  different  con- 
ditions is  to  the  results  obtained. 

A  correlation  of  cause  and  effect,  in  other  words  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  principles  that  govern  or  determine  the 
results,  is  not  always  easy,  nor  is  it  always  possible  with  the 
present  knowledge  of  what  actually  constitutes  fertility  in 
soils.  The  fact  is  more  or  less  frequently  observed,  however, 
that  clean  tillage  or  tillage  and  cover-crops  give  entirely 
satisfactory  results  in  some  orchards  where  under  a  sod- 
mulch  system  the  trees  show  evident  signs  of  distress ;  and 
that  in  other  cases  the  sod-mulch  method  of  maintenance 
may  give  unmistakable  evidence  of  superiority  as  compared 
with  clean  tillage  or  tillage  with  cover-crops. 

The  present  conception  of  what  constitutes  fertility  can- 
not be  expressed  in  simple  terms  of  available  plant-food.  It 
was  a  great  advance  when  the  soil  physicist  comprehended 
the  importance  of  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  in  ad- 
dition to  the  presence  of  certain  chemical  constituents.     The 


104  Peach-Growing 

conception  that  the  chemical  activities  necessary  to  fertility 
could  not  proceed  except  when  the  soil  was  well  filled  with 
humus  or  decaying  vegetable  matter  was  reflected  in  many 
ways  in  the  improvement  of  agricultural  conditions  generally. 
The  organic  chemist  has  made  it  clear  that  the  by-products  of 
the  growth  of  roots  in  the  soil,  in  some  cases  at  least,  become 
poisonous  or  toxic  to  the  plants  themselves  after  a  time,  and 
the  bacteriologist  has  developed  the  thesis  that  a  fertile 
soil,  in  addition  to  being  a  laboratory  where  essential  and 
intricate  chemical  activities  are  constantly  going  on,  is  also 
a  medium  in  which  bacterial  life  is  active  almost  beyond 
man's  comprehension.  This,  then,  is  the  present  idea  of 
soil  fertility  —  a  combination  of  moisture  (as  affected  by 
the  physical  condition  of  the  soil),  humus  supply,  chemical 
activities,  bacterial  and  other  biological  activities,  organic 
compounds  (which  may  act  adversely),  and  the  presence  of 
the  essential  plant-food  elements. 

It  is  obvious  at  once  that  there  must  be  an  interminable 
correlation  between  these  various  factors,  and  that  they  may 
react  differently  under  varying  conditions. 

The  real  problem  in  tillage  is  so  to  control  or  manage  the 
soil  as  to  bring  about  such  activity  of  all  the  biological  and 
chemical  forces  that  are  related  to  soil  fertility  as  will  result 
at  all  times  in  their  complete  correlation  in  terms  of  the 
plant-food  requirements  of  the  trees.  It  is  obvious  that  the 
problem  is  much  involved  and  the  means  of  control  are 
often  obscure,  but  experience  has  taught  much  with  regard 
to  practical  methods  of  tillage. 

With  particular  reference  to  peach  orchards,  there  is 
comparatively  little  difference  of  opinion  among  experienced 
growers  in  regard  to  tillage.  AVhile  an  occasional  instance 
of  a  peach  orchard  which  has  been  successful  for  a  long  time 


The  Tillage  of  Peach  Orchards  105 

without  tillage  may  be  cited,  the  conviction  of  the  best 
growers  in  practically  all  peach-producing  sections  is  that 
thorough  tillage  is  essential  to  the  continued  successful 
maintenance  of  an  orchard,  and  that  any  other  method,  if 
long  continued,  is  inevitably  at  the  expense  of  the  trees. 

"Thorough  tillage"  does  not  mean  the  same  to  every 
grower.  To  one  it  may  consist  of  plowing  the  orchard  in 
the  spring  and  harrowing  it  once  or  twice  later  in  the  season ; 
to  another,  who  has  a  very  high  estimate  of  tillage  as  a  means 
of  preventing  the  evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  soil, 
it  may  mean  going  over  the  orchard  with  some  tillage  im- 
plement twice  a  week  or  twenty  to  twenty-five  times  during 
the  growing  season. 

No  arbitrary  rules  for  tilling  an  orchard  can  be  given. 
But  if  a  grower  keeps  in  mind  the  objects  of  tillage  and 
understands  the  principles  involved,  there  should  be  little 
difficulty  in  deciding  on  a  rational  plan  of  procedure. 

Generally  speaking,  a  peach  orchard  should  be  tilled 
throughout  its  entire  life,  beginning  with  the  first  season 
after  the  trees  are  planted.  If,  for  the  sake  of  economy  or 
for  other  reasons,  it  is  impracticable  to  work  the  entire 
area  between  the  trees,  it  is  usually  feasible  to  confine  the 
tillage  for  the  first  year  or  two  to  a  relatively  narrow  strip 
along  each  row.  But  the  width  of  the  tilled  strip  should  be 
extended  each  season,  and  by  the  third  year  the  entire  sur- 
face should  receive  attention.  By  that  time  in  the  life  of 
a  peach  tree  the  roots  are  extending  beyond  the  spread  of 
the  branches ;  and  the  entire  space  between  the  rows,  where 
the  trees  have  been  planted  the  usual  distances  apart,  is 
rapidly  becoming  filled  with  small  rootlets  and  root-hairs 
through  which  moisture  and  plant-food  in  solution  are 
taken  up.     The  root  development  of  peach  trees,  indicating 


106  Peach-Growing 

the  position  of  the  roots  with  regard  to  tillage,  and  the  ap- 
plication of  fertilizers  are  suggested  in  Plate  IX. 

Under  what  may  be  termed  normal  or  standard  conditions 
in  most  peach-growing  districts  the  advice  applies  generally 
to  begin  the  tillage  in  the  spring  as  soon  as  the  soil  is  in  suit- 
able condition  to  work.  But  in  the  case  of  bearing  orchards, 
some  of  the  wisest  and  most  experienced  growers  prefer  to 
wait  until  after  the  fruit  has  set  before  they  begin,  in  the 
belief  that  the  results  of  earlier  tillage  may  influence  ad- 
versely the  setting  of  the  fruit.  The  presence  of  a  cover- 
crop,  its  character,  and  the  needs  of  the  soil  with  reference 
thereto  are  other  factors  that  may  influence  the  date  of 
beginning  the  tillage.  The  handling  of  cover-crops  is  dis- 
cussed in  Chapter  VIII. 

Conditions  should  determine  what  the  nature  of  the 
tillage  shall  be.  If  the  soil  is  hard  or  if  there  is  a  cover- 
crop  that  has  made  considerable  growth,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  turn  the  soil  with  a  plow  and  follow  with  a  harrow,  culti- 
vator, or  such  other  tillage  implement  as  best  suits  the  needs 
of  individual  orchards.  If  the  soil  is  light,  plowing  in  the 
spring  sometimes  may  be  omitted,  when  some  type  of  cul- 
tivator is  found  adequate  to  pulverize  thoroughly  the  soil 
to  a  sufficient  depth.  Whatever  the  details  followed  may 
be,  they  should  be  so  directed  as  to  keep  the  surface  as  level 
as  possible.  For  example,  if  the  soil  is  plowed  toward  the 
trees  at  one  time,  it  should  be  turned  away  from  them  at  a 
later  plowing. 

In  general,  the  orchard  should  be  gone  over  with  some 
kind  of  tillage  implement  often  enough  to  keep  the  soil 
thoroughly  light  and  loose,  or,  in  other  words,  in  the  con- 
dition of  a  dust  or  better  a  "granular"  mulch,  for  a  depth 
of  at  least  three  or  four  inches.     If  a  crust  forms  on  the 


Plate  X.  —  An  Oldmixou  peach  tree  about  tifly-lnui  >L-ars  old. 


The  Tillage  of  Peach  Orchards  107 

surface,  or  if  the  dust  mulch  becomes  compact,  evaporation 
of  the  moisture  that  is  in  the  soil  will  become  excessively 
rapid  and  an  unnecessary  and  perhaps  serious  loss  of  mois- 
ture which  is  needed  by  the  trees  will  occur.  As  the  surface 
is  made  compact  by  rain,  it  follows  that  tillage  is  advisable, 
as  a  rule,  after  each  rainy  period  or  after  heavy  showers; 
also  as  much  more  frequently  as  the  impaired  condition  of 
the  dust  mulch  may  make  necessary.  In  irrigated  orchards 
tillage  should  follow  generally  soon  after  each  application 
of  water. 

Tillage  operations  are  usually  continued,  except  in  special 
cases,  until  midseason,  the  middle  of  July  or  the  first  of 
August.  By  that  time  the  growth  of  the  trees  for  the  season 
will  have  been  largely  made,  fruit-buds  for  the  next  season's 
crop  will  have  begun  to  form,  the  fruit  of  the  midseason 
varieties  will  have  completed  a  large  proportion  of  its  growth, 
and  the  later  varieties  will  finish  their  development  during 
a  period  when  less  moisture  is  required  for  the  various 
functions  of  the  tree  than  earlier  in  the  season.  Where 
cover-crops  or  green-manure  crops  are  desired,  they  should 
be  sowed,  in  many  cases  at  least,  by  this  time. 

However,  no  arbitrary  rules  governing  tillage  operations 
can  be  stated,  but  if  a  grower  grasps  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples which  underlie  the  objects  of  tillage  as  summarized  on 
pages  101-2,  there  should  be  little  difficulty  in  making  efficient 
application  of  them.  It  may  not  be  possible  —  on  the  other 
hand,  it  probably  will  be  impossible  —  for  one  to  determine 
with  definite  accuracy  what  chemical  and  bacteriological 
activities  are  going  on  in  the  soil  at  any  particular  time  or 
what  in  the  way  of  tillage  will  best  promote  those  activities 
for  the  optimum  condition  of  the  trees.  But  as  a  rule,  the 
changes  resulting  from  them  are  gradual  and  their  effect 


108  Peach-Grotoing 

on  the  trees  is  also  gradual,  thus  giving  time  and  oppor- 
tunity usually  for  the  observing  grower  to  correct  or  modify 
his  tillage  practices  with  a  view  to  correcting  any  unde- 
sirable tendency  in  the  behavior  of  the  trees.  So  long  as 
the  trees  in  an  orchard  remain  vigorous  and  healthy,  make 
good  annual  growth,  develop  good  foliage  with  rich,  deep 
green  color,  and  bear  abundantly  of  well-colored  and  well- 
developed  fruit,  the  evidence  is  conclusive  that  nothing  is 
radically  wrong  in  the  treatment  the  trees  are  receiving. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  trees  fail  in  any  of  these  particulars, 
it  may  mean  that  the  treatment  is  faulty  at  some  point  and 
should  be  changed.  It  may  require  some  experimenting 
to  locate  the  particular  thing  that  needs  modification. 

TILLAGE   IMPLEMENTS 

Little  need  be  said  about  tillage  implements  in  this  con- 
nection. The  particular  style  or  make  of  harrow,  culti- 
vator, or  plow  best  suited  to  accomplish  the  ends  desired  of 
tillage  should  be  used.  The  type  of  soil  on  which  the  or- 
chard is  located  is  perhaps  the  determining  factor  in  the 
case,  but  as  a  rule  the  implement  that  gives  good  satisfac- 
tion in  the  tillage  of  other  crops  grown  on  the  same  type  of 
soil  will  serve  the  purpose  well.  Usually  a  spring-tooth 
harrow,  smoothing  harrow,  disk,  or  some  of  their  numerous 
modifications,  may  be  used  to  advantage. 

As  the  trees  become  large,  some  of  the  extension  types  of 
tillage  implements  are  advantageous,  as  they  make  possible 
the  working  of  the  soil  under  the  branches  without  unduly 
crowding  the  team  into  the  trees. 

In  one  of  the  large  mountain  peach  orchards  in  West 
Virginia,  where  the  broken  topography  of  the  land  requires 


The  Tillage  of  Peach  Orchards 


109 


o  ,2 


3  3 


strong  motive  power  for  efficient  work,  the  outfit  shown  in 

Plate  XI  has  proved  especially  well  adapted.     The  team  of 

leaders    is   driven    by    a    "jerk    line,"    the 

driver   riding   the    near   pole  horse.      The 

man  who  rides  the  harrow  not  only  serves 

the  useful  purpose  of  weighting  it  down, 

so  that  it  will  cut  deep,  but  he  also  guides 

the    harrow   past    the    trees    by    properly 

adjusting  the  positions  of  its  two  sections. 

In  this  way  the  trees  are  rarely    injured, 

and  yet  the  harrow  can  be  run  very  close 

to    them.      However,     in     this     particular 

orchard   the   use   of  the  harrow  is  usually 

preceded    by    two    or    three    bouts    with 

a    light    one-horse    plow    along    each    row 

of  trees. 

The  leveler  shown  in  Fig.  9  is  also  a 
very  useful  tillage  implement  in  some 
orchard  districts.  Its  use  could  doubt- 
less be  greatly  extended  to  good  advan- 
tage. Though  of  special  importance  in 
some  of  the  irrigated  districts  for  leveling 
the  irrigation  furrows,  it  is  effective  in 
crushing  clods  and  in  smoothing  the  surface 
of  the  soil.  It  is  a  home-made  affair, 
consisting  of  two  side  pieces  of  2-inch 
plank,  12  or  14  feet  long  and  7  or  8 
inches  wide.  The  crosspieces  are  7  or  8 
feet  long.  The  lower  edges  of  the  cross- 
pieces  where  they  come  in  contact  with 
the  ground  are  protected  with  strips  of 
iron    or    steel    to    prevent    undue    wearing    and    also    to 


1 10  Peach-Growing 

give  increased  efficiency.     Other  details  of  construction  are 
made  sufficiently  plain  by  the  illustration. 

Tractors  are  being  used  more  and  more  for  motive  power 
in  orchard  tillage  and  generally  with  excellent  satisfaction. 
Various  types  of  tractors  are  now  on  the  market,  one  of  which 
is  shown  in  Plate  XI. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
INTER-PLANTED   CROPS 

The  term  "inter-planted  crop"  is  here  used  in  its  broadest 
sense  and  is  intended  to  include  any  crop  that  is  inter- 
planted  between  peach  trees  for  any  purpose  whatsoever. 
Peach  trees  may  be  themselves  an  inter-planted  crop  since 
they  are  used  as  "fillers"  frequently  in  apple  orchards. 

The  term  is  more  commonly  used  in  a  restricted  sense 
to  mean  a  crop  grown  between  the  trees  before  they  come 
into  bearing,  expressly  for  the  money  return,  or  its  equiva- 
lent, which  the  crop  is  expected  to  make.  In  effect  it  is  a 
means  of  reducing  the  cost  of  maintaining  the  orchard  dur- 
ing the  non-productive  period  of  its  existence.  However, 
such  a  crop  may  serve  a  double  purpose,  yielding  not  only  a 
financial  return,  but  also  accomplishing  other  important 
results  ordinarily  secured  by  planting  certain  crops  with  the 
improvement  of  conditions  definitely  in  view.  It  follows, 
therefore,  that  there  is  no  specific  line  of  differentiation  be- 
tween an  "inter-planted  crop"  in  its  restricted  money-crop 
sense  and  one  planted  solely  as  an  orchard-improvement 
factor.  The  terms  "filler-crop"  or  "secondary-crop"  seem 
to  convey  specific  meaning  in  this  connection,  and  will  be 
used  here  to  denote  a  crop  that  is  "filled  in"  between  the 
trees  while  they  are  small  and  during  the  years  when  they 
do  not  require  the  entire  space,  and  are  grown  for  the  express 

111 


112  Peach-Growing 

purpose  of  financial  gain.  Such  a  crop  is  "secondary"  to 
the  trees,  while  a  crop  grown  during  a  certain  period  as  an 
orchard-improvement  factor  is  without  reference  to  direct 
financial  gain  from  the  crop  itself;  it  may  be,  and  in  fact 
often  is,  of  primary  importance  in  the  welfare  of  the  trees. 

Inter-planted  crops,  therefore,  may  serve  various  pur- 
poses in  a  peach  orchard.  The  terms  by  which  they  are 
commonly  designated  are  partially  self-explaining.  They 
may  be  enumerated  as  follows :  (a)  Filler-  or  secondary- 
crops  ;  (fe)  cover-crops ;  (c)  green-manure  crops ;  {d)  mulch- 
crops  ;  {e)  shade-crops.  These  terms,  excepting  the  first, 
are  used  more  or  less  interchangeably  (sometimes  erroneously 
so),  yet  each  one  has  its  own  special  significance  in  orchard 
management.  Moreover,  the  objects  implied  by  these  terms 
are  attained  largely  by  the  use  of  the  same  crops,  excepting 
those  for  which  filler-crops  are  grown. 

Briefly  stated,  these  terms  are  differentiated  about  as 
follows :  A  cover-crop  is  one  sown  usually  rather  late  in 
the  season  with  a  view,  in  part  at  least,  to  its  furnishing  a 
cover  for  the  ground  during  winter.  Such  a  provision  is 
especially  valuable  where  the  winters  are  severe  and  the 
ground  apt  to  be  without  protection  from  snow.  A  cover- 
crop  frequently  will  prevent  root  killing  by  thus  affording 
protection  to  the  roots. 

A  green-manure  crop  is  one  grown  primarily  for  the  pur- 
pose of  supplying  humus  to  the  soil.  It  may  also  serve 
the  purpose  of  a  cover-crop,  and,  in  turn,  a  cover-crop  adds 
humus  to  the  soil.  The  term  "cover-crop"  is,  therefore, 
the  more  comprehensive  of  the  two,  though  when  a  crop 
grown  primarily  for  green-manure  purposes  also  furnishes 
protection  during  the  winter,  the  terms  become  essentially 
synonymous. 


Inter-Planted  Crops  113 

A  mulch-crop  is  one  grown  more  or  less  permanently  in 
the  orchard,  such  as  the  various  clovers,  alfalfa,  and  the  like. 
The  usual  plan  is  to  cut  the  crop  several  times  during  the 
season,  leaving  all  or  a  part  of  it  on  the  ground  to  serve  as 
a  mulch.  When  mulch-crops  are  employed,  the  orchard 
is  not  ordinarily  tilled  or  cultivated,  excepting  possibly 
where  alfalfa  is  used,  when  a  certain  amount  of  early  spring 
tillage  to  improve  the  alfalfa  may  be  done.  It  is  rarely, 
however,  that  a  mulch-crop  has  any  place  in  a  peach  orchard. 
Hence  no  further  discussion  of  it  is  needed  here. 

A  shade-crop  is  one  planted,  not  primarily  to  supply  humus 
for  improving  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil,  nor  to  pro- 
tect the  roots  of  the  trees  against  winter  injury,  but  for  the 
purpose  of  shading  the  ground  from  the  intense  heat  of  the 
sun.  The  need  for  this  is  most  apparent  in  some  of  the  hot 
irrigated  valleys  in  the  inter-mountain  states  of  the  West 
where  at  times  the  reflection  of  the  sun  from  the  water  used 
in  irrigating,  if  run  close  to  the  trees,  or  where  reflected  from 
the  surface  of  the  bare  ground,  may  be  so  intense  as  to  injure 
the  trees.  However,  a  shade-crop  may  also  serve  every 
purpose  of  a  cover-  or  green-manure  crop  or  even  a  mulch- 
crop. 

The  practical  utility  of  filler-,  cover-,  green-manure,  and 
shade-crops  in  the  management  of  peach  orchards  is  now 
presented. 

FILLER-CROPS 

That  a  filler-crop  is  secondary  in  importance,  from  every 
standpoint  of  the  orchard  itself,  has  been  indicated.  Its 
use  makes  a  system  of  double  cropping  with  the  trees  as 
the  primary  crop.  It  is  not  expected,  ordinarily,  that 
a  filler-crop  will  be  of  any  direct  benefit  to  the  trees,  unless 


114  Peach-Growing 

by  chance  they  receive  better  attention  than  they  would 
otherwise  have.  But  since  the  tree  roots  do  not  at  first 
occupy  all  the  ground,  it  becomes  possible  to  grow  certain 
types  of  crops  between  the  trees  without  detriment  to  them. 
The  tillage  given  the  filler-crop  counts  as  tillage  for  the 
trees,  hence  the  proceeds  of  that  crop  may  pay,  in  part  at 
least,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  orchard  during  its  non- 
productive years.  The  use  of  a  filler-crop  is  distinctly  a 
business  enterprise.  However,  by  the  third  season  pos- 
sibly and  rarely  later  than  the  fourth,  if  conditions  are  fa- 
vorable, a  peach  orchard  should  produce  a  crop  of  fruit. 
After  bearing  begins,  no  filler-crop  should  be  gro\Mi.  Be- 
sides it  has  been  pointed  out  (see  Plate  IX)  that  the  roots 
occupy  all  the  ground  at  a  comparatively  early  age.  After 
this  time  the  trees  should  not  be  made  to  compete  with 
another  crop  unless,  as  in  case  of  a  cover-  or  green- 
manure  crop,  it  more  than  compensates  for  the  competition 
in  what  is  contributed  to  the  welfare  of  the  trees  and 
the  fruit. 

Too  often,  however,  in  the  use  of  filler-crops  the  greed 
of  the  grower  results  in  his  ignoring  the  fact  that  he  is  double 
cropping  his  land,  and  that  the  most  important  crop  in  reality 
is  the  trees,  even  though  they  apparently  occupy  but  a  small 
part  of  the  area.  Because  of  this,  the  grower  expects  prac- 
tically as  large  returns  from  the  secondary-crop  as  though 
there  were  no  trees  on  the  land.  This  is  especially  likely  to 
be  the  case  the  first  year  or  two  w^hen  the  trees  are  small. 
For  example,  if  corn  is  the  filler-crop,  it  is  common  for  the 
grower  to  plant  just  as  many  rows  of  it,  excepting  the  tree 
row,  as  he  would  were  there  no  trees  to  be  considered.  He 
should,  rather,  leave  a  sufficiently  wide  space  along  the  tree 
rows  so  that  as  the  corn  reaches  its  full  height  it  will  not  in 


Inter-Planted  Crops  115 

any  measure  shade  or  interfere  with  the  development  of 
the  trees.  This  principle  applies  without  regard  to  what  is 
used  as  a  filler-crop. 

The  character  of  the  filler-crop  is  of  fundamental  impor- 
tance. The  requirements  of  peach  trees  as  to  tillage  have 
been  discussed.  Obviously  the  tillage  requirements  of  the 
secondary-crop  should  be  similar  to  those  of  peaches.  The 
crop  also  should  be  selected  with  regard  to  its  market- 
ability. Small  grains  such  as  wheat  should  never  be  grown 
except  as  a  cover-  or  green-manure  crop  to  be  plowed  under 
in  early  spring.  If  grown  to  maturity,  the  small  grains 
not  only  prevent  tillage  during  the  most  important  period 
for  that  operation,  but  they  take  large  quantities  of  soil- 
moisture  which  ordinarily  are  needed  by  the  trees. 

Most  hoed  crops  can  be  used  for  fillers.  Beans,  peas, 
tomatoes,  cabbages,  muskmelons,  and  other  vegetables  of 
like  tillage  requirements,  also  corn  if  properly  handled,  may 
be  selected,  depending  on  their  marketability  in  the  place 
where  grown.  Irish  potatoes  are  used  in  some  sections,  but 
as  a  rule  only  where  early  maturity  is  insured.  They  are 
not  desirable  on  general  principles  in  the  North  or  in  other 
regions  where  late  digging  is  made  necessary  by  late  maturity. 
The  digging  under  some  conditions  might  be  equivalent  to 
a  late  cultivation,  the  latter  having  a  tendency  to  stimulate 
an  unduly  late  growth  of  the  trees. 

While  small-fruits  such  as  raspberries  and  blackberries 
are  sometimes  grown  in  this  way,  it  is  inadvisable  even 
though  they  require  good  tillage.  The  competition  for 
soil-moisture  is  entirely  too  strong,  often,  for  the  satisfactory 
growth  of  the  trees.  Strawberries  are  objectionable  in  that 
they  ordinarily  are  not  cultivated  much,  if  any,  in  the  spring 
until  after  the  fruit  is  harvested  and  this  is  when  the  trees 


116  Peach-Growing 

need  cultivation  most ;  they  are  cultivated  late  in  the 
season  when  the  trees  should  not  receive  it. 

Peach  trees  themselves  are  sometimes  used  as  a  filler- 
crop,  especially  in  young  apple  orchards.  In  certain  sec- 
tions a  large  peach  industry  has  been  developed  almost 
entirel}'  in  this  way,  and  the  fruit  from  such  sections  has 
become  a  considerable  factor  in  the  market  during  certain 
periods  In  the  season.  But  as  the  apple  trees  have  de- 
veloped and  the  peach  trees  have  been  removed,  the  peach 
Industry  of  these  regions  has  passed  nearly  out  of  existence ; 
Its  complete  passing  Is  a  matter  of  but  a  few  years. 

The  practice  of  inter-planting  peach  trees  in  apple  orchards 
Is  both  condemned  and  advocated  by  growers  of  wide  ex- 
perience. Peaches  so  planted  are  often  put  on  sites  which, 
though  good  for  apples,  are  less  satisfactory  for  peaches. 
The  results  from  the  latter  are,  therefore,  likely  to  be  dis- 
appointing. Probably  the  most  serious  objection,  funda- 
mentally, to  this  course  Is  that  it  places  bearing  and  non- 
bearing  trees  on  the  same  land,  and  even  though  different 
fruits.  It  follows  that  trees,  especially  young  trees  not  In  bear- 
ing, often  require  quite  different  treatment  from  those  that 
are  fruiting.  Obviously,  under  such  conditions  some  sort  of 
a  compromise  treatment  Is  necessary.  As  the  apple  trees 
are  permanent,  their  welfare  should  not  be  sacrificed  for 
the  temporary  advantage  that  might  result  so  far  as  the 
peaches  are  concerned. 

AVlien  the  site  Is  well  chosen  and  equally  good  for  both 
apples  and  peaches,  It  may  be  presumed  that  the  returns 
from  the  filler  trees  will  partially  compensate  for  the  cost  of 
bringing  the  apple  trees  to  the  bearing  age. 

^^^lere  filler-crops  are  used,  the  grower  should  not  lose 
sight  of  the  fact  that  double  demands  are  being  made  on 


Inter-Planted  Crops  ll7 

the  fertility  of  the  soil.  If  need  be,  he  should  fertilize  the 
land  accordingly.  Otherwise,  the  growing  of  the  filler-crop 
can  only  be  to  the  material  disadvantage  of  the  fruit-trees. 


COVER-,    GREEN-MANURE,   AND    SHADE-CROPS 

Because  of  the  close  similarity  of  these  groups  of  crops 
and  the  objects  for  which  they  are  used  in  orchards,  they  may 
well  be  considered  together  in  the  present  discussion.  The 
distinction  between  them,  when  it  exists,  has  been  pointed 
out  in  another  place  (pages  112-113). 

Though  clean  tillage  for  peach  orchards  during  the  first 
part  of  the  season  or  until  some  time  in  July  is  the  general 
practice,  the  use  of  cover-  and  green-manure  crops  is  of 
fundamental  importance  and  in  many  cases  even  of  neces- 
sity if  the  orchards  are  well  maintained. 

Doubtless  the  relation  of  these  crops  to  the  physical 
condition  of  the  soil  through  the  addition  of  humus  repre- 
sents their  most  important  function.  This  interrelation  of 
the  humus-content  of  the  soil  to  its  physical  condition,  and 
in  turn  its  physical  condition  to  its  fertility  through  the 
chemical  and  biological  activities  that  are  either  promoted 
or  retarded  by  this  condition,  are  too  well  recognized,  even 
though  they  may  not  be  fully  understood,  to  require  ex- 
tended comment  here.  It  will  suffice  to  establish  the  fact 
that  peach  orchards  often  need  the  ameliorating  effects  on 
the  soil  of  cover-  and  green-manure  crops  and  not  infre- 
quently suffer  because  of  their  lack. 

It  will  help  the  reader  who  has  to  meet  the  problems 
incident  to  the  use  of  these  crops  to  have  in  mind  rather 
definitely  their  more  important  effects  on  the  soil  and  the 
part  they  play  in  successfully  maintaining  or  improving  its 


118  Peach-Growing 

producing  capacity.     These  effects  may  be  enumerated  as 
follows : 

1.  The  physical  condition  of  the  soil  is  improved  when 
the  cover-  and  green-manure  crops  are  plowed  in :  (a)  by 
giving  more  body  to  very  light  soils ;  (6)  by  preventing  the 
heavier  soils  from  cementing  together  or  puddling. 

2.  Soils  may  be  deepened  by  the  action  of  the  roots  of 
some  kinds  of  crops  and  by  their  decay  when  the  crops 
are  plowed  in  or  the  plants  die  at  the  end  of  their  natural 
period  of  growth. 

3.  The  humus  thus  added  increases  the  water  absorb- 
ing and  holding  capacity  of  the  soil.  Under  some  conditions 
and  with  some  crops,  the  snows  of  winter  are  held  in  posi- 
tion, thus  increasing  the  soil-moisture  which  in  some  sections 
is  of  much  importance.  The  growing  crops  also  tend  to 
hold  the  rains,  preventing  a  part  of  the  run-off  during  heavy 
showers,  thus  increasing  the  amount  of  water  that  soaks 
into  the  ground. 

4.  The  humus  added  by  these  crops  tends  to  induce  or 
promote  chemical  and  bacteriological  activities  by  means 
of  which  plant-food  is  made  available  for  the  use  of  the 
plants. 

5.  Where  irrigation  is  practiced,  it  is  made  easier  and 
more  effective  by  the  presence  in  the  soil  of  liberal  quan- 
tities of  humus. 

6.  Because  of  the  effects  stated  under  item  1,  among 
other  things,  the  roots  of  the  trees  are  better  aerated,  which 
is  essential  for  vigorous,  thrifty  growth  of  tree. 

7.  The  soil  is  dried  out  in  the  spring  by  the  early  growth 
of  the  hardy  crops,  thus  making  possible  earlier  tillage. 

8.  Late  fall  growth  of  the  trees  is  checked  by  the  growth 
of  the  crops,  thus  many  times  inducing  the  ripening  of  the 


Plate  XI.  —  Tup,  a  diak  harrow  and  team  for  orchard  tillage ;  ctiUer, 
a  tractor  used  in  tillage  operations ;  bottom,  soybeans  inter-planted  in 
drills  as  a  green-manure  crop. 


Inter-Planted  Crops  119 

wood.  This  is  especially  important  where  the  winter  cold 
is  a  factor,  but  of  less  importance  in  the  warmer  peach- 
growing  regions. 

9.  The  winter  cover  may  protect  the  roots  from  injury. 

10.  Nitrates  which  are  not  required  by  the  trees  during 
the  late  fall  and  winter  are  taken  up  by  the  growing  crops, 
thus  preventing  their  loss.  The  nitrates  are  returned  to 
the  soil  in  the  decaying  humus. 

11.  Leguminous  crops  add  nitrogen  to  the  soil.  The 
growing  of  such  crops  is  usually  by  far  the  cheapest  method 
of  securing  this  important  and  costly  plant-food. 

12.  In  some  cases  cover-crops  prevent  erosion  of  the  soil. 

13.  In  regions  where  alkali  troubles  are  a  factor,  they 
sometimes  may  prevent  the  salts  which  would  otherwise 
come  to  the  surface  from  becoming  sufficiently  concentrated 
to  cause  harm. 

The  wise  use  of  cover-  and  green-manure  crops  presents 
many  problems  to  the  peach-grower.  Perhaps  the  one  which 
transcends  all  others  is  what  crop  to  put  in,  and  when, 
for  the  best  results.  The  question  is  answered,  if  at  all, 
in  much  the  same  way  that  a  skillful  physician  prescribes 
for  a  patient.  He  knows  the  patient  and  his  needs,  and  the 
remedies  with  which  he  has  to  work.  The  more  completely 
the  physician  is  possessed  of  this  information,  the  more 
skillfully  and  effectively  he  can  prescribe  a  course  of  treat- 
ment. In  the  same  way,  the  better  a  peach-grower  knows 
his  orchard  and  its  needs,  and  the  means  and  materials  at 
hand  with  which  to  work,  the  more  successful,  other  things 
being  equal,  he  makes  the  orchard. 

It  requires  good  judgment  to  know  when  to  use  these 
crops  and  when  to  omit  them.  In  very  dry  falls  when  there 
is  but  little  moisture  in  the  soil,  or  in  regions  of  limited  pre- 


120  Peach-Growing 

cipitation  where  the  trees  habitually  go  into  the  winter 
with  but  a  very  low  content  of  moisture  in  the  soil,  cover- 
crops  ordinarily  should  not  be  used.  To  sow  them  would 
be  still  further  to  reduce  an  already  small  supply  of  soil- 
moisture  (in  case  the  seed  germinated  and  grew),  which 
might  easily  prove  disastrous  to  the  trees  from  their  drying 
out  unduly  during  the  winter  and  dying  as  a  result. 

In  some  regions  where  peaches  are  an  important  crop  but 
where  the  precipitation  is  habitually  limited  and  no  pos- 
sibility of  irrigation,  the  growers  are  facing  a  serious  dilemma 
in  that  there  is  not  sufficient  rainfall  to  maintain  the  trees 
and  grow  a  green-manure  crop  at  the  same  time,  yet  they 
are  facing  the  disastrous  effects  of  a  depleted  supply  of  humus 
in  the  soil. 

Cover-crops  or  green-manure  crops  fall  into  two  distinct 
groups  —  leguminous  and  non-leguminous.  The  plants  com- 
monly used  for  the  former  include :  cowpeas,  soybeans, 
field  peas,  red  clover,  crimson  clover,  bur  clover,  bitter  clover 
(Melilotus  indica),  hairy  or  winter  vetch,  and  occasionally 
others.  The  more  common  non-leguminous  cover-  and 
green-manure  crops  are :  rye,  oats,  buckwheat,  rape,  cow- 
horn  turnips,  millet,  cane,  corn,  and  some  others.  Which 
one  or  ones  of  these  crops  a  grower  should  use  in  his  orchard 
depends  on  the  needs  of  the  soil  and  other  conditions. 

The  leguminous  crops  are  nitrogen-gatherers.  If  more 
nitrogen  is  needed  in  the  soil,  as  is  very  generally  the  case, 
a  crop  of  this  group  obviously  should  be  chosen.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  objects  for  which  the  crop  is  needed  in  the 
orchard  do  not  include  an  increased  nitrogen  supply,  one 
of  the  non-leguminous  crops  will  serve  the  purpose.  Some- 
times a  combination  of  the  two  types,  as  rye  and  vetch,  is 
used  to  good  advantage. 


Inter-Planted  Crops  121 

The  time  of  sowing  the  crop  will  depend  on  conditions, 
the  kind  of  crop  to  be  used,  the  needs  of  the  orchard,  and 
perhaps  the  other  work  required  in  the  orchard  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  season.  If  the  crop  used  is  one  that  is 
killed  by  frost,  it  usually  should  be  sowed  not  later  than 
the  middle  of  July  or  at  the  time  of  the  last  cultivation  of 
the  orchard.  In  the  case  of  cowpeas,  soybeans,  or  other 
crop  commonly  planted  in  rows  and  cultivated,  earlier 
sowing  may  be  practicable.  Then  the  tillage  of  the  improve- 
ment-crop will  also  serve  as  tillage  for  the  orchard.  Plate 
XI  shows  a  crop  of  soybeans  planted  in  a  peach  orchard 
in  this  manner,  while  Plate  XII  shows  one  where  cowpeas 
have  been  broadcasted. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the  crop  is  rye,  vetch,  rape,  or 
any  other  that  withstands  frost  and  even  makes  good 
growth  during  the  cool  weather  of  late  fall,  it  may  be 
put  in  at  any  time  from  September  15th  to  November 
1st,  or  perhaps  even  later  in  the  warmer  sections  of  the 
country. 

Expediency  will  also  determine  in  a  measure  when  the  crop 
should  be  planted.  When  possible,  it  may  be  wise  to  defer 
seeding  until  after  the  fruit  is  harvested. 

While  in  apple  orchards  improvement-  or  mulch-crops  are 
often  sowed  with  a  view  to  maintaining  the  orchard  under  a 
sod  or  mulch  system  for  a  period  of  years,  such  a  crop  is 
rarely  sown  in  a  peach  orchard  except  to  turn  under  the 
following  spring  at  the  latest. 

In  the  case  of  a  crop  that  lives  over  winter,  if  soil-moisture 
conditions  permit,  it  is  a  common  practice  to  allow  it  to  make 
considerable  growth  in  the  spring  before  it  is  plowed  under, 
thus  increasing  the  amount  of  vegetable  matter  to  put  into 
the  soil. 


122  Peack-Growing 

When  buckwheat,  cowpeas,  or  other  crops  that  are  killed 
by  frost  are  used,  they  are  sometimes  left  on  the  surface 
of  the  ground  over  winter  or  worked  into  the  soil  late  in  the 
fall  either  with  a  disk  harrow  or  plow.  It  has  been  shown 
by  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station  that  substantially  the  same 
winter  protection  is  afforded  the  roots  if  the  crop  is  plowed 
under  in  the  fall  as  when  it  remains  on  the  surface. 

A  choice  of  improvement-crop  to  be  used  may  be  deter- 
mined in  some  cases  by  special  conditions  that  need  to  be 
met.  For  instance,  the  Nebraska  Experiment  Station  dem- 
onstrated that  millet  was  one  of  the  most  satisfactory 
crops  available  for  the  conditions  in  that  state.  It  can  be 
sown  relatively  late  and  still  make  a  good  bulk  of  vegeta- 
tion. While  it  is  killed  by  frost,  it  remains  standing  well 
and  thus  catches  the  snow  and  holds  it  from  blowing  off. 
The  snow  thus  held  not  only  serves  as  an  excellent  winter 
protection  for  the  tree  roots,  but  it  adds  materially  to  the 
soil-moisture  supply  when  it  melts.  While  the  latter  factor 
is  unimportant,  perhaps  even  undesirable,  in  some  sections, 
in  others,  especially  those  in  the  drier  portions  of  the  country, 
it  is  greatly  to  be  desired. 

Shade-crops  are  sometimes  of  importance  in  the  regions 
where  irrigation  is  practiced.  The  bark  of  fruit-trees  is 
sometimes  injured  apparently  from  the  reflection  of  the  hot 
rays  of  the  sun  from  the  water  in  the  irrigation  furrows, 
especially  if  they  are  run  close  to  the  trees.  It  has  been 
suggested  by  Paddock  and  Whipple  that  such  injury  may 
also  occur  as  a  result  of  the  reflection  of  the  sun  from  the 
surface  of  the  soil  under  some  conditions. 

To  meet  this  situation  the  suggestion  was  made  first 
by  Paddock  ^  that  the  shading  of  the  ground  during  the 
1  Colo.  Sta.  Bull.  142. 


Inter-Planted  Crops  123 

active  growing  period  of  the  trees  by  maintaining  some 
kind  of  crop  on  the  ground  during  that  period  for  the  pri- 
mary purpose  of  shading  the  soil  would  obviate  the  trouble. 
This  course  evidently  accomplishes  the  end  in  view,  but 
in  reality  it  closely  approximates  a  mulch-crop  system  of 
maintenance  which  on  general  principles  is  objectionable 
in  peach  orchards.  However,  the  most  objectionable  feature 
is  perhaps  the  relation  of  the  mulch-crop  to  soil-moisture. 
In  irrigated  sections  this  is  of  less  concern  than  in  non- 
irrigated  areas,  especially  if  water  for  irrigation  is  abundant. 

Many  of  the  crops  used  for  cover-  and  green-manure  pur- 
poses are  suitable  also  for  furnishing  shade.  Some  of  them 
can  be  grown  in  drills  to  advantage  and  cultivated  so  that  the 
objection  that  shade-crops,  because  they  occupy  the  land 
during  the  early  part  of  the  season  and  therefore  prevent 
tillage,  is  not  fully  applicable.  The  grower  whose  trees  may 
have  suffered  injury  from  the  cause  in  question  should  keep 
in  mind  that  he  has  recourse  to  the  growing  of  crops  that  will 
shade  the  ground  if  such  course  seems  desirable.  At  the 
same  time  such  crops,  if  handled  properly,  will  serve  the  pur- 
pose of  green-manure  crops. 

It  is  only  under  rather  unusual  conditions  that  it  is  wise 
to  permit  a  peach  orchard  to  remain  in  sod  or  to  go  through 
a  season  uncultivated,  particularly  in  non-irrigated  regions. 
However,  where  an  orchard  is  in  excellent  condition,  the  soil 
rich  and  well  supplied  with  moisture,  a  temporary  emer- 
gency which  compels  resort  to  some  kind  of  mulch  system 
may  be  without  serious  or  irreparable  damage  to  the  orchard. 
Plate  XII  shows  a  peach  orchard  being  carried  over  one  season 
in  a  red  clover  sod.  This  was  done  merely  for  the  purpose 
of  reducing  the  expense  of  maintenance  during  a  season  in 
which  there  was  little  or  no  fruit.     The  owner  assumed. 


124  Peach-Growing 

however,  that  this  practice  was  doubtless  at  the  expense 
of  the  trees. 

Attention  has  been  called  to  the  relatively  large  number 
of  crops  that  can  be  used  for  inter-planting  purposes.  The 
problem  is  perhaps  complicated  somewhat  by  the  number. 
The  grower,  however,  need  not  be  anxious  about  the  one 
selected  so  long  as  it  is  adapted  to  the  climatic  and  other 
conditions  under  which  he  is  working  and  at  the  same  time 
meets  the  needs  of  his  particular  orchard. 

The  needs  to  be  considered  vary  not  only  with  individual 
orchards,  depending  on  the  soil  conditions  and  the  way  the 
soil  has  been  managed,  but  the  needs  are  more  or  less  re- 
gional. In  parts  of  the  country  where  the  ground  is  habit- 
ually deeply  covered  with  snow  all  winter,  there  is  not  the 
need  of  providing  protection  from  extreme  freezing  that 
there  is  in  regions  where  the  winters  are  very  cold  and  further 
characterized  by  little  or  no  snow.  The  problem  or  the 
pressing  need  in  some  other  region  may  be  a  cover-crop  of 
such  a  character  that  it  will  hold  the  snow  from  blowing  away 
from  the  orchard.  A  crop  that  will  start  into  vigorous 
growth  early  in  the  spring  may  be  the  requirement  in  some 
places,  in  order  thus  to  aid  in  drying  out  the  soil.  In  other 
regions  or  under  some  conditions  the  trees  may  tend  to  grow 
too  late  in  the  season,  and  the  need  then  may  be  a  crop  that 
will  make  vigorous  fall  growth  which  will  check  the  trees 
and  induce  ripening  of  the  wood. 

If  the  trees  need  more  nitrogen,  a  leguminous,  rather  than 
a  non-leguminous,  crop  is  the  logical  choice.  In  supplying 
humus  to  the  soil,  so  far  as  known,  one  kind  of  crop,  bulk 
for  bulk,  is  as  good  as  another. 

Thus,  a  wise  selection  of  a  crop  for  inter-planting  in- 
volves consideration  from  two  well-defined  standpoints  :  the 


Inter-Planted  Crops  125 

adaptability  of  the  crop  to  the  conditions  where  it  is  to  be 
used,  and  the  needs  of  the  orchard  that  are  to  be  suppHed 
in  the  crop  used. 

With  some  crops,  there  is  a  choice  of  variety  which  is 
highly  important;  while  in  considering  others,  cost  of  seed 
or  some  other  factor  quite  apart  from  the  usefulness  of  the 
crop  itself  should  determine  the  selection. 

Another  feature  in  regard  to  the  use  of  leguminous  cover- 
crops  should  perhaps  have  cautionary  consideration,  though 
its  real  import  is  not  fully  known.  Hedrick  ^  has  called 
attention  to  the  possible  relationship  that  is  not  generally 
recognized  between  the  roots  of  peach  trees  and  of  certain 
cover-crops  when  they  grow  in  close  contact  with  each 
other.  In  case  of  peach  trees  grown  in  large  pots  with  oats, 
rye,  blue-grass,  and  various  other  non-leguminous  species, 
the  trees  ripened  their  terminal  growth  long  before  frost 
occurred,  while  trees  similarly  grown,  but  with  legumes,  in- 
cluding crimson  clover,  peas,  and  beans,  held  their  foliage 
and  the  terminal  growth  did  not  mature  until  a  frost  oc- 
curred the  first  of  November.  On  examination  of  the  pots 
containing  the  trees,  it  appeared  that  there  was  no  intimate 
contact  of  the  roots  of  the  non-leguminous  plants  with  the 
peach  roots,  while  the  roots  of  the  legumes  were  most  in- 
terminably intermingled  with  the  peach  roots.  Whether 
these  trees  were  able  in  some  way  to  make  use  of  the  nitro- 
gen gathered  from  the  air  by  the  legumes  is  open  to 
doubt,  though  perhaps  suggested  by  the  behavior  of  the 
trees. 

It  is  not  to  be  presumed  that  the  roots  of  a  cover-crop 
would  intermingle  with  the  trees'  roots  under  orchard  con- 
ditions in  the  same  degree  that  they  do  when  grown  in  a  pot. 
1  Rural  New  Yorker,  Vol.  LXIII,  No.  2864,  p.  858. 


126  Peach-Growing 

Yet  the  possibility  of  peach  trees  not  ripening  as  early  as 
desired  when  the  orchard  is  seeded  to  a  vigorous  growing 
leguminous  cover-crop  under  some  conditions  is  suggested, 
and  according  to  Hedrick  the  opinion  that  a  peach  orchard 
seeded  to  such  a  crop  might  suffer  more  during  the  winter 
than  with  no  cover-crop  at  all  is  reported  to  be  confirmed 
by  practical  experience,  though  it  does  not  appear  to  be  a 
conviction  commonly  held  by  peach-growers.  It  is  a  matter, 
however,  that  growers  may  do  well  to  keep  in  mind. 

In  order  to  help  the  peach-grower  in  deciding  on  the 
kind  of  cover-  or  green-manure  crop  that  will  best  meet  the 
needs  he  has  to  consider,  the  following  notes  on  the  charac- 
teristics and  adaptations  of  the  plants  most  widely  used 
for  these  purposes  are  here  given. 

The  different  crops  are  mentioned  below  in  the  general 
order  of  their  importance  and  the  extent  to  which  they  are 
used.  The  order  of  arrangement  is  intended  to  be  only 
approximate  as  showing  in  this  way  the  crops  which  are 
widely  used  and  those  of  regional  or  minor  importance. 
The  leguminous  crops,  those  which  gather  nitrogen  from  the 
air,  and  the  non-leguminous  crops,  are  grouped  separately. 

Leguminous  crops 

As  a  rule,  leguminous  crops,  to  do  best,  need  a  fairly  good 
supply  of  lime  in  the  soil.  They  do  not  thrive  on  acid  soils. 
Moreover,  in  growing  any  of  the  legumes  where  they  have 
not  before  been  cropped,  the  soil  usually  needs  to  be  inoc- 
ulated with  the  proper  nitrogen-gathering  bacteria  for  the 
particular  crop  that  has  been  selected.  Without  such 
inoculation,  unless  the  soil  already  contains  the  right  kind 
of  bacteria,  the  crop  is  likely  to  prove  a  failure  and  in  any 


Inter-Planted  Crops  127 

event  to  make  only  a  very  small  growth  compared  with 
that  of  suitably  inoculated  plants. 

Cowpeas. 

Probably  no  other  crop  is  grown  so  extensively  for 
orchard  cover-  and  green-manure  purposes  as  the  cow- 
pea.  It  is  used  practically  throughout  the  peach-grow- 
ing sections,  excepting  possibly  the  more  northern  dis- 
tricts. This  crop  is  especially  important  throughout  the 
middle  and  southern  latitudes.  It  is  killed  by  the  first 
frosts  in  the  fall,  hence  is  not  to  be  used  where  an  early 
spring  growth  is  desired,  and  where  winter  protection  is 
necessary,  it  may  be  less  effective  than  a  crop  that  lives 
through  the  winter,  though  the  mass  of  herbage  furnished 
by  the  cowpea  and  left  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  or 
even  plowed  in  during  the  late  fall  furnishes  excellent 
protection,  as  has  been  shown  by  the  Ohio  Experiment 
Station. 

In  some  sections  cowpeas  are  turned  under  as  soon  as 
they  are  killed  by  frost,  and  rye  is  sowed  to  furnish  a  winter 
cover  and  an  early  spring  growth.  Grown  for  soil  improve- 
ment purposes  primarily,  the  seed  is  commonly  put  in  at 
the  last  cultivation  of  the  orchard,  the  middle  of  July  or 
early  August,  about  1  to  1^  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre  being 
used  if  sowed  broadcast.  The  seed  is  usually  covered  in 
this  case  by  harrowing. 

When  it  is  desired  to  grow  also  a  crop  of  seed,  earlier 
planting  according  to  the  region  and  variety  may  be  neces- 
sary. In  this  case  it  is  better  to  plant  in  drills  about  3^ 
feet  apart  as  early  as  may  be  necessary  to  insure  the  maturing 
of  the  seed.  By  adopting  this  course,  it  is  possible  also 
to  continue  the  cultivation  of  the  orchard.     Planted  in  drills, 


128  Peach-Growing 

only  about  one-half  the  quantity  of  seed  is  needed  as  when 
sowed  broadcast.  However,  the  size  of  the  seed  varies 
greatly  in  different  varieties,  and  the  smaller  the  seed  the 
smaller  the  quantity  that  needs  to  be  used.  Seeding  may 
also  be  done  with  a  grain-drill,  in  which  case  about  two- 
thirds  the  quantity  of  seed  should  be  used  as  when  broad- 
casted. About  3  pecks  of  the  smaller-seeded  varieties  such 
as  New  Era  and  Iron  will  suffice. 

When  cowpeas  are  used  to  maintain  the  soil  in  good  con- 
dition and  with  no  special  reference  to  definite  improvement, 
it  maj^  be  practicable  to,  cure  the  tops  for  hay,  since  from 
25  to  nearly  50  per  cent  of  the  total  dry  matter  remains  still 
available  for  soil  maintenance  in  the  roots,  stubble,  and 
fallen  leaves.  If  the  hay  is  fed  and  the  manure  returned 
to  the  orchard,  but  little  of  the  value  of  the  crop  for  soil 
improvement  is  lost. 

There  is  considerable  preference  in  varieties  of  cowpeas 
for  orchard  purposes.  The  Whippoorwill  is  a  standard 
vigorous  sort  much  grown.  Wonderful  is  very  vigorous, 
making  a  large  mass  of  herbage,  but  maturing  late  and 
seeding  only  very  lightly.  New  Era  is  one  of  the  earliest 
maturing  varieties  and,  therefore,  is  desirable  for  the  more 
northern  sections  where  cowpeas  are  used,  though  it  does 
not  make  as  much  growth  as  the  later  sorts.  The  Groit 
is  similar  to  New  Era  but  considered  preferable  by  some. 
Other  good  varieties  for  orchard  purposes  include  Clay, 
Taylor,  and  Red  Ripper,  especially  where  the  growing  of 
seed  is  not  an  item. 

The  Iron  is  resistant  to  nematodes  and  wilt  disease  and 
for  this  reason  has  attained  considerable  prominence  and 
is  to  be  especially  recommended  in  regions  of  the  South 
where   that   parasite   is   known   to   be   serious.     However, 


Inter-Planted  Crops  129 

it  is  one  of  the  more  desirable  sorts  even  aside  from  these 
features.  The  Brabham  is  also  usually  resistant  to  nema- 
todes. 

While  under  California  conditions  summer  green-manure 
crops  are  usually  undesirable,  when  other  considerations 
are  subservient  to  the  improvement  of  the  soil,  the  Whip- 
poorwill  cowpea'has  proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  desirable 
crops  for  this  purpose.^ 

Hairy  vetch  {Vicia  villosa). 

This  vetch  is  also  known  as  Russian,  Siberian,  and  sand 
vetch,  the  latter  name  suggesting  its  ability  to  grow  well 
on  very  sandy  soil.  The  term  "winter  vetch"  is  also  com- 
monly given  to  it,  but  as  it  is  applied  also  to  strains  of  the 
common  vetch  it  is  better  to  avoid  its  use  in  this  connec- 
tion. 

In  recent  years  the  hairy  vetch  has  come  into  wide  use  as 
a  cover-crop  for  orchards  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  country, 
especially  where  a  leguminous  crop  that  will  live  over  winter 
and  begin  growth  early  the  following  spring  is  needed. 
This  plant  survives  the  winter  both  North  and  South,  as 
few  of  the  legumes  which  quickly  make  a  large  growth  of 
herbage  will  do.  Moreover,  it  "succeeds  well  on  sandy 
soils,  but  can  be  grown  on  any  well-drained  land.  It  is 
markedly  drought-resistant,  often  making  a  good  crop 
under  dry  conditions  where  common  vetch  fails.  It  is  quite 
resistant  to  alkali  and  will  germinate  well  in  soils  too  alkaline 
for  most  legumes."  ^  These  and  other  characteristics 
have  brought  hairy  vetch  into  high  favor  as  a  cover-crop 
with  fruit-growers  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  country,  though 

1  Bur.  of  Plant  Ind.  Bull.  192,  p.  124. 

2  Farmers'  Bull.  515,  p.  17. 


130  Peach-Growing 

the  common  vetch  appears  to  be  preferred  in  Oregon  and 
California. 

If  not  sown  too  late,  even  in  the  North,  hairy  vetch  will 
make  considerable  growth  in  the  fall ;  it  forms  an  excellent 
cover  for  the  ground  during  the  winter  and  starts  into 
growth  as  does  rye  very  early  in  the  spring.  By  the  time 
the  soil  is  dry  enough  to  work,  particularly  in  those  regions 
where  a  heavy  snowfall  or  copious  winter  rains  supply 
abundant  moisture,  a  heavy  growth  of  herbage  has  been  made 
and  is  ready  to  be  plowed  under.  In  many  essential  par- 
ticulars, therefore,  hairy  vetch  is  an  almost  ideal  cover- 
crop  when  a  legume  is  desired. 

Seeding  may  be  done  over  a  rather  long  period  but  where 
grown  for  the  first  time  the  inoculation  of  the  soil  with  nod- 
ule-forming bacteria  is  of  much  importance.  In  the  far 
South  seeding  any  time  from  the  middle  of  September  to 
December  will  suffice,  while  in  middle  latitudes  the  dates 
advance  a  month.  In  the  North  seed  is  usually  put  in  dur- 
ing the  last  half  of  July  and  in  August.  Seeding  should 
not  be  delayed  much  later  than  the  first  of  September. 

For  cover-crop  purposes,  seeding  broadcast  and  harrow- 
ing in  is  the  common  practice.  Sometimes  the  vetch  is 
mixed  with  rye,  oats,  or  wheat  and  put  in  with  a  seed-drill. 
Where  it  has  not  been  grown  before  and  is  sowed  alone,  at 
least  25  or  30  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  should  be  used  if 
broadcasted. 

For  cover-  and  green-manure  crop  purposes,  hairy  vetch 
is  probably  used  more  often  with  oats,  wheat,  barley,  or  rye 
than  alone.  Used  by  itself  it  mats  down  rather  closely  to 
the  ground,  but  with  either  of  the  grains  named  it  stands 
erect.  Twenty  or  25  pounds  of  vetch  seed  and  one  bushel 
of  rye  to  the  acre  make  a  good  combination.     In  the  South 


Inter-Planted  Crops  131 

or  where  it  is  not  important  to  secure  a  heavy  growth  in 
the  spring,  a  bushel  or  more  of  oats  may  be  used  instead  of 
rye. 

The  high  cost  of  seed  has  doubtless  prevented  an  even 
more  extensive  use  of  hairy  vetch  for  orchard  purposes. 
However,  it  is  probably  practicable  for  many  fruit-growers, 
after  they  get  a  start,  to  grow  enough  seed  for  their  own  use. 
Sometimes  it  is  possible  to  leave  narrow  strips  of  vetch  in 
the  rows  between  the  trees  without  plowing  it  under,  with 
a  view  to  its  forming  seed.  Where  the  seed  matures  in  this 
way  in  the  spring  and  falls  to  the  ground  it  will  germinate  in 
the  late  summer  or  early  fall.^ 

Common  vetch  (Vicia  sativa). 

The  range  of  usefulness  of  the  common  vetch  for  orchard 
purposes  is  relatively  restricted.  It  is  suitable  for  fall  seed- 
ing in  the  southern  portions  of  North  Carolina  and  Ten- 
nessee and  in  the  tier  of  states  immediately  to  the  south- 
ward and  westward,  including  the  most  of  Arkansas  and 
Louisiana,  and  adjacent  areas  in  northwestern  Texas  and 
southwestern  Oklahoma;  also  on  the  Pacific  coast  west 
of  the  Cascade  and  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains.  It  has  also 
been  used  with  satisfaction  in  eastern  Washington. 

For  cover-crop  purposes  common  vetch  is  used  more  on 
the  Pacific  coast  than  elsewhere,  though  there  is  no  apparent 
reason  why  it  should  not  be  satisfactory  in  the  South,  The 
plants  withstand  remarkably  well  the  tramping  incident 
to  harvesting  a  crop  of  fruit. 

In  the  West  it  is  generally  seeded  either  broadcast  or  with 
a  drill  in  September  or  October,  and  commonly  mixed  with 
oats.  This  combination  is  especially  recommended  both 
1  Farmers'  BuU.  529,  p.  7. 


132  Peach-Growing 

in  California  and  in  some  parts  of  Oregon.  O'Gara  in  Oregon 
recommends  seeding  the  last  of  August  or  early  September 
with  a  mixture  of  70  to  90  pounds  of  vetch  seed  and  30  to 
40  pounds  of  winter  oats,  the  smaller  quantities  being  used 
if  the  seeding  is  done  with  a  drill.  Others  recommend  a 
somewhat  lighter  seeding  of  40  to  60  pounds  to  the  acre 
when  used  alone. 

Though  common  vetch  does  not  survive  the  winter  where 
the  temperature  drops  much  below  15°,  it  continues  to  grow 
more  or  less  nearly  all  winter  in  the  milder  portions  of  the 
Pacific  coast  regions,  and  by  February  or  March  a  large 
mass  of  vegetation  is  available  for  turning  under. ^  On  the 
other  hand,  hairy  vetch  does  not  make  a  good  winter  growth 
under  these  conditions. 

Crimson  clover. 

The  term  "scarlet  clover"  is  also  commonly  applied  to 
this  plant.  For  many  years  it  has  been  used  for  orchard 
purposes  in  certain  parts  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  especially 
in  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  and  the  Eastern  Shore  of  Mary- 
land, but  in  more  recent  years  it  has  been  grown  in  increas- 
ing areas  in  North  Carolina,  Alabama,  and  other  Coastal 
Plain  and  Gulf  regions.  It  is  not  hardy  enough  to  insure 
its  living  through  the  winter  in  New  England,  New  York, 
and  other  northern  sections;  but  when  it  does  survive  it 
grows  well. 

It  is  an  annual  plant  and  thus  unlike  most  of  the  other 
well-known  clovers.  It  makes  most  of  its  growth  in  the 
cooler  parts  of  the  season,  —  fall  and  spring.  Were  it  not 
that  it  is  often  rather  difficult  to  secure  a  stand,  it  would 
doubtless  be  used  much  more  extensively  and  widely  than 
1  Farmers'  BuU.  529,  p.  4. 


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Plate  XII.  —  Top,  red  clover  used  as  a  mulch-crop  in  a  peach  orchard  ; 
bottom,  cowpeas  broadcasted  as  a  green-manure  crop. 


Inter-Planted  Crops  133 

at  present.  If  it  becomes  dry  after  seeding,  a  poor  germina- 
tion may  be  expected,  or  if  the  seed  germinates,  the  plants 
are  killed  quickly  by  lack  of  moisture.  They  also  easily 
succumb  from  too  intense  heat.  Where  there  is  lack  of 
moisture,  hairy  vetch  is  preferable. 

When  a  good  stand  of  crimson  clover  is  secured,  it  makes 
almost  an  ideal  crop  for  orchard  purposes,  the  uncertainty 
in  this  respect  being  its  one  weak  point.  However,  it  does 
well  when  once  fairly  started  on  most  soils  excepting  those 
that  are  very  poor  and  lacking  in  humus,  and  stiff,  hard 
clays,  neither  of  which  are  desirable  peach  soils. 

In  Delaware  and  adjacent  areas  the  seed  is  broadcasted 
and  lightly  covered  by  harrowing.  About  15  pounds  of 
seed  or  a  little  more  to  the  acre  are  generally  used.  Seeding 
is  done  from  about  the  middle  of  July  through  most  of  August, 
though  if  sown  too  late  it  will  not  make  growth  enough  be- 
fore cold  weather. 

Under  favorable  conditions,  it  should  make  considerable 
growth  in  the  fall,  which  is  actively  renewed  early  in  the 
spring.  A  good  mass  of  herbage  may  be  expected  ready  to 
turn  under  in  the  spring  by  the  time  cultivation  needs  to 
be  resumed. 

It  is  sometimes  considered  an  advantage  to  seed  with 
rye,  oats,  or  some  other  small  grain,  using  10  to  15  pounds 
of  crimson  clover  seed  and  a  bushel  of  the  small  grain  to  the 
acre.  It  is  also  recommended  to  mix  about  a  pound  of  rape 
or  cowhorn  turnip  seed  with  the  crimson  clover  seed  with 
the  idea  that  the  plants  of  the  latter  as  they  grow  will  furnish 
protection  to  the  weaker  and  more  tender  clover  plants 
while  they  are  very  small. 

It  is  also  practicable  in  some  cases,  in  turning  under  the 
clover,  where  it  has  made  vigorous  growth  to  leave  some  of 


134  Peach-Growing 

the  heads  sticking  up  between  the  furrows  or  in  unplowed 
areas  between  the  trees  in  the  rows  with  a  view  to  such  plants 
maturing  seed  and  reseeding  without  sowing  by  hand.  In 
some  instances  satisfactory  crops  have  been  obtained  in 
this  manner  year  after  year  and  with  practically  no  expense. 

Soybeans. 

The  soybean  has  not  been  very  much  used  heretofore  in 
orchards  as  an  inter-planted  crop  for  any  purpose.  As  a 
cover-  or  green-manure  crop  for  peach  orchards,  it  fills  in 
general  very  much  the  same  needs  as  the  cowpea  and  in 
some  directions  has  a  wider  range  of  usefulness.  South- 
ward its  culture  corresponds  well  with  the  cotton-belt; 
northward,  with  the  corn-belt.  It  is  also  recommended 
for  California  conditions  where  a  summer  cover-crop  is 
desired.  Light  frosts  in  the  fall  that  kill  cowpeas  do  not 
injure  soybeans,  though  they  do  not  withstand  severe 
frosts.  Moreover,  the  seed  germinates  at  a  lower  tempera- 
ture and  may  be  planted  both  earlier  and  later  than  the  cow- 
pea. 

In  sandy  soil,  where  clover  frequently  fails,  this  crop  as 
well  as  cowpeas  has  been  found  to  do  well.  Where  it 
has  not  previously  been  grown,  inoculation  of  the  soil  with 
the  proper  nodule-forming  bacteria  is  necessary.  It  is 
also  more  drought-resistant  than  cowpeas.  The  seed  is 
sown  either  broadcast,  using  1  to  1|  bushels  to  the  acre,  with 
a  grain-drill,  using  about  the  same  quantity  of  seed,  or  in 
drills  28  to  36  inches  apart,  requiring  about  half  the  quantity 
as  when  seeded  by  the  other  methods.  If  the  surface  of 
the  soil  packs  a  little,  however,  after  seeding,  the  plants  may 
have  difficulty  in  coming  up,  while  cowpeas  under  the 
same    conditions    would    grow    readily.     For    this    reason, 


Inter-Planted  Crops  135 

especially,  where  the  soil  is  heavy,  a  poor  stand  is  sometimes 
secured.  Shallow  covering  of  the  seed,  not  more  than  an 
inch,  unless  the  soil  is  very  light  and  loose,  is  advised.  The 
seed  varies  in  size  with  different  varieties,  hence  the  rate 
of  seeding  by  the  same  methods  will  obviously  vary  some- 
what on  this  account. 

There  are  several  varieties  which  are  especially  suited 
for  use  in  orchards.  Ito  San  and  Ebony  are  early  sorts, 
maturing  at  the  Connecticut  Experiment  Station  in  104  to 
118  days;  Wilson  and  Peking  under  the  same  conditions 
reached  maturity  in  120  to  124  days,  and  the  Hollybrook  in 
130  to  135  days. 

Other  varieties  that  may  be  considered  standard  are  men- 
tioned as  follows :  Mammoth,  one  of  the  largest  and  one  of 
the  latest  sorts ;  Guelph,  about  ten  days  later  than  Ito  San ; 
Buckshot  and  Ogernaw,  both  earlier  than  Ito  San  and  also 
very  dwarf  sorts,  and  because  of  these  characteristics  they 
may  be  planted  farther  north  than  most  varieties;  Wis- 
consin Black,  grown  some  in  Wisconsin  and  Michigan ; 
and  some  of  the  newer  sorts  of  promise,  Meyer,  Austin, 
Riceland,  and  Haberlandt,  the  latter  about  a  week  later 
than  Ito  San.  Naturally  the  early  maturing  varieties  do 
not  make  as  much  growth  as  the  later  sorts,  but  for  northern 
regions  where  the  growing  season  is  short  they  should  gen- 
erally be  used  unless  the  planting  is  done  early  in  drills. 

Velvet  beans. 

This  plant,  perhaps  in  some  of  its  forms  better  known  as  a 
vine  for  growing  on  porches  and  for  making  screens  by 
training  on  trellises,  is  used  more  or  less  as  a  soil-improve- 
ment crop  in  the  Gulf  states  and  in  the  Coastal  Plain 
region  northward  as  far  as  and  including  North  Carolina. 


136  Peach-Growing 

It  is  also  recommended  as  a  summer  green-manure  crop 
in  California.  On  account  of  its  climbing  habit  and  its 
consequent  tendency  to  take  possession  of  the  trees,  it  is 
objectionable  for  use  in  orchards,  though  by  taking  a 
little  pains  in  seeding  and  with  a  small  amount  of  attention 
later  serious  annoyance  from  this  cause  may  be  avoided. 
Perhaps  its  most  important  claim  for  favor  in  orchard 
management  in  the  region  to  which  the  crop  is  best  adapted 
is  its  reported  freedom  from  the  attacks  of  nematodes. 

There  are  a  number  of  different  varieties  recognized,  of 
which  the  Hundred-Day  Speckle  is  one  of  the  earliest  matur- 
ing. Others  are  Florida  Velvet  which  is  an  especially  late 
variety,  Chinese,  Wachula,  and  Yokohama. 

Velvet  beans  require  a  long  season  in  which  to  mature, 
hence  early  seeding  is  necessary  if  seed  is  to  be  produced. 
The  rate  of  seeding  varies  with  the  method,  from  1  to  2 
bushels  being  used  if  broadcasted.  Planting  in  drills  or  in 
hills  about  2  feet  apart  in  rows  4  feet  distant  is  recommended. 
The  latter  is  advised  in  order  that  cultivation  may  be  given. 
In  hills  a  bushel  of  seed  will  plant  three  acres  or  more.  In 
Florida  planting  is  done  in  March  or  April,  in  North  Caro- 
lina a  month  later,  though  for  orchard  purposes  when  the 
maturing  of  seed  is  not  a  factor,  later  planting  may  be 
practiced. 

Field  peas. 

Though  not  much  used  in  orchard  management,  field 
peas  have  possibilities.  In  comparison  with  other  legumes 
they  may  be  no  better,  but  they  offer  an  alternative  in  many 
regions  with  which  the  orchardist  should  be  familiar. 

As  a  winter  crop,  that  is  one  to  remain  green  and  in  a 
more  or  less  growing  condition  throughout  the  winter,  peas 


Inter-Planted  Crops  137 

are  adapted  to  a  rather  narrow  belt  which  includes  northern 
Florida,  southern  Georgia  and  westward,  taking  in  the 
southern  half  or  more  of  Texas  and  to  the  Pacific  coast, 
with  most  of  California  in  the  area.  The  New  Mexico 
Experiment  Station  ^  reports  that  when  seeded  during  the 
fall  months,  the  vines  were  too  succulent  and  tender  to  sur- 
vive the  winter,  but  when  seeded  any  time  from  December 
to  March  the  growth  was  not  injured  and  a  good  quantity 
of  herbage  was  available  for  turning  under  by  the  middle  of 
May. 

Probably  field  peas  have  been  used  more  for  orchard  pur- 
poses in  southern  California,  in  the  citrus  groves,  than 
elsewhere.  O'Gara  reports  favorable  results  in  the  Rogue 
River  Valley  in  Oregon  when  used  as  a  spring  crop  for  orchard 
purposes.  Moreover,  seeding  may  be  done  in  most  parts 
of  the  country  at  the  time  of  the  last  cultivation  in  July  or 
August,  but  except  in  the  far  South  and  in  California  the 
vines  will  be  killed  late  in  the  fall  by  low  temperatures, 
though  light  frosts  will  not  injure  them.  The  vines  decay 
quickly  and  leave  the  soil  and  subsoil  in  excellent  condition. 

The  large  vigorous  growing  Marrowfat  varieties,  such  as 
Canadian  Beauty,  Arthur,  Paragon,  Wisconsin  Blue,  and 
others,  are  suitable  for  orchard  purposes. 

About  2  to  2^  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre  are  required 
when  broadcasted,  though  3|  bushels  of  the  very  large- 
seeded  varieties  are  needed,  while  1|  to  2  bushels  of  the 
small-seeded  sorts  will  suffice.  Grain-drills  are  some- 
times used  in  seeding,  in  which  case  a  smaller  quantity  of 
seed  is  required.  The  seed  should  be  covered  from  2  to  4 
inches  deep,  depending  on  whether  the  soil  is  heavy  or  light. 

As  the  vines  mat  down  very  densely,  it  is  an  advantage 
1  BuU.  99. 


138  Peach-Growing 

in  many  instances  to  mix  the  peas  with  oats  or  rye  —  the 
latter  in  the  North  where  a  spring  growth  is  desired.  Where 
this  is  done,  about  1  bushel  to  the  acre  of  the  small  grain  is 
used  with  1  to  2  bushels  of  peas,  depending  on  the  size  of 
the  seed. 

Red  clover. 

With  red  clover  may  be  considered  also  Alsike  clover. 
Mammoth  clover,  and  types  of  similar  habits  of  growth  and 
characteristics.  These  clovers  are  grown  principally  in  a  ter- 
ritory east  of  eastern  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  South  Dakota, 
and  north  of  the  southern  boundar^^  of  Virginia,  Kentucky, 
and  Missouri.  This  area  includes  roughly  somewhat  more 
than  the  northeastern  quarter  of  the  United  States.  Small 
quantities  are  grown  in  the  northwest  and  in  other  parts  of 
the  country,  but  in  these  districts  the  total  is  inconsiderable. 

While  these  clovers,  especially  red  clover,  make  a  most 
excellent  cover-  and  green-manure  crop  under  some  condi- 
tions, especially  in  apple  orchards,  it  may  be  questioned 
whether  they  have  any  place  as  a  rule  in  peach  orchards. 
In  habit  of  growth  the  roots  of  these  plants  are  biennials, 
that  is,  they  live  two  seasons.  Therefore,  they  are  likely  not 
to  make  very  much  growth  if  seeded  in  midseason  after 
orchard  tillage  ceases,  nor  do  they  grow  rapidly  enough  in 
the  spring  to  permit  of  very  much  growth  before  tillage  should 
be  resumed.  It  is  in  orchards  where  a  mulch-crop  is  desired 
that  the  biennial  clovers  find  their  greatest  usefulness  in 
orchard  maintenance.  As  indicated  in  the  chapter  on  till- 
age, it  is  rarely  that  a  peach  orchard  should  be  grown  under 
the  mulch  system.  However,  in  exceptional  cases  in  which 
the  trees  are  making  too  much  growth  or  when  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  expense  of  maintenance  is  imperative,  a  mulch- 


Inter-Planted  Crops  139 

crop  may  be  endured  for  one  season.  (See  page  123  and 
Plate  XII.) 

Seeding  may  be  done  either  broadcast  or  with  a  grain- 
drill  and  covered  l\  to  2  inches  deep  in  light  soils  or  about 
1  inch  in  heavy  soils.  Failure  sometimes  occurs  from  not 
covering  deep  enough.  About  10  to  15  pounds  of  seed  are 
used.  It  is  usually  put  in  at  the  last  cultivation  in  northern 
orchards  or  during  July,  but  in  the  more  southern  clover 
districts  August  or  early  September  will  do,  that  is,  after 
the  intensest  heat  of  summer  is  past.  If  it  is  merely  to  ob- 
tain a  good  catch  seeding  "six  weeks  before  the  first  frost" 
serves  as  a  general  guide,  but  more  fall  growth  is  likely  if 
it  is  done  a  little  earlier. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  a  crop  like  red  clover  should  ever 
be  allowed  to  remain  in  a  peach  orchard  over  more  than 
one  season  before  being  plowed  up.  During  that  season, 
the  growth,  if  fairly  vigorous,  should  be  mowed  two  or 
three  times,  and  left  in  the  orchard  as  a  mulch  or  made  into 
hay,  as  conditions  appear  to  justify. 

Alfalfa. 

For  use  in  maintaining  peach  orchards,  alfalfa  occupies 
something  the  same  place  as  red  clover,  yet  its  use  implies 
even  more  than  does  that  of  red  clover  in  a  mulch-crop  sys- 
tem of  management.  In  the  irrigated  valleys  of  the  West 
where  shade-crops  appear  to  be  of  importance  and  where 
irrigation  water  is  sufficiently  abundant  to  eliminate  any 
question  of  an  adequate  supply  at  all  times,  alfalfa  may 
serve  a  very  useful  purpose  when  grown  to  shade  the  ground 
in  summer.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Arizona  Experiment 
Station  reports  decidedly  harmful  effects  of  alfalfa  in  a  peach 
orchard  by  retarding  the  growth  of  the  trees. 


140  Pedch-Gr  owing 

In  the  irrigated  fruit  regions  of  the  inter-mountain  and 
Pacific  Coast  states  where  ill  effects  of  continuous  clean 
tillage  are  appearing,  the  use  of  alfalfa  as  a  mulch-crop  is 
being  rapidly  extended,  though  not  in  peach  orchards  to  the 
same  extent  as  in  those  of  most  other  kinds  of  fruits. 

About  30  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  is  recommended  for 
humid  regions  and  about  one-half  as  much  in  irrigated  sec- 
tions. The  directions  and  time  for  seeding  clover  apply 
to  alfalfa,  except  that  as  a  mulch-crop  early  spring  seeding 
is  practicable.  However,  advantage  should  be  taken  of 
any  local  experience  in  seeding  which  has  proved  successful. 
The  best  time  and  conditions  for  seeding  vary  more  or  less 
in  different  parts  of  the  country. 

Bur  clover,  button  clover,  Japan  clover  or  Lespedeza,  bitter 
clover,  sweet  clover. 

These  legumes  may  be  mentioned  in  the  present  connec- 
tion merely  to  call  them  to  the  attention  of  peach-growers 
as  possible  alternatives  w^hen  for  any  reason  the  legumes 
more  widely  used  in  orchard  maintenance  are  not  avail- 
able. Each  of  them  has  possibilities  for  use  in  soil  improve- 
ment, but  at  the  present  time  they  are  not  widely  used  as 
cover-  or  green-manure  crops  in  orchard  practice.  In  this 
connection,  it  is  important  to  point  out  the  geographical 
range  of  these  different  plants. 

Bur  clover,  of  w^hich  there  are  several  forms,  is  an  annual 
plant  adapted  rather  definitely  to  the  area  south  of  the  range 
of  red  clover  though  not  including  much  of  Florida  and 
extending  westward  to  include  the  eastern  half  of  Texas. 
It  is  also  grown  west  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  in  Washing- 
ton and  Oregon  and  throughout  the  most  of  California,  where 
one  of  its  forms  (Medicago  hispida  denticulata)  is  probably 


Inter-Planted  Crops  141 

used  as  a  winter  cover-crop  in  orchards  more  extensively 
than  elsewhere  in  the  United  States,  though  it  is  also  used 
for  soil-improvement  purposes  quite  extensively  in  the 
South.  Fall  seeding,  using  15  to  20  pounds  of  hulled  seed 
to  the  acre,  is  the  practice.  If  in  the  hull,  3  to  6  bushels 
are  necessary.  It  may  be  so  handled  after  the  plant  becomes 
established  that  it  will  reseed  itself. 

Button  clover,  like  bur  clover,  is  an  annual.  It  is  adapted 
to  all  the  Gulf  Coast  region  extending  northward  to  about 
the  center  of  Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  nearly  all  of 
Louisiana,  and  the  southwestern  part  of  Texas;  also  to 
southwestern  Arizona,  southern  California,  and  a  narrow 
belt  extending  along  the  entire  Pacific  Coast  to  northern 
Washington.  The  directions  for  seeding  are  the  same  as 
for  bur  clover.  Button  clover  is  decumbent  in  habit  of 
growth,  hence  is  sometimes  seeded  with  one  of  the  small 
grains. 

Japan  clover  or  Lespedeza  is  an  annual  plant  which  in  its 
range  of  adaptability  extends  from  the  extreme  South 
northward  to  the  latitude  of  southern  Pennsylvania  and 
northern  Missouri  and  westward  to  central  Texas  and  western 
Oklahoma.  Its  greatest  usefulness  in  this  area  is  for  pas- 
turage, though  it  is  cut  for  hay  in  some  localities.  It  has 
not  been  much  used  in  orchards,  being  less  valuable,  prob- 
ably, than  other  available  legumes.  It  will  reseed  itself 
if  properly  handled.  Fifteen  or  20  pounds  of  seed  are  used 
in  the  first  sowing.  Seeding  if  used  for  orchard  purposes 
should  be  done  in  the  fall. 

Bitter  clover  (Melilotus  indica)  is  used  as  a  winter  cover- 
and  green-manure  crop  in  orchards  in  California  where  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  state  in  particular  it  appears  to 
be  very  satisfactory  for  this  purpose,  especially  in  the  citrus 


142  Peach-Gromng 

groves  where  in  some  respects  it  is  better  than  common 
vetch  which  heretofore  has  been  used  more  extensively 
than  any  other  plant  as  a  winter  cover-crop.  In  southern 
California,  if  the  crop  is  to  be  plowed  under  in  March,  seeding 
broadcast  should  be  done  by  the  middle  of  October,  but 
where  later  plowing  is  practicable  the  seed  may  be  put  in 
any  time,  up  to  the  middle  of  December.  From  20  to  35 
pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  should  be  used,  the  wide  range 
being  due  to  the  variable  germinating  quality  of  the  seed.^ 

Sweet  clover,  in  its  several  forms  or  species,  is  widely 
distributed  throughout  the  country.  While  grown  in  most 
of  the  humid  and  irrigated  regions,  it  is  also  grown  success- 
fully under  the  dry  land  conditions  that  characterize  the 
Great  Plains  area  where  few  legumes  thrive  unless  irri- 
gated. Its  ability  to  thrive  in  soils  that  are  so  hard  and 
stiff  as  to  be  nearly  unworkable  is  noteworthy.  The  large, 
deeply  penetrating,  fleshy  roots  with  the  numerous  nitrogen- 
gathering  nodules  which  it  habitually  develops  when  the 
soil  once  becomes  inoculated  with  bacteria,  together  with 
the  large  quantity  of  herbage  which  it  makes,  give  it  special 
value  under  some  conditions  for  soil-renovation  purposes. 

There  are  two  species,  Melilotus  alba  and  M.  officinalis, 
the  latter  being  a  yellow-flowered  form.  The  former,  how- 
ever, is  the  more  common.  It  is  an  upright,  much  branched 
perennial,  while  the  yellow-flowered  form  is  decumbent. 
Bitter  clover  {Melilotus  indica)  above  referred  to  is  also 
grouped  by  some  with  the  "sweet  clovers,"  but  as  it  is  an 
annual,  its  use  in  orchards  is  on  quite  a  different  basis. 

Since  the  most  successful  seeding  of  sweet  clover  {Melilo- 
tus alba)  is  done  in  the  spring  and  when  sowed  in  the  fall 
only  a  small  root  system  develops,  the  characteristics  of 
»  CaUf.  Exp.  Sta.  Circ.  136. 


Inter-Planted  Crops  143 

this  plant  do  not  fit  it  well  for  use  in  peach  orchards,  unless 
for  the  purpose  of  overcoming  some  especially  difficult  soil 
condition  enough  can  be  gained  by  letting  the  crop  occupy 
the  land  throughout  the  next  season  to  justify  such  a  course. 
However,  it  makes  an  early  vigorous  spring  growth  which 
could  be  of  value  for  plowing  under  as  soon  as  it  is  desirable 
to  resume  tillage. 

The  fact  that  sweet  clover  is  resistant  to  alkali  in  a  rather 
marked  degree  is  important  in  some  instances,  though 
alkali  soils  are  not  suitable  for  peaches. 

Usually  in  seeding  for  forage  crop  purposes  from  10  to 
20  pounds  of  hulled  seed  to  the  acre  are  used,  the  smaller 
quantities  being  used  in  the  irrigated  regions.  It  frequently 
escapes  cultivation,  growing  by  the  roadsides  and  in  waste 
places. 

Other  legumes. 

While  various  other  legumes  are  used  in  the  management 
of  orchards,  they  are  of  regional  value  for  the  most  part  and 
serve  some  local  purpose  or  offer  an  acceptable  alternative. 
Many  times  the  relative  cost  or  availability  of  seed  will 
determine  the  choice  between  crops,  or  some  factor  other 
than  the  characteristics  of  the  crop  itself  will  fix  the  choice. 

Non-leguminous  crops 

From  the  standpoint  of  orchard  maintenance,  the  non- 
leguminous  plants  used  as  cover-  and  green-manure  crops 
serve  the  same  purpose  as  do  the  legumes,  except  with  re- 
gard to  increasing  the  supply  of  nitrogen.  The  non-legu- 
minous crops  supply  humus,  give  protection  to  the  roots, 
prevent  soil  erosion,  check  the  growth  of  the  trees  in  the 


144  Peach-Growing 

fall  when  the  new  wood  should  ripen  for  winter,  and  the  like. 
Perhaps  on  account  of  the  physical  characteristics  of  a 
number  of  the  legumes  commonly  used,  they  may  accom- 
plish these  ends  more  completely  than  most  of  the  non- 
leguminous  ones  that  are  generally  used  for  these  purposes. 

Though  the  nitrogen  supplied  through  the  leguminous 
crops  is  very  much  more  often  needed  than  otherwise,  there 
are  conditions  when  plants  of  this  other  group  are  exceed- 
ingly useful.  The  more  important  non-leguminous  crops 
with  which  the  orchardist  has  to  do  in  this  connection  are 
here  mentioned,  together  with  their  special  points  of  use- 
fulness. 

Rye. 

Undoubtedly  rye  is  the  most  extensively  and  widely  used 
non-leguminous  plant  for  orchard  cover-  and  green-manure 
purposes.  Generally  speaking  it  may  be  used  in  all  the 
peach-growing  regions,  yet  as  a  grain  crop  it  is  of  much 
greater  importance  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States 
than  in  the  western,  though  but  little  grown  in  the  far 
South.  It  is  often  used  on  very  poor  soils  as  a  forerunner 
of  legumes,  most  of  which  require  a  soil  moderately  well 
supplied  with  humus. 

It  may  be  sowed  late  in  the  season  if  so  desired ;  it  re- 
mains green  throughout  the  winter,  even  growing  more  or 
less  in  the  milder  sections ;  it  starts  very  early  in  the  spring, 
making  rapid  gro\\i;h,  hence  furnishing  a  good  supply  of 
herbage  to  plow  under  as  soon  as  it  is  desirable  to  resume 
tillage.  It  thus  meets  well  nearly  every  need  of  a  winter 
soil  cover. 

It  is  said  that,  as  a  general  rule,  seeding  broadcast  or 
with  a  drill,  using  1|  to  2  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre,  may  be 


Inter-Planted  Crops  145 

done  ten  weeks  before  the  ground  freezes.  Relatively  later 
seeding,  however,  is  practicable,  fairly  good  success  being 
reported  from  sections  as  far  north  as  central  New  York 
when  seeded  the  first  of  November.  As  a  rule,  however, 
seeding  for  orchard  purposes  as  late  in  the  season  as  this  is 
rarely  necessary  or  desirable. 

As  noted  elsewhere,  rye  is  frequently  used  in  orchards 
when  mixed  with  various  legumes. 

Oats. 

Oats  are  not  extensively  used  in  orchards  though  some- 
times made  to  serve  in  place  of  rye,  either  in  the  South 
where  the  mildness  of  winter  makes  it  possible  for  them  to 
continue  growth  late  in  the  season;  or,  if  in  the  North, 
where  the  growth  that  is  made  during  the  fall  serves  the 
desired  purpose.  Oats  do  not  survive  the  winters  of  the 
North.  Late  summer  or  early  fall  seeding  is  satisfactory, 
depending  on  the  region,  about  2  or  2^  bushels  of  seed  to 
the  acre  being  required. 

Buckwheat. 

Next  to  rye,  buckwheat  Is  probably  used  in  orchard 
practice  more  than  any  other  non-leguminous  crop.  It 
is  killed  by  the  first  frosts  but  it  grows  rapidly,  seeded  in 
midsummer  when  tillage  ceases  for  the  season,  and  it  leaves 
the  soil  in  good  condition  when  the  herbage  becomes  in- 
corporated in  it.  The  seed  is  usually  broadcasted,  ^  bushel 
to  a  bushel  to  the  acre  being  used. 

Rape,  cowhorn  turnips. 

Both  of  these  crops  are  frequently  used  for  the  supplying 
of  humus  in  orchard  soils.     The  seed  is  put  in  broadcast  in 


146  Peach-Growing 

late  summer  at  the  rate  of  1|  to  3  pounds  to  the  acre.  Con- 
siderable growth  will  usually  develop  before  the  plants  are 
killed  by  the  hard  freezes  of  late  fall.  Ordinary  frosts  do 
not  injure  them.  They  leave  the  soil  in  fairly  good  condition 
and  may  be  of  considerable  value.  Perhaps  they  are  used 
more  often  than  otherwise  with  a  view  to  turning  hogs 
into  the  orchard  late  in  the  season.  Under  some  conditions 
this  course  is  practicable,  though  the  running  of  hogs  in  a 
peach  orchard  should  be  done  very  guardedly,  if  at  all. 

Millet,  corn,  cane. 

These  crops  have  a  certain  range  of  usefulness  for  orchard 
purposes.  They  supply  a  considerable  amount  of  humus 
if  seeded  broadcast  in  midsummer,  though  they  are  killed 
by  the  first  frosts.  Of  these  crops,  millet  has  some  ad- 
vantages, the  German  millet  on  account  of  its  vigor  of 
growth  being  preferable  to  the  smaller-growing  forms.  It 
should  be  seeded  broadcast  about  six  weeks  before  the  first 
fall  frost  is  expected,  using  from  1  to  1^  bushels  of  seed  to 
the  acre.  If  seeded  earlier,  the  plants  are  likely  to  mature 
seed  which  may  give  annoyance  the  next  season.  Millet 
is  killed  by  the  first  frost,  hence  its  activities  then  cease. 

Some  results  with  these  crops,  also  rye  and  oats  in  com- 
parison, as  reported  by  Emerson,^  are  illuminating.  The 
cover-  and  green-manure  crop  problem  in  Nebraska  is  some- 
what peculiar,  yet  typical  of  a  considerable  range  of  territory 
which  is  characterized  by  limited  rainfall  and  the  resulting 
acuteness  of  the  soil-moisture  factor;  comparatively  severe 
winter  temperatures,  frequently  with  little  or  no  snow  to 
protect  the  ground ;  by  a  tendency,  some  seasons  at  least, 
to  rather  late  tree  growth ;  and  by  the  ever  present  need  of 
1  Nebr.  Exp.  Sta.,  19th  An.  Rept.  and  Bull.  92. 


Inter-Planted  Crops  147 

maintaining  a  good  supply  of  humus  in  the  soil  especially 
in  connection  with  the  moisture  factor.  These  conditions 
require  particular  effort  in  the  direction  of  checking  tree 
growth  so  that  the  wood  will  ripen  before  dangerously  low 
temperatures  occur;  supplying  a  protective  covering  for 
the  soil,  which  among  other  things  will  catch  and  retain  the 
snow  and  the  winter  rains;  and  the  conservation  of  soil- 
moisture. 

It  was  found  from  the  work  at  the  Nebraska  Station 
that  with  peaches,  rye  as  a  cover-crop  was  disastrous  be- 
cause of  its  long-continued  growth  in  the  fall  and  its  deple- 
tion of  the  soil-moisture  to  the  point  at  which  the  trees 
suffer  severely  thereby  during  the  winter.  A  considerable 
proportion  of  the  trees  died.  Oats  were  less  objectionable 
than  rye,  since  they  ceased  to  grow  somewhat  earlier  than 
rye,  being  killed  by  low  temperatures.  Examination  of 
the  soil-moisture  at  various  times  revealed  that  it  was 
appreciably  higher  in  the  oat  plat  where  few  trees  died 
than  where  rye  was  used. 

The  best  results,  however,  were  where  millet,  corn,  and 
cane  were  used,  crops  that  were  killed  by  the  first  frost,  and 
which,  therefore,  ceased  to  draw  on  the  moisture  in  the  soil 
after  that  time.  These  plats  contained  a  higher  percent- 
age of  soil-moisture  than  the  oat  and  rye  plats  and  the 
trees  came  through  the  winter  in  a  correspondingly  better 
condition. 

Of  these  crops,  the  millet  proved  most  nearly  ideal.  The 
seed  germinates  readily ;  a  large  amount  of  growth  is  made 
which  is  available  to  plow  under  for  humus;  it  forms  a 
fairly  good  cover  for  the  ground ;  it  stands  up  well  enough 
after  being  killed  by  the  frost  to  catch  the  snow  and  prevent 
it  from  blowing  away ;   it  checks  the  growth  of  the  trees  at 


148  Peach-Growing 

the  time  it  ought  to  be  checked,  giving  them  time  to  ripen 
before  hard  freezes  occur.  All  are  essential  characteristics 
for  a  cover-crop  where  the  conditions  to  be  met  are  similar 
to  those  enumerated  above. 

Other  cover-crops 

Numerous  other  crops  than  those  named  are  used  in 
peach  orchards.  Many  of  them  are  of  value  locally,  but  the 
ones  mentioned  meet  a  wide  range  of  conditions.  They 
are  typical.  In  this  connection,  weeds,  if  they  are  annuals 
and  not  obnoxious  in  any  way,  may  and  often  do  serve  a 
useful  purpose.  In  a  measure  they  do  what  any  non- 
leguminous  cover-crop  does  in  supplying  a  winter  cover  for 
the  soil,  protecting  the  roots  of  the  trees,  and  in  making 
humus. 


CHAPTER  IX 

FERTILIZERS  FOR  PEACH  ORCHARDS 

The  peach  needs  every  kind  of  plant-food  that  other 
plants  and  all  plants  need.  The  proportion  of  the  different 
food  elements  and  the  actual  amounts  required  by  different 
plants  vary  somewhat,  but  perhaps  not  as  greatly  as  is 
commonly  supposed.  But  even  a  determination  of  the 
amounts  of  plant-food,  both  actual  and  relative,  taken  up 
by  a  tree  does  not  serve  to  direct  the  practical,  wise,  and 
economical  use  of  commercial  fertilizers. 

All  plants  in  their  growth  require  at  least  ten  food  ele- 
ments. These  are :  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen, 
potassium,  phosphorus,  sulfur,  calcium,  magnesium,  and 
iron.  Three  other  elements,  sodium,  chlorin,  and  silica,  may 
be  used  by  plants.  The  first  three  named  make  up  90  to 
98  per  cent  of  green  plants.  Nitrogen  comprises  .2  to  1.5 
per  cent.  All  the  others,  totaling  from  1  to  8  per  cent  of  the 
plant's  substance,  are  termed  the  ash  constituents,  since 
they  remain  in  the  ashes  when  the  plant  is  burned. 

Carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  are  gases  which  plants 
obtain  from  the  air  and  from  water  in  unrestricted  quanti- 
ties. Nitrogen  is  also  a  gas  and  comprises  about  three- 
fourths  of  the  air,  but  plants  as  a  rule  cannot  take  it  in  this 
form  direct  from  the  air.  It  must  be  combined  in  the  soil 
with  other  substances,  preferably  in  a  form  termed  a  "ni- 
trate," or  as  ammonia.     It  is  taken  up  in  these  forms  from 

149 


l50  Peach-Growing 

the  soil  by  the  roots.  Leguminous  plants  through  the  ac- 
tion of  the  bacteria  which  inhabit  their  roots  are  able  to  use 
the  free  nitrogen  from  the  air,  hence  their  value  in  enriching 
soils  in  this  plant-food  element. 

It  is  universally  recognized  by  the  soil  chemists  and  others 
that  all  ordinary  soils  contain  enough  of  all  the  elements 
above  enumerated  except  three  to  enable  them  to  produce 
maximum  crops  indefinitely.  These  exceptions  are  :  nitrogen, 
which  very  frequently  is  not  contained  in  the  soil  in  combined 
form  in  adequate  quantities,  potassium,  and  phosphorus ;  or, 
expressed  in  the  more  familiar  terms  of  the  fertilizer  trade, 
nitrogen  (or  ammonia),  potash,  and  phosphoric  acid.  Cal- 
cium, in  the  form  of  lime,  may  be  needed  in  larger  quanti- 
ties than  it  occurs,  but  for  quite  secondary  effects  rather 
than  as  a  direct  plant-food.  Substantially,  then,  in  the 
solution  of  the  fertilizer  problem,  the  peach-grower  is  con- 
cerned only  with  these  three  elements,  nitrogen,  potassium, 
and  phosphorus. 

With  this  approach  to  the  matter  it  might  seem  that  a 
chemical  analysis  of  the  tree  in  all  its  parts  compared  with 
a  similar  analysis  of  the  soil  where  the  tree  was  growing 
would  show  what  was  lacking,  and  the  question  of  what 
fertilizer  to  use  would  be  easily  and  quickly  answered. 
But  this  is  not  the  case.  A  chemist  might  make  these 
analyses,  and  those  of  the  soil  might  show  every  element  of 
plant-food  present  in  almost  inexhaustible  quantity,  and  yet 
in  actual  experience  it  might  be  entirely  possible  that  trees 
growing  on  the  soil  analyzed  would  show  every  indication 
of,  and  in  fact  actually  be  in,  a  depleted,  starving  condi- 
tion —  a  case  of  the  soil  analyzing  very  rich  in  all  the  plant- 
food  elements,  yet  unfertile  and  unproductive.  Such  in- 
stances are  not  only  not  hypothetical,  but  very  common. 


Fertilizers  for  Peach  Orchards  151 

On  the  other  hand,  a  soil  may  analyze  low  in  plant-food 
elements  yet  prove  to  be  very  productive. 

The  whole  difficulty  here  rests  in  the  fact  that  the  methods 
of  analysis  known  to  the  chemists  do  not  approximate  those 
used  by  the  roots  of  the  trees  in  abstracting  the  food  material 
from  the  soil.  Thus,  a  soil  that  analyzes  very  rich  in  plant- 
food  elements  may  hold  them  in  such  chemical  combina- 
tions that  the  roots  can  obtain  them  only  in  minute  quanti- 
ties or  not  at  all ;  while  in  a  soil  that  appears  poor  in 
comparison  when  analyzed  the  plant-food  elements  may  be 
in  such  chemical  combinations  that  the  roots  can  obtain 
them  in  the  degree  necessary  for  optimum  results. 

The  real  problem,  then,  is  not  whether  this  fertilizer, 
or  that  one,  is  good  for  peaches,  but  to  determine  whether 
nitrogen,  potash  (potassium),  and  phosphoric  acid  (phos- 
phorus) are  contained  in  the  soil  in  sufficient  abundance 
and  in  available  forms  for  the  needs  of  the  trees. 

The  reader  should  here  recall  the  very  close  bearing 
which  tillage  and  the  use  of  suitable  cover-  and  green-manure 
crops  have  on  the  fertility  of  the  soils,  as  presented  in  the 
preceding  chapters.  Not  infrequently  when  an  orchard 
has  been  neglected  or  improperly  managed  with  respect  to 
tillage  and  cover-crops  and  the  trees  are  lacking  in  thrift 
and  vigor  with  the  attending  signs  of  starvation,  their  con- 
dition is  entirely  and  speedily  changed  for  the  better  on  the 
adoption  of  suitable  methods  of  orchard  management,  the 
trees  soon  giving  evidence  that  all  needed  plant-food  is 
being  supplied.  The  reader  will  recall  in  this  connection 
the  influence  of  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  as  affected 
by  tillage  and  humus  on  the  bacterial  and  other  organisms 
in  the  soil  and  their  relation  to  soil  fertility. 

It  follows  in  logical  sequence  that  questions  relating  to 


152  Peach-Grotoing 

the  use  of  fertilizers  call  for  settlement  and  definite  action 
only  after  all  the  benefits  of  tillage  and  a  liberal  humus 
supply  in  the  soil  have  been  taken  fully  into  account. 

The  very  local  nature  of  the  fertilizer  problem  is  thus 
declared.  Hardly  any  two  orchards  are  managed  the 
same  with  respect  to  the  soil ;  scarcely  any  two  pieces  of 
land  have  the  same  history  with  reference  to  the  crops 
they  have  produced  previous  to  their  being  used  for  orchard 
purposes.  These  factors  and  others  have  their  influence 
on  the  plant-food  content  of  the  soil.  It  follows,  therefore, 
that  every  orchard  presents  to  the  owner  its  individual  ferti- 
lizer problems ;  and  that  when  the  needs  of  one  orchard  have 
been  determined  it  signifies  little  or  nothing  with  reference  to 
another  orchard,  unless  it  happens  that  the  soil  conditions 
with  reference  to  fertility  are  substantially  the  same  in  both 
orchards.  It  is  entirely  possible  that  a  fertilizer  which  is 
the  most  economical  to  use  in  one  orchard  and  which  pro- 
duces marked  results  will  not  be  the  most  economical  in 
another  orchard,  or,  if  applied,  may  even  fail  entirely  to  gain 
response  of  any  kind. 

The  fertilizer  problems  in  peach-growing  are  so  local  that 
they  must  be  worked  out  on  a  rational  economical  basis,  if 
at  all,  for  each  orchard ;  and  where  the  soil  in  an  orchard  is 
not  fairly  uniform,  different  parts  of  the  same  orchard  re- 
quire different  treatment  with  respect  to  fertilizers.  It  is 
only  one  step  farther  to  say  that  the  fertilizer  needs  of  an 
orchard  at  any  given  period  in  its  life  may  not  be  the  same 
as  they  will  be  three  or  five  or  ten  years  later.  It  depends 
on  the  treatment  the  orchard  receives  meanwhile,  together 
with  the  inherent  characteristics  of  the  soil.  Moreover, 
there  are  no  short-cut  methods  by  which  a  peach-grower 
can  find  out  whether  his  orchard  needs  fertilizers,  and  if 


Fertilizers  for  Peach  Orchards  153 

so  what  should  be  applied.  His  one  recourse  is  to  refer 
to  the  trees  themselves,  and  the  response  they  make  to  the 
appUcation  of  different  kinds  of  plant-food. 

A  soil  must  contain  all  the  requisite  plant-food  elements 
in  a  form  available  to  the  tree,  and  in  suitable  amounts, 
if  the  tree  is  to  thrive  and  develop  normally.  It  has  already 
been  pointed  out  that  in  the  practical  consideration  of  the 
problems  the  peach-grower  is  concerned  only  with  three 
elements,  nitrogen,  potassium,  and  phosphorus.  These  three 
elements  are  likely  to  be  deficient  for  optimum  results 
in  the  average  soil,  or  if  present  they  are  in  such  chemical 
combinations  that  the  tree  roots  cannot  take  them  up.  The 
economical  aspects  of  the  problem  may  now  easily  be  seen. 
Not  only  may  these  three  food  elements  be  deficient,  but 
any  one  or  any  two  of  them  may  be  lacking  while  the  others 
are  present  in  abundance.  Yet  the  absence  of  one  may 
as  effectively  limit  the  growth  of  the  trees  and  crop  pro- 
duction as  if  all  three  elements  were  lacking, 

A  common  practice  among  peach-growers,  if  they  fer- 
tilize at  all,  is  to  apply  a  complete  fertilizer,  one  containing 
in  quantity  all  three  of  the  plant-food  elements  mentioned 
above.  If  any  one  of  them  is  deficient,  it  is  thus  supplied 
in  the  complete  fertilizer,  and  naturally  the  trees  respond 
in  the  manner  desired.  The  grower  is  pleased  with  the 
results  and  thinks  he  knows  the  fertilizer  needs  of  his  or- 
chard. Probably  his  neighbor  peach-grower  sees  the  results 
and  applies  the  same  kind  of  fertilizer  to  his  trees.  He  may 
or  may  not  secure  the  looked-for  results.  If  he  does  it  is 
an  accident,  not  the  reward  of  intelligent,  well-directed 
effort  on  his  part. 

The  fault  with  this  procedure  rests  in  the  fact  that  a  single 
plant-food  only  may  be  lacking  and  is  thus  the  limiting 


154  Peach-Growing 

factor,  while  in  the  complete  fertilizer  all  three  of  the  ele- 
ments are  applied.  If  only  one  or  perhaps  two  of  them  are 
lacking,  to  apply  the  one  or  ones  already  in  the  soil  in  abun- 
dance is  without  avail,  and  the  pleasing  results  that  may  be 
observed  came  from  the  one  element  in  the  complete  fer- 
tilizer that  was  lacking  in  the  soil. 

Thus,  until  a  peach-grower  has  demonstrated  by  experi- 
ment that  his  orchard  needs  a  complete  fertilizer,  it  is  de- 
cidedly unbusinesslike  for  him  to  apply  it.  It  is  likely  to 
be  wasteful  and  uneconomical.  To  apply  in  a  fertilizer 
an  element  of  plant-food  which  is  already  supplied  abun- 
dantly in  available  form  by  the  soil  itself  adds  to  the  cost 
of  production  without  any  compensating  returns. 

Several  experiment  stations  have  conducted  well-planned, 
comprehensive  investigations  with  a  view  to  throwing  light 
on  the  plant-food  requirements  of  peach  trees.  It  is  both 
impracticable  and  unnecessary  to  discuss  here  in  any  con- 
siderable detail  the  work  done  by  the  experiment  stations 
along  this  line,  but  some  of  the  results  are  especially  illu- 
minating and  instructive.  The  more  significant  features, 
therefore,  are  briefly  recounted. 

Van  Slyke  ^  and  his  associates  endeavored  to  determine 
as  accurately  as  possible  the  amount  of  plant-food  taken 
by  peach  and  other  fruit-trees  of  mature  age  in  bearing  during 
one  growing  season.  The  method  of  procedure  was  to  col- 
lect separately  all  the  leaves,  fruit,  and  current  season's 
growth  made  at  the  ends  of  the  branches  and  make  chemical 
analyses  of  them.  One  tree  each  of  three  varieties  of  peaches 
was  used,  an  Elberta  nine  years  old,  a  Champion,  and  a 
Chili  (Hills'  Chili)  seven  years  old.  The  results  of  the  analy- 
ses were  presented  separately  for  each  variety  and  show  con- 
1 N.  Y.  Agr.  Expt.  Sta.  BuU.  265. 


Plate  XIII.  —  Pruning  Elberta  Peach  Trees.  Top,  pruned  to  a 
low  spreading  head  ;  bottom,  a  one-year-old  tree  cut  back  to  a  straight 
stem  at  A  when  planted,  now  in  July  of  its  first  season's  growth  in  the 
orchard. 


Fertilizers  for  Peach  Orchards 


155 


siderable  difference, 
due  no  doubt  to  dif- 
ferences in  size  of  the 
crops  on  the  different 
trees,  size  and  vigor 
of  growth,  and  the 
like.  The  figures 
herewith  are  based  on 
Van  Slyke's  analy- 
ses, but  are  pre- 
sented in  the  form  of 
averages  for  the  three 
varieties. 

The  accompanying 
table  is  largely  self- 
explaining  since  the 
details  are  specific. 
It  is  to  be  noted  that 
the  largest  item  of 
weight  is  the  fruit, 
that  a  relatively  large 
quantity  of  potash  is 
required,  and  that 
nearly  all  the  lime  is 
in  the  leaves,  while 
the  fruit  makes  large 
demands  for  all  the 
elements  reported  ex- 
cept lime  and  mag- 
nesia, which  are  taken 
in  relatively  small 
amounts  by  the  fruit. 


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156 


Peach-Gromng 


Of  course  the  total  amount  of  plant-food  taken  by  the 
trees  is  not  represented  in  the  table,  since  the  increase  in 
the  size  of  the  trunks,  in  the  limbs  more  than  one  year  old, 
and  in  the  roots  is  not  included  in  the  analyses  made.  There 
is  good  reason  for  assuming,  however,  that  the  amount  of 
plant-food  entering  into  the  growth  of  these  parts  of  the 
tree  is  relatively  small  and  would  not  very  greatly  affect 
the  totals. 

Therefore,  since  the  above  figures  are  not  absolute  in 
their  accuracy,  there  is  no  violation  of  facts  in  discarding  the 
small  fractions  in  the  table  and  presenting  the  substance  in 
a  more  condensed  form  as  follows  : 

Table  V.  —  Approximate  amounts  op  plant-food  taken  an- 
nually BY  A  mature  peach  TREE  IN  BEARING  ;  ALSO  BY  AN 
ACRE  OF  TREES  (108  TREES)  AND  THE  RATIO  OF  THE  DIFFERENT 
POOD    ELEMENTS 


Plant-Food 


Amount 

Taken  by  One 

Tree 


Nitrogen  .  .  . 
Phosphoric  Acid 
Potash  .  .  . 
Lime  .  .  .  . 
Magnesia       .     . 


lbs. 

0.63 
.14 
.60 
.95 
.30 


Amount 

Required  by 

One  Acre 

(108  trees) 


lbs. 
68 

15 

65 

102 

32 


Ratio  Based 

ON  One  Pound 

OF  Nitrogen 


1.00 
0.25 
1.00 
1.50 
0.50 


In  this  table,  which  is  based  on  Table  IV,  the  demands 
made  by  peach  trees  on  the  soil  fertility  are  suggested. 
Obviously  these  demands  vary  considerably  from  year  to 
year  as  the  crop  varies.  The  last  column  in  Table  V  shows 
the  ratio  in  which  different  food  materials  are  used.  Thus, 
for  every  pound  of  nitrogen  taken  up  by  a  tree  there  is 


Fertilizers  for  Peach  Orchards  157 

required  |-  pound  of  phosphoric  acid,  1   of  potash,  1^  of 
lime,  and  ^  pound  of  magnesia. 

The  work  done  by  the  New  Jersey  Station  and  reported 
by  Warren  ^  was  along  lines  similar  to  that  of  the  New  York 
Station,  but  it  was  carried  considerably  farther  in  detail, 
the  object  being  to  determine  the  entire  amount  of  plant- 
food  removed  by  a  tree  in  a  ten-year  period. 

The  tree  used  was  a  Late  Crawford  planted  as  a  one- 
year-old  in  1896.  The  plan  required  that  the  entire  growth 
of  leaves,  the  prunings,  and  the  fruit  after  it  began  bearing 
be  collected  each  year,  weighed,  and  analyzed.  After  the 
tenth  season,  the  tree  was  dug  up  with  its  root  system  as 
complete  as  possible,  divided  into  parts,  weighed  and  an- 
alyzed as  for  the  annual  growth  products  of  the  tree.  The 
tree  was  separated  into  parts  as  follows :  (1)  The  1905 
growth  cut  from  the  tips  of  all  twigs;  (2)  the  remaining 
twigs  up  to  one  inch  in  diameter ;  (3)  remainder  of  the  top 
to  the  surface  of  the  ground ;  (4)  roots  larger  than  one  inch 
in  diameter;  (5)  roots  smaller  than  one  inch  in  diameter. 
A  summary  of  the  plant-food  materials  used  during  the 
entire  ten  years'  growth  is  given  in  Table  VI. 

The  data  in  the  body  of  this  table  consist  of  the  analyses 
that  were  made  of  the  different  parts  of  the  tree.  There- 
fore, they  represent  a  very  close  approximation  to  accuracy 
in  representing  the  amount  of  plant-food  that  was  actually 
taken  up  by  the  tree  and  its  products  in  ten  years.  The  sec- 
ond section  of  the  table  shows  the  relative  quantities  of  plant- 
food  treating  the  nitrogen  as  unity.  Thus  in  the  total, 
it  appears  that  for  every  pound  of  nitrogen  used,  nearly 
.3  (.27)  of  a  pound  of  phosphoric  acid  and  about  .6  of  potash 
were  needed. 

1  An.  Rept.  N.  J.  Sta.  for  1906,  pp.  192-203. 


158 


Peach-Growing 


Table  VI.  —  Amounts  of  plant-food  removed  in  ten  years' 

GROWTH  IN  different  PARTS  OP  A  PEACH  TREE 


Relative  Amounts 

Amounts  Removed 

Used 

IN  Different 

Parts 

Phos- 

Ni- 
trogen 

Phos- 

Nitrogen 

phoric 
Acid 

Potash 

phoric 
Acid 

Potash 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Wood  and  roots 

(when  dug)    . 

275.0 

0.629 

0.217 

0.328 

1 

0.34 

0.52 

Prunings  for  10 

years    .     .     . 

41.2 

0.216 

0.069 

0.114 

1 

0.32 

0.53 

Leaves    for    10 

years    .     ,     . 

170.5 

1.775 

0.351 

0.991 

1 

0.20 

0.56 

Fruit  produced 

128.3 

0.225 

0.121 

0.258 

1 

0.54 

1.15 

Total     .     . 

615.0 

2.845 

0.758 

1.691 

Estimated     Total     per 

acre     trees     20  X  20 

feet  (108  trees)  i   .     . 

307 

82 

183 

1 

0.27 

0.59 

The  yield  of  the  tree  used  in  this  investigation  for  some 
reason  was  very  small,  only  128  pounds  in  all.  The  average 
yield  for  the  orchard  in  which  it  stood  was  277  pounds  to 
the  tree  for  the  same  period.  As  it  began  bearing  the  fourth 
year,  the  records  cover  in  effect  seven  crop  seasons,  though 
one  year  it  bore  no  fruit  on  account  of  frost  injury.  Had 
this  tree  produced  crops  that  averaged  as  much  as  the  entire 
orchard,  and  which  was  a  very  moderate  yield,  the  amount 

^  In  the  report  of  this  work  by  the  New  Jersey  Experiment 
Station,  all  acre  estimates  are  based  on  trees  planted  15  by  16  feet 
apart  or  about  181  to  the  acre.  As  commercial  orchards  are  now 
rarely  planted  as  close  as  this,  it  seems  better  to  reduce  the  acre 
estimates  used  here  to  the  unit  of  108  trees  to  the  acre  which  results 
from  planting  20  by  20  feet. 


Fertilizers  for  Peach  Orchards  159 

of  plant-food  removed,  of  course,  would  have  been  corre- 
spondingly more. 

The  estimated  total  amount  of  plant-food  withdrawn  by 
an  acre  of  108  trees  is  of  course  hypothetical.  The  number 
of  trees  to  the  acre  varies  considerably  with  different  growers, 
and  within  certain  limits  probably  the  larger  the  number 
the  greater  the  plant-food  requirement.  On  the  other  hand, 
trees  planted  16  by  16  feet  would  probably  begin  to  crowd 
long  before  they  were  ten  years  old  and  they  would,  there- 
fore, not  be  likely  to  be  as  large  and  vigorous  as  trees  that 
had  more  space.  Hence  the  plant-food  requirements  to 
the  acre  would  cease  early  in  the  life  of  the  orchard  to  be 
definitely  proportionate  to  the  number  of  trees  where  close 
planting  and  the  consequent  crowding  occur,  in  comparison 
with  a  tree  that  grows  without  competition  with  others. 

The  estimated  annual  plant-food  demands  of  the  tree 
that  was  analyzed  in  the  New  Jersey  work  are  illuminating 
and  instructive  as  is  also  the  length  of  the  new  twig  growth 
in  different  years.  In  all  these  calculations  the  amount  of 
plant-food  in  the  tree  when  it  was  planted  as  a  one-year- 
old  is  ignored,  since  it  was  so  small  as  to  be  negligible. 

The  estimated  annual  demands  during  the  ten-year  period 
that  enter  into  the  consideration  appear  in  Table  VII,  also 
the  length  of  the  new  twig  growth  made  each  year. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  during  the  first  four  years,  while 
the  tree  was  making  most  of  its  growth,  there  was  a  gradual 
increase  each  year  in  the  plant-food  removed  from  the  soil. 
The  extremely  small  amounts  of  the  different  elements  taken 
the  first  year  is  also  of  interest  since  it  suggests  that  if  the 
soil  is  in  reasonably  fertile  condition  when  the  trees  are 
planted,  there  is  little  likelihood  of  their  needing  commer- 
cial plant-foods  the  first  season.     In  the  following  six  years 


160 


Peach-Growing 


the  amounts  removed  were  quite  uniform  in  the  different 
years,  the  notable  exceptions  being  in  1901  when  for  some 
reason  there  was  nearly  double  the  twig  growth  made  in 
any  other  year,  and  in  1904  when  there  was  no  crop. 


Table  VII.  —  Estimated  amounts  of  plant-food  removed  an- 
nually DURING  TEN  YEARS  BY  THE  TREE  ANALYZED,  THE 
LENGTH  OP  THE  ANNUAL  TWIG  GROWTH,  AND  THE  ESTIMATED 
PLANT-FOOD    DEMAND    PER    ACRE 


Number 
OP  Inches 
Growth 

Estimated  Amounts  Removed 
BY  One  Tree 

Estimated  Amount  per 
Acre  (108  Trees) 

Year 

Nitrogen 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Nitrogen 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 

Potash 

1896 

541 

0.026 

0.006 

0.011 

2.8 

0.2 

1.3 

1897 

2388 

0.102 

0.027 

0.059 

11.0 

2.9 

6.4 

1898 

4723 

0.233 

0.050 

0.131 

25.1 

5.4 

14.2 

1899 

5818 

0.364 

0.082 

0.200 

39.2 

8.9 

21.6 

1900 

6757 

0.369 

0.100 

0.201 

39.8 

10.8 

21.7 

1901 

11716 

0.535 

0.146 

0.311 

57.8 

15.8 

33.6 

1902 

6502 

0.365 

0.107 

0.219 

39.4 

11.6 

23.7 

1903 

5284 

0.299 

0.087 

0.181 

32.3 

9.5 

19.5 

1904 

3469 

0.263 

0.064 

0.168 

28.4 

6.9 

18.2 

1905 

2729 

0.289 

0.092 

0.211 

31.2 

10.0 

22.8 

Totals 

44,927 

2.845 

0.761 

1.692 

307.0 

82.0 

183.0 

Annual  A 
first  4  3 

.verage 

,TS. 

0.181 

0.041 

0.100 

19.5 

4.4 

10.9 

Annual    J 
last  6  y 

Average 
rs. 

0.353 

0.099 

0.199 

38.1 

10.8 

23.2 

There  is  of  course  no  direct  means  of  determining  how 
much  plant-food  is  required  for  the  annual  increase  in  size 
of  the  trunk  and  limbs  two  years  and  more  old.  It  is  doubt- 
less relatively  small,  since  the  analyses  made  of  the  tree  show 
that  the  new  twig  growth  is  very  much  richer  in  plant-food 


Fertilizers  for  Peach  Orchards  161 

elements  than  is  the  older  wood.  It  was  ascertained  also 
that  the  amount  of  twig  growth  in  any  season  was  a  fairly 
good  index  of  the  rate  of  growth  of  trunk  and  older  limbs. 
The  years  in  which  the  greatest  twig  growth  occurred  were 
also  the  years  in  which  the  annular  rings  in  the  trunk  and 
limbs  were  the  largest. 

The  results  of  these  two  investigations,  one  by  the  New 
York  Experiment  Station  and  the  other  by  the  New  Jersey 
Station,  tend  to  confirm  each  other  in  the  main  essentials. 
The  New  York  analyses  show  a  considerably  larger  relative 
use  by  the  tree  of  potash,  though  both  investigations  em- 
phasize the  importance  of  that  element,  especially  in  the 
fruit,  and  they  call  particular  attention  to  a  surprisingly 
large  requirement  of  nitrogen.  The  New  Jersey  results 
also  bring  to  light  the  fact  that  in  seasons  when  a  crop  of 
fruit  was  borne,  the  chemical  composition  of  the  ash  of  the 
leaves  was  much  lower  in  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  than 
in  years  when  there  was  no  fruit,  thus  suggesting  the  trans- 
fer of  these  mineral  plant-foods  from  the  leaves  to  the  fruit, 
a  phenomenon  more  or  less  well  recognized  in  other  connec- 
tions. 

The  results  of  an  investigation  carried  on  by  the  Arkansas 
Experiment  Station  and  reported  by  Thompson  ^  and  which 
was  prosecuted  along  lines  similar  to  those  followed  in  New 
Jersey  corroborate  in  essential  particulars  the  findings  in 
that  work. 

It  is  well  to  point  out  here  that,  though  these  investiga- 
tions and  analyses  show  in  some  measure  the  plant-food 
requirements  of  peach  trees  and  their  products,  they  leave 
entirely  unsolved  the  problem  of  how  to  meet  those 
requirements. 

1  Ark.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  123. 


162  Peach-Growing 

Other  investigators  have  worked  on  the  plant-food  re- 
quirements from  another  standpoint  —  that  of  "  question- 
ing the  soil,"  as  it  would  be  expressed  by  one  of  the  earlier 
professors  of  agriculture.  Application  of  different  plant- 
foods  and  in  varying  combinations  and  amounts  have  been 
made  for  a  series  of  years  to  selected  blocks  of  trees  in  com- 
mercial orchards  and  the  results  of  the  different  fertilizer 
treatments  carefully  recorded  each  season. 

This  type  of  experiment  conducted  in  chert  and  shale 
soils  in  the  Potomac  Valley  region  of  West  Virginia  has 
yielded  well  defined  results,  though  not  in  all  respects  con- 
firming preconceived  ideas  with  reference  to  the  use  of 
fertilizers  in  peach  orchards.  In  summarizing  the  results 
of  this  work,  Alderman  ^  comments  in  part  as  follows  : 

1.  "At  Sleepy  Creek,  West  Virginia,  an  experiment  with 
bearing  trees  has  been  in  progress  four  years  on  a  shale 
loam  soil  low  in  fertility,  twenty  trees  of  Carman  and  Wad- 
dell  peaches  constituting  a  plat. 

2.  "The  yearly  growth  of  the  trees  treated  with  nitrate 
of  soda  has  been  double  that  of  plats  receiving  no 
nitrogen. 

3.  "At  the  end  of  the  second  year  the  bearing  surface 
of  the  nitrogen  fertilized  trees  was  2|  times  that  of  the  non- 
nitrogen-fed  block.  At  the  end  of  the  fourth  year  the  dif- 
ference was  much  greater. 

4.  "The  leaves  of  the  nitrogen  blocks  were  healthier 
than  the  others,  larger  in  size,  about  2^  times  as  numerous, 
and  made  up  nearly  four  times  greater  area  per  tree. 

5.  "The  nitrogen  plats  have  set  an  average  of  76  per 
cent  fruit-buds  each  year  against  60  per  cent  in  the  non- 
nitrogen  plats. 

1  W.  Va.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  150. 


Fertilizers  for  Peach  Orchards  163 

6.  "The  yield  of  fruit  was  very  nearly  doubled  by  the 
use  of  nitrogen. 

7.  "  Nitrogen  delayed  maturity  several  days. 

8.  "The  fruit  was  not  as  highly  colored  in  the  nitrogen 
blocks  as  in  the  others.  The  high  color  of  the  non-nitrogen 
rows  was  not  due  to  the  influence  of  potash  or  any  other 
fertilizer  but  rather  to  the  extra  sunshine  that  reached  it 
through  the  sparse  and  sickly  foliage. 

9.  "The  difference  in  size  of  fruit  was  not  great  but 
nitrogen  and  potash  in  combination  produced  a  slight  in- 
crease. 

10.  "The  average  gross  income  per  acre  per  year  from 
all  the  nitrogen  plats  was  $468.85  and  from  the  non-nitrogen 
plats  was  $275.43. 

11.  "The  influence  of  lime  could  not  be  definitely  deter- 
mined and  must  be  regarded  as  largely  negative  although 
the  production  was  somewhat  increased. 

12.  "An  experiment  on  young  trees  at  Cherry  Run  on 
the  same  kind  of  soil  was  carried  on  in  a  similar  manner  to 
the  Sleepy  Creek  test. 

13.  "No  appreciable  influence  of  any  fertilizer  could 
be  detected  the  first  year,  due  probably  to  the  inability  of 
the  young  trees  to  take  up  and  assimilate  large  quantities 
of  plant  food. 

14.  "After  the  first  year  nitrogen  produced  a  strong 
growth  of  wood  and  foliage,  while  potash  apparently  weakened 
the  vigor  of  the  tree. 

15.  "Only  a  small  crop  of  fruit  was  produced  the  fourth 
year,  but  it  was  practically  all  from  the  nitrogen-fed  trees. 

16.  "The  theory  that  heavy  fertilizing  with  nitrogen  is 
injurious  to  the  peach  is  shattered  by  these  experiments, 
as  is  also  the  former  conception  of  the  value  of  potash," 


164  Peach-Growing 

Based  on  the  general  response  of  the  trees  to  the  different 
fertilizer  applications  under  the  conditions  that  existed  in 
the  orchards  where  these  experiments  were  conducted  in 
West  Virginia,  Alderman  says  : 

"The  commercial  peach  industry  of  West  Virginia  is  at 
present  confined  almost  wholly  to  a  few  counties  in  the  East- 
ern Panhandle  and,  broadly  speaking,  includes  only  two 
general  types  of  soil  —  shale  and  chert.  In  the  writer's  ex- 
perience the  chert  lands  when  reasonably  well  cared  for  do 
not  require  artificial  fertilization.  They  are,  however,  of 
comparatively  recent  development  and  in  time  may  become 
exhausted  to  the  point  where  feeding  will  be  necessary.  The 
shale  lands  upon  which  most  of  the  commercial  orchards 
stand  present  a  serious  problem.  The  writer  is  convinced 
that  thousands  of  dollars  have  been  thrown  away  by  or- 
chardists  on  that  type  of  soil  through  misdirected  applica- 
tions of  fertilizers  running  high  in  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 
From  the  result  of  our  four  years  of  experimentation  and  from 
reports  from  neighboring  states  we  unhesitatingly  recommend 
for  bearing  trees  the  application  of  200  to  250  pounds  of 
nitrate  of  soda  (or  equivalent  amount  of  nitrogen  in  some 
readily  available  form)  per  acre  for  shale  soil.  For  young 
trees  we  would  suggest  little  or  no  fertilizer  the  first  year, 
but  after  that  one-half  pound  of  nitrate  of  soda  per  tree 
until  its  fourth  year,  when  the  application  may  be  doubled. 
We  believe  that  the  same  treatment  will  be  effective  on  other 
poor  soils  throughout  the  state,  although  this  has  not  yet 
been  definitely  determined. 

"The  practical  point  at  once  arising  is,  can  the  expensive 
nitrogen  be  supplied  as  effectively  and  more  cheaply  by  the 
use  of  leguminous  cover-crops?  It  seems  reasonable  to 
believe  this  to  be  the  case.     Crimson  clover,  winter  vetch, 


Fertilizers  for  Peach  Orchards  165 

cowpeas,  soybeans,  red  clover,  and  other  leguminous  crops 
may  be  easily  grown  upon  such  soils,  and  all  collect  nitrogen 
from  the  air  in  considerable  quantities." 

From  a  comprehensively  planned  series  of  experiments 
in  the  same  line  on  peaches  at  the  Delaware  Experiment 
Station,  McCue  ^  makes  these  deductions  : 

"Careful  observations  have  been  made  of  the  effect  of 
different  fertilizing  elements  upon  color.  This  work  is  as 
yet  incomplete,  but  our  tentative  conclusion  is  that  any 
effect  of  nitrogen,  potash,  or  phosphoric  acid  upon  color  is 
secondary.  The  blocks  heavily  fertilized  with  nitrogen 
have  been  deficient  in  color,  but  this  defect  has  been  due 
to  the  profuse  growth  of  foliage  shutting  off  the  light  from  the 
fruit.  The  potash  blocks  have  had  practically  the  same 
intensity  of  color  as  the  check  block.  There  is  a  suggestion 
that  heavy  applications  of  phosphoric  acid  may  have  a 
deadening  effect  upon  color.  These  blocks  while  apparently 
having  as  much  color  as  the  potash  or  check  blocks,  have  at 
the  same  time  lacked  in  sprightliness  of  color.  The  color 
seemed  to  lack  life  and  character.  The  effect  is  hard  to 
describe  in  words,  but  I  think  that  you  will  catch  my 
meaning. 

"In  general  the  health  of  the  trees  is  characterized  by 
greenness  and  freshness  of  foliage.  Plots  that  were  treated 
with  nitrogen  or  combinations  of  nitrogen  and  potash  are 
characterized  by  their  general  thriftness.  No  diameter 
measurements  have  been  made  from  year  to  year  as  it  has 
been  considered  that  a  careful  study  of  the  annular  rings 
after  the  trees  have  been  cut  down  will  give  much  more 
accurate  data. 

"The  tests  for  keeping  quality  of  the  fruit  from  the 
1  Proc.  of  the  Soc.  for  Hort.  Science,  1914,  pp.  88-89. 


1 66  Peach-Grotving 

various  plots  are  as  yet  incomplete,  but  such  tests  as  have 
been  made  seem  to  indicate  that  potash  has  some  bene- 
ficial effect  in  increasing  the  period  of  soundness  of  the 
fruit.  However,  this  point  needs  further  testing  to  con- 
firm it. 

"In  time  of  ripening  of  the  fruit  we  obtained  striking 
results.  Heavy  phosphoric  acid  applications  delayed  ripen- 
ing about  two  days  and  potash  hastened  it  one  day.  Nitro- 
gen either  in  combination  or  alone  delayed  ripening  from  a 
week  to  ten  days.  The  power  of  nitrogen  to  retard  ripening 
is  much  stronger  than  that  of  potash  to  hasten  it,  so  that 
when  nitrogen  and  potash  are  combined  the  hastening  effects 
of  potash  are  almost  wholly  overshadowed  by  the  retarding 
effect  of  the  nitrogen. 

"  So  far  as  the  effect  of  fertilizers  on  the  time  of  blooming 
is  concerned  we  have  seen  but  little  if  any  result.  The  total 
period  of  bloom  is  so  short  that  the  differences  in  blooming 
dates  are  minor  ones  and  might  be  accounted  for  by  other 
reasons.  We  suspect,  however,  that  the  effect  upon  the 
blooming  period  is  similar  to  that  upon  the  date  of  maturity, 
although  the  proof  of  it  is  not  yet  clear. 

"  We  have  no  very  clear  and  definite  results  upon  the  time 
of  wood  ripening  in  the  fall  for  which  the  terminal  bud  for- 
mation has  beeri  used  as  a  guide.  It  is  generally  supposed 
that  heavy  applications  of  nitrogenous  fertilizers  would 
make  a  soft  immature  wood,  but  our  results,  though  incon- 
clusive, would  appear  to  refute  this  view.  It  is  probable 
that  the  regulation  of  the  soil  moisture  has  a  more  intimate 
connection  with  fall  ripening  of  wood  and  bud  than  does 
plant  food." 

On  the  basis  of  other  fertilizer  tests  with  peaches  conducted 
with  a  view  to  determining  the  influence  of  mineral  plant- 


Plate  XIV.  —  Pruning  Elberta  Peach  Trees.  Top,  a  tree  in 
July  of  its  second  season  in  the  orchard  ;  bottom,  the  details  of  pruning 
during  a  series  of  years. 


Fertilizers  for  Peach  Orchards  167 

foods  on  the  crushing  and  bending  strength  of  peach  wood, 
McCue  ^  concludes  as  follows  : 

"A  detailed  study  of  the  results  of  this  experiment  fails 
to  throw  very  much  light  upon  the  influence  of  nitrogen, 
potash,  and  phosphoric  acid  in  strengthening  or  weakening 
wood  structures.  The  number  of  sticks  tested  was  too 
small  to  make  the  results  conclusive.  Almost  as  much 
variation  was  found  in  strength  of  sticks  from  one  block 
as  in  the  averages  for  the  different  blocks.  While  in  a 
general  way  the  results  are  negative  they  seem  to  indicate 
that  no  great  stress  can  be  laid  upon  fertilizing  for  strength 
of  wood.  The  fertilizer  that  is  so  balanced  as  to  give  the 
most  healthy  growth  will  produce  the  strongest  wood. 
The  writer  believes  that  even  greater  differences  in  strength 
of  wood  in  the  peach  can  be  obtained  by  different  pruning 
methods  than  were  obtained  by  different  fertilizer  treat- 
ments." 

Some  deductions  made  from  fertilizer  studies  on  peaches 
by  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station  confirm  in  part  the 
results  of  similar  work  elsewhere,  but  another  element  is 
introduced  on  account  of  the  climatic  factors  that  need  to 
be  considered  in  that  part  of  the  country.  The  following 
statements  ^  are  interesting  and  suggestive  : 

"Where  nitrogen  was  applied  to  peach  trees  a  good 
crop  was  produced  and  harvested.  On  plots  receiving  no 
fertilizer  there  was  practically  no  crop.  There  was  like- 
wise a  failure  of  peaches  in  the  surrounding  region  where 
no  fertilizer  was  applied.  The  cold  winter  of  1911-12  was 
disastrous  to  peach  trees  in  Missouri.  Injury  to  peach  trees 
caused  by  the  cold  so  weakened  their  vitality  that  disease 

1  Proc.  of  the  Soc.  for  Hort.  Science,  1915,  p.  118. 

2  Mo.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  Ill,  pp.  247-248. 


168  Peach-Growing 

like  the  bacterial  shot  hole  leaf  disease  was  common.  On 
the  plots  fertilized  with  nitrogen  there  was  little  bacterial 
disease.  On  adjacent  unfertilized  plots  the  injury  from  this 
cause  was  very  great.  The  trees  in  the  plots  fertilized  with 
nitrogen  also  recovered  from  winter  injury  much  more  suc- 
cessfully and  quickly  than  unfertilized  trees  in  the  same 
locality. 

"The  application  of  phosphorus  and  potassium  either 
singly  or  in  combination  did  not  result  in  increased  yields. 
The  results  of  the  investigations  on  fertilizers  for  peaches 
seem  to  indicate  clearly  that  a  nitrogenous  fertilizer  or  a 
method  of  cultivation  and  management  which  favors  a 
vigorous  tree  growth  when  combined  with  pruning,  spraying, 
and  thinning  fruit  on  overloaded  trees  will  increase  the  crop. 
The  above  treatment  tends  to  make  them  carry  their  fruit 
buds  through  winter  and  frosts  of  spring  much  more  safely 
than  where  an  average  or  weak  growth  only  is  secured. 
Our  results  seem  to  disprove  the  theory  that  trees  must 
make  their  main  growth  early  in  the  season  and  then  be 
checked  or  retarded  in  their  growth  in  August  or  September 
in  order  to  ripen  their  wood  before  going  into  winter.  In 
some  experiments  at  this  Station  where  the  trees  have  been 
encouraged  to  grow  vigorously  right  up  until  some  of  the 
green  leaves  froze  on  the  trees,  either  by  the  use  of  fertilizer 
or  by  severely  pruning  back  the  winter  before  or  by  thin- 
ning the  fruit,  have  uniformly  carried  their  fruit  buds  through 
the  winter  much  more  safely  than  with  trees  that  shed  their 
leaves  and  ripened  their  wood  early." 

It  should  be  noted  that  in  Missouri  and  in  some  other 
peach  regions  the  winters  are  naturally  mild  compared 
with  the  more  northern  latitudes.  In  northern  latitudes 
the  winter  temperatures  are  fairly  constant  as  a  rule  and  low 


Fertilizers  for  Peach  Orchards  169 

enough  so  there  is  little  danger  of  the  buds  swelling.  It 
is  essential  in  order  to  avoid  winter-killing  that  the  wood 
be  thoroughly  mature  and  well  ripened  on  the  approach 
of  winter. 

In  many  peach  regions  of  which  those  in  Missouri  are 
representative,  the  winter  temperatures  are  not  constant 
but  fluctuate  from  moderately  cold  to  so  warm  that  the  peach 
buds  are  likely  to  start  enough  in  midwinter  to  become 
tender.  Even  though  the  wood  is  not  thoroughly  mature 
when  winter  sets  in,  there  is  little  danger  that  even  the 
minimum  temperatures  will  cause  any  serious  winter- 
killing. There  is  constant  danger,  on  the  other  hand,  that 
warm  periods  will  occur  which  will  cause  the  buds  to  start, 
following  which  even  perfectly  seasonable  winter  tempera- 
tures may  cause  the  destruction  of  the  fruit-buds. 

Whitten  and  his  associates  at  the  Missouri  Station  have 
shown  that  by  keeping  the  trees  in  an  active  growing  con- 
dition until  practically  the  approach  of  winter,  the  buds 
do  not  start  as  readily  during  warm  periods  in  mid- 
winter as  when  they  ripen  at  the  period  insisted  on  in 
the  North  and  hence  the  danger  of  winter  injury  is  greatly 
reduced. 

As  stated  above  in  the  quotation,  the  use  of  nitrogenous 
plant-foods  offers  one  means  of  meeting  the  condition  de- 
scribed. No  very  comprehensive  summary  of  the  plant- 
food  requirements  can  be  made  from  the  foregoing  presen- 
tation of  the  matter.  The  results,  however,  bring  out 
rather  clearly  certain  things  : 

1.  The  importance  of  liberal  supplies  of  nitrogen.  The 
results  of  experiments  and  the  indications  of  the  analyses 
made  are  habitually  consistent  in  this  respect.  Where 
the  fruit  does  not  color  as  well  when  nitrogen  is  used,  the 


170  Peach-Growing 

trouble  is  indirect  and  rests  in  the  fact  that  the  trees  make 
a  more  thrifty  growth  of  leaves,  hence  the  fruit  is  more 
shaded  than  where  these  conditions  do  not  obtain.  By 
properly  thinning  the  tops,  this  difficulty  should  be  readily 
overcome. 

2.  The  varying  effects  of  the  mineral  fertilizers,  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash. 

3.  The  necessity  of  working  out  the  fertilizer  require- 
ments in  each  individual  orchard  unless  the  different  or- 
chards in  a  community  occupy  sites  the  soils  of  which  are 
uniform  and  similar  and  have  had  essentially  the  same  history 
as  to  treatment,  previous  cropping,  and  the  like. 

It  should  be  observed  that  in  some  cases  the  continued 
use  of  nitrogen  has  appeared  to  cause  a  reduction  in  the  size 
of  the  fruit.  The  decrease,  however,  has  not  been  impor- 
tant, since  it  did  not  impair  the  marketability  of  the  fruit 
appreciably,  and  the  quantity  produced  was  increased  in 
a  marked  degree. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  the  reduction  in  size  of  the 
individual  fruits  as  a  result  of  the  use  of  nitrogen  is  due  to 
action  of  the  foliage,  which  is  usually  very  abundant  where 
nitrogen  is  liberally  applied,  in  withdrawing  moisture 
from  the  fruit,  or  at  least  in  taking  up  moisture  which  would 
otherwise  go  to  the  fruit.  It  is  known  that  under  some 
conditions,  moisture  may  be  transferred  from  the  fruit  to 
the  leaves  growing  on  the  same  branch. 

The  reader  having  an  orchard  fertilizer  problem  in  hand 
who  has  reached  this  point  now  knows  something  of  the 
nature  of  his  problem,  but  is  perhaps  no  nearer  its  solution 
than  in  the  beginning.  Only  one  course  is  open  if  the  prob- 
lem is  to  be  solved  in  an  economical  and  businesslike  way. 
The  experiments  conducted  by  the  different  stations  have 


Fertilizers  for  Peach  Orchards  171 

shown  the  method.  In  this  they  render  every  peach- 
grower  a  service,  even  though  the  results  cannot  be  appHed 
in  detail  to  individual  cases. 

If  a  peach-grower  is  operating  on  a  very  small  scale,  he 
does  not  have  a  great  deal  at  stake  in  his  fertilizer  bills  and 
may  be  warranted  in  following  whatever  practice  seems  to 
give  good  results.  But  the  extensive  grower  can  hardly 
afford  not  to  work  out  these  problems  in  his  own  orchard, 
especially  in  case  he  is  making  a  considerable  expenditure 
annually  for  fertilizers.  Otherwise,  he  may  be  buying 
and  applying  plant-foods  for  which  he  is  getting  no  returns, 
or  else  by  adding  a  small  quantity  of  something  he  little 
suspects  his  trees  need  he  may  obtain  beneficial  results  en- 
tirely out  of  proportion  to  the  cost  involved.  But  to  ascer- 
tain just  what  plant-food  or  foods  should  be  applied  to  his 
orchard,  and  in  what  quantity,  in  order  to  give  him  the 
best  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  economically  produced 
crops,  is  the  real  problem.  A  simple  set  of  experiments 
which  any  careful  fruit-grower  can  carry  out  will  supply 
more  information  than  can  be  secured  in  any  other 
way. 

Such  a  set  of  experiments  should  be  located  in  as  repre- 
sentative a  part  of  the  orchard  as  can  be  selected  and  where 
the  soil  conditions  are  uniform.  The  plan  should  be  to 
apply  to  selected  representative  trees  in  the  section  of  the 
orchard  where  the  work  is  to  be  located  the  different  plant- 
foods  both  separately  and  in  different  combinations.  The 
applications  should  be  made  in  early  spring  about  the  time 
the  trees  are  renewing  their  seasonal  growth.  The  simplest 
arrangement  which  at  the  same  time  is  comprehensive 
that  can  be  suggested  includes  the  following  plant-food 
groups : 


5 


172  Peach-Growing 

1.  Nitrate  of  soda       —  1^  lbs.  to  a  tree. 

2.  Acid  phosphate      —  2\  lbs.  to  a  tree. 

3.  Muriate  of  potash  —  1    lb.    to  a  tree. 
.  J  Nitrate  of  soda       —  1|  lbs.  to  a  tree. 

I  Acid  phosphate      —  2\  lbs.  to  a  tree. 

J  Nitrate  of  soda       —  1|  lbs.  to  a  tree. 

\  Muriate  of  potash  —  1    lb.    to  a  tree. 

6.       Check  —  no  fertilizer. 

J  Acid  phosphate      —  2|  lbs.  to  a  tree. 

\  Muriate  of  potash  —  1    lb.    to  a  tree. 

(Nitrate  of  soda       —  1^  lbs.  to  a  tree. 

Acid  phosphate      —  2\  lbs.  to  a  tree. 

Muriate  of  potash  —  1    lb.    to  a  tree. 

9.        Check  —  no  fertilizer. 

10.       Lime  —  10  lbs.  to  a  tree. 

With  these  combinations  of  plant-foods  it  is  possible  for 
a  grower  to  observe  the  response  of  his  trees  to  any  one 
element  used  alone,  to  any  two  used  together,  and  to  all 
three  combined  thus  making  a  complete  fertilizer.  It  is 
not  essential  to  include  lime  in  the  experiment  but  it  is  well 
to  do  so.  If  some  of  the  plant-food  combinations  are  also 
used  in  conjunction  with  lime  it  will  add  to  the  complete- 
ness of  the  experiment,  as  will  the  use  of  stable  manure  on 
one  group  of  trees,  for  comparison  with  the  commercial 
plant-foods.  Furthermore,  it  may  be  of  very  material  ad- 
vantage to  add  still  one  more  group  which  shall  be  the  same 
combinations  as  No.  8  but  with  a  considerable  increase  in 
the  quantity  of  the  materials  used,  perhaps  even  doubling 
them.  The  other  groups  would  indicate  strongly  what 
plant-food  or  combination  of  foods  was  needed,  while  this 
additional  group  similar  to  No.  8  except  in  quantity  would 
help  the  grower  to  decide  how  much  of  the  different  ele- 
ments should  be  applied. 


Fertilizers  for  Peach  Orchards  173 

The  laying  out  of  the  different  plats  to  receive  the  several 
combinations  needs  to  be  done  with  care.  The  smallest 
number  of  trees  in  each  plat  that  can  be  considered  satisfac- 
tory is  two ;  more  would  be  better.  There  should  be  at  least 
one  tree  in  every  direction  between  the  different  fertilizer 
plats  which  is  not  included  in  the  experiment;  otherwise, 
should  two  plats  that  receive  different'  combinations  be  lo- 
cated side  by  side  with  no  intervening  trees  to  separate 
them,  the  effects  of  the  plant-foods  would  be  likely  to  over- 
lap and  the  results  would  be  confused. 

Each  plat  should  receive  the  same  plant-food  combina- 
tion every  year  as  long  as  the  work  is  continued.  The 
number  of  years  it  should  be  repeated  is  indefinite.  Ob- 
viously the  real  measure  of  the  effects  of  the  different  plant- 
foods  is  the  fruit  produced  and  the  strength  and  vigor  of 
the  tree.  However,  if  the  work  is  begun  in  the  second  year 
after  the  orchard  is  planted,  some  strong  indications  of 
what  each  combination  is  effecting  might  be  obtained  by 
the  time  the  orchard  has  produced  its  second  or  third  crop. 

The  interpretation  of  the  results  should  not  be  difficult. 
The  condition  of  the  trees  in  the  different  plats  should  be 
compared,  the  fruit  from  each  one  measured  or  weighed 
separately,  and  the  results  recorded  for  subsequent  reference. 
The  appearance,  size,  and  color  of  the  fruit  from  the  dif- 
ferent plats  should  also  be  compared. 

Of  course  any  difference  in  the  first  three  plats  which 
receive  respectively  nitrogen  and  phosphate  and  muriate 
of  potash  will  be  directly  traceable  to  the  plant-food  ap- 
plied in  each  case.  Should  the  results  of  No.  4  be  like  No.  1, 
it  would  be  clear  that  the  potash  in  No.  4  was  giving  no 
returns  for  its  use;  and  if  No.  7,  for  instance,  which  has 
acid  phosphate  and  muriate  of  potash,  gave  no  better  returns 


174  Peach-Growing 

than  the  check  plats,  it  would  still  further  confirm  the 
value  of  nitrogen  under  the  particular  conditions  of  the 
experiment.  In  the  same  manner  the  deductions  may  be 
made  for  all  the  plats  and  by  the  process  of  elimination 
the  plat  and  plant-food  combinations  which  gave  the  best 
returns  can  be  located,  and  on  these  results  the  future 
applications  of  fertilizers  can  be  based. 

The  inevitable  question  of  whether  it  pays  will  arise. 
The  owner  of  the  orchard  must  answer  for  himself.  If  a 
fertilizer  produces  increased  returns  sufficient  more  than  to 
pay  the  costs  of  material  and  labor,  it  may  be  regarded  as 
a  profitable  procedure.  If  increasing  the  quantity  applied 
brings  returns  in  proportion  to  the  increased  cost,  or  better, 
it  would  appear  to  be  a  money-making  proposition  to  apply 
the  larger  amount  of  plant-food. 

Finally,  there  remains  for  mention  some  of  the  newer 
views  in  regard  to  soil  fertility  factors,  for  which  there  seems 
to  be  good  support,  and  which  have  not  previously  been 
taken  into  account.  They  must  still  be  largely  ignored 
so  far  as  peaches  are  concerned  for  lack  of  information. 
The  roots  of  plants  may  give  rise  to,  or  secrete,  substances  — 
complicated  chemical  compounds  —  which  are  toxic  or 
poisonous  to  the  roots  themselves.  Thus  when  in  the  past 
a  farmer  has  spoken  of  a  piece  of  land  as  being  "clover 
sick"  or  "wheat  sick"  there  may  have  been  more  in  the 
expression  than  he  realized.  That  the  roots  of  peach  trees 
ever  develop  substances  in  the  soil  which  are  toxic  to  them- 
selves is  an  entirely  unknown  possibility.  There  are  oc- 
casional instances,  however,  when  the  soil  is  known  to  be 
fertile  but  for  some  obscure  reason  the  trees  do  not  thrive. 
A  peach-grower  rarely  thinks  it  advisable  to  replant  an  or- 
chard site  to  new  trees  immediately  on  taking  out  an  old 


Fertilizers  for  Peach  Orchards  175 

orchard.  Doubtless  experience  has  taught  that  the  new 
trees  when  so  planted  are  likely  not  to  thrive.  That  a  peach 
tree  "runs  its  span  of  life"  in  twenty  years  or  less,  while 
an  apple  tree  may  be  at  its  best  when  50  to  75  years  of  age, 
may  have  no  bearing  on  the  point  in  question.  Yet  these 
are  facts,  largely  unexplained,  with  which  fruit-growers 
are  conversant.  At  the  present  time,  the  suggestion  is 
purely  speculative  that  these  phenomena  may  ultimately 
find  their  explanation  through  the  agency  of  this  rather 
newly  applied  soil  fertility  factor,  but  at  least  the  field  for 
investigation  is  open. 


CHAPTER  X 

PRUNING  PEACH   TREES 

There  is  probably  no  other  operation  in  the  production  of 
fruit  concerning  which  such  wide  differences  of  opinion  and 
practice  prevail  as  in  the  pruning  of  trees.  The  fact  that 
trees  may  produce  abundantly  under  practically  all  systems 
of  pruning  or  with  no  pruning  whatever  forces  the  con- 
clusion that  the  operation  is  one  to  which  dogmatic  rule-of- 
thumb  directions  cannot  be  safely  applied.  However,  as  a 
general  proposition,  the  most  successful  fruit-growers  habitu- 
ally prune  their  trees,  and  in  doing  so  they  usually  follow 
more  or  less  closely  some  plan  or  system,  even  though  they 
have  no  clear-cut  conception  of  just  what  their  plan 
involves. 

Before  an  architect  begins  to  draw  the  plans  for  a  building 
he  must  have  a  mental  picture  of  the  completed  structure, 
at  least  so  far  as  the  main  features  are  concerned.  He  must 
know  what  details  are  necessary  at  every  step,  as  he  develops 
the  plans,  in  order  to  produce  the  desired  results.  Similarly, 
the  man  who  prunes  a  fruit-tree  during  its  first  years  must 
have  a  clear  conception  of  what  the  tree  is  to  look  like  when  it 
reaches  maturity,  and  he  needs  to  know  from  the  beginning 
what  is  necessary  each  time  it  is  pruned  in  order  to  develop 
the  tree  which  forms  his  mental  vision.  Of  course  such  a 
picture  can  develop  fully  only  with  experience  and  as  one 

176 


Pruning  Peach  Trees  177 

becomes  familiar  with  the  characteristics  of  growth,  habit, 
and  behavior  of  the  different  varieties.  At  the  same  time  a 
well-formulated  plan,  based  on  a  knowledge  of  the  under- 
lying principles  of  pruning,  is  essential  if  the  operation  is  to  be 
anything  more  than  a  haphazard  removal  of  branches  that 
appear  to  be  in  the  way.  No  two  trees  are  alike,  however, 
hence  each  one  presents  its  own  individual  problems  in  prun- 
ing, even  though  the  grower  may  have  a  good  knowledge  of 
the  principles  involved. 

In  discussing  the  pruning  of  peach  trees,  it  will  assist  the 
reader  materially  to  have  in  mind  rather  clearly  the  various 
objects  that  may  be  accomplished  by  this  operation.  Un- 
less one  knows  why  he  prunes  and  what  is  to  be  gained 
thereby,  he  is  not  likely  to  do  it  very  intelligently.  The 
principal  objects  may  be  enumerated,  without  reference  to 
relative  importance,  as  follows : 

1 .  To  modify  the  vigor  of  the  tree. 

2.  To  keep  the  tree  shapely  and  within  bounds. 

3.  To  make  the  tree  more  stocky,  thereby  increasing  its 
mechanical  strength. 

4.  To  open  the  tree  top  to  admit  air  and  sunshine. 

5.  To  reduce  the  struggle  for  existence  in  the  tree  top. 

6.  To  remove  dead  or  interfering  branches. 

7.  To  aid  in  stimulating  the  development  of  fruit-buds. 

8.  To  secure  a  uniform  distribution  of  fruit-bearing  wood. 

9.  To  thin  the  fruit. 

10.  To  enable  the  fruit  to  ripen  more  uniformly. 

11.  To  make  thorough  spraying  possible. 

12.  To  facilitate  the  harvesting  of  the  fruit. 

13.  To  regulate  wood  growth,  in  some  cases,  with  reference 
to  winter  injury. 

14.  To  aid  the  tree,  in  some  cases,  in  overcoming  winter 
injury. 

N 


178  Peach-Groioing 

It  will  of  course  be  observed  that  some  of  the  objects  as 
stated  are  more  or  less  incompatible  with  one  another.  There 
is  no  contradiction,  however,  since  it  is  not  implied  that  the 
attendant  needs  all  exist  in  the  same  tree  at  the  same  time. 


WHEN  TO   PRUNE 

To  attain  most  of  the  objects  of  pruning,  it  should  be  done 
annually  and  during  the  dormant  period,  preferably  in  late 
winter  or  early  spring,  just  before  growth  starts,  unless  in 
some  regions  it  is  found  that  bleeding  from  the  wounds  is 
likely  to  occur.  In  such  regions  it  should  probably  be  done 
in  early  winter.  But  conditions  must  be  considered  in  each 
case.  If  the  pruning  operations  are  very  extensive,  economic 
requirements  may  make  it  necessary  to  prune  throughout 
the  winter  whenever  the  weather  is  suitable  for  men  to  work 
in  the  orchard.  If  the  fruit-buds  are  endangered  during  the 
winter  by  adverse  temperatures,  it  may  be  advisable  to  delay 
pruning  as  much  as  labor  and  other  conditions  permit  until 
settled  spring  weather  arrives.  This  is  especially  advisable 
if  heavy  heading  back  of  the  previous  season's  growth  is  con- 
sidered, since  if  a  large  proportion  of  the  fruit-buds  have  been 
killed,  the  terminal  growth  still  bearing  living  buds,  and 
which  under  normal  conditions  would  be  cut  away,  should  be 
left  on  the  tree. 

A  limited  amount  of  summer  pruning  can  also  be  done  to 
advantage  under  some  conditions. 

SOME   GENERAL  PRINCIPLES   OF   PRUNING 

It  is  a  generally  recognized  principle  in  all  pruning  that  a 
heavy  reduction  of  the  top  of  a  tree  when  dormant,  as  in 


Pruning  Peach  Trees  179 

severe  cutting  back  of  the  branches,  tends  to  stimulate  wood 
growth.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  the  best  results  can  be 
secured  only  when  the  person  doing  the  work  takes  into  ac- 
count the  growth  characteristics  of  the  variety,  or  of  the 
individual  tree.  A  strong,  vigorous-growing  tree  ordinarily 
should  not  be  pruned  as  severely,  so  far  as  the  control  of  the 
growth  is  concerned,  as  a  weak-growing  tree.  Heavy  prun- 
ing of  the  latter  type  of  tree  tends  to  induce  a  more  vigorous 
growth  of  branches. 

In  the  making  of  wounds  in  pruning,  as  in  removing  limbs, 
great  care  should  be  exercised  that  no  stubs  are  left.  Where 
a  smaller  branch  is  removed  from  a  larger,  the  cut  should  be 
made  as  close  to  the  larger  one  as  possible  and  parallel  with  it, 
rather  than  at  right  angles  to  the  limb  severed.  The  latter 
results  in  a  smaller  wound  but  it  leaves  a  short  stub  on  one 
side  of  the  wound  that  will  not  heal  as  readily  as  will  the 
larger  wound  when  made  as  stated  above.  In  heading  back 
limbs  into  wood  more  than  a  year  old,  they  should  be  cut 
back  to  a  side  branch.  Otherwise,  if  severed  at  a  point  be- 
tween side  branches,  a  stub  remains  which  would  never  heal 
over,  but  it  would  die  back  to  the  next  side  branch  and  even- 
tually decay. 

Wounds  so  large  that  they  will  not  heal  over  in  one  season 
may  well  be  covered  with  a  good  white  lead  paint  to  protect 
them  against  weather-cracking  and  the  entrance  of  moisture. 
But  when  an  orchard  is  regularly  and  properly  pruned,  few 
large  wounds  that  require  painting  will  be  made. 

Obviously  the  pruning  which  a  tree  receives  during  the 
first  two  or  three  years  after  it  is  planted  greatly  influences 
its  future.  Mistakes  in  forming  the  head  or  the  results  of 
neglect  during  the  early  years  in  the  life  of  a  tree  are  prac- 
tically irreparable.     On  the  other  hand,  if  a  tree  is  well 


180  Peach-Growing 

formed  and  properly  pruned  during  its  first  years,  the  founda- 
tion for  a  good  tree  is  established ;  subsequent  errors  in 
pruning,  if  they  occur,  may  admit  of  correction  perhaps 
without  permanent  harm  to  the  tree. 

While  the  details  of  pruning  vary  greatly  as  practiced  b}'' 
different  growers,  a  single  system,  as  far  as  the  general  shape 
of  the  tree  is  concerned,  is  almost  universal.  Nearly  all 
growers  prune  more  or  less  definitely  to  a  "vase  form,"  the 
name  being  vaguely  suggestive  of  the  somewhat  vase-shaped 
outline  made  by  the  top  of  the  tree.  Rarely  one  hears 
mention  of  a  peach  tree  pruned  to  a  "central  leader,"  but 
this  system  of  pruning  is  so  seldom  used  in  peach  orchards 
that  it  calls  for  no  further  comment.  The  "vase  form"  im- 
plies in  a  general  way  a  tree  with  an  open  center. 

PRUNING  TOOLS 

It  is  unnecessary  to  discuss  at  any  considerable  length, 
tools  for  use  in  pruning  peach  trees.  Where  the  work  is 
done  systematically  and  timely,  there  will  rarely  be  occasion 
to  remove  a  limb  that  cannot  be  severed  with  a  strong  pair 
of  hand  pruning  shears.  In  fact,  practically  all  the  work  can 
be  done  with  this  type  of  implement.  However,  a  saw  is 
necessary  at  times,  one  of  the  narrow  bladed  patterns  es- 
pecially intended  for  pruning  purposes  being  convenient. 
Some  use  a  long-handled  pruning  shear  with  staff  six  or  eight 
feet  in  length  for  reaching  the  ends  of  the  branches  of  tali 
trees  when  heading  them  back.  However,  if  there  is  much 
of  this  type  of  work  to  be  done,  it  will  be  better  usually  to 
supply  a  step-ladder  from  which  the  operator  can  reach  the 
branches  with  his  hand  shears.  Sometimes  a  pair  of  heavy 
lopping  shears  with  handles  about  three  feet  long  is  very 


Plate  XV.  —  Position  of  Fkuit-Bi  us  of  Different  Varieties. 
Top,  buds  in  singles  —  Chili  (Hills'  Chili)  variety;  bottom,  buds  in 
pairs  —  Waldo  (left)  and  Angel  (right). 


Pruning  Peach  Trees  l8l 

useful,  especially  when  there  are  many  large  limbs  to  be 
removed. 

PRUNING  THE   FIRST   YEAR 

The  pruning  of  a  peach  tree  at  the  time  of  planting  has 
already  been  discussed.  A  tree  in  July  of  its  first  season's 
growth  in  the  orchard  is  shown  in  Plate  XIII.  When  planted 
the  tree  was  cut  back  to  the  point  marked  A,  making  a 
straight  unbranched  stem  16  or  18  inches  high.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  top  in  this  case  is  formed  of  four  main 
branches,  thus  making  a  symmetrical,  nearly  ideal  tree. 
Some  growers  of  large  experience  consider  three  branches 
ample  for  forming  the  permanent  top  and  much  prefer  that 
number  to  more.  The  four  branches  shown  in  Plate  XIII 
each  developed  from  a  bud  that  was  on  the  trunk  when  it  was 
planted.  The  growth  now  in  evidence  was  all  made  the  first 
season,  after  planting  and  prior  to  the  last  of  July.  Consid- 
erable more  growth  was  doubtless  made  before  the  end  of 
the  season.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  limbs  are  already 
branching  to  some  extent. 

However,  the  exact  number  of  branches  which  may  be 
used  in  forming  the  head  is  not  arbitrary.  From  three  to 
five  on  the  smaller  growing  sorts  are  permissible,  if  they  are 
well  placed  and  properly  distributed  on  the  main  stem  of  the 
tree.  The  branches  that  form  the  head  of  the  tree  shown 
in  Plate  XIII  (bottom)  start  from  points  fairly  well  dis- 
tributed along  the  trunk,  but  if  there  was  more  space  ver- 
tically, that  is  up  and  down  the  trunk,  between  the  branches 
where  they  join  the  trunk,  there  would  be  less  danger  of  their 
breaking  down  in  later  years  from  the  weight  of  heavy  loads 
of  fruit. 

A  tree  that  has  been  started  and  formed  in  a  manner  similar 


182 


Peach-Growing 


to  the  one  shown  in  Plate  XIII  will  not  usually  require  much 
attention  so  far  as  pruning  is  concerned  during  its  first  season 
in  the  orchard.  Perhaps  a  little  pinching  back  of  the  three 
or  four  main  limbs  as  may  be  done  with  the  fingers  and  with- 
out the  use  of  pruning  shears  would  help  to  make  them  more 
stocky.  Such  pinching  back,  however,  should  be  done  with 
discretion  and  in  most  cases  it  may  well  be  confined  to  such 
limbs  as  are  making  the  tree  unsymmetrical  by  growing 
faster  than  the  others.  This  type  of  pruning  should  not  be 
done  much  after  July  1 ;    in  the  North  perhaps  the  middle 

of  June  is  as  late  as  it 
would  be  safe,  since  the 
side  shoots,  the  devel- 
opment of  which  it  is 
likely  to  induce,  should 
have  ample  time  to 
ripen  well  before  the 
arrival  of  cold  weather. 
When  a  tree  develops 
such  heavy  dense  growth 
during  the  first  season 
following  planting  as  is 
shown  in  Fig,  10,  a 
moderate     amount    of 


Fig.  10.  —  A  peach  tree  in  July  of  its  first 
season's  growth  in  a  southern  orchard. 


summer  prunmg  may 
be  important.  This  is 
the  case  especially  in  the  peach  regions  where  the  growing 
season  is  very  long,  as  in  the  South.  The  tree  shown  in 
Fig.  10  is  one  planted  early  in  the  spring  in  a  southern  orchard. 
The  figure  shows  the  tree  as  it  looked  early  in  the  following 
July.  Pinching  back  the  ends  of  the  main  limbs  will  help 
to  keep  the  tree  symmetrical  and  it  will  also  avoid  the  neces- 


Pruning  Peach  Trees 


183 


sity  of  heavy  pruning  during  the  dormant  season,  as  might 
otherwise  be  necessary.  Frequently  a  tree  will  send  up 
sprouts  from  buds  along  the  trunk  and  below  where  it  is 
desired  the  permanent  head  shall  be  formed.  It  is  best  to 
remove  these  branches  as  soon  as  they  appear.  As  a  rule, 
however,  not  very  much  thinning  of  the  branches  should  be 
done  the  first  season  unless 
the  top  is  becoming  extremely 
dense,  since  it  will  tend  to 
weaken  the  tree.  For  ex- 
ample. Fig.  11  shows  the  tree 
in  Fig.  10  as  it  appeared  after 
it  was  summer  pruned  on  July 
8.  (It  was  planted  the  pre- 
vious spring.)  It  may  be 
doubted  whether  the  tree  was 
not  seriously  checked  by  such 
heavy  pruning  in  midseason. 
The  pinching  back  of  the 
leading  branches  and  the  re- 
moval of  any  superfluous 
limbs  which  were  obviously 
crowding  and  interfering  with  the  development  of  permanent 
limbs  should  usually  be  the  extent  of  summer  pruning  the 
first  season. 

While  the  pruning  done  in  the  summer  is  aimed  in  part 
toward  shaping  the  permanent  top  of  the  tree,  that  which 
is  done  during  the  first  dormant  period,  that  is,  after  the  tree 
has  made  one  season's  growth  in  the  orchard,  is  perhaps 
the  most  important  in  the  life  of  the  tree  so  far  as  the  forma- 
tion of  the  top  is  concerned.  A  tree  at  the  time  it  is  planted 
is  pruned  either  to  a  straight  stem,  or  short  stubs  of  side 


Fig.  11.  — The  tree  in  Fig/ 10 
after  being  heavily  pruned  in  mid- 
sunamer. 


184  Peach-Growing 

branches  are  left  as  described  on  page  90.  The  top  at  the 
next  winter  pruning  consists,  therefore,  of  whatever  growth 
has  developed  during  the  growing  period  save  such  as  may 
have  been  removed  in  summer  pruning. 

The  limbs  that  are  to  make  the  permanent  top  must,  there- 
fore, now  be  selected.  Three  or  four  limbs  well  placed  on 
the  stem  and  of  uniform  size,  thus  making  a  well-balanced 
top,  should  be  selected  from  those  that  have  developed.  If 
it  is  assumed  that  the  four  limbs  which  make  the  top  of  the 
tree  in  Plate  XIII  continued  to  be  as  symmetrical  through- 
out the  season  as  shown  in  the  figure,  they  would  be  nearly 
ideal  for  the  making  of  the  permanent  frame  of  the  top.  The 
tree  in  Fig.  10  also  possesses  the  foundation  of  a  good  top,  as 
may  be  seen  in  Fig.  11,  but  as  previously  stated  the  tree 
would  probably  have  been  better  ultimately  if  the  final  shap- 
ing had  been  delayed  until  it  was  dormant. 

Having  decided  on  the  branches  that  are  to  form  the  per- 
manent top,  all  others  should  be  removed.  If  the  frame 
branches  have  developed  so  many  side  branches  that  they  are 
likely  to  fill  up  the  center  and  make  it  too  dense,  some  of  them 
should  be  removed.  From  the  very  beginning,  the  top  should 
be  so  pruned  that  it  is  kept  open  to  sunlight  and  air.  At  this 
time,  too,  the  main  branches,  and  perhaps  also  the  stronger 
growing  side  limbs,  should  usually  be  headed  back  somewhat. 
This  will  tend  to  make  them  stocky.  How  much  they  should 
be  headed  back  is  an  open  question.  The  rule  commonly 
given  where  the  growi;h  has  been  fairly  strong  is  to  cut 
back  the  main  limbs  from  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  their 
length,  that  is  of  the  previous  season's  growi:h.  The  question 
is,  however,  whether  an}d:hing  is  to  be  gained  by  such  heavy 
cutting  back.  There  is  a  conviction  on  the  part  of  many  with 
wide  experience  that  the  common  practice  has  been  extreme, 


Pruning  Peach  Trees  185 

and  that  better  results  are  ultimately  secured  if  the  heading 
back  at  this  first  dormant  pruning  is  not  more  than  eight 
inches  to  a  foot  even  where  the  growth  is  fairly  vigorous. 
Some  heading  back  is  necessary,  however,  else  the  stocky 
symmetrical  growth  desired  will  not  be  secured. 

PRUNING  THE  SECOND  YEAR 

The  tree  starts  its  second  season's  growth  well  established 
in  the  orchard.  The  branches  left  on  the  tree  when  pruned 
during  its  preceding  dormant  period,  with  their  attendant 
buds,  furnish  the  potential  possibilities  of  a  large  growth  and 
the  development  of  many  branches  the  second  season.  Every 
bud  is  a  potential  branch.  Usually  it  is  only  the  buds 
towards  the  outer  extremities  of  the  limbs  that  actually 
develop  secondary  branches  of  importance  in  the  future  of 
the  tree.  It  is  because  of  this  characteristic  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  secondary  branches  that  heading  back  becomes 
such  an  essential  operation  in  making  a  tree  stocky  and 
mechanically  strong. 

Because  of  the  large  number  of'side  or  secondary  branches 
that  will  develop  the  second  season  and  the  crowding  in  the 
top  which  results  therefrom,  more  summer  pruning  can  be 
done  the  second  year  than  was  advisable  the  first  summer 
when  the  tree  was  just  getting  firmly  established  after  trans- 
planting to  its  permanent  location.  Not  much  heading  back 
should  be  done,  however,  after  the  last  of  June.  If  thinning 
out  of  superfluous  growth  seems  advisable  to  admit  sunlight 
and  air,  it  may  receive  attention  somewhat  later  in  the 
season  than  is  advisable  for  the  heading  back. 

It  is  in  the  second  season  usually  that  the  growth  charac- 
teristics, if  there  be  any,  of  different  varieties  become  pro- 


186  Peach-Growing 

nounced.  Plate  XIV  (top)  shows  an  Elberta  tree  in  its  second 
season  in  the  orchard.  The  rather  open  spreading  habit  of 
growth  is  well  defined.  Probably  but  little  heading  back  of 
the  main  limbs  was  done  the  winter  before  since  they  are  rather 
slender,  yet  they  are  branching  well.  As  the  top  is  made  up 
of  only  four  scaffold  or  frame  limbs,  and  these  are  spreading 
well,  the  top  has  not  thus  far  become  excessively  dense. 
Some  pinching  back  of  a  portion  of  the  terminal  growths 
should  be  done  to  keep  the  tree  symmetrical,  following  which 
a  little  later  some  thinning  out  of  side  branches  may  be 
necessary.  Pinching  back  would  tend  to  induce  a  stronger 
growth  of  the  side  branches.  The  flat-topped,  rather  open- 
growing  varieties  like  Greensboro,  Waddell,  and  Smock  will 
not  be  as  likely  to  need  summer  pruning  as  some  of  the  more 
upright  dense-growing  sorts  like  Stump,  Late  Crawford,  and 
others. 

The  dormant  pruning  following  the  second  season's  growth 
will  not  differ  in  kind  from  that  which  was  done  the  winter 
preceding.  Enough  thinning  out  of  the  side  branches  should 
be  done  to  open  the  top  well  and  such  heading  back  of  the 
growth  made  the  previous  summer  as  is  necessary  to  keep  the 
tree  within  bounds  and  to  prevent  the  main  limbs  from  be- 
coming "leggy"  and  getting  out  of  reach.  Perhaps  a  larger 
proportion  of  the  new  growth  will  need  to  be  cut  off  in  head- 
ing back  at  this  time  than  was  done  the  year  before.  How- 
ever, discretion  which  is  largely  the  outgrowth  of  experience, 
is  necessary  in  the  heading  back  at  this  time.  If  too  severe, 
it  will  tend  to  retard  bearing.  If  not  heavy  enough,  the 
branches  will  soon  become  too  long  as  above  stated.  The 
wise  balancing  of  the  two  aims  is  the  test  of  the  pruner's  skill. 

In  pruning  at  this  time  also,  that  is  the  dormant  pruning 
after  the  second  season's  growth,  care  needs  to  be  exercised 


Pruning  Peach  Trees  187 

in  directing  the  form  of  the  top,  even  more  than  at  the  first 
dormant  pruning.  In  case  of  a  tree  that  tends  to  grow  very 
upright,  the  cuts  made  in  heading  back  should  be  at  such 
points  that  the  topmost  bud  on  each  limb  is  on  the  outer  side. 
In  the  same  way,  in  heading  back  a  tree  that  naturally  spreads 
too  much,  the  limbs  should  be  cut  off  in  heading  back  where 
the  topmost  bud  will  be  on  the  inside.  The  resulting  tend- 
encies of  a  tree  with  regard  to  the  spread  of  the  top  can  be 
very  materially  influenced  in  this  way,  since  usually  the  branch 
which  develops  from  the  topmost  bud  is  the  strongest  and  vir- 
tually takes  the  place  of  the  "leader"  that  has  been  cut  off. 


PRUNING  THE  THIRD  AND  SUBSEQUENT  YEARS 

Pruning  following  the  third  season's  growth  does  not 
differ  greatly  from  that  of  a  year  previous.  However,  the 
tree  may  have  borne  a  little  fruit  the  third  year.  If  the 
conditions  are  favorable,  it  ought  to  bear  a  paying  crop  the 
fourth  season.  Up  to  this  time  the  pruning  has  been  directed 
especially  toward  the  growing  of  a  strong  stocky  tree  that 
would  sustain  the  weight  of  a  large  crop  of  fruit.  If  this 
has  been  well  done,  the  pruning  from  now  on  will  be  directed 
more  to  fruit  production.  One  of  the  governing  facts  which  is 
of  fundamental  importance  is  that  the  peach  always  produces 
fruit  on  wood  of  the  previous  season's  growth  and  the  fruit- 
buds  form  also  in  the  previous  season.  It,  therefore,  follows 
that  removing  a  portion  of  the  growth  made  the  season  be- 
fore has  the  effect  of  thinning  the  crop.  While  some  head- 
ing back  will  be  necessary  nearly  every  year,  it  should  be  done 
largely  with  a  view  to  the  prospective  crop. 

For  this  reason  orchardists  sometimes  delay  pruning  as 
late  in  the  spring  as  possible,  especially  if  there  have  been 


188  Peach-Growing 

frosts  or  freezes  that  have  endangered  the  fruit-buds.  If 
the  buds  prove  to  be  uninjured,  a  considerable  reduction  of 
the  previous  season's  growth  may  be  desirable  as  the  cheapest 
way  of  partially  reducing  the  prospective  excessively  large 
crop  to  the  amount  which  the  tree  can  successfully  carry. 
On  the  other  hand  if  the  buds  have  suffered  heavily  from  ad- 
verse temperatures,  it  may  be  unwise  to  reduce  the  number 
at  all  by  heading  back  or  otherwise  decreasing  the  previous 
season's  growth  of  wood.  The  same  may  be  true  though 
for  a  different  cause,  if  for  any  reason,  such  as  a  severe 
drought,  the  tree  made  very  little  growth  of  new  wood  the 
season  before. 

Still  another  feature  enters  into  the  problem  of  heading 
back.  This  is  the  position  of  the  fruit-buds  on  the  new 
growth.  In  some  varieties  or  under  some  conditions,  most 
of  the  fruit-buds  form  near  the  base  of  the  twigs ;  in  others, 
towards  the  terminal  ends ;  while  in  still  others,  the  buds  are 
uniformly  distributed  the  entire  length  of  the  twigs.  More- 
over, some  varieties  under  certain  conditions  develop  many 
short  spur-like  twigs  along  the  main  branches  and  larger 
limbs  which  are  little  less  than  fruit  spurs  and  on  which  much 
fruit  is  commonly  borne.  The  manner  in  which  the  trees 
are  pruned  influences  materially  the  formation  of  these  spur- 
like twigs.  Again,  fruit-buds  may  be  borne  in  pairs,  one  on 
either  side  of  a  leaf-bud  or  singly.  These  two  formations  are 
shown  in  Plate  XV.  The  position  of  the  fruit-buds  in  rela- 
tion to  the  leaf-buds  is  shown  in  Plate  XVI.  Without 
further  elaboration  of  details,  it  will  be  apparent  that  these 
various  positions  occupied  by  fruit-buds  in  some  varieties 
or  under  certain  conditions  must  be  fully  taken  into  account 
in  heading  back  the  trees,  else  the  results  are  likely  to  be  very 
different  from  what  the  pruner  expects. 


Pruning  Peach  Trees  189 

It  may  be  difficult  or  even  impossible  in  all  cases  to  dis- 
tinguish positively  between  fruit-  and  leaf-buds  by  the 
means  ordinarily  at  the  disposal  of  a  fruit-grower  when  they 
are  in  a  perfectly  dormant  condition,  but  in  general,  a  fruit- 
bud  is  larger,  plumper,  and  the  point  more  rounded  than  a 
leaf-bud,  but  this  distinction  does  not  always  exist  in  an  appre- 
ciable degree.  The  peach-grower  will  do  well  to  study  care- 
fully the  characteristics  of  his  different  varieties  in  these 
respects,  and  with  regard  to  the  position  of  the  blossoms, 
while  the  buds  are  opening  and  when  the  trees  are  in  bloom. 
When  the  fruit-buds  reach  the  condition  shown  in  Plate  XVI 
or  even  considerably  before  this  stage,  they  are  readily 
distinguished  from  the  leaf-buds. 

After  bearing  age  is  reached,  even  more  careful  attention 
should  be  given  to  keeping  the  top  well  thinned  out  than 
during  the  early  years  of  the  orchard.  If  the  top  is  allowed 
to  become  too  dense,  the  struggle  for  existence  among  the 
branches  will  result  in  their  becoming  weak  and  many  of  them 
may  die.  It  is  only  by  keeping  the  top  open  to  the  sunlight 
and  air  that  the  interior  growth  will  be  strong  and  develop 
an  abundance  of  well-matured  and  vigorous  fruit-buds. 
Keeping  the  top  well  thinned  out  so  that  every  fruit  gets  its 
full  complement  of  sunshine  results  also  in  well-developed, 
highly  colored  fruit.  Only  by  this  practice  can  fruit  of  the 
best  color  be  expected  from  the  interior  of  the  tree.  Again, 
an  open  top  is  essential  to  thorough  spraying.  Otherwise, 
it  is  impossible,  without  much  loss  of  time,  to  spray  effectively. 
For  these  and  other  reasons,  the  keeping  of  the  top  well 
opened  by  pruning  has  much  to  do  in  the  development  of 
high-grade  fruit. 

In  this  general  consideration  of  pruning  peach  trees,  the  de- 
tails of  the  operation  recorded  in  the  tree  shown  in  Plate 


190  Peach-Growing 

XIV  (bottom)  are  instructive.  When  planted,  this  tree  was 
headed  back  to  the  point  where  the  branching  begins  at  A. 
The  branch  AB  grew  the  first  season,  B  being  the  point  at 
which  it  was  headed  back  following  the  first  year's  growth  in 
the  orchard.  From  two  buds  near  the  outer  end  of  the  branch 
AB,  there  grew  during  the  second  season  the  limbs  branching 
from  B,  one  of  which  was  headed  back  at  C  during  the  second 
winter.  The  bud  at  the  end  of  the  branch  at  C  which  de- 
veloped a  "leader"  the  third  season  was  on  the  side  of  the 
branch  at  the  left  as  one  views  the  picture,  and  as  the  leader 
grew  it  made  an  angle  to  the  left  with  the  limb  BC,  and  during 
the  third  season  the  branches  3  and  4  grew,  the  latter  being 
rather  weak  and  small.  The  third  winter  branch  3  was  cut 
back  at  D.  Again  one  of  the  buds  near  the  end  of  the  branch 
at  D  was  on  the  left  side  and  when  from  it  branch  5  grew,  it, 
in  turn,  made  an  angle  to  the  left  with  the  limb  CD.  Branches 
6  and  7  also  developed  from  buds  near  the  end  of  the  limb 
at  D,  The  same  conditions  again  appear  at  E.  Thus  the 
general  direction  of  the  limb  from  A  to  E  made  up  of  sections 
BC,  3  and  5  was  determined  by  the  position  of  the  buds  near 
the  outer  end  of  each  section,  which,  in  its  turn,  developed  a 
"leader"  branch.  The  same  may  be  traced  in  other  limbs  in 
this  tree.  Had  all  the  branches  been  cut  back  each  season  at 
points  corresponding  to  B,  C,  D,  and  E,  so  that  the  topmost 
buds  were  on  the  outside  of  the  limb,  it  is  obvious  that  the 
general  effect  would  have  been  very  definitely  to  increase  the 
spread  of  the  top.  This  would  have  tended  to  produce  a 
tree  similar  in  form  to  the  Elberta  shown  in  Plate  XIII 
(top).  The  center  has  been  cut  out  while  the  side  branches 
have  been  induced  to  grow  nearly  horizontal,  thus 
making  a  tree  that  is  easy  to  pick,  spray,  and  otherwise 
manage. 


Pruning  Peach  Trees  191 

While,  perhaps,  in  pruning  the  tree  shown  in  Plate  XIV 
(bottom)  not  enough  attention  has  been  given  to  developing 
a  large  bearing  surface  throughout  the  top,  it  does  show,  on 
the  other  hand,  an  exceptionally  good  skeleton  plan  of  form- 
ing a  desirable  top. 

The  preceding  discussion  of  pruning  has  been  directed 
toward  the  development  of  a  "vase  form"  tree.  Another 
method  of  pruning  to  a  vase  form  used  in  California  to  some 
extent  and  locally  called  the  "Sims'  method,"  after  the  one 
who  originated  it,  is  described  as  follows  :  ^ 

"The  trees  are  cut  back  to  eighteen  inches  at  planting, 
and  at  the  first  winter's  pruning  four  or  five  of  the  most  up- 
right growing  branches  are  left  to  form  the  head.  These  are 
cut  to  a  uniform  height  and  as  great  a  length  as  the  season's 
growth  will  allow.  On  a  vigorous  tree  this  will  be  about  six 
feet.     All  laterals  are  removed  from  these. 

"  The  second  winter  retain  one  strong  upright  branch 
emerging  from  near  the  end  of  each  branch  of  previous 
season's  growth,  and  remove  all  laterals  from  the  tree  larger 
than  a  lead  pencil.  Top  these  main  branches  at  a  uniform 
height  of  ten  or  twelve  feet  from  the  ground  according  to  the 
growth  made.  Sometimes  a  lateral  is  allowed  to  grow  from 
one  of  these  main  limbs  to  fill  in  an  open  space  in  the  outline 
of  the  tree.  At  the  end  of  the  second  winter's  pruning  we 
have  a  low-headed  tree  with  four  or  five  main  branches 
ten  or  twelve  feet  long  and  so  upright  that  the  tree  is  only 
six  or  seven  feet  across  the  top.  Enough  small  laterals  are 
left  for  abundant  shade.  After  this  each  season  remove  all 
large  laterals  leaving  only  the  small  fruiting  wood  and  cut 
this  back  to  the  required  amount." 

1  Monthly  Bull.  Calif.  State  Com.  of  Hort.,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  3, 
March,  1914,  pp.  146-147. 


192  Peach-Growing 

Some  of  the  claims  for  this  method  are  that  no  propping 
is  necessary,  it  is  easy  to  work  close  to  the  trees  with  tillage 
implements  because  of  the  upright  positions  of  the  limbs, 
and  the  trees  are  more  easily  kept  within  manageable  limits 
than  by  other  methods.  It  is  said  to  work  well  with  very 
strong  growing  varieties  especially  where  conditions  are 
favorable  for  especially  vigorous  growth,  but  it  is  doubted 
whether  it  would  be  satisfactory  where  the  growth  is  not  par- 
ticularly vigorous  and  where  it  would  require  perhaps  three 
or  four  years  for  the  main  limbs  to  reach  the  desired  height. 
It  is  not  known  that  this  method  is  used  except  in  certain  lo- 
calities in  California,  but  it  is  possible  that  with  some  modi- 
fications to  meet  conditions  of  tree  growth  it  might  find  appli- 
cation elsewhere. 

A  general  plan  of  pruning  worked  out  by  S.  H.  Fulton  of 
West  Virginia  on  the  basis  of  wide  experience  in  that  state 
and  in  IMichigan  consists  in  forming  the  head  rather  arbitra- 
rily, when  possible  to  do  so,  of  three  framework  branches, 
these  being  selected  when  the  trees  are  pruned  following 
the  first  season's  growth.  At  that  time  these  three  branches 
are  headed  back  somewhat  heavily.  The  next  year  but  two 
side  branches  are  allowed  to  remain,  as  a  rule,  on  each  of  these 
main  limbs,  and  these  in  turn  are  headed  back.  Other  de- 
tails are  described  by  Fulton  as  follows  : 

"  Briefly,  our  plan  of  pruning  peach  trees  hinges  on  the  de- 
velopment of  low  open  centered  trees  with  only  three  main 
branches.  We  prune  rather  severely  the  first  three  years 
aiming  to  develop  a  short-jointed  stocky  framework,  uni- 
formly and  not  too  closely  distributed  around  the  open 
center.  In  this  pruning  only  a  limited  number  of  the 
strongest  and  best  placed  terminal  growths  are  allowed 
to  remain  for  framework  branches. 


Pruning  Peach  Trees  193 

"After  the  trees  are  in  bearing  we  do  no  very  heavy  cutting 
for  the  next  few  years  except  to  remove  branches  that  cross 
or  interfere.  Terminal  growths  more  than  twelve  to  sixteen 
inches  in  length  are  thinned  out  and  those  allowed  to  remain 
are  cut  back  from  one-third  to  one-half. 

"  After  our  trees  have  borne  several  crops  and  begin  to  lose 
vigor  making  only  a  short  annual  growth  with  a  diminishing 
number  of  fruit-buds  we  intensify  our  pruning,  cutting  back 
into  two-,  three-  and  sometimes  even  four-year-old  wood.  We 
are  careful  to  cut  back  to  a  good  lateral  branch  in  each 
instance  so  that  the  wounds  will  heal  over  readily  and  no 
stubs  will  be  left  to  induce  decay.  Framework  branches  are 
interfered  with  as  little  as  possible.  If  the  tree  has  grown 
too  tall  as  is  apt  to  be  the  case  with  tall  growing  varieties 
like  Reeves,  we  do  not  hesitate  to  cut  back  tall  center 
branches  sufficiently  to  bring  the  tree  within  bounds  for  con- 
venience in  spraying  and  harvesting  the  fruit.  As  peach- 
growers  well  know,  heavy  pruning  renews  the  vigor  of  the 
tree  and  increases  the  size  of  the  fruit.  In  doing  this  heavy 
pruning  we  avoid  cutting  away  too  much  of  the  top  in  any 
one  season  as  this  results  in  a  rank  growth  of  new  wood  and 
practically  no  fruit  the  following  year.  As  peach  trees  age 
we  find  they  are  able  to  carry  less  fruiting  wood  unless  they 
are  on  strong  land  or  are  kept  well  supplied  with  nitrogenous 
fertilizers.  Even  under  the  latter  conditions  it  pays  to 
reduce  the  tops  of  old  trees,  as  the  quality  of  the  fruit  will 
thereby  be  improved. 

"  In  our  experience,  very  severe  pruning  commonly  called 
'  dehorning '  is  apt  to  be  followed  by  bad  results  and  accom- 
plishes no  purpose  that  cannot  be  better  accomplished  by 
the  more  moderate  method  described  above.  Dehorning 
largely  destroys  the  framework  of  the  tree  and  leaves  ugly 


194  Peach-Growing 

stubs  which  invite  decay,  thus  shortening  the  life  of  the  tree. 
Furthermore  this  radical  type  of  pruning  may  kill  the  tree 
outright  especially  if  the  pruning  follows  winter  injury. 
Many  of  the  trees  which  do  survive  start  off  stronger  from 
one  point  than  another  and  do  not  develop  well-balanced 
tops.  The  rank  gro^s-th  following  bears  few  fruit-buds  and 
a  year's  fruiting  is  lost.  These  observations  are  based  on 
the  experience  of  the  wTiter  in  Michigan  following  the  severe 
winter  of  1898-1899  and  in  West  Virginia  following  the 
February  freeze  of  1912.  In  both  instances  we  made 
pruning  tests  and  the  trees  pruned  moderately  gave  better 
results  subsequently,  both  in  point  of  tree  growth  and 
fruitage  than  unpruned  trees  and  very  decidedly  better 
results  than  dehorned  trees.  In  fact  about  25  per  cent 
of  the  dehorned  trees  died  the  following  season  in  each 
instance. 

"  In  recent  years  we  have  tried  to  hit  on  a  plan  of  pruning 
old  peach  trees  which  will  make  heavy  cutting  unnecessary, 
the  idea  being  that  if  just  the  right  amount  of  wood  is  taken 
off  each  season  the  vigor  of  the  tree  and  size  of  fruit  will  be 
kept  up  year  after  year  within  reasonable  limits  and  severe 
pruning  will  not  be  necessary.  In  following  out  this  idea 
we  have  thinned  out  the  current  year's  gro'wi;h  thoroughly 
and  headed  in  the  remaining  twigs  closely.  We  have  also 
given  special  attention  to  preserving  and  encouraging  the 
development  of  fruiting  wood  low  dowTi  on  the  framework 
of  the  tree  to  offset  the  tendency  of  an  old  peach  tree  to  pro- 
duce practically  all  its  fruit  on  the  terminals  of  long  pole-like 
branches.  We  have  made  some  progress  with  this  plan  but 
have  not  been  able  to  do  away  with  moderately  heavy 
pruning  entirely.  I  believe,  however,  this  would  be  a  safe 
ideal  toward  which  to  work  and  coupled  with  proper  applica- 


Pruning  Peach  Trees  195 

tions  of  nitrogenous  fertilizers  it  is  possible  the  idea  might 
be  carried  out  to  a  successful  conclusion. 

"  For  the  past  six  years  we  have  been  testing  out  the  plan 
of  rejuvenating  peach  trees  by  cutting  back  moderately 
heavy  a  section  of  the  top  each  year  over  a  period  of  about 
four  years.  The  first  year  about  one-fourth  of  the  top  is 
treated,  the  next  year  another  fourth,  and  so  on,  until  the 
whole  top  is  pruned.  The  pruning  is  not  done  over  the 
entire  top  each  season  but  is  restricted  each  time  to  a  limited 
section  of  the  top.  The  first  year  there  is  very  little  growth 
from  the  treated  section,  but  the  next  year  after  another 
section  has  been  pruned,  the  quarter  first  pruned  makes  a 
good  growth  and  sets  an  abundance  of  fruit-buds.  This 
method  does  not  cause  the  loss  of  a  crop  at  any  time  while 
the  treatment  is  in  progress  as  is  the  case  when  the  dehorning 
treatment  is  used.  However  we  have  not  found  this  system 
so  satisfactory  as  that  of  giving  the  entire  top  a  moderately 
heavy  pruning  all  at  one  operation  when  it  becomes  apparent 
that  the  trees  are  losing  vigor." 

In  the  pruning  of  trees  with  the  various  objects  in  mind 
that  have  been  enumerated,  it  is  often  as  important  to  know 
what  not  to  do  as  what  to  do.  The  following  illustrations 
teach  some  important  practical  lessons  in  pruning  peach 
trees. 

In  Plate  XVII  {t(yp)  is  shown  an  extreme  type  of  poor  prun- 
ing yet  one  that  is  not  very  uncommon.  The  outer  portion  of 
the  tree  has  not  been  well  thinned  out,  and  the  smaller,  second- 
ary growth  has  been  entirely  pruned  off  from  a  considerable 
portion  of  each  of  the  main  limbs  instead  of  being  utilized 
to  develop  fruit-bearing  branches  in  the  center,  where  its 
weight  can  best  be  supported  without  breaking  the  tree. 
With  the  bearing  wood  largely  developed  toward  the  outer 


196  Peach-Growing 

extremities  of  the  branches  and  the  size  of  the  branches 
disproportionately  small  for  their  length  on  account  of  not 
having  been  properly  headed  in,  even  a  small  crop  of  fruit 
would  be  likely  to  break  the  tree  to  pieces  very  badly. 

This  type  of  tree  may  be  contrasted  with  the  one  pre- 
sented in  Plate  XVII  {bottom)  which  shows  a  tree  that  is 
stocky  and  the  main  limbs  completely  covered  with  fruit-bear- 
ing wood.  Though  the  top  of  this  tree  is  very  open,  the  growth 
is  so  developed  that  there  is  no  danger  of  the  limbs  being 
injured  by  sun-scald.  There  may  be  some  varietal  differences 
in  the  habit  of  growth  between  the  two  trees  shown  in  Plate 
XVII,  but  from  the  standpoint  of  the  features  in  question 
such  differences  are  doubtless  unimportant  if  they  exist. 

An  entirely  different  type  of  tree  is  shown  in  Plate  XVIII 
{bottom).  The  trees  now  nine  years  old  were  headed  very 
low  and  evidently  the  tops  were  formed  rather  systemati- 
cally of  three  or  four  main  branches,  but  there  is  no  indication 
of  their  ever  having  been  headed  back  either  when  they  were 
young  or  later.  As  a  result,  the  natural  tendency  for  a  limb 
to  elongate  each  year  from  the  outermost  bud  has  been  fully 
exercised.  The  outer  bud  in  the  case  of  these  trees  has  habit- 
ually been  the  terminal  bud.  The  development  of  side 
branches  has  not  been  stimulated  as  would  have  been  the 
case  had  the  limbs  been  wisely  headed  back.  The  result 
is  an  orchard  in  which  the  trees  are  difficult  to  spray,  the 
bearing  surface  nearly  all  so  high  that  little  of  the  fruit  can 
be  picked  without  the  use  of  a  step-ladder,  the  limbs  can- 
not sustain  a  heavy  load  of  fruit  and  in  various  other  ways 
due  to  poor  pruning  or  none  at  all,  the  trees  are  in  poor 
condition. 

In  Plate  XVIII  {top)  are  shown  two  Elberta  trees 
fourteen  years  old  which  are  exceptional  for  their  size,  the 


Pruning  Peach  Trees  197 

spread  of  the  limbs  of  the  two  trees  being  fifty-five  feet. 
They  possess  remarkable  bearing  surface  and  present  a  strik- 
ing example  of  what  can  be  accomplished  by  systematic, 
wisely  directed  pruning  in  developing  a  peach  tree. 

Still  another  form  of  Elberta  tree  appears  in  Plate  XIX. 
It  is  not  as  old  by  three  years  as  the  trees  in  Plate  XVIII  (top), 
but  it  has  had  good  attention  though  controlled  by  somewhat 
different  ideals.  The  top  is  well  opened,  it  has  large  bearing 
surface,  and  is  in  condition  to  produce  a  large  quantity  of 
highly  colored  fruit,  but  it  will  be  borne  mostly  towards 
the  extremities  of  the  limbs  where  much  of  the  picking  will 
probably  be  done  from  step-ladders. 

The  trees  in  Plate  XIX  (top)  were  not  formed  with  great 
care  nor  with  regard  to  any  very  definite  system  during  their 
early  years  in  the  orchard.  They  have  been  pruned  regularly, 
headed  back  with  discretion,  and  have  developed  a  large 
bearing  surface  since  the  wood  of  the  previous  season's  growth 
is  well  distributed  and  abundant.  They  have  been  pruned 
regularly  with  a  view  to  securing  the  most  practical  ends 
but  without  special  concern  for  the  best  possible  appearance 
of  the  trees. 

The  type  of  orchard  step-ladder  or  stool  here  shown  (Plate 
XIX)  is  an  excellent  one  for  use  in  an  orchard  located  on  a 
steep  slope.  The  legs  on  one  side  are  commonly  made  some- 
what shorter  than  on  the  other  to  conform  to  the  slope  of 
the  land,  while  the  top  has  sufficient  surface  to  give  one  a 
sense  of  security  when  standing  on  it. 

In  Plate  XX  (bottom)  is  shown  still  another  ideal.  It  is  a 
Phillips  tree  grown  on  fertile  soil  under  irrigation.  These 
factors  of  environment  account  for  the  large  size  and  dense 
foliage.  The  tops  are  probably  too  dense  but  this  variety  is 
one  of  the  leading  sorts  grown  in  California  for  canning. 


198 


Peach-Growing 


Large  size  of  fruit  and  productiveness  of  tree  are,  therefore, 
probably  more  important  than  high  color,  hence  the  density 
of  the  top  and  certain  other  characteristics  of  the  tree  and 
its  environment  are  correlated  to  some  extent  with  the  pur- 
pose for  which  the  fruit  is  used. 

While  it  may  be  necessary  or  advisable,  when  trees  are 
very  heavily  loaded  with  fruit,  to  prop  the  limbs  as  shown 
in  Plate  XX,  to  prevent  them  from  breaking,  the  form  of 
support  shown  in  Fig.  12  can  be  used  in  many  cases  to  good 
advantage.  Large  screw-eyes  are  screwed  into  the  limbs 
which  soon  rust  enough  to  prevent  them  from  pulling  out 
with  any  ordinary  weight  of  fruit.  Then  wires,  one  end  of 
each  being  twisted  into  a  screw-eye,  pass  to  a  common 
center  which  is  a  small  ring.     In   this  way  each  limb   is 

supported  by  all 
the  others  on  the 
opposite  side  of 
the  tree.  This 
plan  of  giving  sup- 
port to  the  limbs 
does  away  with 
the  inconvenience 
of  the  props. 

In  Plate  XX  is 

shown  a   conven- 

,    .    , ,        .    ,    .  x-     .,      ient  form   of    or- 

Fio.  12.  —  A  desirable  method  of  supporting  the  j     i    j  i! 

branches  to  prevent  breaking  when  heavily  loaded    chard  slcd  lOr  USC 

with  fruit.  j^   removing    the 

brush  from  the  orchard  after  pruning,  while  Fig.  13, 
which  illustrates  a  "brush  burner,"  suggests  still  another 
way  of  disposing  of  the  brush.  This  implement  consists 
of    an    iron    frame    put    together  in  the  form  of    a  sled. 


Pruning  Peach  Trees 


199 


the  body  being  made  out  of  sheet  iron.  When  in  use,  a  fire 
is  started  on  the  bottom,  then  as  it  is  drawn  through  the 
orchard,  the  brush  is  thrown  into  it  where  in  turn  it  is 
burned.  Another  type  of  burner  is  similar  to  this  one  in 
its  general  fea- 
tures but  the  body 
is  mounted  on  low 
iron  trucks. 


Such  a  device 
as  a  burner  obvi- 
ously could  not  be 
used  to  advantage 
where  there  were 
many  large  limbs  to  be  disposed  of,  but  when  pruning  is  done 
regularly  and  thoroughly  each  year,  there  will  be  few  branches 
that  cannot  be  handled  in  this  manner  without  difficulty. 


Fig 


A  brush  burner. 


SUMMER  PRUNING 

Pruning  in  the  summer  has  been  touched  on  briefly  in  the 
sections  relating  to  the  pruning  of  trees  during  the  first  three 
years,  but  it  is  well  to  look  a  little  farther  into  this  feature, 
since  during  the  past  few  years  it  has  been  advocated  more 
or  less  for  peach,  apple,  and  other  fruit-trees.  Rather 
frequent  reference  is  made  to  the  subject  in  the  horticultural 
literature  of  recent  times.  Much  of  this  is  somewhat 
academic  without  the  support  of  real  evidence.  However, 
a  number  of  investigators  have  carried  on  work  along 
this  line,  but  the  results  are  conflicting.  It  may  be 
assumed  that  the  principles  of  summer  pruning  are  not 
fully  understood,  or  that  the  practice  frequently  is  not 
well  executed. 


200  Peach-Growing 

Blake  ^  has  set  forth  the  more  important  objects  of  summer 
pruning  as  follows :  "  To  improve  the  form  of  the  tree.  To 
remove  'suckers'  and  undesirable  branches  which  tend  to 
make  the  head  or  top  of  the  tree  too  dense.  To  remove  the 
necessity  for  too  severe  winter  pruning.  To  encourage  and 
induce  fruitfulness." 

This  summary  relates  particularly  to  young  trees  that  have 
not  been  planted  more  than  three  years  and  which,  there- 
fore, have  not  yet  borne  much  fruit.  The  first  year  in 
particular  after  a  tree  is  planted,  corrective  summer  pruning 
in  limited  extent  may  be  advantageous  in  improving  the 
form.  Frequently  one  or  two  branches  will  take  the  lead 
in  growth  and  if  not  checked,  the  tree  becomes  one-sided  and 
unsymmetrical.  If  such  branches  are  pinched  back  a  little 
as  soon  as  it  is  apparent  that  the  tree  is  becoming  one-sided, 
the  other  limbs  have  a  better  opportunity  to  develop. 
Further,  superfluous  limbs  may  start  to  grow,  and  the  earlier 
they  are  removed,  the  better.  Suckers  that  come  from 
adventitious  buds  below  the  ground  had  better  be  removed 
also  at  once.  By  thus  keeping  the  young  growing  tree  well 
shaped  throughout  the  season,  the  need  of  very  heav}^  prun- 
ing and  especially  that  which  calls  for  the  removal  of  entire 
limbs  of  considerable  size  will  be  largely  avoided. 

It  follows  to  some  extent  that  summer  pruning  is  an  in- 
dividual tree  treatment  rather  than  one  that  should  be 
applied  to  entire  orchards.  When  considerable  pinching 
back  of  "leader  branches"  is  done,  the  development  of  many 
relatively  strong  side  branches  is  likely  to  occur.  These 
should  ordinarily  be  thinned  out  as  soon  as  the  need  begins 
to  appear.  The  first  regular  pruning,  however,  should 
ordinarily  be  done  during  the  first  half  of  June,  excepting 
»  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  231,  p.  32. 


Pruning  Peach  Trees  201 

possibly  in  the  more  northern  districts  where  growth  is 
comparatively  late  in  starting,  when  a  somewhat  later  date 
may  be  necessary. 

To  quote  Blake  again  in  summarizing  this  phase  of  prun- 
ing :  "  Summer  pruning,  then,  may  be  said  to  consist  of 
two  distinct  operations :  The  thinning  of  the  new  growth 
including  the  removal  of  any  water  sprouts  or  suckers,  and 
the  pinching  back  of  leading,  rapidly-growing  shoots. 

"  Both  operations  are  usually  necessary  in  summer  pruning 
peach  trees  that  are  growing  rapidly  the  second  summer. 
The  simple  pinching  back  of  the  tips  of  the  most  vigorous 
shoots  results  in  making  the  tree  more  dense  and  compact, 
which  is  the  exact  thing  we  wish  to  avoid.  In  general,  then, 
where  pinching  back  is  practiced  some  thinning  of  shoots  is 
also  necessary.  The  exception  may  occur  with  a  very  open 
spreading  type  of  tree  with  but  little  growth  in  the  center, 
where  pinching  back  will  simply  check  the  sprawling  or  very 
upright  form  of  the  growth  without  causing  the  center  to 
become  dense. 

"Varieties  like  Greensboro  and  Waddell  require  but  little 
thinning  when  summer  pruned  under  most  conditions  in  New 
Jersey.  On  the  other  hand,  such  sorts  as  Mountain  Rose, 
Early  Crawford,  Niagara,  Reeve's  Favorite,  and  Stump  form 
dense,  thick  tops  if  pinched  back  without  any  thinning  of  the 
new  growth.  The  amount  of  thinning  necessary  will  also 
depend  considerably  upon  the  character  of  the  pruning  the 
previous  spring.  Where  the  trees  were  severely  cut  back 
there  will  be  the  necessity  of  more  thinning  of  new  growth 
than  upon  unpruned  trees,  as  the  pruning  in  the  former  case 
will  have  induced  a  more  vigorous  development  of  new  shoots. 
In  other  words,  the  cutting  back  of  a  leader  in  the  dormant 
season  will  result  in  the  development  of  two  or  more  vigorous 


202  Peach-Growing 

new  shoots  near  the  point  where  the  branch  was  cut,  and  if 
these  are  all  allowed  to  grow  and  are  pinched  back  the 
development  of  branches  will  be  much  too  dense." 

Keffer  ^  has  studied  the  effects  of  summer  pruning  peach 
trees  in  full  bearing.  If  done  early  —  by  the  middle  of  June 
in  the  latitude  of  Tennessee  —  it  may  have  beneficial  results. 
He  observes  that  the  general  tendency  is  for  the  bearing 
surface  to  become  more  and  more  remote  from  the  central 
axis  of  the  tree,  the  smaller  twigs  and  branches  in  the  center 
gradually  dying. 

This  author  further  notes  that  the  fruit-buds  form  abun- 
dantly after  the  middle  of  June.  From  one  season's  work 
only  he  is  convinced  that  early  summer  pruning  of  bearing 
trees,  which  consists  of  heading  back  the  main  leader  branch 
a  few  inches  and  as  well  also  some  of  the  side  branches,  will 
result  in  the  growth  of  many  short  spurs  all  along  the  branches 
thus  headed  back  and  on  which  fruit-buds  will  form.  In 
this  way  the  bearing  surface  is  developed  within  the  center 
of  the  tree.  In  case  of  the  very  early  varieties  this  type  of 
summer  pruning  can  be  done  after  the  season's  crop  is 
harvested.  In  the  later  varieties,  it  must  be  done  while  the 
crop  is  still  on  the  tree.  While  it  is  admitted  that  this  treat- 
ment of  later  varieties  may  result  for  the  time  being  in  the 
loss  of  some  fruit,  by  alternating  the  cutting  back,  treating 
some  limbs  one  year  and  the  others  the  next,  Keffer  believes 
the  method  will  prove  advantageous  for  varieties  of  all 
seasons.  This  plan  presupposes  the  keeping  of  the  top  well 
opened  so  that  the  spurs  will  have  a  full  measure  of 
sunlight. 

Unfortunately  the  investigations,  as  reported,  were  not 
continued  for  a  series  of  years  in  order  to  determine  the  effect 
1  Tenn.  Exp.  Sta.  BuU.  108. 


Pruning  Peach  Trees  203 

of  repeated  prunings  of  this  sort,  on  the  same  trees,  and  to 
work  out  the  details  of  the  method  after  the  first  season,  but 
the  results  in  increased  fruit-bud  formation  in  the  interior  of 
the  trees  treated  one  season  were  so  striking  in  comparison 
with  those  not  summer  pruned  that  it  was  assumed  appar- 
ently that  the  principle  was  proved.  The  results  of  this 
type  of  pruning  when  delayed  till  August  were  disastrous  in 
that  very  few  fruit-buds  formed. 

Though  some  investigators,  and  orchardists  as  well,  have 
secured  well-defined  results  in  favor  of  summer  pruning, 
others  have  obtained  either  negative  or  adverse  results. 
While  it  is  a  question  that  may  well  continue  to  receive 
thought  and  consideration  by  experimenters  and  fruit- 
growers, it  should  be  practiced  with  considerable  discretion 
and  caution  in  commercial  orchards,  where  a  crop  of  fruit 
is  at  stake,  until  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  consistently 
beneficial  are  better  understood  than  they  are  at  present. 
Further,  since  summer  pruning  tends  to  check  the  growth, 
but  very  little  at  the  most  should  be  done  the  first  season 
after  planting  as  well  as  on  older  trees  that  are  making  a 
weak  growth. 

PRUNING   IN  RELATION  TO   WINTER  INJURY 

The  relation  between  pruning  and  winter  injury  may  vary 
in  different  regions  depending  on  the  climatic  conditions.  It 
manifests  itself  principally  through  the  vigor  of  the  trees 
and  in  the  time  when  the  seasonal  growth  matures.  The 
effect  in  this  respect  is  comparable  to  that  of  tillage  and  the 
time  of  its  cessation  for  the  season.  Chandler^  reports  the 
results  of  some  observations  and  experiments  in  Missouri 
along  this  line. 

1  Mo.  Exp.  Sta.  BuU.  74. 


204  Peach-Growing 

It  has  been  stated  previously  that  heavy  dormant-season 
pruning  tends  to  induce  a  vigorous  growth  of  wood  the  follow- 
ing season.  The  vigor  of  the  growth  is  more  or  less  pro- 
portionate to  the  extent  of  the  pruning.  Heavy  pruning, 
it  has  been  shown,  induces  a  late  growth  of  wood.  The 
relationship  between  late  maturity  and  winter  injury, 
especially  to  the  fruit-buds,  in  regions  characterized  by 
warm  periods  in  winter  has  been  discussed  under  fertilizers 
(page  169).  For  a  similar  reason  heavily  pruned  trees  may 
pass  through  the  following  winter  in  better  condition  and 
produce  a  better  crop  the  next  season  than  trees  pruned  so 
lightly  that  it  has  no  influence  in  stimulating  a  vigorous 
growth,  and  therefore  the  trees  mature  relatively  early. 
Chandler  has  compared  peach  buds  taken  from  trees  cut 
back  the  previous  winter  into  two-year-old  wood  with  buds 
from  trees  of  which  only  about  one-third  of  the  length  of  the 
previous  reason's  growth  had  been  removed,  and  has  found 
that  the  breaking  of  the  rest-period  of  the  former  was  very 
considerably  delayed  in  comparison  with  the  latter,  and 
therefore  the  fruit-buds  of  the  heavily  cut-back  trees  pos- 
sessed a  much  better  chance  under  southern  Missouri  con- 
ditions of  passing  through  the  winter  uninjured.  In  a 
more  northern  location,  where  early  maturity  of  the  growth 
is  a  factor  in  hardiness,  the  very  fact  that  a  tree  was  late  in 
maturing  might  explain  the  cause  of  the  buds  not  passing 
the  winter  uninjured. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  same  investigator  records  an 
experience  in  an  orchard  seven  years  old  where  a  part  of  the 
trees  were  cut  back  into  three-  and  four-year-old  wood  while 
the  others  were  not  headed  back.  The  trees  severely  headed 
back  made  a  very  heavy  growth  the  next  season.  The 
following  winter  only  buds  enough  survived  on  these  trees 


Pruning  Peach  Trees  205 

to  make  a  very  light  crop,  while  on  the  trees  not  headed  back 
the  winter  before  enough  buds  lived  to  make  a  very  heavy 
crop.  This  experience  suggests  that  it  is  possible  to  go  to 
extremes,  even  where  moderately  heavy  pruning  is  advan- 
tageous. In  case  of  these  extremely  heavily  pruned  trees, 
very  few  buds  may  have  formed,  or  they  may  have  been  so 
immature  that  they  were  killed  even  by  comparatively  mild 
temperatures.  In  this  connection  it  may  be  noted  that  the 
hardiest  fruit-buds  as  a  rule  are  those  that  form  near  the 
base  of  the  seasonal  growth  and  on  the  short  spurs  which 
develop  on  two-year-old  wood. 

In  summarizing  the  relation  of  pruning  to  winter  injury 
under  Missouri  conditions  (and  the  conclusions  are  doubtless 
applicable  to  other  regions  where  the  conditions  are  com- 
parable) Chandler  ^  states  as  follows  : 

"If  the  buds  are  injured  by  a  freeze,  coming  before  any 
buds  have  been  started  by  a  warm  period,  the  condition  that 
favors  the  greatest  hardiness  is  to  have  the  tree  mature 
reasonably  early  the  previous  season,  and  to  have  the  buds 
set  well  down  at  the  base  of  the  whips,  and  on  short  spurs 
coming  out  from  two-year-old  wood.  If  the  buds  are  killed 
after  having  been  previously  started  by  a  warm  period,  the 
condition  that  favors  the  greatest  hardiness  is  secured  by 
having  the  tree  grow  well  up  toward  the  end  of  the  season 
so  as  to  prolong  the  resting  period,  and  thus  reduce  the 
amount  of  growth  the  buds  may  make  on  warm  days,  and 
to  have  the  heads  of  the  trees  open  so  that  buds  may  form 
well  down  to  the  base  of  the  whips.  If  the  blossoms  are 
killed  by  spring  frosts,  the  condition  that  favors  the  greatest 
hardiness  is  secured  by  having  the  tree  reasonably  vigorous 
with  an  open  head  and  buds  formed  well  down  to  the  base 
1  Mo.  Exp.  Sta.  Circ.  of  Information,  31. 


206  Peach-Growing 

of  the  whips  and  on  short  twigs  and  spurs  from  the  older 
wood.  If  the  young  fruit  is  killed  by  very  late  frosts,  the 
condition  that  favors  the  greatest  hardiness  is  secured  by 
having  the  trees  in  as  vigorous  a  condition  of  growth  as  a 
healthy  five-  or  six-year-old  tree  generally  makes.  The  best 
system  of  pruning,  then,  would  seem  to  be  to  keep  the  heads 
of  the  trees  open,  and  the  ends  of  the  branches  shortened 
back  some  each  year,  enough  to  keep  the  tree  in  a  reasonably 
vigorous  state  of  growth.  Trees  in  south  Missouri  will  need 
considerable  of  this  heading  back,  especially  as  the  trees  grow 
older.  In  the  northern  half  of  the  state,  and  especially  in  a 
section  where  the  trees  make  the  most  growth,  like  the  hill 
land  around  Kansas  City,  the  heading  back  will  have  to  be 
done  more  cautiously  for  fear  of  throwing  the  tree  into  too 
vigorous  growth.  Some  heading  back  should  be  done, 
however,  each  year.  The  importance  of  having  an  open 
head  will  be  greater  in  the  northern  half  of  the  state  than  in 
the  southern,  so  far  as  the  hardiness  of  the  buds  is  concerned, 
especially  if  we  do  any  heading  back." 

PRUNING  TO  OVERCOME  WINTER  INJURY 

Occasional  "test  winters"  occur  in  which  the  temperature 
drops  disastrously  low  even  in  peach  districts  in  which  the 
usual  winter  is  entirely  favorable  to  the  industry.  Such  a 
winter  was  the  one  of  1903-1904  and  which  resulted  in  injury 
to  many  trees  in  parts  of  New  England,  New  York,  Michi- 
gan, and  other  northern  peach-growing  regions.  Special 
problems  in  pruning  are  presented  by  such  occurrences. 

Trees  that  are  thrifty  and  vigorous  will  withstand  more 
adverse  temperature  conditions  than  those  which  are  in  any 
way  depleted.     Since  trees  of  considerable  age  are  often 


Plate  XVII.  —  Pruning.  Top,  the  limbs  have  not  been  cut  back 
but  the  side  branches  at  ba.se  of  limbs  have  been  removed  — •  a  very 
undesirable  form ;  bottom,  skillfully  pruned  Levy  peach  tree  with  good 
bearing  surface  throughout  the  top. 


Pruning  Peach  Trees  207 

jnore  or  less  depleted  and  lacking  in  vigor,  it  follows  that 
such  trees  are  apt  to  suffer  more  from  extremely  low  tem- 
peratures than  comparatively  young,  vigorous  trees. 

Winter  injury  may  appear  in  every  degree  from  the  killing 
of  the  fruit-buds,  which  usually  are  the  first  to  suffer  injury 
from  a  low  temperature,  to  the  complete  killing  of  the  tree. 
If  the  buds  are  killed,  the  injury  can  be  detected  within  a  day 
or  two  after  the  return  of  thawing  temperatures  by  cutting 
them  open  in  the  middle  lengthwise  and  noting  the  embryo 
peach  which  occupies  the  center  of  each  one.  If  it  is  bright 
and  fresh  in  appearance,  and  the  pistil  —  the  very  small 
slender  stem-like  organ  about  one-half  inch  long  that  extends 
from  the  apex  of  the  embryo  fruit  —  is  not  withered,  the  bud 
is  in  normal  condition ;  but  if  either  the  pistil  or  embryo  fruit 
is  dark  and  discolored,  it  is  doubtless  dead. 

There  is  no  sure  sign  by  which  a  tree  that  has  been  killed 
can  be  detected  at  once.  Both  Waite  ^  and  Eustace  ^  have 
called  attention  to  the  fact  that  a  tree  injured  by  low  tem- 
peratures may  show  no  external  appearance  of  it  immediately. 
Where  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow  to  some  depth  when 
the  low  temperature  occurs,  no  injury  results  below  the  snow 
line.  Above  this  line  the  extreme  injury  that  is  likely  to 
occur  is  manifest  in  the  splitting  of  the  bark  on  the  trunk  and 
perhaps  the  larger  limbs  and  its  separation  from  the  wood. 
When  the  separation  is  complete,  it  is  safe  to  assume  the 
tree  is  dead  or  will  die  regardless  of  anything  that  may  be 
done.  When  the  injury  is  similar  to  the  preceding  in  kind 
but  the  bark  is  only  slightly  separated  from  the  wood, 
experience  indicates  that  the  tree  may  survive  and  be  of 
service  for  some  years. 

1  Bur.  of  Plant  Ind.  Bull.  51. 

2  N.  Y.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  BuU.  269. 


208  Peach-Growing 

An  injury  still  less  severe  but  one  that  may  cause  much 
alarm  is  when  the  heart- wcx)d  of  the  tree  is  killed  entirely; 
the  outer  surface  of  the  wood  is  discolored,  turning  brown 
or  blackened,  but  the  bark  and  cambium  remain  intact. 
On  cutting  through  the  bark  the  discoloration  is  easily 
detected.  On  the  strength  of  this  evidence  many  trees 
following  a  "test  winter"  have  been  rooted  up;  but  again 
experience  has  shown  that  such  trees  usually  make  a  good 
recovery  and  under  favorable  conditions  produce  abundantly 
for  a  considerable  period  thereafter.  The  cambium  develops 
a  layer  of  sound  wood  over  the  dead  interior.  While  such 
trees  are  not  as  strong  as  normal  trees  and  may  break  down 
badly  under  stress  of  storms  or  weight  of  fruit,  they  should 
not  be  destroyed  following  the  injury  on  the  supposition  that 
they  are  worthless,  unless  for  other  reasons  than  the  one  in 
question. 

It  is  in  the  skillful  pruning  of  winter-injured  trees  that 
much  of  their  future  value  lies.  Eustace  found  that  vigorous 
trees  not  over  five  years  old  when  badly  injured  made  an 
excellent  recovery  when  the  limbs  were  heavily  cut  back  to 
comparatively  short  stubs,  but  when  older  trees  were  similarly 
pruned  it  proved  fatal.  Though  they  started  a  new  growth, 
they  died  almost  invariably  before  the  end  of  summer.  On 
the  other  hand,  when  the  older  trees  were  only  moderately 
cut  back,  they  made  a  good  recovery,  very  much  better  than 
where  no  cutting  back  was  done. 

These  results  largely  confirm  those  of  Waugh,^  also  observa- 
tions recorded  in  Michigan  ^  which  indicate  that  cutting  back 
into  wood  i-  to  f  of  an  inch  in  diameter  gave  much  better 
results  both  in  vigor  of  growth  and  in  the  foliage  than  either 

1  Mass.  Hatch  Exp.  Sta.  Repts.  for  1904  and  1905. 

2  Mich.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  177,  178,  and  Special  Bull.  11. 


Pruning  Peach  Trees  209 

cutting  back  to  stubs  1^  to  2  inches  in  diameter  or  the  usual 
shortening  in  as  practiced  to  meet  normal  conditions. 

Walker^  in  Arkansas  and  Whitten^in  Missouri,  on  the  other 
hand,  secured  by  far  the  best  recovery  in  trees  five  to  seven 
years  old  that  were  headed  back  to  stubs  from  1|-  to  2  inches 
in  diameter.  The  lighter  heading-in  and  no  pruning  at  all 
were  much  less  satisfactory.  While  Whitten  reported  that 
some  of  the  heavily  pruned  trees  were  so  slow  in  starting  it 
was  thought  for  a  time  they  would  fail  entirely  to  do  so,  they 
made  very  rapid  growth  when  they  once  began  to  develop. 

It  is  difficult  to  harmonize  the  conflicting  results  mentioned 
above.  They  are  consistent,  however,  with  certain  differ- 
ences that  have  been  discussed  in  another  place.  In  Arkansas 
and  Missouri,  where  the  heaviest  heading  back  proved  the 
best  pruning  treatment  for  badly  winter-injured  trees,  the 
normal  winter  temperatures  are  rather  mild  with  occasional 
decidedly  warm  spells,  while  the  regions  in  which  the  better 
results  followed  heading  back  only  to  wood  i  or  f  inch  in 
diameter  are  all  located  where  the  normal  winter  is  quite 
continuously  cold  in  comparison.  Whether  the  differences 
in  the  results  that  have  been  noted  are  correlated  with  the 
different  temperature  conditions  in  the  several  regions  and 
their  influence  on  the  vegetative  processes  of  the  trees  is 
impossible  to  settle  on  the  basis  of  present  evidence. 

The  pruning  discussed  under  this  heading  would  ordi- 
narily be  done  in  late  winter  after  the  effect  of  the  low 
temperature  had  become  apparent  or  in  the  spring  before 
growth  starts  very  much.  In  many  cases,  however,  it  is 
difficult  or  even  impossible  to  detect  that  a  tree  has  been 
injured  by  winter  conditions.  This  is  true  especially  where 
injured  trees  are  scattered  here  and  there  throughout  an 

1  Ark.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  79.  2  Mo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  55. 


210 


Peach-Growing 


orchard,  as  sometimes  happens.  An  injured  tree  may  start 
into  growth  in  the  spring,  but  the  foHage  as  it  develops  will 
be  small,  below  normal  in  quantity;  and  the  tree  shows  a 
general  lack  of  vitality.  As  this  condition  may  become 
evident  only  as  the  season  progresses,  its  early  detection  is 
frequently  impossible. 


PRUNING  TO  RENEW  THE  TOPS 

When  the  fruit-buds  are  all  killed  either  by  excessively  low 
winter  temperatures  or  spring  frosts  so  that  trees  fail  to  bear 

a  crop  of  fruit,  it 
offers  an  opportunity 
to  rejuvenate  them 
and  develop  a  new 
supply  of  fruit-bear- 
ing wood.  A  method 
of  pruning  to  accom- 
plish this  is  suggested 
in  Figs.  14  and  15, 
which  show  a  tree, 
respectively,  before 
and  after  pruning. 
The  tree  is  fairly 
vigorous  with  only 
a  limited  amount  of 
bearing  wood  in  the 

Fig.  14.  —  A  peach  tree  in  need  of  corrective  mterior.  uy  neacl- 
pruning  to  stimulate  the  growth  of  strong  fruit-  Jj^g.  Jj^ck  modcratelv 
bearing  wood  in  the  center. 

and  removmg  some 
of  the  small  interior  side  branches  which  are  probably 
too  weak  to  produce  either  fruit  or  in  turn   fruit-bearing 


Pruning  Peach  Trees 


211 


wood  or  spurs,  good  conditions  are  afforded  for  the 
development  of  new  growth  which  will  bear  fruit  in  the 
interior  of  the  tree.  In  some  cases  this  course  can  be  fol- 
lowed when  the  fruit- 
buds  have  not  been 
injured,  and  without 
destroying  all  the  fruit- 
bearing  wood  of  the 
coming  season. 

This  type  of  pruning 
should  ordinarily  be 
done  in  the  late  spring 
before  growth  starts. 

Renewal      by       heavy 
pruning. 

A  type  of  pruning 
not  unlike  the  heaviest 
heading  back  discussed  in  the  preceding  section  on 
pruning  winter-injured  trees  is  sometimes  practiced  when 
there  is  no  winter  injury  that  requires  consideration. 
If  a  peach  tree  is  not  well  pruned,  especially  as  to 
proper  heading,  and  the  branches  become  long  and  slender ; 
if,  as  it  attains  considerable  age,  the  bearing  wood,  in 
spite  of  the  pruning  which  it  has  received,  has  grown 
out  of  convenient  reach  for  harvesting  the  fruit ;  or,  if 
for  other  reasons  it  becomes  desirable  to  renew  the  top 
of  a  tree,  it  may  be  practicable  to  do  so,  provided  the  trunk 
and  main  limbs  are  sound  and  healthy.  Renewal  of  the  top 
will  often  result  in  prolonging  the  usefulness  of  a  peach  tree 
for  several  years.  This  operation  is  exemplified  by  several 
of  the  accompanying  illustrations. 


Fig.  15.  —  The  tree  in  Fig.  14  after 
receiving  corrective  pruning. 


212 


Peach-Growing 


In  Fig.  16  is  shown  an  eight-year-old  peach  tree  which  has 
become  rather  "leggy."  The  annual  growth  for  several 
seasons  has  nearly  all  been  made  near  the  extremities  of  the 


Fig 


A  peach  tree  eight  years  old  with  bearing  surface  mostly 
at  the  extremities  of  the  limbs. 


limbs.  Very  little  new  wood  has  grown  in  the  interior  of 
the  tree.  Figure  17  shows  the  same  tree  after  being  severely 
headed  in,  or  "deheaded,"  ^  with  a  view  to  developing  a  new 

1  The  term  "dehorn"  has  been  widely  used  to  express  this  opera- 
tion. That  word  is  entirely  inappropriate  and  meaningless  when 
used  in  this  connection,  even  though  it  may  be  a  perfectly  proper 
and  expressive  one  when  used  in  referring  to  the  removal  of  a  cow's 
horns.  Though  this  term  has  been  used  for  many  years,  apparently 
with  common  consent,  and  without  protest  by  other  writers,  the 
term  "dehead"  is  suggested  as  being  much  more  appropriate  and 
one  the  use  of  which  is  sanctioned  at  least  by  its  derivation,  if  not 
by  its  appearance  in  a  dictionary. 


Pruning  Peach  Trees 


213 


top,  Plate  XXI  (right)  shows  a  seven-year-old  Elberta  tree 
which  was  headed  back  to  about  the  extent  indicated  in  Fig. 
17.  This  illustration  shows  the  tree  near  the  end  of  its  first 
season's  growth  after  being  deheaded.  The  vigorous  growth 
which  now  comprises  the  top  should  bear  a  crop  of  fruit  the 
next  season,  thus  losing  only  a  single  year's  product  even  if  the 
deheading  is  done  when  a  crop  is  in  prospect.  Frequently, 
however,  it  is  done  after  the  fruit-buds  have  been  killed  by 


FiQ.  17.  —  The  tree  in  Fig.  16  after  being  deheaded. 

winter  or  spring  temperatures  or  other  unfavorable  con- 
ditions so  that  in  reality  no  crop  is  lost  as  a  direct  result  of 
deheading. 

The  tree  in  Plate  XXI  (right)  will  need  rather  heavy  thin- 
ning at  the  annual  pruning,  as  it  is  too  dense.  A  little  could 
probably  be  done  to  advantage  during  the  summer.  If  a  tree 
which  lacks  vigor  is  treated  in  this  way,  the  results  shown  in 
Plate  XXII  (left)  may  occur.  On  a  portion  of  the  stubs  there 
were  no  buds  strong  enough  to  develop ;  hence,  the  top  was 


214  Peach-Growing 

only  partially  renewed.  If  the  tops  are  cut  back  to  wood  that 
is  not  more  than  three  or  four  years  old,  a  stronger,  more 
symmetrical  growth  may  be  expected  than  when  the  stubs  left 
in  deheading  are  older  than  the  age  mentioned.  When  the 
bark  looks  bright  and  smooth  where  a  limb  is  cut  off,  it  will 
generally  put  out  new  growth ;  but  if  it  is  dull  and  rough,  it 
may  not  be  possible  for  adventitious  buds  to  form  from  which 
new  growth  can  develop.  Hence  the  results  will  be  like  those 
shown  in  Plate  XXII  {left).  Occasionally,  when  the  trunk 
remains  sound  and  retains  its  vigor,  the  tops  are  renewed 
two  or  three  times.  Plate  XXII  (right)  shows  a  tree  that 
has  been  deheaded  three  times.  As  a  rule,  however,  it  is 
impracticable  to  dehead  for  renewal  more  than  once. 

Sometimes,  when  for  any  reason  it  is  desirable  to  renew 
the  top  of  a  comparatively  young  tree,  the  heading  back  may 
be  made  much  more  severe  than  that  suggested  by  Figs.  17 
and  Plate  XXII.  This  is  shown  in  Plate  XXI  (left)  where 
all  the  branches  have  been  cut  back  to  the  trunk  of  the 
tree. 

The  season  for  deheading  to  renew  the  top  is  the  same  as 
that  for  the  annual  pruning  for  the  shaping  of  the  trees  and 
the  removal  of  superfluous  wood. 

Before  leaving  this  phase  of  pruning  it  should  be  stated 
that  it  is  a  radical  method  of  treatment.  For  reasons  which 
may  be  local  and  not  readily  explained,  some  peach  growers 
have  not  had  satisfactory  results  from  this  method  of  re- 
juvenating or  restoring  peach  trees,  the  trees  failing  to  grow 
well  after  being  deheaded.  Therefore,  it  may  be  wise  for 
the  grower  located  in  a  region  where  deheading  has  not 
been  practiced  to  resort  to  it  rather  cautiously  until  its 
practicability  under  his  conditions  has  been  adequately 
tested. 


Pruning  Peach  Trees  215 

Renewal  by  top-budding. 

For  various  reasons  it  is  sometimes  desirable  to  change  the 
top  of  a  peach  tree  from  one  variety  to  another.  A  grower 
may  find  after  his  orchard  begins  to  bear  that  he  has  a  larger 
number  of  trees  of  some  variety  than  he  wants ;  a  block  of 
trees  may  prove  to  be  some  other  variety  than  the  one 
ordered ;  or  a  variety  is  not  well  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the 
owner.  In  such  cases  the  trees  may  be  top-worked  either 
by  budding  or  grafting  to  a  desirable  variety. 

The  ordinary  method  of  shield-budding  described  in 
detail  in  the  chapter  on  propagation  is  the  one  most  com- 
monly used  for  this  purpose.  If  the  tree  to  be  top-worked 
is  not  more  than  two  or  three  years  old,  it  is  usually  prac- 
ticable to  insert  the  buds  directly  into  the  main  limbs  well 
down  toward  the  point  where  they  leave  the  trunk.  This 
is  illustrated  in  Plate  XXIII  (Jbotiom)  which  shows  a  Triumph 
peach  tree  that  was  budded  to  the  Carman  variety  when  it 
was  three  years  old,  after  its  crop  of  fruit  for  the  season 
had  been  harvested.  The  points  where  the  buds  were  in- 
serted may  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  fi:gure. 

If  the  tree  to  be  top-budded  has  reached  an  age  when  the 
bark  on  the  main  limbs  has  become  too  thick  and  firm  to  be 
manipulated  readily  for  budding,  it  is  necessary  to  head  it 
back  heavily  with  a  view  to  forcing  the  development  of  new 
growth  into  which  the  buds  of  the  desired  variety  can  be 
inserted.  This  heading  back  must  of  necessity  be  done 
fairly  early  in  the  season,  else  the  new  shoots  will  not  attain 
sufficient  size  for  budding  the  same  season.  In  the  latter 
case  a  year  might  be  lost  in  the  top-working.  When  this 
course  is  followed,  the  buds  should  be  inserted  in  the  new 
growth  as  near  the  trunk  or  main  limbs  as  is  practicable,  in 
order  to  have  as  large  a  portion  of  the  top  as  possible  of  the 


216  Peach-Growing 

new  variety.  This  is  also  desirable  on  account  of  the  sub- 
sequent management  of  the  tree.  This  operation  may  be 
performed  at  any  time  during  the  summer  when  the  bark 
of  the  stock  slips  and  the  tree  is  otherwise  in  suitable  con- 
dition and  when  well-matured  buds  of  the  desired  variety 
can  be  secured. 

Renewal  by  top-grafting. 

Peach  trees  are  sometimes  top-worked  by  grafting  instead 
of  budding.  The  ordinary  cleft-graft  method  is  generally 
used  in  such  cases.  The  grafting  is  done  in  the  spring  when 
stock  and  cion  are  dormant,  especially  the  cion.  However, 
budding  is  to  be  preferred,  especially  as  the  wounds  made  in 
grafting  do  not  heal  readily  in  the  case  of  the  peach,  though 
when  properly  done  the  union  of  stock  and  cion  is  generally 
strong  enough  to  make  a  fairly  serviceable  tree.  But 
troubles  incident  to  the  failure  of  the  wounds  to  heal  prop- 
erly are  likely  to  occur. 

Still  another  means  of  top-working  peach  trees  is  by  a 
method  designated  as  "shield-grafting."  It  has  been 
recommended  by  a  grower  in  the  Grand  Valley  in  Colorado. 
The  term  "side-grafting"  would  be  a  more  accurate  ex- 
pression. By  this  method  limbs  three  and  four  inches  in 
diameter  are  said  to  be  successfully  top-worked.  At  the 
point  on  a  limb  where  a  graft  or  cion  is  to  be  inserted,  a  T- 
shaped  incision  is  made  as  in  shield-budding  on  a  small 
seedling  stock,  the  vertical  cut  being  an  inch  or  more  long. 
The  cion  of  the  desired  variety  is  taken  from  wood  of  the 
preceding  season's  growth.  The  lower  end  is  cut  with  a 
long  sloping  bevel,  the  cut  being  all  on  one  side  of  the  cion, 
and  the  slope  about  two  inches  in  length.  The  length  of 
the  cion  is  so  regulated  that  it  shall  bear  two  and  only  two 


Pruning  Peach  Trees  217 

buds  above  the  bevel  of  the  lower  end.  The  cion  thus  pre- 
pared, the  lower  end  is  inserted  in  the  T-shaped  incision  and 
forced  or  driven  down  under  the  bark  firmly.  One  or  two 
very  small  nails  may  be  driven  through  the  lower  end  of  the 
cion  to  bring  the  cut  surface  of  the  bevel  into  close  contact 
with  the  cambium  of  the  stock,  though  if  it  is  firmly  bound 
in  position  by  wrapping  strips  of  waxed  muslin  about  it,  the 
nailing  will  probably  not  be  necessary.  Sometimes  the 
wound  is  covered  thoroughly  with  grafting  wax  to  exclude 
the  air  before  the  wrapping  is  done.  Top-working  by  this 
method  should  be  done  in  the  spring  as  when  the  cleft-graft 
method  is  used. 

After  the  grafts  have  started  well  into  growth,  the  tops  of 
the  limbs  above  the  points  where  grafts  are  inserted  should 
be  removed.  In  case  of  especially  vigorous  trees,  the  tops 
can  probably  be  removed  with  successful  results  when  the 
grafting  is  done. 

This  method  of  top-working  peach  trees  has  never  been 
widely  usedj  but  it  is  said  to  possess  considerable  merit  under 
some  conditions. 


CHAPTER  XI 
INSECT  AND  DISEASE  CONTROL 

From  the  standpoint  of  control,  both  insects  and  diseases 
naturally  divide  into  two  groups :  (1)  those  that  can  be 
controlled  by  spraying;  and  (2)  those  that  require  some 
other  method  of  attack.  A  sub-group  might  be  made  in 
the  latter  which  would  include  those  for  which  no  remedy 
is  known  other  than  the  complete  eradication  and  destruc- 
tion of  the  affected  trees. 

The  insects  that  fall  into  the  first  group  must  also  be 
considered  from  the  standpoint  of  their  methods  of  feeding. 
If  they  eat  parts  of  the  tree  or  fruit,  they  are  to  be  sprayed 
with  an  arsenical  poison.  If  they  suck  the  juices  of  the 
tree  or  fruit,  they  are  unaffected  by  poisons  applied  to  the 
exterior  parts  of  the  tree ;  hence  a  substance  must  be  used 
in  spraying  that  kills  the  insects  by  coming  in  contact  with 
them. 

The  poison  now  most  largely  used  in  spraying  peaches 
is  arsenate  of  lead.  Arsenate  of  lime  (calcium  arsenate)  is 
sometimes  used  instead  of  arsenate  of  lead,  but  is  not  advised 
for  peaches  and  other  stone-fruits.  The  contact  insecticides 
most  often  used  are  the  concentrated  lime-sulfur  preparations, 
miscible  oils,  and  to  some  extent  nicotine  extracts  of  tobacco 
which  are  effective  against  certain  aphids  or  plant-lice.  These 
lime-sulfur  mixtures  are  also  effective  in  the  control  of  certain 
diseases  that  can  be  reached  during  the  dormant  condition. 

218 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  219 

The  fungicide  of  greatest  value  to  the  peach-grower,  how- 
ever, is  self-boiled  lime-sulfur  mixture.  Other  sulfur  prep- 
arations are  also  used  to  a  limited  extent.  Bordeaux 
mixture,  for  many  years  the  most  effective  fungicide  avail- 
able to  the  fruit-grower,  was  never  satisfactory  for  use  on 
peach  trees  because  of  its  frequent  serious  injury  to  the 
foliage.  The  development  of  the  self-boiled  lime-sulfur 
mixture  made  a  new  epoch  in  peach  spraying  and  in  peach- 
growing,  since  by  its  use  the  nearly  complete  control  of 
certain  serious  diseases  became  possible,  whereas  formerly 
these  diseases  served  practically  as  limiting  factors  in  the 
growing  of  peaches. 

A  discussion  of  the  preparation  and  application  of  these 
insecticides  and  fungicides  follows  the  sections  treating  of 
peach  insects  and  diseases.  In  the  discussion  of  the  individ- 
ual insects  and  diseases,  the  aim  is  to  give  the  grower  such 
information  as  is  needed  to  enable  him  to  treat  them  suc- 
cessfully, no  effort  being  made  to  supply  in  this  connection 
complete  descriptions  or  life  histories. 

PEACH   INSECTS 

Plum  curculio  {Conotrachelus  nenuphar) 

This  insect  is  also  known  as  "plum  weevil,"  "peach 
curculio,"  "peach  worm,"  "little  Turk,"  and  by  other 
names.  It  is  the  principal  cause  of  "wormy  peaches," 
except  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

Appearance. 

The  adult  is  a  small  beetle  about  i^  inch  long,  charac- 
terized by  a  roughly  ridged  back  and  a  long  snout;  the 
prevailing  color  is  dark  gray  or  black. 


220  Peach-Growing 

Distribution  of  curculio. 

The  curculio  is  distributed  from  southern  Canada  to 
Florida  and  westward  as  far  as  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
though  of  much  less  importance  in  the  semi-arid  regions 
west  of  the  100th  meridian. 

Life  history  and  habits. 

The  insect  passes  the  winter  in  the  beetle  stage  under 
trash  on  the  ground  or  in  other  places  where  seclusion  and 
protection  are  afforded.  In  the  spring,  with  the  swelling 
of  the  fruit-buds  the  beetles  become  active  again  and  begin 
to  feed  on  the  buds,  unfolding  leaves,  and  blossoms. 

Egg-laying  begins  soon  after  the  fruits  commence  to  form 
and  continues  for  several  weeks  or  even  months,  but  is  most 
active  during  the  first  four  or  five  weeks.  Crescent-shaped 
punctures  in  the  fruit  mark  the  places  where  the  eggs  have 
been  deposited.  A  gummy  substance  commonly  exudes 
from  these  punctures,  adhering  to  the  exterior  of  the 
fruit. 

The  eggs  hatch  in  three  to  five  days,  varying  with  the 
temperature.  The  larva  or  "worm"  bores  into  the  fruit, 
where  it  feeds  largely  about  the  pit  until  it  completes  its 
growth,  which  requires  from  twelve  to  eighteen  days,  or 
longer  under  some  conditions.  On  completing  its  growth, 
the  larva  leaves  the  fruit,  whether  the  latter  has  dropped 
or  still  remains  on  the  tree,  and  enters  the  soil  to  the  depth 
of  about  two  inches,  where  it  transforms  into  the  adult 
beetle,  which  requires  three  to  four  weeks. 

There  is  but  one  generation  in  a  season;  but  after  the 
beetles  emerge  from  their  pupal  cases,  they  feed  on  fruit 
and  leaves  until  cold  weather,  when  they  secrete  themselves 
under  rubbish  in  the  orchard  or  in  other  protected  places. 


Plate  XVIII.  —  Desirable  and  Undesirable  Forms  of  Elberta 
Trees.  Top,  well-pruned,  spreading  heads;  bottom,  limbs  "leggy"  and 
not  well  formed  for  sustaining  heavy  crops  of  fruit. 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  221 

Methods  of  control  of  curculio. 

Jarring.  —  The  habit  of  the  beetles  in  dropping  to  the 
ground,  especially  in  the  cool  of  early  morning,  feigning  death, 
when  a  branch  on  which  they  may  be  resting  is  suddenly 
jarred,  was  formerly  taken  advantage  of  in  collecting  large 
numbers  of  the  adult  insects  during  the  period  when  egg- 
laying  was  proceeding  most  rapidly.  Various  devices  for 
catching  the  beetles  have  been  used  more  or  less.  However, 
this  method  has  largely  given  place  to  spraying  with  arsenate 
of  lead  and  is  no  longer  much  used  by  commercial  growers. 

Cultivation.  —  Because  of  the  fragile  nature  of  the  pupae, 
frequent  tillage  during  the  period  when  the  larvae  are  trans- 
forming into  adults  may  reasonably  be  supposed  to  destroy 
many  of  them.  In  the  latitude  of  Washington,  the  larvae 
are  beginning  to  enter  the  ground  to  pupate  in  about  six 
weeks,  and  in  Illinois  about  eight  weeks,  after  the  blossom- 
ing period.  This  continues  for  several  weeks  or  even  months, 
but  much  more  rapidly  during  the  first  four  or  five  weeks 
after  the  process  begins  than  later.  During  this  period 
tillage  will  be  the  most  effective  in  destroying  the  pupae. 

Poisons.  —  The  adult  beetle  feeds  on  the  fruit  and  foliage, 
both  early  in  the  season  and  later  after  it  emerges  from  the 
pupa.  This  offers  an  opportunity  to  reach  many  of  the 
insects  by  spraying  the  trees  with  arsenate  of  lead.  It  is 
applied  at  the  rate  of  2  pounds  tp  50  gallons  of  water 
with  2  to  3  pounds  of  lime  added,  or  it  may  be  used  in  a 
like  quantity  of  self-boiled  lime-sulfur  mixture  as  a  com- 
bination spray  for  both  insects  and  diseases.  The  direc- 
tions for  making  the  necessary  applications  are  given  in 
the  spraying  program  on  pages  290-292.  It  is  the  convic- 
tion of  some  that  the  eflfective  control  of  the  curculio  con- 
tributes very  materially  to  the  control  of    brown-rot  by 


222  Peach-Growing 

preventing  largely  the  wounds  in  the  skin  of  the  fruit  through 
which  the  fungus  enters. 

Peach-tree  borer  (Sanninoidea  exitiosa) 

This  borer  is  one  of  the  most  serious  and  destructive 
insects  with  which  peach-growers  have  to  contend. 

Appearance. 

The  adult  insect  is  a  moth  somewhat  resembling  a  wasp. 
The  general  color  is  steel-blue,  but  the  two  sexes  differ 
considerably.  In  the  male  the  wings  are  transparent, 
with  a  spread  of  from  f  inch  to  li  inches.  The  female  is 
somewhat  larger,  with  the  wings  transparent  in  part  only. 

The  insect  is  more  familiar  to  the  peach-grower  in  the 
form  of  the  "worm"  or  larva  than  in  the  adult  form,  since 
it  is  in  the  worm  or  borer  stage  that  all  its  damage  is  done. 
It  attacks  the  tree  at  or  near  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
working  under  the  bark,  where  it  seriously  weakens  the  tree, 
which,  if  girdled,  as  frequently  happens,  will  of  course  die. 
Trees  of  all  ages  from  those  in  the  nurseries  to  the  old  wrecks 
in  the  abandoned  orchards  are  subject  to  attack,  forty  or  fifty 
borers  sometimes  working  at  the  same  time  in  a  mature  tree. 

Distribution. 

This  insect  is  a  native  species  and  occurs  in  Canada  and 
throughout  the  United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
wherever  peaches  are  grown.  Occurrence  west  of  the  moun- 
tains has  been  reported,  but  its  establishment  is  not  certain. 

Life  history  and  habits. 

The  adult  moth  makes  its  first  appearance  about  July  1 
in  the  North,  but  the  period  of  maximum  emergence  appears 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  223 

to  be  from  about  July  15  to  August  15.  In  the  middle 
latitudes  emergence  extends  from  about  June  15  to  Sep- 
tember 15,  while  in  southern  latitudes  it  continues  until 
about  October  1.  The  laying  of  eggs  begins  as  soon  as  the 
moths  emerge. 

The  eggs  are  too  small  to  be  seen  readily  on  the  bark  of 
the  trunk,  where  they  are  laid  rather  promiscuously  as  well 
as  on  adjacent  weeds  and  trash  and  even  on  the  ground. 
They  hatch  in  nine  or  ten  days,  and  the  young  larvae  soon 
begin  to  burrow  through  the  bark  at  the  surface  of  the  ground 
into  the  sapwood,  where  they  continue  until  full  grown, 
working  just  beneath  the  bark  and  sometimes  extending 
down  the  larger  roots  six  or  eight  inches  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground. 

The  full-grown  larva  is  about  1  inch  in  length  with  a  very 
light  yellow  body.  There  is  but  one  generation  in  a  season, 
but  because  egg-laying  continues  for  so  long  a  period,  larvae 
varying  greatly  in  size  may  be  found  in  a  tree  at  the  same 
time. 

The  presence  of  borers  in  a  tree  is  indicated  by  a  mass 
of  gummy  material  which  habitually  exudes  from  the  bm- 
rows  at  the  surface  of  the  ground.  It  is  often  mixed  with 
particles  of  soil  and  frass.  In  rainy  weather  it  becomes 
gelatinous  in  texture. 

Method  of  control  of  borer. 

Passing  mention  only  need  be  made  of  the  numerous 
washes,  different  methods  of  wrapping,  and  the  like  that 
have  been  recommended  from  time  to  time.  None  of  these 
measures,  however,  is  more  than  partially  effective,  and 
many  are  entirely  useless.  After  an  exhaustive  investigation 
of  a  great  number  of  them,  Slingerland  of  the  Cornell  Uni- 


224  Peach-Growing 

versity  Experiment  Station  concluded  that  the  simple  ex- 
pedient of  mounding  up  the  soil  about  the  base  of  the  tree 
was  one  of  the  most  effective  and  satisfactory  methods  of 
prevention.  Trees  so  treated  contained  markedly  fewer 
borers  than  others  not  so  treated.  Why  this  should  follow 
is  not  apparent,«since  the  eggs  are  laid  more  or  less  at  random 
on  the  trunk. 

After  trying  many  washes,  gas  tar  proved  in  Slinger- 
land's  experience  the  most  effective  of  any  in  keeping  out 
the  borers,  and  it  caused  no  injury  to  the  trees.  However, 
others  have  reported  considerable  injury  under  some  con- 
ditions, hence  its  use  in  any  particular  orchard  or  region 
cannot  be  advised  until  after  its  effect  on  the  trees  has  been 
thoroughly  determined  by  experiment. 

Any  preventive  measure  to  be  effective  must  be  applied 
prior  to  the  time  when  the  moths  begin  to  emerge  in  any 
considerable  numbers  in  the  spring  and  be  continued  until 
the  period  of  egg-laying  is  ended,  which  is  two  to  three 
months  later.  However,  there  appears  to  be  no  method  of 
prevention  which  is  sufficiently  effective  to  eliminate  the 
necessity  of  digging  out  the  borers. 

When  they  are  at  all  troublesome,  "worming"  should 
be  done  twice  a  year,  —  in  the  fall  towards  the  close  of  the 
season  and  again  early  in  the  spring.  The  second  time  is 
for  the  purpose  of  finding  any  borers  that  may  have  been 
overlooked  in  the  fall.  In  this  operation  the  soil  is  re- 
moved from  about  the  base  of  the  tree  to  a  depth  of  6  or  8 
inches.  Then  by  carefully  scraping  the  bark  with  a  knife 
or  other  suitable  implement,  the  burrows  can  usually  be 
located  without  difficulty.  To  reach  the  borers,  consider- 
able cutting  of  the  bark  and  sapwood  may  be  necessary; 
but  if  done  carefully  and  the  channels  followed  closely, 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  225 

little  serious  harm  should  result  therefrom.  If  the  channels 
or  burrows  are  fairly  straight,  many  of  the  borers  can  be 
reached  with  a  pliable  wire  without  cutting  to  the  point 
where  they  may  happen  to  be  located.  The  space  about 
the  tree  from  which  the  soil  was  removed  should  be  refilled 
after  the  fall  "worming,"  otherwise  it  is  likely  to  fill  with 
water  and  injure,  or  perhaps  kill,  the  tree;  or,  the  crown 
may  be  injured  by  exposure  to  low  temperatures.  After 
the  spring  worming,  it  is  wise  to  mound  up  the  soil  about 
the  trees  to  a  height  of  6  or  8  inches. 

S.  H.  Fulton,  West  Virginia,  finds  that  the  peach-borer  can 
be  controlled  fairly  well  by  applying  to  the  crown  of  the 
tree  in  the  autumn  a  miscible  oil  in  the  proportion  of 
1  part  oil  to  4  parts  water  and  in  the  sprhig  at  a  strength  of 
1  to  8.  To  do  this  he  removes  the  soil  from  about  the 
base  of  the  tree  as  when  resorting  to  the  "  digging-out " 
method  and  in  other  respects  he  proceeds  as  with  that 
method,  except  that  the  applications  of  oil  take  the  place 
of  the  digging  in  the  tree  otherwise  necessary.  While  this 
method  has  not  been  widely  used  it  appears  to  be  rather 
promising. 

Lesser  peach-tree  borer  {Synanthedon  pictepes) 

This  insect  has  been  reported  from  time  to  time  for  many 
years  as  working  on  plum  and  cherry  trees.  It  is  only 
within  the  past  few  years  that  its  full  life  history  has  been 
known.  The  name  "lesser  peach-tree  borer"  was  appar- 
ently first  used  by  Quaintance  in  1905,^  when  its  economic 
importance  as  a  menace  to  peach  trees  was  pointed  out. 
While  showing  a  preference  for  peaches,  it  has  many  other 

hosts. 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Yearbook,  1905,  p.  335. 


226  Peach-Growing 

Appearance  of  lesser  borer. 

Though  the  lesser  peach-tree  borer  Is  quite  easily  distin- 
guished by  the  entomologists  from  the  common  and  the  Cali- 
fornia peach-tree  borer,  its  resemblance  to  these  two  species 
both  in  the  adult  and  larval  stages  is  close  enough  so  that  the 
casual  observer  may  easily  mistake  one  for  the  other.  The 
wasp-like  appearance  of  the  adults,  with  wings  more  or  less 
transparent,  characterizes  this  as  well  as  the  other  two  species. 

Distribution. 

According  to  King  ^  it  occurs  throughout  practically  the 
entire  country  east  of  the  Great  Plains  area.  In  some 
sections  it  causes  considerable  injury. 

Life  history  and  habits. 

While  the  life  history  does  not  correspond  in  all  particu- 
lars with  that  of  the  other  borers  discussed,  the  differences 
are  unimportant  from  the  standpoint  of  control.  Instead 
of  working  at  and  below  the  crown  of  the  tree,  they  occur 
under  the  bark  and  in  wounded  areas  on  the  trunk  and  upper 
branches,  the  attacks  being  confined  almost  entirely  to 
diseased  and  injured  areas.  Such  areas  as  are  caused  by 
sun-scald,  mechanical  injuries,  and  the  sharply  angular 
crotches  with  roughened  surfaces  are  typical  places  of  en- 
trance for  the  larvae. 

Methods  of  control. 

The  digging-out  method  advised  for  other  borers  is  the 
most  effective  means  of  control.  The  "worming"  should 
be  done  at  the  same  times  as  for  the  common  peach-tree 
borer,  that  is,  in  October  or  November  and  in  early  spring. 

1  Ohio  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  307. 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  227 

Preventive  measures,  which  consist  of  so  managing  the 
orchard  that  wounded  and  diseased  areas  through  which 
the  larvae  gain  entrance  will  be  avoided,  may  be  expected 
to  be  of  value. 

California  peach-tree  borer  (Sanninoidea  opalescens) 
This  insect  is  also  called  the  Pacific  peach-tree  borer. 

Appearance. 

In  appearance  this  species  is  very  similar  to  the  more 
common  peach-tree  borer  previously  discussed.  The  larvae 
of  the  two  species  also  look  very  much  alike. 

Distribution. 

While  this  insect  has  been  observed  at  various  places  in 
Colorado,  Nevada,  Oregon,  and  California,  it  appears  to  be 
noticeable  as  a  serious  peach  pest,  according  to  Moulton,^ 
principally  in  the  Santa  Clara  Valley  in  California  and  in 
the  parts  of  Alameda  and  San  Mateo  counties  which  lie 
close  around  the  southern  arm  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  where 
it  does  considerable  damage. 

Life  history  and  habits. 

The  life  history  of  the  California  peach-tree  borer  is  similar 
to  that  of  its  near  eastern  relative.  The  adults  are  flying 
from  June  to  September,  but  they  are  the  most  numerous 
during  July  and  August.  The  period  of  egg-laying  is  coin- 
cident with  the  period  of  activity  of  the  moths.  The  eggs 
hatch  in  about  two  weeks.     A  larva  may  enter  very  near 

1  Bur.  of  Ent.  BuU.  97,  Part  IV,  "The  CaUfornia  Peach  Borer," 
p.  66, 


228  Peach-Growing 

the  egg  from  which  it  hatched  or  migrate  some  distance, 
frequently  going  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  especially 
if  it  is  light  or  gravelly,  and  then  eating  its  way  into  a  root. 
They  live  usually  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  but  may 
occur  in  the  trunks  or  larger  limbs. 

Since  the  eggs  hatch  and  the  borers  enter  the  trees  during 
a  period  of  several  months,  the  size  of  the  larvae  in  a  tree 
at  any  particular  time  varies  accordingly. 

Methods  of  control  of  California  borer. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  eastern  species,  the  only  effective 
method  of  control  is  "worming,"  that  is,  digging  out  the 
borers.  This  is  usually  performed  in  the  Santa  Clara 
Valley  in  the  winter  or  spring  months,  or  it  may  be  done 
in  the  fall  in  the  manner  described  for  the  eastern  species. 

The  application  in  May  or  June  before  the  moths  begin 
to  fly  of  a  repellent  wash  termed  a  "lime-crude-oil-mixture" 
is  recommended  as  being  of  more  or  less  value.  It  is  made 
as  follows :  "  Place  about  50  pounds  of  rock  lime  in  a  barrel 
and  slake  with  10  or  15  gallons  of  warm  water;  while  the 
lime  is  boiling  slowly  pour  in  6  or  8  gallons  of  heavy  crude 
oil,  and  stir  thoroughly.  Add  enough  water  to  make  the 
whole  a  heavy  paste."  This  wash  should  be  applied  as 
soon  as  made,  using  a  heavy  brush  for  the  purpose. 

Fruit-tree  bark-beetle,  or  shot-hole  borer  {Scolytus 
rugulosus) 

In  his  account  of  this  insect  from  which  the  following  notes 
are  taken,  Brooks  ^  says :  "  The  shot-hole  borers  or  bark- 
beetles  burrow  into  the  bark  and  slightly  into  the  wood 

1  Farmers'  Bull.  763. 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  229 

in  both  the  larval  or  grub  stage  and  the  adult  or  beetle 
stage  and,  by  extending  their  burrows  in  great  numbers 
between  the  bark  and  sapwood,  destroy  that  vital  part  of 
the  tree  known  as  the  cambium.  As  a  rule,  sound,  vigorous 
bark  is  not  attacked,  injury  being  confined  to  such  trees  as 
have  had  their  normal  health  impaired  by  some  other  agency. 
Cases  are  not  unknown,  however,  in  which  the  beetles  have 
multiplied  greatly  in  diseased  and  dying  wood  and  have 
then  extended  their  attacks  to  near-by  healthy  trees,  caus- 
ing extensive  loss." 

The  presence  of  these  insects  in  peach  trees  is  indicated 
frequently  by  the  appearance  on  infested  limbs  of  a  mass  of 
gum  or  gelatinous  substance  which  exudes  from  each  "pin- 
hole" where  an  insect  is  working,  or  under  some  conditions 
the  gum  may  not  appear,  but  the  small,  circular,  clearly  cut 
holes  can  be  readily  seen.  The  weakened,  unhealthy  ap- 
pearance of  an  infested  branch  is  also  likely  to  attract  at- 
tention. 

Appearance. 

The  adult  is  a  beetle  about  ^  inch  in  length  and  of  a 
dark  brown  or  black  color.  The  larva  when  full  grown  is 
also  about  yo  ^^^^h  in  length,  white  in  color,  with  a  reddish 
head.     It  is  in  this  form  that  most  of  the  injury  is  done. 

Distribution. 

This  bark-beetle  occurs  in  practically  all  of  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  and  in  many  localities 
to  the  west,  though  it  is  not  known  to  have  occurred  in  the 
Pacific  coast  states ;  it  is  also  found  in  Canada. 


230  Peach-Growing 

Life  history  and  hahits  of  shot-hole  borer. 

The  adult  appears  in  the  early  part  of  the  season  from 
April  to  June,  depending  on  the  latitude,  and  at  once  pro- 
ceeds to  gnaw  a  round  hole  through  the  bark  where,  be- 
tween the  bark  and  the  sap  wood,  its  brood  chamber,  ex- 
tending with  the  grain  of  the  wood,  is  constructed. 

A  single  female  produces,  on  an  average,  from  seventy- 
five  to  ninety  eggs.  They  hatch  in  three  or  four  days,  and 
the  larvae  begin  to  burrow  in  the  sapwood,  working  at  first 
in  a  direction  at  right  angles  to  the  brood  chamber.  They 
feed  from  thirty  to  thirty-six  days  and  then  pupate  within 
their  burrows.  In  the  North  there  are  two  generations 
each  season ;  in  the  South,  three  or  four.  The  winter  is 
passed  in  the  larval  form  in  the  tree. 

Methods  of  control. 

Limbs  or  other  parts  of  trees,  once  infested,  cannot  be 
freed  from  the  insects  by  any  treatment.  By  cutting  off 
such  limbs  and  burning  them,  further  infestation  may  be 
avoided.  As  preventive  measures,  good  orchard  sanita- 
tion is  important.  The  trees  should  be  maintained  in  a 
vigorous,  healthy  condition.  Trees  that  are  made  weak 
by  any  means  whatsoever  are  a  menace  in  that  they  may 
attract  these  insects  and  become  a  breeding  place  for  them. 

All  prunings  and  dead  or  dying  wood  from  other  sources 
should  be  removed  and  burned,  as  they  may  harbor  the 
beetles  or  larvae. 

Sometimes  trees  otherwise  healthy  that  become  moderately 
attacked  can  be  saved  by  heading  back  the  limbs  rather 
heavily,  then  stimulating  vigorous  growth  by  tillage  and 
fertilizers.  This  course  prevents  such  trees  from  becoming 
weakened  by  the  initial  attacks. 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  231 

Peach-tree  bark-beetle  (Phloeoiribus  liminaris) 

This  insect  is  very  similar,  in  many  respects,  to  the  fruit- 
tree  bark-beetle,  and  both  the  insect  and  its  work  may  be 
mistaken  for  the  latter,  though  there  are  certain  rather 
characteristic  differences. 

Appearance. 

The  beetle  is  slightly  less  than  -^  inch  in  length,  being  a 
very  little  smaller  than  the  fruit-tree  bark-beetle.  In  color 
it  is  light  brown  to  nearly  black. 

Distribution. 

This  species  is  more  restricted  in  distribution  than  the 
fruit-tree  bark-beetle.  It  is  known  to  occur  from  New 
Hampshire  westward  through  Ontario,  Canada,  to  Michigan 
and  southward  to  North  Carolina.  It  may  also  occur  in 
other  sections.  Its  food-plants  appear  to  be  restricted 
very  nearly  to  peach  and  cherry  trees. 

Life  history  and  habits. 

From  the  standpoint  of  control,  there  are  no  important 
differences  between  this  insect  in  its  life  history  and  habits 
and  the  fruit-tree  bark-beetle.  The  adults  of  the  former 
pass  the  winter  in  the  burrows  in  trees,  while  the  latter  pass 
the  winter  in  the  larval  form. 

The  brood  chambers  of  the  two  are  characteristically 
different.  That  of  the  fruit-tree  bark-beetle  runs  with 
the  grain  of  the  wood,  while  that  of  this  species  is  across 
the  grain  of  the  host.  These  differences  are  without  impor- 
tance from  the  standpoint  of  control. 


232  Peach-Growing  » 

Methods  of  control  of  bark  beetle. 

The  methods  given  for  the  control  of  the  fruit-tree  bark- 
beetle  are  applicable  to  the  control  of  this  insect. 

Peach  twig-borer,  or  peach-worm  {Anarsia  lineatella) 

This  insect  is  commonly  called  the  peach  twig-borer  in 
the  eastern  states,  but  as  its  most  serious  damage  in  the  far 
West  is  caused  by  the  larvae  entering  the  fruit,  it  is  there  more 
often  termed  the  "peach-worm."  It  is  the  common  cause 
of  "wormy  peaches"  on  the  Pacific  coast  rather  than  the 
larva  of  the  curculio  which  makes  "wormy  peaches"  east 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Appearance. 

The  adult  insect  is  a  small  moth  with  a  wing  expanse  of 
about  ^  inch.  The  larva  is  pinkish  or  brownish  in  color, 
and  when  full  grown  is  ^  inch  or  less  in  length.  There  are 
two  or  three  generations  during  the  season  in  the  West. 

Distribution. 

The  peach  twig-borer  is  an  insect  of  European  origin. 
It  has  become  widely  distributed  throughout  most  parts 
of  the  country  during  the  nearly  fifty  years  since  it  was 
first  observed  here. 

Life  history  and  habits. 

The  insect  passes  the  winter  as  a  minute  partially  grown 
larva  within  a  silken  lined  cell  in  the  spongy  bark  at  the 
crotches  of  the  limbs.  The  location  of  the  cell,  frequently 
several  placed  closely  together  in  the  same  crotch,  is  in- 
dicated by  the  presence  of  very  small  mounds  of  finely 
powdered  particles  of  bark. 


Plate  XIX.  —  Pruning.  Top,  Salwey  trees  well  pruned  with  a  \new 
to  developing  large  bearing  surface;  bottom,  an  open  head  but  bearing 
surface  largely  at  the  extremities  of  the  limbs. 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  233 

With  the  renewal  of  tree  growth  in  the  spring,  the  larvae 
again  become  active  and,  as  above  indicated,  bore  into  the 
ends  of  the  young  shoots  and  burrow  into  the  pith  for  a 
distance  of  ^  inch  to  1|  inches,  causing  the  death  of  the 
terminal  end  of  the  shoot. 

The  larvae  of  the  generations  occurring  during  the  summer 
attack  the  fruit,  and  it  is  to  this  habit  of  the  insect  that  its 
most  serious  damage  is  due.  It  may  bore  into  the  pit  if 
it  is  still  soft  when  it  enters,  or  it  works  in  the  flesh  about 
the  pit  later  in  the  season.  It  is  the  minute,  partially  de- 
veloped larvae  of  the  last  brood  that  pass  the  winter  in  the 
crotches  of  the  tree  as  above  described. 

Methods  of  control. 

As  a  rule  orchards  that  are  thoroughly  treated  according 
to  the  usual  spraying  program  for  San  Jose  scale  and  cur- 
culio  require  no  special  treatment  for  this  insect.  While 
some  have  doubted  the  value  of  lime-sulfur  mixtures,  others 
have  found  them  successful  when  applied  very  thoroughly 
just  as  the  buds  are  swelling  and  starting  into  growth  in 
the  spring.  The  arsenate  sprays  for  curculio  also  doubtless 
destroy  many  of  the  small  larvae. 

Black  peach-aphis  {Aphis  persicoB-niger) 

The  black  peach-aphis  is  a  small,  soft-bodied  insect 
closely  related  to  other  aphides  or  "plant-lice"  that  occur 
on  apples  and  a  great  variety  of  other  fruits  and  plants. 

Appearance. 

The  insect  is  about  -^^  ^"^h  long  and  is  shiny  jet  black 
or  very  dark  brown  in  color.  Both  winged  and  wingless 
forms  occur. 


234  Peach-Growing 

Distribution  of  black  peach-aphis. 

Probably  this  aphis  has  been  more  troublesome  in  the 
middle  and  South  Atlantic  states  than  elsewhere,  but  it 
is  known  to  occur  in  Michigan,  Colorado,  California,  and 
Ontario.  As  it  is  a  native  its  distribution  is  likely  to  be 
even  more  widespread  than  has  been  definitely  recorded. 

Life  history  and  habits. 

Probably  the  most  serious  damage  is  caused  by  the  wing- 
less forms  on  the  roots,  where  they  may  be  found  throughout 
the  year.  If  they  become  numerous  on  the  smaller  roots  of 
a  tree,  as  often  happens  especially  during  the  second  and 
subsequent  seasons  after  planting,  they  sap  its  vitality  to 
such  an  extent  that  the  tree  becomes  weakened,  the  foliage 
is  small,  scanty,  and  yellow,  and  the  tree  has  a  generally  weak 
and  unthrifty  appearance. 

The  aphides  may  be  found  on  the  affected  roots  at  any 
time  in  the  season.  They  are  active  throughout  the  growing 
period.  In  the  spring,  with  the  beginning  of  growth,  some 
of  them  crawl  to  the  branches  and  begin  feeding  on  the 
new  twigs  and  leaves.  In  May,  in  the  latitude  of  New  Jersey, 
the  insects  may  become  quite  numerous  on  the  new  growth, 
and  by  this  time  the  winged  forms  which  appear  only  on  the 
twigs  and  leaves  develop.  By  June  the  winged  insects 
are  migrating  to  other  trees.  These  forms  produce  a  brood 
of  wingless  insects,  which  in  turn  soon  make  their  way  to 
the  roots.  Thus,  by  the  middle  of  the  growing  season  there 
may  be  no  indication  on  the  parts  of  the  tree  above  ground 
that  the  insect  is  present. 

Methods  of  control. 

The  first  consideration  is  prevention  rather  than  control. 
By  planting  trees  free  from  the  insect,  the  danger  of  injury 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  235 

is  greatly  reduced.  Trees  that  have  been  properly  fumi- 
gated with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas  when  received  from  the 
nursery  should  be  clean.  Another  precaution  is  to  wash 
from  the  roots  the  soil  that  remains  on  them  before  the 
trees  are  planted,  then  dip  them  in  a  strong  tobacco  de- 
coction. 

When  young  trees  are  planted  without  these  precautions 
being  taken,  or  if  they  become  infested  later,  the  soil 
should  be  removed  for  a  space  of  a  foot  or  two  about  the 
trunk  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  a  basin,  then  a  pound  of 
fine  tobacco  dust  sprinkled  in  it  and  covered.  As  the 
rains  leach  the  tobacco  and  the  extract  soaks  down  along 
the  roots,  coming  in  contact  with  the  aphides,  they  are 
destroyed. 

As  a  rule,  treatment  of  the  insects  on  the  twigs  and  foliage 
is  unnecessary,  especially  if  the  root  forms  are  effectively 
controlled.  But  if  serious  injury  is  threatened,  spraying 
with  nicotine  sulfate  at  the  rate  of  1  ounce  to  5  gallons  of 
water,  or  some  other  tobacco  decoction  or  extract,  usually 
accomplishes  the  desired  result. 

Green  peach-aphis  {Myzus  persiccs) 

This  insect  calls  for  but  passing  attention,  though  in  some 
sections  it  is  rather  serious  and  is  more  abundant  on  peaches 
than  any  other  insect  of  this  group.  It  is  one  of  the  many 
"plant-lice"  having  a  large  number  of  host  plants  and  is 
related  to  the  black  peach-aphis  discussed  above.  P're- 
quently,  early  in  the  spring  when  the  shoots  and  leaves  are 
young  and  tender,  this  insect  attacks  them,  and  if  very  nu- 
merous will  cause  the  blighting  of  the  blossoms  and  the 
killing  of  the  ends  of  the  new  growth. 


236  Peach-Growing 

A  contact  Insecticide  must  be  used  in  spraying  for  them, 
a  tobacco  extract,  of  which  there  are  several  proprietary 
preparations,  commonly  being  advised.  Spraying  should 
be  done  before  the  leaves  become  deformed ;  otherwise, 
after  they  become  curled  and  misshapen,  it  will  be  impos- 
sible to  reach  the  insects  with  the  insecticide. 

San  Jose  scale  (Aspidiotus  perniciosus) 

Perhaps  no  other  occurrence  has  ever  so  thoroughly  stirred 
peach-growers  as  did  the  appearance  and  wide  dissemina- 
tion of  the  San  Jose  scale  during  the  90 's  and  in  the  first 
part  of  the  decade  beginning  with  1901.  During  these 
years  this  insect  became  generally  distributed  throughout 
the  country.  To  it  also  may  be  traced,  as  a  primary 
cause,  the  fumigation  of  nursery  stock  with  hydrocyanic 
acid  gas  now  widely  practiced  by  nurserymen.  The 
most  frequent  means  of  dissemination  of  the  scale  to  new 
localities  is  through  the  sale  of  infested  trees.  Also  the  San 
Jose  scale  is  largely  responsible  for  the  present  nursery 
and  orchard  inspection  laws  that  have  been  enacted  by 
nearly  every  state  in  the  Union  and  in  the  provinces  of 
Canada. 

Appearance, 

The  appearance  of  the  San  Jose  scale  is  too  well  known  to 
require  any  extended  description.  Briefly  stated,  the  massed 
effect  of  a  large  number  on  a  branch  or  twig  is  that  of  a 
grayish  coating  of  a  greasy,  waxy  substance,  which  when 
scraped  off  in  quantity  appears  to  be  more  or  less  mixed 
with  very  small  yellowish  specks.  These  specks  are  the 
insects  themselves,  and  the  grayish  waxy  substance  is  made 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  237 

up  of  the  "scale"  that  is  secreted  by  each  insect  very  early 
in  its  life  as  a  protective  covering.  Individually  each  fe- 
male insect  when  fully  mature  appears  to  be  a  minute  cir- 
cular grayish  speck  or  "pimple"  not  as  large  as  a  pinhead 
with  a  nipple-like  prominence  in  the  center.  What  is  ac- 
tually seen  is,  of  course,  the  "scale"  under  which  the  yellow- 
ish colored  insect  itself  resides.  The  male  insect,  that  is 
the  scale,  is  considerably  elongated  in  form. 

Distribution  of  San  Jose  scale. 

The  San  Jose  scale  has  become  so  widely  disseminated 
that  it  may  be  said  almost  literally  to  be  unrestricted.  It 
is  likely  to  occur  wherever  peach  trees  are  grown. 

Life  history  and  habits. 

This  insect  passes  the  winter  on  the  bark  of  the  host 
plant,  a  large  proportion  of  them  in  a  more  or  less  immature 
condition.  In  this  stage  the  scales  are  dark  gray  to  blackish 
in  color.  With  the  renewal  of  the  growth  of  the  tree  in  the 
spring,  the  insects  resume  their  development,  and  within 
a  month  or  so  the  females  begin  to  bring  forth  living  young. 
These  are  exceedingly  small,  yellowish  insects  hardly  dis- 
cernible with  the  naked  eye.  They  crawl  about  for  a  few 
hours  only,  when  they  become  permanently  fixed  on  the 
bark,  foliage,  or  fruit,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  protective 
scale  is  then  secreted,  or  it  may  begin  to  form  even 
before  the  insect  locates  permanently.  When  it  finally 
settles  down,  the  insect  penetrates  the  bark  with  its  long 
thread-like  beak  and  begins  to  suck  the  sap  by  which  it 
is  nourished.  When  an  insect  once  becomes  fixed  in  a 
particular  spot,  it  has  no  power  to  move  further  from 
place  to  place. 


238  Peach-Growing 

A  single  female  ma}'^  produce  300  to  400  young,  and  as 
there  are  several  generations  each  year,  depending  on  the 
length  of  the  growing  season,  the  progeny  of  one  insect  may 
become  almost  inconceivably  large. 

The  primary  injury  is  caused  by  the  insects  sucking  the 
juices  from  the  host  plant;  but  the  punctures  in  the  bark 
made  by  the  beaks  of  the  vast  number  of  the  insects  which 
sometimes  occur  evidently  poison  the  tissues,  as  indicated 
by  the  inner  bark  showing  a  reddish  discoloration,  thus 
still  further  effecting  serious  and  speedy  injury. 

Though  the  younger  limbs  are  especially  affected,  every 
.part  of  a  peach  tree  above  ground  on  which  the  bark  has 
not  become  roughened  with  age  may  become  incrusted  with 
the  scales.  Not  infrequently  on  young  trees  the  infestations 
may  even  extend  somewhat  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Methods  of  control  of  San  Jose  scale. 

While  many  different  substances  have  been  and  still 
are  being  used  in  spraying  for  this  insect,  the  standard 
remedy  in  most  regions  has  come  to  be  a  concentrated  lime- 
sulfur  mixture,  either  home-made  or  commercially  pre- 
pared. Directions  for  making  and  using  this  mixture  are 
given  on  pages  279-282. 

Other  preparations  include  kerosene  emulsion,  various 
petroleum  oils,  miscible  oils,  and  a  considerable  number  of 
proprietary  preparations  put  out  under  trade  names. 

The  principal  spray  applications  have  to  be  made 
during  the  dormant  season,  since  the  spray  must  come  in 
contact  with  every  insect  in  order  to  kill  it,  and  because  of 
the  practical  impossibility  of  making  the  applications  with 
sufficient  thoroughness  to  be  effective  when  the  trees  are 
in  full  leaf.     Besides,  an  insecticide  that  is  strong  enough 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  239 

to  kill  the  insects  beneath  their  protective  scale  covering 
will  seriously  injure  the  foliage. 

Spraying  may  be  done  in  the  fall,  or  during  mild  periods 
in  the  winter  when  it  is  practicable  to  work  in  the  orchard, 
or  in  the  spring  before  the  buds  have  swelled  very  much. 
Badly  infested  trees  are  sometimes  sprayed  twice,  in  the 
fall  and  again  later.  Such  trees  may  well  be  headed  back 
considerably  to  increase  the  thoroughness  of  the  spraying, 
since  it  is  practically  impossible  to  cover  the  small  limbs 
completely  with  the  spray  mixture. 

Fumigating  nursery  stock. 

As  previously  stated,  one  of  the  most  common  and  far- 
reaching  means  by  which  the  San  Jose  scale  has  been  dis- 
seminated has  been  through  the  distribution  of  infested 
nursery  stock.  To  overcome  this  menace  to  the  fruit  in- 
dustry, a  method  of  treating  nursery  trees  with  hydrocyanic 
acid  gas  before  they  were  shipped  from  the  nursery  was 
worked  out  early  in  the  history  of  this  insect  in  the  East. 
This  treatment  is  required  by  law  in  some  states. 

The  requisites  for  efficient  fumigation  of  nursery  stock 
are :  (1)  a  gas-tight  box  or  building  (depending  on  the 
amount  of  stock  to  be  treated)  in  which  the  trees  are  placed ; 

(2)  a  supply  of  potassium  cj^anide,  98  to  99  per  cent  pure ; 

(3)  commercial   sulfuric  acid  testing    about    66°    Baume, 
that  is,  a  grade  approximately  93  per  cent  pure ;   (4)  water. 

Many  nurserymen  have  constructed  houses  especially 
designed  for  this  purpose  into  which  a  wagon  loaded  with 
nursery  stock  can  be  run  and  treated  without  unloading. 

Trees  that  are  to  be  treated  should  be  in  a  dormant  con- 
dition and  should  not  be  wet,  that  is,  no  free  moisture  should 
be  on  the  surface. 


240  Peach-Growing 

The  dosage  that  has  been  found  most  satisfactory  is  as 
follows : 

For  100  cubic  feet  of  space  — 

Potassium  cyanide,  1  ounce  (by  weight). 
Sulfuric  acid,  1  ounce  (fluid). 
Water,  3  ounces  (fluid). 

The  trees  are  placed  in  the  fumigating  box  or  room,  the 
proper  quantities  of  the  materials  are  measured  out  very 
accurately  in  accordance  with  the  size  of  the  box  or  room, 
and  then  combined  by  first  placing  the  water  in  a  suitable 
container,  then  adding  the  sulfuric  acid,  and  finally  the 
potassium  cyanide.  The  best  container  in  which  to  generate 
the  gas  is  an  earthenware  vessel  having  a  capacity  consider- 
ably greater  than  the  combined  quantities  of  the  materials 
used.     The  trees  should  be  treated  for  at  least  forty  minutes. 

On  account  of  recent  difficulties  in  obtaining  potassium 
cyanide,  sodium  cyanide  has  been  used  to  some  extent  in 
its  place  for  fumigating  nursery  stock  and  with  equally  good 
results.  The  pure  chemical  yields  considerably  more  gas 
to  a  given  weight  than  the  same  weight  of  a  pure  potassium 
cyanide.  The  purity  of  the  former  is  expressed  in  terms  of 
the  latter.  Hence,  a  grade  of  sodium  cyanide  designated 
as  126  to  130  per  cent  piu-e  is  equivalent  to  a  grade  of  po- 
tassium cyanide  of  98  to  99  per  cent  purity.  Therefore, 
in  using  sodium  cyanide,  about  one-fourth  less  by  weight  is 
needed  for  a  given  unit  of  space.  The  proportion  of  chem- 
icals advised  when  this  substitution  is  used  is : 

For  125  cubic  feet  of  space  — 

Sodium  cyanide,  1  ounce  (by  weight). 
Sulfuric  acid,  1^  ounces  (fluid). 
Water,  2  ounces  (fluid). 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  241 

Potassium  cyanide  taken  internally  is  one  of  the  most 
deadly  poisons  known.  Hydrocyanic  acid  gas,  if  inhaled, 
is  no  less  destructive  of  life.  Hence,  in  handling  the  chem- 
icals and  in  all  details  relating  to  the  generation  of  the  gas, 
the  strictest  precautions  against  accidents  must  be  taken. 

White  peachrscale,  or  West  Indian  'peach-scale  {Aulacaspis 
pentagona) 

Owing  to  its  general  occurrence  in  the  West  Indies,  this 
insect  was  at  one  time  supposed  to  be  native  there,  hence 
its  name.  It  is  now  known,  however,  to  be  widely  distrib- 
uted in  many  parts  of  the  world. 

Appearance. 

A  full-grown  female  scale  is  about  -^  inch  in  diameter, 
dirty  white  in  color  and  nearly  circular  in  outline.  The 
scale-covering  of  the  male  is  elongated  and  whiter  in  color 
than  that  of  the  female. 

Distribution. 

Though  probably  not  occurring  in  a  large  number  of 
commercial  peach  districts  in  the  United  States,  this  insect 
is  widely  distributed  from  the  District  of  Columbia  south- 
ward. Its  range  westward  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
recorded. 

Life  history  and  habits. 

The  winter  is  passed  in  the  mature  form.     In  the  lati- 
tude of  Washington,  egg-laying  begins  about  the  first  of 
May.     The  eggs  hatch  in  a  few  days,  the  young  soon  settle 
down,  the  protective  covering  is  developed,  and  by  the  middle 
« 


242  Peach-Growing 

of  June  the  females  of  the  first  brood  are  mature.  There 
are  three  broods  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  probably  four 
or  five  in  Florida. 

The  white  peach  scale  attacks  practically  all  stone-fruits, 
but  its  chief  economic  importance  is  as  a  peach  insect. 
Because  of  its  rapid  increase  it  is  capable  of  doing  much 
damage.  Its  general  effects  on  a  tree  are  like  those  of 
the  San  Jose  scale. 

Methods  of  control. 

The  methods  of  control  given  for  the  San  Jose  scale  are 
advised  by  Quaintance  ^  for  this  insect. 

Terrapin  scale,  or  peach-Iecanium  (Eulecanium 
n  igro-fasciatum) 

In  his  discussion  of  this  insect,  Smith  ^  has  pointed  out 
clearly  some  fundamental  differences  between  it  and  other 
well-known  scale  insects  of  which  the  San  Jose  scale  is  the 
most  familiar.  These  differences  are  important  from  the 
standpoint  of  control  measures  and  are  as  follows : 

"This  is  locally  known  as  the  peach  soft  scale  and,  while  in 
a  general  way  it  has  the  same  method  of  causing  injury  that 
we  find  in  the  San  Jose  scale,  there  is  a  very  great  difference 
between  the  two.  The  San  Jos^  scale  belongs  to  the  armored 
scales,  in  which  the  true  scale  forms  only  a  covering  that  shelters 
or  protects  the  real  insect  that  lies  beneath  it.  Scale  and  insect 
are  quite  separate  and  the  covering  scale  can  be  removed  with- 
out necessarily  disturbing  the  creature  that  lies  beneath  it. 
In  the  soft  scales,  scale  and  insect  are  one,  and  the  term  scale 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  of  AgT.  Yearbook,  1905. 

2  N.  J.  Exp.  Sta.  BuU.  235. 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  243 

insect  is  literally  and  absolutely  applicable ;   the  scale  is  merely 
the  hardened  skin  or  outer  covering  of  the  insect  itself." 

Appearance. 

When  fully  grown  this  insect  is  about  ^  inch  in  diameter, 
and  when  viewed  from  the  side  its  body  presents  an  almost 
hemispherical  outline  and  is  of  a  brownish  color. 

Distribution. 

This  insect  has  been  mentioned  by  entomologists  during 
the  past  ten  or  twelve  years  as  occurring  in  nearly  every 
state  east  of  the  100th  meridian.  It  also  has  been  reported 
from  Ontario.  However,  in  Maryland,  New  Jersey,  and 
Pennsylvania  it  has  become  of  pressing  economic  impor- 
tance as  a  peach  insect.  Many  growers  in  those  states 
regard  it  as  a  greater  menace  to  peaches  than  any  other 
scale  insect,  not  excepting  the  San  Jose  scale. 

Life  history  and  habits. 

The  life  history  of  the  terrapin  scale  is  complicated,  but 
the  details  are  unnecessary  in  this  connection.  Smith,  cited 
above,  gives  the  following  summary  : 

"About  the  middle  or  toward  the  end  of  May  oviposition 
begins,  the  eggs  remaining  under  the  female,  which  gradually 
shrivels  until  it  forms  only  a  grayish  cover  to  the  mass  of  eggs 
beneath  it.  The  larvae  begin  to  hatch  during  the  middle  or 
latter  part  of  June  and  remain  active  for  some  days,  eventually 
setting  or  fixing  on  the  leaves,  along  the  veins  of  either  the  upper 
or  lower  surface.  They  are,  in  this  stage,  elongate  oval,  green- 
ish, flattened  creatures,  which  retain  their  general  form  and 
shape  even  after  they  begin  feeding  and  attach  themselves  to 
the  leaves.     Unlike  the  armored  scales,  they  do  not  lose  their 


244  Peach-Groioing 

legs,  and  it  is  quite  possible  for  the  young  specimens  to  leave 
one  spot  and  go  to  another.  Sometimes,  but  not  often,  they 
do  this.  For  a  period  of  six  or  eight  weeks  the  insects  remain 
on  the  leaves  and  during  that  time  more  or  less  honey  dew  is 
produced.  Upon  this  a  soot-fungus  grows  which  seriously  im- 
pairs the  growth  of  the  foliage  and  ruins  the  fruit.  The  develop- 
ment is  very  slow  and  irregular,  and  I  have  found  in  mid- 
August  eggs,  recent  larvae,  well  developed  sets  and  male  pupae 
all  on  the  one  tree." 

The  most  serious  injury  caused  by  this  insect  is  due  to 
the  deposit  on  the  fruit,  leaves,  and  branches  of  a  sweet, 
sticky  secretion  known  as  "honey  dew."  A  black,  sooty- 
appearing  fungus  develops  in  the  honey  dew,  thus  making 
the  fruit  so  unattractive  in  appearance  as  to  be  unsaleable. 
This  applies  especially  to  the  later  varieties,  since  the  earlier 
sorts  are  harvested  before  the  deposits  of  honey  dew  be- 
come extensive. 

Methods  of  control  of  terrapin  scale. 

A  number  of  predacious  insects  attack  this  Lecanium 
and  it  also  has  several  parasitic  enemies,  but  these  are  not 
sufficient  as  a  rule  to  hold  it  in  subjection.  Remedial 
measures  have  often  proved  unsatisfactory  on  account  of 
the  very  complete  protection  afforded  by  the  naturally 
secreted  protective  covering.  The  lime-sulfur  mixtures,  so 
useful  in  controlling  San  Jose  scale  and  many  other  insects, 
have  proved  ineffective.  Symons  ^  found  that  miscible  oils, 
of  which  there  are  several  standard  brands  on  the  market, 
applied  at  the  rate  of  1  part  oil  to  15  parts  water,  just  before 
the  buds  start  in  the  spring,  gave  satisfactory  results.  These 
results  have  been  confirmed  by  extended  use  in  commercial 
1  Md.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  149. 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  245 

orchards.  Though  shght  injury  to  the  trees  sometimes 
follows,  it  may  be  reduced  to  a  negligible  degree  by  treating 
only  those  trees  that  are  known  to  be  infected  with  this 
insect.  The  slow  dissemination  of  the  insect  from  tree  to 
tree  makes  such  a  procedure  practicable. 

The  Bureau  of  Entomology  ^  has  reported  some  promising 
preparations,  one  of  the  best  of  which  is  a  linseed  oil  emul- 
sion. Its  preparation  and  use  are  described  in  the  section 
on  insecticides  (pages  283-284). 

Peach-  and  plum-slug  (Caliroa  [Eriocampoides] 
amygdalina) 

For  some  years  this  insect  has  been  observed  in  certain 
localities  in  the  South,  where  it  sometimes  causes  serious 
defoliation  of  peach  trees. 

Appearance. 

The  adult  is  one  of  the  "saw-flies"  which  are  small,  trans- 
parent-winged insects,  commonly  with  bodies  about  \  inch 
long  and  with  a  wing  expanse  of  about  |  inch.  In  the 
larval  or  "slug"  stage,  in  which  it  causes  injury,  it  is  indis- 
tinctly pear  shape,  the  body  tapering  from  the  head  back- 
ward. WTien  fully  grown,  the  slug  is  about  f  inch  in  length, 
of  a  greenish  color,  and  covered  with  slime. 

Life  history  and  habits. 

The  adult  appears  in  early  spring  and  begins  laying  eggs  on 
the  foliage.  The  eggs  hatch  in  about  five  days.  The  larva 
or  slug  feeds  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves,  eating  all  the 
tissue  between  the  veins  except  the  upper  epidermis.     The 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bull.  351. 


246  Peach-Growing 

feeding  period  for  each  individual  averages  about  nine  or 
ten  days.  When  numerous,  much  of  the  foliage  may  be 
destroyed.     Several  generations  occur  during  the  season. 

Methods  of  control  of  slug. 

Orchards  that  are  well  sprayed  for  the  control  of  the 
major  insects  are  not  likely  to  suffer  from  the  peach  slug. 
It  is  only  the  trees  in  the  home  orchard  or  garden  which 
ordinarily  receive  scanty  attention  that  are  in  danger  of 
injury  from  it. 

The  pear-  and  cherry-slugs,  both  of  which  are  similar  in 
general  features  to  this  insect,  can  be  destroyed  by  dusting 
them  with  air-slaked  lime;  or  even  very  fine  dry  soil,  if 
dusted  over  the  slimy  bodies  of  the  larvae,  is  usually  sufficient 
to  kill  them. 

Peach  saw-fly  (Pamphilius  persicus) 

While  not  of  serious  economic  importance,  this  insect 
has  been  locally  troublesome  in  a  few  sections. 

Appearance. 

The  adult  is  a  small,  four-winged  fly  about  f  inch  long, 
reddish  brown  in  color  with  yellow  markings  on  the  head.^ 
The  larva  is  about  f  inch  long  when  fully  developed  and  of 
a  bluish-green  color. 

Distribution. 

Apparently  the  distribution  of  the  peach  saw-fly  is  fairly 
wide,  having  been  reported  as  working  on  peaches  in  Con- 
necticut and  in  Nebraska. 

1  Conn.  Exp.  Sta.  Ann.  Rept.  1907. 


\#?^-. 


■hX'lr'^U 


Plate  XX.  —  'I'oij,  u  .sled  used  iu  iciuuving  brush  li(jiu  nn  orchard  ; 
bottom,  Phillips  peach  trees  with  dense  tops  but  not  seriously  objec- 
tionable when  the  fruit  is  to  be  canned.  Limbs  propped  to  prevent 
breaking  from  weight  of  a  heavy  crop. 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  247 

Life  history  and  habits. 

The  adult  emerges  from  the  ground  the  last  of  May  or 
early  in  June  in  Connecticut.  Most  of  the  eggs  are  laid 
subsequent  to  the  middle  of  June,  being  deposited  on  the 
under  side  of  the  leaves.  They  hatch  in  about  six  to  eight 
days.  The  larva  eats  out  a  narrow  strip  from  the  edge  of 
the  leaf,  working  towards  the  center  in  such  a  way  as  to 
permit  the  making  of  a  case  for  itself.  In  this  the  larva 
remains  during  the  day,  feeding  mostly  at  night. 

The  larva  reaches  maturity  in  about  ten  days  and  then 
enters  the  ground  to  pupate.  There  is  but  one  generation 
in  a  season.  The  amount  of  damage  is  in  proportion  to 
the  abundance  of  the  insects  and  the  consequent  defolia- 
tion of  the  trees. 

Method  of  control  of  saiv-fiy. 

In  commercial  orchards  this  insect  has  been  well  con- 
trolled by  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  just  after  the 
eggs  hatch.  It  is  suggested  that  2  pounds  of  the  poison  to 
50  gallons  of  water  would  probably  be  sufficiently  strong. 
However,  when  arsenate  of  lead  is  used  on  peach  foliage 
in  water  as  a  conveyor,  rather  than  in  a  fungicide  contain- 
ing lime,  the  latter  should  be  added  at  the  rate  of  2  to  3 
pounds  for  every  2  pounds  of  the  poison  in  order  to  pre- 
vent burning  the  leaves. 

Brown-mite  {Bryohia  yratensis) 

This  is  a  very  minute  insect,  as  its  name  suggests.  It  has 
various  host  plants  and  in  some  sections  does  considerable 
damage  to  peaches,  though  as  a  peach  insect  it  is  not  widely 
recognized  as  a  serious  cause  of  injury. 


248  Peach-Growing 

The  Insect  passes  the  winter  in  the  egg  stage,  the  eggs 
being  placed  in  or  near  the  crotches  of  the  branches.  They 
hatch  early  in  the  following  spring.  At  first  the  mites 
are  reddish  in  color,  but  after  feeding  for  a  short  time  and 
molting,  they  take  on  an  olive  green  or  brown  color. 

Feeding  is  mostly  on  the  leaves,  but  sometimes  the  fruit 
is  attacked.  Its  presence  on  the  leaves  is  indicated  by  a 
faded  out,  pallid  appearance  and  by  the  presence  of  very 
minute,  dark  colored  specks  of  excreta. 

Methods  of  control  of  hrownr-mite. 

The  tobacco  extracts  generally  are  effective  in  killing 
the  insects,  but  as  they  have  little  or  no  effect  on  the  eggs, 
they  are  not  satisfactory,  since  eggs  are  more  or  less  con- 
tinuously present  in  considerable  numbers  on  badly  Infested 
trees.  However,  a  spray  composed  of  10  pounds  of  flowers 
of  sulfur  and  50  gallons  of  water  applied  in  early  spring 
after  the  presence  of  the  Insect  on  the  foliage  becomes  evi- 
dent, is  very  successful,  as  reported  by  Weldon.^  The 
presence  of  the  sulfur  on  the  affected  parts  seems  to  kill 
the  mites  as  they  hatch,  but  the  adults  do  not  succumb  at 
once.  However,  within  a  week  after  an  application  was 
made,  practically  no  adult  mites  were  to  be  found.  Com- 
mercially prepared  forms  of  lime-sulfur  mixture  also  proved 
about  equally  successful. 

Red-spider  {Tetranychus  bimaculatus) 

This  Insect  —  also  one  of  the  "mites"  —  Is  common  on 
many  fruit-trees  and  in  greenhouses.  It  is  not  widely  recog- 
nized as  a  serious  peach  pest,  but  it  occurs  to  a  damaging 

J  Colo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  169. 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  249 

extent  in  some  sections.  As  a  peach  insect  it  has  been  dis- 
cussed by  Weldon.^  Unlike  the  brown-mite,  this  insect 
passes  the  winter  in  the  adult  form,  hibernating  in  the  soil 
close  to  the  trees  on  which  it  has  been  feeding  or  under 
rubbish  that  will  furnish  protection.  It  does  little  damage 
after  the  middle  of  August  under  the  conditions  in  the  Grand 
Valley  in  Colorado,  migration  to  the  ground  having  largely 
taken  place  by  that  time. 

It  works  mostly  on  the  foliage,  where  its  effect  is  not  un- 
like the  injury  caused  by  the  brown-mite,  except  that  the 
injured  leaves  are  inclined  to  turn  yellow  in  spots.  The 
insect  is  greenish  in  color  while  feeding  on  the  leaves,  turn- 
ing orange  or  red  when  migration  occurs. 

The  red-spider,  unlike  the  brown-mite,  spins  a  web  on 
the  leaves  or  branches,  where  it  may  be  located,  thus  making 
its  presence  more  conspicuous  than  it  would  otherwise  be. 

Methods  of  control. 

Sulfur,  whether  dusted  thoroughly  on  the  foliage  or  ap- 
plied as  a  spray  in  water,  gives  successful  results.  If  ap- 
plied as  a  spray,  the  sulfur  should  be  very  finely  pulverized 
or  screened,  and  if  a  small  amount  of  soap  is  dissolved  in  it 
a  better  mixture  is  secured. 

Oriental  peach-moth  (laspeyresia  molesta) 

This  insect  appears  to  have  been  introduced  within  recent 
years  and  is  not  only  new  to  this  country  but  a  species  new 
to  science.  Its  nearest  well-known  relative  in  this  country 
is  the  common  codling-moth — the  familiar  cause  of  "wormy 
apples."     Its  entomological  position  and  economic  impor- 

1  Colo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  169. 


250  Peach-Growing 

tance  have  recently  been  set  forth  by  Quaintance  and 
Wood.i 

At  present  its  known  distribution  in  this  country  is  con- 
fined to  the  District  of  Columbia  and  its  near  environs  in 
Maryland  and  Virginia  and  to  a  few  recently  discovered 
centers  where  it  has  evidently  existed  for  several  years. 
While  it  has  been  observed  to  attack  different  species  of 
plums  and  cherries,  its  preference  for  the  peach  appears  to 
be  rather  decided. 

The  work  of  the  "worm"  or  larva  on  peach  trees  is  very 
like  that  of  the  peach  twig-borer  previously  described. 
Some  of  its  characteristics  are  similar  also  to  that  insect. 
For  instance,  a  single  larva  may  bore  into  the  terminal 
shoot  of  several  branches.  As  the  twigs  harden  the  worms 
may  feed  more  or  less  on  the  exterior,  since  they  seem  to 
prefer  young  tender  shoots,  and  work  in  them  until  new  ones 
cease  to  develop  for  the  season.  The  places  where  feeding 
occurs  on  the  exterior  of  the  twigs  are  often  marked  by  the 
exudation  of  gum. 

As  a  peach  insect  its  work  in  the  fruit  is  of  very  much 
more  serious  import  than  its  damage  to  the  growth  of  the 
tree.  While  there  is  an  abundance  of  tender  growing  shoots 
the  fruit  appears  largely  to  escape,  but  when  the  period  of 
most  active  growth  is  past  the  worms  become  a  serious  factor 
in  the  fruit.  Thus  the  early  varieties  are  not  much  in- 
fested, while  with  some  of  the  midseason  and  especially  the 
late  varieties  practically  all  the  fruit  has  been  infested  in 
some  cases. 

In  attacking  the  fruit,  the  worm  usually  eats  through  the 
skin  near  the  attachment  of  the  stem  to  the  fruit,  or  at  some 

1  Journal  of  Agr.  Research,  Vol.  VII,  No.  8  (Nov.  20,  1916),  pp. 
373-377. 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  251 

roughened  spot  such  as  a  curculio  sting  or  a  hail  scar. 
The  larva  feeds  in  various  positions  in  the  fruit.  Brown- 
rot  is  likely  to  attack  the  fruits  thus  injured,  and  it  may  fall 
to  the  ground,  though  much  of  the  infested  fruit  remains 
on  the  tree.  If  its  work  progresses  far  enough  in  the  fruit 
its  presence  may  be  apparent,  but  in  much  of  it,  especially 
if  entrance  is  made  near  the  stem,  the  presence  of  a  worm 
is  unsuspected  so  far  as  any  apparent  external  evidence  is 
concerned. 

There  are  probably  two  or  three  broods  in  a  season,  but 
the  insect  in  its  various  stages  may  be  found  throughout 
the  season. 

The  seriousness  of  this  peach  moth  as  a  peach  menace  rests 
in  the  two  facts  of  its  apparent  ability  to  cause  great  damage 
both  to  tree  and  fruit,  and  in  the  absence  at  present  of  any 
known  method  of  control. 

Peach  bud-mite  ( Tarsonemus  waitei) 

This  insect  is  a  menace  to  nursery  stock  rather  than  to 
bearing  peach  trees,  but  brief  reference  to  it  in  this  connec- 
tion seems  not  out  of  place. 

For  the  past  twenty  or  twenty-five  years,  occasional 
instances  have  been  reported  of  serious  trouble  with  peach 
nursery  stock  which  manifested  itself  in  the  young  trees  be- 
coming very  much  branched,  the  small  secondary  laterals  in 
turn  frequently  branching  profusely  as  well  as  the  main  limbs. 
As  a  result  the  trees  are  dwarfed  and  fail  to  grow  to  the  re- 
quired height  and  because  of  their  inferiority  are  unsaleable. 

It  has  been  quite  conclusively  proved  that  this  trouble 
is  due  to  the  killing  of  the  terminal  bud  of  the  twigs  by  the 
very  minute  insect  or  "mite"  here  in  question. 


252  Peach-Growing 

An  injury  supposedly  due  also  to  this  insect  sometimes 
occurs  early  in  the  spring  to  peach  stock  budded  the  pre- 
vious season,  just  as  the  dormant  bud  starts  into  growth. 
As  a  result,  the  bud  which  has  apparently  passed  the  winter 
in  good  condition  fails  to  develop,  evidently  being  killed 
by  this  mite. 

Methods  of  control  of  hud-mite. 

The  life  history  of  this  mite  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
fully  determined,  and  means  of  control  have  not  been  well 
worked  out.  Promising  results  have  been  claimed  from 
spraying  in  the  dormant  season  with  a  lime-sulfur  mixture. 

Good  results  have  followed  wise  pruning  after  the  laterals 
have  begun  to  develop  subsequent  to  the  killing  of  the 
terminal  buds.  By  selecting  the  best  branches  and  remov- 
ing all  others  not  desired  in  forming  the  top  of  the  tree, 
a  fairly  high  percentage  of  saleable  trees  have  been  secured 
from  stock  that  would  otherwise  have  had  little  or  no 
market  value. 

Other  insects 

Many  other  insects  besides  those  that  have  been  dis- 
cussed attack  the  peach,  either  the  tree  or  the  fruit.  These 
other  insect  pests  are,  for  the  most  part,  local  in  their  dis- 
tribution, or  their  principal  host  is  something  other  than 
the  peach,  and  the  attacks  on  the  latter  are  incidental  or 
perhaps  accidental.  Or,  if  they  are  essentially  peach  in- 
sects, their  work  as  such  is  rarely  observed,  and  they  require 
no  individual  consideration,  being  held  in  subjection  in  the 
regular  treatment  for  the  major  insect  pests. 

It  should  be  pointed  out  that  new  insects  appear  from 
time  to  time,  or  for  some  reason  an  insect  that  has  been 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  253 

present  for  an  indefinite  period  as  a  minor  and  unimportant 
pest  suddenly  becomes  a  serious  menace.  Therefore  the 
peach-grower  should  be  ever  on  his  guard  for  new  insects, 
and  on  discovery  he  should  take  steps  without  delay, 
to  ascertain  definitely  their  significance.  It  is  only  by  so 
doing  that  he  can  fully  safeguard  his  interests. 

The  nematode  {Heterodera  radicicola) 

This  pest  has  a  large  economic  relation  to  successful 
peach-growing  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  country  where 
there  is  but  little  freezing  of  the  ground  during  the  winter. 
Where  the  ground  habitually  freezes  in  winter  to  a  consider- 
able depth,  nematodes  do  not  occur  in  sufficient  numbers 
to  be  of  economic  importance. 

This  organism  is  a  very  minute,  practically  microscopic, 
worm-like  object  which  infests  the  roots  of  a  great  number 
of  plants,  causing  knots  to  develop  on  them  sometimes  in 
great  numbers  if  the  nematodes  are  abundant.  These 
knots  are  often  confused  with  the  nodules  formed  on  the 
roots  of  legumes  by  the  nitrogen-gathering  bacteria.  If 
peach  trees  infested  in  the  nursery  with  nematodes  are 
planted,  they  are  likely  to  prove  disappointing.  They 
may  make  a  lingering,  sickly  growth  for  a  year  or  two,  but 
early  failure  is  probable.  Trees  that  are  free  when  planted, 
if  set  where  the  soil  is  infested,  are  not  likely  to  succeed. 
The  knots  that  develop  on  the  roots  interfere  with  their 
normal  functions,  hence  the  tree  becomes  weakened  and  the 
roots  die  where  badly  infested. 

Methods  of  control. 

Control  measures  are  largely  preventive  in  their  nature. 
Trees  free  from  nematodes,  planted  in  uninfested  land,  are 


254  Peach-Groiving 

prerequisite  for  successful  peach-culture  in  regions  where 
nematodes  are  prevalent.  Since  many  vegetables  and  other 
economic  plants  are  susceptible  to  nematodes,  they  should 
not  be  used  as  interplanted  crops  on  land  free  from  nem- 
atodes in  sections  where  they  commonly  occur.  Clean 
cultivation  should  be  followed,  since  many  weeds  also  are 
subject  to  nematodes.  Most  varieties  of  cowpeas  are 
attacked  by  the  nematodes,  and  many  growers  are  reluctant 
to  use  this  crop  for  maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
where  otherwise  they  could  be  grown  in  an  orchard  with 
great  advantage  to  the  trees.  However,  the  Iron  and 
Brabham  varieties  of  cowpeas  are  practically  immune  to 
nematodes,  hence  may  be  used  with  comparative  safety, 
as  described  in  the  chapter  on  cover-crops. 

Land  that  becomes  infested  with  nematodes  can  be  freed 
from  them  only  by  starvation  treatment,  either  by  pre- 
venting all  vegetation  from  growing  for  a  sufficient  length  of 
time  or  using  a  rotation  of  crops  all  of  which  are  immune 
to  them,  but  obviously  this  method  is  impossible  of  applica- 
tion in  a  peach  orchard. 

By  using  nitrogenous  fertilizers  and  making  the  soil 
very  fertile,  an  infested  peach  orchard,  if  the  trees  have 
previously  become  well  established,  may  sometimes  be  made 
to  thrive  fairly  well,  provided  other  conditions  of  growth 
are  favorable. 

An  effective  method  of  rendering  infested  soil  compara- 
tively free  from  nematodes  has  recently  been  described  by 
Watson,*  which  consists  of  applying  "cyanamid"  or  cal- 
cium cyanamide  to  the  soil,  followed  by  irrigation,  but  the 
expense  of  this  material  in  the  quantity  in  which  it  has  to 
be  used,  and  its  injurious  effects  for  a  time  on  the  soil,  are 
1  Fla.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  BiiU.  136. 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  255 

such  as  to  render  it  impracticable  or  even  impossible  where 
the  land  is  already  occupied  with  trees. 

PEACH  DISEASES 

The  number  of  major  peach  diseases,  those  of  large  eco- 
nomic importance  which  have  to  be  specifically  considered 
in  making  up  a  program  of  operations  with  a  view  to  con- 
trolling them,  is  not  large,  though  the  peach  is  subject  to 
many  different  fungous  troubles  and  other  kinds  of  disease. 
The  larger  proportion  of  these,  however,  are  not  of  great 
concern  to  the  peach-grower.  They  are  spasmodic  in  oc- 
currence, local  in  distribution,  or  they  are  controlled  by  the 
same  treatment  that  is  provided  for  the  major  diseases. 

The  following  discussion  is  intended  to  give  the  grower 
the  essential  characteristics  of  those  peach  diseases  which, 
within  the  range  of  the  average  experience  in  the  different 
peach-producing  regions,  are  likely  to  require  his  attention. 

Brown-rot  (Sclerotinia  fructigena) 

According  to  Scott  and  Quaintance  —  "the  brown-rot 
probably  causes  more  loss  to  peach-growers  than  all  other 
maladies  of  the  peach  combined,  with  perhaps  the  excep- 
tion of  'yellows,'  which  kills  the  trees  outright."  ^  Brown- 
rot  is  also  very  serious  at  times  on  other  stone-fruits,  entire 
crops  of  plums  and  cherries  sometimes  being  destroyed  by  it. 
There  is  considerable  difference  in  varieties  of  the  different 
kinds  of  fruits  affected  with  regard  to  relative  susceptibility 
to  this  disease. 

The  disease  occurs  throughout  the  humid  regions  and 
may  appear  in  the  drier  parts  of  the  country.  An  intimate 
1  Farmers'  Bull.  440. 


256  Peach-Groioing 

relationship  exists  between  its  development  and  certain 
weather  conditions.  If  rainy  or  hot  and  muggy,  especially 
for  a  week  or  two  before  the  ripening  of  a  variety,  nearly 
the  entire  crop  may  become  infected  and  lost. 

Course  of  development  of  hrown-rot. 

"The  disease  appears  on  the  fruit  as  a  small  circular 
brown  spot,  which  under  moist,  warm  conditions  enlarges 
rapidly,  soon  involving  the  entire  fruit  in  decay.  The 
spots  do  not  usually  become  sunken,  and  the  fruit  remains 
plump  until  almost  entirely  decayed.  The  fungus  growing 
in  the  tissues  of  the  fruit  breaks  through  the  skin,  forming 
small,  grayish  tufts  of  spore-bearing  threads.  These  tufts, 
although  few  on  young  spots,  soon  become  so  numerous 
as  to  give  the  diseased  area  a  grayish,  moldy  appearance, 
which  is  responsible  for  the  term  peach  '  mold '  sometimes 
applied  to  the  disease.  The  spores  which  are  produced 
in  great  abundance  by  these  fungous  tufts  are  blown  by  the 
wind  and  carried  by  insects  and  birds  from  fruit  to  fruit, 
tree  to  tree,  and  orchard  to  orchard.  Finding  lodgment 
on  the  fruit  under  favorable  conditions  of  temperature  and 
moisture,  these  spores  germinate,  producing  a  fungous 
growth  which  ramifies  and  kills  the  tissues.  These  dead 
tissues  turn  brown,  and  the  fungus  breaks  through  the 
surface,  producing  another  crop  of  spores.  The  process 
is  very  rapid,  only  a  few  days  intervening  between  one 
generation  of  spores  and  another."  ^ 

Methods  of  control. 

The  development  of  the  self-boiled  lime-sulfur  mixture 
by  W.  M.  Scott  ^  in  1907  made  a  new  epoch  not  only  in 
1  Farmers'  Bull.  440.  «  Bur.  of  Plant  Ind.  Circ.  1. 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  257 

peach  spraying  but  in  the  peach  industry.  By  the  proper  use 
of  this  preparation  brown-rot  is  almost  completely  controlled. 
Directions  for  its  preparation  and  use  appear  on  page  285. 
It  has  been  observed  in  some  cases  that  the  control  of 
the  curculio  very  greatly  lessened  the  prevalence  of  brown- 
rot.  The  fungus  finds  ready  entrance  into  the  fruit  through 
wounds  in  the  skin.  The  wounds  made  by  the  curculio 
in  feeding  and  in  laying  its  eggs,  therefore,  offer  points 
of  entrance  for  the  fungus  which  do  not  occur  on  fruit  not 
attacked  by  this  insect. 

Peach-scab  (Cladosporium  carpopMlum) 

This  disease,  known  also  as  "freckles,"  "black-spot," 
and  by  other  names,  is  second  only  to  brown-rot  in  its  de- 
structiveness  of  the  fruit.  In  some  of  the  mountain  dis- 
tricts it  causes  even  greater  loss  than  brown-rot.  It  occurs 
practically  everywhere  that  peaches  are  grown. 

While  the  great  economic  importance  of  this  disease  is 
in  the  damage  it  causes  to  the  fruit,  it  also  attacks  the 
twigs  and  the  foliage. 

Course  of  development. 

In  outlining  the  development  of  this  disease  Scott  states 
substantially  as  follows :  "  The  scab  fungus  which  grows 
in  the  skin  of  the  fruit  produces  small,  circular,  dark-brown 
spots,  one  eighth  of  an  inch  or  less  in  diameter.  Several 
spots  may  coalesce,  forming  large,  irregular  scab  areas. 
In  bad  cases  the  fruit  becomes  sooty  in  appearance  and  the 
skin  cracks. 

"  The  fungus  also  attacks  the  twigs,  producing  small  brown 
spots,  which  are  common  in  most  peach  orchards.     The 

8 


258  Peach-Growing 

twigs  may  be  somewhat  weakened  by  the  disease,  but  the 
injm-y  is  evidently  very  slight. 

"The  results  of  spraying  experiments  indicate  that  fruit 
infections  begin  to  take  place  from  three  to  four  weeks 
after  the  petals  fall,  although  the  spots  do  not  appear  until 
about  three  weeks  later.  In  some  experiments  spraying 
with  a  fungicide  four  weeks  after  the  petals  fell  almost 
completely  prevented  the  disease,  while  a  similar  treatment 
one  week  later  on  an  adjacent  plot  of  the  same  variety  was 
only  about  half  as  effective.  Infections  may  continue 
to  take  place  until  about  a  month  before  the  fruit  ripens. 
It  is  a  green  fruit  disease,  however,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether 
the  nearly  mature  fruit  is  susceptible." 

There  is  a  wide  difference  in  the  susceptibility  of  varie- 
ties to  scab,  though  none  is  immune.  In  general  the  later 
varieties  are  more  seriously  affected  than  early  sorts,  but 
this  may  be  due  to  the  course  of  development  rather  than 
the  direct  result  of  partial  resistance. 

Methods  of  control  of  scab. 

The  self-boiled  lime-sulfur  mixture  is  practically  a  specific 
for  this  disease.  Directions  for  making  the  applications 
are  found  in  the  spraying  program  on  pages  285-286. 

Leaf-curl  {Exoascus  deformans) 

Peach  leaf-curl  is  widely  disseminated,  occurring  more  or 
less  in  practically  all  peach-growing  regions  of  the  country, 
but  more  especially  perhaps  in  the  northern  districts.  As 
the  name  implies,  this  disease  affects  the  leaves,  causing 
them  to  become  very  much  thickened  and  greatly  dis- 
torted.   The  twigs,  also  the  fruit,  may  be  attacked ;  but  the 


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Insect  and  Disease  Control  259 

effect  on  these  parts  as  a  rule  is  relatively  unimportant, 
though  the  small  twigs  are  sometimes  killed  thereby. 

Course  of  development. 

The  affected  leaves  gradually  turn  yellowish,  jBnally 
blacken  and  drop  off,  though  in  the  course  of  these  changes 
certain  areas  of  the  leaves  assume  a  mealy  or  frosted  ap- 
pearance, due  to  the  growth  of  the  spores  by  which  the  disease 
is  perpetuated.  The  disease  works  largely  in  early  spring, 
as  the  new  leaves  are  developing.  The  occurrence  of  cold 
damp  weather  is  favorable  to  its  development  and  in  some 
cases  the  early  infections  result  in  affected  trees  becoming 
entirely  defoliated.  This  depletes  the  vitality  of  the  trees, 
and  where  it  occurs  for  several  seasons  in  succession,  they 
become  weakened  thereby  to  a  serious  extent. 

Methods  of  control  of  curl. 

Apparently  the  leaves  become  infected  as  soon  as  they 
begin  to  unfold  or  possibly  even  before,  since  spraying  after 
the  foliage  is  partially  developed  has  little  or  no  effect  in 
controlling  the  disease.  Trees  that  are  systematically 
sprayed  during  the  dormant  season,  especially  shortly  be- 
fore the  buds  begin  to  open  in  the  spring,  with  lime-sulfur 
mixture  (dormant  strength)  for  San  Jose  scale  do  not  or- 
dinarily suffer  from  this  trouble.  WTien  spraying  is  done 
for  this  disease  alone,  bordeaux  mixture  applied  very 
thoroughly  about  two  weeks  before  the  buds  open  seems  to 
give  the  highest  measure  of  protection ;  in  fact,  it  usually 
holds  the  disease  in  practically  complete  control.  Or  the 
lime-sulfur  preparations  applied  at  this  time  or  during  the 
winter,  or  even  in  November  or  early  December,  usually 
give  a  high  degree  of  protection. 


260  Peach-Growing 

Peach-yellows  {Cause  unknown) 

This  disease  has  long  been  a  serious  menace  to  the  peach 
industry.  The  regional  progress  of  the  disease  has  been 
gradually  southward,  now  having  reached  as  far  as  North 
Carolina  and  Tennessee,  and  westward  to  the  Mississippi 
River.  In  all  of  the  important  peach-growing  districts 
within  the  area  thus  indicated,  this  disease  has  in  the  past 
wrought  unmeasured  havoc,  entire  orchards  and  the  interests 
in  whole  communities  having  been  destroyed  thereby. 
This,  however,  was  before  its  infectious  or  contagious 
character  was  understood  and  methods  of  control  established. 
The  cause  of  the  disease  and  the  means  by  which  it  is  spread 
have  never  been  determined. 

Course  of  development. 

Usually  the  first  evidence  of  .yellows  in  a  bearing  tree  is 
the  premature  ripening  of  the  fruit ;  ripening  may  occur  from 
a  few  days  to  possibly  two  weeks  or  more  in  advance  of  the 
normal  time.  Usually  this  occurs  first  on  a  part  of  the  tree, 
frequently  on  only  a  single  limb,  while  the  fruit  on  the 
remainder  of  the  tree  appears  perfectly  normal  in  all  respects. 
The  premature  fruit  usually  shows  characteristic  small 
red  spots  on  the  surface  which  mark  the  location  of  red 
streaks  that  extend  to  the  pit.  Moreover,  such  fruit,  es- 
pecially if  it  ripens  considerably  in  advance  of  its  normal 
time,  is  usually  small,  insipid,  sometimes  bitter  and  al- 
together undesirable. 

Other  symptoms  follow  in  succession.  The  next  year 
the  entire  tree  may  ripen  its  fruit  prematurely  and  begin 
to  show  lack  of  vigor  and  thrift.  Adventitious  buds  develop 
on  the  trunk  and  larger  limbs  from  which  grow  slender, 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  261 

wiry  or  willowy,  yellowish  green  shoots  which  become  very 
much  branched,  forming  a  sort  of  brush-like  growth.  The 
leaves  on  this  growth  are  very  much  smaller  and  narrower 
than  normal  leaves,  more  pointed,  and  possess  a  weak, 
sickly,  greenish-yellow  appearance.  In  the  late  fall  the 
outermost  leaves  that  develop  near  the  terminal  ends  of 
all  the  current  season's  growth  have  some  of  the  character- 
istics of  those  borne  on  the  wiry  shoots  above  mentioned. 

"Yellows"  trees  may  go  into  the  winter  with  their  buds 
more  advanced  than  normal  individuals  and  such  trees 
usually  start  into  growth  in  the  spring  in  advance  of  healthy 
ones. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  first  symptoms  progressing 
through  the  various  stages  described,  the  entire  course  of 
the  disease  may  be  run  and  the  tree  killed  in  three  or  four 
years.  The  tree  does  not  die  usually  all  at  once  but  more 
or  less  gradually  limb  by  limb. 

As  above  stated,  the  means  by  which  the  yellows  is  spread 
from  a  diseased  tree  in  an  orchard  to  healthy  trees  is  un- 
known. In  the  past  one  of  the  most  common  means  of 
dissemination  into  new  localities  has  been  by  infected  nursery 
stock.  However,  the  danger  of  spreading  the  disease 
through  nursery  stock  is  now  slight  compared  with  what 
it  was  formerly,  since  all  progressive  nurserymen  are  fully 
aware  of  the  baneful  results  that  follow  any  carelessness  in 
respect  to  selecting  the  buds  used  in  propagation. 

It  should  be  noted  that  other  influences  than  yellows  may 
cause  the  development  of  many  of  the  symptoms  of  this 
disease.  Premature  ripening  of  the  fruit  may  be  caused 
by  girdling  a  tree  or  a  limb,  but  the  characteristic  red  mark- 
ings on  and  in  the  fruit  are  lacking.  Weak  sickly  shoots 
with  narrow  leaves  may  develop  also  from  girdling,  as  by 


262  Peach-Groiving 

a  label  wire.  Girdling  may  cause  the  premature  dropping 
of  the  leaves  and  the  advanced  development  of  the  buds 
in  autumn  which  is  also  characteristic  of  yellows  in  many 
cases.  Such  trees  are  likely  to  start  growth  and  blossom 
the  next  season  in  advance  of  others  not  so  affected.  Winter 
injury  to  the  tree,  however,  may  also  cause  some  of  these 
symptoms. 

Means  of  control  of  yellows. 

Though  many  methods  of  curing  peach-yellows  have  been 
exploited,  no  authentic  case  of  a  tree  actually  infected  with 
this  disease  having  been  cured  is  recorded.  The  one  effec- 
tive method  of  handling  diseased  trees  is  to  root  them  out 
with  the  least  possible  delay  on  the  first  indication  of  the 
trouble  and  burn  them  at  once.  When  this  plan  of  action 
is  followed  with  absolutely  rigid  adherence  to  details,  little 
need  be  feared  from  the  encroachment  of  the  disease.  The 
entire  tree  must  be  destroyed.  Cutting  off  the  limb  or 
limbs  which  show  the  first  symptoms  in  the  fruit  ripening 
prematurely,  avails  nothing  in  the  control  of  the  trouble. 
Curiously  enough,  a  young  tree  can  be  planted  in  the  very 
place  occupied  by  a  yellows  tree,  immediately  on  the  re- 
moval of  the  latter,  if  it  happens  to  be  during  the  proper 
time  for  planting  peach  trees,  without  more  danger  of  its 
becoming  infected  than  if  it  is  planted  elsewhere  in  the 
orchard. 

Little-peach  (Cause  unknown) 

This  disease  has  been  attracting  more  or  less  attention 
from  peach-growers  and  fruit  disease  specialists  for  the  past 
twenty-five  years.  It  now  occurs  more  or  less  generally 
in  Michigan,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Ontario, 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  263 

Canada,  and  probably  in  other  eastern  and  northern  peach 
districts. 

The  cause  and  character  of  the  disease  are  obscure  as  in 
the  case  of  yellows  and  in  many  respects  they  appear  to  be 
closely  related  or  similar  to  each  other.  Some  of  the  symp- 
toms, and  in  part  the  progress  of  the  disease,  are  the  same 
as  in  yellows.  The  means  by  which  it  is  spread  are  like- 
wise obscure. 

Course  of  development. 

The  first  evidence,  which  generally  becomes  apparent 
late  in  the  season  after  the  fruit  is  harvested,  is  a  peculiar 
drooping  of  the  leaves  a  short  distance  below  the  tips  of 
the  branches,  those  at  the  tip  remaining  normal.  Under 
some  conditions  and  in  some  stages,  especially  when  the 
foliage  alone  shows  the  effects,  it  is  diflBcult  to  distinguish 
this  disease  from  yellows.  If  the  trouble  develops  earlier 
in  the  season  and  the  tree  is  in  bearing,  the  fruit  may  be  a 
little  smaller  and  ripen  slightly  later  than  normal.  This 
may  develop  first  on  a  single  limb  as  with  yellows. 

The  second  season  these  symptoms  are  intensified.  The 
trouble  involves  more,  perhaps  all  of  the  tree,  in  case  only 
a  single  limb  was  affected  the  first  year.  The  foliage  char- 
acters are  pronounced  though  the  leaves  near  the  tips  of 
the  branches  may  remain  normal.  The  affected  foliage 
is  a  lighter  shade  of  green.  All  the  fruit  is  decidedly  smaller 
on  the  affected  parts  of  the  tree  and  is  about  ten  days  or 
two  weeks  later  in  ripening  than  normal  for  the  variety, 
the  flavor  is  poor  and  insipid,  and  the  texture  is  stringy. 
The  third  and  fourth  years  the  foliage  is  very  small,  more 
or  less  scanty,  the  leaves  at  the  tips  are  affected  and  in  some 
varieties  the  outer  third  of  each  leaf  turns  back  on  itself. 


264  Peach-Growing 

The  foliage  is  also  a  lighter  green  or  even  a  yellowish  green 
during  the  progress  of  the  disease.  The  fruit  is  very  much 
reduced  in  size  and  does  not  mature.  Usually  the  fourth 
season  there  is  but  little  fruit,  and  the  tree  develops  a  very 
weak,  sickly  appearance  and  generally  begins  to  die,  or  may 
fail  entirely  before  the  end  of  the  fourth  year. 

In  individual  trees  and  in  different  regions  the  rate  of 
progress  of  the  malady  may  vary  more  or  less,  some  branches 
dying  earlier  than  here  indicated,  but  in  general  it  usually 
requires  about  four  seasons  to  complete  the  destruction  of 
a  tree  if  left  to  its  natural  course. 

Methods  of  control  of  little-peach. 

The  same  heroic  measures  described  for  yellows  are 
equally  effective  in  controlling  this  disease.  No  other 
known  method  of  treatment  is  of  any  avail. 

Peaxih-rosette  {Cause  unknown) 

The  cause  of  this  disease  is  unknown  but  it  has  some 
characteristics  in  common  with  "yellows"  and  "little- 
peach"  and  probably  belongs  to  the  same  general  group  of 
maladies.  However,  its  progress  is  much  more  rapid  and 
its  climax  much  more  quickly  reached  than  is  the  case  with 
either  of  these  diseases.  Rosette  has  existed  more  or  less 
in  certain  sections  of  the  South  and  possibly  in  some  other 
parts  of  the  country  for  many  years,  though  it  is  now  of 
rather  rare  occurrence  and  is  attracting  comparatively 
little  attention. 

Course  of  development 

The  evidence  of  the  presence  of  this  disease  is  the  develop- 
ment in  early  spring  of  "rosettes"  of  leaves  from  the  leaf- 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  265 

buds.  This  may  occur  first  on  a  part  of  the  tree  as  on  a 
single  branch,  on  several  branches,  or  the  entire  tree  may 
become  affected  at  once.  The  rosettes  consist  of  short 
branches  two  or  three  inches  long,  one  of  which  grows  from 
each  bud,  and  a  large  number  of  small  yellowish  green  leaves 
are  borne  on  each  branch  thus  making  a  sort  of  "tuft." 
If  an  entire  tree  is  thus  affected,  it  dies  before  growth  begins 
the  next  season.  If  only  a  part  of  the  branches  are  diseased 
the  first  season,  those  die  before  the  opening  of  the  second 
season.  The  remainder  of  the  tree  then  develops  the  trouble 
the  second  season,  dying  in  a  corresponding  period  of  time. 

When  a  whole  tree  is  affected  at  the  same  time,  it  does 
not  mature  fruit  even  if  it  sets.  Healthy  branches  of -an 
affected  tree  mature  normally  any  fruit  they  may  bear. 

Means  of  control  of  rosette. 

As  with  other  diseases  of  this  obscure  group,  the  one 
known  method  of  control  is  to  dig  up  rosetted  trees  and 
burn  them  at  the  first  symptom  of  the  trouble.  Other- 
wise it  will  spread  to  other  trees. 

Shot-hole,  leaf-blight,  leaf-spot 

The  plant  pathologists  recognize  several  different  fungi 
as  the  causal  agents  of  certain  types  of  injury  to  peach 
foliage,  the  characteristic  effects  of  which  have  given  rise 
to  the  common  names  applied.  It  is  not  important,  how- 
ever, from  the  peach-grower's  standpoint  that  he  be  able 
to  distinguish  these  different  fungi  one  from  the  other, 
since  as  far  as  known  they  do  not  require  individual  treat- 
ment for  a  good  measure  of  control.  They  are  more  serious 
on  other  stone-fruits,  especially  the  cherry  and  plum. 


266  Peach-Growing 

Course  of  development. 

The  affected  leaves  first  show  minute  dark  spots.  These 
increase  in  size  slightly,  the  diseased  areas  die  and  fall  out, 
thus  producing  the  "shot-hole"  effect.  The  affected  areas 
may  run  together  more  or  less  if  they  happen  to  occur  near 
one  another.  The  affected  leaves  gradually  turn  yellow, 
or  otherwise  cease  to  function  and  drop  off. 

Cherry  and  plum  trees  are  often  so  badly  defoliated  in  this 
way  that  it  becomes  a  serious  problem.  The  injury  to  peaches 
in  well-cared-for  orchards  is  not  likely  to  be  noticeable. 

Methods  of  control  of  shot-hole. 

But  very  little  experimental  work  has  been  done  in  the 
control  of  these  troubles.  However,  orchards  that  are 
properly  sprayed  for  brown-rot  and  scab  are  not  likely  to 
suffer  seriously  from  them. 

Bacterial  leaf-spot,  bacterial  shot-hole,  bacteriosis,  black-spot 
{Bacterium  pruni) 

These  are  all  common  names  for  the  same  disease,  the 
terms  being  applied  to  different  stages  of  the  disease  or  to  its 
appearance  in  different  places.  As  is  suggested  by  the 
names,  the  cause  of  the  trouble  is  a  bacterium.  It  is  rather 
widely  distributed  east  of  the  Mississippi  River  and  occurs 
as  far  west  as  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  but  is  more  serious 
in  some  of  the  peach  districts  of  the  South  than  elsewhere, 
especially  in  neglected  orchards. 

Course  of  development. 

This  disease  affects  the  leaves,  twigs,  and  fruit,  though  it 
is    perhaps    most    noticeable  on  the  leaves.     When  much 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  267 

dropping  occurs,  it  is  of  course  depleting  to  the  vitality  of 
the  tree.  Its  development  on  twigs  is  confined  to  the  current 
season's  growth  though  the  wounds  thus  produced  may 
persist  as  perennial  cankers. 

Infections  on  the  leaves  first  appear  as  small  grayish 
specks,  somewhat  angular  in  form,  and  later  become  various 
shades  of  brown.     Individual  infections  may  run  together. 

Infected  areas  appear  on  the  twigs  as  black  cankers  in 
early  spring  or  more  often  not  until  May  or  June.  The 
first  indication  of  infection  is  a  minute  spot  having  a  water- 
soaked  appearance.  As  the  spot  enlarges,  it  elongates  and 
may  extend  half-way  around  the  twig  or  even  more.  By 
the  second  year  these  areas  largely  disappear  but  the  cankers 
carry  the  disease  over  winter  and  become  sources  of  infec- 
tion the  next  season. 

Infections  on  the  fruit  appear  as  a  rule  while  the  fruit 
is  still  very  small,  as  minute  gray  specks  just  beneath  the 
outer  skin.  As  these  areas  develop  the  skin  cracks  slightly 
and  where  infected  areas  are  numerous  the  cracks  run 
together  making  a  network  of  lines.  Considerable  difference 
exists  in  the  susceptibility  of  varieties. 

Methods  of  control  of  leaf-spot. 

Rolfs  ^  found  that  bordeaux  mixture  would  control  the 
disease  but  its  use  on  peach  leaves  is  prohibited  by  the 
injury  which  it  causes  to  them.  Self-boiled  lime-sulfur 
mixture  is  less  effective  though  its  efficiency  appears  to  be 
increased  by  adding  to  it  arsenate  of  lead  at  the  rate  of  2 
pounds  to  50  gallons.  The  poison  probably  controls  in- 
sects which  might  otherwise  cause  new  infections. 

1  Memoir  No.  8,  Cornell  Univ.  Expt.  Sta.  "A  Bacterial  Disease 
of  Stone  Fruits." 


268  Peach-Growing 

Apparently,  however,  much  can  be  accomplished  In  its 
control  by  good  orchard  management.  Rolfs  makes  it  clear 
that  trees  on  which  the  foliage  is  thrifty  and  vigorous  are 
resistant  in  a  high  degree  as  compared  with  those  that  are 
less  well  maintained.  Roberts  ^  also  indicates  that  in 
southern  orchards  trees  maintained  in  a  high  state  of  cul- 
tivation are  commercially  immune  to  this  disease. 

Powdery-mildew  (Sphoerotheca  pannosa) 

This  disease  though  widely  disseminated  is  rarely  of 
serious  economic  importance. 

Course  of  development. 

Powdery-mildew  develops  usually  in  the  early  part  of 
the  season,  attacking  the  foliage  near  the  ends  of  the  branches, 
the  young  tender  twig  growth,  and  sometimes  the  fruit. 
The  presence  of  the  disease  gives  a  white  frosted  appearance 
to  the  affected  parts.  As  only  the  young  leaves  and  tips 
are  affected  so  far  as  the  tree  is  involved,  serious  damage 
rarely  occurs.  If  the  fruit  is  attacked  when  small,  it  is 
likely  to  drop  before  it  matures.  It  sometimes  occurs 
on  trees  in  the  nursery,  causing  the  death  of  the  young  tender 
growing  tips  of  the  twigs.  This  may  prevent  the  trees 
from  developing  into  high-grade  stock. 

Methods  of  control. 

But  little  attention  has  been  given  to  the  control  of 
powdery-mildew.  Since  it  thrives  best  in  warm,  moist, 
shaded  locations,  keeping  the  tops  of  the  trees  well  pruned 
so  as  to  admit  sunshine   and   air    and   thus  promote  the 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  BuU.  543. 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  269 

rapid  drying  of  dews  and  rains  is  doubtless  advantageous. 
Moreover,  the  mildews  that  occur  on  other  hosts  usually 
yield  quickly  to  sulfur  sprays.  Peach  trees  which  are  well 
sprayed  for  the  more  serious  diseases  will  rarely  require 
separate  treatment  to  control  the  mildew.  Should  it  become 
threatening  at  any  time,  it  is  probable  that  the  self-boiled 
lime-sulfur  mixture  or  flowers  of  sulfur  in  water  would  be 
effective. 

Frosty-mildeio  {Cercosporella  persicce) 

This  disease  apparently  occurs  more  frequently  from  the 
central  Atlantic  states  southward  than  in  other  peach  regions. 
However,  it  is  not  of  special  concern  even  in  those  regions 
where  it  is  most  prevalent. 

The  conditions  described  as  favorable  for  powdery-mildew 
are  likewise  favorable  for  this  disease. 

Course  of  development. 

An  area  of  infection  appears  on  the  upper  surface  of  a 
leaf  as  a  pale  yellowish  spot,  while  the  corresponding  area 
on  the  other  side  develops  a  delicate,  frost-like  growth 
which  consists  of  the  fruiting  bodies. 

Methods  of  control. 

Though  little  experimental  work  looking  to  the  control  of 
this  mildew  has  been  done,  as  there  is  rarely  any  necessity 
for  specific  action  to  that  end,  it  is  probable  that  the  treat- 
ment suggested  for  powdery-mildew  would  prove  effective. 

Rust   {Puccinia  spinosce) 

This  disease  is  very  widespread  and  has  as  its  hosts  prac- 
tically all  stone-fruits,  besides  some  wild  herbaceous  plants. 


270  Peach-Growing 

Though  not  serious  economically,  it  sometimes  causes  some 
loss  of  foliage  of  peach  and  other  stone-fruits,  especially 
in  the  South  and  Southwest. 

Course  of  development  of  rust 

Peach  rust  occurs  principally  on  the  foliage  towards 
autumn  though  appearing  to  some  extent  in  midsummer. 
The  fruit  is  rarely  affected.  On  the  lower  surfaces  of  the 
leaves  the  disease  appears  in  the  form  of  minute  pustules, 
light  brown  in  color  and  filled  with  a  powdery  substance  — 
the  spores.  Later  the  pustules  turn  dark  brown  or  nearly 
black.  Where  the  leaves  become  badly  affected  they  drop, 
but  as  stated  this  rarely  happens  to  a  serious  extent. 

Methods  of  control. 

As  a  group  of  diseases,  the  rusts  are  difficult  to  control  by 
spraying,  though  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  spraying 
program  advised  for  leaf-curl  would  probably  help  materially 
in  controlling  this  disease  when  it  becomes  necessary  to 
take  action.  Because  of  the  peculiar  progress  in  the  steps 
in  the  life  cycle  of  this  rust,  the  presence  of  the  wild  anemone, 
hepatica,  and  one  or  two  other  common  wild  flowers  is 
necessary  to  its  perpetuation  on  stone-fruits,  one  stage  of 
the  disease  developing  only  on  those  plants.  In  their  ab- 
sence, the  life  cycle  is  broken  and  the  disease  cannot  per- 
petuate itself. 

California  peach-blight  or  coryneum-hlight  (Coryneum 
beijerinkii) 

As  the  name  suggests,  this  disease  is  of  particular  eco- 
nomic importance  in  California.  It  is  in  that  state,  at  least, 
that  it  has  attracted  special  attention. 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  271 

Course  of  development. 

As  described  by  Smith  ^  and  his  associates  in  referring 
to  a  serious  outbreak  of  this  disease:  "The  trouble  con- 
sisted in  the  dying  of  the  buds  on  the  fruiting  wood,  spotting 
of  the  green  twigs,  and  dropping  or  non-development  of 
the  young  leaves  and  fruit.  Particularly  noticeable,  and 
the  most  prominent  feature  of  the  disease,  was  a  copious 
'gumming'  or  exudation  of  masses  of  gelatinous  sap  from 
the  twigs,  originating  in  the  dead  spots  and  buds.  This 
gumming  was  extremely  abundant  in  wet  weather  all  over 
the  one-year-old  fruiting  twigs  of  affected  trees,  and  with 
the  blighted  leaves  and  fruit  and  spotted,  leafless,  dead  or 
dying  twigs  and  shoots,  gave  the  tree  a  most  distressing 
and  alarming  appearance.  The  crop  was  entirely  ruined 
in  badly  affected  orchards  and  the  trees  brought  into  an 
extremely  weakened  condition." 

Under  California  conditions,  particularly  in  the  valleys 
where  this  disease  has  at  times  prevailed  to  a  serious  extent, 
most  of  the  infection  takes  place  during  the  winter.  Twigs 
that  appeared  healthy  in  December  may  show  definite 
infection  by  the  first  of  February. 

Methods  of  control  of  blight. 

Experience  has  demonstrated  that  this  disease  can  be 
completely  controlled  by  spraying  with  bordeaux  mixture. 
A  single  thorough  application  made  any  time  during  the 
period  from  about  the  first  of  November  to  the  middle  of 
December  appears  to  be  effective.  If  the  application  is 
delayed  until  later  than  December,  it  is  correspondingly 
less  effective.  Applications  later  than  the  first  of  February 
have  little  or  no  controlling  effect  on  the  disease. 
1  Cal.  Expt.  Sta.  BuU.  191. 


272  Peach-Growing 

It  has  been  observed  that  leaf-curl,  which  is  sometimes 
serious  in  California,  as  it  is  throughout  the  entire  country, 
appears  to  be  largely  controlled  also  by  a  November  or 
December  application  of  bordeaux  mixture.  Where  leaf- 
curl  is  extremely  bad,  however,  it  is  not  so  completely  con- 
trolled by  a  late  fall  application  as  by  a  spraying  in  Feb- 
ruary or  March. 

It  seems  probable  that  the  lime-sulfur  mixture  used  at 
dormant-spray  strength  would  be  equally  effective  in 
controlling  these  diseases  and  at  the  same  time  control  San 
Jose  scale. 

As  the  peach  twig-borer  or  peach-worm  (Anarisa  line- 
atella)  is  also  controlled  (see  page  233)  by  lime-sulfur  applied 
just  as  the  buds  are  opening,  the  best  spraying  program 
where  these  three  troubles  occur  is  to  apply  bordeaux  mix- 
ture during  November  or  the  first  half  of  December  for 
blight  and  for  a  measurable  control  of  leaf-curl ;  again 
just  as  the  buds  are  beginning  to  swell  for  the  peach-worm 
(or  twig-borer)  and  the  final  control  of  leaf-curl  and  also 
for  the  San  Jose  scale  when  that  occurs. 

Crown-gall  {Bacterium  tumefaciens) 

This  is  a  bacterial  disease  common  to  various  tree-fruits, 
also  to  raspberries,  blackberries,  and  other  plants.  Prob- 
ably the  greatest  economic  importance  of  crown-gall  on 
peach  trees  is  as  a  disease  of  nursery  stock,  since  it  is  dur- 
ing the  nursery  period  that  they  are  most  likely  to  become 
affected,  and  this  stock  probably  constitutes  the  chief  means 
of  dissemination. 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  273 

Course  of  development. 

The  presence  of  this  disease  is  indicated  by  the  develop- 
ment of  warty  excrescences  on  the  larger  roots  and  partic- 
ularly at  the  crown  of  the  tree  just  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  These  excrescences  are  more  or  less  spherical  in 
shape,  and  in  size  vary  from  bodies  so  small  as  to  be  un- 
noticed to  so  large  that  they  involve  nearly  the  whole  of 
a  main  root  at  the  point  where  a  gall  develops. 

The  effect  of  crown-gall  is  in  proportion  to  the  extent 
to  which  the  roots  are  involved.  If  in  a  serious  degree 
the  normal  functions  of  the  roots  are  interfered  with  and 
the  tree  becomes  weak  and  unthrifty,  the  foliage  is  light 
colored  —  the  tree  looks  "sick."  These  evidences  become 
more  and  more  acute  until  the  tree  finally  dies. 

Means  of  control  of  crown-gall. 

The  only  method  of  control  is  by  preventive  measures. 
There  is  no  cure,  once  a  tree  is  infected.  All  nursery  stock 
should  be  examined  very  critically  before  it  is  planted  in 
order  to  detect  every  indication  of  small  galls  just  beginning 
to  form.  Every  tree  that  shows  any  evidence  of  them  should 
be  burned.  If  a  gall  is  discovered  where  it  can  be  cut  off, 
its  removal  might  delay  somewhat  the  progress  of  the  trouble, 
but  a  tree  so  handled  would  remain  under  suspicion  and 
galls  would  be  likely  to  develop  subsequently. 

When  crown-gall  is  discovered  on  a  tree  that  has  been 
planted  some  years,  the  ultimate  weakening  therefrom  may 
be  deferred  somewhat  by  keeping  the  soil  well  enriched, 
especially  with  nitrogenous  plant-foods,  thus  providing  as 
favorable  conditions  as  possible  for  tree  growth. 


274  Peach-Growing 

Die-back  {Valsa  leucostoma) 

The  economic  importance  of  this  disease  was  apparently 
first  fully  recognized  in  the  United  States  by  Rolfs/  who 
in  1910  published  the  results  of  his  studies.  The  occurrence 
of  the  disease  has  been  reported  from  many  widely  separated 
points,  and  its  distribution  may  be  regarded  as  general 
throughout  the  peach-producing  sections  of  the  country. 
However,  it  is  rather  definitely  associated  with  the  depleted 
vitality  of  neglected  orchards. 

Course  of  development. 

In  general  the  trouble  begins  with  the  appearance  on  the 
twigs  of  small  roughened  or  cankered  spots  which  center 
about  the  buds.  Frequently,  following  an  infection  of  the 
twigs,  the  fungus  works  its  way  into  large  branches  and 
limbs,  killing  them  one  by  one  until  the  whole  tree  dies. 
Sometimes  the  branches  are  girdled  by  the  disease.  The 
progress  of  the  malady  varies  more  or  less,  however,  being 
governed  evidently  by  the  condition  of  the  tree,  climatic 
conditions,  and  other  influences.  Doubtless  many  cases 
of  injury  from  this  disease  have  been  looked  on  as  "sun- 
scald,"  "winter-injury,"  and  the  like. 

Methods  of  control. 

Rolfs  points  out  that  any  methods  of  orchard  manage- 
ment which  are  conducive  to  the  health  and  vigor  of  the 
trees  serve  as  preventive  measures,  since  it  is  weakened  or 
unthrifty  trees  that  are  most  severely  attacked.  Three 
applications  of  weak  bordeaux  mixture  in  the  fall  and  one 
application  of  normal  strength  in  the  spring  greatly  reduced 
1  Mo.  State  Fruit  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  17. 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  275 

the  disease,  in  Rolfs'  experience,  but  apparently  little  is 
to  be  feared  from  it  in  orchards  that  receive  good  cultural 
attention. 

Root-rot 

This  term  is  used  in  a  rather  broad  sense  and  is  applied 
to  several  distinct  fungous  diseases  which  attack  the  roots 
of  peach  and  other  trees,  causing  them  to  decay,  and  result- 
ing in  the  death  of  trees  so  affected.  These  diseases  all 
develop  under  much  the  same  conditions.  The  loss  from 
them  aggregates  a  large  amount  in  some  sections. 

Course  of  development. 

It  often  happens  that  the  grower  is  unaware  of  serious 
trouble  with  any  of  his  trees  until  he  discovers  one  or  several 
that  appear  "sick";  the  foliage  may  be  wilting;  the  early 
death  of  the  tree  is  perhaps  apparent. 

On  examination,  it  may  be  found  that  the  tree  can  be 
tipped  over  easily  and  that  the  roots,  save  perhaps  one  or 
two,  are  dead  and  decaying.  Or  if  the  tree  still  stands 
firmly  in  its  position,  it  may  be  that  the  disease  has  girdled 
the  trunk  at,  or  just  below,  the  surface  of  the  ground  and 
the  bark  there  is  dead.  Sometimes,  also,  a  tree  dies  be- 
cause the  disease  has  destroyed  the  power  of  the  roots  to 
function,  even  though  they  may  not  have  decayed  when 
the  tree  dies.  Whichever  one  of  the  various  fungi  may  be 
at  work,  the  results  are  usually  the  same  —  the  death  of 
the  tree. 

Not  infrequently  there  is  particularly  heavy  loss  from 
this  type  of  disease  where  an  orchard  is  planted  on  recently 
cleared  land  which  contains  many  decaying  roots  of  forest 
trees. 


276  Peach-Growing 

Methods  of  control  of  root-rot. 

Usually  the  disease  has  progressed  so  far  when  discovered 
that  little  or  nothing  of  material  value  can  be  done  to  save 
an  affected  tree.  A  method  reported  from  Oregon  con- 
sists in  removing  most  of  the  soil  early  in  the  season  from 
the  area  occupied  by  diseased  roots,  cutting  off  those  that 
are  affected  and  cleaning  away  diseased  bark  at  the  crown. 
After  disinfecting  the  wounds,  the  parts  are  left  exposed 
to  the  air  for  a  considerable  length  of  time.  This  "aeration 
method,"  as  it  is  called,  is  said  to  offer  some  promise. 

When  a  single  tree  here  and  there  in  an  orchard  is  affected, 
the  "trenching  method"  has  been  suggested.  This  consists 
in  digging  a  trench  a  foot  wide  and  two  feet  or  more  deep 
and  at  a  sufficient  radius  from  the  tree  to  leave  all  the 
diseased  roots  on  the  side  of  the  trench  next  the  tree.  The 
soil  from  the  trench  should  be  thrown  towards  the  tree. 
This  results  merely  in  isolating  the  diseased  tree  from  its 
neighbors,  which  are  presupposed  to  be  uninfected  when  this 
method  is  used,  the  disease  spreading  gradually  through  the 
soil  if  not  restricted. 

The  various  diseases  causing  root-rot  may  live  for  a  long 
time  as  saprophytes  on  dead  parts  of  roots  or  other  pieces 
of  wood  that  may  be  in  the  soil.  Therefore,  after  the  re- 
moval of  a  diseased  tree,  the  place  should  not  be  filled  by 
replanting  another. 

Gummosis 

Gummosis  is  a  rather  general  term  applied  to  a  group  of 
troubles  the  evidence  of  which  is  the  exudation  of  gum 
from  points  on  the  trunk,  branches,  or  twigs.  It  commonly 
occurs  in  the  spring,  the  gum  forming  in  globules  which 
vary  in  size.     At  first  they  are  soft,  then  amber-colored, 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  277 

glossy,  transparent,  and  hard.  Later,  in  the  presence  of 
much  rain,  the  gum  masses  may  swell  and  become  sticky 
and  gelatinous  in  appearance.  Hesler  and  Whetzel  ^  enumer- 
ate nearly  twenty  primary  causes  of  gumming  or  gummosis, 
including  several  fungous  diseases,  one  or  more  bacterial 
diseases,  injuries  due  to  insects  and  other  mechanical  means, 
physiological  troubles  resulting  from  unfavorable  soil  or 
climatic  conditions,  and  others.  The  phenomenon  of  gum- 
ming is,  therefore,  an  expression  usually  of  some  disorder 
rather  than  being  itself  a  primary  cause.  However,  wounds 
do  not  always  exude  gum  and  it  is  believed  by  some  au- 
thorities that  there  is  an  exciting  or  stimulating  influence 
in  some  cases  apart  from  the  wound  itself  that  induces  the 
exudation  of  gum.  An  enzyme  is  commonly  held  by  such 
authorities  to  be  the  inciting  cause  of  the  exudate. 

Methods  of  control. 

It  is  obvious  when  a  phenomenon  may  result  from  so  large 
a  number  of  causes  that  the  first  step  in  control  is  to  deter- 
mine the  causal  agent  of  the  condition  and  then  remove 
the  cause  or  condition  or  apply  such  remedy  as  may  be  sug- 
gested by  circumstances. 

Little-leaf,  or  California  yellows 

The  cause  of  this  trouble  appears  to  be  a  physiological 
disturbance  due  to  unfavorable  soil  conditions,  particularly 
with  regard  to  moisture.  It  has  no  relation  to  "peach- 
yellows"  of  the  East. 

^  "  Manual  of  Fruit  Diseases." 


278  Peach-Growing 

Course  of  development  of  little-leaf. 

As  described  by  Smith  and  Smith  ^  the  development  of 
the  trouble  is  substantially  as  follows:  "Little-leaf"  is 
characterized  by  the  development  of  spindling,  yellow, 
sickly  looking  shoots  on  the  new  growth,  with  small,  narrow, 
yellow  leaves.  The  leaves  along  the  shoots  drop  off  during 
the  summer,  leaving  tufts  at  the  ends.  The  fruit  fails  to 
develop,  shrivels  and  drops,  and  is  worse  on  trees  from  three 
to  seven  years  old,  and  on  the  lighter,  drier  soils,  this  fea- 
ture showing  itself  by  the  more  pronounced  occurrence  of 
the  disease  on  trees  standing  in  sandy  streaks  or  slight 
elevations  in  the  orchard.  Therefore,  as  might  be  expected, 
it  occurs  mostly  following  unusually  dry  seasons,  on  trees 
standing  in  light  soil  or  one  underlaid  with  a  coarse,  sandy 
subsoil.  Trees  on  a  fairly  heavy  subsoil,  or  those  which  have 
received  abundant  irrigation  throughout  the  preceding 
season,  are  mostly  or  entirely  free  from  the  trouble  even  in 
the  worst  affected  localities. 

Methods  of  control. 

In  most  cases,  regular  irrigation  during  the  summer  shows 
a  marked  effect  in  controlling  this  trouble.  Such  irrigation 
should  be  given  particularly  in  the  latter  part  of  the  season, 
after  the  crop  is  off,  and  especially  when  the  rains  are  late 
in  commencing. 

Other  diseases 

While  other  diseases  besides  these  discussed  may  occur 
locally,  or  even  widely  disseminated,  they  are  of  little  eco- 
nomic importance  in  most  cases  or  are  controlled  by  the 

1  Cal.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  218. 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  279 

spraying  program  arranged  for  the  major  diseases.  At  the 
same  time,  the  grower  should  always  be  on  the  watch  for  an 
outbreak  of  some  new  or  little-known  disease,  and  in  case 
he  discovers  anything  that  arouses  his  suspicions,  he  should 
take  steps  to  ascertain  whether  or  not  it  is  a  serious  peach 
menace. 

INSECTICIDES,   FUNGICIDES,   SPRAYING 

The  following  paragraphs  are  presented  for  the  purpose  of 
aiding  the  grower  as  far  as  possible  in  making  and  using  the 
various  preparations  which  have  been  found  the  most 
effective  in  controlling  the  more  common  peach  insects  and 
diseases. 

The  grower  should  keep  clearly  in  mind  the  important 
fact  that  successful  spraying  of  fruit-trees  is  absolutely 
dependent  on  three  factors:  (1)  The  proper  spraying 
material;  (2)  timely  applications;  (3)  and  thoroughness 
of  application.  To  fail  in  any  one  of  these  particulars  is 
equivalent  to  failing  in  all  of  them. 

Insecticides 

Concentrated  lime-sulfur  mixture. 

This  preparation  kills  by  contact  with  the  insect.  It  is 
used  when  the  trees  are  dormant  and  principally  for  scale 
insects.  Reference  to  its  use  as  a  fungicide  occurs  under 
"leaf-curl"  on  page  259.  It  has  been  tried  also  in  a  much 
diluted  form  as  a  summer  spray  for  the  control  of  brown- 
rot  and  scab,  but  experience  has  shown  that  it  is  unsatis- 
factory, since  in  a  strength  sufficient  to  control  these  diseases 
there  is  great  danger  of  injury  to  the  foliage. 


280  Peach-Growing 

There  are  numerous  commercial  brands  of  concentrated 
lime-sulfur  on  the  market.  Many  growers  prefer  to  use 
one  of  them  and  if  only  a  small  amount  of  spraying  is  to 
be  done  it  is  probably  more  satisfactory  to  do  so  than  to 
prepare  a  homemade  mixture.  Where  large  operations 
are  involved,  however,  considerable  expense  is  doubtless 
saved  by  the  grower  making  it  himself. 

The  equipment  necessary  to  prepare  the  homemade 
mixture,  unless  on  a  large  scale,  is  comparatively  simple. 
A  75-gallon  kettle  and  a  50-  to  75-gallon  water  tank  so  set 
in  masonry  or  brickwork  as  to  provide  a  fireplace  beneath 
comprise  the  essential  features. 

In  large  scale  operations  a  more  elaborate  system  of  tanks 
and  equipment  for  cooking  the  mixture  by  steam  is  advis- 
able. Such  an  equipment  is  shown  in  Plate  XXIV,  where 
the  barrels  in  which  the  cooking  is  done  appear  in  the  back  on 
the  upper  level  of  the  "  spray  house."  Cooking  is  commonly 
done  by  steam,  coils  of  pipe  being  placed  in  the  barrels 
or  tanks  and  connected  with  a  boiler.  The  ingredients 
pass  by  gravity  from  one  container  to  another  when  they 
are  brought  together.  The  large  containers  on  the  lower 
platform  to  which  pieces  of  hose  are  attached  hold  the  spray 
mixtures  that  are  ready  for  use. 

The  directions  for  preparing  and  handling  homemade 
lime-sulfur  mixture  as  given  by  Quaintance  ^  are  as  follows  : 

"  Stone  lime pounds     20 

Sulfur  (flour  or  flowers) do         15 

Water  to  make gallons     50 

"  Heat  in  a  cooking  barrel  or  vessel  about  one-third  of  the 
total  quantity  of  water  required.     When  the  water  is  hot 

1  Farmers'  Bull.  650. 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  281 

add  all  the  lime  and  at  once  add  all  the  sulfur,  which  pre- 
viously should  have  been  made  into  a  thick  paste  with  water. 
After  the  lime  has  slaked,  about  another  third  of  the  water 
should  be  added,  preferably  hot,  and  the  cooking  should  be 
continued  for  one  hour,  when  the  final  dilution  may  be 
made,  using  either  hot  or  cold  water,  as  is  most  convenient. 
The  boiling  due  to  the  slaking  of  the  lime  thoroughly  mixes 
the  ingredients  at  the  start,  but  subsequent  stirring  is 
necessary  if  the  wash  is  cooked  by  direct  heat  in  kettles. 
If  cooked  by  steam,  no  stirring  will  be  necessary.  After 
the  wash  has  been  prepared,  it  must  be  well  strained 
as  it  is  being  run  into  the  spray  tank.  It  may  be 
cooked  in  large  kettles,  or  preferably  by  steam  in  barrels 
or  tanks.  This  wash  should  be  applied  promptly  after 
preparation,  since,  as  made  by  this  formula,  there  is 
crystallization  of  the  sulfur  and  hardening  of  the  sediment 
upon  cooling.  Probably  comparatively  few  fruit-growers 
at  the  present  time  prepare  the  wash  according  to  this 
old  method,  but  employ  the  commercial  or  homemade 
concentrate. 

"The  inconvenience  experienced  in  preparing  the  lime- 
sulfur  wash  according  to  the  foregoing  formula  by  cooking 
with  steam  or  in  open  kettles  at  home  has  been  one  of  the 
principal  objections  to  this  spray.  Manufacturers  have, 
therefore,  put  on  the  market  concentrated  solutions  of 
lime-sulfur  which  have  only  to  be  diluted  with  water  for 
use.  These  commercial  washes,  if  used  at  proper  strength, 
have  proved  to  be  quite  as  satisfactory  in  controlling  the 
scale  as  the  old-formula  lime-sulfur  wash,  and,  although 
somewhat  more  expensive,  have  been  adopted  by  many  of 
the  commercial  orchardists  in  preference  to  the  "20-15-50" 
formula.     They  are  especially  useful  for  the  smaller  orchard- 


282  Peach-Growing 

ists  whose  interests  do  not  warrant  the  construction  of  a 
cooking  plant." 

When  a  grower  uses  one  of  the  commercial  brands  of 
lime-sulfur,  he  should  follow  directions  supplied  by  the 
manufacturer  in  applying  it. 

Miscihle  oils. 

These  are  essentially  petroleum  oils  that  have  been  so 
treated  that  they  will  emulsify  with  water.  They  are  pro- 
prietary preparations  and  should  be  used  in  accordance 
with  the  nature  and  strength  of  the  different  brands.  They 
have  been  much  employed  in  the  past  in  spraying  for  San 
Jose  scale  and  they  are  also  used  successfully  in  controlling 
the  peach-lecanium  or  terrapin-scale.  Under  some  con- 
ditions they  may  be  more  convenient  to  use  as  a  dormant 
scale-spray  than  the  lime-sulfur  mixtures. 

Tobacco  extracts. 

As  indicated  under  the  discussion  of  the  "black"  and  the 
"green"  aphids,  preparations  made  by  extracting  the  nico- 
tine from  tobacco  stems  and  other  tobacco  refuse  are  very 
effective  in  controlling  these  soft-bodied  insects.  Several 
commercial  brands  of  such  preparations  are  on  the  market. 
Of  these  preparations  and  their  use  Quaintance  ^  speaks  as 
follows : 

"Aphids  are  killed  by  surprisingly  small  quantities  of 
nicotine  in  water,  and  because  of  the  entire  safety  with 
which  it  can  be  applied  to  plants  nicotine  is  better  suited 
than  other  sprays  to  control  these  insects  [aphids  or  plant- 
lice]  ;  while  the  cost  of  the  concentrated  article  is  high,  the 
extent  to  which  it  may  be  diluted  makes  the  spray  compare 
1  Farmers'  Bull.  804. 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  283 

favorably  in  cost  with  other  contact  sprays.  Nicotine  is 
extracted  from  refuse  tobacco,  principally  stems,  by  different 
commercial  concerns,  and  is  put  on  the  market  in  several 
grades  and  strengths.  The  40  per  cent  nicotine  sulfate  is 
the  solution  principally  used,  although  weaker  grades  of 
nicotine  may  be  employed  provided  care  is  taken  that  the 
spray  be  made  so  as  to  contain  not  less  than  0.05  or  0.06 
per  cent  of  actual  nicotine. 

"Nicotine  may  be  added  either  to  the  winter-strength 
lime-sulfur  solution  for  the  San  Jose  scale  or  to  the  dilute 
lime-sulfur  solution  and  arsenate  of  lead  spray  employed 
in  the  control  of  insects  and  diseases  of  fruit  and  foliage. 
It  may  also  be  used  in  bordeaux  mixture  and  arsenate  of 
lead  spray  without  interfering  with  its  effectiveness,  or  in 
an  arsenate  of  lead,  milk  of  lime,  and  water  spray.  In 
orchard  spraying  the  40  per  cent  nicotine  sulfate  is  used 
at  the  rate  of  about  f  pint  to  100  gallons  of  water,  lime- 
sulfur  solution,  or  bordeaux  mixture.  When  used  in  water 
the  addition  of  soap  at  the  rate  of  4  or  5  pounds  to  100 
gallons  adds  much  to  its  spreading  power  and  efficiency. 
Soap  should  not  be  used  with  lime-sulfur  solution,  but 
may  be  used  in  bordeaux  mixture.  Where  only  a  small 
quantity  of  spray  is  required,  the  nicotine  sulfate  may  be 
used  at  the  rate  of  1  teaspoonful  to  a  gallon,  or  1  ounce  to 
8  gallons  of  soapy  water." 

Linseed  oil  emulsion. 

This  preparation  is  reported  by  Simanton  ^  as  being  one 
of  the  most  effective  of  a  considerable  number  tested  in 
controlling  the  terrapin-scale  or  peach-lecanium.  It  is 
composed  as  follows : 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  Bull.  351. 


284  Peach-Growing 

Raw  linseed  oil       5  gallons 

Gasoline 3  gallons 

Laundry  soap 2  pounds 

Water       92  gallons 

According  to  the  above  authority  —  "The  best  way  of 
preparing  this  spray  is  by  mixing  5  gallons  of  raw  linseed 
oil  and  3  gallons  of  gasoline  and  then  adding  2  pounds  of 
soap  dissolved  in  4  gallons  of  hot  water.  The  whole  is 
churned  for  5  minutes  through  a  spray  pump,  then  diluted 
to  double  its  volume  and  churned  again  for  1  minute,  after 
which  it  should  be  diluted  to  100  gallons,  when  it  is  ready 
to  use." 

One  thorough  application  made  in  the  spring  before  the 
buds  burst  has  been  found  an  effective  means  of  controlling 
the  terrapin-scale. 

Arsenate  of  lead. 

This  is  the  poison  now  used  for  biting  and  chewing  in- 
sects almost  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others.  Its  most  im- 
portant use  in  spraying  peaches  is  for  the  control  of  the 
curculio.  For  this  insect  it  is  nearly  always  used  in  com- 
bination with  a  fungicide  —  quite  habitually  the  self-boiled 
lime-sulfur  mixture  —  and  at  the  rate  of  2  pounds  to  50  gal- 
lons of  the  mixture,  or  of  water,  if  applied  without  a  fun- 
gicide. Wlien  water  is  used  as  the  conveyor,  stone  lime 
freshly  slaked  should  be  added  at  the  rate  of  2  to  3  pounds 
to  every  2  pounds  of  the  poison  in  order  to  prevent  injury 
to  the  foliage. 

The  grower  will  not  find  it  practicable  to  prepare  this 
poison  himself,  but  he  should  purchase  one  of  the  well-tried 
commercial  brands,  of  which  there  are  many  in  both  powder 
and  paste  form. 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  285 

Fungicides 

Self-boiled  lime-sulfur  mixture. 

By  far  the  most  important  fungicide  for  the  peach-grower 
is  the  self-boiled  lime-sulfur  mixture.  Its  great  importance 
is  that  it  will  control  in  a  high  degree  the  two  most  destruc- 
tive fungous  diseases  of  the  peach — brown-rot  and  scab  — 
and  can  be  used  if  properly  made  without  injury  to  the 
foliage.  Though  of  value  primarily  as  a  fungicide,  when 
used  on  trees  that  are  infested  with  the  San  Jose  scale  it 
has  been  found  that  the  applications  are  of  considerable 
importance  in  killing  the  young  before  they  begin  to  secrete 
the  protective  scale  covering. 

Directions  for  preparing  the  self-boiled  lime-sulfur  mix- 
ture as  given  by  W.  M.  Scott/  who  first  worked  out  this 
preparation  as  a  fungicide  for  use  on  peaches,  are  as  follows  : 

"The  standard  self-boiled  lime-sulfur  mixture  is  com- 
posed of  8  pounds  of  fresh  stone  lime  and  8  pounds  of  sulfur 
to  50  gallons  of  water.  In  mild  cases  of  brown-rot  and  scab 
a  weaker  mixture  containing  6  pounds  of  each  ingredient 
to  50  gallons  of  water  may  be  used  with  satisfactory  results. 
The  materials  cost  so  little,  however,  that  one  should  not 
economize  in  this  direction  where  a  valuable  fruit  crop  is 
at  stake.  Any  finely  powdered  sulfur  (flowers,  flour,  or 
"commercial  ground"  sulfur)  may  be  used  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  mixture. 

"In  order  to  secure  the  best  action  from  the  lime,  the 
mixture  should  be  prepared  in  rather  large  quantities,  at 
least  enough  for  200  gallons  of  spray,  using  32  pounds  of 
lime  and  32  pounds  of  sulfur.  The  lime  should  be  placed 
in  a  barrel  and  enough  water  (about  6  gallons)  poured  on 

1  Farmers'  Bull.  440. 


286  Peach-Growing 

to  almost  cover  it.  As  soon  as  the  lime  begins  to  slake 
the  sulfur  should  be  added,  after  first  running  it  through 
a  sieve  to  break  up  the  lumps,  if  any  are  present.  The 
mixture  should  be  constantly  stirred  and  more  water  (3  or 
4  gallons)  added  as  needed  to  form  at  first  a  thick  paste 
and  then  gradually  a  thin  paste.  The  lime  will  supply 
enough  heat  to  boil  the  mixture  several  minutes.  As  soon 
as  it  is  well  slaked  water  should  be  added  to  cool  the  mixture 
and  prevent  further  cooking.  It  is  then  ready  to  be  strained 
into  the  spray  tank,  diluted,  and  applied. 

"The  stage  at  which  cold  water  should  be  poured  on  to 
stop  the  cooking  varies  with  different  limes.  Some  limes 
are  so  sluggish  in  slaking  that  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  enough 
heat  from  them  to  cook  the  mixture  at  all,  while  other  limes 
become  intensely  hot  on  slaking,  and  care  must  be  taken  not 
to  allow  the  boiling  to  proceed  too  far.  If  the  mixture  is 
allowed  to  remain  hot  for  15  or  20  minutes  after  the  slaking 
is  completed,  the  sulfur  gradually  goes  into  solution,  com- 
bining with  the  lime  to  form  sulfids,  which  are  injurious  to 
peach  foliage.  It  is  therefore  very  important,  especially 
with  hot  lime,  to  cool  the  mixture  quickly  by  adding  a  few 
buckets  of  water  as  soon  as  the  lumps  of  lime  have  slaked 
down.  The  intense  heat,  violent  boiling,  and  constant 
stirring  result  in  a  uniform  mixture  of  finely  divided  sulfur 
and  lime,  with  only  a  very  small  percentage  of  the  sulfur 
in  solution.  It  should  be  strained  to  take  out  the  coarse 
particles  of  lime,  but  the  sulfur  should  be  carefully  worked 
through  the  strainer." 

The  caution  that  these  directions  be  followed  with  ex- 
treme fidelity  and  care  cannot  be  made  too  emphatic.  This 
applies  in  all  particulars,  but  especially  in  the  matter  of  over- 
cooking the  mixture  by  allowing  it  to  stand  too  long  before 


Plate  XXIII.  —  Top,  a  peach  tree  laid  down  during  the  winter 
and  covered  for  protection,  now  being  gradually  uncovered  in 
spring;  bottom,  renewal  by  top-budding,  buds  inserted  at  A,  B,  C, 
and  D. 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  287 

adding  water  as  directed.  To  disregard  this  feature  will 
usually  mean  injury  to  the  foliage  in  proportion  to  the  extent 
of  the  departure  from  directions. 

Atomic  sulfur. 

This  is  a  proprietary  name  for  a  commercial  form  of 
sulfur  that  is  exceedingly  finely  divided.  It  has  been  rec- 
ommended and  used  to  a  limited  extent  in  place  of  the  self- 
boiled  lime-sulfur  mixture.  While  the  results,  on  the 
whole,  have  been  fairly  satisfactory,  this  form  of  sulfur 
does  not  stick  as  well  as  the  self-boiled  lime-sulfur  mixture, 
and  it  is  not  as  effective  in  controlling  brown-rot  and  scab. 
Under  some  conditions,  however,  it  may  be  advisable  to 
use  it.  As  a  substitute  for  self-boiled  lime-sulfur,  it  is 
applied  at  the  rate  of  5  pounds  to  50  gallons  of  water.  It 
seems  probable  that  this  material  would  be  successful  also 
in  controlling  the  various  mildews. 

Bordeaux  mixture. 

It  has  been  noted  previously  that  this  old  and  much-used 
fungicide  has  never  been  of  much  service  to  the  peach- 
grower  in  controlling  diseases  of  the  fruit  because  it  burned 
the  peach  foliage  so  badly.  With  the  development  of  the 
sulfur  sprays,  it  is  now  of  even  less  value  in  most  respects 
than  formerly,  when  peaches  are  concerned.  Its  use  as  a 
dormant  spray,  however,  has  been  mentioned,  particularly 
in  connection  with  the  California  peach-blight  or  Coryn- 
eum-blight  (page  270).  For  this  purpose  the  4-4-50 
formula  is  recommended. 

The  method  of  preparing  this  mixture  Is  doubtless  too 
familiar  to  every  fruit-grower  to  require  extended  descrip- 
tion   here.     Briefly    stated    the    procedure    is    as    follows : 


28S  Peach-Growing 

Dissolve  4  pounds  of  bluestone  (copper  sulfate)  in  a  small 
quantity  of  water  and  dilute  to  25  gallons.  Slake  4  pounds 
of  lime  and  dilute  with  25  gallons  of  water,  thus  using  the 
required  50  gallons  of  water.  Next,  let  the  bluestone 
solution  and  the  lime  mixture  pass  into  a  third  vessel,  the 
two  coming  together  as  they  enter.  The  vessels  in  which 
the  two  ingredients  are  held  may  be  connected  with  the 
third  by  spouts  and  the  liquids  brought  together  as  they 
run  into  it  or  they  may  be  dipped  with  pail  or  bucket  and 
poured  into  the  third  container,  a  pail  of  each  passing  in 
at  the  same  time.  A  better  mixture  results  from  this  method 
than  when  one  is  poured  directly  into  the  other. 

If  a  considerable  quantity  is  to  be  made,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  dilute  the  lime  and  bluestone  solutions  each  with  one- 
half  the  total  quantity  of  water  ultimately  required ;  the 
solutions  should  be  diluted  considerably,  however,  before 
they  are  brought  together,  and  the  full  dilution  made  when 
the  mixture  is  used.  Concentrated  stock  solutions  of  blue- 
stone  and  lime  may  be  made  in  quantity  and  held  separately 
until  desired  for  use. 

Other  insecticides  and  fungicides. 

There  are  other  spra}"  mixtures  variously  recommended 
for  the  control  of  peach  insects  and  diseases.  Many  of 
them  are  proprietary  preparations  and  may  have  their 
field  of  usefulness.  The  above  named  insecticides  and 
fungicides,  however,  have  the  approval  of  peach-growers  of 
long  experience  as  well  as  that  of  investigators.  They 
may  be  regarded,  therefore,  as  the  standards  by  which  other 
preparations  should  be  judged. 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  289 

Spraying 

As  important  as  are  suitable  insecticides  and  fungicides 
in  the  control  of  peach  insects  and  diseases,  they  are  with- 
out avail  unless  properly  applied.  Perhaps  the  most  com- 
mon fault  is  lack  of  thoroughness.  Many  growers  have 
virtually  thrown  away  time  and  money  because  the  trees 
were  not  sufficiently  well  covered  with  the  spray  mixture 
to  accomplish  the  end  in  view.  For  instance,  the  San 
Jose  scale  may  infest  every  part  of  the  surface  of  a  tree, 
excepting,  in  case  of  an  old  tree,  the  portion  of  the  trunk 
and  larger  limbs  where  the  bark  is  rough  and  hard.  The 
sprays  used  in  its  control  kill  only  by  contact  and  have 
absolutely  no  effect  on  any  insects  on  a  sprayed  tree  which 
they  do  not  hit.  Again,  spraying  to  control  brown-rot  or 
scab  is  a  preventive,  not  a  curative,  measure.  Any  por- 
tion of  the  surface  of  a  fruit  not  kept  completely  covered 
with  a  thin  film  of  the  fungicide  is  subject  to  attack.  The 
fungicide  on  one  side  of  a  peach  will  not  give  protection 
against  infection  on  the  other  side.  For  obvious  reasons, 
the  spores  from  which  these  diseases  develop  are  more 
likely  to  fall  on  the  upper  than  on  the  under  surfaces  of  the 
fruits. 

To  spray  thoroughly  does  not  mean  the  drenching  of  a 
tree  until  the  spray  mixture  is  dripping  from  the  branches. 
Such  spraying  is  wasteful,  since  what  drips  off  is  lost  and 
serves  no  useful  purpose.  Thorough  spraying  means  the  com- 
plete covering  with  a  thin  film  of  the  spray  mixture  of  every 
portion  of  the  surface  of  the  tree,  foliage,  and  fruit,  depend- 
ing on  the  time  when,  and  the  object  for  which,  the  spraying 
is  being  done.  It  is  of  course  obvious  that  in  the  practical 
application  of  spray  mixtures  in  orchard  work  there  will 
V 


290  Peach'Gromng 

be  inevitably  some  loss  from  dripping.  It  can  hardly  be 
otherwise,  but  ideal  spraying  permits  of  only  a  minimum  of 
dripping.  Timeliness  is  of  no  less  importance  than  thorough- 
ness. The  proper  preparation  applied  thoroughly  and  at 
the  right  time  gives  success  in  spraying.  With  fault  in  any 
of  these  particulars  the  result  will  be  failure  in  proportion 
to  the  degree  of  the  fault. 

Perhaps  the  most  satisfactory  spraying  program  appli- 
cable generally  throughout  peach-growing  regions  for  the 
principal  insects  and  diseases  that  require  treatment  during 
the  period  of  active  tree  growth  is  the  one  offered  by  Scott 
and  Quaintance/  which  is  as  follows : 

Schedule  of  apjjUcations. 

"  Most  of  the  peach  orchards  in  the  eastern  half  of  the 
United  States  should  be  given  the  combined  treatment  for 
brown-rot,  scab,  and  curculio.  This  is  particularly  true 
of  the  southern  orchards,  where  all  these  troubles  are  prev- 
alent. In  some  of  the  more  northern  orchards  the  cur- 
culio is  not  very  troublesome,  but  as  a  rule  it  will  probably 
pay  to  add  the  arsenate  of  lead  in  at  least  the  first  lime- 
sulfur  application. 

"The  self-boiled  lime-sulfur  mixture  referred  to  in  the 
following  outlines  of  treatment  should  be  made  of  a  strength 
of  8  pounds  of  lime  and  8  pounds  of  sulfur  to  each  50  gallons 
of  water,  and  the  arsenate  of  lead  should  be  used  at  the  rate 
of  2  pounds  to  each  50  gallons  of  the  mixture  or  of  water. 
When  the  poison  is  used  in  water,  there  should  be  added 
the  milk  of  lime  made  from  slaking  2  to  3  pounds  of  good 
stone  lime.  When  used  in  the  lime-sulfur  mixture  addi- 
tional lime  will  not  be  necessary. 

1  Farmers'  Bull.  440, 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  291 

"Midseason  varieties. 

"The  midseason  varieties  of  peaches,  such  as  Reeves, 
Belle,  Early  Crawford,  Elberta,  Late  Crawford,  Chairs, 
Fox,  and  Beers  Smock,  should  be  sprayed  as  follows : 
(1)  with  arsenate  of  lead  alone,  about  10  days  after  the 
petals  fall,  or  at  the  time  the  calyxes  are  shedding ;  (2)  with 
self-boiled  lime-sulfur  and  arsenate  of  lead,  two  weeks  later, 
or  four  to  five  weeks  after  the  petals  have  been  shed ;  (3)  with 
self-boiled  lime-sulfur  alone,  four  to  five  weeks  before  the 
fruit  ripens. 

"Late  varieties. 

"The  Salway,  Heath,  Bilyeu,  and  varieties  with  a 
similar  ripening  period  should  be  given  the  same  treatment 
prescribed  for  midseason  varieties,  with  an  additional  treat- 
ment of  self-boiled  lime-sulfur  alone,  to  be  applied  three  or 
four  weeks  after  the  second  application. 

"Early  varieties. 

"The  Greensboro,  Carman,  Hiley,  Mountain  Rose,  and 
varieties  having  the  same  ripening  period  should  receive 
the  first  and  second  applications  prescribed  for  midseason 
varieties. 

"  Where  the  curculio  is  not  particularly  bad,  as  in  Connect- 
icut, western  New  York,  and  Michigan,  the  first  treatment, 
which  is  for  this  insect  only,  may  be  omitted.  Also  for 
numerous  orchards  throughout  the  middle  states  where  the 
insect,  especially  in  the  younger  orchards,  is  not  yet  very 
troublesome,  orchardists  should  use  their  judgment  as  to 
whether  the  first  application  may  be  safely  omitted.  Where 
peach-scab  is  the  chief  trouble,  and  brown-rot  and  curculio 
are  of  only  minor  importance,  as  may  be  the  case  in  some  of 


292  Peach-Growing 

the  Allegheny  Mountain  districts,  satisfactory  results  may 
be  had  from  two  applications,  namely,  the  first  with  self- 
boiled  lime-sulfur  and  arsenate  of  lead  four  to  five  weeks 
after  the  petals  fall,  and  the  second  treatment  of  the  above 
schedule  with  self-boiled  lime-sulfur  alone  three  to  four  weeks 
later.  These  two  treatments,  if  thoroughly  applied,  will 
control  the  scab  and  brown-rot,  especially  on  the  early 
and  midseason  varieties,  and  will  materially  reduce  cur- 
culio  injuries.  Even  one  application  of  the  combined  spray 
made  about  five  weeks  after  the  petals  fall  would  pay  well, 
although  this  is  recommended  only  for  conditions  where 
it  is  not  feasible  to  do  more." 

Spraying  equipment. 

It  is  unnecessary  in  this  connection  to  consider  spraying 
equipment  at  any  length.  The  peach-grower  with  spray- 
ing to  do  has  only  two  alternatives  in  the  choice  of  equip- 
ment so  far  as  type  of  apparatus  is  concerned.  If  his  orchard 
is  small,  he  can  get  along  with  a  hand  barrel-pump.  If 
more  extensive,  a  power-sprayer  is  a  practical  necessity. 
Where  the  dividing  line  between  the  two  types  of  equip- 
ment falls,  as  expressed  in  acres  or  in  economy  of  operation, 
cannot  be  stated  arbitrarily.  The  relative  cost,  availability 
of  labor,  and  other  local  factors  all  enter  into  the  considera- 
tion. 

If  a  hand  pump  is  used,  a  single  "lead"  of  hose  only  will 
be  required,  but  with  a  power  sprayer  at  least  two  lines  are 
generally  used.  In  either  case  the  lines  of  hose  should  be  25 
to  35  feet  in  length  and  an  extension  rod  6  or  8  feet  long  or  a 
spray-gun  will  usually  be  advantageous;  also  nozzles  that 
will  throw  a  very  fine  spray.  While  trees  that  are  pruned  to 
low  heads  can  usually  be  reached  fairly  well  from  the  ground 


Insect  and  Disease  Control  293 

by  the  men  who  handle  the  spray  rods,  yet  in  many  cases 
better  work  can  be  done  and  a  more  thorough  application 
made  if  the  one  handling  the  hose  (or  one  of  the  men  in 
case  two  leads  of  hose  are  being  used)  is  somewhat  ele- 
vated. If  a  barrel  pump  is  carried  in  an  ordinary  farm 
wagon,  as  is  commonly  done,  the  wagon  may  be  all  that 
is  necessary  to  raise  the  nozzle  to  a  sufficient  length.  If  a 
power-sprayer  is  used,  some  form  of  low  tower  erected  over 
the  sprayer  or  perhaps  the  top  of  the  tank  will  serve  the 
purpose  adequately. 

Dusting  peaches  to  control  insects  and  diseases 

During  the  past  few  years  considerable  effort  has  been 
made  to  work  out  a  method  whereby  insecticides  and  fun- 
gicides may  be  applied  in  the  form  of  dust  rather  than  in 
liquid.  The  work  is  still  in  an  experimental  stage,  but 
promising  results  have  been  secured  by  several  different 
investigators. 

The  preparation  that  has  given  the  most  hopeful  results 
on  peaches  consists  of  superfinely  ground  sulfur,  a  very 
finely  powdered  arsenate  of  lead,  and  an  equally  finely 
powdered  conveyor  —  commonly  hydrated  lime.  In  some 
cases,  however,  the  sulfur  and  arsenate  of  lead  have  been 
used  together  without  dilution.  In  the  latter  case  a  mix- 
ture either  of  90  parts  sulfur  and  10  parts  arsenate  of  lead,  or 
95  of  the  former  and  5  of  the  latter,  has  been  used.  Chase  ^ 
found  the  latter  strength  preferable  to  the  stronger  mix- 
ture for  peaches.  He  also  used  a  "  sulf ur-arsenate  of  lead- 
lime"  mixture  made  up  of  45,  5,  and  50  parts  respectively 
of  these  ingredients,  and  another  of  60,  5,  and  35  parts 

1  Ga.  State  Bd.  of  Ent.  Circ.  21. 


294  Peach-Growing 

respectively,  both  of  which  gave  good  results  in  controlling 
curculio,  scab,  and  brown-rot. 

The  dusting  is  done  with  a  machine  designed  for  the 
purpose  of  which  there  are  several  different  makes  obtain- 
able, including  machines  worked  by  hand  and  others  oper- 
ated by  horse-power.  The  schedule  of  applications,  so  far 
as  determined,  is  substantially  the  same  as  for  the  liquid 
sprays  (see  page  290). 

Some  of  the  assertions  made  for  dusting  in  preference  to 
spraying  are :  ease  of  application ;  saving  of  labor ;  uni- 
formity of  distribution  and  the  very  close  adhesion  of  the 
dust  to  the  leaves  and  fruit ;  saving  in  cost  of  equipment ; 
elimination  of  water  and  hence  great  reduction  in  weight 
of  material  that  has  to  be  hauled  through  the  orchard, 
and  consequently  the  ability  to  operate  in  the  spring  at 
times  when  the  soil  conditions  do  not  permit  the  use  of  a 
heavy  spray-rig ;  and  finally  a  high  degree  of  efficiency  in 
the  control  of  curculio,  scab,  and  brown-rot  and  the  excellent 
color  which  commonly  characterizes  the  fruit  treated  by 
this  method. 

On  the  other  hand,  dusting,  in  the  present  degree  of  per- 
fection of  the  method,  is  commonly  followed  by  some  burn- 
ing of  the  leaves,  which  may  result  in  the  defoliation  of  the 
trees,  and  by  injury  to  a  material  percentage  of  the  fruit 
due  to  the  cracking  of  the  skin.  These  forms  of  injury  are 
likely  to  occur  if  too  heavy  applications  have  been  made,  and 
especially  if  followed  closely  by  rain.  These  difficulties 
do  not  appear  insurmountable ;  and  it  seems  likely  that  in 
due  course  a  fungicide-insecticide  dust  mixture  will  be 
compounded  that  will  be  effective  on  peaches  in  controlling 
curculio,  scab,  and  brown-rot  and  still  not  possess  the  faults 
of  those  that  have  thus  far  been  used. 


CHAPTER  XII 
THINNING   THE  FRUIT 

The  general  tendency  from  man's  standpoint  is  for  peach 
trees  to  overbear.  From  nature's  standpoint  the  ultimate 
function  of  the  tree  is  to  reproduce  its  kind,  which  left  to 
itself  it  does  through  the  abundance  of  the  seeds  that  it 
matures.  In  this  respect  nature  is  frequently  lavish  in  the 
extreme.  She  is  concerned  with  numbers  only,  while  man 
has  learned  in  his  experience  with  peach  trees  that  there  is 
incompatibility  between  numbers  and  the  size  of  the  fruit 
which  best  suits  his  purpose. 

This  experience  may  be  said  to  be  universal.  There  is 
perhaps  no  other  operation  concerning  the  desirability  of 
which  there  is  a  more  complete  oneness  of  opinion  among 
peach-growers  than  in  regard  to  thinning  when  the  trees  are 
overloaded.  There  may  not  be  the  same  accord  in  all  cases 
with  regard  to  practice  nor  concerning  the  amount  of  fruit  a 
tree  ought  to  be  allowed  to  bear.  These  points,  however, 
admit  of  no  arbitrary  settlement.  There  is  some  difference 
in  varieties  and  in  trees  of  the  same  variety  differing  in 
strength  and  vigor  with  regard  to  the  amount  of  fruit  they 
should  carry. 

In  the  chapter  on  pruning  the  significance  of  the  position 
of  the  fruit-buds  with  reference  to  some  features  of  that 
operation  was  pointed  out ;  also  the  relation  to  it  of  certain 

295 


296  Peach-Growing 

differences  in  varieties  in  habit  of  growth,  particularly  with 
regard  to  the  formation  along  the  branches  and  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  tree  of  short  annual  twigs  which  amount  almost 
to  fruit-spurs.  These  different  characteristics  have  a  similar 
significance  from  a  variety  standpoint  with  regard  to  thinning. 
This  is  of  course  to  be  expected,  since  one  of  the  stated  objects 
of  pruning  is  to  thin  the  fruit.  Obviously  varieties  which 
form  their  fruit-buds  singly  (Plate  XV)  do  not  as  a  rule 
require  so  much  thinning  as  do  those  which  form  them  in 
doubles  —  one  on  each  side  of  a  leaf -bud  (Plate  XV) .  The 
relation  of  the  short  spur-like  growth  to  thinning  is  in  propor- 
tion to  the  amount  of  such  growth  that  is  developed.  In 
some  cases  it  materially  increases  the  amount  of  bearing 
surface,  therefore  the  amount  of  thinning  that  may  need  to 
be  done. 

Thinning  overloaded  trees  operates  in  various  ways,  the 
more  important  of  which  are  as  follows  :  On  the  present  crop 
(1)  it  increases  the  size  of  the  fruit;  (2)  improves  the  color; 
(3)  improves  the  flavor;  (4)  increases  the  uniformity  of 
ripening;  (5)  decreases  the  labor  in  picking  and  packing. 
On  the  tree  (6)  it  prevents  undue  depletion  of  vitality ;  (7) 
because  of  "6"  it  may  have  an  important  relation  to  the 
next  season's  crop,  also  to  winter  injury ;  (8)  prevents  break- 
age of  limbs. 

To  the  experienced  peach-grower  these  results  are  self- 
evident,  but  a  brief  amplification  of  the  several  features 
mentioned  will  serve  to  fix  their  importance. 

1 .  Walker  ^  illustrates  Elberta  peaches  from  a  moderately 
thinned  tree  of  which  140  to  180  made  a  bushel,  and  in  con- 
trast, peaches  from  an  unthinned  tree  of  which  it  required 
260  to  272  for  a  bushel.     Starcher  -  speaks  of  a  crate  which 

1  .irk.  Expt.  Sta.  BuU.  79.  ^  Va.  Poly.  Inst.  Ext.  BuU.  1. 


Thinning  the  Fruit  297 

he  saw  packed  with  90  extra  fancy  peaches,  and  another 
crate  of  the  same  size  packed  with  228  small  peaches  of  the 
same  variety.  The  latter  crate  took  nearly  three  times  as 
long  to  pick,  grade,  and  pack  as  the  first  crate.  Baskets, 
crates,  hauling,  and  freight  cost  the  same  for  each  package. 
The  price  received  for  the  first  was  $3,  while  the  second 
brought  less  than  one-half  as  much.  The  first  crate  gave  a  net 
profit  of  about  $2,  while  for  the  second  the  profit  was  scarcely 
50  cents.  The  trees  on  which  the  first  lot  grew  had  a  strong 
set  of  fruit-buds  for  the  next  season's  crop;  the  trees  on 
which  the  second  lot  grew  were  scarcely  able  to  keep  alive. 

The  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station^  presents  the  same 
truth  in  another  way :  In  one  instance  70  per  cent  of  the 
peaches  were  removed  from  some  trees  in  thinning ;  from 
another  lot  32  per  cent  (supposedly  trees  in  both  cases  that 
were  bearing  like  quantities  in  the  beginning).  At  harvest 
time,  2.8  baskets  of  fruit  to  a  tree,  each  fruit  averaging  4.48 
ounces,  were  gathered  from  the  heavily  thinned  lot,  and  which 
sold  for  $1  a  basket,  or  $2.80  a  tree.  From  the  less  heavily 
thinned  lot,  3.9  baskets  of  fruit  to  a  tree  were  harvested, 
each  fruit  averaging  2.8  ounces,  and  which  sold  for  45  cents 
a  basket,  or  $1.75^  a  tree. 

Though  the  lightly  thinned  tree  produced  in  bulk  about 
25  percent  more  fruit  than  the  heavily  thinned,  the  individual 
fruits  were  more  than  50  per  cent  heavier  and  sold  for  more 
than  double  the  price  received  for  the  smaller  fruit,  resulting 
at  the  prices  given  in  a  financial  gain  for  the  heavier  thinning 
of  more  than  $1.00  a  tree,  not  taking  into  account  the  cost  of 
thinning.  There  was  a  saving  in  the  heavy  thinning  because 
there  were  fewer  fruits  to  handle  at  packing  time  and  fewer 
crates  were  necessary  to  contain  the  fruit. 

1  An.  Rept.  Off.  of  Expt.  Stations,  1906,  p.  424. 


298  Peach-Growing 

As  to  the  cost  of  thinning,  it  is  more  largely  apparent  than 
real,  though  some  have  argued  against  thinning  because  of 
the  cost.  Under  reasonably  favorable  conditions  very  little 
of  the  fruit  that  is  on  the  trees  when  the  thinning  is  done 
would  drop  prematurely.  Therefore,  if  it  is  not  picked  and 
thrown  on  the  ground  at  thinning  time,  it  will  have  to  be 
picked  and  put  in  a  basket  at  harvest  time.  Hence  not  to 
thin  merely  postpones  the  time  when  the  fruit  is  picked. 
Obviously  on  a  well-loaded  tree,  a  bushel  of  peaches  in  which 
there  were  140  fruits  could  be  picked,  graded,  and  packed 
much  more  quickly  and  economically  than  one  in  which 
there  were  260  fruits. 

When  the  thinning  is  properly  and  wisely  done,  results 
similar  to  these  illustrations  are  habitually  obtained. 

2.  While  the  eflfect  of  thinning  on  color  is  not  capable  of 
so  tangible  illustration  as  the  effect  on  size,  the  influence  has 
been  habitually  noted,  the  fruit  on  trees  that  are  not  over- 
loaded being  markedly  better  colored  than  on  overloaded 
trees. 

3.  Generally  speaking,  alniost  any  plump,  fully  developed, 
good-sized  fruit  is  of  better  flavor  than  one  that  is  small 
because  of  the  unfavorable  competition  under  which  it  is 
developed.  This  factor,  however,  has  less  commercial 
importance  than  items  1  and  2,  since  the  market  price  is 
fixed  largely  by  size  and  color. 

4.  The  influence  on  uniformity  of  ripening  is  doubtless 
somewhat  variable,  but  in  some  cases  it  is  possible  to  gather 
all  the  fruit  from  a  properly  thinned  tree  at  one  picking, 
whereas  two  and  three  pickings,  at  least,  are  usual.  To 
affect  appreciably  the  uniformity  of  ripening,  considerable 
care  is  presupposed  in  selecting  the  fruits  that  are  to  remain 
on  the  tree  when  thinning  is  done. 


Thinning  the  Fruit  299 

5.  The  decrease  In  the  labor  of  picking  and  packing  has 
already  been  touched  on,  so  far  as  it  has  to  do  with  reducing 
the  number  of  fruits  that  must  be  handled.  While  thinning 
may  reduce  somewhat  the  total  bulk  of  the  fruit  produced, 
it  habitually  gives  more  fruit  of  a  good  marketable  grade. 

Thinning  also  very  much  reduces  the  labor  in  grading, 
which  is  virtually  a  part  of  the  packing.  In  thinning  care 
should  be  exercised  to  remove  the  imperfect  fruits,  all  of 
which  would  probably  be  seconds  or  culls  when  graded. 
Thus,  the  bulk  of  low-grade  fruit  is  much  reduced  by  careful 
thinning. 

6.  The  effect  on  the  tree  of  wise  thinning  extends  far 
beyond  the  current  crop,  for  it  is  a  mortgage  on  future  crops 
if  the  tree  is  seriously  depleted  by  overbearing.  Definite 
mention  is  made  in  the  quotation  from  Starcher  under  item 
1  of  the  comparative  condition  of  the  fruit-buds  on  well- 
thinned  and  unthinned  trees.  The  inherent  condition  of 
individual  trees,  their  strength  and  vitality,  and  the  way 
in  which  they  have  been  maintained  are  all  factors  in  the, 
depletion  resulting  from  overbearing,  but  the  tendency  is 
well  defined  and  unmistakable.  Moreover,  it  has  been 
observed  frequently  that  trees  which  are  depleted  from  any 
cause  are  much  more  likely  to  suffer  winter-injury  than  are 
trees  in  good  condition.  The  injury,  when  it  occurs,  may 
be  to  the  fruit-buds  or  to  the  woody  parts. 

7.  Since  this  item  is  a  corollary  of  item  6,  no  further 
discussion  is  here  necessary. 

8.  Thinning  may  reduce  materially  the  bulk  of  the  fruit, 
therefore  the  weight  of  the  crop  that  a  tree  develops  to 
maturity,  even  though  the  general  result  is  an  increase  in 
the  quantity  of  the  paying  grades.  Further,  thinning  in 
many  cases  equalizes  the  distribution  of  the  weight.     The 


300  Peach-Growing 

relation  between  the  weight  of  the  crop,  when  excessive,  and 
the  breaking  of  the  limbs  from  overbearing  is  evident. 

METHOD   OF  THINNING 

There  is  but  one  satisfactory  means  of  removing  the  fruits 
in  thinning,  and  that  is  by  hand.  To  thin  by  beating  off  the 
surplus,  as  is  sometimes  done,  has  nothing  to  commend  it, 
and  there  is  no  substitute  for  the  hand  that  serves  the  pur- 
pose. Further,  the  grade  of  the  fruit  at  harvest  time  is 
determined  in  a  large  measure  by  the  care  and  intelligence 
exercised  in  thinning.  By  permitting  only  fruits  that  are 
entirely  free  from  all  blemish,  uniform  in  size  and  form  and 
in  degree  of  development,  to  remain  on  a  tree  when  the  thin- 
ning is  done,  grading  at  the  packing  table  will  become  a 
simple  matter  and  there  will  be  a  minimum  of  fruit  not  of 
high  grade. 

WHEN   TO   THIN 

The  common  practice  of  thinning  as  quickly  as  possible 
after  the  "June  drop"  fixes  the  time  when  the  operation 
should  be  begun  as  definitely  as  it  is  possible  to  state  it.  The 
"June  drop,"  however,  may  not  occur  in  June  as  the  term 
might  imply,  and  it  may,  therefore,  be  misleading  without 
further  explanation.  This  term,  however,  has  considerable 
significance.  As  a  rule,  many  peaches  start  to  develop  and 
grow  for  a  time,  and  when  they  reach  a  certain  size  drop  off. 
This  dropping  occurs  within  a  few  weeks  after  the  blossoming 
period  and  in  many  peach-growing  regions  it  takes  place,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  during  June.  It  is  a  period  recognized  by 
all  experienced  peach-growers. 

The  drop  may  be  light,  quickly  passed,  and  almost  un- 
noticed ;  or  it  may  be  very  heavy  and  occur  during  a  rather 


^          1  / 

\   -,-  \  >' 

'^•Jt^'^''  ■ .  -.  _ 

.  --5lS|^^' 

Plate  XXIV.  —  Top,  a  spray-house  equipped  for  extensive  opera- 
tions ;  center,  heaters  distributed  in  an  orchard  ready  for  use ;  bottom,  a 
young  apple  orchard  furrowed  for  irrigation.  Water  is  diatributed  in 
peach  orchards  in  the  same  way. 


Thinning  the  Fruit  301 

long  period.  Not  infrequently  peach-growers  may  think 
they  have  a  remarkably  heavy  set  of  fruit  which  will  call  for 
extensive  thinning,  but  by  the  time  the  "June  drop"  is  over, 
it  may  appear  that  the  crop  is  very  light.  An  excessively 
heavy  drop  is  commonly  associated  with  some  adverse 
weather  condition  during  the  blossoming  period.  In  any 
event,  when  thinning  is  to  be  done  it  should  be  accomplished 
before  the  pits  begin  to  harden  if  the  depleting  effect  on  the 
tree  of  an  excessive  crop  is  to  be  avoided. 

Though  the  proportionate  weight  of  the  pit  to  the  entire 
fruit  is  small,  its  composition  is  an  important  factor.  The 
relation  of  the  size  of  the  pit  to  the  whole  fruit  varies  widely 
in  different  varieties,  ranging  from  about  3  per  cent  in  weight 
in  some  sorts  to  as  high  as  7  and  8  per  cent  in  Mountain  Rose, 
Early  Crawford,  and  Elberta.  However,  the  size  of  the  pit 
in  a  given  variety  is  not  greatly  influenced  by  the  size  of 
individual  fruits.  The  small  fruits  borne  on  an  overloaded 
tree  develop  pits  nearly  as  large  in  size  as  the  much  larger 
fruits  on  a  well-thinned  tree. 

The  composition  of  the  flesh,  stones,  and  kernels  of  peaches 
at  different  times  in  the  season  as  given  by  Bigelow  and 
Gore^  is  of  interest  in  the  present  connection,  since  the  figures 
offer  a  clear  explanation  for  the  advantages  of  early  thinning. 
In  the  work  reported,  the  composition  of  each  of  six  different 
varieties  of  peaches  at  three  different  periods  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  fruit  is  given.  The  varieties  used  were  Triumph, 
Rivers,  Early  Crawford,  Elberta,  Heath,  and  Smock.  The 
different  periods  in  the  seasonal  development  of  the  fruit  for 
which  the  composition  was  determined  represented  the  time 
immediately  following  the  "  June  drop " ;  when  the  stone 
had  hardened,  that  is,  when  it  offered  appreciable  resistance 

1  Bur.  of  Chem.  BuU.  97. 


302 


Peach-Growing 


to  a  knife  in  cutting  through  it ;  and  the  market-ripe  stage. 
The  average  composition  of  all  the  varieties  is  shown  in  the 
following  table : 

Table  VIII.  —  Average  composition  op  six  varieties  op 

PEACHES    AT   DIFFERENT    STAGES    OF    GROWTH 


Stage  of  Growth 

Weight  of 

Total  Solids  in 

Peach 

Flesh 

Stone 

Kernel 

Flesh 

Stone 

Kernel 

June  drop      .     . 
Stone  hardened . 
Market-ripe  .     . 

Grams 

9.51 
16.75 
73.59 

(%) 

64.55 
71.54 
92.49 

(%) 

32.50 

25.82 
6.86 

(%) 

2.94 
2.89 
0.65 

(%) 

14.77 
16.97 
14.04 

(%) 

9.37 
27.35 
66.94 

(%) 

6.89 

7.54 

44.78 

In  the  next  table  the  results  shown  in  Table  VIII  are 
expressed  in  terms  of  grams  to  a  peach. 


Table  IX.  —  Average  composition,  in  terms  of  grams  to  a 

PEACH,    OF    SIX    VARIETIES    OF    PEACHES    AT    DIFFERENT    STAGES 
OF    GROWTH. 


Stage  of  Growth 

Weight  op 

Total  Solids  in 

Whole 
Peach 

Flesh 

Stone 

Kernel 

'  Flesh 

Stone 

Kernel 

Whole 
Fruit 

June  drop     .     . 
Stone  hardened 
Market-ripe .     . 

Grams 

9.51 
16.75 
73.59 

Grams 

6.116 
11.890 
68.110 

Grams 

3.116 
4.370 
5.009 

Grams 

0.278 
0.484 
0.471 

Grams 

0.903 
2.007 
9.719 

Grams 

0.293 
1.171 
3.179 

Grams 

0.019 

0.0362 

0.2061 

Grams 

1.216 

3.510 

13.104 

The  most  important  feature  of  these  tables  from  the 
standpoint  of  thinning  is  in  showing  the  rapid  rate  of  increase 
of  the  solids  in  the  stones  while  passing  from  the  "June 


Thinning  the  Fruit  303 

drop"  stage  to  the  hardening  stage.  The  first  analyses  of 
the  "stone-hardened"  stage  were  made  June  23  and  28, 
depending  on  the  variety.  During  this  period  of  fifteen 
to  twenty  days,  the  percentage  of  solids  in  the  stones  nearly 
trebled.  The  fact  is  also  brought  out  that  though  the 
average  weight  of  the  pit  (stone  and  kernel  combined)  is 
only  about  7  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  whole  fruit,  the 
total  solids  in  the  pits  comprise  more  than  25  per  cent  of  the 
total  solids  in  the  whole  fruit. 

It  is  well  to  observe  also  that  the  solids  in  the  flesh  re- 
mained fairly  constant  throughout  the  development  of  the 
fruit,  the  variation  ranging  from  a  total  of  14  to  about  17 
per  cent,  a  difference  of  only  3  per  cent,  while  the  solids  in 
the  stones  constantly  increase  from  about  9.3  per  cent  at  the 
June  drop  period  to  nearly  67  per  cent  at  the  market  ripe 
period. 

These  figures,  therefore,  furnish  a  scientific  basis  for  early 
thinning,  also  for  the  frequent  observation  that  the  develop- 
ment of  a  large  number  of  pits  makes  a  heavy  demand  for 
plant-food. 

DISTANCE   BETWEEN   FRUITS 

The  grower  must  have  some  ideal  in  mind  when  he  begins 
to  thin,  otherwise  the  result  will  be  exceedingly  variable. 
The  usual  guide  is  to  thin  the  fruit  as  far  as  practicable  so 
that  those  left  on  the  tree  shall  be  evenly  distributed  at  some 
predetermined  distance  apart.  The  prescribed  distance 
varies  with  different  growers,  from  4  to  6  or  8  inches.  Results 
in  experimental  thinning  also  vary  more  or  less,  probably 
because  of  differences  in  the  vitality  of  the  trees.  In  some 
cases  a  distance  of  10  inches  has  given  optimum  results, 
while  in  others  a  considerably  shorter  space  seems  preferable. 


304  Peach-Growing 

There  is  evidence,  however,  both  experimental  and  prac- 
tical that  a  space  of  6  inches  between  individual  fruits  on  trees 
in  good  vigor  is  a  safe  standard.  In  actual  thinning  opera- 
tions this  distance,  serving  as  a  guide,  may  be  varied  as  in- 
dividual tree  conditions  require.  The  space  of  6  inches 
between  fruits,  it  may  be  explained  in  order  to  prevent  any 
ambiguity,  refers  to  the  distance  between  fruits  on  the 
straight  terminal  twigs  which  grew  the  previous  season  and 
on  which  most  of  the  fruit  is  grown.  In  case  of  varieties 
that  develop  many  short  spur-like  twigs,  any  rule  as  to  dis- 
tance between  fruits  necessarily  must  be  adapted  to  meet 
conditions.  And  again,  when  a  single  branch  or  one  side 
of  a  tree  has  a  very  light  crop,  or  none  at  all,  and  the  other 
side  has  an  overburden  of  fruit,  as  frequently  happens,  it  is 
reasonable  to  assume  that  the  fruit  on  the  heavily  loaded 
side  need  not  be  thinned  quite  as  much  as  it  would  if  the 
opposite  side  also  had  a  good  crop.  The  compensation 
between  different  parts  of  the  top  of  a  tree  is  partial  but  not 
complete.  The  competition  for  plant-food  is  universal  in 
the  top  of  a  tree.  The  tree  takes  up  fairly  definite  amounts 
of  water  and  plant-food.  All  leaf-buds  and  fruit-buds  in 
the  normal  course  of  development  throughout  their  life- 
course  are  competing  with  each  other  for  plant-food.  In 
thinning,  the  competition  is  reduced,  though  the  supply  of 
food  material  and  moisture  remains  the  same  and  goes  into 
the  development  to  a  higher  degree  of  perfection  of  the 
smaller  number  of  fruits  when  thinning  is  done  in  com- 
parison with  the  larger  number  when  it  is  not  done. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
IRRIGATING  PEACHES 

Most  peach  orchards  in  the  intermountain  and  Pacific 
Coast  states  are  maintained  under  irrigation.  In  the  inter- 
mountain states  the  orchards  are  practically  all  located  in 
valleys,  and  in  the  Pacific  Coast  regions  they  occupy  both 
valley  and  foothill  locations.  These  are  all  semi-arid  regions 
where  there  is  little  rainfall.  There  is  practically  no  orchard 
irrigation  in  the  humid  parts  of  the  country. 

Irrigation  is  largely  an  engineering  feature.  This  is  true 
at  least  to  the  point  of  getting  the  water  to  the  orchard, 
including  also  putting  the  orchard  site  into  the  proper  con- 
dition for  the  distribution  of  the  water. 

As  a  rule,  a  site  suitable  for  irrigation  presupposes  an  area 
that  is  uniformly  and  regularly  though  but  slightly  sloping. 
If  the  surface  is  not  naturally  regular  and  uniform,  a  prac- 
tically perfect  plane,  it  is  made  so  by  grading  and  leveling. 
However,  this  is  not  necessarily  the  case,  since  the  orchards 
in  the  foothill  location  shown  in  Plate  II  are  irrigated 
through  furrows  which  are  accurately  placed  according  to 
the  contours. 

The  discussion  in  the  present  connection  does  not  concern 
any  of  the  engineering  features  of  the  operation,  nor  in 
any  large  measure  the  details  of  practice,  since  they  are 
fundamentally  the  same  wherever  irrigation  is  carried  on 
and  whatever  the  crop.  There  are,  however,  very  naturally 
x  305 


306  Peach-Growing 

certain  features  of  the  art  of  irrigating  that  apply  somewhat 
specifically  to  orchard  practice,  though  few  that  concern 
peach  orchards  as  distinct  from  other  deciduous  tree-fruits. 
The  more  important  problems  that  need  to  be  touched  on 
here  center  about  the  questions  of  the  systems  of  distribution, 
times  for  applying  water,  and  the  amount  of  water  to  apply. 

SYSTEMS   OF  DISTRIBUTING   WATER 

The  furrow  system  is  used  very  largely  in  distributing 
water  in  orchards.  The  check  or  basin  system  and  flooding 
are  used  in  some  sections  to  a  limited  extent,  but  probably 
less  now  than  formerly,  except  where  the  land  is  very  level, 
the  soil  porous,  and  water  abundant. 

In  using  the  furrow  system  for  the  first  season  or  two  after 
the  orchard  is  planted,  one  furrow  on  either  side  of  the  row 
and  run  about  18  inches  from  the  trees  is  sufficient,  unless 
there  is  an  inter-planted  crop,  when  of  course  the  entire  area 
should  be  watered.  After  the  first  year  or  so,  the  roots  of  the 
trees  will  occupy  so  much  of  the  space  between  the  rows  that 
the  entire  area  will  require  watering  without  regard  to  any 
secondary  crop.  The  furrows  should  then  be  spaced  about 
2-|-  feet  apart  if  made  shallow ;  or  if  made  7  or  8  inches  deep 
they  may  be  3  to  4  feet  apart.  Shallow  furrows  rather  near 
together  are  usually  preferable.  Since  the  feeding  roots 
soon  reach  considerable  distance  from  the  tree,  it  is  un- 
necessary after  the  first  year  to  run  the  furrows  nearer  the 
trees  than  3  to  4  feet ;  but  cross  furrows  extending  between 
the  trees  in  the  rows  should  be  made  as  well  as  in  the  spaces 
between  the  rows.  Plate  XXIV  shows  irrigating  furrows  in 
a  young  apple  orchard.  They  are  commonly  made  in  the 
same  manner  in  peach  orchards. 


Irrigating  Peaches  307 

According  to  Fortier/  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  furrows 
between  head  ditches  should  be  over  600  feet  long  because 
of  the  length  of  time  it  requires  the  water  to  reach  the 
farther  end.  In  sandy  or  gravelly  soils,  where  the  water 
sinks  in  rapidly,  the  furrows  should  not  exceed  200  feet  in 
length. 

A  slope  of  3  to  4  inches  to  100  feet  of  furrow  is  desirable. 
If  too  little  slope,  the  water  runs  very  slowly ;  if  too  much, 
the  rate  of  flow  is  too  fast.  If  the  slope  is  more  than  8  to  10 
inches  to  100  feet,  the  trees  should  be  planted  on  the  contour, 
or  the  furrows  made  on  the  contours  without  regard  to  the 
tree  rows,  or  some  other  means  adopted,  if  possible,  to  reduce 
the  slope  of  the  furrows.  Where  too  steep,  it  becomes 
impossible  to  distribute  the  water  evenly. 

In  operating,  considerable  care  must  be  exercised  that  the 
openings  in  the  head  ditch  be  made  of  such  size  that  the  rate 
of  delivery  will  insure  an  even  distribution  of  water  through- 
out the  length  of  the  row.  Where  the  soil  is  loose  and  easily 
eroded,  the  water  should  run  slowly. 

The  basin  or  check  method  consists  of  making  cross  ridges 
of  soil  between  the  trees  in  both  directions  so  that  each  tree 
is  thus  made  to  occupy  the  center  of  a  basin.  This  method 
is  applicable  where  the  land  is  flat  and  the  soil  is  of  such  a 
nature  that  water  percolates  very  rapidly.  The  water  is 
run  from  one  basin  to  another  by  making  breaks  in  the 
ridges,  or  by  movable  spouts  or  pipes.  The  ridges  used  in 
this  method  of  irrigation  may  be  seen  in  Plate  XX.  The 
method  is  objectionable  in  that  the  attendants  have  to 
stand  in  mud  and  water  while  operating. 

Flooding  is  not  much  used.  It  is  applicable  under  con- 
ditions similar  to  those  for  which  the  check  system  is  used, 

1  Farmers'  Bull.  882. 


308  Peach-Growing 

but  water  must  be  abundant  to  permit  of  the  successful 
operation  of  this  system. 


WHEN  TO   IRRIGATE 

The  only  true  guide  as  to  when  water  should  be  applied  is 
the  moisture  condition  of  the  soil.  In  actual  practice,  where 
an  orchard  is  located  on  a  party  ditch,  as  is  commonly  the 
case,  a  grower  must  use  the  water  when  his  turn  comes,  or 
at  more  or  less  regular  intervals  depending  on  the  rules  under 
which  the  party  ditch  is  operated  or  on  the  abundance  of 
water. 

While  the  soil-moisture  conditions  determine  the  proper 
time  for  applying  water,  the  grower  learns  in  a  measure  to 
correlate  those  conditions  with  the  appearance  of  his  trees. 
There  are  certain  conditions  which  should  be  avoided,  the 
most  important  of  which  are  extremes  of  moisture.  The 
trees  should  never  be  allowed  to  become  the  least  wilted 
from  lack  of  moisture  and  they  should  not  be  overirrigated. 
The  latter  is  a  common  tendency  where  water  is  abundant. 

Moisture  exists  in  the  soil  in  three  forms  or  conditions, 
hydroscopic,  free,  and  capillary.  Hydroscopic  moisture  is 
that  form  in  which  it  is  so  closely  identified  with  the  soil 
particles  as  to  be  driven  off  only  by  a  high  degree  of  heat. 
Dry  road  dust  that  is  blown  about  in  the  wind  contains 
moisture  in  this  form.  It  is  of  but  little  if  any  use  to  plants 
in  this  form. 

Free  moisture  is  the  form  in  which  water  is  so  abundant 
that  it  can  be  seen  as  such.  It  is  subject  to  gravity  and 
passes  off  in  drains,  if  the  soil  is  provided  with  them.  It  so 
fills  the  spaces  between  the  soil  particles  that  air  cannot 
enter.    The   chemical   and   biological   changes   and   other 


Irrigating  Peaches  309 

activities  necessary  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
cannot  take  place  if  the  soil  is  filled  with  free  moisture  for 
any  considerable  period  of  time.  Trees  growing  on  such 
soils  will  suffer  in  various  ways  or  even  die. 

Capillary  moisture  is  the  form  which  is  of  benefit  to  the 
plants  growing  in  the  soil.  This  is  the  form  of  moisture 
that  is  in  soil  that  looks  moist,  feels  moist  to  the  touch,  and 
when  pressed  together  firmly  in  the  hand  will  adhere  together, 
but  readily  crumbles  when  broken  apart.  This  form  of 
moisture  exists  in  the  soil  as  a  thin  film  about  the  soil  par- 
ticles. It  is  this  condition  of  soil-moisture  that  the  grower 
should  aim  to  maintain  so  far  as  possible. 

In  the  matter  of  soil-moisture  it  will  not  suffice  to  be 
guided  by  the  appearance  of  the  surface,  since  that  may  be 
very  deceptive  so  far  as  the  condition  of  the  subsoil  is  con- 
cerned. With  the  aid  of  a  post-hole  digger  or  by  some  other 
means,  a  grower  should  examine  the  soil  frequently  at  a 
considerable  number  of  representative  places  in  the  orchard 
to  a  depth  of  several  feet,  as  far  down  at  least  as  the  roots 
penetrate  or  perhaps  even  deeper  than  that.  The  subsoil 
which  holds  the  bulk  of  the  root  system  may  become  too  dry, 
or  the  surface  may  be  dry  and  a  short  distance  below  the 
subsoil  may  be  "water-logged,"  that  is,  filled  with  free  water 
that  has  not  drained  away. 

The  character  of  the  soil  and  its  location  will  influence 
greatly  the  frequency  of  the  applications.  Land  naturally 
well  drained  because  of  its  location  will  usually  require  more 
irrigation  than  land  that  is  poorly  drained.  Soil  naturally 
retentive  of  moisture  will  require  less  than  very  leachy 
soil.  Some  soils,  because  of  their  texture,  are  almost  im- 
pervious to  water.  These  are  difficult  to  irrigate.  They 
should  not  be  allowed  to  become  very  dry  since  in  that 


310  Peach-Growing 

condition  they  "take"  water  very  slowly.  In  such  soils, 
however,  the  furrows,  when  that  system  is  being  used,  may 
be  farther  apart  than  in  sandy  soils,  since  water  moves 
laterally  in  them  with  comparative  freedom.  However, 
the  furrows  should  be  fairly  deep.  In  light  soils  the  freest 
movement  of  the  water  is  downward,  hence  the  necessity 
for  placing  the  furrows  relatively  near  together,  else  a  section 
of  soil  between  the  furrows  will  remain  dry  to  a  considerable 
depth  and  thus  seriously  restrict  the  functioning  of  the  roots 
within  those  sections. 

The  particular  time  or  period,  therefore,  when  the  water 
should  be  applied  becomes  a  matter  of  judgment  on  the  part 
of  the  peach-grower,  based  on  his  knowledge  and  interpre- 
tation of  soil  conditions.  Paddock  and  Whipple  ^  call  at- 
tention to  a  prevailing  opinion  among  fruit-growers,  that 
orchards  should  not  be  irrigated  when  in  bloom.  In  dis- 
cussing this  and  other  related  points  these  authors  state 
that  while  proof  is  lacking  that  irrigating  during  the  blossom- 
ing period  actually  interferes  with  the  setting  of  fruit,  there 
is  little  occasion  to  irrigate  until  after  the  fruit  has  formed 
if  the  trees  go  into  the  winter  with  a  good  supply  of  moisture 
in  the  soil. 

If  the  soil  is  too  moist  during  midsummer  and  later, 
fruit-buds  may  not  form  well,  as  the  tendency  of  the  trees 
under  these  conditions  is  to  make  excessive  wood  growth 
at  the  expense  of  fruit-bud  formation;  besides,  the  fruit  of 
the  current  crop  may  not  color  well.  Also,  if  the  trees  are 
kept  growing  rapidly  late  in  the  season  by  excessive  moisture 
in  the  soil,  the  wood  will  not  ripen  well  and  winter  injury  is 
likely  to  result.  On  the  other  hand,  trees  that  have  become 
rather  dry  during  the  late  summer  and  early  fall  should  be 

^  "  Fruit  Growing  in  Arid  Regions." 


Irrigating  Peaches  311 

given  a  thorough  irrigation  after  they  have  become  dormant 
and  before  the  ground  freezes,  otherwise  winter  injury  due 
to  excessive  drying  out  of  the  trees  is  likely  to  occur. 

The  best  experience  in  the  leading  irrigated  fruit  districts 
seems  to  indicate  that  from  three  to  five  irrigations  give 
best  results,  the  number  varying  according  to  the  soil 
and  other  conditions.  Frequently  two  to  four  summer 
applications  and  one  late  fall  application  prove  effective  and 
satisfactory. 

As  a  rule,  where  drainage  is  good  and  the  water-table  is 
not  too  high,  heavy  applications  of  water  at  relatively  long 
intervals  are  preferable  to  lighter  applications  at  correspond- 
ingly shorter  intervals.  However,  Batchelor  ^  found  that  on 
a  gravelly  loam  soil  applications  of  water  every  seven  or 
eight  days  produced  a  more  continuous  and  greater  twig 
growth  and  a  larger  crop  of  fruit  than  the  same  total  amount 
of  water  applied  at  intervals  of  ten  to  twelve  days.  And 
further,  that  poor  color  was  associated  with  a  small  amount 
of  water.  There  was  no  marked  difference  in  color  of  fruit 
from  the  trees  receiving  large  and  medium  amounts  of  water. 

AMOUNT   OF   WATER  TO   APPLY 

From  what  has  already  been  said,  it  is  apparent  that  no 
specific  limitations  can  be  placed  on  the  amount  of  water 
that  a  peach  orchard  should  receive,  either  in  a  particular 
application,  or  in  total  for  the  season.  The  character  of  the 
soil,  the  size  of  the  trees,  the  head  of  water,  the  rate  that  it 
flows  in  the  furrows,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  orchard  is 
handled  after  water  has  been  applied,  are  all  factors  that  are 
related  closely  to  this  problem. 

1  Utah  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  142. 


312  Peach-Growing 

The  aim  should  be  to  moisten  the  soil  thoroughly  to  the 
desired  depth.  This  will  include  the  entire  body  of  soil, 
and  the  subsoil  occupied  by  the  roots,  at  least  to  the  depth 
of  several  feet.  In  some  instances  the  roots  may  penetrate 
to  a  greater  depth  than  is  usually  the  case.  The  grower 
ought  to  trace  from  time  to  time  some  of  the  main  roots  of 
typical  trees  as  they  increase  in  age  in  order  that  he  may  gain 
positive  knowledge  as  to  just  where  they  are  placed. 

If  while  irrigating,  the  grower  examines  the  soil  frequently 
in  the  same  manner  as  suggested  on  an  earlier  page  (page  309) 
in  determining  when  an  application  is  necessary,  he  will  be 
able  to  determine  also  w^hen  the  moisture  conditions  are  such 
as  to  call  for  turning  off  the  water.  It  is  as  unsafe  to  be 
guided  by  the  appearance  of  the  surface  at  this  time  as  it  is 
to  take  the  surface  conditions  for  an  index  as  to  when  water 
should  be  applied. 

As  soon  as  the  soil  can  be  worked  following  an  irrigation, 
if  it  is  clean  tilled,  as  is  the  case  with  most  peach  orchards, 
it  should  be  given  a  thorough  cultivation  to  conserve  the 
moisture.  This  should  be  repeated  as  often  as  conditions 
justify.  Irrigation  should  be  considered  in  no  sense  as  a 
substitute  for  tillage  so  far  as  soil-moisture  conservation  is 
concerned.  The  grower  who  attempts  to  make  this  sub- 
stitution is  likely  to  have  serious  soil  troubles  from  excessive 
irrigation.  Excessive  irrigation  is  also  doubtless  largely 
responsible  for  various  other  troubles  that  are  not  known  to 
the  grower  in  humid  regions.  Too  much  water  is  perhaps 
more  objectionable  than  not  quite  enough,  and  where  irri- 
gated land  is  poorly  drained  serious  soil  troubles  are  likely 
to  occur. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

A  CONSIDERATION  OF  ADVERSE 
TEMPERATURES 

In  a  previous  connection  attention  was  directed  to  the 
fact  that  temperature  is  the  chief  limiting  factor  in  the 
geographical  distribution  of  peach-growing.  By  adopting 
special  methods,  the  distribution  may  be  extended  some- 
what so  far  as  the  minimum  temperature  factor  is  concerned. 
However,  it  is  true  in  general  that  practically  no  region  in 
which  peaches  are  grown  is  entirely  free  from  sporadic 
occurrences  of  adverse  temperatures  during  the  winter  and 
early  spring.  Heavy  losses  due,  usually,  to  the  killing  of  the 
fruit-buds  have  been  experienced  from  time  to  time  in  the 
past,  and  doubtless  will  be  in  the  future,  in  nearly  all  peach- 
growing  districts.  Occasionally  there  is  also  serious  injury 
to  the  trees,  by  unseasonably  low,  or  extremely  low,  tem- 
peratures. A  most  striking  example  of  the  former  is  the 
freeze  that  occurred  in  the  Michigan  peach  belt  the  night  of 
October  9  or  morning  of  the  10th,  1906,  while  the  trees  were 
still  in  an  active  vegetative  condition  and  in  full  foliage,  and 
which  resulted  in  the  death  of  a  considerable  proportion  of 
the  trees  in  one  of  the  most  important  peach  districts  of  the 
country.  An  example  of  serious  tree  injury  from  extremely 
low  winter  temperatures  is  the  memorable  winter  of  1903-04, 
as  a  result  of  which  great  numbers  of  trees  were  killed  or 

313 


314  Peach-Growing 

seriously  injured  throughout  most  of  the  northern  peach 
districts.  This  occurrence  has  been  referred  to  previously 
in  the  chapter  on  pruning  (see  page  206).  Examples  of 
injured  fruit-buds  occur,  unfortunately,  often  enough  to  be 
familiar  experiences  to  most  peach-growers. 

It  is  with  a  view  to  preventing,  so  far  as  possible  and 
practicable,  the  losses  that  are  suffered  from  these  periods 
of  adverse  temperatures  which  occur  from  time  to  time,  that 
the  present  discussion  is  directed.  There  are  certain  general 
features,  however,  that  may  well  be  given  consideration  in 
the  present  sequence. 

Not  infrequently  it  is  noted  that  many  fruit-buds  are 
killed  when  the  temperature  has  registered  a  certain  low 
minimum.  A  considerably  lower  temperature  may  be 
recorded  at  a  later  date  without  any  appreciable  increase  in 
the  amount  of  injury.  There  may  be  several  explanations 
for  such  results. 

The  duration  of  a  critical  temperature  may  often  be  the 
determining  factor.  An  extremely  low  temperature  may 
cause  little  or  no  damage  if  it  continues  for  but  a  short  time, 
as  is  often  the  case,  when  a  temperature  not  so  low  by  several 
degrees,  if  long  continued,  may  prove  ruinous  to  fruit-buds. 

The  conditions  during  and  immediately  following  a  frost 
or  freeze  which  occurs  while  peaches  are  in  blossom  con- 
tribute very  materially  to  the  results.  If  it  warms  up 
slowly  and  the  frozen  parts  thaw  very  gradually,  and  es- 
pecially if  shaded  from  the  sun  as  when  the  latter  is  obscured 
by  dense  clouds,  the  injury  is  usually  much  less  than  when 
the  thawing  is  rapid  or  if  it  takes  place  in  the  direct  rays  of 
the  sun. 

In  addition,  the  results  are  modified  by  the  humidity  of 
the  atmosphere.     Occasionally  there  is  a  snow-storm  during 


v^>.- 


-^■x 


Plate  XXV.  —  Orchard-Heating  Eqiii'ment.  Tup,  heaters  of  the 
"  lard-pail  "  type  awaiting  storage  ;  center,  a  cement  storage  reservoir 
for  oil ;  bottom,  sheet-metal  storage  tanks. 


A  Consideration  of  Adverse  Temperatures  315 

the  blossoming  period,  which  is  followed  by  a  dropping 
temperature.  If  the  blossoms  are  full  of  snow  so  that  as  it 
warms  up,  the  plant  tissues  which  are  surrounded  by  frozen 
snow  or  ice  thaw  very  gradually  and  in  the  presence 
of  much  moisture,  the  damage  is  often  considerably  less 
than  it  would  be  under  any  other  conditions  attendant  on 
the  thawing.  Under  such  conditions,  even  though  the 
blossoms  have  been  frozen,  a  good  crop  of  fruit  may  be 
produced. 

A  very  sudden  drop  in  the  temperature  from  a  safe  to  a 
critical  degree  is  more  liable  to  cause  damage  than  when  the 
drop  is  very  gradual.  In  cases  of  a  sudden  drop  to  a  critical 
temperature,  serious  bursting  of  the  bark  of  the  trunks  and 
larger  limbs  is  likely  to  occur.  On  the  other  hand,  reports 
are  not  infrequent  of  peach  trees  withstanding  winter 
temperatures  of  30  to  35  degrees  below  zero,  without  injury 
to  the  trees  themselves,  but  where  this  occurs  it  usually 
happens  that  these  extremes  have  been  preceded  by  a  long 
period  of  very  cold  weather.  Moreover,  the  trees  must 
have  become  thoroughly  mature  and  well  ripened  before  the 
advent  of  cold  weather. 

The  fruit-buds,  however,  rarely  survive  a  temperature  of 
15  degrees  below  zero,  though  under  especially  favorable 
conditions  a  peach  tree  will  sometimes  pass  through  a  tem- 
perature of  20  degrees  below  zero  and  still  produce  a  fairly 
good  crop  of  fruit.  As  a  rule,  however,  a  peach-grower 
begins  to  speculate  as  to  the  chances  of  a  crop  the  next 
season  when  the  temperature  goes  much  below  —  10  de- 
grees. The  weaker,  less  mature  buds  will  be  likely  to  be 
killed  by  that  extreme  even  when  the  tree  and  buds  gener- 
ally are  in  a  well-ripened  condition.  Considerable  difference 
is  noted,  however,  in  the  cold  resistance  of  different  varieties. 


316  Peach-Grotoing 

Adverse  temperature  and  other  climatic  conditions  during 
the  blossoming  period  are  sometimes  fatal  to  the  crop,  even 
though  no  freezing  occurs.  The  pollen  will  not  germinate 
well  except  in  bright,  fairly  warm  weather.  The  insects, 
especially  the  bees  which  are  largely  instrumental  in  polli- 
nating the  blossoms,  are  not  active  in  cold,  rainy,  or  very 
windy  weather.  If  very  heavy,  beating  showers  occur 
repeatedly  during  the  blossoming  period,  there  is  danger  of 
most  of  the  pollen  being  washed  away. 

Thus,  if  any  of  these  adverse  conditions  prevail  in  an 
extreme  measure  during  the  blossoming  period,  the  setting 
of  the  fruit  is  likely  to  be  very  light.  Sometimes  when  one 
or  more  of  these  conditions  prevails,  the  fruits  start  to  grow, 
and  before  they  acquire  much  size  they  begin  to  drop,  and 
in  such  instances  the  dropping  may  continue  until  practi- 
cally no  fruit  is  left  on  the  trees.  This  doubtless  may  be 
ascribed  justly  to  imperfect  pollination  on  account  of  adverse 
weather  conditions.  The  "June  drop"  usually  consists 
of  fruits  that  were  not  well  pollinated,  even  when  no  notably 
adverse  conditions  have  prevailed. 

There  are  no  means  of  overcoming  or  preventing  this  form 
of  injury  but  precautions  can  be  exercised  and  certain 
measures  adopted  that  will  help  materially  in  avoiding  the 
injury  due  to  adverse  winter  temperatures  and  untimely 
spring  frosts.     These  will  now  be  considered. 

CULTURAL   METHODS   IN  RELATION  TO   WINTER   INJURY 

While  a  good  location  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most  effective 
ways  of  insuring  a  peach  crop  and  of  avoiding  injury  due  to 
adverse  climatic  conditions,  much  can  be  accomplished  in 
this  direction  by  wise  cultural  methods.     Some  of  these 


A  Consideration  of  Adverse  Temperatures  317 

cultural  influences  have  already  been  discussed,  but  their 
importance  may  well  be  restated  in  the  present  con- 
nection. 

In  some  sections  of  the  country  winter  injury  is  quite  defi- 
nitely associated  with  insufficient  soil-moisture.  The  trees 
are  giving  off  moisture  more  or  less  continuously  throughout 
the  dormant  period.  If  the  soil  is  so  extremely  dry  when 
winter  sets  in  that  in  the  slight  root  action  which  occurs,  the 
moisture  that  leaves  the  twigs  and  branches  cannot  be  re- 
placed through  the  roots  from  the  moisture  in  the  soil,  injury 
even  to  the  extent  of  the  death  of  the  trees  is  likely  to  occur. 
Thus,  much  of  the  so-called  "winter  injury"  is  in  reality  due 
to  a  lack  of  soil-moisture.  In  regions  where  such  soil  con- 
ditions are  likely  to  occur,  every  cultural  precaution  possible 
should  be  taken  to  conserve  the  soil-moisture.  It  is  in  this 
connection  that  the  growing  of  cover-crops  which  obviously 
make  demands  on  the  soil-moisture  late  in  the  season  may 
be  utterly  incompatible  with  the  welfare  of  the  trees.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  relation  of  cover-  and  green-manure  crops 
to  the  humus  of  the  soil,  and  in  turn  the  relation  of  the 
humus  to  the  soil-moisture  conditions,  place  much  stress  on 
the  desirability  of  returning  to  the  soil  adequate  quantities 
of  decaying  vegetable  matter. 

Perhaps  there  has  been  recorded  no  experience  which  more 
clearly  shows  the  importance  of  good  soil  conditions  in 
relation  to  winter  injury  than  the  observations  of  Green  and 
Ballou  ^  who  made  careful  studies  of  the  causes  entering  into 
the  destruction  of  thousands  of  peach  trees  in  the  Lake  Erie 
peach  district  in  Ohio  during  the  disastrous  winter  of  1903- 
1904  previously  mentioned.  Investigations  were  made 
during  the  following  season  to  determine  the  conditions 
i  Ohio  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  157. 


318  Peach-Growing 

under  which  injury  was  caused  and  why  it  occurred  in  some 
orchards  or  in  parts  of  orchards  and  not  in  others. 

The  summary  of  conditions  incident  to  the  freeze  in  ques- 
tion made  by  these  authors  is  illuminating : 

"  General  cause  of  the  'finish '  of  vast  areas  of  peach 
orchards  in  the  Lake  Erie  fruit  belt :  the  severe  and  pro- 
longed cold  of  the  winter  of  1903-1904. 

"General  cause  of  unusual  susceptibility  to  cold,  of  the 
orchards  of  said  district :  prevailing  low  vitality  of  the  trees. 

"  Specific  causes  of  low  vitality  of  the  trees :  San  Jose 
scale,  leaf-curl,  lack  of  nourishing  plant-food,  imperfect 
drainage. 

"Exceptional  causes  of  susceptibility  to  cold  in  rare  cases 
of  apparently  healthy,  vigorous  trees  :  low,  moist,  rich  black 
soil  which  favored  an  extreme  growth  of  soft,  poorly  ripened 
or  matured  wood;  or  high  culture  upon  soil  rich  in  plant- 
food  which  brought  about  similar  results. 

"The  unusually  deep,  hard  freezing  of  the  earth's  crust 
was  due,  directly,  to  the  continued,  steady  cold,  but  was 
intensified,  in  many  instances,  by  a  lack  of  humus  or  vege- 
table matter  in  the  soil,  which  constitutes  nature's  insulation 
of  the  surface  of  the  earth  from  cold  and  heat. 

"  Providing  that  the  orchards  had  been  kept  free  from  fun- 
gous disease  and  the  San  Jose  scale,  by  timely  and  thorough 
spraying,  no  injury  of  trees  was  found  where  stable  or  barn- 
yard manure  had  been  used  upon  the  ground  within  the  last 
year  or  two  previous  to  the  winter  of  1903-1904 ;  rarely  was 
an  injured  tree  found  standing  in  sod ;  no  injury  was  done 
where  the  surface  of  the  soil,  beneath  the  trees,  had  been 
covered  with  even  a  very  light  mulch ;  little  injury  was  done 
where  the  trees  stood  in  fairly  well  drained  soil  containing 
a  moderate  amount  of  fertility  and  humus;  no  injury  was 


A  Consideration  of  Adoerse  Temperatures  319 

found  where  the  trees  were  under  the  grass  mulch  method 
of  culture,  .  .  . ;  no  injury  was  observed  in  any  case  where 
the  stems  of  the  trees  had  been  slightly  banked  or  mounded 
with  a  few  shovels  or  forkfuls  of  soil,  peat  or  manure. 

"Very  few  trees  which,  within  the  past  few  years,  had 
been  affected  with  leaf-curl  or  infested  with  San  Jose  scale 
or  borers,  remained  alive  or  uninjured ;  and  very  few  trees 
existing  upon  infertile  or  exhausted  soil,  depleted  of  humus, 
escaped   uninjured." 

It  may  be  still  further  pointed  out  that  any  influence 
which  weakens  the  trees  renders  them  more  susceptible  to 
winter  injury  than  trees  in  good  vigor  with  strong  vitality. 
Overbearing  is  perhaps  one  of  the  more  common  and  un- 
suspected causes  of  winter  injury  because  of  its  devitalizing 
efiFects.  The  effects  of  any  cause  or  condition  that  weakens 
the  tree  also  weakens  the  fruit-buds.  It  is  a  matter  of 
frequent  observation  that  trees  which  are  strong  and  on 
which  the  fruit-buds  are  plump  and  well  developed  will 
produce  a  good  crop  of  fruit  when  other  trees  similarly 
located  but  lacking  in  vigor  will  produce  little  or  no  fruit, 
following  a  hard  winter  or  a  frost,  even  though  the  weakened 
trees  may  blossom.  The  embryo  fruits  or  other  essential 
parts  of  the  blossom  of  a  weakened  tree  are  themselves 
weak,  and  are  killed  by  adverse  conditions  which  the 
stronger  blossoms  are  able  to  withstand.  In  general,  trees 
that  are  strong  and  vigorous  blossom  later  than  do  those 
which  lack  vitality.  This  is  of  importance,  especially 
where  injury  from  late  spring  frost  is  likely  to  occur. 

The  obvious  course  for  the  peach-grower  is  to  maintain 
his  trees  in  a  high  state  of  culture  with  a  view  to  making  and 
keeping  them  vigorous  and  possessed  of  a  high  degree  of 
vitality. 


320  Peach-Growing 

In  the  present  connection,  the  reader's  attention  is  re- 
directed to  the  influence  of  late  tillage,  nitrogenous  fertilizers, 
and  other  cultural  and  maintenance  operations  as  means  of 
preventing  injury  from  adverse  temperatures  in  regions 
where  the  temperature  is  rather  mild  during  the  dormant 
period  and  is  characterized  by  warm  spells  during  which  the 
fruit-buds  start  enough  to  become  somewhat  tender.  It  is 
unnecessary  to  repeat  the  details  here  since  they  are  else- 
where discussed  sufficiently  to  indicate  their  practical 
importance  in  orchard  management.  (See  pages  168- 
169.) 

Chandler  ^  points  out  that  there  is  considerable  difference 
in  the  relative  hardiness  of  varieties,  but  that  those  which 
will  withstand  low  winter  temperatures  and  are  hardy  in  the 
northern  peach  districts  where  the  winters  are  characterized 
b\'  long,  continuous  periods  of  cold  weather  may  be  far  from 
the  hardiest  varieties  where  the  winters  are  characterized 
by  warm  spells  with  temperatures  sufficiently  high  to  start 
the  buds. 

Hardiness  in  the  former  case  depends  primarily  on  the 
wood  becoming  thoroughly  ripened  before  cold  weather  sets 
in.  Under  the  latter  conditions  hardiness  depends  on  the 
ability  of  the  tree  to  remain  perfectly  dormant  during  warm 
periods  in  winter.  There  is  considerable  difference  in  the 
color  of  the  twigs  of  different  varieties.  Chandler  finds  that 
the  varieties  of  the  Chinese  Cling  and  Chili  (Hills  Chili)  type 
with  green  twigs  are  the  hardiest  under  conditions  such  as 
prevail  in  Missouri. 

Aside  from  these  cultural  features  above  noted,  there  are 
several  recourses  open  to  the  peach-grower  as  means  of 
preventing  injury.  Not  all  of  these  are  practicable  on  a 
1  Mo.  Expt.  Sta.  Circ.  of  Information,  31. 


A  Consideration  of  Adverse  Temperatures  321 

commercial  scale,  but  they  offer  a  measure  of  protection 
which  may  be  of  considerable  value  under  some  conditions. 


BANKING  THE  TREES 

Reference  again  may  be  made  to  the  observations  recorded 
in  a  previous  section  (page  319)  on  the  effect  of  banking 
peach  trees  as  a  means  of  protecting  them  against  winter 
injury.  It  is  difficult  to  correlate  this  practice  with  the 
evident  results  in  the  Lake  Erie  peach  district  of  Ohio  during 
the  winter  of  1903-1904  but  they  appear  conclusive  so  far 
as  certain  conditions  are  concerned. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  the  section  of  a  tree  latest  to 
mature  and  reach  a  state  of  dormancy  is  at  the  collar,  or 
crown,  or  the  portion  just  at  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The 
protection  afforded  by  banking  the  trees  in  the  instance 
referred  to  appears  to  give  credence  to  this  view,  and  that 
where  the  trees  were  not  banked  they  suffered  injury  at  the 
surface  of  the  ground  because  they  were  not  well  ripened  at 
that  point. 

Blake  ^  has  likewise  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  young 
peach  trees  in  some  parts  of  New  Jersey,  especially  during 
their  second  winter  after  planting  and  where  they  occupy 
exposed  sites,  may  be  injured  or  even  killed  as  a  result  of  the 
swaying  of  tops  in  the  wind  and  the  consequent  opening  of 
the  soil  about  the  trunks  at  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The 
openings  thus  made  about  the  trunks  become  filled  with  water 
which  in  turn  freezes  and  injures  the  tree  at  this  point.  The 
exposure  of  the  crown  to  low  temperatures,  as  above  sug- 
gested, may  also  explain  the  injury.  By  mounding  the  trees 
this  trouble  can  be  prevented  in  many  cases. 

1  N.  J.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  231. 


322  Peach-Growing 

COVERING  WITH  SHEDS 

Excepting  where  lumber  is  plentiful  or  a  supply  suitable 
for  the  purpose  can  be  obtained  cheaply,  the  building  of 
sheds  over  peach  trees  to  furnish  winter  protection  is  im- 
practicable. In  effectiveness  under  Missouri  conditions, 
however,  Whitten  ^  reports  that  this  method  of  giving  winter 
protection  to  peach  trees  was  the  best  of  several  tested.  The 
sheds  were  constructed  by  placing  posts  just  outside  the 
spread  of  the  limbs  and  of  sufficient  height  to  escape  the  top 
of  the  branches.  Rafters  extended  from  the  posts,  meeting 
over  the  center  of  each  tree.  Boards  were  placed  on  these 
with  spaces  between  them  of  about  one  inch.  The  sides  of 
the  sheds  were  boarded  down  from  the  eaves  for  a  short 
distance.  This  method  gave  almost  perfect  protection 
against  winter  injury  to  the  fruit-buds  and  also  against 
adverse  climatic  conditions  which  later  in  the  spring  caused 
considerable  loss  on  unprotected  trees.  However,  the  cost 
of  the  sheds,  including  labor  of  putting  up  and  taking  down 
each  season,  is  prohibitive  on  a  commercial  scale.  If  used 
in  gardens  or  when  the  expense  can  be  ignored,  the  shed 
should  be  allowed  to  stand  in  the  spring  until  after  the  fruit 
has  fairly  begun  to  develop. 

WRAPPING  THE  TREES 

Considerable  effort  has  been  put  forth  from  time  to  time, 
both  experimentally  and  in  practical  usage,  to  protect  peach 
trees  from  winter  injury  by  wrapping  them  with  various 
kinds  of  material.  In  brief,  the  method  commonly  used  is 
about  as  follows :    The  trees  are  headed  back  rather  heavily 

»  Mo.  Expt.  Sta.  BuU.  38. 


A  Consideration  of  Adverse  Temperatures  323 

on  the  approach  of  cold  weather.  The  Hmbs  are  then  drawn 
together  as  much  as  possible  and  held  in  that  position  by 
passing  a  cord  around  them  once  or  twice  and  tying  it 
tightly.  Then  about  the  tree  are  placed  small  evergreen 
trees,  corn-stalks,  or  some  other  suitable  material  which  in 
turn  are  drawn  closely  to  the  tree  and  held  in  position  by 
binding  tightly  with  rope  or  some  other  stout  cord.  In  some 
cases,  stakes  are  driven  into  the  ground  in  close  contact  with 
the  covering  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  tree  against 
the  strain  from  high  winds. 

In  many  cases,  even  in  regions  of  rather  extreme  winter 
temperature,  this  method  has  been  beneficial,  saving  a  good 
proportion  of  the  fruit-buds  where  on  unprotected  trees  they 
have  been  all  or  nearly  all  killed.  There  is  considerable 
evidence,  however,  which  indicates  that  much  of  the  benefit 
is  due  to  the  shade  afforded  by  the  covering  at  certain  times, 
rather  than  to  protection  against  cold. 

The  tendency  where  this  method  is  used  is  to  remove  the 
covering  too  early  in  the  spring.  Serious  injury  has  followed, 
sometimes,  when  it  was  taken  off  immediately  on  the  passing 
of  the  period  of  extreme  temperatures ;  but  when  left  on,  in 
part  at  least,  until  after  the  tree  has  blossomed  and  set  fruit, 
the  beneficial  results  are  not  lost. 


WHITEWASHING  THE   TREE  AS  A  MEANS  OF 
PROTECTION 

The  fact  that  the  buds  of  a  tree,  in  starting  into  growth  in 
the  spring,  respond  to  the  temperature  of  the  air  rather  than 
to  the  condition  of  the  soil  is  not  fully  appreciated.  If  the  air 
is  warm  enough  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time,  a  peach  or 
other  fruit-tree  may  blossom  while  its  roots  are  still  in  ground 


324  Peach-Growing 

that  is  frozen  solid.  Moreover,  the  fact  that  different  colors 
absorb  heat  in  varying  degrees  is  of  importance  in  its  relation 
to  the  swelling  of  peach  buds  in  early  spring.  There  is 
considerable  difference  in  the  color  of  the  bark  of  peach 
varieties.  That  different  colored  branches  have  actually 
different  temperatures  during  sunny  weather  in  spring  when 
there  is  no  foliage  to  shade  them  is  capable  of  easy  demonstra- 
tion by  means  of  the  simple  experiment  of  cutting  off  some 
of  the  small  limbs,  boring  a  hole  in  the  end  of  the  stubs  thus 
made,  and  inserting  a  small  round  thermometer  in  each  one. 
During  sunny  days  a  very  perceptible  difference  in  tem- 
perature will  be  registered,  the  thermometers  in  the  stubs 
havip.g  the  darker  colored  bark  registering  the  higher.  This 
makes  it  apparent  that  the  buds  under  the  influence  of  the 
higher  temperatures  might  be  expected,  naturally,  to  advance 
more  rapidly  than  those  on  branches  having  the  lower 
temperatures. 

In  line  with  this  general  result  Whitten  ^  has  shown  that 
when  peach  trees  are  kept  thoroughly  coated  with  whitewash 
during  the  winter,  the  swelling  of  the  buds  in  warm  spells 
may  be  prevented  in  a  very  large  measure  for  a  time  and  the 
blossoming  delayed  from  two  to  six  days.  Under  some 
conditions,  as  has  been  pointed  out  previously,  the  holding 
of  the  trees  perfectly  dormant  throughout  the  winter  and 
the  retarding  of  the  blossoming  several  days  in  the  spring 
may  be  the  means  of  preventing  disastrous  injury  to  the 
prospective  crop. 

However,  in  order  to  be  effective,  the  fruit-buds  as  well 

as  the  twigs  and  branches  must  be  kept  thoroughly  coated 

with  the  whitewash.     The  first  application,  under  Missouri 

conditions,  should  be  made  the  last  of  December  and  fol- 

1  Mo.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  38. 


A  Consideration  of  Adverse  Temperatures  325 

lowed  shortly  by  a  second  coating  to  insure  a  complete  cover- 
ing of  every  bud  and  twig.  Usually  two  more  applications 
made  at  intervals  later  in  the  winter  and  spring  will  be 
adequate,  though  if  there  is  an  unusual  amount  of  rain, 
other  applications  may  be  advisable.  The  whitewash 
should  be  as  thick  as  will  pass  readily  through  one  of  the 
standard  spray  nozzles.  It  was  found  in  the  work  at  the 
Missouri  station  that  if  the  liquid  with  which  the  slaked 
lime  is  thinned  in  making  the  whitewash  is  about  one-fifth 
skim  milk  and  salt  is  added  at  the  rate  of  a  pound  to  every 
2^  or  3  gallons  of  the  wash,  it  will  adhere  to  the  trees  much 
better  than  if  a  plain  lime  whitewash  made  with  water  alone 
is  used. 

Trees  treated  in  the  manner  described  came  through  the 
winter  with  80  per  cent  of  the  buds  in  good  condition,  as 
against  about  80  per  cent  killed  where  the  trees  were  un- 
treated. 

LAYING  DOWN  PEACH  TREES 

The  possibility  as  well  as  the  practicability  of  laying  down 
peach  trees  and  covering  them  with  soil  to  give  winter  pro- 
tection in  climates  that  are  especially  severe  has  received 
some  attention.  The  method  perhaps  which  has  been  the 
most  exploited  and  perhaps  also  the  most  satisfactory  is  one 
developed  in  Colorado  by  W.  B.  Felton  and  C.  C.  Rickard. 
As  described  by  Paddock  from  data  furnished  him  by 
Rickard,^  the  principal  features  of  this  method  are  as  follows  : 

"Yearling  trees  are  set  in  the  spring  and  they  should  be 

laid  down  the  first  winter,  repeating  the  process  each  season 

during  the  life  of  the  tree.     In  this  instance  no  attention  is 

given  to  training  or  placing  the  roots.     As  soon  as  the  trees 

1  Col.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  80. 


326  Peach-Growing 

have  shed  their  leaves  and  the  wood  is  well  ripened,  they  are 
ready  for  winter  quarters.  This  is  usually  in  the  fore  part 
of  November,  in  the  vicinity  of  Canon  City.  The  first  step 
in  the  operation  consists  in  removing  the  earth  from  a  circle 
about  four  feet  in  diameter  around  the  tree.  When  sufficient 
trees  have  been  treated  in  this  manner  to  make  the  work 
progress  advantageously,  water  is  turned  into  the  hollows. 
After  the  ground  has  become  saturated  the  trees  are  worked 
back  and  forth  and  the  water  follows  the  roots,  loosening  the 
soil  around  them  so  that  they  are  pushed  over  in  the  direction 
that  offers  the  least  resistance.  When  treated  in  this  manner 
the  trees  go  over  easily  and  with  comparatively  little  injury 
to  the  root  system.  That  is,  providing  the  trees  have  been 
laid  down  each  year.  It  is  difficult  to  handle  old  trees  in 
this  manner  that  have  never  been  laid  down,  and  usually  it 
will  not  pay  to  try. 

"After  the  trees  are  on  the  ground,  further  work  should 
be  delayed  until  the  ground  has  dried  sufficiently  to  admit 
of  ease  in  walking,  and  in  the  handling  of  the  dirt.  The 
limbs  may  now  be  brought  together  with  a  cord,  and  so 
lessen  the  work  of  covering. 

"After  experimenting  with  many  kinds  of  coverings, 
burlap  held  in  place  with  earth  has  proved  the  most  satis- 
factory. The  burlap  is  spread  out  over  the  prostrate  tree 
top,  as  shown  in  the  photographs  [Fig.  18],  taking  special 
pains  to  protect  the  blossom  buds  from  coming  in  direct 
contact  with  the  earth  covering.  A  light  layer  of  earth  is 
now  thrown  over  the  tree  and  the  protection  is  complete. 

"  The  critical  time  in  growing  peaches  by  this  method  is  in 
the  spring  when  growing  weather  begins.  Close  watch  must 
be  kept  to  see  that  the  blossoms  do  not  open  prematurely, 
or  that  the  branch  buds  are  not  forced  into  tender,  white 


Plate  XXVI.  —  Gilbert  Onderdonk. 


A  Consideration  of  Adverse  Temperatures  327 

growth.  When  the  blossom  buds  begin  to  open,  the  covering 
should  be  loosened  so  as  to  admit  light  and  air,  but  it  should 
not  all  be  removed  [Plate  XXIII].  More  of  the  covering 
should  be  removed  as  the  weather  gets  warmer,  but  the 
blossoms  must  be  exposed  to  the  sun  gradually. 

"  Air  and  light  are,  of  course,  necessary  for  proper  fertiliza- 
tion of  the  flowers,  but  after  this  process  is  complete  and  the 
fruit  is  set,  all  danger  from  the  weather  is  considered  as  being 
over.  The  trees  are  usually  raised  about  the  middle  of  May 
at  Canon  City. 

"Raising  the  trees  is,  of  course,  a  simple  task.  The 
ground  is  again  watered  and  when  wet  enough  the  trees  are 
raised.  To  be  sure,  trees  that  have  been  treated  in  this 
manner  will  not  usually  stand  upright  unsupported.  Con- 
sequently they  are  propped  up  at  an  angle,  usually  two  props 
being  required  to  keep  the  wind  from  swaying  them. 


"This  process  seems  to  be  in  no  way  detrimental  to  the 
health  of  the  trees,  since  they  live  as  long  and  bear  as  much 
fruit  according  to  the  size  of  the  top  as  those  grown  in  peach 
sections.  It  is,  of  course,  necessary  to  cut  out  the  wide- 
spreading  branches  and  thus  reduce  the  size  of  the  top  in 
order  to  lessen  the  work  of  covering." 

Peach  trees  are  shown  in  Fig.  18  that  were  laid  down  in  the 
fall  and  covered  with  burlap  and  soil.  Growth  is  just  begin- 
ning in  the  sp"  ingand  the  covering  is  being  gradually  removed. 
A  tree  is  shown  in  Plate  XXIII  that  is  beginning  to  blos- 
som in  the  spring  and  has  been  partially  uncovered  in  order 
that  the  tender  leaves  and  other  parts  may  become  gradu- 
ally inured  again  to  the  full  intensity  of  the  sunlight 
and  air. 


328 


Peach-Growing 


Details  of  this  operation  are  varied  more  or  less  as  followed 
by  different  growers  in  eastern  Colorado,  where  in  past  years 
this  method  apparently  has  been  used  more  than  in  any 
other  section,  but  the  main  features  are  much  the  same. 
Some  growers  in  planting  trees  that  are  to  be  laid  down 
either  trim  off  the  roots  on  the  sides  towards  which  and  from 
which  the  tree  is  to  be  bent  over,  or  else  place  all  the  roots 
in  such  positions  when  planting  that  they  extend  only  at 


lWi)«fc,-^^J!^*^J^^^S^ 


Fig.   18.  —  Peach  trees  laid  down  and  covered  with  burlap  and  soil 
for  protection  during  winter. 

right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  the  tree  is  to  be  bent 
over.  This  plan  is  intended  to  make  it  easier  to  tip  the  tree 
over.  Rickard,  however,  pays  no  attention  to  this  detail, 
claiming  that  within  a  few  years  there  is  no  appreciable  effect 
on  the  root  system  of  this  early  training. 

Sometimes  a  "block  and  tackle"  is  convenient  in  raising 
the  trees  to  an  upright  position  in  the  spring,  a  horse  being 
used  on  the  tackle  to  supply  motive  power  if  necessary. 

While  this  method  of  providing  winter  protection  is  hardly 
practicable  in  large  scale  operations,  it  has  its  usefulness  and 
its  possibilities  in  growing  peaches  for  home  use  and  for  local 


A  Consideration  of  Adverse   Temperatures  329 

market  in  sections  where  it  would  be  impossible  to  succeed 
without  some  means  of  protection. 

Under  the  conditions  in  Colorado  where  the  above 
method  was  developed,  it  was  found  that  two  men  could  lay 
down  in  the  fall  about  twenty-five  trees  in  a  day.  In  sec- 
tions where  irrigation  is  not  practiced,  more  attention  to 
loosening  the  roots  before  the  trees  are  tipped  down  would 
doubtless  be  necessary. 

While  certain  other  methods  of  laying  down  trees  for  winter 
protection,  such  as  planting  with  the  trunk  in  a  horizontal 
position  along  the  ground,  with  a  view  to  turning  or  twisting 
the  top  sidewise  when  it  is  put  down  to  be  covered,  have 
been  tried,  and  apparently  with  some  measure  of  success, 
the  cost  is  prohibitive  except  as  a  small,  home  orchard 
proposition,  or  where  the  grower  has  little  or  no  competition 
in  marketing  the  fruit  and  is  able  to  secure  prices  that  are 
commensurate  with  the  cost  of  production. 

ORCHARD  HEATING 

In  some  fruit-growing  sections  of  the  United  States, 
particularly  in  the  irrigated  valleys  of  the  intermountain 
and  Pacific  coast  states  and  to  a  less  extent  in  other  re- 
gions, the  heating  of  orchards  during  the  spring  to  protect 
the  buds,  blossoms,  or  recently  formed  fruits  against  injury 
from  untimely  frosts  or  freezes  has  been  developed  to  a  rather 
high  degree  of  efficiency.  The  idea  of  giving  artificial 
protection  against  low  temperatures  during  this  critical  period 
is  not  new,  but  some  of  the  methods  are  developments  of  the 
past  few  years. 

The  several  methods  of  frost  protection  used  from  time  to 
time  are  summarized  by  Wilson  ^  as  follows : 
1  CorneU  Univ.  Expt.  Sta.  BuU.  316. 


330  Peach-Growing 

"The  object  sought  in  all  methods  of  frost  protection  is  to 
hold  the  temperature  of  the  air  in  contact  with  the  plant 
above  the  point  of  danger.  In  the  attempt  to  accomplish 
this  certain  principles  are  involved : 

"1.  Prevention  or  retardation  of  the  escape  of  heat  from 
the  earth  by  the  use  of  an  artificial  covering.  The  use  of 
smudges  as  a  means  of  protection  against  frost  is  based  on 
this  principle. 

"2.  Addition  to  the  air  of  moisture  in  the  form  of  vapor, 
with  the  view  of  obtaining  the  effect  of  liberation  of  latent 
heat  as  the  moisture  condenses.  The  use  of  damp  fuel  for 
smudges  and  the  spraying  of  fires  with  water  have  this 
purpose  in  view. 

"3.   Heating  the  air  by  numerous  small  fires." 

Artificial  covering. 

"It  is  a  very  old  practice  to  protect  plants  from  frost  by 
covering  them  with  newspapers,  carpets,  straw,  and  the  like. 
This  is  a  most  cleanly  and  efficient  method,  but  unfortu- 
nately, because  of  the  labor  and  expense  involved,  it  is  ap- 
plicable in  practice  only  in  small  areas,  such  as  flower  beds 
and  gardens.   .   .   ." 

Smvdging. 

"Smudging,  particularly  when  damp  fuel  is  used,  com- 
bines the  first  and  second  principles  mentioned  above  — 
the  prevention  of  the  escape  of  heat  from  the  ground  and 
the  addition  of  moisture  to  the  air.  In  practice  smudging 
has  not  proved  a  very  efficient  method  of  protection.  It 
is  used  chiefly  at  present  to  shield  the  blossoms  from  the 
sun  during  the  morning  hours  following  a  frost,  thus  pre- 
venting too  rapid  thawing.     Spraying  the  frozen  fruit  or 


A  Consideration  of  Adverse  Temperatures  331 

blossoms  with  water  is  practiced,  also,  with  the  same  purpose 
in  view.  .  .  ." 

Heating  the  air. 

"The  most  practical,  efficient,  and  economical  method 
yet  devised  for  protection  of  large  areas  is  the  direct  addi- 
tion of  heat  by  means  of  numerous  small  fires  properly  dis- 
tributed over  the  area  to  be  protected." 

The  last  method,  "heating  the  air,"  is  the  only  one  that 
calls  for  further  amplification  in  this  connection,  since  it  is 
the  one  used  in  recent  years,  largely,  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
others.  The  details  of  practice  are  essentially  the  same  for 
all  orchards,  whether  peach,  apple,  citrus,  or  some  other  kind, 
though  the  critical  temperatures  for  the  various  fruits  in 
different  stages  of  development  obviously  vary  somewhat. 

Three  kinds  of  fuel  have  been  used  in  orchard  heating, 
wood,  coal,  and  oil.  Many  different  grades  of  oil  have  been 
utilized,  but  usually  a  rather  heavy  petroleum  product  of 
which  several  different  brands  are  available  have  given  the 
best  results.  An  oil  having  a  paraffin  base  is  preferable  to 
one  with  an  asphaltum  base,  as  the  residue  which  remains 
from  burning  the  latter  is  objectionable.  While  various 
grades  of  oil,  varying  in  density  from  about  20°  to  30°  or  even 
32°  Baume,  have  been  used  successfully,  the  lighter  oils  that 
have  a  density  of  about  29°  or  30°  are  perhaps  preferable, 
though  some  of  the  "smudge  oils"  or  "orchard  heating  oils," 
as  they  are  variously  termed,  as  heavy  as  19°  Baume,  have 
given  good  results.  If  too  heavy,  however,  they  do  not  burn 
well ;  and  if  too  light,  they  burn  too  fast  for  the  best  results. 

A  half-dozen  or  more  different  types  of  "smudge  pots"  or 
heaters  are  on  the  market.  The  maker  of  each  type  natu- 
rally claims  for  his  own  points  of  superiority  not  possessed  by 


332  Peach-Growing 

any  of  the  others.  None  of  them  represents  perfection. 
Doubtless  any  one  of  them  can  be  used  with  some  measure 
of  success.  The  points  of  a  good  heater,  or  oil-pot,  without 
regard  to  relative  importance,  are  :  Convenience  in  handling 
(so  made  that  they  can  be  stacked  or  "  nested  "  when  stored) ; 
construction  such  that  a  proper  draft  is  secured  when  in 
operation  ;  good  construction  so  as  to  prevent  loss  of  oil  from 
leakage ;  adequate  provision  by  means  of  a  suitable  cover  for 
keeping  out  water  when  the  heaters  are  placed  in  the  orchard 
in  preparation  for  anticipated  needs ;  capacity  for  holding 
oil  in  quantity  sufficient  to  burn  for  at  least  four  to  six  hours. 
The  latter  is  obtained  in  different  types  of  heaters  both  by 
the  direct  capacity  of  the  heater  and  in  various  t;ypes  of 
reservoirs. 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  what  type  of  heater  is  the  most 
satisfactory,  since  each  may  possess  certain  advantages  over 
the  others.  The  lard-pail  tx-pe  (so  called  because  in  shape 
it  is  not  unlike  that  of  the  common  lard-pail)  with  a  center 
draft  arrangement,  holding  5  to  8  quarts,  usually  has  given 
good  satisfaction.  This  type  is  shown  in  Plate  XXIV  where 
the  pots  are  distributed  in  an  orchard  for  use,  also  in 
Plate  XXV  where  they  have  been  assembled  and  are 
awaiting  storage.  An  oblong,  rectangular  reservoir  type 
holding  about  3  gallons  and  provided  with  a  sliding  cover 
to  which  is  attached  a  partition  that  divides  the  reservoir 
into  two  parts  and  which  is  regulated  by  opening  or  closing 
the  cover,  has  also  been  considerably  used. 

The  number  of  heaters  or  fire-pots  required  for  a  given 
area  depends  obviously  on  the  temperature  that  must  be 
counteracted  and  the  type  and  capacity  of  the  heater  used. 
However,  rarely  less  than  50  heaters  and  seldom  more 
than  100  to  the  acre  are  used. 


A  Consideration  of  Adoerse  Temperatures  333 

It  has  been  determined  by  O'Gara^  that  a  lard-pail  type 
of  heater  having  a  working  capacity  of  about  5  quarts  of  oil 
(full  capacity  1^  gallons)  and  a  surface  area  of  about  45 
square  inches  at  the  top,  will  consume  oil  at  the  rate  of  about 
12^  gallons  to  the  acre  an  hour  when  used  at  the  rate  of  50 
heaters  to  the  acre,  and  that  where  it  is  practically  still  with 
the  wind  moving  not  more  than  one  or  two  miles  an  hour 
and  where  the  trees  are  of  sufficient  size  to  cover  much  of  the 
ground  in  the  spread  of  the  branches,  the  quantity  of  oil 
stated  (12|-  gallons  to  the  acre)  will  raise  the  temperature 
4  to  5  degrees.  Where  the  trees  are  smaller  and  the  heat 
escapes  between  them  more  freely  or  where  the  wind  is 
moving  more  rapidly,  a  correspondingly  larger  number  of 
heaters  must  be  used  and  more  oil  must  be  consumed  in  a 
given  period  of  time  in  order  to  maintain  a  given  temperature. 
A  rise  of  3  to  5  degrees  of  temperature  in  an  orchard  using  50 
to  100  heaters  is  generally  about  the  limit,  except  under  very 
favorable  conditions,  though  instances  have  been  reported 
in  which  the  temperature  inside  an  orchard  was  maintained 
at  a  point  10  degrees  higher  than  on  the  outside. 

For  effective  heating,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  some 
surplus  in  oil-pots  as  a  margin  of  safety.  This  is  the  case 
especially  since  by  the  time  about  one-half  the  contents  of 
the  pots  have  been  burned  the  oil  is  being  consumed  only 
about  half  as  fast  as  in  the  beginning.  Hence  the  pots  are 
then  giving  off  only  half  the  heat  that  was  being  generated  at 
first.  The  residue  that  accumulates  in  an  oil-pot  from  the 
burning  oil  also  reduces  its  efficiency. 

In  equipping  an  orchard  for  heating  with  oil,  in  addition 
to  at  least  100  heaters  to  the  acre,  or  their  equivalent  in  case 

'  Bull.  6,  Of.  of  the  Pathologist  and  Local  U.  S.  Weather  Bur. 
Sta.  for  Rogue  River  Valley,  Ore. 


334  Peach-Gromng 

some  of  the  larger  types  of  reservoir  heaters  are  used,  it  is 
necessary  to  provide  a  storage  tank  or  reservoir  for  the  supply 
of  oil,  a  tank  wagon  for  distributing  the  oil  to  the  heaters, 
besides  thermometers,  torches  for  use  in  lighting  the  pots,  and 
other  minor  supplies. 

The  storage  tank  is  usually  made  of  cement  or  of  sheet 
metal  and  with  a  capacity  sufficient  to  store  a  supply  of  oil 
equivalent  to  300  to  500  gallons  for  each  acre  that  is  to  be 
heated,  depending  on  the  probable  amount  of  heating  that 
will  need  to  be  done.  A  smaller  reserve  would  be  unsafe, 
since  if  several  nights  occurred  in  succession  when  it  was 
necessary  to  heat,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  the  only  safety 
lies  in  having  an  adequate  supply  on  hand  to  meet  the  needs. 
A  cement  storage  tank  is  shown  in  Plate  XXV  (center),  also 
in  the  background  a  wagon-tank  for  use  in  distributing  the 
oil  to  the  heaters.  Some  sheet  metal  tanks  are  also  seen 
in  Plate  XXV. 

With  every  heating  it  becomes  increasingly  necessary  to 
heat  effectively  when  a  critical  temperature  is  reached,  in 
order  to  save  not  only  the  crop  but  what  has  been  invested 
in  the  previous  heatings. 

In  actual  practice  the  pots  are  distributed  in  the  orchard 
as  the  blossoming  period  approaches  and  are  filled  with  oil 
ready  to  "  fire."  Their  principal  use  is  during  the  blossoming 
period  and  they  are  lighted  during  that  period  if  the  tem- 
perature in  the  orchard  reaches  29°  at  the  height  of  the  tree 
tops  or  by  the  time  30°  is  reached  if  the  temperature  is 
dropping  rapidly. 

There  are  a  number  of  different  kinds  of  torches  and  lighters 
used  in  firing  the  oil  in  the  pots.  With  one  of  the  more  effec- 
tive kinds  and  everything  working  well,  a  man  will  light  250 
to  300  pots  in  an  hour. 


A  Consideration  of  Adverse  Temperatures  335 

Coal  is  used  to  some  extent  in  heating  orchards,  as  pre- 
viously noted.  It  is  distributed  in  wire  baskets  or  sheet 
metal  containers  which  are  placed  at  intervals  throughout 
the  orchard  as  are  the  oil-pots.  They  are  less  satisfactory 
on  the  whole  than  oil,  when  the  latter  is  obtainable  at  a 
reasonable  price,  since  it  is  much  more  difficult  to  get  the 
coal  to  burning  than  it  is  the  oil ;  it  requires  a  long  time  for 
the  fires  to  give  off  much  heat  even  after  they  are  started, 
and  in  other  ways  coal  is  less  effective  than  oil  for  orchard 
heating.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has  certain  advantages  so 
that  perhaps  the  ideal  provision  for  orchard  heating  combines 
both  the  coal  and  oil  equipment. 

In  some  places,  where  wood  is  plentiful  and  cheap,  small 
wood  fires  at  frequent  intervals  throughout  the  orchard  have 
proved  as  effective  as  any  means  available  in  warding  off 
frosts. 

DOES  ORCHARD  HEATING  PAY  ? 

The  inevitable  question  which  arises  is  whether  orchard 
heating  pays.  Prices  for  heaters,  fuel,  and  the  other  necessary 
equipment  vary  widely.  It  is  not  of  importance  in  this 
connection  to  estimate  specifically  cost  of  equipment.  It  is 
obvious,  however,  that  it  is  considerable,  especially  when  the 
reserve  supply  of  oil  is  considered.  Probably  from  $40  to 
$70  an  acre  represent  conservative  limits,  though  the  cost 
of  materials  tends  to  increase  rather  rapidly.  The  labor  is 
considerable  and  much  of  it  is  wearing  on  the  individual. 
Not  infrequently  a  grower  has  been  to  the  expense  of  heating 
several  times  in  a  season  only  to  find  that  a  neighbor  who  did 
not  heat  had  a  full  crop  of  fruit.  Or,  after  heating  success- 
fully for  several  nights,  there  comes  a  temperature  so  low  that 
it  cannot  be  counteracted,  or  it  may  be  the  reserve  supply  of 


336  Peach-Groioing 

oil  is  exhausted,  and  as  a  result  the  grower  loses  not  only  his 
fruit  crop,  but  all  the  cost  of  the  fuel,  labor,  and  energy  pre- 
viously expended  in  trying  to  save  it. 

While  some  years  ago  orchard  heating  was  much  exploited 
and  widely  practiced,  its  limitations  are  more  narrow  than 
was  at  one  time  believed  to  be  the  case.  The  limitations 
are  economic  rather  than  physical.  Given  an  adequate 
number  of  heaters  and  a  sufficient  supply  of  oil,  the  grower 
can  hold  a  temperature  in  an  orchard  above  the  danger 
point,  under  all  ordinary  conditions  in  any  of  the  well- 
defined  peach-growing  regions.  But  there  has  come  to  be 
a  strong  conviction  among  peach-growers  that  where  it  is 
necessary  to  heat  an  orchard  often  enough  to  warrant  the 
expense  of  equipping  it  for  heating,  the  region  or  locality  is 
such  that  some  crop  other  than  peaches  had  better  be  grown. 
As  a  result  of  this  growing  conviction,  heaters  are  now  rarely 
used  in  some  regions  where  a  few  years  ago  the  practice  was 
very  general. 

Another  factor  in  this  consideration,  or  rather  the  same 
factor  from  another  standpoint,  is  the  margin  of  profit  in 
growing  and  marketing  the  crop.  The  peach-grower  has 
not  been  able  in  recent  years  to  operate  on  any  assurance  of 
large  profits.  Hence  the  added  expense  of  heating,  or  even 
of  maintaining  the  investment  represented  in  the  equipment, 
including  a  reserve  supply  of  oil,  has  become  the  economic 
factor  above  indicated. 

On  the  other  hand,  where  a  fruit  crop  is  habitually  growm 
and  handled  on  a  sufficiently  large  margin  of  profit  to  stand 
the  expense,  the  equipping  of  an  orchard  for  heating  is 
practicable.  For  instance,  in  one  of  the  lemon-growing 
districts  of  California,  the  management  of  one  of  the  large 
companies  discarded  a  supply  of  ordinary  type  heaters  as 


A  Consideration  of  Adverse  Temperatures  337 

ineflficlent  and  equipped  their  grove  with  a  large  reservoir 
type  each  holding  seven  gallons  of  oil,  representing  an  ib- 
vestment  in  equipment  and  supplies  of  $180  an  acre  and  an 
estimated  annual  acre  charge  for  interest,  upkeep,  deteriora- 
tion, and  the  like  of  $33  an  acre.  However,  the  margin 
of  profit  in  this  case  was  believed  to  justify  the  cost  of  this 
form  of  crop  insurance. 


CHAPTER  XV 

ANNUAL  COST  FACTORS  IN  GROWING  PEACHES 

From  a  business  standpoint  it  is  important  that  a  peach- 
grower  should  know  what  it  costs  him  to  produce  a  crop  of 
fruit.  From  the  orchard  management  standpoint,  it  is  an 
exceedingly  difficult  matter  to  determine  accurately.  The 
price  and  efficiency  of  labor,  seasonal  conditions,  and  cost  of 
supplies  and  equipment  vary  from  year  to  year.  The  size 
of  the  crop  also  varies.  The  variation  in  the  crop  from  year 
to  year  is  perhaps  the  most  uncertain  factor  of  all  in  deter- 
mining costs.  The  orchard  must  be  maintained  whether  the 
crop  is  light  or  heavy,  or  even  if  there  be  none.  Most  of  the 
overhead  charges,  including  management,  interest  on  the  in- 
vestment, taxes,  and  the  like,  are  constant  factors  of  expense. 
If  the  crop  is  light,  some  of  the  labor  items,  thinning  the 
fruit  for  example,  are  reduced  in  proportion  to  the  size  of 
the  crop,  but  for  the  major  operations  the  cost  is  not  greatly 
affected  by  the  size  of  the  crop.  The  profits,  therefore,  come 
largely  from  the  regular  production  of  good  crops. 

While  it  may  be  both  desirable  and  practicable  for  the 
grower  to  keep  a  very  accurate  cost-account  with  his  orchard, 
his  figures  would  be  little  more  than  suggestive  so  far  as  other 
orchards  are  concerned,  but  of  value  in  that  respect.  A  care- 
ful consideration  of  the  annual  cost  factors,  however,  is  of 
definite  concern  to  every  grower,  at  least  so  far  as  they  have 
to  do  with  orchard  maintenance. 

338 


Annual  Cost  Factors  in  Growing  Peaches  339 

For  the  purpose  of  calling  to  the  attention  of  the  reader  the 
more  important  annual  cost  factors  in  the  growing  of  peaches, 
the  following  citations  are  made  : 

The  cost  of  growing  peaches  in  the  Potomac  Valley  in 
West  Virginia  has  been  investigated  by  Arnold.^  The  cost 
factors  which  he  discusses  are  of  definite  interest  in  the 
present  connection.  Because  of  their  relation  to  some  of  the 
maintenance  operations,  the  soils  used  for  peaches  in  the 
region  in  question  are  important  to  note  : 

"The  two  types  of  soil  considered  most  favorable  for 
peach  orcharding  in  the  mountainous  section  of  the  basin  of 
the  Potomac  are  the  '  chert '  soils,  derived  from  a  limestone 
which  in  the  process  of  disintegration  has  left  hard,  flinty, 
loose  rocks  lying  on  top  of  a  rich,  dark  loamy,  sometimes 
sandy  soil,  and  the  red  soils  derived  from  a  red  and  pink 
shale  and  sandstone. 

"The  chert  land  usually  drains  well  and  does  not  wash, 
except  in  particular  cases  where  the  land  is  very  steep  and  is 
underlain  by  a  hard,  impervious  clay.  It  is  usually  found 
on  the  sides  and  tops  of  long  steep  ranges,  such  as  Romney 
Mountain,  just  west  of  Romney,  or  on  the  tops  and  sides  of 
the  knoblike  mountains  near  Keyser,  W.  Va.  Besides  being 
very  fertile,  the  loose  rock  lying  on  the  surface  holds  the 
moisture,  a  condition  found  to  be  very  important  in  peach- 
growing. 

"The  red  soils  are  found  principally  on  the  east  slopes  of 
mountain  ranges  and  high  valleylike  areas  between  the  hills, 
known  locally  as  ' levels.'  These  lands  as  a  rule  have  a  more 
level  topography  and  are  usually  free  from  large,  loose 
stones.  On  the  hillsides,  however,  these  soils  are  shallow, 
sometimes  being  only  a  few  inches  deep  over  the  sandrock  or 
» U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  BuU.  29  (1913). 


340  Peach-Growing 

shale  lying  beneath.  Two  and  four  horse  implements  are 
worked  to  advantage  on  such  soils,  thus  lessening  the  cost 
of  cultivation,  while  on  the  chert  lands  one  and  two  horse 
implements  must  be  used." 

As  a  rule  the  trees  do  not  grow  as  large  on  these  soils  as 
they  do  on  the  fertile  loams  that  occur  in  some  of  the  other 
peach  districts,  hence  they  are  more  easily  handled  in  certain 
respects. 

Of  the  seasonal  activities  in  the  region  in  question,  Arnold 
gives  a  basis  of  cost-accounting  as  follows : 

Tillage.  —  The  orchards  are  cultivated  three  to  six  times 
each  season.  Where  perfectly  clean  tillage  is  given  on  some 
of  the  more  level,  smooth  lands,  six  to  eight  cultivations  with 
horse  implements  are  necessary.  Depending  on  the  number 
of  cultivations,  soil,  and  topography,  the  cost  an  acre  a  year 
varies  from  $5  to  $15  with  $2  additional  where  a  cover-crop 
is  used.  The  usual  cost  for  tillage,  however,  on  the  red  soils 
is  about  $10  an  acre  a  year;  on  the  chert  lands,  about  $15. 

Fertilizers. —  Most  of  the  growers  in  this  region  find  it  pays 
to  use  fertilizers  with  considerable  regularity.  The  custom 
is  to  apply  250  to  500  pounds  to  the  acre  of  a  high-grade 
complete  fertilizer.  (From  what  is  stated  in  the  chapter 
on  fertilizers,  it  may  be  questioned  whether  in  this  district 
a  complete  fertilizer  can  be  used  economically  in  the  average 
orchard.)  With  prices  that  have  prevailed  in  the  past  the 
fertilizer  cost  has  averaged  about  $6.25  an  acre  each  year. 

Pruning.  —  The  number  of  trees  that  a  man  may  be  ex- 
pected to  prune  in  a  day  varies,  of  course,  with  the  size  and 
character  of  the  tree  as  well  as  the  expertness  of  the  man. 
Under  average  conditions,  however,  1000  one-year-old  trees 
a  day  should  be  pruned  by  one  man,  500  two  years  old,  200 
three  years  old,  and  125  four  years  old.     Peach  trees  are 


Annual  Cost  Factors  in  Growing  Peaches  341 

not  allowed  to  develop  large  heads,  so  that  after  the  trees  are 
four  years  old  one  man  may  be  expected  to  prune  about  100 
trees  a  day. 

Spraying.  —  The  spraying  outfit  on  the  more  level,  smooth 
lands  consists  of  a  tank,  a  3  or  3^  horsepower  gasoline  engine, 
and  other  fixtures  mounted  on  a  truck  and  hauled  by  a  two- 
horse  team.  The  number  of  trees  an  outfit  and  crew  may  be 
expected  to  spray  in  a  day  will  vary,  of  course,  with  the  size 
of  the  trees,  the  character  of  the  land  on  which  the  spraying 
is  done,  the  convenience  of  facilities,  as  well  as  the  purpose 
for  which  the  spraying  is  done.  Three  men  operate  each 
outfit  and  in  orchards  six  to  twelve  j^ears  old  on  smooth  land 
will  spray  500  to  600  trees  a  day  when  in  the  dormant  state 
and  800  to  1000  trees  a  day  when  in  leaf.  These  same  units 
would  apply  to  apple  trees  at  about  the  same  age.  As  a  rule, 
peach  trees  are  sprayed  three  times  a  year  —  once  in  March 
for  San  Jose  scale  with  the  concentrated  lime-sulfur  solution 
and  twice  for  brown-rot  and  scab  with  the  self-boiled  lime- 
sulfur  mixture,  once  soon  after  the  petals  fall,  and  again 
about  three  or  four  weeks  later.  In  the  two  later  sprayings 
arsenate  of  lead  is  added  to  the  lime-sulfur  mixture  as  a 
remedy  for  the  curculio.  A  few  have  found  it  necessary  to 
make  a  third  application  with  that  mixture  during  the  summer 
to  prevent  the  brown-rot,  especially  on  the  late-maturing 
varieties. 

Digging  out  peach-borer.  —  The  implements  used  are  a 
trowel,  knife,  and  sometimes  a  piece  of  wire  to  aid  in  digging 
out  the  borers.  The  trees  should  be  gone  over  twice  each 
season  —  spring  and  fall.  Under  average  conditions  one 
man  will  "worm"  50  full-grown  trees  a  day. 

Thinning. — After  the  "June  drop"  the  fruit  may  need 
thinning.     This  is  an  operation  that  adds  considerably  to 


342  Peach-Grovdng 

the  expense  of  producing  the  crop.  In  the  average  large 
orchard,  for  varieties  which  fruit  heavily  and  require  thorough 
thinning,  one  man  will  thin  20  to  25  trees  a  day. 

In  addition  to  these  annual  cost  factors  in  the  operation  of 
an  orchard,  the  permanent  equipment  which  must  be  main- 
tained is  considerable.  Arnold  enumerates  the  equipment 
for  a  260-acre  orchard  so  located  that  the  owner  must  pro- 
vide living  quarters  for  his  crews  as  follows : 

"The  average  cost  of  equipment  on  several  large  orchards 
was  found  to  be,  in  terms  of  the  area  of  the  farm,  about  $30 
per  acre.  Many  are  equipped  at  much  less  cost.  A  great 
saving  may  be  made  where  companies  of  large  capital  con- 
struct very  cheap  cottages  for  summer  camps  only.  Such 
companies  having  orchards  in  different  localities  of  a  section 
may  shift  their  forces  from  one  orchard  to  another  when 
needed,  thus  enabling  them  to  economize  in  labor.  In  such 
cases  the  total  equipment  need  not  cost  over  $15  to  $20 
per  acre. 

"  On  a  260-acre  orchard  the  equipment  of  1  boarding 
house,  $900 ;  1  packing  house,  $900 ;  1  barn,  $900 ;  sleeping 
quarters  for  40  men,  $600;  3  tenant  houses,  $1200;  3 
sprayers,  $750 ;  12  horses,  $2400 ;  implements  and  tools, 
$500 ;  4  wagons,  $260 ;  total,  $8410,  or  $32.36  per  acre.  On 
a  400-acre  orchard  the  equipment  was  5  tenant  houses,  $4000 ; 
10  packing  sheds,  $400 ;  camp  building,  $1000 ;  barn  with 
water  equipment,  $1000;  5  spraying  outfits,  $1250;  16 
mules,  $3200;  6  wagons,  $390;  harrows,  plows,  etc.,  $500; 
miscellaneous  tools,  $150;  total,  $11,890,  or  $29.70  per 
acre." 

The  values  given  in  this  summary  are  those  which  ob- 
tained in  1913.  Some  articles  of  equipment  have  advanced 
since  these  estimates  were  made.     It  will  be  noted  that  the 


Annual  Cost  Factors  in  Growing  Peaches  343 

equipment  investment  apart  from  the  land  is  given  at  $15 
to  $20  to  approximately  $30  an  acre. 

Barden  and  Eustace  ^  have  given  a  detailed  financial 
account  with  a  fifteen-acre  peach  orchard  in  Michigan  which 
is  instructive  and  of  value  here.  The  orchard  contained 
about  1550  trees  planted  20  by  20  feet  and  made  up  of  the 
leading  varieties  to  be  found  in  the  usual  Michigan  orchard. 
Manual  labor,  except  pruning,  was  charged  at  15  cents  an 
hour;  20  cents  an  hour  was  allowed  for  pruning.  Horse 
labor  is  rated  at  15  cents  an  hour  for  a  team  of  two  horses. 
Hauling  to  market  is  a  flat  rate  of  $2  a  trip.  The  figures  for 
the  sixth  year  of  the  orchard  (which  was  for  the  season  of 
1912)  are  apparently  typical  of  this  orchard  in  full  bearing. 
They  are  given  in  Table  X. 

It  will  be  noted  in  the  table  that  a  flat  rate  charge 
of  five  dollars  for  the  fifteen-acre  orchard  is  made  for  the 
equipment  and  that  interest  on  the  land  is  included  in  the 
account ;  but  obviously  there  are  other  overhead  expenses, 
such  as  supervision  and  taxes,  which  if  included  would 
materially  increase  the  cost  of  production,  and  decrease 
accordingly  the  net  profit. 

The  increasing  annual  costs  in  the  development  of  an 
orchard  from  its  first  to  its  eighth  year  is  shown  by  McCue  ^ 
in  reporting  on  the  Delaware  station  orchard.  The  orchard 
in  question  consists  of  1033  trees,  comprising  55  Champion, 
320  Belle,  and  658  Elberta.  The  trees  are  planted  20  by  20 
feet ;  the  orchard,  therefore,  contains  slightly  more  than  9^ 
acres  of  land.  The  orchard  is  maintained  for  experimental 
purposes  and  is  divided  into  many  different  blocks  for 
fertilizer  and   cover-crop  investigations.     It  is,   therefore, 

»  Mich.  Expt.  Sta.  Special  Bull.  63. 
2  Del.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  113. 


344 


Peach-Growing 


Table  X.  —  Labor  costs  of  operating  and  financial  state- 
ment OF  A  Michigan  peach  orchard  in  its  sixth  season 


Item 

Total  Hours 

Total 

houbs  per 

Acre 

Cost 
PER  Acre 

Man 

Horse 

Man 

Horse 

Lime-sulfur,  1475  gal. 

$18.44 

$1.23 

Applying  same       .     . 

40 

40 

9.00 

2.66 

2.66 

.60 

Trees,  16  at  lOj*.   .     . 

1.60 

.10 

Planting  same  .     .     . 

4 

.60 

.26 

.04 

Pruning        .     .     .     . 

367 

73.40 

24.46 

4.89 

Raking  brush   .     .     . 

45 

6.75 

3.00 

.45 

Hauling  brush       .     . 

20 

20 

9.00 

1.33 

1.33 

.60 

Manure,  12  loads 

18.00 

1.20 

Applying  same      .     . 

10 

30 

3.75 

.66 

2.00 

.25 

Plowing,  1  horse   .     . 

33 

33 

7.42 

2.20 

2.20 

.49 

Plowing,  2  horses  .     . 

38 

76 

11.40 

2.53 

5.06 

.76 

Harrowing   .     .     .     . 

114 

228 

34.20 

7.60 

15.20 

2.28 

Hoeing 

34 

5.10 

2.26 

.34 

Sowing  cover-crop 

10 

1.50 

.66 

.10 

Oats,  12  bushels  at  40j! 

4.80 

.32 

Clover,    1    bushel   at 

$4.00 

4.00 

.26 

Thinning      .     .     .     . 

113 

16.95 

7.53 

1.13 

Picking 

567 

85.05 

37.80 

5.67 

Trucking      .... 

164 

164 

36.90 

10.93 

10.93 

2.46 

Packing 

397 

59.55 

26.46 

3.97 

Hauling,  33  trips 

66.00 

4.40 

Packages      .... 

264.43 

17.62 

Equipment  charge     . 

5.00 

.33 

Interest  on  land    .     . 

90.00 

6.00 

Totals  .... 

1,956 

591 

$832.84 

130.34 

39.38 

$55.49 

Received  from  2128  bushels  of  peaches' $2,920.99 

Total  cost 832.84 

Net  profit $2,088.15 

Net  profit  per  acre 139.21 

Average  price  received  per  bushel $1.38 

Cost  per  bushel .40 

Net  profit  per  bushel $.98 


Anniial  Cost  Factors  in  Growing  Peaches  345 

not  typical  of  a  commercial  orchard,  yet  the  financial  showing 
as  far  as  yields  and  returns  are  concerned  is  probably  above 
those  of  the  average  commercial  plantation. 

The  orchard  was  planted  in  the  spring  of  1908.  The 
first  season  corn  was  inter-planted.  In  subsequent  years 
clean  tillage  has  been  given  until  about  the  first  of 
August,  with  five  to  seven  cultivations  each  season.  With 
the  exception  of  one  season,  the  trees  have  been  "wormed" 
for  borers  twice  each  season.  Pruning  and  spraying  have 
been  done  according  to  the  usual  program  for  these 
operations. 

The  labor  is  estimated  at  15  cents  an  hour;  the  time  of  a 
man  and  one  horse  at  27-2-  cents  an  hour;  a  man  and  two 
horses  at  40  cents  an  hour.  For  1908  and  1909  the  cost  of 
labor  and  materials  was  estimated.  In  subsequent  seasons 
daily  labor  records  have  been  kept.  The  figures  in  Table 
XI  summarize  the  labor  and  material  costs  for  each  season 
from  1908  to  1915  inclusive. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  table  is  not  intended  to 
show  the  cost  of  developing  an  orchard  nor  of  producing 
peaches,  since  no  overhead  charges  are  included  in  the  items 
specified.  Such  charges  consist  of  supervision,  interest  on 
the  investment,  taxes,  depreciation  of  equipment,  and  pos- 
sibly other  minor  items.  In  some  sections  in  which  the  price 
of  land  is  high,  the  interest  on  the  investment  represents  the 
largest  single  acre  item  of  cost  in  the  growing  of  fruit.  The 
figures  in  the  table  below,  however,  are  of  value  in  indicating 
the  trend  of  annual  increase  in  the  various  cost  factors  aside 
from  overhead  charges  from  the  first  season  of  an  orchard 
until  it  reaches  maturity. 

This  orchard  bore  its  first  crop  in  1912.  The  annual  aver- 
age yield  a  tree  of  the  two  principal  varieties  which  included 


346 


Peach-Groioing 


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Annual  Cost  Factors  in  Growing  Peaches 


347 


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348 


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658  trees  of  Ei- 
berta  and  320 
trees  of  Belle  is 
given  herewith  in 
Table  XII. 

While  the  fig- 
ures in  Tables 
X,  XI,  and  XII 
give  the  reader 
nothing  conclu- 
sive with  regard 
to  the  cost  of 
growing  peaches, 
they  direct  spe- 
cific attention  to 
the  more  impor- 
tant annual  cost 
factors,  other 
than  those  in- 
cluded in  what 
are  commonly 
termed  "overhead 
charges." 

No  attempt  is 
made  in  the  pres- 
ent connection  to 
discuss  the  mat- 
ter of  profits. 
Obviously  they 
must  vary  widely 
from  year  to  year, 
since     they     de- 


Annual  Cost  Factors  in  Growing  Peaches  349 

pend  on  factors  that  are  variable.  There  is  close  connection 
between  the  market  price  and  the  abundance  of  the  supply  of 
fruit  on  the  market  at  any  time.  In  seasons  of  large  produc- 
tion, the  average  returns  to  the  grower  are  commonly  small. 
Not  infrequently  a  comparatively  small  crop  throughout  the 
country,  or  in  a  region  which  ordinarily  supplies  the  markets 
during  a  rather  definite  period,  may  bring  the  growers 
actually  more  money  because  of  the  high  prices  received, 
than  does  a  much  larger  crop  which  because  of  its  abun- 
dance makes  prices  low. 

So  far  as  individual  orchards  are  concerned,  aside  from 
the  matter  of  prevailing  market  prices  for  the  fruit,  the 
yield  is  perhaps  the  most  important  single  factor  in  deter- 
mining net  proceeds.  It  costs  nearly  as  much  to  produce 
a  small  crop  as  it  does  a  large  one.  The  overhead  charges 
and  the  expense  of  tillage,  pruning,  and  insect  and  disease 
control  and  other  items  of  orchard  maintenance  are  sub- 
stantially the  same  regardless  of  the  size  of  the  crop.  The 
principal  difference  is  in  thinning  and  perhaps  in  fertilizing 
in  some  instances,  and  of  course  there  are  differences  in 
harvesting  and  handling  the  crop;  but  these  items  are 
proportionate,  or  nearly  so,  to  the  quantity  of  fruit  handled. 

For  these  reasons,  and  others  that  require  no  specific 
mention,  it  is  difficult  to  satisfy  an  inquiring  and  analytical 
mind  in  response  to  the  question,  often  asked,  whether  peach- 
growing  is  a  profitable  enterprise. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

PEACH  VARIETIES,  BOTANY  AND 
CLASSIFICATION 

The  question  of  what  varieties  to  plant  presents  itself  in 
one  form  or  another  to  every  prospective  planter  of  peaches. 
The  financial  success  or  failure  of  the  orchard  is  often  deter- 
mined by  the  way  in  which  this  question  is  answered.  There 
is  a  chance  for  the  exercise  of  individual  choice  within  certain 
limits  and  the  selection  of  favorite  varieties.  The  environ- 
ment must  be  considered  in  the  relation  of  its  many  factors 
to  the  behavior  of  the  varieties,  the  market  conditions  that 
must  be  met,  transportation  facilities,  and  the  manner  in 
which  the  fruit  is  to  be  used.  In  many  cases,  the  sequence 
of  ripening  is  of  very  great  importance  and  presents  one  of 
the  most  difficult  problems  to  adjust  satisfactorily,  and  also 
one  concerning  which  adequate  information  is  often  lacking. 
If  a  grower  whose  entire  enterprise  is  the  production  of 
peaches  wishes  to  ship  fruit  throughout  the  longest  possible 
period,  it  is  essential  that  his  varieties  be  so  selected  that 
they  will  give  him  a  continuous  supply  of  fruit.  Otherwise 
there  will  be  periods  when  his  crew  will  have  to  be  idle  on 
account  of  breaks  in  the  sequence  of  ripening ;  or  it  may  be 
that  at  some  periods  he  will  have  more  varieties  ripening  at 
the  same  time  than  he  can  handle  with  the  crew  which  is 
adequate  for  the  greater  portion  of  the  crop.  Either  extreme 
presents  a  serious  economic  condition  in  the  management  of 

350 


Peach  Varieties,  Botany  and  Classification  351 

the  orchard.  To  handle  the  crop  satisfactorily  and  econom- 
ically, a  continuous  and  uniform  supply  of  fruit  is  essential. 

While  the  matter  of  the  adaptability  of  varieties  to  different 
conditions  calls  for  much  consideration,  it  is  usually  a  factor 
that  is  less  acute  than  with  many  other  fruits.  In  other 
words,  there  are  doubtless  more  varieties  of  peaches  that  will 
develop  to  a  good  degree  of  perfection  under  a  wider  range 
of  conditions  than  is  true  of  many  other  kinds  of  fruits.  But 
the  selection  of  varieties  for  growing  in  different  sections  that 
will  ripen  at  a  time  when  the  markets  are  not  overstocked 
is  the  real  problem  in  this  connection.  Some  districts  owe 
their  prominence  and  importance  as  peach-growing  centers 
largely  to  the  fact  that  some  of  the  best  market  varieties 
ripen  in  these  districts  at  times  when  they  usually  bring 
exceptionally  large  prices,  because  at  those  times  relatively 
little  fruit  is  being  marketed  from  other  districts.  Thus  a 
peach-grower  in  New  Jersey  may  know  that  the  Greensboro 
peach  does  well  under  his  conditions,  but  that  he  cannot 
market  it  to  advantage  when  there  is  a  good  crop  of  Elberta 
peaches  in  Georgia,  though  it  is  profitable  in  seasons  of  light 
crops  in  Georgia.  Similarly  the  Salwey  peach  was  formerly 
a  profitable  variety  to  grow  in  some  parts  of  California,  but 
in  certain  sections  of  that  state  it  cannot  now  compete  to 
advantage  with  the  Elberta  peach  from  Colorado.  Accord- 
ingly, the  Salwey  peach  is  not  found  in  many  of  the  younger 
orchards  in  certain  districts  of  California  in  which  it  was 
formerly  a  variety  of  considerable  prominence. 

The  choosing  of  varieties  for  particular  uses  injects  into 
the  variety  problem  still  other  factors.  For  example,  in 
California  certain  varieties  are  planted  for  canning,  others 
for  drying,  still  others  for  shipping  in  the  fresh  state.  While 
some  are  dual-purpose  varieties,  particular  adaptations  to 


352  Peach-Growing 

different  uses  are  fairly  well  differentiated.  Those  largely 
planted  in  California  for  canning  are  yellow  clingstone 
sorts.  The  firm,  meaty,  fine  grained  flesh  renders  certain 
sorts  of  particular  value  for  this  purpose.  On  the  other 
hand,  those  used  for  drying  are  rather  dry  fleshed  freestone 
sorts.  In  still  other  respects,  special  adaptations  are  recog- 
nized. 

New  varieties  habitually  present  special  problems,  and 
frequently  offer  peculiar  temptations  to  growers  of  limited 
experience.  Not  infrequently  they  are  introduced  to  the 
trade  with  extravagant  claims  as  to  their  merits  or  value. 
The  temptation  is  to  accept  such  claims  as  representing  the 
results  of  mature  and  widely  developed  experience  when  in 
reality  the  variety  may  not  have  been  grown  outside  the 
region  of  its  origin.  In  other  words,  novelties  and  new  or 
little  known  sorts,  in  general,  should  be  planted  cautiously 
and  as  a  rule  only  in  sufficient  quantity  to  test  them  until 
after  their  merits  and  adaptability  to  the  conditions  have 
been  determined  by  such  tests. 

It  may  be  stated  in  this  connection  also  that  peach  varieties 
are  regarded  as  self-fertile,  hence  it  is  safe  to  plant  single 
varieties  in  large  blocks  if  desired  without  the  necessity  of 
providing  other  sorts  to  insure  cross-pollination  —  a  very 
important  provision  that  needs  to  be  made  in  case  of  most 
apple,  pear,  and  many  plum  varieties.  A  few  growers  have 
an  impression  that  certain  sorts  of  peaches  fruit  better 
when  planted  with  other  varieties  which  furnish  means  for 
cross-pollination,  but  this  apparently  finds  little  to  support 
it  in  the  experience  of  most  growers. 

One  of  the  best  guides  for  a  prospective  peach-grower  in 
choosing  varieties  is  the  experience  of  growers  already  well 
established  in  the  locality  where  the  new  planting  is  to  be 


Plate  XX\11I.  —  7'.///,  :>  <lcsir:il,|,.  ..ri'li;ird  wagon  and  cou\-euieut 
picking-baskets ;  center,  packing  in  the  orchard  in  one-half  bushel 
Delaware  baskets ;   bottom,  a  wagon  loaded  with  Delaware  baskets. 


Peach  Varieties,  Botany  and  Classification  353 

made  or  in  one  In  which  the  conditions  are  similar  to  those 
where  the  new  orchard  is  to  be  established. 

The  peach  varieties  named  in  the  lists  below  show  the 
principal  sorts  that  are  now  being  grown  in  different  sections 
of  the  United  States.  The  approximate  date  when  each  one 
ripens  in  the  sections  where  grown  is  also  shown.  These 
variety  lists  and  the  appended  dates  are  based  largely  on  the 
experience  of  commercial  peach-growers  in  the  different 
sections  indicated.  The  ripening  dates,  however,  though 
supplied  by  growers,  should  be  considered  in  the  light  of 
several  facts  :  There  may  be  variations  in  the  date  of  ripen- 
ing of  a  variety  in  the  same  orchard  in  different  years  of  one 
to  two  weeks  or  even  more,  due  to  climatic  or  other  con- 
ditions. Very  vigorous  trees,  as  when  stimulated  with 
nitrogenous  manures,  will  ripen  their  fruit  later  than  less 
vigorous  trees  of  the  same  variety.  The  sequence  of  ripen- 
ing of  varieties,  especially  when  they  normally  mature  rather 
close  together,  may  not  be  the  same  in  successive  years,  even 
in  the  same  orchard.  Moreover,  the  sequence  may  vary 
somewhat  in  different  regions.  Differences  in  elevation  make 
wide  differences  in  the  ripening  of  a  variety  even  in  orchards 
in  the  same  locality ;  the  higher  the  elevation,  the  later  the 
date  of  maturity.  The  ripening  dates,  therefore,  while  of 
much  help  in  selecting  varieties  for  planting,  should  be  con- 
sidered as  relative  and  approximate  only  with  regard  to  any 
one  season,  rather  than  as  absolute  and  definitely  fixed 
occurrences. 

With  these  precautions,  the  following  lists  should  prove 
helpful  to  the  prospective  planter.  The  arrangement  of  the 
lists  is  alphabetically  by  states.  The  region  to  which  each 
list  applies  is  indicated  by  the  name  of  an  important  peach 
center  or  district,  together  with  the  general  section  of  the 
2a 


354  Peach-Growing 

state  in  which  it  is  located  and  as  nearly  as  possible  the 
elevation  of  the  principal  orchard  sites.  The  varieties  are 
named  in  the  lists  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  sequence  in 
which  they  ripen. 

Table    XIII.  —  Lists   of   peach   varieties   and    approximate 

DATES   OF    FIRST    RIPENING    AS    GROWN    IN   IMPORTANT   COMMER- 
CIAL   DISTRICTS    THROUGHOUT   THE   UnITED    StATES 

Alabama 

Atmore  (South  central,  elevation  300  feet) 

Mayflower May  25  to  June  1 

Arp  {Arp  Beauty)    ....  June  1  to  June  5 

Greensboro June  1  to  June  5 

Carman June  3  to  June  15 

Early  Elberta June  10  to  June  20 

Belle June  15  to  July  1 

Elberta July  1  to  July  20 

Arizona 

Thatcher  (Southeast,  Gila  Valley,  elevation  3000  feet) 

Mayflower June  10 

Early  Elberta July  20 

Chinese  Cling July  25  to  31 

Elberta August  1 

Tempe  (Central,  elevation  1200  feet) 
Alexander 

Early  Wheeler  {Red  Bird  Cling) 
Tuskena  (Tuscan) 
Lovell 
PhiUips 
Salwey 

In  the  Southern  Valleys  * 

Alexander  St.  John 

Dewey  Briggs 

1  Ariz.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  78,  "Relations  of  Weather  Crops  and 
Varieties  adapted  to  Arizona  Conditions," 


Peach  Varieties,  Botany  and  Classification  355 

Belle  Krummel 

Elberta  Sylphide 

Late  Crawford  Salwey 
Wheatland 

Arkansas 

Highland  (Southwest,  elevation  500-600  feet) 
Early    Wheeler     (Red    Bird 

Cling) June  15  to  20 

Elberta July  10 

Van  Buren  (West  central,  elevation  400-450  feet) 

Early  Wheeler June  5  to  10 

Carman 

Mamie  Ross 

Elberta July  15 

Springdale,  Harrison  (Northwest,  elevation  1000-1300  feet) 

Early  Wheeler July  1 

Slappey July  15 

Champion July  25 

Elberta July  25  to  August  10 

California 

Ontario  ^  (Southern,  elevation  1000  feet) 

Elberta July  12  to  20 

Tuskena  (Tuscan)  ....    Jxily  12  to  20 

Muir 

Lovell 

Phillips 

Hanford  ^  (Central,  elevation  250-300  feet) 

Elberta July  15 

Tuskena  (Tuscan)  ....    July  25 

1  These  varieties  are  used  mostly  for  canning. 

2  This  list  represents  the  principal  varieties  grown  in  the  San 
Joaquin  Valley,  one  of  the  important  peach  districts  of  California. 
The  time  of  ripening  varies  from  10  to  20  days,  depending  on  the 
location  in  this  valley.  The  dates  given  are  for  a  relatively  early 
location.  The  Elberta,  Muir,  and  Lovell  are  used  principally  for 
drying ;  the  Tuskena,  Orange  Cling,  and  Phillips,  for  canning. 


356  Peach-Growing 

Muir July  25 

Orange  Cling August  1 

Lovell August  1 

Phillips September  1 

Vacaville  i  (Central-Sacramento  Valley,  elevation  175-200  feet) 

Alexander May  15  to  June  1 

Triumph June  1  to  June  10 

Early  Hale June  10  to  July  20 

St.  John June  15  to  July  1 

Foster July  1  to  July  10 

Early  Crawford July  1  to  July  10 

Elberta July  1  to  July  10 

Decker July  5  to  July  15 

Late  Crawford July  25  to  August  1 

Susquehanna August  1  to  August  10 

Salwey August  15  to  August  25 

Yuba  City  (Central-Sacramento  Valley,  elevation  70  feet) 

Tuskena  (Tuscan)  ....  July  15  to  August  1 

Johnson August  1  to  August  15 

Hauss August  1  to  August  15 

Walton August  1  to  August  15 

Albright  Cling August  10  to  August  25 

Muir  2 August  15  to  August  30 

LoveU  2 September  1  to  September  15 

Phillips September  1  to  September  15 

Newcastle  and  East  Auburn  (Central,  foot  hiUs,  elevation  1000- 
1400  feet) 

Mayflower May  25  to  June  10 

Alexander June  8  to  10 

Triumph June  12  to  30 

*  Vacaville  is  one  of  the  "earliest"  districts  in  California,  hence 
one  of  the  first  in  the  season  to  begin  the  shipping  of  fresh  fruits. 
Formerly  the  early  ripening  varieties  of  peaches  were  much  grown 
here,  but  in  recent  years  the  Elberta  has  become  the  principal 
shipping  variety. 

2  Used  largely  for  drying  but  also  for  canning ;  other  varieties 
in  the  list  are  grown  for  canning. 


Peach  Varieties,  Botany  and  Classification  357 

Early  Hale June  18  to  July  6 

St.  John June  28  to  July  15 

Early  Crawford July  10  to  27 

Foster July  15  to  31 

Strawberry July  15  to  31 

Elberta July  25 

Late  Crawford July  25  to  Aug^ust  13 

Tuskena 
Hauss 

Muir July  27  to  August  15 

Hale  (J.  H.) August  5  to  August  20 

Lovell August  5  to  August  30 

Phillips August  25 

Salwey August  25  to  September  15 

Levy 

Sherman October  1 

Colorado 

Palisades  (West  central,  Grand  Valley,  elevation  4750  feet) 

Alexander 
Carman 

Elberta  i August  20  to  31 

Orange  Cling 
Heath 

Paonia  (West  central,  elevation  5700  feet) 

Greensboro August  5  to  10 

Triumph August  7  to  16 

Carman August  12  to  26 

Early  Crawford August  28  to  September  8 

Elberta  ^ September  1  to  10 

Fitzgerald September  12  to  20 

Connecticut 

Cfreenwich  and  Wallingford  (Southwest,  elevation  30-75  feet) 

Greensboro August  3 

Carman August  12 

1  This  is  the  only  variety  grown  in  large  quantities. 


358  Peach-Growing 

Hiley August  20 

Champion August  20 

BeUe August  27 

Elberta September  1 

Hale  (J.  H.) September  1 

Stump September  5 

Late  Crawford September  12 

Fox September  15 

Iron  Mountain September  25 

Yalesville  and  Middlefield  (Central,  elevation  100-250  feet) 

Greensboro August  1  to  10 

Nectar August  10 

Carman August  15  to  20 

Hiley August  25  to  September  1 

Belle September  1  to  5 

Champion September  1  to  10 

Elberta September  5  to  10 

Frances September  10  to  15 

Stump September  15 

Fox September  20  to  25 

Stevens September  25  to  30 

Salwey October  15 

South  Glastonbury  (Central,  elevation  300-400  feet) 

Greensboro July  23 

Early  Rose July  29 

Carman August  10 

Hiley August  28 

Belle August  28 

Champion August  28 

Hale  (J.  H.) August  30 

Elberta September  1 


Delaware 

Wyoming  (Central,  elevation  40  feet) 

Belle August  10  to  20 

Hale  (J.  H.) August  18  to  25 

Elberta August  20  to  30 


Peach  Varieties,  Botany  and  Classification  359 


Florida 

Umatilla,   Deland,   Seville,   and  adjacent  sections  (East  central  to 
northeast,  elevation  50-70  feet) 

Jewel May  1  to  15 

Waldo May  8  to  20 

Angel 

Late  Bidwell 

Georgia 

Fort  Valley  (Central,  elevation  525  feet) 

Mayflower May  25  to  June  5 

Greensboro June  1  to  June  10 

Early  Rose June  10  to  June  18 

Carman June  20  to  June  30 

Hiley July  1  to  July  12 

Belle July  10  to  July  18 

Hale  (J.  H.) July  12  to  July  25 

Elberta July  15  to  July  25 

Cornelia  (Northeast,  elevation  1600-1700  feet) 

Carman June  25  to  July  4 

BeUe July  20  to  July  31 

Elberta July  25  to  August  3 

Idaho 

Snake  River  Valley  region  (Southwest,  elevation  2000-2500  feet) 

Sneed June  25 

Alexander July  4 

Triumph July  22 

Early  Hale August  1 

Champion August  20 

Elberta August  25 

Salwey September  25 

Lewiston  (Northwest,  elevation  800  feet) 

Triumph July  10  to  15 

Early  Hale July  15  to  20 


360  Peach-Growing 

Early  Crawford July  25  to  30 

Elberta August  1 

Late  Crawford August  1 

Foster August  5 

Muir August  10  to  15 

Salwey September  1  to  5 

Illinois 

Centralia  and  Southern  Illinois  (elevation,  50G-600  feet) 
Early    Wheeler     (Red    Bird 

Cling) July   15 

Triumph July  20 

WaddeU July  25 

Carman August  10 

Illinois August  10 

Minnie  (Alton) August  10 

Early  Crawford August  10 

Champion August  15 

BeUe August  18 

Ede August  18 

Thurber August  18 

Family  Favorite      ....  August  18 

Hale  (J.  H.) August  20 

Elberta  1 August  20 

Matthews August  30 

Late  Crawford September  8 

Beers  Smock September  10 

Heath September  25 

Salwey October  5 

Levy October  10 

Indiana  * 
(Central,  elevation  700  feet) 

Greensboro  * July  25 

Dewey August  10 

>  Elberta  is  estimated  to  be  90  per  cent  of  the  total. 

2  List  from  Ind.  Expt.  Sta.  Cire.  69,  "Peach  Growing  in  Indi- 
ana." Varieties  indicated  with  an  asterisk  (*)  are  suitable  for 
commercial  planting. 


Peach  Varieties y  Botany  and  Classification  361 

Carman  * August  12 

Mountain  Rose Au^st  15 

Fitzgerald August  20 

Early  Crawford August  20 

Champion  * August  25 

Belle  *        September  1 

Reeves September  3 

Elberta  * September  5 

ProUfie September  5 

Kalamazoo September  10 

Oldmixon  Free September  10 

Late  Crawford September  15 

Crosby  * September  15 

Gold  Drop September  20 

Smock September  20 

Salwey  * September  25 

Mitchell  (South  central,  elevation  700  feet) 

Champion August  1  to  10 

Belle August  1  to  10 

Elberta August  10  to  20 

Iowa 

Mt.  Pleasant  (Southeast,  elevation  730  feet) 

Alexander July  25 

Triumph August  1  to  15 

Champion August  15  to  31 

Elberta August  25  to  31 

Kansas 

Medicine  Lodge  (South  central,  elevation  1475  feet) 

Sneed June  18 

Alexander July  4 

Carman August  1 

Minne  (Alton) August  1 

Champion August  15  to  20 

Belle August  25 

Elberta August  25  to  30 

Hale  (J.  H.) September  1  to  10 

Wonderful October  10 


362  Peach-Growing 

Salwey October  10 

Heath October  10  to  15 

Levy  (Henrietta)     ....     October  20  to  25 

Kentucky 

Bowling  Green  (South  central,  elevation  500-550  feet) 

Alexander July  1 

Carman Jiily  15  to  20 

Champion August  1 

Elberta August  8  to  10 

Late  Crawford 
Stump 
Heath  Free 
Heath 
Levy 

Louisiana 

Plain  Dealing  (Northwest,  elevation  275  feet) 
Elberta July  10 

Maryla7id 

Salisbury  (Southeast,  elevation  25  feet) 

Greensboro July  11 

Carman July  24  to  28 

Champion July  31  to  August  8 

Ray August  10  to  15 

BeUe August  12 

Hale  (J.  H.) August  15 

Elberta August  19 

Frances August  24 

Boonsboro  and  Western  Maryland  (elevation  500-750  feet) 

Greensboro July  15 

Carman July  25  to  August  10 

Slappey August  1  to  August  10 

Champion August  1  to  August  15 

Belle August  10  to  August  20 

Oldmixon  Free August  15  to  August  25 

Ray August  15  to  August  20 


Peach  Varieties,  Botany  and  Classification  363 

Elberta August  20  to  September  1 

Late  Crawford September  1 

Chairs September  1 

Stevens September  5  to  15 

Beers  Smock September  5  to  15 

Smock September  10  to  20 

Geary September  10  to  20 

Salwey September  10  to  30 

Bilyeu October  1  to  10 


Massachusetts 

Wilhraham,  Grafton  (South  central,  elevation  300-550  feet) 

Greensboro July  27  to  August  1 

WaddeU August  8 

Carman August  12  to  15 

Mountain  Rose August  15 

Champion August  15  to  30 

Hiley August  20 

BeUe August  25 

Hale  (J.  H.) September  5  to  8 

Elberta September  8  to  10 

Fox September  20 

Iron  Mountain September  20  to  25 

Krummel October  10  to  25 

Ipswich  (Northeast,  elevation  25  feet) 

Greensboro August  5 

Waddell August  15 

Carman August  18 

Champion August  25 

Mountain  Rose August  25  to  30 

Hiley August  28 

Belle September  5  to  10 

Fitzgerald September  8 

Oldmixon  Free September  10  to  12 

Kalamazoo September  15  to  20 

Elberta September  15  to  20 

Crosby September  20 

Stump September  20  to  25 

Chairs September  25  to  30 

Stevens October  1 


364  Peach-Groioing 

Michigan 

Lake  Region  (Southwest,  elevation  600  feet) 

Carman August  10  to  15 

Dewey August  15 

Lewis August  15  to  20 

St.  John August  25  to  30 

Champion August  28 

Engle August  28  to  September  10 

Kalamazoo September  1  to  10 

New  Prolific September  1  to  8 

Belle September  1 

Fitzgerald September  1  to  8 

Elberta September  5  to  15 

Gold  Drop September  12  to  25 

Lemon  Free September  15  to  25 

Beers  Smock September  15  to  25 

Smock September  20  to  25 

Salwey September  20  to  October  5 

Missouri 

Koshkonong  (South  central,  elevation  975  feet) 
Elberta August  1 

Cedar  Gap  (South  central,  elevation  1700  feet) 

Carman July  15 

Champion August  10 

Elberta August  15  to  20 

Salwey September  25 

New  Hampshire 

Wilton  (South  central,  elevation  350  feet) 

Greensboro 
Waddell 

Carman August  20 

Mountain  Rose September  9 

Belle September  12 

Champion September  12 

Oldmixon  Free September  14 


Plate  XXIX.  —  Packing  Houses  and  Equipment.     Top,  exterior 
view ;   center,  interior  view ;    bottom,  a  canvas-topped  packing-table. 


Peach  Varieties,  Botany  and  Classification  365 

Elberta September  15  to  25 

Stump September  20 

Late  Crawford September  25  to  30 


New  Jersey 

Hammonton  and  southern  New  Jersey  (elevation  100-120  feet) 

Greensboro July  20  to  Au^st  1 

Carman August  1  to  10 

Connet August  1  to  10 

Hiley August  10 

Champion August  20 

BeUe August  20 

Elberta August  25  to  September  5 

Late  Crawford September  1 

Late  Stump September  10 

Marlton  (West  central,  elevation  100  feet) 

Greensboro July  15 

WaddeU August  1 

Carman August  1 

Champion       .     ...     .     .     .  August  10 

BeUe August  20 

Elberta August  25 

Frances September  5 

Fox September  10 

Iron  Mountain September  15 

Krummel October  10 

New  Mexico 

State  College  (South  central,  elevation  3500-4000  feet) 

Mayflower June  1  to  7 

Alexander June  24  to  29 

Hynes July  10  to  15 

Carman July  20  to  25 

Mamie  Ross July  20  to  25 

Texas  King July  20  to  25 

Elberta August  1  to  8 

Late  Crawford August  10  to  15 

Salwey September  15  to  20 


366  Peach-Growing 

Farmington  (Northwest,  elevation  6000  feet) 

Alexander July  11  to  26 

Triumph July  19  to  August  2 

Carman August  15  to  31 

Champion August  25  to  31 

Elberta September  1  to  10 


New  York 

Middle  River  (Southeast,  Long  Island,  elevation  75  feet) 

Greensboro August  1 

Carman August  12  to  15 

Mountain  Rose 
Champion 
BeUe 
Oldmixon  Free 

Elberta September  20 

Stump 

Fox 

Iron  Mountain 

Marlboro  (Southeast,  Hudson  Valley,  elevation  300-400  feet) 

Greensboro July  20  to  31 

Carman August  1 

Champion August  15  to  25 

Elberta August  20  to  September  5 

Iron  Mountain September  25 

Salwey October  1 

Lake  Region  (Western  New  York,  elevation  450-525  feet) 

Carman August  20  to  September  1 

St.  John August  25  to  September  5 

Early  Crawford August  28  to  September  10 

Rochester September  1  to  10 

Niagara September  5  to  15 

Reeves September  5  to  15 

Champion September  5  to  15 

Elberta September  10  to  20 

Smock September  30  to  October  15 


Peach  Varieties,  Botany  and  Classification         367 


North  Carolina 

Southern  Pines  (South  central,  elevation  500  feet) 

Mayflower May  25 

Alexander June  10 

Yellow  Swan June  10 

Carman July  1 

Belle July  20 

Elberta July  25 

Manteo  (East,  Roanoke  Island,  elevation  10  to  15  feet) 

Mayflower June  10 

Greensboro June  25 

Carman July  10 

Niagara July  25 

Champion July  25 

Elberta August  10 

A  more  extended  list  in  order  of  ripening  in  central  North 
Carolina : 

Mayflower 

Victor 

Alexander 

Arp 

Yellow  Swan 

Greensboro 

Early  Wheeler  {Red  Bird) 

Carman 

Connet 

Briggs 

Hiley 

Niagara 

Belle 

Ray 

Elberta 

Johnson 

Munson  Free 

Crothers 

Augbert 


368  Peach-Growing 

Ohio 

Port  Clinton  and  Lake  Shore  Region  (North  central,  elevation  600 
feet) 

Carman August  15 

New  Prolific August  25 

Elberta August  25  to  September  1 

Lemon  Free September  12  to  18 

Beers  Smock September  20 

Smock September  22  to  25 

Salwey October  1  to  10 

Oklahoma 

Perry  (North  central,  elevation  1000  feet) 

Mayflower June  20 

Japan  Dream June  30 

Triumph July  1 

Carman July  10 

Mamie  Ross July  10 

Champion July  20 

Early  Crawford July  25 

Belle July  30 

Elberta August  10 

Late  Crawford August  15 

Chinese  Cling August  20 

Heath September  15 

Blood  Cling September  20 

Oregon 

Freewater  (Northeast,  elevation  1(KX)  feet) 

Arp July  6  to  17 

Grady July  6  to  17 

Triumph July  11  to  20 

Early  Crawford July  29  to  August  14 

Elberta August  17  to  29 

Salwey September  24  to  October  1 

The  Dallas  (North  central,  elevation  100  to  300  feet) 

Mayflower June  20 

Alexander July  8 


Peach  Varieties,  Botany  and  Classification         369 

Triumph July  25 

Eariy  Hale July  25 

Early  Crawford August  15 

Elberta      . September  1 

Late  Crawford September  10 

Salwey October  1 

Ashland  (Southwest,  elevation  2000  feet) 

Alexander July  14  to  17 

Early  Hale July  30  to  August  3 

Early  Crawford August  10  to  15 

Elberta August  20  to  22 

Late  Crawford September  1  to  3 

Muir September  1  to  5 

Salwey September  25  to  October  1 

Krummel October  10  to  12 

Pennsylvania 

Southern  and  southeastern  counties  (elevation,  200  to  700  feet) 

Greensboro August  1 

Carman August  10 

Champion      .     .     .     .     .     .  August  15  to  20 

Mountain  Rose August  15  to  20 

Belle August  15  to  20 

Ray August  15  to  20 

Oldmixon  Free August  25 

Reeves August  25 

Elberta September  1 

Fox September  10 

Stevens September  15 

Smock September  20 

Wonderful September  25 

Iron  Mountain September  25 

Heath September  28 

Salwey October  1 

Bilyeu October  10 

Waymart  (Northeast,  elevation  1400  to  1500  feet) 

Greensboro August  15 

Carman August  23 

Champion September  20 

2? 


370  Peach-Growing 

Belle September  22 

Fitzgerald September  30 

Elberta October  1 


South  Carolina 

Meriweather  (West  central,  elevation  300  feet) 

Mayflower May  20  to  25 

Greensboro 

Early  Wheeler  {Red  Bird  Cling) 

Carman 

Hiley 

Belle 

Elberta July  10 

Ridge  Springs  (West  central,  elevation  650  feet) 

Mayflower May  30 

Greensboro June  5  to  20 

Hiley June  30  to  July  10 

Belle July  10  to  20 

Tennessee 

Sale  Creek  (Southeast,  elevation  750  feet) 

Carman July  1 

Belle July  10 

Elberta July  15  to  18 


Texas 

Tyler,  Scottsville  (Northeast,  elevation  400-550  feet) 

Greensboro June  5  to  8 

Carman June  22  to  26 

Hiley June  22  to  July  3 

Mamie  Ross June  22  to  July  3 

Slappey June  22  to  July  3 

Belle July  1  to  8 

Elberta July  2  to  10 

Augbert July  20 


Peach  Varieties,  Botany  and  Classification  371 

Mexia  (East  central  to  northeast,  elevation  540  feet) 

Victor  1 May  25  to  31 

Swan 
Arp 

Carman  ^ July  1  to  10 

Elberta July  20 

Tena July  20 

Anita July  25  to  30 

Toughina August  1  to  10 

Lizzie August  15  to  20 

Frank August  20  to  25 

Barbara August  22  to  28 

Katie August  24  to  September  6 


Utah 

Ogden,  Brigham,  Springville  (North  central,  elevation  4300-4600 

feet) 

Alexander July  20 

Early  Wheeler August  1 

Early  Hale August  10 

Triumph    .......  August  15 

La  Grange August  20 

Foster August  20 

Early  Cra'w^ord August  20 

Chinese  Cling August  25 

Champion August  25  to  30 

Early  Elberta September  1 

Elberta  ^ September  5  to  10 

Globe September  10 

Orange  Cling September  12  to  20 

Phillips September  15  to  20 

Sellers September  15  to  20 

Heath September  20 

^  Victor  and  Carman  only  white-fleshed  varieties  in  this  list.  All 
others  have  yellow  flesh. 

*  The  Elberta  comprises  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  commer- 
cial crop. 


372  Peach-Growing 

Virginia 

Staunton  (West  central,  elevation  1400  feet) 

Champion July  25  to  31 

Elberta August  15 

Late  Crawford September  15 

Krummel October  1 

Washington 

Yakima  and  Wenatchee  Valleys  '  (Central,  elevation  650-1100  feet) 

Dewey July  20  to  August  5 

Carman July  25  to  August  1 

Early  Elberta August  5  to  20 

Slappey August  8  to  28 

Early  Crawford August  10 

Elberta August  15  to  30 

Late  Crawford September  1  to  10 

Salwey September  20  to  October  10 

West  Virginia 

Allegheny  Mountain  Sites,  Potomac  Valley  region  *  (Northeast,  ele- 
vations 1000-2000  feet) 

Carman July  28 

Connet August  1 

Hiley August  10 

1  This  list  includes  the  most  of  the  varieties  planted  in  the  several 
peach-producing  valleys  of  Washington.  The  dates  of  ripening 
vary  somewhat  depending  on  the  conditions  in  the  different  sec- 
tions, both  in  the  same  and  different  valleys.  The  Elberta  is  the 
main  crop. 

2  In  the  region  covered  by  this  list  the  aim  of  most  peach-growers 
is  to  ship  continuously  throughout  the  season  from  the  last  of  July, 
when  the  shipments  from  the  large  southern  peach  districts  cease. 
The  list  includes  the  varieties  largely  planted  for  this  purpose. 
Obviously  the  exact  time  of  ripening  of  the  different  varieties  is 
influenced  by  elevation  and  other  local  conditions.  The  dates 
given  represent  as  nearly  as  it  is  possible  to  make  them  about  an 
average  for  the  region. 


Peach  Varieties,  Botany  and  Classification  37S 

Champion August  10 

Belle August  15 

Oldmixon  Free August  18 

Elberta August  20 

Late  Crawford August  30 

Chairs August  30 

Stevens September  5 

Walker September  5 

MeCoUister September  10 

Beers  Smock September  15 

Smock September  20 

Levy September  25 

Heath September  25 

Salwey September  25 

Bilyeu October  10 

Attention  has  been  called  previously  to  the  relative  im- 
portance and  wide  distribution  of  the  Elberta  variety.  It 
is  to  be  observed  that  nearly  all  the  foregoing  lists  include 
this  sort,  and  although  the  fact  is  not  brought  out,  in  many 
of  the  localities  represented  in  the  lists  the  Elberta  com- 
prises the  bulk  of  the  fruit  grown  for  commercial  purposes. 
In  not  a  few  sections  it  is  practically  the  only  variety 
shipped. 

The  Carman,  Belle,  and  Champion  are  other  sorts  especially 
to  be  named  as  being  very  widely  and  extensively  planted  at 
the  present  time. 

VARIETAL  CHARACTERISTICS 

In  selecting  varieties  for  planting,  there  are  two  character- 
istics of  particular  importance  in  comparison  with  others 
which  a  grower  desires  to  consider :  the  color  of  the  flesh 
and  its  adhesion  to  the  pit,  that  is,  whether  it  clings  to  the 
pit  (clingstone)  or  whether  it  separates  freely  (freestone) 
from  it. 


374  Peach-Growing 

While  detailed  varietal  descriptions  would  serve  but  little 
practical  purpose  in  this  connection,  a  statement  of  these  two 
important  characteristics  for  the  varieties  that  are  most 
commonly  planted  is  worth  while.  The  following  list  is 
made  up  of  the  varieties  named  above  in  the  regional  lists, 
arranged  alphabetically  and  with  the  color  of  flesh  and  ad- 
hesion indicated.     The  following  abbreviations  are  used: 

W  =  a  white-fleshed  variety ; 
Y  =  a  yellow-fleshed  variety ; 
C  =  a  clingstone ; 
F  =  a  freestone. 

Since  some  varieties  are  intermediate  in  adhesion,  neither 
tightly  clinging  nor  separating  freely,  and  some  varieties  are 
variable  under  different  conditions,  the  combination  C  F  is 
used  to  indicate  such  sorts.  The  combinations  used  in  other 
respects  are  self-explaining. 

Table    XIV.  —  Leading     varieties    with    important   charac- 
teristics INDICATED 

Albright  Cling Y    C 

Alexander WCF 

Angel W  F 

Anita Y    F 

Arp Y    C  F 

Augbert Y    F 

Barbara Y    F 

Beers  Smock Y    F 

Belle W  F 

Bilyeu W  F 

Blood  Cling  i  C 

Briggs W  F 

^  The  flesh  is  reddish  in  color. 


Plate  XXX.  —  Peach  Packages  and  Different  Styles  of  Packs. 
Top,  Georgia  6-basket  carriers ;   bottom,  20-pound  boxes. 


Peach  Varieties,  Botany  and  Classification  375 

Carman WCF 

Chairs Y    P 

Champion W  F 

Chinese  Cling W  C 

Connet WCF 

Crosby Y    F 

Crothers W  F 

Decker W  F 

Dewey Y  F 

Early  Crawford Y    F 

Early  Elberta Y    F 

Early  Hale WCF 

Early  Rose W  C 

Early  Wheeler W  C 

Ede .  Y    F 

Elberta Y    F 

Engle Y    F 

Family  Favorite .     .  W  F 

Fitzgerald Y    F 

Foster W  F 

Fox W  F 

Frances Y    F 

Frank Y    C 

Geary Y    F 

Globe Y    F 

Gold  Drop Y   F 

Grady Y    F 

Greensboro WCF 

Hale  (J.  H.) Y    F 

Hauss .     .     .  Y    C 

Heath W  C 

Heath  Free W  F 

Hiley W  F 

Hynes WCF 

Illinois W  F 

Iron  Mountain YCF 


376  Peach-Growing 

Japan  Dream  ^ F 

Jewel Y    F 

Johnson Y    F 

Kalamazoo Y    F 

Katie Y    F 

Krummel Y    F 

La  Grange Y    F 

Late  Bidwell W  C 

Late  Crawford Y    F 

Late  Stump Y    F 

Lemon  Free Y    F 

Levy Y    C 

Lewis W  F 

Lizzie Y    F 

Lovell Y    F 

McCoUister Y    F 

Mamie  Ross WCF 

Mathews Y    F 

Mayflower WCF 

Minnie  (Alton) W  F 

Mountain  Rose W  F 

Muir Y    F 

Munson  Free Y    F 

Nectar YCP 

New  Prolific Y    F 

Niagara Y    F 

Orange  Cling Y    C 

PhiUips Y    C 

Ray WCF 

Reeves Y    F 

Rochester Y    F 

St.  John Y    F 

Salwey Y    F 

SeUers Y    C 

Sherman YWC 

*  Flesh  is  blood-red. 


Peach  Varieties,  Botany  and  Classification  377 

Slappey Y    F 

Sneed W  C 

Strawberry W  F 

Stevens W  F 

Stump W  F 

Susquehanna Y    F 

Tena Y    F 

Texas  King YCF 

Thurber W  F 

Toughina Y    F 

Triumph Y    F 

Tuskena  (Tvsran) Y    C 

Victor WCF 

Waddell W  F 

Waldo YWF 

Walker W  F 

Walton Y    C 

Wonderful Y    F 

Yellow  Swan Y   F 


AN  INVENTORY   OF  VARIETIES 

While  an  inventory  of  the  peach  varieties  that  are  being 
offered  to  the  growers  of  America  may  be  of  little  practical 
value  to  the  peach  industry  at  the  present  time,  it  is  not  with- 
out interest.  As  a  matter  of  record,  a  list  of  the  varieties  that 
are  being  propagated  in  the  nurseries  at  any  particular  time 
is  of  value  for  historical  reasons. 

It  is  practically  impossible  to  make  such  a  list  absolutely 
complete.  There  are  many  local  varieties  propagated  in  a 
small  way,  the  names  of  which  are  never  published  in  a 
catalogue.  There  are  also  many  small  nurseries  doing  a 
local  business  which  publish  merely  brief  trade  lists  that  are 
not  widely  circulated.  However,  an  inventory  of  varieties 
based  on  the  catalogues  of  a  large  niunber  of  representative 


378  Peach-Growing 

nurseries  throughout  the  country  including  all  the  larger 
ones  and  many  of  those  whose  principal  activities  are  local 
in  their  scope,  must  obviously  be  reasonably  complete.  The 
results  of  "an  inventory  so  based  are  given  below.  The  list 
shows  the  varieties  offered  by  nurserymen  for  the  season  of 
1916  and  contains  417  names.  The  names  as  given  have 
been  conformed  as  far  as  possible  to  the  rules  of  nomencla- 
ture of  the  American  Pomological  Society : 

Acampo,  Ada  Lyle,  Albright,  Alexander,  Amanda,  Ambrosia, 
Amelia,  Amsden,  Anderson,  Angel,  Argyle  Elberta,  Arkansas, 
Arp,  Augbert,  Aurora,  Australian  Saucer. 

Bailey,  Baldwin,  Banner,  Barbara,  Barnard,  Barnes,  Bea- 
trice, Beers  Smock,  Belle,  Bell  October,  Bequette  Cling,  Be- 
quette  Free,  Berckraans,  Berenice,  Bessie  Kerr,  Bilyeu,  Bishop, 
Blanchard,  Blood  Cling,  Blood-leaved,  Blush,  Bokhara,  Bonanza, 
Brackett,  Bradbury,  Brandy^vine,  Brewer,  Brigdon,  Briggs  May, 
Bronson,  Buckhorn,  Burke,  Burton,  Bustain,  Butlers. 

Cabler,  California,  Camilia,  Canners  Choice,  Carman,  Car- 
penter, Carson,  Caruth,  Chairs,  Champion,  Charlotte,  Chili, 
Chinese  Cling,  Chinese  Free,  Christiana,  Chilow,  Chisolm, 
Cleveland  Free,  Climax,  Colon,  Colquitt,  Columbia,  Comal, 
Cone  Johnson,  Conkling,  Comet,  Cook,  Coolidge,  Cornwall 
{Duchess  of  Cornwall),  Countess,  Crane,  Crosby,  Crothers. 

Daisy,  Decker,  Deming,  Denton,  Dewey,  Dixie,  Dorothy, 
Druid  Hill,  Duke  of  York. 

Early  Admirable,  Early  Bidwell,  Early  Canada,  Early  Co- 
lumbia, Early  Crawford,  Early  Elberta,  Early  Hale,  Early 
Husted,  Early  Imperial,  Early  Michigan,  Early  Rose,  Early 
Wheeler  {Red  Bird  Cling),  Early  York,  Easton,  Eaton,  Ede, 
Edgemont,  Elberta,  Elberta  Cling,  Elberta  (Hottes),  Ella 
Hord,  Ellington,  Emma,  Engle,  Estella,  Eureka,  Everbearing. 

Family  Favorite,  Fitzgerald,  Fleener,  Florida,  Florida  Gem, 
Fords,  Foster,  Fox,  Frances,  Frank,  Future. 


Peach  Varieties,  Botany  and  Classification  379 

Garfield,  Garland  (Gov.  Garland),  Geary,  George  IV,  Georges 
Late,  Georgia  Press,  Gibbons,  Gillingham,  Gladstone,  Glen, 
Globe,  Gold  Drop,  Gold  Dust,  Gold  Mine,  Golden,  Golden 
Cling,  Golden  Mammoth,  Golden  Swan,  Golden  Sweet,  Gold- 
finch, Governor  Hogg,  Grace,  Great  Eastern,  Greensboro, 
Grimes,  Grosse  Mignonne. 

Hale  (J.  H.),  Hance,  Hancock,  Harrison  (General  Harrison), 
Harrison  Cling,  Hauss,  Heath,  Heath  Free,  Heckel,  Hero, 
Hester,  Hiley,  Hobson,  Holderbaum,  Honest  John  (May  be 
Large  York  or  George  IV),  Honey,  Hoosier  Cling,  House, 
Hughes,  Hynes,  Hyslop. 

Idaho  Mammoth,  Illinois,  Imperial,  Indian  Cling,  Indian 
Free,  Ingold,  Iron  Mountain. 

Jackson,  Japan  Blood,  Japan  Dream,  Jaques,  Jellico,  Jennie 
Worthen,  Jennings,  Jewel,  Johnson,  June  Elberta,  June  Rose, 
June,  Justice. 

Kalamazoo,  Kelly,  Kennesaw,  Kent,  Kerr,  Keyport,  Kihlken, 
Klondike,  Krummel,  Kruse. 

Lamont,  Lane,  Large  York,  Large  White,  Late  Bidwell, 
Late  Crawford,  Late  Elberta,  Late  Ford,  Late  Miller,  Late 
Quality,  Leader,  Lee,  Lee  Cling,  Leigh,  Lemon  Cling,  Lemon 
Free,  Leona,  Levis,  Levy,  Lewis,  Libby,  Lindsay,  Lockwood, 
Lola,  Lone  Tree,  Longhurst,  Lorentz,  Louise,  Lovell,  Lovetts 
Early  White,  Luton,  Luttichau,  Lyndon. 

McCollister,  McCoy  Free,  McDevitt,  McKevitt,  McNeil, 
Magnum  Bonum,  Malcom,  Malcom  Everbearing,  Mamie  Ross, 
Mammoth  Cling,  Marshall,  Martha  Fern,  Martin  September, 
Mary  {Marys  Choice),  Marys  Choice  (Red),  Mathews,  May- 
flower, May  Lee,  Mealing,  Mellie,  Michigan  Chili,  Mikado, 
Millard,  Millen,  Miller,  Millionaire  (May  be  Hale  (J.  H.)), 
Minnie  (Alton),  Moore,  Morris  Red,  Morris  White,  Mountain 
Rose,  Muir,  Munson,  Munson  Free. 

National,  Nancy,  Newhall,  New  Prolific,  Niagara,  Nettie 
Corbet,  Nichols,  Nina,  November,  November  Heath. 

Oceana,  October  Elberta,  Oklahoma,  Oklahoma  Queen,  Old- 


380  Peach-Growing 

mixon  Cling,  Oldmixon  Free,  Onderdonk,  Opulent,  Orange 
Cling,  Oriole. 

Palestine,  Pallas,  Palls,  Palmerston,  Patterson,  Peak,  Pearce, 
Peen-to,  Peerless,  Pendleton,  Peregrine,  Perfection,  Plant, 
Phillips,  Picquet,  Pineapple,  Pond,  Powers,  Preston,  Prince  of 
Wales,  Prolific. 

Raisin,  Ray,  Red  Rareripe,  Red  Cheek,  Red  River,  Reeves, 
Rex,  Richards,  Ringgold,  Rivers,  Robert,  Robins,  Rochester, 
Rogers,  Royal  George,  Ruding,  Runyon,  Rupley,  Russell. 

Sabichi  Winter,  St.  John,  Sallie  Worrell,  Salwey,  Schumaker, 
Sea  Eagle,  Sellers,  Shamrock,  Sims,  Sims  Cling,  Skinner, 
Slappey,  Sleeper,  Smith,  Smith  Cling,  Smithson,  Sneed,  Snow 
Cling,  Snow  Orange,  Steadley,  Stearns,  Stinson,  Stonewall, 
Strawberry,  Strout,  Stump,  Suber,  Success,  Summer  Heath, 
Summerour,  Sunrise,  Superb,  Susquehanna,  Swan,  Sylphide. 

Taber,  Tarbell,  Texan,  Texas,  Thurber,  Tibout,  Tillotson, 
Tippecanoe,  Tornado,  Triana,  Troth,  Triumph,  Tryon,  Tus- 
kena,  Twenty  Ounce. 

Van  Buren,  Van  Deman,  Victor,  Victoria. 

Waddell,  Wager,  Waldo,  Waller,  Walker,  Walton,  Ward, 
Washington,  Waterloo,  Weed,  Wellington,  Wheatland,  Whit- 
ford,  Wilbur,  Wilkins,  Willett,  Wine,  Winifred,  Wonderful, 
Worlds  Fair,  Worth,  Wright. 

Yellow  Hall,  Yellow  Rareripe,  Yates,  Yellow  Swan. 

Zip. 

BOTANY  OF  THE  PEACH 

The  peach  has  been  known  to  botanists  under  various 
names,  depending  mostly  on  the  genus  to  which  it  is  referred. 
Linnaeus,  in  1753,  placed  it  in  the  genus  Amygdalus,  calling 
the  species  Amygdalus  Persica.  Fifteen  years  later  Philip 
Miller  placed  it  in  the  separate  genus  Persica,  under  the  name 
P.  vulgaris.  Most  botanists,  however,  have  preferred  to 
include  it  in  the  genus  Prunus,  with  the  plums  and  apricots ; 


Peach  Varieties,  Botany  and  Classification  381 

under  this  disposition  it  takes  the  name  Prunus  Persica.  The 
use  of  the  word  Persica  doubtless  reflects  the  views  of  the 
early  botanists  regarding  the  origin  in  Persia  of  the  peach; 
in  fact,  the  word  peach  itself  (pecher  in  French,  Pfirsich  in 
German)  is  derived  from  the  word  Persia. 

Though  it  is  the  usual  assumption  that  all  horticultural 
varieties  of  peaches  represent  but  one  botanical  species,  it  is 
by  no  means  certain  that  a  critical  investigation  might  not 
reveal  evidence  showing  that  several  distinct  species  have 
entered  into  our  horticultural  varieties.  The  line  or  lines  of 
development  are  obviously  obscured  by  lack  of  definite 
information  concerning  the  wild  forms  in  their  native  habitats. 
The  almond  is  a  close  botanical  relative  of  the  peach.  In 
fact,  at  one  time  it  was  thought  by  some  that  the  peach  is 
derived  from  the  almond ;  others  looked  on  the  almond  as 
having  developed  from  the  peach,  but  these  hypotheses  are 
no  longer  maintained.  The  apricot  is  less  closely  related  to 
the  peach  than  the  almond,  while  nectarines  (which  are 
smooth  skinned  peaches)  are  known  definitely  to  develop 
from  peaches  as  sports,  mutations,  or  bud  variations.  Trees 
bearing  nectarines  have  been  known  to  grow  from  peach  pits  ; 
a  peach  tree  occurs  at  rare  intervals  on  which  a  limb  habitu- 
ally bears  nectarine  fruits ;  and  even  an  individual  fruit 
distinctly  peach  on  one  side  and  as  evidently  nectarine  in 
character  on  the  other  has  been  known  to  develop  on  a  tree. 
Yet  notwithstanding  these  clear  origins,  it  is  not  impossible 
that  there  exists  a  wild  species  of  nectarine. 

If  the  peach  is  held  in  the  genus  Prunus  (rather  than  in 
Amygdalus),  its  synonymy  becomes  as  follows: 

Prunus  Persica,  Sieb  &  Zucc. 
Amygdalus  Persica,  Linn. 
Persica  vulgaris.  Mill. 


382  Peach-Growing 

Var.  PLATYCARPA,  Bailey  (Flat  peach). 

Persica  platycarpa,  Decne. 
Var.  NUCiPERSiCA,  Schneid  (Nectarine). 

Amygdalus  Persica  var.  nucipersica,  Linn. 

Persica  nucipersica,  Borkh. 

Persica  loevis,  DC. 

Prunus  Persica  var.  Icevis,  Gray. 

Amygdalus  nectarina,  Ait. 

Prunus  Persica  var.  necturina,  Maxim. 

CLASSIFICATION   OF  PEACHES 

The  earlier  writers  on  the  peach  in  America  gave  some 
attention  to  classifying  peach  varieties ;  but  for  the  most  part 
it  consisted  in  dividing  them  into  two  groups,  the  division 
being  based  solely  on  the  adhesion  or  non-adhesion  of  the 
flesh  to  the  pit,  thus  recognizing  a  "clingstone"  group  and  a 
"freestone"  group.  Such  a  division,  though  having  its 
practical  and  useful  aspects,  is  entirely  arbitrary,  and  shows 
no  natural  relationships  or  lines  of  development,  and  this 
character  is  not  constant  in  all  cases.  As  a  logical  system 
of  classification,  grouping  on  this  basis  has  long  since  ceased 
to  be  considered,  but  as  indicated  it  has  practical  value  and 
in  this  direction  Mackintosh  ^  has  developed  the  scheme  of 
grouping  farther  than  any  one  else.  He  uses  other  physical 
characteristics  as  well  as  adhesion  of  flesh  to  pit,  including 
color  of  flesh  and  season  of  ripening.  He  recognizes  three 
main  sections,  freestones,  clingstones,  and  semi-clingstones. 
Each  of  these  sections  is  separated  into  two  divisions  based 
on  color  of  flesh,  varieties  with  white  or  creamy  flesh  and 
those  with  yellow  flesh.  In  turn,  each  of  these  divisions  is 
subdivided  on  the  basis  of  season  of  ripening,  varieties  that 
» An.  Rept.  Pa.  State  Col.  for  1910-1911,  pp.  569-588. 


Peach  Varieties,  Botany  and  Classification  383 

ripen  before  Elberta  and  those  ripening  with  or  later  than 
that  variety.  A  great  number  of  varieties  are  listed  and 
grouped  on  the  basis  of  this  classification. 

The  first,  and  in  fact  the  only,  really  constructive  effort  to 
work  out  a  classification  of  peach  varieties  along  natural 
lines  of  demarcation  was  made  by  Gilbert  Onderdonk  who 
now  for  more  than  sixty-five  years  has  lived  in  southern 
Texas,  going  there  from  New  York  as  a  young  man  but  little 
more  than  twenty  years  of  age.  He  was  over  eighty  years 
of  age  when  the  picture  shown  in  Plate  XXVI  was  taken. 
This  classification  made  by  him  was  published  as  a  part  of 
the  report  of  the  pomologist  in  the  Annual  Report  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Agriculture  (now  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture)  for  1887,  Onderdonk  then  being  a 
special  agent  for  the  Division  of  Pomology. 

In  his  observation  in  Texas  of  the  behavior  of  peaches, 
particularly  of  trees  which  grew  from  pits  carried  into  the 
state  from  different  parts  of  the  North,  Onderdonk  became 
impressed  with  the  fact  that  differences  existed,  essentially 
basic  in  character,  and  which  were  correlated  with  the  sources 
of  origin.  This  view  was  strengthened  when  he  observed 
that  all  the  trees  brought  from  the  North  into  southern 
Texas,  as  well  as  those  that  grew  from  northern  pits,  made 
only  a  lingering  growth  and  died  after  a  few  years  without 
producing  fruit  in  any  quantity.  Coupled  with  these 
observations  was  the  discovery  that  trees  coming  from 
sources  in  Mexico  not  only  lived  and  thrived,  but  produced 
fruit  regularly  and  abundantly. 

In  due  course  Onderdonk  assembled  and  grew  for  study 
peach  trees  or  peach  pits  from  all  possible  sources.  It  is  un- 
necessary here  to  give  in  detail  the  course  of  his  investigations 
further  than  to  state  tliat  as  a  result  of  his  studies  he  divided 


384  Peach-Growing 

peaches  into  the  five  groups  or  races  which  have  since  been 
the  accepted  basis  of  classification.  These  races  are :  (1) 
Peen-to ;  (2)  South  China ;  (3)  Spanish ;  (4)  North  China ; 
and  (5)  Persian. 

The  basis  of  this  classification  or  grouping  is,  therefore, 
primarily  regional,  each  race  tracing  to  certain  regions  for  its 
origin.  While  it  may  be  a  more  or  less  artificial  system  and 
one  which  may  eventually  be  superseded  by  some  other,  it 
has  served  a  most  useful  purpose  both  for  practical  reasons 
and  in  the  systematic  work  that  has  been  done  thus  far  with 
this  fruit.  Though  there  have  been  several  slight  modifica- 
tions of  it,  especially  as  to  the  names  of  the  races,  the  system 
of  classification  now  recognized  and  used  remains  essentially 
the  "Onderdonk  system." 

The  significance  of  the  different  races,  as  indicated  by 
Onderdonk,  is  as  follows: 

Peen-to  race. 

This  race  traces  its  origin  to  an  importation  of  seed  from 
Australia  made  in  1869  by  the  late  P.  J.  Berckmans  of 
Augusta,  Georgia.  From  this  collection  of  seed  there  came 
a  peach  which  was  distinct  in  its  characteristics  from  all 
others.  This  became  the  Peen-to  variety,  from  which  the 
race  takes  its  name,  and  which  has  given  rise  to  a  well-defined 
though  small  group  of  peaches  which  are  essentially  sub- 
tropical in  their  range  of  adaptability.  There  are  between 
twenty  and  thirty  varieties  in  this  group  that  have  been 
known  more  or  less  to  the  trade,  all  of  which  according  to 
Hume  ^  have  originated  in  Florida.  It  is  in  Florida  that 
these  varieties  are  of  special  value,  though  they  may  be  grown 
in  other  parts  of  the  Gulf  Coast  region.  They  cannot  be 
»  Fla.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  62,  "The  Peen-to  Peach  Group." 


Peach  Varieties,  Botany  and  Classification  385 

grown  successfully  as  far  north  as  Augusta,  Georgia,  where 
the  Peen-to,  the  progenitor  of  this  race,  proved  a  failure. 

Of  this  race,  the  Jewel  and  Waldo  varieties  are  the  most 
important  commercially.  Some  of  the  better-known  va- 
rieties, beside  those  named,  include  the  Angel,  Early  Bid- 
well,  Late  Bidwell,  Hall,  Suber,  and  others. 

South  China  race. 

This  race  began  in  the  United  States  with  the  Honey  ^ 
variety,  by  which  name  the  race  is  now  commonly  designated. 
According  to  Onderdonk,  Charles  Downing  of  New  York 
obtained  peach  pits  from  China  some  time  prior  to  1855. 
Reimer  gives  the  year  as  1846.  From  one  of  these  the  origi- 
nal Honey  tree  grew.  This  one  tree  appears  to  have  been 
the  sum-total  of  this  effort.  The  original  tree  never  fruited 
with  Downing,  presumably  because  of  the  northern  latitude 
of  his  location,  but  a  budded  tree  was  sent  to  Henry  Lyons, 
of  Columbia,  South  Carolina,  about  1855.  The  variety  was 
placed  in  the  hands  of  the  late  P.  J.  Berckmans,  widely 
known  during  his  lifetime  as  a  pomologist  and  nurseryman, 
of  Augusta,  Georgia,  and  he  began  its  dissemination  in  1858. 
The  latitude  of  Augusta  was  too  far  north  for  this  variety  to 
succeed,  and  it  was  not  until  it  was  grown  in  Florida  and 
southern  Texas  that  its  regional  adaptability  became  appar- 
ent. The  varieties  of  this  race,  all  of  which  trace  to  this 
original  Honey  tree,  are  suited  to  conditions  as  far  south  as 
are  those  of  the  Peen-to  race,  but  they  extend  somewhat 
farther  north. 

Probably  less  than  twenty  varieties  comprise  all  of  this 
race  that  have  become  prominent  enough  to  be  listed  in 

1  Fla.  Expt.  Sta.  BuU.  73,  "The  Honey  Peach  Group,"  by  F.  C. 
Reimer. 

2c 


386  Peach-Growing 

nursery  catalogues.  Several  of  these  have  been  of  little 
value  and  are  probably  no  longer  propagated.  A  large 
proportion  of  them  are  direct  seedlings  of  the  Honey  variety, 
and  most  of  them  have  originated  in  Florida.  Some  of  the 
leading  sorts  other  than  the  Honey  are :  Climax,  Florida 
Gem,  Hastings,  Imperial,  Oviedo,  Pallas,  and  Triana. 

Spanish  race. 

This  race  apparently  has  a  much  longer  record  in  America 
than  either  of  the  two  previously  mentioned.  Onderdonk 
termed  this  group  the  Spanish  race  because  he  was  unable  to 
trace  its  origin  farther  back  than  its  occurrence  in  Spain.  It 
appears  to  have  been  introduced  into  Mexico  from  Spain  by 
Catholic  missionaries  nearly  300  years  ago,  and  it  seems  to 
have  come  to  Florida  in  the  same  manner.  The  varieties 
of  this  race  are  grown  mostly  in  the  Gulf  states  and  quite 
largely  in  the  coast  regions  of  Texas.  Representative 
varieties  of  this  race  named  by  Price  ^  include  Cabler,  Druid, 
Galveston,  Guadalupe,  La  Reine,  Onderdonk,  Texas, 
Victoria,  and  a  few  others.  A  considerable  proportion  of 
the  varieties  of  this  race  has  originated  in  Texas.  A  few 
varieties  have  come  from  Florida. 

In  its  range  the  Spanish  race  overlaps  the  other  races.  Its 
southern  limits  pass  the  northern  limits  of  the  Peen-to, 
extending  nearly  as  far  as  the  South  China  race.  It  extends 
both  farther  south  and  farther  north  than  the  North  China, 
and  overlaps  considerably  the  southern  extension  of  the 
Persian  race. 

Price  indicates  that  peaches  of  this  race  were  early  dis- 
tributed by  the  Spanish  among  the  Indians.  It  is,  therefore, 
sometimes  referred  to  as  the  "Indian  race." 

1  Tex.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  39,  "The  Peach,"  by  R.  H.  Price. 


Plate  XXXI.  —  Loading  in  the  Car.  Top,  bushel  baskets 
properly  stacked  ;  bottom,  Georgia  carriers  braced  to  prevent  movement 
of  packages  in  transit. 


Peach  Varieties,  Botany  and  Classification         387 

North  China  race. 

This  race  consists  of  the  Chinese  Chng  variety,  which 
appears  to  be  the  original  member  of  this  group  introduced 
into  the  United  States,  and  its  progeny.  The  name  "  Chinese 
Chng  Group"  has  been  proposed  by  Powell  ^  as  a  more  appro- 
priate designation  for  this  group,  and  it  has  some  advantages 
as  does  the  name  "Honey"  race  as  a  substitute  for  the  name 
"South  China"  race. 

Onderdonk  states :  "  This  race  as  far  as  we  have  become 
acquainted  with  it,  consists  of  the  Chinese  Cling  and  its 
numerous  progeny." 

Powell  has  given  a  rather  full  account  of  the  development 
of  this  race  in  America,  as  follows  : 

"There  have  been  two  principal  importations  from  the 
Orient  from  which  the  American  varieties  have  largely 
descended.  The  first,  as  far  as  we  can  learn,  was  in  the  form 
of  potted  peach  trees,  probably  imported  by  the  late  Charles 
Downing,  in  1850,  through  Mr.  Winchester,  the  British 
consul  at  Shanghai,  China.  The  variety  was  received  under 
the  names  of  'Chinese  Cling'  and  'Shanghai,'  and  each 
name  was  supposed  for  a  time  to  represent  a  distinct  variety, 
but  where  grown  side  by  side  they  proved  to  be  identical. 
The  variety  was  probably  first  fruited  by  Mr.  Henry  Lyon, 
Laurel  Park,  S.  C,  to  whom  one  of  the  original  potted  trees 
was  sent  by  Mr.  Downing  in  1850.^  The  Chinese  Cling  ^ 
under  the  name  Shanghai  also  fruited  in  1850  with  R.  Choate, 
near  Boston,  and  was  exhibited  in  September  of  that  year 

»  Del.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  54,  "The  Chinese  Cling  Group  of  Peaches." 

*  For  a  fuller  account  of  the  early  importation  of  the  variety  see 

the  Horticulturist,  1855,  pp.  286,  472  ;   Downing's  "Fruits  and  Fruit 

Trees,"   1857,  under  the  varieties  Chinese  Cling  and  Shanghai ; 

Proc.  Am.  Pom.  Soc.  1858,  Discussion  of  Peaches. 

»  Hovey's  Mag.  Hort.,  1851,  p.  475. 


388  Peach-Growing 

before  the  twenty-third  annual  meeting  of  the  Massachusetts 
Horticultural  Society.  It  was  exhibited  also  in  1857  ^  before 
the  same  society  under  the  name  'Shanghai'  by  Nahum 
Stetson,  Bridgewater,  Mass.  The  name  'Bridgewater' 
was  suggested  for  the  variety  at  that  meeting,  but  the  name 
died  with  the  suggestion.  We  have  been  unable  to  trace 
the  exact  history  of  these  early  New  England  introductions. 

"The  second  important  introduction  was  made  by  Dr. 
William  A.  W.  Spottswood,  of  the  United  States  Navy, 
Fleet  Surgeon  of  the  East  India  or  Asiatic  Squadron  from 
1857  to  1860,  and,  so  far  as  we  know,  is  recorded  here  for  the 
first  time.  Dr.  Spottswood  brought  a  quantity  of  peach 
stones  from  Japan  in  1860,  and  presented  them  to  the  late 
Judge  Campbell,  an  enthusiastic  amateur  horticulturist  of 
Pensacola,  Fla.  Judge  Campbell  planted  the  seed,  but  was 
soon  obliged  to  leave  his  home  on  account  of  the  evacuation 
of  Pensacola.  On  his  return  home  in  1864  he  found  much 
of  the  place  destroyed  and  the  fences  burned,  but  by  careful 
treatment  the  peach  seedlings  grew  into  great  vigor  by  1867. 
The  trees  were  then  bearing,  and  some  of  the  peaches  meas- 
ured ten  and  eleven  inches  in  circumference.  These  seed- 
ling trees  were  greatly  admired  by  all  who  saw  them,  and 
Judge  Campbell  gave  buds  to  all  who  desired  them." 

Some  of  the  most  important  varieties  at  the  present  time 
belong  to  this  group.  Besides  the  widely  known  progenitor 
of  this  race,  the  Chinese  Cling,  there  may  be  mentioned  the 
Elberta,  Carman,  Connet,  Belle  (Belle  of  Georgia),  Family 
Favorite,  Greensboro,  Hiley,  Waddell,  and  others. 

It  is  probable,  however,  that  a  considerable  proportion  of 
these  varieties  are  crosses  with  Persian  varieties.     In  most 

^  Rep.  Mass.  Hort.  Soc,  Sept.  5,  1857,  in  Hovey's  Mag.  Hort., 
1853,  p.  470. 


Peach  Varieties,  Botany  and  Classification  389 

cases  the  varieties  have  originated  as  chance  seedlings  and 
of  but  few  of  the  varieties  is  more  than  one  parent  known. 
However,  the  varieties  are  grouped  with  the  Chinese  Cling 
race  because  the  characteristics  of  that  group  predominate 
in  them. 

Persian  race. 

Onderdonk's  statement  in  part  concerning  this  race  is: 
"The  race  includes  all  varieties  springing  from  the  importa- 
tion from  Persia  to  Italy  during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Claudius,  which  was  introduced  into  Great  Britain  about 
1550  and  to  the  American  colonies  about  1680.  They  are  all 
late  bloomers  and  cannot  carry  their  foliage  through  the 
growing  season  of  the  southern  portion  of  the  belt  in  which 
they  are  cultivated.  This  race  includes  the  varieties  usually 
propagated  in  the  northern  nurseries  and  composes  the  bulk 
of  the  northern  orchards." 

It  is  of  interest  to  reflect  that  the  statement  quoted  was 
published  in  1887.  The  expression  with  regard  to  the  bulk 
of  the  northern  orchards  being  composed  of  varieties  of  this 
race  was  then  in  accord  with  the  fact,  but  since  that  time  the 
most  prominent  varieties  named  above  under  the  discussion 
of  the  North  China  or  Chinese  Cling  group  have  originated, 
and  to  a  large  extent  they  now  comprise  the  northern  orchards. 
As  pointed  out,  however,  it  is  probable  that  many  of  them 
contain  "Persian  blood,"  though  the  predominating  char- 
acters are  those  of  the  Chinese  Cling  group. 

Some  of  the  better-known  varieties  of  the  Persian  race 
named  by  Price  are :  Alexander,  Crothers,  Early  Hale, 
Foster,  Heath,  Gold  Drop,  Hynes,  Ingold  (Lady  Ingold), 
Late  Crawford,  Mountain  Rose,  Oldmixon  Free,  Picquet, 
Reeves,  Rivers,  St.  John,  Salwey,  Tuskena  (Tuscan),  Walker. 


390  Peach-Growing 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  RACES  OF  PEACHES 

With  these  general  statements  presented  in  regard  to  the 
significance  of  the  different  races,  a  more  detailed  considera- 
tion of  their  characteristics  naturally  follows.  These  have 
been  set  forth  by  Price  ^  somewhat  fully.  The  following 
descriptions  are  adapted  from  his  work.  It  may  be  stated 
here  that  both  Price  and  Gregory^  recognize  considerable 
taxonomic  value  in  the  leaf  glands  and  serrations,  but  for  the 
present  purpose  it  is  not  necessary  to  discuss  these  features. 

1.  Peen-to  race:  Seed  —  Nearly  round  (in  the  Peen-to 
variety),  much  compressed  at  the  ends,  corrugations  small, 
somewhat  rounded.  Wi7iter-buds  and  terminal  branches  — 
Buds  small,  oblong,  rather  sharp-pointed  and  grow  close  to 
the  limbs ;  branches  smaller  and  more  willow-like  than  in  any 
other  race.  Tree  —  Rather  large,  vigorous,  branches  wil- 
low-like ;  flowers  large  (Plate  XV),  blooms  at  a  low  tempera- 
ture, leaves  narrow  and  long.  Adapted  to  the  northern  part 
of  the  citrus  belt.  Seedlings  variable,  giving  rise  mostly 
to  trees  that  produce  oblong  fruits  rather  than  fruits  com- 
pressed as  in  case  of  the  Peen-to  variety.  Plate  XXVII 
(upper  right)  shows  the  characteristic  flat  or  compressed 
form  of  the  Peen-to  peach.  Plate  XXVII  (lower  center)  is 
the  Waldo  variety,  a  seedling  of  the  Peen-to.  Hume  sug- 
gests that  it  contains  an  admixture  of  the  Honey  race. 
Plate  XXVII  (Imver  left)  shows  a  Jewel  peach  which  is  a 
seedling  of  the  Waldo.  The  Jewel  and  Waldo  indicate  the 
oblong  form  of  the  Peen-to  derivatives. 

(2)  South  China  or  Honey  race:  Seed  —  Oval  with  apex 
slightly  recurred,  corrugations  slight,  prominent  flange  on 

1  Tex.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  39. 

2  Cornell  Univ.  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  365. 


Peach  Varieties,  Botany  and  Classification  391 

one  side.  Winter-buds  and  terminal  branches  —  Buds  very 
prominent,  round  to  oval,  two  and  three  buds  often  occurring 
at  the  same  point,  dark  red  in  color  and  stand  out  from  the 
limb  rather  prominently ;  branches  not  so  slender  as  in  the 
Peen-to.  Trees  —  Medium  size,  branches  less  willowy  than 
the  Peen-to ;  blossoms  large  (Plate  XV) ;  foliage  small  and 
slightly  conduplicate,  color  dark  green  hanging  late  in  the 
season;  requires  short  season  of  rest;  fruit  rather  small, 
somewhat  oval  in  shape,  suture  deep  at  basin ;  apex  long  and 
recurved.  Adapted  to  more  southern  climates  than  any 
other  race  except  the  Peen-to.  Plate  XXVII  {lower  right) 
shows  typical  fruits  of  the  Honey  variety. 

(3)  Spanish  race:  Seed  —  Large  oval,  nearly  flat,  apex 
prominent,  corrugations  very  long  and  wide,  running  more 
longitudinally  at  the  base  than  in  other  races,  flange  on  one 
side  often  prominent.  Winter-buds  and  terminal  branches  — 
Buds  larger  than  those  of  the  South  China  race  and  usually 
occur  singly  on  the  new  growth ;  short,  naked  places  where 
there  are  no  buds  on  the  wood,  which  is  not  the  case 
with  the  Peen-to  and  South  China  races;  color  of  buds  is 
dark  grayish ;  branches  rather  slender  but  more  stocky  than 
in  the  South  China  race.  Tree  — Very  large  as  a  rule ;  limbs 
large,  long,  spreading  inclined  to  droop ;  blossoms  usually 
large;  foliage  small  and  nearly  always  flat,  hangs  late  and 
remains  green  during  droughts,  turning  yellow  in  the  fall 
before  dropping;  fruit  generally  yellow.  Adapted  to 
isothermal  lines  north  of  which  the  members  of  the  South 
China  race  thrive. 

(4)  North  China  or  Chinese  Cling  race:  Seed  —  Nearly 
round,  very  thick,  corrugations  rather  slight  and  irregular, 
apex  rather  prominent.  Winter-buds  and  terminal  twigs  — 
Buds  slightly  larger  than  in  the  Spanish  race  and  somewhat 


392  Peach-Growing 

more  pointed;  branches  short,  thick,  stubby,  bark  dark 
grayish  in  color.  Tree  —  Dwarfish,  blooms  later  than  the 
Persian  varieties;  foliage  very  large  and  flat,  in  the  South 
turning  a  peculiar  dull  pea-green  in  the  fall;  hangs  well 
during  drought  but  falls  earlier  in  the  autumn  than  some 
others.  Adapted  to  zones  north  of  those  in  which  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Spanish  race  thrive.  Plate  XXVII  {upper  left) 
shows  an  Elberta  peach  which  is  a  seedling  of  the  Chinese 
Cling  variety.  It  is  commonly  considered  a  member  of  the 
North  China  or  Chinese  Cling  race  but  it  has  Persian  blood 
also  in  its  parentage. 

(5)  Persian  race:  Seed  —  Somewhat  round,  more  flat- 
tened at  the  base  than  in  any  other  race;  corrugations 
prominent  towards  the  apex,  seldom  extending  to  the  base, 
apex  more  or  less  prominent.  Winter-buds  and  terminal 
branches  —  Buds  about  the  size  of  those  of  the  North  China 
race  but  a  little  more  oblong,  blunt  tips  are  characteristic ; 
long  naked  spaces  when  buds  are  absent;  bearing  wood 
usually  dark  red.  Tree  —  Medium  size  to  large ;  limbs 
short  and  thick;  bark  usually  rich  purplish  red  on  young 
wood ;  blossoms  either  large  or  small  (Plates  XV  and  XXVII) 
(upper,  center) ;  foliage  crumpled  and  conduplicate,  with 
purplish  tinge  before  falling ;  drops  early ;  trees  requiring  a 
long  resting  period,  indicating,  as  is  assumed,  a  northern 
origin  for  the  race. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
PICKING  AND  PACKING   THE  FRUIT 

In  the  foregoing  chapters  the  discussions  have  had  to  do 
with  the  planting  and  maintenance  of  peach  orchards ;  in 
other  words,  with  production  problems.  Attention  is  now 
directed  to  the  operations  which  are  concerned  with  the  pick- 
ing of  the  fruit  and  its  preparation  for  market.  These 
operations,  together  with  those  connected  with  the  trans- 
portation and  marketing  features,  are  all-important.  They 
represent  the  culmination  of  the  peach-grower's  efforts  for 
the  season.  The  activities  incident  to  growing  the  fruit 
extend  over  a  period  of  months.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
picking  and  marketing  operations,  in  many  sections  at  least, 
are  over  within  a  period  of  a  few  weeks.  It  is  during  this 
relatively  short  space  of  time  that  the  peach-grower  reaps 
the  reward  of  his  labor. 

Moreover,  many  excellent  crops  of  fruit  are  grown  and 
brought  in  perfection  to  maturity  and  then  are  lost,  wholly 
or  in  part,  to  the  grower  because  he  fails  in  some  of  the 
essential  features  of  marketing.  Not  every  good  grower  is 
an  equally  good  salesman  of  fruit.  It  is  in  part  for  this 
reason  that  the  average  grower  is  fortunate  if  he  can  market 
his  fruit  through  some  sort  of  cooperative  association  whose 
manager  is  skillfully  trained  in  the  requirements  of  marketing 

393 


394  Peach-Growing 

and  who  has  adequate  business  ability  to  meet  those  require- 
ments effectively.  The  usual  methods  of  distribution  will 
be  touched  on  briefly  on  later  pages. 

In  order  to  handle  a  crop  successfully,  the  grower  must 
anticipate  every  need  in  the  way  of  packages,  equipment, 
other  supplies,  and  labor  and  make  adequate  provision  for 
them  in  advance  of  the  picking  season.  If  this  is  not  done, 
costly  delays  in  obtaining  necessities  are  inevitable.  As 
soon  as  the  "June  drop"  is  over,  he  should  begin  to  estimate 
the  probable  size  of  the  crop  and  place  orders  for  all  neces- 
sary supplies  for  handling  the  fruit  later  on. 

PICKING   THE    FRUIT 

The  organization  for  picking  the  fruit  naturally  should  be 
governed  by  the  size  of  the  orchard,  the  amount  of  fruit  to  be 
handled,  and  the  character  of  the  help  employed.  With  ex- 
perienced labor,  comparatively  little  supervision  of  individual 
pickers  may  be  required ;  otherwise,  the  pickers  should  be 
divided  into  small  gangs,  each  working  under  the  supervision 
of  a  well-trained  foreman. 

Picking  baskets  similar  to  those  shown  in  Plate  XXVIII 
(top)  are  commonly  used.  These  are  firmly  made  splint 
baskets,  holding  one-half  bushel  and  with  the  handle  hinged 
at  points  of  attachment.  The  baskets  are  sometimes  lined 
with  burlap  to  protect  the  fruit  from  bruising.  Another 
type  used  in  picking,  an  oblong  splint  basket,  is  seen  in  Plate 
XXVIII  (center).  A  small  stick  is  commonly  nailed  across 
the  top  between  the  points  where  the  handle  is  attached  to 
make  the  basket  more  rigid.  Tin  or  galvanized  iron  pails 
holding  two  and  one-half  or  three  gallons,  as  well  as  other 
receptacles,  are  also  used  more  or  less  in  picking. 


Picking  and  Packing  the  Fruit  395 

Step-ladders  are  needed  in  most  orchards  to  enable  the 
pickers  to  reach  much  of  the  fruit,  though  where  the  trees 
are  pruned  as  suggested  in  connection  with  Plate  XIII  (top) 
the  pickers  can  reach  the  fruit  from  the  ground. 

The  details  of  distributing  the  picking  baskets  and  assem- 
bling them  after  they  are  filled  will  vary  to  meet  individual 
needs  and  conditions.  Commonly,  when  the  fruit  is  taken 
to  a  central  packing-house,  the  baskets  are  returned  to  the 
orchard  by  the  wagon  which  takes  the  fruit  to  the  packing- 
house, as  it  returns  to  the  orchard,  and  are  distributed  along 
the  rows  by  the  driver  or  the  foreman. 

As  the  baskets  in  turn  are  filled,  they  are  placed  in  the 
shade  of  the  trees,  since  exposure  to  the  sun  is  to  be  avoided 
after  the  fruit  is  off  the  trees,  the  baskets  commonly  being 
assembled  by  the  pickers  along  some  designated  row  or 
adjacent  rows  for  convenience  in  collecting  when  being 
loaded  for  transit  to  the  packing-house.  A  low  wheeled 
orchard  truck  with  body  supported  on  springs,  as  shown  in 
Plate  XXVIII  {toy),  is  one  of  the  most  convenient  types  of 
wagons  for  use  in  an  orchard.  A  body  with  a  double  deck, 
thus  materially  increasing  the  capacity,  is  desirable  under 
some  conditions. 

Well-loaded  peach  trees  are  commonly  picked  over  three 
or  four  times  in  order  to  harvest  the  entire  crop  at  the  proper 
degree  of  maturity,  though  when  the  trees  are  well  pruned 
and  the  crop  develops  uniformly,  aided  by  careful  thinning 
earlier  in  the  season,  it  may  be  possible  to  gather  the  crop  at 
a  single  picking.  Or,  under  some  conditions,  especially  if 
ripening  is  prolonged  by  cold  weather,  as  many  as  six  or 
eight  pickings  may  be  necessary.  If  the  weather  is  warm 
and  the  fruit  ripens  rapidly,  picking  every  day  may  be 
necessary  in  order  to  avoid  over-ripeness,  though  picking 


396  Peach-Growing 

on  alternate  days  is  more  common.  The  variety  is  a  factor 
in  this  respect,  however,  since  some  ripen  more  rapidly  than 
others,  or  because  of  firmness  of  textm-e  one  variety  can  be 
allowed  to  advance  a  little  farther  than  another  before  pick- 
ing is  necessary. 

\\Tiile  most  of  the  details  of  picking  can  be  reduced  rather 
definitely  to  rules  of  practice,  the  most  important  one  —  the 
determining  of  the  degree  of  maturity  at  which  the  fruit 
should  be  picked  —  is  largely  a  matter  of  experience  on  the 
part  of  the  picker.  To  be  at  its  best  in  quality,  a  peach 
should  ripen  or  attain  approximate  eating  condition  on  the 
tree.  For  immediate  consumption,  therefore,  the  fruit  may 
be  allowed  to  mature  fully  before  it  is  picked.  However, 
for  distant  shipment  this  cannot  be  done,  as  the  fruit  would 
be  too  soft  to  carry  well.  On  the  other  hand,  if  picked  too 
immature,  it  will  shrivel  without  ripening  properly  and  be 
lacking  in  flavor. 

The  most  favorable  degree  of  maturity  for  long-distance 
shipment  is  that  termed  "hard  ripe."  In  this  condition  the 
fruit  has  lost  the  solid,  unyielding  hardness  characteristic  of 
the  green  state,  yet  it  is  fijm  to  the  touch,  not  having  begun 
to  soften  as  in  the  later  stages  of  ripening.  The  picker  must 
learn  to  recognize  this  "hard  ripe"  condition  by  the  eye 
rather  than  the  touch.  The  "touch  method"  would  inevi- 
tably result  in  bruising  much  of  the  fruit  and  thereby  injuring 
it  for  market  purposes.  ^Vhen  a  fruit  begins  to  lose  what  is 
sometimes  called  its  "chlorophyl  green,"  that  is,  the  green 
color  which  is  like  the  green  of  the  leaves  in  quality  though 
not  in  intensity,  and  to  assume  a  yellowish  tinge  in  case  of 
a  yellow  variety,  or  a  creamy  white  shade  in  case  of  a  white 
variety,  then  it  has  reached  the  degree  of  maturity  for  long- 
distance shipment  or  for  holding  a  relatively  long  time. 


Picking  and  Packing  the  Fruit  397 

When  the  fruit  has  reached  the  condition  indicated  by  change 
of  color,  the  stem  will  separate  quite  readily  from  the  tree, 
whereas  the  articulation  of  stem  and  spur  does  not  break 
easily  nor  freely  prior  to  the  beginning  of  maturity. 

In  all  handling  of  the  fruit,  great  care  must  be  exercised 
not  to  bruise  it  in  the  slightest  degree.  It  is  not  alone  the 
injuries  which  are  readily  seen  that  are  dangerous,  but  even 
such  slight  breaking  of  the  tissues  under  the  skin  as  result 
from  pressing  a  fruit  too  hard  in  the  hand  will  predispose  it 
to  decay.  Every  precaution  in  handling  the  fruit,  therefore, 
should  be  taken  to  avoid  injury. 

Pickers  commonly  work  by  the  day,  though  sometimes  by 
the  basket.  In  either  case  it  is  advisable  in  working  a  large 
crew,  in  the  beginning  of  the  harvest,  even  if  not  throughout 
the  season,  to  assign  each  picker  a  number  and  a  set  of  checks 
bearing  the  corresponding  number  and  then  require  each  one 
to  place  a  check  in  every  basket.  In  this  way  a  picker  who 
fails  to  do  good  work  can  be  detected  without  fail  and  his 
faults  either  corrected  or  the  picker  transferred  when  his 
unfitness  for  the  work  is  demonstrated. 

PACKING  THE   FRUIT 

Packing-houses. 

Under  some  conditions  the  fruit  can  be  packed  to  advan- 
tage in  the  orchard.  In  case  of  young  trees,  especially  on 
newly  cleared  land  where  the  stumps  still  remain  in  con- 
siderable numbers,  it  may  be  more  convenient  for  the  pickers 
to  carry  the  fruit  to  a  central  point  in  the  orchard  than  to 
haul  it  in  a  wagon  to  a  more  distant  place,  the  packing  equip- 
ment being  moved  frequently  to  accommodate  the  pickers. 
An  orchard  packing  scene  is  shown  in  Plate  XXVIII 
(center). 


398  Peach-Groioing 

In  general,  however,  the  fruit  can  be  handled  in  a  packing- 
house more  satisfactorily  than  in  the  orchard.  The  size  and 
arrangement  of  a  packing-house  should  be  governed  by  the 
amount  of  fruit  that  is  to  be  handled.  A  simple  shed  or  even 
tent  will  serve  the  purpose  for  a  small  orchard. 

A  packing-house  of  large  capacity  and  an  interior  view 
of  the  same  house,  are  shown  in  Plate  XXIX.  The  build- 
ing is  two  stories  high,  the  upper  floor  being  used  for  the 
storage  of  packages  and  other  supplies.  The  sides  are  in 
sections  which  are  hinged  at  the  top  and  raised  as  desired. 
The  fruit  is  unloaded  from  the  orchard  wagons  along  the 
sides  of  the  packing-house,  where  it  is  readily  passed  to 
the  packers,  who  work  on  either  side  of  the  central  section  of 
the  house.  As  may  be  seen,  the  location  is  along  a  railroad 
siding,  thus  making  the  transfer  of  the  packed  fruit  from 
the  house  to  the  car  very  convenient. 

With  the  essentials  of  a  desirable  packing-house  in  mind, 
the  grower  should  have  no  serious  difficulty  in  planning 
details  of  arrangement  which  will  meet  his  needs  satis- 
factorily. 

The  equipment  for  a  packing-house  of  large  dimensions 
should  include  suitable  trucks  for  use  in  moving  the  packed 
fruit  to  places  of  exit,  also  well-arranged  packing  tables. 
A  fairly  well-planned  table  is  shown  in  Plate  XXIX  (bottom). 
It  consists  of  a  frame  over  which  canvas  is  stretched,  form- 
ing a  top  that  yields  slightly,  thus  lessening  the  danger  of 
bruising  the  fruit  as  compared  with  a  hard,  rigid  top.  The 
shelf  along  the  side  of  the  table  supports  the  packages  while 
they  are  being  filled.  This  should  be  in  sections,  however, 
rather  than  continuous  for  the  entire  length  of  the  table,  so 
as  to  permit  the  packer  to  reach  the  center  of  the  table 
easily.     Sometimes  a  shelf,  raised  some  distance  above  the 


Plate  XXXII.  —  Peach  PACKAGEa.     Top,  flats  properly  stacked 
ia  the  car ;    bottom,  Climax  baskets. 


Picking  and  Packing  the  Fruit  399 

table  and  extending  lengthwise,  is  provided  on  which  bas- 
kets and  other  supplies  are  placed  for  the  convenience  of 
the  packers. 

In  a  large  packing-house  the  work  must  be  organized  and 
systematized  if  it  is  to  go  forward  smoothly  and  effectively. 
An  equitable  grouping  of  the  labor  into  packers,  handlers, 
nailers,  and  the  like,  is  usuall}^  necessary.  As  a  rule,  all  the 
workers  should  be  responsible  to  a  packing-house  foreman 
or  manager,  though  the  owner  often  serves  in  this  capacity. 
The  handlers  should  keep  the  packers  supplied  with  fruit 
and  packages  and  should  remove  the  latter  from  the  packing 
tables  when  filled.  The  nailers  attach  the  covers  to  the 
packages.  The  handlers  may  also  serve  as  nailers  when  the 
extent  of  the  operations  renders  it  practicable. 

While  men  should  be  employed  for  the  heavier  work  about 
the  packing-house,  many  growers  prefer  women  and  girls  as 
packers.  They  adapt  themselves  better  than  men,  as  a  rule, 
to  the  details  of  making  a  high-grade  pack. 

Packages. 

Several  different  styles  of  packages  are  used  in  marketing 
peaches.  Some  are  regional  and  meet  special  conditions  or 
needs,  while  others  are  widely  used  or  have  some  significance 
with  respect  to  the  grade  of  fruit  which  they  are  supposed  to 
contain.  The  Georgia  carrier,  or  crate,  Delaware  basket, 
bushel  basket,  box,  flat,  and  Climax  basket  are  the  packages 
most  often  used. 

The  Georgia  carrier  (Plate  XXX)  contains  six  baskets  or 
"tills"  each  holding  about  four  quarts.  This  package  is 
widely  used  among  peach-growers  for  the  better  grades  of 
fruit.  Sometimes  a  grower  is  unwise  enough  to  use  it  for  a 
poor  grade,  but  this  practice  suggests  a  purpose  to  deceive 


400  Peach-Growing 

the  purchaser,  who  would  ordinarily  expect  to  find  only 
high-grade  fruit  in  this  type  of  package. 

The  Delaware  basket  (Plate  XXVII,  center  and  bottom)  is 
a  splint-made  container  having  a  capacity  of  one-half  bushel. 
It  is  widely  used,  especially  in  some  of  the  eastern  peach  dis- 
tricts. Fruit  of  all  marketable  grades  is  shipped  in  it. 
The  ease  and  rapidity  with  which  fruit  can  be  packed  is  one 
of  its  chief  advantages.  Besides,  it  requires  less  skill  to  fill 
it  properly  than  is  the  case  with  several  of  the  other  types ; 
it  is  convenient  to  handle,  and  its  capacity  fits  the  needs 
of  large  numbers  of  consumers. 

The  bushel  basket  (Plate  XXXI)  is  being  used  more  and 
more.  It  has  some  of  the  desirable  features  of  the  Dela- 
ware basket  and  is  relatively  a  cheaper  package. 

The  box  (Plate  XXX)  is  used  but  little,  if  any,  by  eastern 
growers,  but  is  common  in  some  of  the  peach  districts  of  the 
intermountain  and  Pacific  coast  states.  Fruit  thus  packed 
reaches  the  mark  of  the  East  in  some  quantity.  The  box 
is  18  inches  long,  11^  inches  wide,  and  may  be  4, 4^,  or  5  inches 
deep,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  fruit  to  be  packed. 

The  flat  (Plate  XXXI)  is  more  often  used  for  tomatoes, 
apricots,  and  plums  than  for  peaches,  but  the  latter  fruit  is 
sometimes  packed  in  it.  The  type  of  flat  most  often  seen 
holds  four  baskets  or  tills  similar  to  those  used  in  the  Georgia 
carrier.     They  are  placed  in  the  flat  in  pairs  end  to  end. 

The  Climax  basket  (Plate  XXXII)  most  often  used  for 
peaches  is  the  size  designated  as  the  "20-pound"  or  third- 
bushel  basket.  However,  not  many  growers  use  this  pack- 
age for  peaches. 

Various  other  kinds  and  sizes  of  packages  are  used  oc- 
casionally in  marketing  peaches,  but  it  is  unnecessary  to 
discuss  them  here. 


Picking  and  Packing  the  Fruit  401 

Sizing  and  grading. 

Probably  the  average  grower  does  not  give  enough  atten- 
tion to  sizing  and  grading  the  fruit  preparatory  to  packing. 
For  clearness  of  understanding,  it  should  be  stated  that 
sizing  refers  to  the  separation  of  the  fruit  according  to  the 
size  of  the  individual  specimens,  while  grading  has  to  do  with 
its  separation  according  to  degree  of  perfection  in  finish, 
color,  and  freedom  from  blemishes.  Grading  must  obviously 
be  done  by  hand,  and  sizing  is  most  commonly  accomplished 
in  the  same  manner,  though  mechanical  sizers  are  sometimes 
used.  A  question  may  consistently  be  raised,  however,  as 
to  the  extent  to  which  the  fruit  is  bruised  when  it  is  run 
through  a  sizing  machine,  except  possibly  when  it  is  picked 
in  a  very  hard  condition. 

The  need  of  accurate  sizing  is  evident  in  packing  the 
baskets  used  in  carriers  and  flats  and  in  filling  boxes  and 
Climax  baskets.  So  far  as  packing  is  concerned,  less  careful 
sizing  is  necessary  in  filling  the  bushel  and  the  Delaware 
basket,  though  from  the  standpoint  of  marketing,  careful 
attention  to  sizing  doubtless  pays  whatever  the  type  of 
package  used. 

Skill  in  sizing  when  done  by  hand,  as  also  in  packing,  comes 
only  with  experience.  Sizing,  except  when  done  mechan- 
ically, and  grading  are  usually  done  by  the  packer  as  he 
selects  the  fruits  for  the  package.  In  packing  the  Georgia 
carriers,  the  three  baskets  that  go  in  the  bottom  tier  are  put 
in  the  crate  and  then  filled,  following  which  the  top  tier  is 
similarly  handled.  If  the  baskets  were  filled  before  they  are 
put  in  the  crate,  it  would  be  practically  impossible  to  get 
them  in  place. 

In  filling  the  baskets  for  the  carrier  and  flat,  also  in  packing 
the  box  and  Climax  basket,  the  fruits  must  be  put  in  place 
2d 


402  Peach-Growing 

one  by  one.  This  is  not  necessary,  however,  in  packing  the 
bushel  and  the  Delaware  basket,  though  it  is  a  common 
practice  to  face  the  tops  somewhat  systematically  and 
carefully. 

But  little  attention  has  been  given  to  reducing  sizes  to 
specific  dimensions  or  to  standardizing  grades.  However, 
Blake  and  Connors  ^  propose  the  following  sizes,  especially 
with  a  view  to  packing  in  the  Georgia  carrier : 

Small  —  All  peaches  less  than  7  inches  in  equatorial  cir- 
cumference. 

Medium  —  All  peaches  between  7  and  8  inches  in  equa- 
torial circumference. 

Large  —  All  peaches  that  exceed  8  inches  in  equatorial 
circumference. 

A  second  grouping  modifies  the  medium  and  large  sizes 
thus : 

Medium  —  All  peaches  from  7  to  7|-  inches  in  equatorial 
circumference  or  packs  in  carriers  of  11-10-11,  10-10-10,  or 
9-9-9.  That  is,  in  each  of  the  individual  baskets  of  a  Georgia 
carrier  there  are  three  tiers  of  fruit,  the  bottom  one  with  11, 
the  middle  with  10,  and  the  top  one  with  11  fruits,  or  with 
the  smaller  numbers  as  suggested,  depending  on  the  size  of 
the  fruits.  These  styles  of  pack  are  suggested  in  the  three 
crates  shown  in  Plate  XXX,  though  the  sizes  do  not  conform 
in  all  cases  to  the  above  specifications. 

Large  —  All  peaches  7|-  inches  in  equatorial  circumference 
and  above. 

Grades  of  fruit  on  the  basis  of  appearance,  freedom  from 

blemishes,  color,  and  other  points  of  perfection  are  not  as  well 

standardized  among  growers  as  are  the  grades  of  apples. 

The  terms  "fancy"  and  "extra  fancy"  are  the  most  com- 

1  N.  J.  Expt.  Sta.  Circ.  58. 


Picking  and  Packing  the  Fruit  403 

monly  used  grade  designations.  If  consistently  applied,  they 
should  mean  respectively  fruit  that  is  fairly  well  colored, 
practically  free  from  blemishes  and  in  general  not  below 
medium  size,  and  fruit  usually  above  medium  size  and  pos- 
sessing all  the  other  points  of  merit  in  a  high  degree. 

Details  of  packing. 

It  has  been  pointed  out  that  the  details  of  packing,  so  far 
as  they  concern  the  placing  of  the  fruit  in  the  packages,  are 
acquired  only  by  practice.  However,  the  packer  needs  to 
regard  certain  essentials  from  the  very  beginning. 

At  every  step,  the  fruit  should  be  handled  with  great  care, 
and  no  specimens  which  are  bruised  or  the  skin  of  which  is 
punctured  or  broken  however  slightly  should  be  packed. 
Decay  is  very  likely  to  develop  in  such  specimens  while  in 
transit  to  market  if  they  are  included. 

Of  equal  importance  is  the  close  placing  of  the  specimens 
in  the  package  or  individual  containers.  While  the  fruits 
should  not  be  jammed  into  place,  there  should  be  no  slack 
space  and  the  packages  should  be  filled  full  enough  so  that 
when  the  covers  are  nailed  on  every  fruit  will  be  under  suf- 
ficient pressure  to  hold  it  in  place.  Any  shaking  about  of 
fruits  will  inevitably  result  in  bruising,  not  only  the  loose 
fruit,  but  those  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  Even  if 
decay  does  not  result,  the  bruised  condition  of  the  fruit  will 
detract  from  its  appearance  and  will  reduce  its  market  value. 
It  is  for  this  reason,  in  part,  that  accuracy  in  sizing  is  essen- 
tial for  the  proper  packing  of  fruit  in  the  packages  in  which 
each  specimen  is  placed  individually  in  position. 

The  different  ways  of  arranging  the  fruits  in  a  package  are 
sometimes  referred  to  as  the  "straight"  or  "square"  pack, 
"offset,"  and  "alternate,"  depending  on  the  position  of  the 


404  Peach-Growing 

fruits  with  relation  to  one  another.  The  square  and  offset 
packs  are  shown  in  Plate  XXX  (bottom).  The  "alternate" 
differs  but  slightly  from  the  offset.  If  the  fruits  in  the  middle 
box  in  the  same  figure  were  of  such  size  that  a  given  number 
in  the  first  and  each  alternate  row  thereafter  exactly  filled 
the  space  crosswise  the  box,  then  in  the  second  and  corre- 
sponding alternate  rows  with  each  specimen  placed  in  the 
angle  formed  between  each  two  adjacent  specimens,  there 
would  be  one  fruit  less  than  in  the  other  rows.  Such  an 
arrangement  of  the  fruits  is  designated  an  "alternate" 
pack.  The  difference  between  this  style  pack  and  the 
"offset"  is  relatively  slight.  The  same  terms  are  frequently 
applied  to  corresponding  arrangements  of  the  fruit  in  the 
carrier  baskets. 

If  a  grower  desires  to  make  an  especially  fancy  pack,  he 
sometimes  wraps  the  fruit  in  paper.  This  is  a  common 
practice  when  the  box  is  used  (Plate  XXX).  The  bulk  of 
the  commercial  crop,  however,  is  packed  without  wrapping. 
All  packages  should  be  firmly  made,  and  when  filled,  the 
covers  securely  nailed  or  otherwise  fastened  in  place.  If  not, 
the  packages  will  be  racked  and  broken  in  transit  and  in 
handling  and  the  fruit  damaged. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
TRANSPORTATION,  STORAGE,  MARKETING 

TRANSPORTATION 

It  is  to  be  assumed  that  the  peach-grower  selected  his 
location  with  respect  to  good  transportation  facilities.  Such 
facilities  may  be  represented  by  railroads,  boat  lines,  or 
perhaps  both,  and  in  case  of  local  distribution,  good  roads. 
With  respect  to  local  markets,  the  use  of  auto-trucks  has 
greatly  facilitated  delivery  in  many  instances  and  increased 
materially  the  distances  which  it  is  practicable  to  cover.  In 
most  cases  in  which  peaches  are  delivered  by  boat,  a  com- 
paratively short  time  in  transit  is  required,  and  the  problems 
of  transportation  are  relatively  simple. 

The  great  bulk  of  the  commercial  peach  crop  is  moved  by 
rail,  much  of  the  fruit  being  shipped  distances  varying  from 
perhaps  several  hundred  to  three  thousand  miles,  or  from  the 
Pacific  coast  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard. 

While  small  lots  and  less  than  car-lots  are  commonly 
shipped  by  express,  fast  freight  service  in  refrigerator  cars 
is  essential  in  distributing  the  bulk  of  the  crop.  This  im- 
plies also  adequate  car-icing  facilities.  The  object  of  re- 
frigeration in  transit  is  to  provide  a  temperature  for  the  fruit 
sufficiently  low  to  retard  the  ripening  processes.  A  tem- 
perature of  40°  to  45°  or  even  lower,  if  possible,  is  desirable. 

405 


406  Peach-Growing 

Precooling. 

One  of  the  difficulties  experienced  in  shipping  perishable 
products  such  as  peaches  is  due  to  the  slow  cooling  of  the 
fruit  to  a  temperature  sufficiently  low  to  retard  ripening 
when  placed  in  a  refrigerator  car.  As  a  result  of  too  tardy 
cooling,  it  often  arrives  in  an  over-ripe  condition,  or  so  far 
advanced  in  maturity  that  it  does  not  hold  up  well  when 
placed  on  sale. 

In  practice,  a  large  quantity  of  warm  fruit  is  commonly 
placed  in  the  car  at  one  time.  The  heat  in  the  fruit  for  a 
time  counteracts  the  refrigerating  effects  of  the  ice  in  the 
bunkers,  and  it  is  often  several  days  before  the  temperature 
in  the  car  again  drops  low  enough  to  retard  effectively  the 
ripening  of  the  fruit. 

To  overcome  this  difficulty  the  fruit  is  sometimes  pre- 
cooled  or  placed  in  refrigeration  —  sometimes  in  a  compart- 
ment built  for  the  purpose  where  the  temperature  can  be  run 
considerably  below  the  freezing  point  if  desired  —  and  cooled 
to  a  temperature  of  perhaps  40°  F.  before  it  is  loaded  in  the 
car.  When  thus  handled,  the  full  effect  of  the  refrigerator 
car  operates  to  maintain  the  fruit  at  such  a  temperature  that 
the  ripening  processes  are  approximately  stationary,  or  at 
least  much  retarded. 

Another  means  of  greatly  facilitating  the  cooling  of  the 
fruit  and  increasing  the  effectiveness  of  the  refrigeration  in 
the  car  is  by  using  a  certain  quantity  of  salt  with  the  ice  in 
the  bunkers.  This  simple  measure,  as  proved  by  the  Federal 
Department  of  Agriculture,  results  in  so  promoting  the 
refrigeration  that  the  fruit  is  very  much  more  quickly  cooled 
than  when  it  is  not  used. 


Transportation,  Storage,  Marketing  407 

Loading  the  cars. 

Whatever  the  style  of  package  used,  it  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  that  the  individual  containers  be  so  placed  in 
the  car  that  their  positions  do  not  change  en  route  to  des- 
tination. It  is  as  disastrous  practically  for  a  package  to  be 
loose  in  its  position  as  it  is  for  individual  fruits  to  be  loose 
within  the  package.  In  either  case  the  fruit  will  be  bruised 
and  ruined  for  market  purposes. 

The  type  of  package  used  will  obviously  influence  the 
manner  in  which  a  car  is  loaded,  as  will  also,  in  respect  to 
certain  details,  the  size  of  the  car. 

In  loading  bushel  baskets  or  Delaware  baskets  it  is  com- 
monly advised  to  load  from  "end  to  end,"  that  is,  the  first 
packages  are  placed  in  a  continuous  row  along  the  side  of  the 
car  opposite  the  entrance  door  and  extending  from  one  end 
of  the  car  to  the  other.  A  second  row  is  similarly  placed 
adjacent  to  the  first  one  following  which  a  second  tier  may 
be  put  in  position  corresponding  to  the  first  row. 

The  position  of  the  individual  packages  in  the  second  tier 
in  relation  to  those  in  the  first  tier  will  depend  on  the  way 
they  fit  into  the  car.  The  placing  of  baskets  in  a  car  is 
entirely  comparable  with  the  placing  of  individual  fruits  in 
a  Georgia  carrier  basket  or  in  a  box.  The  pack  may  be  the 
"straight"  or  "square,"  the  "alternate,"  or  the  "offset." 

If  the  first  is  used,  the  packages  are  placed  so  that  each  one 
is  squarely  against,  or  stands  directly  opposite,  those  adjacent 
to  it.  In  the  alternate  plan  the  packages  overlap,  each  one 
standing  in  the  angle  made  by  two  adjoining  packages  in  the 
adjacent  row,  and  each  row  has  one  less  package,  or  one  more, 
as  the  case  may  be,  than  those  on  either  side.  In  the  offset 
packing,  the  position  of  the  packages  with  relation  to  each 
other  is  substantially  the  same  as  in  the  alternate  arrange- 


408  Peach-Growing 

ment,  but  there  is  the  same  number  of  packages  in  each  row 
across  the  car.  This  method  is  naturally  used  where  the  car 
is  about  half  the  width  of  a  package  wider  than  the  space 
occupied  by  a  given  number  of  packages,  while  the  alter- 
nate arrangement  prevails  where  a  given  number  of  packages 
completely  fill  the  width  of  the  car.  "Offset"  loading  is 
shown  in  Plate  XXXI  {top). 

In  straight  packing  the  packages  in  the  second  and  sub- 
sequent tiers  are  placed  directly  on  top  of  those  in  the  lower 
ones,  but  in  the  other  methods  the  packages  in  each  tier  al- 
ternate with  those  in  the  one  below.  Thus  in  all  tiers  except 
the  lower,  each  package  aside  .from  those  next  the  car  wall 
stands  on  the  adjacent  sides  of  either  two  or  four  packages, 
depending  on  the  relation  of  the  size  of  the  car  to  the  space 
occupied  by  a  given  number  of  packages.  The  alternate 
and  offset  methods  of  arrangement  make  firmer  and  more 
stable  positions  for  the  packages  than  does  the  straight 
packing.  This  relation  of  different  tiers  to  one  another  is 
illustrated  in  Plate  XXXI. 

In  loading  Delaware  baskets,  every  alternate  one  is  placed 
bottom-side  up  so  that  the  flare  of  the  sides  will  thus  be 
equalized  in  spacing.  This  arrangement  is  suggested  in  the 
manner  of  loading  the  wagon  shown  in  Plate  XXXVIII.  A 
car  of  ordinary  size  holds  about  430  of  the  bushel  baskets 
when  piled  four  tiers  high  and  about  the  same  number  or 
a  few  more  Georgia  carriers. 

Georgia  carriers,  boxes,  and  flats  are  usually  loaded  straight, 
the  packages  in  one  tier  being  placed  directly  above  those 
below.  This  arrangement  is  suggested  in  Plates  XXXI 
(bottom)  and  XXXII  (top).  It  will  be  noted  that  a  narrow 
space  is  left  between  the  rows  of  packages.  This  is  needed 
in  order  to  aid  in  the  thorough  circulation  through  the  car 


Transportation,  Storage,  Marketing  409 

of  the  cold  air.  If  this  does  not  occur,  the  temperature  in 
different  parts  of  the  car  will  vary  greatly. 

Narrow  strips  of  board  about  f  inch  thick  and  as  long  as 
the  car  is  wide  are  nailed  across  each  end  of  each  carrier  as 
may  be  seen  in  Plate  XXXI  (bottom),  and  across  each  alter- 
nate tier  in  the  use  of  boxes  or  flats  (Plate  XXXII,  top). 
This  is  done  in  order  to  hold  the  packages  securely  in  posi- 
tion. 

When  a  car  is  loaded  from  each  end  towards  the  center 
and  a  space  between  the  doors  remains  unoccupied,  it  is 
important  that  the  packages  be  very  securely  braced  to  hold 
them  in  position.  Most  of  the  movement  in  shunting  the 
cars  is  endwise.  Hence  if  the  bracing  is  not  strong,  a  good 
deal  of  racking  of  the  packages  is  inevitable.  The  manner 
of  bracing  carriers  is  shown  in  Plate  XXXI.  The  lumber 
commonly  used  is  2  X  4-inch  joist.  Supports  corresponding 
to  those  seen  in  the  figure  are  placed  against  the  crates  on 
the  other  side  of  the  doorway.  One  brace  extends  to  the 
ceiling  of  the  car  to  prevent  the  supports  from  working  up- 
ward and  thus  becoming  released  at  the  bottom.  Some 
similar  method  or  one  that  will  make  the  packages  equally 
secure  should  be  used  for  all  other  types  of  packages. 

When  a  car  is  loaded  and  the  shipping  details  attended  to, 
the  responsibility  of  movement  passes  to  the  transportation 
company. 

COLD    STORAGE 

Storage  is  of  only  minor  importance,  relatively,  with 
peaches,  yet  within  certain  rather  narrow  limits  it  may  play 
an  important  part  in  the  net  returns  secured  for  the  fruit. 
The  durability  of  peaches  in  storage  is  short.  They  soon 
become  mealy,  lose  flavor,  and  if  held  too  long,  the  flesh  turns 


410  Peach-Growing 

brown  even  though  the  exterior  may  appear  normal  and 
attractive. 

Fruit  that  is  to  be  stored  should  be  picked  when  well  colored 
but  still  firm  and  for  best  results  it  should  be  put  in  storage 
as  quickly  as  possible  after  it  is  picked.  A  temperature  of 
32°  gives  the  best  results  as  measured  by  the  length  of  the 
storage  period  of  the  fruit.  Even  under  the  best  conditions 
the  fruit  should  not  be  held  longer  than  about  two  weeks, 
since  the  deterioration  mentioned  above  follows  with  most 
varieties  soon  after  this  period,  the  browning  occurring 
within  three  or  four  weeks.  A  storage  period  of  even  two 
weeks,  however,  may  make  the  difference  between  a  heavy 
loss  and  a  good  profit  to  the  shipper  if  the  fruit  happens  to 
reach  the  market  when  there  is  an  over-supply. 

MARKETING 

It  has  been  pointed  out  that  peach-growing  is  essentially 
a  manufacturing  enterprise  and  that,  as  a  manufacturer,  the 
grower  must  adhere  closely  to  fundamental  business  prin- 
ciples in  order  to  succeed.  Therefore,  he  must  handle  a  well- 
standardized  article.  Every  package  of  fruit  that  is  marketed 
under  a  particular  brand  must  be  just  as  nearly  like  every 
other  package  handled  under  the  same  brand  as  it  is  possible 
to  make  it.  Again,  a  successful  manufacturer  must  know 
the  markets  in  which  he  deals.  He  must  know  where  he  can 
sell  his  goods,  what  his  competition  is,  and  from  whence  it 
comes,  and  he  must  understand  when  a  market  has  taken  as 
much  of  a  commodity  as  it  will  absorb  to  mutual  advantage. 
Finally,  a  manufacturer  must  make  effective  use  of  all 
available  knowledge  of  market  preferences  and  peculiarities 
with  a  view  to  regulating  his  selling  activities  accordingly. 


Transportation,  Storage,  Marketing  411 

While  these  observations  are  axiomatic,  not  every  grower 
is  guided  by  them.  Too  often  fruit  that  is  poorly  graded  is 
shipped  under  a  brand  which  implies  a  highly  standardized 
product.  In  this  case  the  brand  used  serves  no  other  good 
purpose  than  to  warn  the  purchaser  after  one  experience  to 
beware.  Not  infrequently  the  grower  ships  with  little  or  no 
knowledge  of  market  requirements  or  conditions. 

From  the  nature  of  many  of  the  marketing  problems,  it  is 
obvious  that  the  individual  grower  is  at  a  serious  disadvan- 
tage. He  is  necessarily  absorbed  in  getting  his  fruit  ready 
to  ship.  He  is  handling  a  highly  perishable  product  and 
must  act  quickly.  Unless  he  can  sell  on  the  track  to  a  local 
buyer,  he  usually  has  no  other  alternative  than  to  consign 
to  a  commissioner  merchant  in  a  more  or  less  distant  market. 
In  either  case,  if  he  is  not  well  informed  in  regard  to  prices, 
market  conditions,  and  the  competition  he  has  to  meet,  his 
returns  are  likely  to  be  disappointing. 

Many  of  the  marketing  problems  can  be  met  more  success- 
fully by  a  cooperative  shippers'  organization  than  by  individ- 
ual shippers  operating  independently.  It  is  for  this  reason, 
in  part,  that  a  grower  usually  does  well  in  selecting  a  location 
for  planting  his  orchard  where  there  are  community  interests 
in  peach-growing  of  considerable  size  rather  than  to  locate 
where  there  is  no  alternative  to  individual  action. 

Distribution  of  the  fruit. 

One  of  the  most  important  features  of  the  whole  marketing 
problem  is  the  distribution  of  the  fruit.  Not  infrequently 
one  market  within  the  shipping  radius  of  a  production  center 
is  without  adequate  fruit  to  supply  the  demand,  while  a  glut 
exists  in  some  other  market  to  which  a  disproportionately 
large  quantity  of  fruit  has  been  shipped. 


412  Peach-Growing 

When  the  growers  of  a  community  ship  through  a  coopera- 
tive organization,  its  manager  should  keep  fully  informed  by 
daily  telegraphic  reports  of  the  supply  of  fruit  in  the  markets 
within  his  shipping  radius  in  order  that  he  may  know  where 
to  ship  to  the  best  advantage.  Thus  all  the  members  of  the 
association  receive  the  benefit  of  market  reports  at  no  greater 
cost  for  telegrams  than  would  be  involved  for  each  one 
operating  separately.  Other  advantages  which  require  no 
enumeration  here  also  attend  cooperative  selling.  Funda- 
mental to  the  success  of  organized  selling,  however,  is  a  care- 
fully standardized  pack  for  the  different  grades  and  brands 
of  fruit. 

In  the  chapter  on  varieties,  reference  was  made  to  the 
importance  of  selecting  varieties  for  planting  with  regard 
to  the  sequence  in  which  they  ripen.  The  prominence  given 
to  certain  regions  because  of  the  sequence  in  which  certain 
important  varieties  ripen  in  them  with  respect  to  other  dis- 
tricts was  also  pointed  out.  These  facts  are  again  indicated 
in  the  present  connection.  They  are  highly  important  in 
considering  competition  in  the  markets  and  consequently  in 
the  distribution  of  the  fruit. 

Poor  distribution  is  often  equivalent  to  over-production 
so  far  as  prices  are  concerned;  conversely,  low  returns  are 
more  frequently  due  to  an  unequal  and  faulty  distribution  of 
the  supply  than  because  more  peaches  are  produced  than 
the  trade  can  absorb,  provided  the  fruit  is  placed  where 
every  one  who  wants  it  can  readily  obtain  it. 

The  diagram  in  Fig.  19  shows  the  comparative  shipping 
season  of  the  principal  peach-producing  states.  In  addition, 
the  season  for  Ontario  covers  a  period  of  nearly  three  months, 
beginning  about  July  20  and  continuing  as  late  or  later  than 
any  district  in  the  United  States. 


Transportation,  Storage,  Marketing 


413 


AUGUST       SBPTEMBE.K        OCTOBER 


SOUTH  CAROLINA 


CALIFORNIA 


NORTH  CAROLINA 


VilSS/SSIPP\ 


c 


LOUIS/ANA 


ARKANSAS 


OKLAHOMA 


Afa)V  MEXICO 


WEST   VfR  SIN  I A 


I  T£NN£SS££ \ 


c 


COLORADO 


WASHINGTON 


KaNTUCKY 


N£WjJ£RS£Y 


MISSOURI 


DELAWARE       \ 


H 


MARYLAND 


MICHIGAN 


CONNECTICUT 


IDAHO 

13: 


RENNS  YL  VA  NIA 

-I  I  .: 

/VftV  YORK 


3_J 


Fig.   19,  —  Diagram  showing  the  "  peach  season  "  in  the  different  states. 


414  F each-Growing 

In  this  connection  the  shipper  as  well  as  the  grower  should 
consult  the  ripening  dates  given  for  different  varieties  on 
pages  354  to  373.  With  the  exception  of  the  fruit  grown  in 
Florida,  California,  West  Virginia,  and  to  a  limited  extent  in 
one  or  t\yo  other  states,  the  great  bulk  of  the  fruit  shipped 
consists  of  the  Elberta  variety,  though  the  diagram  covers 
both  the  earlier  and  later  sorts  which  are  marketed  in  rel- 
atively small  quantities  from  some  of  the  peach-producing 
sections  in  most  states.  Therefore,  the  ripening  dates  given 
for  the  Elberta  peach  indicate  fairly  accurately  the  period  of 
maximum  shipment  from  many  different  sections  throughout 
the  country,  and  are  indicative  of  the  trend  of  greatest  market 
supply.  This,  however,  varies  somewhat  from  season  to 
season,  as  does  the  crop  in  the  different  competing  districts. 

In  general,  a  shipper  should  aim  to  supply  the  markets 
nearest  to  his  place  of  production,  thus  reducing  time  in 
transit,  and  transportation  charges,  as  well  as  the  demands  on 
the  raihoads.  K  striking  disregard  of  this  practice,  resulting 
in  little  or  no  advantage  to  any  one  except  perhaps  the  rail- 
road in  the  freight  receipts,  was  observed  a  few  years  ago 
when  a  car  of  Elberta  peaches  which  had  been  shipped  some 
distance  was  being  unloaded  on  a  local  siding,  while  in  the 
same  freight  yard  on  another  siding  a  car  was  being  loaded 
with  local-grown  fruit  of  the  same  variety  to  be  shipped  to  a 
distant  state.  Reasonable  economy  in  both  transportation 
and  handling  would  seem  to  have  dictated  that  the  fruit  grown 
in  the  locality  should  have  been  used  to  supply  local  demands. 

While  the  bulk  of  the  commercial  crop  is  sold  either  "on 
the  track"  at  the  shipping  station  or  is  shipped  on  con- 
signment to  a  commission  merchant  who  handles  it  as  the 
shipper's  agent,  the  fruit  received  in  eastern  markets  from, 
California  is  usually  sold  at  auction. 


INDEX 


Adverse    temperatures:      effects    of,    Associations,  cooperative,  393 


vary    with    conditions,    313,    314 ; 

limits  of,  315. 
Africa,  peach-production  in,  23. 
Age,  at  bearing,  98,  114;   of  trees  for 

planting,  62,  88. 
Agriculture,    department    of,    cited, 

406. 
Air,  stratification  of,  40. 
Alabama,  varieties  for,  354. 
Alderman,  W.  H.,  cited,  162 ;  quoted, 

164. 
Alfalfa,  129, 
Alsike  clover,  138. 
Altitude,  relation  of,  to  frosts,  30. 
American     Pomological     Society,  — 

rules  of  nomenclature  of,  378. 
Amygdalus  Davidiana,  48. 
Amygdal%LS  nectarina,  382. 
Amygdalus  Persica,  380,  381. 
Amygdalus  Persica,  var.  nucipersica, 

382. 
Anarisa  lineatella,  232. 
Antiquity  of  the  peach,  1. 
Aphis,  black,  233  ;   green,  235. 
Aphis  persiccE-niger,  233. 
Argentina,  production  of  peaches  in, 

20. 
Arizona,  varieties  for,  354. 
Arkansas,  varieties  for,  355. 
Arkansas   experiment   station,    men- 
tioned, 161. 
Arnold,  J.  H.,  quoted,  339. 
Arsenate  of  calcium,  218;    of  lead, 

218,  284  ;  use  of  lime  with,  284. 
Arsenical  poison,  218. 
Asia,  peach-production  in,  22. 
Aspidiotus  perniciosus,  236. 


Atomic  sulfur,  287. 
Auctioning  fruit,  414. 
Aulacospis  pentagona,  241. 
Australia,  peach-production  in,  23. 
Austria-Hungary,       production       of 

peaches  in,  21. 
Auto- trucks:    a  factor  in  marketing, 

34 ;  for  transportation,  405. 

Bacteria  in  relation  to  soil-fertility, 

151. 
Bacterial  leaf-spot,  266. 
Bacterial  shot-hole,  168,  266. 
Bacteriosis,  266. 
Bacterium,  pruni,  266  ;  B.  tum.efaciens, 

272. 
Bailey,  L.  H.,  mentioned,  3  ;  quoted, 

101,  102. 
Ballou,  F.  H.,  quoted,  317,  318. 
Banking     trees     to    prevent    winter 

injury,  321. 
Barden,  F.  M.,  cited,  343. 
Bark-beetle,  228,  231. 
Basis  of   classification:     adhesion  of 

flesh,  382 ;  regional,  384. 
Baskets  for  picking  fruit,  394. 
Batchelor,  L.  D.,  cited,  311. 
Bearing  age  for  trees,  98. 
Bedding  pits,  52,  53. 
Berckmans,   P.   J.,   mentioned,   384, 

385. 
Bigelow,  W.  D.,  cited,  301. 
Bitter  clover,  140,  141. 
Black  peach-aphis,  233. 
Black-spot,  266. 
Blake,    M.   A.,   cited,   73,   74,   321; 

quoted,  200,  201. 


415 


416 


Index 


Blight,   California,   270;    coryneum, 

270. 
Bodies    of    water,    influence    of,    on 

climate,  31,  32. 
Bordeaux  mixture,  219,  287. 
Borer:    peach-tree,  222  ;  gas  tar  for, 

224 ;    California    peach-tree,    227 ; 

lesser  peach-tree,  232  ;   peach-twig, 

232 ;  shot-hole,  228. 
Botany  of  peach,  380. 
Bracing    limbs,     198 ;     packages    in 

car,  409. 
Brands,  grade,  use  of,  in  marketing, 

410. 
British  South  Africa,  peach-produc- 
tion in,  23. 
Brown-mite,  247. 
Brown-rot,  255 ;    in  relation  to  cur- 

culio,  257. 
Brush-burner,  198. 
Bryobia  pratensis,  247. 
Buckwheat,  145. 
Budders,  skill  of,  59. 
Budding:     details  of,  56,  57,  58,  59 ; 

dormant,     62,     63 ;      selection    of 

buds  for,  55 ;    time  of,  54,  59,  60. 
Bud-mite,  251. 
Bud-stick,  66. 
Buds:      selection    of,     55 ;      cutting 

from  bud-stick,  57 ;    protection  of, 

in  budding,  59. 
Bur  clover,  140. 

Bureau  of  Entomology,  cited,  245. 
Butler,  P.  W.,  quoted,  95,  96. 
Button  clover,  140,  141. 

Calcium,  arsenate  of,  218;  cyanamide 
for  nematodes,  254. 

California:  peach-blight,  270;  peach- 
tree  borer,  227 ;  varieties  for,  355  ; 
yellows,  277. 

Caliroa  amygdalina,  245. 

Campbell,  Judge,  mentioned,  388. 

Canada,  early  culture  in,  9,  10 ; 
peach-production  in,  19. 

Candole,  Alphonse  de,  mentioned, 
1,  2,  3;  quoted,  2. 

Cane,  146. 


Canneries,  source  of  pits,  50. 
Canning  peaches  in  California,    15 ; 

in     other     states,     16 ;      quantity 

canned,  16,  17. 
Capillary  soil-moisture,  309. 
Cars,  refrigerator,  405 ;   loading,  407. 
Census,   thirteenth,  peach  statistics, 

13,  14. 
Central    America,    peach-production 

in,  20. 
Cercosporella  persicoe,  269. 
Chandler,    W.    H.,    cited,    203,    204, 

320 ;   quoted,  205,  206. 
Characteristics     of     different    races, 

390 ;    of  principal  varieties,  373. 
Chewing  insects,  218. 
Chili,  peach-production  in,  20. 
China,  origin  of  peach  in,  2,  3 ;    first 

cultivation  of  peach  in,  2. 
Chinese  cling  group,  see  North  China 

race,  387;    characteristics  of,  391. 
Choate,  R.,  mentioned,  387. 
Cladosporium  carpophilum,   257. 
Classifica-tion :     basis    of,    382,    384; 

first    published,    383 ;    Onderdonk, 

system  of,  384. 
Claudius,  Emperor,  389. 
Climate :     local,    with    reference    to 

sites,  39 ;    affected  by  topography, 

42;     by    elevation,    42,    43;     by 

bodies  of  water,  31,  32. 
Clingstone    group,     382;      varieties, 

373. 
Clover:     alsike,    138;     bitter,    138; 

bur,    138 ;    button,   138 ;    crimson, 

138 ;      Japan,      138 ;      mammoth, 

138;      red,     138;      scarlet,     138; 

sweet,  140. 
Codling-moth     related     to     oriental 

peach-moth,  249. 
Color  of  fruit  influenced  by  thinning, 

298  ;  of  bark  in  relation  to  adverse 

temperatures,  324. 
Colorado,  varieties  for,  357. 
Common  vetch,  131. 
Composition  of  fruit,  301 ;    of  pits, 

302,  303  ;   of  kernels,  302,  303. 
Confucius,  writings  of,  referred  to,  2. 


Index 


417 


Connecticut,  varieties  for,  357. 

Conotrachelus  nenuphar,  219. 

Conservation  of  soil  moisture,  103. 

Contact  insecticides  enumerated,  218. 

Cooperative  associations,  locations 
with  reference  to,  35 ;  value  of, 
393,  411. 

Corn,  146. 

Coryneum  beijerinkii,   270. 

Coryneum-blight,  270. 

Cost  factors  in  peach-growing,  338, 
339;  in  Delaware,  343,  345;  in 
Michigan,  343. 

Cost  of  equipment,  342 ;  fertilizers, 
340  ;  pruning,  340  ;  spraying,  341 ; 
thinning,  341 ;  tillage,  340 ;  worm- 
ing, 341. 

Cover-crop,  defined,  112. 

Cover-crops  :  different  kinds  enumer- 
ated, 120;  effects  of,  enumerated, 
118,  119;  inter-relationship  of, 
to  tree  roots,  125,  126 ;  kind  of, 
124 ;  variety  of,  125 ;  relation  of, 
to  soU-condition,  117;  snow  held 
by,  124;  time  of  sowing,  121; 
when  not  to  use,  117,  119,  120,  146. 

Cowhorn  turnips,    145. 

Cowpeas  :  planting,  127  ;  varieties  of, 
128 ;  immune  to  nematodes,  254. 

Crimson  clover,  132. 

Critical  temperatures,  334. 

Crown-gall,  272  ;    danger  from,  69. 

Cultural  methods,  effect  of,  on  winter- 
injury,  317. 

Curculio,  plum,  219 ;  in  relation  to 
brown-rot,  257. 

Cutting  twine  following  budding,  59. 

Cyanamid  for  nematodes,  254. 

Dates  of  ripening,  conditions  affect- 
ing, 353. 

Deheading  to  renew  tops,  212,  213 ; 
reasons  for,  211 ;  limits  of,  213. 

Delaware,  varieties  for,  358. 

Delaware  experiment  station,  men- 
tioned, 165. 

Department  of  agriculture,  cited,  406. 

Description  of  races,  390. 

2e 


Details  of  budding,  56,  57,  58, 

Details  of  packing,  403. 

Details  of  pruning  shown,  189. 

Die-back,  274. 

Diseases:  dusting  to  control,  293; 
two  groups  of,  21S. 

Diseases :  bacterial  leaf-spot,  226 ; 
bacterial  shot-hole,  226 ;  bacteriosis, 
226 ;  black-spot,  226 ;  brown-rot, 
255  ;  California  peach-blight,  270  ; 
California  yellows,  277 ;  cory- 
neum-blight, 270  ;  crown-gall,  272  ; 
die-back,  274 ;  frosty-mildew,  268  ; 
gummosis,  276 ;  leaf-curl,  258 ; 
leaf-blight,  265;  leaf-spot,  265; 
httle-leaf,  277;  little-peach,  262; 
powdery-mildew,  268 ;  root-rot, 
275 ;  rosette,  264 ;  rust,  269 ;  scab, 
257  ;  shot-hole,  265  ;  yellows,  260. 

Distances  between  trees,  80. 

Distribution  of  crop  with  reference 
to  markets,  414 ;  with  reference 
to  over-production,  412  ;  with  refer- 
ence to  production  centers,  412, 
413. 

Distribution  systems  in  irrigating, 
306. 

Division  of  pomology,  cited,  383. 

Dormancy  in  relation  to  hardiness, 
320. 

Dormant  budding,  61,  62;  details 
of,  62,  63, 

Dormant  buds,  planting,  95,  96. 

Downing,  Charles,  cited,  385 ;  men- 
tioned,   387. 

Drainage  of  soil,  39 ;  importance  of 
in  irrigation,  312. 

Drying  peaches  in  California,  14  ;  in 
humid  regions,  15 ;  quantity  pro- 
duced, 15, 

Dusting  to  control  insects  and 
diseases,  293. 

Dynamite  in  planting  trees,  85 ; 
work  with,  by  New  Jersey  experi- 
ment station,  87,  88. 

Early  culture  of  peaches :  in  Canada, 
9,   10;    Georgia,  6;    Maryland,  5, 


418 


Index 


6,  9,  10,  11;  New  Jersey,  6; 
Pennsylvania,  8 ;   Virginia,  5,  6,  8. 

Effects  of  overirrigation,  310. 

Elberta  variety,  relative  impor- 
tance of,  35,  36,  373,  414 ;  signifi- 
cance of  ripening  dates  of,  414. 

Elements  of  plant-food  required,  149. 

Elevation,  relative  and  actual  above 
sea-level,  41 ;  effect  of  on  local  cli- 
mate, 42. 

Emerson,  R.  A.,  cited,  146. 

Emulsion,  linseed  oil,  245,  283. 

Entomology,  bureau  of,  cited,  245. 

Equipment,  orchard,  enumerated, 
342 ;  cost  of,  342 ;  for  orchard- 
heating,  333 ;  cost  of,  335 ;  for 
the  packing  house,  398 ;  for 
spraying,  292. 

Eulecanium  nigro-fasciatum,  242. 

Europe,  peach-production  in,  21. 

Eustace,  H.  J.,  cited,  247,  248,  343. 

Exoascus  deformans,  258. 

Experiments  to  determine  plant- 
food  needs,  171,  172,  173. 

Failures  in  orchard  management,  100. 

Felton,  W.  B.,  mentioned,  325. 

Fertility,  self-,  of  varieties,  352. 

Fertilizer :  complete,  use  of,  153, 
154 ;  local  character  of  problem, 
152,  170 ;  experiments  in  Dela- 
ware, 165 ;  experiments  in  West 
Virginia,  162,  163. 

Fertilizers :  cost  of,  340 ;  effect  of, 
on  winter-injury,  169,  170;  use 
of,  does  it  pay,  174. 

Field  peas,  136 ;  varieties  of,  137. 

Filler-crop,  defined,  111. 

Filler-crops,  kind  to  use,  115,  120. 

Fire-pots  for  orchard  heating,  332 ; 
number  required,  332. 

First  year  pruning,  181. 

Flavor  influenced  by  thinning,  298. 

Florida,  varieties  for,  359. 

Flowers  of  sulfur,  269. 

Formosa,  peach-production  in,  23. 

Forms  of  soil  moisture,  308,  309. 

Free  soil  moisture,  308. 


Freestone  group,  382 ;    varieties,  373. 

Frosts,  correlation  of,  to  blossoming, 
30. 

Frosty-mildew,  269. 

Frozen  trees,  treatment  of,  77. 

Fruit,  ripening  of,  influenced  by 
fertilizers,  166 ;  size  of,  influenced 
by  nitrogen,  170. 

Fruit-buds,  distinguished  from  leaf- 
buds,  189  ;  position  of,  188 ;  prun- 
ing with  reference  to,  188,  189; 
winter  protection  of,  by  white- 
washing, 323. 

Fuel  for  orchard-heating,  331. 

Fulton,  S.  H.,  cited,  225  ;  quoted,  192. 

Fumigating  nursery  stock,  239. 

Fungicides,  219. 

Fungicides,  important :  atomic  sul- 
fur, 287  ;  bordeaux  mixture,  287  ; 
self-boiled  lime-sulfur  mixture,  285. 

Gas  tar  to  control  borers,  224. 

Geographical  distribution  of  indus- 
try, 17. 

Georgia,  early  culture  in,  6 ;  varie- 
ties for,  359. 

German  millet,  146. 

Germany,  peach-production  in,  21. 

Germination  of  pits,  freezing  not 
essential  to,  54. 

Gore,  H.  C.,  cited,  301. 

Grade-specifications,  402. 

Grades  for  fruit,  402. 

Grades  of  trees  for  planting,  66,  67, 
68,  69. 

Grading  fruit,  401. 

Green-manure  crop,  defined,  112; 
crops  enumerated,  120;  effect 
of,  enumerated,  118,  119;  relation 
of,  to  soil  condition,  117;  time  of 
sowing,  121. 

Green  peach-aphis,  235. 

Green,  W.  J.,  quoted,  317, 318. 

Growing  trees  in  nursery,  62. 

Gummosis,  276;    causes  of,  67. 

Hairy  vetch,  129 ;  resistance  to 
alkali,  129. 


Index 


419 


Handling  fruit,  care  in,  397,  403. 

Handling  nursery  trees :  when  re- 
ceived, 75 ;  if  dry,  77 ;  if  frozen, 
76. 

Hardiness  of  tree,  in  relation  to  dor- 
mancy, 320  ;  in  relation  to  variet.y, 
320. 

Heaters  for  orchards :  types  of,  331 ; 
number  required,  332 ;  lighting, 
335. 

Heating  orchards :  equipment  for, 
333;  fuel  for,  331;  methods  of, 
330  ;  critical  temperatures  for,  334. 

Hedrick,  U.  P.,  cited,  125. 

Heeling  in  trees,  75,  76. 

Hester,  L.  R.,  cited,  277. 

Heterodera  radicicola,  253. 

High-grade  trees,  growing  of,  61. 

Holes  for  tree-planting,  84,  85. 

Honey-dew,  244. 

Honey  race,  385;  characteristics  of, 
390. 

Hume,  H.  Harold,  cited,  384. 

Hydrocyanic  acid  gas,  239. 

Hydroscopic  soil-moisture,  308. 

Idaho,  varieties  for,  359. 

Illinois,  varieties  for,  359. 

Implements,  tillage,  108,  109,  110. 

Indian  race  (see  Spanish  race),  386. 

Indiana,  varieties  for,  360. 

Injury  by  low  temperatures :  to 
buds,  314;  to  trees,  313. 

Insecticides :  arsenate  of  lead,  284 ; 
concentrated  lime-sulfur  mixture, 
279 ;  linseed  oil  emulsion,  283 ; 
miacible  oils,  282 ;  nicotine  sul- 
fate, 283 ;  tobacco  extracts,  282. 

Insecticides,  contact,  218. 

Insects:  bark-beetle,  228,  231; 
black-aphis,  233 ;  brown-mite,  247  ; 
bud-mite,  251 ;  California  peach- 
tree  borer,  227 ;  curculio,  219 ; 
fruit-tree  bark-beetle,  228 ;  green- 
aphis,  235  ;  lesser  peach-tree  borer, 
225 ;  oriental  peach-moth,  249 ; 
peach-lecanium,  242 ;  peach-tree 
bark-beetle,     231 ;      peach     tree- 


borer,  222  ;  peach  twig-borer,  232 ; 
peach-worm,  232  ;  red-spider,  248  ; 
plum  curculio,  219;  San  Jos6 
scale,  236;  saw-fly,  246;  shot- 
hole  borer,  228;  slug,  245;  ter- 
rapin scale,  242  ;  twig-borer,  232 ; 
West  Indian  peach-scale,  241 ; 
white  peach-scale,  241. 

Insects,  dusting  to  control,  293 ; 
two  groups  of,  218;  chewing,  218; 
sucking,  218. 

Inter-planted  crop,  defined.  111. 

Inter-planted  crops,  choice  of,  124 ; 
in  relation  to  orchard-needs,   124. 

Introduction  of  peaches  from  Eng- 
land, 4  ;    from  Spain,  4. 

Introduction  of  peaches  into  America, 
4 ;    into  New  England,  5. 

Inventory  of  varieties,  377. 

Iowa,  varieties  for,  361. 

Irrigation :  amount  of  water  to 
apply,  311 ;  determining  need  of, 
309,  312 ;  engineering  features, 
305 ;  excessive  use  of,  310 ;  num- 
ber of  applications,  311 ;  systems 
of,  306 ;  tillage  practices  follow- 
ing, 312 ;    when  to  apply,  308. 

Italy,  peach-production  in,  21. 

Japan  clover,  140,  141. 
Japan,  peach-production  in,  22. 
June  budding,  59. 
June  drop,  300. 

Kansas,  varieties  for,  361. 
Keffer,  C.  A.,  cited,  202. 
Kentucky,  varieties  for,  362. 
Kyle,  E.  J.,  cited,  72. 

Labor,  locations  with  reference  to,  35. 

Laspeyresia  molesta,  249. 

Laying  down  trees,  325,  328 ;  plant- 
ing with  view  to,  328 ;  time  re- 
quired for,  328. 

Laying  off  the  land,  81,  82,  83. 

Lead,  arsenate  of,  218,  284;  use  of 
lime  with,  284. 

Leading  varieties,  374. 


420 


Index 


Leaf-blight,  265. 

Leaf-curl,  258. 

Leaf-spot,  265. 

Leguminous  cover-crops,  120 ;  green- 
manure  crops,  120 ;  soil  require- 
ments of,  126. 

Lespedeza,  140,  141. 

Lighting  orchard  heaters,  335. 

Lime,  arsenate  of,  218. 

Lime,  use  of  with  arsenate  of  lead, 
284. 

Lime-crude-oil-mixture,  228. 

Lime-sulfur  mixtures,  279 ;  direc- 
tions for  making,  280 ;  as  fungi- 
cides, 218 ;  for  leaf-curl,  259 ; 
self-boiled,  219,  285. 

Limiting  factor  in  plant-foods,   153. 

Linseed  oil  emulsion,  245,  283. 

Little-leaf,  277. 

Little-peach,  262. 

Little  Turk,  219. 

Loading  cars,  407 ;  methods  of,  407  ; 
details  of,  408,  409 ;  placing 
packages  in,  408 ;  bracing  pack- 
ages, 409. 

Location,  orchard,  defined,  26 ;  essen- 
tials of,  26 ;  with  reference  to 
climatic  conditions,  28,  29 ;  mar- 
kets, 33 ;    range  of  species,  27,  28. 

Locations  with  reference  to  commu- 
nity interests,  34  ;  economic  condi- 
tions, 34  ;    ripening  of  fruit,  35. 

Louisiana,  varieties  for,  362. 

Lyon,  Henry,  mentioned,  385,  387. 

McCue,  C.  A.,  cited,  343;    quoted, 

165,  167. 
Mackintosh,  R.  S.,  cited,  382. 
Mammoth  clover,   138. 
Marketing,    distribution   of   fruit   in, 

411,  414;    essentials  of,  410;    use 

of  brands  in,  410. 
Markets  with  reference  to  location,  35. 
Maryland :     early    culture   in,    5,    6, 

9,   10,   11 ;    first  large  orchard  in, 

10  ;   varieties  for,  362. 
Massachusetts  horticultural  society, 

mentioned,  38S. 


Massachusetts,  varieties  for,  363. 

Maturity  of  fruit,  degree  of,  for  pick- 
ing, 396  ;    determination  of,  396. 

Medicago  hispida  denticulata,  140. 

Melilotus  alba,  142  ;  M.  indica,  120, 
141,  142;    M.  officinalis,  142. 

Methods :  of  culture  in  relation  to 
winter  injury,  317;  of  lighting 
heaters,  3.34  ;  of  propagation,  47  ; 
of  selling  fruit,  414 ;  selling  on 
tracks,  414 ;  selling  at  auction, 
414;    of  thinning,  300. 

Mexico,  peach-production  in,  20. 

Meyer,  Frank  N.,  mentioned,  3. 

Michigan  agricultural  college,  be- 
havior of  Prunus  Davidiana  at, 
48. 

Michigan,  varieties  for,  364. 

Mildew,  frosty-,  269 ;  powdery-, 
268. 

Millet,  German,  146. 

Miscible  oUs,  282 ;  to  control  peach- 
lecanium,  244 ;  to  control  peach- 
tree  borers,  225. 

Missouri  experiment  station,  ferti- 
lizer experiments  by,  167,  168. 

Missouri,  varieties  for,  364. 

Mite,  brown,  247. 

Mulch  crop,  defined,  113;  when  to 
sow,  121. 

Myzxis  persicoe,  235. 

Nebraska  experiment  station,  men- 
tioned, 147. 

Nematodes,  253 ;  cowpea  varieties 
immune  to,  254;  freeing  land  of, 
254. 

Ness,  H.,  mentioned,  62,  63. 

New  England,  introduction  of 
peaches  into,  5. 

New  Hampshire,  varieties  for,  364. 

New  Jersey,  experiment  station, 
cited,  87,  88 ;  mentioned,  157, 
161,  297. 

New  Jersey,  varieties  for,  365. 

New  Mexico,  varieties  for,  365. 

New  York  experiment  station,  men- 
tioned, 161. 


Index 


421 


New  York,  varieties  for,  366. 

Nicotine  extracts  of  tobacco,  218. 

Nicotine  sulfate,  use  of,  283. 

Nitrogen,  a  plant-food  element  to 
be  supplied,  151 ;  effect  of,  on  dis- 
ease, 168 ;  effect  of,  oa  ripening  of 
fruit,  166;  effect  of,  on  size  of 
fruit,  170 ;  effect  of,  on  winter  in- 
jury, 320 ;  furnished  by  leguminous 
crops,  124. 

Non-leguminous  cover-crops,  120 ; 
green-manure  crops,   120. 

North  Carolina,  peach  pits  from, 
50 ;   varieties  for,  367. 

North  China  race :  characteristics 
of,  391;  history  of,  387;  typical 
varieties  of,  388. 

Number  of  trees  to  the  acre,  80. 

Nursery  methods,  61,  62. 

Nursery  stock,  growing  of,  a  distinct 
business,  47 ;    fumigating,  239. 

Oats,  145. 

Objects  of  pruning  stated,  177. 
Oceania,  peach-production  in,  23. 
Ohio  experiment  station  mentioned, 

122,  127. 
Ohio,  varieties  for,  368. 
Oil   for   orchard    heating,    grades   of, 

331  ;       quantity      required,      334 ; 

rate  of   burning,   333. 
Oklahoma,   varieties  for,   368. 
Onderdonk,  Gilbert,  cited,  383,  386  ; 

quoted,  387,  389. 
Orchard      equipment,      enumerated, 

342  ;  cost  of,  342. 
Orchard,    first    large,    in    Maryland, 

10. 
Orchard    heating,     329  ^     equipment 

for,  333  ;  does  it  pay,  335. 
Orchard     operations,     inter-relation- 
ship of,  97. 
Oregon,  varieties  for,  368. 
Organization  for  picking  fruit,   394  ; 

for  packing  fruit,  399. 
Oriental  peach-moth,   249 ;    relation 

of  to  codling-moth,  249. 
Origin  of  the  peach,  1,  2. 


Over-irrigation,  effects  of,  310. 
Over-production   in  relation  to  dis- 
tribution, 412. 

Pacific    coast,    adaptability    of    com- 
mon vetch  to,  131. 
Packages,    bracing    of,    in    car,    409 ; 

description  of,  399,  400 ;    styles  of, 

enumerated,  399. 
Packing   fruit  :    details  of,   403 ;    in 

the  orchard,  397 ;    in  the  packing- 
house, 397  ;    styles  of,  403  ;    tables 

for,  398. 
Packing-houses,  397,  398  ;  equipment 

for,   398 ;    organization  in,   399. 
Paddock,   Wendell,   cited,    122,   310; 

quoted,  325. 
Pamphilius  persicus,  246. 
Peach  botany,  380. 
Peach-Iecanium,  242. 
Peach-moth,  249. 
Peach  pits,  sources  of,  for  stocks,  49, 

50. 
Peach-scab,  257. 
Peach-tree  bark-beetle,  231. 
Peach-tree  borer,  222. 
Peach  twig-borer,  232. 
Peach-worm,  219,  232. 
Peach   yellows,    cause   of   decline  of 

peach   industry,    11 ;     with   regard 

to  propagation  of  trees,  55. 
Peen-to  race,  characteristics  of,  390 ; 

history  of,  384 ;    typical  varieties 

of,  385. 
Pennsylvania,  varieties,  98,  99. 
Persia,  peach-production  in,  23. 
Persian  race,  characteristics  of,  392 ; 

history  of,  389 ;    typical  varieties, 

389. 
Persica   kevis,   382 ;    P.   nucipersica, 

382;      P.     platycarpa,     382;      P. 

platycarpa    var.    nucipersica,    382 ; 

P.  vulgaris,  380,  381  ;    P.  vulgaris 

var.  platycarpa,  382. 
Personal  equation,  factor  in  success, 

24. 
Peru,  peach-production  in,  20. 
Philoeotribus  liminaris,  231. 


422 


Index 


Phosphoric  acid,  a  plant-food  to  be 
supplied,  151. 

Phosphorus,  effect  of,  on  ripening  of 
frviit,  167 ;  effect  of,  on  yield,  168  ; 
importance  as  a  plant-food,  151. 

Pickers,  397. 

Picking  baskets,  394 ;  collection  of, 
395  ;   distribution  of,  395. 

Picking  fruit:  degree  of  maturity  for, 
396 ;  for  storage,  410 ;  frequency 
of,  395 ;  organization  for,  394, 
395. 

Pilgrim  fathers,  mentioned,  4. 

Pit-planter,    51. 

Pits:  bedding,  52,  53;  freezing  of, 
not  essential,  54 ;  grades  of,  50, 
61 ;  handling,  51 ;  planting,  51 ; 
proportionate  size  of,  301 ;  quan- 
tity required,  51 ;  relative  size 
of,  301 ;  sources  of,  50 ;  strati- 
fication of,  52. 

Plant-food:  amounts  of,  table  show- 
ing, 156 ;  amounts  removed  in 
ten  years,  158,  160 ;  elements 
required,  149 ;  elements  to  be 
supplied,  151  ;  needs  not  shown 
by  chemical  analysis,  150 ;  needs, 
method  of  determining,  171 ;  ratio 
of,  156 ;  relation  of,  to  strength 
of  wood,   167. 

Planting  pits,  methods  of,  51,  52, 
53 ;    times  for,  51,  52,  53. 

Planting  trees:  age  for,  62,  68; 
crew  for,  93 ;  distances,  80 ; 
dormant  buds,  95,  96 ;  holes  for, 
84,  85;  laying  off  land  for,  82, 
83,  84;  methods  of,  51,  52,  53; 
preparation  of  soil  for,  77,  78 ; 
systems  of :  alternate,  hexagonal, 
square,  triangular,  79 ;  String- 
fellow  method  of,  93,  94 ;  time 
of,  in  northern  latitudes,  71 ;  in 
middle  and  southern  latitudes,  72 ; 
in  California,  74 ;  in  Missouri, 
72,  73;  in  New  Jersey,  73;  in 
Texas,  72. 

Plum  curculio,  219. 

Plum  weevil,  219. 


Poison,  arsenical,  218. 

Pomology,  Division  of,  cited,  383. 

Potash,  a  plant-food  element  to  be 
supphed,  151 ;  effect  of,  on  ripen- 
ing of  fruit,  167 ;  effect  of,  on 
yield,  167. 

Powdery-mildew,    268. 

Powell,  G.  Harold,  quoted,  387. 

Precooling  fruit,  reasons  for,  406 ; 
temperature   for,    406. 

Preparation  of  soil  for  planting,  77,  78. 

Price,  R.  H.,  cited,  386;  mentioned, 
62. 

Principles  of  pruning,  178,  179. 

Production    of    peaches    in    different 
countries:    Africa,    23 ;    Argentina, 
20;      Asia,     22;      Australia,     23 
Austria-Hungary,       21 ;        British 
South    Africa,    23 ;     Canada,    19 
Central   America,    20;     Chili,   20 
Europe,  21 ;  Formosa,  23  ;  France 
21 ;      Germany,     21 ;      Italy,     21 
Japan,  22 ;    Mexico,  20 ;    Oceania 
23  ;   Persia,  23  ;   Peru,  20 ;   Russia 
22 ;     South   Anierica,    20 ;     Spain 
22;      Tunis,     23;      Turkey,     22 
United     Kingdom,     22 ;      United 
States,    18 ;     Uruguay,    20 ;     West 
Indies,  20. 

Productivity,  influenced  by  cultural 
treatment,  97,  98 ;  profitable  pe- 
riod of,  98,  99. 

Profits,  factors  influencing,  348, 
349. 

Propagation  of  trees,  47. 

Propping  limbs,   198. 

Protection  of  buds  when  budding, 
59. 

Protection  of  trees  when  planting, 
75,  92. 

Pruning:  cost  of,  340 ;  desirable 
types  of,  197 ;  different  degrees 
of,  in  different  regions,  208,  209; 
in  summer,  199 ;  legend  of,  in 
tree-top,  190 ;  objects  of  stated, 
177;  principles  of,  178,  179; 
recognized  value  of,  176 ;  removal 
of  large  limbs  in,  179 ;    roots  when 


Index 


423 


planting,  89 ;  seriousness  of  stubs 
in,  179;  systems  of,  180;  time 
of,  178,  209;  time  required  for, 
341;  to  form  top,  187;  to  over- 
come winter  injury,  206 ;  to  re- 
new tops,  210 ;  to  shape  tree-top, 
189;  tools  for,  180;  tops  for 
planting,  89,  90,  91 ;  treating 
wounds  made  in,  179. 
Pruning  in  detail:  first  year,  —  im- 
portance of,  179 ;  shaping  top, 
180,  181,  184;  in  summer,  182, 
183  ;  second  year,  —  details  of, 
185,  186  ;    third  year,  —  details  of, 

187,  188 ;  subsequent  to  third  year, 

188,  189. 

Pruning  with  reference  to:  fruit 
buds,  188,  189;  habit  of  growth, 
186 ;  rest  period  of  trees,  204 ; 
winter  injury,  203. 

Prunus  Besscyi,  49 ;  P.  Davidiana, 
48,  49  ;  P.  Persica,  381 ;  P.  Persica 
var.  Icevis,  382  ;  P.  Persica  var.  nec- 
tarina,  382. 

Prunus  Davidiana,  behavior  of  at 
Michigan  agricultural  college,  48. 

Puccinia  spinosce,  269.  - 

Quaintance,     A.     L.;     cited,     225 ; 

quoted,  280,  282. 

Races  of  peaches,  description  of,  384 ; 

significance  of,  384. 
Rape,  145. 
Red  clover,  138. 
Red-spider,  248. 

Refrigerator-car  temperatures,  405. 
Reimer,  F.  C,  cited,  385. 
Removal  of  large  limbs,  179. 
Removal     of    tops    of    stock    after 

budding,  60,  61. 
Renewal  of  tops  by  budding,  details 

of,  215  ;   reasons  for,  215. 
Renewal     of     tops     by     deheading, 

detaOs  of,  212;    reasons  for,  211; 

limits  of,  213. 
Renewal  of  tops  by  grafting,  details 

of,   216,   217;    limits  of,   216;    by 


shield-grafting,  216 ;  by  side- 
grafting,  216. 

Renewal  of  tops  by  pruning,  210: 
time  of,  211. 

Reservoirs  for  fuel  oil,  334. 

Rest-period  of  trees  in  relation  to 
winter  injury,  204. 

Rickard,  C.  C,  mentioned,  325. 

Ripening  of  fruit:  delayed  by 
cultural  methods,  99 ;  sequence 
of  ripening,  350,  351,  353;  influ- 
enced by  thinning,  298. 

Rolfs,  F.  M.,  cited,  274. 

Root-rot,    275. 

Roots :  protecting  while  planting, 
92  ;   pruning  for  planting,  89. 

Rosette,  264. 

Rules  of  nomenclature,  378. 

Russia,  peach-production  in,  22. 

Rust,  269. 

Rye,  144. 

Salwey  variety,   pits  of,   for   stocks, 

50. 
San  Jos6  scale,  236. 
Sanninoidea  exitiosa,  222 ;  opalescens, 

227. 
Saw-fly,  246. 
Scab,  peach,  257. 
Scarlet  clover,  132. 
Schedule  of  spray  applications,  290. 
Sclerotinia  fructigena,  255. 
Scolytus  rugulosus,  228. 
Scott,  W.  M.,  cited,  255,  256  ;  quoted, 

257,  285. 
Second  year  pruning,  185,  186. 
Secondary   crop,   a  business  feature, 

114;    defined.   111;    place  of,  113, 

114. 
Seedling  orchards,  sources  of  pits,  50. 
Seeds,  proportional  size  of,  301. 
Selection  of  buds  for  propagation,  55. 
Self-boiled  lime-sulfur  mixture,  219 ; 

development    of,    256 ;     directions 

for  making,  285. 
Self-fertility  of  varieties,  352. 
Selling  fruit,  on  track,  414 ;    at  auc- 
tion, 414. 


424 


Index 


Shade-crop,  defined,  112;  kinds  to 
use,  123  ;  reasons  for,  122. 

Sheds  to  protect  trees,  322. 

Shield-budding,  47. 

Shield-grafting,  216,  217. 

Shipping  by  express,  405 ;  in  refrig- 
erator cars,  405. 

Shot-hole,  265. 

Side-grafting,  216,  217. 

Simanton,  F.  L.,  cited,  283,  284. 

Sims,  Wm.,  quoted,  191. 

Site,  orchard,  defined,  27. 

Sites  for  orchards  with  reference  to : 
drainage,  39 ;  elevation,  39 ;  local 
climate,  39  ;  slope,  39,  44,  45  ;  soil, 
37  ;    subsoil,  38 ;  topography,  39. 

Sizes  of  trees  for  planting,  67,  68,  69. 

Sizing  fruit,  401. 

Slope  in  relation  to  sites,  39,  44,  45. 

Slug,  peach-  and  plum-,  245. 

Smith,  Erwin  F.,  quoted,  4,  5,  6,  7, 
8,9. 

Smith,  J.  B.,  quoted,  243. 

Smith,  R.  E.,  quoted,  271. 

Smudge  pots,  number  required,  322 ; 
types  of,  331. 

Snow-storms,  effect  of,  on  blossoms, 
31,  315. 

Sod  in  peach  orchards,  123. 

Soil:  physical  condition  in  relation 
to  fertility,  151 ;  preparation  of, 
for  planting,  77,  78 ;  packing 
about  roots  in  planting,  93. 

Soil-fertility :  bacterial  activities  in 
relation  to,  151 ;  maintaining, 
99 ;  physical  condition  in  relation 
to,  151 ;  present  conception  of, 
103,  104. 

Soil-moistiu"e  :  conservation  of,  102 ; 
capillary,  309 ;  importance  of, 
with  cover-crops,  146 ;  winter 
injury  due  to  lack  of,  317. 

SoUs,  alkali,  hairy  vetch  resistant 
to,  129. 

Soils  for  peaches  with  reference  to: 
drainage,  39 ;  fertility,  39 ;  sub- 
soil. 39. 

Sources     of     pits :      canneries,     50 ; 


North    Carolina,    50;     Tennessee, 

50. 
South     America,      peach-production 

in,  20. 
South  Carolina,  varieties  for,  370. 
South  China  race,  characteristics  of, 

390 ;      history    of,     385 ;      typical 

varieties  of,  386. 
Soybeans,  134 ;   varieties  of,  135. 
Spain,  peach-production  in,  22. 
Spanish  race,  characteristics  of,  391 ; 

history  of,  386 ;    typical  varieties 

of,  386. 
SphcBrotheca  pannosa,  268. 
Spottswood,  Wm.  A.  W.,  mentioned, 

388. 
Spraying:    cost  of,  341 ;    equipment 

for,    292 ;     essential    features    of, 

289 ;      schedule     of     applications, 

290;   time  required  for,  341. 
Sprays,   applications  of,   290 ;    com- 
binations of,  283. 
Starcher,  G.  C,  cited,  296. 
Status,  economic  survey  of,  17. 
Step-ladders,  197,  395. 
Stetson,  Nahum,  mentioned,  388. 
Stocks  for  propagation,  kinds  of,  48, 

49. 
Storage,  cold:    durability  of  peaches 

in,  409 ;    effects  of,  on  fr\iit,  409 ; 

importance  of,  409 ;    temperatures 

for,  410. 
Storage  tanks  for  fuel  oil,  334. 
Stratification  of  air,  40 ;  of  pits,  52. 
Strength  of  wood,  relation  of  plant- 
food  to,  167. 
Stringfellow,  H.  M.,  mentioned,  93. 
Stringfellow,     method     of     planting, 

93,  94  ;  results  of,  94. 
Styles  of  packing  fruit,  403 ;    details 

of,  404. 
Subsoil,  importance  of,  38. 
Success,  essentials  of,  218. 
Sucking  insects,  218. 
Sulfur,  atomic,  287. 
Summer  budding,  59. 
Summer    pruning :     details   of,    200, 

201 ;   objects  of,  200 ;   first  season. 


Index 


425 


182,  183 ;  second  season,  186 ; 
time  of,  200,  202,  203 ;  with  refer- 
ence to  different  varieties,  203. 

Supporting  limbs  by  inside  bracing, 
198  ;    by  propping,  198. 

Sweet  clover,  140,  142,  143. 

Symons,  T.  B.,  cited,  244. 

Symptoms  of  winter  injury,  207. 

Synanthedon  piclepes,  225. 

Systems  of  distributing  water  :  basin, 
307;  check,  307;  flooding,  307; 
furrows,  306. 

T-budding,  47. 

Tar,  gas,  for  peach-tree  borer,  224. 

Tarsonemus  waitei,  251. 

Temperature  :  adverse,  313  ;  critical, 
for  orchard  heating,  334 ;  differ- 
ences in  trees  of  different  color,  324  ; 
effect  of  sudden  extreme  changes, 
315 ;  limiting  factor  in  peach  dis- 
tribution, 28  ;  minimum  limits,  29  ; 
for  refrigerator  cars,  405 ;  serious 
injury  by,  313  ;  for  cold  storage,  410. 

Tennessee,  pits  from,  50;  varieties 
for,  370. 

Terrapin  scale,  242. 

Tetranychus  bimactilatus ,  248. 

Texas,  behavior  of  peaches  in,  with 
respect  to  classification,  383 ;  varie- 
ties for,  370. 

Texas  experiment  station,  mentioned, 
62. 

Thinning  fruit :  cost  of,  341 ;  dis- 
tance between  fruits,  303 ;  influ- 
ence of,  on  quantity  of  fruit,  299 ; 
methods  of,  300 ;  reasons  for,  296  ; 
results  of,  296,  297  ;  time  required 
for,  300,  341. 

Thompson,  R.  C,  cited,  161. 

Tillage:  conservation  of  moisture 
by,  102;  cost  of,  340;  defined, 
101  ;  different  conceptions  of, 
105;  following  irrigation,  312; 
frequency  of,  106,  107 ;  in  rela- 
tion to  winter  injury,  320 ;  im- 
plements, 108,  109,  110;  recog- 
nized importance  of,  105 ;    results 


of,  summarized,    101,    102;     usual 
practices,  105. 

Time  for  picking  fruit,  396. 

Time  of  planting  trees  :  in  northern 
latitudes,  71 ;  in  middle  and  south- 
ern latitudes,  72 ;  in  California, 
74 ;  in  Missouri,  72,  73 ;  in  New 
Jersey,  73,  74 ;    in  Texas,  72. 

Time  of  thinning  fruit,  300. 

Tobacco  extracts,  218,  282 ;  use  of, 
282,  283. 

Tools  for  pruning,  180. 

Top-budding,  details  of,  215 ;  rea- 
sons for,  215. 

Top-grafting,  details  of,  216,  217; 
limits  of,  216. 

Topography,  in  relation  to  local 
climate,  42 ;  in  relation  to  sites, 
39. 

Tops,  pruning  of,  for  planting,  89, 
90,  91 ;  renewal  of,  by  pruning, 
210;    time  of,  211. 

Toxic  substances,  secretion  of,  by 
roots,  174. 

Tractors,  110. 

Trees  :  grades  of,  66,  67 ;  handling 
when  received,  75,  76,  77 ;  heel- 
ing in,  75,  76 ;  number  of,  to  the 
acre,  80 ;  protecting  when  plant- 
ing, 75;  sizes  of,  67,  68,  69; 
where  to  obtain,  70,  71. 

Tunis,  peach-production  in,  23. 

Turkey,  peach-production  in,  22. 
Twine,  cutting  of,  following  budding, 
59. 

Tying  buds,  58. 

United    Kingdom,    peach-production 

in,  22. 
Uruguay,  peach-production  in,  20. 
Utah,  varieties  for,  371. 

Valsa  leucostoma,  274. 

Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  cited,  154,  155. 

Varietal  characteristics,  373. 

Varieties :  adaptability,  351 ;  al- 
phabetical list,  leading  sorts,  374; 
canning,    351;     clingstones,    373; 


426 


Index 


drying,     351 ;      freestones,     373 ; 

influence    of    conditions    on,    66 ; 

inventory    of,    377 ;     lists    of,    for 

different  sections  by  states,   354- 

373     (see     under     state     names) ; 

most     extensively     grown,      373 ; 

new,  352;    problem  of,  350,  351; 

relative  importance,  Elberta,  414 ; 

selection  of,  350,  351 ;    self-fertile, 

352  ;   for  special  purposes. 
Velvet  bean,  135 ;    varieties  of,  136. 
Vicia  villosa,  129 ;    V-  sativa,  131. 
Vigor  of  tree  affected   by  thinning, 

299. 
Virginia,   early   culture  in,   5,   6,   S ; 

varieties  for,  372. 

Waite,  M.  B.,  cited,  207. 

Walker,  Ernest,  cited,  209,  296. 

Warren,  G.  F.,  cited,  157. 

Washington,  varieties  for,  372. 

Water,  amount  to  apply  in  irrigat- 
ing, 311;    factors  influencing,  311. 

Waugh,  F.  A.,  208. 

Weevil,  plum,  219. 

Weldon,  Geo.  P.,  cited,  248,  249. 

West  Indian  peach-scale,  241. 

West  Indies,  peach-production  in,  20. 

West  Virginia,  varieties  for,  372. 

When  to  irrigate,  308 ;  influenced 
by  soil  conditions,  309. 

When  to  prune,  178. 

When  to  spray,  290. 

When  to  thin,  300. 

Whetzel,  H.  H.,  cited,  277. 

Whipple,  O.  B.,  cited,  122,  310. 

White  peach-scale,  241. 

Whitewashing  trees  to  protect  buds 
from  injury,  323. 


Whitten,  J.  C.,  cited,  73,  169,  209, 
324. 

Wickson,  E.  J.,  cited,  95,  96. 

Wild  peach,  occurrence  of,  in  the 
Caucasus,  2 ;  in  China,  2,  3,  4 ; 
in  Crimea,  2. 

Wilson,  E.  H.,  quoted,  3. 

Wilson,  E.  M.,  quoted,  329,  330. 

Winter  injmy  :  different  degrees  of, 
207 ;  symptoms  of,  207  ;  influenced 
by  color  of  bark,  169,  170;  influ- 
enced by  fertilizers  used,  169,  170, 
320 ;    influenced  by  soil  conditions, 

317,  318;  influenced  by  tillage, 
320 ;    influenced  by  vigor  of  trees, 

318,  319,  320;  notably  serious  in 
1903^ ;  prevented  by  banking 
trees,  321 ;  prevented  by  laying 
down  trees,  325 ;  prevented  by 
protecting  with  sheds,  322 ;  pre- 
vented by  whitewashing,  323 ; 
prevented  by  wrapping,  322  ;  prun- 
ing in  relation  to,  203,  204,  205. 

Wood,    strength    of,    in    relation    to 

plant-food,  167. 
Worming  for  borers,  224,  226,  228; 

cost  of,  341. 
Wounds  in  pruning,  179. 
Wrapping  the  fruit,  404. 
Wrapping    trees   to   prevent   winter 

injury,  322. 

Yellows,  260. 

Yellows,  California,  277. 

Yields  in  Delaware,  table  of,  348. 

Yields  in  different  states :  Cali- 
fornia, 13 ;  Georgia,  13,  14 ;  New 
York,  13 ;  other  states,  14  ;  United 
States,  13. 


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