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GERSTM
| At-.t »«
THE
PENNY CYCLOPAEDIA
OF
THE SOCIETY
FOR THE
DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.
VOLUME XXIV.
TAI-WAN TITLARKS.
<&
s
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MDCCCXLII.
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FiancU Henry Ooldamld, Eaq.
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M I) H.II. KMl.QC
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Ril-hi Hon. Sir J. <\ Hobliaiiar. R«rl , M-P
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I'ruf^itor Quain.
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n. W. Roil.ii.nr,. K.q.. A.U
Sir tlnilin Archer -l.f. P II. A . K.It. 8.
Sir (iron,- T. si.iiuiuii, ll.u.. M.I'.
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fl«iiti'rt|,> -- IU>nrrkft. Raq.
Wllllntn (irll.Mr. K.o.
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4«« — Paul Uoon J.uir*. K.q , Ti f •!•
l— J.mti Wllllami. F.q.
il— J.N.Kanilm. F..q. K.O.S. I Anrrmon
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.m M..lrr. K.q.
(«..,(/,- I'hom.t Harnm, U.l>n F.R.8.E.
C*rn»rnra — R A I'oolr, F.q.
William Ritl.rrlm. K»q.
Hrory P..II.. F.q.
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t«rCa— John Crawford. Baq.
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Z.OCAX. COIVI1VIITTEES.
Etnnin — Joii.li Wrdfwood. Eaq.
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Ji.l.n UlllorJ. K.q (C«..
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Henry llrownr. Eaq.
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Hrr. \\m Shrplirrd. L.I..D
J/«M,(»ii>-i-,rnirnl T. Smytli, Kaq.
John Caar. Kaq.
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Hr». John JoriUn. It. A
/'«J/A. /Viray.in/ — Count Sirflitnyl
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Wm. Snow Hanii. K-q.. K.li.S.
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John Pbilllpa, riq , F.U..S., K.'i.--'.
THOMAS COATES. Eaq.. oVcntary. No. M. LlMok'a In F1«U«.
LoD'lom I>iiiurd bT Wlt-UiM CLVWII aad Suxi. Sljmtord SHnt.
THE PENNY CYCLOPAEDIA
OF
THE SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF
USEFUL KNOWLEDGE,
T A I
TAI-WAN (Taywan") is the Chinese name of an island
which in Europe is known by the name of Formosa, and
Hermosa, and, according to the Dutchman Valentyn, is
called by the aborigines Pekan or Psek-and. It lies be-
tween 21" 58' and 25° 15' N. lat, and between 120° and
122° E long., and extends from south by west to north by
:ibout 240 miles. In width it varies much. From its
most southern point, where it is only about four miles
wide, it increases gradually, so that at 23° N. lat. it is 60
miles w'ide, and at 24J N. lat. nearly 100 miles. Its
northern portion decreases in width, but very slowly, for
near its northern end it is still 60 miles wide. A rough
calculation gives the surface an extent of about 14,000
square miles, which is about half the area of Ireland, and
3000 square miles more than that of Sicily.
The north-western point of TaV-wan is only about 80
miles from the coast of the Chinese province of Fukian, or
Fokian; but farther south the channel of Fokian, as the
ctween TaV-wan and China is called, grows wider. In
the parallel of Amoy, 34° 407 N. lat., it is 150 miles across,
and still wider south of that parallel. This part of the
China Sea contains several banks, and the soundinirs are
also extremely irregular, especially in the vicinity of the
Ponghu or Phensrhii Islands, called also Pescadores, or
Fisher Islands. The southern extremity of TaV-wan is
divided from the Bashee Islands, which are south-east of
it. by the channel of Formosa, which is nearly 80 miles
wide, and has also very irregular soundings.
The broad promontory which terminates the island on
Hith, and forms the south-east and south-west cape, is
a low flat, but at the distance of about two miles the
country suddenly rises into mountains, which continue to
run in an unbroken chain northward nearly through the
middle of the island to its northern extremity, terminating
with high chit's nt the north-east cape. As it is certain
that tl of mountains, which is called Ta Shan, or
Great Mountain, is nearly the whole year round covered
with snow, its ( -It" ,:;d. in h;i» been estimated by Humboldt
at »bo:tt 12.IXK1 feet above the sea. The declivities of
tin >se mountains, with the exception of the crests of the
nio-,t ili>,ated portion, are covered with fine trees and
•Mtore-grounds, and thus the island, when seen from the
sea. presents a very pleasing appearance, whence it was
called Hermosa by the Europeans who advanced thus
far into the Indian Sea. These mountains have never
been visited by Europeans, but from the accounts of the
Chinese geographers, which have been collected by Kla-
proth, it appears that there is more than one volcano on
this island. The Tshykang filed Mountain), south of the
town of Fung-shan-hian, was once an active volcano, and
there is still a lake of hot water on Shin Mountains.
The Phy-nan-my-shan, south-east of Fung-shan-hian,
emits in the night-time a brilliant lustre. The Ho-shan
(Fire-Mountain:, south-east of Tshu-lo-hian, is said to
contain many wells from which flames issue. There arc
gome other mountains which exhibit traces of volcanic
P. C., No. 1488.
T A I
action, and sulphur constitutes an important article of
export.
The mountains have a steep declivity on both sides, but
on the west side they terminate at a considerable distance
from the sea, so as to leave a wide tract between them
and the shore. This tract has an undulating surface, and
terminates on the sea in a low sandy beach. The ad-
joining sea is full of sand-banks and snoals, and can only
be approached in a few places by vessels drawing more
than eight feet of water. On the east of the Ta-shan
range the mountains seem to occupy nearly the whole
space between the crest of the range and the sea, and
high rocks line the shore. There are no soundings along
this coast. This circumstance, united to the strong cur-
rent which sets along this side from south to north, is
probably the reason why this part of TaV-wan has never
been visited by European vessels ; nor does it appear that
Japanese or Chinese vessels have any intercourse with
this part of the island. It is an unknown portion of the
globe.
Rivers are numerous on the west side, but as they ori-
ginate in a very elevated region, from which they descend
in continuous rapids and cataracts, they bring down a con-
siderable quantity of earthy matter, which they deposit at
their mouths, forming bars, which have so little water as
to admit only small vessels : this however seems to be no
great disadvantage, as there are numerous islands along
the shore, between which junks of ordinary size (about 200
tons burden) find good anchorage. Some of the rivers
however are said to be navigable for a considerable dis-
tance inl nd, especially the Tan-shuy-khy, which falls into
the Tan-shuy-kiang Bay, which lies in the narrow part of
the channel of Fukian. The rivers also offer the gjeat
advantage of an abundant irrigation, though they are
sometimes destructive to the crops by their inunda-
tions.
No portion of the ocean is subject to such violent gales
as the sea surrounding TaV-wan on the west and east.
Both monsoons, the north-eastern and the south-western,
blow in the direction of the channel of Fukian, and as
they are confined between two high mountain-ranges, the
mountains of Fukian and of TaV-wan, their violence is
much increased. At the change of the monsoons the
most violent gales come on suddenly, and are accom-
panied by typhous, whirlwinds, and waterspouts. Many
Chinese vessels are annually lost at these seasons. The
Japan Sea, which lies north of TaV-wan, is noted for
its terrible tempests. In the vicinity of the island
the north-eastern monsoon generally lasts nine months,
as it continues to blow to the beginning of June.
In other respects the climate of the island is very tem-
perate, neither the heat nor the cold being excessive on
the plains along the western coast. The island is subject
: I iqi lakes, and they are sometimes very violent. In
\~i^'l I lie whole lower portion vas laid waste, and the sea
inundated the country to the base of the mountains for
VOL. XXIV.— B
T A I
T A L
twelve linui>. A great part of the capital was destroyed,
and M'nir hundreds of junk- were
Tin- soil of thi' lower tracts and tli lie slopes
of the mounta; it ttilc. and produces abun
:n, which 1 to the hailiour> of Fukian, of
which the island i> said to he the giauai\. It produces
rice of excellent ijualitv; also wheat, millet, maize, and
• i!i!c>. am, ins; whieh lire truffles. The
sugar teiuively cultivated, and the sugar made in
• land guc.s to c> a- Peking. Orchards are
care: They produce manges. pine-applet,
guavas. coeoa-i fruit, and other 1'mits
I'onnd in the East Indies; a1
grapes, pomegranates, anil chestnuts. Melons arc also
much grown. Only cultivated, and it is
I that it forms an article of export to China, where
as a medicine. The blossoms of the- wild jas-
mine are diied and exported to China, where tl:.
to give a scent to tin- tea. Other a \port
iinphor. pepper, aloes, and timber. Timber abounds
in tli. : the northeni districts of the island.
It is ,1 that coffee, cotton, and silk arc pro-
I to a small amount.
The domestic animals are cattle, buffaloes, horses, asses,
ami goats. i,ut .sheep and hogs are rare. The horses are
small, and Ihc Chinese find them unlit for their cavalry.
It is said that on i nnkmr.vn iiortion of the
e many bca>t- of prey, as tigers, leopards,
and v. not found on ' side,
where wild hogs, ilccr, monkeys, pheasants, and game are
abundant. Salt is made to a EI .and.
•r with sulphur, form- Mticle of export.
populatii <l of abori-
. The Chinese arc only found on the west side of the
•tied a hundred and eighty years
J . Their number many years ago wa
'.out "><X).(H)0 individuals. Tli from
Fukian, and have preserved the customs of their original
:id the spirit of industry and enterprise by which
their countrymen are distinguished. A considerable mim-
:' aborigines are sett!. 'he Chines,., to whom
they are subject, and are obliged to pay a tribute in corn
and money. Tl. the tribute I .who
are required to know the language of the aborigines for the
purpose of explaining to them the orders of the court. It
I that tin- . to which the aborigri
luently causes them :
in rebellion. These aborigines are ol a slender make, and
in complexion resemble the Malays, but they do not differ
from the Cliine-e in features. Their language shows that
belong to the widely spread race of the Malay
nations ; and it is said that they greatly resemble the
i'oras of 'he Moluccas. Then religion resembles
what is called Shamanism. The Dutch look sonic s
. ;t them to Christianity, but their sway on the island
in limited and of too snort a duration to produce any
lasting effect. Nothing is known of the aborigines who
inhabit tl:.
to th and are said to be continually at war with
them. Inhabiting a country covered with lofty mountains.
they are said to subsist mostly on the produce of the chase
ana by fishing.
( 'hinese portion of TaV-vvan is divided into four dis-
M>uth to iioitli. are Fung-shan-hian,
- an-hian, Tshul-lo-hian. and Thung-hua-hian. The
Ml, Tai'-wan-fu, u a hie place, and has a
-m of HP.KNI troops. The wall was built in 17i'«. The
• •lie another at right
angle-: they arc tiili abundantly pio-
i all article* of Chinese industry. The I
.- that uln
i. Then .nail church
Mted that l(KN) junk-
in the harbour; but as the simile en'
I.iit fioni : n feet of
i liad a greater dciilh of wale.-, and for the
Dutch had built the fortress of
hut it i* ' ranee has been filled
of this place with China is
Lind-
i'-h was tl. 1 with
junksaodi coasting ve«els which brought the pro-
! the coun1 lly rice and sugar, to this j
.-it the rmbiiucliiin- of 111,
khy, is at the innermost recess of a fine bay, vvhi<
1 1 for u mimcroiis 11,
t remit y of the island, and is railed Ky-long— hai : the
Dutch call it Quelon^. It
:JO large vessels, and is the station of the Chin,
the island. An active comuii -., at this
The commerce of the island is limited to that wit!
- of China, especially Fukian. to which it
sends it.s agricultural produce, with sulphur and salt
from which it imports tea, raw silk, woollen anil c
stutl's. and other mam. i that the i
her of junks that annually enter the port* amour,
more than KKH). The navigation of the channel •
though difficult on act-omit of the sales and the
is rendered much less so i
Islands, which offer a
rocky islands arc thirty-six in number, most of them
small, and ; ..ewhat larger. Tin
excellent harbour, in which vessels ,
ten feet draught may anchor in security. Th
have erected some fortifications on them, as th,
. who fre-
quently infest the adjacent i :mia.
Opposite the i-oulhcin cxluim'y «f the eastern r<>;.
TaV-wan i» the island of Hotol Tabago-xima. It i-
and about ten miles in circumference. It is surroii
i a without soundings, and no na\ •
landed on it. It is said to In very popul,
It appear- that the island of Tai-wan wa» known t
Chinese and Jap. i early period, but they did not
settle on it nor subject it to their sway. \Vheii the Dutch
appeared ill these seas, following the track of the 1"
-cttlcincMt either on the
Ponghu IsfamU or on TaV-wan. me fortifi-
cation on the I'onghii Islands, and in Hi:il thvy built the
fortress of /elandia at the entrance of the harbour of
TaVwan-fu, where there was then a small town. They built
small fortress at the harbour of Ky-lonir
tion which was thus
number of faiuilio fioin Ful- !e in the
island, and the colony lly in importance. Mean-
while China was laid wa-te by the wars which tcrmi
in the overthrow of the Ming dj
meiit of tli . iinily on the throne. The adherents
of the former dyna-ly maintained their Inutinir IOIIL'.
the eastern and soutliern provinces, Chekia
Quanirtun. but being pressed by their enemies, they »
doned the mainland, and continued the war on tin
One of their chiefs, Tshing-tshing-knng, called b.
Europeans Koximra. sailed, after the
Pongnu Islands, and occupied them.
i-wan, and linding only a m the
Dutch forlre-s. he took it, :
Thus the Dutch lost the island, alter having
in possession of it for twenty-eigbl years. Tsb
,ng of TaV-wan. favoured ti
country men, the inhabitants of Fukian, an
in a short time w:u converted into a Chinese colony. He
.Durable to the Kiiulish. who had. durim: bis
.mincrcial establishi
which they carried on an active commerce \\ith Amoy.
The province of Fukian. which continued i
the victorious Matitchoos lomrer than any other p;,
China, had been compelled to submit to t and
linjr-tshing-kum: had died, and the th:
was occupied by a minor, a Chinese licet in
possessii.ii of the 1'oUL'hu Islands. The Chines,
preparing a descent tmTai'-wan, when, in 1' nrcil
which ;,'ovcnicil in the name of the yoniiir jirince thought
it most prudent to surrender the island ' .it of
Peking without a war.
(Per :-!ianti'x rt rnrii-n\,'it, vol.
xviii. ; Klaproth's 1>
'/iiiHiix, in I.a
/'•; and 1 r <t"g6
':/" /A . i'i /''//--
'I AI.VI'I II.NS is the name given by the PoiliiL'ucse.and
after them by other Euio]ic.in nations, to tl>
T A L
priests, or rather monks, of Siam, and is supposed to be
derived from the fan which they always cany, usually
made of a leaf of the palmyra-tree, and hence, says Craw-
furd (Journal nf Embassy to Siam, p. 358), denominated
by the Sanscrit word Talpat. Tal is the common Indian
name for the palmyra ; and the older travellers give Ta-
lapa as the Siamese word for a fan. In the Pali (or learned
tongue) theTalapoins of Siam are said to be called Thayn-
ka ; but in the common language of the country they are
spoken of, as well as to, simply by the term Chau-cou, or
Chau-ca, which signifies My lord (or literally Lord of me),
the first of the two forms being that commonly used, the
other thai employed to express extraordinary inferiority on
the part of the speaker. (La Loubere, Du Royaume de
'. i. 407.) Mr. Crawfurd states that they are called
Plira. which IK- says is a Pali word signifying Lord, ap-
plied also to Gautama or Buddha, to the king, to the white
elephant, to the idols of Buddha, &c. By the Burmese
the Talapoins are said to be called Rahans, whence seems
to come the name Raulins, given to them by the Moham-
medans ; as by the Chinese they are called Ho-changi ; in
Tibet, Lama-seng or Lamas ; and in Japan, Bonzes. (Pre-
// v/r,//v> Genemlp (l"a Voyages, vi. 328 ; and Dr. Fr.
Buchanan, ' On the Religion and Literature of the Bur-
mas,' in A -arches, vol. vi.) In Ceylon the name
for the ordinary priests is stated to be Tirounnanse ; but,
as the novices are said to be styled Saman Eroo Ounnanse,
find certain inspectors, exercising a general superintend-
over the temples, NaYke Ounnanse and MahanaYke
Ounnanse, it would seem that the name for priests of all
kinds is Ounnanse. (Joinville, ' On the Religion and Man-
of the People of Ceylon,' in Asiatic Researches, vol.
\ii. i SamaMfi, or Somona, according to Dr. Buchanan, is
a title given in Burma both to the priests and to the images
of Buddha ; whence the Buddhists are often called Sama-
nians. It is derived, he says, from the Sanscrit word Saman,
living- gentleness or affability.
Ample information on the subject of the Talapoins is
by La Loubere, who visited Siam in 1687-8, in
y of envoy from the French king, in his work entitled
' Du Royaume de Siam,' 2 vo!s. 12mo., Amsterdam, 1 001.
vol. i., chaps. 17. 18, 19, 21, pp. 341-368 and 381-120;
and by Mr. Crawfurd, in his ' Journal of an Embassy from
tor-General of India to the Courts of Siam and
Cochin China' (in 1821-22,, 4to., London, 1828, pp. 350,
&c. Tlu y are, as has been stated, a species of monks
living in communities of from ten to some hundreds, and
lying their time in devotion, religious study, and me-
ditation, and in begging, or rather receiving alms, for they
are not permitted actually to solicit charity. Their monas-
. in which each monk has his separate cell, are always
adjoining to some temple ; but it does not appear that the
Talapoins officiate as priests or ministers of religion in our
sense of the term. Neither are they considered as forming
or belonging to the literary or learned class : the pursuit
of any secular study is looked upon as unseemly and pro-
fane in a Talapoin ; and in fact they are mostly very
ignorant. Yet the instruction of youth in the elements of
mgappears to be chiefly or exclusively in their hands.
Every Siamese, we are told, becomes a Talapoin for some
time. ' Every male in the kingdom,' says Mr. Crawfurd,
' must at one period or another of his life enter the priest-
hood, for however short a time. Even the king will be a
priest for two or three days, going about for alms like the
rest, and the highest officers of the government continue
in the priesthood for some months.' Usually, it, may be
supposed, a man goes through the ceremony of getting
himself made a talapoin without any intention of perma-
nently forsaking the world ; but if he enters one of the sa-
cred communities a second time, he cannot again withdraw
from it. The Talapoins are said to be very numerous ; but
they sei.-m to consist, for the greater part, of mere tempo-
rary members of the order, and of persons who have thus
• :d it for the second time in advanced life. Its ad-
iges, or temptations, are, a life of idleness, exemption
.•taxation and from the conscription, security of sub-
id comfortable raiment, together with the cere-
ith which a talapoin is every-
All the monasteries are endowed by the
government, or by wralthy individuals, under whose protec-
i hey are considered to be. La Loubere has given a
!iig of one; imd another is described in FinTaj
account of • The Mission to Siam and Hue in 1821-22,'
5 TAL
p. 110. In their dresses of yellow cotton or silk, which
are of the same fashion with those of the Buddhist priests
in Ava and Ceylon, the Talapoins of Siam present a highly
favourable contrast to the rags and squalidity of the gene-
ral population. On the other hand, a talapoin is not only
separated from society by being condemned to celibacy,
and is prohibited from possessing property, but is expected
to observe very strictly several of the precepts of the
national religion which are very little attended to by any-
body else, especially the prohibitions against the slaying
of animals (although they will eat them when slain), steal-
ing, adultery, lying, and drinking wine. There are differ-
ent orders of Talapoins, and La Loubere says there are
also female Talapoins, whom he calls Talapouines ; but
these, according to Crawford, are only a few old women
who are allowed to live in the unoccupied cells of some of
the monasteries. The national head of the Talapoins,
styled the Son-krat, is appointed to that dignity by the
king, and always resides in the royal palace.
TALAVE'RA DE LA REYNA, or LA REAL, a
large town of Spain, formerly in the province of Toledo,
but now, since the late division of the Spanish territory,
the capital of the province of its name. It is situated on
the right bank of the Tagus, at the end of an extensive
and well cultivated plain, 38° 52' N. lat., 6° 39' W. long.
It was called by the Romans Ebora Talabriga, as the in-
scriptions and remains found in its territory show. It has
a fine Gothic church, the foundation of the celebrated
Rodiigo Ximenez, archbishop of Toledo, the author of a
history of the Arabs and a Latin chronicle of Spain, about
the beginning of the thirteenth century. The town is
badly built, and the streets are narrow and crooked. The
population does not exceed 12,000, who are chiefly occu-
pied in the manufacture of pottery and hardware, for
which Talavera is famous all over Spain. A large silk
manufactory, which belongs to the. government, employs
also many of the population. In July, 1809, Talavera was
the scene of a battle between the British under Wellington
(then General Wellesley) and the French commanded by
.lourdan. The battle was long and obstinately contested,
but it ended in the complete defeat of the French. The
exhausted condition of the English troops, who were
without provisions, prevented them from following up
their Advantage and pursuing the enemy. There is an-
other town, in La Mancha, called Talavera la Vieja, or
' the old.'
TALC, a mineral which occurs crystallized and massive,
and it is probable that some distinct species of minerals
have been so called. Primary form of the crystal a rhom
boid, but usually occurs in the secondary form of hexa-
gonal laminae, and sometimes in long prisms. Cleavage
distinct, perpendicular to the axis. It is easily separable
into thin plates, which are flexible, but not elastic. It
is easily scraped with a knife, and the powder is unc-
tuous to the touch. Colour white, green, greyish, and
blackish-green and red. Becomes negatively electrical by
friction; lustre pearly. Transparent; translucent; opaque.
Specific gravity 2" 713.
Crystallized talc is mostly white, or of a light green
colour ; is met with in serpentine rocks in small quantity,
with carbonate of lime, actinoiite, steatite, and massive
talc, &c. It is found in the mountains of Salzburg and
the Tyrol : it occurs in many other parts of the world, as
in Cornwall, in Kynan's Cove, where a bed of it underlies
serpentine. It also occurs in Scotland, in Glen Tilt,
Perthshire ; and in Saxony, Silesia, and Piedmont, &c.
The massii-c varieties of talc are less flexible than the
crystallized : they are principally of an apple-green colour,
and sometimes of a radiated structure. It is met with in
considerable quantity in beds in micaceous schistus, gneiss,
and serpentine.
Some of the varieties of talc are infusible ; others be
come white, and yield a small button of eiiamel with
borax.
Indurated talc is massive, of a greenish grey colour ; the
structure is schistose and curved : it is of a shining and
sometimes of a pearly lustre, and somewhat translucent.
It is soft, and rather unctuous to the touch. Its specific
gravity is 2' 9.
It occurs in primitive mountains in clay slate and ser-
pentine, in several countries on the continent of Europe ;
in Britain, in Perthshire and Banflshire in Scotland, and
in the Shetland Islands.
B2
I \ I.
T A I.
According to Vauquelin, lamellar talc coiuwt* of
.....
V, ••:,-..'
.
on ....
er .....
100-
lite, and other msgnesian mincrali arc
nearl-. uuca, aiul they uc mineralogists
. s of the none substai
TAI.K.C \I.I \ Mr. (• K day makes the M'gapo-
ilinur tlir third and lost subfamily of his 7'u/u»i<
in. .
The MfffajxHlinifr comprise the following genera: —
-. • Alffiurn, I-ath. ; Less. ;
•hrturiix. S
Gaim. [Mw;\iMii»tu>.K : CK\<-II>.K, vol. viii., p. I:U
titet f J. Gcotl'r. : .\ti-iinrn, Shaw (Parkintoniu*. B<
Me fil»nli ii^. \\-Asl. [M.tiM-Kv]; .•ll,-rt/ii-!nt, Less. (nee
•('KM inf.. \ol. viii., p. 133J.
Ue proceed in this article to notice tlio genera 7W#-
jfu/Ai. />///<«/, anil .1/»'i'<i/xK/ii/*, the natural history of
vvhici ly with legarxl to their habits and nidifica-
tion. ha* lately been satisfactorily made out.
1 first of
Talcgalla.
,-rif Chiirurlfr. — Bill very robust, very thick, one-
third of the length of the head compressed" above, with
the upper mandible convex ; nostrils basal. lateral, oval-
oblong. pierced in a large membrane : lower mandible
less high but wider than the upper, nearly straiirlit below.
with smooth edges, the branches widened at the base, and
that width filled up by a feathered membrane : checks,
entirely naked : head and neek furnished with feathers
with simple barbnlc-. Wings rounded, moderate, th
quill very short, the seeond rather longer, the third longest
of all, tlie fourth and fifth diminishing in length alter the
third. Tail rather long, rounded : tarsi rather robust, mo-
derately long. furni-hcd with lai_rc -cutclla in fiout : toes
rather lonir, the middle longest, the external shortest ; the
three front toes furnished al their origin with a membra-
nous border, which is widest between the external and
middle toes; claws convex, flattened below, slightly
curved and moderately robust ; the hind-toe long, resting
entirely on the ground, and furnished with an equally
robust claw. (Lesson.)
H««d «nj tiot ofTal<ir»n«. (OooU.)
Example. Tnlex<ill.i hitli
Latham, in In / Hint's Mil. i
d and figured this binl under the name of th-
•/'/ I'ultiirr ; but. . lie. in the
tenth \olnnie, placed it among the {iallinaeeous Minis,
with the gene; turn, whirl) hail been pre-
viously employed to designate a group of Fly
M. Lesson places the genus at the end of the I'hatia-
nulf.
Mr. Swainson. in his I' /»• (vol. i.,
1836), treating of the I'lilturi'lrr. notice^ 1:
under the name ol the- New Holland Vulture,
like a lasorial bird, that sunn- authors ha.
ha%ing M'CD a •.preimen a~ tu what on ;\ be-
longed. • So eompli '
I Iliu rare and extras:
of that type whii-h it is to repre.-cnt in its own Ihnnlx.
that it hn- clashed I
nur.iof the name Continent ; and it must I- I that
if clear n. IP i ptiontol the diH'erence betw,
affinity are
the two bird* are for:
but, then, so are th.
bird not much bigger than a robin. u'enera, in
short, are rema
nig and slight ly curved claw-.
length, or i
is by -
: those unnatural combinations which >
founding our notions of classification
tting to look at the full cou-eijiu-n.
i operatio
this the only peculiarity of the New Holland Vul'
for. unlike all others of its family, it possesses
feathers, iii its tail. -An examination of the bill,' Mr.
Swamson gives a cut of it. 'which i
joined with in.iiu other considerations, shows that all
these are but an:
real affinities of the bird are in tin- en
of which it forms the rasorial type. A ],
of th:- Milture. now 1.
Allan Cunningham in the
Ijind is to speak of r
examination.' In the synopsis, to M
volume (1837), we find it in the family I'ulturnltr.
the name of (\ithrtunix which cannot b,
tween A"-'. 'j.ltr-.ii ami (iyixftn-
'
type of the 1'iilturiila-. And yet it is no bird of p.
all. Latham, in his tenth volume, and Lesson
in considering it a rasorial spec,
fJould. to whom we are indebted for a full and
ictory account of the habits of this extraon!
'.i which we shall presently advert, n:
i all the facts that have it will
be i \ ident that its natural situation is among tli<
and that it forms one of a great family of birds peculiar to
alia and the Indian Islands, of which M
forms a part ; and in confirmation of this MCW I IUM\
that the sternum has the two deep cniaiTinatiun- -o truly
characteristic of the (inllinnrrrr : at all .
way allied to the I'liltnridtr. and is ;
Irom M'-inirn.' It seems to us that 'l\il
may be considered, in a degree, as the n
the turkey in Australia.
Description. — Adult mulf : whole of the upp.
wiiiL's, and tail, blackish-brown: the feathers of the
surface blackish-brown at the base, beo.mini; silver-,
at the tip ; skin of the head and neck deep pink-red, thinly
sprinkled with short hair-like blackish-brown
wattle bright yellow, tinged with red where it mutes with
the red of the neck; lull black; irides and feet brown.
' a fourth less than the male in size, but
une in colour as to render a separate de-
scription unnecessary. She also possesses the wattle, but
not to so v dd.)
Size about that of a turkey.
Mr. Gould gives the following synonyms:- -\.-tr !f',//,ni,l
{'nl tun-. Lath. : gcr,
.'. !•'. ' ".Hid J'ulliirf, C,,//i, t,,nn
S«. : L. n. .lamcson : Uriah Turhfy of
"f the ab.' 'lie Namoi.
//'' -Mr. Gould dc-.
hitlniHii.M the II •it!l,-J , bird,
.illy moving about in small co
tlie in .mil. liki-
that tribe, as \. .]. \Vheii
tuiiii'd. he .states thai it rcadilv eludes jMirsiilt b,
facility with which it runs through the tangled brush. It
hard pressed, or where rushed upon I iuv,
the native dog. the whole company spring upon the I.
most bough of some neiirhhoming tree. and. bv n si,,
slim of leaps from hianch to 1, • ml t'o the
and cither perch there or fly o If to allot!
'..i to'the branches of tree, ns a
shelter from the sun in the middle ]y, a habit
which Mr. Gould note .itlv tending lo 'then
'ii : for th .,1,,,.
and the birds, like ' will
allow a succession of .-ho1 ,1 the\ are all
I do-.vu.
Hut the most reiiaikab' .. j||,
its mditication.
T A L
5
T A L
hatch its eggs by incubation. It collects together a great
heap of decaying: vegetables as the place of deposit of its
eii'us, thus making a hot-bed, arising from the decompo-
sition of the collected matter, by the heat of which the
young are hatched. Mr. Gould describes this heap as the
result of several weeks' collection by the birds previous to
the period of laying, as varying in quantity from two to
four cart-loads, and as of a perfectly pyramidical form.
This mound, he states, is not the work of a single pair of
birds, but is the result of the united labour of many : the
same site appeared to Mr. Gould to be resorted to for
several years in succession, from the great size and entire
decomposition of the lower part, the birds adding a fresh
supply of materials on each occasion previous to laying.
' Tne mode,' says Mr. Gould in continuation, ' in which
the materials composing these mounds are accumulated is
equally singular, the bird never using its bill, but always
grasping a quantity in its foot, throwing it backwards to
one common centre, and thus clearing the surface of the
ground for a considerable distance so completely, that
scarcely a leaf or a blade of grass is left. The heap being
accumulated, and time allowed for a sufficient heat to be
engendered, the eggs are deposited, not side by side, as is
ordinarily the ca.-e, but planted at the distance of nine or
twelve inches from each other, and buried at nearly an
arm's depth, perfectly upright, with the large end up-
wards : they are covered up as they are laid, and allowed
to remain until hatched. I have been credibly informed,
both by natives and settlers living near their haunts, that
it is nut an unusual event to obtain nearly a bushel of I-LTLC--
at one time from a single heap; and as they are delicious
fating, they arc eagerly sought after. Some of the natives
state that the females are' constantly in the neighbour-
hood of the heap about the time the" young are likely to
be hatched, and frequently uncover and cover them up
i. apparently for the purpose of assisting those that
may have appeared ; while others have, informed me that
the eirL's are merely deposited, and the young allowed to
force their way unassisted. In all probability, as nature
'lopted this mode of reproduction, she has also fur-
nished the tender birds with the power of sustaining them-
selves from the earliest period; and the great size of the
•vould equally lead to this conclusion, since in so large
c il is reasonable to suppose that the bird would be
much more developed than is usually found in eggs of
Her dimensions. In further confirmation of this point,
I may add, that in searching fur cirirs in one of the mounds,
I discovered the remains of a young bird, apparently just
excluded from the shell, and which was clothed with fea-
ther,, not with down, as is usually the case : it is to be
hoped that those who are resident in Australia, in situa-
tions favourable for investigating the subject, will direct
their attention to the further elucidation of these inte-
resting points. The upright position of the eggs tends to
strengthen the opinion that they are never disturbed after
being deposited, as it is well known that the eggs of birds
which are placed horizontally are frequently turned during
incubation. Although, unfortunately, I was almost too
late for the breeding-season, I nevertheless saw several of
the heaps, both in the interior and at Illawarra: in every
instance they were placed in the most retired and shady
. and on the slope of a hill, the part above the nest
• ehed clean, while all below remained untouched,
the birds had found it more easy to convey the ma-
terials down than to throw tlvm up. In one instance only
was I fortunate enough to find a pci 1'rct egg, although
the shells of many from which the young had been ex-
cluded were placed in the manner f have described. At
Illawarra they were rather deposited in the light vegetable
mould than amojig the leaves, which formed a considerable
i above them. The eggs are perfectly white, of a long,
oval form, three inches and three-quarters long by two
inches and a half in diameter.' (Bird* of Australia.)
The game author relates that these birds, while stalking
about the wood, frequently utter a loud clucking noise;
and. in \arion* parts of the bush, he observed depressions
in the rarth, which the natives informed him were made
by the birds in dusting themselves. The stomach is stated
by \Ii.<!ouM to be extremely muscular ; and he found
op of one which he dissected filled with seeds, ber-
id a fuw in-
The composure with which these birds sit to be shol at,
aa above noticed, must, as Mr. Gould observes, lead to an
early extinction of the race ; an event, he remarks, much
to be regretted, since, independently of its being an inte-
resting bird for the aviary, its flesh is extremely delicate,
tender, and juicy. There is no doubt that this species
may be domesticated, and it would make a noble addition
to those foreign denizens of the poultry-yard which enrich
our homesteads and tables. Mr. Gould saw a living spe-
cimen, which was in the possession of Mr. Alexander
M'Leay for many years. ' On my arrival at Sydney,' says
Mr. Gould, ' this venerable gentleman took me into his
garden and showed me the bird, which, as if in its native
woods, had for two successive years collected an immense
mass of materials similar to those above described. The
borders, lawn, and shrubbery over which it was allowed
to range presented an appearance as if regularly swept,
from the bird having scratched to one common centre
everything that lay upon the surface : the mound in this
case was about three feet and a half high, and ten feet
over. On placing my arm in it, I found the heat to be
about 90° or 95° Fahr. The bird itself was strutting about
with a proud and majestic air, sometimes parading round
the heap, at others perching on the top, and displaying
its brilliantly coloured neck and wattle to the greatest
advantage : this wattle it has the power of expanding and
contracting at will ; at one moment it is scarcely visible,
while at another it is extremely pronrnent.'
Before Mr. Gould left New South Wales, this bird,
which, during the greater part of the period when it was
in Mr. M'Leay's possession, was at large, and usually
associated with the fowls in the poultry-yard, was unfor-
tunately drowned in a tank or water-butt. On dissection
it was found to be a male, thereby proving, as Mr. Gould
remarks, that the sexes are equally employed in forming
the mound for the reception of the eggs.
Locality. — Mr. Gould states that the extent of the
range of this species over Australia is not yet satisfac-
torily ascertained. It is known, he says, to inhabit various
parts of New South Wales from Cape Howe on the south
to Moreton Bay on the north ; but the cedar-cutters and
others, who so frequently hunt through the brushes of Ilia
warra and Maitland, have nearly extirpated it from those
localities, and it is now most plentiful in the dense and
little-trodden brushes of the Manning and Clarence. Mr.
Gould was at first led to believe that the country between
the mountain-ranges and the coast constituted its sole
habitat ; but he was agreeably surprised to find it in-
habiting the scrubby gullies and sides of the lower hills
that branch off from the great range into the interior.
He procured specimens on the Brezi range to the north of
Liverpool Plains, and ascertained that it was abundant in
all the hills on either side of the Namoi. (Ibid.)
Talegnlla Lalharai. (Gould.;
M. Lesson describes the species from New Guinea,
which serves as the type of his genus Talegalla Cuvirri,
figured in the Zoohgie de la Coquitte, as entirely black, of
the size of a common small hen, and recalling to the ob-
server some of the forms of the Porphyriones. [RALI.ID/E,
vol. xix., p. 281.]
The history of Talegalla, affords a striking instance of
the futility oi" classification based upon reasoning which
has no sufficient data for its foundation : most of the errors
T \ L
T A L
of our loologicml system* may be traced to the
•our.
Lcipew. (Gould.)
'.irlrr. — Hili marly a* long as llir hcnel,
slenelcr. tume.scent at the base, the cdircs undulated ami
incurved at the hose, the Mxtrila tntpTa, etblonir. <
with an operpulum, and placed in a central hollow. Head
Head and Foot of Lelpo*.
subercsted. ll'myi am pie, rounded, concave : fifth pri-
mary quill the longest : 11 nearly a» long as the
priOMMa. Tall rounded. tail-fcuthcrs fourteen.
iiHHlemte. robust, covered with scuta nnteriurly. and pos-
teriorly with scales whii-h are rounded and unequal.
rat her short : lateral toes nearly equal, i Gould.
Kxampli' <iiOa. (Gould.)
II v -n/tion. — Hend and crest blackish-brown: neck
nnd shoulders dark nsh-grey : the lore port of the neek
from the chin to the breast marked by a series of lanceo-
late feathers, which lire black with li white stripe down
the centre ; back and winsrs conspicuously marked with
three distinct bands of greyish white, brown nnd black
near the tip of each feather, the marks assuming an ocel-
lated form, particularly on the tips of the secondaries :
primaries brown, their outer webs marked with two or
three 7.isr/asr lines near their tip ; nil the under surface
light butt', the tips of the flank feathers barred with black ;
(nil blackish-brown, broadly tipped with buff; bill black;
feet blackish-brown. 'Gould.)
In size this beautiful bird is inferior 1o Tn/i'zn//
Ifnnii. and it is more slender nnd more eleirantlv formed.
uling to Mr. Gould, it is the AV""' of the aborigines
of the lowland : \gmr-on of (he mountain districts ot
!ia : and A'utirr l'/trasant of the colonists
i.l Western Australia.
ll'iliilx. !•'•,' at. \iiiificitlinn. A-'". — Mr. Gould, in his/fr/v/.s
• in. irives nn account, collected by Mr. John
Gilbert, from G. Moore, Esq., advocate-general, Mr. Arm-
strong, the aboriginal interpreter, and some of the more
intelligent natives of Western Australia. The Ocef/ntrrf
Ijfijmn is there described as a ground-bird, never taking to
a tree except when closely hunted: when hard pursued, il
will frequently run its head into a bush, and is then easily
taken. Food generally consisting of seeds and berries
The note mournful, very like that of a pigeon, but with r
more inward tune. KL'L'- deposited in a mound oi'
tin- formation of which is the work ol 'both sc \, -. \
i»g to the -lie' bird-, scratch up the sand for main
yards around, forming a mound about three feet in height
of which is constructed of alternate la;
UMfc, So-.. among which 1\veKe eirtrs and
npw:e .'Land an- co\ered up by the birds as
they are laid; or, as the nativi . e-xpu-s. it'. •(]),. i-oun-
tenam-es ul'the eggs are never visible.' Upon Ihcs.
the I it \\hen she hns laid out her lay, as
the henwttr* say, the uli .1 up. when llie
mound of sand resembles nn ant s nest. The eggs, which
slightly tinged with red. and about the
' -0111111011 fowl's eiru'. arc- hutched by the- h
the vegetable lininc retaining suflic-ic ul
warmth during the' nisrht : the-, .ted in layers, no
' to lie \\ilhout a division. The
! of the eggs, rob these hillock*
'inc.- iii a season ; and tin -\ jud^c- of the1
number of C-L'L'S in a mound by the' cjnant'ity of l\-:ithei>
Iving about. If the fealliers be abundant, 'he hillock is
and then they imtne ,, and take' tile whcde.
Tin- binl will then begin to ln\ :,bc-d.
illy lay a third tinie. I'pon (jiiestioning
.edition, he
• nt of its halm
iicurmting; adding, that in all the mounds tlu v
opencd, they found ants almont as ntimcroui 08 In an ant'-
iill ; and that in many n: • ol the monn(t
surrounding the li >un ul'the enir» had bccoi
iard. that they were obliged to chip round them with a
chisel to iret tile egg* o.it ; the msules ul'the me'
alwayi hot.
• ho had just returned
om lu~ expedition to the north-ucst ec>ast. inlbi-med Mr.
Gould that he had never fallen in with the nests but i
i.tion of country. \i/.
nnd so tliickly woodc-cl \Mth a species of d
miim.lhat if the traveller strays from the' native jiatb-
aliiuist ini])ossible for him to force his way through. In
these close scrubby woods mnall open glades occasionally
occur, and there the N DDCtrucU il large
heaji i f sand, dead tcrass and bungle, nt 1.
diameter and three feet in heiirht : Captain Grey luul
them even larger than this. I i
saw c-irt's in thcsc> nests : they were- [
from each other, and buried in the earth. Captain '
states that he is not sure of the number, but the account
Driven by the native's led him to believe that at 1
numbers were' found.
hlii. \\ , tralia. Mr. Moore saw a great
many of them about sixty miles north of I'erth : I
mist favourite covm! . to be the- ba
plains of the interior. l(X) miles north an
The furthest point north at which Captir, '
breeding-places \v,-|s (.aiitheaumc- Hay. ('aj)tain
states that the natives of Km: that
the same or n nearly allied species exists in that n
bourhood. (Hir<lx (\f Aiixtriil.n.
. (OouM.)
Megapodius.
In the article CR.MIDK (vol. viii., p. V.\'l the irc-nerie-
character o IIHH and an account
iJujifrrri/i is s;ive'n. It is there staled that it would
that the Meirapodius ol' the' Philippines h'aves its .•
the fostering hc-at of the sun. Mr. Gould, in the
work from which vvr have already drawn sue-h iiilere
accounts of this extraordinary group of birds, has, from the'
notes of Mr. Gilbert, laid before the public n most satis.
factory statement relative to the habits of M
''
mid foot of MrsTodl"". (Oonld.)
••rip/inn.— Ib-ad and cieM very deep einnnmoii-
brown : back of tlic' iii-ck and all the under surface \c-iy
bae-k and wings e-innanion-brown : ujipei- and
under UuI-OOVertl dark chestnut-brown: tail blae-kish-
brown : iiide-s geiieially dark brown, but in some speci-
mens light reddish-brown ; bill reddish-brown, with yellow
T A L
edges ; tarsi and feet bright orange, the scales on the front
ol' the tarsi from the fourth downwards, and the scales of
the toes, dark reddish-brown. (Gould.)
Size about that of a common fowl.
This is the Onregoorga of the aborigines of the Cobourg
Peninsula ; the Jungle-foicl of the colonists of Port Essing-
ton.
Habits, Food, Nidification, <$-c. — On Mr. Gilbert's arrival
at Port Essington his attention was attracted to numerous
great mounds of earth which were pointed out to him by
some of the residents as being the tumuli of the abori-
gines. The natives, on the other hand, assured him that
they were formed by the Jungle-fowl for the purpose of
hatching i; Hut this last statement appeared so
extraordinary, and so much at variance with the general
habits of birds, that no one in the settlement believed
them, and the great size of the eggs brought in by them
as the produce of this bird strengthened the doubt of the
veracity of their information. Mr. Gilbert however, know-
ing the habits of L''i]inu, took with him an intelligent
native, and proceeded about the middle of November to
Knocker's Bay, a part of Port Essington harbour compara-
tively but litlle known, and where he had been informed
a number of these birds were to be seen. He landed be-
side a thicket, and had not advanced far from the shore
when he came to a mound of sand and shells, with a slight
mixture of black soil, the base resting on a sandy beach,
only a few feet above high-water mark : it was enveloped
in the large yellow-blossomed Hibiscus, was of a conical
form, twenty feet in circumference at the base, and about
fi\e feet high. On asking the native what it was, he
replied, ' Oregoorga Rambal ' (Jungle-fowl's house or
Mr. Gilbert scrambled up the sides of it, and found
a young bird in a hole about two feet deep ; the nestling,
apparently only a few days old, was lying on a few dry
withered leaves. The native assured Mr. Gilbert that it
would be of no use to look for eggs, as there were no traces
of the old birds having lately been there. Mr. Gilbert
took the utmost care of the young bird, placed it in a mo-
derate-sized box, into which lie introduced a large portion
,tl, and fed it, on bruised Indian corn, which it took
rather freely. Its disposition was wild and intractable,
and it effected its escape on the third day. While it
remained in captivity, it was incessantly employed in
scratching up the sand into heaps, and Mr. Gilbert
•hat the rapidity with which it threw the
tand from one end of the box to the other was quite sur-
prising for so young and small a bird, its size not being
larger than that of a small quail. At night it was so ^^-~\-
•hat, Mr. Gilbert was constantly kept awake by the
noise it made in endeavouring to escape. In scratching
up the sand the bird only employed one foot, and having
i-d a handful as it were, threw the sand behind it
uitli but little apparent exertion, and without shilling its
standing position on the other leg: this habit, Mr. Gilbert
<1 to be the result of an innate restless dis-
position and a desire to use its powerful feet, and to have
but little connection with its feeding ; for, although In-
dian corn v. as mixed with the sand, Mr. Gilbert never
detected the bird in picking any of it up while thus em-
ployed.
Mr. Gilbert continued to receive the eggs without any
opportunity of seeing them taken from the ground until the
h< •L'nining of February, when, on again visiting Knocker's
Bay, he saw two taken from a depth of six feet, in one of
the largest mounds he had met with. In this instance the
holes ran down in ah oblique direction from the centre
towards the outer slope of the hillock, so that although
the eggs were six feet deep from the summit, they were
only two or three feet from the side. ' The birds,' s-ays
Mr. Gilbert in continuation, ' are said to lay but a single
ceg in each hole, and after the egg is deposited the earth
is immediately thrown down lightly until the hole is filled
up ; the upper part of the mound is then smoothed and
rounded over. It is easily known when a Jungle-fowl has
been recently excavating, from the distinct impressions of
itg feel on the top and sides of the mound, and the earth
being so lightly thrown over, that with a slender stick the
direction of the hole is readily detected, the ease or diffi-
culty of thrusting the stick down indicating the length of
time that may have elapsed since the bird's operations.
Thus far it is "easy enough ; but to reach the eggs requires
no little exertion and perseverance. The natives dig
T A I,
them up with their hands alone, and only make sufficient
room to admit their bodies, and to throw out the earth
between their legs ; by grubbing with their fingers alone
they are enabled to follow the direction of the hole with
greater certainty, which will sometimes, at a depth of
several feet, turn off abruptly at right angles, its direct
course being obstructed by a clump of wood or some other
impediment. Their patience is however often put to
severe trials. In the present instance the native dug down
six times in succession to a depth of at least six or seven
feet without finding an egg, and at the last attempt came
up in such a state of exhaustion that he refused to try
again ; but my interest was now too much excited to
relinquish the opportunity of verifying the native's state-
ments, and by the offer of an additional reward I induced
him to try again : this seventh trial proved successful, and
my gratification was complete when the native with equal
pride and satisfaction held up an egg, and, after two or
three more attempts, produced a second : thus proving
how cautious Europeans should be of disregarding the
narrations of these poor children of nature, because they
happen to sound extraordinary or different from anything
with which they were previously acquainted.'
Upon another occasion Mr. Gilbert and his native, after
an hour's excessive labour, obtained an egg from the
depth of about five feet. It was in a perpendicular posi-
tion. Tile holes in this mound (which was fifteen feet
high and sixty in circumference at the base, and, like the
majority of those that he had seen, so enveloped in thickly
foliaged trees as to preclude the possibility of the sun's
rays reaching any part of it) commenced at the outer edge
of the summit and ran down obliquely towards the centre :
their direction therefore, Air. Gilbert observes, is not uni-
form. Tile mound was quite warm to the hands.
How the young effect their escape does not appear ;
some natives told Mr. Gilbert that the nestlings effected
their escape unaided ; but others said that the old birds at
the proper time scratched down and released them. The
natives say that only a single pair of birds are ever found
at a mound at a time. Our space will not permit a more
detailed account of these highly curious mounds; but the
reader should consult Mr. Gould's highly valuable work
for other particulars : we can only spare room for Mr.
Gilbert's description of the general habits of this interest-
ing species.
' The Jungle-fowl is almost exclusively confined to the
dense thickets immediately adjacent to the sea-beach : it
appears never to go far inland, except along the banks of
creeks. It is always met with in pairs or quite solitary,
and feeds on the ground, its food consisting of roots which
its powerful claws enable it to scratch up with the utmost
facility, and also of seeds, berries, and insects, particularly
the larger species of Coleoptera. It is at all times a very
difficult bird to procure ; for although the rustling noise
produced by its stiff pinions when flying away be fre-
quently heard, the bird itself is seldom to be seen. Its
flight is heavy and unsustained in the extreme ; when first
disturbed it invariably flies to a tree, and on alighting
stretches out its head and neck in a straight line with its
body, remaining in this position as stationary and motion-
less as the branch upon which it is perched : if however
it becomes fairly alarmed, it takes a horizontal but labo-
rious flight for about a hundred yards with its legs hang-
ing down as if broken. I did not myself detect, any note
or cry, but from the native's description and imitation of
it, it much resembles the clucking of the domestic fowl,
ending with a scream like that of the peacock. I ob-
served that the birds continued to lay from the latter part
of August to March, when I left that part of the country;
and, according to the testimony of the natives, there is
only an interval of about four or five months, the driest
and hottest part of the year, between their seasons of in-
cubation. The composition of the mound appears to in-
fluence the colouring of a thin epidermis with which the
ejjgs are covered, and which readily chips off, showing
the true shell to be white : those deposited in the black
soil are always of a dark reddish-brown ; while those from
the sandy hillocks near the beach are of a dirty yellowish
white : they differ a good deal in size, but in form they
all assimilate, both ends being equal : they are three
inches and five lines long by two inches and three lines
broad.' (Birds of Australia.)
Mr. Gould has thus given the history of these three
I \ I.
8
T A I.
nrir' as he observes, part of a
MIUII! In i xtcud
tin- liulinn
i»lia. Mrfapodius Tiimulii* i
. over tin- whole
ol tin' (.'ol.ouri: I'l-iiuiNiiIa on the north const of th.
:!, where the Unti-h M-tt lenient Ol
Ellington it now established ; and he thinks that future
research will require us to assign to it a much wider
range, probably over the whole extent of the north
coast.
Mrzapudiui Tumului. Mound nu>in( M«(*podc, vitli not in the distance.
(From Gould.)
TAI.KN'T (rnXai-rox) was the highest denomination of
Greek wiiL'hts :uid money, and was also common K
by Greek writers as the translation of words signifying a
n weight in other languages. It is necessary to ob-
serve that the talent is properly only a denomination of
:>t. There was no coin of that name ; and when used
in reference to money, it meant originally a talent-weight
of gold or silver, and afterwards a certain quantity of cur-
rent money, the weiirht of which : supposing 1 lie real and
nominal value of the coin to be the same amounted to a
talent.
I. THE HEBREW TALENT, or KIKKAR 123.. contaiucd
T •
3000 shekels, and, according to Mr. IIu--c\'s computation,
its weight was ICJlbs. I2o/..v aMiirdupois. and its \alue as
•iit.'tt.Wil. |SiiKKKL.] The Hebrews hod
-•ild money of their own.
II. TIIK GREEK TAI.KNT.
'1'hc following were the principal denominations of
weight and money among the Greeks :— <5/3oXoc, fpay/ny,
-liXaKTor, of Much the tpo\r>t was the smallest. Their
relative proportions are shown in the annexed table: —
Obol
0 I Drachma
000~ 100
Mina
30,000
0000
Talent.
This system prevailed throughout Greece, but the actual
values of the talent \aried in different states. Mo-t of
these variations may be included under two chief standards,
immclv. the Atlp 'tan.
|. . . alue of the Attic talent
•si ilon is a matter on which •.-,!• po--e—
hardly any historical information, thonirh we may peihaps
arrive nt 11 MTV probable result. Looking then at the
system after Solon had remodelled the coma-
,d that th' rr money was celrlnated for its
purity : and therefore from the coins of that period which
•-till "exist we may determine the value of the standard
with tolerable certainty. Now the chief coin was the
drachma of hiher, tl weight of which, from the
tune of Solon to that of A is found to
be 66-5 grains. From this we iret the following values in
avoirdupois weight : —
ih. o«. ta,
Obol ...... 11-08
Drachma ......
Mum . .. I.'- VI 7:.
Tal. . . :>'; l.'-i I""
Til's was ',hc standard n' , and
was therefore called ' tin- silver standard.'
H. -i.lc- lhi> there was a' -he chief \\
of which wa- called //: /ini i'/ i/ir.
and contained 1IW il
weights in the silver mini MI Ijoekh, '
p., i. 12M. \^ I : that is. not that a commercial mina
contained l;ts ctmatrrcial drachmae, but that this was
quite aditferent standard from that used for sihcr in
its unit being to that of the latter in the lalio i<
:100; while the rrlutirr proportions of the weight-
the same in both systems. The following table shows the.
value of the Attic commercial standard : —
Obol .
Drachma
Mina
Talent
lb. 01.
1 4J
75 5| 11GSI
ft.
15-29
!H -77
These weights were used for all commodities, except such
as were expressly required by law to bo sold by the silver
standard.
This commercial standard is most probably, as Hiickh
'MIWII. the real antieiit Attic standard, as it exi-tid
before the time of Solon. The purpose of Solon's ch
was to lower the value of money, in order to i.
debtors. The only direct information we have of the na-
ture of the change is the statement of Plutarch, that
-. made the minn of 1(X) drachmae, which had for-
merly contained 7".' which is probabh a mi-take made
by Plutarch, through not understanding the woi
Aiulrotion. whose- authority he follows. The true meaning
seems undoubtedly to be, that mil 'if tin- sumr i/u<i»ti/y n/
\ilrrr which in the aiitient standard made 7:! draci.
Solon coined 100, or a mina : that is. that he lowered the
standard in the ratio of 100 : 7:i. Now the latio of the
commercial to the silver standard is 1:18: 100= l(KI:72y.
Hence the commercial standard and the old Attic only
diil'ered bv a small fraction.
Still this ratio of UK) : 7:> is a very singular one for Solon
to have adopted. The 1110-1 pn.hahlc explanation is that
Solon meant to lower the standard by a quarter, th.
in the ratio of 101) : "."', and that the new coinaire by an
accident of not uncommon occurrence in minting, was
found, when actually made, to be a little too light, namelv,
in the ratio of 72JJ : 100, or, in round numbers. 73 : UK)
to the old money, instead of 73 : 100 : and that then, to
preserve tin: purity of the Attic mint, this, its actual \ahie,
;ited a- runooinal value.
This view is stromily confirmed by a reference to an-
other standard mentioned by Greek writer-. namcU, thr
Eulin'ii- tii/i'n!. This talent was oKcn reckoned M equal
to the Attic compare Herod., iii. SI), with Pollux. i\. (i ;
but it is also described with greater puvi-ion by Aili.in
i I'ur. llixt.,\. '22 . as having to the Attic \\.
72 : 70. which is the same ::- 7"> : 72)|,. .Now if we sup-
pose that the in!<-ntl--'l value c.i ..lent, had toils
;r,i/ value the ratio ot 7") : 72JJ, we have this intended
value equal (ncirlectimr a \ci\ small fiaetion to the
talent. Hence it i- inferred that Solon, proposing
to lower t! mlard.and perceiving the advantage
of assimilating it to that of the neighbouring island of
i Kuboea, intended to adopt the latter for Ins new standard,
; but that in fact a slight difference WU caused b\ accident.
The Homans reckoneil both the Attic and Kubo;.
ud to 80 Roman pounds - olyb. xxi.
1 I. with \xii. 2(i. and l,iv. xxxvii. -l.'i. with xxxxiii. 3
The Alii'- commercial standard underwent an alteration
by the edict abcr, to. which made
its mina = 150 draelnn:>
"i min«' = 6 minir commer<
its talent = (>.*i inina' commercial)
In tin.-, ncv. slandaid the <i\e-miiiif weight was npml lo
7lb. llijoz. 1-J-iMigrs., and the talent to K-)lb-. -JJ oz.
707 gm.
Athenians took the L 'heir -tan.!
of wciirht. The principal set v 1 in the A
o.ili-. and theie weie other sets in the I'rytancum, at
in n.-i-d by th •• Athenians was the tetra-
drachm. or piece of four iliachmac : the mina and talent
d. but were paid in diacli :. ,Vc.
The li'llowi the \alne of all the denomina
i Atiie silver money, according to the computation
I his, cy : —
T A L
T A L
£ S. A. fdrtkiagi.
Chalcus (of copper) -81 '25
JObol . 1-625
*0bol . 3-25
Obol . 12-5
Diobolon 3 1
Triobolon 4 3'5
Tetrobolon 6 2
Drachma 9 3
Didrachm 172
Tetradrachm 3 3
Mma . 413
Talent . 243 15
2. The Aeginetan talent. It is a disputed question
what was the ratio of the Aeginetan to the Attic talent.
Pollux (ix. 76. 86) says that the Aeginetan talent con-
tained 10,000 Attic drachmae, and the Aeginetan drachma
10 Attic obols, which would give the ratio of 5 : 3 for that
of the Aeginetan to the Attic talent. According; to this
statement, the Aeginetan drachma weighed 110 grains
English. Now the existing coins give an average of only
96 grains ; and the question therefore is whether we are to
follow Pollux or the coins. Mr. Hussev takes the latter
course, explaining the statement of Pollux as referring to
the debased drachma of later times, which was about
equal to the Roman denarius. Bockh adheres to the state-
ment of Pollux, explaining the lightness of the existing
coins by the well-known tendency of the antient mints to
depart from the full value. He has supported his view by
some very strong and ingenious arguments, and on the
whole he appears to be right.
There were other talents used by the Greeks and Romans,
most of which seem to have been derived from one of these
two standards, but the accounts of antient writers respect-
ing them are very contradictory. Their values are dis-
cu-sod ut length by Bockh and Hussey.
The most important variations of the Aeginetan stan-
dard were those used in Macedonia, Corinth, and Sicily.
The above talents were all reckoned in silver money.
Then- was also a talent of gold, which was much smaller.
It was used chiefly by the Greeks of Italy and Sicily, whence
it was called the Sicilian talent as well as the gold talent.
It was equal to 6 Attic drachmae, that is, about } oz. and
71 grs. It was divided by the Italian Greeks into 24
ni, and afterwards into 12, each minimus containing
2J litrae. When Homer uses the word talent, we must
always understand bv it this small one of gold. In other
classical writers the word generally means the Attic talent.
(Bockh, Mftrolrjs. I iitrrxuch. ; Hussey, Antient
fili unit Money ; Dictionary of Greek and Ronnui
.lufn/iii/ii-f, 1842.)
TALE'S. At common law, when the number of jury-
men in attendance was so small, or so much diminished
by challenges that a full jury could not be had, a writ
(then in Latin issued to the sheriff, commanding him to
summon xm-k tales) other fit persons, &c. for the purpose
of making up the jury. The jurors so procured were called
talesmen, from the Latin word used in the writ. By the
statute :i.~> lieu. VIII., c. 6, the defect of jurors misfit, at
the request of the plaintiff or defendant in an action, be
.supplied from such other able persons of the said county
then present, and these were ordinarily called, from the
words in the Latin writ, ' tales de circumstantibus.' Sub-
sequent statute* extended and regulated the application of
this statute. But the act now in force is 6 Geo. IV., c. 50 ;
the 37th "iection, which contains the existing law on the
subject, and is in the following words : — ' Where, a full jury
shall not appear before any court of assize or Nisi prius,
or before any of the superior civil courts of the three
counties palatine, or before any court of great sessions, or
where, Piter appearance of a full jury, by challenge of any
of the parties, the jury is likely to remain untaken for
default of jurors, every such court, upon request made for
the king by any one thereto authorised or assumed by the
court, or on request made by the parties, plaintiff or defen-
dant, demandant or tenant, or their respeeti\ c attorneys, in
:iuy action or suit, whether popular or private, shall com-
i the sheriff or other minister, to whom the making
of the ii'turn shall belong, to name and appoint, as often
'•d shall require, .-o many of such other able men <,!'
the county tlien present as shall make up a full jury
th" sheriff' or other minister aforesaid shall, at such
mand of the court, return such men duly qualified as shall
P. C., No. 1489.
be present, or can be found to serve on such jury, and shall
add and annex their names to the former panel, provided
that where a special jury shall have been struck for the
trial of any issue, the talesman shall be such as shall be
einpannelled upon the common jury panel to serve at the
same court, if a sufficient number of such men can be
found ; and the king, by any one so authorised or assigned
as aforesaid, and all and every the parties aforesaid, shall
and may, in each of the cases aforesaid, have their respec-
tive challenges to the jurors so added and annexed, and
the court shall proceed to the trial of every such issue
with those jurors who were before einpannelled, together
with the talesmen so newly added and annexed, as if all
the said jurors had been returned upon the writ of precept
awarded to try the issue.' (2 Williams's Saunders, 349 n.
(1).) [JURY.]
TALIACO'TIUS, CASPAR, TAGLIACOZIO, or TAG-
LIACOZZI, was professor of anatomy and surgery at Bo-
logna, where he died in 1553, at the age of 64 years. His
name is now known chiefly through his reputation for re-
storing lost noses; but during his life he was equally cele-
brated for his knowledge of anatomy and his excellence as
a lecturer. These last are indeed the only qualities for
which he is praised in a tablet put up after his death in
one of the halls of the school at Bologna. A statue
erected in the amphitheatre formerly recorded his skill in
operating by representing him with a nose in his hand.
Some writers have spoken of the original Taliacotian
operation as a mere fable, pretending that it never could
have been followed by success. But several credible wit-
nesses have recorded that they either saw Taliacotius
operating, or saw patients to whom he had restored noses,
which very closely resembled those of natural formation.
The truth is that the operation which Taliacotius really
performed is not commonly known ; the generally-enter-
tained notion of it being derived from the accounts of
those who had some reason to misrepresent it. It will
therefore be worth while to give a somewhat detailed ac-
count of it.
The work in which it is described was first published
forty-four years after Taliacotius' death, with the title ' De.
curtorum chirurgia per insitionem libri duo, Venetiis,
1597, folio.' It is divided into two parts, of which the first
is chiefly devoted to a disquisition upon the dignity of the
nose, lips, and ears, and upon their offices and general
construction, and the theory of the operation, which he
considers to be exactly analogous to that of grafting upon
trees. In the second book he describes the mode of ope-
rating, dwelling first at great length upon the necessary
number and character of the assistants, the kind of bed to
be used, its position with regard to light, &c., and several
other minor matters, on all which he speaks like one tho-
roughly experienced in surgery. In the operation itself
he used the following plan: — A part of the skin of the
upper arm of the proper size, and bounded by two longi-
tudinal parallel lines, being marked out over the middle of
its lore part, was seized between the blades of a very
broad pair of nippers. Each blade was about three inches
broad, so that it might include the whole length of the
portion of skin to be removed, and had a long slit near its
edge through which a narrow knife could be passed. The
portion of skin of which the new nose was to be formed
being raised up by the assistant who held it in the nippers,
Taliacotius with a long spear-shaped knife transfixed it
through the slits in the blades of the nippers, and cut it
through the whole length of the latter from above down-
wardsT Through the aperture thus made, which might be
compared to a very broad incision for a scton, a band
covered with appropriate medicines was passed, and by
being drawn a little every day, the wound was kept open
like a seton wound. When all the inflammation had
I away, which was usually in about fourteen days,
Lhe flap of skin was cut through at its upper end, and thus
i piece bounded by three sides of a parallelogram was
•ai>ed from the arm, and remained attached to it by no-
thing but its fourth side or lower end. In this state it was
allowed to cicatrize all over, till it acquired the character
of a loose process of skin. This being, after some days,
completed, and the piece of skin having become firm and
lard, it was deemed ready for engrafting. The head
therefore being cleanly shaved, a dress and bandage of
angular construction, intended for the maintenance of the
ami in its due position, were carefully fitted on. Then
VOL. XXIV.-G
T A L
10
T A L
-' l.i. il asi ' • .if tin- old nose was scarifiw
in a moth bleeclinir surface
: taken on • - Inins
-kin on tin- nrni
ami a portion of the lait. :m- t'onn nnd si/
in th .inner made raw. Sutur. •
'I both these v
lie :uni t cini; held
With and the paiin ot tht
hand upon tne head. \>\ the dress and bandag* :.
•ionod. Tlic paits were thus retained in apposition
for about twct: the end of \vliich. the surfaces
haviiii; united, the 1 • ;kcn oil1, nnd the por-
tion nf skin \vhieh was now affixed to both the face and
the aim wa> cut away from the latter. It almost direetly
became white and cold, but it did not slouch, and gra-
dually increased in vasculnrity and heat. In about four-
teen days it v,a.s usually firm and secure in its place: and
as soon as this was evident, the skin was shaped into the
iblanceof a nose by cuttim; it accordim: to carcfnlly-
measuivd lines and bv fiiimimr the nostrils in it. A tedious
re performed upon it before the
repair wa but at length it is said that
in gonnal the rcsto:ation was truly admirable. Taliacolius
himself however admits that it had, even in th •
sevei;
After this account, no one can reasonably doubt that
:ul. That it
should be ! by the Indian method, as it is called,
in which the skin for the new nose is taken from the fore-
. hcim; a le-s tedious and le.-s
. .1 operation, rather Uiau to its being more certain of
The number of in-taucc- i:i which later attempts
to imitate the Taliacotian operation have failed, are due to
performed not according to the original
method, but acc.uding to some of the |>!aus which Talia-
cotius is erroneously su])]iosed to have followed.
The indecent joke which Butler has made popular in his
' Hudibras ' has little foundation. Taliacotius does indeed
taking the skin for a new nose
fiom the arm of another person ; and he concludes that
for s ,n.s it would, il better
to do so : but he says he cannot imagine how it would In-
possible to keep tu i, (I together for the
necessary lime and with the i 1 ian<]uillity, and
that he never heard of the plan being attempted." The
when the original proprietor of
the skin died, i.- founded mi an absurd story which Van
- to prove at ! a distance sym-
pathy can act. A gentleman at Brussels, he says, had a
new nose made for him by Taliacotius from the arm of a
Bolognese porter ; and about thirteen months afterwards,
as he was walking in Brussels, it suddenly became cold
and dropped off, at the very instant at winch the ;
died at Bologna. Similar stories are told by Campanella,
Sir Kenelm Digby, and others; hut. as already shown,
thev are i: tor Taliacotius never at-
tempted to transfer the skin of one man to the body of
another.
(Biambilla, Mijria (//•///• .<*•<..
llluntri Iliilinni,\u\. ii. ; Sprengel, Geschichte der ('/:/-
rurc
VGK.]
the law of retaliation ; the notion of
which is that of a punishment which shall be the same in
kind and degree as the injury. This punishment was a part
of the ,ivv : 'breach for breach, eye I'm
blemish in' a. man." so
it be done to him a train' (Let-it., xxiv. 3) . The name
' talio ' occuis in the . i.fthcTw. : it is
not there defined what it
the t. • collected from other place-. Th.
contains the -same element as the word tii/is, 'such,' or
TALIPAT or TALIPOT 1'Al.M. [(VHY.-IIA.]
TA I.I si |. [GEOKCIA..)
TALISMA'N an Arabic word, ived
from the (, metal
or cut in stone, and made with
monies, -vlieu two plajicls :ne incitiju1 lien a
wrtain star u at it» culminating point. .' thus
lui pared i* supposed to ' r the
bearer, preferring him from disease, rendering him invul-
nerable in battle, and to forth.
.:i!U to avert disca.se, for we lind them mentioned in
the ID dieiue among all anlie. ' The
Ksryptians made use of fiiruies of -
as the ibis am! the seaiaba-us. which i
rally KU.-pended from their neck*. The Arabi an-1
Turks did the same. v. hen th*
their < , -ed sentence- Imni
the Koran, taken chietlv i
titled 'The Incantati, i
rolls of vellum or pa]..
pended from their neck ;
Military men used suiulai
on the hilt or blade of their swords; on tl.
niets. and other pieces of armour; or u.
irarni. i-tian niitions even v\ .
tln> sii]i<'rstitioii. In the middle i!
consec lies, and iv
and still are. in Spam am:
Africa!) neirroes have their/t'/ic/i, and tl: .1 In-
dians their meilicin-.
Keinau.: 'ilium ilu Cubimt du Due
-. 1'aris. :
TALLAGE is derh ,1^ to Lord Coke, from the
tin word tnl!,isntni or t<ii/(if.rn<»i, which, ;
• cometh of the French woul /,;.
part, and metajihorically is taken when the k.'
other hath a sliare or ]>arl of the va
sr chattels, or a share or part of the annual
amis, or puts any charge or burthen upon aiiuii
: a nt is a treneial word, and dotn includ.
sidies. taxes, tentlis. tilteent : .burthens
nit or set upon any man.' It was u'e'
ined in its sense to taxes receiv .
mportant, statute on the subject is ciitill.
ion concedendo,' which v. in the ,'Ji
Mlwaul III. to (juiet the oliscontent then unix .
hrouirhout the kinsfdom. It h:i niom: the .
of the kiutr havinir tukc ;.
of all riiies. borouirhs. and towns vvilhu-.it the
mrlianienl. lie was embroiled also with the nobles and
Btidowuers. from having attempted, unsuccessful]^ how-
-ver. to coni]iel all freehold
vventy pounds to contribute either men IM .
lis wars in Klan lirst chapter nf th.
he most important : • Nullum talliurium vel a;i\
-ir<is ii! reu'im
evetur sine voluiitatc. c-t assciisii arcluepi-
•opormn. comitum. barouum. uiilitum, !
iliorum liberoruin communinm de rcijno
allaire (.raid may be set or levied b1 r heirs in
air kiiiirdom without the good will an , the arth-
lishops, bishops, counts, barons, kuiulits. buimssi-s, and
.ther free men of the commons of our kiliL'doi.
These word*, as Lord • jiliiin without
cmple, absolute without any wivinir:' and, if t:.
lave bei n perleet reliance on !!:•
>cen eiitirelv satist'aetoiy. Hut the same kinir had just
iolated almost the sanii1 < -itered int.
limself mil-
Confirmationes Chartarum ;' .'
TAl.I.KYKAND-l'KHKiOKl). CIIAKl.KS .MAI i;
)K. This extraordinary man is. and 11.
..ntinue a i •• of M. .!> .
need b\ M. de rallejmnd. in the
Seiem - et Politiqiles, only t
lis own death, he ^aid : • A minister In,
'v of appealing open, :»l tl
hut lie remains impeiielrable : of being in n
lthoii!;h pcrfccth fiank in I
i portrait. His power of conccaliiu-
lid his steady adlierence to the princip
• ii]ion his .
.|)]iositioii. have bad the eticct of ki
nit (.!' his .
ionod bi-
vhich he did no!
iuircd for him a ivputati.
d. Il is lelt
life .. ...
in which lie wa- CH..MI:. d. but with Miut injunc-
lonslhat they shall not !• I until tin
hall have elapsed from the time ol h» death. Il this Irt
T A L
11
T A L
true, even when the public shall have been put in posses-
sion of the contents of these papers, it will only have ac-
quired another statement in addition to those previously in
its possession, by the comparison of which it must have to
•- at the truth. At present however, while those me-
moirs continue a sealed book, and scarcely any of M. de
Talleyrand's intimate friends have yet contributed their
fragments of information, no resource is left to the biogra-
pher but by collating his writings, his ostensible share in
the politics of his age, and the incidental communications
of himself or his acquaintances to estimate as near as he
can what probable foundation in reality there is for the
accounts of M. de Talleyrand, which have been compiled
from what may be called public gossip.
Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Perigord was born on
the 13th of February, 17.34, the eldest of three brothers.
His family was antient and distinguished; but he was
neglected by his parents, and placed at nurse in one of the
faubourgs of Paris. The effects of a fall when about
a year old rendered him lame for life, and being on
this account unfit for the military career, he was oblisrcd
to renounce his birthright in favour of his second
brother, and enter the church. The contempt and aver-
sion for him, which his parents did not attempt to con-
ceal, impressed a gloomy and taciturn character on the
hoy. From the charge of his nurse he was transferred to
the College d Harcourt, and thence successively to the
nary of St. Sulpice and to the Sorbonne. In all of
• institutions he maintained the character of a shy,
!, bookish lad. He showed in after-life a task lor
.•'tine, and such an extensive acquaintance with and
•.in of science as sits gracefully on the statesman;
and the taste and knowledge must have been acquired at
irly acre, for his turbulent career after he was fairly
launched into busy life left little leisure for that purpose.
By the time he had attained his twentieth year his re-
putation for talent and his confirmed health appear to
reconciled the vanity of his parents to the nc.-
of acknowledging him. They introduced him to the so-
, of his equals in rank for the first time at the festhitics
with which the coronation of Louis XVI. was celebrated
1774 , under the title of the Abbe de Perigord. His
opinions and tastes, and his temperament, combined to
'•.T the clerical proj'e>sion an object of detestation to
him, but he could not escape from it. He availed himself
t., the full extent of the indulgence with which his ago
and country regarded the irregularities of the young and
noble among the priestly order ; but the pride and re-
wit h which twenty years of undeserved neglect had in-
spired his confident and strong character served him in part
moral check. He was a strict observer of the appcnr-
:uici-s exacted by the conventional morality of society;
and this good taste exerted a powerful influence over his
i! future career. Thrown back upon himself from the
beginning, he had necessarily become an egoist; vigorous
both in mind and body, he had a healthy relish of pleasure,
and he engaged with eagerness in the pursuits of pleasure;
but the enjoyments of the mere voluptuary were insuf-
ficient for one of his intellectual character and fastidious
tastes.
in 1776 Voltaire visited Paris. M. de Talleyrand was
introduced to him, and the two interviews he had with him
left such a deep impression that he was accustomed to talk
of them with a lively pleasure till the close of his life.
Voltaire and Fontenelle were M. de Talleyrand's favourite
authors ; upon whom he formed his written and still more
his conversational style. Conversational talent was in great
demand at Paris when he entered the world, and both his
love of pleasure and his love of power prompted him to
cultivate that which he possessed. That he did so with
eminent success the concurrent views of the best judges of
his age declare. Excellence of this kind is like excellence
in acting : it is impossible to convey an adequate impres-
sion of it to postenty. The reporters of flashes of wit and
felicitous turns of conversation uniformly communicate to
tli'-iii something of their own inferiority, and vulgarise
them in the telling. Again, superior excellence in con-
ation is an art ; the artist is and ought to be judged
not by his materials, but by the success with which he
uses them. Written ban mntx are necessarily estimated by
their originality, the quantity and quality of thought ex-
|,r — .1 in them: they are judged as we judge the w
••! a poet: whereas the person who introduces them with
effect in conversation ought to be judged as we judge the
actor, of whom we do not think less because he merely
says what the poet has put into his mouth.
The robust and healthy Epicurean who requires the
stimulus of intellectual in addition to physical pleasures,
is almost inevitably driven to seek the former in the pur-
suits of ambition. M. de Talleyrand was no exception to
the general rule. And the Abb6 de Perigord must have
displayed, even when he was apparently, when perhaps
he believed himself to be, living only for pleasure, qualities
which inspired a belief in his business capacity ; for in
1780, while yet only in his twenty-sixth year, he was ap-
pointed general agent of the clergy of France. He dis-
charged the functions of this important office for eight
years. The Gallic church was all along the most inde-
pendent in its relations to the Papal chair of any church
that remained in communion with Rome. It was also a
powerful church viewed in its relations to the state, of
which it formed an element. Its revenue derived from
landed property was large, that derived from other sources
perhaps still larger : it had regular assemblies in which it
legislated for itself, determined what contributions it
ought to pay to the state, and in what proportions its
members were to be assessed. Here was a wide field for
cultivating experimentally a talent for administration.
Nor was this all: the dignified clergy of France took an
active part in secular politics. There is a passage in the
eloge of M. de Heinhard already alluded to, which seems
an echo of the impressions received by M. de Talleyrand
in this period of his life : — • I will hazard the assertion
that his (M.de Keinhard's) first studies had been an excel-
lent preparation for the diplomatic career. The study of
theology in particular had endowed him with a power,
and at the .same time with a dexterity of ratiocination,
which characterise all the documents which have pro-
ceeded from his pen. To guard myself against the charge
| of indulging in paradox, I must here enumerate the
names of some of our most distinguished statesmen, all
theologians, and all distinguished in history for the success
with winch they conducted the most important political
transactions of their times.' And he follows up tha
remark with a very respectable list. The general agent
of the clergy was their minister of state: and M. de Tal-
; leyrand, while he continued to fill the office, was a power-
ful subject, and occupied a conspicuous place in the eye
of the public. In 1788 he was appointed bishop of Autiui.
The commencement of his political career, in the strict
acceptation of the term, is synchronous with this promo-
tion. An article upon M. de Talleyrand in an early num-
ber of the ' Edinburgh Review ' — the materials for which
were furnished by Dumont, — asserts that he owed his
advancement to the see of Autun to a ' Discours sur les
Loteries,' which he pronounced in his capacity of agent
for the clergy of France, in the Assembly of Notables which
met at Versailles, in February, 1787. As bishop of Autun
he was a member of the Etats Gfti#raux convoked in ?>Iay,
1789, which continued to sit as an Assemblee Constituante
till it dissolved itself on the 30th of September, 1791. The
interval from the meeting of the Notables till the dissolu-
tion of the Assembly is an important one in any attempt
to solve the problem of M. de Talleyrand's real character.
Previously to the meeting of the States-General, M. de
Talleyrand indicated the course he intended to pursue, in
a discourse which he addressed to the assembled clergy of
his diocese ; and in which he advocated the equality of all
citizens in the eye of the law, and free discussion. When
the three orders, by assenting to meet as one body, had
enabled the Assembly to proceed to business, the pre-
cise directions given by many of the bailliages to
their deputies were found an impediment in the way
of practical legislation : M. de Talleyrand moved that
they should be entirely disregarded, and carried his
motion. A constituent committee was appointed im-
mediately after the capture of the Bastille, and he was
the second person nominated a member of it. In this
capacity he was called upon to take part in maturing
measures which have had a lasting influence upon the
progress of affairs in France : the first of these was the
re-distribution of the national territory into districts better
adapted than the old provinces for the purposes of govern-
ment ; the second was, the organization of a system of
finance. In the financial discussions which took place in
the committee and Assembly, M. de Talleyrand retained
C2
T A r.
Ifi
T A L
his dislike of lotteries. He supported nil or most of the
vinous loans proper kcr; and seconded Mna-
- exhortations to keep faith with the national
tor. He suggested practical mea.stircs \\ith a view to this
• ml. and among others the sale of church lands (he had
previ. ,'itcd the abolition of tithes', reserving
however .1 ciinii cti n! provi-ioii fur the priesthood, nud
•improving the condition of UK He
alto proposed to establish a ' caissc i\';c t,' as
an additional guarantee to the state'- Tin t. -k
of making arrangement- lor levying the pint of the revenue
.>m taxes upon persons exercising professions,
and upon '. I property, devolved upon M. de Tal-
leyrand. Connected with his labours in preparing a new
territorial division of France, and 11 new method of collect-
ing the national revenue, was the motion which he made
and carried in the Assembly, in August, 17'.H», to the effect
that the king should be int'rcatcd to write to his Britannic
majesty, to engage the parliament of England to concur
with the National Assembly in fixing a natural unit of
weights and measures; that,' under the auspices of the two
nations, an equal number of commissioners from the
Academy of Sciences and the Royal Society of London
might unite to determine the length of the pendulum in
the latitude of 4;V. or in any other latitude that might be
thought preferable, and to deduce from thence an invariable
standard of w eights and measures. At the same time t hat he
was taking part with his colleagues of the Constituent ( Vm-
inittee in these labours he was charged by them with the
important task of preparing the report upon national edu-
cation, which was read to the Assembly on the 10th, llth,
and li)th of September, l~'.)\. The basis of the system
advocated in this report was the secularization of instruction :
education was to be the gift of the state, not of the church ;
the state was to provide instruction for those who proposed
to enter the church, exactly as it was to provide instruction
for those who proposed to enter any of the other learned
profesM.ins. Equal sires- was laid upon the establishment
of elementary schools in every canton ; and of a higher
fhiss of schools, for the benefit of those who were not
destined to embrace a learned profession, in the chief town
of every district. Two acts of M. de Talleyrand, which
have been much commented upon, appear to be as it were
necessary corollaries of the principles avowed in the legis-
lative career we have been passing in review : — his ap-
pearance as principal actor in the theatrical celebration of
the ar.niver.-ary of the capture of the Bastille; and his
taking upon him the office of consecrating the national
clergy.
It is absolutely necessary that some estimate he formed
of the conduct and character of M. de Talleyrand while a
member of the first National Assembly, as a guide to an
appreciation of his far more enigmatical subsequent
. M. de Talleyrand entered the Assembly with the
reputation of a dexterous negociator, which he had
acquired in his discharge of the office of agent to the
flergy. He had then, and he retained in after-life, the
cter of a self-indulgent man, of a man with a large
instinct of self-preservation, but also of a humane man.
The disciple of Voltaire and Fontenelle could scarcely be
a very zealous Christian, but M. de Talleyrand had always
been a n -pcctei of conventional morality: his «•;• -
cisely that kind of disposition and intellect that supports
a church not from belief, but as a useful engine for prc-
•ig order in society. M. de Talleyrand, like all the
literati of his day, had .1 tin »n -lii -al belief in the equality of
men ; at the same time that with regard to the privih
the nobility, he was inclined to support them in the same
way that he did the authority of the church— as a useful po-
litic al engine, lint involuntarily and perhaps unconsciously
M. de Talleyrand was .1 wanner partisan of tin
than the clergy : he was noble by birth and attached by
taste to the habits of a select society, whereas the ecelesias-
1'cal character forced upon him against his will had some-
thing rcpulhivc to him. In short, M. de Talleyrand saw
clej-riy the roltc-nncss and the absurdity of many 'of the old
institutions of his country : he was willing, desirous, that
government should be organi/cd and act in a manner to
promote the general happiness ; lint he had no faith in the
capacity of men for -elf-gov eminent ; and he had been
1 •liurch, many of who-e members v.
that time obliL- .ences to remain-
ing in it by adopting the maxim that they were deceiving
men for their own good. M. de T.dVv rand's idea, and ho
enteitaineil it in common with .-.
that the1 Revolution might be gi:i< :c-red
!>v approximating the con-tilu- h to
that of the English government. He cared little lor the
creed ol 'the church, but he wish, irch,
and to render it in France what the established church
was in England. Hence hi* \mg
hands on the property of the church for tl
the state, to retain an adequate provision for the clergy.
hence his anxiety to identify the clcigy with the n.
Hi. ;\! lablish a constitution modelled upon that
of Knglun'i ivas always avowed. His \ie\-.
adopted, it is not meant to attribute originality to thenii
regarding territorial divisions and the organization of local
government, finance, and education, though oven
fora time in the storm of the Revolution, have n
been adopted by the Empire, tin 11. and the pre-
sent dynasty. The n ' :i- to the means by which
he attained his ends which he displayed even at this
period of his career is no evidence of insincerity, but
merely of the want of faith in men, whirl, nient
he had experienced in early life, and his observation of
the society he habitually mixed in. had instilled into him.
It was his weakness through life to pride himself in the
display of his power of retincd mockery, regardless of the
enemies it created : he gave vent to his spirit of raillery
in actions as well as in words; and thus lent a grot*
colouring to his i-'iii/iv it',-lut, which rendered them more
startling than if they had been as prosaic as those of Other
men. The world is perhaps less (.tart led with the atrocity
of passion in a statesman, than with a laughing air •
shows his contempt for it. The most startling of his
devices is his solemn inauguration of the constitutional
monarchy by the religious celebration of the 14th of July.
But the love of theatrical presentation and the del
belief that good may be effected by it is strong in
man at some period of his life. Talleyrand in all likelihood
looked forward at that moment to being the founder and
future primate of a church which should be to F:
what the Anglo-Episcopal has been to England. The
means to which he was driven to h;i- I in order
to carry through the installation of the national bishops,
undeceived him. and brought back his i ai ! r the
-ion with redoubled force. He not long alter resigned
his bishopric of Antun, and at the same time reno'
his ecclesiastical character.
The history of M. de Talleyrand from the 'dissolution of
the Constituent Assembly, in September, I7!H, till the
overthrow of the monarchy, on the loth of August, 17!'-.
would be instructive were it merely as a demonstration of
the folly of the self-denying ordinance with which that
body terminated its career. Its members were declared
ineligible to the m\t assembly, and also incapable of
mg any appointment from the crown until two
had elapsed from the date of its dissolution, 't
qcnce was, that .M. de Talleyrand among others was icn-
ineapable of any legislative or ministerial office. It
was at that time an object with all who desired that the
Revolution should have fair play, to preserve pe:u<> with
England, which, although still ostensibly neutral.
••ting additional symptom- .lion.
The "court party bated M. de Talleyrand for having li
naiikly with the' Revolution ; the republic
him lor his advocacy of a limited monarchy; all [
distrusted him on account of his eternal sneer; but nil
i c-d that he was the only man whose talents
fitted him for the delicate mission to England. And it
was impossible to appoint him to it. He
, c T. in January. 17112, without any ostensible diplo-
matic character, to sound the English ministry, .-incl attempt
::i;, nee negotiations. His \\ant of an official charac-
ter allowed the quern to indulge her -onal
dislike to the ex-bishop of An tin i bv turning her hack upon
him when he was pn-sciilcd .mil this >•
lion at once ensured his exclusion from general society,
and rendered him powerless. Aflcr the accession of the
Girondr t.. office, the attempt to ensure :\t least neutrality
on the part of England was renewed : Chauvelin w:>-
to England as nomin <g with him Talleyrand as
real ambassador. By thi-tii : the French govern-
ment had 1 • neral public of
England as to the court circles: the torrent was probably
T A L
13
T A L
too strong to have been stemmed by Talleyrand, even
though he had been in a condition to act directly and in
person. He could do nothing, forced as he was to act by
the instrumentality of a man too jealous and opiniative
to conform honestly to the directions of one whose
authority necessarily made him feel himself a mere puppet.
Talleyrand's good faith at this period in labouring to pre-
serve peace between England and France, as the only
means of rendering a constitutional monarchy possible
in the other country, and the steadiness with which he
pursued his object, undaunted by the most gross personal
insults, are satisfactorily established by the narrative of
Dumont.
Talleyrand was at Paris when the events of the 10th of
August put an end to the monarchy ; and it required all
I :s dexterity to enable him to obtain passports from Dan-
ton, to enable him to quit Paris. He fled to England,
and having saved little of his property, he was obliged to
sell his library there to procure himself the means
of support. The English government, jealous of his pre-
sence, after some time ordered him to leave the country
in twenty-four hours ; and proscribed in France, he was
obliged, with a dilapidated fortune, to seek refuge in Ame-
rica, when he had almost attained his fortieth year.
Madame de Stael has claimed, and apparently with a
good title, the credit of instigating Chenier to demand the
recall of M. de Talleyrand after the fall of Robespierre and
the termination of the reign of terror. The National In-
stitute was founded about this time, and M. de Talleyrand
had in his absence been appointed a member of the class
of moral and political science. At the first sitting of this
society which he attended he was elected secretary, an
office which he held for six months. During this period
he read two papers, afterwards published in the ' MSmoires
de la Classe des Sciences Morales et Politiques de 1'Institut
National,' which are justly considered not only as the most
able and original of his published writings, but as those
which are most indisputably his own. The first of these
is entitled ' Essai sur les Avantages u retirer de Colonies
Ts'ouvelles dans les Cireonstances presentes ;' the second, !
• Mrmoires sur les relations Commerciales des Etats-TJnis
avec 1'Anglctcrre.' The latter is, properly speaking, a
supplement — perhaps rather a ' piece justificative' ap-
pended to the other. The great object of both is to point
out the importance of colonies to a country like France,
in which the revolutionary fervour, though beginning to
burn dim, was still sufficiently powerful to prolong the reign
of anarchy and suffering, unless measures were adopted to
neutralize it. There can be no mistake as to the views
being those of M. de Talleyrand himself. They are such
as con Id only occur to a person entertaining the political
opinions he had advocated in the Constituent Assembly,
who having been exiled by the ' reign of terror ' which deci-
mated his countrymen, was living in a country where a suc-
ul revolution had quietly and speedily subsided into a
settled form of government ; in a country where he felt that
' an Englishman becomes at once a native, and a Frenchman
remains for ever a foreigner.' Not satisfied with pointing put
in what manner colonies might be rendered powerful a^isl-
ants in tranquillising France, the essayist entered deeply
into the principles of colonization, explaining the advan-
tages to be derived from colonies, and the law by which
their economical advantages might be perpetuated even
after their political relations with the mother-country had
ceased. In hi.s treatment of his subject he evinces a clear
and deep insight into the structure of society both in
France and America, and just and extensive views in po-
litical economy.
It was not however so much the political talent displayed
in these essays, as M. de Talleyrand's skill in employing
the reviving influence of the sahnt of Paris, that obtained
him the appointment of foreign minister under the Di-
rectory. Here again he was indebted to Madame de Stael,
who assisted him through her influence with Barras. M.
de Talleyrand accepted office under this unprincipled go-
vernment with a ]K>rfect knowledge of its character and its
weakness. His conviction that a Frenchman could never
.a home in America prompted him to grasp at the first
opportunity of returning to his native country : his shat-
: fortune and taste for expensive luxuries rendered
employment. nere-sary for him, and political business was
the only lucrative employment for which he was qualified.
There is nothing in his life to contradict the belief that he
again engaged in politics with a desire to promote what
was right and useful as far as he could ; but he engaged
in them aware that he might be ordered to do what he
disapproved of, and prepared to do it, under the plea that
his functions were merely ministerial, and that the responsi-
bility rested upon his employers. His position under the
Directory was consequently an equivocal one. He was
engaged, so long as he occupied it, in intrigues which had
for their aim the maintenance of himself in office, even if
his employers should be turned out ; and he was obliged
to do their dirty work. The part which he took in the
attempt to extort money, as a private gratification, from
the American envoys who arrived in Paris in October,
1797, was probably forced upon him by the directors : had
it been his own project, it would have been conceived
with more judgment, and the Americans would not have
been driven to extremes, for he understood their national
character. But allowing himself to be used in such a
shabby business betrays a want of self-respect, or a vul-
garity of sentiment, or both. He had his reward ; for
when public indignation was excited by the statements of
the American envoys, the minister of foreign affairs was
sacrificed to the popular resentment.
Having adopted a profession in which success could
only be expected under a settled government, believing
a monarchical government to be the only one which
could give tranquillity to his country, and anxious
with many others to run up a make-shift government out
of the best materials that offered, he naturally attached
himself to the growing power of Bonaparte. When the
future emperor returned from Egypt, M. de Talleyrand
had been six months in a private station ; though, had he
still retained office, he might with equal readiness have
conspired to overturn the Directory. Bourrienne is not
the best of authorities, but the earlier volumes of the
memoirs which pass under his name are less falsified than
the later ; and an anecdote which he relates of Talleyrand's
interview with the first consul, after being reappointed
minister of foreign affairs, is so charactenstic, that its
truth is highly probable : — ' M. de Talleyrand, appointed
successor to M. de Reinhart at the same time that Cam-
bacc'res and Lebrun succeeded Sit-yes and Roger Ducas as
consuls, was admitted to a private audience by the first
consul. The speech which he addressed to Bonaparte
was so gratifying to the person to whom it was addressed,
and appeared so striking to myself, that the words have
remained in my memory : — " Citizen Consul, you have
confided to me the department of foreign affairs, and I
will justify your confidence ; but I must work under no one
but yourself. This is not mere arrogance on my part : in
order that France be well governed, unity of action is re-
quired : you must be first consul, and the first consul must
hold in his hand all the main-springs of the political
machine — the ministries of the interior, of internal police,
of foreign affaire, of war, and the marine. The ministers
of these departments must transact business with you
alone. The ministries of justice and finance have, without
doubt, a powerful influence upon politics ; but it is more
indirect. The second consul is an able jurist, and the third
a master of finance : leave these departments to them ; it
will amuse them ; and you, general, having the entire
management of the essential parts of government, may
pursue without interruption your noble object, the regene-
ration of France." These words accorded too closely with
the sentiments of Bonaparte to be heard by him otherwise
than with pleasure. He said to me, after M. de Talley-
rand had taken his leave, " Do you know, Bourrienne,
Talleyrand's advice is sound. He is a man of sense." He
then added smilingly: — "Talleyrand is a dexterous fellow :
he has seen through me. You know I wish to do what
he advises ; and he is in the right. Lebrun is an honest
man, but a mere book-maker ; Cambaceres is too much
identified with the Revolution : my government must be
something entirely new." '
Napoleon and Talleyrand may be said to have under-
stood each other, and that in a sense not discreditable to
either. The good sense of both was revolted by the blood-
shed and theatrical sentiment, the blended ferocity and
coxcombry of the Revolution: both were practical states-
men, men with a taste and talent for administration, not
mere constitution-makers. Like most men of action, nei-
ther of them could discern to the full extent the advantage
an executive government can derive from having the line of
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14
T A L
action to a considerable extent prescribed by a constitution ;
but Talleyrand saw better than Napoleon that thu laws
limiting DM arbitrary \\ill of the
ruler, in turn protect li'im by teaching then legitimate
inothoda of defending their rights. In another t>
they resembled each other — neither was remarkably scru-
pulous as to the means by winch he attained his ends;
though thii laxity of numd sentiment was kept in check by
the natural h\imanitv of both. Their ven .litl'er-
•verc calculated to cement their union. The observant
self-centred mind of Talleyrand was lamed by it* want of
power to set other- in motion : it is only through sympathy
that the contagious love of action can be conveved. The
impassioned and imaginative soul of Napoleon was made
to attach others to him and whirl them along with him ;
and this power was often too strong for itself: Napoleon,
though capable of reflection, was too often hurried away
by his instinctive impulses. Each of these men felt that
the other was a supplement to himself. Talleyrand really
admired and appreciated Xapoleon. If he flattered him,
it was by the delicate method of confirming him in the
opinions and intentions which met his approbation, lie
dared to tell the First Consul truths which others were afraid
to utter; and he ventured to arrest at times the impetuosity
of Napoleon, by postponing the fulfilment of his orders
until he had time to cool. He opposed, as long as there
was any prospect of success, the divorce from Josephine :
but his virtue gave way in the business of the Duke
d'Enghien, for even though we exculpate him from parti-
cipation in the execution of that pnnce, to gratify his
master he sanctioned the violation of a neutral territory.
This was however the only instance, in so far as Bona-
parte is concerned, of his sacrificing the duty of a friend
to flattery that can be brought home to him. Napoleon's
frequent recurrence, in his conversations at St. Helena, to
the subject of Talleyrand's defection, his attempts to solve
the question at what time that minister ' began to betray
him,' show his appreciation of the services he had re-
ceived from him.
For a time their alliance continued harmonious, and that
was the time of Napoleon's success. The arrangement of
the Concordat with the pope was the basis of the future
empire, and that negociation was accomplished by Talley-
rand. The treaty of l,une\ille, secularising tl"
tical principalities of Germany : the treaty of Ainu
cognising on the part of England the conquests of !
and the new form given to the Continental states by the
Revolution ; the convention of I.yon, which gave form to
the Cisalpine republic; all bear the impress of the peculiar
- of M. de Talleyrand. And the minister of i
httairs was fully aware of his own consequence. In ISO I,
when obliged by the state of his health to use the waters
of Bourbon rArchambaud, he wrote to Napoleon : — ' I
regret being at a distance from you, for my devotion to
your great plans contributes to their accomplishment.'
After the battle of Ulm, Talleyrand addressed to the em-
peror a plan for diminishing the | lower of Austria to interfeic
with the preponderance of France, by uniting Tyrol to the
Helvetian republic, and erecting the Venetian territory
into an independent icpnblic interposed between the
kingdom of Italy and the Austrian territories. He pro-
posed to reconcile Austria to this arrangement by <
to it the whole of Wallachia, Moldavia, Bessarabia, and
the northern part of Bulgaria. The advantages he antici-
! from this arrangement, were that of removing Austria
from interfering in the sphere of French influence, without
exasperating it, and that of raining in the East a power
able than Turkey to hold a balance with Ku—ja.
Napoleon paid no attention to the proposal. After the
ry of Austerlitr, Talleyrand again pressed it upon his
notice, but equally without ctt'ect. No change in the feel-
ings of the emperor and his minister can positively be
I to this event ; but we see on the one hand a pertiim-
repctition of a favourite proposal, and on the other a
silent and nit her contemptuous rejection of it. \Ve find at.
a much later period Napoleon complaining of the pcrtina-
•• I'h which Talleyrand was Mem-ton; at any
advice which he considered important; anil we find Taf-
leyrfind sp..aking of Napoleon as one who could not be
served because he would not listen to advice. And we
t hut see in the diftV -pinion just men'
lh« commencement of that coolness which indip
rand, on the IHh of August, 1H07. to resign the portfolio of j
foreign affair* and accept the nominal dignity of vice-
grand-elcctor of the titles of
grand-fhamberlam and prince 01 H. Inch had
;red upon him. An unpreccii
career ol victory had renilcnd Napoleon impatient of
- ; the contciousnei* of important services had
ation
thus originated was increased and confirmed hy IIP- da*h-
ing hut vulgar soldiers, v.: .i:fluenlial
part of the emperor's court, and their silly :r
wives, who • M M. de Talleyrand his sup
refinement, and who had all in tin
portable suca-m. Na]H)leon in exile is said to Ir
sented the resignation of M. de Talleyrand as in
and rendered necessary by lus stock-jobbing propeu-
It is not impossible that the minister may have -
more deeply in the funds than was altogether pi
had there been no oth-
could, and often did, wink at more flagrant
delinquencies. M. de Talleyrand, in his charactci
chamberlain, did the honours of the impciia
Erfurt ; and was on more than one occasn
suited by the emperor, who one day said,
to ha. In iso;) how.-
loud and unreserved in his comlcmr
expedition, that Napoleon, on his return from '.
sula, deprived him of the office of clumbcrlnin. The tost
'•ars of the empire elicited UK:
from M, de Talleyrand, which were duly earn
ears of the emperor, who retorted by sallies of abuse v-
irritated the prince wit hou ; him leas pov.
In 1812 M. ue Talleyrand is said to
overthrow of the em put. In IKI:J overtur. -
him with a view to his resuming the por" .
affairs, but without success. In |Kl! he re-appeai.
i- of active life on his own account.
In 1S14. as vice-graud-clcc tor of the empire, he was a
member of the regency, but was prc\enu-d JOUUI.L:
Blois by the national guard refusing to allow him to quit
Paris — iiot. much against Ins will. When Paris ca
lateil, the emperor Alexander took uphis reside
of the prince of Bcnevento. The words attri!
by the Memoirs of Kourrienne to Talleyrand, in ;
sations with those in whose hands the fortune ol war had
for the time placed the fortunes of France, are charact cr-
ime, and in keeping with his opinions and subse-
quent conduct: — 'There is no other alternate
poleon or Louis XVIII. After Napoleon there is no one
who-c personal qualities would ensure him the sup]
ten men. A principle is needed to give consistency '
new government, whatever it maybe: Ixniis \\lli
is a principle. Anything but Napoleon or Louis
\\ 111. is an intrigue, and no intrigue can be strong enough
to support him upon whom it might confer power." Tins
view lends consistency to the conduct of M.de Talleyrand
at the close of Napoleon's career. Their alliance had
long been dissolved : they stood confronting each otl
separate and independent powers. M. de Talleyrand had
advocated a limited monarchy, until the old ifiion.-
violently broken up and overturned ; he had lent his aid
to construct a new monarchy and a new aristocracy out of
the fragments of old institutions which the Revolution had
••.v France a train without a government, and,
with his principles, he might have consistently taken office
under any government, holding, as he did/the opinion
that any government is better than none, and thu:
man may hold office under it provided he take •
as much good and as little ha; in a.» he can. But M. '.••
Talleyrand did more: he exerted thr influence IP
sesseo. over Alexander to obtain the combination <>
stitutiomil forms with the recognition of legitmi.
X \ 111. saved appearances by insisting upon being ai1
tit the (-barter spontaneously, but it was M. de Tal-
leyrand's use of the iciii ititiouary party
that made him feel the necessity of this i i, As
minister Talleyrand i ith a
precision I i an object of annny-
•'i the courti eis ot 'the !•' '. as ever the pedantic
Clarendon irrounded i 'luules II.
- t out tor li • \ icnna. in September,
1*11, the court of F.I id to have piescntcd the
:i-pc. • <>l nt the commencement of the holi-
The powers who had refused to concede to Napoleon at
T A L
15
T A L
the head of a victorious army anything beyond the limits
of France in 1792, gave more favourable terms to M. de
Talleyrand, the representative of'a nation upon which they
had just forced a king. He baffled the emperor Alexander,
who said angrily, ' Talleyrand conducts himself as if he
were minister of Louis XIV.' On the 5th of January, 1815,
he signed, with Lord Castlereagh and Prince Metternich,
a secret treaty, having previously obliged Prussia to remain
contented with a third of Saxony, and Russia to cede a
part of the trrand-duchy of Warsaw. The imbecility of the
Bourbons, by inviting the descent of Napoleon at Frejus,
asrain unsettled everything. M. de Talleyrand dictated
the proclamation of Cambray, in wmch Louis XVIII. con-
fessed the faults committed in 1814, and promised to make
reparation. He susgested the more liberal interpretation
of the charter, announced from the same place. He ob-
tained an extension of the democratic principle in the
constitution of the Chamber of Deputies, recommended
the rendering the peerage hereditary, and induced the
king, restored for a second time, to institute a cabinet
council, of which he was nominated the first president.
The constitutional monarchy, the object of his earlier
wishes, was now definitively established ; but the part he
was destined to perform in it was that of a leader of oppo-
sition. In his note of the 21st of September, 1815, he pro-
tested, as prime minister, against the new terms which the
allies intended to impose upon France. He said they were
such conditions as only conquest could warrant. ' There
can only be conquest where the war has been carried on
against the possessor of the territory, that is, the sovereign ;
>ion and sovereignty being identical. But when war
is conducted against a usurper in behalf of the legitimate
possessor, there can be no conquest; there is only the re-
covery of territory. But the high powers have viewed the
enterprise of Bon?parte in the light of an act of usurpa-
tion, and Louis XVIII. as the real sovereign of France :
they have acted in support of the king's rights, and ought
to respect them. They contracted this engagement by
their declaration of the 13th and their treaty of the 25th of
March, to which they admitted Louis XVIII. as an ally
against the common enemy. If there can be no conquest
from a friend, much more can there be none from an ally.'
His argument was fruitless: Louis XVIII. bowed to the
dictation of his powerful allies : and M. de Talleyrand re-
signed office two months before the conclusion of the treaty
which narrowed the frontiers of France and amerced her
in a heavy contribution. By this step M. de Talleyrand
enabled himself to contribute essentially to strengthening
the constitutional monarchy, to which, if he had any prin-
ciple, he had through life preserved his attachment. Had
he been a party to the treaty, he must have shared with the
elder branch of the Bourbons the odium which attached to
all who had taken part in it ; and hence thrown the oppo-
sition into the hands of the enemies of the constitution.
By resigning office, he obtained a voice potential in the
deliberations of the opposition ; and no Kuirlish nobleman
born and bred to the profession could have discharged
more adroitly the functions of an opposition leader. For
fourteen years his talun was a place of resort for the
leaders of the liberal party; in society he aided it by
his conversational 1;ilents; in the chamber of peers he
lent it the weight, of his name and experience. He de-
fended the liberty of the press in opposition to the cen-
sorship; he supported trial by jury in the case of offences
of the press; and he protested against the interference
of Fiance in the internal affairs of Spain in 1823.
By this line of conduct he was materially instru-
mental in creating a liberal party within the pale of the
constitution; and to the existence of such a party was
owing in no small degree the result of the revolution of
1KJO, in which, though the dynasty was changed, the con-
stitution survived in its most important outlines. . That
revo'ution also placed Prince Talleyrand in a condition to
realise what had been one of his in I wishes at
the outset of his political career— an alliance between
France and Kngland as constitutional governments. To
accomplish this he had laboured strenuously in 1792; to
h tins was one, of the tirst objects he aimed at
i appointed mini .ter for foreign affairs under Hie con-
sulate: he accomplished it as representative of Louis
M. de Talleyrand was appointed ambassador extra-
ordinary and minister plenipotentiary to the court of Great
Britain on the 5th of September, 1830 ; and he held the
appointment till the 7th of January, 1835, when he was
succeeded by General Sebastiani. During these four years
M. de Talleyrand, besides obtaining the recognition of the
new order of things in France by the European powers,
procured a similar recognition of the independence of
Belgium, and concluded the quadruple alliance of Eng-
land, France, Spain, and Portugal, for the purpose of re-
establishing the peace of the Peninsula.
After his return from the mission to England, M. de
Talleyrand retired from public life. The only occasion on
which he again emerged from domestic retirement was
when he appeared at the Acad£mie des Sciences Morales
et Politiques, to pronounce the eloge of Count Reinhard,
only three months before his own death. He died on the
20th of May, 1838, in the eighty-fourth year of his age.
The object of this sketch has been to present, as far as
the very imperfect materials which are attainable would
permit, a view of this very extraordinary man undis-
torted by any partisan feeling either with regard to his
person or principles. It must be admitted in favour of M.
de Talleyrand that he was warmly beloved by those who
were his intimate friends, and by all who were at any time
employed under him. It must also be allowed that when
his life is contemplated as a whole, it bears the imprint of
a unity of purpose animating his efforts throughout. Free-
dom of thought and expression, the abolition of antiquated
and oppressive feudal forms and the most objectionabte
powers of the church, the promotion of education, the
establishment of a national religion, and a constitutional
government compounded of popular representation and an
hereditary sovereign and aristocracy — these were the ob-
jects he proposed for attainment when he entered the
arena of politics. He attempted to approach this ideal as
far as circumstances would admit at all periods of his long
career ; and he ended by being instrumental in establish-
ing it. No act of cruelty has been substantiated against
him ; and the only charges of base subserviency that ap-
pear to be satisfactorily proved, are his participation in the
attempt to extort a bribe from the American envoys, and
in the violation of an independent territory in the seizure
of the Due d'Enghien. His literary was subordinate to his
political character. It is difficult to say how much of the
writings published in his name were really his own.
Latterly, we are informed upon good authority, he was in
the habit of explaining his general views on a subject to
sotne one whom he employed to bring this communication
into shape ; and when the manuscript was presented to
him, he modified and retouched it. until it met his views,
throwing: in a good deal of that wit which gave zest to his
conversation. The domestic life of M. de Talleyrand has
not been alluded to ; for almost every statement regarding
it is poisoned by the small wit of the coteries of Paris.
The report upon education of 1791 ; a report to the first
consul upon the best means of re-establishing the diplo-
matic service of France ; the essays upon colonization, and
the commercial relations of England and America ; and
the eloge of M. de Reinhard — may all be regarded as his
own composition. The first is the most commonplace;
the other three are master-pieces in their different ways.
They bespeak an elegant and accomplished mind, a
shrewd insight into character and the structure of society,
and a felicitous and graphic power of expression. The
wit of M. de Talleyrand was the wit of intellect, not of
temperament. It was often full of meaning; always sug-
gestive of thought ; most frequently caustic. His reserve,
probably constitutional, but heightened by the circum-
stances of his early life, and cultivated upon principle,
was impenetrable. In advanced life it seemed even to
have affected his physical appearance. When at rest, but
for his glittering eye, it would have been difficult to feel
certain that it was not a statue that was placed before you.
When his sonorous voice broke upon the ear, it was like a
possessing spirit speaking from a graven imago. Even in
comparatively early life, his power of banishing all ex-
pression from his countenance, and the soft and heavy
appearance of his features was remarked us contrasting
startlingly with the manly energy indicated by his deep
powerful voice. Mirabeau in the beginning, Napoleon
at the close of the Revolution, threw him into the shade ;
but he outlasted both. The secret of his power was
patience and pertinacity; and his life has the appearance
of heing pretcrnaturally lengthened out when we recollect
T A L
16
T A L
the immense number of widely removed character* and
everts of which In- was tin- contemporary. It may be said
on tlio one hand that he accomplished nothing which time
did not in a manner brine; about ; but on the other it may
be said, with equal plausibility, that scarcely any of the
leadn A Inch have occurred in France in his day
would base taken the exact shape they assumed hud no't
his hand interfered to give them somewhat of a bias or
direction. Next to Napoleon, he certainly is the most
extraordinary man the revolutionary period of France has
given birth to.
udes rt Portraits Politiquei, par A. Mignet, Brux-
elles, 1841, pp. 131-194; Rapport sur iln\truftion 1'ub-
liquefait an nom du Comiti de Constitution d FAssemblce
Rationale, let 10, 11, et 19 Septrmbrf, 1791, par M. de
Talleyrand, Paris, 1791-4; Klinburyh Jtfrieir, voU. vi.
and vii. ; Menwira par Etienne de Dumont ; Correspon-
dence beticeen the Envoyt of the American States ana M.
tie Talleyrand, Minister for Foreign Affairs m i'rance,
London, 1798, 12mo. ; Considerations sur lex jjnnripnit.r
frenrments de la Revolution Franpaise, par Mme. la Ba-
ronne de Stael ; Dix Annies <FKril, par la imlme ; Mt-
mnires par A. L. F. de Bourrienne, Pans et Londres, 1831 ;
Mrmt,rt'il de Si. Ileltnf ; Mf moires pour serrir a I'Hit-
toire de France sou* Napoleon, par MM. les GG. Mon-
tholon et Gourgaud ; Kloge de fa. le Comte de Reinhard
prononci a /'.trutlemie <lei< Srience* Morales tt Poliliques,
par M. le Prince de Talleyrand, dans la Seance du 3
Mars, 1838, Paris, 1838.)
TALLIS, THOMAS, who is considered the patriarch of
English cathedral music, was born at about the same
period as the famous Italian ecclesiastical composer
Palc&trina, whose birth took place in the year 152!).
It hits been slated, but most probably erroneously, that
Fallis was organist to Henry V 111. and his successors.
He undoubtedly was a gentleman of the chapel to Edward
VI. and Mary ;" and under Elizabeth the place of organist
wan added to his other office. He seems to have devoted
himself wholly to the duties of the church, for his name
does not appear to anything in a secular form. His entire
Service, including prayers, responses, Litany, ami nearly
nil of a musical kind comprised in our liturgy, and in use
in our cathedrals, appears in Dr. Boyce's Collection, to-
gether with an anthem which has lone; been in high repute
with the admirers of severe counterpoint. Hut tor the
smaller parts of his Service he was indebted to Peter
Marbeek, organist of Windsor, who certainly is entitled to
the credit of having added those solemn notes to the
suffrages and responses which, under the name of Tallis,
are still retained in our choirs, nnd listened to with reve-
rential pleasure. [MARHECK.]
In l.~>7.~> Tallis published, in conjunction with his pupil,
Bird (or Byrde), Cantinni-x Sacra; master-pieces of their
kind; and these are rendered the more remarkable from
Pig. 1.
having Ix-en pr. twenty-one year* by a patent
from l^ncen Kh/abcth, the first of the kind that e\er was
granted. One of these. 'O sacrum con v mum,' was adapted
bv Dean Alilrich to the words - I call and I the
above-mentioned anthem, which still continues hi 1
quently performed in most of our cathedials. Two more
of his anthems are (irinted in Dr. Arnold's Collection.
Tallis died in 15x5, and was buried in the parish church
of Greenwich, in the chancel of which Strypc. in his con-
tinuation of Stowe's Surri-ij. tells us he saw a brass plate,
on which was engraved, in old English letter, an epitaph,
in four stanzas of four lines each, giving a luicf historj of
this renowned composer. The plate was carried aw«y,
and most likely sold by weight, by some barbarian, when
the church wax repaired about a century ago. The verse*
are to be found in Hawkins, Burney, and most other pub-
lications relating to English church music.
TAI.I.mV. [FAT.]
TALLOW, MINERAL or MOUNTAIN. [HjLKittini*.]
TALLOW -TKKK. ( Si ,M.IN<;IA.]
TALLY. This word appears to be derived from the
French taille, or /.////<•/•, each of which expresses tin
of cutting or notching.
The use of notched sticks or tallies may be traced to «
very remote period, and there that
they were among the earliest nn-ai;- dc\iscd for keeping
accounts. Some writers conceive that the Greek syniboluiii
(avpfioXov) was in some cases a species of tally, which was
used between contracting parties; being broken in two.
and one-half given to each. In the • Pictorial Bible"
(note oaEzi-k. xxxvii. 31 . much curious information is
brought together on the subject of writing or marking
with notches upon sticks. The writer of that note refers
to the tablets of wood called a.rones, upon which the
Athenians inscribed the laws of Solon, and to the pi::
of the antient Britons, who, he says. • used to cut their
alphabet with a knife upon a stick, which, thus inscribed,
was called CtH'Ibrrii tj Hi'ird'l. "the billet of signs of the
bards," or the Bardic alphabet.' ' And not only.' In
tilliies. 'weie the alphabets such, but compositions and
memorials were registered in the same manner.' These
sticks, he adds, were commonly squared. but weie sometimes
tliree-siiled ; each side, in either case, containing one line of
writing. A cut which accompanies the note from win
quote, shows the manner of mounting several such inscribed
sticks in a fi.inie. su that they might 1
Another illustration, of later date, is the el-
described by Dr. Plot, in ItiSli. ns still common in Slatl'ord-
shire. Such calendars, which had the various days marked
by notches of different forms and si
made small enough to carry in the pocket, and sometiiiiiTt
larger, for hanging up in 'the h :nilar cal.
are saul to have been formerly used in Sweden. Perhaps
the most curious of the illustrations collected in the notu
I. d. d. d. rf.rf.rf. rf.
11 11*4 1 1 1 1 i i
i i i
S.10U Krivr-l'ule UM-d la the I tie of PoitUnd.
Kg. 2.
Ux>:ii-i|i»-r Tally.
referred to is the Saxon Reive-Pole, which either is, or ha»
been down to a iod, used in the Isle of Portland
l-ir collecting the yearly rent paid to the king as lord
of the manor. This rent", which amounts to 14/. 14*. 3d.,
in collected by the reive, or steward, every Michaelmas;
the sum which each person has to pay being scored upon
a squared pole, a portion of which is represented in the
subjoined cut, with figures to mark the amount inch
by each notch. • The black circle at the top,' oh
the work from wliich we quote, • denotes the parish of
Southwell, and that side of the , ount
of the lax paid by the parishioners: each pci-on\ account
divided from that of Ins neighbour b\ t)
indentation* between each. In the present instance the
first pays :>}</., the .- -'/•. the n.At one laylhiug,
and soon.' The other hide of the pole which is n
seilteit in the cut is a] to file parish ,,f \Vnkcm,
of which the cross within a circle is the ili-tnntue mark.
The talli. ' the K\dieijiier (one of which is
represented by fig. 'i) answered the purpose of receipt*
T A L
17
T A L
as well as simple records of matters of account. They
consisted of squared rods of hazel or other wood, upon
one side of which was marked, by notches, the sum for
which the tally was an acknowledgment ; one kind of
notch standing for 1000/., another for 1001., another for
20/., and others for 20.s., 1*., &c. On two other sides of
the tally, opposite to each other, the amount of the sum,
the name of the payer, and the date of the transaction,
were written by an officer called the writer of the tallies ;
and, after this was done, the stick was cleft longitudinally
in such a manner that each piece retained one of the
written sides, and one-half of every notch cut in the tally.
One piece was then delivered to the person who had paid
in the money, for which it was a receipt or acquittance,
while the other was preserved in the Exchequer. Madox
observes respecting these rude and primitive records, ' The
use of them was very antient ; coeval, for aught I know,
with the Exchequer itself in England.' They were finally
discontinued at the remodelling of the Exchequer in 1834;
and it is worthy of recollection that the fire by which the
Houses of Parliament were destroyed was supposed to have
originated in the over-heating of the flues in which the
di-carded tallies were being burnt. Clumsy as the con-
trivance may appear, tallies were effectual in the preven-
tion of forgery, since no ingenuity could produce a false
tally which should perfectly correspond with the counter-
tally preserved at the Exchequer; and no alteration of
the sum expressed by the notches and the inscription
could pass undetected when the two parts of the stick
were fitted together. A correspondent of the ' Gentle-
man's Magazine' for November, 1834 (p. 480), states that
forgeries were attempted immediately alter the discontinu-
ance of tally receipts. The officers of the Exchequer
commonly called tellers (talliers), as well as several other
functionaries, derived their name from the word tally.
Many different kinds of tally are used in gardens and
trboretums, to bear either numbers referring to a cata-
logue, or the names of the plants near which they are
placed. Loudon describes several sorts, of wood, metal,
earthenware, brick, &c., in his ' Encyclopaedia of Garden-
in?.' Wooden tallies are sometimes marked by notches
instead of writing or painting; particular forms or com-
binations of notches being used to represent either Arabic
numerals or the Roman letters commonly employed in
numeration. Tallies formed of brick-earth, witn a recess
for containing a printed card, which is sheltered by a piece
of glass, have been introduced of late years, and are par-
ticularly recommended for use in arboretums. Instead of
being stuck in the ground, like tallies of wood and metal,
these brick tallies are formed with a broad base, which
rests upon its surface.
I'ictorial Bible, note on Ezek. xxxvii. 20 ; Madox's
Hi^i',1 1/ i if the Exchequer, fyc. A popular history of
tallies is given in vol. xxiv. of the Mirror (pp. 325 and
341), partly condensed from the Times newspaper.)
TALMA, FRANQ9IS JOSEPH, an eminent French
tragedian, was born in Paris, January loth, 1763. His
lather, who was a dentist, went to England shortly after
the birth of his son, and practised his profession for some
years in London. At nine years of age young Talma re-
turned to France, and was placed in a school at Chaillot,
which was kept by Monsieur Lamarguiere, a great ad-
mirer of the drama, who delighted to discover and
encourage a similar taste in any of his pupils. A year
alter Talma had joined the school he was intrusted with a
part in an old tragedy, called 'Simois, Fils de Tamer-
lane,' which Monsieur Lamarguiere had selected for per-
formance by his scholars ; and so deeply did the future
tragedian enter into the feeling of the character, that he
burst into a flood of tears at the recital of the sorrows of
the hero, whose brother he represented. At the age of
twelve he wrote a little drama, in the composition of
which he further developed his knowledge of the stage.
He again visited London, and returned a second time to
Paris at the latter end of the year 1781, when he com-
menced the study of logic in the College Mazarin. In
17X! he made a coup d'essai at the Th6atre de Doyen, in
the character of Seide, in the tragedy of 'Mahomet.' A
council of friends, appointed by himself, to judge of his
performance, pronounced it a failure : ' He had not le, feu
Talma deferred to this unfavourable opinion, and
quietly resumed the study of his father's profession ; but a
few years afterwards the very same friends were called
P. C., No. 1400.
j'
I.!
upon to reverse their judgment and confess their mistake.
On the 21st of November, 1787, he made his debut at the
Theatre Franeais, and in 1789 created a great sensation by
his performance of Charles IX. At the commencement of
the French Revolution he nearly fell a prey to a severe
nervous disorder. On his recovery and the retirement of
Larive, Talma became the principal tragic actor. He re-
formed the costume of the stage, and first played the part
of Titus in a Roman toga. During the reign of Napoleon
he enjoyed the emperor's friendship ; and was no less
honoured or esteemed by Louis XVIII. In 1825 he pub-
lished some ' Reflections ' on his favourite art ; and on the
llth of June, 1826, appeared for the last time on the stage
in the part of Charles VI. During his last illness the
audiences of the Theatre Frai^ais every evening called for
an official account of the state of his health previously to
the commencement of the performances. He died on the
19th of October following, and was buried in the cemetery
of Pere la Chaise, in presence of an immense crowd. MM.
Arnault, Jouy, and Lalour pronounced orations over his
grave. The Theatre Fran<;ais remained closed for three
evenings, and the Opera Comique and Odeon were also
closed on the day of his funeral. The actors of the Brus-
sels theatre (of which company he was an associate) wore
mourning for him for forty days, and a variety of honours
were paid to his memory at the principal theatres through-
out France and the Netherlands. Talma is said to have
created seventy-one characters, amongst the most popular
of which were those of Orestes, CEdipus, Nero, Manlius,
Ciesar, Cinna, Augustus, Coriolanus, Hector, Macbeth,
Hamlet, Othello, Leicester, Sylla, Regulus, Danville (in
• L'Ecole dcs Vieillards';, Leomdas, Charles VI., and Henry
VIII. He has been accused, remarks one of his biogra
phers, of having spoken the verse of tragedy as though it
were prose ; but this avoidance of the jingle of rhyme was
one of the greatest improvements which he introduced
upon the French stage. In person he was about the
middle height, square-built, and with a most expressive
and noble countenance. His voice was exceedingly fine
and powerful, his attitudes dignified and graceful. In
private life he was distinguished for his manly frankness,
his kind disposition, and unaffected manners. He spoke
English perfectly, and was a great admirer of England
and her institutions. He was the friend and guest of
John Kemble, and was present in Covent Garden Theatre
when that great actor took his leave of the stage.
(Almanach des Spectacles, 1827; Biographie Nouvelle
des Conte inporains ; Xeio Monthly Mug.; Personal Re-
collections.)
TALMUD. [HEBREW LANGUAGE.]
TALPA. [TAIPID*.]
. TALPASO'REX, M. Lesson's name for a genus of So-
HECID.*, comprising the Shrew-mole. [Vol. xxii., p. 265.]
TA'LPID/E, the family of Moles.
The genus Talpa of Linnaeus, as it stands in the 12th
edition of the Systema Natures, between the genera Di-
dclphis and Sorex, comprises two species only, Talpa
Europeea, the Common Mole, and Talpa Asiatica. [CHRY-
SOCHLORIS.]
Cuvier places the Moles, confining them to the genus
Tallin, between Sorex [SORECID/E] and CONDYLURA.
Mr. Swainson places the genus Ta/pa between C/iryso-
chloris and Centenes. [TENKEC.]
ORGANIZATION.
Skeleton.— The cranium is elongated and pointed, and
Skull of Mo'.e.
there is a peculiar bone for the support and working of
the muzzle. The part which extends from the internal
VOL. XXIV.— D
T.A L
! the jaws terminates ir
middle iHisrer and n.
than the other two. The
18 TA.L
i the means of a long bladebone, and sustains
edtre clavicle, carric* a:
d by which is always tr.nn.-il outwaro* or hackwa
Skoleton of Mol». (IV BliinTilR) Th« uuchal U>n« and vxcxnry cnrral n!t>f shaped be
living form has the compressed phalangeal bout1-. MTU in
4^ljHp except the mole. The second phalanx of the nn-
dieits or fincersof the mole is the only known living
analogue of the similar bone in the hind-foot of Glyplodon.
The sternum, like that of the birds ami bats, has ;m ele-
vation or crest affording room for the laru'e pectoral mus-
cles. The pelvis anil hinder extremities are comparatively
feeble. The bones of the ptibi- med.
This bony framework is set in motion by very powerful
muscles. Those of the anterior extremities. I In
and the neck are most \ ,d in the cei\i<-:il ]ii.'a-
nient a peculiar bone is even formed. The wide hand,
which is the great instrument of action, and perl'omis the
offices of a pickaxe and shovel, i< sharp-edited on its
lower margin, and, when clothed with the integuments, the
fingers are hardly distinguishable, but the terminating
claws project lone, stronir. flat, and trenchant.
us compare for a moment the bats with the moles
with reference to their locomotion. Both are insecti-
vorous, but how widely different in their conformation.
The bat has to winnow its way through the air: the mole,
like the bat, has to react against a triven medium, a very
different one, certainly ; and is endowed with a pn-
moving- through that medium by means of a modification
of the locomotive organs beautifully adapted to its den-
sity. Instead of the lengthened bones of the forearm tlmt
so well assist the bat to make its way with outstretched
wing through the air. all in this part or tile organization of
the mole is short and compact, to enable it to bore through
the dense medium where it is to live and move and have
its being. The development is all anterior : the fore part
of the mole forms an elongated cone ; the posterior part is
narrow and small, and the whole of its proportions are
admirably fitted to :i- '•> speak, in flyme: through
the earth. The long and almost i da. the ex-
panded humerus, the enormous power, in short, of the an-
terior extremities, and the great strength and compart m-s
of the fingers, are all fitted for the diircim: duty they have
to do. Add to this a soft short-cut velvety eont. to which no
particle of soil ever adheres, and yon have the perfection
of organization for rapid proirrc^s through the ground.
Nor is it void of interest to observe tin- niceties of adap-
tation according to circumstances. The CHRYSOCHI.OIUS
(Tuljift inireii of the older authors) is an inhabitant of
Africa, and burrows in »and. This medium required a
modification of organization different from that required
to permeate the heavier soils, and we have it. Though
some of the bones are strong, the general strength i» les-
than in the common .Mole. The principal burrowing in-
strument is the great double anterior toe (ring-In
and there is an enormous development of the pMtbnn
bone.
In the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, in
London, No. 2R2 G, of the V1
the anterior half of the body o /'.;//«/ I'.m
Linn.\ in which the diaphiairni and principal muse
the right extremity are directed and exposed, as illus-
trative of one of the principal structure* for burrowinir.
Nervou* Syttem am? The muzzle of
the mole is evidently a delicate organ of touch, and that
sense is considerably developed in the large and broad
hands and feet. Neither is the tail without a considerable
share of sensation, to give notice to the animal of the
approach of any attack from behind.
.Jden
Taxtf and Smell.— 1\ .
especially the latter, appear
Xight. — Almost rudimentary. ThellUll
in the fur. that its .
denied. It appears to be designed for o]>
warning to the animal on its emcrcinLT in;
indeed more acute vision would on
cumbrauce. No. 1772
'he anterior part of a us
Linn.', showing the minute circular palpehml o
defended by the short thick fur.
lli'iiriiiff. — Hut if the siirht be imperfect, the. bcn^e of
hearint: is very highly developed, and the tympamu:.
though them
jet-ting concha. No. 1UI8. in the department >
museum of the Royal Colleirc of Iv.
to, exhibits the anterior part of a mole ( '/'«///« tin
Linn.), from which the hair has been removed, to show the
external orifices of the cars and eyes, in both of which
bristles are placed. No. KiO'J i* also the anttrm
of the same animal with the fur left on, showing the
entrance to the meatus auditorius externus unprovided
with a projecting concha, or external car, which would
be an impediment in the act of burrowing, and an unnc-
y appendage : the meatus is defended in this animal.
which lives habitually in the soil, by the smallncss <>t the
external opening. John Hunter, in his M>inu\crijil
. introductory of this part of th.
an external concha is not to be found in ma
whose life is principally led underground, »uch as the
mole; and perhaps because the earti rably
in vibration.
There is nothing that calls for anv particular notice in the
l»nrxliri< Sif.\/i'/n of the Mole. The alimentary cnnal i-.
short, simple, without a caecum. The \oracity of the
mole corresponds with the activity and rape.
(rftirriitirp /n/il I'rimtry Ni/v/^m. — No. 'J.~><t.~i <
Phvsioloi:!' ' '/'/''. exhi!
mole with the abdomen laid open to show the testes as
they appear in winter. They are lodged in large cremas-
jioiiehcs in the perinu'al rcirion. nuikinir no ]>rojec-
tion externally. The risrht tcstis i> dr.-ivHi into the
abdomen by the Mile of the bladder, and it
extremity mav be seen attached to the u\\
the let) testis has its anterior extremity proji
the abdominal cavity. Tip
sist (.l':i!i ;iLT_ri'i'::atc of cii-cal tubes, are just
the bladtler. No. 'i"<(Mi is :i nude killed in
prepared t<> show the increased
commencing sexual ilex clopment of the ]
No. 'J."m7 m a mole Killed in the bci'i
1'iepared to ..how n further increase oi
\ prostatic L'lantl-: the latter h:i>e now iitl\:ini-cil
forw:i • -h side of the urinary bladdei1. >o
encompass its neck : the left tr-tis li;t.s 1 ••
into the alxlomeii, and IK
mn-.teric jioiich tlis]i!nyed. No. i~><JS is a mole killed
about the Litter end of March, and dissected to show the
rouij. |.m. nt of '
The lone penis and r
'J509 is a mole whuh
WHS killed in mituiim. p v the collapsed
state of the te»te», and the atrophied cond
I'hintl
and
1 ac-
T A L
19
T A L
static glands ; but the testes in this case had not yet
returned to the small size which they exhibit in winter.
No. 2510 is a preparation showing a side view of the male
organs of generation; and No. 2511 exhibits the male
organs of Chrysochloris capensis. (Cat., vol. iv.)
The increase and decrease of the testes in BIRDS and
FROGS are well shown in preparations in the same noble
museum ; the first in Nos. 2A57 to 24G2 (both inclusive),
the second in Nos. 2412 and 2411. John Hunter, in his
' Animal CEconomy,' observes that these seasonal or peri-
odical changes are common to all animals which have
their seasons of copulation. ' In the buck,' says that great
physiologist, ' we find the testicles are reduced to a very
small size in winter ; and in the land-mouse, mole, &c.
this diminution is still more remarkable. Animals, on the
contrary, who are not in a state of nature, have no such
change take place in their testicles ; and not being much
affected by seasons, are consequently always in good con-
dition, or in a state to which other animals that are left to
themselves can only attain in the warmer season. There-
fore in man, who is in the state we have last described,
the testicles are nearly of the same size in winter as in
summer ; and nearly, though not exactly, the same thing
may be observed in the horse, ram, &c., these animals
having their seasons in a Certain degree. The variation
above taken notice of is not confined to the testicles, but
also extends to the parts which are connected with them :
for in those animals that have their seasons for propagation
the most distinctly marked, as the land-mouse, mole, &c.,
the vesiculce are hardly discernible in the winter; but in
the spring they arc very large, varying in size in a manner
similar 1o the testicle. It may however be alleged that
the change in tlu>c bairs might naturally be supposed to
take place, even admitting them to be seminal reservoirs ;
but what, happens in the prostate gland, which has never
been supposed to contain semen, will take off the force of
this objection; since in all animals which have such a
gland, and which have their season for propagation, it
undergoes a limited change. In the mole the prostate
ffland is hardly discernible, but in the spring becomes very
and is tilled with mucus.'
No. 2807 exhibits the posterior part of a mole (Talpa
Ei'i-'ijietii ', \vith the female generative and urinary organs
exposed. The uterus is turned to the right side, princi-
pally to display the course and attachments of the ovarian
and uterine ligaments. The ovarian ligament commences
anterior and external to the kidney, and carries forward
with it a fold of the peritoneum as it advances to the
ovarium. The uterine ligament, or liganientum rotun-
dum, is continued from the extremity of the cornu uteri,
and runs along the posterior edge of the preceding fold
to the part corresponding to the abdominal ring in the
male, where it expands upon the fascia. The left ovary
and oviduct, the cornua and corpus uteri, are also ex-
hibited. The ovary is tuberculate, and inclosed in an
almost, complete peritoneal capsule. The oviduct is
attached to this capsule, and pursues a wavy course to the
horn of the uterus. Xo. 2808 displays the female organs
of a moil! /« tii't//, the vential parietes of the abdomen and
chylopoietic viscera having been removed. The cornua
.drical tubes, describe three abrupt curves before
joining the corpus uteri, with uliieli they form almost a
risrht angle. The body of the uterus is continued without
any constriction or interruption into the vagina: the
whole canal is somewhat flattened, and is disposed in two
or lh folds before it leaves the abdo-
men. No. USOJ is al.-,u the posterior half of a mole, with
mali- or^ms similarly displayed, but minutely in-
i. Tin- cornua uteri are divaricated, to display the
it of the broad liiraments. No. 2810 is :i MM-IIOII of a
mole, in which the left ovary, oviduct, and uterine horn, and
the left side of the uterus and vairiua, liuvc been removed,
but exposing the remainder of the generative apparatus
hibitiiig its relative position to the urinary
bladder, tin.' rectum, and the pelvis. The contracted area
uterine cavity, the absence of anyos tmene dividing
it fiorn the vagina, and the distinct, muscular and internal
memhi.Tious tunics of the flattened tortuous utero-vaginal
. aic clear!} -displayed. A bristle is inserted into the
i] of the uti'rii>, ami another is passed through
I by the urethra. ' '1
cotiti: . the author of the catalogue,
' the agina, and rectum open by distinct 01
on the exterior of the body, and all three canals he
anterior to the pubic bones, and consequently outside the.
pelvis.'
No. 1234 of the same series exhibits the kidney of a
mole injected and longitudinally divided. Theuninjected
tubuli may be plainly seen extending through the cortical
substance, as is shown in the injections of the kidney of
the horse, Nos. 1209 to 1214, both inclusive. (Cat., vol.ii.)
Generic Character. — Body stout and thick, furry ;
head elongated, pointed ; muzzle cartilaginous, strength.'
ened by the snout-bone ; eyes very small ; no external
ears ; anterior feet short and wide, with five united toes
armed with trenchant nails proper for digging ; posterior
feet with five toes also, but weak ; tail short.
Dental Formula : — Incisors - ; canines — jr— ; molars
o 0
Teeth of Mole, considerably enlarged. (F. C'uv.)
Example, Talpa Europera, the common mole.
This well-known animal, so familiar to all that it would
be a needless waste of space to describe it, is La Taupe of
the French, Talpa of uie antient and modern Italians,
Topo of the Spanish, Toupeira of the Portuguese, Maul-
imrf of the Germans, Mol of the Dutch, Muload and Stirk
of the Swedes. M/;!dt:arp of the Danes ; Male, Mole-warp,
Moldwarp, and Want of the modern British; and Givadd
and Twrch daear of the antient British.
Habits, Fond, Reproduction, $-c. — 'A subterraneous
life,' says Pennant, speaking of the mole, ' being allotted
to it, the seeming defects of seveial of its paits vanish;
which, instead of appearing maimed or unfinished, ex-
hibit a most striking proof of the fitness of their con-
trivance. The breadth, strength, and shortness of the
fore-feet, which are inclined sideways, answer the use a«
well as the form of hands, to scoop out the earth, to form
its habitation, or to puisne its prey. Had they been
longer, the falling in of the earth would have prevented
the quick repetition of its strokes in working, or have im-
peded its course : the oblique position of the fore-feet has
also this advantage, that it. flings all the loose soil behind
the animal.
' The form of the body is not less admirably contrived for
its way of life : the fore-part is thick and very muscular,
yuin:/ irre.al strength to the action of the fore-pait, en-
abling it to dig its way with great force and rapidity, either
to pursue its prey or elude the search of the most active
enemy. The form of its hind parts, which are small and
taper, enables it to pass with great, facility through the
earth that the fore-feet had flung behind j for had each
part of the body been of equal thickness, its flight would
have been impeded and its security precarious.
' The skin is most excessively compact, and so tough as
not to be cut but by a very sharp knife ; the hair is very
short and close-set, and softer than the finest silk; the
usual colour is black, not but that there are instances of
these animals being spotted, and a cream-coloured breed
is sometimes found in my lands near Downing.
D2
T A L 2
' The Hnallness of the eye* (which gave occasion to the
antienU to deny it the sense of sight' i* to ti
peculiar happiness ; a small degree of x i»ion is sufficient for
an animal ever destined to live underground ; had these
organs been larger, thcx would have been pel petually liable
to injuries by tin- earth, fulling into them : but nature, to
prevent that inconvenience, bath not only made them
small, but also covered them v cry closely with fur.
, mention besides these a third x en wonderful
ity. and inform us that each eye
is furnished with a certain 'muscle, by which the animal
has the power of withdrawing or exerting them, according
to its e\iir>
• To make amends for the dimness of its sight, the mole
is amply recompensed by the great perfection of txvo
other sense*, those of hearing and of smelling: the first
gives it notice of the most distant approach of danger :
the other, which is equally exquisite, directs it in the
midst of darkness to its food : the nose also, bein:
long and slender, is xvell formed for thrusting into small
holes in search of the xvorms and insects that inhabit
them. These gifts may \\ith reason be said to compensate
the d -ight, as they supply in this animal all its
wants and all the purposes of that sense.
• It is supposed that the verdant circles so often seen in
grass-grounds, called by country-people J'niry ring*, are
owing to the operations' of these animals, who, at certain
seasons perform their burrowing* by circumgyrations.
which, loosening the soil, give the surface a greater fertility
and rankness of grass than the other parts xvithin or with-
out the ring.
• The mole breeds in the spring, and brings four or five
young at a time : it makes its next of moss, and that
alxx-ays under the largest hillock, n little below the surface
of t lie ground. It is observed to he most a, -live, and to
•ip most earth, immediate!) before rain, and in the
winter before a thaw, because at those times the xvorms
and insects begin to bein motion anil approach tl
- on the contrary, in very dry weather this animal
'in or never forms any hillocks, as it penetrates deep
after its prey, which at such seasons retires far into the
ground. Dining summer it runs in search of snails and
worms in the night time among the grass, which makes it
the prey of owls. The mole shows great art in skinning a
worm, which it always does before it eats it : stripping the
skin from end to end, and squeezing out the contc
the body.'
Thus "far Pennant : but the most diligent and instruc-
tive historian of the mole is Henri Lc Court, who, Hying
from the terrors that came in the train of the French
revolution, buried himself in the country, and. from tin
attendant on a court, became the biographer of this hum-
ble animal. The discoveries of this indefnliira:
have been laid before the public in the work of De \ an\
(1803), and a summary of them by Geotf'roy St. Hilaire, in
the Cuiii-x tfHittoirt \<iturr//r '/<•* MaaumflrM. The
latter visited Le Court for the purpose of testing his
'vutioii*. and appears to have been charmed by tin
facility and ingenuity with which I.e Court traced am
demonstrated the subterranncan labours of this obscure
worker in the dark.
One of the experiments which Le Court made affordec
ample proof of the rapidity with which the mole vvil
travel along its passages. He watched his opportunity
and xvhen the mole was out on its feed at one of the most
distant points from its sanctuary or fortress, to which poiiv
tin- mole's high road leads. I.e ( 'ourt placed along the coursi
of that road between the mole and the for! il little
camp-colours, so to speak, the stall of each being a straw
and the flag a bit of paper, at certain distances, the straws
penetrating down into the passage. Near the end of tin
subterraneous road he inserted a horn, the mouth-piece o
which stood out of the ground. When all was ready. I.i
Court blew a blast loud enough to fright all the mole!
xvithin hearing from their propriety, and the little gentle
man in xelvet. whose p the spot he bad wel
tuineil. was affected accordingly. Down went the
little flag* in succession with an astonishing ccle
the horrified mole, rushing along towards his sanctuary
cane in contact with the flag-straws; and such mettle hai
terror put into the animal's heels, that the spectators
• ' Aat tnlii aifll (ajcn cubili* blip*.' Virj . Omrg. I., 183.
T A L
iflirmed that its swiftnass was equal to the speed of a
torse at a good round trot.
This experiment xva* perfectly sa' tc the
.uditory and travelling powers of tin- mole ; but another
nade bx I .'-d that I :it of
is., .•! possessed by the animal is an
wants, and that, with all the in;
it warns it of danger. Le Court took a spare xvatcr-
>ipe or gutter open at both ends. Into this pipe he intro-
luced several in St. Hilaire
stood by to watch the result, at the farther end of the tube.
As long as the i] the introduced
mole made the best of bis way through the pipi
• 1; but if they moved, or even raised a finger, the
d then retreated. Siv.ral repetitions of
the experiment produced the -ame results.
Hut we must describe the mole's domain. The principal
point is the habitation, or, as it has been termed, the for-
tress, and is constructed under a considerable hillock
raised in some secure place, oil en at the root of a tree.
under a bank, or any shelter that offers protection. The
fortress is domed by a cement, so to B] .rth xvhich
has been beaten and compressed by the architect into a
compact and solid state. Within, a circular
formed at the base, and communicates with a smaller
upper gallery by means of five passages, which are nearly
at equal distances. Within the lower and under the
upper of these galleries is the chamber or dormitory, which
has access to the upper gallery by three similar pas-
Froin this habitation, xve should here observe, the high
road by which the proprietor reaches the opposite end of
the encampment extends, and the various galleries or ex-
cavations open into this road, xvhich the moje is continu-
ally earning out and extending in hs search for food, and
which has been termed its hunting-ground. But to
return to the chamber. From il another road ext
the direction of which is downward at first, and that for
several inches, xvhen it again rises to open into the high
road of the territory. Some eight or nine otln
open out from the external circular gallery, but 1h.
tires of these never come opposite to the -hidi
connect the external gallery with the internal and upper
gallery. The extent of these y. greater or
:mg to circumstances, and they each return by an
irregular and semicircular route, opening at v.
lances from the habitation into the high road, which i!
considerably from all the other : lions,
both in construction and with rcirard to the use to which
it is applied. From the habitation th .1 out
nearly in a straight line and forms the main passage of
communication between the habitation, the different por-
tions of the encampment, and the alleys leading to tin-
hunting-ground which open into il on" cadi side. In
diameter it exceed* the body of a mole, but its si/e will
not admit of two moles passing each other. The
from the reiterated pressure of the mole's sides n.
them, become smooth and compact, and it'
remarkable for the comparative absence of mole-hills,
which are frequent in connection with the allcxs and
quarries, as they have been termed, in constructing which
the earth is removed out of the way to tin- ^.mie-
tiines a mole will lay out a second or even a third road in
order to the extension of its operation- tunes
several individuals use one load in common, though they
nexer trespass on each other's hunting-grounds. In the
event of common usage, if two moles should happen to
meet, one must retreat into the nearest alley, unless both
should be pugnacious, in which case, the weakest is often
slain. In Conning this tunnel, the mole's instinct sii|
the place of science, for hi' drives it ai a greater <>
depth, according to the quality of the soil, or concurrent
cireitni*1ancc*. When there is nothing -
threatening a disturbance of its security, it i-
cavated at a depth of some four or five inche* : but if it is
carried under a road or a stream, a foot ai:d a half of
earth, sometimes more, is left above it. Thus does the
little animal cany on the subterraneous works necessary
for his support, travelling, and comfort ; and his tunings
never fall in.
The alleys opening out from the sides of the bigb
have general!) a somewhat downward inclination from
their commencement toward* their end. It has been ob-
served that when, on opening one of these alleys, a plen-
T A L
21
T A L
tiful supply of food is found, the mole proceeds to work
out branch alleys from its termination, up-heaving new
mole-hills as it advances in quest of prey : should how-
ever the soil be barren of the means of existence, the ani-
mal commences another alley at a different part of the
high road. The quality and humidity of the soil, which
regulate the abundance of earth-worms, determine the
greater or less depth of the alleys.
Habitation or fortress of Molt1.
The main road being the highway of communication
to its different hunting-grounds, it is necessarily passed
through regularly in the course of the day, and it is in this
road that the mole-catcher sets his traps or practices his
devices to intercept the animal between its habitation ami
the alley where it is carrying on its labours. Some mole-
catchers will toll you that the hours when the moles move
are nine and four, and others that, near the coast, their
movements are influenced by the tides ; to which state-
ments the hearer is at liberty to give as much credence as
he chooses. Resides the varioustraps which are set for them,
there is. or very lately was. n man who travelled the coun-
try with a dog and destroyed them without any trap at all,
bv the following process: Taking his station at the pro-
;me and place, attended bv his dog, and armed with
a spear or spud, he waits till the do;; indicates the pre-
sence of the mole, and then spears or spuds the animal
out as it moves in its run. Pointers will stop at moles as
steadily as at game, when the latter are straying on the
surface.
lirMdes the excavations already noticed, the moles pur-
sue another mode of hunting in light loose soils, newly
sown, when gentle rains have led the earth-worms towards
the surface, along which they follow the worms up, rapidly
digging a shallow trench in the superficial layer of the
soil. The female, when with young, is said to be princi-
pally addicted to this easier method of subsistence.
All the animal passions are strong in the mole, and it is
a most voracious animal. It has been supposed that it
was a vegetable as well as an animal feeder, and, as a
proof of the former, the fragments of roots, &c., found in
its stomach have been appealed to ; but there can be no
doubt that these vegetable matters had been conveyed
into the stomach with the earth-worms (their favourite
food and the larvsc of insects. The structure of its teeth
indicates that its food should be animal, and indeed mice,
lizards, frogs, and even birds have been known to fall
victims to its voracity; but it eschews toads even when
pnv^ed by hunger, deterred probably by the acrid secre-
tion of their skin. [FROGS, vol. x., p. 493.] All doubts
as to the carnivorous nature of the mole have however
hern removed by the experiments of M. Klourens, who
found that moles restricted to carrots, turnips, various
kinds of herbs, and vegetable substances which were
abundantly supplied to them, died of hunger. The mole
'ipears to require much nourishment, and a short
«ves fatal to it.
\Ve must not omit to notice the provision of this ani-
mal 5 :i supply of water, for its voracity makes it
a great di inker. If a pond or ditrh be at hand in those
I u'nere many mule-, use the same common highway,
a run is always formed to the reservoir: when it is too
distant, the animal sinks little wells in the shape of deep
perpendicular shafts, which hold water. These wells have
sometimes been seen brim-full.
During the season of love, at which time bloody battles
are fought between the males, the male pursues the female
with ardour through numerous divaricating superficial
runs wrought out with great rapidity, termed ' coupling
runs' and 'rutting angles' by our mole-catchers, and
• traces d'amour ' by the French. The sexual attachment
appears to be very strong in the moles. Le Court often
found a female taken in his trap, and a male lying dead
close to her. The period of gestation is two months at
least, and the young are generally produced in April, but
have been found from that month to August. From four
to five is the general number, though from three to six
have been recorded, and in one case seven* in one nest.
The nest is distinct, usually distant from the habitation,
and not always crowned with a hillock ; but when a hil-
lock exists, it is much larger than an ordinary mole-hill.
It is constructed by enlarging and excavating the point
where three or four passages intersect each other ; and
the bed of the nest is formed of a mass of young grass,
root-fibres, and herbage. In one case, Geoffrey St. Hi-
laire and Le Court counted two hundred and four young
wheat-blades.
In the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in
London, No. 3573 of the Physiological Series is the pos-
terior half of a pregnant mole, with the uterus and three
foetuses, each about half an inch in length, exposed in
situ: the ovarium is contained in a thin and transparent
peritoneal capsule, around which the oviduct may be ob-
served passing in the form of an opaque, whitei narrow
band : the uterine dilatation next the left ovarium remains
open, and the foetus is exposed inclosed in its membranes ;
the other uterine dilatations are left entire ; they resemble
blind pouches developed from one side of the uterine
tube. No. 3574 is the posterior extremity of the trunk of
a pregnant mole, with the uterus and five feetuses dis-
played in situ ; one of the dilated chambers of the left
uterine horn is laid open, and the foetus is exposed with
it.s membranes. The placenta is a spongy, vascular sub-
stance, in the form of an oblong flat band, with its long
axis parallel to that of the fetus. One of the uterine
chambers, with the corresponding chorionic sac, is laid
open in the right horn of the uterus, and the fetus is dis-
placed. No. 3575 presents the female organs of a preg-
nant mole with four fetuses, each one inch and a quarter
in length ; one of these is exposed in situ in the uterine
sac, two others hang suspended by their membranes and
the placenta; from the parietes of the uterus: in the lower
of these embryos the foetal placenta is partly separated
from the maternal portion, showing the fine areolar struc-
ture of the latter, which receives the fetal plaeentary
filaments: the maternal placenta is minutely injected, but
no portion of injection has passed into those foetal fila-
ments which are here exposed ; the capacity of the cho-
rion is very little larger than the foetus which it contains.
In the embryo which has been displaced from the chorio-
nic sac, the short umbilical cord, and the characteristic
form of the short and strong fossorial anterior extremities,
may be discerned : the external apertures of the eyes and
ears are completely closed. The canal leading from the
uterine horns to the external opening of the vagina is laid
open, showing the absence of any os tinea? dividing the
uterus from the vagina: a bristle is passed into the ure-
thra, which is continued through the clitoris. The author
of the catalogue (Professor Owen) observes that the pecu-
liar position of the vagina of the mole, on the outside of
the pelvis, is well displayed in No. 2810, above noticed,
and that by this modification the contracted pelvis offers
no impediment to parturition. (Cat.)
Heavy charges have been brought' against the mole by
agriculturists and horticulturists, and the more grave ac-
cusation of being ancillary to the destruction of dykes has
been in some instances proved upon it. Mr. Bell, in his
interesting Ilixlnn/ uf Britixli Qtitidrupcd/!, sums up the
evidence against it and in its favour thus : — ' In order to
arrive at a time solution of the question, it is necessary to
divest our minds as well of the prepossessions of the natu-
ralist as of the prejudices of the agriculturist; for we shall
probably find, as in most other cases, that the truth lies
between the two extremes. According to its accusers,
• toudon'« ' Magazinn of Nat. Hist.,' vol. ?1IL
I r.
•-> labours, no peculiarity of its
s, no function of r
means or t: ; ra\aire and devastation to our
\ fltc.i lld.Tcd (!
killed by
n <if tin- rouls; tilt J
overthrown l>y the f the
from their root-
.•ml by t: i run*
- up either in search of I
' '
irried uft'l')
'C resort of t he i
other noxious animals. Thus the iield ami the meadow,
and the plantation, are iilike t .if n,
culates that < - which it
:ons to the spring corn alone mav be caJcnhr
other
idiced judccs allow DOthil merit
whi( ' -i ruction of innumerable v.
i the larva and perfect state: this ad-
uied by DC \'aux. \vlio declares that
on the most harmless of those ani-
.vorm, and that it refuses those, which are
injurious to mankind. Its more benevolent advocates, on
itlier hand, contend not only that the injury which
jt perpetrates is slight, but that it is more than counter-
balanced by thi' Inch it produces by turning up
and lighteninc the soil, and especially by its mimcn
struction ot 'earth-worms and many other noxious animals
which inhabit the superficial layer of the ground, and oe-
m creat injury to the roots of urass. corn, and many
other plants. If we examine the real nature and decree
a the one side, and its utility on the other,
!all probably find that both parties are erroneous.
The fact of its devastation* cannot be denied, it is only
in the decree and extent of them that the estimation is
incorrect ; and whilst its utility in clearintr the ground of
- uf injury miisl : -owed,
it c;i:i i that the lierhtcnhi!; of the soil
nine up of its hillock- i-. at most, more than a
very equivocal source of advantage.'
Tims w<- .see that 'much maybe said on both «i
AVe have heard advocates for the mole declare that in
;j-walks whence they have been rooted out, the
r of the feed lias been altered, and ti
- have been obliged to introduce them again,
and we have heard si -denied. , Too much
• er may be laid on its sen ices as a destroyer of the
; it may be well doubted whether it aids
.(mist by the destruction of an animal that does
I. [1, CMIWH i-s, sol. xiv., ]>. I'JO.]
\Yi .f the case, the persecution
of th - in cnltuateil countries amounts almost
iinination. The numbers annually slauch-
Mi Hell Mr. .laekson, a
flowed th.
i 1'ioin forty to tifty
I to J.e
. m ti\e months, six
.1 their bite is very sharp:
their hi.- M. and they
•n. n hold like a bull-doir.
'.rope
npa ra-
ni with it in most p;
•
Scotland, thou;;
.1 record of its
i in the ( >i km •. ' :and, or Ireland.
Tin 1 (iirured, m I
.1 work, / ni Itii/tcii. tin R]
. and the ' •' Inch may
are longer than the re-t : in the rom-
• are all equal, and De Ymix states that
it tomj i:. '•pflR^hjMl 918^ '" ''"' habit-
and architect me of the two specie*. Mr. Bell suggest*
I \ M
that as both species are inhabitant* of Kurope. the oriental
trivial name E>i<
name.
For Dr. Richards..!.
from America, see the arti.
The fossil remains of the mole have been found in the
averns; as. for example, in thr .-.tritz and
at Pauland see Huckland.
have also been found in the bone-eiuciiH in Hvlciuui
nerling).
Hon. , ri olit.Hined fiom the brown
.we undi . fur
the remains of luards.
The (jiiestions which arise upon this disco,, i\ :i:e: —
1st. Were they tru. that formation
quently introduced? and this their condition mii:!.-
termine.
2nd. Are the fossil remains identical with the bo.i
the common mole!'
An inspection of the remains themselves miirht n
a solution of both tin
that the fossils are. thro ss of Professor
wick, about to i
Hut throughout this inquiry it bear
in mind that though this quad' :' the
earth, performing all its fund;
the sui face, and 1!)
the freijii.
a f(.>sil .state, Inn' fossil bones of the mole ha\.
hitherto been described. The dancer to be BIT
; with regard to those specimens fmind it
nnd Mipcrii. is that a burrowing animal
into tho-
their formation and tl
\\ e therefore look forw aid to I1 inion
upon the ctinriilinii of these remains and tin
distinction with much int.
TALUS, or TAI.r I. from ' tadio,' Hal., a cut
- on fortili.
f a rampart, or parapet, t.' e which is
inclined to the horizon. Thus the upper surface
called the snpeiior talus or Mope : and t
of a rampant or paiapet which
towauls the town, is called the exterior, or the interior,
talus of the work liu. ~. B
The superior talus of a paiapet is usually formed in a
plane which, if produced towards the country, would
nearly meet the top of the count. it, in
ihat the defenders of the rain; le to
tire into the coveicd way in the event of the latter i
occupied by the ( iiemy. their musk laid upon
that slope. The exterior or the interior I.
of earth usually forms, with the horizon, an u
: i face
nf caith, of medium tenner >' unsiipp.
TA.MAN, a p.
by the mam branch of the ii\cr Kuban, which en
into the Hi: i.-h of the
river, which flow- ^heoldfor-
i TcinruU. Ti
•i the north aiff
BbMcSeaon tin . is bounded on the v
Strait of V
the Hay ol' Tar
of a lobstc
">7 mi - irrcwert
•Uddle of the island : ruk-
skoi Liman ;inik. and :
mainins: pwt beinir uot( :
a manner as to present iv -land
than a real island. The
..ntient peninsula c.f ']'• Mela,
i. Ill; Strnbo, |
traversed i ISO
leet Inch : they run I. vil-
lage of Sen nay a i'
runs ti' ! tii' lake formed by
the Kuban before it i.
ruk, and terminates in a .-lip of hind which divides thin
lake into two unequal parts. The other branch, the direc-
T A M
1i<m of which is north-east, forms the isthmus between the
lake of Ternruk on the east, and the bay of Taman on the
west, and terminates before it reaches the isthmus between
the lake of Temruk and the Sea of Azof. The north-
western part of Taman, or the peninsula between the Sea
of A^of and the bay of Taman, is no less elevated above
the sea, but although it is a continuation of the mainland,
it is separated from the eastern hills by a flat sandy isth-
mus, which seems to have been covered by the sea at a
period not very remote from our own times. All these
hills are mere masses of sand and pebbles cemented with
clay. The higher part of them is barren, but the slopes.
and the low grounds between them and the sea or the
lakes, are covered with soil and fit for agriculture. They
also make rich pasture-grounds. The isthmus between
the Temrukskoi Liman and the bay of Taman, and princi-
pally that between the lake of Temruk and the Kubanskoi
Liman, have a very pleasant aspect, being covered with
the neat farmhouses of the Cossacks ; and on the meadows
there are numerous flocks of cattle, some of which are
sent thither across the strait from the neighbouring coast
of the Crimea. The eastern part of Taman is formed by
two flat and narrow isthmuses, and a somewhat broader
tract of lowland between the two branches of the
Kuban. The whole of this country is marshy, partly
covered with pastures and partly with a luxuriant ve-
getation of rushes and reeds, which, in the neighbour-
hood of Kalaus, as Dr. Clarke states, attain a height
of from sixteen to twenty feet. Everywhere there is
a struggle between land and water; gulfs become creeks
and lakes, creeks are changed into marshes, and as soon
as these get a continental aspect, the waters again swal-
low them up. In the rainy season, says Pallas, all this
country is overflowed by the waters of the Kuban, and the
higher part of Taman is separated from the continent by
an immense lake which extends from one sea to the
other ; but notwithstanding the apparently overwhelming
power of the waters, the solid element makes constant
progress. Thus M. Durtau de la Malle is correct when,
in his ' Ge'o'jraphie Physique de la Mer Noire,' he s:iys
that all the lakes on the shore of the Sea of Azof, which arc
separated from the sea only by flat and narrow isthmuses,
have once been bays and guli's, and that the barriers be-
tween them and the open sea are a deposit formed by
the astonishing masses of mud and sand carried into this
sea by the Don and its tributary rivers. As to the whole
rn part of the island of Taman, it is also a mere re-
cent production of the immense quantities of clay and
mud which the Sea of Azof and the Kuban have depo-
sited before the mouth of this river. The western and
elevated part however in its whole geognostical structure
belongs to the opposite continent of the Crimea, from
which it has apparently been separated by the current of
the Cimmerian Bosporus. Two characteristic peculiari-
ties of this latter part are the Sewernaya Kossa, a long
but very flat and narrow slip of land which stretches from
the north-west extremity of the northern peninsula in a
south-west direction to the middle of the mouth of the
bay of Taman ; and the cluster of small islands, the prin-
cipal one of which was known to the Byzantines by
the name of Atcch, which extend from Point Yunaya
north-west till they reach the centre of the strait. These
islnmN will probably become a continuous land, and
by joining the opposite Sewernaya Kossa, will separate
the whole bay of Taman from the Bosporus. Numerous
small craters are situated on the ridge of the hills
•round the Bay of Taman, as well as along the lake of
Temnik. They present all the external appearances of
volcanoes; though the matter which they throw out is
not lava, but a thick mud of a deep black colour, which
they discharge at irregular periods. The largest of these
^ituated on the southern extremity of the north-
west peninsula, and :v description of the most remarkable
eruption of it is given by Pallas in the work cited below.
This traveller attributes these phenomena to the burning
'• layer of coals, upon which indeed the
whole island of Tnman seems to repose. The apparition
of an inland, which, on the 5th of September, 17'J3, sud-
denly rn*« from tin; Sea of Azof, near the coast of Temnik,
a pip vinr-h was preceded and accompanied by
;i kind of ciirth'iu:ik", and all the other symptoms of a
••'lie eruption, was undoubtedly the effect of the garni
subterraneous cause. The new island however soon dis-
appeared in the sea.
23
T A M
The Greeks knew this remarkable island under the name
of Eion (Hi'wv), and founded several colonies in it. The
most considerable of them were— Phanagoria, a famous
commercial town, which contained a beautiful temple of
Aphroditeof Apaturon (Strabo, p. 405. Casaub.) ; Kepos,
or Kepi, a colony of the Milesians ; Hermonassa, founded by
the lonians; and Achilleion : some ruins and marbles are
the only traces that remain of their antient splendour. The
island belonged for a long period to the kingdom of Bos-
porus, and was afterwards conquered by Pharnaces, the
son of Mithridates. At the beginning of the middle
ages it belonged to the dominions of the Goths, and
afterwards of the Khazars, a Turkish people, renowned
for their industry and commerce. It was then known
under the name of Tamatarkha. In the tenth century a
Russian prince founded there the petty kingdom of Tmu-
tarakan ; the greater part of the inhabitants however were
Tsherkessians and Turks, and, from the time of the in-
vasion of the Mongols, the Tartars remained the only mas-
ters of it. Numerous old tombs still attest their long
residence on the island. They were at last driven out by
the Russians, who repeopled the country with Cossacks in
order to defend it against the invasions of the Tsherkessians
beyond the Kuban. There are now only two towns : Tmu-
tarakan, the Tamatarkha of the middle ages and the Pha-
nagoria of the Greeks ; and the present town of Phanagoria,
which was built by the Russians on the shore of the bay
of Taman, three miles east from Tmutarakin, on account
of its harbour being deeper than that of the latter town.
(Pallas, Bemerkit/iypn aitf einer Reise in den Siidlichcn
Prnrinzrn des Russischen Seiches; Dr. Clarke, Travels in
Russia. The best map of the island of Taman is contained
in the great Atlas of Russia published at St. Petersburg ;
the map in Pallas's Bemcrkungcn is also good ; that of
Dr. Clarke has some interest for lovers of antiquities, but
is far from being geographically exact.")
TAMA'NDUA. [ANT-EATER, vol. ii., p. G5.]
TAMARICA'CE^E, a small natural order, belonging
to the syncarpous group of polypetalous Exogens. The
species are either shrubs or herbs, having straight rod-
like branches, with alternate entire leaves, resembling
scales ; the flowers are in dense spikes or racemes.
The calyx is 4-5-parted, persistent ; the petals inserted
into the calyx, both with imbricate aestivation ; stamens
hypogynous, distinct or united, equal in number with the
petals or twice as many ; ovary superior, with a short style
and 3 stigmas ; fruit a capsule, 3-valved, 1-celled, with
numerous seeds, which are comose ; embryo'sbaight with
an inferior radicle.
Timarix gernwnica. a, cutting, showing tlio straight branches anil ncale-lil'.e
Iravei; b, single flower; r, flower wilh calyx ami corolla removal thawing
monndelphom stamens ; d. capsule with mmosr. secils escaping.
This order is placed by De Candolle wiih those which
have perigynous stamens, but there is no doubt now that
T A M
24
T A M
it ha* hypogynou* stamens, although closely related tu
tin- i ,>nler IllccebraceJD. It haa also affinities
\\ith 1'urtulaccte, LyUtrace*, Onagracee, and Rcaumuri-
•
The species are found onlv in tin- Old World: the
st number being met with in tin- basin of the Medi-
terranean. According to Khrcnbcrg, tin- order is bounded
<,n the south by the Hth or 'Jth parallel of N. lat., and on
the north by that of 00° and 30°, in Siberia, Germany, and
England.
Thr plant* of this order are innocuous, and all are more
or less astringent ; and their ashes after burning are
remarkable for possessing a large quantity of sulphate of
soda. Myricaria Germanica is recommended as a diuretic.
[TAMARIX.]
" TAMARINDS. M,<l,,;,l I'rn/x-rtiet qf. Of the two
.•I' the only species of this genus, the fruit is
much larger in the East Indian than the West Indian.
The shell being removed, there remains the tint -quart' hard
seeds, imbedded in a pulp, with membranous fibres running
through it. In the bast Indies the pulp is dried, cither in
the sun, and this is used for home consumption, or with
salt added, and dried in copper ovens, which kind i
• rope. (.L'rawfurd's Indian Archipelago.} Tli'-
called natural tamarinds, is much darker and drier than
the West Indian, which are called prepared tamarinds.
The West Indian tamarinds reach maturity in June,
July, and August, when they are collected, and the shell
being removed, they are put into jars, either with layers of
sugar put between them, or boiling syrup poured over
them, which penetrates to the bottom. Prepared tama-
rinds therefore contain much more saccharine matter than
the others. According to Vauquelin, prepared tamarinds
contain per cent, citric acid 9-40, tartaric acid 1-55, malic
acid ()••}."), bitartrate of potash 3".1">, sugar '2~>, gum 4-7,
•able jelly (pecten) G 2.~>, parenchyma 34'3u, water
•J7-.V). This prepared pulp has a pleasant acid astringent
taste, with a somewhat vinous odour.
It presents an example of one of those natural combina-
tions of gummy, saccharine, and acid principles which are
of such great utility in hot climates. It is vised not only in
India, but in Africa, as a cooling article of food, and the
travellers across the deserts carry it with them to quench
their thirst. In Nubia it is allowed to stand in the sun
till a kind of fermentation takes place: it is then formed
into cakes, one of which dissolved in water forms a refresh-
ing drink. In India a kind of sherbet is made with it,
and bv the addition of sugar it becomes a source whence
v inegar is readily obtained. In the fevers and bilious
complaints, and even dysenteries of these climates, it proves
highly serviceable ; in small quantity it acts as an astringent,
but iii larger it proves laxative. Boiling water poured over
tamarinds yields a drink which is very grateful in the in-
flammatory complaints of our own country, particularly in
the bilious fevers of autumn. An agreeable whey may be
made with it, bv boiling two ounces of tamarind-pulp with
two pints of milk. Tamarinds are frequently given along
with senna, but they are said to lessen its purgative pro-
perty. They form an ingredient in the confectio sennae
and confectio cassiae.
In times of scarcity in India the seeds are eaten, being
first toasted and then soaked for a few hours in water,
\vhen the dark skin ' ly oil': they are then boiled
or dried, and taste like common field-beans.
TAMARINIWS, the name of a genus of plants belong-
ing to the' Kcctembry on* division of the natural order Legu-
mmosac. It possesses the following characters : — calyx
cleft, tubular at the base, the three upper lobes are reflexed,
tin- two lower ones joined together, but usually indentate
at the apex; petals 3, alternate with the three upper lobes
of the calyx, the middle one cneullate and the lateffcl ones
ovate ; the stamen- are !) or 10 in number, two or three of
which are longer than the other*, united at the base, and
bearing anthers, whilst the remainder are sterile; the fruit
iia legume seated on a pedicel, 1-ccllcd, compressed, with
from 3 to 6 seeds, and the valves tilled with pulp In
the endoearp and epicarp, their inner nnd outer lining ;
the seeds are ovato-quadrate in form, possessing cotyledon*
unequal at the base.
There are only two species belonging to this trcmis, both
of which are trees with abruptly pinnate leaves, bearing
many pairs of small leaflets and laecnie- <>i !!•
The '/''"iriniiiltii fiiilini, thcKust Indian Tamarind, was
the earliest known species, for a knowledge of which, in
Europe, we arc indebted to the Aiabians. Dr. F Hami.-
toil, ill hlsc. mm-, icinarks
on the specific t!> .f I In-, plant, that li i- • a vile
pleonasm,' the fact of its beiin: Indian being refcired to
ill the generic name Tu our won!
Tamarind. The Indian Tamarind is distinguished I
elongated legumes, \\lueh are six tunes or mo
than they are broad. It is a native of various districts in
the East Indies and also of the tropical parts of A.
It forms a handsome tree with spreading branches bearing
leaves of a light colour and flowers with a straw -coloured
calyx and yellow pitals, sticakcd with red : the filaments
of 'tin' stamens are purple and the anthers brown. The
timber of this tree i-veiy firm. haul, and heavy, and i*
applied to many useful purposes in building.
The second specie- is the Tuiniirimliis tti-rirli'iitulis. the
Indian Tamarind, which is distinguished from the
other by possessing short legumes not more than three
times longer than they are broad. It is a native of South
America and the West India Island*, forming also a large
spreading tree, with yellowish flouc with red
and purplish stamens.
These plants may be grown in this country, by sowing
the seeds, which can be easily obtained, in a hot-bed, and
when the young plants obtain a height of two or three
inches, planting them out in separate pots. For th<
dical and dietetic properties of the tamarind see TAMA-
RINDS.
TAMARIX, the name of a genus of plants, the type of the
natural order Tamaricacea1. It has a -1- or 5-partcd calyx ;
4 or 5 petals : 4 or 5 stamens alternating with the ]
united at the base ; a tapering ovary with :i stigma-
tufted seeds, the tuft being composed of a number of hairs
proceeding from the apex of the .seed. 'J'i have
generally paniculated spikes of small flowers of a red
colour.
T. gal/ica, the French tamarisk, is a glabrous glancou.-
shrub, with minute acute leaves clasping the stem, with
slender lateral spikes of flowers, five times longer than
broad. This species is a native of France, and also along
the Mediterranean: it is also a native of the coasts of
Cornwall, Hampshire, and Sussex, in England. Ehren-
berg has described a great number of varieties of this
species, one of which, the T. g. iintnniffrii, known by its
glaucous powdery appearance, he savs, produces the
manna of Mount Sinai. This manna however does not
contain any crystalli/.able mannite, but, according to Mit-
scherlich, consists of nothing more than a mucilaginous
sugar. This is one of the species of tins genus remark-
able for the large quantity of sulphate of soda which its
ashes contain.
T. Inilini, the Indian Tamarisk, is a glabrous greenish
plant, with stilt' twiggy branches; >hort ovate acute
leaves with while edges: elongated spikes of flowers, with
bracts shorter than the flowers and longer than the pedi-
cels, and stamens longer than the corolla. This plant is a
t Indies. It is subject to the attack- of
a cvmps. which produce galls that possess astringent pro-
perties, and, according to Dr. Koylc. they are on this ac-
count used in medicine by the native doctors of India.
The -ame property al-o re'ndrrs them valuable in dyeing.
Other Indian species of the Tamarisk produce [rails, which
are used for the same purposes as those of '/'. liu/ic.t.
i/ririiini. the African Tamarisk, is a glabrous glau-
cous shrub, with lanceolate imbricated leaves, with i!
scaly, -im, with ovate chafl'v biaets.
and a ,'1-valvcd capsule. This is a native of UU I
along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is found in
Mauritiana. around the Hay of .Naples, in Egypt, and in
the Levant. It has very much the appearance of T.
utitsflov. ' gcr, and bark darker. Like '/'.
yield a large quantity of sulphate of
The bark, a.s in nio-t of the slice: htly bitter and
astringent, and ha- been used in medicinr a- a tonic.
'/'. i Ira-iil, ilix, the Ka-lcrn Tamarisk, is a tree attaining
a height of from ID to 31 feet : it I- L'lalinr,- all OT6T, wild
minute, distant, sheathimr. rnucroiiate leave-, with slender
id a 4-valvcd capsule. This is
a native of Arabia, Persia, and the East Indies, and u one
of the larL'e-1 and most elegant of the species i, I 'the Ta-
marisk. One of the finest specimens of this tree existing
ilabyloii. The '/'. ' ! be .-i vaiictyot
this plant".
Nearly all the species are elegant and delicate shrubs,
T A M
25
T A M
deserving; a prominent position in the shrubbery. The
hardy species do not require much care in their cultiva-
tion. They will grow in almost any soil or situation, and
may be propagated by cuttings planted out in the open
ground either in the spring; or autumn, where they will
ivadily strike root. Those requiring heat and protection
thrive best in a soil composed of loam and peat, and may
also be propagated by cuttings placed in sand under a
TAMATIA, Cuviers name for the Puff-Birds.
Mr. Swainson, in addition to his description in the
Zifilinfii-nl II I uxl rations, speaking of these birds in his
-ays, that they sit for hours together on a
dead or withered branch, from which they dart upon such
insects as come sufficiently near, and that the Hermit
birds '.Mij/iau'i, Vieill.) have similar habits. [BARBKTS,
'O1. m., p. 434: KINGFISHERS, vol. xiii., p. 227.1
TAMAULIPAS. [MKXICAN STATES.]
TAMBOW, a province of Great Russia, is situated be-
:i 51° 30' and 55° 20' N. lat, and between 39° 40' and
43° 40" E. long. The area is 24,200 square miles, and the
population 1,600,000. It is bounded on the north by
Xischnei-Xovgorod, and for a very small distance on the
north-west by Wladimir ; on the south by \Voronesh : on
t!ie west by Riasan, Tula, and Orel ( by the two last for a
very small distance); and on the < ast by Penza.
This government is a uniformly level country, without
mountains, large rivers, or considerable lakes : on the
north there are great forests and on the south extensive
steppes. The soil in the northern half is sandy, marshy.
and poor : in the southern part it mostly consists of loam
or black mould, and is fertile and productive. The
steppes produce excellent pasturage, and when they have
been brought under cultivation, make good arable land:
they are designated as steppes only because they are
destitute of wood. The river Oka enters the government
1'rom Riasan, but passes only through one circle, where it is
joined by the Mokscha, a considerable stream of which the
Xna is a tributary. The Oka runs northwards to join the
Volga. Another great Russian river, the Don, pusses
through a small part of the government. In the forests
on the north there are marshes which might easily be
d. The mineral-waters at Lepetzk are celebrated
and much frequented. The climate is temperate and
healthy, but. colder in winter than in Tula and Riasan,
which seems to be owing to the slope of the open plains
being towards the north.
The northern part of Tambow has a poor soil, but
the south is very fertile, and this province ought to be
a corn country if a better system of cultivation were
introduced. In the south the land does not require to
lie tallow, and needs no manure, but acquires from the
feeding of cattle sufficient strength to produce fresh crops,
which generally yield from five to ten fold. In the north
nd is indeed not manured, but after yielding five or six
must be tallow for some years ; and then it produces
from three to five fold. All kinds of corn usually grown in
Russia arc raised, wheat, rye, oats, millet, and buckwheat,
and other pulse ; poppies, great quantities of hemp,
bat barley, flax, and hemp are cultivated only in some
rircles. Horticulture is in a very backward state, for though
there are many gardens, only the most ordinary vege-
tables are cultivated ; some hops are grown in the gar-
dens, but, there is little fruit, and that of the most ordi-
nary kinds. Though the forests are so extensive, it is
only in the northern circles that there is sufficient wood
for fuel and building. The crown forests supply timber for
tin- navy : in their vicinity the inhabitants arc for the
part carpenters, coopers, and cartwrights. or em-
•d in making pitch, tar, lamp-black, ami charcoal.
The breeding of cattle is carried on I \init
in the in, and meadows ol' tin The
steppe from Tambow to Nova fthopertaSaja-Krepi
covered with immense herds of oxen and horses. Oxen
.sed for draught, and great numbers are fattened for
exportation. Sheep and swine are bred in great numbers.
but the wool of the sheep is i urn the
breed has been improved by the importation of merinos.
Domestic poultry suffices for the consumption of the in-
habitant*: tin re is little same, and fish is by no means
plentiful. Among the wild animals are the marmot and
the ham*: f bees are kept. The mine-
ral product* arc lime, freestone, iron, and some saltpetre.
P. C., No. 1491.
The manufactures of this government are unimportant :
the peasantry barely make their own clothing : in some
parts they manufacture wooden utensils, and agricultural
implements, which they take to the fairs. A great advance
has however been made within the last twenty-five years.
The brandy-distilleries are numerous. The export trade
in the products of the country is very considerable. The
principal articles are wheat (1,200,000 chetwerts, or 864,000
English quarters', cattle, hone}', tallow (400,000 poods, or
about 500 English cwt.), butter, cheese, wool, hemp,
iron, brandy, hides, coarse cloth, and wooden wares. Pro-
perly speaking there is no great commercial town. Tam-
bow, Selatma, and Morschansk alone have some com-
merce with foreign countries.
The great majority of the inhabitants are Russians.
There are some thousands of converted Tartars and Mord-
wins, and a few gypsies. These Tartars and Mordwins live
in the same manner as the Russians, but retain their own
dialect, and live apart from the Russians, and generally
intermarry with their own people. The religion of the
Mohammedan Tartars requires a different mode of life.
Among these various nations the Tartars are the most
civilised, have the most knowledge, and the purest morals,
and enjoy the most prosperity.
Education is at a low ebb. According to Schnitzler,
only 1 put of 323 of the population receives any school
instruction. The only printing-office belongs to the
government.
The Greek church is under, the bishop of Tambow and
Schazk, who has in his dioeese 739 parishes and 0 monas-
teries. The Mohammedan Tartars have their mosques,
imams, and teachers.
TAMBOW, the capital of the government, is situated
nearly in the centre of the province, on the river Zna, in
52° 44' N. lat. and 41° 45' E. long. It is a large town,
with 20,000 inhabitants, and was founded in 1030, as
a bulwark against the Nogay Tartars. Scarcely any traces
of the antient fortifications now remain. There is nothing
remarkable in the town, which has however been much
improved in its appearance since the beginning of this
century. Almost all the houses are built of wood : tne
principal buildings are the monastery of Our Lady of
Casan, in which there are two churches ; seven stone and
six wooden churches, the gymnasium, and the civil hospital.
There is a military school, founded and endowed by the
nobility in 1802, a seminary for priests, and a district,
school. The bishop resides in this city. The inhabitants
manufacture shawls, kersey, sailcloth, cordage, and woollen
cloth ; and there is an Imperial alum and vitriol manu
factory. The inhabitants carry on some trade, but their
chief occupation is agriculture.
The following are the other chief towns. Jelatma, the
most northerly town in the government, situated on the
left bank of the Oka, carries on by means of that river a
very great trade with Moscow : it has ten churches, eight
of which are of stone : the inhabitants, 6000 in number,
have some manufactures of woollen cloth, vitriol, and sul-
phur. Koslow, situated on the Lesnoi Woronesh, has
above 8000 inhabitants, who follow various trades and
professions: near the town is the convent Troitzkoi, where
a great annual fair is held. There are eight churches, of
which five are of stone : the principal trade of the town
is in oxen, salt, meat, and hides. Lipetsk, on the Woro-
nesh, near the north extremity of the government of that
name, a town with 0500 inhabitants, is celebrated for its
mineral-waters, which were first used in the reign of Peter
the Great. Morschansk, a town of 6000 inhabitants, situ-
ated on the Zna, has manufactures of linen, sail-cloth,
cordage, and tallow, and a brisk trade in corn, cattle, arid
'Hassel, d'eography ; Stein; Horschelman ; Schu-
bert : Schnitzler.)
TAMBURI'NI, PIETRO, born at Brescia, in 1737,
studied in his native town, took holy orders, and was
made professor of philosophy, and afterwards of theology,
in the episcopal seminary of Brescia. After filling those
chairs for twelve years, he was invited to Rome, where
Clement XIV. (Ganganelli) made him director of the
studies of the Irish College, in which situation lie remained
for six years. In 1778 he was recalled to Lombardy by
the empress Maria Theresa, and appointed professor of
theology in the university of Pavia, and at the same time
director of the studies of the German Hungarian college
in that city, and also censor of the press. In 1795 he was
VOL. XXIV.— E
T A M
T A M
made 1*rofi»»«or > ilh a pension. In 17H7. when
Die K i'-d\. 'I .unburini was obliged by
in.- i active dutie, at 1'avia, as
•. and of 'jus nalur.i
of confusion of ideas and of
•iouMMM. Tamburini boldly fulfilled bis
liy proclaiming wholesome
afterwards his chair
was s ' i- was appointed rector of the lyceum
icn Bonaparte assumed the
d North Italy. Tamburini was
sent iigiiin to 1'nvia as professor of morn! philosophy and of
•rentium,' in which chair he continued for
eight, ill some yeais after the Restoration, when
the emperor Francis made him again Professor Emeritus
nnd pr.r-.ul of the faculty of law and politics in the nni-
I'avia. Tamburini was also ft knight of tin-
order" of the Ironl'iown. He died at 1'nvia. in March,
1*27. at uineU after the death
of his brothe'r professor, Volla. His remains were
buried with the honours, being followed to the
grave by the whole of the professors and above six
hundred" students, with marks of sincere respect and deep
ct.
The work for which Tamburini in mostly known is
i della Santa s,-de.' published anonymously at
Pavia. in 17«4. An extract from the author's preface will
niie idea of the nature of this work: ' I
often 'happens that to the most common and hncknied
- a vague and indeterminate meaning i.s attri-
buted. A word was originally fixed upon to signify a
',<\ thing. The idea of it vvas perhaps clear and pre-
n, but as in the course of time the ideas of
men change, the word is still retained, though people
attach to it different meanings. Hence obscurity and
confusion and interminable disputes arise, and still the
•he disputed word is kept up. without convening
any distinct idea of what it means. Numberless exani-
migbt be (jiioted of Mich an occurrence. For in-
stance, in our own times everybod- , •>( the Holy
;'.ic See. tho chair of'St. Peter, the Roman
ch'ireb. which are so many expression:, ,-ignifung flu-
thing, and which in anlient. times , vpie^ed a simple
and clear idea, but which now convci to the minds ol
people the most vague and indeterminate notions. Things
the most disparate are identified: people confound one
subject with another, the see with the. incumbent, the
chair with the court of Rome, the court with the church ;
and from this medi confusion of ideas through
which every decree that proceeds from Rome heroines in-
. d with thi 'e authoiity of the chair ol
St. Peter, of the Apostolic See, of the church of Rome — a
confusion followed by tl enees
not' " the universal church,
dild to the / i. In order to support cer-
tain -anated from Rome, some short-
ed theologians have attributed to the Roman See new
:iknown to the earlier ages of the church,
an I I hey have had r I infallibility. . . .
Other men have contested these prerogatives, and in the
•warmth of thi ty the rial claims of ti'
See have been .1 forgotten. . . . One pilitv
has maintained that, on the pica of infallibility, every de-
mating from Rome ought, to be received with
as imagined that
by iiitallibilitv every au-
thority as i. . . . Hou
extr. it of just and enact notions
on the nature, the and the ] .f the
Ho it work is intended to establish these
notions. A little French book tell into my haiii.
\-iforilc
[ii'on lui attrihue." In the
first part the author 1ms well ' the idea of the
Koine : nnd
in the second part h
nee. ! have a<l
little work, cor
I hn
wants of our li
see. and lia\
lesof this
part*, and
iiintry.
to the
of the
Roman rifcretal-. ninl to mi.ke our own conduct prac-
with the- .
authority of the see of RCM
At the appcai. it nasstigma-
li/ed as ,};t\: although the author h»-
jierhap* MJ tar as some of the Fr.-neli
llishop Rieei and his s\ :
• I.) The reasoning is clo*ely
supported by numerous i. : » of
it were published at Rome and other '
other win k> of Tamburini are— 1. • Introdu,
della Filosotia Morale.' Milan, 17
sofia Morale e di N ale Diritt.
vm.lMtMi-l-J: 3. • Kleiiienl.i.ln
•iui sulla 1'erfi Itibilil.'i dell' Umana Fa
in which the author refutes the
of indefinite perfectibility and univcixil happim-
luima . 'Ilie philosophy of Tainburim is of the
F.electic kind.
(Defendentc Sacchi, J'urif/d Ltttfrim, Mil. i. : Mafl'ci.
Slorm iMI:! i-it ltdiianu, b. vi., ch. l.'l:
(// l-'ii-fn:,: No-.
TAMK. i! insmuK.]
TA.MKR. Hi .W\LI..]
TAMKKI.ANK. [TIMI-H.]
TA'MIV - . vol. xxii.. pp. :t!K :i!i:i. i-
TAMMKAMA. [Sunn
TAMl'ITO. MKXU vv STATKS.]
TAMl'I,. [II. . o. 2-28.]
T.YMI s. the imiiv of a genus of jilan:-
the natural order Die- This g(-
the fctamens growing on one plant, and the pistils o
other. The flower* are alike in having n perianth.
rtcd. the cahx and corolla being undistii
In the male flowers there are (i stamens. In the female
flowers the remains are seen of <> al tin-
ovary is trilocular ; the style tritid. with 3 . the
fruit a berry. This genu> I to be the I r.i 'l'<i-
inii/ia of Pliny: hence its jiresent name.
Tiitniii ciimnniiiix. the common Black Briony, has un-
divided cordate, acuminate leaves, and is . :>mon
plant in hedges and thickets throughout Kurope. 1'
frequent plant in England. It has n long twining stem,
spreading in all directions, and reaching from branch to
branch of hedges and thickets : its flowers are greenish-
white : the fruit is of a red colour, and hangs in bunches
from its trailing branches. The berries are likely to be
plucked and eaten by children : tli
poisunoiis. although the whole plant contains a bitter
principle, which renders it umvlio I'his acrid
principle is dcstroved by heat: and as the roots of this
plant contain a -irat deal of sliirch or ferula, a v
some and 1111111: Mined from them l>\
.washing and boiling. On the surface of tin
found blackish tubercle-., wlm
tity of acrid principle than the rest of the plant, and
should be removed previous to preparing tla
eating. The young shoots of this plant taste, when
boiled, like asparagus, and are eaten by the Moors with
oil and salt.
TAMWORTH.a municipal and parliamentary borough
on the border of Staffordshire and \Varwieks1iiie: the
municipal borough, which includes 11 part of the
towii. and the parish, which is far m
an area of lH.'.l-i' divided between the two .
ties: the p. tlv in the imi-thern and partly in the
southern division of Otflow hundred in the
d. and partly in Hemlingford hundred in \Vai
shire. The church is in Statl'onlshne. on which account
IWD is commonly de-i-ribcd as being in that eoiintv.
Tain worth is 1(12 miles in a direct line nnrtli-wcsi. of the
'-t-ofliec. London, or 12!) miles by the London
and Itirmingham Railway to Hampton in Ardcn. and
from thence by the Birmingham and Derby .lot
Railwav.
The 'town first comes into notice in the time of the
Heptarchy: seveial of the Mercian kings appear, from the
date ol eliaiters grajitrd by them, to have had thei.
dence at Tamworth. In the Dam-h built
here in the reign of Kdwiud t! s.o. !!!:( by bis
sister F.ihe. ' who died at Tamworth,
passed under the direct dominion of
Kdwa I the submlmion of the T:inuuirth
men. A.I). Uft!. Shaw < Hl*t. of Slaffordxli ;,c» to
T A M
27
T A
Ethelfleda the mound on which the present ruins of the
castle stand, but the ruins themselves are of later date.
An old ditch, yet visible, called 'the king's dyke,' which
surrounds the town on three sides, is supposed by Shaw to
be of yet greater antiquity than the time of Edward. In
the Saxon • Chronicle' the town is called Tamaweorthige,
Tameweorthige, Tamanweorthe, or Tamweorthe : in other
antient writings the orthography is still further varied.
The place is not described in ' Domesday ;' but the 'bur-
gense-,' burgesses.) of Tamworth, are mentioned in that
record, in the notice of other places.
After the Conquest, the castle and adjacent territory
were granted to Robert Marmion, hereditary champion to
the dukes of Normandy ; and afterwards, on the extinction
of the male line of his family in the time of Edward I.,
passed to the family of Frevile. The castle now belongs
to Marquis Townshend. Sir Walter Scott has enumerated
'Tamworth tower and town' among the possessions of his
fictitious Marmion : but the family had become extinct
long before, as observed by Sir Walter in the Appendix to
his poem.
The town stands on the north bank of the rivers Tame
and Anker, just at their junction, and consists of several
streets not very regularly laid out. The streets are paved,
but had not been lighted when the Municipal Boundary
Commissioners' Report was drawn up (Parl. Papfrx j'<n-
1837) ; the inhabitants were however about to assess
themselves for the purpose. 'The church is a large and
handsome edifice, with a fine tower, and a crypt under
part of the church. Some portions are of decorated date,
and some perpendicular, and both good: some of the
windows have hud very fine tracery. In the tower is a
curious double staircase, one from the inside and one from
without, each communicating with a different set of floors
in the tower.' iRickman's Gothic Architecture.) The
remains of the castle are on a mound close to the Tame :
they are of various periods, and some modern buildings
have been added to adapt the whole to the purposes of a
modern residence: the eastle commands a fine prosperl .
There art- some Dissenting place* of worship : an alms-
house, founded by Guy. the founder of Guy's Hospital in
Southwark ; a town-hall, with a small and inconvenient
gaol beneath ; and two bridges, one over the Tame, the
other over the Anker.
The population of the municipal borough in 1831 was
3537, that of the whole parish (containing several hamlets
and townships j 7182. Some manufactures are carried on ;
but the whole number of men employed in them in the
parish was, in 1831, only 38. Some coals and brick-earth
are dug in the neighbourhood, and bricks and tiles are
made. The market is on Saturday : there are three char-
tered fairs for cattle and merchandise, and several new
fairs for cattle only: some of them held at Fazeley in the
parish. The Coventry Canal passes near the town.
Tamworth was a borough by prescription : but the
town having declined and ceased to be regarded as a cor-
poration, \MIS incorporated anew by letters patent of
Queen Elizabeth : the governing charter is one of Charles
II. By the Municipal Reform Act the borough has four
aldermen and twelve councillors, but is not to have a
commission of the peace except on petition and grant.
The criminal jurisdiction of the corporation had fallen
into disuse before the passing of that act, as well as the
court of record : quarter-sessions were held, but for civil
purposes only.
Tamworth first sent members to parliament in the reign
of Elizabeth: it still returns two members. The number
<>i' voters on the register in 1835-6 was 531 : in 1830-40,
501.
The living of Tamworth is a perpetual curacy, of the
clear yearly value of 170/., with a glebe-house. There are
in the piiii-.li the perpetual curacies of Kazeley. Wiggin-
ton, and Wilnecote, of the clear yearly value of 235/.
(with a glebe-house . !»2/. andlKl/. respectively : the curate
ni Tamworlh presents to Wigginton and Wilnecote. There
are al*o in the parish two c.hapelries, Amington and
Hopwas.
There were in the borough, in 1833, three endowed and
three unendowed <la\ -schools, with IK') children, namely
I 1-' ul 21) children of sex not stated ; anil
'lay-schools, with 2(13 children, viz. 97 boys and
i of the pnii-.li were one infant-school,
i>a:1iy .upported by subscription, with 88 children, namely
41 boys and 47 girls ; ten day-schools of all kinds, with 96
boys, 80 girls, and 80 children of sex not stated, making
256 children in all ; and three Sunday-schools, with 288
children, namely 150 boys and 138 girls. (Shaw's Staf-
fordshire ; Parliamentary Papers.)
TANA-ELF. [TRONDHEIM.]
TANACETUM, a genus of plants belonging to the
natural order Compositae, and the suborder Corymbiferse
or Asteracea-. The involucre is imbricated and hemi-
spherical. The receptacle is naked ; the flowers of the
ray are 3-toothed, those of the disk 5-toothed, tubular, and
hermaphrodite. The fruit, nn aehenium, is crowned with
a membranous margin, or pappus. The flowers are
yellow.
The most common species is the Tiinitn-fiu/i rulgarp,
common Tansy. It has bipinnatifid leaves, with serrated
sections or lacinice. This plant is abundant in Great
Britain and throughout Europe, on the borders of fields
and road-sides. It possesses in a high degree the bitter-
ness of the whole order Composite, which, in the section
Corymbifene, is combined with a resinous principle. It
is recommended and has been extensively used in medi-
cine as an emmenagogne and anthelmintic. Although
the flavour and smell of this plant are both at first dis-
agreeable, a taste for it may be acquired, and it has been
used in cookery for the purpose of flavouring puddings and
sauces. The young shoots yield a green colouring-matter,
and are used by the Finlanders for the purpose of dyeing
their cloths of" that colour. It, is said that if meat be
rubbed with the fresh leaves, it will not be attacked by
the flesh-fly.
TA'NAGERS. The genus Ttuwgrn of Linusi-us stands,
in the 12th edition of the f!y,<str»in Nitiira- , between Embe-
>nd Frivgilla, in the order Paxsrres.
Cnvier characterises the genus as having a conical bill,
triangular at its base, slightly arched at its arrtp. and
notched towards the end : wings and flight short. He ob-
serves that they resemble our sparrows in their habits, and
seek for seeds as well as berries and insects. The greater
part, he remarks, force themselves upon the attention of the
spectator of an ornithological collection by their vnid
colours. He places the genus between the Drongos (l-'.-'i:-
litu, Cuv.) and the Thrushes (Turdus, Linn.), thus subdi-
viding it : —
1. The Euphonous or Bullfinch Tanagers (Euphones,
:in Tdiuf'tras Boucrrt.'i/x'.
These have a short bill, presenting, when it is seen ver-
tically, an enlargement on each side of its base : tail short
in proportion.
Examples, Tanagrrr riolacm, rayi'ttnrnsis, &c.
2. The Grosbeak Tanagers.
Bill conic, stout, convex, as wide as it is high ; the back
of the upper mandible rounded.
Examples, Tbnagrrf mugntt, nfru, fee.
:i. Tanagers. properly so called.
Bill conic, shorter than the bead, as wide as it is high,
the upper mandible arched and rather pointed.
Examples, Tanagrrr Titian, trin.lor, &c.
4. Oriole Tanagers (Tangaras Lnriots}.
Bill conic, arched, pointed, notched at the end.
Examples, Tanasrrr <fii>iirix, piteafa, &c.
5. Cardinal Tanagers.
Bill conic, a little convex, with an obtuse projecting
tooth on the side.
Examples, Tanagrer cristat.a, brtintim, &c.
6. Ramphocelc Tanagers.
Bill conic, with the branches of the lower mandible con-
vex, backwards.
Examples, Thnagrrr Jacapa, Brasilia, &c.
The views of Mr. Vigors on the subject of this group
will be found in the article FRINGILLID.E.
Mr. Swainson remarks that the Tanagriiuc, or Tanagers,
form that group which is probably the most numerous, a*
it certainly is the most diversified of all those in the com-
prehensive family of the Friiiffiflicfa: As the detftirostml
division of that family, it is, he observes, typically distin-
guished from all the others by the bill having a distinct
and well-defined notch at the end of the upper mandible,
the ridge or culmen of which is much more curved than
onys; or, in other words, the culmen is more curved
downwards than the gonys is upwards: this inequality, he
further states, as in the genus Plni-ms, very much takes otf
from that regular conic form of bill so highly characteristic
E 2
TAN
TAN
of the greater number of t he finches: so th
ti.ni of these two charaetcrs is, he l!i.
imhina-
th, !•• -•
.. . he
la in" tlu-ir c
the whole, as far as has luthcrt n nn-
.fthe warmer ]>:irts ol" America, being most abundant
111 those region* nearest to the equhux-tial line. 'Tiny
an-.'- - \ainson in roiitinuution, • in central Miiail
-i being intermediate between a sparrow
and ;i thrush, while tin- majority ilo not exceed tlir
.1 lin. .-w are even smaller. It is quite evident,
from the great strength of bill possessed by some, ami the
nuteh whirh is coiupicuoiu in nil. that these liirils feed
ii|Kni weds and creeping insects picked from tile branches
of li. .cry tew 'of them an ever -cell upon the
ground. Tlieir colours in general are bright ; and. in a
number, particularly rieli and beautiful. The little
bird-, forming the genus Afilnin, in Tact, are ornameiilnl
with the mo.-t \ivid hues or glossed with rieb refleetions of
told, rendering them interior only to the Humming HinU.
Some posse-> considerable \neal powcis: and the notes of
the subgenus l-jifihiiiiia, as it* name implies, are said to be
particularly nni.-ieal. The impossibility however ot' pro-
viding the Tanagen with their native sweet food !>.
\entedtliemfrom ever being brought alive to the Hiiropean
menageries, to which their beauty would render them the
greatest ornaments.'
Mr. Swainsou then dwells on the obscurity which at-
tends the examination of this group, which he states to be
one of the most difficult to be understood in the whole
circle of ornithology. He points out, for instance, that the
comparative strength "f the bill is so vaj-iiible in th.
subgenus, that such variation, indicative of genera in other
families, is in this no more than a discrimination of sections
or species. Nothing, according to him. can illustrate this
fact more than the affinity between 1'itylim and Tarilirnlii.
Looking to the types of each, he observes, we should sa>
that they did no) belong even to the same subfamily; for
the bill of the first is nearly as large as in the hawfinches
(Coccothrauistrs, HAWFINCH), while that of Turilirt.
comparatively slender that it seems more akin to the
LARKS than to the Tanagers; and yet, he remarks in con-
tinuation, between these two extremes or type.-, he had
when he wrote, before him such a perfect scries of gradu-
ated forms, wherein not only the bill, but all the other
subordinate characters of the two groups, progress in slid
a ]>erpetual and almost imperceptible manner, that he was
actually at uloss to know where Tin/iru/.i ends and I'iti/lui
begins. The foregoing affinity being admitted, and i'
should be remembered that some of the best ornithologies
writers have placed it as a genus in a totally different
family. Mr. Swainsou next proceeds to inquire into flu
ie of so remarkable a variation in the bill of such closely-
united species. He first states that nearly the whole of the
seed-eating birds of Tropical America are composed of the
Tanagers, which, in those regions, supply the place of the
other finches so abundant in all parts of Kurope. The in
numerable small and bard fruit > produced in the America!
forests are, he observes, the appointed food of the Tanagers
the parrots living principally upon the larger nuts, and flu
bill of the former birds is constructed accordingly,
noticing the disparity of the bills in the fine-lies, taking th<
common linnet and the hawfinch for example, he remark
how little reliance can be placed on such diversity in de
tenniuing genera: but this. In will not explaii
the great difference which often exists in the si/e am
plumage of species which all writers agree in arranging
within the limits of the same subgeiius: and he takes tin
restricted genus I'ltylu*. ' m example. Some 0
the species of that genus are green, some black, other
; and in size they vary from the dimensions of a spar
row to those of a small thrush.
The doubt-> which, in Mr. Swain-on's opinion, bang ovc
the i of the views which he entertained with re
spcct to the natural affinilii- of tin-, birds, may. 1 •
be said to binge almost entirely upon his not having beei
able to examine specimens of Frniffilln Xi'im, win.
certain peculiarities which lead him tocxpcct that it forms
the (ype of one of the principal divisions among the Tjma-
gern, or that it connects bis genus Aglum with I'ljnlln
On '.' i>o-ition. /•'. Xfiiu would, accoidmg to Mr
•titntc the passage from the true sparrows
(.Pyrgita) to the subgenus Tanagia proper; while by the
second, I'ijiilln would
and 'I'tiii'iL'i':!, and thus constitute the rasoriaJ g>
whole subfamily : and this latter arrangement
lim to lie the natural one. II : the two
\pical group- <• .1 1'tnrm*
vhile those which he thinks abe;
ind J'i/,i//n. It was only between the 1\\,
C had not as \i I aii\ affinit) sufficiently
.tiong to justify the belie!' that the-. -in a
•iiele more or less complete : the difficulty being how to
•onnect A^Iiiui with 1'ijiilln. He then takes aicM.
he genera, for which we must refer our readers to the work
lf: and. in the NV//O/.V/V at the end of the volume.
nakes the TtiHiiariiin: which he ]>!aces between the''
thrtHutiiiir and the t'rimfilliH,f. consist of the following
genera and subgenera, all of which he c-hanu-teri/t s : —
Tun
Sii/i/'iinii/i/ Chni-iifti'i-. — Hill e(|Ually conic; the u
mandiliie more or le-s arched, und ver\ ili-tmetly not.
Ke.-t formed for ])crching. ' \d and fnily cir
Genera.
Tiirilirtiln, Titiinyrii with the subgenera 1'itylit*.
. ami Kninjilnijii^'i. PhtPin^unn iwith the suligciieta
Pfugnitoma, Tncftyphonut, and l.i •
,-lgluin (with the subgenera /.///
And j'/iii//n with the siibgenus./r/v/'
of Hi,
The I'rince of Canino (finds of Europe anil North.
aces the 'I'liiKisrinii- between the /•'
and the Em 1'yrnHL'H is the onh
.iging to the Tii>iiii.r''ifif.
Mr. (i. K. Clray makes the T,i,«i<rriiirt- the third
family of the FrinfiUidtr, arranging it between tin
cothrauitti»a>m<\ I'riiiaillintf. The following _
enumerated by Mr. (riay a- belonging to the third
family: —
Em, . Tcmm. : Pipiln, Vieill. : l'.nil'i-ni<iyrit,
I.es-. : Arri'iii<iii.\'\i'\\\.: ' -ill.: 1'iti/lit*. <
'/'<I/KI am. Linn. : Siiltatnr. Vieill. : >
Selhy ; Rampfiopsit, Vieill. : /.
Vieiil. : I.'inin. Vieill. : TiH-hi/ii/iHinm, \ ieill. :
Vieill. ; Tninif:ri'//'i. Sw. : J'JI/I/K,H,:«. IVsm. ; t
G. 11. Gray : Step/utnophorus, Stnc\d. : ('n
Mr. Gray, with his usual industn, gives the niinn
synonyms of each genus. (List a'/ " "inl*,
2nd edition, is,
\Ve select Nuttall's description oft!
nr Jl/ar/i-i/'i/ufi-:! Sit/ii/iii-r lli'd-Jiinl, TH mi am riilirn. '
^subgenus Pi/run
The male is scarlet-red, with the wings and notched tail
black : the base of the plumage is ash, then white,
female, young, and male in autumn, arc dull green, in-
clining to yellow in the latter: yellow beneath ; win:
tail il igth about -i\ niche- and a hal.
ten' ten inches and a half.
'This splendid and transient resident.' Mall,
npnnying fine weather in all In-
from his winter station in tiopieal A mci n a li • .111 ' :
ginning to the middle of M
N'uv a Scotia ;i> well asCanada. \Vith the -hy,
unsocial, and sn ilut- of lus gaudv fialernitv. he
takes ii]) his abode in the deepest rece— <- of the ;
where, timidly flitting from observation, he diirl-
to tree like a flashing me- ndy sylph,
of his brilliance, and the expo-tire to which it sul
him, he seems to avoid remark, and is only solie
known to his humble mate, and bid from all beside. He
therefore rarely ;•• • the habitations of .men. i
|i< the skirts of the orchard, where 'line,
-t. and tul, .•!' the earl .
inviting, though forbidden chei.
• Among the thick foliage of the tree in which be
suppoil and shelter, from the lolly brand •
his alnio-t monotonous l*hi].-ir'iti'r. />//..
tthtkadtf, l.\hijhtiil/'t'. icpeated lit .-holt ii.ier\aN. aii.;
pensive under-tone, heightened by the -olitnde in which
he iK light- to dwell. The ..nine note 1- a!-o uttered liy
the female when the heisclf and youni' i
proiiched; and the male occasionally utters, in iccognitioii
to hi- mate, a.- they perambulate the brand,
whispering '/ml, in a tl '(ion and tenderncsvi. lint
be-id'i 11 on the female, he has also, dining the
period of his incubation, and tor a considerable time after.
TAN
29
TAN
a more musical strain, resembling somewhat, in the mellow-
ness of its tones, the sons; of the fifing Baltimore. The
syllables to which I have hearkened appear like 'tshooi-e
'irnit 'trail, 'rehiiirit trait, and 'irait, 'reftotcit vea wait,
with other additions of harmony, for which no words are
adequate. This pleasing and highly musical meandering
ditty is delivered for hours, in a contemplative mood, in
the same tree with his busy consort. If surprised, they
flit together, but soon return to their favourite station in
the spreading boughs of the shady oak or hickory. This
SOUK has some resemblance to that of tin- Red-eyed Vireo
in its compass and strain, though much superior, the 'u-att
' being whistled very sweetly in several tones, and with
emphasis ; so that, upon the whole, our Pyranga may be
considered as duly entitled to various excellencies, being
harmless to the farmer, brilliant in plumage, and harmo-
nious in voice.'
Nest, Food, fyc. — The same author describes the nest
("which is built about the middle of May, on the horizontal
branch of some shady forest-tree, commonly an oak, but
sometimes in an orchard tree) as but slightly put together,
and usually framed of broken rigid stalks of dry weeds or
slender fir-twigs, loosely interlaced together, and partly
tied with narrow strips of Indian hemp (Apocy num.), some
slender grass-leaves, and pea-vine runners (Amphicarpa),
or other frail materials ; the interior being sometimes lined
with the slender, wiry, brown stalks of the Canadian cistiis
( Hi'liiiiithi:niii,ii -, or with slender pine-leaves ; the whole
so thinly platted as to admit the light through the inter-
stices. The three or four eggs are dull blue, spotted with
two or three shades of brown or purple, most numerous
towards the larger end. As soon as their single brood,
which is fledged early in July, is reared, they leave for the
south, generally about the middle or end of August.
' The female, 'says this interesting author in continuation,
' shows great solicitude for the safety of her only brood ;
and, on an approach to the nest, appears to be in great dis-
tress and apprehension. When they are released from her
mure immediate protection, the male, at first cautious and
di.stant. now attends and feeds them with activity, being
ther indifferent to that concealment which his gaudy
oa to require from his natural enemies. So
attached to his now interesting brood is the Scarlet Tana-
ger, that he has been known, at all hazards, to follow for
half a mile one of his young, submitting to feed it atten-
tively through the bare of a cage, and. with a devotion
which de>pair could not damp, roost by it in the branches
of the same tree with its prison."
The food of this species consists mostly of winged
insects, such as wasps, hornets, and wild bees, the smaller
kirn! of beetles, and other Coleoplera. Seeds are supposed
to be sometimes resorted to, and they are very fond of
who'-tle and other benit s.
It is in August that the moult of the male, when ' he
exchanges his nuptial scarlet for the greenish-yellow livery
of the female,' commences. (Manual of the Ornithology
of the I 'niti-'I States and of Canada.)
TA.NAGKI'NjE. [TANAGERS.]
' TA'NAIS. [DoN.J
TANAUO. [Po.]
TANCRKD, of Hauteville in Normandy, was a feudal
baron who lived in the latter part of the tenth and begin-
ning of the eleventh century. After doing military service
for some years under Richard the Good, duke of Nor-
mandy, he retired to his hereditary mansion, where he
lived poor, and reared up a numerous family of twelve
and three daughters. All his sons were remarkable
for their comeliness, their great strength, and their courage.
The eldest, Serlon, followed William the Bastard in his
conquest of England, and the others went successively to
seek their fortune in Apulia, where Rainulf, another Nor-
mau adventurer, had already obtained the countship of
•nn Sergius, duke of Naples. William, one of
Tancred's sons, called ' Fier a bras,' or strong of arm, became
count of Apulia, and after his death, his brother Robert,
called Wiskard, or ' the wise,' became duke of Apulia and
>ria, and the founder of the Norman dynasty of Sicily.
Two, llntury <>f.~\ Their father Tancred died at
a \ cry great age at Hauteville. Traces of the chateau of
ied, according to old popular tradition, were still
• years since in a pretty valley near Hauteville,
lour miles Hurt h of the town of Marigny, in the arron
uient of Coutances department of La Manche. (Gaultier
d'Arc, Histoire des Conquftes des Normands en Italie, en
Sici/e, et en Grece.)
TANCRED, son of Eudes, a Norman baron, and of
Emma, sister of Robert Wiskard, duke of Apulia, ac-
cording to some (Gaultier d'Arc, Histoire des Cofiquctes
des Normands en Italie, en Sidle, <£c.), and nephew of
Bohemund, son of Wiskard, and prince of Tarentum ac-
cording to others (Giannone and the authorities he quotes),
was serving with Bohemund under Roger, duke of Apulia,
son and successor of Wiskard, at the siege of Amalfi, A.D.
1096, when the report of the great crusade which was pre-
paring for the East determined Bohemund, who was not
on good terms with Duke Roger, to join the Crusaders.
Tancred followed him with a vast number of men from
Apulia and Calabria. The exploits, true or fabulous, of
Tancred, in Syria and Palestine, have been immortalized
by Tasso in his poem of ' La Gerusalemme.'
TANCRED, king of Sicily. [SICILIES, Two, History of.)
TANGENT. In the article CONTACT we have given the
first notion on this subject, which we now resume in a
somewhat more general manner, annexing the usual de-
tails of formulae, but without proof.
It is usual to apply the word tangent to the tangent
straight line only, on which see DIRECTION : generalizing
the definition, it will be as follows:— Of all curves of a
given species, or contained under one equation, that one
(B) is the tangent to a given curve (A) at a given point,
which passes through that given point, and is nearest to
the curve (A) : meaning that no curve of the given species
can pass through the given point, so as to pass between
(B) and (A), immediately after leaving the point at which
the two latter intersect.
To ascertain the degree of contact of two curves which
meet in a point, proceed as follows. Let y = d>v and
y=^x be the equations of the curves, and a the abscissa at
the point of contact ; so that d>a=^ft. At the point whose
abscissa is a+h, the difference of the ordinates of the
curves is, by Taylor's theorem,
h +
+ (<£"'a-,|
as to which, generally speaking, it will be found that ft
can be taken so small that the series shall be convergent :
if this be not so, the method of arresting the series given
in TAYLOR'S THEOREM must be employed. Now of two
series of the form AJi"+Bfi" + ____ the value of that in
which m is the greaterwill diminish without limit as com-
pared with the other, when h diminishes without limit.
Consequently, every curve y=$x, which has <f/'</=:^>'«, will
approach, before the point of contact is attained, nearer to
y=d>.K than any other in which ty'a is not =d>'a. Again,
when d>'a=-j,'a, those cases of y=4/x in which ^"a=d>"a,,
will approach nearer to y=0.c than any in which d>"a is
not =tj/"a ; and so on. Hence, to make y=i//.r have the
closest possible contact with y=(px when x=a ; — give such
values to the constants in y — ^x as will satisfy as many as
possible of the equations (f>a=^a,(jifa=^la,<f>''a-=^"a, &c.
consecutively from the beginning. This is a brief sketch,
which can be filled up from any elementary work ; and the
following are the principal results : —
1. When the string of equations is satisfied up to
<jj a=>j/ a, the contact is said to be of the wth order.
2. In contact of the nth order, the deflection (f>(a+h) —
•4/Ca+A; diminishes with h , and vanishes in a finite ratio.
to it.
3. In contact of an even order, the curves intersect at
the point of contact ; in contact of an odd order, they do.
not intersect at that point.
4. When curves have a contact of the nth order, no1
curve, having with either a contact of an order inferior to*
the nth at the same point, can pass between the two.
5. A straight line, generally speaking, can have only a.
contact of the first order with a curve ; and the equation
to the tangent straight line of the curve y=d»; when
x=a, is y — d>a=<p'a(x—a). But if it should happen that
d>"a=0, <£'"a = 0, &c., up to <f>Wa=0, then for that point
the tangent has a contact of the wth order. Thus, at. a
point of contrary flexure the tangent has a contact of the
second order, at least, with the curve.
6. A circle, generally speaking, can be made to have a
contact of the second order with a curve, and the equation
\ N
T A N
of the inosi .
curve y - .
; HVATUBK, to the
, <t>'«< \+4*> \ .[ i+^« ]_
-"+— ?>:—) +{*-+"—$"„ 7*
/ - 2\1
Vl+0'u J
Tins circle cu' e, generally speaking : it not, a-
\amplc. at tin : an ellipse, il u evidence
that the circle lias a
'Jin- until nl llir circle of curvature is :i point on the
normal. being that :it which the normal touches tl
Illtf. [IrsVUU'TK AM) KVOLITE.]
• only i> tin1 ti-nn tangent most generally applied to
the closest straight line only, hut frequently only to that
'.MI of the straight line which falls between [fa point
i'i contact and the axis of .r. Again, the nonnal is a
_-lit line perpendicular to the tangent, drawn through
the point of eontaet : hut this term also is frequently ap-
plied only to that portion which falls between the jniint of
contact and the axis of .7-. It is with reference to this
limitation that the terms subtangent and subnormal are to
lie understood : the first meaning the distance from the
loot of the tangent to the foot of the orilinate: the
that liom the foot of the ordinatr to that of tin- nonnal.
The funuula for the subtangctit is <fn-^-<fi'.. : that for the
subnormal ^w/X(^'o.
/} be the angle made by the tangent with the a\;>
: usually the angle made In I hat part of the ';
which has positive ordinates with the ]iositi\e side of the
.if .r. Then /3, at the point whose al>- . is de-
termined by the equation
tan /3 =^y ; and subtangent = y-r-, subnormal = tj-~-.
If we take the more general mode of measurement pro-
posed in Si^\, this equation remains equally t me. Now.
Keeping strictly to that mode, let ft be the angle made by
the tangent with the axis of j; t* the angle made by the
radius vector r with the axis of./-, and p that made by the
nt with the radius vector. It will be lound. then', t hut
in all cases
tie
Unless the mode of attributing signs be carefully at-
tended in. these last equations, though alwajs considered
a.s universally true. ;ire not so in reality.
\\'e now come to the consideration of a surface. The
mode of defining contact of a given order resemble* that
adopted with reference to a curve. Thus if :~<f>
and i=C i. if be the equations of two surfaces coincid-
ing when ./• = </, y = b. so that <£(o, 6)— then if
the point be taken at which .; — <i+A. tf=l> + li. \\\.
tact i I the two surfaces is of the n\\\ order, when the
deflection
<t> (a+h, 6 + k)- + (a+t,, b+ k)
being developed iu powers of // and k by Taylor's Theo-
rem. shows M.' tmiis lower .than those of the form
'A + ... + MA". This is tantamount to the
following: two surfaces have ..i'the /dh onler
1'lau.' whatever drawn through the point ol
'•t cuts Hi. in two cunes which have a con-
tact of the /<th or a higher order.
ha.-, at c\ci\ pom! a plane which has a
complete ..rder. If z - <fj
.i.y.z be the co-ordinates of the point of ei
£. i/. i tin. si of anj |),,int in the tangent plane, then the
equation of I he tangent plane ia
>/: ,1:
«--'= +rtV('~
But if the equation be gi\cu in the form <jj ' • !/• -
it i>
•l<t> it<t> il<t>
•-•' + S "-*" + ^({-*)=o-
In (he i jimlioiiii of the normal, a line
drawn through the point of contact perpendicular to the
tangent, are
«-* + «-*)« A t-
In the latter ca.-,c. they are
t-j _ •»- y
=
I. not cut
t
The tangent (•
in a sphere : -J.
whole line. ILs III the
as in the ease ui :tn h\ |-cil>oloii1 nun!
'()!« about 1he i the lig'u:
The ciilerion i.f distinction belv.
casts depends on the \alu.
ft #s #: \-
nl the point of contact. Imagine a plane to p.
the normal, cutting the surface in the c'.i ,| t|,e
tangent plane in the straight line : . while tin-
plane revolves about the normal. , 1. is a;
1. Let I be positive. Then I. h.
contact of the iirst onler with i(' . the -
passes tlnoiiLrh the tangent phine. and we !
such contact as is seen at any point of a
ellipsoid.
2. Let U=0. Then 1. has never more than a cot
of the tirst order with s('. except whi:
one position, in which there is a con!:.
order. If U=0at the point ol coir
to take value ill all adjacent points, nothing' u:
appear than in the la^t ca.se. except that in on.
direction from the point of contact, and in
surface would seem to grow nearer to t.
than in any others. Hut if LT=l) at all )«
face, this approach to the tangent plane in one piu-t
direction becomes more- maiked: for the
that plane in a straight line. Ih
plane meets the surface in u straight l;ii
tended both ways: and the plane is tangi •
at every jwint of that straight line. Such -
those in which I! is a] ways =0. are developable, or can he
unrolled without any overlapping, rumpling, i
- and cylinder- m. if I' — r
throughout me whol but throughoi,'
ticular line upon it, that line will be a plane •
its plane will be tangent to th> mt in
which it meets the surface.
:t. J.et I he negatne. Then I. ha- i
a contact of the tirst order with '
t'erent positions, in both of which I
higher order. Draw lines marking out th. -
.and conse<|Ueutly dividing the tangent
lour parts, with four angles lournl the p, •
In one ]>air of the .
one side of the tangent plane, and in the oil'
other.
lia, as the plane which revolves mum! (he normal
lakes its di tl'e.rcnt positions, tli
( ' changes. The tvvo p,
which the •
inlo the ma
jeet. hut shall . jxipulHr ill
tion of this rem:.:l,ab!e point.
-II. unbroken, to 1 with
cither veil. i.'ist. The descent will In- equallj
nipid in all directions, or the curvature at the h'
.if all the \crtieal svctjons will be the same, lint
'"•II to be so placed that some
, dilate between the two ve-1
The descent will not then be equn'
is, or the curvatures of the > iions will
not be the same. The direction of
will be at right angles to that ol
•.I plane has here a contact ol' the Iirst «,| th, •
kinds above mentioned. If tl contnet of the
I kind, all the eirciin \e«'pt
that the direction of least rapii!
Uvelyspeaking.no descent at all nt the t It
we take a cylinder, or other developable wirlace, and
TAN
31
TAN
make a tangent plane horizontal, there is absolutely no
descent in one direction, or, by going along the tangent
plane, we can remain entirely on the surface, in one cer-
tain direction, as before observed. And the direction ol
most rapid descent is at right angles to this direction ol
no descent.
To put a case of the third kind, suppose a saddle placed
on a horse, and we take the lowest point of the seat. The
tangent plane then cuts through the saddle horizontally.
In gome directions there is descent, in others ascent, with
two directions in which there is, comparatively speaking,
neither ascent nor descent. The direction of most rapid
"-(•nit, which is from the lowest point of the seat directly
towards the head or tail of the animal, is at right angles
to the direction of most rapid descent. Mathematically
speaking, the curvatures of the vertical sections are some-
times positive, and sometimes negative, and the direction
of the greatest negative (or algebraically least) curvature
is at right angles to the direction of the greatest positive
i. or algebraically greatest) curvature.
As to points connected with the apparent physical cha-
racter of the tangent, which have been in various places
referred to this article, it will be more convenient to con-
sider them under the word VELOCITY.
TANGHI'.NIA. the name of a semis of plants belonging
to the natural order ApocynaeesD. This name was irivc.n
by Aubert du Petit Thmiars to the plant which produces
the celebrated Tanghin poison of Madagascar. The genus
possesses an int'undibulifbrm corolla, with a clavate tube,
and 5-tuothed throat : the anthers are subsessile : the fruit
is a drupe, with a fibrous ligneous putamen or stone, which
contains one or two seeds. The specific name T. veneni-
fera was given to the plant which yields the poison. It
has dense leaves, with erect branches, and pauiculated
terminal flowers. At the time Du Petit Thouars described
this plant, he stated that it was closely allied to theCerbera
Manghas ; and since its cultivation by Mr. Telfair in the
Mauritius, there can be no doubt of its belonging to the
genus Cerbera, and the plant is now called C. Tanghin.
native island this plant attains the size of a tree, and
has a hard wood which may be used for many kinds of
carpentry. But the part which yields the poison is the
kernel of the fruit. Although this kernel is small, not
much larger than an almond, Mr. Telfair says that it con-
tains enough poison to kill twenty persons. Its great use
in M .vas as a means of trial, the innocent being
supposed able to resist its action, whilst the guilty suffered
under its influence. Radama, the late king of Madagascar,
was desirous of abolishing its use, but found great diffi-
culty in doing so on account of the prejudices of the na-
tucs. Mr. Telfair witnessed a sad instance of its use.
The king Hadania was taken ill, and got well by the use
of mercury ; but this medicine affected his mouth, so that
the impression produced upon his ' skid,' or physician, was
that the king hail been poisoned. He therefore in-
that the Tanghin should be administered to himself and
all the servants of the household, in order to ascertain the
guilty party. The king protested against the procedure,
but in vain. The whole household were shut up during
the night without food, and in the morning were brought
out for trial. The presiding ' skid,' or physician, then
pounded the Tanghin bean to a pulp between two stones,
and applied a small quantity to the back of the tongue of
each individual. The effects varied in different indivi-
duals, lu some it produced vomiting, and the poison be-
ing ejected from the stomach, they recovered. In other*
convulsions were brought on with violent efforts at vomit-
in?, which soon destroyed life. (Botanical Magazine, fol.
•»KiM.
TAN'fUKK. [MAKOCCO.]
TANGLE. [SKA-WBKDS.]
TAN'GUT is the historical name of a country in Asia,
whid, the centre of the eastern, more extensive,
and more elV% ated table-land of that continent [Asi.v, vol.
ii.. p. -Kit 1. 1. 1 1 ere a nation, which originally inhabit cd Tibut,
anil Tang, founded an empire in the seventh
century, which was very powerful for a long time, and was
his Khan in 1227. The country still
me of Tangut, though at present a pail of
it is i <l in the Chinese province of Kansi, whilst
ily in possession of two Mongol nations,
tip- ( (loth 'IVhi ii-os and the Torbod Mongols.
•i on China Proper on the north-west, ex-
i 33" and 42° N. lat., and between W and
107° E. long. To the south of it is Tibet ; to the west Chi-
nese Turkistan, or the government of Thian-Shan Nanlu •
and to the north Mongolia, of which also a portion is in-
cluded within the lately erected province of Kansi. As the
boundary-lines of the" country are not politically deter-
mined, it is not possible to give an estimate of the area.
The southern portion of Tangut, or that which lies south
of 38° N. lat., is one of the most mountainous tracts on the
globe, and extends over the upper course of the river
Hoang-ho and the basin of the lake of Khookhoo-nor.
Along its southern border there is a very elevated range,
which divides the upper courses of the rivers Hoang-ho
and Yan-tse-kiang, and is called the Bayan Khara range.
[BAYAN KHARA MOUNTAINS.] Another elevated range
traverses the country in the same direction from cast to
west near 38° N. lat. This range rises at a short distance
from the banks of the Hoang-ho north of the town of Lan-
tcheou, and in its eastern part is called Kilian Shan ; but
farther west it takes the name of Nan Shan (or Southern
Chain). It rises to a great elevation, especially towards the
west, where manyof their summits are covered withsnowand
united by extensive glaciers. This mountain-chain is sup-
posed to be connected with the Kuenluen range near 92° E.
long. These two ranges above mentioned occupy a great
portion of the country between 33° and 38° N. lat.. and nearly
the whole of the remainder of the country is filled up by a
third range, which connects these two ranges, and extends
from south-east to north-west, being on the north united to
the Nan Shan, and on the south to the Bayan Khara Moun-
t kins. This chain bears the name of Sine Shan, or Snowy
range, on account of the numerous summits which rise,
above the snow-line. The river Hoang-ho breaks through
this range, but the huge rocky masses compel the river to
make a great bend towards the west between 34° and 30°
N. lat., and the circuit which the river makes shows the
immense extent of these masses of rock. In this part of
its course the river is said to be hemmed in by lofty moun-
tains, so that no communication can be established along
the banks. Its course above this bend is very imper-
fectly known, and the fabulous accounts of its sources show
that they have never been visited even by Chinese geo-
graphers. The river enters a wide valley by n narrow
gorge formed by two very elevated mountains a little
above the town of Ho-cheou (36° J^. lat. and 102° E.
long.). At the opening of this gorge is a fortress, called
Tsy-shy-kuan.
Tangut is separated from China Proper by a fourth
range, the mountains of Sifan, which run south and north,
being connected at their southern extremity with the
Bayan Khara Mountains and the Siue Shan by au exten-
sive mountain-knot, which is in the country formerly called
Sifan, whence the chain has obtained its name. Though
this range is less elevated than the Siue Shan, it rises in
several places above the snow-line, and occupies a con-
siderable width. It is supposed to terminate near the
banks of the Hoang-ho, a tew miles south of 38° N. lat.
Opposite to it and on the northern banks of the river rises
another chain, which may be considered as the continua-
tion of the mountains of Sifan ; but this range, which con-
tinues along the western bank of the river as far north as
42° N. lat., rises only to a moderate elevation, and is
stated to occupy in many places only three or four miles
in width : it is called Holang Shan, and slopes on the
west down into the steppe of the Oliith Tshoros. This
range is distinguished from all the other ranges of Tangut
by being thickly wooded on its eastern declivity.
Only a small portion of the countries enclosed by these
mountain masses is fit for cultivation. It does not appeal-
that there is any cultivation in the upper valley of the
Hoang-ho above the fortress of Tsy-shy-kuan. Below that,
place and as far as Lan-tcheou, the valley is wider, and
narrow tracts along the banks of the river are cultivated
and fertile. This part of the valley is compared wilh that
of the Adige in Tyrol. Farther down, and as far as the
neighbourhood of Ning-hia, a town built on the western
janks of the Hoang-ho, at the eastern declivity of the Ho-
lang Shan (3HU 32' N. lat.), the valley has not been visited
jy Europeans. At this place the river runs in a wide \ alley
which has been rendered fertile by numerous canals, which
uc fed by the waters of the river, nnd in which lire, is ex-
tensively cultivated. There arc also numerous plantations
of fruit-trees. The soil contains much saltpetre. The town
of Ning-hia, the ant lent capital of Taugtit, is of consider-
able extent, being fifteen li (equal 1o five miles) in cir-
TAN
32
TAN
rnit. It has some very good manufactures of carpets and through which the road run-. Tin- road leave* ihr vall,-y
and a coi: < ommerce with the nomadic of the Houug-ho ;it the town of Lai, ' HINV. Mil.
ho wander about in the country west of the Holang vii.. ji. so], the capital of Kansi, and runs 1:1:1 noil I
Shan. IMow the town of Nmg-hia the valley of the west ilireetioii ov er a stony and hilly country to the town
:nws voider, ust!. the Holang-nhan re- of Liang-tcheon, a considerable place, of which however
vest, but its fertility decrMMa, About eighteen nothing is reported, exeepl that the district in \vhieh it is
miles from Ning-hia the canals cease and no rice is cul-
tivated. Other gram is still grown about :«) miles farther
north, where the country gradually changes into a sandy.
situated is fertile, and contains a great niimher of ullages.
From Liang-tchcou the road runs north-west to Kan-ti i
fix), a large' and woll-liuilt town, which has many ma-
arid desert, interspersed" with hills, swampy tracts, and tures of woollen stuffs and felts, which nr ;i giciit
part urea.
The lateral valley of Si-ning-tcheou opens to the Hoang-
ho from the west above the town of I^ui-tchcou hi'
demand among the nomadic tribes of the Olilth Tsl
who inhabit the contiguous part of the (iolii, anil In:
the place their wool, 1: le, and sheej). I
the Kilian Shan and the most elevated portion of the Sine also large quantities of rhubarb from the Kill:
:. The \allev is not extensive, hut appears to be fer- From Kan-tchcoi:-foo the road continues in a north
tile: it contains the town of Si-ning-tc.hcou, which is not direction to So-tchcou, a large and well fortified town,
quite as large as Ning-hia. but a much more commercial j with numerous bazars, well provided with prov i
place, as the road which connects northern China with manufactured articles. The town is divided into
Hlassa in Tibet passes through it. This road leads from t ions, one of which is occupied by the < 'hincse, and the.
Si-ning-tcheou westward over a chain to the lake of other by the foreign merchants from liokhara and Turkis-
Khookhoo-nor, which is ol great but unknown extent. It tan. l*he latter is di\ ided from the formei
i alpine la1. i by Inch mountains, and has no wall, the nates of which are shut at night: in other re-
outlet. The remainder of the road lies partly over nu- cpcct.s foreigners do not experience any different 1;
merous large mountain-masses, furrowed only by narrow mcnt from natives. As So-tcheon is the last
glens and ravines, and partly over rocky and sandy table- place through which the caravans pass before they enter
lands, and the whole is described as a desert, in which only
a small number of nomadic mountaineers are met with, and
where the traveller for forty days' journey finds no other
i modal ion than the tents of the poor mountaineers.
In spite of the difficulties, the road, as it appears, is much
travelled, and the bazars of Si-ning-tcheou are well pro-
\ ided with provisions and articles of luxury. Even coffee
and dates may be got there. This town is also the depot
of the Turkish rhubarb, which grows, as it appears, onlv on
the more elevated parts of the Siue Shan and Kiliau
Shan, and is sent from Si-ning-tcheou to all parts of tin-
world. Before the commerce between China and Siberia
was established, this article was brought to Europe through
Turkistan, Persia, and Turkey, and therefore is still called
Turkey rhubarb, though at present it comes through
K iaehta and Russia. When the Jesuits, who had been sent
to these countries by the emperor Kang-hi. were at Si-
ning-tcheou, they we're astonished at seeing the quantity
of rhubarb which, during the months of October and No-
vember, was daily Drought from the adjacent mountains
to the town.
The northern part of Tangut, with the exception of the
valley of the Hoang-ho, is occupied by a wide desert plain,
which constitutes a portion of the Gobi. [Gom, vol. xi.,
p. 280.] The steep declivities of the Kilian and Nan Shun
however do not come close to the desert, but are separated
from it by a hilly tract from 30 to 50 miles wide, which
contains some extensive tracts fit for cultivation, and
in which some large towns have been built, as the great
commercial route which connects China with the coun-
tries of Western Asia runs longitudinally through this
hilly tract, and is confined to it by the extensive sandy
dcs."-rt on the north, and the still less practicable mountain-
desert which bounds it on the south. According to our
be-t information, the ranges of the Kilian Shan, am!
I of the Nan Shan, are covered with eternal snow, and
one would imagine that they give origin to rivers which
bring down a great volume of water, but that is not the
The volume of water is very moderate : a part of it
isumed in irrigating the adjacent fields, and the re-
mainder is absorbed by the sandy soil, as soon as it readies
the plain, after having left the hilly tract. This evidently
shows that the watershed of the mountains must be at a
• distance from the Gobi. The surface of
the hilly tract consists of an alternation of high lands and
«il depressions, running from the mountains northward to
the border of the dc-ert. The high lands are of considera-
ble extent, their upper surface broken and rocky, and only
occasionally covered with a thin layer of earth unfit for the
growth of tree*. In general the rocks are bare. Tl<
• ins between these high grounds an- hs> extensive,
nut exhibit a eonsidcrahl. of fertility where they
are irrigated. Kven in those parts which are beyond the
reach of irrigation, they are chiefly cultivated. To protect
this hilly region, and the great commercial road which
.11 it. against the nomadic tribes of the Gobi, the
Chim-«e have continued the Great Wall along its northern
bonier westward to 98° B. long., and along the wall arc
built the fortre*ie« which protect the line and the towns
the desert, between Tangut and riiian-shan-nahr : the
commerce is M' pecially in provisions. About
50 or GO miles west of So-tcheou is the most western gate
of the Great Wall, called Kia-yu-kooan, or the gale of the
'one (jasper , through which the caravans pass to
enter the desert of llan-hai. which r, d in
orderto reach Hanii in Thian-Shan-Nan'm. The last-men-
tioned town is 'JGO li, or :>2t) miles, from the gate of Kia-
yu-kooan, and that is the width of the Gobi at this place,
which is considered the narrowest part of it.
The towns hitherto noticed lie along the great caravan-
road, but farther west the Chinese geographers mention
other places of importance. The la.
Ngan-si-lbo. n town of the first rank, anil the capital of the
whole district. North-west of it, and on the border of the
desert, is the town of Yu-mcn-kiang, which is built near
a pass between high hills, through which a road leads
northward to Hanii. of which we have no information.
South-west of Ngan-si-tbol are the towns of Toong-ho.
kiang. and Sha-teheou. The last-mentioned place, v
name means Sandtown. -ecms to be the la-t inhabited ;
towards the west. It has not been visited by Europeans.
except by Marco Polo, who describes it as rather a large
place : he says that the inhabitants live on the prod:
their fields and orchards, and have little commerce. From
his account, and that of a Chinese traveller, it is evident
that two roads run north-west and west from this i
Marco Polo reached it after traversing the desert of Lop,
by a thirty days' journey, having departed from the town
of Lop, (Rued is on the banks of the lake of the same
name. The intermediate tract was mostly covred with
sand, but in some places the - vd of bare and
broken rocks. A Chinese traveller departing from
tcheou. and taking the western route, seems to have tra-
il worse country, until he reached the town of
Khotan. [Tui v •- Sn v N ,\ \ N i.u.]
That portion of the Gobi which lies north of the <•
Wall contains many tracts which are covered with :
and supply pasture to the Oliith Tshoros. but others have
a sandy or stony soil, and are quite barren. In some
places there are extensive swamps, especially where the
.ire lost, which descend from the Kilian Shan, among
which the Etzina probably runs more than 'JOO miles. Milt,
the Han Hai. or that portion which lie's between tin
of Kia-yu-kooan and Haini. is nearly uninhabited, as water
is rarely met with, and the gra.-sv ti
(juent. The sand with which the SUIT. . ed is very
line, and frequently raised into the air by -.hong winds.
Our information respecting the climate of Tangut is
• •anty. The cold in winter is intense, and la-'
several months. Tin i,>nnd the ' near
4O" N. hit., at the end of November, covered with thick
ice, so that the caravan was able to pass ov er it, 11.
the river was more than .'«»> yards wide. At Ning-hia a
heavy tall of snow was experienced in the middle of April.
In summer the ' >ut much less than in the
low countries of China: the climate is con-
extremely healthy.
We are no better acquainted with the productions of
TAN
33
T A N
Kvi-ry kind of grain is grown in the few tracts
whose soil is fit for cultivation, and rice is raised where
irrigation is practicable. The nomadic nations have nu-
merous herds of camels, horses, and cattle, and large flocks
of sheep and goats. In the mountain-region is found the
yak or mountain-cow, whose tail gives the chowry. It is
used for riding as a saddle-horse. In the desert are nu-
merous wild animals, such as wild hogs, deer, the argali,
and hares. It is also said that in the woods of the Holang
Shan there are wild horses. Wild cattle are found on the
declivity of the Kilian Shan. No mines are worked. In
the desert some extensive tracts are covered with agates,
cornelians, and other precious stones, which are collected
by the nomadic tribes and sent to China.
The inhabitants of Tangut are a very mixed race.
Mongol tribes inhabit the Gobi, and occupy also the
mountain-ranges north of Lake Khookoo-nor, but the
mountaineers who are in possession of the mountain-
region south of Lake Khookoo-nor, derive their origin
from Tibet. It is even supposed that in this part there
may still exist small tribes of the Miotse and Yuet-shi, who
are considered as the aborigines of this region, but have
been nearly exterminated by the wars with their neigh-
bours the Mongols and the inhabitants of Tibet. It is not
known if that Turkish nation which is called Sobko, and
which inhabits the western part of the Kuen-luen moun-
; TIBET], extends over the western districts of Tangut.
The agricultural population is mostly composed of Chinese
and their descendants, among whom a small number of
families of Turkish origin are settled. But in the towns
the number of Turkish settlers seems to be considerable.
They are Mohammedans, and there are mosques in the
towns of Tangut, especially in those which lie
along- the caravan road. All the other inhabitants are
Buddhists. In the time of Marco Polo there were also
.\( tin ian Christians in the towns, but they have disap-
peared.
The Chinese emperors subjected the country of Tangut
n]y during the dynasty of Han, shortly before the
birth of Christ, and maintained their authority over this
and the countries fart her west to the eighth century, in
spite of their long protracted wars with the Hiongnu, a
Turkish nation which then was in possession of the desert
north of Tangut. In the middle of the seventh century
they extended their dominion even over Western Turkistan
to t'he eastern banks of the Caspian Sea. But in the eighth
century Tangut was occupied by a nation of Tibetan
origin, which founded in these parts the empire of Thufan ;
and though it was overthrown by the Chinese, and some
Turkish tribes, their allies, in the ninth century, the
Tibetans erected in the following century the empire of
Taugiit or Ilia, which maintained its power till it was de-
stroyed by Genghis Khan, in 1227, and by its overthrow
the conqueror opened to his countrymen the road to China,
of which they took possession a few years afterwards. With
the downfall of the dynasty of the Mongols (1341), the best
part of Tangut remained under the sway of the emperors
of the dynasty of Ming, though the Mongols after their
ret n at from China had occupied the northern and more
desert portion of it, where they maintained their indepen-
t dence to the end of the seventeenth century. In the ware
' of the Galdan of the Oloth [SONGARIA, vol.xxii., p. 245],
a tribe of the Oloth Mongols expelled the Khalkas from
the country west of the Hoang-ho, and took possession of
it. But alter the defeat of the Goldan, they submitted to
the Chinese emperor in 1690, and since that time the
whole of Tangut has been annexed to China. The Chinese
government is very assiduous in promoting agriculture in
Tangut, and in increasing the agricultural and commercial
population, this being couriered the most efficacious mode
of restraining the nomadic tribes which inhabit the northern
and southern districts of Tangut. To give to its measures
grcater^tability and to forward their extension, it has con-
verted the greater part of Tangut, with some of the ad-
jacent countries, into a province of China Proper, under
the name of Kansi. (Du Hahlf's History of China;
lliiiiuli- run Anien, vol. i.)
TAN.IOKK.adistnct i n Southern Hindustan, was formerly
a small in •: kingdom or principality, and though
now under British superintendence, is still governed by its
raja. The district is included in the province of th
natic and presidency of Madras: it is bounded on th
bytl ; 'nl, and extends from Point Calymere,
P. C., No. 1492.
10° 18' N. lat, to the mouth of the Coleroon, 11° 25' N.
lat. To the north and west it is bounded by the Coleroon
and the district of Trichinopoli : and to the south and west
by the sea and the territory of the Pol} gars.
The river Cavery, near Trichinopoli", separates into two
branches, of which the northern is called the Coleroon,
and falls into the sea a little to the north of Devicotta ;
the southern branch retains its name of Cavery. These
two streams however, after flowing about twenty miles at
some distance, again approach each other, and are only
prevented by a narrow neck of land from re-uniting and
discharging the whole river by the channel of the Coleroon.
To prevent this junction large mounds have been formed,
and are kept in repair at a considerable expense. The
Cavery, thus separated from the Coleroon, flows through
the flat territory of Tanjore, and divides into a number of
smaller streams, which are conducted into reservoirs and
canals for the purpose of irrigation : by this means nearly
the whole district, which would otherwise be a sandy
desert, is rendered one of the most fertile in Hindustan.
From Devicotta to the salt swamp near Point Calymere,
and from the Bay of Bengal to the city of Tanjore, the
whole country, with its rich covering of alluvial soil, has
the appearance of a garden: from Tanjore to Trichinopoli
it is like a desert.
The principal product of the district is rice, of which two
crops are obtained annually : the next in importance is in-
digo : both are exported to Madras in considerable quan-
tities, besides cocoa-nuts, grain, paddy, and lamp-oil.
The district of Tanjore has never been in the actual oc-
cupation of the Mohammedans. Its Hindu religious
structures are therefore uninjured, and in no part of Hin-
dustan are they so numerous, so large, and so imposing.
There is hardly a village without its brick pagoda and
lofty gateway. Almost all the principal offices are in the
hands of the Brahmins, and they are also the chief land-
holders.
long.,
tal of the rajas of Tanjore : there are remains which indi-
cate its former splendour, and its pagodas and tanks are
still very fine : it is chiefly inhabited by Brahmins. Devi-
cotta (Devicata, the fort of the goddess), 11° 20' N. lat.,
7'.)J 5.V E. long. Nagore, 10° 49' N. lat., 79° 55' E. long.,
a sea-port with a considerable export and import trade.
XKOAPATAM. TRANQUEBAR. The villages are numerous,
and the population dense.
The antient sovereigns of Tanjore were the Chola
dynasty, who probably gave to the whole district the name
Chola Mandala (corrupted into Cpromandel), the former
term in Sanscrit signifying an orbit or circle, and thence
a region or tract of country. The kingdom of Tanjore
was wrested from its original Hindu sovereigns by the
Mahratta chief Eccojee, the brother of Sevajee, in 1675.
It has ever since been retained by the Mahratta race ; so
that, though the language of the inhabitants is Tamul, the
language of the court is Mahratta. In 1771 a dispute
broke out between Mohammed Ali, the nabob of the Car-
natic, and Tuljajee, the raja of Tanjore, with respect to the
keeping in repair the mounds which prevent the stream of
the Cavery from falling into the Coleroon. The mounds
are in the territory of Trichinopoli, and the nabob, as
sovereign of that territory, claimed the right of repairing,
and consequently of neglecting to repair, by which a por-
tion of the nabob's territory might have been fertilized, and
nearly the whole of Tanjore rendered a desert. The raja
had been compelled to pay tribute to the nabob, but had
never been subject to him, and appealed to the British to
protect him in his right to repair, which had always been
exercised by the rajas of Tanjore, and for which, he con-
tended, he paid his tribute. The British however took the
part of the nabob. On the 20th of August, 1773, the siege
of the city of Tanjore was commenced, and a passage
twelve feet wide having been completed across the wet
ditch which surrounds the walls of the forts, on the 16th of
September, when the sun was in the meridian and the
raja's troops were taking repose, the British unexpectedly
made the assault, and earned the fortress, with hardly any
resistance, the raja and his family being taken prisoners.
The nija was then made subject to the nabob; but in con-
sequence of the disapprobation which these proceedings
met with in England, on the llth of April, 1776, the re-
VOL. AA.J.V,— E
34
\
«h>iwtion "i tti.
-.,,' i .
. „!,'.!-
ud '
ill tin-
Ill'
! Ollc-
le of till' t.
also ret.., i.- his pah- •
of Snrbojce. who
ous i.
wus intrusted by him at I
,,va:z. Of the circu: which the
, vwcr was ultimately obtained by Sarboj. .
,', the half-brother of Tuljajee, an account is
given in the ar VHZ.
\--xt Iinliii • Malcolm's '/'
miuitun unit Chin.i in lKW-7: Mill's History of
!.\ II. II. Wilson.
TAN. H IKK. the capital of the district ol ::i 1(1°
47'N.lat. and 7K" W E. lone., is about 40 miles ca,-l from
Trichinopoli, nnd about 57 miles we-t fioin the 1
•]. direct distances. The city is situated not far from
the south bank of the Cavery, and is live or six miles in
circumference, including the suburbs. It is a pi.
great strength, being defended by two foils, which are
connected, and both are surrounded liy wall.- built of large
stones, and by broad and deep wet ditches. The city is in
a flourishing i-tate : it is regularly built, and is said to con-
tain a larger proportion of good houses than any other
town in Southern Hindustan. The population is probably
not less than 70,000 or 80,000. The palace of the raja".
where he resides, is in the larger fort : in one of the halls
of audience is a colossal statue of Sarbojee. by Flaxman.
which was executed by commission from Sarbojee himself.
The pagodas of Tanjore are very large, with paved yards
and extensive irardens : one of the largest in Hindustan is
situated in the smaller fort : it contains a bull finely sculp-
tured in black granite. The Protestant Mission church
wa- built at the expense of the missionary Sehvvarx : it is a
spacious and handsome structure, and has been thoroughly-
repaired by the prc.-ent raja. Schwarx was buried behind
the pulpit : the spot is marked by a slab, on which is an
inscription in English poetry, ascribed to the raja Sarbojee.
,- i- pei formed in the church on Sundays both in
Tamul and in English. The Protestant communicant- be-
longing to the Tanjore mission amount to about 7-">0, and
tin-re are also ln-lweeii 400 and "XMI Koinau Catholic con-
verts, under priests who are chiefly Jesuits from Gm.
Hamilton's 1. '"er; Malcolm's YVn
linulmt'ii: tii/rl China.)
TAN K, a reservoir for water or other fluids. The name
is sometimes applied to large open receptacles, or ponds,
formed b. md and disposing
moved earth in the form of bank- to retain the water; but
the tanks which will here be especially treated of are the
smaller covered reservoirs used to collect and retain water
and liquid manure for dorm- i','ricultinal pur-
poces. Respecting the construction of ponds it will be
sufficient I EMUANKMKNT. vol. ix., p. :i7:», for the
method of tin-min:: ling banks, and to <
vol.vi.. p. 'Jl'J. ' - d the piocess of;il/(/(///«jf
with clay, v.hich i.s alwa. ry in Ionium; a
voir in a porous soil, unless the more expen
of paving or lining with chalk, brick?, stone, or limber.
be resorted to. See also ol. \\n . p. lu
notice of the means used to regulate the drawing oil of
water from ponds, and to prevent accident from their be-
coming over-filled.
In high mountainous pastures, tanks are indispensable
to supply both men and cattle with water; and they
ought to be very carefully constructed of such material!.
a* are at hand. In the pastures of the Jura, I •
France and Switzerland, the tanks are u-uallv n:
wood, in the following manner: a sqim 'ion is
made in the L- .-.-niv. is lined with a
•IK of clay or impervious earth to prevent the •
tir-treeft, d. their bark, are then
hud (hw together and fastened with wooden pin*, M as
, m the floor, and the sides are lined in n .-.imila:
oer. The tank is coM-ml with a roof of the name
i* made it tlii
thai it ;,,-'- a- a t.inuel to >
fulls upon it into th
.k cool, and ,
cow house, if there lie one :
.'llowi-d out, to the I
reijuired.
1 ii and v. :,
i abundant supply of wait
mcr.thirh \ lia\i to be supplied
them.
The importance oi rain-wat,
cient or lie at a srreat depth, ha.- luxn much 0', •
this country. \Vaiatell, in the work n
of this article, urges the importance of plae
round all the buildings of a farm to collect tin
which falls upon them into a tank
that, be.-ides the \alne of the supply ol
tained. the buildings will
- being kept drier than when tin a the
-.i'civd to fall upon them. He
(mantity of water that falls annually upn<
superlieial feet or siaiarv of building in '
about 1400 imperial gallons; and this statement ap
to be fully borne out by the observations recorded in tlii
article RUN. \ol. xix., p. 270. If therefore the cv
.-.in laces of loot's were adapted to the collection •
rain-water which falls upon them, and mean-
\ided for conveying it to covered tanks, in which it <
be preserved from evaporation, and kept free from a>
mixture of impurities, almost e\ei\ house miirhl I.
dily and cheaply supplied with a (juantn
water sufficient for the ordinan want- «i ' r. - i
The extensive roofs of churches and other pi
ings might be employed in like wa\ to collect «a-
i]ip!x of ponds or tanks I'or public, use. In
cases even the drainage of lands might, also be
available, as the water may be submitted to any rei.
process Qf filtration before il is allowed to enter the tank.
Tanks or cisterns to hold water for domestic pir.
may be conveniently situated beneath th. if the
ground, so that, being pa\ ed over, they occupj no va-
luable space. They are formed of
into each other anil .set in cement; of V
large paving-tile.- bedded in cement : of 1
plates of cast-iron: or of thick wooden p',
by charring and pitchimr. or lined with -
brick tanks dc.-ciilud b\ WiiUtcll aie eireniju
. built like a well, with In it loin- of an iu\ .
.-hape, of very sU^ht convexity. I'he t,.;
shajied, and has an opening in the centre
receive a man, in order that the tank m;-
cleaned out when necessary. Tin- opem-.n.'.
be ii]ioil the surface of the ground, or a littl<
-lion1 ,-d with an oak tlaji pn-n-^d wiih a number
of holes, or with an . ,:'!_'. The i!i \A\\ ami widl
of the lank should, il is stated, be nearly equal. Il ,
sary.'a smaller brick •
side of the tank, in which the water ma\ i
ilnouirh u' charcoal, &c. before entering it. It
is rrcommcnded to make
- the lank near the top. Hnck tank- .
tion may be rendered water-tiKht by laying tin-
COUI>i I in cement, and pla-H-iimr t1
the inside with the same to the Itnr
quarters of an inch. To enable them without inj<
bear the great weight of water when nearly full, tin-
should lw rammed closely round tli . k. and it
should be allowed to settle thorouirhU
quantity of water is admitted.
kind of brick tank, contrived by Mr. Malli t t,> UTi
pense in construction, by adoptmc a li-_'i .niuiii
capacity and minimum surface. Mallet propose.-., when
the tank i- larirc. to adopt the spherical form: and when
of less than th . -ter. that of a short
vertical cylinder with hemispherical ends. liy puddling
^
TAN
35
TAN
with clay roundabout the tank, the necessity for the use
of Roman cement is avoided.
In the forty-ninth volume of the 'Transactions' of the
Society of Arts Cpart ii., p. 12'i, is a communication from
Mrs. Davies Gilbert respecting a cheap method of con-
structing tanks for receiving water from the roofs of cot-
tages, which has been successfully practised at Eastbourn,
in Sussex. A reservoir having been dug seven feet deep
and about the same wide, the bottom was covered with
flints laid in liquid mortar composed of one measure of
grey chalk lime (made of chalk marlj well beaten up with
three measures of clean sea-sand. The side walls were
built of the same materials, leaving a small space at the
back of the wall, which space was filled up with the same
sort of grout or liquid mortar. The tank was then roofed
over with a dome, formed, without any centering, of
smaller flints well bedded in mortar. A hole was left in
the centre, and covered with a hood, within which was
hung a pulley with a rope and bucket for drawing water
from the tank. This account was published in 1833, and
in 1H37 an article appeared in the ' Labourers' friend
Magazine,' in which it i's stated that such tanks had been
found very useful during three dry summers. One, less
than seven feet deep and wide, had supplied two labourers'
families during that time, while most of the springs in the
neighbourhood were dry. This paper describes a brick
tank with sloping sides, the diameter at the base being
smaller than at the top, and with a dome-shaped top
formed by making each row of bricks project one-third
•d that immediately below it, and balancing the
it by filling up the back with earth as the work pro-
. One of the flint tanks, constructed as above de-
scribed, nt the Kastbourn workhouse, is twenty-three feet
deep and eleven feet wide. Only ninety bushels of lime
were allowed for its construction, including two coats of
plaster, and the work was executed at ten shillings per
hundred square feet.
In the article last quoted from, it is observed that a
currunt of air has been supposed to promote the purity of
the water presened in tanks. If so, it may be easily pro-
vided for. Where the pre\ ailing winds do not blow soot
and leaves upon the roof, the water is found to remain
good, even for drinking, without clearing out the rubbish
more than once a y
In addition to tanks for water, every farm-yard should
have one to collect the liquid portion of tne manure,
which is washed by the rain through the refuse litter, and
also the urine of the stalled cuttle. Though not yet gene-
rally adopted in England, in France. Germany, and espe-
cially in Belgium, such tanks are considered as necessary
to a farm as any of its most common buildings. They are
usually constructed of an oblong shape, of brick well
ited, with one or more divisions, and capable of con-
taining at lea^ ten times as many hogsheads as there are
heads of cattle on the farm. They are vaulted over,
having a small aperture, in which a p'ump is placed, suffi-
cient to allow a man occasionally to clear out the sedi-
ment, when the liquid has been pumped up. The best
shape to contain a large quantity in the smallest space
would be like (host- before described; but they cannot
• niently be made sufficiently large, and a cubical to: in.
or rather that of several cubes in succession, is preferred.
A tank for a farm of 200 acres of arable land should be 15
feet wide, 15 deep, and 45 long, giving 3 cubes of 15 feet,
or a cavity capable of containing upwards of !(),()(») cubic
feet of liquid. In this tank the urine is diluted with water
to prevent too rapid decomposition, and also to retain
the ammonia which is formed ; for which purpose gypsum
and sulphate of copper are sometimes put into the tanks.
It' the soil be not sandy, clay will answer in-trad of mor-
tar to connect the brickwork, and a plastering of lime «r
cement will be Miffieient to ke-p out the worms: but in
ils the bottom and sides must, be puddled,
••p in the liquid ; and it. may be advantageous to
h.uld tin- walls in cement, altogether. The liquid from
'aWes is carried into (lie tank by a main
nieted of brick or stone, and which receives a
ier of smaller drains from every part of the yards
'•attV-xhi-d-. Thus the litter in" the yard is always
dry, and none of the richness of the manure is lost by
ion.
'c is vaulted like a cellar under the
Mouse and stables, which are Washed out twice every
day, and all the dung and water are swept into a cess-pool
communicating with the tank. Thus a very diluted, but
rich liquid soon fills the first division of the tank : a sluice
is then shut, and the next washings run into a second
division, and when that is full, into a third. In the mean-
time the contents of the first tank have undergone a
certain fermentation, by winch the caustic ammonia first
evolved has become mild and impregnates the water.
It is then in a fit state to be carried on the land in
tubs or water-carts. When properly diluted, it accele-
rates vegetation in a surprising degree ; but if put on
fresh, it burns the grass or any vegetable it touches, be-
cause the ammonia is in a caustic state. If a cow drop
her urine in a field in a hot summer's day, all the grass it
has touched becomes yellow and is burned up : but if the
same happen in rainy weather, the spot soon becomes
very green, and the grass luxuriant; because, in this case,
the urine is amply diluted and its caustic nature corrected.
Those who live near gas-works may collect the ammonia-
cal gas-water in a tank, and, by the addition of sulphuric
acid in very small quantities, they may produce a very
fertilising liquid, which will stimulate vegetation, and be
a very good manure.
The necessary concomitant of a tank, whether for water
or manure, is a water-cart, that is, a large cask put upon
wheels to bring water from some distance. When (here
are no means of bringing water in pipes, a water-cart is
quite indispensable. It is simply a cask placed on the
frame of a cart, with a plug-hole in the end or lower part,
from which the water may be let out by a cock, or drop
on a flat board or into a bucket with holes, so as to spread
it about. The plug-hole is shut by a valve inside, which
can be opened by means of a string, the pressure of the
liquid keeping it close to the plug-hole.
Many of the artificial manures, of which a number have
been lately proposed, would make excellent liquids by
merely mixing them up with water in a tank, and allow-
ing a certain degree of fermentation to take place. Thus
nothing is lost, and all volatile substances are taken up by
the water. The soluble portions are dissolved and the
earthy matters diffused, so as to be more equally spread
over the land. If it be true that the ammonia found in
some plants is chiefly derived from the very small portion
discovered in rain water, it follows that a scarcely percep
tible impregnation with this salt may have most powerful
(.•Beets on vegetation.
Wl:cn a farm-yard is situated on a hill, and there are
fields cr pastures on a lower level, at no great distance
from it, trie liquid from the tank may be conducted by
channels lined with clay, having small sluices to direct
the streams to any particular field. It may thus be made
to irrigate temporarily a considerable surface, which it will
greatly enrich. It may be led into the common furrow?,
between the lands or stitches in ploughed land, and allowed
to soak in them, and then it can be spread with the earth
of the furrow, by means of broad shovels, over the growing
crops, and will greatly invigorate them. This species of
irrigation is common in Lombardy, where much ingenuity
is shown in the manner in which water is made to flow in
small rivulets between the rows of growing vegetables.
The water here is supplied by streams, but the same method
would distribute the tank-liquor with great effect. A very
small quantity of this liquor, allowed to flow into the main
feeder of a water-meadow, will soon prove how great effects
are produced by impregnations which are scarcely percep-
lible iiy chemical analysis.
Small as the experience has hitherto been in tills coun-
try of the advantages of liquid-manure tanks, it has suffi-
ciently proved their use to induce every man who con-
! a farm-yard and erects buildings to take in the
tank as an essential part of his plan; and even if it only
collected the refuse fluids which are allowed to nan off in
common sewers from most houses, it would soon repay the
co-t i if its construction, while it rendered the ditches in the
neighbourhood less .subject to noxious emanations from
irrupted matte;- which now flows into them. Tlje
:e, of air into or out of a manure-tank, and the cou-
nt, exhalation of noxious vapours, may be prevented
by the use of air-traps, similar in principle to those de-
scribed under SKWKRS, vol. xxi., p. 310, at the points
where the drains enter it.
The use of metallic cisterns or tanks, in lieu of wooden
casks, for containing a supply of fresh water for long
F2
TAN
36
TAN
, U one of the great improvemenU effected of late
1:1 naval economy, llie nineteenth volume of the
• Transaction*' of th' S ;. Arts contains an account
(ll- ,.x ::il Samuel Hen
thiiin. in I79f>aml tin- following yeara, the succeti of which
induced the SocicU. in Iwtll, to present to him their gold
medii n jars have been tried tor this pur-
pose ; but. while they keep the water very pure, th-
lenient for general u»e an metallic tanks, wlm-h
may be fitted to the shape of the vessel, so as to avoid any
lose of room.
U'aistell's Designs for Agricultural liu/ltlinyx: Lou-
don'* Enci/r/'-!«rtfnt ty Cottage, 1'iirni, ninl 1'il/u .-In-fn-
re; TranMcti',' j, v, sols. xix. and
IsilxiuriTx' I-'ru-iiil Mti£<i:iiu-. 1K!7, p. 131.)
TANNAHII.L. ROHF.RT. horn :it Paisley, in Scotland,
on the 3rd of June, 177-1. was the son of poor parents. b\
whom he was brought in) to the occupation of a v
which he pursued iii his native town and at Glasgow
throughout the short period of his life. The earliest pre-
dilection of Tannahill was for poetry, and his taste was
formed hv the constant study of Allan Ramsay. Fci_
and Hum's. He failed to attain the spirit of these masters
of Scottish song; but his pieces generally excel th-
< and sweetness. A specimen of this sweetness is
found in his famous song, ' Gloomy winter's now awa :'
• Tow'riii^ o'er tin1 Ni'wt"ii woods,
Livior-19 Inn ilu- Mmw wluu' i l.m'U;
sillrr -.vi^h*. w i' il >v. iii'' luld*.
n the Iwnks v if i 1 1' i i'-, I V
•i 1 111*- -> h in fiiry lionks
Ffntli'rv lini-., rock»,
tin- l>r,u- '' i' l>urmc jouks.
Ilka tiling U cliei-ri. , < ' '
' Jessy, the flower of Dumblane.' is his best-known effort.
The '"Song of the battle of Yittoria' has the merit of re-
deeming iii'iti the degradation of worthless words one of
the finest airs of Scottish minstrelsy, and restoring it from
a whistled jig to the solemn tone of a triumphal song.
His songs were commonly inspired by the immediate.
-ion ; were the. unlaboured fruit of his imagination or
feelings. Decides the charm of harmony and of a perfect
mastery of his language, which is almost exclusively
,i\c not a little of their effect from the vein
of desponding melancholy which runs through them. This
melancholy was in some degree constitutional in Tanna-
hill. but it was aggravated by the neglect of the world,
and a hopelessness of ever raising himself above eircum-
o unfavourable to genius as those in which for-
tune had thrown him. A kindred spirit, the Ettrick Shep-
herd, made a long pilgrimage to visit him at Paisley.
After a night .spent in the most delightful interchange ol
feeling. Mr. Hogg took his departure. ' Farewell, we shall
never meet again.' were the words emphatically pro
nouneed on'this occasion by Tannahill, and their meaning
was shortly afterwards explained. He committed suicide
by drowning himself, in his thirty-sixth year. His remains
are interred at Paisley.
Tannahill's songs were published in Paisley, in his life-
time, in a small volume. They are in every modern col-
lection of Scottish melodies, and are occasionally printed
.under Tannahill's name) with selections from Hums. For
his life, see Chambers'* S*-i>ttix/i Itii'xrnphy.
TANNER, THOMAS, was the eldest 'son of the Re\.
Thomas Tanner, vicar of Market Lavington, Wiltshire,
where he was horn. 2.~>th January. Ki74. Ill November,
hi' v. as entered a student of Queen's ( 'ollege. Oxford :
but alter having taken his degree of H.A.. he rcmo\ccl in
January. Ifi'.H, to All Souls, and he was elected a feliow
of that' society, 2nd Nov.. HiiWi. So early as 1G!I3, when
he was only nineteen, he had published proposals I'm
printing all the works „( the antiquary John I.eland. from
the original manuscripts ; but this design, which was after-
wards partially executed by Hcarnc. did not receive such
encouragement as to induce him to proceed with it. The
reputation he had very early acquired for his knowledge
of Knglish antiquities may appear from the fact IK
thony a Wood, at his death in Kiilii, left his pa;
Tanner's care. That same year Tanner published at Lon-
don !;is |'u si work, an Hvo. volume, entitled ' Notitia Mo-
i the Religious Houses in
and and Wales.' llaung taken order., he was soon
after appointed by Dr. Moore, his!" icli. one of
his chaplains; and having, in 1701, married Rose, the
eldest daughter of that prelate. 1:
from his father-in-law ; the chancel1 Nor-
wich about the time of liis mairiagc ; the offii
missarv for the arclidcacomy of Noilo'k in 1~H3 : that of
commissary for the- archdeaconry of Sudbury in 17U7 : and,
in 1713, a prebend in the cathedral of Kly. to which dio-
cese Moore had been by this tn ! Meanwhile
Tanner's wife had died, at the age of twenty-five, in 17(Hi.
In the same year he was presented by a fnend to the
•. of Thorp, near Norwich; and he then married
Frances, daughter of Jacob Preston, Ksq.. of London, w horn
however he lust ill 171 X. II Is next publications new edition
of \Vood's' Athenae Oxonienses.' enlarged by the ad'!
of ."XK) new lives from Wood's manuscripts, appeared at
London, in 'J vols. t'ol., in 17-1. In December that
Tanner, who had taken his degree of D.I), in I7H1
appointed hv Dr. (ireen, bishop of Norwich, to the arch-
deaconry of Norfolk : and in 1723 he resigned hi
at Kly. and was appointed canon of Christ's Clnm-h.
ford. He lated to the bishopric '.I Si. .\saph.
in January. 17:i2: and in May. 17:ti. he married Mrs.
Elizabeth Scot tow of Tb'irp. receiving with her a fortune
of 15.1KH)/. : but he did not long cnjoi the - -is of
wealth and honour. Ins death taking place at Oxford on
the 1 1th of Deceinfer, \~'.'*>. By his second wife he let!
one son Thomas, who died rector of Hadlcy rmd M-
Kly in Suttblk. and prebendary of Canterbury, in
His widow married Robert Britirle. Ksq., M.P., and siu-
\i\ed to 1771- A new edition of the • Notitia Monastiea."
with large additions un part by the editor!, was pubi.
in a folio volume at London, in 17-H. by th>
brother, the Rev. John Tanner, vicar ol t in
Suffolk ; and a third edition, considerably improved, by
the Rev. James Nasinith, appeared at Cambridge, i
same form, ill 17KT. The greater part of this last im-
pression having been consumed in u fire which happened
in Mr. Nichols's printing-house, on the night of Mir
the 8th of February. 1K08, the book is very scarce. Ilu
Tanner's literary reputation rests principally on his
biographical and bibliographical work, entitled ' Diblio
theca Bntannico-IIibernica. she de Scriptoribus (|iii in
Anglia. Scotia, et Ilibernia. ad Saeculi xvii. initium tlo
ruerunt. litcrarum online, juxta famiharuin nomina. dis
posit i-,. i 'ouunentarius,' which had been the labour of his
leisure for forty years, and which was published, in folio.
at London, in 174H, under the care of the Rev. Dr. David
Wilkins. It is a work of extensive research and great
general accuracy. Bishop Tanner had made la
lions of charters, grants, deeds, and other instruments re-
lating to the national antiquities, which he bequeathed to
the Bodleian Library. Some letters from him are published
in Dr. Bliss's collection of ' Letters written by Kminenl
Persons," Jscc., 2 \ols. 8vo., Lon., 1813. (Biographia
TANNIC ACID, or TANNIN, a peculiar vegetable
acid existing in every part of the bnrk of each
(|ueicus. but especially in the bark : it is found ho-.
in the greatest quantity in the gall-nut. The name ot this
substance is derived from its properly of combining with
the skins of animals, or in tanning, by which they are
rendered impervious to water, and prevented from pu-
t rcfving.
To prepare tannic acid, galls are to be- reduced to coarse
powder, and digested in a percolator in ii'ther which lias
been previously mixed and .shaken with water: in the
lower part of tlie vessel two strata of liquid appear, the
heavier of which is a strong solution of tannic acid, by
evaporating which, and by subsequent purilicatior
acid U obtained possessing the following proper:
a colourless or slightly yellowish mass, which docs not
cTvstalli/c, but resembles dried gum. It is icadih soluble
in water: the solution has an astringent but not a bitter
taste; it reddens vegetable bin. ;ilka-
.-. ith effervescence: weak alcohol dissolves
it, but :i'ther only slightly; when the aqueous solution is
••d to the air, espec'ially if the tenmeiatu
oxygen gas is absorbed, and an equal volume of carbonic
I. while the tannic acid is converted into
.mil elagic acids. Tannic acid precipitates gelatin
Million : the compound has been called tiiiintigrltitnt,
and when the acid is in excess a viscid elastic mass is
formed, which contains about half its weight of tannic
acid ; when the liquid from which the gelatin is pre-
TAN
TAN
cipitated is heated to ebullition, the tannogelatin is re-
dissolved ; tannic acid also precipitates albumen and
starch.
When dried at 212° tannic acid consists of
Eighteen equivalents of carbon . . 108
Five equivalents of hydrogen . . 5
Nine equivalents of oxygen . . 72
Equivalent . 185
With Three equivalents of water . 27
When exposed to a temperature of 240°, the water is
expelled.
Tannic acid combines with the alkalis to form salts,
which are called tannatfs, and it precipitates most me-
tallic oxides from solution. The salts of protoxide of iron
suffer no change when a solution of tannic acid is added
to them ; but by exposure to the air a deep bluish-black
precipitate is formed. Tannate of peroxide of iron, formed
by the action of the acid on a persalt of the metal, is the
nl writing-ink, and is a black pulverulent precipitate.
TANNIN, ARTIFICIAL. It has been shown by Mr.
Hatchett, that when powdered charcoal has been digested
for a considerable time in dilute nitric acid, it is dissolved,
and a reddish-coloured liquid is obtained, which by care-
ful evaporation yields a brown glossy substance, amount-
ing to about 120 parts from every 100 of charcoal em-
ployed.
The properties of this substance are that its taste is
astringent and bitter, is soluble in water and in alcohol,
and forms with a solution of gelatin an insoluble precipi-
tate, consisting, according to Mr. Hatchett, of 36 of tannin
mid 04 of gel.it in in 100 parts. Sulphuric acid and hydro-
chloric aeid, when added to a solution of artificial tannin,
-ion brown-coloured precipitates, which are soluble in
hot water ; the alkalis combine with this tannin, and it
forms a precipitate of difficult solubility when added to
lime, barytes, or strontia water, and also with most metallic
solutions. These precipitates are of a brown colour; un-
like natural tannin, the artificial resists the action of nitric
acid.
When camphor and various resins, as shell-lac, benzoin,
and dragon's blood are digested in sulphuric acid till it
becomes black, a variety of artificial tannin is procured;
when the blackened acid is poured into water, a black
powder is deposited, which, by digestion in alcohol, fur-
nishes a brown matter soluble in water, and forming an
• ;nble compound with gelatin.
Although in certain respects the above artificial sub-
stance agrees with tannic acid, yet the late discoveries as
to the real nature of this principle tend to the opinion
the natural componnd is essentially different from the
artificial.
TANNIN, PURE, or TANNIC ACID, Medical Pro-
firrii<:\ if. This substance in combination with extractive
een long known under the name of tannin, and re-
coirnixed as the active principle in almost all astringent
: ablcs. [ASTRINGENTS.] As many of these are
it'ul in restraining excessive discharges, whether
bloody or otherwise, it was conjectured that the pure
principle would be yet more efficacious than when in a
of combination. Accordingly it has been adminis-
tered in some passive haemorrhages, chiefly from the
^ and the bronchial tubes. To effect any good it re-
quires to be given for several days in small doses. It is
with difficulty absorbed into the circulation, being with
great reluctance taken up by the lactcals, and producing
'.Teat, constipation, from its direct astringent action
over the intestinal canal, with which it is brought into
contact. Tannic acid has been recommended in cases of
incurable organic diseases affecting (he uterus, accom-
panied «itli wasting discharges. These it may for a time
moderate, but the constipation induced ne\er fails ulti-
mately to n^irravate the disease and discomfort of the
patient. There is little therefore to induce practitioners
to employ it.
TANNING is the process of converting the skins of
animals into leather, by effecting a chemical combination
between the gelatin of which they principally col
and the astringent, \egetable principle called tannin.
[BARK, vol. iii.. p. 4.">f; ; LEATHER, vol. xiii., p. :)7!) ;
and the preceding chemical articles on TANNIN.] The
object of the tanning process is to produce such a che-
mical change in skins as may render them, as observed by
Dr. Ure, unalterable by the external agents which tend to
decompose them in their natural state ; and, in connection
with the subsequent operations of dressing, or currying, to
bring them into a state of pliability and impermeability to
water which may adapt them for the many useful pur-
poses to which leather is applied. Similar effects are
produced by forcing oil or grease into the pores of the
skin, or by preparation with alum ; processes which mav
be briefly noticed in connection with the more immediate
subject of this article.
The preparation of skins by tanning or other analogous
processes has been practised from the earliest times ; and,
although it has engaged the attention of several scientific
men, and has been the subject of many curious experi-
ments, it has received less modification from recent im-
provements in chemical science than many other manu-
facturing processes. Several plans which have been sug-
gested with a view to expediting the process, which, on
the old system, is a very tedious one, have been found to
deteriorate the quality of the leather, and have therefore
been wholly or partially abandoned ; and others, which
appear to be more successful, are as yet adopted by a few
manufacturers only. One of the probable causes of this
comparatively slow progress of improvement in the leather
manufacture is suggested in an interesting article on
' Tanning,' in the seventh edition of the ' Encyclopaedia
Britannica,' the author of which observes that, owing to
the slow turning of money in consequence of the length
of time occupied in tanning the heavier kinds of skins or
hides, the tanner ' must have capital enough to pay for
twelve months' hides, bark, &c., labour, and contingent
expenses, besides keeping a stock of leather ; and, when
his capital has been turned at the end of twelve or more
months, it must pay him, in one single profit, the in'erest,
&c. of twelve months.' ' This,' he proceeds to say, ' has
confined the trade to a few wealthy individuals, who look
upon tanning as an investment for capital rather than as a
business which might be improved by science ; and, being
in comfortable circumstances, they are not driven to per-
sonal exertion and close application, which would be
required of less wealthy tradesmen.' ' It is,' he adds,
'from these circumstances, that tanning has been more
stationary than any other manufacture, and that the few
improvements which have been made in it have not been
made by tanners.'
The larger and heavier skins operated upon by the tan-
ner, as those of bulls, buffaloes, oxen, and cows, are tech-
nically distinguished as hides; while the name skins is
applied to those of smaller animals, as calves, sheep, and
goats. The process necessary to convert hides into the
thick hard leather used for the soles of boots and shoes,
and for similar purposes, will be first noticed. The hides
are brought to the tanner cither in a fresh state, when
from animals recently slaughtered, or, when imported
from other countries, dried or salted, and sometimes both,
for the sake of preserving them from decomposition. In
the former case the horns are removed, and the hide is
scraped to cleanse it from any small portions of flesh or
fatty matter which may adhere to the cutis ; but in the
latter it is necessary to soften the hides, and bring them
as nearly as possible to the fresh state, by steeping them
in water, and repeated rubbing or beating. After this
the hair is removed ; sometimes by steeping the hides for
several days in a solution of lime and water, which has
the effect of loosening the hair and epidermis, or outer
skin ; and sometimes by suspending them in a close
chamber called a smoke-house, heated a little above the,
ordinary temperature of the atmosphere by means of a
smouldering fire ; in which case the epidermis becomes
loosened by incipient putrefaction. In either case, when
the hair and epidermis, or cuticle, are sufficiently loosened,
they are removed by scraping with a curved knife, the
hide being laid upon a convex bench, or ' beam.' The,
hides are prepared for the actual tanning, or immersion in
a solution of bark, by steeping them for a few days in a
pit containing a sour solution of rye or barley flour, or in
a very weak menstruum consisting of one part of sulphuric
acid mixed with from five hundred to a thousand parts of
water. By this process, which is called ' raising,' the pores
of the hides are distended and rendered more susceptible
of the action of the tan, and the substance of the skin is
apparently increased ; but, as the process does not add to
the gelatin of the skin, a hide which is much thickened by
T A N
88
T \ \
the : stance when conden-
•
Different tan- ibovf-
ccsses, a.s wull as in those which
follow, and w':: the uctunl tanri
jielt' into leather. O^k Imrk is
i ommollly Used III Mlppb.
coarse
ami otlu-i
157. Ill the
of tanning, which is not vet entirely abandoned, the hides
and powdered Imrk WITI> laid in alten: in the
tan-pit, which was then filled with water to the brim.
After some months the pit was emptied and re-filled with
fresh bnrk and water, ami this process was repented when-
ever • the bark w»i exhausted. In this way
the time hides varied, ac-
cording to their thickness and other circumstances, from
one to four years. The process has been groat h expc-
dited l)_v the improvements introduced in consequence of
the experiments of M. Seguin, a French chemist, which
arc detailed in Nicholson's • Journal,' vol. i., p. 271
quarto sciies. published in the year 17!»7 . of tanning
with concentrated solutions of Lark, formed by pass-
ing vwiter through a mass of powdered bark, until, by
suocessjvo infiltrations, it is completely deprived of its
soluble tanning principle. Scguin expected that, by the
use of very strong solutions, hides and skins might be
tanned in as many days as, under the old system, they
would require months: but these expectations have been
imperfectly realised in practice, although the new
11, which has been very extensively adopted, has
been productive of an important saving of time. With-
out entering into a minute investigation of the objections
to the use of concentrated tanning infusions, it may he
sufficient to state that, as observed by the late Sir Hum-
phry Davy, in hisvaluab!" paper on the operation of astrin-
gent vegetables in tau'uiig, published in the 'Philosophi-
cal Transactions' tor 1803, experience shows that
which are quickly tanned, by the use of strong solutions.
prod- of less (Unable quality than that which is
' formed. Dr. I'rc. in reference to this important
point' t. of Arts, &X., p. l'22(i :—• The older tan-
••. ho prided themselves on producing a substantial
article, were so much impressed with the advantages of4
slowly impregnating skin with astringent matter, that
they employed no concentrated in; ' in their
iiatilicd the sKins with abundance of ground
bark, and covered them with soft water, knowing thai its
active principles a: 'nblc. and that, by being
gradually extracted, they would penetrate- uniformly the
whole of the animal film--, in -lead of acting chiefly Upon
dace, and making ! Micr, as the strong in-
fusions never fail to do.' In illustration of these re;
he states that KXtlbs. of skin, quickly tanned in a -
infusion of bark, will produce l.'tTlbs. "of leather, while the
same weight of skin, slowly tanned in a weak soil
produce only 117^1 bs. ; the additional 19ilbs. in the for-
mer case lending to swell the tanner's bill, although it
deteriorates the leather, and causes it to contain I
the textile animal solid. Leather so highly charged with
tannin is. mop. -, as to allow moisture to
pores : but the saving of time
-irons* temptations to the
r to adopt tin- s\-teiu of tanning v.illi concent
infusions.
The variations of practice among different tannei-
teud to the substance used as an astringent, as well as to
Hie manner of applying it. (Ironud oak-bark, which was
l\ material in common u-i 'ill the
1 leather of a light-lawn
'
imported forth.
inclined to
<ohdity and w
ml whi<
from
i the
Xli., p. -I Ij. <ll!ll Is OUglH
Mor. ' !iu. or terra ja-
-iis to water. Another substance vvhu •!•
used of late years is a kind of bonn-pod
Till sc s!.|.st;inci ,.>• imliv id -a'ty Or itl
In the •
ning Some
tanin ..i hers hot
water or steam ; others at.
ploy ooze,, or tanning liquid, which has been exhausted h\
use. A I'm t her point of diffeiencc is found in ll
of the d. which
the i:1 -i of the hides v itii
laying them ilat in the tan-pits, they are :
out to renew the solution ; and the skins
near the top of one pit arc laid near th-
next, so as to equalize the amount of hvd:
Sometimes the tannin;: is facilitated In snspendir
skins vertically in the liquid, by which
penetrated quickly: but the plan rcqui:-
room : and. unless the skins are freip1-
sious injurious folds in the leather. Another plan, which
answers well for small light skins, that require i
time for tanning, is to sew up the skin into t;
a bag, to fill it with tan-liquor, and then immerse it in
the pit. The great space required is the principal o!
lion to this plan. In whichever of the above
tanning is effected, the hide is subjected to the "action
of solutions increasing PP 111 strength, until it
is so perfectly penetrated, that when cut i
scuts a uniform brown colour: any appearance of n light
streak in the middle of its thickness bemoan indicati.
imperfect fanning. When the process is complete, the
hides are hung up in a shed, and allowed to dry slowly :
and. while they are (Irvine, they are compressed !>\
ing or rubbing, or lr. them between rolfc
irive- them firmness and \ vcl'ow dcpe
how found upon the Surface of the leather, to which
the name of 'bloom' or 'pitching' is technic;.1
and, although this depos:' .jucntly n
the shoemaker in the operation of buffi::
useless a. 1.1,! ion to the weight and cost of the leather,
the prejudice of pun quires that it :
the si the tanner. According tu the
tion of the ' Encyclopivdia liritanniea.' this N
. the finer portion of tin from the interior
of the skill, dissolved by the •
mains upon the surface by capillary attraction : and the
waste and deterioration occasion! .iidd
be prev ente 1 bv the careful removal, by j if the
exhausted ooze.
Although, owing to the many differences in the pra>
of tanning, no definite time can be stated for the various
operations mentioned above, il may ! i that the
uMial period required for tanning such h;
for tin i.en's boots is from six to twelve mouths,
and that from fifteen to eighteen months A d in
.ng those of the thickest kinds, which a
•butts It rema: noticing the
r.g the thinner kin. 'her.
to advert to some of the methods which h
contrived for ell'ecting a greater saving of time than
could bo accomplished by any . Men-
tioned.
Several schemes have been devised for fun-im; a tanning
solution tin. hide by m
;:iued a patent in Isj
:ianner :— The hides,
after i . cleansed, and otlle.
' manner, were to be .
to sou: dental hole being then sewed Uj
a.s to n ' u-hl. Three frames v
prov ided of similar shape, and of such n form and si/e thai
when laid upon each other, with two I . i between
might lie screwed to.
ing tin. • eting ears, so that tbi
a (hit water-tight chamber, circumscribed by t!.
•hen placed m a v( rtical
ii-liquor was introduced ' r or
•en the hides through a pipe inserted in the
.'.a me : the air being allo .'her
pipe, which should be
came filled with the liqu: -up-
phed fioni an i required degree of
hydrostatic the chamber;
T A N
39
TAN
the effect of which was to distend or swell out the sides,
and to force the liquid through the pores of the skins,
it making its appearance OH the outer sides like drops of
dew or perspiration. When the leather appeared to be
sufficiently tanned, the liquor was drawn off by a stop-
cock, the frames were unscrewed, and the compressed
edges of the hide were cut oft'. Spilsbury's process was
soon abandoned ; the reason of its failure being, aecord.-
ing to the author before quoted, in the ' Encyclopaedia Bri-
tannira,' that a large excess of tannin dissolves gelatin ; so
that taunate of gelatin was found on the outer sides of the
skins in the form of long masses of slime, while the leather
had lost much in weight, was very porous, and unequally
tanned, in consequence of the tun-liquor penetrating most
readily the thinnest or weakest parts of the hide. The
error of the principle of this method not being generally
understood, several similar plans were subsequently con-
trived by different persons ; but these, or most of them,
have been found unsuccessful. Of these, allusion may be
made to the process patented by Mr. Drake, which con-
i in sewing two skins together (after they had re-
ceived a slight tanning in the ordinary way), so as to form
a watfr-tight bag, which was filled with tan-liquor. The
bag thus formed was compressed between two vertical
gridiron-like frames or racks, by which it was prevented
from bulging at the sides, and the liquor was confined to a
thin vertical stratum. As in the last process, the aqueous
portion of the tan-liquor percolated through the hides ;
and this penetration of the leather was facilitated by
heating the room so as to promote evaporation from the
exterior surfaces of the bags or skins. To prevent the
bars of the racks or frames from producing permanent in-
dentations in the leather, it is necessary to shift the bags
a little occasionally during the process. In another some-
what similar plan, contrived by Mr. Cox, the hides were
to be sewed up in the form of bags, and supported by a
casing of canvas ; and in the process of Mr. Chaplin, the
bags were laid in an inclined position, and turned periodi-
cally to equalize the action of the tan. With every pre-
caution however, it is difficult to tan a hide equally by any
such process ; and the objection urged against Spilsbury's
plan applies to nil the modifications of it. In another
plan, which has been tried under several forms, the tan-
ning liquid is applied to both sides of the hides, which are
E laced in an air-tight vessel, and is forced into their pores
y hydrostatic pressure, the air being previously pumped
out. The operation may be repeated ;H often &s in d
with infu-ions gradually increasing in strength ; air being
allowed to fill the pores of the hide between each immer-
sion. Another plan which may be alluded to here is that
of an American tanner, Osmond Cagswell, described by
II 'bert (Engi/i \Ji'i-liiniir'x i./i<-i/rl',],ffdin,^o\.\\.,
p. 04), from the 'Journal' of the Franklin Institute. It
consists in laying; the hides upon a quantity of sawdust,
contained in shallow boxes, of which any required number
may be arranged in a suitable framework, about twelve
inches above one another. The hides are not laid fiat, but
have their edges a little raised, so that their upper surfaces
form shallow troughs capable of holding a layer of the
tanning solution, which must be replenished from time to
time as it filters through the hide and the sawdust, or
other soft, porous substance upon which it is laid. The
spent liquor runs off' from the bottom of the box or trough,
which is somewhat inclined for that purpose, into :i
or channel provided for it. -The improvement consists,
according to the specification quoted by Hrbert, ' in ap-
plying a solution of oak or other bark to hides or skins in
i manner as that when the glutinous (gelatinou
tides uf the hide have ab-nrheil and become mixed vutl
the tanning or astringent principle, the other part of tin
solution (i.e. the water) may pass off, and leave the hidi
free to receive more of the solution ; and so on till it i*>
tanned.' The operation was performed, it is stated, in a
very short time ; but as the outer parts or edges of tin
hides were not perfectly tanned by it, it was necessary to
immerse them in vats in the usual manner for tnret
or four weeks, to complete the process. If the principle
were iound to be. advantageous, this, which forms ;
' defect in Mr. Cagswell's scheme, might be readily
avoided.
Still more recent than any of the above-mentioned plan
. Herepath and ( 'ox, of Bristol .
which, an far as present experience can show, appears to
fleet the desired object very completely. Their process,
which was patented November 16, 1837, is founded upon
he principle of washing a sponge, by alternately allowing
t to imbibe water, and then forcibly expressing it. In the
)ld system of tanning, the hide may be compared to a
ponge, which, after being saturated in a weak solution, is
emoved to a stronger, without the fluid contained in its
>ores being squeezed out ; while in the new plan the weak
illusion, or ooze, is forced out of the pores of the hide be-
bre it is subjected to a stronger, so that the fresh ooze
may be able to act more efficiently. This is effected by
connecting a number of hides together by strings, so as to
'brm a continuous belt, and passing them between rollers
.urned by steam or other power, while they are being re-
moved from one solution to another. In order to produce
a tolerably uniform belt or continuous sheet of hides, they
are either placed alternately head to head and tail to tail ;
or, if laid across the belt, with the heads and tails towards
each side alternately. In one of the arrangements de-
scribed in the specification, the hides are united into an
endless band, and are always passed between the rollers
of which a pair is erected over each pit) in one direction ;
Kit in another plan the ends of the belt are not connected
:ogether, and the motion of the rollers is reversed when
necessary, so that the belt of hides may be delivered into
.he tan-liquor alternately on each side of the apparatus.
The latter arrangement is that described in the recently
published article in the ' Encyclopaedia Britaunica,' from
ffhich the following details are derived. The lower roller
s about thirty inches in diameter, and is covered with
Horsehair cloth ; and the upper roller, which is pressed
igainst the lower one with any determinate degree of force
by means of weighted levers, is only about eighteen inches
in diameter, and is covered with woollen cloth. By this
process a strong hide may, it is stated, be tanned through
in from one to two months, and calf-skins and hips (the
hides of young cattle) in from twenty to thirty days.
Double the usual quantity of work is performed ; one-half
of the capital required in the common process is rendered
unnecessary ; the saving on bark, labour, and general cost
of manufacture is about 1J'/. per Ib. ; and the increase in
the weight of butt leather, as compared with that made in
the usual way, is as 34 Ibs. to 28 Ibs. The very thick hides,
known as ' butts,' when prepared by the patent process,
are sent to market within four months from the time of
their delivery in the tanner's yard ; and the profits arising
from quick returns, great weight of leather produced, and
reduced cost of production, are stated to be eight times as
great as upon the old plan, the prices of hides, bark, and
leather being the same. It should be further observed that
the leather made in this way is more elastic and imper-
vious to water than any other.
Although the general principles involved in the prepa-
ration of all kinds of leather are the same, and some of
the processes above described are performed with little
variation upon the skins of smaller animals as well as upon
the thick hides of various kinds of oxen, the precise course
of operations requires many modifications which cannot
be here described. Of the preparation of several of the
lighter and more ornamental kinds of leather, a familiar
account is given in No. 652 of the ' Penny Magazine.'
which is devoted to a sketch of the processes followed at
one of the great leather-manufactories of Bermondsey.
\Ve have- hitherto alluded chiefly to the preparation of the
thick hides used for sole-leather, among which several
varieties may be found, each distinguished by a different
technical name, by which its thickness, quality, or mode
of preparation is known ; but the thinnest and weakest,
hides, as well as the skins of calves and other animals, are
aUo prepared for use as upper-leathers, in which case it is
itary to reduce their thickness by shaving or paring
them down upon the flesh or inner side, before they are
subjected to the action of the tanning infusions. Such
hides or skins also require, after leaving the hands of the
tanner, to be nibbed, softened, and dressed by the currier,
in order to bring them to the necessary degree of flexibility
and smoothness. The currier also has recourse to shaving
or paring with a peculiarly formed knife, to bring the skin
to the requisite tenuity; and it is his office to blacken
tin- surface, which, for common shoe-leather, is done on
the flesh side, although for some purposes leather is
blackened upon the outer or grain side. Horse-hides,
which are comparatively weak and thin, are sometime*
TAN
40
TAN
dressed in the latter way, under the name oi cnnloeat
hides, from tin- circumstance of such leather having been
form. - • -\ins Mipph
the tjuality of leather most generally preferred for tin
i )>art of IxHita and shoes.
Of the thin -km* prepared fur ornamental purpose*
many are tanned with a substance ealled sumach, i>reparc<
from a plant of the same name. [Km-s.vol. xix.. p.484/
At the establishment aho\ c referreil to, which is common!)
known as the Neckingci Mills, sumach leather is exteiisiv clx
prepared: the most important kind beinir that callcc
DCOO,' which iMiiade from goat-skins. In the routini
•ed ill the paper from which wo quote,
thi- pruees-.es of cleansing the skins from fleshy impurities
and removing the hair. Jce., present no material \ariation
i those before described. During these processes, tin
lime employed to assist in the depilation enters the pores
of the skin so completely, that it would impede the action
of the tanning liquid if allowed to remain. It is there-
fore removed by immersion in an alkaline solution, which
opens the pores in a way resembling the pro,
' raisin;:.' described in a previous column. The tanning
is then performed by sewing up each skin into the form ol
a bag. with the grain or hair-side outwards, and nearly
filling it with :•. iution of sumach in water. The
bag is then fully distended by blowing into it, and the
aperture is tied up: after which it is thrown into a large
shallow vessel filled with hot water containing a little
sumach. The distended bags float in this vessel, and are
ionally moved about with a wooden instrument,
until the solution which they contain has thoroughly pene-
trated their substance. Owing to the thinness of the
skins and the heat to which they are exposed, this opera-
lion is performed in a few hours. The process is expe-
dited by taking the bags out of the solution and piling
them upon a perforated bench or rack at the side of the
tub, so that their own weight may force the confined
liquid through the pores. \Vhen the tanning is completed,
the bags are opened to remove the sediment of the su-
mach ; the skins are washed, rubbed on a board, and dried ;
after which they are ready for dyeing and finishing with a
ridged instrument, which imparts to the surface that pe-
culiar grain by which morocco leather is distinguished.
An inferior kind of leather, known as ' imitation morocco,'
is prepared in a similar manner from sheep-skins. The
wool is removed from these skins by the fellmonger;
after which they are subjected to great pressure in a hy-
drostatic press, in order to remove the oleaginous or greasy
matter which they contain in a much larger quantity than
goat-skins. Surprising as it may appear, these, as well as
larger and thicker skins, are often divided or split by a
machine into two thicknesses, each of which maybe made
into leather suitable for some of the purposes to which it
is applied, as the covering or lining of books, work-boxes,
hats, .K:c.
'/'•nririg is the name applied to the process by which
the skins of sheep, lambs, and kid.s are converted into soft
leather by the action of alum. Of this kind of leather
gloves are usually made. Skins intended for tawing pass
through a series of operations resembling those by which
.skins are prepared for tanning, but they are then subjected
to a solution of alum and salt, to which, for the superior
kinds of leather, flour and yolks of eggs are added, instead
of a vegetable astringent solution. Sometimes the skins
are put into a kind of barrel with the solution, and then
the whole is made to rotate lapidly, by which the skins are
quickly penetrated : and in other cases the impregnation
is effected in an open tub, the skins being worked in the
pasty liquid with the hands, or trampled upon by Hie
naked feel of a man. until the emulsion is thoroughly in-
corporated with them. They subsequently require :i
deal of stretching and nibbing over a kina of blunt .
knife, and some oilier finishing operations, to give them
the requisite smoothness and suppleness. Many of the
gloves sold ax kid are really made of lamb-skins, of which
considerable numbers are imported from the shores of the
Mediterranean. These are brought with the wool on;
and, as it would l>c injured ti\ tlie action of lime, it is
loosened by inducing fermentation or incipient putielar-
lion in subterranean vaults or cellars ; an Operation which
require* great nicely, since the pelt would be injured by
allowing the fvrmentation to proceed too far. After the !
wool luw been removed, and the skins have been btraped ]
to free them from a slimy substance which i \udus from
the pores, the | -,-d in lime-watc
nove the grea.se which \. in them.
The subsequent operations of r< •, ing.
&c., are similar to those required for other skins. In
tawing sheep-skins with the wool on. |,, , and
similar articles, the wool side is carefully folded in
to protect it from the tawing liquid or paste, wlr
then applied to the flesh side only. Other skii:
sionally converted into leather "without rein.
wool or hair.
The only other kind of leather to be here noticed is that
in which oil or i , ced into the pores ol' the
to take the place of the animal matter, which would tend
to its decomposition by putrefaction. This kind
:ts name from a'tine soil leather prepared from the
skin of the chamois goat : and the procc-s bV which
made is called shamo\iug or shannnying. Such leather
was formerly very much used a- an "aid liing,
especially by soldiers; and it is still applied '
useful purposes, for which its pecuh and plia-
bility renders it valuable. Wash-leather may i
a common example of this kind of pn
of deer, goats, sheep. Jic. are dressed in this way: and
much shamovcd leather is made from the infen.
regular portion of split skins, in cases whci,
en taken oft' carefully of a uniform thicku
partition in a different way! In general, when wlrole skii^
are shamoyed, the grain surface is icmovc.i
rubbing with pumice-stone. Alter the usiiaf preparation
with lime-water, and subsequent washing in a sour im
of bran or some similar liquor, to remove the hmc and
open the ]Kires. the skins are made as di . le by
wringing or pressing them. and. in the pi-oce-s prr.
at the Ncckingcr Mills, are then exposed to the action of
fulling-stocks, which consist of hea\y wooden ham;
faced with copper, and set in motion by connection with a
revolving shaft. A wheel revolves near the head of each
hammer, of which two are mounted together in one li.
work ; and this wheel is made, during its revolution, alter-
nately to raise the hammer about a foot, and to let r
into a trough fitted to receive its head. The lca:lu-r. or
rather a roll of the skins which are tobe made into leather,
is placed in this trough, and beaten by the hammers until
f is perfectly dry. Cod-oil is then poured upon the skins,
and forced into their pores by the action of tfie hammers
>r stocks : the form of the trough being such that the skins
gradually turn themselves over and over during the opera-
tion, to render the heating uniform. When the oil is tho-
roughly beaten in, the skins are hung up to (ivy, after
which they are returned to the trough to receive 'a
supply of oil and a repetition of the beating. Ti
repeated eight or nine times, until two or three gallons of
oil have been imbibed by one hundred skin.- : and when
hc\ are sufficiently impregnated with it, they are placed
n large tubs, or bung up in e 1 chambci
which they undergo a kind of fermentation, by which the
wres are distended, and the action of the oil upon the
ibres is completed : and finally they are imnie.sed in a
weak solution of potash, which removes whatever CM -
)il may have remained in the leather, forming with it a
saponaceous mixture. They are then hung up in the open
lir to dry.
(Dr. Ore's l)i< ti<uinry of Arts, &c., art. 'Leather;' EII-
!/,•/:, ;,<fi/id UriliiMiiii-ii, seventh edit., art. 'Tanning;'
lebei1' ..'j'r'.v Kiicyrlojiffiliti, art.
J.cat iii M:i^i:;inr, No. (i.VJ.
TAXSI'I.1.0. i.riCI. born of a noble family at \,,la.
n the kingdom of Naples, about the year 1.11(1. w:ote in
.!h a licentious poem, entitled 'II VendemniKi'
>r ' the Vintager.' wherein he deals largely in the obscene
ml scurrilities in which the peasantry of his country
ing the vintage season, something after the
nanner of the antient Saturnalia. This poem, which the
intbor did not intend for the press, wits published by some
riend through an abuse of confidence. In older to make
mends. Tansillo wrote a pious poem, entitled • I.e I.agrime
i San 1'ietro.' of which a part oulj was published I, cfi.ro
1th. A more complete edition of it was published
n llXMi. Malherbe mad.' a translation, or rather wrote an
imitation ol I ' Lea Larmes de St. itcVs
dn Tansillr. an Km Henri III..' 1.1S7. Tansillo re, i. led
chiefly at Naples, at the court of the Spanish viceroy
TAN
Don Pedro de Toledo and his son Don Garcia. He accom-
panied the viceroy in an expedition against the Barbary
powers. He died about 1584. He wrote also a georgical
poem, entitled ' II Podere,' and another didactic poem,
entitled ' La Balia,' besides sonnets, canzoni, and other
lyric poems, in which he has displayed great poetical
powers. Pie has been compared by some with Petrarca.
A complete edition of Tansillo's works was published at
Venice in 1738, in 4to. (Tiraboschi, Storia della Lettera-
t a ni llnli/ina; Corniani, Secoli delta Letteratura Italiana.)
TANSY. [TANACETUM.]
TANTA'LID/K, a family of Wading Birds. [GRALLA-
TORES.]
The genus Tantalus of Linnaeus stands between the
genera Arden 'and tjaifnpa.r, in the twelfth edition of the
Cuvier places the genus Tantalum between the Open-
beaks (Hiutis, Lacep_. : Anastomiw, 111.) and the Spoonbills
• I'/ntntmi. Linn.). He characterizes the genus as having
the feet, the nostrils, and the bill of a stork; but the back
of the bill is, he observes, rounded, and its point curved
downwards and slightly notched on each side : a portion of
the head, and sometimes of the neck, is, he adds, de-
nuded of feathers. He notices the following species: the
American Tantalus. Taiitnlux loculator, Linn. ; the Afri-
can Tantalus, Tmitalux Ibis, Linn. ; and the Ceylonese
Ibis. Tiiiitiiliin li-nriiri')ili<iln*< the largest of all.
Of T'liilnlii-i lltix. lie remarks that it is white slightly
clouded with purple on the wings, with a yellow beak, and
the skin of the fare naked and red, adding that it was for
a lung time regarded by naturalists as the bird so much
revered by the antient Egyptians under the name of //;/*•,
but that, recent researches had proved that the Ibis is a
much smaller species, of which he intends to treat there-
after. This species, lie states, is not commonly found in
Eirypt, but that it had been brought from Senegal. Tan-
tnlii.i he arranges in the family f'tit/irnxtrt'*.
ffiix, Cuv., finds a place in the Rcgin' Animal. as the se-
cond genus of Cu\ier's LotlgifWtFet, between Scolopax
and yiiuviniix, Cuv.
II>U rtiliyioi-i, Cuv. — Adult.
Cir. 'hut In1 has separated the Ibises from the
Tuiiliili oi Gmelin, because their bill, arched like that of
the Tuiiliili, is ne\ertlieless much more feeble, and with-
out any notch at the point, whilst the nostrils, pierced to-
the back of its base, are each prolonged into a furrow
i continues to the tip. The bill, he adds, is rather
thick, and nearly square at its base: there is always, he
further remarks, some part (if the head, or even of the
neck, denuded of i'enilier~. The external toes are notably
palmated ni then bue, and (tie hind toe is sufficiently long
to toucli the earth. Some of the species, he observes, have
P, I'., No. 1 4!K».
41 TAN
the legs short and reticulated: these are the most robust,
and have the largest bill.
Of this genus Cuvier notices the following species: —
L'Ibis sacrc (Ibis religiosa, Cuv. ; Abou-Hannes, Bruce,
pi. 35; Tantalus Mthiopicus, Lath.). For the adult of
this species he refers to Ossemens Fossiles, torn, i., pi. 1
and 2 (skeleton and perfect bird) ; and for the young to
Savigny, Descrip. de I'Egypte, Hist. Nat. des Ois., pi. 7.
' This,' says Cuvier, ' is the most celebrated species : it
was reared in the temples of antient Egypt, with venera-
tion which approached to worship ; and it was embalmed
after its death, as some said, because it devoured the ser-
pents which would otherwise have become dangerous to
the country:— according to others, because there was a
resemblance between its plumage and some of the phases
of the moon : finally, according to other some, because its
advent announced the rising of the Nile. For a long time
it was thought that this Ibis of the Egyptians was the Tan-
talus of Africa : we now know that it belongs to the genus
of which we are treating. It is as large as a hen, with
white plumage, except the end of the wing-feathers, which
is black ; the last coverts have their barbs elongated, loose,
black, with violet reflections, and thus covering the end
of the wings and tail. The bill and the feet are black, as
well as all the naked part of the head and neck : this part
is covered in youth, at least on its upper surface, with
small blackish feathers. The species is found throughout
the extent of Africa.' [ABOU-HANNES.]
The other species noticed by Cuvier are — L'Ibis rouge
(Scolopax ruber, Linn. ; Tantalus ruber, Gra.) and L'Ibis
vert, vulg. Courtis vert (Scolopax falcineUus, Linn.).
iRcgHf Animal.)
The following is the description of L'Ibis vert (Ibisfal-
cinellus): — Purpled chestnut, with deep green mantle.
The young with the head and neck sprinkled with whitish.
Locality, South of Europe and North of Africa. (Regne
Animal.}
This, Cuvier observes, is to all appearance the species
which the antients called the Black Ibis. [ABOU-HANNES,
vol. i., p. 38.]
The views of Mr. Vigors with regard to the position of
Tantalus will be found in the article HERONS, vol. xii.,
p. 1G5.
Mr. Swainson states that the Tantalidee, or Ibises, are
large and very singular birds, living almost entirely on the
swampy banks of rivers and fresh waters, rarely, if ever
frequenting open shores, like the more typical waders.
He observes that their habits and structure seem com-
pounded of those belonging to the HERONS on one side
and to the Rails [RALLID.E] on the other : their flight and
size, he says, remind us of the former, while their long toes
and insectivorous nature are more in unison with the latter.
He traces their analogy to the Tenuirostres in the metallic.
colours of their plumage and in their having their heads
frequently bare of feathers, as in the Ampelidec and other
tenuirostral types. The majority, he remarks, live in tro-
pical latitudes.
In the Synopsis the following characters of the family
(which is placed between the Ardeidce and BalKdce) are
given : —
Tantalidee.
Family diameter. — Size large. Bill hard, considerably
lengthened, cylindrical, and curved from the base. Face
and head more or less naked. Hinder toe on the same
plane as the others. Plumage metallic.
Genera.
Anastomus, 111. Open beak. Bill straight, hard, heavy,
solid, compressed, marked with longitudinal wrinkles.
Upper mandible very straight ; the base thickened at the
top and as high as the crown ; the tip notched ; the mar-
gin dentated : under mandible greatly curved upwards,
and only touching the upper at the base and at the tip.
Example, Anastomus lamelligerus.
T't/i/uttis, Linn. Bill nearly as thick at the base as the
head ; cylindrical and attenuated towards the tips, which
are slender and slightly bent: margins entire. Upper
mandible notched. Nostrils naked, vertical, basal, oval-
oblong. Toes connected at the base.
Example, Tantalus loculator. ,
Ibis, Antiq. Bill much more slender ; cylindrical, and
arched from the base. Nostrils basal, lateral. Wings
broad, ample : the second and third quills longest.
Example, Itn't rnlifi-.
VOL. XXIV.-G
I \
I.'
I' A I'
.trumiu, Vieill. Bill lengthened, slightly curved to-
wards tin- ]x>int, which is entire and indexed. I'nder
mandible cunt-d from about the middle and angulalcd.
Furrow of the MMbik long. Nostril* lateral, remot
the base, longitudinal. Feet long. Hnllux elevated. An-
terior toes divided ;it their ha>e. Wings moderate ; the
two fir>t i|\iill> shorter than tin- third, which is the I
America.
. .IniMM tcolofxicitit. ((" >n of
( 'anino places tlii' Tniiliilidir between the
:iges uiidt'r tlu> former
and lbi». (Bird* qf I.
Mr. G. H. Gray makes the Tuntnliiur the fifth an-:
subfamily at \he Ardeidte, placing it next to the Cicuniiur,
and arranging under it the following genera: —
I. inn. Ibit, Moehr. ii--n>Hticitx. Waul- Cer-
', \Vagl. Phimottu,
.
l'/i/rinf/li(s, (Ray)Bectut. Vieill.
Mr. ' - the synonyms of all these genera. (Lift
.;/•// .'Mir edit.)
Wi I . illustrate the Ibivs nt' Ainenea In, Xut-
tall's description of the Scurlrt I/JIK, I/iis riibnt of Yieillot,
Taiit/iliis riibrr of Linnaui -shy.
This specii s is ±i inches in length and ;• ex-
tent. Bill 5 inches long, thick, and u!' a somewhat square
form at the base, gradually bent downwards and .sharply
ridged ; black, except near the base, \\here it inclines to
red. Iris dark-hazel. The face naked, slightly wrinkled.
pale. -red. Chin bare, wrinkled also. Pliimagc'iich, glow-
i>t about three inches of the extremities of
the four outer (mill-feathers, which are deep steel-blue.
pale red ; the three anterior toes united by a mem-
brane as far as the first joint. N'uttall. i
•This brilliant and exclusively American .species, in-
habits chiefly,' says Xuttall. • within the tropics, abound-
ing in the West India and Bahama Islands, and south of
the equator, at least as far as Brazil. They migrate in the
course of the summer (about July and August into
Florida, Alabama, Georgia, and South ( 'arolina ; but retire
into Mexico, or the Caribbean Islands, at the approach of
cool weather. They .generally associate in numhc:
(mcnting the borders of the sea, and the banks ami
aries of neighbouring rivers, feeding on small fry, shell-
li«h. crustacca, worms, and insects, which they col!
the ebbing of the tide. The) are said to be in the habit
of perching on trees in companies ; but they lay their eggs,
which are greenish, on the ground, amidst the tall giass
of the marshes, on a slight, iii'-t of leave.--. When just
hatched, the young are black, soon changing to grey, but
are nearly white before they arc able to fly :
they attain their red plumage, which is not complete until
the third year. The young and old associate in distinct
bands. In the countries where they abound, they are
sometimes domesticated, and accompany the poultry.
The Ibis shows great courage in attacking tie
will even defend itself from the insidious attacks of the
cat. It is generally esteemed as good food ; and r
and gaudy plumage is used by the Brazilians for various
iirnam ithology ff the I'nilnl
Slut'* unit nf C'lnnitti.)
TANTALITE. [COLUMBIUM.]
PANT ALUM.
TVNTAI.rS. Ornithology.) [TANTALio.K.l
sYSI'l'TKKA. [KINGFISHERS, vol. xiii.. p. 212.]
I MMMI'N'A.
TAOS. [Mi .
TAT ROOT,
TAl'A.IOS. [l!:vm..1
'•KM. [KN,W.<-A.]
TAl'KSTKY French. Tiifii^i'rii- : Italian. 71 •/ ,
Thin name is most commonly applied to the textile fabrics.
u.siially composed of wool or silk, and sometimes enriched
with gold and - embroidered with 1
landscapes, or ornamental devices, it ml used as a In
covering for the walls of apartment- l! i- derived from
the French ' tnpis." which is fiom the I.alin 'tap
' tape I.:. tin won' -me as (In-
r ' lapis' 'raTrijc, rajrtj). 'ii and
^'nificU u carpet or covering for a bed or
i • tapi«." though uencrally applietl to
carpets, is also used to evpn In used
a> .,, \erings, cueh us tile
most probably, we base the common expre^-ion 'on the
tapis,' us applied to subjects under '
• n. Of the use of the wmd 1
extend I here is an in-1
inedy of Krror-,' act iv.. BC. 1. where Antijiluilu-
ills to Adrmmi, informing her that
•Inllr
Th«i'. eorcnd o'er with Turkish Ur«lry,
Tbero a • purar* of ilue»i»,' &r.
.lohnson, who eile> this passage, gives also one from
Dryden. in which taji. d in the -eu-r of cai
' Thp catrrai-nt« mrc with jfolilrn \imne «
\od hor.,V boob, fur«irili, on nlkrn U|x»it)' f**d.'
In this more geneial sense the term is used bv M.
Achille Jnbinal, in his recently published
• Kccherehes siir l'l:snge el I'Oiigii"
which he extends his inijuiiy to worked 01
tapi.-serics a ym 1 I'm inanv other purpOM
the covering of warn. To this work we are ii.i
much of the following information respecting the 1>.
of ta]^.
The early historv of the art of producing figured fabrics
bv the loom nun be more convenient!) ircn'.i-d of under
WBAVI^O than in this place: and it may i
to observe, that although the loom \\:i
! times by the Greeks and Romans for the produc-
tion of ordinary ti roes, its application to the v\va\
ornamented or figured fabric swas chiefly Oriental.
probable also that many of the early tape.-tries wi ;
broidered by hand or 'worked with the needle. This
kind of work, of which the Dayeux tapcstiy is a ccle-
eontinued long alter the prae'
weaving tapestry ill the loom had become common. The
ornamented curtains of the .Jewish tabernacle.
in the twenty-sixth, thirty-fifth, and thirty-sixth chapters
of Exodus, are generally considered to have been embroi-
dered by the needle. Jubinal supposes that they were
worked with a needle in thread of silk. gold, or wool, in
such a manner as to imitate the brilliancy of the plumage
of birds; but be conceives thai the vail of the Holy nf
Holies, which is described in the Knglish translation of the
Bible as of •cunning • . \x\i. Ill: andxxxvi.
1C) . and which was ornamented with cherubim, was pio-
(luced by the skill of the weaver, -that il to say. executed
by the shuttle with woofs of various colours, and in v
st'ntf.'
The Jews are supposed to have derived their skill in
embroider)- and other ornamental work of similar cha-
racter from the Kgyptians, who produced figured cloths
both by the needle and the loom, and practised the art of
introducing gold thread or wire into . \Vilkin-
son observes 1; ; ('nxtumx nfthe . \nln-nt i
vol. iii.. p. liN . • Many of the Egyptian stud's pre-
sented various patte > the loom.
independent of those produced by the dyeing or printing
process, an , '.led with cloths
embroidered by the needle' .lubinal ipi, • il an-
tient autbiv ' i figured tissues as made and
u~ed ! ,d other nations of antiquity.
Babylonians to rcpn-ent the
mysti- and to perpetuate histo
PhilostratU lonius of Tyaua. mentions
Babylonian ^ineiited witli siiver anil gold.
. eeks ]irai irl of embroidering figures upon
cloth, and attributed it.s invention toMinciva. I:
alludes, in several pa-^nge-i of the ' Iliad' and • Oil;.
to embroidered stutl's o! the character designated by .lu-
binal 'tapisseiies a ymaiges.' among which he com
even some artici. Without attemptiiu
the investigation of this subject mil,:
of the chaiai-tcr of tlie-e ornamental li--ues may In' given
• thi' article • I'cphim ' in the • Diclionai)
! IvMinan Antiimilics.' edited h) Dr. Smith: the
au thor of the article 'Peplum'ol ' of all the pro-
duction nl tie.' loom. upon which the
••-.t *kill and labour wen employed; and that ihesul)-
• nteil upon them wen- so various :n,.| l;,sletul,
thai j'i if iihe them, lie adds thai •
and whi'li. with Vaiil M • aimng Im:,
TAP
43
TAP
pieces and a sreat variety of subjects, belonged to the
temple of Apollo at Delphi, and was used to form a mag-
nificent tent for the purpose of an entertainment (Ion,
1141-1162) ; for it is to be observed that stores of shawls
were not only kept by wealthy individuals (Homer, Odyssey,
xv., 104-108), but often constituted a very important part
of the treasures of a temple (Euripides, Ion, 329, 330),
having been presented to the divinity on numerous occa-
sions by suppliants and devotees. (Homer, Iliad, vi.,
271-304"; Virgil, Mneid, i., 480, Ciris, 21-35.)'
Several substances appear to have been used by the
antients as materials for the ornamental fabrics alluded
to. Jubinal states that flax, wool, and byssus [Bvssus,
vol. vi., p. 81] entered into their composition; and
that the richest colours, embroidery, precious stones, and
gold, were used in them. It is not very clear in what
form and manner gold \vas applied in many cases. In
the third verse of the thirty-ninth chapter of Exodus,
iks of beating gold into thin plates, and then
cutting it into wires, to work it into the ephod with cun-
ning work : and Wilkinson states that probably the gold
thread used in Egyptian embroidery was formed in like
manner, and rounded by the hammer. Beckmann < Ilix-
tory of Inventions, vol. ii., p. 212, &c.) enters minutely
into this question, and states that he had not met with a
single passage in antient authors where mention is made
of iiu'tal being wire-drawn; yet. Jubinal thinks that gold
was perhaps Mimetimes used in antient tapestry in the
form of fine drawn wires, flattened and wound round
threads in a manner resembling modern gold thread. He
further supposes that gold was sometimes introduced sub-
sequently to the weaving of the tissue, by loosening its
texture, and inserting the gold between the threads.
Sranty as are the notices of tapestry in antient writers,
our information respecting it during the middle ages is
not much fuller. Jubinal observes that we find females
:ed in working tapestry with the needle from the
earliest epochs of the French monarchy. Gregory of
Tours, writing towards the close of the sixth century, in
his description of the rejoicings which followed the pro-
fession of Christianity by Clo\is and his people, speaks of
the streets being shaded with painted cloths or curtains
' rr//\ ilij,irii.\ . and the churches being adorned with
hanirinirs : and airain. in describing the consecration of
the chinch of St. Denis, he mentions tapestries embroi-
dered with irold and irarnished with pearls. The fabrica-
tion of tapestry-hangings by the loom appears to have
be, -n introduced into France, at the earliest, about the
ninth century, until which time the needle had been used
-ivcly in their production; and, long after that
period, the two processes were piacti.--.ed concurrently.
At this time we often find embroidered cloths cnum
amon;r tlif decorations of churches. Jubinal quotes Fa-
ther Lubbe for the statement that many tapestries were
made for the church of Auxerre prior to the year K40 :
and he n •!. there existed in the abbey
Klorent. nl Sii'iniur. a great manufactory of .stuff's,
. which were woven by the inmates.
From contempoiary notices', it i.-; trident that there was a
celebrated manufacture of t;ipr-,h v at Poitiers as early as
IH-J.Y Nor was the manufacture of tapestry confined to
France at this period. The inhabitants of the north of
Europe also practised it, and Knglish embroidery was
much admired and highly prized on the Continent. In
the Kast also, where the art had been culthuted from the
earliest antiquity, fine embroidery was produced in the
:ith century. Much of the early Oriental tapcstry
was adorned with erotcsque i >d, long after it
became usual to depict natural ;;d scenery upon
tapestry, such devices were often used in ornamental
bordi
In the twelfth and thirteenth ccntr e of tapes-
try <-\ti'!ided greatly. It pa*sed from churches and monas-
teries, in which it had been used for curtain*, palls, altar-
• •luth.-i. vestments. &<•.. 1n the residences of the nobilitv.
Ke, pectins: this chant,'-,'. Jubinal observes :—' If, in the
le of the cloister, the monks had, as .' e h;i\e seen,
' of wool and silk for the sake of oc-
ion, ladies and their followers, shut up in their <••
durin .inirs of winter, the tedium of which
•'pled only by the periled of works of piety or
chivalry, • I with their needles the glorious
action The high walls of these cold
rooms, built of stone, spoke far more effectually to the
hearts and imaginations of those who lived under their
protecting shelter, when they were covered with interesting
histories, with important instruction, or with glorious re-
membrances of the past, than when nothing appeared to
veil their nakedness.' The use of tapestiy in this way was
one of the luxuries introduced from the East in conse-
quence of the increased intercourse occasioned by the
crusades. The crusaders brought accounts of the Oriental
practice of covering walls with prepared and ornamented
skins, chiefly those of goats and sheep. These, which
were probably at first used of their natural size and shape,
were, at a later period, cut into rectangular pieces, about
two feet high, and rather less in width, and united by
sewing into very solid and handsome hangings, which
were well adapted to resist damp. Such hangings, or
leather tapestry, were manufactured much at Venice and
Cordova, and were sometimes either gilt all over, or orna-
mented with gilt devices, in which case they bore the
name of (for buxuiie. The Oriental origin of the more
ordinary kind of tapestry is indicated by the name Sun/-
sins or Sarazii/ois. which was frequently applied in France
to the early manufacturers.
Numerous allusions to the use of tapestry iu the four-
teenth and fifteenth centuries, collected from contempo-
rary documents, arc given by Jubinal. It was then not
only used to cover the nakedness of interior walls, but
was also employed, on great occasions, as for instance
on the public entries of princes, to decorate streets, and
to impart a joyful appearance to towns and public places.
It formed part of the decorations of festal halls, and was
employed to ornament the galleries and other erections
required at tournaments. Rich embroidery was also much
employed in the decorations of the horses and men who
formed the actors in those chivalric amusements ; and the
brilliant, though often grotesque devices of heraldry, which
formed so important a part of the display upon such occa-
sions, afforded extensive employment to the workers of
tapestry and other ornamented tissues.
The art of making tapestry, for which the Flemings had
been celebrated from the twelfth century, made consider-
able progress in Flanders in the fourteenth century, and
attained its highest perfection there in the fifteenth.
Cinicciardini has ascribed the invention of tapestry to
Flanders ; but, if received at all, this statement must be
supposed to refer merely to such as is produced by the
loom. It is certain however that Europe is much indebted
to the Flemings for the revival and improvement of tapes-
try, and for the production of many of the finest speci-
mens yet existing. The countess of Wilton, whose inte-
resting volume on ' The Art of Neddlework' contains
much information upon the subject of tapestry, is probably
correct in assuming that the weaving of tapestry-hangings
was not practised until they had become, from custom, a
thing of necessity. ' Unintermitting and arduous,' she
observes, ' had been the stitchery practised in the creation
of these coveted luxuries, long, very long, before the loom
was taught to give relief to the busy finger.' Tapestry
manufactories were early established at" Brussels, Antwerp,
Oudenarde, Lisle, Tournay, Bruges, and Valenciennes ;
but that of Arras* was more celebrated than any other,
and its productions were so highly prized, that the name
arras became a common expression for the finest tapestry
generally, whether made in that place or elsewhere. The
hangings of Arras, as well as those of other manufactories
in France, were, says Jubinal, for the most part executed
in wool. Hemp and cotton were also used in them, but
no silk or gold thread. The fabrication of tapestries
formed of these substances was carried on chiefly at Flo-
rence and at Venice. The recollection of this difference
is important in discovering where old tapestries were made,
and Jubinal refers to instances of the difference in some
of those engraved in his great work on this description of
monuments. Writing of the period under consideration,
he observes that the devices (ymaiges) of the tapestry
were very various. We have seen that, they sometimes
represented scenes from antient history, from the fabulous
. of heroes, and from modern historical c\enl- :
but. the imagination of the tapestry-designers did not stop
* T;ipestry of Arras, represoiitivu; the battle* of Alexander the (Jrent, foi -innl
l«rt of llio yran'ilt sent liy thu kiiu; of Cnuiiv, in \\SI6, to the sultan ll:ij:i/.<>t.
to inJtico him to ransom some captives taken at tho battle of Nioopolli. (Mac-
pherson, Amals nf Commerce, vol. i., i>. 608.)
TAP
T A ]'
tlu-ri'. Tin- hangings of tin- fourteenth century nl'icii ic-
•iiril Imuts. fantastical animals, or tin- Occupations
peculiar to the differ* i : ami romantic
ami i-liivalrii- poems att'oidcd a rich store of subji .
illuslialion. .lubinul quotes inventories of tnji.
i In- fourteenth century, in which tapestries
of tin- above anil «if seveial other varieties arc men'
Tlii- account given of those belonging to Charles \ . ..i
France is particularly curious. It i- ta\en from an in-
ventory picservcd ill the Hibliothcque ilu Hoi, which,
jiestries ornamented with figures. mentions he-
raldic tapestries (tapitserite furinnirio, anil t<i/,]>iz r,ln\.
or hairy or shaggv tapestry. The fifteenth century ait'oul-
inaiiy similar documents, though .lubinal does not give
them so fully. ILJ gives however very long extracts from
a MS. in the Hihliothiquc ilu Koi respecting Mime old
•lie-, from w Inch it is evident that the names /«///»•
&irrti:iiini\ anil tnjiix di- Tun/uir* were often applied to
hangings fabricated in the West, they being probably
made in imitation of Oriental work. In this epoch tapes-
try was often alluded to by poets, and to it is attributed
the fabrication of most of the tapestries to which the tenn
' tapisseries historiccs' has been applied.
The sixteenth century, which was an age of general im-
provement in Fiance, pave a new impulse to the produc-
tion of tapestry. Francis I. founded the manufactures
of Fontainebleau, in which threads of gold and siKcr were
skilfully introduced into the work. It was, we are in-
formed, with 'this now impulse that the practice was
commenced of weaving tapestry in a single piece, instead
of composing it, as before, of several smaller pieces
joined together. This prince brought Primal iccio from
Italy [PuiMATiccio, FRAM-KSHI. \ol. xix., p. 1], and,
among other works of art, commissioned him to make
18 for several tapestries, which were woven at Fon-
tainebleau. Francis spared no pains in the encourage-
ment of this department of the fine arts. He engaged
Flemish workmen, whom he supplied with silk, wool,
and other materials, anil paid liberally for their labour :
and documents exist to prove that he also patronized
the tapestry-makers of Paris. Henry II., the son and
successor of Francis, continued to cncourairc the manu-
factory at Fontainebleau, and established a manufacture
nf tapestry on the premises of the Hopital de la Trinitc,
which attained its highest celebrity in the reign of Henry
IV., and produced many tine tapestries. In l.~>!)4 Du
Bourg, the most eminent artist connected with this esta-
blishment, made there the celebrated tapestries of St.
Mni. which were in existence until a recent period: and
these pleased Henry IV. so much, that he determined to
re-establish the manufacture of tapestry at Paris, where
it had been interrupted by the disorders of the preceding
reigns. This he did in 15!)7, bringing Italian workers in
gold and silk to assist in the work.
The narrative of M. .lubinal, from which most of the
preceding facts ;ue taken, does not extend later than the
close of the sixteenth century : but, to continue the history
of the tapestry manufacture in France without interrup-
tion, we may turn to the volume- recently published by
the Countess of Wilton. A few years after the e\cnts last
mentioned, as appears from his • Memoirs," the Due de
Sully. Menu's minister, was, act i\ eh engaged in promoting
this branch of industry. In K;o"> -,,,.,• laid the founda-
tions of new edifices for the tapes! ry -wcavcis, in the hurse-
market at Paris; and at that time, or a little later,
Flemish workmen were engaged to superintend the manu-
facture. The establishment languished, if it did not
iiic quite extinct, after the death of Henry IV. ; but
when the royal palaces, especially the Louvre and the
Tuileries, were receiving their rich decorations, in the
ri-ign of Louis XIV.. his minister Colbert revived it. and
that time the celebrated royal tapcstrv-manui
of the Gobelins dates its origin. This was established 111
premises which had been erected by celebrated d\n-.
• InilncrlMni;. in a niuK-nurnt page, » romarknlOo 1Yn!nn Lii»'«try of tin-
riitnath o-ntury, rml«-lliabi-d with onhtanatlr . !. I, mm- in the
reunion of the Man|iii<* de Lagoy, at Alx, Juhioal ob«ai n« that the uniM
Peniu tanmtrin art the pr.«lm-e of KhoraiMn. mpreull; at the toon of
Yead. Tnw, W add*, al* what i
taauuF (toy cone from Iht Ottoman nnptn, l«it bream-
of the puuM round thr C.-M
communication with Prnla The nlahli.
tadM In Prano put an pn<l tn the Importation of :
at workin j It u itahrf to be cgotiniuj nnn>fUlly In the Kul, «« lo our OK n
d*T»
named (inbelin [GonKi.iv, \ol. \i.. p. >ii;|. but which
purchased b\ I.onis \1\ . in ,,,- M,,uil the Mar
ami adaiited to the tapesti y-inainilaclure. under the name
of Hotel Uoxal ties (iobelins. Porvgo artuts and work-
men were eiiguired. lawswcre drawn up for the protection
and gin eminent of the manufactory, and evei \thini; was
'» lender it. what it has ever since remained, the
iislmient of the kind in the world. 'Theijuiin-
tit\ of the finest and noblest works that hau- li,i 11 pn>-
duced by it,' ol«*erves the work above referred to, ' and
the number of the best workmen bred np tl
incredible: and the present flourishing condition of the
a:N and mainifactui • .e is. in i_'reat me.
owing thereto.' The production of tapestry at the (Julie-
said to have attained the hiu'hest perfection in the
time of the minister Colbeit and his successor M. lie
Louvois. J.e lirun, when chief director of the establish-
ment. made many designs for working after: and M. de
Louvois caused tapestry to be made I om some of the
finest designs of Raphael, Julio Romano, and
Italian painters. A further account of this celebrated
manufacture is ;ri\ci> in the elegant volume wine!
just appeared under the title of 'The Hand-book of
Needlework.' the authoress of which writes under her
maiden name. Miss Lambert. She states that the manu-
facture declined greatly at the Revolution, but was revived
under the KOVernmetU of Napoleon, and has
been carried on successfully, tlioiiL'h by no means to tin-
same extent as formerly. About IsilJ ninety persons
were employed in it. chiefly in preparing tapesiry for the
palace of St. Cloud. 'Tile pieces executed. ' according to
the wink last named. ' are generally historical sill.
and it occasionally requires the labour of from two to si\
years to finish a single piece of tapestry.' 'The produc-
tions of this manufactory .'say-; the same authority. ' which
is entirely supported by' the "government, are ch'ielh
lined for the royal palaces, or for presents made by tin-
kin;;: but some few pieces, not designed as siicli
allowed to In- sold.' Wool is the only material now used.
it being found to retain ils colonis better than any other:
and in connection with the weaving establishment is one
for dyeimr wools, under the direction of able chemists, in
which many colours are dyed for this purpose exclusively.
From a passage ill Fv ely n's -Uiary' Oct. 4. |I!KJ .in which
be speaks with admiration of some new French t:i|
he had seen in the apartments of the duchess of i
mouth.it appears that the product ions of this manufactory
were Known in England at that time.
The preceding historical notices respectiii"; ta,<
refer almost exclusiv ely to France, but we must retrace ou'i
steps to take a brief review of the use and manufacture of
ihis kind of fabric in Knirland. Ues|ii'etin^ the Aiiirlo-
Saxon period, it i.- obscru-d in the 'Pictorial Hist.Viy of
Kngiand" (,\ol i., p. :t23 ; : — 'The dwel]in<rs of the hisl'her
ap]>ear to have been completely and MPiietimcs
sjjlendidly furnished : their walls were hung with silk
richly embroidered with irold or colours. The needle-work
for which the Kn^lish ladies were so famous was herein
displayed to great advantage. Inirulphus mentions some
hainiinirs oniainentcd with golden birds in needle-work,
and a veil or curtain on which was represented in einbroi-
dciv the destruction of Troy. In the An-;lo-Saxon poem
of lieowiilfwe read that, in 'the great wine-chamber' —
' 'I'ln-
uiih LM!.I
llfcadi of HIP w.ktrion
Tluit would gout on It hrramp vlriblu.'
'Tlie Saxon term for a curtain or han-rins was imnri/t :
and. in the will of Wynflu'da. we find the bequest of a
Ion;,' /im// irnhrijl and' a short one. The same lady also
beipieaths three coverings for benches or Mt)
.' The llvvn \ Tvi'i-:srin \ ol. i\ .. p. (is is per-
hajis the most anlielit piece of needlework in existence.
It was probably owint: to the expi-n.se of such hanirinifs,
when of larire si/.e. and the very lonir time required for
their production, that the less comfuilable device of
painting the walls of chambers was extensively adopted
ill the early Norman period. Of this time the work before
quoted obs. '. i.. p. (i.'C) :— 'The hamriiiL's of
needle-work and embroidery which adorned the walls of
the Anirlo-Saxon palace*, seem to have been partially su-
perseded in the course of this period by the fashion of
TAP
45
TAP
painting on the walls themselves, or the wainscot of the
chamber, the same historical or fabulous subjects which
hail hitherto been displayed in threads of colours and
gold.' Many instances might be enumerated of this kind
of decoration, but it is sufficient to refer to the directions
given by Henry III. early in his reign, for the painting of
his wainscoted chamber in Winchester castle with the
same pictures with which it had been previously adorned;
a circumstance presumed by Walpole to indicate the very
early existence of historical painting in England. The
practice alluded to appears to have extended considerably
during the reigns of Henry III. and his immediate succes-
sors ; and, according to the same authority (vol. i., p.
804), the paintings were, in several instances, directed to
be made in imitation of needle-work tapestries. Lady Wil-
ton states that tapestry of needle-work, like the Bayeux
tapestry of Matilda, which 'had been used solely for the
decoration of altars, or the embellishment of other portions
of sacred edifices, on occasions of festival or the] per-
formance of solemn rites, had been of much more general
application amongst the luxurious inhabitants of the
South, and was introduced into England as furniture hang-
ing by Eleanor of Castile.' That tapestry was not origi-
nally introduced by that queen will be seen by the facts
staled above; and we know not whether there is any
further authority for the statement than the mention, by
Matthew Paris, of her having used tapestry for covering
floors, the word being apparently used in the sense of carpet.
(Pict. Hint, 'if En iii a ml. vol. i., p. 865, note.) Chaucer
mentions a ' tapiser,' in company with a ' webbe' and a
' dyer,' among his Canterbury pilgrims ; from which cir-
cumstance it may be presumed that the business was not
a very uncommon one towards the close of the fourteenth
century. In the fifteenth century the use of tapestry
greatly extended in England ; but then, and for long after,
the principal supply appears to have been from the Con-
tinent. In the sixteenth century a kind of hanging was
introduced which holds a place intermediate between
painted walls and woven or embroidered tapestry. Shak-
spere alludes to these hangings under the name of
' painted cloths.'*
The appearance of the rich tapestry common in the
Elizabethan period is admirably described by Spenser, in
his • Faerie Queene,' book iii., canto ix., in the account of
tlic tapestry seen by Britomart in the apartments of the
house of Busirane, m the following lines : —
* For round about the walls yelothed were
With iMoflly arms of great nuijesty,
Woven with -"M .'mit MlUeso close and nere,
That the rich metall lurked privily,
As fainii: t ' In1 hid from envious eye;
Yet iiere, and there, and everywhere, unwares
It shewd ilfielfe. and shone unwillingly;
Like a iliscolourd snake, whose hidden snares
Through the greene gras his long bright-heruUht back declares.
The poet described what he was in the habit of seeing,
and sufficient remains yet exist to attest the accuracy of
his description ; although in most cases the brilliancy of
the metallic threads and the beauty of the colours are
greatly impaired, and in some instances the gold and silver
threads have been artfully withdrawn, their intrinsic value
proving too strong a temptation for cupidity to resist.
The introduction of tapestry-weaving into England is
usually attributed to a gentleman named Sheldon, late in
the reign of Hemy VIII. Lady Wilton mentions indeed
an intimation by Walpole of its origin as early as the
time of Edward III. ; but if any attempt was made to in-
troduce the art at that time, it does not appear to have
produced any important result. According to her ' Art
itf Needlework,' Sheldon allowed an artist, named Robert
links, to use his manor-house at Burcheston, in Warwick-
shire, for the practice of the art; and mentioned him in
his will, which was dated 1570, as ' the only auter and
beginner of tapistry and arras within this realme.' At
Burcheston were worked in tapestry,1 on a large scale,
maps of Oxfordshire, Worcestershire, Warwickshire, and
Gloucestershire, some fragments of which were, it is
[, in Wai pole's collection at Strawberry Hill. Little
mon- U known of this establishment. James I. endea-
t lie manufacture of tapestry by encourag-
ing and !t-,<i--tiiig in the formation of an establishment at
• Iu Malone'i edition (1821) many references to this kind of substitute f,.r
woven 0 1 tapestry, by various authors, are ejven. See notes on
ni., pp. 4*1-6), and 'Henry IV.,' Part i,
. • i <v« I \\,, ,.,, n,,. latter passage it would appear that
the hangings alluded to were sometimes painted in witer colours.
Mortlake, about 1619, under the management of Sir
Francis Crane. James I. gave 2000/. towards the forma-
tion of this establishment, which appears to have been
originally supplied with designs from abroad, but subse-
quently by an artist named Francis Cleyne, or Klein, a
native of Rostock, in the duchy of Mecklenburg, who was
engaged for the purpose. This undertaking was a favorite
hobby both with James and his successor, who regarded
Cleyne so favourably that he bestowed upon him, in 1625,
an annuity of 100/. (Rymer's Fa>dera, vol. xviii., p. 112),
which he enjoyed until the civil war. In the same year
Charles I. granted 2000/. a year for ten years to Sir Francis
Crane, in lieu of an annual payment of 1000/. which he
had previously covenanted to pay for that term, as the
grant recites, ' towards the furtherance, upholding, and
maintenance of the worke of tapestries, latelie brought
into this our kingdome by the said Sir Francis Crane, and
now by him and his workmen practised and put in use at
Mortlake, in our countie of Surrey ;' and of a further sum
of 6000/. due to the establishment for three suits of gold
tapestries. (Foedera, vol. xviii., p. CO.) After the death
of Sir Francis Crane, his brother, Sir Richard, sold the
premises to the king, and during the civil war they were
seized as royal property. After the Restoration, Charles II.
endeavoured to revive the manufacture, and employed
Verrio to make designs for it, but the attempt was unsuc-
cessful. Lady Wilton however conceives that, although
languishing, the work was not altogether extinct, ' for,'
she observes, ' in Mr. Evelyn's very scarce tract entitled
" Mundus Muliebris," printed in 1690, some of this manu-
facture is amongst the articles to be furnished by a gallant
to his mistress.' During its period of prosperity, this
manufacture produced the most superb hangings, after
the designs of celebrated painters, with which the palaces
of Windsor Castle, Hampton Court, Whitehall, St. James's,
Nonsuch, Greenwich, &c., and many of the mansions of
the nobility, were adorned. Five, at least, of the cartoons
of Raphael, which appear to have been bought by
Charles I. for that purpose, were worked in tapestry at
Mortlake. These celebrated works were designed for the
purpose of being copied in tapestry, and were originally
worked in Flanders. [CARTOON, vol. vi., p. 330.] An
act of parliament was passed in 1663 to encourage the
linen and tapestry manufactures of England, and to re-
strain the great importation of foreign linen and tapestry.
The use of the word ' hangings,' as applied to tapestry,
as well as to other kinds of lining for rooms, perhaps suf-
ficiently indicates the manner in which such decorations
were formerly put up. ' The tapestries,' observes the
Countess of Wilton, ' whether wrought or woven, did not.
remain on the walls as do the hangings of modern days :
it was the primitive office of grooms of the chamber to
hang up the tapestry, which, in a royal progress, was sent
forward with the purveyor and grooms of the chamber.'
She relates a curious anecdote in illustration of this prac-
tice. Henry IV. of France, wishing to do honour to the
pope's legate, the cardinal of Florence, when visiting St.
Germain-en-Laye, sent orders to hang up the finest tapes-
try ; but, by an awkward blunder, the suit selected for
the cardinal's chamber was embellished with satirical em-
blems of the pope and the Roman court. The mistake
was discovered by the Due de Sully, on whose authority
the anecdote is given, and another suit was substituted for
that with the offensive devices. In a subsequent chapter,
on ' The days of good Queen Bess,' after showing the uni-
versality of tapestry and similar decorations in the houses
of the nobility and gentry of England, it is stated that
tapestry was at that time suspended upon frames, which
were probably, in many cases, at a considerable distance
from the walls, as we frequently read of persons conceal-
ing themselves, like Falstaff (Merry Wives of Windsor,
act iii., scene 3), 'behind the arras.'
The interest attached to antient tapestries as historical
monuments, as well as in the character of works of art, is
of no mean order. The most important work on this de-
partment of archaeology is that of M. Jubinal, the author
of the historical treatise quoted in the former part of this
article, entitled ' Les Anciennes Tapisseries Historiees,' in
which are given minute descriptions, illustrated by many
large folio plates, of the most remarkable tapestries made
from the eleventh to the sixteenth century, and preserved
to the present time. Such monuments, as he observes in his
preface, sometimes represent to us, with a charming and
TAP
16
I \ I1
faithful
ment :
MoBtai
t<> im mo«t litenulj the modi of life <>t' mu
us then - their churches, their
dre-si ... th.'ir ami-. ami even thanks to their expl:i:
is their language at different epochs. Further tli;\n
thi-. it' we refer to the inventory of Charles \ '.. made in
|:)7'.i. we find that all the French literature of the fruitful
ling the era of that wise monarch had been by
hi- ordei- translated into wool.' At a later period, al-
though the beauty of tapestry was increased by improve-
ments in the arts of weaving and du-ing. and by the adop-
tion of superior de-isms, much of its peculiarly interesting
character was lost. .luhina). in the smaller work frequent 1\
quoted ill the earlier part of this article, regrets the dis-
appearance of the Gothic labels, \vhich contained quaint
descriptions of the subject- represented : of the p:
architecture of the middle ages 'nrrhilrrtin;- <i nyin-x'.
and of the furniture and our forefathers : and
Miccivcs that their place is but ill supplied by the
imitation. • clever in the great masters, but detestable in
their disciples.' of Greek and Roman forms, of which he
- to • celebrated and grievous examples in the com-
positions of Hubens reproduced bv the manufactory of
the Gobelins ; in the tapestries of Beauvais, and in tin — •
of Aubusson.'
In the primitive method of working tapestry with the
needle, the wool was usually applied to a kind of canvas,
ami the effect produced was coarse and very defect i\ e :
but some finer kinds of tapestry were embroidered upon a
silken fabric. The procc-s of weaving by the loom, after
the manner known as the lunite I ism; or high warp, was
practised in the tapestries of Flanders and. according to
.lubinal. in those of England nlso\ as early as the four-
teenth and fifteenth centuries; the only' essential dif-
ference between these and the productions of modern
times being that previously noticed, the comparative size
of the pieces woven in the loom. The weaving of tapestry,
both by the ' haute lisse' and the 'basse IISM .' app:
he of Oriental invention : and the difference between the
two methods ma) be briefly described. In the ' haute
the loom, or rather, the frame with the warp-ti
is placed in a perpendicular position, and the weaver
works standing : while in tin' • basse lisse' the frame with
the warp is laid horizontally, and the weaver works in a
sitting position. Inweaving with the 'basse lisse,' which,
now relinquished, the painting
to In- copied is laid beneath the threads of the warp, which
are stretched in a manner resembling that of common
weaving, the pattern being supported by a number of
transverse threads stretched beneath it. The v. .
sitting before the loom, and leaning over the beam, care-
fully separates the threads of the warp with his tinkers, so
that he may see his pattern between them. He then
in his other hand a kind of shuttle, called a fti'itr.
charged with silk or wool of the colour required, and
een tin- threads, after separating them in
the usual way by means of treddles worked by th>
[\Vx\viM;.] The thread of woof or shoot thus inserted is
finally dri-. i> to the linished portion of tin
by means of a rc'-d or comb formed of box-wood or
th.1 teeth of which ai : between the threads of the
. Ill this prur t of the tapestry is down-
-. so that the weaver cannot examine hi* woik until
the piece is completed and removed from the loom. The
frame of the 'haute !i-se' loom con-i-ts of two upright
side-pieces, with large rollers placed hori/ontalh In
them. The thread.- of the warp, which usualh cnn-i.-l ol'
twisted wool, a iv wound round (lie upper roller, and Un-
finished web is coiled round the lower one. 'I
or design to be copied, i- placed perpendicularly behind
the back or wrong side of the waip. and then the principal
outlines of the pattern are drawn upon the front of the
warp, the threads of which are sufficiently open to allow
the artist to see the design between them. 'I he cartoon is
then reui"\r<! -o tar back from the warp that the weaver
place himself between them with his hack towards
that he must turn round whenever Ill-
wishes to look at it. Attached to the upright side-pieces
of the frnme are contrivances f
the wnrp, so as to all.
the • baise >. as it were, blind-
fold : but by walking round to tin- front nf the loom he
may see the progress of hi* wo.',, ami m.i\ ftdju '
• . which IIIIM- not be iut<i their ns:iii
or comb, with a la' .1 an
iiiyiii/ The jiroi • .king with the
i- much slower than the other, and is iiidenl.
sa\s .lubinal, almost as slow as that of working with the
l\ Wilton, in describing the pn I the
Hold Ho\al des Gobelins, observes that 'Not the
-ling part of the ]>roeess was that performed by the
. or fine-drawers, who so unite the I
the tapestry into one picture, that no seam i- di-cernible.
but the whole appears like one desiirn.' Now. Inu-
tile piece- are win eii so wide that joining is \ eiy seldom
in for the largest pie.
.lubinal.
irt nf
rurk. edited by the Right Honourable th.
of Wilton : Th'' H<iii<lln><:k
bert :
TAI'HO/.OVS. [('HEIROPTBRA, vol. vii.. p. 21. }
TAl'lO'CA, a farinaceous substance. ])iepari-d in South
America from two species of .lanipha, or the bitter and
sweet Cassada or Manioc plants, which two
regarded as one species, and comprehended under the
name of .latroplia Slauiliot. till Pohl distinguished them,
calling the bitter Mitiii!.- the sweet
Munhn! .!</./ 1'ohl, /'/. /<n/.w7.. ic. i. :(2t.2l. Tin-
chief distinction between them is that a- tiingh ligneous
fibre or cord runs ihe heart of the
-.a root, of which the latter is destitute.' Tl
the bitter i-ontains a highU acrid and ; juice.
from which the sweet is exempt. \ et the bitter is cul-
tivated almost to the entire exclusion of the other,
which is probably owing to the greater facility with which
it can be ground or rasped into flour, owing to the ab-
sence of the ligneous centre. The ; . •rinciplc of
the bitter manioc is thought to be of the nature of hydro-
cyanic acid. (Guibourt, Hint. r/'A l>r>n;iti'x. torn. ii.. ]
Hieme I'd. : It is easily dissipated or decomposed !>
or fermentation : hence the flour becomes perfectly whole-
some in the process of baking the ca«s»va bread,
vol. vi., p. 344.] The juice, alter e\ may be in-
spissated by long boiling, or formed into a soup, with flesh
and spices, called casMircpo. Uy means of n
can be fermented and converted into intoxicating drink.
The fecula, or flour, after the juic .'fully
expressed. ha\ing be. '. and dried in the air with-
out heat, is termed mnnrlinrii in lirazil. n in the
Antilles, and ryy//» in Cayenne. This constituted the
Brazilian arrow-root of Knglish commerce. \Vheii this
fecula is jirepared h\- drying on hot plates, it becomes
granular, and is calli irs in in.
lumps or mains, and is \; bible in cold \
The granules, diffused tbrouirh water, and examii;.
(he mi. ' uniformity of sue. and smaller
than those of arrow-:. Tapioca is
very nutritious and « -tion. being free from all
stiiimlating t|ualitics. It i- tlien.n.ie sen ni
distinguish it from an artificial tapioca made with
and potato starch, which is in laigcr 'rriinulcs. whiter.
oluble in cold water than
the genuine.
TAI'IK, Tnj.iri:--. the inline of a
inatous quadrup
I.im not notice tlie Taj)ir in the
last edition of the .V
it as the Ii
siilci.-. -'•,•-'. \at. \. i.. p. 7!. u. -.
it under the title 'f'i}n'i\ bi ;
llii'i-iiroi
Cuvier aiiangcs the ffcnu- a., th, : :s I'urhy-
•g it innni '. tin-
extinct I'nli.'nllii'rin and I.oplnodons. Tin- rein.
well known to the older i the
natural products of Am.-ii
' MZMIIIN.
Bhtlelnii. \\lu-n viewed in jirofile. the pMiimiilal ele-
vation 'I of the Tapir, calling to mine!
T A P
be seen in the hog, strikes the observer forcibly. But th-
pyramid of the Tapir differs from that of the hog in having
only three faces; and also in this, that its anterior line i
formed by the meeting of the lateral faces, and it is onl}
towards the front that it is dilated into a triangle, which i
due to the frontal bones : these are early united and directei
a little backwards. At the middle of the base of this tri
angle, to which the bones of the nose are articulated, is (
point which penetrates between them ; and from the twc
sides above the orbits descends a deep furrow producee
by the structure of the upper border of the orbit, am
which approaches towards the suborbital hole : it serves
for the insertion of the muscles of the proboscis. The
orbit descends lower than the mid-height of the head, is
very wide, and has the postorbital apophyses but little
marked.
That part of the cranium which is in the temporal fossa
is convex. The occiput is a small demi-oval extremely
concave plate, because the occipital crest projects con-
siderably backwards in a parabolic shape. The occipita'
bone ascends on the cranium. The frontal bones descent:
largely in the temple, and are there articulated with the
lachrymal, the palatine, the two sphenoids, and the tem-
poral bone. The parietals are square, very large, occu-
; a great portion of the sagittal crest, and united also
i iut ween them. The nasal bones are no less striking
than the form of the cranium. They are very short, arti-
culated to the frontals by their base, and to those of the
by a descending apophysis ; but they are free and
projecting, forming a kind of triangular penthouse above
the cavity of the nostrils. This structure, which reminds
the observer of that of the elephant, indicates the pre-
sence of a moveable proboscis. The aperture of the
osseous nostrils thus becomes extremely long, nearly hori-
zontal, and bordered in great part by the maxillary bones,
which advance well beyond the bones of the nose, to form
the projecting part of the muzzle ; they carry the inter-
maxillary bones which (a remarkable thing, observes C'u-
vier were anchylosed together in the individual examined
In him, although it was very young, and consequently
formed but a single bone, and Cuvier remarked the same
conformation in other crania. It was only in a nascent
tapir, when no tooth had come forth, that he found the
suture which separates the maxillaries from each other.
These same intermaxillaries form a ceiling under the
orbit. The lower border of the orbit and the half of the
arch are due to the OK mala; or jusral bone : the rest to the
temporal bone. The zycomatic arch is cuned downwards
at its anterior portion, and upwards at its posterior por-
tion: it, projects moderately outwards. The os unjfuis, or
lachrymal bone, touches the malar bone, and advances a
little on the cheek, and moderately in the orbit. There
o lachrymal bones in the very border of the orbit,
separated by an apophysis, the upper of which is the
largest. The suborbital hole is oval, rather large, and at
a little distance in front of the suture, which unites the
and the lachrymal to the maxillary bone. The
'!e is elliptical and very long, in great part,
in the maxillary. The posterior nasal fossa? notch the
palate towards the fifth molar. The suture which sepa-
ihe palatine from the maxillary bone corresponds
with the third. The palatine bones contribute much to
the ptcryir'iid nt'f, and the sphenoid very little : these
re short and truncate, with a small hook which
represents the internal ptery,'"id wing, and which remains
considerable time a detached bone. The sphenoid
hone docs not rea'-h the parietal in the temporal f
mains separated from it by the squamose portion.
::ilatine bone there forms a, lonir and narrow tract,
•vhicli proceed-, forward for the length of the upper border
maxillary bone up to the suborhi'.al canal. Behind
•noid cavity of the temporal bone, which is very
large, is a semicircular lamina, descending vertically and
ling itvlf forwards and inwards: it interrupts the la-
•ind posterior motion of the lower jaw. Between this
lamina and the mastoid apophysis is a rather narrow notch
•he meatii auditorim internus is found. The mas-
Is as low as this lamina. It rca
• i I bone by its anterior tubercle, and the occi-
analogous to the spheno-pala-
i< in the nuii orbital tract of the palatine bone,
-•o-palatinc bone is below it, on
with the. maxillary bone. The
47
TAP
optic foramen is small, and placed on the suture of the
frontal and of the anterior sphenoid bones. The spheno-
orbital and round foramina are only separated from each
other by a delicate lamina. There is a rather large vidian
canal. The oval hole is confounded with the anterior and
posterior apertures, so that a great portion of the petrous
bone is separated from the sphenoid and basilary by a space.
The tympanic bone does not appear to be ever anchylosed
with the neighbouring bones, and falls easily, as in the
hedgehog, the opossum, &c.
The lower jaw exhibits a striking width at its ascending
ramus, and presents a rounded contour backwards at its
posterior angle. Its coronoid apophysis elevates itself in
the form of a pointed falx above the condyle, which is
transverse and large. The two jaws are a little concave
laterally at the vacant interval of the teeth, and are very
much narrowed there ; their edge is trenchant.
Skull of American Tapir.
Bones of the Neck and Trunk. — The lateral apophyses
of the atlas are wide, but little extended outwards: the
spinous process of the axis is an elevated crest ; the trans-
verse processes are small and irregular; the odontoid is
large and obtuse ; the transverse processes ' of the three
succeeding vertebrae descend obliquely, are a little widened
at the end and cut nearly square ; their spinous processes
are very small. The fifth cervical vertebra has a small
apophysis on its transverse process, which, for the rest,
resembles that of the preceding vertebra1, but is rather
onircr : its spinous process is also rather longer ; still more
s that of the seventh vertebra, the transverse process of
which is very small — in short, a simple tubercle. The arti-
cular facets of the cervical vertebrae rise obliquely from
within outwards, so that the articular facet of one vertebra
s below that which responds to the preceding vertebra.
The bodies of the vertebrae are convex forward and con-
cave behind, an organisation which is more or less re-
Jeated in the rest of the spine. The number of dorsal
ertebnt' amounts to twenty ; the spinous apophysis of the
second is the longest. They decrease and incline back-
vards to the eleventh, from which they become straight,
iquare, and nearly equal. Their articular apophyses are
,0 fitted that those of one vertebra are in advance and
ibove those which correspond with it in the vertebra below.
Juvier found twenty pairs of ribs in one individual, nine-
een in another, eight of which are true, all slender and
ounded for the greatest part of their length. The breast -
rone is composed of five bones : its anterior portion is
:ompressed, and projects in the form of a ploughshare,
^here are four lumbar vertebrae, the transverse apophyses
f which are rather large. Those of the last, which are
ather shorter and oblique, are articulated with the first
acral vertebra. These transverse apophyses have on their
)ase the same elevated crests as the dorsals have for arti-
ulation with the ribs.
The os sacrum of the adult consists' of seven vertebrae,
he spinous apophyses of which are distinct and inclined
ards; the five last of these apophyses are short and
crminate by a widened disk. The tail has seven ver-
ebraa.
v nf the Extremities.— The blade-bone has a strong
emicircular notch towards the lower part of its anterior
'order; the rest of this border is round as well as the
pper border : the posterior border makes an angle up-
and then descends a little concave. There is neither
ion nor coracoid process, if a hook-like process be
excepted. The spine of the bone terminates at the lower
of it; its greatest projection is at its middle ; the
is oval and higher than it is long. This
TAP
48
T A P
hlade-bone, says 1'nvicr, emphatically, and not more em-
phatically than truly, cannot be confounded with that of
nnv other animal.
The head of the humenis is powerful, behind the axis
of the bone. Its larrre tuberosity is bilobated by a rounded
notch : it-* bu-ipita) ranal is simple and not wide: the
ndge is little marked ; the comlvlcs do not project much.
The radial articular face is divided bv a projecting nb
into an entire pulley on the internal side, and the half of. the radius.
one on the external side ; both the one and the other cor-
respond to projections of the radius. MI that this hi.-t has
no rotation. It is even ]irobablc. ol nicr, that
with nirc it isanchyloBedtoth«ulna,wl -throuirh-
ont its length OH the external edge of the anil. The upper
head of the radius is nearly rcctantrular : ils bodv , rounded
in front, is flattened behind. The body of the ulna is
triangular. One of its crests follows the external crest of
ot American Tapir.
The carpus of the Tapir bears a near resemblance to
that of the RHINOC KROS, especially in having, like it, a
sinjfle small bone articulated with the wcdire-shaped and
unciform bones, in lieu of the trapezoid and thumb : but
this bone is articulated with the metatarsal bone of the
index, which is not the case in the rhinoceros. The other
bones of the. wrist are nearly of the .-aiue form, excepting
that their width is less in proportion to their heisrht. a
condition which is true even with regard to the unciform
hone, although it has to cam' two complete metacarpals,
whilst in the rhinoceros it only carries one and the vcstiirc
of another. The pisiform bone is also longer in propor-
tion in the Tapir. The metacarpal of the middle tinker
is longest and straiirhtest : those of the index and rinsr-
ti nirer are curved nearly symmetrically one with reference
to the other, as in the rhinoceros. But the Tapir has
also one small, short, and rather irregular metacarpal.
The three first iinirers are those which touch the earth.
and their unirual phalanires resemble those of the rliino-
: the little iinircr does not touch the ground. The
lirsl phalanges are lomrer than they arc wide, but the con-
trary is the case with regard to the second.
The widened part of the ossa ilii is very broad trans-
'v. and a little concave outwards. The external
.•I' this hone is larger than the internal one; the an-
liorder is liirgely concave, and the two spines are. as
it were, truncated: its neck is narrow, with reference to
its lenjfth ; theo\al holes are lonircr than they are wide.
and the posterior extremity of the ischinm terminate- in a
point very distant from it's correspondent. The anterior
passage of the pelvis is as long as it is wide, and nearly
circular.
The femur has its great trochanter pointed, forming n
projection backwards, and (riving off a rib which descends
along the external bonier. Besides the two ordinary
niters, there is a third, which i- flattened and re-
curved in front. In these points its resemblance to that.
of the none is perceptible, mil it differs much in having
the two borders of the rotular pulley neaily cmial. The
fibula is curved outwards, which scp;:: .'.•- it a little fiom
the tibia : tliis last has its upper head rather marked, but
the tiiberosity which terminates this end above is obtuse
ami curved but little. Its lower head is wider than it is
long, is oblique, and its antero-posterior diameter on the
internal side is wider, and this bonier more projecting than
that of the tilmlar side.
The tarsus of the Tapir is still better modelled than its
carpus alter that of the rhinoceros, of which it seems to
be only a repetition : only the os calcis is much more
elongated and more compressed; but its facets are the'
same. The neck of 1 hi' astiairalns is lonircr and touches
the cuboid bone by a narrower facet. There is no Vi
of a hind toe, but the little finger is represented In an
elongated bone, bent at the end. articulated to the -ea-
phoid. to the small cuneiform and the external metatarsal
bones. The posterior tubercle of the cuboid hone is less
projecting and less honked than in the rhinoceros. O\v-
Illl-llx /'''/'W'/C.V.
Cuvier, in hi- ical comparison of the Indian
Tapir with the American form, observes that a irlance at
the profile of their respective crania is sufficient to impres-.
upon the observer their specific ditt'ercnces. The forehead
of the Indian Tapir i-. he n!>-.<; •, es. so convex, that :
higher than the occiput : it elevates in its iise (he nasal
hones, which much prolongs the ascending part of the
ml the descending portion of the fiontal bones alouir
the external aperture of the bony nostril-, thus srivinir
much wider room lor the comparatively larire pro!"
and adding Icnirth to the furrows where the muscles are
inserted. This organization, he observes, explains why
the Indian Tapir has a more powerful and extensible trunk
than that of America. There is even, he adds, in the In-
dian species, on the base of the nasal bones at their junc-
tion with the frontal hones, and on each side, a deep
which does not exist in the other species. This elevation
of the forehead is accompanied by a depression of the
occipital cre.-t. which, far from forming a pyramid, as in
the American species, lather descends backwards. The
aperture of the bony : enlarged by ihe prolonga-
tion of the maxillary bones, terminates below and forwards
bvmore elevated inicrmaxillancs. which are for the rest an-
clnloscd together in early youth as in the American Tapir.
The interval between the canine and the fust molar is
less in proportion in the Indian Tapir, whoso dentition is
otherwise the same with that of the Ann-Mean species.
I hi /v _ ..main apophysis of the Indian species is a little
higher backwaid and less forward : its mastoid apophysis
is more t universally turned.
TAP
49
TAP
The occipital surface of the skull offers a difference cor-
responding to that of the profile, inasmuch as it is le.s.s
hiirh, but it is also much wider in proportion ; and from
tliis width results another difference in the upper surface
of the cranium, namely, that the sagittal crest, instead of
remaining throughout its length linear and narrow,
widens much backwards, and even remains rather wide at
the point where it is most narrowed by the approximation
of the two temporal fossae. The triangle which these two
fossce leave in front upon the frontal bones is also wider
and its surface more convex. The triangle formed by the
true bones of the nose is wider at its base. For the rest,
the composition of the cranium, the connexion of its
bones, its sutures, its foramina, entirely resemble, as well
as I he teeth, those, of the American species.
Cuvier then remarks that the rest of the skeleton of the
two species does not offer such appreciable differences.
The blade-bone of the Indian species is rather the wider ;
but the notch towards the lower part is smaller and
rounder. The anterior hook of the great tuberosity of the
humerus is more projecting ; the unciform bone of the
carpus is narrower ; the last phalanges of the middle an-
terior toe are wider and more rounded, and the same may
be said of the middle toe of the hind feet ; the great tro-
chanter of the femur is larger ;>the neck of the astragalus
is shorter : but all these differences, Cuvier observes, are
of so little importance, that, without those of the crania,
they would hardly justify the conclusion of specific dis-
tinction. (Osseiiiriis Fotfil
Mr. Yarrell, in the 4th vol. of the Zoological Jniinml.
gives an account of the post-mortem appearances in an
American Tapir brought to this country by Lieut. Maw,
H.N., which survived its arrival in the gardens of the
Zoological Society in the Regent's Park only a f^
hours.
When dead, the animal, which was said to be about
twelve months old, measured from the nose to the root of
the tail 48 inches, and its girth was 35 inches. The in-
C\*M teeth - were very much used ; the edges coming into
i-ontact when the molars are in action. The canines
— were small in the upper jaw, and removed a short
distance from the lateral incisor, for the admission of the
4—4
larger canines of the lower jaw ; the molars were 5 — -•
o • • o
Of tho.-,e in the lower jaw, the first had three lobes, with
ihe points; the second and third two lobes, with four
points. Of the four upper molars, the first had two outer
ami <me inner point; the other three had each two lobes
with four points : all the parallel points or tubercles were
connected transversely by a slight, triangular ridge ; and
'•ai'h uf (hoc triangular ridges, with their connected tu-
bercles, shut into similarly shaped ca\ities in the teeth
opposed to them, throughout the whole length of their
continuous surfaces. The second, third, and fourth upper
molars had each a small additional but less elevated
point on the external anterior angle, increasing somewhat
in size from the second tooth backwards. On cutting
through the bones of the palate in order to the complete
removal of the brain, Mr. Yarrell found the crown of
another molar tooth on each side, posterior to, and some-
what within the line of range of, the last exposed molar.
This tooth hail a fifth tubercle of increased magnitude.
The cartilage of the septum narium was thick and strong,
and the central ridge of the skull very much cle\iitcd.
The ligamentum nuclni- was composed of three strong
cord-like portions, two of which, passing in a parallel
direction from the elongated spinous process of the ti: ,t
vertebra, were inserted together upon the extreme supe-
rior posterior angle of the central ridge of the cranium,
supporting the whole length of the elevated crest and
mane. The third portion of this strong ligament passed
between the other two, and was inserted into the more
el. >ated portion of the elongated spinous process of the
dcntata.
The anterior portion of the sternum was keel-like and
rounded in shape, and projected forwards. There were
twenty ribs on each side and four lumbar vertebrae. The
trachea] cartilages were firm : the rings however were in-
complete throughout. One large and one small lobe
formed the right lung ; one large and two small ones the
P. t1., X,..
eft: they were inflamed. The pericardium, which was
loaded with fat, was of unusual thickness ; but the heart
presented nothing remarkable : the coats of the arteries
were particularly thick and firm.
The oesophagus was narrow : the stomach presented a
single cavity, rather small, measuring, when moderately
distended with air, 8 inches only from right to left, and
1.">J inches in circumference : the parietes were thickened
about the pylorus, but the internal surface was not ex-
amined, the organ having been preserved entire : it con-
tained a loose mass of tow, hair, string, and shreds of
cloth.
The spleen was narrow, thin, and 12 inches long.
The liver was divided into four lobes : — two, one large
and one small, on the right side ; and two, large and equal,
on the left ; the lower of these last was divided and
notched on the edge. There was no gall-bladder.
The small intestines, uniform in size throughout their
length, measured 21 feet, and were inflamed.
The ciecum was capacious compared with the stomach,
measuring 14 inches in the line of its long axis, and 24
inches in girth at the largest part, and had two deep and
several smaller circular indentations externally, and
marked with one strong longitudinal band on each sur-
face ; tapering somewhat to a point at its closed extremity,
but without any appendix vermiformis. The colon, at two
feet from its commencement, doubled suddenly upon itself,
and formed a fold 16 inches long, the inner surfaces of
which were closely connected. The large intestines mea-
sured seven feet in length.
The sexual organs (the animal was a female) presented
about the uterus, its eornua, and the ovaria, a degree of
vascularity which rendered it probable that the period of
life was approaching when breeding would have com-
menced.
Mr. Yarrell refers to Sir Everard Home's paper in Phil.
-ii/i*. (1821), in which Sir Everard points out the dif-
ferences existing in the skulls of the Sumatra,]! and Ame-
rican Tapirs, and has described a part of the viscera of the
former. In the Sumatran Tapir the stomach is large, the
intestinal canal very long, and the caecum small ; in the
American Tapir the stomach is small, the intestines of
moderate length, and the caecum large.
Mr. Yarrell adds, that, of the species described,
The length of the Sumatran Tapir is eight feet ; and the
whole length of its intestinal canal is 89 feet 6 inches.
Proportion as 11 to 1.
The length of the American Tapir is four feet ; and the
whole length of its intestinal canal 28 feet. Proportion,
as 7 to 1.
In the Physiological Series, preserved in the Museum of
the Royal College of Surgeons in London, No. 754, is the
anus of an American Tapir, in which, as in the ordinary
mammalia, the intestinal canal has a distinct external
orifice, situated behind, and not, as in the osseous fishes, in
front of the genito-urinary outlet. Professor Owen, the
author of the Catalogue, remarks that this example of the
mammiferous type of anus is preserved on account of the
peculiar jagged appearance and abrupt termination of the
common integument at the verge of the anus.
No. 1217 of the same series is a section of the kidney of
a Tapir (Tapir Aim /•/«;//«*), with the arteries injected, and
the pelvis laid open to show the terminations of the tubuli
uriniferi, as in the horse. No. 1286 is the suprarenal gland
of an American Tapir laid open, showing the central dark-
coloured substance very distinctly. No. 2778 exhibits part
of the vagina, with the urethro-sexual canal, vulva, and
clitoris of the American Tapir, in which the clitoris pro-
jects within the anterior margin of the vulva: it is a short
pyramidal body with two small lateral lobes. The urethro-
sexual canal is separated from the vagina by a broad
transverse semilunar fold, beneath which is the wide aper-
ture of the urethra. No. 2527 B, is the distal extremity of
the penis of the Sumatran Tapir. The upper and lateral
parts of the base of the glans present three rounded pro-
cesses, beyond which the extremity of the glans is con-
tinued forwards, and terminates in a large truncate slightly
convex surface, in the middle of which is situated the
orifice of the urethra.
(li-neric Character. — Molars presenting on their crown,
before they are worn, two transverse and rectilineal tuber-
cles (collines). Nose terminated in a small moveable pro-
boscis, but not terminated with an organ of touch like that
VOL. XXIV.— H
T A r
50
I A I'
of tin- elephant : neek rather long ; skin rather thick, and
,1 \\iili h.iir, looking as if it had ln-cn close sluirn :
two inguinal niammtr. Anterior feet with four l.n -, : pos-
terior feet with 1 1
Dental formula:— incisors^; canines : — r ; molars .7
0 1—1 o— o
=42.
Teeth of Sumatran Tapir
Geographical Dixtrihutimi.— Asia and America. M.
Lesson observes that it was for a long time believed that
this genus was peculiar to America : but that the rich nnd
beautiful discoveries of MM. Diard and Duvaucel have
proved that it is also proper to Asia : of which observation
more will presently be said.
i ic TAPIU.
Up to the year 1810 it appears to have been thought
that the Tapir form was confined to America, and tin-
species known in collections as the American Tapir
to have been regarded as the only example of the :
M. I.c-son, who >o swccpiii^ly chums the discovers of the
Asiatic species for French naturalists, is not the on:
of that country who puts I'oith .-ueli pretensions.
' :mctt has thus "corrected those pretensions: —
1 Some vague notices had reached Sir Stamford Raffles
of the existence of a similar animal in Sumatra and the
Malayan Peninsula : but to Major Farquhar belongs the
credit of bavins; first procured a specimen and submitted
its description to the world at large. The hislory of this
transaction affords too striking an illuslialion oftfie injus-
tice of certain among tin- French yoologi.sts 1o the meiits
of Our countrymen to be passed over without observation.
" The knowledge of this animal in I
marest, in his • Mainmalogic.' carefully shielding himself
under an equivocal form of expression, " is due to M.
Diard." But M. LesttD goes farther; and echni
the dicta of his prcd Hi a slight addition of his
own. speaks of the Indian tapir asaspccu s " di -covered by
\I. Diaid." Again, in Ihe ' Dictionnanc dc- Seienc
turelles,' M. Dc-marcst, forgetful of his former caution,
heightens the farce still more by averting that its "dis-
covery in the forces nf Sumatra and the Peninsula of Ma-
lacca i» due to MM. Duvaucel and Diard." In none nf
thc-e works is the leu.st indication given that the animal
in question had previously been even seen by an English-
man ; much less is the fact suffered to tian-pirc that long
M. Diard had "discovered" it. not in the forests of
Sumatra or the Malayan Peninsula, but in the menagerie
of the (niM-nior-gi-neral of Mritish India at Barrackp
full description, together with a figure of the animal and
of its skull, had been laid before the Asiatic Socielv by
Major Farquhar, for publication in their • Researches.1
This latter circumstance, it is true, was not mentioned by
M . Frederick ( 'in ier when he figured the tapir of Malacca
in his splendid work, from a drawing made by M. Diard
in the iJarrackpore menagerie, or by that gentleman him-
self in the published part of his accompanying letter:
but there seems (o have been no int. ilieir parts
wilfully to mislead their readers. That M. Diait} at least
could not have beer. i>yam »nch desire is fully
proved t>\ several pa.-sagcs in the note appended by him
to Major Farqnhar's original description, in which he
speaks of the gallant officer as •• the excellent naturalist
who h: ith sn important a <!
and attributes the "honour" to him "a 'one. ' Ha mil ('uv'icr
too. in the recent edition of hi- • R.igne Animal.' silently
rejects the unmerited distinction in favor of his stepson
and friend ; and candidly quote-., as the first descnber.
our. in this instance, more fortunate countryman.*
this, we trust that we shall hear no more of t lie" disc.
of the Indian tapir In MM. Diard and Dnxanccl. wlio
have too many real claims on the consideration of zoo-
logists to require tc be tricked out in the borrowed plumes
with which it has hitherto been the fashion among our
neighbours to invest them.' (Thfdn. <strie
ofihc7.ru ir/i/ ilffl Ill'tltnl. vol.
Dr. Hoi-'. - that the first intelligence of the
fi-tence of this inteiesting animal in Sumatra was given
the government of Fort Marlborough at Bencoolen, in
the year 1772, by Mr. Whalfeldt, who was enipKn.
making a survey of the coast. In the month of April in
that year, it is. according to Dr. Horsfield, noticed in the
records, that Mr. Whalfeldt laid before the government
his observations on the place* southward of ( 'awoor. where
he met with the tapir at the month of one of the i
He considered it to be the hippopotamus, and described
it In that name; but the drawing which accompanied the
report identities it. says the Doctor, with the tapir. Dr.
.•Id adds that this mistake in the name may readily
be explained, when it is recollected that in the lentil
edition of the • Sy-tcma Nat urns' of Linmvus the tapir is
placed a- ;\ .species of hippopotamus, while in the twelfth
edition no mention is made of that animal.
• Tlu> learned author of the ' Hist. Wil-
liam Mar-den. KM|..' continues Dr. Ilorstield. • was at that
time - Hincnt at llciieooleii : and the
public OWe* to hi ...llccting even valuable infor-
mation relating to that island the lir-l notice of the .
ence of this animal, which is by the Mala\s in many
denominated Kiulu Mppo-potamns.
A tier the first di-eoveiy. in 177'-!. the !.
for a coiisideiable period. Fiom the same e:
Sir T. S. Rallies which ha- fnrni-hcd the dc-cripti
- that in the \ .i\ing spceiim
1<, sir (leoigc l.c ith.'v. hen lieutenant -governor of Pel
It \\a ;uhar in the \\-
oinitv of Malacca. A diawing and description of it
\ him to the- Asiatic Society in Islli, and
a living subject .arils sent to the menage
liarraekimre from Uencooleu. At this place a drawing
was made In M. Diard in the year ISlS, which, a.
panied In ail extract from the dc.-ciiption of Major Far-
'Hinicated to his fii,
in March. ISM). M. Ficd. Cuvier published it in hi-
lilhographic work on the mammalia of the menagerie in
Pans.'
1 In the month of September, l«ii, the first specimen of
tin- Ma::nau tapir was received ill England I'lom Sir
. inford Raffles, with the general 1 col-
lection of mammalia and birds, the descriptive catalogue
of which, being contained in the 13th vol. of the 'Tians-
actions of the I.inman Society.' has been already referred
to. This specimen of tapir was accompanied by a com-
plete skeleton, and the ihoiaeic and abdominal \:
preserved i wine.' Dr. Horefleld then rel
the use made b\ Sir Kveiaid Home of these materials in
tiie pap. .illuded ty.
• Calling him ' Farklnrie' Iwwevcr.
TAP
51
TAP
A living specimen of this species was lately brought to
this country. ;md publicly exhibited in the garden of the
Zoological Society of London, where it died more than a
year a_ro.
Description of Tapir us Malayanus — Tapir us f adieus of
the French zoologists ; Le Mniba, F. Guv., Mamm.:—' The
Malay Tapir resembles in form the American, and has a
similar flexible proboscis, which is six or eight inches in
length. Its general appearance is heavy and massive,
somewhat resembling the hog. The eyes are small ; the
ears roundish, and bordered with white. The sldn is thick
and firm, thinly covered with short hair. There is no mane
on the neck, as in the American species. The tail is very
short, and almost destitute of hair. The legs are short and
stout ; the fore-feet furnished with four toes, the hind-feet
with three. In the upper jaw there are seven molars on
each side, one small canine inserted exactly on the suture
of the incisor bone, and in front six incisors, the two outer
of which are elongated into tusks. In the under jaw there
are but six molars; the canines are large ; and the number
of the incisors, the outer of which are the smallest, is the
same as in the upper jaw. The general colour is glossy
black, with the exception of the back, rump, and sides of
the belly, which are white, and separated by a defined line
from the parts that are black.'
Such is the description of Sir Stamford Raffles, for the
accuracy of which we can vouch, having compared it with
the living animal in the garden of the Zoological Society.
Major Farquhar describes a young Tapir of this species
which he had alive in his house thus:— 'It appears that
until the age of four months it is black, and beautifully
marked with spots and stripes of a fawn colour above and
white below. After that period it began to change colour,
the spots disappeared, and at the age of six months it had
become of the usual colour of the adult.' ^See post,
American Tapirs.)
Marsden, as we have already seen, notices the animal as
the Hippopotamus ; coodo-ayer. In Sumatra, according
to Sir Stamford Raffles, it is known by different names in
different parts of the country : thus by the people of Limuu
it is called Saladang; by those of the interior of Manna,
Gindul; in the interior of Bencoolen, Babi Alu; and at
Malacca, Tctnin.
Habits. — The habits of this species in a state of nature
are probably similar to those of the American Tapirs. In
captivity, Major Farquhar describes it as of a mild and
gentle disposition. ' It became as tame and familiar as a
dog ; fed indiscriminately on all kinds of vegetables, and
was very fond of attending at table to receive bread, cakes,
or the like.' Sir Stamford Raffles adds that the living
specimen sent from Bencoolen to Bengal was young, and
became very tractable. It was allowed to roam occa-
sionally in the park at Barrackpore, and the man who had
charge of it informed Sir Stamford that it frequently en-
tered the ponds, and appeared to walk along the bottom
under water, and not to make any attempt to swim. Sir
Stamford also states that the flesh is eaten by the natives
of Sumatra.
The individual exhibited in the Regent's Park was very
mild and gentle.
a i
Tapir Mal.iynuu*
AMERICAN TAPIRS.
John <!'• Laet < 1 (>.'!:( , spcakinir of the'province of Vera-
Mr.it among the living quadrupeds which are
found the ttrc.itest is that which the barbarians < all
. and the Spaniards Dti/ita, an animal not unlike a
calf, but with shorter ICLCS ami :irticulaled alter (lie manner
elephant's: the anterior feet have, he states, five
-tenor only four. The head he de-
.LT, the forehead rather narrow, the eyes
1 :'in to the bulk, and the proboscis as being
a p«l': '>ve the mouth. When the
ihat it erects itself, and grinning
which are like those of hogs. The cars
••* an acute, the neck contracted, the tail short
and imini, the skin MTV thick, HO that/it may
with difficulty be giasped by the hand or perforated by
iron. It feeds, he says, on grass and sylvan herbage. The
natives, he adds, eat its flesh, and relate that they are
taught venesection by this animal, for when it finds itself
o\ crloaded with blood, by rubbing against rocks it opens
the veins of the h'«rs and lets blood. There can be no
doubt that the animal here meant is one of the American
Tapirs.
Marcgrave gives a very rude figure, not however to be
mistaken for anything but a Tapir, under the name of
'I'tijiii'rfte, Atita of the Spaniards, describing it and its
habits with considerable general accuracy; but Mr. Bennett
observes that he speaks of the teeth as consisting of ten
incisors and ten molars in each jaw, an error which Mr.
It remarks held its ground for nearly two centuries,
and having passed successively through the writings of
lirisson, Buffon, Gmelin, and Blumenbach, was first
corrected by Geoffrey St. Hilaire.
Towards the close of last century the fabulous clouds
H2
TAP
T A P
that had gathered about the history of this animal began
to clear away before the lights of observation. Button hail
• I tin- only American Tapir then known, as the 1
animal of the New World ; but this i-an hunlly be said of
it when the Elk anil tin- Wapiti are remembered. Geoffroy
M. Hilaire anil Baron Cuvicr first accurately defined its
zoological characters: and Sonnini nnd D'Azara cave a
correct account of its lialiits. Button's figure, alter a
drawing by I.a Condamine. was the first at all approach-
ing to accuracy. A living individual was afterwards
brought to France, b\it died lie: •. al at Pan
furnished a Mill better desiirn. published with further in-
formation, derived chiefly from Sonnini, and M. Bajor.'s
memoir on the anatomy of the species, in the Supplement
to Button, \ol.vi.: but still some of the errors wen- re-
tained ; nor was the'account of two other individuals living
in the menagerie belonging to the Prince of Orange, by
Allamand, complete.
Lieut. Maw, in his Journal of << Pitssagr from Ihr
I'<iriflc to the Atlantic (1829), speaks of the Tapir as com-
mon in the woods and ri\ers about Egas, there called Anln,
and which is the same animal with the Sachywaka, Dante,
or Gran Bestia of Peru, of which they had heard much
both before and since embarking. Two kinds were de-
scribed to them, one bavin*; the tips of its cars white, and
which is the lariresl : when young it was stated to be
striped and spotted like a deer, the spots disappearing M
it crows older, till it becomes entirely of a dusky bay
colour. Here we have a clear intimation of the knowledge
of two species by those inhabiting the spot.
The form of the species best known has since been ren-
dered familiar to Englishmen by the exhibition of living
specimens in the gardens of the Zoological Society of Lon-
don in the Regent's Park.
But this is not the only American Tapir : fur M. Konlin,
about thirteen years since, laid before the French Academy
a description and figures of a new species inhabiting the
mountainous parts of the same districts, the plains of which
are frequented by the other; and his account is given in
the An miles des Sciewi't \<itnr> -Ili-s : from this it would
appear that the American Tapir of the mountains is more
nearly allied to the Asiatic species than the American
Tapir of the plains.
\Ve take as our example the species first known.
.liii-rirniiiix, Gmel.
Denrrijiti'iti. General colour throughout deep brown
approaching to black. Sides of the lower lip. hand on the
under and middle part of the chin, upper edges of the
cars, and naked line at the junction of the hoofs pure
white. Scanty hair of the body very short, closely ad-
1 In the surface: hardly distinguishable at a
distance. The skin beneath it is of threat density, belli:,',
according to M. Uoulin, not !:• < n lines thick on
the hack, and eight or nine lines on the cheek, and so
touch that Sonnini frequently shot at a female which was
•us; the river with her young, without disturbing her
or makine her turn out of her course, though he saw the
impression of a ball which he had tired on the animal's
check. There is a thick rounded crest on the hack of the
neck, extending from the forehead ns low as the level of
the eyes to the shoulders, and bristled with a not thick
mane of still' blackish hairs. Mr. Bennett icmail. that it
is peculiar to the present species, but is not found, accord-
ing to M. Konlin, in the female at Cayenne: although
D'A/ara states that the female is equally furnished with it
in Paraguay. In the female brought by Lieut. Maw from
Para, and 'formerly in the menagerie "of the Xoological
:yof I/ondon, it was \ cry conspicuous. Head very
long ; muzzle prolonged and covered above with hair of
Miie colour as that of the body, but naked and flesh-
coloured at its extremity (which !s flattened ; and under-
neath. F.yes very small, of a dull lead colour.
The colour of the individual dissected by Mr. Yarrell
was rusty reddish-brown, with indications of lighter spots
and horizontal lines on the ribs, flanks, and tin
fawn-coloured spot* and stripes.' MI;, s Mi. Yarrell, 'are
common to both species of Tapir' (the Sumatran and the
American species then known are meant ' while young :
that of Sumatra not exhibiting till it is ,i\ mon'ths old
any appearance of the well-defined black and whiti
which afterwards distinguishes the adult animal.
J'liirn., vol.
Mr. Bennett, too, remarks that the young is of a much
lighter brown than the adult, with numerous small white
-pus on the cheeks, a whitish muzzle, and MX or eight,
complete narrow hands of white pacing along each side
of the body from the shoulders to the haunches. • Ke-
irnlnr rows, says Mr. Bennett, in continuation. • of small
white spots, placed at equal d) m cadi other,
alternate with these bands. The vipper parts of the limbs
are marked in a similar manner: their inner sides, as well
the under surface of the body, are white; and their ex-
tremities of the ground-colour of the whole body, with a
lew fainter spots scattered over them. Before the end of
the first year of their age this livery becomes comp'<
lost : it is partially visible in the young specimen in the
Society's museum, but not at all in the living individuals
at the Gardens i 1X10 . Similar markings occur in the.
young of the Sumatra! :md also, we may observe,
in that of the Hog in its native state. The adidt female
of the present species has generally a considerable number
of whitish bain intermingled with the brown, which give-.
her somewhat of a grizzled appcaiancc."
• irirnl f*'irii'ttf ili'/ini-
I iliti/. South America. 'Few animals of equal
si/e." says the author last quoted. 'hav e MI extensive a
lange as the American Tapir. It is found in even part of
South America to the east of the Andes, from the Siraits
of Magellan* to the Isthmus of Darien : but appears to lie
• ••minion within the tropics. M. Koulin dwells upon
it as a singular fact that although it occurs as far .
south of the equator, it ceases suddenly at about K° north,
in a situation where it is extremely abundant. and where no
adequate cause has yet been assigned to bar its further pro-
gress, no huge riveis nor lofu mountains intervening, nor
any change in the character of t! 'inn of the
country being manifest. The left bank of the Atrato near
ith, and the part of Darien inhabited by the inde-
pendent Indians, i.iav be considered as its northern limit.
Its highest range, iii the province of Maraqmta at least,
appears to be from :«K«) to lilJOO feet above the level of
the sea, while the new species discovered by M. Konlin is
only met with at a much greater elevation.'
Ilutiit*. C/iiin; ,\ r. The inmost recedes of deep !•
are the chosen haunts of this species, which is not gregari-
ous, and ilies from the proximity of man. It is for the
most part nocturnal in its habits, sleeping or remaining
quiet during the day, and at night seeking its food, which,
in its natc.ial state, consists of shoots of trees, buds, wild
fruits. &e. If we are to believe D'A/aia, and he Wl
accurate observer, it is very fond of the barrero. or nitrous
earth of Paiaguay. Il is however a most indiscriminate
swallower of everything filthy or clean, nutritious or other-
wise, M the farrago found in the stomach of the individual
••i-d by Mr. Yarrell showed. Pieces of wood, clay,
pebbli esarcnol un frequent h taken out of the
stomachs of those which are killed in the woods : and one
kept by D'.'i silver snutt'-ho -. and
s, allowed ill'.' contents.
l! is a powerful animal, and everything in the under-
i_v to its rush. It is in the habit.
of making runs or roads through the brushwood, and Ihe-e
beaten tra.:. -lected h;.
through the t'oi-
Quiet and peaceable in i(s demeanour, it is hunted for
kt of its tough hide and its Mesh, which, though not
liked by the Knropcan for it is coarse and dry . is relished
by the unsophisticated palate of the Indian.
The lasso i- not often employed in its capture, not only
from its haunts being geneially unfavourable to that mode
of hunting, but because its determined inshand strength
will at a single effort snap the line which is sliong ei
eer of a bull. The hunters will sometimes
lie in wait with their dogs near a Tapir's road as evening
approaches, and so get between him and the water to
which he usually directs his < the purp.
bathing and wallowing at the commencement of In-
turnal career. He n, d tight and inflicts |
wounds upon the dogs with his teeth, especially if lie
can reach the water, where he stands at bay,
deep and defies the fiercest of them: for: com-
pelled to swim to the attack, the Tapir bides his time, and
seizing them by the backs of their necks as they succo-
siveh come within his reach, shakes them oft, not without
biting a piece out.
• A' '. :it ] rrsont.
TAP
53
TAP
But it would seem that the most common method of
catching them is by imitating their sharp but not very
shrill whistle, and thus bringing them within shot of the
Indian's poisoned arrow.
Lieut. Maw, who, as we have above seen, brought a
young animal of this species to England, speaks of it as
feeding \ipon herbs and the branches of trees, and going
much into the water, walking along or rather perhaps
aeross the bottoms of rivers. ' It possesses,' says Lieut.
Maw, ' great strength, particularly in the fore part of the
body ; but is harmless, except when attacked. It is said
to pass directly through the thickets without following
any previous track.* We were told that when the Tapir
is :it lacked by a Tiger' (Pel is On fa) [LEOPARD, vol. xiii., p.
4:Vi], ' the Tiger generally springs upon the Tapir's back,
when the latter rushes into the woods and endeavours to
kill the assailant by dashing him against some large tree.
Although strongly'vand apparently heavily made, the Tapir
is s;iiil to be fleet.' (Journal of a Passage, &c.)
This species is mild in captivitv and easily domesticated.
Sonnini states that several tame Tapirs are permitted to go
at liberty through the streets of Cayenne, and to wander
into the woods, whence they return in the evening to the
house where they are kept and fed. He adds that they are
capable of attachment to their owner, and expresses his
opinion that care and attention might convert its qualities
of strength, docility, and patience to account as a beast of
burthen.
AmerSrnn Tapir.
FOSSIL TAPIRS.
Dr. Buckland, in his Itctiqnice Diliirinna; notices the
remains of Tapir in company with those of rhinoceros,
elephant, horse, ox, deer, hyaena, bear, tiger, fox, wolf,
mastodon, hog, and beaver, in the Val d'Arno, on the
authority of Mr. 1'entland ; and in his interesting and in-
itractive fint plate illustrative ol\a*BridgeiDater Tn-ttti.\<-
figures a Tapir in little among the mammalia of the first
period of the Tertiary series (Eocene of Lyell). In the
Kppleshcim sand (Miocene of Lyell), Professor Kaup
found two species larger than those now living.
It should be borne in mind that the second or Miocene
system of tertiary deposits contains a mixture of the ex-
tinct genera of lacustrine mammalia of the first or Eocene
series, with the earlie.-t forms of existing genera. M.
Desnoveis i'r.,t noticed this in the Faluns of Touraine,
where" the remains of I'lilrrntlu'rintii. Anthrucothvriiini,
and Ijiphifid'in were found mixed with the bones of the
tapir, mastodon, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, and horse.
These remains were i';;\<-tun •<! and rolled, .and sometimes
ccncrcd with flustra, and must, Dr. Buckland observes,
have been derived from carcasses drifted into an actuary
or sea.
Von Meyer records the following species : Tapir
-, Croiz. and Job., from the diluvium, Puy-de-
Dfime, Cussac; Tapir Mailodontoidtt, Harlan, from Ken-
tucky, wit li a justifiable query, whether it is a Tapir at
all :•'• and Tnjiir Prisms, Kaup, from the Epplesheim sand,
iuilesto other remains noticed m the works of
lift, and Kichwald. (Diluvium, Irawadi.i
Dr. Lund, in his ' View of the Fauna of Brazil,' states that
he h:id in vain looked for either remains or foot-prints o!
the living Tapir; whence he concludes, that it does not
: but. -he says that he is in possession
of fo which evidently belong to the genus
• Iltlt te« aliovr.
t I'r ,fr«ir OWTO l«-l,.nci UiU » called T»pir to Iw the young of }Iatl<iAm
•VBt.
hough they are too imperfect to determine their relation
o the recent animal.
TAPPING, or Paracentesis (in Surgery), is the operation
.isually employed for the removal of fluid from any of the
serous cavities of the body in which it has collected in a
dangerous quantity. It is accomplished by means of an
'nstrument called a trocar, and a tube, or canula, in which
t exactly fits. The trocar is of steel, cylindrical through
;he chief part of its length, and terminated by a three-
sided pyramid which ends in a very sharp point. The
L-anula being placed upon its shaft, the trocar is thrust
nto the cavity containing the fluid, and being then with-
drawn through the eanula, the latter is retained in the
aperture till all the fluid is discharged. The diseases for
which tapping is chiefly performed are ascites, hydro-
:horax, hydrocele, and, occasionally, hydrocephalus, and
•fins-ions of fluid in the pericardium.
TAPTY. [HINDUSTAN, p. 211.]
TAPUH. [SooLoo ARCHIPELAGO.]
TAR, a well-known empyreumatic product.
The properties of tar are, that it is a viscid brown semi-
luid mass, which long preserves its softness. If it be
mixed with water, it acquires a yellow colour and the
:aste of tar, with slightly acid properties ; this solution is
well known by the name of tar-water, and has been used
in medicine. Tar is soluble in alcohol, in aether, and in
:he fixed and volatile oils.
If tar be distilled with water, there passes over a brown
iquid which consists of much empyreumatic oil and some
oil of turpentine ; this product is called oil of tar ; by redis-
illation with water it becomes colourless ; the substance
•emaining in the still is pitch ; so that, in fact, tar is a
mixture of oil and pitch.
?. Within a few years, tar has been subjected to a minute
examination by Reichenbach, who has obtained from it a
variety of substances possessing very different properties ;
the most important of these is creasote. [CREASOTK.]
After what has been stated of the many different com-
pound substances of which tar is constituted, no exact
analysis could of course be stated ; its chief constituent
is carbon, combined with hydrogen and oxygen, and a
small portion of azote.
TAR (French, Goudron ; German, Them ; Italian, Ca-
trame; Spanish, Alquitran; Polish, SmolaGesta; Russian,
Degot, Smola shitkaja ; Swedish, Tjiira), is obtained from
wood or coal by distillation in close vessels, or in piles from
which the air is excluded. Pitch (French, Poix ; German,
Pcrh ; Italian, Pece ; Spanish, Fez ; Russian, Smolti gus-
taja) is commonly obtained by the jnspissation of tar, or
by boiling it until all the volatile matters are driven oft'.
For the chemical properties of tar, see the preceding
article.
Tar is extensively manufactured from the roots and
branches of pines and firs in Norway, Sweden, Germany,
Russia, North America, and other countries in which those
trees abound ; but that made in the north of Europe is
considered far superior to what is produced in the United
Stales. The process usually followed is described in Dr.
E. D. Clarke's 'Travels in Scandinavia,' and is, he states,
similar to that which, according to Theophrastns and
Dioscorides, was practised by the antient Greeks. He
observes indeed that ' there is not the smallest difference
between a tar-work in the forests of Westro-Bothnia and
those of antient Greece.' After describing the noble fores! s
which cover'the soil down even to the water's edge, about
the inlets of the Gulf of Bothnia, Dr. Clarke says, ' From
the most southern parts of Westro-Bothnia to the northern
extremity of the Gulf, the inhabitants are occupied in the
manufacture of tar, proofs of which are visible in the whole
extent of the coast The situation most favourable to
the process is in a forest near to a marsh or bog ; because
the roots of the fir, from which tar is principally extracted,
are always most productive in such places. A conical
cavity is then made in the ground (generally in the side of
a bank or sloping hill), and the roots of the fir, together
with logs and billets of the same, being neatly trussed in a
stack of the same conical shape, are let into this cavity.
The whole is then covered with turf, to prevent the vola-
tile parts from being dissipated, which, by means of a
heavy wooden mallet, and a wooden stamper worked sepa-
rately by two men, is beaten down and rendered as firm as
possible above the wood. The stack of billets is then
kindled, and a slow combustion of the fir takes place,
T A R
5-1
I A 1!
without flame, a» in making charcoal. During this com
bustion the tar exudes; ami a cast-iron pan hfiiiir nt th
bottom ol the 1'iiiuifl, with a spout \\iiuli project* thruuirl
thf >uli' Hi thr hank, barrels an- placed lifiu-uth tlii» gpou
to collect the tliml H.I it comes away. An fust as thf bar
n Is arc filled, they an- Imnged anil insult- ready tor ex
[inflation.' • From this <lf« •niitiiiti.' he adds. • it will IK.
fMilfiit that the mode ol' obtaining tiir is by a kind of dit-
tillation i* i- ilnrimtum ; the turpentine, melted bv tin.
fire, mixing with the MI p and juices of thf fir, while ti
wood itself, becoming charred, is converted into charcoal.
The procesH of tar-making in Sweden, north of the ll.iih
mini (rulf. has been more recently described in l,aing'
'Tour in Sweden.' in which work it is stated that fir-tree
which are stunted in growth, or from their situation im
suitable for the saw-mill, arc prepared tor thiit purpose- by
peeling off the bark to the height of one or two fathom*
up the stem. This is done by degree*, so that the trei
may not decay and dry up at once, but may remain foi
ti\f or six years in a vegetative slate, — alive, but no1
growing. The sap, thus checked in its circulation, makes
the wood licher in tar, so that, when cut down, the tree is
almost entirely converted into the substance from vvhicl
tar is distilled. The roots, rotten stubs, and .-corchci
trunks of trees felled in clearing land, are all applied to
the purpose of producing tar. It is slated, in the last
mentioned work, that the state of the weather during tin
process of burning or distilling greatly affects the amount
of produce. The labour required to convey the tar from
the forests to the rivers is often very irreat ; and not un-
frcquently the barrels are committed to the stream in
(udiT to pass rapids or falls.
In some parts of France and Switzerland tar -
in a kind of oven or kiln, built of stone or brick, in tlu
form of an egg, with its smaller end downwards. These
kilns are sometimes as much a.s ten feet deep and sixfict
in diameter: and they are provided with a gun-barrel or
lube at the lower eiid'to conduct, the tar. as it is made, to
U placed to receive it. The wood is cut into billets,
and freed from its bark; and the kiln is rilled with bundles
of billets, chips being inserted to fill up the interstices. A
layer of chips is also placed at the top of the kiln, which,
when charged, is covered over with flat stones, so arranged
as to form a kind of vaulted chimney. Fire is applied to
the dry chips at the lop, through a'n opening left in the
centre, and, a* soon as the pile is fairly lighted, the chim-
ney is closed in with a large stone, and wet earth is heaped
upon the top i>f the kiln until the escape of smoke is effec-
tually prevented. It is however necessary occasionally to
h the lire by the admission of a little air throuirh
holes in the sides of the kiln. The avcraire product of tar
ted to be from ten to twelve per cent, of the weight
of the charge: but the red wood and the knots furnish
about one-fourth of their weight of tar. Hy this plan
the wood is chaired more equally, and the tar is (.f
superior quality. A Me quantity of lamp-black
collects upon the stones which form the roof and chimney
of the kiln, and this is removed after each operation. l'io-
bably a still better plan would be to distil the wood in
milar to those used in the manul'ac'
coal-ir;us : but any such apparatus is unsuitable for the wild
lore»t districts in which tar is principally made.
The great importance of lar and pitch its naval
enabled the Tar Companv i.in ITOM, to put Eng-
land ' able inconvenience, by refusing to supply
• their own price, in such quan-
M thc\ miirht i i in Swedish shipping. This
circumstance induced parliament to offer bounties for the
mipoitation of these and other naval stores from the
Uiitish colonies in North America, a measure which pro-
duced highly beneficial results. It wnscomp.
period that the annual consumption of ' >r'and
pitch in (treat Hritain and Ireland was about 1(H>"
and that of other Kuropcan countries about "XKKI lasts, of
wlurli iour-filllis was tar; and it was stated that 1
: :d,-<l the chief supply, considerable
in Norway and inmusia. Probably
this estimate was much too small ; for And.
that in 173O the quantity of tar annually shipped from
Archangel ill Russia was computed to be 4<),lHKi
The Amei: i independence, by interrupt ing the
trade between Knu'l.ind and North America, revived the
funnel- difficult) respecting the supply of lar, and led to
the establishment of the manufacture ol tar liom p-
an object which hail : attempted. If
.;,'!! chemist, w!i ,,ut (he time of Char,
is supposed to have 1 Mo piopose the makinir of
coal-tar; and it wan made :mpn,
of l.icifc, and in other parts ,tr dis-
tilled in a kind , •! the
• Philosophical Tiaiisactious' vol. \i\.. \>.7>\l . wh:
published in May, 1(>!»7. contains .
making of pitch, tar. and oil out of a blackish stone in
Shropshire, communicated bv Mr. Martin i
of it.' The mineral used is described as a blackish ;
rock, lung over the sliiita of coal, in Jirosclcy. Hcntlv ,
I'itchford. .Vc. ; and the bituminous part was separated by
breaking the rock to powder, and boihnir it with
About the year ITT'-I, in consequence, as before slated, ol
the American war, some lamp-black in,. ,-rs at
lln-tol turned their attention to the manufacture
from pit-coal; and in 17NI. Lord Dundonald, a nobleman
distinguished for his scientific pursuits, obtained a
for improvement* upon the pioecss pievumsly fol.
Mr. Pitt, of 1'endeford. near \Volverhanipton. in a lellei
addressed to the Socictv of Arts, in 17UO, on the snbj
converting the smoke of .steam-engine furnaces into tar.
alludes to three establishment* at liradlcy. Tipton, and
Dudley Wood, erected bv Lord Dundonald and the gentle-
men associated with him : ai:d stales that the !•
then carried on with succc > tar-work-
Pitt.-are erected in the \ieinityof large iron and coal
works: the iron-masters furnish the tar-works with raw-
coal gruti*, and receive in icturii the cokes piv
by suc'h coal ; and the proprietors of the - have
the smoke only for their labour and int. :|iital.'
'l'r<inii<irtiiin\ nf Ihr Xm-ii-nj tif Art*. vol. iv.. p. l:t2.) The
-s adopted at these works is fully detailed 1
Pitt. The manufacture ol coal-tar has not proved so im
|)ortant as was at one time anticipated, although for somi
inn-poses it is deemed superior to that made from
The author of the article 'Navy.' in the >
''i/iffi/iii Britun/iiea, considers tar I
be an important resource in case of Kn--l.
pelled to revert to her own resources f,
and observes that for painting or tarring
of ever)' kind, it, is said to stand exposure to the weather
better than the common tnr. He also refers to the pitch-
lake of Trinidad [TRINIDAD] as a source whence an almos'
inexhaustible supply of mineral pitch and tar miirht be
obtained. Tar is produced in large quantities in the ma-
nufacture of coal-:ras : but in some districts its value i>
considered so trifling that il is mixed with the fuel bv
which the retorts are heated. It is usual! 1 from
the iras by condensation ; but the introduction of a quiin-
titv of brushwood into the condenser, so as to form a me-
chanical interruption to the passage of the Lras. is found
'rcat!) lo a-sisl the operation.
The import duty upon tar has bei n for
12v. per last,* if from liritish possessions, and l.'i.v. n
Ibreign countries: but under the ne.v taritt'of Sir Hoberi
!s;-J . i; i, re-peetively (></. and 2v. (if/. ])er last. The
jiiantitv ini]iorted in the five years from iKCi to IsU'.l. was
ii'.ii-j-j lasts, or about 1'J.l'Jt lasts per annum : of which
")S.l(Hi lasts, or ll.li'JI lasts annually, were entered for
ionic consumption. During this period the duty amounted
o •! l,tr.U/.. or upon an avei:iLr, B804/. per annum. Ofthe
quantity Russia funiisheil about .~>0.1.V> lasts: the
Sweden. ±i!>7 la-ts : Denmark.
I.'&X) lasts: and Norway. Ills' lasts; |)H. remainder '
up of small quantities from Germany. Prussia.
Pitch is extensively manufactured in (ireai Hritain. \et
he quantity imported in IS;M is stated, by M'Culloeh. lo
lave been about 10.7">2 <-vvt. The' duty is la/, per cwt.,
f from foreign countries, and 0</. if from Uiitish p,
or. under the new tariff, i'xl. and b/. per cwt. re-
pi-e!i
Dr. K.' D. Clarke's Tnir < . pp.
i"il, i")2; Laimr's '/',,•//• //; Sirnl,;i in 1S.-(M, p. 17(i: M-,,
il's Allllillx "f f'nmilir/-: ;• ; M'Crlli, ,,,,nj
TAUA. [SniKHn.]
TAKAIU.c MA.]
TAKAI. [HiM.is.vN. p. -217.]
* A lost i» iwchr l»«i ''<•• < '-i>.tnm-IIoHsc regula-
•»lnuolmor»lli'ti Oiiity uiwgttllm« and • half.
TAR 55
TARAKAI is the name of a large island, which ha
Ions; figured on our maps under the name of Saghalien o
Saghalian, and has at different times been supposed to b(
called Tchoka, Karafto, and Sandan. This island extends
from south of 46° to 54° 20' N. lat., more than 600 miles ir
length, but the width is various. Towards the southern
extremity, north of the Bay of Aniva, it is nearly 100 miles
wide, hut it soon contracts to about 25 miles, which is
about its average width as far north as the Bay of Patience
where it suddenly expands to 120 miles, Cape Patience
running far out into the Pacific. From this point (49° N.
lat. i northward the island asrain grows narrower, but ver\
gradually, so that at 51" N. lat. it is still nearly 80 miles
wide. Farther north its average width does not exceed
50 miles. The area of the island probably exceeds 30,OOC
square miles, which is not much more than that of Scot-
land, if we include the islands.
Taraka'i extends along the eastern coast of Asia between
142° and 145° E. long., and is separated from the continent
by a strait, which is called the Gulf of Tartary, because
the country of the Mantchoos for a long time was known
by the name of Tartary. This <rnlf or strait is 200 miles
wide at its most southern extremity, but it grows nar-
rower as we advance farther north, until near~51° 30' N.
lat. it is less than 40 miles wide. So far this sea has been
navigated, hut at that point a shoal extends across the
gulf, on which there is only water for boats. That portion
of the gulf which lies between 51° 30' and 52° 30' N. lat.
is not known. Krusenstem thinks that this part of the
island of TarakaV is united to the continent of Asia by an
IU8, but I.a Perouse expressly states that dried fish is
carried from the western shores of the island to the river
Amur in boats, which could not be done if the isthmus of
Krusenstem existed. It may appear strange that these two
navigators have not been able to decide this point, a.s one
sailed up from the south to r>l°30', and the other from the
north to nearly 53° N.lat., but they found the sea always
• •d with thick loirs, and hardly ever could see a tew
mile-, before them, and the water shoaled so suddenly and
constantly that they did not think it advisable to proceed
farther. If an isthmus exists, it must be near 52° 30* N.
lat.. where a low sandy cape certainly stretches so far to
the east as to approach very near the western shores of the
island. North of this narrow and shallow part, the gulf
's a circular basin, about 50 miles wide, which re-
- the waters of the river Amur, and is therefore called
by Krusenstem the Liman of the Amur. This basin is
united with the sea of Okhotsk by a strait, which in the
narrowest part is about ten miles wide. It does not ap-
that there is any current in this gulf, which is
in favour of the opinion of Krusenstem. The southern
•iiity (if Taraka'i is divided from the island of Yeso by
••rait of La Perouse, which, between Cape Crillon on
Taraka'i and between Cape Soja on Yeso, is hardly thirty
miles wide, and in which the tides run with great velocity.
. who visited the Gulf of Tartary in June,'found
luthem winds were blowing nearly uninterruptedly;
but Broughton, who was there in September, experienced
i and north-eastern winds.
Though the eoa-t of the island is of great extent and
much indented, it does not appear that there are many
good harbours. Along the western shores only open road-
steads have been found. At the southern extremity of
the island, between Cape Crillon and Cape Aniva, is a
bay, the Bay of Auiva, which is enclosed bv two
projecting tongues of land, and extends 50 miles "from
south to north. Tlv ,,1 anchorage at its 'most
northern extremity. The projecting headland, which
occurs near 49° N. lat., on the eastern side of TarakaV, and
terminates with Cape Patience, endogel Die Hay of Pa-
tience, which is very extensive, but open and exposed to
11 and southern winds. At the most northern ex-
J of the island is the Northern Bay, between the
cape of that name and Cape Mary. It is not very large,
ami oll'ci in several places LTOOI! anchorage and shelter.
The island is naturally divided into three tracts: the
mountainous, which occupies the southern portion; the
level, in the middle; and the hilly tract, which extends
over the northern districts. The mountain-region i
•uds more than one-half of the island,
Hie north at Cape Delisle de la (V
•"'1 ' N. lat. . A chain of mountains begins at Cape
Crillon, and continues in an uninterrupted line northward
TAR
to an elevated summit called Peak Bernizel, where it
seems to be united to another and lower chain, which
traverses the eastern peninsula, and incloses the Hay of
Aniva on the east. Cape Aniva is formed by a high
isolated hill, which is connected by a low isthmus with
I he chain of hills which lies farther north, and joins the
principal range at Peak Bernizel. Farther north occur
other summits, as Peak Lamanon, Peak Mongez, and Mount
Tiara : the two last mentioned are north of 50° N. lat.
None of these summils have been measured, but their
elevation probably does not exceed 5000 feet above the
sea-level. Along the western coast the mountains in some
places come close up to the water's edge, but a narrow level
tract generally separates them from the shore, and this
tract is covered with high trees, while the delivities of the
mountains are mostly bare, probably owing to the rapidity
of their slope. Extensive flats occur at Aniva Bay and the
Bay "of Patience. The low country .which skirts the shore
on the eastern side of the mountains appears to be more
extensive and less interrupted than that along the western
shores. On the eastern side the shore in some places is
level and low, and in others elevated. The country ex-
tending from 51° to 53° N. lat. is so low that the shores are
not visible at the distance of five or six miles, and it is
sandy and overgrown with hushes. The interior is in gene-
ral level, partly sandy and partly swampy, and a great part
of it is covered with short bushes or small trees. A num-
ber of low sand-hills are dispersed over the country, which
are destitute of trees, and appear like islands in a sea of
verdure. The hilly tract occupies the most northern part
of the island, or that which extends from 53° N. lat. to
Cape Elizabeth. The coast is in general high and steep,
being generally composed of perpendicular white cliff's.
There are only a few tracts in which the coast sinks down
to the level of the sea ; and here the villages are built.
The interior consists of a succession of high hills covered
with full-grown trees to the very summits ; the valleys
which intervene between them are partly wooded and
partly covered with a fine close turf. This part of TarakaV
seems to possess a considerable degree of fertility.
Clirnntii. — As European navigators have only occasion-
ally visited this island, and have only stayed there a few
dii\ t, or at the utmost a couple of weeks, our information
respecting the climate is extremely deficient. We only
know that even at the beginning of'June the higher sum-
mits of the mountains have still some snow on them, which
indicates that the country must be much colder than Great
Britain, which is nearly at the same distance from the
pole : otherwise the summer months seem to be temperate,
but the continual fogs which enclose the island nearly all
the year round are more dense than those that occur on
the coasts of Nova Scotia.
l'rtiilitrti<iiix.—No kind of grain is cultivated, not e\en
•ound the settlements of the Japanese, nor are orchards or
titchen-gardens mentioned. The inhabitants however de-
rive profit from the spontaneous products of the soil : they
hy the roots of a species of lily for winter food, and collect
great quantities of garlic and angelica, which are found
MI the skirts of the woods. The forests consist of oak,
maple, birch, and medlar, but chiefly of fir. Large tracts
are covered with juniper-trees. Gooseberries, raspberries,
and strawberries abound, and also wild celery and water-
-. It does not appear that \\ild animals are nu-
nerous : only martens and bears are mentioned, and even
:hese do not seem to be common. The sea supplies the
nhabitauts with the means of subsistence. Salmon is
jerhaps nowhere so abundant as in the Gulf of Tartarv.
The account of La Perouse in this respect seems hardly
credible. Dried and smoked salmon, together with the
skins of salmon, are prepared for the foreign market, and
•onslitute the principal articles of export. Herrings,
which are very abundant, are likewise cured and exported.
Cod occurs, liul it docs not seem to be taken to such an
amount as to form an article of export. Whales are nu-
nerous in the Strait of La Perouse and along the eastern
•oasl, and train-oil in bladders is an article of export. In
he same' parts seals, fur-seals ^(Phoca ursina), sea-lions
Phnca jiibata), and sea-otters (Lutra marina) are very
frequent. No mines are worked.
The inhabitants are aborigines, among whom a few Japa-
icse have settled on the Bayof Aniva, and a few Mantchoos
on the Northern Bay. In the Japanese settlements are a
Tew Japanese officers, but no Chinese authorities have been
T A i;
56
T A I!
wen, nor is thU island enumerated among tin* pOMe«iuons
of t hr Chinese. The aborigines call themselves. /Vm»«(f.».
men), and are at present known u ml IT that niinif us a nation.
Tin- nation extends northward to the pMUMul* of Kamt-
chatka, of which it occupies the must southern extremity
near Cape Lopatka. :uui it inhabits the Kurilc Islands, the
Japanese island of Ycso, T.iraka'i. and the eoast of the
cniitiiieiit of Asia from the mouth of the Amur river south-
ward to tlie very boundary-line of Corea. Tliev never cul-
tivate the soil, nor apply themselves to hunting wild
animals, and they keep no domestic animals except dogs,
which they use in winter for drawinsr their sledges, like
the inhabitants of Kamtehatka. T.a 1'erousc found them
somewhat shorter in stature than Europeans, rarely ex-
ceeding ti\e feet six inehes, and some hard!) the feet.
Their countenances are benevolent and friendly: thev have
tolerably large eyes, thiek lips, rather high check-Vines,
and u somewhat broad and compressed no.-e. Their cheeks
and chins are covered with long, thick, black beards : there
are many individuals whose body is covered with hair,
as occasionally is the case in Europe. The only kind of
manufacture among them is a kind of cloth made of the
bark of willow-trees, which are very common in the island,
and do not seem to differ from the European species. They
use iii this manufacture a machine. The other articles <,t
cloth thev obtain by barter from the Japanese anil Mant-
choos. They show also some skill in the erection of their
huts and the building of their boats. Their huts are of
wood, covered with the white bark of birch, and have a
roof of wood thatched with dry straw. I,:i IVrouse com-
pares them with the cottages of the peasants of France.
fheir boats are of large size and strongly built. Some of
their costumes are evidently adopted from the Chinese, as
the practice of letting their nails grow to a considerable
length, and their mode of saluting by prostration. Like
them, thev sit on mats, and eat with little sticks. Their
language does not resemble either that of the Japanese.
Chinese, or Mantchoos. The Mantchoos visit the northern
and western coast to barter dried and smoked salmon, and
dried herrings, for some nankeens, tobacco, and utensils.
The Japanese visit the southern arid eastern districts,
where they obtain train-oil, herrings and salmon, ami a
few furs, and give in return lacquered wooden eating and
drinking vessels, tobacco and tobacco-pipes, kitchen uten-
sils, rice, coarse cotton-cloth, and some minor articles.
(La Perouse's I'lii/n^,' rntunl tin' II nr/i/ : Hroughton's
I'litjua,' of Disrorcnj in thi' \'irt fit'fii /'<//•/ nf the'PiiriJic:
Krusciistcrn. I'uynf!'' rniiinl the ll'urlil; and Krnsenstern's
Hi i-in il ili' .\lt'iii'iir<:< i-.i jilicatifs, <^c. ; LftDffldorf'a I'oyages
unil Tfarflx in ruriiiiix 1'iuix nf tin- Wand.)
TA It A NTA'SIA, or TAUANTAISE. [SAVOY.]
TARANTISMUS is the name given to a peculiar
nervous affection which was lung supposed to be the con-
scqunce of the bite of the Tarantula Spider. It seems to
have occurred frequently in the kingdom of Naples during
the sixteenth century, and to have been nearly similar in
its characters to the disease which was originally called
St. Vitus's dance [CnoKK\], and to that which has occa-
sionally prevailed in parts of Scotland, and has been called
the • leaping ague.'
T he 'pat ients, nearly all of whom were women, soon
after being bitten (as it was supposed) used to fall into a
profound stupor, from which nothing roused them but the
sound of such music as pleased them, on heaiiug which
they had an irresistible desire to dance. So long as the
music continued, and was in tune and sufficiently lively,
they would go on jumping and dancing till they fell
exhausted; and, all the time, some used to shriek, some
to laugh and sing, some to weep. When, after a short rest,
they had recovered from their fatigue, they would ag.iiu
begin to dance with an much vigour as before, mil
music were played slowly or confusedly, when they would
stop and grow anxious and melancholy, or even, if the
music were not soon made agreeable to them, would fall
into a dangerous stale of stupor. The disease u-cd to last
about four days, and seemed to be cured by the ]
orations brought on by the active exercise: but it
often returned at the same iime in the following year, or
even for a succession of years, and on every o<
required the same treaine:it.'
Since it has been found that the bite of the Tarantula
can produce no such strange effects as these, many have
suspected that the disease ascribed to it never really
existed, but was feigned lor tin pity
or for the pleasure of dancing. Th. 'ii to
believe that in most instance- il wa-iudclv d.-.inlcrfcitcd:
lull there can be no doubt that such a disease had oei
and had given occasion to th. t.f the' fiaiul.
Hcsides its similarity to di-i 8 ivalitv i- n neralK
admitted, such a- the St. Vilu-'s dance and the leaping
agne, cases have occasionally been met with in i
times which closelj resemble It, and in which there could
be no just suspicion of fraud. Such a case is described
by Mr. K. Wood, in the seventh volume of the • M.
Chirurgieal Transactions;' another is recorded by Mr.
Ciichton, in the :Ust volume of the ' Kdiul.urgh Medical
and Surgical Journal ;' and in the ' Cxclopu -ilia of i
lical Medicine.' art. ' Chorea,' sev .ial ca-i - of ana!
affections are related. All the.-e however occurred a
That the Tarautismus and the St. Yitu.s's dance should have
assumed the characters of epidemics may be a-cribed to
their propagating themselves, a- all convulsive aliectimis
are apt to do among nervous and superstitious pci
by the propensity to imitation, the effects of which arc still
frequently seen in the production of hvsteria. chorea, and
other similar diseases.
TATIANTO, a town of Apulia, in the kingdom of
Naples, in the administrative province of • IVna
d'Otranto. It is an archbishop's see. and the head town
of a district : it contains 1S.IXX) inhabitants. I
only a small part of the site of the au'ieiit Tareiitum,
being coniined to the island or peninsula at the entrance
of the inner harbour or Mare piccolo, on which formerly
stood the fortress or acropolis of Tareiitum. 1
few remains of the aiilienl town. Modem Tarento is ill
built : it is fortified and has a castle, several eh
convents. It carries on some trade by sea in small
It has also some manufactures of linen anil of ' pinna
marina,' the name of a kind of mussel or shell-fish, the
silky filaments of which are woven into gloves and other
articles. A part of the population is employed in fishing.
Excellent oysters are found on the coast. The inner port
is nearly tilled up, but the outer or large pa -sible
to ves-els of good sixe, and is protected by two islands
which are situated at the month. Tarauto has tlic advan-
tage of being the only sale harbour in that part of the
eastern coast of Italy which extends from Messina to ('ape
Leucas. The large gulf whieh lies between the ci .
Calabria and the Iap\ gian peninsula is called the gulf of
Taranto. Much wool is grown in the neighbourhood of
Taranto. Two lagoons, one of them of considerable extent,
which lie south-east of the town, and which coniinu:
with the sea, yield a great quantity of sail by evaporation.
The district of Taranto contains above S7.IXKI inhabitants.
[Oru.vvro, TKKUA >».] iNcigcbaur: Scrri-tuii; Alan di
Rivera, < 'niisiilii;i-i'nii xiilli- iluc Sii-i/n- : i'ctmni.
.\iiin'iiiii i/i'l 1'i'iili Itniiiinj.
Antient Tareiitum, the Taras , T^i.,,; of the Circeks. was
one of the pi incipal.or rather the ]>rincipal CJreek city on the
cast coast, of Italy. It is said to have been a town of the
Messapi a:is. to which were joined some ( 'rctan colonists from
the neighbouring town of Uria. About G94 H.C., according
to the story. 1'lialantu-, one of the Partheiiia', or illegiti-
mate sons of the Spartan women born during the al
of their husbands in the first Messcnian war, having Icfl
his country with a number of others of the same condition,
arrived on the coast of lapygia, took Tareiitum, and c.
pellcd the original inhabitants. lie organi/cd the new
colony, and remained at the head of it until he v. :
pellcd by an insurrection, and withdrew to Brunduaium,
where he died, i Justin, iii. 4.: A war between the Ta -
rentines and the lapygiaiis ensued, in which the people of
Ithcgium assisted the Tarentines. hut they were d. •;•
by the lapygians, who destroyed a great number of the
'I'arentines. . Diodoru-. \i. Tareiitum however rccoxcivd
from its losses, and it nourished by commerce, acquired
a considciahle extent of territory, and became the most,
powerful city of Magna Gra'cia. Hci,i<-|ca vva- a colony
of Tarentmn. Herodotus iii. llili nit .to]ihilides
as king of Tarenlnm in the time of Darius Ilvstaspc-.
The government however underwent several changes, and
Slrabo ,1. 1!>.'1 s)ica].s of Tareiitum as being at one time
a democracy. Archvtas. a native of Tarcntum. is said to
have made a bod) of laws for the Tarentines. | AitcnvTAS.]
About :t:W ».<•. the Tarentiues, being engaged in war
with their neighbours the Lucanians, applied to Sparta
T A It 5
for assistance. Archidamus, the son of Agesilaus, was
sent to them, and he was killed in fighting on their side.
Some years after, being hard pressed by the Lucanians
and Bruttii, the Tarentines applied to Alexander, king of
Epirus, and uncle to Alexander the Great. He came to
Italy with troops, obtained considerable advantages, but
was" at last surprised and killed by the Bruttii, near Pan-
dosia, B.C. 323. (Justin, xii. 2 ; Livy, viii. 24.). The Ta-
rentines had by this time degenerated ; like most of the
Greeks on the Italian coast, they had become luxurious
and effeminate. JE\\an (Var. Hist., xii. 30) speaks of their
habit of drinking early in the morning, and their appear-
ing intoxicated in the forum.
In the year 282 B.C. the Romans, after having conquered
the Samnites, made war upon the Lucanians. The Taren-
tines, who saw with jealousy the encroachments of Rome,
unexpectedly attacked a Roman fleet, commanded by
the Proconsul L. Valerius, which was sailing near their
coast, and killed a great many of the crew. The Roman
senate sent commissioners to demand reparation for the
outrage, but the Tarentines treated them with insult.
Aroused however to a sense of their danger, they applied
to Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, for assistance, and sent vessels
to convey him over with his troops, B.C. 281. Pyrrhus
soon found that the Tarentines were too effeminate to
give him much support, and he was obliged to assume a
dictatorial power in order to enforce something like order
and obedience among them. Chiefly with his own troops,
he carried on the war against Rome for several years, but
defeated by the consul M.Curius Dentatus, and
obliged to re-embark for Epirus ; leaving however a garri-
son in Tarentum, B.C. 275. [PYRRHUS.] The Tarentines
having shortly alter quarrelled with the Epirote garrison,
applied to the Carthaginians for assistance to drive away
the Epirotes. The Romans having had notice of this
negotiation through Milo, the Epirote commander, sent
the consul L. Papirius (.'ursor, who took Tarentum, and
allowed the Epirote garrison to return home. It appears
however from Li\y [Epitome, xv. 1) that the Tarentines,
though treated with severity, were placed in the condition
of allies of Koine, which they continued to be till after
the battle of Cannae, when Hannibal, who occupied Cam-
pania and Apulia, began to carry on secret intelligence
with some of the Tarentine chief citizens, who were dis-
satisfied with their forced Roman alliance.
) | In the year 212 B.C. the hostages of the Tarentines ran
away from Rome, but being pursued and overtaken near
'•ina, they were brought back, and after being beaten
with rods were thrown down the Tarpeian rock. This
cruel punishment irritated the people of Tarentum. an
agreement was made with Hannibal, and his troops were
admitted into the city by night. The Roman garrison
stationed in the citadel was besieged by sea and by land.
The example of Tarentum was followed by Metapontum
and Thorium. The Roman garrison in the citadel of
Tarentum defended it most gallantly, although they suf-
fered greatly from want of provisions. An attempt which
was made to introduce supplies by vessels from Sicily was
defeated by the Tarentine squadron under Democrates,
with the loss of several Roman ships. In 209 B.C. the
1 Q. Kabius Maximus retook Tarentum by surprise,
and through the treachery of the garrison left by Hanni-
bal, which consisted of Bruttian auxiliaries. The Taren-
tines made only a slight defence. Nico, Democrates, and
Philomenus, the leaders of the party which was hostile to
Rome, fell during the assault. A great booty was made
by the Unman*, said to be nearly equal to that made at
the taking of Syracuse. But the consul Fabius abstained
from taking the statues of the gods, saying he would leave
to the Tarentines their angry deities. (.Livy, xxv. 7, 11;
xxvi. 39 ; and xxvii. 15, 16.)
From that time Tarentum remained in subjection to
Rome ; and although it greatly declined in wealth and
importance, it was still a considerable place in the time of
Augustus. Horace calls it 'molle Tarentum' (Satir., ii.
:id 'imbelle Tarentum' (Epist., i. 7). The Greek
language and manners were retained by the inhabitants
alter the fall of the Western Empire. Tarentum was
one of the chief strongholds retained by the Byzantine em-
Soiitheni Italy. About A.D. 774, Romualdus, the
obard duke of Beneventum, took Tarentum from the
UN /iintines. The Saracens landed at Tarentum about A.D.
830. The town was afterwards several times taken audre-
P. C., No. 14'J.-).
1* A R
taken and sacked, and it was during this period that the old
to\yn on the mainland was abandoned, and the inhabitants
retired to the island as being more fitted to their reduced
numbers, and also better capable of defence. At the break-
ing up of the Longobard state of Beneventum, Tarentum
was for a time a separate principality, like Capua and Sa-
lernum. In the eleventh century it was taken by the Nor-
mans with the rest of Apulia, and Robert Guiscard made
his son Bohemund prince of Tarentum. Under the Suabian
dynasty, Frederic II. gave the principality of Tarentum to
his illegitimate son Manfred. Charles II. of Anjou gave it
to his younger son Philip, whose descendants acted^a con-
siderable part in the civil wars of the kingdom of Naples
under Joanna I. Tarentum came afterwards into the
possession of the powerful family of the Orsini, upon whose
extinction it reverted to the crown.
(Giannone ; Giovani, De Antiquitate et varia Tarenti-
norum For tuna; D' Aquino, Delia ce Tarentinat LibrilV.,
Naples, 1771.)
TARARE. [RH6NE.]
TARASCON, a town in France, in the department of
Bouches du Rhone, 452 miles south-south-east of Paris, by
Auxerre, Lyon, Valence, Le Pont St. Esprit, and Beaucaire ;
and 48 miles west-north-west of Aix, the capital of the
department.
Tarascon is mentioned by Strabo, who writes the name
Tapaaaiav, and by Ptolemy, who writes it Tafiovanwv ; but it
appears to have been of little importance in antient times.
Under the counts of Provence, to whom in the middle
ages it was subject, it was of more consequence from its
frontier position. It had a castle at least as early as A.D.
1251 ; of which the present castle occupies the site. This
latter was built, according to Millin, by Louis II. of Anjou,
count of Provence (A.D. 1384-1417) ; but according to
other authorities Charles II. le Boiteux (A.D. 1285-1309)
commenced the structure and Louis finished it. It is popu-
larly called ' Chateau du Roi Rene' (' King Rene's Castle'),
but it was undoubtedly erected before his accession. i u
The town is on the left bank of the Rhone, immediately
opposite Beaucaire, on a rocky site sufficiently elevated
aho\ e the bed of the river to secure it from inundation.
The communication with Beaucaire was antiently by a
stone bridge ; a mass of stone-work, the remains of this
bridge, lately existed, and probably still exists, in the middle
of the river, between the two towns ; the rest of the bridge
had been swept away by the stream. In later times the
communication was by two bridges of boats, extending
one from each bank to this fragment of the old bridge.
Within the last few years a suspension bridge of iron-bars
has been constructed.
Tarascon is surrounded by an old ruined wall flanked
with towers, and is entered by three gates. Some of the
streets are straight and tolerably wide. The castle is a pic-
turesque Gothic building of freestone in pretty good pre-
servation : from the platform on the top of the castle there
is an extensive view along the valley of the Rhone. Sainte
Marthe (Martha) is the principal church in the town ; in
the crypt is a monument with a marble statue apparently
sculptured early in the 16th century, and shown as the
monument of Sainte Marthe. In the same church is the
uncouth figure of a monster called the Tarasque, which,
according to the legend, fed on human flesh and haunted
the banks of the Rhone between Aries and Tarascon, and
was overcome by Sainte Marthe. This figure is paraded
through the city on Whit-Monday amidst the shouts of
the idlers of the place, whose riotous behaviour frequently
leads to serious accidents : it also makes part of the pro-
cession on the festival of Sainte Marthe. These customs,
which had been disused after the Revolution, were renewed
under the empire of Napoleon, if not before. There are
a town-hall, a court-house, a commercial court (Tribunal
de Commerce), two hospitals, a theatre, barracks, and
abattoirs, or public slaughter-houses ; these are most of
them, if not all, modern buildings.
The population of the commune, in 1831, was 9225 for
the town, or 10,967 for the whole commune. The neigh-
bourhood of the town is very fertile, and a considerable
trade is carried on in corn, wine, and oil ; the townsmen
are engaged in throwing silk and spinning cotton-yarn,
and in manufacturing hussars' and grenadiers' caps, hats,
brandy, vinegar, and starch; there are tan-yards and
cooperages. There are three fairs in the year. The in-
dustry of the inhabitants and their lively temperament
VOL. XXIV.— I
TAR
inpt
i...-
.ary dulnes* of Beaucaire.
nal college or ln^li school uiul
ii v. i- the birth-place of
Tin- town sv;u, fur a long
liitiou the seat of a subprefeeture,
.meat : lint about the time of
.'ion of the Bourbons, the tubprvfoctur*
;iirr. Desrriptif d« i
i/tigt dtim lei Hi'/ \f»li de la
Th, Iher town in Frai 1 '.D.ISCOH. in the
depai' • and n!i thf ii- liuse Foi\:
-Jim-times distinguished u
sur-Ariege. D'Anville is dispu iiify it with the
i I'liiiy ^Hist. AW., lib. u . which
others would fix at Taragcon un tin1 Rhone. Taraseon-
sur-Ariei:e is ;i small place, 11 mart of tin- ironstone dug
in the adjacent Pyrenees. The population is probably
about :
M. [I.u.vn.noN.l
TAUAXOXA, a considerable district of Aragon in
Spain, bordering un the noith and east on the ]ini\inee u!
Na\;irre: on the -outh on the province of Soria : ;,
the went on the Carregimiento de Uorja. The capital,
Tara/ima, the anticnt Turiii-w, i- situated at the foot of a
lolly mountain-. inks of
the liver Quell. i5' X. lat.. r V \V. long. Tum-
/.oaa . 'fa hi-hup, who is sufi'innan of Saragosna,
Tlif town is l.adly hniit, and the street* narrow and
crooked. With the exception of the cathednil, a liue
Gothic pile eieeted in the thirteenth century, there is no
oilier building worth notice. Mifiano (Diccicnario G«o-
grajlcii. sol. viii.. p. 3.U e-timate-. the population ot'Tara-
zona at 10,000 inhabitants. ii» 1H'J7. The neighbourhood
is well cultivated, and yields abundant crops of all sorts of
giain. There is also a small town in La Mancha called
Tarazona.
TARHES. a town in France, capital of the department
of Haute* Psri'ni'-cs. or High l'_\ n-nr,-> : about UK) miles
from Paris, in a diiect line south-south-svcsl ; -l.">3 mile*
by the shortest road through Orleans, (Jhuleauroux, Limo-
ges, Pt'riguenx, Agen, and Auch: or 533 miles by Limo-
ges, Cahurs. Moiitauban, Toulouse, and Aueh, which is the
given by Keichard in his llinrraire. It in in 43" 13'
X. )at. "amlo"5'K. lonir.
Tarbes is nientio led in the ' Notitia Provincianim el
.turn Galiiue,' where it is called Tuiba: it was the
chief town of tlie Bigerrones, Bigerri, or Uegeiri, a nation
which has uiveii name to the distiict of Ui^oriv. In the
town or adjacent to it was a fortress, culled, in the' Xotitia,'
Cufirum Bigorra, the nite of which is now occupied by
the cathediai. In the middle ages, Taibes was the capital
of the county of Bii: ,!lciv,l from the ravages of
the .Saracens and the .Normans, and was held for a time
by the English. There wa» some sharp iiirhtini; near the
tuwn, inth. ,e ol \Velhnirton, A. n. lh!4.
Tarbc* is cituuted in a fertile )>lain, nearly 1000 feet
above the level of 11 rrcd by the .\<ionr von the
• ank of which the town stands and by (lie Leche7.
and bounded on the south by the Pyrenees. The town is
i ; the streets are well laid out, broad, paved, and
watered by little foro. in-, which contiihut
to coolness and cleanliness. There nre two public ,
or squares, that of Muubouricct, which is planted wiili
.ind that of Murciulieu, remarkable for its sue: I.e-
;.MI places, there is an agreeable promenade.
. The house* in the
town are penerally of t'vo or three stories, well built, of
brick, some of maible. and roofi d with dales. They haye
for tl. •<«! Lraulens. The principiil public
buildings me the catheihal ; the iirelc.-t's office, fin
the i tin' bishop, which from its elevated situa-
tion coinni:tti<U a pleasant pro-pcct | .mil a handsome
..f the
•> i* used as a prison. Tarbe* has five
-. on the five muds which lend from
t-: the suburb* art- that of Kabax-
. on the right hank of the Adour. which
;e» it lii.m the town: that o! Vie on the north; that
on the houth; all on the road* leading retfec-
tive.y to those places ; that of SainUt Anne on th* w*«t,
58 T A II
on the road to Pan : and Hi. the
south-west, on the road to I.uiini cllez.
:iimune. in - S712; in
1831, y7(K>: in 1S30, are copper-mills and
manui.. .U. papci
yards; the town is the general mart for t:
department ; there i» :,
for agricultural prodiu . kind and :
frecpieiited by tl -
lise stock. a marble-t, '.I-AII.
Tarb, iliordmate court ol j>. mer-
fiscal and other gcjser; -. ; a
communal • ! svith a library, and school but
1 an Intectiire ; u lice school of drawing and
••'id. lor winch there are 1
and a handsome riding-school, just ou ..MI.
The aiTondissement of Tin be- ha* an ar. 'jiiar*
and comprehend* 1H7 commune- : tlic j
in KM. was lOi.02'2; in IKUi. IHl.M'J: and
into eli-sen canton-, or d,- h under a justice of
ace. The bishopric of T.. sixth
• niipivhends the department : the
bishop is a Miffiagun of the \iich.
i Mihin, /
Malti' Urn.
'I'ARDl'GKADA, < . fn>t family of
\(\. comprisins;, of .cia. the ^
only. [Ai ; I'.N.u-.] The '/'../ -.in the eiglali
oi<lei- in llliirer's method, and coinpri»e the Sloth-
,/«,v ; but the latter cannot he said to base any
claim to such a collocation. [Bk.\H. sol. iv., pp. ;HJ. !>l. ]
TARDI'VOLA, Mr. Snainson's name tor a genu* of
ubfamily TANAC.KI.V.K. and thus chaiacterued by
him : -
Bill lengthened, conic, somewhat slender : the sides not
iribbous : the commissure slightly or not at all sinnuled.
U'niir.s sen short ; the first quill shorter than the four
.Inch arc equal and lonirest. Tail lengthened, cu-
1 or graduated, l-'eet larire. Tar»us and toe- lonir.
Outer toe miller shorter than the inner. Claws slender,
sliirhtly curved.
Kxainple, Turtlirnln t.):iifin<ra. [TANAGKHS.]
TAHK. We liardly knosv whether nil the svords tare,
trel, cln/f, stilt/*'. ••/, are still used in commerce ;
they all hold their places in svorks of arithmetic. Tare
is said to be the allowance for the weiirht of the box or
hair in whu:h goods are packed : trrt, an nllowai
4 b. in lOllb. for waste: rln'T, un allowance of '2 b. in
3cwt.. that the sveiabt may hold pood when -oM by re-
tail : the ifiofs weight, that of the poods and package all
toirelher: the tuttu weisrhl. that svhicii remains when
tare only is allowed : the//'/ weight, that which remains
svhen ail allowances are made. \V< shall merely
what we knosv of these v,
'I'n-r wiitten ii.rti in some of our older arithmetical
is made from the Italian tarnrt, to nbatc. In that
lanirnasi- turn is a technical term implying ahati'inent of
any kind, not for weiirht of package only. \\'c I"
dnft'\o have been the Knirhsh word svhicii oriirinalls
fur the allowance tor imckace : in our older arithme-
.. Ian1 and clotle 1,'enerally iro together, and the
latter seems to be for the package, the former lor other
abatement-.. I 'lull' or rloi/s/i is defined in an old dic-
tionary as that wherein any tliinir is jmt for c*ri
Humphrey Baker i \'>li-2 s']ienks only of t off'e ;
MnUfWD ( hVfJ . of lara. clofte. and'tret. hut the ti.st two
ire uwd logethrr. \\ e cannot find cloft used in the
. iven to it l>\ mir modern books of arithmetic until
about the end of th.- sesenteenlh century.
Tret seems to be from the Italian Irilnrr. to crumble.
Stevimik, in his Ijitii un lumk-kivpii.:
trrlriinriitu/H in the sense of deduction from tin
chaiired lV'i t no <!•* no explanation; the
Italian form n«ttn wan formerly used for net svei^ht. It
lieing well known that these teuns t'c'iiernlly .
from the Italian. \ve must snppo-e --nttle to be liom »',/-
• i fine and snlnable. and
i» applied to the finer part, an separated from the- co:
! our old wiiter» Ma-lei-un. • Ant Innetike.' 15:12)
IIM8 snttle weiirbt in a manner which nuikes us imau'ine
we MA the origin of the hnmlrrd weight being a hundred
TAR
59
TAR
nnd ticefre pounds. Without any explanation, as if it were
matter of notoriety, he contrasts suttle and arerdupois
weight, the former having 100 pounds to the hundred-
weight, the latter 112. In the rougher sort of goods, at
the same period, the tare was (as appears by the tables
they give) very often 12 pounds in 112: perhaps then the
hundredweight of 112 pounds was only an allowance for
the weight of the box, barrel, or other package1.
TARES are a most important green crop in the improved
systems of agriculture, especially on heavy soils, where
they thrive best. When sown in autumn, with a small
sprinkling of wheat or rye, they cover the giound in spring,
and supply abundance of fodder in summer. A good crop
of tares is fully equal in value, if not superior, to one of
red clover : it conies off the ground in sufficient time to
give the land a hasty summer tillage, which is so useful
in destroying weeds, and to allow turnips to be sown in
the same season. They smother annual weeds if the crop
is plentiful, which should always be secured by an abun-
dant manuring : thus they are a good substitute for a
summer fallow in heavy soils, and amply repay the labour
and manure bestowed upon them.
There are many species and varieties of tares ; but thai
which is found the best adapted for agricultural purposes
is the common tare (Vicia sativa\ of which there are two
principal varieties, very slightly differing in appearance,
one of which is hardy, and will stand the severest winters :
the other is more tender, and is therefore only sown in
sprint: ; but it has the advantage of vegetating more
rapidly, so that spring tares sown in March will be tit to
cut within a fortnight or three weeks after those which
were sown in autumn. By sowing them at regular inter-
vals from September to May, a succession of green tares
in perfection, that is, in 6loom, or when the pods me
formed, may be cut for several months, from May to Oc-
tober. A prudent farmer arranges his crops so that he
shall have artificial green food for his horses and cattle at
least six months in the year, by having tares fit to cut
between the first and second cut of clover. When there
are more tares than is absolutely required for this purpose,
and the weather permits, they make excellent hay ; or, if
the weather is not favourable, they are cut and given to
sheep, which are folded on the portion already cut. It
is an advantage to have portable racks for this purpose,
that the fodder may not be trod under foot a*hd wasted ;
or the tares may be placed between hurdles, tied two and
two, which form extemporaneous racks. It is prudent to
raise sufficient seed for another year ; but a crop of seed-
tares raised for sale is seldom profitable, as they greatly
exhaust the soil : and the price varies so much in dif-
ferent seasons, that it becomes too much of a specula-
tion for a farmer. The difficulty in distinguishing the seed
of the winter tare from the spring variety is so great, that
it should either be raised at home, or only purchased from
neighbours, or from the most respectable seedsmen. It
is a common practice with dealers to mix the seeds of the
Winter tares, after the time of sowing is past, with spring
tares, which are in request at a later period. The incon-
venience of this is. that they do not vegetate equally, and
consequently the winter tare is not in bloom when the
spring tare is fit for the scythe. Foreign tares, which are
imported in large quantities, are often the growth of
southern climates, and will not stand the winter ; or they
have been raised from seed sown in spring, so as to be
really spring tares. The difference is probably more owing
to habit than to any real botanical distinction between
them. When spring tares are sown in autumn instead of
winter tares, they may occasionally stand the frost, if not
severe ; but, in general, they rot on the ground
and never recover ; whereas the real hardy winter tares,
whose vegetation is slower, seem insensible to the severest
In the early part, of summer green rye and tares, mixed,
are sold at a great price in large towns, for horses which
have, worked hard and been highly fed in winter. They
act as a gentle laxative, and cool the blood: near London,
w here e\ cry produce is forced with an abundance of
manure, tares are often fit to cut early in May, and the
land ' ately ploughed and planted with potatoes.
or sown with mangel wurzel or ruta baga, which come
i iff in Septcml,. ibe'r, in time for wheat -sow intr.
two V<MV profitable crops are jaised during the time
that the land, according to the old system, would have
been fallow ; and at the same time it is left as clean, by
careful hoeing, as the best fallow would have made it.
There are a great many species of tares or vetches, for
the terms are synonymous, many of which have been pro-
posed to be introduced into general cultivation ; but none
seem, on the whole, to be so well adapted to our climate
as the common tare : some have biennial and some pe-
rennial roots. The Vicia biennis has a strong stem and
large leaves, and grows four or five feet hisrh ; but it is not
so succulent as the common sort. It might, perhaps, by
cultivation and early cutting, become a useful early fodder,
and it may be worth while to make some experiments
with it. There are several species of tares which grow
wild in bushes and hedges ; but they have never been
cultivated in the fields, peihaps from the difficulty in col-
lecting the seeds, which shed as soon as they are ripe. Of
these, the Vicia craca appears most deserving of attention.
It bears its blue flower on stems or spikes longer than the
leaves, which are downy. It is very common in France
among wheat; and, although a decided weed there, it is
not much dreaded by the peasants, as it improves the
fodder greatly. It has the appearance of great luxuriance
in its growth, where it meets with a proper support. If
it were mixed with some plants with a strong stem, such
as the Bokhara clover (Melitotus arborea altissima), which
itself affords much fodder, it might probably be cultivated
to great advantage.
In the south of France there is a white perennial vetch
or tare, called Vicia pisiformis, which is cultivated for its.
white seeds, of which soups are made, as with the pea and
lentil. It grows in very light soils; and, although indi-
genous to a southern climate, it is said not to be impatient
of frost. It has been called by some the Canadian lentil,
or the white tare.
We shall only notice one more of the wild tares, which
is an annual ; it is called the yellow tare ( Vicia lutea).
It grows in stony soils and among bushes, is very branching,
and rises from one to two feet, high. From some experi-
ments made by the Agricultural Society of Versailles
several years ago, it would appear that this tare might be
cultivated with great advantage, and is even superior to
the common sort, because it can be cut two or three times
during the summer, and affords a very good pasture in
winter, which does not stop its vegetation : it will even
bloom in a mild winter. Although short, it is so thick upon
the ground, that its first cut is as heavy as that of the com-
mon tare, which is seldom worth cutting a second time.
Tares should be sown on land which 'js well pul-
verised. If after wheat, the stubble should be ploughed
in with a deep furrow after a powerful scarifier has
gone over the land several time? to loosen it : five or
six cart-loads of stood farm-yard duns: should be ploughed
in. The tares should be drilled or dibbled, and the sur-
face well harrowed. The intervals should be hoed early
in spring : this will accelerate the growth, and insure a
complete covering of the ground. As soon as the tares
show the flower, they may be cut daily till the pods are
fully formed ; after this, any which remain uncut should
be made into hay or given to sheep ; for if the seeds are
allowed to swell,' the ground will be much exhausted.
Another piece should be ready to cut by this time, and
thus there may be a succession of tares and broad clover
from May to November. Tares may be sown as late as
August, on a barley or rye stubble, for sheep-feed early in
winter, or to be ploughed in to rot in the ground where
beans or peas are intended to be sown early in spring :
this is perhaps the cheapest mode of manuring the land,
the only expense being the seed ; for the tillage is ne-
cessary at all events. In light soils, tares and buckwheat
sown together immediately after barley or rye harvest, will
produce a considerable crop of vegetable matter, which
may be ploughed in in November. In favourable seasons,
wheat may be sown immediately after, without fearing the
effect of two white crops following each other ; for the
:ares and buckwheat intervening, by their shade, and the
wo ploughing of the ground, one when they are sown,
and the second when they are ploughed in, will entirely
lf>troy all weeds, and give to the soil that improvement,
w hich"will enable it to bear as good a crop of wheat as it:
would have done had it been sown the year after on a
clover ley. Clover, which could not be sown with the
>arley, from the foul state of the land, maybe sown among
he wheat in the next spring, when it is hoed for the
T A K
GO
1 A H
second lime. Tliis is held out us a hint to show bow an
ntal interruption in a rotation inuy lie remedied
. 'op or great deviation. As no nile
:- without exception, so no rotation can always lie strictly
adhered to; and tho '.ich admit oi' bciuL-
fTenol times, .<' the \ car are of tin- greatest u-e as sub-
stitutes for other* which could not he convenient]? «own
without materially altering th- n of crops. In
the coinin of cultivation of hca\v .soils, where
•ional fallows are necessary to clean tile land, one-
hiilf of the land which requires fallowing may 1"
with tares: and thus the clean unproductive summer fal-
low will only return at every second rotation. ]!' the
tares have been manured, or if they are fed off with sheep
folded upon the land, the wheat or other crop which is
sown after them will he as good as on a clean fallow, or
after ;v giM>d crop of clover. This alone would make tares
a valuable crop : and they may be compared in their effect
on heavy lands to turnips on lighter
The seeds of the tare are occasionally pound into meal
and made into bread. It is a very poor food : and when
there is more seed than can be profitably disposed of, it
may be given to pigs: buf poultry, especially pigeons,
are very fond of it. When given to horses, the seeds of
tares are found very heating; and although they produce
a fine glossy coat, they are not to be recommended for
this purpose.
TAREXTl'M. [TvKAN-TO.j
TARGUMS, or CHALDEE PARAPHRASES OF
HIE OLD TESTAMENT. During the Babylonish cap-
•iv it v . the language of the Jews was affected by the Chal-
iee dialed spoken at Babylon, to such an extent, that
upon their return they could not understand the pure
Hebrew of their sacred hooks; and therefore, when Ezra
and the Levites read the law to the people, they found
themselves obliged to add an explanation of it, undoubt-
edly in (Jhaldee. (Nehem., viii. 8.) [HEBREW LANGUAGE;
ARAMAKAN LANGUAGE.] In course of time such expla-
nations were committed to writing, and from their being
not simple versions, but explanatory paraphrases, they
were called by the Chaldee word Targum (D13~)D), which
signifies ' an explanation.'
There are ten Targums extant :— 1. Tli<> Tiir<;iim nf
Onkelot, on the Pentateuch, is the most antient. Onkelos
is supposed to have lived at Babylon. The Babylonish
Talmud makes him a contemporary of Gamaliel, at the
very beginning of the Christian sera. \o critics place
him lower than the second century. His language ap-
proachcs nearer than that of the1 other Targums to the
pure Chald.'e of the hooks of Daniel and K/aa. He fol-
Mic Hebrew text so closely, that his work is ].•-- a
paiaphiasu than a version, and lie is free from the fables
which prevailed among the later .lews.
'J. '/'//'• Tiirxti'ii ';/' JnHiit/1'Ut /''•// I ';;i<-/. on the
Prophets, is by many ascribed to an author contemporary
with Onkelos, or even a little older, namely, Jonathan the
son of Uzziel, a disciple of the elder Hillel. The men-
tion oi his name in the Tahnuds proves him to have lived
earlier than the fourth and fifth centuries. Hut Jahn
points out certain internal marks, from which he con-
cludes that this Targum was compiled, towards the end
of the third century ;. st, from other paraphrases.
some of which at least were considerably older. The
Jews make Jonathan contemporary with the prophets
Malachi, Zechariah, and Haggai, and relate marvellous
stories respecting the composition of his Talmud.
This Targum is more paraphrastic, than that of Onkelos;
iU dialect is not so pure; the version is not so aCC
and indeed varies in accuracy in different parts; but it is
free from the fabulous stories of the later Tahnuds. It
comprises the PropheU, in the Jewish sense of the word.
namely, the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Isaiah,
Jeremiah. Ezekicl, and the twelve minor Prophets.
3. Tin' Ti ran in ';/ //<« ji.\rti<l<i-.l<n<itlh<iii. on the Penta-
teuch, i- -n called from it* having been erroneously ascribed
to Jonathan Ben Uzziel. In purity of dialect, in its gene-
ral ntvlc. and 1:1 its mode of e\pn-ilion. it is far inferior to
:ignm of Jonathan. It abounds in silly I'al.lcs and
Hebrew onthc part of its author,
inttrial evidence, such as its mention of the Turks
and Lombard-, it i- ividcnt that it could not have been
written earlier than tin- seventh, or perhaps the eighth,
century.
-1. The Jeruttn „, on the Pentateuch, of which
however it omits lar::> . and sometimes explains
only single word-. 1- , vidcntly later than that of the
pseudo-Jonathan, which it generally follows. closely.
sioually departing from it for the worse. It- ilia'..
verv impure, abounding in Greek, Latin, and Persian
Tl»e other Targums scarcely di-M-rv. i,. notice.
An account of them, and lists of the editions and Latin
versions of the Targuma, will be found in the works ijuoted
at the end of this article. Taken together, the Targums
form a paraphra.se of the whole of the Old Testamen-
t-cot tile books of Daniel, E/ra. and Nchemiah. which
called the le.-v. lor such an exposition, as they are to a
extent written in < 'haldee.
Piidcar.x's ('•m/'-'-tinii. pt. ii., hk. viii. ; the 'Intro-
ductions' of Home and Jahn.
TAKITA. a small sea-port town situated in the nar-
part of the Strait of Gibi altar, on a point m
projecting into the sea: in :«;" :i' N. hit. and .V 'Mi'
W. long. The Arabs called it Je/irah Taiif the Island
of Tarif . because a Berber, named Tarif Ibn Malek
Al-ma'feii, who was the lieutenant of Mfisa Ibn Ni.
landed on the little island facing the [port with a small
force, two years before the final of Spain by the
[MOOHS.] Taiil'a is now a dependency of Cadiz,
which has been made of late the capital of a provi;
lie name. In rj.r>.~> it was besieged by the Africans
under Abu Ynsuf, but it was stoutly defended by Don
Alonso Perez de Guzman ' c'l Bucno.' the progenitor of
the dukes of .Medina Sidonia, who would not surrender that
fortress to them, notwithstanding they threatened to lie-
head his only son, which they did before his eyes. In
1340 a great battle was fought near Tarita. 1.
phonso XI. of Castile and Abii-1-hasan, sultan of Fez and
Marocco, when the former was victorious.
TARIFF, a table of duties to be paid on goods imported
or exported. The principle of a tariff depends upon the
commercial policy of the body by which it is framed, and
the details are constantly fluctuating with the clian
interests and the wants of the community, or in pursuance
of commercial treaties with other states. The British tariff
has undergone six important alterations within the last
sixty years, namely in 17«~. in 1*0:1. isi'l. 1S2.~>, IS.'i.'i. and
1842." The act embodying the tariff of 1H:« is the :J vV -1
Wm. IV.. c. .">(!. Its character has been described in the
Report of a Committee of the House of Common- in IMO,
on the Import Duties, as presenting- neither congnnty nor
unity of purpose : no general principles seem to
applied. The tariff often aims at incompatible ends:
the duties are sometimes meant to be both productive of
revenue and for protective object*, which are frequently
inconsistent with each other. Hence they sometime.-
Operate to the Complete exclusion of foreign produce
in so far no revenue can of course be received : and -
tunes, when the duty is inordinately high, the amount of
revenue becomes in consequence trilling An attempt is
made to pi it variety of particular interests at
the expense of the revenue and of the commercial inter-
course with other countries.' The schedules to the act
It ^ -| \Vm. IV., e. .•>(!. contain a list of I 15l> articles, to
each of which a specific duty i< affixed. The unenume-
lated a re admitted at an ./•/ nil'iri'iit duty of ~>
and of 'JO per cent, the rate having previously been 20
and ."ill per cent. In ls;{S-!>, seventeen articles 'produced
'.)4J per cent, of the total customs' duties, and tb.
mainder only "4 per cent., including twenty-nine, which
produced .'{^ percent. The following table of the tariff of
hnwmg the duties received in ls:ts-!l, is an analysis
of one prepared by the inspector-general of imports for Un-
parliamentary committee to which allusion has been
made : — N.. ..r \UM i . £
1. Articles producing on an average } .,.,,
less than 2 1/. .
2. Ditto less than 240/. .
li. Ditto less than 7KJ/. .
Ditto less than 2.2* I/. .
5. Ditto less than 'JJ.lsnf.
(I. Ditto le-s than IHJ.wril'.
7. Ditto less than 2.O(i.'i
8. Articles on which no duty
been rccciv ed . . )
l.TJ
40
107
83
10
11
147
&QOO
31,029
32,066
244,933
1,838,630
'I dr.iw-
802
TAR
6]
TAR
The new tariff, which is on the point of becoming law,
contains very numerous alterations. Cattle and fresh meat
are admitted, for the first time, on payment of duty ;
and the reduction of duty on salt-meat is considerable.
Time will be required to show the result of the various
changes which it contains. The heads of the tariff are
comprised under nineteen heads, and the articles enume-
rated are as many as those in the tariff of 1833.
-TARIK. [RoDERic.]
TARLTON, RICHARD, a comic actor of "great cele-
brity in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was born in the
hundred of Condover, in Shropshire. The date of his birth
is not known. He died in 1588, and was buried (Septem-
ber 3) at St. Leonard's, Shoreditch, London.
" Tarlton was especially distinguished for his performance
of the clowns of the old English drama, in which he is
spoken of as having been unrivalled, and seems besides to
have been one of those clowns who spoke ' more than
was set down for them :' he was famous for his extempore
wit, which indeed must have been an important addition
to the dull and vulgar speeches generally assigned to the
clowns before Shakspere's time — he interlarded with his
wit the lean and hungry prose. Dr. Cave, ' De Politica,'
Oxford, 4to., 1588, says (we translate Cave's Latinl, ' We
English have our Tarlton, in whose voice and countenance
dwells every kind of comic expression, and whose eccen-
tric brain is filled with humorous and witty conceptions.'
Stow mentions that Tarlton was one of the twelve actors
whom Queen Elizabeth, in 1583, constituted grooms of
the chamber at Barn Elms : he seems indeed to have been
one of her especial favourites ; for Fuller says, that ' when
Queen Elizabeth was serious (I dare not say sullen), and
out of srood humour, he could undumpish her at his plea-
sure. Her highest favourites would, in some cases, go to
Tarlton before they would go to the queen, and he was
their usher to prepare their advantageous access to her.'
One of Tarlton's last performances was in 'The Famous
Victories of Henry V. :' this was in 1588, at the Bull in
Bishop>gale Street, to which theatre he seems to have
been generally attached. Of this play, which is a much
earlier one than Shakspere's 'Henry V.,' a full account is
given in the introductory notice to 'Henry VI.. Parts I.
iind II.,' in Knight's 'Pictorial ShakspereV It is one of
the 'Six Old Plays,' printed by Nichols in 1779-
Tarlton is known to have written at least one play, 'The
Deadly Sins,' which, though never printed, and now
lost, was much admired. Gabriel Hervey, in his ' Four
1, "tiers and eeitaine Sonnets especially touching Robert
Greene and other Paities by him abused.' 4to., 1792,
speaks of :i \M>i!i written by Thomas \:i-hc, ' right for-
mally conveyed according to the stile and tenour of Tarl-
tim's president, his famous playe of 'The Seven Deadly
Sinnes,' which he designates as a ' most deadly but most
lively playe.'
There is a portrait of 'Tarlton, in his clown's dress, with
his pipe and labor, in the Harl. MS. :!SS5 : and a similar
pin-fruit of him 'probably the one is a copy of the other)
in the title-page of a pamphlet called ' Tarlton's Jests,'
4to., 1611. A copy of the former portrait is given in
Knight's • Shakspere,' at the end of 'Twelfth Night.' The
peculiar flatness of his noso is said to have been occasioned
by an injury which that feature received in parting some
•uid bears.
i Baker's Itiographia Dranifitint, by Reed and Jones.)
TARN, a river in France, belonging to the system of
the Garonne. It rises near Mount Lozere, one of the C6-
vennes, in the department of Lozfire, and flows first west to
Sainte Enimie in the same department, 27 miles, and then
i-west 27 miles to Milhau, in the department of Avey-
ron; from thence west-south-west 88 miles, by Alby and
Gaillac, department of Tarn, to St. Sulpice ; and from
thence 48 miles north-west and west by Montauban 'de-
partment of Tarn and Garonne) into the Garonne, below
ac. The navigation is marked in Brue's map of
France a* commencing at Gaillac, and has a length of
about (X) miles; other authorities make the navigation
\lby. and this statement agrees with the
"fti ' iich assign to the river a navigation
' miles, li . al tributaries, but none of them
u:mu-:iblc. [KIIVNCK; GARONNE; TARX (depart-
metr ' .KONNK.]
TARN, a department in the south of France, bounded
on the north and north-east by tha^of Aveyron, "on the
south-east by that of Herault, on the south by that of Aude,
on the south-west and west by that of Haute Garonne, and
on the north-west by that of Tarn and Garonne. The form
approximates to that of a parallelogram, having its sides
respectively facing the north-east, south-east, south-west,
and north-west. The extreme length from north-west to
south-east, from the neighbourhood of Penne on the
Aveyron to the border of the department of Herault, near
St. Pons, is G5 miles ; the extreme breadth, from the neigh-
bourhood of Valence to that of Puy-Laurens, is 46 miles.
The area is estimated at 2222 square miles, which is some-
what under the average area of the French departments,
and rather greater than the conjoint areas of the two
English counties Surrey and Sussex. The population, in
1826, was 327,655; in 1831, 335,844; and in 1836,346,614,
showing an increase in five years of 10,770 persons, or above
3 per cent., and giving 156 inhabitants to a square mile.
In amount and density of population it is below the average
of the French departments, and is very far below the
county of Surrey alone in amount, and in density of popu-
lation below both Surrey and Sussex. Alby, the capital,
is on the Tarn, 339 miles in a straight line nearly due south
of Paris, or 482 miles through Orleans, Chateauroux,
Limoges, Cahors, Montauban, and Toulouse ; a very cir-
cuitous route, but the only one laid down in Reiehard's
Road-book.
The department is very mountainous in the south-east
part, where it comprehends a portion of the Cevennes. A*
range of hills branching oft' from this chain, and running
nearly parallel to it, crosses the north-west part of the de-
partment, skirting the valley of -the Tarn; and there are
some other ranges of less elevation and importance. The
peak of the Cevennes, which overlooks the town of Soreze,
in the south of the department, has an elevation of 1760
feet. The eastern side of the department, bounded by a
line drawn southward or south by east from the junction of
the Viaur and the Aveyron, is chiefly occupied by the
granitic or other primary or by the earlier secondary forma-
tions : west of this boundary-line the tertiary formations
prevail ; only on the banks of the Cerou and the Aveyron
in the northern part, and about Puy-Laurens in the southern
part of the department, the secondary formations, which lie
between the cretaceous group and the new red-sandstone
group, crop out from beneath the tertiary rocks. The
mineral productions are of no great importance. There
was, in 1834, only one coal mine worked; it gave employ-
ment to 273 workmen within the mines and 42 others,
making a total of 315 : the quantity of coal produced was
19,933 tons, and the total value 13,152/., or 13s. 9rf. per
ton on the average. The quantity produced in 1835 was
18,420 tons. There were, in 1834, two iron-works with
three forges for the manufacture of wrought-iron : the ore
was converted directly into malleable iron, and charcoal
was the only fuel employed. Lead and copper ore are
said to be found, but no mines are now worked. There
are marble-quarries, plaster-pits, and pits for porcelain and
potters' clay.
The department belongs entirely to the basin of the
Garonne. The Tarn, one of the principal feeders of that
river, touches the border of the department just above the
junction of the little river Ranee, and flows along the
border till that stream (which belongs altogether to the
department of Aveyron) joins it; it then quits the border
and flows westward to Alby and then south-west to the
junction of the Agout, shortly after which it quits the de-
partment to enter that of Haute Garonne : the navigation
commences at Gaillac, or, according to some authorities,
at Alby. Just above Alby the Tarn has a fall, or rather a
series of falls, over the steep face of a limestone rock, in
which it has worn a number of channels, which so divide
the stream, that when the water is low it may be crossed
by leaping from one prominence to another: this fall is
called Saut du Sabot or Saut du Tarn. The tributaries of
the Tarn which belong to this department are the Aveyron,
the Tescou, and the Agout. The Aveyron has only a small
part of its course in this department, and another small
part along the border; its affluent the Viaur has part of
its course along the border; but the Cerou and the Verre,
two other affluents of the Aveyron, belong to this depart-
ment, almost entirely. The Agout rises in the department
of Herault, but belongs almost, entirely to this department,
TAR
TAR
as do its Affluent*, the Viau (which receives the Vebre\
,i(iii 'whii ' and thr Bcrlou), the
'
'•:\ga*, and the Adou. None of the tributaries of the
Tarn or their affluents arc though some of them
:Me lenpt! • abo\c 1J"I
. (lie Viai; './out 75. and Ihc Adou 43; the
others are smaller.
There are in the, department five I! or go-
vernment roiuls. which hud, January 1, 1837
length of 207 Hi 'ncli llli miles were
pair, 85 miles out ol' •• ' (i mi'e- unfinished. None
Ot'the.se roads are of tile tir-1 da— : the principal are those
which lead from Alhy south-w '.liar. I.i-'
'
.a ruadfroi:-
and north-ca-t by Carmeaux to Rode*, in the department
of .\\c\Ton. 1! e|i from the . \lliy :uul Toulouse
road at Gaillac, and lead, one west to Montaubanand Bor-
deau\. "lie. north by Cahusac and Coidcs to Aurillac. in
the department of (,'antal. Another road load-
\ I.avaur to Toulouse. The depaitmental roads had
at the same time an nppivpate leiipth ol' -)s5 ,,n
whieli 2iM5 were in repair and lSi)out ol' repair. The \ieinal
roads had an estimated aggregate length of 7300 miles in
round numbers.
The area of the department is equal to rather more than
1,400,000 acres ; considerably more than one-half of Ibis is
under the plough. The soil, except in the mountainous
U generally fertile ; hut agriculture is in a very
backward state ; manures e ted. and tin- system of
rotation is very faulty. The-e drticit-m-ic- are ehiefh ob-
servable in the arrondi&sements of Albv and Gaillac. which
comprehend the beautiful N alley of tiie Tarn : in (lie ar-
rondisv-ement- of ( ';t-trr- and l.a\aur, in the south of
the department, inij- ha\e been more readily
adopted. The produce in grain, comprehending wheat,
barlev. oats, rye, maize, and buckwheat, is sufficient to
supply the consumption of the department and to leave a
little for exportation. Pulse, flax, hemp, wo
coriander, and satl'ion arc also raised; (lie growth of woad
is of lonp establishment and considerable importune-
meadow and gra.->s lands may be estimated at about 100,000
and the heaths, commons, and other open pastures
•-. The valleys and the slope* of the hills
afford good pasturage, and the breeding of cattle is one of
lineipal -ourees of the wealth of the department.
• and pi:r< are numerous, and the veal is in high
repute. The breed of hor.-cs is imprininp. The \iu.
v nearly SO.(KX) acres: the cultivation of the vine is
-kilfully and carefully managed. The red wines of
f'uiiac, Cai>ai:uet, St. .lurry, St. Amar.ms, and Gaillac are
of the first class; those of Meilhart, I.a Koque, Florentin.
[.a Gra\e, Tecon, and Kabastcns are of the second das- :
Gaillac produces some white wines. Tlie a\ crape produce
of the vintape is e-timated at above 430.000 hectolitres,
1 at 5,5(KUHH> francs. The orchard.-- and gardens
occupy about 6000 acres. The olive is not cultivated to
any extent.
Tlie woodlands occupy 200,000 acres ; the oak, the
the maple, the chestnut, the walnut, the
mulberry, and the wild cherry-tree are common.
are numero'.i-, but the breeding of the .silkworm is
nut carried on to the extent of which it is capable. The wild
boar, the roebuck, the wolf, the fox, the biulger, the pole-
"id the hedgehog are found; and smaJl game is
tolerably ahum!
Tlie department is divided into four arrondiasemenU, as
follows : —
N
V H.
C<*tre«{ »n<l K.
Outline N \V.
Lavaiir 8.W.
A run In
r»1>iilatinn.
I-
'• 84
131,184
'.Hi N
93 1 1
490
:i\->
rvj.ip
7J.IXU
57
B
5
-W 346,014 327 85
In the ammduiwmient of Alby are— Alby.or Albi on the
Tarn ; population, in 1H31, 0049 for the town, or 1 1.(i(i5 for
| the whole commune: in 1S30, 11.R01 for the commune
''mont
• on the Adou, and Vi'
that ri
or it- tn'
as Caatelnau-de-Bonnafoux. i- built o
the north bank ol' the Tarn, just be!'
1 bj an old castle. l.c«-iirc was a-"
.. li'ttle above Alby. Ri'alinont 1.
chnri-h, and i> a -.ell-built town : tlm
linen maiiutV.ctoiie-. and a blear1 .
and worsteil ho-
the to-^ ii.
Valciic laid out with in a
well-wooded di.strict, from whici c cmantily
of timber is .-eat to Alby, G.iillac. and Hoi- town
has five la- . hielly for cattle. 1.
are made at Carincaux: and co:iM<!erab!e trail
on at Monestii's in linen, thread, and cattle.
has thirteen liiirs, Sail. IVilleneine ib-
i\e-sur-Vi: I'nmpellone, i
. isMinouiided by tin-
lias two pates. There are two principal Si
large places or s(marc~. ('o:i-idei;di -• -ie iii
'oths, which are manufactured; and t!,<
yearly •
In the arronit, n-s, on the
Apout, )iopnlation, iii IR'il. 1 i()32 for the town, or HU18
• whole commune : in !*.!(>. 17.(!O2 for the whole
commune [CASTKKS] ; Brassac, Fort-de-Kcrrici
courbe. Burlats, and Vii-lmcur. all on the Apout : A
Hautpoul, Mazamel pop. :t«!)fj for t;
the whole commune;, and La 1!
tributaries ; I.a ( 'aune (pop. l(i.">0 for the !
the whole commune:, on t1 the Gijoii :
Mondrapon, on the Adou; I.a
twccn the Adou and the Apout : and Doiirpne and s
(pop. 1574 for the town, or 2S17 for the whole commune ,
in the southern corner of the department. Hia-
irnishcd as Brassac-de-Be! the centi.
siderable manufacture of dimity and
caiiied on in the village of Hi ' h U
included in the commune of the town . and other \:
around. Fort de Feoiirea lakes n~ Mime from an a
nee u-i d a- a slate prixm, now a.s a inamifacti
cotton goods. Hoijneeonibe, situated in a fertile i!
has a 1'iote-laiit church, and is the x at of a eou>i,;;
manufacture of woollen stoekinps ; it has
Vielmeur, or Viclmur. has a manufacture of CO
and of knitted sloekinp.- ; it has five f;iir-. mri
manufactures of woollen and cotton yarn, and woollen and
cotton goods. Hautpoul has an antient castle, formerly
the capital of the barony of Hiuitpouloi.- : it was -tornied,
A.D. 121 VI. by Simon de Mont fort. Mazamet i- a
town ; it has a number of manufactories for woollen
ol'\a:i -ome dve-housi ,d paper--
it has four fairs for cattle, wool, and manufaetured goods.
'ankets, and oilier woollens are mam
. ili-tinpui-' BrugiJre-Dulac : hosiery and
dimity at I.a ('mine : and calicoes, dimitie-. and oth,
ton poods, and tlannel at Yabres, di.-tiripui>hed
- ha> a I'ro'e-tant chnreh : four fairs
Id in the year. Mondrapon, now of little importance,
was formerly of considerable note : it has six yearly
a number of pi ; In re. I.autrcc i- on a small
eminence, and oat the ruin- of au antient castle : it lia-steii
fairs. The neighbourhood Jirm 1 wine and
melons. Lautrec. was formerly a via »a> held
in the time of Francois I., by Odon de 1 :'l of
considerable distinction in tile Iliilm Unp.
Dourpne has some mumifa. three
lairs, and iu the environ- some
white and pray marble. Son^e h-
ilietine abbey, wl
but without fortune, recei\ed :
has now a < \\iz\\ »chi f the nio.-t im-
' in the south o: -m yarn, woollen and
cotton ho-icry. and leathe- : and there are two
'.Soir/.c was loititied by the Hn-nenols in tlie
reliiridn- wars of the sixteenth century, but the ramparts
TAR
63
TAR
were destroyed in the reign of Louis XIV. At La Ro-
quette, near Castrcs, aiv t\vo remarkable natural curiosities :
Le Rocher tremblant, a mass of stone, comprehending
about 360 cubic feet, and resting on a very narrow base, so
as to rock or vibrate sensibly when pushed, like the Logan
or Logging Stone, in Cornwall ; and the grotto which bears
the name of St. Dominic, from having served as a retreat
to that celebrated ecclesiastic.
In the arrondissement of Gaillac are — Gaillac (population
in 1831, 5552 for the town, or 7725 for the whole com-
mune ; in 1836, 8199 for the commune'), on the Tarn ;
Lisle (pop. 1726 for the town, or 5065 for the whole com-
mune) and Rabastens (pop. 3417 for the town, or 69G6 for
the whole commune), on the same river; Penne, on the
Aveyron ; Cordes(pop. 2239 for the town, or 2602 for the
commune), on the Cerou ; Cestayrols, Cahuzac, Castelnau
de Montmiiail, and Puiceley, on or near the Verre ; Sal-
v:iigiiac, near the Tescou ; and Cadalen, between the Tarn
and the Adou. Gaillae is on the right or north bank of the
Tarn : it is an old town without any striking public build-
ing: then1 are an hospital and a small theatre. East of
the town is a suburb, well laid out and pleasantly situated.
There are brandy distilleiies and cooperages, and one or
t\vo tun-yards, dye-houses, and yards for building boats and
other river-craft. Trade is carried on in com, wine, and
;il>le.s: there are seven yearly fairs. Lisle (otherwise
L'lle d'Alby), on the right bank of the Tarn, is a small
town, \\ith a place or square re«ru!arly laid out and adorned
with a fountain. Considerable trade is carried on in corn
and wine, and there are seven yearly lairs for cattle, linen
elutli. and wool. Rabastrns, in a fertile plain on the ritrht
nf the Tarn, is an ill laid out and ill-built town.
There is a pleasant suburb, and adjacent to it an agree-
able promenade. Some blankets are manufactured, and
some trade carried on in corn, wine, and fruit : there are
I'arly fairs. Rabastens has the ruins of an antient
. which was taken by Simon de Montfort in the reli-
gious wars of the thirteenth century, and by the English
in the wars of the fourteenth ccntuiy. Cordes is on an
'ed site on the left bank of the Cerou : it has a hand-
some place or square, and the ruins of an antient castle :
linen and leather are manufactured ; there is a consider-
able weekly market for corn and fruit, and there are six
yearly fairs. Castelnau de Montmirail was antiently a
of strength : it is in a district fertile in corn and
fruit. Coarse marble is quarried in the neighbourhood.
Puiceley is on a height on the right bank of the Verre, not
far from C'astelnau de Montmiiail : the chief business of
the town is the manufacture of casks, joiners' and other
wood woik, and cheeses of great delicacy : there are lour
yearly fairs. Abundance of wood is obtained in the ad-
jacent forest Hi (i.i'sine. Salvaignac, or Salvagnac, is
antly situated on an eminence not far from the left
of the Tescou : it has some iron-forges, and consider-
able trade is carried on in cattle : there are six yearly fairs.
Some trade in < -attic is carried on at Cadalen.
In the arrondissement of Lavaurare — Lavaur or Laveur,
near the A;,rout (population in 1*G1. 4422 for the town, or
717J for the whole commune: in 1S3G. 7205 for the com-
mune). Giroussens and St. Sulpice, on or near the same
river; Puy-Laurens I population 1793 for the town, or (ilCO
for the whole commune), near the head of the Giron, an
unimportant feeder of the Garonne : and Graulhet (popu-
lation 2458 for the town, or 5097 for the whole commune 1
and Hi iatexte, on or near the Adou. Lavaur is on the left
bank of the Agout, which is here crossed by a modern
bridsre of hold ronsd-m-tiun. The town was defended by
- and protected by a castle in the eleventh century.
In the religious war* which signalised the early part of the
thirteenth century, it was one of the strongholds of the
Albigente*. from whom it was taken, A.I>. 1211. by Simon
de Montfort, who committed the n ,1 cruelties.
The place U divided into the old town nnd the new town,
but ii altogether ill built. The chief branch of indn-lrv is
silk-throwing. 'Hie raw silks of Haut or Upper Lunguvdoo
.iniL'lil here : and when thrown are sent to Nfmes and
MHO silk-stuff* for the upholsterers, and silk-
nacle ; and there are dye-houses and tan-
yards : there are three yearly fairs. "Lavaur ha- a hiyh
'>!, a small public; library, an agricultural socie!
a subordinate c-omt of justice. Giioussens was form
•h. and the object of contest in the Knglish
wan of I) ath century. It stands on the right
bank of the Agout : the townsmen manufacture brown
pottery, but their ware is less in request than formerly.
There is one yearly cattle-fair. Puy-Laurens is on a small
eminence commanding the surrounding fertile plain. It
was one of the strongholds of the Huguenots in the reli-
gious wars of the sixteenth century : but the fortifications
were rased in the reign of Louis XIII. The town appears
to have been after this still occupied by the Protestants, who
had here an Academy of Sciences, which was suppressed
after the revocation of the Edict, of Nantes. Silk-throwing
is carried on, and there is considerable trade with Spain in
horses and mules : there are five well-attended yearly
fail's. Graulhet, on the left bank of the Adou, has a con-
siderable manufacture of hats and woollen stuffs, and a
number of tan-yards. Considerable trade in horses is car-
ried on, and there are five cattle-fairs. The district round
the town is fertile : millstones are dug.
The population, when not otherwise described, is from
the census of 1831.
That part of France which now constitutes this depart-
ment was chiefly comprehended, in the earliest historical
period, in the territory of the Kuteni. The southern por-
tions were comprehended in the territory of the Umbranici,
and the south-western in that of the Tolosates. That part
of the territory of the Ruteni which was comprehended in
the department is considered by D'Anville to have been
occupied by the Ruteni Provinciales, distinguished by
' by that epithet from the other Ruteni, as being
within the limits of the Roman province at the time of his
command in Gaul. The Umbranici and Tolosates were
also within the province. The Ruteni were defeated by
Fabius Maximus, B.C. 121, and it was probably at this time
that part of them (the Ruteni Provinciales) became sub-
ject to Rome. The independent Ruteni took an active
part in the general revolt of the Gauls under Vercinge-
torix, near the close of Caesar's command, and were sent
by Vercingetorix to ravage the lands of the Volcae Areco-
mici, who were Roman provincials. They were subdued
by Ceesar. All these nations appear to have belonged to
the great Celtic stock. Under the Romans the Ruteni
•including the Ruteni Provinciales) appear to have been
comprehended in the province of Aquitauia Prinia ; the
Umbranici and Tolosates, in Narbonensis Prinia. The
town of the Albienses (Civitus Albie/isium) of the'Notitiu'
was probably Alby : the Albigi of the anonymous Geo-
grapher of Ravenna was probably the same place. No other
Roman town can be identified with any locality within the
department. The river Tarn is noticed by Ausonius (Mo-
xeltee Desrriptiu, 465) and Sidonius Apollinaris (Carmen,
xxiv. 45) under the name of Tarnis : the former bestows
on it the epithet 'aurifer,' 'the gold-bearing;' the second
calls it 'citus,' the 'swift.'
In the middle ages, and down to the period of the Revo-
lution, the larger portion of this department was known as
the territory of L'Albigeois ; the arrondissement of Lavaur,
and the adjacent parts, formed the district of Le Has
(Lower) Lauraguais : both these were comprehended in Le
Haut (Upper) Languedoc. Alby was the chief town of
L'Albigeois ; Lavaur of Bas Lauraguais.
Upon the downfal of the Roman Empire this part of
France passed into the hands of the Visigoths, and subse-
quently of the Franks under Clovis. The district of L'Albi-
geois was part of the great duchy of Guienne in the time
of the later kinsrs of the Merovingian dynasty. It was sub-
sequently held in succession by the counts of Toulouse,
the \iscouuts of Be/iers, and the counts of Carcassonne:
and was, in the early part of the thirteenth century, the
scene of the fearful cruelties perpetrated in the crusade
airainst the Albigeois or Albigrnses, a sect deriving their
name from the district, and persecuted by the. Romish
church as heretical. [AuuflcKNUS.] In the sequel of this
de the district of L'Albigeois was annexed to the
crown. The district of Lauraguais was successively held
by the counts of Carcassonne and Barcelona; one of these
hitter, ha\ing become king of Aragon, ceded Le Lau-
raguais to the Viscount of Be/iers, who again ceded it to
St. l.ouis, king of France. It wa.- alienated by Louis XL,
who gave it to the counts of Auvergne, but was reunited
to the crown by Henri IV.
TARN ET GARONNE, a department in the south of
France, situated between 43° 47' and 44° 23' N. lat., and
0" 40' and 2° 0' E. long. It is bounded on the north by
the department of Lot, on the north-east by tlia.t of Avey-
T A R
64
TAR
ron, on the cast anil south-past by that of Tarn, on Ihe
south bytlmt of Hautr Garonne, on the south-west by tluit
of Gers, and on tin- north-wc-t by ili-.it ot ..nine.
Its form is irregular: 1lu> irrei'.ic-t lensrth is from north-
east to so> Ihe border of the department <u'
Areyron near Pan-ot, lo the bank of the little river Ijirax.
near' Ijivit-dc-1. ••'< mile-: the creates! lireailth :it
rijrht anirles lo tile lcni:lh. i- IV. mi tin- border of the dc-
i, nne. near Montaiirut. to the border nf
the department of Haute Garonne. ticai-Gri/alle-. -I \ mile-.
The area 1. 1 the department is estimated :it 14-J1 square miles.
which is not -o miieli as two-thirds of the average area of
the Kreneh departments. and is rather less than the area of
the Knirli-h county of Sussex. The population, m Is'Jf..
wa- -JII. :.-«;: in 'isUl. 1J4:>,50!> : and in \XW. ^1'J.lsl.
showing a very trilling inerea-e 5!N persons. le.-s tlian
O-i"i per cent.' in the ten years from 1820 to IKMi : and in
the latter half of the term'a positive decrease. The num-
ber of inhabitants to a square mile, in IKili, was 170.
which is rather above the average den-in of the population
of France; but the department is inferior in amount of
population to most other departments: and both in
amount and density of population to the English county
with which we have compared it. Montauban, the capital.
is :t:O miles in a direct line south by west of Paris, or -His
miles by the road through Paris, Orleans, Chatcauroux,
Limoges, and Cahors.
This department was not one of those formed at the first
establishment of the departmental division of France by
the National Assembly. A.D. 1790; but was created by a
si 'iiatu— eonsultum under the reign of Napoleon, A.D. 1808.
Jt was formed from the Rrromlissement of Montauban,
taken from the department of Lot ; the arrondissement of
1 Sarrasin, taken from the department of Haute
Garonne : the cantons of Auvillard.Montaigut, and Valence,
taken from the arrondissement of Alien, in the department
of Lot et Garonne : the canton of Lavit-dc-Loma<rne, taken
from the arrondissement of Lectoure, in the department of
Gere; and the canton of St. Antonin, taken from the ar-
rondissement of Villefranche, in the department, of A\ey-
ron. The department thus formed was divided into three
new aiTondissements, Montauban, Moissac, and l'a-te!
Sarrasin.
The department has no mountains and scarcely any
hills; slisrht undulations alone vary its surface. The
greater part is occupied by the tertiary formations of the
ba-in of the Gironde : the part north-cast of St. Antonin,
on the Aveyron, and Puy-la-Koqne. is occupied by ihe
secondary formations which intervene between the chalk
and the red marl or new red sandstone. Some of our
authorities enumerate coal among the productions of the
department ; but this is hardly consistent with its geoloiii-
cal character, nor were any coal-mines wrought in 1834
and 1835, of which the official returns are before us. Some
iron is obtained; and there was. in 1834, one iron-work.
with two furnaces for making pin-iron. and live forces for
making wrought-iron. Charcoal wa.- the fuel iilmo>t ex-
clusively employed. Marble and irood freestone are
quarried in the "north-east parts of the department ; and
limestone, marl, and pottcr-'-clay are dug in several
The department belongs altogether to the basin of the
Garonne. The Garonne itself enter.- it on the south side.
a little below Grenade, and flows north-west by Verdun
and I/e-Mas-Garnier, to the junction of the Tarn : it then
flows a few miles west bv Auvillard: and turning again
north-west, and passim: Valence, quits the department.
It has about 4<) miles of its course (4i) miles, according to
the official account in tlnsdcpartment, navigable through-
out. The Tarn enters the department on the south-east:
it flows first north-we-l by Montauban to the neighbour-
hood of I-a Franchise ; and then, in a winding channel,
westward into the Garonne, which it joins on the rii;ht
bank: its whole course in this department may be e-ti
mated at 36 miles (40 according to the official account .
naviirable throughout. These are the only navigable
rivers. Of smaller streams, the Garonne receives on the
left bank the I.amhon. the Gimone, and the Scrre, above
the junction of the Tarn; and the Larax, or Rats, below
the junction of that river. The Barifuelonc lonmd b\
the junction of theGraodt Barffuelone and the Petite liar-
jtnelone) and the Saone (which receives the Seum
the Garonne on the right bank, below the junction of the
Tarn, and beyond the limits of the department, to which
however a con-iderable part of their course he!,
.\\eyron, a con-i . .ierof the Tarn, which it joinsoll
the riirht hank. I ••lontanhan and I
the lower part of it- course In this department 01 aionir the
boundaiy. The Tarn .d-o the T. which
Mi. • Tc- •.-!., met is a feeder' and the I.eml .-. hieb
Ihe I .all.'- i- lioth on the riirht hank. The. \\e\-
ton reeetvi > the s> ye, the Honncttc. and the la-re, on the
riirht Imnk; and the Verre and tl i the hit
bank.
The department had, 1 Jan., 1837, seven Ron),
or iro\ eminent roads, with an air^reirate length of l.'is
mile-. \ i/. |5() miles in L.-OOI! re-pair and K miles imtini-bed :
the aggregate lenirth of the departmental road.- at the
same time was ZH miles. \ i/. !."><; miles in irood repair
and 7* miles unfinished : the bye-roads and lane- had an
au'irrciralc lensrth of above 4800 tfllea, The principal road
is that from Paris to Montauban and Toulouse: it .
the department on the north side, at the ul
Madeleine, and inn- southward by Cans.-ade and Kealville
to Montauban ; and from thence' still southward. l< .
xalles. a little beyond which it ((nits the depaitmc'nt. to
Toulouse. A road from Montauban i .us west-north
parallel to the cour.-e first of the Tarn, afterward of the
Garonne, by La Francai-c, Mol-sac. and Valence, to Hor-
deaux : another road runs south-west. h\ Montcch and
Beaumont-de-Lomagne, to Audi ; and a third, east -south-
east, to Gaillac and Alby. in the adjacent department of
Tarn. A road which enters the department on the north-
east run- b\ Cay I us and Sept Ions, and. unit imr with Hi.
from Paris to Toulouse at Caussade, forms the communi-
cation between Hodez and Montauban. A road runninsr
from Moissac along the valley of the Garonne, by '
SaiTa.-iu. St. Porquier, Sealalen, and Finnan, to Gri/alle.-,
forms the shortest cominunication between Hordeau
Toulouse.
The climate is generally mild, but subject to variations,
which occasion frequent attacks of catarrh and rheumatism.
The mean temperature in winter is from lili" to Hi)" of Fah-
renheit, that of spriiiir and autumn from 511- to (>1J. and
that of summer from 81" to 86°. Mains are frequent in
sprinsr : the summer heat increases irradnally towards the
end of .Inly, when it is very great : autumn is the plca-
santest season of the year: winter, thonirh sometime.- verv
cold, is generally dry. Snow rarely tails.
The area of the department may be estimated at about
910,000 acres in round numbers, of which about .")75.(XX»
acre-, or above six-tenths, are under the plough. Tli.
is various; in some parts stiff and clayey, in others liirht
and sandy; so sandy in some places a.- to he incapable of
cultivation. The greater, part however is \ery fertile: the
plains and alluvial tracts which line the banks of th
ronne, the Tarn, and the Aveyron, are anioni: the richest,
in France ; but those alona; the hanks of the Garonne are
to be injured by the inundations of that river.
The farms are generally separated by quick-hcd_!c<. and
adorned with clumps of Ike wild quincc-tice. The most
important article of agricultural produce is wheat, which
is of excellent quality. It is ground into Hour, especially
at Montauban ; and larire quantities are exported to Ann -
rica. llarley. oats. rye. maixe. pulse, potatoes, vegetables
of excellent quality, rape, flax, and hem]), are also culti-
vated to a considerable extent.
The meadows have an extent of about 43,000 or 4 :
acres, the heath- and open pastures of more than 4 I.IKKI
acre-. The number of horned cattle and sheep is m
any means so considerable as it misiht be: the breed of
sheep has been however gradually improving, and tin-
wool is of good quality. Horses, fitted lor the liirht ca-
valry, are reared ; and a considerable number of mule
bred for the Spanish market. The breediiiir of swine is
on the increase. Poultry, especially duck- and srccse, are
numerous: they are salted in considerable quantity: and
their livers, which sometimes weiirh two pounds, are made
into the pies for winch this part of France. Toulouse espe-
cially. is so famous. The quills also form an important
article of trade.
The \ine is extensively cultivated on the slopes and
more elevated plains, where the soil is commonly of a
whitish colour, Of mingled ''lay and fine sand, little adapted
for the growth of corn, but suited to the vine, which
succeeds admirably in the district between the Taj-n and
T A K
65
TAR
the Garonne. The vineyards have an extent of about
90,000 acres. A large part of their produce is made into
brand)' for exportation. The wine is of fair quality, but
not first-rate ; and in general of a deep colour, which it
loses by age.
The orchards and gardens occupy about 4500 acres : the
walnut and chestnut trees are of great size : the white
mulberry is cultivated in order to rear the silk-worm,
which is an object of attention, though not so extensively
as it might be made. The woods occupy about 110,000
acres. Game and fresh-water fish are abundant : great
quantities of the lamprey and the shad are taken in the
Garonne in the spring.
The department is divided into three arrondissements,
as follows : —
Situa- Area in Population iu Can- Coin-
Nam'', lion. Sq. miles. 1831. 1836. tons, mimes.
Montauban E. 619 107,853 106.799 11 62
Moissac N.W. 341 62,489 62,735 6 49
Castel-Sar-
rasin
1421 242.509 242,184 24 191
In the anondissement of Montauban are — Montauban,
on the Tarn (population, in 1831, 18,255 for the town, or
25.400 for the whole commune ; in 1830, 23,865 for the
commune) [MOXTAUBAN] ; La Fran9aise (pop. 3C86), near
the Tarn ; Varen, St. Antonin (pop. 2861 for the town, or
5482 for the whole commune), Montricoux, Bioulle, Negre-
pelisse, and Realville (pop. 3030), on or near the Aveyron ;
Bruniquel, on the Verre ; Parisot, on the Seye ; Caylus
(pop. 1518 for the town, or 5319 for the whole commune),
on the Bonnette ; Puy-la-Roque, Septfons, Caussade (pop.
2441 for the town, or 4479 for the whole commune), on or
near the Lere or its affluents ; Montpezat and Molieres,
on or near the Lemboulas ; Mirabel, between the Lerc and
the Lemboulas; and Montclar, on the Tesoounet. La
Fianraise has a manufacture of pottery from the fine clay
which is dust in the neighbourhood. St. Antonin is on
the right bank of the A\ eyron, at the junction of the Bon-
nette. There are manufactures of serge and other woollen
stuffs, and there are tan-yards and paper-mills: con-
sideiable trade is carried on in leather and dried plums.
Montricoux has twelve yearly fairs: marble is quarried
near the town. Negrepeliste was formerly inhabited
chiefly by the Huguenots ; and when Louis XIII. besieged
M.mtaulian \.n. 1021 , he put a garrison into this town ;
but the inhabitants rose upon the garrison, and put them
to the sword, in consequence of which the town was taken
and burnt by the royal army. Cotton goods are woven,
and trade is carried on in corn, wine, and hemp: there are
ten yi - At RraKille consideiable trade is carried
on in corn and flour : there are five yearly fairs. Bruni-
quel has an iron-work. Caylus has eleven yearly fail's, and
a trade in corn. Caussade has some manufactures of linen
and woollen ; and the townsmen carry on trade in corn,
flour, saffron, and truffles : there are eight yearly fairs.
In the arrondissement of Moissac are — Moissac, on the
riitht hank of the Tarn (population, in 1831, 5950 for the
town, or It), 105 for the whole commune; in 1836, 10,618
for the commune) [Moiss.\c] ; Auvillard or Auvillar (po-
pulation 1903 for the town, or 2302 for the whole com-
mune), on the Garonne ; Valence (population 1994 for the
town, or 2875 for the whole commune), between the Ga-
ronne and the Bareuelone ; Lauzerte (population 1753 for
the town, or 3085 for the whole commune) and Miramont,
on the Petite Barguelone : Monjoy or Montjoye and Castel-
Sagrat, on or near the Saone; Le Bourg-du-Visa, on a
small feeder of the Saone ; Montaigut or Montaigu (popu-
lation 2000 for the town, or 4172 for the whole commune)
and Roquecor, on the Seune; and Dunes, near the west em
border of the department. At Auvillard or Auvillar
(sometimes written Auvillards) are manufactures of earthen-
ware and worsted hose: there are four yearly fairs. The
neighbourhood is productive in wine. Valence (distin-
guished as Valence d'Agen) has four yearly fairs: the
i tan leather and prepare quills for writing.
Lauzcrto is in a picturesque situation on a rocky eminence,
'• junction of the Lendou with the Petite Barguelone:
it has eleven fairs, where much business is done in corn,
win' Montaigu has some manufactures oi
;uid leather, and five yearly fairs. Dunes
lairs for cattle, corn, and linen cloth.
P. C., No. 14W.
In the arrondissement of Castel-Sarrasin are— Castel-
Sarrasin, near the right bank of the Garonne (population*
in 1831, 3346 for the town, or 7092 for the whole com-
mune ; in 1836, 7408 for the commune) ; Verdun (popu-
lation 1809 for the town, or 4234 for the whole com-
mune), Le Mas-Garnier, and St. Nicolas-de-la-Grave, on
the Garonne ; St. Porquier, Scatalen, Montech, Fignan
or Finhan (population 1600 for the town, or 1730 for
the whole commune), and Grizalles or Grizolles (popula-
tion 1724 for the town, or 2091 for the whole commune),
between the Tarn and the Garonne ; Bouillac, near the
Lambon; Beaumont de Lomagne (population 3126 for the
town, or 4130 for the whole commune), on the Gimone;
and Lavit de Lomagne, near the Serre. Castel-Sarrasin
suffered much in the religious wars, and the quantity of
bones and of arms dug up in the neighbourhood bears tes-
timony to the frequency or severity of the conflicts it lias
witnessed. The town is agreeably situated in a fertile
plain about a mile from the Garonne, and is well built.
The old walls and ditches have been destroyed, and re-
placed by agreeable promenades. The townsmen manu-
facture serge and other woollen stuffs, hats, and leather:
there are three yearly fairs. There are one or two subor-
dinate government offices. Verdun, distinguished from
other places of the same name as Verdun-sur-Garonne, is
on the left bank of the river : it has much declined from its
former importance, but has still some woollen manufactures
and three yearly fairs. St. Nicolas-de-la-Grave is known
for the excellent melons grown in the surrounding district :
there are four yearly fairs. St. Porquier is known for the
extensive cultivation of tobacco and saffron in the neigh-
bourhood : it has three yearly fairs. Grizalles or Grizolles
is in a fertile plain, a short distance from the right bank of
the Garonne : the townsmen manufacture a considerable
quantity of cutlery, especially excellent scissars : there are
three yearly fairs for cattle and horses. At Beaumont-de-
Lomagne coarse cloth and other woollens, hats, and leather
are manufactured, and trade is carried on in corn : there
are seven fairs in the year.
The population, when not otherwise described, is that of
the commune, and from the census of 1831.
This part of France, at the earliest historical period, was
occupied by the Cadurci, a Celtic people, who were north
of the Garumna (now the Garonne), the Tarnis (now the
Tarn), and the river now known as the Tescou ; by the
Tolosates, also Celts, who inhabited the part south of these
rivers ; and by the Lactorates (of the Aquitanian stock),
in whose territories that, small portion of the department
which lies south of the Garonne and west of the Larax or
Rats was included. Perhaps some small portions of the
north-western border may have belonged to the Nitiobriges,
a Celtic people, and some portions of the eastern border
to the Ruteni, who were also Celts : but these portions, if
there were any, must have been very small. The Tasconi
of Pliny, who appear to have left tneir name to the little
rivers lescou and Tescounet, on the banks of which they
dwelt, were probably either a subdivision of the Tolo-
or a small tribe subject to them. In the, Roman
division of Gaul the Tolosates, with the Tasconi, were in-
cluded in the province of Narbonensis Prima ; the Cadurci
and the Ruteni in that of Aquitania Prima; and the Nitio-
briu'es and Lactorates in Novempopulana.
Only two places mentioned by Roman authorities are
supposed to have been in tlus department. Cosa, men-
tioned in the Theodosian or Peutinger Table, was probably
on the bank of the Aveyron, near Realville ; and the Fines
of the same authority may be placed on the Tescou, near
the iunction of the Tescounet.
Iii the middle ages, the north-western parts, about Mon-
taisrut, Castel-Sagrat, and Valence, as far south as the
Garonne, were included in L'Agenois ; the northern and
north-eastern parts, as far south as the Tarn, in the dis-
trict of Le Bas Quercy, except just about Parisot and St.
Antonin, which belonged to La Basse Marche in Rouergue ;
L'Agenois, Quercy, and Rouergue were all subdivisions of
Cinienne. South of the Garonne the whole was included in
Gascogne or Gascony ; the part west of the Larax being
comprehended in Le Condomois, a district of Gascogne
er; and the part eastward of the Larax in Lomagne
and Riviere-Verdun, two districts in Bas (Lower) otherwise
Noir (Black) Armagnac. The districts between the Garonne
and the Tarn belonged to the district of Le Toulousain,
or the county of Toulouse, properly so called, in Languedoc.
VOL. XXIV.-K
TAR
\ R
Th««e territories, upon t> ! Ionian em-
pire, pM»eil into the hand- ..I tin \ irom whom
they were afterwards wrckted l» In. Tin- county
of TOuloilM was annexed to the crown in Hie rri<rn ol'
Philippe III. Icllanh: the couiitv ;-t by
Ix>ui§ XI. and finally by Henri 1\ '.', and K finally
by Kranrois I. I,e l,)uerc\ anil I.'Aireno!- :i long
time ptrt of the Knglish possessions in France. Th>
lish were tinnlly driven out in tin- middle of the fifteenth
centurv.
T A K N < H'I >]. is a circle in the eastern part of Austrian
Galicm, l>ordering on the Ru— ian government of Podolia.
The area is about 1400 square miles, mid the population
•JU.rxHt. of whom nhout 13.000 are Jews. The surface
of the country is an undulating plain broken only by a few
hills. The forests m, •• n-ivc, and the soil in gv-
neral extremely fertile : it produces corn, flax, hemp, to-
hncco. irarden vegetables, and fruits. 'The tine meadows,'
says Hassel, ' would enable the inhabitants to breed great
numbers of cattle, but it is only the breeding of horses
that is more considerable than in the rest of Oalicia; they
are of the true Polish race. In 1817 there were 3(i.-_r7."i
horses, 9412 oxen, 26.339 cows, and 5!).2H2 sheep." Ac-
cording to the very detailed statistical tables ft
("published in I KM. which are the latest that we have seen),
there were 41,223 horses, 11, HO oxen, 2(i.iKii> cows, and
81,283 sheep. There is no large river in the circle ; the
Podhorze form* the eastern boundary towards Russia, and
the interior is watered by the Sered, the Tryna, the Quila,
and other small streams.
TARNOPOL. the capital of the above circle, is a consi-
derable town, with 10,500 inhabitants, of whom nearly half
are Jews. It is situated on the river Sered, which "there
passes through n lake. There are in the town a Roman
Catholic and a Greek church, three svnagogue-. a Jesuits'
College, » gymnasium, n ml a philosophical seminarv . In
the year 1820, 50 of the Jesuits expelled from Russia were
allowed to settle in a Dominican convent at Tarnopol.
The sum of 300 florins a year was assigned to each, with
a moderate sum for the establishment of the gymnasium,
it being intended that they be solely employed in the edu-
cation of youth in and out of the town. The inhabitants
have a pretty considerable trade, but have not made much
progress in manufacture*. The principal establishments
are tanneries. As in most Polish towns, the houses are of
wood, and the streets unpavcd, where filth of all kinds is
suffered to accumulate.
(Hassel ; Stein : Cannabich ; Mission from the Church
! f'i the Jews, ls|-j.
TARNOW. a circle of Austrian Galicia, is bounded on
the north by the Vistula, which separates it from Poland,
on 1) R/cszow, on the south by Jaslo, on the
south Miiok, and on the west by Hochnia. The
area is 2fHX> square miles, and the population at present
must be at least 240,000: since, according to the statisti-
cal tables for 1830, it was liis,i.-,:i, of whom 14,008 were
Jews. The country is an extensive plain, with hei
there an inconsiderable eminence. The soil is on the whole
• •rtile, in many parts sandy, and ill-cultivated.
The rivers are, the Vistula on the north, th on the
and the Wisloka. which flows through the middle of
the circle. Though the chief Occupation of the inhabitants
iculture, its operation ::ned in a very slm en! v
manner, and the breeding of cattle is by no mean- in pni-
ntry: the forests however
are very profitable, and there is no" other circle in Oalicia
where the people make so many wooden wares of various
kind*, pipe-staves, Sec, Thin -, pro-
-peaking. except in the chief town and its neigh-
bourhood, but tin- country-people manufacture ;•
quantity of linen.
TARNOW, the capital of the circle, is plca-antlv -ituated
On an eminence near the river Uiala, over which'thi
ic arch cf Hll frl ••
which i- entii. ' ,,f tii,.
without the suburb, is 2250, of
burl, the populate ,es are
1 part well built of 1 high. Thit
town if a Roman Catholic bishop, and \\,
of the tribunal ithedral, a
a synagogue, a gv nina-ium. a J»".\i»h in-
firmary, a imh'.iry ':
schools. The ,
n-wnre, and cabinet -work. They have many tan-
the momimeiit- of the princes Januu von Ostn
the counts of Twnow-Tarnoswsk) : two of them are from 60
to 70 feet high, and reach 1 of the church. I
two monuments are very highh
TARl'KIAN ROCK: IR.-.MK.]
TARl'OKI.KY. [CiiESHiKK.]
T AKIJl'l Ml 'Tapri'i'in, or Tapcot'iWO. «n nir
of Ktruria. on the southern bank of the river Marta. which
empties itself into the sea a few miles bclo
Strabo \. 2. j). H35, ed. Tnuchnitz \ the town w:
by Tare-on, one of the companions of Tyrrhenus '
Hv/ant.. v. f. Tnnruvia; Viriril. ./-.>»., viii. ."><>.">: Silii
lieu-, viii. -I":! ; and, aci-onliiiL . it was a colony
of Tllessalians and Spinambriaus. In the ic:iru of .'
Marcius, Demaratusof Corinth is said to ha\e come with a
band of his countrymen to Ktruria. and to ha\e
favourably received by the Tarquinienscs ; and the story
describes him as the lather of I.. TaiquiniusPriscus. (TxH-
griNirs.] Whatexer may be. thought of this tradition, it
seems clear that Ktruria and Tarquinii in particul,
perienced at an early jieriod considerable influence
!C. Tarquinii apjieai-s to have become in a short time
a great and powerful city, a- i- clear from the wars which
it carried on with Rome' and from the important remains
which have recently been •!; and there is little
doubt that it formed one of the twelve republic-
consisting of the city and an cxten-ise territory around it.
After the expulsion of Tarquinius Snperbns from Rome, in
B.C. 50!), the Tarquinienses were the most forward in his
and unsuccessfully endeavoured to restore him bv
force of arms. (I.iv.. h. (I. Xe. About the v ear !).•
the Tarquinienses again made war upon the Unmans, and
ravaged their territory, but they were defeated by A. Postu-
indL. Julius. This however did not deterthein
renewing their hostilities against Rome, and from n,
Inroads upon her territory. It wasonsuchai! .mthe
year H.C. 35s, that a war broke out between the two
which lasted for several year-. The Roman- in thci
campaign. under the consul c. i-'abiu-. were un-uei-e-sful,
and the Iwquiniensei made 3TJ? Roman soldiers prisoners,
all of whom were saciiliccd to the gods. Rome for
time carried on the war on the defensive, while her ene-
inie- acquired new allies, and invaded the Roman territory
a- far as the Salinsr, at the mouth of the Titu
r. in ,'t."i(i ».<•.. they were defeated by the dictator
Marcius Rutilus.and the year after thej were compelled by
(-. Sulpicins to lay down their arms. The Romans now took
cruel revenge for the outrage which had been committed
upon their prisoners. The common Tarquinien-e- who fell
into the hand- of the Roman- were all ma-sacred, hut :t5s
nobles were sent to Rome, where they wen ileath
in the forum. <I.iv., \ii. 12-11). Shortly after the Tarqui-
nienses sued for a truce, which was granted for
Tarquinii, like the re-t oft: in town-, v
forth neutral in the wars of Rome with nil. -. and
remained in almost perfect in.lcpcnde- ic. Shortly
alter the expiration oftlietruee the Tarquinienses obtained
a peace of the same duration. At a later period Tarquinii
became a Roman Municipium ;('icen>. />rn Caecin., A .
The site of the antient Tarquinii is clearly discernible in
:ins still extant on the hill of Tarchiuo, near the
n town of Cornclo. The place ha- in modern 1
acquired a peculiar interest through the numeroiiswoiks of
art which have been discovered in the tombs and
comb-. The first of these were opened in what
unl in them was described by liuonarolti. Nt
<• frequently been 111 that tune ;
-I important are'tbe paintings with which the
of the catacomb- aie decorate I : but be-idcs thc-e.tl,
and ti : 'insiiie-and vases, and other
worK-of art, are found there. Rcspcctins.'t!
sec Wilcox and Morion. ./
.llKirtiWHlH irilli Eli
,\v., ill the I'lul '• 17'i3.\i
127; Von Stack' ' </'''' M
at <f a I! "Hi Tart j i
TAR(Jl''INIl'S. Ai -i •. tiding to caih Roman history the
family of the Tarquinii gave t-.\o lungs and one consul to
il to the town of Tarquinii in
:. and thence to Greece. Modern investigations
TAR 67
however have shown that the Tarquinii did not come from
Etruria, but must originally have belonged to Latium, and
that from the earliest times there existed at Rome a gens
Tarquinia. (Xiebuhr,.r%/.o/.r?o™e,i.,p.373,&c.) We sub-
join a list of those members of the house of the Tarquins
who play a prominent part in the early history of Rome.
_ Lucius TARQUIMUS PRISCUS. The old story concerning
his birth and his arrival in Rome ran thus :— During the
tyranny of Cypselus at Corinth, Demaratus, a wealthy
merchant who belonged to the noble family of the Bac-
chiads, was obliged by the tyrant to quit his native city.
He sailed to Etruria, which he had often visited before on
his mercantile voyages, and took up his residence at Tar-
quinii. Here he married a woman of noble rank, who
bore him two sons, Luciano and Aruns. (Dionys., iii. 46;
Liv., i. 34 ; Polyb., vi. 2.) As an aspiring foreigner could
never hope to satisfy his ambition in Etruria, Lucumo,
after the death of his father and brother, resolved to
ate with his wife Tanaquil and a numerous band of
fi lends to Home, where several strangers had already ob-
tained the highest honours. He was confirmed in his
expectations by a miraculous occurrence which happened
just when he was approaching the city, and by the inter-
pretation of it by his wile, who was well skilled in augury.
At Rome Lucumo was favourably received by Kin<r Ancus
Marcius, and lands were assigned to him. To omit nothing
mi his part which mitrht characterize him as a complete
I'oman, he adopted the name of Lucius Tarquinius, to
which subsequently the name Priscus was addecf to distin-
guish him from other members of his house. His wealth
and prudence induced King Ancus to allow Tarquin to
take part in all the affairs of state, and in his will lie made
him the guardian of his children, who were yet under age.
^ MARCUS.] Tarquin himself aspired to become
kinsj of Rome. Accordingly, on the death of Ancus, he ienl
the young princes out limiting, and during their absence
M the corr.itia for electing a successor to Ancua, and
eded in persuading the people to elect him, to the
exclusion of the sons nf Aliens, 616 B.C.
the common story of the descent of the fifth king
of Rome, of the manner in which he came to Rome, and
aised to the throne. How much there may be his-
torical in the tradition cannot be ascertained. Thus
much however appears certain, that the arrival of Dema-
ratus in Etruiia cannot have been contemporaneous with
the tyranny of Cypselus, and that, as stated above, Tar-
T A R
quimus was not a foreigner, but belonged to a Latin gens
Tarquinia. ; Xielmhr, ///*•/. <,f H<,m>\ i.. p. 373, &c.)
L. Tarquinius Priscus distinguished himself during his
> no less in war than in the peaceful adminisi,
e state. His first war was against the Latins, limn
whom he took great spoil. With equal success lie car-
ried on war with the Suhines, whom he defeated in two
great battles, and from whom he took the town of Colla-
tia with its tenitory. After this he again made war on
the Latin*, and iiiler lie had subdued them and made
himself master of many of their towns, he concluded a
peace with them. During the intervals between these
1 10 introduced \arious improvements into the consti-
tution of the Mate, which are mentioned in the a>
ROME, p. 104, and SENATUS, and which were intended
to oi'L body of the plebeians, and perhaps to
place them on an equality with the patricians. Hut he
could only partially carry his schemes into effect, as he w;is
thwarted by the auuur Attus .\;uius, who probablv acted
at the instigation of the patricians. After his first Latin
war, Tarquin built the Circus Maximus for the exhibition
of the public spectacles, and is said to have been the
founder of the Roman or great games ^Ludi Magni or
Romaui:. He also assigned the ground round the forum
to private individuals, that they mi^lit there build pot
.laces for transacting bu.-incss: and lastly he i
.e formed the plan of enclosing the city by a stone
wall, which he was prevented from accomplishing by the
outbreak of the Sabinc war. After the second war against
the Latins, he recurred to his plan, and is said to have made
ions for building the wall ; but the comple-
tion o .ed for his successor Servius Tullins.
The greatest work at Rome, which owes its origin to Tar-
aiid which has survived all the vicissitudes of the
re the gigantic sewers (cloacae) in the lower districts
U.A.]
The sons of Ancus Mart-ins, who had been deprived of
the throne by their guardian Tarquin, never forgot the
injury, and when they discovered that it was his and Tana-
quil's intention to secure the succession to Servius Tullius,
they formed the design of murdering Tarquin. [SERVIUS
TULLIUS.] For this purpose they hired two sturdy shep-
herds, who went to the king's palace, and there con-
ducted themselves as if they were engaged in a violent
quarrel. At last the king himself appeared to settle their
dispute, but while he was listening to one of them, the
other split the king's head with an axe. Thus died L.
Tarquinius Priscus, after a reign of thirty-eight years, in
B.C. 578. The queen kept his death secret until the suc-
cession was secured to Servius Tullius. The assassins were
seized, and the sons of Ancus fled to Suessa Pometia.
(Livy, i. 34-42; Dionysius, iii. 46-73.) Tarquinius Priscus
left two sons, Lucius and Aruns Tarquinius.
During the reign of this king Rome appears as a power-
ful state in comparison with what it is said to have been be-
fore him. According to the historians this greatness was
not the result of his reign, but is supposed to have existed
before it, and to have enabled him to do what he did, so
that this increase of the power and dominion of Rome
must have taken place previous to his reign, although we
do not know how it was effected. Some traditions men-
tioned (Tacitus, Anna!., iv. 65) that under Tarquinius
Priscus an Etruscan of the name of Caeles Vibenna came
with a colony to Rome and settled on the Caelian hill,
which derived its name from him.
Lucius TARQUIMUS SUPERBUS-, the seventh and last king
of Rome, was the son of Tarquinius Priscus, and brother of
Aruns. Tullia, a daughter of Servius Tullius, was married
to the gentle Aruns, and her sister to L. Tarquinius. In con-
cert with Lucius, Tullia murdered her own husband Aruns
and her sister, and then married L. Tarquinius. Lucius
placed himself at the head of a conspiracy, and murdered
his own father-in-law, the aged Servius Tullius. Tarqui-
nius, who received the surname of the Haughty or the
Tyrant (Superbusl, succeeded his father-in-law as king of
Rome, 584 B.C., without either being elected by the peo-
ple or confirmed by the senate.
There is no doubt that the hatred of the very name of
king which prevailed at Rome during the republic, has
greatly contributed to exaggerate the cruelty and tyranny
of the last king, and thus to corrupt his history. But not-
withstanding all this, it is clear that Tarquin by his talents,
both as a general and a statesman, quickly raised Rome to
a degree of power which it had never possessed before.
The first act attributed to him after his accession is the
death of all the senators who had supported the reforms of
Servius Tullius. and in order to render his own person
safe, he formed an armed body-guard which always accom-
panied him. He in fact undid all that Servius had done :
he took on himself the administration of justice, put pei--
sons to death or sent them into exile according to nis own
pleasure, and kept the whole internal and external adminis-
tration in his own handsj without, either consulting the
people or the senate. In order that the senate might, sink
into insignificance, he never filled up the vacancies which
so frequently occurred through his executions, banish-
ments, or through the natural death of senators. To
secure himself still more, he formed a close connection
with the Latins, to one of whom, Octavius Mamilius of
Tusculum, he gave his own daughter in marriage. The
influence which he thus gained among the Latins was
most visible in their assemblies on the Alban Mount by the
temple of Jupiter Latiaris, in which Rome also had a
vote. Tarquinius, by cunning and fraud, or, according to
others, by force of arms, subdued the towns of Latium and
placed Rome at the head of the league (Livy, i. 50, &c. ;
Dionysius, iv. 45, &c. ; Cicero, De lie Publ., li. 24), which
was now also joined by the Hernicans and the Volscian
towns of Ecetra and Antinm. The wealthy town of Suessa
Pometia was besieged and taken, perhaps because it. had
refused to join the league. The Latin town of Gabii ex-
perienced a similar fate. Sextus, the king's youngest, son,
went thither under the pretext of being a deserter, and
contrived to put himself at the head of the Gabian army.
After having put to death or sent into exile the most dis-
-hcd citizens of Gabii by the advice of his father, he
treacherously surrendered the town to him. The whole
account of the war with Gabii bears the character of a
fable, and resembles in many respects other fabulous stories
of early Grecian history. The treaty which was formed
K 2
T A
A K
with Gabii after" its surrender, was engraved on a wooden
shield, and preserved in the temple of Jupiter Fidius to
the t: Tari|iiin founded
in the conquered territory of tbe Volscians the two colo-
nies • i ii. by whifli he extended and
strengthened the power of Rome.
Tarquin is said to have been fond of splendour and
magn. lie Imilt the capitol, with the threefold
temple of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, and adorned it
with brazen statues of the gods and of the early kings.
. i. 53; Dionysins, iv. ;")'.»; Pliny, ///*/. •
•1: xxxiv. l:t. Here lie also deposited the oracular books
which he had purchased from a Sibyl. [SIBYL.] After
the establishment of the colonies of Sigma and Circeii, a
fearful omen was seen, which - • bode ruin to his
family ; and in order to ascertain its import he sent
sons, Sextus and Aruns, accompanied by his nephew. I..
Junins Brutus, to Delphi. To the question as to which of
the three ambassadors was to reign at Rome, the Pythia
answered : he who shoidd first kiss his mother. Brutus,
who had always assumed the appearance of an idiot, un-
derstood the oracle, and on landing in Italy, fell down and
kissed the earth, the mother of all. Tarquin's cottV
now exhausted by the great works that he had undertaken,
and he was tempted to make himself master of Ardea, a
wealthy town of the Rutuli. As however he did not succeed
in his first attack, he laid siege to the town. While this
was going on, a dispute arose between the sons of Tarquin
and their cousin, C. Tarquinius Collatinus, respecting the
virtue of their wives. This led to the violation of the
chaste Lucretia, the wife of ( 'ollatinus. who lived at Colla-
tia, bv Se\tu>. the kind's eldest son. As the highest pride
of a Roman woman at this time was her virtue, Lucretia
sent for her husband, father, and Brutus, and killed hersell
in their presence, after having cursed the family of the
king, and implored her friends to avenge the injury which
she had suffered. Brutus immediately marched with an
armed force from Collatia to Rome, and roused the people
to avenge the indignity and throw off the yoke of their
tyrant. The citizens were easily persuaded: they deprived
the king, who was yet in the camp of Ardea, of Ins im-
perium, and banished him with his wife and children
from Rome, 510 B.C. Alter these occurrences Tarquin
hastened to Rome, but finding the gates of the city shut
upon him, and learning that he was declared an exile, he
retired to Caere, whither he was followed by his son Aruns.
His other son Sextus sought a refuge at Gabii, but the
citizens, remembering his former treachery, put him to
death. The simple fact of the banishment of King Tar-
quin, which was commemorated at Rome every year by
a festival called 'The King's Flight' i Regifugium or Fu-
galia\ is beyond all doubt historical ; but what is described
asitsimrm '.and itsaccompanyingcircumstanc.es,
may be poetical inventions.
Tarquin however did not give up the hope of recovering
what he had lost. He first sent ambassadors to Rome to
demand the surrender of his moveable property. During
their stay in the city the ambassadors formed a conspiracy,
in which young patricians chiefly are said to have joined
them. The conspirators were discovered and put to death,
and the moveable property of the royal family wits given
up to the people, in order to render reconciliation im-
possible. The king is said to have found favour and
protection with the inhabitants of Caere and Tarquinii.
and with the Veientines, and to have led the united ibices
of these people against the Romans. \\ho however defeated
their enemies near the forest of Arsia. linitus fell in this
battle in single combat with Anms. Tarquin now sought
and found assistance at Clnsium, which was then governed
by the mighty I.ar IVrsenna. [PoHsKNvv.] During the
war of this chieftain with Rome Tarquin is entirely lost
sight of in the narrative of the historians; but after its
conclusion we find him supported by the I-atins, and
•waging a fresh war against Home under the Latin dictator
Octavius Mamilius of Tusculuni. The battle near lake
Regillus(496 B.C.), in which the king lost his only surviving
son, decided the whole contest. The account of the detail
of this battle is as fabulous as any part of the early histoiy
of Rome, and formed, as Niebunr supposes, the conclud-
ing part of the 'Lay of the Tarquins.' The aged king, now
ilipMM-d of all his hopes, retired to Cniilae. which was
then governed by the tyrant Aristodemus, where he died
the year following, 490 B.C.
ii. 111. Sec. : Dionysius, vi. 2, Sec. ; Xiebuhr, ///«/.
of Rom*, i.. p. ."i.Vi. \
I.rcns T\HQI ivirs Cou.ATisrs, the son of Kgeriuft,
and the husband of Lucretia. After the banishment of
he king he was elected consul together with I., .lunius
lirutus. But the people beginning to suspect that he
might perhaps be tempted to follow the example of bis
kinsman, and endanger the freedom of the young republic,
he wag compelled to abdicate, and to submit to the
i exile, which was now pronounced upon the whole
family • iiuii. l.i\ \. i. 57. GO ; ii. 2.)
TARKAGO'N A. a province of Spain, bordering on the
north on Catalonia, on the south on Valencia, and on the
west on Aragon. The capital. Tarragona, is situated on
the coast of the Mediterranean, on the declivity of a moun-
tain rising to ~W) leet above the level of the sea, and near
the mouth of the river Krancoli. 41° 7' N. lat. and \- 17'
K. long. Tarragona, the Roman Tarraco, is one of the
most antient cities of Spain : o.s it is supposed to have
founded by the Pho?nicians. During the second Punic
War it became a Roman colony (Plin.. ///.»•/. \nt., iii. :» .
and, Subsequently under Augustus, the capital of II.-
pania Citenor, or Tarraconensis, which comprised '
Ionia. Aragon, Navarre, Biscay, the Asturias, Gah.
portion of Leon, and the Balearic Islands. Tarrac
the chief city of one of the seven COnventUB, or divisions of
the province for purposes of administration, and i hieH\ for
justice. In A.D. 4(>7 it was taken by Kurie. king of the
(ioths. and levelled with the earth. The Arabs reduced it
in 710. like most cities on that coast, and it remained in
their hands until Raymond IV., count of Barcelona, took
it from them, about the close of the eleventh century.
The city being found in a very ruinous and dilapi.i
state. Don Bernardo, archbishop of Toledo, undertr
rebuild it on condition that the pope would absolve him
of an oath he had taken, and not fulfilled, of repairing to
the Holy Land. The absolution having been granted, the
archbishop of Toledo destined the greatest portion of the
rev enues of his see to the rebuilding of Tarragona. 1 )
the War of Succession. (In- Fnglish took possession of the
city, which they intended to Keep and began to fortify.
Some of the outworks and redoubts thrown up by them are
still visible. In 1810 the French, under Marsha! Suchet.
laid siege to it. and took it by storm on the 29th of June.
1811, after a siege of several months. The conduct of the
French commander on this occasion is greatly to blame :
he not only justified, but even encouraged, the perpetra-
tion of all kinds of atrocities, on the ground that he wislu .1
by one dreadful example to terrify the people and pi,
further resistance. An attempt to retake the •
in June, 1813. by the allied forces under General Sir John
by
all
Murray, failed completely : for at the approach of Suchet,
who was advancing from Valencia, that officer raised the
siege and re-emhaiKid his troops with such precipitation
that he left all his artillery and stores behind.
Tarragona is tolerably well built, and the Roman re-
mains render it interesting, liesidcs the circus, which is
now almost entirely built upon.it has a very fine amphi-
theatre, in a good sta; . ation. and a large Rinnan
building, probably a temple, which the inhabitant- call 'the
of Augustus.' The remains of a splendid aqueduct.
which once supplied Tarragona with water, which was
brought from a distance of Hi miles, afford lil,,
a proof of the importance of the city under the !{..•:
About tin. ;ist of the city there is a very fine
mausoleum, which the vulgar call ' HI Sepu!.
Scipiones' the tomb of the Scipios), from a I
('incus and Publius Seipio arc buried under it. Of Hie
Moorish domination there remain no oil.
large building close to the sea, which i- In lieved to
been their arsenal. The cathedral is by far the most iutc
resting building in the city, and is well deserving of atten-
tion tor its vast dimensions and the ( Ii
its Gothic architecture. It d in the year 1117,
but has sim ieatly added to. The chape] of Santa
Tliecla. which is entirely built of rich marbles and jaspei-.
is one of the richest and mo-t ta-teinl'v d.ematcd 111 the
church. The great altaipicee too is much admired for
its exquisite can 'dcd by a native artist in I I'Jli.
Tarragona is the see of an archbishop, who once disputed
with that of Toledo the primacy ol Spain. During the
Moorish domination, sc\cial provincial and general coun-
cils were held there. At the first, which took place in 81G,
TAR
69
TAR
it was ordained that the Sabbath should commence on
Saturday night. The immediate neighbourhood of Tarra-
gona is well cultivated, and yields com, wine, oil, and
hemp, in great abundance. The principal manufactures
are cloth, coarse cotton-goods, hats, and cutlery, which are
exported to all parts of Spain, and to the island of Cuba.
TARSHISH v^'Iihnj is a place mentioned in the Old
Testament, particularly in connection with the commerce
of the Hebrews and "Phoenicians. In Gen., x. 4, the
name occurs among the sons of Javan, who are supposed
to have peopled the southern parts of Europe. (Compare
Ps. Ixxii. 10; Isaiah, Ixvi. 19.) In other passages it is
mentioned as sending to Tyre silver, iron, tin, and lead
I'.zflu/j, xxvii. 12 ; Jerem., x. 9) ; and from Isaiah, xxiii.
10, some have inferred that it was subject to the Phoe-
nicians. The prophet Jonah, attempting to avoid his
mission to Nineveh, fled from Joppa in a ship bound to
Tarshish. (Jonah, i. 3 ; iv. 2.) In several passages of the
Bible ' ships of Tarshish ' are spoken of, especially in con-
nection with Tyre ; and it is pretty generally agreed that
that phrase only describes a species of large ship, such as
those used in the trade with Tarshish, just as we speak of
' Indiarnen.'
From a comparison of the above passages, the majority
of critics have concluded that Tarshish must be sought for
in tho western part of the Mediterranean, or even outside
the Straits ; and it has been generally identified with the
Phoenician emporium of Tartessus m Spain, a place which
would undoubtedly furnish the products said to have been
brought from Tarshish. The Phoenician name ' Tarshish '
would easily become the Greek Taprti<ra6f ; in fact the
Aramaean pronunciation of ' Tarshish' would be 'Tarthesh.'
We have abundant proofs that the Phoenicians had esta-
blished an extensive commercial intercourse with Spain
at a very early period.
But there is a considerable difficulty about the position
of this Tarttssus. The antient geographers place it, some
at the mouth of the river liaetis Guadalquivir), the most
antient name of which river they state to have been also
Turtessus ; while others identify it with the city of Calpe,
or Carteia, near Mount Calpe, the rock of Gibraltar.
C Herod., iv. 152; Strabo, p. 140. 14S-ir>l ; Mela, iii. 6;
Plin., iii. 1; Pausan., vi. 1U: Steph. Byzant., r. Taprijawof.)
The best way to explain and reconcile these statements
with each other, and with the biblical accounts respecting
T;u -.lush, seems to be by taking the latter as the name not
of a Dingle place, but of the whole country in the neigh-
bourhood of Gibraltar. In this district there may have
been more than one city bearing a name like Tartessus.
The name survives in various forms in the names of the
rock Calpe, of the neighbouring city Calpe, Carpe, or
Carteia (for it is written in all these ways), and of the
people Carpetani. Tin's statement will be more clearly
undei i a reference to the articles on the letters
< ', P. and T. In confirmation of this view, Strabo states
that the country in the neighbourhood of Calpe was called
TartessU.
Respecting the difficulty arising from the conjoint men-
tion of Tarshish and Ophir in the book of Chronicles, see
OPHIK.
TA'RSIUS, Storr's name for a genus of QUADRUMANA.
Geii'i-K ''/<>t/-acter. — Head rounded; muzzle short;
very large ; posterior limbs very much elongated,
with the tarsus thrice as long as the metatarsus. Tail
long.
Dental formula:— incisor* -; canines. — r; mohus
« 1 •"• 1 U — " O
= 34.
ilple. '/'.//' w'//\ HllHI'HHHIt.
I> ".n ,f, linn. — Dr. Horsfield remarks, that although the
Tarsius from Banca agrees in the essential points with the
other species of this .singular genus which have hitherto
been discovered, it has no intermediate front teeth, and
the exicrior tooth on each side is, compared with the
other species, very minute. Counting (with Desmarest)
one canine tooth on each side, above and beneath, it has,
nays Dr. Horsfield, only five grinders in each jaw.
'The head,' continues Dr. Horsfield, ' in proportion to
the size of the body, is large ; the arch of the forehead
rises highs and the occiput is regularly spheroidal. The
proximity of disposition and excessive size of the <
equally characteristic in this as in other species. The
Teeth of Tarsius, much larger than the nat. size. fF. Cuv.)
Front view of the teeth of Tarsius Bancanus. (Horsf.)
rostrum, or extremity of the face, is short and obtuse ;
the nose is slightly rounded, almost flat above ; and the
nostrils, as usual in this genus, are pierced laterally. The
ears, which from their erect position and their projection
beyond the cranium give a peculiar distinctive character
and appearance to the other species, in our animal are
disposed horizontally, and instead of rising up towards
the crown of the head, incline backwards and extend but
little from its sides ; the lobes, as usual, are very thin,
membranous, semitransparent, thinly beset with delicate
hairs ; several tufts of longer hairs arise from the base,
where the interior membranaceous lobules are discovered,
but in our specimen too much contracted to admit of a
detailed description. The neck is very short, and the an-
terior extremities have the same proportion to the body as
in the other species. The hands are externally covered
with a very soft down ; internally they are naked, and
provided with several rather prominent protuberances,
which, according to the opinion of Mr. Fischer, are calcu-
lated to assist the animal in climbing. The fingers are
deeply divided and very delicate ; those of the hands have
the same proportion, one to the other, as they have in
man ; on the feet they are more lengthened and slender ;
the third finger is longer than the middle finger, and the
thumb is proportionally short. In all the third phalanx is
somewhat thickened, and surrounded by a projecting
orbicular border, which, in the thumb particularly, con-
stitutes a delicate ball, supporting the nail. The nails of
all the fingers of the hand, as well as of the thumb and
the third and fourth finger of the feet, are triangular, and
represent a delicate compressed scale : on the index and
middle finger of the feet they are erect, sharp, compressed,
slightly curved, and not inaptly compared by Mr. Fischer
to the thorns of a rose-bush, constituting one of the esscn-
iiaracters of this genus. The body is handsomely
formed, and, as in the other species, somewhat contracted
towards the pelvis; the lower extremities also have in
general a similar character, but the tarsus has less of the
extravagant length which is common to the other Tarsii.
TAR
70
TAR
The tail has nearly the length of the body and head taken
IUT; it is somewhat thicker :it the base, nearly naked
two-:! ,^th. hut «-o\crcd towards the extre-
mity with a soft down, which form-, near the tip. a very
-.n. The fur is remarkably soli tn the touch : it
ii composed of a thiek and very delicate wool. \vhich en-
velopes the body, head, and extremities, forming a otfi at
an unp«|iial Miriacc, IVom which irregular stra
project : at the root of t lie tail, and at the hands of both
nitics, it terminates abruptly in the form of a ring.
The general colour is brown, inclining to grey ; on the
breast, abdomen, and interior of the extremities it is grey,
inclining to whitish : a rufous tint is sparingly dispelled
over the upper paits, which shows itself most on the head
anil i - the naked parts of the tail near the root
iat)lv darker than the extremity.' {Zoological
•
Locality.— Dr. Horefield obtained this animal in Banca,
near Jeboos, one of the mining distii,-(s. where, he says.
it inhabits the extensive forests in the vicinity.
Tirtiii* llaneannt. (Ifonf.)
M. F. Cuvier remarks that the dentition of the T
.approximates the animal move to the (inli-<iinthi'ci. and
even to the bats, than to the (Jitndrtiinuiin. '11
this genus are well represented in the excellent Osteo-
'. M de lilaiiuille.
TARSI'S, now TKKSOOS. a town on the Cydmi-.
ated in Itshili, a divi-imi of Caraman. and formerly
the chief tonnsol 'din ia. h is about twch e miles distant
liom the sea, and is n .11' K. long. The
.mis about its on-. i. us. It has H, ,
Tarshish ol Sciipture, but neither Koebait.
•iiintcnalices this
conjecture.
wa* founded by Sardanapalus SIT the inscription nn the
toml) of that in- '7-. n!. Ca-aub. . Ainiuia-
.. /V/I//IM/.. c. \li., assert
that P •';• T l.iiean. iii. 'J'J'i . and the
name
< lancifnl
se« Slcphanu-, I!)/.. Sti ,t it was i\ setlle-
niade by those who accompanied Tnpt.
»l In |.. 7 •• ib. . The first
historical notice of Ti Ins is in Xcnophon.
it and flourishing city
t- taken and plundered by the younger '
iflerward* com-; ,is. kinir of
\\elcarn Uui in. i . that Alexander the. Grwt
arrived at Tarsus just in time to save it iVom being burnt
by tin inhabitant* joined tin-
party of Julius Casar, in honour of whom they took the
name Juliopplis ; they were in y pu-
nishi d by Caani
who niadi e city. (D :. fol.,
."Veil the favour ol
tutor Athenodorus. a Stoic, was a native of this
place, anil , .ntry-
nn'ii liom all laxatioi;. i.I.ueian. M ..i;ii.n.
Athe .ininir to hi> natue iilace in his
old ate. e\|ielled a troublesome faction, at tfie head of
which wa.s Hoi-thus, an unprincipled dema:.''igiic. and re-
modelled tin- constitution.
>Ollle cliriou;, details.. Hi \va- -iu -i-i cdi -a in lux L'oM-ni-
ment 1>\ NI--IHI. an Ai-ademician.
Tanu* continued to flourish under the < mdcr
Whom it Jissnmed th. liino-
diana, Antoninopolis.
drinopolis, and finally, in the tune of Valerian. Hail
•.ma, Antoniniiina. • Eekhel, /' 111.. • Tar-
au».') The Tni> irdinir to Strain), excelled in
quickness of repartee and e\ery kind of ready wit : and
their schools of philosophy were not than
those of Athens and Alexandria. The chief ainons; the
were the two Athenodon : among the
i-ians. Nestor. Atheiueu.- \., 'Jl.'i. id. I'a-anl.
an Kpicurcan. who w:is tynn
tune. The coins of this city inl'onn -.
(.'ilieia and the adjacent provinces. The MI-.I nptiona
KOIMiv Kl \IKI \i'. on a ii :nple: KdlSdi
'll'lt.'N KIIM'XI1.' i -0111111011 to the
three provinei > of Isaiina. ('ana. and l.yeaonia. are to be
found in Muinnet. ]<ITII--I/ <!'•« McJui/lrx, iii. That <•
a nu-ti(i|iolis appears from an inscription on a com, MH-
TI'OIIOAEUS T1XH. and from the testimony of Strabo;
and Appian's statement that it was a lice city i> eontirmed
by the title K.\ nti!-:i- A. St. Paul wa- a native ot this place.
(Acts, xvi. 37; and xxii. iV2s. Other interesting
and inscriptions occur on the coins of Tarsus.
• -ins there is iiKIIIII'KI A OA1MIIIV KIII-
NEIK1A, rceording his \n • er in
Ciliria. .lupitii Xii ephorus, Apollo, Hercule> engaged in
of his labours. 1'. mrafl H nh I1
t\]ie«. and continn the testimony of Dion » 'hrys.
<Ji'tit..'.M. 'JO', uhu mentions these among the chief u
of the place.
The figure of Triptolemus. the reputed founder.
occurs; and the name BOHtxn. referring perhaps to the
demagogue of that name. The imperial series
. and contains some siher coins, a proof
of the great wealth and importance of Tarsus. In the
S\ ue -demusof Hieroeles. T. in the I'ruMiicia
( 'iliciir Hiima, and stvled Metropolis; ( 'oiistantiiie 1'or-
phjrogennetus lib. ii.. Them. 13) places it in the Theme
neeia. and adds, that it was an important outpost for
al>s. It had been seized by them during the early
times of their empire, and had : ly fort i tied |i\
Harun al Kashid, wh ';d siicecs-or Al Mainun,
was buried there. A.I). KU. It was rci-o\crcd by Nirepho-
rus Phocas. the MUCC--UI of < 'nnstantine I'oijih):
Leo Diacoii.. iv.3
llaukal. an Oriental geogiapher, who wrote in the tenth
centurv. thus desciifies it : • I
town, with a double wall of stone. The inha:
valiant men. hoi-semen, and fond of warlike achicxei.
It K a strong and pleasant jilaee. From it to the 1"
nf Uoum an- many hills ami mrnintains of difficult ,T-
•i\ that inTarsinis there are above a thousand h
men : and in all the chief cities of I-
:iinan. and 1'ais. and Khiuistan. and '
ami Kgvpt. there are inns, or public
the peo'ple of this town.'
-wards retaken by ti but it v,a>
I limn them In the ' under the command
<il Tancred, the nephew of Moemond. wl, i hi.s
coiupie I to Baldwin, afterwards count uf Kdessa. (.Gmbert
de Nugent, lli.\tniri- iii' Iii l'i in. Ill's:
(iui/ir ',il. ,i I'llixl. ii iv. i \Villiamol
• at this time as a i ..icia,
vv'ith i a |M>pulation - and
Anne :> oppressed \>\ d'Aix
il w;us pyjiulous, and well fortified. In the
TAR
71
TAR
twelfth 'century Benjamin of Tudela speaks of it as the
limit of the Greek empire (i. 58, Asher's translat.) ; and in
the thirteenth, during the caliphate of Mostazem, the Arabs
attempted to recover Tarsus, but failed. (Abulpharagius,
p. ICO, ed. Poeocke, Oxon., 1673.) It was finally taken
by Mohammed II., in 1458. (Von Hammer's Geschichte
f)s>na>iischen Retches, ii. 35.)
Very few remains of the antient city of Tarsus exist : at
the north-west end of the antient town is part of an old
fateway, and near it a very large mound, apparently arti-
cial, with a flat top, from which is an extensive view
of the adjacent plain : on an eminence to the south-west
are the ruins of a spacious circular edifice, probably the
tryinnasium. Lucas, who visited it in 1704, only noticed
one inscription, which he gives (i. 271-2, Amster., 1714).
For the probable situation of the tomb of Julian, see
Rennel, Western Asia, 88, &c. On a rock three or four
,cs from Tarsus is a fortress, called the Castle of
Giants. Kazalu, the port of Tarsus, is now about twelve
distant, iind is closed up by a sand-bar. (Beaufort's
i nf f':i/-'">mni(i, '^76.) The population of Tarsus is
about 6000, chiefly Greeks and Armenian Christians,
governed by a Moosellim : its site is unhealthy. For
further information, see Michaud and Poujoulat's Corre-
snoiiikiirr- d'Orii-nt, vii., 146.
TARTA'GLIA, NICHOLAS, a learned Italian mathe-
matician, who was born at Brescia about the beginning of
the sixteenth century. When he was six years of a<:e his
father, who followed the humble occupation of a nK-scn-
•>r carrier, died, leaving him in indigent circumstances,
and without education. Even his family name is unknown,
and that which he bore (designating one who stammers)
.'iven him in derision by his young companions in
queiice of an impediment in his speech arising from
a wound which he received on his lips from a soldier,
when the French army under Gaston de Foix relieved
a in 1512.
No account has been transmitted of the means by which
Tartairlia obtained a knowledge of the rudiments of science,
and it is probable that he owed but little to a preceptor.
His oun i aided only by a mind endowed with
the power of readily comprehending the processes of ma-
thematical investigation, enabled him at. length to attain
the highest rank among the geometers of his time. Having
i'1'iil years as a teacher at Verona and Vicenza,
he was appointed professor of mathematics at Brescia, and
in 15,'U he removed to Venice, where he held the like
pn.->t till his death, which took place in 1557.
Tartaglia wrote on military engineering and on natural
philosophy, but it is on his talents as an algebraist that his
fame principally rests. In that age it was the custom for
mathematicians to send difficult propositions to each other
for solution, as trials of skill ; and in the work entitled
'Quesiti ed Invention! Diverse,' which Tartaglia published
in 1546, there are contained some interesting accounts of
the circumstances connected with the algebraic questions
which he had received and answered. Among these are
his investigations relating to equations of the third degree;
and the solutions of two eases, in which both the second
'hird powers of (lie unknown quantity are involved,
arc shown to have been discovered in 1530, on the oeca-
if ;; iiuestion proposed by a person who kept a school
at Brescia: Tartaglia states also that, in the year 1533, he
! out the solutions of two equations, in which the first
and third powers of the unknown quantity enter without
the second, while preparing himself for a public contest
with Aiitonia Maria 1'iore, who then resided at Venice,
liallenged him to a competition, in which
Ive a-, many as he could of thirty questions
: by the other. It is added that larttiglia,
iswered all those of his opponent without
•lution from the hitter in return.
:in, who had been informed of the disco-
ia, applied to the latter for the solution of
:i (mentions which he proposed, in the hope of ob-
„' from him a knowledge of the processes which he
employed iii obtaining the roots of equations of the kind
H'ntioned. The application was made at first through
:•! afterwards by letter; but Tartaglia, who,
MI of his secret, enjoyed great advantages
•iie other mathematicians of the time in resolving the
MIS which wtre proposed to him, declined \\-
any communication by which his method might become
publicly known. Though disappointed in these attempts,
Cardan soon afterwards succeeded, by a promise of intro-
ducing him to an Italian nobleman, who had the reputa-
tion of being a great patron of learned men, in inducing
Tartaglia to make a visit to himself at Milan : the latter,
while there, yielded to the entreaties of his host, and hav-
ing exacted a promise of inviolable secrecy, gave him a
key to the rule which he had discovered. Cardan imme-
diately found himself embarrassed with what is called the
irreducible case, in which the expression jQa— ™P8 [IR-
REDUCIBLE CASE], entering into the value of the unknown
quantity under the sign of the square root, is negative,
and he applied to Tartaglia on the subject : the latter
however declined giving a direct answer to his inquiry,
being himself unable to conquer the difficulty ; in fact the
solution of the equation in this case is even now usually
obtained by the aid of trigonometrical functions.
In the work of Tartaglia above mentioned there is an
account given of a dialogue which took place in 1541 be-
tween himself and a Mr. Richard Wentworth, who then
resided at Venice, and to whom it appears that Tartaglia
had given lessons in mathematics. On being pressed by
that gentleman to give him the rules for the solution of
equations containing the second and third powers of the
unknown quantity, the Italian mathematician declined
doing so, on the plea that he was about to compose a work
on arithmetic and algebra, in which the rules, he said,
were to appear.
In 1 545 Cardan published his work entitled 'ArsMagna,'
and, in direct violation of his solemn promise, gave in it the
rule for the solution of the cubic equation containing the
first and third powers of the unknown quantity. He does
not assert that he is the discoverer of the rule, but observes
that it was first found out about 30 years previously by
Scipio Ferreus, of Bologna; and adds that it had since
that time been independently discovered by Tartaglia. The
publication of this work produced, as might be expected,
the most animated remonstrances from the man who thus
lelt'himself seriously injured and aggrieved : Tartaglia how-
ever revenged himself in no other way than by sending
challenges to Cardan and his disciple Lewis Ferrari, to hold
with him a disputation on mathematical subjects, by which
the public might be judges of their several merits. The
discussion actuallytook place in 1549,in the church of Santa
Maria, in Milan, bet ween Tartaglia and Ferrari; but during
the sitting, on the former pointing out an error which had
been committed by Cardan in the solution of a problem,
the people, who appear to have taken the side of their
townsman, excited a tumult, and the assembly broke up
without coming to a decision. Tartaglia has received no
more justice from posterity than he experienced from his
cotemporarles, and the formula for the value of the un-
known quantity in such equations is still designated Car-
dan's rule. It must be admitted however that Cardan was
the first who published its demonstration.
The works of Tartaglia, all of which were published at
Venice, are — 'Nuova Scienza ; eioe Invenzione nuovamente
trovata, utile per ciascuno speculative Matematico Bom-
bardiero," &c., 1537 : this is a treatise on the theory and
practice of gunnery, and it was translated into English in
1588. ' Eucfide, difigentemente rassettato,' &c., 1543 : this
is said to be the first Italian translation of Euclid. 'Archi-
medes Opera emendata,' &c., 1543. 'Quesiti ed Invcnzioni
Diverse,' 1550 : this is the work above mentioned, and it is
dedicated to Henry VIII. of England: it contains the an-
swers to questions which had been proposed to Tartaglia
concerning mechanics and hydrostatics; and to one of the
books there is a supplement concerning the art of fortify-
ing places. ' La Travagliata Invenzione, ossia, Regola per
sollevare ogni atfondata Nave,' &c.. 1551: 'Ragionamenti
-o])i:i la Travagliata Invenzione,' 1551; 'General Trattato
lie' Numcri e Misure,' 1556-1560 ; 'Trattato di Aritmetica,'
155(i: •Dcseri/.ione dell' Artih'ziosa Macchina fatta per ca-
varc il Galeone,' 1560 ; ' Archimedis de Insidentibns Aqua
Lihri duo,' 1565; '.Tordani Opusculum de Ponderositate,'
1565. A collection of his principal works was published
in 1606.
TARTAN.
[\VKAVINO.]
TARTAR. [POTASSIUM.]
TARTAR1C ACID. This acid was first obtained in a
separate state by Scheele ; it exists in several vegetable
TAR 7
product*, but principally in bi-Urtrate of potash, which
u usually called cream <>J tortur, a salt which is deposited
from wine.
The tartaric acid of this salt is obtained first by convert-
ing the excess of it. one half of it, into tart rate of lime by
the additi. and the other hall into the same salt
by means of chloride of calcium ; the resulting tartratc of
lime ost-d by sulphuric acid, by which sulphate
oflin: !, and the solution of tartaric acid thus
obtained by single elective affinity and decomposition
is evaporated, and crystals of the acid are deposited on
cooling.
The properties of tartaric acid are, that it is coloi,
inodorous, and very sour to the taste ; it occurs in crystals
of a considerable size, the primary form of which is an
oblique rhombic prism ; it suffers no change by exposure
to the air: water at CO" dissolves about one fifth of its
weight, and at 212° twice its weight: the solution acts
stronglv on vegetable blue colours, turning them red. and
it becomes mouldy and decomposes when long kept ;
alcohol dissolves it", but more sparingly than water. The
•Is, when heated a little above "the boiling-point of
. melt into a liquid, which boils at 2TX)°, leaving on
cooling a semi-transparent mass, which is rather deliques-
cent : it' it be more strongly heated in a retort, tartaiic acid
is decomposed, and converted into pyrotartaric acid, ac-
companied with some other products. When very strongly
heated in the air, a coaly mass is procured, which is even-
tually dissipated. Sulphuric acid acts upon and decom-
poses taitaric acid, with the production of acetic acid ; by
means of nitric acid it also suffers decomposition, and a
portion of its carbon, by acquiring oxygen from the de-
composed nitric acid, is converted into oxalic acid.
Solution of tartaric acid acts with facility upon those
metals which decompose water, as iron and zinc ; it com-
bines readily with alkalis, earths, and metallic oxides ; and
these salts are called Inrlniti-x. For an account of the
more important of these we refer to the respective bases.
Tartaric acid has a remarkable disposition to form double
. one of the most distinct and remarkable of which
is the tartrate of potash and soda, which has long been
employed in medicine under the name of Rochelle Salts.
Tartaric acid free from water, in which state it may be
obtained by exposure to a heat of 302° in an oil-bath for
some time, consists of
Two equivalents of hydrogen 2 or 3-
Four equivalents of carbon . 24 „ 3(i-4
Five equivalents of oxygen . -40 „ 60-6
Equivalent . . (JO 100'
It is insoluble in cold water.
In the crystallized state it consists of —
One equivalent of anhydrous acid 66 or 88
One equivalent of water . 0 „ 12
Equivalent . . . 75 100
By the action of heat, so as partially to decompose it,
tartaiic acid is converted into tartrelic acid and tartralic
acid, which are not of sufficient importance to require
description.
Tartaric acid is largely employed as a discharge in
Calico-printing, and for making what arc called sodaic
powders, which are extemporaneous imitations of soda-
TARTAKIc .VII) i- entirely confined to the vegetable
kingdom, and is found free or uncombined in tamarinds, in
the unripe gi ape, and hi pepper; and in combination in
tamarinds, ripe | mulberries, squill. dan-
delion, chenopodrum vulvaria, hilarious species of pines,
and as tartrate of lime in the fruit of the Khus typhina.
For medical piirpo.es it should be remarkably pure, when
it is without odour, but makes a poweifiil acid imoression
on the organs of taste. In small doses, properly diluted, it
acts as a refrigerant, and is of much value in fever
tieularly mucous, and in biliary remittents It . \. ,tes the
appetite of persons in whom the stomach is in a healthy
condition: and those who, by long indulgence in stimu-
lating food and drinks, experience loss of appetite, painful
•lipation. with a yellow and altered coun-
•e, and diminished muscular power, find in tartaric
acid a remedy of singular power. Vor this state of system
a few crystals should be dissolved in two small tumblris.
and drank in the morning fasting, an hour into \ eni
T A K
tween the tumblers. A few grains arc sufficient for each
tumbler, as when made too strong it . Mtion, fol-
lowed by purgin: .nail) it disturbs the nervous
system in a distressing way, so that patients refuse to
continue its use. This plan has in many in-tanc.
claimed individuals addicted to habitual it n, to
which they have Heve a painful feeling of
sinking and craving of the stomach, which is
removed by the acid draught. This is also useful after an
attack of delirium tr<
Tartaric acid enters the circulation, and diffuses itself
through the whole body, and may be rc< n the
mine, ircncrally in combination, often with lime. Tar
acid i- much used to decompose alkaline > •, and
form effervescing draught*, the employment of which re-
quires caution. [Avi.vi i
TARTARS, ,„. more correctly. TATARS Khazar
Kiptshak . The name Tatars once designated a great
number of different nations in Middle Asia and F.astcrn
Kurope. which, accoiding to ^ciicial opinion, were of one
Cpnunon origin. Careful research however into their his-
tory, language, and ethnographical relations, has shown
that tl' i Tatars never designated any particular
race, although it was at li
among which there was no difference of race. It has how-
ever gradually become a collective name, under which arv
comprehended different nations of Mongol, Turkish, and
even Finnish origin. The nuiner. and the iii'
cable confusion in the earlier historians who have written
on this subject can only In ip by going back to
the historical origin of ihe name ol'T,
As earlv as the beginning of the ninth century, the
Chinese knew a people called Tata, who lived to tb-
and south-east of the lake of Baikal, towaids the upper
part of the river Amur. They were also called Tatuol,
the Chinese pronunciation of Tatar, and tin (ably
identical with theTaidjod of the Mongol historian Si'inang-
Sctscii. In the middle of the tenth century the Tata i-
div ided into three tribes, the White, the Wild, and the Black
or Water Tatars, the last of which lived about the sources
of the Amur, and were subject to the White. until In-
. the father of Genghis Khan, a prince of the
Water Tatars, subdued the White Tatars, in the middle of
the twelfth century. He then united the Wild and all the
other tribes of his race; and his son Genghis Khan irave to
these warlike nations, the general name of which seems to
have been Hcdc. the name of Kokc-Mongols, that is, the
Blue Bold, c,r the Celestial Mongols. A j articular cir-
cumstance made the change of their name ainecablc to
The word Tatar signifies in tl.
language 'a tributary people," and. in consequence, could
not be agreeable to nations which had not only <
to be tributary, but boasted of the noble title of M..
Sanani: Sctscn. llixtunj "f tlx1 Ki\/i'rn .l/"//ir"A. cd. .!. .1.
Schmidt, p. "I. and notes 21 anil 22: Pa'
lirii-litfii iihi-r <//<• M
ti-n. \ol. ii., p. 42!t : Schmidt, Forschungtn i<;
i/i',- I ",',!!; , p. 59.)
When Genghis Khan sent his son Tushi Khan to conquer
the west, all the Turkish nations which were scattered over
Middle A-ia. from the sources of tlie Amur to the Caspian.
were subjugated, and thus becamcTatars, that is. tributary
subjects of the Mongol empire. Fasten! Kurope. inha-
bited by other Tutk- and numerous nations of the Finnish
laee. shared their fate; the tributary inhabitants were
1 to tight under a Mongol chief: and ihe :
of Mongols ami Tatars were not only confounded, but the
latter soon gained the ascendency, because it designated
the irreat majority of Mongol subjects. In 1223. when
the Mongols made their first invasion of Russia, they were
>lly called Tatars; and when Hatn. the iriandsoii of
Genghis Khan, after having laid wa-te Russia and Poland,
appeared on the frontier of Germany, the emperor I
lie II. summoned the princes to rise against the T
The battle of Wahlstatt, or I.icgnilz. was foiidit on the
itth of April, 12-41. in which the Mongols, although they
defeated a feeble arm) of Poles and Geiniaiis. were so
struck with Ihe heroic resistance of the Teutonic knights,
that they did not advance i This latt lew
sometime < ailed the Tatar Battle : seven
-ian nobles who survived that day had and have still Tatar-
,11 their armorial 1 • ' iman
kniirht. whose descendants aie still living, had his name
TAR
73
TAR
changed in commemoration of the day ; but his new name
•was not Mongol, but Tader. A further proof of the great
numerical preponderance of the tributary nations over the
true Mongols is, that an army of 600,000 men, with which
Batu occupied Russia and the Ural country, contained
only 160,000 Mongols ; while 500,000 belonged to the
subdued Turkish, Finnish, and Slavonic nations. (Ham-
mer, Geschichte der Gold/ten Horde in Kiptshak, p. 114,
115, 141 ; Karamsin, iii., p. 275.)
These well-known facts, which might easily be aug-
mented, are sufficient to prove that the name of Tatars
•was first known in Europe in its etymological signification ;
that it got a political signification, and was applied to
nations which were not of Mongol origin ; and that it had
lost all precise ethnographical signification even before it
reached the West. Tatars became a general name for any
nomadic and barbarous hordes which invaded Europe
from Western Asia, and thus it appears why in Sweden
the gipsies were once known under the name of Tattars, and
why in the duchy of Holstein they are still called either
by the name of Zikhainers or by that of Tatars. (Benzelius,
Epitome Commentariurum Moysis Armeni, Stockholm,
1723, 4to., p. 89.)
The incorrect orthography Tartars occurs as early as the
appearance of the Mongols in Europe, and was probably
introduced by superstitious monks and writers, who, struck
with the seeming analogy between Tatar and Tartarus, be-
lieved them to have come from the infernal regions. This
at least is more probable than the opinion that the name
Tartars was introduced by Saint Louis, who, in a letter to
his queen Blanche, about the approaching danger of the
Tatars, speaks of them in the following terms:—' This di-
vine consolation will always exalt our souls, that in the
present danger of the Tartars either we shall push them
back into the Tartarus whence they are come, or they will
bring us all into heaven.' (Klaproth, Asia Polyglutta,
p. 202.) These words rather prove that in King Louis's
time the name and its origin were known.
If the empire of Genghis Khan had lasted longer, the
name of Mongols would certainly have prevailed over that
of the tributary nations, in the same way as that of the
Franks supplanted the names of the Gauls, the Romans,
the Goths, and the Burgundians. But the name of Mongols
disappeared in Europe, and was no longer heard of except
in the remote deserts of eastern Asia. The old name of Tatars
however lasted as a designation of the different inhabitants
of the empire of Kiptshak, which was founded by the de-
scendants of Genghis Khan on the frontiers of Asia and
Europe. There the princes only and part of the nobles
were Mongols, and they were sometimes called so by those
foreigners who were able to perceive the ethnographical
differences among the inhabitants of Kiptshak (Treaties
between Venice and the Golden Horde, cited below), but
the remaining population was composed of Turkish and
Finnish tribes, of which the former were the more numerous.
The Russians, who were under the dominion of the Mongols
for above two centuries, knew the Finnish tribes by the name
of Tshudes, and their application of the name of Tatars ex-
clusively to the Turks of Kiptshak gave rise to the present
signification of the name. The other nations of Europe
were less able to make such distinctions. Thus, for in-
stance, Olearius, the secretary to the duke of Holstein's
embassy to Persia, says, in his ' Travels,' that Moruma
(Murom on the Oka) was ' the first town of Tartary on the
\\ay from Moscow, and that at Wasiligrod, at the entrance
of the Sura into the Wolga, began the country of those
Tatars who are called Tsheremisses.' But Murom is situ-
ated just at the entrance of the country of the Mordwins,
one of the oldest Finnish tribes known to history, and the
Tslicii'nii?si's are likewise of Finnish origin. Nevertheless
Olearius calls them Tatars. He observes however that
their language had a particular character, and resembled
neither the Turkish nor the Tatar language, an observation
which proves that Tatar has here two meanings : it first
.'nates the inhabitants of the conquered territory of
Kiptshak (Tartary), and then in a narrower sense the
Turkish inhabitants of that country.
At present the name of Tata* is still given to the Turkish
inhabitants of southern and eastern Russia, and as their
origin is well known, there is no more reason for dropping
the name for that of Turks, than there is for refusing
the French their name, and calling them Gauls. It
it nevertheless an important fact that the Tatars call
P. C., No. 1407.
themselves Turks, and feel highly offended by being called
Tatars, a name which in their idiom signifies ' robbers.'
This fact refutes the hypothesis of Klaproth, who believes
that the subjects of the Mongol empire adopted the name
of Tatars as a title of honour, on account of its being the
antient name of the chief tribe of the ruling nation.
Klaproth's opinion becomes also entirely untenable if put
in connexion with a fact stated by Sherefeddin and Arab-
shah, who tell us that Timur, who, as a descendant of
Genghis Khan, undoubtedly belonged to the Mongol race,
in a letter to Bayazid, calls himself a Turk, upbraiding
this sultan of the Osmanlis with being a vulgar Turko-
man. Can we believe that the subdued nations should
have distinguished themselves by an ignoble name of
their masters, while these, at the same time, made a boast
of that of their Turkish subjects ! It must be repeated
that the tributary nations were called Tatars by the Mon-
gols and by foreigners, and disliked the name on account
of its meaning ; and that the ethnographical signification
of it was supplanted by the general and glorious name
of Mongols. [TURKS.]
This account of the origin and the gradual diffusion of
the name Tatar is more or less different from those given
by Klaproth, Abel Remusat, and Schmidt, but it is founded
entirely on facts the knowledge of which we owe to these
authors, and especially to Julius von Klaproth. Besides
the above-cited works, the reader may consult Schmidt, in
Hammer, Fundgruben des Orients, vol. vi., heft 3 ; Klap-
roth, Beleuchtung und Widerlegung der Forschungen
des Herrn Schmidt; Abel Remusat, Recherches sur les
Langues Tartares ; Abulghasi Bayadurkhan, Histoire Ge-
ncalogique des Tartars, Leyden, 1726, 8vo. ; Ahmtdis
Arabsiadae, Vita et Res gestae Timuri, ed. Manger, ii.,
cap. 19 ; Sherefeddin Ali, Hist, de Timour Bey, trad, par
Petis de la C'roix, 1. v., c. 14.)
The above-mentioned Turkish nations were known in
history long before they were called Tatars. Part of them
founded the empire of Khazaria, between the Dniepr and
the YaTk.
The Khazars, the Ghysser or Ghazar of Moses of Kho-
rene, inhabited in the time of this Armenian author, in the
fifth century A.D., the country north of the Caspian Sea ;
and in the sixth century they penetrated into the coun-
tries north of the Kuban and the Black Sea, where they
founded a powerful empire. Among the Byzantine his-
torians, Theophanes is the first who mentions them. As
early as A.D. 625 they allied themselves with the emperor
Heraclius, and in conjunction with him attacked Anushir-
w an, the king of Persia, and from that time were in con-
tinual political intercourse with the Byzantine emperors,
who were always anxious to maintain peaceful relations
with this people. Contemporary historians state that the
Khazars consisted of two principal races : one of them
was little, ugly, with black hair, and probably of Finnish
origin ; the other was tall and handsome, and spoke
a Turkish dialect : many other races however were mixed
up with them, so that Leo Diaconus justly calls them a
' colluvies gentium."
(Ouseley, Oriental Geography ofEbn Haukal, pp. 185-
190 ; Frahn, Veteres Memories Chazarorum ex Ibn Tusz-
lano, #c. ; Memoires de VAcadbnie de St. Petersbourg,
vol. viii. ; Theophanes, iii. 28 ; vi. 9.)
Their kings were called Chagan, or more correctly Kha-
ghan, which was the name of the old Mongol kings a thou-
sand years before the appearance of the Khazars. In the
time of the emperor Constantinus Porphyrogenitus the Kha-
zarian empire extended in the south to the Black Sea, and
contained the northern part of the Crimea, which preserved
the name of Khazaria until the thirteenth century, and the
island of Taman, then inhabited by Goths ; on the Caucasian
isthmus it was separated from the Alans by the present river
of Manytsh. The western coastof the Caspian Sea belonged
to it as far as Derbent in the present country of Daghestan,
where they were contiguous to the Arabs. The eastern
boundaries of it were probably the river of Yai'k or Ural.
On the north it extended even beyond Kasan, and on the
west it was bounded by the Dniepr. In the eighth cen-
tury the Khazars made the Russians of Kiew for some time
tributary, as well as the Sewerians, the Radiwitshcs, the
Viatitshes, and other Slavonic nations. Constantinus Por-
phyrogenitus recommends his son to maintain an alliance
with the mighty Khazars, but he severely blames his pre-
I decessor Leo, who had assumed the imperial dignity
VOL. XXIV.-L
TAR
74
T A H
•minst the will of the patriarch, and who had crowned
(us .! • agahst tlir ecclesiastical authority by
marr\ ie Khaghan. ' For,' adds ll.
11 being orthodox Christia
it nil. but impious, heathens; and l.co was
punished for his crime by a carbuncle in 1 which
lie died voting, alter severe sufferings.'* Christianity in-
deed, although some feeble traces of it appear in Kl
as early as 7 Id. was not adopted by the majority of the
Khazars. On the contrary, their kin^s were .lew-.., and
many Jews had founded great families in that country.
Hinvever strange thin circumstance may appear, it is an
undoubted fact. According to Friihn, one of the best
writers on the Kharars, the religion of Moses was pro-
pagated among this people by the Jews, who were ex-
pel led from the Byzantine empire at the end of the eighth
century. Tlie princes, states Ibn Haukal. were obliged to
be Jews, but the nine ministers of the Khaghan might be
Jew-. Christians, Mohammedans, or heathens, a fact from
which we must conclude that there was great toleration in
Khazaria. In the subsequent centuries we meet with
some Christian princes, such as Georges Tzuda, in 1016,
hut the Khaghan Cosro (Khosrew'i, who reigned about
HID. was a .lew who had been converted to the religion
of Moses by the rabbi Isaak Sangarus, as is stated by the
rabbi Jehudah, in his work cited below, which is dedicated
to that king.
(Ibn Haukal; Massudi, in Silvestre de Sacy, C/irrst.
Arabe: Herhelot . KbtiotMqHt Orifiitud', sub voce 'Khozar ;'
Frahn; Lehrberg, L'ntertuchungtn xur iilteren (ii-xrliidilr
/I'.vxv/.iWv; Karamsin and Bulgarin, Hist, of Russia ;
Miiller, Her Ugrische Volhx\t<nnin : Joh. Buxtorfius, fll.,
Lihfr Cosri, Basileae, HKXJ, 4to. This last book was ori-
ginally written in Arabic, by Jehudah Levita, and was
translated into Hebrew by Jehudah Abn Tybbon, both
Spanish rabbis.)
The Khazars were very different from those barbarous
Mongol tribes which afterwards invaded Europe. Although
many of them led a nomadic life, they were generally
settled in villages and towns, which they embellished with
magnificent buildings erected by Arabian and Byzantine
architects, and the ruins of which still attest their former
splendour. Ignorant historians have asserted that neither
navigation nor commerce flourished among them, but
there are numerous facts which prove the contrary. In
the first place, the number of Jews and the toleration that
existed in Khazaiia may be considered as certain indica-
tions of the flourishing state of its commerce. The Khazars
were renowned for their fine carpets, which were princi-
pally manufactured in their capital. Itel, the present
Astrakhan, which was also called Bilindsher and Nihije,
Semend, with the surname of Serai' Banu.or'the palace of
the lady,' now Tarku, Old Kasan, and Sarkel, a fortress on
the Don, were also commercial towns. Honey, skins,
leather, furs, fish, salt, copper of the Ural, were tne goods
they exchanged in the southern countries for silk, wines,
spices, jewellery, which they carried to the inhabitants of
the north. Gold and silver vessels, which were fabricated
in India in antient times, have been found in our own days at
Perm on the Kama, in the north-eastern corner of Russia.
The Wolga with its tributary rivers and the Dwinawere the
commercial roads by which they communicated with the
kingdom of Perm, the Hiannia of the old Scandinavian
and Anglo-Saxon writers, and with the Norwegians, who,
after having doubled North Cape, anchored in the mouth
of the Dwina. This route ceased to be used when the
Tatars of Kiptshak stopped all intercourse across eastern
a, and was not re-opened before the end of the
•ith century, when Jenkinson, an Englishman, dis-
ed it again. Another road followed the Dniepr as
far as Orkha, and, reaching the Duna in the west and the
Wolkhow in the north, brought them into communication
with the Baltic, and with Julin, the famous city of the
Wcndes. The Arabs took a considerable part in this
commerce, and their presence in these northern regions is
• d not only by their geographers, such as Ibn Koszlan,
Massudi, Shemseddin, and Yakut, but also by nun.
Kufic coins which have been found in Scandinavia, and in
• CoulMthiiu confound* two of hU prnitecnon. Tht eratxror Kl«\ i>n
CflMUollDiii, • KTr.i hrratlc. martini Im», th* <Uu|bUr of th. Kliwlun.
•ml ili.il In TO ; Ilirir too PUriut L*<>, lurnamml Chuunu, on account of lit<
m.ilrtn.l origin. "••• • ulll rrmfr hnrtle. and riml in 7«0. of carhiini-l*. in
U> f ,co in kW ihirtMh )*u. (Buniluriui. Cum in mp. 13, Do Admix. Imp. ;
Dm Ouf*. U<U. Bftnt. P. 1. FamUiat a, Slrmmaa, p. 124-1S6.1
the vast country ! lie and the Black and the
.» scan. In short, in the period fr Hie seventh to
the eleventh century, the Khn/nrs and the Arabs Ml
certain commercial ionics in Russia, the nati.
tages of which were HO nh\ ions, that the emperor < 'oiistan-
tinu.- I'orphyrogeiiitus, overlooking entirely the trae
I ween the upper part of the Duicpr Uld the sources of
the l.ovat, believed that the Ri
t Novgorod on the Wolkhow, sailed with theii
directly to Kievv on the l)nie]ir. i Itc .li/rii. Inn
The present canal system of Russia, which i>
regarded as the realization of an idea nf I'eter the '
and field-marshal Miinnieh. is founded on thai
commercial intercourse winch had been carried into .
by the Khazars a thousand
The power of the Kha/iirs in Europe vva« broken hv the
us in 1(110. who made their Khagha- [Vula
a prisoner: but in Asia it continued for tw.>
longer, until it gradually sank under the n
of the Pecl^ . the Kun
the Yasses, and their very name had disnppe:i,
in the beginning of the thirteenth century, eastern K
.erwhelmed by the greatest of all coniru.
ghis Khan. (GoiuteBtimn I'orphyrogcniti'-
Inuiiln Imperio; Nestor: Frahn": Lchrherg :
I'rtr>i/»iHttitifi>', >ol. iii., p. -i(i; .l/i-
ddnie de Si. I •«•, vol. i., p. ">'J7: vol. ii.,
p. 2!t7: vol. hi., p. 73; vol. viii., p. 577: Hiillman-
xrhirh If ilex Byzantinitcken II uul"/< ; Mo-
IK/II/' till (,'nl/r, .
of Perm, in Herman- • -he Annul. •'!("/
the Commerce of Rtutia, in Storch, '
schen Retches, vol. iv. : Krestinin, (ifsrhirhtf il"r -
Archangel; Lelewel, Numismatique, sect. ' Poland ;' Han-
way, Hittoriful Art-mint uf tlir ltrili.\!i Tr<ule nrrr the
Caspian Sea; Hakluyt, Navigation, with regard to Jen-
kinson and Chancellor.)
Tatar* of tln> Golden Horde, or of Kiptxhak. — While
Genghis Khan was earn ing his arms into India and China,
Batu, his grandson, invaded the west as far as the frontiers
of Germany, commcrcd the easternmost part 0
which was inhabited by Slavonic, Turkish, and Finnish
nations, and compelled the princes of Russia to become
his vassals. One of Genghis Khan's last acts l'^!7
tu bestow upon Batu the dignity of a Khan or
the western conquests, which formed one of th.
afterwards five, uluses, or under-kingdoms. into which the
Mongol empire was divided. The new viceroy cho-
his \ast dominions the name of Kaptshak, more eoirci-tly
Kiptshak, or 'the hollow tree,' winch was the name of a
warlike Turkish people who lived in the flat country be-
tween the Wolga and the Don, the name of \\hiei
Deshti Kipt.shak. or 'the steppe of the hollow tree.' The
narrower fignilication of this name, which still :
a district near the mouth of the Terek, must therefo
be confounded with its larger meaning as that of an em-
pire the frontiers of which varied according to th
success of its inhabitants. A second name of I!
kingdom was that of the Golden Horde, or rather, of the
(ioldcn Camp, ordn, the camp, having been confo!
with arila, the horde. In his golden tent, which w
Sera'i on the Akhtuha, a branch of the lower part of
the Wolga. Hat ii 1C Russian p-inccs who vv civ his
vassals; Saython. Kingof Armenia ; and Piano Carpini and
Rnvshroek Rul>rii|iiis . the ambassadors of Saint. 1.
• 'f France, who, while fighting against the Moham-
medans in Egypt a^ enemies ol'Cluist. courted the 1.:
ship of heathen Tatars as useful in his seheii'
. iy. Batn founded the town of <• . his
capital ; Serai', called aftcrwaids Haghji-SeiaT. i
.1 ; and New Kasan at a short distance from Old
lie died in 1255.
After the short reign of Sertak and Ulaghji.
and the youngest .sons of l!atu, the thrui ijiied
by their paternal uncle Berke, who seized ' uicnt
in spite of the right of the second and the thiid sons of
liis late brother. Berke was the first khan of Kiptshak
who was converted to the Mohammedan religion, and he
showed himself SO zealous that he ordered all
be put to death who refused to follow the Koran. This
happened bcfoic 1J.V, and thus the Islum took root on
the bank- of the Wolga and in the .snowy deserts of Sibe-
ria. In 1200 Berke scut NoghaV, his greatest captain,
TAR
75
TAR
against Hulaim, the Mongol governor of Persia, who
aimed at independence, but was defeated on the 19th ol
January, 12G3, in a bloody battle on the banks of the
Terek, and had a considerable part of his army drowned in
retreating across the frozen river. It was in the same year
that Marco Polo came to the Golden Camp, where he
stayed for a whole year. Berke, who is generally repre-
sented as a prince of great merit, and whose influence in
Asia Minor was sensibly felt by the Byzantine emperors,
died in 126(3. and was succeeded by Mengku Timur, a
grandson of Batu. This prince ceded to the Genoese
Kaft'a in the Crimea, a town which was then one of the
great markets where the Tatars used to sell the immense
number of prisoners that they made in Russia and Poland,
ns slaves to the southern nations, and especially to the
Sultans of Egypt, who there recruited the body of the
Miunluks. He sent commissioners into all the subject
Russian towns, who sold as slaves all who did not pay the
y poll-tax imposed upon them by the Tatars. This
proceeding caused such great mischief to the com-
i' of Old Novgorod, that the Germans of Liibeck
and other Hanseatic towns, in order to save their stores,
sent ambassadors with rich presents to Mengku Timur,
who reached the Golden Camp in 1269. Mengku Timur
Khan died about 1283. His successors, Tuday Mensjku
and Talabugha, ravaged Hun<raiy and Poland, threatened
my. and kept up diplomatic relations with France.
I Remusat, Memoiren de I'Acad. des Inscript. ct B. L.,
TO). •,
The following khan was Toktay, whose reign is im-
portant in many respects. Under him, paper money, an
old invention, afterward* imitated in Persia, was introduced
into Kiptshak under the name of Jaw, many years before
any such tiling was known in Europe. (J. von Klaproth,
• Vnnry ; Von Hammer, p. 222.) Toktay
owed his elevation to the throne to Noirha'i. above men-
tioned, a powerful under-khan of the southern Turks of
Kiptshak, who belonged to the house of Genghis Khan, and
who was married to Euphrosyna, a natural daughter of the
emperor Michael Palacologus. The power and the in-
fluence of Nogha'i were so great, that he would perhaps
have made himself master of Kiptshak, if jealousy had not
i among his sons and led to a civil war, in which
Tuktay took an active part. After a strasrsrlc of seven
years, Noehai was defeated, and died of u wound in I2.I5,
but he left h;s name to his tribes, who from that time
to the present day have been, and are still known
undi-r the name of Tatars NosihaT.s, or Nogay Tartars.
y Khan, who died in the year 1313, abandoned
the Islam and adored idols and the stare, but he never
(1 himself intolerant to other believers. He was
married to a natural daughter of his ally the emperor
Andionicus, who followed the policy of some other By-
zantine emperors, who gave their legitimate princesses to
ClnUtian princes, while they abandoned their natural
to Turks and Tatars, who did not set much
on the difference between legitimate and illegitimate
children.
I M.ei;, the successor of Toktay, a boy thirteen years of
nge, found the Russian princes disobedient: they delayed
,<• the oath of vassalage until the young khan pe-
remptorily ordered the first of them, Michael, grand-duke
of Moscow, to appear in the Golden Camp. Michael im-
fe!y went, justified himself, and was dismissed with-
out punishment, but IVbcL' .-ei/ed him some years later,
and, after having punished him for some months, or-
dered him to be put to death. This happened (in 1319)
precisely a year after the pope had written a letter to
Usbeg, in which he thanked him fur the kind protection
that lie had granted to his Christian subjects. (Mo-
i, ///A/. '/'• .'., p. 130.) In 1327,
an garrison of Twer having been surprised and
y the Russian inhabitants, who were ex-
t ol' national v l,y their prince
j'-z, Usbeg Khan invaded the coun-
1 the inhabitants, expelled Alexander, and
i'/hn Jaroslawicx, prince of RiHsan, to be exe-
>o and nis two sons were beheaded in
death was preceded or followed by the
.re, amonsr whom was Juri Dani-
l.iki; iif Mo vow. Many common people
ii- fate, ami fur tV.rty years aftc-r this bloody re-
aa never a:ram duturbed in Russia by any
rebellion against the authority of the Tatars. By a treaty of
the 7th August, 1333, the first which was made between the
Tatars and European states, Usbeg granted consideiable
commercial advantages to the Venetians of Azof or Tana.
(The treaty is contained in Hammer, Geschichte des Osma-
nischen Reiches, vol. iii., p. 665.) Usbeg's court was bril-
liant. Although as a Mohammedan he had several wives,
he was far from keeping them in that close confinement
to which the women of the Oriental nations have always
been subjected. Sitting on a silver throne under a golden
canopy, and surrounded by his royal children and the
nobles of his court, the gallant khan rose when one of his
women entered the room, and stepping forwards, took the
hand of the unveiled lady and led her to a seat by
his side. (Hammer.) One of his daughters was mar-
ried to Kusun, sultan of Egypt, a native of Kiptshak.
Usbeg died in 1340, and his descendants became khans of
some Turkish tribes to the east of the Caspian Sea, which
are still known by the name of Usbecks.
One of Usbeg's successors, Berdibeg (1359), murdered
his old father, strangled his twelve brothers, and assumed
the title of ' king of the just, the sublime support of the
world and of religion.' He himself was murdered three
years later, and with his death the house of Batu became
extinct. The reign of all the following khans was short
and bloody. Civil wars shook the empire, and Kiptshak
was divided for some time into several khanats, the most
powerful of which were those of Kasan, of Astrakhan, of the
Crimea, and of the Yai'k, each of which claimed the supre-
macy. At last Mamay was successful in reuniting them
for a short time. He made an alliance with Jaghello, the
Errand-dttke of Lithuania, for the purpose of subjugating
the different Russian princes, who had become less depend-
ent on Kiptshak in proportion as its strength was under-
mined by war and rebellion. Dmitri, the grand-duke of
Moscow, had just assembled his troops, when, on the 8th
of September, 1380, he was attacked in the plain of Kiili-
kow, by 700,000 (?) Tatars and Lithuanians. (Karamsin,
v., p. 31 ; and all the other Russian historians.) The
Tatars were defeated with dreadful slaughter ; 200,000 (?) of
them were left on the field, and Mamay fled to Kaffa in
the Crimea, where he was treacherously murdered. For
the first time during a hundred and forty years, a hope of
national independence consoled the Russians.
Toktamish Khan, the son of Urus Kkan, who was the
founder of the dynasty of the White Horde, avenged the
defeat of Kulikow. In 1382 he took Moscow by storm,
burnt the town, and ravaged Russia. He renewed the
treaties with the Venetians and the Genoese, and Kiptshak
was in a fair way to recover from all its calamities, when
Timur, or Tamerlane, the conqueror of Asia, appeared on
he banks of the YaVk. Toktamish was twice defeated
Dy Timur, and in a third battle on the banks of the Kama,
north of the mouth of the Bielaya, which happened on the
18th of June, 1391, his whole army was slaughtered. The
<han of Kiptshak, however, did not despair : he appeared
n the field with a new army, and advanced to meet Timur.
The encounter took place near the mouth of the Terek, on.
:he 15th of April, 1395; but notwithstanding their heroic
resistance, the Tatars were again defeated, and Timur's
host overwhelmed Russia. Serai and Astrakhan were
destroyed, Moscow was threatened, and saved by the in-
terposition of the Holy Virgin, who appeared on the
walls (26th of August, 1395), and Toktamish fled to
Witold, grand-duke of Lithuania. Meanwhile Timur had
eft Kiptshak, and his beys, unable to maintain themselves
n the hostile country, were driven out in 1399 by some en-
:erprising Tatar chiefs. One of them, Kpstlogh Timur,
became khan of Kasan, and the others maintained them-
selves in the Crimea, on the Yai'k, and at Great Serai', the
ihan of which assumed the name of khan of the Golden
florde, without having much authority over the others.
Encouraged by the divisions among their masters, the
ilussian princes paid their tribute very irregularly, and
ceased to appear in the Golden Camp and to take the oath
of vassalage. In 1450 Haji Ghiray was almost independ-
ent in the Crimea. From 1462 there were constant wars
>etween the khan of Kasan and Ivan Wassiliewicz, grand-
duke of Moscow, who at last conquered the whole khanat,
and took the capital, Kasan, in the autumn of 1468.
During this time, Casimir, king of Poland, defeated the
Southern Tatars, and when the Great Khan of SeraY was
)old enough to send ambassadors to Ivan to claim the
T A rt
76
T A S
tribute which was due, the grand-duke refused it haughtily,
rut i itt' the noses of the ambassadors, and sent them back
in this state to the Golden Camp. He then allied himself
with Mengli, khan of the Crimea, and attacked the
klinn, who was defeated, in USO. at the Oka, and near A*of
on the Don. This was the last war between Russia and
the Golden Horde. Russia, free from the yoke of lure
was master of Kasan ; Mengli became an independent
khan in the Crimea, and Yaghmurji in Astrakhan. The
khanat of Astrakhan was conquered by the Russians in 1.1 U.
The khanat of the Crimea, although it became a vassal
state of Turkey, existed for three centuries, when it was
conquered byPotemkin, under Catherine the Great. Thus
the powerful kingdom of Kiptshak, the creation of Genghis
Khan, became a province of Rus-ia.
In this long struggle with the Tatars, the Russian-
taught to bear chains, and to force them for other nations.
From 1210 to 1440, two hundred and fifty Rus-ian princes
went to the Golden Camp and humbly knelt before the
majesty of a Tatar king; twelve of them were beheaded.
t )ne hundred and thirty noble families of Russia and many
of the common people arc descended from the Tatars.
Many words in the Russian language, several legal cus-
toms, various social usages, and articles of dress, several
names of weights, measures, and coins, ceremonies at the
emperor's court, the knout itself, are of Tatar origin. The
influence of the Tatars upon the Russians has never been
better characterized than by that bon-mot of Napoleon :
• Scrub a Russian, and you will find a Tatar.' [ASTRAKHAN ;
CASAN ; CRIMEA ; TI-RKKV ; Truits.]
(Hammer, Geschichte der Goldenen Horde in Kiptshak;
Mohammed Riza, Asseb us Sfyiar (the Seven Planets) ;
llntoire des Khans de la Crimfe, traduite du Turk par
Mirza-Kasem-Bey, 1832, in 4to.; Abulghazi ; D'Ohsson
K . -tinin. Geschichte der Kasanischen !/.are, Petersburg,
ITsil : Fischer, Sibirische Geschichte, Petersburg, 1768;
•rnes, Histoire des Huns.)
TA'RTARUS (Tripropoc) was, according to the notions of
the Greeks and Romans, a part of the lower world, and was
inaccessible to the light of the sun and to the winds.
Homer describes it as being as far below Hades as heaven
is above the earth, and as being provided with brazen gates
at its entrance. (Iliad, viii. 13, &c., 481.) He further re-
gards it chiefly as the place in which the gods were pu-
nished. Hesiod entertains on the whole the same idea, imt
he adds that Tartarus is surrounded by a brazen wall and
triple night ; the roots of the earth and the sea limit; down
into it. It is the prison of the Titans. (Hesiod, Tln'nfi.,
720, &c.) In later times Tartarus designated that part of
the lower world in which the shades of the wicked w en-
punished (Plato, De Re Pub/., p. 616; Virgil. ./;'«., vi.
and the ideas then formed of it were more awful
uhan in earlier times. According to Virgil's description,
which we may take as an example of the later ideas, t In-
road into the lower world was dmded at a certain point
into two roads, the left of which led into Tartarus, which
was surrounded by a triple wall and the tier)- river Phlege-
thon, and was closed with an adamantine gate. At its
outer side Ti si phone kept watch, and at the inner side the
fifty-headed hydra. Rhadamanthvs was the judge in Tar-
tarus, and at his command the Furies scourged the shades
of the wicked. Tartarus was twice as far below the eaith
as heaven above it.
Tartarus was also the name of a small river in Gallia
Trnnsnadana, which is now called Tartaro. It was con-
nected with the Padus and Athesis by the Fossae Philis-
tinae.
I VRTARY, or more correctly TATARY. This name
was in former times given by .the European nations to the
country of Kaptshak or Kiptshak [TARTARS], or the three
Khanate of Astrakhan, Kasan, and the Crimea [ASTRA-
KHAN; CAS\N; CMMKA], the last of which had the special
name of Little Tatary. [TriiKKv.] Great Tatary. on the
contrary, designated the vast country between the Caspian
Sea on the west, the desert of Gobi on the east, Siberia
on the north, and Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet on the
south. The greater part of it has now the more convenient
name of Turkistan. [TURKISTAN.] The name of Tatary has
entirely disappeared from geography, but it occurs fre-
quently in the history of those regions.
r. .Itifn.)
T \KTKSSUS. [TARSIUSH.]
TARTI'NI, GIUSEPPE, a name celebrated in the annals
of music, xvas born at Pisano, on the coast of Istria, in
.<:id educated lit the university of Padua, lor the pro-
fession of jurisprudence ; but his love of music triumphed
over his Braver pursuit, and alter some struggles, and
.1 adventures of rather a romantic kind. — among
which the fighting of many duels, the marrying a car-
dinal's niece against her uncle's and his father's consent,
and his consequent flight to a monastery, where, to .
the effects of his emmency's resentment, be rcm
during two years secreted, maybe thus slightly men! ioned, —
he became a professed violinist, and the founder of a
school which in after-times boasted of a Nardini, a i
nani, a Viotti, and a liaillot among its disciples.
Tartini was also a composer, and his productions are
much extolled by a very competent judge, M. Kaillot, an
eminent French violinist and good critic : but he is more
generally known by his writings on the art, among which
his Truttiitn <li Miitica seconda la vera Srii nzn ili-li'Ar-
monia (1754), a strictly scientific work, is still read, and
i-ely and ably translated and explained in 1771, by
Kdward Stillingfle'ct, under the title of ' Principles and
Powers of Harmony,' who cleared it of many of the
obscurities which D'Alembert justly complained of, and
li\ In- additions and illustrations rendered it entertaining
as well as instructive. This Treatise is partly founded on
the author's theory of a Third X<iund, a subject which has
so long engaged the attention of all writers on acou
and on which most of Tartini's work is built, that wi
give an explanation of it nearly in the words of the above-
named translator, or, rather, commentator.
'Two sounds being given on musical instruments that
admit of the tones being held out. and strengthened at.
pleasure, as violins, oboes, horns, &c., a third sound will
be heard. On the violin let the intervals CE, cSy., UK,
no, B[>G, be sounded with a strong bow, and the third
sounds, represented by the black notes in the subjoined
example, will be heard : —
Q Q_
' A similar result will occur if the same intervals be
sounded by two players on the violin, distant from each
other about 12!) or '.HI feet ; always using a strung bow, and
holding out the notes. The auditor will hear the third
sound much better if stationed exactly between the two
instruments. Two oboes will produce the same effect
placed at a much greater distance.'
'This discovery of the GVnr" Ifurmninrx, as these third
sounds arc called, was made so nearly at the same time by
Tartini and Kornieu.thnt both seem to have an undoubted
claim to be considered as discoverers. M. Roniieu was a
member of the Royal Society of Sciences of Mnntpellier.
The memoir which he read before the society is entitled
"A New Discovery of Grave Harmonic Sounds, which are
very sensibly produced from the union of Wind Instni-
Tartini died at Padua in 1770. To the Dirtintnuiiri' </<•*•
Mii-ticii-nx we are indebted for what relates to his early life :
which work also furnished M. Prony with materials for
an interesting memoir in the Biofraphie r,nr,-r\r//<\ In
the Knryclitjirdif is an flngf by M. Ginguenfi on the com-
positions of Tartini. in which they are most indiscreetly
compared with those of Corelli.
TAKTKATKS. [TARTARIC ACID.]
TAKIMUNT. [M.M!,,rco.]
TASHKKM). [Tt HMSTKN.I
T \SMAN, ABEL .IANSSEN, one of the greatest na-
rs of the, se\enteeuth century, whose fame has not
equalled his merits owing to his countrymen, the Dutch,
having neglected to make known the important -n-viees
which he rendered to geography. In the sen ice of the
Dutch East India Company he gave such proof of his
enterprise anil ability as to induce Anthony Van Diemen,
the most distinguished governor-general who had presided
over the affairs of that company, to commission him, in
1642, to proceed on n 'he object of which was to
ascertain the extent of the Auslialian continent, on the.
western coast of which di-covc lies had been made by pre-
vious Dutch navigators.
On the 14th August, 1642, Tasman sailed from Batavia
T A S
77
T A S
in command of two vessels, the Heeraskirk and the
Zeehaan, directing his course first towards the Isle of
France, where he put in for provisions and water. From
the Isle of France he set sail on the 3rd October, and pro-
ceeded south to about 41° S. lat., afterwards to the south-
east, to about 50° S. lat., and then due east. Having
passed 127° E. long., he sailed to the north and east, and
on the 24th November discovered, at 10 miles distance, a
land to which he gave the name of Van Diemen. He
did not remain here long, nor did he meet with any of the
natives, but he continued on his voyage, sailing to the
south-east, and doubled what he conceived to be the
southern extremity of the Australian continent, or New
Holland, but what in fact was the southern extremity of
the island of Tasmania, or Van Diemen's Land. He made
an unsuccessful attempt to anchor in a bay, to which he
gave the name of the Bay of Tempests— Storm Bay — on
the south-eastern coast of Van Diemen's Land ; and then
ran to the north, where he found secure anchorage in
another bay, to which he gave the name of Frederik
Hendrik Bay, 42° 52' S. lat., 147° 57' E. long. On the shore
he erected a standard, to which he attached the colours of
the Dutch East India Company, and on the 5th set sail
again. Unfavourable winds prevented his surveying, as he
had intended, the north coast, and he therefore bore to
the east, proposing to visit the Solomon's Islands, of which
some account had been given by previous navigators. But
on the 13th, being in about 42° 10' S. lat. and 170° E.
long., he found himself in view of a high and mountainous
country, which he named Staaten Land — land of estates —
now known as New Zealand. Tasman supposed this land
to be part of the contment of Australia. He sailed along
the coast towards the north-east, and on the 17th anchored
at the entrance of what he concluded to be a great bay.
The natives from the shore approached in their canoes,
but still remained at a distance, and refused to come on
board either of Tasman's vessels, although every amicable
demonstration was exhibited by the crews. Gathering con-
fidence however, they afterwards came in large numbers,
and a quarrel ensuing between them and the Dutch, three
sailors were murdered. The bay in which this happened
received the name of Mordenaars' Bay, or Murderers' Bay
(40° 40" S. lat., 173° E. long.). Tasman did not revenge the
death of his men, but, availing himself of a favourable wind,
set sail. Being followed however by two and twenty canoes
with natives armed, he fired among them, killed one or
two natives, and drove the rest on shore. He did not make
any progress owing to the variableness of the weather, and
was obliged to anchor again in a bay to the east of Mas-
sacre or Murderers' Bay, which yet preserves his name —
Tasman's Bay (about 41° S. lat., 173° 30' E. long.). When
enabled to resume the voyage, he continued his course
along the coast, bearing northwards, until, on the 4th
January, 1C43, he found himself in a situation in which the
violence of the current bearing to the west, ancUthe swell-
ing of the waves, which bore to the north-west, led him to
conclude that the sea in that part afforded a free passage.
To the west he perceived a group of small islands which
he named the Throe Kings i in about 34" 3' S. lat., 172°
5' E. long.). Those islands were inhabited, but the vio-
lence of tin- \\MMS prevented all intercourse with the
natives. Tasman now resolved to sail to the east, and
afterwards to the north as far as 17" S. lat., and then
to the west towards the isles of Cocos (15° 50' S. lat.,
174° 10' W. long.), and of Hoorn (14° S. lat., 178° 20'
W. long.), with a view of obtaining some fresh pro-
visions at one of these islands. On the 6th January he
saw an island to the south at three miles distance, but
no name is given to it. On the 8th, being, as he represents,
in 32° S. lat. and 174° E. long., the force of the waves which
rolled from the south-east suggested to him that he
ought not to look for land in that direction ; he there-
red his course to the north, and on the 19th
! an island which he called Pyllstaart (22° 22'
S. lat., 17i>° W. long.). On the following day he saw
two other islands, and on the 21st approached the more
northern, which he named Amsterdam, the native name
being T.mtra Taboo (21° 30' S. lat., 175° 2CX W. long.) ;
the otlifr Middelburg, the native name being Eoa, the
Ka-oo-wee of Cook (21° 24' S. lat., 175° W. long.).
The isl.inders brought various fruits in their canoes, and
Tasman has described them as uniting courage with
mildness. While here he discovered some other isles,
before one of which he anchored, naming it Rotterdam,
the native name being Ana Moka or Annamooka, 20° 15'
S. lat., 174° 31' W. long. Captain Cook, when he visited
these islands about a hundred and fifty years afterwards,
found the tradition of Tasman's visit preserved among the'
natives.
On the 1st of February Tasman discovered the islands
of Prince William, but his provisions being nearly
exhausted, he could not stay to visit them. For
several days subsequently the sky was so cloudy as
to prevent his ascertaining the situation of his vessel,
and when fine weather partially returned, he judged
it best to sail towards 5° S. lat., and then to bear
towards New Guinea, apprehending the return of un-
favourable weather, in which he might be cast upon an
unknown coast. By the 22nd of March he was in 5° 2' S.
lat., and having the advantage of clear weather and the
east trade-winds, he soon came in sight of a cluster of
islands which had been visited by two navigators, Schouten
and Le Maire, and by them named Ontong Java. On
the 29th he sailed past the Green Islands (4° 53' S
lat., 154° 50' E. long.), and on the 30th the Isle of St.
John (3° 50' S. lat., 153° 50' E. long.). This island, he
says, appeared to be well cultivated, to abound in flesh,
fowl, fish, and fruit, and to have a numerous population.
Schouten having before sustained some injury from the
natives, Tasman did not attempt to land. On the 1st of
April he was in sight of what he supposed to be New
Guinea, but in fact of New Britain, and shortly after he
doubled the cape to which Spanish navigators had before
given the name of Cabo Santa Maria — Cape St. George
of Dampier (5° S. lat., 152° 15' E. long.). The orew were
suddenly awoke on the night of the 12th by what resem-
bled the shock of an earthquake : the situation of the
vessel at the time, as Tasman states, being 3° 45' S. lat.
They sounded, supposing that the ship had struck, but
could find no bottom. Several shocks, each less violent,
succeeded. On the 20th they were near to Brandande
Yland, or Burning Island, which had been mentioned be-
fore by Schouten : on the 27th they were in sight
of another island, which he calls Jama, a little to
the east of Moa (8° 21' S. lat., 127° 45' E. long.),
where they obtained cocoa-nuts and other fruits. Tas-
man has described the inhabitants as absolutely black,
and speaking a copious language, in which the frequent
repetition of the letter r is noticed. He anchored on the
following day at the Isle of Moa, where he was detained
for eight days by unfavourable weather. The Dutch car-
ried on an interchange of knives for cocoa-nuts and Indian
figs with the natives. On the 12th of May he coasted
the island to which Schouten had before given his name
(50' S. lat., 136° 20' E. long.), and which is described as
fertile and populous : the natives gave proof of their
commerce with different Spanish vessels by the production
of various articles which they had received in barter.
Having now fulfilled his instructions, Tasman directed his
course back to Batavia, where he arrived on the 15th
June. A map of his discoveries was sent to the Stadt
House at Amsterdam.
The success of this voyage induced Van Diemen to
commit to Tasman the command of a second expedition,
the objects of which are set forth in the instructions given
by the governor-general on the occasion. These instruc-
tions are printed in the introduction to Flinders' Voyages.
After quitting Point Turc, or False Cape, situated in 8°
S. lat., on the south coast of New Guinea, he was to con-
tinue eastward along the coast to 9° S. lat., carefully cross-
ing the cove at that place, looking about the high islands
or Speults River with the yachts for a harbour, despatch-
ing the tender Do Braak for two or three days into the
cove, in order to discover whether within the great inlet
there might not be found an entrance to the South Sea.*
From this place he was to coast along the west coast of
New Guinea (Carpentaria) to the farthest discoveries in
17° S. lat., following the coast farther, as it might run
westward or southward. It was feared that he would meet
in those parts with the south-east trade-winds; from
1 The great inlet or cove where the passage was to be sought, is the north-
west part of Torres Straits. It is evident tltat a suspicion was enterlaineil in
1(141 i.t' snrh a strait; but that the Dutch wero ijmouint of its having been
p.ii-.'it. The ' hijjli Uland-.' are those which lie in 10" S. lat. on the west siiie of
the straits. Speults river appears to be the opening between the Prince of
Wales Island :ind Cape York ; through which Cook afterwards passed, and
named Endeavour Strait. (Flinders' Voyage, ' Introduction.')
TAB
78
T A S
which it would be difficult to keep tlie coast on board,
if he stretched to the south-fast; hut notwithstanding he
was by all means to endeavour to proceed, that it uiiirhl
whether the laud was divided from the
great known South Continent or not. Ti .'lions
were signed in 1044, 2'Jtli Juuuary, by the Kovcruor-
.-.il, and two vessels— the Xeehaan and the Hraak —
,1 at Tasman's disposal. But of the results of
this second voyage absolutely nothing is known wilh
certainty ; nothing was ever" published. ' It seems to
the general opinion.
man sailed round the Gulf of Ci and tlien
.ard along Anihem, and the noHhern const of Van
Dieinen's Land; and the form of those coasts in Tln'u'-
not's charts of 10G:t, and in thos. -ueeeedinsr
, en up to the end of the eighteenth cen-
tury, is snppo-ed to have resulted from this voyage.
This opinion i* strengthened by finding the na,.
Taxman, and of the governor-general, and of two of the
c-ouneil, who signed his instructions, applied to places at
the head of the gulf; • that of Maria, the
daughter of the governor, to whom Tasman is said to
hme been attached. In the notes also of Burgomaster
• m-crning the inhabitants of Xcw Guinea and
Hollnndia Nova, as extracted by Mr. Dalrym,
. Ta.sman is mentioned as anionir tlio.se
from whom his information was drawn.' Of the private
life of Tasnian nothing is known, neither when nor where
he was born or died.
An account of Tasman's first voyage is given in the ( '
tion ilc Thrrcnnt. partie iv. ; in Harris's Navifantium alque
-•nitii/in l!i///i-it/t't;i. 17 It, fol. ; at the end of the
• rrru, tome ii., Paris ; in Tfrm Atis/ru/is
'In, or J't,/fiifri.<: to tin' Tfi-rn Ami nil is <Iuri»<: ///••
lander, Kdin., 1700. From these sources, and from 1 !
.-sclle, tome 45, the substance of this article
has been collected. Tasnian is not even named in Chal-
. nor in many other universal biographies in the
Kn^'lish language.
TASMA'.M V, more generally known by the name of
Van Diemen's Land, is an island and British colony situated
in the southern hemisphere, south of Australia. It lies
between 40" -15' and -13" -15' S. lat., and between 144° 45'
and 148" 30' E. long. It is separated from Australia by
; Strait, which washes its northern shore. On the
vrest of the island is the Indian Ocean, and on the cast the
Pacific. On the south it i.s washed by that portion of the
ocean which connects the two first-named oceans, and ex-
tends southward -to the shores of the newly-discovered
antarctic continent. [Sourn POLAR CorvmiKs.] Prom
Cape Grim, its north-western extremity, it extends south-
south-east to South Cape, a distance of about 2;JO miles,.
and this is its greatest length. Its greatest width occurs
near 41° 20' S. lat., between Ordnance Point on the west
and St. Helen's Point on the cast, which are about 190
miles distant from one another. According to a roush
.ate, the surface is 34,000 square miles, or about 4000
square miles less than the extent of Ireland.
Coast-line anil l\!'iinln. — The western o inning
on (lie north at Cape Grim, and extending to South-Weil
Cape, is about 240 miles long. It is less accessible than
the other shores of the island, as in general it runsinacon-
Rhclter. This coast is therefore rareh \ i-ited by vcsse'
no settlements have been established on it, except at Mac-
qiiarric Harbour and Port D;. :ivicts
are kept to cut wo..d. The northern pail.-, of this
and as far south as Macqnarrii . are in ^eneial
low, lint smith of Macquairie Harbour thc\
South 6f Cape Grim, which eo ..frno-
'" elevation, the const is loimed liy low Mack rocks,
which tow Point sink down to the level of the
!id in this part then'
Point, which H formed by a short, low, and sandy
projection, d, the mouth of the river Arthur, the beach is
low ;i:id sandy, mid behind it extends a swampy lev. '.
• es to the distance of three or four
e country rises into low hill-.
places the low beach in interrupted by rocky cliffs. This
low coabt continues to Ordnance Point, near which is
.Inc. ill's Harbour, which is accessible to boats. At Ord-
nance Point the
it is eminently interrupt. , and windy 1i
The shores are overgrown with low
moderate extent occurs between the mouth uf the
PcddiT anil Sandy Cape, but r .1 use-lew.
; art of the coast which extends Iron. e to
;- almost iinki
chi.t'n 'dy low shores, without u beach, ai
the back of which there are hills, some nf whu
considerable i. Macquarrie Harbour is a fimj
sheet 0 \tendinir neiiily 25 miles south-south
and tcrniinalinir wilh two line basins, Kirch's Inlet and
Kelly's lla-in. It is on an avcraire live miles wide, and
affords good anchorage and complete shelter : but lie,
entnmce is a bar, which has only nini iter. The
harbour is surrounded by wooded'hills. I, forming
the western side of the entrance of Macquarric I :
a steep and rocky promontory, and farther south the .
line is hiirh and rocky, and here and there : - pro-
ject into the sea, but the sumll bays thus formed do not
afford shelter airainst the swell of the sea, and I
sale hmdinir-placc. At the back of the beach the,
steep and lolly hills. Cape Hibbs is formed by a moun-
tain-mass projecting three or four miles into tin-
South of it the coast rises still hiijher, and between that
cape and Rocky Point two hills, which project about two
miles from the shores, constitute a harbour, in which small
vessels may anchor, but it is open to the west. The hiirh
shores continue to Port Davey and to South-NVcst i
Port Davey is the best harbour on j
trance it is about four miles wide, and it continues at that
width about 6 miles inland, when it divides intohv
That branch which runs northward is called Cockburn,
and is about two miles wide and six long : tin
which runs eastward, does not much exceed a mile in
width, but extends more than 10 miles inland, tnrninir nt
its eastern extremity to the south. These two bra
have cood anchorage, and afford sale shelter, bciny
rounded by hisfh hills: but the wide buy. of which they
are branches, is open to the westerly winds and the
of the sea: the anchorage however is pood.
The southern coast, between South-West Cape and
Whale Head, is about 5O miles lonir, and runs in
pentine line, forming several bays, of which a few have
good anchorage, as Cox Biprht. east of South-West i
and the nameless wide bay which lies we-t of South i
and at wlt< a harbour about 1i\ e miles
long :ind a mile wide, which has a cood entrance, and
affords anchorage and shelter, but it has not been renula'Iy
i cd. This harbour is separated from the wide bay by
a tongue of land of moderate elevation, on which Hi
breaks with a heavy surf. The shores of this coast arc in
;il rocky and high, and constitute the lower declivity
of the mountain-masses which extend over this pait of the
country. Several small islands opposite this co:is| break
the swell of the sea, and as most of them are elevated, they
The south-eastern . uls from Whale Head, the
most south-eastern promontory of Tasmania, to Cape l-'re-
derik Heiidrik, about CO miles in a straight line, but,
long the shores, it is probably double that ex-
tent. It Contains a water number of sale anchi •;
than probably any other country of the same extent on
the dobe. There is hardly a mile along this coast-line
which does not otter a safe refuse to vessels. This
advantage is owing pailly to the size and form of
the island of liruiii. which extends alonir the .
and partly to two far-projecting pioniontoH
Ralphs Peninsula and Tasman's Peninsula. The island of
liruni extends about 'M miles nearly due south and
north, but it varies greatly in width, as the istlun
.nan is only a tew hundred pa. whilst the
mountain tract south of ii is more than emhi miles wide.
It consists of three isolated tracts of hiu'li hills, ronu.
by isthmusi - : the most southern of these hac -is has the
foiiu of a hook, and d with the ccntial moun-
tain-tract by a low isthmus about a mile wide and two
miles loiii;, which se| Ha\ from I)"d Hay.
The central mountain n:^ the main body of
the island, is about 15 miles I. MIL: l'»m south to uoilh/and
more than eiirht miles w ide in 1 1 part, It is con-
nected with the northern muunliiin-tiact b\ the istlun
T A S
79
T A S
St. Aignan, which is five miles long, and only a few hundred
paces wide. It is low and sandy, and separates Isthmus
Bay on the west from Adventure Bay on the east. The
northern mountain-tract is about 12 miles long, and so
much indented on the western shore that its average width
does not exceed three miles, though in some places it is
five miles across. The mountains of this island do not
appear to exceed 1200 feet in elevation : they are covered
with wood, and supply numerous streams. Along the
western side of the island are five harbours, which, from
south to north, are called Great Cove or Taylor's Bay,
Little Cove, Isthmus Bay, Great Bay, and Burnes Bay.
Thev all have excellent anchorage and shelter, except
Taylor's Bay, which is rather too large, and exposed to the
gusts of wind which come down from the mountains on
the mainland. On the eastern side of Bruni Island are
three bays, Bad Bay, Adventure Bay, and Trumpeter Bay.
Bad Bay is useless, being open to the southern winds, and
subject to a very heavy swell, which causes such a tre-
mendous surf at the foot of the rocks which surround the
basin, that landing is almost impossible. Adventure Bay
is open to the east, but is so far protected by Tasman's
Peninsula, that the inconveniences of this harbour during
easterly winds are reduced to a difficult landing. Before
the foundation of the colony it was frequently visited by
whalers. Trumpeter Bay is of moderate extent.
The strait which divides Bruni Island from the mainland
of Tasmania is called D'Entrecasteaux Channel, or Storm
Bay Passage, and extends 45 miles in a straight line from
Whale Head to Pilot Strait, or the narrow arm that divides
the northern extremity of Bruni Island from Tasmania. Its
southern entrance between Whale Head and Bnmi Head is
wide and open to the south and west ; but on the western
shores there are two excell :nt harbours, Recherche Bay
and Mussel Bay. North of Mussel Bay the channel begins,
which is 30 miles long, and varies in width from one to
eight miles. In all its extent it has excellent anchorage
and sufficient depth ; even opposite Isthmus Bay, where it
is shallowest, it is 40 feet deep. Being mostly surrounded
by hills, which shelter it on all sides, it is, properly
speaking, an immense harbour, the only inconveniences of
which are that it is subject to gusts of wind, and that the
bottom consists of an earth somewhat too tenacious. On the
in shores of the channel, besides several smaller har-
bours or coves, there are three, or rather four, large and ex-
cellent ports : Esperance Bay or Adamson's Harbour ; Huon
Bay, or the extcn-ui' n-,Uiary of the river of that name,
which extends nearly 20 miles inland, and has sufficient depth
of water for larne vessels ; Port Cygnet, or Swan Port,
situated near the mouth of the Huon aestuary ; and North-
West liay, which constitutes the most northern extremity
of D'Bntrecuteaiix Channel, and resembles the harbour
of Portsmouth. North-West Bay is two miles wide at its
entrance, and extends nearly six miles inland. The low
and level country surrounding this excellent basin is the
im»t southern district of Tasmania in which cultivation
has made any progress. The strait leading from it to
the wide ;ch!~i::iry of the river Derwent is only one mile
and is called Pilot Strait.
' of Bnini Island, and between it and Tasman's
Peninsula is Storm Bay, extending about fifteen miles
from south to north, and as much from west to east.
Though it has good anchorage-ground, and is almost en-
tirely free from danger, it cannot be considered as a har-
bour, being open towards the south, though protected on
the three other sides by high hills. Storm Bay however
leads to two extensive arms of the sea. which open to the
north of it, and are respectively called the rcstuary of the
Derwent and Frederick Henry Bay. These two arms of the
sea are separated by Ralph's Peninsula, which extends
about 20 miles from north to south ; and this distance may
msidcred as the length of the two arms of the sea, the
sestuary of the Derwent advancing a few miles farther in-
land. At the entrance of the aestuary is a small rocky
island, Ironpot, on which a lighthouse hag been erected.
Within the aestuary is Ralph's Bay, on the east. This bay
is formed by a low sandy spit of land which projects from
the west side of Ralph's Peninsula, and surrounds the bay
on the south and west ; and by another spit of land which
project* to the south. The entrance of Ralph's Bay is a
short channel, nearly two miles wide, which leads to a
"•itrht. miles long and three wide, with excellent an-
chorage, and sheltered on all sides. Ralph's Peninsula
consists of two mountainous tracts united by a low isthmus.
This isthmus is only half a mile wide, and is the place'
where Ralph's Bay approaches nearest to Frederick Henry
Bay. This last-mentioned bay, which has also the name of
North Bay (Bai du Nord) is united to Storm Bay by a
channel situated between Ralph's Peninsula and Tasman's
Peninsula, which is five miles long and five miles wide.
The bay itself consists of three basins, North Bay, Pitt
Water, and Norfolk Bay. North Bay, which occupies the
centre, is a basin about eight miles long from south to north,
and six from west to east. It has good anchorage, with
sufficient depth of water, and is generally well sheltered.
Along its northern shores there is a low and sandy tongue
of land, with an opening at its eastern extremity, which
leads to Pitt Water, an arm of the sea extending from
east-south-east to west-north-west about eight miles, with
an average width of two miles, which branches out into
numerous small coves and inlets affording safe anchorage
for small vessels, but the entrance has only sufficient depth
for them. Norfolk Bay lies to the east of North Bay, with
which it is connected by a channel about three miles wide.
This bay is surrounded on three sides by Tasman's Penin-
sula, and constitutes one of the finest harbours on the
island : it has excellent anchorage, with a convenient
depth of water, and is sheltered by high hills. It is eight
miles long, and the width varies from three to five miles.
It is free from all danger, and branches out into numerous
coves.
Tasman's Peninsula extends about 25 miles from south
to north : it consists of two larger peninsulas, of which the
southern is properly called Tasman's, and the northern
Forestier's Peninsula. Tasman's Peninsula surrounds Nor-
folk Bay on the south and west : it extends west and east
about 15 miles, with an average width of eight miles. The
surface of this tract is covered with mountains, which rise
with a steep ascent from the water's edge, and are mostly
composed of basalt columns, especially between Maingon
Bay and Fortesque Bay. On the west side of the penin-
sula, on the east shores of Storm Bay, is Wedge Bay, which
has tolerably good anchorage. Maingon Bay, on the south
coast of the peninsula, is quite open, but on the north it leads
into a safe harbour, Port Arthur, which runs more than six
miles inland, and is more than a mile wide. The high rocky
isthmus which divides its northern extremity from Norfolk
Bay is only three miles wide. On the eastern shores of
Tasman's Peninsula is Fortesque Bay, which is large, and
lias excellent anchorage, but it is open to the east. Pirates
Bay, farther north, is still more open : it is separated from
Norfolk Bay by an isthmus called Eagle Hawk Neck,
which is only GOO feet wide and 700 feet long, and which
connects Tasman's Peninsula with Forestier's Peninsula.
It is low and sandy. Forestier's Peninsula extends 10
miles from south to north, with an average width of
seven miles : it is a roundish mass of high rocky
mountains, scantily covered with low trees, and it
has a sterile soil. The high rocky masses along its
eastern shores run in a continuous line. On the
north side of the peninsula is Frederik Hendrik Har-
bour, in which Tasman anchored in 1642: it has good
depth, but is open, and along the southern side it is lined
with shoals and rocks. The isthmus which joins Forestier's
Peninsula to the mainland of Tasmania is called East Bay
Neck, and the northern portion of Norfolk Bay is also
known by the name of East Bay : it is about two miles long,
and half a mile wide in the narrowest part: it is low and
sandy. The bay which extends between this neck and the
most northern portion of Forestier's Peninsula, and is called
Blackman's Bay, is spacious and well sheltered, but beset
with shoals and rocks, especially along the southern shores
and its entrance, so as to admit only small vessels.
The eastern coast of Tasmania extends from the northern
extremity of Forestier's Peninsula to Cape Portland on
Strait, more than 150 miles in a straight line. The
southern part, or that south of 42° S. lat, resembles in
some degree the south-eastern coast : it contains many
places of refuge for vessels, though in general they are
much less numerous than on the south-east coast, and not
quite so safe and commodious. The wide bay on the north
of Forestier's Peninsula, from which a channel leads to
Blackman's Bay, has a flat sandy shore, no which the sea
breaks with a heavy surf, so as to render it inaccessible, but
towards the north are several email coves for boats. Cape
Bernier is formed by a high conical hill : between it and
T A S
Proawr's Bay the coast is high and rocky, except at Sand-
spit, where it is low, and forms a shallow cove. Prower's
Bay is of good size, being three miles wide at its entrance,
and extending in two arms five miles inland. There are
several shoals in it, but it bus good anchorage, especially m
the northern arm. Between 1'rosser's Bay and Cape Bailly
the coast is high, rocky, and well wooded. At ( 'ape Bailly
begins Oyster Buy, the largest of the bays of Tasmania: it
miles long from south to north, and l.~i miles wide at
the entrance, but it narrows gradually towards the north,
being at its northern recess 10 miles across. It contains
good anchoring-ground, and is tolerably safe, for though it
is open towards the south, the island of Maria and several
smaller islands in that direction break the swell of the sea.
The surrounding country is hilly and well wooded. Near
Cape Bailly is Little Swan Port, a moderately extensive
ba.-m with a shallow entrance. It admits only boats. The
western shores of Oyster Bay are high and steep, and may
be approached with safety. On the northern side of the
bay is a tongue of land less than a mile wide. It consists
of" low sand-hills, and terminates on the east at a nar-
row and shallow channel, which leads northward to an arm
of the sea, which winds through a low country for more
than 10 miles. This arm of the sea is shallow, and called
Moulting Lagoon. The eastern side of Oyster Bay is
formed by Vanderlin's Peninsula and Schouten's Island.
Vanderlin's Peninsula is nearly 12 miles long, and consists
of two masses of rocky mountains, united by a low sandy
neck, about one mile and a half long and one mile and a
half wide, on which is a small fresh-water lake. To the
west of this neck is Refuge Bay, and to the east Thouin Bay.
' The first is a safe harbour, but the second is open and
rather shallow. Another low and sandy neck about three
miles long and a mile wide connects Vanderlin's Peninsula
with the main body of Tasmania. The mountains of the
southern massof Vanderlin's Peninsula are the highest in the
Eeninsula. Schouten's Island is separated from that peninsula
y Geographe Strait, which is nearly three miles long and
about one mile and a half wide on an average : there is
good anchorage in the strait. Schouten's Island has nearly
the form of a square, and extends about four miles m every
direction. On its southern side, in Faure Bay, there is
anchoring-ground. The island consists of a mass of
rock, descending on the east with a steep declivity to the
water's edge, but on the west with a gentle well-wooded
slope.
South of Oyster Bay is the island of Maria, which is
about 12 miles long, and consists of two large masses of
rocks connected by a neck of land. The northern mass
extends 7 miles from east to west, and consists of elevated
mountains, the highest part of which, called the Bishop
and Clerk, is about 3500 feet above the sea-level. The
declivity of the mountains towards the east is very steep
and terminates on the beach ; but the slope is gentle
towards the west, where it leaves a broad level tract along
the sea, which is sandy and scantily wooded. The low
sandy neck south of it is only 300 paces across, and about
two miles long. On the west of it is Oyster Bay, which is
well sheltered and has good anchorage, but is shallow
near the land ; and on the east of the neck is Reidle Bay,
which is deeper, but has a rocky bottom, and is exposed to
the easterly and southerly winds. The southern peninsula
of Maria Island is one mass of rocks, rather well wooded,
which descends towards the east in precipices and towards
the west with a gentle slope. The strait which divides
Maria Island from the mainland is about five miles wide on
an average, and is nearly equal to D'Entrecasteaux Channel
in the advantages which it affords to navigation, having
good anchorage-ground, and being generally well protected
against the winds and swell of the sea. North of Maria
Island, towards the entrance of Oyster Bay, is a, small
island, White Rock, to which seals resort in great num-
bers.
The remainder of the eastern coast, beginning at Cape
Tourville on the south, is as difficult of access as the
western coast of Tasmania. In an extent of more than
100 miles not one harbour occurs which can be entered
by vessels of moderate size, and even small craft find only
three or four places where they can anchor with safety.
The coast between Cape Tourville and Eddystone Point is
elevated and rocky, and always beaten by a heavy surf.
Sou'h of Cape Lodi the hills are barren and generally
destitute of trees. -m Farther north however they are still
> T A S
more elevated, but tolerably well wooded. Between Eddy-
stone Point and Cape Portland the shores consist of a low
tract of considerable width : the soil is sandy and of indif-
ferent fertility. The woods which cover it conMst of short,
crooked trees. This part of the coast is beset with shoals,
and cannot be approached with safety.
The northern coast of Tasmania extends from Cape
Portland on the east to Cape Grim on the west, and is
about 1W) miles long in a straight line, but following the
coast it measures more than 220 miles. North of this
coast is Bass's Strait, at the eastern entrance of which
is the group of the Fumcaux Islands, which consist of two
larger inlands, lour of moderate si/c. and many smaller
islands. The larger. Great Island, extends -10 miles nearly
due south and north, and is on an average nine miles long,
so that its surface maybe estimated at Mi() square n
or somewhat more than that of the Scotch island of Islay.
The interior of the island is mountainous, and the moun-
tains advance on the west side close to the sea, but leave
a tract of low ground along the eastern shore, which is
sandy and in some parts swampy. South of Great Island
is Cape Barren Island, which extend* from east to west
about 20 miles, with an average width of about five miles.
It consists of several isolated masses of rocks connected by
low grounds. These islands, as well as the smaller islands,
are generally mountainous and rather high ; they con-
tain many low tracts of considerable extent, but the soil is
sandy, swampy, and in general of indifferent quality.
Trees are not abundant, and only of stunted growth. The
surface is chiefly covered with thick bushes, coarse wire-
grass, and a kind of Chenopodium, the ashes of which
may be used in the manufacture of soap. Fresh water is
scarce. These islands are always surrounded by great
numbers of seals, and are resorted to by many v>
from Sydney and other places. The strait which di-
vides Furneaux Islands from Tasmania is called Banks's
Strait. It is 10 miles wide, and contains no hidden
dangers, but as the current sets through it with great
rapidity from cast to west, it is not much used : the vessels
that sail to and from Sidney generally pass through Kent
Strait, or the middle strait of "the three which constitute
the eastern entrance of Bass's Strait. This strait is 24
miles wide between Great Island and Kent Group, and in
general free from dangers. The western current which
runs through it is moderate.
The coast from Cape Portland on the east to Port Dal-
rymple at the mouth of the river Tamar is low and sandy,
with the exception of some sandy hills at and between
East and West Double Sandy Points, and the high cape of
Stony Head, which consists of elevated rock)- masses over-
grown with grass. The shores are either cntirelv barren
or covered with short bushes. In a few places there are
swamps, and in others some flat and low rocks of small
extent. The bays have in general sufficient depth of
water and good anchorage-ground, but being wide and
open, they do not afford security against winds and the
swell of the sea. The largest is Ringarooma Bay, west of
Cape Portland.
Port Dalrymple is the best harbour on the northern
shores, though it cannot be compared with the harbours
on the south-eastern coast. Before its entrance on the
west is the dangerous reef called Hcbes Reef, and even in
the sea-reach, which is two miles wide and six long, there
are some shoals. The navigation is tedious and difficult,
but the Tamar is deep enough for large vessels as far as
Launceston, 'M miles from Port Dalrymple in a straight
line. West of Port Dalrymple the coast is high, being
formed by elevated and wooded hills, the highest of which
are called the Asbestos Hills. To the west of these hills is
Port Sorell, which is rather spacious and has good anchor-
age, but is difficult of access. Between Port Sorell and
Port Frederick the shores are low, and about half a mile
from the sea is a narrow lagoon, which occupies more than
half of the space between the two harbours. Port Fre-
derick, or the spstuary of the river Mersey, resembles Port
Sorell. From this harbour to Penguin Point, west of the
mouth of Leven nver, the coast is generally rocky and high,
but intersected by the mouths of several rivers, which how-
ever do not admit even boats, excel)! the Leven, which
may be ascended by boats to the distance of six miles from
the sea. From Penguin Point to Circular Head the coast
presents an alternation of high and low shores. The low
shores are sandy or swampy, and generally covered with
T A S
81
T A S
thick busnes, and 1he hi«;h shores present in many places
columns of basalt, the tops of which are covered with a
layer of good soil, and overgrown with trees. There is no
harbour for ships on the coast, except at the mouth of
Emu river, where small vessels find good anchorage in
Emu Bay. Boats may enter Parish's Harbour, not far
from Emu Bay to the west, and Pebbly Bay, west of
Rocky Cape, a rather elevated rocky mass projecting into
the sea.
Circular Head is a tongue of land projecting into the sea
to the distance of about seven miles from the mainland.
Its northern portion is an undulating table-land resting on
basalt columns, whose surface is covered with bushes and
small trees, and affords good pasture-ground. The highest
psirt of it is 450 feet above the sea-level. This table-land
is about five miles long from north to south, and somewhat
more than two miles across in the widest part. It is united
to the mainland by a low sandy isthmus nearly three miles
lon<; and about one mile wide. On each side of the isthmus
is a tongue of land, which advances four or five miles into
the sea, and forms two harbours, called East and West Bay,
which have sufficient depth for small vessels. The advan-
tages afforded by these two harbours, and the pasture-
ground on Circular Head, have induced the Van Diemen's
Land Company to fix their chief establishment here. The
coast from Circular Head to Cape Grim is low and sandy.
In some places there are swamps overgrown with tea-trees.
It is lined by numerous shoals, and though there are several
coves at the embouchures of the rivers, none of them has
sufficient depth of water for a boat.
North of this coast-line are the Hunter Islands, a group
consisting of three larger and several smaller islands.
Robliin Island, the nearest to the mainland, is divided
from it by a narrow strait, Robbin Channel, which is full
of shoals, but has good anchoring-ground near the eastern
entrance. The island is about 7 miles long from east to
west, and 5 miles wide on an average. The eastern portion,
embracing about two-thirds of the whole, is low, and has
a sandy soil, covered with bushes and small trees : it has
also pasture-ground. The western district is a rocky ridsre,
covered with heath. Three-Hummock Island is about
the same size, but it is hilly, and chiefly covered with
bushes, low trees, or grass. On its eastern side is a cove,
with indifferent anchorage. West of Three-Hummock
Island is Barren Island, which is the largest of the group,
being 15 miles long, and on an average 4 miles wide. It
is likewise rocky in its whole extent, but less elevated
than Three-Hummock Island : in fertility it seems to re-
semble it very much. On the western shores are numerous
reefs, which render the access to the island difficult and
almost impossible. Towards the southern end of that
coa^t however there is a cove, which is accessible to boats.
The strait between Barren Island and Three-Hummock
is called Peron Channel : it is well protected by the sur-
rounding islands, and has good anchorage at several
places, so that it may be considered the best liarbour at
the western entrance of Bass Strait. The basin, surrounded
by the three large islands of this group, is called Boulanger
Bay. It is well protected, but veiy dangerous, being full
of shoals and small low islands, especially towards the
north-western district of Tasmania.
Si/ifnn> mill Soil. — As the first European settlement on
Tasmania was established only forty years ago, it can be
no matter of surpri.-c that the country is imperfectly ex-
plored. Nearly one-half of the island is almost unknown,
namely, nearly two-thirds of that portion which is south
nt' 12;, and one-third of that which is north of that pa-
rallel.
The t'/ii'.r/ /»ri;f M'iiinlnii>-lli><;ii»i, south of 42°, oc-
cupies the southern and western districts of the island,
and reaches ninth-east to the banks of the river Derwent.
This river, from its source in Lake St. Clair to its mouth,
the well-known part of the island from that
which is entirely unknown except the coasts and the dis-
in the immediate vicinity ofthc river. These districts
are occupied by an apparently continuous moantain-ranire,
which extend.-, along the river at a short distance from its
banks, and in some' places sends off branches which ad-
the nver. This range is sometimes called
the \Ve-.lein Mountains by the settlers, but has not yet
'•iy other name. It begins on the sestuary of the
en), opposite tiie entrance of Ralph's Bay, with
which is considered to be about 1000 i'eet
P. C., No. 1408,
above the sea. Hence it extends north-west to Mount
Wellington, which is a few miles west of Hobait Town, and
rises, according to Darwin, 3100 feet above the sea. Far-
ther on, the range, which occupies a width of peihaps 20
miles, does not seem to contain many summits which rise
much above the general level of the range, which level
probably is never less than 2000 feet above the sea. The
summits, which have been noticed, are— Mount Field (near
42° 40'\ which is estimated at 3000 feet ; and Wyld's Ci aig,
or Peak of Teneriffe, about 4500 feet above the sea. The
latter is covered with snow for nine months. It is stated that
in several places plains of considerable extent occur on the
top of the range ; but as the whole of it is covered with
an impenetrable forest, it has hitherto been impossible to
ascertain this fact. The mountains which surround Lake
St. Clair, the source of the river Derwent, appear to be
connected with this range, and to constitute its northern
extremity. At the southern extremity of the range is a
large peninsula, formed by D'Entrecasteaux Channel and
the sestuary of the river Huon, the whole of which is
covered with high hills, clothed with dense forests to their
summits, and broken only in a few places by valleys, which
exhibit a great degree of fertility, but in which no settle-
ments have yet been made.
The remainder of this region is only known so far as it
has been observed from the sea and a few places from the
coast. The most striking feature of this district is a moun-
tain-range which rises a few miles from the southern coast,
and appears to extend, without interruption, from the
eastern part of Port Davey, called Bathurst Harbour, to
the vicinity of Port Refuge, at the entrance of D'Entre-
caMeaux Channel. Its lower parts are covered with thick
forests, but the higher are without wood. Some parts of
them appear white, which has suggested the opinion that
they are always covered with snow ; but this fact is ques-
tioned. The higher parts however are considered to rise to
an elevation of 5000 feet above the sea-level. North of this
range there are two elevated mountain-masses, a few miles
south of 43° S. lat, which are called Harz Mountain and
Arthur's Range. The latter is visible from Mount Wel-
lington, though more than 50 miles distant. At the back
of these masses, north of 43° S. lat., open plains are stated
to extend from the banks of the river Huon to the moun-
tains which line the western shores. A few open plains of
moderate extent are also found near the banks of the
Huon, where the river runs eastward ; but farther down
the whole country is covered with impenetrable forests.
From this river to 42° S. lat. the country is entirely unknown.
Several summits have been seen from considerable dis-
tances. The most elevated appears to be Frenchman's Cap,
east of Macquarrie Harbour, which is covered with snow
nearly the whole year : its base is said to be surrounded by
woodless, open, and grassy plains of considerable extent.
The forests, which cover this region almost without inter-
ruption, consist chiefly of different kinds of Eucalyptus,
especially Eucalyptus globulus, and different kinds of
pines, among which Tasmania and many tree-like ferns arc-
frequently met with.
The Valley of the Lower Derwent extends from Mount
Nelson upwards to the confluence of the Derwent with the
Ouse (near 42" 35' S. lat.), and is rather more than 50
miles long, measured along the bends of the river. The
Derwent runs close to the range of high mountains which
extend along its western banks ; and the space between
the banks of the river and the base of the steep rocky
masses hardly ever exceeds a mile in width, and is fre-
quently not half so much. The soil of this narrow and
comparatively level tract is of great fertility, and a large
part of it is under cultivation. On the east of the river
the valley extends to the distance of about five miles, where
it meets the higher hills that enclose the valleys which lie
r east and north. The surface of this part of the
valley is level near the banks of the river, and subject to
inundations ; but at a short distance from them the ground
rises in gentle undulations, on which some low and isolated
hills are met with. The soil of this tract appears to be
generally of first-rate quality: it produces rich crops of
wheat, and is well adapted to orchards. Cultivation is
rapidly spreading over this tract.
A Hilly Region extends east of the Lower Valley of the
Derwent. It, extends eastward to the shores of the Pacific,
and northward nearly to 42° J5' S. lat. The surface of this
tract is a continuous succession of hill and dale. The tm-
VOL. XXIV.— M
T A S
TAB
Teller no iconer arrives at the Ixrttom of one hill than lie
cr, often three or four times in the
. : I'ii . l:. - me ; IM< - '•'• ;--';i- -», '•- ;' ' - • ;-'- ;|
height.-', which
itutc the both':
iln- n-L'ion from north to south, and
. rally of model ate width, tile '•
marshes or plains, are comparatively lew. Th-
:rt of this region appears to be a ridge of high
ground which begins mi the north at Table Mouir
summit standing near the south :ty of Lake
Sure. 11, whose i .;a!cd at :isiK) feet. The
ridge braneliing oft' from it towards the south is of moderate
ion, but considerable width, occupying the greater
part of the tract between (lie iivci- Clyde aiul Jordan. It
terminate* about five miles from the banks of the Dciwciit
in Mount Dromedary, the Munmit of whieh is 1HUO feet
above the sea-level. . -i the hills sink lower a.- we
proceed -until, and the suifaee of Ralph'* Peninsula, and of
the count r. Pitt's \Vater and North Bay, is only
undulating. Cultivation in this region is almost exclusively
limited to tli,' bottoms of the rivers, where there i.- a
strong soil, which produces plentiful crops of wheat and
other iriain. The declivity of the hills is sometim
steep for cultivation, and they are generally coveicd with
thick woods. Bui even where the declivities arc gentle,
whieh is most frequc./lv the case, the soil is too dry.
These declivities, and afso the upper parts of the hills,
where small levels frequently occur, are overgrown with
opi-n forests without underwood, under the shade of which
there is grass nearly all the year round. These hills aft'ord
ic fur sheep and cattle. This dc.-i :
applies to the whole region, except that portion which is
north of Norfolk Bay, and which appears not to ha\.
explored. That part of it which lies along the Pacific
-is only of rocky masses, frequently destitute of woods
and bushes, and in other places overgrown with crooked
and stunted ti,
Tlu I'/m'ns are north of the Hilly Region, and
extend from 42° 35' to about 41" 00'. They are sep
from the Pacific by a higher tract, called Eastern Tier.
This tract begin* on the south near 42° 35', where it is about
10 miles wide, and extends northward to the valley of the
South Ksk, to which it descends with a steep declivity. 11
increases in width as it proceeds farther noith, and on tin-
banks of the South Ksk it is more than 3() mi:.
to west. This region also is entirely unknown, and is a
blank on our map.-. \Vc can rind no information respect-
ing iU character and cap-Abilities. The heights which
i along the sea are very scantily wooded, and do not
lit a promising aspect. The plains themselves are
divided into the southern and northern plains by a some-
what hilly and wooded tract, which crosses them in a dia-
gonal direction from south-east to ninth-west, beginning
ou the Eastern Tier with the Bine Hills, south-east of Oat-
lauds, and passing cast of that township to Table Mount.
and the other heights surrounding Lake Son II, and hence
to the range of mountains called the \\C-leni Tier or
•ni Mountains, from the southern extremity of which
it is divided by the upper valley of Lake River. Farther
u Tier constitutes the northern boundary ol
it hem plains. These southern plains arc di-tiutr
by nianv large lakes. The most western of these '.
that of St. Cluir. the source of tin: Dvrwcnt river, li is
about ten miles long and three miles wide on an average,
and differs from the laki - <-t in having i;:
the shape, of an alpine lake and being surrounded by
mountains. Ti . a-t of the lake St. Clair is not
included in the plains, I. . .lomitainous, and con-
taining several high etweeil the Dcrwcnt on the
west u the east. Iv. . n to the east ol
the last -mentioned river that pait "t 'the country which lie-
neai the Dement is extremely uneven and hilly, but far-
ther north the southern plains begin with the tract that
surround* Lake Kcho. This lake is of a round form, but
only three mile* in diameter. The shape of this, like
all those farther east, shows that they an- not enclosed by
tains, but spread out in plains. North of Lake Keho
i* Great Lake, the source of the Shannon, one of the largest
tributaries of the Derwent. It is said that tin- lake i- -_l
milt-along, 10 v, ule, and, owing to its immeron- In am: lien. 75
mile-, in circuit ; but our maps (rive it hardly liab
dimensions. East of Great Lake we the three Arthur
lakes, the largest
Hi mil,-, i
(treat Lake. Smaller lai
.led tract whir!
-< i and
ut to
lerous, .
Irom the
northern plains. There are lev i the northern
plains, and they are all small, with i the
:i Lagoon, a el; -:, :u
termination of the Western Tier, the largest of winch may
be five miles long and half a mile wide. The woody tiact
separatim: the plain.- has a hilly -
where It is crossed by I
Hobart Town to Lannceston. In the plains tin-re are some
short ridges of low hills, which li-e aim-.. .mon
level with very long slop'
. At othe. .i>stly of a
conical form, h>
frequent in the district which up,
In oil.
level or slightly undulating. In then natural fcUtc '
arc generally destitute of trees, but in a f,w spots. .
cially where the surface is iindulutin<r, trees occur in small
clumps. The climate is much colder than in the low l
near the coast, as the snow sometimes co-. uml
for several weeks, and thus the soil imbibes sufficient n
lure to maintain a vigorous irrowth of ifrass nearly all the
year round. The pastures thus produced constitute the
iiural wealth of this region, a- the soil is seldom rich
enough for the growth of grain. Tie are much
better adapted for sheep than for cattle, ami the chid pail
of the wool exported from Tasmania is brought to the sea-
port.•, hum this reirion. Amon- ailed
Salt-Pan Plain requires notice. It lies near the v.
shed of the Derwent and Tamar, between the sou re-
the Macquarrie river, which runs to the Tamar, and those
of the Jordan, which falls into the Derwent. In this plain
are three ponds, or, rather, hollow deprc.--ion>, win, .
rilled with water during the rainy season, but dry up when
the rains are over, and the soil is then so strongly impreg-
nated with salt that a considerable quantity is coll>
ni for domestic purposes.
The region hitherto described is watered by many
streams, most of which join 1; ut. This nvcr
originates, as already • .u Lake St. Clair. It runs
about (k) miles measured in a straight hue. until it meets the
tide-water, and its general course is souti -,iiii.r
from the lake, il trav eises for several miles a plain, ami then
a narrow valley hounded by mountains, in which it
is joined from the north by the Nive. and from the south
by the Florentine river, the coui.-e of which two tribu'
ig hardly known. It leaves the mountain.- above it- junc-
tion with the Dee, where it forms two c mile
from one another, of which the uppermost i- :«l feet hii:h.
It then tlows along the foot of the western mountains with
a rapid current, and is not navigated, chi, l1. to the
numerous rocks along its banks, but also partly lu .;:,-, its
volume of water is subject to great change.-,
rapids occur at New Norfolk, up to which place the tide-
water comes. Durimr the summer months the water of
the river is biackish. and unfit for drinking at New Nor-
folk : but when it i- swollen by rains, it i- fresh to the
distance of two or three mile- below the town. The river
is lure a quarter of a mile wide, and begins to be navi-
irabl,' for ship-. A few miles lower (low n the river widens
to three-quarters of a mile, which width is gradually in-
creased to two miles. Below Hobart Town il vain
and four miles, and is deep enough
vessels, and free from shoals, which are rather mum
above that town. The tide ascends :>H miles lioin Storm
Bay. None of the tributaries which enter the Denvcnl.
from the south, after it has emerired horn the moim
are above the »i*c of n mountain-torn ut : but il i, <
,1111 the north which flow from 3) to 'M
mile-, a- the Dee. theOuse, the Clyde, and the Jordan.
Some of them form cataracts and rapids, and none of them
>vigmble.
The river Huoil. which drains the irre.-Uer part of thu
mountain-region west of the Derwent, na» a course of a bout
H«) miles ; but this river lies without the settled poition of
the colony, and , nljf been explored within a
lew years. No account of it exists. It forms a wide ••-
like the Dei-went, which opens in I) Kntrccasteaux
Bay. Coal River drains the undulating country east of
T A S
83
T A S
the Derwent, and falls into Pitt's Water : its course is
about 30 miles.
We pass to the description of the northern part of Tas-
mania i north of 41° 50'). The watershed of the eastern
districts of this country lies close to the Pacific, as the re-
motest sources of the South Esk are only from four to five
miles from its shores. The Upper Valley of the South Esk
lies between two large mountain-masses, but the Lower
Valley constitutes a. part of the Basin of Lincoln. The
Upper Valley extends from the sources of the river west-
ward to the vicinity of Ben Lomond Rivulet, where an
offset of the Ben Lomond comes close to the river, whilst
from the south the most north-western branch of the East-
ern Tier also approaches very near, so that there is a na-
tural pass by which the Upper Valley of the South Esk is
entered. This valley extends about 35 miles from the
irorge, following the St. Paul's River, but nearly 50 miles
alone: the Break-o'-Day River. The mountains which ex-
tend along the shores of the Pacific, and connect the
northern part of the Eastern Tier with the range of the
Ben Lomond, have not been explored. When seen from
the sea they constitute a high range, overtopped by several
summits, among which is Tasman's Peak and Mount Cham-
pagny, south-west of Cape St. Helen's : the last mentioned,
a conical summit, rises about 3000 feet above the sea. It
has not yet been ascertained where and how this maritime
range is connected with Ben Lomond. Ben Lomond ap-
pears to be the highest ground in this part of Tasmania,
and is estimated to rise 4200 feet, or about 1200 feet higher
than the mountain in Scotland whose name has been
transferred to it. The mountain-mass, of which it forms
the most elevated portion, extends to a considerable dis-
tance to the south-west, where, as already observed, it
comes close to the banks of the South Esk, near the place
where it is joined by Ben Lomond Rivulet, and it is pro-
bable that it advances still farther to the north-east, in
which direction this region has not been explored. It is
however certain that the maritime range and that of Ben
Lomond join at an acute angle, leaving between them a
depression of a basin-like shape, which may be called the
UnMii of Fiuiral, from a township of that name situated
near the place where the South Esk and the Break-o'-Day
River join. The existence of this basin has only been
ascertained within the last ten years, and our information
respecting it is scanty ; but as the settlements begin to be
numerous, and an it has been divided into hundreds, we
may presume that the soil of this tract is good. The
Basin of Fiusral extends from north to south about 15
miles, and about as much from east to west. Its southern
districts are drained by the Break-o'-Day River, which
rise* in the maritime range, and, running eastward, meets
below Fingal the South Esk, which originates in the Ben
Lomond range, and waters the northern districts of the
basin. A few miles below the confluence of these two
branches, the South Esk, having a south-west course, en-
ters a wide valley, about 10 miles long, and afterwards
reaches a plain, where it is met by the St. Paul's River.
The valley, through which the last-mentioned branch of
tiie South Esk descends from its source in the maritime
range, is for a considerable part of its course so wide, that
it has obtained the name of St. Paul's Plains, which are
described as an undulating country, in gome parts over-
crown with open forests, and in others without trees, but
well watered, and producing rich pasture. Between the
Valley of St. Paul's River and the Basin of Fingal is a moun-
tain-mass, which is connected on the east with the mari-
time range, and whose western extremity is marked by a
dome-like summit, to which the name of St. Paul's Dome
has been given. It is considered to rise 2800 feet above
the sea-level. After the confluence of the two principal
branches, the South Esk turns westward, and flows along
the base of the Eastern Tier, so that between the river and
the mountain south of it there is only a narrow strip, with
an undulating or hilly surface, which however has a good
soil. North of the river the valley extends to the base of
the Ben Lomond range, a distance of five or six miles : the
intervening ground resembles in general the St. Paul's
Plains, being better adapted for pasture than for agricul-
ture, and partly covered with thin forests. Thus the val-
ley continues to the gorge above the mouth of Ben Lomond
Rivulet.
North of the Upper Valley of the South Esk extends
the K'irlh-l'jiKtf.rn Mountain Region, the whole of which
is probably occupied by mountains ; but the interior of it
has not been explored, and only the outskirts of it are
known. The country along the Bay of Fires, between
Cape K. Helen's and Eddystone Point, is of considerable
elevation, but partly well wooded and partly covered with
a fine growth of grass. This tract is supposed to be fit for
pastoral settlements. North of Eddystone Point the moun-
tains are several miles from the shore : they have only
been seen from a distance, and appear to constitute one
continuous mass, broken in a few places by ravines, by
which small rivers issue from them. There are no striking
summits, except Mount Cameron, between Eddystone
Point and Ringarooma Bay, but its elevation is not known.
The mountains are generally wooded. The flat country
between these mountains and the sea, from Eddystone Point
to the mouth of the Tamar, is watered by numerous small
streams, but the soil is generally dry and sandy, in some
places overgrown with bushes or short, crooked trees, and
in others covered with swamps, in which only tea-bushes
are found. There are a few tracts which have a better
soil, and might be cultivated, as on the banks of Piper's
River. The best portion of this region is the valley of the
North Esk, which opens to the west, and stretches east-
ward into the mountains on the north of the Ben Lomond
range. This valley however is narrow, and contains very
few tracts adapted for agricultural purposes, and the num-
ber of settlements is small, though the proximity of the
tovyn of Launceston affords a ready sale for their produce.
A ridge of sterile but wooded hills runs along the southern
side of the river, and continues to the banks of the South
Esk, where that river, about a mile above Launceston,
runs in a narrow valley for a mile, and at the point where
it leaves that valley forms a cataract about 40 feet high.
The gorge through which the South Esk flows above
Launceston separates the valley of the Tamar, which lies
north of it, from the Basin of Lincoln, which extends south
of it. The Tamar is only a deep inlet of the sea, which
begins at the town of Launceston, and where the two Esks
fall into it. Its length to Port Dalrymple in a straight line
is about 30 miles, but measured along its numerous bends
it is 43 miles. The tides come up to Launceston, at which
place the inlet is only 60 yards wide, yet, vessels of 150 tons
may ascend to the town. The width of the navigable chan-
nel is 20 yards, nor does it widen for two miles below the town,
and it is very narrow 10 or 12 miles farther, though the inlet
itself widens to three-quarters of a mile. Ten or twelve
miles below Launceston the inlet alternately expands to a
weadth of three miles, and contracts to a mile, so as to appear
ike several small lakes connected by short channels. In this
part are several shoals and sand-banks, and they only dis-
ippear about 15 miles from the sea. It is a great obstacle to
:he navigation of the river that the wind always blows either
directly up or down it, so that a vessel is often obliged to
depend upon the tide, and it sometimes happens that a pas-
sage from Port Dalrymple to Launceston occupies two or
hree weeks. The valley of the Tamar, measured between
he summits on the two sides of the river, is about eight
miles wide, but two or three of them are occupied by the
declivities, though these declivities are rather steep. Thus
he cultivable ground, if the extent of the inlet itself is sub-
racted, varies between three and six miles. Near the town
of Launceston, and to a distance of about 11 miles north of
t, the country on both sides of the river possesses a con-
siderable degree of fertility, and is well settled ; but farther
down the eastern banks have a dry sandy or stony soil of very
nferior quality, which is still uninhabited. On the left bank
of the river the soil is much better, and there the settle-
ments are numerous, though not so numerous as near Laun-
ceston.
The Basin of Lincoln, so called from the hundred of
Lincoln, which occupies the centre of it, is the most fertile
portion of Tasmania. It includes on the east the lower
valley of the South Esk, extending to the western base of
Ben Lomond, and on the west reaches the eastern base of
he Western Tier. It is separated from the Northern
Elevated Plains by the hilly and woody tract called Epping
Forest. On the north it is bounded by the ridge of hills
south of Launceston, and the mountains which line the
northern banks of the Mseander as far as the mouth of
2uamby's Brook. It extends from south-east to north-
west about 25 miles, and as much from north-east to south-
west. This gives an area of GOO square miles. This basin
watered by several large rivers, which unite, and ulti
M. 2
'I1 .\ S
'I \ >
mately fall into the South K.-.U bel'o:
rivers- ;uv. Inn
Elizabeth luTer, Maequwrie Hirer, Lake River. IVnny-
royal River, anil Mnandcr or Uiver. Tl
face inul tin- soil of the Basin arc not uniform. East of tin-
South Esk tin- higher count rv chiefly consists of plains,
fit lu-r Jest it uti- of wood or thinly wooded, and well adapt rd
for sheep : the wide bottom of the rivers yields rich crop*.
Thi- country lictwccii the South K>k and Lake Hivcr con-
sists of wide valleys along the courses of the rivers, and
narrow ridges of hills between them, which however in
Mune places attain a considerable elevation above their
. These hills arc generally wooded, and though the
soil on their declivities is good, they ore at present only
u»ed as pasture-ground: the wide level tracts along the
watercourses have a very fertile soil, most of w hich is under
cultivation. The most level portion of the basin is that
which is wot of Lake River, for in this district the uplands
do not rise much above the bottom of the valleys, extend
with an undulating surface, and are seldorh interrupted by
high hills. Like the bottoms, they were formerly clothed
with trees, except on the very margins of the rivers, but
nearly the whole of the region has been cleared and con-
verted into fields. The soil of the bottoms is very rich, but
they are subject to inundations, which however are of short
duration. From the Basin of Lincoln all the corn is brought
to Launceston. which is exported from that place, and
which is the principal support of the population in the
country round Sydney, whenever Australia cxpenc'
dearth.
To the west of this basin is the Western Tier, or Western
Mountain.-., which extend from the banks of the I,akc River
a few miles below the place where that river issues from
the Arthur Lakes, in a west-north-west direction to the
sources of the river Mersey, a distance of about fH) miles.
The range lies between the southern plains and the Basin of
Lincoln, but we have very little information respecting this
i. A few summits have been noticed, as the Quam-
by Bluff, near the north-western extremity of the Basin of
Lincoln, which is staled to be :{."i()0 feet high, and the F.x-
treme Western Bluff, at the west end of the region. It
appears that the upper part of the range coiistr
tolerable level, on which only a few peak* attain fKKt feet,
and which is covered with small lakes. grass, and an alpine
vegetation. Some low rocky ridges which run across it
are covered with crooked eucalyptus and bushes. The
width of this elevated tract does not exceed a few miles,
but its elevation must be considerable, which may be in-
ferred from the circumstance, that even in .January, which
corresponds to our July, a heavy fall of snow W;LS experi-
enced, which covered the ground some inches deep. The
whole vegetation, especially the frequent occurrence of
lichens and mosses, proves its great elevation, which pro-
bably is not much less than -KHH) feet above the sea-level.
:ts northern extremity the Western Tier i-. of con-
siderable width, extending from (Juamhy's I! lull' to Extreme
Western Bluff', a distance of about '£> miles. At its
northern declivity extends a depression or valley, from
east to west, which may IK- called the I'nlli'ij «f tin' Mrrnn-
</IT, as that river drains the greater part of it. Though a
cart-road has been made through it, we are not acquainted
with its extent from south to north, but we are informed
that it extends westward to the vicinity of the (
when- tins liver turns westward, being here divide
the valley of the last-mentioned river by a narrow offset
of the Western Tier. This tract consists of level plains,
which are generally without trees, but in several places
there arc small clumps of them, and they .,
ally intersected by narrow belts of tun -I. extendin.
the mountains to the banks of the rivers. Numerous
nvem water this country, the soil oJ' which is stated to be
id quality, and equally adapted to cultivation and the
rearing of cattle.
Proceeding westward from the banks of the Mersey, two
high and steep mountain-ridges must be passed before
that region i* reached which is called the Surn-y Hills.
and which constitutes one of the most remarkable features
of Tasmania. It occupies the country for about 'JO miles
on each side of 146° E. long, and an equal exl
sides of 41" 30' S. hit., but properly speaking, its extent
toward* the south is not known, and it is even probable
that it reaches the foot of the Eldon range, a chain of
mountains which has been seen from a distance, and which
probably is nboi hit. This region gives origin
to a jrn-a: number of rivers, which run off in all dircc'
Witli the exception of a few n\ ; "lr
coast, all the rivers which fall in!
E. long, and north of -\1 S. lat. rise in t Mills:
they must therefore constitute the highest ground' in this
part of Tasmania. It is remarkable that the highest part
of the region lies on its outer edges, for the region is sur-
rounded on the east, and still more on the north and west,
by hills which rise considerably above the general level,
xtremely steep declivities', and narrov '-on
their tops, but'are otherwise covered with dense forests fre-
quently matted together by underwood. Among the single
summits are tin line's 1'eak, near the northern
edge, which isUUKlfeet above the sea, and the Black Bluff
Mount, which is said to be :«m feet higher. The interior
of the legion is very different. Its surface is formed by a
• if low hills, which rise with so gentle a slope
that it may be considered a plain, and it is intersected by
small brooks, tl . .vhich are adorned with narrow
belts of beaittiful shrubs and trees. Whenever a hill
to a higher elevation, its declivity consists of level and
regular terraces, a.s if laid out by art, and the summit is
crowned with stately peppermint-trees. There are many
open plains of several square miles in extent without a
tree. In general there arc not more than ten trees to an
The hills are covered with a vigorous growth of
grass. The soil is a dark vegetable mould upon a rich
brown loam. The substratum appears to be gravel, which
renders these hills perfectly dry, and fit for sheep-walks, lor
which purpose they now are used by the settlements which
have been formed on them by the Van Dieinen's Land
Company. This country extends north of St. Valentine's
Peak on' both sides of the Emu river, where it appear* even
more park-like than farther south, being handsomely
clumped with trees. This tract is called the Hanij
Hills. The elevation of the Surrey Hills above tin
level renders the climate much colder than on the .
Snow covers the ground for several weeks, which however
must be considered as an advantage in a country where
the. soil inclines to dryncss. It has also the benefit of
abundant rains during autumn (March and April .
Between the valley of the Mji'iuidcr and the Surrey Hills
on the south, and Bass's Strait on the north, is the hilly
! region of Devonshire. The mountains which extend from
the gorge of the South Ksk to the west of the Tamar north-
north-west, and terminate on the sea with 1'oint Flinders,
appear to constitute a continuous range of moderate eleva-
tion. They ore partly wooded and partly destitute of tree-,
and in some places covered with a very scanty vegetation
of shrubs or grass. Farther west this region is very little
known, except that the spaces between the rivers are tilled
up with mountains and high hills, and that these heights
come close to the shores of the sea. Few, if any. settle-
ments have been formed on it. This region extend-
ward to the banks of the Emu River.
West of the Emu River begins the (ii;-nl Plain of Tas-
mania : it oeeii|. ill-western portion of the island,
extending along the northern coast from the Emu to I 'ape
. and along the western coa.-t to the Arthur River.
The narrowest portion of this plain appears to be between
the Emu and Detention Rivers, where its width .Iocs not
! 12 miles, and it. terminates on the south at the
Hampshire Hill-. Farther west a continuous range of high
hills, called the Campbell Range, forms its bom
and terminates near the source of the Detention River with
Dip Hill. ;i mountain of moderate elevation. The snrlacc
of this portion of the plain is strongly undulating, and in
many purls even hilly. Near the shores it is o\ei grown
with dense forests, winch arc made nearly impenetrable by
the underwood, bushes, and ferns. But about three miles
or somewhat more from the sea the forests are interrupted
.ill plains covered with grass and des-
titute of trees. They have a light dry soil, are well watered
by springs and sljcunis. and surrounded by excellent tim-
ber. The grass is coai-r but plentiful : there arc iiiso some
fit for cultivation. West of Detention River Hie.
plain grows wider. From Dip Hill, at the source of the
I Icily er distinguished the high grounds at Cape
(film and 'West I'oinl, though they arc of very niode-
l plain, we-t of 1 >etcnl ion R'ivcr, ex-
ceed 15 miles in width. This large tract however i>
ill adapted for colonization. The surface, is generally level
T A S
85
T A S
and the water not being carried off, the country has been
converted into an immense swamp. A portion of the swamp
is overgrown by low tea-trees, and the remainder is covered
with forests of eucalyptus and underwood. The higher
grounds, which generally occur nearer the shores, have a
sandy soil covered with heath or stunted trees. The only
tract which seems to be applicable to useful purposes is
along the sea from Cape Grim to the River Arthur : its
width near the cape is several miles, but farther south it
grows much narrower : the surface is hilly and partly stony.
The soil has generally a tendency to sand, but it is thickly
covered with kangaroo grass, and makes good pasture-
ground for sheep, and in some places for cattle. Trees
occur only at considerable distances from each other. It
is probable that the plain continues south of Arthur River,
but that it is of less extent there, as low hills have been
seen at a short distance from the sea, which are dry and
only covered with bushes, but behind them the hills rise
much higher. These parts have never been visited.
The Arthur, whose mouth is near 41° lOi S. lat., is a
river of considerable size, and brings down a large volume
of water. There is a bar across its mouth, on which the
sea breaks with a heavy surf. Its middle course is not
known, but it is supposed that the chief supply of its waters
is derived from the Surrey Hills, and that two large rivers,
which rise there, and are respectively called Hellyer River
and Arthur River, unite in the country between the Surrey
Hills and the western coast ; and that by their confluence
the- Arthur is formed.
The other known rivers of the northern part of Tasmania
are unimportant, with the exception of the Emu, which is
navigable for boats for a few miles. With respect to the
Smith Esk, which probably has a course of 100 miles, two
of'its principal branches, the Macquarrie and the Lake River,
rise on the southern elevated plains, and the upper branches
of these rivers interlock with rivers which flow southward
to the Derwent. As other branches of the South Esk rise
near the eastern coast, and others far to the west, it is pro-
liable that the area of the country which is drained by it
and the North Esk does not fall short of 4000 square miles.
The Tamar certainly receives the drainage of a much larger
extent of country than any other river of Tasmania.
I'li mate. — As no meteorological observations have been
published on the climate of Tasmania, we only know its
peculiarities by comparisons which have been made be-
tween it and that of England and Sydney. There is a con-
_siderable difference between the climate of Hobart Town
on the southern, and of Launceston on the northern coast.
The climate of Hobart Town seems to be greatly in-
fluenced by the range of mountains west of the town and
the vicinity of the open ocean. The vague statement of
Breton, that the mean temperature in summer is 70°, and
in winter between 40" and 48°, is apparently not derived
from observations, and is not much to be relied on. The
climate of Hohart Town is extremely changeable. Heat,
cold, rain, and sunshine succeed each other with a rapidity
which is rarely observed in any other part of the globe. The
winter is not more constant than the summer : the same
alternations, with the addition of hail and snow, follow each
other in quick succession ; but the snow never remains on
the ground beyond a few hours, whilst at Launceston it falls
in greater quantity, and covers the ground for many days
together. This statement does not agree with another, ac-
cording to which the average number of days on which rain
actually falls dors not exceed fifty or sixty in the year, and
that, except on these days, the sky is clear, the sun brilliant,
and the atmosphere dry, pure, and elastic. Hot winds
sometimes occur, which occasionally raise the thermometer
to 108°. They blow from north and north-west, and rarely
la>t a long time ; but during their prevalence vegetation is
greatly injured. However warm the middle of the day may
lie, it is invariably attended by a morning and evening so
cool as completely to brace the body, and to counteract any
enervating effects of the climate. Thunder-storms are less
icnt than in Australia, but violent gusts of wind some-
times occur, which cause great destruction in the forests,
and the coasts are visited by much boisterous weather.
Alctii; tin; \votern coast strong south-westerly winds pre-
vail nearly all the year round, and render this tract almost
inaccessible on account of the want of harbours. During
•>n» of the year westerly gales continue for many
weeks in Bass's Strait, so that vessels sailing from Sydney
to the Atlantic find that I hey save time and labour by
going round the island. The climate is very healthy : no
epidemic or contagious diseases have been observed, and
acute diseases are generally mild and of short duration, and
yield more easily to the usual remedies than in anv other
country.
Productions. — The mineral wealth of the island is not
known. The existence of gold and silver rests on state-
ments which cannot be relied on ; but that of copper is
certain, and this metal is rather abundant in some of the
hills on the north coast. Iron-ore is abundant, but not
yet turned to account. Some ore which was subjected to
a trial yielded 80 per cent, of metal. There are also in-
dications of lead, zinc, and manganese ; and those of coal
have been found all across the island. Roofing-slate of
good quality abounds in many parts : on the Arthur such
extensive layers were discovered by Hellyer, that in his
opinion the whole globe might be supplied with them.
Salt is obtained from the salt lakes of Salt-Pan Plain, and
is also got from sea-water on Bruni Island, but not in
sufficient quantity to supply the consumption. Salt is
imported from England. Excellent sandstone for building
is found in all parts of the island, and marble is met with
at various places. Basalt rocks are frequent along the
coast and in many places in the interior.
No tropical grains or plants are cultivated, but all grains
cultivated in England succeed well. Wheat is of excel-
lent quality, weighing generally from 62 to 64 pounds the
bushel : considerable quantities are exported. Barley and
oats will only thrive in a good soil. Vegetables of all
kinds are most plentiful, even those of Southern Europe,
the production of which requires in England much care
and expense. The apple-orchards are of great extent,
and the making of cider is attended to. Peaches, apricots,
and nectarines grow very abundantly. Damsons, plums,
cherries, pears, and quinces are also grown ; but the fruit
is of inferior quality, for want of care. Grapes are of good
quality, but no good wine has yet been made. Rasp-
berries, gooseberries, and currents are abundant and of
good quality : strawberries are also good. All these fruits
have been introduced by the settlers.
The domestic animals of Europe have been transplanted
to Tasmania, and thrive very well. Sheep are most nu-
merous. Wool and live stock are exported to a great
extent. Black cattle are also numerous, and many head
are annually exported ; and also some horses. Fowls are
extremely numerous, but geese and ducks are not much
kept.
The spermaceti-whale is very abundant in Bass's Strait,
and many of them are annually taken, but more by the
inhabitants of Australia than by those of Tasmania. Black
whales abound in all the seas round the island, and a very
lucrative fishery is carried on along the southern coast.
Whalebone and train-oil are important articles of export.
A small quantity of spermaceti-oil is also exported. Seals
are found on most of the smaller islands, and especially
on the eastern coast : their skins constitute an article
of export. Some of the animals of the forests are common
to Australia and Tasmania. The native tiger (Hyaena
opossum) and the native devil (Dasyurus ursinus) are pe-
culiar to Tasmania, and perhaps also the wild cat. These
are the only carnivorous animals in Tasmania, with the
exception of some species of weasel. There are three or
four species of kangaroos, two kinds of opossum, the ban-
dicoot, the native porcupine or echidna, the wombat, the
opossum-mouse, and the ornithorhynchus paradoxus. All
the wild animals of Tasmania, with the exception of the
native devil, are very easily tamed and domesticated. The
birds are numerous : these are emus, black and white
cockatoos, parrots, two kinds of magpies, the laughing
jackass, hawks, eagles, the carrion crow, pelican, black
swan, ducks, teal, widgeons, quails, snipes, and bronze-
winged pigeons : the last-named are considered the most
beautiful birds in the island. There are likewise several
varieties of snakes, two or three of which are venomous ;
also centipedes, scorpions, and large ants. Fish are
said to be more numerous than on the coast of Australia,
but they have not been further noticed. The river-fish
are small.
None of the forest-trees or shrubs yield an edible fruit.
They are all evergreens, and have that sombre olive hue
which prevails in Australia, without a single lively tint,
except that of the native cherry, to break this monotony.
The most numerous are the eucalyptus, which attains an
T A S
T A S
immense die. From on* of its specie* ft manna U ob-
tained, which taates like some kind of sugar-plum : it form*
.•(ions on the leaves and smaller branches : lint in
found in fin ch triflinir quantities that it would never repay
1 he trouble of oollccting it. The most i; it the
stringy bark, which i* used for building anil fern-ing; and
the lifue gum. of which moot of the boat* in the colony
nre built. The smaller trees are used for matt* for small
VM*el*. The ]ii'])|iermint, so called from the taste of the
leaves, is a Inrtre tree, but of very little MM. Tho Huoli
pine is the most beautiful wood In the island : it is very
i or both in colour and substance to the Norway deal,
but is scarce and difficult to be had. The Adventure pine,
so called from the bay <>r that name, is a species of pine
adapted for house-work and furniture : but it i* not com-
mon. The black and silver wattle mimosa are used in
hou»e-work and furniture, but they nre of diminutive size.
The bark of the black wattle is exported to Knglnnd in
large quantities. The tea-tree is a shrub which grows in
wet situations : an infusion of its leaves makes n pleasant
and, with a little sugar, forms an excellent sub-
stitute for tea.
(Hindere's Voyage to Terra Auttralit ; Hovel's Voyagt
fStirteattfOUX, &c. ; Evans's OtogfffMioal, llixturinil,
and Topograjikicat Description of I 'tin .'
Widowson's Present State <>f Agriculture. <V-. in I 'tut
Diemea'» Land; Bischoft"s Sketch of the History iff I'mt
Difinen'tt Land, <f-e. ; and Breton's Excursions in Ntw
South H
llntory. — In 1803 Lieutenant Bowen, commissioned by
the government of New South Wales, landed on the east
bank of the Derwent, and 1'oniially took possession of Van
Piemen's Land as a place of settlement. In the following
year Colonel Collins, the first lieutenant-governor, arrived,
and established the seat of government on the west bank
of the Derwent: he gave to the spot the name of Hobart
Town, in compliment to Lord Hobart, then secretary of
state for the colonies. Colonel Patterson arrived in the
tame year in the Tamar, and formed an establishment on
its west bank. Colonel Pavcy succeeded to the govern-
ment in 1x13, and under his administration the ports of
the colony were first opened to commerce, only transport
vessels from New South Wales having previously been ad-
mitted. Colonel Sorellwas appointed litmtenant-LTovcrnor
in 1X17, and in 1S19 the immigration of free settlers from
England commenced, the colony having been previously
lively formed of criminals sent from New South
Wales for crimes repeated there, and of the civil and mili-
tary officers charged with their superintendence. Till the
year 1H24 the government was subject to that of New
South Wales, and the chief civil and criminal questions
an-ing 111 Van Dicnien's Land were decided in Sydney.
The only courts in the island were those of police magis-
trate*, who had cognizance of petty crimes, air.l a court
for the settlement of questions of value not exceeding ."HI/..
in which a military officer presided. Great inconvenience
and mischief resulted from this state of things.
eases were mostly settled by compromise ; and in criminal
cases, the most dangerous offenders were allowed to
weapc.
The most important steps in the progress of the colony
were made between the years 1M24 and 1K30, (luring the
administration of Colonel' Arthur :—
In lw.Il, the population w;i> U,r.|:i: in IKTi it waa 40,283
„ Number of vessels
which arrived . .'U ; „ ill
„ Sailed outwards . :!.">; „
„ Acres in crop :il.(Ki3; „
„ Pounds of wool
exported . l.«l,(KK); „ 1,042,800
„ Number of nianu-
factoiic- . ±2; „ 133
Hanks . . • 1 ; „
Kevcmic . ' „ £]<•
;ienditnrc . 1 f
Value of Imports -T(,j.< N N i :
l-Aports I'll. :>()();
l Return* of Vnn Dtentfn't l^m.l. ,-,,n,j,il,:l
hy the Colonial fetMtMjr, Hobart T ' HV/i Oct..
AM
Huadi were formed and bridge* constructed in different
part* of the island ; wholesome laws w«re introduced ; the
tone of public opinion wra* improved, and the fnii'
enterprise and industry were secured by an improved police
system.
" That which chiefly contribut, progress of the
nent was extraordiiK!' t to
emigrants. Grants of hind" wei
tinned in extent to the capital which •
pared to invest in stock and in agricultural
The labour of convicts was not only liberal'
lonist was rewarded for employing it by n
of rations for himself and the convict* in hi* employ for
some time after hi* arrival : and ut a later period, when
this remuneration, or, to speak more correctly, thin addi-
tional bonus, was withdrawn altogether, labour was ob-
tained on the . lion* ol the settler providing
clothes, food, and KM! -signed I"
Thert were other advantagi incident t<
purposes for which the colony was founded, which a-
its progress. The character and condition of 1h
of the population required that a civil and mi
should be established on the island, which. I"
tained by the British government, introduced MI much
capital annually. From the magnitude of their crimes or
their dangerous character, it was not deemed
move from under the immediate coercion of government
a large number, amounting latterh •housands,
of the convicts, and their punishment was made to
consist of hard labour at works of public, utility, Mich us
the making and repairing of roads and bridges. While
the expense of maintaining these convicts was dcfravi
the British government, the settlers contracted to supply
the vaiiou.s articles which made up that expense.
thus in a twofold manner benefited: they hail
labourers employed for their advantage at the cost of a
third party, and they were enabled to derive a profit from
the payment of that labour. With such circumstai-.
its favour, with a healthy climate, and a soil of a\>
capabilities, it was impossible that Tasmania should n
vance. Its progress has accordingly been steady, scarcely
subject to any of those variations to which young colonies
are exposed ; — to none indeed but such as may be strictly
referred to that gambling spirit of speculation which the
occasional great protits of an imperfectly established
market are. apt to engender.
In 1831 the system of colonization by free grants of land
was abolished, and since then land has been sol, I 1
tion, first at the unset price of five shillings per
scqueiitly at twelve shillings; and latterly at twen:
which it remains. The system of assignment of eoiivict.
labour is at present only partially in force, and it is in-
tended to discontinue it. The colony has prohab:
\anced to that state in which the advantages (advantages
not without some drawbacks e\ en in the In it .-om-
pulsory labour have ceased, and in which the. iniuuti
the good will, the steady subordination of the servant are
to the' success of industrial operations.
.
Trade an The staple article of production
in Tasmania is wool, the amount of which cxpoitcd m the
year ending December, Is: is. cu-ccded 2.4!KI.!I.H) 1 1 is. < /'<;/•-
/ in mi •.'•! i>n lym I innl II ootten Ma
April -J!». IXI'l. i The value nf this wool in tl,,
market has, according to tb Report ol the *
tary to the government ol V;n Diemens Land, quoted
above, ranged from Iv. (it/, to Uv. li</. per Ib. A con
able trade has during the last live year-, been earned on
with the new colonies of Australia, South and
'hillip, in sheep, the prices of which have varied in
that time so much its from seven shilling.-, to si\!
• ad.
Owing to the smallncssof the demand for grain, am! tin-
great outlay required in the clearing of laud, a
operations have been slow in Tasmania. This ha- hi*
been accounted for by the circumstance that tc
farmers emigrated to the colony. ' The earlier settlers
••hiefly artuaus of intem]K'rate habits, unacquainted
with hu.sbamhv . and disinclined to attain a knowledge of it.
liter from whose account we quote, him-
self for ten years a colonist of Van Dieinen's I. and i they
obtained and located themselves on grants of land : turned
up the soil, and threw grain into it : and it being grateful,
repaid their rude essays with bountiful harvests. This was
sufficient. When one piece ol land was exhausted, another
was broken up, and so on in constant succession. Fresh
T A S
87
T A S
settlers continued to arrive, and obtained land too ; and as
these were not agriculturists either, they had to copy their
predecessors. Such was the progress of agriculture in Van
Diemen'g Land ; and such is its condition at the present
period (1838). The diversity of the climate in the different
oistriete is still overlooked ; the seasons are scarcely ascer-
tained, and the proper times for sowing remain doubtful,
and are adopted irregularly.' (The Condition and Capa-
bilities of Van Diemen's Land, by John Dixon, 1839.)
Van Diemen's Land however produces not only a sufficient
supply of grain for domestic consumption, but has con-
tributed for several years to supply the deficiency in New
South Wales ; and in the opinion of local writers there is a
probability of its being the granary of the southern hemi-
sphere. Oxen are generally used, instead of horses, in
ploughing, and the implements of husbandry are those in
use in England.
Oil constitutes the second great article of export from
Tasmania. Whales of the black species were at one time
taken in trreat abundance in the bays on the coast of the
island ; but we find that Mr, Dixon confirms the appre-
hensions expressed by an earlier writer on the colony
iont on New South Wales and Van Diemen's
Land, by John Henderson, Calcutta, 1832) of their being
driven away by an injudicious prosecution of the fishery at
all seasons of the year. Sperm oil, as well as that of the
black whale, is exported. The returns derived from this
source are still considerable.
Among the miscellaneous exports are bark, kangaroo
skins, \vhnlc-bone, and potatoes (to Sydney) ; but the ag-
>te of the returns from these articles is trifling.
There are about eight banking establishments, with
branches in the chief towns. .They are all joint-stock, the
shareholders being responsible to the full extent of their
property. They circulate notes of one pound and upwards.
interest at a recent date was ten per cent., and at the
period at which this article is written it cannot be affirmed
with confidence whether it is lowered. There are also
al companies for the insurance of life and property.
iJirinimis of the Island. — Original'y Tasmania was
divided into two counties, but it has since been subdivided
into police districts, and more recently into thirty-six
counties. We are not awdre however that any map em-
bracing the county divisions has been published, and in the
following details we adhere to the divisions into districts.
The district of Hobart Town is bounded on the east by the
riser Derwent, and on the south and west by the river Huon,
on the north by New Norfolk and Richmond districts. It
comprises an iirea of about 400 square miles, or 250,000
ol which not more than about 4000 are yet in cul-
tivation. Richmond is bounded on the south and east by
the sea, on the north by Oatlands, and on the west by New
Norfolk; its towns are Richmond, Sorell, and Brighton ;
liesicles which it includes several lariri- agricultural e-ta-
Mi.shmeiits: it contains about 1050 square miles, or 072,000
. of which about 22.(XX) are estimated to be under cul-
tivation. New Norfolk is bounded on three sides by Hobart,
( 'lydc.and Richmond districts, and on the west and south-
by unlociited lands. The towns are New Norfolk and
Hamilton, and it comprises about lf>0() square miles, or
!Mj,000 acres, a great portion of which is ban-en and rocky:
about (MMN' in cultivation. Clyde is bounded on
the west l>y unloeated lands, and on the other three sides
by Norfolk Plains, Campbell Town, and Oatlands districts :
its only town is Bothwell. This district comprises 1700
square miles or l.OHKOOO acres, about 5000 of which are in
cultivation. Oatlands, bounded on the south by Richmond,
east by Oyster Hay, west by the Clyde district, and north
by Campbell Town, contains 900 square miles, or about
:~>7G,(KX) acres. Oatlands and Jericho are its towns. Up-
ward* of 4000 acres are in cultivation. Campbell Town,
bounded on the south by Oatlands, east by unloeated laiHs
extending to the sea, west by theClyde and Norfolk Plains,
and north by Launccston district, comprises about 1200
square miles, or 8f>0,000 acres. Its towns are Campbell
Town and Ross. The land is rich and fertile, having KOOO
or 9000 acres in cultivation. Norfolk Plains are bounded on
(hi- ,.,'ilh 1,1 the Clyde, east by Campbell Town and Laun-
and by the territories of the Van Diemen's
Land ( <mi|j:uiy, and north by Bass's Straits. This district
com 'i square miles, or rather more than 1,500,000
acres. Longford anil Westbury are the townships. About
8000 and are supposed to be m cultivation. Laun-
ceston district is bounded on the south by Campbell Town,
on the west by Norfolk Plains districts, and on the north
and east by the ocean. Besides the town of Launceston
it has Perth and George Town. The district covers 3800
square miles, or about .2,352,000 acres; not more than
10,000 or 11,000 of which are in cultivation. Oyster Bay
is bounded on the^south by Richmond, west and north by
Oatlands and Campbell Town districts, and east by the
ocean. It contains about 900 square miles, or 570,000
acres, of which between 2000 and 3000 are estimated to be
in cultivation. (Martin's Van Diemen's Land ; Hobart
Town Annual.)
The other divisions of the island are — the Van Diemen's
Land Company's territories, comprising nearly half a mil-
lion of acres on the north-west corner of the island, bounded
on two sides by the sea, on the others by crown lands not
yet located, and by the settled districts of the Norfolk
Plains; and Tasman's Peninsula. Of the purposes to which
Tasman's Peninsula is applied, an account is given in the
article TRANSPORTATION.
Towns. — Of the towns mentioned in the preceding out-
line of the territorial divisions of Tasmania, only two or
three are worthy of notice, the others being little more
than villages or sites laid out for towns on which a few
straggling houses are built. ' Hobart Town is built upon
an undulating surface, receding from a cove on the left of
the Dervvent. Seen from the water, it seems to run up
before you on a variety of ascents, and to spread itself
abroad upon the hills in the distance. Mount Wellington,
a great mountain, which during nine months in the year
is capped with snow, and which rises four thousand feet
above the level of the .sea, stands at the back, in darkness
and sublimity, and overlooks the surrounding scenery.
The town is laid out with judgment. There are about twenty
streets, all wide, and dividing or intersecting one another
at right angles. A narrow and shallow rivulet, which
takes its rise from Mount Wellington, flows through the
town, and affords the inhabitants their only supply of fresh
water. All the streets are macadamized, and none are
flagged. . . The houses bear no common aspect. Some
are of brick, others of stone ; but all, instead of being
slated, are roofed with shingles. As every proprietor has
been guided by his own taste in the structure of his house,
few are built alike or upon the same plan ; and as he was
not restrained by the government to a settled line, they are
often planted in a zigzag position. The town covers a
great deal of ground, but little of it after all is built upon.
A tree is seen sometimes standing in the midst of houses,
and a house often in the midst of trees. Dwellings have
been erected long before the streets were made, and the
town being upon a very irregular surface, some of the
buildings in consequence now occupy very awkward situa-
tions. On one side of a street they are often elevated
much above the level ; while, on the other they are sunk
considerably beneath it. Shops are scattered all over
Hobart Town ; but the business thoroughfare is confined
to two streets. Some of the shops are showy and respect-
able, even tasteful and elegant ; displaying an appearance
equal to that of many in London. The householder is as
particular in decorating the interior of his house as ho
would be were he in England, and hence his furniture is not
inferior to that of those of his own rank in the mother coun-
try.' (Dixon's Account.) In 1839 there were upwards of
fifteen hundred houses in Hobart Town. Among the public
buildings may be named three handsome Episcopalian
churches, and one Presbyterian, one superior edifice be-
longing to the Wesleyans, besides several of inferior descrip-
tion, the property of the same body, two Independent,
chapels, and a Roman Catholic church, by this time proba-
bly completed. The Government House is an irregular struc-
ture, made up of continual additions to an originally small
building, and is shortly to give place to another house in-
tended for the residence of the lieutenant-governor, of
which the foundation has been laid. There are custom-
houses, a handsome theatre, a court-house, and police-
office, and an exchange has been set on foot. There are
many benevolent and religious institutions and societies
established, and two or three of a literary character. Seven
papers are published, most of which are weekly, besides
an official gazette and two gratuitous advertising sheets.
The population of Hobart Town, including the convicts and
military as well as the free inhabitants, in the town and
its immediate precincts, is not less than ten thousand. The
T A S
following • "hit tin- aiiuiunt uf the llohart Town
imiiDH.s and f\|H>rU, with the places IIKIII which rrrrivril,
and to which sent, lor I he \carc tiding December, )Kf7: —
Imftrirlt.
Great Britain . . . £230.950
Smith Wales .
itms
ita
Canton . . .
.Ha . . ,
. 'ore
Cape of Good Hope
United States .
Hamburg
Great Britain
New South Wale*
Swan Kiver
South Australia
New Zealand
Mauritius
Calcutta
Canton .
Valparaiso
Exports.
MjMO
8,141
4387
1..-.H
880
1,878
8.OO
490
£348,126
£235,266
In a comparison of these returns it is pointed out by the
editor of the • Van Diemen's Land Annual," from which
publication they are taken, that the apparent balance ex-
hibited against HobartTown is diminished when it is con-
sidered that a great portion of this balance consists of pro-
perty imported by individuals who have settled in the
colony. We have not been able to procure authentic
returns of a later date than those quoted; but it may be
concluded that the value both of the exports and imports
of Hobart Town has greatly increased since.
Launceston, the second town of the colony, is situated
at the confluence of the North and South Esk", which there
form the Tamar, flowing about forty-five miles, when it
disembogues into the ocean at Bass's Straits. It is 124 miles
from the capital of the colony. Lannceston is situated in
a marshy spot, and is neither in beauty nor in the promise
of health to be compared to Hobart Town. The enterprise
uf its inhabitants, aided by the vicinity of the richest
settlements in the island, is however great, and it is not
improbable that this town will outstrip its southern com-
petitor in commerce. The imports in the year 1K(7 were
l'.ll.s-J3/. in value : the exports being 264,5i")!)/.. upward* of
twenty-nine thousand pounds above those of Hobart Town ;
and in subsequent years it is believed that the difference
is much greater in amount. Launceston contains many
churches, t he property of different religious denominations,
and the private and public buildings are not destitute of
architectural beauty.
The highway between the northern and southern capitals
of Tasmania is for the most part well laid out : there are
inns along this road at short distances from one another,
the accommodation in which is not far from equalling the
same on the roads of England. Passing from the highway
into what were not long since unpeopled woods, the
fashionable vehicle as well as the rustic waggon of the
settler is to be seen dri\en along cross mads which are
everywhere in process of formation : and here and there,
only partially obscured from a distance by the thick and
sombre Australian foliage, are In ];,• seen "mansions aim.. st
baronial, superseding the rude shelter of the aborigine, and
the but, almost as rude, in which the colonist first lodged.
Population.— In iKts » census of the free inhabitants
of Van Diemen's Land was mnde with a reference to the
religious denominations to which they belonged, which ex-
hibited the following summary: —
Church of Knglaml
( 'hiireh of Scotland
Church of Home
\Veslcvins
Baptists
Independents
Quaker*
Jews .
The accuracy of Ibis return, in MI far as it referred •
relative number* belonging to different i< omi-
nations. was generally questioned ; but t!:
•-tation ol the amount of popul.i1
admitted. No great increase b\ IIIHKIL iatioii h:is •
place sir.ce, and the new co ' Phillip h:.-
many from Tasmania. The return of the number of male
and female com ids for the sain
Male convicts .... lr.
Kemale convict*
An account of the com id system of Van Piemen's Land
• r\ed for the article TRANSPORTATION : but 11,.
lowing returns are introduced I'.cie. as they bear upon the
general social condition of the island : —
Return s/wui'iig the Disposal of the Convicts in 1838.
Sentence of transportation expired . 793
Free and conditional pardons
Transported to New South \V., . 23
Transported to Port Arthur . . ],30<i
Absconded in 1837 . . ±£1
Died . K,7
Executed . . . . 4
Confined in gaols . . (i!i
Sick in hospitals . .
Invalid establishments . . PJI;
Employed in chain gangs
Kmploycd in public winks
Artificers on loan to settlers . . '.!(i'J
,'ned to settlers .... (i.ui'J
'Tickets of leave.' or conditionally free :t,!Mkt
Constables and iield police .
Missing ... . . 'M
Female Convicts.
Sentence of transportation expired
Conditional pardons . . .
Died
Sent to New South Wales .
Total number remaining
U»
B3
16
1
2.31 S*
i if Crime. — If Van Diemen's Land has greatly be-
nefited in au economical sen-e In being a settlement for
convicts, it has undoubtedly suffered from this cause in a
moral sense. A paragraph will not suffice to give an ac-
curate idea of the general moral condition of the popu-
lation. Referring therefore to the Transportation 1,
of 1838, and to a volume entitled ' Australiana." by Captain
Maconochie, R.N..K.H. (Parker, Strand, 1836), vn shall
introduce here only a lew details and accoinpamin
planations taken from the last of these authorities.
withstanding the1 strictness and vigilance of the police of
this colony, notwithstanding the length of time during
which the prisoners ha\e for the most part been sub.'.
to its minute supervision, notwithstanding the decided
tendency of the age to moral improvement, and notwith-
standing tlie great influx of free settlers into the colony
within the last ten jears and the hiu'li personal respec-
tability of most of them, the proportion of cnme and dis-
order'to the entire population is not onl\ . but
appeals in mam paitieulars e\eii lobe on UW inert
From No. :u of \J\tStatittical /'.;/<• /•* drawn up by the
colonial secretary, it appears that convictions for drunken-
ness were, in IS'.'l. as :(,•', to UNI of the whole population,
and in timis under penal statin .
.'i-soiis in IS'Jl were as 5jJ to 1IHI. and in IKJ'J .-is
7ft; and general misdemeanors b\ com ids in IsJl were
, to im. and in IS32 as I:*,"/,. After IKW the re-
turns arc differently made, and tin- several heads of o Hence
are multiplied : yet, with feu except).
fact is evident. Thus drunkenness among the comicts in
lX33-3t-:i5 was as 4fi, 4^, 4^J respecli\ely to 1(K).
The tendency, as is well known, in Kiiirhsh society, ut
in peculiar circumstances, has been rather steadily, during
the last ten or tucl\e veais. towards sobriety. Felonies
'I ol summarily were in like manner, in ls3:t-:H-:r>,
»* 2ft- +H|. 3JH to I'lK): nmonir free people, as 7)^, 5Jt>
.!,, 1,1 liHI: and what are, MIS otlenee,. not in-
cluded under pieuo.is lieads, as Iflj, 3^,4^ to 100. Cap-
W',' ' .wn.l,
w lii'-li i \plain the difference between thoc totals ami tho«e j.rc\ iou-ly quoted.
T A S 89
fain Maconochie quotes returns of the convictions befor
the supreme court and quarter-sessions, on which he re
marks : l>t. that the ratios throughout to the whole popu
lation are enormous, convictions in England being scarcel
1 to 1000 inhabitants, and in Scotland only 1 to 1300
those for Van Diemen's Land being, in 1835, 1 to 105^
2ml. the extreme vigilance of Van Diemen's Land polic
tends to prevent the commission of great crimes, while
the latitude given to its summary jurisdiction makes i
unnecessary to bring medium offences under the cogni
zance of the higher courts; 3rd, the pecuniary prosperity
of Van Diemen's Land is advancing, which shows tha
dissipation, not distress, leads there to crime. Comparing
the state of petty crime in the colony to that in London
it is found that "in Van Diemen's Land, for drunkenness
alone, the convictions among the free population are
about 14 per cent. ; whereas in London, for every descrip-
tion of petty offence, they are little more than 5 per cent. ;
and Captain Maconochie remarks that the returns in Van
DicniiM's Laud refer to a mixed population of agricul-
v.ell as town residents, which makes the com-
parison still more disadvantageous. As general charac-
teristics, he mentions dissension, bitterness of feeling,
improvidence, and a reliance upon authority, instead ol
moral influence, in the relations of master and servant.
He remarks also that there is a low standard of moral
principle, a characteristic which, though not so obvious,
is radically more detrimental than great occasional vices,
and one which it is more difficult to correct. But as he
frequently points out in his interesting work, and as there
is a necessity of remarking here, in strictness a social cha-
racter can scarcely be predicated yet in reference to the
population of Van Diemen's Land ; the colony is not old
enough to have moulded the character of its inhabitants ;
and, amid much that is painful in the aspect of society,
there is also much of an opposite character — individual
l,ciicvolence and public spirit.
ni-nt. — Van Diemen's Land is administered by a
lieutenant-governor, who is assisted by two councils. The
lieutenant-governor has the initiative of all laws. The
conn :illed the Executive and the Legislative.
Dormer is composed of official members, and the latter
of official and non-official : all are appointed by the crown,
and removable at the governor's pleasure, with the sanc-
tion of the crown. If two-thirds of the legislative council
: posed to any act proposed, it cannot pass : the rea-
"f dissent are entered. Practically however this pro-
vision is of no value, for half of the council are salaried
(dicers of the local government. Laws passed by the
••il must, within seven days, be enrolled in the Su-
preme ( 'ourt ; and fourteen days from such enrolment, un-
ihe jndycs declare them to be repugnant to British
law or the charter, or letters patent of the colony, they
come into operation. In case of objection being made,
the irmrrnor and council re-eonsider the act. The laws
.'land, so far as they can be applied, are recognised,
and embodied in local enactments.
The judicature consists of a supreme court, having two
judges, of courts of quarter-sessions, and courts of requests,
which last are sometimes called courts of conscience, and
have jurisdiction in matters to the extent of ten pounds.
( 'liminal offences are tried in the Supreme Court by seven
military officers as a jury ; civil cases, by a judge and two
magistrates of the colony appointed by the go-
vernor, and who are open to challenge by the parties, the
challenge being determined by the judge": if the assessors
do not a^'i-ee. the judge has a casting vote. The Supreme
<'ourt may, on the application of either party in an action,
summon a jury to try it. This court declares insolvencies
and distributes effects : it likewise possesses equitable
and ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The total estimated ex-
penses of the judicial establishment for the year 1839 was
I.VJM;/. 7*. erf.
In all the most populous districts of the island there are
nint'istiates, who sit daily for the trial of petty
offences: their decisions are subject to the approval of the
nor, who is advised by the chief police magistrate.
A larsfe constabulary force is maintained, composed chiefly
of convicts. The total police estimates of Van Diemen's
Land for IKV.i exceeded 2(>.(M>/.
Tin.1 ecclesiastical provision is of the most liberal cha-
nominatious, the Kpiscopalian,
in. and Roman Catholic, reccuc alien1.:
' V. <_'., No. 1499.
T A S
from the state. They are equally provided for in propor-
tion to the respective number of their bodies, and the
clergy of each have the same political status. In the
towns the subscription of two hundred adults (three chil-
dren or pei-sons under a specified age being considered equal
to one adult) to a paper, intimating their connection with
one of the denominations named, desiring to have a church
erected for the use of such denomination, and the contri-
bution of at least 300/. towards its erection, are the con-
ditions on which the government erects such church and
provides for the maintenance of worship in it. In the
rural districts the fulfilment of these conditions by eighty
adults, residing within a radius of ten miles, is required.
The sum expended by the government on the erection of
a church is equal to that raised by private contribution.
The stipend allowed to the clergy in the towns is 250/!
annually, and to those in the rural districts 2001. A glebe'
and ten acres of land are also allowed, and in certain cases
a further sum of money for the feed of a horse. The Wes-
leyans have an annual grant of 400/. voted in their favour
by the legislative council.
The Church Act has stimulated the erection of churches
in the colony, so that there is now no deficiency, compa-
ratively speaking, except in the districts in which there is
a very limited population. The estimated expenses of the
ecclesiastical establishment for the year 1839 amounted to
70551. 14*. lid.; but the Church Act had not, at the period
it which that estimate was made, exerted so much in-
luence as it has since done, and at present it is certain
hat the ecclesiastical outlay is considerably above the
sum stated. Numerous places of worship have been erected
throughout the settled districts of the island by Protestant
denominations, not embraced in the government scheme
)f support. The government assists in the maintenance of
Sabbath schools in connection with the different churches.
Liberal provision is made for juvenile education, on the
>rinciples chiefly of the British and Foreign School Society ;
and, besides a collegiate institution, founded and maintained
yy the government, one has been projected by the colo-
iists, for which subscriptions have been raised. The site
)f the first is at New Norfolk : the second is to be esta-
jlished at Campbell Town. These institutions are to be
n the first instance superior grammar-schools ; and gra-
;ually, as professors can be obtained, and there is a de-
mand for the higher brancnes of learning, they are to
eceive the character of colleges.
In the estimates of the expenditure of Van Diemen's
-and for the year 1839, a sum of 4000/. is put down for
chools; and an additional sum of 275 1/, for the ' Orphan
Schools,' in which the offspring of convicts are educated
nd maintained. The expense of the collegiate institution
8 not included in the sum of 4000/. : its foundation had
ot been laid at the date of that estimate.
The revenue of the colony is derived from duties on
pirits — 10*. per gallon on brandy ; 7*. Gd. on hollands or
eneva, West India Rum, or British gin ; 1*. Gd. per
ound on tobacco : from licences — 251. per annum for
cence to sell spirits ; 31. 3*. for auctioneer's, and 41. 4s.
or marriage licences : from the fees of public offices,
nes, &c. It has increased progressively for many years.
n 1826 it amounted to 34.G55/. 0*. \\d. ; in 1830 it was
2,018/. 7s. 8i</. ; in 1835 it was 91,320/. 19.». 9Jd. (Stalis-
ical Report of the Colonial Secretary.) "With the addi-
on of the revenue derived from the sale of land in these
ears, it amounted to G5.178/. 17*. Wjii. in 1830; to
06,6407. 8*. 2d. in 1835; in 1840, the revenue, il was
stimated, would amount to 200,000/. Part of thU revenue
i appropriated to the immigration of labourers, and the
est to the civil, judicial, ecclesiastical, and miscellaneous
\penses of the colony, which are not borne by Ire
Jntish government. The expenditure of the year 1837
mounted to 136.85G/. 1*. tid. ; for 1K38 the estimated
otal was 124,143^. 14*. 4d. ; for 1K39. 11K770/. (Ali-
Inirl. dated July 5th, 1838, Colonial Secretary's Office,
fobart Town.)
NatircK.— The aborigines of Van Diemen's Land so
osely resemble in physical character those of Australia,
s to leave no doubt of their origin being the same. [Aus-
RAI.IA.] M. Pcron says that, the Tasmania)! has a law
cad, especially remarkable for the great length of the
ne from the chin to the sinciput, and thai the head of
ie New Hollander is less bulky, and is compressed in the
ack part, while that of the Tasmania)) is elongated in
VOL. XXIV.— N
T A S
90
T A S
the *•»« direction. The great ditt. i the
\hu-li is stiaight or curled in th
woolly in thcTasiiiaiiiaii. /'<!/"/•»"
Baio |. In language and customs the resem-
blance it equally apparent. Tasinan. in the brief account
published in -Harris's Collection of
mentions his observing on the
shores of Van P. emeu's Laud liecs which had -a kind of
steps cut in the bark, in order to climb up to the buds'
... wen- the distance of live feet
from each other, so that we must conclude, that cither
these people are of a prodigious size, or that tlu-v have
way of climbing trees that we are not used to.'
Tin- difficulty here suggested by Tasinan has been since
. ed : ' I'lie natives of Australia climb trees by cutting
notches in the bark, by means of a small stone hatchet.
and with each hand alternately. Hv long acquired habit
a native can supixirt himself with his toes on very small
notches, not only in climbing, but while he cuts oilier
notches for his further ascent with one hand, the other
arm embracing the tree.' (Major Mitchell1! TravtU in
,1/iu. vol. ii., p. 338.) In this singular custom the
esofVan Diemen's Land and of Kastern Australia
agree. The eorroborec dance [SWAN KIVKR] is common
to both, and the offensive weapons of both people arc
precisely the same. Major Mitchell expresses a decided
opinion that the natives of both countries are derived
from a common stock Tract-Is, vol. ii.. p. 341), in which
other travellers have concurred. The natives of Tas-
mania, according to the accounts of early colonists, ami
of Cook and 1) Kntrecasteaux. appear to have been more
intelligent and friendly than those of New Holland
when first approached. M. Ijibillardierc. the historian
and naturalist of the expedition of Admiral D'Kntn-
iiix. speaks of their music, their knowledge of plants,
and their general acuteness, in terms by no means con-
temptuous: while he highly praises tin- humane and
confiding disposition which they evinced towards their
French visitors. Dr. Ross, the Editor of the ' Van Diemen's
Land Annual,' to whom we are indebted for the best
records of the early history of the colony, after many
years' opportunities of intercourse with the aborigines, thus
refers to them : 'During all the intercourse 1 have had
with this interesting people, I not only found no waul of
sense or judgment among them, but, on the contrary, much
to admire in them as thinking men, as endued not only
with much ingenuity and penetration, but with the tcu-
upathicsofthe heart, and all the nobler passions
that elevate man in the scale of being.'
Original hannlessness of character has not however pre-
served the Tasmanians from the usual consequences ot
European contact —expatriation or extinction. The his-
tory o I the events which have nearly extinguished this
race is briefly as follows: — Van Piemen's Land was colo-
ni/ed in the first instance by the most abandoned crimi-
nals. These men had no wives ; no regular system of dis-
cipline was adopted in reference to them, but they were
dispersed in small bodies over the territory, while others.
escaping from control, pursued a predatory life. The wives
of the natives were seduced by criminals, which excited
the animosity of the men. and during several years indis-
criminate warfare subsisted between the aboriginal and
the colonizing population. At length, in 1830, the local
government systematically interfered, and the free and
convict inhabitants of the colony were enrolled for the
purpose of killing or capturing the- aborigines. Very
limited success attended this modi- of proceeding after il
had been in operation for a considerable period, when Mr.
Robinson, an individual of remarkable courage and self-
possession volunteered, with the assistance of some friendly
natives, to bring the rest to terms of pacification. |{y fan-
promises to the natives he accomplished a victory which
could not be obtained by an expenditure of upwards of
36.000/. (/'.!« Dinnfn'1 Land AnniKil for 1KW, differently
directed, and the natives put themselves in the power of
the government. This triumph, obtained by moral in-
fluence, and which might have been ma, u-nt to
the good of both races consistently with theaborign
maining on their native soil, was converted to their ruin.
They wen- ttansportcd to an unfavourable spot (Flindcis'
id. in lia-s's Straits), where a miserable remnant of
about eight v individuals were all that survived in IKKJ of
a population of three or four thousands, the estimated abori-
ginal population of Van Diemen's I..iml when enloni/ation
ih.-re. I'uti /' -nit .liitltlttl f'lr IKiS. pp.
The courage which faced the aborigines unarmed
in a time of warfare, was no evidence that the individual
who dared to do this possessed the qualities essential lor
the successful treatment of an uncivilized nice with a v icw
to its improvement. However thai coinage was rewarded
by the appointment of Mr. Robinson to the office i,f -cm-
h/ing' the Tasmanians at Flinders' Island. It won;,
tedious to detail the features of the • civ ili/ing ' system
pursued there : it is sufficient to mention that every habit
and amusement peculiar to the aborigines has been
couraged ; the cumbrous and uncongenial forms and in-
cidents of advanced civilization have been enforced in
every-day life; the native language has been as much as
possible suppressed : native names have been made to
yield to those of the (Jii-sars. the Hannibals, and the
Scipios; a disposition to indulge in the pleasures of the
chace has been recorded as a delinquency ; and the verbal
repetition of the Commandment* and the Catechism i- al-
leged as the evidence of religions progress, and a confuta-
tion of all disbelief as to the capacity of uncivilized
to appreciate the doctrines of ( 'hristiaiiity. (M/»«7 ij tin'
('iiiii/ri<iinttt/it <if Flintier*' Islitinl ; J'tirliaiiii'ntary Pujjfrf,
1830.)
An intelligent witness of the experiment carried on at
Flinders' Island has thus reported upon it: 'The com-
mandant has an establishment of thirty-two eonvi.
wait on the aborigines, and supply the deficiencies of thei."
own labour, and is rewarded by a great deal of reading,
writing, singing, rehearsal of the c;.1eehism. tailoring, sub-
mission, attachment, decorum, tranquillity, everything, in
a word, which gratifies superficial examination; and he
persuades himself that he is eminently successful with
them : but they have no free agency, and are mere children
at school, and they cannot escape from their prison, they
cannot subsist at a distance from it. they must not break
its rules, it must be a place of excessive riiiuii to them : as
moral agents they are lower now than when savages; and
they die the faster, I fear, for much of this kindness. The
commandant imputes the mortality among them to the
situation and climate, and wishes to transport them to flu
south coast of New Holland ; but in six months 1 am per-
suaded they would be, on this plan, happy savages in tin-
bush.' .U.S. Letter.)
TASSIK, JAMKS. was born of humble parentage, in or
about the year \1'.£>. in the neighbourhood of Glasgo"
was brought up as a country stone-mason, (ioing to <
gow on a fair-day to enjoy himself with his companions,
he visited the collection of paintings exhibited by the
brothers Foulis, who were then endeavouring to establish
an academy for the fine arts in that city. [ Furi.is, %
p. :is;t.] Feeling a strong desire to become a painter.
Tassie removed to (!la.sgow. and studied drawing in Foulis' s
academy, but continued to practise his business. Though
poor, he was frugal, industrious, and persevering; and,
hoping at least to become a statuary, if not a painter, he.
in 17tfci, went to Dublin, where he was employed for
some time as a sculptor and modeller. Then- he be,
acquainted with Dr. Quill, who was making experiments
in the beautiful art of imitating engraved gems by means
of coloured glass, or pastes, and who engaged him as
his confidential assistant. Having succeeded in el
ing gnat improvements in the art by their joint la;
Titssie was encomagcd by his patron to remove to Lon-
don, and to follow it as a profession. He accordingly
-1 London in \"i(M : and although, owing to his dif-
fidence and modesty, he had to struggle with many diffi-
culties, he gradually emerged from obscurity, obtained a
comfortable competence, and established such a reputation,
that the principal cabinets of Europe were thrown open to
him. Among his earliest patrons in the metropolis were
tin- Society of Arts. who. in 17<>7. awarded him the sum of
ten guineas for imitations of anticnt onyx. In 177") Tasme,
who then resided in Compton Street. Suho, published a
catalogue of the antieiil and modern gemsiu his collection,
of which he sold pastes or sulphur impressions at very
moderate prices. 1'he collection then amounted to more
than three thousand articles: but it v\as subsequently
much extended, and in 17!H appeared a new catalogue,
containing fifteen thousand eight hundred articles, and
forming two quarto volumes. This work, which is not
confined to a dry description of the gems, but contains
T A S
91
T A S
much useful information on that department of antient art,
was compiled by Mr. R. E. Raspe, who prefixed to the
catalogue an introduction on the utility of such a collec-
tion of works of art, and on the history of engraving upon
hard stones, and the imitation of gems by artificial pastes.
The work contains also a frontispiece and fifty-seven plates
of gems, etched by David Allan. From Raspe's introduc-
tion it appears that the demand for Tassie's pastes was en-
couraged, in the first instance, by the jewellers, who
introduced them into fashion by setting them in rings,
seals, bracelets, and other trinkets. He was very careful of
his reputation, and would not issue imperfect impressions ;
but the celebrity of his casts induced other and less skilful
modellers to sell their works under his name. About 1787
or 1788 Tassie received an order from the empress of Rus-
sia for a complete set of his gems, which he executed in
the most satisfactory manner, in a beautiful white enamel
composition, so hard as to strike fire with steel, and of
such a texture as to take a fine polish, and to show every
touch of the artist with the greatest accuracy. Wherever
it was possible to do so, he coloured these in exact imita-
tion of the originals • and in other cases such colours were
used as might display the work to advantage. Tassie's
business was continued by his nephew, William, on his
premises in Leicester-square ; and he added to the collec-
tion a series of casts of coins, from the museum of the late
Dr. William Hunter, of which he made a set by order
of the emperor Alexander, to add to the gems executed
for the empress by his uncle, who died in 1799. Besides
the branch of art for which he is principally celebrated,
IVssie displayed considerable talent in modelling small
portraits in wax, from which he frequently made pastes.
He was much respected in private life for his piety, sim-
plicity, modesty, and benevolence.
(Raspe's Catalogue of Tassie's Gems, <5j-c. ; Dr. Gleig's
Supplement to the third edition of the Encyclopedia Bri-
t'ln/iica. 1801.)
TASSISUDAN. [BOOTAN.]
TASSO, BERNARDO, born at Bergamo in 1493, lost
his father when a boy, and was brought up under the care
of his uncle Luigi Tasso, bishop of Recanati, who was
living at Bergamo. The bishop being murdered by
robbers in 1520, Tasso left his native town, and lived
for several years at Padua and Venice, and other towns
of North Italy, where he displayed his talent for poetical
composition. In 1525 he engaged himself as secretary to
Guiuo Rangonc, who was general of the Papal troops in
North Italy. In 1529 he went to the court of Ferrara,
where he remained a short time. A volume of Italian
verses which he published at Venice in 1531 made him
known to Fen-ante Sanseverino, prince of Salerno, one of
tlit: principal Neapolitan barons, who kept a princely court
after the feudal fashion of the times. The prince invited
him to come to Naples, granted him a handsome allowance,
with the liberty of withdrawing himself from time to time
from his court to apply to his poetical studies in rural
retirement. Tasso accompanied the prince of Salerno in
the expedition which Charles V. undertook against Tunis,
i:i 1534. He was afterwards sent to Spain, in 1537, on a
cal mission, and on his return he spent some time at
Venice, where he became acquainted with the celebrated
Tullia d'Aragona, the illegitimate daughter of a cardinal of
the royal house of Aragon, who was herself a poetess, and
led a very free life. Bernardo Tasso wrote verses in
her praise. Having at last disentangled himself from this
connection, he returned to Naples, where he soon after
married a young lady of Sorrento called Porzia de Rossi,
by whom he had a son, Torquato. In 1547 an insurrection
broke out at Naples against the Spanish viceroy Don
Pedro de Toledo, who, in concert with Pope Paul III.,
wished to establish the Inquisition in Naples after the
fashion of Spain. The people elected a sort of council
composed of nobles and citizens, under the name of ' Union
for the service of God, the emperor, and the city,' to
administer temporarily the affairs of the country. This
ehose the prince of Sanseverino and the prince of
- its deputies to proceed to Germany and lay
theii es before Charles V. Bernardo Tasso, against
the opinion i>f others, advised the prince to accept this
mission. Siinseverino found the emperor highly incensed
ml the Neapolitans, and fearing for himself, he went
to Kraiu-e and entered the service of Henry II., for which
he was declared a rebel by Charles V., and his property
was confiscated. Bernardo Tasso followed his patron to
France, where, after a time, he found himself in great
pecuniary dist.ess. He then returned to Italy, and went to
the court of Guidobaldo, duke of Urbino, from whence he
passed to that of the duke Gonzaga of Mantua, who made
him governor of Ostiglia, in which place he died in 1569.
Bernardo Tasso wrote a romantic poem in ottava rima,
entitled ' Amadigi,' the subject of which is taken from a
Spanish romance. [AMADIS DE GAULA.] The plot or
plots of Tasso's poem are deficient in interest, but the
style is good, and the poet excels in his descriptions and
comparisons, but he indulges at times in licentious strains.
After writing his poem, he detached one of the episodes
and swelled it into a separate poem, entitled ' Floridante,'
which was published after his death by his son. He also
wrote five books of ' rime,' eclogues, hymns, odes, sonnets,
and other lyrics, some of which are admired for their
imagery and smoothness of versification. He introduced
in the Italian language that species of poetry which is
called ' pescatoria ' and ' marinaresca,' being descriptive of
the habits and occupations of fishermen and mariners.
His letters have been published in three volumes.
(Corniani, Secoli delta Letteratura Italiana ; Tiraboschi,
Storia della Letteratura Italiana; Panizzi, Introductory
Essay on the Romantic Narrative Poetry of the Italians,
prefixed to his edition of ' Bojardo.')
TASSO, TORQUA'TO, son of Bernardo, was born at
Sorrento, in 1544. At the age of ten he was sent for by
his father, then an exile, and after some time spent with
him in several towns of north Italy, he went to the uni-
versity of Padua to study law, for which however he had
little inclination. At the age of eighteen he composed
his first poem, ' Rinaldo,' in twelve cantos. The subject is
romantic, and is taken from the old chivalric legends con-
cerning Charlemagne and his wars with the Moors. Ber-
nardo was at first angry with his son for neglecting his
more serious studies, but at last he relented, and gave his
consent to the publication of the poem, which Torquato
dedicated to the Cardinal Luigi d'Este, brother of Alfonso
II., duke of Ferrara. In 1566 the cardinal took him into
his service as a gentleman attendant, and introduced him
to his brother the duke, and to his two unmarried sisters
Lucrezia and Eleonora. He was well received by all, and
admitted into their familiar society. Tasso was young and
amorous; he had been for some time passionately in love
with Laura Peperara, a lady of Mantua, to whom he ad-
dressed many sonnets and other verses after the manner
of Petrarch, styling her his Laura. This lady, with whom
he had probably become acquainted during a visit which
he paid to his father at Mantua in 1564, came some years
after to Ferrara as a lady of honour of the duchess, and was
married to Count Turchi of Ferrara. But in the mean
time Tasso appears to have been struck with the personal
attractions and mental accomplishments of the princess
Eleonora, the duke's sister, and already in 1566 there is
a sonnet by him, beginning ' Nel tuo petto real da voci
sparte,' which is evidently addressed to a princess of a
sovereign house. From that time he continued to write
amatory verses evidently addressed to the same person,
whom he styles his ' donna,' or mistress. In some of them
he mentions the name of Eleonora, but as there were
several ladies of that name at different times at the court
of Ferrara, this has given rise to various surmises about
the person meant. At last Tasso avowed in several ways
his love for the princess, though, from the then existing
usages of society, it was impossible that he could ever
have obtained her hand. Most of the sonnets and other
lyrics, which are evidently intended for this object of his
second love, are conceived in a respectful and somewhat
melancholy strain, as if the writer felt the hopelessness of
his passion. The disparity of rank was in those times an
insurmountable obstacle to any legitimate result of such
an attachment, and the house of Este was one of the
proudest in Italy. Like Petrarch, Tasso seems to have
obtained friendship only in return for his love. But there
are some of Tasso's compositions written between 1567 and
1570, in which he assumes the tone of a favoured lover.
Such are the two sonnets 'Donna di me doppia vittoria
aveste' and 'Prima eolla belt;\ voi mi vinceste,' the dia-
logue between love and a lover, beginning ' Tu ch' i piu
ehiusi affetti,' and the madrigal which begins 'Soavissimo
bacio.' From the context, although no name is men-
tioned they all evidently allude to the same object as the
1 N2
T A S
T A S
otti«-r amatory verse* addressed to his ' donna.' There are
aUo some autograph lines of Tnwo discovered liy Mai
among the Falcnnieri MSS.. :nul published liv Hctli nl
Koine tiii'i-nii/i- An-tiili'-". October, ls-J7 , in winch Klco-
nora is mentioned by name:
• Quando t»r4 che d'Elconort mU
POM* foiirrmi in Ubrttad. .
Ah. picloo il .!««'"
A.lili-i crlra, a«lilio Uuu, ailiUn roMOr^.'
It would appear that these verses, ha\ ing been abstracted
from Tasno's papers by some enemy, and shown to Duke
Alfonso, first roused lus Suspicions.
Professor Rosini, in his able essay upon the ' Love of
Tasso and the Causes of his Imprisonment,' Pisa, IH;!2,
-. in opposition to the assertion of Serassi and others,
that F.leouora d'Este was the object of the above compo-
sitions, a.s well as of all the others addressed to his 'donna.'
It is the four compositions last alluded to that constitute
the real guilt of Tasso : they boast in prurient language of
favours received, which, according to the best circum-
stantial evidence, were never granted, and which, if even
•ed. ought not to have been mentioned. And Tasso
himself must have felt this, for when he set out for France
ill the beginning of 1571. to accompany Cardinal I.uigi
d F.ste on a mission to Charles IX., lie left his MSS. in
charge of his friend Rondinelli, with directions to publish
them in case he should die abroad, ' except those which
he had written to oblige some friend, and which must be
buried with him.'
This was a subterfuge to conceal the object of the above-
mentioned compositions, and to make them appear as if
written at the request of others, which in itself would have
been no very creditable employment for a man of genius.
• •vcr, before the end of the year 1571. Tasso took his
leave of the cardinal in France. It would appear that
while in that country, where he was introduced at the court
of king Charles ik., and became acquainted with the
French poet Ronsard, Tasso applied himself to study tin-
points of controversy then debated between the Roman
Catholic and the Reformed churches, and that his inves-
tigations of those delicate matters displeased the cardinal,
who .spoke to him strongly on the subject. But Tasso had
other and secret reasons for wishing to return to Italy.
Having returned to Ferrara, he entered the service of Duke
Alfonso himself, by whom he was most graciously treated.
''llieduke extolled his poetical talent : he often listened to
the recital of his verses (Tasso was then engaged about his
• Geiusali-mme,' which he intended to dedicate to the
duke) ; he admitted him to his own table, and to hi
familiar society ; and he refused him no favour that he
chose to ask.' (Seraasi, I'itn </<•/ '/'TV.W ; Kosini, S<iggio
*//»•// .li/iuri di Taxso.) Such was the conduct of Duke
Alfonso towards the poet, until he discovered, years after,
lus guilty compositions. AVhilst Tasso was thus a favoured
(fuest, rather than a dependant of Duke Alfonso, he wrote
his pastoral drama, the ' Aminta,' in which he ]»•
with exquiMte skill the Jiangs and the delirium of love
deemed hopeless for a long season, but in the end requited.
The drama was performed at the court of duke Alfonso,
and its fame soon spread about Italy. Lucrczia, F.leonora's
. who had married Francesco Maria, duke of Urbino,
wi-liing to hear the ' Aminta,' invited Tasso to her court
where be remained several months. This was jM |.~>7H.
\Vhile Tatuo was absent from Ferrara. envy was busy at
work against him to lower bis credit with Duke Alfonso. At
the same time Guarino, the poet, who was also at the
court of Ferrara, st rove to ingra'iate himself with the priu-
Kleonora, and this excited the jealousy of Taiwo. It
appears that Tasso had been in the habit of writing to the
princess, and sending her some of his poetical composi-
tions; hut now he wrote none forseveral months. At last
•nte her a letter, dated September, 1 57U, which was
first published by his biographer Serassi, in which, attei
ig for Ins long silence, he sends her a sonnet,
ieh,' he says, ' is not lik« thos«t tine ones which
pose your grace is now wont to hear very often, alluding
•>->> of his rival Guarino. And he goes on to siv. that
• iinel is poor both in the conception and the style, as
the author i» poor of luck. This lust expression cm
understood as referring to his circumstances, for he •
in favour with both the courts of Ferrara and t'rbn
was receiving at the tune presents from the duchess l.u-
mviaol Urbino. Hut still he sends to the princess Eleonoi a
the aonnet, ' hoping that, whether pood or bad. i( will pro-
Inn- the etl'eet that In- '. which b.
Sdrgno. ilebil guerrier, campion aue : of a de-
sponding lover who asks for me:
letter with the usual subterfuge, that 'til.
written on his own account, but at the request of a pour
lover, who having been for a tirn. th Ins mistress,
is now no longer able to stand out, and surrcndr
and a>ks for mercy.' This and other passm.- mor-
1 to by Professor Kosini in th.
quoted essay, prove that the princes., Klconora had been
long aware of Tamo's passion, and felt flattered by it, but
probably looked upon it as a poetical feeling, for which
gave him her friendship. He himself acknowledges this in
several places: and vet this same man had already writ
in the recess of his study, the guilty compositions which
have been mentioned a
Towards the end of l.~>7:» Tasso returned to Ferrnro,
where he applied himself to finish his great epic poem • 1 a
ile.lime.' The touching episode of Ohmlo ar,
fronia, in the second canto, was meant to portiav his own
situation with regard to the princess Ele.onora ; and in a
sonnet which he wrote to that lady he evidenth
i of Sofronia as meant to represent herself.
Parts of the ' QwuMlenitne1 began to circulate about in
MS., and the author was assailed by numerous pc'
critics. He thought that the (hike and his sister Klcoiinra
did not take up his defence with sufficient zeal : and this
slight sank deep into the poet's heart. Towards the end of
l.~>7i> a false friend, who was in the secret of his love for the
princess, disclosed some particulars of it to others. I
having heard of this, and meeting him in the court of the,
ducal palace, required him to deny what he had saii:
upon the other's refusal, gave him a blow in the face. This
led to a duel ; the treacherous friend came escorted by his
relatives, who also drew their swords against the poet, but
Tasso. who was a good swords;: (led in parrv ing
their blows, and came away in triumph. Nothing :
cular happened after this until June of the folio
lf>77. when Tasso, on the evening of the 17th of June,
being in the apartments of the duchess of 1'rbino. in Duke
Alfonso's palace at Ferrara, fell into a violent passion at
some impertinence real or supposed of a domestic, and
himself so far ns to throw a knife after him. He was im-
mediately arrested by order of duke Alfonso, and cor
to n room which looked on the court of the palace. It np-
'hat between these two incidents his or.
had been tampered with in order to give up his concealed
papers. Tasso got information of this, and looked out for
a trusty servant from Urbino, and wrote on the suhji
Gnido Haldo, marquis del Monte, and his letter is quoted
by his biographer Serassi. He had also felt for some time
scruples about matters of faith : he mentions in his dis-
course to Scipione Gonznga, that he had doubts concern-
ing many points of religion : he had even applied !
inquisitor of Bologna, who had granted bun absolution;
but still he thought him>elf under the censures of the
church. All these things added to the anguish of his
mind. From the place of his imprisonment Tasso wrote a
submissive letter to the duke, begging his pardon, and the
duke appearing to forgive him. released him after a few
days, and took him with him to his country -seat of Bel
EUgUUdO about the end of June. \Vhat happened there
between the duke and Tasso is not ascertained, but from
Mime expressions of the poet it appears that he v\as there
closely and sternly examined by the duke, who hud pro-
bably by this time in his possession Tn.sso'spapei-s. • in order
to get from him an acknowledgment of what, if avowed,
would incense him against him.' (Tasso's Sonnet. I
ning ' Alma grande d'Alcidc,' addressed to thi
duke Hercules, father of Alfonso.) On the llth of July
the duke sent Tasso hack to Ferrara under an e-eort. and
shut him up in the convent of St. Francis, his x'cretsm
having written to the monks that he was mad, and must
be treated as a madman.
Tasso's line adventures, his real or pretended madness,
and the causes of his long impiisonrnent. made much
noise about Italy at the time: and they have been so
much discussed and commented upon since, that they
have ! importance, especially as they
serve to illustrate the manners of the times. Duke
Alfonso has been much abused, and. we think, without
discrimination, for his trealment of the poet. There is a
T A S 93
mystery about the whole story resembling that which
hangs over Ovid's banishment. Professor Rosini has col-
lected with the greatest patience and care the discordant
opinions, as well as the evidence resulting from Tasso's
own writings, published and unpublished, and from those
of his contemporaries; and the conclusion which he ar-
rives at by the help of sound criticism is, that the Duke,
having in his hands the loose compositions of Tasso
already mentioned, which joined to his other compo-
sitions addressed to the same person, and his other
strange sayings and doings, furnished full evidence that
his sister Eleonora was the person alluded to in them,
was naturally enough incensed against the poet, and
thought that the only reparation that he could make to
her injured honour was to make it be supposed that Tasso
was mad. This gives the clue to his subsequent treat-
ment of the poet. He must also have been confident
that his sister was guiltless, otherwise, as Rosini observes,
he would have taken a different sort of vengeance, ac-
cording to the manners of the age. From the convent of
St. Francis, Tasso wrote to the duke, saying, ' that the
clemency of his highness had forgiven him his faults, and
that thenceforth if he spoke to anyone, he should acknow-
ledge to all that which he clearly knew, that he was
under a sanitary treatment.' He adds, that he had re-
solved, when the treatment was over, to turn monk ; and
in a postscript he says, that he earnestly wishes that the
Duke may know all the truth, that he may not think him
more mad than he is. In a long letter which he after-
wards wrote to the Duke of Urbino, he says, that ' in
order to please Duke Alfonso, he thought it no disgrace
to imitate the example of Brutus and Solon.' Both those
personages, according to Livy and Plutarch, feigned mad-
ness. Receiving no answer from either Duke Alfonso or
the Duke of Urbino, Tasso, about the 20th of July, ran
away from the convent, quitted Ferrara, and made his
way alone and mostly on foot to Naples, and thence to
Sorrento, where his sister was married. Having by kind
treatment recovered his health and his spirits, he went to
Rome, where he applied through some agent of the Duke
to be allowed to return to Ferrara. Duke Alfonso wrote
in reply, that he was willing to receive Tasso again into
. if he would allow himself to be treated by the
physicians: but that if he continued his subterfuges, and
to talk as be had done before, he would immediately turn
him out of his territories, and never allow him to return,
i, ii]'<m this, returned to Ferrara in the spring of 1578,
with the Cavaliere Gualengo. He was civilly but coldly
received by the Duke, who gave him to understand that
he ought now to try to compose himself and to lead a
quiet life, and to avoid all excitement. He attempted to
get an interview with the Princess Eleonora and the
Duchess of Urbino, but was prevented. Tasso, tired of
this manner of life, having lost the favour which he used
to enjoy at court, ran away again from Ferrara in the
summer of 1;77H, wandered to Mantua, Padua, and Venice,
and then went to Urbino.where he wrote to the duke of Ur-
bino, who appears to have been then on bad terms with his
own wife and with the court of Ferrara, entreating him
to make the truth known, and to contradict the reports
maliciously ' circulated of his madness,' saying that he had
submitted to it in obedience to Duke Alfonso's wishes,
but that he could not consent any longer to lead an
animal life, far from literature and from the Muses. He
wrote in similar terms to his friend Scipione Gonzaga at
Rome, to his own sister at Sorrento, and to the Arciprete
Lamberti, to whom he sent a sonnet, beginning ' Falso e
il minor che suona.' In October, 1578, he left Urbino,
and went to Piedmont under an assumed name ; but he
was soon known, and his fame as a poet secured him a
flattering reception from Charles Emmanuel, Prince of
Piedmont, who offered to take him into his service upon
ime terms as the Duke of Ferrara. But. poor Tasso
had still his eyes and his heart fixed upon Ferrara, and in
of the advice of his friends at Turin, and, among
s, of the Marquis Filippo d'Este, Alfonso's relative.
In; determined to go to Ferrara. He was encouraged to
I I'rom tin- Cardinal Albano, who it. appears
hud been commissioned by the duke to induce him to
r"tum, promising him a kind reception. He arrived at
ira on (hi! 21st February, 1.77!), on the eve of the
'! of Margant: the new bride of Duke
Alfonso. The court was busy about the preparations
T A S
to receive the duchess. The duke refused to see Tasso,
the princesses also denied themselves, his old apartments
in the palace were closed to him, and the courtiers and
court attendants treated him with rudeness and con-
tempt. Tasso now became furious, and he uttered im-
pertinent words against the duke and the whole house
of Este, which being reported to Alfonso, he gave orders
to arrest him and confine him in the hospital of St. Anna
as a declared madman.
Tasso remained a prisoner in the hospital full seven
years, till July, 1586. From some obscure passages of his
own letters he appears to have been treated very harshly
at first by the attendants of the hospital. He wrote to the
duke, and to the princesses, but in vain. At last he grew
more calm, and was treated with greater leniency. The
wretched hole which is shown at Ferrara as having been
his prison is no longer believed by competent judges to
be the identical place of his confinement. (Valery,
Voyages Littcraires en Italic, book vii., ch. 14.) Political
party-feeling in our age has contributed to exaggerate the
hardships of Tasso's confinement, as religious party-feeling
has exaggerated the sufferings of Galileo in a similar con-
dition. There was hardship no doubt in both instances,
and the hardship in Tasso's case was aggravated by the
state of his own sore and unsettled mind. When Cardinal
Scipione Gonzaga visited Tasso at St. Anna, in the spring
of 1580, he was lodged in a large and commodious apart-
ment, where he could write and correct his compositions.
In November of the same year he was visited by Mon-
taigne, who speaks of him as a man whose reason was
overcome by the vivacity of his imagination. In July,
1581, the Lady Marfisa d'Este obtained leave of Alfonso to
take Tasso with her for a few days to her country-house,
where he had a philosophical discussion with her and
her two ladies of honour, Tarquinia Molza, a learned
woman, and Ginevra Marzia, upon the nature of love.
From the recollection of this conversation, Tasso after-
wards composed his dialogue, which he entitled ' La
Molza, ovvero dell' Amore.' In September, 1582, Tasso
received at St. Anna the visit of Aldo the younger, who
brought him copies of some of the finest editions which had
come out of his press, and they spent two days together in
speaking of their respective studies. Tasso in the mean-
time was busy writing, or correcting his various poetical
compositions which were printed at Venice, but very inac-
curately, to his great annoyance. He wrote in his con-
finement several philosophical discourses or treatises, such
as ' II Gonzaga, ossia del Piacere Onesto,' ' II Padre di Famig-
lia,' the discourse 'Delia Virtu Eroica e della Carita,' the
dialogue ' Delia Nobilta,' and others. In his discourse to
Gonzaga he says that it was wished that he should become
insane, and that the cause, or at least one of the causes, of
this persecution was some lascivious verses of his.
In 1583 Tasso grew seriously ill, he complained of his
head, of his digestion, of singing in his ears, and other
symptoms of a like nature. He consulted his friend Mcr-
curiale, a physician of Padua, but Tasso was not a very
docile patient ; he wished for none but pleasant medica-
ments, and he would not submit to a total abstinence from
wine. One of his vagaries was that, he had a familiar
spirit who appeared to him to comfort him. In 1584 he
was allowed to be out at large during the Carnival season,
and he wrote a curious dialogue on that circumstance en-
titled ' II Gianluca, o della Maschere.' He enjoyed the
society of Tarquinia Molza, of Count, Girolamo Pepoli,
and other noblemen and ladies of the court of Femira.
He wrote about that time the dialogues 'II Beltramo,
ovvero della Cortesia;' ' II Malpigho, ovvero della Corf e ;'
'II Ghirlinsone, ovvero dell' Epitaffio ;' 'La Cavalletta,
ovvero della Poesia Toscana ;' and ' II Rangone, ovvero
della Pace,' which last, addressed to BiancaCapello, grand-
duchess of Tuscany, is dated from his apartments of St.
Anna, 'Dalle sue stanze in St.. Anna.' He was now tolera-
bly composed and reconciled, and could hardly be called
a prisoner. In one of his autograph letters, written to the
Marquis Huoncompagni, in April, 1585, and which is in
the library of Ferrara, there is a passage copied by Val6ry,
in which he says that 'the duke does not keep me in
prison, but in the hospital of St. Anna, where priests and
monks can visit me at their pleasure, and no one prevents
them from doing me good.' In several of his unpublished
letters he gives directions about, some articles Tor his ward-
robe or his table, and shows a refined taste in both. But
T A - «
in that oaii <», a fresh source of vexations opened
upon him. 11 - pic poem. • l.a Gcrusalcmme
I.lbcrata,' had been imhlisht-d complete at Parma in l.'isl,
and afterwards at Mantua in 15S4. A. holt of critic* fell
upon it, and by their strictures strove to obscure all the
merits of the poem. At the head of them stood Salviati,
of the Crusca Academy. Tasso's language, his p.
. his imagery, the plot of his poem, his episodes, .
thing was made a subject of censure. Tasso, already
weakened by mental and btxlily suffering, felt these attacks
bitterly. He however took up his pen and wrote in a
nuasured and dignified tone a defence of bis poem. He
was at the same time writing letters to all his friends to
obtain his final liberty from the duke. He wrote to the
citv of Bergamo, to the duke of Mantua, to the grand-
duke of Tuscany, to the pope, to the emperor, who all
employed their good offices on his behalf with Duke Al-
fonso, who hesitated a long time before he consented to
his release. At last Vincenzo Gonzaga, son of tlie duke of
Mantua, obtained, in July, l."JS(i. permission for T:.
accompany him to Mantua. His reception at that court
wa-s like a triumph. In order to make some return for the
kindness which he experienced from the house of Gon-
zaga, he completed his tragedy of ' Torrismondo," which he
dedicated to his liberator Vincenzo, on hi.s accession to the
ducal throne of Mantua in 1587. The subject of the 'Tor-
rismondo' is a supposed Scandinavian legend. Some of
the descriptions have been admired. After some time
spent at Mantua and in his paternal town of Bergamo,
Tasso, depressed by a settled melancholy, took leave of
Duke Vincenzo, and repaired to Rome in the latter part of
1587, and thence to Naples in the following year. The
poet appeared delighted with the beauties of his native
country. At Naples he began a lawsuit to recover his
paternal property, which had been seized when his father
Bernardo became an exile. The Neapolitan courts of law-
have been at all times proverbially known for their dilato-
riuess. and justice was wretchedly administered under the
Spanish viceregal administration. Tasso made little pro-
iu his suit. But he found a sincere friend in the
Marquis Gio. Batista Manso, who took him in the autumn
to his estate of Bisaccio, where they spent the time in
sporting, listening to the rustic improvvisatori, and con-
versing in the evening upon various topics, especially
about Tasso's pretended familiar. It was at tlie request, of
Manso's mother that Tasso undertook his ' Sette Giornate
del Mondo Creato,' which is. a poetical paraphrase of the
narrative of the creation of the world in the first two
chapters of Genesis. In 1589, Tasso, always ic-t less, re-
paired to Rome; but finding himself in great pecuniary
distress, he accepted an invitation of the grand-duke Fer-
dinand de' Medici to go to Florence in the spring of 1590,
where he was received with great honour by the court and
other persons of distinction, as if to make amends for the
annoyance given to him by Salviati and his compeers.
Towards the end of the same year however he went to
Rome, and in 1591 he returned to Naples, and then
applied himself to re-write his epic poem, under the title
of 'Gerusalemmel 'onquistata,' in order to satisfy the critics.
However the first version of his poem is in the hands of all,
whilst few everread his'GcrusalemmeConquistata.' Tasso
intended to end his days at Naples; but in 15!)2. Cardinal
Aldobrandini having been made pope by the name of Cle-
ment VIII., his nephew, Cinzio Aldobrandini, afterwards
inal. who was well acquainted withTiusso. invited him
in the most pressing manner to Rome, where he came about
middle of that year. He was stopped several days at
Mola di Gaeta. the road being blocked up by the bands ,,f
the famous robber chief Marco Sciarra, who was scouring
the country with perfect impunity. Sciarra. who was a
man of birth and education, having heard that Tasso was
detained at Mola, sent him a message to entreat him to
proceed on his journey, assuring him of perfect safety
from his men, and ottering him an escoi:, which
however Tasso declined ; upon wind. with-
drew- his men from the mountains of It.; leave
the passage open for Tasso. Having arrived safely at
Rome, he1 completed lus ' Gcrusalcinmc ('onquistata.'
which he dedicated to Cardinal Cinzio Aldobrandini. In
th" summer of 1594 he returned to Naples, and lodged
in the Mencdictine monastery of San Si-vein
afterwards went to a country-seat" of his tiicnd M
Meantime Cardinal Cinzio, out of affection and gratitude
1 'I \ .s
towards Tango, prevailed on Pope Clement to grant the
poet the honour of being solemnly crowned with the laurel-
crown in the Capitol, as Petrarch and others bad been.
This being agreed upon. Canliual Cinzio hastened to an-
nounce the news to 'lasso, urging him to repair to Home
as soon as possible. Tasso did not seem at all dated :
he observed to Manso that he thought it more glori-
ous to deserve honours than to receive them. He how-
ever assented, and took an affectionate have of bis kind
friend Manso, with a foreboding that it would be the
last. He spent the Christmas festivities at the i
of Monte Casino, and arrived at Rome in the beginning of
I.V.I.'i. He was met outside of the gates by many gentle-
men iiud attendants of the Papal court, by whom he was
led in a kind of triumph to the Vatican palace, where he
was introduced to the pope, who told him that he had
• awarded him the laurel-crown, in order that it might be
as much honoured by him. as in foimer times it bad
served to honour others.' Tasso wits lodged in the Pupal
palace, and treated with the greatest regard. \Vhile tin-
day of the coronation was anxiously expected. Cardinal
Cinzio fell ill ; and Lent coming on, the pageant was
poned, and then Tasso himself fell seriously ill. He felt.
from the first a conviction that this illness would be his
last; and wishing to compose himself in retirement for his
last moments, he expressed a wish to be taken to the mo-
nastery of St. Onofrio, on Mount Janicuhmi. Having been
carried thither in one of Cardinal Cinzio's carnages, he
said to the prior and his monks who came to receive him
at the gate, ' I am come to die amongst you.' II
led into a comfortable apartment, where he devoted lus
remaining days entirely to religious practices, and seemed
totally weaned from worldly feelings and cares. When
the pope's physician announced to him his approaching
death, he embraced liim, thanking him for the happy
tidings. To Cardinal Cinzio, who came to take leave of
him, he expressed his gratitude for all his kindm
the cardinal and those present could not refrain from tears,
he said to them, ' Yon think that you are leaving me, but
I shall go before you.' He expired on the 25th of April,
15!)5. after fifteen days' illness, being fifty-one years of age.
lie was buried, according to his desire, in the church of
St. Onofrio, with a plain slab over his tomb, upon which
the monks engraved the simple inscription, ' Torquati
Tassi ossa hie jaccnt.'
The lasting fame of Tasso as a great poet rests upon his
' Gerusalemme Libcrata,' or ' II Goffredo.' a,s it is some-
times called, one of the few great epic poems of which
the world can boast. The action is complete : it r-
the events of the great crusade, and cuds with the osten-
sible object of that expedition, the deliverance of .!>•
lem from the hands of the Moslems. The licaui:
well as the faults of the composition, have been the theme
of many disquisitions. Among foreign critics. Blair, Vol-
taire, D'Alembert, La Harpe, and Chateaubriand have
been loud in its praise. The poem has a peculiarity that
distinguishes it from most other epics: i' illy a
Christian poem; and breathes throughout the fc.
the faith, and the hopes of a Christian. Tasso, as In
in his invocation,
' II Mn«\, 111 rlir cli r.nllirlli nllnri
Nun rin-ontil la ftontf in Klirona,
1 > inir.i i I'f: i
HJII ill .stcllc immurmli ,-uireu Coronn.' — (c. I., St. 2.)
had drawn his inspiration from a sacred source, and has
thus afforded a refutation to those who pretend that the
Christian religion is not so favourable to poetical ini:
as the splendid fictions of mythology. A melancholy
tinge pervades the poem; but" it is a melancholy lighted
up by cheering and constant hope. With the single ex-
ception of the episode of the gardens of Armida. the
language of the • Gcrnsalcmmc ' is eminently chaste, and
the morality of its sentiments is pure and elevated, which
ra it tit for the perusal of youth. Among its beauties
of detail we will only instance the episode of Olindo and
Siifronia, in the 2nd "canto : the council of the d:rmons,
in the 4th ; the flight of Knninia. and her meeting with
the old shepherd on the banks of the .Ionian, in th" 7th ;
the introduction of the Turk Solyman into the besieged
city, m the loth: the death of Clorinda, in the 121h; and
i light of Argante witli Tarn-red, in the 19th canto.
The other poems of Tasso have been mentioned in the
course of this ail icle. Hi- lyncal compusit ions are very
T A S 95
numerous, and many of them exquisite both in languag
and sentiment. Besides those which are upon amorou
subjects, some refer to contemporary events, or are i
praise of contemporary princes ; others are upon religiou
subjects ; and others refer to his own misfortunes. Th
whole of Tasso's poetical works have been published i
one large 8vo. vol. of nearly 1000 pages, in double column)
at Venice, 1833. Prefixed to it is the biography of th
author, by his friend the Marquis Manso.
Tasso's prose works consist of dialogues and disserta
tions, some of which have been already noticed ; of t
treatise upon epic poetry, dedicated to Cardinal Pietrc
Aldobiandini ; discourses upon the poetical art, dedicatee
to Scipione Gonzatta ; and of numerous letters, some o
which have remained unpublished till lately, ' Lettere
Inedite,' Pisa, 1827. Professor Rosini has edited a new
edition of all the works of Tasso, begun at Pisa in 1820.
Tamo's ' Gerusalemme Liberata' has been translatec
into most European languages. There are English transla-
tions by Fairfax, Hoole, Broadhead, Hunt, and Wiffen. It
has also been paraphrased into several Italian dialects,
Milanese, Neapolitan, Calabrian, &e. The Life of Tasso
has been written by Manso, Serassi, and others, and has
been commented upon by Tiraboschi, Muratori, Zeno,
Maft'ei, and other Italian philologists.
TASSO'NI, ALESSA'NDRO, born of a noble family at
Modena, in 1505, was educated first in his native town, and
afterwards at Bologna and Ferrara, where he studied the
law. In 1597 he went to Rome, when he entered the service
ardinal Ascanio Colonna, whom he accompanied to
Spain in the year 1600. In 1603 the cardinal, having been
made viceroy of Aragon, sent Tassoni to Rome to take
-TO of the administration of his property in Italy.
During his stay in Spain Tassoni had opportunities of observ-
ing the internal state of that kingdom, which, after alarm-
ing all Europe in the preceding century by its ambition
and the extent of its conquests, was now fast sinking into
decay under the weak reign of Philip III. At Rome he
wrote his • Considerazioni sopra il Petrarca,' published in
]U<)!l, in which he commented very severely upon numer-
nilts, real or supposed, which he pointed out in the
writings of that generally admired poet. Endowed with
an inquisitive but somewhat captious mind, Tassoni aimed
in his writings at opposing received opinions, and he em-
ployed sarcasm and ridicule for the purpose. Aromatari
of ASMM took up the defence of Petrarch in his ' Risposte'
to Taaooni'e considerations, and this led to a controversy in
the usual bitter style of Italian literary polemics. In 1612
ni published his ' Pensieri Diversi' in ten books, being
a collection of remarks on various subjects of science and
literature which he had been in the habit for years of
nig in his memorandum-book. Among other subjects
he attacked the Physics of Aristotle, although he does not
to have had himself very correct notions of physical
phenomena. This work led to another controversy between
ii and ^e\eral of his contemporaries. Meantime the
nial Colonna had died, and Tassoni, being now without
employment, applied to Charles Emmanuel I., duke of
Savoy, who promised him the post of secretary to his son,
the cardinal of Savoy. But partly through court intrigues,
and partly on account of Tassoni's known aversion to the
court of Spain, with which the Duke of Saxony wished to
bv mi good terms, be was kept waiting for years before
he could take possession of his office at the court of the
cardinal, who was then residing at Rome. Certain com-
po-iiions entitled 'Filippiche,' in which the court of Spain
•ly handled, as well as another pamphlet entitled
iuie della Monarchia di Spagna,' which appeared
(liii-inir that period, were generally attributed to Tassoni.
TiiaU,,clii thinks that the first two of the ' Filippiche' are
ni's. but that the other five are by another pen.
C.)|,i, , u| this work are very scarce. In 1623 Tassoni left
the cardinal of Savoy in disgust, and retired to a country-
• in the suburb of Transtevero, where he employed
himself in study and rural occupation*. About this time
•I his portrait taken with the rind of a fig in his hand
and the following di^ich written underneath: —
• Dexter.i cur ficum qiurris mea gpstct itianfin ?.
<>[ieris mercea h»c filit : nuladedit.'
In K;2'» Cardinal Ludovisi, nephew of Pope Gregory
XV., took Tassoni into his service, and gave him apart-
: . ill his own palace, with a handsome stipend. After
the cardinal's death, in 1032, Tassoni repaired to Modena,
T A S
when he was made councillor to his sovereign Duke
Francis I. of Este, for the remainder of his life He diet
at Modena in 1635.
Besides the works already mentioned, Tassoni made an
abridgment in Italian of the ' Annals' of Baronius and
some ' Annotazioni,' or corrections and additions to the
Italian vocabulary of La Crusca. But the work for which
he is best known is his mock-heroic poem, ' La Secchia
Rapita,' or the ' Rape of a Bucket.' He is considered as
having first introduced this kind of composition in the
Italian language, as he had finished, though not published
in print, his poem years before his contemporary Brac-
ciolini published, in 1618, his ' Scherno degli Dei,' in which
he turns into ridicule the gods of the antient mythology
Tassoni's poem was published in a printed form in 1622,'
but MS. copies had been in circulation long before. The'
subject is taken from the annals of his country under the
year 1249, when a war having broken out between the two
neighbouring cities of Modena and Bologna, the Modenese
carried off in triumph a wooden bucket from within one of
the gates of Bologna, which bucket is still seen suspended
by a chain in the cathedral of Modena. The ' Secehia
Rapita' has been generally admired by Italian as well as
foreign critics. Voltaire speaks of it disparagingly, although
IB has borrowed from it (Valery, Voyages Littcraires),
Jut Perrault and other French critics have done Tassoni
full justice. The humour of the poem is peculiarly Italian,
and the admixture of the serious and heroic with the bur-
esque is happily combined. Some of the descriptive pas-
sages are exquisitely soft and true to nature, such as the song
n canto viii. which begins : ' Dormiva Endimion tra
'erbe e i fiori,' and the beautiful episode in canto x. of
he voyage of Venus from the mouth of the Arno to
Naples for the purpose of engaging Manfred, son of Fre-
deric II., to assist the Guibelines of North Italy. The
Secchia Rapita' has gone through numerous editions:
hat of Barotti, Modena, 1744, is most splendid. Gironi
has collected various judgments and comments upon this
poem in his biography of Tassoni. Muratori has also
vritten the Life of Tassoni.
(Tiraboschi, Storia della Letteratura Ilaliana; Corniani,
Secoli della Letteratura Italiana ; Zeno, Note al Fonta-
tnt.)
TASTE. The organs of this special sense are certain
larts within the cavity of the mouth, obviously so disposed
is to take early cognizance of matters about to be swal-
owed, and to act as sentinels for the remainder of the ali-
icntary canal, at the entrance of which they are situated,
'heir special endowment, aided by an exquisite develop-
ment of common sensibility, enables them to give timely
otice of any acrid, caustic, or nauseous quality, of any
ndue temperature, of any inconvenient hardness, irregu-
irity, size, or sharpness in the material submitted to them,
ml thus to protect the stomach against the intrusion of
many hurtful agents. These organs moreover establish
or our appetites a scale of liking and disliking : they
iperadd a discriminative pleasure to the enforced assua-
Ting of hunger : they modify that merely quantitative inges-
on, which is an absolute and daily need of the organism,
•ith a qualitative choice, and so give a motive to those;
ariations in diet which experience proves to be beneficial
r necessary.
Common language (as in the word ' palatable') seems to
:tribute the sense exclusively to a part, which is by no
leans the only or chief seat of it. In order to give a more
orrect notion of its extent, we shall first briefly sketch the
rrangement of the membrane which lines the cavity of
ic mouth. It is a continuation (a tubular folding in, as it
•ere, through the aperture of the lips) of the general in-
!gument, the skin ; and although somewhat changed in its
i characters, it yet preserves, under the name of mucous
lembrane, a close resemblance to the parent tissue. It
nes the inside of the cheeks, invests the alveoli, or gums,
nving to these parts their polished smoothness of surface,
reflected from the lower alveolar arches to the tongue,
om the upper alveolar arches to the palate, and from.
oth these organs prolonged backward into the throat,
n its palatine portion, the membrane covers the horizontal
rocesses of the upper jaw, which divide the cavity of the
onth from that, of the nose, and, while spread on this
ilid frame-work, is said to belong to the hard palate ; and
likewise extends backward, beyond the limits of this
ony partition, to form a pendulous flap, called the soft
TAB
palate ; which, with the niuple-hkc uvula, that hangs from
:i when the mouth U
opened. I i hi- tongue, the mcmbrai,
of that organ promi-
and i- ivinaikably developed into a vast
i1 led lu/iif/tr. which
(he 1 • -e of the tongu. . ;. plied
uith i i -"id variously concerned in
•lie part. \TK.]
V, viieriinents out have been
-ur If
KiO . from which the
. iiii: icsults arc obtained : — A smiJl portion of the
re the I>;LSC of the in ula. the r.
part of the back of the tongue, where it corresponds to the
Isthmus of the palate, and the entire circumference of the
tongue, are MI endowed ; while the internal surface of the
•he gum, the remaining |
the soft palate and of t! -titute.
Thus, thos, parts ,,i th.' tongue with which, in sipping or
in masticating, the food would ha\e contact .its b.
and. most eminentl). its tip), are gustative : and the pro-
peif, though in a less degree, by the lingual and
palatine surface's of the isthmus through which the food
enteis the sphere of involuntary act:
The ner\e. specially endowed with the .sic. is
a branch of the third part of the filth cerebral nerve,
from its function, gustatorv : but it seems possible '
physiologists that the gloSBO-pharyngeal ner\e sha1
property. Tin nerve is distributed to the papil-
Mir'faee of the tongue, especially along its borders and
tip': the lingual part of the glosso-pharyngeal nerve is
restricted in its distribution to the posterior part of the
tongue, where it supplies the mucous surface exclu-
sively.
Km the sensation of taste, moisture must be present ; all
iamiliiir with a temporary impairment of the
under the influence of unusual dryness of the surface of its
organs; the parched tongue of fever is notoriously indiffer-
ent to all savours. Matters are only capable of being
I when they exist in a fluid form: an insoluble body
i- insipid : a solid body provokes an immediate How ot
saliva, and its sapid qualities are perceived in proportion
only as it dissolves: certain gases are alleged to excite s<-n-
sations of taste: but it is only by such as are soluble in the
suli\a sulphurous acid, for instance .and Only in proportion
as they are dissolved that these imp! produced.
I'he sensation of taste undoubtedly admits of an im-
mense \ariety of modifications which no" language can ex-
. If a man were to examine live hundred different
wines, he would hardly find two of them that had precisely
the same taste : the same thing holds in cheese, and in
many other things. Yet of five hundred different tastes ii
cheese or wine, we can hardly describe twenty, so as to i;i\<.
a distinct notion of them to one who had not tasled them."
The vairue. or not-to-be-dcscrihed. nature' of giislatoiy
impres.sio expressed by Dr. Reid, receives sonh
additional obscurity from the circumstance that taste am
smell are often simultaneous!) affected in a manner wind
renders it difficult to abstract cither. Various substance
after exciting the sense of touch on the fauces, and that o
ta.ste on the tongue, arc canaille of producing a third im
'ion. which is popularly referred to the palate, but i:
really felt upon the sentient membrane of the nostrils: tlu
fume of certain kinds of food ascends into the cavities o
the nose, and produces this third and distinct sensation: it
administering medicine to children, it is well known tha
the greater part of what is disagreeable in its flavour maj
he avoided b\ - when the draught i
swallowed; and by repeating this experiment upon 1
articles of food, it is easy to ascertain how much of theii
flavour depends upon one sense, and how much is appre
elated by the other.' Mr. Mayo, from whom tin
(Traph IB quoted, goes on to classify the impressions pro
dueed \i\ taken into the fauces: —
1. Where sensations of tnurh alone lire produced, as b]
rock-crystal, sapphire, or ice.
2. \Vhere, in addition to being felt upon the tongue, th
im . excites .\i-,iMiiinn in the nostrili, as for instance
tin and other o talg.
.'t V. . .],.. being felt upon the tongue, it produces
• e,, ..lit.
4. \ is felt on the toiiL'iu and tlstec
T A S
>y it, ami in addition excites a teiue of flavour in the
rils, as, I'm manna, anil tit
itlin<'* "j I'liifi"! 'Arv. p :U J.
inri.ur, then 1:1 distinction 1
new be attributed mil • poneated a
>r volatility; :iiul, b\ 8 <l t acting such,
nul by contrasting their impression with tl. 1 by
a simply sapid substance urn-tard and salt ran illn
In- two cases , it will be noticed that Ha.
xlour, which. 1'ioni its aH'ccting a comparatively unj
i-nl part of thr olfactory appaiatlls. Is at ;
and obscurely recognised.
tin- chief relations of the sense of ta-1c in :
and in the animals which most nearly resemble In
structure. As the sense U a provision I'or the -
tile di may on sound ph\
grounds anticipa' under a more or lc->
(Lifted I'onn, in every aniina'
No nx
eil ill the invc.
Mime tn infer in them the p than
a- an obscure sense determining their elm. • turn
of I'ooil : to till.-- extent it Undoubtedly exists m them,
to the bottom of the seale — -to the infusory aninialcu].
which Khrciiberg h:is witnessed its e> Liuoug the
invcrtcbrala. inolhisks possess the most highh
alimentary organs, and it .seems probable that in then
guidin those organs II;LS a corresponding develop-
ment.
Through the subregnum of vertebrata it a-
advancing mat are me nt : in the lower el:'.
reptiles, the organs are present, but seem rather to b.
to the movements of prehension and of deglutition.
to the M nst of taste : in birds too the oriruns are little
developed, and the sense seemingly imperfect: tin
the class of mammalia it is gradually augmented in acutc-
but although in certain orders of them, or in par-
ticular indi\iduals, the sense appears shar]) and the appe-
tite fastidious, it is probably in man alone that the organs
and their function are completely matured.
TASTK. according to the definition of Sir Joshua Rey-
nolds, • is that act of the mind by which we like or dislike,
whatever be the subject.' (Discourse! before tin- l}ny<il
Society; Discourse vii.)
Taste i> freijuently spoken of as a gift, as something in-
dependent of rules, a kind of instinct, bestowed
hhcially in degree upon some men than upon others. It
has been treated by some writers as the result of capi :
fashion, as having no uniform or permanent, principl-
the ground of its decisions. Others ha\e resolved it into
different complex elements, whose joint dc\c
determined by certain principles of beauty or sublimity in
things external.
Lord Bacon ha* been quoted >ning
the idea of taste bcinir a kind of gill or instinct. ' >
cannot tell.' he says. • whether Ajielles or Albert I
thetriller: whereof one would maK.
au'e of geometrical propmtions : the other bs taking the
best pans Out Of div< one excellent. The
painter must do it by a Kind of fclicilx. am! not by rule.'
Sir .loslma Reynolds has overthrown ibis position in one
ice : ' I'.M'iy object which pleases must irive us plea-
sure upon some certain principles.' These prmcipli
uiH]iie.stionalily so intelligible that they may be embodied
in the form of words, and may be drawn out into
Hurke. towards the end of his essay ou Taste introdi
to the Sublime and licautifnlX has likewise adverted to
this position, which will come under notice again in the
course of this article.
The hypothesis which refers our emotion of taste to tin-
influence of fashion, or temporary and varying <-.,
maintained in the I//<juiri/ intn thr I'rinciji
b\ Mr. I'ayne Kniirht. According to Mr. k
there is scarcely any subject upon which men differ
than concerning the objects of their pleasures and ainn-«e-
nients : and this difference subsists not only among indi-
viduals, but among ages and nations ; nlnu • rela-
tion accusing that which preceded it of bad tVtlln build-
ing, furniture, and (Ires*; and almost every nation having
its own peculiar modes and ideas of excellence in •
matters, to which it perdu Ihcrcs, until one par-
ticular people ha • ndcne\ in ]io\\,
reputation as to set what is called the fashion, when (hi*
T A S
97
T A S
fashion is indiscriminately adopted upon the blind prin-
ciple of imitation, and without any consideration of the
differences of climate, constitution, or habits of life, and
every one who presumes to deviate from it is thought an
odd mortal, a humorist void of all just feeling, taste, or
elegance. The fashion continues in the full exercise of its
tyranny for a few years or months, when another, perhaps
still more whimsical and unmeaning, starts into being and
deposes it ; all are then instantly astonished that they could
ever have been pleased even for a moment with anything
•o tasteless, barbarous, and absurd. The revolutions in dress
only, not to mention those in building, furnishing, garden-
ing, &c., which have taken place within the last two cen-
turies afford ample illustration ' Let no one imagine,'
says Mr. Knight, ' that he solves the question by saying
that there have been errors in taste, as there have been in
religion and philosophy; for the cases are totally different :
religion and philosophy being matter of belief, reason, and
opinion ; but taste being a matter of feeling, so that what-
ever was really and considerately thought to be ornamental
must have been previously felt to be so ; and though
opinions may by argument or demonstration be proved to
be wrong, how shall an individual pretend to prove the
feelings of a whole age or nation wrong, when the only
just criterion he can apply to ascertain the rectitude of his
own is their congruity with those of the generality of his
species.' (c. i., p. 1.)
This argument is founded on an exaggeration of a fact
in reference to the philosophy of taste admitted by those
who contend that taste is determined by some definite and
invariable principles: the fact may be described under
the general head of the influence of association on our
emotions of this order. Mr. Dugald Stewart has observed
on the exaggeration in question, that the association of
ideas can never account for the origin of a new notion, or
of a pleasure essentially different from all the others which
we know. It may indeed enable us to conceive how a
thing indifferent in itself may become a source of pleasure
by being connected in the mind with something else which
is naturally agreeable ; but it presupposes in every in-
stance the existence of those notions and those feelings
which it is its province to combine : insomuch that it will
be found wherever association produces a change in our
judgments in matters of taste, it does so by cooperating
with some natural principle of the mind, and implies the
existence of certain original sources of pleasure and un-
easiness. This suggests si distinction in the circumstances
which please in the objects of taste, between those which
please in consequence of casual associations and those
which are fitted to please by nature. The perfection of
tii-.tr in reference to the last depends upon the degree in
which the mind is free from casual associations ; in re-
ference to the first it depends upon the facility with which
such associations are formed. (Elements of the Philosophy
of tin' Uiiinnii Mind, c. v., p. ii., p. 364, 4to.)
The different modes in which association operates have
bi-rn illustrated with much elegance, and their true place
in the philosophy of taste distinguished, by Mr. Alison :
' Fashion," he remarks, ' may be considered in general as
the custom of the great. It is the dress, the furniture, the
language, the manners of the great world, which constitute
what is called the fashion in each of these articles, and
which the rest of mankiud are in such haste to adopt after
their example. Whatever the real beauty or propriety of
(hot; articles may be, it is not in this light that we con-
sider them. They are the signs of that elegance and taste
and splendour which is so liberally attributed to elevated
rank : they are associated with the consequence which such
situations bestow ; and they establish a kind of distinction
between this envied station and those humble and mor-
tifying conditions of life to which no man is willing to
belong. It is in the light therefore of thi* connection only
that we are disposed to consider them ; and they accord-
ingly affect us with the same emotion of delight which we
receive from the consideration of taste or elegance in more
permanent instances.' (Essays on Taste, Essay i.)
Association then can only modify, it cannot wholly ac-
count for our emotion of taste, and it cannot even modify
except by operating in a manner which implies certain ori-
ginal sources of pleasure and uneasiness in the objects of
our emotion. In some cases association heightens the
agreeable or disagreeable effect of objects ; in others all
the delight or ilisgii>,t which we experience can be resolved
P. C., No. IfKX).
into the influence of association. The distinction implies
the fact insisted on. What constitutes the distinction, or
where are we to find its explanation ? We may with pro
priety employ our reason in reducing particular phenomena
to general principles ; but we must in the end arrive at
principles of which there is no other account to be given
jthan that such is the will of the author of our nature. We
cannot explain why such forms please or displease ; we
must stop short at the discovery of the respects in which
they please or displease. (Stewart.)
Sir Joshua Reynolds has referred the idea of beauty to
some ' central form' in the objects of our perception. 'All
the objects which are exhibited to our view by nature,
upon close examination, will be found,' he says, ' to have
their blemishes and defects. The most beautiful forms
have something about them like weakness, minuteness, or
imperfection : but it is not every eye that perceives these
blemishes ; it must be an eye long used to the contempla-
tion and comparison of these forms ; and which, by a long
habit of observing what any set of objects of the same
kind have in common, has acqu'ired the power of discern-
ing what each wants in particular. This long laborious
comparison should be the first, study of the painter who
aims at the greatest style. By this means he acquires a
just idea of beautiful forms ; he corrects nature by herself,
her imperfect state by her more perfect. His eye being
enabled to distinguish the accidental deficiencies, excres-
cences, and deformities of things from their general figures,
he makes out an abstract idea of their forms more perfect
than any one original ; and, what may seem a paradox, he
learns to design naturally by drawing his figures unlike to
any one object. (Discourse III.) He observes in ex-
planation in another part of the same discourse : ' To the
principle I have laid down, that the idea of beauty in each
species of beings is an invariable one, it may be objected,
that in every particular species there are various central
forms which are separate and distinct from each other, and
yet are undeniably beautiful ; that in the human figure,
for instance, the beauty of Hercules is one ; of the Gla-
diator another ; of Apollo another ; which makes so many
different ideas of beauty. It is true indeed that these
figures are each perfect in their kind, though of different
characters and proportions ; but still none of them is the
representation of an individual, but of a class : and as
there is one general form which, as I have said, belongs to
the human kind at large, so in each of these classes there
is one common idea and central form, which is the abstract
of the various individual forms belonging to that class.
Thus, though the forms of childhood and age differ ex-
ceedingly, there is a common form in childhood and a
common form in age, which is the more perfect as it is
more remote from all peculiarities. But .... though the
most perfect forms of each of the general divisions of the
human figure are ideal, and superior to any individual
form of that class, yet the highest perfection of the human
figure is not to be found in any one of them. It is not in
the Hercules, nor in the Gladiator, nor in the Apollo, but.
in that form which is taken from all, and which partakes
equally of the activity of the Gladiator, of the delicacy of
the Apollo, and of the muscular strength of the Hercules.
For perfect beauty in any species must combine all the
characters which are beautiful in that species. It cannot
consist in any one to the exclusion of the rest ; no one
therefore must be predominant, that no one may be de-
ficient. . . . There is likewise a kind of symmetry or pro-
portion which may properly be said to belong to de-
formity. A figure lean or corpulent, tall or short, though
deviating from beauty, may still have a certain union of
the various parts, which may contribute to make them on
the whole not unpleasing.'
This theory (the principle of which extends to other
objects of taste besides those contemplated by Sir Joshua
Reynolds) reconciles the apparent inconsistency, insisted
on by Mr. Payne Knight and by other writers of the same
school, between the decisions of taste in one country and
in another, as tending to show that the standard of taste is
wholly arbitrary. The ideal beauty of the African is the
result of the process which has been described applied to
the coloured inhabitants of Africa, as the ideal beauty of
the European is the result of the same process applied
to the inhabitants of Europe. To institute a compari-
son between the beauty of the European and that of the
African, and to conclude that taste has no invariable
VOL. XXIV.— O
T A S
98
TAT
principles as its foundation, from the opposite derisions on
Mich a comparison, involves the same description of error
as it would be to arrive at tin- same conclusion from the
opposite decisions in :i comparison between the beauty of
I-.MI distil-.. ' I annuals, the one biped :nul tin
quadruped. There is a ' central form ' of beauty proper
to the different races of mankind ; to the two sexes of the
different races ; to different ages ; and so on in reference
to inferior animals and objects of inanimate nature. \\'e
.ss beyond the province of mere taste when we com-
pare object's in respect to which the principles of beauty
arc altogether distinct.
.ch obscurity has arisen in discussions on the subject
of taste from the twofold sense in which the word taste
has been employed, as expressive of an emotion, and of
something objective in which there exists an aptitude to
produce emotion. The term taste strictly applies to the
emotion only ; the theory of the different causes by which
the emotion is produced belongs to the subject of beauty.
We have been obliged to refer to the theory of beauty in
the preceding part of this article in establishing the reality
of certain principles determining our emotions of taste : in
what follows we shall confine ourselves to the explanation
of taste in its restricted or proper sense.
When any object either of sublimity or beauty is pre-
sented to the mind, we are conscious of a train ol thought
being immediately awakened analogous to the character
or expression of the original object. The landscapes of
Claude, the music of Handel, the poetry of Milton,
excite feeble emotions in our minds when our attention is
confined to the qualities they present to our senses, or
when it is to such qualities of their composition that we
turn our regard. It is then only we feel the sublimity or
beauty of their productions, w'hen our imaginations are
kindled by their power, when we lose ourselves amid the
number of images I hat pass before our minds, or when we
waken at last from the play of fancy as from the charm of
a romantic dream. (Alison, c. i., sect. 1.)
The trains of thought which are thus suggested are dis-
tinguished in the nature of the ideas or conceptions which
compose them, and in the nature or law of their succession.
In the case of those trains of thought which are suggested
by objects either of sublimity or beauty, they are in all
cases composed of ideas capable of exciting some affect ion
or emotion. Mr. Alison has supposed that not only the
whole succession is accompanied with that peculiar emo-
tion which we rail the emotion of beauty or sublimity,
but that every individual idea of such a succession is in
itself productive of some simple emotion or other. But to
tins it has been objected, and we think truly, that such a
train of images passing before the mind, and images accom-
panied with lively emotion, could scarcely fail to be
remembered by us; or, at least, if they are not rcmem-
1 by us, there is no reason, d priori, to suppose the
existence of them. (Brown, Lrctitrea on the Philosophy
(if the Human Mind, lecture Ivii.)
There is this distinction between the emotions of taste
and all our different emotions of simple pleasure, that in
the case of these last emotions no additional train of
thought is necessary. The pleasurable feeling follows im-
mediately the presence of the object or quality, and has
no dependence upon anything for its perfection but the
sound state of the sense by which it is received. The
emotions of envy, pity, benevolence, gratitude, utility,
propriety, novelty, &c. might undoubtedly be felt, although
we had no such power of mind as that by which we fol-
low out a train of ideas, and certainly are felt in a thousand
cases when this faculty is unemployed. In the case of
the emotion of taste, on the other hand, it seems evident
that this process of mind is necessary, and that unless it
is produced these emotions are unfelt. Whatever may
be the nature of that simple emotion which any object
is fitted to excite, whether that of gaiety, tranquillity.
melancholy, &c., if it produce not a train of kindred
thought in our minds, we are conscious only of that
simple emotion. Whenever, on the contrary, the train
of thought which has been mentioned is produced, we
are conscious of a higher, and more pleasing emotion:
and which, though it is impossible to describe in lan-
guage, we yet distinguish by the name of the emotion
of taste. The emotions of taste may therefore be con-
sidered as distinguished from the emotions of simple plea-
sure, by their being dependent upon the exercise or our
majrination ; and though founded in all cases upon simple
emotion, as yet further requiring the employment of tnis
faculty for their existence (£»*</;/ i., MMUlsion, s. ii.,
Alison); or, rather than the rinjilnymfiit ( a word which
seems to intimate a deliberate1 intended act, in the pro-
cess of imagination), as Dr. Brown would say, the opera-
tion of the common laws of suggestion in the mode to which
we apply the word imagination.
The suggestion of trains of kindred or harmonising
I which has been pointed out u distinguishing the
emotion of taste, accounts for the more enlarged suscepti-
bility in some than in others of this emotion. The more
our ideas are increased or our conceptions extended upon
any subject, the greater the number of association
connect with it, the stronger is the emotion of sublimity
or beauty we rcceue ironi it. • What is it* (says Mr.
Alison) ' that constitute* tint emotion of sublime delight,
which every man of common sensibility feels upon the
first prospect of Rome ? It is not the scene of destruction
w hich is before him. It is not the TI|XT. diminished in
his imagination to a pnltn stream, and stagnating amid
the ruins of that magnificence which it once adorned.
It is not the triumph of superstition over the wreck of
human greatness, and its monuments erected upon the
very spot where the first honours of humanity lia\<
gained. It is antient Home which fills his imagination.
It is the country of Csesar, and Cicero, and Virgil, which
is before him. It is the mistress of the world which he
sees, and who seems to him to rise again from her tomb,
to give laws to the universe. All that the labours of Ins
youth or the studies of his maturer age have acquired,
with regard to the history of this great people, open at
once before his imagination, and present him with a field
of high and solemn imagery, which can never be ex-
hausted.'
' The beauty' of a theory or of a relic of antiquity is
unintelligible to a peasant. The charms of the country
are altogether lost upon a citizen who has passed his
life in town.' It is on the principle in question that
Burke remarks that the excellence and force of a com-
position must always be imperfectly estimated from its
effect on the minds of any, except we know the temper and
character of those minds. (Introduction to the Sublime
and Beautiful.)
The rules by which tas\e is determined vary with the
objects to which its decisions refer; but in respect to all,
this general principle holds, that a composition is to be
judged by its fitness to produce the end designed by it.
If to please, to instruct, to move, to create laughter, be its
design, its merits are to be determined by its aptitude to
produce any of these effects. If its objects be to please,
\.r. (inly a particular people or class, it is to be estir
under the given circumstances. If its object he to give
pleasure or instruction to all ages and conditions of
society, it is to be estimated by its ruiTc-pondcnce with
those universal principles of human nature which it con-
templates. That eompo-ition is the highest which is of the
last description. (Hume's Essay on l/ieStniiifuril <;/' '/'
The reader who may desire to see (hi* Mibjcct further dis-
cussed is referred to the article BKAUTY ; to Mr. Alton's
/.Vv '//v .• to Brown's J.i-i-!nn:\ mi the PhilofOti/i I/ nf the
Human Mind, lecture Ivii.; Hume's & xny 'in the Standard
"f T
TATARS. [TARTARS.]
TATK, NAHUM, was born in Dublin in the year K;.*i2.
His father was Dr. Faithful Tale, a clergyman in Ireland.
He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, whence he
removed to London. On the death of Shadwell in IO!H).
the interest ol Tale's friends procured him the situation of
.uircatc, which he held till his death. He seems to
have been an improvident man. and somewhat addicted
to intemperance. In the latter part of his life lie resided
in the precincts of the Mint, in Southwark, where he died,
August 12, 171"). The Mint was then considered a pri-
< d place, where debtors were not liable to
This supposed privilege however was put down by statute
9 Geo. I.
Tate wrote 'Memorials for the Learned, collected out of
eminent Authors in History.' Hvo. Kisti; • I'haiacters of
Virtue and Vice described and attempted in Verse, from
a Treatise of Joseph Hall. Bishop of Exon,' Loud.. Kiill ;
• Miscellanea Sacra, 01 Pttmi on Dhnie and Moral Sub-
jects,' Lond., 1698, 8vo. ; ' Panacea, a Poem on Tea,
TAT
99
TAT
Lond., 1700 ; besides Birth-Day Odes, and an Elegy or
the death of Queen Mary. He was also the author o
about ten dramatic pieces, tragedy, comedy, and opera
including an alteration of Shakspere's ' Lear,' which kep
the stage many years, but has for some time been super
seded by the original.
Tate is chiefly known now by his metrical version o
the Psalms, which he executed in conjunction with Dr
Nicholas Brady [BRADY], and which is now commonly
annexed to the Book of Common Prayer of the Church o
England. This version, though not of high merit, has
deservedly taken the place of the former version by Stern-
hold and Hopkins. [STEHNHOLD.] The first publicatior
was an ' Essay of a New Version of the Psalms of David
consisting of the first Twenty, by N. Brady and N. Tate,
Lond., 1695, 8vo. ; this was followed by 'A New Version
of the Psalms of David, fitted to the Tunes used in the
Churches, by N. Tate and N. Brady,' Lond., 1698, with a
' Supplement of Church Hymns,' Lond., 1700, 8vo.
(Baker's Biographia Dramatiea, by Reed and Jones ;
AVall's Bibliothfca Jirifannica.)
TATIA'NUS, of Assyria, was a pupil of Justin Martyr,
after whose death he wrote an apology for Christianity,
under the title of ' A Discourse to the Heathen '
f *EXX>)voc). In this work he gives some account of
his own life. He was brought up in heathenism, the dif-
ferent forms of which became known to him by his many
travels ; and all those forms appeared to him unsatisfactory.
He then turned his attention to the Old Testament, on
which he thought he saw the impress of truth. Arriving
at Rome, where he practised as a rhetorician, he met with
Justin Martyr, by whom he was converted to Christianity.
After the death of Justin he embraced some heretical
opinions, the germs of which may be seen in his 'Dis-
course to the Heathen.' The chief of his heresies were the
Marcionite doctrines of the two principles of good and evil,
and of the evil of matter [MARCIONITES], and the Valen-
tinian doctrine concerning Aeons. His followers were how-
ever chiefly remarkable for the practical application they
made of their Marcionite opinions by lives of the strictest
asceticism. They lived in celibacy, refused all luxuries, and
abstained from the use of wine even at the Lord's Supper.
Hence they were called Encratites (ifxparlTat), Apotac-
titcs i airoTatTiicoi}, and Hydroparastatae (vSpoirapaaTuTai).
But it must be observed that these terms were often ap-
plied to all ascetics. The Tatianists were Encratites, but
all called Encratites were not Tatianists. The date of
Tatian's heresy is placed by Eusebius in the year A.D. 172.
Of his lost works the chief were a treatise on ' Perfec-
tion after the Pattern of the Saviour ' (irtpi row icard rbv
aurijpa rarafTtffftou), and a ' Harmony of the Four Gospels '
(fi'inyytXiov Ita Tiaaapuv). The latter work is particularly
noticed by Theodoret, who found 200 copies of it in the
Syrian churches, which he took away from the people on
account of the heresies contained in the book. For this
reason, chiefly, Neander supposes that the Harmony of
Tatian was not simply compiled from the narratives of the
four Evangelists, but contained also many things out of
the Apocryphal Gospels. Some writers, among whom is
Lardner, think that Tatian's ' Harmony ' is still extant in an
Arabic MS. in the Vatican Library.
His ' Apology ' is usually printed with the works of Justin
Martyr. There are separate editions of it by Gesner,
Zurich, 1546, to). ; and by Worth, Oxon., 1700, 8vo.
(Eusebius, Hist. Ecc., iv. 29 ; Hieronymus, De Vir. II-
ln\t., c. 29; Clemens Alexand., Strom., iii. 12; Lardner's
Credibility, pt. ii., c. xiii., &c. ; xxxvi., sec. 2; Neander's
Gesch. der Christ. Relig. und Kirche, i., p. 762, and
p. 1131.)
TATIUS, ACHILLES. [ACHILLES TATTOS.]
TATTA. ("HINDUSTAN, xii., 221.]
TATTERSHALL. [LINCOLNSHIRE.]
TATTOOING is the name usually given to the custom,
common among many uncivilized tribes, of marking the
skin by punctures or incisions, and introducing into them
coloured fluids, so as to produce an indelible stain. It is
mentioned in Captain Cook's account of the South Sea
islanders under the name lattowing; and, with trifling dif-
ference in the orthography, the same name is applied by
English writers to similar practices among other people.
Tin; word ' tattoo* appears to be formed by a reduplication
of a Polynesian verb ' ta,' meaning to strike, and therefore to
allude to the method of performing the operation, and, if
this supposition be correct, it has a curious resemblance to
the English word tattoo, meaning a particular beat of the
drum.
From a passage in the book of Leviticus, chap, xix.,
v. 28, in which the Israelites are forbidden to make any
cuttings in their flesh for the dead, or to print any marks
upon their bodies, it has been supposed that some custom
resembling tattooing was practised in the time of Moses.
A note upon this passage in the ' Pictorial Bible' states,'
that although tattooing seems to have been commonly re-
garded in England rather as a custom of savage islanders
than anything more, it is also an Oriental custom, and that
too among people whose proximity to the Hebrews affords
a reason for the prohibition contained in the text referred
to. ' The Bedouin Arabs, and those inhabitants of towns
who are in any way allied to them,' observes the author of
this note, ' are scarcely less fond of such decorations than
any islanders of the Pacific Ocean. This is particularly
the case among the females, who, in general, have their
legs and arms, their front from the neck to the waist, and
even their chins, lips, and other prominent parts of the
face marked with blue stains in the form of flowers,
circles, bands, stars, and various fanciful figures. They
have no figures of living objects, such being forbidden by
their religion ; neither do they associate any superstitions
with them, so far as we are able to ascertain. They pro-
bably did both before the Mohammedan sera, as their de-
scendants in the island of Malta do at present. The men
there generally go about without their jackets, and with
their sleeves tucked up above their elbows, and we scarcely
recollect ever to have seen an arm, thus bare, which was not
covered with religious emblems and figures of the Virgin,
or of some saint under whose immediate protection the
person thus marked conceived himself to be.' ' Thus also,'
aroceecls the author, ' persons who visit the holy sepulchre
md other sacred places in Palestine have commonly a
mark impressed on the arm in testimony of their merito-
rious pilgrimage.1 The works of antient writers contain
many notices of the practice of tattooing, as practised
jy several barbarous races. As to the Britons, Caesar
merely describes their custom of staining their bodies with
vitrum, or woad ; but ' Solinus represents the process as a
aborious and painful one, but permanent in its effect ; and
speaks of the painting as consisting chiefly of the figures
of animals, that grew with the growth of the body. He-
rodian says they punctured their bodies with the figures
of all sorts of animals. Isidore is still more explicit ; for,
n speaking of the Picts, whose name he derives from their
coloured skins, he tells us that the painting was done by
queezing out the juice of certain herbs upon the body,
and puncturing the figures with a needle.' (Pictorial
History of England, vol. i., p. 129.) Caesar supposed
hat this practice was adopted for the purpose of terrifying
heir enemies ; but probably this kind of skin-painting
was the national dress, and if so, it may have existed in
ts highest state of perfection at a period anterior to the
loman invasion. Tattooing may also have been practised
Dy our ancestors as a means of distinction, as well as from
he love of ornament. Thus Herodotus, who describes the
labits of the Thracians, says that to be tattooed or marked
fon'xSat) was an emblem of rank, and the want of it indi-
cated meanness of descent (v. 6). The extended use of
Nothing at a later period rendered such ornaments super-
luous, and led to the decline and subsequent abandonment
>f the practice. ' It is therefore,' says the ' Pictorial His-
ory of England,' ' that we hear no more of this tattooing
n the south (of Britain) after it was subdued and civilised
nto a Roman province, though it still continued among
he rude tribes of the north, where it lingered until it
vas banished thence also by the full attire of civilization.'
n a subsequent part of the same volume (p. 329) it is
tated that the custom of tattooing, or puncturing the
kin, was practised by the Anglo-Saxons as well as by the
iritons, and that a law was passed against it in the year
785 It was nevertheless continued during the whole
)f the Anglo-Saxon period, and is among the English
ices reprobated by William of Malmesbury after the Nor-
man conquest. Several other antient notices on the sub-
ect are collected by Lafitau, in his ' Mreurs des Sauvages
Americmaines,' which work is cited in the volume on the
New Zealanders' in the ' Library of Entertaining..Know-
edge,' where much information respecting tattooing is
'
TAT
100
TAT
In in..d.-iii rimes the custom ni' tattooing has been found
in must nl the inland* of tin- l':u-itir I It-can, anil among
many of tin- aboriginal tribes ol' Afrii-n and Anu-rit-a, as. \\cll
at, on a limited wale, an before stated, in the Ka.st. Much
curious information on the various kind, of tattooing i» col-
,1 in tin- volume on the ' New /eaJamli r-. previously
filed. From this work we condense the following account
of the process of tattooing, as ]>erl'tirmed in New /<
upon an KiiglUh sailor, named John Rutherford. who v\a-
:reil b} the native* in 1810, and resided among them
i arly ten years, and upon Mime companions who were
taken with him : — The natives having seated themselves
on the irromul in a ring, the Englishmen were placed in
the middle, stripped of their clothes, laid down on their
El, and held by five or six men each, while two others
commenced the operation of tattooing. Having taken a
piece of charcoal, and nibbed it upon it stone with a little
water, so as to produce a thick liquid, they dipped into it
an instrument made of bone, with a sharp edge like a
chisel, ami shaped in the fashion of a garden-hoe. They
then applied the instrument to the skin, and struck it twice
or thrice with a piece of wood, thereby making it cut into
the flesh as a knife would have done, and causing a great
deal of blood to flow, which they kept wiping ott' with the
side of the hand, in order to bee whether the impression
was made sufficiently clear. If not, they applied the
cutting-instrument again to the same place. Various
instruments were however employed in the course of the
operation, one sort being made of a shark's tooth, and
another having a serrated edge ; and they were used of
different sizes, to suit the different parts of the work.
Rutherford states that the pain was most acute, and that,
although the operators were very quick and dexterous, he
was four hours under their hands; and he was completely
blinded for a time by the operation. In three days the
swelling occasioned by it had greatly subsided, and he
began to recover his sight ; but six weeks elapsed before
he was completely well. Rutherford's account agrees
•.\ith those of other observers, excepting in the circum-
stance of the whole operation being performed at once,
while both Captain Cruise and Mr. Marsden state that it
icquired several months, and sometimes several years, to
complete the tattooing of a chief, owing to the necessity
of allowing one part of the face or body to heal before
commencing the decoration of another part ; but, besides
the probability that this might apply only to the more
intricate patterns, or to cases in which the tattooing ex-
tended over a larger portion of the person than in the case
of Rutherford, it is possible that the natives may have
'.'(•signed to put his powers of endurance to a severer test
than would he required of a native. Captain Cruise states
that the New /ealander* occasionally renew theirtattooing,
v faint by lapse of time ; and from various
accounts- it would appear that the tincture introduced into
the wound on the edge of the cutting-instrument U some-
times obtained from the juice of a tree ; and that, before
the cutting is commenced, the intended figure is traced
upon the skin with a burnt stick, or a piece of red earth.
The age for performing the operation appears to van, from
i-ight or ten jeaiu up to about twenty: and the females
are not required to submit to anything beyond a slight
tattooing of the face. Those among whom Rutherford
lived had the inside of their lips tattooed,* as well as
g marks on the chin, forehead, and sides of the nose
and mouth ; while the men were commonly tattooed on
the face, hips, and body, and some as low as the knee.
The most complicated patterns are found upon cln
the highest order; and their pi -culiai de\n es, or. n> they
:illcd. amocos, form distinctions which, in Home case*,
take the- place of the sign-manual of the individuals to
whom they belong. An instance is related in the • Mis-
sionary Register' for 1810. in which a chief in the Hay of
Islands, mi making a grant or conveyance of a piece of
land to some missionaries, had a drawing of the tattooing
of his face affixed in lieu ofasignatnre : while an attesting
witness added, in like manner, a copy of the pattern on
one of his cheeks. Of the character of these patterns a
better idea will be conveyed by the annexed 1,
Shungie, copied from an engraving in the ' Missionary
• Aoeonltai to ll,, ii.rr.Hteoflh.»oy»ii« nf H.M.8. Blonde In lli« ».nJ. Irh
llUod., the lldinnf II.WMilllirO.I,)!,. ,:„, „„
t..l.r frmcllr. of uuooin, th. lipi uf ihelr tousle., la memory of lli,-ir ,!-,,., usl
Register' for 1810, than by the most lengthened description.
After it is inserted a copy of a drawing, executed hyTnpni
Cup*, * New Zealand duel, without the aid of a g!:i-
his own arnoco, or tattooed pattern. Tin- g in-
dividual also drew from memory, while in Knghmd. the
amocos of his brother and of his eldest ton ; and
the force of association in his mind. that, on finishing the
latter, he held it up, gazed at it with a murmur of atl'cc-
tionate delight, kissed it repeatedly, and finally burst into
tears.
Hm(l of Sii;iu<:u-, from a carving by .
on Ihe face of Ttljiai Cur«i, f")T" "> dr.iviim; li> Mm* If.
Tin- process of tattooing as practised, or rather a^ it
•nncrly practised, in other islands ot the South Sea,
was less painful than that followed in New /calami : for,
according to the account of Captain Cook, in some
the punctures could hardly be said to draw blood. The in-
struments used were edged \\ith small teeth, somewhat
resembling those of a fine comb ; and. as in the case of
New Zealand, the colouring tincture was introduced at
the same operation as that by which the skin was punc-
tured : the substance employed in some places )>cnig a
kind Of bop-black. On the brown skins of the nui
the marks made with this substance appear black ; but on
the skin of a European they are of a fine blue colour.*
Lafitan speaks of powdered charcoal a.s the colouring-
matter commonly used by the American Indians; and
stales that it was introduced by a process subsequent to
that of cutting or puncturing tlie skin. This insertion of
the colour appears to have been the most painful part of
the operation of tattooing as practised among them.
• Ruthrrronl »lnlc« thai 111. UtlonlnR on the in»Me of Uic lips of New
women a|>|M'uri of a IMW roloiir.
T A U
101
T A U
In addition to the other reasons which have been al-
luded to for the general adoption of the practice of
tattooing among savage tribes, it is likely that it may
be regarded as an important part of the initiation of a
warrior, of whose passive courage it is a severe test.
' Thus,' observes the author of the ' New Zealanders," ' in
the account which Rochefort, in his ' History of the An-
tilles' (p. 108), gives of the initiation of a warrior among
the people of those islands, it is stated that the father of
the young man, after a very rude flagellation of his son,
used to proceed to scarify (as he expresses it) his whole
body with the tooth of the animal called the acouti ' ; and
then, in order to heal the gashes thus made, he nibbed
into them an infusion of pimento, which occasioned an
agonizing pain to the poor patient ; but it was indispens-
able that he should endure the whole, adds our author,
without the least, contortion of countenance or other evi-
dence of sufferins.'
(Pictorial Bible, note on Levit. xix., 28 ; Pictorial His-
tnry of England, vol. i., pp. 129 and 329 ; New Zea-
litndi'i-x. • Lib. of Ent. Knowledge,' chapters vi. and xiv.)
TAUHMANN, FRIEDRKJH, was born at Wonsees,
near Baireuth, on the 10th of May. 1565, where his father
\vas a shoemaker. His father died very early; and his
mother married a tailor, who wished to bring up his step-
son Friedrich to his own business ; but as the boy showed
little inclination, he was sent, in 1577, to school at Culm-
bach, where he was obliged to gain his livelihood by sing-
ing and begging. In 15H2 he went to the gymnasium of
Heilbronn, when his Latin \crses and the wit displayed
in them wen- so much admired, that he was crowned by
Paul Melissus as poet-laureate. Ten years later he went
to the University of Wittenberg, where he distinguished
himself, anil, in 15'J.">, was appointed professor of poetry
and eloquence, to which afterwards the honour of court-
poet was added. He died at Wittenberg, on the 24th of
.March, 1613.
Taubmann was conscientious in the discharge of his
official duties, and he was a witty and humorous man.
During his lifetime he had the reputation of being the
greatest wit of the age, and persons of the highest rank
Miiiiiht his society. From all that, can be learned about
him, it is clear that he did not, like many others in similar
positions, forget his own dignity as a man : he never acted
as a buffoon or flatterer, but always manifested a straight-
forward and upright character. In his time philology
was sinking very rapidly in Saxony, all attention being
absorbed by theological controversies and sophistries, and
Taubmann was one of the very few who, both in earnest
and in jest, impressed upon his contemporaries the ne-
•y of resuming a thorough study of tne antient lan-
guages as the only means of raising theological studies to
their proper position. This he did more especially in his
work, ' Dissertatio de Lingua Latina,' the last edition of
which appeared at Wittenberg, 1614. With the same
view he exerted himself in his lectures, and in his editions
of Plautus* Wittenberg, 1621, 4to.) and of Virgil (Witten-
berg, 1618, 4to.), in which he made his countrymen ac-
quainted with the labours of foreign scholars. His poetical
works, though very popular in his time, have no great
merit. They appeared in several collections, under the
titles of ' Columbae Poeticae,' ' Melodaesia,' ' Schedias-
mata Poetica,' and others. After Taubmann's death, the
name of Taubmanniana was applied to all kinds of witty
sayings and anecdotes.
(Erasmi Schmidii Oratio in Taubmanni Memoriam,
Wittenberg, 1013, 8vo. ; Taubmanniana, oder Fr. Taub-
mann's Leben, Anecdoten, witzige Einfdllf und Sitten-
i hi>, von Simon von Gyrene, Leipzig, 1797, 8vo. ; Fr.
Brandt, Leben und Tod Frid. Taubmanni, Copenhagen,
HJ75, 8vo. : the best work however is by Ebert, Leben und
I 'i-nliennte Fr. Taubmanns, Eisenberg, 1814, 8vo.)
TAULER. or THAULER, JOHANN, the most cele-
brated German divine of the fourteenth century. He was
born in 1294, as some writers say, at Cologne, but accord-
ing to others at Strassburg. Respecting his life very little
is known. He entered the order of the Dominicans at an
early age, and was held in the highest esteem on account
• if his knowledge of philosophy and mystic theology, as
well as for hi» pious and unblemished conduct, although
he fearlessly attacked the vices and follies of his fellow-
monks. The latter part of his life he spent in the convent
of the Dominicans at Strassburg, where he died on the
16th of June, 1361, as is attested by his tomb-stone, which
still exists in that city.
Tauler was a man of extraordinary piety and devotion, a
zealous teacher, and a great promoter of mystic theology in
Germany, which must regard him not only as the founder
of that school of divinity, but at the same time as one of
the greatest men that have ever sprung from it. His ser-
mons, as well as his other religious and ascetic works, show
a glowing imagination and deep feeling: they are less
addressed to the understanding than to the heart. But
although this leaning and his love of the mysterious fre-
quently led him to religious sentimentality and absurdities,
yet he never sinks down to the level of some modern mys-
tic divines. Tauler was deeply read in scholastic philoso-
phy, and although in his sermons he endeavours to steer
clear of it, yet they are not quite free from sophistic sub-
tleties, and there are passages which must have puzzled move
than enlightened his audience. In his love of truth, and
the earnestness with which he devoted himself to the instruc-
tion of the people, he was a worthy predecessor of Luther
Tauler's influence upon the German language and litera-
ture has acquired for him as distinguished a" place in the
history of German literature as that which he occupies
among divines. In his time German prose scarcely existed,
and the standaid of sermon-writing was very low. The
creation of a prose literature belongs almost exclusively
to him : his style seldom aims at oratorical beauty, his
sentences are short and abrupt, but always full of mean-
ing. His language, which is the dialect of the Upper
Rhine, is as pure as can be expected. It appears that
Tauler did not himself write his sermons, but they were
taken down as they were preached, by many of his hearers.
We must therefore suppose that in the editions which
were published shortly alter his death, the form has been
somewhat altered by the editors. The first edition of his
sermons appeared at Leipzig, 1498, in 4to., under the fol-
lowing title : ' Sermon deg grossgelarten in gnaden erleuch-
teten Doctoris Johannis Tauleri predigerr ordens, weisende
auff den nehesten waren wegk, yn geiste czu wandern
durch uberschwebenden syn, unvoracht von geistes ynnige
vorwandelt I deutsch manchen menschen zu selikeit.'
This edition was followed by another at Augsburg, 1508,
fol., and a more complete one at Basel, 1521, fol. A
translation of these sermons into the dialect of Lower
Germany was published at Halberstadt, in 1523, fol., and
another into High German by P. J. Spener, at Niirnberg,
1088, 4to. A new edition in modern High German was
published at Frankfurt-on-the-Main, in 3 vols. 8vo., 1825,
&c. The most interesting among his other religious
works is that on the imitation of the life of Christ, ' Naci-
folgung des armen Lebens Christi,' which was first printed
at Frankfurt in 1621. The most recent edition is that by
Schlosser, Frankf., 1833. A collection of all the treatises
of Tauler was commenced in 1823, at Luzem, by N. Cas -
seder, but only two volumes have appeared.
Most of the works of Tauler were translated into Latin
by Laurentius Surius, Cologne, 1548, fol. : this collection
has been reprinted at Macerata and Paris. There are
also one Italian and three Dutch translations : the best of
the Dutch translations is that of Antwerp, 1685, fol.
A list of the works of Tauler, together with the whole
literature on the subject, is given in Jorden's Lexicon
Deutscher Dichter und Prosaisten, vol. v., p. 1-9.
TAUNTON, an antient town in the south-western part
of Somersetshire, situated in a fertile vale called Taunton
Dean, and distant 141 miles from London, 44 from Bristol,
and 33 from Exeter. Roman coins and other antiquities
have been found, from which it has been inferred that
there was a Roman station here. Taunton was certainly
a place of considerable importance in the Anglo-Saxon
Eeriod ; and in the eighth century a castle was built here
y Ina, king of the West Saxons, in which he held his first
great council. The building was destroyed by his queen
in expelling one of the kings of the South Saxons. An
other castle was built after the Conquest by one of the
bishops of Winchester, to whom the town and manor were
granted ; and the present remains are believed to be those
of a still more recent edifice. Perkin Warbeck held pos-
session of the castle and town for a short time ; and in the
civil wars the town sustained a long siege under Colonel
(afterwards Admiral) Blake, against 10,000 royalist troops,
until relieved by Fairfax.
The town is about a mile long; the principal streets are
T A U
102
T A U
well paved, and lighted with gas : and the houses of brick, '
of respectable appearance. Apart from tin- main tho-
roughfares are wmic \ci_v p..,,r st,,.,-ts. which, before the
enlargement of tlu> bdftmgh, were inhabited by persons
desirous of ]ir.ititinir hy tin- parliamentary taactttM. The
woollen manufacture was established at Taunton in the
fourteenth century, hut has long since decayed : and at
present the silk manufacture is carried on, though not to
any great extent. The river Tone flows on the north-
western side oi the town, and is crossed by a stone bridge
of two arches; but the river is only partially navigable, and
in 1SH a canal was projected between Taunton and Bridge-
water, a distance of 12J miles. Tin's canal is of great impor-
taticetothe prosperity of the town and district, bv enabling
rultural and other produce to Bristol and
other places, from wliich it receives groceries, coal, and
other commodities in return : there is a branch from this
canal to Chard. In July, 1842, the railway from Bristol to
r was opened as far as Taunton, so that there is now
a railway communication with the metropolis. The
markets, held twice a week, are very abundantly supplied
with lish. fruit, and every kind of provisions. The market-
house stand* in a spacious open area called the Parade, and
is a brick building of considerable size : the upper part
comprises the iruildhall and an assembly-room, and the
low er part consists of an arcade on each side, in one of
which the corn-market is held. On market-days the Pa-
rade, which is enclosed by iron posts and chains, is occu-
pied by butchers' stalls. On the west side of the Parade
there is a handsome building of the Ionic order, erected in
Is-Jl. the upper part of which is appropriated as a library,
museum, and reading-room ; and underneath, and in the
rear, are the markets for fish, poultry, dairy produce, &c.
The Taunton and Somerset Institution, established in lsJ3.
contains a pood though not extensive library, and a large
public reading and news room. The theatre is a small neat
building. Two weekly newspapers are published at Taun-
ton. There are three churches. The church of St. Mary
Magdalen is a spacious and very handsome edifice in the
florid Gothic style. The quadrangular tower at the west
end, 153 feet high, is much enriched, and is a work of
great beauty. The value of the living, which is a vicarage,
is not given in the Reports of the Ecclesiastical Commis-
sioners. St. James's church is a plain edifice, with an an-
tient square tower formerly belonging to the conventual
church of the priory. The living is a perpetual cunicy, of
the annual value of 255/. Trinity church was consecrated
18th June, 1842. It is in the Gothic style, built of whit*
lias stone, with dressings of Bath stone, and contains sit tings
for aboTe one thousand persons. It stands on elevated
ground, about half a mile from the parish church, in a poo:
and populous part of the town. There are two chapels be-
longing to the Wesleyan Methodists, one erected in 1778
under the direction of Wesley. The Roman Catholics,
Independents, Baptists, Quakers, and Unitarians have
chapels. The free grammar-school was founded by Fox,
bishop of Winchester, in 1522. The premises are situated
within the castle-gate, and consist ot a large and antient
school-room, and under the same roof is the dwelling-
house of the master. The endowment is worth about 3G/.
a year. The number of infant, Sunday, and daily schools
at Taunton was stated in 1833 to be very inadequate, and
a large number of poor children were at that time receiving
no education. There are various almshouses and other
c-harities, all of which are noticed in the Report of the
Charity Commissioners 'vol. v., p. 4H4-542X The Taunton
and Somerset hospital was opened in 1812; and there are
other medical charii
Charles I. granted the burgesses a charter of incor-
poration. In the reign of Charles II. they were de-
prived of this charter, in consequence of the town having
displayed so much zeal for the parliament, but it was re-
stored, and in 1"!)2 became forfeited by the corporate
body having neglected to fill up vacancies. The town
then came under the jurisdiction of the county magistral es.
and is still without a municipal government. The bailiffs
and constables, as the principal officers of the town, take a
prominent part in all public proceedings. Taunton has
ied members to parliament since 1295 (23 Homv I .
Before the Reform Act the right of election was in the
potwallers who had been six months resident and were
not in the if.-eipt of charitable relief. The town having
outgrown the antient limits of the borough, which was
wholly within the parish of St. Mary Magdalen, a new
boundary was adopted, so its to comprise parts of the fol-
lowing parishes:— St. Mary M
James's on the north. Bishop's Hull on the west, and
Wilton on the south. By this extension the population of
the borough was iucn-a.scd I'roiM ;ViHO to 1'J. ding
tothe census of ls;)l. In 1826 the number of electors polled
( I; in 1K-M) the number on the register amounted to
Kill), including 21G of the old potwallers. Two members
are returned to parliament. The I - and the
Michaelmas quarter-sessions are held at Taunton. There
is a court for debts under forty shillings, the jurisdiction of
which extends over the hundred. There is no prisov
cept a lock-up or place of temporary confinement. The
county courts and offices are within an irregular quadnr
consisting of the remains of the castle.
(Toulmin's ///'*/. nf Tatinlun, 17'J1 ; a new edition by
. IS-M. i
TAUNUS. [GERMANY.]
TAURELLIUS. L. [TORKU.I.]
TAU'RICA CHKRSONK'SIS was the antient name of
the peninsula which juts out southwards from European
Sarniatia, between the Pontus Kiixinns lilac); Sea and
the Palus Macotis Sea of Azof): it is now called the
Crimea. It is called Chersonesus Trachea by Herodotus.
who compares it to the promontory of Sunium (iv. llsl).
Its form, size, and physical features are described
under CRIMEA. The istiunns which connects it with
the mainland was called Taphros or Taphrae dY.ppoc,
Ta^pai), and there appears to have been a town of the
same name upon the isthmus.* (Strabo. \ii., p. :«IS;
Pliny, iv. 26; Mela, ii. 1.) On the wot of this isthmus
was the Sinus Carcinites (K<i\irof o Kapnvirqc), now the
Gulf of Perekop ; and on the east the shallow waters then,
as now, called the Putrid Sea or Lake (,', i'dTpii Ai/n-i;.
Pains Putris). The south-western point of the peninsula
was the promontory Parthenion (ri Ilap&ivwv), which is
either the modem Cape ( 'hcrsoucse. or another promontory
farther south, in the neighbourhood of the tow n of S
Gheorghi. The southern promontory was called Criu-
Metopon (KpioS fiiriaieov), and either the south-eastern or
the eastern point of the island was called Cora\ (ro K
affiov). On the east the peninsula is divided from the
coast of Asia by the Cimmerian Bosporus (,'> Ki/i^fninf
, now the Strait of Kertch or \cnikale. On the
south-western side of the peninsula is a small pcih
terminated by Cape Khcrsonese, and enclosed on the
north by the Gulf of Achtiar, the antient Portus Kteinis
(Krfi'oi'c), and on the south by the Gulf of Balaklava. the
antient Port us Symboloruiu (ie/i.ViXmr X</jij>'). On this
peninsula, at the distance of 100 stadia from the promon-
tory Parthenion (Strabo), stood the city of Chers.
XffipoVijo-oc) or Cherrone (Mela), the full name of which
v. as ( 'hersonesus Heracleotica. It was a colony of !
clea in Pontus. The peninsula itself was called the Small
Chersonesus, and the Chersonesiis Tamica wa< sometimes
called the Great Chersonesus, to distinguish it from this
part of itself. The other important towns were, on the
isthmus, Taphros (>'; Ta^poc), now Perekop; on the west.
coast Kupatoria (Eitrrarotiia), now Kupatoria or Kazlov,
built by Mithridates Kupator; on the cast ,
dosia (»; Oialooia, or <i <IH'(*IP<TI'H\ now Kefa or Keodosia,
a colony of the Milesians : at the eastern end of the island,
on the Bosporus. Panticapaciim or Bosporus ' ITaiTicnT. •
now Kcrtch. There were several towns in the interi.
which the only one worth mentioning is Cimmerion, now
Kski-Kiim. that is. Old Krim.
The earliest inhabitants of the peninsula appear to have
been the Cimmerians, some of whom remained in it after
the great body of the nation had been driven from their
ieats round the Palus Macotis by the Scythians. (Herod.,
iv. 1,11, 12.~i Clear traces of this people remain in the
names of Cimmerion, the Ciiniiu rian Bosporus, the <'im-
meiian Chersonesus (as the peninsula was sometimes
called!, and in its modern names of Ciimca and Crini-
y. In the earliest notices of the < -. by
Greek writers, we find the mountainous i the
south and south-east inhabited 1< I people, called
• ThU nam* wat probably ilcriv«l from K <litrh which in u-ry nntii-nt time*
ran •criHU Illr i>lht:ni>. anil
ThUdilch mu« n i '
which nppru* In havp bam in the prniMuU itopU. and at thp ruten ]
! iuhr i I'rrmudltt Mrj/to, i , ),. 1 57 , Hahr'i note on llip puMfc IB
Heradottu, IT. S.)
T A U
103
T A U
the Tauri, from whom the Chersonesus was called Taurica,
and whose name remains in that of the modern Russian
province of Taurida, in which the Crimea is included.
Who these Tauri were is a question of some difficulty.
Strabo (p. 308) calls them a Scythian people, but Hero-
dotus (iv. 99) clearly distinguishes the Tauri from the
Scythians, as being a different nation. The inhabitants of
the whole or a part of the peninsula are not unfrequently
called Scythotauri or Tauroscythae. Judging from this
mixed name, from the testimony of Herodotus to the two
facts that the Tauri were a different people from the
Scythians, and that the Scythians did not drive out all the
Cimmerians from the peninsula, and, lastly, from several
analogous cases,* it seems most probable that the Tauri
were a remnant of the old Cimmerian inhabitants, who had
maintained themselves in the mountains against the
Scythian invaders. The name ' Tauri ' is supposed to be
derived from an old root ' Tau,' meaning a mountain.
The Tauri were reputed by the Greeks to be inhospi-
table and cruel to strangers : they were said to offer
human sacrifices, especially of shipwrecked mariners, to a
virgin goddess, whom, according to Herodotus, the Tauri
themselves identified with Iphigeneia, the daughter of
Asramemnon, and whose temple stood on the promontoiy
of Parthenion. (Herodot, iv. 103 : Strabo, p. 308 ; Mela,
ii. 1 : Diod. Sic., iv. 44.) This legend enters into the
composition of the ' Iphigeneia in Tauris'of Euripides,
and is several times referred to by the Roman poets.
From about the sixth century before Christ downwards,
several Greek colonies were planted on the Chersonese,
and these were gradually formed into two states, that of
Chersonesus, comprehending the smaller peninsula on the
south-west, and the kingdom of Bosponis on the south-
east. These two states were united under Mithridntes.
[BospORr.s.]
Further information respecting the geography and his-
tory of the peninsula and of the adjoining delta of the
Kuban is given under CRIMEA and TAMAN.
TAL'HI'DA, one of the governments of South Russia,
sometimes called the government of Simferopol, situ-
ated on the Black Sea, consists of— 1st, the Crimea or
Tauric Peninsula ; 2nd. the Nogay Steppe, with the island
ol' Taman [TAMAN] ; 3rd, the country of the Tscherno-
morsk Cossacks. It is bounded on the north-west by
Kherson, on 1he north-east by the country of the Don
Cossacks, on the east by Caucasia, on the south-east by the
Kuban, and on the south by the Black Sea. The Crimea
and all its principal towns are described under the respec-
ti\e heads. [BAKTSCHisARAi; CRIMEA; KAFFA ; SEIJAS-
TOPOL ; SIMFEROPOL.] The area of the whole is 35,000
square miles, with 520,000 inhabitants of many different
nations, Tartars, Cossacks, Russians, Jews, Gypsies, Ger-
mans, and other foreign colonists, &c. It lies between
44° :«/ and 47° 50* N. lat, and between 31° 25' and 40° 25'
K. long. The Nogay Steppe includes the whole of the ex-
tensiYu country from the Dnieper and its limans to the
Unda. It is a dry elevated steppe on a basis of granite.
The country has precisely the character of a Russian
steppe : the soil is dry, poor, in part sandy, and saltish,
without wood ; but there are here and there extensive hol-
lows with rich black mould, which produce the finest grass.
The climate is extremely mild, and differs little from
that of the peninsula. The winter, though short, is severe.
The only rivers are those which form the boundaries : the
Dnieper on the north-west, the Konski Wodi on the north,
and the Buda on the east. On the south-east is the Sea
of Azof, and on the west the Black Sea.
The land of the Tschernomorsk Co--acks including the
il or peninsula of Taman, is bounded on the north
by (lie country of the Don Cossacks, on the east by
mth by the river Kuban, and on the
west by the Sea of Azof, and is separated from the Crimea
only by the strait, of Yenikale, which connects the Sea of
Azof with tin- Kuxine. The coast is sandy, flat, and forms
-idcrable bays or inlets, called by the Russians
•-iderable of which is the Besugakoi,
v in the middle of the country. It is an innnrix-
plain, with a few hills in the south, belonging to the Cau-
• For i.'ump].-. in our own island tin- very same thin; has happened In a
reopi* »hom tome think Inn nrroimt . 1' tli>'ir n imc 1 to he .1 branch at tl.ii
i 'j rnry, »lu>, in tlie mountains of Wall"), success-
fully re*i«t«l tlu: >axon and Norman invaders.
casian system, consisting in general of very fertile lowlands,
which are well adapted for agriculture, but are for the most
part used as pasture for cattle : the remainder consists of a
poor saline soil ; and there are some small lakes with salt
water : the climate is very mild. The principal rivers are
the Kuban, on the south, which separates it from Circassia,
and discharges itself on the south of Taman by a very broad
liman, and the lega, on the north frontier next the country
of the Don Cossacks, which is joined by several small
streams, and empties itself by a considerable liman into
the Sea of Azof. The small streams in the interior fall
into the Sea of Azof, one of which, the Besuga, forms at
its mouth the liman Besugakoi.
The countries forming the government of Taurida were
inhabited in antient times by the Scythians and by Greek
colonists. Since the time of Herodotus, in the fifth cen-
tury B.C., they have been successively conquered and
ravaged by many different nations. They have been
subject to the kings of the Bosporus, the Romans, the
Sarmatians, then to the Greek emperors, and at the end
of the twelfth century partly to the Genoese ; they were
conquered in the thirteenth century by the Tartars, and at
the end of the fifteenth by the Turks. Mohammed II.
made himself master of Taurida in 1475, and expelled the
Genoese and the Venetians, the former of whom possessed
Kaffa and Kherson, and the latter had the colony of Tana.
Subsequently to 1698 the Russian armies repeatedly pene-
trated into the Crimea, the inhabitants of which often
made predatory incursions into the neighbouring countries.
It was not however till 1771 that the country was really
conquered by Dolgorucky, and the Porte compelled, in
1774, at the peace of Kutschuk-Kainardji, to recognise the
Crimea as an independent country, to be governed by a
khan chosen by the nation, and to recognise the sultan as
their head in religious matters only. The khan Sahen
Ghierai, whose election had been supported by the Rus-
sians, being pressed by the Turkish party, was at length
induced to seek refuge in St. Petersburg. Russia now de-
clared the Crimea to be her property, and the Porte, to
avoid a new war, ceded it wholly to Russia, in January,
1784. The khan received a pension from Russia, and in
the sequel retired to Turkey, but in 1787 was beheaded in
the Isle of Rhodes by the sultan's order. Sultan Kalli
Ghierai is his lineal descendant, who lives (or at least did
live some years ago) in Simferopol, is a Christian, and
is married to a Scotchwoman. The Crimea and the pro-
vinces dependent on it were formed into a government in
1784, by the name of Taurida, and incorporated with the
Russian empire. The empress Catherine II. added to the
imperial titles that of Czar of the Tauric Chersonese, and
conferred on Prince Potemkin, who had been instru-
mental in bringing about, not without violence, the sub-
mission of the Tartar inhabitants, the surname of the Tau-
rian. The Porte indeed appointed a new khan in 17H6,
and demanded that the Crimea should be replaced on the
footing stipulated in the last peace ; but it was obliged to
cede it for ever to Russia in the peace of 1792. Taurida
was at first a province of the government of Ekaterinoslav ;
in 1797 it was incorporated with the government of New
Russia ; and in 1802 it was made a distinct government by
the emperor Alexander.
Among the numerous authorities that might be quoted,
besides those already cited under the heads of the
CRIMEA, ODESSA, &c., we may mention Muraview Apostol,
Reise durch Taurien, 1820 ; Eichwald, Alte Geographic
des Kaspischen Meeres des Kaukasus, und des sudlirhen
Russlands, 1838 ; and for the NogayTartars, Daniel Schlatter,
of St. Gallen, Bruchstiicke aus eigenen Reisen nach dtm
siidlichen Russland in den Jahren 1822-1828.
TAURINE, a peculiar crystallizable substance con-
tained in the bile. Its properties are, that it has the
form of a six-sided prism terminated by pyramids of four
or six faces ; the crystals are gritty between the teeth, and
have a sharpish taste, which is neither sweet nor saline ;
they undergo no alteration by exposure to the air even
at 212°, and have neither an acid nor an alkaline reaction.
When heated in the naked fire, this substance becomes
brown, fuses into a thick liquid, swells up, exhales a
sweetish empyreumatie odour resembling that of burn-
ing indigo, and leaves a charcoal, which is readily burnt :
when submitted to dry distillation, it yields much thick
brown oil, and a little yellow acidulous water, which holds
T A U
104
T A U
an ammonium! suit in solution, and reddens a mlutnm of
prrvhlondc of iron : one part requires 1(1$ part* ol" water at
54" for solution ; it is much more soluble in boiling
water, and the excess crystallizes on coolinir : it i» but
little soluble even in boUing alcohol of sp. gr. it-x^'i,
and is nearly insoluble in absolute alcohol, rum-ni-
trated sulphuric acid dissolves and forms a light brown
solution with taurine ; nitric acid readily dissolves it, and
when the acid is evaporated, it is left unaltered.
TAURIS. [TABRIZ.]
TAUROME'NIUM, now TAORMPNA, a town in
the northern part of the east coast of Sicily. The aiitieut
name, Tauromenium (Tavpofitviov i, like that of the river
Tauromeniug (the modern Alcantara:, at the mouth of
which the town was situated, was derived from Mount
Taurus, on which the town was built. Diodorus Siculus
(fives two apparently contradictory accounts of its foun-
dation, though both agree in the main point, that Tauro-
menium was founded by the inhabitants of the antient
town of Naxos, which lay a few miles south of Taurome-
nium. In one passage (xiv. 59) he states that dur-
ing the war of Dionysius the Tyrant with Himilco, tin-
latter induced the Siculi, who had previously receded
from Dionysius the town of Naxos and its territory, to
occupy Mount Taurus, and to fortify themselves there ;
and after the termination of the war in favour of the Car-
thaginians, the Siculi, about 3U2 H.C., formed a permanent
settlement on Mount Taurus, which they called Tauro-
menium. The other account (Diodor. Sic., xvi. 7) places
the building of the town somewhat later, inasmuch as it
- that it was founded by Andromachus, the father of
Timaeus the historian, in conjunction with the inhabitants
of the destroyed town of Naxos ; but in this account An-
dromachus himself is called a Tauromenian, which implies
tin- previous existence of Tauromenium. Consequently
Diodorus can only have meant to say that Andromachus
assigned to the homeless Naxians habitations in the already
existing town of Tauromenium. and that he agreed with
them in the name of Tauromenium being preserved.
(Wesseling ad Diodor. Sic., vol. vi., p. 552, ed. Bipont.)
' vi.. p. 27, ed. Tauchnitz) calls Tauromenium a
colony of the Zanclteans of Hybla. Soon after its founda-
tion the new town appears id have become very wealthy
and powerful. Agatnocles, the tyrant of Syracuse, put
to death a great number of the inhabitants who had op-
1 his usurpation. (Diodor. Sic., xix. 102.) In the
time of Pyrrhus the town was governed by a tyrant, Tyn-
darion, who supported the king on his landing in Sicily.
After the subjugation of Sicily by the Romans, Taurome-
nium became a • civitas foedcrata ;' and being thus under
the immediate protection of Rome, it enjoyed a long
pi-ace, during which its prosperity increased. (Cicero.
/•/ / "c/ •;••-.•//. ii., 66'.) In the time of Verres the town con-
tained many statues of this propraetor, all of which, after
his departure, were destroyed, except the pedestal of one
which stood in the market-place, wnich was left standing
to mark the disgrace of the Roman governor. In the war
of Ciesar with Pompey, Tauromenium was in the possession
of the Pompeian party; but when Ctesar made himself
master of it, he expelled the inhabitants, and established
a Roman colony there. (Appian, De Bella f'iri/i, v. 103,
105, 109 ; Pliny, Hilt. Mil., lii. 14 ; Velleius Paterc., ii.,
79.1
Taormina at present contains about 6OOO inhabitants :
i'- situation on a steep rock on the tea-coast is magnificent.
It contains considerable ruins of antient buildings, espe-
cially a theatre of gigantic dimensions, the seats of which
are cut in the rock, which projects into the sea. This
theatre and the aqueduct, or, as it is generally called, a
naumachia, of which there are remains, were not con-
structed till the. time of the empire. On the hills which
rise above Taormina there are nuns of several castles, and
among them one is very remarkable, which is called Mola,
and was built in the ninth century of our H-ra by the
Saracens, who took the town by storm after a long and
brave resistance by the inhabitants.
The principal deity worshipped by the antient Tauro-
menians was Apollo, which confirms the statement that
the town was a settlement of the Naxians, among whom
Apollo was the national divinity. An Apollo, with a
wreath of laurel ronnd his head, occurs on many coins
found at Tauromenium. with the inscription APXATBTA,
or APXArBTAS; and the reverse shows a tripod, which
probably indicates that Naxos was founded under tin-
sanction of the Delphic god. Other coins show the brad
of Dionysius or of Athena. There is one emu. one side of
which represents a head of Jupiter, and the other an
eaglu with the thunderbolts. The name of the town
U expre»ed on the coins by Taupo, Tavpo/t, Tutwipiri,
or Tavpo/avirav. (Eckhel. l><irtnnn \IIIH., i., part i.,
p. 247, Stc. ; Mionnet, i., p. 324, &c. ; Sujijilem., i., i
Sec.)
TAURUS, MOUNT (o Taf.pof), in the opinion of the
later Greek geographers, was a great chain of mountains
which extended nearly due east and west from the shon •>
ot the /Kgean to those ol' the supposed Kastern <>'
and divided Asia into two parts, Asia within the Taurus
(JvrAf roD Tavpov), and Asia without the Taurus inr
Tat'pou). Their notions respecting this chain were by no
means accurate, and indeed only a small part of it ever
really bore the name.
The chain of Taurus, properly so called, commem
the south-western point of Asia Minor, and proceeding
eastward parallel and near to the Mediterranean, it en-
doses between itself and the coast the narrow strip of
land which formed Pamphylia and Cilicia. At the river
Pyramus the chain divides into two, that of Amanus.
which proceeds to the east, dividing Syria from Asia
Minor [AMANUS], and the continuation of Taurus, which
runs north-east, along the south-east side of Cappadocia,
across the Euphrates into the northern part of Armenia.
where it joins Mount Masius. This chain now bears tin-
name of Enamas, Ramadan, and Gourin.
In Cappadocia the Taunis throws oif a great branch
which was called the Anti-Taurus (A 'Avriraefwc '. and
which passes through the middle of Cappadocia, north-
east to the sources of the Halys. and thence cast to tin-
Euphrates. Its modern name' is Alidagh. At Si-baste
tSiwas) this chain joins that of the Paryadres (Chisheshi .,
which extends north-east as far as the mountains of Ararat .
In modern jreoirraphy the whole chain from the south-
west of Asia Minor to Ararat bears the name of Taurus.
The name itself is probably merely a form of a root winch
occurs in several Oriental languages, meaning mountain.
Hennell's Geography of Jii-rmlnnix. i. ±X, Jcc. : Sclur-
liu's Alt'- (li'umrtijihie.) [ANATOLIA.]
TAURUS (the Bull), the second constellation of the
ZODIAC. Its position in the heavens, surrounded by Aric*.
Kridaims. Orion, and Perseus, is easily obtained by the
manner in which its bright star ALDKHAHAN is connected
with the belt of Orion. In all speculations upon the origin
of the zodiac, Taurus must be an important object of con-
sideration, since, at the earliest date which prudent spe-
culation can consider it advisable to begin from, Aldebaran
must have been at no great distance from tin- vernal
equinox. Referring this point however to the article on
the zodiac, we shall merely notice that the Gree
usual, attribute but a paltry mythological origin to this
striking constellation ; the fables of Europa and lo being
the only ones alluded to in statements of its mythological
meaning.
The figure is only a part of a bull, the head, shoulders,
and fore legs. Aldebaran and the Hyades form the fore-
head and eye, and the Pleiades are in the shoulder. But
Aral us must have drawn the figure differently, for he puts
the Pleiades in the knees.
The Hyades form a group, of which five (some of the
antients said seven) are distinctly visible to the naked «-M .
a, 8, Y, i, and t of the constellation : there are many more in
the cluster. These stars are arranged in the forni of a V,
a and c being the extremes, and y at the angular point.
The star a is Aldebaran. The name seems to be derived
from i«.-. to rain. The Latins called them .>•«,•///,/• , little
pigs, no doubt meaning Aldebaran for the sow, and the
others for her offspring), a name which Cicero and otheis
state to have arisen from supposing the Greek word to have
been from i'»t (pigs), and not from rnv. We think however
it may be possible that they were right in their idea of the
Greek word : the large star and the cluster of sn:all
might very easily suggest the notion of a sow and her
litter.
The Pleiades are so close a group of stars that it is very
difficult to say how many are seen by the naked c)c.
' They are called seven,' says Higinus, ' but no one can seu
T A U
105
T A U
more than six :' and six seems to be the number generally
visible, though there are many more in the cluster. These
stars are 17, 19, 20, 23, 25, and 26 of Flamsteed. There is
accordingly a supposition that some one star, once visible,
has now changed its magnitude, or disappeared altogether.
The name has been derived from irXttv, to sail. One of the
mythological stories makes these stars the daughters of
Pltione and Atlas.
The principal stars of Taurus are as follows : (g), (b), (m),
(e), (c), (d), (/), (h) are not Bayer's letters, but Flamsteed's,
by which he distinguished stars in the Pleiades.
No. in
No. in
No. n
• t
Catalogue of
|
Catalogue of
i
Catalogue of
wffi
i
-i
>BQ
~i ~
0
l:BC
"S^
4
\~°
!lf
it
fl
ill
If
1
1!
••• • r
l]i
Is
• 0
I
S3
liS
<}.
oC
eta
•<«
3 —
c-=
•<«
~
o
1
372
4
I'
64
492
4
121
671
6
£
2*
375
4
K1
65
496
5
122
683
7
*
4
.'!7s
G
r
66
494
5
J
123
684
3
5
379
"5
t*
67
498
5
125
688
/
6
381
6
t;
68
499
i'
126
696
6
7
383
6
u1
69
502
(M)
128
703
6
9t
387
J
70
501
7
129
704
6
(E)
10
388
4*
71
503
7
(N)
130
706
6
11
392
6
IT
72
505
(;
(0)
131
707
G
12
395
J
jr
73
504
5
(B)
132
709
(F1)
13
398
j
c
74
507
3.1
133
708
6
14
401
>
75
508
7
(P)
134
716
6
(6)
16
17
402
403
7
~>
0'
76
77
509
510
7
(C)
135
136
71!)
722
G
5
18
404
1
[0*
78
511
">
(D)
137
723
5
(«.-
19
405
-,
b
79
512
-,
139
737
6
20
409
i
80
515
7
(Q*)
141
745
G
'tt't
23
410
i
81
517
7
(6)
463
7
ij
25
414
',
83
518
7
(32)
35!)
5J
27
418
i
84
519
7
(37)
624
7
'/'
28
419
7}
85
520
7
(43)
627
7
u'
29
412
>
f
86
523
-,
(45)
481
6:}
e
30
417
i
a
87
528
1
(53)
486
7
w«
31
427
j
d
88
529
"i
(60)
374
7
32
435
i
89
531
7
(69)
497
84
33
436
7
c1
90
533
~i
(99)
516
^
34
442
7
ff'
91
536
j
(103)
390
7
X
35
443
4
0*
92
.-..'(7
>
(111)
522
7
36
447
7
c«
93
540
i
(125)
666
8J
A1
37
448
i
r
94
543
",
( 1 15
678
7
V
38
446
1
95
544
'!•
(148)
541
('i
A*
39
449
i
(K)
96
555
i
(151)
413
7
41
101
i
i
97
559
!
(166)
422
7
4,
42
I.',.!
k
98
575
j
(169)
547
(J
43
457
J
101
581
')
(170)
423
':*
P
44
459
J
,
102
585
I
(179)
550
9
45
461
7
m
104
592
>
(187)
429
7
46
4(55
7
105
595
j
(215)
441
6}
47
466
54
/i
106
503
i
(236)
717
7
48
468
7
/J
107
602
S
(242)
720
7
u
~
49
469
108
615
7
(243)
572
64
tit'
50
471
>
n
109
623
J
(244)
721
i
51
473
7
110
638
7
(i)
(246)
573
G-.V
*
52
477
5
111
640
6j
(249)
454
3
53
175
7
^3
1121
(342
2
(254)
458
84
54
478
i
113
640
C,
(257)
578
7
56
176
7
0
114
G52
~,
(282)
587
7
A
57
479
G:
115
651
G
(295)
594
6
58
480
7
116
654
G.'r
(298)
506
7
59
484
5
117
<;55
7"
(338)
759
84
60
487
7
118
657
<;
[522]
416
7
a1
61
488
4
11!)
663
G
[774]
656
7
62
491
7
120
667
7
[823]
701
7
63
490
6
TAURUS PONIATOWSKI, a constellation formed by
the AbWPoczobut, a Polish astronomer (born in 1728: we
d.; not know the year of his death ; but Lalande mentions
his having resumed his observations at Wilna in 1802), in
• 3T«uri of Kl.-imst.-f, I lias its only existence in a mistaken entry; and
'i'llE "tt£ .Ul i, lost; and M. Laland. »y.th.t It i, no.
,,,,,,l. It i. however .till in iU place. Probably .1 i> a ramble .tar.'
t The name a. 23 An r ia» ( ft-
P. C., -No. 1501.
honour of the reigning king of Poland, and adopted in the
French (Fortin's) edition of Flamsteed's maps (or rather
added to the plates). Poczobut, in 1778, proposed this
constellation to the French and other academies, by whom
it was received. Bode conjectures that a resemblance of
certain very small stars in it to the figure of the Hyades
was the reason for the first word of the name. It is situated
between Aquila and Ophiuchus, and the Astronomical
Society's Catalogue mentions one star of it, of the sixth
magnitude, being 2070 of that catalogue, and (328) of
Piazzi.
TAUSAN, TAUSSEN, or TAGESEN, JOHN, the first
Danish theologian who made his countrymen acquainted
with the principles of the Lutheran reformation. He was
born in 1494, at Birkinde, a village in the island of Fiinen.
After he had received his early education in the convent
of Antworskow, he wished to continue his studies at some
university, and the abbot of the convent fixed upon Co-
logne. Here he became accidentally acquainted with
some of the earliest works of Luther, which excited in
him such a desire to study under the reformer, that he
defied the opposition of his superiors, and went to Witten-
berg. After having spent some time here he went to
Rostock, where he took his degree of M.A., and thence
proceeded to Copenhagen, to undertake the office of
teacher in one of the public schools, 1521. This sphere
of action however did not satisfy him : his wish was to
proclaim the new doctrines, which he thought he could do
more effectually if he withdrew to his former convent of
Antworskow. Here he gained great reputation as a
preacher, and at first endeavoured privately to make his
brother monks acquainted with the reformed doctrines ;
but in 1524, on the occasion of the abbot being absenl,
Tausan delivered a sermon, which produced such an effect
on his hearers, that most of the monks declared themselves
ready to abandon their old belief. The excitement and
disturbance arising from such proceedings led to Tausan
being transferred to another convent at Wiborg, where
however he persevered in his exertions, and again gained
a considerable number of followers. King Frederic I. of
Denmark, who was favourably disposed towards the doc-
trines of the German reformers, and wished to favour
Tausan, sent him, in 1526, a letter of protection, gave him
the title of court preacher, and assigned to him a church
at Wiborg, where he might preach without molestation.
The bishop of this place opposed him in everything ; but
his attempts were fruitless, as Tausan was supported by
the sympathy of the people. The disputes between the
two iflisrious parties now became more vehement every
day ; and at last the king, in order to save Tausan, invited
him, in 1529, to Copenhagen, where he was appointed
preacher to the church of St. Nicolas. The reformation
m Denmark, the seeds of which had thus been sown, made
gradual and steady progress ; and in order to settle the
question permanently, the king issued a command that
deputies of the Roman Catholics and Protestants should
appear on the 8th of September, 1530, before the assembly
of the states, and explain their creeds and points of dispute.
Tausan and the principal men of his party were present,
and it was finally settled that the Protestants should
preach and propagate their doctrines. The tranquillity
thus restored was interrupted by the king's death in
1533, when the Roman Catholic party, and more espe-
cially the bishop of Roeskilde, again began to trouble
Tausan, who was on the point of being driven out of his
country. For a time he absented himself from Copen-
hagen ; but Protestantism in the meanwhile made such
progress, that the opposition to it in a short time either
ceased or became very weak. In 1537, in which year
John Bugenhagen was sent by Luther to Denmark to assist
in arranging the ecclesiastical affairs of the country, Tausan
was appointed preacher and lecturer on theology at Roes-
kilde ; and four years later he was made bishop of Ripen,
an office which he held until his death, on the 9th of No-
vember, 1561.
Tausan wrote a considerable number of theological
works in Danish: some of them are controversial, others
exegetical, and a third class consists of translations of
portions of the Scripture and of original hymns. His works,
as well as the history of his life, show that he was a simple
and straightforward man ; but in talent he was far inferior
to the great reformers who were his contemporaries.
(L. Holberg, Dannemarckische, Nbrieegische Staals-
voi*. XX.1V. — I
T A V
106
T A \
. . ompare .ll'ic-hcr. .]//-
.. i\.. p. li
TAI'TOIIIUOV iTixu: Of DKMKNT.]
T.UTdl.lTK, H mineral which rytallimi.
Primary I'onn u right rhombic prism. Fiacture conchoi-
dal, uneven. Hardness (i-r> in 7. Very brittle. Colour
xelxet blai-k : streak grey. Lustre VltfeOm Opaque.
Specific gravity 3-8G6.
Before- tin- blow-pipe on charcoal, melts into a blackish
scoria, which is attracted by tin- magnet : with borax it
forms ;i clear green glass.
It does not appear to h»ve been accurate'l-.
but is slated to lie probably silicate- of protoxide of iron,
and silicate of magnesia. It is femnel in the volcanic- rocks
of the Lake ol' I.aaeh. near Bonn, on the Rhine.
TAVKRNIKR. JEAN HAI'TISTK. BARON IVAf-
BONNK. the son of an Antwerp engnver who had settle-d
at Pnris and dealt in ma]>s, was born in ](>O.~i. Hi- was
a timelier from bis boyhood. The sight of the maps with
whirl) he was surrounded and the coux citation of the
geographers who frequented his father's shop inspired
him with a passion for seeing foreign countries, whieh
he soon contrived to gratify, it does not very i-lcarly ap-
pear by what means or in what eapaeity.
Between 1020 and the close of 1680 he visited most of
the countries of Europe : this may be considered ns his
iiticeship to the profession of a traveller. Between
KUiU and lli(is) he made six journeys to the Kast : this was
the poit ion of his Hie devoted to preiductixc (nil. The
story of the remainder of his life, from 1070 to KiHO, im-
v. ith the idea of an elastic and untiri-d spirit.
which, stimulated in part by his dilapidated fortune, but
still more bv an incapacity of repose, sunk in an attempt
tore-enter that world of actix e exertion in which hi< place-
had been occupied by younger men. To appreciate Taver-
nier, it is necessary to examine his character as it dis-
played itself in each of these three periods.
He appears to have left his paternal home before lie
had completed his fifteenth year; for he tells us that after
visiting England, Antwerp. Amsterdam, Frankfort -on-t he-
Main, Augsburg, and Niirnberg, he was induced, by what
he heaid at the last-mentioned place of the mustering of
armies in Bohemia, to repair to tin- theatre of war. About
a day's journey from Niirnberg, he met Colonel Brunei-,
son of the governor of Vienna, who took him into his ser-
vice. Tavernier was present at the battle of Prague.
8th November, 1G'2U. Some years later, he followed his
master to Vienna, and was presented by him to his uncle,
the governor of Raab, at that time xiccreiy of Hungary.
who received the young Frenchman into his family in the
capacity of a page. With this nobleman Tavernier re-
mained four years and a half, and ultimately obtained his
dismissal with a \ie\v to entering the sen ice of the Prince
of Mantua. Something appears to have made him change
this determination, for alter a brief stay in Mantua he left.
it, about Christmas, 1629; and after making a short lourin
Italy, and visiting his friends at Paris, returned to Ger-
many. During the summer of 1G29 he made an excur-
sion into Poland ; on his ret urn from which he at t ached him-
bl a si. ml time to the family of Colonel Butler, 'who
afterwards killed Wallenstcin.' Hearing a report that the
ion of the emperor l-Vidinand II. i.ait nperorhitD-
self, with the title Ferdinand III.) was to be crowned king
of Hi. in Rcgeiisburg. Ta\crnier who hail
:it at that piince's election a-, king of Ilur,
and his coronation as king of Bohemia (1627), wuhed to
be present at this thiid solemnity also, and with this % lew-
threw up his appointment ^whatever it \vasj in Butler's
household.
Tavernier has nowhere explicitly stated what were his
rank and occupations while he ltd this unsettled life. No
expre iiini to intimate; that he at any time'
found himself at a loss lor money. The appoints
page in the family of a nobleman holding the high office
ol viceroy of Hungary was generally tin to the
command of a troop. Yet there is a -. in the
language of Tavernier while speaking of this pait of hi*
history, which leads us to suspect thai hi. more
of a menial character. His lively and enterpriaing disposi-
tion seems however to have, made him a general favourite,
and , Miig himself— not \ery elegantly.
if we are to jnd/c from his Kr.-nch. yet intelligibly — in
ki-veral European languages, rendered Jiiin an eligible at-
tendant. TIis position \\n^ meist probubly that of u;
tlu- ready-handed, quick-witted, not orer-ocrupulou
tendants. with whom men of hiiih rank in .mill
it necessary to surround tin From bii.:
in ditt'erent parts of ! it is highly probable that
he had picked up some money in the want: he had ac-
quired some knowledge- of the military art : he knew senne-
thing of watch-making and jewellery; and, abuse nil, he1
had learned to shirt lor himself. Beyond
acquaintance with maps anel geography as he had |u
up in his lather's shop, he possessed no lit i
licati;i. rtes and habits were those of the
young rultters of his age. A naturally frank and kindly
though somewhat beiisU-rous temper had done much to
neutralize the worst impressions of the. lax school i:i which
lie- had been ediie-atcil.
: such preliminary trainmir, and with a cha:.
thus far developed. Ta\ ernier commenced his travels in
the Kast. He1 had already been turning his eyes in that
direction, anil making interest to ! I into the
suite of a new ambassador the emperor was about te> de-
spatch to the grand seignior, when the' confidential agent
of Richelieu, Father Jose-ph, who had known him at Paris,
proposed that he- should accompany two young French
noblemen who were travelling to Palestine "by the v
.utino])le. Taxcrnier closed with the oft'cr. anel in
company with his cm ' city during the
winter o'f Ki.'iO-lil. A recent biographer has stalci
he besran hi> tirst journe-y in 1(>M: the origin eif the mis-
take is as apparent as that it is a mistake,
•alter the cere'inony of the' coronation was linishcd,' and
Ferdinand 111. was not crowned kinir of the Romans till
Dcremlier. KiUli. Tavernier gives no dates in li
of Ins iirst journey; but we know that, be embarked at
die for bis second in September, 1638; and w.
kneiw that be armed at Home em his re-turn from bis tirst
\oyaire em the day of Easter. lie was detained eleven
months at Constantinople waiting for a caravan, and
seven weeks by a so\ ere attack of sickm-s at Alcpp
if \vc assume he set out freim Keircnsbiirii in December,
]<i:>(i. we ha\e- only three mouths left for the overland
journey from Resreiisburg to Dre-den. Vie-ima. Constan-
tiueiple, Erzroum. Tabri/., Ispahan. Bagdad. Aleppo, and
Scanderoon. anel the- voyage from Se-anderoon to Rome,
ll is ini])ossible that Tax i • i jeiurncy could haxe
been RMeqnenl to Ferdinand's coronation as kinc of the
Reimans. But a stronsr elforl xxas made by that prince's
lather to haxe him e-rowne-d at. the close e>i' the diet held
at Regeiisbiirg in l(i;i() ; and Tavernier, writing from me-
mory forty years later, may haxe- imasruu-d that thtc festi-
vities he" xvitnesse-d at that, time were' in honour of ?v
coronation which xxas expected lei take place, but elid neit.
Two passages in his Traxcl.-. si-em to place it beyond a
doubt that the visit, te> Regeiisbnn: which le-d to hi
journey took place in HW(). In his tirst volume p. <
"the Paris edition of 1U7(H the expression occurs— -in
lii.'l'J on the road from Ispahan to Ba^elat.' He only tra-
\elled that road once, ami that xxas on his return from his
first expedition into Persia. It xvoulel be: unsafe to rely
upon the- exiele'iice of a figure in a book not very correctly
printed : but in the- account of his tirst journey to Ispahan
lie mentions having sc i n at 'focal the- xi/ir, who was exe-
cute-d a lew days later, after being obliged to raise- the-
sie-ge of Bagdad. This can emly n lei to Khosrew i
about the end of April, lb':i'2.
This date being ascertained, the e-luouologv of th-
suing foilv years of Tax ernie-r's life may be1 gleaned from
his tiavels xxith teilerable accuracy, lie began his liist
jouniey to the- |-'.a>t from Regeiisbiirg. in December. Ki.'tO;
|)enetriiteil by way eif ( 'oiistantinople andTalni< to Ispa-
han, and retained by Bagdad and Aleppo to Kurope c-arly
in the summer of 'Hsi.'i. From this date till the com
mcnccmcnt. of his second voyage his histoiy wemld lie a
complete blank, had he not told in a parenilu-sis that he
jipointeel comptroller in the- lieiuseholel of the due
d'Orle'-ans. xxho gave him leaxe of al)-cucc during his
, - to the Kast. Oil the' 1,'ilh of! r, Ili.'K he
embarked at Marseille in a Dutch ve-sse-1. and landing at
BoMderoon, proceeded by way -of Aleppo anel the'
i of the Euphrates to Ha- a. There In: e'ni-
Oinnu. anel landing at
liushirc. proee-eded through Shiia/ to Is]iahan. After some
stay in that capital, he traxellcd by Slmax and Lars to
T A V
107
T A V
Gombroon, where he embarked for Surat. He visited
Agra on this occasion ; but here again we are at a loss fo
- to enable us to trace his routes. We only know
that he passed through Burhampore on his return from
i to Surat in 1641 ; that he visited Goa and returned to
Surat by land about the end of that year ; and that he was
t Ahmedabad, either going to or returning from Agra, in
1642. That he had revisited Ispahan in the interval is no'
improbable, since he says that ' for six journeys which ]
" made between Paris and Ispahan, I have made twice
as many from Ispahan to Agra and other parts of the
Great Mogul'l dominions.' He was at Ispahan towards the
close of the year 1042 ; and probably soon alter returned
to France. On his third voyage he took with him the
brother already alluded to, and left Paris on the 6th ol
December, 1643. This time, after visiting Ispahan as
usual, he embarked at Gombroon for India. In January,
1645. he left Surat on an excursion to the diamond-mines
near Golconda. In January, 1648, he made a voyage by sea
to Goa ; and in April of the same year he embarked at
Mingvela for Batavia ; whence he returned to Europe in
the Dutch fleet in 1649. Tavernier's fourth journey occu-
1'i'd him from the 18th of June, 1651, when he set out
from Paris, till 1G55. On this occasion he proceeded from
na to Masulipatan, in May, 1652; he revisited the
diamond-mines near Golconda in 1653, and in 1654 he tra-
velled from Ormuz to Kerman, and after spending three
months there, took the route of Yezd to Ispahan, and re-
turned to Europe by Smyrna. His fifth journey was begun
in February, 1656. He was at Agra in 1659,' but we are
at a loss for other dates in this journey. The sixth and
last expedition that Tavernier made to the East was begun
in November, 1663, and was terminated in 1669. The
important novelty of this journey was his tour
through the province of Bengal as far as Dacca, which
occupied him from November. 1605, till July or August,
Kilili. He WHS at Ispahan in July, 1G67, and on his return
to Ki i rope visited Constantinople for the second time.
The very unsatisfactory arrangement adopted in the
narrative of Tavernier's journeys has rendered it advisable
' met from it the preceding incomplete chronology of
them. His first publication was an account of the in-
terior of the seraglio at Constantinople (Nnurrllt Rplntinn
i! • I'lntcrii'iir tin X»;vw// , published at Paris, in a thin 4to
volume, in 1(>75. This was followed by an account of his
travi ,'ti T/i/-i^" ", et aux I/id' a .
;:t Paris, in two quarto volumes, in 1676. A third
volume was added in 16~9, containing an account ol
Japan and the origin of the pcix-ciition of the Christians
in these islands ; an account of the proceedings of the
deputies from the king and the French company of the
Indies both in Persia and India ; observations on the com-
mcree of the East Indies: account of the kingdom of
Tunquin ; account of the conduct of the Dutch in Asia.
In preparing the account of the Seraglio and the two first
volumes of his Travels, Tavernier employed Chappuzeau, a
dull and unintelligent writer : the memoirs contained in
the third volume were prepared by Lachapelle, secretary
to the president Lamaignon. The account of the seraglio,
and the contents of the third volume of the travels, are
partly memoirs compiled from the information of others,
and partly more full expositions of topics touched upon in
his narrative. It is to the first two volumes of Tavernier's
travels that we must look for such information of the
countries he visited, the time he spent in them, and the
adventures he encountered, as is necessary to enable us to
mine what, he witnessed himself, what he learned
from the report of others, how far his informants were
worthy of belief, and how far he was qualified to under-
I their communications. Hut the arrangement of
two volumes is the very worst that could be con-
I i'ir supplying satisfactory information upon these
-. The first volume professes to give an account of
the various routes by which the Parisian traveller can
-tantinople, Ispahan, and the Persian Gulf. It
is arranged ai a rimtirr ; the result of all Tavernier's ob-
'ipon each line of road is given at once, and it
is only from incidental remarks that we learn when and in
'ion he travelled it. His remarks upon the
nient, and commerce of the different coun-
irown into intercalary chapters. A similar ar-
I in Ins second volume, which con-
tain.-, ' ,;s in the south of India, in
the region between Surat and Delhi, in Bengal, and in the
Dutch possessions in the Eastern Archipelago. The work
is neither a systematic account of the geography and sta-
tistics oi the countries in which Tavernier travelled nor is
it a personal narrative of the traveller. It is 'an ill-
digested and unsatisfactory attempt to combine both.
Yet are the four volumes we have mentioned full of
available matter, both for the historian and the geogra
pher. The former will find in it the fruits of the forty
years' experience and observation of a European merchant
in Turkey, Persia, India, and the Indian Archipelago, in
the seventeenth century. Tavernier did not possess either
the intellect or the education of Thdvenot and Bernier,
but his opportunities of observation were more varied and
protracted. He was a part of that commercial enterprise
and rivalry of which they were only spectators. He is
himself a specimen of the kind of adventurers who at that
time managed the commerce of Europe with the East.
His unconscious revelations of his own character may be
relied upon, and the naivete with which they are made
encourages us to believe what he tells us of others. His
statements have not passed unchallenged : they wounded
the national pride of the Dutch too sore to be left without
a reply, and the partisan feelings of the Protestant literati
of Europe induced them to embrace the cause of Holland
in opposition to the prottgt of Louis XIV. Even the
Catholic literati took little interest in a writer who frankly
confessed that he saw nothing interesting or valuable in
the plain of Troy or the ruins of Persepolis. And yet
notwithstanding the violent attacks of the Dutch and Cal-
vinist writers, the silence of others, and even of himself
(for Tavernier did not engage in a controversy), not one
naterial assertion he made has been disproved. Unfriendly
criticism has been confined to the remark that many of
lis statements regarding the Dutch are trivial, and betray
i littleness of mind: this maybe, but they are not the less
characteristic for that reason. Tavernier's accounts of the
principal objects of Oriental commerce in his day, of the
eading markets and routes of trade, of the money of the
different countries, and the state of the exchanges, are
more full and intelligible than those we find in any other
cotemporary writer. His success in trade affords a gua-
•antee of the correctness of the opinions he states. We
lave collated his routes, whenever this was possible, with
'hose of recent travellers, and have found them in general
;o accurate, that they may be relied upon for the purposes
of comparative geography, and in one or two instances as
xftbrding information regarding tracts which have not
seen visited since his time. Tavernier's notices of the
oute from Casvin to India by Candahar, and of the pro-
i'K-rs to the north of Erivan, leave a favourable impres-
ion of his talent for extracting information from the
native authorities. He has been accused of plagiarism,
mncipally because of the striking coincidence between his
iccount of the Guebres of Kerman, published in 1676, and
hat which Louis Moreri published in 1671 from the papers
if Father Gabriel de Cninon. It deserves to be noticed
hat Moreri's publication is lucidly arranged and neatly
expressed, while the account contained in Tavernier's
ravels is confused and miserable in point of diction. Had
t been taken from Moreri,it is scarcely possible that the lat-
er could have been so wretchedly composed. Add to this
hat the information found in the papers of Father Gabriel
s not said to have been the fruit of personal observation ;
hat Tavernier resided three months among the Guebres
at Kirman, and had frequent dealings with them in India
and elsewhere ; that he and Father Gabriel repeatedly
met in Persia ; and it must be allowed that the priest is
quite as likely to have derived his information from the
merchant as otherwise. In judging of the statements
made by Tavernier, the school in which he was trained,
and his personal character as it appears from his own
story, must always be kept in view. He had no knowledge
of or taste for science and literature, for art, or antiquarian
research. He acted upon impulse, and his instincts were
love of travelling, and desire to acquire money for the
sake of spending it in feasting and personal display. A
diamond was a more interesting object, to him than the
i ious remains of Tchelminar. He had no very nice
or refined sense of honour, but he was frank and veracious,
and little inclined to deck himself with stolen feathers of
ure ; possibly because he could not appreciate their
value.
P2
I \ V
106
T \ X
In this re i.ecn obliged to anticipate that
]»rt of tin- history of the third pciunl <>l "l'a\ crmcr's HlV,
which relates to what may bo railed his literary labours.
.d>lrd tu abridge the sequel i>)' our narra-
tive. OnTavciuier's return Iron- his sixth journey he was
•ited with li-ttn'x de noble**'-, \<\ Louis XIV.. and pur-
chased about the same time the barony of Aubomie in the
Pais de Valid, \\hcn hi.s travels were imbhslu il. they
at been intimated above, fiercely attacked ; in
particular, most virulently by Jurieu, in his ' Esprit
de M. . \rnauld' , December, Kisl : m.uv temp.-iatcly and
with a (greater parade of evidence by llenrii-k vanQuellcn-
burgh, in ' Vimlieui' Batavir;. ' Amsterdam. KN1 . Taver-
nier made no reply. Bayle has given a characteristic
aecount of hi.s eoiulnct relative to thr publication ot'Jurieu,
which was rather a libel than a criticism. ' He made a
noise in the taverns anil streets, he threatened anil even
named the day anil hour when he would apply to the Wal-
loon consistory of Rotterdam to demand execution of the
canonical laws against the minister who had dishonoured
him : but his thrcatenings came to nothing, he retired very
peaceably, and never commenced any persecution at all.'
The misconduct of a nephew, to whom he had intrusted
the management of his affairs in the Levant, obliged him
;n sell, some time previous to 10KS, his hotel in Paris and
his otaic of Aubonnc. He retired first into Switzerland,
and subsequently to Berlin, where he was nominated by
the elector of Brandenburg director of a projected East
India Company. From the time of his first journey he had
i curetted being prevented from carrying into execution a
ilesiirn which he then entertained of returning from Persia
through the Russian dominions. His new appointment
afforded him an excuse and opportunity lor making that
journey, and he set out to travel to the East Indies across
-ia in 1G88. He was taken ill at Moscow, and died
there in the month of July, 1689. The equivocal conclu-
sion of Boilcau's inscription on Tavernier's portrait contains
a fair enough estimate of his character : —
• r.u tons licux SA \rrtu fut son plus »ur ftpwii ;
Kt bu>n qu'en DOS climats <!•• rotour aujuumhui
En foule a mw yeux il presente
Lei pint rarrs Uesor* que Ic soleit enfante;
11 n'a rien rapporte de si rare que lui.'
(Les six Voyages de Jean Baptisle Tavcrnier, Ecuyer
Daron d'Aubonne, en Turquie, en Prrxr, i't mt.r Indes, a
Paris, 1676-9, 4to. ; L'Esprtt de M. Arnauld, tire des <'•••/•//.»•
de lui et de ses disciples,' Deventer, 1684, 12mo. ; Henrick
van Quellenburgh's findicia? Batavicer, oftc I\ifu/uti<'
/n't Trin-iiiet van J. B, Tavernier, Chevalier, Baron
i/'An/i'inri'', Amsterdam, 1684, 4to. ; Bayle, v. 'Tavernier;'
nif i/iie Linuerselle, v. 'Taverniec, Jean Baptiste,'
I ar \Veiss.)
TAVISTOCK, a parliamentary borough and market-
town, on the south-western border of Devonshire, 307 miles
from London, 34 from Exeter, and 11 from Plymouth. The
parish extend.-, between the western extremity of Dartmoor
and the river Tamar, and, according to a survey made in
1781. comprises 13,987 acres, or nearly 22 square miles;
but it is probable that this survey included lands within the
boundary of the borough which are not in the parish : in
the census of 1831 the area of the parish is stated to be
1 l.GtiO acres. The surface of the parish is diversified by
hills fnun:«Hlto(i«H) feet, in height, which rise in continued
succession and are separated by valleys often deep and nar-
row, the general direction of which is from north-east to
south-west. The higher ground towards Dartmoor is of
granitic formation, and the neighbourhood of the town con-
nf schistose rock. The town is situated nearly in the
centre of the parish, on the north-west bank of the Taw,
which here flows rapidly through a narrow valley, from
which the ground rises steeply on both sides to the height
of several hundred feet. The riveris crossed by two bridges
within the town. A narrow valley, or gully, from the north,
is also covered by houses. The climate is variable, and the
average quantity of rain falling in lh !~i inches.
In '.Hil an abbey was founded at Tavistock, which was
burnt by the Danes, ami afterwards rebuilt on a larger
Male. "Henry I. 1 100-1 13.~i granted to the abbot a
weekly market and a fair. In l.">13thc thirty-fifth abliot
tru called to the House of Peers, but in I.Y'til his succes-
sor surrendered to the king, when the revenue of the
abbey was estimated at !X)2/. A printing-press was esta-
blished in the abbey goon after the introduction of the art
into England. Fragments of the abbey still remain, but
are chiefly incorporated with other building*; and II
| is used as an at oin. John, Lord Rns-ell.
ancestor of the Duke of Hcilloul, obtained H giant of the
abbey lands. An antient lazar-lu
of the workhouse. The parish church is a spacious edifice,
with n tower at the west end supported on arches. The
interior consists of four aisles and a chancel, and contains
some good monuments. The living is a vicarage, valued
at 302/. per annum. The Independents. I
(Quakers, and \Vesle\an Methodists have places of worship.
The date ol the foundation of the grammar-school is not
known, but in KM!) Sir John Glanville left an endowment
for the education of one buy. which yields about •!/. per
annum'; and the Duke of Bedford, in whom the school-,
is vested, allows the master the use of a house rent
besides other advantages, and 20/. a-year for the education
of eight boys. There is a LancaMcrian school chiefly sup-
ported by subscription, which in 1833 was attended by
l;!."i boys and 88 girls. At the sime period seventeen other
schools were attended by 203 boys and '224 girls ; and
there were five Sunday-schools, in which 381 boys and
333 girls were instructed. There are two alnisliouses, one
for four poor widows, who each receive 21. a-year ; and
another for fifteen persons, nominated by the Duke of
Bedford, who receive:!/, a-year each. A sum of 1;V. is
applicable to the apprenticing of poor children.
Tavistock returned two members to parliament previous
to the passing of the Reform Act. a privilege which it had
enjoyed since 12!)5 (23 Hen. I.). The right of election
was in the resident freeholders. The Tavy formed the
boundary ofthe borough on one side, and on the ot)
limits were defined by an artificial line. Under the
Reform Act the borough was made co-extensive with the
limits of the parish, the manor ofCudliptown cxccpteil,
and it still returns two members. The number of '•
on the register, in 1840, was 347. Tavistock is not
incorporated. The portreeve, who is elected annually at
the court-leet of the lord of the manor, is the chief public
officer, and makes the return of the elections. Tavistock
is one of the polling-places for the county.
The parish registers of Tavistock from 1(117 to 1836 have
made the subject of a more careful and elaborate
examination than those of any other place in England.
This task was undertaken by Dr. Barham, and the i
are given in a series of tables which are printed in part
i\ ofthe ' Tables' published by the Board of Trade ; and
an abstract of them is given in vol. iv., part 1, ofthe
' Journal ofthe London Statistical Society.' The popula-
tion of the parish, in 1781, was 3117; in 1811, 4723 ; in
Is-Ji. 5483; in 1831, r>602. The increase between Isll
and 1821 is attributed to the extension ol 'mining opera-
tions in the neighbourhood. There are some small manu-
facturing establishments. Tavistock is one of the four
stannary towns in the county. In 1817 a canal was
opened, which, after a course of 5 miles. 2 of which are
under a tunnel, enters the Tamar at Morwell Ham quay.
The head of the canal is connected with the quay bv an
inclined plane 240 feet high. This canal conmcls Tavi-
stock with Plymouth. Sir Francis Drake was a native of
lock.
TAWI-TAWI. [SooLOO ARCHIPELAGO.]
TAX, TAXATION. A tax is a portion of the produce
and labour of a country placed at the disposal of tit
vermnent.
Taxation is the general charging and levying of parti-
cular taxes by the government upon the community.
Oiuins OF TAXATION.
In a free state it is assumed that all taxation is necessary
for the public good; if it is not necessary, the reason for
it no longer exists. The amount of expenditure will in a
great measure be determined by the magnitude of a state
and by the number and importance of its political
tions; yet the prudence with which its affairs are adminis-
tered will afl'eel the demands of the government upon the
people, nearly as much as its necessities. The expenses of
a private person must be regulated by his income : but in
a state, the expenditure that is needed is the measure of
the public income that must be obtained to meet it. A
civilized community requires not only protection from
foreign enemies and the means of internal security, but it
needs various institutions of civil government conducive to
its welfare, and which iU wealth enables it to maintain
TAX
109
TAX
without an injurious pressure upon its resources. Ir is the
business of a government to provide these, when proved to
be necessary, in the best manner and at the least expense
consistent with their efficiency.
The able and laborious committee of the House of Com-
mons upon public income and expenditure in 1828 'une-
quivocally declared their full assent to the principle, that no
government is justified in taking even the smallest sum of
money from the people, unless a case can be clearly esta-
blished to show that it will be productive of some essential
advantage to them, and of one that cannot be obtained by
a smaller sacrifice.' The committee truly added to the
statement of this just principle, that ' nothing requires
more wisdom and prudence than to fix the public expen-
diture at such an amount that the real wants of the people
shall not be made to give way to any imaginary wants of
the state : the latter arise from so many sources, that it is
frequently very difficult to prevent the operation of an
undue influence.' (Second Report, p. 4.) One of the first
duties of representatives of the people is to watch with
jealousy the expenditure of the public money. Every tax
should be viewed as the purchase-money paid for equi-
valent advantages given in return. This principle assumes
the necessity of moderation in levying taxes, and will
scarcely be denied by any one when stated in that form ;
yet it is not uncommon to hear it argued that so long as
taxes are spent in the country, the amount is not of conse-
quence, as the money is returned through various channels
to the people from whom it was derived. The principle
we have just laid down at once exposes the fallacy of this
doctrine, by reducing it to a simple question between
debtor and creditor. For example, by paying a million of
money every year, the people obtain the services of an
army : this we will suppose to be an equivalent, and we
will further aasume that the food and clothing of the force
are purchased, and that the entire pay of the men is spent,
within the country. The whole of the money will thus be
returned : but how? Not as a free gift, not as the repay-
ment of a loan, but in the purchase of articles equal in
to the whole sum. The only benefit obtained by this
i ctuni of the million is clearly nothing more than the
ordinary profits of trade ; for the community has already
provided the money, and then out of its own capital and
industry it produces what is equal to it in value, and this
it sells to the state, receiving as payment the very sum it
had itself contributed as a tax.
In whatever manner taxes may be expended, they must
be regarded as injurious to the community. ' Every new
tax,' says Mr. Ricardo, 'becomes a new charge on produc-
tion, and raises the natural price. A portion of the labour
of the country which was before at the disposal of the con-
tributor to the tax is placed at the disposal of the state,
and cannot therefore be employed productively.' (Political
I'imy, chap, xii., p. 206.)
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION.
Having settled that taxation should be generally and in
amount as light as possible, it must be determined upon
what principles and in what manner taxes may best be
h'\ ii'd. No other branch of legislation is perhaps so im-
portant as the wise application of just principles in the
matter of taxation. The wealth, happiness, and even the
morals of the people are dependent upon the financial
policy of their government.
Adam Smith lays down four general maxims, which we
shall briefly cite not only as being perfectly true in them-
selves and most, valuable, but as proceeding from an autho-
rity so high that not to notice them might be accounted
an omission.
I. ' The subjects of every state ought to contribute to-
wards the support of the government as nearly as possible
in proportion to their respective abilities; that is, in pro-
portion to the revenue which they respectively enjoy under
the protection of the state.'
II. 'The tax which each individual is bound to pay
ousht to be certain, and not arbitrary. The time of pay-
t, the manner of payment, the quantity to be ^aid,
ought all to be clear and plain to the contributor, and to
. other person.'
III.' Every tax ought to be levied at the time or in the
manner most likely to be convenient for the contributor
ID pay it.'
IV. ' Every tax ought to be so contrived as both to take
out and keep out of the pockets of the people as little as
possible over and above what it brings into the public
treasury of the state.'
In discussing the merits of particular taxes and classes of
taxes, we shall have to considerwith some minuteness the ap-
plication of Adam Smith's first maxim. Its justice requires
no enforcement or illustration, although unhappily the ob-
ject is most difficult of attainment. The second maxim is of
great importance, and the necessity of adhering to it must
be universally acknowledged. Uncertainty gives rise to
frauds and extortion on the part of the tax-gatherer, and to
ill-will and suspicion on that of the contributor, while it
offers a most injurious impediment to all the operations of
trade. Notwithstanding the many evils of uncertainty, it
is by no means an uncommon fault even in modern sys-
tems of taxation. We would pass over the practices oi
Eastern despotisms, where uncertainty and caprice prevaL
instead of fixed rules, but that the vices of their taxation
are so exaggerated as to show the evils of a departure
from just principles in the broadest light. All taxation is
forbidden by the Koran, and although the prohibition has
been evaded and broken through by the Turkish govern-
ment in particular instances, it has always been an ob-
struction to any general system of imposts. In the absence
of regular taxes, partial and irregular exactions are resorted
to for supplying the wants of the sultan. Plunder becomes
the business of every governor of a province, and thus the
Koran, instead of defending Moslems from tax-gatherers,
gives them up to public robbers. ' No man is secure in
his property for an instant ; all are compelled carefully to
conceal their . possessions, lest they should lose their
liberty or possibly their lives and their property too. In-
dustry is thus not merely cramped, but almost prevented
or extirpated, by men being deprived of all confidence in
their enjoyment of its rewards. The country, fertile in its
resources of all kinds, is left waste, or only cultivated as
far as the absolute necessities of providing sustenance
may require. The nearer you approach the seat of govern-
ment, this is more the case ; and the neighbourhood of the
capital, which in other countries is naturally the scene of
extended labour, thick population, and great cultivation,
is in Turkey marked by barrenness and neglect. Constan-
tinople can only be approached on the land side by tra-
velling through extensive wastes without either man or
beast or tillage.' (Political Philosophy, ch. 3.)
In Persia the same uncertain and oppressive mode o.f
exacting money for the use of the sovereign is resorted to
and is followed by similar results.
Under the more constitutional governments of Europe,
the people do not indeed suffer from violent exactions,
but industry, production, and commerce are too often re-
strained by irregular and ill-defined taxes. Spain unhap-
pily affords many examples of misgovernment, and the
injurious character of its taxation is shown in reference to
this as well as other principles. To select one instance of
uncertainty : ' Every landowner is liable to have his pro-
perty taken in execution for government taxes, if he is not
prepared to pay a half-year or more in advance, according
to the difficulties of the Exchequer ; consequently he is
often compelled to make great sacrifices in order to meet
such exigencies.' (Madrid in 1835, vol. ii., p. 107.)
Perhaps there is no better example of the evils of uncer-
tainty than that of the Stade duties levied by the king of
Hanover upon all ships passing up the Elbe from the sea,
and upon their cargoes. The tariff taxes 2368 articles of
commerce, and lays several duties upon the same articles,
so that the whole number of duties is 6688. ' There are
35 different duties upon iron ; 32 duties upon yarn or
twist ; 18 duties upon sugar ; 42 upon leather ; 36 upon
oil ; 126 upon wood, and so on with respect to other im-
portant articles of trade.' The tariff also ' resorts to all
modes and devices of taxation, by weight, by measure, by
number, by value ; and what is worse, it vests in the cus-
tomhouse officers the sole discretion of determining by
what standard they will charge the duty. The collector
imposes that kind of duty which will produce the most
money in the particular case. The consequence of this to
the merchant is most serious. He cannot calculate or in-
form himself beforehand how much his goods will have to
pay at Brunshausen.' (Edinburgh Review, No. el., p.
361 ; Hutt's Stade Duties.} There are also arbitrary fines
for trivial informalities in the ship's papers, and which are
said to rest practically with the subordinate officers, who
T A
11C
T A \
-o haraM the merchants with a multitude of p. ;u
for their nwii advantage. Such ft system, r
i'ly be said, i- mo.t discouraging ana iqjuiio
Untish merchants h;i\e been loud in their
. .iiupiaiuts, and thr governments of this country itnd of
llnnoxcr haxc iccentH cnimgrd in n •. which, it
v.ill settle these obnoxious duties upon
^nmd and equitable prim
levy a tax • at the time and in the manner most
likely to 'be convenient for the contributor to pay it ' is
always a xvise policy on the part of the state. The time
•yment may often lie more vexatious than
the amount of the tax itself, and thus have the evil effects
of high taxation, while it produces no revenue to the state.
Suppose, lor example, that a merchant imports goods and
i- required to pay a duty upon them immediately and
before he has found a market for them :— he must either
ice the money himself or borrow it from others, and
i'i either case he will be obliged to charge the pup
of the goods with the interest; or he must sell the goods
at once, not on account of any commercial occasion for
the sale, but in order to avoid prepayment of the tax. If
he paxs the tax and holds the goods the consumer will
haxe to repay not only the tax but the interest; and if
he parts with them at a loss or inconvenience, trade is in-
jured, and the ireneral wealth and consequent productivc-
n ess of taxation proportionately diminished. To p,-e\ent
exils the handing: or vari-hniixin^ sy-tein was esta-
blished, which affords the most liberal convenience to the
nan! and a general facility to the trade of a eoun-
i 'ei tain warehouses are appointed under the charge
ol officers of the customs, in which goods may be deposited
without being chargeable with duty until they are cleared
tor consumption, and thus the tax is only paid just when
the article is wanted, and when it is least inconvenient to
pay it. [WAREHOI-SING SYSTKM.]
Similar accommodation is granted on their own premises
to the manufacturers of articles liable to excise duties. At
present the customs bonding-warehouses are confined to
the ports. An extension of them to inland towns would
be sound in principle, very convenient to trade, and un-
attended by any serious risk to the revenue or difficulty of
management and supervision.
The evils resulting from inconvenient modes o
and collecting taxes have been very seriously felt in this
country under the operation of the excise laws. When
any manufacture is subject to excise duties, the officers of
the revenue have cognizance of every part of the \.
inspect and control the premises and machinery of the
manufacturer, and often even prescribe the mode of con-
ducting and the times of commencing and completing
each process; while the observance of numberless minute
lations is enforced by severe penalties. The manu-
facturer is put. to great inconvenience and expense, and
hi* ingenuity and resources are con-tantly interfered with
in such a manner as to impede inventions and improve-
ment, and to diminish his profits. Some manufactures
have been entirely destroyed by oppresMsc i emulations.
'Fhe making of lenses of telescopes v, : time a
flourishing trade. Kneland had the supply of the whole
»if Kurope, but within the last few years the manufacture.
has been transferred to France and Italy, entirely in con-
• nee of the prohibition of the excise I.
conducting the ncccssai •.! preliminary experi-
ments. (Dig' -
Jnifutn/. p. 13.) Trades less unfoitunatc than that just
red to arc nevertheless xci itf'crcrs. A Lon-
don distiller stated to the ( 'ommi-sioners of Kxi ise Inquiry,
that amimiing that the duties on spiiits distilled by him
should be fully secured to the revenue, ' it would In-
well worth his while to pay 3000/. a year for the )»
of exemption from excise interference.' (lltiil., p.
Any injury done to trade is injurious to the state by
diminishing the national wealth and the employment ul
labour. It has the same effect also upon tb.
-sive taxation. The high price of the article limits
the consumption and consequently the re venue arihimr from
it. The. injurious effects of tl
•It in an arrumulnted dcirive by the public who are
the consumer", airainst whom the tnx operate* by t
c'.ition inade to (lie price of the commodity, not only by
lt» direct amount, but by the neeescity of CO
the manufacturer for hi» advance of capital in delrayirg
it, and al-o by the increased cost of prodiu lion.'
p. 15.) In the case of a hi hich also dimin.
consumption, the Ma1- .lit :
but in tin impedi-
ments to trade caused b\
iins nothing xvl. 1 the ma
and the consumer are seriously injured, without an eij
lent to any party. If the consumer must sutler, it should,
at least, be for the benefit of the :• r then his
contributions may be diminished 111 sonic other direction.
'ion has been paid, of late year.-, to the im-
provement of the excise regulations. , -specially In
Commissioners of Inquiry, under tin- able direction •
Henry 1'arnell. Various restrictions ha\e been reni'
and it is to be hoped that t! 11 may be ;
capable of beii^ 1 without inflicting greater in-
juries upon trade than other branch.
The net produce of a tax is all that '
in, and therefore any violation of the fourth maxim of Adam
Smith is liable to the same object ions as those ah-
in reference to the third. Such violation increases the
amount of the tax directly, as the former was shown to
incren.se it indirectly, without any advantage to the -
Facility of collection is a great recommendation to any
id, on the contran, a disproportion between tin
of collecting and the amount ultimately secured i^ a
ground for removing a tax. thouirh founded, in •
• •;-. upon just principles. On this account
well as for the general conxenience of trade, it is worthy
of serious attention, whether the customs duties \\\
great number of art ides of import should not be altogether
repealed. Although great alterations Inn
made in our tariff, the number of articles remains ilie
same. In 1S3!) there were ;!40 distinct articles, each pro-
ducing less than 100/. a year, and in the airirrciratc onh
so.'MI/. There are also 132 articles producinL' from HHI/.
to 50U/. each, and altogether 31.G2!)/., while Hi aiticles
produced '.)*•; per cent, of the whole customs revenue.
(Import Dulii'a l^'jmrl, 18-10, p. 4.) It is obxious that tin-
examination of every description of merchandi/e and
package, and the assessment of nearly 1200 different
of duty. inu>t irreatlj increase the establishment required
for collecting this branch of the revenue. The cost of col
lecting tile duties upon the larger and more product ixc
articles of import could bear but a small proportion to the
amount of the tax.
The following table maybe interesting as showing the
rate at which the whole revenue is collected in the United
Kingdom : —
xhniring tfic ('< j /hi- 1'i'rrniiP nf thr
I'niti'd Kiiiffiliini «J' (Iri'iil Hrituiii uii'l In'liunl fnr '/'•//
) •.irx.frttin 1832 /" 1SH nicltixiri' i compiled from the
Annual Finance Accoun'
i fcrit.
Grow Rwpipt of RflTctme.
ChargM of Collection.
WM COl 1 .
£ .1. d.
£ ». d.
£ ». d.
1832
411.57 1. -toil 17 8
3.(K>I.7(»2 13 11
(i i? ?*
1K!3
-•2.ri71.1Ki II 11
ii'.i3 4 4
iK'il
'.2 Hi 17 11
4 4
i; ].-, j)j
1898
:r_'.;.s:i.:i!ij 4 6
:.j;!s IH n
(i 15 4*
1896
ril.'.l73.(;77 0 (i
3.4!«.GJ1 17 1
(i 7 1*
IK37
:.737 11 1)
3.4:tU.ti7'.> (i .">
(ill 2
Is.*'- '.ili 13 !((
3.4:n).!MO 12 4
G 10 3
1M31I , :>:. 1 7
3. IS3..">33 4 !l
(i Ki 7
IKHI
&2,916,04H 8 3
3..")i'.i.iK»;i i.'i .->
U 14 1*
1841
.•|3..V.Mi.2."iO 1 1 4
3.:.S2.li3!l 7 11
01 'I
Iff H 1
There is little \ai,;!'iion liom year :
chargesof collection, but t!:
lion in the cost of collecting different b the
revenue. In 1HI1 the excise cost til. 7«. 8</. per cent, in
the collection : the assessed taxes 41. 2*. 9d.; and tl
venue arising from stamps only '21. 3*
•.emu- is collected at a much iri .
For some jears past the average rex emic of thai country
ha- been 1,020,000,000 4(UKHI,IHH»/.. and t!i-
DMfes of managing and collecting that sum haxeamounted
to irKMHKUKK) I- ' iKKl.llOO/., beinir no le-s ti,
il. ('•niiini-rrnil Turijl'*, I'-irl //'.. 1'rnni • . IS42. p.
11.) It in very probable Uiat many items may be included in
TAX
111
TAX
the French calculation of the expenses of collection which
are not stated in the English accounts ; but making libera
allowance on that account, a great disproportion remain,
between the cost of collecting the revenue in the two
countries. It may perhaps be fairly estimated that thi,
revenue of France costs twice as much in the collection aa
that of England. The expenses of collecting a revenue
may be high without any reference to the mode of taxation
An excellent tax may be collected in a bad manner, either
by having numerous idle and highly paid officers, or by
cumbrous regulations and checks, which may cost the
i-nment much and protect the revenue very little. OJ
thc»e two causes of expense it is difficult to pronounce
which is most injurious to a country. The i'ormer will
generally be found to form part of a general system of ill-
regulated expenditure : the latter may arise from unwise
precautions for the security of the revenue. In France the
prodigious number of official persons is notorious, and in
that fact we must seek for the main cause of the enormous
cost of collecting the revenue.
DIFFERENT CLASSES OF TAXES.
In selecting one or more classes of taxes for raising the
revenue of a state, the principles already discussed should
be adhered to as far as possible ; but these do not point
out any particular mode of taxation as preferable to others.
Whatever mode of raising the necessary funds may be
found to press most equally upon clitferent members of the
community, to be least liable to objections of uncertainty,
or inconvenience iu the mode or times of payment, or to
be attended with the least expense, is fairly open to the
choice of a statesman ; unless objections of some other
nature can be proved to outweigh these recommenda-
tions.
The two great divisions under which most taxes may bs
classed are direct and indirect.
I. Direct Taxes.
All taxes ought to be paid from the income of the com-
munity. To derive revenue from capital is to act the part
of a spendthrift ; and such a practice, as in private life,
must be condemned. If the taxes of any country should
become so disproportioned to its income, that in order to
pay them continual inroads must be made upon its capital,
»ild fail, employment of labour would de-
". and the revenue must necessarily be reduced by
the general impoverishment of the tax-payers. Such a
system could not long continue as regards all capital, but
it may affect particular branches of capital, or all capital
in certain conditions. In whatever degree it is permitted
to operate it is injurious. A tax upon legacies is avow-
edly a direct deduction from capital ; and on that account
objectionable, although it is profitable to the treasury and
very easily collected. In this country legacies left to
strangers are charged with a stamp duty of 10 per cent.,
and even when left to relatives the scale of duties is suf-
ficiently high to cause a serious diminution of the capital.
A further duty is charged on proving a will, called pro-
bate-duty, which is perhaps more frequently paid out of
capital than income. The same observations will, of
course, apply to duties charged upon succession to the per-
sonal property of intestates.
With these exceptions it has been the object of the
British legislature to derive all taxes from income, either
by direct a^es.-ment or by means of the voluntary expen-
diture of the people upon taxed commodities.
Direct taxes upon the land have been universally re-
sorted to by all nations. Such taxes are obvious, and re-
quire but little refinement to devise ; and in countries
without commerce, land is the only source from which a
revenue can be derived. In most of the Eastern mo-
narchies the greater part of the revenue has usually been
raised by heavy taxes upon the soil. The tangible nature
of land and of its produce offers great temptations to immo-
derate taxation. In Spain, at the present time, the taxes
upon the soil are most oppressive and injurious. 'The tax
imposed on corn-fields is so heavy, that farmers in general
find it more to their interest not to till their lands at all,
than to run the risk of losing their costs and charges, and
their labour 1o bout, by the exorbitancy of the intendiente's
demand which they would have to meet. They have
adopt i-il thr jihni therefore of sowing no more wheat 1han
is ni'ci'.-siuy lor the sustenance of their own families. It is
quite clear indeed to all who are conversant with the state
of agriculture in Spam, that unless a complete change
takes place in the system of taxation, so as greatly to re-
duce the burthens upon the land, there will not only be a
stagnation m rural industry, but eventually the country
will cease to produce a sufficient quantity for its own con-
sumption of that superior wheat on which Spaniards pride
themselves, and which was formerly and might still be
grown m sufficient quantities to supply all the markets in
Juirope.' (Madrid in 1835, vol. ii., p. 109.)
The land-tax in England is one of considerable an-
tiquity. We find that under the Saxon kings a tax of this
description was in use. When the invasions of the Danes
became frequent, it was customary to purchase their for-
bearance by large sums of money ; and as the ordinary-
revenues of the crown were not sufficient, a tax was im-
posed on every hide of land in the kingdom. This tax
seems to have been first imposed A.D. 991, and was called
Danegeld, or Danish tax or tribute. (Saxon Chronicle,
by Ingram, p. 168.) It was originally one shilling for
each hide of land, but afterwards rose so high as seven : it
then fell to four shillings, at which rate it remained till it
was abolished about seventy years after the Norman con-
quest. (Henry, Hint., vol. ifi., p. 368.) A revenue still con-
tinued to be derived under different names from assessments
upon all persons holding lands, which however became
merged in the general subsidies introduced in the reigns of
Richard II. and Henry IV. During the troubles in the
reign of Charles I. and the Commonwealth, the practice of
laying weekly and monthly assessments of specific sums upon
the several counties was resorted to, and was found so pro-
fitable, that after the Restoration the antient mode of grant-
ing subsidies was renewed on two occasions only. (Report of
House rtf Commons on Land Tax as affecting Catholics,
1828.) In 1692 a new valuation of estates was made, and
certain payments were apportioned to each county and
hundred or other division. These payments have varied
in amount from 1*. in the pound to 4s. on the assessed
annual value, according to the annual Land Tax Acts, but
whatever may have been the variations in the rate levied,
the valuation has been the same ; and the proportion
chargeable to each district has continued the same as it
was in the time of king William III., as regulated by the
Act of 1692. That assessment is said not to have been
accurate even at that time, and of course improved cul-
tivation and the application of capital during the last 140
years have completely changed the relative value of dif-
ferent portions of the soil. On account of the generally
increased productiveness of land, the tax bears upon the
whole but a trifling proportion to the rent, yet its inequality
s very great. For instance, in Bedfordshire it amounts to
2s. la. in the pound ; in Surrey, to Is. Id. • in Durham, to
3fal. ', in Lancashire, to 2d. ; and in Scotland, to 2$d.
(Appendix to Third Report on Agricultural Distress,
1836, p. 545.) Adam Smith imagined that this tax was
jorne entirely by the landlords, but this opinion has been
jroved to be'erroneous by modern political economists, who
icld that the tax increases the price of the produce of the
and, and is therefore paid by the consumers. Of that we
entertain no doubt ; but we are unable to agree with Mr.
licardo, that the English land-tax is not objectionable as
egards Adam Smith's first principle, viz. on the ground of
nequality. (Political Economy, chap, xii.) He assumes
hat inferior land would not be cultivated until the price of
iroduce had become so high as to remunerate the grower
it'ter payment of the tax; and that the owners of the soil
herefore would not suffer, but only the consumer. But
and is often cultivated for pleasure, for scientific experi-
ment, and for speculative purposes, while in this country
he exclusion of foreign supply at a time when population
vas rapidly increasing has forced inferior soils into cul-
ivation. Then admitting that the consumer pays the tax,
he owners of land appear to us to be in the same relation
o each other as merchants would be who should be
charged unequal rates of duty upon articles in which they
leal. In that case the consumer would ultimately pay the
ax, but no one will deny that the seller who pays the
lighest tax in the first instance meets his competitor at a
[isadvantagc in the market. He must wait for very high
)rices, or must sell at lower profits. Such is actually
he case where articles imported from different countries
>ear unequal rates of duty ; and such, we apprehend,
must be the case where the land is unequally assessed
iccording to its value. [LAND-TAX.]
TAX
112
TAX
A lax upon the Rros» rent of land would fall upon the
Undloid, and would be in fact a tax upon hi* annual in-
i-.iinr. and as such would lall with undue seventy u]>on
liiin. unlev. ollu-r classes of the community should be liable
loportionatc deduction from their respective in.
for the benefit of the state. This brings us to consider the
iiency of a general tax upon nil men::
As th>- object of taxation should hi- to obtain from each
individual in a state a contribution to ilu- expenses of
government in proportion to his means ; and as, in what -
ionn the tax maybe levied. tin1 contribution should
be paid in every case from income, and not from capital,
the simplest ami most equitable mode of taxation would
appear to be that which, after assessing the annual income
of cadi person m all sources, should take from
him, directly, a. certain proportion of his income as Ills
share of the' general contribution. Such a tax, equitably
levied, would appear to agree in theory with all the four
maxims of Adam Smith; but practical fy, every tax upon
income must abound in inequalities, in uncertainty, and
in great personal hardships and inconvenience.
In onler to make such a tax fall equally upon all, in the
first place, the assessment must be equal. But how is this
to be effected? By the voluntary statement of each per-
son, or by investigation and proof? If by the former
means, the equality of the tax would depend upon the
honesty of parties placed under a temptation to hi' dis-
honest : the least scrupulous part of the community would
be taxed lightly, and the conscientious would bear the
main burthen of the tax. If by the latter means, viz., by
investigation and proof, the dishonest still have an advan-
tage over the conscientious: because income arising from
some sources, being capable of direct assessment, cannot
be concealed ; while other descriptions of income arc often
known only to the possessor, upon whose declaration alone,
in such cases, reliance must be placed.
But supposing that either by declaration or by proof, or
by both combined, the actual income of each individual
could be ascertained, the mere income of persons is a most
fallacious test of their means or ability to bear taxation.
One man has a fee-simple estate in land, or money in the
funds, producing an income of 1000/. a year, which will
descend to his children after his death ; another, by a
laborious and uncertain profession, also obtains an annual
income of 1000/., dependent not only upon his life, hut upon
his health and a thousand accidents. The annual incomes
of these two men are the same, but their circumstances
are most dissimilar. Before the latter could be placed in
the same position as the former, he must have an income
enough to enable him to insure his life for a sum of
which the interest would be HKH)/. a year, and still have
1000/. left to spend annually, alter the payment of the
premium. But even then, if lie should lose Ins health, his
present income would fail him, lie would not be able to
continue the insurance, nnd his position therefore would
still be more precarious than that of the proprietor of land
or funded property. Yet these two men, with means so
unequal, would be assessed alike, and charged with equal
contributions. But suppose that, instead of insuring his
life, the professional man should save half his income
every year, he would still be charged upon the whole, and
thus his cnjuldl as well as his income would be taxed.
The case of annuitants also may he instanced as one,
amongst numerous others, of peculiar inequality. One
person invests his money in permanent securities, and
retains his capital, but denvc~ a small income, and there-
fore contributes a proportionally small rate of tax : another
purchases an annuity, and parts with his capital; but as
his income is much larger than that of the capitalist, he
pays a higher tax. At first sight this may appear a just
arrangement ; but in fact not only the income of the annui-
tant is taxed, but also his capital ; for that which is taxed
as his income is derived partly from the interest of his pur-
chase-money, and partly from an annual repayment of a
portion of Ins principal.
These and many other evident cases of inequality can
scarcely be questioned ; but it is alleged that other taxes
preiis with as much inequality upon different classes of
penon*. and that no attempts an- made to cqiiali/e their
preuure, as the causes exist in the circumstances of the
ie. Hud not in the nature of the laxe-. 1'ilfs
•ol. ui.. p. 0.) It is said that ti taxes
•fleet the professional man to the same extent as the man
of property. Diere is however this essential differ
between taxes upon income and taxes upon expenditure :
the former are compulsory, Un-
paid or avoided at the option of each individual. If a man
lie saving money, an incon. s upun his accruing
capital : a tax upon expenditure is levied upon that portion
of his income only which he thinks it prudent to spend.
To smooth in some degree the inequalities of an income-
tax . 1st. the annual premiums on policies of insin.
should not be reckoned as income in the assessment.
being clearly capital, and the payments being no h
optional, as the insurance could not be dUcont.
without loss ; this provision was made by Mr. Pitt in i.
'Jndly, incomes arising from realized property should be
at a higher rate than the profits of trades and
professions : iinlly. annuitants should be rated on such
terms a.s to avoid the assessment of any portion of their
capital as part of their income : -It lily, all persons should
be liable to the tax. whatever may be the amount of their
incom
In addition to the unequal pressure of an incom
which cannot be altogether corrected by any expedients.
there is much uncertainly in the assessment of certain
s of persons. The' vicissitudes of trade, bad debts.
or deferred payments, render the incomes of commercial
and professional men very uncertain ; and nominal income
therefore, which afterwards cannot be rcali/cd. may be
charged with the tax.
But the last and strongest of the objections to an
income-tax is the inquisitorial nature of the investigation
into the affairs of all men. which is •
statement of their incomes. This objection indeed is
treated lightly by some ; but by the mass of the contri-
butors 'it is considered, beyond all question, as the mo-t
inconvenient and unseasonable quality of an incom >
Even if the exposure of a man's affairs could do him no
possible injury, yet as an offence to his feelings, or even
caprice, it is a hardship which is not involved in the pay-
ment of other taxes. How many persons are anxious to
conceal the amount of their wealth:' It may be foolish ;
but they certainly must have strong motives for conceal-
ing that which most others are proud of displaying. Then
who cannot sympathise with the feelings of an honest man
who conceals the extent of his poverty, ami. by self-denial
and hard economy, is still enabled to bear up against ad-
:\ ? It is in vain to deny, what all men feel, that the
appearance of poverty does degrade a man in tin- ej
other-. : and the feelings of irood men ought to be respected.
But apart from matters of feeling, injury of a real cha
is also inflicted upon indiv iduals by an exposure of their
means and sources of income. Mercantile men. from the
dread cX' competition, take pains to conceal from others.
iully if in the same business, the application of then-
capital, the rate of profit realized, their connections, ami
their credit, all of which must be disclosed, pcihaps to
-.-lions injury, when there is an investigation of their
profits.
For these reasons, the mode of collecting the income
tax certainly cannot he approved of as being ' most likely
to be convenient to the contributor.' It- gcm-ial unpopu-
larity when in operation is the best proof of its hardship
and inconvenience. I'pon the whole, a tax upon income is
so difficult to adjust equitably to the means ol' indivi.i
and the mode of collection is neccssaiih liable to such
strong objection, that, if icsurtcd to at all, it should I
served for extraordinary occasions of stale necessity or
danger, when ordinary sources of revenue cannot safely be
relied on.
The English assessed taxes have as few objections in
principle as most modes of direct taxation. AVith an
equitable assessment and special exemptions in certain
cases, they are capable of being made to bear a tolciabU
just proportion to the incomes of the individuals paving
them. They share, however, in the general unpopularity
of all direct taxes, and it cannot be denied that they often
prc-s unequally upon particular : The numl
windows in a house is a \ei\ imperfect c: it. -non of its
annual value, and in our opinion the house-tax which has
been removed was far prcfciable, in principle, to the win-
dow-duty. \vluch is still retained. The inequalities in the.
assessments were undeniable: but these miu'lit have been
:,-d by caieful valuation. 1'nder onlii:ar\ circum-
stances, a tax upon houses will fall upon the occupier,
TAX
113
TAX
who is intended to pay it ; but if a very heavy tax were
imposed, it would discourage the occupation of houses,
lessen the demand for them, and thereby diminish the
rent of the landlord, or, in other words, transfer the ac-
tual payment to him. (Adam Smith, book 5, chap ii. ;
Ricardo's Political Economy, chap, xiv.) Such a 1ax
would be attended with very bad consequences ; it would
compel many persons to live in inferior houses or in lodg-
ings, and thus diminish their comforts and deteriorate
their habits of life ; and by reducing the demand for
houses it would limit the employment of capital and
labour in building. The direct taxes upon horses, car-
riages, hair-powder, armorial bearings &c., being paid
voluntarily by the rich to gratify their own taste for
luxury or display, are not likely to meet with many ob-
jectors. The use of such articles generally indicates the
scale of income enjoyed by the contributor, and the tax is
too light to discourage expenditure or to make any sensi-
ble deduction from his means.
A very fair principle of levying a direct tax is exhibited
by the assessment of property in every parish in England
and Wales to the poor rates. Local knowledge renders
a perfectly correct valuation possible, and every person
owning or occupying land, houses, or other property
within the parish, is assessed so much in the pound upon
the annual value thereof, to raise the necessary funds for
the support of the poor.
The various modes of direct taxation are too numerous
to enter upon, especially as many of them involve the
discussion of principles of political economy which would
carry us far beyond our limits. For arguments and illus-
trations concerning the incidence of tithes, of taxes upon
profits, upon wages, and other descriptions of direct im-
posts, we refer to the able works of Adam Smith, Ricardo,
M'Culloch, and other eminent writers upon political
economy.
II. Indirect Taxes.
In preferring one tax to another, a statesman may be in-
fluenced by political considerations as well as by strict
views of financial expediency, and nothing is more likely
to determine his choice than the probability of a cheerful
acquiescence on the part of the people. All taxes are dis-
liked, and the more directly and distinctly they are re-
quired to be paid, the more hateful they become. On
this, as well as on other grounds, ' indirect taxes,' or taxes
upon the consumption of various articles of merchandize,
have been in high favour with most governments. ' Taxes
upon merchandize,' says Montesquieu, 'are felt the least
by the people, because no formal demand is made upon
them. They can be so wisely contrived, that the people
shall scarcely know that they pay them. For this end it
is of great consequence that the seller shall pay the tax.
He knows well that he does not pay it for himself; and
the buyer, who pays it in the end, confounds it with
the price.' (Esprit des Lois, livre xiii., chap, vii.) This
effect of indirect taxes is apt to be undervalued by writers
on political economy ; but it is undoubtedly a great merit
in any system of taxation (which is but a part of general
government) that it should be popular and not give rise
to jarring and discontent. A tax that is positively injurious
to the very parties who pay it without thought, is, cer-
tainly not to be defended merely on the ground that no
complaints are made of it ; but it may be safely admitted
as a principle, that of two taxes equally good in other re-
spects, that is the best which is most acceptable to the
people. The very facility, however, with which indirect
taxes may be levied, makes it necessary to consider the
incidents and effects of them with peculiar caution. The
statesman has no warning, as in the case of direct taxes,
that evils are caused by an impost which is productive
and which every one seems willing to pay. When any
branch of industry is visibly declining, and its failure can
be traced to no other cause than the discouraging pressure
of a tax, the necessity of relief is felt at once ; but if trade
and manufactures are nourishing, and the country ad-
vancing in prosperity, it is difficult to detect the latent in-
fluence of taxes in restraining that progress, which but
for them would have been greater ; and still more diffi-
cult to imagine the new sources of wealth which might
have been laid open if such taxes had not existed, or had
been less heavy, or had been collected at different times j
or in different ways.
P. C., No. 1502.
The government is directly interested in the increase of
national wealth, and taxes upon commodities should be
allowed to interfere with it as little as possible. On this
account duties upon raw materials are very objectionable.
They increase the price of such materials, and thus limit the
power of the manufacturer to purchase them, and to em-
ploy labour in increasing their value, and in adding to the
production and capital of the country. They discourage
foreign commerce and the employment of shipping ; for as
the power of buying is restrained, so also is that of selling,
and the interchange of merchandize between different
countries is checked. Moreover, by increasing the price
of the exported manufactures, they limit the demand for
them abroad and subject them to dangerous competition.
Similar objections may be urged against taxes upon
domestic manufactures, since by increasing the price
they diminish consumption, and consequently discourage
the manufactures, which if left to themselves would have
given employment to more capital and labour, and would
have added greatly to the amount of national wealth and
prosperity. The object of a government should always
be to collect its revenue from the results of the successful
employment of capital and industry, and not to press
upon any intermediate stage of production.
Adopting this view of the objects of taxation, the Bri-
tish legislature has of late years very wisely repealed or
reduced various duties upon raw materials and upon
manufactures. Of the former we may instance the cus-
toms' duties on barilla ; on raw, waste, or thrown silk ; on
cotton-wool and sheep's wool, unwrought-iron, hemp, and
flax ; which have been from time to time very much re-
duced. Of the latter, the taxes on printed goods, on
candles, and on tiles, have been altogether removed; and
those on plate and flint glass, on malt, and on soap, have
been partially remitted. There are still many similar
taxes which need revision. Of these perhaps the most
injurious are the heavy duties upon foreign timber, which
we shall show other reasons for condemning, in treating of
protective duties ; but in this place they must be particularly
censured, as offering a serious obstruction to ship-build"-
ing (one of the most important branches of national in-
dustry in a maritime country), and to the construction of
buildings for the convenience of trade and manufactures.
The amended tariff of 1842, which for many reasons is a
most important change in the financial policy of this
country, has reduced the duty on colonial timber to a rate
perhaps unnecessarily low ; that on foreign timber, though
much reduced, is still too high.
One of the chief recommendations of indirect taxes is>
that, when placed upon the proper description of articlesj
the payment of them by the consumer is optional. If
charged upon what may be strictly called the necessaries
of life, their payment becomes compulsory, and falls with
unequal weight upon labour. Competition generally
reduces a large proportion of the working classes to a
state which allows them but little if anything beyond
necessaries ; consequently a duty upon these, as it will
have no effect in diminishing the competition of labour
and in raising wages, must reduce the comforts and stint
the subsistence of labouring men.
That class of articles commonly called luxuries, of
which the consumption is optional, is a very fair subject
of taxation. In principle there is no objection to such
taxes : they do not interfere with industry or production,
but are paid out of the incomes of the contributors, anc
paid willingly, and for the most part without undue pres-
sure upon their means. But in laying on taxes upon par
ticular articles of this description care must be taken ti
proportion the charge to the value of the article. Exces-
sive duties fail in the very object they have in view, by
rendering the revenue less productive than moderate
duties ; while the causes of their failure are injurious U
the wealth of the country by discouraging consumption,
and to its morals by offering an inducement to smuggling.
It is only by experience that the precise point can be
found at which the revenue is most productive, consistently
with an unchecked consumption and an absence of smug-
gling ; but it may be assumed as certain that whenever a
tax adds very greatly to the price of an article of general
consumption, it puts it out of the reach of many who
are anxious to purchase it, and tempts smugglers, by the
chance of a large profit, to evade the payment of the duty.
On the contrary, when a duty is moderate, it adds so little
VOL. XXIV.— Q
\ \
1 1-1
r \ \
to the prke of an article, that it will scarcely affect its
.uipti in ; and the profit .
ample
ill tile taxation of this count' -.'. in-
u-ti\e illustrations.
In IS23 the exei-i- duties upon Scotch and Irish spiiils
reduced ! - -on, and the im-
mediate effect pioduccd upon the apparent consumption
and upon the revenue will appear by the follcminL-
miMit for the two years preceding and following the re-
duction.
Quantities of spirits made in Ireland and Scotland
which paid duty for home consumption, slating the rale of
duty paid, and the net revenue :—
IRKI.AML
Rule of I'IL'V. V ' I:
H; Irish 1 (
trallon .1 (.
-, : r Knirlish 1
1 Wine Gallon from >
10th October I
i;.(i!K),3iri Ditto 771.0!K)
1«25 :i.2(i2.7!l Ditto 1,084.191
Gall
•7
1821
I92t
iR2;i
i-ji
181S
(Jallon*.
1, 135
2.ii7:).55ii
2.232.72X
-J.350,:«ll
5.!IHl.550
uTLAND.
Rate of Duty.
v •' Hi-venue.
Ditto
2s. from 10th October
Ditto
Ditto
i«n.i:«;
!>:»(i.(i5t
5-jo.<i2-i
In 1826 (></. was added to the duty, and again in 1830 a
similar addition was made, the. effect of which is shown by
a continuation of the statement: —
1820
1*27
1828
O.R'iT.liis
i.'.il!)
1830
1831
1«32
1833
!»,2 12.223
1,639
K710.C72
s.t>57.75i;
8,168,5!Ki
Gallon*.
IRELAND.
Kate of Duty.
2s. 10'/. per Im-
perial pal Ion
. .
Ditto
Ditto
SCOTLAND.
R»te of Datv.
Not I! •
:
1.3 115.72 1
1,080
1.-H2.N15
Net It-
1826 3,988,788 {
1827 4,752.1(1!) Ditto
1S2S ri.71(>.18« Ditto
!«•->:) 5.777.2^0 Ditto
l«:io (i.007.031 2». lOrf.,3*.,
1831 5.700.' 3s. -1-A
1H32 5.107.0!)7 Ditto
1833 5,988,556 Ditto
. I/.
(-72,441
K0!).55!l
818.4 !s
!K«).25s
!)5< U)ll
901,1X2
988.051
These tables show the effects of taxation in encourag-
ing 01 ::irlimr, rather than its influence ujion
•nption. Taking the case of Ireland, it would be
impossible to believe that the actual drinking of spirits
could have been increased more than threefold in
years, even if there had been no evidence of illicit distilla-
tion ; but before tin I of duty in 1x23, an enor-
mous amount Of smuirirhnir had been detected, and there
were other means of c-timatiiu: the extent of fraud* pnic-
iipon the revenue. For instance, in Isll.th.. duty
In 1 been only 2v. Ij /. a gallon, and in that ,
than BJBOOJ361 gallons had paid duty : while, in 1S22.
when the dut) wt-n-
brought to c-hiu-ne.. The re\enne eommi- - «hnse
•niiendation the duty u;i> reduced in KJ-t. then e-ti-
mated the annual consumption of spirits in Ireland at ten
million-, of callous, and the illicit supply at about
millions, d'lfth Ri't/nrt «f Revenue Coaimittioners, rip.
s. 19.)
In 1827 the duties on .spirits made in Enirland we
duced from 12<r. (kl. to 7*. a irallon. T
sumption for li to lH-_>7 •. Huns.
•nd Uie revenue 2,2H1,52GA In 1829 (onl\ t after
the rcducti. -umption «as 7,7i»o.7i;i; irallon-
the re\emii • ' . or -Jl:».7 ' iliehiirher
duty had produced. ' 1'ann -ml Ilrt'irm. Itii ed.,
It till been a common opinion that spirits should n
treated merely : but that !
injurious to the morals of the peopl. niption of
them should he i \ heavy duties. It hnv accord-
ingly been the object of this and of other pi.
to limit the constini])tion of spirits, and nt the
;ue fiom it. The object is ni;
tionnl one if it could he secured : but the :
of nnr ; i-nnicnts has proved that • I 'lould
.dueled with reference to the imns'
obtai.,1 mie in the best manner: and that the in-
ne promoted by fo! < just
princi; -.ati'on. rather than by seeKint,- indii^
and I-;. 'i of those |irinci:
which, if attainable, can only be attained by oti
The siirnal failu,' ceiitmy for dis-
.'in^ the drinKiiisr of spirits is a stronir example of
the futility of attempting to force a change in the habits
of the people by a tax. In 173<> a tax of 20>. a irallon
v. a* imposed upon : .-. ith -UTN
ision of the duty. Tli ular,
nnd was evaded to such an extent, that ii
less than 12.000 persons were convict i
the law. Indeed the .'.ions
nnd so impracticable, that it was abandoned after six
katiotU and unprofitable trial.
Hisr.li duties upon fijrciirn articles imported into n country
are liable to all the objections which ha\e been star
appKinsrlo iinmodeiate taxes upon consumption, and they
ible \\ith another, - they diminish importation,
and thereby restrict commercial intercourse and the de-
mand for and exportation of domestic produce or manufac-
tures.
The number of gallons of brandy and geneva imported
and retained for consumption, on an a\erai;c of Join-
to 1807, was 1,820,000. The duty was then M.v. a gallon,
and the revenue 1,:)70,(XK)/. Ill ISM the duty was made
|su. !()/.. and on an average for the 1>
the number of gallons entered for home con-umptin
7-12,000, and the rexenne S25.000/. Thus a loss ,,f 5i;,..
a year « as sustained by the revenue, the legitimate trade
in brandy discouraircd, and a rich premium ofl'ered to the
smuggler. The present duty is I/. 2v («/. a gallon, and in
the \ear ended 5th January, 1H42, only l.lvn.i;!! gallons
were entered for home consumption, the !,TOSN revenue on
which was 1.317.-JOU., or 23.000/. less than in IS07, not-
withstandinir the irreat increase of wealth and popu'
since that time, 'lliat French brandy is emuegled into
this country in larire quantities is no-
consider that the duty is estimated at -)(X) or 5(K) per cent.
on its original price abroad, the inducement to evade it is
so irrcat.that We cannot be surprised if all the vigilance of
our customs establishment is rendered ineffectual. 1
so regular and certain is the smuggling trade, that it is
made the subject of insurance, li "iiiiiiercinl risks,
and it is e\en said at premiums of from 10 to 15 per '
which hear no proportion to the profits, if the .speculation
be successful.
The duties upon articles of con-
sumption, in encourairing the use of them, placing them
within the reach of a laiirer number of pei t th«
same time augmentiui; the revenue. \\as never bcttel
shown than in Lhi if eollee. In 1«2-J the <hr
Hrilish plantation coifee was 1-s., vi])ou F.ast In-
and upon foieiirn coffee 2*. (',/. peril). In 1--
- -half, and the consequence has !
re than a threefold increase in the consump-
tion, while the revenue has been moie than doubled. In
Ilietl; ..receding the reduction, the consum,
and revenii, l
1H22
lx-2:»
Qnnnli
i;:).351 Ibs.
.l.'.r.M
N-'t I!
,342
.!•_'('.
»' TfcdT - « — " '• •
In tin' thrc. 'Mowing tl. .11, the con-
miption greatly increased, but not sufficiently to improve
le revci
TAX
115
TAX
Quantities cleared
for Consumption. Net Revenue.
1826 . 13,203,323 Ibs. £336,570
1827 . 15,566,376 399,960
1828 . 17,127,633 440,245
But the consumption has since been rapidly increasing,
and in the last two years the consumption and revenue
thus appear : —
Quantities cleared
for Consumption.
28,708,033 Ibs.
28,420.980
Net Revenue.
1840 . 28,708,033 Ibs. £921,550
1841 . 28,420,980 887,721
The slight tailing off in the last year may be accounte
for by the general depression of trade, and perhaps in som
measure also by the addition of 5 per cent, to the custom
duties, which was then in operation.
In 1835 coffee, the produce of British possessions ir
India, was admitted at the same duty as plantation coffee
viz. 6t/. per lb., and the effect of the reduction, in encou
raging the growth of the plant in India and the consump
tion of the berry in this country, has already been verj
great, and perhaps the coffee trade of the East may as ye"
be considered in its infancy. In 1834, the year before the
reduction, 8,875,961 Ibs. were imported from the Eas
India Company's territories and Ceylon ; and in 1840
16,885,698 Ibs., or nearly double. The new customs tariff
effects a further reduction of duty. That on foreign coffee
is lor the future to be Sd. a lb., and on coffee the pro-
duce of British possessions only 4d. An increased con-
sumption will doubtless be the effect of this measure, anc
ultimately the revenue will be improved.
Thus reductions of existing duties are proved by these
examples to increase the revenue ; but whether the effecl
of them be immediate or deferred must depend upon a
variety of circumstances. If the reduction puts an end to
extensive smuggling, the revenue will derive immediate
benefit, as both the demand and the supply of the article
already exist, and the reduced tax, without affecting pro-
duction or consumption, acts as a police regulation, and
at once protects the revenue from fraud. But where there
is little or no smuggling, and the revenue can only be in-
creased by means of ndditional consumption, the effect of
reduced duties may be deferred and even remote. The
article may have to be produced ; capital, skill, labour, and
time may be required to provide it in sufficient quantities
to meet the growing d"mands of the consumer; and even
should the supply become abundant, the habits and tastes
of a people cannot be changed on a sudden. The high
price of an article may have placed it out of their reach,
and in the meanwhile they may have become attached to
a favourite substitute, or may be slow to spend their money
upon a commodity which they have learned to do without.
These and other causes may defer for a considerable time
such an increase of consumption as would make up for the
reduced rate of tax, especially when the reduction has
been so great as to require an extraordinary addition to the
previous amount of consumption, before the sacrifice made
in the revenue can be redeemed. But where, the article
on which it is proposed to reduce a tax is already in uni-
and the supply immediate and abundant,
and where the tax is so heavy as to restrain consumption,
no present loss need be apprehended from a remission of
part of the tax, and a very >pt«ly increase of revenue may
b,' expected. Sugar is an article of this description. It
has become a necessary of life as well as a favourite
luxury. There are scarcely any limits to the supply that
could oe raised, and the present duties add materially to
the price and check consumption. As a proof of the sud-
denness with which the consumption of foreign sugar
might be expected to increase if the excessive duty were
•ed, we may refer to the effects of equalizing the
duties on East and West India sugars in 1830. In that
the duty on East India sugar was reduced from 3liv.
.vt. to 24*. In 1H35 the quantity imported had been
Id rvvU. ; and in 1837, one year only after the change,
the import had increased to 302,945 cwts. ; in 1838, to
474.10(1 eats. : and in 1838, to 587,142 rwls. As the tax
iiiMni-hed only by one-fourth, and the consumption
i.mnediati-ly more than doubled, the revenue at once
ably by the reduction of duty.
A recent financial experiment, will serve to show how
little ed leveime can be depended upon as the
re.Mi.' .tation of taxes upon articles ol
sumption. In 1840 an addition of 5 per cent, was .
to all the duties of customs and excise, and a proportionate
increase of revenue was anticipated, but not realized The
net produce of the customs and excise in the year endin-
January 5th, 1840, amounted to 37,91 1.506/. The estf
mated produce for the year ending January 5th 184^ wn«
39,807,08U., 1,895,575*. being elpected from' the add?
tional o per cent. The actual increase however was only
306,715;., or little more than one-half per cent., instead of
J per cent, which had been expected. This result
was undoubtedly in part caused by a general stagnation of
trade, and by the consequent distress which prevailed in
that year, but we notice it because the principle of an in-
discriminate augmentation of existing taxes, without refer-
ence to their present amount, character, and circumstances
is very unwise. We have said that experience alone can
show the precise rate of a particular tax which will not
affect consumption and will at the same time discourage
smuggling. It must be presumed that existing rates have
been fixed in order to secure these results, and that they
are justified by experience, To add to them therefore, not
because they are insufficient for their immediate object,
but because a general addition to the revenue is needed,
is to neglect experience and to disturb the proper rela-
tions between the amount of tax and the value of parti-
cular articles. During the last century it was a common
financial course to add a general per cenlage of increase
upon all the customs duties whenever the revenue was
found to be insufficient for immediate purposes. To this
unwise policy must be attributed many of the strange
anomalies which up to this time have existed in the British
tariff. Any recurrence to so unscientific a mode of taxa-
tion should be avoided. The tax upon each article ought
to be adjusted by itself upon sound principles, and then
should not be changed merely to save the trouble or to avoid
the unpopularity of selecting particular articles for in-
creased taxation or of inventing new burthens.
Protective, Discriminating, and Prohibitory Duties.
The legitimate object of taxation is that of obtaining a
revenue in the least injurious manner for the benefit of
he community; but this object has constantly been over-
looked for the sake of ends not fairly to be accomplished
)y taxation. It is natural for a legislature to endeavour
jy every means in its power to encourage agriculture,
rade, and manufactures ; and it would be culpable to
neglect any proper means of encouragement, which are
not only beneficial to particular interests, but add to the
general prosperity. Unfortunately however the zeal of
•nost legislatures upon this point has been misdirected.
They have seized upon taxation as the instrument of pro
ection and encouragement ; and, using it as such, have
njured the great mass of their own countrymen, and ulti-
nately have failed in promoting the very interests they
lad intended to serve. All that we can hope in this and
ither European countries is a gradual adoption of sound
)rinciples, and the correction, at some distant period, of
he mistakes which have been acted upon for centuries ;
iut it is to be hoped that in the new countries of the
vorld, where systems of revenue are not yet established,
r are growing up with the progress of society, none of
lie errors of the Old World will be suffered to have a
eginning. If once the system of protection has existed,
evere injuries and even injustice are inflicted whenever
n attempt is made to undo the mischief which has been
one. Reason and experience unite in teaching the im-
olicy of protective taxes ; and, in our own country, it is
ow so generally acknowledged, that nothing but the ex-
•emci difficulty of withdrawing the protection which has
een given obstructs legislation upon sound principles.
The object of a protective duty is to raise artificially
the price of the produce or manufactures of one country
as compared with the produce or manufactures of another.
A heavy tax easily effects this object, and thus prevents
competition on the part of that country whose commodities
are taxed, and establishes a monopoly in the supply of those
commodities in favour of the parties for whose benefit tin-
tax was improved. The revenue, the avowed object of a
tax, so far from being improved, is here actually sacrificed
by the exclusion of merchandise, which at moderate duties
would fill the coffers of the state. The state clearly is a
loser; the foreigner, whose goods are denied a market, is
a loser. Who then gains by these losses ? Not the con-
sumer ; for the more abundant the supply, the better and
Q 2
T A X
lift
T A \
he find the market : but the seller, who is
entb!. iiia high price lor his v.
has H monopoly in tin- sale of them, is the only party who
Tin- community at large differ doubly: first, by ha\ ing
to buy dear instead of cheap goods, or by being denied
tin' use of thriu altogether : anil Mvoudly. by being obliged
to pay otlu-r taxes which would not have been required,
if theven articles which would have made ineir purchases
cheaper had been charged with a moderate impost. Kvcii
the seller., for whom all (|U-.M> sacrifices arc made, do not
derive the benefit whieh might be expected. In the
goods which they sell themselves, indeed, they aie gamers ;
but in purchasing of other monopolists they lo-e by an
artificially high priee, like the rest of the community. It
constantly happens, too, that although the prices at which
they sell are nigh, their prolits are reduced, by the com-
petition of others selling the same articles, to the general
level of profits throughout the country. When this is the
case, all parties, without exception, are losers — the state,
the community, and the monopolists. The general injury
done to trade by the protective system is too extensive a
question to enter upon, but it is well illustrated in the
• Report of the Committee of the Home of Commons upon
Import Duties' in 1840.
Protection may be accomplished by actual prohibition
of the import of particular articles, by exorbitant duties
which amount to prohibition, or by such duties only as
give the home producer an advantage. Duties may also
discriminate bet ween the produce of different countries,
and give the preference to some, to the injury and ex-
clusion of oth.
In this country all these modes of protection have been
resorted to. For the protection of agriculture, foreign
cattle, sheep, swine, beef, mutton, pork, and other pro-
\isions have bei-n entirely prohibited. High duties have
been placed upon the importation of corn on a sliding-
scale, so devised as to exclude it entirely, except in times
pf scarcity; and more moderate duties are payable upon
various articles of agricultural produce. The prohibitions
however have recently been removed, and moderate import
duties substituted. The corn-laws, though the shdmg-
scale is still adhered to, have been considerably modified,
and, it is hoped, will hereafter admit a larger amount ot
foreign grain, and enrich the revenue. The principle of a
sliding-scale, we would here observe, apart from its ge-
neral policy, is very injurious to the revenue. When the
high part of the scale is in operation, it acts as a prohibi-
tion ; and when the lower duties only are payable, they
are comparatively unproductive. The loss sustained by
the consumer on account of the protective duties on corn
has been variously estimated at from 12,000,000/. to
50,000,000/. a year; and yet it is well known that money-
invested in the purchase of land produces a very low rate
of interest, not exceeding 3 per cent., and that persons
engaged in agriculture, for whom the protection is main-
tained, have been continually complaining to parliament
of their distress.
Upon various articles of manufacture there have been
prohibitory and highly protective duties. In 1S25 the
former were removed ; and the latter have, in the present
..in of parliament (1842), been so modified as to be very
fair taxes for the purposes of revenue.
Duties are called discriminating when they are not
levied equally upon the produce or manufactures of dif-
ferent countries. The objeet nf them is to give an advan-
iiinlry on whose commodities the tax is
lightest, as compared with others. To obtain such a pre-
ference has been the object of various negotiations ami
commercial treaties between different states, ns it opens
extensive maikcts to the industry of the favoured nation.
Uythe present commercial policy of England, the principle
of discrimination may be said to be confined to the pro-
tection of our colonies against the competition of foreiirn
countries. As regards each other, all foreign countries
enjoy equal commercial advantages in their inter
with England. Our colonial jiolicy is so wide a question,
involving political and commercial considerations of high
importance, that we can only touch upon it. It max be
contended that colonies should form an integral part of
the mother country, and that the commercial intercourse
between the several parts of the lintish empire ought to
be viewed as a vast coasting-trade. If this principle were
acted upon, it would certainly present a grand fiscal union
worthy of admiration ; but the existing system docs not
partake in any degree of the character of a coasting-
trade. To pal it upon Mich a footing, the duties uii
colonial produce imported into the 1'nilei! Kingdom fhould
lie little more than nominal, and we should relv upon pro-
ductive imposts upon foreign product1 lor our revenue.
Our practice is the reverse of this. Where our tuxes dis-
criminate, we derive our revenue from the colonial pro-
duce ; and we either exclude foreign produce altogether, or
limit its introduction so much as to prevent it liom
tnbuting materially to the revenue. The object of the
upon the foreign produce, which would enter into
competition with the colonies, is not revenue, but e\
sion, for the sake of creating a monopoly in favour of the
latter. This system we have already condemned, even
when established for the protection of trade and agricul-
ture in the mother country; and upon fiscal grounds it is
equally indefensible when applied to the colonies, and
quite as injurious to the community. There are two great
articles of consumption, vi/.. sugar and timber, upon
whieh the discriminating duties deserve especial in
imported from the colonies pays a duty of '24*. the
cut.: from foreign countries (i:l,s. The disproportion is
so great, that foreign sugar is comparatively excluded
from the consumption of our people, who are forced to
rely upon the colonies for the supply of that important
article. The population of the country has rapidly in-
creased, and with it the demand for most articles of con-
sumption. It is painful to see the supply of sugar to
forcibly restrained by our commercial policy that th<
sumption has not increased for ten years. In 1KJ1,
3,781,011 cwts. were retained for home consumption
in 1840 only :}.r>m,s.T2cwts. So inadequate have the
colonies alone been to supply our wants, that their exports
have actually been diminishing. In IXtl the West Indies
exported to the United Kingdom 4. UU.NOOcwts. In no
sum eding year has their export been so great : and in
1840 it had'sunk so low as 2,'214.7(>4cwts. During this
period the consumption of coffee, cocoa, and tea had con-
siderably increased, and the people must therefore have
suffered a serious privation on account of the limited sup-
ply of sugar. 'Hie community is plainly a loser by the
colonial monopoly; and the falling off of the produce of
the West Indies, in spite of an increasing demand for it,
is not the only proof that they have not gamed much bv
their protection: meanwhile the revenue has lost incal-
culable sums by the exclusion of foreign sugar, which,
with moderate duties, might be imported at a low price in
unlimited quantities.
The discriminating duties upon timber have been pecu-
liarly injurious to this countiy, and it is extremely doubtful
whether they have conferred any benefit upon the colo-
nies. They nave acted as a bounty uf !.'•». the load in
favour of timber the growth of British possessions, and
have obliged the consumer either to pay a tax of 2'2."i per
cent, (not for purposes of revenue, but for the protection of
other interests), or to use an inferior article, less sui:.
his uses, and cheaper only by reason of the duty. Kxtcn-
sive charges are, happily, about to take effect, which will,
in some measure, equalize the duties upon foreign and
colonial timber. On the 10th October, ls-12. the duty
upon foreign timber will be reduced liom ."».">.»• . the load, to
30*., and on the 10th October, 1K43. to iV. The duty on
colonial timber is, at the same time, to be reduced from
10*. to l.v. Kventually therefore the disproportion will be
only 24*. the load, instead of 4.V.
Export Duties.
We have hitherto spoken of taxes upon such commodi-
ties only as are consumed by the subjects of tin state im
whose benefit they are imposed, and which are either pro-
duced within the country or imported into it. Duties
levied upon goods exported to foreign countries are ulti-
mately paid by the foreign consumer, and thus have the
effect Of making the subject 01' one state bear the burthens
of another. However desirable this may appear to the
state, whose treasmy is ciuichcd at the expense of
foreigners, the expediency of mob duties trill depend upon
peculiar circumstances, and great nicety is n 'ipined in the
regulation of them. If a country possesses within itself
some produce or manufacture much in request abroad, and
for the production of whieh it has peculiar :u!vanti^;<
moderate export duly may be veiy desnaMe. In this
manner Russia, whieh has almost a monopoly in the
supply of tallow to the rest of Europe, derives a consider-
TAX
117
TAX
able revenue from an export duty upon that article. Upon
the same principle a duty upon machinery exported from
Great Britain would have been politic. British machinists
far excelled all others in skill and ingenuity, and foreign
manufacturers were willing to pay almost any price for
their machinery. Notwithstanding the prohibition, large
quantities have been smuggled abroad at an enormous
cost, but the difficulty and expense of evasion have been
so great that foreigners have latterly almost confined their
purchases, in this country, to models and drawings, and
nave made the machinery themselves, with the assistance
of British artizans, whom they have enticed abroad by ex-
travagant wages. (Reports of Committees of the House, of
Commons on Artizans and Machinery, in 1824 and 1825,
and On the Exportation of Machinery, 1841.) If, instead
of prohibiting the export, a duty of 7i or 10 per cent, ad
valorem had been imposed, foreign manufacturers would
have paid much less for the machinery purchased by them
in England than they could have had it made for abroad ;
there would have been a large export trade from this
country, and a considerable revenue. The partial relaxa-
tion of the prohibitory law in 1825, by granting licences
to export certain kinds of machinery, has shown the extent
to which the trade might have been carried under a more
liberal policy. The official value of machinery exported
under licence in 1840 was 593,064/., in addition to various
tools allowed by law to be exported, of which no account
was taken. (Sess. Paper, 1841, No. 201, p. 257.)
On the same grounds a moderate duty on the export of
coal, being a product peculiarly abundant and of good
quality in this country, is a legitimate tax, which would be
paid by the foreigner, aud, if sufficiently moderate, would
not be injurious to the coal trade.
But while moderate export duties upon articles of which
a country has almost the exclusive supply may be advis-
able, heavy duties will check the demand abroad in the
same manner as they have been shown to affect the con-
sumption of commodities at home. In the same manner
also they are injurious to trade and unprofitable to the
revenue.
All duties whatever should be avoided upon the export
of produce or manufactures which may be also sent from
other countries to the same markets. They would discourage
trade and offer a premium to foreign competition.
Although the temptation is great to shift taxes from one
country to another by means of export duties, this tempta-
tion is equally great in all countries ; and if their several
governments should be actuated by the desire to make
foreigners contribute to their revenue, their opportunities
for carrying out such a system would probably be equal,
and thus retaliations might be made upon each other,
which, after all, would neutralize their efforts to tax
foreigners, and leave them in the same position as if they
had been contented to tax none but their own subjects.
In this power of retaliation lies the antidote to the evil of
one state being forced to bear the burthens of another as
well as its own. Every state would naturally resist such
an imposition upon its subjects, and export duties can
t hero fore only be safely resorted to in such peculiar cases
as we have noticed, where foreigners are willing to pay an
increased price for commodities which they must have,
and which they cannot obtain so good or so cheap from
any other place.
[CUSTOMS; EXCISE; LAND TAX; POST-OFFICE; STAMPS;
TAXES ; TITHES : WAREHOUSING SYSTEM.]
TAX A'CE^E, a natural order of plants belonging to the
class Gymnospermse : — This order possesses the following
essential characters. The flowers are monoecious or
dioecious, and are naked, or solitary surrounded by im-
bncnted bracts, or in spikes surrounded by bracts. The
male flowers have no calyx, and several stamens, mostly
united at the base, with the anthers either combined or
distinct. The female flowers are solitary and naked ; the
ovules are naked, with the foramen at the apex. The
ll are hard, and are sometimes surrounded by a succu-
coloured, cup-shaped pericarp : they possess fleshy
albumen, and a straight dicotyledonous embryo. The
plan' irder are trees or shrubs, having a woody
ti-sue marked with circular disks, with evergreen and
v narrow, rigid, entire, and veinless leaves.
This older is very characteristic of the class to which it
beloncs, in the absence of any regularly formed ovary,
and the consequent exposed or naked state of the ovule
and seeds. In this respect it offers a lower state of oi-o-an-
ization than the Coniferae, or Pine tribe, the ovules of
which have a kind of protection in the hardened scale-
like bracts which constitute the cones of that order
The foliage also of Taxaeese differs from Coniferae, in their
possessing a greater tendency to expand and form veins
within their tissue. In the few species of Taxacea- that
possess veins, they are not straight and parallel, as in En-
dogens, but are forked and of a uniform thickness, similar
to those possessed by the higher forms of Cryptogamia, as
the Ferns.
This order consists of plants that are but thinly dis-
tributed on the surface of the earth. They are mostly
natives of temperate parts of Europe, Asia, Africa, and
America. The order yields trees which are valued for
their timber, and, like Coniferae, possess resinous proper-
ties. The branches of the Dacrydium taxifolnim are
used in New Zealand for making spruce-beer. [TAXUS •
SAJ.ISBURIA.]
TAXATIO ECCLESIA'STICA, signifies the assessment
and levy of taxes upon the property of the church and of
the clergy. The pope once claimed in all countries the first
year's whole profits and the tenth part of the whole annual
profits of every ecclesiastical benefice. These were called
' First-Fruits and Tenths ' [FIRST-FRUITS ; TENTHS], and
were, for the most part, paid willingly by the clergy to their
ecclesiastical superior. The popes founded their claim upon
scriptural precepts and practice. They referred to Abra-
ham, a priest, paying tithes to Melchizedeck, the high
priest (Gen., xiv. 20 ; and Hebr., vii. 4) ; and to the
Levites, in the Mosaic law, paying the second tithes, that
is, the tithes of their tithes, to the priest : ' Thus shall you
offer an heave-offering unto the Lord of all your tithes
which ye receive of the children of Israel, and ye shall
give thereof the Lord's heave-offering to Aaron the priest.'
(Numb., xviii. 28 ; Fuller's Church History, p. 220.)
The pope had his collectors in every diocese, who some-
times by bills of exchange, but generally in specie, yearly
returned the tenths and first-fruits of the clergy to Rome.
But while the clergy were thus liable to taxation by
their ecclesiastical head, it was maintained by the
Roman Catholic church that their property enjoyed com-
plete immunity against all claims of temporal powers, being
set apart for the service of God, the support and dignity
of the Christian church, and for works of charity. Upon
this point frequent contests very naturally arose, and the
vast possessions of the church tempted the pope and tem-
poral princes by various modes to exact contributions
from the clergy. The means resorted to by these respective
powers to raise a revenue from the clergy, and the laws
and customs that prevailed upon the matter, may be con-
veniently stated by dividing the subject into —
1. Taxation of the church or clergy by the pope for
ecclesiastical purposes.
2. By temporal princes for the service of the state.
1. The pope was by no means satisfied with the regular
contributions of the clergy, but continually applied to
them for extraordinary funds for special purposes. In
1199 Pope Innocent III. issued a bull commanding the
prelates and clergy of the Christian church to pay the
40th part of all their revenues to defray the expenses of a
crusade. This is said to have been the first attempt to
impose a tax on the clergy of all nations by the authority
of the pope as head of the church. To enumerate only a
small portion of the instances in which the pope after-
wards exacted taxes from the clergy in the various coun-
tries of Europe would occupy much space ; but a few
examples from English history may be collected.
In 1225 the pope entertained a project by which the re-
venues of two prebends in every cathedral, and the portion
of two monks in every monastery, in all the countries in
communion with the church of Rome, were to have been
granted to the pope for the better support of his dignity.
When this project was laid before the parliament of Eng-
land in 1226, they evaded a direct answer to the papal
legate, by alleging ' that this affair concerned all Christen-
dom ; and that they would conform to the resolutions of
other Christian countries.' (Wilkin's Concilia, vol. i., p.
620.)
Two years afterwards the king of England, Henry III.,
in order to induce the pope to interfere in a dispute con-
cerning the appointment of an archbishop to the see of
Canterbury, recently vacant by the death of Cardinal Lang-
TAX
118
TAX
tun, promised him a tenth ot' the n. "ly ui'
l.ut nf the laity. 1» this proceeding there
appe.. i n twofold tcln-
poral prince uttered tho pope a contribution I'n in his
,. which commonly originated with tin- pope: and
i tax was to be levied upon tlie laity nut for the
service" of the state, but fur the benefit of u foreign
iie strangeness of the circumstances how-
iid nut prevent the pope iVuiu taking immediate
advantage of (be king's urt'er, ami be accordingly sent a
.> England to collect the tenth>. His demand
met with Mime opposition, indeed, chiefly from the 1
but the pope and the kins: together were tuo powerful to
I. The legate, to shorten the work of collection,
obliged tin- bishops to pay the tax for their inferior clergy:
and when any of them co'mplained that they had no ready
money, he introduced them to eertftin Italian usurers whom
he had brought with him for that purpose, who lent them
the Minis demanded at an exorbitant rate of interest.
(Matthew Paris, p. :;•
In the »ame reign the pope's legates were constantly
demanding presents from the bishops, monasteries, and
. and enlivening assemblies of the ehureh with no
other object than to extort money. Their proceedings
vd such disgust that the great barons sent orders to
the wardens of the seaports to stop all persons bringing
any bulls or mandates from Rome, and at la.-t succeeded
in driving the legate himself out of the kingdom, i Matthew-
Paris. ]>. (i.V.l.'i Little good however was effected by these
-'ires, fur we find that in 1240 the pope demanded the
half of all the goods of the non-resident clergy and the
third of those who resided. (Ibid., 708.) The resistance
met with in this case deterred the pope from enforcing
his demand ; but the sums which he continued to draw
from the clergy at that time appear to have been enor-
mous, and the histories of that period are full of com-
plaints and remonstrances against pupal exactions. An
act was passed by the parliament in 1307 (Statute of
Carlisle, 35 Edward I.), to restrain, in some measure, the
exactions of the see of Rome, but apparently with littk
good results ; for seventy years afterwards we find the
Commons in pnrliament still protesting against the ex-
tortions of the pope. In their remonstrance to the kint,
upon that grievance they asserted. • that the taxes paid u
the pope yearly, out of England, amounted to five time
as much as the taxes paid to the king." (Cotton's Abridy
', p. 128.)
Although complaints continued long after this period
no measures were effectual in limiting the demands of tin
court of Rome until the pope's authority was altogethei
suppressed in England at the Reformation in the reign o
Henry VIII.
2. 'The immunities claimed by the church were no'
effectual in protecting its revenues from being laid undei
contribution for the service of the state. The kings o
England, sometimes by the pope's authority, sometimes hi
forced or voluntary compliance on the part of the church
and sometimes by their own direct power, obtained large
sums from the clergy.
William the Conqueror found the ehureh very wealthy
and subjected it to much spoliation. (Matthew 1'ari's
p. 6.) A singular occasion for taxing the clergy arose
in the reign of Henry I., A.D. 1120. An eccl'csiasii
cal council, assembled at London, denounced all marriei
clergymen, and decreed that they should put awu\ thei
I lie council nmittdd to the king the cxc'cnlioi
of their decrees, but he. instead of compelling the dergi
to send away their wives, imposed a tax on those wh<
chose to retain them, which is said to have been very pro
(Illctive.
The pope was not unwilling to assist in oppressing UK
: the benefit of king-*, when they were ihclincc
to further bis own object*, either by undertaking crusades
carrying on want against his enemies, or making .
sions to him. He could not sutler the immunities i<f th,
church to be infringed by Hie temporal power, but often
placed at the disposal of princes the ! (he chind
by his own authority. Thus the pope. l>v virtue of his
apostolical power, granted King Henry HI.. bv
bulls, the goods of all cli ho died intestate, tin
mes of all vacant benefices, and of all noii-ic-idents
In 12o:i Pop,- Innocent \\II. gave the first-fruiti ant
tenths of all ecclesiastical benefices to the king for threi
ears. This grant made u valuation .•. taxation 01 the
jcncfiues necessary, which was ; u in
he following year, and is Minictiiiies tailed the
faxati. Pope 1m
same prince, with the pope's concur*, •
sums from the clergy in 12T>5 to earn on Us war-
Su-ih. Hills amounting on the whole to i.>n..~>U) marks
were drawn upon all tin' bishops, abbots, and
iiien of the kingdom by Wallcian. lushu,.
ord. who resided at Rome as an agent foi
Kiiglaud : these bills were made over to It.i
who, it was pretended, had already advanced the m
fur the Sicilian war. All resistance on the part of the
church to these unjust demands of their own spiritual
superior was unavailing, and alter much remonstrance and
opposition the money was paid. (Matthew Paris, pp.
815-610.)
In 128H Pope Nicholas IV. granted the tenths u> King
Edward I. fur six vcars, towards defraying the e
an expedition to tlie Holy Land : and in oidcr U> CO
them at their full value, a taxation by the kin:
was begun in that year, and finished, i ;ovincc of
Canterbury, in 12SI1. and as to that of York in the follow-
er, the whole being under the direction of the bishops
of Winchester and Lincoln. This taxation is a most im-
portant record, because all the taxes of the church, as
well to the kings of England as to the pope, were after-
wards regulated bv it until the sin v cy made bv Henry \ 111. ;
and because the statutes of colleges which were founded
before the Reformation are also interpret etl by this criterion.
according to which their benefices. under a certain value,
are exempted from the restriction in the statute 21 Henry
VIII. concerning pluralities, d'rrt,
. //".. by tin- ItiTurii I'niiin:
In 12i)."> Edward, notwithstanding the pope's grant, and
numerous exactions from the clergy in the meantime,
being still in great need of money to carry on his
summoned deputies from the inferior clergy for Hi.
time to vote him supplies from their own body. In the
preceding year he had, by threats and violence, exacted
» tax of half the revenues of the clergy; but now be
thought it prudent to obtain their consent to his demands
in a more regular manner. The clergy however would not
obey the king's writ of summons, lesi they should a;
to acknowledge the tempoial ]«>wer : and in order to .
come this objection, the king issued his writ to the aroh-
p, who. as their spiritual superior, summoned the
cleigy to meet in convocation, (.(filbert's /li\tnr;/ of tfii-
~
.
, p. ~>1 : Ilium-, vol. ii.. pp. 27H. 27'.).
This was the commencement of the constitutional prac-
tice of the clergy meeting in ( '(invocation at the same time
as the Lay Parliament, and voting subsi own
voluntary act for the service of the stale. It was not
viewed without alarm by the pope and the high church
dignitaries; and in order to put a stop to all such exactions
of princes from the clergy. Pope Huijitaee \ III. i-Micd a
hull in 12i)(i. which, alter stating that temporal princes
were in the habit of extorting hen, itions from
-iastical persons, who. fearing to uli'cml temporal
power more than the eternal, bad unwisely acquiesced in
such extortions, proceeded to forbid churchmen ot
B to pay any tribute, subsidy, or gill to laymen.
without authority from the see of Home, and declared
that if they should pay. or pimces exact, or any one
in levying such iinauthui ,
spcctively would incur the sentence of excommunication.
i Rymer's" / ol. i., part 2. p. s:«i : Re.
uers. ed. 181G.)
In the same year however Etlward I. demanded Of the
clrrgv a tilth ui' their moveables. which ti ••!, on
the ground Hint they could not disob, I the
was not inclined to desist : anil
acquiescence Of the clergy, he put them out of the pale of
the laws. Onlt -'nil to the ju<! r no
brought before them by the clergy, hut to decide
all causes in which Ihcv were -ned In
were immediately exposed to violence ;md spoliation nn
all sides, in spite of a general sentence of excommunication
pronounced by the archbishop against all persons who
should att;n . The
could not long resist these oppressions ; and although
they were unwilling to diMibe\ the Papal bull, t i
it by voluntarily depositing awn equivalent to the amount
TAX
119
TAX
uded of them in some church, whence it was taken by
the king's officers. In this expedient the whole ecclesias-
tical body acquiesced, and thus yielded up their spiritual
privileges, under coercion by the temporal power.
At the Reformation, the chief source of revenue to the
pope, viz., first-fruits and tenths, was transferred to the
king ' for more augmentation and maintenance of the royal
estate of his imperial crown and dignity of supreme head
of the church of England.' (Stat. 26 Henry VIII., c. 3.)
In order to collect this revenue a court of first-fruits was
established, and the king ordered a valuation to be made
of all the episcopal sees and benefices in England. The
book which contains this valuation is called the ' Liber
Regis,' and all the benefices which have not since been
exempted still pay first-fruits and tenths according to this
valuation. The first-fruits and tenths continued to form
part of the royal revenue until Queen Anne, by the Act
2 & 3 of her reign, c. 11, gave up the proceeds thereof on
the part of herself and her successors, and assigned them
for ever to the augmentation of poor livings.
It now only remains to notice more particularly the prac-
tice of taxing the clergy in convocation, which continued
in full force till the reign of Charles II. It had aft'orded
the kings of England a lucrative revenue from the church.
Their influence as heads of the church, and as having
zcclesiastical preferments to bestow, was very great alter
.he Reformation, and enabled them very commonly to
obtain larger subsidies from the convocation than those that
were voted by parliament. The church therefore was not un-
willing to be deprived of the expensive privilege of voting
separate subsidies ; and acquiesced in an arrangement pro-
posed in 1664-5, by which the Commons have ever since
voted taxes upon the possessions of the church and of the
clergy, in the same manner as upon the laity. As a boon for
ibmission of the church to temporal authority, two sub-
s-idies which the convocation had granted were remitted,
and the parochial clergy were allowed to vote at elections.
[CLERGY ; CONVOCATION ; TITHES.]
TAXES. The general objects, character, and principles
of taxation, and of different classes of taxes, are treated of
under the head of TAX, TAXATION. In this place it is
proposed to give a short summary of the amount and de-
scription of [axel paid in this and some other countries,
whether assessed directly upon property, or collected indi-
rectly upon articles of consumption ; including not only
such taxes as are paid to the general government, but also
all municipal and local assessments or contributions.
United Kingdom.
The chief sources of revenue are froYn indirect taxes, as
will be seen by the following statement, made up to 5th
January, 1842: —
Customs .
-i- .
Stamps . .
eased, &c.)
]'o>t -Office
Duties on Pensions
and Salaries .
Crown Lands .
Small branches of he-
reditary revenue .
Surplus fees of public
offices .
Oral Rewipt.
£
23,82 1,480
15.477.<i7»
7.404,239
4,73) 457
1,539,274
6,752
438,297
5,562
93,501
Rate per cent, at
which collected.
£
5
6
2
4
60
1
8
s.
6
7
3
2
9
17
is
d.
4
4
9V
Total ordinary revenues 53.59<>,250 6 13 8J
To these parliamentary taxes may be added the follow-
ing local assessments :—
Poor-rates . £6,351,828 (which includes county
rates, TOO.OOW.)
600,000 (in round numbers).
1,312,812
Crn>rch-rat( s . .
Hiirhway-rates .
Turnpike-tolls .Eng-
land and Wales) .
Grand-jury present-
i (In
ments (Ireland)
1,577,764
1,265,PG6
Total of local taxes. 11,108,270
, 1SJ9 (562), 1841 (344) (421),
1842 (138) (296
These include all the local taxes of which any account
can be given, but there are still many others, such as rates
or paving, lighting, and watching particular cities and
owns, and for other municipal purposes. It may also be
added that the tithes of Great Britain and Ireland amount
o 4,000,000/.
It is instructive to compare the present amount of taxes
vith that rendered necessary by a war expenditure. From
1805 to 1818 the payments into the British exchequer from
axes and loans in no one year amounted to less than
100,000,000^., and in 1813 arose to the enormous and
icarcely credible sum of 176,346,0237.
Denmark.
The total amount of all state and provincial or country
commune taxes amounted in 1841 to 2,020,000/., upon a
population of 2,100,000.
Sweden.
The state taxes amount to . . £753,404
Provincial 522,720
Municipal— Stockholm . . . 28,035
All other towns .... 50,675
Total . . £1,354,834
Kingdom of the Netherlands.
Total of government and provincial taxes £5,368,874
France.
Direct contributions for the state . . £11,433,204
„ „ for the provinces . 2,743,131
„ „ for the communes 337,918
Additional 27.948
Total .
Indirect taxes for the state .
Miscellaneous items ....
Other sources of revenue .
. £15,842,184
. £29,544,203
453,738
585,600
General total . . £46,425,725
Saxony.
The state taxes are :—
Prussian Hollars.
Direct . . . 1.063,584
Indirect . . 1,709,610
2,073,194 or £310,929
Wirtcmli
State taxes . . . £534,445
Provincial and municipal . 100,938
Total .
Baden.
State taxes : —
Direct .
Indirect .
£635,383
£158,333
344,000
Total . £502,333
Bavaria.
Direct state taxes
Indirect .
Which, with other sources of income,
produce a revenue of
Sdrdmfa.
State taxes :—
Direct . . . £500,264
Indirect . . . 1,090,000
£511,407
895,119
2,501,039
Total . . £1,590,264
Pome (Papal Slates).
State taxes :—
Direct . £497,413
Indirect and Miscellaneous . 1,261,989
Kingdom of Naples and Sirilij.
Naples --State taxes (exclusive of Sicily) £3,994,957
Municipal taxes
Total
Sicily :— Direct state taxes
Indirect . i
155,267
Total
Municipal taxes
£4.150.22-1
£232^00
630,639
£862.86!!
£1,163,212
T A X
1-JO
\ \
Portugal.
Crown renU
Direct taxes
Indirect taxes
Various rents
Total
£ «.
H'4 10
71 1*
1,070,71
I.U.IUO 7
. £2330366 0 9
Further interesting particulars concerning the several
of European Slav* will be found in tin- Parlia-
mentary Paper. No. ±i7. of lS4i ordered by the House of
('(millions to be printed, 3rd May, Isrj.
TA\(i'I)H.'M, from tuj-us. t'he name of a genus of
plant.-, belonging to the natural order Conit'cr.i. The plants
ot this cenus are monoecious. The male flowers are ar-
langed in catkins of a roundish form, disposed in race-
mose panicles; the pollen of each flower is contained in
live cases, which are attached to the scale at its inner
face. The female flowers are also arranged in small
round catkins two or three of which are attached near
to the base of the spike of the catkins of male flowers.
The ovules are two in each receptacle. The fruit is a
globose strobule, with peltate angled scales ; the seeds are
angled with very thick integuments; the embryo, with
from 5 to 9 cotyledons. The leaves arc linear, disposed in
two ranks, and" are deciduous. This genus has been dis-
tinguished from Cuprcssus principally on account of the
arrangement of its male catkins in racemose panicles,
the small number of flowers in the female catkins, and
the numbers of cotyledons possessed by the embryo.
This genus is we'll known through the Taxodium disti-
rhiun. deciduous Cypress, a tree that was introduced into
Europe from North" America as early as 1640. This spe-
cie* is characterized by two-rowed, flat, deciduous leaves ;
leafless and panicled male flowers, and somewhat globose
strobils. It is an elegant tree, and attains a height of
120 feet in its native soil. The first plant that is men-
tioned as existing in this country was grown in South
Lambeth, and was raised from seeds brought from Vir-
ginia. Since then it has been introduced in various parts
of Great Britain, and many fine specimens are now to be
found. In its native districts in North America it is
exceedingly abundant, and in many parts, as in Louisiana,
it entirely occupies thousands of acres of the low grounds,
which are thence called ryprifres, or cypress swamps. It
is found in Delaware, on the banks of the Indian River,
in 38° 50' N. lat., which is its northern boundary, and, pro-
ivedinc: southward, it is abundant in the swamps of Vir-
ginia, the Carolina.*, Georgia, and the Floridas.
In America, where the tree grows, its wood is used for
all the purposes to which timber is applied. In 1819,
according to Michaux, almost all the houses of New
Orleans were constructed of the wood of this tree. It
is considered very durable, and is employed where this
quality is an object. In Louisiana it is used for making
the masts and sides of vessels, and also canoes, which are
fashioned out of a single trunk, and are said to be more
durable than when made from any other wood. The bark
of the tree exudes a resin of an agreeable odour and a red
colour which is used by the negroes for dressing wounds,
but it cannot be obtained in sufficient quantities to consti-
tute an article of commerce. The roots of this tree are
remarkable for the production of knobs or protubci
which are sometimes five or six, and, according to some
observers, many more feet in circumference. They have
generally a conical form, and are hollow inside, with a
covering of red bark, similar to that of the roots. In
America, they are called • c\ press knees,' and are used by
the negroes for bee-hives.
In the cultivation of the deciduous cypress, a rich moist
soil must be selected in alow situation. It may In- in-
creased by seeds from the imported cones, or it may be
propagated by cuttings, planted in autumn in a moist
sand or heath soil, situated ina shady damp place. Layers
also, when put down in moist soil, will root freely the tirst
year.
During cultivation, this tree K exceedingly prone to
sport, co that no two individuals have precisely the same
appearance. On this account, a number of varieties have
been named. The most common is the T. d. patent, which
hag horizontal branches. Another, with pendulous branches,
is known a» T. d. pendulum ; a third, with pendulous first-
vear's shoots, as 7'. (/. tiulan*. Othci
iia\c ' .bed. but lire i" i or culth .
For further information on this i;i mis, see London's. • .\,\>.
et Knit. Iliit..' \ol. iv.
TAXI S ln.i I/A-, Latin , the name of a genus of p'
the type of the natural order Taxace.c. Thi-
monoecioiis ; the perianth of the ba - is single
at the ba.se ; the stamens are numerous, with p-
anthers (i-s-celled. the cells opening beneath. The fertile
flowers have a single, urceolate, scaly perianth ; no style :
and a fleshy drupaceous fruit, perforated at the extremity.
The spec ics ,,t this genus an- i MMLTCCH lives, v.iih nume-
rous, mostly linear, entire leaves. They arc nati\.
Europe and North America.
T. /Hiri-ii/ti, Common Yew. ha.s its leaves vi-ianked,
crowded, linear, flat, with the flower-, axillary, sessile : the
receptacle of the barren flowers globular. The common
u-w is well known : it is indigenous to most part> of Eu-
rope, and is found in every part of Hritain and Ireland. Il
is seldom seen growing in company with it" own sp-
but alone, or with other species of plants.
The yew is a low tree, the trunk rising three or four
feet from the ground, and then sending out num.
spreading branches, forming a head of dense foliage, which.
when full grown, may be sometimes 30 or 40 feet high.
It is of slow growth, attaining under favourable cii-
stances a height of 6 or H feet in ten \< a P., and 15 let t in
twenty years. The tallest yew in England is in the
churchyard at Harlington, near Hounslow, which is .">s
feet high. A tree continues growing for about one hun-
dred years; it mostly ceases to LT.I.V at that age, but will
live for many centuries. The yew-trees at present
ing at Fountain's Abbey in Yorkshire are supposed to ha\c
attained their full growth when the abbey was erected in
1132.
The remarkable characters and properties of the yew-
have drawn towards it at all times much attention. f)io-
scorides, Pliny, and Theophrastus mention its poisonous
properties. Caesar (Bell. G<i//.. \i. 31 relates that Cativol-
cus, king of the Eburones, committed suicide by swallowing
the juice of the yew. Plutarch says that its fruit is poison-
ous, and that its shade is fatal to all who sleep under it.
This is also stated by Pliny ; but there must have' been some
mistake on some of these points, as it is now well known
that the fruit of the yew may be eaten wifh impunity, and
that its shade is not more deadly than that of other
trees.
The yew appears to have been employed from the
earliest times in the manufacture of bows, and was used
for this purpose by the nations of antiquity. The bows
used by the English previous to the introduction of gun-
powder were made of \ ew. and there arc many alii.
amongst English poets to this use of its wood. The
battles of Cressyand Poictiers were gained by the English
vcw-bows, and the same weapon was used in the wars of
York and Lancaster. In the course of time the supply
of yew was deficient, and other woods came to be used ;
but the introduction of gunpowder soon after put a step
to the use of the bow as a weapon of war altogether.
Bows are now seldom made of the yew, various ornamental
woods frOB South America being preferred. In Swit/er-
land the \ f\\ t :e is called William's tree, because the
bow of William 1'cll is said toha\e been made of that wood.
The yew is a common ornament of the churchyard. The
origin of the practice of planting this tree in such situations
is not at all clearly made out. Their dark foliage and
p>sed deadly shade may have pointed them out as the tit
emblems of silence and death. Mr. Bowman (Magas. <>f
.\nl. Jlif/., vol. i.) observes that ' it seems most natural
and most simple to believe, that being indisputably indi-
genous, and being, from its perennial \ - ity,
and the durability of its wood, at once an emblem and a
specimen of immortality,- its blanches would be cmp!<
by our pagan ancestors, on their first arrival here, as the
best substitute for the cypress to deck the graves of the
dead, and for other sacred purposes.'
The yew used to be frequently planted in gardens as an
ornament, on account of the facility witli which it in:
cut into various fantastic shapes. During the past century
it was not uncommon to meet with these trees cut into the
forms of balls, pyramids, beasts, birds, and men ; but this
practice havinir fallen under the well-merited censure nf
Pope and other writers, only a remnant of it here and
T A Y
1-21
T A Y
there is seen at the present clay. Although the fruit of
the yew is not poisonous, th?re are many well-authenti-
cated instances of the leaves producing death. Deer and
goats are said to feed upon them with impunity, but to
cows and horses they prove an active poison. The yew
has not been at any time used generally as a medicine,
although its effects on the system have been represented
as similar to those of digitalis, and as being more manage-
able and less liable to accumulate in the system than
that medicine. Professor Wiborg of Copenhagen states
that the leaves of the yew are only poisonous to animals
when they are eaten alone, but that if eaten with three or
four times the quantity of other food they are innocuous.
There are several remarkable specimens of old yews
existing in this country. Those at. Fountains Abbey are
said to have sheltered the monks whilst that magnificent
pile was erecting. The Tythcrley, Fortingal, Arlington,
and Loch-Lomond yews are remarkable for their size and
age. Many of them, if we estimate their age in the mode
proposed by De Candolle, must exceed considerably a
thousand years.
The wood of the yew is used extensively in cabinet-
making. It is very hard, compact, and of a fine close
grain, which arises from the smatlness of its annual layers,
280 being sometimes found in a piece not more than 20
inches in diameter. It is also much used by the turner
for making snuff-boxes, musical instruments, &c.
There are several varieties of the common yew ; the most
remarkable is the Irish yew, which Professor Lindley has
made a distinct species, Ttuus faatighitn. It is distin-
guished by its upright mode of growth, and by its leaves
not being arranged in ranks, but scattered. It was first
discovered at Florence Court, on the mountains of Fer-
managh, and has since been observed in other parts of
In-hind. Other varieties are described, produced by dif-
ference in cultivation, soil, &c. The Canada or North
American yew is described as a species, T. Cmntdfiisis.
The leaves are narrower and smaller than those of the
common yew, and are revolute at. the margin, and the
male flowers are solitary in the axis of the leaves. It is
found native in Canada, and on the banks of a river
in Man-land.
In trie cultivation of the yew, a moist soil should always
be selected ; but it thrives best on clays and loams, on
rocks, and in shady places. It is best propagated by seeds,
which, if gown as soon as they are gathered in autumn,
surrounded by the pulp of the "fruit, will come up the next
or following spring ; but if dried, will not come up till the
third year. Where the object is to form a fence, cuttings
may be employed. Before transplanting, whether they
be raised from" seeds or cuttings, the plants should be
three or four feet high.
For further information concerning the yew, see Lou-
ilon's Arhwtum ft I'nttiri'tum Britan/iicum.)
TAV, River. [PBRTHSBntt.]
TAY, LOCH. [PERTHSHIRE.]
TAYGKTUS. [LvcoxiA.]
TAYLOR. ROWLAND, LL.D., was a clergyman emi-
nent for his learnins; and piety, who was burnt at the stake
in the reign of Queen Mary. He is said by Hishop Heber
to have been an ancestor of Jeremy Taylor. He was
•lain to Archbishop Cranmer, by whom he was ap-
pointed rector of Hadleigh, in Suffolk, where he went to
reside.
Dr. Taylor was summoned, in the year 1553, to appear
in London before Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, who was
then lord chancellor, for resisting the performance of mass
in his church at Hadleigh. He was strongly persuaded to
.', but refused, and presented himself before Gardiner,
by whom, after a long conference, in which he defended
hi- fiinsc with unshrinking firmness, he was committed to
tin- kin^'-, Bench prison. There he remained till the 22nd
(if January, 1555, when he and other prisoners were cited
.Gardiner, and the bishops of London, Norwich. Salis-
bury, and Durham, who were joint commissioners with the
.-liii'icellor. The chief offence of which Dr. Taylor was
-ed was his marriage ; but he defended the fight
of priests to marry with so much learning, that no sentence
of (1, pronounced, though he was deprived of his
benefice. At the end of January the prisoners were again
broiiLCht before th- ciminii -ioncrs, by whom they were
sentenced to death. Dr. Taylor was committed to the
Poultry ('..mpl-r. v.hore, on the 4th of February, he was
P. C., No. 1503.
visited by Bonner, bishop of London, who went there for
the purpose of making him put on the dress of a Roman
Catholic priest. Dr. Taylor resisted with his usual cou-
rage, and the dress was put upon him by force : he treated
the whole proceeding with the utmost contempt, as a piece
of mummery, and Bonner would have struck him witn his
crosier if he had not been restrained by his chaplain. On
the following day the procession set forth which was to
conduct him to the place of execution. In the course of
the journey much persuasion was used by the sheriff and
others to induce him to recant, but without making the
smallest impression upon him. The procession passed
through Hadleigh, where he was consoled and cheered by
the blessings and prayers of his parishioners. The exe-
cution took place on the 8th of February, 1555, on Aldham
Common, near Hadleigh. A stone, with the following in-
scription, perhaps still remains to mark the spot : — ' 15:55.
Dr. Tayler in defending that was gode at this plas left his
blode.'
Bishop Heber, in his ' Life of Bishop Jeremy Taylor,'
says, ' There is nothing indeed more beautiful in the whole
beautiful Book of Martyrs than the account which Fox
has given nf Rowland Taylor, whether in the discharge of
his duty as a parish priest or in the more arduous moments
when he was called on to bear his cross in the cause of re-
ligion. His warmth of heart, his simplicity of manners,
the total absence of the false stimulants of enthusiasm or
pride, and the abundant overflow of better and holier feel-
ings, are delineated, no less than his courage in death and
the buoyant cheerfulness with which he encountered it,
with a spirit only inferior to the eloquence and dignity of
the "Phaedon."'
(Fox's Acts and Monuments.']
TAYLOR JEREMY, was born at Cambridge in 1613,
where he was baptized on the 15th August in that year.
His ancestors had been wealthy and respectable, one of
whom, Dr. Rowland Taylor, is mentioned in Fox's ' Book
of Martyrs ' as bringing upon himself the persecution of
the popish party in the reign of Mary, not only by the
popularity of his character and talents, but also his
wealth. Taylor's father was a barber, a calling generally
united in those clays with surgery. At an early age Tay-
lor was sent to Perse's grammar-school in Cambridge, and
in his fourteenth year ne was entered at Cains College as
a sizar, an order of students which, Bishop Heber informs
us, were then what the 'servitors' still continue to be in
some colleges in Oxford, and what the ' lay brethren ' are
in the convents of the Romish church. At little more
than twenty years of age, having taken the degree of
master of arts, and been admitted to holy orders, he
attracted the notice of Laud, then archbishop of Canter-
bury, before whom he was invited to preach at Lambeth.
Laud appreciated his elocmence and his talents, which he
encouraged in the most judicious manner by having him
settled at Oxford, where he was admitted to the degree of
master of arts, and by the powerful interposition of the
archbishop, in 1G3G, nominated to a fellowship. Taylor
does not appear to have remained long or uninterruptedly
at Oxford. In 1G37-8 he was presented by Juxon, bishop
of London, to the rectory of Uppingham in Rutlandshire.
About tliis time an acquaintance which, in common with
Land, he maintained with a learned Franciscan friar,
Francis a Sancta Clara, exposed him to the suspicion of a
concealed attachment to the Roman church— a suspicion
to which the character of his mind, which tended to asce-
ticism in religion, and to an extravagant veneration for
antiquity, and which cherished a love of the gorgeous and
imposing in the ceremonial of worship, gave some plausi-
bility. At a later period in life however Taylor solemnly
denied that there had ever been any solid ground for ques-
tioning the sincerity of his Protestantism.
In the civil wars he followed the fortunes of Charles,
whose chaplain he was, and in 1642, when the king was
at Oxford, he published there his ' Episcopacy asserted
against the Acephali and Aerians New and Old,' in which
he sought, to maintain a cause that had then however,
unfortunately, passed from the controversy of the pen to
that of arms. Charles rewarded Taylor in the only way
which it remained in his power to do, by commanding his
admission to the degree of doctor of divinity. This honour
v.as diminished by the indiscriminate manner in which it
! was conferred upon many other loyalists at the same lime,
' so as to provoke an expression of dissatisfaction from the
VOL. XXIV.— 11
T A Y
122
I \ Y
- of the University; and its advanu. over- !
irliich Taylor i-n i tin.- same |
. when the criaia of the civil war
-cmirse, 'The I.il>i
•in1 dclVat of the royalists Ta\lor was
il, but only tor .-.hurt pciiods. During
,-torate he supported himself by
-I. 111 Wales, in company with Nicholson,
,i \Vyat. afterwards
:ulary of Lincoln, by his occasional writings, and by
whatever contribution llic friendship of the carl of Car-
bcry. on whose estate he exercised his ministry, might
: to him. In tile year lo-">K lie wa- cd by
Lord .i:id, when1 he divided liis
, a Lisburn auJ 1'ort more, ami lie officiated
in the ministry at both these places. The pi.
whieh he received was however so inadequate to his wants,
>liged to remain under obligations to his
friend John E\elyn, who generously allowed him a yearly
In the' obscurity of Portmore Taylor did not
iiiihiippv persecutions of that period. He was
, an info'rmcr with having used the sign of the
in baptism, and dragged before the Iri--.li pri\y coun-
cil, from a distance and in the middle of a severe winter,
to be examined. A fever was the consequence of his
. whieh probably induced the council to act leniently
•ds him.
In 1CCO he travelled to London to prepare for publica-
tion his 'Ductor Dubitantium," when he attached his sig-
nature to the declaration of the royalists, dated April 'Jllli,
in which they expressed the moderation of their \iews.
and their confidence in the wisdom and justice of Monk.
Taylor was thus favourably brought under the notice of
Charles II., 'whose restoration took place this year, and to
whom he dedicated the • Ductor Dubitantium. The king
nominated him under the privy seal to the bishopric of
Down and Connor, to which he was const eiated in
January, 10C1 : in the following month he was made a.
member of the Irish privy council: and in the next, in
addition to his original diocese, he was intrusted with the
administration of the small adjacent one of Dromore, on
account, in the words of the writ, • of his virtue, his wisdom,
and industry.' IH the course of the same year he vv;u
i v ice-chin o«Uor of the Universitv of Dublin.
Bishop Heber has deemed it necessary to account fin-
Taylor's not having received an English bishopric. Bc-
iiie eminent abilities, and his faithful adherence to
the cause of the church and the king, he had married
the natural daughter of Charles 1., who was his second
wife, and then living. This la.-.t circumstance howe\er, if
pleaded wilh the king in favour of preferment for Taylor,
as Bi»hop Helx-r thinks may have contributed to deter-
mine the scene of his promotion : -Charles may not ha\e
been unwilling to remove to a distance a person whose
piety might have led him to reprove many paits of his
conduct, and who would have a plausible pretence for
in:; more freely than the rest of the dignified
Tim new station which Taylor was called upon to till
had peculiar and rreat difficulties connected with it. In
the revolution through which religion had passed, livings
had been conferred on men whose feelings were at variance
with episcopacy, and they had to be conciliated to a will-
ing obedience, or,a» time pio\cd, to submit to the severest
• I' principle in the sacrifice of their emoluments. In
Ireland there were additional circumstances to contend
with. The Episcopal or Protestant church was unpopu-
lar; the preachers were almost exclusively English: the
ritual was English, and to the mats of the natives unintel-
ligible ; there was no translation of the Scriptures, and yet
dance at the established churches was ((imp
Bishop Taylor laboured wilh much zeal and
the establishment of the Protestant religion: hut with
little effect. He w*s attacked bv fever on the :;
l'i(>7. at Lisburn, and died in ten days, in the fiity-linli
year of his age, and the seventh of his episcopal -v . The
children of his first wife died before him; by his second,
who survived him. he left three daupl
The writing* of Jeremy laylor maybe bronchi under
rour description* : practical, theological, casuistic, and
(ievutional. The first comprises his ' Life of Christ.' which
he i>ubluh«d in 10.13 ; ' Contemplations on the State of
Man,' a posthumous work; • II. .'v Living and Holy Dy-
ii..">l ; and In- S .lions
. A work entitle.! 'ion' has
'am. and published mlhc colic. -ted edition
of his writing^ by Bishop ,ut it has
since been published in tli. kett, who
appears to have been its ' com-
!iis ' Episcopacj ;:s-ertid
: Old,' 1012; • An Ap
• !' Liturg) ,' 101 1 : b
Liberty of Prophesying, with its just limits and ten.
showing the unreasonableness of p.
men's faith, and the iniquity of persecuting difl
opinions,' 1G47; the 'Vnuni Nrcrsxuium : or the
trine and I'
tus, or a Vindication of the Glory of the Divine
in the question of Oi . -' the 1':
Spiritual of Christ ill the Blessed Sucramcnt. p.
iigaiiisl the Doctrine of Transubstantiation,' 1(>5! : • A
smusivc from Popery,' 1064. The third include -
course of the Nature, Offices, and M.
with Rules of Conducting it,' 1057 ; and the 'Ductor Du-
bitantium, or liule of Conscience in all Her general
10GO. The fourth comprises his • Clerus Domini,
or a Discourse of the Divine Institution, Necessity,
credness. and Separation of tile office Ministerial, together
with the Nature and Manner of its Power and ( '
10T>1 : 'The Golden Grove, or a Manual of Da.
and Litanies, titled to the Days of the Week,' li
i of David, with Titles or
.Matter of each Psalm,' 1044; ' A Collection of Ofli'
Forms of Prayer in cases ordinary and ixtiaordi
taken out of the Scriptures, and the Ancient IJtuix
several Churches, especially the Ctn ek,' Ki.'iS; • Devotions
for Various Occasions ;' mid ' The Worthy Communi-
cant, or a Discourse of the Nature, Effects, and Blessings
consequent to the worthy receiving of the Lord's Supper,
and of all the Duties required in order to a worthy pre-
paration ; together with the Cases of Conscience occurring
in the duty of him that ministers and of him that commu-
nicates,' 1UGO.
Mr. Hallam lanks the Sermons of Bishop Taylor ' far
above any that had preceded them in the Church of Eng-
land. An imagination essentially poetical, and sp
none of the decoiations which by critical rules are deemed
almost peculiar to verse ; a warm tone of piety,
and charity; an accumulation of circumstantial acces-
sories whenever lie reasons, or persuades, or describes; an
erudition pouring itself forth in quotation till his sermons
become in some places almost a garland of flowers from all
other writers, and especially from those of classical an-
tiquity, never before so redundantly scattered from the
pulpit, distinguish Taylor from his contemporaries by their
degree, as they do from most of his successors by their kind.
Hi- M'iiuonson the Marriage King, on the House of Feast-
ing, on the Apples of Sodom, may be named without dis-
paragement to others, which perhaps ought to stand in
equal place, lint they are not without considerable faults,
of which have just been hinted. The elc».
Taylor is great, but it is not eloquence of the highest claw;
it is i'ar too Asiatic, too much in the style of Chrys.
and other declaimers of the fourth century, by the "study of
whom he had probably vitiated his taste; his learning is
ill-placed, and his arguments often much so ; not to men-
tion that he bu the common defect of alleging nugi
proofs ; his vehement - effect by the circuity of
liis pleonastic language; his sentences are of endless
length, and hence not only altogether unmusical, but not
. reducible to grammar. But he is still tl.
ornament of the English pulpit up to the middle of the
seventeenth century ; ana we have no reason to believe, or
rather much reason to disbelieve, that he ha* any compe-
titor in other languages.' (Hallam's Introduction ti> the
•Inn1 iif l-jini/u; vol. iii.. c. il.. ]>. 1U5-6.)
He has been accused of having copied a work of a
similar character by Ludolphi: nia. a Homan
Catholic writer, in Ins ' Life of Christ :' but Bishop Ilebcr,
who hail examined both work*, averU that there is scarcely
any resemblance between them, and none which authorizes
the imputation of plagiarism.
•The Liberty of Prophesying' (that is of interpretation)
is the most popular in the second division of Taylor's writ •
T A Y
ings. A very good sketch of it will be found in the third
volume of Mr. Hallam's ' Introduction to the Literature of
Europe, and a more detailed one in the first volume of
Ilcher's edition of Taylor's works. But the discourse itself
is not lone;, and will well repay the reading. It consider-
ably diminishes the admiration with which we are disposed
to connect this production of Taylor with the man, his
order, and the times, when we take into account the motives
which he afterwards assigned for its publication. ' In the
dedication to Lord Hatton of the collective edition of his
controversial writings after the Restoration, he declares that
when a persecution did arise against the Church of Eng-
land, he intended to make a reservation for his brethren
and himself, by pleading for a liberty to our consciences to
persevere in that profession, which was warranted by all
the laws of God and our superiors.' (Hallam, Introduction
tn the, Lit>'/-"fnrr ></' /•>;•'/ e, vol. iii., p. 11G.) Bishop
Heber has vindicated Taylor from the charge of tergiversa-
tion, founded not upon the above testimony which Taylor
himself furnishes, but upon the character of his procecd-
when episcopacy w'as restored. If we must, allow in
reference to his Sermon preached before the Irish Privy
Council, that the obedience which he there insists upon is
only, as Bishop Heber suggests, that obedience to the laws
of ecclesiastical superiors which is paid by the members
(clergy '> of their own communion ; and that il is in fact no
more than the privilege (which every Christian society
rxeits and mu»t exert for its own preservation) to have the
offices of its ministry supplied by such men as conform to
the regulation imposed by the body at large on those to
whom its powers are delegated ; we ought to add that this
.1 tic, u is left in much ambiguity; that principles are
maintained with a much more general signification than
this explanation allows; and, in one word, upon ninety-
nine out of a hundred readers the sermon before the Irish
Pri\ v Council would produce impressions totally incon-
sistent witli those derived from the ' Discourse on the
Liberty of Prophesying.' After expressing his sorrow at
g the horrid mischiefs which come from rebellion and
.'•••, and his hopes of better things, the bishop of
Down and Connor proceeds in his sermon before the Privy
( 'oimril to siiy that, he sees no objection ' against his hopes
but that which ought least of all in this case to be pretended : i
;ireteml conscience against obedience, expressly against
St. Paul's doctrine teaching us to obey for conscience sake ;
but to disobey for conscience in a thing indifferent is nev cr
to IK; found in the books of our religion. It is very- hard
when the prince is forced to say to his rebellious subjects,
I did to his stubborn people, 'Quid faciam tibi '.'' ' I
have tried all the ways I can to bring ihee home, and what
shall I now do unto thee ?' The subject should rather say.
' Quid me vis facere T ' What wilt tliou have me to do .'"
This question is the best end of disputations. ' Corrwm-
pitur atque dissohitur impcrantis offickim. si quis ad id
quod facere ju.ssus c-,1. non obscqnio debito, sed eonsilio
non considerato, respondeat,' said one in A. Gellius : When
a subject is commanded to obey, and he disputes, and says,
• \a\ . 'ihcr i- better,' he is like a servant that
- his master necessary counsel when he requires of him
a necessary obedience. ' Utilius parere edicto quam efferre
ilium;' 'he had better obey than give counsel;' by
how much it is better to be profitable than to be witty, to
lie full of goodness rather than full of talk and argument.'
.. in the .-ame sermon, he distinguishes between
a 'tender conscience,' which is such in reference to age or
ignorance, or of ' new beginners,' and that which is the
• tenderness of a boil ; that is soreness indeed, rather than
tcmlcnies-. i, of the diseased, the abused, and the ini-per-
1.' The first is. to lie dealt tenderly with. ' But for
that tenderrress of conscience which is the dUeaa
i a conscience, it must be cured by anodynes and
soft nances, unless they prove ineffective, and that the
lancet may be necessary.'
Mr. Haflam refers to the 'DuctorDubitantiuni' as the most
extensive and learned work on casuistry which has ap-
Knglish language. ' As its title shows, it
treats of subjective morality, or the guidance of the con-
lint this cannot be much discussed without esta-
blishing some principles of objective right and wrong,
some standard bv which the conscience is to be ruled.
" The who rule of conscience," according to
Taylor, "is the Inw of God, or God's will signified to
nature or revelation; and by the several ma
T A Y
times and parts of its communication it hath obtained se-
veral names: the law of nature, the consent of nations,
right reason, the Decalogue, the sermon of Christ, the
canons of the apostles, the laws ecclesiastical and civil of
princes and governors, expressed by proverbs and other
instances and manners of public honesty. . . . These being
the full measures of right and wrong, of lawful and un-
lawful, will be the rule of conscience and the subject of
the present book." The heterogeneous combination of
things so different in nature and authority, as if they were
all expressions of the law of God, does-tiot augur well for
the distinctness of Taylor's moral philosophy, and would be
disadvantageous^ compared with the Ecclesiastical Polity
of Hooker. Nor are we deceived in the anticipations we
might draw. With many of Taylor's excellencies, his vast
fertility, and his frequent acuteness, the "Ductor Dubitan-
tium " exhibits his characteristic defects : the waste of
quotations is even greater than in his other writings, and
his own exuberance of mind degenerates into an intole-
rable prolixity. His solution of moral difficulties is often
unsatisfactory ; after an accumulation of argument and
authorities we have the disappointment to perceive that
the knot is neither untied nor cut ; there seems a want of
close investigation of principles, a frequent confusion and
obscurity, which Taylor's two chief faults, excessive dis-
play of erudition and redundancy of language, conspire to
produce. . . .Taylor seems inclined to side with those who
resolve all right and wrong into the positive will of God.
The law of nature he defines to be "the universal law of
the world or of mankind, to which we are inclined by
nature, invited by consent, prompted by reason, but whici'i
is bound upon u.; only by the command of God." Though
in the strict meaning of the word law, this may be truly
said, it was surely required, considering the large sense
which that word has obtained as coincident with moral
right, that a fuller explanation should be given than Taylor
has even intimated, lest the goodness of the Deity should
seem something arbitrary and precarious. And, though
in maintaining against most of the scholastic metaphy-
sicians that God can dispense with the precepts of the DC
calogue, he may be substantially right, yet his rca
seem by no means the clearest and most satisfactory that.
might be assigned. It maybe added, that in his prolix
rules concerning what he calls a probable conscience, 'he,
comes very near to the much-decried theories of the
Jesuits. There was indeed a vein of subtlety in Taylor's
understanding which was not always without influence on
his candour.' (Introduction to the Literature of /y,
chap, iv., vol. iv.)
Bishop Heber has also remarked on some of Taylor's
positions to the same effect ; instancing his admission that.
private evil maybe done by public men and for the public
necessity; his justification on moral grounds of the sup-
posed fraud of the children of Israel in borrowing je
of the Egyptians without any intent ion of restoring them.
•In t lie first chapter of the third book, which treats <«f
human laws and their obligations, a case occurs in illus-
tration of Rule iv., that " a law founded on a false pre-
sumption does not bind the conscience," in which the
Romish canonists seem to have given a more just decision
than Taylor : Biretti, a Venetian gentleman, pretends a
desire to marry Julia Medici, the daughter of a neighbour,
with a purpose to seduce and desert her. A contract is
made ; but before its execution he gains his end, ami
leaving her, marries another. The canonists clr
former contract, followed by congress, to be a mama ire,
and that he is bound to return to Julia. "No,".
Taylor, " if he did not lie with her, ' affectu maritali,' " he
was extremely impious and unjust; but he. made no mar-
riage; for without mutual consent marriages arc not
made."' To these illustrations, adduced by Heber, may be
added another, referred to elsewhere: Rule xi., 484, he
maintains the right, of using arguments and authorities in
controversy which we do not believe to be valid ; a rule
of which 'he appears to have taken advantage; for, 'in
the Di'l'i'iin' «f Episcopacy, published in 1642, he. main-
tains the authenticity of the first fifty of the apostolic .
canons, all of which, 'in the " Liberty of Prophesyin: .
very few years afterwards, he indiscriminately rejects.'
-Hallam.; "
On devotional subjects the character of Taylor's mind
lifted him to write with most success. In these we find
his most glowing language, his aptest illustrations; and
T A V
124
T A Y
'whether 1 - tin- duties, or dangers, or In
nmn, or tli- ower, nnd justice nl' the Most High :
whether hi' exhorts or instructs liis brethren, or offers up
his ittpplicaiions in their behalf to the common Kiillu-r of
all. Ilia conn-plums nnd his expresriont belong to the
litftii-st and nio-l sacred description of poetry, of which they
only wiiut what they cannot be said to need, the name and
the" metrical arrangement.' 'Hfber, Life mi<l H'urks of
Jrrrtnti Taylor. 15 vols., 1820-22.)
TAYLOR, JOHN, best known by the title, which he
- 1. 1 have given to himself, of Thf ll'n'fr-l'ix-t -The
Kind's Majesty's Water-Poet'1, was born in the city of
Gloucester in the year 13HO. His education was limited,
for he himself informs us that he was ' travelled' in his
• Aci-uleiu-e,' and could iret no farther. He came to Lon-
don, and was bound apprentice to a waterman, an occu-
pation from which he derived his title of • \\ 'ater-1'oet,'
and which afforded him the means of subsistence during
a great part of his life. He had however for fifteen or six-
teen years some situation in the Tower of London ; and he
afterwards kept n public-house in Phoenix-Alley, Long
Acre. Being an enthusiastic royalist, when Charles 1.
was beheaded he hung up the sign of the Mourning Crown,
which however he was compelled to take down, and he
then supplied its place by a portrait of himself, with the
following couplet under it : —
.' There'* many a kind's hr.nl Imnij'tl up for a sl~n.
And many a taint'* head tuo: thoti why Dot miuc :'
Taylor was not satisfied with the distinction which his
literary productions procured for him : he was fond of
fixing public attention by other extraordinary perform-
ance. He once undertook to sail from London to Ro-
chester in a boat made of paper, b\it the water found its
way into his l>oat before he reached his destination, and
he had some difficulty to pet safe ashore. A journey
which he performed by land is described in one of his
tracts, entitled 'The Pennyless Pilgrimage, or the Money-
less Penunbulation of John Taylor, alias the King's Ma-
jesty's \Vater-Poet; how he travelled on foot from London
to Edinburgh in Scotland, not carrying any money to or
fro. neither begsring, borrowing, or asking meat, drink, or
lodging.' He left • the Bell Inn that's extra Alders^ate'
on the 14th of July, 1018. A full account of this journey,
abstracted from Taylor's pamphlet, is given in the • Penny
Magazine,' Nos. 022 and 623. He was attended by a
servant with a horse, and they had a small stock of pro-
visions and provender, which more than once relieved
them when the occasional inhospitality which they met
with had reduced them to the extremity of hunger. His
course was through St. Albans, Stony Stratford, Coventry,
Liehtield, Newcastle-under-Lyne, Manchester, Preston,
istcr, Penrith, Carlisle, Kdinbursih, Dunfermline,
Stirling, Perth; and being then in the Highlands, he had
an opportunity of teeing, at • the Brae o' Mar.' one of those
u'reat deer-hunts which were then frequent in that part of
S -utland, and of which he gives in his pamphlet an enter-
taining and picturesque description. The whole journey
till his return to London occupied about three months.
But a sort of voyage which he afterwards performed was
apparently not less difficult. He published, us usual, an
account, of it himself, 'John Taylors last Voyage and Ad-
venture, performed from the 20th of July last, 1041, to
the 10th of September following ; in which time he |
with a sculler's boat from the citie of London to the cities
and townes of Oxford, Gloucester, Shrewsbury, Bristol.
Bathe, Monmouth, and Hereford.' From this title it might
be supposed that he went all the way by water, i
which, seeing the courses of the rivers, and the want of
canals in those days, was an obvious impossibility : but
the fact is, that when a river cea-ed to be navigable, or
ran in a wrong direction, he shipped his boat and himself
in a wain or waggon, and voyaged overland till he came
to another river which suited his purpose: still a irreat
part of the voyage was performed by water, and thus, to
use his own words, 'in lesse than twenty da\s" labour,
1200 miles were parsed to and fro, in most' hard, difficult,
and many dangerous pu-siycs '
Taylor died in 1051, in his 7~>lh Mar, and was buried in
the church-yard of Covent-Oarden, London.
His publications, which amount to upwards of eiirhty,
*r* some in prose, some in ver»e, and rr.any both in
•.'«! verse. A» literary productions they are of little or no
value, the ver»e mere doggrel, and the prose such as might
be expected from a writer not without observation. I
no great power of mind, and almost entirely n
Still they are by no means without their value. Nearly all
of them beinir short occasional productions a'i
the circumstances in which he was plae,
many curious descriptions, as well as intci,
of the opinions and manners and general .-• .. . icly
of the times in which he lived. Sir Kirerton Bruises, in
1 Vnsura Litteraria,' has given a full li-t .
writing, and a tolerably copious one is also given in V.
• Bibliothec*. Britannica.'
Baker's liinyriijiltiu Dramnlini, by K«rd and Joii'
which work he has obtained a place in conscquci]
having written a pageant, 'Triumphs of Fame and II.,-
nour,' -it.'.. li::u.
TAYLOR. SILAS, otherwise called Domville, or IVOm-
ville, by Antony Wood, was the sun of Svlvanus Taylor,
one of the commissioners during the civil war-
in^ those of the clergy called • scandalous and insufl
ministers.' Silas Taylor was born at Harley near Much-
Wenlock, in Shropshire, July 10, 1024, and after !
educated at Shrewsbury and Westminster school
a commoner of New Inn Hall at Oxford in Kill. II
taken thence by his father to join the parliamentary arnn,
in which he had a captain's commission. After the war
he was appointed by the interest of his fall '-ator
of the royalists in Herefordshire, in discharge of which
office he conducted himself with so much modeiah
to conciliate the kinir's party. Part of the bishop's palace
at Hereford fell to his own share in the general spoliation,
and he acquired considerable wealth, all of which he was
compelled to restore at the Restoration.
On that event he was treated by the royalists with :
lenity, and appointed commissary of ammunition. Si
Dunkirk, and about 1G65 made keeper of the king's stores
and storehouses for shipping at Harwich. lie died .No-
vember 4, 1078. and was buried at Harwich. Taylor was
much interested in the antiquities of bis country, and was
enabled in the confusion of the civil ware to ransack (he-
libraries of Hereford and "Worcester cathedrals, and in the.
course of these resi arches is said to have discovere i
original charter in which King Kdirar asserts his claim to
the sovereignty of the seas, which is printed in Sc'
' Mare Clausum,' lib. ii. He left materials lor a ]•.-.
of Herefordshire, which afterwards came into the h
of Sir Edward Harley of Bntmpton Brian in that county.
To this collection belong Nos. 4()10, 4174. <i7'ji;. 07111;.
C856, and G8C8 of the Harlcian MSS., containing pail of
a ircneral history with notes and special topographical
::ition under the several parishes, c\liacts from
'Domesday,' Leland, tec. From these papers Mr. 'Wil-
liam Brome, a subsequent collector tor the same county,
is said to have borrowed largely. flou;;! '"'';/"
HO/AS, 'Herefordshire.') In tl
MSS. is a paper of Taylor's on the making of cider.
'
(Ayscough's Ciitiiltixiir, 'Tail lor.*)
His published woiks are, 'The History of (iavelKiud —
with some observation:, and remarks upon many s) -
occurrences of British and Kn^lish histmv. T,'i t
added a shoit hislon -of William the < 'oni|iieror, written
in Latin by an anonymous author in the time of Henry 1.,'
London. l'W;;t. 4lo. '
A Hisloiy of Harwich was published from his pajn
Samuel Da'le, in 1~JC, and another edition, or the same
with another title page, London, 17-12.
Wood (Athfii. i LI that Taylor wrote many
pamphlets before the Restoration, but without his name ;
that he \v:is a '.rood classical scholar and mathematician,
and possessed of much general information: th.it In
an < vr'Icnt musician, and that he compo-'
anthems, anil edited ' Court Ayres,' &C., It Mitcd
bv John I'lavluid.
'TAYLOR, BROOK; TAYLORS THKORFM. In
rctcning all mailers conncete<l with iilirehiaical devel<ip-
menl to TVYI.OK'S TIIKORKM, we were partly moved by
the idea that so little was known of the life of the dis"-
co\crcrof that, theorem, that the additional space required
by our plan would not a]iiuiir more than was due 10 the
eelchritv of the subject. We timl oursches however \ cry
much deceived in two point!., since both the hist,
-i-id that of his theorem, are to be, and
ran be, reccnered from the neirlect into which they have
fallen, at least in this country.
T A Y
125
T A Y
Nothing is said of Brook Taylor in the ' Biographia
Britannica,' or Martin's ' Biographia Philosophica ;' and
Hutton, &c., give nothing but the date of his birth and
death* entrance into college and the Royal Society. The
x Biographic Universelle' was the first work which gave
any detail of his life, and this is due to the following cir-
cumstance : — In 1790, some members of the French Aca-
demy, struck with the scantiness of the existing informa-
tion relative to so celebrated a man, requested Mr. William
Seward to make some inquiry on the subject in England.
This gentleman applied to Sir William Young, Brook
Taylor's grandson, who accordingly drew up an account*
of his ancestor from family materials, and printed and cir-
culated it privately. It is from this work that the follow-
ing account is taken, as to the facts of his private life : —
lirook Taylor was born at Edmonton, August 18, 1685,
and was the son of John Taylor, of Bifrons House in Kent,
liy Olivia, daughter of Sir Nicholas Tempest, of Durham,
Baronet. John Taylor was the son of Nathaniel, who, to
use a phrase of his ownt diary, 'tugged and wrestled with
the Lord in prayer,' and was member (elected by Crom-
well's summons; for the county of Bedford in the (Bare-
bones) parliament of 1653. Brook Taylor's father was
the most despotic of parents : his son was educated at
home, where, besides enough of the usual learning to
enable him to begin residence at St. John's, Cambridge,
in 1701, he became excellent both in music and painting.
' His numerous family were generally proficient in music,
but the domestic hero of the art was the subject of this
memoir. In a large family picture he is represented, at
the nge of thirteen, sitting in the centre of his brothers
and sisters, the two elder of whom crown him with laurel
bearing the insignia of harmony.' The paintings of the
future writer on perspective are represented as not needing
the allowance always made for amateurs, but as capable
of bearing the closest scrutiny of artists. At Cambridge
he applied himself to mathematics, and acquired early the
notice of Keil, Machin, and others. His first writing was
on the centre of oscillation, in 1708, as appears by a letter
to Keil afterwards given in Phil. Trans., 1713, No. 337). In
1 709 he took the degree of I.L.B., in 1714 that of LL.D. : in
I712hewaselected to the Royal Society. As yet he had pub-
lished nothing: his letters to Machin (preserved in his fa-
mily , from 1709 to 1712. treat of various subjects; and, in
particular, contain a solution of Kepler's problem. We may
here conveniently put together a complete list of his works.
In the Philosophical Transactions, 1712 (No. 33C), On
the ascent of water between two glass planes ; 1713
(No. 337), On the centre of oscillation ; also on the mo-
tion of a vibrating string : in the same year, a paper on
Music, not printed. 1713 (No. 344), Account of experi-
ment made with Hawksbee on the law of attraction of the
magnet. 1717 (No. 352), Method of Approximation to
the roots of equations; (No. 353) Appendix to Mont-
mort on infinite series; (No. 354) Solution of a problem
proposed by Leibnitz. 1719 (No. 360), Reply to the accu-
.-ittions of John Bernoulli. 1721 (No. 367"), Propositions
on the parabolic motion of projectiles ; (No. 368) Expe-
riments on magnetism. 1723 (No. 376), On the expansion
of the thermometer. Besides these, the separate publi-
cations are : —
1715. Methodus incrementorum directa et inversa. Lon-
dini.
1715. Linear perspective, or a new method of represent-
ing justly all manner of objects as they appear to the eye
in all situations. London.
1719. New principles of Linear perspective, or the art
of designing on a plane the representations of all sorts of
objects in a more general and simple method than has
done before. London. A different work from the
former: its second edition (called the third, by an obvious
mistake) bears ' revised and corrected by John Colson,
London, 1749.' Joshua Kirby's well-known work, though
culled Brook Taylor's perspective, is not an edition of
Taylor, but a new work founded on his methods.
• • Not publinhrtl. Contemplatio Philo-'oiihica; a jK^lhiimons work of tho
Ule Brook T:i' lor. I.L.I).. F.ll S., Rome linn- secretary of the Uo>al Society.
Tow hi- h i- pn'li \.-.l a Lite of tin: author, by liii ;.'VIM<|-[.H. Sir William YUMI',..
Hurt. F.K.S., A.SS., \»ilh ;in anjjemlix, containing Mindly original ii.qjcjs,
.rul .ti, | rinf-'l liy W. Hiilmcr nnil t'o., shakspcrue I'rint'iiiL' -illi'-c, 17'.i;{ '
Th.' n«. r.unt !fh'-n h> I'l-.ii', in thr ' l;in;:r.i]>lii>' I "nn (TM'lle ' (l^Jt'O is, we are
aimo-it Min-, out- drawn tip .-it tlie tim" from Sir W. Young's manirri i:,i ..n-^nttt
m for ! sentences inserted just before i ul)
t Hi* ^rnn«lv>t)'t l*|'tisrnal name waa probably in memory of the noted
puritan, Lord Brouk.
In January, 1714, he was chosen secretary of the Ko.yal
Society. In 1716 he visited Kits friends Montmort anil
Cpnti at Paris. He had just had a warm correspondence
with the former on the Newtonian doctrine, and on the
tenets of Malebranche.* His posthumous work, or rather
tract, the ' Contcmplatio Philosophical seems to contain
his latest thoughts on the opinions of Malebranche and
Leibnitz. In France he formed the acquaintance of Bi-
shop Bossuet and Lord and Lady Bolingbroke, with all of
whom Sir W. Young has printed some of the correspon-
dence. He returned to England in February, 1717; but
his health was now impaired, and, throwing up the secre-
taryship in October, 1718, he retired to Aix-la-Chapelle.
On returning to England early in 1719, he seems to have
abandoned the mathematics almost entirely: among his
papers of this period are essays on Jewish Sacrifices, and
on the lawfulness of eating blood. At the end of 1720 he
went to visit Lord Bolingbroke at La Source, near Or-
leans, and returned to England in 1721. After the middle
of this year he wrote nothing for publication, nor could his
grandson find anything of a mathematical character among
his papers, with the exception of reference to a treatise on
logarithms, which it seems he had placed in the hands of
his friend Lord Paisley (afterwards Abercorn) to prepare
for the press, but which was never printed.
At the end of 1721 he married a young lady of small
fortune, a circumstance which occasioned a rupture with
his father. Some months after his marriage, and when
there appeared hope of issue, his wife was informed that
the birth of a son would probably accomplish a reconcilia-
tion between her husband and his father. On this she fixed
her mind with such earnestness, that on finding herself
in due time actually delivered of a son, she ' literally died
of joy :' the infant also perished. This melancholy event
led to the reconciliation the hope of which had caused it,
but not till the autumn of 1723. Dr. Taylor returned to
his father's house, and in 1725, with his father's consent,
married the daughter of a neighbouring proprietor. In
1729 he succeeded to the family estate by the death of his
father, and in the following year his wife died in giving
birth to a daughter, afterwards the mother of the writer of
the memoir from which we cite. This blow was fatal ;
Lord Bolingbroke, now settled again in England, endea-
voured to divert the thoughts of his friend by inducing
him to pass some time in his house, but in about a year
after the stroke, Dr. Taylor died of decline (in London, we
suppose), December 29, 1731, and was buried in the
churchyard of Saint Anne's, Soho. The family estate of
Bifrons is still in the possession of the descendants of his
brother Herbert.
We shall dismiss other points with brief notice, and as
well known, in older to come to the history of the theorem :
such are the celebrity of Taylor's solution of the problem
of vibrating chords, the questions he proposed to the
foreign mathematicians in the war of problems, his answer
tn those of Leibnitz, the accusation of plagiarism made
against him by John Bernoulli, and his reply. With
reference to the celebrated works on perspective, the first
was mathematital, the second intended for artists who
hardly knew anything of geometry. Bernoulli charged
Taylor with having taken his method from another, and
Prony states that it is in fact the one given byGuidoUbaldi,
though he thinks Taylor could not have seen that method.
The work referred to is ' Guidi Ubaldi Perspectives Libri
Sex,'_Pisauri, 1600, at which we have looked in conse-
quence. Nothing is more easy than assertion about old
books : if Prony had really looked attentively at the works
of Ubaldi and of Taylor together, he would nave seen that
whereas the formert only introduced the use of vanishing
points as to lines which are horizontal (the picture being
vertical), Taylor introduced the method of vanishing points
for all lines whatsoever, and made them of universal appli-
cation. We cannot think that he had never seen LIbaldi's
work : a man of learning, an artist from early youth, was
not likely to be ignorant of so celebrated a production.
He must have seen, and generalized, the method given by
Ubaldi. If indeed any one between the two is asserted to
have a claim, that claim, when proposed, must be dis-
cussed : but a general charge of plagiarism from John
Bernoulli is literally no more than a record of the fact that
* Fontenpllc, in his Kloge of Malebranche, says that the * Kecherche cle la
Vi'riliV was translate*! into I'.iiylish liy a relative of Taylor of the same name.
+ 'Hie very title pfi^e of tTbaUH's work announces by a diagram that its
distinctive feature is the use of vanuliing points all at the height of the eve.
. AY
'•-'•'
T A v
ft MI)
bMH «
\ „:,',!,„
It ii not
had n quarrel.
w Inn- in that
-:eral
used tfii part ien!;ir u'M lav lor th-
lible tlmt Ubnliti »•»•
ution. or if In- VMTC so. Sti - in rjifiiu
wa* published in KiOSl vras not ;* hut Stevinns did not
tut any •»« vcept tho-c ni li-u-s parallel to
the ground, nor t'lialili neither: while Taylor did i/*r
thrill, which i- the di-tim-tive feature of his -\ stem. Airain.
it is ; in favour of Taylor's orifrinalitv
in this point, tlmt works published abroad shortly ailer hi>
time do not contain it. For example. Hie • K
Kmleitun;; zur 1'erspectiv, von J. ('. Bischott', 1711,' a
quarter of a century after the time of Taylor's publication,
contains no use of vanishing points except at the height of
the i
The Mfthntlit* Iiicrementorwn is the first treatise in
which what U at this day called the calculus of finite dif-
ferences is, proposed for consideration. Besides what are
now the ni.>st common theorems in this subject, there are
various purely fluxional or infinitesimal theories, such as
the change of the independent variable, integrations, .T.
Bernoulli's series, Sec., and various applications to inter-
polation. the vibrating chord, the catenary, dome, tec..
centre of oscillation and percussion, law of density of the
atmosphere. refraction of li;;ht. The first enunciation of
the celebrated theorem is as follows: —
PROP. VII. THEOR. III.
Sint x et x quantitaten duie variabilcs. (juanim z unifor-
miter aupetur per data incremonta *, ct sit n: = r,
r — z=Y, V — r— "/•, et sic porro. Turn Hieo (mod quo
tem|x>re : crescendo fit c+r, :r item crescendo fiet
Corollary I. expresses the corresponding theorem for decre-
ments.
CdHOLL. II.
Si pro Incrcmeiitis evaiiescentihus scrihantur (luxiones
ipsis proportionales, factis jam omnibus VV, V, r, ,r, ,,r.
i ijnalibus quo tempore z uniformiter fluendo fit
x +.r — r + .r
U
r- &c.
vel mutato signo ipsius r, quo tempore s decrescendo fiel
x— r, T decrescendo fiet
..• .*. *.•
-,&c.
Taylor does not make much u»e of his own theorem in the
Mel /i 'iit'iit'inim. but lie shows bis command over
it in the paper above cited on the root* of equations, ii
which he extends Newton's method to other than alge-
braical equations.
One would have supposed that such a theorem ax thai
of Taylor, the instant it was proposed, would have been
hailcJ a- the best and most useful of generalization*. In-
•I of this, it sunk, or rather nev .11 I.nfrransrt
pointed out its power. This is perhaps an assertion whiel
some may doubt : we proceed to make it pood. The first
ciltiei-m upon the whole work (without a word nbout
in was that ol Leibnitz, in u letter to John
•>ulli June. 17H>, vol. ii., p. 38(1, of their corrcspon-
i what sort of view t'
.-nc''. The Iran
i«ufi?"""'": — '' ' ed what Taylor calls his Method
the fac'i"'"'1111'"'^ ^' 's an "J'l'h'cation of the differential and
^1 calculus to iiiniiOKrt, or rutfu'r In ^nn nil MH<'-
-ain ' "1US ''"•' ''•"tflitli have placed the horses. B
elthe |i.ovcil>. behind the cart. 1 heiran the clirl'e-
alcultui from series of numbers .... and so came
uerid calculus to the special gcome-
intimtesiiiml calculus. They proceed the other
inn in a
e
•'
r,,^' ;'iey ha\r not the true method ol
>/!/''•'</ , • It i> written obscurely enough.' Hernmilli on-
'>/!
„' '•"/// ''"
- J'1 •
' Si adumhraixlip |arallcl» icrUf pur vilrcura
inlnr. niarum umlinr <v>..lt'Mt»Ur rnnnirn-iit in
.<!>• n*l» pumllr^l: «•! tdOAlbrmBiU! pivlmrntn
m —n-nmu t*tim •lutudln* mpn |mviaminni mint
s»ers (August, 17K;, I have at lentrth r
Taylor's book. What, in the n:i
neau by the darkness in uhich hr m\u]\
hint's!' No dc
far IL-, I can mnl-
-tolen from me, through hi- • Tlie
lotion of I.eibnil/ p: •
our own day, '
•
n which pure a' and
phj-ii-. and even a irem •: f existing then
ed in the lanjjuaire of that Calculus, was a ;
lively errotieou- mod. line.
In Hritain, two
i. STIRI.IM.
. 102 repeated the theorem as gi
adds that Herman h:i'l
; and a> ' I7'<i.
1C, llelllli,
considered an independent in\c
the apjiendix to the Ph'ir/m
we' find only the theorem in
r Principja, and John Bernoulli's series for integration.
Maclaurin ' I'lin-inm, 17-12, p. 010 proved Taylor's theo-
111 the way which has since become common.
But both Stirling and Maclaurin use only a partictilai
of Taylor's theorem, expanding not ^ ('./• + ; >-)-; .
or expanding <•>; in po N. it!:er thuiiu-lit h
doing more than proving Taylor's th- :illn-
bute the result to Tavlor. Never! b .-iilur
ca*e has been since called Mac'aiiiiii . h, if
not Taylor's, it is Stirling's. Macl.iurin'.s booK
doubt, more read than either of the other two: it w:-
answer to Berkeley's metaphysical objections, ami
tsiined i;reat. power and vast store ol : and this
may have been the reason why a theorem which wa-
in, and best known by, Maclfturin's book, shoi:
called after his name. It is well that it should be so, or
rather, it would be well that the development of 0 i
in powers of : should be called by the name of Stirling :
for in truth the development of f ," + ('''/ in powers of Ii is
one theorem or another in its n.-es, and in the eon-eijneiices
. according as a or b is looked at a.s the principal
In the interval between Taylor's death and I
paper in the Berlin Memoirs for 177-, in which he first
proposed to make Taylor's theorem the foundation of the
Differentia] Cah-uhis, the the: hardly known,
and even when known, not known :•
not find it in II Fluxions (1736), in
nesi's Institution-. 171^ . in I-amlc-
1701 , in Simpson's Fluxions (1737. in Kmerson'k Iii-
•7'!:t . in Kmcrxm's Fluxio
'ictionaiy 174.'t , nor in the first edition
of Montucla's History 'l7"'« . ^'.
other places in which it should be, without
anywhere, except in the iri<;i1 French Encvclopsedu
tide • ' certainly did tiiul it, mentioned
only incidentally, and attrihut. * than
net to D'Alenibert. Tli ;v ho wrote
the jircliiniuaiy i
'ime; though J . when he published Ins
. of mathematics, he was better informed. \\Y
.\vards) that Cundorcr n ..p.:»'.ic
wa.s in the habit g this the :cm to ]>. Member! :
not with any unfair intention, hut in pure i The
bert (Krc/ifn-/n:\ .\i/r
i. aci-ordin;: to 1
'•n-d h\ a method of tindini; tht
it of T;i\ ' lain number of terms
have 1 had never
In fact. n'Alcmherl 1 if it uerc
;uul without me- ' 'lie. which
: : an tipinion in which we
cannot agree. 1'nl. n^'lish, we can-
not imagine how lie should have known Tav lor's theorem,
nor even then, unlex, Taylor. Stii bnir. Maelaurin. or an old
volumi' of the rhilo-o]ibii-al Ti ansiiet ion-. -ed to
illen in his way. \Ve hav <• no doidil that D'Alenibert.
wa» a n«W discoverer Of the tbeoiem. jmd that ''..udoieet
. pi in his writint's. Our wonder rather is
where Lapranee could have found the name of Taylor in
T A Y
127
T A Y
conn;rxron with it. For the use which Lagrange proposei
la make of it, see DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS, and FUNCTIONS
THEORY OF. From the time of the publication of the work
cited in the article last referred to, Taylor's theorem take
that place which, if it had always occupied, we should no
have had to write any history of it. Full justice is don
to the discoverer : it only remains to restore to Stirling tin
view of the theorem which has hitherto been given to
Maclaurin,
TAYLOR'S THEOREM. We propose in this part of fhe
article to giv e some account of the methods of algebraica
development which arc consequences of the cclebratec
theorem, the history of which is given in the last article
The simplest parts of the Differential and Integral Calculus
will lie presumed known. It is not usual in works on that
subject to brinsr together in one place the most conspicuous
theorems which have arisen out of that of Taylor ; which
makes it the more desirable that such a thing should be
in a work of reference. It is to be particularly re-
membered that we do not here profess to teach the subject
of development, but only to recall the steps of the M
processes to those who have already learnt them, and to
present the theorems, in a form which can be easily re-
ferred to.
A-, to notation, we shall frequently signify differentia-
lion by accents : thus <Ji".i- is the second differential co-
efficient of 0r with respect to ./• : (<£.ri|/.r)'" is the third
differential coefficient of the product of (fix and ij/.r. And
[M] will signify the product 1X2X3X X it— 1 X//.
over when a series is written, three terms will be
written down, and fhe general term appended.
Taylor's theorem is as follows: —
' -=- + &c.
This theorem is true whenever .r has such a value that —
1. No one of the set </>i; tjj'.r, &c. is infinite. 2. All of
them do not vanish. Thus neither of the following could
be allowed to be treated by it when x=a :
and
~(
In the first function, <£'./•, and all which follow, are in-
finite when .r = n : in the second tji r and all its differential
coefficients vanish when ./ -n. The meaning of this cir-
cumstance is as follows : the form of Taylor's theorem
:Mally requires that <j>(x-\-h) should be developed in
UCendinK integer powers of /' ; consequently when such
form of development is impossible, this theorem must show
-• of being inapplicable. Now, the first of these func-
tions (when x=a) can only have $(a+A) expanded in
ascending fractional powers : anil the second only in de-
scending integer powers. Those who will only allow the
use of converging series may require also that h should
be so small that the resulting series is convergent: but
this objection will afterwards be inapplicable, as will be
seen.
We shall state five proofs of this theorem briefly, being
substantially those given by Taylor, Maclaurin, D'Alem-
bert, Lagrange, and Ampere.
Tui/lni'x I'rtuif. — Let «y = A,and form differences of <fi>-
from the series <j»: <f,:.r+0\ <£(.r+20), .... tf>(jc+>W).
juently we have [DirnBXNCZJ
where Ax = 6.
tfi.i- + H A<£r -f- >i — —
Throw this into the form
, h—
Arf>.r
-— A+
, &c.
, &c.
without, limit, A.c at the same time dimi-
nishing, so that )<A.r remains always =A. Then
Limit of
-, &C.
So that Taylor's theorem is proved when we know that
<(> rtittl the lin>it of A 0.r : TA./-)'. This
WM : iition* of Taylor's: but in the modern dif-
• ' Si pro incrcoj' - '.TiUantur lluxioDet ij»i» |iropor-
'kiualn, Sic.' ?«1h» lUtrncnl In TATI.OH, Bloom
ferential calculus it is a hetter plan to prove Taylor's
theorem in another way, and then from the preceding fol-
lows the simplest manner of showing the identity of
<£ & and the limit of A <f>x : (A.r) .
Maclaur iu's Proof. — The method here given was first used
by Maclaurin, and though it was only applied to develop
<f>\ 0 + h), yet it will do equally well for <j>(x+h) ; and Mac-
laurin himself saw no difference (as indeed there is none,
<£ being any function whatever) between the two cases.
It turns upon <t>(x+h) giving the same result, whether
differentiated with respect to .r or h, and assumes the form
of the development, which is a radical defect. It is as fol-
lows: Let^(.r + /()=A+BA-fCA!i-l-,&c.; then tf>'(x+h) =
B + 2CA + 3Vh* + , &c., 0"(;r + A) = 20 + 3.2DA +, &c.
, ., . , .
'" (.r+A) = 3.2D -j-,&c., which, when A = 0, give d>x=
, 4>'x = B, <f>"x = 2C, <t>"ijc = 3.2D, &c. ; from which
the theorem readily follows. The common proof, given
in most elementary works on the differential calculus, is
but a less commodious form of this.
D'Alembvrt's Proof . — The first principles of the Integral
Calculus give
»n-|A />0
<j>'xdx=- I
(I */ /I
he last step being made by parts. Similarly
/* a it h* rk
j 2 v o
z'dz
and so on : whence it appears that if we go up to A in the
series, the term involving A may be followed by ano-
her, expressed in the form of a definite integral, and
which alone represents all the remnant of the series ; as
bllows : —
*%4]^ /X+''rt+/'-^v~~-
The conditions of integration require that neither
r, <j>'.r, .... 0 a? should be infinite from x = a to x-=a
+A, both inclusive : this one condition being satisfied, the
difficulty of divergent series disappears ; for the theorem
loes not give an infinite series at all, but only any number
ve please of the terms of a series together with a con-
•luding quantity which is finite both in form and reality.
Phis integral might frequently be difficult to use, but limits
or its value may be readily obtained. Let P and p be the
greatest and least values of <j> x from .»• = a to x = a
+ /', both inclusive : then the concluding integral lies
jetween
P/^z'dz fmdpf z'dz or p;'" andX .
c/O v 0 H-4-\ N -f- 1
Now when a continuous function does not become in-
nite between two values of .r, every quantity which lies
jetween its greatest and least value is one of its interme-
iate values: or anything between P and p is a value
(n +0A). for some value of 0 which is either 0
f
" " ' }
>r 1, or between them. Hence the preceding expression
nay be written
The following form has been given by M. Cauchy. Let
and p represent the greatest and least values of <f>
• + h - z} . z" from z=0to z =A, both inclusive: pro
.sely similar reasoning will give for the last term chosen
f Taylor's series, and the value of the remnant,
n ,"+i
.00 h
g> a Y~
•here e is either 0 or 1, or between them.
T A V
128
We call the preceding D'Alembert's proof, but it is
rather D'Alembert's result, and even tluit in a different
form : his real process is as follows: — To take a case, in-
tegrate <£ (j+A) four times with respect to A. beginning
at A»0: the results are (x+AcX for abbrevia
and from this sort of proc. ilt is
.1- + A) =
(he two sides presenting the most identical forms which
have yet occurred. The integral may easily he reduced to
the form already given (.Lacroix, \ol. iii.. -p. :i'.!7 . U'Alem-
In-rt finished with the preceding form : it was Lagrangc
who first gave the limits which we have appended
above.
Lagrangi's Proof. — By this we do not mean the falla-
cious proof referred to in FUNCTIONS, THKOKY OF, but
that by which Ijigrange established the limits of the vnluc
of the remnant, which, on the ordinary definition of a
differential coefficient, is a proof, and a' very satisfactory
one, of the whole theorem. It rests upon the proposition
that if a function of .r have always one sign from x = <i to
/ + A, the integral of that function taken between
UIOM- limits will have the same sign.
If then we wish to establish Taylor's theorem as far as. >ay,
the term involving h'\ and to give the limits of the remain-
der, let P and ;> be the greatest and least values of <j> (<i+.)
from z = 0 to s = h. Between those limits then <f> (a+r)
same conditions, and we learn, step by step, that
-/« -<"«, .s-'u - - P
are severally negative. Hut 0 .»• — ;; is positive from .r
= a to :r = a + li : con-e(jUfi;t!y, proceeding in the same
manner, we find that, r being not greater than /i,
is positive. If then we make s - li, we find that
In-- between
<£, + ,//«.;,+ ....+ P. ~- and
A*
and the rest is as in the last proof.
There is a proof given h) M. Cnuchy which resemble-
the preceding in its principle, though of very dit'eivul de-
tails, which nrny be seen in tin- Lib. ('. A., Ililferential
Calculus, pp. OS, &c., 7'>7. Hut this proof, though very
well iii a treatise on the subject, on account of the col-
lateral uses of the preliminary theorems which it requires,
is m,t so well suited to an isolated article on Taylor's
theorem.
///// ire'i I't'-f.— Let 4>r = <Jxi + P(.r — a) ; differentiate
ively with respect ton, and we have
0 = 4>'a + P' (x - «) - P
0 = <{,"<, + P" (.,._,,)_ 21"
0 = <i>"'<i + P'" (x - a) - 3P", &c.,
substitute for P, P', &c. their values : that is, substitute
from each equation to the preceding, and we have, milking
• a + A, Taylor's theorem with Hie following result lor
the remnant following the term which has A in it
J" />.r - <JM\
(lu*\ x -a )
making .r = H + A aft IT differentiation.
•une trouble to show the limits of this c\
-ion. Ibi- \\liic-li we may refer to Ampere, • IV-cU tie Cali-iil
Ditterculiel.' N:i-., .lourn. Kc. I'olytcchn.. t-ali. xiii., i>. IJi.
This trart nf Ampere i-. one of tin- purest deductions extant
of the Differential Calculus from the theory of limits.
In looking through all the proofs which give limr
it will he seen that neith.
nor any dili'civntial coefficient employed can i
to become infinite between .r = n and .r=<i+/i. \
such a circumstance dors occur, the theoivm ivlati.
the limits may ctase to be true. For instant
= (.r— m)""1, and stop the series after the first term, which
gives
_ 1 _ 1 _ .1 A
a + A m a — in (a+0A — in/'
if a+A and a be both greater or both less than m. a value
of 0 lying between (I and 1 will IK' found to
equation, as it should do from the theorem. Hut if '.I- = HI
between r=ti and .r=a+A, none but an imaginary
of 0 will satisfy tliis equation.
Stirling's theorem, a-, it should be called, Maclauri::
it is called, is found simply by making «=U in the d. \,
lopment of <f>(a+x). It gives
B being either 0 or 1, or between them. Here ^/"'(l means
that tf>x is to be differentiated ;/ times, and .r made =1)
after all the (lifi-reiitiation.i. This is the most useful form
of Taylor's theorem, with which it may be consider
identical in one point of view, and of which it is a parti-
cular case in another: for -i ../+./ , absolutely developed
by Stirling's theorem is simply ^ («+.«•) developed limn
ifn by Taylor's theorem.
.loiiu Hernoulli's theorem, as given in the Leipsic acts
for 1090, is as follows:—
Here is an instant-e very much resemblinr the eonn.
of the UINOMIAI. THKOUKM ']i. 41'J with \\'alli<'s pn
investigations. If \Vallis had looked at his own result IM
a new point of view, lie niijjht not have left the- binomial
theorem for Newton: if John liemoulli had done (In-
same, he miijht ha\e s;iven the law of development of
0(.r+/i . Tin' ]',i ceding i-- a case of Taylor's them tin, :i .
follows: by that theorem
l"J L"T'J
and x— Bx is the .-a me in meaning as 0.r, an undetermined
fractional part of .r. Let ifr.r = f'^jcil.r, then .,
substitution and transposition
x dx = ^r. x- V*
± J,«- x -,
[>']
This theorem is not of much use as a method of deve-
lopment, so that we need say no more of it in the present
article.
Some views of Lambert on the reduction of the roots of
equations (Actn lli'lri-lii-ii. 17">s into series were jrene-
rah/cd by I.a^'raiiL'c (.W.m. ,-lrni/. Sri., 17(W, into a cele-
brated theiiiein of develojmieut bearint; his name; and
this again was generalized m form by Laplace (Mec. Cfl. •.
T A Y
129
T A Y
The problem is as follows : given
y=V fjf+xfa) ....(A)
required the expansion of 4y< when possible, in powers of
x. Since tyy is, by the preceding equation, a function of
x and z, if z be constant, and we differentiate with respect
to x, and then make :r=0, or y=7z, we may use Stirling's
theorem. But this differentiation would be laborious and
indirect ; it was made more direct (by Laplace) in the fol-
lowing manner: — A constant may have any value given
to it, or may be made to vanish, either before or after
differentiation with respect to a variable : if then we can
express differentiations with respect to x in terms of dif-
ferentiations with respect to z only (in which x is constant),
it will be in our power to make x vanish before the dif-
ferentiations, which will reduce the indirect or implicit to
direct differentiation. This substitution of z-difterentia-
tions in place of those of x is done as follows:— Differen-
tiate (A) both with respect to x and z separately, and we
have
l-j-x = F' (z+x<j>y) {<f>y+x<j>'y
whence
Let u be a function of y only, that is, not of x or z ex-
cept as these variables are contained in y : then
'/" //// itu ih/ it// (In
•j — T =$'/-, — f~ or -=— = *v -7-
dy dx fj ily dz dx ry <lz
From this equation only it may be shown (by INDUC-
TION) that
*~ / _ » du
du
as follows. Assume the preceding to be true for one value
of n, and, since fq&y) X du : dy is a function of y only, let
it be dv : dy, v being another function of y.
d u d /dp dy\ d'v
a \dv
do
dy
dv dy
'-Jr.±>™
dz
whence the theorem remains true after writing re-f 1 for n.
But it is true when n = l ; therefore it is true for all values
o(n. If then we make ,c=0, or y=Fz, which may be
done before the differentiations on the second side of the
equation, we have (u being \fy)
Apply this to Stirling's Theorem, and we have Laplace's
Tfn'nrem, namely,
y=F (z+X(fnf) gives ^y=
"-W Hr+.&c.
the general terra, •
<** J ["]
Lagrange's theorem, from which Laplace generalized,
is the case in which Fa; =3; ; namely,
y=z+xrfjy gives ^y=
' &c>
W3) ^-IrVi
rf""' /
the general term — rri|
dz I
y=z+<f,z.x+-(lz- -3 H— a^T— gj +. &c-
Lngrange's theorem leads to liurjiitunis Theorem (\>n--
MBted to tlic institute in 1796). The second is in fact ihe
•ami- as the fir.it, though very different in form, and arrived
at independently. It is required, when possible, to expand
P. C., No. 1501.
4x in powers of $x. This might be done indirectly, by ex-
panding <Wlx in powers of r, and substituting <f>x for a?
in the result. The form in which Burmanu obtained
Lagrange's theorem avoids the indirect process. Let <ia:
vanish when x=a, and let <j>x= (x— «): xa", or x=a+<]&; . xa;.
We can now employ Lagrange's theorem to expand $x in.
powers of <j>x, and we have
Now the general term of this has for its co-efficient the
value of
when x=a : consequently tyx, expanded in powers of <f>r,
is found by making x = a in the co-efficients of the powers
of <f>x in the following series : —
d ffx-a\' N\i r0.r-)8
^C-^-; f*);J -2- +• &c-
When in a function of any number of variables a-,, x,, Sec.,
the variables are severally to receive increments h,, h,,
&c., the law of the development is best seen by the cal-
culus of operations. [OPERATION.] To change x into
x+h is to perform the operation e , D being the sym-
bol of differentiation with respect to x : the condensed
form of the development now before us is
B » .....
where D,, D2, &c. refer to xlt xv &c. The general term
of the development is
(#,, x}, &c.)
which must itself be developed. It is not worth while to
pursue this case further ; we shall only observe that when
it is desired to stop, the remnant may be obtained by
writing in the last term #, + (?/», for a?,, x^ + Qh^ for a;.,
&c., where 0, the same in all, is either 0 or 1, or between
them.
The value of x which makes cf>x=Q is represented by
V
— &c. : where a is any assumed value (the nearer the root
the better) and 4>, <£', &c. represent </>a, <p'a, &c. This
series is obtained by common reversion from <f}(a+/i)=0.
For the forms which Paoli gave to this series, and also to
Burmann's, see Lacroix, vol. i., pp. 306-308. The pre-
ceding series has been used, as far as three terms, in the
article APPROXIMATION.
All that precedes is found in elementary treatises, with
the exception of a few terms of the last series : we now
come to matter which has been hitherto only the property
of the well-read mathematician, but which well deserves
to be made as common as Taylor's Theorem. We refer to
ARBOGAST'S method of derivations. Few, even among
mathematicians, are aware of the power of this process,
which may perhaps arise from their taking Lacroix's ac-
count of it, instead of consulting the work of Arbogast
himself: the former has only exhibited it to show that it
may be reduced to processes of the differential calculus ;
and even the latter has so loaded his method with heavy
applications, that he has concealed much of its beauty and
simplicity.
The foundation of Arbogast's methods is a contrivance
for expediting the expansion of <f>(a + bx+c.ri + ', into
a series of the form A-f B.i- + C.t*+ The process by
\\hich B is formed from A, C from B, &c. is uniform, and
is called derivation ; and A being (f>a, B may be called
D0«, C may be called DD<£a. or Ds<£a, and so on. Hence
h ought to be called Da, C ought to be D'-'«, and so on.
This notation is not precisely that of Arbosrast, but will
do lor our purpose. For more detail,* see the Differential
Calculus (Libra/ y of Um-jtd Knowledge), pp. 328-3'H.
• There It a (.Tent ili-nl nil tlia silliji-ct in tin- ' MulhiTnaticnl Trmt •«•» ' (pr,»|.
' at Kdi.ibarjri in li .* Mr. \W l
.
humuu*) of the Rev. John West, I'ui
VOL. XXIV. — S
T A Y
l:!0
T A Y
.r, fora moment, we writi- thi- expansion •
4,;«0+a1.r + ajrt + &c. = A, + A,i + ArrM
and if we differentiate both side* with respect to a^, x and
•11 the other coefficients remaining constant, we have
&C-) - * =
which shows that «„ cannot enter any coefficient ore-
ceding A,, or
rfA,
The first side of this is the same series, whatever letter
• was made to vary ; the second side is therefore always
the same series; whence we collect that <i\m^n: <1<in
does not alter with the value of m, being always the co-
efficient of j" in the development of <f>'(at+a,x+, &c. . It
is enough to satisfy this condition for each letter and its
preceding one ; that is to say, each co-efficient differen-
tiated with respect to any one letter, is to yield the same
result as the directly preceding co-efficient differentiated
with respect to the directly preceding letter. The follow-
ing rules are found sufficient. To pass from any one de-
rivative of foi to the next, arrange the letters «, A, c, &c.,
ord,,, a,, 0r &c., whichever may be used, in order, in
term: differentiate with respect to the last letter in each
term, and multiply by the letter which comes next to
it. And when the last but one immediately precedes the
last in the alphabet or other consecutive system, do the
same with the last but one, and divide by the exponent of
the last letter, as it becomes after the increase which it
receives from the process of the preceding letter; but in
no case, use any letters but the last or the last but one.
For instance, beginning with <jxi, in which is only one
letter, we have <f>'a . A, or
<t>'".b;
in which are two letters, a and A, consecutive. Operate
upon b, and we have ^'a.c; operate on <£'<i, and \\ e ha\ e
again <ji"a . b, which, with the ft which was in before, is
ff>"a . ft*, which we divide by the new exponent of 6, or by
2, whence
A"n
D"<£n = <f>'a.c+ -^-ft'.
In forming l>n(^i, we use only c in <f>'a . e, because a does
not immediately precede r : and we get (the succession
being ", f>, r, <•./, g, h, k, &c.)
and so on. As toon however as the law is established, it
is best to form a table of the successive derivatives of the
powers of ft by this same law : we then have
as far as -r^-i A" i
in which 0'a, <£"a, &c. arc to be taken from the function
by common differentiation, and the derivatives of the
powers of A from the table. This being done, we have
r, Scc.) =
-, ^
nnd the process is shortened to its utmost extent ; all that
ii not differentiation being merely reference to a table and
writing the result.
\V. shall give materials for proceeding as far :
. not that so much will often be necessary,
(•ill because' it i- di-irahle to show with bow little trouble
.1' enormous labour KI the ordinary way, Mich, for
instance, as that solved in UIAKUM :KI, maybe
looked at without dismay. We have 1 •> form e -
live of every power of b, D«i", in which m + n doe* not
exceed 12.
bu nfetftaM « MUlim. foe (hit of A rbogMl. in which he wlU |mb.Uy In TO
r«r Mlomrn. Th« «nd.-ut who U not rmlM by ihU, wd ouuro* proou*
Atbojwt »»«k. will Hod Wwft IrwlUn .UutxllDg in ilnintioiii.
Dft=c T*b=<t
A D«ft=A
D'ft=n D'»6=p
l)A«=2ftc
«=2'.A f -
D'ft'=26/ + a-A -
D«6*=26m +2c/+ i'/; + 'Ifli +^'
«=2Am-2cm + - -fh
D6'=
Difts=36V+3Ac«
T)3b'=3biS+6bce+c>
Wl>>=3b*g + 66r/+ 36«« + 3c««
^aft'A +&>cg+Gbr/+3c1S+3f.e>
D'6'=36'/ +66c/( + 6beh + Mfg+Wfi +6ceg + &•/
<
D'63= 3ft*/i + Oic/n -t- 66c/ + Oft/ft + &>gh + 3cV + CceA
D3ft<=46Y+ 126>c« +46^
+ Cft»/4
D8ft4=46''«
l'J^'A + 2-!
ce»
(!',- -•'
D65=5ft4c
Wbi=5ble+ 106'c*
P36s=5A4/+20frsc«-r- lO&V
4- 10
V«'-c-'
aM /i.- -i ."' ! ' Vef
D6«=6ft»e
D'ft'=6ftV+1564c«
D4ft«= 6AV +30AV/+ 1 564P« +60A*r«r+ 1 5A*c«
rA +306V-+ 1 5fty
•«' +30ftcV-r-c«
-
1 ) '/:• - s ',
A/+'>(/' >-r7»''4.-
l)'A9=9AV4-3CA7c'
D»A'=9Ay+
DA'"=10A*c
T A Y
131
T A Y
To verify these results, observe that if we consider each
letter as of the first dimension, every term of D"br is o_
the rth dimension ; but if we consider each letter as of the
dimension following : —
6 c e f g h k I m n p q
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12:
then every term of DV is of the («+ r)th dimension. To
find out if all the proper terms be there, and with the
proper exponents, write down the number of ways in
which n+r can be made out of r numbers. Thus to
verify this point for D'b3, write down the ways in which
10 can be made out of three numbers, namely,
8+1+1, 7+2+1, 6+3+1, 6+2+2, 5+4 + 1, 5+3+2,
4+4+2, 4+3+3;
take the letter answering to each number, in the above
list, and multiply the letters of each set together, which
gives
b't, bck, beh, c*h, bfg, ceg, c/4, e*f,
which are, coefficients exccpted, the terms of D'63 in the
table. To verify the coefficients separately, observe that
the coefficient of that term of D"6r which contains the sth
power, ah power, &c., is
1.2.3.. .. Q-l)r
1.2.3. .".*Xl.2.3...<X ..... '
Thus in D4A8, the term containing Pfe ought to be
multiplied by
1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8
But the best general mode of verification is derived
from the theorem
dD"b'
— , or
db
tliat is, having a certain derivative of a certain power, the
lu-xt higher derivative of the next lower power may be
••1 by differentiating with respect to b, dividing by
the exponent of the original power, and then performing
the derivation. Thus :
differentiate with respect to b, and divide by 9. which
gives
Now derive, which gives
86^+5(W/«c/+ 2866e2+ 168#eV +7044c',
the same as is found in the table for D3+16S~l. Here we
verify the earlier result of the table from the later : to
verify the later from the earlier, use the following: —
n— 2 Z /•_ ] r— 2
up to c
1.2
in which the derivatives of powers of c must be formed
from the corresponding tabular ones of b, by changing
each letter into the next following. There are thus abun-
dant means of verification. We' will mention yet one
method more. Only the last letter and the last but one (and
that only when the two letters are consecutive) are used
in the derivations. If we use any letter, no new term is
produced, but only a repetition of those which other terms
give. For instance, in IW is the term GOb-cff; and in
passing to DV, we derive from / because it is the last
letter ; and from e because, being the last but one, it imme-
diately precedes/ in the series. We do not here use b and r.
at all ; but if we did use them, we should only repeat tei ms
ivhich will come into D'65 from other sources. Thus: .
mifn-f gives, ii-om /, 6Qb*ceg, which is set down in ])"//• •
'"V/'-r-S, or 306V/2, which is also set down:
had been used, we should have had (Mb'ivf-^-2,
i.i- :M>'i-~f, which, on looking, we find set down, as arUmi;
from the last letter of \ObV. From b, in (Ml/n-f, had it
been used, v,e should have got 120Acc^/'-4-2, or Utibc-ef,
'i is also found, and arises from the' last letter of
. If then we ever find that derivation from one of
the unused letter^ gives anything but what arises from
of the letters which are used, it is a sign that some
has been committed.
By help of the preceding method, expansions which
analysts usually avoid as much as possible, at almost any
expense of circumoperation, are carried with the Teatest
facility even further than is necessary. The development
oi> (a+bx+cx*+ &c.), already given, is one instance;
the process in REVERSION OF SERIES is another. This last
is done* by expanding .r in powers of ax + bx'' + , &c., by
Burmann's Theorem, and making the expansion of the
negative powers of (a + bx+cx* + , &c.), which will be
wanted, by the method of derivations. We shall state
some further applications : —
, &c.
When m is integer, these derivatives are in the table.
When 6 + ex + &c. is a finite series, the whole result is
brought out with great ease, compared with the trouble of
the common algebraical operation : in this case the value
of every letter after the last in the finite series is 0, or the
last letter of that series is uot to be employed in derivation.
Let the reader try for himself (b+cx+ex^+fx3)' by this
mode and then in the common way, going only so far in
the latter as to feel sure that the former is of no trouble
compared with it. Let m, m
m,, &c.
m-1
, &c. be denoted by m,
(a + bx + ex* + &c.) = a + mba ~ x
Mt — 8
+ (mac + OTJ&-) a a?
+ (/wo!e + OTjaDi* + »;343) a" "V
,- m-4
+ (inaf + w^^rD^o2 + w?3ftD03 + m4b4} ft x4
+, &e. ; the law of which is evident, the only thing left
being the substitution of the values in the tables instead of
the derivatives of b. This form is convenient for fractional
or negative powers. The following case is worth exhibit
ing separately : —
1
1
V-ac
a + bx+,8tc.
- aW + a*e
*• +
•a?
u"
' + asD"68 - a"f
x*
— , &c. We have avoided the formality of writing Db for
c , T>-b for e, &c.
A + BJ- + Cx* +, &c. _ A^ _ Aft- Ba
a + bx + CXL +, &u. ~ a a'
A (A8 - ate) - Bai + Ca"
- Ba(A--ac)
a* +, &c.
The law is here evident enough ; the next numerator
would be
A (b' — aDi'+r^IW— ayj-Ba (b3— aD68+a8e)
+ Co* (i* - ae) - E«3i + Fa4
The derivatives of the general term b may be readily
formed, but the particular cases are more useful ; see the
derivatives of a in the general form above given. We
shall not overload this subject with further examples:
enough have been given to show those who require deve-
lopments of some extent how much labour they might save.
It frequently happens that the form given is not
(f><;a+ba;+cx*+,&c.')but<j>(a+bx + ^+^3+. &c.J,
n which case the occurrence of the fractions in the deno-
minator renders the process more complicated than it need
• M. Wronski lias civen elegant forms of transformation and development,
which are most accessible in Montferrier's ' Dictiunnaire des Sciences Mathe-
matiques.' Paris, 18IH. The author of these developments has wrapt himself
in a rloud (if (ib-curity. and adopted the tone ofan assailant, with uot a little
it tli" manner of a charlatan, which has hindered his really remarkable exten-
-ions fioia re, eiviii^' the notice to which they are entitled, and himself from
oM.-iinini,' tin- character as a mathematician which no one who reads his works
•in fir a moment deny him. We do not enter into his methods, because,
thi.u-h «<>od ill theory, they are not easily used, from their excessive geneiality.
Koi instance, in the article on Reversion of Series, in the dictionary cited, the
inlhor of which is a partizan of M. Wronski. the results are r ,nie<l as Jar as
ur article on that subject, not by the vaunted methods, but by the old
.if in, 1, •terminate coefficients, an immense labour, after which the nann;
.nciertuker is very properly recorded. Torepeat the same processand to
carry it two terms further, by Arbogast's and Jiunuaun's methods combine,!,
did uot take us thiee hours.
S2
T A Y
T A v
be. Wo put down tables for the development of this
(hoctioa. derived from tlir preceding. tables,** far as the
tenth power of x: to be used as follow.-- : —
ut
Scc.
Then
=4>'a . D"' b + <£"a . D*"
a . b"
where the derivatives of the powers of 6, which do not
mean the same as hitherto, are to be taken from the fol-
lowing table : —
D6=c
!>•»=/,
D6«=104«c
4-G06<Y> + l.V
D'6"=156</
D6S= 156V
I>6=Ar, Difti
r><6''=216*(g'+ 1056r/+70Ae" + 105c-'e
1 ) ' 6' = :r>61/+2106V<?+ lOSfc3
J)'6a=356V+ 1056V, DA»=:216V.
IW = 2S6Vi + 1 G8bc g + 280&/+ 2 10r»/+ 280ce»
IVA'zoCA"^ -t-4206V/+2806V+ai06ci;<;+ 105c4
D6'=286«e
Dt6"=566i«;+2106Vs,
D'61 = 366* A + 252&-A + 5046^ +' 315A/< + 378ei#
+ 12GOr</4-280e8
IV6' = 846Vi + 75Gbtcg + 12G06V/+ 18906e*/+ 25206^
'1i«=12Cis/+ 12G06Ve+ 1260A
'= 106ro +45c/+ 120<?A 4- 21Q/7i + 126°-'
D'6> = 456V 4- 3GOArft -f (W06eA 4- 12606/g- 4-
+ 2520eeg-4- 1575r/'+2100<?2/
D«64 = 1206n& + 12G06VA + 25206V<r + 1
+ :J7H06r<# + 12G006c</ + 28006C3 + 3150cY
+ (iSOOr'e'
D»65 = 2106'A + 25206V^ + 42006V/ 4- 9450AV/
+ 12G006're» + 12C006cV + 94:V5
= 252//t' + 31506V/ + 21006V?1 4- 126006llc8c
+ 472.V/V
= 2 1064/ + 2T)206sc< + 3 1506V
D-6"= 1206V +e>306*c«, D6»=45««c.
Vi- shall conclude this article by recommending that
the process of derivation should be introduced, without
demonstration of course, into elementary books of nl:
as one of 1helx-.t ei simple al*.rrln:iie:il opera-
tion. \Vi: iin' firmly of opinion that the arithmetician
and the analyst should be trained early in the performance
of opeiations in which numerous details, each very Dim-
ple in itself, follow one another in rapid MiccesMoii with
much sameness and some diversity. Kor this reason we
should recommend, in aiithmetic, Homer's process [I:\vn-
ON AM) Kvni.i rin\] ; and in algebra, Arbogast's de-
rivation. We proceed accordingly to di vest thn method
of the phraseology of the dill'ercnlial calculus, and to jiut
it before ttie eienientaiy student in algebra.
The name of the process is il- its primary ob-
ject the raising of any power of an expression of tin
P4-cr + er'+/a» + ,4c. immediately, (hat is to say, by
writing down the rcsolt at once, without any but simple
mental pioceswn in passing from term to term. The rules
are as follows :
1. Begin with that power of 6 which is to be rail
2. To pass from the coefficient of one power of .r to
that of the next, multiply each letter by its exponent :
then diminish that exponent by a unit : then Introduce I In-
next letter. And if this last process increase an exponent,
owing to the letter newly introduced having been in the
term before, divide by the increased exponent. />'
member iierrr to operate on any Irttrr errfpt the last in
••in, or the last but one; upon the last always, upon
the last but one when it immediately precedes 'the kit
in the original series 6, r, e,f, tec.
3. If 6 + rj-4-, Sic. be not an infinite series, but a finite
number of terms, operate as if the succeeding letters
illy equal to 0 : for instance, if g be the last letter,
drop every term in which ft should appear, as fast as it
arise*.
For example, the fifth power of b + cx + ex* +/x*.
Begin with 6s, derive from it 56V, the two first terms are
To form the coefficient of x*, take 56V, and observe
tlwit b and r follow each other in the series, so that in the
next derivation there are two processes. First, use c or c1,
the last letter, which by the rule gives IrV or e : so that
derivation applied to the first power of a letter gives
merely a change of that letter into the next : hence 5//V
gives 56V. But 64, which must also be used, gives 46V,
and 56V gives 5(46*c)c ; so that c becomes c*. and we must
therefore divide by the increased exponent 2, giving
106V. Hence the next term is
(56V4-106V)**.
In the next derivation 56V gives only 56</r, for 6 not im-
mediately preceding e in the series 6, c, e, kc. is not used.
But 106V gives
106'(2ee)
I0'36*c') ft
'—^-— , or 206"ce-f 106V.
Next term (564/+206«ce+1061e>)i».
In the next derivation 56*/ must be neglected entirely,
because / is the last letter, and 6 is not the one imme-
diately preceding. Also 206V*1 gives 2()6:V/aiid 206V- -I-1-!
or 106V ; while 106V3 gives 306V"« and 2X lOAf.r'-H. or
06r4. The whole value of (b+cx+eaf+fx3 f is as follows,
and a little practice would enable any one to write it down
at once, without any intermediate operations :
6s-t-56Vx+(56V
* + G06V (/+ 106V +206cy+306c"
+(306V/« + 306V/+ U06<--i/+ 2( )6«-^' +
+ (30b'fp + 306r */* + 606r<-'/+ 5/«-' + 3 V *f/+ 1 Or V )
This process, so simple as compared with the actual
performance of the four multiplications, has hitherto lain
hid in works on the higher parts of the differential cal-
culus : it is time it should take its place in every system
of algebra which contains the binomial theorem, of which
it is the legitimate extension.
TAYLOR, JOHN, I.I..1V, was born about the year
1T"H, at Shrewsbury, where his lather, according to some
writers, was a poor shoemaker, or, according to oth
barber. He received his early education at the grammar-
school of his native place, and afterwards went to Cnni-
biidge, where he entered St. John's College, of which he
became a fellow in 1730. The great reputation which he
soon acquired as one of the best Greek scholars in t Ik-
University, procured him tin- nllie.' <.!' librarian of the Uni-
versity library, which however he afterwards exchanged
I'or that of registrar of the rniversity. His first work of
importance was his edition of the Greek orator Lysias,
under the title ' I._\siae ( iratimic- et Kragmenta, Graced et
I.atim':: ad tidem codicurn MSS. recommit, notis critic-is,
interpretation!', cacter,M|iic apparatu necessario donavit
Joanni's Taylor,' London, 1731), 4to. The year after he
Allied at Cambridge an octa\o edition of the same orator
for the use of students, with shori noti-s and a useful index
of the language. The study of the Attic orators led him
T A Y
133
T A Y
to the study of the Attic law, of which he probably pos-
sessed a better knowledge than any man of his age. He
was also fond of the study of the Roman and English law,
and he resolved to devote himself to the legal profession.
In 1741 he was admitted an advocate in Doctors' Com-
mons, and the year after he took his degree of doctor of
laws. On this occasion he published a Latin dissertation,
' Commentarius ad Legem Decemviralem de Inope Debi-
torc in partes dissecando,' which is a very unsatisfactory
explanation of this difficult subject. Soon after this he
published an edition of two Greek orations, ' Orationes
duae, una Demosthenis contra Midiam, altera Lycurgi
contra Leocratem, Graece et LatineV with notes and emen-
dations, Cambridge, 1743, 8vo., and in the same year he
published the 'Manner Sandvicence, cum Commentario et
Notis,' Cambridge, 1743, 4to. This volume also contains
a useful dissertation on this celebrated inscription, which
had been brought from Athens to London by Lord Sand-
wich in 1739. In 1744 Dr. Taylor was made chancellor
of Lincoln ; and some years later he took holy orders,
though without abandoning the study of the law and of
1lu> antient writers. He was now successively made arch-
deacon of Buckingham and rector of Lawford in Essex,
to which, in 1757, was added the lucrative place of canon
residentiary of St. Paul's. In 1755 he published at Lon-
don, in 4to"., his ' Elements of Civil Law,' a second edition
of which appeared in 1709. Dr. Taylor undertook this
work at the suggestion of Lord Carteret, who had intrusted
him with the education of his grandsons, whom he wished
to be instructed in the principles and history of the civil
law. The work displays great learning and knowledge of
the subject, but it is not well adapted for the use of bcgin-
ners; an abridgement of it appeared in 1773, in London,
under the title ' A Summary of the Roman Law.' During
the last period of his life, Dr. Taylor had made extensive
preparations for a new edition of the Greek orators. One
volume (which is the third) appeared in 1748 at Cam-
bridge, but his death on the 4th of April, 1750, prevented
the author himself from completing the work, though all
the materials were ready for press. The second volume
appeared after his death, in 1757. The work bears the
title, 'Demosthenis, ^schinis, Dinarchi, et Demadis Ora-
tiones : Greece1 et Latintf, cum notis edidit J. Taylor.'
The notes, which were published at a later time, are incor-
porated in Reiske's ' Apparatus C'riticus' to Demosthenes.
In a critical point of view the edition of Taylor is not of
any !jreat worth, and its chief value consists in his notes
in illustration of the history of the orations and the Attic
law. Dr. Taylor is said to have been a most amiable and dis-
interested man : he had considerable taste for poetry, and
some specimens of his muse are printed in the ' G'entle-
man's Magazine,' and in Nichols's ' Select Collection of
Poems.'
(Aikin and Johnston's General Biography, vol. ix.,
p. 337, &c. ; Reiske, Pracfatio ad Demosthenem, p. 42,
sec.)
TAYLOR, SIR ROBERT, born in 1714, was the son of
a London stone-mason, who was more prosperous than
prudent, for he affected a style of living very unusual at
that period among persons engaged in business : he kept
his carriage, and also his country-house in Essex. To-
wards his sou, on the contrary, he appears to have been
far from liberal, as he bestowed on him only a common
school education, and then placed him under Sir Henry
Cheere, a sculptor, whose chief work of note is the statue
of Col. Codrington, in the library of All Souls, Oxford.
On quitting Cheere, he was furnished by his father with
just sufficient money to proceed to Rome, where he was
obliged to live with the utmost frugality. His studies in
Italy were however of no long continuance, for he was
soon summoned home by the intelligence of his father
being dangerously ill ; upon which he hurried back to
and with as much expedition as the state of the Con-
tinent would then permit, and was obliged to disguise
himself as a Franciscan friar. On reaching home, he found
that his lather was dead, and that he had left nothing.
Thus thrown entirely upon his own resources and ability,
all that remained for him was to set up business as a
statuary, and he first brought himself into notice by Corn-
wall's monument. His principal other works in sculpture are
t'l monument, near the north door of Westminster
Abbey, the fiifme of Britannia at the Bank of England, and
the bas-relief in the pediment of the Mansion-house, Lon-
don. After this he abandoned sculpture for architecture,
and one of his earliest productions in his new profession
was the mansion erected by him for Mr. Gower, near the
South Sea House. In 1756-58 he was employed in the
alterations of old London Bridge in conjunction with Dance,
and thenceforth upon a number of buildings both public and
private ; yet very few among which display much architec-
tural taste, and least of all any of that richness in decora-
tion and detail which might have been expected from one
who had been brought up and had practised as a sculptor.
The wings added by him to the Bank of England (after-
wards swept away oy his successor Soane) were at the
time termed 'magnificent,' but then it could only be by com-
parison with the older building by Sampson, to which they
were attached. This design itself was only borrowed from
one of Bramante's [BRAMANTE], and was upon so small a
scale as to look insignificant in such a situation. The
'Stone Buildings' at Lincoln's Inn are such a mere architec-
tural blank, that the columns, instead of diminishing the
poverty of its character, serve only to render it the more
apparent. There is however some architectural character
displayed in that which is called the ' Six Clerks' Office,'
situated between the other building and Chancery Lane.
The villa which he built for Sir Charles Asgill at Rich-
mond is at least unexceptionable in taste, though it
hardly deserves the admiration it has obtained. Among
his other works, Lord Grimston's seat at Gorhambury is
one of the best. If not very great, he was eminently suc-
cessful, in his profession, and obtained several lucrative
appointments and surveyorships to the Admiralty, Found-
ling Hospital, Greenwich Hospital, and the Bank of Eng-
land, for which he was well qualified, being a man of most
business-like habits, and of most extraordinary diligence
and assiduity. He was rarely in bed after' four in the
morning; was most abstemious in his diet, and drank no
wine. Whether in consequence of taking warning from his
father's example or not, he seems in almost all respects to
have been the very reverse of him in his mode of living ;
and it is not surprising that his economy, together with
the appointments which he held, should have enabled him
to realize a fortune of 180,000/., though, as he himself
used to say, he began the world with hardly eighteen
pence. He died at his own house in Spring Gardens,
September 27, 1788, and was buried in St. Martin's church.
He gave the whole of his property to his only son, the
latr Michael Angelo Taylor, M.P., with the exception of
a sum to the university of Oxford, to accumulate for a
certain term of years and then to be applied to found an in-
stitute for the study of modern languages. This bequest
having been incorporated with a similar one by Dr. Ran-
dolph for a picture and statue gallery, a building was
begun in 1H41, under the name of the ' Taylor and 'Ran-
dolph Institute,' from the designs of C. R. Cockerell, Esq.,
professor of architecture at the Royal Academy. Taylor
was knighted when sheriff of London in 1783.
(Gentleman's Magazine; Cresy's Milizia ; Dallaway's
Art a in England; Companion to Almanac, 1842.)
TAYLOR, THOMAS, was born in London on the 15th
May, 1758 : his parents were respectable in their calling,
but not wealthy. At a very early age he was sent to St.
Paul's school, and after remaining there about three years
he was placed under the care of a relation who held a
situation in the dockyard at Sheerness, with whom he
resided several years. During this time he applied himself
assiduously to the study of mathematics, and also obtained
some knowledge of chemistry : he next became a pupil of
the Rev. Mr. Worthington, a dissenting minister who pos-
sessed considerable classical acquirements, ultimately in
tending to complete his studies at Aberdeen with a view to
the ministry. But a premature marriage and pecuniary
difficulties compelled him to relinquish this plan, and to
accept a junior clerkship in Messrs. Lubbock's banking-
house. While in this employment he devoted his spare
hours to the study of Plato and Aristotle and their com-
mentators. At this time, and to the end of his life, Mr.
Taylor always devoted at least six hours of every day to
study, and when not engaged in business they were
generally the first six. Poverty, and the difficulties at-
tending it, were no obstacles to him, and he always hoped
to emerge from the obscurity they placed him in. He
first attracted public notice by an attempt to discover the
secret of the perpetual lamp, upon which he gave a lec-
ture and exhibited his experiments at tho Freemasons'
T A V
134
\ Y
>i. Though it WM a failure, it was marked by some
made him
1 liuu in
another u . which was li< »c of
:iic philosophy. Introducing )
by such nu is enabled to procure pupils, to whom
hi' taught the langun::c> i.iul nuithi maties, having also
'..I the
• iragcmcnt of Arts, Manufactures,
and Commerce, which he held for several years: he of
<• up and was glad to be emancipated from the
labours of the banking-house. It was in
.at he maci live acquaintance
•il'u- men of all professions, and
>.;» ranks who are promoter* of arU
Iv falls to the lot of an obscure
:ilual : but h.' made something more than mere ac-
acijiiircd many friends who were able and
i in all Iiis undertakings, anil with
,i he iinally accomplished all that he had in
. whii-h war to translate the works of all the un-
translated antient Greek philosophers. It was an arduous
le man, ;uid apparently a hopeless one, serins;
that Sydenhani, with the advantage of a more regular
education, bcin id. and a known and
acknowledged scholar, liad not only failed in his desire to
impa his less learned countrymen by means
suffered to perish in the
attempt for want of patronage, 'to the sorrow and shame
;-. biographer says i of every friend of literature :' yet
Sydeiiham was a good man, hiirhly respected, and had
many frie:i -vcd he had : he must have been a re-
cluse, for the circumstances ol his death seem to have caused
surprise. .Mr. Taylor was fond of society, and always in
it : there was no appearance of abstraction about him ;
and a stranger would not have suspected him of be-
ludious ; he was always ready to join in conversation
with any one who happened to be near him, and upon
any subject; there were few subjects upon which he had
not read, and he could always amuse or instruct if re-
quired. ' Being gifted with a very extraordinary memory,
he not only regained the immense store of knowledge he
ha 1 amassed, but he could bring it all into use at his will :'
he was deep!) n ad in tilings that many like to hear of,
though they are no longer studied, sorcery, witchcraft.
alchemy, See., and his fund of anecdote was quite inex-
haiutible : all this, joined to simple and unobtrusive man-
ners, and irreproachable conduct, made him not only an
agreeable companion to many, but to some lie became
line. Men whose occupations had
prevented their leading, though they were desirous of
knowledge, were particularly delighted with the company
'I' Mr. Taylor, am! .such were his great supporters. It
was by making friends chiefly that Mr. Taylor, who was
as poor as Sydenhum, contrived to print works tliat inu.-t
have cost more than lO.WXI/., that were not of the most
saleable description, and that upon the whole produced
no pecuniary profit. The duke of Norfolk printed Plato,
and from some unaccountable whim locked up nearly the
whole edition in his house, where it remained till long
after his decease, but he was attached to Mr. Taylor, and
frequently made him his companion at Arundcl. Mr.
Meredith. -man retired from business, was
a man possessed ol sound mental faculties, with no aver-
. '. :ng read Plato he wished al-o to
read Aristotle in an Ki:gli>h translation, and Mr. Taylor
was ready to help him to it upon no other condition than
h'.s undertaking to print it. which he did ; and though he
made a losing.-; of it, by printing too few i
he was so well :h M.. 1'aylor's exertions, that
he. not only assisted him in bringing out some of his minor
publications, but settled a pension of 1(K)/. a year upon
him, which he enjoyed till his death : mich munificence
and lYicmlihip in a man who had earned his money, and
knew the value of it, is truly honourable. Mr. Mcicdith.
though not versed in the antient languages, obtained a
A ledge of antient literature : he was a man who
.'lit lor himself, and came to just conclusions upon
Mr. Taylor's minor works some
will be fo-.iml dedicated to persons who printed them upon
similar term.-. aij<! 1:1 a lew cases gave him the benefit of
the • :i. lie never exacted pavment for llis
labour, except in one or two case* with tlie booksellers,
and then he tedjBMMliMKh. But with such me
i'\cr :lll hi- ditti,
! and ha<!
was about 3H>/. a year. There are some prr-mi-. wh.
not at all pleated with Mr. T. .nipt to i.
certain antieiit opinions: they neither wished 1«
of the works he ha> translated^ nor his remarks upon them
iu English ; but they arc th- ho broug!.'
writers into notice by constantly referring to them, and
speaking of them in terms that are neither liberal nor en-
tirely merited. These writers were the supporters of
antient opinions and establishments, the failure of in
which is now complete and past recovery ; there can •'
fore be little to object to in their writings, and tl..
much that is good and worth prescrvi:
they found translators in every c-iuli/-
land. It seems then that our p:
done their duty to the public: II
translations with their own annotations, the laboi.
Mr. Taylor would not have been called for, and ai
marks he might have made elsewhere would have' had
little weight, and have been overlooked. Th.
nortant works yet untranslated, and there are n;
lat inns which arc disgraceful to the literary ch
our country : it is time then that our scholars should look
to these matters, and sec that things which must and will
be done are well done.
Mr. Taylor, during the last forty years of his life, resided
in a small house at \Valworth. leading a life
uniformity, and dividing his time between hi> luboui
his attentions to his friends and family. lie died on the
1st of November, 1835, of a \crypainful i the,
bladder, which he bore with extraordinary fortitude and
without complaining. He was an Academician
sion and a Stoic in practice; a sincere friend and
lightful companion. His works and tiaiinlations are: —
I, 'The Elements of a New Method of Reasoning iu '
metry,' 4to., 178(), a juvenile performance lost or stip-
d ; 2, a Paraphrase of part of Ocellus in the
European Mii^nziin1, 17*2 : a translation of the whole
work in 1831, 8vo. : 3. -The Hymn* of Oiphcus,' 12mo.,
1787; second edition, 1824, augmented ; 4. 'Plotinuson
the Beautiful,' 12mo., 17s7 : 5, -A Di>- crtation on the
Klciisinian and Bacchic M , ,o.. no date; (j. 'The
Rights of Unites,' 12mo., 17U2, in ridicule of Paine's
• Rights of Man ;' 7. ' Sallust on the Gods and the "World,1
8vo., 17'.U: 8, -The Phiedrus of Plato,' 4to., 17'J2 ;
9, 'The Cratylus. Phaedon, Parmenides, and Tin.
8vo., 1793; 10, 'Proelus on Euclid,' 2 vols. 4to., 17H2;
II, 'Two Orations of the Emperor Julian to the So\>
Sun and to the Mother of the Gods,' 8vo., 1793 ; 1 2.
sanias' Description of Greece,' 3 vols. 8vo., 171)4 : for this
translation, made in such haste that Mr. Ta\ lor nearly lost
the use of his right hand from continued exeition, he
received 181. The work was in such demand that it sold
for a high price, and a second edition wa- printed in iN'Jl
without consulting the translator, who heard of it acci-
dentally, when it was too late to correct it ; a slight com-
pensation was made to him, and he added some n
tins is an illustration of the remarks already made ; a work
like this should not have been lelt to a necessitous writer :
13, l-'i\e books of Plotinus, ' On Felicity : on the Nature
and Origin of Evil : on Providence ; on Nature, Contem-
plation, and the One : on the Descent of the Soul,' 8\o..
IT'.M : ll. ' Cupid and Psyche,' from -•.».. 17U~>:
I.".. • Metaphysics of Aristotle,' 4to.. 1801; 1C. II,
'. Lexicon,' edited. 4to., Is<»3: 17. -The' Di-
Uons of Maximus Tyriuv 2 vol-. I2rao., l*ui : is. -An
Answer to Dr. Gillies' .Supplement to 1): !t-i-
of the Works of Aristotle. 8vo., isill ; III, 'The \\
of Plato,' 5 vols. 4to., IS(>4 : includiiTg reprint-, of the
parts previously translated, and many commentaries taken
of which have since been printed in tin-
original language: -Jii. -'I
mop] >i are printed w'ith Sir. Bridgcman'* trans-
lations. 8u>.. 1804 ; 21, ' Miscellanies in Prose and \
I2mo.. I8U-,, 2nd ed. 1*211: 22. 'Cofll
21. -The Kmperor Julian's Atguinent- taken from '
with Extract- fnun In ' to the I 'liris-
tiaiis,'N\o.. 1809; 21. 'The \Vorks of Aristotle,' i( vols.
4to., 1812, with copious extracts from the antient com-
mentators, to which are added a dissertation on the
philosophy of Aristotle, and a treatise on the elements of
TEA
135
TEA
the true arithmetic of infinites, both of which had ap-
peared in a separate form ; 25, ' The Six Books of Proclus
on the Theology of Plato,' 2 vols. 4to., 1816; 2U, 'Theo-
retic Arithmetic,' 8vo., 1816, containing what had been
written on this subject by Theon of Smyrna, Nicomachus,
lamblicus, and Boethius ; with remarks on amicable and
other numbers, and a specimen of the manner in which
the Pvthagorasans philosophised about numbers ; 27, ' Se-
lect Works of Plotinus,' 8vo., 1817 ; 28, ' Life of Pytha-
goras by lamblicus,' 8vo., 1818; 29, 'lamblicus on the
-Mysteries of the Egyptians, Chaldseans, and Assyrians,'
8vo., 1821; 30, 'The Commentaries of Proclus on the
Timams of Plato,' 2 vols.4to., 1820 ; 31, 'Political Pytha-
goric Fragments and Ethical Fragments of Hierocles,'
. 1«22; 32, 'The Metamorphoses and Philosophical
Works of Apulcius,' 8vo., 1822 ; translated gratuitously at
the request of a friend, but purchased by a publisher
for 100?. : Mr. Taylor had a few copies for his benefit ;
33, 'Select Works of Porphyry,' 8vo., 1823; some Essays
are added ; 33, ' All the Fragments that remain of the
Lost Writings of Proclus,' 8vo., 182o ; 30, ' Arguments of
Celsus relative lo the Christians, taken from Origen, with
Extracts from other Writers,' 12mo., 1830 ; 37, ' Proclus on
Providence and Evil,' 8vo., 1833 ; 38, ' Plotinus on Sui-
cide, with Extracts from Olympiodorus, and two books on
Truly Existing Being, &c., with Notes from Porphyry and
Proems," 8vo., 1834. Besides these, there are many
papers written by Mr. Taylor in the ' Classical Journal '
and other periodicals, amongst which may be specified a
complete and valuable collection of the Chaldtean oracles,
republished by Mr. Cory-
TAYLOR'S THEOREM. [TAYLOR, BROOK.]
TAYWAN. [TA'I-WAN.]
TCHAD, LAKE. [SOODAN, p. 249.]
TCHERMGOV. [CZER.VIOOF.]
TEA. [THEA.]
TEA, PARAGUAY, or MATE', is the produce of a
plant belonging to the family Aquifoliacese. It was for-
merly Mippnsed to be the produce of the Ilf.v ro/nitoria,
which is found in North America, in the C'arolinas, and Flo-
rida; but, from specimens sent from Brazil to Mr. Lambert,
it appears to be a distinct species, which he has named
II: i paragitanentit. It is a shrub attaining the size of
the orange-tret- : it is quite smooth, with bluntish v,
shaped remotely serrated leaves, with umbelliferous flowers
1 in the axils of the leaves. It is the Ilfi Matt of
Hilaire, and grows wild in Paraguay and Brazil,
and is called by the Spaniards Yen-n Mute. The leaves of
this shrub are in great repute amongst the inhabitants of
South America, and are used in infusion in a similar man-
ner to the tea of China. Upwards of 5,000,000 Ibs. of the
leaves of this tree are annually collected in Paraguay, and
nt to Chili and the viccroyalty of Buenos Ayres. It
i- lint cultivated, and merchants carry various articles of
into the interior, which they give the natives for their
labour in collecting the leaves of the plant. After the
branches are cut away, the ground is heated by means of
a fire, and the branches, being laid upon the heated ground,
;\re dried, and afterwards they are beaten and pressed into
1'ir.T", in which state it comes into the market. There are
three kinds known in the market : the Caa-cuy», which is
the bud of the leaf: (lie > '<i i-inini, the leaf torn from its
midrib and vein?, \\ithout roasting; and the Cun-fumzii,
or Yi-i-ni fif I'nhi of the Spaniards, the i\ hole leaf with the
petioles and small branches roasted. The first docs not
steep well, and is seldom seen. The plant when used is
steeped in boiling water, to which a little sugar and
times lemon-juice is added. It is drunk out of a
called witf, which has a spout perforated with holes for
the pin-pi.-'- of preventing the powdered herb from passing
out with the fluid. The Creoles are passionately fond of
this infusion, nnd never partake of a meal without it. The
properties of this plant, are sedative and stimulant.
Another species of Ilex, the /. '. , found in
Brazil, H applicable to the same purposes as the last ;
•Ithonsh inferior in quality, was used extensively as a
true Paraguay tea, when the export of the
latter from Paraguay was forbidden by the dictator Francia.
Th produces the Cassena of Florida and
irohnas, which is used for the purpose of correcting
the flavour of water.
TEAK. [TKtTosA.]
TEAL (Querquedula crecca, Steph. ; Anus crecca, Linn.),
one of the smallest of the Anatidce, and most beautiful of
the DUCKS, in which article will be found Mr. Swainson's
observations on the subgenus denominated Teals, together
with a description of the Blue-ieinged Teal.
Description of the Common Teal. — Adult Male.— Top of
the head, cheeks, and neck of a deep chestnut ; throat
black ; a broad band of fine glossy green passing from the
eyes to the back of the neck, bordered by a pale margin
inclining to yellowish ; head and cheeks chestnut ; back,
scapulars, and flanks zigzagged with irregular alternate
lines of black and white ; breast and under parts yellowish-
white, but the breast is spotted with blackish ; wing-
coverts brown ; beauty-spot (speculum) rich glossy green,
deepened at the sides into a velvety black ; quills brown-
ish-black ; under tail-coverts burl', with a longitudinal
black band ; bill black ; iris brown ; legs blackish-brown.
This is the nuptial dress ; but, in July and August, this
brilliant livery is exchanged for the more sober hues of the
Ft'iiin lr.~ Top of the head Sienna yellow, with dashes of
deep brown ; throat and cheeks dusky white, sprinkled
with brown spots ; plumage above tarnished or dull brown,
each feather with a margin of a lighter colour ; under parts
yellowish-white ; beauty-spot green.
This is the Sareelle, Petite Sarcellc, Cercelle, Cercerelle,
Alebrande, Gursote, and Halebrun of the French ; Cerce-
dula, Cerrevolo, Scavolo, Sartella, Anitrclla, and Anitra
d' Inverno of the Italians ; Spiegel-Entlein and Krickente
of the Germans; It'inti-r Tut ing of the Netherlanders ;
Aria and Kra-cka of the Swedes; Kestelort-And of the
Norwegians; Krik-And of the Danes; Cor Hiryad and
ffrarh Iliryntl of the antient British.
Ifufii/.v. <i'ri><.'rii-/:/ti<-<i/ JJiistrihutinn, $c. — Mr. Yarrell,
in his ' British Birds,' now nearly complete, and forming a
most \aliiiible addition to British ornithology, thus sums
up the information extant relative to the habits and locality
of this pretty species, which he notices 'as an early anil
constant winter visitor, making its appearance by the end
of September, sometimes sooner than that, and remaining
with us till spring has made considerable ],i H^K-S ; their
numbers are constantly recruited through the winter months
!>y additional arrivals from the northern parts of Europe,
ind our markets in consequence obtain a regular supply
from the \arious decoys and other modes of capture. Al-
though numbers in spring return again to more northern
localities to breed, many remain in this country and pass
1he summer near fresh-water lakes. That some of them
jreed here also, in suitable localities, is proved by the fact
ihat, in the summer of 1817, Mr. Youell of Yarmouth had
bur young birds of the Teal brought to him, which wcic
hatched at Reedham in Norfolk. The authors of the Cata-
ogue of Norfolk and Suffolk birds say also that very small
ones have been ol/lamcd in company with their parents
upon Kan worth Broad, by Mr. Kerrisou of that place : and
that they breed also pnScoulton Mere. The Rev. Richard
Lubbock of Norfolk, in his note to me on tin's species, says,
" the Teal must, in some years, either breed abundantly
with us, or migrate hither very early : I have known sixty
or seventy Teal come in small parties to the same plash
of water at sun-down by the first week in August." The
Teal bear confinement well ; and at the gardens of the
Zoological Society, though restricted to a veiy small pond,
with a margin of thick and high grass, with some low
shrubs, have hied regularly for the l-^\ Cm Feb.,
1842). The eggs are white, tinged with buff, measuring
one inch three lines in length, by one inch four lines in
breadth. The food of the Teal consists of seeds, grasses,
water-plants, and insects in their various states. In con-
finement they require gvain. Some Teal breed about the
lakes of Wales, and a few in Romney M.irsh. Mr. Selbv,
who has paid attention to the habits of Ihiri species in
Northumberland, says, 'our indigenous broods, I am in-
clined to think, seldom quit the immediate neighbourhood
of the place in which they were bred, as I have repeatedly
observed them to haunt the same district from the time of
their hatching, till they separated and paired on the ap-
proach of the following spring. The Teal breeds in the
long rushy herbage about the edges of lakes, or in the
bociry parts of the upland moors. Its nest is formed of a
mass of decayed vegetable matters, with a lining of
down and feathers, upon which eight or ten eggs rest.
Dr. Heysham, in his catalogue of Cumberland animals,
says that a few Teal certainly breed in the mosses of that
county every year.'
T i: \
136
T i
White, in n U-tterJo the Hon. Daines Harrington, dated
Svlhorne, July 8, 1773, »ay», 'Some young uu-n went down
lately to a pond on the verge of Wdmer Forest to hunt
flappers, or voting wild dock*, many of which they caught,
and, among the rest, some very minute, yet wtlMUdged
wild fowls alive, which, upon examination, I found to be
teals. 1 did not know till then llwt • ITU! in the
south of England, and was much pleased with the diseo-
this I look upon as a great stroke in natural history.'
llut to return to Mr. Yarrell, who thus proceeds: 'In
Ireland the Teal is found in great numbers throughout the
winter, and a few are resident there all th< -.r Ro-
Iwrt Sihbald, and other authorities sinre his time, notiee
the teal as inhabiting the edges of the Scottish lakes : Mr.
Dunn however says that it is not numerous either in Ork-
ney or Shetland, although the most so in winter ; luit that
a few pairs occasionally remain during summer and breed.
They prefer the inland lakes to the sea-shore. Kichard
Dunn. KMJ.. sent me word that this beautiful little duck is
widely and numerously dispersed over the whole of Nor-
way and Sweden, but Is most plentiful in the north during
the breeding season. It breeds all over Lapland, both
•TII and eastern, and is very abundant in the Dofre
Kiell, within the range of the birch-trees. The eggs vary
in number from ten to fifteen. It breeds also in the cuf-
tivated districts in all the mosses and bogs. Mr. Proctor
says the Teal is pretty common in Iceland. Eastward of
Scandinavia it is found in Russia, and is abundant in Ger-
many, Holland, Kiance, Spain, and Italy ; visits .North
Africa in winter, and has been noticed "at Smyrna and
Trebizond. The Teal was found in the vicinity of the
Caucasian range, by Russian natural's)*, and is included
in catalogues of the birds of various parts of India, ( 'lima.
and Japan. The Teal of North America is distinct from
the Teal of Europe and Asia.' (liritixh fiirds.)
Mr. Gould, in his great work, • The Hirds of Europe,'
remarks that M. Temminck names Northern America ns
among the native localities of the Teal ; but Mr. Gould
says that he is inclined to dissent from this opinion, for
the American examples may always be distinguished by a
white crescent-shaped band on each side of the chest ni-ar
the shoulders. This, together with the absence of the
white tertial feather, will constitute, he thinks, fair grounds
for a genuine specific distinction.
M. Temminck, in the fourth volume of his ' Manuel."
has himself corrected this error, acknowledging the differ-
ence, and referring to Dr. Richardson, ' Fauna Boreali-
Air.encana,' vol. ii., p. 443.
The teal flies vigorously. Drayton, in the 'five and
twentieth song" of his ' Polyolbion,' alludes to this power.
After celebrating the Duck and Mallard, he continues:—
' An-l necre to Ihctn yo sec Ilir lr«rr diMilin;,' 'IV il<%
In Ininrlirs,* with liu- first thit fly from men In marc,
At they above Uic reM were lord* of rarlli and •>«.'
Commua Trml, Qiwrquolulm encai.
Utility to Mm. — ThU species is one of the most deli-
cate of the duck*. Willughby remarks, that for the taste
of its flesh, and the wholesome nourishment it affords the
• ' the word in Falconry for » company of TeUc.'
body, it 'doth deservedly challenge the fust plate among
those of its kind.'
In the ' Portraits d'< .tin- following qua-
train celebrates its excellence and alludes to its habiU: —
' llifa frtl muvmt M- ploii^o |» urrrllr
Bvlre deux raux. dc U'|iirU* U chair
K»t •!> lie .!•• - niiwi •
Autanl qu'oymti, <pi «.it |,lii n>ramr clip.'
ordingly we see it holding a high place in aniicnt
feasts. We find it among the • goodly provision ' a! the
banquet given at the enthroning of G .ell. arch-
bishop ol 'York, in the reign of Edward IV.: • Mallaides
and Teales, 41KKJ.' The piice, in the Northumberland
HovwhoU Hook, is •Tcylles, Id.,' mallards being :>•/.
In the provision for the marriage of Roger Kneklcy and
Elizabeth Ne\ ile. 14th January. 17th Henry \ III. ."there
appear among the dishes for "the first course at dinner
'Teals, 7 of a dish ;' and in the account of the expen-c in
the week for flesh and fish for the same marriage, -Mal-
lards and Teal, 80 doMB,' are ckargcd -.l':t II s.' AKo
in the charge of Sir John Nevile of Chete, the fat!
the bride above mentioned, at Lammas assizes, in the 3D h
Henry VIII., lie then being sheriff of Yorkshire, we find
•12 shillings charged for ' Mallards, Teal, and other wild
fowl.'
TEAM. Nothing is of greater importance in the ma-
nagement of a farm than the cattle which perform Un-
necessary work in ploughing and other opcrat ions on the
soil, in drawing manure to the land and carrying the pro-
duce to market. It is evident that the smaller the expense
of the team which does the requisite work in proper time,
the greater the profit of the farmer, and every saving in
this part of the expense of cultivation is so much added
to the clear gain. Wherever the land is only partially
cultivated, and a portion of it remains in coarse pasture,
which costs little or nothing to the occupier, or where ex-
tensive open commons afford cheap food for oxen, these
last are naturally employed in farm labour. If four oxen
do only the work of two horses, they are maintained at a
much smaller expense, and, after working for two or three
years, their value is improved for the purpose of fatting
for the butcher. The necessary gear is much less expen-
sive, especially where the old yoke is still in use, whether
across the neck or the horns. In fact for a poor man who
has only a few acres of land, and who is situated near a
waste or common, oxen, and even cows anil heifers, arc
by far the most economical team. Many writeis on agri-
culture, who in general have more theoretical than prac-
tical knowledge of husbandry, have maintained the geneial
superiority of an ox team over that composed r.f h
and have given calculations which appear clcarlj t<
blish their point. But, on the other side, it ma\ 1
!. that wherever suable land is the chief object of
the farmer's attention, and the tillage of the soil is luoiiL-ht
to any degree of perfection, there oxen are never teen at
work, but have been invariably superseded by active
It has been urged that at Windsor Park, where it may
be supposed that the farms in which (ieorge III. took so
much inteiest were conducted by the most experienced
agriculturists, a ccnsideiable tram of oxen was kept, and
did most of the work, even the earning on the n
Tills is a continuation of what we have observed before.
The oxen feed on the grass of nn extensive park, the value
of which is not brought to account. They are very lightly
worked, and fatten well after two or three years' work ;
but if a rent had to be paid for their pasture, or if it were
calculated how many young oxen and heifers or sheep
oould have been kept on the pasture consumed by the
u\en, and the profit of thc-c \\cic set againM the value of
the work dime, it would probably appear that then- Wl
gieat economy in the ox-team compared with the li
In Switzerland, which is tolerably advanced in its agricul-
ture, oxen an- veiv geneinllv used for the wink of tin-
farm: but there the Msteni of Mall-feeding is iiimcisal,
and having a coiiMdeiable portion of glass-land, which
can be irrigated by the streams from the mountains, they
cut the ctiaise long giiLv produced there for their .
and oxen : and this food is mure congenial to their i .
than to horses, which do not thrive on coarse w a
and icquire hay and emu nearly all the year ronnii. But
where then i-s-laml and nu.re artificial grass, such
liiifoin, and clover, which is the case in all «x-
TEA
137
TEA
tensive farms, there horses are chiefly used, this food being
suited to their constitution. Not to enter further into the
comparative advantage of oxen and horses, we shall turn
our attention to the most profitable management of the
latter, which now almost universally compose the farmer's
team.
The choice of the horses for a farm is of great import-
ance. It may be very satisfactory to a rich farmer to see
fine large well-fed horses in his waggon, moving along as
il they followed a procession, with bright harness orna-
mented with shining brass. This is a luxury like that of
the ric-h man's coach-horses, and as such is very natural
and innocent. It is the pride of many a wealthy yeoman,
and we would not curtail his pleasure or despise his taste ;
but as a matter of profit or loss the case is very different :
a fat horse does little work, no more than a fat coachman.
Horses to be in working condition should be muscular and
active. The great heavy cart-horse may, for a moment,
be capable of a greater exertion at a dead pull, his weight
assisting him ; but in a long day the thin active horse will
do with ease what would sicken, if not, kill, his heavy
companion. Horses about fifteen hands high, with short
legs and broad chests, such as the Suffolk punches, which
walk as fast as an ordinary man, or the active Scotch
horses, which have more blood and will readily trot
with a moderate load, are the most economical for farm-
work. A pair of such horses will draw a load in a cart
sixteen miles and return, or plough a Scotch acre of
Iftnd, equal to one acre and a quarter imperial measure, in
ten working hours, having a rest of two hours ; while the
heavy slow South-country horses could not walk the dis-
tance in the time without being over-driven. This is more
than the average work ; but in the busy time of the year
it is a great advantage to have horses which can, with good
feeding, work longer and faster without suffering in their
health. The carriers on the roads, who live entirely by
the work of their horses, know how to choose them and
how to feed them to the greatest advantage, and, without
over-working them, to make them do as much as is con-
si-tent with their health. If hard work is the cause of
some diseases in horses, comparative indolence t
many more. Where horses are sluggish, the men soon
become so likewise. To see a waggon with four strong
horses returning empty, at the rate of two miles in the
hour, with two men, or at least a man and a boy, lying
lazily in it, is a sun- siirn that the work on the farm to
which they belong is done at the same rate. A single-
horse cart, or a liirht spring wasreron with two horses, driven
by a man or hoy with reins and a whip, and trotting at the
rate of five miles an hour, is a perfect contrast to this, and
no doubt the owner has his work done much more expedi-
tiously, and consequently at a cheaper rate. The stage-
coach proprietors have generally very light four-wheeled
carriages to carry their corn from their chief stations to
places where they keep horses, and they often carry as heavy
loads as a farmer's waggon does when carrying corn to
market ; yet the two horses in the light carriage trot with
their load, and the three or four heavy horses of the farmer
move at the rate of two miles and a half in the hour at
most, both going and returning. It is evident that there
is a waste of time and power here, which is so much lost.
Horses half-bred between a cart-mare and a blood-horse
are reared by some spirited farmers, and if they are more
delicate and susceptible of cold than the common cart-
horses, they have many advantages: sometimes they in-
herit so much courage and vigour from theirsire, that they
become valuable as carriage-horses or hunters, and well
repay the expense incurred in rearing them ; and at all
U they are superior to any others for the work of the
farm, and are in general docile and tractable. The only
inconvenience arises from their spirit. When any sudden
obstruction arises in ploughing, such as a considerable root
of a tree or a lar<;e stone, they make violent exertions, and
sometimes bleak the ploughs or other implements. In
this respect oxen are more phlegmatic, and stop when the
collar presses on them ; so that in breaking up rough com-
or newly cleared woods oxen may be preferred.
This is almost, the only case where spirit and courage are
not an advantage.
\Vith respect to the food of farm-horses, as we observed
bi-l'oi. - nuiy !)<• effected by a judicious use
of many vegetables and roots which are easily raised on
arable land. Various modes of preparing the food have
P. C., No. 1505.
been recommended, such as steeping corn till it sprouts,
baking it into bread, or mixing it with boiled roots. All
these may have their advantage where economy is the
object ; but, with the exception of baked bread made of
rye, barley, and oats, and slightly leavened, which is per-
haps the best food which can be given to slow-working
horses, there is nothing so congenial to the healthy stomach
of a horse as good hay and dry oats, or beans bruised in a
mill and mixed with cut chaff. They require no cooking
to be fully digested, and the digestive power of the horse
will extract all the nourishment which they contain. But
there are cheaper fodders than hay and corn, especially in
summer, when they can be given fresh and green. Tares,
clover, lucern, and sainfoin, cut as they are wanted, will
keep a horse in health and working condition with little
or no corn, and at a comparatively trifling expense ; car-
rots are peculiarly relished by horses, and are very whole-
some ; and Swedish turnips, or ruta baga, given raw in
moderate quantities make their skins "shine, and thus
prove that they tend to keep them in condition. Every
prudent farmer takes care to have a sufficient supply of
these cheaper substitutes for hay and corn, keeping these
'ast as a reserve and auxiliary to the former. In a prize
Essay of the Highland and Agricultural Society on the
comparative advantages of raw and boiled grain as food
or farm-horses, the author adduces some experiments,
which lead to the conclusion that there is no advantage
n boiling grain, but rather the contrary. The cost of
keep of a horse per day on different food" has been "-iven
as follows : —
Id.
9
1
1*.
1 0*
Gd.
10 Ibs. of straw cut into chaff .
10 Ibs. of oats, at 3s. per bushel
16 Ibs. of turnips, at lUv. per ton
Expense of cutting . .
or— 16 Ibs. of hay, at 3?. &/. per cwt.
5 Ibs. of oats, at 3-v. per bushel
16 Ibs. turnips, at 10*. per tun
or — 28 Ibs. of steamed turnips
7 Ibs. of coals, at 1*. per bushel
Expense of steaming
10 Ibs. of straw, at 11. per ton .
This last appears the most economical food, but steamed
turnips and straw only would probably not keep a horse in
good working condition, and it is not said how long the
experiment, was continued, nor whether the horses thus
fed lost weight. The food is also valued at a low rate.
It is evident that if farm-horses can be kept in condition
for 6Jrf. a day, which is not 4*. a week, while on hay and
oats, in the common mode of feeding, they will cost more
than double that sum, the saving in a year would amount to
nearly 10/. on each horse ; and as every twenty-five acres of
a farm of moderately light land will require one horse for its
cultivation, there will be a saving of 8s. per acre, probably
half the rent, and more than half the profit. However
this may be, there is no doubt that it is of great import-
ance to ascertain what is, on the whole, the best and
cheapest mode of feeding farm-horses ; and without en-
tering into minute calculations, it will be found that
various artificial grasses may be made to succeed each
other, by successive sowings, so regularly, that the horses
shall be kept for six months of the year entirely on suc-
culent green food, which will enable them to do all the
necessary work, and keep them in good health and con-
dition. Thus with the help of carrots, potatoes, and ruta
baga, a great saving of hay and oats may be effected in
winter, and these crops will take up much less land
for their production than hay and oats, and exhaust the
soil less; if we except potatoes, which are more profitably
used as human food or to fatten pigs.
The example of tradesmen and manufacturers who keep
horses, and cut all the hay which they use into chatf, mix-
ing it with oats, may be good for a farmer to follow, where
hay is scarce and beans a good price : but otherwise it is
fully as economical to give the nay in racks, provided no
more be given at once than a horse will eat up entirely,
Vol. XXIV.-T
TEA
138
TEA
and a certain ration be allowed lor each hone, which ex-
perience has shown to be sufficient. In the- cavalry, whcic
is paid to ecu: -c tluir
oats, and straw to tin- . •
the)' .:ue they arc exposed to: so like
should be with a unn. i's team. In the old mode of i. . .1-
ing horses with lu much hay a* they would cat, and two
bushel* of oaU lor each bone per week, during at least
nine montlis in the year, and dung them tares or arti-
ficial grasses between spring mminc and harvest, when
• . !,• dmif, the expense of a horse was
much greater than most iarmcis could now afford ; and
more land was devoted to the keep of Uie team than was
-saj-y. The following is the calculation of the cost
of the keep of a horse in this way : —
£ *.
11 4
3 in
3 0
32 weeks, at 2 bushel* of oats per week, at
3*. Gd. per bushel
20 weeks, at 1 bushel of oats per week, at
3*. 6rf. per bushel ....
Tares 20 week*, at 6s. ( f, of an acre per week!
Hay 32 weeks, 1$ cwt. per week at 4*. per
cwt. ......
Shoeing ......
Farrier
Total £28 6
The hay and oats are at high prices, but at all events a
horse cannot be kept in this way under 10*. per week.
They are then however in excellent condition, and able to
work ten hour* per dsy in summer and eight in winter.
On poor land, where gorse or furze grow readily, a MTV
cheap food is obtained by bnii-ini; or crushini; the younsr
shoots of the iror»e to destroy the sharp spines which in-
jure the mouths of the cattle. Horses reared in large
commons ant -often seen bealinir the gorse with their feet,
and then eating it greedily : instinct here teaches them tc
prepare their own food; and, if they have a sufficient
quantity of it, they get fat and in good condition.
It is of great importance to a person about to hire a
farm to know exactly what number of horses will be re-
quired for its proper cultivation, and this depends upon
many circumstances which must all be taken into con-
sideration, and which will make a very material difference,
often as much as half the rent of the' land. He is to con-
sider the situation of the farm-buildintrs, especially tin
stalls and cattle-yards, where the manure is to be made
with respect to their distance from the fields ; the state
of the roads and the access to the fields ; the distance ..
a good markft-town, and whether the fields lie in a ring-
.UT scattered. A farm of good light loam wil
require one horse for every twenty-five acres for its culti-
vation, with an additional one I'm > w iy JK) acres; that is
!l horses for 200 acres. The additional horse should be
lighter and more active than the n-st, for the farmer to ride
on and to drive in a light cart : yet it should be capable o
supplying the place of any of the others in case of ill i
accident, or when extra work is required, as in harvest or
seed time. The larger the farm, or rather the fields, tin.
fewer horses are required in proportion to its size, b.
much time is lost in turning the plough where the furrow
>rt ; and ploughing is always the principal work o
the team. If more than two horses arc required to plough
the LTOUIld, the soil must lie very comport ;iml he:i\\. am
if thi* is not compensated by greater fertility, Ihe e\pcn-i
of the bone* will much (MUce the profit of the fanner
It is the uii!»toui in some farms for each ploughman tohaM
the . iii-. own horses: but it is far better to maki
the feeding and cleaning of horses the business of retrula
sen a -liould slci-p ill or near the stablo. ;i.
very early, so that the horses may be fed and ready to go
to work as soon as the ploughman comes. \Vhcn a i.iiu
has I or ten hours holding a plough, he is not no
capable of cleaning and nibbing the horses as one who
has only had light work in the day. The horse-kei pn
can prepare manure, make composts, cut hay ainl
into chart' for the horses, mow tares or other green food
or hoe the crops in the season while the horses are I
work, and the last thing before they lie down at niirl
should be to «ive the horses tic
see that their beds are comfort ii pro
per order in the btaUc* : good grooming i.-> cil a* great use
•. ithout it they •
andition. The harnev should
o a hone as good feed
in pen.
always be cleaned and
ilacu, not, as u too commonly ..
lorses in the stables. Tie
ornaments, but strength and simplicity should h<
The weight and size of the colhu> u in mam .
'no licht, provided tl
111. The work in the field wh-.-n'th.
should be divided so as to give the hor-
tinir which they should be fed with
\\hcn the fields are near the stables the hoi-.
'irought home, but a put table munircr i^
nto the field, such a.- is n»cd at the inns on the roads
where carriers stop to bait. In winter it may be as
finish the day's work with only an interval of half an
Hour. The time in summer should be from ~> ill the
morning till 1(1. and from 2 till 7 if the wi-all.
warm, resting I hon n (i till 11 and from 1
till (i, resting - hours. In winter the tune is :
:mg half an hour or an hour hclw. . 12.
With irood fcedimr and grooming this is by nn ..
hard work when the work ri
The heavier and lighter kind of work should be»oarra
that when horses nave worked hard for a day or two.
may have one or two days of lighter work. In i.
of England the pace of the horses and then
much less than in Scotland: two horses should pi.
an acre a day or more, on an n
can get much more accomplished than 1 hive-quart i
an acre, if they plough a good depti
or iriass lays. In the light s-amU of Noifolk and Lim
shiie they go over much ground: but 'here the I'm
are wide and shallow, and the horses miirht ca.sih tint
with the plough if the ploughman could keep up with
them. In Flanders such land is ploughed with one i
only : and the work is well done. There is y
room for improvement in the use and management of the
team on most farms in England.
TEAXO. [LAVORO, TERRA DI.]
TEAKS. rKvi:. p. M'J. |
TKA/I.K Dtptactu Fuflbnmn) is a plant which :
wild in the hedges, but an improved van." fully
cultivated in those districts of England win.,
manufactured. It is used for the purpo.-e of fonnintr a
- of brush with which the i
fabric are diawn to the .surface, where they product
is usually called the imp of the cloth. The t.
fine hooked awn, which very readily inr-iu f mtci
the woollen web, and draws out with it some of the tine
of the wool; these are afterwards shorn smooth, nna
leave the cloth with the line \clvcl-like nap which :
]ieculiar appearance. A further ai-count of the
Ming, in the woollen nianulacture, is given in >
• 1'hilosopliy of Manufactures.' p. I'.C.
Teazles will grow in any soil ; but they grow
and best in a stiff' loam. They require (he soil to i
good heart, and are supposed to exhaust it much ; but no
Cicat portion of manure is required to obtain a rjood crop.
Like all the tribe of thistles. lhe\ irrow .ouiid
newly turned vip from crais' which h;u» lain some time, lUid
the sune ground will not again produce them c
:i ijiudity till alter a .uterval. Trie
toazle which grows in hedges appears nl liist Mijht to be
the same a-s lh- hut it- w of no u
tin' cloth-worker from the weakness of the awns, which
break oil', instead of drawini; the wool out of the surface
of the web.
The ifrowing of teazles is a peculiar trade, and a kind of
speculation. The teazle-grower hiii of ground
suited to his purpose from the fanner for two \rai-.
pays a considerable rent. If the ground is :
ironi grass, i; is ploughed ius deep as the slajile oi ill.
l>ennits, and as early as possible, if before winter >o much
the better: the ground is laid in . on which
the seed is drilled in April, in rows frvm 1^ •
inches apait ; moisture is necessary to make tin
inmate. As soon as the plants appear, they are :
out, and the int.
the summer, the gron
:is it is called, to a e< '.>, with \.
and long spades; this greatly i: •.., |>lants. In
.\y\eiubcr, some plants may bo tnuuplauted from \
T E B
139
TEC
they stand too thick, to the places where they hare failed.
They should stand about a foot apart in the rows. During
the ensuing spring, the cultivation is repeated, and earth
is drawn up to the plants, but without burying the
heart. They soon begin to push up their stems, and are
fit to be cut in July, just when the blossom has fallen.
As they do not come to proper maturity at the same time,
several successive gatherings are made. They are cut
with a sharp knife about nine inches below the head, and
tied in small bundles or handfuls : thick gloves are very
necessary in this operation. They must be carried under
cover before night, as the rains or heavy dews would injure
them. When the sun shines, they are exposed to diy in
the same manner as is done with onion seed, and they are
never packed close until they are perfectly dry. Avhen
drying they are usually hung on poles ; so that the air may
circulate between the bundles. The bundles are after-
wards opened, and the teazles sorted into kings, mid-
dlings and scrubs, according to their size ; 9000 kings or
20,000 middlings make a pack. The scrubs or refuse are
of little value : sometimes the grower places a certain
number in a flat bundle by means of cleft sticks, in which
the stems are held and the heads spread out like a fan.
In this state they are not only more easily packed, but
more readily fixed to the circumference of the drum, on
which they form a continuous card, which bnishes the
cloth as it "is drawn along while the drum revolves.
Teazles are a very precarious crop ; sometimes they pro-
duce a very great profit, and at other times a serious loss.
Care and cultivation lessen the chances of failure greatly :
but the price also fluctuates so much that it is an uncer-
tain speculation, resembling in this respect the cultivation
of hops. Hence it is undertaken by men who are pre-
pared for the event, and who make the profits of one year
repay the loss of another.
Several attempts have been made to substitute artificial
teazles, formed of hooks of very fine and elastic steel wire ;
and at one time there was so much appearance of success,
as to cause the cultivation of teazles to be neglected : but
it was soon found that the wires tore the fine fibres of the
wool, especially where there were knots in the thread,
whereas the hooks of the teazles gave way, and either
bent or broke off before the fibre of the wool was injured.
The card made of natural teazles was found far superior to
the artificial substitutes, and for a time the price of teazles
rose to an extravagant height from their scarcity, while
some time before they were quite unsaleable. A quantity
of teazles which was sold at one time in Berkshire for 5/.,
being thought perfectly useless, was taken into Gloucester-
-hire, and there produced the next year ISO/. The grower
'lead, and they were sold by his executors for what
they would fetch. This was exactly at a time when the
artificial cards were given up, and no teazles were to be
had. A good crop of teazles is about 10 or 12 packs on an
acre : this is sometimes exceeded, but more often it fails
by one-half, and a total failure is not uncommon. The
price may average six or seven pounds a pack, so that a
good crop is worth more than the land it trrew on. The
expenses, however, are great, and, taking all the chances, it
is a crop which, except in very particular situations and cir-
eumstances, is not suited to the regular fanner, who should
never speculate to any extent.
Although teazles are said to exhaust the ground much,
yet from the continual stirring of the soil they render it very
fit to grow other crops, provided a proper quantity of
manure is used : thus very good crops of wheat have been
obtained after a crop of teazles.
Every piece of fine broad-cloth requires from 1500 to
2000 teazles to bring out the proper nap, after which
they are useless, the hooks being mostly broken off or
worn out. This causes a considerable demand for them in
the neighbourhood of cloth manufactories, as in Wilts,
Gloucest ersliire, and Somersetshire. In the new tariff the
duty is */. per thousand, whether from foreign countries
or British possessions.
BALDE'O or TIBALDE'O, ANTCCNIO, born at
Ferrara about 1463, studied medicine, but. afterwards de-
voted himself chiefly to literature and poetical composi-
tion, both Italian and Latin. The first edition of his Italian
poems appeared at Modena in 1498, by his cousin. Tampo
Tebaldeo, apparently unknown to the author, wh
vexed at ii he thought that his compositio:
quired some final touches: ' Sonetti, Capitoli, e Rime,
chiamate Opere d'Amore,' 4to., Modena, 1498, afterwards
reprinted several times at Milan, Venice, and other places.
In 1519 appeared at Milan another small poem of Tebal-
deo, with the title, ' Stanze nuove ad un Vecchio che non
amando in gioventu fu costretto ad amare in vecchiezza.'
A correct edition of Tebaldeo's works is however still
wanted. A selection from his pastoral poems has been
inserted in the collection entitled 'Poesie Pastorali e Rus-
ticali, raccolie ed illustrate con note dal Dottore Giulio
Ferrario,' Milan, 1808. Bembo and Giraldi, contempo-
raries of Tebaldeo, speak of his Italian poems with praise,
but they regret that they were too hastily published.
Tebaldeo afterwards applied himself to Latin poetry, in
which he acquired great reputation. He wae for a time
at the court of Mantua, and afterwards settled at Rome,
where he became a favourite ot Leo X., who speaks very
highly of him in some of his epistles, and is said to have
made him very liberal presents. After Leo's death Te-
baldeo fell into distress, and was obliged to borrow money
of Bembo and others. He died at Rome in 1537. A few
of his Latin epigrams and other small poems are in several
collections.
(Tiraboschi, Storia della Letteratura Italiana; Zeno,
Note alia Biblioteca dell' Eloquenza Italiana del Fonta-
nini.)
TECTIBRANCHIATA, Cuvier's name for his fourth
order of Gastropods, described by him as having the
branchiae attached along the right side, or on the back, in
form of leaves ffeuillets) more or less divided, but non-
symmetrical. The mantle covers them more or less, and
contains nearly always in its thickness a small shell. The
Tectibranchiata approach the PECTINIBRANCHIATA in
the form of the organs of respiration, and live, like them,
in the waters of the sea, but they are all hermaphro-
dites, like the NUDIBRANCHIATA and the Pulmoniferous
mollusks.
The following genera are comprehended, by Cimer,
under this order : — Pleurobranchus, Cuv. ; Pleurobran-
c/itea, Meckel (Pleurobranchidium, Bl.) ; Aplysia, Linn. ;
Dolabella, Lam. ; Notarchus, Cuv. ; BURSATEI.I.A, Bl. ;
Akera, Mull. ; Gaitropteron, Meckel; and I'm/
Lam.
Of these Pleurobranchus, Pleurobrancha-a, and Um-
brella are treated of in the article SEMIPHYLLIDIANS ; and
Akera or Arera, and Gastropteron or Gastroptera, under
the article BULLAD.S. Aptysiu or Laplysia (for Linnaeus
writes it both ways), Dolabella, and Notarchus therefore
remain to be noticed here.
Aplysia.
M. de Blainville thus defines the Aplysians (Aplysiacea)
the second family of his MONOPLEUROBRANCHIATA : —
Body not divided, or forming a single soft fleshy mass ;
four tentacular appendages always distinct, flattened,
auriform ; the mouth in the shape of a vertical slit, \\ith
two lateral subcorneous labial plates, and a cordiform
tongue beset with denticles ; eyes sessile between the two
pairs of tentacles ; the branchiae covered by a sort of
operculum ; orifices of the generative apparatus more or
less distant, and united together by an external furrow.
Shell null or incomplete, constantly internal.
M. Rang's definition is —
Animal not divided, furnished with four tentacles with
eyes at their anterior base, and sometimes with membranes
proper for swimming ; the branchiae in form of a plume,
in a dorsal cavity, protected most frequently by a free
operculum at the nght side, or simply by the approxi-
mated edges of the mantle ; organs of generation very
distant.
Shell rudimentary or null.
The following is Cuvier's description ot Aplysia :
Edges of the foot raised into flexible crests and sur
rounding the back on all sides, being capable even of
being reflected upon it ; head carried on a neck more or
less long ; two upper tentacles hollowed like the ears of a
quadruped ; two others flattened at the edge of the lower
lip ; eyes below the first. On the back are the branchiae,
in form of very complicated leaves (feuillets), attached to a
large membranous pedicle, and covered by a small pedicle
equally membranous, which contains in its thickness a
horny and flat shell. The anus is pierced behind the
branch.!*, and is often hidden under the lateral crests.
The vulva is in front on the right, and the penis conies
out, under the right tentacle. A furrow, which extends
T2
TEC
140
TEC
frmn ll.e vulva to the extremity of the penis, conducts the
semen nt tho t: AII enormous membranous
crop U'Hi .lar inz/urd, armed within \vitli ,
KlQOi -, winch Hi .1 third
i-v-t with (n.i::!cd hooks, and a i
a cvcum. Tl:< 'uniinc-us. These ainniaK
feed on (- A particular glan>l
by a ir Ui tin: vulva a limpia 1.
which i- - erid in certain s; d from
the ) there oozes abundantly a deep
purple liquor, with which the animal colours the sea for a
lerai'le distance around w lieu it perceives any danger.
Tlio eggs are disposed in long interlaced glairy filaments,
del:. Unread.
• :IT instances as examples trom the European seas,
. '•/ 'In. ami ili'/i.liins.
The acrid humour notieeil al)ove probably gave rise to
the accounts of the poison of the Lcj'ux nnu-i/r
, vm, and most probably Avlyxiti drpi/m>x) iiinoni; the
antients. See, for example, 1'finy, Nat. Hixt., lib. xx..
c. xxi. ; lib. xxiii., c. vi.. ^:c.
In the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in
London, Xo. 625 of the Phytidlorical Seties, is ;in Aplysiii
iitl/ii, in which the mantle has been laid open on the left
side, and the peritoneal membrane dissected away, to show
the intestinal canal winding among the lobes of the liver :
the tunics of the ink-Mint- being thin and transparent, per-
mit the contents of the canal to be distinctly seen ; these
-t of particles of sand with comminuted fragments of
zoophytes and shells : so that it appears that their diet is
not merely vegetable, as Cuucr seems to have thought.
•ies are inserted at the mouth and amis; the latter
e is situated in the branchial cavity, below the trills.
-Xo. (j'JG is the intestinal canal of a 'larger specie- ol
• in, distended with similar particle -s of earthy matter;
and the author of the Catalogue remarks tliat this prepara-
tion affords a striking example of the powers of living
organized matter, and cannot be contemplated without
surprise, when we consider the force that must be exerted
to propel a column of such heavy and rude materials ulontr
a tortuous canal provided with paiietes apparently so in-
adequate to sustain the necessary picture. No. I'tll 1 is a
small Aplysia alba, Cuv., with a portion of the mantle
•ted away to expose the branchiae of an arborescent
structure, but more complex and better defended than in
the Doris, the respiratory cavity beiiiir shielded by a thin
horny plate or rudimentary shell. No. 1012 is a larger
specimen of the same species of Aiilysia, further dissected,
•o as to show, in addition to the branchiae, the heart and
pericardium, the month and masticatory organs, the
stomach, nervous ganglia, and the penis on the liirht side
of the neck. A portion of the shell is left to show how
loosely it U lodged between the layers of membrane form-
ing the roof of the branchial chamber; and No. 1013 ex-
hibits another species (Aplysia Camelus, Cuv.). showing
the bra:-.;-hi;e in their natural position, without dissection,
bv merely separating the dorsal lobe* of the mantle and
elevating the roof of the branchial chamber. (Cat.,
vols. i. ii.)
M, de Blainville divides the genus Aplytia into the fol-
lowing sections :
A. Species who»c lateral appendages arc very wide,
divided behind, and depressed.
Example, Ajilyxia d'-i»lnn.
B. Species whose narrower appendages are united
and elevated behind.
Example, Aplytia vulgaritt.
C. Species whose appendages arc very wide, and
which have only two tentacles, behind which
arc the eyes. (Genus Arta-mi, Okcn.)
Example, Aplyxnt ririilix.
D. Elongated -pccies with a subulate' tail : the four
tentacle* long and slender; the branchial cavity
snbdorsal, without opcrculum or shell.
Example. Aply.u'a Hriin^ninrtn.
The other genera arranged by De Hlainville. under the
Aplysians are Doiabelia, Burtatella, , and
Kl.YMA.
M. Rang divides Aplysia into two subgcnera :
I. Tlie Aplvsm:, properly so called (!.'ii>/i/\>n, Linn. ;
Dofabella, l.un. ; 'and Artirmi. Oken).
Tlii« mbgenui is tlm» fharaele.-i/.-.l by M. Rang:—
Animal funiislied with a dorsal slit, always median and
longitudinal ; foot largo, branchiir enclo^.l in the bottom
ofa cavity, wlun.e their K-iiirth doe-
Muled, at, .!„,„.
' rudimentary, calcatvou-. nu uiddt-n in
tlie tin .him.
• nup.
Body convex behind, nn oblique postei. irder*
of the mantle dox'd on the back, and iiii)
ming.
Shell triangular and very calcareous.
'I hi • : , n,is Jiii/nhi-llii of Ijunarck.
H\ ////. Kc.
2nd Group.
Body narrowed at the two extremities, no disk, borders
of the mantle MTV small and improper for swim;-
Shell subquadrangular and calcareous.
This uronp, M. Kantr . : ,1 ,,f u,.w
-, with the exception of one, which was erroneously
arranged among the l>nl :!,< II,/-.
Kxample, Aj>tyxin <li>l«l,rifera.
3rd Groni>.
Body narrowed at the two extremities ; borders of tile-
mantle dilated and proper for swimming.
Shell siibrounded, membranous, and solidified bv
careous stratum.
M. Kaiii: remarks that this group has for Us type the
srenus laplyna of Linnaeus, and he divides it iiit
'MS.
A. A tube at the membrane of the opcrculum.
1'A.imple, Aplytia fatciata.
B. An aperture at the membrane of tin- operculum.
II. Submenus: Xotiirchim, Cuv.
The other genera arranged |.\ M. Hang under theAply-
sians are Riirxntet/ti and actceon. ,Mniu.
Mr. J. E. Gray makes the Aflii*i<i<l,r. the 2nd family of
his 3rd order (PleurobrancMala), consist of the g
Aplytia, Dolabella, and .\ntnrcliiix. The family is |
between the Jiiit/idff and the t'nibrclliilrr-.
As an illustration of the genus .ljt!y*i<i, we take .l/'ly-
.— Blackish, with large cloudy greyish
or blotches, or of different shades of brown tinsred with
blue or purple.
Locality and Habits.— European seas, where it adheres
to rocks.
A].]\>ta dopllans.
Dolabella.
Cuvier observes that this form only differs from the
iliixiff in having the branchia- and that which surrounds
them at the posterior extremity of the body, which re-
sembles a truncated cone. Their lateral crest, he adds
docs not close on the branchial apparatus, leaving a narrow
furrow, and their shell is calcareous.
Locality and Habits. — East Indian seas, and Mediter-
ranean, where it has been found at a depth of six fathoms
on sands.
The J.aplysians of Lamarck ronsist of the genera Aplytia,
and Diilulifllit only; and M. Dcshnyes, in the last edition
of the ' Animaux sans Vertehres,' tins sums up the infor-
mation on the subject. Lamarck, he observes, knew little
of the animals of this family, thnnch he had indeed >ccn
some species preserved in spirit of wine in the anatomical
collection of the museum. Thus he only admitted the two
irem-ra last above named into the family. Since the pub-
lication of I-'imarck's work. M. de Hlainville. in his mono-
graph of the Ajtlysia-, and, above all. M. llane, in lu'n
TEC
141
TEE
Shell of Dolabella Rumphii. 1, inside ; 2, outside.
Natural History of the Aplysians,' have, he remarks
added many important observations on the animals of this,
group. M. Rang, in his work, having especially studiec
the Aplysians, has, as we have above seen, proposed to
admit into this family three genera only, Aplysia, liiirnit-
/'•//./, and Arta>o//, and he divides the great genus Aplysia
into sub^rnera, among which is found the genus Dolabella,
Lam. There too is to be found the genus Noturchus, Cuv.
This last, observes M. Deshayes, has in fact much analogy
with the Aplysians, but it preserves some peculiar charac-
ters capable of easy distinction ; and he thinks that the
great ^enus Ajilyxiii, as considered by M. Rang, ousrbt to
be adopted. Lamarck established his genus Drtl«ln ll«,
and separated it from Aplyaia because the shell is calca-
reous, and not entirely corneous, as in that genus. La-
marck, without doubt, continues M. Deshayes, would have
perceived the little value of this character if he had been
able to examine as many species as did M. Rang : he then
would have seen the establishment by insensible gradations
of a passage between Dolabella and Aplysia, not only
with reference to the form of their shells, but with regard
to their consistence also. With regard to the posterior
truncation of the animal of Dolabellu, that may be seen
to disappear insensibly, so that there exist Dolabella: with
a calcareous shell, having entirely the external form of
Ajilysiff. If, on the one hand, we see the Aflysiee with
calcareous shells (Dolabellae) pass into those with corneous
shells, we perceive on the other hand Aplysia with horny
shells pass into species which have no trace of such pro-
1 ret ing body. These remarkable species have the lobes
of the mantle less slit, more closed upon the back, and
nevertheless preserving Hie principal characters of the true
• l/'/i/xif/: M. Rang has established on these species his
subgenus Ai-li'fia, remarkable for the singular tentaculi-
form appendages on the bodies of the species which form
it. Next to Ai>/yxiu M. Rang places .\'>t'ir<-hw>, and the
trehi are .l/i/i/xuc which have only two tentacles, and
whose mantle is more closed on the back than it is in the
preceding genus ; the foot is extremely narrow, it is ter-
minated anteriorly by a double lip, and resembles rather
the foot of the K-yt/,rrr and other mollusks which creep
on the stems of sea-weeds, than that, of the Aplysia;. It
is to be wished, adds M. Deshayes, that the Notarchi
could be found in sufficient numbers for dissection, by
which means all doubt with regard to them would vanish.
After the genus Aplysia, M. Rang places Bursatella ;
and M. Deshayes remarks that this genus has so great an
analogy with \ntarchun, that a new anatomy of the former
is much to be desired. The animal seen by M. de Blain-
ville was much contracted in the spirit, and its body was
• with a small number of tentacular appendages,
which approximate it to the subgenus Aclesia, whilst in
form it appears to come nearer to Nntnrcliux. The last
genus, says M. Deshayes in conclusion, placed in the
family of Aplysians bv M. Rang, is the Acteeon of Oken,
which is not sufficiently known to be definitively admitted
into the system ; so that the family of Aplysians may be
rigorously reduced to the genus Aplysia, as considered by
M. Rang.
Notarchus.
Notarchus Cuvieri.
TE'CTONA, a genus of the natural family of Verbenacefe
so named by Linnaeus from the Indian name (Tehha) of the
famous Teak-tree (called also Sagoon}, which is a native
fferent parts of India, as well as of Burma, chiefly
s banks of the Irrawady, and of the islands from
Ceylon to the Moluccas. The genus is characterised by
wing a 5-6-toothed calyx, which becomes inflated
the growing pericarp. Corel 1-petalled, 5-6-cleft
lens 5, but often 6. Germ superior, 4-celled, cells'
.eeded, attachment central. Drupe obtusely 4-sided
"oo ly spongy, dry, hid in the calyx. Nut hard? 4-celled
Seed solitary. Embryo erect, without perisperm.
6* °WS t( a" immense size' and is
•mal furnished with a very small dorsal slit, which is
sometimes oblique; foot elongated, and rather narrow ;
bninchkB oi'ti-n very long, and capable of being protruded
i i he cavity; opcTculum rudimentary or null.
HhoM null. *
able fnr sze' an s '-emar-
for its very large leaves, which are from 12 to 24
nches long and from 8 to 16 broad, and are compared bv
Oriental wnters to the ears of the elephant. TheSles
s well a, the young branches and flower-stalks.are all
4-sided and the sides channelled. The inflorescence is in
'ery large terminal panicles, of which the divisions are
i rst cross-armed and finally dichotomous, with a sessile
•tile flower in each cleft, the whole covered with a hairv
annaceous substance. The flowers are small, white and
ery numerous. As teak timber is so highly valued both for
omestic purposes and for ship-building, it is desirable to
otice its distribution a little more in detail. The best
mber for ship-building was supplied to Bombay from the
mountains of the Malabar Ghauts, where the tree is found
ather in detached clumps, of some extent however, than in
tended forests. It is also found on the mountainous
arts of the Coromandel Coast, along the banks of the
-rodavery up to Poloonsha. It proceeds far into the
itenor of India, and may be seen in the mountains of
undelcund, in the form however of only a moderate-sized
irub. Dr. Roxburgh introduced the teak into the low
grounds of the Circars as early as 1790, and Lord Corn-
wilhl and Colonel Kyd planted it in Bengal about the
same time. The Calcutta Botanic Garden contains a num-
' • o c ^e trees- From the Saharunpore Botanic Garden
KN. lat. (where, its buds being covered with scales
t is enabled to resist 'cold, besides its leaves falling and
gi\ mif it a season of rest), the tree has been spread along
the Doab Canal ; the whole of the intermediate country
is suited to its cultivation, and the East India Company have
recently ordered the Malabar forests to be preserved. The
most extensive forests are however those extending along
the banks of the Irrawady, especially in Pegu. A con-
siderable timber-trade has been established at Moulmein,
whence Calcutta is supplied with some of the finest teak
timber. So much straight timber is taken and the crooked
left, that thousand of pieces called ' shin-logs,' and admir-
ably adapted for ship-timbers, are left. The tree grows
quickly, straight, and lofty, but requires from 00 to 80
years to attain the proper size and maturity for ship-build-
ing.
From extensive experience teak timber has been found
the most valuable timber for ship-building, and has been
called the oak of the East. The wood is light, brownish-
coloured, easily worked, but at the same time strong and
durable. It is soon seasoned, and, from containing a resin-
ous oil, resists the action of water, as well as insects of all
kinds. It does not injure iron, and shrinks but little in
width. Some of the old trees have been found by Dr.
Horsfteld to have large and beautiful burrs like the Kia-
bouca wood of commerce. No other part of the tree is
known to be converted to much use ; but the leaves are said
to dye cotton and silk of a purplish colour. They have
lately been imported into the London docks carefully rolled
up, but for what purpose is not known.
TECTUS. (Conchology.) [TROCHIIXE.!
TEES. [DURHAM.]
TEE
142
TEE
TEETH. Since the article DENTITION was written, the
teeth have been subject. >i in the most careful micro-copic
examination, and the result has Km the
great amount of knowledge in regard to both their »tnic-
turr anil their mode of growth. Indeed there if probably
no i>art of physiology in which more remarkable and im-
portant proglM* has hern mmlr d'
than in this, to whirh the naiiv irraphv has been
given. Tl !!y by
Professor Purkinje of Breslau and Professor Hct/ius nf
Stockholm. The former published his observations in
1835, in the inaugural dissertation of Dr. Frnenkel (!>>•
C'ttnri Ijrntium > . and in that of Dr. Rasch-
(MtUtmwtii circa Dentium L'CO/M/KWWI'I ; and the
latter communicated his descriptions to the Koyal Aca-
demy of Science* at Stockholm, in whose Transactions
Uu-y were published in 1H3G. In 1839 Dr. Schwann pub-
lished, in his •Mikroskopische Untenuchungm,' to account
of the modes in which the scvcrul constituent tissues of
the teeth are developed : un<l in tiie same year Mr. Goodsir
t'urph .)/• .I'liiniul, vol. li.), car-
rying out the >ie\v before MiL'gcsU'd by Professor Arnold,
({escribed that method of their carlv growth which is now
generally received as the truth. Mr. Owen also, in his
' Odontography,' and in various papers, at the same time
that he has confirmed and greatly added to the facts de-
scribed by those already mentioned, has proved, by his
investigations into their comparative anatomy, that the
minute structure of the teeth may be taken as one of the
most certain characters for the discrimination of the ge-
nera, and even of the species, of both existing and extinct
animals ; and he has already applied his knowledge of
them to the determination of some of the most difficult
questions of palteonto
In the following account .my of the discoveries
will be detailed except such as relate to the structure and
physiology of the human teeth ; for, various as the struc-
ture* are in the different classes of animals, yet there is so
much analogy among them, that the description of the
tooth of one will, in great measure, explain the general
plan of structure in the rest. Besides, the lately published
articles on comparative anatomy contain nearly all the
important facts regarding the structure of the teeth in the
animals of which they treat.
The best method of preparing teeth for microscopic
examination is to immerse them in dilute hydrochloric acid,
till their earthy matter is so far dissolved that thin trans-
parent slices may be cut from them with a knife ; or, with-
>i'teiiing them in acid, to make thin sections, in the
vertical and other directions, with a fine saw.and to reduce
these to the necessary thinness and transparency by filing
Fig. 1.
Pig. I-
them, and polishing them on a hard and 'smooth whet-
stone. rV: \amination, lenses magnifying- about
"Ml diameters are sufficient.
In s ieh ; on of a tooth three distinct •ub-
stanccsare seen ; namely, the ilcntine or r. -
which forms the greater mass, and, m it v :.:ould
of the tooth, and which contains the pulp
enamel (rr , by which the crown or , t «he
tooth is covered ; and the hone, ceni.
dil , which forms a thin layer around tin
that pail at which the vessels enter the ]
tinned in a liner and scarcely perceptibli i-r the
enamel.
The hone, or cement, has in each animal a minute (struc-
ture similar to that of which the bones of its skeleton are
composed. In man it consists of a basis of him
substance, a compound of. .m! earthy matter, in
which there are minute caxiti. licate
branched canals leading from one to the other. On tin-
walls of tii
sited more thickly than in the i
when examined by transmitted
dark grey. The ca\ ities, arbone-oorptutlex, in man are
I, and flattened; most of them are betwi •
•nfaof an inch in length, about one-third as much in breadth,
and one-sixth :is much in thickness. They !.,
what jagged edges, from all parts of which th<
the fine branching canals, to which the name .
rout has been given, and which traverse the IK.'
basis of the bone, and communicate irregularly wii:
another. The diameter of the-
parts, is not more than i4-«j of an inch; tha1
smaller branches is between ^ and &}&,. Their general
direction is towards the axis of the tooth, around which
the corpuscles are arranged in concentric ci
Fig.-L
Wjcrojeopic view of boDe-corpiuclo and c»lcl|[aroui rnnili.
The enamel is composed of solid prisms, or fibres (/•'-
a fl\ about ^a of an inch thick, set side by side and U]>-
right upon the ivory of the crown of the tooth /> . One
end of each prism i< lived in a little di ) u the
rough outer surface of the is. . (her, which is
somewhat larL'ci. is turned towards the masticating sur-
face of the tooth in the direction in which the chief ex-
ternal pressure is to be resisted. The course of the p
is more or less wavy, their curves bcinir. for the most pint,
parallel i'us. \ . but sometimes opposed. Most of them
evtend from the ivory to the surface of the tooth: and
where they do not, small complemental prisms fill up>
like wedges, the vacant spaces.
fig.*.
Fig. 4.
•nn of
rnn-n.-l (T.r-«
Vlnr of the •rranipinrnt of thit rmun«l-«bvM
on the crown of mn iaotoor tooth.
In the perfect slate the enamel contains so small a
quantity of animal matter, that it cannot be dc
to the siirht. and the prisms are inseparably cor
but in young teeth it is «oft, and may be broken up into
TEE
143
TEG
its elementary parts. In the early state also it exhibits
portions of a membranous animal substance, consisting
of the cells in which each of its prisms was formed ; for,
as will be presently shown, the earthy matter is deposited
in what might be called a set of moulds formed by the
primary cells of the enamel membrane, and, as it accu-
mulates, the membrane of the cell is so nearly removed,
t hat in the perfect tooth no portion of it can be discerned.
Its former existence however seems to be indicated by
fine close-set transverse striae upon each prism of the
enamel.
The dentine, or ivory, is composed of a hard fibrous basis
of cartilage and earthy substance, traversed by very fine,
branching;, cylindrical tubules, which run in an undulating
course from the pulp-cavity, on whose internal surface
they open (see Fig. 1, bj towards the adjacent part of the
exterior of the tooth. Each tubule in its course outward
makes two or three chief curves (' primary curvatures,'
Owen), and is besides bent at eveiy part in minute and
very close undulations, or secondary curvatures ; but the
course of those tubules, which are adjacent to each other,
is very nearly parallel. It is from the parallelism of these
secondary curvatures of the tubules, that the appearance
arises, as if the ivory were composed of concentric lamella;
.:i-d round the pulp-cavity.
The chief branchings of the tubules of the dentine are
dichotoraous (Fig. 3) ; but they also frequently give off
minute branches, which again sending off smaller ones,
till up the spaces between the trunks (Fig. G). At the
trunk each tubule has an average diameter of about 15lj» of
an inch, and the distance between each two tubules is
nearly equal to the width of three of them. Both the
walls and the cavities of the tubules, as well as the sub-
stance between them, are filled by the earthy constituent
c.f the ivory, which is deposited in fine granules. The
basis of the intertubular substance seems to be com-
1 of bundles of flat, pale, granular fibres, whose course
is parallel to that of the tubules.
Fig. 0.
Views of the tubule* of dentines.
A separate organ is provided for the formation of each
of these three constituent parts of the tooth, though,
when they are perfected, they contain no vascular tissue
but the pulp within the pulp-cavity, and it is doubtful
whether, in the human subject, fresh material is ever
formed from this after the tooth has once attained its com-
plete development. The first appearance of the pulp of
tooth is in the form of a minute process or papilla
5 from the bottom of a groove in the mucous mem-
brane of the mouth behind the edge of the jaw. In course
of time, as the borders of the groove grow around it, the
papilla seems to sink into the mucous membrane; and it
now appears as if rising from the base of a follicle, or of a
fia-sk-like depression, in the edge of the jaw. And lastly,
processes of membrane, or operculn, trrow from the sides
of the mouth of the follicle, and as they approach each
oilier and adhere by their mutually opposed cdircs, they
gradually close it, and convert it into a <•: ;ic, to
the bsse of which the first-formed papilla is affixed. In
the first-appeariiie tooth, the papillary state may be seen
in the human embryo an inch in length: the capsular
stage is completed at about the fifteenth, week of embry-
onic life.
These three stages of the formative organs of the tooth,
namely, the papillary, the follicular, and the capsular,
; completed, the substances of the tooth itself begin
to be produced. The dentine is developed from the pa-
pilla, which gradually assumes the form and relations of
the proper tooth-pulp ; the enamel, from a special organ
developed at that part of the capsule which is opposite to
the papilla ; and the bone probably from the interior of
the capsule itself.
The papilla and the sac both gradually increase in size,
but the growth of the latter is at first more rapid than that
of the former, and the space between them is thus en-
larged. Within this space there is deposited from the
wall of the sac a soft, granular, non-vascular substance,
the enamel-organ, or, as Mr. Hunter (Natural History of
the Teeth) termed it, the external pulp. And at the same
time as this is being produced from the interior of the sac,
there is formed on the surface of the papilla a peculiar
structureless membrane, which has been called the pre~
fiiriiiative membrane, and which, when the papilla begins
to ossify, presents numerous little elevations and depres-
sions, on which the enamel fibres are afterwards fixed ; for
as the papilla enlarges, the preformative membrane comes
in contact with the enamel-organ, and they are exactly
moulded the one upon the other.
Both the papilla, or as it may now be called, the pulp,
and the enamel, are composed of primary cells [Nu'rui-
TION], and it is by the transformation of these that the
tubules of the dentine and the fibres or prisms of the
enamel are severally produced. The exact mode however
in which the change is effected is not yet known. All
that can be seen is that the superficial cells of the pulp,
which are at first round or oval, and nucleated, assume the
same diameter and direction as the trunks of the, dentine
tubules, and then have earthy matter deposited in and
around them. And these changes go on gradually from
without inwards: as fast as the elongated and branching
cells of one layer are ossified, those of the layer beneath
them become elongated in preparation for the same change ;
and so on, till a great part of the pulp is hardened. It. is
due to this gradual ossification of the pulp from without
inwards, that in growing animals, to whom madder is
alternately given and omitted in their food, the dentine is
found to consist of alternate rings of red and white ivory ;
for while madder is being taken, all the earthy matter that
is deposited in the most superficial layer of the nnossified
pulp-cells is dyed by its colouring principle, and when it
is discontinued the same material is deposited uncoloured
in the layer of cells which is subjacent to that already
•d and reddened. When nearly the whole of that
part of the pulp which was formed in the original papilla
is thus hardened by the deposition of earthy matter, its
base begins to grow into one or more conical processes,
and, by a hardening of these, through a process like that
just described, the fangs are formed, and the tooth rises to
the surface of the gum.
In the formation of the enamel, the primary nucleated
cells on the inner surface of the enamel-organ become
elongated and cylindrical, or prismatic ; they assume a
direction which is perpendicular to the surface of the har-
dening pulp ; and then, their nuclei disappearing, they
also are hardened by the deposition of earthy matter within
them, which is continued till they are inseparably com-
pacted, and their original membranous wall is not dis-
cernible. These changes also, like the preceding, make
progress in layers ; but the progress is here from within
outwards, and it goes on till nothing is left but a thin ex-
ternal enamel-membrane on the surface of the crown o'1
the tooth. As the enamel organ and the papilla, both
growing and hardening, approach more nearly to each.
other, the preformative membrane also disappears.
By the transformation of this enamel-membrane, or of
the superficial part of the capsule itself, that part of the
bone is produced which envelopes the enamel ; and by
similar changes in that part of the capsule which has
grown in company with the fang-processes of the pulp,
that part of the bone is formed which invests the fangs.
The changes in this part of the process are probably exactly
similar to those through which new bone is produced
between a periosteum and the old bone which it sur-
rounds.
TKKTH OF WHEELS. [WHEELS.]
TKFLIS. [Tm.is.]
TEF2A. [MABOCCO.]
TE'GEA. [ARCADIA.]
TEGERNSEE, THE, is a lake in the circle of the Isar,
T E I
144
T E 1
in the kingdom of Bavaria, about thirty mile* from Munich,
at the tool of the Bavarian Alp*. It it about four miles
li.iiir. our mile and a quarter broad, and 3(10 feet deep.
ThU lake cave its name to a Benedictine abbey, which
was found, d liy the Agilolfingers, in tlie timr of Kinsr
IVpin, w a* destroyed l>y tin' Hungarians, restored in IT'.'.
and not alxmslu d till some \carsafter the beginning of
tin-, century. The abbots were pnnccs, and hail four
hereditary offices in their household which were held
..hlcincn. The late king of Bavaria, Maximilian
Joseph, had the abbey converted into a fine palace, which
he presented to his consort the late Queen < 'aroline, with
the lordship depending on it, which is about CO square
miles in extent, including the village of Tegcrnsce. with
300 inhabitants. This palace i> situated in a beautiful
country surrounded with lolly mountains, among which
the Waldberg and the Setzberg are sometimes illuminated
when there are royal visitors at the palace. The grounds
are laid out with great taste, and the village church i
handsome, and contains some fine paintings. In the
\iciuitv there are quarries of fine marble of various colours,
and the mineral springs of Kreiith and Schwaighof.
Kreutli is in a very rom.intic situation, at the foot of high
mountains, and is much frequented for its sulphureous
waters. Near Tegernsce naphtha is found, which is here
called St. Quirinus oil, because it was formerly pretended
that it issued from the corpse of St. Quirinus, to whom a
chapel in the vicinity is dedicated.
( Hassel, Geograpnie ; Stein, Geogranhitches Lexicon ;
Cannabich, Lehrbuch der Geographie; Hiibner, Zeilungs-
Ler.inut . \
TKHER AN, or TEHRAN. [PERSIA.]
TEHUACAN. [MEXICAN STATES.]
TK.Ilf \NTKPEC. [MEXICAN STATES.]
TEK5N MOUTH. [DEVONSHIRE.]
TEIGNMOUTH, JOHN SHOKK, LORD, was the
elde-t -on oi Thomas Shore, Esq., sometime of Melton in
Suffolk, and of his wife Dorothy (other authorities say
Deborah) Shepherd. The family was originally of Derby-
shire, Lord Teignraouth's great-grandfather having lieen
a Sir John Shore, of Derby, M.D., who was knighted in
1067. Lord Teienmouth was born, it is believed, in Devon-
shire, Octobers, 1751 : his father died in 1739, his mother
in 1783, and his only brother, the Rev. Thomas William
Shore, who was vicar of Sandal in Yorkshire, and of Ot-
terton in Devonshire, in 1822.
Lord Teigmnouth went to Bengal in 1709, as a cadet in
the Company's civil service, and was first stationed at
Moorshcdabad as an assistant under the council of revenue.
In 1773 his knowledge of that language procured him the
appointment of Persian translator and secretary to the
Provincial Council of Moorshedabad ; and this was fol-
lowed the next year by a seat at the Calcutta revenue
board, which he retained till the dissolution of the board
in 1781, when he was appointed second member of the
general committee of revenue, established by the new
charier grunted that year. While holding this' situation,
Mr. Shore lived in terms of intimacy with Warren Has-
tings, the governor-general ; and when Hastings came
home in 1785 he. accompanied his friend to Kngland.
During this visit to hig native country he married Char-
lotte, only daughter of James Cornish, Esq., a medical
practitioner at Teignmouth ; and a few weeks after, in
April. 17HG, he set out again for Calcutta, having beer
Appointed one of the members of the Supreme Council
miller the new governor-general Lord ('ornwallis. To
hi» activity and ascendency in the council is mainly
attributed the adoption of Cornwallis's great measure, tin
new settlement, in 1/8!), of landed propeitv in the pre-
sidency of Bengal, by which the zemindar-, hitherto only
the revenue agents or tax-gatherers of the government,
were made the hereditary proprietors of the estates which
they tanned, and the ryots, or peasantry, who had till now
a right of occupation so long as they paid their assess-
ments, were declared the tenants of the zemindars, and
made removable at the will of their landlords. The new
judicial system which was introduced towards the close of
Ixird Cornwallis's government in 1793, also owed its esta-
blishment in a principal degree to Shore, who had been
mnde a baronet the preceding year. On the retirement ol
('ornwallis, in August, 179:}, Sir John Shore was appointed
to succeed him as governor-general ; and he held that
high office till the clo»e of the year 1797, when he resifpied
t to the eurl of Mornineton. and was created an Irish peer
In the title of Baron ;!i.
Upon the death 01 in April, l~'.»l,
Sir John Shore was elected president of the Asiati,
ciety : and taking Ins seat in that capacity mi the 22nd of
May, he delivered a discourse on the merits of the late
president, which is printed in the fourth volume of the
Society's 'Transactions.' Alter his return home Lord
Tei^nmouth published, in 1H04. a -Ho. volume, entitled
• Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Correspond.
William Jones ;' and in 1807 he produced an edition, in
13 vols. 8VO., of Jones's Works, with this l.if,
Upon his leaving India Lord Teignmouth had I- • •
dent of the Asiatic Society by Sir Robert
Chambers, in a discourse by whom, delivered at a meeting
of the Society on the iHth' of Janimiv . IT'.N. and printed
in the sixth volume of their • Transactions,' then
sketch of the character and career of Ins p In
ISO I. on the formation of the British and Foreign Bible
Society, Lord Teignmouth was elected its first president :
and this situation he retained till his death, though for-
years before that event he was obliged to devolw
duties upon his successor, Lord Bexley. In the prosperity
of the Society he at all times took the liveliest inte:'.
On the 4th of April, 1807, Lord Teignmouth was ap-
pointed one of the commissioners for the ; India.
or, in other words, a member of the Board of Control : and
on the 8th of the same month he was sworn of the P
Council. He retained his seat at the Board of ( 'onti.
some years; and his death took place on the 14th of I-Y-
bruary, 1834.
Besides the publications already mentioned. Lord I
mouth is the author of ' A Letter to the Keveu-nd i
topher Wordsworth, D.D., on the subject of the Bible
Society,' Svo., London, 1810; and • Considerations on
communicating to the Inhabitants of India the Knowledge
of Christianity.' Svo., London, 1811. (li ///. M'i^. for
1834, pt. i.. p.' .V>J
TEISSIER, ANT OIXE, was born at Montpellier, 28th
January, 1632. His family, which was originally of
N imes, was Protestant; and his father was receiver-ge-
neral of the province of Languedoc, but he was deprived
of that appointment, and also of whatever else In
sessed, a few months alter the birth of his son, for having
joined the revolt of Henri, Due de Montmorenci. or at
least given up to him the public money which was in his
hands. Montmorenci was taken prisoner at the affair
of C'astelnandari, on the 1st of September. Hilt'J : his
insurrection was suppressed, and on the ,'JOth of '
ber he was beheaded. After the ruin of his family it
was determined that Antoine Teissier should he
cated for the ministry of the Protestant church, and
with that view he studied theology for some time at
the Protestant seminaries of Nimcs, Montauhan, and
Saumur. But in the end he made up his mind to
adopt the profession of the law, induced, it is said,
by the weak state of his health: and after having gone
through the usual course of study at Bourges. and ta!..
doctors degree, he commenced practice as an ad\
before the district court called the Presulial. .
His bodily strength however proved to be no mon
ficient for the bar than it had been thought to he for the
pulpit ; and after some time he gave up hi-, profession,
and took to literature as a means of subsistence. On the
revocation of the Edict of Nantes, in 1GST>. Teissier took
refuge in Switzerland, having, according to the ' li.
phie I'liivei-sclle,' although in extreme ill lined
very tempting proposals which were made through the
chancellor IVAgiiesseau, to induce him to remain in Kiance.
But it would no doubt be made a condition that he
should abjure Protestantism. He supported In
chieflvat first by publishing a French newspaper at Heine;
then l>y giving a course of public law idrcnt pulm
/.fiiieh; and the works he sent to the press fmni tune to
time also brought him something. At length, in Ki'.l2,he
was invited by Frederic III., elector of lirandcithiirg
afterwards king Frederic I. of Prussia) to come to Berlin ;
and there he resided till his death, on the 7th of Septem-
ber, 1715. Immediately on his arrival he had been nomi-
nated a councillor of state, and appointed to the office of
historiographer; and part of Ins time was also occupied
for some \eais in superintending or directing the educa-
tion of tlie hereditary prince, afterwards Frederic William
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145
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I. A complete list of Teissier's numerous publications is
given in the ' Biographic Universelle.' The most cele-
brated amons^ them is his 'Eloges des Hommes Savans,
tirees de 1'Histoire de M. de Thou,' first published at Lyon
and at Geneva, in a 12mo. volume, in 1683 ; then at
Utrecht, in 2 vols., in 1696 ; and again at Leyden, in 4
vols., in 1715. In the two latter editions the text of De
Thou is accompanied by numerous annotations, which
display much curious research. Teissier was an accurate
inquirer ; but there is no artistic quality or vital power in
arty of his books, and all of them, even including his
' Eloges,' may' be said to be now superseded and nearly
forgotten. One of the most creditable is a Catalogue, in
Latin, of the authors who have written catalogues, in-
dexes, &c., in two parts, 4to., Geneva, 1685 and 1705 ;
some others relate to parts of the history of Prussia ; and
a great many are translations, which have the character
of being generally faithful enough, but of little elegance
or spirit, 1'rom St. Clement, St. Chrysostom, Calvin, Slei-
dan, and other Greek and Latin writers, the latter mostly,
if not exclusively, moderns.
TEIXEIRA. "[TEXEIRA.]
TEJEN. [PERSIA.]
TEJUCO. ~ [BRAZIL, p. 368.]
TEJUS. [SAUVEGARDE.]
TE'LECLES. [SCULITURE.]
TELEGRAPH (from rij\i, ' distant,' and fpa^,H, 'write'),
a machine or contrivance for communicating intel-
ligonci.. to a distance, usually by means of preconcerted
signals, to which some conventional meaning is attached.
On this account telegraphic communications may be as
remarkable for their impenetrable secrecy as for their
rapidity. The name semaphore (from o-i/pa, ' a sign,'
and ipip,u, ' bear ';, is commonly applied to some of the
machines used for effecting telegraphic communication ;
which, in an extended sense, may be considered to em-
brace every means of conveying intelligence by gestures
and visible signals, as flags, lanterns, rockets, blue-lights,
beacon-fires, &c., or by audible signals, as the firing of
guns, the blowing of trumpets, the beating of drums or
gongs, &c., as well as by the machines called telegraphs
or semaphores.
Although telegraphic communication, as a means of con-
veying any required intelligence, is an invention of recent
date, the use of signals for the speedy transmission of such
brief messages as might be previously arranged between
persons, is a practice derived from the most remote an-
tiquity. The use of beacon-fires, for example, as a means
of giving speedy warning of the approach of an enemy, is
alluded to by the prophet Jeremiah, who wrote about six
centuries before the Christian aera, and who warns the
Benjamites to ' set up a sign of fire in Beth-haccerem ;
for evil,' he adds, ' appeareth out of the north, and great
destruction.' (Jeremiah, vi. 1.) The fine description given
by /EschyliH, in his ' Agamemnon,' of the application
of a line of fire-signals to communicate the intelligence of
the fall of Troy, is often referred to as an early instance of
this kind of telegraphic despatch ; but if the sera of the
writer, and not that of the event, is referred to, the passage
above quoted atfords an earlier illustration. This simple
means of spreading an alarm, or communicating intel-
ligence in time of war, is practised by many nations ; and,
to come nearer home, we may refer to the graphic stanzas
of the ' Lay of the Last Minstrel' (canto iii., st. xxv.-xxix.),
descriptive of the rapid communication of the approach of
the English forces from the border stations, along ' height,
and hill, and cliffy—
• Till high Dunodin the Mates raw.
From Soltra and Ifcimpondfr LAW;
And Lothian lu-anl the Regent's order,
That all Hhonltl botine them for the border.'
In a note illustrative of this description, Scott refers to
an Act of the Scottish parliament in 1455, c. 48, which
t.s that one bale or faggot shall be warning of the
approach of the English in any manner; t«<> l.ales, that
lln-y Mir . '/fed; and four bales blazing beside
each other, that tin; enemy are in great force. Such sig-
nals, though best, adapted to give information by night,
ulilf in the daytime, when they appeared as
columns of dense smoke. Torches held in the hand and
1 in any particular manner, or alternately di^|
and Iml'li ii behind a screen, were also used in antient
times as - un from several early writers on
P. C., Mo. 1506.
military subjects ; but as they were merely arbitrary sig-
nals, which admitted of very little variation, such devices
could only be rendered available by previous concert.
That some attempts were made by the antients to im-
prove upon such simple signals is evident from the
tenth book of Polybius, in which allusion is made to a
device of tineas (Tacticus), who proposed to write
several sentences, such as it might be desirable to com-
municate, upon two oblong boards, one of which should be
kept by each cf the parties. These boards were to be
affixed to cork floats capable of rising and falling in
cylindrical vessels of similar form and size, one of which
was placed at each station. Matters being thus prepared,
and the vessels filled with water, the person desiring to
send intelligence allowed the water to escape from his
vessel by a small opening until the suitable sentence on
the inscribed board had sunk to a certain mark ; making
torch signals to indicate the moment of allowing the
water to run out, and that at which the board sank to its
proper level. The person at the distant station regulated
the egress of water from his vessel by the torch signals,
and was thus enabled to ascertain which of the sentences
written on the board conveyed the required intelligence.
Complicated as was this arrangement, it afforded very
little more scope than the use of simple torches or fires.
Polybius however describes a much more perfect method
of telegraphic communication, which, he says, was in-
vented either by Cleoxenus or Democlitus, but improved
or perfected by himself. This method is capable of com-
municating any required intelligence with the greatest
precision, the signals being made to represent the letters
of the alphabet, and the message being displayed letter by
letter. Instead of quoting the description of Polybius
himself, which refers to the use of the Greek aphabet, we
shall adopt that of Bishop Wilkins, who describes the
plan as applied to the English alphabet. The alphabet
must be divided for this purpose into five portions of five
letters each (excepting the last, which has but four,,/ and
v being omitted as unnecessary), and inscribed upon ta-
blets, as in the following diagram : —
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
1
2
3
4
5
a.
b
c
d
e
f
g
This being done, each of the corresponding parties is to
be provided with a copy of the tablets, and also with ten
torches, five of them on the right hand and five on the
left. Any letter may then be expressed by first lifting up
on the right hand so many torches as may indicate the
number of the tablet in which it is contained, as I., II.,
III., See., and then so many on the left as may show the
number of the particular letter in the tablet, as 1, 2, 3,
&c. Thus the word hntsten would be expressed by dis-
playing the torches six times, in the following order, in
which the Roman letters indicate the number of torches
raised on the right hand, and the Arabic numerals those
on the left :—
Right hand.
L
IV.
IV.
I.
III.
h
a
t
t
e
n
Left hand.
3.
1.
3.
4.
5.
3.
Polybius observes that dioptrical instruments, framed
with two holes or tubes, should be used to enable the
observer to distinguish accurately the right and left hand
lights ; and that solid fences should be erected upon each
side, behind which the torches might be concealed when
if use. Bishop Wilkins, in his curious work entitled
' Mercury ; or the Secret and Swift Messenger,' after de-
senbing this telegraph of Polybius, mentions another
which requires only three lights or torches. The twenty-
VOL. XXIV.— U
TEL
146
TEL
lour necessary letters of the alphabet are, according to
this plan, which he give* on thv authority ol° Joachimiu
Fort i us, to be divided into three clmxi of eight letters
eech. The first class ia represented by one torch, the
second by two, and the third In three . u'nd the, number of
the letter by the number of times which the torches are
elevated or discovered. Thus one torch raised once would
represent a. or raised eight time*. A ; two torches raised
one* would indicate i, raised twi. > •. A : or eight times, o j
and three torches raised from oner mi--, would
give thu remaining . "in r to jr. Similar to this,
but itill eahirr of application. is tin- night -telegraph con-
trived by the Rev. .hum •» Brcmiicr. nf tin- Shetland Inlands,
and rewarded by the Society of Arts in 181B. A single
light constitutes ill.- whole apparatus in this plan, ami thu
whole operation consist* in its alternate exhibition and
concealment. The alphabet is divided into four classes
or divisions, of six letters each; and the number of ob-
scurations is to indicate, first, the number of the division.
and secondly, the number of the letter in that division; a
pause. being made betw ecn the obscurations which indicate
the number of the division and those which show the
number of the letter in that division ; and a longer pause
between the double set of movements thus required lor
every letter. Two lights, one to represent the division,
and th« other the number of the letter, might in some
eases b« used; but Mr. Brcmner conceives that, especially
in long distances, one is preferable, as affording less risk
of env.r. His plan had been found suitable tor distances
of twenty miles and upwards, and had been successfully
put in operation between the lighthouse on Copeland
Island and Port Patrick on the opposite side of the lii-h
Channel. Further particulars respecting this, and a de-
scription of another telegraph for clay-service, by the same
author, are given in the thirty-fourth volume of the So-
ciety's • Transactions,' pp. IUHMF- Tedious as Mr. Brem-
ner's method may appear, it is stated that, supposing the
whole alphaoet to be used, sixty letters might easily be
eiven in five minutes; while the communication might
be effected more rapidly if, as in some telegraphic systems,
only sixteen letters were used. In addition to the alpha-
betic systems which depend merely upon the number or
alternate display and concealment of lights, Bishop Wil-
kins describes one which depends upon the relative posi-
tions of two lights attached to long poles, and which, he
says, ' for its quickness and speed is much to be preferred
before any ol the rest.' It will thus be perceived that
that ingenious writer came very near to the principle upon
which many of the modem telegraphic systems depend.
In suggesting the use of extended lines of telegraphic
communication, he further hints at the application of the
telescope (or, as he styles it, ' Galileus his perspective'), to
the deciphering of distant signals.
Among the scientific writers who seem to have had
some notion of the modern telegraph are Kircher, Schottus,
and Ke-slt-r: the latter of whom proposed to cut out such
character* a> it was desired to show in the ends of 8 cask,
which was to be. ele\ated with a light enclosed in it. The
Marquis of Worcester also, in his -Century of Inventions,'
lout, announces, ' How at a window, as far as the eye can
ver black from white, a man may hold discourse with
his correspondent, without noise, made or notice taken,'
&c. ; and again, ' A way to do it by night as well as by
day, though as dark as pitch is black.' The cm-lie.-,! well-
defined plan of telegraphic communication appears how-
ever to be that de-cribed in :i paper addressed to the
Royal Society in 1<>H4. by Dr. Kobeit Hooke, and pub-
lished in I72Q>nDerham'i collection of his ' Philosophical
Experiments and Observations' pp. M--li)<). 'showing I
way how to communicate one's mind at great distances.'
Hooke states that he had discoursed on the subject some
years before, but that the then recent siege of Vienna bj
the Turks had revived the matter in his mind. His scheme
will be readily understood by the annexed cut. Fig. 1.
which represent* an elevated frame-work supporting a
panel or screen, a, behind which were to be suspended a
number of symbols or device*, formed of deal plank, of the
various shape* represented by the small black figures.
The fir»t twenty-four of these, which consist entirely of
straight linen, were to Htand for alphabetic characters : and
the mx il. -vii -es consisting of cuned lines were to be used
a* arbitrary signals. Whenever it was derired to display
»ny of Oi«*e characters, they were to be drawn from be-
hind the screen by a .r pulleys in the
frame-work, and so rendered visible in the open »p;
j. TheM telegraphs were to be erected upon elevated
•
.1.
H
T+J.3CIHD
TJTVAXVA^
OXC
stations, so chosen that, if possible, there might be no re-
fraction of the atmospbeie to impede vision, and so that
no intervening objects or disturbed background might
interfere with the clearness of the prospect ; and tele-
scopes were to be used by the observers. The older of
connection between the signs employed and the lett
the alphabet might, it is explained, be infinitely varied.
for the sake of secrecy ; and none of the parties einp!.
excepting those at the terminal stations, need h:\v .
knowledge of the message commnnie lie further
proposed a scheme for night communication by means of
lights disposed in a ecitain older. About twi-ntv
after the date of Hooke's paper, Amontons brought for-
ward a very similar plan in France, and made public trial
of his contrivance before several persons of rank. ^
other individuals subsequently devised similar scb.
but nothing was effected in the practical application of
telegraphic communication until the war of the French
revolution. Macdonald states that. 'Following the prin-
ciples laid down by Dr. Hooke, in 1684, Dupuis, in France,
invented the French telegraph, which Don Gnaltier. a
monk of the order of Citeaux, in 1781, modified, and pro-
posed to Condorcet, Milli, and Dr. Franklin, who recom-
mended it to the French government.' The telegraph
brought into use in 1793 or 1794, by M. Chappe, \\
will be seen by Fig. 2, a very superior machine to that
of Dr. Hooke.
Fig. 2.
Chappe's telegraph, which, from its position when at
rest, is sometimes called the T telegraph, consisted of an
upright pole or jxist. at the top of which was pivoted, by
ntre, a transverse beam, which, by means of ropes
worked in the chamber below, that served also for an ob-
servatory, might be made to assume any required angle
with the post. Each end of this moveable beam carried
a short arm, that was capable of assuming anv required
angle with it ; and these arms also were worked liv
which were conducted through the axis of the beam, in
order that the necessary degree of tension might not be
disturbed by the action of the machine. By this
trivancc, without the use of any m i l"»"
'which might be indistinct when vie-.-
tance, or under the influence of a refractive atmosphere),
as many as 256 different signs might be made. A much
smaller number was however sufficient, as .M. (.'happe
communicated his intelligence letter by letter, and sim-
plified the movements by using an alphabet of only six-
teen letters. The small figures in the cut show some' ol
the different positions assumed by the beam and ;,
and, as the connection between these and the letters they
were made to represent was quite arbitrary, their signifies-
TEL
147
TEL
tion might be changed as often as was necessary for the
purpose of secresy ; it being only necessary that the key
should be known to the parties sending and receiving the
message, although it might be transmitted through a great
number of intermediate stations. Such telegraphs were
first erected on a line commencing at the Louvre, in
Paris, and proceeding by Montmartre and other elevated
points to Lisle, in order to communicate between the Com-
mittee of Public Welfare and the combined armies in the
Low Countries. Telescopes were used at each station,
and the signals displayed at one station were immediately
repeated at the next ; four seconds being found sufficient
for effecting the required motions, and sixteen seconds the
time allowed for observing and noting down each signal,
during which the machine remained stationary. Barrere,
in announcing the invention of the telegraph to the Con-
M-ntion, on the 17th of August, 1794, stated that the news
of the recapture of Lisle had, by means of this machine,
reached Paris in an hour after the troops of the republic
had entered that place. (Annual Register, 1794, p. 51.)
The advantages of such extraordinary celerity of com-
munication were so obvious that, in England and other
countries, many plans were immediately brought forward,
some of which differed materially from that which had
been successfully put in practice in France. Among these
was that contrived by Mr. R. L. Edgeworth, who states
that he had made experiments as early as 1767, when he
proposed to use the sails of a windmill as a means of con-
veying intelligence by signals. The report of Chappf's
telegraph revived the matter with him, and late in 1794
he, with some friends, tried experiments with a numerical
telegraph (or a telegraph expressing numbers, which num-
bers refer to letters, words, or sentences, in a dictionary^, on
the principle shown in the culFig. 3. An index, or pointer,
in the form of an isosceles triangle, was so mounted upon
a post, or on a portable triangular stand, that it might be
Fig. 3.
turned into any of the eight positions shown in the upper
part of the cut ; these positions indicating, respectively,
0 and the numerals 1 to 7. Four such pointers, mount eel
side by side by side, as in the lower part of the figure,
afford power for expressing any number from 1 to 7777,
excepting H, !). IS, lit, 2H. 29, and all others in which the
numerals S and 9 are required : the first pointer represent-
ing thousands, the second hundreds, the third tens, and
the fourth units. Thus the four black pointers in the
figure, being, respectively, in the positions indicating
2, 7, 7, and 4, expres-,, collectively, the number 2774. The
numerical system affords at least equal facilities with the
alphabetic or lettering plan for secrecy in the communica-
tince the connection between the numbers expressed
and the sentences to which they refer may be changed at
pismire, and none of the perso'm employed in transmit-
ting the intelligence need to possess the dictionary, the
niiiiilirr being all that they require to know. In reference
to this distinctive feature of his plan, Kdgeworth observes
that, while ' telegraph is a proper name for a machine
which describes at a distance, trMnt*ruj>h, or, contractedly,
lr/.'n!fi-'i/i/;, is a proper name for a machine which de-
scribes wordt at a distance ;' and therefore he uses the
latter term. In his ' Essay on the Art of Conveying
Secret and Swift Intelligence,' published in the sixth
volume of the 'Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy,'
in which the details of his plan are fully given, Edgeworth
notice* the great advantages derivable from the applica-
tion of telegraphic communication to commercial and
'•s, as, for instance, to the speedy announce-
ment of market-prices at a distance; and even hints at the
possibility of a line of telegraphs between Europe and the
East Indies. He also published a pamphlet entitled ' A
Letter to the Right Honourable the Earl of Charlemont
on the Tellograph, and on the Defence of Ireland,' which
was reprinted at London in 1797.
Another of the individuals whose attention was directed
to this subject by Chappe's telegraph, was the Rev. J.
Gamble, then chaplain to the Duke of York. He issued
a thin quarto pamphlet, without date, entitled ' Observa-
tions on Telegraphic Experiments,' in which, after noticing
several suggestions which had been made for effecting
rapid communication, he propounds another, of which he
believed himself to be the inventor. The apparatus which
he proposed consisted of a frame-work containing five
boards, or shutters, arranged vertically one above the
other, and pivoted in such a way that any or all of them
might be closed, so as to present their broad surfaces to
the eye, or opened, so as to present merely a thin edge,
which would be invisible at a distance. The various signals
produced by closing one or more of these shutters may be
applied either to a numerical or an alphabetical system.
A similar plan submitted to the Admiralty in 1795, by
Lord George Murray, was adopted in the first government
line of telegraphs established in England, in 1790, between
London and Dover. The ' Annual Register' for that year
(.p. 4 of the ' Chronicle') mentions the erection of the
telegraph over the Admiralty on the 28th of January, and
states that information had been conveyed from Dover to
London in seven minutes. The action of this kind of tele-
graph, which was continued in use by the Admiralty until
the year 1816, is illustrated by Fig. 4, in which A repre-
scnt.-, a square frame-work with six octagonal shutter*,
1,2, 3, 4, 5, and 0, arranged in two vertical columns, or
Fig. 4.
L.J
1 2
sets, and turned into a vertical position, so as to display
their broad surfaces completely, and B represents the
same apparatus with the boards or shutters placed horizon-
tally, or turned one-quarter round upon their respective
axes, so as to present nothing but their ederes to Hie eye.
The central space between the two columns of shutters
serves to render them more distinct to a distant obsvn i r,
and affords room for the ropes and pulleys by which the.
telegraph is worked, and winch are managed by persons
in the observatory below. As shown by the following
table, the six-shutter telegraph is capable of express! ni;
sixty-three different signals, by closing one, two, three, or
more of the shutters, according to the Arabic numerals in
the table, which refer to the numbers inserted in the cut
l-'i f. I. A. The position of the apparatus shown in Fig. 4, B,
is not counted as a signal ; it being the position of rest.
Table qf the Separate or Dittinct Si finals given by the
N; i -thutier Telegraph.
1 23 124 23fi 1215 3456
2 24 125 '21.') 12 Hi 12315
3 25 l.'li 240 1250 123-iO
4 26 131 250 1345 12350
5 :!l 135 3-t5 13 Hi 12-451!
0 35 130 340 135B 13450
12 3<i 145 :',.-,(; I I5(i 23450
13 15 140 450 2345 123450
14 40 150 12.'14 2310
15 (56 234 1235 2350
16 123 235 1236 2150
These signals affords the means of expressing each letter
of the alphabet, and each of the Arabic numerals, by a
distinct and simple sign, and still leave several siens un-
appropriated, which may be applied to words or sentences
of common use, or to arbitrary signals ; and the connec-
U2
TEL
148
TEL
tion between the signal* given in the table and the letters
ornunii'rnls they represent maybe varied almost infinitely;
to that if, in time of \viir. (lie key were to fall into tin-
hands of the encniv, it miirht be immediately changed. In
a modification of tins kind of telegraph, intended for night
as well a* for day service, which was submitted to tlir So-
of Arta, in 1805, by Mr. Joseph Davis, a seventh
shutter or board is added, "which, instead of being .
on an horizontal axU, is made to slide up and down in
grooves in the centre of the framework ; so that it may
i-ithcr range with the Quitters 1 and 2, 3 and 4, or 5 and 0,
or, if not required at all, may descend into a space pro-
vided for it in the roof of the observatory. By this simple
device the power of the machine is quadrupled ; it being
rendered capable of making the sixty-three signals shown
in the table without the sliding-shutter, and the like num-
ber with it in each of its three visible positions, or two
hundred and fifty-two changes in the whole.
About the same time that shutter-telegraphs were being
introduced in England, the Chevalier A. N. Edelcrantz,
of Stockholm, was devising similar machinery for use in
Sweden. In 1796 he published an account of his experi-
ments and inventions in the Swedish language, which in
1901 was translated into French and published at Paris,
and was noticed in Nicholson's ' Journal ' in 1803. A few
years later Edelcrantz communicated a model of his tele-
graph to the English Society of Arts, in whose • Transac-
tions ' for 1808 (vol. xxvi., pp. 184-189), it is minutely
described. He commenced his experiments in Septem-
ber, 1794, with a machine resembling that first employed
in France ; but he soon abandoned it, and adopted a shut-
ter-telegraph with ten boards or vanes, arranged in three
vei-tic-af ranks, of which the centre one has four, and the
others three boards each. By this arrangement 1024
changes or signals may be clearly shown ; and it would be
possible, by observing the order in which the shutters are
exhibited, to show 4,037,912 changes. The minute atten-
tion required in this case would, however, occasion some
uncertainty; and it is not likely that any circumstances
could render so many changes at all desirable. Edel-
crantz recommends that the vanes or shutters, which are
represented as of a square form, should be painted black,
and the frames which support them either white or red ;
and he says that the intervals between the shutters
should be greater than their diameters. The apparatus
I'or working the telegraph is ingenious, but too comuli-
i for description here. It is sufficient to state that,
when out of use. the shutters are held open by weights.
and that the leverage afforded by the apparatus for closing
them is such as to enable one man to hold them all. it
-sary, against a high wind, which, it is added, could
not be aone with the English six-shutter telegraph, not-
withstanding the smaller number of vanes, without em-
ploying several men. This inconvenience led Mr. Henry
Ward, who had observed the difficulty of working the
telegraph at Blandford, in Dorsetshire, to contrive an
ingenious apparatus which is described in pages 207-8
of the same volume of the • Transact ion-, ' of the Society ol
Arts as that which contains the communication of the Che-
valier Edelcrantz. In this apparatus the grooved wheel
or pulley which is fixed upon the axis of the shutter, to
receive the rope by which it is turned, has the grooved
portion of its rim formed in two segments, which are so
attached to the periphery of the wheel by steel springs
that they fly off' and remain at a little distance from it
when there is no strain on the rope ; although, so soon as
the rope is pulled, its pressure forces the segments into
close contact with the solid vim of the wheel. In the
segments are formed two notches, which, when the shutter
is in either of its required positions, engage with a lived
catch so soon as the strain on the rope is relaxed, and so
hold the shutter steady without any aid from the at-
tendant. The pulling of the rope, by drawing the seg-
ments close to the wheel, releases the catch, and •
quently enables the attendant to return the shutter to its
original position. The ten-shutter telegraph of Edel-
crantz had, at the date of his letter to the Society of Arts,
been in constant use for twelve years, on both sides ol the
Baltic, and in other places in Sweden : - chiefly in facili-
tating the communication of posts between Ku>-ia and
Finland on one side (of the Baltic), and Sweden and Eng-
land on the otlu-r.' He states that one person was suffi-
cient for working it and making the observations, espe-
cially at the terminal stations ; and that six signals were
usually given in a minute.
Lieutenant-Colonel Macdonald, who greatly prefers the
numerical to the spelling or lettering system, r< -n m;:;
a shutter-telegraph of still greater power, and ci
of (greater complexity, than that nf Edclcraiitz. His u-r-
telegraph, the advantages of which he lists pleaded
at length in two treatises, published in 1808 and 1H17,
consists of thirteen shutters, arranged, like thos.
crantz, in three vertical sets, w Inch represi • clj ,
hundreds, tens, and units. As three boards in c».
would only afford seven combinations for each column,
he uses four, wjm-h give fifteen combinations, ten of
which are used to express the numerals from 1 to 9, and 0,
and the remaining five for abbreviations and arbitian
nals. The twelve ordinary boards are capable of pro-
ducing 4095 distinct combinations, and the thirteenth, or
auxiliary hoard, which is mounted over the centre of 1 1k-
machine, doubles that number. A flag or vane is added
to the hundred side of the apparatus, to distinguish it in
whatever direction it may be viewed, and a ball sliding
upon the staff which supports it affords the means of again
doubling the number; so that, in the whole, l(i,3so dis-
tinct signs may be made with this machine. Macdonald
recommends that the shutters be made about liv.
square ; in which case they may be si-en with a mod
telescope, in clear weather, at a distance of ten or eleven
miles.
Although the shutter-telegraph was originally con-
sidered an improvement upon that of M. Clumpc, which
was so complex as to lead to considerable risk of <
unless it were worked by a practised person, experience
has established the superiority of telegraphs or sema-
phores with moveable arms ; and these hsue been great K sim-
plified, so as to avoid the objection raised to the old French
telegraph. Among the schemes proposed soon after tin-
first practical application of telegraphs, was one which con-
sisted in dividing a large circle into twenty-four part
the letters of the alphabet, and employing a tra\crsing
radius, or index, to point them out ; wires being fixed be-
fore the object-glass of the telescope to enable the ill--
tant observer to determine the position of the radius. Tins
plan could only be applied to short distances, because re-
fraction might render it difficult to distinguish between
positions so little \ar\ing from each other. The same
radiating principle wits, however, adopted in some ma-
chines of more practical character; among which was a
telegraph contrived by the Rev. J. Gamble (whose ori-
ginal shutter-telegraph lists been before mentioned . con
sistiug of five beams or arms pivoted at the top of n post,
upon one axis, and capable of producing many dill-
combinations without using angles of less than 46 . On a
similar principle were constructed the French cosist tele-
graphs adopted in 1803, to which the name of .\r//m/ •
was first applied, and from which it hits been given to
other telegraphic machines, the action of winch is de-
pendant upon the motion of arms around pivot-, placed at
or near their extremities. These French semaphon
as they were sometimes called. '«. consisted of
upright posts with two or three mo\ cable arms, turning
upon separate pivots, one above the other. Before they
were much known in this country. Captain now Major-
General . Hasley hsul been led to observe the inferiority of
the. common land-telegraph to that used sit sea, which con-
sisted of coloured flsigs. and by which three numb'
rather three numerals combined to form one number,
might he readily expressed. To remedy this defec.
in 1807 (before ha [,.,,1 M.,.n u,(. Prencn aemaj
vi-ed what he termed a • |MI|\ grammatic telegraph.' of
which he published ade»cnption ml he twenty-ninth volume
of Tilloch's •Philosophical Maga/ine.' This machine,
which is represented in l'ii; 5, consist ed ol I»
Fig. 5.
:— 1
2
A
y 4
\
.-]
\ '
\
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the top of each of which was pivoted a pair of arms. Each
pair of arras was capable, by assuming the various posi-
tions indicated by the dotted lines added to the first pair,
of forming more than a sufficient variety of distinct sig-
nals to express any of the numerals or the 0 ; and con-
sequently the whole machine could represent any num-
ber composed of not more than four figures, besides
having several signals to spare. In 1809 Captain Pasley
saw the French semaphore, which he described in the
following year, together with a modification of his own
polygrammatic telegraph, founded upon it, in the thirty-
firth volume of the periodical just mentioned. This sim-
plified polygrammatic telegraph, represented in Fig. 6,
Fig. 6.
X
N
lias three pairs of arms, representing hundreds, tens,
and unit*, pivoted to different parts of the same ver-
tical post. This contrivance is adopted by Lieutcuant-
( 'olonel Macdonald, with very trifling \ariation, in liis
' Treatise explanatory of a new System of Naval, Military,
and Political Telegraphic Communication,' published in
Inly. By the addition of a ball and vane at the top of
the mast, it becomes a machine of the same power as
Maedonald's thiiteen-shutter telegraph; as each pair of
anus is capable of assuming fifteen distinct positions. An-
other semaphore on the same principle was submitted to
the Society of Arts in 1821, by Lieutenant N. H. Nicolas,
anil dcscnbed. together with a method of applying a
shirting key to telegraphic communications, for the pur-
pose of insuring their secrecy, in the thirty-ninth volume of
the Society's • Transactions ;' where, although allusion is
made, in a note, to the similar plan published by Colonel
Mucdonald, nothing is said of the earlier invention of
Pa-Icy. The telegraph of Lieutenant Nicolas consists of
a lolly pole with four pairs of arms, one above another,
the lowest pair representing units. For each of the three
hmei- pairs til' arms nine positions are all that are required,
t) licnig indicated by both arms being closed into the post,
and therefore concealed from sight ; bat the upper pair
are iiiiiiie to represent any number from 1 to 15, so that
the total range of the machine is from 1 to 15,999.* This
i^ cUcctcd by making the right arm represent 1, 2, or 3,
• iing to its portion as inclined upwards, extended hori-
/iintally, or inclined downwards; and assigning to the letl
arm the number 4 if inclined downwards, or H if extended
horizontally. 5, (}, 7, and !) art- formed, respectively, by the
combination of the signs for 4 and 1, 4 and 2, 1 and 3, and
H and 1 : and, in the case of the pair of arms which re-
nt, thousands, the left arm when inclined upwards
indicates 12: ami lo, 11, l:{, 1 I, and 15 are produced by
H ami 2, 8 and :i, 12 and 1, 12 and 2, and 12 and 3, re-
ively. The telegraphs upon the commercial line of
iinnication recently established between London and
the Downs are constructed upon another modification of
the polygrammatic principle ; four pairs of arms being em-
ployed, but mounted upon two posts instead of one, as in
the semaphore last described, or four, as in the original
dr-ign of Captain Pasley.
In IslG it. was determined to change the Admiralty tele-
graphs int i M-rnaphores constructed on the principle of
i in France, with the improvements suggested
by Sir Home Popham, who had previously done much for
the improvement of naval signals. The action of Pop-
ham's semaphore is explained by Fig. 7, in which dotted
•K.i imuro number stit^'lin the description of tin- m.vhlii'1;
liMt:l .t for 15,999, u no means is fleacrilf't t<" i>r >
in' uuwwr !>', tlUiuii^li it u ewy to conceive bow U might be dune,
U uewtar/.
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lines are added to show the various positions in which the
arms may be placed, and numerals to show the numbers
indicated by those positions. Only two arms are em-
ployed ; but as they are mounted upon separate pivots,
Fig- 7-
-: 4
each of them can assume six different positions, and the
two together are capable of affording forty-eight signals ;
which number, though less than that given by the six-
shutter telegraph, is sufficient to express the letters of the
i alphabet and the Arabic numerals, and to leave thirteen
signals unappropriated, for abbreviations and arbitrary
signs. This kind of semaphore is still used at the govern-
ment stations ; and for the following table of its various
changes or positions, and of the letters and numbers in-
dicated by them, we are indebted to the article ' Tele-
graph,' in the seventh edition of the ' Encyclopaedia Bri-
tannica,' by Sir John Barrow, one of the secretaries to the
Admiralty.
Tallin of the separate or distinct Signals given by the
Admiralty Telegraph, irith their respective Significa-
tion*.
Siffll:*
one an<l two
arm*.
Significa-
tion.
Signal a by
two arms.
siKninca-
tiull.
Signals by
I\M> arm*.
si-nilir i-
tion.
i
i
15
G
43
X
2
2
16
H
44
Y
3
3
21
I
45
Z
4
4
22
K
40
5
5
23
L
51
G
G
24
M
52
1
A
25
N
53
2
B
26
0
5i
3
C
31
P
55
4
D
32
Q
50
5
E
33
H
01
G
F
34
S
02
11
7
35
T
C3
12
8
36
U
04
13
8
41
V
G5
14
0
42
w
GG
SirHomePopham's telegraph, in addition to its superiority
in the important quality of simplicity, was a great improve-
ment upon those which preceded it in the details of me-
chanical construction and in the mode of effecting the re-
quired movements. These are minutely detailed and illus-
trated with engravings, in the thirty-fourth volume of the
' Transactions' of the Society of Arts, in whose museum a
model of the telegraph is deposited. The vertical post or
beam is not a solid mass of timber, but a hollow hexagonal
mast, which, turning on a pivot at its foot, and in a collar
where it passes through the roof of the cabin used as an
observatory, may be moved so as to display its signals in any
direction. The moveable arms are provided with balance-
weights in the form of masses of metal attached to their
shorter ends, very near to the pivots upon which they
turn, by which means they are enabled to move in any
direction with the exertion of a very small force ; and they
TEL
150
1 1 I.
tre made, when out of use, to lull into grooves or recesses
in the post, KO as to become wholly i The nun <•-
menU are effected by means of two winch-handles m-i»r
the base of the ma*t, within the cabin, one for riu li ami.
The winch-handles turn two small vertical bevil-wheels,
which communicate motion by means of two horizontal
bevil-wheels to long upright shafts or rods, which pass up
the inside of the hollow post of the telegraph. At the
upper ends of these rods, which are held steady by suitable
bearings, are endless screw*, which work into toothed
wheels fixed upon the axes of the arms, and thereby com-
municate motion to them. In order that the person who
works the machine may know pi cci.-eh w hen the arms are
brought to the required positions. (-imilar endless •
are added near the lower eiuls of the vertical rods, to give
motion by toothed wheels to indexes, which give a
miniature representation of the motion of the arms. Ex-
cepting 1he-c indexes and the winch-handles, the whole
apparatus is enclosed in the vertical shall of the telegraph,
on the outside of which small blocks may be added, to
enable a person, with the assistance of a rope from the top
of the post, to ascend the machine for the purpose of clean-
ing and oiling it.
About the same time Sir Home Popham proposed a
modification of the semaphore for marine purposes, which,
ne conceived, would be found very advantageous for the
merchant-service, by superseding the necessity fora costly
set of signal-flans : the expense and wear and tear of
which formed a serious objection to a system of .g.
graphic communication at sea. excepting in the ships
of the East India Company. His proposed sea-telegraph
would not, it is stated, cost more than fifty shillings at
(list, and it.-- wear and tear would not amount to live shil-
lings a year. As the height of an apparatus resembling
his land-semaphore would he objectionable for marine
purposes, Popham proposed to n.-c two posts twel .
two inches high and six inches thick, each having a single
arm si\ feet four inches long and ten inches broad, p
to the top, but not falling into a slot in the post. as in the
last-described machine. In a small slot at the top of earli
post is a grooved pulley or sheave fixed upon the same
axis as the arm ; and at a convenient height from the
bottom of each post another precisely similar pulley is
mounted in like way, its axis passing through the post,
and carrying a small wheel with four handles at right
angles with each other, by which the machine is worked :
the motion of the lower pulley being communicated to the
upper one, andx consequently to the aim, by an endless
rope, which has two or three turns round each of the
sheaves, and passes up by the sides of the post. When the
telegraph is in use, the posts may be attached to the side
of tne vessel by stepping their lower ends into blocks
fixed for the purpose, and lashing them to the bulwarks ;
or they may be mounted upon trucks, so as to be readily
moved from one pail of the ship to another. The descrip-
tion of this machine in Sir Home Popham's communica-
tion to the Society of Arts mentions but four positions
for each arm, and states that when placed in the four
positions diagonally to the post, one arm denotes 1, 2, 3,
and 4, and the other 5, G, 7, and 8. This arrangement
gives twenty-four distinct signals, and avoids the pos-
sibility of mistaking the horizontal for an inclined position
of either arm, of which there might, owing to the motion
of the ship, be some risk.
May I'li-ley. in a pamphlet published in 1823,
entitled • Di-sciiptioo of the 1'niversal Telegraph for Day
and Night Signals,' states that, although bent one time
consideied I'opham's arrangement* to be judicious, he
now deems the use of two separate pivots in the land-
semaphore, and of two posts in that tor marine use. unne-
cessary ; and that, conceiving simplicity to be of more
consequence than the power of making many chan-
distinct signals, he has abandoned the polygrammatic
principle, and adopted the simple form shown in the next
cut, I' i a. K. which represents wliat he st\ les the ' universal
telegraph,' as adapted tor day-service. It consists of an
upright post with two aims, both attached to one pivot at
its uppe
•even p
the tl
by the
Knch arm is capable of assuming the
icated in the cut. besides what i-
• d down m.
iiiy-eight distinct signals inn
ppparntus, as shown in the suhjoiiud
table ; these- being more than sufficient for the letters of
Kg. 8.
the alphabet, though not numerous enough to allow of a
full alphabet and the numeral characters.
Tu/ilc of the separate or distinct ,s> «•«<;/*• pi mi Inj 1'ntley't
Universal
C
7
12
13
14
15
16
17
2.!
24
25
2( i
27
34
3C
37
45
46
47
50
57
07
It had been found, in using Sir Home Poplxim's ship-
semaphores, that inconvenience and uncertainty was
occasioned by the signals being sometimes seen in i.
in which case one number or sign would be confounded
with another; and this circumstance having been men-
tioned to Pasley by an officer in the navy, he pro
against its occurrence with his universal tclegiaph by tin-
addition of the auxiliary arm. or indica'-
the cut. which, in whatever direction the machine
be viewed, distinguishes the side at which the nu-
signs commence. It serves also to prevent the p.-
marked 4 from being confounded with the stop, which it
might be if there were nothing to indicate that the tcle-
giaph is nt work, and to enable the eye to n.
it. The amis and indicator of this telegraph nre
iiamed and pannclled. for the sake of lightness, and the
former move respectively before and behind tlu
indicator only turning up. by means of a rope from I
into a cavity in the shall, like the arms of I'opbam's sema-
phore. The counterbalance weights of the arms ai-
tixed close to the pivot, but extend to some distance from
it. in the form of a slender framework of iron, with :
at the outer extremity, their light nppeniance rein:
them almost invisible at. a distance. The in
effected by an endless chain or rope, with a conti:-
for keeping it at the necessary degree of ten-ion, as this
plan is quicker in action than that of Popham ; but I1
observes that if, ns in a ship-telegraph, a i
used instead of n chain, the index attached t.
pulley must not be implicitly depended ppon. In :
.sequent part of his pamphlet he states that, in \M
with n rope, it i- best to have the pulley-groov .
angular form, or with notches of the same form, cut into
projecting cleats fixed to their circumference, in which
case the turns of the rope round the pullcvs may be dis-
pensed with. A friend who was well acquainted with the
- of the climate of India, recommended to him that
no iron should be used in semaphores to be exposed
and no wood, excepting tor the post, which maj i
lie additional parts required to con v < -it the
machine into n night-telegraph, for which l.amhoo niny
be used. The- pannels of the arms should, in such ,-i
be made of thiii sheet-copper, and the other parts of the
machine of brass or bronze. Pasley stato that
should in general be painted black, and. if ]
! that they may be seen without any bnckgiotind.
It however a background be unavoidable, the i.l.jinph
should be of such a colour as to contrast with it. In
where the ap; -Aground v
much nt different periods of the day. it i
In paint the arms white and black, in !
each occupying half of the width nnd half of the
length of the mm.
The ingenious contrivances which
for effecting telegraphic communication are so veiy nu-
merous, that anything like an enumeration of them is
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151
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impossible in this place. Several depend upon the appli-
cation of arms of various forms to a semaphoric telegraph.
A two-armed telegraph, of which the two arms are diffe-
rently shaped, would be capable of making twice as many
signals as a two-armed telegraph with both arms of the
same form ; but, for ordinary purposes, such an arrange-
ment would have many.disadvantages. A machine of this
character, contrived by Mr. Alexander Law, for both land
and sea service, is described in the thirty-third volume of
the 'Transactions' of the Society of Arts. Another class
of telegraphic contrivances depend upon the exhibition of
devices or symbols, in a manner somewhat resembling the
original contrivance of Dr. Hooke. Of this sort JSIac-
donald describes one under the name of the 'symbolic
telegraph,' in which symbols resembling those of Hooke,
but representing numerals instead of alphabetic characters,
are dropped from three boxes or screens into as many
open spaces, which have the values of hundreds, tens, and
units respectively. An auxiliary shutter, a ball, and a
vane or flag, as in his shutter-telegraph, serve to increase
the powers of the machine at pleasure. Another contri-
vance, which, like the last mentioned, is well adapted for
a portable telegraph for use in moderate distances, was
invented about the year 1817 by Mr. C'onolly, and de-
M'ribed by him in a pamphlet published in that year, in
Knglish and French, entitled ' An Essay on universal
Telegraphic Communication," and also in the thirty-sixth
volume of the 'Transactions' of the Society of Arts. Co-
nolly's ' Portable Telegraph' consists simply of three square
boards painted with simple devices in black and white, as
shown in Fig. 9, the colours on one side being the reverse
of those upon the other. The six figures in the upper row
Fig. 9.
are thus produced upon three boards, and each of these
.-ix figures is capable of producing four different signals,
by turning each side of the board downwards in succession,
as shown in the four devices at the lower part of the cut.
Thus the three boards afford twenty-four distinct signals,
which are sufficient for alphabetic communication ; and one
only is sufficient for making numerical communications,
with the assistance of a smaller paddle-shaped board, the
two sides of which, when it is used separately, denote affir-
mation or negation. In experiments made at Chatham,
boards but eighteen inches square were found sufficient
for a distance of two miles, with a telescope with a magni-
fying power of twenty-five ; and Mr. Conolly had also, it
is stated, exhibited these signals between Gros-nez and
Sarque, a distance of seventeen miles, with boards twelve
feet square. The day-telegraph of the Rev. James Brem-
ner, alluded to in a previous column, consists of a frame-
work with two circular openings, in each of which a semi-
rircular screen or shutter revolving upon an axis in the
centre of the circle, in capable of assuming four different
positions. This machine expresses an alphabet of sixteen
letters, by dividing the letters into four classes or sets of
four each, and making one shutter express the class, and
tin- other the number of the letter in that class. Major
U's Le Hardy communicated to the Society of Arts, in
WW, a telegraphic scheme of very different character to
that have been proposed. His telegraph consists of
H large frame-work with nine radiating liars, representing
the numeials from 1 to 9, and four sets of other bars in-
ting them in such a manner as to form four con-
i<- poly irons (the whole apparatus having somewhat
the ii of a spider's web), which polygons express
' •( ively units, tens, hundreds, and thousands ; thousands
tieing shown by the innermost polygon. Attached to the
centre (if the machine by pivots are four slender arms, car-
rying as many square boards of sufficient size to be visible
?t a distance ; the respective lengths of these arms being
that the board of one may, during the revolution of
the arm, traverse the polygon which represents thousand*,
that of another the hundreds polygon, &o. The action of
the apparatus is as follows:— If it be desired to express the
number 9202, the shortest arm is placed in such a position
that its board may rest upon the radius 9, at the point
where it is intersected by the thousands or innermost
polygon ; the next arm is turned to the radius 2, its board
covering the point of intersection between it and the
second, or hundreds polygon ; the third arm and board is
not called into action at all ; and the fourth is, like the
second, turned to the radius 2, the board covering the in-
tersection between it and the outermost or units polygon.
Thus far therefore the machine can express any number
from 1 to 9999 ; but its power is increased by the addition
of two other boards at the upper corners, one of which
denotes 10,000, and the other 20,000, or, when displayed
together, 30,000 ; so that the total range of the telegraph
is from 1 to 39,999.
Several modes of telegraphic communication without
machinery, or with nothing which cannot be conveniently
carried by hand, have been devised, especially for the
purpose of directing military operations, or of conveying
speedy intelligence in time of war, where no line of ordi-
nary telegraphs can be established. In 1808 such a plan,
under the name of an ' anthropo-telegraph,' was laid
before the Society of Arts by Mr. Knight Spencer, whose
communication was printed in the twenty-seventh volume
of their ' Transactions.' Mr. Spencer had observed, in the
volunteer service, the inconvenience and loss of time occa-
sioned in passing the orders of the commander-in-chief to
the officers commanding distant divisions, when a great
number of men were manoeuvred together, and this led
him to devise the plan alluded to, which he put in practice
for the first time in 1805. His apparatus consisted simply
of two circular discs of wicker-work, about eighteen inches
in diameter, with handles six inches long, painted white, with
a black circle or ball in the centre. As these did not weigh
more than about a pound each, a man could easily hold
them, one in each hand, in any required position. Stand-
ing in the position of the first figure in the subjoined
cut, Fig. 10, with both discs held down and turned edge-
wise to the observer, the telegrapher indicated ' attention' ;
in the second position, he expressed a desire to convey in-
telligence to the correspondent at a distance; turning
Kg. 10.
one-quarter round again, and displaying one disk as shown
by the third figure, he expressed the number 1 ; in the
next position, 2; in the fifth, 3; 4, 5, and 6 were expressed
by positions the reverse of 1, 2, and 3; the right-hand disk
being held edgewise, and the other displayed ; 7 was
shown by displaying both discs in the lowest position ;
8, as shown by the last figure in the cut, by both held out
at arm's length ; and 9, by both elevated ; 0 was given by
holding both discs above the head, one behind the other,
so as to appear but one ; and the signal of ' point ' or
' period,' used at the close of every number, by placing
the right hand disc in front of the breast, and the other
behind the back, so that, like all the other signals, it might
be seen both in front and rear. Another position, formed
by displaying the right hand disc in the position 1 and the
left hand disc in the position 6, formed a signal of ' error,'
to be used in case of any mistake which might require the
repetition of a signal. By this simple arrangement any
TEL
152
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number might be readily expressed ; and consequently it
illicit lx- applied to any numerical dictionary wha'
Signals might alto be made at night, by attaching n i'u . -
tor-lamps to the disc*, in such a manner that they might
hang vertically in every position of the discs, and strapping
anotlier lamp, glazed with preen glass, upon the breast of
the telegrapher. If intermediate Nations be required, there
must also be lamps upon the back of the man and of the
dues. The difference of colour between the lamps upon
the body of the telegrapher and those attached to the discs
U essential to the distinct perception of some of the signals;
and the difference between 'attention' and 'point' or
•period," in nocturnal telegraphing, depends solely upon
it. A letter from Admiral Hunter accompanies the descrip-
tion ; in which, after expressing a very favourable opinion
of the plan, he recommends enlarging the discs to two feet
diameter, and painting one side as above described, and
the other with a white centre and black rim, so that either
might be used, according to the state of the weather.
In the volume from which the above details are taken,
there is also an account of a yet simpler contrivance, in-
vented by Lieutenant Sprat t, for telegraphing by means of
a white handkerchief, held in various positions to express
the numeral characters and a few other convenient signs.
The inventor employed this mode of communication some
time before the battle of Trafalgar, as a means of carrying
on conversation with a distant vessel ; and he had used it
successfully to converse between Spithead and the green
ramparts at Portsmouth, Sec. \Yilh a common telescope
it may be used at a distance of four miles. Macdonald
describes some more complicated contrivances of similar
character, by the display of small flags, or of two white
handkerchiefs and a black hat ; by the latter of which plans
between lifty and sixty distinct sitrnals may be made. He
also shows how signals may be made to any required extent
by men changing their positions from sitting to standing,
Sec. Twelve men, arranged in three sets of four men each,
may in this way be used instead of his large shutter-tele-
graph.
Some of the earliest methods of telegraphic communica-
tion which have been noticed above were essentially
adapted for nocturnal use; but in modern times the use
of night -signals has not been extensively required, although
provision might have been made for their exhibition in con-
nection with many day-telegraphs. Thus, for instance, it was
proposed to add lamps to the moveable parts of C'happe's
telegraph ; and Edelcrantz suggested the application of
lamps to his ten-shutter machine. In Davis's seven-shut-
ter telegraph, previously described as applied to day-ser-
vice, night-signals were to be given by a coloured lamp
mounted in the centre of the seventh or sliding shutter,
and six white lights attached to the outside of the frame,
to produce, by their display or concealment by slides, the
same signals as, under ordinary circumstances, are given
by the opening and closing of the shutters. These -idc-
lamps were to be secured to upright pieces of wood, slid-
ing up and down in dovetailed groo\ cs in the outside of
the frame-work, so that they might be readily withdrawn
when not in use. Provision is made for the adaptation of
Pasley's universal telegraph to nocturnal communication
by adding a central light at the top of the post, a lamp to
the extremity of each arm, and an additional light as an
indicator, suspended from a light derrick or crane project-
ing horizontally beyond the range of the arms, and on a
level with the top of the post. This, the lamps themselves,
and 'the additional counterweights required with them,
should all be removed during the day. How little neces-
sity there is, under ordinary circumstances, for the use of
telegraphs by night, at any rate in connection with the
navy, may be assumed from the statement of Sir John
Barrow, that no attempt was ever made to add lamps to
the six-shutter telegraphs formerly used by the Admiralty,
notwithstanding the ease with which it might hav
done. The semaphores now used by the Admiralty are
also constructed without any provision lor the display of
night-signals. Macdon.ild's treatise (1817) contains several
schemes lor night-telegraphs, both for land and sea : one
of which, consisting of three sets of four lights each, with
an additional or director light to each set, has the same
extensive powers as hi-, favourite large shutter-telegraph.
Marine telegraphic communication is an object of even
greater importance than that winch has been principally
treated of in this article, since there are many circum-
stances which render personal commvmic.il ion between
vessels at sea impracticable, and that sometimes in en
the greatest emergency. But, although n:: • have
been, of necessity, long used, and flags of various hums
and colours have bt-i .uployed for the pur-
pose of making them, it was not till within a compam-
recent period that they were reduced to anything
like an efficient telegraphic system. Sir John B;
states (Kuril. Hrtt., ait. -Navy'i that -The idea of num-
bering the flags, and of assigning a certain number of cor-
responding sentences to certain combinations
numbers, was reduced to something approaching a regular
system in the fleet of Lord Howe ;' and that in th-
1798 a new signal-book was issued by the Admiralty, the
references to which were made by a numerical anange-
ment of flags. This book contained about four hundred
sentences, expressive of the most usual operations of the
fleet : but it was so imperfect that, if any order had to be
transmitted which was not to be found in the dictionary, it
became necessary to make the signal for 'a boat from
each ship;' an order which could not alsvavs be complied
with. This inconvenience was remedied by the plan, sug-
gested by Sir Home Popham, of making the flag-signals
represent the letters of the alphabet, a> well as words and
sentences, in connection with numbers. This individual
also printed, at Calcutta, a new code of naval signals, which
was subsequently reprinted in England, greatly extended,
and adopted for use in the navy. Among the nuin<
improvements introduced by him is a new method of cut-
ting the signal flags, so that, as he explained to the Society
of Arts in 1816, 'the selvages of the buntin are brought
on the outer edges of the flags, and the gorings in tin-
centre ; by which means the outer < ceptible of
the least air of wind, and when the flag blow- out. the
gorings assist in keeping it out ; whereas the old flags had
a hem on the outside, which rendered them difficult to I c
moved without a fresh breeze, especially in damp and
rainy weather, as the hem then became very h
• Besides,' he adds, ' it is impossible, from the nature of the
buntin, to sew a straight seam, for the instant it is cut it
will become in some degree curved.' (Truiistictimii, vl.
xxxiv.. ]>. 174.) The only objection urged by Barrow to
the code of naval signals now in use is one which i-
applicable, more or less, to all that have been subsequently
proposed, namely, the great number of flags, Jcc.. required
for making numerical signals to the extent laid (town ;
which, in the code in question, amount to nine flag-. Use
cornettes, five triangles, and five pendants. With such a
number, he states, it is next to impossible, in calm weather,
to make out the figure, and colour of the flags ; and equally
so when, though expanded by the wind, the situation of
the observer causes them to present only an edge towards
the eye. He conceives that Poaham's sea-telegraph, be-
fore described, is capable of entirely removing this diffi-
culty : and that possibly Pasley's universal telegraph might
be applied in like way with ad'vantagc.
The principle of the numerical system as applied to
flag-telegraphs in the nasy i- briefly explained by Mae-
donald. .Nine different, variegated flag- air employed to
express the numerals 1 to !l, another for 0, and another,
called a sulmtittili; to repeat am Hag under which il is
hoisted, in case of the same numeral occurring twice m
the number to be expressed. A pendant is also used in
some cases as a substitute for the uppermost figure ; and
thus, by the use of eleven different flags and a pendant,
any number from 1 to !)S)!( may be expressed without di —
playing more than three flags, or two flags and a pendant,
at once. In a telegraphic -y-lcm desised by Mr. ( 'onolh ,
and fully explained in the • Transactions ' of the Society
of Arts ior 1817 (vol. xxxv., pp. 205-208 ,ft plied
to express numbers in a different manner to tin- above.
The basis of the system is an alphabetical list of the most
necessary English words, arranged in a tabular form like
the figures in the common multiplication table : the
column- and horizontal lines being numbered. Then
ninety-nine of each: and consequently the numb'
squares or divisions is !)sol. The number of words is how-
ever great e, in some cases. « here no ambiguity
is likely to be I by it. the radical word and
several of Jta modifications arc placed in a I ire or
disi.-ion of the table. The sign:i jiiare
T the mum-nils and (I. a substitute, and a pre-
parative signal), the same number of triangular flags, of
TEL
153
TEL
similar colours and devices, and a pendant; and any word
contained in the table may be expressed by one or two
square flags to indicate the number of -the vertical column
in which it occurs, and one or two triangular flairs hoisted
beneath them, to point out the horizontal column. In
case of both the square and the triangular flag; requiring
to be doubled at once, instead of the two substitutes, the
pendant is hoisted between them ; and if it be necessary to
spell any name or word not contained in the vocabulary,
the twelfth triangular flag (answering to the square pre-
parative signal) is hoisted to indicate that the twenty-
four flags are to be taken for the letters of the alphabet,
according to a preconcerted order.
We should not quit the subject of marine telegraphs
without adverting to the very important advantages likely
to accrue to the commercial shipping interest by the
general adoption of a simple and uniform code of commu-
nication between vessels at sea, and from them to coast
stations, or vice versa. This desirable object is now being
greatly promoted by the commercial telegraphic associa-
tion superintended by Mr. B. L. Watson, whose signal
books are, in future, by the direction of the Lords of the
Admiralty, to be supplied to all the government vessels,
iji order that they may communicate with such merchant
vessels using the code as they may meet with at sea. The
whole code consists of thirteen flags, by which any mes-
sage may be communicated from one vessel to another, or
between a vessel at sea and any of the coast-stations esta-
blished by the association at prominent points around
the British islands. In connection with these coast sta-
tions there are lines of semaphores from the Downs to
London; from Holyhead to Liverpool; and from the
Spurn to Hull ; and from all of them communications are
transmitted to a central office in London, and also to the
owners or consignees of vessels entered in the telegraph
list ; lor which privilege a subscription of twenty shillings
per annum is paid to the association for each vessel. In
like manner any message from the owners of a vessel,
relative to change of destination, or otherwise, can be
communicated from any station within sight of which she
may pass.
Having now noticed the principal varieties of telegraphs
which act by displaying Minutls vi.-ible at a distance, whe-
ther for use on land or at sea, it only remains, before
alluding to contrivances ofa different character, very briefly
to touch upon a few points which bear upon telegraphic
communications generally, but more especially upon land.
The subject has been so ably treated by Sir John Barrow,
in the article before alluded to, with the peculiar advan-
tages derived from his connection with the Admiralty,
that we cannot do better than condense some of hi~ re-
marks on the comparative merits of different telegraphic
systems. He observes that a telegraph employed for
public purposes should be possessed of power, certainty,
simplicity, celerity, and secrecy . It should have sufficient
power to express, by distinct positions or combinations of
moveable parts, any possible order or information, either
by letters, words, or sentences. Its certainty will depend
upon all its parts being clearly defined, wholly within the
field of the telescope, and so distinct that there shall be
no risk of mistaking one signal for another ; whence the
importance of simplicity becomes obvious. Bearing these
points in mind, Barrow conceives that the choice will be
iound to lie between the six-shutter telegraph, Popham's
semaphore, and Pasley'n universal telegraph. Macdonald
thinks that the arms of the semaphore are not so distin-
guishable even in clear weather, and not near so visible in
cloudy weather, as the boards of a shutter-telegraph ; but
Barrow cites some observations of Mr. Gamble, which tend
to a contrary result ; making it appear that, owing to the
confusion in the image on the retina, occasioned by the
refraction of the atmosphere, the property which he terms
insul/ilinn is generally more requisite than mere superficial
magnitude, to give distinctness to a distant object. This
point is illustrated by supposing a person to look at the
letter I in the midst of a printed page, and to remove the
paper from the eye until the image becomes indistinct
limn being confused with the surrounding letters ; and
obMTviag how much more distinct the image would appear
if the letter were printed alone upon a sheet of white
paper. This question however does not rest upon mere
theory or analogy; for it is stated that every officer upon
the Admiralty line bears testimony to the superior dis-
P. C., No. 1507.
tinctness of the semaphore at all times, and especially in
cloudy weather. In order fully to decide the question,
the shutter-telegraph at Nunhead, near New Gross, was
left standing for some time on the'same hill as the new
semaphore ; and the result of the trial for a whole winter
was, ' that the semaphore was frequently distinctly visible
when the boarded telegraph was so much enveloped in
mist and fog that the particular boards shut or thrown
open could not be distinguished ;' and that the number of
days in the course of the winter upon which the sema-
phore was visible exceeded those upon which the shutters
could be seen by fully one-third. Even in the six-shutter
telegraph one shutter was occasionally mistaken for an-
other, and such accidents would doubtless have been more
common had a more complicated shutter-telegraph, like
that of Macdonald, been employed. The objection urged
against the semaphore on the ground of the longer time-
taken to move the arms, because they describe arcs of
larger circles than the boards of a shutter-telegraph, is
hardly deserving of notice, as the difference (which may,
Barrow says, amount to one second in each signal) is
amply compensated by the greater facility of reading off.
The semaphore has also the advantage in the greater sim-
plicity of its machinery, which is much less liable to get
out of order than that, of the boarded telegraph.
As shown by the tables given in the previous descrip-
tions of the three machines particularly noticed by Barrow,
the shutter-telegraph has the power of making a greater
number of combinations without the use of the stop-signal
(or signal which separates one word or one sentence from
another) than either of the others, and Pasley's universal
telegraph has the least power ; but this is of little con-
sequence, if the lowest power prove sufficient. Although
the primary signals of the universal telegraph are only
28 in number, they may be increased to 784 by the use of
two changes with one stop-signal between them (making
three signals in the whole), or, by making three changes
(four signals, with the stop), to 21,952; a number con-
siderably exceeding the words and sentences in Sir Home
Popham's telegraphic dictionary, which do not exceed
13,000. As this dictionary has never, it is affirmed, been
found materially deficient in any of its divisions of subjects,
it is evident that even when applied to communication
by words and sentences instead of by letters, Pasley's
simple telegraph affords sufficient power for all useful
purposes ; and further, that, those who have extended their
telegraphic dictionaries to very high numbers (Pasley
mentions one extended to 140,000), have impaired then-
usefulness, owing to the difficulty and loss of time in
finding the required sentence among so many. ' We have-
actually seen in one telegraphic dictionary,' observes Sir
John Barrow, ' 120 pages, of three columns in each page,
and sixty sentences in each column, containing upwards
of 20,000 sentences (about one-third of the number of
words in Johnson's dictionary), and each of these sen-
tences beginning with the personal pronoun " He ;" 20
pages witli '• If,'' &c." ' Compared with the use of such
a dictionary,' he proceeds to say, ' spelling the sentences
is infinitely preferable as to certainty, and in many cases
as to celerity. Indeed we should say that the abbreviated
nature of communications matie by telegraphs renders
spelling by far the most-eligibl'e mode. In clear weather
the rapidity of working single signals, the short compass
within which any message may be condensed, the impos-
sibility of committing any mistake that cannot be imme-
diately rectified, more than compensate for the difference
of a few minutes which the use of sentences may probably
save. In cloudy or foggy weather, the latter method wifl
always be liable to mistake. If experience may be as-
sumed as a guide, the practice at the Admiralty of spell-
ing all sentences, for the last thirty years, must decide in
favour of that system.' In making communications alpha-
betically, much time may Ue saved by omitting non-
essential words and letters, especially vowels. For example,
the meaning of the sentence ' Ord«r the Agamemnon out
of harbour, and direct her to proceed to Spithead,' may be
sufficiently expressed by ' Agmcmn. to Spthed.' It, is also
important to condense the substance of the communica-
tion as much as possible into the former part of the
,-e, so that no serious mistake may arise if the com-
munication should be interrupted by foggy weather.
Barrow relates a circumstance which occurred during the
Peninsular war, in which some anxiety was occasioned by
VOL. XXIV.— X
T B L
1M
T K I
the non-observance of this principle : a despatch from I
Plymouth .ntclligcn. hav- I
ing been commenced l>\ I;
aad then broki n otf t -, loir, which ' the whole
meaning. •
.!ie message run thus. ' French
defeated ;e iuterniption of tin would
liave been of far less consequence.
Any means of telegraphic communication which de-
IH-nds upon the deci; :nbited at a dis-
tant station is necessarily dependent upon conti
weather: but many plans have been contrive!
ing t: i such a manner as to he indepeiide-
of light and of the state of the at . For com-
munication between the different parts of a house this
object may be effected by a mechanical connection, by
chains or wires, between two dials with revolving ii
or pointers, in such a way that when one pointer is directed
to a particular letter or word inscribed upon the dial to
which it .1, tlie other may exhibit a similar
movement. The attention of the servant is engaged pre-
viously by ringing a bell ; and when the required signal
lias been "made, n spring returns both indexes to their ori-
ginal position. Such a plan, though il for
domestic purposes, is not adapted for distant communica-
tion. Speaking-pipe*, or tubes to convoy the voice from
one place to another. vailable for short distances.
but their range is too limited for application on an ex-
tended scale. One of the early schemes of this character
depends upon the principle of water always finding its
level ; hut, independent of the difficulty which migb-
from the friction of water in a very long pipe of small
diameter, such as would he required to connect the ver-
tical tubes in which the observations would he made, such
a plan involves the nee 'aving all the com-
municating stations at or near the same level. Other
hydraulic telegraphs depend upon the incompressihility of
water or other liquids ; it being proposed to lay down
small pipes of any required length, and to indicate dif-
ferent signals by pressing more or less upon the surface of
the fluid contained in them, which would, it i
transmit the motion to the opposite end of the pii>e, where
it might be pointed out upon a dial, or in any other con-
venient manner. Mr. Vauance described such a method
of telegraphic communication in a pamphlet, published in
1825, of which Hebert gives some account
and Mecfiiui/i'- , vol. ii.. pp. 787-8) ; and
some similar schemes liave been more recently pro-
pounded. Air confined in small pipes has also been tried
to a limited extent as a pneumatic telegraph : but in this.
as well as in the hydraulic system, the risk of I
serious disadvantage. The application of electricity to
telegraphic communication is attended with fewer dif-
ficulties, and has rccentU on an
important scale by Mc-srs. Wheats: ooke. The
possibility of so apph ing it was coneeive-i ,] per-
sons long before It was attempted on a piactie:il scale.
Arthur Young, who visited Fiance in 17S'7. 17^. and
17*!l. mentions, in his travels, the ex] of M.
Lomond, who was able by means of electricity to convey
messages from one room to another; and the Rev. Mr.
Gamble, in his description of his original shutter-telegraph,
allude* to the project of electrical communication. Mr.
Fiancis Ronalds, in a pamphlet on this subject, published
in 1K23, states thai Cuvallo proposed to convey intel-
ligence by passing given numbers of sparks through au
insulated wire; ana that, in lHl(j. he had I
experiments upon this principle, which !
promising than :
tricitv, which had nnans
and Americans. He suee ntting
II through a length of ciirht in. wire ;
•
adapting the principle to telegraphic cotmnu:
It is however to the join'
and Professor V
their practical application; and in a
respecting their relative | <>n with the
invention, drawn up at their request by Sir M. I. Brunei
and I1 iianiell. it is observed lh:i
entitled to -land alone, a whom this
country is indebted for having , durcd and
carried out the electric telegraph a* a useful undertaking.
promising to be a worfc of national importance ; and Pro-
fewor WneaUtono i< nekn 'tific man
whose profound and successful !• pre-
the public to ri ;>nic-
tieal n]>])lication.' Their ' which wa-
in 1837, acts upon principles fonndr
brated discovery, that a magnetic or compass needle
through the agency of a voltaic curie
an artificial polarity. [Ei.ECTi<< •••., p.
:U2.] -Tims,' explains Mr. <
trays, p. 14), ' as a natural stream of el<
round the circumference of the earth c:
needles in general to be deflected at right an:
course. ;ils the north nn<l south poles, so n'i artifi-
cam of electricity of adequate strength will cause.
magnetic ni ithin its influt- •-imi-
larly deflected at right angles to ... t)int
may be. If then a magnetic n, placed parallel
and near to any part of a com!;
suppose to be" laid down between I.nndon and Hlar1
the transmission of an electric current from a vollai
tery would cause the needle to change its portion.
to stand during the continuance of the current at ri<:ht
angles to the wire, being turned in one direction or thp
other according to the course of the current. If th:
flexion of the needle were limited by two fixed
placed respectively at the two sides of one of its pules, the
motion of that pole to one stop might evidently constitute
one signal, and its motion to the another signal.'
Such an apparatus is shown in Fig. 1 1, the dial upon which
the signals are represented being removed. In this .
Fis;. H.
may be supposed to represent the battery, and b l> the con-
ducting wire, which is formed behind the dial into a coil
c : dil is the magnet, which is mounted upon an axi-
ing through the coil, and carrying upon its extremity,
which comes through the dial, an index or poii '
arrows indicate the direction of the current rcqn
licet the magnet to the ] .1 in the figure :
and a eui rent in the opposite dire".
deflexion towards the opi . AVhile no current
- through the v. :
vertical. The next i h in-
Fig. 12.
strumcnts complete, and connected togetli
: in tubes, which ni nffth.
i these maybe . lories, the
at an inter'medi; n. and the thml at Ii
wall ; and as each is provided with n battery, and a handle
(beneath the dial i by which the conducting wi
connected with it nt pleasure, the attendant
station at which such an instrument is placed can instan-
taneously communicate the signal to • stop' or t,, • ^0 on'
to all the other stations: attention I
by ringing A bell, placed above the dial, by an in-
•i'lii of the \oltaie current. liv this beau-
tifully simp "liar method of working
the trairm upon the Blaekwall railway [RAILWAY, vol. xix..
TEL
155
TEL
p. 260] is effected with the greatest ease, although it i.s
essential that the attendants at each terminus should know
not only when the train is ready to start from the opposite
end of the line, but also when the carriages at the five in-
termediate stations are ready. In stopping the trains the
precise information is required ; and it is of vital
importance in case' of any casualty to the rope or to any of
the carriages. It is perhaps not too much to say that the
mode of working adopted on this railway would be im-
•i cable without the aid of the electric telegraph.
Some telegraphs of more extensive powers than the above
are in use on the Blackwall railway, as well as on the
Great Western and Edinburgh and Glasgow lines. Fig.
13, which represents a dial like that on the Great Western
Hail u ay, shows how, by the combination ef four sucli
magnets and pointers as are described above, all the letters
of the alphabet may be expressed, by pointing one or two
Fig. 13.
needles towards them ; and of course a larger or smaller
number of signals might be made on the same principle if
necessary. A telegraph with two pointers, showing eight
signals, is considered by Mr. Cooke to be sufficient for all
ordinary purposes. The wires, where several are used, are
combined into a rope and enclosed in an iron tube, which
may be either buried beneath the surface of the earth or
supported above it ; and they are insulated from each
other by wiapping them round separately with a mixture
of cotton and caoutchouc. For details of construct!'
applied to various purposes, and for an exposition of the
advantages derivable from the use of the electro-
utio telegraph, especially in connection with rail-
, we must refer to the publications <>f Mr. Cooke, the
• Reports of the Select Committee of I he House of Commons
on Railway Communication' in 1840; and the ' Hailway
Times' for June 12, 1841. The longest, continuous line yet
completed is that from Paddington to West Drayton, about
thirteen miles; but this lias been so arranged for the pur-
•!' experiment as to be equal to a stage of thirty-nine
miles, it is reported (July, 1842) that an electric tele-
graph is about to be laid down along the South-Westcrn
Hallway, from London to Gosport.
Hampton's rolybiust ; Bishop Wilkins's Secret and Swift
r; Durham's Phit>n'i/,/<i<->i/ J^fjiri-im/'/itx ; Mae-
donald's Treatise on Telegraphic Communication, 1817;
/'•graph, 1823;
Jds's L>''vrif>t.ii,its of ait Elect n :raph, tyc.,
1823; Cooke's Telegraphic Railways, 1842; Transactions
iif thr :•'•, •;,'!,/ .,/ .///v; Enot/ctop<edia Britannica.}
TELE'MA.CBUa (TqXipovoc). the son of Odysseus
-••s; and Penelope. When his father joined the
Greeks in their expedition against Troy, Telemachus was
young, but during his father's absence he grew up to
manhood. When the gods had decreed that. Odysseus
'•1 return home from the island of Ogygia, Athena
(Minerva,, assuming the appearance of Mentis, king of
the Taphians, appeared to Telemachus, and advised him to
!•! of the .suitors of his mother ; but if Penelope should
to marry again, to send her to her father's house,
he mitrlit celebrate her nuptials there. She also ad-
iil to Pylos and Sparta, to see whether he
1 learn anything concerning his father, who, as she
ill living in some island where he wan
forcibly detained; but if he should be dead, she enjoined
i monument, to his memory, and to
rid himself of f i I his mot her either by strai
or by force. 'I obeyed the. comma, '.Js of the
goddess, aud visited Nestor at Pylos and Mcnelaiu at
Sparta. Both of them received him hospitably, and Me-
nelaus communicated to him the prophecy of Proteus
about his father. In the meantime Odysseus arrived in
Ithaca, and lodged with Eumaeus, the swineherd, in the
disguise, of a beggar. In this condition he was found by
Telemachus, who, by the advice of Athena, had also re-
turned to Ithaca. The father made himself known to his
son, and the two devised a plan for getting rid of the
suiton;. They went to the town, and Odysseus was ad-
mitted as a beggar to a feast of Telemachus and the
suitors. When the suitors began to insult the poor man,
a fight ensued, in which Odysseus and Telemachus killed
itors. Telemachus then accompanied his father to
the aged Laertius. Thus far the story is described in the
Odyssey. Later writers mention other incidents connected
with the story of Telemachus, especially relating to his
marriage, which however is told in different ways. Ac-
cording to one tradition, he married Circe or her daughter
Cassiphoue, and he had a daughter Homa, whom he gave
in marriage to Aeneas. Servius (ad Aeneid., x. 167) calls
him the founder of the town of Clusium in Etruria.
In modern times the name of Telemachus has acquired
celebrity from the moral romance of Fenelon, which is
based upon the story in the Odyssey. [FKNELON.]
TELEMANN, GEORG PHILIPP, a name of no mean
rank in musical history, therefore entitled to some notice
here, was son of the minister of the Lutheran church at
Ma<:debur<r, and there had his birth, in 1U81. Though
educated with other views, his predilection for music was
too strong to be combated, and it became his profession.
He successively held many appointments in Germany, the
chief of which was that of composer to the Lyric theatre
at Hamburg, for which he produced no less than thirty-
five operas. But these were only a small part of his
labours : lie is said to have exceeded the prolific Alessan-
dro Scarlatti in the number of his works for the church
and the chamber ; and, in 1740, his overtures on the
model of Lulli amounted, Doctor Burney tells us, to six
hundred! Strange however as it may appear, yet it is
most true that of this almost incredible number of com-
positions, only two or three fugues are now known, at
in England, and these only to a very few organists of
pal icnt anudeep research.
Telemann was a fellow student of Handel, and attained
considerable longevity, having died in 1707, at the age of
8G. He was twice married, and each wife had ten
children ; and it is remarkable that not one of them
manifested the slightest inclination for the art to which
their father owed his fortune and Depute
TELEOSA'UHUS. Since the article CROCODILE was
i Owen has published his valuable Report
'•a llritixh Found Hrfiti/i's, in which lie notices, among
others, a family of extinct crocodilians characterized by
a combination of a bi-concave structure of the vertebrae
with long, narrow jaws, armed with slender, conical, sharp-
pointed, and equal teeth, adapted, like those of the existing
Gavials, for the seizure and destruction of fishes. Profes-
sor Owen makes this family consist of two genera, whose
characters mainly rest on the difference of position in the
external nostril. In the first of these, Teleosaurus, the
external nostril is terminal and placed at the extremity of
the upper jaw ; in the other, Sleneosaurus, this aperture
is a little beliind and above the termination of the upper
jau.
(,'i'nlogical Distribution and' Habits of the Family. —
The Tuleuxauri and Xl<'n<:o>>auri are confined to the oolitic
division of the secondary rocks. At this period there were
ly any mammals, but fishes were abundant, and
^or Owen refers to the just observation of Dr. Buck-
land in his Bridgeuuter Treatise, that it might, d priori,
have been expected that if any crocodilian forms had then
existed, they would most nearly have resembled the mo-
dern Gavin!. Professor Owen goes on to remark that the
modification in the structure of the vertebral column, and
the complete, mail of imbricated bony scutes, characteris-
tic species, indicate that the habits of the antient
•imuri were more strictly marine than
of tlie modern Gavials, and that their powers of
swimming, of pursuing and overtaking their aquatic prey,
were greater.
After noticing the papers of Messrs. Wooller and Chap-
man, in two .^epaiatc communications in I'liil. Trans.,
vol. 50, 175H, and the figures of an incomplete skeleton
X 2
TEL
156
TEL
•here jr'M-n, as imt of the earliest evidences nf nntient
ilific publication, and
. in-* that, notwithstanding the remark of Captain
Chapman, that -it seems to have been an alligator,' I
Mr. Wooller, that 'it resemble.-, in every respect ill.
getic G.ivial.' < 'amper pronouiu-ed it to be a whale, mean-
ing perhaps a dolphin : an opinion adopted In Kanjas, who
went ti step I'urlher, and referred it to the genus /Vn/wr-T.
Professor Owen points out Cuvicr's refutation ot ' Kaujas
in the first edition of the O.wmens Fottiles. and hi- decla-
ration in the same work that it was in truth a crocodile.
The Professor adds, that t.'uvier's >ulisc(|tiunt analysis led
him in Isl'J to the conclusion that it belonged to the
genus of Crocodiles, and was most probably identical in
species with the crocodile ol'Honfleur.
Uut although the opinions of Messrs. Wooller and Chap-
iir.iu came much nearer to the truth than those of Camper
and Katija.s. thev were still distant from it : and Professor
Owen proceed* to show that the fossil really differs more
from the Gavial than the Gavia) does from any other
existing Crocodilian.
IVr-uing his inquiry. Professor Owen remarks, that in
when so many new and singular genera, allied to the
ulilian family, had been added to the catalogues of
known whether it is a crocodile, or one of those new
genera discovered in the same beds. The bones of the
extremities are too incomplete, and the head is not repre-
sented with sufficient details, to decide the question : but
the vertebrse appear to me to be longer, in relation to
their diameter, than in the new genera, and, in this cha-
racter, more like those of Crocodiles. Those alone who
shall rediscover the original, if it still exists, will be able
to inform us whether the other characters respond to those
referred to.'
Professor Owen inquired at the British Museum, to
which the collections formerly belonging to the Royal
ty of London were transferred, but he stales that no
specimen corresponding with the account and figures
given by Messrs. Wooller and Chapman exists in that
museum.
But a second specimen of a Crocodilian with a long and
slender nose was procured from the lias near Whitby be-
tween Stailhs and Kunswick in 17!H, and a more perfect
skeleton was obtained from the alum shale of the li;-
mation at Saltwick, near Whitby, in 1H21. Professor
Owen states that both these specimens so closely resemble
the older fossil in all the points in which a comparison can
be established, as to dissipate the remaining doubts as to
the nature and affinities of the specimen from the same
locality described in Phil. Trait*., 17-X. He then refers
to the figures of the skeleton discovered in ls-^4, in Young
and Bird's (li-n/'i^ii-n/ Hurny nf l/ir Yorkshire Coast, and
in Dr. Buckland's Bri't^fn-olrr 7V/-.///.V [('UOCODII.K, vol.
\iii., p. 1(3!)]. observing that it is now preserved in the
museum at Whitby, where he closely examined it. • In
this specimen,' says the Professor, 'arc preserved the cra-
nium, wanting the snout, the whole vertebral column, the
libs, ami the principal parts of the four extremities, to-
gether with the dorsal and part of the ventral si
dermal bones. The entire length of the skeleton, follow-
ing the curvature of the spine, is lift ecu feet six iiu !
which may be added tw inches for the lost
snout. The cranium posteriorly is broad, depressed, and
square-shaped: it begins : • : anterior to the orbits,
and gradually assumes the form of the narrow depressed
snout ; the converging sides of the maxilla? arc concave
outwardly. The zygomatic spaces are quadrilateral,
longer in the axis of the skull than transversely: the
orbits are subcircular; they look upwards and slightly
outwards; their margins are not raised, and their inter-
space is slightly concave. The parietal bone is relatively
longer than in the Gavial, and sends up a longitudinal
median crest, from the posterior part of which a strong
process extends on each side outwards, anil curves slightly
backwards parallel with the ex-oc-cipitals, to join the ma-~-
toid and tympanic bone*, tin- latter of which expands as
it di-si-cnil, to form the joint for the lower jaw.'
;.'»or Owen then gives details of the dimension*.
from which he calciilal, -, that the entire length of the
kkhll mu»t have exceeded 4 feet 0 inchoo. He states that
the cranium of one of the < 'at n Ti Vo>aui i measures :t feel
•1 inches, whence Cu.icr calculates the entire length of
thr animal at near 15 \ remarks that
the W|-itl>\ 'I'elr • is with tin- Caen species, and
differ* from the Cavial in the following particulars :— the
anterior frontal bone is less extended upon the cl
the lacrymal is much more extended, and is laigerat itu
and the jugal bone is more slender. The posterior
frontal bone, which separates the temporal from the
orbital cavities, is much longer and narrower. 'The |
tal and occipital crests each form a thin trenchant plate,
and are not flattened aho\e. The inastoidean an:
not uninterruptedly united with the back ] arti-
cular prod—, of the tympanic; it is separated from it \<\ n
large depression, which is overarched by a trenchant
belonging to the ex-occipital. The mastoidean bone has
a concavity at its descending part, of which there i- no
trace in the Gavial. The indentation between the articu-
lar process of the tympanic and the tnberosity of the
basi-occipital is much smaller than in the Gavial, and the
basilar tuberosity projects downwards in a less degree.
The pterygoid ala is not expanded externally, as in all
crocodiles, but is contracted by a large tissiire at the
part when- it is going to unite itself to the bone: the
orbital margin of the malar is not raised, and does not
leave behind it a deep fissure, as in the Gavial. The
malar does not rise to join the posterior frontal bmie : but,
on the contrary, the frontal descends to join the malar at
the external margin of the orbit. The vacuity between
the orbit and the anterior part of the tympanum is much
elongated in the fossil, and occupies four-fifths of the
temporal fossa ; the anterior part of this fossa is narrow
and acute. The columella, or ossicle of the ear, is cylin-
drical, and much larger in proportion than in any known
crocodile or other reptile.
'Cuvier calculates the number of teeth in tht' 7
45- i
taunts Cadowentis to be 180, viz. -
The 7V/r..v»/-
45-45*
nil t'li«ii,ii'tniii has at least 140 teeth. The Gavial has
•JK — 28
112, or = — • The teeth of the Whitbv Teleosaur are
£t$ ~* JM
as slender and sharp-pointed, but not so compressed as in
the Cavial : they correspond with those of the Caen Teleo-
saur. and equally illustrate the dental characters usually
attributed to the present extinct genus.'
Professor Owen then shows that the Whitbv Teleosaur dif-
fers from the Caen Teleo&aur, as does the Monheim Teleo-
Soemmering), in having the
upper temporal fossa longer in proportion to their breadth,
and that it also differs from the Telcosaurs of both Caen
and Monheim in the more equal size of the teeth, and
from that of Monheim in the greater number of teeth, the
Teleosatirus prisons having at most .._ ^=106. He also
points out other differences.
In treating of the n-rtclini! rnli/mn, the author states
that the number of vertebni- in the true crocodiles of the
present period rarely exceeds sixty, the number assigned
Imn to the crocodile of the Nile. Cuvier. he ob-
serve-. generally found 7 cervical, 12 dorsal, 5 lumbar. -
sacral, and :14 c-iudal vcitchr;r. [ntheOocOcA/Utoeicftt*,
he remarks, a thirteenth pair of ribs is occasionally de-
veloped. and, according to Plumier, the last-mentioned
species has two additional caudal vertebra1: the alii
Alligtttiir I.ii'-itis) [CROCODILE, vol viii., p. 1(
'Iditional ones being in the caudal region : the
Oavial has (17 vertebra?, viz. 7 cervical, 13 dorsal, 4
lumbar. '2 sacral, and 41 caudal.
•The very perfect specimen in the Whitby Museum,'
-.•IV- I'rotess'or Owen, 'displays the numberoi' the verte-
bnr through the whole spinal column, and estab:
another difference between the Teleosaur and the Gavial,
the former having a number of vertebra' intermediate be-
tween the Crocodiles and Gavials, \i/. (U. with a special
peculiarity in the excess of costal vertebra', as the follow-
ing formula indicates. \ iz.. 7 cervical. 16 dorsal, 3 lumbar,
.1, :«i caudal. In all subgcncia of existing i
diles. as in the extinct tertiary species, the hind surface
of the vertebra i- convex, the lore surface concave, ex-
cept in the alias and two -;ui:il M-itcbni1. Cuvier, who
had the opportunity of seeing only the annular part
(neurepophyses) of the cervical vertebrae of the Caen
TEL
157
TEL
Teleosaur, regrets his inability to state whether either ol
the articular extremities of the centrum were convex, or
which of them. The Whitby Teleosaur decides this ques-
tion, and shows that both articular extremities of the ver-
tebrae are slightly concave in the cervical as in the rest of
the vertebral series. The atlas in the Teleosaur corre-
sponds essentially with that of the crocodiles, as is shown
by the three main component parts of this bone, from a
Whitby Teleosaur in Lord Enniskillen's collection. The
body or centrum is a transverse quadrilateral piece,
smooth and convex below, narrowing like an inverted
wedge above, with articular facets, viz. : a concavity in
front for the occipital condyle ; a flat rougher surface on
each side of the upper part 1'or the attachment of the neura-
pophyses ; a posterior facet for the anterior part of the de-
tached odontoid element of the axis ; and the small sur-
face on each lateral posterior and inferior angle, for the
atlantal ribs. The neurapophyses are pyramidal pro-
cesses, with their apices curved towards each other ; they
are relatively smaller in proportion to the centrum than
in the crocodile. The general anterior concavity for the
reception of the occipital tubercle is formed at its cir-
cumference by the centrum and neurapophyses of the
atlas, and at its middle by the anterior detached odontoid
epiphysis of the axis, which is here evidently the analogue
of the so-called atlas in the Ichthyosaurus, the true body
of the atlas in the Teleosaur representing the first in-
verted wedge-shaped bone in the Ichthyosaur. The
spine of the atlas is a hu-ge oblong piece articulated with
the neurapophyses of the atlas, and partly overlapping
those of the axis.'
The Professor then describes in detail the cervical ver-
tebrae, from which it appears that the same mechanism
for fixing and strengthening the neck, as is found in ex-
isting species, exists in the ancient marine crocodiles ;
the vertebra? of the dorsal region, with 16 pairs of ribs, a
greater number than occurs in any existing Crocodilian ;
a posterior dorsal or lumbar vertebra, which faintly in-
dicates one of the most striking characters of the ver-
tebrae of STREPTOSPONDVLUS ; and the caudal vertebrae,
which progressively diminish in every diameter, save
length, from the middle to near the end of the tail, the
terminal vertebrae being shorter than the rest. The ster-
num and sternal ribs, he remarks, closely agree with the
ordinary Crocodilian type. He had not seen a specimen
of the abdominal sternal ribs.
Professor Owen then notices the structure of the Pecto-
ral and Pelvic Extremities, as compared with those of
existing Crocodiles, and the Dermal armour, the bony
dermal scutes of which are regularly disposed in the
Teleosaur, as in them ; but the scutes of Teleosaurus Chap-
manni, he observes, differ as much from those of the ex-
isting Gavials and Crocodiles, as those of Teleosaurus
Cadom#ntit do. The following are the species recorded
by the Professor: — Teleosaurus Chnpmanni ; Teleosaurus
Cadomensis ; Teleosaurus Cadomensts, var. ; and Teleosau-
rus asthenodeirus, Owen. [STENEOSAURUS ; CROCODILE,
vol. viii., p. 168.]
TELESCOPE (from the Greek telescopos, rijXtwoTOc,
' far-seeing'), an optical instrument consisting of a tube
which contains a system of glass lenses having all their
centres in one common axis, or a tube containing a me-
tallic speculum in combination with such lenses: by
either kind of instrument distant objects are caused to
appear magnified, and more distinct than when viewed by
the naked eye. Those which are constructed with glass
lenses only are called dioptric, or refracting, and the others
catoptric, or reflecting telescopes. In the former kind the
rays in the pencils of light which come from every part
of the object viewed are, by the first lens on which they
are incident, made to converge so as to form an image at
the focus of the lens. In some eases the rays in each
pencil are intercepted by a second lens, and, by its refrac-
tive power, are made to enter the eye in parallel direc-
tions : in other cases, the rays, after having crossed each
other at the place where the image is formed, fall in a
divergent state upon a second lens, and by it are refracted
no as to emerge from it in parallel directions. Frequently
however the parallelism of the rays is effected by two or
more lenses in addition to that, called the object-glass, by
which the image was formed. In reflecting telescopes an
image is formed by the reflection of the rays in the pencils
of light coining from the object, after having impinged
upon the concave surface of the speculum : in some cases
this image is viewed through one glass lens or more, but
frequently the rays, before or after forming the image, are
reflected from a second mirror, and are subsequently trans-
mitted to the eye through lenses.
By these instruments objects even in the remotest depths
of space are rendered accessible to human vision ; and
terrestrial objects faintly visible in the distance are brought,
as it were, close to the eye. In the hands of astronomers
they were the means, almost immediately on being in-
vented, of making more discoveries in the heavens than
had been made during 5000 years previously; they form a
valuable addition to the instruments employed by the
mariner and the surveyor, and they will ever constitute
the most agreeable companion of the traveller, by ena-
bling him to distinguish, in every direction from him,
objects which it might be difficult or impossible for him
to approach.
In exhibiting the principles on which a telescope is
constructed, it will be proper to commence with an ex-
planation of the means by which the image of an object
is formed at the focus of a lens or of a reflecting mirror.
With respect to a lens, if it be of the kind called convex
[LENS], the rays in the pencils of light which proceed
from every part of an object, as APB, in passing through
the lens, supposing the latter to have a proper degree of
curvature, are made to converge by the refracting power
of the glass at points, as a, F, and b, and the assemblage of
such points constitutes an image of the object : if a screen
were placed at F perpendicularly to the axis PF, the
object would be represented on it, in an inverted position.
If the lens were of a concave form, the rays in the
several pencils, after passing through it, would be made to
diverge from one another, and consequently no image
could be formed : yet if the directions of the rays, after
refraction, were produced backwards, they would unite
between the lens and the object, in points corresponding
to those which constitute the image formed by the convex
lens.
If the rays in the pencils of light proceeding from differ-
ent points, A, P, B, in an object are reflected from the sur-
face of a concave mirror, supposing the latter to have a
certain degree of curvature, those rays will unite in as
many points, a, F, and b, and form an image of the object.
If a screen were placed at F the object would be repre-
sented on it, in an inverted position. The rays in each
pencil reflected from the surface of a convex mirror are
made to diverge from each other; and in that case no
image is formed.
Now, if the object AB be so remote that, in each pencil,
the rays incident upon a lens may be considered as paral-
lel to one another, the point F is called the principal
locus ; and in the article LENS (p. 421, col. 2) there will
be found a collection of formulae for the reciprocals of the
focal lengths of lenses of all the different kinds ; it being
understood that the diameter of the lens is small, which is
generally the case with telescopes, and that the light is
homogeneous. But, since all light is not of one kind, and
a lens acts like a prism in causing, in each pencil, the rays
of the differently coloured light to diverge from one
another : it follows that each of the coloured lights will
form its own image at its proper focus; and the image
formed by light of one kind being seen by the eye along
with the images formed by light of the other kinds, the
representation of an object when formed by a single lens
TEL
appears to be indistinct and surrounded by a coloured
fring i vncs; Dibi-KRsioN.] h may i
that the principal locus of anv lens, with respect I
colovi MIII the formula' in LK.NS I
stituting in them the value of ft the imK . .ciion.
for the given kind of light.
Thus, in an optical instrument, in addition to the distor-
tion of the image arising lioni the sphciicily uf th
there is an im; 1 by the dispersion of the
different colour-making rays; and, in a good U-K -. . p, . it
is icquisalc that both of these impel, mid us far
us possible be rcinovid. The chromatic aberration, as the
dispersion of the colour u called, , ,r the
greater evil of the two, for New; ,.vn that it
.Is the former nearly in the latio 01 ."ii4J to 1; but
fortunately it is that wliicli, to an extent sufficient for
.cal purpose*, admits of being easily corrected.
Since different kinds of glass have different degn
dispersive power, it is evident that the chromatic aberra-
tion may be diminished, if not wholly removed, by causing
the light to pass through two lenses of different kinds ol
glass, aiid of such forms that they may refract the rays in
pencil in opposite directions. Ihe object-glass of a
telescope when so formed is said to be achromatic, and
the manner in which the ett'ect is produced may he under-
stood Irom the following description. Let PQ be the
direction of a pencil of compound light incident on the
A C
1 V
B I)
first surface of the convex lens AB, in a direction parallel
to the common axis, XV, of the two lenses. By the refrac-
tive power of this lens (crown glass) the red rays in the
pencil would, if no object were interposed, proceed In the
direction Q6, meeting XY in r, and the violet ray in the
pencil would proceed in the direction Qr. meeting the
axis in r. But the refractive power of the concave lens
CD (flint glass) acts, from its form, in a direction contrary
to that of the convex lens, causing the rays either to
diverge from the axis XY, or to meet it in points beyond
c and r, towards Y : suppose the curvature of this lens to
be such that the red rays in the pencil PQ would, after
refraction in both lenses, meet the axis in F ;the ray Q6r
taking the direction bV) ; then the dispersive power of
this kind of glass exceeding that of the other kind, the
violet rays iti the refracted pencil will tend farther away
from the axis than the red rays do, and thus will tend
towards the latter; the ray Qn>, for example, taking the
direction cV. It is conceivable, therefore, that thecmva-
tuivs of the surfaces of the lenses may be such that, in
each incident pencil, the red and violet rays (the extreme
• >f the spectrum) shall after roll-action unite at the
place of the image ; and thus the fringe due to these two
colours may be destroy ed.
the t\vo kinds of glass dispersed the different eolour-
makiiig rays in the same proportions, their contrary i
Cons would i-aiise all the colours to be united on tin- imacc
formed at K: no U\o kinds of glass h.i\c Imv, .
yet discovered which possess tin ty; and therefore
the red and violet images only are united : fortunaidv in
uniting the extreme rays of the spectrum, the otln
brought so nea. . that for ordinary purpose^ the
image is as i . .• limn colour as can be desired.
From the description just given it will he evident that
the place F, of an image in which tin: dispersion of the
:d violet rays is corrected, may be dc tciimned on ob-
taining, from tin- common theorems of optics, algebraic
expressions &* I • nirtlis uf tin- compound leu- lor
each of those kinds of lisrht, and making the <
equal to one another. Tims, supposing Iv ami S to he the
radii of the < < e» of a d.
crown glass, and i> the index of refra. II.H, . one
kind , red. lor r
the pencils of incident light are paralK I to one another and
through the lens very near the n\is ; then, liv a fun-
damental theorem iu optics we have, F being the distance
T t: L
from the focu* to the len», which i, m ;ihout
thiokn.
but since, in the present case, the lens may be supposed
to be isosceles ( R=S>, we have V = — — — .
- (* - 1 /
and
In like manner the focal length F', of a double c
us of flint glass, It' being the ladiu-,
id MMhe index of refraction for red ual to
.•1TY7' "lu ">'* being incident near the axis.
Hence, by a fundamental theorem in optics,
K' It H' H HR'
and this last term is the local length of the compound
lens for red rays. Its re. . e.jnal to "' M ~ ^-
2T/-1)
— j^ — , which, in the al^< )>i aie 'lie sum of the
reciprocals of the focal lengths of the separate lenses.
On writing p+cp, and n'+fp' in place of u and /»' in
the litst expression, we have for the reciprocalof the focal
length of the compound lens for violet, rn
R
In an achromatic telescope the focal lengths of the
compound lens for red and s iolet rays are to be eipial to
one another; and it is evident that tlus condition will In
tu ta'
fulfilled when ^- --^-, = 0. From this equation we ha\e
R : R':ii> I fy': then, dividing the antecedents by u—l
and the consequents bv/i'— 1, we have [DlsPBRSIONj the
ratio of the focal lengths of the two len.-es equal to that ol
the dispersive powers of the two kinds of class; and L
the focal length of the compound lei
ire, those of the sepaiatc K-n- .enlly the
radii of their surfaces, may be obtained.
In order to diminish the spherical aberration, the object-
classes uf achromatic telescopes lVei|ucntl\
lenses, of which the first and third are of the kind ci
double convex, and are formed of crown glass, whiK
second is double com-a\c, and made of flint clas,. la (bis
lince the index of refi action is the same for the third
lens as for the first, if the radius of each surface of I he third
lens be H". the reciprocal of the principal focal len-t
the separate lenses for red rays will be
2d*-l) 2C/-1) SOi-1)
R ' ~ R' ~ ' a '
these being added together, their sum will be the reci-
procal of the focal leiicth of the compound K:
kind of light. On substituting in the above leinis. ,i + i'/,
for /j. andi/-|-(V for /»', in oiderto obtain the reciprocals of
the focal length for \iolet ray-, we shall ha\e, when the
chroma
**• V ,,, ( l , 1 \ V
R ~ Ti' + R" = °' "r H (H+ H") =ST-
tu!
But 7— is known from tables of the refractive indict -
dill'crenl kinds of glass: tlu-refore if any convenient re-
lation between the radii of two of the leiV. . med,
the values of all (lie mdii, and coilsec|ueiitly the
K iigllis of the scM-ial lenses, nmy be found.
The investigation of formula; for the correction of the
spherical aberration is a p .d is
V a lit subject except for a mathematical work : it
-itcd with great p. n's • Me-
>l Philosophy,' vol. ni., from \\hieh the -nbjoim-d
•n is borrowed, the notation only hi i ,| for
that which USD in t!i
i. r:\saud S . If a compound object-glass
-s and M
Hint cla-s, ;u.d a i.iy <ii hcht be in-
.'idenl, \ipon ;ner in a direc-
tion parallel to the axis, at a distance from thence, which
TEL
159
TEL
is expressed by f ; the distance from the lens, of the point
at which the ray after refraction will meet the axis, is
f-f\q+q'J, where / is the focus for parallel rays in-
finitely near the axis, and may be found as above, and
'•(g+g') is the aberration. Here, neglecting the thick-
ness of the lenses and the interval between them,
(R and S being the radii of the two surfaces of the convex
lens,) and
u'-l
q' = -
_
**
4iy+m a* ,
F.RW ) 2 :
where F is the principal focus of the convex lens, and
R'S'
n'ss — •=-,— -57; (R' and S' being the radii of the surfaces
of the concave lens.)
It is evident that, in order to correct the spherical aber-
ration, the values of the radii of the surfaces must be de-
termined from the equation q+q' = Q. This equation is
however indeterminate, because it contains several un-
known quantities ; but it. may be made subject to certain
conditions by which there will remain only one : for ex-
ample, the different radii of the lenses may be made to
have any given relation to one another, so that the values
of all, in terms of any one, may be substituted for them.
In the values of q and q' the terms represented by n and n'
are respectively equal to half the radii of equivalent isos-
celes lenses ; and it has been shown, in the investigation
concerning the chromatic aberration, that these are to one
V
another as fy to fy' ; consequently n'= n — , and there-
fore «' is known in terms of n. If again it be supposed
that R'=S, or that the nearest surfaces of the convex and
concave lenses have equal curvatures, the value of R may
be found from the equation q+q'=Q, in terms of n, by a
quadratic equation.
Sir John Herschel, in a paper on the aberration of com-
pound lenses and object-slaves 'Phil. Tranx., 1821), has
also investigated formula! for the values of the chromatic
and spherical aberrations; and M. Littrow, of Vicnn:i.
setting out with Euler's formula for spherical aberration
(Diiyptn'rn, torn, iii., 17G9), and introducing in it the
values of the focal lengths of two lenses so that the former
aberration may be corrected, has obtained two equations
from which the radii of the four surfaces may be deter-
mined by such conditions as may be thought convenient.
(Memoirs of the Astrrm. Soc., vol. iii., part 2.) In solving
the problem relating to the determination of the four radii,
Professor Littrow uses a method which possesses some
facilities for computation, and on that account it has been
adopted in the followinjr process.
The radii of the sur!';i<-es of the first lens may be deter-
mined on the supposition that the whole refraction of light
in passing through the lens is a minimum : that is, that
the incident and emergent rays make equal angles with
the surfaces, or with those radii. Thus let a ray PQ be
incident on the first surface in a direction parallel to th<
axis XY of the lens, and infinitely near it ; and RQT being
and -5- a+a — (=T'QF) is the angle of incidence on the
second surface : and, by optics, 1 is to /i as this last angle
is to ^ + a(/j-l), the angle of refraction (=T'QF') at
the second surface. But by hypothesis, this angle is
R 2-«
to be equal to a ; therefore -g- = - . Again, by optics,
-pa i
,-r^, . - is equal to the focal length of the lens ; and
R+S ft-l ^
supposing this to be equal to unity, we obtain -g-=
~M + 1 : equating this last term with - - above, we get
— 1 /*
p —
T"'
the radius (=R) produced, of that surface let t'.e angle
PQT of incidence be represented by «; then p '.\'.',n'.-
' — HQF. the angle of refraction at that surface). Tint i
R'QT' be the radius (=S) produced, of the -croud surface
then, in the triangle R'QH, neglecting the thickness of the
R
l«ns and substituting arcs fortheir sines, S ; R :: a • -go
R =
; whence S =
Therefore the two
radii are found on the supposition that the focal distance
of the lens is unity.
Now PQT being the angle of incidence as above, and
QF the direction of the ray after one refraction, we have
by optics, sin. RQF = - -- ; and by trigonometry,
n the triangle RQF,
UP = R .„„ HP „
also, respresenting the thickness MN of the lens by I,
sin. RQF
Then, by trigonometry, in the triangle R'QF,
we get SF+gS~* sin. P'QF = sin. T'QF ;
Q'T' | O /
Consequently by optics, — ^ n sin. P'QF = sin. T'QF',
or the sine of the angle of refraction at the second surface.
Now T'QF'-T'QF+P'QF = QF'M, or the angle which
the second refracted ray makes with the axis of the lens :
but by trigonometry, in the triangle R'QF', we have
Suppose next a double concave lens, the centres of
' surfaces are at R" and R'", and whose radii are R
and S', to be applied to the convex lens on the side N :
then, neglecting the thickness of the concave lens and the
distance between the two, and supposing QF", QF'" to be
the directions of the ray of light after the third and fourth
refractions respectively, we have in the triangle R"Q* , try
IriiTonometry,
+ sin. P'QF' = sin. T"QF',
or the sine of incidence on the first surface of the second
lens ; and by optics,
an. P'QF' = sin. T"QF".
But P'QF' - (T"QF' - T"QF") = P'QF"; and in the tri-
angle R"QF", by trigonometry, we have
/sin T"QF"
wherefore NF" = R'"( SSTFJJjP -1) ' and considcrinS
NR'" to be equal to S', R'"F" will be equal to NF"-S'.
Again, in the triangle R'"QF", we have by trigonometry,
NF"— 8'
sin. R'"QF"= — gr— si"- QF"N
for the sine of incidence on the fourth surface ; therefore,
by optics,
H^V «n- QF"N = sm. R'"QF'",
>•> •
the sine of refraction at the fourth surface : then
QF"N-(T'"QF"-T'"QF'")=P/QF'", or =QF'"N;
T E L
and by trigonometry, in the triangle QF'"R'", we have
,„ «,', «»• "'"QP"1
= a
160
TEL
sin. gK'"N '
sin. R'"QF'"
sjn g
the focal distance of the compound lens.
These values being reduced to what they become when
the incident ray I'Q is infinitely near the axis of the
lenses; that is, when the angles are substituted for their
sines, there may be obtained
It' „-! S *S _i
MF
N I "
.
NF'~
i
' an
MF-/
y sy
NF"
,
~
By means of the«c equations, eliminating the quantities
MF," NF', and NF". and neglecting powers of / above the
first. there may he obtained a value of m: then diffe-
rentiating tliis value with respect to fi. ft', and NF"', and
making the resulting value of the differential of NK"'
equal to zero (which is a condition necessar)' in order that
the chromatic dispersion may be corrected for rays near
the axis), there may be obtained a value of jr> + g>. Again
on substituting -— - for R, and -^£-~
found, there will result
for 8, as above
Now the value of NF'" may be directly computed from
the formula; first investigated ; afterwards assuming dif-
ferent values of R', and substituting them in the last
equation, let the corresponding values of S' be found.
With these values of S' find corresponding values of
(sin R'"QF" "\
' QK"'N +1 ) ' ^^ **' °^ ^'"' anl^ proceeding
according to the usual methods of trial and error, there
will at length be found a value of NF'" agreeing with
that which was computed by the direct process : the four
radii will then, consequently, be determined.
Investigations relating to the dispersion of light, and
rules for computing the radii of curvature for achromatic
object-glasses, will also be found in an essay by Mr. P.
Barlow of Woolwich, printed in the ' Philosophical Trans-
actions' for lsJ7.
Though on thus uniting the red and violet light by
lenses of crown and flint glass the chromatic dispersion
is in a great measure corrected, yet when the image is
examined, it is found to be surrounded by a green-coloured
fringe. The difficulty of procuring flint glass of sufficient
purity is also a serious impediment to the perfection of
achromatic lenses for telescopes ; and though great ra-
wards have been offered for glass which shall be free
from defects, the exertions of artists have hitherto been
almost without success. Occasionally however flint glass
is obtained nearly homogeneous, and the opticians of
Germany appear, in this respect, to have been more fortu-
nate than those of England.
The late Dr. Kitchie obtained a disc of flint glass which
was. bv Mr. Dollond, formed into an object-glass nearly
7 J inches in diameter. It was applied to a telescope 12
feet long, and bore a magnifying power equal to 700 times :
it is said to have had scarcely any spherical aberration,
and to have been very free from colour. (Mem. A»tr.
.Soc., 1840.)
In the ' Transactions' of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,
1791, there is given an account of some experiments made
by Dr. Blair, from which he was led to the discovery of a
fluid medium, which, being applied between lenses of
crown glass, renders the compound lens completely achro-
matic. By adding liquid muriatic acid to chloride of
antimony, or sal ammoniac to chloride of mercury, he
succeeded in obtaining a spectrum inmhich the coloured
ravs in each pencil followed the same law of dispersion as
takes place in crown glass. Therefore, confining a small
quantity of either of these himids between the convex
.surfaces of two plano-con\e\ lenses, or between those of
a piano and a convex meniscus K-i.-. of crown gla*. Pi
Blair obtained an object-glass in which the chromatio
aberration was entirely destroyed ; and he is said to have
thus constructed one of.) inches local length, and as much
a- :> inchi-s in diameter or aperture. Object-gkoe* 10
made were lor some years on sale in 1-ondon ; hut either
from the crystallization of the fluids, or the negligence
of the artists in compounding them, the telescopes hecamc
imperfect, and gradually fell into disuse.
l)r. Sir l)a\id Jircwster, in his ' Treatise on New Phi-
losophical Instruments,' recommends the employment of
sulphuric acid and oil of cassia for the composition of
fluid lenses, by which the secondary spectrum may he
destroyed ; the acid being, of all known substances, that
which exerts the greatest, and the oil that which exerts
the least action on the green coloured rays. Then'.
tion of the chromatic dispersion hy means of fluids has
also recently l>een attempted by Mr" Barlow, who, in com-
bination with a convex lens of crown glass, used a couca\ e
lens, consisting of sulphuret of carbon between two ur:
(like that of a watch , of each of which the two faces were
of equal curvature : this fluid has nearly the same refrac-
tive index as flint glass, and its dispersive power is more
than double that of the latter material. The crown glass
lens and the fluid lens, instead of being close together.
were placed at a considerable distance from one another,
by which disposition an increased magnifying power might
have been obtained without increasing the length of the
telescope. Probably from imperfections in the fan;:
the glasses, the images of objects were found to be not
well defined ; and the construction, in consequence, has
not been adopted.
The image formed by the great speculum of a reflecting
telescope is free from the inconveniences attending the
chromatic aberration of light ; for the angles of incidi nee
being equal to that of reflection, in any pencil coming
from a point in an object, all the rays will converge to
one point at the place where the image is formed. If the
surface of the speculum were that which is formed by the
revolution of a parabola about its axis, then all the rays in
any pencil proceeding from a very remote object, as one
of the celestial bodies, and being incident on the speculum
in a direction parallel to the axis, would, by the nature of
the parabola, converge accurately in the focus of the
curve; and on this account, an effort is always made to
give to the reflecting surface of the speculum a parabo-
loidal figure. The advantage does not how ever hold good
with the pencils which fall on the mirror in directions
oblique to the axis; and therefore that figure is of less
importance, when the telescope is to he used for viewing
terrestrial objects, than when it is to be employed lor l
nomica.1 purposes : for then, on account of the great dis-
tance of the objects, the several pencils of light fall on the
mirror with a very small obliquity to its axis.
The telescope imented by Galileo consisted of one con-
vex lens AB, and of a concave lens CD ; the distance be-
tween them being equal to the difference between the
focal lengths of the two lenses. In this instrument, if the
object OP were so remote that the raj's in each -pencil of
light might be considered as parallel to one another, there
would hi' formed at its principal focus an inverted iinairc
op, of that object by Hie union of the rays in each pencil
in one point; then the concave Un* being placed between
AB and that image, in such a situation that its principal
focus may coincide with the place of that image, th<
in each pencil will, by the refracting power of the lens, be
made to emerge parallel to one another; and in this
case, by the optical properties of the eye, distinct vision
is obtained.
The line OXo is the axis of the pencil of light from O ;
and, as this passes through the ci ntw \ of the lens AH
without refraction, the anirle X\« is equal to half the
angle under which OP would be observed by an eye at X
TEL
161
TEL
when no telescope is interposed, while (inn parallel to Yo
being the direction of a ray in that axis after refraction in
CD) ZYo is half the angle under which OP is seen in the
telescope : the ratio between these angles is therefore the
measure of the magnifying power of the telescope ; anc
since the angles are to one another as YZ is to XZ, nearly
XZ
it follows that =™ nearly expresses the magnifying power
This is the construction of what is called an opera glass,
and the Galilean telescope is now used chiefly for viewing
objects within a theatre, or an apartment, since if consider-
able magnifying power were given to it the extent of the
field of view would be very small.
A simple telescope may also be constructed by means ol
two convex lenses, which are placed at a distance from
one another equal to the sum of their foeal lengths. For
the imasre being formed at the focus Z, of the fens AB,
which is nearest to the object, as in the Galilean telescope,
and being supposed to be a plane surface, the light also
bcinir supposed to be homogeneous; the rays of each
pencil, after crossing at the focus and proceeding from
thence in a divergent state, on being allowed to fall upon
tin surface of the second lens CD, may be refracted in the
latter so as to pass out from thence in parallel directions ;
and consequently distinct vision of the object may be ob-
tained by an eye situated so as to receive the pencils.
If Xo be the direction of the axis of a pencil of lisrhf
coining from O, one extremity of the object OP, which is
supposed to be so remote that all the rays in each pencil
maybe considered as parallel to one another; then the
anirlc ZXo is half the angle under which the object Ol'
would lie seen by an eye at X without a telescope, while
the rays of that pencil entering the eye at K in the direc-
tion D'E, which is parallel to oY, the angle 'L\<> is half
the angle under which the same object is seen when
viewed through the telescope. Now these angles are to
one another nearly as ZY to ZX ; therefore ^FTF will ex-
press nearly the magnifying power of the instrument. A>
the pencils of light fromO and P cross the axis of the eve
at E before they are united on the retina, the image of the
object OP is formed in the eye in a position contrary to
that which is formed when the object is viewed without
the telescope ; therefore, on looking through the latter, the
object OP appears to be inverted.
But the image formed at op, instead of being a plane, is
nearly on a portion of a spherical surface whose centre is
at X ; and, on the other hand, in order that the ray.s in
each pencil may after refraction in CD be parallel to one
another, they ought to diverge from a point nearly in the
surface of a sphere whose centre is at Y, the two spherical
surfaces being in contact at Z : consequently when the
distance between the lenses is such that the crossing of
the rays in a pencil parallel to the axis takes place exactly
at Z, the crossing z in one of the oblique pencils will be
at a certain distance from the point z', at which it ought
to be to permit the rays in it to go out of CD parallel to
one another ; the rays of the pencils which proceed from
the margin of the object "will not then emerge parallel to
one another, and consequently that margin will not be
distinctly seen. Moreover from the unequal refrangibility
of the different kinds of light, the rays in each pencil will
be decomposed in passing through the lens CD, so that
though the chromatic aberration were perfectly corrected
in the image at po, it would exist in the image which is
formed in the eye by the rays emerging from CD.
The spherical aberration can only be diminished by
diminishing the inclination at which the rays in the mar-
ginal pencils fall upon the surface of the lens after ha\ing
• the focus of the object-glass; that is, by using
a lens of le>-s convexity or of greater focal length : adding
ond eye-glass in "order finally to render the n
each pencil parallel to one another. Thus, if it, be required
to preserve the same magnifying power and field of view
P. C., No. 1508.
as might be obtained with any single eye-glass ; let, as
before, X be the place of the object-glass, op the image
formed by it, and let CD be the place of the single eye-
glass : then draw a line oQ so as to bisect the angle DoY
c
P
which may be considered as the whole refraction pro-
duced by the lens CD : let G, on the right or left of op, be
the assumed place of what is called the field-glass, and
draw GH perpendicular to XY, the axis of the telescope,
meeting XD in H ; also through H draw MHK parallel to
oQ, cutting Go, or Go produced, in M : again draw MN
perpendicular to the axis of the telescope, and MR paral-
lel to oY ; also draw RS perpendicular to the axis. I^astly,
draw GU parallel to oQ to meet Xo in U, and UV per-
pendicular to the axis. Then, from the principles of
optics, if a lens be placed at G, having its focal length
equal to GV, and another at R, whose focal length is RN ;
the ray XoH will by refraction in the first lens take the
direction HS, and by refraction in the second lens it will
take the direction ST parallel to oY or DE : thus the present
visual angle STR will be equal to DEY, which was ob-
tained with the single eye-glass.
Thjs is called the Huygenian eye-piece, and it is that
which is generally used for astronomical telescopes: the
object seen through it is inverted, as in the last-mentioned
telescope.
If the places G and R of the two eye-glasses arc given
(GH being very near op ; its focal length being also
known1!, and it be required to find the focal length of RS
so that the red and violet rays in each pencil may emerge
from it parallel to one another, that length might he de-
termined in the following manner. In a pencil of rays
misMng each other at H, let H/» be the direction of a
mean ray, and Hr, Ht> those of a red and a violet ray ;
these last will make with one another an angle equal to
ibout ^ of the angle DHm, which may be supposed to be
\nown. Now, by optical principles, if these rays are to
emerge from RS in directions parallel to one another, the
bcal lengths of the lens for red and violet rays, viz. RF
ind R/must be to one another as 28 to 27, and the foci F
and / must be in places determined by perpendiculars
drawn to the axis from points W and if, in which the line
[IW supposed to be drawn parallel to rr' or vv', meets Hr
ind IIu; that is, by finding the position of a line to be
drawn from R to cut the given lines H;-, He, so that RW
may be to R«' as 28 to 27. For this purpose, having
drawn the straight line HR, the angles RHW, RH«' will
ie known ; let them be represented by a and b ; also let
the angle HRW be represented by 6 : then by trigono-
metry we shall have, after a few reductions, 27 cotan. a —
28 cotan. 6 = cotan. 0.
In order to afford a view of objects in the same position
as they appear to have when seen by the naked eye, a
elescope may be formed with three lenses besides the
object-glass. In the construetion of this instrument, if
attention is paid only to the rays which suffer a mean re-
..n, the first eye-glass, or that which is nearest to the
>l>ject-end of the telescope, may be placed between the
inauc, formed by the object lens and the eye, with the foci
of the two lenses in coincidence ; by this means the rays
n each pencil will emerge from the first eye-glass m
liiections parallel to one another, those of the pencils
vhieh are oblique to the axis of the telescope crossing
each other at some point in the latter axis. A second
•yc-glass is then placed at any convenient distance from
he former, beyond the place where the oblique pencils
ross each other; and by this lens a second image is
VOL. XXIV.— Y
TEL
formed in a position contrary to that which in formed by
the i'1 Lastly, the' third 1<
ire and the eve at a di-- u the
r equal to iU local length, ti -veial
pencils will rmrrire paiallcl to one another, and an
of the object will thus be formed in the .
The ratio between the angles under which an objrct
woul'i :<\ thr naked eye, and that by wlucli it is
orapouuded of the mtios Of the
lengths of thr several leu- if F be t!;>'
TEL
,
length of thr object-lent, /'./". /'"' those of ll.
lenses, reckoned in onlrr towards the rye, the expression
^-=7j, will denote the ma<-'iiifying power.
Uut both the spherical aberration and the. chromatic
dispersion in such a telescope • onsiderable; and
before the invention of th» •chTOBMttia object-glass, Mr.
Dollond endeavoured to diminish the former by »n c>c-
. as to divide the
'.y equally bruvrcn them.
not no\v u Mr. Dollond suc-
^d at length in constructing telescopes with four eye-
glasses, from which both distortion ami 10 re-
moved as much perhaps as a renu>\:il i- ;
This is accomplished by placing i
yond the imairr formed by the object-glass, and at
tance from it less than the focal length ef th; •
bv this disposition the ray* of mean refrangibihty in each
.1 which diverge* from the image are not, alter re-
fraction, parallel to one another, but noon with diminished
di>ci. i little way beyond the place where the
of the oblique pencils cross the axis of the t*l<
is placed the »ecoud eye-L'lasss whic.li is of Biich
length that the mean refrangible rays in each pencil
after passim; through it, meet in a point, and thus a .-eeoiii
image of the objrct is formed near the eve: the use of
lenses, therefore, is to cause the second image to
be formed by a gradual convergence of the rays in eacl
pencil. But the several pencils of rays are intercepted by
the third eye-glass (commonly called the field-glass ,, am
the second' image is thereby formed rather nearer to the
first than it would be without such field-lens: from this
image the rays in each pencil diverge, and by the refrac-
tive power of the fourth eye-glass they are made to enter
the eye in parallel directions: thus distinct vision of the
external object is obtained. The field-glass might have
been placed between the eye and the second image
a_s in the Huygenian eye-piece before described; but. tin
ahrnatinn arising from the spherical form of the glasses is
a little less by the construction just mentioned.
Now, in each pencil, the red :uul violet rays which hat
formed by the object-glass, and
which there eroded each other, go on from thriicr di-
verging from each other till, on the opposite side of the
. i' the telescope, they fall upon the (surface of the
'Her pas»i Ii this lens, the
\iolel ray, which is always more refi acted than the red
gradually converges towards the latter, and at length
n some pla. of that at. which the rays of
rrfi action unite to form the second image. The
to IU the third or field-:.
at ll
of t! in parallel
direr' ! a vii w • :rly or
who, ',ur.
In formii - it may be ob-
served that, they slm ill allow the incident
and emergent pencils of ia\s to be ncaily equally i
to tli. ' ' and fourth eye-
' side of that
which is 's the
Litter, and that of the ol!
It bait been said above that, i
speculum . of the t irpote
of t! .lass in refractin
us ; and the manner in which, r
• (I to the rye i
diagram r< B longitudinal .ectioii
through the axis XY of the instrument, which Lt supposed
containing two lenses. MN is the a1 ' the
great speeulnni, which bus n rircnlai 'ti. nih, at
fl is a small spendum. concave like tin1 former,
:.ice beiiiL' It is
connected with the side of the tube AH l>\ the arm UK.
and is capable of brin^ moved in the direction of the
XY by means of the rod I'S : the latter passes through a
knob Q, which is fixed to the side of the tube, and works
in the knob H, which passes through an oM
in tho side of the tube, and is nttachcrt to the pan
the ami HK. This movement is given to thr small n;
in order that its locus may be made to coincide with the
place of the image formed by the iri-eat speculum; that
image bring at different d:- cord-
ing to the distance of the > the oliservrr.
Lei () be the upper part of an object, and let ON be the
direction of the rnys in a pencil of light diverging from < > :
the rays of this pencil will, after •. -,.(, ,| ,,t N.
to i,. which will bo the lower pnrt of the image ut.
From o the rays in the pencil diverge, and having fallen
upon the ratal] mirror at n, the\ <>m thence
towards the eye-piece KF : having passed through the
orifice in/t, they fall on the lens at F. by which tli,
made to unite at ;<. where an in
formed. From j> the rays in the same pencil again di-
vt-ige, and, falling on the lens at K, they are made to
v ill parallel directions, so that the c\e is riiab.
obtain distinct \ision of the object in the - ion as
if the latter were viewed bv the naked rjr.
hring reflected at ;/. miirht with a due corn-ax
the smaller mirror have united, as at />', in front of the
great mirror, and the second image might have
d at ii1!/ : in this case the ia\s in each pencil.
ng one another, would have fallen in a divergent
state on the lens at F, and then, by the refract,
of both lenses they would have entered the eye in parallel
directions :-. Thr positions of thr ICIIM.-. at F and
1 the curvatures of their surfaces, aie d ac-
cording to the method of Huygens ; and the construction
differs in no respect from that which has been described in
speaking of the r\r-piecei« of dioptric tc
The magnifying power of a reflecting telescope of
Gy
kind is expressed by the. forum!: in which \z ii
••al length of the great speculum, Gy is the distance
of tin - -ulum fiom the image /.</, \;/ is the
length of the second cM'-gla*s. and G- is the focal 1<
of the -mall speculum for parallel i:
In ;dl mirror •
made . d it is pi.1.-
alum MX bri'orr the ii:
formed; t! each i«.'ncil conse<iurntly fall in a
lirior, and.
.oriii the image i
refrae! • t eye-c '.ass F. It :
with rijual magnifying power, will be shorter
than the Gregorian ' ioie than twice the
focal 1> le small speculum ; and it may added that,
grcr, the spherical aberration > d by
V- two mirrors.
.c one con
Jin at. the boll . ill each pencil
'it, thr ra- > a COIIM
.h a Hi
of the tube AH.
open end of the. tube.
: iree. fixed in the side,
airror; thatU near the
TEL
Ifi3
TEL
The great telescope constructed by Herschel differs
from the Newtonian telescope only in having no small
mirror. The surface of the great speculum, which is 4
feet in diameter, has a small obliquity to the axis XY, so
that the image formed by reflection from it falls near the
lower side of the tube at its open end: nt this place there
is a sliding apparatus which carries a tube containing the
eye-glasses. The observer in viewing, is situated at the
open end of the tube, with his back to the object, and he
looks directly towards the centre of the speculum, the
magnitude of which is such that the rays intercepted by
his head, in coming from the object, do not in any sensible
degree diminish the brightness of the image.
Formerly the great speculum of a reflecting telescope
was pressed into its cell by means of springs attached to
the interior side of the brass plate at A: but the vibra-
tions of the spring* were found to cause tremulous mo-
tions in the image at the focus of the mirror; and this
(.•fleet was so great as to render reflecting telescopes in-
ferior to those of the dioptric kind. The Reverend Mr.
Edwards, who detected the cause of the tremors, at once
removed it by taking away the springs (Ncut.Alm.. 1787);
and the same gentleman further improved the distinctness
of the image by enlarging the aperture to which the eye
is applied. It lias been observed also that when the
great speculum is nearly in a vertical position, and con-
sequently rests on its lower extremity, its weight bends it,
nnd thus causes a change in the figure of its polished sur-
face : on this account it is recommended thnt the specu-
lum should be made to rest on two small wedges, placed
one on each side, at about 45 degrees from the lowest
point.
lifsides the power of magnifying objects, that of afford-
ing distinct vision with given quantities of light is often
tntiul riMuiiute in a telescope, particularly to navnl
men, who have occasion during the obscurity of the night
to keep in view a ship of which they may be in chase.
This subject was investigated by the late Sir William
Herschel, and an account of his researches on what 1m
calls the 'space-penetrating power of telescopes' was
printed in the I'hilnMi^hii-nl Tninxurtioiix/nr 1S()0.
Herschel states that he was aware of this property of
>pes as early as the year 1777. when he had con-
structed a Newtonian telescope with a speculum whose
focal length was 20 feet : for, on directing th" instrument
to a church-steeple at a considerable distance, he could
distinguish the hour by the clock, though with the naked
eye he could not see th'e steeple itself. In order to obtain
a formula for the space-penetrating power, he observes that
the quantity of light received by the natural eye varies
directly with the aperture of the "pupil, or with tlip square
of its radius, and inversely with the square of the distance
of the object: also that the quantity of light transmitted
by a telescope, supposing none to be lost in the reflections
trom the mirrors, or in refraction through the lenses, will
vary directly with the square of the radius of the aperture
and inversely with the square of the distance of the <
But, from experiments on the measure of light, it appears
that the whole quantity incident upon a plate of glan m
to the quantity transmitted through it as 1 is to •<);{« I. or
to the quantity lost as 1 is to -(.Mil!) ; and from this, the whole
quantity of incident light being unity, an estimate may be
made of the quantity of light transmitted through all' the
lenses of a telescope : with respect to the quantity lost in
reflection from mirrors Sir W. Herschel found that out of
1(10,000 incident rays, only 45,242 reached the eye alter two
reflections.
Let the quantity of incident light be to that which
arrives at the eye as 1 to m ; then /• beiuir the radius of
•Df
the pupil, and R that of the aperture of a telescope, —
will express the ratio between the quantity of light trans-
mitted to the. naked eye, and through a dioptric telescope:
therefore the space-penetrating power varying with the
R —
square root of the quantity of light, — V'« expresses the
penetrating power. With respect to reflecting telescopes,
n K' be the radius of the small speculum, the pern-
powerwill be expressed by i,/{m(R«-R«)}. It is neces-
sary fc observe that, in these expressions, it w supposed
that the pencil of light transmitted by the telescope is not
greater than the pupil of the eye.
TELESCOPE, HISTORY OF THE. It has been the
fate of almost every instrument by which science has been
extended, or the well-being of man promoted, that the
precise epoch of its invention, and even the name of the
individual to whom the world is indebted for it, are alike
unknown. This is particularly the case with the telescope,
of which the earliest notices are that it existed in England
ami in Holland near the end of the sixteenth or in the
beginning of the seventeenth century.
There is in Strabo a passage (hi., p. 180, Falconer's ed. ;
p. U8. Casaub.) in which, speaking of the enlargement of
the sun's disk at his rising and setting in the sea. it is stated
that the rays (of light") in passing through the vapours
which rise from the water, as through tubes, are dilated,
and thus cause the apparent to be greater than the real
magnitude (of the object) ; and from this it has been in-
terred (Dutens. Rfehtrrhm. &e.\ though the inference is
probably without foundation, that there" then existed tubes
furnished with lenses for magnifying objects by refracting
the light. It would be needless to make any observa-
tions on an inference founded upon an hypothesis so
obscurely expressed : the words in Strabo probably sig-
nify only that the rays of light might become divergent
in passing along the intervals between the particles of
vapour.
Omitting then all notice of this, and of the ill under-
stood passages in Aristophanes ('Clouds') and Pliny (lib.
xxxvi., c. 67) concerning transparent spheres, or lenses for
concentrating the rays of light, it must be acknowledged
that before the end of the thirteenth century lenses of
glass were in constant use for the purpose of assisting the
eye in obtaining distinctness of vision. Vitello, a native
of Poland, in that century, gave some obscure indications
of the apparent magnitudes of objects when viewed through
nent of a sphere of glass: and Roger Bacon, in his
• Opus Majus.' both mentions the like fact, and expresses
himself in such a manner as to indicate that in his time
(he died in 12021 spectacles were already in use. He may
not have actually made combinations of lenses in one in-
strument, but there is no doubt of his being aware of the
tact that lenses might be arranged so that objects seen
through them would appear to be magnified. [BACON,
KooKit : SPKCTACLKS.]
The idea being known to the learned, it is scarcely pos-
sible to doubt that the combination of two lenses, or of a
concave or convex mirror and a lens, must have been often
made during the three centuries which elapsed between
the time of Bacon and that which is generally considered
as the epoch of the invention of telescopes. Dr. Dee, in
his preface to Euclid's 'Elements' i 1570 1, having men-
tioned that some skill is required to ascertain the numeri-
cal strength of an enemy's force when at a distance, ob-
serves that the ' captain, "or whosoever is careful to come
near the truth herein, besides the judgment of his eye, the
help of his geometrical instrument, ring, or static astrono-
mical (probably for determining the measure of dis-
tances . may wonderfully help himself bv perspective
glasses:' these last can only signify some kind of telescope,
which therefore must have been then in genera!
And in the ' Pantometria ' of Digges ( l.T/l ) it is stated
that ' by concave and convex mirrors of circular 'spherical)
and parabolic forms, or by frames of them placed at due
angles, and using the aid of transparent glasses which
may break, or unite, the images produced by the reflec-
tions of the mirrors, there may be represented a whole
region : also any part of it may be augmented, so that a
small object may be discerned as plainly as if it were close
to the observer, though it may be as far distant as the eye
can descrie.' In the preface to the second edition (1591)
the editor, who was the author's son, affirms that ' by
porportional mirrors placed at convenient angles, his
lather could discover things far off, that he could knovr
a man at. the distance of three miles, and could read the
superscriptions on coins deposited in the open fields.'
There is probably some exaggeration in this account, but
it is sufficiently manifest from it that reflecting telescopes,
or optical instruments containing combinations of mirrors
and lenses, were known in England before the end of the
sixteenth century. The claim of BaptisUi Porta 'between
.nd Ilil'i to the invention of the telescope appears
to have no other foundation than the circumstance that
Y2
TEL
TEL
ne perceived a small object to be magnified when \ ic« , ,1
through a convex U-ns.
It is hisrlily probable that tin- telescope had been in-
vented lui. -lu- value t>i' MU-II an instrument was
duly appreciated: mill it may have been owing to the
very irradual discovery of its importance that the name
• •I' the inventor sunk into oblivion : about the middle
of the seventeenth cent urv. houcver.au effort was made
to discover the trace* of UM invention, anil 1'ctcr Horellus,
in his work entitled ' l)e vero Tclcscopii Invcntorc,' which
was publislied in MJ.VI at the Hague, lias iriven te-timo-
nials in favour of two persons; the first of these is Xacha-
riah Jans, or Jansen, ami the other, Hans Lapprev. or Lip-
persheiin. both of whom are said to have been opticians,
or spectacle-makers, residing at Middleburgh : in B letter
written by a son of .Jans, n is Mated that the epoch of the
discovery is the year 15SK); but by another account, the
v ear IC10. The same author has also given a letter from
M. William Boreel (envoy from the States of Holland to
the British Court) which seems to throw some light on the
facts. The writer of the letter asserts that he was ac-
quainted with the younger Zachariah Jans, when both of
tnem were children, and had often heard that the elder was
the inventor of the nnrniK'-,,/,,' .• I,,- adds that, about the year
1610, the two opticians Jans and l.apprey first const meted
telescopes, and that they presented one to Prince Maurice
of Nassau, who desired that the invention might be kept
secret as (the United Provinces being then at war with
France) he expected to obtain in the field, by means oi
the instalment, some advantages over the enemy. The
writer further states that the invention became known,
and that soon afterwards Adrian Metius and Cornelius
Drebbel went to Middleburgh and purchased telescopes
at the house of Jans. This account (litters from that
which is given by Descartes (' Dioptrics,' cap. 1 , who.
writing in Holland, states that about thirty years pre-
viously, Metins (who was, he observes, a native of Alck-
maer)l having always taken pleasure in forming burning-
mirrors and lenses of glass and of ice, by chance placed
at the extremities of a tube two lenses, one thicker in tin
middle, and the other thinner, than about the edge (con-
vex and concave) ; and thus, he adds, was formed the in-
strument which is called a telescope. The 'Dioptrics' was
published at Leyden in 1G37, and therefore the time ol
the supposed invention by Metius is nearly coincident
with that at which, according to Horellus. it \V:LS made b\
Jans. From the papers of Harriot, it appears that this
m.Ulu matician observed spots on the sun, in 1610, will
•clcscopcs magnifying from 10 to 30 times ; but it is
uncertain whether he got them from Holland, or whether
they were made in this country ; and the only conclusions
at which it is possible now to arrive, are, that telescopes
were known in England and Holland about the end of the
sixteenth century, and thai in both countries they were
then in a form which rendered them practically useful.
The two .Ian-ens, father and son, appear to have usec
their telescopes in observing the heavens ; and the lattei
is said to have remarked four small stars near Jupiter: i
has been concluded from thence, that he was the first dis
coverer of the satellites of that planet; but though thii
may be, he probably did not continue his observation-
long enough to enable him to determine their distances
from it, or the times of their revolutions.
The use of the telescope, and, probably, even the know
ledge of the fact that it had been invented, mu-t havi
: for many years confined to the north of Kurope : to
it appears that it was not till the year HXK) that (lalilen
who then happened to be at Venice, heard from a German
a rumour of the discovery which was said to have beei
made in Holland. The Italian philosopher states, in tin
•Sidereus Nuneius,' that he had then no knowledge o
the nature of the instrument, and that he requested a
friend at Pan* to send him some information concerning
it. On being informed, merely, that it was a tube con-
taining glass lenses, his acquaintance with the nature 01
the refraction of light enabled him, it is said, to discover
that one of the lenses must have been convex and the
other concave, and also to determine the distance at
which they should be placed from one another in order
that the objects seen through them might appear magni-
fied and distinct. Without however supposing that
Galileo was here guturd by theoretical considerations
merely, it is easy to conceive that, as lenses of different
.mil- were then in use for spectacles, ho miu-ht have ob-
ained from an optician some which were nl different
legrees of convexity and concavity : and aller n few trials
^le must have found such as would constitute an instru-
uent possessing magnifying pov-
The telescopes which he constructed consisted of one
•onvex object-glass and one concave eye-glass, whieh
were placed at the extremities of a leaden tube ; and the
"irst of them magnified the heights and breadths of objects
three times only. Soon afterwards he made one which
magnified eiirht times; and subsequently he succeeded
in funning a telescope with a magnifying power which
caused objects to appear about thirty times as great as
they are to the unassisted eye.
The knowledge whieh man had acquired of the visible
heavens received many important accessions from thi
coveries which Galileo was enabled to make by mea.
the telescope. Except the sun and moon, not one of tin-
celestial bodies had hitherto been observed to have any
visible form or magnitude, and it was to the eye of rt
alone that those appeared to be anything but plane sur-
faees : the fixed stars and the planets were alike known
only ns luminous and ill-defined points: but when
through a telescope, the planets were found to ha\.
tain magnitudes, and some of them to undergo variations
of form ; while the fixed stars appeared unchanged, or
only divested of the radiance with which they seem to be
surrounded when seen by the naked eye : and hence it
became obvious that the former must constitute a distinct
group of bodies infinitely nearer the earth than the others.
The sun, from the spots observed on his surface, was found
to revolve on its axis, and consequently was ascertained
to be globular; and the light and dark spaces on tin-
moon were distinctly perceived to be mountains and val-
Icvs. nearly resembling those features on the surface of tin-
earth. Galileo relates, in the work above mentioned, that
in the year 1010 he discovered the four satellites of Jupi-
ter, and observed that they revolved about that planet a-.
our moon revolves about the earth. Nearly at the
time he observed that Saturn presented a remarkable ap-
pearance : at first he thought it was accompanied by two
smaller planets; but on using a telescope of superior
magnifying power, these were found to be portions of a
vast annulus which surrounds Saturn without touehini;
his surface; and soon afterwards he ascertained the fact
that Venus exhibited phases similar to those of the
moon.
The species of telescope which was used by Galileo-
continued for several years unchanged : yet it is ex-
tremely defective, on account of the small extent of the
field of view which it affords when its magnifying ]>
is considerable ; and the Hatavian or Galilean telescope-,
as it was called, is now chiefly used to distinguish object--
in a theatre. It is due to the memory of Kepler to state
that he pointed out (in his ' Dioptrics' > the possibility of
forming telescopes with two lenses, both of whicU nix-
convex; but he did not reduce his ideas to practice by the-
construction of such an Instrument, and the honour of
having been the first to do so is to be attributed to the
Jesuit Seheiner. who, in his • Kosa Ursina ' (1CTXI , i_ri\c-
a description of telescopes with one convex eye-glass.
He observes that the the imaircs of objects to
appear in inverted positions; and adds, that thirteen years
previously he had used such a telescope in prescni
the Archduke Maximilian.
Tele-copes with a sinerle convex eye-glass have 1
since designated astronomical, from the circumstance that
they were long employed for celestial observations; the
r extent of their field of view having caused them.
notwithstanding the inversion of the image, to SH|M
for that purpose the telescopes of Galileo. It ought to
be remarked however that telescopes with two <•-,
by which the object might be seen in a dii n, as
it appears to the naked eye. were described by Kepler,
and constructed by Seheiner; but as they caused the
object to appear much distorted and coloured abnut the
margin of the field, they were not esteemed. Pcre de
Kheita, about the same time, constructed for telescopes.
eve-tubes containing three lenses, which, he observe-.
afford a better image than those with two : the same per-
son was the inventor of what is called a binocular tele-
scope, that is, an instrument which consists of two tele-
scope* haying equal magnifying powers, and placed near
TEL
165
TEL
each other in such positions that an object might be
observed with both eyes at the same time. -Attempts
have been since made to revive this invention ; but the
advantages, it' any there be, are more than compensated
by the trouble of directing the two tubes to the object.
The magnifying powerof adioptrical telescope increasing
with the ratio which the focal length of the object-glass
bears to that of the eye-glass, and since, by increasing
the focal length of the former without increasing its
diameter, the coloured border round the image is dimi-
nished so that vision is rendered more distinct, the op-
ticians of the seventeenth century were induced to form,
for object-glasses, lenses which were segments of very
great spheres, that is, lenses of great focal lengths. Cam-
pani at Bologna, by order of Louis XIV., made telescopes
having object-glasses whose focal lengths were as great
as 136 feet, and with such, Cassini, in 1671, discovered
the satellites of Saturn. [CAUPANI.] M. Auzout is said
to have made a lens of 600 feet focal length, but it does
not appear that he was able to use it as a telescope.
Huygens, who was an ingenious mechanic as well as a
good philosopher, contrived to use an object-glass of long
focus for astronomical purposes without placing the sys-
tem of lenses in a tube. On the top of a long pole which
\\:is planted vertically in the ground, he mounted the
object-glass, having fixed it in a frame with joints so that
its axis could be moved in any direction by means of a
string which was held in the hand of the observer ; and
the axis being in aline passing through the celestial body,
a short tube containing the eye-glasses w as fixed to a stand
near the ground with its axis in the same direction. An
instrument of this kind having an object-glass of 123 feet
local length, was made by Huygens and presented to the
Koyal Society ; and with it Dr. Bradley made some of his
astronomical observations. It is described by Huygens in
his ' Astroscopia Compendiaria,' which was printed at the
Hague in 1684. But the chief merit of Huygens as an
improver of astronomical telescopes consists m his con-
struction of an eye-piece with two lenses so combined as
both to enlarge the field of view and diminish the aberra-
tion* produced by their spherical forms.
There is some probability that the elder Digges had
contrived an instrument which constituted a specie* of
catoptric, or reflecting, telescope; but, on account of the
obscure manner in which the instrument is described, it
will be scarcely necessary to notice further his claim to the
honour of the invention. It appears that Pi-re Mersenne,
in his correspondence with Descartes, and in his 'Catop-
trics' (1651j, suggested the idea of a concave spherical
mirror to be used, like the principal lens of a dioptric
telescope, for forming in its focus an image of an object ;
and that this image being viewed through a convex eye-
of proper curvature, the original object would ap-
pear to be magnified. Descartes, in his reply to Mer-
senne, which is said to have been written in 1639, makes
;il objections to the scheme, and no effort was then
made to put it in practice. But the great length of the
dioptric telescopes which were then in use rendering the
management of them very inconvenient, ingenious men
were induced to attempt a construction in which with
equal magnifying power much smaller dimensions might
be employed. Mr. James Gregory of Edinburgh, in his
'Optica Promota' (1663) published a suggestion for form-
ing a telescope by means of the image at the focus of a
concave speculum. The mirror was to be of polished
metal with a paraboloidal surface, which by the proper-
ties of that curve would cause all rays incident upon it in
directions parallel to the axis to converge accurately at
one point. It is uncertain whether Gregory had any
knowledge of Mereenne's treatise, or whether the idea
originated with himself; but this is of little consequence,
for not being able to find an artist who could execute
such a speculum, though he came to London for the pur-
pose, the suggestion was abandoned, and men of science
continued to direct their inquiries to the means of im-
proving dioptric telescopes.
When, however, Newton had discovered the unequal
refrangibility of light, and had ascertained that the aber-
ration produced by this cause about the focus of a lens
many hundred times greater than that which was
canned by the spherical form of the glass, he gave up the
hope of being able to construct refracting telescopes
which should be free from this defect, and applied him-
the formation of specula for those of the catoptric
kind : the image formed by reflection from a mirror being
free from what is called the chromatic aberration, and
consequently incomparably more distinct than one which
is formed by the refraction of light in a lens of any trans-
parent medium.
In the beginning of 1669, Newton having obtained a
composition of metals which appeared likely to serve for
a mirror, began with his own' hands, to grind its surface
to a spherical form ; and early in the year 1672 he com-
pleted two telescopes : of the construction and per-
formance of these instruments he sent to the Royal So-
ciety an account which was read in the January of that
year. The radius of the concave metal in one of them
was 13 inches, and the telescope magnified about 38
times. The rays, before forming an image in the focus of
the speculum, were intercepted by a glass prism, or a
plane mirror, and the image formed after this second re-
flection was viewed by a convex eye-glass which was
fixed for the purpose in the side ol the tube. In the
telescope proposed by Gregory, the rays in each pencil
of light, after crossing at the focus of the great speculum,
were to fall upon the surface of a small concave mirror ;
and by this being again reflected, they were to form a
second image near the anterior surface of the first specu-
lum : through a perforation in the latter the image was to
be viewed ; a convex lens being interposed between the
image and the eye of the observer. This has been always
called the Gregorian telescope ; and in 1672, the year in
which Newton completed his reflecting telescopes, M. Cas-
segrain, in France, proposed one which differed from that
of Gregory only in the rays reflected from the great spe-
culum being intercepted by a small convex mirror : from
this the rays of each pencil were again reflected, and they
were made to form an image near the anterior surface
of the great speculum : this image was to be viewed through
a convex lens behind an aperture in the latter specu-
lum, as in the telescope of Gregory. It does not appear
that M. Cassegrain constructed such a telescope, but it
may be observed that the image formed after reflection
from the convex speculum would be more free from the
aberration caused by the surfaces of the mirrors, and
would also be rather greater, than that which is obtained
from the concave speculum of Gregory or the plane one
which was used by Newton.
The first reflecting telescope, in which the great specu-
lum was perforated so that objects could be viewed by
looking directly at them, was executed by Dr. Hooke, and
produced before the Royal Society in February, 1674. But
the difficulty of obtaining metal proper for the purpose,
and of giving it a perfectly spherical form, for a long time
prevented reflecting telescopes from attaining the desired
degree of perfection. In 1718 Mr. Hadley succeeded in
executing two telescopes, each about five feet long, which
were considered good ; and he gave, in the ' Philosophical
Transactions' (1723), a description of the methods em-
ployed in their construction. By his advice Dr. Bradley,
who was then professor of astronomy at Oxford, in con-
junction with Mr. Molyneux at Kew, applied themselves
to the construction of these instruments: having executed
one which was satisfactory, they in 1738 instructed Scarlet
and Hearne, two London opticians, in the processes which
they used, and these artists presently succeeded in making
•ood reflecting telescopes for general sale. Mr. James
ihort, of Edinburgh, also soon afterwards distinguished
himself by his skill in forming such telescopes : he at-
tempted at first to make the pnncipal speculum of glass,
but finding that this material had not sufficient steadiness
to preserve the form of its surface, he devoted himself to
the improvement of metallic specula, and succeeded in
giving them, it is supposed, a correct parabolic figure, by
which means his telescopes admitted of larger apertures
than any that had before been made.
The processes adopted by Mr. Mudge in grinding and
polishing the mirrors for reflecting telescopes, and in
giving them the parabolic figure, may be seen in the ' Phi-
losophical Transactions' for 1777. See also SPECULUM
MKTAL.
But the reflecting telescope was destined to receive the
liighest power of which perhaps it is susceptible from the
hands of Dr. (afterwards Sir William) Herschel : this dis-
tinguished astronomer, while residing at Bath, employed
his leisure hours in grinding and polisliing specula, with
TEL
1G6
T E L
v. '..• ! telescopes, both o. ' mian and
•
i!ly 1u tli In* )>liuit>t which in called
i' formation of a speculum lour
feet in diamet. T and in focal 1,
to which it iippertai ;i kind, tin.'
•i-ing placed in : pen mil oi ihc
tulte, nnd viewing the imase thro .
\Vith this ' • • • . •<•<!' in
moznitied nl'out (if**) time*: and on the
night alter it v, i. Dr. Hi il thu
sixth satellite, of Saturn. An ntlrm]>t is even now being
to form a reflect in-,' telescope possessing a higher
•ion than that of Hemchel; but th»uirh
the expectation should be fulfilled, telescopes of groat
magnitude must always be inconvenient in the in:
incut ; and. from 1hr'e\pen-e of their construction, they
will ever In' confined to a few persons. It is right to ob-
serve moreover that the greatest discoveries of which
astronomy cnn boast have been made with telescopes
w hose macmfving power did not exceed 700 times.
While the unproTement of reflecting: b- •••win
progress, the efforts to combine glass lenses in order to
dimmish the colouri'd fringes by which the images in diop-
trical telescopes are surrounded were not entirely neg-
lected : and as early as 172!), a private gentleman. Mr.
ion.' Hall, of Essex, influenced, it appears, by an
opinion that the humours of the eye are combined so as to
correct the dispersions which each alone would produce in
the different kind* of light, contrived to combine two
lenses of different kinds of glass in such a way as to form
an im a<je which wns free from colours: it is' added that
telescopes with such object-glasses were in the poss
of several individuals many years afterwards, Unit. Muff.,
.r. 17!*l: I'liil. Mag., November. 17SIS.
In 17J7 Kuler. guided also by the constitution of the
-itiility of forming a lens com-
pounded ol" two hollow spherical segments of g ';\*~. in-
closing water between their concave sides, which should
be free from the (-dramatical and spherical aberr;.
and in investigating the curvatures he assumed that the
logarithms of the terms expressing the ratio of the
tion of a mean ray in passing from nir into glass, and from
air into water, were proportional to the logarithms of the
terms expressing the ratio of the refractions of red ia\ - in
the same media. He was not able to obtain from any
artist a Ien» of this nature, in which the proposed end wns
accomplished, and Mr. Dollond [Dou.nM>]. in a short
paper which is printed in the ' Philosophical Transactions'
17-">i). contested the justness of Killer's principle on the
ground that it was contrary to one which he conceived to
be founded on the experiment* of Newton.
Hut M. Klingenstierna. a Swedish mathematician, hav-
ing soon afterwards, in a Mc'moire which was sent to the
Acad'mie des Sciences, pointed out that the principle
which had been adopted by Dollond was not conformable
to the acknowledged laws of refraction, the latter deter-
mined immediately on havin. • to experiment.
Kither euided by the object-glasses constructed under the
direction of Mr. Hall, or from a sctics of experiments
made by himself on the refraction of light in we.]
crown and flint elas-
convex le- Mation with a concave
I*m of the latter kind, the ray* of the different colours in
each pencil of liirht, after refraction through both, might
be made to um cus, and 1
of the object nearly free from colour. For tin
discovery Mr. 1>
f'opleian medal. In I7';*> Ins sou, Mr. 1'eter Dollond. di-
minished the aberration of light on account of t he spherical
forms of the I> • ombining together 1
- of crown ghuw with a concave lens of flint glass
between them: this construction is particularly nd\ an-
us, by the increased aperture which it allows when
the focal length of the compound lens is short.
For several years after the telescopes thus improved by
Dollond had been in general use. Eider continued to
• <• tlmt all kinds of glass differed but little trot..
•iicir dispersive power, and he
cc.s of the Kti; : merely to a for-
'e determination of the curvature of hi* lenses ; but
having, in the year 1704, received information that, by
the addition of lead, -glass hi
been obtained whose dm-
' lie eom-
• lot former opinion ;
of the
. tn they were c.nu
The most eminent inatheinaliciii'
and in this country. ha\e subseo,nc!
scientific principle*, UM curvatures w!
to the surfaces ol lenses, so that, th> ,
compound lens being assumed, the chronwtii
nciil aberrations ma\
The Hiiangcui. -cs for the eye-
is of no less importance '
object-glass : and Hir.
in order to dimmish the retraction of liirht at the, surfiicott-
to sin -
d U'U-ftcuj lenses, of cuch curvatures
lliat 1lu> whole icfraction. or tin
dent and emergent niv in tin- former con-'
be divided between the two lenses.
One mode of effecting this purpose is to pla.
eye-irlass, or that win > -t to thcohjci'.
iuliTcept the pencils comimr from the object -<;la.si> 1 •
the rays are muted, and tin _re is formed afti
refraction of the light in this lens : the second •
then placed so that the rays falling
crossed at the place of the imaire. are made t<
. rallcl to one another. A microim b e ap-
jilied to such an eye-piece, -nice any chanire in the place
of the lens which is \, lie . \. would doranire its
adjustment, : tin
achromatic, and they have the greatest i Id of
view: they have therefore -inn-ted for the pur-
pose of merely viewing the celestial bod 'lond,
Ramwlen. and Frauenhofer. Mr. Kamsden was the first
who constructed eye-pieces with two lenses which
capable of bcitiLT used with a micrometer: this lie accom-
plished by placing the tube containing those lenses so that
the rays in the pencils, alter crossim: at the focus •
'-Lrlas<. fell in a divenrini: state upon the first
refraction in both, entered the eye m
parallel directions.
With both these kinds of eye-pieces the object appears
to be inverted ; but eye-pieces with three lenses, by which
the object is made to appear in the erect position, had
been proposed byKheita: these being found dele
Mr. Dollond endeavoured to improve upon the construc-
tion by dividing the refraction nt the first and thii.i
glasses between two lenses, according to the method recom-
mended by Hnygeus, and thus be formed • with
five lenses. Hut some light is always lost by reflection
when it falls upon slavs ; and. in order to diminish this
evil. Dollond subsequently, retaining1 the Ilnyccnian con-
struction in the two lenses nearest to the e\e. used but one
lens to perform the office of the second and third in the
eye-piece with five classes . in rendering the ra\s of each
pencil con. had diminished the diver-
gency caused by the crossing at the locus of the objeet-
glass: he thus succeeded m producing an eye-pii •
four lenses which was nearly njilnnntif. or free both from
the chromatical and spheiieal aberrations: and such are
the telescopes now in common use lor viewing terrestrial
objects.
The chief improvements, if they may be so called, which
have since been made in dioptric telescopes, consist in the
means v. Inch have been adopted to remove' those aberra-
tions ) d the natures of the dill-
media winch hti\ <l lor this purpose bv I 'r. Hlair.
Sir David Hrewster. and Mr. Harlow. [•
in the- article TBLKSCOPB.
Attempts have been mndc by M. f'hevalier to diminish
'•rrnfions by means 'of two achr*
'in distance Iron: the tube :
and by Mr. Rogers of Leith. b\ convex lens of
plate glass, in combination with a double achromatic lens,
the convex lens being of plate-elan*, nnd t1
lens of flint-glass. This last gentleman proposes to unite
I and violet r. he object by a
proper distance betw. le double lens
and t. Hie spherical aberration either bv giving
proper cur\ the surfaces of the compound lens,
or by ; > lenses at a small distance from •
other. (Memoir* of the Atlrtm. N*-., vol. iii., part 2.) Dr.
TEL
167
TEL
Brewster has suggested (Treatise on New Phil, lust.,
p. 400) that it may be possible to remove, or at least very
much diminish, the unconnected colour in the image by
the use of two lenses of the same kind of glass with the
same or different dispersive powers. He proposes that
the exterior lens should have the meniscus form, the con-
vex side being outwards ; in order, from the obliquity
of the incident rays to the surface, that the dispersion pro-
duced by that lens may increase in a higher ratio than its
refraction, so that the dispersion produced by the other
lens maybe corrected; while in each pencil the rays,
alter refraction through both, may be convergent.
It would be improper to omit here to mention that M.
Amici at Modena, some years since, invented a species of
achromatic telescope by a combination of four prisms, all
of the same kind of glass : the refracting edges of one pair
of the pri-ms were parallel to one another, and those of
the other pair were also parallel to one another, but per-
pendicular to the edges of the first pair; and each pair
funned an achromatic combination. By the refraction in
the first pair the breadth of the object is magnified, and
by that in the second pair the length is magnified in the
same ratio : thus the result is an image undistorted and
magnified. Sir John Hen,cliel states that, in 1K26. lie
*aw in the hands of iU inventor one of these telescopes,
which magnified about four ti:i.
TKLESCO'PIU-M .the Tele-rope , a constellation of
in the southern hemisphere, surrounded by Ara,
Sagittarius, and Oplu'uchus. Its principal stars are
as follows: —
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X
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2101
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1517 C
2120
5
TELESCO'PIUM, De Montfort's name for the Cen-
t/mini T<;'<'*i-t:/<tuM of authors. [ENTOMOSTOMATA, vol. ix.,
p. Lll.]
TELFOKD, THOMAS. In the life of this eminent
man, as has been observed in a brief notice of the l;
of that science of which he v\a- MI distinguished an orna-
ment, in the preface to the ' Transactions' of the Institu-
tion of Civil Engineers, ' another striking instance is
added to those on record of men who have, by the force
of natural talent, unaided save by uprightness and perse-
vering industry, laised themselves from the low estate in
which they were born, to take their stand among the master-
spirits of their age.' Telford's father was a shepherd in the
ia! district of Eskdale in Dumfriesshire, where, in the
: kirk, his only son was born, on the 9th of
1st, \7~>7. Hi« father dying while he was yet an infant,
i Telford's early years devolved upon his mother,
Janet Jackson, for whom he cherished an affectionate
(1 until her death in 1794; he having been in the
habit, according to Mr. Hi'ckman, of writing letters to her
in jn-iiitcil characters, that, she might be able to read them
without assistance. He received the rudiments of educa-
tion in the parish school of VVc-terkirk ; and, while engaged
during the summer ;'herd boy in as.-:
IIH uncle, he made diligent use of his leisure in studying
the hooks furnished by his village friends. At the age of
fourteen he was apprenticed to a stone-mason ,
ing town of Langholra ; and for several years he
wa» employed, chiefly in his native district, in the various
:tioiu usually performed by a country masoti in a dis-
i! there \» little occasion for the higher depart-
his art. The construction of plain bridges, of
i'aim buildings, and of simple village churches and m
afforded however good opportunities for obtaining prac-
knowledge. Tellbrd himself has expressed his sense
o!' the value of tins humble training, observing, that
e and usefulness only are studied in
•ar advantages are of fried to the
your In adopt his o\vu words, *({.•
is not sufficient employment to produce a division of labour
in building, he is under the necessity of making himself
acquainted with every detail in procuring, preparing, and
employing every kind of material, whether it be the pro-
duce of the forest, the quarry, or the forge ; and this
necessity, although unfavourable to the dexterity of the
individual workman who earns his livelihood by expert-
ness in one operation, is of singular advantage to the
future architect or engineer, whose professional excellence
must rest on the adaptation of materials and a confirmed
habit of discrimination and judicious superintendence.'
Chambers states that during this period of his life Telford
was remarkable for the neatness with which he cut letters
upon gravestones. In 1780, being then about twenty-
three, and considering himself master of his art, he visited
Edinburgh, apparently with a view to obtaining employ-
ment. The splendid improvements then in progress in
that city enlarged his field of observation, and enabled
him to contemplate architecture as applied to the object
of magnificence as well as utility ; and he seems at this
time to have devoted much attention both to architecture
and drawing. After remaining there about two years, he
removed to London, where he obtained employment upon
the quadrangle of Somerset House, then erecting by Sir
William Chambers, an engagement in which, according
to his own account, he obtained much practical informa-
tion. About 1784 he was engaged to superintend the
erection of a house for the resident commissioner'in Ports-
mouth dockyard, from the design of Mr. S. Wyat. Tel-
lord's good character and promising talent had secured for
him the friendship of two families resident in his native
district, the Pasleys and the Johnstones, and to their in-
fluence his early employment on important woiks is, in
some measure, to be attributed. He was engaged upon
various buildings at the Portsmouth dockyard for three
years, during which time he became well acquainted with
the construction of graving-docks, vvhai f-walls, and similar
engineering works ; and in 17H7, having completed his
.ementa there, he was invited by the late Sir William
Pulteney (a member of the Johnstone family) to take the
superintendence of some alterations at Shrewsbury Castle.
He therefore removed to Shrewsbury, where he was also
employed to erect a new gaol, which was completed in
17'M. and was subsequently appointed county surveyor, in
which office (retained by him until death) he had to fur-
nish plans for, and oversee the construction of, bridges
and similar works. The first bridge which he designed
and built was that over the Severn, at Mont ford, about
four miles wot of Shrewsbury, consisting of three elliptical
stone ail-In-, dm- of fi fly-eight, and the others of fifty-five
pan. His next was the iron bridge over the Severn,
at Buildwas, consisting of a very flat iron arch of a hundred
and thirty feet span, constructed upon very superior prin-
ciples to that erected a few years previously at Coalbrook
Dale : Telford's object was rather to introduce the trussing
principle of a timber construction than that of a stone
arch. This bridge was built in the years 17'Ji) and 17!Jl>.
Forty smaller bridges were erected in Shropshire under
Telford's direction.
The Ellesmere Canal, a series of navigations intended
to unite the Severn, the Dee, and the Mersey, and extend-
ing altogether to a length of about one hundred and three
, was the first great work upon which Telford was
rd, his satisfactory execution of the county works
intrusted to him having led its projectors to select him as
their engineer; and from this engagement, which com-
menced about 1793, in which year (he. act of parliament
was obtained for the scheme, his attention was directed
almost solely to civil engineering. The uneven character
of the country occasioned many serious difficulties in the
HI of this canal, and rendered necessary the
execution of some works of astonishing magnitude, i
cially in crossing the valleys of the Ceriog, or Chirk, and
of the Dee. In the former the canal crosses the river at
an elevation of seventy feet, by an aqueduct-bridge often
arches, each of which is of forty feet span, in the construc-
tion of which some important deviat'ions were made from
the previous practice of engineers. It had been usual in
-tinctures to form the bed for the canal of puddled
.ontined in masonry, a practice which involved •
•Xpnue, and some danger in time of frost, from the. ex-
pMrion of the moist puddle. The great elevation of tne
i aqueduct would have increased the difficulty, but.
Telford abandoned the puddling system, and formed the
TEL
168
TEL
o«d of the canal of flanged cast-iron plates resting upon
walls built on the piers, and const met ed tin- sides of ma-
sonry. This work was executed between I71H! and 18111.
at a cost of 20.HU8/. The aqueduct-bridge over the valley
of the Dee, called the Pont-\-<'ysvltc, is still more remark-
able: it consists simply of a trough of cast-iron ;<
securely flanged tegttMr, and supported by eighteen piers
or pillars of masonry, the elev.ition of which i* a luuulreil
and twenty-one feet above low-water. These piers are
solid to the height of seventy feet, above which they are
hollow, with interior walls. The water-way in the cast-
iron trough js eleven feet ten inches wide, of which four
feet eight inches is covered by the towing-path, supported
upon cast-iron pillars, so as to allow the water free play
beneath it. The length, of the aqueduct is about one
thousand feet, and Hie height of the canal one hundred
and twenty-seven feet above the Dee; and at one end of
the aqueduct -bridge is a great embankment, fifteen hun-
dred feet Ions:, rising in parts to a height of seventy-five
feet above the natural surface. These gigantic works
were executed tn-tween 17!K>and 1805, at a cost of 47,018/.
hi the locks of this canal Telford introduced cast-iron
framing in lieu of timber ; and in one instance, where the
lock was formed in a quicksand, he made every part of
that material.
The Caledonian Canal is another of Telfotd's princi-
pal worlfs. In 1773 the commissioners of the forfeited
estates in Scotland had engaged Watt to report on the
practicability of a ship-canal alone; the valley called the
Glen of Scotland, to be formed by connecting the lakes
which form a series of navigable waters extending a great
part of the distance ; but although the report was favour-
able, it was not acted upon, and the scheme was deferred
for some years by the restoration of the forfeited c-
throuirh which the line would pass, in 1784. In 1801
however Telford was deputed by srovernment to make
a survey of the coasts and of the interior of Scotland, and
to report generally upon desirable public works for the im-
provement of the country. In consequence of his reports
Commissions were formed to carry out the proposed canal.
and other improvements classed under the general title of
Highland Roads and Bridges; and the services of Telford
were engaged by both boards. The Caledonian Canal was
opened throughout in 1823. Its construction was delayed
by many untoward circumstances; and unfortunately its
utility has not hitherto answered the expectations of its
projectors. It forms however a noble monument of the
skill of the engineer. The locks are stated by Telford to
be the largest ever constructed at that time, being forty
feet wide, and from one hundred and seventy to one hun-
dred and eighty feet long ; and one of them, at Clachna-
carry, near Inverness, was made under circumstances of
especial difficulty, the earth being a soft mud, into which
an iron rod might easily be thrust to a depth of fifty-five
feet. The means adopted for conquering this difficulty are
fully detailed in the engineer's own narrative.
Of other canals constructed wholly or part ially under Tel-
ford's superintendence it is sufficient to mention the Glas-
gow, Paisley, and Ardrossan (which was never completed to
the length originally intended) ; the Macclesfield ; the Bir-
mingham and Liverpool Junction ; the Gloucester and
Berkeley completed under his direction) ; the Birmingham,
which was completely rcnuxlcllcd and adapted to the con-
duct of a very extensive traffic, by him ; and the Weaver
navigation, in Cheshire. He also constructed a new tunnel,
yards long, 16 IVet lusrh, and 14 feet wide, at Hare-
castle, on the Trent and Mersey Canal, the original tunnel
of Brindley having been found too small [TUNNEL] ; and he
executed many important works connected with the drain-
age of the fen country, especially of Bedford Level. On
the Continent likewise he superintended the construction of
the (lot ha canal, in Sweden, a navigation of about one
hundred and twenty English miles, of which fifty-live are
artificial canal. This navigation rises one hundred and
sixty-two feet from the Lake Wenern, at one extremity, to
the summit-level, and falls three hundred ami seven f<
Hie Baltic, at the other : the rise and f.ill :,
by fifty-six locks. The canal is forty-two feet wide at the
ii, and ten feet deep. Telford visited Sweden in
1808 to make the surveys and preliminary arrangements,
and again in 1813, taking with him, under the sanction of
the Bnti>h government, several experienced worki;
instruct the natives in the works then in progress. Upon
the completion of the canal a Swedish order of knighthood
and other honours we; 1 upon Tel:
•.Mirks executed by Telfonl under tin1 < 'ommissioners
(if Highland Roads and It:.
His survey was delivered to the Lord* «( the Treasury in
ISKIJ. and in the following year the Commission WHS ap-
pointed. Of the works committed to their superintendence
Telford observes that 'the whole of Scotland. In
southern boundary, near Carlisle, to the northern extremity
of Caithness, ana from Aberdeenshire on the east 10 the
Argyleshire islands on the west, has been intersected by
roads; its largest rivers, and even inferior streams, ironed
by bridges : and all this in the space of twenty-live \
under the same board, and (with some few exception!
the same individual Comm. and all this was
under the direction of Telford alone. The pi-.i
rations under this Commission embraced about a tho
miles of new road, with twelve hundred bridges, in a moun-
tainous and stormy region, of which five only, according
to Telford's narrative, have required to be renewed. It
should be explained that the operations of the Commission
were not confined to the objects defined in its title, but
embraced also the Glasgow and Carlisle road ; the Lanark-
shire roads; the improvement of several harbours, of which
the principal are those of Peterhead, Banff'. Frazcrburgh,
Fortrose, Cullen, and Kirkwall ; and the erection of several
Highland churches and manses under a parliamentary
grant of 1823. Nor were these Highland churches and
manses the only buildings in which Telfonl acted as an
architect ; he had, many years previously, erected a church
at Bridgenorth, from his own design.
In the improvements of the great road from London to
Holyhead, under another parliamentary Commission, ap-
pointed in 1«1;~>, Telford had a further opportunity of
carrying into effect his system of road-making, of which
an account is given under ROAD, vol. xx., p. 2!t. Sec. This
road, and the works connected with it. is probably the
most perfect specimen of Telford's skill as an engineer,
and appears to have been regarded by him with much
satisfaction. The Menai suspension-bridge, especially,
is a noble example of his boldness in designing and prac-
tical skill in executing a work of novel and difficult cha-
racter : it is described under MENAI BRIDGK, vol. x\ .. p. 91,
and SrspKNsioN-Bunx.K. vol. xxiii., pp. :r.H-.Y
Among the other works of Telford are many bridges ot
considerable size, in which he adopted the important prin-
ciple of making the spandrils hollow, and supporting the
roadway upon slabs laid upon longitudinal walls, instead
of filling up the haunches with a mass of loose rubbish,
which may press very injuriously upon the arch, and often
proves of serious inconvenience when the masonry of tin-
bridge needs any repair. He employed this mode of con-
struction in a large arch, of 112 feet span, erected uvcr
the Dee, near Kirkcudbright, in 18)).-. and I8IK). and in
many subsequent bridges. In his ' Life' will be found
particulars of the ingenious alteration of Glasgow old
bridge, by the addition of a projecting footpath of east-
iron on each side, so as to leave the whole width of the
stone structure for carriages: and of the new bridge
designed by him for crossing the ( 'lyde at Glasgow, and
commenced in 1833: of the light and elegant Dean bridge,
at Edinburgh ; Path-head bridge, of live arches of "Ml feet
span, over a ravine about eleven miles south of Kdinhurgh ;
Morpeth bridge : Tewkesbnry bridge, erected between
1823 and 182fi, with a light iron arch of 170 feet span and
only 1" feet rise ; the Over bridge at Gloucester, and many
others. The last-mentioned bridge lias an arch of peculiar
form, previously employed by Perronet in the Neuilly
bridge. The general body of the arch is an elliptical
curv e of 15)1 feet span and 35 feet rise, but the external arch
stones ut the sides of the bridge form scgmcnlal CUP
the same span, but of only 13 feet rise: the two arches
are coincident at the crown, and are connected by a
vaulted form on the haunches of the bridge. • This com-
plex form.' observes Telford, ' converts each side of the
vault of the arch into the shape of the entrance of a pipe,
to suit the contracted passage of a fluid ; thus lessening
the flat surface opposed to the current of the river when-
ever the tide or upland tlood rises above the springing of
the- middle of the ellipse, lhal being at four feet above
low-water: a precaution rendered nee.v-sary in this in-
stance owing to the liability of the bridge to vcTy trying
floods.'
TEL
169
TEL
Telford executed some important harbour-works at
Aberdeen and Dundee ; but his most striking performance
of this class is the St. Katherine Docks, London. Owing
to the very limited space which could be obtained, it was
necessary to construct these docks of irregular forms, and to
adopt unusual arrangements respecting the warehouses ;
and these arrangements, combined witli the admirable
machinery employed, have reduced the time requisite for
unloading a vessel in an astonishing degree.* There are two
docks, communicating with the river by a tide-lock 180 feet
long and 45 feet wide, with three pair of gates, so that
either one very large or two smaller vessels may pass the
lock at one time : and steam-engines are provided, capable
of filling the locks in a few minutes by pumping water
from the middle of the river, so that vessels are enabled to
pass in and out of the docks with great rapidity so long as
there is a sufficient depth of water to receive them outside
the lock. The cast-iron turn-bridge over this lock is an
excellent specimen of that kind of machinery, being easily
worked by two persons at each end, although it supports a
carriage-way 24 feet wide. These docks were constructed
much more quickly than is usual for works of such magni-
tude, and more quickly than the engineer could fully approve,
although he admitted the urgency of the case as a justifica-
tion of a course against which he could not but enter his
protest. One of the very latest engagements of Telford
u:i> the survey of Dover harbour, undertaken, in January,
1834, at the request of the duke of Wellington, us warden
of the Cinque Ports, with a \ii",v to the adoption of
measures to check the accumulation of shingle at the
entrance.
In addition to the works which he executed himself,
Telford was frequently applied to for his judgment upon
important schemes, and in this way he made many reports
to parliament. For many years he was employed to re-
port upon all public works of engineering character for
which loans were required of the Exchequer Loan Com-
missioners. Among his reports are several of considerable
interest, especially upon proposed canals between London
and Birmingham, and between the Knglish and Bristol
Channels, and on the supply of water to the metropolis,
one of the last objects to which he devoted his atten-
tion. For some years before his death he had gradually
declined as much as possible forming new engagements,
and had made preparations for the publication of such
a selection from hi* papers as might leave on record
an authentic account of the important works in which
for more than half a century he had been engaged.
Having made arrangements with his executors for the
completion of his work in case he should not live to finish
it, he set about it with ardour, and had many of the plates
completed, the manuscript in a very forward state, and
arrangements made respecting the paper, type, &c. before
his death. The book was not published until 1838, chiefly
owing to the illness and death of Mr. Turrell.the engraver,
and the difficulty of getting the plates completed. It
forms a thick 4to. volume, entitled 'Life of Thomas Tel-
ford, civil engineer, written by himself; containing a de-
scriptive Narrative of his Professional Labours ;' and it
contains a preface and supplement, by the editor, Mr.
Hickman. and a very copious appendix of illustrative re-
and other documents. The plates, eighty-three in
number, constitute a companion volume, in large folio, to
which is prefixed a line portrait of Telford, engraved by
W. Haddon, from a picture by S. Lane. From this work
the materials of the preceding notice of his principal works
are chiefly derived ; and from the supplementary notice, by-
Mr. Hickman, and some other sources, are collected the
following additional biographical particulars.
Before leaving his native district, Telford acquired some
distinction as a poet. He wrote in the homely style of
Ramsay and Fergusson, and contributed small pieces to
Huddiman's ' Weekly Magazine,' under tin: signature of
' Eskdale Tarn.' He wrote a short poem, entitled ' Ksk-
dale,' descriptive of the scenes of his early years, which was
originally published in a provincial miscellany, sub-
ited at Shrewsbury, at the request of his
friends, and afterwards incited in the appendix to his Life.
Another pleading fragment of his composition is given at
the end of the first volume of Dr. Curne's ' Life and Works
of Burns,' published at Liverpool in 1800 : it is an extract
• S<—. for mi
No. I,V. nf I,. i
I- '
mint, a nnri-r on 'The Doc!<«,' forming
from a poetical epistle sent by Telford, when at Shrews-
bury, to the Ayrshire poet, recommending him to take up
other subjects of a serious nature, similar to the ' Cottar's
Saturday Night.' He taught himself Latin, French, Ita-
lian, and German, so as to read them all with facility, and
to converse readily in French ; and he has left valuable
contributions to engineering literature, in the articles Ar-
chitecture, Bridge, Civil Architecture, and Inland Naviga-
tion, in Brewster's 'Edinburgh Encyclopaedia,' in which
work Mr. Rickman says he was a shareholder. He was
well acquainted with algebra, but he held mathematical
investigation in rather low estimation. In his early years
he appears to have been tinctured with democratic opinions ;
but after seeing the excesses of the French revolution, he
always studiously avoided conversing on political subjects.
In all the relations of life he commanded respect and
esteem ; and he was particularly remarkable for his facility
of access to the deserving, and especially for his ready
communication of professional information to foreigners ;
a circumstance which, added to his connection with the
Gotha canal and some other continental works, procured
for him the highest respect on the continent of Europe.
The Russian government frequently applied to him for
advice respecting the construction of roads and canals ;
and the sixty-seventh plate in his atlas represents the
details of a road designed by him from Warsaw to the
Russian frontier. The emperor Alexander of Russia
acknowledged his sense of his sen-ices on one occasion,
in 1808, by sending him a diamond ring with a suitable
inscription. Although he was not connected with the
Institution of Civil Engineers at its formation, he accepted
their invitation in 1820, and became their president ;
and from that time he was unremitting in his attention to
the duties of the office, having become, by his partial re-
tirement from .business, a pretty regular resident in the
metropolis. He ardently loved his profession, and was,
observes Mr. Rickman, so energetic in any task before him,
that all other motives became subordinate to it. He never
married, and hardly had a fixed habitation until a late
period of life. He was of athletic form, and reached the
age of seventy without any serious illness; but in 1827 he
was afflicted with a severe and painful disorder, after which
he became subject to bilious attacks, under one of which
he died, on the 2nd of September,. 1834, at. his residence in
Abingdon Street, Westminster, at the age of seventy-seven.
He was buried in Westminster Abbey. The acquisition of
property was always a secondary consideration with Tel-
ford; and in certain cases, especially of abortive specula-
tions, he was ingenious in finding arguments for giving his
assistance gratuitously. Even in increasing his charges as
his reputation and experience increased the value of his
services, he seems to have been actuated chiefly by a sense
of what was due to others in his profession, whose remu-
neration was in some degree dependent upon his own.
After his mother's death he had few family connections to
provide for, and he had a great objection to raising any
individual above his station in life, which is stated by his
biographer as his reason for not leaving his property to re-
lations. His will, printed in the appendix to his ' Life,' pro-
vides for the payment of handsome legacies to many per-
sonal friends ; of 2000/. to provide annual premiums to be
given by the Institution of Civil Engineers; and of 1000/.
each in trust to the ministers of Westerkirk and Langholm,
for the purchase of books for the parish libraries. His
scientific books, prints, drawings, &c.,are bequeathed to
the Institution of Civil Engineers. Telford became a
fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1803, and of
that of England in 1827.
(Life, edited by Rickman ; Chambers'.-* fv.-ittti.ih Biogra-
phical Dictionary ; Annual Biography, vol. xix.)
TKLINGA or TELUGU LANGUAGE. [HINDUSTAN,
]). 22!).]
TELL, WILLIAM, a simple countryman of the village
of Burglen near Altorf in Switzerland, who lived towards the
end of the thirteenth and during the first half of the fourteenth
century. His early life is unknown, and his name would
probably never have been heard of in history, if the tyranny
of the Austrians had not called him from his obscurity.
At the beginning of the fourteenth century, when Albert I.
of Austria was endeavouring to suppress the spirit of free-
dnm and independence in the three Waldstadte, Uri,
Sc.hwyz, and Unterwalden, and was using every means to
add them to his family estates, he sent bailiffs 'Lamlvogte)
T F, I.
170
TEL
who perpetrated the most tlai-rant acts
ted the people 111; -alion.
Ihree Waldfttiidlo. iii I3U7, formed
headed h>
abtmt its (ruth
Danish kins
:nilar
Gramma-
n ooimt 01
prominent part in
uhmllv .-i
had married « daitiri
thu league, though uithoiit takin
it. Till1 object n! these men wa
ti) inrn-iiM' their number*, Mini '
op|M>rtiiiii1y lor delivering thci
ii-id :mnn Oes*-
ler 111' 'I'll 1.. \\1\
Hilton of I'ri. alter
> mer \c\;;ln.us act», caused tin- dura I lint of Austria to be
\ltorl'. and com-
manded ti .anted the polo should un-
liis lii'iul ; ^pectfoM: i Aus-
tria. William Toll with Ins little boy happened one day
1o paw tlie pole without paying any regard to the ordois
ol'lhv haiiilt : and he was immediately aeiied and (alien
before Gcssicr. Tell had tho reputation of beinfr an excel-
lent hti-.vmaii, and ti.-s-.li-r ilevised a mode ol' ))iinislnnent
whioh should put his skill ton severe test. Ho oi
Toll's boy to be placed at a considerable distance from his
lather, and an apple to bo tixed on his head. A on
and arrows were handed to Tell, who, withoi.1. beincr
.ed. contrived to iret two arrows, and lie was ordered
to shoot the apple from his own child's head. Tin
added, that if lie mi-.scd the apple, he should die. Tell
Miccet-ded in hitting: the apple, Gorier had expected that
Toll would kill en hurt his child, and in his disappointment
hi: tiled to lind out some pretext for pnnishintr the pre-
sumptuous peasant : he asked him why he had taken a
Tell boldly replied : ' It was intended for
Ihoe. n the lir.st had hit my child.' The Imilitf. delighted
with this opportunity of satisfying his veneeanee. ordered
Tell In be hound and to be conveyed in it bunt acro-> the
lake ol \Va!dstadteii to the castlc'a: .(.the resi-
douee of Ge.'-sier. who himself accompanied his pn-
tlie boat was on Iho lake, a storm arose, winch be-
came so violent, that tho i i- imahle to n>
the boat, and proposed t to unfetter To,
allow him to assist them, as he was known to be an ex-
perienced boatman and well acquainted with every part of
the lake. Tell wa- freed from his fetters, and talcing the '.
rudder in his hand, he steered ihe boat towards a part of
• eky shore, where a Mat shelf jutted out into Ihe lake.
When ho was near this spot, he seized his bow. jumped
upon the projecting rook, and with his foot pushed the
boat back into the waters. The storm however was abat-
inir. and ' 1 his men wore safely landed. Tell
know the road by which the bailiff1 bad to pass to Kiix-
imeht, and lay in wait for him in a narrow defile. When
GMsl' Toll shot him through the heart. This
happened towards the end of the year l:j()7. Tin
was followed by a serie-, of wais between the S\\iss
and the Austriuns, whir.h did not terminate till ihe year
1499.
The conduct of Tell was hiirhiy il
friends, as they wished to avo. Land w ere not
yet pi. -pared to cany their plan- -tmn. Alter this
adventure '; i-ito his former obscurity. t
said to h.i • |iart in tin- battle of Morgart en,
and to ha\e perished, in KtV>, in the river Sehiiohen during
Tell ha* been repr-
libertv. by historians a- v, .
if looked into more closely, will ap|iear in si ill I: •
His refusal to pay homage 1o Ihe dncal hat of A I
indeed owintr to a noblw iudepend-. - rit ; but his
obeyini; the inhuman command of Gessler to shoot the
app|e from his child's b.
teohnirs, n
him«-lf.
although in a moMure An net
'ir.-u instances, yet in the manner of I!;
Jittle bettor than murder.
lint tin. truth of the story of Tell, notwilh-tandintr it*
bang i'onunein<
other pi..
modern hifltaciMitf^ v
von Miiller, refrard it Mk gWrtMMwMMy. Tlic M06
. that in t
••id publisli
(' I'rlumdcii •/,
I t here is no mention of si Gessl
'1 in the t
ns, Grimm mid Ideler I /'
story. It
•
t the Lrronndwork <it' the
]irocessions to \isil tin-
spot where Tell had . in the boat. r\n<l li-
the ea ' the eelelirated olisipel of Tel
the same spot, and it is stated t
thsit year there were one hundred a-. n who had
known Tell himself. His adventure is moreover told to
mo effect by all the chroniclers who
after the alleirecl time of the ooeurronce.
TKT.I.KK. \\I1.11K1.M AUKAHAM. son of Romamis
Teller, minister of St. Thomas's ehr.rch : !
born in that city, ilth .lamiary, 1~H!
age of twenty-two he attracted Ihe at tent ion ol i i . I
Srieal world by a Latin Irnnslation of Konnieott on tho
n Text : and sifter beinir for a year or t«
at the Nioolai church, very unexpectedly I tin-
aii]Hiiutment of professor of thoolotrv at Helmstiidt, from
the Duke of Hmnswiek. in 1701. On enterinz ii])on his
new office, he published ns an inaugural disputation his
•Topice Soriptnrsi'," vhich was considered by Suporinleiu!-
ant Hahrdt so heterodox in its opinions, that it was with
difficulty he could he prevailed upon not to pro:.
Teller's appointment. Not del 01 red by this cin-imi ••
from expressing his own convictions. Teller published not
lonsr afterwards his • Lohrbuch des < hrist lichen Glaubens." a
production that caused no little noise at the time, excitintr
violent disapprobation in some quarters, and obtaining
him friends in others, .hist before this work appear.
Iwd been invited to accept the professorship <>i
at Halle, then vacant by the death of liaumirarten. and lie
deelined it out of rezard towards his patron the Duke. Hi.'
the persecution he continued to experience from tin
whom his opinions had rendered him obnoxious i
his re-idence at Helmstiidt so disagreeable, that i!
without the least reluctance he ' it. about throe
years afterwards. 17'i~. for Herlin. with the appoinfnii
•Obeii -Kath' and Dean of Coloirne. While it
ill him from their immediate nltsieks. the distin
red upon '
4MMUMkt and nt the same lime he him
ringu
He
•I duti
to applv to his tl
continued
'ti in
The \a--l number of sermons and va:
publii
(heolot,'ical writinjrs published by him. a' test not only his in-
dustry, bnl •;.. inline reh
although 1 •'. '-vailed ;
•lid those '.
upon "ts than upon i
the
the
the
• iction to the founer.' ()•
teacher of vi-!iiri<m. but as a man — i
in private life than in bis public
in Himself that conduct v
ihem.
nnd
• mol.iy h'-
; for though he
n'st M|I to the time 0
ntly worn out in bod-.
T E L
171
TEL
faculties continued active to the last. He died at Berlin,
December 8, 1804. (Jorden's l,i'xi<-oi>. i
TELLERS OF THE EXCHEQUER were the holders
of an antient office in the Exchequer. They were lour in
number : their duties were to receive money payable into
the Exchequer on behalf of the king, to give the clerk of
the pells i skins or rolls of parchment) a bill of receipt for
the money, to pay all money according to the warrant of
the auditor of receipts, and to make weekly and yearly
books of receipts and payments for the lord treasurer.
I ///s/.. IDS ; Com. Di<r., tit. ' Court.' D. 4, 14, 15.) The
office was abolished by act of parliament (4 & 5 Wm. IV.,
e. f5i, together with that of the clerk of the pells and the
tl offices subordinate thereto, and a new constitution
'lished, a eomptioller-general of the receipt and issue
of his Majesty's Exchequer being appointed to perform
the duties of the four tellers. 4 & 5 \Vm. IV., c. 13.)
TELLEZ, BALTHEZAR, a native of Lisbon, was born,
according to the statement of M. Weiss, in the • Biographic'
Vniverselle,' in the year 1595. Moreri states that he
joined the Society of Jesus in the year 1010. In the eulo-
gistic letter of Dom Francisco Manoel, prefixed to Tellez's
• History of Ethiopia,' he is said i at least this seems to
be the writer's meaning, which his affected style renders
rather obscure . to have studied t<;n years, and taught foity :
. t- paid attention to literature during the whole ten
year.-, of hi. < areer as student, but devoted two of them
more especially to philosophy, and four of them lo
theoloiry. He lectured upon ln-lh'x /-tires for twenty
liing in succession the most advanced literary
s in the Society's colleges at Braira, Evora, Lisbon,
and Coimbra. He lectured two years on philosophy, but
Mauoel does not mention in what seminary. Lastly, Tel-
lez was eight years professor of theology in the college of
St. Antonio at Lisbon. At, a later period he was appointed
master of the house of the professed Jesuits in Lisbon,
and ultimately provincial of the order in Portugal. He
died in his eightieth year, on the 10th of April, 1(>75.
The published works of Tellez are : — 1, A compendium of
philosophy, entitled ' Summa Uni\ ersae Philosophise, cum
•rionilms quae inter Philosophos agitantur,' published
at Lisbon, in folio, in 1042; at Paris, in two quarto vo-
lumes, in 1044: and at Lisbon, in four octavo volumes, in
Iii52: 2. ' Chronica da Companhia de Jesus da Provincia
da Portugal,' in two volumes, the first published in 1045,
the second in 104s, both at Lisbon : 3. ' Historic
'liiopia a alta,' in one folio volume, ul Coimbra, in
1000. He is also said to have lelt in MS. a history of the
aUmrs in tile East. The historical works of
Tellez are of more value than his philosophical ti<
The History of the Jesuits in Portugal is a valuable con-
tribution to the history of that accomplished and energetic
order. The ' History of Ethiopia,' or, more properly, the
history of the Jesuit-Minions in Ethiopia, is indispensable
to any one who wishes to study the history or comparative
aphy of Abyssinia. The first book contains an
nc of the geography of Abyssinia, of its political
divisions, government, and statistics, as they existed from
the time that the Jesuit missionaries first entered the
kingdom till their expulsion under Facilidas. The remain-
ing five books are chiefly occupied wfth the narrative of
unary enterprise, but contain important contributions
to geography, the general accuracy of which has, on the
whole, been confirmed by the testimony of later travellers.
Iivthe preface Tellez gives an account of the authorities
from whom he has compiled his book, Manoel d'Almeyda,
Atfonso Mendes, .Teronymo Lobo. and Pero Pays ; and he
availed himself of their information both with taste
and judgment.
i"The authority statement* in this sketch are the
• History of Ethiopia,' with the preface by Telle/ himself,
and the letter of Francisco Manoel prefixed to it: the
: Balthezar Tellez. in the • Bibliothcca Scrip-
• • of Nicolao Antonio, in the • l)ieiio:inaii-,
of Louis Moreri, and in the ' Biographic
TKLL I CHERRY. [HINDUS-TAX, p. 207; MAI.ABAH, p.
:M2.1
M'VA. [C'ONCHACKA, vol. vii., pp. 428, 429.]
i.l.I'MDKS. [CONCHACEA, vol. vii., p. 428.]
TKLLU'RHJM, a metal which was discovered in
by Mi'illcr t,i K ... but its properties were
minutely examined by Klaproth sixteen years afterwards, '
and he gave it the name it now bears. It is a scarce
metal. Its properties are the following: — its colour is
silver-white, and it is very brilliant : it is crystalline and
brittle, of a lamellar fracture, easily pulverized, and a worse
conductor of electricity than antimony or bismuth. Its
specific gravity, according to Klaproth, is 0-115, while
Magnus makes it 0-137,9. Ii is nearly as fusible as anti-
mony, and at a high temperature it boils, and may be
distilled. When strongly heated in contact with air, it
burns with a lively blue flame, green at the borders, and
forms a white vapour, which has an acid odour.
The principal ores of tellurium are the following : —
Xitfirn Tellurium. — It is found crystallized and masshe.
Primary form a rhomboid; occurs in minute six-sided
prisms, the terminal edges of which are usually replaced.
Cleavage parallel to the faces of the prism. Fiaclure in-
distinct. Hardness : scratches sulphate of lime, and in
scratched by the carbonate. Easily frangible. Colour tin-
white or steel-grey. Lustre metallic. Specific gravity
57 to 0-1 15.
Before the blowpipe very fusible, burns with a greenish
flame, and is volatilized in a white vapour. It is soluble
in hydrochloric acid.
MaMfff I 'urifty. — -.Granular. . Colour splendent tin-
white. Lustre metallic. Opaque, Specific, gravity 0-115.
It occurs in Transylvania.
Klaproth's analysis gives, —
Tellurium . . 92 -55
Iron . . . 7-20
Gold . 0-25
100-
'//•• 'ji/iii- Tr Hurt n in. Aiirn-iii-^'-iiliffrniix Tellurium. —
Occurs cryitallized. Primary form a right rhombic prism ;
occurs in attached flattened cry.-tals, which are generally
minute. Fracture uneven. Hardness: scratches talc, and
• atched by calcareous spar. It is brittle. Colour
;rey. Lustre metallic. Opaque. Specific gravity
'
Before the blowpipe it readily fuses into a globule, and
iced to a metallic button of a brisrh! yellow colour.
Soluble in nitric acid, except a. yellow metallic residue.
It occurs accompanying gold in narrow veins traversing
porphyry at Oii'enbanya, and also at Xagyau', in Transyl-
vania.
Analysis by
Klii|itnth,
00
Tellurium . .
Gold ..... :«>
Silver ..... 10
Lead .......
Herr.fliiis.
02-
24.'
11-3
1-5
100 98-8
Berzelius found also a little sulphur, arsenic, antimony,
iron, and copper.
Yellow Tellurium.— Occurs in imbedded crystalline
laminae. Primary form a, right rhombic prism. Traces
of cleavage. Fracture uneven. Hardness: scratches
gypsum, and is scratched by calcareous spar. Rather
brittle. Colour silvery-white, inclining to brass-yellow.
Lustre metallic. Opaque. Specific gravity 10-078.
By the blowpipe melts into a metallic globule. Partly
soluble in nitric acid.
It occurs at Nagyag in Transylvania, and in the Altai
Mountains in Siberia.
Analysis by Klaproth : —
Tellurium 44-75
Gold
Lead .
Silver .
Sulphur
20-75
19-50
8-50
0-50
100-
Jl/iir/; Ti-lliirinm. — Occurs crystallized, and in imbedded
foliated masses. Primary form a square prism. C'lea
parallel to the terminal plane, in thin flexible laminii'.
Fracture indistinct. Hardness: scratches talc, and i;
scratched by gypsum. Colour dark lead-grey. Lustre
metallic. Opaque. Specific gravity 7'tH"3.
liefoiv the blowpipe is fusible on charcoal, and cover*
'h oxide of lead ; reducible into a iru'y metallic
, uhirh eventual!) lca\cs a button of gold.
li.iind at. Nagyag and Ofienbiuiya. in Trail > i\ ama.
TEL
T E M
Analysis of the ore from Nagyag
Tellurium
Lead
Gold
Silver
Copper
1 jihur .
by Kmprolh :
:«••.:
r.i-it
9-0
(>•:>
!•:»
8-0
KM)'
Brandos and Berthier have also analyzed this ore from
NacyAg : tlujir results differ considerably from the above,
and 'also from each other.
linmutfiic Tellurium. Trlluret nf Bismuth. — Occurs
'ilizcd in small six-sided prisms. Cleavage )
to'the liiiM- <>!' the prism. Fracture indistinct. Hardness :
he* calcareous ~pai. and is snatched hv fluor-spar.
Ciilo\ir stccl-irrey or zinc-white, Lustre metallic.
cifio eravitv 7'*i
Fusible by the blowpipe, and disengages the odour of
selenium. Acted on by nitric acid, anal the solution is
precipitated by water.
It is found in Norway.
Analysis of Wehrle : —
Tellurium ..... 34-6
Bismuth ..... 60-0
Sulphur and traces of selenium . 4-K
90-4
We shall now describe the more important binary com-
pounds of tellurium, beginning with
Oxygen anil Trlluriuin. — It has been already mentioned
that when tellurium is heated in contact with air, it
burns, and a white %apour is formed : this is oxide of tel-
lurium. or tellurous acid. It may also be obtained by
the action of nitric acid on the metal; by adding water to
the solution, part of the oxide is precipitated, and <he,
remainder is obtained by evaporation to dryncss. The
properties of this substance, are, that it is a white granular
anhydrous powder, which slowly reddens moist litmus-
paper, and is insoluble in water and acids. It is dissolved
by a solution of potash or soda, and by fusing with their
carbonates ervstallizable salts are formed : when th'
decomposed by acids, hydrated telh'rous acid is precipi-
tated, which, it' washed with very cold water, and dried at
iiperature not above 5:1°, may be preserved without
tutt'crinar change, and is soluble in water, acids, ammonia,
and the alkaline carbonates, which last it decomposes : the
aqueous solution reddens litmus-paper: when zinc, tin,
and some other metals are left in a solution of tin
they deoxidize it, and metallic tellurium is precipitated in
tho state of a black powder. Its salts are called tellurites.
It is composed of —
One equivalent of oxygen . . 8
One equivalent of tellurium . . :)'J
Equivalent . . 40
liiioxide of Tellurium, or Tell urir. Acid.— This is ob-
tained: by fusing tellurous acid with nitrate of potash : by
this it is oxidized completely, and the result is tcllurate of
potash : when chloride of barium is added to it, telluratc
of barytes is precipitated, which, being decomposed by
sulphuric acid, yields a solution of telluric acid : thi's
yields hexagonal crystals of |hc acid: it acts but feebly
as» an acid, the dilute solution reddening litmus-paper
with difficulty, and its taste is rather metallic than sour-
the i utain water, two-thirds of which th
at about 212", and the remainder below a red heat be-
comes a mass of a fine orange colour, which is completely
insoluble in water, either cold or boilinir. or hot hydro-
chloric or nitric acids, or solution of potash. Ii is d.-'i om-
posed at a high temperature, and converted into a white
powder, which is tellurous acid. Its salts are called lel-
12
It consists of
One and a half equivalent of oxygen
One equivalent ol tellurium ...
Equivalent ... 44
trogen and Tellurium. — When tellurium is alloyec
by fusion with tin or zinc, and the compound is acted upon
by hydrochloric acid, the hydrogen of the decomposed acic
dissolves tellurium, and telluretted hydrogen gas is ob-
tained. Thi» ga» has a smell somewhat resembling tha
if Indrosulphuric acid : it is soluble in water, forming a
•laid ' ohitiMii ; and. as it j,,,^,..^,.., ncj,| p,
U.it has been culled hvdrotelhine acid.
my metal!
ellurium with the other metal. 01
LTcn uf the air, all take the
iimim.
It coiisi-ts of
One equivalent of hydrogen
One equivalent of tellurium
ie, nitric acid, and
'in the U'l-
1
Equivalent . . 33
nnil Trlluriuin form two compounds. When
a feeble current of chlorite -rd o\er tellurium at
a hi lib temperature, the dicliloiide i
a violet-coloured vapour, which -at first into a
black liquid, and eventually into nc colour.
It is decomposed \i\ the action of water into metalli
lurium, which is precipitated, and chloride of tellurium
remains in solution.
It is comprised of
One equivalent of chlorine . . :!(i
Two equivalents of tellurium . . M
Equivalent . . 100
The C/t/nriilc nf Tellurium is obtained, as abo\e si
by the action of water on the dichloride, but is bettc:
cured by passing a larger quantiU of chloric
lurium at a lower temperature than in forming the dichlo-
ride. It is volatile, and any excess of chloi
rated by agitation with mercury and rectification, a white
crystalline solid is obtained, which is composed of
One 'equivalent of chlorine
One equivalent of tellurium . . .TJ
Equivalent . . 68
Sii/jifii/r mid Tellurium combine in two proportions : the
sulphurct is obtained when hydrosulphuric acid i.
passed through a solution of chloride of tellurium, tefluroua
acid, or of a soluble telhuite. It is of a dark brown colour,
and is soluble in a solution of potash. It is form
One equivalent of sulphur . . n>
One equivalent of tellurium . . '.\-
Ei|nivalent
•IS
PerntlphuTet nf Tellurium is obtained by mixing a
solution of persulphuret of potassium with one of .
of telluric acid. It is of a deep yellow colour ; but
a very unstable compound, for it speedily becomes black,
and is converted into protosulphuret.
TELOPHO'NUS, Mr. Swainson's name for a genus of
iMiiiunrr [SHRIKES, vol. xxi., p. 410], which he thus cha-
racterises : —
Bill more lengthened (than in I*iniux', sliglrtlv ho.
the tooth smaller. Wing-, very short and rounded. Tail
icned, graduated. Liitcia! . the innei
slightly shorter than the outer.
Example, Telo]'/>ni>n* taicogrammfcut.
Hilt of Trloplionm Iciiciwr.iiniiiirui. (S»., l'!,:nijicatiim i/Birdl, \u\. ii.)
TELUGUorTKIJXCA LANGUAGE, film.-,
••
TdMMASO, an architect who is belter
known by his writing n'lati\e to Ins art than by the build-
. hich he executed, was the son of an architect, and
phew of another an-lnlecl and
was born at Venice in 17n.~>. Having iim-
matical .studies in tho school of 1'. mini
and the eminent Man !,,-,• 1'oleni, he wa-* ajipointed —
although then only twenty-two — one of the a-sistants. in
the Commission Of Engineer*, and in 1742 became the
chief of that body on Bernardino /••?!-
drini, a few years before' the latter's death (1747). His
share in the hydraulic commission caused him for awhile
to be involved in literary disputes, he having otl'endcd Hie
people of Padua by a publication entitled -Dell aiilico
Corso clc' Fiumi in I'udova e suoi Contorni ;' wherein he
asserts that their mice-tors had attempted to turn the
T E M
173
T E M
course of the Brenta. As an architect he had not many
opportunities afforded him, for the period of Venetian
grandeur and enterprise in art had passed away. lie was
however employed to execute one of the very few public
edifices of any kind erected at Venice in the last century,
namely the church of La Maddrfena, a structure of the
Ionic order, and which, though it may be said to be com-
paratively pure, is also somewhat feeble and insipid in
design. 'His other principal architectural works are — the
facade of Santa Margherita, at Padua ; the Rotunda at
Piazzolo, built at the expense of the Contarini family ;
and the bridge over the Brenta at Dolo. It is as a writer
that Temanza is chiefly known, more especially by his
• Vitede'piuEc'cellenti Architetti e Scultori Veneziani,'4to.,
Yen., 177N : which is one of the most copious as well as
-•.iritten works of the kind, not on account of the
number of lives it contains, it being in that respect
scanty, but for the unusual extent at which they are
given. In fact several of them, Palladio, Sansovino, &c.,
had previously been published separately. Besides this
literary production — an important contribution 1o archi-
tectural biography,— he published the ' Antichitl di Ri-
mini,' folio, 1741 ; and left behind him another work,
' Degli Archi e delle Volte, e delle Regole generali dell'
Architettura Civile,' which -was first edited in 1811. There
are likewise a great many letters by him on architectural
topics in Ticozzi'* edition of Bottari's ' Raccolta di Lettere
Milla Pittura.' &c.
Teraanza died at Venice, June 14, 1789. and was buried
in his own church of La Maddelena. There is a portrait of
him in Gamba's ' Gallt-ria d'Uomini Illustri,' to which
work, and to C'omolli's • Bibliografia Storia Critica dell'
Architettura Chile,' we are indebted for some of the par-
ticulars here given.
TEME. [SHROPSHIRE.]
TEMESWAR, THE BANAT OF, is one of the finest
and most remarkable portions of Hungary, comprehending
(he counties of Torontal, Temcs, and Krassova, and the
German and \Vallacho-Illyrian districts. These two dis-
tricts are sometimes not considered as part of the Banat.
The area of the whole is 11,340 square miles, and the popu-
lation is said to be above a million ; lint, there is no part of
the Austrian empire the population of which it is so dif-
ficult to ascertain as that of Hungary. It is bounded on
the north by the Maros, separating it from the counties of
Aiiui, Csongrad, and C:-anad ; on the west it is separated
by the river "Theiss from the counties of Csongrad and Bacs,
and the Czaisk district, and by the Danube from Slavonia ;
on the south by the Danube from Servia ; and on the east
by the Cserna, and the offsets of the Carpathians, extend-
ing from Transylvania, from Little Wallachia, and Tran-
sylvania. The- Magyars comprehended it in the mili-
tary district of Kant. It was a frontier province against
the Wallachians, the Bulgarians, and the Turks. The
latter however got possession of it in 1552, and retained it
till 1710; when, in consequence of the victories of Prince
Eugene, it was restored to Austria by the treaty of Passa-
vowitz in 1718. Under the disorderly rule of the Turks,
the country was overrun with banditti, so that many parts
were nearly uninhabited and desert. Field-Marshal Count
Francis Mercy d'Argenteau, who was appointed governor,
and died in 1734, and Baron Engelshoi'en, his successor,
exerted themselves to improve it by inviting numerous
colonists from Germany, Italy, and France, building towns
and villages, establishing manufactories, and erecting forts.
But the Turkish war being renewed in 1737, many of thest
establishments were ruined, and a great number of the
foreign colonists quitted the country. When pea*
restored, numbers of Servians, Rascians, Macedonians,
and Bulgarians, came from the Turkish provinces, bringing
their property with them. In 17">- the covcnimr:
ii'Oni the military to the civil form, and, with the
exception of a temporary check during the Seven Veins
war, the progress of improvement in this province has been
constant.
The Banat is remarkable for the great varieties of cli
mate : in many parts the snow on the high mountains
and in the deep ravines never melts, and in other parts
it falls only in severe winters. A third part of the countri
M mountainous, and almost everywhere well watered. The
ground which has been gained by draining the morasses
on the banks of the Theiss and the Danube, and in the
more elevated tracts by clearing the old forests, is ex
remely fruitful. In the middle of the two military fron-
ier districts lies the most extensive sandy tract in the
(vhole Austrian empire, in which there are however many
oases. The principal points of the high mountains are
Sarko, Gugu, Muraru, and Godjan ; on the lower moun-
ains there are vast forests and fine pastures. The prin-
cipal rivers are the Danube, Theiss, Maros, Kiiros, Neray,
femes, and Bega. In 1748 and the following years
canals were made in order to drain the marshes : the
mncipal of these is the Bega canal, 75 miles in length,
vhich traverses the whole of the counties of Ternes and
forcntal, and is conducted into the Theiss. By the
draining of the marshes, tracts which in the latter half
ot the last century were stagnant pools, the source of
pestilential exhalations, are now covered with the finest
corn-fields, or, where they have been imperfectly reclaimed,
with crops of rice, and the salubrity of the country has
jeen greatly improved. The protection which the moun-
:ains give against the east and north-east winds, and the
mitigation which the north winds experience in traversing
;he great plain, raise the temperature to that of a southern
country, and the rich soil yields abundant crops. The
wheat and maize of the Banat are of the finest quality.
Rice is extensively cultivated. Successful attempts have
aeen made to cultivate cotton and silk, and in some parts
a sweet wine is produced. There is no part of Hungary
in which colonization has been attended with such favour-
able results by the settlement of industrious foreigners as
the Banat, where there is still so much uncultivated land,
and where, with the exception of some marshy tracts, the
climate is very healthy. Mineral springs are frequent,
but little use is made of them. Only those of Me-
liadia, which were known to the Romans by the name of
Tlirriiire Hurculis, arc still much resorted to, especially by
the Wallachian and Moldavian nobles. About this place,
as well as in other parts of the Banat, Roman antiquities
are frequently found. The population of the Banat, which
is continually increasing by the accession of foreign set-
tlers, consists chiefly of Wallachians, Rascians, Bulgarians,
gypsies, Germans, Jews, French, Italians, and other
foreign settlers : among whom, in the mountainous districts,
the Wallachian language is prevalent; in the towns and
colonised plains, the German ; and in the districts of the
military frontier, the Illyrian. The natural productions
are horses, horned cattle, swine, wheat, maize, rice, flax,
hemp, tobacco, fruit, wine, woad, madder, saifron, silk,
timber, honey : game of all kinds and fish abound. The
minerals are gold, silver, copper, zinc, and some iron.
The gold is obtained by the gypsies, by washing the sand
of the rivers. Between 4000 and 5000 workmen, chiefly
Wallachians, are employed in the mines. The chief occu-
pations of the inhabitants are agriculture and the breeding
of cattle. There are no manufactures. The county of
Temeswar, as has been stated, is one of the three included
in the Banat, and needs no separate description. A circle
of the county bears the same name.
TEMESWAR, the capital of the Banat and of the county,
is a royal free city, situated in 45" 45' N. lat. and 21° 10' E.
long., at the confluence of the Temes and the Bega, and on
the Bega canal, in a part of the country which is rendered
unhealthy by the stagnant waters in the vicinity. It is one
of the strongest fortresses and one of the handsomest and
most regular towns in the whole Austrian empire. While
the town was in the possession of the Turks it. consisted of
only a few houses and1 an old castle, which is still habit-
able. When Prince Eugene made himself master of it in
1718, the strong fortifications were erected as a bulwark
against the Turks, and the town was built in the modern
style. The inner town, or fortress, is surrounded with
triple walls and moats, and consists of large uniform stone
houses, in straight, broad, well-paved streets. There are
•_':tte>. the Vienna, Peterwardien, and Transylvania
gales, which are defended by strong blockhouses. The
casemates are capable of containing 3000 men. Temeswar
is the seat of the Roman Catholic bishop of Csanad, with
his chapter and seminary, and of the schismatic Greek
bishop of Temeswar : here too are the court of justice for
the uiree covmties, the offices of the governor of the
fortress and of the commander of the Banat military
frontier, a military academy, a great arsenal, and many
other offices connected with the military and civil ad-
ministration. The most remarkable buildings are — 1, the
old strong castle of John Hunyady, built of freestone, the
T ]•: M
only relic of the autieiit Tenics : 2, tJ\e churches viz. the I
.•it hie cathedral of St. George, bclon. * hi- j
.-hopric ofCsunad.theealhedr.il of t'
the Ki-nunCatlmlic parish church, tb.
-emiimn, : :l, the elegant of the
bishop of Caan >g in which
the c -ides, the I nunander of the
military frontier on the parade, the large and handsome
county' hall in the great square, the -he military
and civil hospital-, t town-hall,
which contains the theatre and the assembly-rooms. Some
of the churches were formerly Turkish mo-
."•.*.ir has three suburbs, one before each g-.r
the di ith tine avenues of Trees |,
to them Uefore the Vienna gate is the suburb M,
inhabited by Walluchian-. who have their own chn,
and whose occupations are agriculture and the breeding of
cattle. Uefore the IVterwnrdien g;.' '•', an
..int suburb, with very broad straight streets,
•.-•>es planted in front of the nouses. Many wealthy
families reside here in the summer to enjoy the country, and
formerly to avoid the fevers that usually' prevailed i:i tin-
town, but which have greatly abated since the surround-
ing marshes have been drained. The inhabitants of this
.suburb are Germans. The tine Uega canal passes through
the middle of this suburb, and communicates with tin-
Danube. Before the Transylvania gate lies the manu-
facturing suburb i I''iilink'-n \'nr^lmlr. so called from the
great manufactories that were formerly established here,
but most of which were broken up in \~:t*. v. hen a Turkish
war was apprehended ; the suburb however retains its
name. The Turkish merchants have their ward
here. In this suburb there is a curious hydraulic engine,
by means of which water I in iron pipes under-
ground into the fortress: the inhabitants are chiefly K:i.—
cians. There is A considerable trade at Temeswar in the
productions of the country, and some niamil'actn
cloth, paper, iron-wire, and silk. The population of the
fortress is about :«KH) ; and that of the whole town, in-
cluding the suburbs, 13,000, besides the garrison.
(Brockhaus, Conversations Lf.rirnn -. Jenny. Handbuch
tiirReitftideindemO«iterreichi*'-fit n AWw/V./n/r ;Thiele,
lii\<-lif .\nliiiiiiil
flutist ik lien !• \iscken
Kaitertnumt ; ^•hn-ilxni-j. r«n I /• _
Joseph von Hammer. Getckickte i/e.v < txintimxi-i
Hittoritch-Statiftischtr ' • » der (>•
chtn Monarohie. These two last works are anonymous.
-ein; Hlumenbach ; Horschelmann ; and Can-
nabich.)
MIA. Le Variant's name for a genus of IJTSKS-.,
or perching birds, which, Cuvicr observes, M. Vicillot h;is
changed into Cri//ixiri>ni, and Dr. Horstield into /'hrenp-
.vhil.-t M.Tcinminck arranges them undtt Qktvcopis.
(Jnvior remarks, that these birds have the carriage' and
tail of the magpies, an elevated bill with the upper mandi-
ble convex, and the base furnished with velvety fcathcis.
nearly as in the HIRDS OK PARADISH. The species most
antiently known is, he observes, the ('nri-ux rurinnx of
Latham, which is of a brou/ed green colour, and found in
India and Africa. Cuvier places the genus between Caryo-
catactts [NUTCHACKKR] a; /j/.v.
Mr. Swainson arranges Cryjuirin" in the subfamily
' ilnurnpintf, or \Vattle-Oows, in his Cln^ifiratinn nf
Hinlx ; but in ' .••ii-nnn. he had made
i 'iitfitirints a subfamily. In the Claxst/ir.ation, the L'enus
ii situated at the head of the (ilnui-njiiiiii-. and is imme-
diately succeeded by /'• Sw.
Mr. Swainson thus characterise* Cry
Hill shorter than the head, m
17 i 'i K M
unequal; hind toe and • -. tlie
ia i and T-uii'a are
men eomidcrably arched. a<ul •
trils small, bawl, concealed b
trnn : —
'lewed; the cul-
nt i> ailu-r-. winch
•••. nun h n,
ate either toft or setaceous. Wings -•
the primaries hardly longer Ihan the si-coni'
feather* broad ami •• • »rcal. Tin
middle toe and claw short, but as long as the tarsus;
lion o) tti
. and
thus (i
ujxin it in i
pies, -tautlv
hood,
and not e\i:,
gated tail.
food ; whe i
and r
ground, in which they aim
This s]iei'i' widely distiibuted :
congenei-s, being found inconsiderable abundan
India.
' The head, neck, and crc.-t are of a MHI:\C colour or a
blackish-grey j the back light cinnairKi",
the w ii the quills :
tawny : the hca -i black. Length lu'$ in,
beak 1J ; tarsi 1|; tail 10 inches.'
Ptem V«!r»!.ui>d». (Ootild.)
Dr.
of his I'hr,
riant as the .-\ i
('lii-lsi! i the
I liitl in .la-.
iiliar.nnd never
i . 1 1 1 o n s 1 1 K i
near solitary h:.
(dr.)
dantlynuj •
and i
ice lit' 11'
slow : it is chief
(he air in a
openings in II, e f.irot. 1'
the r
insects.' (Zoo/'
It
in t
;ihun-
'' niould.
of the wings, its
-ailing heavily through
ing tho
.ih of the bill
on fruits and
r E M
175
T E M
Phrenociix TVroia. (HorsfJ
TEM\U'ivLTS. [TROCION-IIJ.E.]
TEMPK T;/JJTI;, called also Thessala or Thessalica or
Phthioticn Tempe) was the antient name of a beautiful
valley in Thessaly, lying between Mount Olympus on the
north and Mount Ossa on the south, near the mouth ol
the river Peneus, which runs through it. It is a narrow
glen, not quite five miles Ions, opening on the east into a
wide plain which extends to the Thermaic gulf. It forms
the only break in the great chain of mountains by which
Thessaly is enclosed on all sides. Antient tia
serted that tin- :;i (if The- it one time
covered with v cl by
the vale of Tempe, which was opened by a .stroke of Xcp-
tune's trident, other legend, by the
strength of Hercules. The appearance of the country has
led modern tiavellers to accept the mythical story as
meaning that 1 1 is opened at some period by a
great convul-ion of nature. The rocks which enclose it
n precipices from the bed of the I'eneus, and at the
narrowest point these pi eci piers approach so near each
other that the road is cut in the face of them.
The Greeks reverenced Tempe as the. place fiom which
Apollo tra. to Delphi his sacred laurel, and ad-
mired it a i their country. The
most vivid description of : Ifi.\t.,
iii. I -'i Ovid, M c. ; Li\ius,
xliv. G; Plin., Hint. .\nt.. k. . i., p.
379; the Tours of Clarke, Holland. Dodwell, and Gel);
and Thirhvall's ///*/. uf (;,vm;>. i.. p. 5.
TKMPKKAMKXT „>,/,„. K,,r,m: . is a .
and un^it. in, ljut Mill it is one which, as Dr.
May / ';/' Hi'' lliiinnn Mi ml, London,
I'Jui')., 1838, Append., p. 162), 'has for many centmi. s
been found a convenient generalization ; and, unless we
proposr tn sacrifice knowledge nt. the altar of logic, we
must still be contented to INC this or some other equally
indefinite term.' The word means literally " /<••////»•;•/'// ir,
'/n>r, and may be defined to lx> a peculiar
vm common to several individuals, which
: - from the various proportions in which the elemen-
tary part.-, of the human body are mixed HJ> tu^i'/ki'i-, and
which {fives rise to a 1cndc;ic\ to cerlaiu phenomena.
Then- is besides in each individual a further peculiarity of
combination, which serves to distinguish his temperament
from that of any other person, to whom however he may
in other respects bear a : •nblance. This indi-
vidual temperament is call .i/nmnty (i.e. u
li'ir i/uxi/in; together'}, and, as the two words are some-
confounded, it may be useful to have pointed out
the distinction between them. All the different, s\
of organs in the human frame are accurately adjusted
!i other, so as to produce one harmonious whole.
If the disproportion be too great, disease ensues; but
are many gradations, compatible with health, where
:is disproportion is very observable. Tin; prcdomi-
of any particular system of organs modifies the
whole economy, imprests striking differences on the re-
••'_'>mi/a1ion, and lias ]ierhaps almost a,
an influence on the moral and intellectual as on the
physical 1.' This pn (luminance establishes the
temperament : it is the cause of it, and constifut.-s its
e«*ence. The antients paid considerable attention (o the
*ubject of temperaments, and pointed out various pecu-
liarities in the constitution and actions of the human body,
which have been seen so far to coincide with general ob-
servation, that their nomenclature has continued in very
sreneral use even to the present clay, although the hypo-
thesis on which it was founded is universally discarded.
They described four temperaments corresponding to the
four qualities of Hippocrates— hot, cold, moist, and dry.
It was supposed that there were four corresponding primary
components of the human body, namely, blood («!/*«),
phlegm or pituita (^X^a), and the two kinds of bile (oi
Mo x<>X<n)> yellow bile (|av0>) %oXij), and black bile or atra-
bilis (piXaiva xoXjj) ; and the preponderance of one or
other of these components in different persons produced
the different temperaments. These four primary principles
of living bodies were supposed to be compounded of the
simple elements or qualities of nature thus : hot and moist
produce blood; cold and moist, phlegm or pituita; hot
and dry, yellow bile : and cold and dry, black bile. Bodies
in which blood superabounds are of the sanguine tempera-
ment ; if phlegm is in excess, the phlegmatic tempera-
ment is developed ; if yellow bile, the choleric ; and if
black bile, the melancholic or atrabilious temperament.
The following is the description of the different tempera-
ments given by Paulus Aegineta (l)e llt< Mtdii-ti, lib. i.,
cap. (il ;,in Mr. Ad a m's Translation (London, 1834, 8vo.): —
' Those bodies which are of a hotter temperament than
the moderate will have their teeth earlier than usual, and
will Lrrow in like manner. They feel warmer to the touch,
and have less fat ; they are of a ruddy colour, and have
their hair black and moderately thick, and their veins are
larsre. But if such a one be al.o fat and brawny, and have
larsri- \cins. lie is fat from habit, and not from nature.
The following are the symptoms of a cold temperament :
such bodies appear cold to the touch, are without hair, and
are fat: their complexion, like their hair, being tawny.
But when the coldness is great, they are pale, leaden-
coloured, and have small veins; and if lean, this does not
proceed from nature, but habit. The dry is harder and
more slender than the temperate, the hardness indeed
being inseparable from the dry temperament ; but lean-
ness not only follows the connate temperaments, but also
those which are acquired by long habit. It is peculiar to
the humid temperament that the body is oppressed by
thinjf-i of a moist nature. The warm and dry temperament,
in other words, the rfmleric, is extremely shagsry, having
the hair of the ht ad in early age of rapid growth, black,
and thick; but in after-life baldness follows. The veins
are large, as are likewise the arteries, which beat, strongly.
The whole body is firm, well articulated, muscular, and
without obesity ; and the skin hard and dark. When the
temperament "is cold and humid, or •jihl-^inntir, the chest
is narrow, and, like the rest of the body, without hairs;
the skin is soft and white, and its hairs somewhat tawny,
especially in youth ; and such pel-sons do not get bald
when they grow old : they are timid, spiritless, and inac-
tive; their \eins are invisible ; they are gross and fat;
their muscles and legs are feeble, and their joints ill-
formed ; and they are bandy-legged. But should the hu-
midity and coldness increase, the colour of their skin and
iiair becomes tawny, or, if they increase still more, pale.
The hot and humid, or sanguine, temperament is softer
and more fleshy than the proper, and. when it incn
much, is subject to putrid disorders ; but if it be only a
itfle more humid and much hotter than the moderate,
he bodies of such persons are only a little more soft and
leshy than the moderate, but they are much more hairy
and hotter to the touch. But if the cold and dry gTOfl
equally together, and form the melancholic, temperament,
such persons have naturally their bodies hard, slender, and
white, with fine muscles, small joints, and little hair; and
hey are cold to the touch. Although slender, fat is mixed
vith their flesh. The colour of their hair is correspondent
H the degree of constitutional coldness. As to disposition
if mind, they are spiritless, timid, and desponding. To
ay all in a word, with regard to the compound tempcra-
nents, they are always to be distinguished by the marks of
heprevailing quality.'
The due admixture of these different qualities was snp-
! to constitute the best form of temperament or con-
tiiution (liiapaaiaj, of which the following is Paulus
Veeineta'g description (Ibid., i. CO) :— ' That man is in the
>est temperament of body when it is in a medium between
all extremes, of leanness and obesity, of softness and hard-
T K M
176
T i: M
, of heat ami cold, of moisture and dryness : and, in a |
word, who has all the
leu rtate. II.- hair olio should tliin. ;
neither black nor white. When n hoy. his lor!,- should
be rather tawny than Marl,, but when an adult, thu con-
tran
ther information mpeetiag the opinion* of the an-
tients on the subject of tlie I. iound
in tli' • 'in. i.,
ed. Kiihn ; in (i;ilen'.s works, /'
torn, i., /' • •ti-iitis. torn. i..
i.im. iv.. l)r >' ab. v.,
torn. \i.. and hi- Arx .lA'i/icn. torn, i.; ( )ribasius. Synopsis,
lit), v., cap. Kl. sq. : I), iv..
"• i. sq' : Hal) A ., lib.i.; Avoir,
lib. \i.: Alsaharavius, Theor., tract, vi.; and Avi.
.•a.
Alter the revival of letters, this fourfold division was
adnp*- .is by all the most eminent
ph\>i,'lo:: .-• ingeniously adapted it to the modern
.! the humoral pathology : and even Hocrhauve,
although he ini-rcased the number of the temperaments to
relinquished the erroneous opinions of Hippo-
and (Jalen respecting the constitution of the blood,
'• still derived the characters of his temperament*
i'rom the principles of the humoral pathology, and sup-
posed them to he formed merely by different combination
of the four cardinal qualities. Many late physii.1
have been inclined to doubt whether the external cha-
racters associated with the four temperaments are real and
nit signs of diversity in bodily structure, and enable
us to distinguish the principal varieties of constitution
which c\i-t. Several attempts have accordingly been
made to define in a more satisfactory manner the pecu-
liarities of organization and the resulting varieties of pre-
disposition, which arc chiefly interesting with regard to
patnolosry. Hoffmann and Cullen have indeed retained
the old division, supposing that the. theory of the antients
as to the peculiarities of constitution was founded origi-
nally upon facts, thouirh subsequently combined with an
erroneous theory. Haller seems to have been the first
who decidedly opposed the antient doctrine, not only by
showing that there was no foundation for the varieties of
the temperaments in the peculiar nature of the fluids, but
by substituting in their place the vital actions of the
system. Darwin proceeded upon the principle of Haller;
and, in conformity with the hypothesis which he adopted
of reducing these actions to the four heads of irritation.
sensation, volition, and association, he formed four tem-
peraments in which these qualities were supposed re-
spectively to prevail. The only attempt however to im-
prove upon the Hippocralic theory and division which has
been attended with any degree of success is that
Gregory, who to the four temperaments of the aniients
added a fifth, which he called the urn-nil*, and bestowed
upon three of the others the new appellations of the tnnir,
the rrltt.rml, and iniixi-ul'tr temperaments. Dr. Prichard
however restricts the number to four, and d. agnates tin m
by their original names; remarking that onlv tour strongly
marked diversities nf external character present themselves
to observation ; that the nerve •< is not so
di-tiniruished ; and that lli. -enlial part
of the original scheme for the distribution of tempera-
ments, the improvement, proposed by Dr. Gregory is lame
and defective. The- then of external cha-
really indicate, more or lc<s constantly, well marked
(hlli .ition, and likewise of morbid predis-
position. There is no doubt that peisons having the com-
plexion and oil sanguine temperament are
more liable to certain classes of disorders than the phleg-
matic or melancholic, while the latter have their own
peculiar tendencies. Tin in:: a fullv
loped vascular structure, and therefore a • ircula-
tion.of blood, a warm skin, and a hinh <!•
feasibility, arc more liable to ! im-
pressions from external agents than •
•vital function-. They are suhj"ct in a r
•everc inflammatory
are in them more acute : they bear howi than
persons of more languid habit, evacuation* Of blood and
the other measures which are found to 1 <T re-
medics for these diseases. The greater fulness of mood-
veswls. Of tho-r at least which air near I .-. the
greater warmth of the skin, and the floii ! ion of
reason to believe that the d
;!ns temperament i- not wholly unfounded.
\\ e 1 1 .
.iges (tothn which are tcii!i<
in the force of circulation through
the arteiir.-. Individuals of the phlegmatic tempeiamcnt
are j.i. . i-ing from, or conn
with, u low degree of vital en. r-y. Local congestions of
blood arising independent !v of general excitement .
under this . Glandular and tubercular di--,
take place in bodies weak in the structures conn.
with the vital functions, and are perhaps m :it in
the phlegmatic than in other temperaments. Inflamma-
tory complaints, when th, the phk-
less acute and more disposed lot, miniate in chrome
eases than are th. .lution, win
the latter have I
The relations of the choleric to
inent are similar to the relations which the ]
bears to the saniruine ; the former di-
both in health and disease, than the lattW. The chi
and saniruine. when affected by diseases of the nervous
system, have complaints of greater violence and acute-
ne.--: mania or raving madness belongs particular!',
cording to the oh-ervalions of M. Ksqnirol and "man)
others) to these constitutions. The melancholic tem
ment is most prone to monomania, attended with d'
sion and melancholy illusions. Hypoc-bondi!
more frequently affects the phlegmatic and in.
though it is occa.sionally observed in persons
some of the external characters of the sanguine tem
ment. The mo nf hvpochondriasis, adds
Dr. Prichard, and those which approached most nearly to
the character of melancholia, 1 :ilyoccun
individuals of a dark leaden complexion, fixed and sullen
aspect, and lank coal-black hair.
But it is not merely on the body, both in its healthy
and morbid state, that the temperament •-. im-
portant, influence: the relation of the different Fon
physical organization to the intellectual, and even to the
moral, faculties is equally marked and apparent,
lion of mental peculiarities to the structure of the
d by medical authors of every age, and it
has been stated and 'explained in different v. ;iv>. I!
crates said that • the -amc in all men, but that
the body is different in different individuals. The soul is
like itself both in greater and in less, for it und. :
change neither by nature nor by necessity; but the body
.:rct to continual alterations. — The affections of tin'
mind depend upon the body; there are many stairs of thu
latter which sharpen, and many which obtund it.' (Hipp.,
Hi- /'/r/iJv lt,i/i.,,i,', lib.i.. } 21, torn, i., p. (J50.<
mpcritus, in a letter said to have been addressed by him to
Hippocrates, asserted that ' the intelligence of the mind
depends greatly on the body, the diseases of which ol
the mental faculties, and draw the latter into con
(Hipp., Kfiiat., torn. in., p. 821.) Among t!
of Galen there is a tivati-e entitled <jm,i! ./',.
ata Mtiiiiuitiir (torn, iv., ed. Kiihn),
written expressly to establish the connection between the
ins and desires of the mind and the temperaments.
- handled the subject \ny il
and 1 profound views, of the :t;
economy. But it is in the works of modern writer* that
we find'this doctrine mo-t fully developed, and made a
foundation for a division of human charact Tiling
to II .tt'mann. the choleric tempeianu'tit by pccnlian
organizatio men to precipitate
conduct, tn :r.iu'< r. audacitv. iinpatirncr, tel
sedition, and the like. ()n the other hand th.'
"id tlirou^h tin the mem
which is the result of its cias-itude in mclancholi-
such persons timid, slow in bu.-inr-s. an\
with difficulty of forming or uttering opinions. Th.
happier tem].
Me. A too abundai - the
] hleirinalie to be Ia7y, somnolent, and torjiid
temperaments qualifj .(nations in lie,..
Melancholic men, says Hoffmann, should be the king's
ministn- and conns.
appointed ^enei:
ductors of all bn ; di-patcli .
qnaliti
T E M
177
T E M
plaining of its inconvenient effects in deranging his tem-
per, is said by M. Segur to have added, ' Oependant sans
<~ette mauclite bile on ne gagne pas de grandes batailles.'
-aiine men, continues the writer above mentioned, are
•fit for courtiers ; but individuals who have the misfortune
to be of the phlegmatic temperament, being quite incom-
petent to any elevated condition, must be made common
•soMiers or labourers, and condemned to the lowest em-
ployments. (De Teiripi'ntnii'tttri l-'ii>i<l<tmp>ito Morborum,
i) 10, quoted by Dr. Prichard.) It is extremely improba-
ble that an opinion should have held its ground for so
many ages among men of observation, especially on a
subject requiring no abstruse research, without some foun-
dation at least in fact. The doctrine of temperaments is
true to a certain extent, and has ever been confirmed by
an appeal to experience. States of the mind are so con-
nected with affections of the body, that it is impossible for
any ptrson who considers all the physiological facts that
present themselves in connection with this subject to
doubt that with each temperament particular mental
qualities must be associated, although it is manifest that
many writers have indulged their fancy on this subject,
and have gone into more full and minute details than
experience will establish. Tile same may be said of phre-
nology, with which science the doctrine of the tempera-
• is in this point of view closely connected, as modi-
fying in some degree the intellectual and moral qualities
rganization of the brain. This very
: subject is di<cu--i'd at some length in Dr.
Prichard's article on ' Temperament' in tli
\[i><lii-ine, from which most of flic preceding i
•vations are taken. See also Bostock, Richerand. and Miil-
ler's works on Physiology, and other writers there quoted.
UPF.KA.MKXT. ""[Tt-MM;.]
TEMPERATURE. [ ATMOSPHERE; CLIMATE; Iso-
THKKM U. ].:
TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH. [GEOLOGY, p.
133.]
TEMPERATURE. It is intended under this head to
notice the law of the variations of temperature on the
earth so far only as to indicate its analogy with that of
the variations of terrestrial magnetism ; the formula' cx-
ng the mean temperatures at different places being,
BS yet, very far from affording satisfactory results, and ob-
servations being too few to serve as a basis for correct
theory. In CLIMATE there are given some general ob-
•linns concerning the distribution of heat at the sur-
oi'the earth, and under ISOTHERMAL LINES there will
be found the estimated values of the mean temperatures
at the equator and at the geographical north pole. \Vith
respect to the former, it may be said to have been tolerably
well determined, and to be nearly uniform quito round the
world ; but the mean temperature at the pole can only be
surmised from the uncertain evidence afforded by an ap-
plication of the formula of temperature which has been
found to hold good in the north of Europe, and a correc-
•ounded on an estimated amount of the frigorifir: in-
fluence of ice : even the determination thus obtained is
rendered still further uncertain by the fact that the de-
•• of temperature in proceeding from the equator
northv. iird-i is different on meridians which differ con-
ily in lonn
Before this difference of temperature on the same
parallel of latitude in the old and new continent
known or regarded, a simple formula was thought suffi-
cient to express the temperature at any parallel of terres-
trial latitude. The celebrated Tobias Mayer, from such
mean temperatures as had in bis time been observed,
found that the temperature t (on Fahrenheit's ,,eale) at
anyplace might be represented byT — 5'2° sin.-' L, where T
is the mean temperature :it the equator, and L the geo-
graphical latitude of flu; place; and in 1810 M. l.'.Mibuisson
('Trait*: dei e ') proposed the more
/ = 27° cos.' L (centigrade scale) ; which being wlaptrd to
Fahrenheit's scale, considering the mean tem.
the equator to be 81°, becomes 32°-r-49° cos.8 I.. This
formula ha.s been found to serve for temperatures in
Europe a.s far north a.s the latitude of 00° ; but. I
para!' less, and it supposes the temperature at the
to be 32°, which is much too high.
;n above 4(HX) observations which were made by Sir
K'lv Harbour, in 74°
•qy N. lat.. and in long. 250° (110° \V. long.), the mean
P. t'., No. 15Ki.
temperature is as low as 1-33° ; and from above 600 ob-
servations at Spitzbergen (78° N. lat.) Mr.' Scoresty found
the*mean temperature to be 10'99° : a mean temperature
of 17° is also found on the American continent, in 65°
N. lat. ; and hence it may be inferred that, between the
parallels of G5° and 78°, and near the meridian of Winter
Island, there exists a pole of minimum temperature. The
mean temperatures of places in the eastern parts of Asia
have not been well ascertained ; but since at North Cape
in Lapland the mean temperature is that of freezing
water, and in Siberia, as low as the parallel of GO0 N. lat.,
the surface of the ground is constantly frozen, it is evi-
dent that the isothermal line of 32° must form a curve about
some point as a focus in the northern part of the Asiatic
continent : hence, for determining the mean temperature
of any place, no formula which does not involve the posi-
tion of the place with respect to the two foci of coldness
can be expected to satisfy the phenomena.
This circumstance has suggested to Sir David Brewster
the formula T = (f— T) sin." S sin." t'+r for the mean
temperature at any place : T being that temperature, t
the mean temperature at the equator, T the temperature at
each of the foci of coldness, and S, I', the distances in de-
grees between the given place and those foci. A corre-
sponding expression will serve to determine the number of
vibrations which would be performed by a magnetized
needle in a given time if t and r be made to represent the
numbers performed, in an equal time, at the magnetic
equator and at either of the poles of magnetic intensity :
the exponent n, both for temperature and intensity, is to
be determined by means of observations, and Brewster
considers that the fraction g may be the value of it in
the formula for temperature.
The similarity of character which is presented by the
isothermal lines and those of magnetic dip and intensity,
with respect to two polar points in one hemisphere of the
earth, and the fact that the poles of temperature and mag-
netism lie nearly in the same parts of the world, cannot
fail to suggest the idea that tiiere may be a connection
between the temperature and magnetism of the earth. It
is generally believed, also, that the temperature of the
western parts of Europe is now higher than it was nearly
two thousand years since ; and it has, hence, been inferred
that the poles of minimum temperature perform revolu-
tions about the geographical pole of the earth, so that the
terrestrial meridian on which the greatest cold prevails
gradually changes its position. If this opinion be well
founded, the circumstance will afford another argument
in favour of the hypothesis which assigns to the tempera-
ture and magnetism of the earth an intimate connection
with each other, by its correspondence to those motions of
the poles of magnetic dip which have been adduced from
observations by M. llansteen. [TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.]
A^ the nit iin temperature at the surface of the earth U
an element of great importance in the present state of
physical science, it has been strongly recommended to
travellers and persons making distant voyages, if they
sre to remain only a few days at any place, that they
should, on arriving, lose no time in burying in the earth,
to the depth of from three to twelve feet, according to the
power of pi into the soil, bottles filled with water,
or with spirits, if there should be any danger of water
freezing. These bottles should be packed in boxe- stuffed
with woollen cloths, pounded charcoal, or any other non-
conducting material, and should be allowed to remain
underground till the time of departure, in order that they
may acquire, as accurately as possible, the temperature of
the ground. On being taken up, the temperature of the
liquid should be ascertained by a good thermometer in-
i ill the bottle.
TEMPERATURE OF PLANTS. The living processes
by which heat is so evidently developed in animals go on,
though much less actively, in plants, and give to them a
peculiar temperature, independent of the air in which they
The periods at which an increase in the temperature
of plants has been most evidently observed are those of
germination, flowering, and impregnation ; but it is only
,• those chemical changes which produce In at. are
more active during the performance of those functions
that the heat becomes more evident. The great cause of
the development of heat in animals is the union or com-
bustion of carbon with oxygen, which is constantly taking
place during the process of nutrition in the various tissues of
VOL. XXIV.-2 A
T I,
178
the wuimtt fnxly. Tl
' : * (
-< .1.:
up from t;
mini'
•.-able 1<) it- enuiiiation,
which is evidently an analogous pri-
ft Vr, Nan, anil Goeppert have conducted
a variety ol' experiments on tin' temperature of plants.
found that in winter the parts that were nut
., hiirher temperature than the .surroundini: air: this
iimch inure remarkably tile case in !.iit in
summer the temperature of the plant v. below
that ol' the sunoundini; air. These experiments are in
accordance with what we know to lie the de\e-
lopmcnt of heat in more highly ois;animl textures. In
wuiter the vital process oi' |'!a>its are slow or almost
suspended : hence (lie small increase of temperature at that
•i. In the sprinir. the proc
and there is the greatest cot, nntiiti\e matter
into the structure of the plant, and it is
the vcar that the ten i the plant is highest abo\e
me surrounding air: hut in summer the heat of the air
lie? jjreater, and the temp Mie plant is Kept
that of the atmosphere b_\ 11] am which is
illy troint: on from all parts of ,
Vvelopment of heat during germination the
at take place are in. • starch or
: rounding the youiiff plant is • into
process 1:i urouirh the sepai ation
\yiren in the form oi ."id, \vhieh,
dnnnir their union, give out heat. A lamilia,
this j <<\ the increased lie;1.1
barley previous to its beini: dried to ruin,
The increase of heat isn ! still in the flu1,
. which, according to Dnnal, i MI the
of a ccitain } , in the
and petals of the plant int. r the niitiii
the antheis a:id ouilcs i I, The in;
heat of the llowcrs of p
their development v, ;•
in M
; 'ouch ; and i
that tlie. \rurn cordifolinm __
This led Bory St. Vincent t
on this plant, in which he found a\cry hiiri
heat developed din-ins; its flpwerinsr, \vhii-h was sometimes
7" higher than the sn ie. The !'
of the Arum tribe are vei ly constni'
'pment and retention of heat ; 'but all flowers. ]ne-
to the full di ' of their anthers and the
ion of impregnation, un>!> which
increase of temperature.
n r/u/M>:i. ii. ; and LimlleyV
idlini; plants she found
eh warmer than others.
TKMPKKINC '
TKMl'KSTA. A.vn>\lo.;,
nimal jiainter and
d Italian battle and
nintlng
manv
XIII
o. tin
• imc
chiefly at Hoi;
•nd
line
III-
style of h.
painti - tho.se in the \
Slefano Rotondo, at Home ; and two and
.ion-, executed for th-
ai-omul the luiiiric o;
Monte (.'avnllo : afterwards Pal
aeeonlinsi to his biographer and con'
sufficient to
lion if he had never painted anything else. '
sented
(Jrand Turk. Tempi
these subjects. His invention v.
.-n eipialled bi
>iu'iis. Aci Icllini, 'JV.
and about ."MM ha\ .
xither masters. He iJ-. il after other ma-sUrs him-
self; he executed some battles, and -in
Spanish story of 'The Seven Twin Sons of !
Otho \'eniu.s : Kilibien, in his • Kr.tretiens sur K
plus c'-lebics Peintres.' has related the storj at length, and
has described the subject of each plate.
Tempcsta's style of etching is peculiar and
f.ble : and although his designs are bold. M:
pand parts, they are hea\). his style of di
com])oM|jo'i '. and his !
disposed without la.ste: his most val
bunts and field-sports, and his studies of t if hi*
other pieces the following are anion:;- ti:
most celebiated : —
: of I'll) illustrations to the Old
• Tempcsta's lii!,1
and the Apos.Ho-
over the Amah
hitis repu
d. but very confused of Si. Ar.
,:om (hi<l'.s ' Melani
13 of the Labours of H ind 7 of the •-
Wonders of the Anticnt \Vorld. He etched many eaval-
the follow i
much in bis own si vie to be faithful rcprc-cnta1
oriirinals : — Ca.-tor and Pollux, and :
d the ennc.strian sta1
the Capitol, at Home; the eipiestiian slati
by John of 15ol< 'orence : thai of Henry I1
oycd in 17
Henry II. of France. The last .statue
ure of Louis Mil. was placed upon the
-. hich "a- originally designed for a statue ol Henry
II., wl incut. Tempesia's juint
-cription : • l-',Hi.
Dan. liicci, Voltcrrani, fieri jussit K.
-ii-i, (jui ol
Lupithae, bj Tempesta, was <'iit in a
'«•. AS a man Teni|
his contemporary I!airh<
,
npi . i lit; li.st of
des
.<•.. and in the •
TI-'.1. <\\\ ALII '
'.nown in
: : uf a
name, and was born at Haw-
Muh<
COtlfl
T E M
179
T E M
.era in 1037. He was called Tempesta through his skill
in painting sea-storms and similar subjects, in which lie
was excellent, and in some respects rivalled Backhuyzen :
he was also nearly equally excellent as an animal painter,
especially of wild animals, and some have said that had he
remained in his own country and pursued entirely such
subjects, he would have rivalled Rubens and Snyders in
that department. There is yet another comparison to
make respecting him ; he rivalled, or perhaps surpassed,
the infamous Castagno in moral depravity. Pascoli, who
has written an account oi' Ternpesta in his ' Lives of the
Painters,' &c., says that his father wa.s a merchant, and that
he intended to bring up his son to his own bus,
young Peter was however naturally so fond of drawing,
that when a bov, instead of eoing to school, he used, un-
known to his parents, to spend his time in sketching upon j
the sea-side, sometimes drawing the sea and shipping oft' :
the coast, and at others cattle grazing near the shore.
He was eventually allowed to take his own course, but
nature appears to have been his only or at least chief master.
After painting with great success in various cities of the
Netherlands, he became acquainted at Antwerp, in about,
his 30th year, with a monk of the barefooted Carme
who converted him from Calvinism, in which he had been
brought up, to Popery, and Tempesta was thence strongly
induced to make a journev to Rome. At Rome he found
a valuable patron in the ])tike Bracciano, and !
was beyond his expectation*. He received so many orders
I'm pictures, that he was obliged to eniphu - : and
the sister of one of these, his favourite, known as Tem-
;'), became his wife. He however never appeals to
lived in creat amity with her, but the fault is said to
have been Tempesta's. The story of the deep tragedy
which followed is told differently by Pascoli, and the
writer in the ' Mut>eo Florentine,' in whirl) there is a Life of
Tempesta, but there is no discrepancy in their statements
of the main fact. Tempesta, made up hi.s mind to leave
Rome, it is said, in order to get rid of his wife, and he re-
:<m of the Duke Bracciano to depart : the
duke consented, but unwillingly, yet ho presented Teni-
with a cross and a chain of trold. and knighted him ,
1 his departure. Tempesta left Hume, ami pro-
mised to send for his wile ] : he
ound by Venice and Mila hort
stay, to Genoa. In Genoa he wi as he had
been at. Koine; but. soon after hi.s arrival lie !/.••
enamoured of a beautiful ('. !y. and being unable
to obtain possession of her except by marri?
solved upon marrying her, and he trot o\er tlir obstacle of
already having one wile in the following infamous man-
ner:- He dispatched a hir > to Home, with a let-
ter to hi.s wife, ordering her to accompany the bearer
immediately to Genoa : his wife, who knew her hu-;
character, and disliked the messenger, delayed yoin^. but
on a second summons from her husband she complied.
and commenced the fatal journey. The uufor'
woman was murdered by the ruffian, her companion, at
Sarzana. The affair wa.s not long a secret, and Tem-
. who must have already married the Genoese lady,
according to Pascoli, was arrested upon suspicion, was
tried, convicted, and condemned to death. The sentence
was however not carried into execution : Tempesta ob-
tained a respite, or, according to the other account, had
sufficient, interest to obtain a commutation of si"
from that of death to one of perpetual imprisonment.
Pascoli says he was set at liberty again, after remaining
five years in prison, through the intercession of the Count
di Mel gar, governor of Milan; according to the other
story, hi; obtained his liberty during the bombardment of
Genoa by Ixinis XIV.. when the prisons were thrown •
having suffered an imprisonment of sixteen
was however busily employed with his pencil durin
whole time, and he found it difficult to satisfy t]
for his pie'nri's. On recovering his liberty he went to
Milan, and there < stabhshed himself, where, throueh his
unenviable n </rcalcr than it
had been either at Rome or at Genoa. He
wasinthe a irrcat. income, lived in splendid style,
and even kept a p "lingerie, containing many
varieties of wild animals, solely for the purpose of painting
from i tlnm. II :,t \\n* period of his I:
conn u immorality, i>,r though <
ing the greatert afflurnco, he not only deserted his second
wife, but left her destitute, according to Pascoli ; yet how
such conduct could bo suffered by the laws is difficult to
understand. He had several mistresses, and he ac-
quired the cognomen of Mulier or de Mulieribus bv his
profligate habits ; Peter Mulier is the name by which he is
best known in Italy. As he grew old his powers of paint-
ing forsook him, and his means accordingly gradually di.-
minished, and as he was too improvident to make any
provision for his old age, his affairs became embarrassed
at the. end of his life. He died of a fever in 1701, aged
04, in a state of poverty when compared with his former
affluence. His pictures are numerous in the collections of
the north of Italy : those which he painted during his
imprisonment are generally accounted his best.
TEMPIO. [SAKDEGXA.]
TEMPLARS. KMGHTS TEMPLARS, or KNIGHTS
OF THE TEMPLE, are the popular designations for
the Brethren of the Temple of Solomon at Jerusalem, also
called the Soldiery of the Temple (Militia Templi) and the
Soldiers of Christ. The three great religious military Orders,
the Knights of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem
(commonly called the Knights Hospitallers), the Templars,
and the Teutonic Knights of St. Mary of Jerusalem (or
German Knights of the Cross), all originated in thfc
twelfth century ; 1he two former towards its commence-
ment, during the first crusade, the last not till near its
close. The founders of the Order of the Templars, which
is held to d»tc from the year 1118 or 1119, were nine
Knights, all French, of whom the two chief were Hugues
or de I'ligamV. and Geotfroi de St Om<
St. Ademar . One account makes all the nine to have
been previously members of the Order of St. John ; but. it
is at least doubtful if this was the case. At. nil events,
the Hospitallers were not yet n military order; their
distinguishing profession was to entertain pilgrims and to
attend the sick and wounded: the idea of adding'to the
three common vows of chaslih. and obcd!
iiragcment to fight against the infidels. :
been first put in practice by De Payens and his
brethren. Up to this time, when a knight entered the
society .• Hospitallers, he seems to h.ivc laid aside his
arms. i\oi probably did the nine Knights forming the
new ae at first contemplate either the extensively
military character which their order eventually assumed,
or even the establishment of an order which should
extend and perpetuate itself. Their original vow wa ,
simply to maintain free passage for the pilgrims
should \isit the Holy Land ; nor did the\ proceed to* ill
to their number till six or seven years afterthoir :
In another i> j their early condition and pretension:
were remarkably contrasted with their subsequent stale :
I his time Ihey made the greatest show of poverty,
even DC I'.iyeiis. who Master, ami hi.s friend DC
St. Onici. keeping only one horse between them, a cir-
cumstance commemorated in the seal of the order,
which represents two armed knights mounted one behind
the other on the same horse. At this their beginning,
indeed, the name which they took, and by which thej
were commonly known, was the Pauper soldiers (Puu-
iiilitones) of the Holy City; and they pro-
1 to have no source of subsistence but the alms
of the faithful. The king of Jerusalem, Baldwin II.,
save them their first place of residence, a part of his
palace; to which the abbot and canons of the church
and convent of the Temple, which stood adjoining, .added
another building for keeping their arms, whence they ac-
quired the name of Templars.
The new principle of their association, however, im-
mediately drew general attention ; so much so, that, in
113) the Hospitallers got their order remodelled by Pope
Calixtns II. on the same principle. The first regular em-
bodying of the Templars was by Honoiius If., trie suc-
alixt.ns, who in 1128 confirmed a rule, for them
which had been drawn up and decreed that same year 1>)
the Council of Troyes, on the requisition of Hugm
Payens and several of his brethren, who had conic to'
Europe for that purpose with strong recommendation*
from king Baldwin. Honoiius at. the Mime time, to dis-
tinguish them from the Hospitallers, who wen- arrayed ill
a blank mantle, assigned the brethren of Ihe. new order a
mantle for their peculiar dress, which they wore
plain till Eugcnius III., in 114(5, appointed them to wear
a red cross on the left breast, in imitation of the white
2A2
an ol
M
ii by th. !'
;>on Ih
. ' ItTtlt 1OI1
180
T E M
• a little later (li
:uul its iiitlucn
wli<i were not
:i£ .1* III.
.• Ill tin1 :'.
"ACrflll H both. Oil (Olid!'
9 i>( tin
^ .:'••• li:i'i)'.vll : ar.d 111 I'll- c .1 .. v ''M.i
.- and inn lowered upon it 1)) p.
• •( time it acquired ample ,
. iiuntry ol' Kuropc. At the head ol' Un-
order wa.-. tin1 MaMcr, or Giand-i;
HS Mugittrr), who v • r not only cU-cU-d by
tin- Chapter, or ireneral body ui' tin- Kni/h!-, but
much controlled hv tliat 1 .1 ini-
ujuli-r him hi-
i officers V . ^C.
Tin- several countries in Asia and Europe in which the
order had , .iiimnatcd Provinces; and
,if them v. :>' i-hiel'. •
inditfcrentU, a Grand Prior, Grand Preceptor, or 1'iovmcial
'.-. I'ndcr tile provincial master- were the 1
otherwise called Bailil's or Masters, who liail >
of one of tlie distiict.-. into which the province was divided ;
and finally, under the prioi- were ilie Prcccploi-.. e:ieh ol'
whom pic-idcd over a single house ol' the older (01
times over two or three adjoim v.hic.h were con-
sidered a.-, one establieboncnt), hence calli • ptory.
The head pro'. 'hat of Jerusalem : the affair- ol'
the order, in 1'aet. directed by
the ehapter of this province, whii-h \va.s invested ',
itulion with all the , al all
vh a cha, i uit a.-rtemblcd. The
I-prior of .Icru irer of the
order; and in thi.s piovince the grand--:
loiu: as tin1 (.'lirisliuns retained any footing in ti
:n the city of Jerusalem, from the oiis'in of th
till 1 1H7, w'iii'n :i ivas taken, and the kingdom
founded hy Godfrey of Bouillon put an end In, by Saladin ;
then (iifli'i H retirement of lour years to Antu.r
from 1101 till 1217; then at the'neuly -h; •; of the
Pil^, : 'a! rd on the sea-coa-,1 a few miles
north of ' 11 the fall .mJ the final ex-
tinction of the Latin iio'.ver in PaleMinr. in 1102. On
this the KniirhN took rel'iiLTe in the town of I.imi.v>o (other-
• ailed Limavi!, in Cypnis. The other provinces in
i-t were Tripolis and Antioeh : to which Cyprus, till
then included in one of these, was added after that Ulaml
became, the h. the order. The v
provinces were. Portugal. (.';i>tile and Leon. An:
imil Auverirne. Normandy. Acpiitaine or Poitou. Provence,
England (m which Scotland and Ireland v, ere included),
::my. rjiper a-:d Central Italy, Apulia, and Sicily.
For some time after i1 on the onVr of the
Teni])lars eonsi-ted exclusively of laymen. Hut in the
1 1(!2, the famous hull entitled •(liime Datum Opti-
mum.' is^ii''d l>y Pope Alexander III., anioni; other im-
portant privileges which it. 1» r, per-
mitted it i -phitual persons who
were not bound by piv \iont vows. ThcM' .spiritual nu'in-
fijains. They did i r take
the military vo ot only
'
in th' year in tin- hoii-i
nder an i: ••
i join th
1
•
•
'
in the
illy invited by their
pointed preceptor.-..
hediencc.
lie order in:
-brethieii however could not be iireeeptni
I lie hiL'he tile order. Latter!), :
the foiiiiei attending the kniirhts to ihi- ieldase^p..
us hundici-iiM- n
on the land- p to the order. The si
ol arms v, ; to Mini hv much
honourable' of the t • . and were treated with
much more consideration than the others; but both ap-
}K-ar to have been equally entitled to be present at i
: the ehapter, although it ma ..ined lliat
,1111: -brethren either \otetl or took purt ill
the deliberation*. The order also associated to itself many
peison> under the name of Affiliated Member*, who
no MIWS. as-umed no peculiar drew, nor becai:
to any duties or services: but. contimiin£r to pursue their
ordinary secular occupations merelv purchased enrolment
in the rank.- of the powerful nnd hiirhlyprix
of the Teui])le for the sake of the , and other
advantages, both temporal and spiritual, v
a mere nominal membcislnp i usureii.
prehended women a.s well as men. Finally. •
the l)<>i::it: and the i ililnti. consislinsr of children
r bv their - - rclation.-
also of persons of all ranks, both l.iity and i •'
without entering the order, pledged thei:
by it and to maintain its n
The history of the X mplars would cmbrnc
hi.-tory of the Wl insl the b
in thi' Ka>t for :;11 the time the. :ilish-
ii the order. For more than a him.:
lie Temple formed th.
portion ul - -. and almost every em
ter with the enemy boie testimony to their unequalled
prowess and daring. But, it may nevertheless be
tinned whether the establishment of this and the other
ilia military orders proved advantage"
-i -.erinirlv made to wrest the Hoi) Land
from the dominion of the Infidels. The Templars and
Hospitallers probably damaged and weakened the •
for which they fought, as much by their rivalry, jea-
jiiently open contention, a.s they aided
it by their valour. On SIM <\\ be-
tween the two order- :imke
them dcM-rt or withhold a^i-lauee frmn each other in the
•lest danirers, but even to throw one of them for the
time into concert with the common enemy.
.•h such charges have been h.".ji .
tiaied . ' liey can I,
luilled of treachery in son:
and the mo^t scandalous abandonment of their dut:
the public cause. Then, the immcn- nd worldly
'.vhich the Templai-s ill pailiciilar s,
r and spin! of
their institution was half a century old.
Within thi.' ,i the origin ol the urdei.
two at lea-t of the fom vows which the memlu :
tinuc'l ad become a mockery and a pi
i\ and eha-tity, they wen
p and pride, and the general I
•
ion, the extent to which it bid
milications in all d:
ivc lonir withstood tli
, within it, if it had not di
itself .-in a.-saidt from without hy which it could not
of the Tempi::
Th
IV.. suinained Li
iip, who c
Ull. |e, tl :..
III., wine,
:! V.itl,
with :
T E M
181
T E M
pontiff. His successor, Benedict XI., is supposed to have
been poisoned at the instigation of Philip. Benedict was
succeeded by Clement V., who is believed to have pur-
chased his elevation from Philip on condition, among other
compliances, of co-operating with him ia the destruction
of the Templars. This was in 1305. Obnoxious already
as the natural allies and defenders of the Holy See, and
tempting the attack of the needy and unscrupulous king
by their immense, possessions, these knights are also said
to have further irritated Philip about this time by their
suspected share in exciting an insurrection of the Parisians
against a debasement of the coinage, a practice which he
repeated so often in the course of his reign, that he ac-
quired for himself the name of the money-forger de faux-
monnoyeur).
In 1306 Jacques de Molay, the master of the Temple,
was drawn to Europe by a summons from the pope, who
professed a desire to consult with him on the expedi-
ency of a union of the two orders of the Templars and
the Hospitallers. The following year, while Molay was
at Paris, the first distinct accusations against the Tem-
plars were made by two individuals lying in prison
under sentence of death ; Squin de Fltxian. who had for-
merly been a member of the order and prior of Mont-
faucon, but had been ejected for heresy and other offences,
and a Florentine called Noffo Dei, also, according to one
account, a degiade.l Templar, by general admission a per-
son of the worst character. They made their revelations
to Philip himself, and were immediately liberated from
prison. Their • uputing to the order the
matic practice and encouragement of all sorts of secret
immoralities, as well as the -trangest confusion of heresy,
idolatry, and infidelity, arc far too absurd for examination.
Very soon after this, on the 12th of September. 1307, royal
letters were issued sealed to all the governors of towns
and other officers of the crown in authority throughout the
kingdom, and transmitted along with orders to them to arm
themselves and the persons under their command on that
day month, and then to open the letters in the night, and
to act as they should find themselves therein directed.
The result was that the next day nearly all the Templars
in France, DC Molay included, were in custody. Their
houses ainl goods were also even where seized; tli
stronghold of the Temple at Paris, the cl of the
order in that kingdom, was entcivd and taken pos-
of by Philip himself; and on the following day, the lf>th.
the university met there, and examined De Molay and some
other knights.
An act of accusation was forthwith published ; and
Philip at the same time wrote to the pope, and aljo to
the king of England, intimating what he had don. -
calling upon them to second him. Edward II. exy:
himself at first disinclined to believe what was said
:st the knights ; but on soon after receiving letters
;;ent, he yielded, and the English Templars
were also all seized and thrown into confinement about
the end of December. Meanwhile the examinations had
been going on in France under the direction of the king's
confessor, Imbert, a Dominican priest, and as such the
inveterate enemy of the order of the Templars. Con-
in many cases incredible from their inherent
were extracted from many of the knights at
Here by the ino-i I : the con-
fession was in numerous instjr.r 1 by a
recantation : but a ne\7 application of the wheel, or the
fire, to which the act exposed in some cases till
the roasted flesh dropped from i. their feet, gene-
rally made them repent th«'ir former testimony. This
on for many months. In August, 13ost, Clement,
whose very per-on Philip had now contrived to get com-
pli-ti-ly into his power, issued a bull, calling upon all Christian
princes and prelates to aid him in examining into the
of the order: and about the same time hi-- li-
nt ed a commission, consisting of the archbishop of
->nne and other prelates and dignitaries of the chinch,
to meet, at IVristotrytheca.se. This commission how-
'lid not commence its sittings till the 7th of A
l:«t:i. A few months later, examinations under j
deputed or nominated by the pope, commenced in Kng-
land and other countries. Altogether many hundreds of'
kniLr! \amined by these commissions during the
-I lu'll ; but. it. was only in I
when: torture was made use. of, that any admissions were
obtained of the crimes laid to the charge of the order, or
any at least that were not manifestly and undeniably un-
worthy of all regard. Even the Paris commission however
did not satisfy the impatience of Philip : on its requisition
a grestt 'number of knights had stood forward to defend the
order, among whom were several of those who had con-
fessed and afterwards retracted. Philip, having forced
the pope to nominate Philip de Maiigni, bishop of Cam-
biay, the brother of Enguerrand de Marigni, his prime-
minister, to the archbishopric of Sens, which had just,
become vacant, and then included the diocese of Paris,
got the new archbishop to convoke his provincial council
in the capital, on Sunday, the 10th of May, 1310; and
this body, on the \Vednesdaymorning following, had fifty-
four of the defenders of the order, who had formerly made
confession, brought out as 'relapsed heretics ' to a field
behind the abbey of St. Antoine, and there committed to
the flames. They all died asserting their innocence and
that of the order. This terrible example was speedily imi-
tated in the province of Rheinis and elsewhere ; and
some months after, the archbishop of Sens held himself
another council, and burned foiir more knights. These
proceedings put a stop to the attempt at defending the
order: the rest of the knights who had undertaken this
task now all declared their renouncement of it. Mean-
while a general council had been appointed by Clement,
to nice! at Vienne in October, 1311. It assembled on the
13th of that month, but it was not found so compliant as
Philip and the pope had expected ; and Clement, having
put an end to the session, assembled the cardinals and a
tew other prelates upon whom he could depend in a secret
•'ory, and abolished the order by his own authority,
on 11 ic. B3nd of March. 1312. When the council iva"»-
sembled, pursuant to the adjournment, on the 3rd of
April. Philip was seated on Clement's right hand, accom-
panied by his brother and his sons, and attended by an
imposing military force : and his holiness read the bull of
abolition, the council listening in silence. It was formally
published on the 2nd of May following. On the 18th of
. 131 K Molay, the grand-master, and Guy, com-
mander or grand-prior of Normandy, who had all this
while remained in prison at Paris, were brought, before
the archbishop of Sens, condemned to death, and burned
on one of the small islands in the Seine, about the spot
where the statue of Henri IV. is now erected on the Pont
Xeuf.
After all. Clement and Philip, the former of whom died
suddenly about a month, and the latter, of a fall from his
horse, within a year after the martyrdom of De Molay, were
able to secure to themselves only a small portion of the
plunder which they had probably hoped for. The king of
France seized and kept, or divided with his confederate,
the moveable property of the Templars in that country;
but there, and also in England, and throughout the rest of
Europe, with the exception of Spain and Portugal, it was
found necessary to transfer their landed possessions to the
Hospitallers, or Knights of St. John (,at this time commonly
known, from the place where they had fixed their head
nee, :>s the Kmu'hts of Rhodes). In Spain the lands
of Hie Templars were bestowed upon the Knights of Our
Lady of Montesa, a new order, founded in T317 ; and in
/a! the society merely took the new name of the
nl Christ, which still subsists. It is affirmed that
even in France the order of the Templars has survived to
our own day: and it is certain that a society calling itself
by that, name exists in Paris, which professes to be in pos-
i of tUe original register and records of the antient
; nd to have been governed by an unbroken
of grand-masters, many of them of illustrious
nee the time of Jacques de Molay. It pretemt.s
therefore to be the supreme chapter of the order. In Eng-
land, and we believe also in Germany, the Freemasons aie
in the habit of holding themselves up as a sort of repre-
sentatives of the. antient. Templars.
It is asserted by Matthew Paris, that about the year 1:11 1
tin.' manors or estates in possession of the Templars throngli-
out Christendom already amounted to 9000; and it
been calculated that the entire revenues of the aider when
it was dissolved did not fall short of si\ millions sterling,
;i it seems impossible that this should not. be a i
nation. Their possessions in England particularly
at a comparatively early period of great extent,
and value, as may be seen from au ' inquuitio,' or account
T E M
of their land*. taken
win.
pt. n
til ll: Hied ill the OKI Temple. ;•.!
-IclTI
- the
•at 01'
nam
i RtiL'lnnd.
i the sruilt »r innocence of the Templars
.•en much
I that
• >n which the\ were i-oiiilemned
lor the HUH! part entirely unfounded, some attempts
b.
I
and called .
in hi
Anas.-! which
G.C. Wood, ha>
larity and connection
mid that famous
hihty that. th.
Iain secret p
.
I the
there is an KiKrlish translation
. ourcd to establish a simi-
i the Tem-
i a disquisition.
printed in the sixth volume of hi-; • Minets dc 1 < )rie:it,' the
; has attempted to eon\i i par-
ticipation in the apostasy, idolatry, and impiety of the
id I iphian.
W«w«Mvd liy M. Hitynoiinrd. in a Ion? note piintcd in the
i Midland's • IfUtoirc d.
'nl. Sic. : •.: MI i!1 . in two articles in thi
March and April, lull); and in two otheis.
published in the ' HihliothtVjiic Cuivcr-ellc." torn. x.. p.
•nd torn. \.. p. 3. The documents relating to the
condemnation of the Templars were Mist published in a
work entitled • Trait. ;1 ,),.,,
Templiers.' par M. I)n Puy, «\o., 1'aiis, ll,.">l: uMiinted.
with additions, under the title of ' Histoire de la Con-
demnation desTemplicrs.' &iv, par Pierre ])a Pny. 'J vols.
KVII.. Hru\, lie-. 1713 : and under that of -II
I'Ordre Militaire ilea Templiers, avec les Pieces .Insdtica-
Ito., Bnixelles, 1751. Other works on the
•' Nicolai GQrtleri Ilistoriu Templariorutn.' s
Ki'.tl. and. with Inriri- additions. ]7(i:t: • C!m,ti;i:1i Thomasji
•atio d.. Templariornm K<|uitum Ordine Snblnti .
ILihie, 17*lo: Kaynouard, ' Mi.num , hitil's
H la rondiinination des Tern Ni:j;
chap'
•lmi;er. ' "'I'drns <li-r Teiii])el-
herren :" Wiliki ''.•mpelheiTPtion
(he Middle A sri-s ' 'in the ' Lib;,
Entertaining Knowledge '), 12mo., Lond., 18^7; an.!
ry of the K'nii;! ,;,!,. Cliurch. and
T K M
'
snbordiiml
ose teinis havinu' boon si
r* 221 co<
"f the di,"
v>r tlie arnmu'«'m
ficuoo O.P-TI.HAI-
: : : ; ^
• • • «
L"J-
f::7
•
ht
the
.
11111
:to.. I.ond..
fill.. Loud., 17-11. pp.
I books and
Templars.
Latin • Templum ') \a known of
the nations of antiquity is derived
chiefly from their temples: for of nil their public edifices
'V(1 '«' rHi tin- most numerous, if we
•t fterhaps those of the Homr.us, the rein:.
IncK theatres, ainiihilli,
monuments of that class, are as common as their
temples, and ha^ ,,]] of
w"*' termed tl.-
arcn"' ':ns. Greeks, nm! Ho-
.•• temple- ;
it may bo said to display
much
two. wit1
. or Ihrntttpiece or this .hsi.os,-
flori • -l-in oortil,
an ex
when' other partii-n!:-
Though so ^rsmolla?-
"sitioii of the columns withoiii
I"""'1 "I
or body
em and
i:," eom-
nuinbi
I//A////C in ant,
the nnlii1. or tl;
examples jii..-tyle and amplnpio--
there four rolnmns hetv
t-lraxtyli- in «nlix, and have a.-, ma;
. of \\hn-li last the peripteral
nmnlc. Tile diplci;
: and tlie hypa lhr;i
MM^'for it will be M
U body mpli;. In ;
i it.*
Still there is no yaiiety whalevor as »u external form, no
individual character as to outline or even the r.
mple itself, either
1 el»e pp.rip-
1'' '•" '"" • '' '" """I l"""lyl»pl i UM KIM ln.<> i.l
on the liu<-> of lh.»p in fmnl.
T E M
J83
T K M
portions, nothing of combination or of design, as the last
term is usually uodenkuxL; but the difference oi' effect
depended altogether upon the actual dimensions of the
structures, upon material and execution, upon circum-
stances of detail and finish, and on the degree and particu-
lar kind of decoration in regard to sculpture and poly-
chromic embellishment. The, only instance of combina-
tion and grouping is that afforded by the Erechtheion, or
triple temple on the Acropolis at Athens, which has two
distinct porticos, viz. an Ionic hexa.-tvk nionoprostyle at
-t end, and a tetrast.yle diprostyle of the same order
on hs north side, and upon a lower level ; besides which
there is a smaller attached or projecting structure at the
south-west angle, forming a tetrastyle diprostyle arrange-
ment of caryatic figures, raised upon a screen-wall or
podium. The combination is here not very harmonious,
since no regard has been paid to symmetry ; for which very
reason it is all the more striking, as forming a decided con-
trast to the unvaried and even monotonous uniformity
pervading the temple-architecture of the Greeks. It is
almost the only Grecian structure that can be said to be as
much distinguished by picturesqueness as by elegance of
architectural detail, and it is therefore to be regretted that
it has not been studied by modern architects, with especial
reference to such quality, instead of their attention being
almost exclusively given to the details and proportions of
the individual parts. Tliis edifice moreover affords almost
the only instance in the Grecian style of distinct porticos
or prostyles projecting from a building [PORTICO], other
porticos being either in a/iti\, so as to be renewed within
the main walls forming the sides of the edifice ; or are
only the end or ends of the colonnades continued through-
out the whole exterior : consequently in neither case does
such portico show itself as an actual prostyle. The only
other known examples of Greek prostyles are the two
small Ionic temples at Athens, that on the banks of
the Jlissus, called the temple of Panops ; and that dedi-
cated to Nike Apteros, or Wingless Victory. Both these
were amphipiustyle, and not »'« anlis, consequently had
a projecting portico at each end; and in both the porticos
were tetrastvle. Of the former nothing now remains,
but it is well known from Stuart's delineation.-;, and the
order itself— of plain and bold but elegant character — has
been adopted as the type— not to say stereotype — of
most of our modem Grecian Ionic. Though amphipro-
stvle, the porticos were not exactly similar in plan ; for
while the one was a mere monoprostyle, that forming the
entrance end was also deeply recessed within the main
walls, after the manner of a portico in antis without
columns. The other temple, the ruins of which have been
explored within only a very few years, was a very small
structure, a mere votive ch -<• by the west front of
the 1' ' i the Acropolis, with its hinder portico
: the si-r.th wing of that edifice, yet turned obliquely
from it, which want of parallelism is utterly ut variance
with all modern notions of architectural symmetry and
order. Yet although they earned regularity almost to
faulty e\c rks seem to have paid no regard to it
whatever indisposing buildings relatively to each other, fur
is a similar and apparently intentional want of paral-
: between the Parthenon and Krechtheion on the
Acropolis itself; nor are either of them in a line with the
Propylaea, or equidistant from such line or axis. [PAR-
THENON—Plan.]
This iiiMtmition to uniformity of arrangement, where
different buildings are IIP ,-thcr on one general
plan, shows a striking difference ol taste in that, p
between the Egyptians ;tnd the Greeks. The temp
tin- Egyptian-, consUl oi' various architectural p.
dinate to the principal strut-tin Lining with that
and with each other to form a whole ; which scheme w;n
sometimes further extended bv an architectural avenue of
sphir ,-it of the bonding!; The Greeks, on the
inly did not attempt to imitate or rival
in the extent and complex arrang<
there can be little doubt that
md"litcd to them for much of their
Their temples were aim-
not only detached from but
adjacent ones, instead of
::% ttlth t
.1.* in the immediate
neighbourhood of each other, and in a part icular district of
a city, as was the case in the Paru m and Capitol at Rome,
where temple succeeded to temple almost uninterruptedly;
and the ruins of Paestum, Agrigentum, Selinus, and other
places show a somewhat similar concentration of sacred
edifices about the same spot. Temples were frequently
surrounded by a sacred grove or plantation of trees, Ti'inr-
iinx, or else placed within an enclosure, Perilmhis, formed
either by mere walls or by colonnades, but there are
scarcely any examples, .of the kind now remaining ; and
they are chiefly Roman works, viz. the temples at Baalbec
and Palmyra. Similarly enclosed and standing in the
centre of a peribolus or piazza (therefore very different in
plan from an Egyptian temple preceded by a fore-court),
were the temples of Jupiter and Juno, Venus and Roma,
at Rome [ROMAN ARCHITECTURE, p. 74] ; that of Jupiter
Olympius at Athens, a work completed in the time of
Hadrian ; and also, among Gneco-Asiatic examples, the
temples of Minerva Polias at Prienc, and Apollo Didy-
ma-us at Miletus.
Similar as it is upon the whole to that of the Greeks, the
temple-architecture of the Romans differs from it in many
other circumstances besides those of style ; which latter
was, with very few exceptions, Corinthian— the national
style of the Romans, as the Doric was of Greece and its
Italian colonies. One leading distinction in regard to gene-
ral arrangement is, that Roman plans were hardly ever /'//
snd not often peripteral, but generally prostyle, with
the portico projecting out from the cella, or body of the
structure, three or more intercolumns, so as to be tripro-
xhjli', &e. [PORTICO.] Such facade was generally i';1
distinguished by having a flight of steps enclosed within
pedestals at its ends, which were continued as a podium or
moulded basement along the sides of the editiee ; whereas
the Greeks raised the temples only three steps or so abo\!-
tin,' ground, and carried those gradini quite round the
structure, wherefore each elevation or side of their perip-
teral temples was uniform in design, having no other variety
than that produced by greater extent and number (if
columns in one direction, and by the pediments at the
extremities. The Romans certainly evinced greater
for both contrast and picturesque combination than
the Greeks, although decidedly inferior to them in beauty
of detail and finish of execution ; except perhaps in one
or two particular examples of that order which, although
called Corinthian, is so peculiarly their own, that Roman
would be the more correct name for it. In order to gi\u
greater dignity to the whole temple or to the principal
structure in an architectural group, they elevated it upon
not a mere basement or substructure with an ascent in
front or at both ends, but upon a spreading-out platform,
luting a terrace on every side. They appear to have
lonally formed a succession of terraces of flights of
steps, leading tip to if not continued .on every side of this
building. The celebrated Temple of Fortune at Prsenest e,
usually supposed to have been originally founded>by Sulla,
was a very remarkable example of the kind. Very little
now remains of it, except the terraces themselves ; neither
have we any account of the architecture, but besides the
principal edifice or temple there were several subordinate
ones, on the different platforms. ' I know of no other
example,' says Woods, in his ' Letters of an Architect,'
' either of antient or modern times, where so great a num-
ber of edifices, and occupying so great an extent,
combined into one regular and symmetrical plan ; and our
admiration is still increased when we consider that it v.as
•ary not only to erect the building, but absolutely to
build a place for it to stand on.'
Circular plans for temples are peculiar to the Romans,
and occasion a diversity of character not to be met with in
those of the Greeks. Besides the two simplest forms, the
monopteral and peripteral, which have been shown above,
there were other varieties and combinations. For a
notice of some of them we refer to ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
(p. 73).
Instead of entering into formal descriptions of particular
temples, we subjoin a synopsis with accompanying ren
Some of (lie measurements and other particulars stated in
it may not exactly accord with other accounts of the
-tract nms ; for so great is frequently the di-,-
••icy between different authorities, whether write
delineators and restorers, that it is impossible to obtain
complete accuracy.
T i: \i
T E M
TABLE
OP .SOMB OF TH
K PRINCIPAL GKKKK AND ROHAN TKMTM
At In
ion
Doric-
II. '. willi 1'J inti-reohu:'
Parthenon
Doric
- :al, IOOX-- : 'inn-, and
1'n'pylaea
Hi- lioMt.-. with w iuirs of a smaller order, at
lt-3 in u,->: fii.iit. I I'AKTHKNiiN — Plan.] Miicsic:
»
ihthcion
Hi-vi-Hi ust end, with a Mra-tvle, dii
((
Panopg
Ionic
\ well-known example, though no
. ed by the Turks since Sti.
time.
Niki- A)i'
JupiterOlym-
pius
Ionic
i '.-iiuthian
Tetra^hle. amphiprostyle. Recently explored, and since rebuilt,
style, peripteral, columns W feet hiirh. !XJXi">!) I'eit. Kin
by a petlbolus. A Human work originally he<nm in the tiin-
Pi-i^lmtus, continued by Antiochus Epiphanes, and com]:'
by Hadrian.
Doric
iiare Iniildinp; of about 180 feet OH each side, with a <!<•.
stjle coliinnade loiuiin^ the
Ictinus ; colonnade addrd 1 \ Pliilo, architect, about :f!."i
"
Propylaeum
Doric
IIe\asl\le on both fronts, with inner Ionic order as .
5(1 X 00 feet. A second and smaller propvlrra within
peribolus. distyle in :mti<. See • 1 '.iitiijiiities of A''
ui ihe.-,e buildii: > now remain.
Thoricus.
• • • •
Doric
. or with seven columns at each end. and four-
tn No cella remaining; b- 1
n a double temple, with a passage through the centie, 1'ioiu
the side-, dividintr the eclla into two.
Hhainiuis
Nemesis
Doric
11, \astyle, peripteral, 11 intercolumtis on sides, 33x70 feet.
Themis, or
Done
Distyle in antis.
mp.
of Nemesis
jEgina
Jupiter Pan-
hellenius
Doric
Hexastyle. peripteral, hypsethral, 41 X 00 feet. '1
celebrated for its polychromy and sculpture .tan ,Mm-
bles .
Olympia
Jupiter Olym-
pills
Doric
11. \ast\le. jieripteral, hypaptliral, 95 X 230 feet. Completed about
i.i") B.C. Libon, architect.
Bassffi
Apollo Kpi-
ius
Doric
Hexastyle, peript( ,al,liypn.'thral. I7xli"i feet. Date about 4*) in.
Icii'ius. architect. In interior. Ionic columns.
tegea
Ath
Ionic
Peripteral. h\ pivthral. Doric internally; with upper Corinthian
order. Scopas, architect.
Nemea
Jupiter
Doric
Hexastyle. peripteral.
Mil
JNA-GH*CIA AND SICILY.
turn
Neptune
Doric
Hexa-tyle, periptenil, hypa-thral. 7!»X l!l.'.
Doric
HexasUle. peripteral, -17 x 107 feet, f P.KSTAN Ai« un F<TI KK.]
Agrigentum
Jupiter Olym-
pius
Doric
Apteral, or with engaged columns. e])t;ist\le. Is-Jx3(iti -.
•!• description, see AC;HM;KMTM. \Vilkins, in Ins n -toiatio'i
of it, makes this temple licxastyle amphiprostyle.
M
Juno Lueina
Hexastyle, peripteral. ">7X I-H feet.
( 'oin
Doric
II.-v;!~iyle peripterid, 81XB8 i> pronaos and opisthodo-
,,
Doric
Hexa-tvlc. iicripteral. 7'1X I'.Kl fc.-t. All the external eolumr
find : . l)iit no reuiainv of cella.
Selinua
Ortastyle, dipteral, Hii) x :cto feet, lln-re are remains of ii\e
other temples, two of which appear to ha\e been hexi.
peni-
Minerva
Doric
•it\le. l:t interrolnnins on sides : now converted into a church
with a modern Italian Corinthian facade.
i ATIC GREEK.
Kpheius
Diana
Ionic
Decastyle, dipteral, hypaethral ; column 'f the
Ian-. Q -i temples, ln-inir 23> X 42 hon and
Mel .-hitect-. Date about .'HO Il.C.
tun
IJo Didy-
Ionic
:. Kit X :!<>:! feet. Columns !)J dia-
t. A peritx
IIcrmi'L-i'iu-s, architect.
Minervar
Ionic
Ib .. about :mt
ionic. This temple
ha ! :m: the latter tetrastyle, with two
rows ol'Mjuare pillars within.
T E M 185
T
E M
ASIATIC GREEK.
Teos
Samoa
Bacchus
Juno
Ionic
Ionic
Hexastyle, peripteral. Hermogenes,
Alexander the Great.
Decastyle, dipteral ; 189 x 346 feet
architect ;
about the time of
ROMAN.
Rome
Concord
Ionic
Hexasfyle. Appears to have been a diprostyle, but nothing of the
cella remains.
i*
FoitunaVirilis
Ionic
Tetrastyle, diprostyle, cella pseudo-peripteral ; about 24 X 44 feet.
»»
Jupiter and
Corinthian
Two separate temples, alongside each other, in centre of a colon-
Juno
naded peribolus. Similar in dimensions, but the one octastyle,
peripteral ; the other octastyle, diprostyle. Erected by Metellus
Macedonicus, about 140 B.C. No remains ; but the authority is
the antient plan of Rome in the capitol.
*f
Jupiter Stator
Corinthian
Supposed to have been octastyle, peripteral. The celebrated
' Three Columns,' in the Forum, are all that now remain of this
very fine example.
M
Jupiter Tonans
( 'oiinthian
Octastyle, dipteral ; 92 x 115 feet. Columns 47 feet high.
M
Mars Ultor
Corinthian
Of this temple, sometimes called that of Nerva, only three columns
remaining; but it is said to have been octastyle, peripteral.
»1
Venus and
Koma
Corinthian
Decastyle, pseudo-peripteral, enclosed within a peribolus formed
by double colonnades of a lesser order. [ROMAN ARCHI-
TECTURE, p. 74.]
»»
Antoninus and
Corinthian
Hexastyle, triprostyle ; 33 X 55 feet.
Faustina
_
Pmntheoa
Corinthian
An octastyle, triprostyle, attached to a rotunda. [PANTHEON.]
)»
Vesta
Corinthian
A circular peripteral of 20 columns.
[For further description, and an account of other temples at
Rome, see ROME, p. 93. &c.]
Tivoli
Ve-ta, or the
Corinthian
A circular peripteral, of 18 columns around cella. The order a
Prjeneste
Sibyl
Fortuna
very peculiar and fine example. [ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.]
No remains of this celebrated temple itself: but merely of the
series of terraces and flights of steps on which it was elevated.
Pompeii
Jupiter
Corinthian
Hexastyle. tctraprostyle ; about 50 X 110 feet.
-NiMH'",
MaixmCarn'e,
Corinthian
Hexastyle. tripiostyle ; order continued along the cella, malting it
or Temple of
a pseudo-peripteral ; 38 X 77 feet. [NisMEs.]
Cains and
Lucius
H.I. i.:
Great Temple
Corinthian
Decastyle, peripteral ; ICO X 290 feet. [BAALBEC.]
.
Lesser Temple
( 'ui lal!li:ill
Octastyle, peripteral ; 118X225 feet. [BAAI.HKC.]
Palmyra
Helios, or the
Corinthian
Octastylc. peripteral : !I5 X ISO feet. Enclosed within a peribolus
Sun
about 740 feet square, formed by an outer wall and two
ranges of Corinthian columns, making a double colonnade.
[PALMYRA.]
The above table might be rendered more copious and
greatly extended : and it might also have been differently-
arranged in several ways, each of which would have had
something to recommend it, according to the purpose for
which it may happen to be consulted. Chronological
order, for instance, if the respective dates could be :
tained with tolerable accuracy, may be considered prefer-
able by some persons ; or the buildings might have been
clBMtfted according to the number of columns in front,
and as being in iittti*. /u->n/i//i'. ja-rijilfrnl, Ste. ; or else
according to their relative size and dimensions. In fact a
separate table is required for each mode of classification
and arrangement ; but as that could not be done, we have
adopted what we consider the must satisfactory upon the
whole. We may however render it in some measure more
complete by here pointing out that the (/«•«.*////>• examples
mentioned m it are the Temple- of .Jupiter, Athens; Diana,
Ephesns; Apollo, Miletus: Juno. S:mn^: \enns and
Roma, Rome : and the great temple at BAALHEC. As
regards dimensions and relative size, the following arc the
largest structures, viz. : —
Wi.llti of Kiimt. I<.n-(li.
Ephesns . . . 2'20 feet 42.-. 1'eet.
Agrigentum, Great Temple 182 :«;ii
Selimis, Great Temple . ICO :):)()
\ eiins and Roma . IKi :t.Vi
Athens, Parthenon . 100 22H
Temple of Jupiter . . 'M liv.)
By way of affording a standard of comparison, we add the
dimensions ol St. Paul's. London, and La Madeleine, at Paris,
viz.: the former, lHobv">iK>; the other 138 by 328 feet.
TKMPLK, SOLOMON'S. For 4-17 yearn lifter the II. -
brew* had entered the land of Canaan they continued to
P. C., No. 1511.
worship at the tabernacle which had been framed for their
use in the Wilderness. The incongruity of n settled people
having only a tent for the celebration of their splendid
ritual service first occurred to the mind of David. It ap-
peared unseemly to him that the Ark of God should still
•dwell between curtains,' while he abode himself in ' a
house of cedar,' and he therefore proposed to build a
temple in which the worship of God might be more be-
comingly conducted (I dhruii., xvii. 1). The prophet
Nathan "was however commissioned to inform him that
having been engaged in constant warfare, and shed much
human blood, he could not be allowed to execute the
design he had formed, which was to be reserved for the
peaceful reign of his son Solomon. This undertaking was
however a principal subject of David's thought and care
during the remainder of his reign ; and to it he appro-
priated a large proportion of the immense treasure which
ins many victories produced. He may be said to have
provided all, or nearly all, the materials before his death ;
consisting of large but variously estimated quantities of
gold and silver, brass and iron, stone and timber. He also
secured the services of skilful mechanics and artificers for
every branch of the work, and furnished the design, plan,
and site of the building ; so that more of the credit of this
work seems due to David than to Solomon (1 C'/iron., xxi.;
xxii.; xxviii. 11-19).
The foundation of the Temple was laid in B.C. 1012,
being the fourth year of Solomon's reign ; and in seven
and a half it was completed. During this time
IKi.lKMt persons were employed on the work. Of Jews
there were IKUXK) scrung by rotation of 10,000 monthly;
and of Canaanites there Were 153,G(K), of whom 70,000
were labourers, 80,000 hewers of wood and stone, and
Vol. XXIV.— 2 B
M
T i: M
3GOO overseers of the others. To save the labour .
riage, the ports were all prepared foi
tin- rite nf the building, ami when they \veie brought to-
gether, the structure • <l without the sound of
hammers, axes, or tools of iron 1 AY
To furnish a i. i of Solomon's tt'iniilo from the
materinls whie-h hiu.' n-aelud IK, even if \ve take in the
ideal temple of K/ekiel, \vhieh is com-cive-d tn lie framed
on (he same model, would require such a eonihiniitiou of
real architectural knowledge with deep Hihlical learning
as have perhaps never been combined ia any one \
Hence all the descriptions \\liv-h have been ileihur-d from
such materials ililt'er greatly from one another. These only
claim our confidence in the points in which all, or nearly
all, of them agree : for such points of agreement appear to
ciub.idy all the real information which ha* hitherto been
collected fii'in llu- text. There are however materials of
comparison nnd illustration, which, taken along with the
text, might furnish some clearer notions than ha.
been realized in a mailer which circumstances have in-
\e--te-elwith considerable interest. 1. It would be ceuisi-
! that the temple was on the same essential plan as
the tabernacle, di'f'cring chiefly in materials, extent, and
in additions to the enclosure". 2. Reference would be
made to other ant lent Oriental temples, of which we know
more, nnd especially to those of Egypt, some of which are
in sufficient preservation to allow their relative parts and
proportions to he clearly understood. And in this regard it
will be seen that those" plans of the temple which appear
most in agreement with the text otter the most striking ana-
logies to Kgyptian temples Csee the chapter -An Kgyptian
Temple.' vol. i., pp. li'J-127, of ' Kiryptian Antiquiti
Library nf Knli'rtiiiiiiin: Kn«n And although it
is probable that, from the friendly relations which Solomon
had already established with Egypt, Kgyptian as well as
Phoenician artist* supplied the artistic, labour for the temple
in which the Hebrews were themselves deficient, such
analogies need not be necessarily traced to imitation, but
to similar conditions and circumstances producing similar
results. The popular notion of a temple, as a vast pile of
building in which, as in our cathedrals, large multitudes
might assemble for worship under cover, does not in these
apply. A temple was a large area, enclosed by a
wall, and laid out in courts, where the crowds worshipped
and where sacrifices were offered ; and in colonnades
around th. where the worshippers might walk or
tind shelter from the sun or rain. Apartment* for the nu-
ns officiating priests, and chambers for stores and
treasure-, also increased the display of building within and
around the enclosing walls. The cacrcd editiee itself,
being only intended to contain the sacred symbo!-
being entered only by the prie.sts for particular services,
never lartre; but what it wanted in .-i/e was made
up ir :i:itciials and splendour of workmanship.
:- npply equally to the temples of Jerusalem and
of Kg> pt ; and in both Hie saeved building was divided
into three ]»rts, which were in Solomon's temple called
the Porch, the Holy 1'lace, and the Most Holy Place, an-
,ree to the porch, the nave, and the
i i an churches, the parts of which were indeed
.••eil originally with an intended reference to those of
the JcwUh temple. Even Hie pillars called .laehin and
lion/, whieh Solomon <-ct up at the porch, find analogies
in the obelisks which the Kgyptians placed in a corre-
spuii '.IITC of illiistratiuti is
offered ill the more ample description which is given by
Joseplms Hi Herod's temple- : lor although that appears to
liare bi-en architecturally a gre-ate-r nnd more imposing
fiibric than that of Solomon, there is no doubt that i! had
the same |>aits and that they were similarly proportioned
to each other. 4. The antient Christian "churches also
offer som * of arrangement, which claim to be
considered when viewed :is intended retrospects of the
Jewish temple. Among the plans of antient churches
given in ( 'iilemaii A/I/II/. i<f t/ii> Chnnlinn Church, Anelo-
ver. I'. S.. ls|| , that of the church at Tyre affords sonic
remarkable illustrations.
The site of Solomon's Temple was the summit of Mount
Moriah. one of the eminences on which .Jerusalem
This eminence rose to no great height within the city, but
wan high and st .1 the Kedron. wliich it
overlooked. It tared (he Mount of Olives. The Mo^ne ul
Omar now occupy, the same sile; and the imposing figure-
which it makes in eveiy view of Jer 'hat a
.ulvautageoiu situation could not I .... been < !
The top of the In ..ml the sides banked up to
afford a sufficient area. This area was divided into
fbnt in Herod's temple tin.
which stood the people. 1 wall
(or, as sonic think, by a latticed
inner court, called the i'ouit of the 1'iiests, in wind
. at altar of burnt offerings, and where the |
I.evites officiated in view of the people, and ill front ol the
holy house, or proper temple. The proper temp
viouuly indicated, was an oblong building. It wa-~0 cubits
in length, 20 in width, nnd 30in height : tin how-
>D of the house or holy place, for the
innermost sanctuary was but 20 cubits high 1 Kii/f;x,\\.
20); and although the poich i- said, in 1 Ohron., iii. -t. to
have been 120 cubits hiirh, or four times the height of the
main buildinir, the numbers in that text are now generally
admitted to be corrupted : 211 cubit-, which we find in the
antient versions, is probably the tine number: being the
same height as the sanctuary. The porch covered the
breadth ot the building 20 cubits, and was 10 cubits deep:
the holy place was -JO cubits leing by 20 wide- : and the
sanctuary was a perfect square of 2O cubits. The building
fronted the east. Along the north and south sides, and
the west end of the structure, wi •! certain Imilcl-
• ailed 'side chambers,' in tlin each five
cubits high. This made 15 cubits of total elevation, which
•it more than half the height of the main building, in
whose walls, above, there was therefore room for the
splayed windows which gave light to the temple.
The sacred utensils were of the same description and
occupied the same relative position as in the tabernacle :
but some of them were larger, as the altnr, candle -1
Sec., in proportion to the more extensive establishment to
which they belonged. The principal of the new uu
was the great brazen laver for ablutions, wliich rested on
the hacks of twelve oxen of the same metal.
The inner sanctuary was separated from the holy place.
by a rich curtain or veil. The whole of the interior was
wainscoted with cedar, carved with figures of cherubim,
palm-trees, and flowers, and then overlaid with the ;
gold. The' doors were also covered with gold : all the
utensils in the house were of that metal; and even tin-
floor appeals to hn\c been overlaid with it 1 Kmif.v,
vi. 30,>. It is this lavish expenditure of precious metal
upon the building, and the elaborate workmanship be-
stowed upon it. which, rather than its a.-chitectnral effect,
.nts for the reports of its surpassing magnificence,
and for the immense' wealth consumed in its erection.
The popular impression concerning it, however. I
based rather upon the exaggerated statements of .loscphns
than upon the more sober in Scripture, dec
doubt, greatly exceed the truth. More might be said of
ime.s "than of its grandeur, its wealth is i>
attested by the spoliations of knu-s and con-
querors; and it may be well to remember that thi-
not, as in other notions, one1 of many temples, but was the
iiiple nf the whole nation, mid in the1 production of
which the whole nation could therefore concentrate its
The Temple of Solomon retained its pristine splendour
only for for hen its treasures were plundered by
Shi-s'iiak, king of Kg\ pt. After undergoing various other
profanations and pillages, it was finally d,
the- < 'Imlda'iiiis under Nc-bnchachie/^ar, n.r. ."'•'-•, aller
having stood 117 yeais. Aller the ( 'aplivily, the temple
built, on tin- same' plan, and cm a more extensive
•eatly diminished splendour. This temple
stood until some u :ir- befoie tin' birth of ChiM, when
Herod the' f«re:d. to propitiate his subjects, whom ni
the in icign bad tended to exasperate', un-
dertook to rebuild it on a larger- M ale- iind with greater
magnificence. In nine years, during which Mi.UKi work-
men were- constantly employed, l»- ae-e-e>m|i!ishcd his oii-
ginal design; and produced a fabiir, which, while- the
same- in ils essential chai ! the
Temple of Solomon in e-vte-ni and architecture, although
the precious metal may have1 been less 1a\i-hl\ e!isp|:iy(.(|
in the1 interior <'.• • Main \ the Jews
kept weiil,me-n employee! in cm1" rd in
tin- e-re'e-lion of additional buildings (Jnfin, ii. 20). In
A.D. 64, nothing remained to he done, and the- elismi --al at
T E M
187
T E M
once of 18,000 workmen excited some alarm for the parl
they might take in the troubles which had already com-
menced, and which, a few years after, brought upon the
nation the armies of Rome under Vespasian and Titus,
and involved the temple and city of Jerusalem in one
common ruin, A.D. 70.
TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, an eminent statesman, di-
plomatist, and writer, was born at Blackfriars, in London,
in the year 1628, and was the eldest son of Sir John
Temple, who was Master of the Rolls in Ireland, and
author of a History of the Irish Rebellion which began in
1641. He was educated first by his uncle, Dr. Henry
Hammond, a learned divine and zealous royalist, and was
afterwards, on his uncle being turned out of his living by
the parliament, sent to a school at Bishop-Stortford, and,
at the age of seventeen, to Emmanuel College, Cambridge,
where the celebrated Cudworth was his tutor. He is said
by his sister, Lady Giffard, who wrote a memoir of him, to
have passed a gay idle life at Cambridge, and, after having
been there about two years, he went away without a de-
gree. He then went abroad, and having spent two years
in France, and visited Holland, Flanders, and Germany,
he returned to England, skilled in the French and Spanish
languages. As he was about to start on his travels, he
met, in the Isle of Wight, the young lady to whom, after
many delays and difficulties, arising out of want of fortune
and the opposition of the friends of both, he was eventually
united. She was the daughter of Sir Peter Osborne, a
devoted adherent of Charles I., and a great sufferer by his
devotion : letters of hers which are preserved show her to
have been a very superior woman : she remained faithful
to Temple through a long engagement, amid many and
frreat discouragements, and at last, after the death of her
lather, and after six years' waiting, they were married in
1(J54. It appears that, among many offers which she re-
jected for Temple, was one from Henry Cromwell.
Temple was trained to no profession, though his father
plishcd in July, 1067, by the treaty of Breda, which how-
ever Temple had no part in negociating, and the mode of
bringing about which he had not altogether approved of.
In 1066 Temple's services had been rewarded, without any
solicitation on his part, by a baronetcy.
In the close of the year 1667 Temple received orders
from Arlington to repair to the Hague, to negociate a
treaty against France, and for the protection of the Spanish
Netherlands from that power ; and by his energy, judg-
ment, and address the celebrated Triple Alliance was con-
cluded on the 23rd of January, 1668. England, Holland,
and Sweden bound themselves bv this alliance to bring
about peace between France and Spain, and to prevent
France from entering the Low Countries. Temple had
thus achieved an object which he had had at heart, even
before the treaty of Breda, so favourable to French views,
a blow to the ambition of Louis XIV. The successful
conclusion of this treaty established Temple's diplomatic
fame, and was of the first importance to England and
Europe.
Temple was next appointed ambassador at Aix, where
the negotiations for peace between France and Spain, in
pursuance of the Triple Alliance, were to be earned on.
On the conclusion of the peace of Aix, he was appointed
ambassador at the Hague. Hero he continued, carrying
out the policy of the Triple Alliance, till September, 1070,
when a complete change having been silently worked in
the councils of Charles II., and the celebrated secret treaty
'laving been made with France, Temple was ordered home,
found himself on his arrival in England no longer in the
confidence of Arlington, and in the summer of 1071 was
dismissed from his post. There was a rumour that Temple's
lismissal had been made a condition by the French go-
vernment. (Temple's Works, ii., 179.) He now retired to
Sheen, and meditated never again returning to public life,
saying that ' he had been long enough in courts and public
business to know a great deal of the world and of himself,
was poor, independently of his appointment as Master of j and to find that they were not made for one another.'
the Rolls in Ireland, and when deprived of this lor some
vcars during the civil wars, was exceedingly hampered in
Iiis finances. Sir John Tempi; to this ap-
pointment in 1653, the year before his son's marriage ; and
his sun, after his marnajr with him in lr>
Under his father's roof hi Dublin, or in a country-seat in
the county of Carluw, Temple pa.-^ed ii\c years, which
During this retirement Temple devoted himself to gar-
dening, the improvement of his house at Sheen, and litera-
ture, and published several of the works on which his repu-
tation as a writer rests ; among them, the ' Observations
upon the United Provinc-cs,' published in 1672. Temple
was summoned however from nis literary retirement in the
summer of 1074, to conclude the second Dutch war, and
were divided between literary pursuits and county busi- he obeyed the summons. He was on the jpoint of starting
and which were marked" by the birth and death of for the Hague, as envoy and plenipotentiary for this pur-
iive children. In 1UOO Temple was chosen, without soli- , pose, when the Spanish ambassador in London rccchcd
citation or even previous knowledge, member of the Irish full power to negociate there, and in three days the treaty
._*: _i> il. _ i .. j* . .. i 1 . i . L- t • 1 _ _ ..I'll' . ' j 1 l 1 T* 1 _ _ (i- I
convention of that year for the county of Carlow.
After the Restoration he \\; >' for the same
of Westminster was concluded. Temple was now offered
the embassy to Spain, which, at his father's wish, he re-
county in the first regular parliament, that was called : he fused. He was very soon after appointed again to the
l._ .1 l. . i- i K _ ,• l : ~ _i»_- .. T _ in . Ti i i i; ...in
had his father for his colleague, and a younger brother was
member for the city of Carlow. He appears to have been
a very active and useful member of parliament. In July,
1001, he was one of the commissi'iucis sent to wait on the
king, and urge several measures affecting the intere
Ireland. On the prorogation of the parliament in 1003,
Temple went to reside in Knijland. He carried an intro-
duction from the duke of Ormond to Lord Arlington, secre-
. as ambassador extraordinary, and the uevt year
ambassador to the congress at Nimcgucn. The peace of
Ximegueii, concluded in the beginning of 1679, ill carried
out the views which Temple assiduously laboured to esta-
blish, and he was glad to avail himself of a point of form
for the purpose of withholding his signature to the treaty.
Temple now returned to England to receive an offer of
the post of secretary of state, which he refused, lie was
tary of state, who conceh ed a great fondue. -s lor him, and much consulted by the king, who had just lost the services
procured him to be appointed, in Ki'i". of Lord Danby : and in the ministerial difficulties which
to the bishop of Minister. The object of this mis-ion was followed upon Danby 's impeachment and committal, Tem-
'•h over an invasion by the bishop of VJ pie submitted to the kin" a plan of a council, which the
"which England, then at war king adopted: not always following Temple's opinions
with the Dutch, had guarantei .1 ; and though however as to the peisons of whom it should be composed,
the bishop, who bad made I lie first achane and. above all, in defiance of his advice, placing Lord
went off from hi it. and. in fear of France, con- Shafteslmry at the head of it. This council was not long-
matic employment, that he wa.s appointed i:i the
year, through Lord Arlington's influence, ::t the
at liinssels for two years presents no
iar interest. It was his bnsine-s at fust to
neutrality of Spain in the Dutch war, and
.•1 understanding between Spain
lo a treaty which was then !
' which nevei' i •;
nit peace with the United Pro-
vinces and Mice. This last object was accom-
learning and rural pursuits. He now composed his 'Me-
moirs.' He died oil the 27th January, 1699". No particu-
f his death have been transmitted to us.
After the Revolution of loss, Sir William Temple re-
fused office from William III., who was very anxious for
his coim-rl and for tlie authority of his name, lint his
son, \\ith his permission, accepted the plaee of secretary at
nd within a week after committed suicide.
:h"i. ii^ statesman nor as author does Sir William
Temple occupy a foremost place; but in both characters
' .1' ,.1_U1.. rl'l „ :_ _ ,
he is more than respectable.
The following is \\ happy
2B2
TEN
•r i-: N
,.ti..n. hj Sir James Mackiuto-h. of his character as
diplomat)-! and .-late-man. 'lie was a mu-t admirable
pcisou. lie seems to be the model of a negotiator, unit-
ing politeness and address to honesty. Hi- men:
donit i.in is also very great: in an age c
ticnii attached In liberty, and . from
endangering the public quiet. 1'eihaps diplomatic habits
had smoothed away hi- turbulence too much
government a.- England.' M ifkiiit'i^h. ii. I'.'ii.
Dr. John.-on, speaking of Sir William Temple as a writer,
has said that -lie was the first writer who save, cadence to
Kiiglish prose.'
There arc two or three biographies of Temple; one by
AIM 1 Hover, published about fourteen years after his death,
and anoiher by his si.-ter. J.ady (iiffard, prefixed to the
edition of his works published in 1731, 2 vols. follp. A
very laboured and somewhat diffuse life has been lately
published by the late Mr. Peregrine Court enay, and to this
work all who wish for the fullest information a.s to Tem-
ple's life will resort. The best edition of Temple's works
la that published in IS14, in 4 vols. Svo.
TENACITY (.from the Latin ' tcnacitas,' 'Die power of
holding'), a property of material bodies by which their
parts resist an efloit to force them asunder.
This property is a result of the corpuscular forces actini;
within the insensible spaces supposed to exist, between the
particles of bodies : it is consequently different in different
materials, and in the same material it varies with the
of the body with respect to temperature and other
circum>tai:
Those corpuscular forces consist of attractions which
vary according to unknown laws with the distances of the
particles from one another, and even at certain distances
they become repulsions: but, in all bodies except the
elastic fluids, the combined actions of all the particles
produce that coherence which constitutes the tenacity of
the massscs. In those fluids the particles have no co-
herence, and when the pressures to which they are subject
are removed, those particles immediately separate from
each other with forces depending, probably, upon the
quantity of caloric with which they arc combined. In
non-elastic fluids and in solids, tenacity exist-, but in very
different degree*; its force depending upon differences
in the intensity of the attracting powers between the par-
ticles, upon differences in the distances of the particles
themselves, upon the action of the calorie, and, in some
ca.sc.-, upon variations in the pressure of the atmosphere.
The molecules of liquids adhere tp one another, and
generally to those of solid bodies, by attractive forces
which decrease very rapidly ; and, at insensible distances
from the supposed places of contact, the adhesion entirely
disappears [CAPILLARY ATTRACTION] : the real tenacity of
the molecules being, as Dr. Young observes, equal to the
s of their mutual attractions above the forces of re-
pulsion arising from the actions of tho calorific particles.
It is on account of the small distance to which the attrac-
tions of the fluid molecules extend, an'd to the freedom
with which the particles move on one another, that fluids
apjiear to have so little tenacity; but from the weight of
water whi.'h it supports in glass tubes, Dr. Kobison has
estimated that the mutual attiactions of the particles of
water on a suifacc equal tu one square inch must far ex-
1 190 pounds.
• 1 du.-t. or sand, while dry, have no power of
adhering together, probably because their fomis d<
permit a sufficient number of points on their surfaces to be
brought within the dHanec at which corpuscular attrac-
tions take place; but, if .-lightly wetted, the mutual atliae-
tions between the ditat and the liquid produce a certain
,iy : this i- Me in clay moi-lciud
with water: for being then drawn into the form of a mil,
it i> capable of bearing a small wcL- led fiom it.
Tenacity exists ill various de:: -id tluids, as oil.
gnm dissolved in water, ^c. : sealing-wax and ;'!a--
when . ir biittlcnc.-s, ami aic capab.e (,i be-
ing moulded into any form, while their pailn
considerable degree of adhesive pov
•if solids constitute'-, in part, the subj
the power of bodiet to resist strains ; and in »IM.S,
OK, will be found a table p. s. col. -' of the
its which would overcome the Ion ion in
• enbly lix. nd and pulled in the direc-
tion of their length : those weights may be considered as
the measures of tenacity in the different kind.- of material ;
and it may be here added that, from a mean of se\ end ex-
periments made b) Mr. Tel ford on the tenacity of I
the breaking -Ircnuth, when reduced to that which
it would be if tli. i -•• section of the liars
had been one square inch, is l?.i| tons. The
cylinders or parafielopipeds varying in length from i
"> inches to 12 foet 3 inches: and in area of section, from
<>-.">(> to :}• 14 square inches ; they stretched in length Horn
'1 inches to 4 inches before they broke. Mr. Tel ford found
also that a bar of ca-t -steel bore suspended from it 'J7'!'2
ton-, a bar of bli-tcrcd steel 17''^7 tons, and of cast-iron
Welsh, pi;; 7 -d ton-; the area of the section in all be-
ing one square inch. Tenacity in solid bodies varies greatly
with their temperature. M. Coulomb took a piece of cop-
per-wire, which, when cool, carried ±i 11». suspended from
it : and, upon brinirin<: it toa white heat.it would 'scarcely
bear lUlbs.
Though, when a piece of metal is fractured, the parts
will not by simple adjunction adhere together; yet. in
some cases, by hammering them upon one auotlier, so
many points on their surfaces may be bnniirht within the
limits to which the force of colic-ion extends, that they
will acquire a tenacity equal to that which the metal hud
in its natural state.
The tenacity of wood is much greater in the direction of
the length of its fibres than in the transverse direction,
the fibres bciuir united by a substance having little cohe-
sive power. Few experiments have been made oil the
tenacity of wood perpendicularly to its grain, as it is
called : and from those of Mr. Kincrson it appears to vary
from one-tenth to one-seventh of the tenacity in the other
direction. When a strain takes place in the direction of
the fibres, they become disengaged from one another,
and thus lose the strength which arises from their lateral
cohesion: they then become subject to separate strains ;
the weaker ones are first ruptured, and at length all give
way, leaving an irregular surface of fracture.
With respect to metals, the proce-scs of forging and
wire-drawing increase their tenacity in the longitudinal
direction ; the augmentation of friction and lateral •
sion, arising from the particles bciuir forced together in the
transverse direction, more than compensates for the dimi-
nution of the attraction which may result from the parti-
cle- being forced or drawn farther asunder longitudinally.
Copper and iron have their tenacity more than doubled,
while gold, silver, brass, and lead have it more than tripled
by those metals being drawn into wire.
Mixed metals have, in general, greater tenacity than
those which are simple: the tenacity varies with the dif-
ferent proportions in which the metals are mixed ; and
the proportions which produce the greatest strength are
different in different metals. The only experiments on
this subject with which we arc acquainted arc tin
Muschcnbrock ; and from these we find that a compound
. i- . . i : i. -. _.. ii_ »i i i • ,
of which 'f were gold and J copper had a tenacity, or force
of cohesion, more than double that of the gold' or copper
alone : brass, composed of copper and zinc, had a tcnacif v
more than double that of the copper, and nearly twenty
time- as urcat as that of the /"me : a metal of which J wei'e
block-tin and ] lead, had a strength more than double
that of the tin ; and a mixture of which j were lead and J
zinc had a tenacity nearly double that of the zinc, and
five time i- that of the lead alone.
TK.XAII.I.K, in Fortification, is a rampart raised in the
main ditch, immediately in front of the curtain be'
ind, in it- most simple form, it
tw. i lares coinciding in direction with the face- of the
-d. consequently, forming with each other a re-
entering auirlc. Generally, however, it consist- of three
face-, of which two have the direction- just mentioned
and the thud form.- a curtain which is paiallcl to that of
the enceinte. See I', /'/-. 1, li \si ION, and f in the plan,
1)._.'I77 . Ki'iuim STION.
work was originally proposed I I, in order
•. ethe jiurpi.se, in part, of a tans- e-bra\ c [ KM
niii-ketiy on it- faces uiay be
employed, in conjunction with tliose of ailillery and
tn ON the flanks of the bastion
if the enemy acro-s the main ditch when alien
mount a breach in the ramparts of the place.
The relief of the lenaillc, or the elevation ol
above the bottom of the ditch, is determined iv
TEN
189
T E N
w' lh the intention of thus defending the main ditch; and
in order that the defenders of the tenaille may not be
injured by the shot fired over their heads, from the flanks
of the bastions, it is usual to make the crest of that work
coincid
below
;ide with a horizontal plane passing three or
rV the point where a line of fire from one
four feet
of those
flanks would cut a vertical plane, bisecting the angle of
the tenaille or its curtain. The height thus determined
will allow the parapet of the work to be elevated from
two to four feet above the terreplein of the ravelin in its
front; and, consequently, from the curtain of the tenaille
a grazing fire of musketry might be employed to protect
the interior of the ravelin, or of its reduit, if there is one,
should the defenders of either of those works abandon it
(in consequence of an assault being made) before the
enemy lias time to cover himself in it by a lodgment : that
fire will also contribute powerfully to prevent the enemy
from attempting to enter the ravelin by its gorge.
Vanban, at first, gave to his tenailles short flanks nearly
' ram's horns ' was given, has seldom been put in prac-
tice.
Any work belonging either to permanent or field for
tification, which, on the plan, consists of a succession of
lines forming salient and re-entering angles alternately, is
said to be d tenaille.
TENAILLON, or Great Tenaille, in Fortification, is a
species of exterior work which has been occasionally con-
structed before the faces of a small ravelin, with a view of
increasing the strength of the latter, procuring additional
space beyond the ditch, or covering the shoulders of the
bastions. They were invented by Vauban, who, however,
very seldom constructed them ; and subsequent engineers
have generally considered them as inferior in defensive
qualities to a counterguard [QQ, FORTIFICATION', Fig., p.
377] placed over the faces and salient angle of the
ravelin.
The form and position of a tenaillon may be 'understood,
Y being supposed to represent a small ravelin, if beyond
parallel to those of the bastions, but he soon abandoned the ditch of the latter the ramparts of the right and left
that construction, perceiving that though the defenders faces be produced till each of them meets a rampart
might thus fire correctly along the main ditch, yet the nearly perpendicular to the face of the bastion and ex-
parapets of those flanks were liable to be destroyed by the ! tending to the place of meeting from the counterscarp of
fire from the enemy's counter-batteries [H, Fig. 1, BAS- ' the main ditch at a point opposite the middle of that face.
TIO.V], and they were enfiladed from the rampart of the | The works thus formed, one over each lace of the ravelin
ravelin (Q), or from the glacis of the places of arms (L).
Besides affording additional fires for the defence of the
main ditch, the tenaille serves to cover, in part, the revet-
ment of the curtain in its rear, and prevent it from being
Y, constitute a tenaillon ; before each line of rampart is
a ditch, and part of the general covered-way, the main
ditch and that of the ravelin being in the rear. The two
laces which are beyond the salient angle of the ravelin
breached bv fire from any lodgments of the enemy on the would, if produced towards the latter, form with each
I ' T. 1 lit j ' 1 1 —it I*. 1_ 1- - 11 ••«
glacis. Its parapet serves also to mask the postern in the
curtain of the enceinte, which would otherwise be so much
exposed to the fires from the counter-batteries, that the
defenders might be unable to communicate through it
other a re-entering angle, whose vertex would coincide
with that of the said angle.
The objections to tenaillons are.'that the besieger would
experience little difficulty in establishing a lodgment on
with the outworks. On this account the breadth of the that part of the covered-way or glacis which is imme-
ditch between the curtain of the tenaille and that of the ! diately in front of the salient angle of the ravelin ; and in
enceinte is made such only as to allow the parapet of the this situation he would be able to breach the faces of the
former, with the relief determined as above mentioned, to
conceal the postern from the view of the enemy on the
g!:u-is. This ditch is advantageous in preventing the de-
fenders of the tenaille from being injured by the splinters
which may be detached from the flanks and curtain be-
hind it ; and, when dry, it serves to cover bodies of troops
-_ 1 ! I. ' ,• . I I 1 L _ 1_ Al. _ 1 ' 1
two half-bastions in four places, by fires of artillery directed
along the ditches of the ravelin and those on the side
fare;, of the tenaillon. The salient angles of the tenaillon,
and of the ravelin which it covers, may be breached at the
same time, and, when the ditches are dry, it would be
possible to attack and cany the ravelin at the time of
which may issue from thence and attack the enemy while { making the assaults on the tenaillon: then, the enemy
_r the main ditch, prc\iously to making an assault, having trot possession of the former work, any retrench-
Il'thc main ditch contains water, the tenaille serves to ments which may have been made in the tenaillon must
lie serves to
t the boats and rafts by which the defenders of the
enceinte communicate with the outworks.
The tenaille has been considerably improved by Bous-
mard, who, returning, in one respect, to the original idea
of \auban, has given flanks to the work in order that
the main ditch may be directly defended by them. These
flanks are raised high enough to cover the revetments of
the flanks of the bastions, while their upper surfaces may
azcd by a fire of artillery from thence ; and, instead
necessarily be abandoned by the defenders.
At the siege of Lille, in 1708, one of the tenaillons
held out a long time, but this is ascribed by French
engineers rather to the faulty manner in which the siege
was conducted by the allies than to the strength of the
work.
The re-entering space between the two faces which are
in the prolongation of the faces of the ravelin, and which
constitute the head of the tenaillon, is sometimes occu-
of bcirii: formed with open terrcpleins, and parapets for j pied by a small redoubt, consisting of two ramparts per-
musketry, as usual, each flank of the tenaille is provided
with casemates, or vaults, for four pieces of artillery which
are placed nearly on a level with the terreplein of the
covered-way. These guns are consequently capable of
being directed against the counter-batteries (H) of the
enemy, as well as of defending the foot of a breach in the
:ion.
This construction was adopted by Chasseloup de Laubat
pendicular to the faces which have been just mentioned ;
and thus there may be obtained a good crossing fire for
the defence of that part of the covered-way which is con-
cealed by the salient angles of the tenaillons from the
defenders of the bastions.
Demi-tenaillons are works placed also on the sides of a
ravelin, and consisting of two ramparts which are per-
pendicular to and nearly opposite the middle of the faces
in the tenailles of the detached works which he executed I of the bastions and ravelins: these are usually accom-
about Alessandria, in Italy, when Napoleon (after the —
battle of Marencn. proposed to make that, city the base
of his operations beyond the Alps. But, in order to avoid
the mischief which results from a fire directed against
.nates (the shot in striking the cheeks or sides of the
emir, ' Hi them splinters, which being
vault do more injury to the defenders than
the >-hot itself), this engineer raised before each flank of
the tenaille a mas.-, of earth which was reveted with brick-
work, and perforated in such directions that, in defending
1he ditch, the shot, from the casemates could be fired
through the apertures, v,hile the mass served as a mask
t the enemy from seeing the cmbra-
he flanks of the tenaille.
Belidor, in his 'Science des Ingenieurs' (1729), proposed
in the form of a circular arc,
panied by eounterguards which cover the salient angles
of the latter works, and are called Bonnets.
TENANCY. [TENANT.]
TENANT. [TENURE.] Tenants, in the more extended
legal sense of the word, are of various kinds, distinguished
from each other by the nature of their estates ; such as
tenants in fee simple, in fee tail, for life, &c. [ESTATE;
TENANT IN FEE SIMPLE, &c.]
TKNANT AND LANDLORD. The word tenant in the
more limited legal sense, which is also the popular sense,
is i>ne uho holds land under another, to whom he is bound
to pay rent, and who is called his landlord. The present
article is confined to this sense of the word, in which it is
proposed to show the nature, construction, and effect oft he
conn-act by which the relation of landlord and tenant is
•c(l; the rights, liabilities, and duties of each under it;
Main and the shoulder o1' it ceases or may be terminated ; and the legal means
bastion. But this construction, to which the name of by which the rights and duties of each may be enforced.
T E N
190
TEN
The word land is here used in its comprehanBT6 legal sense,
which means not only the actual land itself, but .il-o all
things, such us buildings, woods, and water, v\ '
upon it. An} tint who ha.s an estate in Iniul.
is also in posses- t the land to another. T!
meter and duru;
tlu1 natnii ol the 1<
partly by tin' contract of lettinir. Thus uni1 whu is tin1
ouncrol laiiil in fee simple iiiiiy !«•! the land for any limited
period, while imr who hokls only fur lift- ciiiinot let for any
longw period than the life upon which his eslu1
unless he has a special \> .nit leases ; an<l if he
should let for any longer perio< 'eiiant
will cease on the expiration of the life. To constitute the
relation of landlord and tenant, the period for whirh the
land is let must be shorter than that during which the
land is held In the lessor, so that, the lessor may
>ion. If be part* with his an a.-.-
signor, not a lessor. Where the lev place by an
express contract between the parties, the contract is called
a lease. [LEASE.] A lease may be made by deed, by
writing without deed, or by a mere verbal agreement, liy
the 2it l_'h. 11., c. 3, s. 1, all !< In land,
N-c. not put into writing, and signed by the pai '
making or creating the same, or their agents thereunto
verbally authorized or by writing, shall have the force and
eli'ect of leases or estates at will only, and shall not either
in law or equity be deemed or taken to have any other or
greater force or effect. &c. The second section of this
makes an exception in favour of 'all leases not ex-
ceeding the term of three years from the makinc thereof,
whereupon the rent reserved to the landlord dining Mich
term shall amount unto two third parts at least of the full
improved value of the thing demised.' Under the con-
struction which this statute has received, an unwritten
lease for a longer period than three years will < i
tenancy from Near to year, and the terms as to rent, &c.
upon which the tenant holds will be those which are
. d upon in the unwritten lease. The loss of a lease
will not destroy the tenancy, provided the previous exist-
ence and the tenns of it can be pro\ed.
But the relation of landlord and tenant may be created
otherwise than by a formal lease. If one man with the
nt of another occupies his land, a contract of letting
timed to have been made between them, and '
cupier becomes tenant to the owner. Formerly Mich
tenants were called tenants at will, and miirlit ha\
turned out at any time by the landlord ; but now a more
convenient and reasonable construction of their o
lion prevails, and they are considered to be upon 1h:
fooling as if the lands had been let to them for a year
dating from the commencement of their occupation. At
the end of the first year, a second year's tenancy begins,
unless six months' notice of the intention to determine the
contract has been given by cither party to the other, and
soon from year to yeajr. The same com! ruction
plied to cases where a tenant continues to occuj
after the expiration of a lease made by deed ; but in this
cue all the covenants of the expired lease as to payment
of rent, repairs, insmancc, and the like are hi
unless the leaM -iroying th'
and e\en it there should be, a a dif-
ferent rent, still the old c» '.unless thi
is cancelled. If a party who has the p<. t a-idc
an existing lease chooses to receive nut under it, he will
be held to II;IM • , it : and c\cn where
delcnnim .
longer period than he was entitled in ciaM on.
conie lll>on his death ; jet if Ih
•ioner has allov to la} out monc\ mi •
raises, he will be prevented by a court of equity I win
disputing the lease.
Besides tenancies for fiv .a tenancy may exist
i ami by SiittiTancc. ['I • ff.fl \vr
AT Si'KFKKANCK.] A tciiiuit ut will cnimut lawfully be
..ossession, nor can the limdloid succeed in
etmeiit airaiiisl bun, till :n uid to
quit lui- been MIII.|>' upon liim by bis landlonl : but a tenant
Dy •utterance maybe turned out by an action of ejectment
without :• I. A master may let land to b
vant, mitwhrro the MTVant is allowed by the in:ister to
oeciii ..-uring to him for Hie mere pmposeof
more conveniently pertbrming liis duties as sen ant. or as
in part or total payment of wnge*. •
..lered
to be in Ihe occu]>ation of Ih.
landlords and tenants irenemlly applies also, so fur a.-
-.aiiid by the ]>articulitr circuit'
-. to the cane of the letter*
the relation of landlord and tenant
either by express or by implied contract, certain
terms are implied by law to have been agreed upon by the
itract. It is of eou:
.-.here the contra. ss, to
implied by Ihe language o
Hut it ma;,
comprehensive in their nature.
in Jaw, the interests of par
by leaving them to the ireneial protect!
Mils than by attempts to dctr
meration in detail the resp, ; the
landlord and tenant. The terms implied on II
the landlord are, that the tenant shall (juicth
premises ; on the part of the tenant, that he v»i':
Keep the premises in repair to a certain here-
after mentioned, and use the land. Kic. in a fair and hus-
bandlike manner.
As a general rule it may be laid down that the tenant is
not entitled to set otf against his rent, di ! n the
landlord to him; hi:' ptions. When
the landlord is himself tenant of the prcmi-
landloid, and neglects to pay bis rent, and the
' is called upon to pa} it to th, ;.upeiior la-idli.
may do so, and set it off airainst the rent due from him to
his own landlord. Payments also made b\ ;ndcr
the land-lax ac! ;38Geo. III. may be set off against (1.
due to his landlord. AVhen a landlord is bound to n
and the tenant, in order to prevent further dilapida
himself, expends money on the repairs, or the lamllo
undertaken to icpax the tenant the amount r:
kc. paid in the first instance by him, the I.
may set off. If a tenant has covenanted without
or reservation to pay rent during Ihe term for which the
lease has been granted to him, he will be bound to
e\eu although the (.'remises should be entire!}
by fire or other carnally: ami liould
have assigned his Icn-i- to another and ceased to be in
possession, he will still remain liable under In-
to pay rent. But the paHy to whom he ::ed it
will, as a general rule, remain liable for rent to the original
landlord only so long as he continues in the possession of
the premises.
Generally, the tenant is bound to repair the prcr
Repairs have been divided into 1\vo Ki Mntial
repaii-s and ordinary repairs. Tlie di\ • ars a
'imple one, but great difficulty often
•e in di-tcuni;iing to which land any particula:
ol repair belongs. Ti is are
said to be liable for .substantial icj
nant.s from ycai
ordini
, no case, unless undi
:icnt to 11. .-lion for ni
i for not rebuil' l.een
a total destruction of tlu But in the c
short t if the landlord should not rebuild .
| . the tenant would be jus-
tilied in (jiiittint; the jiremises and would i liable
for rent. It has In en already observed ilia' 'iidcr
a lease which coi to repair, 'hug
rent alter the expiration of hi
ii-nant, will still be liable to rep:. ir in the
manner provided loi
: and if li. ,ieh a
liability, lie should guard
ment. In the ciuse :
has be. n b\ the | .
ol the lease will be looked to
minitur what are the duties and i
\.i tenant, in th .neiit
to thiit d to rebuild al'ler accident:
linn of the premises by tire. But i:
nant to ritpair, and /••'-• ('. the tci -id to
rebuild even in the case of destruction by file. Cove-
TEN
191
TEN
'.•• are said to be construed by tnc courts
favourably for the landlord, but the tenant is not bound
to counteract the natural consequences of the wear of time
and of the elements.
In agricultural tenancies the lease itself generally de-
termines the mode in which the farm is to be treated, and
the meaning of the expressions used will be ascertained by
the construction put upon them by persons familiar with
husbandry. Unless also the lease expressly or impliedly
excludes the operation of the custom of the country, the
tenant is bound to conform to it. The custom of the
country means the general practice employed in neigh-
bouring farms of a similar description, with reference to
rotation of crops, keeping up fences, and other like mat-
of farms it is often the practice to protect
the landlord against certain acts, of the tenant, such as
.liinir up meadow land, &c., by introducing certain
-ions into the lease. These provisions may operate
according to the phraseology used, either to assign a
penalty or to determine the liquidated damages agreed
to be paid for the act done. It is often a matter
of great importance and of some nicety to determine
under which class the provisions fall. If under the
first, the landlord is not entitled to the whole penalty
upon the act being done, but he can only recover in an
action the amount of the actual damage which has ac-
crued. If under "the second, he is entitled to the whole
amount of the damages agreed on. A covenant by a
tenant not to plough up meadow under a penalty of 5/.
for every acre ploughed, is an instance of the first class :
a covenant to pay nl. rent 1'or every acre of meadow
ploughed up, is of the second class. The right to timber
and timber-like trees belongs to the landlord ; loppings
of pollards and bushes, to the tenant. Different definitions
prevail in different counties of timber and timber-like
trees, and various customs prevail as to what amount of
wood the tenant may be allowed to employ Barter the
landlord has been called on to select il for the puipc-rs
of the farm. No tenant, unless he employs the land as a
nurseryman or gardener, can remove any kind of shrub
from tlie soil, not even a row of garden box, though planted
by himself. [WASTE.] Neither can a tenant remove lix-
though put down by himself. A fixture is a chattel
which is itself let into the soil, or united to some other
which is let in. There are some exceptions to this rule in
favour of fixtures used for the purpose of trade or agri-
culture, or merely ornamental purposes, where the removal
will cause little or no damage. (Amos and Feraid, On
Fixtures.)
The tenant in occupation of the premises is, in the first
instance, liable for all taxes and rates of every description
due in respect of the premises. The party therefore who
is authorised to collect them may proceed against the
tenant in occupation to recover them. It is generally a
matter m agreement between the landlord and tenant that
the tenant shall pay all rates and taxes except the land
tax. If however the landlord has undertaken to pny the
tenant the rates and taxes, and fails to do so, the tenant
may deduct, the amount from his rent, or bring an action
to recover it; but this should be done during the current
year, and if the tenant allows a considerable time to elapse
without claiming a deduction or bringing an action, he
will be held to have waived his claim to recover them
from the landlord.
Where a fixed rent has been agreed upon, has become
due, and is neither paid nor tendered, the landlord, under
the exceptions mentioned hereafter, lias a right t»
growing crops, any kind of stock, goods, or chattels, upon
the premises, or pasturing any common enjoyed in right of
the j . hether such things are the actual propcity
of the tenant or not; and if the rent remain, unpaid, he
may sell them. The exceptions are: Things in actual
.-clothes then being worn, or a horse on which a
in is actually riding. The reason given tor these ex-
ons is that the seizure of goods so circmiish.
i Uad 1o a breach of the peace. Things sent to a
tradesman lor t; n of being worked up by him ;
goods sent by a principal to his factor for sale,, and the
onveying them ; the (roods and cattle
brio ;,(. an inn ; Luoil.s that are already in
the en-tody ol1 the law. vli a- i ncids in a bailiff's hands
ition. fscc. The tools. Sec. of a man's
plough, Sec., are not liable to distress
if there are other goods sufficient in value upon the
premises. [DISTRESS.]
The contract of letting may cease otherwise than by the
mere lapse of time. By 29 Ch. II., c. 3, the Statute of
Frauds, a surrender of a lease can only be by a deed or
note in writing, signed by the party surrendering or his
agent authorised in writing, or by act and operation of
law.
The deed or note in writing must proceed upon mutual
agreement between the tenant in possession and his im-
mediate landlord, and, besides being signed, must be duly
stamped. A lease may cease to exist by act and operation
of law: 1, upon the acceptance by the tenant of anew
lease in writing for the same premises from the landlord,
the operation of which is to begin at some period during
the term for which the original lease was granted ; 2, in
the case of a yearly tenancy, where the landlord permits
the tenant to quit, and he does quit, and the landlord
accepts the possession ; 3, where the estate of the landlord
and tenant become united in the tenant, the tenancy
ceases to exist ; 4, by forfeiture. A forfeiture may arise
either by a breach by the tenant of one of those conditions
which are implied by or attached to the relation of land-
lord and tenant, as where a tenant disclaims or impugns
the title of his landlord by acknowledging, for instance,
tin; rieht of property to be vested in a stranger, or asserts
a claim to it himself, or by a breach of a condition which
is expressly introduced into the lease, the breach of which
is to be attended with a forfeiture of the tenancy, as a con-
dition to pay rent on a particular day, to cultivate in a
particular manner, Sic. To this head may be referred
provisoes in a lease for re-entry by the landlord on the
doing or failure to do certain acts by the tenant, such as
the commission of waste, the failure to repair, Sec. The
courts are said to be unfavourable to forfeitures ; therefore,
when the landlord has notice of an act of forfeiture, or an
act which entitles him to re-enter, lie must immediately
proceed in such a way as to show that he intends to avail
himself of his strict leccal right. If after the commission
of the act he does anything which amounts to a subsequent
recognition of the tenancy, as by the acceptance of rent
subsequently, due, he will be held to have waived his riuht
to insist upon the forfeiture.
A yearly tenancy, where no period of notice is agreed
on, must be determined by a notice to quit at the expi-
ration of the current year, given six months previously.
If the period at which the current year expires is uncertain,
the notice should be to quit at the end of the year which
shall first occur after the expiration of six months from
the service of the notice. Where a fixed period of 111
is agreed on, what has been said as to the period will apply
to the period agreed on. Where different portions of tin-
premises ha\e been entered on at different times, tin-
entry upon the principal portion will, for the purposes of
quitting the premises, be considered as the entry upon
the whole ; and in case of a dispute at a trial which i
principal portion, the jury must determine. In the '
of lodgings, the time, when less than a year, for which
they are taken, will be the time for which a notice is ne-
\ . Tims lodirings taken by the month or week
require a month's or week's notice. A notice to quit may
be waived by an acceptance of rent or by a distress for
rent due after the expiration of the notice.
If by the default of the landlord the premises cannot, be
occupied beneficially, as where the landlord is bound to
repair, &.C., and does not, the tenant may quit without
notice.
The notice to quit need not be in writing, though, from
the greater facility of proving it, a written notice is always
desirable. It should distinctly describe the premises, be
positive in its announcement of an intention to quit or
require possession, be signed by the party giving it, and
ser\ed personally upon the party to be aft'ected by it.
If a tenant, alter having given notice to quit, continues
to occupy, he is liable to pay double rent. If he does so,
no fresh notice is necessary. If he continues to occupy
after (lie landlord has in veil him notice, he is liable to pay
double value for the premise's.
At the expiration of the contract the tenant is bound to
deliver up possession of the premises; but if either by
special agreement or by the custom of the country the
tenant i., entitled to the crops still standing on the 'l;:nd,
and which are called away-going crops, he may enter for
TEN
192
T 1
the purpose of gathering them, ami a is and
stables for tin- purpose of threshing and conveying them
away. The in-coming tenant may also enter during the
tcmiiicv of the preceding tenant to'plough and prepare the
land.
An action for the recovery of rout may. rfthe land is let
by !i-:i-r \niiler seal, be in debt for the amount, or in
uiint for the damages incurred by tlie non-payment of it.
If there is no indent ure. the action may lie in debt on the
simple eontruct. or in assumpsit for the use and occupation
of tl\e hind.
If the tenant refuses to deliver the possession of the
land, the landlord may bring an action of ejectment to
. er it. Hy -1 Ueo.'lL. c. 2X, which was passed with a
view to remove the difficulties existing undi-r the common
law as to the necessity t'.ir a formal entry. K.e. by the land-
lord, it i.s enacted that where there is half a year's rent in
nrrear, no snflic. -s on the premises, and the land-
lord to whom the same is due has a risrht of re-entry, he
may, without any formal demand or re-entry. sen e a de-
claration in ejectment, which shall stand in place of the
•feme.
Hy the 11 Geo. II., c. 19, and 57 Geo. III., c. f>2. if a
tenant, under any lease or agreement, written or \
though without a clause of re-entry, of lands at a rack-rent,
or rent of three-fourths the yearly value, shall he in arrcar
for half a year's rent, and shall leave the premises deserted
and without sufficient distress, any two justices of the
county, at the request of the landlord, may go and \ievv
the premises, and fix on the most conspicuous part ot
them notice in writing on what day. distant foiuteen days
at least, they will return again to view the premises : and
if on the second day no one appears to pay the rent, anil
there is no sufficient distress on the premises, the justices
may put the landlord into possession, and the lease slial
become void. These proceedings are subject to appeal
before the judges of assize for the same county at the cn-
sninsr assizes.
Hy 1 & 2 Vic., c. 74, where the interest of any tenant
of land, &c. at will, or for a time less than seven year-
liable to the payment either of no rent or a rent of less
than 20.'. a year, shall have ended or been duly determined
and the tenant shall refuse to quit, the landlord may ser\i
him with a notice, a form for which is given in the act, to
appear before a justice for the county ; and if he fails U
show satisfactory cause why he should not give up ;
won, the justices, on proof of the tenancy and of the e\
piration of it, may give possession to the landlord. If Hit
landlord was not at the time of the proceedings lawful!)
entn in. he will be liable to an action o
trespass at the suit of the tenant, notwithstanding the ac
t f parliament.
WoodtaH's Limll',rd and Tenant ; Coote's Landlord
unit Ti-ntinl.:
TFAA.NT AT WILL, AND FROM YEAH TO
YEAK. -Tenancy at will.' says Littleton, s. (is. 'i
where lands or tenements are let by one man to anothe
to have and to hold to him at the will of the lessor, lv
force of which lease the ion. In thi
case the lessee is called tenant at will because lie hath no
certain or sure estate ; for the lessor may put him out at
what time it please) h him.'
An estate at will may arise by implication, as well as by
express word*. Thus, wl: at for years continues
in possession after the cvphation of his term, and pavs rent
an before, the payment and acceptance of rent constitute
a tenancy at will. So, where a man enters uiidei an agree-
ment for a lease ora contract for the purchase of an estate,
he must be considered at law as the tenant at will of the
. the legal title. (10 Vin., Ab., 400; IB.
and (,'., -US: :i Camp., s.
Where a mortgagor continues in possession of his land
with the consent ol the mortgagee, alter default in pay-
ment of principal and interest at the time stipulated in
lile i Seed, he is tenant at will. So also, where
the legal estate invested in a trustee. I lie beneficial owner.
>/. it he be in possession, isi-otisi.:
law a» tenant at will under the trustee. (Cruise, Digest,
tit. i), c. I.
A tenant at will having no certain estate, has nothing
which he can giant to another, and a person entering
under a grant from a tenant at will is subject to an action
of trespass. 'C j. Liu ., 57 a.)
A tenant at will has no right to commit any kind of
but, on the other hand, he is not liable to repair or
I houses, vVc., and then is no remedy
against him for perm , a ; 5
/... i:i h.)
A tenancy at will may he determined cither by e\
.lion of the lessor that the U-iiant shall hold no
oncer, which must be made on the land, or notice given
if it to the Ics-ec (Co. Lilt.. .V> b. . or
iwnership exercised by the landlord inconsistent with the
continuance of the estate, such as entering on the land
ind cutting down trees demised, making a leotiiucnt.
lease for years to commence immediately. On the p:.
the tenant, any act of desertion, an assignment 01
land to another, or the commission of v .luna-
tion of his estate. A les ,,ir determining the tenant-) !••
the rent is due loses the rent ; and on the other hand, the
'A ho determines it before the rent is due inns!
withstanding pay it up to that time. If either paity die,
the tenancy, if it be of a house, continues till the next
rent -day; and if of land, until the summer profit -
received by the tenant or his rcpresentatr. Lilt.,
55 b. 57 a.)
Where a tenancy at will is determined by the 1<
the tenant is entitled to emblemcnts: but not if it be
determined by the tenant himself. (Litt., $08; 5 AVy..,
116.)
It is settled that a landlord cannot hi in. -inent
against the tenant at will or his representatives without
giving six months' notice to quit. (Cruise, tit. '.), c. i., }
15.)
The courts are always inclined to construe demi
r.o certain term is mentioned, not as estates at will, i
tenancies from year to year: and the circumstance of an
annual rent being reserved has been considered sufficient
to warrant this construction. (2 Hhu-kst., 1171.) "Where
a remainder-man receives rent from a tenant under a lease
for vcars which is void as against him. before elcctit
avoid it, a 'enancy from year to year is cieated.
It., -178.) Also where an agreement tor a lease for mine
than three \ears is made byparol, and is therefore void by
the Statute of Frauds, there is a tenancy from v car to year
regulated by the terms of the agreement. (•"> T. I'., -171.1
A tenancy from year to year, when once constituted, is
binding not only upon the rcvcisiom-r, but his assignee
(1 T. li.. :i~S), and does not cease upon the death of
the tenant, but goes to his executors or administrators.
Ct T. /i., 13; 15 Ves., 241.) The tenant is entitled to
six months' notice lo quit, ending at the expiration of
the year, and thus a new year is continually added to the
term as often as the half year's pre\ious notice is omitted
to be given at the proper time. ('.\ li. and ('., i
A tenant at will is capable of taking a release of the in-
heritance after he lias entered, but : ot be
the foundation of a remainder. (Litt., iii.. -Kk) ; H Co..
TENANT A? SUFFKRAM'K. says Lord Coke, -is
lie that at first came ia by lawful demise, and alter his
estate endcth coutimicth "in possession, ami wrongfully
holdelh over.' Tim- a tenant pur nut re r/'c. continuing
in possession after the death of IT^/IU'I/II,' nr. a tenant
for years holding alter the expiration of his term, and a
person who. ha\ing been tenant at will, continues in
after the death ol the It-s.sor, are all tenants by suf-
ferance.
A- the tenant at sufferance holds only by the lad
the owner, there is no privity of estate between them, and
then-lore the tenant at sufferance is not capable of taking
a release ol the inheritance. (Litt., £-lf«0.) On the same
ground it was held that tenants at MiflVrnnci
bound to pay any rent : but by the -1 (no. 11.. C. '>>, £ 1. it is
enacted that ' where any tenant holds over after demand
made and notice in writing given for delivering the |»
sion. such persons so holding over shall pay double the
value of the lands so detained, lor so long a time as
the same are detained ; to lie recovered by action of debt,
against the. recovering of which penally there shall be no
relief in equity.' Hy the II (!eo. II., c. 111. £ IS, a similar
penalty is imposed On tenants giving notice to quit and
afterwards holding over. And by the 1 fu-o. IV., c. K7,
- piuvisions are made for cm.bll.ig land!,
speedily to recover possession of lauds and tenements un
lawfully held over by tenants.
TEN
193
TEN
TENANT-RIGHT is the name for a species of custom-
ary estates peculiar to the northern parts of England, in
which border services against Scotland were antiently
performed before the political union of the countries.
Tenant-right estates were holden of the lord of the
manor by payment of certain customary rents and the
render of the services above mentioned, are descendible
from ancestor to heir according to a customary mode dif-
fering in some respects from the rule of descent at com-
mon law, and were not devisable by will either directly or
by means of a will and surrender to the use of the same,
though they are now made devisable by I Vic., c. 26, s. 3.
Although these estates appear to have many incidents
which do not properly belong to villenage tenure or copy-
hold, not being holden at the will of the lord, or by copy of
court roll, and being alienable by deed and admittance
thereon, it has been determined that they are not freehold,
but that they fall under the same general rules as copy-
hold estates. (Doe d. Reay v. Huntington, 4 East, 271.)
TENANT IN FEE-SIMPLE. A tenancy in fee-simple
is the greatest estate which a subject can have in land.
[TENURE.] The possession of an estate in fee-simple in-
volves a complete power of disposition over the land;
and after a grant made in fee-simple the grantor has parted
with his whote interest.
The words necessary for transferring an estate in fee-
simple may be reduced to this form : ' I give this land to
you and your heirs.' (Litt., 1.) The addition of the word
' heirs7 is absolutely necessary in a deed, and no other ex-
pre^ion will serve ; for any such words as ' I give the laud
to you;' or 'to you for ever;' or ' to you in fee-simple,'
would carry to the grantee nothing more than an estate
for life. But words of limitation, such as ' heirs,' are not
now necessary to pass a fee-simple by devise. (1 Vic.,
c. 26, s. 28.)
When the tenant, in fee-simple dies intestate, the estate
descends to the heirs general of the purchaser (in the sense
in which that word is explained in 3 &4 Wm. IV., c. 106),
whether male or female, lineal or collateral. [DESCKNT.]
Lands in fee-simple in possession are subject to the
courtesy of the husband and the dower of the wife. fCoua-
DOWKR.]
Lands in fee-simple in the hands of the heir were subject
at common law to the debts of the ancestor due to the
crown and to specialty debts. By the 11 Geo. IV. and
1 Wm. IV., c. 47, a complete remedy was given for all
kinds of specialty debts, both against the heir and devisee ;
and by the 3 & 4 Wm. IV., c. 104, estates in fee-simple
are made liable in the hands of the heir or devisee lor
payment of the simple contract debts of the ancestor.
rotates in fee-simple are forfeited to the crown for high
f re;ison. (Co. Lift., 390 b.) In cases of petty treason and
felony the forfeiture to the crown is only for a year and
a day, called the minus, dies et vastum ; after which
time the estate escheats (in cases of petty treason and
murder) to the lord. By the 54 Geo. III., c. 145, the for-
feiture and escheat consequent upon attainder for felony,
except in cases of high treason, petty treason, and murder,
are limited to the life-interest of the offender. It would
seem that this statute leaves the offenderthe power of dis-
posing of the estate alter Ins decease. Trust-estates in
nple may be forfeited to the crown, but are not
liable to escheat.
An estate to a man and his heirs may be given upon
conditions or limitations, which are capable of abridging or
defeating it. The estate cannot then properly be called a
fee-simple ; but is, according to the circumstances, a con-
dilional, qualified, or base fee. (Co. Litt., 1 b.)
TENANT IN TAIL. The origin and general nature
of estates tail have been already described. [ESTATE ;
KF.M.MNDKK; SETTLEMENT.]
The estate of the tenant-in-tail has some essential cha-
racteristics. HP has a right to commit waste of all kinds
by felling timber, pulling down houses, opening mines, and
_' other like acts ; and this right of the tenant-in-tail
my manner be restrained. (11 fop., 50 a; 3 Mod.,
•1'js ; 2 Vcni., 251.) His estate, being an estate of inherit-
ance, » sailed a tenant by sufferance: he is one who, though
he rightfully entered, continues to occupy wrongfully, as
is subject, when it is an estate in possession, to the courtesy
of t! 1 and the dower of the wife. [COIIKTKSV ;
DOWER.] The tenant-in-tail is also entitled to the custody
of the title-deeds, which the Court of Chancery will order
P. C., No. 1512.
to be delivered up to him. (2 P. W., 471.) The tenant-
in-tail is not bound to pay off incumbrances affecting the
fee of the estate, as he has only a particular interest, and
not the entire property in the land; and it seems that he
is not in general even bound to keep down the interest on
such incumbrances ; though if he do pay off such incum-
brances, it will in general be presumed to have been done
in exoneration of the estate. (Cruise, Digest, tit. 2, c. 1,
s. 40; and tit. 15, c. 4, s. 74.)
By the statute De Donis the tenant-in-tail was restrained
from alienating his estate in any manner for a longer
period than his own life, that is to say, the estate of the
alienee, though not ipso facto determined by the death of
the tenant in tail, became thereupon defeasible by his
issue or the remainder-man or reversioner. (2 Ld. Ray-
mond, 779.)
If the tenant-in-tail conveyed his estate by lease and,
release, covenant to stand seised, or bargain and sale and
grant, the right of entry of the issue and remainder-men
was not affected by the conveyance. But a feoffment or
fine made or levied by the tenant-in-tail in possession by
virtue of the entail, caused what was called a discon-
tinuance of the estate tail, whereby the issue and the per-
sons in remainder and reversion lost their rights of entry
and were driven to their action. (Litt., 595, 596, 597.)
This discontinuance might be either in fee, or for a limited
period, according to the duration of the estate created by
the conveyance of the tenant-in-tail ; but while it lasted it
affected not only the estate tail, but all the remainders and
reversions. (Litt., 620, 625.) A discontinuance might
also be produced by the obligation of a warranty by the
tenant-in-tail descending on the person entitled under the
entail. This discontinuance however was but partial, ex-
tending only to the heirs general of the person who made
the warranty. (Co. Litt., 328, 329 a.) A fine duly levied
with proclamations was an absolute bar to the issue,
though not to the remainder-men, creating what was
called a base fee ; and by means of a common recovery
duly suffered, the tenant-m-tail might bar his issue and all
the remainders over, and make an absolute conveyance
of the estate. [RECOVERY.]
By the 3 & 4 Wm. IV., c. 74, fines, recoveries, and war-
ranties of land were abolished, and by the Statute of Limi-
tations (3 & 4 Wm. IV., c. 27) it was enacted ' that no
discontinuance or warranty which may happen or be made
after that day (31st of December, 1833) shall defeat any
right of entry or action for the recovery of land.' It seems
therefore that no discontinuance, properly so called, can
now be produced by any mode of conveyance, for, what-
ever may be the form of discontinuance, the last-mentioned
statute takes away its effect.
The 3 & 4 Wm. IV., c. 74, which abolished fines and
recoveries, has substituted for them certain modes of as-
surance whereby the tenant in tail may now at once bar
his estate tail and all the remainders over. [FINE; RE-
COVERY ; SETTLEMENT.]
In accordance with the principle which prevented a
tenant in tail from alienating his estate for more than his
own lifetime, leases by tenants in tail might be avoided
after their death by the issue in tail. But by the 32 Hen.
VIII., c. 28, tenants in tail were enabled to make leases
for three lives or twenty-one years, which should bind their
issue, though not the persons in remainder or the rever-
sioner.
The estate of the tenant in tail is not subject to any of
the debts or incumbrances of his ancestor, except debts
due to the crown, by the 32 Hen. VIII., c. 39, s. 75.
Estates tail are subject to the bankrupt laws. The mode
of procedure as to bankrupt tenants in tail is regulated by
the :i & 4 Win. IV., c. 74, the 55th section of which ex-
pressly repeals the 6 Geo. IV., c. 16, s. 65, and virtually
repeals the 1 & 2 Wm. IV., c. 56, s. 26. The powers of
the commissioners of bankrupts as to the disposition of
such estates are defined (ss. 56-69).
Estates tail are subject to forfeiture, for high treason by
the '_>(; Hen. VIII., c. 13. By attainder for high treason,
the estate of the tenant in tail, of his issue, and of all such
of his collateral heirs as would have been entitled to take
under the estate tail, are forfeited, but not the estates in
remainder or the reversion.
The 26 Hen. VIII. extends only to cases of high treason,
and therefore as to felonies the statute De Dnnix is still in
force, and the forfeiture by attainder for felony extends
VOL. XXIV.-2 U
TEN
194
TEN
only to the life interest of the tenant in tail. (Co. Litt.,
TKNANT KOU I.1KK. Tenancy for life of land* or
tenement* is the possession of a freehold eitatc or interest,
flu- duration of which is confined to the life or live* of flu-
tenant ur sonic other person or persons.
The estate of the tenant for fife is either (1) such as in
created l>v deed or some other legal assurance, or (2) such
as arises by operation of law.
tor life may be created by lease with livery
of seisin, or by any other conveyance :it common law which
misht be employed in coim-vim; tin- fee, or by a declara-
tion of a use, or by will. The estate so limited may be
cither to a person for his own life, or it may be trivcii to
one for the life of another, or for any number of lives men-
tioned in t hi: crant. In th is in effect
one for the life of the survivor of the persons so named.
()n the other hand, an estate may be granted for the joint
lives of A and U. in which case "it is in fact an estate for
the life of the person who dies first.
When lands or tenements are conveyed by deed, with-
out a- s limitation of the quantity of estate to be
taken by the grantee, he takes an estate for life only.
This however is the case only "hen the grantor might
lawfully create such an estate ;" for if he be tenant in tail,
the conveyance, unless it be a lease within the provisions
Of the s!:it. :!2 Hen. VIII.. c. 2S. will pass only an estate
for the life of the grantor. Co. Litt., 42 a.) Before the
1 Vic., c. 26, a devise without words of limitation conferred
on the devisee a life estate only; but now by sec. 28 of
that act, a devise, though without any words of limita-
tion, passes the fee simple, or the whole of such other
lie testator had power to dispose of, unless a con-
trary intimation appear by the will.
Formerly, when lands were given to A for the life of
15 without any words of limitation, if A, or the person to
whom he had assigned his estate, happened to din in the
lifetime of U, the estate was considered as a kind of
li,r, ,,' v, belonging to whoever first took posses-
: and the person who did so was called the general
occupant (Co. Litt., 416). [OCCUPANCY.]
ift to two persons for their lives is an estate in joint
tenancy, and for the life of the survivor, if the parties con-
tinue joint tenants; but if the jointure be se\ered, each
has then an estate in the moiety for his own life only.
(2 Blacks!., Cnni., 187.)
A condition may be annexed to an estate for life, as
well a-s to an estate in fee simple: but the condition.it
appc ! not be one prohibiting alienation on pain
or forfeiture, such n condition being considered inconsis-
tent with the nature of the estate. is \ Vs.. .\:\:\.
(2) The estates fur life arisinsr by operation of law are,
the et Ret i>o>sibility ofiaroe extinct, and the es-
tate by courtesy and the estate in dower.
The c-tate ta'il after possibility of issue extinct
when, by the death of one of the persons from \\hom the
inheritable issueistoproceed.it ha.- become impossible
that any person should c\ist upon whom the estate tail can
descend. Thus, if lands be riven to A and the heirs of his
body by B, his wife, or to A and B and the heirs of their
bodies, and B die without leavinir any issue of their two
\, from beinsr tenant in tail special, becomes
t in tail after possibility of issue extinct; which is
in effect nothing more than a tenancy for life, with cer-
tain peculiar pi mainin-r to tin- tenant out of his
former inheritance, the principal of which is the riu'ht of
committing waste. (Co. Litt., '27, t>\ Cruise, Digest,
tit. 4.)
As to the nature and incidents of tenancy by the cour-
tesy and tenancy in dow. I and DOWSR.
Tenants for life are entitled to estovers; that is t
to an allowance of necessary n •
and fences on the land ; but no t >
tenant in tail after possibility of i-
iKTthan is necessary for such purposes, or
build new houses, or open mines, without licinir guilty of
waste, unless his estate be, as it may be, made expressly
without impeachment of waste. [WASTE.]
When a tenant for life dies before harvest-time, his ex-
ecutors will be entitled to the crops then growrng on the
lands, M a return for the labour and expense of cultiva-
tion, and these are called in law Emblements. (Co, Litt.,
65 b.)
A tenant for life is not bound to payoff the
of incumbrance* affecting the inheritance, but he is bound
to keep down the interest of all such incumbtances.
(1 Bro. R., 3W; 1 Ves.jun..
lu real actions all tenants for life, except tenants in tail
after possibility of issue extinct, may pray in aid. or call
for the assistance of the person entitled to tin- inheritance.
to defend his title, because the tenant for hie is not irene-
rallv supposed to have in his possession the evidences of
the title to the inheritance. << 'misc. Hm., t. :t. ,
It seems to have been formerly considered that the 1.
for life had no right to the cuntody of the title deeds, but
the contrary appear* now to be established. - 1'.\V.,-177;
1. Vex., juii.. 7U: 1 Sch. and iVf., 319.)
The tenant for life may convey or demise his t
inent by the same means as a tenant in fee. provided he
does not attempt to convey any estate greater than hi*
own.
If he convey by prant, lease for years, bargain and sale,
or lease and release, he can pass no interest greater than
that which he himself possesses, the conveyance t,.
- is merely void, and no forfeiture is incurred, lint
a conveyance by feorl'ment, or by any assurance equivalent
to a fine or recovery, if purporting to exceed the bounds
Of the life estate, displaces the estates in remainder and
creates a wrongful fee ample. The person entitled to the
next estate in remainder or reversion becomes then imme-
diately entitled to enter, thereby restoring all the estates
which had been displaced by the tortious conveyance, ex-
cept that of the tenant for fife, which becomes absolutely
forfeited. (.Lift.. Will, fill), 415, 416.)
As to the merger and surrender of estates for life, sec
MK.KOKR and SCKKKNDKR.
The name tenant for life is also applied to the person to
whom, in settlements or wills of personal property, is given
an interest for life only in the fund which is the subject of
the settlement or will. [SETTLEMENT; WILL.]
TENANT FUR YEARS. [KSTATK ; LEASE ; TKRM or
YEARS ; TENANT AND LANDLORD.]
TKNANTS or TENANCY IN COMMON. [COMMON,
TENANCY IN.]
TENA88ERIM, or TENASSERIM PROVINCES, is a
term which has lately come into jreneral use to designate
those countries on the west coast of the peninsula without
the Ganges which lie on the east side of the Gulf of Mar-
taban. and were acquired by the Brit i>h by the peace of
Yandalm (IK'J(i) from the Birmans. At that time, the
boundaries of thi« country were very imperfectly known,
except that they were washed on the west by the Gulf of
Bengal. Kven durinir times of peace predatory incursions
had been made both by the Birmans and Siamese, which
had the effect of converting law tracts cumiir.ums to the
boundary-line into complete deserts, and thus it happened
that the limits of the liinncse and Siamese countries were
unknown to the t'.vn states, which here came into contact
with one another, and even up to the present time tin-
British are very impcifectly acquainted with the c\!
this possession. A river, Pakcham. constituted, according to
old record-, the southern boundary-line of Itiiiua in
parts, and the fi *hich were published after the
of Yandabo laid the boundary down near II N. Int.,
but it was afterwards ascertained that the mouth of this river
thoflO X. hit. and of I 'ape Victoria. During the
occupation of the country by the liirmans, it had been con-
sidered that all the country drained by the rivcis which fall
into the Bay of Bengal belonged to their dominions, and
that those whose drainage went to the Gulf of Sian formed
a portion of the Siamese empire. When the lirilish took
possession of Tena.sserim, this watershed was thought to be
from 30 to 50 miles from the Hay of Bengal, but it has
been ascertained that in some part* it is at a much Lr
distance, and that between 10" and 17" 4o'.\. lat. il is pro-
bably UK) miles from the sea. On the map iimicvcd to
Smxlirrass's liumese \\'ar, the northern boundary is laid
down between lK°and 1!)UN. Int.. but it is now known that
it is formed by the lower coiu.se of the nver Tlioung Yin, a
tributary of the Saluen, and that it docs not extend beyond
17° 4KY N. lat. Thus wo know that Tenaoerini e\!
I'romMirto 17 -Id' N. hit., audit is supposed that t
boundary, at least m some parts, approaches icr :xr K.
long. It is evident that in the present slate ofourknow-
ul the country it is impossible to determine the
area of Tenasserim, but we are inclined to think that the
TEN
195
T E N
estimate of Dr. Heifer, who assigns to it an extent o
:fO.O()0 square miles, is not too great.
The river Saluen or Salween from its confluence with the
rhoung Yin to its mouth divides Tenasserim from Binna
and theThoungYiu divides Tenasserim from the Shan States
(Laos) of Zimmay, Laboung, and Yaihang. A range o
mountains running from north to south through the whole
of the Malay peninsula constitutes the boundary between
Siara and Tenasserim as far south as the source. of the
river Pakcham, and from that point the course of the last-
mentioned river forms the boundary to its mouth. In
the Gulf of Bengal and opposite to Tenasserim are the
Andaman Islands.
Coast and Island*. — The coast of Tenasserim from the
mouth of the Salween river on the north (16° 3CC N. lat.)
to that of the Pakcham (10° X. lat.), extends in a straight
line about 45<) miles, and as its bends are not large, nor its
inlets wide or deep, its length probably does not exceed
500 miles measured from point to point. A marked
difference exUts between this coast and that of the oppo-
site coast of Coromandel. The coast of Coromandal extends
in a continuous line without a single break, and does not
afford a place of refuge even for a small vessel ; that of
Tenasserim is frequently interrupted by short projecting
capes, by which several small harbours are formed, and a
few capable of receiving large vessels. The rivers of Coro-
mandel do not admit vessels of any size, on account of
the bars at their mouth, but in those of Tenasserim a con-
siderable depth of water covers the muddy bars which
lie across their embouchures. No soundings are found
along the coast of Coromandel at a distance of seven or
eight miles, whilst along that of Tenasserim there are
soundings to the distance of 60 or even 80 miles, and
though in some places considerable irregularities occur,
the changes may be generally said to be tolerably regu-
lar, the depth decreasing gradually to ten and even
eight fathoms as we approach the land. The coast from
Cape Kyckmi or Kiaykami, situated on the west of and
close to the town of Amherst, as far south as Tavoy, is
of moderate elevation. Between Tavoy and Mergui it is
generally low, and in this part it is lined by a rocky reef,
on whicn a great number of small islands rise to a moderate
elevation above the sea-level. These islands are known
by the collective name of Long Island, and the reef on
which they rest, having little water on it, renders the ap-
proach of this part of the coast dangerous, and in many
places impracticable even for small vessels. South of
Mergui the coast-line is broken by several deep inlets,
which form large promontories, and enclose some con-
siderable islands. The intricacies on this part of the coast
:ne so numerous, that even at present it has not been com-
pletely surveyed, and is laid down rather by guess, though
of late much has been done to clear up its position by
(-'apt. IJoyd. This indented coast extends from 12" 30* to
IT SO* N. lat. South of the last-mentioned parallel in-
dentations likewise occur, but though numerous, they do
not penetrate to a great distance inland. In these parts
the country close to the sea is more elevated than at any
place farther north, and probably may contain many har-
bours for small vessels.
Numerous islands occur along the western coast of the
peninsula without the Ganges, between 14* 407 and 8* N.
lat. North of 12° they extend to the distance of 70 or
80 miles from the shore, but south of 12" N. lat. they
• if-eupy a space of only 30 miles in width. These islands
are comprehended under the collective name of the Mergui
Arehipelago. All the sea between them and the coast
of Tenasserim has soundings, though near the islands they
are rather too deep for anchorage. These islands also
break the swell of the sea during the south-west monsoon,
and accordingly the channels which divide them from
the main offer great advantages to vessels coasting along
1hi> shore, which however have hitherto been little used,
because the Mergui Archipelago has only been surveyed
within a few years. The islands themselves are rather high,
and most of them are visible at the distance of 30 to 40 miles.
Without including the islands which occur between 12° 30*
and 11" :t<)' N. lat., near the shores, and which are divided
by such long and narrow channels from the continent that
they led as parts of the mainland, the Mergui
Archipelago comprehend* seven larger and many smaller
islands. The larger islands from north to south are Tavoy
Island, King's Island, Ross Island, Domel Island, Kisse-
roing Island, Sullivan's or Lampee Island, and St. Matthew's
Island. These seven islands are more than 20 miles long,
but vary in width from three to eight or nine miles.
They are covered with timber-trees and well provided with
water, but all of them have a very rugged and uneven
surface, and do not appear to possess great fertility. No
part of them seems to be cultivated, and they are only
inhabited by a tribe of fishermen, the Seelongs. Two of
these islands require notice, on account of their excellent
harbours. The northern of these harbours is called King's
Island Bay, being formed by the island of this name and
Plantain Island, which lies east of it. This harbour is
opposite to that of the town of Mergui on the mainland.
It can only be entered from the north by large vessels, ag
the southern portion of the channel, which divides Plan-
tain Island from King's Island has so litfle depth as to be
only passable for country boats. The harbour is spacious
and safe, but the entrance has some difficulties, as a shoal
extends over a part of it, which has 19 feet of water on the
shoalest part at high-water, and only nine feet at low-
water. The second harbour is called Elephant Harbour,
and occurs at the northern part of the Island of St. Mat
thew : it is described as very spacious, and capable of con
tuining the largest navy in the world. The soundings
vary from 17 to 12, 11, and 10 fathoms nearly close to the
shore in some places, and the bottom is soft. It is pro-
tected from the sea by several small islands at the entrance,
and on the other sides it is sheltered from all winds by the
high hills which surround it, so as to be completely laml-
lorked. This harbour was discovered in 1825, by Lieut.
Low. The island of St. Matthew is the most elevated of
the group ; the highest part, situated in the middle, is
nearly 3000 feet above the level of the sea.
Mountains. — It is supposed that a continuous range of
mountains forms the watershed between the rivers flowing
on one side into the Gulf of Siam, and on the other into
that of Bengal, and that this range is the boundary-line be-
tween Siam and Tenasserim. It is also supposed that the
elevation of this range varies between 3000 and 5000 feet
above the sea-level, and that the most northern part, which
s known among the natives by the name of Thown-gee
Mountains, is the most elevated portion. It is stated that
'n this part it makes a great bend towards the east, form-
ng nearly a segment of a circle. But we have no account
if this part of the range : it has only been traversed at the
Three Pagodas, which stand near tne sources of the upper
tranches of the river Atta-yen (Attaran) ; and in reading
he account which Dr. Richardson gives of his travels, one
would suppose that at this place the summit of the range
:an hardly be less than 1500 feet above the sea-level : yet
le does not say that he traversed it by a mountain-pass.
The southern part of the range, when seen from the Gulf
of Siam, presents only a succession of peaked mountains, of
which some appear to rise to the elevation of 3000 feet.
The Siamese give to these mountains with some propriety
he name of Sam-roi-yot, which means in their language
the 300 peaks.' Two roads are said to have formerly been
ised in crossing this part of the chain ; and it is certain
hat the chain terminates, or rather has a great depression,
at the sources and upper course of the river Pakcham.
This river runs from north-east to south-west, and is navi-
gable for large boats to Karaa or Pakcham, about 40 miles
rom its source. To the east of this place runs another
river in an opposite direction, which falls into the Gulf of
Siam, and is called the river of Choomphon, from the
ilace where it reaches the sea, or Tehmfoung, as Dr.
leli'er heard it named by the natives. The interval be-
ween the navigable parts of these two rivers, occupying a
pace of about six hours' march, or 30 miles, is a level
ract. It is even stated that at high tides the rivers rise so
as to inundate this tract, and to mingle their waters ; but
">r. Heifer, who visited the place, does not mention this
circumstance, and it seems to have been stated on very
slender authority. As far as it is .known, this chain is
chiefly composed of granite and gneiss. These moun-
aing are scarcely ever very precipitous, and are generally
rounded near the tops, which rise in gentle declivities. The
surface of the rocks is generally decomposed and covered
with vegetation ; a bare rock is rarely seen. Only a few
spots are occasionally cultivated by the Kareans, who arc
n exclusive possession of these wildernesses.
Hurfwf, .Soil, and Jtirers. — The general character of
the country is hilly, and in some places even mountainous,
2C2
TEN
196
TEN
but there arc also plains of considerable extent and some
wide \ alloys. The degree of fertility which tin- soil pos-
aeaet cannot be determined with any certainty, as only
ill portion of it is under culti\:ition ; but we are
inclined to adopt the statement of Dr. Hi i .ng to
which these provinces are nuicli superior in fertility to the
Malay Peninsula, by far the greater part of them being
really" fertile, or capable of being made productive. He
thinks that the unproductive, sterile, or unavailable lands
are less than one-fourth of the whole : and he ascribes the
fertility not only to the natural constituents of the soil, hut
partly "also to the quantity of humus or decayed vegetable
matter which has accumulated through centuries, as the
whole country is an uninterrupted fore.-t, the greater part
of which has never been felled.
The Xnrthrra jiortion of Tenasserim wo shall call the
Region of the Atta-yen (Attaran;, as this ri\er diains the
most fertile portion of it, and its valley must soon become
the centre of a consideral)le population. This region com-
prehends the whole of the country as far south as 15° N.
fat., or the districts of Aniherst and Yee. The most
northern districts are mountainous. Along the southern
banks of the Thoung-yin, which forms the northern bound-
ary of Tcnasserim, runs a mountain-chain, which, as far as
it 'is known, constitutes a continuous ridge. It is called Bo-
Thowng, and rises to more than 2000 feet above the sea-
level. It is composed of sandstone, limestone, and clay-
slate, and its declivities are very steep. In some parts it is
ovi rgiown with forests of bamboo. It is not known how this
chain is connected with the Thown-gee Mountains, and
the upper course of the Thoung-yin river is equally un-
known.
The country south of the Bo-Thoung, adjacent to the
river Salween, and to the distance of ;» miles from it, for
the more inland parts are not known, is a plain, which
however contains numerous masses of rocks, composed
chiefly of limestone and sandstone. These masses are iso-
lated, but they are disposed in lines running north-north-
west and south-south-east. Some of them rise to the
height of 2000 feet above the sea-level , but in proceeding
southward they sink lower, and on the banks of the Atta-
yen they rarely exceed GOO feet. Their structure, spe-
cially that of the limestone rocks, is remarkable, as the
sides generally are almost perpendicular, and consequently
bare, except in a few places, which are not so steep,
and where some stunted trees or shrubs crow. No level
ground occurs on their top, where they are also quite bare.
On their sides there are numerous chasms and caverns. In
the southern districts the number of these isolated masses
decreases. The tracts of land surrounding their bases are
distinguished by fertility, the soil consisting of tine black
loam. The remainder of the plain is much less fertile, the
soil being composed of an arenaceous clay mixed with a
small portion of saline and vegetable matter. The forests
which cover the plain contain only trees of moderate si/e,
and there is no underwood.
Within the country just described (here is an extensive
alluvial tract, which occurs where the three rivers Salween,
Gyeng, and Atta-yen join. The principal of these rivers
is the Salween or Saluen. generally called by the natives
Than-I.weng : it originates in the south-western part of
Proper Chink, in Die province of Yun-nan, or farther to
the north; for its upper course is not known: in China it
i» called Noo-kiang and Loo-kiang. Running in a gene-
rally southern course, it is supposed to lonu the boundary
between the' Shan States (Laos), which are subject to
Siam, and the Hirman empire. This part of is course is
not known. At the mouth of the Thoung-yin il begin-, lo
separate Tenasseinn from Duma, and this is the only part
of its course which has been investigated. Though at this
point the river is only about loo miles from its mouth, and
nas a great volume of water, it is not na\igablc. The
limestone and sandstone rocks, which are very frequent in
these, parts, cross the bed of the river, and form social
ledges, over which the current rushes with great impetu-
osity. NearTnvvng-bio-myoi about 1 7'-«l' N. lat. i the lapids
are no strong as to prevent every kind of navigation except
perhaps dnnng the north-east monsoon. Then- are M'\eial
other rapids, though less dangerous, farther down, and
they cease only at Colon Island near 17" N. lat. i. where
the river divides into two channels. The eastern channel
alone i* navigable. The island is rocky, and about Id
miles long, but only about two miles wide in the widest
part. Even below this island the banks of the river are
generally bordered by limestone rocks: and the n:.
turn is very dangerous, owing to the force of the ciiiTcnt
and the numerous eddies produced by the inequalities in
the bed of the river, which in these "pine.- niely
deep. A boat once drawn within the vortex of a whirf-
pool is inevitably lost ; both boat and crew are earned
down, and never known to make their appearance again.
The Atta-\eii or Attaran is known up to tlie .
its source. Its principal blanch originates to the soutii ..f
the Three Pagodas in the Thown-gee range, and is called
Zimee. It flows north or north by west, and is rather a
dee]) river, for even at a short distance froi.
three feet deep, and this depth increases as it pro;
farther down, where it is joined by numerous small
from the Thown-gee range. The current is never rapid,
and hence it is used for floating down teak timber. The
tide advances to Nat Kyeanng, about 70 miles from the
mouth of the Atta-yen. Above Alta-yen, which is more
than :«) miles from the mouth of the'river, the /in
joined by the 'Way-nio, which comes fiom the south, and,
alter the confluence of the two branches, the ri\
called Atta-yen. This river has a verv winding course,
and the current is hardly perceptible. As the tide, which
here rises to 19 or 20 feet, advances more than 30 miles
above the confluence of the /imee with the Way-nio. it
is very probable that the whole fall of the Atta-yen, which
amounts to 50 miles, if all its bends are taken into account,
does not exceed 12 feet. Tlie liver isveiydecp: ill the
lower part no bottom is found with '.) fathoms, and up to
Atta-yen there is never less than 3 fathoms of water.
The Gyeng or Gain comes from the east, but its upper
course is imperfectly known. It is a broad river in its
lower course, but is shallow and full of sand-banks.
These three rivers unite nearly at the, same place, about
30 miles from the open sea, and by their confluence form
a broad sheet of water, which is about 15 miles long fnun
north-east to south-west, and from five to six miles wide,
and interspersed with numerous wooded islands. This
expanse of waters is separated from the sea by a large
island called Phulloo-gewn, or. according to i'lawfurd.
Hahi. This island is about 20 miles long, and 10 in ave-
rage width. A chain of low sandstone hills runs through
Its length, never exceeding 200 feet in height. The shores
of the island are covered with low mangrove jungle, but
it forms only a narrow belt, which is traversed by several
creeks that penetrate several miles into the island, and
on which behind the mangrove jungle there are plains,
which extend to the hills and are covered with rice-fields.
The water which is collected above this island finds its
way to the sea by two channels, of which the southern
runs due south and is about 20 miles long, and called the
Martaban river. The navigation of this river is difficult,
as the depth of the channel is not more than two or three
fathoms at several places, and there are many sand-banks.
It does not appear that the channel north of the island of
Phulloo-gewn is visited by large vessels.
The country which surrounds the expanse of water into
which the three rivers disembogue is interspersed with
limestone hills, but the intervening plains are covered with
a thick layer of alluvial soil. The banks of the lake and
of the rivers are covered with mangroves, and unlit for any
agricultural purpose, but at a short distance from the
water's edge the alluvial plains are destitute of trees and
.shrubs, and exhibit a very considerable degree ol fertility,
producing rich crops ol rice where thev are cultivated.
This lich agricultural tract extends to the eonllucii.
the /imee and \Vay-nio rivers.
The country drained by the Zimee is also a plain, which
is much higher than that on the Attu-yc:i river, as the
banks of the' first-named river rise to 'JO feel above its sur-
face, whilst those of the Atta-yen are \ci\ lov\ and subject
to inundation dining the rains. The plains on the Ximee
river are nearly a dead level in their lower dislrn-fs, und
no limestone hills occur above the confluence of the two
rivers; but in proceeding farther south the surface of the
country becomes undulating, and in approaching the.
ThOfrn-gee rang.' it is broken by numerous deep ravines,
though it cannot be called mountainous. This exit
1^ covered with a deep layer of clay of considerable
fertility, and the country contains e\ten.-i\e lores) s, in
which the teak ' - to a large si/e. lint there ure
also tracts of less fertility, where the soil is very hard and.
TEN
197
TEN
intermixed with small nodules of ironstone : such tracts
are always overgrown with bamboo jungle, and are the
haunts of' numerous elephants, rhinoceroses, and other wile
animals.
The country between the Atta-yen river and the sea is
covered by ridges of sandstone hills about 500 feet high.
These hills run in continuous swells as far south as 14° 30'
N. lat. This tract, whose surface is strongly undulating, is
of indifferent fertility, owing to the aridity of the soil, which
absorbs the moisture. It is chiefly covered with forests,
more or less thick according to the depth of the soil. In
many places the rocks approach the surface, and have only
a thin layer of earth over them, and in such places there
are only a few bushes, and patches of grass which soon dry
up after the rains. This tract contains two small rivers,
which form harbours. The most northern, called Kal-yen,
falls into the sea east of the new town of Amherst, of
which it constitutes the harbour. On its bar, which is of
soft ooze, there are two fathoms and a half of water at low
tide ; but within the bar, and as far as 8 miles up, it is
between five and a half and five fathoms deep ; and near
its mouth, from 400 to 500 yards wide. It thus forms a
spacious harbour, which most merchant ships can enter
at low-water neap-tides, and at high-water ships of any
burden. Near 15" 12' is the mouth of the Yee river, which
forms a wide itstuary, but it is too shallow to admit large
•Is: smaller ships may sail up to the town of Yee,
which is about five or six miles from the river's mouth.
The country east of the sandstone tract, and surrounding
the river Way-nio and extending to the Atta-yen, is the
mo>t sterile part of Tenasserim. The vegetation is stunted,
and a great part of this tract is covered with bamboo
jungle. The soil is an argillaceous transition schist, unmixed
with sanely particles, which quickly absorbs all moisture.
The Region of the Tenasserim River comprehends the
Central portion of the country, extending from 15° to 12"
.\. lat. The northern districts, as far south as 13° 30', pre-
sent a very uneven surface. Several ridges of hills traverse
the country from north to south : they consist chiefly of
granite and gneiss, and rise to a moderate elevation. They
arc generally rounded near the tops, and their declivities
are rather gentle. The valleys which are inclosed by them
are of moderate width, and fertile. The decomposed par-
ticles of the adjacent rocks arc washed by the rains from
tin- sides of the hills, and deposited at the bottom of the
valleys, where they are mixed with a large quantity of de-
cayed vegetable matter, which makes a rich soil. Level
tracts of a great extent are rare : the largest are near the
town of Tavoy and at the foot of the Thown-gee range,
where an elevated table-land occurs, called Meta-mio.
The soil of these plains consists of clay or loam, with little
sand, and it is very fertile.
The southern districts resemble the northern, except
tliat the hilly ranges, which here also ran north and south,
occupy a much smaller portion of the surface, the plains
being more numerous and of greater extent. The largest
are those which occur along the sea-shore, but especially
tin- Plain of Ttiiasserim, which is many miles in length
and several in width, and extends along the left bank of
the river above the town of Tenasserim. It is covered
with a deposit of argillaceous marl of great depth and fer-
tility. No less fertile is the extensive alluvial tract which
surrounds the several branches into which the Tenasserim
river divides before it reaches the sea, and which occupies
also the greater part of the islands which lie between
these branches. A part of this alluvial tract is unfit for
cultivation, being inundated at high-water, and covered
with mangroves. The whole region is overgrown with
forest-trees, with the exception of a few spots which are
under cultivation.
The most important river of this region is the Tenas-
serirn. According to Low, it rises near 15" lit/ N'. lat., but
other known facts render this improbable, and its sources
are laid down in our maps south of 15° N. lat. It flows
in a southern direction over nearly three degrees of lati-
tude, or more than 200 miles in a straight line. The upper
part of its course is interrupted by numerous rapids and
falls, which occur even farther down, and as far as 13^ 15',
where the last great rapids are. To this place the tides
ascend, but the river still has a rapid current, numerous
shallows, annually changing banks, and shifting shoals.
Dining the dry season it is impracticable for boats drawing
more than 17 inches. It becomes deeper at its confluence
with (he Little Tenasserim, or Khioung-gale, which joins
it at its most southern bend, and brings down a large
volume of water from the Sam-roi-yot range. Up to this
place, where the town of Tenasserim is built, the river is
deep enough for vessels of 100 tons. At the same place
the Tenasserim turns to the west, having passed between
two high hills to the north-west. Soon afterwards it
begins to divide into two arms, which in approaching the
sea again subdivide, so that, according to the survey of
Captain Lloyd, it reaches the sea by six or seven channels.
There are sand-bare across these channels, but the bar
which is found on the channel south of the town of
Mergui has depth enough for vessels of moderate size at
high-water, the tide rising between 14 and 15 feet. Below
the town of Tenasserim the river still runs above 40 miles
in a straight line. Its whole course is about 240 miles.
The river Tavoy, which originates near 15" N. lat., runs
first to the south-west, but turns gradually to the south,
so that its lower course is parallel to the shore. The wide
a'stnary by which it is connected with the sea reaches to
13" 30' N. lat. ; the whole course of the river in a straight
line is not less than 100 miles. It is stated that the tide,
which rises from 13 to 14 feet, runs up more than 50 miles
from the sea, and that to this distance the river may be
navigated by boats, though the navigation is rendered
difficult by numerous low islands and shoals. The town
of Tavoy is about 35 miles from the sea, and so far vessels
of 120 tons burden may ascend. There is no bar at the en-
trance of the river, but the navigation is intricate, owing
to the numerous shoals and low islands, as there are vari-
ous channels among them which in some places have only
2 or 2^ fathoms, but in most parts the depths are from 0 to
12 fathoms. There is good anchorage on the east side of
Tavoy Point, which is on the west side of the entrance of
the river, in G fathoms, on a soft even bottom, and it is
well sheltered, except against southern winds.
The Southern Region of Tenasserim, or that which lies
between 12° and 10" N. lat., is situated on the long isthmus
which connects the Malay Peninsula with the main body
of Asia, and is known as the Isthmus of Krah, It is the
least known part of Tenasserim. Dr. Heifer, who lately
investigated its geology and minerals, found it unin-
habited, with the exception of a few spots, and from his
observations it appears that the whole country is covered
with high hills, and contains only a few small valleys.
The soil does not appear to be distinguished by fertility,
and it may be conjectured, that with the Isthmus of Krah
that sterile tract begins which extends over tile whole of
the Malay Peninsula to its most southern extremity, and
which, though favourable to the growth of fruit-trees,
produces only scanty crops of rice and other grain. Tim
inhabited places of this tract are almost exclusively
confined to the banks of rivers, and do not extend far
inland. The rivers, though they have not a long course,
are said to be large and navigable to a considerable dis-
tance from their mouths. The largest are, from nor*h to
south, the Lenya, the Bockpyn, and the I'akchum. The
ast-mentioned river, which divides Tenasserim from Siarn,
las already been noticed.
Climate. — Like all other intertropical countries, Tenas-
serim has only two seasons, the dry and the wet season.
They depend on the monsoons, the rains being produced
)y the south-west monsoon, whilst the dry season lasts
during the north-east monsoon. There appears to be
some difference in the wet season between the climate of
Maulmain and of Mergui, the only two places in which a
'ew meteorological observations have been made, and this
difference appears to depend on the circumstance, that:
along the southern coast the effects of the south-west
uonsoon are diminished by the elevated islands of the
Mergui Archipelago, whilst farther north they reach the
and in all their force. At Maulmain the rainy season sets in
u.'.anls the end of May or the beginning of June, and dur-
ng the first three months the rains are heavy and nearly
ucessaiit, but they gradually diminish in September, and
.mtirely cease in October. This is the hottest part of the
,'ear, but the heat is far from being so oppressive as on
:he coast of Coromandel. In May the thermometer
averages at 8 o'clock in the morning 78°, and at 4 o'clock
n the afternoon 82°, in June it keeps at 72° at 8 o'clock,
ind at 70° at 4 o'clock, and in July and August at 77° at
8 o'clock, and at 80° at 4 o'clock. The thermometer has
never been observed to rise above 00°. The difference
T i:
198
'I1 K N
between tin- temperature of the air in tlic day and at
night is remarkable, as tin- thermometer is ottcn" found at
iM1, even iii July. In the dry Mttori the ther-
mometer varies between tjO" und HO", and th* WMther is
very constant, rain rarely falling, and only in short .showers.
The heal i- moderated 'by the sea und land breezes, which
blow MTV regularly in tins season.
a ill.' rainy season Bets in towards the end of
April or the beginning of May, and lasts to the month of
November. During the ttrst two months the rains are
iniHlerate, but from the middle of .lime to the bediming
.itcinher they arc heavy, when they again begin to
abate, and gradually to diminish. Rain falls also during
the dry season, but only in showers, which occur at ill-
's from four to six weeks. The greatest heat occurs
before the rains, and in Die first two months after they
have set in, but it is stated that the average temperature
of the six hottest months does not exceed 84°. Land and
sea breezes are regular during the dry season. At some
places iii the interior, which are considerably elevated
above the tea, as the table-land of Meta-mio, the climate
is some degrees more temperate than near the coast.
The climate is considered very healthy. This opinion
is confirmed by I)r. Heifer, who lived there many years,
and who savs that it is the most healthy of all known tropi-
cal countries for Europeans; and he supports his opinion by
the statement that the lists of mortality kept by the medical
gentlemen of the European British corps stationed at Maul-
main and its dependencies show that the rate of mortality
scarcely ever exceeds and is sometimes less than it would
be under similar circumstances in Europe. This is the more
remarkable, as many of the adjacent countries, and especi-
ally Aracan. which resembles Tenasserim in nearly every
respect, have acquired a bad name for their insalubrity.
Heifer cannot account satisfactorily for this phenomenon.
He finds no other reason than that the country is either
part of a narrow peninsula or immediately adjacent to
one, and that the extensive seas on both sides produce a
constant though not always perceptible current of air. by
which the noxious vapours that rise from vegetable matter
and other elements of malaria are either destroyed or car-
ried away. Even the exposure to the sun is rarely attended
by bad effects, and the climate does not produce languor
or mental inactivity, which is partly to be attributed to
the coolness of the nights.
Productions.— If the value of a country were to be esti-
mated by the number of marketable articles exported from
it, Tenasserim would certainly be one of the least valuable.
For, if a small quantity of nee and some teak timber are
excepted, hardly iny article worth mention has been ex-
ported from that country up to the last few years. Rut it
vies with any country on the globe in the varieties of its
natural products, and when cultivated it will export almost
every article which belongs to tropical countries.
Though the greater part of the country has not been ex-
plored, it is known to be rich in minerals. Gold is found
in some of the rivers, but in small quantities. A silver-
mine exist* in the range of the Bo-Thowng, but its value
is still doubtful. It has lately been ascertained that there
is copper-ore in the north-east portion of Sullivan's Island,
and on the island of Calla-gkiank, near Mergni. Tin is (In-
only metal which hits ever been worked. The tin-mines
are about one day's journey to the east of the town of
Tavoy, and in the vicinity of Mergui. But Dr. Heifer,
who has explored the southern districts, states that the
range of bills which runs north of the I'akchain River is
the richest in tin-ores, the grains or crystals being -oine-
times of the size of a pigeon s egg, and the layer in which
they are found being H or 10 feet thick. Itishi'
difficult to work these ores, as the contiguous country is
entirely uninhabited. Tin-ore is also found on the banks
of the Bokpyn river nnd on Domel Island. The richest
deposit* of tin-ore are probably yet unknown. Iron-ore of
good quality is found in abundance in the vicinity of
Tavoy, and at several other places farther south. t^\<
in the districts south i,l the Ttnasserim river. Antimony
occurs in the neighbourhood of Maulmain. Extensive
coal-measures have been lately discovered in several
places on the banks of the Tenasserim river. The coal is
generally of good quality, anil the best kind is near the
liankx of the river below the last rapids, so that it can be
brought to Mergui at moderate expense. Three or four
years ago thin mine began to be worked at the expense of
the East India Company. It is 1 1, ,;:_•;, t that the discovery
of ihi-se coal-measure* will have sum.
navigation of the (iuli of Mm-.
laeca. Limestone and marl.: • mon in the northern
distncU.
Rice constitutes the principal object of cultivation : but
it do«» not appear that irrigation is practised ; and only
one crop is tukcii. \\ ; , mtcd al a few places on
a small scale. Other objects of agriculture are sesamnm.
eludes. jams, sweet potatoes, plantains, and melons. The
sugar-i-mie, indigo, and tobacco are only grown for home
consumption, and also cotton, which is of an inferior kind.
It i* thought that these la«t articles could be raised
great extent if there was a demand for them. Among the
trees which are cultivated the most important is the
palm, which succeeds well as far north as 15° N. lat.
Since the occupation by the British, the natives have lie-
gun to cultivate it on an extensive scale, and it will
yield a large article of export if the fruits of tins palm
should continue to be used in Europe for tanning, in-1
of oak-bark and sumach. Of late years c. nut-
meg-trees, and clove-trees have been introduced,
two thrive well, and promise to remunerate the cultivators,
but the success of the dove-trees is still doubtful. The
produce of the coffee-trees is compared with t
quality of Java. Nearly all the delicious fruits which
grow in the Malay I'cniiMila and the Indian Archipelago
may be raised in Tenasserim. The durian is found up to
Id- \. lat.. and is exported to Rangoon and other p'
of Ava. The mangosteen has lately been introduced, and
thrives well, but only south of ill" N. lat.; mai.
pine-apples, guavas, and oranges also succeed well. In
some parts the arnotto(Bixaorellana is raided. Cocoa-nut
plantations are rather extensive near the sea, und also the
nipah palm (Nipa fmticans). The toddy or palm-wine of
the latter contains more saccharine matter than the cane.
Nearly the whole of Tenasserini is covered with timber-
trees, which are not much used at present; but a
countries surrounding the Bay of Bengal are mosth desti-
tute of such forests, and the "demand for timber is rapidly-
increasing, they will soon be considered as a source of
wealth. Extensive forests of teak-trees still exist on the
banks of the Attayen, and furnish at present the most im-
portant article of export. A small number of junks are
annually built by Chinese at Mergui and Tavoy fn.m
the Hopea odorata, which is also employed by the Bir-
mese in the construction of small craft. The best
timber-trees, except the teak, belong to the Hopcas. Vati-
cas, and Shoreas; the most numerous are the Di
carpeae, which attain nn enormous size, but furnish an
inferior wood. All these trees when full grown are from
70 to 120 feet in height, rising with a straight trunk -40 or
60 feet high, and before they throw out any branches Kiev
have a circumference of 10 to 3() feet. In addition to
timber, the natural productions which are derived from the
forests and plants winch grow wild are numerous. There
are various kinds of trees yielding caoutchouc, sticklac,
gamboge, sassafras, eajeput-oil, different gum-resins, nut-
oil, black varnish, sandal-wood, dammar, several tanning
substances, several dyes, aloes, and sapan-vvood. Carda-
mnm-plants arc said to be found in the mountains on the
eastern boundary, and hemp grows wild on some of the river
islands. Large tracts are covered with bamboo-jungle.
and bamboo begins to be exported, having been found of
a superior quality to that grown in the neighbouring coun-
tries. On the Sam-roi-yot range there is an aromatic
wood, called by the natives callaine, which is brought
down to Mergui, and there shipped for Rangoon.
Domestic animals are not numerous, with the
of buffaloes, which are large. As to wild animals, Heifer
observes that as Tenawerim constitutes as it were the
bridge by which the continent of Asia is united to the'
Indian Archipelago, its aoology possesses several spi
peculiar to these two great natural divisions of Southern
Asia. The number of species common to Bengal and
Hindustan is comparatively small, but in the northern
districts of Tenasserim there are many species which are
peculiar to the countries east of the Brahmapootra, and
even several of Bootan and Nepaul ; and in the southern,
others which have hitherto been exclusively found in the
Indian Archipelago.
There arc five different kinds of quadrumana: a sp.
of ccrcopithccus belongs to the rarest animals of this class ;
TEN
199
TEN
it is chiefly found in the northern districts, on the isolatei
limestone rocks. The Malay bear occurs in the mori
mountainous parts as far north as 13° N. lat. The roya
tiger is found in great numbers, and is very strong ant
large ; but it is said that it rarely attacks men. The blacl
tiger is common. There are also leopards and wild-cats
Elephants are numerous, and they have a wide extent o
forests to range in. They are killed and eaten by the
natives, who bring their teeth to Maulmain. The rhino
ceros is very common, and all the known Asiatic species
are found. The Malay tapir, called by the natives the
' great pig,' is found in the most southern districts. The
wild hog is common, and also the Sus Babiroussa. The
Cervidae are numerous : Rtisa Hippelaphus, Elaphus
Wallichii, Cervus Aristotelis, C. Axis, and C. Mont-
lac, with two other species, are known to exist. The
Bubulus Arni and Domesticus are both in a wild state
and of the Bisons, the great Gaurus is rather rare, bul
Bison gayal is very common. A variety of Cinnyris,
and Nectarinia, in its splendid plumage and diminu-
tire size, resembles the humming-birds. Four specie-! ol
Merops rival in colours the species of Java and Australia.
The Indian peacock is abundant in the interior near moun-
tain-torrents. There are five species of parrots. The Pha-
sianus gallus, the origin of our domestic fowl, is very
common in the jungle, and the native breed is kept up by
supplies of eggs from the forests. The Hirundo esculenta
inhabits the cliffs along the southern coast and the islands
of the Mergui Archipelago, and a considerable number of
the nests are annually collected and exported by the
Chinese. There are several species of hawks, falcons, and
herons, and five kinds of pigeons, some of which are very
beautiful. Fish is abundant between the islands of the
Mergui Archipelago., where an extensive fishery is carried
on by the Seelongs, Malays, and Chinese, who prepare fish
for market, which is done by spreading it over a framework
of mangrove-trees, and drying it in the sun : it is also daily
trodden with the feet twice. No salt is ever employed in
curing the fish : some kinds of fish are smoked. In these
parts there are also shrimps, prawns, &c., of which bala-
chong, or pressed tish, is made, which is an article of com-
merce. Whales are frequently seen among the islands of
the archipelago, and a little oil is got. There are also
some pearl-banks, which were formerly fished, but an at-
tempt made for that purpose some years ago was not suc-
cessful. Trepang is one of the principal objects of fishery.
Tortoise-shells, mother-of-pearl, and ambergris are col-
lected in small quantities by the Seelongs. Wax and
honey constitute an important article of internal commerce,
and are partly also exported. There are said to be five dif-
ferent species of wild bees, two of which are without stings.
Snakes are numerous, but only a few kinds are poisonous.
Inhabitants. — Heifer estimates the population of Te-
nasserim at about 100,000 individuals, and consequently
there are about three to a square mile. Though this po-
pulation is very small, it consists of very different races,
or rather we find different races mixed. This is chiefly
to be ascribed to the frequent conquests to which the
country has been subjected since the time when it was
first visited by Europeans. In the last two centuries the
Siamese, Thalians, and Burmese have alternately and more
than once po^o-cd Tenasserim. These nations appear
to have adopted a policy which we find mentioned in the
most antient historical records of Western Asia, namely,
the transplanting of the inhabitants of one country to an-
other at a great distance from it.
The bulk of the population consists of liirmans, Thalians
or Thalains, Siamese, and Karians or Karens. Though
all these nations have some physical features which belong
t'j the Mongol race, yet there arc others which indicate
that, a mixture with other races has taken place. The
Siamese approach nearest to the Chinese : they have a
flat forehead, a small nose, prominent cheek-bones, black
hair, very tliin beards, thin lips, and a colour more or less
'•.v. The Hirmans and Thalians arc half Malays anil
half Chinese, and the Karians half Malays and halt' Cau-
'1 the features of the Karians approach so
much to the Caucasian form, that many of them have aqui-
line noses, a high forehead, and the European facial angle.
This resemblance to the Caucasian race seems one of the
reasons which has led some American Baptist missin
t > consider the, Karians as the lost tribes of Israel.
The Binnans, who were the lords of the country up to
the peace of Yandabo, are still the most numerous. They
are settled in the plains on the rivers Atta-yen and Gyeng,
in the vicinity of Mergui, Tavoy, and Yee, either near the
sea-coast or on the banks of navigable rivers or creeks,
and never far inland. They are healthy, strong, and mus-
cular. Their principal occupation is agriculture. They
are indolent and self-conceited ; but honest, polite in
their manners, and neither passionate nor revengeful, by
which they are distinguished from the Malays. They are
Buddhists, and consider the sovereign of Ava as the head
of their religion : they are quiet subjects. The children
are placed at an early age in monasteries, established in
almost every village, and endowed by the voluntary con-
tributions of the inhabitants : the children remain here
for a certain time, during which they are fed by the monks,
and instructed in reading, writing, and religion ; and thus
elementary knowledge is more generally diffused among
the lower classes than in most countries of Europe ; but
the knowledge of the higher classes is not much greater.
The knowledge of their priests is limited to the ex-
planation of theological and metaphysical doctrines.
The missionaries have hitherto failed in their attempts to
convert them to Christianity, with the exception of a few
isolated instances, where Birmans have nominally become
I 'In istians for the sake of worldly gain. This want of suc-
cess is not to be ascribed to fanaticism or obstinacy on
the side of the Birmans, but to their religious dogmatical
indifference. They admit the beauty of the Christian
morals, but contend that theirs are equally good ; and
with reference to the dogmas, they say that the Christian
are as unintelligible as the Buddhist.
The Thalians or Pegnans do not differ in physical con-
stitution from the Birmans, and their separation into two
lations might be considered merely a political one, as they
lad formerly two different governments, if it were not
hat the Thalians speak a different, language, which is said
o have scarcely any resemblance to that of the Binnans.
!3ut this language is fast declining, as the greater number
of the Thalians speak the Birman language, which has
>een adopted as the language of the courts, of public
transactions, and of general conversation. The Thalians
are likewise Buddhists, and participate in the education
>rovided by that religious establishment. Their chief and
ilmost sole occupation is agriculture, and rice is almost
he only object of cultivation. A small number of Tha-
ians were settled on the Atta-yen previous to the oceupa-
ion of Tenasserim by the British, but a much greater num-
)er have emigrated since that event. Having shown
luring the war a great partiality for the British, they
eared the vengeance of the Birmans when their country
1'eiru was restored to that nation, and took refuge in Te-
nasserim, where they settled in the vicinity of the new
ettlement of Maulmain, where there are at present twenty
Thalians for one Birman.
When Tenasserim was subject to the king of Siam, the
liamese were very numerous, but alter their conquest by
Alompra they retired from these provinces almost entirely,
xcept the districts south of Mergui, where a number of
hem remained on the banks of the rivers Lenya and Bok-
>yn, that part of the country having always remained a
isputed district. The security and equitable administra-
ion introduced by the British have attracted a consider-
ble number of emigrant s from Siam, who have formed
ettlements in several purls of the country, especially on
lie banks of the Greater and Lesser Tenasserim rivers,
'hey are, according to Heifer, an industrious, hard}1 Mire,
nd more enterprising than the Hirmans, besides being
4uiet, obedient, and orderly. He thinks that their immigra-
ion in greater numbers would be a desirable accession in
tie wilds of Tenasserim. They have introduced the cul-
ivation of the sugar-cane for the purpose of making su^rar,
\hicli art they have learned from the (.'hinese ulm are
eltled in their country, though this cultivation has not
et become important. Many of the Siamese are hiints-
rien by profession, living for months in the wildest forests,
fhere they shoot elephants for the i\ory ; they are also
he trappers, tamers, and managers of elephants in general.
Under the. Birman rule few elephants were 1.:i:;-,"d, but at
iresent the practice is becoming more general through thu
e, in whose country elephants are the most import-
ant of domestic animals.
The Karians occupy exclusively the country adjacent to
he mountain-range which divides Tenasserim from Siam,
TEN
'200
T K N
never being Ibund near the sca-shor. I'll, > are said to
he the Mine nation ss Inch occupies several mountain-tracts
in liiriiiu. . DMT tin- ill- 1 til ol' tin- Jmwaddi
[liiKMv, sol. is., p. Jltii. anil to support tins u|)iiniin it i»
affirmed that till' liimiiin Karians bordering upon China,
lit tin- distance ol l:t degrees ot' latitude, speak a din
,ini' language which is current among the Knrians of
a. This liict requires to In- confirmed, lor in
other respects these nations differ greatly in habit*. In
Ilirma the Karians are the most industrious cnllisators of
the soil, and manufacture several kinds of cotton and silk
rlotli, but those of Tenasserim are an agricultural people
without any ti\rd habitations, migrating every MOOOd Of
third year. When a Kariim family lias chosen a place for
.1 plantation, huts of bamboo thatched with palm-leases
an- constructed, and a part of the forest is cleared, just as
much as is ncci-sarv to plant the ground svith rice suffi-
cient to maintain tlie settlers for a year. The paddy is
sown upon the ground, which i.s imperfectly cleared, without
ans tillage or other preparation, and whatever else is wanted
(cotton, indigo, sesamum, vegetables, ice.) is sown or
planted promiscuously on the same spot. The following
year another spot is cleared in the vicinity, and after some
years, or when a death happens, the family removes to a
greater distance, and begins again the laborious task of
felling immense forest-trees, visiting only from time to
time the old establishment, which yet yields fruit for several
seasons, and thus the Karian wanders all his lifetime with-
out ever settling permanently. It seems however that an
improvement in the condition of the Knrians is taking
. Their religion is heathenism. They believe in evil
spirits, called nfits, which have a direct influence on the
destinies of mankind, and they try to propitiate them by
sacrifices of fowls, tobacco, nee, and pieces of money,
which they deposit at certain places. The attempts to
convert them to Christianity by the American missionaries
have been successful. A tribe of the Karians, called the
Red Karians, inhabit the mountains north-cast of Maul-
main, and these mountaineers are said to live by robbery.
The Seelongs are the lowest in civilization among the
nations of Tcnn.sserim. They are confined to the islands.
of the Mergui Archipelago, and are a race of wandering
fishermen. s\ho build temporary huts of reeds, palm-trees,
and bamboos, during the inclemency of the monsoon, and
pass the rest of the year either in boats or on the sea-bench
under the shade of trees. They never cultivate the ground,
but live upon the spontaneous products, chiefly turtles,
fish, and shell-fish, which form their principal food. They
have a peculiar language, but too little is known of it for
us tn determine whether it is a mixture of languages or a
peculiar tongue. They form a petty tribe, not exceeding,
-aid, 10(10 souls in number, and it is very difficult to
meet them in the islands which they visit, as they hide
themselves whenever they see a strange sail approaching.
This is probably the effect of their having suffered much
from the pirates, who, until lately, infested those seas, and
it serves to explain the statement of the early Kuropean
nas igators, who landed on these islands, and found them
uninhabited. The Seelongs have a vague idea that there
are certain invisible beings which exercise an influence
over the destinies of mankind, but there is no established
mode of worship, and they are entirely ignorant of a future
state. No attempt has yet been made to convert them.
Heifer reports, that among the natives the opinion is
general that in the most mountainous part of the country
is a race of wild men, who shun all intercourse will
their neighbours, and seem to be hardly superior to mon
keys. He U much inclined to think that these wild men arc
the gigantic orang-outang of Sumatra. lint the Andaman
Islands arc inhabited by a puny race of men, the lowest ii
the scale of intellectual beings, which seems to belong
to the race of the Australian negroes: and only a fev
degrees farther south, in the kingdom of (jueda, a smal
tube. IhcSnmang, are found [M,M.\\ PKNINXILS. sol. MS.
p. :»27I, who greatly resemble the inhabitants of tht
Andaman Islands. It is therefore not improbable that a
small remnant of such a tribe may still exist in '!'•
inn.
The Karians, Seelong*. and the last -mentioned race an
prohahU then have emigrated from (hi
neighbouring country. Many Chi',, 'in tin
j"iiN, where they are merchants, ship-owners ship
builders, spirit-distillers, carpenters, blacksmiths, bakers
,nd garden' <>i them settled when the country
was subject tn liirma, and others luise (nine since the
ilion by the lintish. They are married to Ihnnan
vomcii. hut their children, if male*, arc br.nijht up a»
'hine.-o, ani' customs, manners, and dress of their
tit hers. There are also a number of Chuliahs.
"iiiaudel, settled in the places sshere Kuri-ij
< snle. witli whose customs and wants they are much better
icmmintfd than the natives, and by administering to which
.1111 their livelihood. The same may be said o;
ieiigiilccs, who howeser are always interior to the people
if the peninsula of HinilustAf, ill enterprise and capacity,
fheir number is not great. Vs Tena-sscrim i.s the penal
settlement t'orthe Hritish possessions in Hindustan, about
JHH) convicts base been sent there, especially Thugs.
They are treated with great mildne-s, and most of them
lave been converted into useful members of society.
Many of them have married, and on the term of their
lanishmcnt expiring have settled in the country. At
Maulmain a few Armenians and Pa, tiled, this
jeing the only place in Tenasscrim where trade is carried
on.
The English settled in Tenasscrim are almost all in
official capacities, either cisil officer.* of government or the
nilitary officers of the two regiments which arc stationed
icre. The number of private person* is small, and almost
all of them are congregated in Maulmain, svhere they are
chiefly engaged in ship-building, or otherwise connect', 1
with the teak-timber trade. Besides a tew American Uap-
ist Missionaries, there are many descendants of Portii;:
Uy intermarrying with native women, they have partly lost
[he advantages of European cisili/.ation, their condition
l>eing nearly the same with that of the natives, and fre-
quently much lower. Their steadiness in adhering strictly
to their faith preserves them as a distinct class. They have
also mostly preserved their language, but it is barbarously
corrupted.
ToH'im.—In a country so little cultivated, and the popu-
lation of which is dispersed over such an extent, there can
he no large towns. When the Hritish took possession of
the country they founded the tosvn of Amhcrst, near the
month of the Martalian river, hoping that the commerce
of the country would concentrate at this place. [AM-
MKRST, vol. i., p. 452.] But these expectations have not
been answered. Maulmain, which was at first only a
military post, has since risen into importance and is rapidly
increasing, as its situation near the confluence of the Afta-
ycn svith the Sal ween is the most favourable place for car-
rying on the trade in teak, svhich constitutes the most im-
portant article of export. Ship-building is the only trade
which is carried on to any extent. The tosvn of Tnvoy is
also small, but it has some commerce svith Rangoon
and Mergui. The tosvn of Mergui has the adsantage of
a safe ana well-protected harbour. The roadstead is be-
tween the mainland and Madramacan Island, svith a soft
Ixittom in from G to 1~> fathoms, and !.,• s are
sheltered from all winds. It is about, six miles from the
town. Hut vessels of moderate size can go over the bar
into the river, and anchor off the tosvn in five fathoms.
Though it is at present a small place, it svill probably rise
to great importance, as in the country at the back of it the
richest deposits of coal and tin have been discovered. The
neighbourhood is also particularly ssell adapted for plant-
of spice-trees, and the Siamese have begun to cul-
tisate the cane for making sugar: it is also svell situated
for commercial intercourse overland svith Bangkok and
the countries of Siam which surround the gulf of that
name. Tcnasserim, an antient town, which howcscrsvas
destroyed in the wan between the Siamese and Unmans,
is in ruins, but ssill probably be revived, osving to the coals
in the neighbourhood anil "the sloop navigation extending
to this place.
mfuctures and Commerce.— It the build-
Ig and small crall at Mergui. Tasny. and
Maulmain, then' is no manufacturing industry in
Tenasscrim; nearly the whole population IS in that
of civilization in svhich it has not vet accjiiired a tnv
refinement and comforK and articles of foreign manufac-
ture are not much in demand. Such articles as cotton-
cloth, coarse ehina-svare. and iron cooking-vessels, are
•lit by the Cliine-e from HangVok. and cotton-cloth,
gunpowder, and nrm> imported from Kngland by svay of
.- 01 Calcutta. There are also imported petroleum
TEN
201
TEN
and tobacco from Rangoon, and spices and sugar from
Penang. The chief exports are teak and rice; there are
also exported ivory, wax, tin, nut-oil, trepang, edible
birds' nests, and bamboos. The only places with which a
commercial intercourse exists are Calcutta, Rangoon, and
Penan?. It is hoped that an overland commerce will soon
be established between Maulmain and the south-western
provinces of, China, especially Yun-nan, as caravans from
those parts annually visit the Shan States (Laos) north of
Tenasserim, and the merchants of the caravans manifested
a few years ago an intention to proceed to Maulmain, but
were prevented by political circumstances.
History.— Nothing is known of the early history of these
provinces. When they were first visited by the Portu-
guese, several places were much more thriving than they
now are. It seems that at that time the bulk of the popu-
lation consisted of Thalians, and probably the country
formed a portion of the kingdom of Pegu. It was after-
wards connected with Siam, from which it was wrested
by Alompra, the founder of the present Birman dynasty,
about the middle of the last century. Notwithstanding
the repeated contests and incursions of the Siamese, it re-
mained a part of the Birman empire until it passed into
the hands of the British by the peace of Yandabo (1826).
At that time the population was estimated at 50,000 indi-
viduals : at present it probably considerably exceeds
100,000. It forms part of the government of Penang.
(Crawford's Journal of an Embassy to the Court ofAra ;
Low's ' Observations,' &c. in Asiatic Researches, vol. xviii. ;
Forrest's Voyage to the Mergui Archipelago ; Heifer ;
several ' Reports on the Tenasserim Provinces, and its
Coal-mines,' inserted in the Journal of the Asiatic Society
of Bengal, 1838 1840; Foley's 'Notes on the Geology,
&e. of the country in the neighbourhood of Manlamyeng,'
in J'liirnal nf the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1836 ; Rich-
ardson's ' Journal of a Mission to the Court of Siam,' in
Journal nf the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1840.)
TENBURY. [WORCESTERSHIRE.]
TEXBY. [PEMBROKESHIRE.]
TENCH, a fresh-water tish belonging to the family Cy-
jirinidee, or Carp tribe. [TiNCA.]
TENDER. A tender is the offer to perform some act.
In practice it generally consists in an offer to pay money
on behalf of a party indebted, or who has done some in-
jury, to the creditor, or to the party injured.
A tender to the amount of forty shillings may be made
in silver ; but beyond that amount it must be in gold. If a
tender be made of a larger amount in silver, or in bank-
notes, and no objection be taken at the time to the me-
dium in which it is made, the objection to the tender on
that ground will be held to be waived, and the tender will
be held good to the full amount to which it is made. The
money tendered must be actually produced and shown, or
at least the ba^ or other thing which contains it shown to
the party to whom it is intended to be made, unless it is
dispensed with by some declaration or act by the creditor.
This is insisted upon with such strictness, that even though
a party tell his creditor that he is about to pay him so much,
and put his hand into his pocket to produce the money,
yet if the creditor leave the presence of the debtor before
the money is actually produced, no tender will have been
made : but if the creditor refuse to receive the money men-
tioned on the ground that it is insufficient in amount, the
actual production of it is not necessary to constitute a
valid tender. The offer must be absolute and without
conditions. An offer of a larger amount with a request of
change ; an offer with a request of a receipt, or on con-
diiion that some thing shall be done on the part of the
creditor, are not valid tenders ; but an offer of a larger
sum absolutely without a demand of change is good. A
tender may be made cither to the party actually entitled
to receive it, or to an agent or servant authorised to re-
ceive it, or to a managing clerk ; and a tender will not be
invalidated even though before it is made the creditor has
put the matter into the hands of his attorney and the
managing cierk of the creditor refuses to receive it, assign-
ing that circumstance as his reason for doing so. It' the
attorney write to the debtor demanding the monov. a
tender afterwards made to him or to his managing clerk
is good, unless at the time when it is made they di
authority to receive the money. A tender ought to be
made on behalf of the party from whom the money is dm: ;
but if the agent appointed by him to make the tender offer
P. C., No. 1513.
a larger sum than he is authorized to do, the tender will
nevertheless be good for the full amount to which the
tender is made.
If the defendant in an action plead a tender, he must
state that he has always been ready to pay the money, and
he must also pay it into court. The effect of the plea is to
admit the existence of the contract or other facts stated in
the declaration which form the cause of action in the
plaintiff. The plea goes only in bar of damages. The
plaintiff therefore in such case can never be nonsuited :
but if issue is taken on the mere fact whether or not the
tender has been made, and that fact is found for the de-
fendant, it is a good defence to the action.
By various statutes, magistrates, officers of excise. SEC.
are empowered after notice of action to be brought against
them, to tender amends; and if the amount tendered is
sufficient, the tender is a defence to the action.
TENDON, or Sinew, is the tough white and shining
tissue by which muscles are attached to the bones or other
parts which it is their office to move. The name of ten-
dons however is generally applied only to those which are
thick and rounded, and which serve for the attachment of
the long round muscles, such as those of the biceps
muscle on the front of the upper arm : those which are
broad and flat, and which serve for the attachment of the
membranous muscles, are commonly called aponeuroses.
But whatever be the external form of a tendon, its intimate
construction is the same, being chiefly composed of the
same fibrous or tendinous tissue of which a large class of
organs, including the ligaments, fasciae, periosteum, and
several others, consist.
The fibrous or tendinous tissue is of a peculiarly glisten-
ing bluish-white colour, dense and tough, nearly insensi-
ble, not vitally-contractile, and very little elastic. It is
composed of bundles of delicate fibres, which are united
by cellular tissue ; and each fibre is made up of several
fibrilliE, or filaments, which are discernible only with the
microscope. The filaments are transparent and cylindri-
cal, with well-defined outlines : they vary in diameter
from 3JH, to jjtjj of an inch, and, though they have a gene-
rally straight direction, are finely undulated. The tendin-
ous fibres are from ^U to 3^ of an inch in diameter ; the
filaments are arranged within them in parallel lines, and
are connected by a firm substance, in which no distinct
structure can be discerned. The bundles of the fibres
are arranged in various plans in the different tendons and
aponeuroses : in some, they are parallel ; in some, inter-
laced or variously woven together ; but their arrangement
is always such that they possess the greatest force of resist-
ance in the direction in which the muscle acts upon them.
The tendons, like the other fibrous tissues, are composed
of a substance slowly yielding gelatine by boiling. A large
quantity of the ordinary glue of commerce is obtained by
boiling down the tendons and ligaments about the feet of
horses. They contain about 60 per cent, of water ; and
when dry become hard, brittle, yellow, and transparent.
In vital properties they are distinguished by a very low
degree of sensibility. No pain is excited by the applica-
tion of stimuli ; but when stretched or twisted, the dull
aching pain is produced, with which most persons are
acquainted as characteristic of a sprain. Their diseases are
few and are peculiarly slow in their progress.
The chief differences of appearance in the tendons de-
pend on the quantity of cellular tissue interposed between
the bundles of tendinous fibres. In the round tendons
there is so little, that it is with difficulty demonstrated,
and they are, in a corresponding degree, compact and
strong. In the flat membranous aponeuroses the cellular
tissue is much more abundant, and fills up large inter-
spaces between the fibrous bundles. The more abundant
the cellular tissue, the more numerous do the blood-
vessels of the tendons seem to be. In the round compact
tendons they are scarcely discernible ; but when well pre-
pared, the same arrangement is observed in them as in
the blood-vessels of all the fibrous tissues ; that is, they
run in parallel lines between the fibrous bundles, rarely
dividing into smaller branches, and communicating by
short canals which pass transversely across the bundles.
The blood-vessels of the tendon ure chiefly derived from
of the muscle to which it is attached. In most, in-
s a large branch runs across the line of boundary
between the muscular and tendinous fibres, and gives off
many smaller branches to the latter.
VOL. XXIV.-2 D
TEN
302
TEN
At that end uf a tendon wlm-h is affixed to a in
each primitive fibre or fasciculus of the latter [MuscLk]
terminates in an abruptly-rounded extremity, which i~
embraced by a fasciculus uf the filaments of the tendon.
expanding and enclosing it in a sheath, or in a manner
\\liK-h may be coarsely represented i
the fore fi'nirer of one hand within a V the
of all the tins;ei> of the other hand. i
bundles of cellular and fibrous tissue in the tendon :n
continuous with the cellular tissue which is placed between
the secondary fasciculi of the in:
At their opp unties the tendons nre usually
affixed to bones. Their fibres are intermixed and firmly
muted with those of the periosteum, and often pass into
the very substance of (lie bone.
iiough the chief and proper office, of tendons is to
serve as media for the action of muscles, yet many of them
fulfil other punxjses in the economy. Thus the aponeu-
roses of the abdominal muscles form a great part of the
walls of the abdomen, and, by their toughness, support
and protect the organs wit lun it s ca\ it v ; the tendons of
the muscles iif the fingers add strength to each joint mer
which the) pass; and many, in other parts, are arranged
to act like ligaments.
TKNDKAC. [T>.MiKc-.]
TENDRILS, or Cirr/ii, are those elongated and fila-
mentous organs of plants which possess a power of twisting
in one direction or another, and by which the plants on
which they grow are enabled to embrace other plant
thus to elevate themselves. Tendrils are only found on
those plants which are too weak in the stem to enable
them to grow erect. In must cases the tendrils are only
forms of the petiole; for although they may occur on the
parts of flowers, yd the flowers must be regarded as meta-
morphoses of the leaf. Tendrils are distinguished accord-
ing to the parts of the leaf from which they grow. When
the tendiil cnn-i-t- of the elongated petiole of a compound
leaf, it is called a i-irrhiix jn'tiolarix, as in the common
pea. When, as iu Smilax horrida, it branches off on each
side at the base of the lamina into a twisting branch, it is
called a cirrftux peduncularia. When it is extended from
the point of a single leaf, as in the Gloriosa superba, it is
a cirrhus and when it occurs in the petals of a
flower, as inStrophanthus.it is call I'lurix.
Those tendrils which are in connection with the stem alone,
as those of the passion-flowers and vines, are called < '«/-
preoli. The type of these organs however is the same in
all cases. (Bischoif, ll'orterbuch der l> .•'••« Bo-
tanik.)
TEREDOS (Tevtioc), an island in the Greek Archipelago,
off the coast of Troas,' in 39° 47' to 51' N. hit. and -
to 'Jo'" 5' E. long. It is said to have been antiently called
Leucophrys, ana to have derived the name Tern-Jos from
Tennes, the son of Cycnus, king of Colone in Troas, who
reigned over the inhabitants, and was afterwards deified by
them. (Pausanias, x. 1 I : Schol. in Horn. //., i. .'17
more fully Diodor., v. K'5. , According to Homer ,ll.,\\.
. it was sacked by Achilles, and occupied by the <
when they retired from the siege of Troy inimcdiat
fore its capture. i\ ., ii. 21.) This connection
with the story of the Trojan war has given Tenedos some
celebrity. It was colonized by .liolians from Ann
Laconia, under the command «f P.i-aud. r and (>
'. Pindar, .\''i//.. xi. 45 . i. 151. j Little mention i»
made of T- lory. It was independent in
the time of Cyrus, king of I'er-ia. but wa.s made subject
to Persia after the revolt of Ionia in the time of
(B.C. 493): it is a tributary of Athens.
and in the fourth year of the IVloponm -sian war took part
with the people of Metlnmna airan
bians. (Thncy., iii. 2.) Paus; '» that the Tene-
dians, becoming unable to defend themselves, subni:
some period of their hi.story to Alexandria in Troas. Aris-
totle (Rhi;l., i. lu' mentions Rome dispute as. having re-
cently occurred between them and the Sigeians, in which
they cited in support of their cause th .if IV-
riander of Corinth. According to Cicero, Verres robbed
the Tenedians of a statue of Tennes, their founder, of most
beautiful workmanship. (In I'crrrm, i. 10.) i
(Aim., xi.) speak* of the Prytanes, or yearly mat:
of Tenedos, to one of whom, A Mrcsscs this
ode. It appears from Slephanus liy/.antinus tl.
wrote on the constitution of Tenedos. On the antient silver
coins of the island are the types of a double-edged axe of a
>cculiar form; and on the reverse a I i like that
if.lanus. The'Tenc, .vas a
iroveih eX| . summary mode of executing justice
ir dispatching an atl'air: derived from the law of a king of
I'enedos, mentioned by Aristotle as quoted by Steph
which permitted a pel-sou who caught others in adultery
o kill both i an axe. Sec the passage* quoted
'./. Quintain I'r., ii. 11.)" The head
. On the worship of this
deity here, :md its tiaiismission to Tenea near Connti
MiilJi i, i. -J47-
According toStrabo p. IKM there were two harbours
at Tenedos. It was used by the emperor .lustiuiaii as a
depot for com goinir from Egypt to < .'onstantinople when
di-tained by contiary winds. Acconiinu' to .\\mph<«
• Athemi-us, xiii. 609) the women of the island were ot'
surpassing beauty.
Tenedos was \isited by (.'handler, who 'found there but
few remains of antiquity' worthy of notice. In the si
the walls, and burying-grounds were pieces of n
fragments of pillars, with a few inscriptions." {Trurt-l* m
Asm Mi ii'ir. p. 20 : Inscriptions! AI/IK/., pp. 3. 4.) The
• I the island is from cast to west : the town
with its harbour is situated in a low and sheltered spot
at the north-east corner. In the market-place is the v
of Attieus. father of Herodes Atticus. Clarke's Trarrlx,
ii. 178; who refers to an accurate plan and account of the
island in Tournefort, / 'ni/nifi1 tin Li-ninl, i.. Pan-. 1717.;
It contains two hundred Turkish and three hundred
Greek houses. To the north of the harbour is a good
• with forty-two pieces of cannon, but commanded
from the heights in the rear. i^Krankland's (.'<itintunt<n
i. i'i^. The aspect of Tenedos from the sea is barren, but
it is cultivated in the interior, and produces wheat and
•me red wine.
TENEMENT is a word employed in descriptions of real
property. Though in its usual and popular acceptation it
is applied only to houses and other buildings, vet in its
original proper and legal moaning it includes everything
of a permanent nature that may be holden, whether cor-
poreal or incorporeal. It is sometimes used in a more
confii'. in which it is appropriated to subjt
feudal tenure ; but in general it includes not only land,
but every modification of right concerning it. Tims the.
word ' Liherum tenenientnin.' frank-tenement, or freehold,
is applicable not only to lands and other solid objects, but
nts, commons, and the like. \\.-.n. : Co.
Litt.. 154. a. u. 7.)
TKNKKIFKK, or more properly TEXERIFE, called
Chinerfe by the original inhabitants, the Guam-lies, is the
largest and most important of the Canarv Islands. The
mo-t southern cape. Punta Koxa. is in 2s" \". Int. ; and the
most northern. Punta del Hidalgo, in 2s J :!»/ N. lat. Tin-
most eastern part, Punta deAnaga, ism Hi-:")' \\'. lon-r. : and
the most western. 1'unla de Telia, in 17" 55' W. long. Its
h-nslh from south-west to north-east is about (JO n
Towards the south-eastern extremity it is nearly 'M miles
across, but it arrows gradually narrower towards the north-
that extremity hardly more than five
miles wide. In Huinholdt's Travels, the area of the island
is stated to be 73 maritime square leagues, or 8!I7 Knsrlish
miles,: bnl according to a more recent estimate, the
area is KJ-S05 Spanish square leagues, or 1012 English
square miles, which is nearly equal to the area ul
About one-seventh of the area comprehending KKUKHI
or 15li 25 square miles) is available for agricultural
purposes. The remainder is covered with other
volcanic productions, and a great part is destitute of \
tation ; a small portion onlj is covered with ti
hiirhest ground of the island is the Peak of Tenentt'e. called
by the inhabitants Peak of Teyde. which name is derived
IM -beyde, by which term tlieGuanel, Hell.
This mountain is situated towards the- north-western part
of the island, and is a volcano with two summits, of
which the south-eastern and more elevated, called Piton,
is 11, Dili feet above the sea-level, and the north-western,
Mount Chahoria. is lisss feet. Their bases are united by
ashort ndire, which is somewhat lnwcr than the summit of
Mount Cliahorra. Uoth summits are extinct, volca?
The cniterof the Piton, called ( 'aldera. is of oblong shape,
and only 3IHI feet long from south-east to north-west, and
200 feet in the opposite direction. It is distinguished by ft
TEN
203
TEN
high circular wall which surrounds it, and which'would
prevent access to the crater, if it were not broken down
on its western side. The depression of the crater does
not exceed 160 feet. The crater of Mount Chahorra is
very large, as it takes more than an hour to go round it : it
is about 140 feet deep. It is not on record that volcanic
matter has issued from either of them : they are at present
only solfataras, from the crevices of which sulphuric
vapours are continually arising. But to the west of Mount
Chahorra are four volcanic cones, from which in 1798 great
quantities of lava flowed and covered the adjacent tracts. In
1706 a great quantity of lava issued from the north-eastern
side of the ridge which unites the Piton to Mount Cha-
horra. These lavas reached the sea and almost filled the
harbour of Garachico, which up to that time was the best,
or, more properly speaking, the only harbour in the island.
Very elevated volcanic masses extend from Mount Cha-
horra in a north-west direction to the Punta de Tena, which
is the most elevated cape of the island. These masses
rise to 7000 feet above the sea-level.
The Peak of Teyde is surrounded on the south-west,
south, and south-ea'st by an uninterrupted ridge of moun-
tain masses, which form a semicircle, and are about three
miles from its base. These mountains are very steep to-
wards the volcano. On the other sides only single moun-
tains occur. The tract which lies between the base of
the volcano and the semicircle is called Los Llanos de las
Ketamas, from a plant called retama, nearly the only plant
which vegetates on this tract, which is covered with
pumice-stones. Its surface is uneven, but has a regular
slope from the base of the volcano towards the masses
forming the semicircle. Near the base of the volcano it
is about 8000 feet, and near the semicircle about 6000 feet
above the sea. The mountains forming the semicircle rise
from 1000 to 1800 feet above their base. It is supposed
that the Peak de Teyde and the mountains that belong to
it cover an area of 120 square miles.
From the outer edges of the semicircle the country de-
scends in rapid and broken slopes towards the sea on the
west and on the north, but on the south and east the semi-
circle is surrounded by table-lands, whose surface is like-
wise much broken, but which at the distance of several
miles preserve'an elevation of between 4000 and 6000 feet
above the sea. These table-lands are most extensive to
the east, where they terminate, about 20 miles from the
semicircle, on the Plain of Laguna. These table-lands and
the volcano taken together probably cover nearly half the
island. In many places the table-lands and the slopes of
the hills which cover it are overgrown with pines, but the
greater part consists of bare volcanic rocks or lava. No part
of them is cultivated, with the exception of a small portion
in the vicinity of Chasna, south of the semicircle, where
corn is grown, and where there are extensive plantations of
fruit-trees. On the edge of the table-land, west of Guimar,
is a small volcano, which made an eruption in 1705.
The Plain of Laguna is traversed by 16° 207 W. long.
West of that plain the cultivable country is found only near
the sea, and from three to four miles from it, with the excep-
tion of the table-land of Chasna, which is more than eight
mile's distant. The cultivable tract along the sea is so
uneven that it is almost impossible to find a square mile
which can be called level. A portion of it rising in steep
and sharp ridges cannot be cultivated, but where the de-
clivities are moderate the soil generally repays the labour
bestowed on it. The most fertile tract is on the north side
of the island, between Tegina and San Juan de la Rambla,
especially west of Santa Ursula, which portion is called
the Valley of Taoro. The soil consists of a mixture of
sand, volcanic matter, and some clay, and produces rich
crops of wheat and all kinds of fruit, especially grapes.
West of San Juan de la Rambla are a few fertile valleys,
but a great part of the country is covered with i
lava. The most sterile part lies along the west coast, be-
tween Punta de Tena and Punta Roxa, where there are
only a few narrow valleys, and where a tract several miles
in length on both sides of Puerto de los Clnistianos is
quite barren. Between Punta Roxa and Santa Cruz there
arc several fine valleys, which have a fertile soil com-
posed of decomposed pumice-stone and tufa intermixed
with gravel ; but their fertility cannot be compared with
that, of the valley of Taoro, which is mainly to be as-
cribed to the smaller quantity of rain which falls on the
southern shores.
The plain of Laguna occupies the middle of the island,
near 16° 20' W. long. : it is about 1700 feet above the sea,
and enclosed by hills ; the surface is nearly a dead level,
occupying a space of about 12 square miles. After the
rains it is partly covered with water, and hence is derived
its name. The soil consists of a reddish clay, and pro-
duces abundant crops of grain, but no part of it is covered
with trees.
The eastern portion of the island, or the peninsula
which extends east of the plain of Laguna, is only hilly in
comparison with the western portion, as the highest sum-
mit, the Bufadero, rises only to 3069 feet above the sea-
level. In this part no traces of lava and no volcanic cones
occur : the hills consist mostly of black basalt : the val-
leys are numerous, but narrow. These valleys and the
adjacent hills are cultivated and planted with trees where
the surface is not too steep: they produce the finest
fruits in the island. The country descends gradually
towards the east, and Punta de Anaga is only elevated a
little above the sea-level.
Climate. — Teneriffe, being situated near the tropic, par-
takes of the climate both of the countries within and
without the tropic : it has only two seasons, a rainy and a
dry season, but the rainy season does not occur when the
sun i.s nearest, as in the tropical countries, but when it is
near its greatest southern declination. It occurs in the
same period of the year as in southern Europe. The dry
season is produced by the trade-winds, which, when the
sun approaches the northern tropic, proceed farther north,
and are met with at 30° and even 33" N. lat. These winds
blow on Teneritfe without interruption from April to Oc-
tober, and always from the east-north-east : they are
strongest from the middle of May to the middle of August.
The wind begins in the morning between ten and eleven
o'clock, and continues to five or six in the afternoon, when
it is followed by a calm, which lasts till midnight. From
midnight to seven or eight o'clock the land-breezes blow,
and they are again followed by a calm, which lasts till the
trade-wind sets in. Along the western shores of the
island these winds are not felt, but there is a continual
calm, which extends about 15 miles into the sea. The
trade-wind renders the communication between the islands
tedious and difficult. From Teneriffe a vessel can run to
Hierro in less than one day, but to return from Hierro to
Teneriffe it generally takes ten or twelve days, and some-
times even three or four weeks. A voyage from Madeira
to Teneriffe is made in two days, but it takes more than
a month to sail from Teneriffe to Madeira. During the
prevalence of the trade-winds the weather is constantly
fine, and not a drop of rain falls.
In the rainy season, from October to April, south-west
winds prevail : in October the winds turn to the east and
south-east, and then the summit of the Peak of Teyde
begins to be covered with clouds which proceed from the
south. These clouds accumulate on the Peak, and gradually
descend lower. When they have sunk to about 6000 feet
above the sea-level, and cover the most elevated part of
the island, they produce terrible thunder-storms. The rain
beinns to descend in torrents on the sides of the mountains,
and the summit of the peak is covered with snow. In
summer the mountain is quite free from snow, which is
only found in a deep depression on the northern slope.
This depression is called Cueva del Yelo. The snow
rests on the mountain about four months. At the begin-
ning of November the wind is settled in the south-west,
and whilst it blows the rains sometimes last for three days.
In February, March, and April the wind turns to the west-
north-west, north-west, and north-north-west, and the rains
decrease gradually. They cease at the end of March.
The climate of Teneriffe and of the Canary Islands in
general is disagreeably affected by the wind called Kl
Levante, which comes from the south-east, and generally
before or after the beginning of the rainy season.
Its effect on all organic bodies is very great, and the heat
which it. brines from the Sahara is felt much more in ele-
vated places than near the sea-shore, the more so as water
is very scarce in those parts, and the thirst which the
wind produces is intolerable. In those higher places it
blows with such force that it frequently throws down men.
anil horses. /The air is misty, and it is not possible to
distinguish objects even at a moderate distance; but
(here are no clouds in the sky. Sometimes this wind
brings locusts in large numbers to the island. It was
2D2
T F. \
•jr. i
TEN
formerly thought that these inlets reached tin- island by
flyinir, l"'»' •'* *h*1 sucn immense numbers of
them are earned from the Sahara into the sea as to form a
thick layer : and tlr.it in t hi* way they arc carried to the
Canary Islands, and that most of them are dead when they
arrive there, but those which cover the upper surfa-
alive. 1 their devastation over the corn-fields and
plant;1.
We Mibjoin the meteorological observations made at
Sanla Crux and at Laguna: the lost-mentioned place is
iibout 1700 feet above the sea.
Jan
Feb.
M.r.
M.,.U-..U,,.|A.«.
S,p».
S.nU Crat
63-8J° 6434°
1-a^uni .
5j»
5'j"
48° 1 5*- | 62° 1 64° ] ef
;o°
Oct.
IVc.
Wlntr
Sprint Sum. Amtm.
Ann.
mrau.
S«nla Cm
T4«!°
70-43*
6581"
6511°
71 11° 77-86°t 70-11°
I . .» .
66°
62"
S3"
56-33°
6200° 70-00° 62-00°
62-8SP
1
1 1
This table shows that the climate of Teneriffe i
tinguishcd by its moderate temperature, and that the heat
rf the summer is prolonged to the month of November,
October being considerably warmer than May, and No-
nril.
Productions. — All European domestic animals are
reared, and also white camels, which are used as l>--asts of
burden, and reared on the west coast of the island, but not
in large numbers. Cattle are rather scarce, on account of
the want of pasture-ground. They are only kept for
slaughter and for the plough : the cows are never milked.
Horses are still less numerous. They are of good breed,
of a middling size, and very hardy. Goats are very numer-
pecu
which existed on the island before the arrival of the Euro-
peans. They constituted the principal riches of the
Guanches. Sheep are also numerous. The breed i.s small,
and the wool is coarse, but abundant : it is consumed in
the island. Asses are rather mimerous, but small : mules
much used as beasts of burden. According to
MacGregor, the number of cattle is about 4900, of horses
1000, of camels 60, of mules 1400, of asses 2200, of goats
:»,000, of sheep 18,000, and of hogs 3000. The silk-worm
:ensively reared, and the annual produce of silk may
amount to 8000 Ibs., but it IV puce than the
Italian silk, not being so well prepared. In 1828 the
cochineal insect was introduced, and the first trials at
rearing it succeeded very well. We are not acquainted
with the result of this attempt. Bees are abundant, do-
•I- as well as wild. The honey is of the best quality.
especially that which is collected in the neighbourhood
of the Peak of Teyde, which is extracted by the bee
the blossoms of the retama plant. Between 7000 and
8000 Ibs. of wax are annually collected. Rabbits are very
numerous.
The domestic birds are fowls, ducks, geese, and pigeons.
A great number of turkeys arc reined. The number of wild
birds is very great. Some of them are always found on
the island, 'and others arrive only at certain seasons, in
their migration from north to south, and L The
most remarkable belonging to the first class are the wild
pigeon, various species ofTetraonidre, quails, and larks. The
\ -bird is common. Fish is far from being abundant.
The inhabitants li\ e mostly on potatoes and salt (ish, which
is obtained from the fishery on the coasts of Africa [SAHARA,
vol. xx., p. .'J171 : but of hie the inhabitants of Teneriffe
have abandoned this branch of industry, and huv the fish
from the fishermen of the other islands. Wha!
sometimes met with among the Canary Islands, and still
more frequently do'j als rarely visit the c<.
The principal "lture are potatoes, wheat,
maize, parley, ami rve. Where the soil is good, and means
of irrigation are at hand, two crops of maize, and one of
potatoes, or two of potatoes a nd one of maize, may be raised
in twelve months. According to an avei:
(18011 annual produce w:is about. "0,000 quartern
nt' potatoes. 21.700 qnaitcrs of wheat. C,~>\\ quai;
maize. !i.~i.'l'J quail rr-> of barley, 2200 qua '-.and
only 40 quarters of oat*. It is how.
that time the cultivation of grain, and especially that of
potatoes, has considerably increased. Other objects of cul-
tivation are flax, canary-seed, sumach for the tanneries,
pumpkins, cucumbers. Sage, peamTuii
garbunzos, lentils, lettuce, capsicum, onions, and i:
Tlic orchards produce applet, pears, cherries, plums, apri-
cots, peaches, nmlben
Indian figs, oranges, and lemons, and also plantains. ;
apples, dale-, pomegranates, papayas, guavas, anonag,
and a few other fruits < .'. The
.mportant object of cultivation is the vine, which
yields the largest article of export. According t
live years (1800-1804 i the animal pn sited
to 21,N)(i j , conl.iiiiin.'; IlK) gallons, but
stated that to tbi« quantity from 5000 to 8000 p
be added, which during the vintage were converted
brandy. Thus the annual produce amounted to about 30,000
pipes. But the war between Spain and its American •
to which a large quantity of wine and brandy w.
ported, base ly diminished this branch of indi
and at nresent the annual produce hardly exceed* 20,000
pipe*. The best sort, known by the name of Vidoma, n
hies Madeira, and is sent to England. The Malvasia wine
liiierly in great request, but the demand
diminished. The difficulty of obtaining a rei:
price for their wines and brandies has of late indue.
inhabitants to introduce some other objects of cultivation.
Cotton has begun to be cultivated; the produce
that of Pernambuco. They have also mad.
ful trials with coffee. Two centuries ago the s'lgar-canc
was the most important branch of cultivation, but at pre-
sent there is only one sugar-mill on 1 ;
Large forests still cover some of the higher parts of the
island, though they have been i
the trees there are numerous kinds of Laurus, as L. Ii.
L. barbussana, L. nobihs, &e. Two or three wild-gro
plants are used for making barilla, and the Mesemb
themnm crystallimun is cultivated for that purpose on a
small scale. Two kinds of lichens which grow on the
rocks are collected for their dyeing qualities: the rocella
tinctoria, which yields the. archil, and the parella : th<
mostly sent to England.
Teneriffe has no metals, except some iron-ore, of which
no use is made. Sulphur occurs in large quantities on the
Peak of Teyde.
Population and Inhabitants.— According to an estimate
of MacGregor, founded on the old census of ls()2and other
l he population of Teneriffe amounted, i
85,000 individuals ; so that on the average there were S4
persons to each square mile. The greater part of the tribe
of Guanches, who inhabited the island at the arrival of the
Spaniards, perished in the war by which the Sp;
possession of it, and the remainder intermarried with the
Spaniards. The present inhabitants must therefi.,
considered as Spaniards, whom they also lescmble i;i per-
son and character. The Spanish language alon.
intermixed in the parts remote from the towns with a few-
other word*.
Political Divisions and Towns.— For the administration
of justice the island is di\ iiled into three jurisdiction
courts for which are at Santa Crux, Laguna, and ( )
Santa Cruz de Santiago, the seat of the iruvcr
of the Canary Island,, is built on the south coast of the
island, not far from its eastern extremity. The hail
not large, and is well protected against the winds, except
that blow- from the south. At the d ; from
~!~) to 1(H) fathoms from the land thu
in 0 to 12 fathoms, and half a mile off in 25 to :«) fathoms.
The lowest part of the town i.s more than 20 feet :
the sen-level, and the ground rise* gently. Th.- h
are built in the Spanish Moorish fashion, with a coin
(patio in the middle, and have only one floor. The si
'raight, but narrow, and have fi
population amounted, in 1H2U, to 8620 individuals. The
-on a coiMdciabh' commerce, and the harbour
is annually visited by 80 to 100
San Christoval de la Lnguna is considered a.1 of
the island, being the seat of administration. It is ln-.ilt in
the middle of the plain of Laguna, and is a pleasant place.
I The streets are straight and wide, well p !,.ive
avements. Mo.,t of the houses have only one floor.
The population amounts to more than 10,000. The rich
inhabitants of Sanla ( Vuz pMi the summer inontlis here,
j as the climate of l.airnn.i is much cooler.
Tacoronte, not far from the northern coast, in a fine val-
ley, has 4600 inhabitants.
TEN
205
TEN
Orotava is on the declivity of a steep hill, nearly 1200
feet above the sea-level : it is a well-built and thriving
place, with nearly 8000 inhabitants. It carries on a con-
siderable commerce by means of its harbour, called Puerto
de la Orotava, which is about 2 miles distant, and contains
a population of 4600.
Guimar, on the southern coast, is in a very fertile valley,
which produces much wine and wheat : it is rather well
built, and contains 3300 inhabitants. In the vicinity are
the tombs of the antient inhabitants, the Guanches. which
contain mummies.
Muniifa-iurpx and Commerce, — There are a few manufac-
tures of silk stuffs at Icod de los Vinos, a town on the north
coast, with 4000 inhabitants. These manufactures were
formerly very active, and their produce went to America ;
but they are now in a declining state, especially since the
population of Teneriffe have begun to wear cotton instead
of silk. Linen and woollen stuns are made by the families
for their own consumption. Woollen stockings were for-
merly made for the American market, but this branch of
industry has entirely ceased. Earthenware, especially
large water-filters, is still sent to Cuba and Puerto Rico.
There are manufactures of soap and vermicelli at Santa
Cruz. The tanneries produce a very indifferent leather,
which is not exported. The number of distilleries is large,
and the brandy is hardly inferior to Cognac. Ropes are
made from the agave ; and hats, baskets, and mats from
the leaves of the date-palms. Good cabinet-work has
lately begun to be made for the South American market.
The maritime commerce is concentrated in the port of
Santa Cruz and Port Orotava, which are annually visited
by about 120 vessels, mostly English. The inhabitants
have a few vessels, with wfiich they visit the American
harbours. The most active commerce is that with
land, in which about 80 vessels are constantly employed.
The imports consist of iron utensils, hardware, iron in 6ars,
flax, gla.-.s-ware, crockery, leather, candles, soap, large
quantities of cotton goods, provisions, cod, and some
minor articles. The most important exports are wine,
brandy, and barilla : there are also exported almonds,
dry fruits, raw silk, and archil. The commerce with the
United States of America and with Hamburg is also con-
siderable.
Ilin'.nry. — The Canaries were known to the antients,
who called them the Fortunate Islands. [CANARIES, vol.
vi., 226.] Teneriffe was occupied by the Spaniards in
1496. and has always remained in their possession.
(Glas, Hibt'iry and Coiir/nt-xt nf the Canary Ixlmiih ;
HumboJdt, Voyage an.r lif^iimx /:>/;/ /Ho.rm/».v tin \m/-
reau Continent, vol.i.; VonBuch, Physiknlische Benchrei-
firiny (/,,,. Canarischen Inseln ; and Die Canarischen
Inseln nnch ihrcm gegenu>3rtigen Zustande, von Mac
Gresror, Hannover, 1831.)
TEXIERS, DAVID (the Elder), was born at Antwerp
in Io82. He had the good fortune to study painting under
Rubens, who highly esteemed him for his promising genius.
Besides the benefit of the instruction of that great master,
he had the advantage of learning his manner of preparing
rounds and managing his materials. It is said that
he began by painting pictures on a large scale ; but
having gone to Rome with the intention of improving
himself in the higher branches of the art, he there con-
tracted an intimate friendship with his countryman Adam
Elsheimer, whose exquisitely-finished cabinet pictures were
L'reatly esteemed, and ho studied with him several years,
painting only small pictures. It was here that he ac-
quired the neatness of pencilling for which his works are
med, and which, with the knowledge of colours ac-
'1 under Rubens, gives to his works so great a charm.
K'.'turning to his native country after ten years' absence,
he devoted himself with the greatest ardour to the prac-
uf his art, and chose the familiar scenes of ordinary
Flemish lil'i', such as merry-makings, weddings, the inte-
rior and exterior of public-houses, rural games, chemists'
ilorips, and grotesque subjects, such as the Temptation
•honyand the like. These subjects he treated
with the utmost truth and fidelity to nature. His colour-
ing, his touch, his design, the pleasing distribution of light
•hade, the skilful composition of his groups, procured
him great reputation and constant employment: every
lover of the art was eager to possess some of his works.
H'- may in fact be considered as the inventor of a new
manner, which was followed and carried to a still higher
degree of perfection by his son. He died at Antwerp in
the year 1049, at the age of sixty-seven.
TENTERS, DAVID (the Younger), was born at Antwerp
in 1610, and received his first and principal instruction
from his father. Some authors have affirmed that he left
his father to become a disciple of Adrian Brouwer, who
however was only two years older than himself, and that
he had the advantage of the precepts of Rubens. Othei-s
have pretended that he was likewise a pupil of Elsheimer,
who died when Teniers was only ten years old. He
adopted, as we have observed, the subjects and style of his
father : but, with a more fertile imagination, he produced
compositions much more varied and ingenious ; his colour-
ing is more vivid, rich, and transparent, and the facility
of his execution is enchanting. He studied nature in
all her varied forms with the most critical attention. He
possessed, in perfection, what we have heard one of the
brightest living ornaments of the British school call ' the
art, or rather the gift, of seeing.' Hence the truth and
nature of his pictures, which look almost like reflections
in a convex mirror. His pencil is free and delicate ;
the touching of his trees light and firm ; his skies are ad-
mirably clear and brilliant, though not much varied. The
expression of his figures, in every varying mood, of mirth
or gravity, good or ill humour, is strongly marked, striking,
and natural ; he represented them however precisely as
he saw them before him, but was perhaps inferior in de-
lineation of character to Jan Steen or Wilkie.
It is remarkable that at the commencement of his career
very little regard was shown to his merit, so that he was
often obliged to go in person to Brussels to dispose of his
pictures. But he was not long neglected. The archduke
Leopold having seen some of his pictures, immediately
distinguished him by his patronage, appointed him his
principal painter and gentleman of his bedchamber, pre-
sented him with a chain of gold to which his portrait was
affixed, and gave him the direction of his gallery of paint-
ings, which contained works of the most eminent masters
of the Italian and Flemish schools. Teniers, who pos-
sessed an extraordinary talent in imitating the works of
other artists, made copies of this gallery, in which the
touch, the colouring, and the manner of the several
painters, however different from each other, were repro-
duced with such a deceptive fidelity, that he acquired the
name of the Proteus of painting. Some writers have ob-
jected that his figures are too short and clumsy, and that
(here is too much sameness in their countenances and
habits: but it must be remembered that he designed
every object as he saw it; and the charm which his art has
thrown on scenes flat and insipid in their forms, even
subjects low, barren, and commonplace, justly excites
the admiration of all lovers of the art, and the extra-
ordinary prices which are given for his works in every part
of Europe are an incontestible proof of the universal ad-
miration and esteem in which they are held. This circum-
stance is the more deserving of attention, as his works, far
from being scarce, are extremely numerous : his extra-
ordinary facility of execution and the great age to which
lie attained enabled him to produce such a number of
pictures, that he was used to say in joke that to hold all
his paintings (though they were of such small dimensions)
it would be necessary to build a gallery two leagues in
length. It is worthy of remark that while of all the
Flemish painters his works are the most popular, he was
liabitually conversant with the higher classes of society.
The suavity of his manners and his irreproachable conduct
secured him the esteem of all his countrymen. Besides
Ihe archduke Leopold, he was honoured with the favour
and protection of Christina, queen of Sweden, the king of
^pain, Don John of Austria, who became his pupil, the
Prince of Orange, the bishop of Ghent, and other eminent
personages. He often assisted the landscape-painters of
iis tim" by inserting figures into their pictures, and many
works of Artois, Van Uden, Breughel, and others derive
additional value from this circumstance. The galleries
and collections in England contain a great, number of his
finest, works. He died at Brussels, in the year 1694, at the
advanced age of eighty-four years.
(Pilkington ; Fuseh ; Conversations Lexicon ; Hw-
graphie Universelle; Dr. Waagen, Arts and Artists in
•nd.)
TENIMBAR ISLANDS. [SUNDA ISLANDS, LKSSER.]
TENISON, THOMAS (born 1636, died 1715), an Eng-
TEN
lish divine, son of a clergyman in the diocese of Ely, who
was advanced by his own deserved reputation for piety,
charity, learning, and liberality, to tin- hi. on in
the English church. He was Lorn at Cottcnliatn in Cam-
bridgeshire, educated in the grammar-school at Norwich,
from whence he passed to Corpus <
bridge, where he was admitted in lul.J. and look his
bach. ee in 1G.~>7. The university w;us then in
the stale to winch it had hem brought by the parliamenlaiy
commissioners, and the turn of mind of TenUon not ac-
cording with what at that time was expected from persons
undertaking the ministry, he for a time turned to the study
of medicine ; but about 1G5U he was privately ordained in
the episcopal method then proscribed by the govern-
ment of the time. The ordination was performed at Rich-
mond in Surrey by Dr. Duppa. the expelled bishop of
Salisbury. The restoration of the king, and with it of the
. ipal church, soon following, he was made minister of
St. Andrew'.- church in Cambridge, in which situation he
gained much credit by his attention to his parishioners
during the time of the plague, in 1GG5. He had other
preferment in the country, as the church of St. Peter Man-
croft in Norwich, and the rectory of Holy well in Hunting-
donshire. This brings down his history to the year 1680,
when, being then doctor in divinity, he was placed on a
more conspicuous stage, being presented by King Charles
II. to the living of St. Martin's in the Fields.
In this public situation he acted with great prudence,
and with a liberality which emulated the munificence of
the clerirr of earlier times, giving more than 300/. to the
poor of his parish in the time of the distress occasioned by
t he hard frost of 1G83. and endow inir a free-school, and build-
ing and furnishing a library. In 1085 he discharged the diffi-
cult duty of attending the duke of Monmouth previous to his
execution with singular discretion. In his politic! he was a
Whig, and favourer of the Revolution, and was accordingly
early marked out by King William for advancement in the
church. In HiK) he was made archdeacon of Londjon, and
in 1G!H bishop of Lincoln. This large diocese, which had
been too much neglected, he brought into order. In 1GU4,
on the death of Dr. Tillotson, he was made archbishop of
Canterbury, in which high dignity he remained for twenty
years. He died on the 14th of December, 1715, and was
interred in the parish church of Lambeth.
A large account of his life was published soon after his
death, without the name of any author in the title-page,
but evidently written by a person possessed of good in-
formation, and who was fully sensible to his merits. He
speaks of him thus :— ' And as he was an exact pattern of
that exemplary piety, charity, stcdfastness, and good con-
duct requisite' in a governor of the church, so perhaps
since the primitive age of Christianity nnd the time of the
Apostles there has been no man whose learning and
abilities have better qualified him to discharge and defend
a trust of that high importance.'
The library winch he founded in the parish of St. Mar-
tin's still exists ; and he may be regarded as the founder
of the library in the cathedral church of St. Paul, having
presented two hundred and fifty pounds to make up four
hundred and fifty, which the dean and resident iaries irave
for the libraries of two clciirymcn bought by them in 1707.
His will contains many munificent bequests for charitable
and religions ohj.
Archbishop lenison has left no writings behind him
which can be said to make part of the irem-ral literature
of the country, or to establish lor him a literary reputation.
Yet he published several treat connected with
the rcliirions ai. controversies of Ins age.
TEN N ANT. sMl 1 II SON. a distinguished chemist, was
born at Selby. in Yorkshire, November :«), 17(il. and died
FcbiT.aiy .Mi Isl.-j. He was the only child of the Rev.
Ca! vert Tennant, of whom little i- known evept that la-
had been a Fellow of St. John'
was ali icnd oi Dr. Rutherford, Regiun Prof' : <>i liivmity
in that University.
While very young he gave many proofs of a particular
turn for chemistry and natural philosophy, and after
quitting school he • n of completing his
chemical studies under the immediate instruction of Dr.
'ley, who was then enjoying hii;li and deserved repu-
tation for the extent and variety of his di-covcnes m
pneumatic chemistry ; but this was found impractiea-
consequence of the previous engagements of Dr. Priestley.
TEN
In the year 1781 he went to Edinburgh with the inten-
tion of studying medicine. Of his companions, occupa-
tions, or studies while in Scotland, little is known, except
that heicccivcd instruction fiom Dr. Black : he did not
• r continue long in that University, for in October.
17s- he was admitted a member of Christ's College, Cam-
bridge, where he then began to reside.
In the summer of 1784 he travelled into Denmark and
n, with the intention, partly of examining the
mines of (lie latter country, but chiefly with the view of
becoming personally acquainted with Sch. ..horn
he had conceived a high degree of admiration, especially
on account of the simplicity of the apparatus which he cm-
ployed in his chemical researches. In a year or two after-
lie went to Paris, where he became acquaints! with
some of the eminent chemists: thence he went to Holland
and the Netherlands, after having recovered from a serious
illness with which he was seixed during his residence in
the French capital.
In January, 1785, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal
Society, and in 17HG he left Christ's College and rein
to Emmanuel College ; in 1788 he took his deiri>
bachelor of physic, and soon after quitted Cambridge and
came to reside in London. In 17!)G he took a doctor's de-
gree at Cambridge, but as his fortune was independent,
he relinquished all idea of practice as a physician. In
1813 he was elected Professor of Chemistry at Cambridge,
having in the previous year delivered, with great su>
a few lectures on the principles of mineralogy to some of
his friends.
In the month of September, 1814, Mr. Tennant went for
the last time to France, and on his return home on the 20th of
February, 1815, he arrived at Boulogne with Baron Bulow,
in order to embark there. They embarked on the 22nd, but
were forced back by the wind, and meant to embark again
in the evening : in the meantime they took horses and
went to see Bonaparte's pillar, about a league off, and
going off the road on their return to look at a small fort,
of which the drawbridge wanted a bolt, they were both
thrown, with their horses, into the ditch. Baron Billow
was merely stunned, but Mr. Tennant's skull was so
severely fractured, that he died within an hour after.
The following character of Mr. Tennant is chiefly coj ied.
with some variations, from the ' Annals of Philosophy,' vol.
vi., and the writer of this brief notice, having well known
the subject of it, is able to testify to the accuracy of the
statements in all the more important particulars.
Mr. Tennant was tall and slender in his person, with a
thin face and light complexion. His appearance, notwith-
standing some singularity of manners, and great negligence
of dress, was on the whole striking and agreeable. His
countenance in early life had been singularly engaging ;
and at favourable times, when he was in good health
still very pleasing. The general cast of his features was ex-
pressive, and bore strong marks of intelligence ; and seve-
ral persons have been struck with a general resemblance
in his countenance to the well-known portraits of Locke.
Of his intellectual character, the distinguishing and fun-
damental principle was good sense ; a prompt and intuitive
perception of truth, both upon those questions in which
certainty is attainable and those which must be determined
by the nicer results of moral evidence. In quick penetra-
tion, united with soundness and accuracy of judgment, he
was perhaps without an equal. He saw immediately and
with gn-at distinctness where the strength of an argument
lay, and upon what points the decision was ultimately t o de-
pend ; and he was remarkable for the faculty of st at! nir the
• of an obscure and complicated question very shortly,
and with great simplicity and precision. The calmness
and temper, as well as the singular perspicuity, which he
di played on such occasions, were alike admirable : and sel-
dom failed to convince the unprejudiced, and to discon-
cert or silence his opponents. He had a peculiar cast of
humour, which was heightened by a perfect gravity of
countenance, a quiet familiar manner, and a characte-
iMic simplicity of language. In consequence, principally,
of the declining state of his health, his talent for con-
versation was perhaps less uniformly conspicuous during
his latter years, but his mind had lost none of its vigour,
and he never failed, when he exerted himself, to dis-
• •uliar powers.
The ' Plu'losophical Transactions' contain eight papers by
Mr. Tennant :— 1, ' On the Decomposition of Fixed Air,'
TEN
207
TEN
1701 ; 2, ' On the Nature of the Diamond,' 1797 ; ' 3, On the
Action of Nitre upon Gold and Platina ;' 4, ' On the Dif-
ferent Sorts of Lime used in Agriculture,' 1799 ; 5, ' On the
Composition of Emery,' 1802 ; 6, ' On two Metals found in
the Black Powder of the solution of Platina,' 1804 ; 7, ' On
an easier Mode of procuring Potassium than that which is
now adopted ;' 8, ' On the Mode of producing a Double
Distillation by the same Heat.'
In the first volume of the 'Transactions' of the Geolo-
gical Society, 1811, he published the analysis of ' A Vol-
canic Substance containing the Boracic Acid.'
In his experiments on the diamond, he proved it to be
pure carbon, by heating it in a gold tube with nitre ; the
diamond was converted into carbonic acid by combining
with the oxygen of the decomposed nitric acid, and this
united with me potash of the nitre ; by the evolution of
the carbonic acid, the quantity of carbon, in a given weight
of diamond, was estimated. In his paper on ' Limestones,'
he showed that the presence of carbonate of magnesia in
them rendered them prejudicial when calcined and applied
as a manure.
In the paper on 'Emery,' he proved that this substance is
merely a variety of corundum, or sapphire. The two metals
which he found in native platina were osmium and indium.
With respect to these memoirs it may be observed that
they all bear the impress of originality, and that the opera-
tions which they include and describe are of the icreatt-st
possible simplicity, and stated in the plainest langu: •_
TENXANTITE, a variety of grey copper-ore, so named
in honour of Smithson Tennant, a distinguished chemist.
It occurs in attached crystals, which are usually small.
Primary form a cube. Cleavage parallel to the planes
of the regular octohedron. Fracture uneven and imper-
fectly lamellar. Hardness : scratches carbonate of lime, but
is scratched by the phosphate. It is brittle. Colour vary-
ing from tin-white to blackish iron-grey, frequently tar-
nished on the surface. Streak reddisli-grey. Lustre me-
tallic, sometimes splendent. Specific gravity 4-375.
When heated by the blowpipe, it decrepitates, and burns
with a blue flame, emitting arsenical vapours, and then
into a black scoria, which is attracted by the magnet.
It occurs only in Cornwall, and has there been found in
several copper-mines.
Analysis oy —
R. Phillips. Hemming.
Sulphur 2874 21-8
Copper
Iron
Arsenic
Silica ,
45-32
9-26
11-84
5-00
48-4
14-2
11-5
5-0
10016 100-9
TENNESSEE is one of the inland states of the North
American Union, and lies between 35" and 36° 4ff N. lat.
and between 81*30' and 90° VV. long. The southern boun-
dary, which runs alone; 35° N. lat , is contiguous to the
northern limits of the states of Georgia, Alabama, and Mis-
sis^ippi, and is 356 miles Ionic. <>f which the boundary with
Georgia amounts to 100, that with Alabama 140, and that
with Mis.-.i.s.sippi 116 miles. On the west of it are Ar-
kansas and Missouri, from which it is separated by the
Mississippi, whose course along this border amounts to
about 150 miles, measured alonic the numerous bends.
North of Tennessee are Kentucky and Virginia. The
boundary-line towards Kentucky between the rivers Mis-
sHr-ippi and Tennessee mns along 36° 30* N. lat. for about
64 miles, but cast of the last-mentioned river it follows its
•e for about 12 miles until it reaches 36° 40' N. lat.
and :iC° 33' W. long., and then extends a little south of
i-a.4 until it meets the south-western angle of Virginia
near 83° 30' W. long. The distance between the Tenn
river and the last-mentioned point is about 250 miles.
The line which divides Tennessee from Kentucky is con-
tward between Tenessee and Virginia for 105
miles, when it arrives at the most eastern point of the state.
i- is Noith Carolina; the boundary-line
between them, which is 150 miles long, is formed by one
of the ranges of the Appalachian Mountains, called flu-
Iron Mountains. The length of Tennessee from cast to
- about 445 mili-s, nn.l iK breadth from north to south
104 miles. The area is about 40,200 square miles, or
2f>,728,UOO acres. It is about. 10,000 square miles less in
extent ttian England without Wales.
! Surface and Soil.— This state is naturally divided into
three regions, which may be called the Eastern or Moun-
tain region, the Middle or Hilly region, and the Western
or Level region ; and this division coincides tolerably well
with that made for the administration of justice, according
to which the country is divided into the Eastern, the
Middle, and the Western District. The first and the last
are nearly equal in extent, each comprehending about
10,000 square miles, but the Middle District is about
double that size.
The Eastern or Mountain Region lies within the ranges
of the Appalachian Mountains. This extensive mountain-
system may be said to commence along and near the southern
boundary -line of Tennessee. Near 35° N. lat. and 82° W.
long., on the boundary-line between South and North Caro-
lina, the country forms a ridge of hills, a continuous high
ground which extends westward to 85° W. long., a distance
of more than 160 miles. In the Carolinas it is known by
the name of the Blue Ridge. It does not terminate at
s.V W. long., but west of that meridian it forms a kind of
mountain-knot, consisting of several ridges, which extend
south-west and north-east, in the direction of the whole
mountain-system. These ridges lie between 34° and 35"
20' N. lat., and the Tennessee river traverses this tract in a
south-west direction. The highest of these ridges is on the
east of the river valley, and is called the Look-out Moun-
tains. The elevated ground just mentioned constitutes
the southern extremity of the Appalachian Mountains ;
for from its eastern extremity, west of 82° W. long., a ridge
runs in a general north-east direction, which is also called
the Blue Ridge, being considered as the continuation of
the before-mentioned ridge so called, and from its western
termination (near 86° W. long.) there runs another ridge
under the name of the Cumberland Mountains, first north-
north-east, and afterwards east-north-east and north-east.
The space included between these two ranges extends from
east to west about 200 miles. It is traversed by several
minor ridges, among which the most elevated and least in-
terrupted is called the Iron Mountains. It extends south-
nd north-east, is much nearer the eastern Blue Ridge
than the Cumberland Mountains, which are west of it, and
constitutes the boundary-line on the east between North
Carolina and Tennessee.
The mountain-region of Tennessee occupies the tract en-
closed by the Iron Mountains and the Cumberland Moun-
tains, whose most elevated parts are about 70 miles distant
from one another. The northern half of this tract is tra-
versed by three minor ridges, which in general run parallel
to the larger ranges, and thus with the two outer ranges
form four valleys, which are traversed by four of the upper
branches of the Tennessee River, namely, Powell's, Clinch,
Holston, and Frenchbrpad River. The valleys are lather
wide, but as there is little alluvial land along the water-
courses, their surface is uneven and broken, and the soil,
which consists mostly of siliceous gravel, is of indifferent
quality, except in the valleys of the Holston and French-
broad rivers, where it contains a mixture of clay. Only a
comparatively small portion of it is strong enough for the
growth of wheat ; the great erpart produces rye and oats ; but
the mountains afford good pasture-grounds, and large herds
of cattle and sheep are kept. The most elevated part of the
mountains is overgrown with forests of pitch-pine, which
yield timber, and from which tar, pitch, and turpentine are
extracted. The minor ridges terminate near 35" 50' N.lat.,
where the upper branches of the Tennessee river form their
union. The country south of 35° 50' can only be called moun-
tainous near the southern portion of the Blue Ridge and the
Cumberland Mountains, the interior being covered by a
succession of hills rising hardly more than 300 feet above
their base. The soil of this tract is of indifferent quality,
and mostly used as pasture-ground, but the forests contain
many large trees, as pitch-pine, red cedar, and black wal-
nut. Along the watercourses there are some tracts of mo-
derate extent fit for the growth of rye and oats.
The Hil/t/ or Middle Region extends from the Cumber-
land Mountains westward to the Tennessee River, where it
traverses the state by running from south to north. The
general level of this region is several hundred feet above
the sea-level, and it is covered with numerous hills, which
form several continuous ridges, such as that which, under
the name of Elk Ridge, runs from east to west near 35° 20*
N. lat. between the Elk River and Duck River. The water-
courses are usually much depressed below the general level,
T 1
208
T E N
and must of them run in narrow channels. This tract
greatly in fertility. uml>rrlaml Mo-..
to the distance of 20 miles I
chiefly of gia\<-l mixed with limestone, ami is OJ
fertility, but in general it is better limn i,i tin- immntain-
region, and laru . e fit for the 1:1 heat.
The country west of this 1; u-rtile \w
Tennessee : it extends over Hie win
north to south, and n. ' .vnrdsto K7U \V. long, "nil-
soil is not inferior to the best j>art of Kentucky, ami con-
sists of a large portion of clay and loam mixed with sand
and gravel. A large quantity of wheat in produced, hut
the staple articles are tobacco and maize. In the better
lands, especially along the ( 'umherlaml River, the com-
mon produce of maize is from GO to 70 bushels for one,
and in other places 40 or 50. The forests, whil-
e-over a great part of the surface, consist chit-fly of ash,
elm, black and honey locust, mulberry, sugar-maple, and
the wild plum ; and wild grapes are abundant. The w.
iii*tricts, or those which lie near the Tennessee Hivcr, and
extend about 30 miles east of it, are less hilly, but they are
also leas fertile: they produce the same articles, but the
'.ontiful. In some places cotton is cultivated.
The If'i-xlfrn or Lenj Region lies between the Tennessee
and Mississippi rivers. The surface is traversed by some
swells of high ground : the most extensive is that which
runs across the state from north to south, about 12 miles
from the western bank of the Tennessee River, and is se-
veral miles wide. Other swells traverse the southern dis-
tricts, running from south-east to north-west, and ter-
minating on the banks of the Mississippi with the Chicka-
lilutf's. The north-west districts are nearly a dead
level, which de.-cends imperceptibly to the hanks of the
Mississippi, where it terminates in a large wooded swamp,
called tne Wood Swamp. This region was very thinly in-
habited twenty years ago, but it cannot be of indifferent
quality, if we judge by the rapidity with which the popu-
lation has increased. It appears however that the more
elevated portions of the country are much more thickly
settled than the level tract, which may be attributed to
the circumstance that the last-mentioned tract contains
many swampy places, and is less favourable to health. In
these regions every kind of grain is grown, and cotton and
tobacco are extensively cultivated.
Riven. — Numerous rivers drain this state, and some of
them have a long course. The larger rivers are navigable
for keel-boats and for steam-boats, but only during the
boating-season, which generally'commences on the 20th of
February, and terminates early in June. Occasional freshets
contribute to render them navigable during a short portion
of the other months, but no reliance can be placed on perio-
dical returns of freshets, except those of the spring season.
The Tennessee River rises with numerous branches in
the Appalachian Mountains : the most remote of them
originate in Virginia near 81° 20' W. long, and and 37° N.
lat., and run south-west. The largest branches are the
Clinch and Holston rivers: they unite with other branches,
which iise in North Carolina, in the country enclosed by
the Blue Ridge and the Iron Mountains, and which break
through the last -mentioned chain. The largest of them are
the Frenchbroad River, the Tennessee, and the Hiwassee.
After these numerous branches have united, the Ten:
traverses the mountain-knot between 34° and 35° 20' N . hit .
It passes through the ridge, which on the south is called
Look-out Mountains, and on the north NYaldcn's Range.
It rushes through this gap with great impetuosity o
rocky bed : this place is called the Suck : its course within
the mountain-tract is very rapid, and it escapes from it by
another gap near Fort Deposit, in Alabama. At this place
it changes the south-west course into a western course, and
alter draining Alabama for about 200 miles, it returns to
Tennessee. In Alabama the river widens from two to three
miles, and in this part there are extensive rocky shoals,
which are known under the name of the Missel Shoals,
ivnd occupy for seven or eight miles the whole of the bed.
In low-wati T tlic.e rocks entirely obstruct the navigation,
but in the time of the freshets boats of moderate size may
Mcend and descend without danger. The lower course of
the Tennemee River, as far as it lies within T.
from south to north. After having entered Kentucky it gra-
dually declines to the west, and falls into the Ohio. The
whole course of the Tennessee probably does not exceed
BOO miles, reckoned from the source of the Holston or
Clinch. In the t» .1 by large
which it escapes from the m. .
ul'its upper
i-k. It appears that withn; .lachian Moun-
tains it may be descended by boats, but the asiv
laborious and even dangerous.
The Cumberland River rises in Kentucky, in the valley
I by the Cumberland Mountains and ti
Mountains, ami traverses the south-eastern dish,
state ' -i course: after a inn of :.
150 miles it turns to the south-west and em
where it soon resumes its western course. Il
northern districts of Tennessee by a course of about
and turning gradually more to the north.
Kentucky, where its general course is to the north, ll
into the Ohio a lew miles above the mouth of tin-
Tennessee. This river runs about -1
current is very gentle, the navigation is easy for sloops as
far as Nashville, more than 150 miles from its mouth. 1;
is stated to be navigable for river-boats 150 miles farther
up, but in Kentucky the upper course is obstructed 1
tensive shoals in several places.
Clini ••<•'.— No meteorological observations made in Ten-
nessee having been published, v. c are unable to ibim u.
precise idea of the climate. It is v-.-ry p,
assumed by Darby, that the general level of the Mountain
Region is about 800 feet i the level
tract on the Mississippi, v.bieh is about 300 feet above
the sea. This of course must produce a considerable dif-
ference in the climate of the two regions. ( 'ornelius found
the vegetation in Virginia, east of the Blue Ridge, two
weeks earlier than in the valley west of it. It is probable
that the winter in the Mountain Region ]:\<-\- ;
weeks, and that the frost is rather scvcic. In the con'
west of the range the rivers are generally covered with ice
for a few days in the winter. Snow falls to the depth of ten
inches, but seldom lies more than twelve or fifteen days on
the ground. In winter and spring a considerable quantity
of rain falls ; but in the other seasons rain is not frequent,
nor does it continue for any length of time. The air in
some parts of Tennessee is remarkable for its dr\
I'rntlurtirms.— The state of agriculture in Tennessee will
best be inferred from the statement of the returns of 1840,
according to which the quantity of maize grown amounted
to 42,467,349 bushels, a quantity much larger than that
produced in any other of the United Slates. As this grain
t adapted for the feeding of hogs, the miml
hogs was also larger than in other states, amounting to
2,795,630. Oats were raised to the 'amount of 8,770.116
bushels; wheat, 4,547,273 bushels; potatoes, 2,373,034
bushels: rye. -JiiT.UKt l'ii>liels : buckwheat, 6187 bush
and barley, only 4758 bushels. The quantity of cotton
amounted to 128,250,308Ibti.. whieh if as much
as that produced in :\i 8 Ibs. . ami
the quantity tl . : Alabama
(240,379,669 Ibs.), but nearly as much as was crown in
Gcori': i Ohio (134,322,756 Ibs.).
• the amount of •Ji>..~>i2.1 iv
more than one-third of the quantity irrovvn in Virginia
(74, 157.84 libs.). Flax. and hemp yielded 45.<ra
and the meadows only ICO 12 tons of' hay. Rice is little
cultivated, as the produce was only 7729 Ibs. : the bop
plantations yielded only 8 10 Ibs. The cultivation of the
: :n seems not to have made much progress, as only
I163fb*. Of COCOOns Were gathered. The value of the pro-
duce of the orchards v, as estimated at 3r.ii.~o7 dollars,
which proves that horticulture has made O 6 pro-
A small quantity of wine was made, amount i-
<;53 gallons. The sugar made from the sugar-maple
amounted to '£> 1.7 15 Ibs. Though the produce of the
articles drawn from the forests ! - still
considerable: the lumber was e t 2.<KX),266 dol-
lars, I lit barrels of pitch, tar. turpentine and
roMn. and 212 tons of pot and pearl a.-hes. The number
of horses and r. to :!J7..~>-(>. that of neat
caitle to 773,390, and that < i : .">!). The value
of the poultiy was estimated at 5Ml.5:tl dollar-. The pro-
duce of the 'dai. the value of 930,003 do'
the quantity of wool was 1,029,52(1 Ibs. ; and the wax
-,0.715 Ibs.
Buffaloes were once numerous, but they have entirely
disappeared; the elk and moose-deer are only found
TEN
209
TEN
in the Mountain -Region, and the deer is still abundant
there. There are bears, pumas, wild-cats, and wolves ;
also beavers, otters, and musk-rats. Racoons, foxes,
squirrels, opossums, rabbits, polecats, and minxes are very
numerous : pheasants, partridges, pigeons, swans, wild
turkeys, ducks, and geese are abundant. There is fish in
all the rivers, but not very abundant. The wild trees and
plants which yield fruits are the wild plum, the crab-
apple, the wild vine, and the strawberry.
There is gold in the mountains bordering on North
Carolina, but up to 1834 only 12,000 dollars" worth had
been collected. Lead exists in the same mountains, but is
not much worked. Iron-ore is found in great abundance
on the south side of the Cumberland River, and also at a
few other places. Limestone and marble are got in the
Cumberland Mountains, and nitre in abundance in some
rxtmsive caves near the Mountain Region. Salt-springs
are very numerous, and some of them are strong. Some
salt is made, but not to a great amount, as salt is easily
obtained from the western districts of Pennsylvania and
from Ohio.
Population.— la 1838 the Cherokees, who up to that
time were in possession of the southern districts of the
Mountain Region, left Tennessee, and went to the west of
the Mississippi. [NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.] At pre-
sent the population consists of the descendants of Eu-
ropeans and of slaves.
By the census of 1820 the population consisted of 422,813
individuals. At the census of 1830 it had increased to
(is 1,904, which gives an increase of Gl-3 per cent, in ten
years. According to the last census (1840) the popula-
tion amounted to 829,210, so that in the ten years preced-
ing the census it had increased 21-6 per cent., which is
.Mi!! about double the rate of increase in most countries
of Europe. The increase however has not been equal in
all parts of the state. In the Eastern District it had risen
from 196,301 to 224,259, or about 14'7 per cent. ; in the
Middle District, from .'(74,749 to 411,710, or only 9'9 per
cent. ; and in the Western District, from 1 10,854 to 193,241,
or 74-3 per cent.
In 1830 the population consisted of 535,746 whites,
45")5 free coloured people, and 141,603 slaves; and in
1840, of 640,627 whites, 5524 free coloured people, and
183,059 slaves ; whence it is evident that the slave popu-
lation has increased more rapidly than the white, as the in-
crease of the number of slaves amounts to 29-2 per cent.
The proportion of the white inhabitants to the sla\. •> ]•,
greatest in the Eastern District, which contains only 18,714
slaves and 203,371 whites, so that the slaves constitute
only 9-2 per cent, of the number of the whites. In the
Middle District there were 301,157 whites and 107,735
slaves, which raises the slave population to 32'4 per cent,
of the number of the whites. In the Western District the
number of whites amounted to 136,099, and that of the
slaves to 56,610, so that the slaves constituted 41-6 per
cent, of the white population.
If the population were equally distributed over the
state, there would be 20'6 individuals to each square mile.
In Scotland there are 90, and in southern Sweden about
42 individuals to each square mile. It is remarkable that
the most sterile part of Tennessee, the mountain-region,
is the most populous. If we allow it 10,000 square
miles, which is probably somewhat too much, it contains
22-4 individuals, whilst the Middle District has only 21-2,
and the Western District only 19'3 individuals to each
square mile.
Political Divisions and Towns. — For the administration
of justice the state is divided into three districts ; and for
political purposes into seventy-two counties. As Ten-
nessee is eminently an agricultural country, none of the
towns have risen to any importance. The capital is Nash-
ville, built on the left bank of the Cumberland River,
where the navigation for large boats begins. It is a well-
built and thriving place, which in 1830 contained i'i."i(i.")
inhabitants ; and in 1840, 6929. Knoxville, on the river
H >!-ton, nearly in the centre of the mountain-region, has
a population of about 3000. The other towns are small.
Murt'reesborough, south-east of Nashville, in one of tin:
most populous districts of the state, has about 1500 in-
habitants ; and Memphis, on the Mississippi, near the
boundary-line of the State of Mississippi, is a very thriv-
ing town, being a place of resort for the steam-boats which
navigate the river.
P. C., No. 1514.
Manufactures.— Manufacturing industry has not made
much progress in Tennessee. In 1840 the number of per-
sons employed in manufactures and trades was only 17,805:
of whom 10,409 were in the Middle District ; 4679 in the
Eastern ; and 2727 in the Western. The number of dis-
tilleries was 1381, but all on a small scale, as may be
inferred from the produce, which amounted only to
1,080,693 gallons : in New York 38 distilleries produced
more than 4 millions of gallons, and in Massachusetts 37
distilleries more than 5 millions. Cotton and linen stuffs
for clothing are made at home. There is a small number
of families who make coarse cotton, linen, and hempen
fabrics for sale ; and there are also a few paper-mills and
manufactures of cordage and ropes. Some bar-iron is
made, and nails are manufactured. There are also several
small tanneries.
Commerce. — Tennessee is not favourably situated for
commerce, as the only river which is navigable for large
boats all the year round washes its western extremity. The
mountain-region labours under the greatest disadvantages,
as the mountains which separate it from the Atlantic
regions are difficult to pass. Its commercial wealth con-
sists of live stock : they send their neat cattle to Virginia,
and their horses, mules, and hogs to the Carolinas. The
Middle and Western Districts are commercially connected
with New Orleans, to which place they send, by the Mis-
sissippi, cotton, tobacco, maize, pork, potatoes, flour, hemp
and flax, deer-skins, lumber, ginseng, and bar-iron. The
foreign articles consumed in the country, which consist
mostly of grocery and some other articles of manufacture,
are imported from Pittsburg and Philadelphia, or from New
Orleans.
Education is not neglected. The number of white per •
sons above twenty years of age unable to read and write
amounted, in 1840, to 58,532 ; the number of elementary
and common schools was 983, and the number of children
attending them 25,090, of which number 6005 were
taught at the public expense. The number of academies
and grammar-schools was 152, and they were attended by
5548 boys. There are five universities or colleges. The
best is the university of Nashville, which has six in-
structors and a library of about 8500 volumes. Jackson
College is near Columbia. The colleges of Greenville,
Washington, and Knoxville are smaller. There is a theo-
logical seminary at Maryville in East Tennessee for Pres-
byterian clergymen.
History and Constitution. — The first settlements in
Tennessee were made about the middle of the last century,
but in 1760 they were destroyed by the Cherokees, then
the possessors of this country, from the northern and cen-
tral part of which they were expelled in 1780. Since that
time the number of settlements has continually and ra-
pidly increased. Up to 1790 Tennessee formed a part of
North Carolina, but in that year it was ceded by that state
to the United States, who converted it into a territory.
In 1796 it was admitted into the Union. The legislative
power is vested in a general assembly consisting of a senate
and a house of representatives, elected by the freeholders
for two years. The senate is at present composed of 25
members, and the house of representatives of 75 members.
The executive power is vested in a governor, who is chosen
by the electors for the term of two years, and is not ca-
pable of holding office more than six years out of eight.
(Cornelius, Tour in Virginia, Tennessee, &c. ; Long's
Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, by James ; Darby's
Geographical View of the United States ; Pitkin's Statis-
tical View of the Commerce of the United States ; the
American Almanack and Repository of Useful Krtowledge
for 1842.)
TENNIS, a game in which a ball is driven to and fro
by several persons striking it alternately, either with the
palm of the hand, naked or covered with a thick glove, or
with a small bat called a racket, held in the hand ; the
aim being to keep the ball in motion as long as possible
without allowing it to fall to the ground. Strutt, on the
authority of St. Foix, a French author, states that the
French game of ball called palm-play, or 'jeu de paume,'
was formerly played with the naked hand, then with a
glove, which in some instances was lined, and that after-
wards the players bound cords and tendons round their
lands to make the ball rebound more forcibly ; and hence,
it is added, the racket derived its origin. He states that
palm-play, or hand-tennis, was exceedingly fashionable in
VOL. XXIV.— 2 E
T I
210
TEN
France during the rcigii of Charles V., it being often
! 1'Y tilt- nobility lor large sums of IP Imps
the't i the irame in England is that
wine! has introduced, almost in the words of
the .. His 'Hoi. A here
the dauphin sends a present of tennis-balls in answer to
,'s demand for the sovereignty of France. Henry
VII. V,:i- a tennis-player; and, as an entry in :i MS. re-
M-nditure in the thirteenth year of hi* reign
iont an item of twelve-pence for liislass at tennis and
pence for the loss of balls, it may be inferred that
•.me was played abroad, as the loss of balls is not
likely to have happened in a tennis-eourt. He this as it
may." in the sixteenth century tennis-courts were common
in England, and the game was very popular with the no-
bility, which it continued to be down to the reign of
Charles II., who frequently (liveried himself by playing at
tennis with his courtiers. Tennis-courts were divided by a
line stretched in the middle, and the players, standing on
each side with their rackets in their hands, were required to
the ball '>r,-r this line. A similar same was some-
ith a hollow leather ball, inflated with air,
and cnlleii • driven from one player to
another by striking with the hand, or with a wooden bracer
Axed upon the hand and lower arm. Farther particular*
respecting the<e and other games played with a ball may
be found in Strutt's ' Sports and Pastimes,' and ' Horda-
AngfM'ynnan.'
TENON, .l.U'QUES-RE'NE', an eminent French sur-
geon, whose father also belonged to the medical profession.
•was born in 1724. He went to Paris in 1741, where his
zeal and talents soon gained him the notice of Winslow.
and also of Antoine and Bernard de .lussieu. The first of
these celebrated men initiated him in the study of anatomy ;
the two others developed in him a taste for botany and
natural history. In spite of the prejudices and example of
his contemporaries. Tenon understood that surgery, far
from being separated from the other branches of medical
science, and restricted to the mere performance of opera-
lions, is on the contrary most strictly united to them.
Accordingly from this time he had a wider field opened to
him for his professional labours ; and he united to the
study and treatment of surgical affections minute ana-
tomical investigations and ingenious physiological experi-
ments. In a short time he acquired a well-merited repu-
tation ; and though inferior to some other modern French
surgeons in skill and genius for that particular department
.••nee. yet few have surpassed him in the extent of his
studies and the variety of his information. In 1744 Tenon
was appointed an army surgeon of the first class (rfiirur-
ri'inicri' chute "'"' nrmfes\ and served in the
following year throughout the campaign in Flanders. On
his return to Paris he obtained by competition («« ron-
rours) the situation of ch. : to the hospital of La
Salpetriere.and founded near it a celebrated establishment
for inoculation, a practice which his labours contributed
much to propagate. He afterwards became a member of
the College and of the Royal Academy of Surgery, and
succeeded Andouille as professor of pathology. In
I7~>7 he was received into the Academy of Sciences.
Tenon belonged to the first Lcirislal'n v. and there
displayed the same Jfcalous philanthropy \\liich seemed to
belong to all his actions. Upon the re-organization of the
learned sociclics. he became a member of the Institute of
the first class, and read in that assembly many interesting
papers. He was also a member of the I.. : , , <.\ Honour
and of scveial learned and scientific societies, and pre-
served to the end of his life the same lo\e of labour and
the same zeal for the advancement of science which had
marked the earl his caiecr. He died at l';iris, on
the 15th of January. IsHi. at the advanced age of ninety-
two, -ons huve written so many memoirs and
monotrraplM as Tenon : many of these have only been pub-
lished'in the animal analysis of the pr< of the
Institute: he is also said to h:r. liiml him .1
number of manuscripts. More than thirty of his we.:
mentioned in the I,* »f which the fol-
lowing are the most important: — •]>•• ' Paris,
17"i7. ••'". ' Mi'-moircs Mir rKxfotiatioii ch before
the Academy of Seieii'-e* iu I7-">H, 17^'J, and 17<X), and
afterwards printed, together with some others, with the
title ' M''"]i"in , SMI I'Anatomie, la Pathologic, et la Chi-
rurgie,' Paru, 1806, 8vo. ' Mcmoire sur les Hopitaux de
Paris,' Paris, 1788, 4to.; a very able memoir, which haj
served as a model for many that have been <m< e written
on the same subject, in which ; i out almost all
the improvements that have been introduced into the
French hospitals. His last work, which was published
when he was ninety years old. is entitled • Ottramle aux
Vieillards de quelques Moy»-n-> pour piolom:cr I;:
TENOR, the name of the most conn, adult
male voices, that which is between the extrcm
highest and lowest, or Conti.. \ TO] and !
[BASE- VOICE.] The compass of the Tenor is I'mtu i, the
second space in the biue, to o, the second line in the
treble. Example, in the tenor clef: —
Hence it will be seen that the tenor and treble are reci-
procally at the distance of an octave; consequently, what
is calculated for the one \oice, as relates to compass, will,
at a distance of eight notes, invariably suit the other.
The word is derived from Teni'«. /•* li'ild : for in ;<
part -compositions, the plain-song, or air, if it may 1
denominated, was given to, or held by, the Tenor. [CtEK.]
TENOH-CLKF is the c, or mean clef, placed on the fourth
line for the use of the tenor-voice. Example : —
It is also occasionally used for the violoncello : and the
part of the tenor trombone is written in this de:.
TENOR is also the Knirlish name for a larger instrument
of the violin kind. See VIOLA.
TENOS (Tijvoc), now Tino, a small island in the <• '•
Archipelago lying to the south-east of Amlros, and be-
tween thiit island and Myconus, and 1'orming one of the
group called the Cycladcs. S. Nicolo, on its north <
is in :i7° 'M' N. int. and 25" 1:V E. long. It is .
!."> miles lorn;, and its greatest length is from north-
west to south-east. It was antiently called Ih
because it was well watered (xarafrfivrov} :Steph.
By/ant., v. rijvoc ; Pliny. //.•>/. A"'.. i\. IJ ; and (I;
i Strabo. ]). 487, ed. Casauh. , because it abounded in s>
In the time of the Persian invasion of Greece a T
trireme rendered good service to the Greeks by dc>i
from the enemy, and uivintr intelligence of their move-
ments immediately before the battle of Salamis iji.c. 480).
The name of the Tenians was in consequent i upon
the tripod at Delphi in the list of states to whom (•
was indebted for the repulse of the invader. Herod., viii.
82.) Accord ins; to Pausanias tv. 2.'i the Tenians were
amonir MOM' names were inscribed on the it
of Jupiter at Olympia, dedicated by the Greeks who
ibuirht at Platasa. The island paid tribute, to A:
durimr the lYloponncsiao war. •:'] liucyil.. vii. "i7- ! I1
taken, and the inhabitants enslaved by Alexander, tyrant,
of 1'liciic, B.C. :t(i~ Dcmosthen. in Polycl., 1207. !(•
Clinton, Fusti llflli'ii., a. :i(i'J. In the ici^u of Til >
when the Roman senate instituted an inquiry into the
rights a::d privileges, attached to temples in the provinces
of the empire, the Tenians quoted an oracle of Apollo, by
which they had been commanded to consecrate a Maine
and temple to Neptune. (Tacitus, Annul. , in. 03. i Tins
temple was of considerable size, as appears from S
< p. 4H7), and on the coins of Tenos the trident of Neptune.
is a common type ; on the reverse there is usually a bunch
pet. The island is still celebrated for its wine, of
which about twenty sorts are grown.
TKNHKC. Centttet, til.; Ci-iitfiim. Desm. : Sftigrr,
Geoff. The Tenrecs may be considered— indeed they
been r iiogs with-
out the power of rolling themselves up into a ball. They
weie not included in the1 urenus Kniim-riis of Linnifi
he left it, in his last edition of (hi- > hinr it he
12th), but in the 13th (.Gmelm's) all the known *y
were included under that genus. Tliey have no tail, are
nocturnal I'or the most part in their habits, feed on ill-
he dormant durini: a considerable portion of the year, and
that durimr the hot season, and have the skin beset with
spines or spine-like bristles.
TEN
211
TEN
It is in this genus that we first find the jugal bone want
ing among the Insectivora.
Geographical Distribution and Habits of the Genus. —
Cuvier remarks that three species are found in Madagascar
the first of which, the Tenrec, properly so called, Centetes
ecaudatus (Erinaceus ecai/clatus, Ginel.j is, he observes
naturalized at the Isle of France.
Mr. Swainson (Classification of Quadrupeds) states thai
the second division of the family SORECID* is composed
of mole-like animals, apparently connected to the Shrews
by the American Scalops and the African Chrysochlorit,
and that it includes but three genera. [SORECID.E, vol.
xxii., p. 261.] Of the Tenrecs (or Tendrics as he writes
the word) he treats as animals peculiar to Madagascar,
apparently as capable of domestication as their European
congeners. 'Although inhabiting a warm region,' pro-
ceeds Mr. Swainson, ' they are said to pass the three
warmest months of the year in a state of torpidity : this, it
must be owned, is a singular circumstance, and is the only
one upon record of an animal hybernating, so to speak, in
the height of summer. In other respects they feed like
the European Hedgehog, and are nocturnal animals.' The
singularity of the circumstance vanishes when we find that
the period in which the- Tenrec becomes dormant is not
only the \Minu season, but the dry season, and the apparent
-•ily becomes another instance of the harmony of
adaptation which prevails throughout nature. A suspen-
of the active powers of life becomes absolutely neces-
lo insectivorous quadrupeds, because there must be
certain seasons when they would find no food. Our usual
term for the act of retiring, in order to give way to this
nsion, is hybernation ; because, in our latitudes, this
abstraction of worms and insects takes place in winter,
when our Bats, Hedgehogs, and Shrews lay themselves up
till spring returns to call forth their prey. But in Mada-
gascar the dry season is that in which the absence of
worms and in>ects occurs; and then it is that the Tenrec
into its half living and half dead state.
Dental Formula:— Incisors -; canines
1-1
molars
G-J3
0-6
: =40.
Twlh of Tntec, ooe-lhud target than the natural me. (f. Cuv.)
The situation assigned by Cuvier to the Tenrecs is be-
tween the Hedgehogs (Erinaceus, Linn.) and Cladobates.
[TUPAIA.J
Cuvier remarks that the muzzle of the Tenrecs is very
pointed, and that their teeth are very different from those
of the Hedgehogs.
Generic Character. — Body spiny ; not capable of being
rolled up into a ball, as in the Hedgehogs ; muzzle elon-
gated ; five toes on each foot, separated and armed with
crooked claws.
Examples. — The species are called Tenrec and Tendrac ;
but the latter name is confusedly applied to at least two
species.
Of the first, the Centetes ecaudatus, 111., is the largest,
exceeding our Hedgehog in size. It is covered above with
long flexible spines, except on the vertex and occiput,
and has no coloured bands : the under part of the body
is clothed with hairs or bristles only, which are yellowish,
mixed with some longer black ones. Baron Cuvier, who
is followed by Lesson, states, in his last edition of the
Regne Animal, that this species has only four incisors in
the lower jaw; but M. F. Cuvier, who makes the number
six in each jaw, says that his illustration is taken from
Cent, ecaudatits and Cent, setosus ; and Fischer gives the
same number.
(Viit.-toa I'Candatus.
Centetes sftosus, 111. -The Tendrac of Buffon and Zim-
merman— is less than the former, and the spines are shor*
and rigid.
'IViulrac.
The Centetes semispinosus is still less, and hardly so
large as a common mole. Its body is clothed with a mix-
:ure of spines and bristles, and is banded longitudinally
with yellow and black.
Striped Teurcc.
2E2
TEN
212
T I \
v TENSION (Mechanics), the name given to tin- force
by which a bar or string is pulled, when forming part of
any system in equilibrium or in motion. Thus when a
weight is supported by a string, the tension of the string is
the weight winch is suspended tn it. KMT\ point .if the
string may be considered as a point of application of two
equal and opposite forces, downwards and upwards, each
equal to the weight applied.
TKNTKKDKN. [KBIT.]
TENTERDEN, CHARLES ABBOTT, LORD, born at
Canterbury, on the 7th of October, 1702, was the son of a
barber, who has been described as ' a tall, erect, primitive-
looking man, with a large club pigtail, going about with
the instruments of his business, and attended frequently
by hi» son Charles, a youth as decent, grave, and primitive-
looking as himself/ lie was entered in 1709 on the
foundation of the king's school of the cathedral, under
Dr. Osmund Beauvoir, who is stated by Sir Egerton
Brydges to have been an admirable classical scholar, of
fine taste, and some genius. Sir Egerton, who for some
years held the place next to Abbott in the class, speaks of
him as remarkable even in his school-boy days for accu-
racy, steadiness, and equality of labour ; as well acquainted
with the rules of grammar, sure in any examination or
task, and a tolerably correct writer of Latin verses and
prose themes.
In the beginning of 1781 Abbott was elected scholar of
Corpus Chnsti College, Oxford, with an allowance, in-
cluding his exhibition, of 50/. a year. His mathematical
acquirements are said by his friends to have been con-
siderable. In 1784 he obtained the chancellor's medal for
the best Latin verses on Lunardi's balloon, ' Globus Aeros-
taticus;' in 178C his essay 'On the Use and Abuse of
Satire,' obtained the chancellor's medal for the English
This essay displays the turn for neat, lucid, and
exhaustive arrangement, which was the most marked
feature of his matured intellect, and also a good deal of
that want of passion and imagination which, perhaps as
ranch as any of his positive qualities, contributed to his
judicial eminence. He was elected a fellow of his college,
and appointed junior tutor to Mr. (afterwards bishop)
Burgess.
By the advice of Mr. Justice Buller, whose son was one
of his private pupils, Abbott entered himself of the Inner
Temple in 1788. He also, in compliance with the sug-
gestion of the same experienced lawyer, attended some
months the office of the London solicitors Messrs. Sandys
and Co. He afterwards became a pupil of Mr. (sub-
sequently Baron) Wood ; and, aided by his recommenda-
tion, began to practise as a special pleader with marked
success. He was called to the bar in Trinity term,
1790.
He married, on the 13th of July, 1793, Mar}1, eldest
daughter of John Logier Lamotte, Esq., a gentleman of
fortune in Kent. It is said that when the father hinted at
the expediency of a marriage-settlement, Abbott said he
had nothing but an excellent law-library, which the
lawyers might tie up as tightly as they pleased.
Having selected the Oxford circuit, he speedily rose
into great business. The jealousy of his young rivals
gave rise to rumours of his being too courteous to attor-
neys ; but by whatever means he may have obtained his
position, he kept it by the preference the leaders evinced for
a junior who could often suggest a case in point, and was
master of all the technicalities of pleading. To this he
owed his appointment, by Sir Vicary Gibbs, when solici-
tor-general, to the office known among the members of
the bar by the name of treasury-devil, the junior counsel
to whose care the business of government is intrusted.
In this character he took part in most of the numerous
Hi ate -trials which occurred about the close of last cen-
tury. As his character became established, he was ap-
pointed standing counsel to the Bank and other great
mercantile communities. When the returns of the income-
tax were called for, Mr. Abbott's account was looked upon
as a curiosity, both for its minute accuracy and for the
largeness of the sum-total of his fees during the past yeai
In a sketch of Lord Tenterden, which appeared in the
nixty-ninth volume of the ' Edinburgh Review,' Lord
Brougham says of his career at the bar : — ' As a leader he
wery rarely, and by some extraordinary accident only, ap-
peared ; and thu in a manner no little satisfactory to him-
self, that he peremptorily declined it whenever refusal was
possible; and he seemed to have no notion of a leader's
duty beyond exposing the pleadings and the law of the
case to the jury, who could not comprehend them with all
his explanation. His legal arguments, of which for many
years fhe books arc full, were extremely good, without
reaching any very high pitch of excellence; the\
quite clear, abundantly full of case law ; betokening some
dread of grappling with principle, and displaying none of
the felicitous commentary that marked Mr. Holroyd's."
In 1802 Mr. Abbott published his ' Treatise of the Law
relative to Merchant-Ships and Seamen.' This work lias
gone through many editions: it exhausts the subji.
well arranged, and well written : its merits have been re-
peatedly acknowledged : it is one of the best English law
treatises.
In 1808 Mr. Abbott wits offered a seat on the bench, but
declined from prudential motives, his professional in.
far exceeding the salary of a judge. As years grew upon
him however, and his fortune increased, he began to long
for the comparative repose of the bench. In February,
1816, he was offered a seat as puisne judge in the Court of
Common Pleas, and accepted it. In May of the same year,
on the death of Mr. Justice Le Blanc, he yielded t<> the
importunity of Lord Ellenborough, and was chosen to sup-
ply the vacancy in the Court of King's Bench, and was
knighted about the same time. On the 4th of November,
1818, Sir Charlee Abbott succeeded Lord Ellenborough as
chief-justice of that court.
It has been alleged that at the outset of his judicial
career chief-justice Abbott was apt to lose himself among
the minute details of the cases which were brought l>
him. It is allowed at the same time that during the last
seven or eight years of his time he took broader and more
comprehensive views of questions, and displayed great
judicial capacity. He had learned to deal with facts, and
his law was, as it always had been, safe, accurate, and
ready. His statements and decisions were clothed in cor-
rect, succinct, and appropriate language. He wa> averse
to over-curious subtleties ; loved to overrule technical ob-
jections both in civil and criminal pleadings ; and showed
great anxiety to make his decisions accord with com-
mon sense and substantial justice. Perhaps he shone
most in the management of arguments which required a
combination of scientific with legal knowledge : ' to see
him preside over a complicated patent case was a very
great treat, whether to a lawyer or a man of science.' A
reasonable distinction, a reasonable interpretation of the
law, were his favourite phrases. He was, as every learned
and judicious lawyer must be, rather impatient of the
check of a jury ; and was not always able to keep lu's
temper in command when arguing with the bar. His
impartiality, as far as the parties were concerned, was un-
questioned. ' It was an edifying sight.' says Lord Broug-
ham, ' to observe Lord Tenterden, whose temper had been
visibly affected during the trial (for on the bench he had
not always that entire command of it which we have de-
scribed him as possessing at the bar , addressing himself
to the points in the cause with the same perfect calnmc-s
and indifference with which a mathematician pursues an
abstract truth ; as if there were neither the parties nor the
advocates in existence, and only bent on the discovery- and
the elucidation of truth.' Chief-Justice Abbott's anxiety
to support the executive authority on all occasions was
beyond a doubt excessive ; but this appears to have been
the consequence of temperament and very early asso-
ciations: it shows itself even in his prize essay upon
Satire.
Sir Charles Abbott was raised to the peerage in 1827. by
the title of Baron Tenterden. He made a successful debut
as a speaker in the House of Lords in support of Mi —
Turner s divorce bill ; he pertinacious!) opposed the pass-
ing of the Corporation and Test Act Repeal Bill ; and was
the most impressive speaker against the Roman Catholic
Relief Bill. His judicial labours rendered him tor the
next two years an (infrequent attendant in the House of
Lords; but he recorded his protest against the Reform
Bill. He took at the same time an active part in the busi-
ness of legislation. Among his well-studied and carefully
prepared acts are— 9 Gep. IV., c. 14, for the alteration of
the law an to the limitation of actions of account and upon
thi' ca-e : 11 (ieo. IV., e. 15, to prevent a failure of justicu
by reason of variances between records and writings pro
TEN
213
TEN
duced in evidence ; 1 Will. IV., c. 21, Mandamus and
Prohibition Acts ; 1 Will. IV., c. 22, Interrogatories Act ;
1 & 2 Will. IV., c. 58, Interpleader Act ; 2 & 3 Will. IV.,
c. 39, Uniformity of Process Act ; 2 & 3 Will. IV., c. 71,
Prescription Acts ; and (prepared under his sanction) 3 &
4 Will. IV., c. 27, for the limitation of actions and suits
relating to real property, and for simplifying the remedies
for trying the rights thereto.
As his political opinions were of the kind generally un-
derstood to predominate at Oxford, so his literary tastes
retained the impress of his University education. When
Sir James Scarlett, on the trial of Mr. Hunt for the pub-
lication of ' The Vision of Judgment,' alluded to the
poetry of Lord Byron as familiar to the jury, Lord Tenter-
den could not repress the observation that, for himself,
' he was bred in too severe a school of taste to admire
the modern poets.' His favourite recreations during the
long vacation were the perusal of the classics, the study
of botany, and the composition of Latin verses on flowers
and plants. He founded and endowed, in the grammar-
school of his native city, two annual prizes ; the one for the
best English essay, the other for the best Latin verse. In
his relaxations, as in the discharge of his public duties, he
displayed a mind narrow, it may be, and unimpassioned,
but active, dexterous, and elegant.
His later years were overclouded with ill-health, and
alarm occasioned by the aspect of public affairs. He con-
tinued however to discharge assiduously the duties of his
high office. He presided for the two first days at the trial
of the mayor of Bristol for misconduct during the riots in
that city at the time of the Reform Bill, but on the third
he was confined to bed by a violent attack of inflamma-
tion. The disease baffled the skill of his physicians, and
he expired on the morning of Sunday, November 4, 1832.
Lady Tenterden died on the 19th of "December following.
He had two sons, one of whom succeeded him in the title,
and two daughters.
(The materials for this article have been found in a
notice of Lord Tenterden in the Obituary of The Gentle-
man's Magazine for December, 1832 ; in a ' Life of Lord
Tenterden' which appeared in the 26th volume of The
Law Magazine, pp. 51-87 ; in a sketch of the ' Judicial
Character of Lord Tenterden ' by Mr. Sergeant Talfourd,
in the 9th volume of the same work, pp. 234-6 ; and in a
sketch of his career and character by Lord Brougham in
the 76th volume of the Edinburgh Review, pp. 14-23.
There is a portrait of Lord Tenterden taken by Owen in
1819, and engraved in mezzotinto in a quarto form by S.
W. Reynolds, and another by C. Penny engraved by H.
Meyer. A cast for a bust was taken from his countenance
after death.)
TENTHRET)O, a genus of Hymenopterous insects of
the section Terebrantia. The genus Tenthredo of Linnaeus
is in modern systems regarded as constituting a family, to
which the name Securi/era has been applied by Latreille,
and Tenthredinidee by Leach.
Latreille restricts the generic term Tenthredo to those
species which have nine joints to the antennae, and in
which these organs are not distinctly thickened at the
apex. Their larvae have from eighteen to twenty-two feet.
The genus Tenthredo is however still further restricted by
many other authors, and it is especially to Dr. Leach (Zoo-
logical Miscellany, vol. iii.)that we are indebted for point-
ing out distinguishing characters for the subdivisions of
the very extensive Linnean genus. By this author the
Tenthredinides are divided chiefly according to the struc-
ture of the antennas, and the cells enclosed by the nervures
of the wings. The first section, according to Dr. Leach,
contains those species which have the antennae short and
clubbed at the extremity and the third joint long ; the
superior wings with two marginal and three submarginal
cells. It includes the genera Cimbex, Trichiosoma, Cla-
ri't/uria, Zarea, Abia, &c.
The species of the second section have the antennae of
moderate length, filiform, and composed of three joints ;
the last joint long, slightly thickened at the extremity,
and in the males ciliated, and sometimes forked. It con-
tains the genera Hylotoma and Schizocerus. The charac-
ters of the third section are — antennas short, with nine or
ten joints, increasing in thickness in the middle, but end-
ing in a point; the third joint longer than the fourth; body
short and increasing in thickness towards the apex. Genera :
Menna, Selandria, and Fenusa.
Section 4.— Antennae composed of nine joints, mode-
rately long ; body moderately long; upper wings with two
marginal cells. To this section belongs the genus Tenthredo
as at present restricted ; it is distinguished by the upper
wings having four submarginal cells, and the antennae
with the third and fourth joints of equal length. The
genus Allantus differs only from Tenthredo hi having the
third joint of the antennas longer than the fourth. The
Allantus scrophulariee is a very common species in this
country, and is found on the scrophularise, on the leaves
of which its larvae feed. The perfect insect somewhat
resembles a wasp, but is of a rather more slender form ; it
is black, and has the body adorned with yellow rings ; the
legs (with the exception of the thighs) and antennae are
also yellow. The larva, which is provided with twenty-
two feet, is white and has black dots, and the head is black.
When touched it rolls itself up in a spiral manner, as in-
deed dp the larvae of other TenthredinideE.
Section 5. — Superior wings with but one marginal cell ;
body short, narrower at the extremity in the males ; an-
tennae simple, nine-jointed, slightly ciliated, increasing in
thickness in the middle, and decreasing at the extremity.
This section contains the genera Creesvs, Nematits, and
Cladius, examples of each of which are found in this
country.
Section 6. — Antennae with numerous joints ; body rather
depressed ; wings with two marginal and four submarginal
cells. British genera Tarpa, Lyda, and Lophyrus. The
larvae of the species of Lophyrus live in society, more par-
ticularly on the pines, and are said to be very injurious to
the young plants. The species of this genus are very rare
in England. The antennae are serrated in females, and in
the males they are provided with a double series of denti-
culations.
TENTHS are the tenth part of the yearly value of all
ecclesiastical livings. They were formerly claimed by the
pope as due to himself by divine right, after the example
of the Jewish high-priest who had of the Levites a tenth-
part of the tithes ; and his claim was sanctioned, in this
country, by an ordinance in the 20th year of Edward I.,
when a valuation of all livings was made, in order that the
pope might know the amount of his revenue from this
source. The possessions afterwards acquired by the church
were not liable to the payment of tenths to the pope, as all
' > nigs continued to be charged according to that valua-
tion. (Coke, 2 last., 627.) When the authority of the
pope was extinguished at the Reformation, Henry VIII.
transferred the revenue arising from tenths to the crown,
and had a new valuation of all the livings, so as to obtain
the tenth of their true yearly value at that time. (26
Hen. VIII., c. 3, s. 9-11.) By royal grants under 1 Eliz.,
c. 19, s. 2, the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop
of London were exempted from tenths and were also
authorized to receive the tenths of several benefices as a
compensation for certain estates which were alienated
from their sees. By the 6 Anne, c. 24, all benefices were
discharged from the payment of tenths which, at that
time, were under the annual value of 50/., except those of
which the tenths had previously been granted by the crown
to other parties. There are also some other special exemp-
tions. At the present time, out of 10,498 benefices, with
and without cure of souls, there are 4898 which remain
liable to tenths. (Parl. Rep. First-Fruits and Tenths,
1837, No. 384.) Queen Anne gave up the revenue arising
from tenths, as well as from first-fruits, which had been
enjoyed by her predecessors since the Reformation, and by
act 2 and 3 of her reign, c. 11, assigned it to the aug-
mentation of poor livings ; for which purpose she erected
a corporation by letters patent in 1704 to administer the
funds, called the Governors of Queen Anne's Bounty.
This act declared that Episcopal sees and livings not
exempted should continue to pay in such rates and propor-
tions only as heretofore, or according to the valuation of
Henry VIII. , commonly known as the ' King's Books.'
Tenths under the act 1 Viet., c. 20, are collected by the
Treasurer of the Governors of Queen Anne's Bounty. Pay-
ment is enforced by Exchequer process, when not duly
made, and the treasurer is required to give notice of arrears
within one month after the proper time of payment. In
case of a living being vacated, the Exchequer is empowered
by act 26 Hen. VIII., c. 3, s. 18, to recover arrears of
tenths, not only from the executors and administrators, but
also from the successor of the last incumbent. (2 Burn's
Ecclesiastical Law, 9th ed., pp. 273-295.) [FiRST-Fauns ;
TAXATIO ECCLESIASTIC* ; TITHES.]
TEN
214
TEN
TEXTZEL, or TEXZEL. \VII.HF.I.M FUN I
man historian :i'i.l antiqua
MM in Th <-r the
completion 01' liia school >
In tlu' university of Wittenberg, where In- chiefly
'I'll himself to tli.' study of tlu> antit'iit a-
in connection with history. In UX> lir v.:is
appointed teacher at tin- gymnasium
nit- time intrusted with tin' cart1 of the rollertion of
antiquities and coins belonging to tl-n ' lot ha.
al learned dissertations wl.ich he pulili-hed shortly
after this lime attracted the attention of nis learned coun-
tryinen, in consequence of which lie became ;i
contributor to the ' Acta Kruditurum,' and to the • t
\aliones Hallei ; I rinan who
conceived the idea of establishing a German journal for
- and for publish,
In-ill was set on foot in 1(JS1). under the title
' Monatliehe Unterredungen einigcr guten l-'reunde von
nllerhand Biicheni uiul andern annehmlichcn Geschicli-
ten.' The. undertaking had great success, and was carried
on till 1688. The whole was published in monthly parts,
and consists often volumes. The extensive l;uo\vl>
history, especially of the history and antiquities oi
many, procured Tentzcl, in 1G90, the honourable p.
pher to the house of Saxony of the F.nicstine
line. Before he commenced writ inn on the history of
y he travelled through the greater part of Germany,
visiting several courts and examining various libraries to
find materials. In 1702 the elector of Saxony (also King
(if Poland conferred upon Tentzel the title of councillor,
and made him historiographer of the electorate. In thU
! took up his residence at Dresden, and was
frequ. ,vd to appear at court. But the simple
lightforwardneSB of the man made him a
subject for ridicule among the ignorant and idle courtiers,
and as soon as Tentzel became aware of it he resigned his
office and retired to private life, devoting himself entirely
to his historical and antiquarian studies. He died on the
24th of Xovemher. 17<I7, in great poverty.
.des the numer. :;i the periodical publica-
tions mentioned above, the following si ; rks of
Tentzel deserve to be mentioned : • De Ritu I.eelionum
Sacrarum.' Wittenberg, IGsfi. 4to.: • Exercitationes Selectee,
in duas purtes distributu',' Leip/ig. Ki^'J. Ho. : ' F.pi-lola
de Sceleto Elephantino Tonnsc miner cffosso,' Gotha and
Jena, 1699, 12mo. : ' Von dem Alter der Buchdrucker-
kun-,1.' (;,)tha, 1700, 12mo. ; this interesting work is trans-
lated into Latin and incorporated in Wolf's • Monumenta
Typographic^,' ii. (>44, t<x-. The principal work of Tentzel
is his • Saxonia Numismatica. sive Xummophylaciuin
Xumisniatiiin Mnemonicorum ct Iconiconim a Ducibus
•AX cudi jussoram,' Frankfort, 17n.">. 2 parts in 4lo.
He also continued the history of Gotha which had been
commenced by ' m two supplementary
volumes. His history of the Reformation, 'Histoi:
Bericht vom Ant'ang und Fortgang der Reformation,' which
was edited by E. S. Cyprian, in 2 vols. 4to.. Leipzig, 1718,
is u valuable work, which should still be consulted by the
student of that important period.
///"•'•»i. ii'-li-/ti-!iii-I.fficon,\\.,f. 1057, &c. ;
m, s. V. ' Ten/el."-
\ril'l-:l!>l-.s. 1 .-com! division ofthe Con-
tlie / . I'l'/nrn/ii. and l'rni'rii]ii\ , the
• liacea, the Trigunacea, the Ac
and the t.'hamarea.
In the h'rst division, Crussijii'i]''*. are comprised the Tubi-
• •I'li. and the Mi/iirin.
'•-]. De-have*, in the last edition of Lamarck, objects,
and we think witli reason, to the-.- divisions as being de-
•>r does he consider the arrangement capable of
amelioration, because the principal character i> t.
clusi'. M-I ves that to follow it rigorously it would
be necessary to break very natural links which bind certain
genei:i
Cuvicr made the Ti'iiuirottret the
fourth lamilv of his PtMtMUSC, placing it between the
.. und comjirisiiig under it
the genera Sitta, Linn, r With the subgenera Xenop*, 111. ;
.Iri'i/Kitf*, Tfinm. ; and Si/mtl/ii.ri>, \ ;• ••thin,
Ijnn. (with the subgcnera f'crt/iin. Cu\. ; / iptes,
Henn. ; 'l'irh'nln,inii. III.; fffturinin. 111.; DtCefutn,
Cuv. ; Mclithrepttu, Vieill.; Cinnyris, Cuv. ; and Aruch-
•. Temm. : 7' /,-.'///*, Linn. Dividing the pcnim
into t'.i- II
'
!\lr. Vigors. :i!U>r pointing out •
the I. which cliinli : .imal
-. and tlv
which live only on the nectar of flowers, and
I'.iimed for only [('IIHEPKH. vol.\iii.. p. i
- as the most int.
perhaps of the animal world. [Si-Min \\iii.,
- that the aberrant i'amili
- in their i ! hitherto
.•toiily eh:
.ik of tlu-m with tl; ty which may attend
obsiTvations on better deli:
;. pears to him to be that form of lli.
whii h appn
5. Uctaining, Mr. \ , bill
of lh< I -,//v exhibits somewl
base ofthe bill of tli.
time, tile gressorial feet. By in*
xed bill of w!
own, i; with thnt
group. ' ( )f the lini . which m.
in M. l!ii 'ins,'
continues Mr. \ i nothing at present : nor
do I wish to enter \\\\
the succeeding family of M
for th.
The families admitted by Mr. Vigors into this tribe of
.'UEs will be found in the article . toe.
cit.
Mr. Swainson(to whose publication on this order, in !he
1st vol. ofthe ' Zoological Journal,' which
the paper On tl
refers), in his tenth chapter of the second \oh:
iiication of Birds,' remarks, tli / : rant
division of the inscssoiial o
or honey sii. 'i-d fmm i
.nee both from insects and the nccta,
which they suck u]i by in. ,.r tihinic •:
p'ed for the )j
Mr. Swainsoii in continuation, ' are furthest reii..
the types o!' their older, they co :-ho\\ a gi.
affinity to the Scansores on one hand, a'i
rnxtri-n on the other, than to the more ]i.
the pcrehers, as seen in th. .
like the scansorial cicepers, tl:.
feet very short : but ; 'I'be
. ial birds derive their food ciilin •:•
and, in general, have a simple and pointc.;
; aM'lx loi-
..•tile, and either sini]i!\ forked, or ib
so many slender i •-emble a paint. I
:i:it it is uttcn
in the \\ |
-. principa! t the ton.
chief member by which life is supported.'
Mr. Siuiinson includes the following families under this
tribe :- MKi.ii'HA(;m.K ; C'imiyritlti' [SI-NHIKUS] ; Ti;.
LID.K (Humming-Birds ; PHUMKIIUI-IU.E (Hoopoes;; and
i>r [Bmus OK P.\r. VUISK].
The Tfiiuirnstri'ii are placed by this autli. . (lie
SCANSORES and the FISSIKDSTRES.
M. Lesson makes the tribe Ti'iiiiirn\lri'!t (wlucn hear-
between the Latirostres &nd the Syndactyles, .
sist ofthe following families and genera: —
1. Promeropidse.
Genera. — Upupa; 1'
•2. CcrthiadsB.
Genera.— -Crrthia ; Tii-fiix/mma ; I)<'ii<!rucolaples ; Cli-
mactenx . 1'tirtniriii* •••um.
;i. I'hiledonida-.
Genera. — Drepanis; Cinnyrin ; Pomatorhinun ; Pri-
nia; Orthotomtu ; Afyzomela; Myzant/ia; Anthochcera ,
Tr< >iml<ji hynchus ; MMisuga.
•1. Tiochilidii1.
Genera.— Folylmus, Briss. ; Ornitmya, Lew,
TEN
215
T E N
In Mr. G. R. Gray's ' List of the Genera of Birds' (2nd
edit., 1841), a work remarkable for its accuracy and the
quantity of condensed labour which it contains, the Tenui-
rostres stand as the second tribe of Insessores, between the
Fissirostres and the Dentirostres, and comprise the fol-
lowing families, subfamilies, and genera: —
1. Upupidas. (See the article.)
2. Xectarinidae. [SUNBIRDS.]
3. Trochilidae. (See the article.)
4. Meliphagidae.
Subfamily 1. Myzomelinee.
Genera. — Myzomela, Vig. and Horsf. (Phylidonyris,
Less.; Certhia, Gm. ; Me!iphaga,\\g. and Horsf.) : Acan-
thorhyncAws, Gould (Ltptoglotnu, Svv. ; Mdilhreptus,
Vieill. ; Certhia, Lath.; Metiphaga, Vig. and Horsf.) :
Glyciphila, Sw. (Mi'liphaga, Lew.).
Subfamily 2. Meliphaginee.
Genera. — Me/iornis, G. R. Gray (' rthia, Lath. ; Meli-
phaga. Lew.; Philedon, Cuv. ; Slrigiceps? Less.): Pros-
'idera, G. R. Gray (Merops, Lath. ; Anthochrera, Vig.
and H«rs. ; Philemon, Vieill. ; titurnux, Daud. ; Mi'li-
pAaga, Temm. ; Philedon, Cuv.) : Ptilotis, Sw.
phaga, Lew. ; Philemon, Vieill. ; Certhia, Lath.) : AH-
tlinrnu, G. R. Gray (Anthamyza, Sw. : M
Vieill.; Furnariut, Steph. ; Certhia, Span1.; Ph
Less.): Philemnn, Vieill. (Aiithochtera, Vig. and Hors. ;
Merops, Gm. ; Me/iphaga, Temm.: / ( 'uv.) :
Phyllornis, Boie (Turdus, Gm. ; < . Jard. and
Selby; Meliphaga, Horsf.): Meliphaga, Lew. (Zantfio-
myza, Siv. : Merops, Lath.; I'luli'mmi. Vieill. ; A
r/iff-ra, Vig. and Hors.; Xanlhomyzu, Strickl. ; Phili-iloti,
Cuv.) : Anthochfpra, Vic. and Hors. (Cn'mlimi, Virill. ;
Philedon, Cuv. ; Merops, Lath.) : Acantlm^i'iii/n, Gould
liochfura, Fras. -". Sw. QraciUB, Lath.;
Philemon, Vieill. ; Gymnops, Cuv. ; Entomyznn, Sw. ;
Tropidorhyiirhux, Vitr. and Hors. : •;••« (Lew.),
Temm.): Tropidorhynchiix. \'\«. and Hois.
(Juv. ; Merops, Lath.; Meliphasu, Tcmm. :
Cuv. .
Subfamily 3. Melithrepliiw.
Genera : — Plector/m.-n; hut, <>. R. Gray Plcctnrhyncha,
Gould : '' . Vieill. (Myzantha, V. and H. ; Plii-
•''«*, Less. ; GracuUi, Lath.) : Psop/todes, V. and H.
(Mutcicapa, Lath.; Timalia, ? Sw. : Kid*,/, \urnx. S,v.
(&urjiiM,Wagl.): Meiitkreatut,\ie$l. < H.EMATOPS, Gould;
Gi/mnophryx. Sw. ; Meliphaga, Temm. ; Philedon, Cuv. ;
.hii^ii, V. and H. ; Certhia, Shaw) : Entomophila,
Gould.
5 Certhidae.
Subfamily 1.
Genera : — Cinclodes, G. R. Gray (Furnarius, Less. ;
'irln/nchus (Temm.), Gould and G. R. Gia\ : ( /,u-
certhia, D'Orb. : Motacilla, Gin.) : L'pucerthia, J. Geotl'r. :
i'liriiiirnix, Vieill. (Opetiorhynrlm\, Ti-mm. : !•'• i
Spix ; Merops, Gm. ; Turdus, Licht. : <:i",xiltn\ Sw.
/". D'Orb. ; Furnariux, G. R. Gray ; Aluuda,
Kittl. : / 'icerthia, J.Geoiir. : Em
G. K. Gray (Eremobius, Gould) : Ochetorhynchus, '•.
i) !)ib. cl Lafr.): Limnnriiis, Gould:
. Sw. : f. 'in iiii-erlhia, G. R. Qny (Stenor&ai
Subfamily 2. Anabitanne.
Genera :—na//ar(>, \ici!l. -iJi'^n/rn, Licht. ; Pa-
. D'Orb. et Lafr.): Di&
\Vairl. (Strrirottrum. D'Urb. et J^fr. ; Di'mlroni,.
Inrhynrhux, Ronri]). : , it in, D'Orb. et Lal'r.)
.•ibiux, D'Orb. et Ls'tV. (Aanumbi, Azara : /•«;•//
Vii'ill. ; Spkeaura, Licht.: Mihuu-. Sw. : .l.'i'ilmti'x,
S|iix; Aiithiis, Lc^. : .- . Gould j: Aimlinl,^,
Temm. (Phil>/d->r, Spix; Xpheintm, Lu-lit. :
Gm. : Xrmijix, La IV. : O///, Strickl.
rhyiichus, Temm. ; Oxyrunc.us (olim ), Temm. .
Subfamily 3. Dendrocolaptina;.
icra: — Dendropter, Sw. A .M-.VV/, Less.; ,
•••«, Cuv. and Temm.i: (!!i/j'/im-/iyii-
us ''oliin i, Pr. Max. ; /^ MJ-
. Licht. : ^iflneilla, Less. : 7 Sw. ;
ifkl. • : JJ"rii/i-ni-iijix. Sw. • l):-n<lr<>c<,'
S)iix • /, G. R. Gray (Z>ryocopu*, IV. Max.;
/''/' . Licht.,: Dendrocolaptes, Henn.
'", Gm.) : Xiplinrhi/nckug, Sw.
w, Temm., Cuv. ; Picolaptes, Less. ; I>en-
<lri,n,]iiix, Vit-ill., : Pr'ilnptex, Less. (Ziphorhynclnn, Sw. ;
Denarocolapte*,Spix. ; O.ryurus, Less. ; Dendroplex, Sw.) :
Sittasomus, Sw. (Neops, Vieill. ; Synallaxis, Cuv. ;
drocolaptes, Temm.).
Subfamily 4. Certhinae.
Genera : — Certhia, Linn. : Oxtiurus, Sw. (Synallaxig,
Less. ; Sylvia, Lath. ; Motacilla, Gm.) : Climacteris,
Temm. (Petrodroma, Vieill. ; Meliphaga, Temm.) : 7Y-
chodroma, 111. (Petrodroma, Vieill. ; Certhia, Linn.): Geo-
bates, Sw. : Tatare, Less. (Sitta, Less. ; Turdus, Gm. ;
Thryothorus, Quoy et Gaim. ; Oriolus, Forst.).
Subfamily 5. Sittinae.
Genera -.—Sittella, Sw. (Neops, Vieill. ; S/V/a, Lath.):
"' 'a, Linn.: Dendrophila, Sw. (Orthorhynchus, Horsf. ;
, Horsf.) : Dendrodromus, Gould : Xenops, Hoffm.
ps, Vieill.).
Subfamily 6. Orthonycinae.
Genera : — Orthony.r, Temm. : Mohoua, Less. (Certhia,
Quoy et Gaim. ; Muscicapa, Gm. ; Orthonyx, Less.).
Subfamily 7. Troglodytinae.
Genera:— Rhinocrypta, G. R. Gray (PJiinomya, D'Orb.
et Lafr.) : Menura, Dav. (Parkinsoitius. Bechst. ; Megu-
l, Wagl.): Pteroptochos, Kittl. (Hylactes, King ;
'•ir/y.r. Less. ; Leptonyx, Sw.) : Seytttlopus, Gould
(Muintht'1-a, IV. Max.; Platyurus, Sw. ; Motacilla, Gm. ;
MalacorkynchlH, Menetr.; Sylria, Lath.; Troglodytes,
Kittl. : Xi/li-in.rix, Less. ; Leptonyx, D'Orb et Lafr.) : Afr-
croura, Gould (Micrura, Strickl.) : Merulajris, Less. ( /'/</-
tyurits, Sw.; Malacorhynchus, Menetr. : Mrrufaris, D'Orb.
et Lafr. j: Thnoihorus, Vieill. (Sylria, Lath.): Campy-
lorAynr/n/x. Spix (Turdus, Gm. et Licht. ; Cichla, Wagl. ;
..••/•'/, Licht. ; Opeticrhynchiis, Pr. Max. ; Picolaptes,
. D'Orb. rt Lafr.) : flAa;npAof«e«u.s,"Vieill.
('/Vv/i'/ ,,/i/ii'x, Sw. : .[.-untistes, Sundev. ; Scolo]>uri/iux,
, Vieill. (Motacilla, Linn. ; Anor-
", Kenn. ; l{i'<;iil-nx, Briss. ; Luscinia, Linn.).
Of these genera, Mr. G. R. Gray remarks that Antho-
mysa had been previously used in botany ; Plectorhyncha
and Oxyrhynchu* in ichthyology; Rhinomyza in entomo-
and that Eremobius is very like a word employed in
ience ; that Dryocopus had been previously used in
Picidte and Stciior/tynchus for a cmstaceous aniiiial. .'••'/V1-
iiiirhy/ii-hus has also been employed to designate a genus
of SEALS. [Vol. xxi., p. 163.]
TENURE. The general nature of tenure and its origin
and history in England are explained in the article FEUDAL
LAW. A few remarks may be made here on tenure as at
present existing by the law of England, for which purpose
a short recapitulation is necessary.
All land was and is held of the king either mediately or
immediately. All tenures were distributable under two
.d heads, according as the services were free or base ;
and COIIM i|uently there was the general division of ten-
ure-, into Iranktenement or free-holding, and Villeinasre.
The act of Charles II. (12 Car. II., c. 24) abolished mili-
tary tenures, which were one kind of free services, and
changed them into the other species of free services, namely
fri-i- and common socage. Thus one tenure in socage was
established lor all lands held by a free tenure, which com-
prehended all lands held of the king or others, and all
s except tenures in frankalmoyne, copyhold, and the
honorary services of grand-serjeanty ; and it was enacted
by the same act thai all tenures which should be created
by the kint; in future, should be in free and common
socage. It is particularly provided in the act which abo-
li lies military tenures, that, it shall not alter or change any
tenure by copy of court-roll, or any services incident
thereto, nor take away the honorary services of graud-scr-
jeanty, other than charges incident to tenure by knights'
service.
Thus it appears that tenure is still a fundamental prin-
ciple of the law relating to land in England.
AH the land in England in the hands of any layman is
held of some lord, to whom the holder or tenant owes
some service. It is by doing this service that the tenant
is entitled to hold the land : his duty is a service, and the.
right of the lord is a seignory. The word tenure compre-
hend., the notion of this duty and of fhis right, and also
land in respect of which the duty is due : the land is a
tenement. As already observed, all land is held either mo-
or immediately of the king ; and ultimately all
land is held of the king. The ownership of land in Eng-
land is therefore never unlimited as to extent, for he who
is the owner of land in fee, which is the largest estate
that a man can have in land, is not absolute owner : he
owes services in respect of his fee (or fief), and the seignory
T F N
216
TEN
of the lord always subsists. This teignory is now of leu
value than il was. lmt still it subsists. Tin- nature of the
old feud was this : the truant had the use of the land, but
the ownership remained in the lord: and this is Mill the
case. The owner of a fee has in fact a more profitable
than he iincc had : but he Mill owes services, fealty
at least, and the ownership of the land is really in the
lord and ultimately in the kins. For all practical jm:
the owner's power of enjoyment is as complete as if his
land were allodial. l>ut the circumstance of it* not being
allodial has several important practical consft|nenccs.
No land in England can l>e without an owner. If the
last owner of the fee has died without heirs, and without
-ing of his fee by will, the lord takes the land by vir-
tue of Ins seignory. If land is aliened to a person who
has a capacity to acquire but not to hold land in Eng-
land, the king takes the land ; this happens in the case of
being sold to an alien. The forfeiture of lands to
the kinc for high treason and to the lord in cases of petty
treason and murder are also consequences of tenure.
The case of church lands seems something peculiar.
They are held by tenure, though no temporal sen-ices are
due. This tenure was originally the tenure in frankal-
moigne. By the tenure in frankalmoigne the tenant was
bound 'to make orisons, prayers, masses, and other divine
es for the soul of his'grantor or feoffor,' &c. . I.itt..
s. 1:}T>; ; but he did no fealty. If land was given
for ' certain divine service in certain to be done,' &c.
Litt.. s. 137), the lord might distrain, snd in this case it
seinied the lord might have fealty; this tenure by cer-
tain service was not called tenure in frankalmoigne, but
tenure by divine service. Coke, in hi* ' Commentary on
Littleton' (96, 6) observes, 'for this divine sen'ice certain
the lord hath his remedy, as it here appears by our author,
in f'irii .v< •ciilun .- for here it appears that if the lord dis-
train for not doing of divine service, which is certain, he
shall upon his avowry recover damages at the common
law, that is, in the king's temporal court, for the not doing
of it.'
The Act which abolished military tenures could not from
its terms affect tenure in frankalmoigne; but for greater
caution it was declared that this act should not subject
tenures in frankalmoigne to any greater or other sen-ices.
Tenure in frankalmoigne therefore is now exactly what it
was before the 12th of Charles II. was passed. Church
lands then, which are held in frankalmoigne, still owe no
services; but the lord of whom they are held must be
considered the owner. And this conclusion is con-
sistent with and part of the law of tenure, by which no
land in England is ever without an owner. Church land
differs from land held by laymen in this, that the beneficial
ownership can never revert to the lord, for all spiritual
persons are of the nature of corporations, and when a
parson dies, the corporation sole (as he is termed by an
odd contradiction in terms) is not extinct, and it is the
duty and right of some definite person to name a succes-
sor. It is stated by Blackstone (i. 470) that • the law- hits
wisely ordained that the parson, qu<i/i'>iu.\ parson, shall
nc\er die any more than the king, by making him and his
Miccessors a corporation ; by which means all the original
rights of the parsonage are presen-ed entire to the succes-
sor : for the present incumbent and his predecessors who
lived seven centuries ago, are in law one and the same per-
But notwithstanding this ingenious attempt to make
a man, together with others not ascertained, a corporation,
the difficulty really is, th.it when a parson dies, there is
no person who has a legal ownership of the land until
a successor is appointed, if Blackstone's theory is true.
The comparison of the case of a parson with that of
the king is unapt, for the successor to a deceased
king is ascertained by the death of his predecessor;
hut the successor of a parson is generally ascertained
by the will of some other person being exercised, and
till the person entitled to appoint a parson has nainei!
one, and he has been duly instituted, the lands of the
church have no legal owner, unless the lord is the owner.
This seignory may be worth nothing, but it still •
The difficulty may indeed be solved without the s;
tion of a seignory still existing, and in the following man-
ner. There is succession in the case of one parson suc-
ceeding another, for which the notion of a corporation is
not necessary. The notion of succession is this: the right
which is the object of the succession, continues the same :
Hie subject, that is, the person, changes. In order to con-
stitute strict succession, the new ownership or right mu-t
begin at the moment when the ].• 1 the new
ownership or right is derived from and ti nudcd on a
former ownership or right. Tins is ti
to the crown. In the case of a parson, win
appointed, his right by a fiction of law commences at the
time when hi- predecessor's right ceased, though an inter-
val has elapsed between the time of In s^or's
death and his own appointment ; and this was the doc-
trine which the Romans applied to the case, of a heres who
did not take possession of the hereditits till some tune after
the death of the- testator or intestate. This subject i-
i by Savigny. Ny •*/''»' i/'-v H'»" /i/v, &,-.,
vol. iii. When then the parson dies, the freehold m;1
considered to be in abeyance till the appointment of Ins
--or. one of the tew" instances in the English law in
which it is said that a freehold estate can he in abeyance.
No seignory, in the sense above explained, can now be
created except by the king. It was enacted by the statute
Quia Emptores (JH Kdw. 1.), that all feott'nients of land
in fee simple must be so made that the feoffee mm*t hold
of the chief, that is, the immediate lord of the aliening
tenant, by the same services by which the tenant held.
Therefore all seignories exist now which existed at the
time when the statute of Qui.i Emptores was passed. A
lord may relcsise the MTV ices to a tenant ; but it would In-
consistent that the king could not release the services due
to him, for if that were the case land iniirht become
allodial, and on the death of a person without heir* then-
might be land without an owner, which is i
with the fundamental principles of law relating to Eng-
lish land. Still it is said that the king can release to bis
tenant all services, and yet that the tenant holds of him :
by this assumption of a "still subsisting tenure the c
quencc above mentioned is avoided.
Tenure of an imperfect kind may be created at present.
Wherever a particular estate' is created, it is held of the
rcversioner by an imperfect tenure : this is the common
case of landlord and tenant. If no rent or other services
are rcsen-ed from the tenant of the particular estate for
life or years, the tenure is by fealty only, and he may be
required to take the oath of fealty. But the right of the
reversioner to whom sen-ices are due is solely incident to
the reversion, and is created at the same tune with it.
The perfect tenure originated in the pure feudal system, in
which the seignory of the lord was the legal ownership of
the land, and the tenant owed his sen-ices for the enjoy-
ment of it. The only perfect tenure now existing is Soeage
tenure, the sen ices of which are certain, and consist, be-
sides fealty, of some certain annual rent. [SocAOK.]
The right of wardship was one of the incidents to mili-
tary tenures. The lord had a right to the wardship of his
infant tenant until he was twenty-one years of age; and
this light was in many respects prejudicial to the in!
of the heir. This right was abolished with the abolition of
military tenures. The right of guardianship to an infant
tenant in socage only continues to the age of fourteen ;
but the. act of Charles II. (12, c. 24) gave a farther power
by deed or will, executed as the statute preserib.
appoint a guardian to any of bis children till their full age
of twenty-one, or for any less. time. The guardian in so-
cage was the next of kin to the heir, and he was chosen
from that line, whether paternal or maternal, from which
the lands had not descended to the heir, and consequently
such guardian could never be the heir of the infant. This
wardship then had no relation to tenure.
If the services due in respect of a perfect tenure are not
rendered by the tenant to the lord, he may distrain, that is.
take any chattels that are on the land in respect of which
the services are due ; and an imperfect tenure so far re-
sembles a perfect one, that a reversioner can distrain for
the services due from the tenant of the particular estate.
A right still incident to n seignory such as a subject may
have is that of escheat, which happens when the tenant in
fee— imple dies without leaving any heir to the land, and
without having incurred any forfeiture to the crown, as for
high treason. It has been observed that the acquisition by
escheat is not a purchase, because the escheated land de-
scends as the seignory would have descended. When
lands are forfeited to the king for treason, or to the lord
for petty treason or murder, the tenure is extinguished ;
and generally, in whatever wa\ lands come to the king or
lord, the tenure is of necessity extinguished.
The nature of tenure a* it exist* at present will be bat-
T £ P
217
T E P
ter understood by consulting the following articles : [CO-
PYHOLD ; DISTRESS ; FEUDAL SYSTEM ; MANOR ; RENT ;
TENANT.]
TEOS (Tiuf), now called Budrum, a town of Ionia,
situated on the south-side of the peninsula between the
gulf of Smyrna and the gulf of Clazomenae, very near
Cape Courco, in 38° 15' N. lat, 26° 30' E. long. It was
originally colonized by Minyae from Orchomenus, under
Athamas, and afterwards strengthened by a colony from
Athens, at the time of the Ionian migration, under Nau-
clus the son of Codrus, Apcecus and Damasus, and by-
one from Bceotia led by Geres. (Pausan., vii. 3.) Teos
was one of the twelve cities which formed the confederacy
of the Panionium (Herod., i. 142), and was recommended
by Thales from its central position as the place of con-
gress for all the Ionian states. It was also one of the four
cities of Ionia which participated in the Hellenium at
Naucratis in Egypt in the time of Amasis. (Herod., ii.
178.) On the conquest of Ionia by Cyrus the Teians re-
tired to Abdera in Thrace, where they founded a colony
which eclipsed the parent state. (Herod., i. 168.) At the
battle of Lade seventeen Teian ships are mentioned among
the forces of the Greeks. Teos still existed as an Ionian
city during the Peloponnesian war. The Teians revolted
after the failure of the Sicilian expedition from the Athe-
nians, and destroyed the wall which they had built towards
the continent (Thucyd., viii. 16, 19) ; but Teos submitted
shortly afterwards to Diomedon, the Athenian general.
Teos was the birth-place of Apellicon, the preserver
of the works of Aristotle, and of Anacreon, to whom a
statue was erected there (Pausan., i. 25), and who is repre-
sented on the coins of the place playing on his lyre. It
appears from Livy (xxxvii. 28) that it had two ports, one
in front of the city, and the other, Gerae, not quite four
miles to the north-west, the entrance to which was so nar-
row as hardly to admit two ships at a time ; it is now the
site of the castle of Sigah-jik, whence a Sanjak receives
its name.
Chandler says of Teos, ' We found it almost as deso-
late as Erythrae and Clazomenae. The walls, of which
traces are extant, were, as we guessed, about 5 miles in
circuit ; the masonry handsome. It was with difficulty we
discovered the temple of Bacchus ; but a theatre in the
side of the hill is more conspicuous. The vault only, on
which the seats are ranged, remains, with two broken
pedestals, in the area. The city port is partly dry, and
sand-banks rise above the surface of the water. On
the edge are vestiges of a wall, and before it are two
small islets. On the left hand, or toward the continent, is
a channel, which seemed artificial, the water not deep.
The heap of the Temple of Bacchus, which was visible
from the theatre beneath, on the right hand, lay in the
middle of a corn-field, and is overrun with bushes and
olive-trees. It was one of the most celebrated structures
in Ionia. The remains of it have been engraved at the
expense of the Society of Dilettanti, and published, with its
history, in the " Ionian Antiquities" (i., ch. i.).' (Trarelg
in Aniti Mni'ir, pp. 111-2; see also Choiseul Gouffier,
Voyage Pittnri>xijii<; pi. 124.) This temple is an example
of the eustylus of Vitruvius, who tells us that it was a mo-
nopterus hexastylus. It was the work of Hermogenes, the
inventor of the eustylus, and is probably of the time of
Alexander the Great. (Miiller, Archanlogie t/er Kunst,
109.) Leake (Asia Minor, p. 350) states the diameter of
the columns to be 3 feet 8 inches at the base ; he con-
siders the whole length of the front to be about 64 feet on
the upper step, with about 11 columns at the sides, as at
Priene. According to Diodorus (iii. 65), the Teians believed
that Bacchus was born there, and, on his account, their
territory was asylus (aroXoc), that is, sacred or protected
against violation. On the autonomous coins of Teos there
are griffins, as on those of Abdera : perhaps this type is
connected with the worship of Apollo. The imperial series
extends from Augustus to Galtienus. (Mionnet, Recueil
des Me,<lnillfK Antiques.)
TKPHRODORMS, Mr. Swainson's name for a genus of
DnjiixH Xhnln't, Dicrurinie. [SHRIKES, vol.xxi., p. 416.]
','i'niTir I '/Ktnirter. — Bill resembling Prionops; the base
and the nostrils being partially covered with procumbent
setaceous feathers and bristles. Wings moderate, rounded.
Tail rather short, perfectly even. Tarsi and toes short :
the lateral toes unequal ; hinder toe longer than the tar-
sus. (Sw.)
P. C., No. 1515.
Examples, Tep/irodornissuperciliofus,Svr., and Tephro-
dornis Indica (J. E. GrayX G. R. Gray (Lid. Zool.).
Locality.— Warm latitudes of the Old World.
Bill of Tephrodornis, Sw.
TEPHRO'SIA (from rt(j>p6f, ash-coloured), the name of
a genus of plants belonging to the papilionaceous division
of the order Leguminosae. The genus consists of shrubs
or herbs, with usually unequally pinnated leaves, and
lanceolate or subulate stipules distinct from the petiole.
The flowers are white or purplish, arranged in racemes
which are mostly axillary. The calyx is without bracts,
5-topthed, nearly equal ; vexillum of corolla large, silky
outside, and reflexed in a spreading manner ; wings ad-
herent to the keel ; stamens separate or united in one or
two parcels : legume mostly sessile, linear, compressed,
many-seeded, with the valves flat ; seeds compressed.
This genus at present includes 84 species, but it is pro-
bable that a more accurate investigation will result in
making several genera of the present one. The Ameri-
can and Asiatic species are in some measure distinguished
by their properties. In the former a narcotic poison is
more frequently secreted ; in the latter a colouring-matter.
T. toxicaria, the poison Tephrosia, is a half-shrubby erect
plant, with 18 to 20 pairs of oblong-lanceolate, obtuse
leaflets, pubescent on the upper surface, silky beneath ;
legumes linear, velvety, mucronate. This plant is a native
of (lie West Indies and of Cayenne, and is said by Tussae
to have been first brought from Africa. The whole plant
affords a narcotic poison, and if the leaves are taken and
pounded, and then thrown into water where there are fish,
they become intoxicated, and losing all power over their
muscles, they float about as if dead, and may be easily
caught. If placed in fresh water, or the fresh water be
allowed to come in contact with them as in a stream, the
fish soon recover. It is, however, generally fatal to the
smaller fish.
T. Virginiana, the Virginian Tephrosia, is an erect
herbaceous plant, with leaves containing from 8 to 11 pairs
of oval-oblong acute leaflets, villous beneath ; the calyx is
also villous. It is a handsome plant with reddish flowers,
and is covered with villi. It is found in woods on dry and
sandy soils in North America from Canada to Florida. It
is considered in America a powerful vermifuge. Several
other species of Tephrosia are found in North America,
and are abundant on dry and sandy soils, in Georgia,
Florida, and the Carolinas.
T. emarginata is an arborescent plant, with tomentose
branches, leaves with 14 pairs of linear-oblong deeply
emarginated leaflets, and silky straightish legumes. It is
a native of South America, and has been found about the-
mission-stations of the Orinoco. The root possesses the
same properties as the T. toxicaria, and is also used for the
purpose of poisoning fish.
T. liiictm-ia, the Ceylon Indigo, is a shrubby glabrous
plant with five pairs of leaflets, silky and villous beneath ;
Bowers purple or flesh-coloured, seated on axillary pe-
duncles ; straight, pendulous legumes. This plant is a
native of Ceylon, where it is called Anil. Its tissue
yields a blue colouring-matter, which has the same pro-
perties as the indigo, and is used in Ceylon for the same
purposes. There are other plants used in Ceylon f»r dye-
ing, also called Anil.
T. piscatoria, the Fisher's Tephrosia, is a shrubby plant
with five or six pairs of leaflets, which are pilose beneath,
the peduncles are 2-edged, the legume straight, ascending,
and rather villous. This plant is found in the East Indies,
and also in the islands of the Pacific. It contains the
narcotic principle of the genus, and is used in the East
Indies for the same purpose as T. toxicaria is in the West
Indies.
T. Apollinea is shrubby, and covered with a close pu-
bescence ; the leaflets are silky beneath, and in two or
VOL. XXIV.— 2 F
T E Q
218
T H R
three pairs ; the legume is 6- or 7-*eeded, and rather pu-
bescent. It is a native of 1 ! yields a blue
colouring-matter, which is used in dyeing.
T. Senna, Buga Senna, U a glabrous shrub, with •
having six pairs of leaflets, and the legumes and r.
covered with pubescence. It grows on the banks of the
river Cauca, near Buga, in Popayan. Its lea
purgative quality like senna, and are used by the i,
lor the same purposes as that plant is u-. >1.
In the cultivation of these plants a mixture of loam and
peat should be used. They may be easily propagated by
seeds, or by young cuttings planted in sand, ami eovered
with a bell-glass. Some of the species require the heat of
a stove.
TKl'IC. [Mhxit AN STATKS.I
TEPLITZ, TOKP1.IT/, or TEPLICE, a town in the
ui' Leitmeritz in the kingdom of Bohemia, celebrated
for its warm sulphureous springs, is situated in "X)° 38' N.
lat. and 13" M K. long. The name is Slavonian, and
given by the Bohemians and Croatians to warm springs
in general. The tradition respecting the discovv
these springs is, that a servant of a Chevalier Kolastug, a
vassal of Duke Przemysl, who resided in the neighbourhood,
was one day driving the swine. when several of the animals
perished in the hot springs. This is said to have happened
in the year 792. This discovery induced the chevalier to
build a castle, and many settlers were soon attracted
by the salubrious properties of the water, so that a street
• m Slavonian, Alice} was formed, which was called Tepla
Alice, ' the warm street,' and by contraction Teplice, or
Teplitz.
This small town, which has not above 2500 inhabitants,
;-. situated on a stream called the Saubach, in a beautiful
plain or valley four leagues in length and one in breadth,
formed by the Erzgebirge and the Mittelgebirge. The
town forms an irregular quadrangle, is about half a league
in circuit, and has three gates. The principal buildings are
— 1, the palace of Prince Clary, to whom the town belongs,
with an extensive garden and park open to the public,
in which there is a ball-room and a pretty theatre ; 2, the
church of St. John the Baptist ; 3, the tpwnhall, built in
1806 ; 4, the chapel of the Cross, outside of one of the gates.
The town is connected by a row of handsome houses with
the village of Schonau. There are several springs both in
the town and in Schiinau, each of which supplies several
public and private baths distributed in different establish-
ments. ' The quantity of water which the principal spring
yields,' says Dr. Granville, ' is truly marvellous, being
iiot less than a thousand large pailfuls, or one million
one hundred and eighty-nine thousand six hundred
and seventy cubic inches in an hour.' The tempera-
ture of these springs is said to have increased within
the last forty years from 117° to 122J Fahrenheit, which
is the present temperature of the chief spring. The
medicinal effects of the hot springs of Teplitz are al-
lowed by all physicians acquainted with them to be
very beneficial in cases of suppressed gout, chronic
rheumatism, diseases of the joints, contracted limbs, old
wounds, obstinate cutaneous eruptions, paralytic affec-
tions, to which Dr. (iranvillc adds, 'that the specific virtue
»f tliese baths lies in the power they possess of restoring a
cripplc.it matters little from what cause, to perfect motion
and elasticity.' The waters have been used almost exclu-
sively for bathing; of late they have been recommended
and used internally. Prince ( 'lary has spared neither pains
norexpei.se to render the place worthy of the patronage
ol the kings and princes who habitually visit it, some of
whom have built palaces for themselves and public hos-
pitals for their invalid soldiers. The number of visitors
every year is from 4500 to 5000. Besides the attraction
of its waters, it may be added that the expense of living
at Teplitz is far less than in any other watcriiur-place
in Germany, that the private baths are fitted up in a man-
ner unquestionably superior to those of any other Spa in
that country, and that there are ample sourcesof recreation
and amusement without gaming, which is wholly pro-
hibited.
(.lenny, Handbuchfiir Reisende in dem Oetttrrrich in-lu'n
K'titi-rttaale ; Die Ogtterreichische National Encyrlopiidic ;
'•rtationt Lexicon; Dr. Granville, The Sjxu of Ger-
many. >
TEPTIARES. [RUSSIAN EMPIHK.)
TE(iUENDAMA. [GRANADA, Niw.]
TE'RAMO, PROYINCIA 1) I, called aJso Abruzzo UU
tra I., is an administrative division of the Abnizzi in the
kingdom of Naples, stretching east of the great Apennine
ridge, and sloping down to the Adriatic sc;i. It is bounded
on the east by the Adriatic, north by the Papal province
of Kermo and Ascoli, wc-t by the Neapolitan province of
Aquila, and south by that of Chieti. The principal rivers
are the Tronto, which marks the boundary between it and
the Papal State, the Tordino, which flows by the town of
Teramo, and the Vomano, v. tlow from
-tern slope of Monte Corno, called also the 'Gran
•i'lialia,' the highest group of the Apennines ;».~>OO
feet above the seal, which rises on the borders of the pro-
vinces of Teramo ruiU Aquila, occupvint: great part of the
area of both. The river Pescara, in its lower course,
marks the boundary between the province of Teramo and
that of Chieti.
The province of Teramo is divided into two admim
five districts, Teramo and Penne, containing seventy-two
communes: the whole population amounted in 1S37 to
200,719 inhabitants, i Sernstori, Statistic:! <ir//.i/«i.) The
- estimated at about 1000 square miles. Most of the
population are employed in agriculture. There are some
manufactories of silk, delft ware, liquorice, paper, cream
of tartar, and leather; copper-ore is dug, anil smelted and
worked at Chiarino. The principal towns are, 1, Teramo,
a bishop's see, the chief town of the province, and the
residence of the intendente or king's lieutenant ; it !
tribunale civile, or court of first instance, and a'Gian
Corte Criminate ;' a royal college, a clerical seminary,
several churches and convents, and about 8000 inhabii
The surrounding country is productive in corn, fruit, and
pulse. 2, Penne, or Civiti di Penne, is a town with about
(XXX) inhabitants. 3, Civitella del Tronto, a small fortified
town on the frontier of the Papal State. 4, Atii. a small
town which gives the title of duke to the anticnt family of
Acquaviva. i Pelroni, Criiitiniriito ili'i l{<u/i doininj tli qitH
del Faro; Neigebaur, Gema/tli' Italient.)
TE'liAPHIM (D^lfi; Sept., fWwXn). This is award
•
of somewhat uncertain etymology and signification. That
the teraphim were of human form seems evident from
1 Sam., xix. 13. They appear to have been superstitiously,
if not idolatrously, reverenced as penates, or household
gods (Gni.. xxxi.'l'J. :tl. :i:i: 1 XK//;., xix. 13-17: 2 A.
xxiii. 24). In some shape or other they were used as domestic
oracles (comp. Zech., x. 2; Jin/ a., xvii. 5: xviii. fi. (i. M-20;
Has., iii. 4\ This is confirmed by 1 Xxw/.. \v. '2:1.
teraphim are mentioned in connection with the arts of
divination. With this the alleged Syriac etymology of the
word coincides ; for, according to Bar Bahlul, tp/1 means
in that language, tin ii/i/iiin r. u/ic ir/m <••
TERBURGH, GERARD, a very eminent painter of
scenes of domestic life, of the higher classes of sucich, v.as
born at Zwoll, near Overyssel, in the year KiOS, and was
instructed in the rudiment's of his art by his father, who is
not much known as a painter, but appears to have |
some years at Home. Some think that he perfected him-
self under another master at Huarlcm : however this may
be, he bad acquired considerable reputation in the Nether-
lands as a painter of porlraitsof a small size, before be ie-
solveil to travel for his improvement. Heiii.-t visited Italy;
but what ever advantage be may have derived from the works
of the great Italian masters, he never changed his style, and
proceeding from Italy to France, piactised wild pi-cat
success at Pans. From France he returned to Holland,
when1 he was highly esteemed anil fully employed. He
visited Miiiuter during the sitting of the celebrated con-
-it which the treaty that terminated the Thirty ">
\\urwas concluded. Here he painted his most celebrated
picture, containing the portraits of the sixty-nine plenipo-
tentiaries assembled on that important occasion. Count
Piiroranda, the Spanish ambassador at Minister, induced
him to visit Spain, where he painted the portraits of king
Philip IV. and all the royal family, and of many of the
most distinguished nobilifv. His performances irave such
satisfaction to the Spanish' kinir, that he conferred on him
the honour of knighthood, and presented him with a gold
chain and medal, a sword, and silver spurs. After finally
returning to his own country he married, and was made
burgomaster of the town of Devcntcr. vvlicic lie lived in
affluence, and died in 1081, at the age of seventy-three years.
The subjects which Terburgh generally painted were
T E R
219
T E R
portraits, conversations, persons engaged at different games
performers on musical instruments, ladies at their toilets
He finished his pictures highly, with a light and delicate
touch, and is remarkable for introducing white satin in the
dress of some figure in all his compositions: he always
took care to throw the principal light upon it, and seems
never to have painted a picture without satin drapery. Dr.
Waagen says of him, ' Terburgh is the real founder of the
art of painting conversation pieces, and at the same time
the most eminent master in this style. In delicacy of exe-
cution he is inferior to none, and in a certain tender fusing
of the colours he excels all others ; but none can be com-
pared with him in the enchanting harmony and silvery
tone, and the observance of the aerial perspective. His
figures, which are well drawn, have an uncommon ease of
refinement, and are frequently very graceful.' Many of his
capital works are in England, in the collections of Sir
Robert Peel, the duke of Sutherland, Lord Ashburton, Mr.
Hope, the marquess of Bute, and Her Majesty. (Pilking-
ton ; Fuseli ; Dr. Waagen.)
TERCKIRA is considered the principal island of the
Azores or Western Islands, though it is neither the largest
nor the most fertile. It is situated nearly in the centre of
the group, and it is the seat of government. It extends
between 38° 36' and 38° 50* N. lat, and between 26° 58' and
27° 22' W. long., and is about 20 miles long from east to
wtst. with an average width of about 13 miles. This gives
an area of 260 square miles, or about 60 square miles more
than the smallest of the English counties, Rutlandshire.
Tereeira, and all the other Azores, with the exception of
Santa Maria, has probably been produced by volcanic ac-
tion, but its surface does not exhibit that extreme irregu-
larity which occurs in the other islands, and in general in
countries which owe their existence to that aerncy. The
coasts indeed are rocky and precipitous, but the higher
of the island are chiefly composed of beautiful and
fertile plains, and entirely destitute of the numerous <•
craters, and peaks which distinguish the island of St.
Michael. There is however, about 6 or 7 miles north-
west of the town of Anarra, a wide depression, from the
crevices of which sulphuric vapours issue in abundance,
and which is surrounded by hills composed of pumice-
stone. It is called Furnas de Euxofre. It is stated that
these crevices were formed by the earthquake of 1014,
which was the last experienced in the island, up to 1841,
when the town of Praya was completely destroyed by an
earthquake, and the whole island suffered much! The in-
terior of the island does not contain many steep or inac-
;.!e rocks, which is mainly to be attributed to the
earth-slips which have been very frequent, and still happen
from time to time. The most elevated part of the island
is iu the middle, and extends from east to west, where it
terminates with Punta Seretta. Near this cape, and north-
east of it, the ground seems to attain its greatest elevation,
which however probably does not exceed 3000 feet above
the sea-level. The elevated rocky coast along the western
and northern shores cannot be approached without great
danger by large vessels, and the whole island has only
three harbours, Praya on the east, Angra on the south,
and Biscoitos on the north-west, but the anchorage is bad,
and with certain winds vessels are obliged to seek the
open sea. The soil is composed of volcanic ashes, pumice-
stone, slaes, decomposed lava, a quantity of ferru-
ginous matter, a small portion of clay or sand, and a
little limestone. But a large quantity of vegetable' matter
is mixed with these materials, which imparts to the soil
a considerable degree of fertility. Grain is only cultivated
on the more level and low tract* along the sea-coast. The
interior is overgrown with trees.
No mHc'irulosrical observations have been published,
but the climate is known to be very moderate, as it is
I that the average range of the thermometer is only
from 50 J to 7">°, and rarely exceeds these two extremes.
But the weather is nevertheless subject to great ch:i
and is only settled between the summer solstice and the
autumnal equinox. Showers of rain are frequent through-
out the year, and in winter so violent as to cause constant
chart: ireof the country, washing away eno i >
'one from the mountains, Hin
down proj 'ions of the rocks composed n
volcanic materials, and leaving (lie surface of the rocks
and heights in many places quite destitute of soil. The
number of fine days is estimated at about 200, and the
wet ones at sixty. The sea which surrounds the Azores is
remarkable for the incessant gusts and gales to which it is
subject, on which account it is rather dreaded by seamen.
This phenomenon is probably connected with the Gulf-
stream, which reaches the most western islands (Flores and
Corvo), and frequently extends over the whole group. All
navigators have observed the frequency of these gusts and
sudden squalls, especially along the northern edge of the
Gulf-stream. The prevailing winds during the winter
range between north-west and south-west ; the south-west
wind generally blows in strong gales, and is attended by
heavy rains. During the summer the most frequent are
northerly, north-easterly, and easterly winds ; but at all
seasons the changes of the winds are frequent and sudden,
and render the navigation between the islands very
tedious.
The soil being more suitable to agriculture and pastur-
age than to the cultivation of fruit, grain and cattle are
the staple articles. The principal objects of cultivation
are wheat, Indian corn, flax, French and broad beans, and
a little barley. The yearly produce of the grain is stated
to be 720,000 bushels, and some is exported to Lisbon,
Oporto, and Madeira. The most common vegetables are
yams, potatoes, sweet potatoes, onions, and capsicums. All
the fruit-trees of southern Europe succeed, but their cul-
tivation has been neglected until lately, when the inhabit-
ants have begun to apply themselves, to that of the orange-
tree, and the oranges of Terceira are now hardly inferior
to those of St. Michael, and are largely exported to
England and Hamburg. The vineyards are extensive,
and their annual produce exceeds 4000 pipes, but the
wine is converted into brandy, and the wine consumed
in the island is imported from Fayal. The apples,
pears, figs, chestnuts, and wallnuts are tolerably good.
On the declivities there are some pine-woods and beech,
but the higher parts are covered with underwood and im-
penetrable bushes of briars, among which are many ever-
greens, such as myrtle, juniper, and box, with stunted
cedars. Quantities of orchilla are collected from the rocks.
Cattle are numerous, and of good size in the cultivated
parts, and those parts which are not cultivated serve
as pasture-grounds for sheep and goats. Goats are rather
numerous. Only a few small horses are reared ; the oxen
and asses, which are numerous are used as beasts of
burden. Hogs are very numerous, and are fed on Indian
corn and chestnuts, fhere are no wild animals, except
rabbits, and no poisonous reptiles. Fowls and turkeys
abound. There are thousands of blackbirds, woodcocks,
and partridges, but no pheasants nor peacocks. Fish is
said to be abundant. Sometimes whales are seen near the
island.
In 1820 the population amounted to 40,717, and in 1832
it was estimated at 50,000 individuals, which gives more
than 192 persons to each square mile, rather a large pro-
portion when it is considered that much more than half
[he island is not cultivated and does not produce food for
man. Lincolnshire has only 130 to each square mile,
according to the census of 1841. This population is settled
n three towns and fifteen villages. Angra is the capital.
[ANGRA.] Praya, which has about 3000 inhabitants, is
situated in the centre of a beautiful sandy, deep, indented
bay, well defended by nature and art, and has some com-
merce with Portugal and Madeira : it exports grain and
ive-stock.
Very good linen and coarse woollen-cloth is made on
:he island for home consumption. Coarse earthenware is
also manufactured to a considerable extent, the clay for
which is imported from Santa Maria. The exports con-
sist of grain and live-stock, which go to Portugal and
Madeira, and of brandy, oranges, and orchilla, which go to
'oreign countries, chiefly England and Hamburg. The
mports are principally coarse cotton fabrics, some woollen-
cloth, hardware and cutlery, and cod, most of which
articles are brought from England.
Terceira was discovered in 1445 by some Portuguese na-
vigators who were returning to Europe from Cape Verde,
and it then received its present appellation, being the
liiid of the Azores in the order of discovery. It was then
minhabited, but it was immediately settled by several
amilies from Portugal. In 1580, when Philip II. took
-sion of Portugal, the inhabitants declared against
u'm, and repulsed his fleet from their shores ; but in 1583
.hey were obliged to submit. In 1828, when Don Miguel
2F2
T E R
2-20
T E R
had abolished the constitutional government of Portuc.il,
and proclaimed himself absolute king.Tereeira declai
Donna M.um : and, in 1H2», a large fleet and army gent
by Dun MiiriH-I lor the rn:n|;u^l of the island were re-
I with great loss from the town of Pray a. In ls;tl
the other elands of the group were recovered for Donna
; by a small number of troops sent there from Ter-
ceira.
(Ashe'8 History of tht Azores or 1l',-*ti-rn AAim/v ,• Von
Buch's Phytikalische Betcnreibimg tier Canaritchen In-
Fowler's Journal of a Tun- in the iftnlf <>f
'
}''>rk, nml Rfturn to I'.n slund Inj Ihr H'rxti'rii l»l,imis ;
Hold's Drttrritjtion of the Asoret or It ','xti-rn Mandt ; and
('apt. Bartholomew, in London Geographical Journal,
Vol. IV.)
TEREBELLA. [TfBicoLiD.s.] (N.B. This comes too
near to Twbrll
TEREBELLA'RIA,af;enusof Polypiaria, included by
Blaim ille in the family of Milleponea.
TEREBELLUM, Lamarck's name for a genus of tes-
taceous mollusks, placed by Cuvier among his Pectini-
hranchiate Gastropods, between Ocula and I'uliiln; by De
lilainville among \\inAngyostornata, between Conns and
(Hint: and by Rang between M//ru and Ancillaria.
The fossil Terebellum convolutum is the type of Mont-
fort's genus Seraphs.
Generic Character. — Animal ?
Shell delicate, polished, subcylindrical, rolled upon
itself; the apex pointed; the aperture longitudinal and
triangular, very narrow behind and notched before : cdire
of the right lip simple and trenchant; columellar border
smooth, truncated, and slightly prolonged forwards.
There appears to be but one recent species known, Tere-
bellum tabulation.
De Blainville divides the genus into two sections : —
A. Species whose spire is visible, and whose aperture
is shorter than the shell. (Terebellum.)
B. Species whose spire is nearly entirely hid by the
rolling up of the whorls of the spire, and whose
aperture is nearly as long as the shell. (Seraphs,
fossil.)
Example, Tert helium subulalum.
Description. — Shell subulate-cylindrical, rather thin,
smooth, and polished ; the spire distinct ; the outer lip at-
tached to the columella.
There are at least four varieties: —
A. Clouded with chestnut, quadrifasciate, or with the
(•••lour in patches.
1!. Ornamented with flcxuons subspiral or transversely ob-
lique chestnut lines.
C. Thickly dotted with rich chestnut.
D. Entirely white.
Locality.— The East Indies.
T«r«brllum inbuUlum.
FOSSIL TKRKBBI.LA.
The fossil species appear to belong to the Tertiary for-
mation, Eocene period of Lyell (Grignon, &c.). M. Des-
haycs, in hi* Tables, notices but two, Terebelln nmrnlii-
titn and /uti/orme, the same that are recorded by La-
marck.
Terebellum convolutum. (Genui Strap/u of Momfi.rt.l
TEREBINTA'CE-E, a natural order of dicotyledonous
plants. They are trees or shrubs, abounding in :i res
gummy, caustie, poisonous, and sometimes milky juice.
The leaves are alternate ami simple, ternate, or pinnate.
The flowers arc terminal or axillary, mostly unisexual.
The calyx is small. The petals and stamens are eijiuil in
number to the divisions of the calyx; sonic! im
mens are twice the number: the disk is tleshy ; ovary
simple ; fruit indehiscent, with a single exalbuminous
seed.
This order was constituted by Jussieu, and is adopted
by De Candolle, Afnott, Don, and other writers on syste-
matic botany. Brown has however constructed five orders
from tlnV, viz., Anacardiaceir, Burseraccs-, Connai,
Spondiaceip, and Amyridareu-. These orders have been
recognised by Kunth, Lindlcy, and others ; and their cha-
racters and properties are given in this work under their
respective names. [ ANACA&DIAI K.K : HI-KSERACE.E ; CON-
NARACE.K ; SPONDI.M \ UIDK.K.]
TE'REHKA. [ENTOMOSTOMATA, vol. Lv., p. 453.]
TEHEBRA'LIA. Mr. Swain-on's name for a trenus of
testaceous Gastropods, arranged by him under t\u-f'--ri-
thi/irr, the filth subfamily of his MrnrnhitUr, and thus
characterized : —
Outer lip much dilated, generally uniting at .its b..
the inner lip, leaving a round perforation at the 1
the pillar; channel truncate, operculum round. \Mnln-
coloffy.)
Mr. Swainson places the genus between Pimm [M
NOPSIS] and Hhi'iinr/uri.-, Su. : and, among other s|n
refers to Trrr/>rn/iii Ti'li'Ki-njiiiiin. Ccntlinnn Trlrsrtipium
of authors. [ENTOMOSTOMATA, vol. ix., \i. 431.]
Whatever may be thought of this genus, the name, from
its coming so near to Ti-rr/ir<i. may jiroduee confusion.
The reasons for not admitting I'in'iia as a genus will be
found in the article MKI. AMU-MS.
TKKKHK.Y'IV LA. [BRACHIOPODA, vol. v., p. 311.1
TEREDI'NA, a testaceous mollusk of the family Tn'-i-
colar of Lamarck, and belonging to the Ad<-xmn<-ra of De
Blaim illc.
lirneric Character. — Valves equal, but inequilaleial ;
umbones prominent; when closed, crb-like with a v.iili-
angular opening in front and a subeiicular aperture at tin-
back. Tube testaceous, subcylindrical. \ulli a terminal
posterior extremity, without any septum, uniting to the
posterior part of the two valves.
This genus is fossil only. Lamarck places it between
Ki'jitariu [TKRKDO] and Ti-rnln; Cuvier between Fi.sTU-
LANA and CLAVAOKLLA.
Mr. Swainson arranges it in his family Pholidef, and
makes it a subgenus of '/V/w/v.
Mr. J. E. Gray places Ti-r,;lina among the Pholailr*,
between Joint nm-t in and Tn
M. 1 ' • edition of Lamarck, observes
that this curious genus was not well known to that ron-
logist, Tlie T'-redina, M. Deshayes remarks, is a true
T E R
221
T E R
globular PHOLAS fixed at the end of a tube, and has in
fact the exterior characters of the Pholades. It carries an
escutcheon on the umbones, and within it is provided with
those appendages which so readily distinguish the Tere-
dines and the Pholades from other genera. The shell is
always external, and soldered by the posterior extremity of
its valves to the anterior part of the tube, which is very
thick and terminated by a blackish part of a horny appear-
ance, whose internal surface is sometimes divided into
eight regular carinations.
M. Deshayes, in his Tables, gives two species, Teredina
personata and a new species, both from the tertiary beds
(Eocene of Lyell). In the last edition of Lamarck no
notice is taken of the new species, and to the second
species, Teredina bacillum, recorded by Lamarck, is ap-
pended a note stating that this last does not belong to the
genus Teredina; and that, according to the description
and figure of Brocchi, it can only be a Clavagella or a
Fistulana ; but that it is not Clavagella tibialis, as M. de
Blainville believed.
Tcrcilina pcrsouata. (Courtagnon, fee.)
n. tube with valves; 6. the other termination of the t<ibe; r, awcsmry valve ;
d, Talves with accessary valve in its place. (G. B. Sowerby.)
TERE'DO, the name given by Linnaeus to a genus of
testaceous mollusks, highly interesting on account of the
i svages which one of the species commits upon submerged
wood.
Linns- us, in the twelfth edition of the ' Systema Naturae,'
placed the genus among his Verntes testacea, between
S/'r/iii/n ami Sttbella : nor is this certainly inapt posilion
to be wondered at when we consider the very infant state
of malacology in his day.
Cuvier, in his last edition of the ' R4gne Animal,' makes
Teredo one of the genera of his Enfermfa, the fifth family
of \mAcephalous Testaceans, arranging the genus between
I'luiliw and Fixtulana.
M. de Blainville arranges the genus in the tenth family
(Adesmacea) of his Pyloridians, between Teredina and
Fistulana, immediately after which comes Septaria.
Lamarck had placed the genus among his Tubicolees,
and M. Rang adopts that arrangement, giving it a position
however between Jouannetiannil Fistulana, next to which,
and immediately before TEREDINA, Septaria appears.
Lamarck ended with this genus his Tubicoteen, which
are immediately followed by the Pholadaires. Teredo is
immediately preceded by Teredina, and this again by
typtaria. In speaking of the last-named genus, M.
Deshayes, in the last edition of Lamarck, observes
that although the animal and the shell of Septaria
are not known to him, the great portions of its testa-
ceous tube or sheath, which he had seen, convinced
him that the animal is analogous to that of the Fixtiilunr/-.
which differ from it principally in size only ; and because
its two anterior siphons are very long, and form for them-
*elves each a particular testaceous sheath. The animal
ought therefore to have posteriority, he remarks, a bivalve
shell, which had escaped those who have collected the
great tube, or the portions of it which we see in cabinets.
M. Deshayes goes on to state that he has only seen a few
septa, unequally distant and entirely incomplete. Some
Fistulana;, he adds, have also vaulted septa in the pos-
terior part of their sheath ; but the diminished or anterior
part of this offers only particular tubes projecting out
wards (1835).
Again, when Lamarck concludes his observations by
saying that, for the rest, the Septaria is hardly anything
but an exaggerated Fistulana, and scarcely deserves to
be distinguished as a genus, M. Deshayes declares that if
we substitute for the word Fistulana that of Teredo, these
remarks would be perfectly just. This genus, he adds
(Lamarck's Septaria), which had been believed to be pe-
culiar to the seas of India, has been found some years since
in the Mediterranean ; and he refers to the paper pub-
lished on that animal in the ' Annales des Sciences et de
1'Industrie du Midi de la France,' Marseille, 1832, by M.
Math6ron, in which that naturalist proves the animal of
Septaria to he similar to that of Teredo ; and this resem-
blance, says M. Deshayes, in conclusion, confirms his own
opinion of the necessity of uniting the Septarice and the
Teredines.
Mr. Swainson (Malacology, 1840) places Teredo with the
subgenera Teredo and Teredina, at the end of the ' Pho-
Mr. J. E. Gray arranges Teredo between Teredina and
Bankia, under his Pholada, the first family of his second
order (Cladopoda) of Conchifera. Septaria is introduced,
with a query, into his second family, Gastrochcsntdce.
ORGANIZATION.
It is now 36 years since Sir Everard (then Mr.) Home
laid before the Royal Society, with the assistance of Mr.
Clift in making the drawings, and the aid of Sir Benjamin
(then Mr.) Brodie, his Observations on the Shell of the
Sea-Worm found on the Coast of Sumatra, proving it to
belong to a Species of Teredo, with an account of
the Anatomy of the Teredo Navalis. Sir Everard remarks
that the internal structure and economy of Teredines were
so little known, and so much of what was said of them bv
Sellius was so vague, that it became necessary to acquire
an accurate knowledge of the common Teredo navalis,
before any adequate idea could be formed of the new
species, which he names Teredo gigantea.
On examining the shell of Teredo navalis while in the
wood, Sir Everard found its external orifice very small,
just, large enough, in fact, to give a passage to the two
small tubes. The greatest thickness observed was ^ of an
inch. The canal in the wood at its termination, and for
an inch in length, was not lined with shell, but smeared
over with a dirty green-coloured mucus, which was also
spread upon the last-formed portion of shell. According
to Mr. Hatchett's analysis, the shell of Teredo navalis was
perfectly similar to that of Teredo gigantea, being devoid
of phosphate of lime, and composed of 97 parts of carbo-
nate of lime and 3 of animal matter.
While the animal was in the shell alive and undisturbed,
what is termed the head was in contact with the end of the
canal in the wood ; but, on laying the head bare, it was
drawn in for an inch into the shell. The body of the animal
filled the area of the shell completely, but appeared much
smaller when taken out, in consequence of the sea-water
which it contained having escaped. The largest of the
worms examined which were of different lengths measured 8
inches in length. Many of them were alive 24 hours after
being removed from their shell, and in these the heart was
seen to palpitate. The blood in the vessels going to the
head was red, as also the parts near the liver ; but this
colour disappeared soon after death.
The head of the worm was enclosed between the two
concave boring shells, so that what Sir Everard calls the
face was the only part exposed. These shells were united
together on what is termed the back part of the head by a
very strong digastric muscle, having a middle tendon from
which the fibres go off in a somewhat radiated direction.
partly for insertion into the concave surface of each shell,
and partly into a long semicircular process projecting from
the posterior part of each shell. The two inclose the oeso-
phagus and otlier parts surrounding it. The double muscle
was inclosed in a smooth shining fascia, When first ex>
posed it was of a bright red.
T E R
22-2
T E R
On the opposite ride of the head the shell* were united
by a ligament from which they were readily separated ; at
this part were two small tooth-like processes, om-
the narrow edge of each shell, where the) were joined
together.
From the middle of the exposed part of the head pro-
1 a land of proboscis; which in the living animal nad
a vermicular motion: its extremity was covered by R
cuticle not unlike Ihe cornea of the c\e. On removing
this, the cavity immediately beneath it wax found to cou-
tain a hard brown-coloured gelatinous substance, like n
Florence flask, with the lame end uppermost in form. Sir
Everard remarks that as this proboscis has no orifice, there
is reason to believe that it adheres to the wood, acting as a
centre-bit, while the animal is at work with the shell, and
thus the canal in the wood is perfectly eylindrieal. The
month was nearly concealed by the projection of tl:
Is, but, when exposed, presented a very distinct round
orific. i the proboscis and the large digastric
muscle.
' The body of the worm,' proceeds Sir Everard, ' is in-
closed in one general covering, extending from the base
of the boring shell, with which it is firmly connected to
the root of the two small tubes, which appear out of the
wood. It terminates in a small double fold forming a cup,
o;i the inside of which are fixed the long small stems of
two opercula, which become broad and flat towards their
other extremity. These, when brought together, shut up
'sell, and inclose the two contracted tubes within it :
not one opcrculum corresponding to each tube, but in a
transverse direction. In the Teredo gigantea, the oper-
cula are similarly situated, each shutting up one-half of
the bifurcation. At the base of this cup the general cover-
- thick and ligamentous, for about one-fourth of an
inch in length, where the stems of the opercula are con-
'1 with it ; and at one spot of this thickened part
there is an adhesion to the cylindrical shell, which is the
only part of the animal connected with it. There is a
depression in the shell pointing out this spot. The double
fold of the outer covering, that forms the cup, contains the
sphincter muscle, which closes the orifice by bringing the
opercula together. The general covering is compi
two membranes, the outer the strongest, .and made up of
circular fibres, the inner much finer, having no fibrous
structure. On the back of the animal, this covering is
firmly connected to the parts underneath, and is there
strongest. On the belly it forms a cavity, and is thinner.
It i- everywhere sufficiently transparent to show the differ-
ent viscera through it.'
Sir Everard Home began his dissection by dividing this
covering and exposing its cavity, into which there are two
natural opening*: one, that of the largest of the above-
described tubes, by which it receives the water from the
sea ; the other, a transverse slit under the union of the
boring shells, one-quarter of an inch long, opening into the
space before the mouth. The author states t hat the smaller
tube has no communication with this cavity, and that there
is none between this cavity and that of the belly, the vis-
cera having a proper covering of their own : the breathing
organs however, which are attached on the posteri<
face of this cavity, are described as having their )
edge loose and exposed to the influence of the salt
so that the larger tube is constantly applying salt water to
them, and conveying it to the animal's month through the
aperture for that purpose.
Digestive tiyitem. — The head and abdominal viscera
were found to occupy about one-third of the animal's
length, the breathing organs another (bird, and the
between their termination and the ends of the small tubes
the remaining third. The oesophagus was very short,
lying on the left side of the neck. On the right w,
large approximated eland- connected with its coat. The
n-sophagus gradually swelling out became stomach, which
externally appeared as a large hair, extending the whole
length of the abdomen; the intestine commenced ch.se to
the termination of the oesophagus; but when (lie stomach
was laid open, a septum appeared dividing it into t\vo dis-
tinct bags, except at the lower end, where they communi-
cate. It may therefore be said, observes Sir Everard. to
be doubled on itself. In those worms which w era exa-
mined alive, the stomachs were quite empty : but in
preserved specimens the content* were a yellow-coloured
pulp, of which we shall have to say more presently : the
quantity in a specimen from the British Museum was about
intestine was very small, and became dilated into a
containing a hard, white, globular body, oft!"
of a large pin's h. -ad, and then made a turn upon itself.
Here the liver is attached ' ach, to which it firmly
adheres. The gut passed forwaids till it reached tin
tral line of the stomach, opposite tb.
lined its course along that viscus, passing roum
end and np again on the opposite si.
tinned on one side of the oesophagus near!;,
mouth, where it was reflected o\er the middle ten*:
the digastric muscle of the boring shells, and ran along
the back of the animal, till it terminated in the small
through which its contents arc emptied.
N//>/»W.— The heart was
found in the middle between the mouthand the lower end
Of the stomach, and was situated on the back of the ani-
mal. There were two auricles, composed of a thin dark-
coloured membrane, which opened by contracted valvular
orifices into two white strong tubes, which united to form
the ventricle. This ventricle, Sir Everard observes, may
be -aid to be continued into an artery, which supplies the
viscera, and ascends to the muscles of the two boring
shells. The heart was very loosely connected to th<
rounding parts: its action was distinctly m i the
external covering, and was observed, in some
after it had been laid bare. The first contraction was in the
two auricles, which shortened themselves in that action. A
swelling of the ventricle, followed by a com
thus produced. Sir Kverard found that ' from
the ventricle could be traced up to the head, and the
vessels from the auricles were seen very distinctly as far as
the breathing organ-. The auricles were lined with a
black pigment, so that their contents could not be
through them ; and the coats of the ventricle were too
thick for transparency: but the muscle of the bonne-
shells was of a red colour, as well as the liver, and most
of the surrounding parts between the heart and the head.
Sir Everard observes, that this structure of the Irpart ad-
mit-, only of a single circulation, as in other animals which
breathe through the medium of water, but that the mode
of its being performed is different from that in fishes: in
the Ti'riiliin^. lie remarks, the blood passes directly from
the heart to the different parts of the body, and returns
through the vessels of the breathing organs to the heart,
while in fishes it goes first to the breathing organs, and
then to the different parts of the body. This peculiar cir-
cnlntion, he adds, becomes a link in the gradation of the
modes of exposing the blood to the air in different ani-
mals: it appears to be less perfect than in fishes, since
the exposure to the air is carried on more slowly, but is
more perfect than in caterpillars.
Brain andNn '• m. — Sir Everard doubts not the
existence of the brain and nerves in animals so perfect in
their organs as the Teredines, but he failed to detect them
during bis inv estimation.
(li'niTiitirr Si/\trm. — Sir Kverard Home describes the
testicles as two Ions glandular sub-' on each
side of the stomach, of a whitish colour and granulated
structure. From each of them a duct passed to the ovaria,
which lay between the two breathing organs. The ducts
ran upon their outer edge, and terminated near the base
of the small tube. In this way, he remarks, t!
impregnated before they pass out at that orifice. In the.
worms from Shcerncsa, examined in February, tin
tides were small, and no appearance of a M be
. but in specimens from the Hnnterian .Museum the
testicles were much fuller, and the o.
tiin-t longitudinal ridges: these, \\lien examined under
the microscope. ' in innumerable small
When the ovaria are empty. Sir Ev . - that
there is nothing to be found between tb- -ihing
organ* but the small seminal vessels. He then adverts to
the statement of Scllius. who says that the ••nilix
ria full of eggs in the spring and summer; that
cuiet with as late rs December ; but that those
individuals which he examined in February had their
ovaria flaccid and empty.
With regard to T- < the same author ob-
serves that, when arrived at ii- full growth, it clos,
tin- end ol md so <!u, SttB/M. Sellius
believed that the animal by this act formed its own tomb,
T E R
223
T E R
since it could no longer destroy the wood in which it was
contained. Sir Everard however remarks that in Teredo
giguntea death is not a consequence of seclusion from the
substance in which it is imbedded. In some of Mr. Grif-
fiths's specimens the shell was just covered in, and the
part close to the termination extremely thin, whilst in
others it was increased twenty-fold in thickness. In others
again the shell had not only become thick, but the animal
had receded from its first inclosure, and had formed a
second three inches up the tube, and afterwards a third
two inches further on, and had made the sides thicker and
thicker, so as to diminish the canal in proportion to the
diminution of its own size.
Animal of Teredo navalis out of the shell.
1. the opercula are wanting, and the tubes retracted. 2. the opcrcula in their
situation, and the tut>e» protrudfl a, a, the boring-shells; 6. the proboscis;
f, tlte mouth ; d. d, the contf nls of the aldomen seen through the tr tnsnarent
external covering ; e, c, breathing organs seen in the same way. (Phil. Trans.)
Sir Everard considers these facts as proving that Teredo
gigantea, when arrived at its full growth, or whenever it
is prevented from increasing in length, closes up the end
of its shell, and lives a long time afterwards, furnished
with food from the sea-water. Teredo navalis, he observes,
m up its shell in the same manner : it must therefore,
after that period, be supplied with food entirely through
the medium of sea-water. The Teredines, he adds, turn
round in the shell, to which they are not attached, and
with which their covering only has a slight connection at
one particular spot, to prevent the external tubes from
being disturbed. This motion, Sir Everard observes, is for
the purpose of boring.
Geneve Character. — Animal very much elongated, ver-
miform, with a very delicate mantle, open in front and at
its lower part for the passage of a mammiliform foot ;
tubes separated, very short, especially that for the dejec-
tions; mouth small ; labial appendages short ; anus situ-
ated at the extremity of a small tube floating in the cavity
of the mantle ; branchiae riband-like, united on the same
line throughout their length, and a little prolonged in the
siphon ; a muscular ring at the point of junction of the
mantle and the tubes, in which is implanted a pair of
pedieulated corneo-calcareous appendages or palmules,
playine laterally one against the other.
Mirll rather thick, very short, annular, equally open
before and behind; equivalve, inequilateral, angular, with
triangular valves, trenchant in front, and only touching
each other by the two opposite edges ; no hinge ; an elon-
gated, nearly straight, siibfiliform, spoon-shaped process;
a single Bligntly-ravked muscular impression.
Tube oyfindrical, straight or fk'xuous, closed with age
at the buccal extremity, so as to envelope the animal and
its shell, always open at the other, and lining the cavity
into which tin- animal has introduced itself.
Such is M. Kang's definition of Teredo, excluding Teredo
Septaria\ of which he pvei the following de-
ing that it closely approximates to the
• .- —
unknown. (But see the paper of M. Mathtron
above referred to.)
unknown. (But see the descriptions of Mr. Grif-
.il Sir Everard Home here noticed.)
Tube calcareous, thick, solid, in the shape of a very
elongated cone, nml irregularly flexuous, furnished inter-
nally with small, incomplete, annuliform septa ; terminated
at one of its extremities by a convexity, and at the other
by two slender and separated tubes.
The i! . oi TiTi'iln (exclusive of Srpfaria)
'•k in the ' Animaux sans Veil'
'181H; v.ere two, Teredo navalis and Teredo palmulatus :
of the latter Lamarck, who had seen neither its tube ncr
its shell, says that it probably only differs from Teredo na-
valis in its greater size, its longer palmules having been
more easily observed.
M. Deshayes, in his Tables, makes the number five living
and five fossil (tertiary), exclusive of Septaria ; and, in
the last edition of Lamarck, adds to the two species above
noticed Teredo corniJormis(Fistulanacorniformis, Lam.),
Teredo gregatus (Fistulana gregata. Lain.), and Teredo
arenarhts (Septaria arenaria, Lam.).
N.B. Lamarck had stated that the Ropan of^Adanson
(Senegal, pi. 19, f. 2) belonged to the Teredines, remark-
ing however that he (Lamarck) knew it not. But M.
Deshayes points out that M. Rang, on his return from a
voyage to Senegal, where he had an opportunity of ob-
serving ihe Ropan, found that this curious shell belonged
neither to the Teredines, as Lamarck believed, nor to the
Pholades, as Bosc says, and still less to the Gastrochcence,
as M. de Blainville supposes ; but that it is a Modiola
already known, Modiola caudigera.
Teredo Navalis. — This is sufficiently described above,
and we therefore proceed te the consideration of its
Food, Habits, fyc. — Some of the Teredines examined by
Sir Everard Home were sent from Sheerness in the wood
alive, and they lived in salt-water for three days after
being brought to town. Sir Everard observed that when
the surface of the wood was examined in a good light,
while only an inch in depth in the water, the animal threw
out sometimes one, at others two small tubes. When one
only was protruded, the other almost immediately followed
it. One of them was about three-quarters of an inch long ;
the other only half that size. When the largest was ex-
posed to its full extent, there was a fringe on the inside of
its external orifice of about twenty small tentaeula, scarcely
visible to the naked eye : these were never seen except in
that state ; for when the tube was retracted, the end was
first drawn in, and so on, until the whole was completely
inverted : and therefore in a half-protruded state it ap-
peared to have a blunt termination with a rounded edge.
The smaller tube was not inverted when drawn in. 'These
tubes,' says Sir Everard Home, in continuation, ' while
playing about in the water appeared at different times to
vary in their directions, but usually remained at the
greatest convenient distance from each other. The largest
was always the most erect, and its orifice the most dilated ;
the smaller one was sometimes bent on itself with its point
touching the wood. In one instance, where a small insect
came across the larger one, the point of the smaller turned
round and pushed it off, and then went back to its original
situation. In several instances the smaller one appeared
to be the most sensible ; since by touching the larger one
gently it did not retract ; but on touching the smaller one
they both were instantly drawn in. Indeed whenever they
were retracted they always were drawn in together. When
the worm was confined within the shell the orifice was
not to be distinguished in the irregular surface of the
wood, which was covered with small fuel. The worm ap-
pears commonly to bore in the direction of the grain of
the wood, but occasionally it bores across the grain to
avoid the track of any of the others ; and in some in-
stances there was only a semitransparent membrane as a
partition between two of them.'
Sir Everard observes that as the Teredo gigantea bores
in mud, on which it cannot be supposed to subsist, or
even to receive any part of its nutriment from it, it be-
comes a question whether the Teredo navalis, an animal
of much smaller size, derives support from the wood
which it destroys, or in supplied wholly from the sea.
The last opinion seems the most probable to Sir Everard,
because the animal, having red blood and very perfect
organs, necessarily requires a great deal of nourishment for
the purposes of growth, and to supply the waste constantly
going on ; but if, he observes, the aggregate of shell and
animal substance is taken, it will be found equal in bulk,
and greater in specific gravity than the wood displaced in
making the hole : hence, he remarks, it is obvious that the
quantity of wood which the animal has taken into its body
K wholly insufficient for its formation and subsistence.
When once it is established that the Teredo can be sup-
ported independently of the wood which is oaten, and can
afterwards subsist when the communication between it and
the wood is cut off, a doubt, he adds, is created about the
wood forming any part of its aliment, and it becomes pro-
T H K
bable that the Trret! like the TV/Wo pi
forms its habitation in a substance from which it receives
no part of its sustenance ; and that the sawdust conveyed
through the intestines is not digested, particularly as that
examined by Mr. Hatchett liad not undergone the slightest
char
Mr. Hatchett found the ten grains of pulp from the
specimen above referred to to bean impalpable vegetable
sawdust. When burnt the smoke had precisely the odour
of wood ; it formed a charcoal easily consumed, and was
converted into white ashes, in ever)' respect like vegetable
charcoal. Solution of potash did not act upon it, as it
would have done if it had been an animal substance.
Sir Kvenml Home suggests that the straight course of
the intestine in the / makes it probable that the
sawdust retards the progress of the food, so as to render
convolution unnecessary.
Teredo Savulis has been found at deptlis ranging from
the surface to ten fathoms.
22-1
T E U
Trredo gigantea.— Rumphius, in his ' Amboinsche R»-
itcitkamcr. liguie-. Inn- copied, of a species of
ulmlar shell found in shallow water among mangiove-
jees. He describes t lie ground whence they were brought,
and the mode in which the large end of the shell is cl
so as to leave little doubt that it was '/'• nlfti,
hough the separation of the two tubes through which the
«uts of the animal pass out is different from the specimens
>rought home by Mr. Griffiths. This difference however,
LS the latter observes, may have been connected with the
.it nation in which the ani'mal was found, namely, shallow
water among the mangroves.
Shell and tube of Teralo navalis.
a tubw «ilh valvei in their position nl the i-nil ; <<,t. two vl.-wj of the
ralvei: <l. ilouM"; opririiluni ; r, rrpnwntMinn of the protrusion of the two
tob«» of tlw animal . (flal. Train. ) O. 11. Sowerliy .
It is said, probably with tnith. that Trrnlo ntiniti* was
introduced into Europe from warmer climates. However
that may be, it now unfortunately swarms in our seas. The
ravaces of this apparently insignificant animal are terrible
Ship-, piles, all submarine wood-works, are ruinous!)
affected by it : small us it is. it threatened the submersion
of Holland by its destruction of the dykes. The living
specimens which formed the subject of Sir Everard Home's
observations were furnished from oneofthe royal dockyard-
The rapidity of its growth and the destructive celerity will
v.-hich it v, or!,.- are hardly credible. A piece of deal. :ifte
a submersion of forty days. was riddled by them, and soul
had attained considerable size. Those from the dockum
at Plymouth, examined by Montagu, wen- in piles \\hicl
had been recently taken up to be replaced with new : 1he\
had not, according to the information given to Montagu
been under water above four or five years, but they were
greatly perforated, though they were sound solid oak whci
they were drnen. The only "effectual wa\ of prcvcntim,
the attacks of this animal upon piles appears to be by
'ing all that part which is continually beneath th
surface with short broad-headed nails. The action of th
sea-water on the nails produces a strong coating of rust
said to be superior to a copper sheathing.
Wood rwforaUd bjr TmdinM naralcd.
Trredo tigantea(Rum|'li.).
In 1905 Captain Maxwell of the Calcutta F.ast Indinman
gave to Sir K\crard (then MiO Home, a specimen of thi.»
shell, five feet long, but imperfect at both extremi'ies.
The captain said it was brought from Sumatra. Several of
Mr. Home's friends considered it as a mineral substance,
a hollow stalactite, being misled by its radiate.;
Sir Joseph Hanks decided that it was a shell, and ij
analysed by Mr. Hatchett, who found that it was cbmi
of carbonate of lime and an animal gelatinous subs!
which was greater in quantity than m Chama gigtu, but
.:!i in the common oyster. Mr. Home then applied
to Mr. Marsden, who introduced him to Mr. Griffiths, and
the paper of the last-mentioned gentleman immediately
precedes that of Mr. Home in Phil. Traits, for I
Mr. Griffiths relates that a short time after a very violent
earthquake that occurred in Sumatra in the year 171*7.
which produced ' a most tremendous' inundation of tli
did great damage, and caused the lossof many lives, these
shells were procured in a small sheltered bay with a muddy
bottom, surrounded by coral reefs, on the island of ISattoo.
When the sea receded from the bay after the inundation,
they were seen protruding from a bank of slightly indurated
mud, and two or three specimens were brought to Mr.
Griffiths nt Padang, by the master of a boat trading be-
tween that part and the island, for cocoa-nut oil. sea-slug,
&c. Mr. Griffiths then sent one of his servants, a 1';.,
CotiVee, who was \ery expert at diving, in a small praw.
,i\ant staled that he had found the shells in the
before-mentioned bay and in an inlet of the sea. sticking
out of lather haid mud, mixed with small stones, sand,
&c. from eight to ten inches or more, and from one to
three fathoms under water. Both the master and crew
assured Mr. Griffiths that the animal throws out tentacula
T E R
225
T E K
from the two apertures of the apex of the shell, that
resembled the small actinics adhering to the rocks about
Padang, and that the body of the shell was filled with a
soft gelatinous flesh, similar to that of the Teredo naru/ix.
but this they had washed out on account of its putridity.
They said that the shells were in considerable number, and,
being gently shaken, easily taken up ; but all of them
were mutilated more or less, the effect probably of the
earthquake, when many large fragments of madrepores,
corals, Sec. were torn from their seat by the agitation of
the sea. More than twenty specimens were brought to
Mr. Griffiths, but not one was complete : a portion of the
shell with the apex nearly perfect, and another with the
opposite closed extremity nearly so, were however pro-
cured. The length of the longest of Mr. Griffiths's shells
was 5 feet 4 inches, and the circumference of the base
9 inches, tapering upwards to 2J inches. There were
other good ones of smaller size. The large specimen was
nearly perfect, having a small part of the lower extremity
entire. Most of the shells had adhering to them, about
one foot or more from the top, the small cockscomb oyster,
small serpulae, &c. ; consequently, Mr. Griffiths observes,
they must have been protruded that distance from the
hard mud ; but the water being thick and discoloured, the
people of Battoo had not taken notice of them antecedent
to the earthquake. The specimens were milk-white on the
outside and within were tinged with yellow. Mr. Griffiths
remarks that the large end of the shell is completely
closed, and has a rounded appearance ; at this part it is
very thin. The small end, or apex, is very brittle and
divided by a longitudinal septum running down for eight
or nine inches, forming it into two distinct tubes, inclosed
within the outer one, from whence the animal throws out
tentacula. Mr. Griffiths goes on to describe the substance
of the shell as composed of layers having a fibrous and
radiated appearance, covered externally with a pure white
crust, and internally as having a yellow tinge ; and the
external surface as frequently interrupted in a transverse
direction by a sudden increase of thickness, which, he
observes, probably indicates different stages in the growth
Teredo gigantea.
1, tli* small OT upper extremity of the shell, the external covering broken
i»«y aad showing the termination of the tube*, one of which ia broken. L'. a
of the shell, although they are at unequal distances, some-
times at six inches, sometimes at four, in the same shell.
Many of the shells, he adds, are nearly straight, others
crooked and contorted.
1.
2.
the
upper extreumy (Phil. Tr
1*. C., No. 1010.
thai part of the shell where thedouhle tubes nn- tonm-il. ! T,r,,.i..:f.rl i4lnf flll thn vprepa nf
or newly so, the exception being the imperfect stale of Pr.^Mon ™at .a" tne Verses Ot
<PM. Traiu.) critics to the single metre, called
i 1". l<: '
Teredo gigantei.
. transverse section of shell, giving a front view into the orifices of the
double tulie. and showing the thickness of the shell at that part, i, trans-
verse section of shell at the thickest part after it had been polished, showing
the structure, and giving a front view of the orifices into the double tube. (Phil.
Traru)
FOSSIL TEREDINES.
M. Deshayes in his Tables notes five species of fossil
Teredines in the tertiary formation, Eocene period of
Lyell :— one from the English crag, one from Paris, and four
from Belgium. Mr. Lea.(Contributions to Geology) records
a species, Teredo simplex, from the Claiborne Beds, Alabama
(tertiary). Professor Sedgwick and Mr. Murchison notice
the genus in their Table of Fossils found in the Gosau
Deposit and its Equivalents in the Alps ; and also ' Teredo
or Pttolae,' in their Table of Fossils of Lower Styria, as
belonging to the ' middle system.' Dr. Fitton, in his Syste-
matic and Strati graphical List of Fossils in the Strata
below the Chalk, notes the genus, with a query, from the
gault of Kent and Cambridge.
TERE'NTIA. [CICERO.]
TERENTIAN METRES. Few subjects connected with
Latin literature have been treated with less success than
the principles and laws which govern the metres of Latin
comedy. The majority of readers seem to look upon the
writings of Plautus and Terence as so much humble prose
arbitrarily distributed so as to present to the eye the
appearance of verse without its realities. For them it
would be better if the whole were printed consecutively,
and such an arrangement would in fact be supported by
not a few of the existing manuscripts. On the other hand,
there have been writers who have laboured to remove the
difficulties that obscure the subject, among whom none
but Bentley and Hermann appear to have had any success ;
and what they have done still leaves the subject in a very
unsatisfactory position. Even the writer of the Life of
Terence, in the ' Biographic Universelle ' (published in,
1826), has the following extraordinary criticism upon the
metres of Terence : — 'The sole rule which he observes
with tolerable regularity is to end each verse with an
iamb ; and even this limitation he often disregards, as, for
instance, in the terminations hie consiste ; si vis, nunc
jam ; audio uiolenter ; hue adducam ; hanc venturam, &c.
with regard to the other feet, he freely substitutes for the
iamb or spondee, a trochee, anapest, dactyl, double pyrrhic,
or four short syllables, and a cretic or; short between two
longs,' &c. This writer thus starts with the false im-
Terence are reduced by
trimeter iambic : where-
VOL. XXIV.— 2 G
T E R
226
T E R
M, in fort, all who have dealt with the Mibject. except
hiaurlf. are aware that the poet has at least three forma of
»MM which end trochaically : and his second exception i»
di>po*ed of by the more corn
In England again, «> late tu • nve a
i :ian meti , whi. !.:.-, :,.r . ... :, -•
of those metre*, the trimeter-iambic, gives us the follow-
ing scale :—
- —
- —
u —
U —
u —
w -
— 0 U
_ (J U
_ (J u
— J U
(JO —
U U —
0 U —
0 J —
with the additional remarks that ijun quid hunc may be a
dartvl. that Air auidem etl, ttudrt f.nr, and the thiee first
syllables of roluptati, may pass for anapests, &c. &c.
All tin-. U exceedingly unsatisfactory, and it would be
better to abandon the problem as insoluble, than to give
currency to extravagancies which would enable us i
in any Jivi-n chapter of C«sar a series of trimeter-iambics.
mst be admitted that the metres of tlie Greek drama-
tist*, and more particularly of the tragedians, irratii'y lin-
ear «itl> rhythms which, comparator iy ^peaking, are
smooth and appreciable. But it should be recollect t-d. in
the first place, that the Greek language is distimruishcd
from among other languages by its abundance of words
which end in a short syllable, and the advantage to the
poet is increased by the large number of instances where
these short final syllables have a vowel ending. Compare,
for instance, the accusatives angular ftowav, lov\ov, rokiv,
laiftova. with the Latin mutant, terrain, nuriiii, /•
the nominative and accusative plural £a</u»>tc, laipovat,
with the Latin leonct ; the numerals lira, lua, with the
Latin trptrm, deeem ; the verbs rturrtre, run-own, with tin-
Latin tcribitit, tcribitnl ; the ])ronouns fu, at. i, with me,
ft, tc. In fact, the Latin language exceeds the Greek
1:1 the number of long syllables, as much as the English
and German languages exceed the Latin.
A still more important matter is the question whether and
how far the written language of the Romans is an exact re-
presentative of the spoken language. It seems to be a con-
dition of language in ceneiu! that its pronunciation should
always be passing through a series of changes, and that
those changes should consist for the most part in the gradual
omission of letters and even syllables. Thus the Roman
phrase mea domina is in Italian madonna ; in French
madam/' ; in English madam, ma'am, and even mum and
mint. Meanwhile, for the most part, the changes in ortho-
graphy are slow, and consequently t ys in arrear
of the orthoepy. Thus it will be found that the sounds of
English and German words which appear to the i
weighed down with consonants. arc in the mouth of a
native tolerably harmonious. Was such the ease with the
Roman also? We answer with little hesitation in the
affirmative, partly because the laws which i:
language can scarcely have been wanting in antient Italy,
and partly because we find the point cveral
incidental remark* in Latin writers. lomi
the laws and principle! of wr
nan* — he was not very obser
follow the opinion of those wl
as we speak. For as t
Thus Suetonius says,
• Orthography — that is,
laid down by gramma-
of, but seems rather to
>ld that we should write
ngine or omitting
not !:• , li-ttrrs, hut even whole syllables, that i.-
a common error.' It should he observed too, th;,
toniui had himself teen the handwriting of the emperor.
(Ibid.,c.S7. Acnin.giiintilian !///>/ says, 'As,
on the one hand, it is essential that • 1 should he
clearly articulated ; so, on the other hand, to reckon
we may so speak, every separate letter, is painful mid
wearisome.' In the same chapter he further obsi
>nly is a coalition of vowel* moo, but »
the consonants are disguiv ....hen a
vowel follows;' where he must refer tosomc other letter than
•.probably the final t generally and the fiunl <l uf neuter
pwoouru. cian, who by th( .an to
*v« wn :ie Latin language had ceased tn |-e
rn as a lying tongue, at times throws out such con-
cturn a* the following :— • I think that vigil, i-igilii,
should rather be pronounced per tyncopam.' \Ve might
appeal to Cicero's authority for the fact Unit a final t was
licqnently omitted in pronunciation. Hut then- :uv (-till
other arguir -'port of the pn
are contending. Within tt age
itself we find such changes actually in progress — as,
. ruti, ijitui, neifiie, ii/i/tir, tire, ««•<-. i /<;
runt, provident, mihi, nihil, quibuf, j>'ij nln\.
opera, potette, marolo, inn
severally mage, HI, ipte, nee, ac, ten, «<•//.
prudent, mi, nil, quit, poplus (compare also poplirut\ leg-
men, opra, fxute, inalo, nnril, noxti, dfis or
.Id enable us to carry the )i I nut to::
and this still more it' we employed the ana:
of the Greek tongue.
Again, tin- lai: :ch are acknowledged to h
rived from the Latin, siu-1. Mr Trouhadnu.
Italian, French, Spanish. Port utrucsc.and one portion of the
Knirh-h. by their shortened forms, confirm our vi.
tins will be found to be specially the case with t
To those who may express their surprise that the 1". •
should thus take precedence in our argument ot'tbe 1 .
the answer is, that the French is probab ' irom
the Latin more completely than even the Italian. For
the Celtic, Teutonic, and Iberic languages spoken in
France before the Roman conquest uf i!
of too foreign a character to mix with the la
conquerors or to supply the place of it in the i
of the provincials with their masters; whereas in
then- already existed dialects which were intelligible to
those who came from Rome, and for that v
not supplanted by that particular form of the Italian lan-
guage which happened to prevail in the metropolitan city.
In the same way the authorised dialect of our own t
is more likely to become the current language >
than of Yorkshire. Add to this that th>
called Italian belongs to Tuscany, not to K.
Lastly, we find much to strengthen our present ar«ri
in the abbreviated forms oi writing which were in use among
the Romans and are Mill found in manuscripts. Tin
word ro«*«/is written ro,v, because the // was not proii"
before *, as Diomedi : Putsch.
Airain, the v.ord inodo not unl'ix-ijuently occupies such a
position in the verses of Terence as to seem to ret,
monosyllabic pronunciation, such indeed
more consistent with its enclitic character. Thin M/V
word enters into the composition of the Latin qw
which again in the languages derived from Latin a.-
various forms: in the Romance, row; in Spanish, c
in Italian, come; and in French, comme. To this v. .
add the fact that the Romans themselves represented the
simple v.ord by the abbreviation mo. Airain, • n • N the
manuscript mode of denoting the conjunction fnim, i<
which must often be pronounced like en to fulfil the con-
ditions of Terence's metre. We may .-. ord,
as of mode, that an enclitic should not attract the attention
of the ear. A third example shall be a third enclitic, viz.
i/uiifi'/H. Hentley himself observed the ti d by
this word in the verses of Terence (Amir., i.:i. £(>i. a
remedy is to drop the final m, which howe\er still leaves
the \erse encumbered with a superabundance o! s\l!
We contend tliat this also is commonly a moimsv ;
and on the following grounds. First, the untie i>t'T,
requires it. Secondly, if Vftitt'm has a reduced form
analogy will gi\ :n. Thirdly, the lio-
mans, [ike the French, did not pronounce IhcMiwcl <
i/lothetv. ise such u oids, t/(y«<; for instance,w-ouldha\ clmd the
i liable long), and they also disguised the final in. $-,
Quintilian implies in the passage to which wr have already
I'hus we have arrived at a sound he. Now tin-
language hasawoul of precisely the same |
and character, yi, which we strongly suspect to I-
sune woid; so that it' our •
<vuy( are of one origin, as well .
tliere are reasons still remaining which da
syllabic pronunciation for f/ni</<ni. A\ . ailed
it an encliti'-, ;::id it appeals hey ond dispute in that cha-
racter in the winds iiji'
itic should in il '•!! to iri\'
to the. word which precedes it. Yet if we believe the
ordinary teachers of Latin prosody, i-i/niilim, though a cor-
ruption from efoqjtiil .iiiilrm, has the first sylla-
ble short. Again, quando by itself has the final o common
T E R
227
T E R
to take the most unfavourable view, for in the poets of
the Augustan age it \vould be difficult to find a single
example where o is short : and in quandoque, qudn-
docunquf, the vowel is always long. But add qui-
dem, and they say quandoquidem has the same vowel
always short. "So also si in siquidem, according to their
views, loses its length the moment the enclitic attaches
itself to it. If our views be right, the true pronunciation
of these three words maybe represented by something like
eke, quandoke, slke ; the last corresponding to the Greek
«yt . We will here observe in passing, that our pronuncia-
tion of quidem suggests a correction of a corrupt passage
in Persius, Sat. i. 10 :
' Littera. Per me quiiiem sint oranin prolimu alb».'
The current reading is equidcm ; and relying upon one
error the editors have allowed the same equidem to stand
with dubili's in Sat. v. 45, when the context, as well as
grammar, requires dubitem.
But to return to the subject before us. It is not uncom-
mon with critics to imagine to themselves that the laws of
Greek and of Latin verse are based upon principles essen-
tially different from those of modern languages ; the
former depending, they say, upon the length of sylla-
bles, the latter upon accent. This distinction we believe
to be wholly without foundation. We rely little upon
the fact that Priscian's treatise headed 'De Accentibus'
is only a schoolboy-like scanning of the first lines in the
' .SJneid,' because, as has been already said, that writer's
authority is not of great weight in what concerns the
spoken tongue ; and in fact, for the same reason there is
little dependence to be placed upon the dogmas of the
other so-called grammarians, such as Diomedes. Our
views upon this subject are rather derived from the perusal
of Terence and Plautus themselves, and are confirmed to a
considerable extent by the hexameters of Virgil and the
lyrics of Horace. They also seem to be supported by the
general principle* of language. We will endeavour briefly
to state the results at which we think we have fairly ar-
lived.
I. In words of more than two syllables, if, according to
the received prosodies, two or more short syllables, ex-
clusive of the final syllable, occur together, the second of
those short syllables was slurred over. For instance, in
some cases the changing a vowel i or e into the sound of a
y, or of a vowel into the sound of a w, would be
the simplest mode of effecting such a result. Thus ad-
tribuert, pcrTimus, comiltiim, would upon our theory be
pronounced udtribin rf. jwryinntx, cnnxiliiinn, the last of
which is confirmed by Horace's use of the same word in
his odes, and the Italian consiglin, Vr. enns/ril, Sp.
consejo ; and at any rate our pronunciation of the two
former is more consistent with the quantity of the vowels
than the mode usually adopted, viz. prr-l-iitms, adtribuere.
Bentley has himself observed (Euti., ii. 2, 36) that the
words mui rin. Sec. are always so placed in Te-
rence as to have the accent on the first syllable ; which, by
the way, is consistent with the Italian mog/if, and the
Spam We doubt however whether the dative
plural would be found to obey the law laid down by
Bentley. In those cases where the second short vowel is
followed by a consonant, the abbreviation proposed be-
comes impracticable, if at least that consonant be really
<o be sounded. In such cases the right course is probably
to drop the syllable altogether. Thus mi>eria,famiUa,sta
such words, Hermann r Di> Hi- M'-lrirn) truly says, are to be
pronounced with the accent on the first syllable, and this in
defiance of the law laid down by all the grammarians, that
the accent cannot be carried farther from the end of a
word than the antepenult. Hermann has not attempted
to reconcile the two assertions, but they fall at once into
agreement if we are right in dropping the second syllable,
for then the first becomes an antepenultimate ; and we
are only doing what is common in our own language, as in
every, lovely. This principle moreover may be clearly
traced in forms acknowledged to be Latin. Thus from
pnpulux should be formed populicus, but that becomes
poplictu- er publicus. If pello has a perfect pepiifi, mil,,
a perfect cecidi ; the compounds with re should strictly
give us repepuli, rececidi ; but we find reppuli, rec-
cidi. Again, in connection with opifex we ought to have
npificium and opi/lcina ; but these have been supplanted
by offlcium, officina. So too the Greek cirtiriSov becomes
in Lafm oppiditm, as opposed to the arx, or citadel ; and
the adverb «7ri7reJwj takes the form of oppido, an equi-
valent in meaning to plane.
II. The accent of a Latin dissyllable or polysyllable will
fall upon the penult if long. Where that penult is long
by the nature of the vowel, and at the same time the final
syllable is short, the accent upon the penult is called a
circumflex ; in other cases an acute accent. Secondly, if
the penult be short, put an acute accent upon the ante-
penult, always performing the previously mentioned ab-
breviation, if need be ; the necessary effect of which is to
give us a long antepenult, if the penult itself be short.
III. The preceding rules dispose of every case except
two classes of words, viz. dissyllables with a short penult,
and monosyllables. The former are either to be pronounced
as monosyllables, or else to be attached to the preceding
or following word ; and the double word thus formed to
be accentuated as a polysyllable. When a word is attached
in pronunciation to that which precedes, it has already re-
ceived in common use the name of enclitic. Hermann,
who first observed that there are also words which attach
themselves to those which follow, has proposed to give them
the name of proclitics. The Greek article, for instance,
belongs to this class, as also not unfrequently the Latin
hie, haec, &c. The same is true of prepositions, when
really prepositions, that is, when they precede their noun ;
and the Latin non or «<?, like the Greek ow, should
perhaps in many cases be pronounced in immediate con-
nection with the following verb, just as we, who are ac-
customed to place our not after a verb, write cannot as a
single word. Many little conjunctions also may probably
require such treatment, as si, ut, &c. Again, the list of
enclitics should be extended so as to include most of the
conjunctions which require to be placed second in asentence,
and even conjunctions in general, together with the re-
lative itself when they are forced, if the word may be used,
into a second place, as, for instance, in the first line of the
' JEneid,' which acquires additional power by the pronun-
ciation Troiae-qui. In the same way a postponed pre-
position becomes an enclitic, as in the phrase altis-de
montibus. In this way many dissyllables and monosylla-
bles will coalesce into polysyllables, and be accentuated
accordingly. We even entertain a strong suspicion that a
verb in the middle of a sentence must often be treated as
an enclitic to give tone to some important word before it.
But a statement of our grounds for this belief would require
too much room.
IV. The principle of elision will often modify the accent
of a word. Thus cumprlmum, scribendum, argumcnto,
would in ordinary circumstances have the accent as
marked. But if elision take place, they sometimes have
the accent displaced. In this way the first and eleventh
lines of the Prologue to the 'Andria' should be read:
' Po£ta cum-prim Sm' adscribend' adpulit ;' and ' Non yt'
dissim'li sunt argument' et tamen.' It should also be ob-
served that elision often destroys the initial vowel of the
second word, instead of the final syllable of the preceding
word, as nunc tudmst officium, rather than nunc tw fst
officinal.
If now the principles we have assumed on the grounds
above mentioned be applied to the plays of Terence, we
arrive at the result, that the verses, with very few excep-
tions, acquire the desired rhythm ; and that there should be
exceptions must be expected where the text of an author
is not yet established upon a careful comparison of manu-
scripts, and where even the transposition of two words will
often alter the accent. Moreover it should always be re-
collected that in the comic drama it may be even desirable
to avoid the purer rhythm of verse, and approach somewhat.
to the prose of natural conversation, as Cicero has himself
remarked (Orator., 55). That what we now say may be put to
the test, we will give a list of those words requiring abbre-
viation which most commonly occur, observing at the
same time that a word at the end of an iambic trimeter, or
after a monosyllable, is often to be pronounced with all
its syllables, though elsewhere liable to contraction. Of
this an example may be seen in the tenth line of the
prologue already referred to, which contains both noverit
and norit.
senex = ten. Compare the genitive.
pater = pere. Compare parricida.
soror = soeur, as in French.
voluntas = vountas. Compare vis = vbtts and invitus.
2G2
T F. i:
T E R
Compare mat It., mail Fr., mas Sp.
as in French.
lofruma s larma. ComptnttrmtHl.toomtacramentum.
kodtt = og ft, •* in Italian.
,{,., = jri. Compare t»ur, journtf.
rg , = y>- Compare Italian.
,- .• • SB eon. Compare Cicero's story about the word
MM.
.' . •' «• fat, as in French.
amtbtu = qun. Compare the loss of b in the dat. pi. of
the first and second declensions.
tiki = ti. )
tibi = ii. I Compare the Romance, Ital., Fr., Sp., and
flu =r I. I mifii = MIL
vtn = ou.)
obi = 01.
j i,i,-- = ju. Compare the perfect jutti.
t*d* = in. Compare the French en, and Latin dein,
fj-in. See.
r>-li = ret.
ma fit = matt,
minut = mint.
aliut = alyut. Compare Greek aXXoc.
facere = fare. Compare Fr., Ital., Sp.
rigilare. = rigliare. Compare Fr., Ital.
TI./- = ri. Compare Fr. roi'-ci, voi-la.
novot = nous. Compare Greek vioc, English new.
tint = tin. Compare Fr., Ital., Sp.
duo = do. Compare Greek tu-lma. Fr., Eng.
tile. Sic. = il or If, &c. Compare It., Fr., Sp.
bonut = bon,
bent = ben.
malt = mat.
homo =r homme, as in French.
r« = r«. Compare the forms of the fifth declension
used by Caesar, Virgil, &c.
pufr = pur m par. Compare Greek iroif, Spartan
voip, Latin Lucipor.
tutu, &c. = tut or tot. } Compare It., Fr., Sp., and also
mrut, &c.= mu», &c. > the forms used by Ennius, and
luut = tut, &c. J in Greek.
fuit = fut. Compare It., Fr., and Latin/ore.
animut — amtit. Compare Ital., Fr.
annut = anus. Compare Fr.
edepol = epol. Compare ecastor, ecere, &c.
legere = fere. Compare Fr.
oculut = ofilut. Compare Fr.
generit = genrit. Compare Fr.
aperire r= aprire. Compare It., Fr., Sp.
opera = opra. Compare the form in Ennius, and Fr..
Sp.
timilit = tim'lit. Compare Fr. triable, Eng. resemble,
tamen = tan. Compare tametsi for tamenetsi, and
tuiidem for tamendem.
aliquit = alquit. Compare It. alcuno, Fr. aucun, from
(i/iijiiix-u/iut.
fiujut = /n't. Compare the abbreviation of nulltua
into nuICfus and »«//i.
ejtu = i>.
For a more detailed exhibition of these words see
Journal rtf Education, vol. ii.. p. 344 ; and on the subject
of Latin prosody generally, the same work, vol. iv., p. :ci(i.
It should be added that of modern editors Hermann,
Beit he, and IJndemann alone seem to have a distinct idea
of the nature of the metres of Terence and Plautus, for all
that has been said applies to Plautus as well as Terence.
Among older writers. He'iitU'v certainly possessed a clearer
insight into the subject than some of his notes would lead
one to suppose. That this is (lie case is proved by an anec-
dote in Bishop Monk that scholar. The reverend
doctor, dining at a friend s house in London, kept the
gentlemen longer over their wine than was thought proper
by the ladies in the drawing-room, and added to the'
scandal when his voice was heard, even above stairs, in
what wan supposed to bv a K>ng to the tune of ' Unfortunate
Miss Bailey.' The doctor was only reading to them some
specimen of Terences Comie- us, or, to use a
Haider phrait*, the Iambic Tetrameter Csr
ilA'M'S MA! .TKKKNTIV.
.1! S. 01 mo,.- fully I'. TKKKNTirs AKKR.
W«» one of the two e-onue- poet- IIOM- works have
come do«n to us. The facts ol his ,ile «, i if dis-
pute pvrn among the Roman* themselves, ll we may rely
Uw biogiaphy attributed by home to Donatus, by
others to Suetonius, he was born at Carthapre, and became
the slave of a Roman senator naim l.u-anu.s,
who, pleased with his abilities and hainlsunie JX-I-SIMI.
gave him a liberal education and afterwards his fieedom at
iy age. Some, on the >illu-r hand, stated that he ori-
ginally fell into slavery as a prisoner ol war. A' Kmne lie
..n terms of intimacy with manj nu-n of family, more
particularly the second Scipio Africanus and his friend
Lad ins, who were even said to have assisted in the com-
position of the six comedies which bear the- name of
Terence. There were even some who asserted that •
two nobles merely borrowed the name of Terence for what
was wholly their own. Before he had completed his
thirty-fifth year he left Rome, either to avoid the odium
which grew out of the suspicion that he had published the
writing^ of others as his own, or to study the institutions
and manners of the Greek nation, and thus qualify himself
for fresh exertions in the field he had chosen. He never
returned, but the accounts of his death were various.
Some said that he embarked for Asia, and wan never seen
from the hour of his embarkation; others that he died on
his way back from Greece, where he had translated one
hundred and eight plays til Mcnander; while others
contended that having sent his translated plays in a
rate ship, he received the news that this ship with his
valued property was lost at sea, and died through trrief, in
the consulship of Cn. Cornelius Dolabella and M. Fulvius
Nobilior, either at fSlymphalus in Arcadia or at the Leu-
cadian promontory. He was of moderate stature, slender
figure, and dark complexion. He left a daughter, Avho
married a Roman of equestrian rank, and a property of six
jugers on the Appian road. But another authority reports
that he died in the most abject poverty. Eusebius. or rather
St. Jerome, places the death of Terence in tin
Ptolemy Phnometor, and this kins died in the third year ol
the 158th Olympiad, or the close of 14G B.C.
The difficulties in the life of Terence are chiefly of ,1
chronological character: the following table of ascertained
dates hears upon it : —
218 B.C. Commencement of Second Punic War.
201 B.C. Peace granted to the Carthaginians.
IR'J n.c. Birth of Scipio Africanus tlie younger.
184 B.C. Death of Plautus.
169 B.C. Death of Ennius.
KJS DC. Death of Ca'cilius (partly on the authority of
St. Jerome).
B.C. The ' Andria' acted at the Megalensian games.
l(i.~i n.c. The ' Hecyra' acted at the same can;
1G3 B.C. The ' Hautontimonimenos' acted at the same
sranus.
1G1 B.C. The ' Eunuchos' acted at the same games, and
the ' Phormio ' at the Roman tames.
ICO B.f. Death of .-Kmilius Paulus. The 'Adelphoe
acted at his funeral games, at the expence of his sons
Fahius and Scipio.
l.'i.) n.c. Consulship of Cn. Cornelius Dolabella and M.
FiiKius Nobilior.
1-lt) B.C. Commencement of the Third Punic War.
Thus it api>i;a> that the whole period of Terence's life
must have been included in the peace between theSrcoinl
and the Third Punic wars; so that if taken prisoner in
war. that war could not have been one between Ron
Carthage. Again, there is a chronological difficulty in
the story that the poet, when he offered his ' Andria' to
the (rdilcs, w:^ directed to obtain the approval of Caecilius;
that be accordingly went Jo the house of the latter, and
was coldly hidden to seat himself on a stool nnd com-
mence reading while the other dined; but that aivr
a few verses Caecilius was so charmed that he invited
Terence to take his seat at the table and dine with him,
after which he read through the remainder of Ih.
and filled Csscilius with admiration. Now the death of
CwciliiiK. though the dale, as we have observed, is in some
measure founded upon the testimony of St. Jerome,
occurred two years before the ' Andria' was acted. The
assertion that Scipio and I.wlius assisted the poet is not
altogether rendered impossible by the \outh of the pailus,
although Scipio was but nineteen when the • Andria was
acted, and Lse.ins was of about the same age with his
friend; but the difficulty b, :iter when we find in
the piologue of the 'Adelphoe,' that the nobles who were
said to give him their aid are spoken of in terms scarcely
applicable to men so young.
T E R
229
T E R
Be the parties charged to have lent their aid to the poet
who they may, it is clear that the poet gives no denial to
the accusation, either in the words just alluded to, or in the
prologue to the ' Hautontimorumenos.' Even Cicero (Aa
Attitum,\\'\. 3; mentions the report that Laelius was the real
author : and Cornelius Nepos, who by the way makes the
three parties, Scipio, Laelius, and Terence, of the same age
(aequales), tells us an anecdote which confirms the report.
C. Laelius, says he, happening to pass the Matronalia (a
festival on the first of March, when the husband for once in
the year was hound to obey the lady) in his villa near Pu-
teoh, was told that dinner was waiting, but still neglected
the summons. At last, when he made his appearance, he
excused himself by saying that he had been in a peculiar
vein of composition, and quoted certain verses which occur
in the ' Hautontimorumeros.'viz. those beginning Satis pot
prrjtrrvf me Syri promissa hue induxerunt.
The fact of the poet being called Terentius is perfectly
in harmony with the circumstance of his alleged master
having that name, as it was the ordinary practice of the
manumitted slave to take the nomeu and praenomen of his
late master. On the other hand, it is altogether an error
on the part of Orosius to confound the poet with the Q.
Terentius Culleo, who, in the garb of a manumitted slave,
accompanied the triumphal procession of Scipio after his
destruction of Carthage m the year 146 B.C. Ihe name of
Afer seems to confirm his Carthaginian birth, unless indeed
that assertion be only an inference from the name itself.
Terence acknowledges in the titles to his plays his obli-
gations to the Greek comedians Menander and Apollo-
dorus ; but he was not a mere translator, for one of the
charges brought against him was that he drew the mate-
rials of a single play from two or more of the Greek plays.
He was much and deservedly admired by his countrymen,
even by Caesar himself, notwithstanding the phrase in
which he speaks of him, as a ' dwarfed Menander ' (dimi-
diate Menander). From Plautus, with whom alone we can
now make any satisfactory comparison, he differs most
widely. Though Plautus excelled in powerful but ludi-
crous expressions, he was altogether deficient in the for-
mation and development of a plot. Terence, on the other
hand, though even he occasionally introduces the buffoonery
of the ' miles gloriosus,' the ' parasitus,' and the ' currens
servus,' to gratify the prejudices of his more unpolished
hearers, who were better able to appreciate the merits of a
boxer or a rope-dancer, still deserves our admiration for
his efforts to place before his countrymen the comedy of
manners. If he was not always successful, the failure was
due to the rude minds of his spectators and the magni-
tude of a Roman theatre, and perhaps also to the use of
masks, which, if always used, must have been a serious
obstacle to the best efforts of the comic actor. The best
edition of Terence is that of Bentley, Amsterdam, 1727.
The modern imitations of Terence maybe seen in Dunlop's
' Roman Literature.' George Colman has translated tin-
comedies of Terence into English. There are French
translations by Madame Dacier and Le Monnier.
TEREZ. [MEXICAN STATES.]
K'RGIPES. [Nl-DIBRAXCHIATA, vol. XvL, p. 361.]
TERM (Algebra). A simple term in an algebraical ex-
pression means all that involves multiplication, division,
and extraction of roots without addition or subtraction.
Thus in the expression
Jab . x4,
the terms are aWx*, 2abx>, and Jab . x4. But compound
quantities are also called terms when they are put in such
a form that additions and subtractions are subordinate to
subsequent multiplication, division, or extraction. Thus,
(a+b) x^* + V(a»-6*) .a-y
has two terms, (a+b) xe+d and J(al-b").xy. If the
form be altered into
ax**4 + bxe+d + */(«'- A*) . xy,
the expression then has three terms. Most frequently
however there is one letter in powers of which the whole
expression is ananged, and then all that involves any one
power of this principal letter is a term. Thus a+bx+cx
+ ••'•' has three terms, namely, a, (b+c~)x, and ex".
When one quantity is said to be expressed in terms of
another, it generally means merely that the first is to be
an explicit FUNCTION of the second. Thus, in x-\-y=a,
we have expressed x-\-y in terms of a : deduce y=a— 37,
and we have y expressed in terms of a and x. This is the
distinction between y being expressed in terms of x, and y
being a function of x: if for instance y=a—z, z=x*-\-x,
y is a function of x, but it is not expressed in terms of x,
but of z • substitute for z its value, and y is then expressed
in terms of x. It is to be remembered that by saying that
a quantity is expressed in terms of x, it is not meant that
x is the only letter which enters, but that no other letter,
if there be any, is a function of x. Thus, in the preceding,
where we obtain y=a—x—x't, y is expressed in terms of x
if a be no function of x. But if a be a function of x, say
3?+x, then y is not expressed in terms of x, until the
value of a has been substituted, giving y— a;3— or*.
TERM. The law Terms are those portions of the year
during which the courts of common law sit for the dis-
patch of business. They are four in number, and are called
Hilary Term, Easter Term, Trinity Term, and Michaelmas
Term : they take their names from those festivals of the
Church which immediately preceded the commence-
ment of each. After the institution of Christianity, all
days in the year, Sundays included, were among Christians
for some time open for the purposes of litigation. This
practice continued even after Christianity became the reli-
gion of the Roman empire. Eventually however the
courts of law were closed during Sundays, and also during
the times of the solemn fasts and festivals of the Church.
This regulation was made by a canon of the Church,
in the year A.D. 517, and also by a constitution of the
ounger Theodosius which appears in the Theodosian Code.
y these means one vacation was created in the winter
during the time of Advent and Christmas, another in the
spring during Lent and Easter, and a third during Pente-
cost. The long vacation in the summer and autumn was
also found necessary, and therefore appointed during the
time required for collecting the harvest and vintage. The
same arrangements were introduced with Christianity into
this island. The laws of Edward the Confessor contain
the same provisions as to the observance of a vacation
from legal business during the fasts and festivals before
mentioned. The necessities of a people at that time so
universally agricultural seem to have compelled the ob-
servance of the long vacation. The Terms therefore con-
sist of what remains of the whole year after the ecclesias-
tical and agricultural vacations had been taken out of it.
It was the commencement of the Terms which was
ascertained by the dates of the festivals from which they
take their names. Various acts of parliament have been
passed relative to the regulation of the Terms. The statute
which now determines them is the 11 Geo. IV. and 1
Wm. IV., c. 70, amended by 1 Wm. IV., c. 3, which
enacts that Hilary Term shall begin on the llth and
end on the 31st of January ; Easter begin on the 15th of
April and end on the 8th of May ; Trinity begin on the
22nd of May and end on the 12th of June ; Michaelmas
Jegin on the 2nd and end on the 25th of November. The
Monday being in all eases substituted for the Sunday when
.he first day of Term falls on the latter day. During Term
'our judges sit in each court, and are occupied in deciding
sure matters of law only, without the intervention of a
ury. The fifth judge in each court sometimes sits
ilone to determine matters of smaller importance or to
:ry causes at Nisi Prius. By the statute 1 and 2 Vic.,
c. 32, the courts of common law are empowered, upon
giving notice, to hold sittings out of Term for the purpose
of disposing of the business then pending and undecided
)efore them. These sittings are conducted in the same
manner as those during the Term, except that no new
jusiness is introduced. The period during which they
lave the power to do this is restricted to ' such times as
are now by law appointed for holding sittings at Nisi Prius
n London and Westminster.' These times are appointed
)y 1 Wm. IV., c. 70, s. 7, and consist of ' not more than
.wenty-four days, exclusive of Sundays, after any Hilary,
Trinity, and Michaelmas Term, nor more than six days,
exclusive of Sundays, after any Easter Term, to be reckoned
consecutively after such Terms.' The judges are also em-
powered by the same section to appoint such day or days
is they shall think fit for any trial at bar (that is, a trial
Before four judges of the court) and the time so appointed,
f in vacation, is for the purposes of the trial to be deemed
a part of the preceding Term.
There is also a provision which enables the judges, with
the consent of the parties, to appoint any time not within
T K R
the twenty-four day* for the tri»l of my cause i
Priii*. The sitting* during tlu -e twenty-four and six days
ar* called the sitting aHer Term, and are held for the
trial* for cause* at Niki Priiis Tor London and Westminster,
which placesdonot form part of any of the circuits. Sittings
i Prim arv alto held for the name purpose before angle
judge* during Term time, but no special jury cases are
taken within the Term. (Spelman, Oftht Tfrmt ; 3 Black-
•«., 278.)
TERM (of year»). in legal language, •gninen the estate
and interest which i>a*> to the person to whom an estate
. care is granted by the owner of the fee.
, art may be created by a conveyance at
common law, but no estate it vested in the grantee, nor
anything beyond a mere intrrrtur termini, until an actual
entry i> mmfe by him upon the land. The tenant for a term
of years is not said to be seised of the land, and the pos-
session is not given to him by livery of seisin. The de-
livery of a lease for years gives to the grantee a right of
entry on the land ; when he actually enters, he becomes
possessed of the term ; the seisin of the freehold still re-
mains in the lessor, and the possession of the les-
Tears is then considered as the possession of the person
entitled to the freehold or reversion expectant on tne de-
termination of the terra. (Co. I.itt.. 200 to
By the operation of the Statute of Uses an estate for a
term of years may be created without an entry by the
termor ; as where a freehold estate is conveyed to A and
his heirs to the use of B for 09 years, with "remainder to
the grantor in fee : there the use' is immediately executed
in H. and the statute instantly annexes to it the legal es-
tate, without any actual entry by H.
A term of years may also oe created by devise in a will.
A term of years may be limited to commence infuturo,
«rhich a freehold cannot ; for the freehold is not put in
abeyance by the creation of such a term, as it would be
by the creation of a freehold estate to commence infuturo,
but it continues in the grantor. ( 'o. I.itt., 46 a.)
A term of years may be limited so as to cease by a pro-
viso in the conveyance itself, upon the happening of any
event, or the performance of any particular act vf'o. LitC
46 a.) ; and it is usual, when terms of years are created for
the purposes of certain trusts, to insert a proviso for the
cesser of the term upon the performance and satisfaction
of the trusts of the term.
Long terms, as of 500 or 1000 years, are frequently
created by way of mortgage, with a proviso for determining
them upon payment of the money by a certain day.
•• are more advantageous than mortgages in fee
in one respect, that there does not arise, as in the case
of the latter, a separation of the legal estate and the
interest in the debt upon the death of the mortgagee.
ir terms are also frequently granted to the tnistees
of marriage settlements for the purpose of enabling them
by sale or mortgage of the terms to raise portions for chil-
dren and for other purposes. It sometimes happens there-
fore that, though courts of equity interfere, as in case of
mortgages in lee, to enlarge the period of redemption,
long terms of yean of the kind above mentioned become
absolute property. Again, it frequently happens that
when a redemption does take place after the time fixed in
the original contract, when, according to the theory of
mortgages the estate has become absolute at law, the
instead of being surrendered to the owner of the
inheritance, be assigned to a trustee for him and his heirs,
and retained as an appendage to that inheritance under
the name of an attendant term. The advantage of this
practice is that it gives the power of defeating the claims
of strangers upon the inheritance, by setting up tli
as prior in creation, and therefore in right. The right to
take advantage of such terms is limited by courts of •
to such incumbrances as the owner of the inheritance had
"f at the time when he acquired it ; otherwise it
is obvious that great injustice might be occasioned by the
use of them. A term of years attendant on the inheritance
verned by the same rules as the inheritance itself is
t to. The right to it does not go to executors, but
follow* UK the inheritance. It will not be
Hied at a chattel by the felony of the owner of the in-
heritance; but if the inheritance escheat, the term will
As to the assignment of
attendant and outstanding terms to attend the inheritance,
Ato
T E R
Terms of years are considered in law not as real estate,
but as chattel interests in real property, ai:
do not descend to the heir of the jM-rson who dies possessed
of them, but vest in his executor or administrator, like any
other chattel ; and the is the same whatever be
the length of the tenii. t a.)
Marriage entitles the husband to the terms of years be-
longing to his wife, as well as to tlu
He may administer to the estate ol :ised
wife, and is entitled for his own benefit to her eh
real, whether reduced into possession, or reversions)
contingent ; and in case of the husband's death after the
wife, his next of kin, and not hers, are entitled to th
ministration. (Co. I.itt., 351 a.) The husband may. during
the wife's life, dispose of her chattels real by a-
but not by will : and if he dies without having assi
them, they "ill belong to the .surviving w ; the
husband be an alien, he cannot acquire by marriage any
right to a term of years belonging to his wife. (Anon. 9;
43; Id. 104.)
The tenant for years is entitled to the same .
the tenant for life (Co. I.itt., 41 b.1 ; and. like the tenant
for life, he is not entitled to commit waste by cutting
down timber, building houses, opening mines. Sec. (Co.
Litt.. B3 a.) He is also punishable for permissive waste,
and therefore bound to keep all houses and other build-
ings on the land in good and tenantable repair. (Co. I.itt..
."•7 a If a woman tenant for years commits waste and
marries, the husband, having acquired the term by mar-
riage, becomes answerable for the waste. (Co. I.
A term of years may however, like an estate for li;>
granted without impeachment of waste, and such a clai
the grant is construed in the same manner with resj>.
both estates. When the determination of aterm is certain, as
when lands are let for 21 years, the tenant is not entitled
to embleraents, for it was' his own folly to sow where he
knew that he could not reap. But w'hen an estate for
years depends upon an uncertain event, as when it is made
determinable on the death of a particular person, the
tenant will be entitled to emblements in the same manner
as a tenant for life. (Co. Litt., 53 b. ; 16 East, 71.)
Terms of years, being chattel interests, are subject to
crown debts while they continue in the possession of the
debtor, but not in the hands of a bond fidf purchaser tor
valuable consideration without notice, who has bought
before any execution awarded by the crown. (8 Rep.,
171. They are in like manner assets in the hands of the
executor or administrator for the payment of specialty and
simple contract debts, but not after assignment by him tu
a purchaser for valuable consideration.
Terms of years, not being estates of inheritance, cannot
be entailed, but they may be limited to any number of
persons in ttse successively for life, with limitations over.
so as to be inalienable for a life or lives in being, and 21
years after. [SETTLEMENT.]
Terms of years, like life estates, may be merged either
by becoming vested in the owner of the freehold, or
' by surrender to the person in remainder or reversion.
[SlKRGKR; SURRENDER.] But a mere interettt ter-
mini, not being an actual estate, cannot be n:
! by surrender, though it may be extinguished by release.
' (Cro. Jac., 619.} It was formerly doubted whether
one term could merge in another, but it is now settled
that when two terms, granted out of the sni
vest in the same person, there being no intervening
estate, the first merges in the term in reversion. (6 Madd.,
j 66.) Where a term lias been created to answer trusts, a
court of equity will sometimes relieve against a merger of
it, so far as to make it answer the purposes of it* creation.
(3Swanst.. 603, 608.)
TERMES. [TramriNA.]
TERMINAL. We cannot say that this term it used in
mathematics to the extent to which we shall cam' it : but
the very great convenience which would arise from an ex-
tension 01 its use is sufficient justification for coining a few
[ new meanings. Term is a word of geometry very little
i used, and signifying boundary or extremity ; the words
terminal value and terminal form are sometimes used to
v the last and most complete value or form. When
a finite expression, added to a certain number of terms of
I a series, makes up the equivalent of the expression from
which the series is deduced, or stands for all the subse-
1 quent terms of the scries, this finite expression might be
T E R
231
T E R
called the terminal expression. Thus in TAYLOR'S THEO-
REM we have one terminal expression in D'Alembert's
form, another in that of Lagrange.
There is also another use of the word, which would con-
vey a distinction much wanting words to express it : we
allude to what might be called terminal language. All
the use of the words infinitely small and infinitely great
[INFINITE : LIMIT] is entitled to this name ; as follows :
When we say, for example, that a circle is a regular
polygon with an infinitely great number of infinitely small
sides, the language used is that of an end arrived at, a
transformation actually made : the circle is described as
actually consisting of straight lines ; and the language is
terminal (expressive of a boundary actually attained).
But the meaning of this language is, or is generally held
to be, false : no polygon is a circle, how great soever the
number, or how small soever the magnitude, of the sides.
The proposition which is really true, that is, over which
all shake hands, whatever their notion of infinity may be,
is that the terminal proposition, true or false, is one to
which an interminable and unlimited degree of approxi-
mation may be made. An inscribed regular polygon may,
with sides enough, be made to coincide with the circle
within any degree of nearness we please to assign : or the
following proposition— 'the area of the inscribed polygon
may be made to differ from that of the circle by less than
the nth part of the latter' — may be made true for every
value of n that can be named, however great. Terminal
language, properly employed, may be made the means of
abbreviation of all those truths whose announcement con-
tains interminable approximation : the development of
this sentence is the object of the article INFINITE.
TERMINA'LIA, the festival of Terminus [TERMINUS],
celebrated at Rome every year on the 23rd of February.
It was said to have been instituted by Numa with the
worship of the god himself. The festival was of a twofold
character, either public or private, according as it was held
at the boundaries between the fields of private persons, or
at the boundary of the Ager Romanus. In the former
case persons possessing adjoining lands met with their
families and servants at the stone which divided the pro-
perties, adorned it with garlands and offered sacrifices, and
a feast in which the neighbours partook was intended to
rtinewthe friendly relations existing between them. (Ovid.,
Fast., ii. 643, &c.) Dionysius states that down to his time !
the Romans did not offer any bloody sacrifices on this j
occasion, but only cakes and fruit. But we have the most
authentic statements which show that the assertion of
Dionysius can only apply to the early period of the
republic, and that subsequently a lamb or a sucking pig
was sacrificed. (Dionvsius. ii. 74 ; Plutarch, Numa, 10 :
Quaett. Rom., 15 ; Horatius, Epod., ii. 59.) The public
Terminalia were solemnised in a similar manner by the
whole people on the boundary of the Ager Romanus.
(Ovid., Fast., ii. 679, &c.)
Hartung, Die Religion der Romer, ii., p. 52; Diction-
ary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, v. ' Terminalia.')
TKRMIN A'LIA (from terminus) is the name of a genus
of plants belonsnng to the natural order Combretacese.
The species of this genus consist of trees and shrubs, with
alternate leaves, which are usually crowded together at
the ends of the branches. The flowers are destitute of
petals, and are disposed in spikes, which are racemose and
panicled : in the lower part of the spikes they contain
both stamens and pistils, but in the upper part they con-
tain only stamens. The limb of the calyx is campanulate,
5-cleft, with acute lobes. The stamens "are ten in number,
arranged in two series, and are longer than the calyx.
The ovary contains two ovules, the style is acute, and the
fruit is drupaceous, containing only one seed. All the
species are inhabitants of the tropical parts of Asia and
America : they are numerous, and many of them are used
in medicine and tht arts.
T. angustifolia, Narrow-leaved Terminalia : the leaves
are linear-lanceolate, very thin at both ends, pubescent
beneath ; the petioles are also pubescent, and have two
glands at their apex. This tree is a native of the East
Indies, and was formerly called Terminalia Benzoin, as it
yields on tapping a gum-resin very similar to benzoin, and
possessing the same properties. This gum exudes from
the tree in the form of a milky juice, which, on being dried,
forms a light whitish substance, exceedingly friable.
When gently dried it assumes the form of a white powder,
which was in great repute as a cosmetic. It has an agreea-
ble fragrance, resembling gum-benjamin, which in a great
measure depends on the benzoic acid it contains.
T. vernix. Varnish Terminalia, has linear-lanceolate
leaves, narrowed at each end, and glabrous beneath ; the
petioles are also glabrous. This plant is a native of the
Moluccas, and abounds in a resinous juice, which is col-
lected by the inhabitants, and used in the natural state as
a varnish. It is also used for the same purpose in China.
T. Catappa has obovate leaves, tapering to the base,
pubescent beneath, and glands on the under sides of the
midrib. It is originally a native of the East Indies, but
has now become naturalised in the West India Islands.
Some botanists have described the West India species as
distinct from the Asiatic, but there is no good distinctive
character. The drupaceous fruit of this tree is about
three inches long, and contains a large seed, which is
used for eating and obtaining an oil, in the same man-
ner as the almond. This tree, on account of its thick
foliaare, is much planted in the tropics for the purpose of
forming avenues near houses. The bark and leaves yield
a black pigment. Indian ink is manufactured from the
juice of this tree. It yields a light durable timber, which
is much used.
T. glabrata, smooth Terminalia, very much resembles
the last, but the leaves are glabrous beneath and small.
The fruit is also of a much less size, oval, and less fur-
rowed. It is a native of the Society and Friendly Islands,
and is cultivated by the inhabitants near their huts and in
their burial-places. The wood is used in these islands for
building boats, making benches, &c., and the seeds are
eaten.
T. Bellerica, Belleric Terminalia, has glabrous, elliptic,
entire, acute, alternate leaves, and bi-glandular petioles.
It is a native of mountainous districts of the East Indies.
Its flowers are very fetid. The fruit is reputed to possess
tonic, astringent, and attenuant properties. When the
bark is wounded a gum flows out, which is insipid, resem-
bling gum-arabic.
T. Chebula is also an East Indian species, it is distin-
guished from the last by possessing opposite leaves which
are pubescent beneath. The fruit of this species is more
astringent than the last and is used for the purposes of
dyeing. A durable ink is made by mixing the salts of
iron with an infusion of the outer rind of the fruit. Both
this species and the last are subject to the attacks of
insects producing gall-nuts. These galls possess the as-
tringent principle in abundance, and are also used for
dyeing. They are called Cadacay by the Tamuls.
The genus Bucida is very nearly allied to Terminalia,
and belongs to the same natural order. It is distinguished
from the latter genus by its urceolately-campanulate calyx,
its didymous anthers, baccate fruit, and angulated puta-
men. The most remarkable species is the Bucida bucerat,
the ox-horn olive-tree, known in Jamaica as the black
olive, in Antigua as the French oak, and in the French
Islands as Grignon. It has obtuse glabrous ovato-cunei-
form leaves, and small yellowish flowers disposed in cylin-
drical spikes covered with a silky pubescence. It is a
native of the West India Islands on clayey soils near the
coast. It has obtained its name from the tendency of its
branches to shoot out into monstrous spongy excrescences
resembling in form the horns of an ox. These excrescences
resemble galls in their nature, and are probably produced
by insects puncturing the terminal bud of the branch.
This tree is remarkable in appearance for its slender
crooked branches and tufted leaves, but it attains a con-
siderable size, and its timber is valuable. The bark of this
tree contains an astringent principle which is extensively
used rn tanning.
In the cultivation of species of Terminalia and Bucida
a soil composed of loam and peat should be preferred.
Cuttings strike freely when placed in a pot of sand and
covered with a hand-glass.
(Dons Miller's Dictionary; Burnett's Outlines of Bo-
tany; Bischoff, Lehrbuch der Botanik; Lindley, Natural
System.)
TE'RMINUS, a Roman deity whose worship was said
to have been introduced by king Numa Pompilius, when
he ordered the fields of the citizens to be separated from
one another, and the boundaries to be marked by stones
which were to be considered as sacred to Terminus, or as
Dionysius calls him, Zt«c opiof. (Festus, s.\. Terminus.
T E R
T E R
DtonvMu*. ii. 74.) A careful examination of the worship
of thi» god khowi that Terminus was only a surname of
Jupiter, who was wondupjx-d under this name a* the
guardian of boundaric*. The stone pillars tl.t-i:.
were regarded a* sMiibolu-nl repNMBtatioai of the god
1 hence 'jHThapa the severe law mentioned by
-, that whoever displaced such a pillar should, to-
gether with his oxen, be devoted to the god. In the same
manner in which the boundaries between the lands of
private individuals were marked, the original territory of
• •r Komanus) was separated by pillars from the
torn- rhbouring tribes. In the'directiou of I.au-
rentum" tin-re was such a pillar (terminus) between the
fifth and sixth milestones from Koine on the J,auieiitine
road. Tin;, was the public. Terminus. The cod had a
temple on the Capitol, and the part of the roof just abo\e
the symbolical pillar was left open. (Fcstns: s
A-l .l"i.. ix. 448.) A story to account for this peculiarity
is related bv Ovid (fin//, i'i. 071. &c.) and others.
TE'RMtNt'S, or TERM, signifies, in sculpture and
architecture, a pillar statue, that i*. either a hall' Matin- or
bust, not placed upon, but incorporated with, and as it
were immediately springing out of the square pillar which
s as its pedestal. If they be mere busts, liirurcs of
this kind are usually distinguished by the name of Heniuc
CEp/iai ; and busts which, instead of having a circular
moulded base, resemble the upper part of a terminus, are
called terminal busts. There are ninny such busts and also
some termini in the Townlev Collection at the Hritish
uiii : among others a double terminal bust of Bacchus
and Libera ; and a terminal statue of Pan, nearly a w hole
figure, with a deeply moulded base. The terminus or
pillar part is frequently made to taper dmrnti-ards, or
made narrower at its base than above, which mode of
diminution, the reverse of that employed for columns,
was no doubt intended by way of similarity to the general
outline of the human figure, whose greatest breadth is at
ouldcrs. It has been supposed that the earl icst statues
merely terminal figures, — upright stones, erected as
land-marks and boundaries, the upper end of which w:is
mdely carved into the shape of a head, which fonn was
ntterwards retained for occasional purposes after sculpture
had arrived at perfection. By modern artists the pedMbU
part is usually made tapering downwards or narrowest just
above its base ; when it is called the gaine, from its resem-
blance to the scabbard of a sword.
In architectural design Terms are employed in lieu of
itides, not however as insulated pillars, but as pilasters
forming a small order or attic, or a decoration to gateways.
doors, Sec. They frequently occur in what is called tin
• •>'ntt> and our own Elizabethan style.
TERMINUS is also now used to signily the buildings for
offices, &c., at the extremity of a railroad, whereas those
erected at intervals along its course are called H/iiHo/m.
The establishment of railroads has therefore given rise to
a new class of structures, which from their nature and ex-
tent admit of being rendered very stalking in character
and design. One of the most monunu'iitnl architectural
works of the kind as yet erected, is the Terminus of the
London and Birmingham Railway, in Euston-square, — a
Grecian Doric propvlieum (distyle in antis, on both fronts)
on a large scale, the columns being about 70 feet high.
The Terminus at the Birmingham end, though by the same
architect Hardwick), is in the Italian style. (For views, tec.
of both structures, see Companion to the 'Almanack' for
1839.) Other termini that may be mentioned for their
pretensions to architecture, are — those of the London and
Southampton Railway, the one at Nine ' ixhall,
the other at Southampton, both handsome buildings in
the Italian style, by Tite ; that at Blackwall, by the same
architect . and in a similar style ; and those at Liverpool, York,
and Brighton. The positive ncccs-ity for some covered
gallery, either colonnade or arcade, and the obvious
• i t unity afforded for making a spacious portal, either
propylanim or gateway, a marked feature in the general
design, afford* more than ordinary scope to the architect.
Now that railroads (Cfiemini de t-'er, and Kisenbahneii, as
the French and Germans term them) have been introduced
Ley have there also given occasion to
many architectural constructions lor their termini. Some
IVniuni may be KOCH in
i-i-hcs Album.'
a section of iS'curopterous insects, in
which I.alrcill, includes the genera Muntiipa, Baphidia,
«, and l't<" Mallv
regarded as constituting three distinct families, and will
be In as such, ciiimiicnciiii; with the Knj.ln-
diidee of Leach, which contains the two first-mentioned
genera. The nisn-ts nf this family have the antenna:
slender and composed of more than ten joint.-, ; the
from three to five joints ; the w; nl\ equal
in si/.e and ha\e numerous nervures inclosing small poly-
gonal cells : the prothorax is lone and sK-;:
The genus M<i>iti*/m is at once distinguished by the
peculiar structure of the anterior paii which are
large, have the tilmi' broad and compressed, and pro',
beneath with spines; the joints of the tarsi are indistinct,
and also furnished beneath with spines : the tarsi of the
other four legs are distinctly live-jointed. The antennae
are short, about equal to the head in length, and slender.
The prothorax is elongated, slender, and broadest in front.
The wings, when at rest, meet over the abdomen.
The Miintispa pagaim (Kabricius) is rather less than
three-quarters of an inch in length, and of a browmsh-ycl-
km COI9Qr; the wings are transparent, the superior pair
have the upper margin yellow. It is found in Frano
Germany.
In Brazil are species closely allied to Manti\jm, which
differ in having the antenme as long as the body: the
are nearly horizontal ; the body is depressed and ter-
minated by two little appendices. They form the genus
Hnplouhora of Perty.
In the genus Kaphidia the body is rather slender, the
prothorax is long and almost cylindrical, the head broad
and somewhat depressed, and the eyes are prominent ; the
antennae are as long as the head and thorax, and composed
of about thirty-seven joints. The abdomen is terminated
in the female by a long ovipositor. The legs are slender,
of moderate length, and the tarsi are four-jointed.
Raphidia ophiopais is not an uncommon insect in this
country : it is rather more than one-third of an inch in
length, and the expanded wings measure f of an inch ;
the head and body are black, the antenna: and legs are
yellow, and the wings are transparent.
The larva of this insect lives in the bark of trees and is
said to prey upon other insects. It is exceedingly acti\e
in its motions, which are somewhat like those of a snake.
The body is soft, long, and slender, of a brown colour,
.-tri]>ed, and variegated with yellow ; the head and pro-
thorax are corneous and of a black colour. In the pupa
all the parts of a perfect insect are distinct, being enveloped
in a thin membrane.
Family Trrniitidte. — This family is distinguished by the
following characters : — Wings with few transverse nei
folding horizontally ; tarsi four-jointed ; antenna; short and
moniliform ; body depressed.
In the genus f< /•///• .% the head is large and rounded, and
besides the ordinary compound eyes, it has three ocelli, or
simple eyes, situated on the upper surface ; the antenna; are
as long as the head and thorax, inserted in front ot 'tit.
and composed of about eighteen joints. The abdomen is
terminated by two small jointed appendages.
The Termites, or white ants, as they are oil en called,
though they have little affinity with the true ants, are
chiefly conhned to the tropics ; some few species hnwi \ IT
extend into the temperate regions. Like the 1"
and ants, which live in society, the Termites are con.
of three kinds of individuals, "males, females, and what are
termed neuters or workers. Their ravages in the warmer
parts of the globe are well known. They unite in societies
composed < ach of an immense number of indi\i<-
li\in-r in the ground and in trees, and often attacking the
wood-work of houses; in which they form innunn
galleries, all of which lead to a central point. In forming
these galleries they avoid piercing the surface of the wood-
work, and hence it appears sound when the slightest touch
is sometimes sufficient to cause it to fall to pi'
The termites sometimes erect their domiciles on the
ground in the form of pyramids or cc 'hues with
a roof, and these nests are often very numerous, and resem-
ble the huts of savages.
The larva- u.-arly locmble the perfect insect, excepting
that they possess no wind's. The pupse have rudimentary
wings. 'The neuters difl'er from the males and females in
mi wimrs, in bavinir the body stouter, the head
much longer and provided with long jaws crossing at the
T E R
233
T E R
extremity. They are said to defend the nests, and sta-
tioning themselves near the outer surface, they are the
first to make their appearance when their habitation is
disturbed : they will attack the party molesting them, and
bite with considerable strength.
The negroes and Hottentots consider these insects a
great delicacy. They are destroyed with quick-lime, or
more readily with arsenic, which is thrown into their
habitations.
The Psocidce are very small insects, having soft and
swollen bodies: the head is very large, nearly trigonal, and
provided with three ocelli on the upper surface. The
wings when folded meet at an angle above the abdo-
men, and are sparingly provided with nervures. The an-
tenna: are setaceous, and composed of about ten joints.
The tarsi are short, and usually two-jointed. They are
very active in their motions, and live in the bark of old
trees and in dwelling-houses. Nearly forty species are
said to be found in this country.
TE'RMOLI. [SANXIO.]
TERMONDE. [DEN-DKRMONDE.]
TERN, STERNA, the name of those web-footed
long-winged birds which are vulgarly known as Sea-Swal-
lows.
Linnaeus, in his last edition of the Syslema Natures,
places the genus Sterna between Laru-s and Rhynchops.
Cuvier arranges the Hirondellt's de Mer between the
Goefitf"/'- Li/-//* :>tul Rhynchops. He observes that these
n'ir"ii'l'!tr<s de Mer derive their names from their c
sively long and pointed wings, their forked tail, and their
short legs, which give them a port and flight analogous
to those of the Swallows. Their bill, he adds, is pointed,
compressed, straight, without curvature or projection ;
the.ir nostrils, situated towards the base, are oblong and
pierced through ; the membranes which unite their toes
are very much notched, they therefore swim but little.
They fly in all directions, and with rapidity over the sea,
uttering loud cries and cleverly picking up from its sur-
face the mollusks and small fishes which form their food.
They also advance inland to lakes and rivers.
Head and foot of Tern:
The same author states that the Noddies may be distin-
guished from the other Sea-Swallows. Their tail is not
forked.
The views of Mr. Vigors, Mr. Swainson, and others, as
to the position of the Terns, will be found in the article
L.VRID.E.
Mr. Swainson makes the genus Sterna consist of the fol-
lowing subgenera : — Strrn<i, Linn. ; Thalassites, Sw. ;
Pha»t<i», Linn. : BAynchopt, Linn. ; Gacia, Briss.
The Prince of Canino places Sterniner, the second sub-
family of his Dirirlfp, between the subfamilies Rhynrh'rp-
tina; and Lnrina;. The Sternina; consist of the following
genera : —
mi. Linn. ; Hydrochelidon, Boie ; Megalopterus,
Boie (N.B. Sterna Slotida of authors) ; TAalaueut, Boie ;
''in, Brehm ; and Stylnchelidon, Brehm. (Birds
nf Kur'ijif and North America.)
Mr. G. R. Gray 'Genera, of Birds) arranges the Ster-
ninrr- as the third and last subfamily of Laridee, imme-
diately after Rhynchopinte, with the following genera: —
Phatuta, Wag].; Gelochelidan, Brehm; TnoAuMUt,
Boie; Mi/lni-li'tiil'iii, Brehm; Gygis. Wairl.; Sti-nm,
Linn. /•/, Boie; Hydroehetidon, Boie; Anoiis,
Leari /',/nla, of authors) ; O/iychoprion, Wagl. ;
and / , \Vagl.
The l'i-l"!-<i,inlff immediately follow.
Geographical Distribution and Habits. — The habits of
P. C.. No. 1517.
the Terns, which are widely diffused over the maritime
parts of the globe, are noticed in the article LARID.E. The
following have occurred, some occasionally only in Eu-
rope :—
The Caspian Tern, Sterna Caspia (genus Stylochelidon,
Brehm); The Sandwich Tern, Sterna Cantiaca (genus
Thalassem; 'Boie) ; the Gull-billed Tern, Sterna Anglica
(genus Gelocketidon, Brehm) ; the common Tern, Sterna
Hit-undo (genus Sterna of authors) ; the Roseate Tern
Sterna Dougallii (germs Sterna) • the Arctic Tern, Sterna
Arctica (genus Sterna) ; the Little Tern, Sterna minuta
(genus Stemula, Boie) ; the Noddy, Sterna stolida (genus
Anous, Leach; Megalopterus, Boie); the Black Tern,
Sterna nigra (genus Hydrochelidon, Boie; Viralva.
Leach) ; the White-winged Tern, Sterna leucoptera (genus
Hydrochelidon ? Boie) ; and the Moustache Tern, Sterna,
leitcopare'ia (genus Hydrochelidon ? Boie ; Viralva, f
Leach). Of these, the largest is the Caspian Tern.
Our limits will not allow us to give more than two ex-
amples, and we select the Common Tern and the Noddy.
We should premise that all the Terns of the British Islands
are strictly migratory : many species visit us regularly for
the purpose of breeding ; but those, the Noddy for instance,
whose home is far away, are seen casually and rarely.
The Common Tern.— Description.— Forehead, top of
the head, and long feathers of the occiput, deep black ;
posterior part of the neck, back, and wings, bluish ash ;
lower parts pure white, with the exception of the breast
only, which is slightly clouded with ash-colour ; quills
whitish ash, terminated by ashy-brown; tail white, but
the two lateral feathers blackish-brown on their external
barbs ; bill crimson-red, often blackish towards the point ;
iris reddish-brown ; feet red. Length 13 to 14 inches.
Such is M. Temminck's description of the adult male and
female.
The same author describes the young of the year before
the autumnal moult as having the front, and a part of the
top of the head, of a dirty white, marked towards the
occiput with blackish patches ; the long occipital feathers
brownish-black ; upper parts of tarnished bluish-ash : all
these feathers bordered and terminated with whitish and
irregularly spotted with brown or bright reddish; the
lower parts of a dirty tarnished white ; tail-feathers ash-
coloured, terminated with whitish ; base of the bill faded
orange ; iris blackish-brown ; feet orange.
This is the Pierre Garin of the French ; Fionco and
Rondine <H Mare of the Italians; Meerschwalbe and Roth-
/'imiyr Meerschwalbe of the Germans; Zee-zwaluw of
the Netherlanders ; Kria of the Icelanders ; Tende, Ten-
il"lnl,i', Sand-Tolle, and Sand-Tcerr/ie of the Norwegians;
Tec me of the Danes ; Sea-Sicallow of the modern British ;
and Y for-icennol ftcyaf and Yscraean of the antient
British.
Geographical Di*trilnttii>n, Habits, $c.—' The Common
Tern,' says Mr. Gould, in his great work on the Birds of
Kurnpe, ' although not universally dispersed over our
coasls, is nevertheless a very abundant species, being
found in great numbers over the southern shores, but more
sparingly over the northern, which are almost exclusively
inhabited by its near ally, the Arctic Tern. It is now
satisfactorily ascertained that the common Tern does not
extend its range to the American continent, and that its
place is there supplied by another species, to which the
Prince of Musignano,' now Prince of Canino, ' has given
the specific appellation of IVilsoni, in honour of the
celebrated ornithologist by whom it was first described.'
The Prince however gives both Sterna ffi'lgoiiiand St<>ma
Hinindo as American species, in his Birds of Europe and
North America ; and M. Temminck states that individuals
killed in North America differ in nothing from those of
Europe. In the fourth part of his Manuel (18-10), though
he adds to the synonyms and references, quoting among
the rest Mr. Gould's work, he leaves his own observation
above noticed uncontradicted. 'How far,' says Mr. Gould
in continuation, 'the Common Tern is distributed over
the Old Continent we have not satisfactorily ascertained,
but we believe its range is extended from the Arctic Cir-
cle to the Mediterranean, and even to the coasts of Africa
and India, to which southern and eastern countries it is
supposed to retire during our winters. .The Common Tern
does not confine itself entirely to the sea, but frequently
resorts to inland streams, &c. : and when thus ascending
our creeks and rivers these little fairies of the ocean fear-
VOL. XXIV. -2 H
T I
234
T E R
with
ftah around our boaU, nothing cmn be marc pleaaing
than to observe ilu-ir IKHM and dip. When with their
M-ruliniting eye» th< Mrrved a fish n
near the ». . pn-cipit.r
. •-._: . • .. . . .11.,;' in \ 'ii:i: i» I: il\ .1-1 ishing
gl) reminds us of the fissirwtral
<1 be tmly
termed tlio swallow* of the ocean, their long and pointed
wing*. and *mii admirably
a.i.i^, : : ( IMJ I H I I Mliuned flight. and affording th'c
mean* by • are enabled to traverse tin- surface
•r-tiring wing*.'
ir er.u-clul .solutions
to far inland M near Oxford, wln-.c • . outimially
dipping in the I»u lor bleak, as it npi ..-,;< :l to u~. which
were alum-
Mr. Selby states that this tern breeds upon tlie sand or
•Jungle bcj'ond high-water mark, makinir no artificial mM.
but scraping a slight concavity for the reception of two or
three egg*. which \ary mueh in colour, the irround in MIMIC
being of a deep oil-irrccn. in others of n cream-white, or
pale wood-brown, but nil blotched with blackish-brow n and
•all-grey. ' In warm and clear weather.' sa\ s Mr. Selby
in continuation, • this bird inculcates but little dining the
day, in such situations the influence of the sun upon tin-
eggs being sufficient; but it sits upon them in the night.
ilso through the day under a leas favourable -';>v of
weather. The young, when exclud. . . red with a
mottled grey anil white down, and are assiduously attended
by th. and well supplied with food until able to
1 accompany them to sea. During the time of in-
ciibatiun tlie old birds display great anxiety, and are very
clamorous when any one approaches their station, in flying
round and freijnently descending so near as to strike the
hat of the intn,
The Tem was fonnerly conaidered choice food. Thus,
in the • HocMehold-booh of the K«rl of Northumberland
find • Ternes' among the delicacies for princij)ul lea.-'
his lordship's own • races ;' and they are charged at tour-
pence a dozen.
The \<My. — Hi'M-riiitinn. — In this form of tern the
wings reach beyond the rounded tail. Forehead •••
passing into grey -ash towards the top of the head, and into
a deeper grey at the occiput, in front of the eyes a
black patch ;" throat and checks grey-brown ; ill the uppei
and lower plumage chocolate or sooty-brown. Bill and
feet black. «r mijitial tin-nit.) Length about a
foot
•,Tn:ihir,il Distribution iitnl Habit*. — America prin-
cipally, Whew its head-quarters appear to be the (lull' of
Mexico, tlie coasts of Florida, and the Bahama Island)..
Dr. Latham was told that they breed in great numbers on
certain small rocky inlands near St. Helena. Mr. Audubon
observed numbers collected from the American •
above mentioned in IKii on one of the Tortugaa, called,
from the flocks that \isit it. Noddy K
Mr. Gould remarks that the noddy, unlike the generality
of terns, builds in bushes on low trees, making a large
nest of twigs and dry grass, while hovering over or
which the old birds utter a low querulous murmur : the
eggs, three in number, are reddish-yellow, with dull red
and purple patches and spots, and the young are said to
be \ery good eating. It does not take its prey like the
other terns, but as it skims along the water; and, when
full grown, seeks its food at much greater distances from
the land than the rest of the group.
were shot oil' \Ve\ford in Ireland in 1830. Tem-
mincK ;t it has been seen in France, but hi
never seen it on the coasts of Holland.
Common Tna : two adulu : one In « int-r. tlie other in itimmir plnmairf.
(Oould.)
Th.- Tern, from
tile •
tentinn. 'Hie time alhub '.en we had very
;'ig the high winds that
vailed on Sundir. uir and floating-docks- WCIT
nitiful s]n-.
i crn. Tlie liinl-
r three hundred
wen
i-aught H!: that many
- of passers bv. Tin's
.••I with in all the la1
It i- a summer \isitant to the i
on record of a specimen ha\r M this
)>ourhood. Tlie appearance of sue!
!<, rare as a specie*, in the
irence as remarkable n-s ;
Flock* of • the same d
'on, and other places along the Channel
Coas« '
Mr. Nuttall gives a lively description of its hnbil.s.
' Familiar to mariners who navigate in the equatorial
regions, the noddy, like ti
the dist;i -. a tin-
land, and with many other liini
Jjropensitii - in great 1:
owing the their flnnv piey. They pursue mem
by flying near the surface of tile water, and may now be
seen continually dropping on the small fish, which ap-
proach the surface to sliun the pcisecntion of the <;
kind-, by which they arc also harassed. A rippling and
silvery wlr marks the course, of the
timid and tumultuous shoals ; and the whole air resounds
with the e these gluttonous anil grcedv biid>.
who, cxulti t'.ir success, fill the air with
their \aiicd but discordant dies. \Vhcre the stro
rippling a])]ii ars. then- tl'.e thickest swann of nmlili.
..\l aie uniformly assembled. They frequently fl> on
1 of ships at -i-a. and are so stupid or indolent' on
.-casions. as to suiter them-eUes to be taken 1
on which they settle : 1hc\
' however, when a-id BCrateh with iri.
tion, leading <>•
from flight by C\CCS-:M- lumper, v
imagined that the appeal:. n indicates
the proximity of land : but in the manner of the common
tern, they i.dxciitiin ' -d, like the mariner
himself, the shelter of whose friendly vessel they
I they often -i.nn for seveial day* at a tittle,
I committing tliemsflves to the mercy oft he boundless ocean;
T E R
T E R
and having at certain seasons no predilection for places,
where the climate suits, the roving flocks or stragglers find
equally a home on every coast, shoal, or island.' (Manual
"f Ornithology.)
The vessel however is not ahvays friendly. Blieh found
the bird a seasonable supply to himself and his famished
crew in his celebrated boat-voyage after the mutiny of the
Bounty [BI.IGH] ; and Byron has improved the incident
in the terrible scene after the shipwreck in ' Don Juan.'
[BOOBY, vol. v., p. 159.]
TERNATE, an island in the Indian Archipelago, is
traversed by 50' N. lat. and 127° 20' E. long. It is 10
miles long and from four to five miles wide. It derives its
reputation from the circumstance that its sovereign is in
possession of a considerable portion of the islands of
Cilolo and Celebes ; and on this account the Dutch have
thought it expedient to form a considerable establishment
on the island at Fort Orange. The northern group of the
Moluccas has been called the Ternate Islands, though this
island is only one of the smaller ones which belong to
them, some of which are of great extent, especially
Gilolo.
The greater part of the island appears to be occupied
bv a volcano, which, according to Valentyn, attains an
elevation of 367 ruths and 2 feet, or 4095" feet English,
above the sea-level. The remainder of the island is very
fertile, and affords rice and the other productions of the
Indian Archipelago : but we have very little information
on these points, iu the. Dutch have always excluded
foreigners, and prevent the natives from trading with the
neighbouring islands, lest the spices which grow on this
and other islands of the group should be brought to
other countries by any other channel than their own com-
merce ; and although the English have been twice in pos-
session of the Dutch settlement, their attention has been
more directed to the great Dutch colonies than to this
comparatively small establishment. We learn only from
Forrest, that the inhabitants of the Sooloo Archipelago
were permitted to trade with Ternate, and that they im-
ported large quantities of different articles of Chinese
manufacture, which they exchanged for rice, edible birds'-
irepang, sharks' fins, tortoise-shells, and small pearls:
they exported also a great number of lories.
The inhabitants are Malays, who have embraced Islam.
There are three mosques. The king, who possesses also
the northern part of Gilolo, and the north-eastern limb of
Celebes, where the Dutch have two settlements at Manado
and Gurontalu, and several of the adjacent islands, lives
in great state. These countries however are governed by
separate chiefs, who in many R>]," •< •;•- resemble the feudal
icracy of the middle ages : but the king and the chiefs
are dependent on the Dutch governor of Amboyna, of which
government Ternate forms a regency.
Ternate was first visited by the Portuguese in 1521, and
some years afterwards they formed a settlement, which
passed into the hands of the Dutch in 160G ; who, in 1680,
reduced the king to a state of dependence on them, and
enlarged their establishment. In 1797 it was taken, toge-
ther with Amboyna, by the English, who restored it at the
peace in 1801 : it was again taken in 1810, and again given
up to Holland by the treaty of Paris in 1814.
(Forrest's Voyage to New Guinea and the Moluccas,
<5j-c. ; Stavorinus's Voyages to the East Indies : Von
But-h's Phynihalische Hcsch reibung der Canarischen Inseln,
4-c.)
TERNI. [SPOLETO.]
TERNSTROMIA'CE^, a natural order of plants be-
longing to the Calycose group of polypetalous Dicotyle-
dons. As at present constituted, by Cambessedes, who is
followed by Lindley, this order consists of trees or shrubs
with alternate coriaceous leaves, without stipules, mostly
undivided, and sometimes with pellucid dots. The
flowers are generally white in colour, sometimes pink or
red, and arc arranged in axillary or terminal peduncles,
articulated at the base. The calyx is composed of •> or
7 sepals, imbricated in aestivation, the innermost the
largest : petals it. (i. or 9, often combined at the l;:is<.- : sta-
imlrtiinte with monadelphous or polyadelphous
filaments, and versatile or adnate anthers; ovary superior;
capsule 2 7 celled ; seeds few, attached to a central axis,
with little or no albumen, and a straight embryo, the
cotyledons of which are very large, and often filled with
oil. This order includes the" Theaceic of Mirbel and the
Camellieae of De Candolle. Their closest affinity is with
the order Guttiferae, from which they differ in their alter-
nate leaves ; in the parts of their flowers being 5 and its
multiples ; in the calyx being distinct from the corolla ;
in their twisted aestivation, and in their thin inadherent
cotyledons. They have also relations with Hypeiicaceae
and Marcgraaviacae. The plants of this order are prin-
cipally inhabitants of Asia and America ; one species only
is a native of Africa.
This order includes the genus Thea, and hence is one
of great osconomical importance. [THEA.] It is supposed
that the dried leaves brought to this country under the
name of tea are not alone the produce of the genus Thea,
but that the leaves of some species of Camellia are also
mixed with them. [CAMELLIA.] Independent of these two
genera, little is known of the properties of this order.
The Cochlospermuin insigne is used as a medicine in
internal bruises in Brazil, where it is called Butua do curvo.
The C. tinctorium yields a yellow dye ; and the seeds of
C. Gossypium yield a gum resembling Tragacanth, for
which it is substituted.
Theft Bohee.
I, brnncli with flower* and leaves; 2. superior ovary with trifid stijjni.i;
3, fruit entire ; 4, capsule dehiscent.
TERPA'MJKR (TtnTravfyo?), the earliest and the most
important historical personage in the history of Greek
music and its connection with poetry, for he was both a
ini'.-ician and a poet. He was a native of Antissa, in the
island of Lesbos, and his best period falls in the latter half
of the seventh century before Christ. There are few
events in his life that can be chronologically established.
In B.C. 676, at, the first celebration of the musical contests
during the festival of the Carneia near Sparta, Terpander
was crowned as victor. (Athenapus, xiv., p. 635.) He
afterwards gained four successive prizes in the musical
contests at the Pythian games (Plutarch, De Mttsica, 4) ;
and these victories piobably fall between the years 672 and
HI") H.C., since in the latter of these years he was at. Sparta,
and there introduced his nomes (vopoi) for singing to the
accompaniment of the cithara, and was engaged in re-
ducing the music of the Greeks, such as it then was, to a
ir svstcm. (Marmnr. Puriuin, Epoch. 34 ; Plutarch,
l)i' MHS". 9.) At this time his fame must have reached its
height. His descendants, or at, least the musicians of his
school («3opij>(5oi). continued for more than a century to
obtain the prize at the Carneia every year without any in-
terruption.
Numerous musical inventions are said to have been
made by Terpander ; many of them however may have
been made by other persons, especially such as belonged
school, and were subsequently ascribed to the father
and founder of the art. Of '"aiiv o'f his inventions we are
unable to form any clear idea. The most important, among
them however is the seven-stringed cithara (heptachord).
2H2
T i: K
236
T E II
his time sung*, hymns, and rhaptodicslui.:
.rnlringKtelrachuid .
> on to make
.pnso n lull octave, or, as the Greek* called
il. a diapason. The heptachord soon i-iune iiito ircneral
-.;.!.. .-.,-' ..Ill, ::' . : tin- (.;. .'>,-,
Mpecully the Dorian. notwithstanding the vm
iiiii ini|iii Aiiutln-r very
important improvement whirh the anticnts unanimously
•Mfn) to Terpander, U the reduction of the unticut iiutlo-
dlP, , is IKOJUUI, which continued unaltered
for ievcml centurie*. These nomes appear to hnve been
of a twofold character: he cither invriiU-il them himself,
or lie inin-ly fixed lliOM- which hud hecti used he lore his
time. Tlu» fixing ol" cei1;iin tunes and melodies he is said
to ha- .ir notes which he made over the
verses of a poem. In this manner he marked the tir
hi* own poems, an well as of portions of the Homeric rhap-
lodies. His own poetical compositions, which, with the
tions of :i uenU, are now lost, consisted of
hviiins. pronernia, and scolia.
Miiller, Hislury nf the Literature of Antient (•>
i.. p. 149, See. ; Bode, Getchichte der Lyrische Dicli:
der Hrllfitfn, ii., p. 303, &c.)
TERPSTCHOKE. [MUSKS.]
TERRA 1)1 I.AVO'RO. [LAVORO, TERRA. DI.]
TKRlt.UTNA, a town of the Papal Slate, in the ad-
ministrative province of Frosinone, near the borders of
the kingdom of Naples, anil on the high road from Rome to
Naples. The old town, which is built on the site of the an-
tient Anxur, rises in the form of an amphitheatre on the slope
of a calcareous rock which isa projection of the ridge called
Monti Lepini, leaving but a narrow strip of land between
it and the sea, along which runs the high road to Naples
in the track of the antient Via Appia. Along the road
•ie modern buildings ol'Tcmicina, conslnicted by Pins
VI.. and ronsisti:!!; ol the post-house and inns, custom-
house, granaries, and other structures for public use. The
old harbour, which was restored by the emperor Antoninus,
li:u been li'iiu' >incc filled up, but remains of the mole are
still seen. The old town b en UKmblage of poor-looking
houses, perched one above another, unrounded ud over-
topped by white cliff's which are seen from afar (Horace,
i. 5 , and intermixed with myrtle, orange, and
palm trees, and with plants of aloes and cactus. Above
all rise the cathedral witli its lolly steeple, an elegant
palace built by Pins VI.. the remains of the palace called
that of Theodoric, which is a structure of the fifth century
of our a>ra, and is situated on the summit of the hill, and
about. GOO feet above the sea, and an old castle raised in
the middle ages. The cathedral is ornamented with some
fine fluted Corinthian columns, which have been taken
from a temple of Jupiter now ruined. Remains of a
theatre are also seen. The climate of Terracina is \ ery
mild and genial in winter, but is unwholesome in summer.
The population of the town is 4000 inhabitants. Ter-
racina is 30' miles south-east of Rome and M miles north-
of Naples. Beyond Terracina. on the side towards
Naples, is a detached rock of a pyramidical form, m-aily
•JKI feet hiirh, one side of which was cut perpendicularly
by ('. Appius to make room for his road. About two miles
farther i- the frontier of Rome and Naples, where a mili-
tary post i y each respective state. (Tournon,
•'//• H'niif ; Vale'ry, /''i//«»v. /•// Untie;
Calindri, Saga i il-//n x/,,/',, [>,,ntijiri<i.)
Anxur wai a • -.11 ol thcVolsci long before the
Roman conquest, waj> taken by the Romans in t
403 H.I .. was retaken by sni| '. and taken again
by tin- Minimus tluee yean after. It afterwards became
a Roman colony by the name of Tarracina. During the
second Punic war the temple of .Jupiter at Tarracina is
mentioned by Livy as having been struck by lightning.
(Livy, iv r>:t : \ id 1:1 ; \\vni. 11.)
TERRANO'N \ I Su ILY.]
TKRK.M'KNK. [Toiui.isiM.]
TERRA \N, a French writer of the last cen-
tury. He was horn at Lyon, A.D. I(i7<> : his father was
Pierre TerrmHOn. one of a family of considciah!.' eminence
and activity in that city, anil a man whose devout temper
led him to make all his four suns iof whom .lean was the
embers of the Conirreiration ol the Oratory,
at Paris in the house of that Society when
their father died : Uie three younger remained members of
.igirgation. but Jean (now a sub-deacon) .
position disinclined him to I ie. ipiitted
however without having ac<|i.
suh-iable acimainlancc w ith theoloirv. The »imp'i,r
character which ever distinguished him rendered him the
dupt- of men. by whom Inn small patiiniony wa>
wa-led : but he found a shelter in the house of a liieiid.
M. Ri'moiid. to whose son he became tutor. I
((iiently (\.u. 1714) undertook the education of the H
-in Mathiell Terrasson, a celebrated advocate in the
parliament of Pahs. He had become an associate of the
Academie Royale de« Sciences, A.D. 17d~. In 171"> In-
made his first appearance as an author by taking par! in the
dispute then raging on the value of the Homeric Poems
and the comparative merits of the untients and nun;
His work was entitled • Dissertation Critique MU- lliade
d'Hon:'1 . 12mo., Paris: it met with a favoiuable
reeejition from those who joined in or approved of the
ittacks then made on Homer, who was M-VI rely criticized.
Next year Terrasson published an addition tohisdissertation
on Homer, in 12mo.. in reply to Andre Dacier. by whom he
liad been attacked. In A.D. 1719 the financial system of Law
enabled Terrasson to obtain a large fortune, and induced
him to form an establishment and set up his carriage : but
wealth was to him rather a source of embarrassment than
of pleasure ; and when he lost his fortune the next year in
the financial change which took place, he content edly
ohseiAcd that it would be more convenient to him to live on
a little. In A.D. 17'JO he published a small work in del
of Law's financial schemes, entitled 'Trui- 1.- I're- -m- le.Nou-
veau SystSme des Finances.' f>(l pp.. -Ito., Paris, and another
small work in defence of the French India Company. He
saved some small part of his fortune from the general
wreck : and this, with the income of a profes-sorship, w
he obtained next year (A.D. 1721) in the College Royal,
and a pension subsequently conferred by the en
rendered his circumstances easy for the rest of Ins life.
He became a member of the Academic Franci-.i-e \ a.
1732.
In 1731 Terrasson published a romance in imitation of
the ' Telemaque ' of Frf'nelon. It was entitled • Set ho*,'
:t vols. 12mo., Paris, and professed to be a translation of a
Greek manuscript. The scene is laid chiefly in K;r\|-t.
This work obtained sufficient circulation to go through
: editions, of which the last was in 1813, inO\ols.
I8mo., but never became popular. An English transla-
tion was published in London in 17;t-. In the years
17-17-44 he published the seven successive volumes in
1 21110. of a translation of Diodoms Siculus. This transla-
tion has been reprinted once or twice, but is very inaceu-
Mte. This was his last work of any extent. His memory
and his bodily strength gradually failed, and he died \.i>.
17:~K), aged 80.
He wrote also a treatise entitled ' De 1'Intini Cn'-e,' of
which he allowed one or two transcripts to he taken during
his life : but it was never published, nor was the original
manuscript found among nis papers at his deeea-e. Hi-
left also a small work, published alter his decease, entitled
- l.:i Philosophic applicable a tons les Objets de 1'Ksprit et
de la Raison' (Pans, 8vo., 17") I .
From an anonymous letter printed, with one or two
other pieces, at the commencement of this small volume,
and containing a biographical notice of Terramon, we have
derived the substance of this article. See also the Huge de
T'-ri-iiiixon, by D'Alemhert ; Qucrard, La France Littti
ivtrttUt.
TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. This term is used to
denote the action of the magnetic fluid in or about tlu>
earth: the effects of that action being manifested in tin-
phenomena presented by magnetized needles « -
The general polarity of a magnetized needle when sup-
ported or suspended in a balanced state, and its inclination
to the horizon, with the slow variations to which those
element*, as well as the intensity of the magnet ii
subject, are phenomena which are conceived to aiisc from
causes existing in the earth and pervading its whole mass;
while the temporary effects, a.s the diurnal variations of
the needle, are supposed to depend upon clcctrieal cur-
rents produced bv variations cil temperature at the si
in consequi nee of the changes in the sun's position with
respect to the hoii/on. and pel haps from other circum-
stances: finally, great tcmpoiary discharges of electricity
j in the iipp- "f the atmosphere may be the cause*
T E R
237
T E K
of those occasional agitations in the needle, to which the
name oi' magnetic storms has been lately applied, and
which are now known to extend at the same moment over
a great portion of the earth's surface.
The declination (variation) of the needle is that element
of terrestrial magnetism which was first observed, and the
difference of its amount in different regions, as well as the
annual chancre at the same station, was early noticed. Dr.
Halley, on his return to England after his second voyage,
during which he had made many observations on the varia-
tion in different parts of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans,
published, in 1701, a chart, on which were traced what have
been since called isogonal lines, that is, lines passing
through the points on the earth's surface where the variation
was the same : and other charts of a like kind have since at
different times been constructed. The expectation at first
entertained, that such a chart might serve as a means of
ascertaining the longitude of a ship at sea by an observed
variation of the needle has not however been fulfilled,
since as yet no formula has been discovered by which the
variation at any given time and place may with sufficient
accuracy be found : but though the changes of the varia-
tion have hitherto rendered such charts of little use for the
puqjoses of navigation, yet a knowledge of the form of the
lines of equal variation at different periods may be of great
importance as a step to the discovery of the law of those
changes. The latest variation chart is one which was pub-
lished by Adolf Erman, after his journey, in company
with Hansteen and Due, through the "whole length
of the Russian empire, and his return to Europe by sea.
Erman determined the positions of the isogonal lines
from his own observations, and from the most authentic of
those which had been made by other observers between
the years 1827 and 1830 ; and subjoined is a representation
of the principal lines on the two hemispheres of the earth,
projected stereograph ically on the plane of the equator.
The lines marked o o pass through places where the varia-
tion is zero ; the positive sign before a number indicates
that the variation is westward, or that the needle deviates
to the west of the astronomical meridian ; and the nega-
tive sign indicates that the variation is eastward. On an
inspection of the lines, it is manifest that on a sphere they
must be curves of double curvature with bends in opposite
directions ; that most of them converge towards two points
on the earth's surface, one in or near Baffin's Bay, and the
other to the southward of New Holland ; and that be-
tween the inflexions there are some which return into
themselves.
The dip, or inclination of the needle to the horizon,
which is another element of terrestrial magnetism, was first
recorded by Robert Norman [INCLINATION], and numerous
. ationshave been made to ascertain its value in dif-
ferent parts of the world, together with the variations to
which it is subject in process of time ; but a general chart
exhibiting the forms of the isoclinal lines, as those of
equal dip are called, is still wanting. On the above cut
an- represented by dotted curves some of the lines which
are best known ; and these have been taken chiefly from
the partial chart given by Major ("now Colonel ) Sabme, in
the ' Philosophical Transactions ' for 1840. The data are
stated to have been obtained from above 140 observations
made, on land between 1834 and 1839, and from many
which were made at sea by Mr. Dunlop in 1K51, and by
Lieut. Sulivan in 183!). Some points have also been taken
from the observations made by Erman in the Pacific
Ocean, of which la-st observations a table is given in the
'Seventh Ripoit of the British Association' (vol. vi.).
". '/, /t, represents the line of no dip, which is evident I v
a curve of double curvature, and crosses the terrestrial
e<)ii.it(,r in two points at least : b, b, b, is the known portion
of the isoclinal line for a dip of 30 degrees below Hie
northern nart of the horizon : c, c, is the line for 60" ; and
d, rl, the line for 73°.
An inspection of the cut will show that the oval lines of
equal dip go on dimini-hing in magnitude northwards, and
the pole of the dip. or place where that element is a maxi-
mum, may be fixed at a point (P in the diagram) in long.
263° (117° west), and in lat. 70° N. : at that place, by the
observations of Captain James Ross, the dip in 1831 was
found to be 89° 59'. Professor Hansteen, of Christiania,
has deduced, from the observations which have been made
in the polar regions, that the isogonal lines in the northern
hemisphere tend to two points in the vicinity of the pole of
the dip ; those which are on the north side uniting in a
point a little way to the north of the latter pole, and those
on the south side a little way to the south of the same
pole.
Till within the last fifty years it was the general opinion
that the intensity of terrestrial magnetism was the same at
all parts of the earth's surface ; and to the Academic cles
Sciences, in France, is due the honour of having been the
first learned body which proposed that observations should
be made for the purpose of determining that element. In
the instructions which its members drew up for the use of
the unfortunate La Perouse, it was recommended that the
intensity should be observed at places very distant from
one another, in order to ascertain whether or not any dif-
ferences existed in its value. The accounts of any observa-
tions which may have been made during the voyage pe-
riiihed ; but. between the years 1791 and 1794, M. Rossel,
who sailed from France with the expedition in search of La
Perouse, determined with a dipping-needle the inclination
to the horizon, and the times of performing a vibration, at
different places ; and from the latter the fact of a difference
T E R
T E R
at intensity was established. Ait>-r that tint* extent* ve
term at observations on the dip and intensity were nude
mmboldt in South America, and in lYance, Italy,
and Germany; by HKII-II. . I in,-, and Knii.ni in the
north of Euroi* and in Siberia, and by the last-incu-
• \ gentleman in the Pacific Ocean. .. •loncl
8abinr during liu voyages to tin- polar was and the equa~
Afhca and America ; I i the Kuwiaii ad-
.-. igalion of the id by
captaiiu King and Kit/roy in (lie survey of the coasts of
: and now, no observations on terrestrial
magnetism are considered complete unless all tin- tl.iv.
•Uinn nln the declination, the inclination, and tin- inteii-
I determined at the same time at every -uinm.
-iy to the time when Hmnholdt made his
niagnclic.il observation.- in South A>m n. . tlu> opinion
iienuty was a miiiinrimi at places when- tin- di]>
of the needle wan rero prevailed : and that philosopher, in
consequence, assumed unity as the measure of the inten-
sity at a certain station in Peru, where the dipping-needle
assumed a horizontal position. From the times in which
a certain number of vibrations were made l>y siu-h needle
at that station, and subsequently at Paris. Huiniioldt
found that the intensity at the latter place was equal to
_' (that in Peru being unity) ; and M. Arago and t.'ol.
Sabine afterwards, by a comparison of experiments made
by themselves, ascertained that the inten.-ity in London
was (.in 1827) expressed by 1-372. The scale of intensity
which had been assumed by Humboldt continues to be
. though it is now known that the zero of dip does not
correspond to the minimum of intensity, and it becomes
necessary to cmplo\ term- less than unity - the
•\ :it many "place., within und even I . uiud the
L The intensity is subject to a beeular \iination;
but of the amount and the law uition as yet no
certain knowledge has been
In the subjoin. .\luc-h, like the former, is
a stereographical projeetion of the northern and southern
IsMiisphimn of the earth, are represented the pnncipal
uudynainical lin. i <(iial int. n the table
and el y Col. Sabine in tin: • Seventh Report of
the British Association.' That chart •! from all
the authenticated experiments on the intensity which had
been made between the years 1798 and lM3>i : but III the
cut, in order to avoid contiiMon. there are ii>en only the
lino eun.->|jondiiiLr to the intensity represented by 1, l''J.
!• 1. PO, 17. anil the points at which the inteiiMt v l^ Known
ID !«• 1-s. which is the hi ..'.i. In all
the tract between the curve lines marked ). the magnetic
intensity is less than unity: the breadth of this tract is
very unequal ; at points in long. 110" and ~£*\' llir \\ .
the lines approaeh within :i or 4 degrees of one another,
while near the meridian c-.f (Greenwich they are separatid
by an interval of about 50 degrees. In the' middle of this
band of low intensity which surrounds the earth, it might
be expected that the intensity should he the lowest ; and.
in fact. M. Krman, in his leturn tci Kurope. found, at a
few di -'Wind of St. Helena, thai the intensity
was 0743, which is the lowest u-t obtained from otw
tion.
i no
•
. A si
thev
m
Some of the isodynamic lines in both hemispheres are
>1ill wanting at places
!>osed to ])ass, but no doubt
.es which return into
••MI will show that in each
ith two loops, or
.'•mispherc. judg-
• perceived that i!e western
; ist be at a spot
•.?7V(WW.'. and latitude about
• >i Siberian
'ude is nn-
sill readily
''•'•'•' •''•''•• • • -!i. i -i h. mil ->\.< .• ; i- cui •> es,
or. assume more
hv estimation in
and m ln-itr. iM"' = l'3i" \\ . lat. W : the !'<•.
latti-r in the soul hern
p«rt
!'
«o •!•• :ind is about i:«i dt ..-
the nearest distance in longitude between the Siberian and
the South American pole is about 120 denrc"s : the nearest
distances in latitude are about 11(1" and about 130" n
lively, so that those poles are not diametrically opposite to
'(her.
The intensity of magnetism at the New Holland
appears to be nearly ecjunl to that which has be>
at the North American pole, the observed intensity in
Van IJiemcn's Land nnil at New York being 1-S: and the
the Siberian pole is nearly eipi.n to that : I
South Pkeifio Jiole, the observed intensity at Vilnisk in
Siberia being 1-70'. and the highest at present l<no
rth 1'aeilic l-.eing |-~. The fact that these last in-
tensiti iha.ii the lonner is indicated by the loops
about them being smaller than those about the two western
and Krman thinks it probable that the centres
nf imi'.nniie attraction, when' the loopy are small, may
depth below the surface than thev
. i/n titer •
•'ronger and one ol w.
i nf the hemispheres on the north and
south oi the terrestria; it maybe infeircd, as i*
T E R
239
T E R
observed by Col. Sabine, that the quantities of magnetism
in the two hemispheres are nearly equal ; but as all the
four poles lie in one hemisphere of the earth, which would
be formed if the latter were cut by the plane of a meridian
passing through points whose longitudes are 100° and 280°
(80° W.), it must follow that the hemisphere which con-
tains the poles, that is, the hemisphere which contains
America and the Pacific Ocean, must have a greater quan-
tity than the other.
The isodynamic lines present the appearance of double
flexures, like those of equal dip ; and in both systems of
curves there is a like tendency to form two foci, or centres
of greatest attraction ; and the bends gradually become
less strongly marked as the lines approach the equatorial
regions of the earth, but it is obvious that the lines in the
two systems are far from being parallel to one another :
in the southern hemisphere the isodynamical line 1 crosses
the line of no dip in two places at least ; and each of the
dip-lines, bli, re, dd, in No. 1, would pass through several
of the intensity-lines in No. 2. Even within the limits of
the British Isles the deviations of the two systems of lines
from parallelism are very sensible ('Memoir,' by Maj.
Sabine, in the Eighth Report of the. British Association) ;
and it may be inferred that, at least in the northern hemi-
spere, the pole of maximum intensity is quite distinct from
the pole of the dip, the distance between them in latitude
being probably as much as 20 degrees. Q and R in the
cut No. 2 are the presumed places of the two intensity-
poles in the northern hemisphere. It is at present quite
uncertain whether or not there is a corresponding difference
between the poles of maximum intensity and of maximum
dip in the southern hemisphere, but the circumstance is
probable, from the fact that the highest observed inten-
sities in both are equal at places (New York and Van Die-
men's Land) where the dips are also equal, and where they
want 20 degrees of being the greatest.
Professor Hansteen, in his treatise on the magnetism of
the earth (1819 , has shown, from a comparison of the ob-
served places of the four poles of the dip at different times, '
that each of them has a slow movement about the axis of
the earth. Not much dependence can be placed on the
computed periods of the revolutions, but M. Hansteen
assigns for that of the North American pole 1890 years,
anil for that of the Siberian pole 8UO years.
The existence of two magnetic poles in each hemisphere
is thus evident, and Gauss of Gottingen observes that
there must also be a third point between each pair, which
possesses the character of both, and therefore is a true pole.
••nil T/irnry of Terrestrial Magnetism, translated in
Taylors ' Scientific Memoirs,' pt. vi.) This is indeed ob-
vious : for if a dipping-needle were carried from one pole
towards the other, it would begin to deviate from the ver-
tical direction towards the pole- it had quitted : and,
coming near the other, it would be found to deviate from
the vertical towards the pole which it was approaching ;
and, as these deviations are in opposite directions, there
must be an intermediate point at which the needle would
assume a vertical position.
Almost as soon as a few observations on the phenomena
of terrestrial magnetism were collected, Dr. Halley (1701)
propounded a theory in order to account for them. He
conceived that the earth itself might be a shell, containing
v ithin it a globe which revolved with it about the same
centre of gravity and the same axis ; the outer globe, or
shell, lieinar supposed to perform its rotation in twenty-four
hours, and the other in a time rather greater or less. Each
globe was supposed to have a magnetic axis passing through
the common centre, but the two axes were supposed to
he inclined to each other and to that of the diurnal rota-
tion ; and consequently there were supposed to be, in all,
four magnetic poles.
The deviation of these magnetic axes from that of the
earth's diurnal rotation was supposed to be the cause of
the ceneral variation (declination) of the compass-needle,
and the siuw deviation of the magnetic axes IVom each
other was sup|x>sed to be the cause of that continual varia-
tion ot'the declination which is observed at every place on
the earth's surface. The theory is highly ingenious, and
• I' the epicycles, by which, in the infancy of
astronomy, it was attempted to account for the variations
in the movements of the planets: but when observations
were multiplied, and the variations of the needle at con-
siderable interval* of time were compared together, it was
found to be incapable of representing the phenomena;
and Mayer, of Gottingen, without gaining any advantage,
modified the hypothesis by assuming that the centre of
the small magnet was placed at a certain distance from that
of the earth.
Subsequently (1805) M. Biot, assuming that there were
two points in a supposed magnetic axis of the earth, by
one of which the magnetized needle was attracted and by
the other repelled, investigated a formula for expressing
the dip and variation in terms of an indeterminate dis-
tance between those points. On comparing the result
obtained by computation from the formula with the ob-
served phenomena, he found that the latter were repre-
sented with tolerable accuracy when the points of at-
traction and repulsion were infinitely near to each other
and to the centre of the earth. From the result of the
investigation it follows that if a plane, supposed to pass
through the centre of the earth perpendicularly to the
magnetic axis, were considered as a magnetic equator, the
tangent of the dip of the needle would be equal to twice
the tangent of the magnetic latitude of the place on the
earth's surface ; and a like conclusion had been previously
arrived at by Professor Kraft at St. Petersburgh, from such
observations as then existed. It is here supposed that the
curve of no dip is the circumference of a great circle 01
the sphere, and we have seen that this is far from being
conformable to observation, yet the rule just mentioned
may be advantageously employed when it is required,
from any observed dips of small magnitude, to determine
the situation of a point on the earth's surface where the
dip is zero. The last attempt to account for the pheno-
mena of terrestrial magnetism in this manner was made by
M. Hansteen (1811), who assumed the existence of two
small magnets of unequal strength at certain distances
from the centre of the earth. He compared the results,
with respect to variation, dip, and intensity, which he ob-
tained by computation from that assumption, with the
' values ol those elements observed at different places ; and
though, to a certain extent, the agreement was satisfactory,
yet in several instances the differences were such as to
show that the hypothesis was erroneous or incomplete.
Professor Gauss of Gottingen, in his Treatise on the Ge-
neral Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism above quoted, has
investigated the elements independently of all hypotheses
concerning the distribution of the magnetic fluids in the
earth, and assuming only that the terrestrial force is the
collective action of all the magnetized particles in the
earth's mass, he has exhibited the resulting formulae in
converging series ; and has given, for ninety-one places on
the globe, a table of the values of the declination and in-
clination of the needle, and of the intensity of magnetism,
computed from his expressions for the horizontal and
vertical components of the force, together with the ob-
served elements at the same places ; and the srnallness of
the differences between these last and the computed ele
ments are satisfactory proofs of the correctness of the
theory. For a supposed connection between the tempera-
ture of the earth's surface and terrestrial magnetism, see
ISOTHERMAL LINKS.
The want of complete success which has hitherto at-
tended the different attempts to exhibit the laws of niag-
netical phenomena make it evident that the time has not
arrived in which that can be done with respect to mag-
netism which Newton accomplished with respect to gravi-
tation. But though the hypotheses formed, in order to
account for the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism, have
not brought out formulae which will entirely satisfy the
observed elements, it must not be understood that they
are therefore without utility; since the approximative
rules which have been obtained from them afford the
means of computing small differences in the elements with
sufficient accuracy to allow observations made at times or
in places not very distant from one another to be reduced
to what they would have been had they been made at one
time or station ; and thus several observations may be
made to concur in the determination of a correct mean
value of the element. This remark may be considered as
applicable to most of the hypotheses which, in the phy-
sical sciences, have been proposed for the purpose of ex-
hibiting the laws of the phenomena; and it may be fur-
ther remarked, that the assumption of an hypothesis, by
indicating the fittest place for observing, or the nature of
the observations which are requisite for verifying it, i-:
T E R
840
I K R
advantageous in lea ' his station*
or t,, .instruction of In- instruments, so wto ]mt
r-.iMi- circumstances lor deter-
mining the la»» from observation.
In v -is M. Arago, ut the Observatory of Paris,
niHilc » M ' tin- irregular changes to
which tin- declination of tin- needle is subject : mul M.
Kuptter having about tht- same time made similar ob-
•ervir Ls*n, * comparison of the results led to the
that the perturbations wcic -imultancou- at
those places, though tlu-y (littered in longitude al>ov.
aaikable circumstance immeiliately attract-
ed the notice of philosophers, anil a plan for making
simultaneous observations in many different places was
organized 1 1\ M. de llumboldt in IN'J7. Kor this purpose
magnetic .stations were established at Herlin and r rey-
berg: and the Imperial Academy of Russia, entering wiih
zeal into the p; -< <l a chain of stations to !
tended from St. Petersburg to Pekin, at all which jilaees
simultaneous observations were appointed to he made
se\en times in the year, at intervals of one hour, during
twenty-four hours.
In 1834 Professor Gauss discovered the fact that the
synchronism of the perturbations was not confined to the
decimation of the needle, but that every deviation at one
place of observation had its counterpart at another ; and
ne was therefore induced to recommend a plan of simul-
taneous observations at intervals of five minutes during
twenty-four hours, four times in the year. This sug-
gestion was immediately adopted, and on the Continent
magnetic stations were formed at more than twenty cities
of Europe, from Dublin to St. Petersburg. The 'British
Government and the East India Company also, besides tin-
principal observatories of the former at Greenwich and
Dublin, immediately sanctioned the formation of magnetic
stations, under the direction of scientific officers, at St.
Helena and the Cape of Good Hope, in Canada, the East
Indies and New South Wales : and in the present •
ditionto the antarctic regions under < 'aptain .1. C. Ross, one
of the leading objects is the determination of the magnetic
elements in that remote part of the world. The system of
simultaneous observations at numerous and stated times of
the year, which has been organized in Europe, is to be con-
formed tp by all the British observers: and the Royal
:y of London has caused an able Report of the ob-
.•ntifie inquiry in physics to be drawn up for
the use of travellers in" general", and particularly for the
persons who have been appointed to take part in the ob-
servations respecting magnetism and meteorology.
The instruments employed for determining the elements
of terrestrial magnetism. 'and the variations to which they
are subject, are of three kinds; the declination magneto-
meter; and the horizontal and vertical force magnet o-
:s. The first is a needle or bar, from twelve to
fifteen inches in length, nearly one inch broad, and a
quarter of an inch thick, suspended in a horizontal position
in a stirrup by untwisted silk fibres about two feet long.
The apparatus is contained in a box, to protect it from the
agitation of the air, with two apertures in opposite j n-i-
tions; one of these is for illuminating the scale, ami the
other is used for the readings, which are taken by mean- of
a telescope at a distance. For a description of such an
instrument and its adjustments, see Taylor's 'Scientific
part v. By this instrument may be observed
the' absolute declination, or the angle which HIP axis of the
needle makes with the astronomical meridian of the place,
the variations of the declination, and the horizontal com-
ponent of the earth's magnetic force. The latter is I'nund
nents ol d. -Mention and experiment sol' vibration :
and the formul •• I for the purpose are given
in the work of Gauss, entitled • Intensity vi- V,
IKU . SIM- also the Report of the <"om-
ihe Royal S< ,11. Hut fiaus-
initiations of intensity by the vibrations of
a needle are inaccurate on account of the changes which
•nay take place in the inten-ily during the time in which
the vibrations continue; and i'n 1K!7 he invented anew
instrument, which is called a Bifilar magnetometer, for
the purpose of determining the horizontal intensity alone.
This consist* of a magnetised needle m I : hori- p
zontally in a stirrup placed under n circular graduated
plate, to the tipper part of which are attached the two
extremities of a tine steel thread or wire. The middle, or
the bend, of the thread pasj.es over two pulleys which are
lived 111 the upp' the building; and the two parts
of the thrta.l h:i parallel to one
another, when the needle rests in the magnetic meridian.
Then, on turning the whole apparati.
to make the needle deviate Irom the magnetic meridian,
the tendency ol the needle to return to it> Inrnu-r pu-ition
causes the threads to assume directions i,blii|ue to each
other: and there is some position of the needle in which
Its dircctiv c loree is equal to the force by which the tl;
resist being made to cross each others directions: it is
to adjust the instrument so that, when this equi-
librium takes place, the needle shall lie in a direction at
right angles to the plane of the magnetic meridian. The
torsion of the threads by which the needle is made :
suuie that position indicates the horizontal component of
the magnetic force, and every change in the intensity of
the latter affects in a direct manner the position of the
needle. The magnetized bar in use at the (iottmgcn ob-
servatory weighs i'llbs., and the length of the pair of
suspending threads is 17 feet. .Taylor's X< n tttil:
parts vi.. vii. Instruments on the same principle, but of
smaller dimensions, are made for ordinary occasions.
the Royal Society's Report.
The vertical lone magnetometer consists of n magnetic
needle resting on agate planes by what are called knife-
edges, and it is made to assume a horizontal position by
means of weights : the deviations of the needle from that
position, when in the plane of the magnetic meridian, or in
a vertical plane making any angle with that meridian,
serve to determine the variations in the vertical component
of the magnetic intensity.
Gauss observes that, on account of the simple rela-
tion that the horizontal and vertical components b.
one another, these are more proper to serve as the foun-
dation of a theory, than the usual expression of the mag-
netic force by the total intensity, the inclination, and the
declination; and he recommends that, in all observations,
the intensity in the horizontal direction should be kept
distinct from the other elements.
TKRRIKR (funis /nini/iiirix T<-rr<irin*\ a variety of
the dog remarkable ibr the eagerness and courage with
which it goes to earth, and attacks all tho-v quadrupeds
which come under the gamekeeper's denomination of
in, from the Fox to the Rat.
In the genealogical table of the different races of dogs
we find the Hound immediately next in descent from the
Shepherd dog. which is placed as the immediate descend-
ant of the Lapland dog, the highest in the table, and col-
lateral to the Hound, the '///•/•/'<•;•. and liirriir.
Lieut.-Col. Hamilton Smith (Nn/uni/ifl'n Library, Is 10 .
treating on the Cur Dngs, after stating that in Southern
Africa we have a race of small Sacalian dogs : in Arabin.
one of Thoan form: in India, the parent Pariah (need, ap-
parently captured in the woods of the country :— that
Southern China, all Persia, Natolia, and Russia have a
similar predominant race of cure; and that in Europe
there is everywhere evidence of an originally indigenous
species of small dimensions, or at least ol' one. brought in
by the earliest colonists of the west, extending from I. up-
land to Spain, — goes on to observe, that if we search lor
that kind which now seems to be the most typical, that
possessing innate courage, sagacity, and profitie power.
without training or care in breeding. — these qualities are
found most unquestionably united in the terrier, and no-
where so fully marked, vvitii all the tokens of antient ori-
ginality, as in the rough-haired or Scottish breed. 'In
the terrier. Smith in continuation, ' we still see
all the alacrity of innate confidence, all resources of spirit.
all the willingness to remain familiar with subteinr
habitations, and all the daring and combination which
makes him fearless in the prc-cnce of the most formidable
animals; for it is often noticed in India, that when the
bull-dog pauses, British terriers never hesitate to surround
and giapplc with the hy;rna. the wolf, or even the pan-
ther. . . . If there be an original and indigenous dog of
Britain, it is surely the species we have now under review :
for if the Irish wolf-dog, or a questionable' gaze-hound,
were derived from the British wolf, such a conquest over a
powerful and ferocious animal could scarcely have been
achieved without the aid and Intelligence of a previously
domesticated and smaller spe.-ies. But ii is more likely
the terrier of antiquity was of the same, race with the
T E K
241
T E R
hard-footed dogs of the Cymbers, and that the first were
brought over 1'rom the north-west of Europe with the pri-
mitive inhabitants. Certain it is that the intermixture of !
terrier blood with other and later races has in no instance
tended to diminish their courage, hardihood, and fidelity :
and in no part of Europe has the rough-haired breed re-
tained so completely as in Britain all the traits which con-
stitute a typical species.'
Terriers may be divided into two sections, the one rough
and wire-haired, the other smooth-haired and generally
more delicate in appearance. In courage and sagacity
there is little difference if the dogs be well bred, but the
rough and wiry coat of the former is a greater protection
from the attack of its adversary, and it is, if anything, the
most severe biter of the two. They are of all colours, red,
black, with tanned faces, flanks, legs, and feet, brindled,
sandy, brown pied, white, and white pied. The Pepper
and Mustard breeds, rendered famous by Sir Walter Scott,
are highly valued.
Kvery pack of fox-hounds, to be complete, should be
accompanied by a brace of terriers, and one should be
smaller than the other, so that if one should be stopped
by a small earth, the other may enter. For terriers going
with hounds, any colour is better than all red, for a red
terrier is sometimes mistaken for a fox, and hallooed off as
one by inexperienced sportsmen.
Mr. Daniel, in his 'Rural Sports,' gives the following
account of the ferocity and affection of a terrier bitch : —
Alter a very severe burst of more than an hour, a fox was
by Mi-. Daniel's hounds run to earth at Heney Dovehouse,
ill-ill- Sudbury, in Suffolk; the terriers were lost, but as the
fox went to ground in view of the headmost hounds, and
it was the concluding day of the season, it was resolved to
die him. Two men from Sudbury brought two terriers
fur that purpose, and, after considerable labour, the hunted
fox was got and given to the hounds. While they were
breaking the fox, one of the terriers slipt back into the
earth and again laid; after more digging a bitch-fox was
taken out. The terrier had killed two cubs in the earth,
but three others were saved from her fury. These the
owner of the bitch begged to have, saying he should make
her suckle them. This was laughed at as impossible ; the
man how ever was positive, and hail the cubs: the hitch
fox was carried away and turned into an earth in another
country.
Mr. 'Daniel then relates that, as the terrier had behaved
so well at earth, he some days afterwards bought her, with
the cubs which she had fostered. Tin- bitch continued to
suckle them regularly, and reared them until they were
able to shift for themselves : what adds to the singularity,
Mr. Daniel observes, is that the terrier's whelp was nearly
five weeks old, and the cubs could just see, when this ex-
change of progeny was made. He also states that a cir-
cumstance partly similar to the foregoing occurred in 1797,
at the duke of Richmond's, at Goodwood, where five foxes
were nurtured and suckled by two foxhound bitches.
The same author states, that in April, 1784, his hounds
found at Bromfield-Hall wood. By some accident the
whipper-in was thrown out, and after following the track
two or three miles, gave up the pursuit. As he returned
home, he came through the fields near the cover where
the fox was found. A terrier that was with him whined
and was very busy at the foot of a pollard oak, and he
dismounted, supposing that there might be a hole at the
bottom harbouring a polecat or some small vermin. No
hole could he discern. The dog was eager to get up the
tree, which was covered with twigs from the stem to the
crown, and upon which was visible the dirt left by some-
thing that had gone up and down the boughs. The
whipper-in lifted the dog as high as he could, and the
terrier's eagerness increased. He then climbed the tree,
putting up the dog before him. The instant the terrier
reached the top the man heard him seize something, and,
'. found him fast chapped with a bitch-fox,
secured, as well as four cubs. The height of the
tree was twenty-three feet ; nor was there any mode for
, go to or from her young, except the outside
the tree had no bend to render the path easy.
Tin i bs were bagged, and bred up tame to corn-
men; extraordinary case: one of them belonged
to ML Leigh, and used to run tame about the coffee-
roorn at Wood's hotel, ','ovent Garden.
The breed of terriers recommended in the old times
1'. C., No. 1018;
when the huntsman went on foot, was from a Beagle ant!
Mongrel Mastiff', or from any small thick-skinned dog that
had courage. Thus the coat and courage were supposed
to come from the Cur, and the giving tongue from the
Beagle. The time for entering the young terriers at a fox
or badger was when their age was ten or twelve months,
with an old terrier to lead them on. When entered at a
fox, and the old one was taken, the young terriers were
set to attack the cubs unassisted, and when they killed
them, both young and old terriers were rewarded with the
blood and livers fryed with cheese, with fox's or badger's
grease : at the same time the dogs were shown the heads
and skins to encourage them. There were other cere-
monies recommended, too cruel to be repeated, and which
could have been of little or no service. Honest Dandie
Dinmont's mode of entering his Pepper and Mustard gene-
rations is as good as can be practised.
A cross of the terrier with the bull-dog for the purposes
of badger-baiting, &c., was at one time much in vogue.
Of this breed was the celebrated dog Billy, famous for his
destruction of rats. He was often turned into a room
with a hundred of those animals, and he frequently killed
every one of them in less than seven minutes.
Of those inhuman practices — it is degrading the term to
call them sports — badger-baiting, cat-killing, dog-fighting,
and the like, we purposely say nothing here, except that
they have been, most properly, put down by law in the
metropolis and its vicinity.
TERRIER, from the French word terrier, a land-book,
a register or survey of lands. Those best known in this
country are the ecclesiastical terriers made under the pro-
visions of the 87th canon. They consist of a detail of the
temporal possessions of the church in the parish. They
ought to be signed by the parson, and are sometimes also
signed by the churchwardens and some of the substantial
inhabitants of the parish. Their proper place of custody
is the bishop's or archdeacon's registry : a copy also is
frequently placed in the parish chest. If a terrier is proved
to be produced from the proper custody, and therefore
may be presumed to be genuine, it is in all instances evi-
dence as against the parson. And in those instances where
it has been signed by churchwardens elected by the parish
or by the inhabitants, it is also evidence as against the inha-
bitants generally ; even against those occupying lands
other than the lands occupied by the inhabitants who
signed it. The questions in respect of which a terrier is
generally employed as evidence are those relating to the
glebe, tithes, a modus, &c.
(Starkie, On Kriili-nce.)
TERTIARY STRATA, the title given by almost
universal consent of geologists to the uppermost great.
group of strata. Previous to the publication of the 'Essay
on the Geology of the Basin of Paris,' by MM. Cuvier
and Brongniart, in 1810, but little attention had been
awakened to this great mass of deposits, though the fami-
liar use of the terms primary and secondary, and the
acknowledged dissimilitude between the latest of these
strata and modern accumulations from water, in respect of
mineral aggregation and organic exuviae, seemed to be
prophetic of the discovery of a newer type more in har-
mony with existing nature.
The extent to which, over great tracts in all quarters of
the globe, this type has been found to prevail, is exceed-
ingly great : most of the capital cities of Europe are built
upon tertiary strata ; many of the broadest plains and
widest valleys in the New and the Old World are nothing
but the dried beds of seas and lakes of the tertiary period :
and some considerable mountain ranges bear on their
high summits, and still more abundantly on their flanks,
portions of the shelly tertiary strata which were uplifted
from their original horizontaiity and subjected to the con-
vulsive movement! of which the mountain ranges are the
result. In almost every part of the globe strata of this
tertiary series prevail, and yield astonishing numbers of
shells, corals, Crustacea, and other remains of marine, fresh-
water, and terrestrial invertebrata, and more locally abun-
dant layers of fishes, and rich deposits of bones of mam-
malia, &c. Possessing so many attractions, and affording
such unusual facilities for study, the tertiary strata of Italy,
France, England, Northern Europe, the eastern states of
North America, the great tracts of Brazil, Patagonia, 6cc.,
have been the theatre of great and laborious investigati
which have brought forward our knowledge of these de-
VOL. XXIV. -2 1
T E R
•2+2
T E R
pout* to at lea* an equal advance with that of the older
ttrata.
Mmi- than thu can hardly be mid with jn
tlioi •„•
: producing modern accumulation* of
tediment* and orgai v\'.,ich produced
> strata, the >nmulr\.
of these i» almost completely known, then
iDiprehended, because tl»
>e ktrala was performed under :
.1- tin- accumulations "I Minds and
-.on the actual sea-bed, and because, since tlu-u1 pro-
duction and elevation from »e;i- :i dry land,
thcv lu\c, I'H >in their mm. :\ and inferior indara-
tion, been IDOIT subject to super e and dcstinction
than the older, nit< ., and more consolidated
strata. The incompleteness of our knowledge of the
gfnfml history of the tertian . ideut by the in-
completeness of the classification \\liicli represents that
history, and on this point, the only one which it appear*
-<iry here to discuss, we shall otic, marks.
AmoiiL'tlie primary and secondary strata [GEOUH;Y] sub-
divisi iponding to succesnve times of
have been found practicable and definable, and traceable
immense areas by mean* of a combination of m
tural, and organic characters. Limestones of certain
kinds, as chalk, oolite, magnesias-lime- . mipa-
nied with green, brown, or n
:: I holding spatangi, apiocrinites. or pa-
laeom and disunion- >us. oolitic, and
niagne.siaii formations and systems of - -tiata
ling to the carboniferous and other older s\ stems
of nicks. This has not been found so practicable, in "regard
to tli. . which, though presenting many dif-
ferent sorts of strata, oft'er in the inuiimr <>f combination
amonirv. these too many general analogies, and too much
of local difference, to be conveniently ranged into forma-
- having more than a local value, by means
of mineral und strnctuial characters!.
Some assistance towards the desired classification ap-
peared to be furnished by the alternation of marine and
•water sediments, as in the Isle of Wight, and in the
basin of Paris, and hence the titles of Upper and '
Marine, Upper and Lower Freshwater deposits acquired
a considerable application. Hut the most successful and
.lily best-founded classification of tertiary strata rests
: a study of their oriranic content*.
It has been long remarked that in those strata, wherever
'(•cur. the forms of animal and vegetable life make a
near approach, even specifically, to living types, liy
,\ examination, a certain number < have
found in tertiary strata actually identical with or un-
distinguishable from living objects. The pioportion in
which these still living species are mixed with now extinct
••lifved to be extinct) forms varies, so that in Sicily
\ beds occur with above !X) per cent, of still living
- ..I shells, but in the basins of London and Paris
others are found containing only about \i per ccnl.
There are reasons independent of these proportions
which leave no doubt that the strata i n and
Paris, which contain only •'i per cent, of livinLT f'.rm-. are
among the oldest ot • K : while the Sicilia-
which contain only about r> per cent, of extinct ^
are amount the most recent.
. this kind generalized lead to a speculation
which is strongly confirmed by the general current of
overy. that the relative antiquity of ter-
. may be judged of by the relative proportion
shells which air tumid in them
Ibis i :l have founded
the most prevalent modern classification of tertiary strata,
which may be thus I .lied: —
it I'l'rinil.
Newer Pleiocene Period, the strata containing not
"•» in a hundred.
Older Pleincene Period, the strata containing about 50
• in a hundred.
IVnod. the strata containing about 80 extinct
• hundred.
the strata containing about 95 extinct
ipecies in a hundred.
'Thews term* are taken from the Greek itmvuc, re
combined with *Xti'»i-. more. p,i*v, less and ju,c, the
dawn. .
The principle of jrr rent>i(;, emploved b\ Mr. Lvi'll in
this , .,i,UI not be si.
account of its HL-OIOUS numerical re-
found locully inapplicable. li i> iui|H.s.,|.li. ih;r
should be otherwise, for the mnneri.
iranic
ditions a.s well as to the
influences ; but that the irreat ea
lion- of the forms of p'anls and animals in Mice.
I.K|S. whether ])iimaiv. secondary. i>i teili:
of piiysii-al cncmn-
- ihtlucntial on organic life, appears am]
:.t that tin-
of iudiMih.. ;iions. and the numeiical iiiojioitions
of their coiiibinnlions. are in harmony with and iudn
of the successive physical conditions when they live..
•jiieiitly of the ...ds to which '
]ih\sical conditions belonged. The compaiison of indivi-
dual fossil and living foims is m mil that not the
.il or important, mode Of manifesting the I
"tits of organic life
•Is. By some other less obvious arithmetical ]iro-
!, the relatr antient and modern i
may he made to appear numerically, independent of any
such specific comparisons, and without limitation o;
•iphical rcfriou. Th. n at-
tcmptcd in regard to the !' Ibcsila L'cneially. and
I of Devonshire specially, und the result aft'ords
remarkable encouragement to the application,
calculations based on exact data repiesentinir the 1111
•inctly recognisable form* of different irronps of
organic remains, whether these be of living or extinct
tubes.
We have only further to remark, that the tertiary strata
more distinctly defined and separated from the
uppermost secondary strata than from the recent
water. In fact the most natural classification of t.
lie products, tertiary strata, and tertiary organn
mains, is with the living creation. In tertiary strata
the phenomena of mineral accumulation seem to be such
witnessed in daily operation : they contain marine,
littoial, and pelagic deposits; actuary and flmiatile sedi-
ments: lacustrine beds hardlv distinguishable from such
as are now in progress. In these sediments occur remains
of a system of terrestrial and aquatic life as complete if
we except reasoning man ' as that now in activity : and if
the absence' of man. and the animals v, Inch seem :
itcd with him for his comfort and ,v in the
actual creation, be thought a sufficient reason to n i
fiom historic time the account of tertiary deposits, and to
justify the adoption of a distinct c. Of modern
period in geological classifications, it is not the less true
that the geological date of the epoch of this period, the
line of separation between it and the terli ;- en-
tirely unknown by direct and positive facts, and ap:
incapable of determination by reasoning on any collateral
phenomena at present ascertained,
l.\, I!./'/-///.,. . DC la Beche, Geol<>L
' : Phillip
TKKTU.l.IA'MS. i.iVINTUS SEPTIMIUS FLO-
1\K\S. the earliest of the Latin ecclesiastical w;
lived in the latter part of the second century and the be-
ginning of the third. The exact date of his birth is un-
known : Tilleinout supposes that it was in !(>() A.U., and
have fixed it as carU as l;i.~>. li . ord-
iiiLT to Jerome :!>;• I if. filutt., ~>.l . at ('arthasre. where
his father was a centurion in tin I the proc
of Africa, lie ei-,ibi:!i-ed the profession ol
rhetorician, in which he ;i|
cmini Hi :.,d of his life In hen.
. l!l :
19, .Vi : ./
converted to ( 'hristi;: in nil \<-
though an cxpn s-ion ol I
been thought, to imply that his conversion look pl:>
Rome. Immediately Upon his conversion !
a piesbjtcr. About the end of the second <
writer i the vear 2lK)i. he ! Moii-
tanist. [Mo Jeiome /. C.
to his suffer m^ from the envy and insults of the clciiry of
the Koman eliurch, but a more adequate and more pro-
T E R
243
T E R
bable reason for it is found in the character of Tertullian
himself. In his writings composed before his Montanism
he shows many traces of that zeal and asceticism which
formed the peculiar characteristic of the Montanists. It
has been doubted whether he remained a Montanist to his
death. Some have thought that he returned to the catholic
church, and others suppose that he at last settled down
into opinions intermediate between those of the Montanists
and those of the orthodox. For neither of these suppo-
sitions is there any sufficient proof. There existed indeed
at Carthage, in the fifth century, a sect called Tertul-
lianists ; but between them and Tertullian there appears
to have been no historical connection.
Whether he remained a Montanist or not, he continued
to be held in the greatest respect by the African churches.
In fact it is to his influence that we must trace the cha-
racteristics which distinguished those churches from other
Christians, and which at length, through Augustin, gave
a tone to the Christianity of the West. His influence was
especially great upon Cyprian, in whose writings there is
much which closely resembles some of Tertullian's, and of
whom Jerome says that in asking for the works of Tertul-
lian he was wont to say, ' Da magistrum' ('Give me my
master').
The date of Tertullian's death is unknown, but we are
told by Jerome that he lived to a great age. One of his
works (' Ad Scapulam') was written as late as 216 A.D.
A large portion of his works have come down to us, and
these maybe divided into three classes : (1) apologetic,
(2) practical, and (3) doctrinal or controversial. The same
iication is sometimes stated differently, as follows :—
ritings against the heathen ; (2) writings on the na-
ture, morals, rites, &c. of the church ; and (3) writings
airainst heretics. It is important to distinguish, if possible,
between the works which he wrote before he became a
Montanist and those which he wrote afterwards. This dis-
tinction has been attempted by Neander and Biihr. On
the other hand, a few writers have thought that all the
works of Tertullian were composed after he adopted the
opinions of Montanus. (J. G. Hoffmann, Diss. omnia
Tertull. in Mvntanismo scripta videri, Wittenberg, 1738.)
I. Of Tertullian's Apologetic Works the following ap-
pear to belong to the earlier part of his life, and to have
been written in the reign of Septimius Severus. They are
free from the peculiar tenets of Montanism : —
(1.) ' Ad Martyres;' for the encouragement and vindica-
tion of those who suffered for being Christians.
(2.) ' De Speetaculis ;' written about 198, against the
Roman games and festivals, and to dissuade Christians
from being present at them.
(3.) ' De Idololatria ;' an exposure of the character and
influence of idolatry, with an exhortation to Christians to
avoid every approach to participation in it.
(4.) ' Apologeticus adversns Gentes pro Chi istianis ;' his
principal work of this class, and one of the best of all his
works, is a powerful refutation of the accusations made
against the early Christians, and a warm remonstrance
persecutions they suffered, addressed to the Ro-
man magistrates. It was written in the year 198, and has
been deservedly held in very high esteem both in antient
and modern times.
(5.| • Ad Nationes Libri II.' These two books, which
were discovered in manuscript by James Gothofred, and
printed by him at Geneva, 162."^ 4to., form a kind of
supplement to the ' Apologeticus.' The first contains
much the same matter as that book, sometimes expanded,
sometimes abridged, and sometimes newly arranged ; the
second takes up the general subject of heathen theology.
The date of these books appears to be about 199, if they
•.vritte.n after the ' Apologeticus ;' but, some writers of
high authority, as Neander and Miinter, suppose that they
were written before the latter work, in the year 198.
(6.) The treatise ' De Testirrionio Animae ' may be
riled as another supplement to the 'Apologeticus,' the
17th chapter of which contains in fact the fame argument
er form. Its object is to prove that there exists
originally in the human mind, to a certain extent, a know-
ue God, and that this knowledge of God
confirms the Christian doctrine of his character.
Thy remainder of Tertullian's apologetic works appear
e ITCH written after he became a Montanist. They
are :
(7.) ' DC Corona Militis ;' a vindication of a Christian
soldier, who refused to wear a crown which had been
awarded to him, on the ground that it was a badge of
heathenism, and who was imprisoned for his refusal. This
work contains remarks on other questions relating to the
duties of a Christian citizen under a heathen government.
(8.) ' De Fuga in Persecutione ;' a statement of the
Montanist opinion that Christians, when persecuted, might
neither attempt to save their lives by flight nor by money.
Written about 202.
(9.) ' Contra Gnosticos Scorpiace ;' an answer to the
slurs thrown upon the martyrs in the persecution of Septi-
mius Severus, by those scorpions the Gnostics.
(10.) ' Liber ad Scapulam ;' a defence of the Christians,
addressed to Scapula, the proconsul of Africa, who perse-
cuted them.
II. Practical Works, relating to Christian morals and
discipline. The following were written before he became
a Montanist : —
(11.) ' De Patientia ;' on Christian patience.
(12.) ' De Oratione;' tin prayer: one of Tertullian's
earliest works.
(13.) ' De Baptismo ;' on baptism : a defence and ex-
planation of the rite.
(14.) ' De Poenitentia ;' on repentance : a manual for
Catechumens and newly-baptized Christians.
(15.) ' Libri Duo ad Uxorem ;' exhorting his wife not to
marry a second time, if he should die before her.
The two following works were, in Neander's opinion,
most probably written after Tertullian became a Mon-
tanist :
(16.) 'De Cultu Feminarum;' on female attire : consist-
ing of two books, the first of which is sometimes denoted
by a separate title, namely, ' De Habitu Muliebri.'
( 17. ) ' De Virginibus Velandis ;' on the veiling of virgins :
in opposition to the custom then prevalent at Carthage, of
virgins appearing in church with the face exposed.
The remaining works of this second class are undoubtedly
Montanistic : —
(18.) ' De Exhortatione Castitatis ;' dissuading a friend
from marrying a second time. To the same purport are
(19.) ' De Monogamia;' and (20.) ' De Pudicitia.'
(21.) ' De Jejunitate,' or ' De Jejuniis ;' recommending
the severe practices of the Montanists, in preference to the
milder doctrine of the orthodox respecting fasts. In this
work, and others of his writings, he applies to the ortho-
dox the term ' psychici' (i//i'x«roi), carnal, which is used by
Paul ( 1 Cor., ii. 14) in opposition to ' spiritual.'
(22.) 'De Pallio,' composed in the year 208, is a treatise
recommending the wearing of the Greek pallium in pre-
ference to the Roman toga. It contains much information
respecting the form of these garments.
III. Horksnn Christian Doctrine and Polemics. The
only one of this class which seems to have been written
before his Montanism is
(23.) 'De Praescriptione (or Praescriptionibus) Haereti-
corum ;' against heretics in general, and especially the
Gnostics and Marciouites.
He continued his attacks upon the heretics, and espe-
cially the various sects of Gnostics, after he became a Mon-
tanist, in the following works:
(24.) ' Adversus Marcionem Libri V.'
(25.) ' Adversus Valentinianos ;' which Semler supposes
to be a close imitation of Irenaeus, ' Contra Haeieses.'
(26.) ' De Carne Christ!,' and (27.) ' De Resurrectione
Carnis,' are treatises on the resurrection, in opposition to the
Gnostics.
(28.) 'Adversus Hermogenem ;' against the doctrine
held by a Gnostic of that name, that matter is eternal, and
that out of this eternal matter not only all sensible things,
but also the souls of men are made, the latter being
besides endowed with a divine principle of life (irviti/ia).
Against this doctrine concerning the soul Tertullian wrote
another work, from which only some quotations have come
down to us : ' De Censu Animae.' Our loss is the less, as
we have a fuller treatise by Tertullian on the same sub-
ject, (20.) 'De Anima;' in which he discusses the theories
of heathen philosophers concerning the sou], and oppi
to them all the doctrines of Christianity, that it is spiritual,
immortal, and received direct from God.
There is also a work by him on the doctrine of the
Trinity.
(30.) ' Adversus Praxean ;' written about 201 or 205,
against the doctrine of Praxeas, which was in l;-et esscn-
212
T I
•-Ml
T K S
tially th* «»m* with that which afterward* became known
M Sabellianum.
In; put of his life he wrote ft work, 31.) ' Ad-
.leos, in answer to tin- .ic-.u*h objections against
t.:u:-'i .• .'•.
alxivc list contains nil the extant works of Tt-,tullian,
but he must have written many i :nc informs
us that manv of Ins work* h:ul been lost «'\rn before hi*
mix. in., !>>• I'ir. lltnsl., c. Tf.\. Amone his lost
ol which tlio titles are known, beside* that 'De
Onsu Anirnae,' alrendy mentioned, are some \vlm-li were
especially doiened to explain tin- opinions of the Monta-
nists, namely, • DeSpc Fuiehum.' one oft; vorks
in which was put forth the doctrine now known as Millen-
narianisin. of the personal reign of Christ on earth fora
thousand years [MILLKN-MI-M]. and 'De Paradiso.' He
also composed a defence of the • ecstasies' of the Monta-
nists in six books, to which \va.s added a seventh against a
certain Apollonius. His treatise ' De Aaronis Vcstibns '
appears to have been lost before Jerome's time. (See
Hicronym.. A/.-M/. l\iv.. near the end.)
Two works which an' sometimes erroneously ascribed
rtullian are the '('arniiiui Sihyllina,' and the • Aeta
tune et Kelicitatis.' Tertulhan holds one of the
laces, if not the MTV first, among the Ijitin lathers,
for learning and intellectual power. Even those to whom
his peculiar opinions were the least acceptable have eulo-
1 him in the highest terms. Tints Jerome says < l-'.]>i*t.
!\v. tec, "> . 'What more learned, what more acute than
Tcrtullian? whose apology and hooks aeainst the In
embrace all the learning of the ace.' Yincentiu* Lirincnsi*
imonilor., c. 24) adjudges to him 'by far the highest
place among 'he Uitin fathers,' and attributes to him 'the
most exten-ive learning both in thines divine and human,
and a grasp of mind which comprehended all philosophy.
all sects of philosophers, their authors and supporters, and
every variety of historical and scientific knowledge.'
Kra-Hiiius calls him -by far the most learned of all the
I-utin theologians.' il'rrfnt. nit }Iilitr.~} In short, the
lal judgment of the orthodox in antient and modern
•> may be summed up in the words of Jerome : 'His
is 1 praise, his heresy 1 condemn ' u'jus ingcnium
laudo. haeresin dainno). In fact, he appears liom his
writings to have become acquainted with all the learning
then taueht in the schools of the rhetorjtians, while to this
he added the results of careful observation, and then
brought all his knowledge to the support of the opinion*
nbniced, first as a Christian and afterwards as ;•.
tanist. Perhaps the mo*t Mriking feature in his writings
- intimate acquaintance with all the ramifications ol
hen theology and worship, and the powerful use he
makes of this sort of learning in his controversies with the
III-. cxccllcncic-, and defects are strangely mingled. \Vi
trace the skill of the rhetorician in his forcible reasonings
and his eloquent style, but he has also the rhetorician's
fault* in arguing often with more sophistry than truth, am"
in taking liberties with language till bis meaning becomes
His warm and zealous temper eivc* life am
impressiveness to his wiitincs: but its excess made him
an enthusiast and asccti we ought in truth to
.. fanatic. In his writings we may general!)
;ui; alter wor, I- !o express the warmth of his feeling*
and the depth of his convictions, and the result of this
effort, combined with the rhetorical character of his *i\le
i-ii to render his eloquence inflated and ob-cure. Hi
indulges frequent!) . and hyperboles, a?al
.lire ami irony. Hi* writings cutler crcatly both ii
argument and ;-t\lc. His polemical xvoik* an- the <
but not the mii.M i '< eant. His he*t works aie his A
on tin- Prescription of the Herein , •_'.(
on Kcpc'i . on l!apti-ni l:i . on l'ia\er 12 . or
Patience 11. and his address to Martyrs (1).
The best editions of Tertullian are those of Rhcnanusv
Itigaltius, and Semler. A full account of editions am
illustrative works is i_'iven at the end of the excellent small
Tertulhan in Leopold, in Geredorf B • Hibliotheea
Patw >rum Latinorum Selects,' 4 Tola. 12mo.,
'II. Tau.-tmitz.
l! whether the Tertullianus, or Tertyllianr.s
from two of whose woi ks t . • , in the •' I >
U this Tcrtullmmu. The subject is briefly discussed l.j
Zimmcni :,tc. dc» KJ'.m. Pmat: :th re-
erences toother remarks on this subject. Tertullian, in
us theological works, shows that he was well acquainted
vith Roman law.
The Church ' der. and
Schiockh ; Haehr's Chrntl ..an-
rlin,
Hishop Kaye. Tin- I
1111,1 Third Cm tin . the
riling* <if Trrtullian, Camb., i Miinter, Pri-
: 'I'nitie .l/rirnnar, Hafn.. 'ther
on the Life and \Vritings of Tertullian are uien-
ioued in the Appendix to Leopold's edition.)
TF.Itl 'M II s. ! As.]
1 1 KN. a circle of Austrian Silesia, is boundi
Ihe north by Prussian Silesia, on the cast by (ialieia. on
the south by Hungary, and on the west 1.x M<-ravi:t. Its
area is stated by most authors at about 720 or 7
Von l.icchtcnstern (alone, xve believe makes it
1360 square miles. The number of inhabitants is about
1HO,000. The country consists entirely of mountains and
valleys, but especially in the south, where the Carpathian
chain commences. The northern part is flatter, but in;
with many small lakes or meres, so that it is not well
adapted fo'r tillage. The Oder forms for a short di*-
the north-western boundary towards Prussian Silesia, and
iravitza divides it oii the west from Moravia. The
Vistula rises in the Carpathians on the Hungarian frontier,
from three springs, xxhich unite near the mountain Tai
floxv to the village of Wcichscl, and to the toxxi
M-hau and Schxx arzxvasser, and then running alone Hie
northern frontier of the circle, p:iss into (ialieia. The
circle has many forests, and consequently timber in
abundance; fine pasturage; and a ft >rses,
horned cattle, and sxvine. The inhabitants laisc some
oats and rye, and a great quantity of potatoes. Thci-
mines of 'iron and coals, which are not so extensively
1 as they might be. The inhabitants in ecneral
manufacture woollen cloth, linen, and wooden---
The circle contains the duchies of Tcschen and Bielil/,
and several inferior lordships. [Hm.rrz.] The duchy of
Teschen however constitutes by far the ercater part ol the
circle, having a population of: 140,000 inhabitants, who are
mo*tlx of Slavonian origin.
The duchy of Teschen formerly belonged to the em-
perors, as kines of Bohemia. In "1722 it was a*siencd to
Leopold, duke of Lorraine, as an indemnity for the Italian
duchy of Montfermt. to which he had some pret en-iou*.
Upon his death in 1721) it was inherited bv his son. after-
wards the emperor Francis 1.. xvho*e daughter Maria
Christina obtained it in 1770. and she having married
Prince Albert of Saxony, he took the title of Duke of
Saxe-Teschen. Prince Albert dxine February 10. 1S22.
without lineal descendants, the duchy was inherited b\ the
Archduke Charles, who governs it under the sovereignty
of Austria.
TESCHKN. the capital of the circle and the duchy, is
situated in 4!lu 40' X. hit. and IS" 32' K. lone- at tl;
of a gentle eminence, an offset of the Carpathians, on a
peninsula, or tongue of laud formed by the river Kl-a or
Olsa, and a small stream called the. Holier or Uobicck. The
ilmrbs, which are not separated from it.
by walls or gale*: the streets are in general broad and
straieht. a irrcat fire in 17s-'.'. before which it resembled
an irregular dirty Polish town, ha vine given an opportunity
to rebuild it in a better style : there arc still however
narrow ami sti-c; There are four Roman Catholic
churches and one Lutheran church; the la.*t is a ven
and handsome edifice. The Oberring is a regular square,
or lather parallelogram, in which is the town-ln'
building with a loilx tower, at the back of which are a
theatre and concert-room. Tcsehen i* tin 1 Ihe
courts of justice and public offices of the circle and the
duchy. There is a Roman Catholic eynina.*ium. with a
library of 12,000 volume*, ami collections of minerals, in-
sect*, and medals ; nnd a P: um. and several
schools. The inhabitants, now 7IKKI. manufacture fine
broadcloths, kerseymere, leather, ami a kind of HIM
known in German) bx the name of Tesehiiiks. They have
also a considerable trade in leather, wool, broadcloths,
Hungarian wines, honey, and wax. The tieaty between
Frederick II. of nd the empiess Maria Thl
which terminated what is called the war of the Bavarian
ion, was concluded at Teschen in 1779.
T E S
245
T E S
(Hassel ; Stein ; Cannabich ; Oesterreichische National
Encyclop&die.')
TESI, MAURO ANTONIO, or, as he is sometimes
called, after the name given him by his patron and ad-
mirer, Algarotti, II Maurino, was born at Montalbano in
the territory of Modena, January 15, 1730. Though in
poor circumstances, his parents were so desirous of giving
him a eood education, that they removed for that pur-
pose to Bologna, where he was admitted into the Scuole
Pie. Manifesting a great taste for drawing, he was placed
under Carlo Morettini, a mere heraldry painter. It is
therefore not without reason that Algarotti calls him self-
taught, for though he afterwards received some instruction
from an engraver named Giovanni Fabbri, it could have
contributed but little towards the excellence he displayed
in that branch of art which he selected,— architectural
design and painting. For this he was doubtless most of
all indebted, after his own talent, to the instruction and
'ance of Algarotti himself, who made him the com-
panion of his journeys to various places, and treated him
as a son. The attachment was reciprocal ; and it was
owing to his attentions to his patron during his last illness
at Pisa, that he fell into ill health himself, and died two
years afterwards at Bologna, July 18, 1766.
Algarotti has made frequent mention of Tesi in his
letters, where he has described many of his works at con-
siderable length, and speaks both of them and him in
terms that would seem quite exaggerated, if they were
expressed by a less intelligent critic, or were his praises
not confirmed by the opinions of others. The encomium
paid to his memory in the inscription on his monument in
the church of St. Petronio, Bologna, — ' Elegantise veteris
in pingendo ornatu, et architecture, restitutori,'— has not
been considered more than is due to one who set an
example of more refined and purer taste in architectural
design and composition. His productions are highly
med, and though his pictures are few, he left a great
number of drawings, and also a series of architectural plates
engraved by himself.
(Tiraboschi, Bibl. Modenete ; Lanzi, Storia Ptttorica.)
TE'SSERA, a small cube or square resembling our dice,
which was used by the antients for various purposes,
and accordingly it consisted of different materials, as
marble, precious stones, ivory, glass, wood, or mother-of-
pearl. Such small tesserae of different colours were used
to form the mosaic floors, or pavements in houses, which
were hence called tesselata pavimenta. (Sueton., Cccsar,
46.) The same kinds of cubes, usually made of ivory,
bone, or hard wood, and marked on all their six sides, were
used by the antients as dice in games of hazard, just as in
our times. In the earlier times three dice were used in a
game, but afterwards only two.
The word tiwera was also employed to signify any token
which was given to persons by which they might recognise
one another. In this case however the tesserae were pro-
l.nbly not cubes, but were of an oblong form, or small ta-
blets marked with certain signs. Thus we find mention of
/"i* j i> tu/ is, which strangers when forming a con-
niTtion of hospitality gave to one another, that they or
their children might afterwards recognise one another, and
it appears that a tessera in this case was marked with the
figure of Jupiter hospitalis. (Plautus, Poenul.,v. 1, 25;
•_'. s7, &c.) Tesserae frumentariae, or nummariae, were
occasionally given at Rome to the poor to serve as a token
or ticket, on the presentation of which they received a cer-
tain amount of corn or money. (Sueton., Aug., 40 ; Nero,
11.) The Roman soldiers also, before they commenced
a battle, received a tessera containing the watchword by
which they recognised their comrades, and were enabled
to distinguish them from strangers. (Virgil, jEn., vii. 637,
with the note of Servius.)
(Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiq., ' Tessera.')
TESSIN. There are three eminent Swedes of this name,
father, son, and grandson. The first of them, Nicodemus
the elder, or NICODEMUS VALENTINSON TESSIN, was born at
Sti:i!sund in 1619, and held the appointment of royal or
frown arcnitect, which was conferred upon him by Queen
( 'luistina in 1645, then vacant by the death of Simon de la
Valli'e. Very little more has been recorded of him, except
tiiat he vi-ited Italy, that a patent of nobility was granted
to him in 1074 by Charles XL, and that he filled the office
of in H gist rate at Stockholm. Even the time of his death is
not precisely stated, but it appears from collateral evidence
to have been somewhere about 1G88. As an architect one
of his chief works is the palace of Drottningsholm, begun
by him for the queen-dowager Hedwig Eleonora (widow
of Charles Gustavus), but completed by his son. He also
erected the royal villa of Strb'msholm, and the mauso-
leum of Charles Gustavus. In fame he has been surpassed
by his more eminent son,
COUNT NICODEMUS TESSIN, who was born at Nykoping
in 1654, and had for one of his baptismal sponsors the
queen Maria Eleonora, widow of Gustavus Adolphus. He
was carefully educated by his father, expressly with a view
to his future profession. As soon as he had completed his
studies, first at Stockholm, afterwards at Upsala, he was
sent at the age of eighteen to Italy, whither he accom-
panied the Marquis del Monte, a nobleman in the service
of Christina of Sweden. He studied at Rome under Ber-
nini, and acquired a taste for the fine arts generally. After
four years thus spent, he visited Naples, Sicily, and Malta,
and again returned to Rome, at which place he received
from Sweden his appointment as future hof-architect in
1689. On his return he was allowed, by Charles XL, to
prosecute his travels conformably with his earnest wish for
further improvement, and this time he visited England and
France, in which latter country he remained three years.
On finally settling in his native country, he received, in
addition to his former appointment, that of city-architect
to the magistracy of Stockholm. The destruction of the
royal palace by fire in 1697 afforded him an opportunity
for displaying his ability far more favourable than might
else have offered itself ; and of which he so well availed
himself as to render the new edifice one of the noblest of
its kind in Europe, though not what it would have been had
his ideas been fully carried out. He had also numerous op-
portunities of exhibiting his taste on a magnificent scale ;
but unfortunately they were only of a temporary nature —
on occasions of splendid court pageants and festivals, in
which his talent for architectural decoration was employed.
One of them was at the solemnization of the public entry
and coronation of Ulrica Eleonora, the wife of Charles XL,
who was herself an artist, and displayed considerable pro-
ficiency in portrait-painting. By the queen-dowager
Hedwig Eleonora he was employed not only to complete
Drottningsholm, but to lay out the grounds and gardens
both there and at Ulriksdal. Besides the cathedral at
Calmar, and Oxenstiern's monument, he executed or de-
signed a great number of other buildings, including a pro-
ject for rebuilding the palace at Copenhagen, which was
partly carried into effect, many years alter his death, when it
was curtailed, and by no means improved in other respects.
Elevations of the original design were published by his son,
under the title of ' Regiae Hafniensis Facies,' &c. In addi-
tion to his professional occupations, the count (which title
was conferred upon him in 1714) was engaged in many
offices that he held at court, and he took a considerable
share in public and political affairs. At the time of his
death (1728) he was chancellor of the university of Lund.
Count Nicodemus was twice married.
COUNT CHARLES GUSTAVUS TESSIN, the son of Count
Nicodemus by his first marriage, was bern at Stockholm in
1695. Though not without talent for architecture, which
he had considerably improved by travelling, he did not
exercise it professionally, except in completing the palace
at Stockholm after his father's death. His claim to cele-
brity was of a very different kind ; it was as a statesman
and diplomatist that he chiefly distinguished himself. He
was ambassador at the court of France from 1739 to 1742,
and president of the chancery from 1747 to 1752. As tutor to
the prince-royal, afterwards Gustavus III., he wrote for his
instruction a series of letters on political and moral topics,
which were published,-and of which there is a French
translation. Count Gustavus was a zealous promoter of
every scheme for the advancement of his country ; he did
much for the encouragement of arts and manufactures, and
first established the Swedish Academy for Painting and
Sculpture in 1735. Some years before his death lie with-
drew from public business and affairs, and lived in retire-
ment on his estate at Akeroe in Sudermania, where he died
in 1771 ; and by his death-the family became extinct.
(Weinwich, Ktmstner-Lexicon ; Nordin, Minna ofver
Namnkunniga Svenka Man ; Ehrenstvb'm, B. Arts en
/ri/i' ; Biogr. Vnivers.*)
TESTACELLUS, the name of a genus of testaceous
pulmoniferous mollusks. For the views of authors as to
T E8
T E S
iU place in the system, tee the article LIMAX. Mr. J. E.
Ormv an»n«» it oetween Plfclrovltortu and /.'•'.</. under
- M-COIld 111
itrie Character.— Animal elongated, .•yliiulir
acuminated at eacJi extremity ; no euilBM ; brad distinct.
furnished with four rv tractile tentacles, of which th
are tin- longest and rum tl\. • long mid
Imonary cavity situated at the pos-
thc animal's length,
tirelv backwards, under the right side of the :i])ex of tile
shell, the anal apctt near it : 0 ncra-
Imn unitcil. and showing then orifice near anil behind the
frr*»t right tentacle.
Shell external, solid, auiitbrm, depres§e<l. with the spire
nr less projecting, having a • I and oval
aperture : the right lip simple and trenchant, the left con-
vex and reflected : the shell covers the posterior part of
the pulmonary cavity.
The number of ipeeiM given by I-amarck is one only;
and though M. Deshayes in his Tables makes the number
both recent), one only is recorded in the last edition
of Lamaick." Mr. G. B. Sowerby figures and de-
three : — Trxt'if'IH h iliatidni*. Si-iilii/iim. and Mungri.
-lory. Habits, <$-c. — This form appears to have been
first noticed by M. Duguf, in a garden at Dieppe in 1740 :
but it does not seem to have attracted much attention till
M. Mange1, some years since, brought home specimens
from • ! uf Tent-rifle. ' It has also been found.'
Mr. Sowerby. • in several parts of France, and in
Spain, and more lately in a garden at Bristol. Some spe-
rimi-ns from the last-mentioned place have been handed
Mr. Miller of that city. It feeds upon earth-
worms, having the power of elongating its body to such a
'low them in all their subterra-
nean windings: we have observed them attentively, and
were rather surprised that an animal generally so ex-
tremely sluggish in its motions, after discovering its prey
by means ol it- tentacula, thrusting from its large mouth
hite crenulated revolute tongue, should instantly
upon with extraordinary rapidity, and firmly retain.
an earth-worm of much greater size and apparent force
than itself, but which by its utmost exertion is unable to
escape." Mr. Sowerby adds, that Dr andCuvier
consider this to be the only carnivorous terrestrial mollusk.
De Ferussac remarked that the simple, gelatinous, con-
tractile mantle of the animal, hidden habitually under the
shell, is divided into many lobes capable of enveloping the
whole body by an extraordinary development, when the
animal finds it necessary to protect itself from the conse-
quences of too great dryness.
Localities. — Testacelliu haliotideus inhabits the South
of France ; Test. Maugei is an inhabitant of Tern-rifle,
but naturalized at Bristol ; and Test. Srutuliim. which was
discovered by Mr. Sowerby in a garden at Lambeth, may,
in the opinion of Mr. G. B. Sowerby, be considered as a
native of this island.
Nlx-ll ofTiiUrrlliH Mau:iM : IT, on'
IVtUcrlltll Maugrt.
a, .hell in ».tu. (O. D. .V
'AMKNT. [War.]
si) NK\V l dis-
pute hav. 'lit' meaning n
E
•
n of God t
s.se*. Tin
. -,v txrith, no used in the lii>t
•M of the sacred writings, and rendered in the latter
; »n than II
the Hibicw is c-oiitiiined in th.
belongs also to t
the original of the ordinan
of the Scriptures, th
ijipiopriate designation than th.. ' esta-
ment can be applied to th ortion. 1'-
: was dcl'ciulci;
(among other authorities of equal weight '<. on the gi
that •Testanientnm non voluntatem defunctorum sonat,
sed pact uni viventium.'
This compact or covenant was originally entered into
by the Almighty with Abraham -although, to'speak strictly,
the outline of it wits given on the fall of man . The his-
tory of the religion of the Old Testament subsequent
the call of Abraham may i I as that uf the pro-
gressive development of'a belief in the One True Goil. It
18 most fitly contemplated under two principal pun
view: 1, the kn l a Kevelation from God as a
connected work, and in its subject-matter: and 2, ti
the attributes of God, so multiformously but at the •
time so harmoniously manifested. 'Antient prophecy
ended as it had begun. The first discovery of it in Pan
and the conclusion of it in the book of Malacln
directed to one point. In if it had multiplied its
disclosures, and furnished \arioiissnccours1oreligion.aml
Ian authentic n and moral
government to be committed to the world. Hut its c-;
and i: M was in the preparatory revelation of
Christianity. D The other subject, by winch
t he ( )ld Testament is taken tip. is, as we - ived,
the progressive declaration of the attributes of God.
There i- observable throughout the books of th>
lament a >u :\ as a Christian revelation. In like
manner with the latter, 'the divine law was unfolded. The
Patriarchal and the M lantsdo not express so full
a model of the law of righteousness whereby man
serve his Creator, as the later revelation given by the
Prophets.' Ibid.)
The leading use of the Old Testament was the prepara-
• velation of Christianity. Its one great lesson. c\-
.1 or implied, was that of the indwelling guilt.
depravity, and weakness of man. How deeply rooted in
human conviction was this feeling, may be estimated from
the universality of sacrifice for sin, and reliance on (he
; mediatorial ministry of a priesthood. Their guin
weakness, and consei|ncin from (iod.
exhibited to the .lews b\ the sin offerings of their
which God deigned to receive, not at the guihy ha
ordinary men, but at those of his especially appi
servants. Nor were even these favoured servant -
as free from the lurking infection of then Him,
whom the very he.':\ n. F.ven ti
priests the n 1 was forbidden
the high priest (that awful and mysterious fur..
Heaven the Holy Place was closed, save on or
under certain restrictions. So clearly then did
divinely appointed law show forth to the .lews their
and the in i difficult!: :>ncili:ition with
God, which other nations saw- but faintly, altli.
i the truth, lint the
.lewish nation went a >d others. All n
in piactice the ncees-ity of sacrifice and a priesthood,
the pc :one in this. — that tl
hopefully forwaid to a time when the law which .
high-] ien having infirmity should c-
peiiod be put to the daily mi 'id ott'erin
which can nev er take away sin. A lime
'iiiing. when the won
be fulfilled respecting a more copious diffusion of the know-
ledge of the Lord. And all this was wrought in Him
•'ring and priest, God and man, nan
drat.
This great doctrine of Oh
to mankind, form the end of the types, the n
and tl : t. Hut a
Holy
leavin
a new and living way.
T E S
247
T E S
Christianity, or the religion of both Testaments, is tha
habitual course of life which rests upon a conviction o
the necesbity of the redemption of the world, and of the
neeJ of a personal redeemer — Jesus Christ. Hence th
inadequacy of various terms employed occasionally a
synonymous with Christianity (such as the religion o:
moral conduct ; a practical belief in immortality and re-
tribution ; or the worship of God according to the pattern
given by Jesus) to express its distinctive peculiarities
ie of the religions to be found in the world at the birth
of Christ can claim alliance with Christianity, save thai
one which alone has any pretensions to be regarded as
historical and positive, and which was directly alluded to
by our Lord in the words that ' Salvation cometh from the
Jews.' Nor are the reasons of this difficult to be traced.
The conviction of the need of redemption turns the mind
upon the conviction of sin ; sin leads it to the considera-
tion of the law broken and violated : and this last con-
ducts it up to the original destination and capability ol
man and his relation to God ; and nowhere are these steps
to be traced so clearly as in the Law and the Prophets — the
writings which contain the fullest account of the existing
disease and promised remedy.
It is true that heathenism served in some sort to prepare
the way for Christianity. This is clear from two facts :
the ease with which heathen converts adopted the tenets
hrintianitv; and the analogy instituted by the early
Christian apologists between the relics of revealed truth,
which formed the brightest gems of heathenism, and their
own purer faith. But this preparation was merely nega-
Heathenism did no more than point out contraries
which it could not reconcile, doubts which it could not
solve, and wishes which it could not gratify. All ptmitirr
preparation for Christianity and the subject-matter of reve-
lation belongs to the Old Testament exclusively.
The knowledge of the subject-matter of the Christian
system is drawn from one source exclusively, apostolical
tradition, as preserved to us in the sacred writings of the
New Testament. From these alone authoritative instruc-
tion is deduced. An analytical outline of the system of
faith contained in these writings is most properly divided
into two portions, respectively comprising the periods of
time anterior and subsequent to the coming of Our Lord.
In considering the ante-Christian period, the attention
is divided between Judaism and heathenism, or in other
words, between man under the law of God, and man with-
out this law, — the two great classes into which the human
race was divide '' lently to the publication of the
Mosaic code. But although different in many particulars,
both classes are included under one general point of re-
semblance, their wretchedness and want of a redeemer.
From this helpless condition of man the mind reverts to
the point whence this dominion of sin and death, inse-
parably united, dates its commencement. But here a
-lion arises, whence was derived the power of sin to
extend itself among those who, like the Jews, possessed a
knowledge of the will of God :' The considerations arising
from this, of the relation of sin and death to the law, lead
tii the conclusion that the commandment which was or-
dained unto life was unto death. The law, according to
St. Paul, so far from affording deliverance from sin, or pro-
ducing saiictification, was the means of aggravating both
condemnation and guilt. This is still further illustrated
by other facts laid down by St. Paul, that the law can
never make man holy or happy in the sight of God. Being
such, why was it given at all ? The answer is, that it be-
longed to the plan by which God designed to make man
capable of redemption through Christ. To establish the
necessity of such redemption, to impress upon men a con-
\iction of the need of it, and to kindle a longing for it in
their hearts, is the object of the period anterior to Christ.
Accordingly a survey of the state of the human race
antecedently to the coming of Christ leads to a conviction
of the need of a redeemer. The heathens lived in vice,
without knowledge of God, serving idols. Their standard
of action was litlle higher than that afforded by earthly
moti-. remaining of a higher knowledge.
The condition of the Jews was very different. They were
indeed in i of Hie divine law, but they sought in
vain to establish their righteousness before God by ob-
servance of its precepts.
Through redemption, the difficulties which characterized
the ante-Christian period (and more especially the Jewish
portion of it) were removed, and God and man reconciled.
The statement of the conditions and accomplishment of
this reconciliation leads to the consideration of the new
and holy life arising from it.
The primary source and commencing point of the whole
scheme of redemption is God. According to his eternal
council, God decided on reconciling to himself a world
which had become alienated from him, and on rescuing
the race of Adam from the ruin to which they were has-
tening. This decree God had made known through his
prophets. An evidence of his truth and faithfulness was
supplied by its accomplishment. The instrument of this
was the mission of his Son, according to the eternal pur-
pose of his Father, 'that in the dispensation of the fulness
of time he might gather together in one all things in
Christ, both which are in Heaven and which are in earth.'
This mission of the Son, from which the newer period,
that, of Christianity, dates, coincides with the time when
heathenism and Judaism may be said to have filled their
appropriate spheres of moral action. Although no dog-
matic system, technically speaking, is to be found in the
writings of the New Testament, two points immediately
relating to the person of Christ are brought prominently
forward throughout. The first of these is his claim to
divine honours as the Son of God ; the second, his meri-
torious course of action, of which the crowning point was
his death, to which his resurrection was the glorious
sequel, and the proof of the completeness with which his
office had been discharged.
The object of our Lord's earthly life was rather a course
of blameless and exemplary action than the delivery of a
moral code for human guidance. Hence, although in the
hortatory portions of St. Paul's Epistles allusion is made to
the excellencies exhibited by Christ, the mode 'of becoming
like him ' was conceived in a spirit, far deeper than that of
mere moral imitation. It is described as a putting off the
old man, and being clothed with Christ ; as being buried
with Christ, and as rising again with him. Such expres-
sions arise necessarily from the inseparable connection,
laid down in the New Testament scheme, between the
death and resurrection of Christ, as the foundation of the
ustification of man in the sight of God.
The doctrines of repentance and a holy life implied in
:hese characteristics of the new covenant are essential
conditions on the side of the human party to the contract.
This is the sum and substance of the Sermon on the Mount,
which stands at the entrance of our Lord's earthly ministry,
a fit entrance and portal to the temple which lies beyond,
and an unfolding of the spirit and pure meaning of the
aw under which Christ came to live and suffer. A better
observance of this would have obviated the Antinomian
Jerversions which have risen up from the earliest times.
)ne garment, and one only, will make man meet for
rleaven :the wedding garment of Christ's parable), which
s the imputed righteousness of Christ, the accepted sacri-
ice for the children of Adam. But while the human race
exists, the essential rules of that law which Christ came to
satisfy will be binding, and men will find their truest
>leasure and profit in obedience to its spirit. Christ came
o found a new kingdom. Accordingly he opens his first
liscourse by describing the members of it, their condition
and prospects in the world. And yet his kingdom was not
o much a new one, as a fulfilling and spiritualizing of the
brmer dispensation ; for which reason the second part of
lis sermon is taken up in expounding the law of Moses,
and its real obligations, and, in the words of Robert Hall,
in animating its spirit, and in filling up or directing its
>ractice.' But essential to a due performance of the con-'
litions of this law ' must be reckoned the assistance or
guidance of God's holy spirit, as the chief of all aids, and
vhich contains all others. And because this cannot be
indei stood without admitting that the Holy Spirit is omni-
>resent, all-sufficient, and, in a word, strictly divine ; there-
ore the divinity of the Holy Ghost is a fundamental article
>f the Christian covenant.' (Latham, Harmonia Paulina.')
Christian Society forms the second part of the theologi-
cal system which may be extracted from the New Testa-
nent! as comprehending the origin of the Christian com-
nunity, its gradual progress and necessary conditions, the
relation of its members to each other, and their unity in
he spirit. We cannot fai-l to observe, according to Ham-
nond, ' from the interchangeable mixture of the graces
ICM-, ibed by Christ in the opening of the Sermon on the
248
I
Miimt. tlml to God belong til.- clu, .
our !• ct so as no
ijuir B!M> 111 11- lubordinaUoD
towards man also; one intcrmixm:; lovingly and liicmlly
with the oil icr, and neither performed as it OUght,i
other be iKxlcctcd.' The common bond ofall Chrirtww
hi'|n- by which tliey become parta!>.
the hem-tits ami salvation placed within their reaeb by the
', and Hi,' ics'irroction of < 'hrist. Accord-
• the partakers of this common I'nitb and hope form
ie.tively that spiritual body ul' which Christ is the head,
namely, the Christian Church, in which, as in the n;
body, various offices are distiibuted to the different num-
bers ; but the most exi-ellent endowment of any member is
,'k in Christian love :i:ul ])iirity under the guidance of
the Holy Spirit. The two sacraments, which were typified
to tli. - in the wilderness, baptism and the Lord's
Supper, are symbols of the Church's union with Christ.
In baptism, the outward sign of our resurrection to a new
life fvdin the death of sin, and of our admission to the
Church, we art- joined by the Holy Spirit to Christ our
: and the perpetual commemoration of Christ's death,
according to his command in the Lord's Supper, is a means
whereby we perpetually renew our spiritual strength, and
draw more closely our union with him and with each other.'
(Latham, Harm. Pun/.)
The conclusion of the subject-matter of the New Tc-ta-
ment is a sketch (by prophetic anticipation; of Christian
society in its completeness of glory, which shall be accom-
plished by Christ at his second coming as the glorified
Son of God, when he shall triumph over all opposition,
and the redeemed he united with God in cvt rlastiui; hap-
pinc-s . We have seen that Christ's obedience unto death
was in order that many iniirht live; and this will be ac-
complished at that resurrection which Christianity alone
. in the imaire of the
'y, will then be in that of the heavenly. The same
spirit,' which we learn from the New Testament dvYelleth
in our mortal bodies, shall quicken these that they shall be
.! from the dead. \Vheii ' those that dwell in the dust
shall awake,' then our mortal bodies will be changed, and
made like unto the glorified one of Christ. bv the power
w herewith he is able to subdue all thinsrs unto himself.
TKSTAMKNT. OLD AND NEW. ' The view of the
connection of the Old and New Testaments and the ccnc-
ral theory of divine revelation iriven in the pr-<
article aie bv no means admitted by all Cluistiai ,. They
are d< parted from in various directions and degrees by dif-
ferein >t completely opposed by Uni-
tarians. They deny that the doctrine of hereditary and
total depravity is either consistent with reason and expe-
rience or at all sanctioned by Scripture. They hold the
nature of the sacrifices, both in the patriarchal times and
under the law. to be altogether misunderstood by those
who consider them • .: to a corrupted natm
to an atonement. They endeavour to prove that the sacri-
ficial lan«ru!it_re of the New Testament is founded on
figurative, allusions to the rites and ceremonies under llu
law. may be natuially tiaced to the circumstances of tin
writer^, ami has peculiarities which it could not have hai
if intended literally to express a L'rcat reliirions doctrine
They maintain that the whole system of types and anli-
i'i the Old and New Testament is without goot
Scriptural authority, and loaded with inconsistencies am
views both of the law and the gospel. Tin
reject the applications which are made of some real or sup-
.1 prophec
The view which prevails among modern Unitarians o
the L'encial theory of revelation and the connection of (hi
i" the different divine inteil.
'ed to different stages ill the progress of mankim
from infancy towards maturity : that each was best (ill,.
for the time in which it was gi\cn, uniting the i:
amount of immediate -rood with the t iwer t<
the advancement of the race; that the .i
SVntein in particula. ;ned to preserve th-
ine of the Unity of G.id at a time when the v.
rml was sinking fast \ adini; and coiriipting
in exhibit to the nations around, and to all win
should aller.vaids contemplate the history of the chosen
I and illustration !•;, example of the morn
, wlii'Ti the world should be in a lit state
. it, of the .nity,
which mav : 'ed as a spiritualised and
. Idmi: to it whatever important re-
ive Ix-cll j
with advani.. ihe iriand doctrine of a future
,111111: the
faith, and ho])e to men of all nations without distinction,
and without ritual observances. The knowledge of the
paternal character of God and of hi-
ill his children who sincerely desire and endeavour to
inm : the doctrine of a future lite distinctly tautrht and
directly proved, and the enforcement of the purest moral
principles, constitute, according to their view, the )
liarity and value ol Christianity; and the whole system of
God'.s holiness rcquirim: human punishment, and >
merits savin-; men from wiath. is rejected as nnseripturaJ,
unreasonable, and pernicious. It is enough for us In
state the opposite doctrines which form the grand subject
of controversy in the Christian world. Any attempt to
trive an account of the evidence appealed to on
would lead us far beyond the bounds which we are obliged
to prescribe to ourselves.
TESTAMENTS OF TIIF. 'IYVF.LVE PATKlAKclls.
a Greek work which professes to contain the last woi'
the twelve patriarchs, the sons of Jacob, but which is con-
.1 to be undoubtedly spurious by all writi
Winston, who accepts it as a part of the canon of the Old
Testament ; but no Weight can be attached to his judg-
ment on the matter.
The age and authorship of this work are much disputed.
It is once quoted by Oriiren, who nourished about A.L>.
230. The most probable opinion is that ol ' l.ard-
ni r. who suppose it to have been written by a Jewish con-
vert to Christianity about the end of the - ntury
after Christ.
It appears to have been the writer's object to foist his
work into the Canon, since, thoiurh he makes freqficnt
quotations from the books of the Old Te.-tament. he never
mentions any of them by name. The only book which he
quotes by name is ' the book of Enoch the Kighteons.'
These testaments have been frequently published in
Latin. They were iiist printed in Greek by Giabc in his
f</>i<-i/i'ff. 1'atr., and afterwards by Fabricius in bis
<< pigraph., and YVhiston published an English trans-
lation of them in his Aut/i fits.
(Lardner's Cri'dihility. part ii., c.2l), $ 3, and the smth. :i-
tics there quoted.)
TESTIMONY. [EVIUKNCE.]
TKSTIMONY. PERPETUATION OF. [PKKI-KTUA-
TION OF TKSTIMONY.]
TF.STONE. orTKSTOON. [MONEY.]
TF.STS, CHEMICAL, or Chemical Ke-airents. are those
substances which are employed to detect the \
other bodies, by admixture with which they are 1,
to produce certain changes in appearance and properties:
thus, for example, as the blue colour of litmus is turned
red bv acids, it is considered as and used I'm
determine their presence when uncombinod or in e\
so also litmus which has been reddened by an acid I.
blue colour restored by the action of au alkali : reddened
litmus is therefore used as a test of the presence of free.
or uneombined alkalis.
We ^'ive these examples from thousands which miirhl
have been selected, merely to explain the meaning of the
term chemical test, observ ing that change of colour :
only of the many alterations adduced in proof of chemical
action : thus the solubility of certain substances in
•nts and not in others, constitutes another criterion or
test of the nature of !>•
We cannot enter particularly into this subject, for its
extent is equalled only by its importance j ami it istl
requisite that we should do M>. since, in de:.eiibir.
various metals. ,Ve.. the tests of their pic-
irivcn with the properties of their salts.
We refer the reader who wish '.V of
the subject to two works which have appealed in Fiance,
Tiaite elemcnlaiie dcs Kcaclils.' Vc.. bv I'avcn and
< lu vallier. in '2 vols. Kvo.. and ' Dictionnaire <'.•
Chimiques.' bv Lassai^ne. in 1 v
•IT.STl'DINA
TKSTl DO. [T.urrnisKs.]
Tl'.TANUS (riravor. derived from rnW
both a generic and a specific turn : genciically, it may be
T E T
249
T E T
defined to be a more or less violent and rigid spasm of
many or all of the muscles of voluntary motion ; the name
is also particularly applied (as will be seen hereafter) to
one of the species of this affection. Both the disease and
also its name are as old as the time of Hippocrates ; and,
as it is proved by experience to be much more frequent in
warm climates, the antient physicians probably had pecu-
liar advantages in observing it, and accordingly seem to
have paid particular attention to it. The following de-
scription by Aretaeus (De Cans, et Sign. Morb. Acut.,
lib. i., cap. 6, p. 6, ed. Kiihn) is written in his usual graphic
style. (The translation by Dr. Reynolds has been chiefly
followed.)
' Tetanic spasms,' says this author, ' are attended with
severe pain, and prove rapidly fatal, and by no means
readily admit of relief; they make their attack on the
muscles and tendons of the jaws and neck, but impart the
disease to every other spot, for all parts become sympathe-
tically affected with those which were primarily assailed.
' There are three forms of the convulsions : the straight,
the backward, and the forward. The straight one is true
Tetanus, when the patient is stretched straight and inflexi-
ble ; the backward or forward varieties have their name
from the direction and locality of the tension ; hence the
deflexion of the patient backwards is termed opisthotonos
(tnrtireoTovos), 'from the nerves being affected in this direc-
tion ; while, if the bending be forward, by the nerves in
front, it is termed emprosthotonos (iuirpo<r6oTovos), for tonos
(TOVOS) is a term which signifies both a nerve and tension.
' The causes of these affections are numerous : they often
follow a wound of a membranous part, or punctures in
muscles or nerves, and in such cases the patients usually
die, for (as Hippocrates says, Aphor., sect, v., $ 2, torn, iii.,
p. 735) " traumatic spasms are fatal." A woman may be
convulsed after miscarrage, and she seldom recovers ; some
persons are seized with spasms from a violent blow on the
neck ; intense cold may prove a source, and hence these
diseases are particularly liable to occur in the winter; they
are less frequent in the spring and autumn, and least of all
in the summer, unless they arise from a wound, or a visita-
tion of foreign diseases. Women are more liable to con-
vulsions than men, because they are of a colder tempera-
ment, but they more frequently recover, from the moisture
of their temperaments.
' As respects the various periods of life, children are liable
to this affection, but do not. often die, for it is one they
are used to, and familiar with ; youths are less frequently
affected, but more die ; adults are least of all liable to be
attacked ; while the old have it, and die from it, more
than any other class of persons : the cause is referrible to
the frigidity and dryness of old age, which is also the
nature of death, for, if the cold be attended with mois-
ture, the spasms are less injurious and fraught with less
danger.
' It may be said in general of all these affections, that they
are attended with pain and tension, both of the tendons
and spine, and of the maxillary and thoracic muscles ; for
they so clench the lower jaw to the upper, that it is not
easy to separate them either by lever or wedge ; and if,
on forcibly separating the teeth, any liquid be introduced,
it is not swallowed, but returned, or retained in the mouth,
or ejected through the nostrils, for the passage of the
fauces is closed, and the tonsils, being hard and tense, do
not collapse so as to depress the food in swallowing. The
face is red and mottled, the eyes nearly fixed, turned with
difficulty round, there is a strong feeling of stifling, respira-
tion laboured, the arms and legs on the stretch, the muscles
quivering, the face distorted in all sorts of ways, the cheeks
and lips tremulous, the chin in constant motion, the teeth
grate, and sometimes the ears will move, as I have myself
witnessed with amazement : the urine is cither retained
with violent pain, or flows off involuntarily from compres-
sion of the bladder. These appearances are common to all
the species of spasms ; each variety of this disease has
however its pecularities.
•In ti'tinni* the whole body is stretched in a right
line, rigid and immovable, while the legs and arms are
straight.
' In opixthotnnnit the patient is bent back, so that the
head pulled in that direction lies between the shoulder-
blades, while the throat projects ; the lower jaw is usually
open, and is rarely locked with the upper ; the respiration
is stertorous, the abdomen and thorax are prominent, and in
P. C., No
this form especially there is incontinence of urine ; the
epigastrium is tense and resonant when struck, the arms
are forcibly wrenched back in a state of tension, while the
legs lie bent together, for the elbow bends in a manner the
reverse of what the ham does.
' If emprosthotonos take place, the back is bent, the hips
are forced on a level with the shoulders, the whole spine
is on the stretch, the head is dependent and bent on the
chest, the chin fixed upon the sternum, the arms cramped
up, and the legs at full stretch. The pain is severe in all
the forms, and wailing is the voice, deep are the sobs and
groans, and if now the disorder has assailed the chest and
respiration, it soon hurries the sufferer off — a boon indeed
to him, as it relieves him from pain, distortion, and
humiliation, and serving also to lighten the distress of
those present, even if they be his own father or son ; but
if there be still respiration enough to support life, and
although oppressed it be still performed, the patients are
not merely bowed forward, but are even rolled up like a
ball, so as to have their head on their knees, and their legs
and back parts wrenched forward, so as to look as if the
knee joint were thrust into the ham. It is an affliction
more than man can bear, a sight revolting and painful to
behold ; and this cruel disease is irremediable, and from
the distortion the sufferer is not recognised, even by his
dearest friends, and the prayer of those around (which
would have been heretofore impious, but hath become
now righteous) is, that the wretched sufferer may depart
out of life, and be released at the same time from his
existence, pain, and horrible torment ; and the physician,
though present and looking on, is not merely unable to
save his life, or to give relief to his pains, but he cannot
even improve his shape ; for to attempt to straighten the
limbs would be like mangling and breaking the man in
pieces while yet alive, and therefore, no longer offering his
assistance, he is reduced to the sad necessity of merely
contributing his sympathy.'
The three forms of the disease mentioned by Aretaeus
are described by most of the antient writers : the species
ca!led trt'smtis, or locked-jaw (which is the name applied
to it when the spasms are confined to the muscles of the
jaw or throat), forms a fourth in modern authors ; and to
these has been added a fifth, under the name Pleitros-
thotonos (Tr\evpoa8oTovof}, which signifies that the body is
drawn to one side. These different terms applied to
tetanic affections do not imply so many particular
diseases, but only the seat and various degrees of one
and the same complaint. Trismus is invariably a part of
each of the other varieties. This subdivision of the disease
is of little or no practical importance ; but a much more
essential division is into acute or chronic, according to its
greater or lesser intensity. The former kind is exceedingly
dangerous and usually fatal ; while the latter, on account
of the more gradual progress of the symptoms, affords
more opportunity of being successfully treated. (Larrey,
in Mem. de Chtrurgie Militaire, tome i., pp. 235, 236,
quoted in Cooper's Diet, of Pract. Surgery.} Tetanus is
also divided into traumatic, or that arising from a wound,
which is also occasionally termed symptomatic; and into
idiopathic, or that which proceeds from other causes.
Traumatic tetanus sometimes comes on in a surprisingly
sudden manner, and quickly attains its most violent degree.
The most rapidly fatal case that has ever been recorded is one
that we have on the authority of the late Professor Robi son
of Edinburgh. It occurred in a negro, who scratched his
thumb with a broken china plate, and died of tetanus a
quarter of an hour after this slight injury. (Rees's Cyclo-
pcedia, art. 'Tetanus,' quoted by Cooper.) Most com-
monly however the approaches of the disorder are more
gradual, and it slowly advances to its worst stage. In this
sort of case the commencement of the disorder is an-
nounced by a sensation of stiffness about the neck, a
symptom which, increasing by degrees, renders the motion
of the head difficult and painful. In proportion as the
rigidity of the neck becomes greater, the patient expe-
riences in the throat a sense of dryness and soreness, and
about the root of the tongue an uneasiness, soon changing
into a difficulty of mastication and swallowing, which
after a time become totally impossible. The attempt at
deglutition is attended with convulsive efforts, especially
when an endeavour is made to swallow liquids ; and so
great is the distress which accompanies these convulsions,
that the patient becomes very reluctant to renew the trials,
VOL. XXIV.— 2 K
T 1
250
T '
ami occasionally refutes all nourishment: somctii
. a-pires him with a dread and a
jjreat roscmblan.
h respect t 1 >c re-
eaKkd,' say* Dr. Or. .
• »» a very vinsrular fac '•ijjv.that an afl'.
i.ira character a- .. c its source in causes
laceration of a tendon, or an ev
on the same kin, I of '. a* that \-
occasional consequence of .•'.'.'
wound, no matter how inflicti d. «.• in what part, or in
what itage .\liii-h
form i-es are on
iin lite QM6M6 m consequence 01 a one on
tin- finder from a tame sparrow ; in which it supe-
on the mere stroke of a whip-la
the •-kin wan not broken : in which it was occasioned hy a
small : n<r in the pharv
•innity in the external car from a n
l>v )! nin of a seton to the thorax; by the
. the back of the neck ; by a blow on the
hand from the . umeui: by the extraction of a
tooth, &o. In short, act
quoted by Dr. ^ i-curs in
and in CYC to the most
formidable. Grain the healthy and the -.Inusihinir. from the
.I and the lacerated, 'from the moat simple and the
most complicated.'
•.t in frequency to wouuds as an exciting cause of
tetanus is exposure to cold and damp ; indeed there
are but very few cases of true idiopathic tetanus which are
referrible to any other. The irritation of worms and other
disordered states of the alimentary canal have been con-
sidered by some authors as the cause of tetanic after' im,-.
To generate this form of disease however, it would appear
that a ce:' 'position is also requisite, and it is
doubtless the same with that which operates as an
tory cans? of the traumatic tetanus. Die predisposition to
tetanic affections is given, in the first place, by warm
climates and warm seasons. AVithin the tropics therefore
it prevails to an extent unheard of in colder lati
Secondly, tetan I to prevail when the.
atmosphere is much loaded with moisture, and ;
where this has suddenly succeeded to a lonir c<
cold and damp air ot \ been fol-
lowed by an attack ot' tetanus. In ' motes chil-
dren are particularly v. ith a
few peculiarities which, though proclucin iic dif-
ference, haw been thought sufficient I
known by the name nf trismut natceiiJiuin. '1
in Uiiscase is \nli;ai iy the absurd name ot'fn/1-
///!>• j'lir. It occurs cliiei' i the nin!
fourteenth day after birth, and seldom alter the latter
period, Without any febrile accession, and otlen without
any perceptible -ks into an
• siness, attended with fre-
quent yawning* and with a slight difficulty of moving the
i takes place in some in-
•i sooner, in others later, and soon increases in intcii-
i while the infant is .uouth.
there i» occasionally an iuubi , or swallow. By
degrees the lower jaw become* rijpd, and totally resists
the introduction of !
but the skin assumes a \ . the eyes appear dull,
the spawns ofte . >i in t\\o or tlnce
days the disease prove* modal.
The prognosis of. this duteaso is mainly to be < '
by the nat
seizure. Tetanus of the' idiopalhic kiwi IUM certain!'.
cured in a larirc.r proportion of cases than fbai
lows external it. > • is a \M t well-known' (says an
able writer in the ' Edinburgh Journal.' vol. v. .. ,
quoted by Dr. Symondtt) ' to every plantar in th.
ladies, who never considers liis negroes as safe when the
disMte supervenes on a wound, but is frequent r
fWsful in alleviating the idiopatluc species.' *l
the disease as a. . Iu«s important
as to the probable ' .. It may be «ud tlmt re-
covery in a case of acute tetanus is almost, if not alto-
gether, hopeless: the chronic form however is of a much
milder character. The u-
•hr third or fourth d.iv ; and if
iy : it i* ran-h
Mr. ('iM)pe
of the this;h)who hnirend :
•i of patients who h.
little or no liirht UJK>II
the complaint, as is indeed the case in
"i- neu... LJJC dUo'ders. Sometimes »liL;lit i ffusions are
found within the cranium. l>ut in general no inoibid ap-
pearance whatever can I Yin the 1'
i i the ivMiphacus and !•
.ch about tin- cardia. These ;\\
• uinion to a ijri-at nu; uni-
formly met with in i
Besides the redness and inci
Baron Larrey found the pliar_\ : much
contracted, and covered with a \isciil
also found numerous lumbrici in the bowels of several of
the patients who died ; but tin-, as Mr. <
could oi.lv be an accidental complication, and n
Dr. M-Arthur found much
inflam in two of them , fluid, of a
peculiar offensive smell, covered tluir internal sin
but whether the inflammation was in
sequence of the pressure of the abdominal .-. hieh
contract so violently in tin-
Mi'tl. C'/ur. Trans., vol. -ui., p. 4">, quoted 1:1 Cooper's
. Diet.}
The' treatment of Tetanus is confessedly a subject of
infinite difficulty, as the di-
every mode of practice, and, in certain ins!;.
well under the employment of the very sanii
which decidedly fail in other similar c;i .1 the
whole it will probably be universally admitted tli;
effectual remedy for Tetanus 1. . ••, discovei.
jilan has occa.sionall\ ! every plan lias
still more frequently failed. The following is the al
of the opi:. .1! i;iven by ^^]•.
- in his Xotes to ' I'auhis
,'nerates \.-l]i/ior.. v. 70). (ialeit ( !><• J
lib. ni. ; DC Mflh. Mnl., lib. xii.), Oetavius Iloratianus
lib. ii., cap. 10% and Avicenna (lib. iii., fen.i cap. 5, 6, 7)
,;i staling that a fever comiiiij on tend-
the tetanic affection. Caplins Ainvliann- i U,- Murk. Arut.,
lib. iii., c. C) seems to question the truth of this nntient
Hip] .ties disapproves of ! .'isioii
.-of traumatic Tetanus ; Alexander Api
- rather fa-. i'hi/x..
i. .":) . Ae'lius lib. vi .. .."/«-.. lib. viii.,
c. Hi , anil Nonmis /'
/., lib. iii., c. 'Jll , reeoiiimend 1
uollieiit fomentations, and the bath of oil. Archi-
ap. Ae'tium, /<»•.•/(•//.• <!;i i the bath.
Mini; a fifth part of oil to the water.
Tile treatment icconmicndi'd 1 ? '., lib.
ii., c. 1) is judicious, and not unlike that of Paulus
.Kijineta. He expresses himself hesitatingly about vene-
. and lorbius the early use of wine- : he approves of
openinu; the belly. This practice is strongly recommended
niton of Edinburgh.
The treatment of A. . .!/«///. .lent., lib.
U) is altogether soothing am! relaxant. lie re-
commends to lay the. patient upon a I bed,
and, from whatever cause the •
with abstracting blood from tne arm. Then
: food is to b. 'iM the whole body
; wool moistened with i : or
bladders half filled with tepid oil an: to In
parts most affected. He directs to cup (lie back p.;
the mvk. but cautions ai: 'HIK irritation h\ tho
a])]ilication of heat. To the wound he recommends -np-
pmative applications containing :tine-
.nid tin- like : for he and the liiet is con-
i by the t \)» who
iinends a similar mode of piactiee that, when I
mis supervene*, the sore !• . ;utor
and assafoetida as anti-spasmodics ; and, if these cannot
T E T
251
T E T
be swallowed, they are to be given in an injection. H
advises also to give hiera in an injection.
Caelius Aurelianus (loco cit.) enumerates nearly th
same causes as Aretaeus, and describes all the symptom
of the disease with the greatest precision. His treatrnen
is also nearly the same as that of Aretaeus, namely, emol
lient applications to the neck, venesection, and oily clys
ters. He even enjoins the bath of oil, which has fallen
into disuse in modern practice, most probably solely or
account of the expense with which it would be attended
He also permits sometimes to use the common bath, bu
not of cold water. He allows wine in certain cases. Hi
condemns Hippocrates for giving both wine and emetics
and havinsr recourse to venesection, without due discrimi
nation. He blames him also for recommending the att'u
sion of cold water, inasmuch as he himself had pronouncec
cold to be injurious to the nerves, bones. &c. Galen how-
ever remarks, in his Commentary upon this aphorism o
Hippocrates 'sect, v. f 21 1, that cold in this case is not the
direct cause of the benefit derived from this remedy, but
'if I understand him right) that the shock which it imparts
to tht> system proves beneficial by rousing the vital heal
and energies of the patient. Hippocrates however, a*
stated above, forbade the cold affusion in traumatic teta-
nus. Paulus /Egineta's opinion of this practice is jusl
such as the profession in general now entertains, after it
has received another trial upon the recommendation of the
late Dr. Currie. (See Medical Reports, and Larrey's Mc-
moires de Chirtirgie, t. 1.)
Octavius Horatianus (loco cit.} recommends bleeding,
emollient applications, purgative clysters, the tepid bath,
ant i spasmodic?, and soporifics. The use of the last-men-
tioned class of remedies does not appear to have been suf-
ficiently understood by the antients; at all events they
were less partial to them in this case than the modems.
The Arabians enjoin nearly the same treatment as the
Greeks. Avicenna (loco cit.) and Mesue join the preceding
authorities in recommending strongly the use of castor and
assafoetida as antispasmodics ; and yet it is deserving ot
remark that modern surgeons do not repose much confi-
dence in these medicines. (See Sir James M'Grigor's com-
munication in the Medico-Chirurg. Transact., vol. vi.
Avicenna, like all the others, praises the bath of oil. Se-
rapion (lib. i., c. 27) speaks of a bath prepared with emol-
lient herbs. Haly Abbas (Theor., lib. ix., cap. 10, 11 ;
Pract., lib. v., c. 31) describes minutely the two varieties
as occasioned by repletion or inanition. For the former,
he approves of punring with hot drastic purgatives, of
rubbing the part affected with hot oils, and of using the
warm bath with friction after it ; he also approves of castor.
For the other variety he praises the affusion of plain water
in which lettuces, barley, &c. have been boiled. He re-
commends the internal use of milk and other demulcents,
and the bath of oil, and rubbing the body with oil of violeta.
The treatment recommended by Alsaharavius (Pract.,
lib. i., § 2, c. 211 is very similar. Rhazes mentions (/Jirix.,
lib. i., c. 16 ; Contin., lib. 1) Hippocrates' proposal of the
cold affusion ; but, like Paulus ^Egineta, he rather disap-
proves of it. He himself recommends bleeding, when
there are symptoms of repletion, emollient applications to
the neck, the bath of oil, the application of leeches to the
part affected, purging with aloes, &c., and the adminis-
tration of antispasmodics, such as castor, assafoetida, and
the like.
The general principle of cure, as Dr. Good remarks, is
far more easily explained than acted upon : it is that of
taking off the local irritation, wherever such exists, and
of tranquillizing the nervous erethism of the entire system.
The former of these two objects is of great importance in
the locked-jaw, or trismus, of infants ; for, by removing
the viscid and acrimonious meconium, or whatever other
irritant is lodged in the stomach or bowels, we can some-
times effect a speedy cure without any other medicine.
Castor oil is by far the best aperient on this occasion, and
it may be given both by the mouth and by injections. If
this however do not succeed, we should have recourse to
powerful anodynes: of these the best is opium, which
should be administered in doses of from three to five drops
of the tincture according to the age of the patient. Opium
has also been more extensively resorted to in the cases of
adults than almost any other remedy ; and Dr. Good, Dr.
Gregory, and others profess that it is that on which they
place their chief, if not their only reliance. To give it a
fair chance of success, we must begin its use from the
earliest appearance of tetanic symptoms. It must be
given in very large doses ; and these doses must be re-
peated at such short intervals as to keep the system con-
stantly under the influence of the remedy. It is astonish-
ing to observe how the human body, when labouring
under a tetanic disease, will resist the operation of this and
other remedies, which, in its healthy state, would have
been more than sufficient to overpower and destroy it. It
is advisable to begin with fifty drops of laudanum., and to
repeat this at intervals of two or three hours, or even
oftener if the urgency of the symptoms require it, until
some effect has been produced on the spasms. In the
early stage of the disease we are to bear in mind the ap-
proaching closure of the jaw and difficulty of deglutition ;
and our remedies are accordingly to be pushed before such
serious obstacles to their administration arise. When they
have occurred, and are found to be insuperable, opiate
cnemata and frictions may be tried ; but we must not an-
ticipate much benefit from such feeble means. Such are
Dr. Gregory's remarks ; but Dr. Symonds considers that
the employment of opium is recommended chiefly by sys-
tematic writers, and for theoretical, rather than for practical
reasons ; while most of those who give the results of their
own experience express the greatest dissatisfaction with
the remedy.
Probably a much more efficient class of remedies than
the preceding is that of purgatives; both on account
of the obstinate costiveness which attends the disease, and
also because we have in daily practice such convincing
proofs of their strong revulsive influence on diseases of the
cerebro-spinal centre. The testimony of the army phy-
sicians, as we learn from the report of Sir James M'Grigor,
is highly in favour of a rigid perseverance in the use of
purgatives, given in adequate doses to produce daily a full
effect. Dr. Forbes states that a solution of sulphate of
magnesia in infusion of senna was found to answer better
than any other purgative ; and it was daily given in a suf-
ficient quantity to produce a copious evacuation, which
was always dark-coloured and highly offensive : and to
this practice he chiefly attributes in one severe case the
removal of the disease. (Med. Chir. Trans., vol. vi., p.
452, quoted by Mr. Cooper.) Dr. Good condemns drastic
purgatives, forgetting apparently that mild ones have no
effect. Strong cathartics have indeed frequently proved
of great service, and none has higher repute than croton
oil.
The employment of the warm bath has been recom-
mended by numerous writers, but it would be difficult to
trace in their accounts any facts which decidedly show that
ts adoption was ever followed by unequivocal benefit.
C!old bathing has also been advised, but it has generally
>een found to be worse than useless ; and there are several
cases upon record of almost instant death having followed
ts employment.
The practice of bleeding is another that has been tried,
)ut most frequently without effect. In some few cases
amputation of the limb, from the injury of which the teta-
uis has arisen, has been successful ; but as this extreme
measure is also very uncertain, it is not likely to be ever
extensively adopted.
Numerous other remedies have been tried, with no,
or very imperfect, success ; for instance, acupuncture,
trychnia, mercury, caustics, blisters, tobacco, oil of tur-
>ehtine, aether, camphor, musk, bark, wine, sesqui-oxide
>f iron, &c. &c. However, it must, after all these have
>een tried, be confessed that tetanus is one of the most
brmidable and unmanageable of disorders, and that re-
jovery in the acute form still continues to be almost hope-
ess.
(Cooper's Surgical Diet. ; Symonds, in the Cyclop, of
'ract. Med. ; Good's Study of Med. ; Gregory's Theory
and Practice of Med.; from which works most of the pre-
eding remarks have been taken. A reference to nu-
merous other works on the same subject will be found in
'loucquet's Liter. Med. Digetta ; Cooper's Surg. Dirt. ;
nd Forbes's Medical Bibliography, in the Cyclop, of
*ract. Med.}
TETBURY, an antient market-town in Gloucestershire,
ear the borders of Wiltshire, situated on elevated ground
iear the source of the Warwickshire Avon, 99 miles west by
lorth from London, and 20 miles south-east of Gloucester,
'he parish, with four hamlets, contains a population of
2K2
T E T
252
T E T
, according to the census <>f 1K31. The town consists
of one long street intersected by two shorter ones. \\itli the
market -place and a spacious market-house in the c cut re.
The streets arc paved and lighted, and the liouses built
chiefly of (tone. A bailiff and constable are annually
appointed at the court -leet of I lie feoffee* of the manor.
Tnere arc fain held three times a year, for cheese, cattle,
kheep, horses, &c. The pariah cluurli. w Inch wa- built
•oon after the Conquest, was taken down in !7~-i. with the
exception of the tower, and rebuilt in the ]>oiiited style :
and a modern spire was placed on the tower. The livinit
is a vicarage, of the annual gross value of 903/. The
Baptist* and Independents have places of worship. In
Klizabeth I lodges left a rent-charge of W. li>r the
education of 15 i-hildren : and in the years 17Xt. 1795,
and 17U7. the sum of 100/. was left by three different per-
mits for the support of a Sundav-sch'ool. In ISH.I there
•en daily schools, attended i>y 173 children, and three
Sunday-schools, at one of which, in connection with the
Katabh-hcd Church, 17-4 children were instructed, and the
other was a Baptist school, attended by 153 children. In
the reign of James I.. Sir William Kouiney. a native of the
town, founded alnishouscs for eight poor persons, and left
property for the endowment of a grammar-school. The
traces of an antient encampment were \isihle on the
south-eastern side of the town up to the middle of the
last century; and at this spot fragments of British wea-
pons and coins of the Lower Empire have been found.
TETE'. [SKNNA-]
TETHYS. [NYimimM IIUTV. \ol. xvi.. p. 301.]
TETKAURANCIIIATA. Professor Owens second
order of the class Cephalopoda. This order is equivalent
to the ' (.Yuhalopodes testaces polythalames ' of Lamarck ;
to the ' PolvthalamaceV of De Blainville ; the ' Siphonoi-
des ' of De llaan ; and the ' Sifoniferes ' of D'Orbigny.
The following characters of the order are given by the
Professor :—
Eye*, subpcdunculate. Mandibles, calcareous at the
apex. Arms, abbreviated, tubular, and furnished with
retractile tentacles. Mantle, rnembranaccous, with two
anterior apertures; a posterior membranaceous tubule
running tlirotigh the siphon of the multilocular shell.
(fills, four. Hranrhial Afar/, null. Excretory tube, with
the walls disconnected below. Shell, internal or external
multilocular.
The genera comprised by Professor Owen under this
order, in his Menunr mi the. Pearly \nnliliix (1 81)2), are —
Belemnites, Jinn/Htm, Lituola, Spirufa (J), Ammonites,
Orbulites, Xuutilus, Cibicide*, Rotalites, &c.
In the Cyclopeedia of Anatomy and Physiology (1836),
Professor Owen modifies the views above given. In that
work the ntrabninrhiatii form the first order of the Cepha-
Ittpoda. with the following synonyms : Poly thai amactt,
Blainvillc ; Xiphuniferu, D'Orbigny; minus the Spirulid<e
and Belrmnite*.
The Ti'trafirnnr/iinte Cephalopods (of which the Prarly
\.iittilns may be regarded as the type) are described as
provided with a large external univalve shell, symmetrical
in form, like the body of the animal which it protects,
straight or convoluted on a vertical plane, and divided by
a senes of partitions into numerous chambers, of which
the last formed is the largest, and alone contains the body
of the animal ; a dilatable and contractile tube is continued
from the posterior part of the animal through all the par-
tition* and chamber* of the shell : but the attachment of
the shell to the body is effected by means of two stroiic
lateral muscles which are inserted into the walls of the
last chamber. The numerous hollow arms and retractile
tentacles are peculiar to this order, and the head is further
provided with a !ari;c ligamento-muscular plate or flattened
disc, which, besides acting as a defence to the ujtcning of
the shell, serves also, in all probability, as an organ for
•mg along the ground, like the foot of the Gastropods.
There are no fins or analogous organs for swimmmir.
The following nre the characters given in the Cyi.loptf-
dia of Anatomy by the Professor: —
••« strengthened by a dense, exterior, calcareous coat-
ing, and with thick dcutated margins. Eyes pedunculated
and of a simple structure. No organ of hearing, dill.*
four in number and without branchial hearts. Circulating
*yttrm provided with but one \cntiicle. which is systemic
or propels arterial blood. No ink-bag. Inferior parietes
of the funnel divided longitudinally.
The second order, Dibranchiata, has the following syno-
nyms : Cryjilodibranchfs, liluinv . ; Acftabultftra, D Orb. ;
plus the Spiniliiiie and Hfl<-iiiiiiti<ltr.
The Tstrabranchiata are divided into two fanu
1. .\nittilidte: Genen: — .\tiutiliu. l,am. ; Clynifne,
:>i;>ii/il>->. Deshayes; l.ili . , u; Ortho-
crrntitrt. Bre\ n.
Imiii'iiiitiilff : (ienera : — 7f'i''M///»-x. \M\\.; Jlamitr*.
I'ltrkin-on ; Graphites, Parkinson ; Aniinunito., lirug. ;
Turrilitft, I. am.
Of the l>il>r,tnchiata. Professor Owen remarks, that
this order also had its representative in the seas of
the antient world, as the shells called Bekmnites, or thun-
the fossil shells of the X,;/,,, diM-overed by
Cuvier. and the horny rinirs of the acetabula found by
liuckland in the coprolites, or fossil faeces, of J'-hthi/i
testifv : but. In- remarks, our knowledge ot' this order is
chiefly founded on observation >ii ' c \i-tini; s]iecies. '!'!••
says the Professor, 'are extremely numerous: they
(|uent the seas of every clime, from the ice-bound shore*
of K'Kitfn-i /•>•//> to the open main, and floatim; Sargasso
or Gulf-weed of the Equator: they seem however to be
most abundant in temperate latitudes. Many specie- fre-
quent the coasts, creeping among the rocks and stoi
the bottom ; others are pelagic, swimming well, and are
found in the ocean at a great distance from land.'
Professor Owen then adverts to the great \aiiety of sire
,'eil by thi' Didi-aiirliiata, remarking that although
the bulk of the gigantic species has been undoubtedly
evairirenited, yet the organization of this order is favoura-
ble to the attainment of dimensions beyond those pre-
sented by the individuals of any other group of in.
brate animals. He then alludes to the I'ucinatcd Calamary
caunht by Hanks and Solander in the southern ocean
[Si:iMU).K. vol. \xi.. i>. 253], and to the fi-agmcnt of the
cephalopod weighing one liundred pounds obtained by
the Krench naturalists in the Atlantic ocean under the
line, and preserved in the Museum of the Garden of Plant*
at Pa
The Dibranchiate Cephalopods are divided by Professor
Owen into two tribes, the Dfcapoda and the Octopndii.
The Decapoda, besides the possession of ten arms, are
characterised by having a pair of fins attached to the
mantle ; by having the funnel either adherent at the an-
tero-lateral parts of its base, and without an internal
\al\e.or articulated at the same part by two ball-and-
socket joints to the mantle, and provided 'with a valve in-
ternally at its apex; by having fleshy appendages to tin-
branchial hearts, and glandular appendages to the biliary
ducts; by having generally a single oviduct with detached
superadded glands ; and lastly, by the shell or rudiment
being single, mesial, and dorsal.
Professor Owen considers the Decapodous tribe to be
that which is most nearly allied to the Tetrabranchiate
order, and he regards Spirula as the type of the first
family of the Decapodons tribe, or that which immediately
succeeds the Tetrabrtmrliiata.
The following are the families of the Decapoda: —
1. Spnu'i.ii).*; : genus Spimln.
2. Bfl'-imiitidrr : genera, Memnites, Lam.; Actinoco~
max. Miller ; Pseudobelus, Blainv.
3. Sepiada- (Cuttle-fishes) : renusStptO.
4. Teiithidee (Calamaries : thus di\ ided : —
A. Funnel with an internal valve, and articulated at
its base to two ventro-lateml cartilaginous promi-
nences of the mantle.
Genera: — Xriiintfuthix. Blainv.; Lnligo, Cuv. : Ony-
<-fi'>ti iithi*. Lit lit. : /imsin. Owen ; N u-h.
B. Funnel unprovided with an internal va/ve, and
adherent at the untero-lateral jiarts of its base to
the mantle.
Gener&: — Lr>li%opsi*, Lam. : Crunrhia, Leach.
Ol the tribe O'-tn/nK/n the Professor obs. n e~. that be-
sides wanting the long tentacles, they are also charac-
! by the want of mantle-tins, and consequently are
limited to retrograde progression whik swimming ; their
acetabula, he adds, are sessile and unarmed, ami tiny have
t\\o oxiduets, but without detached glands for secreting a
nidamentum : the Decajxxls have :i single oviduct and de-
tached glands for secreting the nidamentum.
The Octopods arc thus arranged by Professor Owen : —
M Famili gmt» Argonauta, Una.
2nd Faauly, Xuda: genera Octopus, Leach ; IXudone,
T E T
253
T E T
Leach. [BELEMNITE ; BELLEROPHON; CEPHALOPODA
CORNU AMMONIS ; GONIATITES ; NAUTILUS ; PAPER NAU-
TILUS ; POLYTHALAMACEA ; SEPIAD-S ; SpiRULiD.*: ; TEU-
THID.E.]
TETRACE'RATA. [POLYBRANCHIATA.]
TETRACHORD, the Greek name for any part of the
scale consisting of four notes, the highest of which is a
perfect fourth to the lowest. Thus in the common diatonic
SCALE (we assume a knowledge of this article throughout)
we have the following tetrachords : —
CT)EF, DEFG, EFGA, GABC, ABCD, BCDE.
We despair of giving anything like a satisfactory account
(if the Greek music ; not that we think the difficulty lies
in the Greek writers, but in the manner in which they have
been treated. It was an assumption that the nation which
produced models such as the moderns could not surpass
in architecture, sculpture, and perhaps in painting, was to
be considered as necessarily possessed of a system of music
approaching to perfection. Their writers on the subject
were to be taken as having an agreement with each other,
which was to be detected and established, any apparent
discrepancy, however evident, notwithstanding. The nu-
merical relations which were the objects of inquiry in the
settlement of the parts of the scale gave the subject the
air of an exact science ; and explanations which required
the assistance of the scholar, the mathematician, and the
musician, were undertaken by persons who were deficient
in one character, if not in two. The consequence has been
such a mass of confusion as the world never saw in any
other subject ; writers whose undertakings required them
to say something, copying absolute contradictions from
different other writers ; others glad to adopt anything
intelligible, whether true or not ; others again, unable or
unwilling to state the simplest facts of their own pre-
mises, so that their readers are not even made aware which
11!' the most remarkable opposite opinions they mean to
adopt.
We intend in the present article, without looking into
any modern writer, to draw from Ptolemy and Euclid,
writers who are known to be tuist worthy on other subjects,
;ill concerning the tetrachord that we can find to bear the
character of certainty and precision, and to be likely to aid
:MI unbiassed reader in approaching, should it please him
so to do, the mass of different accounts which have been
given.
All parties seem agreed that the Greek scale, which at
first consisted of only two or three leading consonances,
was gradually enlarged until it comprehended two octaves,
or fifteen notes. It is generally stated that this scale, when
it was what we now call diatonic (a word which means the
same with us as with the Greeks), was minor in its cha-
racter, so that in fact it would be represented by
A B C D E F G A' B1 C1 D> E1 F' Gl A'.
It is also known that the Greeks were early in possession of
the mode of dividing a string so as to produce their several
notes ; and that, by the time of Ptolemy at least, they took
the rapidity of the vibrations Con which they knew the
pitch to depend) to be inversely as the lengths of the
strings.
Their scales were numerous : three were considered clas-
sical, if we may use the word, and were called enharmonic,
chromatic, and diatonic; the two first words not having
the same meaning as with us. The remaining scales had
names of locality attached to them, Lydian," Dorian, &c.
The distinction between these lay in the different modes
of dividing the octave, as seems to be now generally agreed,
though there have been those who have thought that these
terms, Lydian, &c., were the names, not of scales, but of
single notes.
( )f enharmonic, chromatic, and diatonic scales, Ptolemy
lays down fifteen from his predecessors, and eight from
himself. In each of them is an octave, and all of them
agree in two particulars : first, each has the fourth and
filth of the fundamental note perfect ; secondly, each lias
the U-trachord made by the fundamental note and its
fourth divided in precisely the same manner as that of the
fifth and the octave. That is, if we call the notes of this
octave —
CPQFGKSC1;
then CF is a fourth, and CG a fifth, always ; and the inter-
vals CP, PQ, QF are severally equal to the intervals GR,
US, SC1. Thus it appears that the fourth was to the
Greeks what the octave is to us, the unit, as it were, of the
scale, in the subdivision of which consisted the differences
of their systems. We now give a tetrachord from each of
these twenty-three scales, assigning the intervals first by
the ratios of the vibrations, next by the number of mean
semitones they contain, as in the article SCALE. We
prefix the Latin rendering of Ptolemy's appellatives from
Wallis.
And first as to enharmonic scales, which are mentioned
first, and seem to have been antient, and regarded with
high approbation.
Archytas
Aristoxenus )
Eratosthenes}
Didymus
Ptolemy
It seems then that the enharmonic system would allow
only of the following notes in an octave —
CEPFGBQC1;
where P means a note about half way between E and F,
and Q one half way between B and C. An odd scale truly
for a modern musician to look at ; but, it may be, not inca-
pable of pleasing effects to ears not accustomed to music
in j>arts.
The chromatic scales come next in order, as follows :
Katie of Numbers of Vibrations Mean Semitones in
in each Interval. each Interval.
c r
5: 4
PQ
36 : 35
QF
28 : 27
C P
3-86
PQ
•49
QF
•63
19: 15
39 : 38
40 : 39
4-10
•44
•44
5: 4
5: 4
31 : 30
24 : 23
32 : 31
46 : 45
3-86
3-86
•57
•74
•55
•38
Ratio of numbers of Vibrations
in each Interval.
Mean Semitones in
each Interval.
C P
PQ
Q F
C P
P Q
Q F
Archytas
32:27
243:224
28:27
2-94
1-41
•63
Aristoxenus,
mollis Chroma-
tica
56:45
29:28
30:29
3-79
•61
•58
Do., Sesquialterius
Chromatica
37:30
77:74
80:77
3-63
•C9
•66
Do.,tonici Chro- )
matica Eratos- >
6:5
19:18
20: 19
3-16
•94
•88
thenes . . )
Didymus .
6:5
25:24
16:15
3-16
•71
1-12
Ptolemy, mollis
Chromatica .
6:5
15:14
28:27
3-16
1-19
•63
Ptolemy, intensi
Chromatica
7:6
12:11
22:21
2-67
1-51
•80
To make something as like as we can to these scales, we
should write down in modern music
C El, EH F G Bb 8^ C1
The diatonic scales, Ptolemy allows, are more agreeable
to the ear, and his specimens are as follows : we shall
now write the scale with the usual letters throughout.
Ratio of numbers of Vibrations
in each Interval.
Me'in Semitones ill
each Interval.
C D
D E
E F
C D
D E
E F
Archytas .
9:8
. 8:7
28:27
2-04
2-31
•63
Aristoxenus,
mollis diatonica
7:6
38:35
20:19
2-67
1-43
•88
Do., Intensi Dia-
tonica .
17:15
19:17
20: 19
2-17
1-93
•88
Eratosthenes* .
9:8
9:8
256:243
2-04
2-04
•90
Didymus .
9:8
10:9
16: 15
2-04
1-82
1-12
Ptolemy, mollis
Diatonica .
8:7
10:9
21:20
2-31
1-82
•85
Do., tonici Diato-
nica
9:8
8:7
28:27
2-04
2-31
•63
Do., intensi Dia-
tonica .
10:9
9:8
16:15.
1-82
2-04
1-12
Do., aequabilis
Diatonica .
10:9
11:10
12:11
1-82
1-65
1-51
These scales have all so far the diatonic character that
they divide the tetrachord into two larger intervals fol-
lowed by a smaller one : the scale of Didymus would have
been exactly the modern untempered diatonic scale, if he had
inverted the order of the two larger intervals in his second
_• This is also Ptolemy's Ditonici Diatonica.
T l
•J.vi
T £ T
tetrachoru other modi-*, the Dorian*.
-.' which v
iag to him, thi '.
octave, so'mewh
&idca has Ucn started of
s, or rather answering to diner-
-.HIT intermediate
bemitoncs iiist. .id of some ol I! it would In- difli-
AC tliiuk, to produce, authority enough for thi* con-
jecture.
If it were true, as supposed, that the two octaves of the
Greek scale, beginning, say with A, were minor, it would
.ionic scales, exhibited the
.1.1 we ha\e supposed. According!/,
the ]iriiiei]ial mode of exhibiting the formation of the
oetu\e from two tetrnchords and a tone would be ihe one
i\e taken, namely,
D B F) (G A B C1)
But it is frequently .supposed that it was the following :
0 K V ( G } A B C )
or the following —
A{BCD(E}FGA).
On this point we shall only say that there never was,
we believe, so strong a union of the three chancten of
scholar, mathematician, and musieian. ••'• in Dr.
Smith, the author of the Harmonics. He had studied the
:!<• attentixely, and to him the first of these me-
thods was a matter of course. 'The Greek musicians'
monies, 171'.', ]' -I"' , ' alter dividing an octave into
•n the diazeuctie or major tone in thi- middle
in. and admitting many primes to the composi-
tion of musical ratios, subdivided the fourth into three in-
tervals of various magnitudes placed in various order*, by
which they distinguished their kinds of tetrachords.'
\Ve do not, we confess, though admitting that it is ex-
ceedingly hard, and probably impossible, to reconcile the
, w'riter* with themselves and each other, find that
sort of difficulty which Dr. Burney owned to, when he said
that he neither understood those writers himself, nor had
met with any one who did. He was a musician, and was
looking out ibr an intelligible mode of arriving at and dis-
tributing the most agreeable concords, with a strong pre-
determination to arrive at musical truth or nothing. But
the Greek writers were arithmeticians, with as strong a
filiation to find natural foundations in integer num-
they did nut ask how to iiiul sounds which would best
suit the ear, but bow ti> discover trij tious which
multiplied together should produce four-thirds of a unit.
Pleased with the .simplicity of the ratios which give the
fourth, fifth, and octaM •, ih>-ii- efforts at musical improve-
ment were confined to the attempt at discovering magic
numbers to fill up theintenals. It was not until one of
these philosophers had laboured at his abacus, and tasked
his metaphysics to find a prinri confirmation of some
question in arithmetic, that he strung his monochord and
tried how his scale sounded: it would have been hard
indeed if his ear had refused to sympathize with his brain.
In all probability the musicians, whose object was simply
to please, laughed at the arithmeticians, as Tycho Brahfe
did . -Alien the latter had discovered reason for
the of the planets in the properties of solid
bodies: they had motive enough, and, beyond all question,
reason more than enough.
i K.VHOKI) T,TfMTtaftor, ' four-stringed'), in the
music of the Greeks, was a system of four sounds, — as, for
example, the diatonic tetrachord, c, D, K, K : the chromatic,
K; and the enharmonic, c. i ;. u b, F. The
antienU proceeded from the key-note to the octasc by two
conjoint tetrachords; and so far as the diatonic scale is
concerned, they and the moderns agree. In what relates
to the two other scales, so little * accurately known, and
the subject is so unimportant, to either the general or the
musical reader, that we should not further enter on it,
if the. (space allotted to our department alluv
[GK\EH\ : Mi sir. HISTORY or.]
TETRADY'NAMOUa from rirrajwc, /';.'/, and r.Vn/uc,
fOWtT), a botanical term emploved by Lii indicate
thi' chmaetct ot those flowers which, possessing six stamens,
have two of them shorter than the other four. This pecu-
liarity is found exclusively in the plants belonging to the
natural order Crucifene, Hence the Lmnean class Tetrady-
uamia, including only plant* with the stamens arranged in
tin.- manner, is an < \ . and is one of
the few in-tances in which a p. in the stamens
prevails throughout a whole family. Ifiilytmiiiout is the
term which expresses Ihe i two
of which are short and two long. This ch.
' number of natural families, as Ijii ph.!-
lariaceai, Bignoniao :.d i-> ai .ilent
throughout a family where ! class
Didvnamia is Umndcd Oil this peculiarity ol
, rly a four-angled ! '.-mi
usually applied to the square only, when used, which it
seldom
TFTK.UJt )N I i natural order of plants. ]
by Liudlcy HI his llui \cmbryose group of incomplete Dico-
tyledons. It includes the genera Tetragonia, Aizoon. Se-
suvium, and Miltns. which an geneiallx placed in the
order Ficoidese or Mesembryacese. The reason gi\eo by
Dr. Lindley for this separation is the want of pet:.
these genera, as he considers that the tendency to produce
petals in the Mesembryaccas is of too powerful a nati
admit exception. The relation of thci-c api-i.ilous Ficoi-
dea- to Chenopodiacew is so stronir, that Dr. l.niilU
is no character to distinguish them, except their
ovary being formed of several carpels.'
Like Ficoidese, this order possesses thick Micenient
leaves, which in many of the specie., might be used as a
substitute for spinach. The '/ is a
native of New Zealand and Japan, and is used by the
natives of those countries as a remedy in tho-
cutaneous disease called scorbutic. It might be used in
cookery instead of spinach. The Aizoon MMTtMM and
A. hispanicum grow on the sea-coasts of the Canary Isles
and Spain, and are amongst the plants which yield soda
after burning.
TETRAGON O'LOBUS (from rfrrapif.four, y»vla,a>ifrl<;
and \6Sof, lobe}, a genus of plants belonging to the papilio-
naceous division of the natural order Letruminos;e. It con-
tains herbs with broad lea IV stipules, tri foliate lea vt-s. winged
petioles, alternate leaflets and flowers seated on axilla
duncles, furnished wit ha brail. The cah x is tubular 5-cleft,
the wings shorter than the vexillnm : the stiirma is funnel-
shaped and beaked : the legume is cylindrical, furnished
with four foliaceous wings, which give it a 4-cornered ap-
pearance.
T. furjiureut ("purple winged-pea) is a pilose plant with
decumbent stems, entire obovate leaflets, bracts longer
than the calyx, and a glabrous leirume. with globose -
It is a native of the south of Europe, and has dark purple
flowers; a variety is, however, found with flowers of a
dark yellow colour.
There is also a variety called T. p. minor, in which the
stem, leaves, and legumes are much smaller. In southern
rcirions. where this plant -rrows in perfection, the unripe
letrumes are cooked and eaten in the same manner as we
MU French beans.
There are four other species of Tetrsgonolobus, all of
them inhabitants of Europe. In gem-nil appearance they
very much resemble the species of Bird's-foot trefoil
Lo'tusl. and in gardens are well adapted for ornamenting
rock-work. They are best propagated by s-
TETRAHEDRON i ft solid of lour faces . a term usually
applied to fhe regular tetrahedron, f KK(;I I.AH Pl»)VMS.1
TETRAD. [Turn U.MO.K.]
TKTI;.\IK;.\ I.I.I S. Mr. ,}. K. Grny's nnme for a ceniis
of birds, placed by Mr. G. K. (lr:i\ in the subfamily /."/-A</-
:,r. of the 'family 1'h'miniiiilir. Example, '/'•
'///. (Ill.Ind.7L
TKTKAO'M !).!•:. Dr. Leach's name for the Grouse
family.
Linneus, in his last edition of the N//- '»ra>,
- the genus Tflrno at the end of his fiHh order,
next to the genus .\iiiniiln. The Hnllina* come
between the (im/lrr- and the 1'astrrrt : th> -thin
is the laM of the order Urullff, and th. ,/mba
the first of the order Patserei.
The Linnean genus Trl, \t.-n-i\e. comprising
not only the true Grouse, but also the Fraucolins.
t ridges, and Quails.
('in in. in Ins last edition of 11 <--/i'//m/, urr;i.
the '/'. -mi. under his fomth order. '•
nacte ((jaltin<e, Linn.;, placinj; them between the Phea-
T E T
255
T E T
sanfs (Phasianus, Linn.) and the Pigeons (Coltimba
Linn.\
This great genus in the arrangement of Cuvier is mor
comprehensive even than that of Linnaeus, Cor it include
the following subgenera : — 1. Les Coqs de Bruyere (Te
trao, Lath., ; 2. the Lagopedes, or Snow Partridges (Per
drix de »ieig/>~) ; 3. the Ganga, or Attagfit • i'tfrocles
Temm.) ; 4. the Partridges (Perdix, Briss.) ; comprising
the Francolins, the ordinary Partridges, the Quails, and th
C'tfiii* or Partridges and Quails of America; 5. the Tri
dactyls 'Luetp., HrmijivJiitx, Temm.), including Turnix
(Bonap., (Jrlygic, 111.), and Syrrhaples, 111. ; 6. The Tin/t
moi/s Tinanuu, Lath!, Crypturiot, 111., Ynambuf, D'Azara)
Of this last submenus Cuvier remarks that some, the Pezii.
of Spix, have still a small tail hidden under the feathers
of the rurnrj ; others, the Tiimniint of Spix, have no fail a1
all, and their nostrils are placed a little farther backward .
and he adds that one should distinguish Rhynchottis of Spix
which has the bill stronger, without any furrow, slightly
arched and depressed, with the nostrils pierced towards its
base.
Mr. Vigors places the Tftrannidar among the RASORES,
observing that the groups which form the family are
chiefly distinguished in modern systems from those of the
Phaantitidrf! by their more simple appearance; by the
absence in fact of those ornaments to the plumage, and
those naked or carunculated appendages to the cheeks and
head, so conspicuous in the latter family, but which are
reduced in the present to the mere space that encircles the
eye. The still weaker conformation of the hinder toe
tends, Mr. Vigors observes, further to separate them; for
this member in the Tetraonidte becomes shorter and
gradually weaker, Until it is completely lost in some of the
groups. Tims viewed, Mr. Vigors is of opinion that the
family under consideration holds an intermediate station
between the P/t<i*i<nn<l>r, where the hind toe, although
articulated high on the tarsus, is yet comparatively strong,
and the Strut/iio/iiilee, where it is generally, if not always,
deficient. He further remarks that the groups which com-
pose the Tetraonidfe, corresponding with those that form
the genus Tetrao of Linnaeus, seem to be immediately
unit preceding family by means of the genus
.mi.. which resembles them in the similar
of thr plumage of the head. This group, he
thinks, leads directly to Cutiinii.r, Bri>s.. and tile true
Perdi.r, where it has, he observes, been gi mgcd,
and from which it has been chiefly .separated by the defal-
cation of a nail to the hinder toe. From Prnti.r Mr.
Vigors proceeds to Pteroclea, Temm., which, by its half-
plumed tarsus, is intermediate between that genus and the
true Tftran. By means of Lrignpus, Cuv.. in which the
toes as well as the legs are feathered, Mr. Vigors arrives
at tin- singular genus N///r/«/;</™. HI., which is imme-
diately connected with fMtjgix of the same author by the
entire deficiency of the hind toe. With these groups, in
his opinion, the genus Tinamun, Lath., corresponds by the
slight conformation of the same member, the joint of
which is feeble and the nail scarcely developed. This
group leads him back again to Cnjjiti'iii/.r, which has no
nail to the joint of the hinder toe. The whole of I!K - •
last-mentioned groups, thus united, correspond also, Mr.
Vigors observes, in the shortness or weakness of their tails.
Those of the Tftrnnniilif which exhibit a weakness or de-
ficiency in the hinder toe, lead Mr. Vigors, to the three-
toed groups of the Striiilii'midrr, with the bills of which,
more particularly that of Rhca, those of some species of
Tniiimiu, he observes, correspond. (Natural Affinities
thai connect the Orders and Fminlifx <>f Birds, in Linn.
Trans., vol. xiv.).
Mr. Swainson makes the Trtr/ionidre form the third
family of Knxorfg, and states that, it is composed of the
artridges, Grouse, and Quails; all of which agree in the
extreme shortness of their tails and of their hind-toe :
they are also, he observes, remarkable for a total want of
that brilliancy of plumage which so eminently characterises
the Pavonidtr, between which family and the fit ruth i«-
nnlrr he places the Tetraonidee. The genus Cryptnin/.r,
he observes (a. small group of Oriental birds highly beau-
tiful from their elegant form and the texture of their
crests), has been thought, to connect the two ; a supposi-
tion, he remarks, by no means improbable, yet requiring
analogical proof. He then notices, as following these, the
Grouse : those of the colder latitudes, he adds, constitute
the genus Tetrao, wKile Pteroclcs includes such as inhabi
the arid sands of Africa and Southern Europe. The northeri
parts of our empire, he observes, still furnish us witr
several species ; but he laments the extermination ir
Britain* of the largest and most noble grouse of Eurcpe
the cock of the rock (cock of The wood must be meant).
Mr. Swainson goes on to point out how sometimes thf
side feathers on the neck of the male grouse are developer
in a singular manner, so as to resemble little wings p
character mostly confined to the American species (Te
traones Umbellus and Cupido). He also adverts to (he
several new additions to this group brought home by the
expedition under Captain (now Sir John) Franklin. The
African and Indian Grouse (Pteroclfs) have, he remarks,
frequently very pointed tails, and the hind-toe is very
small : heat with them, he observes, appeal's to be as essen-
tial as cold to the true grouse. But he notices one species,
Pt. setaritis, Temm., which extends its range to the South
of France. He then proceeds to point out that nearly all
the Grouse have the toes and legs more or less covered
with soft feathers ; but that this character disappears in the
Partridges — an extensive group scattered over nearly all
parts of the Old World, but unknown in the New, where
they are represented by the genus Qdontophorus, Vieill.
In the Quails, he observes, we have the miniature resem-
blance of Partridges, but the tail is so short as to be nearly
imperceptible. Closely approaching to the true quails,
we have, he remarks, the genus Hemipodius, distinguished
by the total absence of the hind-toe ; and he adverts to
me extreme pugnacity of these little birds, a disposition
taken advantage of by the Javanese and other Indian
nations with whom quail-fighting is even a more fascinat-
ing amusement than cock-fighting is, or rather was — for we
are happy to say it is much on the decline — in Europe.
Mr. Swainson then calls attention to that singular race
of birds in Tropical America called Tinamous by some of
the Brazilians, and Ynambm by D'Azara. With scarcely
any tail, their body is thick, and Mr. Swainson remarks
hat their whole appearance reminds the observer of a
pigmy Bustard, whicn group, he thinks, they probably re-
iresent in the New World. ' As for their flesh,' says Mr.
Iwainson in conclusion, ' we have often tasted it, and con-
sider it both in whiteness and flavour infinitely above that
of the partridge or pheasant. We believe these birds never
jerch, as some suppose, but that they live entirely among
lerbage, principally in the more open tracts of the interior."
Classification of Birds.*)
In the Synopsis at the end of the volume, Mr. Swainson
)laces theTetraonidcc in the same relative position as that
ibove assigned to them. He thus defines the ' Tctraonidee,
-•artridges and Grouse:'— ' Bill and tail very short. Hal-
ux elevated ;' and he comprises under the family the ful-
owing genera and subgenera : —
Cryptonyx, Temm. ; Odontophorus, Vieill. ; Ortygis,
11. ; Tetrao, with the subgenera Tetrao, Linn., Lagoptts,
Villughby, Lyrurus, Sw., Pterocles, Temm., and Cen-
rocercus, Sw. ; Perdix, Briss., with the subgenera Perdi.r,
'hcetopus, Sw., Coturni.r, Briss., Ptilopachux, Sw., and
Ortyx, Steph. ; Cryptnrwt, 111., with the subgenera Cryp-
artis and Not hum*, Wagl.
The Prince of Canino, in his Birds of Europe and North
\nirrica, makes the Gallinee the third order of his second
ubrlass. Grallatores ; and this order comprises the families
^teroclida?, Phasianidcc, Tetraonidcs, and Crypturidep.
Tie order next in succession to the Gallinre is formed by
hie Grallce.
The Pteroclides include the following subfamilies and
genera : —
1. SyrrhaptingB.
Genus, Syrrhaptes, 111. .
2. Pteroelinas.
Genus, Pleroc^es, Temm.
* Seft the article CAPERCAILZIE. The attempt at reintnxlnction lias since
een followed up witli every prospect of success bv the patriotic Marquis of
Breadalhane. In 183H, and the early part of 1839, that nobleman received at
» teat in Scotland forty-four of these magnificent Grouse : they were all
ned birds, and about two-third* of them were hens. They were col-
eeted in Sweden with great pains and expense bv Mr. L I.loyd. Mr. Fowell
uxtnn presented them to Lord Hteadalkine. His Lordship turned out part
itn tli'- forest, and retained another portion in a laiL-'- aviary, lioth experl
i-iTil' -I, ami it was ascertained that seventy nine voting birds had
.-en h;ilclu d "nt in the season of 1839. Forty-nine were hatched out in tho
vi:ir; by (ir.-y Hens (females of liiack (irouse).
In 1838 three were sent to the Duchess of Athol at Blair, and several
ere forwarded to the Earl of Derby at Knowleslcy, where five yoimu bird!
were hatched in the aviary in the Bummer of 1839 ; four of these were doing
well when last heard of.
T E T
B66
T ET
The TrtranniiUf comprehend the following subfamilies
Mid genera : —
1. Perdicinae.
Genera, LophortuT, Bonap. ; Ortyr, Su-ph.
linut, Bris*. ; Perdu, Bonap. : Slitrnn, Bonap. : ("uturnur,
Teinm. ; Htimitnt, lionap. ; Trtrao, Linn. ; and /.-igoput,
Vfcill.
The Crypturidtf consist of the subfamily OitygUli and
nus OrrjMTU, Dl.
Mr. (i. R. (iray. in hit Lift nf the Genera of 1
arranges the Tetraonidif between tin- I'hatianida- and the
<'hi«Hididfr, with the following subfamilies and genera: —
1. Perdirine.
Genera, Rhisathera, G. K. Gray; PtilopachiK. Sw.
Jlhaginit, Wag). ; Lrrtfa, Hodgs. ; Pternistes, Wagl.
..-nlinut. Briss.; Chacura, Hodgs. ; Perdix, Antiq.
Arborophila, Hodgs. ; Coturnij. Antiq. : Rollulut, Bonn.
Odontophnruf, Vieill.; Or/yx, Steph. ; Lophortyx, Bonap.
< ',//.-' igl.
2. TetraoninjB.
Genera, Tetrao, Linn. : Lyrurut, Sw. ; Bonata, Briss.
(Bonatia, Bonap.) ; Centrocercux, Sw. ; Lagopwt, Briss.
3. Pterocliiui'.
Genera, Pterocles, Temm. : Syrrhaptes, 111.
.Mr. G. R. Gray gives Hie synonyms of all these genera,
and sufficiently numerous they are. The same author, in
his Appendix, states that ('hin-iini should have before it
Caecabit, Kaup ; and directs the render to add near the
genus Alectoris, Kaup, Tetran, (1m. ; also to add the genus
Orriat, Kaup. lie further remarks that <>,-yi ,
nymous with Thinncnruv.
\Ve shall endeavour to illustrate this article with exam-
ples of the natural history of the grouse properly so called :
an account of some of the leading forms of the family,
taken in its more extensive sense, will be found under the
respective titles.
EUROPEAN GROUSE.
The following species are European : — Tetrao Uroga/liix,
the Capercailzie, or Cock of the Wood ; Tetrao hybriduc,
Sparrm. (Tflrua mediu-s, Meyer), the Hybrid Grouse, ge-
nerally considered by ornithologists to be a hybrid between
the Capercailzie and the Black Cock; Telrao Telrix (genus
Lyrurus, Sw.), the Black Groute or Block Cock : Hn>iti»iii
Eitripaa, the Hazel Grouse or Gelinotte ; Lagopus Sco-
ticut, the Red Groute ; Lagopus mat us, the Common Ptar-
migan ; Lagopus terrestris, the Rack Ptarmigan ;* La-
gopus talicfti. the Willow Ptarmigan; Lagopus brachy-
daclylut, the Short-toed Ptarmigan ; Pterocles arenarius,
the Hand-Grouse ; Pteroclet tetariut, the Pin-tailrd
l-Grouse.
Of these the Black Cock, the Red Grouse, and the Com-
mon Ptarmigan are Briti>h ; to which we trust that we
may now add the Capercailzie, restored by the praise-
worthy care of the Marquis of Breadalbane and others.*
We select as an example the Common Ptarmigan, L
gopus mutus.
Description — Winter Plumage (Male). — Pure white ; a
black band proceeding from the angle of the bill and tra-
versing the eyes ; lateral tail-feathers black, terminated by
a white border; feet and toes well covered with woolly
feathers; above the eves a naked space, which is termi-
nated by a small dentilated membrane ; these naked parts
are red ; claws hooked, subulate, and black : bill black •
iris ash-coloured. length about fifteen inches and a
quarter.
It inter Plum 'f .—Differing from that of tin
male in having the naked space above the eyes loss, and
no black eye-band. Smaller than the male; the len
about fourteen inches and a half.
Per/eel' Summer Plumage (Old Male).— Top of the
head, neck, back, scapulars, and the two middle tail-
feathers, as well as the upper coverts, nuty ash crossed by
numerous zigzags of deep black ; breast and sides varie-
gated with feathers of the «ame colour, among which are
always found a great number of feathers of a <le. •]
varied with some scattered zigzags of a bright ruit-coloni •;
black eye-band always distinctly marked : throat must fre-
quently white, hut oilcn marked with blackish; the whole
of the belly, abdomen, lower coverts of the tail, wings.
wing-covert*, and feet pure white : eye-brows large, of a
very lively red.
• tfalMVpat
Ante, p. 296 (note).
Female always distinguished In the total absence of the
black eye-band, and to be recognised also by the tone ol
her plumage, which has less white ; the head, all the upp.T
parts of the body, the neck, the breast, the flanK-
abdomcn -ticaked with transverse bauds of briirht rusty
and black, with a good deal of regularity : only the middle
of the belly, the feet, and the wings arc pure white.
The Yniim: are marked with . ash-coloured,
black and nistyish strca'.-. Tcmm..
N.B. The bird figured by Mr. Could, in his great work
Thf Birds nf Kurii/H; under the name of hiif ,
t'fie Rock Ptarmigan, with great doubt by that acute
ornithologist as to its identity with the North Ameiican
according to'Temminck, to be the female
Ptarmigan in her perfect Mimmcr plumage.
The iieicly-hatchi'd yuan a, according to Mr. Mncgilliv-
ray, are covered with a light yellowish-grey down patched
on the hack with brown, and 'have, on the top of the head.
a light chotnut mark, edged with darker chestnut. When
first fledged they are, he says, very similar to the young of
the Red Grouse, but banded and spotted with brighter
reddish-yellow: but this plumage, he adds, soon eh;!
so that in the beginning of August many of the yellow and
brown feathers of the back are exchanged for others spotted
and barred with pale grey and brown, and the under ;
are white as well as the wings. In conclusion,
that these young birds become white the first winter, like
the old ones. ///>/-..••.•/ >,f Hriti\h li>
This Ptarmigan is supposed by some, and with good
reason, to be the Lagopus of Pli lli\t., lib.
10 notices its excellent flavour, and states that its feet
with their 'hare-like hair' gave the bird its name. It i-,
the TWrno/f/^opiwofLinnseus; Lagopii* nilgnris of Flem-
ing; Pernice de MnntugiHi, Pn
liiiiiiro of the modern Italians ; Perdrix bfimrhf and -
note blanche of the French : 1'erdiz hlanca of the Spanish :
&'hiir<jiuhii and Himx, /ijii*x<<r? If'iililniihn of the
mans; Rypr of the Norwegians : Riupkarre (mule
female) of the Icelanders; Tarmaefuai of the Northern
Gael ; and C'lrinr i/r Alliaii of the \Velsh.
Geographical Distribution, — North of Europe: Lap-
land, Norway, Sweden, Russia. The Alpine districts of
the middle and south of Europe. North Ameiica : the
islands lying in the south-west of Baffin's Day Sabine :
high hills keeping near the snow-line; Churchill Ui\er
iklin: Richardson).
In the British Islands it was formerly found in the North
of England, and, as its Welsh name indicates, in \\
hut it no longer occurs in those localities, nor is it to be
met with in Ireland.
Mr. Macgillivray (History nf British Bi, -that
it inhabits the bare and weather-beaten summits of the
higher mountains of the middle and northern divisions of
Scotland; but, he adds, that even in the transition
of the south of that part of the United Kingdom, many of
the mountains of which, being more than two thousand
feet high, seem well adapted for it. no individuals ai<
met with. ' I have frequently,' says this observing out-
door naturalist. • chased it on Romival and other moun-
tains in Harris; and it is said to occur on Eachdla in South
Uist, on the Park and Uig hills in Lewis, on the Cuillin
and Strath mountains in Skye. as well as in Mull and.'nra.
•ed summits of the north of Scotland it is
not uncommon : and. on most of the Grampians, but espe-
cially the great granite and slaty masses from which issue
the sources of the Dee, the Spcy, and the Tay, it may be
said to be even abundant, (iivut numbers are annually
killed, but as the haunts of this Ptarmigan are not so easily
it >le as I hose of the brown species (Lagopux Nrvi//>//.\ i,
it is not at all likely to be exterminated.'
Food, llaliilx, ,V-r. — The summer food of the Ptarmigan
consists principally of Alpine berries, and in winter of the
shoots of \onng heath. Air. Macgillivray found in their
crops a largo quantity of fi. .if dilhina n/f-
,'niiim Myrtilliix. and l-'.mj.i'l nun nigrum, the
largest fragments not exceeding five-tuclflhs of an inch in
-. that leBVei and twigs of >'n:\-i/iiiini
,r h'T/Hiri-ii, seeds of \auons Jniin;.
Cjfperai-i-rf. and other plants, with berries in autumn, also
form part of their food, which is thus, lie o trr the
part the same as that of the Red Grouse, or, as he
terms it. the Drown Itannigan.
The author last ((noted givea the following description
T E T
257
T E T
of the habits of this species from personal observation :
' These beautiful birds, while feeding, run and walk among
the weather-beaten and lichen-crusted fragments of rock,
from which it is very difficult to distinguish them when
they remain motionless, as they invariably do should a
person be in sight. Indeed, unless you are directed to a
particular spot by their strange low croaking cry, which
has been compared to the harsh scream of the missel-
thrush, but which seems to me much more like the cry of
a frog, you may pass through a flock of Ptarmigans with-
out observing a single individual, although some of them
may not be ten yards distant. When squatted however they
utter no sound,' their object being to conceal themselves;
and, if you discover the one from which the cry has pro-
ceeded." you generally find him on the top of a stone, ready
to spring off the moment you show an indication of hos-
tility. If you throw a stone at him, he rises, utters his
call, and is immediately joined by all the individuals
around, which, to your surprise, if it be your first rencon-
tre, you see spring up one by one from the bare ground.
They generally fly off in a loose body, with a direct and
moderately rapid flight, resembling, but lighter than, that
of the Brown Ptarmigan, and settle on a distant part of the
mountain, or betake themselves to one of the neighbour-
ing summits, perhaps more than a mile distant.'
In winter it appears that these birds associate, forming
flocks of fifty or more ; and it is also stated that, during
this season, they burrow under the snow, thus giving coun-
tenance to the statement and cut of Olaus Mugnus, copied
by Gesner, showing that the ' Urogalli minores' lie hid
' sub nive :' to be sure, this retirement is said to be of
rather long duration — two or three months, and ' sine cibo.'
Mr. Macgillivray states that early in the spring the
Ptarmigans separate and pair. He describes the nest as
a slight hollow, scantily strewn with a few twigs, and stalks
or blades of grass ; the eggs, as regularly oval, about an
inch and seven-twelfths in length, and an inch and from one
to two twelfths across, white, yellowish-white, or reddish,
blotched and spotted with dark brown, the markings being
longer than those on the eggs of the red grouse. He
states that the young run about as soon as they leave the
shell, and are, from the first, so nimble and expert at con-
cealing themselves, that a person who has accidentally
fallen in with a brood very seldom succeeds in capturing one.
The parent bird it seems has recourse to the same strata-
gems as the partridge and other gallinaceous birds to lead
the intruder from her little ones. ' On the summit of the
Harris mountains,' says Mr. Macgillivray, ' I once hap-
pened to stroll into the midst of a covey of very young
ptarmigans, which instantly scattered, and in a few seconds
disappeared among the stones, while the mother ran about
within a few yards of me, manifesting the most intense
anxiety and pretending to be unable to fly. She suc-
ceeded so effectually in drawing my attention to herself,
that when I at last began to search for the young, not one
of them could be found, although the place was so bare
that one might have supposed it impossible for them to
escape detection.'
This species has been reared in confinement without
any great difficulty, and has bred in a tame state. (Selby.)
Every one must have observed the numbers of Ptarmigan
which are sent to this country early in the spring. The
shops of many of the London poulterers are then positively
white with them. These are imported from the north of
Europe, where they are principally taken in snares made of
horsehair. Mr. Yarrell states that he has more than once
found a hair noose round the neck of Norway Ptarmigan
in the London market, and that others have found the
same. The numbers taken are immense. According to
Mr. Lloyd, whom we have so often had occasion to quote,
one peasant will set from five hundred to a thousand of
these snares in the winter season. The captured birds are
kept in a frozen state till the dealers come ; and one of
these dealers will sometimes buy and sell fifty thousand
ptarmigan in a season. According to the calculation of
Sir Arthur de Capell Brooke, sixty thousand of these birds
were killed during one winter in a single parish, which was
however large. Mr. Grant informed Mr. Yarrell that he
was assured, when in Norway, that the number of ptar-
migan killed in that country every winter was beyond
belief: two thousand dozen, if Mr. Grant remembered
right, was the quantity exported from Drammen in one ship
for England in 1839, and great numbers, he adds, are sent
P. C., No. 1530.
to the Copenhagen market. Mr. Yarrell goes on to slate
that besides those brought to this country from Drammen,
great quantities are also received in London, during the
months of February, March, April, and May, from Bergen,
Drontheim, and other ports on the west coast of Norway,
from whence conveyance is obtained for them in the boats
which bring constant supplies of lobsters to the London
market. ' On one occasion,' says Mr. Yarrell, ' late in the
spring of 1839, one party shipped six thousand ptarmigan
for London, two thousand for Hull, and two thousand for
Liverpool ; and at the end of February or very early in
March of the present year, 1840, one salesman in Leaden-
hall market received fifteen thousand ptarmigan that had
been consigned to him ; and, during the same week, an-
other salesman received seven hundred capercaillies and
five hundred and sixty black grouse.'
Common Ptarmigan in winter and summer plumage. (Gould.)
ASIATIC GROUSE.
\Vc select the Pin-tailed Sand-Grouse, Ptcrocles scta-
rius, Gungn Cata, as an example.
Description. — Old Male. — Throat black ; sides of the
lu :ul and front of the neck yellowish-ash ; on the breast a
largo cincture, about two inches, of rusty orange, bordered
iil.mf and below by a narrow black band; head, nape,
rump, and tail-coverts streaked with black and yellowish ;
back and scapulars streaked in the same way, but, towards
the end of each feather there is a large band of bluish-ash,
succeeded by another of a yellowish colour ; lesser and
middle wing-coverts marked obliquely with chestnut-red,
and terminated by a white crescent ; greater coverts olive-
ash, terminated by black crescents ; belly, sides, abdomen,
thighs, and extremity of the lower coverts of the tail pure
while ; tail-feathers terminated with white, and the external
one bordered with that colour ; the two middle feathers,
which are very long, slender, and of loose texture, are three
inches longer than the others. Total length, without reck-
oning the long tail-feathers, 10 inches 6 lines.
Female differing much from the male ; throat white ;
below this part a large black semicollar, which only ex-
tends to the sides of the neck ; the cincture large and
orange-coloured as in the male; upper parts nearly the
same ; middle, lesser, and greater wing-coverts bluish-ash,
then an oblique reddish band, and all the feathers termi-
nated by black crescents ; the two long tail-feathers or
filaments are longer than the others by an inch and six
lines.
Young, before their first moult. — Plumage less varie-
gated ; upper parts olive clouded with ash ; the white of
the sides, the thighs, and the abdomen is barred with yel-
lowish and brown zigzags. (Temm.)
Geographical Distribution. — Very numerous on the arid
plains of Persia. Not very numerous in France, on the
sterile ' Landes' near the Pyrenees, and along the coasts of
the Mediterranean ; less common in Provence and Dau-
phine, where they occasionally arrive ; more common in
Spain, Sicily, Naples, and throughout the Levant. Tem-
minck, who gives these localities, states, in the fourth part
of his Mnnuel, second edition, that it is common in Pro-
vence, in the uncultivated plains of Crau, and says that it
avoids cultured tracts, and only inhabits the sterile Landes
of the south ; but he adds that it is abundant in the Py-
renees, and that it is to be found all the year round in the
markets of Madrid. Mr. Gould states that the species is
found in the North of Africa.
Food, Habits, fyc. — Seeds, insects, and the young shoots
VOL. XXIV.— 2 L
T K T
T I
of plants torm the food of this Mod-arouse: but its wild
nmlurr an-1 the barren place* winch r
to obseiration; and little or nothing i its habits.
The nest u a hollow in the earth, HI
mmrk. the egg*, newly of the same tin at each • ml, of an
Isabella grey, maikud with small brown point* ajid large
black patches, are only two or three, a small numl» :
f*nd with those of the majority of the Tttraontd*.
I'ln-Ullnl Sud Grcnur. m»U- and fnule. (Uould.)
AFRICAN GROUSE.
Dr. Andrew Smith remarks, that though we iiiul .«•;•
of Plerocle* hcvontl (!:<• contincs i,f Aliica. yet the majority
of those now known are peculiar to that quarter of the
globe. The regions south of the equator, he observe-.
have furnished nearly us many species as those to the north
of it ; and he thinks" that both will doubtless afford many
additional ones when the yet unknown districts -hull have
been thoroughly explored. Each of the known species, as
far as his observations go, has « limited range : and should
the range of such a* inhabit the unexplored tracts of the
interior not be greater, he i* of opinion that we may in
time expect great additions to the following list of known
species which he gives: —
Pteroelftarenariu^Temm., Barbary and Senegal : /'/>•-
roc/ft guttatus, Licht., Egypt : /'/ •ilririiirtiix.
Temm., Senegal ; Pterocles cornnalmt. Licht.. Nubia: l'/f-
roctei Lichtentteinii, Temm., Nubia: Ptrrorlcx trii'im-tn*.
Swain., Senegal; Pternclrt tanulu*, Temm., Egypt and
Senegal; Pteroclrt Turhypetm. Temm., South Africa:
Ptenttft bicinctus. Teiuiu.. Smith Al'riea: I'tri-m-li'* xnii-
\. South Africa: !'!"•
South Africa : Ptrrnrftt i-
It will tx- seen thnt I'lernrlf* *>•'
BMigns North Africa as a locality, is not in Dr. Smith's list.
select as an example I'trrnrlfs nuttiir'ili*. Smith.
Miilr. — Top of the head dull green, faintly
• il with black; sides of the head m:d chin straw-
ycllnw: eyebrow* yellowish-white: f\m- I the
en and bill black; neck, breast, and a portion of each
•houkier intermedia' n nil-irrcen and sulphur-
v.-llow; l)a»w of all the feathers pearl-grey: immediatelv
behind the vellow chin, the throat and si'des of 1h'
are crowed oy a deep brownish-black crescent. Inter-
xcapulars and senpulnrs clouded with pale reddish-brown,
pearl-grty. niul bluinli-blaek or brownish-black, the latter
rn)ly prevailing ' "ie (mills. upper
••. ith lumvn, and
h is found with a jel-
lownh tint at the base, and v. ith a strong satin lustre.
Seeondnry win:- Dutch and
rc<lii with the ba«e antl a tile portion
of the inner vane of each p<-arl-i:rry : primary wing-
corertiiand all ' ularie.s
narrowly tipped wi" ickish-
brown, th. ne» edged with penrl-irrcv, and all.
:>t the two middle on '!i the same
r a* the secondary quill-cm i rtv Hi-ll\ and under
tail-coverts between chestnut and reddish-brown. Hill and
dawn dark horn-colour; eyes dark brown ; toes green i si i-
brown. Wings when folded nearly reaching the tip of the
tail; frrt qnill-fenthpr rather longer than the -.
longest of the tertiariex intermediate between the sixth
and wrenth quill-feathers; tail wedge-shaped. II
IKkMIe feathers rather the longest and acuminated at their
extremities; outer and irner foes of equal length. Total
length 12 inches 6 lines.
ftmalf. — Top of the head brownish-black, (potted with
nttty-whitc ; back of the m-ck dull en am-vellow. :
dached with brown : Miles of the neck anil thioir
honey-jrellow ; back, tlioiiUU-n. and breast biownish-hlack.
with large eream-colouretl spots: bellv dee], hlack. liarred
with iiale chestnut. I'nder t:i
towwns their baws barred with black. Taf
i. with partial bar* of light <-i, •am-vellow ; and all.
t the two middle feathers, tipped with pn
orange. Length 1 1| inches. (Smith.)
PteroclM gutlarnlU : m»lc and tcm\v.
LnrttUlij. Fnntl. 11/1.1 Hr. Smith stalls th:\'
species wiis first discovered in lat. !iV 4(1'. about eighty
miles to the eastward of I-ntakoo : and it was when he
,ed its cry to ditfer from that uttered b-,
Tnrhyiii'tf*. Temm., that he was led to suspect that r
distinct. 1' '. in common with the other South
African species of this genus, it repairs in large flocks at
10 localities where water is, and
that at such times specimens nre most readily procured •
but he warns the sportsman to be quick in his i<
>. scarcely reach the water before they are again on
the ving. As they approach and recede from such -
they almost incessantly utter cries resembling Itcrt ttrrt,
irrrt.
Dr. Smith remarks, that from olisening 'best: birds
when they nre in quest of water, one would be disposed
to consider them grcuiirious. a notion
when their feeding-grounds arc discovered, tor then
are generally dispersed singly or in pairs, and the
sional congregation is only effected by solitary individuals
, joining others who arc on their way from a
'ttiirnlis seeks the water
about ten in the morning and three in the afternoon, re-
sembling in this respect I'lrrni-li^ 7' which in-
.1 ditl'crent part of the country. /'//')••
he tells us. drinks during the enrly pait ol the morning.
and /'• 'ix in the dusk of the evening and
%-irly part of the night. In such an arrangement, he ob-
serves, we must admit design ; for if all the various speow
T E T
259
T E T
were to experience thirst at the same time, both delay and
difficulty would occur in quenching it, since, owing to the
general scarcity of water in the districts inhabited by these
birds, hundreds of the same species, even as it is at present,
are often to be seen fringing the brink of a pool for hours
together, and occasionally disputing for the first sip. Dr.
Smith found grass-seeds, ants, and abundance of gravel in
the stomachs of most of the individuals which he procured.
The female lays two or three eargs, which are nearly of the
same size at each end, of a dirty-white or cream-colour,
marked with irregular streaks and blotches of pale rusty
and pale grey or ash-colour, upon the bare ground, without
any care, once or oftener during the warm season ; and it
is only when level spots fitted for the reception of the eggs
cannot be readily obtained, that the birds of this genus,
according to Dr. Smith, bestow any labour on the prepara-
tion of nestling-places. Nothing, he adds, is ever inter-
posed between the eirss and the soil ; and indeed whatever
is calculated to separate them is carefully avoided. Almost
as soon as the young escape from the shell, they take to a
wandering life, and remove from place to place with the
parent-birds in search of food. (Illustrations of the Zoo-
Ingy iif South .•{/.
AMERICAN GROVSK.
America possesses several species of grouse, consist-
ing of the genera and subirenera Boiiusia, or Bonasa,
ntrao, I.":: ••/>«*, and Cenlrocercus. We have already
noticed the Ku/l'ed Uriiutr [UONASIA], and here select for
example Centr-jeerm* «/-o/</i,/.s/o//u.y.
l>f«-ri]>ii<>H. — .}f<ile. — General ground-colour of upper
plumage light hair-brown, mottled and variegated with
dark umber-brown and yellowish-white. Each feather of
the back with three bands of yellowish-white at equal dis-
tances from each other, the lowest narrow, the middle one
broad, and the outer one at the tip of the feather almost
k'te : between thcsr the colour is hair-brown, prettily
marked with small ineguli'i /i^va^s of light hair-brown:
these colours cross the. .ilmt't ; but on the wing-covrrs and
scapulars the shafts are all marked by a namiw conspi-
cuous line of yellowish-white. On the tail there are about
eight bands of this colour, the lower onus being tolerably
defined, but those towards the ends obscure : the uiamn;--
aie zigzairged, and bordered by dark umber-brown, with
irregular zigzag Hues ot' the same, upon a light hair-brown
ground, between each bar. (Quills light, and almost un-
spotted; narrowed r\Uv;mties of the tail ahnoit Mack.
Under plumage white, unspotted on 1he brea-t and part of
the body; but dark umber-brown, approaching to black,
on the lower half of the body and part of the flanks ; the
latter, towaid.s the vent, marked as on the upper plumage.
1'nder tail-coverts black, broadly tipped with white.
Feathers of the thighs and tarsi light hair-brown, mottled
with darker lines. Throat and region of the head varied
with blackrsh on a white ground. Shafts of all the feathers
on the breast black, rigid, and looking like hairs ; scale-
like feathers of the sides white and thicker. Bill, which
is thick and strong, and toes blackish. On each side of
the breast two prominent naked protuberances, destitute
of hair and feathers, more forward than the analogous parts
in Tvtnto (,'it/iii/n. On each side ot'the protuberances and
higher up on the neck, a tuft of feathers, having their
a considerably elongated and naked, gently curved and
tipped with a pencil of a few black radii. These tufts
occur at the same part as those of the Rutted Grouse, but
are placed much In hind the naked protuberances in the
specimen from which the description was taken,* so that
they do not appear intended to cover them when not in-
flated. On the sides of the neck and across the breast,
below the protuberances, the feathers are very short, rigid.
and acute, overlying each other like the scales of a lish.
Wings short in proportion; lesser quills ending in a small
point. Tail rather lengthened, considerably rounded, each
leather lanceolate and gradually attenuated to a fine point.
i thickly clothed with feathers to the base of 1he toes.
ih 31 inches (i lines.
-Whole upper plumage, tail, wing-covers, ter-
tiaries, front of the neck, and sides of the breast, dark vim-
bar, or blackish-brown, and yellowish-white, irregularly
barred and mottled m nearly' equal quantities; but the
dark • .ning larger blotches towards the base, and
the lighter colour bars on the tips and stripes on the shafts.
* Now in the British MuMnm.
Fore part of the belly white, barred with black; hinder
parts black. Plumage of breast and neck of ordinary form,
there being no scale-like feathers nor projecting shafts as
in the male. Length 22 inches 6 lines. (Fauna Boreali-
Americana,.)
This is the Tetrao urophasianus of the Prince of Cani-
no, the Cock of the Plains of Lewis and Clark, and the
Pyamis of the Kyuse Indians.
Food, Habits, fyc. — The favourite food of this species is
said to be the pulpy-leaved thorn, but it probably feeds
also on buds and berries.
This grouse appears to have been first recorded by Lewis
and Clark ; and it has since become familiar to the fur-
traders on the banks of the Columbia. Dr. Richardson
gives the following interesting account of its habits by the
late Mr. David Douglas : —
' The flight of these birds is slow, unsteady, and affords
but little amusement to the sportsman. From the dispro-
portionately small, convex, thin-quilled wing — so thin,
that a vacant space half as broad as a quill appears be-
tween each — the flight may be said to be a sort of flutter-
ing, more than anything else : the bird giving two or three
claps of the wings in quick succession, at, the same time
hurriedly rising, then shooting or floating, swinging from
side to side, gradually falling, and thus producing a clap-
ping, whirring sound. When startled, the voice is " Click,
cuc.k, CHC/I," like the common Pheasant. They pair in
March and April. Small eminences on the banks of
streams are the places usually selected for celebrating the
weddings, the time generally about sunrise. The wings of
the male are lowered, buzzing on the ground ; the tail
spread like a fan, somewhat erect ; the bare yellow oeso-
phagus inflated to a prodigious size, — fully half as large as
his body, and, from its sott membranous substance being
well contrasted with the scale-like leathers below it on the
breast, and the flexile silky feathers on the neck, which on
these occasions stand erect. In this grotesque form he
displays in the presence of his intended mate a variety of
attitudes. His love-song is a confused, gialing, but not
offensively disagreeable tone, — something that we can imi-
tate, but have a difficulty in expressing — " Hurr-hitrr-
hurr-i--r-r-huii." ending in a deep hollow tone, not unlike
the sound produced by blowing into a large reed. Nest on
the ground, under the shade of Purshia and Artemisia, or
near streams, among Phuluris arundinucea, carefully con-
structed of dry grass and slender twigs. Eggs, from thir-
teen to seventeen, about the size of those ot the common
fowl, of a wood-brown colour, with irregular chocolate
blotches on the thick end. Period of incubation twenty-
oni1 to twenty-two days. The young leave the nests a few
hours after they are hatched. In the summer and autumn
months these birds arc seen in small troops, and in winter
and spring in flocks of several hundreds. Plentiful through-
out the barren arid plains of the river Columbia; also in
the interior of North California. They do not exist on the
banks of the river Missouri, nor have they been seen in any
Cock of the Plains. Male. (Swalnson.)
place east of the Rocky Mountains.' {Fauna Boreali-
Americana.)
Nuttall says that the flesh is dark and less palatable
than that of other species.
TE'TRAPLA. [OmsENEs.]
2L2
T E T
260
T E U
TETRARCH frrrp«wK)> from two Greek word*, signify-
ing /our *'id "> forrm, a title used by the Creeks at a
very early period to describe the ruler of each part of a
country which was divided into four parts, either on account
of its occupation by different tribes or merely a« a political
• n. Each of Mich four parts was called a tetrarchy
{nrpapxim or nrpalapxia). In process of time the title
came to be applied to the ruler* of different divisions of
the same country, or to the chiefs of different tribes inhabit-
ing the tame country, without any reference to the mun-
. >ur. In this sense it was equivalent to the titles
flHmirch and phylarch. I'nder the Roman government,
in the later ages of the republic and under t be emperors,
there were several such petty princes, independent of each
other, but tributary to Rome. These trtrarehs, rthnarcht,
or phylarrtu, were either the legitimate governors of their
subjects, or persons who had received the title and go\ ern-
ment from Rome as a mark of honour. They ranked below
those other subject princes who were permitted to retain
the title of king.
The principal examples of tetrarehies are those of Thes-
saly, which was antiently so divided, and the division was
again made by Philip, the father of Alexander the Great :
.itia, which was peopled by three Gallic tribes, each
of which was divided into four tetrarehies : of Syria, many
of the petty princes of which bore the title of tctrarchs,
especially certain princes of the family of Herod the Great.
Concerning the tctrarchs of Syria, see Niebuhr's History
of Rome, if., pp. 134-5.
TETRAX, Dr. Leach's name for one of the BUSTARDS
placed by Mr. G. R. Gray in the subfamily Otodinte of the
family STHUTHIONID*.
Kvample, Otitletrax, Linn.
TK'TRICUS, CAIUS PESUVVIUS, a Roman senator,
one of the numerous usurpers of the Imperial purple
in the third century A.D., who are distinguished in Roman
history by the name of the Thirty Tyrants. He was
governor of Aquitania, and, after the death of several
pretenders in Gaul, was made emperor there, A.D. 268,
by Victorina, said to be his kinswoman, and the widow
of Victorinus. He reigned for a few years not unpros-
perously ; but after the accession of Aurelian, finding
himself unable to control the turbulent and licentious
soldiery who sustained his power, and becoming weary of
their crimes, he invited the new emperor into Gaul, and
resigned his usurped dominion in the following manner.
Dreading the resentment of hi* troops if he deserted them
openly, he pretended to prepare for an engagement near
Chalons in Champagne, and then betrayed his army into
the hands of Aurelian. Gibbon places this event before
the defeat of Zenobia ; but Vopiscus (' Aurelianus,' Hintnria
Augufta) say* that it took place subsequently. The
triumph of Aurelian, A.D. 274, was ennobled by the pre-
sence of the queen of the East, and of Tetricus and his
son, in the train of captives. The deposed emperor was
treated by his conqueror with every mark of distinction
during the remainder of his life, and was mode corrector
of Lucahia according to Vopiscus and other writers, or of
all Italy, if we follow Trebellius Pollio. His son Tetricus,
who had been made Ca*ar by Victorina, met with not less
favour than his father at the hands of Aurelian, and was
honoured with senatorial dignity. On the coins of Te-
tncus, which are extant in gold, silver, and copper, we
find the reading IMP.C.C.PBSV.TKTRICVS.AVG, and also
rap.Trrai. >!h.onthereverse,iup.c.ci.AVDivs.\\<..
which, a- ' \'nm. remarks, would im-
ply an all: un and Claudius Gothicus. Spon
(Afitcell., 274. Lugd., H1S5) gives an inscription on a
marble found at Rouen with the titles of Tetricus more at
length : C.PBSVBIO. TBTRICO. M>IUI.IS-.I\I<>. CAXS.P.F. \
Coins struck in the name of the younger Tetricus yet re-
main. (Trebelliim Pollio, 'Trieint.Tyr..' in the Ilittoria
Augufta ; Eutropius, ix. 13: Gibbon., ii.)
TKTRODON, a genus of fishes of the order Pleclorna-
thi. These fishes, instead of having distinct teeth as
usual in the class, have the jaws provided with a substance
resembling ivory, formed somewhat like the beak of a bird,
and fitted for crushing crustaceous animals and fuci, upon
whicn they live. Both the Titrwion* and Diodotu (Dio-
rf'in. Linn. , a very closely allied genus, have the power of
Mliarm*; the body with wind, or rather a membrane which
extend* along the under side of the abdomen, which causes
them to float on the surface of the water, without the
power, it is said, of directing their course : the membrane
when inflated, gives to the fish an almost spherical form,
and is usually defended by spines and prickles. The pec-
toral fins are rather small ; and besides these and the tail-
tin, they have one dorsal and a ventral fin. The Diodons
lm\e but one large tooth above and below, and nre usually
led bv large strong spines. The Tttr.xlons are dis-
tinguished by the possession of four large teeth, the jaw*
each divided by a central suture. These fishes are
e.nitined to the seas of warm climates: some of them are
called (JKibe-tishes.
TK IT AN. [Muiocco.]
.1. [TKZKLj
TEU'CRIUM (from Teucer, son of Scaraander, and
father-in-law of Dardamis, king of Troy) is the name of a
genus of plants belonging to the natural order Lamiacea-
or I.ahiata". It has a tubular 5-toothed, nearly equal, or
2-lipped calyx. The tube of the corolla is shorter than
the calyx, the upper lip is abbreviated and bipartite ; the
lower lip is longer, spreading, and trifid. The stamens are
much exserted, and the cells of the anthers are confluent
and spreading. The species are herbs and shrubs inhabit-
ing most parts of the earth, and having a variable habit
and inflorescence. Upwards of seventy species are de-
scribed in Don's Miller's Dictionary. Of these compara-
tively few are known in this country; some of them are
cultivated in our gardens, and three are natives of the
British Isles.
T. K-nriMl'inin, Wood Germander, or Sage, has cordate,
downy, petiolate, crenate leaves; the flowers are of a pale
yellow colour, with violaceous stamens, and are arranged
in lateral and terminal one-sided racemes ; the stem is
erect, hispid, pubescent, or nearly glabrous. It is a native
of Europe in woody hilly situations, where the soil is dry
and stony. It is not an uncommon plant in Great Britain.
The smell and taste of this plant resemble veiv much the
hop. In Jersey, where it is called Ambroite, the inhabit-
ants use it as a substitute for hops in their beer ; and by
| some persons the bitter given by the Germander is pre"-
ferred to that of the hop.
T. K-iiriliiiin. Water Germander, has oblong sessile
downy serrated leaves ; flowers purplish, arranged in axil-
lary whorls, 2-6 flowers in each ; the stem is procumbent
and villous. It is a native of Europe and tin- temperate
part* of Asia in boggy wet places. It is a rare plant in
Britain. Its fresh leaves are very bitter and rather pun-
gent, having a smell similar to garlic. It had once a great
reputation in medicine, but is now seldom used : it might
however be employed in cases where an aromatic bit
desirable.
T. Chamcedrys, Wall or Common Germander, has ovate
inciso-serrate leaves, tapering into a footstalk ; the flowers
are reddish-purple, and arranged in axillary whorls of '
flowers; the stem is nscending, and most frequently \illoirs.
It is a native of Europe and some parts of Asia, on walls
and rocks and dry places. It is only rarely found in '
Britain. This plant was once much employed in medicine.
and entered as an ingredient into the celebrated Portland
powder. It has the tonic aromatic qualities of the family
to which it belongs, which frequently render them valuable
in diseases connected with depressed powers of the nervous
| system and die ,,ns.
T. M'iri/ii/. Cat -Thyme, has small ovate quite entire
-.with 2-4 flowered whorls: slem erect, blanched.
It is a native of the region of the Mediterranean. When
the leaves are nibbed between the fingers, they emit a \o-
latile aromatic smell, which excites snec/ing, and on this
account it is used as an errhine, and forms an ingredient in
the pulcii atari comjmsitus of the ' Pharmacopeia.' It
has been recommended as a stimulant and aromatic in
various diseases, but is not much used. Cats are very fond
of it, and destroy it when they get near it.
T. polium, Mountain Poly, has cuneated oblong or linear
leaves with revolute edges ; whorls few, condensed into glo-
bular terminal heads ; stems procumbent, much branch., I.
This plant is a native of Europe and Africa, on the shores
of the Mediterranean. According to soil, situation, and
other circumstances, it assumes a variety of forma, which
have been recognised as species by many botanists. Mr.
Bcntham, in his monograph on Labiattp, has placed -i\
' of these species under the present. There are other
species of Teucrium, chiefly found on the shores of the
Mediterranean, called Polies.
T E U
261
T E U
In the cultivation of the Germander a dry soil and shady
situation are best. The annual kinds are best propagated
by seeds sown in an open border. The perennial and
shrubby kinds we readily increased by division and by
cuttings of the young wood.
TEUTHIDyE, Professor Owen's name for the Calama-
ries, his fourth family of Decapadous Cephalopods, de-
rived from Teuthos (j-tuOoj), applied by Aristotle to the
ton-armed Malakia with an internal horny plate or gla-
dius. An outline of the family will be found in the article
TF.TRABRANCHIATA.
Family Character. — Animal, body sometimes oblong and
depressed, generally elongated and cylindrical ; with a
pair of fins varying in their relative size and position, but
generally broad, shorter than the body, and terminal.
Shell internal, rudimental, in the form of a thin, straight,
elongated, horny lamina ; encysted in the substance of the
dorsal aspect of the mantle. — (Owen.)
Professor Owen divides the family into the following
sections :
Section A.
Genus, Sepioteuthis, Blainville.
Generic Character. — Body oval, flattened, with narrow
lateral fins, extending its whole length ; anterior margin
of the mantle unattached. Horny hoops of the acetabula
with denticulated margins. Gladius or rudimental shell
long and wide. (Owen.)
Example Sepioteuthis loliginiformis, Rtippel.
Genus, Loligo, Cuvier.
Generic Character. — Body elongated, cylindrical, pro-
vided with a pair of rhomboidal or triangular fins, snorter
than the body, and terminal, their apices generally con-
verging to a point, and united to the end of the mantle ;
anterior margin of the mantle free. Horny hoops of
the acetabula denticulated. Gladius long and narrow.
(Owen.)
Example, Loligo vulgaris. The common Calamary, or
Pen-fish, abundant on our coasts.
Genus Onychoteuthis, Liechtenstein.
Generic Character. — Body and fins as in the genus
Loligo ; long and narrow ; horny hoops of the tentacular,
and sometimes of the brachial, acetabula produced into the
form of hooks or claws. Gladius long, broadest in the
middle. (Owen.)
Genus, Russia, Owen. [SEPIAD*, vol. xxi., p. 253.]
Genus, Sepiola, Leach.
Generic Character. — Body rounded, short ; anterior mar-
gin of the mantle adherent to the back of the head ; fins
advanced, circular, short, subpedunculate, distant and sub-
dorsal. Gladius short and narrow. (Owen.)
Example, Sepiola Rondeletii, Leach. ;
Section B.
Genus Loligopsis, Lamarck.
Generic Character. — Body long and cylindrical, termi-
nated by a pair of conjoined, large, round fins, forming
generally a circular disc ; anterior border of the mantle
adherent to the back of the head for a small extent. Ten-
tarula very long and slender (frequently mutilated). Gla-
iliui long, narrowest in the middle, dilated posteriorly.
(Owen.)
Example, Loligopsis Veranii, Fe'russac.
Genus Cranchta, Leach.
Generic Character. — Body elongated, sacciform ; ante-
rior margin of the mantle adherent to the back of the
head. Fins short, rounded, subpedunculate, approximate,
dorsal, and subterminal. Gladius long and narrow.
(Owen.)
Example, Cranchia scabra. Leach.
Such are the arrangement and definitions given by Pro-
fessor Owen in the Cyclop&dia of Annlnini/ mid Physio-
f»gy. The family appears to us to be truly natural ; and
the definitions are very accurate. The views and defini-
tions of other authors regarding the forms belonging to
this family, and an illustration of the forms themselves,
will be found in the article SEPIAD.E.
TEUTOBURGER WALD. [GKRMANY.]
TEUTON K; NATIONS is the general name under which
are comprised the different nations of the Teutonic race,
which are divided into three branches. The first branch
contains the High Germans, to whom belong the Teutonic
inhabitants of Upper and Middle Germany, those of Swit-
zerland, and the greater part of the Germans of Hungary ;
it is subdivided into the Suabian and the Franconian minor
branches. The second is the Saxon branch, which is di-
vided into three minor branches : the first of which
contains the Frisians ; the second contains the Old Saxons
or Low Germans, with the Dutch, the Flemings, and the
Saxons of Transylvania ; and the third contains the Eng-
lish, the Scotch, and the greater part of the inhabitants of
the United States of North America. The third branch
is the Scandinavian, to which belong the Icelanders, the
Norwegians, the Danes, and the Swedes. Upwards of
eighty-two millions of individuals belong to the Teutonic
race. The Germans amount to about forty-two millions, thirty-
three of which live in Germany, the remaining eight or
nine millions form a greater or less part of the population
of East Prussia, of Switzerland, of Hungary, of Transyl-
vania, of France (in Alsace and north-east Lorraine),
of Russia (in the Baltic provinces, in the kingdom of
Poland, in the Crimea, in Bessarabia, and in the German
colonies in the environs of Saratov on the Volga), of the
duchy of Sleswig, and of the United States of North America,
especially Pennsylvania. The English amount to twenty-
eight millions, there being about sixteen millions of English
and Scotch in Great Britain and Ireland, two millions in the
English colonies, and about ten millions of Anglo-Americans
in the United States. The number of the Frisians is about
one hundred and thirty thousand, in the province of West
Friesland in Holland, in the islands in the German Ocean
along the Dutch and the German shore, in the Salerland
(near Oldenburg), and in the islands along the west coast
of the duchy of Sleswig. There are about three mil-
lions of Dutchmen in Holland, and in her colonies and the
Cape of Good Hope ; and there are about two millions
five hundred thousand Flemings in the north part of Bel-
gium, in the south part of Holland, and in the north-east
part of France. The number of individuals belonging to
the Scandinavian branch amounts to about six millions,
among whom there are nearly fifty thousand Icelanders ;
one million five hundred thousand Danes in Denmark,
in her colonies and in the north part of the duchy of
Sleswig ; one million two hundred thousand Norwegians ;
and about three millions two hundred thousand Swedes in
Sweden and in the present Russian province of Finland,
especially along the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, in the
districts of Abo and Nyland, and on the Aland islands,
which are entirely inhabited by Swedes.
Light hair and blue eyes in the northern countries, and
brown hair and brown or blue eyes in some of the southern
countries, are characteristics of the Teutonic race. Their
stature is generally tall, although in those provinces wliere
the Germans are mixed with Wends, Sorabians, and Bohe-
mians, many of the people have the broad shoulders and
the short square form of the north-western Slavonians.
The straight black hair of some Slavonian tribes also some-
times appears. The mixture of Germans with the south-
western Slavonians, such as Winds and Croatians, whose
stature exceeds that of the Wends and Bohemians, is more
difficult to be distinguished, the black straight hair and a
darker complexion being almost the only indication of
such a mixture. The mixture of Germans with Celts in
Belgium and in the adjoining part of France has formed a
tall race which differs from their Teutonic neighbours
only in the dark colour of their hair and their black eyes.
(Plate1, Scenen aim dem Volksleben in Belgien.)
It is very difficult to distinguish the descendants of
English and Irish parents as belonging either to the Teu-
tonic or the Celtic race, though it appears that wherever
aquiline noses are seen among the lower classes they are a
proof of Celtic origin, the true Teutonic nose not being
aquiline, but either straight or curved only in its upper part.
In general also the Teutonic forehead is broader between the
temples than the Celtic. (Clement, Die Nordgermanische
Welt ; Herder, Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte, vol.i.)
The moral and intellectual difference between the
Teutonic nations is less remarkable than that which exists
between other European nations of the same race with one
another. Capable of strong and violent passions, they do not
easily lose their self-control, the intellectual functions being
more developed than in most other races. Southern nations,
confounding liveliness of feeling with intensity, and nervous
excitability with moral sensibility, have been deceived by
the cool character of the Teutonic nations, and have
accused them of indifference. But. the most superficial
examination will show their sensibility, a fact which is proved
by their poetry. The Teutonic nations are leas excitable
•I I- U
T K
IM Celtic, the Slavonian, nml oilier rare*, hut
Mai' .T thought. Souther.
plMhtd great thing* by midden efforts .nic nations
have . iiicrpri-c tor \a»t plan*, which
miir** centime* to cam »'t" cHi ct. Thus tlu-\ .!. -•
tin- Roman empire after a struggle of three centuries, and
Uiey funned new kingdoms in Kurope upon new social
principles, which have maintained their \igourtolhe pre-
sent day. The N'ornmiu became powerftil wherever the
sea permitted them lauding. The <J. MM.IH-.
diminished in innnher after (hoy ha.: -warms to
western Europe. turned back towmdsthe ea-l p:ut of their
country, then uccnpi. . onian nations, which thev
conquered, and Germanised upon a plan ofcolonizat ion which
enabled them to ci\ i -i of Kurope. And lastly.
the Knglish colonies have spread over the world : their
dominion in the east and in the west is the result of plans
which imply more boldness of conception, more prudence
in execution, and more reflection, than the conqn.
aider the Great and the ephemeral power of Najwleon.
The same character of deep mid patient reflection cx-
erci-cd on great objects appears in German philosophy
and in the inventions of the Teutonic nations. The
watch, the irun, and the art of printing are Teutonic in-
ventions. They ha\e subjugated the power of steam ;
and the first model of the modern sea-vessel was con-
structed at the mouth of the Hider by the hands of an old
Saxon or Frisian ship-builder. (Clement, .
The name of the Teutones was made known to the an-
tienU by 1'ytheas of Massilia (Marseille •, who. in the age
of Alexander the Great, about 330 B.C.. discovered a nation
of that name in the Chersonesus Cimbiica, and on the ad-
jacent islands, or in the present countries of Holstein,
j;. Denmark, and perhaps also in the southern ex-
tremity of Sweden. It seems that they had long been
• 1 there, for they lived in houses, and were acquainted
with agriculture and commerce. Other traces of the name
appear later. Among the Celtic tribes which invaded
I Delphi under the second Brenmis
(B.C. 2/H . there was a people called Teutobodinci. who
altcrwards passed the Hellespont and settled with the Celts
inGalatia, in Asia Minor. About a hundred amlsixu
later, the Romans were attacked by the Cimbri and Teu-
Unes, who came from the same country, where tli.
been seen by Pytheas. The Teutonic origin of the t 'imln-i
has been disputed: some historians consider them iden-
tical with the Celtic Cvmii. but this error has been long
since refuted, although it has been reproduced in our
days by Thierry, in his -Hi-toiie dcs G.inloi-.' Ft is
said, and it i» not improbable, that inundations of t!
compelled the i mid their neighbours the Cimbii
to leave their inuntry and to seek other abodes. The
choice was soon made. The wealth of Homo and the arts
of Greece were not unknown to them. From the most re-
mote times adventurous merchants, starting from the shores
of th' 'Unwed the course of the Dniepr to-
ward* its sources, and reaching the Diina and the Nicmen.
rivers to their mouths in the Haltie. where
they exchanged the commodities of the south for amber,
the electmm of the antients. The same trade, as it serins.
was carried on by the merchants of Massilia along the
Klu'ine and the Khine. and therefore Schlo/cr. in his *Nor-
disd • ays that but for the amber Germany
would have remained unknown to the antients for five
centuries more. Their acquaintance with Koine and Mas-
silia was perhaps the principal cause which led the ( 'inihii
and the Teuton uth of France and to Itah M.I .
1 i:j-!i:i . Then 'ii by Marius has been related.
[M\.. >KI.]
When tl first heard the name of th.
they thought that they were a single 1ril>e. They did not
know that it was also the general and ethnographic name
of all those nations to which they afterwards irave the
vague dc-ignation of Germans.
/ thf Him, ,. — The root of the word
Teuton u ihn or iln. which originally represented the idea
of 'activity,' of 'livi nourishing.' ami also
of 'taming, educating, and ruling.' From thi
formed the lolluwiiu ....... f which .•,
in the popular diuh •
'•" •'• :" : /'•'.•,. •/',., ,1,1,1 ,,, tluii'l. ea:th : l"tl. </<.'.,
4ofr, godfather : /..,/„. ,,ur*e : '
bed, ruler, king, in Gothic Ihm,/,,,,*, in old Ba\an;ui
; dirt, people, in old Swedish Mm;//
>KT»«**lnGothir
Th. 'h de-
rived from • .-«ses the r ' .ling,
is a fact which proves that they
a nation in which (he-
power, nor absolute submission to their chiefs. This >
exactly to the politi. .'onie
nat ions, among whom the sovereignty v • i-ople.aud
the executive power of the chiefs or kings, altho
':. was always regarded asdcmiit Irom the people.
ruling, expressed by the root Trul, explains
why (hi-, w - so frequently in the nstr
antienl IT 'chiefs. Mich as Tcnto-
lioch, Thei: i\. Thcodonc. Theodnmir,
Theoilimir. Tcnta-on. N.C. Ii is likewise contained in the
.1 name of all the Teutov, and in those of
various tnhc-, a- tin- ! the Tcutonoaiii. Thnifali.
tnd the Dithinarses or Dietmar&es. Ii i> M-ihlr in •'!
burger \Vald,' the name of that Hinge of uoodeil moun-
tains which stit-tihes Irom Detmold westward beyund
().-nahi-iick, in which is situated the (irotenbuig. fonncily
•Tent" or 'Teiitoburg,' with the farm of •Tcutchof.' .
was oveitluown by Arminius ; in 'Detmold.' • I
• Dnisburg,' 'Deiiz,' and in a great many other
localities in ' . HaiunierMciv '•icht-
fi-/i/ i/fx 1'iiriis; Keichardt, li<-riinniic>i, p. 7M. Jvc. • Ti-ntnn
is identical with Drutuchf or Trutn-hi' :man
1'ii'^lt. in Dutch Dmtsrh, in Danish 7^**, in Knglish
Dutch', which from the remotest time has been a.
still the general name of that part of the Teutonic nations
which we now call Germans, who considered the god or hero
Tuisco as their common ancestor. Tin -re arc no direct proofs
of the word Teuton having had thi -c\'ensi\c meaning in the
earliest German history, but this is perhaps the result of
the political state of the Teutonic nations, which were ori-
ginally divided into numerous tiibes. each of which he-
came separately known to the Romans. In the twelfth.
ele\ enth, and even as early as the tenth century.* when t In-
difference between Fnnik's and s well marked in
the German empire, these nations, each of which had its
own 1. \cr objected to being call.
the general name of Deutsche orTeuto'i
there is no German tribe which has the paiticular name of
Teutones. but although the Germans are composed of two
distinct nations, the High Germans and the
ins. they call thcmsehe.s Deutsche and their lan-
guage Deutscfi, though they do not understand each other.
This is very different from the state of things in Ki
The true meaning of • Krancais ' is political, the name sig-
nifying a citizen of the kingdom of France, whether a
Frenchman, a German, a Briton, or a liasqnc : in southern
France the name of Fiaiu-ai- U giu-n to the people north
of the Loire; and. on the coiitran. the name of IV
language is never gi\en to uny of the dialect* of the south,
nor to the Walloon dialect in Belgium. Similar facts may-
be obserxed in Spain. If however such cthnographi.
tinctions are the consequence of France ami Spain h.<
originally been inhabited by nations of different origin, the
circumstance that the name • Deutsch' has been s]
all Germany and applied to all her dialect sin. in the remotest
historical period proves that the name had a general si
tientioii long before the commencement of German hi
Another circumstance corroborates this opinion. A nation
has never changed its name for another except by some
great political revolution. Thus the Tata were called
Mongols, the Italian-- Romans, the Romans and <
Franks, when one man, or one city, or one tribe exei
a predominant influence over the remainder of the people :
and these nations have preserved the niciiion i
Milutions. [TARTARS.] Bat no such revolution i
in the bistort of Germany. A further pro, thnt
the Dutch and the Fl. 'ike to hear their Ian j
called 'de Hollamlsche taal,' or -de *
they prefer gixing it the name of 'de Ncdenlnr
oft/if Teutonic Nation*. — The Teutonic race is
I heTciitoncs immigrati d into Kurope
.-..t di:'. ."ds unknown to history, although it ap-
Ihat the la-t of them entered F.urojie during the
migration of nations in the fourth and fifth centuries. Some
•A..
ihei.mofLowutf*
T E U
263
T E U
account of their Asiatic origin is given in their antient
national songs, principally in the Sagas of the Scandina-
vians. The recollection of their antient homes was not
entirely lost in Germany in the eleventh century, for we
find the following verses in the ' Lobgesang auf den Heili-
gen Anno :'
' Dei-en Gcschlechte ilere quam wiliu ere
, Von Armente der herin.
M;m Sii^it. da/ dur ill Halvin uoch sin
.
Die (ler DiuttcAfn .-prediin,
IiiL't'i,'in India vili verro.'
' Their tribe (the Bavarians") came a long time ago from the noble Armenii
It is *aid tli-it in the Alps, far oft towards India, there are still people who
speak Teutonic.' (Schiller, Tftfsaurus. Antiq. Teuton., p. i., sect, ult., p. 15)
It is also said that Benedict Goesius (Goez\ a Jesuit,
found in 1003, in the mountains of the Hindu Kush, north-
n! < 'abul, a people with fair hair like the Dutch,
and who are perhaps identical with that tribe of which
Pliny speaks, and which was settled in the Montes
Emodi. But all this is of little value, unless it is corro-
borated by other facts. Such facts have been furnished by
the learned philologists of our age, especially by Friedrich
von Schlegel, Adelung, Bopp, Grimm, and Hammer. A
comparison of the Teutonic languages with the Persian,
the /end, and the Sanscrit, has shown the relationship
which exists among these languages [LANGUAGE; GER-
MANY; SA>SCRIT], and by means of these facts, the My-
thes and Sairas become important for history. According
to one "I these mythes, Deut or Diuta were the names of
antient Indian goda who led the tribes which emigrated
from India to the west. (Hammer, in U'lrnrr Literntur-
£«/«/<#, October, 1816: Hitter, Erdkumh, vol. ii., p. 118,
H:)S-!XKJ; Hitter, Vorhall', p. 317, 400, G20 ; Grimm,
D-titxi-h" tirtintmatik, especially in the preface, p. x\vi..
&c. ; Riihs, Atufti/trlrcftt Erlautenmg dcr zehn ersten
Knjiiti'1 il"r thrift d?t Tacitus iiber Deut-tc/i/iiiid, p. 88,
ft". : Herder, cited above, i., p. 400; Mathaeus Hiccins.
lii' ' '/in tiana I-;i-p,':liH'ii>» npuilxiimx suxi-rptn a Sorietate
Jf.-n. l<m, p. 600.)
When the Teutonic nations appeared in history, they
wen- divided into many bodies or confederations of
tribe*, such as, at a later period, the Franks, the Sue\i.
the Saxons, the Marcomanni, and the Alemanni. Long
before these names were known, there was a similar con-
federation of tribes which came from the north-north-
::id conquered the countries on the left bank of the
Khine, then inhabited by Celtic nations, which fled to
their brethren in Central Gaul. The epoch of this in.
is not known, but the event happened long time before (lie
ho found those countries settled by a Teu-
tonic population. Tribes of the Condrusi, the Kburones,
'aeraesi, and the Paemani, were united in a confedera-
tion, rnd had adopted the name of Germani, or ' war-like
men.' This name was gradually used by the Romans, to
di-*i<rnatp other nations which belonged to the Teutonic
Tacitus, (ji rm., c. 2), and subsequently it was adopted
by the Kntrlish as a name for the ' Deutsche,' while this
name, changed into Dutch, now designates the in-
habitants of Holland. It has been pretended that the
name of Germani was known long before the time of
•-. and this opinion is founded upon the following
'•• of the ' Fasti Capitolini :'—
' M. (I. \rnil -, M. F. M. N. MARCELLUS-
cos. DK. U.U.I.EIS. INST;HRIUUS. ET. OKRMAXEIS.
K. MART. ISQUE SPOI.IA Oplinil RETTUI.IT
Dt'CE HOSTIUM \lKUlin,iiirn '"I <7</s Til)/////;
int-rfn-ln.'
If the word ' Germaneis' is here right, and there is no
good reason for putting 'Cenomaneis' in its place, the
acquaintance of the Romans with the Teutonic nations
commenced long before the invasion of the Cimbri and the
Tetitones. There is a passage in Livy (xxi. 38) which
s that at the time of the invasion of Italy by Han-
nibal the country of the Alprs IVnninae was
inhabited by ' nationes semigermanae,' by which expression
writers have hastily concluded that a mixture of
Germani and Celts is meant ; but the passage admits of
another interpretation.
Triiimijr, Nations after Ctesar. — When Caesar
reached the Rhine, Northern Germany, Holland, Belgium,
and a part of the countries on the Middle Rhine were in-
habited by Teutonic nations which belonged to the northern,
now Saxon branch. They had been settled in fixed habita-
tions for several centuries, and they must be considered as the
first of this race which settled in Germany. The southern part
of this country was then inhabited by Celts and Rhaetians,
except the tract between the Upper Rhine and the Upper
Danube, which was conquered by theSuevi, who belonged
to the Teutonic race. The word ' Suevi,' which comes
from ' schweifen,' may be translated ' wanderers,' or people
who rambled about for the purpose of settling in any con-
venient country. It was adopted by a great number of
tribes, the majority of which belonged to the High Ger-
mans, and came from the countries on the Baltic be-
tween the Oder and the Niemen. Caesar was obliged to
fight with their leader Ariovistus (B.C. 58), who had invaded
Gaul. Ariovistus was compelled to go back to Germany.
Tacitus divides the Germani into three great bodies :
the Ingaevones, in the north ; the Istaevones, in the west,
from the mouths of the Rhine upwards to Basel ; and the
Hermiones, in Middle Germany and towards the north-east.
This division seems to have an ethnographic and still
more a political value. The position of the Ingaevones tor-
responds to that of the later Saxons, and both the names
have one meaning, Saxon signifying a settled people, and
In-sae-vones a people who live in a cultivated country
divided into districts (In-gau-wohner or Inwohner). The
Istaevones, or Western Germani (West-wohner), correspond
to the later Franks, and the Hermiones to the Suevi,
including the Alemanni. Further, the name of Her-
miones is undoubtedly identical with Hermunduri, one of
the greatest Suevian or High-German tribes, the name of
which is generally supposed to be the same with Doringi
or Thuringi, the present Thuringians.
From the time when Caesar ~ first met with the Suevi
under Ariovistus, there was a deadly enmity between the
Romans and the Germans. The Romans wished to make
Germany into a province, and the Germans qimcd at the
possession of Gaul : on both sides there was the passion of
conquest and the necessity of self-defence. Ambition
pushed the Romans into Germany, and want of fertile lands,
and perhaps some great revolution among the nations of
Kastern Europe, led the Germans into Gaul and Italy. The
Roman eagles were seen in the wilds of the Hercjniah
forest, but Arminius saved his nation from slavery in the
forest of Teutoburg, where Yarns was slain with three
legions (A.D. 9). The campaign of Germanieus, who ad-
vanced as far as the Elbe, led to no results, though h«
gained a complete victory over the Germans on the field of
Idistavisus near the Weser (A.D. 16) ; when he celebrated
his triumph in Rome (A.D. 17), the Germans between the
Rhine and the Weser were as free as before. These tribes
made a confederation, and chose Arminius for their leader.
A war arose between him and Maroboduus, king of the
Marcomanni, who was defeated and obliged to implore the
assistance of the Romans (A.D. 19). Being attacked by
Catwald, or Catualdus, the chief of the Gothones, he lost
his crown, and the confederation of the Marcomanni was
broken. Arminius, the hero of Germany, fell by the hands
of his jealous kinsmen, in his thirty-seventh year. (Tacitus,
Annul., ii. 8S.)
Notwithstanding the civil wars in Germany, the Romans
gave up the idea of conquering the country, and Tiberius
ordered a defensive system to be observed on the frontiers,
which were formed by the Rhine from its mouths to the
Moselle, and from the junction of this river with the Rhine
they followed the Latin as far as the present district of Wet-
terau. The frontier then took a southern direction, passed the
Main at Obernburg, the Jagst at Jagsthausen, the Kocher
at Hall, and joined the Danube near Pforing, from which
town it ran along the Danube as far as Pannonia. The
rivers were defended by castles, and the tracts between
them by a strong rampart with towers, the Vallum Ro-
manum of Hadfianus, a considerable part of which, the
Pfahlgraben, is still visible. The Germans west and south
of this barrier became Roman subjects, but those who
lived east and north of it enjoyed their antient liberty.
All the German tribes practised agriculture, but warfare
being their favourite occupation, they abandoned their
fields and their flocks to the care of bondsmen. Their
agricultural system, which is still practised in some coun-
ties of Westphalia, and which is now called Dreifelder
Wirthschaft, consisted in cultivating a field during three
successive years, after which it was used as pasture-
ground for three years. The fine arts were not exercised
among the Germans, but they were acquainted with the
T E U
284
T E U
art of writing [Rumc LKTWM], although only lor religious
purpOM-s. (Rhabanus Maunis, in Goldost, s-r//<r. Rcr.
Y 1.7 : Hi ••!>. MUS, The*. Ling. .V/I/CH/I-. The
groundwork of their social anil po'.r itution was
tin- union of u certain number of families into a comnm-
nity, 'Marcha,' • erd-iimrcha,' now • Mark-Gcnossenst-haft.'
.il marclias fonned a 'now,' now -gau,' a district
which had its own administration. Twice a month, and
sometimes c\cn week, the members of a gow assembled
and held tin- 'gowding:' tin- gowdinipi were civil and
criminal courts, and also incctiiu.'* for legislation, and
war and peace were decided on in them. Besides the
gowdings there were 'graven' or 'irrevcn' uria\ioncs.
comites), or delegate- "I tin- iro-.\ding. who were II
in their judiciary functions b\ a certain number of free-
men. The magistrate* were chosen from the nobles
(edelings or adding*), the • principes ' of Tacitus, who had
also the right of forming a kind of senate, where they deli-
berated on important affairs previously to their being
brought before the gowding. and tliey dispatched matters
of little importance, which did not come before tb*gow-
ding. The nobles had also the privilege of keeping a
• die list -gelblge,' or a band of freemen who served them in
their feuds and wars: and they had individually the right
of protecting uiifrec people in the gowding. a right which
also belonged to tJie community as a body, but not to in-
dividual freemen. The privileges of the nobles were pro-
bably connected with the religions institutions, of which
we liavc no positive knowledge, although it appears that
priests and nobles formed only one cla.-s. an opinion which
is corroborated bv the fact that wherever Christianity was
introduced into Germany, it met with no opposition from
the common people as soon as the nobles were converted.
Some of the earlier Teutonic nations had hereditary kings,
the Teges' of Tacitus who however had a very limited
authority. The greater part of them chose princes only as
i ommanders of the army in time of war. The name of
commanders was ''herzog,' in low German ' hertog,'
or • hartog,' in Latin ' dux.'
Besides the freemen and the nobles, there were bondsmen,
' lazzi,' ' lati,' or ' liti,' now ' leute,' in low German • liide,'
or'lide,' who were either the primitive inhabitants of a
conquered territory, or prisoners of war, or freemen who
had lost or sold their liberty. Their condition was in no
way like that of the Roman Servi, who, legally speaking,
were not considered as persons, but in most respect.-.
things. Domestic and personal services, and especially
agriculture, were their exclusive occupations.
The military organization of the Teutonic nations was
founded on two principles. \Vhen a gow, or a confedera-
tion of several gows, determined on war, every freeman
was obliged to take up arms for the defence of the com-
monwealth. These wars had rather a defensive character,
Mid they occurred principally among the inhabitants of
northern Germany between the Baltic and the Rhine.
But war was sometimes made for the .private interest of
some powerful noble, who carried it on with his ' dienst-
gefolge,' which was a numerous body when the military-
renown of the chiefs, or the hope of easy conquests, pro-
mised rich rewards to the adventurous band. These were
.ally offensive wars, and we find that they occurred
elm-fly among the Suevian nations.
\\"e know little about the religion of the antient Teu-
tonic nations. They worshipped a supreme being under
the name of Wodan or Odin, but the true character of
their religion was the worship of Nature in her different
manifestations. Thor. Hcrtha. and Freva were personifi-
cations of the power of heaven, of earth, and of love and
procreation.
Such was the moral, social, and political state of tin-
Teutonic nations when they began their wars with Home.
The Vallum Romanum prevented tln-m from inv ailing the
Roman empire during the first and second centuries. In
the third century they often crossed it. In the fourth
they conquered a considerable part of the countries on the
Danube; and in the fifth they invaded and conquered all
the European provinces of the Roman empire. Instead
of following the chronological order, which would cause
confusion, we shall give a view of all 11.- ms by
referring them to their several heads, according to the
people by which they were effected.
Atrmanni. [AuMAIun.] Towards the middle of the
fourth century swarms of people belonging to the Suevi
enme from noith-ciistein Germany to the country between
the Rhine and the Dan'ibe, when- they settled, fhe Roman
army and colonists having retired beyond these two rivers.
They called themselves Alemanui. In the beginning of the
tilth century the Alemanni conquered the country on the left
bank of the Rhine, as well ns parts nf Noricum, Vindelicia,
and Helvetia, and founded the kingdom of Alemannia.
dovia, king of the Franks, eonqueied the western part of it
in -I'M: the eastern and larger pait, which w«» protected
byTheodoric, king of the Ostro-Goths. was acquired by the
Franks in :">:)(>. > t'assiodonis. / 'nr., ii. 41.) The freemen
lost a considerable part of their lands, almost all the nobles
were deprived <if their estates many of them were killed,
and the i emainder became vassals of the Franks. Between
(il:} and (J2H the laws of the Alemanni were collected
by order of the Frankish kins; Clotarius, under the name of
Lex Alemannonim. This collection is in Latin, like the
laws of the other Teutonic nations of that period, ei
the laws of the Anglo-Saxons, which are written m their
own language.
The Lex Alemannonim was revised in the time of l)a-
gobert, king of the Franks, and again by Lantfried, the
Frankish duke of Alemannia. in the hc<rinning of the
eighth century. There is no trace of the Roman law in
it except iii one single case (tit. 30). The Lex Ale-
inannoruni, as well as all the other earlier codes of the
Teutonic nations, are contained in Ferdinand Walter's
' Corpus Juris Germaniei.' Sichard published an edition of
I it in the • Leges Ripuariorum, Bajuvariorum, et Aleman-
norum,' 1530, 8vo. Besides these collections, tlu; Teutonic
laws are in the collections of Herold, Lindenbroir, Eccard,
Heineccius, Georgish, Canciani, and Balu/.ius.
BurgtmdiatU. [BURGUNDY.] The Burgundians came
from north-east Germany, and first assisted the Alemanni
against the Romans; but they left Germany as early as
the begiunin<r of the fifth century, penetrated into Gaul,
and formed the powerful kingdom of Burgundy on both
sides of the .lura, which was incorporated with the kingdom
of the Franks in 534. The collection of the Burgnndian
laws, Lex Burgundionum, ' Gundobada,' * Gundobanla.'
' Loi Gombette,' was made towards the end of the. fifth
century, under king Gundobald, wlio died in 51b', and
was augmented (517) by king Siegraund, who died in
523.
The legislation of Gundobald goes as far as title 42.
The following titles, although they contain laws and re-
gulations of Gundobald, were added by Siegmund, who
completed the code by two ' additamenta.' containing his
own laws. Charlemagne made a third additamentum,
without altering the code itself. The Lex Burgundionum,
which is written in much purer Latin than most of the
other Teutonic codes, contains several of the rules of Hie
Roman law concerning donations, and especially testa-
ments (tit. 43 and CO). A separate edition was pub-
lished at I .yon in 1011.
Franks. [FRANCE.] In the very countries which the
Romans traversed on their way to tfie woods where Varus
-lain, the Usipctes, the Tencteri, the Sieambri. the
Brncteri, the Ansibarii. the Marsi, the Tubantes, the (,'ha-
inavi, and theChatti — all tribes belonging to the noithern,
now Saxon branch (Ingaevones)of the Germani — fonned
a confederation, and called themselves Franks, either be-
cause they were particularly ' free and bold,' or on account
of their • barbed lances' (frameae). Their name first
appears in 242, when some of them made an expedition into
Gaul during the reign of the emperor Gordianus, whose
ircncral. Aurelianus, defeated them. In the beginning of the
fifth century they had conquered Belgium as tar as the
Somme, and" in 487 their king Clovis put an end to the
Roman power north of the Loire. The Franks subsequently
conquered Southern Gaul, then divided between the Bur-
gunuians and the Visigoths: Germany, and the Slavonian
( -(.untnes as far as Poland : part of Piinnonia ; the Longo-
bard kingdom in Italy : and Spain between the Ebro and
the Pyrenees. Charlemagne was the lord of all the Teu-
tonic nations, except the Scandinavians, the Anglo-Saxons
in England, and the remainder of the Goths in (lie moun-
tains of Asturias. The Frankish language, a dialect of tin-
Low German, was spoken at the court of this emperor,
among the nobles in France, and by many freemen. In
Germany the Franks sell led among the Suevian tribes on
the Middle Rhine and the Main, and the mixture of r
languages is the origin of the present Middle German or
T E U
L'65
T E U
Franconian dialects. Among: the Teutonic nations which
settled in Roman provinces, the Franks were the last who
were converted to the Christian religion : their king Clovis
was baptized after his victory over the Alemanni at Ziil-
pich (Tolbiacum) in 496. They founded a mighty aris-
tocracy in France, the political influence of which was
broken by Louis XI. The personal and social influence
of the Franks lasted till the Revolution of 1789, which is
justly regarded by the best modern French historians as a
reaction of the subjugated Celtic people against haughty
and insolent Frankish invaders.
The Franks were divided into Franci Salici, who lived
in the Low Countries between the Zuider Zee, the Maas,
and the Somme ; and Franci Ripuarii, who were settled
along the Rhine between Nvmegen and Bonn. Each of
them had their code. The Lex Salica was written in very
barbarous Latin, under Clovis, between 484 and 496, and
was never revised, although it contains some laws by the
sons of Clovis, which begin with the 62nd (63rd) title.
Except one rule in title 14, about the rape of free per-
sons, and another concerning marriage within the prohi-
bited degrees, this code contains no trace of the Roman
law. It is very important for the history of the laws of
the Teutonic nations. The antient Lex Salica is often
confounded with the present Salic Law, which regulates
the right of succession in several sovereign and noble fami-
lies in Europe. But this latter Salic law is only a single
rule of the Lex Salica, and originally concerned the suc-
cession to the tax-free estates of free or noble Franks
(terra Saiica\ which belonged to the male issue, to the ex-
clusion of females. It is contained in title 62, ' De Alode,'
1.6: " De terra vero Salica nulla portio haereditatis mu-
lieri venial : sed ad virihem sexura tota terrae haereditas
perveniat.'
This law was not peculiar to the Franci Salici : it
occurs in the greater part of the other antient Teutonic
laws.
\Viarda, Geschichte und Awlegung des Salisc/ien Ge-
xftzis; Kc'meec'ms,Ant. Germ., i., p. 205, 285: a sepiuatc
edition of the Lex Salica was published by Pithou, Paris,
1602, 8vo.)
The Lex Uipuaria was collected by Theodoric, the son
of Clovis, between 511 and 534. It was several times
revised, especially by Dagobert. It resembles the Lex
Salica, and contains no traces of the Roman law.
(lijth.t. — AVhile the Alemanni, the Burgundians, and
the Franks invaded the Roman empire on the Danube
and the Rhine, its eastern frontiers were attacked by the
Goths. The Goths originally inhabited the countries on
the Baltic between the Vistula and the Niemen ; but as
early as the close of the second century A.D. they ap-
peared on the shore of the Pontus Euxinus and the
Maeotis, where they founded two great kingdoms, — that
of the Ostro-Goths, or Greuthungi, east of the Dnieper,
und that of the Visi-Goths, or Thervingi, west of it. Their
power was broken by the Huns, by whom they were partly
subjugated, partly forced to take refuge in Dacia and in
-1:1. The Visi-Goths then left the Danubian coun-
tries, traversed Italy as far as Reggio, opposite Sicily, and
finally conquered the southern part of Gaul, and Spain.
The Ostro-Goths, less fortunate in their attempt on Thrace,
were forced to go back to Dacia, where they became sub-
ject to the Huns. After the death of Attila, in 453, they
recovered their independence, and leaving the dangerous
country of the eastern part of Dacia, they settled in the
western part of this country, which the emperor Zeno was
obliged to cede to them in 474. In 488 their king Theo-
dorie, after having besieged Zeno in Constantinople, com-
pelled him to cede his claims on Italy, then under the
dominion of Odoacer, the chief of the Rugii, the Heruli,
and other tribes, who had put an end to the Roman em-
pire in Italy by deposing the last, emperor, Romulus
Aug'.isttiliis, in 475-. [THEODORIC.] Odoacer was deprived
of his crown and his life by Theodoric in 493, who founded
the kingdom of the Ostro-Goths in Italy and Illyricum,
which lasted till 552, when Tejas, the last king, was de-
feated and killed by Narses.
The Code of the Ostro-Goths, 'the Edictnm Theodorici,'
which was composed by order of Theodoric in 500, is a
collection of Roman laws. This king wished to form one
people of the Romans and the Goths (Edictnm, $ 30), and
he therefore adopted the laws of the most civilised of his
•ubjects. Leaving the Gothic laws exclusively to the
P. C., No. 1521.
memory of the people, he Tcnew that they would soon fall
into oblivion without being formally abolished. In some
cases, however, he supplanted Gothic customs by Roman
laws. The IVehrgeld, or Wehre,— that is, the fine for
crimes, — was entirely abolished, and in place of it the
punishment of death was introduced in many cases, an
innovation which seemed very hard to the Goths, who,
like all the other Teutonic 'nations, inflicted the punish-
ment of death only for high treason and a lew such
crimes. Pithou published a separate edition of the ' Edie-
tum Theodorici' (Paris, 1579). Rhon, Commentatio ad
Edictnm Theodorici, Keg. Ostrogoth., Hake, 1816, 4to.
The Visi-Golhs settled in the southern part of Gaul in
412, and invaded Spain in 414. This country was then in
the hands of the Suevi, the Alani, and the Vandals, who
became subject to the Goths, or were forced to emigrate.
In 451 the Visi-Goths, together with the Franks, defeated
Attila and his 700,000 Huns, Goths, Gepidae, and other
vassals, in the plain of Chalons-sur-Marne. Their king,
Alaric II., lost Gaul, except the eastern part of Langue-
doc and Provence, in the battle of Vougl6 against Clovis:
king of the Franks, in 507. The kingdom of the Visi
Goths lasted for three centuries, when it was overthrown
by the Arabs in 712. [SPAIN.]
Among all the Teutonic nations the Visi-Goths were the
first who had written laws. (Isidorus Hispalensis, ' Chron.
ad annum Aer. Hisp. 504, A.D. 466.') A collection of
them was made by their king Eurie (466-484), which is
written in Latin and has the title of ' Lex Visigothorum.'
Its present form dates from King Egica, whose new code
was translated into the Gothic language under King
Reeeswind. It contains many traces of the Roman law,
and is the only early Teutonic law which may be consi-
dered as a code in the modern signification of the word.
The Lex Visigothorum must not be confounded with the
Breviarium Alarici (Alaric II., in 506), or the Code for the
Romans, who were subjects of the Visi-Goths, and conti-
nued to live under their own laws until they were abo-
lished by the kings Chindaswind and Reeeswind, who
declared the revised Lex Visigothorum obligatory on all
the inhabitants of the kingdom of the Visi-Goths.
The Goths, the most civilized among the Teutonic
nations, were the first who adopted the Christian religion.
They had a literature from the time when Ulphilas trans-
lated the Bible. The Visi-Goths were at first Arians, and
though they returned to the Roman Church, they distin-
guished themselves from the other Roman Catholics by
their form of worship, or the Offieium Gothicum, which
was approved by the fourth Council of Toledo, A.D. 633.
It is also called Offieium Beati Isidori : Isidore presided
over that council. It contains many customs and forms
which have been used in the Spanish church from the
earliest times of Christianity. It was written in Latin, but
in old Gothic characters, which differ from the Scandina-
vian runes.
The Ostro-Goths soon disappeared among the Longo-
bards, while the Visi-Goths preserved their language and
nationality till the invasion of the Arabs; and another
portion of them maintained their nationality until a very
recent period.
These were the Gothi-Tetra,ritae, who, after the emi-
gration of their brethren to the western countries, retired
to the eastern part of the Chersonesus Taurica, now the
Crimea, and the opposite island of Taman. There they
lived for eleven centuries under the successive dominion
of Huns, Bulgarians, Greeks, Khazars, Tartars of Kip-
tshak, and Tartars of the Crimea, and, lastly, of Turks
Osmanlis. Their part of the Crimea was called Gothia
during the middle ages. Busbequius, who was the ambas-
sador of the emperor Rudolph II. at Constantinople, to-
wards the end of the sixteenth century, is the last writer
who mentions them. It appears that they afterwards
adopted the language, the customs, and the religion of the
Tartars. Russian scholars have traced the Gothic language
among the Tartars of the Crimea. {Journal de St. Pcli'ru-
bourg, 31st January (12th February), 1829.)
Another part of the Goths invaded Sweden, and founded
the kingdom of Gothland (Gautland), which was afterwards
divided into East Gothland and West Gothland (Kystra-
Gautland and Vestra-Gautland). They mixed with the
Scandinavians, and it became a general opinion that they
were originally the same people. But a comparison of the
Gothic of Ulphilas and the old Scandinavian language
• VOL. XXIV.— 2 M
T E V
T i: i
ihowi Uiat UiW opinion i- uiifomvi
kt I'M
k Forest, be-
, ,
1664: AnUmiu*. lt
(ieddr*. Mi*' Unnto
Ittilirn ; Miuco
Sutri. — From the country east »!' the Blac
twccn 'lu .-uilii' aiul the Alp-
\vhich •.:'."... the Quadi and tin1 Hermmul
'ikevrbe meant, tpmd over <• i-.d and forced tli
Spun .narie or Herm.
became muter of Poilugal, Galicia, ;;'.'.l the v, .
of Asturias, ajul Leon : i . near the
i of tin- Mifio, now a sin i Ilivtaiia.
Ilia suooemn were iudcpciid- ~> the
•.me snbjc ig of the Yi>i-
icir laws have not In They were
at first Catholics, but ki. -iiiiul (401) pr.
Arianisra ; Theodemir (Ariamir returned to the Catholic
faith in THil.
.— This name, which was known to Ta
comprises various tribes of Teutonic Slavonian
origin, who lived in F.nstern Pm I'omcrauia. The
were subject to the Teutonic Vandal
are often confounded with the Wcmls (Vcnedi). who
wards occupied the country of the Vandals. The Van, 1.
their hour lofthc fourth century, and apart
of them, alter a sojourn in Pannonia, traversed Germany
and Gaul, and founded the Vandal kingdom in Si
•R)!). In 417 they subjugated the Alani. who liad also set-
tled in Spain. 1. ' liytlu • Visi-Gothsto
abandon this country, and they went over to Africa. Their
king Genscric or Geiseric took Carl' all Mauri-
tania. and the islands of Sardinia, t
and the western part of Sicily- On the 12th July. -I.Vi.
they plundered Rome, and their name became proverbial
•t of the most barbarous among the barbarians. Their
kingdom lasted till ~>'.\~>, when it was destroyed by Bclisa-
riui, and became a part of the Byzantine empire. All the
names of the Vandal kings are Teutonic, and resemble
of the Gothic ting*, a fact which proves that how-
ever numerous ' ire among them, the Teu-
tonic tribes were the ruling nation. Their name is visible
in that of the province of Andalusia or Vandalusia.
pencordt, '•
i .]— The Longobards lived on the
richt bank of the Lower, Elbe, and afterwards on the leit
••f this river, near Liineburg ami Brunswick: in lan-
! person ! Tilled their neighbours the
.s a strong body of whom appeared with them in
Italy. Before they invaded Italy they had lived in the
i'pper Hungary, in Pannonia, and in
Noricura (4U4-'rM)8). Their king Alboin subjugated the
Gepidae in Transylvania (5(i3'.'i. and in ."»08 he conquered.
Hie greater part oi' Italy. Their last national king.
derius, wa- MI' his tluone by Charlemagne (774 !,
who assumed the title of king of the LongobardU : but the
J/ongobar i "iMiiutinn nor theirestates;
the only change was in the reigning dynasty.
When the Longobards were subjugated hy the Kranks,
they had posse- • laws lor 1:«) years. Tli
colic. :- i;i UKt. Ti '
. l.llitprai
7l:i and 721 : t!i.> I in 7Ki, and tli
Aiitulf in 7-~>4. heads of Roman
law concerning pic ion. (Mi.
'.. torn. i.. p. 2: and especially Hier
zressu Z/'_
i., p. irx),
These are the Teutonic nations that founded permanent
kingdoms within the limits of the Roman eingiiie. l'.\e< pt
the Alcmanni. the vail eaflM in contact wUhapopulatiop,the
educated part of which was entirely Romanized, ultl
except Italy and some parts of the tout h of Spain and
the inhnhitants of I!
1'V the Teutonic invaders.
(Kauriel, Hint. </ ' .n\.\.) The poli-
: world
rested on two great principle*.
Tti LWS were not (•
but penonal : a Frank wa i !n.\.
a Hurgnndiaii after
This principle being applied also to Uiu K
to a double legislation, <
and ti
•
"I llO Kt> •!' '|1 II! lit-
iding a n;;i
,ed nation.
the niiister 1 which he
:.om the Romii
l» their T.
. the kings had m*
tary duties. Ti,.
to wliich
sent ; and they did h.
were >
Romans, tli
civilized nation :
emperors, and v.
lute i
privali
vineial adi. ,i, wliich v.
tine :; ie.1 his svuv
varioi.
compl
coiKiucrors lived
had a dunhle ndinim
and the other for the 'ion. But i
much confusion froi:i
of the Roman administration, and to govern in f!
way, ii 'ho names of 1! public fuin
were Roman. The first functionary in each ]
the Krankish kingdom was the Dux, who had tli
military co.:
judge. The second was t!
and director of all affairs concerning taxes and the re-,
of the liscu:.. !•'
Dux and the Comes were conferred upon one person, who
is sometimes styled 1) MU-.
The fate of the V.
of the Rom;, ,1 into the
private service of the kins, and ; portion of their
on condition of obedience to him. The ;
owners belonged to this class, which had tli,
.mi coiuivae r i p.ut, the • Roin.ini
possessores.' remained in po.^.\s^ioii of theii
il to pay taxes for them, a duty from which tin:
conqueror.-, were exempt: this class principally coin
of small landowners. The thi, ;e the ' K<
tributarii.' who loM their liberty, although they did
become Servi in the Hon. lie \\ord:
ilie antient ' coloni.' In many towi^ t!
continued to enjoy their municipal institution
lie community gradually arose within the
and had i: -litution. In other tow:.
in.' Romans lost thei:
• mini-
1 as the Roman. m the \illn
The Teutonic nations whic'i
l-'rankish K; . IJur-
gundians, the Longobards, and the J!a\arian.s on
their dynn-
. which were given to Fninkish nobles, of whom
h founded ,
within the Roman empire, mam trih.'s niainl:
indepi
i.y without lea\ :
1 by others, and adopted the
tun>hcis. Many among them w< 'i or other
The Aluiii came from the C'n
and lived independent in southern Spain under their
King Respendial, from UK) to 117. w ubju-
gateil by the \ . 1 into 'tin: south of
(iaul. Another ])art of thtiu settled lul'.Mui ().
;uid N.intes under tin
del'eaU-d and d The
Alani were not . . the names of their
, ciidial, Utace>, Goan have no resemblance to
T E U
267
T E U
Saxon, Frankish, or Gothic names. They are probably
identical with the Ossetes or Iron, an old Persian tribe in
the central part of the Caucasus. The country of Albania,
north of the Caucasus, \vas known to the Greeks and Ro-
mans. The Byzantines called the tract between the Terek
and Shirwan, Alania. (Procopius, De BeUo Goth., \. iv. ;
Stritter, Memoriae Popular. 'A/miiii.' in lorn. iv. ; Suhiu,
'•ichte Her Danen. iibersetzt von Grater, i. 1 ; Xeuss,
•sckichte dcr Ds/rtsc/ien, ' Alanen.')
The (Juatii, who lived in Silesia and Moravia in 375,
were a Suevian people. The Gepidae perhaps were of
Gothic origin : their kingdom in Transylvania was de-
;•<! by Alboin, who killed Kunimund, the last king of
the Gepidae.
Odoacer, the commander of a band of Scyrri, or Scirri,
Jiugii, and Heruli. put an end to the Roman empire in
Italy, and was acknowledged as emperor, but he was put
to death by order of Theodoric the Great in 493.
The Rugii were Gerrnani ; the origin of the Seym and
of the Heruli is uncertain. It has been pretended that
the Heruli were a Lithuanian tribe.
Tribes within thelimitsnf Germany tr/tich lost their Inde-
pende-m-r under the Franks. — The Bojoarii, Bojobari, Baju-
/•••/•ii, or Itunirians [BAVARIA], whose name became known
towards the year 480, were a confederation of Suevian tribes :
they lived between trie Danube, the Lech, and the Ens. In
540 they were forced to yield to the Frankish kings, and
were governed by dukes of the dynasty of the Agilolfin-
gians. Their laws, which were collected between 613 and
resemble the laws of the Alemanni, though they
contain many traces of the Roman law. (Mederer, Leges
Bajtivariorum, oder iilte*-' .'•</•••/( <ifr Bajuvarier,
&e., 1793-8.1 The T/mri/i^ii'mt occupied the country
north of the Bavarians as far us the Unstrut, and even be-
yond that river. They were related to the Goths, and
their name seems to resemble that of the Thervinsri, the
Hormunduri, and Henniones. Their last king, Hermanfiid,
was deprived of his crown by the Franks in 531. Charle-
magne is said to have made the first collection of their
i;ut there is no evidence in support of this statement.
Their code is known under the title of ' Lex An^liorum et
Werinorum, hoe est Thuringorum.' These Angles and
Warini or Werini were settled in the northern part of
Thuringia, but it does not appear why their names are
mentioned before that of the Thiirinsinns, who were the
more numerous nsitinn. This collection is brief and in-
complet". I.-ilmitz. S'T/;>,'. li<>r. Brini+t\r., i.. p. 81.)
Tin- SAXONY] dwelt north of the
Thuringians. On the east their frontiers were the Elbe,
the Stecknitz. and the Baltic: on Ihe north, Den-
mark, the German Ocean, and Friesland ; on the
they corresponded to the western frontiers of the pre-
sent province of Westphalia. Vv'hen they had sent
numerous settlers to Britain, their power became
formidable to their neighbours, the Wends in the
east and the Franks in the west. The Franks wen:
formerly united with them asainst the Romans, but when
they had conquered Gaul, the Saxons were obliged to
i from their incursions into this country, and hence
arose jeaJc; -;. The south-western parts wen'
conquered by the !•'. :irly ns K,r> ; the rich land-
owners were compelled to (rive a considerable part of their
lands to Frankish nobles, and the common freemen to
bend under the yoke of servitude. The remaining and
Sjreater part of the population was free, though from time
ne the Saxons paid tribute, until, after the memora-
ble war with Duke Wittekind f772-H().'Jj, Charlemagne
became master of all Saxony. l!u: HM were nol
subjugated like the Romans. They promised to adopt
' Uanity, to acknowledge (.'harles a> '.heir king, and to
rovernors (prevcs) and bishops. On the oth<v
hand, Charles granted them equal • \Vehre' (value of their
liberty in case of wounds, muni -! the
Bume privileges which the Franks had, especially freedom
!e, and the privilege of being tried in their own
country, according to their own laws, and by their equals.
:r.re
, .mo <ti>ri:!ti f.M'd'Ti! FranriB,
I ih-ret suucorclit<:r vmu».'
Aniimim..\\i}. '. Her. linnmr., '-., p. 153. '
i-'scfiickle, i. 3-40, tli
vvork which has been published about the old Saxons in
Germany.
Charlemagne was the first, king of the Saxons, who
formed a great confederation of free communities ; they
appointed dukes for their wars, and only acknowledged
obedience to the ' gowding ' and to ' greves,' chosen by
the freemen among the ' edelings' of the communities.
The laws of the Saxons were collected by order of Charle-
magne. They consist of nineteen titles, and are so short,
and incomplete as to justify the opinion that only a part.
of them has been preserved. Two ' Uapitularia' of Charle-
magne concern the political and ecclesiastical condition
of those parts of Saxony which were conquered at the time
of their publication, 788 and 797. This ' Lex Saxonum '
must not be confounded with the ' Sachsen-Spieg_el,' the
' Mirror of the Saxons,' a code of Saxon law which was
written in Latin and afterwards translated into the Saxon
language by Eicke van Rebgow, between 1215 and 1218.
(Gaertner, Saxonum Leges Tres. Accessit Lex Frisionum,
1730-4.)
Frisians [FRISIANS]. — The Frisians were brought, under
the Roman power by Drusus, the brother of the emperor
Tiberius. Olennius, their governor in A.D. 28, oppressed
them by fiscal measures, and they cast off the Roman
yoke. In the war between the Romans and O.v.dius
Civilis they joined the latter. When the Franks invaded
Gaul, the Frisians occupied some countries which were
abandoned by the Franks, the islands between the mouths
of the Scheme and the Rhine, and the present provinces of
Gelderland, Zutphen, and Overyssel ; and after the emigra-
tion of the Anglo-Saxons they gradually took possession of
the coast and the islands of the German Ocean as far as Jut-
land. In 689 they were attacked by the Franks and obliged
to pay them tribute. After the establishment of the German
kingdom, the Frisians obeyed the king femperor) as their
sovereign, but they chose their own judges and other
authorities. During the middle ages they formed the
powerful republic of the Seven Frisian Sealands, which
was broken by the counts oi' Holland, of Oldenburg, and
several other princes of the empire. The last independent
Frisians were the Dithmavschen between the Elbe and the
Eider, who were subjugated in 1559 by Christian III.,
king of Denmark, and Adolphus I., duke of Holstein.
The laws of the Frisians were collected by Charlemagne
under the title of ' Lex Frisionum.' (Gaertner, Sit.ronum
Leges Tres. Accessit Lex Frisionum.) The ' Statuta Op-
stalbomica,' the laws of the Seven Sealands, which are
wrilten in the Frisian language, arc a different collection.
The dialect of this language which most resembles the
Anglo-Saxon language is that of the northern Frisian
islands on the coast of Sleswig. (Clement, cited below.)
•i-fa-Saxons. — An account of their history has been
givrn under the heads SAXONS and ENGLAND. The first
settlement, of Teutonic- tribes in Great Britain previous to
the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons has been treated with
great learning by Dr. Clement, in his work ' Die Nordger-
manisehe Welt,' Copenhagen, 1840. The author, who has
travelled in all parts of Great Britain where he supposed
he could find traces of such settlers, has paid particular
attention to Caithness and the eastern coast of Scotland.
With this book the reader may compare Finn Magnusen,
Om Picternes og derns Narns Oprindelse, in 'Del Skan-
dinav. Litteratur-Selskabs Skrift,' 1810 and 1817.
The following works contain full information concern-
ing the history of the Teutonic nations : — Mascov, The
History of the Anticnt Germans, translated by Thomas
Lediard ; Gibbon, Decline and Fall ; Eichhorn, Deutsche
Stoats- und Rechtt-Grschichtc. ; Savigny, Geschirhti- des
Ro/niar/if/i I(/-r/it/>x im Mittelaller ; Grimm, Deutsche
Rerhts-Alterthumer, and his Deutsche Grammatill.
The Scandinavian branch of the Teutonic nations ap-
pears late in history. The Sagas tell us that in the fifth
iry B.C. Odin led the Scandinavians to Sweden and
Norway : but this Odin is a god. Less fabulous is the
history" of a second Odin, who, in the beginning of our
sera, came from Asia to Scandinavia, accompanied by his
' Asen,' or perhaps ' Ausen,' or fellow-warriors. The name
of the Suiones or Swedes was known to Pliny and to Taci-
tus, and Pliny knew the name of Scandia, now Scania, the
southern extremity of Sweden, which name gradually ac-
quired its present general meaning. Goths came to Scan-
dinavia at a very early period, and the second Odin was
perhaps their chief. They mixed with the Scandinavians,
and traces of their language, have been found in the dialects
of the provinces of East and West Gothland in Sweden, and
2M2
TKU
their name is still prwcnred in many localities. The abori-
of Sweden
Ttrey fled towanls the north', but not without having their
in the mountains of the Kja-lenand the Dovre Fjcld.
dinavmns, Northmen, or Normans, became
know '.ithcrn nations by their | 1 thev
often leagued with the *-
Clmrlemaitne and Wittekiud, the Danes n-
Wittekind. who had married Gem, the daughter of their
•fried. As early as the beginning of the eiithth
century the Danes and ,'l -red in the north of
F.nitland ; in the beginning of the ninth century the Danes
1 on the south-east coast of Ireland. Normans or
I the Oiknevs before the end of the
ninth century : in 801 they came to the Faroe Islands, and
thev sent colonies to Iceland as early as 870. The northern
parts of North America were known to these bold navi-
- four ccntuiie- before the time of Columbus. Other
Noi mainly, Apulia, Sicily, and the
opposite coast of Africa. From the eighth century the
. who came from Norway and Sweden, pene-
a and founded the Norman djnastv
. .hike- of l\i, n : r-omc of the first families of the
-lan nobility are of Norman origin.
. .inquered the coast of Finland as early as
1 in great numbers in the districts of Abo
ami Nyland. Although Finland is chiefly inhabited by a
nation'of Finnish oriitin, and thonith it has become a Rus-
sian province, the Swedish language is the only language
ined for public acts and legal documents. [SC.VNDIN
».]
Suhni is one of the best authorities for the critical his-
tory of the Scandinavians. He has written in Danish on
iiL'in of the Scandinavians, on their mythology, a
critical history of Denmark, a history of Denmark, and
i-.il other work- concernini: this country.
Mtiller, in his AY//MfA»'« Kfiinu-n der Danim-hcn mid
T E W
v, and the citizens in
Ili.\l'iriii If ilkui. •iisiiini. contains an account of the exploits
and conquests of the Scandinavians in Russia. Italy, &c.)
nf the in<td"i-ii Tfiitunic languages and t/fir
Dialects.
\. \\\a\\ GERMAN LANGUAGES.
(The German language as it is written or spoken by Un-
well-educated German-, belongs to the Hiith German lan-
guages, but is not a dialect.)
A. Sii'ifiiii/i branch.
a. Sitiibiun suboidinate branch, containing the dialect- of
1. Stiab . that i-. nf the Hlack Forest, of the Neckar,
and of the count n between the Danube and th
2, liji-ariii, that is, "of the Alps, of Salzburg, and of the
Danube.
:!. Tyrol, that is, of Vorarlberg, of the Inn, of the Etsch
(Adige), and of the Puster-Tlml.
4. .!«*/, , of the archduchy ol .fSty-
ria, of Carinthia, of Carniola, of Southern Bohemia, and
of Moravia.
h. Ali ''-1111111 //if, subordinate branch.
1. AH'-iii'iiiiiii-. commonly so called in the south-west
IOC ol tile Hlaek Kole-t.
_'. i -"/, that is, of Bern, of the Ober-
land of Hern, ol \\alh-. of tlie country of the Grisons,
i of Appenzcll.
; lii.ili > i c i KUas* (Alsace) and of Baden.
!e liranch. i-ontaininc: the
dii, \V:ild, of part of th. :
;
It are Kenerally confounded with those of
tlie adjacent flat countries of Thiringia and the I
Palatinate, which belong to the Franconian branch.
H. l-'riitirniiHiii branch.
J, |, '• , • ! tlie Middle
Hhine. and of Southern Ilcwte.
2. Dialects ofThiiriiii;ia, except the Thiiringer \Valcl, of
1 nl the Kidisleld.
:i. Diali-c -I- ol I^iiraine and Luxemburg, which are much
mixed with Low German.
1, Dialect* of Upper Saxony, of Meissen, of the 1
birge, and of Lunatia.
i )ialect» of Northern Bohemia, of Silesia, and of part
of the German colonies in Hui'
C, Dialects of the noble*, the <
II. -
»i'u« branch, which the dialects of \
-hind, of Salerlai.d. of the islands aloiii: the Dutch
and I he (iennan coast, and of tl ilniig the.
coast ol v
B. Ltui' (Strmiin branch, divided into six - */. :
1. i 'I /. ,. containing the dia:
of Holstcin, of Hamburg, of Bremen, of Hrunsw .
of Hanover, of the country between the Harz and the
id of the Mar-he.- with F.iL-t Frisia.
-J. Oi II , \>/:/i, i/ni. wiih the dialects of l'])]ier Mianster-
land, of Lower Miinsterland, of Osnabriick. of the
I pp. r \\e-er, of Sauerland, of Mark, and of Eastern
Berg.
3, Of the Ijnrfr Rhine between Neuwicd and Diisseldorf,
i -pecially the dialects of the Kiu I .<-, and of
. \i\-la-Clmpcllc.
1. Of the .\i'ltirr/iinJ*. containing the Dutch langiiace,
llie Flemish language, and the dialects of .luliri
Cleve, and of Geldern in Germany.
."), The dialect of the Saxons in V'/vi//*////-.////'/.
'if the antient II fitilixh countries, coloni/.cd li\ the
Saxons, containing the dialed- of Mcc!-.
Pomerania, of Brandenburg, of the Marks, and «
Prussia.
('. English branch. [S \xo\s: K M.I. AND.]
III. SCANDINAVIAN languages.
A. Old Norman branch, containing the dialect- of tin-
mountaineers of Norway, tin- Icelandic language, and
the idiom of the Kara1 islands.
B. Danish branch, containing the Danish language, with
the dialect- of the island-, of Jutland, and of Northern
Sleswiit. and the modern Norwegian laiiiruaire.
(.'. N//V(/I»/I liranch, containimt tlie Swedish lanitiia^v, with
the dialects of Gothland, of Dalecarlia, of Stockholm
and the adjacent country, of Finland, and of the Aland
i-lands.
(Adelung und Yater, MitJiridutes ; Ballii. At I ax Ethnn-
gnijihiqiif : Ober-Miillcr, Atlas BtMO-gtognfUlfi
of, Paris, 1«)1.
TEVEKO'NE. [PAPAL STATES.]
TEVIOTDALK. [RoxBmnmnuk]
TEWKE8BURY, an antient market-t.-iwn and municipal
and pailiamentary boroutth in the north-western part ot
(iloneestershire. close to the borders of Worcestershire.
9 miles from Gloucester and 10:t from London. It is situ-
ated on the eastern bank of the Avon, near its junction
with the Severn: and tin- small ri\ ers( .'arron and Swilgate,
which arc tributaries of the Avon, flow through tlie jian-h.
The immediate neiithliourhood of the town is subject to
floods. Within half a mile of the town i- a handsome
iron bridge of one arch, 17- feet span, over the Severn;
and there is an antient bridge of several arches over the
Avon, with a causeway leading from it to tlie above-men-
tioned iron briditc. The ( 'arron is crossed by a stone
bridge, and 1U,- Sui'u'ii'e by two. The parish extends
about 4 miles from muth to south, and its width varies
from 2(HI yards in the northern part, to 'J miles, its ex-
treme breadth. Immediately to the north of the town
the width of the parish is only half a mile. Here the
Avon has been diverted by an artificial cutting i
New Avon, or Mill Avon. The parish contains ls:Xl
with the hamlets of Soiithwick in the southern
and that of Mythe in the northern part. Tcwkcsbury is a
borough 1; 'ion: it received its first charter ot
incorporation from Queen Elizabeth in 1574. By the
chatter of William 111., granted in 1698, the jurisdiction
of the borough magistrates was extended OM r the \
of the paiish. It has returned two members to parliament
since the 7 .lames 1. Before the passing of the Reform
Act. parts of the town, particularly on the eastward,
not comprised within the limits of the parliamentary
borouith. but the whole parish is now included. The riirht
of \otmir was formerly in the freemen and biiritsiite holders,
and inhabitants payinit scot and lot. The number of elec-
tors on the parliamentary register in i 109, includ-
ing Hi) who possessed double qualiti- and of the
former number. 'J.W \ • vd at !()/.
and upwards. The town is not divided into municipal
The corporate body consists of a inavor. tour
aldermen, and twelve councillors. The old corporation
TEW
269
T E X
was composed of a high-steward, twenty-four principal
burgesses, including in that number two bailiffs and the
recorder ; and there were besides several minor officers,
and four justices for the borough. The appointment of
twenty-four assistant burgesses was directed by the go-
verning charter of William III., but none had been elected
for many years prior to the passing of the Municipal Cor-
poration Reform Act. The twenty-four burgesses were
elected by the bailiffs and burgesses out of the burgesses
at large. The annual income of the old corporation did
not exceed 22/., and in 1828 it was in debt to the amount
of GOOOl. The sum of 2000/. was advanced by the recorder,
and the property of the corporation conveyed to him, on
which the creditors were paid G*. Sd. in the pound. Quarter-
sessions for the borough are held, and there is a court for
the recovery of debts under 50/.
Tewkesbury is said to be of Saxon origin, and to derive
its name from Theot, a Saxon, who founded an hermitage
here in the seventh century. Early in the eighth century
two brothers, dukes of Mercia, founded a monastery, which,
in the tenth century, became a cell to Cranbourn Abbey
in Dorsetshire. In the twelfth century Robert FitzHaimon
enlarged the buildings and liberally endowed the institu-
tion, in consequence of which the monks of Cranbourne
made Tewkesbury the chief seat of their establishment. At
the dissolution the abbey belonged to the Benedictines,
and its annual revenue was 1598/. A great battle was
fought on the 14th of May, 1471, within half a mile of
Tewkesbury, when the Lancastrians sustained a most dis-
astrous defeat, and both Queen Margaret and her son Prince
Edward were taken. The town was successively in the
hands of the royalists and parliamentarians at the com-
mencement of the civil war ; but in 1644 it was taken by
the latter, and held until the close of the war.
The town principally consists of three good streets, well-
built, with a number of smaller ones branching from them.
According to the census of 1831, the population amounted
to 5780. The principal manufacture is the cotton and
lambs'-wool hosiery. In 1810 the number of stockiiiLT-
frames in the town was 800 : and in 1833 there were 600.
The wages averaged 12*. in the former year, and 7s. in the
latter. The number of men, aged 20 and \ipwards, em-
ployed in the stocking manufacture in 1831 was 300 (Pup.
cv . and 44 were engaged in the lace manufacture.
Nail-making formerly employed a considerable number,
but in 1833 there were only 50 persons so occupied. (Man.
< "'irii. /i'</;'/r/\. Tewkesbury was and is still the centre of
an extensive carrying-trade on the Severn and Avon ; but
the improvement of the navigation of the Severn to Glou-
crster, by means of a ship-canal, is said to have been in-
jurious to Tewkesbury, and- to the improved means of in-
tercourse with other towns in the same district is also
ascribed some decline in the attendance at the corn-market.
The iron bridge across the Severn, which opened a com-
munication with Hereford and Wales, counterbalances on
the other hand the effects of the above-mentioned im-
provements. There is a branch railway from Tewkesbury
rather more than two miles in length, which joins the Bir-
mingham and Gloucester Railway. The collegiate church
of the antient monastery is now the parish church. It is
a noble and venerable structure, in the early Norman style,
and consists of a nave, choir, and transepts, with a tower
using from the centre, supported on massive and lofty piers
with circular arches. The roof is finely groined and carved.
There are several antient chantry chapels in the east end
of the choir, which is hexagonal. Some of the monuments
are in memory of persons who fell at the battle of Tewkes-
bury". The living is a vicarage, of the gross annual value of
376/. A new church was opened in 1837. All the principal
denominations of dissenters have places of worship. There
i^ a grammar-school with an endowment of 52'. a year. The
master is appointed by the corporation. When the corpora-
tion comnii»Moncrs visited Tewkesbury in 18a3, the master
was a clergyman and one of the borough justices, and for
many years the school had not been attended by more than
three or four pupils. In 1833 there were, besides the above,
and two boarding-schools, 12 daily schools in the parish,
attended by 6'l7 children, and several Sunday-schools, at
which 588 children were instructed. The national school is
f.artly supported by an antient endowment for the instruc-
tion of 20 children, and a Lancasterian school is dependent
on voluntary contributions. There are almshouses for 10
poor persons and several medical and other charities of com-
paratively recent date. The town-hall was built in 178G :
the upper part contains an assembly-room and a hall for
meetings of the corporation ; and the lower part is appro-
priated to the borough courts. A gaol, house of correction,
and penitentiary were erected under a local act passed in
1812. The market-house is a handsome building, with Doric
columns and pilasters supporting a pediment in front. There
is a small theatre and public library and news-room. The
town is paved, lighted, and watched under a local act passed
in 1786. The market-days are Wednesday and Saturday : the
former for corn, sheep, pigs, &c. ; and the latter for poultry
and provisions. There are fairs in March, April, May,
June, September, October, December ; and a statute fair at
Michaelmas.
(Dyde's Hist, of Teu-hesbury ,- Pop. Returns, 1831 ; Re-
ports of Ecclesiastical Commissioners and of the Muni-
cipal Corporation Commissioners, &c. &c.)
TEXAS. Since the publication of the article on Mexico
[MEXICAN STATES, THE UNITED], Texas, which was then
merely an insurgent province of that republic, has been
recognised as an independent state by the leading powers
of Europe and America. A succinct statement of the
revolution by which this change has been effected is ne-
cessary.
A decree of the Constituent Cortes of Mexico, dated 7th
May, 1824, declares that Texas shall be annexed to Coa-
huila until it possess the elements necessary to the forma-
tion of a separate state ; but that as soon as it shall possess
these elements, the connection is to be dissolved, and a
separate state-constitution given to Texas.
At the time when this decree was published, Texas pro-
bably^did not contain 4000 inhabitants of the European
race.* The district of Bexar, which in 1806 contained
6400 colonists from Mexico, was found in 1835 to contain
only 3400 of that class, scattered over the settlement of
San Antonio, the missions, and frontier military posts ; and
this process of depopulation had reached its lowest ebb
for some time before the latter date. In the districts of
Brazos and Nacogdoches there were, in 1824, no inhabit-
ants of European descent, except at the military posts.
The government of Mexico had made efforts, both while
the country was a Spanish colony, and after the recognition
of its independence, to promote the settlement of Texas
by the Empressario system of colonization, i.e. by granting
tracts of land to individuals, who were to forfeit the grant
unless they settled a specific number of colonists on them
within a limited period. In furtherance of this policy,
permission was given by the supreme government of the
eastern internal provinces, on the 17th of January,
1821, to Moses Austin, by birth a citizen of the United
States, to introduce into Texas from Louisiana 300 families,
' being Catholics, or agreeing to become so on entering the
Spanish territory,' and also agreeing to take the oath of
allegiance to the crown of Spain ; and a tract of land in
the vicinity of the Brazos river was granted them to settle
upon. Some difficulties arose from the disturbed political
state of Mexico at that time ; but in 1824 colonising ope-
rations were begun by Stephen, the son of Moses Austin
(his father having died in the interim) ; and on the 24th
of March, 1825, a colonization law for Coahuila and Texas
was promulgated. In the course of 1825 and 1826, seven
more Empressario grants were made, and the parties ob-
taining them became bound to introduce about 2000
foreign families, under the same conditions as had been
prescribed to the Austins.
Under these grants the colonising of Texas from the
United States proceeded with such rapidity, that in 1835
Colonel Almonte, a commissioner of the Mexican govern-
ment, reported the population of the province to be as
follows: — In Bexar, 4000 inhabitants of European origin,
of whom 3400 were Spanish Mexicans and 600 Irish
settlers ; in Brazos, 8000, of whom 1000 were negroes,
almost exclusively colonists from the United States ; in
Nacogdoches, 9000, of whom 1000 were negroes, also An-
glo-American colonists. In addition to these, Texas con-
tained about 15,000 Indians, of whom 4000 were friendly
to the European race and 11,000 hostile. About 10,000
of the hostile Indians haunted the district of Brehar, the
rest were scattered over the district of Brazos. The
Mexican commissioner remarked in his report that the
part of Texas which presented the greatest difficulties to
travellers was that which lay between the frontiers of
Coahuila and San Antonio de Bexar: the province was
T 5
T B X
UO.iKK) beloueed to tin- S; -can
uolatcd from the n- I hud
nn easy commii1
• nterprise and v
Hi,- •
had been <
•
. Draco*.
MOweit
It
id concurred b-
diMrnst
:can colonists on the one bnnd. and tin
Spanish descent and tlu • nt on the
other. It had been made on, "f the
Kmprcssario irraut.s that sehoo1 •')>• Spanish
i all tin- new settlements.
The wealthier B-
i their children to be cdu-
-. and the poorer -_'a\i- theirs no edu-
.; of settling sonic hnnd-i
famil: new eoniers in the Millie
t tu n certain d. .itrol IVonn —sario,
further contributed to ;)ie\ent their amalgamating with
the S])aniards. They continued thoroughly Kndish in
their language and customs. Religion ton became a means
of incrcasiiisr the mutual repul- new-comers had
no objection to call theinsehcs Roman i atholics, but they
lax in their (>!•- •!,! this
irritated the priests and hn-ntrht t' settlers to
reirard them as persons o!' indiffervnt character. On the
other hand, the ere ulialed
by the strinsrcnt custom-house regulations and semi-
military government of Mexico. The cnu-stion oi
slavery, too, added to their sources of discontent. By the
of the treaty of amity and i-ommi-:
: Great Britain and Mexico, the iro\ eminent of the
latter country cnrra>red to prevent all r - from
UWnr part in the external .ie. The rule \-
laxed in favour of the colonists from the I'niti
l» to allo* their bringing thei: "ithem: but the
• tions under which this permission was irranted
1 constant collisions between them and the •
of the customs. The decree of 'Jllth Si
•WDchinir slaven- throughout the Mexican dom.
wealth of the An<rlo-Amcrican
part I \ ' t of then
s with jca'
lernment of tlie
iff Texas. The
York ma>omc 11 had he-
.i-ure mere instruments of the ;
and centi; : and Poinsctt, tlie An:
. !iad not only been instrumental in t'onnd-
ine 1
part in the internal political contests and nitric
half t .Her of th.
. n the
In lUff) the irritati>'
1 lie niilita:
I IH-W )>o*'
il at (lie tnidinir si:
r of MiAicau solc!i>
almnt l:«HI. and placed u .
calehielnof l!e\ar, Hnizo-. -. the tir^i -men-
tioned beiiiff intrusted with I1
the (ilh of April, IKiu
'itin? nil <•;
jinblic immediai
edict the newly arrived settlers from the I
Texas and those who were on I!
serious inconvenience , On the remoiMran
Colonel Austin, the enlbrcemcr' wa» miti-
gated by the local antlnni:
to t«k= 'ii of their lands, bu-
titles in only two of :!
already established in Texas.
After the government had th- .d the property
of the most numerous and \ rtion of the popula-
tion, a revolution was inevitable
case, the tii>t hostile collision between the
goveniment fore.
irrievance-. An attempt made by the uro\ernor of
hnae 1o arrest an Anirlo d the
military and the sctti<
each other in June, i
captured the post fit Yc!,i-co. intercepted tl
chief i to relieve the iramson ol
Analn •in-eiider. and obliged the
governor of that fort to fly from the countn
who had a short time before promulgated vh:,'
called • the jila- ' 'm/.' and '
in 1 e\r.- tllspat Hi \ia w !'!
that provii as aei-onij
TV\as in •,
the evjilanation tha'
• ;e \\hole of Texas declared for ' the *pl
' >. -toher. ls:?i!. a com
de Austin i
for tin "i!a and fo-
ot' the law - eolci-
:othc:- cotnent;
place i
Hpprohation of '
eentr
dant.
tVom t
•
• ttler* in ';
jxilities. \Vhe:i
mode their mad a'tempt
•1 ill the ::
rfjn ••
democrat or ad-
individna]
I-
But on a
-jiirion as the i
.''ii.
The oiii-
annex Texa
the ,
ana
illusion : anil nn the 'Jnd c
tliem to
the K
'Hie ! themselves to the I
•
•
ulvcd,
Iftce
. ,,t.
T K X
271
TEX
The appeal to arms was precipitated by a eu&tom-hous
brawl. An attack was made under some pretext or an
other on the custom-house at Anahuac. Captain Thomp
son, dispatched by the Centra] Government, in June, 1835
at the request of the Ayuntamiento of that place, in th(
Correo war-schooner, to inquire into the affair, precipi
lately attacked and captured a Texan trading-vessel. Thi
proprietors of the prize armed another trading-ship, tool
the Correo, and sent the captain to New Orleans under a
charge of piratically interrupting the trade between the
United States and Texas. In the month of August Santa
Anna requested the Texans to deliver up Zavala, a leader
of the Federal party, who had been his friend and sup-
porter while he remained faithful to ' the plan of Vera
t 'nu,' but latterly his enemy. The request was refused
and reports soon after reached Texas that Santa Anna was
mustering troops to invade it.
While affairs were in this position, Stephen Austin
was entertained at a public dinner in Brazoria, on his
return from his long captivity. Austin had, as long
Id, done his utmost to prevent the discontents
of the settlers assuming a political complexion, ant
when that was no longer possible, had steadily opposec
any projects that seemed to point at a separation from
Mexico. The advice therefore which he gave on this
occasion, to organise committees of safety and vigilance
throughout the province, was at once and implicitly fol-
lowed. He was himself appointed chairman of the com-
mittee of his own colony, to which a degree of control
over the other committees was tacitly conceded. Before
the organisation of the country was completed hostilities
wore commenced between the colonists and the military in
the province : in consequence of which Austin, in the begin-
ing of October, assumed the command of an army hastily
rted at Gonsalez, and Zavala was appointed chair-
man of the Austin committee in his stead.
On the 3rd of October, 1835, General Ban-agon issued a
derive abolishing the legislative powers of the several
states and establishing a central republic in Mexico. A
al consultation of Texan delegate./ was, in conse-
quence of this measure, held at Austin, which, on the 7th
of November, issued a declaration in favour of state-rights ;
summoned a convention of delegates to be held at Wash-
ington in Galvtston, on the 1st of February next ;
and organized an interim government. Henry Smith was
chosen governor and W. Robison lieutenant-governor ;
Samuel Houston was appointed major-general and coni-
mander-in-chief of the regular army of Texas; and Stephen
Austin, B. T. Archer, and W. H. Wharton were appointed
commissioners to the United States.
The new commander-in-chief immediately established
his head-quarters at Washington. In .January, la'tti,
Stephen Austin reported that he had concluded a loan at
New Orleans of 200,000 dollars, and had hopes of raising
another of 400,000. Volunteer troops in aid of the
:s were racing in Louisiana, Tennessee, Alabama,
and Georgia. The Convention met at Washington on the
i-nary, and on the 2nd of March it published a
ation of independence, signed by fitly delegates, of
whom Lorenzo de Zavala was one. In the election of
officers of state which immediately followed, Zavala was
chosen vice-president.
Santa Anna marched from Saltillo on the same day that
the Convention met at Washington. He was successful in
his first encounters ; but on the 21st of April he was
led and taken prisoner by General Houston. On the
1 Hh of May he signed a convention for the evacuation of
, and soon after not a Mexican soldier remained in
the state. The constitution adopted by the new state is
a close imitation of the state government of the Northern
Union ; and, like its prototype, presents the anomaly of
slavery existing under laws which profess to regard all
men as equal.
Texas was recognised as an independent republic by the
. nment of the United States on the 3rd of March, 1837.
A mot ion was made in congress for receiving it into the Union,
but after some discussion withdrawn. France recognised
the independence of Texas and concluded a treaty with it
on the 25th September, 1839. A treaty of amity and com-
merce between England and Texas was signed in London,
on the ICth of November, 1840, and ratified by the Texan
government in February, 1841. The Mexican government
Im expressed a determination to reconquer Texas ; but it
is not likely that in the distracted and impoverished state
of that country it will be able to reduce a population
almost inaccessible by land from Mexico, possessed of
better harbours and more shipping, in a position to receive
constant support from the United States even against the
will of the government at Washington, and on terms of
alliance and amity with England, France, and the United
States. Nor is it to be desired that Texas should on any
terms be re-annexed to Mexico: its Anglo-American
population never could assimilate with the Spanish Mexi-
cans.
(Texas, by William Kennedy, London, 1840; Colonel
Almente's Report on the Statistics of Texas, Mexico,
1833 ; Correspondence of the daily Papers of London and
Paris ; Debates in the British Parliament, the Congress
of the United States, and French Chamber of Deputies.')
TEXEIRA, or TEXERA, JOSEPH, was born of a good
family in Portugal, about the beginning of 1543. Alter
distinguishing himself at the University, he entered tin-
order of St. Dominic in 15G5, and obtained general respect.
for bis learning and virtue. He was prior of the convent
of Santarem in 1578, when King Sebastian undertook his
expedition into Africa.
In the troubles which ensued, Texeira attached himself
to the party of Don Antonio, and accompanied that prince
to France in 1581, where he went to solicit assistance
against Philip II. Texeira published at Paris, in the begin-
ning of 1582, a compendium of the history of Portugal.
The work is very scarce (it is described as a thin quarto of
70 pages), and appears to have been published for the
purpose of supporting Don Antonio's claim to the throne
of Portugal. The author was taken prisoner by the
Spaniards in the naval battle off Terceira on the 26th of
July, 1582, and carried to Lisbon, whence he contrived to
make his escape and rejoin Don Antonio. Duard Nonius
a Leone, a converted Jew, employed by Philip II. to re-
fute the ' Compendium of Portuguese History,' asserts
:hat Texeira, while a prisoner at Lisbon, denied to him
:hat he was the author.
The partisans of the League having obliged Don Anto-
nio to quit Paris, Texeira accompanied him a,s his con-
'essor, tirst to Bretagne, and in 1586 to England. In 1588,
laving returned to France, he was introduced to Henri III.
and the queen-mother : the former appointed him a court
chaplain ; the latter dispatched him on a confidential mis-
sion to Lyon, then in the possession of (he League,
jelieving that a Dominican friar was unlikely to be sus-
pected of being an agent of the court. Texeira rc-
nained at Lyon from July, 1588, to January, 1589. During
his interval he prepared for publication a reply to the
attack upon his History by Nonius i Leone. This pamphlet,
or some indiscreet expressions in conversation, having
given umbrage to the Leaguers, he was obliged to fly ;
the papers left in his cell were seized, and the whole im-
>ression of his pamphlet (with the exception of one or
wo copies) destroyed.
He rejoined Henri III. at Tours, and after the murder of
hat prince, in August, 1589, was continued in his office of
:ourt-chaplain by Henri IV., to whose service he attached
ihnself. After the entry of Henri into Paris, Don Antonio
vas enabled to return to that city, and Texeira appears to
lave resumed his office of confessor. In March, 1595, he
mblished a new edition of the work which had been de-
itroyed at Lyon, but his labour was in vain, for he was
tailed, in the August following, to perform the last service
if his church to the prince whose cause he had advocated
vith such fidelity.
In 1596 Texeira was a witness of the public abjuration
jf Calvinism by the dowager-princess cff Conde. at Rouen.
.'lie Papal legate selected him to instruct and confirm the
>rincess in her new faith ; and from that time till his death
le continued attached to the service of the house of
Conde. This engagement left him pretty much the com-
mand of his own time, and he employed it principally in
lis favourite study of genealogy. A list of his published
vorks will be found at the end of this article : here it is
mly necessary to remark that to the second edition of his
Genealogy of the House of Conde,' published in 1598, he
idded an account of the public ceremonial of the princess's
econcilialion with the Roman Catholic church.
In 1601 he published a narrative of the adventures of
)on Sebastian, ' from his expedition into Africa in 1578,
ill the 6th of January of this present year 1601.' We have
r i. \
j i: \
not been able to procure this work : but the following pas-
Mge from Etoiles 'Journal of the Reign of Henri IV.'
throws some light upon the expression quoted from its title-
— • Friday. the 1st ol June. I(i01,come-the intelligence
that the I'al-e or true Don Seba-tian (for as yet one i,
not which to call hi ml has been sent to the galleys by
order of the viceroy of Naples. . . . The Portuguese main-
tain that he is tho'tnie Don Sebastian : they have solicited
various courts to obtain his liberty, and published s.
woik- in his favour. Among others Joseph Texeira, a
Dominican, has undertaken several journeys to Bavaria.
England, Venice, and Rome, where he has disseminated
hi- writings; and finally, he ha.- cau-ed to bo printed at
Paris a collection of prophecies current among the Portu-
. which foretold all that has happened to their king
Sebastian.' That Texeira, whose writings show him to
have been an accomplished scholar, whose confidential
employment by Catherine de' Medici i- a strong testimony
in favour of his abilities, and whose high moral character
is acknowledged on all hands, should have believed the
individual here mentioned to have been the real Don Se-
bastian appears upon first thoughts a strong testimony in
his favour. But L'EtoileV account of the nature of the
book weakens the presumption, and Texeira's inv, I
against the Spaniards renders it probable that the account
is correct. He is said to have declared from the pulpit.
when preaching on the duty of loving one's neighbour,
that • we are bound to love all men. of whatever religion,
sect, or nation — even Ca-1ilians.'
Tcxeira died in the convent of the Jacobins at Paris, on
tin- '2!llh or :«lth of Juno, 1004. L'Etoile, who mentions
his death, says. -He had just returned from England,
whither he had been sent by the king, who gave him a
hund - for the expenses of the journey. \Vhile
there he had seen the king of England, to whom he pre-
sented his "Genealogy" which he had compiled, and which
wa- well received, tie was on the eve of returning to
England when ho was taken ill.' Texeira's frequent visit-
to England, both in the time of Elizabeth and James, gave
rise to suspicions of his attachment to the Romish Church.
For these there does not appear to have been any i
able ground : he was opposed to the ultra- Romanist party
of the League in France, because it was allied with Philip
II., but his religious opinions never appear to have
varied.
The published works of Texeira are — 1, ' De Portugalhae
Ortu, Regni Initiis, dcniquo de K< •', mis mmer-
soque regno pracclar mipendium,' Parisiis, l.'i^J.
in 4to.. 77 pp., very rare: 2, 'Do Electionis Jure quod
competit viris Portugallensibus in augurandissuisRegibus
ac Piincipibus.' Parisiis. IfiiX). Svo. : this is a reprint
of the answer to Nonius i Leone, printed and destroyed
at Lynn in 1.X1I : a third edition was published at Pan- in
with the title, 'Speculum Tyrannidis Philippi. Regis
Castillae, in usnrpanda Portugallia :' :i. • Exegesis Genea-
logica, sive Exphcatio Arboris Gentilitiac invictis-imi ac
potent i>-.itni Gailiarum rcgis Henrici cjus nomtnis IV.' This
work was published at Tours in lijflO; at Leyden, with ad-
ditions, in 15!)2; again at Leydcn in 11)17, "with the title,
• Stcmmata Franciae item Navarrae Regum a prima ntri-
wsqin (i:igine;' all the three editions are in 4to. ;
I. • Explicatio Genealogiae Henrici II.. Comleao Principis.'
EL An edition in 4to., and another in 8vo., and
a translation into French by .Kan de Montlyard, all ap-
peared in the same year. To the edition of ffillH was ap-
pended ' Narratio in qua tractatur de Apparitione, Ahjura-
tione. Conver-ione.et Synaxi lllustrissimae Principis Char-
lottae Catharinae Trimolliae, Pum -ipl-.ie Condea.
' De Flammula, seu Vexillo S. Diony-ii, vel de Orimphla
aut Anriflamma Tractatus,' Paris, 15US, Svo. : li. - Adven-
ture admirable par dovers toutes aut res des SuVles pa— i'-
ol presents, qni contient un Discours tonchant le« oucces
du Rx>i de Portugal, D. Sebastian, depuis son voyage
d At'nquc. auqnol il se perdit en la bataille qu'il cut
contre les Infidclcs en l."i"«. jnsqu'au 6 de Janvier p
an l«)l ;' traduit du Castillan. Paris, Svo.
(Tin- sketch has boon compiled from the diotinn-i.
B»ylc and Moreri, and Nicolaus Antonius : fiom th
fcce* to Texeira'i 'Genealogy of Henri IV.. and his Reply
i I.e. me ; and from Pierre de I'Etoile's -Journal
in IV.,' vol. ii.t pp. 069-61, nd vol.iii.,
pp. l»4-fl, edition published at the Hapuc in 1761, in 4
»ok «vo.)
I'KXEIRA, or TKXKKA. PKDRO, a native of Portn
gal, one of the earliest cultivators of modern Per-ian litera-
ture. The place and date of his birth and death are alilie
unknown. The author of the notice of his life in the
io^iaphie I'liiverselle.' says that lie wa- born in l.'iTO,
but does not mention the authority on which he makes the
statement.
Cotolendi, who translated Texeira's work into French.
•hat his author. • instigated by a vehement desire' to
become acquainted with the hi-tory of Persia, passed
M-ars in that country, and having made hi:
:l\ master of the language, devoted himself, by the
advice of some able and enlightened Persians, to the study
of Mirkhond. [See the account of this historian in the
article PKKSI\. under the head I.itfrnlurr.'] Texeira him-
self has informed us that being at Malacca, in the begin-
ning of KKK), he embarked in the month of May for the
Philippine Inlands, whence he took shipping for Mexico,
and ultimately arrived at Lisbon on the 'JOth October,
1601. His correspondents in the F.a>t having failed to
transmit to him some money which he had left in their
charge, he was obliged to undertake a \oyagc to (ioa to
recover it. Di-gn>ted with the sea, he resolved to return
overland; and having in pursuance of his determination
sailed from (!oa, on the !)th of February, 1COJ. and a
at Ha-rah on theu'th of August being detained some time
at Ormuz), he travelled by way of Mes-hcd-Ali to liagdmi,
and thence to Anna, Aleppo, and Scanderoon. where he
took shipping for Venice. After a short stay in that city.
he made the tour of Italy, cro— e°l the Alp- into Fi
and then retired to Antwerp, where he spent his time
in compiling a book, which he published in 1610.
that event we again lose sight of him entirely.
Hi^ work, the tii-st book of which. -d by An-
tonio de Leon Pinelo. was composed in Portuguese, but
translated into Spanish, and the rest written in that lan-
guage with a view to publication, is entitled. ' Relacion do
los R(\es de Pcisia v Ormuz : Viagi de la India Oriental
hasta ftalia por Tierra el afio de 10(H,' Antwerp. 1610. N .
Antonio says it was published in -ito. : Antonio de I.e. .11
that it was published in Svo.) It consists of three .
the lirst is a history of the kings of Persia, compiled from
Mirkhond with a brief continual ion, down to the age of the
compiler; the second is an abridgment of the history of
Ormuz, by Turan->liah, one of the kings of that district <:\
work which appears to be known in Kurope only from
Texeira's abstract), also with a continuation ; the third,
an account of Texeira's overland journey from India to
Europe. Alfonso Lasor translated the work into Italian
and inserted it in his Orbf I iin-cr^il the same year in
which it was published : Sehikhart. in his 'Tarich. sen B
Regum Persiae,' published at Tubingen in 16'JK. speaks
in the highest terms of Texeira's learning and dilig,
Van Laet appended a Latin translation of Texeira's Itine-
rary from Ormuz to Basrah and Bagdad to his • 1'.
published at Leyden in WM : Cotolendi published a
French translation of the entire book at Paris in KIM.
which the writer in the ' Biographic 1 'niverselle ' justly
characterises as ' asscz mauvaise.' In short, down to the
time of Tavernier and Chardin. Texeira appear- to have
been regarded as the principal authority respecting l'er>ia.
The historical part of his work is now of little importance,
but his voyage up the Persian (iulf, and his route from
Basrah to Meihed-AIi, Bagdad. Anna, Aleppo, and ^
dcroon, may still be studied with advantage.
Antonio and Leon Pinelo mention a book entitled
fragm de Jorge Albuquerque e Prosopopeia a sen louvor,'
published at Lisbon in lull, by a Peter Texeira, but do
not identify him with our author. A ' Certiticacion del
Discnhrimiento de el Maraiion,' bv a Pedio TV\
• Capilan Maior del Para,' is appended to the account of
the discovery of that river, published at Madrid in KM1,
by Christoval dc Acufia : this was ,i| I did'eront
'.. A third geographer of the name of Pcd;o Texeira
is mentioned by Antonio as alive at Madrid a few years
previous to the' publication of his dictionary (Ki7^): this
one compiled a map of Portugal and a • Dc-cripcion do
na,' neither of which appear to have been
published.
(Voyagm de T< ./<•//./..<// /'//
traduite d'Espagnole en 1 . U;sl, rjmo. ;
J:/,I/<I>HI' ill- In lillihnthrr.i Orii'lttnl If '/,'.•/(/< ///<!/, .\illllli-il
-/, ilc Don Antonio de Leon Pinelo, eu Madrid,
T E Z
273
T H A
1738, fol. ; Bibaotheca Hispana Nova, Auctore D. Nicolao
Antonio, reeognita, emendata, et aucta, Matriti, 1788, fol.
Turich : h. e. Series Regum Persiae ab Ardschir-Babckan
usque ad Jazdigerdem, a Chalifitiis expuhum, authore
VVilhelmo Schikard, Tubingae, '1628, 4to. ; Persia, seu
Rpgni Persici Status, Variaque Itinera in atque per Per-
siam, Lugd. Batav., 1633, 24mo.)
TEXEL, or TESSEL, is an island in the North Sea, at
the northern extremity of the province of North Holland,
from which it is divided by a channel called the Maas
Diep. Including Eierland, it is 12 miles in length and
6 in breadth. It has a large and secure harbour, and a
commodious roadstead on fhe east coast. The northern
part of the island, called Eierland (i.e. Eggs-land, from the
vast quantity of eggs laid by the sea-gulls), was a separate
island tiH 1029, but is now joined to Texel by a sand-bank.
Texel is celebrated for a breed of sheep (50,000) with a
silky kind of wool, and many thousand lambs are annually
exported to the different provinces of Holland. The in-
habitants, 5000 in number, make great quantities of a
green cheese from sheep's milk ; many of them are engaged
in the oyster fishery. Besides the petty town of Texel
there are C villages in the island. Important naval battles
have been fought off the coast ot'this island : in 1053, when
Admiral Blake defeated the Dutch under Van Tromp ; in
1673, between the Dutch and the combined English and
French fleets, which was a drawn battle ; and in 1799, be-
tween the English and Dutch fleets, when the latter, being
disaffected to the republican, government, surrendered
without much resistance.
(Hassel, Geography ; Stein's Lexicon ; Cannabich, Geo-
grtipky.')
TEXTI'LIA, Mr. Swainson's name for a subgenus of
CONUS. — Ex., Conus Ammiralin. Mu/acology.)
TEXTOR. [WEAVER BIRDS.]
TEXTULA'RIA. [FORAMINIFERA, vol. x., p. 348.]
TEZA, or TAZA. [MAROCCO.]
TEZCU'CO. [MEXICAN STATES.] ,
TEZEL, or TETZEL, .TOHAXN, a Dominican monk,
who lived about the end of the fifteenth and the beginninir
of the sixteenth century. His name would have been for-
gotten but for the scandalous manner in which he earned
on the traffic in indulgences, which roused the indignation
of the better part of his contemporaries, and thus led to the
reformation in Germany. He was a native of Leipzig.
where he studied theology, and afterwards entered the order
of the Dominicans in the Pauliner Kloster. In the year
1502 the pope appointed him preacher of indulgences for
Germany. He converted this office into a most lucrative
traffic, and is said to have made use of the basest means
for the purpose of obtaining money. His conduct too
was so bad, that he was condemned at Inspruck to be
sewed up in a sack and to be drowned, having been con-
victed of adultery. But the interference of his superiors
caused the sentence to be changed into imprisonment for
life. Hi; was accordingly conveyed to Leipzig, and con-
fined in a tower which stood in that city near the Grimma-
gate fGrimmaer-Thor) until the year 1834, when it was
pulled down. He had however not been imprisoned long
before he was set at liberty at the request of Albert, arch-
bishop of Mainz, and other ecclesiastical dignitaries.
Tez.el now made a pilefrimnsje to Home, and acted the
part of a penitent so well, that Pope Leo X. not only ab-
solved him of his sins, but appointed him commissarius
apoitolicus in Germany, in addition to which the arch-
bishop of Mainz made him ' inquisitor haereticae pravi-
tatis.' In his capacity of papal commissary he now carried
on his traffic in indulgences more impudently than ever.
He traversed Saxony in an open carriage, accompanied by
attendants, and carrying with him two chests, one of which
contained the indulgences, and the other the money raised
from their sale. This latter chest is said to have had the
following inscription : —
• .Soliald das geld im hasten Minjt,
Sobald dii- w\' "en himmel sprin^t.'
•ma us thf< gold in the chest rings.
So soon tlic soul to heaven si'iings.)
His reputation for sanctity had become so great, that in
several places the population of towns met him in solemn
procession, and his entry was accompanied with the ring-
ing of the church-bells. He sold indulgences for all
crime', murder, perjury, adultery, and not only for crimes
already committed, but also for those which a person
>. C., No. 15
might commit. At last, in the year 1517, Luther openly
opposed him, in the celebrated theses which he fixed on
the church-door of Wittemberg. Tezel made a reply in
another set of theses, which however were immediately
burnt by the students in the market-place of Wittemberg.
Tezel seems to have acted contrary to the intention of
his superiors, and to have gone beyond his instructions,
for Karl von Miltitz, who was sent by the pope to settle
the disputes which had arisen out of his conduct, repri-
manded him severely. In the year 1518 however Tezel,
notwithstanding all this, obtained the degree of Doctor of
Divinity at Frankfurt on the Oder. After this event, he
returned to Leipzig to his convent, where he died, in Au-
gust, 1519, of the plague, shortly after the celebrated theo-
logical disputation pi' Eck and Karlstadt. He was buried
in the church of his convent (the present chapel of the
university) ; but there is now no trace of his grave, as that,
part of the church which contained his remains was pulled
down in the seventeenth century to make room for some
fortifications. [LUTHER.] Compare P. Melanchthonius,
Historia Vitae M. Lutheri, i., p. 153, &c. ; Gieseler, Lehr-
buch der neuern Kirchengeschichte, vol. hi., p. 20 ; Loscher,
Vollstandige Reformations-Acta, ii., p. 324; and more
especially Hechtius, Vita Tezelii.
THAARUP, THOMAS, a Danish poet and dramatist,
highly esteemed by his countrymen as one of the classics
in their literature, was the son of an ironmonger at Copen-
hagen. He was born 21st August, 1749, the very same
day as Edward Storm, another poet. This coincidence
would hardly deserve notice, if something of the marvel-
lous had not been founded upon it, it being said that
Thaarup's mother dreamed that the wife of a clergyman at
Guldbrandsdalen was delivered just at the same time of a
son, who would be the rival of her own. If not great,
both of them were popular and national poets ; and though
neither very numerous nor of very great extent, their pro-
ductions, especially their lyric pieces, earned for them a
reputation which does not always fall to the lot of writers
of more ambition and of higher pretension. This was
more particularly the case with regard to Thaarup, whose
Jiree little musical dramas, ' Hostgildet,' 'Peters Bryllup,'
and ' Hiemkomsten,' are esteemed chefs-d'neuvre of their
cind, and the songs and airs were known by heart by every
one, and repeated all over Denmark. Their celebrity was
iot at all less than that of the ' Beggars' Opera' in this
country. After the death of Storm [SCANDINAVIAN LITE-
RATURE, p. 3], Thaarup succeeded him as one of the di-
rectors of the theatre at Copenhagen, in which situation
ic remained till 1800. But though he survived Storm
a full quarter of a century, Thaarup's literary life did not
extend much beyond that of Storm. If he did not en-
irely lay aside his pen at the commencement of the pre-
ent century, all the productions by which he will be
remembered had appeared in the preceding one. He
continued to reside at Copenhagen, where he died in the
summer of 1821. Some of his hymns have been trans-
lated into German by Voss.
(Skilderic af Kiubenhavn, 1821 ; Neue Bibliothek der
Sclwiienieissenchaflen, vol. Iv.)
THA'BET BEN KORRAH, an eminent physician, phi-
losopher, and geometrician, whose complete names, as
given by Ibn Abi 'Ossaibiah (Fontes Relationum de Clas-
sibus Medicorum, cap. 10, § 3), were Abu '1-Hasan Thabet
Ben Korrah. He was born at Harran in Mesopotamia, A.H.
221 (A.D. 835-0), where he at first carried on the business
of a money-changer ; he afterwards however went to
Bagdad to pursue his studies, which he carried on with so
much zeal, that he became one of the most celebrated lite-
rary and scientific men of his age. He belonged to the
sect of the Sabians, but got entangled in some religious
disputes, and was expelled from their communion. In
consequence of this he left Harran, where he had been
residing for some time, and went to Bagdad with the cele-
brated astronomer Mohammed Ben Musa. There he lived
in his house, and was introduced by him to Mo'tadhed
Billah, sixteenth of the 'Abbaside Khalifs (A.H. 279-289,
A.D. 892-602), who appointed him one of his astrologers,
and ever afterwards, on account of his acquirements and
his pleasing manners, continued on terms of great intimacy
with him. He died on the 2Gth of Safar, A.H. 288 (Fe-
bruary 18, A.D. 901), aged sixty-seven lunar, or sixty-five
solar years. His sons Senan and Ibrahim, and their de-
scendants, practised physic with much reputation at Bag-
VOL. XXIV.-2 N
I H A
274
T H A
dad for morethan aociitu >. Thibet himself
appear^ tn T learned
re':
n*'
389.)
uaho a very Tolmr
\ the Hiio:iMno' >i the * Am-
Miphorum Hibliotheca,' take up about two folio
Dl the works of
He wrote also
i iiionic* of
lieal, and zoological •
talations into that '
OaJen, Pto!
s*Yeral in E <>us
the Sabians : but none either of thc-c or of his Arabic
far as the writer is aware . been publi-hed
or t. .. i! c\i-t in mann-
-ome of the Kiirouean libraries. \Viistenfeld,
//..-.Nu-oll
. : p. i->7. -!tf>:
Of H'»--i. !>t:i ',, **' r. 'f'-L;'i .Lit"ri Ai'i'-i.
V'HKT HI \ SK\ \'.N. (hi- irrandson of the pre-
redinsr, wi - arc triven by Ibn Abi 'Ossjiibiah
urn de Clasiibii mi. cap. Id, $ :V.
I'll 'l-IIasan Thalut Hen Senan Hen Thabet Hen
Korrah. I ' • ln-ated. like the other membei-s of his
family, as a physician, philosopher, and mathematician.
and wag superintendant of the hospital at Bagdad during
the reiirn of Al- Motteia, the twenty-third of the 'Abhaside
Khalifs. \.n. :i:M-:iU:l (A.D. 946-971 He expounded the
writings of lli])pocrates and Galen : but his principal work
appeals to have been a History of Ins Own Times, from
the year A.M. 2;M> A.D. !Hi:» to t'he year of his own death.
\.D. '.>7.'»-4\ which is highly praised l>\ Alni
//;/. Dyna*t., p. 2t)H . and was con-
tinued atler his death by his nephew Helal. and by other
• >r. Sprenser. "in the notes to his iran-'ation of
>'udr«'M Gold and Mines ot'Gems.' vol. i.,
p. 'J4. Lond., 8vo.. 1841. corrects an anachronism of Haji
Khali -ribes this work to his grandfather Thabet
Hen Korrah.
\Vii>1cnfeld. fii'x-fffirntf (/T • Aase-
mani, Bibioth. ()ri'-n/., vol. ii.. p. 317.
THAI.AMITA. [!' . vol. xviii., p. -146.]
THA'I.AMIS from SaX,^..,-. the biidal chamb.
botanical term which was applied bv Linmrns to the calvv
or outer whorl of floral envelopes. Tonrnefort applied the
term to a receptacle that i- not fleshy, but surrounded by
an involucre. In this -en-e it i- u-rd in common with the
Clinanthium and Phoranthinm. Hy some writers, as
!),• Camlolle, the term is applied to the receptacle of all
plants or that point of the rachi- or stem around which
the floral envelopes are seated. Thus those plants in
which the petals and stamens are inserted into the recep-
-titute the first ThalamifiorH'. of the
i 'andolle's natural arrangement of plant-,
-o used in (YyptoL'amie botany, in common
with Thallus, to express the bed of fibre- from which many
funiri spring up. It i« also improix'rly used hy some
•e the shields or apothecia of lichens. In
term that has been applied in so man;,
d, that it i- desirable it should be
with, or only used in a very obvious
TH AI.A'VsKM A. i 'u\ ier> r-mn- for a irenus of fo<itlc—
; , . placed bv him
!'V him : —
.!;((!. Tlv mi.
Hut one alxloniinal
- or to
' • ier into the followim
1. '1 -nii:e pru] 'led.
placed very forward, and
no bristle-like pru
'.•ffHfl
or r. '. 6.
2. The Kchiiiri,
nno> . uiity i-. furnished with some trans-
V.\
Gm.,— Pa! ' . xi. l-<). Common on sandy
bottoms on the Kreiu-b coacU» where the iikhernicn uie it
an a bait. It u also found out! gene-
rally, and is naiil to • • tht c..d-lisb.
H. ^
>i-, besides the 1 v** of the il-lnuri,
h.u. uudei tluir anterior put a snr-
rounded with cilia.
ixjti* thaliusfiitoiitet, Otl
N.H Mates that a lie an«-
toim of the ThaJatitma hatl demonstratei! I the
pliue winch he had assigned to them w;,-
TH \ line ior une of the T.'
1 IIAI.ASSIANTHI S. \|. Ki'ipp.-rsiiaiiu- for a u'eiuis of
Art i it i . .iith raiui-
• THAHIA.]
THALASSI'DROMA. [I'KIHKI.S, \ol. \\iii., p. 43.]
THAl.ASSl'N A. rTKAi^wiNiANs.] N.H.— Hie stu-
dent should be careful not to confound the crustaceou*
ircnus T/iii/uxxiiia with the echimxiermalout. TH.M.AS-
SKMA.
THAI.ASSIMANS. 'Hie ireuus 7 CUtreille
consi-ts of those macriuous decapods which hiue the
four anterior feet terminated by two finder-: the foliations
of the lateral fins of the end ol the tail narrow and eloii-
cated, without ridges; and the last sequent of the tail, or
the intermediate piece, ill the form of an elongated
triangle. Sometimes the four anterior feet, or t!
feet and one of the second, are terminated b
finirers. fonuinc a claw perfectly. The I
are the lonivc-t : the lateral foliations of the iin ti
the tail are in the form of ictft at
the ]>osterior border: the intermediate piece, on the con
trary, narrows from the base to the termination, and eiuLs
in a point.
M. Milne Edwards arranges the I'amily of Thalassinians,
or Jliirrnirhiif Mumtru, between the w and the
Aftaciatu.
The Crutituri-n of which this small but interestiiii: family
i:pn-cd r. - • h other in appearance, and me
remarkable for the extieme elongation of their abdomen
and the small deirree of cousi-lcnce ol' their inteiruni.
.'••/// f'/nif small, and very much
compressi'd laterally ; tenninateil. ^cneially. in front by a
MT\ short rostrum, but somclm 1\ wiihout
Eyes ordinarily vcrv small. Internal miti'iiiiif terminated
by two multi-articulate filaments; tin: external ones in-
serted externally and a little below the iirst ; their pe-
duncle slender, cylindrical, and without a spinimiform
lamina, carries at most only one very small mo\'
-pine, which icprcsents that appendage. Disposition of
the parts of the inniith \anabi, linear
thnmirhout its length, and not constitute -iron.
Anterior feel lanre, more or less completi ly didactylous
and trianirular ; the next pair raised on each fide of the
thorax. Alnlnmm \ei\ IOIIL'. and. in treueral. \eiy nanow ;
rather depressed vertically than compir-scd luteiallj : the
lateral borders of the dorsal arch of its \nrious
but little prolomred. and do not incase the
feet as in the SIIKIMPS. noi dues the a! donn • i,.nish
much in si its posterior pint. The structure of
its jipn Mi-iiiou of the respiratory
..il\ exist.-, as it ordl-
naril\ ' iioracic branchiae, em
under the carapace in npecial cavities : sometimes, on the
thoracic branchia'. ; .
ancbial ap]>en.: udcd under the abdomen
and aHived to the tiilse n •< -I . \ pun this important difference,
M. Milne Kdwanls. who is the antho. of the clia.
iriven above, founds his division of the family into two
tribes, the Cryptobranclnds and 11
1. ( 'nplobianchiils.
Under this proup M. Milne Kdv,
Thiilii\xiiiiniiK which are without it -\
suspended under the abdomen. Their in L'e-
neral composed of cylinders, united after the manner of a
brush. All the species whose habit- n live m
nd, ill which they burrow deeply. The following
MIL: to this tube :— '
Axia; Oebia ; and 77/n/<;*A///n.
(iiin. rds.)
Get. ',» ovoid, and without
any roslrifprm prolongation. Hy* pioji i-tiiiir. lar^'e. and
iicarlj p\ ritbrin. Internal antenna short, cyhnch-iual, and
T H A
275
T H A
bent (coudees), as in Pagurus ; the third joint of thei:
peduncle the longest, and carrying at its extremity two
small multiarticulate appendages, which are very short ant
rather stout, one of which is furnished with many lorn,
hairs. External antenna; inserted lower than the pre"
ceding, their peduncle bent, and presenting above a smal
scale, the vestige of a palp. External jaw-feet peditbrm
The last thoracic ring not anchylosed to the preceding.
Anterior feet terminated by a "stout, didactylous, well-
formed hand : they are of very different sizes. Second anc
third pairs slender and very long : the two last pairs, on
the contrary, short and elevated against the sides of the
body, as in the Paguri ; the fourth pair are flattened
rather large, and imperfectly didactylous, the immoveable
finger of their hand being only formed by a slightly pro-
jecting tubercle ; the posterior feet, still smaller than the
last, nre terminated by a small didactylous rather well-
formed hand. The abdomen is narrow, elongated, and
perfectly symmetrical : the first ring, much narrower than
the succeeding ones, has no appendages ; the four nexl
segments, on the contrary, each give attachment to one
pair of rather large false natatory feet, formed by a cylin-
drical basilary joint and two terminal blades, one of which
is very small and obtuse, and the other large, pointed at
the end, and bordered with long ciliary hairs, ('mula/ /in
moderate in size ; the middle blade, formed by the seventh
abdominal segment, is rounded and ciliated, and the ex-
ternal blades are much longer than the middle ones.
(M.B.)
M. Milne Edwards observes that this sfenus establishes
the passage between the Pagurians and C<I//-/HI/U*X<I.
K\;imple, Glducothoe Peronii, the only species known.
Its integuments have little solidity, its carapace is smooth,
and its length 8 lines. M. Milne Edwards states that it
appears to inhabit the seas of Asia. He is of opinion that
Latreille's genus Prophylax approximates closely to
tikoa, :ind ought not perhaps to be distinguished
from it : if so Latreille's name has the priority. The latter
placed his genus among the Pasuri, but after the publi-
cation of M. Milne Edwards' s (Jtaucothoe, was uncertain,
according to M. Edwards, whether these two generic di-
visions should not be united.
CMianassa. (Leach.)
See the article : but the student should refer to the accu-
rate and elaborate description and figures of M. Milne Ed-
wards, who records two species. : — CouiaRotta s-ubterranea
Axia SCirhymhui;
«, Intermediate intenna ; I, external antenna.
and uncinata ; and he adds that Callianassa major of Say
seems to be distinguished from the two preceding species.
Axia. (Leach.)
Generic Character. — Carapace very much compressed,
and terminated anteriorly by a small triangular rostrum.
Ocular peduncles very small, cylindrical, and terminated
by a hemispherical cornea. Terminal filaments of the
internal antennce nearly of the length of the carapace.
Peduncle of the external antenna; having above a small
moveable spine which represents the great lamellar palp
observable in the Shrimps. External jaw-feet slender and
peditbrm. Anterior feet compressed, and terminated by a
well-formed claw ; carpus small. Second pair of feet nearly
lamellar, and equally didactylous. The three next pairs
monodactylous. Abdomen slightly convex towards the
middle, and terminating in a great fin, the five blades of
which are nearly of the same length. First ring of the
abdomen carrying a rudimentary pair of false feet, and the
four succeeding rings provided each with a pair of very
well-developed natatory false feet, each composed of a
short and stout peduncle, which at its extremity carries
a small styliform appendage within, and externally two
great oval, very large blades, which are ciliated on the
borders. (M. E.)
M. Milne Edwards observes that this genus much re-
sembles Callianassa and Gebia, and he records the only
known species, Axia Stirhynchus. Its length is about
three inches, and it inhabits the coasts of France and Eng-
land.
Gebia. (Gebios and Thalassina, Risso ; Gebia and
Upogebia, Leach.)
<li iit-rif Character. — Carapace terminating anteriorly
by a triangular rostrum, and sufficiently large to cover the
eyes almost entirely ; on each side of its base is a tooth,
which is continued with a crest, and forms the lateral
border of the upper surface of the stomachal region. In-
ternal antennce very short, but nevertheless their terminal
filaments are longer than their peduncle. External an-
tennce very slender, and presenting at their base no vestige
of a moveable scale. External jau- -feet pediform. Anterior
feet narrow, terminated by an elongated and imperfectly
subcheliform hand : their moveable finger is very large,
and in bending downwards its base is applied against the
anterior border of the hand, the lower angle of which is
prolonged so as to constitute a tooth performing the office
of the immoveable finger. The feet next in succession are
compressed and monodactyle ; the second pair have their
penultimate joint large, widened, and ciliated below ; the
succeeding pairs are more slender. Abdomen long and
much narrower at its base than towards its middle, de-
pressed and terminating by a large fin, whose four lateral
:>Iades are foliaceous and very wide. First abdominal ring
with two pairs of very small filiform appendages ; the four
next segments giving origin to three pail's of false natatory
feet, composed of a stout and short peduncle, and two oval
Blades with strongly ciliated borders : the external one very
arsje. and the other very small. Branchicc brush-like and
ixed on two rows, namely, one above the second foot, and
.wo above the four anterior feet and the external jaw-feet.
M.E.)
Example, Gebia stellata. Length 1£ inch.
Locality. — Coasts of England. M. Milne Edwards states
hat this species comes very near to Gebia littoralis.
M. Milne Edwards observes that the Gebice establish the
jassage between the Thalassince and the Axia?, which last
hey resemble in the general form of the body and disposi-
tion of the caudal fin, whilst they approach the first by the
conformation of the feet.
X£^^
Ocbia siclliita.
a, intermediate antenna ; 4, base or nn extern*] antenna.
2N2
T II A
T 11 A
ttalassina. 'Lativ;
Gfnfrif '
much elevated,
wards by a deep fun
ually separated 1'iom the branchial
ntini: by their junction 11 trianu'lc. 'he apex of which is
' aimed with a Miial! triangular
small and cylindrical. Internal antenna
- : their peduncle of moderate
in. I their terminal lilanients slender anil unfi|iml. the
longest about thiicc tin length ol'the peduncle
small, their peduncle ryliniinral. hardly
Beaching beyond the rostrum, and presenting «b< ••
.• of appendages. External j '-•• and
pediform, their second joint armed with spimform teeth on
its internal surface, and nearly of the same form as the
succeeding ones. First pair of"/.'/ narrow nnd moderately
elongated, hut rather rohust ; they are unequal, and the
hand which terminates them present at its anteri<
lower angle a more or less strong tooth, which rep:
an immoveable finder, against whicli the base of the
able finger, which is very large, is bent back. Second pair
of feet very much compress, a. and rather wide : their pen-
ultimate joint especially i- large and ciliated below. The
succeeding feet have nearly the same form, but tin \ arc
narrower, and less and less compressed. Ab<l<»n> // very
long, narrow, semicylimlrical, and nearly of the same si/e
throughout its Icnirth. Terminal fin small ; the two pairs
of lateral blades, formed by members of the sixth rinsr.
nearly linear. Palteffet fixed to the four middle rings of
the abdomen ; they arc very slender, and composed of a
cylindrical and elongated peduncle can-vim: two more or
Hated multiarticnlate filaments. (M
Example, Thalassinn seorpionidtt. Length about six
inches. Colour brownish.
Locality. — Coasts of Chili.
M. Mime Edwards remarks that the abdomen of this
species reminds the observer of the body of a Scolof*
2, GaMrobr.im bids.
M. Milne Fxlwards observes that this small division of the
Tkalaitinittn* is very remarkable, for it establishes the
PMMgc between tttt CbttMMM and the Kjiu//rr>. In
ibe general form of tlw body, the crustaceans forming this
li\ ision differ, lie remarks, 1 tie from the first, and
the conformation per-
mit their separation from the marmtor.s decapods, nor tneir
distant removal from the Thatassinians ; but they have
respiratory v vet,
exhibiting the cn.-sti-l analogy v. itli the ramose branchise
of the SrojfAPODs.
The type of this group, according to M. Milne Edwards.
is a small crustacean, to which he irives il,. name
i : but he also arranges in this same division the
"!' M. (iuerin. under the name of Cnllian.-
for he thinks that he perceives in this last an nnali'
limn. If, he observes, the chin
to it by M. (Jiierin be exact, it would be difficult to
place this new •reiitis here, and it ought to be approximated
\o\hePazurians; but it appears very probable to M. Milne
Edwards that there has been some error of observation, and
that in reality the hra- and CaUiam'dett&ffer but very little.
These crustaceans, M. Milne Kdwm -.have all
a very small oval thorax ci a 'do-
men, on the conlraiy. is extremely lonir and slender. The
i'ioi\ of the e\cs and the aiitcnn.
as in Callianatta. The external jaw-feet are
and carry externally a slender and multiarticulate
two fii-st pairs effect are didaeh lous : the anterior pair are
long, very unequal, and terminated by a stunt r
hand : the second are small and very delicate : the third are
enlarged towards the end nearly as in ('nlliniitiitxa, and
terminated by a \ciyshort tarsus, forming, with a till
ol'the preceding joint, an imperfect claw. The fourth pair
of feet are slender and monodactyle : and the filth pair,
small in dimension, arc thrown backward*. As in the
Crpytobratuhid»,\he alKlomcn is very long, sufficiently soil.
and composed of nearly equal rinirs. of which the dorsal
arch is not prolonged below so as to incase the base of tin-
false feet. The caudal fin offers nolhinir remarkable : but
the false feet, inserted at its lower surface, are fun
with a multitude of branched filaments, which have a struc-
ture very analogous to that of branchia1. and which cer-
tainly must be destined to concur in the work of respiration.
M. Milne Edwards concludes by observing that this tribe
comprehends two genera, one of which appears to him to be
too imperfectly known to be conveniently characterized.
( \illiniiiilea. (Edwards.
(irnerir Chnrattrr. — Bo'ly very delicate, slender, and
elongated. Carapace hardly a third of the length of the
abdomen, and not covering the last thoiacic rins. com-
d and rather elevated, its lower border applied ex-
actly aitainst the base of the four first pairs of feet. No
rostrum, and the anterior border of the carapace notched
on each side of the median line for the reception of tin-
base of thi- i 'i/i v. whose peduncles are very short, and
formed as in the ('ii//iiiinix»rr. Vm\rnntfnna: slender and
inserted nearly on the same transversal line : the first pair
terminated b\ two filaments nearly equal in length, one of
which however is the largest, and slightly convex towards
\ppendaL'es ol'the innitth MTV small, occupying
but little space : ithi/iil.li'i-x haulh iliil'cnnir from UK
: valvular appendage of the -econd pair of _/'u//-.«
mall ; external ja'r-fi,-! slender and pediform. their
: joint furnished internally with a row of dentiform
tubercles covered with haii-s, and with their three last joints
uinch eloiiL / linear throughout it
tent. Kiist pair of fi-ft long, and one of them very stout,
with the terminating hand very large, and nearly of the
same form as in (V/,'««<i>-<j. except that tin
smaller. The two succeeding pairs of feet are small and
flattened ; the fourth pair nearly cylindrical, and their ba-
silary joint very much enlarged. Fifth pin: large
fouithjiind terminating in an imperfect rudimentary
claw. composed as ordinarily of n
neaily of the same size throughout, and canyin1: beneath
five pairs of faht-tret : of these the fiiM are reduced to a
simple narrow blade slightly ciliated at the end. but the
four succeeding pairs have a very reinnrkabi. lion.
A peduncle is to be distinguished and three teiminal la-
minap, two of which are very large and on. ill on
the edge of the preceding ones ; all round the border of the
treat laminip a kind of tufted fiinge is found, composed ol
a row of cylinders, each of which cues oiii:in to two smaller
filaments, which again in their turn are bifurcated nearly
in the sarnp manner ta the branchial filaments of the
an divided. The five blades of which the caudal
T H A
277
T H A
fin is composed are wide and rounded. The thoracic
bntnchicc are enclosed as ordinarily in the carapace, and are
each composed of cylinders ranged in parallel order on a
stem, nearly as in the lobsters, only these organs and fila-
ments are less numerous, and the branchiae themselves very
small. There are only ten on each side of the body. (M. E.)
Example, Calliahidea typa. Length about 10 lines.
Locality. — Coasts of New Ireland, where it was found
by MM. Quoy and Gaimard.
CallianiJca lypii, magnified. "
rt, antenna nf the first pair; 6, exU-iual j.iw-foot; c, extremity of one of
(Ve jtmierior feet; d, abdominal false feet, first pair; e, fa!-i- u'ct of ooe of
tin- f >ur succeeding pairs ; /, marginal fiiutfe of those false ft-et.
So much doubt exists relative to the genus hen, Guerin,
(,'al/ianixea, M. Edwards, that we think we should not be
justified in occupying space witli the very lontr and elaborate
.ption of M. Guerin, and the acute criticisms of M.
Milne Edwards, who observes that Ixr-n, having been pre-
viously employed to designate another crustaceous animal,
cannot be retained. M. Guerin's description will be found
in the ' Annales de la Socic'-W Entomologique de France,'
torn, i., p. 295 ; and also in M. Milne Edwards's ' Histoire
Nahirelli.' dcs CrustaeeV torn, ii., p. 322. But though our
limits do not permit the insertion of the details, they
should be carefully perused by the student, for they are
highly interesting ana instructive.
FOSSIL THALASSINIANS.
M. Milne Edwards states that the erustaceous fossil found
in the chalk formation of Maastricht, and figured by M.
Desmarest under the name of Pagurus Favjasii, belongs
to the genus Ca/tin>/ti\.iii.
THALASSIO'KMS, Mr. Eyton's name for one of the
cluck* '.Smith, subfamily Erismuturiitep.
THAI ASSIOPHYTKS 'literally 'sea-plants,' from dd-
\aaaa and I/IVTOV, is the name given by Lamouroux to desig-
nate the vegetable productions of the ocean and of its rocks
and shores. It is equivalent, fo the term Hydrophytes of
Lingbye, and the plants described by Agardh as Marine
Algae. This division of the vegetable kingdom compre-
hends, in Lamouroux's system, six orders, viz., Fucaceae,
Florideae, DictyoUse, Ulvacea-, Aphlomideae, and Phlo-
midese. [SEA-WEEDS; ULVACE.E.]
THALKS •it./Xijs) was a native of Miletus, one of the
chief cities of Ionia, and descended from a Phoenician
family. Apollodorus, as quoted by Diogenes Laertius,
fixes the year of his birth in the first year of the 35th
Olympiad, or B.C. 640. Herodotus (i. 74) says that Thalcs
the Milesian predicted the year of the great eclipse which
took place while the armies of Cyaxares and Alyattes
king of Lydia were engaged in battle. Alyattes became
kin!; of Lydia in B.C. 617. Herodotus also says (i. 75)
that Thales was in the army of Croesus at the time of the
battle ofPteiie between Croesus and Cyrus B.C. 547 or
5-16 ; at which time he would be ninety-four years old, if
the date of his birth is correctly given by Apollodorus.
Th-re was a general tradition that he lived to a great age ;
and Luciaii states that Solon, Thales, and Pittacus all
lived to be a hundred years old. (On the subject of the
ecl'.ps,-! see the articfc ALYATTES, and Oltmanns, Ab-
hanMungtn der Akad. Berlin, 1812-13.)
In the Life of Thales by Diogenes we find numerous tra-
ditions attached to his name, the value of which it is some-
what difficult to estimate. Thales is enumerated among
the Seven Wise Men, whose wisdom was not the theo-
retical wisdom of philosophers, but the wisdom of actual
life. [BIAS.] Accordingly we find that Thales took an
active part in the political affairs of his native country.
Before Ionia fell under the Persian yoke, he advised the
lonians to have one common council, and to establish it
at Teos, for Teos was in the centre of Ionia ; and he fur-
ther suggested that all the other Ionian states should be
reduced to the condition of parts dependent on the go-
vernment at Teos. Such a scheme, if carried into effect,
might have checked the progress of the Persian arms
(Herod., i. 170.) Later writers say that he visited Egypt
and Crete in order to improve his knowledge, and that he
derived from Egypt his acquaintance w'ith mathematics.
There seems no reason for thinking that Thales left any
writings. Aristotle at least was not acquainted with any
philosophical writings by Thales. Various sayings of
Thales are recorded : they are of that sententious charac-
ter which belongs to the proverb, and they embody truths
such as the general experience of mankind recognises :
and for this reason they cannot safely be considered as
the product of any one mind. Thales is generally con-
sidered the founder of the Ionian school ; but it is per-
haps hardly proper to consider him in any sense as the
founder of a school. [IONIAN SCHOOL.] His traditional re-
putation rested on his physical discoveries and his philo-
sophical speculations. He is said to have been the first
astronomer (among the Greeks) who predicted eclipses ;
and to have discovered the passage (irdpolot} from tropic
to tropic, or, in other words, to have laid down the sun's
orbit : and to have fixed the length of the year at 365 days.
He determined the magnitude of the sun to be 720 times that
of the moon ; which is apparently the true version of the
corrupt passage in Diogenes. His knowledge of geometry
was said to be derived from Egypt, and Pamphila attibutes
to him the discovery of the right-angled triangle of the circle
(wpwrov Karaypa^ai KVK\OV TO rpiywvov opQoyti)vtov\ which
probably means the demonstration that the angle in a semi-
circle is a right angle, a discovery attributed also to Pytha-
goras. Hieronymus says that he measured the height of
the pyramids of Egypt by observing the shadow which an
object cast when it was of the same length as the height of
the object.
The philosophical speculations of Thales, like the earliest
efforts of philosophers in all countries, were an attempt to
solve the problem that admits of no solution — the real
nature of the universe. He is considered by modern
writers as the originator of the dynamic philosophy, the
nature of which, as opposed to the mechanical, is explained
in the article IONIAN SCHOOL. Aristotle (Metaph., i. 3)
has explained in a short passage the general doctrine of
Thales : 'There must be,' observes Aristotle, 'some Nature
(0i1«c), either one, or more than one, to which all other
things owe their origin, this one still subsisting. The
number however and the character of such a first principle
are not conceived by all in the same way. Thales, the
founder of this philosophy, says it is water, and accord-
ingly he (aught that even the earth reposes on water,
founding this notion probably on the observation that the
nourishment of all things is moist, and that heat itself
proceeds from water, and that animals live by it : but
that from which things come is the origin of all things.
He was thus led to this notion, and also by observing that
the seeds of all things have a moist nature, and that water
is the origin of their nature to all moist things.' Thus the
universe contained an active principle by the power of
which all things were developed. He considered that the
magnet had life, because it attracted iron. The universe
then was pervaded by life, or, as Thales expressed it, 'full of
gods' (iravra tt-Xt/pij Sfuiv).
The doctrine of Thales bears some resemblance to
systems that have been promulgated in modern times,
which have been viewed as atheistical. The assumption
of an active power, such as gravitation for instance (though
it is not here meant to affirm that gravitation has ever
been viewed as a power sufficient for the production and
conservation of all things), which is sufficient to maintain
all things in a permanent condition (changes such as we
observe in limited portions of time and being only con-
tinued developments), may be viewed as an .hypothesis
T II \
378
T II A
made fur thr purpose of getting rid • ssity of ad-
mitting Hi' '»>d. ThoM nto propound Mich
an hypothesis without further cxpl .
not take much pains to avoid the imputation ol' alheiam.
It doe- not appear however that the doclnn.
was am:': ' .111 a pure physical tlu-my : ami the
traditions recorded ol' him In i make lun
he\<-r in u DieU. -The most antient of
God, for he U uncreated ; tin- most t>v:iiitilul Hung is the
God's creation.' — It was oni' nf the
maxims of Thales, thiit death did not differ fn.iii life.
' Why don't you die then ?' said an ohjeelor, more witty
than wise. ' Because there is no diit'erein •»•,' was the reply.
Diogenes Laertius, i. 'Thales;' Hitter, QuokMtt <&r
/>/,//'„. :lJilf.vn\.
THAI. It I'KUM i from the Greek aJWrnm- •. the name
nuts belonging to the natural order Kunun-
isists of herbs which have usually u fetid
Hmell and hence are called meadow rues. The
perennial roots with annual stems. The
flowers are corymbose, panicled. and somewhat r;u
of a green, white, (ir yellow colour. They have no invo-
lucre and no petals. " The cah x is coiupo.-ed of 4 or 5
petal-like sepals. Carpi-is 4-15 iu number. Upwards of
. are enumerated, which are mostly natives of
the temperate and colder parts of the world.
Tk. aqutltgifolium, the Feather Columbine, has ovate
stipule-. pl*«ed at the bs.se of the ramification* of the
,iud a corymbu-e panicle. It is a native of
- <>f Germany. France, and Italy.
MS of this plant \ary in colour, some-
-h-while and sometimes puip:-
v !•« found in Austria with dark purple stems and
ii». and is called Th. <i. ntrnjiiirfiiiri'iiin. Another
nnotwa, has the stamens dilated at 1 he apex ;
whilst' an.. 'he stem-, green and stamens quite
while, and is named Th. a. album.
Tit. IIIUIHX, Loser Meadow-Hue, lias tin- stem round,
mealy, the flowers pauicled, drooping, leaflets smooth,
roundiih, toothed at apex, glaucous, pericarps acute fur-
1. It 1^ a native throughout Europe. In Britain it
is found in chalky pastures, and on the sea-coast where
shell-sand abounds. The adow-rue, That.
. is also a native of Gicat Britain, though rare.
Th.jlirum, Yellow Meadow-Rue, li branched,
furrowed stem, fibrous roots, a somewhat corymbose pa-
nicle of cream-coloured flowers, with wedge-shaped, tritid
acute leaflets. It is a native of all districts in Europe.
In Britain it occupi. Cadowa, the banks of mcrs
and ditches. It has a root of a yellow colour, and is said
ih in appearance and properties, rhubarb.
It vieiils ..-, which may be employed for dyeing
And was formerly used as a remedy in jaundice.
:nh to which it belong, it is very acrid,
and prodii - upon the skin, when applied to it.
Th. /u-t iiium. aiple stem,
naked at the b:\-e, leafy in the middle, and panicled at
top; the leaflets are obtuse, toothed. un<! vith a
clanimv pubescence. It is a native of France, Switzer-
land. .. and is found in valleys and on hill sides,
It smells more
powerfully thauam :Nspccitic name.
Th ;nioiis floweis, with
club-shaped •!.-. ..vate rpunduh leaflets, glaucous
beneath. This u a North r,,,uid
on the banks of rivers and in woody districts throughout
the whole continent.
The character of the leaves ol these plants and their
thickly-flowered panicles render them u\oiur
dens. They are readily increased by \>.
and planting them out in autun.u.
mant shady situations, but are not particular; they are
•M-growing plants and well adapted for bord<
•nc for a ircnus which
he places amont; the Aplyniuiit, apparent!) upon the au-
thority of one of the late Rev. Larmdown GuildiiiK'x draw-
in«i.— Kx.. ThuUeput ornattu. (Uul
I HALLI'Cl ,'.io>'Mianie for a i;en.
Pod», placed as the first subfamily (wi'h a .' of hi
bida Turliiniilif, we suppose, is meant , by .Mr. Swaiuson.
It is lmmediately followed by Uie •ubianiily AmpuH«rinet.
THALLITK.
> in
THAI.l.l'S is a botunical term us. d
pAWin,
of the plant which bears llu
stitutes the priii
'
lull, as iu mosses, with the n-lhdi. arly
lame and the leaves I and
at the li.u-e. called slipu'u
tria ; or it is a flattened in,.
upon the ground. In lichens the parts which bear the
reproductive omaiis. and which bulk
ot the plant, is called ihallns or blastema. In the Algae
tile term thallus is applied to the whole plant ; whilst in
the funiri it is used synonymously with thalamus, to ex-
press the mass of tibres from which many of the futisii
arise. TJutOodff is the adjective used to express anything
arising from the thallus.
THAMK. [OMuunsiuHh..]
THAMES, the most important ri\er in Great Britain,
rises in the central pait of EiiLrland. and flows eastward
into the German Ocian. Our description will comprehend
a notice of ita IIILMII, mui-se. and affluents, and comm
importance.
basin. — The limits assignable to the basin of the Thames
will depend on the place at which the mouth is fixed. The
openimr between Shcerness in Kent and Shoebun N>
between five and six miles wide, is commonly re-
tranledasthe mouth of the Thames: but it is preferable in
respects to consider as such the openu_
\\hitstahle in Kent and the east extremity ol
Island in Essex, where the tideway has a breadth of
i iirhti-en miles. Here the Thames opens into I
separating Kent on the south from Essex and Suffolk on
the north, and having for its extreme points the North
Foreland in Kent and Orl'ord Ness in Suffolk, fifty miles
distant from each other. Into this bay several rivei-
sides the Thames, open : as the Crouch, the Hlackwater,
and Uie Colne. from Essex : the Stour. whic!
Essex from Suffolk ; and the Orwell, the Deln n, and the
Aide, from Suffolk.
The basin of the Thames, commencing at \Vhitstable. is
bounded by the high grounds which there run down to the
coast, and form the chiU east of that town. Th'
runs in a very irregular lim county i
the \Veald district of Kent and Sussex to the ln,-h _
on the southern border of Ashdown Foi. "alter
county. This pait of the boumlan is \crv irre(_'''.lar from
the manner in which the basin of the Thames i.s compli-
cated with the basins of the Kentish Stour, the Mother, and
the Sussex Ouse.
From Ashdown Forest the boundary runs west-north-west
across the high ground of Tilgate and St. I
to Leith Hill ill Sunvy. and thence wesl-south-wcd, though
in a very irregular line, past the head of the Wey in "U'ool-
mer Forest to the \erge of the chalk do" \lton,
Hants. This bound:!' - the basin of the '! '
from the basins of the Sussex Ous(. and the Arun. >•
all the waters which i the Uuindan , from its com-
mencement to Tilgate Forest, How into the Medwaj :
fromTilgai. Leith Hill, into the Mdc ; andtliox-
from Leith Hill to Alton, into the \Vey.
From the neighbourhood of Alton, the boundary of the
i> formed liv the chail, downs v, Inc-li extend across
and Wilts by IJasinu'stoke. Kinjsrlere, IliL'i
and liiirbage near (ireat licdwin ; and from tin
downs which run north-westward to the n.
Keiinct and .Many. These chalk do v the
basin of the Thames from the basins of the Anton o;
and the Hampshire Avon: tliat part of the basin of the
Thames which they l>ound is drained by the Loddon and
the Kennel.
From near East K'ennet the boundan turns north and
north-north-east along the green-sand hillsby Comptou Ha —
set, Chft'e 1'ipard, and Chadderton ; and from thence west-
north-west to the western extremity of the !m.-in neai the
commonl\ leputed head of the' Thames amid the I'niswold
Hills between Cireiicester and Tethiin. ^dury
between East Keiuiet and the the
of the Thames from that ol ' i A urn, or r
correctly of the Severn, of which i.s a tributary.
From the neighbourhood . the boundary runs
northw the ridge of ti Is. which here
separate the basin* of the Thames and the Severn, to the
T H A
279
T H A
head of the Churn (or true Thames'), about three miles
south of Cheltenham : and from thence north-north-east
along- by the same hills to the head of the Windrush near
Carapden, and by Long- Compton Hill and Edge Hill to
the Arbury hills near Daventry at the northern extremity
of the basin. Here the basin of the Thames is contermi-
nous with that part of the basin of the Severn which is
drained by its affluent the Warwickshire Avon.
From the Arbury hills the boundary of the basin runs
south to the neighbourhood of Bicester, and thence east-
ward across Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire, and Hertford-
shire, along the Dunstable, Luton, and Royston downs, to
the north-western corner of Essex ; the basin of the Thames
being throughout conterminous with that of the midland
or Norfolk Ouse. This part of the basin of the Thames is
drained by its affluents, the Chanvell, the Thame, and the
Lea. An irregular line drawn through the county of Essex
from its north-western corner, first south-south-east by Dun-
mow and Brentwood. and then east by Rayleigh and Roch-
ford to the coast, will complete the boundary.
The greatest extent of this basin from east to west is
from the mouth of the Thames to the neighbourhood of
Tetbury, about 136 miles ; the greatest extent from north
to south is fiom the neighbourhood of Daventry, Northamp-
tonshire, to the neighbourhood of Alton, Hants, about 78
miles. The basin comprehends the whole or part of
the following counties ; its area may be estimated as
follows : —
Sq. Mil«.
Kent ^'considerably more than half the county ;
the western part) . . . 900
Surrey (the whole county with the exception
of some small portions along the southern
border; ... . 7(1)
Sussex fa small parl alonir the northern border) 3<X1
Hants (the northern and north-eastern part) . 350
Berks (the whole county ) . . . 750
Wilts (the northern and north-eastern part ) . 450
Gloucester the south-eastern and eastern part) 450
Warwickshire ('a very small portion along the
south-eastern border . . .50
Northamptonshire 'a very small portion along
the south-western border) . . SO
Oxon (the whole county, with the exception of
two small portions on the north-eastern and
north-western bord . . . 650
Bucks 'two-thirds of the county ; the central
and southern part) .... 500
Bedford (a small portion at the southern extre-
mity . . . . 50
Herts (the whole county except some portions
along the north-eastern border , . . 550
Middlesex the whole county , . . 300
Essex 'about one-third of the county; the
western and southern bon i . . 550
Total 6600
We liavc used round numbers, as in such an estimate an
approximation to the truth is all that can be attempted.
The basin of the Thames is occupied wholly by the
•idary ami tertiary geological formations. The sources
of the river and the course of its upper waters are in the
oolitic beds of the Cotswold hills. The valley through
which the Thames itself flows from above C'ricklade to
below Oxford is occupied by the Oxford clay, and between
Oxford and Goring (a little below Wall ingford; the river
flows over the formations (the coral rn<r, AyK'sbury stone,
Tetsworth clay, and greensand and chalk marl) which inter-
vene between the oolific and cretaceous groups. It traverses
the chalk range between Ilsley Downs and the Chiltern Hills
by;' winding valley, in which it flows from Goring to Maiden-
head, below which it enters the chalk basin of London, and
mainder of its course through it. The affluents
which join the Thames above Oxford have their course chiefly
in the oolitic disl rict ; the Thame and the Ock flow through
the district occupied by the groups between the oolites and
the chalk ; and of the remaining affluents, those which
join it on the north bank chiefly rise in the chalk hills,
and have their course in the chalk basin of London : while
' of those which join it on the south bank rise in the
districts occupied by the subcretaceous formations, and
enter the chalk basin of London by openings in the chalk
range of the North Downs. Owing to the entire absence
of coal, the basin of the Thames has no manufactures ex-
cept those of the metropolis ; but it contains some of the
richest agricultural districts in the whole kingdom.
Course and Affluents. — The spring which has com-
monly been regarded as the head of the Thames is about
three miles south-west of Cirencester, near a bridge over
the Thames and Severn canal which is called ' Thames-
head bridge ;' but that which is to be regarded as the true
head of the Thames is about three or four miles south of
Cheltenham. Two streams rise, one from fourteen springs
at what is popularly called The Seven Wells, and the other
from four springs near Ullen Farm, the westernmost of
which springs is the real (i.e. the remotest) head of the
river : both streams rise on the south-eastern slope of the
Cotswolds, and form by their junction, about a mile from
their respective sources, the river Churn (a name the ele-
ment of which is embodied both in the antient and modern
name of the town of Cirencester (the Corin-ium of the Ro-
mans), by which it flows ; and in the name of two villages,
North and South Cern-ey, which are near it. At Cricklade,
19 or 20 miles south-east from its source, the Churn joins
the commonly reputed Isis or Thames, the length of which
above the junction is only about 10 or 11 miles.
From Cricklade the river flows 9 or 10 miles east-north-
east to Lechlade, receiving on the way the Ray (11 miles
long-) and the Cole (14 miles long), both on the south
bank. Just above Lechlade it receives on the north bank
a more important tributary, the Colne (23 miles long) from
the Cotswold hills east of Cheltenham ; and just below
Lechlade it receives the Lech, or Leach (19 miles long),
which also rises in the Cotswolds, and gives name to the
towns of North Leach and Lechlade. From Lechlade the
Thames flows 14 miles eastward to the junction of the
Windmsh, receiving accessions of small brooks on each
side. The Windrush rises in the Cotswolds bet ween Winch-
comb and Campden, and has a course of 34 miles by Bur-
ford and Witney ; it joins the Thames on the north bank.
Below the junction of the Windrush the Thames makes a
bend to the north and north-east, receiving on the north
bank the Evenlode, which rises in the Cotswolds near
Moreton in the Marsh, and has a course of 31 miles by
Charlbury, and receives the Glyme which flows through
Woodstock and Blenheim park. The Thames then turns
south, and flows to Oxford, where it joins the Charwell.
From the junction of the Windrush to that of the Charwell
«lhe length of the Thames is 13 miles. The Charwell rises
in the Arbury hills near Daventry in Northamptonshire,
and flows southward 44 miles by Banbury : it joins the
Thames on the left bank.
From the junction of the Charwell the Thames flows 16
miles south-south-east to the junction of the Thame at
Dorchester, making however a considerable bend westward
to Abingdon, where it receives the Oek. This river rises
at the foot of the chalk hills of Berkshire, between Comp-
ton Beauchamp and Ashbuiy, and flows eastward 18 miles
into the Thames, which it joins on the right or south-west
bank : the Thame rises near Stewkley in Buckinghamshire,
between Winslow and Leighton Buzzard, and flows 39
miles south-west by the town of Thame into the Thames,
which it joins on the left or north-east bank. From Dor-
chester the course of the Thames is south-east 22 miles in
a winding channel by Wallingford to the junction of the
Kennet near Reading. The Rennet rises near Broad Hinton,
a village to the north of Marlborough Downs, flows south
to East Kennet, and then turning eastward flows by Marl-
borough, Hungerford, Newbury, and Reading into the
Thames, which 'it joins on the right bank : its whole course
is 53 miles. It receives the Lambourn and the Embourn
or Auboni.
From the junction of the Kennet the Thames flows east-
ward though in a very winding channel, making first a
considerable circuit to the north by Henley, Great Marlow,
and Maidenhead to Windsor ; and then a considerable cir-
cuit to the south by Staines, Chertsey, Kingston, and Rich-
mond to Brentford, from whence it proceeds by Hammer-
smith Putney, and Chelsea to the metropolis. The distance
from the junction of the Kennet to London-bridge is TO
miles In this part of its course the Thames received several
feeders. The Loddon, 24 miles long, rises in the chalk
downs of North Hants near Basingstoke ; the Coin, 38
miles long, rises, under the name of the Ver, in the chalk
downs of Hertfordshire, and passes St. Albans, Watford,
Rickmansworth, Uxbiidge, and Colhbrook ; the Wey, 3G
I 11 \
280
'I 1! A
mile, long i.Hiuit>,p«j*e»Ka™h»in.Godal-
minc. a»d Guildford, and join* the Thames at Wevbndgc ;
i.ile, 41 miles long, rW-s on St. Ix-onard's rorest, in
\, piuae* through Leatherhead, and joins the Thames
the ( 'ran and the Brent, two small streams,
,:•.... -i l.s miles long, rise on the hord
and Herbs and join ' the tiiM at l-levvorth,the
1 at Brentford ; and the Wnndle. :ily 9 miles
\V;mdsworth. Of th.
and the Brent fall into the Tluunes on the left or north
bank ; the others on the rii;lit bank. The name oft:
appears as an element in the name of Ver-olainium, an
untient Roman town close to St. Albans.
Below London, up to which sea-borne vessels ascend, the
flows eastward, but with various • reaches ' or bends,
50 milts to its mouth, or to the Nore Light (at the com-
monly reputed mouth 'i 48 miles. Between Deptford and
Greenwich, about four miles below London-bridge, the
Thames receives on the south or right bank the Ravens-
bourne, 10 miles long, from Keston.near Bromley in Kent :
about two or three miles farther down, on the north or left
bank, the Lea. 50 miles long, which rises in Bedfordshire,
and passes Luton. Hertford, Ware, and Waltham Abbey :
four or fiw miles lower, the Roding, 38 miles long, from
near Duntnow, also on the north bank ; and six miles lower,
on the south bank, the Darent, 20 miles long, which :
Dartford, and receives the Cray. The only remaining feeder
of the Thames which here requires notice is the Medway.
above GO miles Ion;:, which rises in Sussex, and flows by
Tunbridgc, Maidstone. Rochester, and Chatham. The
principal arm of the Medway joins the Thames at Sheer-
just above the Nore ; but the smaller arm, called the
Swale, which cuts off the Isle of Sheppy liom the main-
land of Kent, opens into the Thames just above Whit.-lablc.
The whole course of the Thames, from its source to its
mouth, is about 220 miles, which is the aggregate of the
distances already gi-.
Length of the Churn
From the junction of the Churn and com-
monly reputed Thames at Cricklade to
Let-made
To the junction of the Windrush
To the junction of the Charwell
To the junction of the Thame
To the junction of the Kennet
To London-bridge .
To the mouth
20
9
14
13
HI
7d
50
220
The principal affluents of the Thames are more fully de-
scribed elsewnere: theColne under(i< MURE; the
Windmill, the Evenlode, the Chanvell, and the Thame,
under OXFORDSHIRE; the Kennet, the Loddon, and the
Oek, under BERKSHIRE; the Colne, the Brent, and the
Cran. under MIDDLESEX ; the Wey. the Mole, and the
Wandle, under SVRRKY ; the Lea with its tributaries, under
HtRTKORDsHiRK, F.SSKX. and MIDDLESEX ; the Roding
under KSSEX ; and the Ravensborne, Darcnt. Cray, and
Medway with its feeders, under KENT. The Thames, in
the first part of its course, belongs wholly to Glour
.'•hire, but below Cricklade is almost entirely a border
dividing Gloucestershire from Wiltshire, Oxfordshire and
Buckinghamshire from Berkshire, Middlesex from Surrey,
and Essex from Kent. Some part of its com
fore described in the articles on those coin
Commercial Iniji'irtuncr. — The navigation of the Thames
commences at I.echlade, wliea- the liver is about '_'".
above low-water mark at London-bridge. It- i
was early appreciated, and (here are acts of Parliament
- early as the 2nd Hen. VI. The Thames
and Severn Canal, which follows the valley of the Churn
and the Thames from ^ncar (.'Irene. u into the
Thames at I-echlade, thus connecting it with the s
and the W( t of the island. The navigation ,,|'
the river furmi'rly extended up to ( 'tickhide, but
Uie opening of the canal the upper part, between «
lade iiiid I.rchladc, lias been abandoned. None of the
tributaries above Oxford are navigable. At Oxford the
Oxford Canal joins the Thames, and opens a cnmmunira-
»"'n with the great canal system of the central counties:
"ii«e of the Charwell f which river i- not
nuvigable) from above Banbury. At Ahingdon the
1 an*^ -.WHt^fc* Tluunes, and, as well as the
Kennet an the Kennet nt Ncw-
.-. here tile i • of thai liver coin'!
miles above Us junction with the Tl... • .s n com-
munication with the S Vvon, and
by it with the Severn. The Thame r liom the
town of Thame, about 17 miles above its junction with the
Thames; but neither the Loddon nor the '
ble. The Wc\ is navigable from Godalming, about 17
miles from its junction; and is connected v.ith the W. v
nnd Arun Canal, and the BasingMoke Canal, the former of
which opens a communication with the river Arun and
the S.i No ut hi r ieeder above London-bl
i- navigable ; but the Giand Junction Canal, which Ul
with the Oxford Canal at Braunston in Northamptonshiic,
opens into the Thames by the month of the Brent, the
lower pait of which isincoipoialcd with the canal. Below
London-bridge the Lea, which is navigable, chiefly l>
artificial cuts, for 25 miles, and has one of its I'enleis the
Stort) also navigable, ripens into the Tliames ; and just
above the Lea, the Regent's Canal, which encircles the
north and ea.-t side of the metropolis, and comnimu
with the 1'addington Canal, and so with the Grand Junc-
tion Canal, also opens into the river.
The Medway is nav ijjable below Rochester bridge for sea-
borne vessels, and from I'enshurst, above -13 miles from its
mouth, for river ciaft.
The navigation of the Thames, in its upper pait. is kept
up by lucks and wears, the lowest of which is at Tedding-
ton, which is consequently the limit of the tide. Tedding-
ton is about 18 or 19 miles above London bridge. Hitrh-
water mark at Teddin^ton is about one foot and a half
higher than at London -bridge, and the time of high-vatcr
is about two hours later. Low-water surface at Tedding-
ton is about sixteen feet and three-quarters higher than at
London-bridge.
At ebb-tide there is a depth of from 12 to 13 feet water
nearly or quite up to London-bridge, and the ri-^e of the tide-
is about 17 feet, or at the extreme springs about 22 i
Vessels of 800 tons get up to the St. Catherine's Docks,
and those of 1400 tons to Blackwall, about six miles below
bridire. No river in the world equals the Thames in its com-
mercial importance. The river for some two miles or more
below bridge i> crowded \vithvessels,chieflv . ;cam-
boats, and colliers, which moor alongside the quavsor in tier>
in the stream ; others are moored lower down, though not in
such numbers; and for larger vessels 1b .era) docks
excavated on the bank of the river. There is a dorkvard for
the navy (npw little used) at Deptford, about four mile.-
below London-bridge; one at Woolwich, nine miles below;
one at Sheerness, in the Isle of Sheppy. at the junction of
the Thames and Medway : and one at Chatham, the most
important of the four, on the Medway. The fortifications
at Sheerness defend the entrance to both river-.: the pas-
sage of the Thames is further protected by Tilbuiy tort,
and that of the Medway by Gillingham Fort.
The width of the river at London-! rid^e is nearly 700
feet. For nearly the whole way below London-bridge the
river is embanked, and is almost throughout its lower
course skirted with marsh-lands, which however have no-
where a great extent. The width of the river at Woolwich
is about a quarter of a mile ; at Graveseml. 'J(i miles below
London-bridge, and opposite Tilbury Fort, it is more than
half a mile: about four miles below Graveseml it is nearh
a mile ; and then gradually increases to the width of about
six miles :il the Nore. and to eighteen at the point where
we have fixed the mouth.
It is a common opinion that this river in the upper part
of its course is properly called Isis, and that it is only below
the junction of the Thame that it is called Thames, which
name is said to be formed by combining the two name.-
Thame and Isis. But ( 'amden observed long a^o that tlu-
is a mistake : that the river was antiently called Thames in
its upper as well as in its lower part ; that the 11:1111
never occurs in antient records, and was never used bv Un-
common people, but only by scholars. Cu-sar writes the
name Tamc-i- (evidently Tames or Thames, with the ad-
dition of a J.atin termination. Tacitus writes it Tar
and Dion Cassini To^tro, trhich is the same name, with
the appendage of a diti'eient termination. 1'toletny i
'lapr/aa, or in some MSS. *In/i«rnic. and in some editions
'la/iiaan : all which we suspect to be forms of the same
name, 'I having been by the carcles-nc^s of some early
T H A
T H A
transcriber substituted for T. In Richard of Cirencester it
is Thamesis.
(Ordnance Survey ; M'Culloch's Statistical Account of
the British Empire ; Camden's Britannia.)
THAMES, a certain jurisdiction, though not undis-
putedly exclusive, appears to have been immemorially
exercised over both the fisheries and navigation of a
large portion of the Thames by the mayor and corpo-
ration of London, In early times, when fisheries were
probably of much greater importance than they are at, pre-
sent, the same Kind of encroachments upon them by private
individuals which were so often made the subject of com-
plaint in other parts of the kingdom were also practised in
this river. In 1405 an order was issued from Sir John
Woodcock, then lord mayor, enjoining the destruction of
wears and nets from Staines to the Medway, in consequence
of the injury which they did to the fishery and their
obstruction of the navigation. By 4 Hen. VII., c. 15
(1487), the mayor of London and his successors were in-
vested with the same authority as conservator of the fish
in ' all the issues, breaches, and ground overflown as far
«s Hie water ebbeth and floweth from out of the river
Thames,' as he had within the river itself. Before the
river was artificially embanked and the adjoining lands
drained, this extension was probably of considerable im-
portance. During the reign of Elizabeth, in 1584, an order
was put forth by the mayor for the purpose of settling the
proper times in which various kinds of fish were to be
taken. It prohibited fishing in certain parts of the river,
and forbade the taking of the white-bait or ' bloodbag.'
The right of the corporation however to the conservation
of the river about this time was disputed by the lord-high-
admiral, and some litigation took place, in which the cor-
poration were uniformly successful. James I. in the third
year of his reign granted a charter to the city, in which the
immemorial right of the city to the office of bailiff and
conservator of the Thames is recited and confirmed. The
same rights are also confirmed and settled by various other
charters and acts of parliament. The result of them is to
vi>t in the corporation the conservation of the river, the
regulation of the port and harbour of London, and, as is
said, the actual property in the soil of the river, subject
only to the jus regium of the crown. By this is perhaps to
lie understood, that property with which the crown is held
to be invested for the purpose of securing to the public
the use of the river for trie purposes of navigation, fishing,
and other purposes. The portion of the river over which
the jurisdiction of the city extended seems to have been
always much the same. It is described in the following
terms, in an article entitled ' Antient Prescriptive Jurisdic-
tions over the Thames,' by Joseph Fletcher, Esq., in the
' Quarterly Journal of the Statistical Society of London,'
vol. iv., p. 104 : — ' The charters of James I. here quoted are
confirmed in one of the 14th of Charles I. They remain to
the present day the great record of the city's rights over the
river, and it is as such that they are recited in this statute.
The offices of meter and conservator are asserted from
Staines to the mouth of the Thames, the commencement
of the city's jurisdiction being marked by a stone, with an
apocryphal date, called London Stone, placed on the north
bank of the river, a short distance above the present
bridge of Staines, and its termination on the south shore,
by the formerly navigable creek of Yantlet, separating the
We of Grain from the mainland of Kent, and on the north
shore by the village of Leigh, in Essex, placed directly
opposite, and close to the lower extremity of Canvey
Island. The shore of the Isle of Grain, which separates
the mouths of the Thames and Medway, are thus wholly
exempt from the city's jurisdiction ; notwithstanding that
the right of conservancy is still asserted in the waters of
the M fd way, from the southern mouth of Yantlet Creek,
upwards towards Rochester, as far as Cockham Wood,
which is on the northern shore, opposite the marshy point
below Chatham. At all events, the corporation of RO-
UT deny the right of the city of London to conserva-
torial jurisdiction in the Medway below Yantlet Creek,
any more than in the Thames; a limitation which appears
to have arisen from this creek having antiently been the
customary channel of navigation between the two rivers,
and marked the mouths of both. But the passage through
this cn-ck being now completely stopped, so that the Isle
of Grain is connected by a solid roadway with the parish
of Stoke, the mouths of these rivers are properly at the
P. C., No. 1523.
lower extremity of this island, opposite the Nore and
Sheerness, while the city's jurisdiction, more antient than
this geographical change, is completely cut by it into two
separate portions. About twenty years ago it was at-
tempted by the city officers, under the direction of a court
of conservancy, to reunite these portions, by cutting
through the bank which prevents the navigation of fishing-
boats through Yantlet Creek ; but the final decision of the
Court of King's Bench, given July 8th, 1825, on the
motion for a new trial, was against this proceeding.
The conservancy jurisdiction in the Medway extends a
distance of only eight miles, but has little more than a
nominal existence. In the Thames it extends a distance
of eighty miles, over nearly the entire course of that river
through the metropolitan valley ; and this distance ap-
pears to be divided into thirty-four miles of inland navi-
gation from Staines to Vauxhall Bridge, the towing-path
ceasing at Putney ; three of town thoroughfare, from
Vauxhall to London Bridge ; and forty-three of seaport,
from London Bridge to Yantlet Creek.'
In their character of conservators of the Thames the
corporation have the control and regulation of the fisheries,
and are empowered to seize prohibited nets, fish, &c.
They have also the regulation and control of the water-
men and of the shipping. They are entrusted with the
cleansing of the river, the removal of obstructions, erec-
tion of stairs, licensing mills, and other such duties. The
lord mayor, with the recorder and other civic officers, holds
in person eight courts of conservancy in the year, two for
each of the counties of Middlesex, Surrey, Kent, and
Essex, and occasionally a court in London. The greater
part of their functions are at the present time intrusted to
a committee of the common council, called ' The Thames
Navigation and Port of London Committee.' Various acts
of parliament saving the jurisdiction of the city of London
have been passed for the purpose of preventing and punish-
ing offences committed on the river, and the maintaining
of a police and magistrates to administer the law. The
latest of these is 3 Wm. IV., c. 19.
(Griffiths' Conservancy of the River Thames; Pulling,
On the Laws, $-c. of the City and Port of London ; Stow,
Survey of London.)
THAMMUZ. [ADONIS.]
THAMNO'BIA, Mr. Swainson's name for a genus of
birds (Sylvia, Vieill.) placed by Mr. G. R. Gray in his sub-
family Saxicolines, of his family Luscinidf?.
THAMNOPHILI'NyE, a subfamily of SHRIKES.
THAMNO'PHILUS, Vieillot's name for a genus of
SHRIKES.
THAMNO'SIA. [SEA WEEDS.]
THANE, in Anglo-Saxon Thfgn, from thegnian, or
tkenicm, ' to serve,' the same word with the modern German
(lii'iifii, is frequently, in conformity with this origin, trans-
lated minister in the Latin charters of the Anglo-Saxon
period. In other cases its equivalent is miles, or fidehs
miles. So king Alfred, in his translation of Bede's ' Eccle-
siastical History,' renders the king's minister, the king's
thane, and uses thane wherever Bede has miles. In this
general sense it may be considered as nearly the same with
the Norman term liege or liegeman ; and so it seems to
have been sometimes used. The exact meaning of the
term when employed as a title of honour is involved in
considerable obscurity : the rank or dignity which it denoted
was possibly not the same at different times, and there
were also thanes of more than one •kind. The king's thanes,
in particular, are distinguished from the medeme (in Latin
mediocres), or inferior thanes, who are otherwise designated
the thanes of aldermen (the highest order of the Saxon
nobility), earls, and other thanes, and who appear to have
been very numerous. After the Conquest thanes (thaini or
taini) are frequently classed with barons (barones) : in the
laws of Henry I., the two words are apparently used as syno-
nymous ; and where the Saxon Chronicler has thanes (the-
genas), the Latin annalists have commonly barones. These
were, of course, the superior or king's thanes. The class of
common or inferior thanes, again, seems to have answered
nearly to that of the barones minores, or landed gentry.
One of the few things that are tolerably certain with regard
to the rank of a thane is, that it implied the possession of
a certain amount of landed property. Such a qualification
indeed seems in certain circumstances to have conferred
the dignity of thane. One of the laws of Athelstane de-
clares that if a ceorl (or commoner) shall have obtained
VOL. XXIV,— 2 0
T H \
I1 II A
five hides 01' ir.nd in lull property, with a i-liurcli, n kitchen, I such doubts and the only fact which follows u-»m thc-e
-
barri > agreeastothci.
w nit* n
-
the
a thane by liifht. ; of liuiil wa« pn
Amount (IcIlliUi
altho
also the quant
to In
lands are nu ntion.d in JX>mesday-13ook as
•.• tainornm): mid i1 i
the oldest of the Nornmn '.
to a particular
:, or parliament, but it is mutter
'.vii right or as e'eetcd
represent!! facts connected \\itli this
been coll 'Ir. Sharon
Turner, in his • Ilisir, v of the Anglo ' aidon,
1823, vol. iii.. pp.81, 187-900, 227-2:11 : and by Sir I
Palgrave, in bis' Rise ami ProiTe-s of th ' Com-
monwealth • :•.. i.. \'>. :>77-">7.> : and ii..
ccclxx\\i.
There is little mention of the thanes in England
the time of Henry II. ; but Lord II
nalt, i. 28; thnt in Scotland thane was a Ijitle
down to the end of tin- tilteenth century : the • ( "nurtvilary
of Moray' mentions a thane of < 'awdor In 1492. It appears
from the first to have implied in Scotland a higher dignity
than in England, and to im\e been for tin
nyraous with earl, which was a title generally annexed to
the tenitory of a whole county. It has been commonly
assumed that thane is the more ant icnt title, and th:d it
began to be exchanged for earl in the reiirn of Malcolm
Canmore ; but, according to Pinkcrlon ilix/m-i/
the title of thane was not intro-
duced into Scotland till after the time of Malcolm. ' Yet,'
he adds, ' the difference between a thane and baron is un-
known: and some doubts arise that ignorance may have
blended the Saxon thuiii- and the Irish Iniiitst.'
THAXKT. 1SI.K OF. [KENT.]
THAXN. [KHiN, HAVT.]
THA'PSACUS, or TIIA'PSAi T.M, v.as a very antient.
populous, and commercial town in Syria, on the right bank
of the Euphrates, about 21 in the junction of
the river Chaboras • Xenophon : with the
Euphrates. Thapsacns. the Thipb.-ach of the Hible I
Kin:; 'lie Taphsa of the Vulgate, and the Tha)i.-a
of Joseph t eastern town of
the kingdom of Solomon after Da\ id had conquered the
country as far \\ an equal distance
from lyr by land and from Habylon by water, Thapsacus
became an emporium, where the Gcrriiaei kept sto
the commodities and spice, of Aiabia, which they carried
there on floats, or probably Links, nnil which were after-
ward* transported by land to Syria and Plia'nicia and their
commercial towns on the Mediterranean. . Strabo. \vi., p.
76C, Can.) Its military position .iport-
At the time of the expedition of th
there was a ford at Thapsacns, but no In
subsequently there was a bridge. This town was th
southern passage by which an army could > cither
from Mesopotamia into Syria and Cilicia, or from these
countries into M a and Persia, without being ob-
liged to ti;iM-:.-e th.- • inch occupy the
whole tract betwec:: I'lurnicia in th.
and the lower part of the Euphrates in the east, 'file
yonn:' at Thaps:;
phon.C'yro/vsJ., i. 4 : D«ri -w-d the river at Thap-
vicus when he was a>i
and Alexander, win :
(Arrian, 2. bo the In.
Thapsacui existed no I the jmssage of il
was made by the bir :ho. p. 747.
CM.) The circumstance of Tlmpsncns being a town I'roin
which military and commercial < in (very direc-
tion, was probably the cause why Kratosthenes
the centre of hi.-, geographical nicasni Minor
and the adjacen . of which Sli :ui ac-
count rij.. ,,. 77.11 1, <'u.,. i. It I
tietiU did not agree on tin
\rabiaDeserta. and P
1 '• ' ' It;, /in'; in is :n ,\ (,). ( 'i; i tins \. 1 i.i
Srna. But the town was too well known to allo
v agree as '
'
.
led it 'fun.
.lies that ; n the
ch ha* the Aral i -iil-der,'
IT ' the di-t
I) A::\ i . • , vol. iL, 141;
:iii, \ol. n-.
Til
the n:
uilh doubly or trebly j innal
f many rays without
.Vtoolhc'.l; petals elliptic, entire: fruit eonii:resKi(i
the buck: nieiicarps with .') primary iiliform
which are do: sal. and 2 • iiie comniieBure,
and \\ith 4 secondary ribs, of which the 2 dorsal are fili-
and the 2 lateral ones membranous and wi;
vittse in each furrow underneath uuy ril)s.
The natives of the count Hi s . , the
M'edii. :iiul are known under flu
stem; tri-pinnate leaves, mam-.
both surfaces lower o
in Portugal, Sjiain. the soutU <.i n Italy, and the
northern coa.-ts of Africa. PC .
the root is acrid and corrosive. In Barbary it is used as a
remedy for some forms of cutaneous disen»e. but it appears
to be a severe application and attended with inflammation
and vesication of the skin.
'/'. -'Jphium Deadly Carrot, has a square gla-
brous furrowed st , . iniiny-paited letdlets,
all linear, hairy on bo1 . with revolnte margins. It
is a native of the north of Africa, on the mount m.
i to be the pi;'; .i the
juice called Si/iJiiiiin. and which was held in so high
repute by the antieii;
::iled ' Silphifera.' [SiLi-ii:
7'. '.' Linian or Greek Deaci.
square Mem: bi- or tri-])iiinate slnnii
segments linear, acnle. elongated, quite entire along the
'•: h few le:i\es : fnii i the
of Calabri
Greece, Sicily, Sardinia. Spain. iVe. Dr. Sibtlm.p li
it common in Greece and the ; . and
concludes tint it is the Uavnm of I)i' Mil whose
: tion it agrees better than any (if the n--i. It i
of the most stately planlsdf the faiiuly, and was .
into the gardens ol this country as early n> lu'8(). 'I
.'her species nl this :renns referred to by Don :
they possess the aeti'.
seldom employed at th
In their cultivation e but
little i • in any common •;:
They may be propagated I- l:ich should be sown
in aiitumn as soon as they are ripe.
nn island situ-
ated oft' the const of Thrace, iit a shoit distance from the
i. and a little to the
south-cast of the Guli' ot KauiUo. N'olgaro. which is
nearly in the centre of the island, is in 41U t.V X. lat. and
' E. long.
the time of 11;
;;ms. who came from
led by Thasos. •
.'.'nom the island i. s;iid to ba\e taken i
I'ausan.. v. 'J*'>. It v
Kthria 'Pliny, iv. 1.
K.iistath.. .-til 1 1
nished by the epithet Ogvtia. Il
colon. uiong
whom . . m TUSor 720 i
!/<-t/i'ii..n. 7(W. whodi.' the question.
is enrii the possi
and at Scapte llyle. on tin
•ding to II' 'odotus. who
iln in. the mo-1 .HIS,- which had
T H A
283
T H A
vorked by the Phoenicians on the north-east slue of
the island, the excavations for which were very evident
\i. 47 . Herodotus further states that from the proceeds
of these mines, and of their continental territory, which
must have extended for some distance along the Thracian
coast, there accrued to the Thasians in his time from 200
to 301) talents yearly, of which sum the mines in Scaple
Hyle produced 80 talents, and those in the island rather
IP.-S. (See the remarks on this passage in Boeckh, Public
<J'r'/>i. nf At /!?/'$, ii. 21, Lewis's translat., who assigns the
probable sources of the remainder of this revenue.)
Being unencumbered with any taxes on the produce of
their lands, the Thasians were at this time very rich.
About B.C. 492 they were besieged by Histiisus of Miletus
for a short time, anil employed their wealth in consequence
in building ships of war and strengthening their fortifica-
tions. Their independence and growing power excited
the jealousy of Persia : they were reduced by Mardonius ;
and shortly afterwards, B.C. 491, being suspected of medi-
{ revolt, they were compelled by Darius to throw
do'.vn their walls and surrender their ships of war. (Hero-
!, vi. 46.) On the expedition of Xerxes into Greece,
the burthensome honour of reeehing his army in their
continental territory was imposed upon them, and on this
entertainment they expended 400 talents of silver. (Hero-
dot., vii. 118.) Alter the Persian war they became subject
to Athens, and having a dispute with that state about their
Thracian i -.revolted, B.C. 465. (Thucy., i. 100.)
(Jimon, alter defeating them at sea, besieged their island,
and took it in the thiul year of the siege, B.C. 463. The
-inns were compelled to destroy their fortifications, to
•rider their ships, to pay a large sum of money at the
time and tribute for the future, and to give up their mines
and settlements on the continent, among which must have
been Stryme fHerod., vii. ION . Ga!cp>us and fEsyme
Thuoy., iv. 1(17 , and Datos (Kustut., Ad Dioini., 517).
On i ii-iicy oi' the party of Pisander at Ath<
the close of the Pefoponnesian war, Diotrephes w;i
by him toThasos, and established an oligarchy there. This
injudicious policy furnished an immediate opportunity of
revolting from Athens ; the Thasians fortified their city.
a'id communicating with an exiled party, called in the Spar-
tans, B.C. 411. (Thucy., viii. 04.) Much internal dissen-
usued; the Spartan harmost Eleonicus and his party
lied shortly afterwards, and the island, reduced by
famine and civil war, was finally restored to the Athenians
by Thrasybulus, B.C. 407 (Xenophon, Hellen., 1-4). with
til- awutance of a party of the inhabitants under Ec-
see Demosthenes, L?pt., 474, 25, Reiske, who
further states that these Thasians received in reward from
1h<' Athenians exemption from taxes). Subsequently
the Thasians appear to have regained some of their con-
tinental possessions, and B.C. 35!) they fortified Cre-
. probably as a frontier post for their Thracian terri-
-eized by Philip, son of Amyntas, king of
'•Jon, who placed a number of Macedonian seti
it, aivl gaw it the name Philippi ; under his management
--old-mines were made much more productive than
e. Little more mention of the Thasians occurs in
autient history. When attacked by Philip V., king of
Macedon, they submitted to him, with the stipulation that
tln'V should retain their own laws and be exempt from
garrison, tribute, or other burthens, B.C. 202 (Polyb., xv.
•_M . They were shortly afterwards released from his rule
by the Romans, B.C. 1!>7. (Polyb., xviii. 31.) Under the
emperors Tliasos is styled Libefa, or a free state. In the
Svnecdemus of Hierocles it forms part of the Provincia
Iflyrica I., and is placed by Constantino Porphyrogennetus
in the Prsefecture, and afterwards in the Theme ol Thrace.
• I)e Them. II., Them I.,' Bandnr.,
Thames was celebrated among the antients for its m
'.. HO), its wine < \ irg., (.l--n/;<f., ii. 91 : Athe-
"il i, which was exported to !!'<• 1'ontns Kuxinug,
»nd i i, inductions mentioned by Athenseus.
The coins of Thasos are very numerous. The silver
. be generally arranged under th
1, those on which the type in a satyr carrying off a nymph :
xecution of these is ic : the limbs 1
knotty, tin- hair a globular appearance. But this
nent gradually disappears in the improved
art of the laid -. To this archaic cla.-rf also be-
long tome coins on which are two fish : '2, are a number of
massive coin* in a good but rather heavy style, with a head
of Bacchus on the obverse, and Hercules kneuling, shoot-
ing an arrow on the reverse. The Thasians had a colossal
statue of Hercules at Olympia, holding in one hand a bow.
They originally worshipped the Tyrian Hercules, and after-
wards the Grecian (Pausan., v. 25) ; 3, the broad te'ra-
drachms of the Macedonian period, with the head of the
young Bacchus, and Hercules on the reverse : the inscription
HPAKAHS 2QTHP. These coins are a'bundant, and many
of them with letters and type ill executed are found in
Transylvania, and were probably the work of barbarous
Thracian:; in imitation of the originals. The head of
Ceres occurs on these, coins (Dionysius Perieg., 523, calls
Thasos Aij^i'iT-tpoe ciicri), the shore of Demeter or Ceres).
The inscription 9A2IQN HOEIPO on a gold coin implies,
according to Eckhel (Doct. Vet. Num., ' Thasos'), that it was
coined from a continental mine, probably Crenides, which
would account for the identity of its design with that of a
coin of Philippi, on the supposition that a Thasian type
was retained by the Macedonians, when they occupied
that settlement. No imperial coins are ascribed to this
place in Mionnet, except those of Hadrian, Caracalla, -and
Geta. The type of Perseus mentioned by Pollux (Onomdst.,
ix. G) has not been discovered on any Thasian coin.
Coin of Thasos.
British Museum. Actual size. Silver. Weight, 1 17 jjj gra.
The antient town of Thasos is situated on the North
coast of the island, and occupies three eminences. On UK
site are remains of the Greek walls, mingled in picturesque
confusion with towers built by the Venetians during their
occup^ion of the island after the taking of Constantinople
by the Latins, and overgrown with various timber. Near
it is a large statue of Pan in a niche in the rock, and up-
wards of 50 sarcophagi of white marble. Some inscrip-
tions found in the island are given by Boeckh (Corpus
Iimcript., ii. 183). The longest, No. 2161, is written in the
Ionic dialect, and speaks of the theori and hieromnemon
of the place. The antient harbour appears to have been
used by the Venetians. No remains of ^Enyra and Co?nyra,
and of the gold-mines situated between them on the east
coast, according to Herodotus, now exist.
Thasos is about 40 Italian miles in circumference. (Car-
pacchi. Jxii'r </'V Monclo.) Its greatest length is from north
to south. In the northern and highest part of the island
three peaks extend in a north-west and south-east direction.
The inhabitants, amounting to 5000 or 6000, are all Greeks,
and live in nine villages, Volgaro, Cassawith, Sotirp, Kai-
karahi, Moriess, Kastro, Potamia, Liman, or Panagia, and
Theolog, the largest situated nearly in the centre of the
island. These contain in all 1020 houses. The chief pro-
duce of this fertile country is oil, maize, honey, timber ; the
.vows in great abundance and in picturesque variety
everywhere, particularly on the southern and western sides,
and forms the chief article of export ; much of it was used
for shipbuilding by Mehemet Ali, by permission of the
Porte, and much is wasted by the inhabitants in the fires
kindled for clearing the land ; the plane-trees in particular
are of great size. Little wine is made here, and some is im-
ported from Tenedos ; the principal food of the inhabitants
is maize. Large herds of cattle and flocks of sheep are
kept in the island : asses and mules are more used than
horses on account of the steepness of the roads. The in-
habitants are hospitable, industrious, and simple in their
.•'•rs. They are governed by a Turkish Aga, whom
they expelled during the late Greek revolution, but whom
pecdily restored. They suffer from the invasions of
pirates, to whom they pay a tribute.
(D '-.nitcn uv< •',', ron Prukesh von
. 1837, ill., pp. 611-32 ; C'ouanery, Voyage
la Micedoiiif, ii. 85, p. 108.) For the antient history
of Thasos, besides the authorities already quoted, see
Unoul Kochette, Ilistohr det Col , iii.
THATCH is a covering of stri , or reeds, as a
fute for tiles or slates for h- • ><d princi-
202
T II A
284
T II V.
wdly for sheth for cattle. The increase of agricultural
proJuce on a farm mokes the stacking "f corn out-of
u nia' M-ll as convenience. Tin' tem-
ary thatching slacks, us well as of ha\
n'i ' ssary thnt sonic of the regular
.•m should be capable 01' thatching in :•.
substantial manner, (hat there may lie no delay from want
, ;ular thateher. AVe "ill first describe the in-
mg hay-ricks and corn-stacks, as the simplest.
Tin- nek or stack having been formed into a proper
shape, either with a roof slanting from a rid ire. or conical,
ending in a central point, the straw is prepared hy moist-
it, that it may more easily hencl without breaking,
then forked up in a loose heap, the straws lying in
direction, and somewhat matted. Portions arc now
drawn out from this heap in handful*, which lays the
straws again in a more parallel order: these are placed in
a lof. .. hich will hold several of these bun i
handful*, and arc thus carried to the thateher on the top of
the rick or stack. He seizes a handful, and bending one
end into a kind of a noose, he inserts this into the i
near the bottom of the roof, at one end if r
square roof, or at any convenient part if it be a round one.
He pics«cs dov.n the straw which he has thus inserted to
about half its length, in order to form the caves, which
extend a little beyond the lower part of the roof. AYheii
he has thus laid several liandfuls side by side BO as to
cover about a yard in width, that is as far as lie can con-
veniently reach without moving his ladder, he begins an-
other row a little above the place where he began, so that
the lower end of the straw now inserted may cover the
upper part of the first row, as tiles do each other. Thus
he proceeds upwards till he comes to the upper rii.
the roof, or to the point of the cone in a round stack. In
the latter case the covering diminishes to a point so as to
form a triangle. The ladder is now shifted a yard to one
side, and the same operation is performed, care being taken
that each fresh handful put on shall be interwoven with
that which lies beside it. so that no water can possibly
between them. Thus the work proceeds till the roof
i* completed, and it only remains to secure the upper
ridge in a square stack, or the point of the cone in a round
one. In the fii>t case the highest layer of straw is made
to extend beyond the ridge on both sides, and the ends
are brought together and stand up like the bristles on a
hog. A rope of straw has been prepared, and many small
rods, about two feet long, and cut sharp at the point :
these are inserted just below the ridge, in a line with it,
and about a foot apart ; one end of the straw rope is in-
serted into the stack, and twisted firmly round the pio-
jecting end of the first rod ; it is then wound once round
the next rod, and so on the whole length of the ridge :
this is done on both hides. The straws which form the
ridge are now cut with shears horizontally, to give it n
neat finish, and at each end a kind of ornami i
made by winding a straw rope round a handful of the po-
jceting straw, forming a kind of knot or bow. according
to the taste of the thateher. Hods and straw ropes t
round them are inserted near the edge of the slanting
side and all aJong the eaves, which prevent the wind from
blowing oft' the thatch.
The only difference in tbe thatch of a round rick is, that
brought to one point, where it is tied with straw
rope wound round it, and formed into a kind of bow:
the rods are inserted a little below in a circle, and a straw-
rope twisted round them, and likewise around the circular
ra\cs. liarley is generally put into square stacks, and
! ones. When the outside is neatly trimmed
-mooth, so that no birds can lodge in it. wheat
be kept for years, without dai
much better than "in a barn, or even in a granary.
In thatching sheds and buildings which are to last many
years, the straw is prepared in the same manner, but the
of the handfuls, as they are put on a latin
kept down by means of long rods, which are tied to the
nf the roof by meai : tar twine. A much
thicker coat of stiaw i, put on ; and rye-straw, which has
prei d, as more lastin liable
•I with water than hollow straw.
hich are 11
*ri> ; h other and more carefully si
A» this kind of thatching is n peculiar trade, it rern
regular apprenticeship to be master of it. The thatching
of temporary ric!, done from m 'ion,
and a very little practice will enable any one to ] :
his stacks MiflicicMlly by a thatched .
Thatching is usually paid by the - i'K.1 square
The thatchcr takes a line and throws ii
if it i~ square, the ends are pushed under the i
h side, to allow for the trimming, Jtc., and this
length is multiplied by the length ol the ea\es, with the
same allowance at tile 'ends. The price varies from iv. to
7*. or Kv. per square, according to the work. Hound
measured by taking the circumfcrer.ee .
. multiplied by oiic-third of the slant of the cone.
with a similar allow:'.:
THArMA'.NTIAS. [PoiJKXMUDA, vol. xix., p. 122.]
THAI'MA'SIA. [Sh\-\Yi.i
Til \\TKD. [Kv.
THKA. a genus of plants of the tribe Cam
natural family of Ternstioniiaccif. which has been so named
from the slightly altered Chinese name of the dried Iverb
which now forms the almost univeisal ' .it1 the
Hntish Isles. Though now so extensively employed, the
introduction of tea into Europe is of comparatively re-
origin. Mucpherson, in his 'Hist..;i ,jf I
pean Commerce with India,' states that 'tea sah is men-
tioned as the usual beverage of the Chinese by Soliman,
an Arabian merchant, who .n-count of his travels
in the East about the year \. n. S5(l :' and that he had
unable to find any mention of it prior to the times of the
Jesuit Missionaries, who entered China and Japan a little
before the middle of the sixteenth century. Anderson, in
bil • History of Commerce,' vol. ii., p. 17*. qu'
as giving the earliest account in 15tK), when he says that
' they,' that is. the Chinese, • have also an herb, out of which
they press a delicate juice, which ser -. drink in-
stead of wine." Texeira. a native of Portugal, about the
1GOO, saw the dried leaves of tea at Malacca, and Olearius
found them used in l(i:j:» by the Persians, who obtained
them from China by means of the I'sbeck Tartars. Tulpius,
in \\isObserr. Mi'ilifff, Kill, celebrates the virtues of thca.
Anderson says that no mention made l(i(X> . in
the new book of rates, of ten, coffee, or chocolate, though
they are all mentioned in an act of parliament of the
year, whereby a duty of eight-pence is charged on every
gallon of chocolate, sherbet, and tea made for sale. But
the use of it at that time must have been new, for !
in his- Diary,' writes, September i'l. KKil, ' 1 sent fora
cup of tea (a Chinese drink . of which I had never drank
before.' The Dutch East India Company probably first in-
troduced it into Euiope. and from Amsterdam i
brought to London. In the year 1GG2 King Charles II.
married a princess of Portugal, whence, AValler says, • the
best of queens and lies! of plants we owe to tha'
nation.' &C. Hut tea must have continued to be brought
in small quantities only, frr in the year 1P>(>4 the
India Company purchased, forthe puipo uting
to the king, two pounds and two ounces of tea. and in the
year HJ7S they imported 471:! pounds of tea. wine!
then lor the firs! time thought woith their attention as a
branch of their trade. (Macpherson. p. 131.)
Tea must have been used in China from very early times.
It is differently named in different parts of China, iis tcha,
or cha. also tha, whence we have tsia. the, and lea. In
in works in use in India, tea is called cha-khutai. or
tea of Cathay.
The genus 'flu a i- charaHrrised by having a calyx which
is persistent, without bracts, five-leaved, leaflets imbricated,
the outer ones smaller. Petals of the corol (i to !), hypo-
gMions, imbricated, the inner ones tin
together at the 1 nen* numerous, in several
.ng to the bottom of the petals; filaments filifoim.
anthers incumbent, 'J-celled, oblong, with a thiekish con-
neetivum, cells opening longitudinally. <>
.'{-celled. Ovules -4 in each cell, inserted alternately into
the central angle, the upper ones ascending, the lower
pendulous. Style tritid. stigmas ;{, acute. Capsule sphe-
roidal, two to three lobed, three or by abort io
with loculicidal dehisceiiec. or wit Ii the dissepiments formed
from the turned-in edges of the valves. Seeds solitary or
.rked with the ventral
umbilicus. Cotyledons thick, fleshy, oily. No albumen.
Radicle very short. \erv near the umbilicus, centripetal.
The genus Camellia is usually considered to be vi iv dis-
tinct from Thea; indeed by Cambessedes the two are sepa-
THE
285
THE
rated from each other by several intervening "genera : they
are however too closely allied to allow of this separa-
tion. Distinctions have been made in the fruit of the two
genera. That of Thea is three-lobed with obtuse cor-
ners and opening along the middle of the lobes, that is,
having the dissepiments opposite to the valves, or, as ex-
jircssed by modern botanists, having a loculicidal dehiscence.
Camellia, on the contrary, is described as having its fruit
obscurely triangular, without any tendency to become deeply
three-lobed, with the margins of the valves turned inwards
and forming the dissepiments, which thus alternate with
the valves, and have what is now called a septicedal
dehiscence. Mr. Griffith, on the contrary, who is well
qualified to form a correct opinion, states, from examina-
tion of the Assamese tea-plant and of two species of Camel-
lia from the Khosiya Hills, that there is no difference
between Thea and Camellia. The dehiscence in both, he
says, is of the same nature, that is, loculicidal, and the only
difference that does really exist is simply of specific value,
consisting in the fruits of the tea-plant being three-lobed,
of the Camellia triangular.
The species of the genus Thea are few in number; some
botanists are of opinion that even these are varieties of a
single species. Before proceeding to discuss the question
of the species which yield the teas of commerce, it is
desirable to notice those which are usually described as
distinct in systematic works.
T. viridis is a large, strong-growing, almost hardy
plant, with spreading branches, its leaves three to five
inches long, thin, almost membranous, very broadly lan-
ceolate, light green and wavy, with large and irregular
serratures, the flowers large, usually solitary, mostly con-
fined to the upper axil, with 5 sepals and from 5 to
7 petals ; fruit nodding. This species is figured by Dr.
Lettsom in his account of the tea-plant, t. 1, and by Dr.
(now Sir W.) Hooker, Bot. Mag., t. 3148, and in Loddiges'
But. Cab., t. 227, all from plants which have flowered in
this country. Kaempfer supplies a very good figure,
Amceti. Erot., p. 607, from a Japanese plant. This species
is found both in China and Japan, and is supposed to be
- which yields the green tea of commerce. It
'. 'L'en long introduced into this country ; having been
first sent from Japan in 1687 to the Cape of Good Hope,
and thence into Europe. Lettsom, in 1772, states that within
these few years a few genuine tea-plants had been intro-
duced into England, that the largest tea-plant was then at
Kew, and the first that ever flowered was at Sion House,
but the seeds never germinated. Murray, App. Medic.am .
iv., p. 227, mentions that the green tea-plant was, in 1778,
sold in London for ten shillings and sixpence, but the black
or bohea tea-plant for one guinea. The green tea-plants
are much more hardy than the black in this climate, being
kept out in the open air with little protection during
the winter, as at Kew, at Messrs. Loddiges, and even as far
north as Forfar.
T. Rohea is a smaller plant than T. viridi.i: its branches
•'iff and straight, its stem erect, the leaves not above
half or two-thirds of the size of the former species, elliptical
oblong, perfectly flat, more coriaceous, of a dark green
colour, with small and even serratures ; they are numer-
ous, and have in their axils two or three flowers, of 5 sepals
and 5 petals, these are smaller and have a, slight fragrance,
and flower later in the season than T. viridis. The plant
is much more tender than the green tea-plant, and unable
to stand the cold of an English climate. It is supposed by
some to yield the leaves which are converted into black
U ••:!, and, notwithstanding contrary statements, leaves simi-
lar to those of this plant may be recognised on infusing
and spreading out the leaves of some of the black teas of
commcire. A variety of this is sometimes called T.stricla.
ligured by Lettsom, ed. 2, p. 41, who considers it only
of the former. It is also figured by Loddiges,
t . 220, who, as well as Sir W. Hooker and Dr.
••, considers it to be a distinct species.
The Assam tea-plant, which has lately attracted so much
attention, seems to partake of the characters of both the
foregoing. The Calcutta Tea Committee say, in 1835,
' \Vt- are now enabled to state with certainty, that not only
is it a genuine tea, but that no doubt can be entertained
of its being the identical tea of China, which is the exclu-
sive source of all the varieties and shades of the tea of
commerce.' To this it may replied, that there are consider-
able doubts whether the teas of commerce are all derived
from one species of plant. Mr. Griffith says, in the size both
of the pi ant and of the leaves, as well as inthe texture of these
last, and in its stations, the Assamese plant approaches to the
green tea-plant of China ; in its geographical distribution, so
far as latitude is concerned, it approaches to the black tea.
The inflorescence of the Assamese plant varies, but perhaps
its usual state is to have the flowers solitary in the axils of
the leaves, but the number of flowers varies from one to five.
The plants introduced into this country have their leaves
much larger and thicker than those pf the green tea-plant,
and Messrs. Loddiges find that it requires a much greater
degree of heat, in fact that of the hot-house, while the
others are in the open air for a great part of the year.
Two other species, described by Loureiro, are little known,
as T. Cochinchinensis, about eight feet high, having lan-
ceolate leaves, flowers of 3 to 5 sepals and 5 petals, solitary,
terminal ; found wild in the north of Cochinchina, where it
is also cultivated, being used medicinally by the natives as
a diaphoretic. T. oleosa is also a shrub of eight feet high,
found in the fields in the neighbourhood of Canton, and
named from its seeds yielding a large quantity of oil, which
is used for burning and as an article of diet. The leaves
are lanceolate, the flowers, of 6 sepals and 6 petals, pedun-
cles 3-flowered axillary ; fruit stated to be indehiscent,
rather a berry than a capsule.
The species of Camellia, which are so closely allied to
those of Thea, have already been mentioned under CA-
MELLIA, asC.Japotiica, maliflora, reticulata. C.Sasanqua,
and Euryoides are other Chinese species. C. drupifera is
a native of Cochinchina ; while C. Kissi and Caudata, with
oleaefolia and Scottiana, two doubtful species, are found in
the mountains near Munnipore, Pundua, and Silhet, and in
those surrounding the valley of Nepaul. A third genuine
species occurs on the Naga range, towards the eastern
extremity of the valley of Assam. It is well known to
the Assamese and Singphos by the name of Bun Fullup,
or jungle tea, being used by them as a medicine. A fourth
species was found by Dr. Wallich about Tingrei.
Besides the characters of the several species of Thea, we
have to notice the parts of the country where the culti-
vated species are found, as many practical questions of
considerable importance are connected with the subject.
But here it is difficult to be precise in our statements, be-
cause we are without positive information from the tea
districts of China, and also because it is still doubtful
whether one or more species yield the teas of com-
merce in permanent varieties, or whether the differences
in teas are owing solely to differences in manufacture.
Tea is cultivated in China over a great extent of territory.
]>i\ Wallich mentions it as being cultivated in Cochin
China, in 17" N. lat. We know it is cultivated in the
southern provinces of Yunnan and of Canton. If we
proceed north we find the principal cultivation of teas
for the foreign trade is between 27° and 31" N. lat. :
but tea is said to be produced in several places to the
northward of 31°; even in 36°, and also in the Japanese
Islands, which extend from 30° to 41° N. lat. It has
been disputed whether the tea-plant is cultivated in
plains or mountainous situations. It is generally stated
to be cultivated in hilly situations. Grozier states that
the songlo-tcha (our green tea) takes its name from the
mountain Song-lo, situated in the province of Kiangnan,
in 30° N. lat., while the bou-y tcha (bohea) takes its
name also from a mountain called Bou-y, situated in the
province of Fo-kien. Mr. Cunningham (when Chusan had
formerly a British factory) collected specimens on the tops
of mountains, where the tea-plant flourished along with
pines. His specimens are still in the British Museum.
The deputation sent into Assam to examine the sites of
the tea, saw it growing in the valley of Assam, and were
thus led to think that it must grow in similar situations
in China : but even in Assam it is also found on hills ; and
there is no doubt it is found in both situations in China,
and in many which must be moist. There is nothing im-
probable in a plant being so found which is so extensively
diffused from north to south ; but it is probable that the
finest varieties of tea are cultivated in the drier soils, and
in situations exposed to light and air : in fact, the Chinese
tea-makers in Assam state that in China the teas from the
sunny tracts are the best. Some soils in which the tea-plant
is cultivated in China yielded, on analysis, in 200 parts — of
silex, 135 ; alumina, 36 ; carbonate of magnesia, 6 ; car-
bonate of lime, 4 ; oxide of iron, 13 ; roots and fibres of
I II E
288
T I! i:
plant.. '2: water of ateorpUon. 4. Dr. Abel thouirht that
i \icld n tin;
tin- i I Hop« would afford a suita!<
Tin- > ibt, to a coruidermbl
lioina warm in the southern and
I "w is said to li
. lor days ' |ion the ffreen teas, and the
men ten-plant is in this country iihii- to bear u j
degree of cold tlum tin- black, which, in • :n> to
'iiiincd to tin1 more southern provinces: but
in tlu- Kokicn hills M. dillt-ry has mentioned to Uir
writ, .trtiile that lie "ha* walked on »now in
the inid-t ul' the tea-plants. The rulturi' of the tea-plant
- simple cnouirh : the plants nre raised
from scefls, sown in the places v. lu-i'1 they are to re-
main dropped into holes tour or five
i> and three or lour 1 r they
ripen ; or in November and December. a< ihey do not
<•!!, from their oilinexs. The plants rise up in
a cluster when the rain comes on, and require little further
. xrept that of remount; weeds, till they nre three
yean* old, when they yield their first crop • '"'hey
arc seldom transplanted, but sometimes four to six plants
are put close totrether, so as to fonn a tine bush. Alter
irrowim: seven or ten years they are cut down, in order that
the numerous youm; shoots which then spring out may
afford a more abundant supply of leaves. 1
tricts the bushes ifrow unrestrained, in othr
regularly pruned, to keep them low. The irathen
is performed with irreat care : Ihcv are usually
tirM in March or May according to the
i .when the young leaves are acaroel) expanded: the
1 about two months Inter, or May and June : and tin-
third in Auiriiat, or about six weeks alter • 1 : but
the li: -:irily differ in different districts, as well as
the number of Crept which are obtained, some avoiding
the third, for few of injuring the bushes. When the i
.'In-red they are dried in houses which contain small
furnaces, on each of which there is a flat iron pa;
upon this, when heutcd. the leaves, partially dried I
posure to the sun. me thrown; the leaves rcqiin
i|iu-nt shifting ami turninir. When all are properly dried.
Ihey are quickly removed either by the hand or with a
shov el, and either thrown upon a mat" or in: which
are kept ready to receive them. They are then removed
to a table where they are rolled and cooled, and the pro-
cess is repeated : alter which they are silled and sorted
into several varieties. The process has been very minutely
described a* practised in Assam and .l.'\a by the Chinese
lea-makers. \Ve may then fore refer to the accounts pub-
lished by Mr. Bruce, as well as to tho-«- of the superintendent
in Java," translated by Dr. Horstield.
most difficult part of this question is to determine
whether the art-en and black teas are pmduced by one or
two distinct species of plants, as the statements of appa-
rently equalh well qualified jr not only contra-
dictory, but directly the reverse 'her. The diffi-
culty is owim: to no competent pel-son havinir visited the
tea di- iiina, and also to tin- Chinese in the neigh-
bourhood of Canton beini; able to prepare a tea which can
I and made up to imitate
iarije quantities are thus yearly made up.
m and thoM- in Java alike
! from
Then,
.:iie of the black anil
teas of conimer .,• differ verv i
from • ,,,(1 j^
there - .,,.r (o
the i
plum
different tea*. \Vhetlier1' .me species
or well-established varieties can on
botanists who have nn opportunity pi
le in tlie tea mirserii , and of the
Himalayan.
**»• ••pects, n
other,
navinif become so extensive !••• of com-
ilrious
• •(lim-
it in which the
'iral experiment* have been made, as in Rio Janeiro
and the warm part of Drn/.il. nnd latterly in the Inlh
ol Java and Hrn/il. in
Dr. Abel reeoniincni'. II is
requisite to have no' oil and climai.
. heap and nbui' :. Mnir
opinion that ten could Vd in th. •
the first published opinim
Itutr. linn •
i.iiiirt. p. i'l!) . where.
a similarly in latitude, climate, and \ eiretatio;
any information i/cd on tho.-e snbjer
opinion tliat tea could b. tivated in
the Himalayan mountains. diflerent
nllow p
STH]ihical distribution of tb
and the natural
beiiiLT !ly cultivated.' He nvommendcd •
riments beinir made in 11 Hie Hun:
tending from Almora nearly to the- v
elevations from tin- valleys up to 7(XX) feel, and th'
that about ."KKH) feet of elevation would afford
climate. Dr. Falconer formed similar opinions at the
same lime in a report to £ov eminent. The correct i-
these opinions has been clearly proved by t!i
reports on the success of the tea plantations established
in the Knmaon and (inrhv of these mountains,
which were formed when the I
blished in As-sam. and the seed? and plants sent up which
had li .! from China. In I
by the Ini';. 'lent to the Asrricnl' t\ of
la, we find that ul • :nid UK HI
feet there are some hum! .u; and heulthv
in.i; jilants and seedlings, but none
to yield seed. At Almorali. elevated 5(K;
. one nf three and the oilier of eleven
half acres in extent, with 1500 full-thrown Ire,
and 700 layers, and upwards of 31.000 seedling-
Hheemtal. lower in elevation and nearer to the ]
results are equally favourable: 'On the whole 1!
incut, in as far as the possibility of • (iliint
in the proviii'-e^ of (nirliwal and Kumaon is in qu,
may be safely pronounced to have completely sncce.
It is also said, 'Assam has doubt K -
over Kumaon as to facility of export, but the lattei
vince will probably be found to yield a pi.
superior quality.1 The quality of the tea which can be
prepared here can only be ascertained when China tea-
preparers have been sent there, a.s they no doubt will be
sent, as soon as the plantations ;. tly extended..
Tin' value of the- propcrly
mated in connection with i
Assam, which is several hundred nn from Ku-
maon and Gurhwal, and it is probable therefore that the
whole of the intervening; part of the Himalayas \\ ill be
favourable to this culture: probab. .' the
mountains of the peninsula, as in the \\'_M ' and
". ancore, will be found favourable.
The Assam tea-plant lii>t attracted public attention in
IM.'tt. in consequence of replies to the circulars which had
ntlemen. Captains .lenkir
Charlton, in May of that yr.ir. wrote that a kind c!
••ndoubtedh indigenous in Assam. v
It has nppeared I
the I'M 0 that Mr. David Scott had, in .'
lly
Mnjor Hruco. \\Jiich he said the liuni:
tion <•
publish
Hut the plant v .
. and no further
scientific dcpu!ati»>i. composed of Dr. \\u'.<
(iriffitli and .Mac( 'Inland, wa:. n-nt I'o.
!ie<l in tl.
Soc. of India.' and in the ]i
in India, publi-i iKC).
Tea-plantat !- and Mr.
Bruce ajipointed tin ii
lca-ti: ..mil
• \eiy
extensive-, both on the hi on the p
i and
that th ' hich
enables them to maintain .-.nre
THE
'287
THE
1o excessive nioii-.'.ure. As tea-plants are capable of
bearing considerable varieties of temperature, tea may
no doubt be cultivated in a variety of situations, and
in Assam as well as elsewhere, but it is probable
that hilly situations and the more open and elevated
parts of "Assam its.'1!1 will be best suited for the pro-
duction of the finer-flavoured teas. The tea which has
been prepared in Assam has now been sent for four years
to market, and in each year the quantities have increased
and the qualities have improved. For the teas first sold
in 1839, from the excitement and competition created by
the novelty of the sale, extravagant prices were paid, as
from KJ-. to 34«. a pound. In 1840 the prices realized
'toot (K. ID//, to 10*. 10 J-. The probable value was
:ver from 2y. lid. to 3.?. 3rf. The produce of 1841 in
the government plantations has been sold in Calcutta,
and that from the Assam Tea Company sent to this country.
• reports have been published by brokers of
the quality of this tea, and of the probability, from its
•>:th, that it may easily be improved as its nature is
better understood. Experimental nurseries continue to be
carried on by the East India Company, and much useful
information of a practical nature will no doubt be ob-
tained and promulgated. So many authors have written
on the subject of tea, that it is impossible to quote them.
Dr. Lettsom. in his account of the tea-plant, has given a
i them. More recent information may be found in
the ti .• .lie], Staunton, Ellis, Barrow — and for scien-
tific information sec Uoyle, ' Illustr. of Himalayan Botany,'
and • Ks-ay on the Productive Resources of India,' also the
rs. Griffith and MacCleland, in the 'Trans.
;'-leutta,' whichlikewise contain the re-
brokers. For practical information on the nianu-
\if of tea, the papers of Mr. Bruce give much valuable
i, derived from the China tea-makers; also the
i lie Cultivation and Manufacture ol'Tea in Java,'
om the Dutch by Dr. Horsfi eld.
THEA. ,'/Vo/v /•//>.? of Tea. This
of which was for a long time confined to
two countries of the East, China and Japan, has within the
last two hundred years become known and almost indis-
ivilized country of the globe. It is
'uleresting to enquire what are the properties it
possesses, which have induced so large a portion of the
in race to forsake other articles of diet, and what are
the effects of-its extensive consumption.
Whether obtained from one species only of the genus
Thca, or from several, all the tea of China is in commerce
brought under two distinct terms. •_<-;•< r// ira ami I'lm-h tea,
iier brown tea. These are also distinguish
and brjhea. The European name tfit is borrowed from the
common language of the province Fu-kian CFokien of
ille;, where this article is called Tiii in their patois :
•:i<mi it is called Tsc-ha or Tschai. Black •
called He-tscha, green tea Lo-tscha. The best sort of the
, kind lias been long known in commerce under the
name of Bou-ui-Tscha ; hence by a transposi-
tion of the syllables, the Thea bohea of LimUBUC, the
:ha of the Chinese, that is. tea from Vou-y-Schan,
i is in the province of Fu-kian, in 27° 47 N. lat.
hiefly obtained from Song-lo, which lies in the
province of Kiang-nan, in 29° 58' N. lat.
The subvarieties owe their names to other circumstances,
the number of which is endless. Thus there occur in the
merchants at least one hundred
and fifty names, many of which are synonymes of other
. or names invented to impose on foreigners and ob-
tain a high price. The distinguished Oriental scholar
Klaproth gives a list of about forty genuine varieties,
Viitli an explanation1 of the terms applied to them. iJiinr-
1824, p. 121, and Abel Remusat. a Supple-
ment to it, p. 186 of the same journal; or Fee, Cnura
Pharnmrrutiqu'', i., p. 507.) Thus
Ho, corrupted into Pekoe, or even Pekin, merely means
,s n," being the first sprouts, or yet hairy leaf-buds
plants, three years old, after their first i'
ing. With us it is applied only to a black tea, but it is
equally applicable to a green tea, and is by the Chinese
nppli ive kind called Loong-tsing, literally
tgon, ' which is never brought, to
licate and slightly fired as to spoil by
the least damp.' -Davis.! The true imperial tea. also
called flos the.i', not that it i.< tin- flower-buds, as some
suppose, but merely the perfection of tea, never reaches
Europe, as the damp of the voyage and a northern climate
would soon impair its qualities. That which is sold under
the name of Imperial is Chulan, or Soulang, flavoured with
the lan-hoa, which is the Chinese name for the Olea fra-
grans, Lin.
Though it is stated that black tea may be cured as green
tea. and green tea as black, certain it is that the prepara-
tion of the respective kinds is carried on in different parts
of the empire, and different practices pursued with the
leaves from the first stage. In the green teas the leaves
only are taken, being nipped off above the foot-stalk or
petiole, while of the black teas the foot-stalk is always col-
lected. ' Thus black tea contains much of the woody fibre,
while the green is exclusively the fleshy part of the le:if
itself ; which is one good reason why it, should be dearer.'
(Davis, ii., p. 351.) Besides this, the" constant removal of
the young leaf-buds, by which the plant is prevented from
being clothed with full-grown leaves, which alone can
elaborate the sap, and contribute to the further growth of
the shrub, causes it to perish earlier, and compels a more
frequent renewal of the plantations. Indeed some cul-
tivators restrict the gathering of the leaves to two harvests,
instead of three, to save their plants.
Those of the third gathering are large a'nd coarse, and
often so rigid that they cannot be rolled. This yields a
tea so inferior in quality that it is consumed only by the
poorest of the natives, or, when very bad, is, as are some
of the finer kinds when spoiled, used for dyeing.
Such are the pains taken to ensure the excellence of
the finest sorts, that for two or three weeks before the har-
vest commences the collectors, who are trained to this
business from a very early age, are prohibited from eating
fish or other kinds of food reckoned unclean, lest by their
breath they should contaminate the leaves. They are also
made to take a bath two or three times a day, and not
allowed to gather the leaves with the naked fingers, but
always with gloves. The finest tea may, if the proper
time for gathering it be neglected, be changed into an
inferior tea in one night. It is necessary to roast the leaves
the same evening that they are collected, for if kept till the
following day they become black and lose much of their
\iiine. Previous to putting them into the iron pans or fur-
naces, which are heated by charcoal, some writers say that
they are dipped for about half a minute into boiling water ;
others do not mention this. About half a pound or three-
quarters of leaves ore put, into the pan at once, and dili-
gently stirred, to prevent them from being burnt. They are
then removed with a shovel and thrown on mats or into
baskets, and while yet hot the soft leaves are rolled be-
tween the palms of the hands, during which operation a
quantity of yellowish green juice exudes from them. This
n of masting and rolling is often repeated even to
the sixth or seventh time. This method is called the dry
way ; but by the wet way the leaves are first exposed to
the vapour of boiling water, after which they are rolled
and dried on the iron pans like the others. Leaves prepared
in the wet way have a bright green colour; those by the
dry, a dark green verging to brown. From the green tea,
when prepared in the dry way, less of the above-mentioned
juice exudes, a circumstance to which the greater power
of green tea is in some degree owing. The larger leaves
are generally selected to be prepared in the wet way. By
the process of roasting the leaves lose two-thirds of their
weight ; so that three pounds of fresh leaves dry into one
pound of tea fit for preservation. It is by the procc
roasting that the flavour is first developed, the leaves
when fresh being as insipid as the bean of coffee before
heat is applied. Siebold is of opinion that the agree-
able violet-like flavour of tea is inherent in the leaves
themselves, but most writers ascribe the different flavours
of the choicer kinds of tea to the admixture of the flowers.
leaves, or oils of a variety of different plants. The chief
of these are the Olea fragrans, CMormif/ti/x /i/ri:nxjiirn-
iis, Gardenia florida, Aglaia ndorata, Mogorium (Jnn-
iiii/iinii i ^ambac, Vitex spicata, Camellia Sasiiiiijiiit, and
C. oleifera, Illichtm anisalum, Magnolia Yulttii, and the
Rosa Indica odoratissima, as well as with the root of the
///, ,;u,;-n/i»a,a.nd Curcuma loiiga or turmeric, and oil of
Jii.ni Orellana. A variety of tea called Sonchi is often
found to contain a large quantity of ferruginous dust, but
whether by accident, as Mr. Davis thinks (Chiiirw, ii., p.
462), or a fraud to increase the weight, is doubtful. Its
T H i:
288
T 11 K
pretence may easily be detected by passing a magnet into
a suspected sample, when some of the particles of iron
will adhere to it.
Chinese annually dry many millions of pounds of
tin' leaves ol different plant-, to mingle with the genuine,
.is those of akh, plum. tec. , a* tin- name Mci-1'ian.
applied to one of tin- i tea from the province uf
Kiang-nan. import*; so that all the spurious leaves
found ii parcel- i must not be supposed to l>r m-
trodu \ the dealers 111 this eountrv. While
the tea-tni • :.U in the hands of the kast-Indm
Com] .if tliese adulterated ' Chipped for
this country, a* experienced and competent inspectors
with large salaries were kept at Canton, to prevent the
exportation of such in the Company's ships; but since the
trade has been opened, nil kinds find a ready outlet, and,
as the demand oil en exceeds the supply, a manufactured
article is furnished to the rival crews.
Tile object of the drying and rolling is both to diminish
the bulk and to enable the leaves to preserve their flavour.
No ten is thought tit for use till it is a twelvemonth old ;
and the rich and luxurious Chinese keep the tine tea in jars.
made of the finest porcelain, some of which are thought to
communieate an additional aroma to the tea, and all of
which have very narrow rinmt hs as may be oliscrved in those
brought to Europe, and sold at a high price , to retain the
peculiar odour. If the tea contracts dump, it is taken out
and roasted r.g.tin.
The taste of tea is more or less astringent, and, before it
is infused, unpleasantly acrid. To make the infusion, the
Chinese pour boiling- water on a small portion of the
-, but do not allow- it to stand or macerate, as is done
in England, but instantly pour it off again, by which they
obtain only the more volatile and stimulating portion of its
1 * '1M . ll • ' 1 11 "ill
The poorer Chinese indeed boil the very in-
coarse leaves, which alone are within their
principles.
ferior and
reach, and drink the decoction repeatedly during the day.
This is doiie not only to extract such virtues as the tea
possesses, but to qualify the water, as little good drinking
strongly of tea, and which, were it not lor the expense ot
the solvent, and the t uling its separation, might
perhaps be profitably einpl.
Green i
Black Souchong
prrlb.
14*.
12
Id
H
7
I.1
10
H
7
B
iu W.UT. Alc.ih.il. .ill. J.-IU .
31;
31
BB
34
37
86
BB
•i:f
43
•ll
30
BB
31
81
•Ju
•ji
2H
2B
•JK
M
B7
B7
04
or.
(Brande's M,um,il n/ I'finniitiry. 5th id., p. 121,..)
The fall in the' prices of tea docs not much affect •
results, as the same relative proportions aie preserved.
The alkaloid-like principle of tea can -carcely be con-
sidered the cause of the peculiar action of. tea;' bm
very interesting from the circumstance of the identity of
•upositiftn with that of coffee, aud of the gc,
otticin..'.i>. as shown by l.iebig: —
PfafTan.l I.i.-l.ii;.
Carbon . -l<)-77
Hydrogen . .V:i3
Nitrogen . 2s -7s
Oxygen . 10- 12
Tin-ill.'. I .
_JoI*l. M.,,1 r. C8, II :• '
."••214 r>- i3i» :. •'
2i)-(KHI 2!)- ISO 2s-
ir)'(i7G 1U-(H)2 10 •-
water is met with in China. Travellers find a supply of
tea a very valuable accompaniment on long journeys, as it
improves the most brackish waters. The exciting effects of
fresh tea are such that it is rarely used till it has been kept
twelve months, as already stated : and where indulged in. it
produces great disturbance of the mind, almost rc.-cmbling
inebriation, like the action oftheErythroxylon Coca among
the Peruvians, and inducing a tremulous motion of the
limbs. This property is diminished by repeateil roast ings.
but as green tea is less exposed to heat than black, it re-
tains more of this power. Hcsidcs. the green tea lor ex-
portation undergoes some process, which changes its
colour, giving it a bluish-green hue. The Chinese them-
isiime those kinds of green tea which arc
prepared for exportation. (Davis, Chinese, ii.46H.) It is
altogether a mistake to suppose that the colour of green
owing to its being dried on copper pans, as none
such are used, and th . .'ching chemical anal\M-. is
unable to detect a trace of copper unless as a constituent of (
the vegetable. The chemical analysis of tea does not shed
ii-..
liergma obtained an oil, but this, as well as the distilled
he lound to have little peculiar effect on several
animals: which is in opposition to the experiments of
l.clt-om. who represents the distilled water of tea ns :
ail narcotic, paralysing the limbs of frogs, and
causing their death when applied to the exposed iu i
Before attempting to estimate the r.ction of tea on the
human system, ii is necessuy to call to mind that some of
the effects are due to the plants mixed with the real tea.
several of which, such as the Chloraiithus incoiispicuus,
are stimulants of the highest order; and in other in.-.;,
deleterious chemical compounds are Used by the ('!•
to convert damaged black teas into saleable green
(l)a\is. C/H'IH-M: ii. 4GO.) For the effects of these. I
not justly chargeable. Acorrect estimate of the action of
tea is not easily foimed: yet the most dispassionate in-
quirers regard it as a narcotic, the stimulating \-
of which is the mo.-.! conspicuous ;imi ,,f ]imgc.st duration.
Tea has been preposterously praised by sonic writers, and
unjustly accused by others' a.s being 'productive of nu-
merous diseases : abo\e all it has been charged with caus-
ing an increase of nervous diseases. It would pcrhii;
more just to attribute the increase of such complai;
the more complicated .state of our social reratious. :i
from an augmented population, and an advance in lu
with the more frequent infringement of the natural
particularly turning night into day. and not seldom day
into night, as is the practice of the votaries of fashion.
much light on its action on the human system, l-'iankand | That the universal employment of tea has displace
Sir II. l).i\y found more tannin in black than in green tea ;
butt' I Mr. lirande's researches, conducted on a
more- ft different mutt. 'Some
ago I examined the varieties of tea in common use ((Jii-ir-
terly Joiinnil. xii. 3)1 •. and found that the quantity of
astringent matter precipitable by gelatine is son.
greater in green than in black tea.'though the excess is by
no means so great a.s the comparative flavour- of the two
would lead one to expect. The entire quantity of soluble
matter is also greater in green than in black tea, but the
extractive, not precipitable by gelatine, is greater in tin-
latter.'
other kinds of food is certain, but if a diminution in the
number of inflammatory diseases be one of the con-
sequences, it is much to it.s credit, as however distu
nervous diseases may be. they aie by no means
those of an inflammatory kind. That tea should not suit
all constitutions or all ages is not remarkable. It i
suited for young children than for adults ; indeed for very
young children ii is extremely improper, producing, like
all narcotics, a moibid state of the brain and in-
tern. It is also uusuitcd for those of an irritable nature,
and likewise for those of a leiicoiihlcgmatic constitution.
Such persons can ill bear much liquid of any kind, par-
The following table shows the respective quantities of ticularly in the evening, and prosper best on a very dry
soluble matter in water and in alcohol, the weight of the
i.itate by isinglass, and the proportion of inert woody
fibre in green and black tea of various pi ices. It is given.
not a* throwing any important light upon of the
different qualities and effects often, but its containing the
result* of actual experiments. It will be remarked that
"hen tea-leaves have been exhausted by water repeatedly
afltued, alcohol is still capable of extracting a considerable
quantity of soluble matter: the alcoholic extract infus. -d
in boiling water, furnishes a liquid which smells aud tastes
diet, to which growing children of this const it ul ion should
•letly confined. [DlU'KNTs.] It may not be true
that the use of tea, as alleged by Dr. I.ettsom, has been
a main cause of the increa-c of -ciophulous diseases, still a.s
diseases of this class are the only dlMMe* which are proved
by the reports of the registrar-general to I y. or
perhaps more frequent than others, whatever impairs the
nervous power and ultimately the digestive function in
slrumous children should be avoided. Ills i.dviec is sound
where he says, 'It ought by no means to be the common
THE
289
THE
diet of boarding-schools ; if it be allowed sometimes as a
treat, they should be at the same time informed that the
constant use of it would be injurious to 'their health,
strength, and constitution.' Those to whom it is most
suited are the plethoric and sanguine. Upon the same
principle it is a proper article of diet and perhaps the best
common drink at the beginning of fevers and inflammatory
complaints. In a peculiar state of brain, termed by Mr.
Newnham (Observations on Medical and Dietetical Pro-
perties of Green Tea) sthenic excitement, a state clearly
bordering on inflammation, especially if produced by alco-
holic stimulants, or by intense and long-continued applica-
tion of mind to any particular object of literary research,
green tea acts as a salutary remedy. On the contrary, in
states of diminished excitement, morbid vigilance and
nervous disturbance follow its use. It is not an uncommon
practice with ardent students, when pushing their studies
lar into the night, to resist the claims of nature for repose,
and keep themselves awake by the frequent use of tea.
That it answers the purpose at the time cannot be denied,
but the object is often attained at a fearful price, the de-
struction of health and vigour both of mind and body being
the penalty. Less injury results in these cases from the
use of coffee. There is this difference between the morbid
states of the nervous system produced by coffee and those
resulting from tea : that the former generally subside or
disappear entirely on relinquishing its use ; those from the
latter are more permanent, and often incapable of being
eradicated. Nevertheless many persons have immediately
found their health improved by entirely relinquishing the
use of tea, or even omitting it only at breakfast, for which
meal it is certainly less proper than for the evening be-
verage. Those for whom tea is unsuited will generally
find weak cocoa the most proper substitute.
Persons of a gouty and rheumatic nature, above all, those
prone to calculous diseases of the lithic acid diathesis, find
weak tea the least objectionable article of common drink.
They should take it without sugar, and with very little
milk. (Prout, On the Stomach, p. 217.) Where the water
is hard, the addition of a little carbonate of soda not only
improves the tea, but renders it a more proper beverage
for such persons. Tea should not be used till about four
hours after any solid meal.
The medical uses of tea are not many. In fevers it is
not only an excellent diluent at the commencement, but
a tincture of tea made by macerating tea in proof-spirit,
and adding a tea-spoonful of this to a small cup of water,
and given at short intervals during the night, after the
acute symptoms have subsided, is often of great service.
For this purpose, in hospitals and workhouses, the leaves
which have been used for the ordinary infusion may be
macerated in alcohol (as suggested above by Mr. Brande),
and a spirit of sufficient strength for this purpose obtained
at a cheap rate..
In some forms of diseased heart tea proves a useful
sedative. It is nearly as valuable an antidote to poison-
ing by opium as coffee is. Some cases of poisoning by
ic and tartarized antimony have been prevented prov-
ing fatal by the immediate administration of tea in the
form of a very strong infusion. Here its power as an
antidote depends upon its tannin decomposing the poison-
ous substances. [ASTRINGENTS.] But in poisoning by
opium it is useful only in combating the secondary symp-
toms, and should not be administered till the stomach-
pump or other means have removed the opium from the
stomach. (Lancet, 9th November, 1833.) Some cases of
severe nervous headache are relieved by a cup of strong
green-tea, taken without milk or sugar. But this should
be sparingly resorted to ; it is a wiser plan to avoid the
causes of such headaches. Tea has been looked upon as
the irreat means by which intoxication was to be banished,
but it is certain that to relieve the tremblings and other
unpleasant effects of the abuse of tea, a little brandy or
other alcoholic stimulant is occasionally added to the cup
of tea, and so a habit is acquired which can never after-
wards be relinquished.
Tea has frequently been denounced as a useless article
of diet to the poor, as it is assumed to be devoid of nutri-
ment, and the milk and sugar which are added supposed
to be the only beneficial ingredients. Dr. Lettsom has
given a calculation, partly his own, and partly taken from
' Essays on Husbandry,' to show how much is, in his view,
unnecessarily expended by them in this way. But the
V. C.., No. 1524. '
observations of Liebig, if correct, and in all probability
they are so, offer a satisfactory explanation of the cause of
the great partiality of the poor not only for tea, but for
tea of an expensive and therefore superior kind. 'We
shall never certainly be able to discover how men were
led to the use of the hot infusion of the leaves of a certain
shrub ('tea), or of a .decoction of certain roasted seeds
(coffee). Some cause there must be which would explain
how the practice has become a necessary of life to whole
nations. But it is still more remarkable that the bene-
ficial effects of both plants on the health must be ascribed
to one and the same substance, the presence of which in
two vegetables belonging to natural families, and the
produce of different quarters of the globe, could hardly
have presented itself to the boldest imagination. Yet
recent researches have shown, in such a manner as to ex-
clude all doubt, that caffeine and theine are, in all respects,
identical.
' Without entering minutely into the medical action of
caffeine (theine), it will surely appear a most striking
fact, even if we were to deny its influence on the process
of secretion, that this substance, with the addition of
oxygen and the elements of water, can yield taurine, the
nitrogenized compound peculiar to bile : —
1 atom caffeine or theine = C8 N2 H5 O2
9 atoms water . . = H9 O9
, 9 atoms oxygen . . = Q9
C8 N2 H14 O20
= 2 atoms taurine . = 2 (C4 NH9 OlO)
To see how the action of caffeine, asparagine, theo-
bromine, &c. may be explained, we must call to mind
that the chief constituent of the bile contains only 3-8
per cent, of nitrogen, of which only the half, or 1-9 per
cent., belongs to the taurine. Bile contains in its natural
state water and solid matter, in the proportion of 90 parts
by weight of the former to 10 of the latter. If we sup-
pose these 10 parts by weight of solid matter to be choleic
acid, with 3-87 per cent, of nitrogen, then 100 parts of
fresh bile will contain 0'171 parts of nitrogen in the shape
of taurine. Now this quantity is contained in 0-6 parts of
caffeine; or 2,|ths grains of caffeine can give to an
ounce of bile the nitrogen it contains in the form of
taurine. If an infusion of tea contain no more than the ^Jth
of a grain of caffeine, still, if it contribute in point of
fact to the formation of bile, the action, even of such a
quantity, cannot be looked upon as a nullity. Neither
can it be denied, that in the case of an excess of non-
azotizcd food and a deficiency of motion, which is re-
quired to cause the change of matter of the tissues, and
thus to yield the nitrogenized product which enters into
the composition of the bile ; that in such a condition the
health may be benefited by the use of compounds which
are capable of supplying the place of the nitrogenized
substance produced in the healthy state of the body, and
essential to the production of an important element of
respiration. In a chemical sense — and it is this alone
which the preceding remarks are intended to show — caf-
feine, or theine, asparagine, and theobromine, are, in vir-
tue of their composition, better adapted to this purpose
than all other nitrogenized vegetable principles. The
action of these substances, in ordinary circumstances, is
not obvious, but it unquestionably exists. Tea and coffee
were originally met with among nations whose diet is
chiefly vegetable.' (Liebig's Animal Chemistry, p. 178.)
These facts show in what way tea proves to the poor a
substitute for animal food, and why females and literary
persons who take little exercise manifest such partiality
for it. They also explain why the attempts, and they
have been numerous, to find among other plants a substi-
tute for tea have invariably failed of success. The first
tea-leaves were procured from the Chinese in exchange
for those of the Sal via officinalis, or garden sage, but they,
like others, soon found out its inferiority, and refused to
part with their own precious leaf except in exchange for
solid coin. The poor Chinese make use of the leaves of a
fern, and also of those of the Sagaretia (Rhamnus) theezans ;
but. to this their poverty, not their will, consents.
Tea Trade. — The period when tea was first introduced
into this country has already been noticed. How little
was it possible at the time to have foreseen that it would
one day become one of the most important avlicles of
foreign production consumed in England. The first mi
VOL. XXIV.— 2 P
T 11 I'.
200
I 11 E
iifntotirm bv the EIIK °k I1'81'1-'
Ualcul
. ' [', .' | & «n • ... Com] : • • '•• •'"'•» ;1' Uuiiiam. Tlii
Y«u. II* TiiiliNM.— Mr Cent — >•
their
_hl of tli'
i ifrow 74 per i-i-nt on grow
IIP p11
1788 13.21.-
at in lh»J *i* 1'
.
., „
ilu- trade ili> not i-on:
..
..
.
..
. in 1720. Tli" fol!" •
17U4 !
•/',(/*/<• t/iulfing thr Qu'intilii "f T- : n-'niii- •<! /«/•
<>f Duly in each icar,frwn
it:—
Kale of Duly.
..
•
1 5jir. ft.onnTitea !•"•
1708 ' ., Wperct. <
lb». < 'ui«om« — 1'cr I', ul.
perlb.,80pertt. al
370.323 13/. 18*. 7K 4*. P" lb-
!:i,'.Hi(i.5Hl
» "
1800 2il.35s.7ll2 „ 15 pi-rrt. inulri
i, "
prr ll>. ,;!."> •
5-13.02! » »
1801 a),2;i7,753 „ 15 per ct. under S
172» " "
pt'i-lli.,45 piTcl.
:<MIO .. „
1802 21.848.245
17:il i'U » »
1803 2!.617.!I22 „ 00 per ct. under 2
,,
perlb.,00perct
„ ii
1804 1S.5()1.!KM
' -71 „
1805 21.0'25.3SO .V. 2s. (i/. on
.033 „ i
XfOb* IMR-I'.
7-1.",
1800 20,3." 6/. 00 pci ifiit. on all.
•
1807 i
>
..
17.11 1,113,361 „ .
1809 l!).8(i!),l3t „
»
1810 l'.).0:.'3.2!l
1711
1811 2
1742 . H "
1812 20,018.2.-)] „
,.
1813 20.4-t3.il6
1741 SOU
1811 IU.2'2
1745 730,72;) .. I*- per ">• ami -"> P1'1
IS 15 22..T,
c-ciit. on tlie in
1816 20.Cl(i.lil
1740 2.358.583
1817 2!).822,'J2<i
;.-, is/. 18,. 7K
„
1748 'J.kCi.SIl
1810 22,1; J I,.'./ C'ustoing1 duty Under 2*. ulb.'Ji.
174y 2.708,807
iTju'iiV'd. " above 2*. 100 per ci.
1701) 2,568.338
1820 22,152,050
\i:,\ 2,774 ,8(i:)
1821 •22.8i)2.!>13
17-V2 2,'J76.(iJ.;
1S22
17.13 H. 13 1.885
I •.'!.,(i2,l70
1754 3.447.017
:•:«
17-V) 3,556.140
'.H5
17J6 3.7^.5.^1
1826
17.".7 3.U01.V
26.013.223
04
;:«;
:!57,744 C.i/. i
1820 2.).4!)5. 1
, 4.1 >72.i
1830 3'.).047,070
17U1 4.434. 1!M
1SJ1 2;).!I07,101 „
17ii2 1.2.;!i,I(ls
ill!)
;.«
1KJ3 3I.82H.61!)
17.6 1 4.71!),473
1KJ4 3l.:ili/(,51 liohi'H, Iv. 67. ; K\vi-.o <!•
HO
•'iu.'l'v an-
I7(i(i 1
17(7 :!.7ii2,«ai
"75 , 25 p. ct OB grow price.
il).
1835 :«j.574.004
177' i T
K«i 4!).H2,2:>6 AfliT lt-1 .luiv.
:..'.M-J.
1772 7>.N.:M1
per 11).
••in „ u>. ami •_:. p. . i.
J)6
on li
1838 32.:,5!.5!)3
113
18IJ '
1775 5.(; IS.IKS
VMI. .'. PIT ct.
177! 218
;77
1777 4
..
For al)o\c a crntury anil :i hail' 11; of tlir
177'.» ir>4 25/. 2s. GK 5 per ot additional on
former du1
India (Join- v v.illidn
the consumption of tl •imn. Th.
17«o .-..i:.2.30a
fiijoycd tlii-, trade to tin1 exduMon ul' all c
72 •£)!. }' i-cnl. ;ul<liliiiii:il
ami \vcro bound from time, lo tinii- i .1- lea,
://. ((•. KW. 5 nor cent. ad.:
and to provide ships to import thr
luive a yei'.r'r. consumption in their \ Tin: tens
17N.
were disposed of in London, where only I) icy could ;
, rrjiealed.
1786 12,530,380 5 p. ct. on gi ' ifross
price. j>ru
ported ill ' nid to
bidder. )•. :,ICT ol
one penny per Ib. wis inudc on the price at which ench
THE
201
T II K
lot was put up, which price was determined by adding
together the prime cost at Canton and the bare charges of
freight, insurance, interest on capital, and certain charges
on importation ; but by the mode of calculating these
items, and the heavier expenses which always attend every
department of a trade monopoly, the upset prices were
greatly enhanced. The prices realised at the Company's
sales were however in still greater proportion beyond the
upset prices, a result easily produced by a body who mo-
nopolized the sole supply, as it was only necessary that
the quantity offered for sale should not be augmented in
proportion to the growing demand of a rapidly increasing
population. The"l8Geo. II., c. 26, passed immediately
alter a large reduction of the duty had taken place, pro-
vided for such a contingency as this, by enacting that if
the East India Company faifed to import a quantity suffi-
• to render the prices as low as in other parts of
Europe, it should be lawful to grant licences to other per-
lo import tea. This would have constituted a very
efficient check if it had been acted upon ; but eventually
the mode of levying the duty gave the government almost
the same interest in a restricted supply as the East India
Company, the duties being collected ad valorem on the
amount realised at the Company's sales ; and thus the very
circumstance which enhanced the price raised the total
amount of duty. The duty was nominally 5X) and 100 per
cent, ail rn/orrni, but being charged on a monopoly price.
the difference on the cheaper teas consumed by the work-
ing aiid middle classes amounted to above 300 per cent,
on the cost price of the same teas at Hamburg ; and in
1830 the difference between the prices realised at the
Comi , and the Hamburg prices amounted to a
sum of 1,889,9?5/. The sales in the last year of the East
India Company's monopoly are shown in the following
table : —
An Account of the
of Tea sold
1834:—
of the Quantity and Prices of several sorts
England from May 1st, 1833, to May 1st,
Ibs.
it <i.
Bohea . .
6,170,963
1 10
-.'i . .
18,653,835
2 1
Campoi . .
1,003
2 4
Souchong .
354.5!.-)
2 9
Pekoe . .
514,811
2 10
Twankay .
4.339,072
2 1
Hyson Skin
141,610
2 2
Ih-on . .
987.052
3 0
Total . . 31,164,065
The Company's sales were in March, June, September,
find December, the latter being the largest. About
2,000,000 Ibs. were offered belonging to the officers of the
Company, who were allowed to import a certain quantity
their own account. In 1839 there were only
:!2)bs. offered for sale by the East India Company";
he change effected by the 3 & 4 \V'm. IV., c. 5)3,
which, on the 22ml of April, 1834, opened the trade to
China, i.-; now complete. The importation of tea is no
longer confined to the port of London. In 1839 eighteen
ed inwards from China at different outports,
ifii of which were entered at Liverpool. In the four
ending 1K.'U (lie average annual number of ships
a China at the poits of the United
Kingdom was 23, in the four following years the average
''I!, and other commodities besides tea have been ex-
iled, and a corresponding increase in the
quantity and variety of the exports to China has taken
place. The exports of tea from the United Kingdom,
which formerly did not exceed a quarter of a million Ibs.
annually, amounted to 4,347,432lbs. in 1841, and have
averaged above three million Ibs. a year since the open-
ing of the trade, a fact which shows that prices here are
no longer so much above those of the principal conti-
nental ports. The quantity retained for consumption has
also considerably increased, although accompanied by an
extraordinary Increase in the use of coffee.
The tea-duty produces about one-thirteenth of the total
revenue ; and only three articles, spirits, malt, and sugar,
yield a linger sum. The tariff of 1842 has made no
alteration in the tea-duty. As it was foreseen that on
the opening of the tea trade there would be a considerable
reduction of price, and that an ad raln/vm duty would
not, even witii the increased consumption, be so pro-
ductive as formerly, a fixed duty per Ib. was imposed,
wlncn, from 1R34, to July, 1&30, varied according to tne
different kinds of tea; but as this mode of collection was
attended with considerable trouble and difficulty, it was
altered to an unvarying duty of 2-v. Id. per Ib. on all kinds
without distinction. Since March, 183G, the tea-dealers
have been relieved from the vexatious interference of the
excise, the duty being collected entirely as an import duty
by the officers of the customs. Previously, each of the
hundred thousand tea-dealers in the United Kingdom were
visited once a month by the officers of excise, who took
an account of their stock ; and no quantity exceeding
six pounds could be sent from their premises without a
i; rtuit, of which above 800,000 were required in a year.
In short, this system of supervision was very troublesome,
costly, and answered no useful purpose. The number of tea-
dealers in 1839 was 82,794 in England ; 13,G11 in Scotland ;
12,774 in Ireland : total, 109,179. Tea is now sold by the
importing merchants by public auction and private srfles.
The following table "shows the revenue which the tea
duty has yielded in each year during the present century,
and, to some extent, it is an index of the prices in each
year : —
Net Amount of Duty collected upon Tea in the United
Kingdom in each year from 1800 to 1841 inclusive :—
1801 £1,423,660 1822 £3,941,484
1802 1,632;467 1823 3,848,122
1803 1,929.613 1824 3,865,477
1804 2,599,738 1825 4,031,018
1 805 3,336,523 1 826 3,738,042
1806 3,446,670 1827 3,705,588
1807 3,525,173 1828 3,177,179
1808 3,90.V_>;r> 182D 3,321.722
1809 3.592,705 1KJO 3,387^097
1810 3,647,737 1831 3,344,918
1811 3.752,111 1832 3,509,835
1812 3,822,979 1833 3,444,102
1813. Records burn!. 1834 3,589,361
1814 3,058,054 1835 3,832,432
1815 4,058,091 iKJij 4,674,535
1816 4,362,496 1837 3,223,8-10
1817 3,431.364 1838 3,362,035
1818 3,872.693 1839 3,658,803
1S19 3,689,805 1840 3,473,964
1820 3,484.220 1841 3,978,188
1821 3,707,270
Between 1831 and 1841 the population increased 14 per
cent., and the increase in the consumption of tea was 161
per cent. The low prices of 1836, and the general pros-
perous condition of the country, raised the quantity which
paid duty for consumption to' nearly 50,000,000 Ibs. In
1840 prices were about 25 per cent, higher, large classes
of consumers were in a distressed state, and the consump-
tion fell to 32,000,000 Ibs. In 1841 the distress still con-
tinued, but prices were lower, and the consumption rose to
above 36,000,000 Ibs. On the 5th of Jan., 1840, the stock
of tea in London, Liverpool, Bristol, Glasgow, and Leith
was 35,478,490!bs. ; and at the corresponding period in
1841 the quantity was 46,545,6 10 Ibs. The proportion of
black to green teas consumed in England is about as 5 to
1 ; but in the United States the use of green tea is greatest.
(Papers issued by the Chinese and East Indie: Assn/'in-
tion ; Parl. Papers, &c.)
The total export of tea from Canton to Europe and
America exceeds 50,000,000 Ibs. Russia is supplied with
G,500,000lbs. via Kiakhta ; the United Slates of America
require about 8,000,000lbs. ; France about 2,000,0001bs. ;
and Holland imports about 2,800,0001bs. The green
tea districts are about 700 miles, and those where the black
tea is made about 200 miles from Canton. The article is
brought from Canton by land carriage, chiefly by porters
and by the canals; and the number of tea merchants who
resort to Canton in the season when the trade is most
. that is, from October to March., is said to be about,
700. The functions of the Hong merchants, through whom
Europeans make their purchases, have been already ex-
plained. [CANTON.] The trade has not been interrupted
m consequence of the present, dispute between England
and China, nor is it likely to be, as it is one of the greatest
importance to the Chinese ; and whenever, in former dis-
putes, it has been temporarily suspended, no difficulty has
occurred in obtaining the usual supply through the traders
of other nations at Canton.
2P2
T ii i:
'_>•:•„>
T II E
THKATINS. or TKATINS, an 01 Jor of monks founded
at Koine i • "'"'
.ell, in Naples, the I^itin name
! who ul\ i". under
th,. ),' IV. Thr institution was confirmed nt
the time of its foundation by thi ' .'incut
VII.: and a final rule, or CMC "I' regulations, drawn up
by a general chr.pt cr of the onlor. was authorised I ;.
men! VIII. in 1G04. The Thcatins were principally
established in Italy and in Fiance, into which latter
country, where they subsisted till the Revolution 01
they were broOcM in MVll |.\ Caidin.il Mazarin. \vho
bought them th. ti I'an-. near the Louvre, and at
i.ath left them 800,000 crowns with whieh they
built a ehureh. Their dress was a lilaek cloak and cassock
with whit. t:ul thc> princi])al peculiarity of tlieir
• ition was that they affected to subsist not only upon
alms, but upon alms bestowed upon them without bone
for. They procured however considerable support
in this way, and they were at one time enabled to maintain
-ia. Mingrclia, and other part-,
:a. Their history has been written by John H
Tufrins. under the title of • Annales Theatinorum.' Tiiere
were also Thcathi nuns (in French, The<iti»i'\], so called
from having been placed by Pope Gregory XV. under the
direction of the Theatin monks, their original and proper
designation bavins: been Sisters of the Immaculate Con-
ceplion. They were divided into two classes: the one
called Theatin nuns of the congregation, founded at
Naples by Ursula Benincasa in l.'iXJ : the other, of later
institution, called Theatin Nuns of the Hermitagi . The
latter were bound by vows of peculiar solemnity and strict-
ness, professing to spend their whole time in solitude and
prayer. The two societies however were intimately con-
! : their houses adjoined and communicated with
one another, and the temporal concerns of those of the
Hermitage were managed by those of the Congregation.
In 1024 Urban VIII. withdrew these nuns from the juris-
diction or superintendence of the Theatin monks, and
placed them under that of the Neapolitan nuncio; but
the former state of things was restored by Gregory IX. in
1608. A notice of a controversy between the Theatins
and the Jesuits, whieh was kept up for a great part of the
seventeenth century, is given by Bayle, in a note to his
article on ' Ignatius Loyola.'
THEATRE (from the Latin thrtitrum, which is from
the Greek Starpov, ' a place for seeing'), a word adopted
in all modern lai • signify a building appropriated
todramatic representations. Hie oldest edifices of this class
are those of the Greeks and Romans, for it was with them
that the European drama originated, and. in point of n-
tilde, they surpassed the most spacious of their temples. The
enormous extent of many of them, and the prodigious
solidity of their construction, are attested by the numerous
remains of such edifices, whieh have been explored not
only in Greece and Italy, but also in Asia Minor. Of
some of them indeed little can now be traced, but others
are sufficiently perfect to convey a clear idea of the ar-
rangement and general appearance of the structure in its
•hut is. however, merely us regards the space
appropriated to the spectators, for scarcely anything re-
mains to explain what is most difficult, and, as regards the
dramatic exhibitions, most important of all to understand,
namclv. t;. including under that term the
whole space i-cqniMie I'm the accommodation of tl.
formers, and for the pi-cpaiation of the exhibition :
the audience. Owing to the want of any evidence of the
kind afforded by the buildings them-,
litlle that can now he gathered from the scanty no!.
antient writers, we are ignorant of many things which can
only be conjectured.
The very eireu mentioned for our ad-
miration, and in proof of the magnificence and sumptuous-
new of some of the antient theatres, also prove how dcsti-
Of anvthing approaching to scenic illusion an.:
effect the performances must have been. Whether it lie
at all exaggerated or not, it is evident from what 1'imv
//'-/.. xxxv i., c. lii, says of the theatre of
\va.- a meic architectural farade, mi-
ll, though luvislilj embellished vvitiin
colui.. ..vith no fewer than 3(Mi of the loimer.
arranged in thn •<• ti ere. and 3000 of the latter, a most incre-
dible number, turpawmg that of a modern audience ; for it
is difficult to conceive how they could all have possibly been
introduced. Pliny pe. iil more when he says that
the middle of th. :ul of the '
- Withoi.' to inquire what can be
•'ass.' perhaps n: Mich
a background to the stage could have been no better than
an extravagant absurdity, and that 1: .mis! have
•'gmie- upon a stl !i en.irmni.
tent, with a number of statues behind them. This un..-t
always have been in some degree Ii • . n m
moderate-sized antient theatres the - normously
wide in comparison with what it is in the very la
dcrn theat , too was ahva, ;mcnt
archil. ction, incapable of change, and instead of
bavin. to the particular performance, it iniist
:itly have been at variance with it. It has been sup-
posed that, besides the permanent scena. the anticnts cm-
ployed, oeea-ionally at 1. ib!e painted s
lie of being let down before it. Yet v.hile tin
be only vaguely interred, the presumption against
founded both on its impracticability and it- extreme im-
probability. How is it possible to have had painted move-
able scenes on canvas, which on the average must
been 21X1 feet in width, especially where the s'
was so shallow and confined at and without any
space for apparatus or machinery over it '.' If again there
was any such scenery. "' would have given rise to a branch
of painting of which the antients appear to have been
nearly altogether ignorant. They seem to have had no
idea of other than figure-painting, with scarcely any attempt
at expressing background, whereas scene-painting entirely
excludes ii -ists entirely of background, either
landscape or architecture, and sky, and requires mure than
a moderate proficiency in linear and aerial perspective,
in regard to both of which the antients appear to have
been deficient. If we may judge from those specimens of
their painting which have come down to us, they t-ccm
scarcely to have aimed at general pictorial effect, or at
more than representing figures alone, without anv V
background 1o them. If, too, there had been amlliii
be.mbling our modern scenery, more explicit mention would
probably have been made of it. if only on account of the
enormous magnitude of such paintings, whu-
imist sometimes have contained a much greater number of
square feet than the sides of the largest temples. Yitru-
v ins does indeed make mention, in the proem to his seventh
book, of Agathai'clms as a scene-painter, and of Demoeritus
and Anaxagoras a- v. liter- on sccnography and perspec-
tive ; lint it is with his usual dryiiess and obscurity, and
with such vagueness of expression, that it is difficult tu
draw any conclusion from his words. Of the former he
merely says ' sccnam fecit.' which probably means no more
than that he was one of the first who introduced some sort
of decoration on the scena, or back wall of the stage, where,
if there was at any time painting at all, it could only have
been MTV partial. "and as :i. uihellishment to that
general facade. — perhaps in Mich pieces as the • I'liiloc-
tetes' something was done to give to the centre doorway of
the scena the appe:.. 'ii entrance to a cavern, —
iHicient to indicate the locality intended to 1 .
pressed. The fixed arrangement of the scena itself, with
three distinct entrances assigned to the performers accord-
ing to (heir rank in the piece, the centre one being for (he
principal characters, the others for those supposed to arrive
on one side from the port, on the other from the country.
was not only a puerile and awkward conventionalism in
itself, but an expedient which shows how imperfect the
antien' nst have been, how destitute of all con-
trivance, notwithstanding its alleged magnificence. What
v at all must have been con-
fined entirely to two I'frtvree ' f,i< ;<.— .n at the sides or
ends of the stage, which served as • w ing-,' and which w ere
upright triangular frames made to revolve upon a central
pivot, so that any of the three sides could be turned to-
wards the audience : a very scanty cliM :,i the
best, and exceedingly limited in effect, it being no more
than sufficient to hnii where the action was supposed to
take, place : whereas the - bore no more resem-
blance to the intended locality of the piece, than do the
proscenium and stage-doors in those modern pia_\.h<
the latter arc sometimes made use of by the per-
formers.
From the use of the term Auleea it has been generally
T H E
293
THE
concluded that the whole stage was concealed by a cur-
tain both previous to the commencement of the perform-
ance and whenever it was requisite to make any change in
the decorations. But we agree with Winckelmann, that
such could not possibly have been the case, because in the
first place it could hardly have been practicable, anil in
the next it was quite unnecessary as regarded the perma-
nent scena or architectural facade. Whatever changes,
says that writer, were made at all could have been only in
the side-scenes or rersuree, and it was merely before them
that curtains or aula>a were drawn at such times; which
circumstance says nothing in favour of what little stage
machinery there was. The notion of there being painted
moveable scenes like ours, capable of being let down or
drawn up at pleasure, is completely contradicted not only
by one, but by every circumstance that can be mentioned.
Admitting the possibility of having scenes of such prodi-
gious size, how are we to reconcile with the use of them
the bestowing so much decoration upon the scena, or wall
at the back of the stage, behind them? — to what purpose
would have been the entrances through that wall, for the
performers to come upon the stage, if there had been a
separate painted scene before it? The stage itself again
was so exceedingly shallow, that it would hardly have
borne to be further contracted in depth, by other scenes
being let down before the permanent one ; nor would there
have been space for them and the versures also. There
would also have been more explicit mention made of such
s, and there would have been some particular term to
distinguish them from what is now called the scena, if they
had ever been used. What Vitruvius says
npon the subject of stage decoration is not only
very brief, but exceedingly obscure, and only
proves his carelessness in omitting to describe
or even mention much that is of real import-
ance, while he goes altogether out of his way to
give us a chapter De Harmonica, and to speak
of many matters that have no connection what-
ever with theatres as a distinct class of build-
ing*.
Even admitting that there was painted scenery,
and that it was not at all inferior to that of our
own theatres either in regard to truth of per-
spective or anything else, it still must have
fallen very far short of the Latter in effect,
if only for the reason that the performances
took place by daylight. At the best the illu-
sion could have been but exceedingly imper-
fect— a strange mixture of the artificial with
the real ; and even what degree of effect there
else might have been, must have been more
or less counteracted by the sun shining on some
part of the stage and scene, while shadows
would be thrown upon them, in others-, by the
wall at either end or side. Or if the stage itself
was at any time roofed in, all the upper part of the
e must have been thrown into shadow, fhe natural
lights and shadows and the painted ones must frequently
have been in strange contradiction to each other ; nor was
it possible to manage any effects of light, as in our theatres,
by either increasing or diminishing it, or by concentrating
it on any particular part of the scenery. The only thing
in favour of the antient stage in this respect, is that there
were no ' foot-lights,' and consequently the faces of the
performers were not lighted from beneath. Yet even this
comparatively unimportant advantage was nullified by the
use of masks, some of them so extravagantly grotesque as
to bear scarcely any resemblance to the human counte-
nance. The most natural masks were in some degree dis-
toitfcl, and a fixed expression of countenance was substi-
tuted for what could properly be only a momentary one.
Hence one great excellence in acting was entirely sup-
• 1 : the face was as rigidly inanimate as in wax-work.
It is true this was of no very great consequence, because,
owing to the vast extent of the theatres, the faces of the
actors could hardly have been distinctly seen, or seen at
all by the great majority of the spectators, more especially
as such aids to vision as opera-glasses were then unknown.
The whole space was so great, that in regard to it the
actors could have been no more than as the figures put
by a painter into a landscape. Neither does what is said
as to their cothurni, or thicksoled buskins, being intended
to make the actors appear taller, give us any very high
idea of the effect so produced; for while the increase of
stature could have been scarcely perceptible — or if it had,
it would have caused the limbs to appear strangely dis-
proportioned — the means employed for it were ill calcu-
lated to give ease and gracefulness to the performer's
movements.
On considering the audience part, and the accommoda-
tion provided for the spectators, although there the ar-
rangement of an antient theatre was nearly perfect, and in
some respects preferable to that of modern ones, it was not
free from many inconveniences. The most obvious one is,
that as there was no roof, there was no shelter from the
weather, on which account awnings were sometimes made
use of to screen from the heat of the sun, while in case
of sudden and heavy rain the spectators were obliged to
take shelter in the corridors behind and beneath the seats,
where there were any, and in the porticos at the back of
the theatre. Besides interruption to the performance, this
must have occasioned considerable confusion in so nu-
merous an assemblage of persons. Beautiful too as the
arrangement of all the seats in concentric rows is in itself,
it is attended with some disadvantage, as will be perceived
on referring to the annexed plans, for instead of being
placed, as in the pit of a modern theatre, parallel to and
immediately facing the stage, a considerable portion of the
audience must have sat sideways to it, with part of it be-
hind them ; and those at the ends of the further or upper
benches could hardly have had any view of the scena at
all. at least not in the Greek theatre.
The Greek and Roman theatres so very nearly resemble
Greek Theatre.
\ .'- ,'
I V rx"
tf&3& \
JPOSTSCENIUM. \ j }'?
.. i / POSTSCEN1UM. .
PORTICUE. C*^- 1
J— ~"^C PORTieiJS.
• *
Roman Theatre.
each other in their general form and principal parts, that
it is only by comparing the plans, for the purpose of seeing
wherein they vary, that the difference between them can
be clearly understood. Such difference however is ex-
T ii )•:
294
'I' H r.
'. tm1 jfer.
till
Th" number of the
bn
tin
K
>.ppro-
I con-
.! an odd <
At P
-n, or
li/iarn. or I'nvrinctions. and •
II to have been only
one Pnecinction lividing then intn two
an equal number of
I. In tlio theatre near EpidBUTOs, lor
.. divided by a single
u formed the first or lowest tier
: while in that ; were
i.-tioM between them.
and -II we, • ::iit. furthest
from the . I:i tlie tl . again.
I'r.i'ci'.iciu.ns. dividing Hie entire number
!. intii Itf, l(i. aiul : i'. ely, reckoning
from the . As regards the distinct 'fii;:!
. ponn them :
the more usual one was to break into separate slopes, re-
: other, like the • flights ent of
the other was to plnve them in a continued slope
'hereby at eaeh prae-
einction the next, 'flight' I lerably elevated wove
the level of that landing, being raised upon a podium or
wall, v.liieh si. ecu the lower and upper
piit'ciiiclinns /ii'liri'"H the seats, there
-Otlier suiT.'-.mdir.g the v. hole riu-lmn, or auditory of
the th r an upper uncovered terrace as
. or a covered nailery with
coluni shown in the plan of the Roman theatre.
where such portico was assigned to females.
I! tl ween the Grecian and Komau orchestra there was a
very wide difference the purpose to which that
space was appropriated. In the Roman theatre il
merely a continuation of the rest of the auditory, being
ied with s. i is, with no other difference
than that the spectators were senators and oilier pi
of dignity. and that benches or chairs must. have bcvn
ranged parallel to the stage. The Greek orchestra, on the
name imports, made use of for the
. w!io*c performances con-
stituted so important a part of the entertainment; and so
thing. could have been letter planned than the Greek
theatre, for the orchestra was \isible from every part.
when iia could not have been distinctly seen, or
hardh . the upper -eats at either
extremity of the eoelum. Hy referring to the plans it will
he seen that while the Roman orchestra does not exceed
half a circle, the Greek forms three-fifths . .in arc j
of 2H. it* pioportions and the depth of the stage
. '.allied by merely inscribing a square within a
taking one side of that square as the boundary of the
ing parallel to it a tangent to the circle.
Such plan DOUgh, OOmplei :>s il niav
appear in the cut, where two other squares an- also drawn
within the circle, and the points of the tin. deter-
mine how far the seat- extend, and the situation of th>
'rXijinnr between the seat.«, — a fanciful operation.il:
more bein^ ller the first one than to divide ii
..... .-licstra into as many equal parts
ID tin- number of a
' lhi> la-st appears to have been the mode pra.
• a> mini;, which (litter from a.s agree
' by VitruviiiH for the Greek theatre.
!in'^ to that, th'.1 divi-ion-. the number of <;ui!
!. would be uniformly the same. viz.
'i:er. and ei^iit of the latter, iucludiui;
'I'hi,. hn
rial differences occur
, for instance, there II
•• , and eleven ascents, consequently an
>.r the pu:
: the cunei. are to be.
not hilt
the or,
J'ier the number be '1 th»
dianu ' : ing given.
that line.
In \Vetter in his work on t!
:iat partici,
by the front of
of an ei|iiilateral tiian .
only one-half isvisible, while the triani
•. how i-nperiect the art <>:
it ation must have been. In addition i IVBII-
:i ! ready poinU'd . ant ol ' mov
ii'iicc that the ^!;:L'<' could
..led in cU :
Takin:; 711 T of the •
which dimeiisio1:
our modern theatres, the depth i.f t!
theatre would be a little more than }<• ;e-seveiith
of that diameter; and in :i Uoma:i ono l~i feet, or just
one-fourth. \Vhile so confine. i lit of
very little dramatic action, it would ^
fhange of H
some measure matter of
might be as near to the front of" th
separated as they were, in the Grecian t. least,
from the audience by the intervi
Strii ' iioning the dc])th of
the stage to tin' At6 of tl
the orchesda to the
appear to ! abject tc.
considerably in ditt'erent I1
one-half, in ,ly one-fillh. or even little n:on tlian
• th of the entire dianiet. . in the
- of I'.pidaurus and Dramyssus, or Janina.
\Vhen it is said that the (
ably larger than the Roman, tl
in the expression, for it mi^ht be ii
was larger than the other in proportion to ii
m the meaning is that the on
funned a larger portion of a < :ding to '.;.
iloman was only ISO degi
semicircle. In the Greek theatre, therefore, tl.
cuts into the stage, and rendeis tliat
by the nl I'ulpitum by the i;
narrower than the extremities, whereas in (lie lv
the same depth throughout,
pulpitum being a mere technical distinction applied io
that portion .'.ing with the on itowhieh
the actors confined themselves, in o
be bet by the v. '.
than vvonli! have been tl j'lans
above given ar: not d.a1.-, n to any partir.ilar scale, bu1.
supposing them to be upon t!>. le, ,:..d the din-
meter of the orehe.-tra in tlie Greek plan to be 1(HI
:iueter of the eoelum or whole auditon will be .'XXI
lie width of the stage an.l \ and the depth
of the logcion only 1"> feet, while in the other the diuicn-
::!.">. depth
of stage and ])ul])itum il.
Anolber point of difference betw. eia'n and
Rinnan thealie i-. that in the former the ..itsi-
* Tli*- aut'u-T.ts .I!M> -.-
metal or rimliru run. Krni.
l.i.i'l in •
It not powlbU now U> jmlp-.
T H E
295
THE
derably elevated above the orchestra, 12 feet or upwards,
consequently there was a wall of that height at the back
of the orchestra, to which was given the name of Hypo-
scenium (awempnov), or Lower Seena, and which formed
a sort of architectural basement to the stage, and was
adorned with niches and statues. This however is little
more than conjectural, for what is known relative to this
and other accessory parts of the stage is deiived not from
any examples of them discovered in antient structures of
j kind, but merely from such mention of the terms ap-
plied to them as is found in a lew antient writers aad com-
mentators, whose explanations are all more or less obscure,
and full of discrepancies. We shall not therefore attempt
to say more relative to either the Greek or Roman stage
and scena than we have already done. It seems to have
been assumed that, because the theatres themselves were
of extraordinary extent and solidity in their construction —
that because there were columns, and marble, and sta-
tues— the stage exhibitions also must have been in the
re superior to those in the comparatively small
theatres of modern times. Yet the truth is, that capacious
a.< the buildings were, being intended to accommodate
nearly the entire population of a city at each performance,
the .si was not at all in proportion to the rest.
There was so little space attached to it either behind or at
its sides, that spectacle and scenic contrivance and effect
must have been almost impossible : when therefore we
:hat -not unfrequently a magnificent compilation of
machinery gradually descended with the divinities of Olym-
pus,' though we do not doubt the fact of there being some
contrivance for letting down performers from above — in
which case, however, the stage itself must have been
1 in — we greatly question the 'magnificence,' and
rather suspect that the contrivance must have been some-
what clumsy, and the effect almost ridiculous.
An experiment has lately been mail,' 'November, 1841)
in the theatre of the new palace at Potsdam, towards re-
viving an antient dramatic performance, with rigorous
i iimc. The piece selected for the purpose
was the • Antigone' of Sophocles, and the theatre and all
the arraiiL ere made to conform as nearly :'
iible to classical example. The pit wits converted into an
orchestra upon the Grecian model, and it was here that
the piT.-iinii who compiled the chorus remained until they
had to appear on the stage, when they ascended to it iii
tile sight of the audience, and descended again in the same
manner, so carefully was all the antient practice ob.-ervcd.
Equal regard to precedent was shown in comparatively
trifling nialtci*: for instance, instead of the curtain being
drawn up, it was let down, as was supposed to have been
the case ill the antient theatres, a circumstance which has
•ly been questioned by us; and it is said that the
effect of the upper part of the scene being disclosed before
the lower was not a little striking. Indeed, if we may be-
lieve all that the Berlin journals ha\e reported of this
clinical exhibition, it perfectly realized its prototype, and
no doubt greatly surpassed it. if it were only because it took
• by candle-light, and the actors did not wear masks.
Little more remains to be said on the subject of antient
Ihcali-es, except to remark that the form of the orchestra
also determined that of the exterior of the building ; while
the Roman theatres therefore did not exceed a semicircle,
those of Greece had a greater curve. In the Greek theatres
however the orchestra was not always extended beyond a
•'•irclc, by the curve being continued, but sometimes
\<y straight lines at right angles to the chord (or parallel to
BB, in the plan of the Roman theatre, whose general form
~haped, the external semicircle being prolonged by
the i- •< theatres were almost invariably
built on the sloping side of a hill, so that, as regards the
coelum, it was merely necessary to shape it out, and erect,
consequently there was no other architectural
exterior than that formed by the Parascene (napamqt/)/;
and colonnade behind the stage ; for which reason the
'•a of curvature did not manifest itself. The Roman
theatres, on the contrary, were erected on level ground,
aad therefore the curved part of the exterior was confined
to a semicircle, a form which unites better with the rect-
anzular one and its straight lines.
The theatre at Athens (called that of Bacchus) was by no
means so - , many others, its diameter being only
250 . liat of the orchestra 72, which are very mo-
derate dimensions in comparison with those of some of the
Asiatic theatres. The Odeion of Regilla, also at Athens,
though similar in its general plan to the usual theatre, was
a music-hall, and was covered in with a tent-like roof,
with a semicircular eye or opening for light. Both struc-
tures were situated at no great distance from each other,
on the south side of the Acropolis [ATHENS, Plan] ; there-
fore the scena of the theatre had a northern aspect, and
must have been in shadow while the performances took
place.
The following is a list of such antient theatres as are
known, together with the respective dimensions of tlreir
general diameter and of their orchestra ; which we have for
the most part taken upon the authority of a similar table
given by Col. Leake, in his 'Tour in Asia Minor,' to which
several other examples are here added.
Uiiim. Orclit-'itra.
Anemurium .... 197 feet.
Aspendus . . . . 400 25 rows of seats.
(scena Ionic and Corinth.)
Athens, Theatre of Bacchus . 250 72 ft.
„ Odeion ... 90 36
Cnidus .... 400
Delos .... 175
Dramyssus, or Joannina . 440 78
Ephesus .... 660 240
Epidaurus .... 370 55
Herculaneum ... 180 16 rows of seats.
Hierapolis .... 346 100
Laodicea, Great Theatre . 364 136
Limyia .... 195 not known
Mantineia .... 227 not known
Miletus .... 474 224
Mvia 360 120
Nicopolis (in Epirus) 360 120
Orange (scena only remaining, 336
ft. wide, 114 ft. high.)
Patara .... 265 96
Perga ..... 25 rows of seats,
Phellus .... 400 Scena 150.
Pol a, about .... 200 68
(destroyed 1636, but plan preserved by Scamozzi)
Pompeii 190 62
Pompeiopolis . . . 219 138
Rome, theatre Marcellus . 517 172
Sardes 396 162
Selinus (in Cilicia) . . 114
Sicyon .... 313 100 '
Side 390 120
Sparta 453 217
Stralonicea .... 390 106
Syracuse .... 440
Tauromenium . . . 330 width of scena 132
Teos 285 70
Trail es .... 540 150
Of some of these theatres scarcely anything remains,
little more than their general shape and extent being now
distinguishable ; accordingly the statements of their dimen-
sions are not to be strictly relied upon, though they are
sufficient to enable us to estimate their comparative size.
Fortunately the antient theatre was not taken as a model
for modem structures of the kind. The revival of thea-
trical representations took place before anything was
known relative to that branch of architectural archaeology,
and under very different circumstances. Dramatic enter-
tainments were then either partly religious, and performed
within churches, convents, and colleges; or were acted for
the amusement of princes and nobles on occasions of
and festivity, in halls merely temporarily lilted up for thai
pin-pose : consequently spacious and permanent structures,
as public theatres, were not required until long afterwards,
when the drama had become a distinct profession. In the
meanwhile a taste for scenic display had developed itself,
which required a very different arrangement of the stage
and its apparatus from that of the antients. Imperfect u.~
they were in many respects, the dramatic pageants and
recitations performed before Leo X. were ' got up' with
great magnificence, and some of the greatest artists were
employed upon the decorations ; among others Bakki..
Pemzzi [PKRUZXI], whose skill in architecture and per-
spective carried scene-painting almost to perfection at
once. Even in the preceding century diamatic exhibi-
liad been produced at Florence in a style then un-
dented ; and we are told that the first Italian theatre
T I! 1
11 I-
wai one erected in that city by Bernardo Buontalenti in
1981 ; tint it di>cs not appear'to have been a public t:
DOT could it h . <-r\ -pacious. : forms
ly a saloon in the building called the Utizi. T
on tl ' built until the early part
of tli. ;th century : ji: hieh time .
tempt had been made to re-tore the form of the iintient
theiitre and stage, with the pennnnent architectural
and it* entrance-, by 1'alliidio. whoso celebrated Toatro
Olimpiio at Yicenza is one oi -.Inch have
pained a traditional reputation fur beyond their real merit-.
Admired at first, because then superior to anything of the
kind, it has continued to be admired since, partly on ac-
count of the character attached to it, which few care to
dispute ; and partly perhaps on account of its -insularity,
ana bccrvn-e it sliows thv peculiarities of the antient
theatre. By no means however is it a very accurate imi-
tation, though its chief merit lies in being a mere imitation ;
it is semi-elliptical instead of semicircular, with tin
on the longer axis of the ellipse : wherefore it loo
much squeezed up one way, and stretched out the other,
and produces the same kind of disagreeable effect an would
tiom placing the stage on the longer side of a paral-
lelogram ot the same extent (96 X 45 feet). It is said that
the space to which the architect was restricted compelled
him to adopt that form, yet it hardly appears so from the
published plans of the building, font would not be difficult
to .-how how a semicircle might have been brought in.
With regard to the scena, for which unlimited admiration
i- claimed, nothing can be more ta-^tele--: it abounds
in almost as many architectural barbarisms and solecisms
as could well be" brought together. Kven Robert Adam
spoke of it as mere ' gingerbread ;' and another architect,
Woods, says, ' The scene, which is the part most admired,
borders upon trumpery ;' and that although the building • is
too celebrated to be omitted, for him it might have slept
in oblivion.' It is not however so much the scena or fac-
ciata itself, as the avenues seen beyond it through the
centre arch and other openings which attract notice, and
have been extolled by some as greatly superior to the
' flimsy' painted decorations upon canvas used in modern
theatres. Those avenues represent as many streets, the
fronts of the buildings being modelled or carved in relief,
and attempted to be shown in perspective by the floor and
ceiling sloping verv much upwards and downwards, and
the other horizontal lines accordingly, and by the pa-
themselves being narrower at the further end. Tin
trivancc is puerile at the best : and instead of being more
deceptive or natural than painted seenerv, the imitative
pcr»pcctivi distorted when viewed from any other
situation than the centre of the theatre and the level of the
stage. It is also difficult to understand how these narrow
enclosed passages could have been properly lighted at the
time of a performance: and although they are, in stage
language. ' practicable,' hardly could they have been made
use of, at least not for their whole extent, because at their
further end an actor would appear gigantic. This struc-
ture is nevertheless entitled to notice as an example of a
very defective and faulty system, and because it has been
frequently mentioned for the purpose of recommending,
on the imposing authority of the name of Palladio, what
ought not to be imitated.
\Ve are not aware of more than one other attempt to
revive the antieiit theatre in all its strictness, which was
that built in 1588 at Sabbionetta, for the Duke Vcspa-iano
Gon/. .imo//i, who completed the Teatro Olim-
pico after Palladio's death. Temanza, who gives a descrip-
tion of the struct fn no longer remain-
ing; but Tirabo.-chi point- this out as a mistake, sawnV
that the building still existed, though very much out of
repair. How far tin • Sahhmuctta dill'ered from
that at Vieeiiza in .-i<cc. Tcmanza has not .-tatid ; but it was
superior to the latter in its plan, the spectatory being semi-
circular, and the orchestra somewhat more. There was like-
as at Vicenza, a Corinthian loggia or colonnade around
the upper part above the seats, but in much bettei
all the intercolumus, except one at eaeh end •
a niche, being open; whereas in the other building the
inns are closed. Y.
mrnt Scamozzi may have made upon 1
work in tl > mpted none w i
most of till wanted, but copied the permanent scena, with
lU aver.ues of mock perspective in relief. We do not say
that the antieiit tin nothing for imitation, or
capable of being applied to modem one-. On the
trary, the L 'he spectator)' is the um.-t ele-
gant and commodious that can be dcu»cd : the absurdity
lay in adopting. ' ith that, 1 I and
than which nothing can be more ill-con! ri\cd, de
. and inconvenient. In fact the antieiit model sup-
,igc at all in comparison with what is now re-
quired for one. but merely a proscenium; and such •
.•.ith merely a stationary architectural • <lro[
I'VIMINC], would answer every purpose of dramatic re
.tation, just as well as the Logeion of thcGi-
the I'lilpitum of the Roman,-, and Palla
architectural background, which will not endure the
slightest comparison with the drop-scene at Covcnt Garden.
For the plan of a complete theatre, tin m<« with
•n-ivc and complex scenery and mechani-m. should
be combined with the form and arrangement of the antieiit
spectatory, though not without nlcrable modi-
fication. This was done bv l^uan-nghi in the Thea'
the Hermitage at St. 1', in another p
theatre in Prince Besborodko's palace, and in a design for
a public theatre intended to be erected at Bassano. A
all, such plan and disposition of
well adapted for a modern public theatre and mixed au-
dience : unless many inconveniences were to be submitted
to, great loss of space, or what would be considered such,
would be incurred, and the number of spec: <l be
much less in proportion to the width of the ' house' and
stage. On tin- other hand, the form of the antient th
maybe applied to a concert-room with such very slight
alteration, that it is rather surprising it should not ha\e
been taken as a model for public rooms of the kind. There
a permanent scena, either of painted or real architecture,
behind the orchestra and singers, would be appropria'
not intended to have any immediate to the
performance itself. ,
In claiming a decided superiority for the modern tl
over that of the ant lent s. we speak only as regard-'
tive systems: and as I'goni, in his Lite of Milizia, oh-
to prefer the Grecian theatre, with all its inconveni.
' and the awkward expedients resorted to in it, as being of
more classical and dignified character than our own compa-
ratively small and fragile yet greatly improved struct!! .
the kind, is to wish to limit art and science within their
first bounds. There certainly was good reason at one
time for exclaiming again.-t modern theatrical architecture
:>s very defective in regard to the audience portion of the
' house.' Till within a comparatively late period, scarcely
any study was i on beauty and convenience nf
plan. The accommodations were hardly so go<
in many very ordinary playhouses, wlu ;
tio other scats than what directly face the
. The 'house' was usually an oblong, eithei
angular or elliptical, so that the greater part of the audi-
iliose in the bu\ placed quite on
the sides. Where the 'house' contracted towards the pro-
scenium, a- rnt!\ the MM, the side-boxes were
actually turned from the stage ; and whether such
the case or not. they were allowed to encroach upon the
ii-elfin such manner, that when the actor- advanced
to the front of tin stage nr hev end the line of the curtain,
they may be -aid to have mingled with the audience, and
111 the boxes on the tn-unl-xi-fiir were actually be-
hind them. If we may judge from the plans and other
drawings of them, the two principal theatres in London
were, even less than a century ago. both as inconvenient
and as ugly as can well be imagined. The approaches
too, usea formerly to be exceedingly bad ; not only imati
and inconvenient, but in many phu misly
nairow. Such is strikingly the case in most of the mo-
dern Roman theatres, for instead of the br - fol-
thc cum- of the 'house,' and being of the same
width throughout, they are so contracted where the other
is wide.-t. that more than two persons cannot pass.
Vi i\ Meal reforms have now taken place, yet tin
still room for further improvement*, obvious, tin. ugh not.
likely to be adopted so long as it i-
of course that the space before the curtain mu-t he made
to contain as many pi he i acked into
it. and that an nudi be piled up around the
whole house to the very ceiling. We do not say th.tt
modern theatres are too lolly ; the cirordocs not lie 'there,
THE
297
THE
but in carrying up the boxes, tier after tier, to such a
preposterous height that the uppermost box is several feet
above the top of the curtain or stage-openings, and the
back seats of the upper-gallery are actually on a level
with the ceiling over the pit." Such accumulation of
diminutive stories gives a crowded appearance to the whole,
and leaves no space for architectural decoration around
the upper part. No doubt a very striking appearance of
a different kind presents itself from the pit and from the
stage, when the house is entirely filled to the very top ;
and if we consider merely the coup-d'oeil from such points,
it may be allowed to be imposing. But then, as regards
that part of the audience who occupy the upper part of
the house, the arrangement is bad. From the seats which
are at all above the level of the top of the curtain, there
Is only a bird's-eye view of the stage and the scenery, and
that only from the front seats, and also facing Hie stage,
lor from those on the side of it it is impossible at that
height to obtain a sight of the scene or even the actors,
unless when they come forward towards the foot-lights.
There should be no seats at a greater height than midway
that of the curtain, or the level of what is now the second
tier of boxes in our large theatres ; for, as the scenery can
be painted only to one horizon, — generally that of the
stage itself, — its perspective effect is more or less impaired
when it is seen from either very much above or below that
level. No less preposterous is the practice of continuing
the side-boxes up to the proscenium, and sometimes (as
in the Opera-house at London) quite up to the very cur-
tain, so that there is no proscenium at all, unless tin-
on the floor of the stage, between the curtain and
foot-lights can be so called. While those so seated lose
the scenery altogether, they have the disadvantage of
seeing between the wings on the side opposite them ; and
although the positive inconvenience resulting from such
arrangement is felt only by a portion of the audience, the
bad effect occasioned by it extends to the whole theatre.
Nut only ought there to be a distinct proscenium, sen ing
n architectural frame to the stage and its scenery,
dividing that part of the theatre from the rest, but it ought
1o be of much ampler proportions than are now given it.
mid extend so far as to leave some interval — a sort
of neutral ground — between the curtain and the boxes, so
as to remove the nearest spectator in them to a tolerable
distance for properly viewing the stage as a picture ; for
it is possible to be as inconveniently near the stage as
distant from it. Where, in order to contract the stage,
or to render the pit and general diameter of the house
considerably greater than what is required for the width
nf the curtain, the plan is made to approach a circle (as
is the case in nearly every theatre built within the last
twenty years), the boxes should be confined to the semi-
circle facing the stage ; and, so far from being a blank, the
curved space on each side between them and the curtain
might be made to contribute very much to the architee-
tuial appearance of the whole house. This would not
take away anything from the pit, and if it materially dimi-
nished the number of the boxes and seats in them, it
would be only where there ought to be nothing of the
kind. The banishing of boxes from such situations, and
making also no more than two tiers, would certainly
greatly abridge the present capacities of theatres : ;i
house of the same size would not contain the same num-
ber of persons as at present, when a large part of the
audience are put where they cannot well see the perform-
ance. It is likely, therefore, to be objected that such a
system would be too expensive, since a large house would
be requisite for a comparatively moderate audience ; but.
curtailments might very well be made elsewhere, for at
present the whole building is frequently very much larger
and more costly than actual necessity requires, the 'house'
. be its dimensions what they may, taking up a com-
ively small area of the entire plan, while the rest is
occupied by stately approaches and saloons, which, where
economy rendered it expedient, might be greatly abridged,
:nuch plainer in style, and some of them omitted alto-
-uperfluous appendages.
In some of the modern continental theatres, the pomp
displayed in such accessory parts of the building far ex-
1 1 ling of the kind in this country. In that at Berlin,
other spacious apartments, is a music-saloon
.is leet high, 44 wide, and 100 feet in length in its upper
j,!,.-). where there if a screen of six Ionic columns at each
P. <:., No. ir,'2T).
end ; the whole highly decorated, and forming one of Schin
kel's richest pieces of interior architecture. The theatre
at Munich has two staircases to the boxes, with flights of
marble steps 13 feet wide ; and besides two saloons for
the public (each 82x31 feet), there is a very magnificent
one communicating with the royal box — not a mere ante-
room, but what would be termed a noble room even in a
palace, its dimensions being 40X44 feet, and 25 in height.
In both these theatres, and in that of Genoa, the royal or
state box is itself a room of some size, about 15 by 18 feet,
more or less ; and according to the general custom of the
continental theatres, this box (which occupies the height
of two tiers, and is adorned with caryatides in front) is
directly in the centre of the house, facing the stage, con-
sequently in the very best situation of all ; whereas the
situation assigned to royal visitors in our theatres is almost
the very worst, as far us seeing the stage and the per-
formance is concerned.
In regard to the form of the ' house,' a decided improve-
ment has taken place of late years ; and the circular plan,
or one approaching to it (either extended by the curtain
being a tangent to the circle or somewhat beyond it, or
reduced by the curtain intersecting and forming a chord to
the segment), may now be considered the one established
as being the most pleasing and commodious — that which is
best adapted for affording a distinct view of the stage to
the majority of the audience. But there is considerable
difference of opinion as to its being the best form in regard
to hearing. In fact, the science of acoustics i» not yet
brought to exactness as regards practical purposes in
building : it is easy enough to ascertain beforehand how
mr.-jli of the stage will be visible liom different parts of
the theatre, but not so what will he the result as to sound,
since that will depend upon a variety of circumstances,
some of them counteracting each other, and not everyone
of them to be guarded against or foreseen. The shape of
the house is but one of them out of many ; .much will also
depend upon size, much upon the depth of the boxes and
galleries, and also upon accidental and such trivial matters,
that any delect or advantage so occasioned is not likely to
be traced to them. Here the chief guide is experience;
and experience seems at. present to be in favour of, at
least not at all against, the circular form; for the new
theatres at Mayence, Dresden, and other places where it.
has been adopted, are said to be perfectly satisfactory in
regard to the actors being distinctly heard in every part.
While in their internal embellishment and titling up
theatres afford very great scope to the architect, though
not so much as they might do, they also afford opportunity
for accomplishing much in regaid to characteristic exter-
nal design. Magnificent as are the exteriors and facades
of the theatres at St. Petersburg, Berlin, Munich, Bordeaux,
and Nantes, with their porticos and colonnades, there is
nothing in them that very clearly expresses their particular
purpose, because nothing that corresponds with or indicates
the form of the ' house 'itself within. Moller, we believe,
was the first who made the internal plan discover itself
from without, by making the auditory, at least the corridors
and saloon surrounding it, project out as a spacious semi-
cm lt>, in the fa;ade of the theatre at Mayence. The same
form of exterior has been given by Semper to the new
theatre at Dresden, which is also remarkable for the dis-
play it makes of sculpture.
Alter all it is the stage itself, with its multifarious con-
t ri\ ances and complex mechanism, its scenery and pictorial
effects, which manifest the extraordinary perfection to
which the moderns have carried the scenic, if not the dra-
matic ait; nor can we exclude the latter, unless we choose
to blot out the name of Shakspere. It does not enter into
our purpose however to speak of stage mechanism, which
is a .subject and study by itself, and not otherwise connected
with theatres and their architecture than as being made
use of in the former. Those who seek for information of
the kind will meet with many plates showing the stage
construction and mechanism of Plymouth theatre, in
Foulstone's ' Public and Private Buildings ;' and, with more
general and complete instructions, in Stephenson's work
on the machinery of theatres. Neither can we make any
additions here to what, has been already said on the subject
of SCKNK-PAINTING. We will only observe that very
great improvements and numerous contrivances for pro-
ducing stage and sce'iic effects had been introduced into
theatres at the commencement of the seventeenth century.
VOL. XXIV.— 2 <j
T II I
itret.
THE
Architect.
-
W ..'.I , ..!
CurUlR.
1 : •
lu llock
lirr.tc.1
BfMdtk
of Hi.
E?
H..1 ..I
«,
Bologna . . .
Ant. O. Bib-
hicna
49ft.
77ft.
59ft.
02ft.
Genoa ....
Carlo Barabino
40
88J
64
BO
H2 ft.
Kntire building 314 by 15s 1'eit.
deep
Kexastyle, Doric portn-o. six tiers
of boxes. ro\al box. oval in plan;
wide
two tiers in height, with an:
21 by 13'. leet. and ^
4«l Feet, and 3!l feet hiirh.
Imola ....
Cos. Morrlh
About
H
68
42
38
M
Remarkable for singular arrange-
1780
deep
ment of proscenium, with three
68
ate openings.
wide
Milan, La Scala .
Gius. Pierniarini
About
44
90
67
75
Six tiers of boxes. Saloon 100 by
•-'I leet.
Naples, San Carlo
Gior. Metrano ;
restored, &c.
l'sl7
BO
83
7:i
SO
If
deep
Burnt 1816, rebuilt 1817. Six tiers
of boxes, in all 181. Spectators
Ant. Nicco-
110
2800.
lini
wide
Parma, Great Thea-
Giam. Aleotti,
1619
36
14H
50
10
On the first floor of the Ducal
tre ....
Bernini
Palace. Not used since. 1733.
Parma, New Theatre
Canonica and
1S22-3
30
7.-» to
Nic. Bcttoli
'a rk of
boxes
Rome, T. Aliberti
Fci-d. G. Bib-
li'.l
(Hi
52
40 by
Shape very bad, and staircases and
biena
72
corridors dangerously nai
Rome, La Argentina
Marq. Teodoli
39J
66
54
43
54
deep
No other proscenium than a deco-
rated pilaster lace between boxes
19
and curtain. Six ti>
w ide
Pit floor quite 1
Rome, Teat, della
Kestd.
30
47
10
13
No proscenium, the boxes eoming
Valle . . .
17C6
deep
quite up to curtain. St;,
usually small and confiiK
capable of being extended 1'J feet
more in depth.
Rome, T. Tordinona
C. Fontana, but
43
51
50
75
Six tiers of boxes.
since altered
deep
72
wide
Turin, Opera-House
Ct. Bened. Al-
1740
40
78
53
53
105
fieri
deep
78
wide
Venice, La Fenice
Ant. Selva
About
42
70 to
02
49
40
Burnt down 183o, but since restored.
1790
backol
deep
Five tiers of boxes.
boxes
91
wide
Vicenz«,T. Olimpico
Palladio
About
78
50
115
III
22
1680
width
greats!
deptli
of
width
of
of sail e
itage
before
scene.
FRANCE.
Paris, L'Odeon
Baraguey,
1H20
424
62
51
66
An insulated structure, about 17J
Paris, Francais
Louis,
partly rebuilt
17!H)
88
59
54
deep
X 118 feet, originally built by
IV' \Vailly and the cld"er P
by Fontaine
U-2'
'iilie
Debret
Oprnd.
524
07
61
95
Saloon 98 by 21, and 21 feet In
Km . de .MiiMi|iie,
Autrt.
deep
or Opera
1SJI
Paris, Venladour .
Huve
49
57
64
Insulated structure, 172 by 114 feet.
Exterior two orders, Doric and
Ionic, in arcades. Saloo . us x
Paris, Yt ydeau
Leijrand and
About
49.
49
32
21. and 21 high.
inos
17110
deep
Front curved.
78
\viilt1
Versailles, in Palace
34
60
50
44
70
deep
48
wide
THE
299
THE
From
Height
Architect
Dale.
Width of
Curtain.
Curtain
to Hack
of Pjt.
Hreadtli
of I'it.
from
Floor of
I'it.
Stage.
Bordeaux .
Louis
Fin.
39ift.
64ft.
02} ft.
57*ft.
70ft.
This splendid theatre restored and
1780
includ.
boxes
ditto
deep
refitted up by Bonfin, 1832.
Besai^on .
Ledoux
About
49
• 64
52
36
Insulated, about 124X100 feet.
1777
deep
1 65
wide
Lyon ....
Soufflot
1754-6
32
63 to
36
35.}
68
Insulated building, 180X130 feet.
back of
deep
This theatre has been rebuilt after
boxes
50
a different design.
About
wide
Nantes
Crucy
1810
37*
62
49
51
47X65
Portico, Corinthian octastyle before
tetrastyle in antis.
GERMANY AND BELGIUM.
Berlin, Opera-house
Von Knobels-
dorff
1740-3
26
64
42
58
50
deep
An insulated building, 214 X 78 feet.
Principal front, Corinth, portico,
52
hexastyle monoprostyle, on low
wide
basement.
„ Great Theatre
Schinkel
1816
43
62
44
66
A magnificent structure, with Gre-
deep
cian Ionic hexastyle portico on a
86
lofty flight of steps.
wide
Dresden .
Semper
1837-
1841
Hamburg .
Schinkel
1826-7
40
69 to
50
50
60
Plan of auditory nearly circular,
back ol
deep
i.e., a circle of 06 feet diameter,
boxes
80
to which the curtain is a tangent.
wide
Four tiers of boxes, and amphi-
theatre formed by a colonnade of
22 pillars.
Mannheim . ,
Ant. G. Bib-
30
46
71
biena
deep
Mayence . . .
Moller
Fin.
54
74
60
50
Insulated, about 250 X 140 feet, with
1833
deep
semicircular projection, 140 feet
80
diameter on one of longer sides
wide
or facade.
Munich ....
K. von Fischer
Open.
39
78
62
64
91
Burnt Jan. 14, 1823 ; restored 1824-
1818
deep
25. Octastyle Corinth, portico,
'
94
including boxes, the auditory, a
wide
circle 72 feet diameter, between
which and curtain is a space of
9 feet. Five tiers of boxes.
Wolfenbiittel, in the
Ottmer
1836-7
28
44
29
27
36
Private theatre, fitted up in Gothic
palace
includ.
deep
style, but detail in poor taste.
boxes
56
wide
Ghent ....
Roelandt
1837-9
37
59
42
60
Fa9ade 300 feet. Oval saloon 91 x
deep
59, making, with smaller saloon
78
and concert-room, an extent of
wide
270 feet.
RUSSIA.
St. Petersburg, Great
Theatre . . .
Tischbein;Tho
mond
1782-3
1803
52
CO
50
52
95
deep
Insulated building, 150X270 feet,
with octastyle Ionic portico. Sa-
70
loon 125X30 feet.
wide
„ Theatre of
'Hermitage'.
Quarengbi
1780
36
60
60
42
70
deep
70
Theatre a semicircle, without boxes,
but surrounded by a Corinthian
colonnade of 13 intercolumns,
•
wide
with seats.
ENGLAND.
London, Opera-
Novosielsky
1790
40
84
60
51
35
No proscenium. Corridors, &c.
holism ....
deep
very mean.
80
wide
„ Covent-garden
Sir R. Smirke
1809
32
66
51
M
55
deep
The whole building about 209 X 160
feet. Saloon 50X19 feet.
86
wide
2 Q 2
I II I.
300
r u i:
AirUtPrt.
D.I..
width or
tnm
1 1 '
I •
1 -'I
i . . ., r
«
London, Drury-lane
Ben. V
IK 11 :l
32 n.
frtfl.
son.
oon.
•is n.
The whole 24OX1I"
Ben.
wide
'.XIX'JU i
8(1
,. English Opera
Beazlcy
."Ml}
39
The inner hall, "with slaiu-n-
:i of cohn. h end,
a pi.
Birmingham
Plymouth .
Beailer
.T. Foulstonc
•-N
The 'house' or auditor)- form> a
1M11
ilcep
vet diameter, of which
the i • ibout three-
\\ ide
fourths. Pit :( .. <'ter.
i ml theatres, all more or lest worthy of notice, havt
icd within tin- present century. Imt arc omitted
in the tahle, a-- we cannot specify the respective dinien-
:. joined list of mem, with their nnhitects'
name-*, may however be useful : —
lica.
ara ; Ant. I'oschini.
Florence, Teatro Goldoni ; Gins, del Hos-o. IS17.
Theatre after uitient plan ; Anton '
;ia: Canoniea.
Trento ; Ducati. IHiJ.
. n : \Veinl)reniier.
Vans, opened November, lull.
.t : T.udw. Zanth. begun I
-ruhe : \Vcinbrcnncr. !>''.
Coblcntz: Von Kralie.
istadt: Moller and Heir, r. 1-1K-19.
i; Semper. IR'17-!). Opened May, IfUO.
• if Tli. : TViicoyen. IK j I.
St. i 'rinsky Theatre ; Rossi. Opened
Am
THKATKK. Before the reign of Elizabeth theatrical
- :ippcar to have been subject to no legal
1 the liability of tin -e v. ho conducted them
t" the \:<giant laws. Until the middle of tin1 seventeenth
always attached to the establishment
either of the com) or of some \\ealthy subject, whose
I ad:.'.1 and livery they wore, and whose superintendence
: -resumed to control any excesses which might be in-
jurious to the public : but when their seivices were not
required by those to whom they especially belonged, it was
n-ual for such j '.andcr about the country, exhi-
biting their performances for train, and thus bee.
ul even mendicants. In the reign of Henry VII.
11:1 in~taiice i- recorded of n gratuity given by that king In
1 by th"1 way.' The chief n-
- were liable previously to
the statute nf Elizabeth in which they were cxp
mentioned, were1 measures of police lor preventing tumults
:md breaclles of tin 'Mage ul
numbers of people, at their representation*. Occasionally
however these popular exhibitions attracted the animad-
•i of the government by holding up mat!
to public censure or ridicule. Thus in l.ViO. when the
unpopular mac, M.-uy with Philip of Spain
it excitement 1 1n diiLrhoul Ihe country, the
council di.-ccl tin1 attention of the lord president of the
North to ' certain lev namiiur IhemseKcs to be
ike. iind wearing bis livery or
on theii u'orth
and repre-eiilins: certain ]ila\s and interlud.
fleeting on the (|ueen and her eon-oit and the foiinalilie-
of 1h' Hiri'iilx, vol. iii..
Appendix, p. IH.'i. K\ci-.-es of a similar character, oc-
currini: at the beirinnini; of Ihe I'ollowini; rciirn. and di-
a^aiu--l I' -it religion, were checked by the
»tat. 1 KHz., c. 2, s. 0. which inflicted a penalty of I(HI
marks upon ' persons who in plays or interludes declared
or (poke anything in deic^atnm, depr.-nin^ or <lespisin^r of
Book Of CommOO 1'rayer.'
•ilthoutrh players, as such, were in those days
jcct to no general letral restiictiniis. it i~ probable ti
practice of granting licences from the crown to such pcr-
»on«prevni M- reign of Henry VIII. It ap-
pear* to«, from a curious paper published by Malonr. in
tu» • Hutoncal A : the English Stage,' thai in the
reign of Elizabeth strolling players, though bcloniv
some great person, usually applied for a licence to the
local authorities of any town in which thc\ meant !.•
form. 'When p'ayers of interlude- the city of
filoucester.' >ay.- Ih'is document. • the mannei is, as in uther
like corporations, that they tirst attend the mayor to inform
him what imbli -. anti. they aie. ami
licence for their public playing.' 'I
n the crown inr.v e\ta:it is that B
Queen Kli/.ahcih, in l.">74, to. lames liurbn^.
, i:iut- to the ei which coii
a proviso that the perform:!
they are publicly represented, shall be seen and al
by the ijuceu's master of the ie\eU: a stipulatior.
to the licence of the lord chamberlain under tl.e
A<-t at t!:e present day. These licences fiom
were originally nothing uion1 than authorities to itin
which exempt'ed strolling players from being molested by
proceedings taken under the laws or proclamatio
v agrants, and also supei-scded thi 11 om
local magistrates. The' statute H;) I'.hx... c. 4, went a steji
farther, and by implication authorised noblemen to h
]>layei-s. by enacting that 'all common players of interludes
wandering abroad, other than players of interludes be'
ing to any Laion of this icalni. or any other honoi;
:iLTe' of greater degree, to be n;ithoii--ed to play
under the hand and ins of such baron or
. should be adjudged rogues and vagabonds.' This
slalute has been frecjueiitly ii'.i-ieprc-eiited as denoiinciiig
all players as rogues and' vagabond-
- '.- Howcll- I. iii.. p. 5()7;; wher.
is obvious that the enactment applies oriy to
players.
Although theatrical representations became much i
i in the reigns of .lames I. and Charles I., mi
\presslyeiiacled for their regulation, with the single
ion of the slat. ICar. 1.. c. I. which suppre-,cd the
performance of • interludes and ce.mmou plays' upon the
l.oid'-. Day. An oixlinance of the Long Parliament, ID i
.ccied to the suppression of all slage-jilays and in-
terludes, but thoiiiih occasionally enforced with much
rigour, it failed to abolish these entertainments. The slat.
!'_' Ann., slat, 'i c. it, in geneial terms, classed ])la\ i
interludes as rogues and \agaboiuls ; but the stat. 1(1 >'
II. .c. '_s. -. I. expounded the former statute by enacting
that ' every person, who should for hire, gain, or rev
.it, or perform any piny or other cnteitaini
)! Ihe stage, or any part therein, if he shall not ha\e any
tlienient \\iien1 Ihe offence should be connni:
without authority by patent from the King, or licence from
the Lord Chamberlain, should be deemed a rogue and
• >ud within the stat. 1'J Ann." Hut this provision is
pealed by the stat. 5 Gep. IV., c. Ki. and ])laye
such, whether stationary or itinerant, are at the pi .
day not amenable to the law as rogues and vagabonds.
liythe 'Jnd section of the above statute. Id Geo. II.. <
which, with the exceptions just in, id in
full operation, and forms the law of the metropoli-
tan theatres, it is eiia'-ted generally, thai ' e\ ,
who shall, without a patent or licence, acl or perform any
Miinenl of the staL'e for hire. gain. • -liafl
forfeit the sum of 5(1'.' Hythe. arcd,
that ' no person shall for lure. gain, or rewaid act. per-
form, or repiesent any new interlude, tragedy, comedy,
opera, play, farce, or other entertainment of the itagft, or
is therein; or any new act, scene, or other pail
T H E
301
THE
added to any old interlude, tragedy, comedy, opera, play,
1'arce, or other entertainment of the stage, or any new pro-
logue or epilogue, unless a true copy thereof be sent to
the Lord Chamberlain of the King's household for the
time being, fourteen days at the least before the acting,
representing, or performing thereof, together with an ac-
count of the play-house or place where the same shall be,
and the time when the same is first intended to be first
acted, represented, or performed, signed by the master or
manager.' The 4th section authorizes the Lord Chamber-
lain to prohibit the performance of any theatrical enter-
tainment, and subjects the persons infringing this prohi-
bition to a penalty of 50^. and the forfeiture of their patent
or licence. The 5th section provides, that ' no person
shall be authorized by patent from the Crown or licence
from the Lord Chamberlain to act, represent, or perform
for hire or reward any interlude, tragedy, comedy, opera,
p'ay, farce, or other entertainment of the stage, in any
part of Great Britain, except in the city of Westminster and
within the liberties thereof, and in such places where the
Kins shall personally reside, and during such residence
only.' The 7th section enacts, that ' if any interlude,
tragedy, comedy, opera, play, farce, or other entertain-
ment of the stage, or any act, scene, or part thereof, shall
be acted, represented, or performed in any house or place
where wine, ale, beer, or otlier liquors shall be sold or
retailed, the same shall be deemed to be acted, repre-
sented, and performed for gain, hire, and reward.' Within
a few years after the passing of this act of parliament, the
clause which restricted the power of granting patents by
the Crown to theatres within the city of Westminster and
places of royal residence, was found to be productive of
inconvenience ; and special acts of parliament were passed
exempting several larsre towns, in which such entertain-
ments were desired, from the operation of that clause, and
authorizing the King to grant letters for establishing thea-
tres in such places. Instances of statutes of this kind occur
with respect to Bath in stat. 8Geo. III., c. 10 ; with re-pert
to Liverpool in the stat. 11 Geo. III., c. 16; and with
respect to Bristol in the stat. 18 Geo. HI., c. 8.
A further relaxation of the rule established by the stat.
10 Geo. II., c. 28, for the regulation of theatrical perform-
ances, was effected by the statute 28 Geo. III., c. !$0, in
favour of places which could not be expected to bear the
expense of a special act of parliament. By this latter
statute, the justices of the peace at general or quarter
'tis are authorized to license the performance of any
such tragedies, comedies, interludes, operas, plays, or farces
as are represented at the patent or licensed theatres in
ninster, or as have been submitted to the Lord Cham-
berlain, at any place within their jurisdiction not within
20 miles of London. Westminster, or Edinburgh, or 8 miles
of any patent or licensed theatre, or 10 miles of the king's
nee, or 14 miles of either of the universities of Ox-
ford or Cambridge, or 2 miles of the outward limits of any
place having peculiar jurisdiction.
The penalties imposed by the stat. 10 Geo. II., c. 28,
being found in practice insufficient to prevent the per-
formance of theatrical entertainments without licence, and
great evils being experienced from the resort of the lower
* in London to such entertainments, the legislature
in the year is:;:) save additional powers to the metropoli-
tan police for their prevention. By the 46th section of
the slat. 2 and 3 Viet., c. 47, ' the Commissioners of police
are empowered to authorize a superintendent, with such
constables as he may think necessary, to enter into any
house or room, kept or used within the metropolitan police
district, for stage-plays or dramatic entertainments into
vrhich admission is obtained by payment of money, and
v.hich is not a licenced theatre, and to take into custody
all persons who shall be found therein without lawful
excuse.' The same clause enacts that 'every person keep-
ing, using, or knowingly letting any house or other tene-
ment for the purpose of being used as an unlicenced
theatre, shall be liable to a penalty of 20/., or, in the dis-
cretion of the magistrate, may be committed to the House
of Correction, with or without hard labour, for two calen-
dar months; and every person performing or being therein
without lawful excuse shall be liable to a penalty of forty
shillings.'
It may be desirable in this article to refer to a statute
which v.a , passed in the year IR'i'i for the protection of dra-
matic literary property, and which placed such property
upon the same footing as the copyright of published books.
The stat. 3 & 4 Will. IV., c. 15, enacts that the author of
any tragedy, comedy, play, opera, farce, or any other dra-
matic piece or entertainment, shall have as his own pro-
perty the sole liberty of representing the same at any place
of dramatic entertainment ; and that the author of any
such production, published within 10 years before Hie
passing of the act, or his assignee, shall, from the time of
publication until the end of twenty-eight years, and, if
the author be living at the end of that period, during the
residue of his natural life, have as liis own property the
sole liberty of representing such production. The infringe-
ment of this right is forbidden under a penalty of ' forty
shillings for every unauthorized representation of such
production, or the amount of the benefit derived from
such representation, or of the injury sustained by the author
therefrom, whichever shall be the greater damages.'
THEATRE, ENGLISH, FRENCH, &c. [ENGLISH
DRAMA.]
THEATRE, HINDU. [SANSCRIT LANGUAGE AND
LITERATURE.]
THEBAIA. [PARAMORPHIA.]
THEBAID, orTHEBAIS (Qrfaif, sc. X6pa, Thebais), sig-
nifies the territory or district belonging to Thebes, and is
consequently applied to the whole territory subject to the
city of Thebes in Boeotia. [THEBES IN BOEOTIA.] In a
similar, though a much wider sense, the name was given
to the whole of Upper Egypt, the modern Said, of which
Thebes was the principal city. This territory extended from
Hermopolis Magna southward as far as the first cataracts of
the Nile, or to Philae ; or, according to others, as far as Hiera
Sicamina. This great province was, according to Straho
fxvii., p. 787), originally divided into ten nomes (vo/ioi) ;
but Pliny (Hist. Nat., v. 9) enumerates eleven, and others
mention fourteen — the nomos Lycopolites, Hypseliotis,
Aphroditopolites, Tinites, Diospolites, Tentyrites, Phatu-
rites, Hermonthites, Apollinopolites, Antaeopolites, Pano-
polites, Coptites, Ombites, and the nomos Dodecaschoenus.
Respecting the nature of these nomes and the physical
features of the Thebaid, see EGYPT.
THEBES (e/j/3ai, Thebae). Towns and cities of this
name occur in several parts of the antient world, but the
two which are most renowned in history are the Egyptian
and the Boeotian Thebes, of which we shall speak sepa-
rately, and subjoin a list of the other places of this name.
TIIKBES IN EGYPT, in the Bible called No, or No Am-
men, was situated in the central part of Upper Egypt,
which derived from this city the name of Thebais. [TnE-
BAID.] This city consisted of two main parts, which were
divided by the Nile, one occupying the eastern, and the
other the western hank of the river, and each extending
from the river to the foot of the hills which enclose the
valley ol' the Nile. This gigantic city, whose ruins still
excite astonishment, was believed to be the most antient
town of Etrypt, and the original metropolis of Egypt. Its
foundation was ascribed by some to Osiris, who named it
after his mother (Diodonis Sic., i. 15), and by others to the
,ing of the house of Busiris. (Diodorus Sic., i. 45.)
According to other authorities, Thebes was an Ethiopian
colony. Its original circumference is stated to have been
140 stadia. Its most flourishing period appears to have
been about HiOO B.C., when it was the capital of all Egypt,
and when, according to Herodotus and Aristotle, the whole
country of Egypt bore the name of Thebes (eij/3nt).
During that period, which probably comprises several cen-
turies, Thebes was the residence of the Egyptian kings,
whose tombs are still extant in the rocks on the western
side of the city, and extend even to the borders of the
desert. (Strabo, xvii., p. 816, ed. C'asaub.) Homer (Iliad,
ix. 381, &c.) speaks of the splendour, greatness, and wealth
of Thebes, and calls it ' the city with a hundred gates,'
each of which sent out two hundred men with horses and
chariots. During the invasion of Egypt by the Persians
under Cambyses, Thebes, like other towns, suffered very
severely, especially the private dwellings, which were for
the most part constructed of wood, while the great archi-
tectural works defied the flames as much as they have
defied the slower influence of time. (Diodorus Sic., i. 4G ;
Herodotus, iii., 25 ; Pliny, Hist. Nat., xxxvi. 9.) After
this catastrophe the city appears never to have recovered
her former greatness. During the time of the Ptolemies,
when the seat of government was in the northern extremity
of the country, Thebes appears to have been neglected by
r ii i:
302
T ii i:
the Kop'.ian km-,. In the re
about hi. 86, n
it »a» taken mill \>
the tune o
by tl.-
and the circuit of tin- city,
!. amounted to eighty stadia, the
. .illlliiT of \illaire-. iiml wlml remained
of tlu' antieut . .in-fly of temples. I'mler
tin- Kiiiuan dominion souicthini: appears to have been done
: hut new cala-
miii, i it when Christianity was introduced
into I .1 llu- rliristians in their religion
1 tii themselves as much a
could "of the w ant ienl idolater*. At present
,,picil by tour principal villages,
,.1111011 and Mcdi-
Uxni on tl.. side ni the river. The buildings
•culpturcs still extant are the most autient of any that
:ypt. and are the licst and mo>t genuine speci-
iii art and architecture, lor v, e IIIIM-
reason to believe that by far the greatest Part ol 1lll'nl
jit Lad yet experienced i.
fluen. . 'hat' i.-. lout: before the IVrsian inva-
sion, iiiins. chielly consisting of tin
! obelisks, occupy nearly the whole
of the \alley of the Nile, a Ijp
d "on the western .side, where the mills of
'> cud, there begins, us it wcic, the city of tlu
the tonibs iu th< !i their pamtint:.-. which are still
-h as if (hi ! made on: i. For
the articles K(,vi-r,
,-ially tin- Uritisli Museum.
: and Wilkinson's ' Topo-
i his work • On the Manners and Cus-
of the Antlent i chap. v.
TIIHIIK-. is BoSOTIA, one of the most aiitient and most
important cities of (ireeee. was situated in the plain be-
tween Lake Hyliee on the north, and a range of low hills
on the south. The Acropolis of the city, built upon an
eminence in this plain, was said to have been founded by
Phoenician* under I 'admus, whence it was called Cadmea
;.n'a ; Strabo. ix., p. -101 ; Pausania.s. ix. ^i. 1 : Su-
phatn .. K«r/um . Around this citadel the city
at a later time, and was so disposed, that the L'
portion of it occupied the part north of the citadel. Accord-
ing to an antient letrcnd, the city was fortified by /ethos,
and Aniphion, the wonderful lyre-player, who, by his
music, made the stones mine and form the. walls round tin-
city. iPausiini: 1. Jcc. ; Homer, Odyss., xi. 2(i2,
1'n \iuus to the Trojan war the city was destroyed
by the Kpitjoni. that is, the descendants of the seven Ar-
heroes who had been defeated by the Thcban-. and
from tin-, destruction it does not appear to have reco\civd
before that war, as it took no part in the expedition a<:ain-t
In the time of Homer however, who calls it • a city
with .seven nd irivcs it the attribute of
...di;. on account of the extensive plain which formed
i.'itory. it appeals in have again been in a flourishing
iMon. The naiiie^ of the seven gates of Theb.
still ; .-lulus. Pausanias, Apollodorus. and
eond time,
i-r the Great. On his acccs-ion to the throne
:'iid attempted to shake off
Of the lower city nothing w:
on this or tin- temples, ami the
house of 1'imlar the , uts were Killed.
:idcr rebuilt the city ill H.i1.
' •
. ix. 7. '•
a third lime i
•'liollt
this time or shortly iilli-r, h
iia in
its lurm is nearly i-ircn; ir, anil it
•HOC somewhat gloomy, ll i- plentifully provided with
water and pastures, and the gardens arm:, iictter
than any i iiinmcr, mi
account of the plentiful snpph
and the beautiful gardens: in
unplramnt . intc of fuel, ar
to flood* and cold wind-. At this season heavy lulls
of >now v, dirty.
Pica . ed.
Kuhi
been between Ii
i time ImwcMT tin ;ied still •
Sulla - Mow by de) .iiv ini: it
of halt of Its tenitoiA, which he a>»i<;iied to the Pclphians
ix. 7. i : ••(•• ~ 'liat 111 his
•ije appeaiaiii" \.. ]).
-.nib. . In the time of I'
then called Thebes, was still inhabited, but the
itiivly abandoned : and he only saw the v.
and temples, ol' which be irm.-a description. The .
which now m-cupics the antient Cadmea is called T
or 1'heba, and in Turkish, Sliva: and here, as well
tin' Mirroundini; plain, there are many remains of antient
buildings, sculptures, and insciiption-.. The inhaliitants
of antient Theljes were distmiruishcd above all the other
rusticity, fierceness, and passion. Hi i
Thebaii was always ready to i dispute, either with
aiellow-eiti/en or with a foreigner, by liirlitim; rather than
by the ordinary course of justice. The women
i for their gentleness and beauty. (Picaearchus, as
above.)
In early times Thebes was governed by kin^s. who play
a more prominent part in the mythical traditions of Gi
than the chiefs of any other part of the country. The
\anthus. was slain in single combat
..Iropompus. Aftei this c\cnt the government of
Thebes became an aristocracy, or rather an oligarchy.
5, H.) This Inrm of iriivernment. althoui;h
I fie(juenlly restored for a short tun. . to a
democracy. \Vh. . ihatnoom ed to hold
any public office unless he had. at least for ten years, not
been in any trade, this rule seems to
to tin ic period. (Aristot., J'n/il..w. .'(. p. SO;
vi. -1. ]). 120:), ed. Glittli'i^. Purini: the time of the ljer-
sian invasion, the Slovenian : called an
hut it is added that this was not the constitution which
the Thebans had inherited from their fathers. (Tl.
dides. iii. (>J ; Plutarch, Ari&tid., 18. The democracy,
which must have been restored soon -. , abo-
lished after the battle of Oenophyta. in n.i . -l.">7.
totle, Ptilit., v. 2, p. 15.").; In the Peloponnesiaii war we
a^amlind mention of an oligarchy al Tin In.- Thueydides,
i\. 7(i ; v. :il ; Diodorus Sic., xii. (i'.l : but this appears to
refer only to the influence of the magistrates, for through-
out that time, as well as afterwards in the time of l.i
nondas and Pelopidas, it was the assembly of the people
which decided the most important political questions, such
as those relatinir to war and peace, i \~cnophon. ///•//,"«.,
iii. "), 8. Henceforth the democratical constitution ap-
pears to have continued at Thebes down to the time that
Greece fell into the hands of the Romans, and a shadow
of it remained even afterwards. Aloii£ with the assembly,
which, at least in later tunes, was a- tumultuous as that
of Athens (1'olylmis. vi. •!•! . Thebes also had a senate;
and the magistrates, who were elected annually by ballot,
bore the name of polemarchs. A-
not confined to the city and its immediate neighbour-
hood, but comprised the whole territory between the
eastern coast of ail and Mount Cilhaeron. and
extended to the north as far as the Little river Ccpli
which empties itself in the sea between Kuboea and tin-
mainland. This whole territory was called Thebais. and
contained a great number of : iwns which were subji
-. Among the fourteen confeden
Tin-lies was Ihe fust, whence it is gcnei. : the
capital of Hoeotia, which, in tin the word,
,::ly was not. [ HOKMTIA.]
Besides the Kiryptian and Boeotian Thebes, the follow-
inu tow us of this name are mentioned by antienl writers : —
1. Thebes in 1'hlhiotis in Tin
Thebae I'htluoticac.or Thebae Phthiae , wa- an impoitant
icial town with a good 1 -... p.
•i:il. -l.'Ki, •>.'{.">: \.\\ \ . \\xix. i") : \x\\ni.7.
2. Thebe U,', i,/ in Tin:. ' linor was celeb,
..tilled p.:' 03 war. ll
situated north of \.liannttiuin.and taken and de>l..
Ii. Ac -hiiles. The plain in which the town had I i-,.|i situ-
aied was known down to Ihe la' in of
• : Hoiin i :i(i(i ; \i. ;}S)7 ;
Stiabo, xiii.. ]). . lieiodytus. vu. 4
THE
303
THE
3. Thebes, in that part of Arabia Felix which was
called the country of the Cinaedocolpitae.
4. Thebes in Lucania in Italy. ( Pliny, Hist. Nat., iii.
15.) Stephanus of Byzantium (s. v. 6ij/3m) mentions seve-
ral other towns of this name, of which however nothing
is known.
THECA, a term in vegetable anatomy. It was applied
by Grew to that part of the stamen which contains the
reproductive granules and which is now generally called
the anther. [ANTHER.] It is also extensively employed in
cryptogamic botany. Among the ferns, it is applied,
in common with the terms capsule, conceptacle, and
sporangium [SPORANGIUM], to those little granules which
constitute the masse.-; called sori. In the Equisetacese it
expresses the assemblage of cases, which are attached to
scales arranged in a conical manner.
The same term is used to indicate the kidney-shaped
two-valved cases that contain the reproductive matter of
Lyeopodiaceae and also the urn-like organs that enclose the
sporules of mosses. It is by some writers still further ex-
tended, and used to express the parts that contain the
sporules in Lichens and Fungi.
THECA 'in Anatomy j is a term commonly applied to
the strong fibrous sheaths in which certain soft parts of the
body are enclosed. Thus the tkeca vertebra/if is the
sheath of dura mater in which the spinal chord is enclosed ;
and the canals through which many of the long tendons
of the muscles of the hand and foot run are called thecse.
These last are always lined by a synovial membrane, and
contain a small quantity of fluid [SYNOVIA], by which the
sliding of the tendons is facilitated.
THECADAGTYLS, Cuvier's name for those 6><7«/v
which have the toes enlarged throughout their length, and
furnished below with transverse scales, which arc divided
by a longitudinal furrow, where the claw may tie entirely
hid. [GECKO.]
THKCIT)EA, or THECITJIUM. [BRACHIOPODA, vol.
v., p. 313.] Mr. J. E. Gray arranges the Thecideidte as
the fourth family of the Brachinpodn, placing it between
the l'i and the Cruniadie, and making it consist
of the single genus Thecidea.
THECODO.NTOSAU'RUS. [THECODONTS.]
THECODONTS. Professor Owen, in his ' Report on
li Fossil Reptiles,' observes that among the inferior
or squamate saunans there are two leading modifications
in the mode of attachment of the teeth, the base of which
may he either anchylosed to the summit of the alveolar
ridge, or to the bottom of an alveolar groove, and supported
by its lateral wall. These modifications are, he remarks,
indicated respectively by the terms 'acrodont' and ' pleu-
rodont.' A third mode of fixation is presented by some
extinct saurians, which, in other parts of their organiza-
tion, adhere to the squamate or lacertine division of the
order, the teeth being implanted in sockets, either loosely
or confluent with the bony walls of the cavity : these
ssor Owen has, in his ' Odontography,' termed the
'/'//'-' riiitns, the most antient of all saurians be-
longing to this group.
Commencing with the Tkecodontotaurut of Dr. Riley
and Mr. Stutchbmy, described by them in the ' Geological
Transactions ' of 1836, from remains found in the dolomitic
conglomerate of Redland, near Bristol, the oldest or lowest
division of the new red sandstone series, Professor Owen
remarks that this reptile is allied to the typical Varanian
Monitors, but differs from them in having the teeth im-
bedded in distinct sockets; but that the / "urn/ii, among
the squamate saurians, approach to this condition in the
shallow cavities containing the base of their teeth along
the bottom of the alveolar groove.
But, in the extinct genus now under consideration, the
sockets are, he states, deeper, and the inner alveolar wall
is nearly as high as the outer one ; the teeth are arranged
in a ' -.lightly decreasing in size towards the
posterior part of the jaw ; each branch of the lower jaw
is supposed to have contained twenty-one teeth, which are
conical, rather slender, compressed and acutely pointed,
with an anterior and posterior finely serrated edge, the
lerratuifs being directed towards the apex of the tooth, as
;n G. i It/iopa lotion ; the outer surface is
more convex than the inner one ; the apex is slightly re-
curved : and t: | the crown contracts a little to
form the subcyiindrical fang. He then goes on to remark
lhat the pulp-cavity remains open in the base of the
crown ; that, in their microscopic structure the teeth of
the Thecodontosaurus closely correspond with those of
Varanus, Monitor, and Megalosaurus ; that the body of
the tooth consists of compact dentine, in which the cal-
cigerous tubes diverge from an open pulp-cavity at nearly
right angles to the surface of the tooth ; that they form a
slight curve at their origin, with the concavity directed
towards the base of the tooth ; then proceed straight, and,
at the periphery, bend upwards in the contrary direction.
The diameter of the calcigerous tube he gives as l-30,000th
of an inch, and the breadth of the interspace of the tube
as l-8000th of an inch. The crown of the tooth is in-
vested with a simple crown of enamel. This microscopic
examination, which Professor Owen was enabled to make,
by the kindness of Mr. Stutchbury, satisfactorily esta-
blishes, in the Professor's opinion, the distinction between
the saurian of the Bristol conglomerate and Labyrinthodon.
[SALAMANDROIDES.]
Of PAL^EOSAURUS Professor Owen states that its tooth
is compressed, pointed, and with trenchant serrated mar-
gins ; but that its breadth, compared with its length, is
much greater than in Thecodontosaurus. The vertebrae
associated with these teeth were biconcave, with the,
middle of the body more constricted, and terminal arti-
cular cavities rather deeper than in TELEOSAURUS ; but,
the Professor adds, they are chiefly remarkable for the
depth of the spinal canal at the middle of each vertebra,
where it sinks into the substance of the centrum, and thus
the canal is wider vertically at the middle than at the two
ends of the vertebra : an analogous structure, he observes,
but less marked, obtains in the dorsal vertebrae of the
Rht/nchosaurun from the new red sandstone of Shrop-
shire.
Professor Owen then points out that besides deviating
from existing lizards in the thecodont dentition and bicon-
cave vertebrae, the antient saurians of the magnesian con-
glomerate also differed in having some of their ribs arti-
culated by a head and tubercle to two surfaces of the
vertebra, as at the anterior part of the chest in Crocodiles
and Dinosaurs. The shaft of the rib, he tells us, was tra-
versed, as in the Ichthyosaur and Rhynchosaur, by a deep
longitudinal groove ; and some fragmentary bones indi-
cut id obscurely that the pectoral arch deviated from the
Crocodilian, and approached the Lacertian or Enaliosau
riau type in the presence of a clavicle, and in the breadth
and complicated form of the coracoid. The humerus, h«
observes, appears to have been little more than half the
length of the femur ; and to have been, like that of the
Rhynchosaurus, unusually expanded at the two extremi-
ties.
After quoting the description of the femur by the dis-
coverers of the present thecodont reptiles, Professor Owen
remarks that the tibia, fibula, and metatarsal bones mani-
fest, like the femur, the fitness of the thecodont saurians
for progression on land. The ungual phalanges, he ob-
serves, are subcompressed, curved downwards, pointed,
and impressed on each side with the usual curved canal.
The Professor draws the following conclusions from the
knowledge at present possessed of the osteology of Theco-
donlosannta and Paleeosaurtti; whose antiquity the disco-
verers of these genera regard as being greater than that
of any other vertebrated animals, excepting fishes : —
In their thecodont type of dentition, biconcave vertebrae,
double-jointed ribs, and proportionate size of the bones of
the extremities, they are nearly allied to the Telcosau-
rin; but they combine a lacertian form of tooth and
structure of the pectoral and probably pelvic arch with
these crocodilian characters, having distinctive modifica-
tions, as the moniliform spinal canal, in which however
the almost contemporary Rhynchosaur participates.
Professor Owen adds that it would be interesting to
ascertain whether the caudal vertebrae are characterized,
as in the Thuringian Protosaur, by double diverging
spinous processes.
Cladyodon, Owen. — ' In the new red sandstone (keuper?)
of Warwick and Leamington,' says the Professor, ' there
occur ietached, pointed, trenchant, recurved teeth, the
crowns of which are sometimes 1 inch 4 lines in length,
and 5 lines across the base : they have been found in the
same quarries as those containing the remains of J.aln/ri'i-
thodon. In their compressed form, anterior and posterior
serrated edges, sharp points, and microscopic structure,
these teeth agree with those of the Saurian reptiles of the
I I! K
SOI
THE
In tlu-lr breadth, a» compared with
lh and thickness, tin \ ween
i I'iihr-miurtu plaiyodon ; hut
.Mttl long'
.•roach tin- t'oini characteristic ol" tin1
.?,/... FlOIll these tcetll llOWCVer
ill, -r in :' pression, and in
:it contraction at tin- base of Hie crown ; I therefore
indicHlr the genus, of which, as yet, only the teeth are
known, by the i " ii/i/««/»». and the species from
•kshir* Muni-loin •> hy the name of Ctadyodnn
uiiony ol' the friendly aid ol' Dr. Lloyd of
iington, to whose /.calous co-operation I owe the ma-
» for the description of the teeth of tin- present genus,
and the Mill more rnnarkahlr ones of the British species
tiyrinth'xti'H. with which tin- teeth of the Clattyodon
are associated.
In conclusion. Professor Owen refers to a tootli of Clu-
ilyotl ,i> figured hy Mr. Murchison ami Mr. Strickland in
thoir paper on the Warwick sandstones. (Geol. Tram.,
2)id series, vol. \.
TlIKi'nso MATA. M. de Blainville'* name for his first
family of Aporobranchi'ita, \\w first onlcr of his second
• ii of his second subclass (Paractpkoloptiora U«-
The Aporobranchiatu, according to It. <le Blainvillc,
~t of those Malacosaria, or Mollusks, which have the
hody of a slightly variable form, but constantly provided
with" natatory appendages which arc equal and lateral, with-
out any foot properly so called, and which often have the
crgans of respiration but little evident.
Tin- following genera are arranged by M. de Blainville
under the family of Ttiecosomata : —
//y<i/«-u .- Clfodora. divided into two sections; 1, de-
pressed specs. -. 1 \ . rifodora, Broiririi ; 2, conical and not
depressed species (genus I'uginella, Daud.), Ex., Vaginrlla
depresta; Cymiintiii : and Pyrfo (fossil).
Tlie principal forms of this family arc treated of under
llu- article Hy.\L.tu>.t:.
Mr. J. E. Gray, who makes the ZXecofOMOftl the first
order of the class i-Jth) PTEHOPODA, divides the forms which,
in his opinion, should be arranged under that order, into
the following families and genera: —
Fam. 1. Cleodoridae.
Genera : — Hyaltca ; Diacria ; Cleodora ; Balantium ;
Pl-uropui ; I "ngiiiclta ; Creseis ; Brocfius ; Psyche ; Eu-
ribia.
Fam. 2. Liniacinidae.
Genus, Limaciiia.
Fam. 3. Cuvierida-.
Genera: — Cttri/ /in : Trii<trres.
Fain. I. < Ymbuliadae.
ais, Cymbuliii.
THKDKN. .lOHANN CHRISTIAN' ANTON, a cele-
brated Gei man surgeon, was born Sept. 13, \7\4, at Stein-
In-ck, a small village not far from Wismar, in the duchy of
Mecklenburg. His family had been mined by the dis-
asters of war, and his father died when lie was young. \\liieh
two melancholy events had an unfavourable influence upon
his education and his first enhance into life. Hi' hail
liartll. 1 the bare clement.-, of education, when, at
the age of thirteen, he was reduced to the necessity of
hiring himself out as a servant ; but this occupation was
so revolting to his feelings, that lie determined to learn a
trade. Accordingly his elder brother, who was a tailor,
'.cd him a-, an apprentice: but Thcden did not find
this employment more suited to his taste and talents
than his former one, and, as he got nothing but reproofs
liom his brother, he finally determined to devote himself
to the study of medicine. He wa-. first place d by his friends
with a surg( mi at liutzow, where lie spent four years in a
barber's shop without any real advantage ; and as soun as
his apprenticeship was finished, he went to Rostock, Ham-
burg, Lfibedf, and Danzig. Ill lhi> la-t city he at length
! in obtaining some employment in the troops of
the king of Prussia, and was attached as surgeon to a
Miuadron ol iimasMcis. The zeal and punctuality with
which he performed all hi.-> duties in thi.-. | ::ained
him the eMceni and friendship of his sii|ieiior ofliecis : tlie
the ehict surgeon . -«<ij<,r ,
•Mil shown him by king
William I. at a review »t Kiesenbmg, and the
death of this prince put an end to all the hopes nf promo-
•Alucli IK- IKM! ,ii first entertained. In 171:: ! .
.111, where the celebrated Schnnrvchmidt, who jiutl>
apincciated hi-, talents, hiininmd him with his Inniilship,
and procured for him the post of chief surgeon during the
second war in Silt-la. At the end of I'M
turned to Herlin. and devoted himself witii unremitting
attention to the study of anatomy and suigery. The
Seven Years' War afterwards furnished him with num.
opportunities of displaying the skill that he had admired,
and also the excellent qualities of his heart. Frederick the
Great raised him gradually from one post to another, till he
became at la^ hi» chief military surgeon. Thedcn, in this
eminent position, improved all ihe branches oft'
and displayed an activity which contributed still more to
gain him the good opinion of his -overeiirn. The sue.
of Frederick honoured him equally with his confid-.
and Theden continued to enjoy to the end of his life an
esteem and respect for which lie was indebted only to his
real merit and eminent Mrvicee. He died. October 21,
IT'.iT. at the age of eighty-three. The continual fatigue
and agitation of war did not prevent his drawing up and
putting in order the observations which an immense tield
of action had given him an opportunity of collecting.
His works are not numerous, but they bear the -tamp of
experience, and one n :n them the firm and bold
touch of a man who did not venture to take up his pen till
alter thirty years of most extensive practice. From this
eulogium we must however except all the theoretical
of his writings, which, unfortunately, hold a prominent
place in them, and which are only based upon the founda-
tion of the antiquated principles of the humoral theory.
The following is the list of his works mentioned by M.
Jourdan in the ' Biographic Medieale,' from which work
the preceding account has been taken : — • N'eue Bcmer-
kungen uiul Ki fahrungen zur Bcreichcrung der Wundarz-
iieykunst mid Medicin.' Herlin and Stettin. 1771-17'.:"'. s\o. ;
' Unterricht fur die Unterwundirzte bey Armeen,' Herlin,
1774, 8vo., and 17S2. Hvo. ; • Sendschr'ciben an Kichter,
die neu crfundencn Catheter aus der Kesina clastica be-
trclfend,1 Berlin, 1777, Kvo.
TIIKFT. [LAKCKNY.]
THEIN, or Tlieiua, the peculiar principle often, which
was procured and analysed by M. Jobst of Stuttgard. He
prepared it by boiling tea-leaves in water, filtering and
concent i ating the solution, and adding to it acetate of
lead as long as precipitation occurred ; after filtration
the excess of lead wa> precipitated by hydrosiilphuric
arid, and by subsequent evaporation crystals of thein
deposited which possessed the following properties alter
purification: they were sort, acicular, snow-white, much
more soluble in hot than in cold water, alcohol, or tether;
they dissolved readily in acids, and were decomposed
when heated either in sulphuric or nitric acid. Thein
has n.ii effect on vegetable blues: alkalis do not precipitate
it from solution in acids, and when boiled in a strong solu-
tion of potash it is decomposed, and ammonia is evolved ;
it contains water of crytallization, which it loses at 212'.
Thein may be sublimed.
According to the analysis of .lobst. thein is composed
of
Hydrogen ...
Carbon .... 49'(JO
Oxygen . . . IG'27
Azote .... 28-91
too-
1" i e marked that this analysis very closely resembles
that, of Caft'ein as given by I. icing.
THELICO'NUS. Mr. Swainson's name for a subgcnus of
CciM's. I '\ .. ' '. ,//v iill\s,ltrltll. (Mil!
THKLIDKKMA, Mr. Swainson's name for a subgenus
ofl'iiin. (Malacology.) [.NAIADKS.]
THKI-I'DOMl'S. a form placed by Mr. Swainson under
nily 'irtfliitlic, in the subfamily Kntrlhiitr, with
. ric name at the head of this article.
.iple, Tlirliiltimn\ Hruzili:
Mr. Swainson thus describes it. 'We have placeil the
Tri: Ii nl,f next to the llrlicithe under Ihe belief that they
followed each other, although the links of connection
wanting. It is clear that of all the types of the Tr'n-hidrt;
•i is that which by its general form makes the
' appioach to lii/ii •: while the thickening of the
inner lip. which • r Ihe umbilicus, is found also,
but in a 1. <-\ mail) of the land volutes, J.uccr-
THE
305
THE
ninee. But a singular discovery recently made has thrown
an entirely new light upon this interesting question
Among a considerable number of freshwater Planorbi
(sic) ' all of one species, which were sent to us from
Brazil, we picked out two helix-looking shells, so precisely
of the same olive-brown colour, and of the same size, ai>
the others, that none but a conchologist would have been
led to examine them. They appeared in fact like two
little land-snails of the subgenus Zonites, that had fallen
into the water where the P/anurbi' (sic) ' had been found,
their outside being discoloured, and covered with little
particles of dirt and sand. On placing them however
under the magnifier, a conchologist alone can judge of our
astonishment at finding that the whole of the shell was
actually composed of little stones and grains of sand only,
agglutinated together, yet with so much skill by the ani-
mal, that the regular turns of the volutions of the spire,
and the form of the umbilicus, were most, accurately pre-
served ; they were, in short, freshwater carriers — absolute
counterparts of their marine brethren, Onustiis. As we
can find no notice nor even allusion to such an extraordi-
nary genus of shells in any writer, we have considered it
and affixed to it the name of Thelidomus. In regard
to its affinity, we suspect that it fills the same situation
among the KDtellince which Onustus does among the Tro-
I'lnnir : this will make it the most aberrant type and con-
sequently that which comes nearest to the Helicidce, whose
form it actually possesses. The annexed figures are taken
from the only two specimens, in our cabinet, which we
have either seen or heard of. Thus, there is ground for
supposing that the passage from the marine JrocMda to
the terrestrial snails is marked by one or more fluviatile
types ; just as is the passage, on the other side, of the Heli-
cidts marked by the Limnuriiirt1. The accidental discovery
also of this extraordinary shell will probably induce natu-
ralists to a more accurate examination of the fossil tur-
binated univalves; for it is clear that although Tkelidomut
opens the path to the IMiviiltr, there must be several other
forms between the two, either extinct or undiscovered.'
(Malacology: Cabinet Cyclopaedia, 1840.)
This so-called shell, which is twice figured and described
as that of a mollusk in the work quoted, is the cast' of an
insect.
\\u notice the error, that a mistake in a useful book
bearing the authority of a name so generally known and
deservedly respected as Mr. Swainson's, may not mislead.
TIIEL1D'.)N'TA, a genus of pulmoniferous gastropods,
which Mr. Swainson apparently places among the Liirri-
nitifp, or Land Volutes, as he terms them : but we do not
find it in the 'Natural Arrangement' at the end of his
vol. on Miil'trri/n^!/, unlc.'-s Tin liilninii-t, which appears
there for the third time, following Putiodon at the end of
the subfamily Lin-i-rniinp. be a misprint for it.
THELLUSSON, PETEK. He was the son of Isaac de
Thellusson, ambassador from Geneva to the court of Louis
XV. He fixed his residence in London about the middle
of the eighteenth century, and accumulated an immense
fortune as a merchant. He died on the 21st of July, 1797.
His name has been rendered remarkable by the extraordi-
nary nature of his will. The capricious and extensive use
of the power of di^posim: of his property, which the law,
as then existing, placed in his hands, led to the restraints
subsequently imposed upon testamentary dispositions.
The property which was the subject of his will consisted
of a landed estate of about 4000/. a year, and of personal
property to the amount of about G00,000/. This property
lie devised and bequeathed to trustees upon trust for accu-
mulation and investment in the purchase of lands during
the lives of his sons, grandsons, and the issue of sons and
Isons living, or in rejitre m mere, at the time of his
death, and the lives of the survivors and survivor of them :
and after that period, to be conveyed to the lineal descend-
ants of his sons in tail male.
It had been long understood to be the rule of law that
the absolute ownership of property might be suspended,
and consequently the property rendered inalienable, during
in being at the time of the creation of the trust,
that is. where the trust is created by will, at the time of
the death of the testator. This period was afterwards
extended so as to allow for the cases of infancy, and
of a child in ri-iitre sa mere ; but it was for some
time questioned whether a term of twenty-one years
might in all cases be added to the period of suspen-
P. C.. No. |r-":
sion, though it has since been determined that it
may. [SETTLEMENT.] Restraint on the accumulation of
income was unknown to the common law, except in so far
as the rule against perpetuities necessarily prevented ac-
cumulation from being carried beyond its'limits ; and Mr.
Thellusson's will, by confining the restriction to existing
lives, escaped the question which then existed as to the
allowance of an absolute term of twenty-one years in ad-
dition to a life or lives in being at the time of the crea-
tion of the trust.
This will, which, in the events that happened, had
the effect of postponing the usufructuary enjoyment of the
bulk of the estate till the expiration of nine lives in being at
the time of the testator's death, was, after many hard strug-
gles, occasioned rather by the immense value of the pro-
perty implicated (which it was computed would have
amounted, with the expected accumulations, to upwards
of 18,000,000/.), than by any new difficulty in the prin-
ciple, finally established by the decision of the House of
Lords on the 25th of June, 1805. ('fltellusson v. Woodford,
11 Ves., 112.)
The case of Thellusson v. Woodford gave rise to the
act of the 40 Geo. III., c. 98, ' for restraining all trusts
and directions in deeds or wills whereby the profits or pro-
duce of real or personal estates shall be accumulated and
the beneficial enjoyment thereof postponed beyond the
term therein limited." By the provisions of this act no
person can settle or dispose of property by deed, will, or
otherwise, so as to accumulate the income thereof, either
wholly or partially, ' for any longer term than the life or
lives of any such grantor or grantors, settlor or settlors, or
the term of twenty-one years from the death of any such
grantor, settlor, devisor, or testator, or during the minority
or respective minorities of any person or persons who shall
be living or in centre xn mere, at the time of the death of
such grantor, devisor, or testator, or during the minority or
respective minorities only of any person or persons, who,
under the uses or trusts of the deed, surrender, will, or
other assurances directing such accumulations, would for
the time being, if of full age, be entitled to the rents,
issues, and profits, or the interest, dividends, and annual
produce so directed to be accumulated. And in every case
where accumulation shall be directed otherwise than as
aforesaid, such direction shall be null and void, and the
rents, issues, profits, and produce of such property so
directed to be accumulated shall, so long as the same shall
be directed to be accumulated contrary to the provisions
of this act, go to and be received by such person or per-
sons as would have been entitled thereto, if such accumu-
lation had not been directed.' Sect. 2 provides, ' that
nothing in this act contained shall extend to any provision
for payment of debts of any grantor, settlor, or devisor, or
other person or persons, or to any provision for raising por-
tions for any child or children of any person taking any in-
terest under any such conveyance, settlement, or devise, or
to any direction touching the produce of timber or wood
upon any lands or tenements; but that all such provisions
shall be made and given as if this act had not passed.'
Sect. 3 provides that the act shall not extend to dispositions
of heritable property in Scotland.
It has been sometimes thought that periods specified in
the act might be taken accumulatively, and that accumula-
tion might be directed for them all successively. The lan-
guage of the statute however is disjunctive, and therefore
seems to give the option of selecting one only of the de-
signated periods. (9 Ves. ,130.) And it has been determined
:hat the clause respecting the minority of persons entitled
under the limitation in the instrument does not authorize
trust for accumulation extending over the minority of
an unborn person to whom at majority the accumulated
fund with the principal from which it arose is given.
(4 Madd., 275.)
It is now settled upon this statute that a trust for accu-
mulation reaching beyond the allowed period is good for
the period allowed by law. (12 Ves., 295 ; 4 Kuss., 403.)
THELPHU'SA. [TIIKLPHIISIANS.]
THELPHU'SIANS, M. Milne Edwards's name for a
,ribe of brachyurous crustaceans belonging to his family
of Catometopes, having, as he observes, considerable an-
alogy with the Cancerians, and evidently forming the
Kissiige between them and the Gecarcinians, or Land
Jrabs. [GECAUCINUS.] The general form, in fact, he
emarks, of many of the Thelpluisians differs but little
VOL. XXIV.-2 R
T I! I
30T>
T II K
if tin
. Ilirni ;i'
4, ami iln nut |n-rinit tlu-ir scpa
, . I:, i, he ODMTVM, each of the bnnch
1 into
I'lc distance from tli.
- the lining im-inlirain- is covered with spongv
:u- linuu-hiii' lire, it
' reduced to till' -.(Me Ml' VI
In tli. : lying on tin- \ sides
, v ,- but tlu-ir U-\ti:i
they, ! backwards su : v the whole
ill' the vault of tin- li -position which is only met
with in tin- family of tin- ('<itnnii't<>pe».
Tlii 'of UK- 7Vi>'//./i/M.,i//A ha- lint little or no
ami is wider than it is Ion;;: i1
"ccupies about two-thirds of its trail -
atoral holders de-cube a regular curve.
Tho front is remarkably wider than the bnccnl frame, ami
more or le.ss curved downwards. Tlu- <•(/<> have a stout
hort peduncle, the length of which is :
than double the diameter, and its lower surface is occupied
by tli. lor about half it.s length. The orbits au-
. and always present at their internal angle a narrow
gap tilled by the external antenna. The tiili'mn/ n/i-
li'iiiKF are horizontal, and, in general, nearly entirely hid
by the front. The basilary joint of the <.<•'••/,«(/ <inti'ini(f
- into tin- trap which occupies the intern;'! angle
of the orbit and scpaiatcs tliis cavity from the an;.
: little developed, and the mo\,
whic!. "in it in 1 )i is vcr\ small. TllC
is nearly linear, and placed on the same level a>
tiie lower border of the orbit. The liuccul frame is nearly
us larire 1 liind. ami the fourth joint of the ex-
ternal jaw -feet is insert. -d sometimes at the internal
. sometimes at the middle of the r.nterior border of
the preceding joint, and sometimes at its extoi mil
The anterior //••"/ are much stronger and nearly :
longer than the succeeding ones ; they are but little, if at
all, compressed. The third pair of feet are the '•
of all, but they are not twice the length of the post-,
portion of the carapace, and they terminate, like the
others, in a styliform tarsus. The second joint of the abdn-
mfn of the male covers the corresponding portion of the
sternal plastron throughout it.s width, an.' to the
h.lsilary joint of the posterior feet. The abdominal appcti-
s of the second pair in the male are filiform towards
the end, and at least as long as those of the first pair.
(M.
l/,ilii/x i.f //,c Tribe. — These are very remarkable. All
the known species live in the earth near the banks of rivers
or in humid forests ; bearing a strong analogy to the Land-
M. K.
.M. Milne Edwards divides the tribe into three sec-
tions : —
1. Third joint of the external jaw-feet nearly square,
and giving insertion to the succeeding joint by a notch
in its internal angle.
's. Tlii-l),lin<,,i Latreille).
•riifitn-i- wider than it is
wed behind and very slightly convex above. Tin
••arccly separated, but the .\tninnchal
hen it is distinct, is extremely wide forwards.
The fronto-orbital or anterior border of the eaiapaec. occn-
about two-thirds of its t universal diameter, and its
Intend borders arc very much arched in their tv.o anterioi
third portions: the : border is cijnal in width to
the half or two-fifths of il
y little inclined, nearly straight, and wider than the
al frame. Tho nrliiln are n\al: they present no
i id are furnished with n 1;.. i tooth
n their lower wall near the internal canthns
of the eye. The nni ,.nrow. The
• ml of the I'xlrrtiiil ««/(•//,• m it» form.
- a little, or not at all, beyond the ll
iiibilal wall against which it is implied.
3, and their third joint, near!)
m; joint at its i
:i 'iiinealed u long
•hing in its form that of the Caii-
'• nli'l I't/rl-mrtOfa,
Cf riant. Anterior /;-/alwavs much longer than !
jair, and unequal in sue : ihe ' A in-
aild the claw winch I
nuch elongated, and line'j deiitilated. *- 1'ivt
ill sligh' ly .
.aed with ve.y stiong lion.
aie much shorter than the third, the length nf wliu
. ipial twice the length ol
Tin :
tuition app. wide. The foi
. lia. ( )n • ' ; at
.ud at 1'ondiche
.-. ish.
;.l. and S\na.
Tliis well
known to the antient.-.. and to be that noticed by II
and Aristotle : these '/'//. •'.
the Ileiarleotie ( the hitter
///*/. Am, n., \\ . '2 : and to be :i an-
tient medals.
Ttir/fihuxtijlii'- Ui on the I
of rivers.
s (^
! \li:nml jaw-Toot of ;- 1
2. Third joint of external jav ,uaro,
and giving insertion to the succeeding joint towards
the middle of its anterior border.
Genus, Boscia (Edwards : l'u,'i>
Generic ('/inructrr. — General form ucarh 1li. same as in
some of the T/ieffi/iiixer ; but the front, which is sharply
bent downwards, is vertical, and the third joint of lli.
It run! jiiir-fi'i't, instead of being square and havii:
ordinary form o\i-ting in the (\u<i'fritinx. \- narrowed for-
and carries the succeeding joint on the middle of
its anterior bonier. (M. E.)
M. Milne Kdwards remarks that tliis ge: -trial,
like the Tin l]ilnntr,' and inhabits also the banks of 1 1
He slates that a dissection of an individual well jiM-civcd
in spirit by M. Andouin and him.self, discovered to them a
\erv n : in the branchial apparatus of
this ei the cavities which enclose the breathing
organ- 'ted far above the upper suil:
branchias and present a great vacant space, the walls nf
which are lined with a toiuentcse membrane covered with
Vegetal
Kvnnpli . «. the only known species.
Length about '2 inches.
:illes and South Am.
.'{. Third joint nf the external jaw-feet having '
the form of a reversed tiiangle. ami giving Insertion
to the Succeeding joint b_> its external angle.
'..ilreillo .
.//•lief nearly horizontal above
and much less wide than in T/if//./m*<i. /'/•<./// wide,
lamellar, and sini])Iy inclined; in-lnlx neailv circular;
borders of the <
as in ThrliiliiiMi; but the form oft!
. ditlcrciit. their third
with its summit directed in with
the succeeding joint by it- .1:1! angle.
* Jill! f.-.' (lost, |l.
THE
307
THE
)*oscia dentata, reduced one-third.
1, Anteimary region ; 2, external jaw-foot
Feet nearly of the same form as in the preceding genera.
(M. E.) '
Example, Tnchodactylus quadratus, the only known
species. Length about 1 inch.
Locality. — Brazil .
M. Milne Edwards is of opinion that this species esta-
blishes the passage between the preceding genera and the
tribe of Grapsoid/ans. [GRAPSUS.]
Mr. W. S. MacLcay, in his interesting paper ' On the
Brachyurous Decapods of the Cape' (Smiths Illustrations
nf the Zoology nf South Afrira), in a note to the sixteenth
species (Thelphitsa perlata, M. E.), remarks that this ciab
is common in all the rivers of Southern Africa, and grows
to the size of nearly three inches long. 'The male.
Mr. W. MacLeay in continuation, 'has a much more con-
vex shell than the female, and in aspect resembles much a
Gegarcinut. The pearly tubercles of the anterior margin
of the shell are also still more small and evanescent than
in the female. I may take this occasion to observe, that
in my cabinet I separate those species of Thflpkumi which,
like the present, have a tiansversal crest in front of the
shell, and call them Pntninn>ii< i///v. They are easily dis-
tinguished from true Thi-ljihu.ifp, of which the type is the
European species Thflphusajli
THELWALL, JOHN, son of Joseph Thelwall, a silk-
mercer, was bom on the 27th July, 1764, in Chandos-street,
(Jo\ent Garden, London. He was the youngest of three
children, two sons and a daughter. At an early agf h<>
manifested so much talent for drawing, that he was in-
tended for an artist, but his father's decease chuugcd hi.-,
prospects before he had completed his ninth year. He
received the ordinary education of a tradesman's son, but
was rather slow in acquiring knowledge and was re-
moved from school at thirteen years of age, his attain-
must. necessarily have been limited.
The widow continued to carry on her deceased hus-
band's business, and placed her son John in the shop,
where he remained time' yean, but spent his time chiefly
i'i rending, winch was of a miscellaneous character, con-
:g of poetry, history, the drama, moral philosophy,
.<•», and divinity. A distaste for the bn-
joined to family discord, induced him to leave it, and al-
though he earnestly desired to be an artist or an actor,
he yielded to his mother, who apprenticed him to a tailor,
with whom however he remained only a short time. At
the suirge-tion of Mr. Holt of the Chancery bar, who had
(1 his MM IT, lie turned his attention to the law, but
ral years' study he abandoned it in consequence
of doubts arising in his mind on the morality of a hired
advocate pleading to support a cause rather than to dis-
cover the truth ; and now, in his 22nd year, he embraced
literature as a profession.
!7S7 he published by subscription poems on several
subjects, iu 2vols., which introduced him to some valuable
friendships and to the editorship of a magazine. He was
now a rising and prosperous man, and on the 27th July,
1791, he manicd Miss Susan Vellum, of Rutlandshire,
Mien 17 years of age. He took a house near the
Borough I -.id ardently studied anatomy, phy-
siology, and chemistry, under Mr. Cline, Dr. Haighton,
and Dr. Babington.
He began his. career as an orator, before he was twenty
years of age, at the Society of Free Debate held at Coach •
makers' Hall. He had been educated a churchman in re-
ligion and a tory in politics, but on both subjects his opi-
nions were changing, and he now joined in the political
struggles of the period by becoming a member of the Cor-
responding Society, where his boldness and fluency of
speech attracted the notice of the leading men of the
day. With Thomas Hardy and John Home Tooke [HoRNE
TOOKE] he was tried for high treason, and acquitted.
Thelwall's trial lasted five days. On his acquittal he lec-
tured on politics and political history for several years,
when, after a retirement of two years in Wales, made in
order to disconnect himself from public affairs and to
escape from extra-judicial persecution, he began his career
in 1801 as a lecturer and tutor in elocution, and in the
application of elocutionary science to the cure of stam-
mering and other impediments to speech. His know-
ledge of anatomy and physiology, his habits of recitation,
his practice of public speaking, and his accuracy of ob-
servation, eminently qualified him for his new profession,
and his success was great. He communicated papers to
the 'Medical and Physical Journal,' on defective and diffi-
cult utterance, and to the ' Monthly Magazine,' on elocu-
tion and its kindred sciences.
In 1816 Mrs. Thelwall died, leaving a family of four
children, two of whom are sons, and both are in the church.
Mr. Thelwall afterwards married Miss Cecil Boyle, by
whom he has left one son. He died at Bath after a few
hours' illness, of disease of the heart, to which he had been
long subject, on the 17th February, 1834, in his 70th year.
The researches of Steele, Herries, and Walker, on human
speech, had left little room for new and brilliant dis-
covery, although much accurate observation was yet
necessary to give exactness and fulness to their know-
ledge. Thelwall, unaware of Steele's researches, found
himself anticipated on rhythmus. Steele had given the
inquiry a musical direction, which Thelwall ardently fol-
low ed out, and the extent and precision of his observa-
tions may be estimated by the fact that he anticipated
nearly all that is new and valuable in Dr. Rush's 'Philo-
sophy of the Human Voice.' Mr. Thelwall's immature
ideas were first sketched out in the syllabus of his lectures
on elocution.
Thelwall was of a mild and amiable disposition, of domes-
tic habits, open-hearted and generous, of high moral feeling,
and of inflexible integrity. His sentiments were exalted
by poetic feeling, and he was buoyed up by hope.
Besides magazine contributions and pamphlets, he wrote
poems on several subjects, in 2 vols., already mentioned;
' Poems written in the Tower and in Newgate,' 1 vol. ; ' The
Tribune,' 3 vols., and ' Political Miscellanies,' 1 vol. ; ' A
Letter to Mr. Cline, on Stammering,' 1 vol. ; 'The Peripa-
tetic,' 3 vols. ; and a novel, entitled ' The Daughter of Adop-
tion.'
THE'MKON. [FORAMINIFERA, vol. x., p. 348.]
THEMIS (el/itc), a Greek divinity, was, according to
Hesiod and Apollodorus, a daughter of Uranus (Heaven)
and Gaca (Earth), or, according to Tzetzes, a daughter of
Helios. She was a favourite of Zeus, and bore him several
d;i ughters, — the Horae, Eunomia, Dice, Eirene, and the
Mocrae. (Hesiod, T/icog., 135, 001, &c. ; Apollodorus, i.
3, 1.) These personified abstractions, which are repre-
sented as her daughters, show the ideas which the antients
had formed of her character, and consistently with these
ideas she appears in Homer as a personification of the
order of things sanctioned by usage or by law, and as the
goddess who rules in the assemblies of the people. (Homer,
Or///*.?., ii. 68, &c.) According to the same poet she
lived with the other great gods in Olympus, was on good
terms with Hera, and occasionally assembled the gods at
the command of Zeus. (Homer, Iliad, xv. 87, &c. ; xx.
4, &c.) Diodorus (v. 67) states that she was believed to
have made men acquainted with the will of the gods, the
mode of their worship, and to have instituted laws, reli-
gious as well as civil. As a deity revealing the future .-lie
was believed to have been in possession of the Delphic
oracle after her mother Gaea, and previous to the time
that it came into the hands of Apollo, whence the act of
giving an oracle was, even in later times, frequently called
by a word derived from her name (QtiuaTtimv'), She was
worshipped as the goddess of law and order in various parts
of Greece, as at Thebes, Olympia, Athens, Tanagra, and
Troezen. She is frequently represented on coins in a form
2R2
T II I'
T H i
Mm.: that oi Athena, Imt earn mi; the hoin ol plenty
1 a pair ol s,.. -les ill tin- oil
.mtieiil physician, who i-
probablx best known to in '""•
\\hv JJI)—
• Qool Tlirmliua *rfn* aurturaiio oaakdri
but who was HI n-alitx the founder of n celebrated a
1 hi- tune.
.-, born ;it Ijiodu T.I in Sxiia, in the liist cent-
fore Christ, ami. from .Juvenal's Hue above t|
!«• conjectured to huve practised at Komr. He
was n pupil of Asclcpiadcs. from whose opinion* hOW-
disscnted, and finished In founding
a new nu-ili.-al sect, called tin- Methodic.. 1'hnx. Httt,
hi. \M\.. rap. r,. <-d. Tan.-hn. ; Calcn. liitrnd
I. torn. \iv.. ], • '-. Kiihn: Cramer.
. vol. i.. p. :«).-•. I. 'Jii. 'Hie following is the ana-
,,f Ihe opinions of tins school, which is given b
ction to his work :— • i
lysis Ol ine opinions in UN- .-v i.-".,. .......
is m Ihe historical introduction to his work :—
assert that the knowledge of no cause whatever bears the
relation to the method of cure: and that it is snl-
tome general M inptoms of distempers :
and that there are three kinds of diseases, one bound, an-
other loose,* and the third a mixture of these. For that
:imes the excretions of sick people arc too -
.sometimes too large : and sometimes one particular excre-
tion is deficient, while anoth. live. That these
kinds of distempers are sometimes acute, and son
chronic : sometimes increasing, sometime:- at a sland.'J: and
abating. A- soon then as it is known to which
of these classes a distemper belongs, if the body be bound,
it mi:-' 1 : ii' "' labours under a flux, il must be
-.ned : if the distemper be complicated, then the most
'ad-, must be first opposed. And that one kind
..iment is lequired in acute, another in inveterate dis-
tempers : another when di- Bother
-.x ben at a stand: and another when inclining to health.
That the observation of these things constitute-
inedieine. which they define as a certain way of pi.
ing, xvhich the Greeks call nnlhoil •. /itOui'oc •• and affirm it
to"be employed in considering those things that are com-
mon to the same distempers : nor are they willing to base
themselves classed either with the rationafists (t.«. tli.
matici .. or with those who regard oulx cxpcrimeu'-
the Empiriei : for they dissent from the 1irst :eel. 10
they will not allow medicine to conr-ist in forming O
tnres about the occult things : and a'-o fiom the other in
he) hold the oKsi-r\a«ion of experiments to be a
-mall part of tl, " llat
now of his mode of treating diseases does not give us
h idea of hi.- skill in therapeutics. lie Ibouglit
lie could cure the most violent attacks of pneumonia by
meUS Of Oil and baths; in pleuii>y he permitted the use
of wine mixed with sea-water. ' 'acl. Aim-l.. !>>• Morb.Acut.,
lib. i., cap. 10, p. O'i 03) ; he recommended also \i<.unt
. ial acute diseases. Id., ilinl.. lib. ii., cap.
111. He i- said b\ Sprc.igcl (Hitt. fa la Mid.}
to have been ih«' tii - -ho made use of leeches.
1,1.. ' I'lirmi.. rib. i.. cap. 1, p. 288. Me
.. have bi-en himself attacked with hydrophobia, and
to 1, . red. Id.. Ii- Mali. Ann., lib. iii.. cap.
Hi, ; ..cap. 1. p. •!£!.) He wrote
works, of which nothing but the titles re-
mnj,, •'.. C/inni.. lib. i.. cap. 1. p.
23; ii. 7. p. liW, &c. I:
of whom Ihe most i-miii ^iranus
rs(;]; .Ints Aurelianus.
- hromi -is' is one of the
most of aiitiqm' : ulhor of the
Work ' '• Iln0iir, ' De Muhcimn Pas-
biombus.'
Sprengel, //!-«/. '/-' /•' .'/.'-/. : PabnciUS, fnO/IOM.Gl
Mailer, liilioth. M>;/,r. /',,/-•/. /c : Jfn't. "f
hitii/.. art. • Method].
• In thU lait puu^r UK name i, \uilli-r. M»Oi;TUi-, uhi-li >-o .t t* 1. ft
annotkcd l.v »'-•• nlitur. 1ml n.
IhjU th« To«rl» t .. ' ttoranlc Olactly the aamc ioiind. ami i.'.ii
. , 1*1 (in cl» Wwttl* have 1 '•- , , r- n •-. . *..l.i- •••>- .!•
cvntaif Io UM mccrmt and not ft" ., "(initiy ; M> i
, , .... .;•.,.!. tii.--. , . much alikr ..-. l'(irni-'.--ii .i."l *-l"t ,.'.-. i
:.. .n .1 i- Jl"r*', that U, a ili^mlrc altcwli-d with lomo
t Oat uiihoc BMUU h<m the <ir/iq of a diwaar. alUr which It inarouca no
TMKMISTIl S. ,.| l'Hphla:rom.i. v.a- a distin-nislu d
o,alor in the lomlli cent iirisl. and
Mi'mt of hi- skill in hi-
imieh liivinired by Ihe Koimin ,
( 'on-tantiiis made him a senator: .lulian appointed him
.nlinople in 'M'2, and eorrenponded
him by letters: and although he wa.s a heathen, In
intrusted b\ Theodo-ius Ii .tb the- edueati-
Ins -on Aieadms. In th- appointed,
• oml lime, pielect of Constantinople; and
•nosl l.irlx ti dlx
employeil in cm 'id oilier stall-
was the teacher of J.il.anms and Augustin, and kept up
a friendly intercouiM' with (. xa/.ianzen, who
calls him' in hi- Ictlei- • the kim: of arguments
Themistius had deeply studied the writing of }'l:llo and
tie; and he taught the Peripatetic phi!'
well as rhetoric, at Home and Constantinople.
Of lhirtx-si\ orations composed by him which
known to i'hotins. thirty-three have come down to
the original Cireek. and one in a Latin translation.
haxe rcl'i-ience for the most part to public
xeial of them arc paneiTvrics upon the emperors by whom
the orator was patronised.
Kdifions of some of the outturns were published by
Aldus lol. l.VM , II. Stephens BvO. l"'(i- . Kemu-
KHI.")), I'etau (Kvo. Killi. and Ho. HilK . The mo-t com-
plete edition is that of Haidnin Pan-. KiSJ. lol. . which
contains thirty-three orations. Ihiiteeii of which had not
been printed before. Another oration was disi-ox crcd by
Amrdo Mai. and published by him at Milan. Isle
\V. Dindorf also published, in 1880, two orations of Thc-
niistiii- I from a Milan MS.
The philosophical works of Themistius .
meiitaiies, in the fonii of paraphrase... on
tot],.'- D (iieek, and two Latin us of
commentaries, one upon the work 'On Heaven,1 and the
other upon the twelfth book of Ihe • Mclaplu The
paraphrases were lust published in a Latin w-r.-ion by
Hermolans Harbanis, MKl, which has been several time.-
reprinted: thedieek text of them forms part of theAldme
edition of Themistins. The two commentaries in Latin
•.rinted at Venice in l.V.S, I."i70, and l.'.Tl. i
by Themislius in the collection of II.
1577.
(S.-holl. i;,^,-/iii-/itf il'-r dn.'rli. Lilt., in. 90, 388.)
THKMISTO. M. (iuerin's name for a genus of Ainjilii-
,!„,/„„.•< OnutOOtOlU, placed by M. Milne Edwards in Hie
Iribe of Ordinary Ili/ji<-riii<'\. the second tribe of his farrnly
.
Example, Th<-mi*t>, GamUchandu.
Locality. — Found by M. Gaudichaud at the Falkland
Islands.
N.B. _ M. Milne Edwards distinguishes irom this s;
i'mixt'i (iiiudi:' Sii/,fi/. to Sir .John K,.s-'s
amini; it Thrmixtti urclicii. ('apt. James Ho---.
ibimil the northern species near the west coast of
Ihe peninsula of KOOTIIIA.
THEMI'STOCLES (9s^i«fW(Mc) was born aboul th.
II. Me was the son of Nicoclcs, an Athenian of
moderate fortune, xvho however was connected with the
j>ricstl the I.xeomcdu-: his mother. Abrot--
ng io others. Euteipe. w:ts not an Athenian
<-iti/en: and. according to most authorities, not exen a
' .but either a native of ('aria or of Thrace.
;ion which he received xvas like that of all Athenians
lk at the time, but Theimstocles had no taste for the
i! arts which then beifan to form a prominent part in
the education of Athenian youths: he applied himself
with much more /cal Io the pursuit of practical and useful
knowledge. This, as well as the numerous anecdotes about
.i.tbfnl XMlfulmss ami waywardness, together with the
uleeplew nights which he is said to h.ive passed in n
on the trophies of Miltiades, an more or lew •
symptoms of Ihe character which I lentlx clis-
d as a general and a statesman. His mind was
Dent upon ','ivat tiling. :md was incapable of bein^dixcited
iM-m them by n , or difficulties. Th-
of bis Ii to have been to make Athens
that hi' himself might I"- treat. Tin-
powers with which naluie had endowed him xvere. ipnck-
judginent of the i-
THE
309
THE
which was to be taken on sudden and extraordinary emer-
gencies, and sagacity in calculating the consequences of
his own actions ; and these were the qualities which Athens
(luring her wars with Persia stood most in need of. His
ambition was unbounded, but he was at the same time per-
suaded that it could not reach its end unless Athens was
the first among the Grecian states ; and as he was not very
scrupulous about the means that he employed for these
en, Is, he came into frequent conflict with Aristides the
Just, who had nothing at heart but the welfare of his
country: and no desire of personal aggrandizement. In
the year 483 B.C., when Aristides was sent into exile by
ostracism, Themistocles, who had for several years taken an
active part in public affairs, and was one of the chief
authors oi the banishment of his rival, remained in the
almost undivided possession of the popular favour, and the
year after, B.C. 482, he was elected archon eponymus of
Athens. The city was at that time involved in a war with
Aegina, which then possessed the strongest navy in Greece,
and with which Athens was unable to cope. It was in this
year that Themistocles conceived and partly carried into
effect the plans by which he intended to raise the power of
Athens. His first object was to increase the navy of
Athens ; and this he did ostensibly to enable Athens to
contend with Aegina, but his real intention was to put his
country in a position to meet the danger of a second Per-
sian invasion, with which Greece was threatened. The
manner in which he raised the naval power of Athens was
this. Hitherto the people of Athens had been accustomed
to divide among themselves the yearly revenues of the
silver-mines of Laurion. In the year of his archonship
these revenues were unusually large, and he persuaded his
countrymen to forego their personal advantage, and to
apply these revenues to the enlargement of their fleet. His
advice was followed, and the fleet was raised to the number
of 200 sail. (Herodot., vii. 144 ; Plutarch, Themist., 4.)
It was probably at the same time that he induced the
Athenians to pass a decree that, for the purpose of keep-
ing up their navy, twenty new ships should be built every
i Bockh, J'lttt/ir 1'sonomy of Athens, p. 249, Engl.
transl., 2nd edit.) Athens soon after made peace with
Aegina, as Xerxes was at Sardis making preparations for
invading Greece with all the forces he could muster. At
me time Themistocles was actively engaged in allay-
ing the disputes and hostile feelings which existed among
u states of Greece. He acted however with
grrat severity towards those who espoused the cause of the
Persians, and a Greek interpreter, who accompanied the
envoys of Xerxes that came to Athens to demand earth
mid water as a sign of submission, was put to death for
having made use of the Greek tongue in the service of the
common enemy. After the affairs among the Greeks were
tolerably settled, a detachment of the allied troops of the
Greeks was MT.t out to take possession of Tempe, under
the command of Themistocles of Athens and Euaenetus of
Sparta; but on finding that there they would be over-
whelmed by the host of the barbarians, they returned to the
Corinthian isthmus. When Xerxes arrived in Pieria, the
Greek fleet took its post near Artemisium, on the north
coast of Euhoea, under the command of the Spartan ad-
miral Eurybiades, under whom Themistocles condescended
to serve in order not to cause new dissensions among the
Greeks, although Athens alone furnished 127 ships, and
supplied the Chalcidians with twenty others ; while the
Spartan contingent was incomparably smaller. When the
Persian fleet, notwithstanding severe losses which it had
sustained by a storm, determined to sail round the eastern
and southern coasts of Euboea, and then up the Eiuipus,
in order to cut off the Greek fleet at Artemisium, the
Greeks were so surprised and alarmed, that Themistocles
•/real difficulty in inducing them to remain and main-
tain their station. The Euboeans, who perceived the ad-
\ milages of the plan of Themistocles, rewarded him with
.urn of thirty talents, part of which he gave to the
Spartan Eurybiades and the Corinthian Adimantus to in-
duce them to remain at Artemisium. (Herodot., viii. 4, 5 ;
Plutarch, Thrmist., 7.) In the battle which then took
••, the Greeks gained considerable advantage, though
tli- \k-tnry was. not decided. A storm, and a second en-
i near Artemisium, severely injured the fleet of
Greeks also sustained great losses, as
'.i' their ships were partly destroyed and partly ren-
dered unfit for further service. When at the same time
they received intelligence of the defeat of Leonidas at
Thermopylae, the Greeks resolved to retreat from Arte-
misium, and sailed to the Saronic gulf. Xerxes was now
advancing from Thermopylae, and Athens trembled for her
existence, while the Peloponnesians were bent upon seek-
ing shelter and safety in their peninsula, and upon fortify-
ing themselves by a wall across the Corinthian isthmus.
On the approach of the danger the Athenians had sent to
Delphi to consult the oracle about the means they should
employ for their safety, and the god had commanded
Athens to defend herself behind wooden walls. This oracle,
which had probably been given at the suggestion of The-
mistocles, was now also interpreted by him as referring to
the fleet, and his advice to seek safety in the fleet "was
followed. He then further moved that the Athenians
should abandon the city to the care of its tutelary deity,
that the women, children, and infirm should be removed
to Salamis, Aegina, or Troezen, and that the men should
embark in the ships. The fleet of the Greeks, consisting
of 380 ships, assembled at Salamis, still under the supreme
command of Eurybiades. When the Persians had made
themselves masters of Attica, and Athens was seen in
flames at a distance, some of the commanders of the fleet,
under the influence of fear, began to make preparations
for an immediate retreat. Themistocles and his friend
Mnesiphilus saw the disastrous results of such a course,
and the former exerted all his powers of persuasion to in-
duce the commanders of the fleet to maintain their post :
when all attempts proved ineffectual, Themistocles had
recourse to threats, and thus induced Eurybiades to stay.
The example of the admiral was followed by the other
commanders also. In the meantime the Persian fleet ar-
rived in the Saronic gulf, and the fears of the Pelopon-
nesians were revived and doubled, and nothing seemed to
be able to keep them together. At this last and critical
moment Themistocles devised a plan to compel them to
remain and face the enemy. He sent a message to the
Persian admiral, informing him that the Greeks were on
the point of dispersing, and that if the Persians would
attack them while they were assembled, they would easily
conquer them all at once, whereas it would otherwise be
necessary to defeat them one after another.
This apparently well-meant advice was eagerly taken
up by the enemy, who now hastened, as he thought, to de-
stroy the fleet of the Greeks. But the event proved the
wisdom of Themistocles. The unwieldy armament of the
Persians was unable to perform any movements in the
narrow straits between the island of Salamis and the main-
land. The Greeks gained a most complete and brilliant
victory, for they only lost forty ships, while the enemy lost
two hundred ; or, according to Ctesias, even five hundred.
Very soon after the victory was decided, Xerxes with the
remains of his fleet left the Attic coast and sailed towards
the Hellespont. The battles of Artemisium and Salamis
occurred in the same year, 480 B.C. [SALAMIS.]
Coin of Salamis.
Biituh Museum. Actual Size. Silver
When the Greeks were informed of the departure of
Xerxes, they pursued him as far as Andros without gain-
ing sight ef his fleet, and Themistocles and others pro-
posed to continue the chase. But he gave way to the
opposition that was made to this plan, and consented not
to drive the vanquished enemy to despair. The Greek
fleet therefore only stayed some time among the Cyclades,
to chastise those islanders who had been unfaithful to the
national cause. Themistocles, in the meantime, in order
to get completely rid of the king and his fleet, sent a mes-
sage to him, exhorting him to hasten back to Asia as
speedily as possible, for otherwise he would be in dange.
of having his retreat cut off. Themistocles availed him-
self of the stay of the Greek fleet among the Cyclades for
the purpose of enriching himself at the cost of the islanders,
partly by extorting money from them by way of punish-
ment, and partly by accepting bribes for securing them
impunity for their conduct. His fame, however, spread
over all Greece, and all acknowledged that the country had
•]• II I
810
T ii i:
bren saved through his wisdom and resolution, lint the
awarded to him
he went. :
•;is say*, to be honoured. .1 a chop
•.i-d which they had he-town! upon
tlu-ir own admiral, Eurybiades, — and the l«-st eh;iriot that
the city po-»css,'d. and on hi-, return IKK) kiiiu'!.'
him a- i Arcadia.
\Vliea the IYi-io.ii arm;, had liee-i sixain di
Platii-a- and Mycolc, in K, i when the Athenian.-
had rehnilt tlieir private dwell)
the advice of Theini-toclcs. to restore the fortr,
lie than they had lieen before,
. ith the proud position which the
city i This plan c\cit
anil i> I lie ri\al states, and especially of Sparta.
which sent an cmlms.-y to Athens, iind under the veil of
Miip, which ill concealed its selfish policy, •
i '.ic Athenians not to fortify their city.
:i their designs, undertook
the task !•• them with their own weapons. He
•itrymen to dismiss the Spartan an:
dors, and to promise that Athenian cmoys should 1>
to Sparta to treat with tliem there respecting the fortifi-
! le himself ollercd to go a.s one of the envoys,
but he directed the Athenians not to let his colleague-
follow him, until the walls, on which all hands should be
employed during his absence, should be raised to such
a height as to all'ord sufficient protection against any
t might be made upon them. His advice \vas
followed, and Tlicmi-tocles, after his arrival at Sparta,
took no steps towards opening the negotiations, but pre-
tended that he was obliged to wait for the arrival of his
colleagues. When he was informed that the walls had
reached a sufficient height, and when he could drop the
i- the Spartans a \vell-deser\ed
rebuke, returned home, and the walls were completed
without any hindrance. He then proceeded to carry into
effer 'him: which remained to be done to make
Athens the first maritime power of Greece. He induced
the Athenians to fortify the three ports of Phalerum, Mu-
nychia, and Pira>us, by a double ransre of walls, and to
connect the Piraeus by long walls with the city of Athens.
[ATHENS.]
When Athens was thus raised to the station on which it
had been the ambition of Themistocles to place it, his star
bcLMn to sink, though he still continued for some time to
enjoy the fruits of his memorable deeds. He was conscious
of th - he had done to his country, and never
scrupled to show that he knew his own value. His ex-
tortion and avarice, which made him ready to do anything,
and by which he accumulated extraordinary wealth, could
not fail to raise enemies against him. But what perhaps
contributed more to his downfall was his constant watch-
fulness in maintaining and promoting the interc
Athens against the encroachments of Sparta, which, in its
turn, was ever looking out for an opportunity to crush him.
The great men who had grown up by his side at A
such as Cimon, and who were no less indebted to him for
their greatness in the eyes of Greece than to their own
talents, were his natural rivals, and succeeded in gradually
supplanting him in the favour of the people. Thev also
endeavoured to represent him as a man of too much ,
and as dan 'he republic. The consequence of all
this was, that in 472 u.c. 1. ; from Ath
the » .1 lenoe at AUTOS, where
he wa- still rc.-idini: when, in the same year n.t:. 172, Pan-
baa i as was put to death ;i - amhitio,
;;is fate involved that ol'Thcmis-
rcll to
tiie plot, of I'ausaiuas, found a
of Themistocles, from which it wase\ident. that he
had b anted uiih i. Tliis v.::
for the Spartans to ground upon it the charge that Themis-
tocles had been an a ime, and ai:
dora wen- forthwith \lhciw to demand that he
should suffer the same punishment as 1 ' This
charge was no :•
ery 01 his letter had been to th
•• con>equently Issued to arrest and convey him
'hens. But he had been informed in tini'
' V.I ,8 that his destruction
wo»: •• if he should fall into the hands of
Ills enemies, he fled I. to the opp
nielus. kin;; of the M On his arrival, the kinc
t, but his queen Phthia received bun ki
and pointed out to him in what manner lie nni;h', win
suiipothy of Admetus. When the kint; ret'iincd 1
Them: ad on the hearth :: the child
of Admehis in his arms, implored the king not to d
him up to his pe: ; him to li
the M d that Thenii-'
joined by his wife and children. The kirn; not.
giantcd Iiis request, but jirovidcd him with the me;'
leaching th be intern!
.iirt of thi'
of Persia, l-'iom P\dna he sailed in a merchant ship to
the CO ia Uinor. At Knhe-'.o h.
part of his piopcrty as his friends had
i:om the hands of h.
with that which he had lei' A few n:
his arrival in A-
ler a short led by Ai: Vaii-
ous adventure-, are told of Then. .idled
the residence of the Persian king. On his arrival he
sent him a letter, in which he acknowledged the evils lie
had inflicted upon his predecessor, b time
(•'.aimed the merit of having saved him from .m by
his timely advice. He added that his prc-ent c\i!i
only the consequence of h .1 for the i
the kiiiL; of Pcisia. He di .i i immediale in-
terview with the king, as he was yet unacquainted with the
language and th. f the I'er-ians, to acquire which
he requested a year's time. During t!1 he applied
himself so zealously and with sin-
that at the close of the year, when he
kiiiir. he is .-aid to have excited the jealousy of the
courtiers, and was most kindly i hy the king, to
whom he held out prospect-
nice. The kins- became so attached to him, that
Themistoeles >vas always in his company. Alter he had
spent several years at the court. I
Minor, to wait there for au opportunity of earn in.
promises into effect. A pension w;i-
nim after the Oriental fashion: three towns were ixivcn
him, of which Magnesia on the Maeaudcr was to ]u
him with bread, M\ns with meal, and Lampsacus with
wine. He took ii]> hi in the first of th
where he lived with a sort of princely rank. But death
overtook him at the I /ore any of his
plans were carried into effect. Most (:f the ancient v.
state that he put an cud to his life by poison, 0
inir to another stiamre stor\ . by drinking the blood of a
bull, because he despaired of l/einu; able U) fulfil hi
miss's to the king. The motive for In-, suici
qtiestionab, -ions on his past life and upi
glory of his former rivals at Athens are min-h more likely
to have rendered him 1 with life.
the poison he is said to h;:
\ey In 'i Attica,
tomb which .in them existed in Pi'
In the market-place of Mnu'ii' ulul monument
\ to his memory, and his descendants in that
by certain |iri\
down to the tin
(Hei . : viii. 4, 6;<-. ; Thin
I I, I:!."!, \..-. : I'lnlareh. T,
'J. ! J. \.e. : ( '.
i :drlwall. llixlnn/ «f < .
THEMISTO'G
TlIK.NAliDlTK - dnAy drou* Sulphate tfStxla — «
lized. 1'iimary form a ihrht rhombic prism ; >
air.c parallel to the ])rimnry planes: colour white <,,
dish ; transparent ; transluci :e ; solnb i
". ilv 27.'!.
It occuis in <•;•_', -lalline ( oaliiiirs at the bo
n Mai'rid : it m of
carbonate of snda. Aceonlim; '
• d of
Sulphate of s< . . !)!)7s
100-
TRENT'S, Dr. Leach's name for a genus of macrurons
THE
311
THE
crustaceans, formed at the expense of Scyllarus of authors
[SCYLLARIANS, vol. XxL, p. 144.]
THEOBALD, LEWIS, was born at Sittingbourne, in
Kent. We have no record of the date of his birth. His
father was an attorney, and he was bred to his father's
business. His first literary production was 'Electra,' a
tragedy, which appeared in 1714. As the writer of twenty
\ cry indifferent plays, he is utterly forgotten. Those pro-
ductions belong to an age in which the true spirit of dra-
matic poetry was for the most part lost, and Theobalc
"ssed none of those brilliant qualities which could
impart a lengthened existence to his attempts in por-
traying the manners of his age. But he has attained a
celebrity of another description. He is most commonly
known as the unhappy dunce whom Pope assailed with the
most inveterate ridicule ; but, after a century of prejudice
against his name, he is now pretty generally acknowledged
to have deserved an honourable reputation as an editor of
Shakspere, having brought to that task diligence, know-
ledge, and judgment, beyond comparison superior to the
ciitical talents of his rival the author of the 'Dunclad.'
IIi^ -bad eminence' as the original hero of that poem was
earned by a pamphlet in which he pointed out many of
the errors of Pope's Shakspere. ' Shakespear Restored, or
Specimens of Blunders committed and unamended in
Pope:s Edition of this Poet,' was published in 1726. The
notice which Pope took of this pamphlet was in his
id edition of Shakspere, which appeared in 1728.
'Since the publication of our first edition, there having
been some attempts upon Shakspeare published by Lewis
Theobald (which he would not communicate during the
lime wherein that edition was preparing for the press,
when we, by public advertisements, did request the assist-
ance of all lovers of this author), we have inserted in this
ID as many of 'em as are judged of any the least
to the poet ; the whole amounting to about
twenty-live words.' In the same year came out the
' Dunciad.' The revenge of Theobald was the severest
ould be inflicted, and it was unexceptionable. In
1733 he produced an edition of Shakspere which utterly
destroyed that of Pope. It has been asserted that of
edition, which was in seven volumes, 8vo.,
nearly Thirteen thousand copies were sold. (Steevens's
!/"93, vol. i.j In his preface Theobald thus
notices the attacks of his distinguished rival : ' It is not
with any secret pleasure that I so frequently animadvert
0:1 Mr. Pope as a critic, but there are provocations which
we can never quite forget. His libels have been thrown
-I much inveteracy, that, not to dispute whether
they should come from a Christian, they leave it a ques-
tion whether they could come from a man. I should be
loth to doubt, as Quintus Serenus did in a like case,
: i bestia nobis
Vuln'Ti ilriiV- diNtit."
The indignation, pernaps, for being represented a block-
lu-ad, may be as strong in us as it is in the ladies for a re-
flection on their beauties. It is certain I am indebted to
him for some flagrant civilities ; and I shall willingly de-
vote a part of my life to the honest endeavour of quitting
l ; with this exception, however, that I will not
return those civilities in his peculiar strain, but confine
myself, at least, to the limits of common decency. I shall
ever think it better to want wit, than to want humanity;
and impartial posterity may perhaps be of my opinion.'
It is to be feared that it was rather a new hatred than a
of justice, however tardy, which induced Pope in
1743 to dethrone Theobald from the heroship of the
'Dunciad,' setting up Colley Gibber in his place. In the
•'|i;c-iit year both Pope and Theobald wore at peace;
nad f.'ir ever silenced their controversy. Theobald
in September, 1744. On the 20th of the following
October, hi* library, which included 205 old English
•old by auction. He had collected these pro-
ductions, now so rare and highly valued, at a time when
our early drama was neglected, if not despised ; and he
a judicious use of them in his edition of Shakspere.
. of his edition with commendation, we of
course look at those things which are of permanent value
in it : . cr those ebullitions of offended pride,
venting itself in self-commendation and acrimonious ob-
jection, which were luitmal to one who had been so hunted
:. Dr. Johnson says that
Ttieobald, 'by the gui,d luck of having Pope for hi.;
enemy, has escaped and escaped alone with reputation
from this undertaking [the undertaking of editing Shaks-
pere]. So willingly does the world support those who
solicit favour against those who command reverence, and
so easily is he praised whom no man can envy.' This, we
think, is mere phrase-making, and does not represent the
world s opinion of any man at any period : reputations are
not made upon the compassion of the world. Johnson
has, a little before, stated the case with greater correct-
ness although not wholly correct. ' Pope was succeeded
by Iheobald, a man of narrow comprehension, and small
acquisitions, with no native and intrinsic splendour of
genius, with little of the artificial light of learning, but
zealous for minute accuracy, and not negligent in pursuing
it. He collated the ancient copies, and rectified many
errors. A man so anxiously scrupulous might have been
expected to do more, but what little he did was commonly
right.' The great merit of Theobald as an editor is that he
did not attempt too much, that he did not ' do more,' and
that therefore he was ' commonly right.' The great fault
of nearly all the editors of Shakspere has been that they
set themselves up above their author; that they would
exhibit their own ' native and intrinsic splendour of genius'
in the improvement of what they did not understand, and
the adaptation of the verse of Shakspere to the standard of
another age. The most happy emendations of Shakspere,
almost the only admissible ones, have been produced by the
caution of Theobald. In his own preface he says, ' I have
not by any innovation tampered with his text, out of an os-
tentation of endeavouring to make him speak better than the
old copies have done ;' aiid then he adds, ' Where, through
all the former editions, a passage has laboured under flat
nonsense and invincible darkness, if, by the addition or al-
teration of a letter or two, or a transposition in the pointing,
I have restored to him both sense and sentiment, such cor-
rections, I am persuaded, will need no indulgence.' All
subsequent editors have a debt to Theobald which has not
always been acknowledged. Johnson himself says, 'I
li;ive sometimes adopted his restoration of a comma, with-
out inserting the panegyric in which he celebrated himself
"or his achievement.'
There is a curious matter connected with the history of
Theobald, which needs here only a slight mention. In his
edition of Shakspere in 1728, he printed a play, 'The
Double Falsehood,' as an original by William Shakspere,
t having been a short time before produced on the stage.
The play was stated to have been found in manuscript.
3ne passage, which is certainly not in the manner of
Shakspere, is said to have been particularly admired : —
' Strike up, my misters ;
But touch the strings with a religious softness :
Teach souud to languish through tiie night's dull cor,
Till melancholy slart from her lazy cnifli.
Ami carelessness grow convert to attention.'
The admiration was too much for the vanity of Theobald :
le came forward to state that he certainly had written
hose lines, but that all the rest was genuine Shakspere.
)r. Farmer holds that 'The Double Falsehood' was not
Shakspere's because the word aspect was wrongly accen-
uated, that is, not as aspect, according to the usage of
hakspere and of his time ; and he holds the play to be
hirlcy's. It is not worthy even of that writer. The pro-
iability is that Theobald had a greater hand in the matter
han he was subsequently willing to acknowledge. The
estless vanity and love of notoriety which, according to
lis own account, impelled Psalmanazar to his impostures,
las perhaps in nearly every case been the great motive to
iterary forgery. Theobald was the author of a Life of Sir
Walter Raleigh ; and he also wrote the greater part of the
>eriodical papers entitled ' The Censor,' which appeared
is a separate work in 1717, having been previously pub-
ished in Mist's 'Weekly Journal.'
TIIEOBALDUS, a bishop who probably lived in Fiance,
and whose name is sometimes written Tebaldus or Tibal-
fi/'V, the reputed author of a didactic and theological poem
mtitled ' Physiologus de Naturis Duodecim Animahum.'
t is written in hexameter, sapphic, and other kinds of verse,
and describes first some one or more of the natural habits
f twelve' different animals, and then draws from each some
moral and religious reflections. The twelve animals chosen
are the lion, eagle, serpent, ant, fox, stag, spider, whale,
iren and centaur, elephant, dove, and panther; and the
whole poem appeal's to be borrowed in a great measure
T 11 I.
T 11 K
from the little woik in prose by Kpiplmnius on the same
kubjeet. The poem begins thus : —
• TIM bo Mt«n> rt tnt l»brt iDdo iruimi,
Quo nto. Chrt4>, TiU bU *no araliw
Alvr. iid=i iMorul Mta^lU lil.ri.
D» quiha. mpnuii qtu> mrau mjnlkrm i
TiA»i in-2-*--1 1 °— ~-**u
NamlmlfcuM foito «1»« •«» acumte* mooU.,' kc.
Anil ends thus: —
• CDeV» MdrwlMU ul.i ttfiui cum r»tto pruMu
Uorm fruir. cunrUo .k- «unt rn-drti.l" «TUt»*
A..t fti«ll ruq«f UM n*r to l|»o Irapon pu*
- -•"•"";!;?,::•.•• -
ibs.
l,!i<
7^7
e deMM. qnl ««U «nr omnim nfnt.
r»ni>l.K- 6mho ril tail, »t glori* ChriMa.
a non .,111 pUconl hoe mrlra Titaldi.1
The last two verses are not to be found in the old edi-
tions, but only m Hcauirendre's edition of the works of
•erf. \Vith re-;:, e! to the author of the poem, as it
,,,1 i,i a P.: -ript of the thirteenth century,
ining the works ot Hildebert, archbishop of Tours
(who lived in the twefth century), and has aUo been
• himself, he may be supposed to have
h\ed some time in the twelfth century, 0 early
MS the eleventh, if he is the person meant in an epitaph on
',,i/,/H.v J> .ritteii by Ilil.i
Hi'l,; i. p. l:i±2, edit. 15. The fust
edition of this work to which a date is attached is that of
Antv.. J -Jto., but five others are enumerated by
lliiiilliii<-h tlfr Btich'-rkiiiuli- fiir itti- . I'll,
. which were probably printed before this year. The
iition, in a separate form, was published at I.eip/is.
1510, 4to. : but it is inserted in • Hildebirti Ceuomaneiisis
..pi, Turoncn-is Archiepiscopi, Opera,' edit. Ant.
i-. 1 70S, fol., and erroneously attributed to
HilbeberL The /'i-iuniiiinn and the chapter /'
i,hn>it>- arc inserted by Kreytag in the • Analccta I.itte-
niria de Libris Harioribus,' I.ips.. 17-V2. SMI. In some of
the old editions there is appended to the poem a theo-
logical commentary, written in the style of the scholastic
philosophy of I lie "middle ages : the author is unknown,
but it was not composed by Theobaldus himself. (Chou-
lant, IIH-II cit.)
'\ !IKOBR< )'MA (from Snos and /3p<3/ia, the food of ends ,
the name of a genus of plants belonging to the natural
order Sterculiaceie. the species of which yield the cocoa of
commerce. They are trees with large simple loaves and
with the flower* in clusters. The calyx is composed of
I are 5. lengthened into a strap-like
form at the apex : the stamens are 5, each with double
anthers and a horn-like appendage between each filament;
'\le is filiform, with :i 5-purted stigma: fruit a 5-
celled' i-apsiile without valves: seeds embedded in a soft
pulp; no albumen, and thick oily wrinkled cotyledons.
. Common Cacao or' Chocolate-nut tree, has
entire, elliptic, oblong, acuminate, unite smooth lea\ ,
ohloni; smooth fiuit. Tins tiee is indigenous in South
America, a-'d is L'enerally found at a height of (KK) feet
level of the sea. It is however extensively cul-
tivated in the West Indies, and in the tropical parts of
Afiica. The Mexicans call th
: word chocolate for the prepared seeds. The
.lesof the fruit are large, and contain each about 25
-: the pulp in which these are enveloped has a sweet
not unplea i frequently eaten where the
,wn. Th. e\cii;recn.. and bear fruit
I'.owers all the yew through, but the usual tin
gatherin!; the fruit are in June and December. The coty-
ledons of the -> :n a large quantity of oily albu-
men, which hits an agreeable flavour, and on this account
1he\ are not only used as a principal article of diet by the
natives of the countries in which they irrow. but are now
: for the same purpose thoiiL'hout the civilized world.
The com;. 'hese »ecds,in which amylaceous matter
.th oil, and a principle probably similar in
••ilion to Thcin and Carl'ein, is well adapted,
when combined wit! form a valuable article of
diet. umptioii of them for this ; .dready
0:1 the increase, and under the present treat!.
rate of duty will probably go on in a greater ratio. The
following are the quantities consumed in this country
lince 1835 :—
1K41 .
Before the alteration of the tariff in 1K12. the duty on
cocoa 1mm liritish possessions was i/., and fromtoi.
countries Of/, ner 11). ; now reduced to I./, and -I'/. On
husk- and shells the duty was ^/. and !</., and remains
unaltered. The duty on cocoa paste and chocolate, which
was-t'/. per II). from liritish possessions, and -Iv. -\,l. from
foreiirn countries, has been reduced in the form
i/., and in the latter to («/. per Ib. The dut\ .
nder the old taril!'v,as nesuly prohibitory.
The chocolate of different countries \arics according to
its mode of preparation and the ingredients contained in it.
The most common form however in which they are con-
sumed in this count iv is what is called cocoa, which con-
sists of tin .-d into flakes or reduced '
It is to this paste whilst hot that the h. and
other things are added, which constitute it chocolate. The
|iicnt!\ adulterated. IIo^V lard at •
added to make up weight, and red lead to irivc it a colour.
On this account the flake-cocoa is the best to be used.
The largest quantity of the seeds that are used in this
country are brought from the \Vest Indies, and of :
the Trinidad n. nd the hi-t. Of the
1. UK 1.000 Ibs. of cocoa consumed in Kill. -.l.V.MHX) Ibs.
the \Vc-a Indies, :(75.(JOO from Colm
ISU.IXK) from IJrazil. and l:«,000 from Chili.
The oil contained in the -.imetinu-s obtained
separately, and called cocoa butter. It may be obtained
easily b\ expression, especially if hot water is added. It
is said to be very nutritive, and to act as an anodyne. It is
particularly recommended for making ointment*. 1
and (iniber, A//HI-HI. l'.nri/<-l.. art. • OBI
In the cultivation of the Cacao a wet. soil must !
. as. \\here\er planted, it' it has not a large quantity
of water it perishes. The plants also require shade, and
on this account in Trinidad and other islands of the \Ve.-1
Indies • lie placed between rows of the Krythrina
umbrosa, one, two, or three rows of the Cacao being
planted between the Krythrinas. In sowing them the
seeds are placed two or three together in the soil, at about
two \ards distant in the rows; and when the plants are
about two feet high, all except the strongest are rein
In rearing them the only further care iieces*ar\ i- tl
weeds are removed. If this be not attended to, the plants
will not flourish.
There are se\eial other species of Theobroma. yielding
seeds possessing the | . e, but they are
not cultivated or employed to the same extent. Th-
ai 1 of them natives of South America, and used by the in-
habitants where they irrow as food. The 'rhr<itirnin*i
(liiiiziini'i of LiniKcns. the liastard Cedar or Orme d'Ame-
rique. now the <iun:i' a native of the \\Yst
. and is a handsome tree re-embling the elm. It.
•••th on both surfaces. In
Jamaica cattle eat itslea\c* when fodder is Karc . I'-
reel flavour li!,<' LTreen \\-^~. and a:.
quently eaten ill the \Ve-t Indies. \\~, wood is much used
nt of its lightness. Its 1.
ik yield a mucilaginous decoction, which is re])iited
of much value in elephantiasis and in , the chest.
'.'.//IT'.V l>ict:i: iinnj : Dii-liimiin.
Parliamentary
TIIKOHKO'M.V Cocoa nn,l <7nmlntr.} The si,
of this -;enus which \ield articles of nutriment are t i
native*) of South America and the West Indies. Tin
also found in the Philippine Isle*. It is customary to refer
io the species deseiiln'd by I.inun'iis under the name
Theobroma Cacao : "/'. > '///•>.'. I.amarck , but this
yields only a small portion of this mo-t wnlcl\ consumed
aiticlc, and none of that used in Mexico, where the T.
nut e\ en irrow. Besides this species, the fol-
lowing furnish seme of the different kinds, si/.. : T. S|
sum. Wildcnow: T. subincanum, Mart.: T. s\ h
Mart. The Mexican 'ureil by Decandolli;
to hi' yielded by T. aniruslifolia and ovah: ell ag
from sonic unci -. Tliat of Guatemala is
ceitainly from an undeicribed specie-,. The C'ohnnb..
yielded by a species called by the natives mnnlaras or
THE
313
T II
which is cultivated like the T. Cacao. The
cocoa of Guiana is yielded by the T. Guianensis. ( Aublet.)
The fruits are collected both from wild and cultivated
plants ; from the latter two harvests are obtained, from
the former one only. The cultivation is easy and unex-
pensive. The tree begins to bear about the age of seven or
eight years, and one slave can superintend a thousand
plants, the produce of which however is not more than from
1500 to 1000 Ibs. of seeds. The statement of Labat is
an exaggeration — that a tree in full vigour will produce
150 Ibslof seeds. Notwithstanding the small return from
each tree, it is a very lucrative branch of culture. The
produce is always greatest after the greatest floodings of
the rivers. The seeds from the wild plants are termed by
the native Brazilians cacao bravo or cacao do Mato.
The fruits of the ditf'erent species vary in size, form, and
the number of the seeds they contain. The seeds, which
are the only part employed, vary in size and quality ac-
cording to the species from which they are obtained. The
general number is from twenty-five to thirty in each fruit,
In-ill'.: mo iv abundant, as well as of better quality, in the
cultivated than in the wild plants. They vary much in
bitterness and in the quantity of oil they yield, not only
according to the spet-ies from which they are obtained,
but the manner in which they are treated after being
gathered and taken out of the pulpy fruit. In some in-
•s they are buried in the earth in heaps, and allowed
to ferment for thirty or forty days ; a process which greatly
improves them, and destroys the germinating power of the
seed. The different kinds met with in commerce derive
their names either from the place where they grew or from
some corruption of the native designation. The average
si/e of good beans is that of a sweet almond, but some-
what thicker. The most esteemed of the known sorts is
that termed Surotmzco, or Mexican, with very small beans,
with a remarkably fine flavour, and scarcely any acrid
taste. 'J 1u M- beans are always buried. This sort never
- to Europe. The next most valuable comes from
K.Miirialda.-.. and h;;> a MTV agreeable flavour: the choco-
late prepared from it has a golden colour ; it is seldom met
with out of Mexico. The Guatemala cocoa consists of
I:UL/'- beans, very convex, often angular, and very
much pointed at the one end. They contain much oil,
and are mild, with a pleasant flavour. The beans from
Guayaquil, which aie three times as large as those of So-
conuzeo, are less prized than those of Guatemala.
The Caracas or .New Granada cocoa, which is among the
more highly prized kinds that reach Europe, is obtained
from the 'i'heobroma bicolor (Humboldt, }'l. Aequin.,
\. 3Oj, called by the natives Bacao, and cultivated at Car-
thago. The beans are of medium size, and very oily. But
chocolate made of these alone is not very agreeable, and
another kind is commonly mixed with them, which are
much smaller and harder. Berbice cocoa beans are not
unfrequently mingled with those of Granada. These arc
also smaller and thinner, but in other respects difficult to
dUtinguUli : the shell separates very easily from the kernel,
which is reddish-brown, and has a strong smell, but a
pleasant flavour.
The Surinam and Essequibo cocoas are not unlike that
from New Granada, but are harder, thicker, and not so
sweet.
All :he foregoing are earth-dried : the following are
called sun-dried, being merely collected in heaps, and
often turned over in the sun ; they are consequently much
cheaper.
Brazilian, called also of Para, and of Maranham, is very
extensively employed: the beans are small, smooth, long,
somewhat flattened, externally reddish-brown, with a bitter
astringent taste : it is only worth half the amount of the
former. The West Indian, called Cocoa des lies or des
Antilles, is still k-ss valuable, and is employed to form the
low-priced cocoas and chocolates.
Lampadius has analyzed the West Indian kernels, and
4 tin-in to consist of, in the 100 parts, besides water,
fXJ-1 of fat or oil, 16'7 of an albuminous brown matter,
which contains all the aroma of the bean, 10-91 of starch,
•75 of gum or mucilage, 0-9 of lignine, and 2 01 of a
red'1 ill', somewhat akin to the pigment of cochi-
neal. These proportions vary very much in the ditf'erent
sorts, the West, Indian kinds containing far more of the
oil or butter of cocoa than the kind from New Granada.
It is therefore mo.-it advantageous to employ the latter to
P. C., No. 1527,
form cocoa or chocolate for nutriment, and the other to
yield this solid oil, to form candles, soap, or pomades.
This oil contains a large proportion of stearinc, and is
therefore solid at the ordinary temperature of the air, but
it melts at 122° Fahr. When purified by long boiling in
water, it is perfectly white, and does not readily become
rancid. It is perfectly soluble in aether, a means of detect-
ing adulterations with beef-fat, suet, marrow, or almond
oil, wax, &c. It is however less employed in this country
than in France. Nevertheless it is a most valuable ma-
terial, and a soap made with it and soda, which is prefer-
able to potass, forms an article for the toilet of great ser-
vice to those who are troubled with a rough harsh skin or
chapped hands. The soap sold in this country under the
name of cocoa-nut oil must not be confounded with that
}ust spoken of, as this is obtained from the Cocos nucifera.
The cocoa-nut-oil candles are likewise prepared from the
latter.
The kernels of the Theobroma are used as an article of
nutriment either in the natural state as they are received
from America or prepared in various ways. The simplest
and best form is that of the seeds roughly crushed, termed
cocoa-nibs, which however require two hours boiling, as,
owing to the peculiar nature of the endosperm, or inner
seed-coat, which passes down into the substance of the co-
tyledons, the prolonged application of heat and moisture
is necessary to dissolve the contents. Flake cocoa is
merely the seeds crushed between rollers. When choco-
late is to be made, the beans, after being carefully picked
so as to free them from mouldy or worm-eaten ones, are
to be gently roasted over a fire in an iron-cylinder, with
holes in the ends to allow the vapour to escape. When
the aroma begins to be well developed, the process is con-
sidered complete. The beans are then turned out, cooled,
and freed by fanning and sifting from their husks. The
husks, which often amount to 20 or 25 per cent, of the
beans employed, should not be thrown away, as they con-
tain half their weight of soluble matter of a mucilaginous
nature, which furnishes a tolerable nutriment for the poor.
The seeds are then to be converted into a paste, either by
trituration in a mortar heated to 130° Fahr., or now almost
universally by a machine impelled by steam. (See Ure's
Dictionary (<f Arts, &c., p. 293.) The paste is then put
into moulds and sent into the market. It always im-
proves by keeping. The colour is said to be owing to the
addition of arnotto, but this is probably a mistake, for if
the South American contain as much colouring-matter a*
the West Indian, any extraneous pigment is unnecessary.
When the kernels alone are used, or only a little sugar
added, the chocolate is termed ' Chocolat de sante.' But
vanilla, cloves, cinnamon, and other aromatics are frequently
added; as are also rice, almonds, starch, &c. Simple cho-
colate is mostly preferred in Britain, the perfumed sorts in
France, Italy, and Spain, in which countries the consump •
lion is immense. For invalids the plain chocolate is best,
the perfumed being too heating. Where tea and coffee
disagree, cocoa or chocolate is the best substitute. It is
complained that it proves heavy and disturbs the stomach,
and not unfrequently causes headaches. In almost all in-
stances this arises from making the beverage too strong.
The printed directions order far too much of the substance
to be employed. Half the quantity is sufficient. The
Spaniards do not reckon chocolate very nutritious, and
even permit the priests, who should fast for many hours
before saying mass, to drink it. But this is a very con-
venient mistake. Schroder, who analyzed cocoa, regarded
the bitter principle as similar to cuffi-m. The analysis of
Theobromine by Woskresensky shows how nearly he was
correct, and ajso that this article, being one of the most
highly azotised vegetable compounds, must be highly nu-
tritious. Liebig considers that this principle contributes
to the formation of bile, like thein. [THEA ; THEIN.]
THEOCRACY (Seoicparm, a government by God) is a
term applied to the constitution of the Israelitish govern-
ment, as established by Moses, on account of its being
under the direct control of God. Michaelis enumerates
the following particulars as those in which the theocratic
form of government is most remarkable : — 1. The laws of
the Israelites were given by God. 2. The judges arc re-
presented as holy persons, and as sitting in the place
of God. 3. The judges were usually taken from the tribe
of Levi, and the chief expounder of the law was tin;
high-priest. 4. In difficult cases of law, relating both to
Vol. XX.IV.-2 S
T II K
314
T ii r.
1 war. God was to be consulted by
i-i tlio earliest form i :itu-
lillll. ' : mill till' desire Of til'
:i kin? at the
.tared to be an act of rebellion on
their ) i. 7.
visibli
. • ruler of tin' .state, [I. 0111-
i 1 1. J
'•a on the . . sec.
. . . S
a native i,:
of his life. lie i- .-..id to I
-
pupil, w!
with Aiatns tiie
and i! i- tbimed tl.
ml T
i'hiladclphus, and that the
. -
Son). B.C. "-!H1. In'
of that
i- mamt'e-' •! of his poems. It has fuither
. that he spent >ume ti. ion in
three of his poems is
laid in that place. Beyond theM' circumstances, which are
Jittle more than probabilities, we know nothing of the life
of Theocritus. The Alexandrine sr;auiiu :ed his
works vi-:y highly, anil assigned to him the second
in the plciad of the - llauoous poets, which com-
. Apol-
Kmius Hhodius. Nii-ander, and one Homer, the son o!
Moero of Byzantium. Several (»i wrote
i extant in the scholia on his poems. There
various ;••
•which are all the
dialect, which is sutler than the old Doric, and
the :• this new Doric is still increased in the
: epic and Ionic
] v by which
'{Hired Hi' i j.;\i|
. This pastoral pi. ,!ar in
I'liusilit
on, and the antient cutics
id Viijril for
.i. I ,.
in the
\.\i,i .
poem imita-
tions
i are mere
'
... xxui.. x\i\
ind some porti
'•rn • the work < ''some
there • doubt that they arc i i liny
arc not without <;rcat poetical merit, if we •
XXX.
poem . , .'.hiil i
ire ascribed to 1
All the poems which aiv pnxluctions of Theo-
»»« 'o I uf liis art.
H" I" <ua£e U not lew wondeiiul than hi,
wrte for the ample I nature, and the skill with
which he handled hw subjects. His poonu are indeed
.onal shepherxl sonirs of Si( ily in the
. and
ideal i/
. do not know whether '1 nei
ud a collection ui' hi- |
a in the • . \nthol" ' iv.. 11. 'Jil") . we
editions uniler his name. The cditio prin
I., only contains eighteen
ihoue
of .1. -1 in IraMslaliDii. tl holia
and in : 'I'lunna-. \Varton,
with additional M'lmlia and nt • 1, 1770. 'J
4to.; Valckenaer, Leydea, I77i> mid I7si. The edition of
Minn and
u>. N still In I77:i \ :ri kenaer had
li-hcd an excellent edition of itus.
His com])lete edition was reprinted at Berlin, IMn. J
with additional 1 Toup.
•,>7iir. Isll.
i> by K. Y. \\iistemami. (iothaand Kiiindt. 1K«). in
vol. Svo. The intioduetory ess' .:it of
the literature of Theocritus. The works of Tin i
i.een translated into all the laniruaC' s i.f m
v. There i,h transhr
i7*'7. and a tra
I'olwhele. -Ito., ITKli. and m -J ?ol», ISmo., 1M1.
.eiieh translation is that of .1. B. Claii, with cxplana-
id eritical note-, 1'aris. IhOS. :i \nU. 4to. Th.
a traiisla'ions | i.f ,1. 11. \
! \Vhter HildUirchausr
•tintr the character of the .-ritus, see
Kickstadt. Ailnnihrati'i
0. ; and Reinhold. I>
is, Jena. IS]:).
THKODOI.KT. or THKODOLITK (the woul is found
in both forms , is the name generally srivcn to the instru-
>ed for measuring hon/imtal
:nrm the theodolet consists of a divided circle, which
i- to be set parallel with the horizon, and a
which has so much motion in a vertical plane as to enable
| the observer to view any object which he m.
i or below the horizon. The derivation of the word
. although the instrument and ii
lively of recent
divided circles, which thc\
for the j>.
spea'. ude. The (|iiad:an; \ ed in all
aeein:' - up to the latter half of !!• . ,nny.
although Uoemer had shown by i injiie
the superiority of the eiiln The lirxt.
instance of a survey conducted with ; • ircle, on a
.•-, so far a-
. in I7U--H. The horizontal .
ler. and < -onslrncted bv the Danish
artist Ahl.
Uam.-dcn linished his gival theodolite in 17KT, the
circle of which i- in diameter. This
fora trianjrulation, to connect the observ:*.
v. ich and Pan-. \ \ e, \ hid description of it >.
'•'unit if Ilii' (tjH'rii'i
;Ti I/ of l-.'l a/ i/til (I
.. ll!7-l:i(i. with four |- jirint, ina
'hil.Traiw.,
i the Knu
with tin- it or with
untieal in si/e and co' and
I thou^1 minor additions andimpi. havi:
theodolite' is still considered by the
i ui the si infal-
lible instiumcnt. We believe thai the high reputation of
the treat theodolite depends in B treat . the
,- with which it has heen used and pre-
it is ir a very line, well-divided in-
V r.i..| p. <'ii, >• :,ri.' tin i>uu> lu mcrlu.
T H K
313
T H E
strumui':, but in common hands its want of solidity and
firmness xould probably have been felt. It would be
impossible as well as useless to give an account oi' the
various constructions of different artists at home and
abroad. The general properties of a theodolite, that it
should be firm, well balanced, &c., will be easily recog-
nised by a -person who knows how to make good use oi'
the instrument, and we shall advert in the course of this
article to some of the qualities which are, and to others
which are not, essential.
\\~r have given here a sketch of the theodolite in its
Miupii'^ liirm. such as would be proper for the secondary
.^•illation of a national survey, or for the nu
private .-uney. The tripod which cariies the instrument
.siththree foot -screws in brass notches let into the
top of a v :d. The legs ct tin- stand are not fully
d, but the tuo parts of which each is com
end below in a strung and sharply-pointed metal «
The circle is iixcd, and the upper works, telescope, vei-
-. turn on a centre, which may I
M of the telescope. The adjustments arc
\eiy simple. The wooden stand is first set down wl
. ami the top nearly horizontal.
The i - are placed in their notches, the ] :
• »ok, below the centre of the circle, and
the Ich-M-opc turned round till one le\el is parallel to the
line joining two foot-screws, while the other level is in a
the third toot-screw to the centre. Briny; the
bubble d! the fust-mentioned level into the midd
raising one of the two foot-screw.-, and depressing the other,
:iml then adjust the cross-level by raising or depressing the
•• alone. Now turn the telescope round
180°, and if the bubbles are not in the middle, bring tlvm
half way there by touching the foot I the other
hall' by screws which adjust the levels themselves. \Vhen
this has been nicely done, the bubbles will remain in the
middle in cu iv position of the telescope. If the object.;
to be observed lay all in the horizon, or in a plane parallel
to it, the above adjustment would be sufficient ; but when
the i out of the horizontal plane they in
perpendicular, that is, the plane de-
:-ope must be a great, circle, and must,
also pi>.-s through ihe zenith. There are generally two
ni the focus ol the telescope, one horizontal
and the other vertical. Place the eye-piece to give sharp
visio ,; es, and turn the milled screw, seen towards
. until the objects you are going to ob-
ai-e distinct. Place the vertical wire on any well-
defined object, making the bisection near the crossing
of the wire ; raise or depress the telescope until the
object is nearly at the bottom or top of the field ; if it is
still bisected, 'the wire is rightly placed, but if not, twist,
the tube carrying the eye-piece so as to effect a bisection.
To make the telescope describe a great circle, select some
well-defined object near the horizon, and bisect it: now
take the telescope very e.trefulty out of its Y's, reverse it,
and look a&p.in at the object. If it is still bisected, there is
no error ; but if not, the bisection is to be effected half by
the tangent-screw of the instrument and half by the screw*
which carry the wire-plate, screwing up one and releasing
the other. Restoring the telescope to its first position, it
will be seen whether the adjustment is correct, and if not,
the process must be repeated until the bisection is the.
in both positions of the telescope, the clamp and
it-screw remaining fixed. For the adjustment of the
axis of the telescope a level would be convenient, but in
this instrument the axis is supposed to have been correctly
placed by the maker, and the only mode of correcting any
is by filing tire Y's. It may be ascertained whether
the axis is tolerably correct as follows : — Bisect an object
as far above or below the horizon as the motion of the
ope will allow. Reverse the telescope, and if the
object is still bisected, the pivots of the telescope are the
same size : if not, the observer must deduce the difference
of the pivots from the altitude and the error observed,
is not difficult. When this has been satisfactorily
. as in the last instance, an object as far as
'e from the horizon, and read off the verniers. Turn
the instrument round 180°, return the telescope end for
i.isect the object again, and read off the verniers. If
the mean readings differ exactly 180°, the axis is hori-
zontal ; but, if they do not, the observer will have sufficient
data from this, and the altitude or depression, for deter-
mining the quantity and direction of the error, which he
may correct, by the file or by calculation, according to his
pleasure. There is a much easier method of examining
the position of the axis by observing an object directly
and as seen by reflexion from a fluid, as mercury, oil, or
water. The axis is truly horizontal when the vertical wire
bisects the object and its reflected image without moving
the tangent-screw. It must be recollected that the ad-
justments of the horizontal circle already described must be
previously and very scrupulously performed before attempt-
ing the examination or adjustment of the cross-axis.
the objects in a survey are at very different dis-
tances, an adjustment is required for forming the image
exactly on the wires. The use of the milled screw, seen
i- the object-end of the telescope for this purpose,
'ready been mentioned.
In use, this theodolite should be placed on a repeating
table or tripod, such ns is to be found figured and described
in REPEATING CHICLE, and the repeating-tripod upon the
stand. This was not done in the present, plan for the sake of
clearness. To adjust the repeating tripod, place the lev
described in the first adjustment, and clamp the theodolite.
Bring the foot-screws of the theodolite over the foot-
of the repeating-tripod by the motion of the tripod, and
then by touching the foot-screws of the tripod or theodo-
lite set the level-bubbles in the middle. Turn the d]
plate i;f the tripod half-round, and again bring the bub-
bles into the middle, half by the tripod foot-sri
by those of the instrument, and repeat the operation uniil
ulution of the repeating-table does not alter the
.n of the level-bubbles. The rcpcaling-stund is
now clamped, and the instrument itself is to be adjusted
we have described above.
The course of observation after the instrument is ad-
justed i, very simple. The problem is i
horizontal angle between two objects. Turn the
two or three times round in the direction in \vhie!i
intend to observe, then bisect one of the objects, read <.li'
the verniers, and take a mean ; bisect the second object,
read the verniers, and take a mean. The diffcrem
tween the two means is the angle required. ThU is :ill
that can be done by the instrument as usually a
but. with :i rtpeating-tftble the operation is continued
thus. Bring the telescope back on the first object, by
the motion of the repeating-table, using its clamp and
tangent-screw, and by the motion of the instrument, bring
2S2
T II E
T II K
the telescope on the sceoud object. It is clear ihc mo-
tion of th» repcating-table has me: 1 the tclc-
-.•.ipe to it» original direction, without altering t!io read-
inir» of llii- circle: nnil that if tin- be turned
on the fc-c ' l'> |K motion alone, without dis-
tributing the circle, the difference between Ihc
MC new readings Biul the preceding mean will
also be the angle required. Hy continuing the process,
the mnglc may be measured a- often as the observer
pleases. It i/ evident tliat nil reiidings-off. except the
first and la&t, are superfluous, save as ( -hecks, or
•he means of estimating the ai : tin- tinal
..mid terminate after a whole number
\olutions as nearly as possible, when the cxccntricity
of the repeating-table will be eliminated, a matter of
possible importance if the object* are near ami the repeat-
mg-tahle carelessly made. or. if the objects arc pretty dis-
.uid this caution mperflUOM, when the \
nearly at the divisions at which \ou set out. which gets rid
ol or at !ca>t diminishes any errors of division. The latter
condition is however rather a speculative than a pi i
one. As the error of division is divided by the num.
observations, and the casual error of obsei -\ation only by
the square-root of the same number, it is evident that a
moderate number of repetitions in our excellently-divided
circles will reduce the error arising from mal-div ision to a
much smaller quantity than that which belongs to the
-ual error of observation.
The essential condition of repetition is, that the rnotipn
of the theodolite shall not disturb the repcating-table.
The motion of the latter therefore should be as heavy as
will admit of nicety in the tangent-screw, while the mo-
tion of the parts which move with the telescope should
be as liijlit and free as is consistent with firmness. There
no difficulty whatever in effecting both
point- : but lest any error should arise from repe-
tition, we should recommend a careful observer to deter-
mine his ancles by two scries. — one by always moving
the telescope and its tangent-screw forward, and the
repcating-stand and its screw backwards; and another,
by reversing the process. If the two results agree, a-
tlicy should do within the limits of casual observation.
the" mean is probably free from all other error; and if
they do not, the observation should be repeated and \aried
until the quantity and probable law of the error i-
tained. \Ve should then be able to say decidedly where,
when, and under what precautions repeal inir was a sale
as well as a convenient and economical piir-ess which at
present is rath, i/iirfxlin. unless the decision be
supposed to be again*) all repetition, to which we do
not 1
The lurcgoing description has been confined to a form
of theodolite which is not in ordinary use, though from its
simplicity and power it is well adapted to the purpose of
explanation. The common theodolite is generally car-
lied by a pair of parallel plates, fixed on a three-legged
i-Iaff. The lower of these circular plates is screwed
upon the staff, and has an aperture above the
The upper plate has a strong descending shank which
through this aperture. A button of a
. d on the end of the shank, the cur-
vature ii] id rubs against the under surface of
the Ii ich is doiii'-shaped to tit it. Four
ass through the upper plate and abut with
Iheii ' Ihe lower plate. When the
• s are turned tl <! until the button
and I '-n which it rubs are brought into
.M-t. To level the theodolite, set the levels
lei to a diagonal pair of the parallel
plates. Then screw one pair until you come to a I"
and by releasing one screw and up the other, but
not very tight, set the corresponding level hori/ontal :
leaving'this pair and taking bold of the other pair set the
:nl level also right, and if the first !<••. el \»a<
it probably will be a little, restore its position !
up the proper screw. Turn the telescope hall' round and
'•t the error, half by tin- parallel pla'. :id the
other half by the lev el-adjustments tin It is
de»irable thnt, when the final adjustment is made, the
screws should bite pretty hard, otherwise tin
chance that the upper plate will turn a little dun
observation. Tin* objection would I to the use
Qf parallel plate* where grea« nicety U required: they arc
cr very convenient and of very ready use, an.l
haps if the screws are strong and tl"
to give the tcV^-opc three or four turns round i-i the
tion he means to observe, before Marling, und
move the ' Lhe same v
avoided. The first object observed should alw.v
observed at the end of the service, m order to sec w],.
there has been any change in the original position. I
of the screws rci-t ill a notch, perhaps the tendency to
nay be wholly overcome.
Another contrivance which is to be found in aliuc.
theodolites is much more objectionable. Tin
to save himself addition or Mihtra'-tion. an
quires an adjustment by which be can turn the whole
circle about and bring the telescope upon the
object, the vern. prcv iously set to zero. There
is therefore a motion with a clamp and tangent-
for this purpose, which, as the clamp has usually a very
short bearing, is particularly liable to yield and
destiny all accuracy. To remedy this unnecessary evil,
id or watch t'eleseopc, as if is called, is attached to
this part of the instrument and brought to bear upon a
\vell-detincd object. Any motion or wriggling of the zero-
clamp is betrayed by the watch-telescope, and when an
angle is taken, it imi>t be first ascertained whether the
watel. keeps its position, and the position if
turbed must be restored to the zero tangent-sen
the observation is finally made. In some theodolites made
I<T the Indian survey.' under the diree; lonel
Kvorr-st. the zero and slow-motion damp take the form of
a repeating-tahle. and may be so applied. It would he,
safer to have this motion n'uide considerably heavier than
in the patterns we have seen, and if the instrument is
to fall into clumsy hands the watch-telescope miirbt >
be added for greater caution. Such a theodolite would, ,-n
far as we can judge, have no limit to its accuracy, except
that depending on the diminutive telescope.
For many purposes of surveying it is desirable that the
telescope should allow of being considerably clevar.
depressed, and that means should be civ en for measuring
this angle with considerable accuracy. A circle, or por-
tion of a circle, is then fixed upon the telescope a\i
the necessary verniers and level may be secured by a tail-
piece or otherwise to the support. If the vertical an:;!
to be measured as accurately as the horizontal angle
instrument becomes an altitude and azimuth circle. [Cm-
CLE.] Hut such instruments are rarely applied t
measurement of terrestrial angles. The! direction of the
meridian was determined in the Ordnance Survey by ob-
serving Polaris at its greatest elongations I-'., and \V., and
taking the middle of the two readings for the direction of
the north. Hence the telescope required all the tiansit
adjustments except that for azimuth [TRANSIT], and was
considerably elevated above llic circle. Though the
results were upon the whole satisfactory, yet we greatly
doubt the prudence of ascertaining this fundamental and
delicate point from such an instrument, or of risking the
steadiness of the telescope supports by raising Hi.
much above the body of the instrument. It would have
been better, we conceive, to have determined the direction
of the meridian bv a series of careful tiansit observations,
using more optical power with greater steadiness, and to
'.i-pt the theodolite to its proper office, that of mea-
suring horizontal angles. hieing the height of
the telescope support-. The great theodolite had origi-
nally a semicircle fixed to the axis of the telescope, for
measuring altitudes and depressions. This has since, very
pro;-' .'.ml a whole circle substituted.
When a theodolite i> merely used for survey ing. Ihc
•"pe requires only a moderate vertical range. Mr.
Troughton fixed a portion of a circle t which may be more
properly called a slice than a sector) to one or two ol his
12-indi theodolites, and this construction is often found in
Other makers. The telescope is thus kept lower, the in-
strument is firmer, and the larger radius gives the portion
eming advantage over the entire circle of
smaller radius. There is I
v in a portion of a circle, and we should prefer a
I sort Of compromise, giving the n-h an ele%
•i'id allow a vcitieal circle of about half the dinien-
nf the horizontal circle: if Hie t the meri-
dian u to !•••• determined by this instrument, the sii|
. must be at least no high as to gee 2° or 3" above the lati-
THE
317
THE
tude of the place, and the vertical circle may be increased
accordingly.
It is perhaps requisite to give some description of
the mode of adjusting the vertical circle. Where the
supports are high enough to allow the telescope to
pass when turned round in a vertical plane, all the ad-
justments are the same as in the altitude and azimuth
circle. [CIRCLE.] When the telescope is too long for this,
the circle must be lifted out of its Y's in order to bring
the line of sight again upon the object to be bisected,
and then set down again. The operation is in fact the
same, whatever be the nature of the vertical arch, and the
adjustment is to be effected either by altering the level or
the horizontal wire until the reading is the same in both
positions of the telescope. If the observer has a Y level
or collimator, he can set the cross of his level-wires hori-
zontal, and this being bisected by the telescope of the
theodolite, the vernier must be made to read zero, and the
bubble of the level be brought to the middle by its proper
screws. Or if the observer possess two stands (and there
is a great convenience in having more stands than one in
surveying), he may place the stands at a considerable dis-
tance" from each other, and, fixing the instrument on one
stand and a mark of exactly the same height as the tele-
scope-axis on the other, observe the mark, noting its eleva-
1ion or depression. Now exchanging the instrument and
mark, he must reobserve the depression or elevation exactly
lore. On drawing the figure, it will be seen that if li^ht
move in a straight line, 90° — elevation at lower station=90 —
depression at higher station + the angle between perpen-
diculars to the earth's surface at each station, which last
quantity is known from the distance between the stations,
and may l>e easily calculated, i.e. depression — elevation =r a
known "angle. But if the zero is wrong, depressions will
be increased while elevations are diminished, and versd
ricf, so that depression observed — elevation observed
— the known angle, instead of being = 0, will be ± 2
error of the vernier, which may be corrected accordingly
either by the adjustment of the level or of the horizontal
wire. Or, lastly, if the telescope has so much motion as
that a star can be observed directly and by reflexion from
mercury or any other fluid, the index-error of the vertical
circle may be most accurately determined thus. Take any
star in the meridian, and having observed it directly, ob-
serve it immediately after by reflexion. If great nicety
is required, the observations should be repeated alternately
several times, and the partial results reduced to the
meridian. The mean reading between the meridian
altitude and meridian depression is the reading which cor-
nds to the horizon, and the difference of this from 0,
in- HO", according as the circle reads altitudes or zenith dis-
tances, is the error of the instrument, which may either be
corrected or allowed for. This method, though very ac-
curate, requires some knowledge of the time, and is rather
restricted by the choice of stars. It is nearly as safe to
observe a star not far from the east or west point, first di-
rectly, then by reflexion, and lastly directly, making the
contacts at following whole minutes, or at even or odd mi-
nutes if the interval of a minute is not sufficient. As the
rise nearly uniformly in this part of the heavens, the
mean of the first and third observations should give an
altitude equal to the depression observed midway; the
discrepancy between these results will he the double index-
error as before, which may lie corrected or allowed for.
By some of these methods, the index-error of the verticle
circle or sector is to be found.
In some of the older theodolites the telescope rides in
Y's at the top of the vertical arch, and is reversible as a
. The horizontal position of the telescope Y's can
therefore be found as in any other level, and the verniers of
the vertical circle set to zero when the telescope is hori-
zontal. The vertical angles measured by these instruments
i<>t however to he greatly depended on. They are usu-
ally greatly out of balance in all positions of the telescope,
pt the horizontal position, and therefore they make
better levels than altitude instruments. This error may
be partially got rid of by having a second level fixed to
the ; which is parallel to the plane of the verti-
cal circle, and adjusted to the telescope level when that
is hori/ontul. If this supplementary level is pretty well
graduated, it will show the tilt which is given the plane of
the instrument by want of balance, and so give the correc-
tion required.
It may be as well to mention here that the principal
adjustment being that of setting the plane of the theodo-
lite horizontal, or, more correctly speaking, the principal
axis vertical, any horizontal level anywhere placed is
sufficient for the purpose, though the cross-levels are a
little handier. A box-level is convenient, if a stand and
repeating-table are used, to bring the planes nearly hori-
zontal, and to make both ends of the bubbles visible at first.
Many surveyors give themselves and the instrument-
maker a great deal of unnecessary trouble by being very
difficult on the chapter of excentricity, which they con-
found with error of division. The English dividing-
engines, up to the present time, do not divide the circles
upon their centres ; and therefore it frequently happens
that the point round which the circle turns is not the point
round which it is divided. When this error is not abso-
lutely monstrous, the only effect is that one vernier gains
what another loses, and that the mean of two opposite, or
of three, four, or more equidistant readings, is precisely the
same as if there were no excentricity. The advantage of
a little excentricity is, that it gives you the benefit of an
unbiassed reading at every vernier as well as the first :
again, if all the verniers are recorded, it is a check on the
dishonest observer, who might read one vernier and set
down the rest. The instrument-maker must please his
ignorant customer, and so either hammer his circle after it
is divided, which may deform his work, or have an adjust-
ment, which injures its solidity.
In Ramsden's great theodolite, and several others which
have been made, the circle is read off' by micrometer
microscopes. Sometimes the microscopes revolve with
the telescope (as the verniers do in our figure) ; sometimes
the microscopes are fixed, and the circle revolves with the
telescopes, as in Ramsden's theodolite.
Ertel of Munich has made several astronomical theodo-
lites in which the rays entering into the telescope are re-
flected along the horizontal axis by a prism. The observer
therefore looks in at the end of the horizontal axis, what-
ever the position of the star may be. The eye and body
of the observer are more satisfactorily placed, and the sup-
ports are kept close and snug to the horizontal circle.
The instrument is well adapted to one of its principal
objects, observing stars at their passage over tne prime
vertical [TRANSIT] ; but there is some trouble in finding
an object when you have no better direction to look for it
than your eye affords. Excellent latitudes have been
determined by instruments of this class used in the prime
vertical, and even the small vertical circle seems from
some accounts to possess more power than from its
dimensions we should have thought probable. As a
general rule, the greater the number of readings, the less
the effect of bad division, but beyond a limited number,
the trouble and difficulty of reading-off is found in practice
to counterbalance the advantage. Two opposite readings
annul the effect of excentricity ; three or four equidistant
readings destroy such an error as would arise from the cir-
cles becoming elliptic after it was divided, or any error
which follows the same law. In small stoutly-made theo-
dolites we think two the most convenient number, and they
can be much more conveniently read off than a larger
number. When the circle is so much as 8 inches in dia-
meter and the telescope good, we should prefer three or
foui1 readings. The vertical circle or sector may have two
opposite readings. For many matters connected with sur-
veying on the most extensive and accurate scale, see the
memoirs published and to come of the English, Scotch,
and Irish Trigonometrical Survey ; and the ' Base Me-
trique,' or account of the French measurement of an
arc of the meridian, although that survey was conducted
by a different instrument. Similar operations have been
carried on in many countries during the last half-century,
and the memoirs which relate to these surveys contain
the best information which can be had on the subject.
THEODO'RA. [JUSTINIAN.]
THEODORE OF CORSICA. [CORSICA.]
THEODORE, or THEODORUS, of Mopsuestia, a
learned bishop of the Oriental church. He was descended
from a rich and distinguished family at Antioch, and was
1 he brother of Pol ychronius, who became bishop of Apamca.
He studied rhetoric, together with his friend John Chrysos-
tom, under Libanius, who resided at Antioch from the year
A.D. 3.">4. His teacher of philosophy was Andragathns.
After having finished his studies, he intended to marry a
T II
318
T I
*l\
.» I!M-:I » :
life.
and after he hud di-rha.i;
thirty -five \ .MI-
urcli,
uiul • ..•> teal lur -linlii-
faalh
.1 of the docliiiie* "I lli'
• ihlic apoi' li the
>1 him
:lirir laith; niul this was thi1 cause of his
nned
I'V ll:
• e w I 111 en
cf In- come down tu i!-.: ollu'rs exist in
Inundations, and of . there
.iirmi'iitji. A treatise on the Mnj;i of t':<
sians, and his commentaries on tin nk of
,
ml the Sons: «f Solomon unuieiitHry
on the twelve- tfivati'r prophcl-
corih . under the title of Oti>iu(ii.r
rot'f Ilpofijrac. A tat
which eontaiu 1 i\en in Fahiieii
the "•• ii-nlinncd )
• Bibliotlu Theodorus of MopMiestia is
still one of tin -iloirical authorities amoiiir the
Syiinn Chn^'iaii-.
:il~. ''•: note kK . Tiile-
mont, Mentor. Kcrltt., \ol. xii. ; (
vol. :
Til KOI i or THKODOUITrs. a theo
and vliuri-h historian, was horn about 3iW A.O. I'
broucht up under tlie eare of a pious mother, to whom he
acknowledges his obligations in his writings: and he had
• lion from Theodore ol .M :::nl .John ( 'ln\ -
in in a monastery, tu whieh he wa> :-ei\e
'.ueation when noi (jiiile seven veins old, and where
he hail for hi* fellow-pUpilt Ne^inrins and .John. \vh«
allenvaids pa' -.tantinople mul Antioeh.
Theodoret heeanie a deaeon in the : Antioeh,
and in the year 42it he w.. a i-ily
in Sjiia. near the Kiiplnates. Ilisii inded with
lonites and persons who held herelie.d ci[iinion
• i; llieTiinity. Against the opinin:
tie-i he directed his eil'oits with so much success, that,
•tins; to his own statement, he baptized ten thousand
M«reiomi
In t .1 Neatoriui *•• condemned hy the coun-
cil of Epli' •»•<!. \\ho-e dei great
offence to many of the Oiieiiial '1 .;huut
beinK avowed followers pi I to be
not unfavourable to his o;)ii.
Theodoret. who was a personal friend of
•hose who iis-vmhicd afti ; ,eil of
; up, and condemneil
M-r eti'eef. ', pii-
.•h, the h
|>art\. i by which I'yiil ap;
'lint of doctrine,
while Joh1
\'> nh this aif'1
npp> .!i the
to the l-'illileill!::
injustice.
luiiiis. But when John, armt-d with in:
parti«nn of Nestorii:
to Mibmit. b'.ith pir '
and : hit own n ,iich it
wan .!
means in his power to indue
nam
•Td, upon thei of lib ad.
MI to inn. u.-cd. liul when, in the
ui whom lie h..
iiuil when Cinl died, in .
ll, 1-oiind to i
the man and from the Chiistian >pnit with wlm
where sju ;i
mi spume,
lieeii ' ,iil would die with him. ;
- doomed to In1
poiotment.
and imp'
lou». The new bishop
of enforcing upon the v,
ihe Deitv in.
ill the pel son of Chii.-t : and pi
the (i
•rimined to air
altaek upon Ihe un : the
which was beaded !
-iip])oited by a ll
iilOllks, wh.
idible of whom v.
in favour of the Cviillihn i
alone was consistent with the -
• Ihe \Vord became tlLsh,' and 01
' in \ii".
olitiin monks w.
jiaily in tii lose coiim
with the a:;: u monks of Syria, and
their great influence with the em) •• ll.,
whom they had induced Irom tl
party of ("yril. Theodorel
the contiOM r>\. lie win!
efieciinu' a reconciliation between the t . In
thi* attempt lie tailed ; and then. In
trine of DioM-unis and his allies aa the
ous heresies which denied the true In
a book against them in the year -147, entitled 'The
Many-shaj -rijc, or ToXt'yiopfov)-
li\ this title he meant to : ihe Kul\i-
i.y < 'jril, i
Kutyehes, nnd the monks.
sake i
Ihe work .
ntitled drptrroc. he treats of tl
divine
aaifx*T"i: "'' the in ;
divine mid human) b>
thiid, airaSi'it, of the ini] "f the divine Di
or dyinir.
mid )..
.iiv in his doelri
than a n-\i\.d -
. Inarch of AUK
re letter to Theodoret, mnkin^ : : largf.
replied with jricat niilii:
i consult for Hit
nf the church lather than for the \iews of a |
This letter only the •
milled monks publicly tounntln
church, while lie himself confirmed their anatli.
; in chiircl'
Pijiui. nt depuii- eliureh o:
d Theodor< v. ith ihe
.No immediate decision of I
; v, it bin the limits nl In IK, n tii,
• •I' bciiiv; : Mined
id.
In the meantime tin and
'
THE
319
THE
incurred tho charge of an opposite heresy, of which he
was condemned by the synod held by Flavianus -at Con-
stantinople, but again acquitted by the second Council of
Ephesus, under the presidency of Dioscurus (A.D. 449).
[KtiTYCHiAXS.] In convening this council every care was
taken to exclude the anti-Eutychian party. With respect
toTheodoret, the emperor commanded that he should only
be admitted in case his presence should seem good to the
whole assembly. The hint was taken, and he was ex-
cluded. The emperor carried his dislike to Theodoret still
further, and intimated to the council that such men as
Thecdoret should not only have no voice in it, but that they
ought rather to be visited with its censures. Accordingly
the council deposed Theodoret from his bishopric, and he
'. by an imperial edict, to retire into the
monastery where he had been educated. As he had been
peaceful and moderate in prosperity, so he was resigned
and cheerful in adversity : indeed his amiable spirit, and
his firmness in obeying the dictates of his conscience, form
a most agreeable relief to the strife and ambition which
mark the character of most of the ecclesiastics of the age.
The only check to the triumph of Dioscurus and the
Kutyehians was the influence of Leo the Great, the then
bishop of Rome, who had been already appealed to by
Kutyehes, after his condemnation by the synod of Con-
::ioplc. and whose aid was now sought by the oppo-
site party. Flavianus and Theodoret wrote letters to him,
proposing to submit. the whole controversy to an oecume-
nical council to be convened in Italy. To this arrange-
ment the emperor i Theodosius II.) refused his consent,
but his death in the following y. united the state
of affairs. In the next year (451 , an a'cumenical council
was assembled, first at Nicsea, but very soon removed to
Chalcedon. to which Theodoret, was summoned, and in
which he was leceived by his friends with the greatest en-
thusiasm. He petitioned the council for restoration to
,-liopric: at the eighth sitting his petition came on
•aring: he ro-e to plead his cause; but the party oi'
nneil that he must ftnt condemn Neftorjui.
lorct had never been a Nc-ftoiian, but had all alone:
held a middle c-ou; i the parties oi' Xcstoiius
and of Cyril ; but he hesitated to pronounce the required
condemnation till some clear definition of Nestoriauism
>hould I'e iriven. The bishops of the opposite party in-
terrupted him with the shout ' He is a heretic : Ii
.rinn: thniM. tho Xi'storian out!' Vpuii this Thco-
doret exclaimed : — ' Anathema on X' il on every
r) to he the mother of God, and who
divides the only bcirntien Son into two sons. I hav
il the confession of faith, and the letter of the bi.shop
I.eo : and this is my faith — Farewell/ He was pronounced
to have established his orthodoxy, and the unanimous vote
of the council restored him to his bi.V.ioprie.
In this transaction we perceive that Theodoret'* firm-
ness had at length given way before the furious zeal of the
Eutychians; and his courage appear* never to have re-
vived, for in hi- I lii-tnry oi
,'iptTitfjf tatopvSittc iTirn/i/j). he speaks of his former
iiiend Xostorius in the haishrst terms.
•T the council of Chalcedon, Theodoret returned to
his diocese. \\\\ i of his life to hi
labours. He died in the year 157. Kven after his death
he was looked upon as a formidable enemy by the Mono-
.m procured tho condemna-
tion of his writings >il by the council of Con-
stantinople (A.D. .V>:i .
His works were : — 1, ' A History of the Church,' in five
-.. from 325 to the. death of Theodore of Mopsuestia
in 421). Gennadius. a Latin writer, at tho end of the fifth
n-y, says that Theodoret's history consisted of ten
books, and came down to the year 457, but no other writer
mentions more than five books. It is a work of
learning and impartiality. 2. *iXo9foc \aropla, an account
of the lives of thirty celebrated hermits, ten of whom were
hi* contemporaries and in some degree personally known
to him. 3, The work against the Eutychians, already
mentioned. 4, 'The History of Heresies,' also mentioned
above. It is sometimes entitled, 'Against all Heresies,
or a discrimination of falsehood and truth ' (K«TU -itaauv
rwv a'.ii'-ntm', >/ ^u'jSnvf nat akifitiac liayvuatf}. It, consists
of fi . : I must exclusively to the heresies
respecting the person of Christ. 5, ' Ten Orations against
the Heathen ;' an ' Apology for Christianity ;' besides 146
letters and commentaries on most of the books of the Old
Testament and on all the epistles of Paul.
The best edition of his works is that of Schnlze, in 3
vols. 8vo., Halle, l~(J8-74.
(Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History, by Murdock and
Soames, i., p. 443; Neander's Geschichte der Christl.
Kelig. mid Kirch., ii., passim ; ScholPs Geschichi,
Griech. Lit/., iii. 318.)
^ THEODORIC or THEODERIC I., king of the Visi-
Goths, was the elected successor, but was not the son, of king
Wallia, who died A.D. 419. During the latter years of the
reign of the emperor Theodosius II., Theodoric invaded
Gaul, and in 425, just after the accession of Valentinian
III., he laid siege to the city of Aries. Ae'tius however
relieved this town, and made peace with the Goths, who
were obliged to come to terms because they were threat-
ened by the Vandals, and they marched against the Van-
dals together with the Romans. After a peace of ten
.1 new war arose between the Romans and Theo-
doric. who in 436 besieged the city of Narbonne, which
was only relieved in the following year, 437. The issue
of this war proved unfortunate for the Romans, tho in-
habitants of their provinces in Gaul being reduced to
despair by heavy taxes and other kinds of oppression, and
the Goths being superior to the Romans in courage.
Ae'tius therefore enlisted several thousand Huns, in order
to employ them against the Goths; but these auxiliaries
were more destructive to the inhabitants than their ene-
mies. A body of the Romans, together with these Huns,
commanded by Lit onus, the best of the generals of
Ae'tius, having made some progress, laid siege to Toulouse
in 43!). Theodoric proposed to conclude a peace, but
Litorius, remembering his former victories over the Ar-
moricans, refused all terms. Upon this the Goths made
a sally ; the Romans were entirely beaten, and Litorius
himself was made a prisoner, and carried in triumph
through the streets of Toulouse.
The whole country as far as the Rhone was now open to
the Goths, and the inhabitants being well-disposed, Theo-
doric made fresh conquests. The remainder of the Roman
army was disorganized and in the greatest consternation.
Xevertheli",s A virus, who was then Prsefectus Praetorio in
Gaul, found means to make peace, which was certainly
favourable to the Goths, though the conditions are not
known. In 450 Gaul was invaded by Attila with his
Huns and a numerous body of Teutonic auxiliaries. At-
tila pretended that his object was only to attack the Visi-
Goths, but the Romans also took arms, and the united
a of Ae'tius and Theodoric met the Huns at Chiilons-
sur-Marne (451 . Theodoric commanded his army in per-
son, and he was accompanied by his two sons, Thorismund
and Theodoric. The battle was short, but bloody and disas-
trous for Attila, who fled on the following day, and thus
• (I total destruction. King Theodoric was killed at,
the beginning of the battle. Prince Thorismund was pro-
claimed king in the camp of his lather, whom he caused
to be interred on the field of battle with great pomp.
[ATTILA.] (Mascov, History of the .[niifiit Ui'mumx,
ix. 11. 14, 27, 28.)
THEODORIC, or more correctly THEODERIK, sur-
namcd Mhy Great,' king of the. Ostro-Goths, was the son
of king Theodemir by his concubine Eralieva (Ehrlieb).
lie was born in 455, and he was seven yearn old when he
ut to Constantinople to the court of the emperor
•Injuns (457-474) as a hostage, peace having just.
been concluded between this emperor and Theodemir, who
had engaged to assist the Romans for an annual payment
of two thousand pounds of gold. Theodoric received his
education at Constantinople, r.nd returned to his father
in 472.
Without any orders from his father, he attacked and
subjugated some Slavonian tribes on the Danube, and he
afterwards accompanied Theodemir in his expedition to
Thessaly, which was undertaken for the purpose of obtain-
ing a larger territory for the Goths. This happened at
me- time as the death of Leo (January, 474); and
Zeno Isauricus the elder, who became emperor in the
month of February, hastily made peace with the Goths,
and ceded to them the country of Pautalia, that is. the
south part of Pannonia and the south-west part of Daeia
(474). Theodemir died in 475, and Theodoric became
king of the Ostro-Goths.
Xc:io having been deposed by another Theodoric, the
T II K
T ii E
i ::
-i !
ton of Tiiariiis. aGot' .-real influx
the llyz:intinr empire, king Tin ! lo his as-
tutam :>» again a
> 177 It -< i in- that 2< liim-
ul as hi ice- broke
out between lain and I hi- Goth*. Theodorie, on tin- con-
Irary, was loyal utul generous, anil In- continued to In- a
il ally when the emperor had satisfied his jn.-t
claim-, Ii catcd him
Patrirm* and Magistcr Militia- Pid'sentis in -IK1. and sub-
led him to tho consulahip in -1*1, ;i
which is still distinir the annul- .ante.
Jornandes affirms tha- pled him as his son, and
caused an equcMiian stutu. 'i.l in honour ol him
imperial palace. (De lit /HI.- (inlhifi>:v. 57.)
Notwithstanding the honours \vhirh Zcno con:
upon the king of the Goths Xcno showed Ins insincerity
ver hi- saw an opportunity. To avenge himself.
Tltedorie invaded Thrace in -iss" . dispersed the imperial
-. and besieged Xeno in Constantinople. It is said
that Zeno saved himself by ceding to his adversary Italy,
or his right to Italy, which was then in the hand- ol'
Odoacer. the chief o'f the Rugians. Perhaps he ceded
only his claims on this country, hoping thus to tret rid of a
neighbour and friend whom' he had changed by Ins own
misconduct into a dangerous enemy. However this may
•lie conditions of agreement are obscurely known.
The Greeks afterwards pretended that Xeno had sent the
to Italy to re-annex that country to the empire : the
(loths. on the contrary, aflirnied that he surrendered Italy
to their king. iPYocopius. !)<• Ht'lln li'ithicn, i. 1.) Theo-
dorie had certainly formed the plan of conquering Italy.
and he was bent on earning it into execution. It there-
fore he found it ad\ isabl'c to use the name of Xeno, he pro-
did so for the purpose of gaining those among the
Romans who, although they del. -led forciguus. would
submit to hit)' conqueror whom they iv> :ld consider as a
delegate or' the antient legitimate authority.
milled his nation '-is'.) , that is, that pait
of theOstro-Goths which obeyed the kings of the ho
Amuli.' ol which Theodoric was a descendant. '
Gothic tribes only remained in Thrace and in the Tuuric
Chersonese. A whole nation, men. women, and children.
carrying all their moveable property with them, lelt their
homes and took the road to Italy, following the Danube
as far as the tract which lies between that river and the
lake of Balaton in western Hungary. Trapstila, the kin:: of
the (icpidif. appeared with an army to prevent them from
paving through his dominions: but he was routed by
"it the river Ulca the present S/ula), which
into the western corner of the lake of Balaton. Kn-
during huidships of all kinds, and lighting their way
through the armed inhabitants, the Goths traversed the
i pait of Panmmia. cursed the .lulian Alps, and
leached Isonxo, where they met with the army of Oil
who W;LS hcai en in th -'11170. at Verona,
and on the Adda (490). Odoacer. who fled to Ravenna, wu-
forsaken by his best general. Tufa, and Krederik, a prince
of the Rugiaii-, and Epiphania*, bishop of Pa\ia, also
rnme to Milan to pay homage, to the king of the Goths.
Odoacer was blocked up in Ravenna by one part of the
and Thcodoric. with another part, took po— .
of the whole peninsula of ItuK Su-ily, Sardinia,
and Corsica to the Vandals. '1 '' l.i-ted
- : hut at last Odoacer surrendered to Thcodoric.
who.i .ling his oath to spare tile life of his pil-
ed him to be put to death in his own palace
i and his whole family shared the
same fate.
Theodoric was now acknowledged as king of Italy by the
• • linn
the furniture of the palace at Ravenna, which Odoaeer
had sent to Constantinople. Theodoric did not assume
thi- imperial title although he adopted the nut.
Flavins. In 51 X I he went to Komi1 and c a tri-
umph ; he convened the senate ' ad pulniam uurcuui,
confirmed the immunities of the Romans, and gained the
•••• nl the lower classes by his liberality and I
t-vhil r (lit .-peet.i'
:idy continued hi- power by alli-
MWe>. tninngldao. Gundohald and ' •
hiiving inside an in-
llaly and carried away many ol the inhiilji
TlieodoiH' sent Kpiphama-. bi-hop .
bishop of Turin, as ambassadors to Uurgii'ah . Tin
. in delivering the eapti\. ..c'hided an alli-
ance betuecii the-e kniL,'- and
daughter Ostrogothu in manias. on of
(iunilobald. lie likewise kept peace wi;h tl.
and gave b - nalfriila. then the willow .
(ioth. in inamage to their king Thr;i»imund. I:
daughter, Theodiehusa, was married to Aloric II.. kn
• Ills; and his niece. Amalaberga, became tin-
wife of llermanfiid, the lust king of the Thurin:
Thendoric himself took for hi- second wife Atldofleda, the
king of the Fianks.
In f)Ol Theodoric was at war with Tni»aric, king of the
.e. who. alter many d
viueesus farasSiriuium, now Mitrowiczon the S ,
junction with the Danube. The inhabitants of •
part of the Alemanniau kingdom, which hud been de-
stroyed by Clo\ is [AI.KMVNM: Txt KIMI -Ale-
iiiiiniii.] iicknowleilged Theodoric as their protector, who
summoned Clovis to desi>t from any further violence
against the Alcmanni. i^II, • contained in Cussio-
i'uriiir.. ii. 41.)
Meanwhile a war had broken out between Clovis and
Alaric II., king of the \'isi-Goths. Aluric fell in tin-
battle of Vouirle in 507. in conse(|iience of which the
greater part of the dominions of the Visi-Goths in Gaul
came into the hands of the Franks. Alaiic'sonly legitimate
son was a child named Amalarie, whom he had by his
wife Theodiehusa. Astheie wa> danger of all Spain being
invaded by the Fr.inks, the Visi-Goths intrusted the
gnardianshi]) of their young king to Theodoric. who thus
became the ruler over the Ostro-Goths and the \'isi-Goths,
or over Si)iiin, southern (iaul, Italy with the dependent
province of Illyricum, and part- of Rhuvtia. Noricura, and
I'annoma. Tlieodoric had previon.sly si-nt an army into
(iaul. commanded by Iha, who delivered Aries, \\liii :
be-ieged by the Franks ,")<)K ; and the sun iiiade
a prisoner of Gcsalie. the natural son of Alaric II., who
dangerous rival of young Anuluric. Clov;
pelled to content himself with the northern and la
; the Visi-Gothic dominions in Gaul. Front thi-
511. i- dated the icgeney ol'Theodoric in the kingdom of the
\ isi-Goths, who however stv led himself king, and the i
cils which were held during his government ui •
conling to the years of his rcii'.n. He took ji. •
the cities of Provence, peihaps under the pretext of the
expenses which he had been put to in saving the
Gothic kingdom. He appointed Liberals his lieutenant
in Gaul, and Theudis in Spain.
The relation between 'I lieodoric and the cnipciv.
Constantinople was maintained to Ui n of both
parties, until Justin published a severe edict against all
who were not of the Catholic church ."ili! . and
deprived the Arians of their churches. About the
time this emperor had engaged wiih some members of the
Roman Senate in designs against the Gothic dominion in
Italy. Boi-t bins, then one of the lii>t men in It aly.wa.s charged
with being a principal conspirator, lie wu> imprisoned in
r>_'J. and during hi- captivity he wrote his Treatise on the
Consolation of Philosophy. The conspiracy proved ahor-
'Iiicthins was put to death in .Y.M. and Symnia.
his father-in-law, shared the same fate in the loll'
at Ravenna. With regard to religious a Hairs, Tlieodoric,
who v :ni. like all the Goths, ordered Pope John
with several hi-' > to Constantinople and to ob-
tain better conditions for the Aiians in the F.ustcrn em-
pire. The pope reluctantly obeyed, but it seems tl
( 'onslantinople he spoke rather according to his eoiiseience
than in favour of the Arians: for he was imp
his return, by order ol'Theodoric, and died not D
alter, on the IKIh of May, ."rjil. On Theodoii.
lion. Felix was elected pope, and '
confirmed by \thaluric, the sue .eodoiie. This
fact prOVM the great influence which Ti .nl in
the a Hairs of his time. Not having obtained favourable
conditions for the Aiiutis inthe Fast. Theodoiie was about
tr. retaliate on the Catholics in In- dominion-, whin he
ill. d suddenly oil the 2(ith of Auirust. ")-(i. in the 72nd
of his ;e_;e. His i •onlenipoi at n - ha-.r invented many
fables about the sudden death of tins great king,
eopius .-De Hello Gothico.'i. I -ays that the head of a
tish being served up at table, he fancied it to bo
THE
321
T H E
the head of Symmachus, whom he had put to death, and
whose participation in the conspiracy against Theodoric
had not been proved ; it is added that he was so terrified
by his imagination, that he fell into a fever and shortly
afterwards died. Others pretend that his death was
the consequence of a divine judgment, because he had
deposed and imprisoned Pope John : this story savours
of ifs origin. Others dreamt that the ghosts of Pope John
and Symmachus had cast, the soul of Theodoric into the
burning crater of a volcano. The ashes of Theodoric were
deposited in a porphyry urn, which still exists in the wall
of the castle of Ravenna, and under it is an inscription on
marble, bearing the date 563, which states' that the urn once
contained his remains. Theodoric having left no male
i^ue, Athalaric, the son of his daughter Amalaswinth, suc-
ceeded him on the throne of Italy, and Amalaric became
king of the Visi-Goths.
Theodoric generally kept his court at Ravenna, as the
Roman emperors had done after the time of Honorius, and
thus Ravenna became a centre of the arts and sciences, of
no less importance than Rome. Among the high officers
of Theodoric there were several verv distinguished men,
such as Cassiodorus, who was his private secretary, and
Ennodius, who has written a eulogy of his master, which
however is far from containing all the truth. He was cele-
brated as a hero in the old Teutonic songs, and in the
' Niebelungen-Lied ' he appears as Diederich of Bern, that
i-. Vr
Theodoric was not only a conqueror ; he was also a le-
gislator. [TEUTONIC NATIONS, Got/is.] It is his greatest
glory that he was a friend of peace, of toleration, and of
justice ; a glory, however, which is somewhat obscured by
some acts of rashness and violence. Whenever a war be-
tween Teutonic kings was threatening, he tried to prevent
it by mediation ; a fact which is proved by his letters to
the kings of the Franks, of the Visi-Goths, of the Thurin-
irians, of the Burgundians, of the Heruli.and of the Warni.
He always reminded them that they were of one common
i, and that they ought to maintain peace and friendly
•ourse. Theodoric was especially vigilant in prevent-
ing ('lovis from invading (lie states of Ms neighbours; he
protected the Thuringians and the remnant of the Ale-
manni, and he saved the kingdom of the Visi-Goths from
•tion.
f Ennodius, Panrgi/ricu* />ir'v Th<"''loriri. nl. Chr. Cel-
larius, 1703, 8vo. ; and also in his Opern, ed. Jac. Sirmon-
dus, Paris, 1611, 8vo. ; Jornandes, De Habits Gnthicix;
Isidorus, Chronicnn Gvthorum, &••. ; Procopius, Da Relln
< 'ochlaeus, Vita T/icntl^riri RI>X. Ostrogoth.,
«'d. }'• •!., Stockholm, 1099, 4to. C'ochlaeus ha.s
written without any just criticism ; and Peringskjiild has
shown no historical ability in his additions, which however
contain very interesting matter relative to the language
'iie antiquities of the Goths. Manso's Gearhir/itu i/c.\
/{'•i'-/ii'\ in //'('/'"«, Breslau, 1824, 8vo., is a
very valuable work.)
THEODORIC a bishop and celebrated surgeon of the
thirteenth century, was a pupil of Hugo of Lucca. He at
first belonged to the order of the Preaching Friars (Frercn
Prcrheurx t ; afterwards he became chaplain to the Bishop
of Valentia, and penitentiary to Pope Innocent IV. ; and
lie was at last made bishop of Bitonti and Cervia suc-
. i.ly. Towards thu end of his life he settled at Bo-
lugn:i, where he died in 12'JS. He was especially distin-
guished from his contemporaries by not resting content
with imitating his predecessors; on the contrary, he ap-
! to have carefully studied the cases that presented
themselves to his notice, and to have recorded in a great
u'e the results of his own observations. He also in-
troduced several useful innovations in the practice of
surgery, and was the first person who ventured to lay
aside the cumbrous and frightful machines which had
hitherto been used in the reduction of fractures and luxa-
He left behind him a surgical work, entitled
mrgia Secundum Medicationem Hugonis de Luca,'
•lished at Venice in 1490 and 1519, in folio.
1 1;: -h. Chirurg. ; Sprengel's ///*/. de la Med. ;
THKODO'RUS (eeo&apoc), a native of Cyrene, was a
philosopher of the Cyrenais school, who lived towards the
end of the fourth century li.e:. He was a pupil of Arete,
the daughter of Aristippus, and afterwards became the
successor of -Anniceris. His philosophical system, which
L\ CV, No. 1528.
was a kind of medium between that of Aristippus and An-
niceris, appeared so dangerous to his fellow-citizens, among
whom he had been held in very high esteem, that they
banished him from their city. Theodoras went to Athens,
where he would have experienced worse treatment if De-
metrius Phalereus had not interposed and saved him ; for
here too his doctrines soon came into disrepute, and a
public accusation was brought against him of moral and
religious indifference. After the fall of Demetrius Pha-
lereus, Theodorus thought it advisable to withdraw from
Athens, and he went to Egypt, where he soon gained the
confidence of Ptolemaeus Soter, who, on one occasion,
sent him as his ambassador to Lysimachus. On till,
mission Theodoras is said to have shown much courage
and a strong feeling of independence towards Lysimachus,
who taunted him for having been obliged to leave Athens.
The time of his death is unknown.
We do not possess a complete view of the philosophical
system of Theodorus, but he appears to have been one of
the forerunners of Epicurus. His ideas of the deity were
explained in a book which he wTrote on the gods (itspi
Biuiv), and which earned him the name of atheist, tnough
it is doubtful whether this opprobrious name was given him
because he really denied the existence of gods, or merely
because he was above the common prejudices of his
countrymen. The following doctrines are especially men-
tioned as characterising his views of human affairs : — wis-
dom and justice are desirable, because they procure us the
enjoyment of pleasure : friendship, on the other hand,
has no real existence ; for, in a person who is not wise, it
• as soon as he ceases to feel the want of it, and a
wise man is in want of nothing beyond himself. Patriotism
is not a duty, because it would be absurd to make it in-
cumbent upon a wise man to sacrifice himself for the igno-
rant , who form by far the majority of a state. His followers,
who constituted one of the three branches into which the
Cyrenaic school was divided, were called Theodorians.
(Diogenes Laert., ii. 86 ; vi.97; Cicero, Tusculan.,i. 43;
v. 40 ; De Natura Deorum, i. 1, 23, 43 ; Suidas, s. v. eto-
£wnog.)
From the philosopher Theodorus of Cyrene we must dis-
tinguish Theodorus the mathematician, who was a native
of the same place, and is mentioned among the teachers
of Plato. (Xenophon, Memorab., iy. 2, 10 ; Maximus
Tvrius, Disserlut., 22.)
THEODO'RUS PRISCIA'NUS, the author of a Latin
medical work, which is still extant, and which sometimes
goes under the name of 'Ocfarius Huratianus. He was a
pupil of Vindiciauus, and is supposed to have lived at the
court of the emperors of Constantinople in the fourth cen-
tury alter Christ. He belonged to the sect of the Empi-
rici, but appears to have also mixed up some opinions of
the Methodici, and even of the Dogmatici. His work,
which is not of much value, is entitled ' Reium Medica-
rum Libri Quatuor,' and is written in a barbarous Latin
style. The first book treats of external disorders, the
second of internal, the third of female diseases, and the
fourth of physiology, &c. It was first published in 1532,
fol., at Strassburg, and also in the same year at Basle,
4to. ; of these two editions, the former is the more com-
plete, the latter the more correctly printed. A new edi-
tion was undertaken by J. M. Bernhold, of which the iiist
volume was published in 8vo., without place or date, at
Ansbach in 1791 ; but which, in consequence of the edi-
tor's death, has never been completed. Another work,
entitled ' Diaeta, seu de Salutaribus Rebus Liber,' has
been attributed to Theodorus Priscianus, but (as Choulant
thinks; incorrectly. It was first published together with
' Hildegardis Physica,' Argentor., 1533, fol. It first ap-
peared in a separate form at Halle, 1632, 8vo., edited by
G. E. Schreiner, and was afterwards inserted in Rivinus's
collection of antient physicians, Leipzig, 1654, 8vo. (Hal-
ler's Hiblinth. Medic. Pract. ; Sprengel's Hint, de la Med. ;
Choulant's Handbuch der Bucherkunde fur die Aeltere
Medicin.)
THEODO'RUS, or DIODO'RUS, OF TARSUS, of a
noble and very distinguished family, lived in the fourth
century of our sera, and was most probably born at Antioch.
He studied under Sylvanus Tarsensis ; and after having
taken orders, he first became priest, and then Archiman-
drita at Antioch. The Catholic churches of this town
having been shut up by order of the emperor Valens ( A.D.
364-378), who was an adherent of A nanism, Theodorus
VOL, XXIV,— 2 T
THE
T II 1
in the fields round the town, and he was always
1 by a numerout conereg .
•l*o defended the orthodox faith with jrmit intrepidity
»g»in»t the attacks of tin- Annn-t and
iiatelv after the death of Yaleiut, he wait
appointed bishop of Tartu* :f/H . Gratianua, the nmtaaoi
• lonit.
WH at the Couiu-il nl Constantinople. The year of his
deutli i- nut kitovMi. i liriu* was chosen biV;
Taiv - •' i- robable that In- died in tin
em'
lonis was much es
tor his plain ami lucid
known as tin i;
In- was accused of h.i
made ar HI temporary 1
Theodorus of ' -le iniiiu
1 . .temporaries
tqMMsce, but though he was
erenderoi the Catholic faith,
wn himself favourable to the
work*
uorals, none of which ha.
said however that one of liis win' .vhieh
believe* to be id • i'h anotlur work on
. vol. ii., ]'
:i«ii. :isi. i
llll.ODO HI'S L. a unlive o: -:id -on of Theo-
>p of Home
"f John I '>
then empeior of Coiistanlinop1,
the Longolmrds in Italy. The heresy of the Mount!
wasdisiiiibing the church, and it was supported by the
emperor Coiistans. and by Pauhis, patriarch of
nople. Tin odoru- ln-ld a council at Home in G4H. in
which Panlus was excominunicavd. It does not seem
proved however that Theodoms condemned, as some have
averted, the typiu or edict of the emperor (-.'(installs, in
which he forl ade all his clergy from disputing on the siih-
of tin- two wills in Christ, the Monothchtes asserting
that there was only one v.iil in him. [ KITYCIIIANS. ]
TheodoniH built several churches at Home. He died in
ii-11), and was succeeded by Martin I. > Muratori, Annuli
'/ii : Pamimo. 1'ilr d ••('.)
THKOIHWI S II. , a native of Home, was elected pop,-
titter the death of Komanus, in August, S:>7, and dud
three weeks alter Ins election, and was succeeded by-
John IX.
THKOnO'Ht S I.A'SCAKIS. emperor of N
descended from an antient and IP b!i- Uy/ami,ie !
the early history of which is unknown. In lliix he mar-
ried Anna An:- the widow of I-aac Com-
uenu« Sebastocrator. and the second daughter of the em-
peror Alexi.s 111., Angelus-Comneuus. v. J the
tlirone of ( 'oiisinntinople. alter having blinded and thrown
into a prison the emperor 1-aac Angelns f 1195J. Alexis,
•'ii of I->a a :i:ily mid implored the protection
ol the Vcstcrn princes, who, in 12i --embled at
Venice for the purpose of n nc-'.v crusade. They promised
him assistance, and sailed to Constantinople with a p
fid fleet, commanded by Dandolo, the doge of Venice.
They laid siege to Constantinople, but although Thcodoin-
Law: d a vigorou- n \i-lll.. who
was ot a mean and ;1 his
capital and lit- id. inarqiii to, in
Italy, who had eodoia. A— ailed by-
bold and experiencci'
peror, tin- . aiann: tiu-v surrcn-
dered their citpital, »n<l did ho:
I July and 1st , r_M:t .
who reigned together under i . the Ijitin
prim- .is Munophlus luid m
pwtv among the Greeks, who were enraged at the haughti-
i l\ ..
I--'. i -.'•:.;'•• .1 !.: I M n '.".id -, mi pi •,eia:uit d IB
1
HJh of February. I'Jol . Thi l-itms iiuniediati
irvstantino1 .:der of Hi
friend ; and alt! 1 by Tin o-
intimnent. Si
fled with bin treasures ' April, 13 M . and t
•h hiul re i the High) of Alc\is 111. once
more dtscoiiraged the • -id led to anarchy.
•Jwh'K • period ol Isaac
reigned tv .-mpeioiN succes-ivelv oi cnpied the
and such wan the passion for ruling among the
.1 moment
:re vtas nt stake, two candidates pre-
sented themselves to t Vor the pur]n»se of obtain-
ing the ciovMi.
'J'hese caudida?. ..lore
Ducaa, who wac ol linpeiial descent. IASCHIIS was pro-
claimed empcnv. but fearing: some in
the adherent- of the fugitive einpei
Imperial tllie. niul det lai'cd he v. :isv-ll \\nii
-pole' until he had re-entabh-hed trump.-
hile he eneourajfed the pi
- made aniussault an.
the Greeks having cowardly aband-
posts. Dm. • of plunder and viol<
don- I.Mraru escaped with his wife Anna, and fled to the
L The Latins chose Baldwin, c
of Flinders, eni[ n the
capita mirth of the empire; the remaining ii
fourths were divided between Venice find the Franki.-h
barons.
ijwhile Theodore succeeded in raising tmoi
Asia, and, assisted by the Turks of Koniah, or leoniiu
made himself master of the important town of Nieai
M.-aler part of Hithvnia, proclaiming that he
only as despote. and in tfie name of Ins father-in-lav
; Ali-xis III. Autumn, t'Jnl . 11^
wen- .-non taken from him by Louis, eon
who, in the division of the empire, had received Hithytua.
and who defeated Theodore at Paemanene, on tin
of Mysia and Bithynia 'Oth of 1)
.ure retired to Hrnsa, one of the few towns whir.
not fallen into the hands of the count of Ulois : but :
pursued and obliged to fight with Henry, con-
i:ie brother of the emperor Haldwin, who d> ;•
Theodore would have been ruined but for the victi
of the king of the Bulgarians and the revo
the troops of the emperor, who was obliged to call I
nice of the count of Jilois and tin-
Hit hynift. Theodore again became must er of 1 1 1 .
and his father-in-law. Alexis 111., being then kept a pri-
!>y tin- martinis of M
the title of emperor. 1 '
lirwp 'Pui/iaiun; W'llieli
of Constantinople, and he thus showed ih
if a- the only iegitim.
a right to the c.own by I. . ma. the il.
111., who was ]ire\i : ruling on •
•i;tivit\ . and all the other empi
tion being then dead. In order to solemnize In-
linperial tluone. Alexis convoked a L - inbly
of the Gieek bisho|)s, who met at Nicaea. The new patn-
areh, .Michael Aii'orienus. jiicsiiled, who had b.
patriarch for the special purpose of crowning .
the patriarch IVulvmoti ned.
Meanwhile several Greek noble.-, jirotiting fix
1 of the Greeks against the Latin i
made themselves independent in Asia. 1
Morotheodonis. ndelphia, and Ml
ii\atli-cd-din. sultan of K
by tin
'iiird and more dangeron-
OoBHM-nns, who hail i
theyi 1 whose (>rotht ;
as far as the 1'iopontis and the Ionian Sea. The-'
anil David were eipial in military skill, in activity
in pc : neither of them was dis<
nor made less vigilant by Midden success. After
their ' ilei. David, appreciating the cl
v. concluded an alliance with !
empcior of I "01 ile. who ha
brother Haldwin. 'i
and some time al'ti-rwaids David v. .
;i by Guido Androm,
of Nieaea. Alle r the truce In ;
in 1210, David, who had hitherto canitd oil tin war with
varioi:« •.•died to give up all he]
field any longer. He I"
and his brother .'' obliged to c, , I, tl nl..fheo-
i Jl I '.who thus : ister of tie • artot
1'aphla-.
The truce between Theodore and Henry was the cou
T H K
323
THE
•uce of various victories obtained by Theodore over
the troops of Henry. In 1207 the emperor of Nicaea
was besieged by the Franks in Nicomedia, but in a sally
he made piisoner Count Thierry de Los, or more cor-
rectly Diedrik van Looz, a powerful baron from the Low
Countries, and a descendant of the first dukes of Lower
Lorraine. Henry ransomed the count by surrendering
several fortified towns to the emperor of Nienca. and ar-
rangements were made which led to the truce of 1210. In
thi*. year the old emperor Alexis III., who had escaped
from the marquis of Monteferrato, fled to Asia, to the
court of Sultan GhaTyath-ed-dm, and persuaded him to
support his claims to the throne of Nieaea, or of any other
part of the Eastern empire. The sultan summoned Theo^
dore to restore his father-in-law to the throne, and left
Koniah at the head of 20.000 men. He was attacked in
the neighbourhood of Antioch by Theodore, who had only
2000 men, but who charged the Turks with such irnpe-
tuo-ity 1liat their lines weie broken, and they were entirely
defeated. GhaVvath-ed-din himself was killed by Theo-
dore, and old Alexis was made a prisoner r 1210). He was
confined to a monastery at Nieaea, where he died some
years afterwards. Although Theodore had acted in his
father-in-law's name while he was only despot e, he had
ascended the throne in his own name am! . risk.
Theodore's wife, Anna, the daughter of Alexis, was then
dead.
It is said that in 1214 Theodore fell into the hands oi'
Az-ed-din Key-kaus, the succe.-.-or ot'G'.:a'i'yiith-ed-din : but
this if an error, and Fallmerayer, in his work cited below,
has shown that it was Alexis of Trebizcnd who was made
prisoner by the sultan. Except one shoit campaign against
Henry in 1213, which was followed by a truce in 1214,
Theodore reigned the last ten years of his life in |.
friends and respected by his enemies. After
'.he death of Anna he married Philippa, an Armenian
cess, whom he repudiated alter she i.ad home him n
and in 1_ '-hose for his third wife
daughter ol ' 'ourtenai ( Kortryk\ emperor oi
.n.ople after Henry, who was sister to Robert, the son
Theodore wished to give his
daughter Eudoxia in marriage to Robert, who was of a
very mild and amiable ( :t this in;
strontrly opposed by the Greek : Vlanuel, because
the two emperors wvrc brothers-in-law, and it was not car-
ried into el':'.
Theodore died in 1222, bring between forty-five and fifty
years old. in the sa>, ith Alexis I. of Trehizond.
Although he left a son, li. hi.; brother-in-
law John Vatatzes. One of Theodore's daughters, Maria,
'.vas married to Andreas, king of Hungary.
K-etan, Alex. Com/i., a, \ cropolita, espe-
cially cap. vi. ; Hiiturin I' '.'it., lib. in. ; Gibbon,
'•II: Le Bean, Htntoire <ln />'»v A/ •
Fallmeraver. (j/'trhichte des Kaisrrthuni* Traprzi/nt.
THEODORUS, Sculptor. [Son-PTOM.]
THEODO'SIUS of Bithyma or of Tripoli* in Lydia, for it
appears that both these descriptions are applied to him
though there is another Theodosiusof Tripolis, the author
of an obscure poem i. was a mathematician, of whom there
is some question whether he lived about fi ft v years before
Chri ' centuries after. Strabo and Vitruvins both
mention a 1 : the latter speaks of him as the in-
r of a dial for even' climate ^or latitude,; : if this be
the subject of <.-. . ••<! before < 'hrist.
But on the other hand, Ptolemy does not mention him
:s little either way : and Suidas, enumerat-
ing under the head of The' • shall pre-
. mention, adds that he was also a commentator on
• parts ot'Theudas : if this be the case, he must
r Christ. The balance of authorities seems to
be in favour of the former supposition : if the writings only
were looked at, there would be little donlil thai
omposed before the time of Pto!
We Imve !i .t of Theodosius — 1, S0aip(icd, Spherics, in
•1. 7Tn,i vvxn'n' Kiri iiftfftuiv, in two books:
:,'Tf,uv. Tlie first- is a profound :i; • work
(in * hould now call spherical geometry: the
• •id and third simply <! ; ronomical phcr.nmcim
.pear in different part* of the world. It. is hardly
a matter of certainty that the three works have the same
author : the second and third add nothing to the fame of
the author of the first.
The Spherics were translated by the Arabs, and from
their version a Latin one (of little worth) was made at
Venice in 1518, but whether it. was published is not staled
I Heilbronner). Another Latin version, probably also from
the Arabic, was published by Vogelinus at, Vienna, 152!),
with scholia. John Pena gave th'e first Greek text, with
Latin, Paris, 1557; and Barrow gave a Latin edition in
1675. But the best, edition is the Oxford one, Greek and
Latin, 8vo., 1707. The other works were published by
Dasypodins. in Latin, Strassburg, 1572, 8vo. Joseph
Am in published the third work in Latin, Rome, 1587;
and (ft/oar. I'nir.') the second, also in Latin, Rome, 1591
15S7. according to Fabricius) ; but Heilbronner does not
mention this last. (Weidler ; Heilbronner ; Delambre.)
THEODO'SIUS I., FLA'VIUS,surnamed the Great, was
the son of the general Theodosius who had signalised him-
self greatly during the reign of Valens and Valentim'an in
Britain and Africa, but was put to death in A.D. 376 at
Carthage through the envy of the courtiers. The Theo-
dosii were an illustrious family of Spain, of the town of
Italica, near the modern Sev'ille. The great Theodosius
was born in A.D. 345, and was educated by the ablest,
men of the time, while his father, himself one of the
greatest generals, instructed his son in the art of war, and
t omed him to the strictest and severest discipline.
Me took him with him in his campaigns in Britain, Ger-
many, and Africa, and made him acquainted with all kinds
of warfare, so that the boy became early accustomed to the
endurance of hardship. The various occasions on which he
distinguished himself were not overlooked, and he was
fo the rank of duke of Moesia, with an independent
command. Here again he distinguished himself above all
the other military commanders. He vanquished the Sar-
matians. and it was only owing to his intrepid character that
e was not lost altogether. (Ammianus Mar-
eel., xxix. 6 ; Zosimus, iv., p. 219, &c.) After the death of
his lather, in A.D. 876, he obtained permission to withdraw
from public affairs, and retired to Cauca in Spain, where
•i oted himself to agricultural occupations on his ex-
e estates, and won the affection and esteem of all
who came in contact with him, for he possessed no less
the \irtues of social and domestic life than the talents of
a general. But he did not remain long in the enjoyment
of his quiet happiness : his virtues and talents had made
too deep an impression to be forgotten in the hour of need ;
and on the 10th of January, 379, the emperor Gratian
raised Theodosius at Sirmium to the dignity of Augustus,
with the command over Illyricum and all the eastern pro-
of the empire. The immediate object of this eleva-
tion was the hope that he would save the empire from the
Goths, who in the preceding year had totally defeated the
Roman army near AJrianople, and were now ravaging the
country. Theodosius established his head-quarters at
Thessalonica in Macedonia, strengthened the garrisons in
those parts of the empire, and restored discipline among
the troops : but he only ventured upon partial engagements
with the enemy, and only on such occasions when he
Has -ure of success. He thus convinced his soldiers
that the barbarians were not invincible, and revived their
courage and their confidence. The Visi-Goths were thus
gradually and without any great battle driven out of
Thrace. While at Thessalonica, Theodosius was seized
wit ha severe illness. He was of a Christian family, but
had not yet been baptized, and he now celebrated this so-
lemnity by the advice of his friends, in the hope that it
would contribute to his recovery. When his illness had
disappeared, he went to Constantinople, and the first, acts
of his administration were to expel all the Allans from
the capital, to assign the churches they had occupied
to the orthodox Christians, and to appoint Gregorins
Nazian/cuus archbishop of Constantinople ' A.D. U80). His
persecution of the Arian sect was conducted with such
zeal, that orthodoxy was soon restored throughout his do-
minions. He then held a council at Constantinople of 150
bishops to complete the system, the foundation of which
had been laid at the council of Nicaea, and a number of
edicts were 9uccessi\cK issued, inllicling the severest pu-
nishments upon all kinds of heretics. The example of
these rigid persecutions was imitated in the west by
Gratian, and subsequently in the north also by the usurper
Maximus.
As regards his Gothic enemies, Theo . indebted
as much to his good fortune as his military talents : for
T II K
T II K
»fter tin- death of . ilitics
broke nut am. <••>, uml he
in engaging some of 111. .1 the
service ol tin1 finpiu p:ujt however of the
subject* of Kriligern, tirrd of th. . -.icliy,
made Alhanaric thi-ir knur, who conehui. . with
losius at Constantinople v.i). i'.^l . Allianaric in-
ilut not long Mirvive llir conclusion dl '
. wlio wnv plciiscd with the kind treat-
ment they had received from '] . willing;.
nutted to him. and numbers of thriu enlisted undiT the
andard. The treaty of the king and th.
..'i-'w.d In ML parate
i.ithic duels, who piuniiscd to become
.lihlul allies ol' the Romans. Lands were th-
; In the Vi-i-(;oth- in Thrace and Lower Mocsia
•i the banks ol' the Danube
. and re-
in Pnrygia and I.ydia. The con-
ditions on which (lie GoUU Hlbjectl of the
Komaii empire are imperl'eetlv known: thus inn -h onl\
:;nn. tliat they acknowledged the sovereignty of
Koine without submitting to her laws or the jurisdiction of
her masristiatcs ; their chiefs also still continued to lm\e
the command of their respective tribes in peace and war.
and an army of -KM) Goths was maintained for the pcr-
,; the empire. Thcudosiiis. although he
had felt obliged, for the safety of liis dominions, lo make
- (1 in persuading tile Goths
that all were the voluntary acts of his own sineeie friend-
ship towards them. The conduct of the emperor, certainly
the wisest that he could adopt under existing circum-
stances, was- praised by some and blamed by other-. There
< .\son for placing little contidence in
the ) of the barbarian*, although they called
themselves the eonfedeiates of the Romans. Their whole
nation soon became divided into two parties : Un-
faithful to the empire, was headed by Fray it ta ; the other,
which was only waiting in secret for an opportunity
volt, was headed by Priulf. who, after he had di-i
in the presence of Fravitta, was slain by him.
Had it not been for the firm but temperate character of
the emperor himself, the indomitable spirit of tlu
barians could not have been restrained. On him alone
the public safety depended.
In the year 383 Theodosins raised his son Arcadius to
the rank of Augustus: in the same year his benefactor
G rat mil was murdered in a rebellion. Ma\imus, sup)
by the troops in liritain, had set himself up as emperor,
and had conquered Gaul. Theodosiiis, who for the pre-
sent was unable to carry on a war, concluded a peace
with him, and left him in possession of the countries
which he was occupying north of the Alps, on con-
dition that he should not disturb Valentinian, the brother
itian, in his rule over Italy, Africa, and western Illy-
ricuiu. The empire was thus divided among three em-
perors. But Ma\im\ishad no intention to keep the |
and his ambition stimulated him to make himself master
of Italy- also. In v.n. :i^7 he broke in upon Italy, and
took lauMtibfl residence of Valentinian. by surprise. The
young emperor, his mother .Tustinn, and his sister Galla,
fled to Thessalonica, to implore the protection of Theodo-
sius. The emperor of the Kast received the fugitives
kindly, and as his own wife Flncilla had died, he married
.linian's sifter Galla, and thus establish i
interest for himself in protecting the exiled family. The'
opportunity of chastising the faithless .Maxiinns wa-, very
MIC to him, an fur war wen- made
throughout the whole extent of his dominions. In order
to secure his empire on its south-eastern frontier, a treaty
was concluded with (1 in
the ports 01 Ivpiiii- and G ml Thcodosins,|
himself at the head of a well-disciplined army, with which
he inui died into Panmmia to meet the i-nemj. who had
pitched his camp in the neighbourhood of Siscia, on the
Drave. A battle wits fonirht. in which the linn*. Alani.
and Goths, who served in I icatly
distinguished themselves. Maxiinnswa-, defeated and put
to H:.. i •• odosius, determined ion of
his enemy either alive or dead, pursued him
tin. in which to-.vn Maximn- -lint himself up. The
usurper, wlio had no hold on the affections of the p
was dragged forth fiom his palace into the hands of the
conqueror, him up us a \ictim t.
soldii
by the hai
who made Lin.-.
All
which had threatened the cinpiie wnh e
calamities,
ie western pi o .
this period that he showed arac-
ter iii the must brilliant li^rht. He not <
i the friends and u-l:itive» of Maxim
them every support in their misloitunes, while, on the
other hand, he restored to the op| if the
west their lane!-, and i;a\e them ci.mpcii.-ation in li.
for the los.se, that they had sustained. In liie \
.1 Home in triumph, together with his son Ho:.
and Valentinian.
During the period of his stay in Italy an ii.
out at Antioch, in which the people demanded
redress of several grievances, especially a diminnti.
their hea\y taxe>. \Vlu-n these den.
refused b\ the imperial officers, thcpopuh. I the
statue- Of Theodosius, his v.il'e Flacilla. and ol
Arcadius and Ilonorius. The insurrection howevc;
soon put down, and when Theodosius was informed .
occurrences, he sent Hellebricns aad Caoaiins to i
the most severe punishment upon the city. Hut when
ngcrs came soliciting a milder treatment, ai
the emperor that the people sincerely repented o:
crime, he generously gianted them a : ..vdon.
Hut thi> gi ' was followed by another which
as rash as it was cruel. In A.D. 3iK( another insurrec-
tion broke out at Thissalunicu. in which Uu
commander of the garrison, and several other ( i
were Cruelly murdered by the people, because t!.
to give ii]) a handsome "boy to the unnatural hi
dissolute favourite of the people. '11
uncertain whether he should take vengeance upon tin-
city or exercise clemency as he had do An-
tioch. Kutinus induced him to do the former, and coni-
mi-.siiiin-1-s were accordingly sent to punish the crimi-
nal inhabitants. Theodosius however soon rctrrcticd his
step, and countermanded his orders ; but it was too late :
a general and indiscriminate massacre took place in
the devoted city, in which no less than 7tKH) live -
sacrificed to the manes of Botheric. When Ambrose, the
archbishop of Milan, was informed of this cruel massacre,
he was seized with indignation and grief: and i-ighl months
later, when the emperor, on Christmas-day, wanted to
attend the service in the great church of Milan, h.
stopped in the porch by Ambrose, and was not admitted
until he had promised to do public penance for his mon-
strous cruelty. [AMIIIUISK.] It was not till after the
• 'f eight" months from tliat day that the emperor, who
had performed all the acts of public penance which the
archbishop had imposed upon him, was restored to the
communion of the faithful. A,i edict was at the same time
that no capital punishment should hcuccfoith be
inflicted on any one till thirty davs niter it had been pro-
nounced. During his siay in Italy Theodosius acted as a
kind of guardian of the joung emperor Valentiniaa, whom
he midit have deprived of his empire with ti •
facility and perfect impunity if he had been le.— magnani-
mous. When he left Italy for Constantinople in A. ». I):)!,
he left Valenlinian in the apparent h sei
of the wi -1- the empire. It was one of the
ractcristic features of Thei'dosins to cany into ctM-l hi
irrcat plans with the utmost vigour and eneigy. but when
the object was attained he sank into
avc himself up to the enjoyment of plea-nrcs vvhuli.
although harmless in tin m-cives. in many •; isled
him from deriving all the advantages lion
undertaking that he might hav, . the
i-tantinople. Th
ant OCI i i the v c'ir of l.is arrival I ! the
final and total abolition ;hout the
Roman empire. In the follow i. '>- \aleulininn
was mmdered ill Vienna. who
Kiiireiiinh. a rhetorician, to the ini|..i r,:A throne, in
whose name lie himself hoped to wield the sceptic. Tin o-
. who hail allowed himself to be deceived by the
id laithliiliie-~ of .'' was deeply lie
when he heard of the fate of liis brother-in-law and of
T II E
325
THE
the elevation of Eugenius. But he was at that moment
not prepared tor a civil war, and the ambassadors of Eu-
geniu:; were consequently received with apparent favour
and dismissed in a friendly manner. Preparations for war
however, which lasted ibr almost two years, were imme-
diately commenced, and Stilicho and Timasius were charged
with recruiting and disciplining the forces. In the spring
of the year 3'J-t Theodosms set out from Constantinople
against Eugenius. The armies met in Pannonia, and, after
a long and dubious contest, Eugenius was defeated on
the banks of the Cold River, near Aquileia. Eugenius
was put to death, and Arbogastes in despair put an end
to his own life. Theodosius was now sole emperor of the
Roman world, and was cheerfully acknowledged by all
the provinces, even by those which had recently paid
homage to Eugenius. The empire might now look for-
ward to a period of peace and happiness under the admi-
nUtiation of Theodosius. But he was suffering from
dropsy, and his health was rapidly declining. He died on
the 17th of January, 395, at Milan, whence his body was
conveyed to Constantinople, and buried there. His two
sons Arcadius and Honorius had been raised to the rank of
Augustus, and the father had shortly before his death
.i to Honorius the empire of the West, while Arcadius
i '> occupy the throne of the East. The Roman empire
henceforth remained divided into the Western and the
Eastern empire. [ROME, p. 110.]
(8. Aurelius Victor, Epitome, c. 48; Orosius, vii. 34, 35;
Sozomen, vii. 2 ; Paulus Diacon., ii. : Compare Gibbon,
Jf<\t. "f //<•• Decline and Full, c. 20, 27, and 28.)
THEODO'SIUS II., or the Younger, was the son of
Arcadius, and grandson of Theodosius the Great. He was
L,/rn on the 10th of April, 401. His father died in 408 at
Constantinople, and left his son, then a child seven
old, at the head of the Eastern empire. There is a
statement that Arcadius in his will made Jezdegerd, king
of Persia, the guardian of his son and regent of the em-
pire during his minority. (Jornandes, De Bell. Pers., i.
2.) This isolated account however scarcely deserves credit,
and it is a fact that Anthemius, the pra-fectus pra?torio,
from the very iir.st assumed the government of the Eastern
empire in the name of the young prince, and carried it on
in a praiseworthy manner down to the year 414, when he
voluntarily resigned it to Pulcheria, the sister of Theo-
dosius, who was only two years older than her brother, and
had shortly before received the title of Augusta. This
woman continued to exercise the sovereignty in the name
of her brother, not only after he had grown up to manhood
and down to his death, but even three years later, until
she herself died. During the early part of Theodosius's
life Pulcheria herself conducted and superintended his edu-
cation ; but the prince seemed to possess no ambition, and
not to aspire to the glory of a monarch : he passed his
•whole life in a perpetual infancy, surrounded by women
and eunuchs, and he idled away his time in hunting,
painting, carving, and making elegant transcripts of sacred
books. The whole government was carried on in his
name ; but whether its acts deserve praise or blame, he
can have no share in either, as he blindly acquiesced in
all that his sister did. She also persuaded him, in A.D.
421, to marry Eudocia (before her baptism her name was
Athenais), the daughter of Leontius, an Athenian sophist.
This woman, who was no less distinguished for her beauty
than for intellectual powers, soon gave birth to a daughter,
Eudoxia, after which she was raised to the rank of Au-
gusta. She lived with her husband till the year 444, when,
after having drawn upon herself suspicion of some im-
proper conduct, she was obliged to quit the court, and
withdrew to Jerusalem.
In 421 a war broke out with Varanes, king of Persia,
which was' successfully concluded by Ardaburius, a general
of Theodosius, and a peace was concluded for a hundred
years, which lasted at least for thirty. With this excep-
tion, the long reign of Theodosius was one of almost un-
e. It was only during the last years of his
life that the European parts of the empire were harassed
by Attila and his Huns. [ArriLA.] The Asiatic pro-
vinces, by far the most extensive, continued to enjoy a
profound and permanent repose. Theodosius died on the
28th M'.Iiily. •».')<).
(Paulus Diacon., iv. ; Zonaras; Socrates, Hixtor. Eccles.,
vii. 1, &c. Compare Gibbon, History of the Decline and
1'W, c. 32, 33, 34.)
The reign of Theodosius II. is memorable m the history
of jurisprudence through the 'collection of laws that was
made in it, and bears the name of Codex Theodosianus.
THEODO'SIUS III., stirnamed Adramyteuus, emperor
of Constantinople. He succeeded Anastasius II. in the
year A.D. 715, being proclaimed emperor in the fleet of
his predecessor near Adramyttium in Troas. He was a
man of obscure birth, and accepted the throne with reluc-
tance. He is praised for his unblemished conduct, and
for the protection he afforded to the orthodox faith. He
had not enjoyed his elevation much more than one year,
when Leo III., a man of superior abilities, was proclaimed
emperor. Theodosius willingly withdrew, and spent the
remainder of his life, together with his son, in a monastery.
(Theophanes, Chronographia ; Georgius Cedrenus, Com-
pendium Hi&toriarum ; Zonaras.)
THEODOSIAN CODE. In the year A.D. 429 Theo-
dosius II. appointed a commission of eight persons, at the
head of whom was Antiochus, to form a code out of all the
constitutions and other laws which had been promulgated
since the time of Constantino the Great. The code was
to be formed on the model of the private compilations re-
spectively called the Codex Gregorianus and the Codex
Hermogenianus. Either nothing was done by this com-
mission, or, for some reason, a renewal of it was thought
necessary, and this renewed commission received its in-
structions in the year A.D. 435. This second commission
consisted of sixteen members, with the same Antiochus at
its head. In remodelling their materials the commission
was empowered to omit the superfluous, insert the neces-
sary, change the ambiguous, and reconcile the incongruous.
The code was completed and promulgated as law in the
Eastern empire in the year A.D. 438 ; and it was declared
that the laws enacted since the time of Constantine should
only be in force so far as they were incorporated into this
code. It was further declared, as it had been on the oc-
casion of naming the first commission, that all the general
constitutions which were made by the emperors of the
East and'West should be sent from the one to the other,
but that each of them should have full power to adopt.
for the use of his own subjects, or to reject, what the other
sent. The code was forwarded in the year 438 by Theo-
dosius to his son-in-law Valentinian III., who confirmed it
and laid it before the Roman senate, by whom it was
received. In the year 448 Theodosius forwarded to Va-
lentinian other constitutions which he had made since the
completion of the code, as circumstances had arisen ; and
these new constitutions were promulgated in the Western
empire in the same year. The new constitutions wore
called Novellae, and all such new constitutions which were
interchanged between the East and West, and had reference
to the code of Theodosius, were called by the name No-
vellae. This interchange subsisted as lo-ng as the empire
of the West continued : " the last constitution of the kind
that we know is one of Anthemius, who was contemporary
with Leo I. in the Eastern empire : it belongs to the year
468, and relates to Bona Vacantia.
This code consists of sixteen books, which are divided
into titles, and the titles' are subdivided into sections.
The arrangement of the matter differs from that in the
subsequent compilation of Justinian, also called the Code.
The code of Theodosius treats of Jus Privatum in the first
part, and especially in the second and fourth books, both
included, and in the beginning of the fifth : the following
books treat chiefly of Jus Publicum. The first book treats
of offices, and the sixteenth book treats of matters per-
taining to the Christian church. The code of Theodosius
was the first great compilation of the kind, and it was
much used in the compilation of the- code of .histinian.
It, also forms the basis of the code of the Ostrogoths, called
the EdictumTheoderici : it \vas incorporated into the code
of Alaric II., commonly called the Breviarium, in an
abridged form, accompanied by a continual interpretation
or explanation ; and it was used in the compilation of the
Lex Romana of the Burgundians, which is often incorrectly
called Papiani Liber Responsorum.
The greater part of the Theodosian code and of the No-
vellae Constitutiones exist in their genuine state : the first
five books of the code and the beginning of the sixth are
chiefly found only in the Breviarium. The excellent
edition of J. Gothofredus (6 vols. fol., Lyon, 1(360, ve-
edited by J. D. Ritter, fol., Leipzig, 1736-1740), and also
the edition of the Jus Civile Antejustinianemn, Berlin, 1815,
r ii i:
T II K
have followed the text of the H: >• first printed in tin
book* and t '*iu* and by
., nnd particularly to iv
of the 1;
c, • ,
:v ti;ni»l .
K'JI
! hu also Added to ' MTU.
.,. . :•., | • • . . - •
ier part of the -
bv Jiutin Mart \ ; • ' i > plum
by Iicn;i'u-i \.i>. i .
of t lu-
rt •; of il
ul not a
pears to h •dertskcn for the pi..
he Kbionitei with r "* "'"
Hebrew text than th:r
>iich would render t':
i in their .
that it
deficiencies of that version, and on.
are not in the 1 :
competent know-led;.'
Hebrew words which appear to
th.- Ki ionrl
tilted by the antient church for the ' i ui of
that 1
This version occupied one column of Oriu ,pla.'
THEUDO'XlS.orTHKOlMiKlS. Montfort'a name for a
•ion of the i "'">' •'
V'rita /?;/(••'•<.': 'V-. ) «
EOGmS (Oiof, poet of Mrjjara. the
capital of the - a.s living at the
close of the sixth century B.C.; and it I :n his
it he lived to I: 'lie battle •
, In one of those revolutions which Ire-
•curred in the small Grecian states, llie'dcinocra-
tic body at Me^ara overpowered the arist which
Theopnis belonged. Tlieognis, who was then ab.sent fiom
i his landed property in thi?
which, with the rest of the Mciriirian ti a.s par-
,ed among the succ. y. It appears that he
in exile at Thebes. The 11;
abound in allusions to the n-vohitr
•nffered, and he expresses in bitter la
aeainst that base class which 1
prop, body to which ! < d. He 1..
the n eeing a ru mean birth pre-
liiin In ib of a girl whom he eoinlcd.
"iniiied lor his \
..ms of the irirl after she had mariied
'le rival.
It appears from his verses that he had been in S
Ruboea. and Sparta; and it was in Sicily that he wrote
one of hi "hich was addressed to the Sicilian
riaas. who were a colony fiom his native state.
There seems no reason to doubt that his com
posed on various occasions ami
that m far they resembled th.
A. and Solon. But as these e
•ral maxims or lessons i
i.it in the course of time near
.••! from them which had a particular applic
and < ed into that
•il collecti. '. con-
•
•liat nearly all the p-.uiaag«s
in this collection which have a political re'
-*cd to a person nai
:s appeats ..mth oi ni
"nis ha* a tender regard, and whom I in tin
in conduct, and to ti
life.
The verses of TheogtiU contain many allu.su
iim-nts. of . in which ,
'Wisl libation l«ul been duly performed. I'm
of the client* to nine; a poem, accompanied by the flute.
Thi» : . d either to all the
. or, a* apt -li the
elegies o("rh<-<>riii». it was addressed to a »iti^''
The tagOMOU of Theognis have been
m
• 1 nu-
vol. i. : Hoiim.i:.
i.
TIIKOI.' .via. the Inch relm
In . ,;trd against any mi.-conec]]tion of ti:
ject i
M-t that it i> il. "logy
purely in .
lit to fram.
inconsistent with tin
I. Dl :.R>tS.
All that men know of the nature of Oo.i . 1 ab-
solutely, of the rela' nd on the one hand,
;:;ul 1
with t
the duties aiisiiiL' out oi
i» described by tin-
and the 1
'. in a scientific l
-'anil- to
in wh.
>ophy to
mind. phi!olo<r
; but Mich a n- in is incon .i'.pare
IOK,]
The above definition applies to the word as il
understood for -
somewhat different from this. The 3to\ay!a of t!
18 ^iXoffo^ia x*pi riur Siluit; tl\c
of divine existences; and it include.:
o the nun1
wider signification th
tin.. J
. .. u . IIS) . who ilistinu'ui
thculou'N : 1 /" nythieal or 1
or i,utnr.. I, or relati
of il:. or popu-
lar . lie first IS tl
that of jihilonophci-s. the third that, of the jieople : or, as
Varro expresses it, 'The first is clm-lly adapted
theatre, the second to the universe (ail inn
third to the
.iid is not i -
of tl. in which the word On
to the author, i.s much laterthan tl
'iplcr term
faith
the meaning of the word /
theolo^\, its a - not taught in the New
ment. . i the absence of the
word.
In the early C'hristian church thi
.lolniiical >eii.se of ':
which rel: ,.nd divine thin
it cmplovi il at a \ciy ca .
•he natiu- i
..-, a kind
tbf <(>/ il X
JiJtii. i. 1 . and th whidi II
that
0«oXoyia, whieh therefore, in this i
"• i. in 11
. • A '• tune
the word acij!i e\ti nded,
and ' .ibethe whole teaching of the church
inity.
< 4crn usage of the word, an expressed in
In a
T H E
3-27
THE
the a-ove definition, was first adopted by Peter Abailard
•"•.)b. K42). who drew up a system of scho'laslic divinity, to
which he gave the title of 'Theologia Christiana.'
It should be remarked tliat instead of the Greek word
theol-osy, the Latin \\oiAdit-inify is often used to describe
(he science of religion.
II. FOUNDATION'S OF THE SCIENCE.
Like every other science, theology consists in the appli-
cation of the human reason to certain ascertained truths.
These truths are. as is plain from the definition, the truths
of reluiion. If therefore the existence of God, of attributes
•gins: to him. and of iclations subsisting between him
•.ien aiid other beings can be proved, the foundations
of theology are laid. Now all mankind, with the excep-
> >f a most insignificant minority if indeed, which has
l>een doubted, tl ce of a real atheist be pos-
. believe either that these subjects are within the
:d compass of human knowledge, or that some kind of
revelation respecting: these subjects has been made by God
t.> men. [RELIGION : REVELATION.] Therefore, accord-
-i the general sense of mankind, theology is a possible
••e, founded upon knowledge derived from nature, or
!ation, or from both those souiv
Now, it is tr mpts have been sometimes made
to ir- ••itire'y out of the religious
•d from natural sources, that is.
from the constitution of the human mine!, and from the
phenomena of the mental and material universe,
truths constitute .\,itur<i/ It- I'-finti, and form the subject
of the science of A . But the vast ma-
jority of religious systems are founded on the supposed
of a divine revelation ; and for this reason tiie
ice of theology is generally understood, to ha\-
Rflisi'M. Moreover, if it lie true
that a divine revelation has been given from God to man,
it will follow that that re\ elation cannot possibly be contia-
y to any of the truths of natural religion : also many
reasons might, be urged to show that such a revelation,
i, would contain in itself at least all the
truths of natural reUgion, and, as a matter of fact, all the
••I revelations in existence claim to teaeli cverytlung
which might be learned from nature concerning God : and
henci- the theology which is founded on revelation must
include within itself the theology which is founded on
natural religion. For this reason the grand foundation of
theologv is usually understood to be rex elation, to which
.•rion is a valuable but not . auxiliary ;
and it has even been disputed whether it is an essential
part of a theologian's duty to establish the consistency be-
Uie doctrines of natural and levelled religion.
Hence, with reference to the Christian religion, theology
"ided entirely upon the canonical books of the Old
and New Testament.
III. DIVISIONS OF THE SclKNCE.
1. With lefcr.-nce to its foundation, it is divided, as ex-
plained in the preceding paragraph, into Xntiinil and Ite-
••• word is used to indicate
lie foundations of revealed theology are the /'j-jircnncd
: God ; just as we speak of poeitirr laws.
The term _•// is also used to describe any
'ii of theology which rests upon authority, as, for
example, the system embodied in the formularies of a
•uliir church. See below, under the head of Dog-
•
2. According to the method of treating the subject, it; is
•nf'tr or ln'fjtira/, and nyxtonat ic or sch<> '
theology.
,'t. According to the part of the subject which is treated
i-i divided into/.' Mid jirnrlinil theology. Of
'•includes — (1) The knowledge of the do-
cuments \\hk-h contain the revelation, the proof of thieir
authority, and the explanation of their meaning, that is,
•'•t'lyt/ ; (2) the investigation, arnuigome nt,
ion of the truths so revealed, that is, N//.s/<w/,'/,-
the workings and changes of religion amor \g
0 have pi-ni'e-M-d it, or Hixtorirat '/'//.
/'/•"• has for its subject.* th> prac -
tical religion, and the various modes of enforcing them
on r.1 ice to the latter, it is divided into
(1) Hoiniletic*, or preaching ; i 2) (Mfchftict, or teaching ;
(3) L'iturgict, or worship and the administration of the
sacraments, and (4) Pastoral theology, or the care and
government of a church.
IV. OF DOGMATIC THEOLOGY, on DOGMATICS.
This is a very useful term, which is chiefly employed by
German writers. It may be defined as the science of ex-
hibiting clearly, and of tracing to their results, the doc-
trines taught by revelation. It means more than the
term systi'imi! ir l/i<"ilogy. The province of the latter is
simpiy to give to the scattered truths of revelation the
scientific form of a connected system, in whatever manner
may seem most convenient to the framer of the system ;
but dogmatic theology aims at forming a system which
shall be accepted as binding by a large body of religion-
ists, and then views all religious truth in the light of'that
system: il is systematic theology, with the idea of authority
snperadded.
This ma)r perhaps be made clearer by a reference to
other blanches of science. The natural philosopher, for
example, observes certain phenomena., which he soon finds
to have in them some points of connection or similarity ;
and by arranging the phenomena with reference to those
points, he lias reduced his knowledge of natural philosophy
to a soil of system. He may have been deceived in his
. ut ions : the analogies he thinks he has detected may
not really exist : but still the system lie has framed may
be for him a convenient, classification of the observed phe-
nomena: his system is a theory. But suppose him to
cd further, and to detect (in his own opinion) the
real causes of the observed phenomena, and to trace them
to further results: suppose that lie frames a system of
na'airal philosophy upon the principles which he has thus
detected : and that this system is received by a number of
men as furnishing a true explanation of the observed phe-
nomena : then his theory has gained the element, of au-
th':>riti/, and it may be called a dug/untie theory. The.
former kind of theory may serve as an illustration of what
is meant, by xyx/n/iii//.- 'theology; the latter, of what is
m<?ant by dnxiiin/ir I /s eulogy.
Now, in the case of the Christian revelation, it is a re-
markable fact that the documents which contain it present
no systematic form. The truths revealed in them, con-
sidered separately, may be called (/'igmux, since they all
contain the element of authority ; but as they are not
systematically arranged, they do not form a system nj
fogmatic liii'n/n!;-ii. But to such a system they might be
reduced by a person who fully understood them in all their
bearings ; and supposing his qualifications for the task
compleic, his system would be a perfect system of dog-
matics : absolutely true if the revelation were a true one ;
and therefore absolutely binding on all who accepted the
revelation as true. Now, as a matter of fact, such an at-
tempt has been made again and again: many systems of
theology have been framed, each claiming to give an ex-
position of the v. ord of God at once true and scientific.
It is also a matter of i'act that these systems have presented
different and contradictory results : but many of them have
been accepted as true by bodies of Christians; and they
therefore form, to those who accept them, systems ofilug-
I timlngy : and in many cases these systems are em-
bodied in creeds, or confessions of faith, which then become
for all future time the dogmatics, or positive theolog/t. of
ho accept them.
It has very naturally been usual for persons adopting a
system of dogmatics to look upon their system not only as
probabh tree, but as absolutely true ; and hence they have
given to it the title u( orthodoxy (jp0o&>Ei'a, the right be-
lief), apphing to every other system the name of hetero-
,'.."o?i'a, another belief. i.<: than the right ontl.
But it is deserving of notice that, there are some subjects
upon which ii particular opinion has prevailed so exten-
sively ninongC 'hristians, that the word orthodoxy isapplied
to that, opinion, for the sake of convenience, by persons
who do not intend thereby to give their assent to the abso-
lute truth of that, opinion. Such a use of the word is found
very convenient in ecclesiastical history. [HERESY.]
Illustrations of these remarks are furnished by the man-
ner in which we commonly speak of the dogmas of the
Roman and English churches, of Calvinistic and Arminian
dogmas, of the orthodox and heterodox doctrines respect-
lie person of Christ.
Out of Dogiimtii: Theology springs Coi//ror/'rt.ii't Then-
logy, or that mode of treating the subject of religion in
T n r.
- U defend-
tarn
V.
ad a
.if the ( ! • dercd
tlleo-
wilhin it. Such 11 d lie.
ry of then'.'
'iteru-
ture. But the information which would i .n this
head will be found for the most part a
throi: •. to which
All that will be attempted
point out .ul of
which the prevailiiu
formed. Ihe fiis! thinir '
In the widest sense of the word Theoloiry, including
both natural and rcvcalc.l theology, we have amonir then-
ns who reject revelation !' I of i 1 . !'
or that doctiinc concernimr God which njeets his
n which t
that God i- the Creator of till thinirs, but that havin
•d them and impressed upon them c. lor the
ation of their future existence, commonly call.'d the
. '. u ft them tc eminent of
. rn> himself no more with his ere
-tein ackn.' -tellce
vvhiel ; :'i by ackilowledirill!r the
ind. The 8 -m suppose
: an Almighty Creator, whose existence is
,1111111);
m according to which the laws
lf-e\istent
of a!l the pin : and there i- no
'ive princijile external to nature. This system
two dil'i'ereiit forms: .)/" "Inch makes all Ihe
phenomena of nature to result from the ; n-tiiu-
tion of matter itself: and the various shades M Pantheism,
which suppose an intelligent principle •n///mu //nnn/i to
.'onnected with every tiling 1ha:
to pervade the whole creation.
There is another system which stand.- apart both from
Naturalism and Revelation, namely
inir principle of which is that in m't ••
in short in all subjects which do not admit of mathe-
matical demonstration, certain' niable, and con-
•ntly that neitli iture nor from a MI]
revel -ire reh'.'ious belief nor a
.i of theolo TILISM.]
These sv.-terns deserve notice in connexion with the
ry of theology, inasmuch : late to thi
class of subjects as those which are embraced in tin •
and they belong particularly to th.
the' 1
- into direct collision with
tiav. But according to onrinoi. I dcti-
nition of theo'" -eience which is founded upon
a divine revelation, and moie
;ect the reliirii. >W and Ne'.v
A ill be found that th
ntt'erent opinions
If, either with reference tn
the i Is authority or to the mod .jirela-
tion.
1. With reference to the former point, ' !ij if
thi- -
who
Mi, and consequently
IheoloL'N r I'llitteil
and unqii. or this
aiith> iiither inti'
. But in .
•
e included un.!
'ilium and Ant
•r H :•:
ItatWitaHnn : tl '• for
the
cerniii >l mean?;
but in natin
med, while rationalism (in the • the
the Scriptures as ponessi
'•. _-iee of iiutliorilN. and ; i]«m I he v
the elcui.
trut h.
-m and lation-
ahsiu 'Hie
adherents of the former -\>lcm. 1houi;h they di'id
in;: the mode in which supernatural i - con-
veyed to the minds of the sai •: i the
irreat priuci]ile that they did receive such information as
:i all error in tl
ii-ntli. HatiMiialiM.-, on the other hand, cither :
the doi;nia of inspiration altoirether, or undei-stand
nothing more than that by the ordinary provider
itural faculties of the wrii- ronijht int
be while they _- the
Si-riptr.res. (u'llc-rally sjieaUinL'. the ratioii .t tlu-
wriki-s of the Sciiptu
; on the - other
- could :v. .-, while r.
tliemselvcs the I ':nt they will 1"
and what they will disbelieve, they iipon the whole :•
..:id opinions contained in the Sciipturcs :us the
of their theology. [RKVBLATIO!*.]
There is also a ilitlerence bel--. and
Ihe mode of intcrprctinir the Sciijv
tnre>: the former holding that the aid of the Spirit i
vouchsafed to the hnnible inquirer into mill:
the hitler denyiii'r the existence of any other me.
understanding the Scriptures than the natuia!
the human mind.
i he many forms which rationah-
durinir the last. almost iiuli-tr from
nf the form- of naturalism. [1! ^M.]
•J. Sup|)osing the Scripture to be recer My a
divine revelation, the questions arise: — Uy whom, and on
.:re the\ to be interpreted '.'
Thr tins point may be called the
terns of theology. The fundamental principle of Ih.
'. or biblical system is that the Seriptnri -
iuli-i]ireted by eaeli individual reader accoidini: '••
ordinary laws by which the meaning; of any other book is
•ained; while the Catholic or positive system sii;
a jiositive moil. M, handi :1
down liv a tradition in the visible church '
of Christianity, and foimins in :anatic
tluoloir>. fiom which no individual i- at liberty to differ
oiKin the evidence derived from his own research.
taut theoloiry may be supran.
is the liiiL'ina of the
(liviin to the inquir,
. which may be called
'heoloL'\ . The popular th.
to be derived fiom the obvious meaning of the
ol 'Scripture, without any i theo-
• 1 upon the principle that, alt
. humble and diligent ini|.
from the Bible it-e!faU i'eliu:ious truth which
::cccs*ary for hi- safety that he should I
yet that there i:, a body of re ;
which can only 1 applying to itsinteri
tion all th' M'.-,:l
! in order to the constniction of
important difference between I'::- ' and
l\ of
Tin
•iistnith. In many of the autiunt Chris-
THE
329
THE
tian writers it recognises members of the true church and
authorised teachers in it ; and therefore it regards the
doctrines taught in their writings as the true doctrines o:
Christ. The obvious difficulty presented by the different
opinions of various writers is removed in various ways.
Vincent of Linns has stated the Catholic dogma in the
following form : — ' That which has been held always, every-
where, and by all, is true.' (Quod semper, quod ubiqiie, &c.)
But who are the all? All the orthodox: and it is the
province of the church to determine who are orthodox
and who are heretics ; and if the decision of the church
on this point be doubtful, the appeal lies first to its autho-
rised teachers individually, and then to their collective
voice as given in the decrees of a general council.
On the other hand the Protestant system recognises in
the early Christian writers nothing more than persons of
various degrees of ability and information, whose state-
ments and opinions are to be accepted or rejected entirely
upon the grounds of ordinary criticism, and neither their
teachings nor those of any other person whatever are
allowed to have any authority beyond that due to their
intrinsic worth and to their agreement with Scripture.
The application of these principles to the canon of Scrip-
tun' is an important point of difference between the Roman
Catholic and Protestant systems. The former rests upon
the authority of those books which have been declared
canonical by the voice of the church as expressed in gene-
ral councils ; the latter looks to historical and critical evi-
dence to determine the genuineness and authenticity of
the books of Scripture, and then it finds the evidence of
their inspiration, and consequently of their authority, in
the statements and claims of the writers themselves, which
not merely on the established honesty of the writers,
but chiefly on the attestation of the miracles they wrought,
v : MIRACLES.]
3. Another mode of interpretation leads to the systems
of theology which are embraced under the name of mys-
tiri\m, the irrcat principle of which is, that within the
mind of the true believer there exists a sense of truth
which will always lead him to a surer and higher know-
of religion than he could ever gain from his own
il inquiries or from the teaching of other men.
r:cs ; MYSTICS.]
4. To trace the relation of one set of truths to another,
and to show the coincidence of the same truths when
proved by different trains of reasoning, is one of the high-
c~t objects of true philosophy: and, on the other hand, an
unwillingness to renounce a cherished belief when it is
found opposed to a newly discovered truth, is one of the
strongest tendencies of the human mind. Hence have
arisen numerous theological systems according as men
have brought the tenets of Judaism, the systems of heathen
religion, and the reasonings of philosophy, into comparison
with the statements of the New Testament. From the first
of these processes arose the Judaizing sects of the first two
or three centuries, from the second many of the early
ie», such as Manichaeism [HKHF.TICS ; MAMCHEES],
and from the third the theology of the New Platonists and
others of the early Alexandrian school, and that of the
schoolmen of fhe middle aces.
.">. Besides the classification, which we have thus at-
tempted, of systems of theology, according to the funda-
mental principles on which they rest, there is another
important division of them according to their actual dif-
"s of doctrine. On this subject, for the reasons above
1, the reader is referred to the several articles in which
an account is given of the tenets and history of the prin-
cipal doctrinal sects.
It only remains to give a slight sketch of the influence of
tin -.1- different systems in the history of Christianity. At the
rise of Christianity the popular biblical system was that
which naturally prevailed, with a partial intermixture of the
live system, arising out of the great deference always
paid to the first teachers of a new religion by their dis-
, and more especially out of the authority with which
the a reinvested. The novelty and simplicity of
.a impressed its truths clearly on the minds of
!'u>t believers, who had no historical difficulties to
'••nding sects to decide between, and no
•••: to speculate on the ultimate consequences of the
doctrines they received, or on their relations to other sup-
l truths. If a difficulty arose, their teachers were at
-'.he it. And accordingly the language of the
P. C., No. 1520.
apostolic epistles invites the believers to examine the truth
for themselves and to receive it in its simplicity, though it
also gives hints of the existence of a consistent system of
truth, and claims on the part of the apostles to be the
teachers of that system. But they did not teach it ' a* o
system, and it is only in the later books of the New Testa-
ment, the writings of John and some of those of Paul, that
any tendency to reduce Christian truth to a system be-
comes apparent. The degree of freedom thus left to be-
lievers was abundantly used, and before the close of the
apostolic age different opinions had sprung up, exempli-
fying nearly all the principles above described. [HERETICS.]
To restore unity to the church, and especially to settle the
orthodox doctrine respecting the person of Christ, was the
object of the Council of Nice, in the creed of which we
find the first appearance of a system of positive theology.
[NICE, COUNCIL OF; NICENE CREED.] The immediate
consequence of this Council however was to exasperate
the very controversy which it professed to settle, and
which continued to rage during the following centuries.
[ARIANS ; NESTORIANS ; THEODORETUS.] These and other
controversies led to the frequent meeting of councils [(ECU-
MENICAL COUNCILS], and to the settlement of the canon of
Scripture about the end of the fourth century [CANON] ;
while at the same time the episcopal system became more
and more firmly established; and from all these causes
theology acquired more and more the form of a positive
system, the most complete development of which is pre-
sented by the Greek and • Roman churches. [CATHOLIC
CHURCH; GREEK CHURCH.]
The positive system evidently leaves little liberty to the
speculations of an active mind, or to the practice of scru-
pulous or turbulent individuals. Those of the former class
sought for satisfaction in the scholastic philosophy ; those
of the latter made repeated attacks on the ruling system,
which at last produced the Reformation in Germany and
England. The scholastic philosophy was at its height from
the llth century to the 14th. It was for the most part a
revival of the philosophy of Aristotle. The schoolmen
were in profession firm believers of the Catholic doctrine,
and generally succeeded in gaining rather praise than
censure from the rulers of the church. But within the
limits thus prescribed for them they pushed the application
of their philosophy to theology to the utmost extent, and
occupied themselves especially with the most subtle ques-
tions on the nature of God and angels, and on points of
casuistry.
The Reformation was far from abolishing the positive,
system in Protestant countries. To hold their ground
against the power of the church of Rome, the reformed
churches strove to make for themselves a visible and uni-
ted constitution, and for this purpose they adopted symbols
of faith and worship, which constituted for them respect-
ively bodies of positive theology. The various dissenters
from these reformed churches, though generally leaving
them on the ground that their theology was not purely
Protestant, still preserved much that was positive in their
theology, either by a tacit consent or by a formal confes-
sion of "faith. And thus it has happened that, to the pre-
sent day, theology is far less a system based upon and con-
tinuing to challenge scientific inquiry, than the exposition
of a body of positive law.
Still there have always arisen individuals and parties
who have claimed for themselves the utmost latitude of
that right of private judgment which is the basis of the
Protestant principle. Since the Reformation there has
always existed, especially in England, a large amount of
biblical theology, which has been chiefly of the popular
school, but which, since the middle of the last century, has
continually gained more and more of the critical element,
both here, and still more in Germany ; and it may be now
safely affirmed, that with an admixture of the mystic:U
theology, the adherents of which have always formed a
considerable minority among Christians, the prevailing
theological systems of the present day are the catholic and
the critical.
It would be impossible within the limits of this article
to give a list of even the best writers on theology. The
following are taken at random as among the best, and as
directing to other sources of information. The ' Institutes'
of Calvin ; the works of Turretin, Maestricht, Pictet, Dod-
dridge, Bishop Watson, Richard Watson, Dwight, Ernesti,
Bertholdt, Schleiermacher, Bretschneider, Nitzsch, and
VOL. XXIV.— 2 U
r it i.
T i:
„(!-., , , c, ;.:(,. rrnan .-..i:.:-, : n mg v.lm-h u:a\ he i -;u
.: been u- ompoation
. Ckrittlichtn Glau-
TIlEON.'an eminent Greek painter, who was a i.
.uid appears to have lived in tin- time of Philip
and Alexander of Macedonia. He wan reckoned •
the fin* matter* of his age. on account of his po.-
invention and tin- gracefulness of his execution. iQuinc-
tilian, \ii. 10. (i. We know the subjects of only a ;
hut the execution is spoken of in such a man-
ner th:it tin excellence of the artist c;umot he doubted.
Plim ID; } 40) mentions two of them,
1he 01 [ killing his mo-
ther i compare Plutarch, De Audteiidi* /'..«,'.. p. 18, ed.
Frank)'.), and the other Thamyris playing the cithara. A
iption of a splendid painting by Theon representing
a youthful warrior, who. animated by a martial spirit and
eager to light, is hastening to meet the enemy, is given by
TIIKON. AKLIUS, a rhetorician and grammarian of
Alexandria, who. according to some critics, lived about
-K), but. accordine to u more probable opinion, about
A.D. 315. According to Simla* he wrote a commentary on
jihon, on tin1 orations of Demosthenes ain!
a work on rhetoric, one on the structure of lanirna::
gymnasmata, and several other books. With th,
oi' the ProtrvmnasmataCirpoyv/JvoV/wtra), << rules
on rhetoric, derived from the examples of the best Greek
orators, there is no work extant that can be ascribed to him
with certainty. Theon's Proeymnasmata excel those of Aph-
thonius in elegance, precision, and clearness, and were, like
those of Aphthonius, lone used as a text-book in schools.
The first edition appeared a' Home. 1520, 4to. ; that of
D. Heinsius at Leyden, 1G26, 8vo. Schcncr's edition
sala, 1G70 and 1C80, is incorrect. The liest edition of the
accompanied by Greek scholia, is in Walz's • Kh<
Graeci,' vol. i., p. L4&-262.
Kustcr (.on Suidas, ii., p. 1K2) ascribes to Tlieon also the
still extant scholia on Aratus, Apollonius lihodius. Lyco-
phron, and Tlieocritvis. The iirioroXiicoi ri'iirot which are
contained in Aldus's and Cujacius's collections of ep
are likewise attributed bv some writers to Thcon, while
others assign them to Libanins or Proclus. A separate
edition of them appeared at Leyden, 1014, 12mo.
A. \YcsU-rmann, Geachichte der Grurh. Btredtvmktit,
THEON. Theon. the Elder, of Smyrna, was the con-
temporary of Ptolemy (who cites one of his observations .
but a little older. Ihcori, the Younger, of Alexandria, the
commentator on Ptolemy, and father of Hypatia, lived in
the latter half of the fourth century.
< )f Theon the Klder, or Theon of Smyrna, we know no-
thing but that he was a follower of Plato, and has left a
work entitled TUIV icard /taOri/ianici/v xp1ff'V"1"' "'<•" T'lv r<"~
nXfirwvof dvaywuffiv, or, on the parts of mathematics which
are useful towards a knowledge of Plato. Other works
have been mentioned written by some Theon i there are
many of this name;, hut they are lost. This worl
: of four parts, treating on arithmetic, music, astro-
nomy, and the harmony of the universe (jrtpi TF;C tv unaptf
apfioriat). Bouillaud (Gr. Lat., Paris, 4to, 1044) published
the first two of thc.-e paits. or what he found of them.
from a manuscript which came from De Thou's hi
ier With '
thud, from the K Kaac Voisius assured IJonil-
land that the th md in tin ',
library at Milan, but it hits never apix
1--J7 pulilishcd'the arithmetic, with ample notes anil dis-
Of the private life of fheon the Younger (who w.
a Platonist , we know nothing, except that he professed the
which led to the nu i.
.D. 41.") . a eiime which will .
disgust and indignation to the end of time. The w,
•lastical histoiian Snciatc-. from \\'elU's tiansla
ie Latin of Vale-ms Hi iirv of
at follows ; nnd his simple raa'i
which it was so nni'
rest of hii party to or at least to soften, i
have been a lewon to Ins successors in the task of writing
BMorjr : • There wa» a woman at Alexandria by name
~, and
itinus,
-i who
Mudi-
i The
She liad arrived to bo
1 all the phili-
in that 1'
and expounded all 11"
would hear her. \V!
ous about plulooop!
reason
sion where i i accomplished
inn. she addrcsM'tl freijucntly even to the magis'
'ilar mode-' 1 of appi
in a public aasemhly of men, for all persona r-
r for lu-r c\in:i
aan at that time. For, In
had frequent conferences with On>t<s,' the prelect of
Alexandria, ' for this reason a calumn nin&t
her among the ('1m-
s from coming to a reconciliation with the M-
Certain persons therefore, of fierce and over-hot minds, who
were headed by one Peter, a reader, •
woman, and observed her returning home from sonic place ;
and having pulled her out of her chariot, 11.
her to the church named Cn-siircum, v, In n
her and murdered her with shells,' or broken croc
• And when they had torn her piecemeal, they carri<
her members to a place called Cinaron and consumed
them with fire. This fact brought no small
upon Cyrillus,' the bishop [CYRIL], 'and tin
drian church.' Dama-cius the author of the I.i
Isidore, in Phot his, says, that Hypatia ,
this Isidore, and that I'vrillus was the instigator of the
murderers. Some particulars arc added in s
who states that Hypatia was beautiful, and adds an e
dote which it is not desirable to repeat, but which, if true,
entitles her to be called the most .singularly straight-for-
ward of women. He says she wrote commentaries on Dio-
phantus, and the Conies of Apollonius, and also an astro-
nomical canon. A fuller account of her may be found in
Menage's ' Lives of the Female Phil.
•on of Alexandria is known as the commentator of
Ptolemy and the editor of Kuclid. There is a commentary
on Aratus which is said to have been his, but >
of opinion that it is the work of several hands, for which
he gives good reasons. The whole of the commentary on
ntaxis is preserved, except one or two
lull account of it isiriveii in Dclambre's Hi-toi\ of Antiont
Astronomy, who that it helps but little in the
-landing of the Syntaxis, and give- that
additional information which is usii:: d from a
commentator. This commentary was t'u>t printed in
(!reck. in the Basle edition of Ptolemy : l.'iiw. [Sv
PTOLEMAIC.] J. Baptist Porta published two books
(.Latin. Naples, first book l.")SS. first and second ,
and Ilalma gave an edition of these same hi"
and French, Paris. 1821, 2 vol*. 4to.). Besides the com-
mentary, we have the navnvis Tpox'f""- or manual t
described by Delambre from the manuscript.
(Jreek and French. Pans. Is-J-J .
•criplion of the HUH!
astronomical calculation in use at the time.
It only remains to speak of Theon as a commentator on
Kuclid, a character which some ^ill j><T-i-4 in giving him.
. that Thcon, as ho himself in ; the
eomni, .Mi-lid, with
here and there an additional proposition. [(.
p. I").").] Some manuscript* of Kuclid call th
mentarv. and our fathers of the middl.
that nil thr ilfmnnnlrntiniix wire commentaries supplied
by Thcon, only the enunciations of tl
Kuelid's. For instance, in the folio of 1511,
which the propositions are given twice, na:
translation i called Campanus's) from the Arabic, and/am-
from the Cireek. m this work the enunciations are
. but.
-'la'i'ius a
Again, in ' I i|' ii di
le.di Greco tradotti in Lingua Th 'me, 1515.
we finil nothing but the ci of the pi
ft hi- ' 'i all he believed to
demonstrations, his
title would have been • Kudid. w n Ii Thei m's i 'onnneii-
:.nclid in (ireek and
IMVC the. cnun- K, a necessary
T H E
331
THE
warning to a person who wishes to buy Euclid in the ori-
ginal. Hence arises the pertinacious continuance of the
assertion that Theon commented Euclid : so late as the
article ' Theon ' in the ' Biographie Universelle,' we fine
this statement made ; and even more, namely, that the
commentary by Theon was published at the end of the
Basle edition of 1533, in Greek, that it was translated into
Latin by Commandine, and has been often republished
Any one who looks into the Basle edition will see that the
commentary at the end is by Proclus, not by Theon.
Robert Simson, and other editors who alter according to
their own ideas of perfection, and then swear that they
have restored Euclid, always lay the blame of the sup-
posed alterations upon Theon : Simson's phrase is, 'Theon,
or some unskilful commentator.' There is no reason to
suppose that Theon altered Euclid : all that is known is,
that he added occasionally, and, if we look at those addi-
tions which it is certain he made, judiciously.
THEO'PHAN'ES. a native of Mitylene, was a contem-
porary and friend of Pompey the Great. During the war
betwe'en Rome and Mithridates, when the Mitylenseans
supported the king and delivered up to him the Roman
general JManius Aquilius, Theophanes, who refused to take
any part in the revolt, was expelled, and went to the camp
of Sulla. (Velleius Pat., ii. 18.) In Italy Theophanes be-
came acquainted with Pompey, formed an intimate friend-
ship with him, and henceforth accompanied him in all his
expeditions. After the termination of the war against Mi-
thridates. Theophanes endeavoured to perpetuate the ex-
ploits of his friend. His history, which is now lost, appears
to have been a work of no mean order, for Strabo calls
Theophanes the most distinguished Greek of his age. Al-
though he is not charged with having sacrificed the
truth, yet he was undoubtedly anxious to w ip* off' any stain
that was attached to the family of his friend. Pompey is
said to have been so delighted with the performance, that
he procured Theophanes the rights of a Roman citizen.
(Cicero, Pro Archia, 10.) Although Theophanes had been
••I from Mitylene, he bore no sriiidge against his
country, and on the return of Pompey from Asia he
availed himself of his influence with the conqueror, and
induced him to restore to the Lesbians their liberty and
the privileges of which they had been deprived tor having
supported the king of Pontus. In B.C. 59 Theophanes
was sent by the senate of Rome as ambassador to Ptole-
marus Auh-tes of Egypt, to carry to him the decree of the
senate, which guaranteed him the nty of his
country. His conduct on this mission is blamed, because
he is said to have endeavoured to direct events according
to the secret wishes of Pompey. During the civil war
Theophanes continued faithful to his friend, and supported
him with his advice, and it was on his well-meant, sug-
u that after the battle of Pharsalus Pompey fled to
!, where he was murdered. After this event Theo-
phanes returned to Rome, where he appears to have spent
the last years of his life in retirement. After his death
tbe Letbiani paid divine honours to his memory for the
benefits which he had conferred upon them. His son, M.
Pompi IMS Marer, held the office of praetor in the time of
Augustus, and was afterwards appointed governor of Asia ;
but in the reign of Tiberius he and his daughter put an
end to their own lives, in order to avoid the punishment
of exile to which they had been condemned.
Theophanes was the author of several works, both in
pnw and in verse, but very little of them has come down
to us. Plutarch's Life of Pompey is chiefly based on the
historical work of Theophanes, and we may thus possess
more of it than we are aware ; but besides this we have
four or five fragments of it in Strabo, Plutarch, and Sto-
5. The ' Anthologia Graeca' (xv., n. 14 and 35) con-
tains two epigrams of Theophanes, and Diogenes Laer-
tiiis ii. 104) mentions a work of his on painting, but of its
nature and contents nothing is known.
in, in the Memoires de FAcadtmie des Inscriptions
rf it,-!!, t-Lettren, vol. xiv., p. 143, Sec.)
THKO'I'H \\KS NOXNUS. [NoxNUs.]
THKOTHILUS, a Constantinopolitan jurist, who lived
in the reign of the emperor Justinian f A..D. 527-565). He
was a distinguished teacher of jurisprudence at Constan-
tinople | antecessor), and, at the command of the emperor,
he was employed among those who compiled the ' Digest ;'
and afterwards he undertook, along with Dorotheus and
Tribonian, to compose the ' Institutes,' that is, the elemen-
tary treatise on jurisprudence, which was part of Justinian's
plan. This Theophilus is generally supposed to be the
author of the Greek paraphrase of the ' Institutes,' though
it is maintained that the paraphrase is not the work of
Theophilus himself, but was taken down from his lectures
by some pupils. It was discovered 'in the beginning of
the sixteenth century by Viglius ab Aytta Zuichemius at
Louvain, who published and dedicated it to the emperor
Charles V. (Basle, 1534, fol.). The work was frequently
reprinted during the same century, but the last and best
edition is that of W. O. Reitz, in 2 vols. 4to., Hagse, 1751.
It contains a Latin translation and the notes of previous
editors, together with those of Reitz ; and also a very in-
teresting dissertation on the obscure and much disputed
history of Theophilus. Theophilus also wrote a commentary
on the first three parts of the ' Digest,' which however is
now lost, with the exception of a few fragments which are
incorporated in Reitz's edition of the ' Paraphrase of the
Institutes.' The value of the paraphrase of Theophilus in
establishing the text of the ' Institutes ' may be estimated
by an examination of the edition of the ' Institutes ' of
Gains and Justinian by Klenze and Bucking, Berlin, 1829.
t'l/ix/itiitinnum D. Justiniani Sacrat. Princip. Proae-
mium ; P. B. Degen, Bemerkungen iiber das Zeitalter des
Theophilas, Liineburg, 1808, 8vo. ; Zimmern, Geschichte
des Rom. Priratrechts.)
THEO'PHILUS PROTOSPATHA'RIUS (Geo^Xoc npw-
ro<rW0apioc), the author of several Greek medical works,
which are still extant, and some of which go under the
name of ' Philotheus ' and ' Philaretus.' Everything con-
nected with his name, his titles, the events of his life, and
the time when he lived, is uncertain. He is generally
styled ' Protospat harius,' which seems to have been originally
a military title given to the colonel of the bodyguard of
the emperor of Constantinople (Spatharii, or vuifiaToiptiXaKts).
Afterwards however it became also a civil dignity, or at
any rate it was associated with the government of provinces
and the functions of a judge ; they possessed great au-
thority, and were reckoned among the Magnifici. (Further
information respecting this office may be found in Brisson,
De Verb. Sign//. ; Calvinus, Lex Jurid. ; Du Cange, Gloss.
Mfd. el Inf. Graecit. : id., Gloss. Med. et Inf. Latinit. ;
Carpentier, Gloss. Nov. ad Script. Med. Aevi; Goat,
Note on Georg. Codin., p. 29 ; Guidot, Note on Theoph.,
De Urin., pp. 142, 143, 145; Meursius, Gloss. Graeco-
Barb.; Prateius, Lex Juris Civ. et Canon.; Suicer,
Thes. Eecles.} In some manuscripts however he is
called ' Philosophus' (Lam\)ec.,Biblioth. Vindob., lib. vii.,
p. 3;V>, ed. Kollar.) ; in others, ' Monachus' (id., Ibid., lib.
vi., p. 244, 494); '' Archiater' (Codd. MSS. Theoph. De
Puls. ap. Ermerins, Anecd. Med. Gr.) ; or 'latrosophista'
('larpotro^ioroO viol Ovpuv, ed. Fed. Morell., Paris, 1608,
12mo.)
Of his personal history we are told nothing : if, as is
generally done, we trust the titles of the manuscripts of his
works, and so try to learn the events of his life, we may
conjecture that he lived in the seventh century after
Christ ; that he was the tutor of Stephanus Atheniensis
(Lambec., Ibid., lib. vi., pp. 198, 223 492 ; lib. vii., p. 352),
who dedicated his work, ' De Chrysopoeia,' to the emperor
Heraclius (Fabricius, Biblioth.Gnxca,yo\. xii., p. 695, ed.
vet.) ; that he arrived at high professional and political
rank, and that at last he embraced thu monastic life. It
must however be confessed that all this is quite uncertain,
for, in the first place, Freind, in his ' History of Physic'
(Opera, pp. 448, 449, ed. Lond., 1733), after remarking
bow little credit is sometimes due to the titles prefixed to
manuscripts, doubts whether Theophilus was ever tutor to
Stephanus, and thinks, from the barbarous words that he
makes use of (such as ipta'\iov, <rro/iofiaVi«:ov, De Corp. Hum.
Fubr., p. 177, 1. 1, 2, ed. Oxon. ; iirox'l, rpdva, Ibid., p. 181,
!. 11, 12; avaKia, Ibid., p. 193, 1. 11 ; xvf*vn> iif^ftfaanc,
De Urin., c. 6, p. 266, 1. 34, ed. Ideler), that he probably
ived later. And, secondly, even if Theophilus was the
;utor of a person named Stephanus, still it seems probable
;hat this was not the alchemist of that name. [STEPHANUS
ATHKMKXSIS.] His date is equally uncertain. Some per-
sons (' Chronologia inconsulta,' as Fabricius says, Biblioth.
Greeca, vol. xii., p. (i48 n., ed. vet.) think he was the per-
son mentioned by St. Luke ; others place him as early as
;he second century after Christ, and others again as late as
;he twelfth. He is generally supposed to have lived in the
ime of the emperor Heraclius, who reigned from A.D. G10
2U 2
I II E
, i r.
to C41 : 1'ut this opinion rest* only on tin- • <l Ins
having been the tutor oi' Stephamis Athcn:
inor thinks, I'roin the barbarous words qi>
. l>o the same person who it addressed I
l.j tin- title ProtMnothariu* • In 1': j.t, ji.
: who then-Ion- must
:ived in tin- ninlli century . a Christum, anil ,
a ma a> appears from almost all hi- v.ni-
in his phy '.vhere I
,•. ith admiration the wisdom. pov. •
of (iod a-i displayed in the human body. Cur/i.
linn, f-ihr., pp.'l. . 27, I.'-:*. I*"'. -7J : 1>, I r,n.,
e. in. p. 'J7:>: c. ii. p. '.Xf : /•
,M line. p. T7 11. :<\'\
l hf Peripatetic philosophy.
PP. 2. :i. -I.
.•i'. tu riiil
.•i'. tu riiilut!.. nl. in Hijipocr.
Five n: ; main, of which the longest and most
•i anatomical and physiological treat is,-. in
iHH>ks, ClltitU-ll Ili.ii rf;,; T.H' '.\l-IW<!l"jl' Kfiruirnvqc, De
l-'ilirii-n. It contains MTV h'l
it i, almost entirely noni Galen's
l)e Usu Partium Corpon.s Huinar.i,' lYoni
whom however he now and then differs, anil whom he somc-
appears to have misunderstood. In the fifth book
lie has hiseited large extiarts I'roin Hippocrates. • De Ge-
nituia,' and • l)e Natura Pueri.' He recommends in -
places the dissection of animals, but appears never to
have examined a human foody : in one passage he advises
• ulcnt In dUsect an ape.'or else a hear. or. if neither
of these1 animals can be procured, to take whatever he can
•hut by all means,' adds he. ' let him dissect Mime-
thing.' The work wa- first translated into Latin by J. P.
..nd published at Venice. \:>'M'>. Svo.. together
with Hip; ;ifoiis Medieanientis.' This
iation was freimentlv reprinted, and is inserted
phens in Ins ' MedicM Artis Principcs,' Paris,
l'"ii;~. fol. The mamiscript from which Crassu.s made his
translation is probably lost : but, though <lefecti\e. it was
more complete than that which was used by Guil. Aforell
in editing the original text, which was published at Paris,
l.V>.~>, s\o.. in aveiy beautiful type, but without preface or
notes. This edition is now become scarce, and was re-
printed. together with Orassus's translation, by Fabric-ins,
in the twelfth volume of his ' Bifolioth. Grwca," ]). 7*'i, sq..
Ilainb., 1724 and 1740. Two long passages which were
missing in the tourth and filth books were copied from a
manuscript at Venice, and inserted by Andr. Mustoxydes
and Denietr. Sehinas in their collection entitled SvXXoyi;
'AiroffiraofiaTiitv 'Avjrtorwv 'E\\tjvtK*av fif.rd ~tifitti^vtnii', Ve-
.. The last and best edition of this work is
that In Dr. Greenhill, which has lately been print id at
the Oxford University press, Gr. and I.at., Kvo., 1842.
The , - in the preface that he hits taken as the
basis of his edition the manuscript at Venice mentioned
above, as being more complete than any other that he had
met with ; that three other manuscripts at Paris have been
ted; that several passages have been corrected by
ling to the original parts of Galen and Hippocrates
from which they were copied ; that Crassus's Latin version
has been retained, as representing the readings of a manu-
script nu longer in existence ; and that the notes are in-
tend. !.) illustrate and explain the Creek techni-
cal terms, than to correct all the anatomical errors and
supply the deficiencies of the author.
•her of the works of Theophilus is entitled 'Vs-ii/t- |
vijfia «iV riirc 'iTiorpa'roi'C 'A0o(n • .urn/aril in Iliji-
jjorrttli\ Ajihiinxinnx, which also seems to be taken in :i
m.-asurc from Galen's Commentary on the same
work. It was first published in a Latin translation by
Ludov. Coradus, at Venice, I.~>1!>. Hvo., under the name
of ' Philotheus.' The Greek text appeared for the first
in the second volume of F. U. Hi. !ia in
Hippocratem et Galenum,' Kcgim. Prnss.. H\o.. 1KW.
-r. iiipi Oi'puv. /'«• I Unix, contains little or
nothing that is original, but is a good compendium of
what was known by the antients on the subject, and
4Ini>ul..lM,p.292.b.l.c»ll<!d'A<TiraO(;ploc,l,,1Ulii.i>iiirnr]y»mUu>.,.
of UM traiuerlhn, ud mmu> IIpuToirraOa'pioc ; far I hi I'angK t«IU us
•OltH. 1M. n /./. ' irpwroc) Uul Uu word Jrpiirof, » )„ „
tn«ud to Utlo.. ud .if nifj inn DM Int or ohtef. U gpn»rally npmwd In
•MWrifU bylhi kttota, with . •bort line .bo.c II, ihui a.
was hi^hlv ages. It first ap-
. tor I'oiii
N'lriiiiius MT \ 'minus , in dilions of the
uon known by the name of the ' Articella.' It
was fir>t published in a «-par., I .">:{.'(.
8vo., tian-lated b\ Alba:. .'tlier with the
'e Pnlsilnis;' and li reprinted
-u>., and n II. Stephens i;i
his • M tin IVmcipes.' The Greek text was pub-
lished without the name of Theophilus, under tin
Mac de I'nnis Liber Sinirulans,' N;c., at i
1008, rjino.. with a new Latin tian.slation by l-'cd. Morell.
which edition was inserted entire In I 'hartier m the eighth
\ohmie of his edition of the wo.ks o| Hippocnites and
. The best edition is that by Thorn. Guidot, Luird.
Hat., 17<>:». HVO..GI-. and Lat. : and airain with a new title-
17:11. The text is much improved by adopting the
readiiiL's of a manuscript in the Hodleian Liliiary at Dxlord :
there is a new Latin \ersion by t ;.ioiis
and learned prolegomena and notes. Th. ' only,
from Guidot s edition, is inserted by .1. L. Ideler in hi.s
• Physici et Medici (iiaeri Minorca,' Berol., Isll.
A short treatise, il<pi Aioxupq/iaruf,
'i-i/iix. was fust publ.- .niilot, in (ireek. with
a Latin t . anslatuin by himself, at the end of the edition
' I).- I'nnis' mentioned above : the (ire. -I, text alone is in-
serted by Ideler in his' Physici et Medici Giaeci Minores.'
The last of the works of Theophilus that remain-
treatise, llnii s^i-yuwr, l>r J':i/\i/>,i.\. which tirst appeared
ina Latin tianslathm, under the name of • Plularetu-
il of the old editions of the • Articella.' It wa
published in a separate form at Basle. l."i:{;i. s\o. ; •
lated by Albanus Torinus, together with the treatise • De
I'rinis ' mentioned above. It was reprinted at Strassburg,
\7tX>. Hvo., and inserted by II. Stephens in his • M.
Ariis 1'iincipes.' The Greek text was first published by
I-'./. Krincnns in his • Anecdota Mcdica (iraeca.' LugJ.
Bat., Svo., ISIO, together with a new I-itin translation.
The text is taken from one manuscript at Levdenand four
at Paris, and differs very consideiably from the older Latin
translation going under the name of Philaretns.
(Guidot's Notes to Theoph. D<- ( 'rinix : Kabiicius, liib-
Hiith. (trun-ii : Freind's/y/.v/.f/yV;;/.''"".' Haller's/>'/4/«y/A.
Aunt, and Hililinth. Mi-ilir. Pnirt. ; Spreii-rel's Hint. Je la
Mi' i. : Dietx's I'lel'ace to the second volnni 'inlin
in Iliji/.-nrr. it (inl. ; Ermerin's Preface to his A
dr.; Choulant's Hantlhurh ili'r Huchrrkunde. fur tin-
Ai-ltcn- Mfiliriii • (ireenhill's Note* to Theoph. De >
II inn. I
THKOPHKASTA. the name of a genus of plants dedi-
cated to Theophcastus. It was originally called Kresia by
Plumier. but afterwards altered by LiniKfus. It br
to the natural order Myi-sinace:i\ and is a small tree with
a simple unbranchcd stem, furnished with a tuft of long
evergreen leaves at top. givinir it a resemblance to a palm-
tree. The flower-- are of a white colour, and are arranged on
terminal racemes, which are v cry short, and hidden amongst
the leaves of the plant. The calyx is campanulate and
cartilaginous. The corolla is also campanulatc, with a
short tube, and hits a dilated throat, girded fov an elevated
angularly-lobcd, fleshy, arched ring : the limb is spreading.
aniens are five, combined with the tube of th>
rolla ; anthers horned. The fruit is a cmstaccous spherical
berry, about the size of a crab-apple, with the seeds half-
immersed in the placenta. There is but one species, named
atler .Inssicn. '/'. Juxxifiii. This plant is the same a.s the
l.imiipus. It is a native of the mountains
of St. Domingo, and is much cultivated on account of its
lonur handsome holly-like leaves. It may be propagated by
cuttings, and grows well ina soil of peat, loam, and sand.
rHEOPHRASTUS was born at Eresus. in the island of
-. but the year of his birth is uncertain : some
writers state it to be B.C. 371 ; others place it much earlic-r.
According to Ilieronymus /•,)<;'«/., 2, ad Nepotianum) he
died in the year H.C. 285, and, as some say. at the age of
s.~i Diogenes'Lacrt., v. 40), or, according to others, at the
age of KHi years. These dill. of his ace
the date of his birth uncertain. When a youth his
father Melanlas sent him to Athens lor the purpose of
study ing. Here he was first a pupil of Plato, and became
an intimate fiieml of Aristotle, who. charmed with his
- and his beautiful pronunciation, is said to huve
given liim the name of Theophrastus (one who speaks di-
T H E
333
T H E
vinely) : his real name was Tyrtamus. (Quinetilian, x
1, 83; Cicero, Orator., 19.) After the death of Plato,
when Speusippus had placed himself at the head of the
Academy, Theophrastus, with a number of the formei
disciples of Plato, left the Academy. Plutarch has pre-
served a bare account of an event in the life of Theo-
phrastus, which must perhaps be assigned to the time
which he spent avva$ from Athens after his withdrawal
from the Academy. Plutarch says that he and Phidias
delivered their country twice from the oppression of tyrants.
After the battle of Chaeronea, Theophrastus returned to
Athens, from which he had been absent for many years ;
and as Aristotle had then just opened his school (the
Lyceum . Theophrastus ranged himself among the hearers
of his friend, and cultivated most zealously all the depart-
ments of philosophy and science of which Aristotle was
then the srreat master. When Aristctle himself withdrew,
Theophrastus became his successor in the Lyceum, and ac-
quired great reputation in his new sphere, not because he
created any new system of philosophy, but because he
combined the knowledge and profundity of Aristotle with
the fascinating eloquence of Plato. The number of his
pupils on one occasion is said to have amounted to two
thousand (Diogenes Laert., v. 37), who flocked around
him from all parts of Greece. This popularity, and the
influence which it gave him in the public affairs of Greece
through the practical character of his philosophy, roused
the indignation and envy of those who saw in him an ob-
stacle to their designs. The consequence was that Agno-
nides, who probably acted on behalf of many others,
brought against him a charge of impiety. Theophrastus
pleaded his own cause before the Areopagus with his usual
eloquence, and convinced that court of his innocence.
Hia accuser would have fallen a victim to his own calumny,
if Theophrastus had not generously interfered and saved
him. After this event he enjoyed undisturbed peace for
:il years, and he saw his school, which was visited by
tin- most eminent men of the age, daily increase. The
tranquillity which he enjoyed was however chiefly owing to
the influence of Demetrius Phalereus, who had himself been
a pupil of Theophrastus. After the fall of Demetrius the
persecutions besan afresh ; and, in 303 B.C., Sophocles,
i Amphielides, carried a law which forbade all phi-
losophers, under pain of death, to give any public instruc-
tion without permission of the state. (Diogenes Laert.,
v. 38; Athenaeus, xiii.. p. 610; J. Pollux, ix. 5.) Theo-
phra.stus left Athens ; but in the following year, the law
bcins abolished, and the mover condemned to pay a fine
of live talents. Theophrastus and several other philosophers
returned to Athens, where he continued his labours without
any interruption until his death. The whole population
of Athens is said to have followed his body to the grave.
His will, in which he disposed of his literary and other
property, is preserved in Diogenes Laertius. His library
was very valuable, as it contained the works of Aristotle,
which this philosopher had bequeathed to Theophrastus.
Theophrastus bequeathed them, together with his other
literary property, to Neleus of Scepsis.
Theophrastus, as already observed, did not develop a
new system of philosophy, but he confined himself to ex-
plaining that of his master Aristotle. With this view he
wrote numerous works on various branches of philosophy
and on natural history. His philosophical works may be
divided into works on philosophy, in the narrower sense of
the word, works on historical subjects, and works on certain
arts, such as oratory, poetry, and the like. It is to be la-
mented that most of his writings on these departments are
now lost, and more especially those on politics (IloXirura),
on legislators (irtpl vofioBtTuv), on laws, a work of which
Cicero made great use, and his works on orator)-, of which
Theophrastus himself was so distinguished a master. A list
of the lost books of Theophrastus is given in Fabricius
(Biblioth. Graera, iii., p. 445, Sec.). Andronicus of Rhodes,
a Peripatetic philosopher of the time of Lucullus, made a
list of all the works of Theophrastus, and arranged them
in systematic order. The following philosophical works of
Theophrastus are still extant: —
1. ' Charactercs,' or 7)61*01 xapaKTiiptf, consisting of
thirty, or, according to Schneider's arrangement, of thirty-
one chapters. In this work the author gives thirty cha-
racteristic descriptions of vices, or rather, of the manner
in which they show themselves in man. The descriptions
however are mere sketches, and form a gallery of bad or
ridiculous characters. Many modern critics have main-
tained that the work in its present form is not to be re-
garded as a production of Theophrastus, but that it is
either an abridgement of a greater work of this philoso-
pher, or a collection of descriptions of vicious characters,
compiled either from the writings of Theophrastus, or
from those of others. Neither of these opinions is incom-
patible with the statement of Diogenes Laertius, Suidas,
and other late writers who mention r;0iKoi Xap0Krijpe<,-
among the works of Theophrastus ; for the ' Characters '
which we now possess may have been compiled and pub-
lished under the name of Theophrastus long before their
time. Either of these hypotheses would also account for
the fact that nearly all the definitions of the vices that
occur in the book contain some error, which, it must be
presumed, would not have been the case if the work
had been written by Theophrastus. Other critics, on
the contrary, have vindicated the ' Characteres ' as a
genuine work of Theophrastus, and have attributed all
its defects and inaccuracies to the bad MSS. upon which
the text is based. This opinion has received considerable
support from the discovery of a Munich codex, part of
which was published byFr. Thiersch in 1832, in the ' Acta
Philologorum Monacensium ' (vol. iii., fasc. 3). This MS.
contains the titles of all the thirty chapters, but the text
of only twenty-one. The first five chapters and the intro-
duction, which were edited by Thiersch, are considerably
shorter than the common text, the language is perfectly
pure, and there is very little doubt that this is the genuine
text of the work of Theophrastus, and that the common
one is only a paraphrase, made perhaps by Maximus
Planudes, who is known to have written a commentary on
the ' Characteres ' of Theophrastus. The editio princeps
of the ' Characteres ' is by Wilibald Pyrckheimer, Ni'irn-
berg, 1527, 8vo. This edition, which contains only fifteen
chapters, was reprinted with a Latin translation by A. Po-
litianus, Basle, 1531, 8vo., and 1541, fol. Chapters 10 to
23 were first added by Camotius, who published the works
of Theophrastus in the sixth volume of his edition of
Aristotle (Venice, 1551-52). These twenty-three chapters
were increased by five new ones from a Heidelberg MS.
in the excellent edition of Casaubon, of 1599 (reprinted in
1612 and 1617, 8vp.). The last two chapters were added
in the edition which appeared at Parma, 1786, 4to. A
still more perfect, and in fact the first complete edition, is
that of J. P. Siebenkees, which was edited by Goetz, Niirn-
berg, 1798, 8vo. In 1799 there appeared two new editions,
the one by Coraes (Paris, 8vo.), and the other by Schneider
(Jena, 8vo.). The last edition, which is very useful, is
that of Fr. Ast, Leipzig, 1816, 8vo. The ' Characteres '
have been translated into French by Jean de la Bruyere
;Paris, 1696, 12mo., often reprinted, and lastly edited by
Schweighaiiser, Paris, 1802), and by Levesque (Paris, 1782,
12mo.). The best German translations are those of C.
Rommel (Prenzlau, 1827, 12mo.), and of J. J. Hottinger
(Miinchen, 1821, 8vo.). The reare several English transla-
tion*: the latest is by F. Howell, London, 1824, 8vo.
That by Eustace Budgell, London, 1713, 8vo., is generally
called the best. There is also a translation into modern
reek by Larbaris, Vienna, 1815, 8vo.
2. A fragment of a work on Metaphysics, which consists
of one book entire (Jtuv /itra ;-a 0tnrini airoairaafidTiov jj
/3ij3Xi'ov a). This book was not mentioned by Andronicus
of Rhodes in his catalogue of the works of Theophrastus,
jut it is ascribed to him by Nicolaus Damascenus. It is
printed in all the early editions of the works of Theophras-
:us in connection with those of Aristotle, as in those of
Venice (14fl7\ Basle (1541), Venice (1552), and in that of
Sylburg (Frankfort, 1587). The last edition is that of Ch.
A. Brandis, who annexed it to his edition of Aristotle's
Metaphysics' (Berlin, 1823, 8vo.).
3. A Dissertation vipi aiVerjcKwc, that is, on the Senses
and the Imagination. There is a paraphrastic commentary
on this work by Priscian, the Lydian, who lived in the
sixth century of our sera. It was first edited by Trin-
cavelli, Venice, 1536, fol., with Priscian's paraphrase, and
Quaestiones ' by Alexander Aphrodisiensia. It is also
jrinted in the above-^nentioned colJections of the works of
I'heophrastus, and in that published by Schneider, Leipzig,
1818-21.
The fragments of other philosophical works are too brief
and numerous to be noticed here.
The 'History of Plants,' by Theophrastus, vtfi <j>vruv
T 11 1.
881
THE
af, in one of lh« earliest work- , that was
written with am .tific precision. The work
is divided into Ifii books, ol" tin- last of \\hu-li only a frag-
in, •..; i, ( 'llu- matter is arranged upon a
system by which planU are claused :i. then
mode* of generation, their localities, their size u* tree* or
shrubs and herbs, and according to their uses as furnishing
juices, potherb*, and seeds which may lie eaten. T:
book treats of jthe organ* or parts of plaii'
the reproduction of plants, and the times iiud mode of
sowing. Here he mentions the sexes of plants, und dc-
- the mode of reproduction in palms, and compares
it with the capriticatum oi Jigs. The third, fourth, and
fifth books are ih voted to a consideration of trees, their
various kinds, the places they come from, mid the •
mica! uses to which they may be applied. The sixth book
of underehrub* and spiny plants; the seventh of
potherbs; the eighth of plants viclding seeds used I'm
food; and the ninth of those plants that yield useful
juices, gnnus, resins, or other exudation?-. In this work
there is much original and valuable observation, but at
the tame time it is intermixed with many absurd
ments with icgard to the functions and properties of plants.
It is probable, that much of the valuable matter re,
in this wo, .rsult of his own observation, as he is
known to have travelled about Greece, and to have had a
botanic garden of his own, whilst he was probably de-
pendent on the statements of soldiers and others eunncrteii
with the :i. der for his information on ludian,
Kgvptian, and Arabian plants.
ophrastus wrote also another work, ' On tli<
Plants.' irtpi foriv alnuv. This work was originally in
eight books, six of which remain entire. It treats of the
ill of plants: the causes which influence their fecun-
dity; of the times at which they should be sown and
reaped : the modes of preparing the soil, of manuring it.
and of the instruments used in agriculture ; of the odours,
>, and properties of many kinds of plants. In this, :i>
in the history of plants, the vegetable kingdom is consi-
1 more in reference to its economical than to its
medical uses, although the latter are occasionally re
to. In both works there is much valuable matter that
deserves the attention of the botanist, and a very little know-
ledge of botany will enable the reader to separate the cliali
from the wheat. Doth Hallcr and Adanson complain ol
the errors which translators and editors of these works have
fallen into for want of botanical knowledge. Both
have gone through several editions : they were printed to-
"f Aldus at Venice, m 15.V2, Hv o. ; and
i by Heinsius at Leipzig, in HilJ. The • History ol
Plants' has lieen published separately more frequently than
'tition is that of BodaMis a Mtape],
which was published by his father alter his death. It
contains a preface by Corvinus ; the Greek text, with \a-
eommentaries and remarks of Con-
did J. (.'. Scaliger; the Latin translation of Ciaxa ;
very careful commentaiies by Slajiel ; a very copious
index, and the whole is illustrated bv woodcuts. The
•M1 very inferior, and are copies of ti
the works of Dodonseus, which seem to have been copici
into nearly all the wmks published on botanv at this |
It appeared at Amsterdam in 1OI4, folio. The latest edition
of II. i at Oxiiii-il. ill !Sl:t. by Stack-
hou-, rcompanicd with a Syllabus ol
the ircncia and species of the fXX) plants described bj
-'us, also a glossary, und notes, with a catalog))!
of the botanical works of Thcuphra.stiis.
The .1.1 translated into Ccruiau by Kurt
:ona. in IH'J:!. s\o.
11KUIV
others on vario natural history, which are
enumerated with his |iluloso|ihical works in J)<
Laertius (v.42,&c.). One of them, on Stones ^i \&uv «,
from which I'iiny, in his account of st< > d tin
KW -i his information, is still extanl. Ji
ha» prefixed it. with a Latin translation and notes, to his
work. -De (Jcmmis et Lapidit n, U.I7-*
separate edition, with an Knglish translation. was ]inb
llihed by Hill, London, 174G, Hvo. ; another, with a French
: .it I'.uiv 17">l. NVO. : and n third.
with a German translation, by Baumgiirtner, N'ii
J1 Ku'- 'l'»c lust ediliou is tliat of Scluieidi-i
t, SYO.
( )f his two books on Fire (iripl Tepuc). only one u now
xtant ; of his other works on natural history, which are
low lost, we posses* a considerable number of frag-
. ihtm princcps of all the Works of Tlu-ophra.-'
that of Aldus, Venice, Hltf-lK print, . with the
'.iistotlc, in f> vols. fol. 'J )jub-
a Latin translation, which v. ^- made from the same
MS. from which the Aldine text was tai.
edition of this translation is without date or phio
1 appeared at Tarvinum in 1-1X3. The last ami
edition u that of Link and Schneider, LI-JI
4 vols. I
(Haller, Bibliotlura lii>lani,-u, torn, i., p. 31 ; Sch-
Geschichtt dor liutanik ; Adanson, Fumillfx dt-« 1'ii.
Bischon", Lrhrliurh <iv Hutumk ; Stackhonsc, TI,
//M/. J'lmtt. : Fabricius, Htt,li,,t/i. Graeo., in., }•
Hitter, Ihxturi/ <if yj/i//r»,,/i//;/ ; Ki tier
Philotopkit
THBOPHYLACTtJS SIMOCATEA, of Locri, uu his-
torian. so])liist, anil natural philosopher, who wa.-, I:
about <>10-u'2!> A.D. He wrote a
(larofia oiKiwfiii'ii ;, in eight books, from the death of the
emperor Tiberius II.. in TjS2. to the murder of Maurice and
his children by Phocas. in (Jo2. This work is known by
the Latin title of -Historiae Kerum a Mauritio gestarum
Libri VIII.' It was jinnted. with a Latin translation, by
J. Pontaims, at Ingolstadt, 1001, 4t<>. An impioved edi-
tion W;LS published by Fabrotti, i S, fol.. reprinted
172U. It is «lso contained in iS'ieli!: :on of the
Bv/antnic v. .
He also v lort letters, 'Epi»tol;i KU.S-
ticae. et Anintoriae,' which were published in the n>
tions of Aldus, Cujacins, and Henry Stephens : and a work
entitled • Problems in .Natural History' (' Airopiai 0ii<Tu;m,
O_uaestiones Plnsicae , which was published at Leyden,
l.vjfi, and at Leipzig, l(>~>3. The. two last-mentioned
works have been recently edited by Boissonade, Pans,
MRS.
iii-iciiis, Jtibtiotheca Graeca; Scholl, Getchichte der
Gni'i-h. J.
THEOPIIVLACTUS, a native of Constantinople, was
archbishop of Achris, the chief cily of Bulgaria, about the
MI7II orh)77. He wrote a work on the • Kdin
of Pi. ... KI p'niriXm-f/"), for the perusal of Constan-
tinus Porphyrogennctus, the .sou of Michael VII. and the
emprcs-, Maria. Tliis work forms a part of the collet
of li\/autine writers.
Theophylactus is better known by his valuable commen-
taries on the twelve minor prophets and the grcaicr part
of the New Testament, which are chiefly compiled liom
the works of Chrysostom. He also wrote 7"< e])istlos and
several tracts. These works were printed in Greek and
Latin, at Venice. 17">-1. fol.
• Kahricius, liitil. (iri:''/\, vii., p. 70'.") ; Ijirdner's Cri'ili-
liilihi. pt. 11., c. 103; Scholl, Ui-st-hichtc </ Lilt.,
lii. '2-
THKOPOMPUS, an eminent Greek historian, was a
native of the island of Chios, son of Damasistr.it us, and
brother of < 'aucalus, the rhetorician. He was born I
n. < .iiSO, ;iiiil was instructed in rhetoric In Isocratcs during
his stay in Chios, i Plutarch, I'll. <irr. Unit., p. Ki7 C •
Photi 'HI, p. 7SM- • I'hotius in another pa
that Dama-islratus and his son were obliged to (|uit
i account of their paitiah;
Sparta: tins seems to have occurred about u.c. 3tiO. when
Chios was distracted by two parties, the | <! the
most powerful one being in lav onr of Thebes, while a
number of aristocrats supported the interest of Sparl::
the latter belonged Thcupompus and his father. Tli
tlneiice of the instruction of Isocrates on Theopom]>i!
pears to have been very great, for although he did not
apply his oratorical powers to politics or to speaking in
vet he wrote, like In
-idcrablc number of orations, which 'd at ihe-
eonlests, and in which he is said to have even
excelled his master. When he . i to leave ( 'bios.
lie went with his father to Asia Minor, where lie spent
i vi ars in travel and study, anil ac,|uired great •
lor Ins eloquence. At ti iv« he ob-
: leave to return to his country through the inter-
ference ol .\lc\uiidci it he took
an active part m the political affairs of his native island,
THE
335
THE
and by his talents he became one of the principal supports
of the aristocratic party. So long as Alexander the Great
lived, his adversaries could not venture anything openly
against him ; hut no sooner had the king died than the
popular party again expelled Theopompus. He now took
refuge in Egypt under the protection of Ptolemaeus, the
son of Lagus, during whose reign he remained unmolested.
But his successor Ptolemaeus Philadelphus was ill disposed
towards him, and if Theopompus had not been advised by
some friends to quit the country, he would have been put
to death. Whither he now fled, what were his subsequent
fortunes, and where he died, are questions to which no
answer can be given, though it is highly probable that he
died about, or shortly after 308 B.C.
The loss of the works of Theopompus, of which we now
only possess numerous fragments, is one of the greatest
that antient history has sustained. The following list con-
tains the works he is known to have written : —
1. An abridgement of the work of Herodotus ('ETrirn/i?}
rwv 'Hj.or.'TLi' iTropiwi/). This epitome is mentioned by
Suidas and several other grammarians. Modern critics
think it highly improbable that Theopompus should have
undertaken such a task, and that it was probably the work
of some grammarian, who published it under the name of
the historian. The reasons adduced for this opinion are
not satisfactory, and it is not improbable that Theopompus
mav have made this abridgement as a first attempt at his-
torical composition. A few fragments of it are still
extant.
•J. A more important work was a history of Greece
"KXXrp'ticai ioropiai, or SuiraSic 'EXXTjvucwi'). It took up the
history of Greece where Thucydides breaks off, B.C. 411,
and carried the events down to the battle of Cnidus, B.C.
394. The work consisted of twelve books, and many frag-
ments are still preserved.
:;. The history of Philip of Macedonia and his time
(*i\iT77W, or simply 'i<rropi'ai\ It contained in 58 books
ice from the accession of Philip, or
more properly from the foundation of Philippi, down to
his death. Five books of it were lost as early as the time
of Diodoms Siculus fxvi. 3), and they were probably the
same which Photius (Cod., 176, p. 390) mentions as being
.1 his time, viz. books 6, 7, 9, 20, and 30. This volu-
minous work not only embraced the history of Greece in
(lie • • of the word within the period mentionrd.
but also treated of those earlier parts of Greek history and
of the history of such barbarous nations as he had occasion
to mention. These things formed numerous and long
digressions in the work, and of their extent we may judge
from the fact that Philip III. of Macedonia, alter cutting
out these digressions, reduced the work from 58 to 16
books. fPhotius, Cod., 176.) We still possess many frag-
ments of the work, which the antient writers refer to and
quote.
Besides these historical works, Theopompus wrote many
orations, and we know that he also composed Panegyrics
on Mausolus, Philip, and Alexander. As regards his
character ;us an historian, the antients praise him as a lover
of truth, but they also state that he was extravagantly
severe in his censure, and unbounded in his praise. His
ardent and vehement temper did not allow him to pre-
serve that calmness which becomes the historian. He is
also charged with having been too fond of the marvellous,
and with having for this reason dwelled too much upon
the mythical stories of Greece wherever he had occasion
to mention them.
The fragments of Theopompus have been collected by
Wirhers: ' Theopompi Chii Fragmenta, collegit, disposuit,
iilicavit, fjusdemque de Vita et Scriptis Commenta-
;n praemisit,' &c., Lugduni Batavorum, 1829, 8vo.
, • i • /s _i T Ti/T"ii * i t* i_
pare F. Kocn, Prolegomena
tin, 1803, 4to. ; A. J. E. Pflugk, De Theopompi Chii
l'it'li'1 Scriptis, Berlin, 1827, 8vo. ; Asehbach, Dissertatio
<npO ''hin n/*torirr>, Frankfort, 1823, 4to.
TIIKORBO, a musical instrument of the lute kind, which
has long fallen into disuse. The latest employment of it
that we can trace was in Handel's oratorio of Esther ( 1720),
where it is introduced, with the harp, as an accompani-
ment to the air 'Watchful Angels.' This instrument has
been called the ' </"A'". >ts tvvo hea(ls having been
erroneously considered as two necks : and it was commonly
known under the name of Arch-lute on account of its
magnitude. The upper and middle strings were attached
to the lower head or nut ; the lower, or base strings, to
an upper or additional one. According to Maister Mace
(1676), the Theorbo was the old English lute veiy much
enlarged, and used chiefly, if not only, as an accompani-
ment to the voice. [LuiE..]
THEOREM (Siupvpa) means properly a thing to be
looked at or seen ; and is used in mathematics to signify
any proposition which states its conclusion or makes any
affirmation or negation ; as distinguished from a PROBLEM,
which demands or requires a conclusion to be arrived at,
without so much as stating whether that conclusion is even
possible. Thus, ' Required to draw a tangent to a circle at
a given point,' is a problem ; but ' If a straight line be
drawn at right angles to a diameter from its extremity, that
straight line is a tangent to the circle,' is a theoerm. The
problem asks discovery both of method and demonstration ;
the theorem asks demonstration only.
This distinction, as noticed in detail in PROBLEM, was not
made by the older Greek geometers ; Theodosius is the
first, as far as we know, who uses the word theorem, but
none of his propositions are problems: Pappus is the fust.
who uses both terms in the distinctive sense.
THEORIES OF MOLECULARITY. This important
branch of science is directed to connect the known mecha-
nical, dynamical, and hydrodynamical laws with those
which govern the crystallization of solids, the operation of
heat in producing liquidity and gaseity, the action of ca-
pillary tubes on fluids, and several other phenomena of
constituted matter. The laws which regulate the motions
of great masses taken as continuous bodies have been ex-
plored with success to an astonishing degree by the genius
and labours of -such men as Newton, D'Alembert, and La-
place. On the contrary, those law's which govern the con-
stitution or elementary arrangement of such bodies are to a
great extent absolutely unknown. The ordinary senses of
sight, touch, &c. are sufficient to take cognizance of the
facts from which the former laws are deduced ; but for the
latter it is necessary to apply the most delicate instruments
supplied by nature, namely, heat, light, and electricity.
The minute world is of more difficult research than the
great, the plane sections of a crystal than the elliptic
orbits of the planets, the infinitely small than the infinitely
great.
It is not therefore wonderful that this branch of science,
which should connect on one uniform basis the phenomena
of chemistry, of crystallography, and of the mechanical
action of masses, should have attracted the attention of the
most able philosophers from the sixteenth to the nineteenth
century ; from Boyle to Berzelius, from Newton to Navier
and Poisson ; and the present unsatisfactory state of our
knowledge on this subject must to a great degree be attri-
buted to the neglect of the inductive method, to the sub-
stitution of hypotheses for the results of observation.
The first theory on this subject may be thus stated, that
the particles of matter possess the attraction of cohesion,
but are repulsed by the action of heat or caloric : when the
former preponderates, the body is solid ; when both are
equal, it is in a fluid state ; and when the latter exceeds the
former, the body is a gas, and prevented from total disper-
sion only by the action of gravitation. This is purely hy-
pothetic, and forms no more ground for mathematical cal-
culation in relation to the phenomena alluded to above,
than does the definition of a straight line in Euclid's Ele-
ments for the properties established in geometry. The
second hypothesis, which of late has been more generally
received both by chemists and mathematicians, is that the
particles of matter are mutually attractive by a law ana-
logous to that of gravitation, but are surrounded by atmo-
spheres repulsive one of the other, in the same manner as
the particles of elastic fluids. From this hypothesis the equa-
tions of equilibrium and of progressive and rotatory motions
are deducible ; but as the constitution of such atmospheres
mav be modified very much at the will of the calculator, so
as still to obtain the same mechanical results (in the manner
in which the distribution of the fluid of light in crystal-
lized bodies has been by those analysts who have developed
the undulatory theory), it seems probable that it will be
long before the phenomena of crystallization, liquefaction,
&c will from this hypothesis be explained, and the absence
of all external action in solids, with the exception of gra-
vitation. The difference of the calculations of Navier and
T II I.
338
THE
Poiuon show how much this hypothesis may be adroitly
• ••! of Mewing the pnenomi
matter is more »tru tly inductive, and is similar to that cm-
.1 in tin- •> cf tli<' latent
in Mr. M .Sir.
we start from tlif lad tliat forces M • >vvcr-
Inl to prevent the i
and which pi event tln-ir being turn a.-umlcr without great
being employed, are yet insensible to bodies ;r
minute distances irom them. Here we have ample data
lor analytical calculation, the chief difficulty lying in the
impr .d calculation relative to definite
.ntcirrals: nevertheless cnonirh can lie deduced to show
•li< distribution of a' nd repuls.'. v.ithin
the \ Tilled bodies. It however requires the
highest strenclh of analv.-is of a nature somewhat similar
to that ein the figure of the earth and
the t
Th. >i' the truth of any theory- on this subject is
that which, with the ; to c\i-t. shall show
that the locus of the points of lr ••<•, commencing
fioiu a given point, shall be a plane suiface, or .-.
plane surfaces, as exhibited by crystals.
(Dr. Yin •.•.•;•«/ l'fnl'i\i,jihij : Various
Papers in the Mun'urix </r riimtitiit ; and Poissou's Trnitt
stir t'.-lrtiiiH CajnUaife.)
THKOKY, THEORY AND PRA( TICK. If articles
upon the mere meaning of words be admissible, it is the
quence of the manner in which they are used. Of all
the fallacies which infest society, the most common is that
of applying to one sense of a word ideas or associations
derived from another; and of all the winds in vise.
there are few which are mure often subjected to such
process than those which stand at the head of this article.
H\ theory, properly speakimr. is meant the mode of
making seen and Known the dependence of truths upon
one another: a theory is a connected body of such truths
bclongm™ to one or more common principles. Th-
tbis word has enlarged with the boundaries of the sciences.
For example, before the discovery of universe] iriavitation.
all that was known of any one planet was the empirical
formula for one or two of its inequalities. This constituted
the theory of the planet 'then so called1) : thus the theory
of the moon consisted in t: at of the laws of the
inequalities called the equation of the centre, the evcc-
tion, &c. In our day the point of view is changed ; it is
no lontrer the mere exhibition of these inequalities which
Mutes the theory, but the deduction of them, a-
consequences, limn the principle of (gravitation. The
theoretical astronomer now stints from this principle, and.
taking only one position and velocity for his inn:
data, finds out e\ery inequality of the planetary motions,
which were previously known from observation and
more, and shows how to form them into tables. The prac-
tical a-tn>nomer makes the.-e table*, computes places from
them for the current year, compares these places with the
results of observation, and returning the comparison into
the hands of the theorist, enables him, if Deed be. to cor-
rect the original numerical data to which lie applied his
methods. The process is now deductive : but before the
time of Newton it was the other way. The observer had
the t the inequalities were to be collected from
comparison of observations, and their laws, reduced to their
simplest form, were the data for future tables.
Again, before the introduction of the undulatory hypo-
thesis, the 1heoi v of liifht consisted in the exhibition of tin-
laws of reflexion and n fraction, with a certain extent of
explanation from ti;. iv hypothesis of Newton
Since that time the •' ""hi has become, thonirh at
>'ance, a resemblance of the theory of gravitation in
its character: prediction has commenced, that is to say.
the phenomena which would appear under certain new
circumstances have been announced be
ments were made to discover them: and CO
nounced. Thin is the end to which theory ought to be con-
stantly tending ; namely, the discovery of laws of action in
so complete a manner that the • qucnces of
thete laws never fail to make their ap| -o that
i Ti-ry tiling which i- | consequence o!
IWI when , ,,,.,. ,,f the
l»w» is seen in V.
l«l» these condition, may be called a perfect theory, or a
perfect mathematical theory.
The next step in the chain of il liicli may
in most case* be incapable oT attainment. .p'1'-
nothini; i- more certain than that the as-uniptic"
particle of matter attracting ev.
ing to the Newtonian law, lend- to tin 'ion
-'ial motions, and u;i\< i of
•ion just alluded to. Hut whether U
does actually take place, or whctb. iiatc
agent is employed, though it matters nothing <il /'/•
to the mathematical (henry, is the next object of in-.
Could this point be ascertained, it is mon
that the knowledge of the constitution of matter to which
it would lend, would open hundreds of import:
qucnces even in the application of science to the aits.
''
; Jlvi-nrii
re comini; to the distinction between theory and
practice, we must observe that theories maybe divided
into two classes. the more perfect and the 1. \V.
cannot say that any theory is absolutely perfect ; but '
are some of which the defects are hardly ]
others in which the contrary is t! .the
theory of th< ml dynamics of :uh-
rably perfect ; but that of both
acted on by molecular forces is in its infancy. \\'e know
i deal more of the connection of the planetary worlds
with each other than we do of the particles which, when
connected together, foim a bar of iron or of oak. AVe
know that the bar is not perfectly rigid; that it bends and
breaks : and the demce of bending which a given force will
cause, and the amount of pressure ; duce
fracture, must be sought for in experiments fiom which,
imperfect a.s they are. the laws which would follow Irom
a good theory, if we had one, are to be deduced. In such
a subject our theory, instead of bcmir an all-sufficient
guide, is only a help, the services of which an
to an extent which discrimination derived from practi.-e
and experience must point out. Many a person who thinks
he is proceeding upon experience only, i.s really making
a mixture in which there is theory, though his own
knowledge of the process he uses, and of it- hisloiy, may
not be sufficient to inform him of it.
A prison who uses an imperfect theory with the con-
fidence due only to a jieifcci one, will naturally fall into
abundance of mistakes: his predictions will be crossed by
•ling circm. 1 which his theory is not able to
take tCCOunt, and his credit will be loweied" by the failure.
And inasmuch aB more theories an' imperfect than are per-
fect, and of those who attend to anything, the n
aequii' i judging is small compared with
that of those who do not get so lar. it must have hap]
as it has happened, that a great quantity of inislal,
been made by those who do not understand the (me. use of
nn imperfect Iheoiy. Hence much dis<
brought upon theoiy in general : and the schism of theo-
retical and practical men has arisen. Foitunatc
many of the former who attend properly to the imp
ineni of imperfect theory by piacticc : and many calling
themselves piaeticai whosii/.c with avidity all •
can do for them. :ind who know that st. •.
has been making her way with giant strides into the tcin-
torv of practice for the la.sl centniv and a half.
Hy piact:- iiom tin ory . is
by ns, liut by those who contend for the distinction the
a])) lication of that knowledge which comes hum ex
pcrience only, and is not sufficient 1;. '1 with any
general principles to be entitled to the name of a 1:
The distinction of labourers in the field of science ,
into theoretical and piactieal is not strictly a j:
there i.s no theorist whose knowledge is all theory; and
there is no practical man whose skill is all derived
icncc. Hut the terms will do well enough to distin-
guish (wo classes whose peculiarities it might be difficult
to define exactly.
The practical man. when he i.s really nothing more, i
who can just do what lie has been taiiL'ht to do. and who
has acquired skill and judgment in a small range of occu-
pations. All who pride themselves upon the title would
be displcasid at tins definition, and we readily admit that
many of them are entitled to a higher chaiactcr : but only
e the name by which they deliirht to describe thcm-
is a wroni; one. They desire, under the name of
a workman, to claim the qualities of a master. The term
s, as one of contempt, to designate any-
THE
337
THE
thing; of which they disapprove ; and as there never is any
fallacy which is not carried to a fool's-cap extent by the
lower order of users, it would not be difficult to make a
most amusing selection of instances of the manner in
which the distinction has been worked by the large number
who are at the bottom of the class, and in whose heads it runs
that their own ignorance is practical, and others' knowledge
theoretical. We remember seeing a theorist, as he was called,
endeavouring to make the managers of a certain under-
taking comprehend that their profits could not exceed the
excess of the gross returns over the outlay, after they had
been trying to cheat the equation by inventing names for
what they would have liked to have, but which the
theorist assured them they would not get, for the preceding
reason. The answer was, 'That is very true theoretically,
but now let us look at it practically.' We shall say no
more of the gross abuse of the terms, except to remark
that were it worth while really to make a contest between
theory and practice, it would be difficult to say on which
side the balance of absurdity would incline ; or whether
the man who is too confident in his theory, or too con-
fident in his experience, has done most mischief for the
time being.
Coming now to the higher class of practical men, and
speaking as of the balance between two methods, the
value of both of which is admitted, we observe that there
are obvious faults to which both parties are subject, both
in conduct, and in argument respecting their pursuits.
Great care is necessary to secure the theorist from pushing
an imperfect theory too far, and neglecting causes of dis-
turbance ; but at least as much is necessary to prevent
the practical man from generalising into theory from im-
perfect experience, or from restraining inquiry by a notion
formed from practice. This is his besetting sin, to such
an extent that we should almost be inclined to say that
the fault of a practical man is a tendency to form false
theory, as that of the theorist is to make false applications.
We have often been surprised at the boldness with which
the former assert generalities, upon evidence which would
only make a pure theorist look for further information.
Analogies are of all things the most deceptive.
In argument there is one mode which is common to
both parties, and which is exceedingly detrimental. It is
the selection of instances from the very highest minds of
the two orders, to illustrate the effects of theory or prac-
tice upon the general mass of understandings : minds the
superior calibre of which, and their power of adapting
themselves to circumstances, and making the most of
what they have, render them exceptions to all rules, and
no proper examples of the most advantageous course of
training. Every one likes, no doubt, to draw consequences
about and concerning his own self from a contemplation
of the minds and methods of the Newtons or the Galileos
of a higher sphere of intellectual existence, or the Ark-
wi ights or Telfords of a better state of power of adaptation.
' What is your theory good for?' says the tongue attached
to some head which holds about the same weight of
conceit that Telford's did of sagacity ; ' Telford knew no-
thing of it, and I may do without it too.' The answer is,
'/'- Ijui-il. The opinion of Bacon was, that ' the root of all
the mitcXiefia the sciences is, that, falsely magnifying and
admiring the powers of the mind, we seek not its real
helps,' a maxim full of meaning, and a lesson to him
who rates theory too highly, and also to the one who
thinks that the only use of his mind is to arrange the
results of experience, his own or others. What are the
majority of men, that they should look down upon any
course of training, theoretical or practical ?
Another fault of argument, but almost peculiar to the
practical world, who have the force of numbers on their
own side, is the habit, of claiming all who ara success-
ful in application as instances of their own method
and knights of their own order. Suppose that one indivi-
dual should discover a mine, work it with his own hand,
purify the ore, and beat the metal into a horse-shoe ;
which is he, a geologist, miner, furnace-man, or black-
smith ? He has done the work of all, but the community
of blacksmiths would hardly be allowed to claim him as
peculiarly belonging to themselves. When a person who
has mastered the difficulties of theory has also success-
fully applied them, he is lice of both corporations; but
those who attend to application only, never fail to appro-
priate his merits. WATT is a striking instance ; he was a
P. C., No. 1530.
highly accomplished theorist on every point on which he
worked : and yet his name has been frequently cited
as a proof that theory could be dispensed with. And his
career, when compared with that of Telford, will illus-
trate theory applied to practice, as distinguished from
practice alone, however acute. It is impossible to con-
template the career of Telford without a feeling of high
interest, created by the comparison of his apparently in-
adequate education with his startling successes. Look-
ing at the individual himself, there is everything for
his age to admire ; and as long as his structures last,
each of them is the monumentum, but not cere peren-
nius. The time will come when his name shall be like
that of the builder of the old London bridge, who was no
doubt the Telford of the day, a stimulus to his contempo-
raries, useful and honoured, but not the remembered of
succeeding ages. On the other hand, the discoveries of
Watt, though equally startling in what is called the prac-
tical point of view, have the mind of the discoverer im-
pressed upon them, and have been, and must be, the
guide of his successors, not merely to repetitions of what
he did himself, but to enlargement of ideas, and to the
conversion of principles into forms useful in art. Take
away the honourable qualities which enabled the two men
to outstrip their contemporaries, each in his line, qualities
which are the properties of the individual minds, and con-
sider what is left, namely, their modes of proceeding : con-
sider the effect of these two modes upon men in genera], and
there is nothing in that of Telford which would raise the
workman above a workman, while in that of Watt there is
the vital principle to which we owe all the mechanical
triumphs of civilization and all the theoretical successes of
philosophy.
This country has been long and happily distinguished
for the great attention which has been paid to application ;
but it is a mistake to suppose, as some do, that our su-
premacy in practical matters has been coordinate with,
still less owing to, neglect of theory. It would be easy to
show thai though the comparative neglect of theory alone,
as a pursuit, added to its diligent cultivation on the Con-
tinent, has given to foreign countries a decided prepon-
derance of theoretical inquirers and writers, yet that there
lias been no country in Europe in which a competent know-
ledge of the mathematics and their applications has been
spread over so large a mass, or raised to so high an average.
At any time since the beginning of the seventeenth cen-
:ury the total amount of theory in Britain has been larger
than in any other European country, on account of the
numbers who have possessed a useful amount of know-
edge : the diffusion of education in Germany may have
altered our position, but of this we are not sure. For
jurselves we are perfectly satisfied, however little those
most concerned may know it, that this greater diffusion
of theory has been the original moving cause of the
practical excellence to which we have alluded. If those
-vho have become known for splendid achievements in the
brmer are few, the same may also be said of the latter ;
jut a country owes its excellence in either department,
lot to one or two of the highest, but to the mass of those
who have competent knowledge, producing good habits of
hought and action. It is a new thing to near one branch
set against the other, and would make our writers of a
century back think that posterity had lost its senses. The
only addition wanted has been some means of systematic-
ally nurturing the growth of theory, so that, well as we
mve done with what we have, we may do better with
more. The efforts which are making on every side to
extend education will, it may be hoped, do what is wanted
n this particular ; they will at least have the effect of
making it clear that, whatever the force of genius may do
or an isolated exception, the mass of mankind must place
.heir best hope of progress in the union of theory and
practice.
There is also a mode of viewing what we may call the
action of theory, which is absolutely necessary to a true
conception of the value of their labours who employ their
time in its advancement. Watch the arguments of a per-
son who calls himself, distinctively, a practical man, and
t will be always found that a well-established theory, fifty
fears old, is practical knowledge, so called. To this there
cannot be the slightest objection in the non-distinctive
sense : a well-established theory, which has been shown
;o be sufficient, is practical, as opposed to one of which
VOL. XXIV.— 2 X
THE
338
THE
not
theiimv »t,MO
K> well it-
theory, against practice, as pn»'
Utter nttoaswu
fchare of t:
the most recent practical knowledge -o the other
•in- ontii of W]
fret part of the mass of <!
that part which is not yet off the anvil. Suppose n mer-
chant cuing into the bail court to prove
her hi« I
• ould pmi1 sum:
,d «n-
ssful. if it would not ho so. over and over again.
he is further qr • positively
icss will make you worth the sum in
on.' "' 1 cannot.' ho rc;ilie<. • swear any
such thin:; ; but I have enough not employed in business,
in land and mortgages, and in the funds! to pay twenty
shillings in tho pound five times over, upon every risk
which I sm liable to.1 What would be thought of counsel
who should retort, ' That is nothing to ug ; you are described
as a merchant, and your solvency must be tried by tho
state of that part of your property which is now under-
going the fluctuations of trade?" S:u-h is and always
be the state of theory ; the amount which is actually
realised is enormously greater than the floating balance
which is being: worked out. Those who arc encased in
producing: fixed capital from the latter, have a risrht to the
credit which arises Scorn the interest of the former: their
labours for the time being are not to produce their return
at the instant.
We have, in compliance with common notions, not ad-
verted to the consequences of theory upon the mind and
thoiichts of men, but have treated it as if its sole
were to advance the mechanical arts and better the phy-
sical condition of society. But this is under protest that
if it conld not be proved that rational ii
of nature had added one single atom to 1 com-
fort of life, there would remain such an enormous K
I ameliorations which can be traced to that source as
would outwejeh even the triumphs of steam.
THEORY OF COUPLES. The two motions of which
any rigid system is susceptible arc those m ' Ti: \N STATION
and of ROTATION. Each of these has (hi-
namely, that one particular case of its application yields
the other kind of motion. Every motion of a system can,
for any one instant, lie resolved, at most, into" a motion
of translation <v, :n, combined with a motion
of rotation about an ] even- application tit
tern of forces to any ri^id body, produ- • •-.
impound ion and r-
equal and opp
translation, be applied at tho same point, or if equal and
opposite forces, such as would produce rotation, be ap-
plied about the same a\i ,lt is that the equili-
brium, or previous motion, of the system remains undis-
turbed.
But if the equal and opposite forces of tr.i'
applied at different points, the result is rotation only, for
the first instant : and if the equal and opposite for
rotation be applied about axes not coinciding, but only
parallel, t) at the first i only.
And o doctrine of motion is now properly ex-
cluded from si ceding- theorems, to
with others mentioned in H
stood, and viewed in conr
librium, which is always illustrated, thuu
demonstrated, by si ns.
It was for a long time a o
though any tw<-
rally speaking, have their joint <
third force, yet if the two f<" itwlc,
and opposite in direction, no such single third force will do.
If indeed they he applied in the same line. :is OPandQ R
in the first figure, they cquililvatr each other: but if not
in the same line, as O P and Q R in the seeom
them, or produe,
M. 1'omsot, aln-
one single fore- < mj which will either equilibrate
f forces to the establishment of the theory
:ade
his system rapidly take its place
shall in this article point out
the manner in which this can be done, vir 'i do-
to draw the attention of •
who have learned the doctrine of equilil rium in the old
AC cannot make it intel'i
to those who ha'. ' the piin.
M. Poin&ot called a pair of equal and opposite fn:
not equilibrating each other, by the nam
too general a term p, it is 1u be understood a
couple which cannot be made anyt!
cannot be replaced by one force : an ;
The }>/,irn' ot the couple is the plane drawn 11
parallel forces : the arm of the couple is any line drawn
perpendicular to the forces from the din
that of the other: the art's of the couple is a'
line perpendicular to its plane. And if \
axis, it will be apparent that the moment or li-
the couple [T.KVxi;] to turn the system about 11
l'\ the product of one of the forces and the
arm. • • to the a\is. .r be '
one of the forces, .r^-a is that of tl
arm of the couple. Hence if P one of the t
united leverage is P (.r±n) — Pr or ± Pa. This pro-
duct Pa is called the mumrnt of t
The last-mentioned property will (rive a high probni
'f to the following theorems, which
the theory of couples, and can be proved, the first by aid
of the composition offerees only, the second by the prin-
ciple of the lever. Any couple may have the direction of
its arm ch.v.iircd. and consequently of its forces, i:;
, or, either in its own plane, or in any piano
1 to it. provided only that the direction in which it
to turn t!. remains unaltered. Secondly,
any couple may be replaced by another which has the
same moment, the plane and direction of turninjr remain-
ing unaltered; that is, the arm nir;
• nod in any manner, provided the forces be in-
I or diminished in the same proportion. If thi
tern were in equilibrium before, it will remain in equili-
brium, however its couples may be altered, in any man-
ner described in the abo\c theorems. Hence it follows
that a couple is entirely i;iven when there are given : — 1,
Its axis or any line perpendicular to its plane, which is also
perpendicular to any of the planes into which it may be
removed. 2, The moment of the couple : specific I
or arms arc unnecessary for its description, so Ion;: as their
product is given. :$. The direction ih which r
turn the system. Tin- : a couple
is then as follows : suppose for example n horizontal one :
Take any vertical line for the axis of the couple, on that
ay down a Hue proportional to its moment, and
\ertical lines drawn upwards shall represent
monic' : to turn '
and downwards. ' nj to turn the system from
L'n must also be agreed upon ; posi1
moment m' m tendency to turn in one direction.
;ati\o in the other.
The composition and resolution of couples
:i manner which peru
. Wlu-n tlie couples can have a common
the same plane or parallel plain
.!ant is, in si<;n and magnitude, the sum of the
c-omponente, with their pri To
find the resultant of two couples whu ' ' nave
take axes to them whiei
. and on these axes lay down li
i their proper
On those lim -,- a parallelogram :
resulting
'
,:ist be taken to la\
properly 01
M the par! Njeofthe :
which lie in the an-le made by the lines representing mo-
ments be Umie.l I)) tin .'Its in opposite directions.
T
HE
339
T H E
To the student to whom such a direction would be usefu
we should say, appeal in all cases to the perceptions de
rived from ROTATION.
To apply the preceding theorems to the statics of a rigid
body, we first take the following conventions : — Assume an
origin and three rectangular axes of co-ordinates, as usual
Let the forces which act at each point of the system be
decomposed into three, parallel to the axes of x, y
and z. Let each force be called positive, when it acts
towards the positive part of the axis to which it is parallel
if for instance the axis of z be vertical, and if its positive
part tend upwards, all forces in the direction of z, wherever
they act, are called positive while they act upwards, and
negative when downwards. As to couples, let their mo-
ments be called positive when, acting in the planes of a; and
y, y and z, z and x, they tend to turn the positive part oi
the first-named towards the positive part of the second
(xy, yz, zx}. Let P, be the first point of the system ; let
its co-ordinates be a-,, y,, z, ; let the forces in the three
directions acting at that point be X,, Y,, Z,. Let P, be
the second point ; ay iy,, z2, its co-ordinates ; X2, Y2, Z2,
the forces there applied : and so on. All co-ordinates and
forces have their proper signs. At the origin apply the
following pairs of equilibrating forces, X, and —X,, Y,
and -Y,, Z, and -Z,; X, and -X,, Y, and - Y8, Z4 and
— Z2, and so on : which of course do not affect the equili-
brium, and are over and above those already applied.
Again, at the extremity of a",, in the axis of x, apply the
equilibrating forces Y,, — Y, ; at the extremity of y,, in the
• if ;/., apply Z,, — Z, ; at the extremity of .r,, in the
:i\i.- <if z. apply X,, —X,, and so on for the other points.
Lastly, let the points of application of the original forces
X,, ¥„ Z,, be changed so that each shall act at the projec-
tion of the point of application made by its co-ordinate :
and the same for the other points. Nothing is done but
the application of mutually destroying forces, or the change
of the point of application of a force to another point in
its direction, and the following figure will show the present
arrangement for one point. The original forces, trans-
ferred, are marked X, Y, Z ; the original point of applica-
tion P, and the other forces, equilibrating two and two,
have great and small letters at their extremities.
n
We now see that the forces X, Y, Z, are equivalent to
1. The forces X, Y, Z (marked A, B, C) applied at the
origin.
2. A pair of couples to the axis of z (L, 6) (X, n\ the
first positive with the moment YJ-, the second negative
with the moment Xy. These two are equivalent to one
couple with the moment Yar— Xy.
3. A pair of couples to the axis of x (M, c) (Y, I),
the total moment of which is Xy — \z.
-1. A pair of couples to the axis of y (N, a) (Z, m) the
total moment of which is Xz-Zz.
Apply this to every point in the system, and let SX
stand for X, + X2 + , &c., and so on : hence it appears that
the whole of the forces are equivalent to forces 2X, sY,
£Z, applied at the origin in the directions of x, y, and z,
together with couples in the planes of ay, yz, ax, of which
the moments are —
Xi/X 2(Zy-Y*r), S(X*-Z*).
Let A'=2X, L = S(Zy-Yz)
B=SY, M=2(X2-/r>,
C=SZ, N=2(Yx-Xy)
_ .... ..^)
Then it appears that all the forces can be reduced to
one force, V, acting at the origin, making angles with the
axes whose cosines are A : V, B : V, C : V ; and one couple
having a moment W, and whose axis makes with the axes
of co-ordinates angles whose cosines are L:W, M:W,
N : W. But when there is equilibrium, both the force and
the moment of the couple must vanish, for the single force
cannot equilibrate a couple. Consequently the conditions
of equilibrium are V = 0, W = 0, which give A=0, B=0,
0=0, L=0, M=0, N=0, the six well-known conditions
of equilibrium.
The forces will have a single resultant when V falls in
the plane of the couple whose moment is W ; that is, when
the direction of V is at right angles to the axis of the
couple. This takes place when AL + BM + CN = O, a well-
known condition.
For further information we may refer to Poinsot's Sie-
mens de Statique ; or, in English, to Pratt's Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy ; or Pritchard's Theory
of Couples.
THEORY OF EQUATIONS. Under this term is ex-
pressed all that part of algebra which treats of the proper-
ties of rational and integral functions of a single variable,
such as ax + b, ax^+bx+c, ax* + bx*+cx+e, and so on:
a, b, c, &c., being any algebraical quantities, positive or
negative, whole or fractional, real or imaginary. Unless
however the contrary be specified, it is usual to suppose
these co-efficients real, not imaginary.
The great question of the earlier algebraists was the
finding of a value for the variable which should make the
expression equal to a given number or fraction : as what
must x be so that 3.T*+2.^ may be 11, or x*—x?+6x may
40, and so on. In modern form it would be asked
what value of x will make 3x* + 2x — 11 = 0, or xs-xi-}-
6x— 40 = 0, and so on. To find values of a variable which
should make an expression vanish, or become equal to
nothing, was then the first desideratum ; and these values
are now called roots of the expression. Later algebraists
made the finding of these roots subservient to the dis-
covery of other properties of the expressions.
The Hindu algebraists communicated to the Arabs, and
hrough them to the Italians, the complete solution of
equations of the first and second degrees. The Italians
added the solution of equations of the third degree, and
of the fourth imperfectly. These last two degrees have
>een completed m more recent times, so that it may be
now said that the equations of the first four degrees have
>een completely conquered : that is to say, having given
he equation axt-{-bx3-}-cxt + ex-{-f — 0, an algebraical ex-
wession can be found, having four values, and four values
>nly, and being a function of a, b, c, e, f, which being
ubstituted for x on the first side of the equation, shall
make that first side vanish. But the student would look
n vain through the books of algebra to see this expression :
t is both complicated and useless, and it is more desirable
o indicate how it is to be found, than to find it.
The equation of the fifth degree was attempted in ail
uarters, without success : means were found of approxi-
lating to the arithmetical value of one or another root in
ny one given equation ; but never a definite function of
tie co-efficients which would apply in all cases. A proof
vas given by Abel, in Crelle's Journal (reprinted in his
vorks), that such an expression was impossible, but this
iroof was not generally received : it was admitted by Sir
W. Hamilton, who illustrated the argument at great length
in the ' Transactions ' of the Royal Irish Academy, vol.
xviii., part ii. ; but the singular complexity of the reason-
ing will probably prevent most persons from attending to
the subject. We do not mean in this article to enter intt
the history of the theory of equations, but only to place its
general state before the reader by an exhibition of the
principal theorems, mostly without proof. For works on
the subject we may refer as follows: — Hutton, Tracts, vol.
ii., Tract 33, which contains a full account of the earlier
algebraists; Peacock, ' Report on certain Parts of Analysis,'
in the Report of the Third Meeting of the British Associa-
tion ; or the recent works of Murphy, Young, or Hymers ;
all of which are good, and written on such different plans
that any one who makes a particular study of the subject
will find it advantageous to consult them all. In French
the standard works are those of Budan, Lagrange, and
Fourier, which however all treat of particular topics ; the
•J 1
340
T II K
algebraical treatises of Bourdon and I.cfcbvre dc Fourey
Uke it more generally.
The particular points relative to equations or the first
four degrees are as follows : —
1. The expression of the first decree can be reduced to
the form ar+b ; it vanishes when ,r= — b:n, and has
only this one root. And « r+ft is of the same sign as a or
not, according as T is greater or less than the root.
i In- expression of the second degree is more import-
ant. It can always be reduced to the form ax* + t>j- + r,
and its properties are best developed by transforming the
preceding into
There are three distinct cases, according as 6* u greater
• qual to, or lew Unit:
\Vhcn A' > 4<ir, the expression tu '-\-lu-+r lias two real
and Jittering roots, contained in the formula*
2a
and has always the same sign as a, except when x }'.•
tween those roots. Every change of signs in passing from
a to b and from b to c indicates a positive root, and every
continuation a negative root : and when one root is posi-
tive and one root negative, the positive or negative root
is numerically the greater, according as (a, A) sh-
change or continuation. When x= — b:1/i, the expres-
sion is at its numerical maximum between the two roots,
its then value being (4ae — 6f) : 4a.
When £r = 4>/r, the expression ax?+bx+c is a pcrfeei
square with respect to a; and absolutely so if a be a square.
The two roots become equal, and each equal to — p:2fl.
Tlii> expression now never differs in sign from a.
When 6'<4o'-, the two roots become imaginary, the
expression always has the sign of a, and is numerically
least when j-= "-6 : '2i, beim: then (4<if — 6*) :4/i.
:j. Thi> equation of the third degree (or cubic) has been
separately considered in the article IRKEDVCIUI.K CASE.
•J. Nothing belongs particularly to the equation of the
fourth degree (or biquadratic) except the recital of the
various modes in which the solution is reduced to 1
a cubic. The various modes are distinguished by the
names of their inventors.
l-'-'rniri. Let ,r4 +«.<* + bjc+c = Q. This can be trans-
formed into
(a? + V')' = (2r - a) T* - bi- + r- - r :
make the second side a perfect square : t i from
b' - 4 (r1 - c) (2;; - a),
or Sv* — 4ac* — See + 4<ir — b1
tlir extraction of the square root then reduces the biqua-
dratic to a couple of quadr
7>.v ( •.;;•/<•*. Let .T' + cur1 + bx + C = (a* + >Jp. <*+/)
(& - t/p.-r + i' , which gives
g+f-P = a,(g-f) >Jl> = '>'.fe = <•.
or ;/ + -Ziji1 + ;'(i« - 1 ,:/ - b- = 0:
find a positive root of this equation (it certainly has one).
and from it find g and/; then the roots of Xs + +fji. .1 -f /
= 0, and x*— >Jp ,x -|-/=0, are those of the given equa-
tion.
Thomas Simpson gave a modification of Ferrari's
method, and Kulei one of that of Des Cartes. (Murphy's
Theory of Equations i /.. U. A. . pp. 51.
Tlie theory of equations of all degrees is to be divided
into two distinct parts; the numerical solution, and the
general properties of the roots and the expressions thcni-
i. The iiumi'rirnl solution must be carefully distin-
• •(1 from '' V miluliiin : the former term
applying to any mode of approximating to a single root,
the latter to any mode of evhiliitiiv.-
for the roots. tVe shall begin by the general properties of
the roots: the expression in question being <{>.r, or
a^c +n,.r + a,x +....+ rt»-i-r + "„•
1. If r be a root of <ftx, or if $r=0, then <j>f is dh i
hy r — r, and the quotient is another such expression nf
' - 1 th degree, every root of which is al.-o a .
4>r, and every number which is not a root (r except
* Thfo frrmnU •houM be mmmlUM to memory, And quadratic equation)
•!••)•» Ml*«d bv H. Nnihuut U mom iraiutng than U>r vitality o!
••*^ei^ *rf e«»pl«ttn< UM iqu«n and cxtr*cliii« the root in •
••«. So doubi a Xwlrat ihouU have torn training hi thu lart-ni.
*MM»
!•• f
: b.1 h» ali4B.«.
fWMft OI M» ^
aboald br thai of r»iDro.bctin|. one* for all,
not a root of </ i/,j canivit have more roots
than it h:w dime! ft than n roots.
•J. \Vhenthe < - r)", it is
said to have m roots each equal to r ; and when tlii-
case, the substitution of r-f y for x would give an expres-
sion in which y is the lo\\. of y.
it. I ' H ii lias dimen-
sions. Th; i«m is one which has only lai
been demonstrated in elementary works, and we *ha!l
ittion with tin' view of extending the
knowledge of a remarkable theorem of M. Caucliy. which
is just Mii-li a :': victory over tile (liflieur
finding how many \\ leral he Intv.
limits, a« Stum'* theorem is relatively to real roots. \\ V
shall assume the extended algebra explained in NKGATIVK,
&c.
Take any rectangular axes, and let r and y be the co-
ordinates of a point, and consider the expression tf> (r
+yV- 1) which can be reduced to the form P + Q ,/- 1,
where P and 1) is each a real turn (
the point move round the contour ABCD in 1!
direction of revolution, and let the fraction P : Q be formed
for all the points in the contour (or a sufficient nun
in succession. Examine every case in which P : Q passes
through Oand changes sign : let it change sign from -f- to
— . A times and from — to +, / times. .\e\t. whcin ,
and »/ have such values that .r + y V — 1 is a root of the
expression, or <j> (r-f-y «/— 1) = 0. let the point whu
ordinates are .r and y be called a radical point of the
expression. The theorem to be proved is as follows: the
number of radical points which lie irithin the contour
AI(( 'D is ^ (A -/i. neither more nor fewer. It mi
understood that the contour is so taken that no radical
point lies upon it.
Take nny point P within tne contour, and round it draw
an infinitely small contour, round which a point is to be
first carried. Four cases arise : neither P nor Q \;n
within nor on this contour ; P vanishes, but not Q ; Q
vanishes, but not P; or both vanish.
If neither P nor Q vanish, there is never change of
sign in either(for being integral functions, they cannot be-
come infinite for any finite values of x and y). and the
theorem is true for the infinitely small contour; for ft and
/ are both = 0, and there is no radical point.
If P alone vanish, the curve P = 0 ''remember that P is
a function of T and y) passes through* the contour two or
somu other even number of times. The fraction P : Q
may vanish and change sign as often as the curve passes
through the infinitely small contour: but there must
be as ina ny changes from -t- to — as from — to +. For
suppose P to be positive at the commencement of the
revolution; it is therefore positive at the end. \V:itc
down the sign + twice, ana between it write any signs
whatever, as
+ + + - + -+;
it will always be found that -I — and — + occur equal
numbers of times. Hence the theorem is true in this
case; for A = /, and there is no radical point.
If Q alone vanish, the curve Q = 0 pa> - tin-
point, and everything is as in the last, except that P : Q
always becomes infinite when it changes sign. Hence
the theorem is true ; for k and / are each = 0, and tin
cal point.
Lastly, let there be a radical point within, hut not on,
the infinitely small contour: which may be supposed to
contain not more than one distinct radical point. Let Z be
the radius vector drawn from the origin to the point of the
contour whose co-ordinates arc x and y ; so that, using the
• Prarcntlhc curve P=0 from touching the contour liy (mlarptng the
a little U neCMftrjr.
THE
341
THE
extended algebra, Z=x+y V-l. Again, let ft and v be
the co-ordinates of the radical point, and A its radius vec-
tor; so that A = p + w'-l. Let R be the radius drawn
from the radical point to the contour, so that Z = A -)- R,
R being infinitely small. By hypothesis p+vj-l is
a root of <f>s = 0 ; let there be m equal roots belonging
to the radical point (m being 1, or some other integer) :
then will e£(A + R) be capable of expansion into the
form BR™ + B^+'+.&c., of which, R being infinitely
small, only the first term need be considered. Now let
B and R (taking the most general forms) be b (cos /3
+ sin/3 . V - 1) and r (cosp + sin p V— 1), whence BR™
will be
brm{ cos(mp-t-/3)+sin(ff!p+/3). */-l}'
and P : Q will be cot (mp+/3), its remaining terms being
infinitely small. Let R make a complete circuit, or let p
increase from 0 to 2ir, whence mp -f- 0 will go m times
through four right angles. In each revolution cot (mp+/3)
will change from + to - twice, passing through nothing :
but never from — to 4- except by passing through infinity.
The theorem is then true : for k = 2»i, 1 = 0, $(k — l) = m,
and there are m radical points (or one radical point be-
longing to m equal roots) within the contour.
The theorem is then true for every infinitely small con-
tour. Next, let the whole contour ABCD be divided into
an infinite number of infinitely small figures, with no
other limitation than that no radical point is to fall upon
one of the lines of division. Let a point move round
each of the infinitely small figures in the positive direc-
tion of revolution. It is clear that the expression $(2A
— 2/1 will not be altered if we remove all the internal
division lines and leave only the external contour ABCD :
for each internal line is described by two points moving
in opposite directions, and wherever one point adds a unit
to 2A, the other adds one to 2/. Hence the value of
2/{ — £/ can be found by finding that of k — I for the boun-
dary only : and the theorem is proved.
If <j>Z = AZ + A,Z + • • • , and if we make the con-
tour in question a circle with the origin as a centre, and
a radius so great that the highest term AZ" need be the
only one retained, we can immediately prove that <£Z has
neither more nor less than n roots. Jor, Z being z (cos ?
4- sin ? V — 1 ) and A being a (cos n + sin a . •/ — 1)> we
find as before that P : Q, or all of it that need be con-
sidered, is cot (n£+a), whence k = 2n, 1=0, and -J (k—l)
= n.
4. We may now refer to STURM'S THEOREM, to Fourier's
theorem (given in the article just cited), to Des Cartes'
theorem, a very limited particular case of Fourier's, and to
Homer's adaptation of, and addition to, the old method of
numerical solution by Vieta (an account of the history of
this last problem is given in the ' Companion to the
Almanac' for 1839). We have then, since the beginning
oi this century, a complete theoretical mode of determin-
'!ie number of roots, real or imaginary, between any
given limits ; both exceedingly difficult in the complica-
tion of the operations which they require. Also, a mode
of easy application, though not theoretically perfect, of
determining the limits between which the real roots lie ;
and a process for the numerical solution which places that
question upon the same footing as the common extraction
of square, cube, &c. roots ; making those extractions
themselves, except only in the case of the square root,
much easier than before.
5. The Newtonian method of approximation is in the
following theorem. If a be nearly a root of <jix=0, and
if <j>a : (f>'a be small, then
ipa
~ 0^
is more nearly a root. See APPROXIMATION for the use of
this, and TAYLOR'S THEOREM, p. 129, for a more extensive
result. But the use of Horner's method is very much
more easy than that of Newton : the former, in fact, in-
cludes and systematizes the latter. But this remark
applies only to algebraical equations : for all others New-
t'orm just given remains practically unamended.
6. We refer to the article ROOT for the solution of
x ±1 = 0. The following equation, x " ± 2 cos 0 . x
+ 1 = 0, admits of complete solution on the same princi-
ples.
7. If <pa and 06 have different signs, one or some other
odd number of roots of <?x lies between a and b • but if
they have the same signs, either no one or an even number
)t roots lies between a and b. Every equation of an odd
degree has at least one real root, negative or positive ac-
cording as the first and last terms have like or unlike
signs. Every equation of an even degree having the first
and last terms of unlike si-gns has aUeast two real roots
one positive and one negative.
8. If all the coefficients of $x be real, and one of the
two, a±&V-l, be a root, so is the other: and if all the
coefficients be rational, and one of the two, a± ,76, a and b
being rational, be a root, so is the other. If there be a
rational fractional root, its denominator must be a divisor
of the first coefficient, and its numerator of the last, as
soon as the equation p=0 is cleared of fractions. N.B.
Among the divisors of a number we reckon 1 and itself.
9. In the equation aa x"+a, x*~l+a, x"~2 + ... +a
x+an = 0, the sum of all the roots is -a, : na, the sum
of the products of every two is at:a0, that of the products
of every three is -o3 : a0, and so on. Finally, the pro-
duct of all the roots is ± a^ : a0, according as n is even or
odd. And if r, , r,, ... r^ be the roots, then a0x*+ ... is
the same as a0 (a;— r,} (,T — r2) .... (x—r ).
10. If the preceding expression be called Ax, and
B— 1 n o
naax + (n — l)alx '+..., its derived function, be
called <J>'x, we have
(fix x — rt x—r, ' ' x—r '
and if tyx be any rational and integral algebraical function
of a-, the sum ij/r, + i//r2 + .... + ^rn is the coefficient of
the highest power of x in the remainder of the division of
"x X ^/x by <jix.
11. If Sn in all cases stand for the sum of the »th
powers of the roots of the equation, we have
S0 = n, ff0S, + a, = 0, o0 S2 + a, S, + 2at = 0
and so on up to
*" C* i Q i i n
' U i O?j_ 1 — f" dn ^5n — 2 ~T •••• "T" ??(Z ~~ (J
after which, in all cases,
Hence also the coefficients of the expression may be
found in terms of S, S, .... Sn> us soon as </0 is given.
12. All rational symmetrical functions of the roots may
be easily expressed in terms of S, S2, &c., and thence in
terms of the coefficients of the expression.
13. If it be required to find a function tyy the roots of
which shall be given functions of those of Ax, so that in
all cases y = Far, proceed as in finding the highest com-
mon divisor of <£.r and Fx—y, and take for $y the final
remainder. But if this final remainder should be of a
higher dimension than, from- the known number of its
roots, it ought to be, it will be a sign that some of the
factors introduced in tne process have affected the re-
mainder, and these must be examined and removed. The
treatment of this case belongs to the general question of
elimination, but the following particular cases are almost
all that are necessary.
14. To decrease all the roots of Ax by a given quantity,
or to make y=x—a, or x=y+a, observe that the result-
ing equation must be
A*'& A d _
'« £.A...A
where the coefficients Aa, A'a, J A"a, &c. may be most
readily found by the process described in INVOLUTION
(p. 7). The same process maybe applied, by using —a
instead of a, to increase all the roots of <f>x by a given
quantity. It is by this process that the second term of
an equation is taken away: thus, the equation being
a<txn+aix"~l+ ... = 0, assume
T ii i:
ii i:
the »uni of the rooU of the equation in x being -«/, : a,,
that of the equation in y will be 0.
1.1. To umiup'v iill the rout* of an equation by in, inul-
.. t!u- I'..-!..
.'i- ol ..ii cqua-
tion by »i, multiply all the ten. .lining
from the lowest. N.B. Term* ai<i- n.< in an
.on must neve. -r-3j:
— 1 = 0 ought to be writ:-
This caution is of the utmost importance : in fact no
process ought to be applied to nny equation without a
momi-nfs tlioiiRht an to whether all the terms are formally
n down, and if not, whether the process about to be
applied will not require it.
16. To change the signs of all the roots of an equation,
change the signs of the coefficients of all the odd powers,
or of all the even powers, as most convenient.
17. To change an equation into another whose roots
shall be reciprocals of the former roots, for every power
of x write its complement to the hiirlic-t iliimn~io:i.
Thus in an equation of the seventh deirrec. for .r" w i .
write a*. for af write .r1, and so on; lastly,
write af. N.B. Consider the independent term of the
equation as affected by ./:". From the reciprocal equation
can be found the sums of the negative powers of the roots
of the original.
18. The' old methods of finding limits to the magnitude
of the positive and negative roots of an equation are so
rapid that they can hardly be said to be superseded by
those of Sturm or Fourier. In enunciating them we
speak of coefficients absolutely, without their siiriis, when
mentioning any increase or decrease they are to receive.
if A be the greatest of all the quotients made by divid-
ing the co-efficients by the first co-efficient, no root. posi-
ti\c or ucsrativ, is numerically so great as A+l. And if
B be the greatest of all the quotients made by dividing the
co-efficients by the last co-efficient, no root, positive or
negative, is numerically so small as 1:(B+1). Better
thus : if L be the first co-efficient, M the greatest, and N
the last, signs not considered, then all the roots, numeri-
cally speaking, lie between
M+L N
-ITandM+N
19. If L be the first co-efficient, and M the greatest co-
efficient which has a different sign from that of L, no
positive root is so great as (M+Li : L. And it I, be the
last co-efficient and M the u'rcalcst which has a different
sign, no positive root is so small as L : (M+L). And to
apply this to the negative roots, change the signs of all
ots of the original (J 1C), and find limits to tlu
the roots of the new one.
20. If L be the first co-efficient, M the greatext which
has a different sign, and if the jirxt which has a different
"itrn be in the »<th place from the first term exclusive, or
bekng to the (wi + l)th term ; then no positive root is so
great as
the original. It such a qua he readily found, the
1 be
greatly diminished, and, pi ..
would be gained m numerical solution. \Yhat is
\vanted to add to both Fourier's and Horuer's method, is a
ready mode of finding out when two luoU are nearly
I-agrange's mode of approximation is as folio
Having found that a root of an equation lies between the
s .1 and 'i-f-1, diminish all the roots of that equation
ind take the reciprocal equation to the result. Find
of thela.it lying between the integers b and 4+1,
diminish all the roots by t>. and take the reciprocal equa-
tion of the result. Find a root of this last between c and
<•+!. and proceed in the same way. Then the continued
fraction
is a root of the original.
26. When an equation has equal roots, those roots can
be found by an equation depending entirely on the u
ts of equal roots. If fr have m roots equal to «, j'x
has /,;-! of tliem, $"x has m — 2 of them, and so on;
finally, f x has one of them. If then f j- and $'x be
found to have a common measure, every root of that com-
mon measure enters in f .r one time more than in the com-
mon i: -elf.
27. \Vhen an equation has an integer root, which must
he one of the divisors of the hist it, it may be dis-
covered by successive trial, as follows : — Suppose d^j-'-f-d,
x'+a, a"+a, a?+a4=0, n0. tic. being integers. Let A be
a di\ isor of a,, and let a, : /t=l, an integer. Then if A be
a root, we have u,J<i+iilh*+u,ti+ti1+/=0, and a,+l is
divisible by /t, giving in. an integer. Hence aJP+aIk +
u -)-»;=(), and «,-f-'» divided by /r gives an integer, HIV ».
Hence a,,A-r-<',-|-"=0, and a,+n divided by A gives — o0.
If all these conditions be fulfilled, A is a root. All the
divisors of o4 being tried in this manner, settle thequ*
of the integer roots entirely.
28. If the co-efficients of an equation read backwards
and forwards the .-umc, both in sign and magnitude, every
root has it.s reciprocal also among the roots. By reducing
it to the form
'-efficient which differs in sign from the
first term. ! by the sum of all which preci •
agree with >n itself included ', the
ImHeM resulting fraction, inerensed by unity, is greater
than any posi1: ^nation.
•rr 1han the
ilion now merges in
Fourier's theorem. It consists in finding a hyinsp
and trial, so that 4*1, <ft'ti, <j>''a, &c. shall all be posit.
mode of ascertaining a limit greater than the
e root of an equation may l.e thus t
> riprocal equation (§ 17), and tb.
i the legist posi1
•iginal. Apply both to the equation of roots will
ohanKcd, and the results give limits for the ne:
of the original.
84. A celebrated mode of examining the roots of equa-
tions, but too complicated for ordinary use, consists in
forming the equation whose roots are the squares of the
•ires of the roots of the original. Any quantity !
found lew than the least positive root of this new eq'i
it* square root U lew than the difference of any two root* of
which can always be done by division, when the dimen-
sion is even, and assuming y = .r+.»- , an equation of
the 2wth degree can be reduced to one of the «th and
n quadratics. But when the dimension is odd. either —1
or -4-1 must be a root, and the equation can be depressed
to an even degree by division by r-fl or x— 1.
The student who is acquainted with the precrdhu,' re-
sults, namely, such as are cither stated or referred to in this
article, will find no difficulty either in leading on the his-
tory of this subject, or in its'applicntion. It is peculiarly
a subject on which selection should be made for the
bi'iriniier.
THKK.V (iWipnX an island in the Grecian Archipcl
and the chief of the group known by the name of Spo
although called by some antient 'writers one of tin
Its modern name is Santu Thiia, which i-
uouneed and iisuallv wiittcn Santorini. It :
Si mho i \.4s4.Casaub.') to be 200 stadia in eirci
but by modern tiavcllers thirty-six miies. and in t
island of Dia, and distant from Cn-te TIKI
the island of los, which lay to the north of it, 25 R
miles. 'Pliny, Ilixf. Nit..\\. 23.1 When it first emerged
from the sea, it is said to have been railed ('allistc : Tile-
jasia, a small island to the west, and . ! by
.us torn away from i'. :'iiny.
'ion seems at one time to hsvc hccii actively
at work in this part of the sea. S
that on on .1 the sea
between Tliera and Thera*ia. vdiich lasteil ; r four .
and that an inland was formed in coiise.jiuiice, tv
stadia in circumference. The same phenomenon has also
taken place in modem times, ami is |, iibed
by .1. fhfvenot in his • Travels in the Levanf'(part 1.1.
Pliny also speaks of an island which arose between Tliera
THE
343
T 11 E
»nd Therasia, to which he gives the names of Hiera and
Automate, and of another which appeared in his own age,
called Thia. The former is now called Aspronisi, or ' the
white island ;' the latter Kaimeni, or ' the burnt.'
Thera was originally inhabited by the Phoenicians, who
are said to have been left there by Cadmus. It was sub-
sequently colonized by Theras with a mixed colony ol
Minyans and Spartans (Herod., iv. 147, 148), and always
remained faithful to its mother-city Sparta. This island
and Melos were the only islands of the Cyclades that re-
mained faithful to Sparta at the beginning of the Pelopon-
nesian war. (Thucyd., ii. 9.) But Thera has acquired its
chief importance from having founded the colony of
Cyrene in Africa, under the guidance of Battus, in B.C. 631.
(Herod, iv. 150, &c.)
The Doric dialect was spoken at Thera, as we learn from
inscriptions, and the government was in the hands of the
descendants of Minyans and Spartans, who first settled
there. We find mention in inscriptions of a senate and
a popular assembly.
Coins of Thera are extant belonging both to the time
of its independence and that of the Roman empire.
Those of the former kind bear the letters e H, with the
head of a youth on one side and three dolphins on the
other.
In the present day the island is covered with pumice-
stone ; and though the soil is dry and barren, it produces
a large quantity of cotton and wine. The wine is strong,
and is exported to all parts of the Archipelago. There is
no wood in the island ; and as it has to be imported, and is
dear, the inhabitants hardly ever have new bread, but eat
biscuits, composed of wheat and barley, which they make
only three or four times a year. They have hardly any
cattle, and very little fruit except grapes, and there is only
one spring in the island. It contains a few castles, sur-
rounded by some houses ; but the majority of the inhabi-
tants live underground in caves cut out of the pumice-
stone, which are arched over with very light stones of a
reddish colour. The island has a very desolate appearance,
the coast being craggy and rugged, and the rocks burnt
and scorched. It has only one harbour, in the shape of a
half-moon ; but no ship can anchor in it, as no bottom has
yet been found by the plumb-line.
In the beginning of the eighteenth century, when Tour-
nefort visited the island, there were 10,000 inhabitants,
and two bishops, one of the Greek and the other of the
Latin church. About two-thirds of the inhabitants be-
longed to the Greek church. (Tournefort, Voyage into
tin' ]."vn,,t, vol. i., p. 202, &c.)
THERA1MENES (9r,paMJv;,c) was a native of Ceos, and
the adopted son of Hagnon, or Agnon, an Athenian. He
acted a very prominent part about the close and after the
end of the Peloponnesian war. He first appears in the
history of Greece as taking a part in public atfairs in B.C.
409, when, in conjunction with Antiphon, Phrynichus, and
Pisander, he endeavoured to upset the democratical con-
stitution of Athens. In B.C. 410 he took part with Thra-
sybulus in the battle of Cyzicus, and, in B.C. 40G, in the ce-
lebrated battle of Arginusae. On this occasion, on which
the Athenians gained a glorious victory, many lives were
lost in the wrecks of their ships, which it was thought
might have been saved if proper care had been taken.
Tlieiamencs and Thrasybulus had been commissioned by
the Athenian generals to take care of the wrecks and to
save the men, but they were prevented by a storm from
accomplishing this object. The generals in their de-
spatch to Athens concealed the commission they had given
to Theramenes and his colleague, as it was clear that the
I:iff<-r would be severely punished for their apparent
neglect. After the first report, the generals themselves
summoned to return to Athens, and in self-defence.
they were compelled to give an accurate account of the
occurrence, and the more so as they had reason to believe
that Theramenes and Thrasybulus were instigating the
people against, them. That their suspicion was not un-
founded became evident afterwards, for when six of the
general* were actually brought to trial, Theramene
base enough to appear foremost among their accuseis.
The generals defended themselves ; and the late hour of
the day rendering it. impossible to t take the votes of the
MUKpbly, the bunnies* was adjourned to another da}'.
During the interval, Theramenes and the other enemies of
the generals exerted themselves to excite the indignation
of the people. On the day appointed for the next meet-
ing a number of persons hired by Theramenes appeared
in the assembly dressed in mourning, to rouse the sympa-
thies of the people for the loss of their friends and ex-
asperate them against the alleged authors of their misfor-
tune. After various debates eight of the generals were
condemned to death, and six of them, who were pre-
sent at Athens, were executed immediately. The blame
of this act of cruelty falls mainly upon Theramenes, who
' had taken advantage of the uncommon forbearance and
candour of his victims, and of his own reputation, which
had never before been stained by any atrocious crime, to
effect their destruction.'
Soon after the execution of the generals, the eyes of the
Athenians were opened, it is said, by Thrasybulus, to their
innocence, and it was decided that those who had misled
the people should be proceeded against, and that they
should give security for their appearance at the trial.
Theramenes, however, either by his skill or by accident,
not only avoided the prosecution, but retained his place
in the popular favour. In the following year (B.C.
405), shortly after the battle of Aegos P.otami, when an
Athenian embassy had been rejected by the Spartan
ephors, Theramenes, who, though he belonged to the oli-
garchical party, yet kept up the appearance of a friend of
the people, offered to go as ambassador to Lysander, who
was blockading the city, while famine was raging within.
Theramenes promised to procure favourable terms, if the
people would trust him. The majority readily acceded to
his proposal, and he went to the camp of Lysander. Here
he stayed for upwards of three months, hoping that in the
meantime the city would be reduced to such a state of
weakness as to accept any terms, or that in the interval
the oligarchical party would gain the ascendency. There
is moreover no doubt that he made Lysander acquainted
with the plans of the oligarchs. When he returned to the
city, he declared that he had been detained by Lysander,
who himself had no power to decide upon the terms of
peace with Athens, and that at last he had been directed
by the Lacedaemonian general to apply to the government
at Sparta. He was accordingly sent thither with nine col-
leagues, and invested with full power to negotiate peace
on any terms. Deputies of the Spartan allies met the
ambassadors, and several of them insisted upon the total
destruction of Athens ; but the Spartans, with an air of
generosity, declared themselves willing to grant peace on
condition that the long walls and the fortifications of Pi-
raeeus should be demolished, that all ships of war with
the exception of twelve should be delivered up to them,
and that Athens should join the Peloponnesian confede-
racv, and follow Sparta both by land and sea. (Xenophon,
Ifi-Ui'ii., ii. 2.) When Theramenes and his colleagues re-
turned to Athens with these tidings, the famine had reached
its heiijht, but there were still some who refused to submit,
to the humiliating conditions. Theramenes and his party,
anxious to get rid of these few before the report was laid
before the assembly, gained over a man of the name of
Agoratus to bring accusations against them and get them
all arrested. The plan succeeded, and the assembly was
held in the theatre of Piraeeus, where Theramenes urged
the necessity of concluding peace on the terms proposed.
Notwithstanding the opposition of some citizens to the
treaty, and the taunts of others, who saw through the plans
of Theramenes, peace was ratified, and Lysander entered
Piraeeus. [LYSANDER.]
After the withdrawal of the Spartan general from
Athens, Theramenes, Critias, and their associates, who
liad assumed the supreme power, wishing to upset the de-
mocratical constitution, but to maintain some appear-
ance of decency, invited Lysander to attend the assembly
in which alterations in the Attic constitution were to be
discussed. Theramenes undertook the management of
the business, and proposed that the supreme authority
should for the present, be placed in thirty persons who
should draw up a new code of laws. The presence of Ly-
sander and the neighbourhood of the Peloponnesian troops
overwhelmed all attempts of the friends of the people to
maintain their constitution, and the proposal of Thera-
menes was adopted. Theramenes himself was one of the
Thirty, and he nominated ten of the others. The outrages
and atrocities committed by these Thirty spread general
alarm in Attica, and the future was looked to with fearful
prehensions. Theramenes, perceiving the state of feel-
THE
344
THE
ing »t Athens, remonstrated with Critias, the nn»t cruel
among his colleagues. This was not from a feeling of hu-
manity, but simply because he saw that the im-itsi.
the Thirty would ruin them. Critias was uncon.
about all consequences, and Theramenes gave way. K.
pealed warnings on his part created s..mc icar'l
should betray them and join the popular party, for he
was notorious for his political incon-1 >i which he
is said to have received the nirknaine of Cothurni.
shoe which tits either foot). At the same time the Thiity
became sensible of their dangerous position, and in older
to strengthen themschcs they made out a list of 30UO
Athenians on whom a kind of frnnchi.se \\as conferred,
while all the remaining Athenian-- were treated as outkiw.s.
Theramenes again was dissatisfied with these proceedings,
but the tyrant> upon disarming the Athenians,
with the exception of the three Hum-ami and the kn
The reckless cruelty and avarice of the Thirty grew
worse every day, and it was determined that each of
them should .select out one rich alien who was to be
put to death, and whose property should be taken by hi*
murderer. Theramenes refused to have any share in this
crime. This refusal increased the fears of his colleagues,
and excited their hatred against him, and they resolved
to get rid of him before lie could become a dangerous
enemy. An accusation was brought against him in the
name of the Thirty by Critias before the council. He was
charged with being hostile to the existing government,
and with betraying its interests. Therameiu's defended
himself, and made such an impression upon the council,
that it appeared willing to acquit him. Critias perceiving
this, called into the council-chamber an armed band
of his followers, whom he had kept in readiness out-
Mile, and conversed for a few moments with his colleagues.
Hereupon he declared that with the consent of his friends
he erased Theramenes from the list of the Thirty and of
the three thousand, and that he might now be condemned
to death without trial. Theramenes rushed to the Hestia
(the altar of Vesta), and conjured the members of the
council to protect him, and not to allow Critias to dis-
pose of the lives of citizens; but the herald of the
Thirty called in the Eleven (the executioners), who ap-
prehended Theramenes and led him away to punishment.
The council was struck with amazement at this bold move-
ment, and Theramcnes was hurried across the Agora by
Satyrus and the Eleven to prison. \Yhen he hud drunk
the poison which was administered to him, he dashed the
cup with the last few drops to the ground, and said, ' This
is to the health of mv dear Critias.' This happened in B.C.
404.
The manner in which Theramem-s died has been admired
by antient and modern writers. But his fortitude was not
based on the consciousness of a virtuous life, and he no
more deserves admiration than a criminal to whom death
is a matter of indifference. Thucydides (viii. 08) says of
him that he was not wanting in eloquence and ability.
Whether he wrote any orations is uncertain. (Cicero, De
(irat., ii. 22; Brut., 7.) He is said to have instructed
Isocrates (Dionysius Hal., I^n-mt., \.\ and to have written
on rhetoric. It may be true therefore, as Suidas says, that
he wrote declamations ; but it is much more probable that
Suidas confounds him with a late sophist, Thcramem s of
Ceos. (Eudocia, 231 ; Fabric-ins, Bibliuth. Grace., ii. 748 ;
Huhnken, Hint, frit. Oral. Graec., p. 40, &c.)
\cnophon, Hellen.. ii. 3 ; Plutarch. .Y/cm.v. -J : Scholiast
on . Aristoph. AT«6., SCO; Ranae, 47, 540; Diodoru-
xiii. 38, &c. ; Thirlwall, History o/ Green-, vol. iv. ; K.
1'h. Hinriehs, De Th*rameni«,Criliae, et Thrasybuli Kflmi
ft Infenio, Hamburg, 1820, 4to.)
THERAPEUTICS constitute that department of me-
dical science which relates to the composition, the applica-
tion, and the modes of operation of the reined ••
diseases. Its chief objects are the materia medica, or
medicines properly so called [MATKUIA MEDIC A] ; but it
includes as subordinate parts hygiene and dietetics, of
which the particular purpose is the application of die
atmospheric and other ordinary non-medical influences, to
the preservation or recovery of health.
1 HKRESIKNSTADT (Maria^Theretitnttadt, Maria-
Thert*ianop«l,^:<nt '; ••///./», Szitlxilirzu) is a very
large town in 'the county of Does, iu Hungary, 24 miles
from Sxegedin, in a plain called 'I <-<\ the high
rot/1 to &mlin, in «f & N. lat., and 10" 40* E-. long.
;he battle of Mohacs in lii'Si. the Turks built a fort
on the place where the town now stands. The Turks 1
totally defeated at /enta, in Ki'Jti, by I'm.
place was, by the cmpcior -orilc- Lh fourteen
redoubts, and the defence of th-
confided to the inhabitants. In 1743. as a n
lor eminent military services, it was made
town or borough, by the name n.
privileges; »nd the population continual!',
the iuiiuigr.it 1011 of Roman Catholics and sc:
i i.dmatiu and Bosnia, and this borough ha-,
•ruishcd iUclf by its lojalty to the cmprc—
Theresa, it was raised to the lank of a liee city 1
January. 177'.'.
Next to Pcsth and Debrec/.in Thcrcsieiistadt i* the la
town in Hungary; yet it is, not ])roj)erly a town,
rather an assemblage of villages. It is new and clean, but
built without any regularity, and so : iat many
houses might be erected 'iu the vacant N iu
the streets. Pirch says it is a good quarter of au hour's
walk from one end of the market-place to the otl
but. though new and clean, it has a melanchol .
appearance. There are a few considerabl-
the principal parish church of St. Theresa, the I
church, and the handsome Greek church, the Gymnasium,
the town-house, and the barracks. The town pos--
a more extensive territ ny other town in ihe !
dom, the area being fJ.">0. or. a . !
square miles in extent. (Stein makes it .
miles.) The whole population does not • muni,
of whom 35,000 are in the tow.
is very thinly peopled, there being only three villages
in it. The southern part of the territory "produ-
barley, oats, and maize ; the northern part is sandy,
but trees of various kinds have been planted under tlie
direction of a competent person. The breeding of cattle
is very flourishing, and numerous herds and flocks,
studs of horses, constitute the riches of the inhabit
who carry on a brisk trade in wool, cattle, hor-
and raw hides. There are no manufactories, but Un-
people work at their own houses, chiefly for the supply of
the town itself. Many follow ii
tanners, and the women make linen and carpets. They
are peculiarly skilful in the art of dyeing: tin
from a large weed or herb, the name of which is not
known, the red, green, and black dyes for the worsted of
which their carpets are made.
(Thiele, pea Konigreich Ungam ; Blnmenbach.
Oesterreichinchc. Monarch;'': 1> Aa-
tnitiiil r'.iii-i/rlnpiiilir : .Jenny, llnndlii
THERI'ACA (Oqpinca ) was the name given original ; .
the anticnts to all those medicines which were
;:- antidotes to the bite of venomous animals
those which counteracted poisonous dnigs we
d\iK'fapfiai:a (Galen, Comment, in Iliripoci-. 'De Alim.,'
lib. iii., cap. 7, torn. xv.,p. 27'J, ed. Kiinn ; id.. '
i/i lli)>]K,cr. • De Morb. Vulgar. VI..' lib. %i.. cap. fi. turn,
xvii., ])t. ii., p. 337): afterwards however the wort! s.
to have been somewhat restricted in it- --ignitication. or at
least Otifiiatii in the singular number'] is applied to one
jiarticuiar com]iound.while at the same time this one drug
was considered to be a safeguard not only against the i
of venomous animals, but also against poisonous drugs and
unwholesome food. (Galen, De An/id., lib. i.. c. 1, torn.
\i\.. p. 1., Many of these old preparation- ivcd
in the writings of the antient plivsicians. hut of the
will be enough to mention here the two nu
the Milhndiitiiun (Widpifaniov, or 'Arritorof Mi0p(JaV«ioc),
and the Theriarii Andronmrhi.
The Mithridatium received its name from the great
Milhridates, king of Pontus, who had » fflfec-
tation of superior skill in the powers of simples. He
;iie effects of these upon condemned m;
and, finding that different drugs counteracted dim-rent
poisons, he thought that, by putting all of them to-
gether, he should be able to make a compound that
would render him secure against > that could be
given him. (Galen, !>•• .Intnl., p. i. Accordingly he is
commonly said to have s,, fortified his own body by the
constant use of this antidote, that he afterwards tried ill
vain to put an end to his life ; but this, if true, ' was pro-
bably,' as Dr. Hebcrden says (Antilhcr., p. 10), ' less owing
to the strength of his antidote than to the weakness of his
THE
345
THE
poison.' However, Pompey seems to have been possessed
with the vulgar opinion ; and, after he had conquered this
kins, he took uncommon care to secure his writings, in
hopes of some mighty treasures of natural knowledge. He
was soon convinced of what he might easily have foreseen ;
and is represented as laughing at the disappointment of
his own credulity, when, instead of those great arcana, he
only found one or two trifling receipts :
' Autidotns vero multis Mitliridatica fertur
Consociata modis: sod Magnus, scriuia regis
Quiim raperet victor, vilem depremtit in illia
Syntlicsm, et vulgata satis medicaniina ri*il ;
Bis denum rutae folium, snlis et brevu yranum,
Jui,'landesniic <lu:i.-i, totidem cum rorpore ficus :
H;iri.' oiienTc die ji;irco conspersa Lyaeo
Sumebat, metueos dederat quae pncula muter.1
(Seron. Samoa-, De Medic., cap. de Venen, Prohib.')
Soon after, however, there was published at Rome a most
pompous medicine under the name of Mithridates, which
was pretended to have been found among his papers : its
principal virtue was made to consist in its being a most
powerful preservative from all kinds of venom ; and who-
ever took a proper quantity of it in a morning was insured
against being poisoned during that whole day. (Galen, De
Anliil., p. 3.) By these representations it gained so great
;i reputation that some of the Roman emperors prepared it
for themselves with their own hands : several physicians
among the antients employed their studies upon it in order
to render it more perfect ; and it has been the subject of
many volumes among the moderns, as well as the occasion
of many unaccountable medicines made in emulation of it.
Rut, notwithstanding the supposed improvements of the
antients, the original Mithridatium continued for a long
time to be prepared according to a receipt of Servilius
Damocrates, written in a short Greek iambic poem, which
is preserved by Galen ; DC AntiiL, lib. ii., cap. ii., torn, xiv.,
p. 115, sq.), arid which has been published, together with
her poems, Greek and Latin, Bonnae, 1833, 4to., edited
!•'. Harless.
Andromachus the Elder (who was physician to the
emperor Xero, and the first person who is known to
h:i\c revived the title of Archinter) made considerable
:;ions in the Mithridatium by omitting some of the
'lients, adding others (especially the dried flesh of
, and by increasing the proportion of opium. His
) was embodied in a Greek elegiac poem, in order
that it might be the more easily preserved without altera-
tion ; and this has been inserted by Galen in two of his
works (De Antid., lib. i., cap. vi., et De Ther. ad Pison.,
<•. li , and has been frequently published in a separate form.
Andromachus likewise changed the name of the Mithrida-
tium thus reformed to yaXtjvij ; but in Trajan's time it ob-
1 that of ' Theriaca,' either from the vipers in it, or
from its good effects in curing the bites of venomous ani-
mals. (Galen, DC. Antid., lib. i., cap. 6 ; De Ther. ad
I'l^'in., cap. 5, torn, xiv., pp, 32,232.) The reputation
enjoyed by this drug was immense, and surpassed even
that of the Mithridatium. The emperor Marcus Aurelius
Antoninus was in the habit of taking a small quantity out
of honey every morning, and was imitated in this practice
by many of his courtiers (Galen, Da Antid., lib. i., cap. 4,
p. 24) ; "but at last, finding that it made him drowsy and
lethargic, he left, out the juice of the poppy. (Id., ibid.,
cap. i., p. 4.) From that time to the present it has more
or less maintained its credit, though upon no principle of
combination can this heterogeneous farrago be vindicated;
and though it has scarcely ever continued the same for a
hundred years together. Celsus is the first who describes
this medicine (De Medic., lib. v., cap. 23) ; and according to
him it consists of thirty-eight simples. Before Nero's time,
five of these were struck out, and twenty others added.
Soon after, Andromachus, leaving out six ingredients, and
adding twenty-eight, increased the sum total to seventy-
five. Aetius, in the fifth century after Christ (Tetrab., iv.,
Serin, i., cap. 87, sq., p. 648, ed. H. Steph.), and Nicolaus
Myrepsus, in the twelfth (De Compos. Medicam., sec. xxii.,
cap. l., p. 639, ed. H. Steph.), give us very different de-
scriptions of it ; and since that time it has been in a state
of perpetual fluctuation, the alterations that it has under-
gone by accident being as great as those which have been
made in it. For of the simples that antiently
composed it, several are utterly unknown ; others are only
guessed at with great uncertainty, and some very errone-
ously, as might easily be shown, and were so even in Pliny s
P. C-., No. 1531.
time (Hist. Nat., lib. xxiv., cap. 1). In the Pharma-
copoeia of the London College of Physicians both the
Mithridatium and the Theriaca Andromachi retained their
places certainly as late as the year 1771 ; and the edition
of 1788 is the earliest in which the writer has found it. to
be omitted. Its rejection was proposed by the late Dr.
Heberden (who wrote a little work on the subject, entitled
' 'AvTiOripiuicd : an Essay on Mithridatium and Theriaca,'
1745, 8vo., pp. 19) ; and upon the College dividing on th<;
sive Pharmacopoeia Gallica,' published at Paris, 4to., 1818,
this preparation appeared under the appropriate title of
' Electuarium Opiatum Polypharmacum.' It consisted of
seventy-two ingredients, which were arranged under thir-
teen heads,viz. : 1, Acria, of which there were five species ;
2, Amara, of which there were eight ; 3, Saporis Styptici,
\\i\goAftringentia, five in number ; 4, Aromatica Exotica,
fourteen ; 5, Aromatica Indigena, ten ; 6, Aromatica ex
Umbelliferis, seven ; 7, Resinosa et Bahama, eight ; S,
Graveolentia, six ; 9,I~irosa, ' sen quae Narcosin inducunt,'
of which there was only one species, viz. Opium The-
baicum ; 10, Terrea insipida et inertia, consisting also of
only one species, viz. Terra Lemnia ; 11, Gurnmosa, Amy-
lacen, fyc., four in number ; 12, Dulcia, consisting of Succus
Glycyrrhizae and Mel Narbonense ; and, 13, Vinum, or
Sherry. An analysis of two ounces of this compound, by
M. Guilbert, is given, pp. 324, 325, note ; and we are told
that one drachm of it contains rather less than one gram of
opium. In the last edition of the ' Codex, Pharmacop6e
Frai^aise,' published at Paris, 4to., 1837, under the au-
thority of a commission de redaction, of which M. Orfila
was the president, the medicine still appears, and under its
old name Theriaca : and this, notwithstanding the many
improvements that have been introduced, and the number
of similar compounds that have been expelled. (Preface,
pp. xvi., xvii.) The composition appears to be very nearly
if not, exactly the same as in the previous edition, but the
ingredients are not divided into heads as before. In some
parts of Europe the mode of preparing this drug was
reckoned among the mysteries of the state, which it was
forbidden to divulge : and for some centuries that which
came from Venice was particularly valued.
For further information see Heberden's Antitheriaca
(from which work great part of these observations are
taken) ; Paris'* Pharmacotogia ; and also Earth, i Ma-
ranta, De Theriaca et Mithridatio Libri Duo, &c., Francof.,
1576, 12mo. ; Nic. Stelliola, Theria.ce et Mithridntia,
Neap., 1577, 4to. ; Jo. Bapt. Sylvaticus, De Compositions
et Usu. Theriacae Andromachi, Heidelb., 1597, 8vo. ;
Anton. Berthiolus, Idea Theriacae et Mithridatii, Venet..
1601, 4to. ; El. Bonvinius, De Theriaca liber ex Andro-
machi Senioris Mente, Vratislav., 1610, 8vo. ; J. Assuerus
Ampzing, De Mnrborum Differentia, et de Theriaca Se-
nioris Andromachi, Rostock, 1623, 8vo. ; Angel. Bolzctta,
Theriaca Andromachi Senioris, &c., Patav., 1626, 4to. ;
Charas, Traite de la Thcriaque, Paris, 1668, 12mo.,
quoted by Choulant, Handbuch der Biicherhuiide fiir die
Aeltere Medicin.
THERIS'TICUS, Wagler's name for a genus of birds.
TANTALUS, Gm.
THERMAE. [BATHS ; ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.]
THERMO-ELECTRICITY is a name given to the fluid
excited by heat in conducting substances, as wires or bars
of metal, generally of different kinds, when they are placed
in close contact with each other, end to end, and disposed
so as to form a periphery or continuous circuit. Since the
effects of heat applied to the ends, or junctions, of the
bars are made manifest by a magnetized and balanced
needle deviating from its usual position in consequence of
the application, thermo-electricity is considered as a
branch of electro-magnetism ; and it may be said to be
connected with the electricity which is excited by heat in
tourmaline, boracite, and some other minerals. The dis-
covery of the principle was made in 1822, by Dr. Seebeck
of Berlin, while engaged in researches concerning electro-
magnetism, which but two years before had been discovered
and the name was
er in order to
by Professor Oersted of Copenhagen ; and
given to the fluid by the latter philosoph
distinguish it from that which is produced by the usual
galvanic apparatus, which he proposed to call hydro-
Vor-.XXIV.-2Y
T Ii
'I 1
Some of the moat .simple experiments by which the
l thermo-flcctricitv niav be illustrated are those
lich, soon ir
ill of Utrecht. i.K/i/i/'- .r//,i/,No.
A slip of copper bent in the form of a semicircle
was attached (in close contact), at its extremities, to t he-
end* of a bar of antimony about fifteen inches long ; and
uiid in the direction of the magnetic mcri-
wire above it, a small compass needle \\.-\~
:, or supported on a pivot between them. On
• mity of t:
a lamp, the north end of the" needle wa- I to de-
towards the wot. Again, when a slip of rinc and
if copper v. io that, nil the i being
apph- L* formed a parallelofrnon having
.auctions of the slips in the middle of the shorter
sides, and a compass needle ;ded within the
circuit, on placing the apparatus in a plane coinciding
with the magnetic. meridian, with the longer sides parallel
to tli- ,'cr slip being uppermost) and
heating the northern point of junction, the needle deviated
toward* the west : the apparatus being inverted so that
the zinc slip was uppermost, cm heating the northern junc-
tion as before, the needle deviated towards the east. It
follows from these experiments that the fluid current, if
such it be, which affects the magnetism of the needle, cir-
culates about the copper slip in such a manner that when
the latter is in a horizontal position its direction is from
west to east, passing above the slip, in a plane perpendi-
cular to its length: this effect is similar to that which
takes place, though in a contrary direction, when a mag-
neti/.ed needle is brought near a conducting wire joining
the poles of an ordinary galvanic apparatus; for if the
conducting wire be placed in a horizontal position in the
lion of the magnetic meridian, with the copper, or
the negative end of the apparatus towards the north, and
the needle be below the wire, the north end of the needle
deviates towards the east ; it' above the wire, towards the
west.
Effects similar to those which result from the applica-
tion of heat take place when one extremity of the bar of
antimony, or one of the junctions of the zinc and copper,
is made colder than the other by means of ice.
When both ends of the bar were heated, no deviation
was produced in the needle ; and after deviation had taken
place by heating one end only of the bar, in proportion
as the h'eat tended to a uniform diffusion, the needle
dually returned to the direction of the magnetic meridian.
Thermo-electric circuits mav be formed in a ring con-
_' of two curved bare of different metals, as bismuth
and copper, each being in the form of a semicircle, and
the two being attach ler in the direction of a dia-
meter; or they may be produced in a rectangle made by
gacing in close contact four bars of metal, of two dif-
rent kinds, following one another alternately. M.
Oersted formed a hexagonal circuit with si\ pieces, three
of bismuth and three of antimony, which were disposed
in alternate order: on heating, by means of a Ipirit-Iamp,
one of the places of junction in the rimr, or in th.
angle of four pieces, a compass-needle placed within or
below the plane of circuit was found to deviate ; and it
deviated still more when the opposite angles of the rect-
angle .led. In the. experiment with the hex-
agonal circuit the uter in proportion to
the number of alternate joints which were heated. .Simi-
lar effects were produced when the alternate joints were
artificially cooled; but the deviation was the !_'.
when the alternate joints were heated and the others were
cooled.
By doubling the lengths of the bars in a rectangle com-
posed of four, the di than that which was
produced by the smaller rectangle ; but when the larger
rectangle was composed of eight pieces, the deviation
wa* greater.
mntry the subject of thermo-electricity has been
diligently pursued by Professor Gumming of Cambridge.
who appear* to have entered upon it without any other
knowledge of the discovery of Scebeck than the simple
fact that electro-magnetical action was produced by heat-
•ne end of a bar of antimony, to the ext
which were made fast those of a brass wire; and tin
detail* of his researches are contained in a memoir which
u published in the • Cambridge Philosophical Tran*ac
for 1823. From ;ipears that all jtfrfeot conduc-
tors of I'lectricitv r cooled i
action, which is indicated bv the amount
in all .substances, and with some the direction of the cur-
rent is contrary to that which is produced
\Vheii a single bar, of symmetn
middle, it produce* no ell-
cause the opposing currents counteract IM
in a ring formed of two metals, who. i the
points of junction, the fluid seems to pass from one :
to the other; so that one loses positive el. r be-
comes negative, win! irnes positi
Professor Cummini; haviiur asccrtai; \periments
on bars of bismuth, which were mail. v hot and
cold, and v I in contact with each other
pair of the hot and cold p.-i - the two ,
of the whole compound bar, bcin-r connected together by
. that the action of the whole bar on a needle vr»*
i- than that of any two portions, o: 1 the
other cold, was led to the'ii:
may be exhibited by the mere ju\t;:
finite number of small plate-. He
determine the thermo-electric relations of different :
by merely placin<: i: \\ith each other a small
portion of each of the two kinds of metal to be examined,
and touching first one of them, and then the other, with
nd of a silver or copper wire which was com;
with the heated bar. When the metals were bismur
antimony, the former, on being touched, caused the
ii-edle to deviate so as to indicate positive electricity,
and the latter so as to indicate negative .
in the memoir above quoted there is given a us
of the electrical relations of metals in several dill
combinations. In the same memoir there is also an ac-
count of several curious anomalies which were observed
in the magnetic action: one of thc.-e is. that when iron
wire is used to touch the metals examined, of which one
is iron, the needle deviates a certain number of
the positive direction ; then, as the heat of t
increased, the deviation in that direction gradually dimi-
nishes till it becomes zero ; after which the deviation '
place in a negative direction, and it becomes a maximum
in this direction when the wire acquires a red h
If two parallel bars of bismuth are connected at
extremity of each by a bar of antimony, so as to form
ide- uf ;i square, and the opposite cv
bars of bismuth are connected with the two extremis
the bent wire forming an electro-magnetic multiplier
[KI.KITRO-MAGN-ETISM, p. 342, vol. ii.], the. needle of the
multiplier deviates very little; but when those ends of the
o connected by means of a fourth bar. the effect on
the needle is considerable. Now the effect of the gal-
vanic or hydro-electrical current, when produced by
and zinc, with common water as a conductor, is vcrv small ;
and hence it U inferred that the thermo-electrical current
L.'i\c> rise to a large quantity of that whiei ise of
the macnc:1 the power being however in a low
state ol
THEKMO'MKTKK from the Greek words Oi.ojioc, hnt.
and n'lrpov. is an iiistiumeiit by which the tcm-
:cd. It consists of a
tube with a capillan linim; in general aK
or mercury, which expanding or contracting by
in the temperature of the atmosphere, or on the instru-
ment bi-intr immersed in the liquid or gas which is to be
examined, the st phere, liquid, or gas, with
! to caloric- is indicated by a scale which is either
applied to the tube or engraven on its exterior MI;
The end proposed by a thermometer istli. ment
temperature of any body with relation to the tem-
perature of Mime other substance, as . the point
of free/ing: but the measure so obtained must not be
understood to express the absolute miantity or density of
caloric in anybody, it being well 1.
substances, though exhibiting the same apparent tempera-
ture, contain very dill. of caloric according
to their cttjtacitirs for that, element.
The thermometer must have been in use in the begin-
ning of the seventeenth century, but it is not known,
precisely, to whom the honour of the invention is due. A
physician of Padua named Sautorio, and Cornelius Dreb-
THE
847
THE
bel of Alkmaar in Holland, are the persons to one of whoa
that honour is, with most probability, ascribed, and th
former, in his ' Commentaries on Avicenna ' (1626), actu
ally claims it for himself : it may however have happene
with this, as with other scientific discoveries, that the ide
of the instrument occurred to two persons or more at th
same time.
The first thermometers were intended to indi-
cate variations in the temperature of the atmo-
sphere merely ; and the most simple of them con-
sisted of a hollow glass-ball at one extremity of
a long tube which was open at the opposite ex-
tremity : the air within tlie ball and tube being
rarefied by the heat of a lamp, and the tube
being in a vertical position, the open end was
plunged into a vessel containing a coloured
spirit ; the pressure of the atmosphere on this
spirit caused it to ascend in the tube till the
expansive force of the air in the ball and
the upper part of the tube became equal to
the pressure. In this state, an increase of
the temperature of the atmosphere caused the
air in the ball to expand and press down the
spirit in the tube ; on the other hand a diminu-
tion of temperature, by causing that air to
contract, allowed the external pressure to raise
the spirit. A scale was adapted to the tube in Original Air
order to express the degree of temperature by Thsnnometer
the number of the graduation at the upper extremity oi
the spirit.
An effort was made to render the instrument portable
by bending the lower part of the tube upwards and ter-
minating this branch also with a ball ; and a small aper-
ture was made in the latter in order that the external air
might have access to the lower surface of the spirit. Mr.
Boyle subsequently modified the air -thermometer by
making the tube quite straight and open at both ends :
the lower end was immersed in a small glass vessel con-
taining both air and coloured spirit, and the vessel being
formed with a neck which closely encircled the tube, it
was hermetically sealed to the latter. The variations in
the temperature of the atmosphere caused the air in the
vessel to expand or contract, and thus to press with more
or less force on the surface of the spirit ; the latter was
consequently made to ascend or descend in the tube.
The air-thermometer invented by Amontons (1702) con-
sisted of a tube nearly 4 feet long, open at both ends and
curved upwards at bottom, where it terminated in a ball :
this tube carried a column of mercury about 29£ English
inches high, so that the air in the ball was compressed by
the weight of two atmospheres. A light body, in which
was inserted the lower end of a wire, floated on the upper
extremity of the column of mercury in the tube ; and near
the upper end of the wire was an index by which the num-
ber of the graduation on a scale was shown. The varia-
tions of the temperature of the air in the ball caused the
mercurial column to ascend or descend in the tube ; and
thus were produced corresponding movements in the index.
By this instrument it was proposed to measure high tem-
peratures on a scale whose length was only half of that
which was required with the simple air-thermometer.
The defects inseparable from all the above thermometers
are, that the dilatations of the air are not proportional to
the increments of heat, that the length of the column of
spirit or mercury varies with the temperature of the atmo-
sphere, also that the air which is in contact with the surface
of the spirit in the open vessel, in the first kind of instru-
ment, or with the top of the column of the spirit or mer-
cury, in the others, exerts more or less pressure according
to its density ; and thus the indications afforded by the
thermometer are rendered erroneous, or require corrections
which it is difficult to apply. The air-thermometer pro-
posed by Dubuat, and of which the following is a brief
description, possesses some advantages above those which
have been mentioned ; but not being portable, it has never
been employed.
It consists of a column of mercury in a tube, like that
of a barometer, hermetically sealed at the upper end, and
bent below so as to form a short branch inclined at about
40° to the straight part of the tube ; this branch terminat-
ing with a hollow ball. The mercury occupies the straight
part of the tube to the height of about 29$ inches above
the bend ; and at this bend it terminates without entering
into the ball, which, by the construction, is a little above
the bend. The part of the tube which is above the column
of mercury is free from air, and when the bend is plunged
in boiling water the tube is to be in a slightly inclined
position, so that a vertical line may pass through the two
extremities of the mercurial column : then, upon the
ball becoming cool, and the elasticity of the air in it being
diminished, the weight of the mercury will cause it to
descend in the long branch and rise in the other. The
mercury is to be prevented from entering the ball by
making the tube decline farther from the vertical position,
so that the lower extremity of the mercury may remain in
the vertical line before mentioned ; and the temperature
of the air is to be determined by the height of the top of
the column of mercury above a horizontal line passing
through the lower extremity, that is, by the cosine of the
declination of the tube from the vertical. Since the air
in the ball preserves constantly the same volume, the elas-
ticity communicated to it by the caloric in the atmosphere,
or by the fluid in which the instrument is plunged, is
always in equilibrio with the pressure of the column of
mercury, which is the force acting against it, and is pro-
portional to the vertical height of that column.
About the middle of the seventeenth century the mem-
bers of the Accademia del Cimento caused thermometers
to be constructed in which, instead of air, alcohol or spirit
of wine was employed. The fluid was introduced, as at
present, into a glass tube terminating at bottom in a hollow
ball, from which the air had been expelled by heat : the
opposite extremity of the tube was then hermetically
sealed, and a scale was applied for the purpose of express-
ng the temperature of the atmosphere, or of the liquid
which was to be examined. Alcohol dilates and contracts
considerably with the variations of temperature to which it
may be subject, though not in so great a degree as air. It
s also capable of measuring very low temperatures, but as
t is brought to a boiling state sooner than any other liquid,
t cannot be employed to ascertain a high degree of heat.
Spirit-thermometers were introduced into this country by
Mr. Boyle, and they are still used both here and on the
Continent.
Sir Isaac Newton, being dissatisfied with the smallness
of the range of spirit-thermometers, employed linseed-oil
n tubes for the purpose of measuring degrees of heat : this
iquid has nearly the same amount of expansibility by in-
:rements of caloric as alcohol ; and it is capable of bear-
ng very high degrees of heat and cold without either
soiling or freezing ; but from its viscidity it adheres so
nuch to the interior side of the tube as to render accurate
)bservations quite impossible, and on this account it has
lot since Newton's time been employed for thermometers.
The thermometer which is now in general use is a slen-
der tube of glass terminating in a ball containing mercury,
he air having been expelled and the tube afterwards her-
metically sealed. The idea of employing this fluid for the
purpose of measuring degrees of heat by its
expansion is supposed to have first occurred
to Dr. Halley ; and the reason why it was not.
employed by that philosopher appears to have
been that the range of its expansion is much
less than that of alcohol. According to Boer-
haave (Elementa Chemia;, 1732), the honour of
having been the first to recommend a mer-
curial thermometer is to be ascribed to Romer,
the discoverer of the motion of light, who is
said to have invented it in 1709 ; but it was
not till the year 1724 that such a thermometer
was known in this country. In that year an
account of a mercurial thermometer which had
been invented by Fahrenheit, of Amsterdam, in
1720, was read before the Royal Society, and
was published in the 'Philosophical Trans-
actions' (vol. xxxiii.). The advantages of
mercury over alcohol and air, as a measure of
temperature, are that its expansions are more
nearly proportional to the increments of caloric
than those which take place in cither of the
other fluids ; it is easily deprived of air, and its
power to conduct heat being considerable, the
changes of itsvolume by changes of tempera-
UT. ture in the surrounding medium take place
more rapidly than those of any other fluid except the gaseg.
At first the scales for measuring the degrees of heat were
cc-
, nil
T ii r.
348
T II I
urbitr.uy. and consequently no two 11
>• thermo-
i;iarking the pla
'.ood ill the tutu1 when tli<
immersed in snow, and the place at which it Mood at the
1
\vns divided into 00 parts. Subsequently
in this c»
scale- or oil
.iking the spac ••( the
tube equal to n • whole volume: thus,
supposing the ball of the thermometer and part of the tube
to he divide. 1 into ten t! and to be
wholly occupied by the oil when the instrument is plunged
in melted i 1C found that by the heat of the human
body the oil expanded 25li such parts, and by that of boil-
ater. 7i~> parts; then, c.m-idciing the point at which
;i of the column stood in the tube, when the latter
was placed in ice, as the zero of the scale, he divided the
interval between this point and that at which the top of
the column stood when the ball of the thermometer was
placed under the arm of n man, into 12 parts. Afterward-
by proportion he found that the distance from the ice-point
to that of boiling water was equal to 34 such parts (Phil.
Trans., vol. xxii.' : this method, being of difficult execu-
tion, was soon abandoned.
The scale which has been in general use in this country
since the year 1724, is supposed to have been invented by
Fahrenheit. It is quite unknown on what ground he made
choice of the fixed points on his scale, qr, of the number of
graduations between them ; but it is thought that one of
the fixed points was that of boiling water, and that the
other, which is the zero of the scale, was that at which the
top of the eolumn stood when the instrument was t-\
to an intense cold in Iceland, in 1709. The extent of the
scale between this last point and that of boiling water is
divided into 212 parts, and the point of freezing water is
at the thirty-second division from the zero point. See the
scale on the right of the tube in the above figure.
M. Reaumur constructed a thermometer in which spirit
of wine was employed, and he formed a scale in a manner
nearly similar to that which had been put in practice by
Sir Isaac Newton. He computed the volume of the glass
ball, and graduated the tube so that the space be;
two divisions was equal to one-thousandth part of that
volume : he then found the zero of the scale by marking
the place where the top of the column stood when the
thermometer was placed in water just freezing : and after-
wards, plunging the instrument in boiling water, he ob-
served whether or not the spirit rose exactly eighty illu-
sions. If not, he strengthened or diluted the spirit til! it
did so; and the point at which the top of the spirit stood
became the point of boiling water. Of this instniment an
account was published in the ' M^moires' of the Academy
onces for 1730, but the construction has been long
abandoned; for, besides the difficulty of gi\ing a
proper degree of strength to the spirit, it is well known
that the latter cannot be made to take the temperature of
boiling water, so that the determination of the
point in the scale must be very erroneous. That which is
now called Reaumur's thermometer is an improvement mi
the former, by M. Deluc, who determined the points of
freezing and boiling water by experiment, and divided flu-
distance between them into eighty parts, the zero of the
scale being at the former point. See the scale on the left
of the tube in the above figure.
A third scale, called ' Centigrade,' has been much in use
among the philosophers of the Continent within the la-t
fifty years: it was invented 1,\ Ccl-iu-. a Swede, and il
differs from that of Ri'anmur'or Pelvic, only in tli.
• i-en the points of freezing and hoiling-
being divided into UK) parts. The length of each degree
in this thermometer, as well as in that of Reaumur, is
greater than in the scale of Fahrenheit ; and consequently
the indications of temperature, when the top of the
or raercur\ n the lines of division, are rather un-
certain, from the difficulty of estimating them accurately
2j '• ""' temperatures required to be .:
_• often below the point <>t . tin
lenitive -igns is of more frequent occur-
:> these thermometers than with those of Fahren-
heit.
The following formulae will serve to convert any given
number of degrees on Fahrenheit's scale into the corre-
sponding number of d and the Centi-
grade scales, anil rirt i
Let F, R, ami any corresponding numbers of
degrees on the three scales respectively : then —
(F-32«}g=R, and (F-W ^ = U:
also, i- C = R, and 7 R = C.
• > 4
N.B. When F is between zero and 32°, the values of R
and C are negative, and express the required numl
degrees below yero on Reaumur's and the Centigrade
scale. Also, when F. R, or C express. • n number
of degrees below zero on its proper scale, it must be
sidered as negat
The scale invented by l)e 1'Isle , g, in
\~:\.l. being -till occasionally in vise, it n,
to mention that it is formed by making the
in each degree equal to one hundred-thousandth pail of
the whole volume of the mercury: the' xcro of the
is at the point of boiling-water, and between this point and
that of free/ing-wa'cr the space is divided into IfAJ )
It may be observed that the situation of the freezing-
point on the scales of thermometers can be determined
with great accuracy if the ball and part of the tube be
immersed in pounded ice : for it is known that water con-
taining ice and snow remains of the same temj
the ice is entirely dissolved. c% . .n nf call,
the water being employed in promoting .lion.
Hut the point of boiling wat.r i- I'.ir from b. i
cisely known, since it \aiies with the deu-it\ of the atmo-
sphere at the time of making the determination. Dis-
tilled water in an open vessel, and under a given pr.
of the atmosphere, boils at an invariable temperature
cept as far a-s the nature of the vessel may make -
difference ; for if the heat communicated to the wa:
increased, the only effect produced is that of driving off a
greater quantity of steam in a given time : in a vessel ex-
hausted of the air the water will boil at a temperature
expressed by :>H° or 100° of Fahrenheit's scale, while in a
• i ucted so as to prevent the steam from escaping
it will remain in a liquid state at a temperature e\p,
by nbove 400°. In order therefore that the tcmpciaturcz
indicated In different instrument.- mav agree together, :t
is recommended that this point .should be found from water
boiling in the open air at a time, if possible, when the
height of the mercurial column in the barometer i- :«)
inches, and when the temperature of the air is indicated
of Fahrenheit's scale.
This effect of the pressure of the atmosphere on the
boiling of water was noticed by Fahrenheit in 1721, and
M. Deluc. in his ' Recherches sur les Modifications de
V Atmosphere,' has investigated a formula for determining
the height of the boiling-point above the freezing-po;
the scale in terms of the height of the mercury in the
barometer; but the English artist Bird was the first who
applied a correction on account of the state of the baro-
meter, for the purpose of fixing the point of boiling water
on the scales of thermometers.
The Royal Society having, in 177C, appointed a com-
nutiee to consider the best means of adjusting the fixed
points of thermometers, the formula of Deluc wits verified
and reduced to English measures for the benefit of ai;
in the event of then being obliged to make the instru-
under different states of the atmosphere with respect
to density and temperature : and the following are some of
the corrections which are given by Sir George Shuckburgh
for determining the true place of the boiling-poii
water. The first column contains the height of the baro-
t, ,.•]„•«.
26
27
28
29
30
81
^o
- :V27
- :)• is
(I
+ IMill
meler in inches; and the second, the correction which is
to be applied with its proper sign to the number 212 on
Fahrenheit's scale, in order to give the correct number of
THE
349
THE
degrees at which the water will boil under the pressure
expressed by the height of the mercurial column. The
committee observe that in trying the heat of liquors, the
quicksilver in the tube of the 'thermometer should be
heated to the same degree as that in the ball ; or if this
cannot be done, a correction should be applied on that
account. (Phil. Trans., vol. Ixvii.)
Thermometer-tubes should have their bo^es very slen-
der, and, if possible, perfectly equable in the whole of
their length. When the»e is any inequality in the trans-
verse sections, the best artists make the graduations of the
scale vary so that they may correspond to the equal divi-
sions of a cylindrical tube ; and in order to ascertain the
relative dimensions of the sections, they cause a small
quantity of mercury, about an inch in length, to slide
along the interior of the tube, measuring its length in dif-
ferent places ; then, since the lengths are inversely pro-
portional to the areas of the sections, the variations of the
former will immediately show the corresponding variations
of the latter. It is usual to give to the bore an oval form
with the broader side towards the front, in order that the
mercury or spirit may be easily distinguished at a certain
distance, as by approaching very near the instrument, the
heat of the observer's person may affect the length of the
column.
It is of course essential that the extent of the thermo-
meter-scale should be great enough to comprehend all
the temperatures at which the substances generally re-
quired to be examined exist in a state of fluidity ; and this
extent may be obtained when mercury is employed. Ac-
cording to the experiments of Mr. Dalton, mercury does
not boil till it has acquired a temperature equal to 660° of
Fahrenheit's scale ; and it does not freeze till it is subject
to a degree of cold expressed by 39 divisions below the
zero of that scale, or 71° below the freezing-point of water.
Pure alcohol, on the other hand, has never been frozen,
though it has been exposed to a degree of cold exceeding
that which is expressed by 91° below the zero of Fahren-
heit ; and therefore a spirit-thermometer is to be preferred
to one of mercury when it is intended to ascertain the
temperature of the air in high northern or southern lati-
tudes : but since the spirit boils in air with a degree of
heat expressed by 175° of Fahrenheit, it is unfit for many
of the purposes for which a thermometer is required. For
instruments capable of measuring very high temperatures,
see PYROMETER.
In the construction of a thermometer, the air should be
carefully expelled from the tube, and even from the mer-
cury or spirit within it : the variations in the density of
the atmosphere cannot of course affect the instrument,
since the tube is hermetically sealed. It must be ob-
served however that the indications of temperature are
not precisely expressed in terms of the dilatation of the
mercury or spirit only, but in terms of the excess of that
dilatation above the dilatation of glass. The apparent di-
latation of mercury in a glass tube is equal to j^ of its
volume, between the temperatures of freezing and boiling
water ; and its true dilatation between the same limits is
— — of its volume.
6a'5
A perfect thermometer would be one in which the ex-
pansions of the fluid in the tube were exactly proportional
to the increments of heat which it might receive from the
substance whose temperature is to be determined ; but it
cannot be said that any of the fluids which as yet have
been employed in the construction of thermometers strictly
possess this property. Mercury is the fluid in which it
exists in the greatest degree ; but from the accurate ex-
periments of Deluc it has been ascertained that, between
the points of freezing and boiling-water, the temperature
indicated by the mercurial thermometer is lower than the
true temperature, the greatest difference, which however
it only equal to 1°.4 of Reaumur's scale or 3°.15 Fahren-
heit, being in the middle between those two points on the
scale. From the same experiments it is also found that
when thermometers are regulated so as to agree at the
points of freezing and boiling water, whether the liquid
be oil, spirit, or water, the indications are always below
those of mercury ; the difference being the greatest at the
middle between those points. With oil 6f olives the dif-
ference is 1° of Reaumur's scale (2°.25 Fahr.) ; with highly
rectified alcohol, 4°.9 Reaumur (11".02 Fahr.) ; with half
alcohol and half water, ft" .7 Reaumur <15°.07 Fahr.) ; and
with water, 19°.5 Reaumur (43°.87 Fahr.). It must be ob-
served that great irregularities take place in the expansion
of all fluids when near their boiling state, and that mer-
cury contracts very suddenly when at the point of its con-
gelation. The deviations of the spirit-thermometer from
the true indications of heat are known to be rather greater
than those of the mercurial thermometer : it may be added
that the alcohol in a thermometer-tube loses, in time, part
of its strength ; and that in consequence, the degree of
expansion by a given increment of heat is not the same as
when the instrument was made. The expansion of alcohol
for temperatures greater than about 175° Fahr., at which
the spirit boils, cannot be ascertained practically, because
the spirit at that temperature passes into a state of vapour ;
and the comparison between the mercurial and the spirit
thermometer ought not to be carried higher than that
temperature ; or the scales for mercury and spirit ought to
be regulated so as to agree with one another at the freezing-
point of water and at the tempeiature of 175° Fahrenheit :
if this were attended to, the differences between the indi-
cations of the mercurial and spirit thermometers, above
that point, would be less than they appear to be by the
tables of Deluc.
Water, like other substances, suffers a diminution of
volume by the abstraction of calorie, but when it is cooled
to a temperature between 39° and 40° of Fahrenheit's scale,
it seems to have attained the maximum of density ; and if
the process of cooling be continued, it then increases in
volume till it is converted into ice. Therefore if a ther-
mometer were made with water, and the top of the column
were at 50° Fahr., it would be impossible to know whether
the temperature were 50" or 30°, the expansion being
nearly equal at equal distances within ten degrees above
and below 40° of the scale. The cause is uncertain, but. it
is probably owing to a partial crystallization, which may
begin to take place in water when at a temperature ex-
pressed by about 8 degrees above its freezing-point.
The mercurial and spirit, thermometers, regulated as be-
fore said, differ very considerably at temperatures below
that of freezing water ; and at 39° below the zero of Fah-
renheit, or 32" below the zero of Reaumur, when the mer-
cury is frozen, the difference has been computed to be
about 10° Reaumur (22°.5 Fahr.), by which the spirit
stands too low. By observations made during Sir Edward
Parry's second voyage, the differences between the indica-
tions of the spirit and mercurial thermometers varied from
3°.05 to 8° Fahr. between the temperatures +58° and
—30°, the alcohol being always too low.
Register Thermometers. — It is of
great importance in meteorology that
the observer shonld be able to ascertain
the highest or lowest point of a ther-
mometer scale at which the column
of mercury may have stood during his
absence ; and several contrivances have
been adopted by artists in order to ob-
tain this end. Of these, one, which is
still preferred, was invented by Mr.
Six, whose name the instrument bears,
and is described in the ' Philosophical
Transactions' for 1782. It consists of a
long tube bent so as to form three
parallel branches, A, B, and C : the part
A is an elongated bulb, and the rest of
the tube has a capillary bore. The lower
portion, b, contains mercury, which rises
in B and C to certain points, as a and c,
and the bulb is filled with spirit of wine,
which passing over the bend at d, de-
scends to the upper extremity of the
mercury in B : above c the branch C is
also filled with spirit to near the upper
extremity, which is hermetically sealed.
Two small indices of steel coated with
glass, which are represented at m and n,
are introduced in the branches B and
C : these are capable of being forced
upwards by the rising of the column of
mercury in either tube, and they have
about them a fine wire or a thread of
glass ; so that they will remain stationary where they happen
to be when the heads a and c of the columns recede from
if
^
Of
<0^
0
Sit*-
"Of
C
--
So
m
\
"ioo
a
it
c
:0o
- 50
B
•
150
B
«
L
Q
W
1
Six's Register
Thermometer.
T ii i;
T ii i:
point*
Their i. utly indicate the
at which the i-niU of th. have rtood
:lu- expansion iil' (hi- spirit in
'
'
•
cxp»
are
bf'n
and
ards, ' /; remaining :
..it in
in fo. 'i
>rale belo1 : ich ( '
•
indicate the same degree on the two
the indices in and /;
may hi n to tln»e points: from thence afler-
!>y a decrease, and the hit;
an inc. npvrature.
An instrument of this kind is generally used for ascer-
taining the temperature of tl
depths, or of the atmosphere at great heights.
l)if,-rcntKil 'i r. — This instrument, which was
invented by M. Sturmins, of Altdorf,
and v d by Professor Leslie' in 1SO-4. •
tvT» thermometer tubes, terminating, at one extremity of
each, in a hollo
phuric acid: tli- extremities are united by the
flame of a blow-pipe, and an enlargement of the b.
made at the place of junction. The
O/~\ tube is then bent so as to form three
\ J sides of a rectangle, the two
which arc of equal diameter, form-
ing the upper extremities of two
sides; and the instrument is on a
stand with the branches of the tube
in vertical positions. Wl
temperature of the air in the two
i he same, the acid occupies
one side and the base, and
little way up the other side of the
|[ rectangle. To the latter . side is at-
tached a graduated scale, with the
zero of which the upper extremity
' ^— . of the aciJ in that branch should
iiiir..i*niiai Ttimnometw. coincide. In HID event of th
inTeiiM liy M. Murrains, of justment '.
Alldorf. antity
of air to pass from one ball to done
simply by the warmth of a hand applied to that ball from
when' .en.
The variations of temperature in the apartment wil
dently have no effect on the instrument, since the action
upon the two balls will be equal : but if one ball alone be
• if the acid in the other will immediately
indicate the difference between the tern, of the
media about, the two balls by th f the1 i xpu
of the air in one ball above the expansion in the <
The <: ,,-h that the least dif-
ferenc.
nt of tl
pose of mea.Miring t
tion, an inst
; a boll
one end to a therm
is immediately made sensible by
i~ or the pur-
radia-
:- nulled at
at the upper extremity by a ball, wi.
,|) with wax, which is to I > ; when
is to be eli ai lid. The other •
the s;, itK in a collar of v
will, a ,|et ,, i
and is enclosed in a box, which is blackened on
interiorly, and ha* a thick gla^s m I
•crew is to diminish (ir in
di-r if nccewar)', driving a i
with.
Utr and tl.. :„ ut the th
r with the liquid
in an unbroken column. When the instrument is to be
I in a horizontal position with the glass
In : lent is disposed
n the
liquid will mour ' in tlie thermometei
should be allowed to do so lor three or four mi:
which, bv turning tin the liquid
tie zero of r nnds
to minute is ii. .. the
'he instrument. '
low with his eye the t .and,
counting i wnteh. when the six-
Ihe number
to the top of the column ;
then, waiting till the
niniife. t! -ing eoliium as
ntinp the beats by his ear. at the end of
the minute he . ately the height <
column ot liquid. The instrument b'eiiiit then drawn into
the shade, or covered with a screen, a pair of observations,
at the inleival of one minute, are made and n
before, the liquid descending in the tube !
two observations. The instrum> 0 that
the sun may shim- on it. and afterwar> when
two other pairs of observations are made, and so on.
A mean of the two differences between the read in
two ni. rvations while the sun shone on the i
rnent, added to the difference between the readings at the
intermediate observations while the instrument was in the
shade, is taken as a mra.-urc of the intensity of tin
radiation at the middle time between the tirM and third
observations ; and a mean o'.' such results for all the triplets
of observations is considered as the general mean.
approximation to the measure of solar radiation may
be obtained by simply exposing a register thermometer
with a blackened ball to the direct action of the sun's
[RADIATION.] The thermometer should be p!:
inches above the ground, and 1 a currents
of air; and the graduations should be made on the
of the thermometer, in o:
from the expansion or warping of the- scale.
The force of terrestrial radiation may be measured by
the minimum temperature of a register HUTUUM.
ball is placed in the focus of a parabolical mi.
•o of the mirror is to be turned towards the face of
. but awav from the rays of the sun.
THERMOMETER, DIFFERENTIAL. [THEMIOMK-
TEU.]
THERMOTYL/E. [ZuiTOt'N, GULF OF.]
THERMOSTAT, or In, ,-. an apparatus in-
vented and patented in 1831 by Dr. tire, for rcgu!
temperature in the ) ion and distilla-
tion, in heating baths and hothouses, in adjusting 1 1n-
draft of .stoves and furnaces, in ventilating apartm
&c. It acts upon the principle that, when two thin
tallic bars, of different degrees of expansibility, are n.
or soldered together side by side, any change of tempera-
ture will CM • • in the compound bar:
the side consisting of the least extensible metal becoming
concave, and the other convex. By this flexure of the
compound bar. which takes place wiih considerable force.
a movement is effected, which, by the intervention of
may be made to open or close stop-cock*, dampers,
scntilators, ~crip1iou oi valves, and thereby to
regulate the How of heated liquids or the admission and
emission of air. Tin- compound bars frequently consist of
thin pieces of >teel and hard hammered brass, iheted to-
: but various other metals may be employed, anil
nay be used for "one part of 'the bar.
The principle of the thermostat may be applied in many
different, \\a\s. of which the following may
examples. In /'/i. I, a is the compound bar. which is
firmly ti\cd at //. and, when exposed to the ordinary tem-
thc atmosphere, remains in the straight hori-
zontal position shown in the cut. To tin
the compound \ eoli-
; rod. the short end of a lever mounted upon the
axis of a circular revolving vai :. c ; and
from the longer end of tl. •'Hug
valve, or damper. '/. Uy increasing . rature of
the chamber or vessel in which the them. ;ieed,
the compound bar will assume the curved form indicated
THE
351
THE
by the dotted lines, by which means the position of the
lever will be altered, the valve c will be turned on its
axis, and the damper will be raised. Fig. 2 shows another
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
arrangement, in which two compound bars, <z, a, fixed at
b, are made to open and close a valve c, in a pipe through
which air, water, or any other fluid is passed. By in-
creasing the temperature of the apparatus, the upper or
moveable ends of the bars would recede from each other,
and, consequently, alter the position of the valve. A
similar contrivance may be placed in a chimney, to modify
the position of a damper-plate moving upon its axis, and
thereby to regulate the draft. The application of such an
arrangement of compound bars to the admission of water
to a water-bath is described in the article DISTILLATION,
vol. ix., p. 26. Fig. 3 shows the principal part of a ther-
mostatic apparatus in which three pairs of compound bars,
a. are used to give motion to a sliding-rod d, d, with
which any kind of valve may be connected by a rack and
pinion, a chain and pulley, or otherwise, b, b, in this
figure, is a straight guide-rod, which is fixed at one end
by a screw-nut c ; a milled head being added for the pur-
pose of adjusting the apparatus, so that it may act at any
required temperature. The thermostatic bars, in this as
well as the previous cases, are nearly or quite straight
when cold, and become more or less curved by the action
of heat ; but in some modifications of the thermostat the
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
bars are always curved, and the action of the apparatus
depends upon the increase or decrease of the ordinary
flexure. Fig. 4, for example, represents a. thermoslati'c
hoop, a, a, winch may be immersed horizontally beneath
the surface of the water-bath of a still. The hoop is fixed
at 6, and to its free ends are attached short links c, c, which
impart longitudinal motion to the rod d. e is a lever-
handle moved by the sliding-rod, and turning a valve on
its axis/. The outer end of this lever carries an index,
which moves against a graduated scale, g is a screw-nut,
moveable upon the sliding-rod, to adjust the apparatus
before graduating the scale or arc traversed by the index.
Sonic other forms of the apparatus are given in Dr. Ure's
' Dictionary of Arts,' &c., pp. 1237-1239 ; and on p. 643
of the same work is described a contrivance in which the
same natural principle is differently applied.
THEROUENNE. [PAS DE CALAIS.]
THE8EIUM (eij^iov), the temple of Theseus at Athens,
was situate in the north-west part of the city, at no great
distance from the gate which led to Eleusis, and imme-
diately above the gymnasium of Ptolemy. It was built in
honour of Theseus, soon after his bones had been brought
from Scyros to Athens by Cimon, B.C. 469. (Plutarch,
<i; dtium, 8; Diod. Sic., iv. 62.) It possessed
an inviolable asylum, where runaway slaves in particular
were accustomed to take refuge, and was equalled in sanc-
tity only by the Parthenon and Eleusinium. (Plutarch,
De J±r*iti'i, p. 607 A ; Hesychius, and Etymolog. Mug.,
under Oijmiov.) Its sacred enclosure was so large as to
serve sometimes as a place of military assembly. (Thucyd.,
vi. 61.)
The temple of Theseus is in a state of greater preserva-
tion than almost any of the antient monuments of Athens,
and is used in the present day as a Christian church, dedi-
cated to St. George. It is built entirely of Pentelic marble,
and stands upon an artificial foundation formed of large
Quadrangular blocks of limestone. Its architecture is of
the Doric order. It is a peripteral hexastyle, or surrounded
by columns, having six in each front. There are thir-
teen columns on each side, including those at the angles,
which are also reckoned among the six belonging to each
front, so that the whole number surrounding the temple is
thirty-four. It consists of a cella forty feet long, having a
pronaos to the east and a posticum to the west. The pronaos
and the portico are together thirty-three feet in depth, and
the posticum with its portico twenty-seven feet. The breadth
of the temple is forty-five feet. The columns are three
feet four inches in diameter at the base, and rather more
than eighteen feet and a half high, with an intercolumnia-
tion of five feet four inches. The height of the temple
from the summit of the pediment to the base of the
columns is about thirty-one feet. The platform upon
which it is built, and which consists of only two steps, is
about two feet four inches in height.
The eastern front of the temple was the principal one.
This is shown not only by the greater depth of the pronaos,
but still more decisively by the sculpture. In the eastern
pediment only are there any traces in the marble of me-
tallic fastenings for statues ; and the ten metopes of the
eastern front, with the four adjoining ones on each side,
are exclusively decorated with sculpture, all the others on
both sides and on the western front being plain. The only
other parts of the temple adorned with sculpture are the
friezes over the entrance of the prona.os and the posticum.
In the British Museum there are casts of the greater
portion of these friezes, and also of three of the metopes
from the northern side, being the first, second, and fourth,
commencing from the north-east angle. They were made
at Athens, by the direction of the earl of Elgin, from the
sculptures which then existed upon the temple, where they
still remain. The marbles have been greatly injured since
the time when Pars made the drawings for Stuart, but
enough remains to show that they belong to the highest
style of Grecian art : they are almost equal, and, by some,
considered even superior, to those of the Parthenon. The
relief is bold and salient, approaching to the proportions
of the entire statue, the figures in some instances appear
ing to be only slightly attached to the table of the marble.
It appears that all the sculptures were painted, as was the
case in many other Grecian temples. Col. Leake says
that vestiges of brazen and golden-coloured arms, of a blue
sky, and of blue, green, and red drapery, are still very
apparent.
The subjects of the sculptures are the exploits of Theseus,
and those of his friend and companion Hercules. The
metopes in front of the temple relate to the labours of
Hercules, and those on the two sides to those of Theseus.
On the frieze of the posticum is represented the combat
of the Centaurs and the Lapithae, in which Theseus was
engaged ; but the subject of the frieze of the pronaos is
very doubtful, owing to the mutilated condition of the
sculptures. Stuart supposes that it represents part of the
battle of Marathon, and especially the phantom of Theseus
rushing upon the Persians. Col. Leake thinks it probable
that the pannel over the pronaos relates to the exploits of
Hercules, in the same way as the other frieze relates to
those of Theseus ; and he supposes it to represent the
battle of the giants, who are said to have been subdued
chiefly through the exploits of Hercules. Miiller (Deiik-
mdler der alien Kunst, p. 11) conceives it to represent
the contest of Theseus against the Pallantidae, who wished
to destroy him when he was acknowledged by ^Egeus as
his successor. Mr. Hawkins (Description of Axlient
Marbles in the British Museum, part ix.) however is of
opinion that not one action alone is intended to be repre-
sented, but three or four achievements are here recorded,
the subjects being separated from one another by groups
of seated divinities.
The interior of the temple originally contained three
paintings on the walls by Micon, which Pausanias saw and
describes (i. 17, $ 2). One represented the battle of the
Athenians with the Amazons, the second that of the Cen-
taurs and the Lapithse, and the third an action of Theseus
in Crete. The stucco upon which these paintings were
T 11 1.
executed is still apparent, and shows that cadi painting '
ic whole wall from the roof to two feet nine
inches short of till- pavement.
There was al»o a wnctuary of Theseus in the Peirseeus,
as appears from an inscription. >
lart's Atheni, vol. iii. : I.cakc's TV^MTapAjr </
Atkrns; Daterijition >./ Anlinit Marbbt tn UuBritith
..•HI. part ix. ; Forchhammer, TopograpMit ron Al/ien,
Ki.-l. 1*11.
THESEUS (eifffiic), the great national hero of Athens,
i« said to i born ;it Tnv/rn. where his father
.c-Egi". -lept one night with .to lira, the
daughter HI' I'lttheus, king <if the place. .Kgeus, on his
departure, hid his sword and shoes under a large stone,
and charged .Kthrn. if she brought forth a son, to send
him U> Athens with these tokens, as soon as he was able
1 away the stune. She brought forth a son, to whom
she gave t'he name of Theseus, and when he was grown
up. informed him of his origin and told him to take up the
tokens and sail to Athens, Tor the roads were infested by
robbers and monsters. Hut Theseus, who was desirous of
emulating the dory of Hercules, refused to go by sea, and
after destroying various monsters who had been the terror
of the country, arrived in wifely at Athens. Here he
was joyfully recognised l>y dBgeuft, but with difficult]'
cd destruction from Medea and the Pallantids. the
sons and grandsons of Pallas, the brother of .fligeus. These
mever he finally surmounted, and slew the
Pullantids in battle.
His ne\t exploit was the destruction of the great Mara-
thonian bull, which ravaged the neiirhbouring country :
, ed to deliver the Athenians from
the tribute that they were obliged to pay to Minos, king of
Crete. Kvery ninth year the Athenians had to send seven
young men and as many virgins to Crete to be devoured
by the Minotaur in the Labyrinth. Theseus voluir
to go as one of the victims, and through the assistance ol
!ue, the daughter of Minos, who became enamoured
of him, he slew the Minotaur and escaped from the Laby-
rinth. He then sailed away with Ariadne, whom he de-
serted in the island of Dia or Naxos, an event which fre-
quently forms the subject of ant lent works of art. The
sails of the ship in which Theseus left Athens were black,
but he promised his father, if he returned in salety, to
hoist white sai's. This however he neglected to do, and
/Kgeus seeing the ship draw near with black sails, sup
that his son had peiished, and threw himself from a rock.
Theseus now ascended the throne of Athens. Hut his
adventures were by no means concluded. He marched
into the country of the Amazons, who dwelt on the Ther-
modon, according to some accounts in the company of
i lies, and carried away their queen Antiope. The
Amazons in revenge invaded Attica, and were with diffi-
cult', 1 iv the Athenians. This battle was one of
the most favourite subjects of the antient artists, and is
commemorated in several works of art that arc still extant.
Theseus also took part in the Argonautic expedition and
the Calydoniati hunt. He assisted his friend Pirithous and
the Lapithae in their contest with the Centaurs, and also
accompanied the former in his descent to the lower world
to carry off Proserpine, the wife of Pluto. When Theseus
was fifty years old, according to tradition, he carried off
Helen, the daughter of I.eda, who was then only nine years
of age. Hut hi invaded in consequence by
Castor and Pollux, the brother* ot I.eda : his own people
rose against him: and at last, finding his affairs desperate,
he withdrew to the island of S.-uos. and there perished
either by a fall from the cliffs or through the treachery ol
uicdcs-, the king of the island. For a long time his
memory was forgotten by the Athenians, but he was sub-
sequently honoured by them as the greatest of their heroes.
At the battle of Marathon they thought they saw him
armed and bearing down upon the barbarians"; and after
the conclusion of the Persian war, his bones were disco-
d at Scyros by Cimon, who conveyed them to Athens.
where they, were received with great pomp, and dt •;•
in a tempfe built to his honour. [TiiKsKirM.] A festival
alto was instituted, which was celebrated on the eighth day
of every month, but more especially on the eighth of P\-
•nepsion.
The above is a brief account of the legends prevailing
respecting Theseus. But he is moreover represented by
T II K
antient writers as the founu \ttic commonwealth,
ami even of its demociatical institutions. It won: .
waste of time to inquire whether there was an
peisonage of this name wl intrudiu -ed the poli-
tical change* ascribed to him: it will be convenient to
adhere to the antient account in describing them ::.. the
work of Theseus.
Before his time Attica contained manv independent
townships, which were only nominally united'. I
corporaled the people into • emoved th
i- people
administ
courts for the administration of just ice to Atln
enlarged thr city, which had hitherto covered little nioie
than the rock which afterwards formed the citadel. '1 •
ment their union he institute
ally changed the . \then. i'a into the Panathensea, or the
val of all the Attieaus. He encouraged the nobles to i •
at Athens, and surrendered a part of his kingly pi <
to them, for winch reason he is jierhii]
founder of the Athenian demoe; ern
ment which he established was, and continued to be long
alter him, strictly aristocratical. For he div ided the ]><
into the tribe.-, or classes of Knpatrida . tit-onion, and
Demiurgi, of whom the first were nobli s, the second agri-
culturists, the third artisans. All the ofli<
those connected with religion were exclusively in the
Of the lir-t class. Knell tribe v I. either ill
his time or shortly a tier wards, into three phratria-, and
each phratria into thirty g ; . The meml'.
the separate phi atria- and gcntes had rc'i - and
Is peculiar to themselves, which were preserved long
nfter these communities had lost their political importance
by the democratical changes of C'leisthenes. [( '1.1 <
'(Plutarch's 7. /('(;/' . Mem-sins. TketeiU, ttV8 M
cju-i I'iltl Rebuxqtic nn.t. Ultraject..
where all the authorities are quoted ; Thirlwall's
Hixl'iry of Grferf, vol. ii., p. 8, &c.)
THESMOPHO'RIA (eta/iofoo'" • * festival with mys-
teries in honour of Demet. 'o whom all the insti-
tutions of civilized life, especially of civil and religious
laws, were attributed. The festival of th iioiia.
especially referred to this part of the character of the god-
dess, as is clear from several of the ceremonies observed at
its celebration, and from the surname of the goddess,
• Thcsmophoros,' from which the festival deiivcd its name.
It was celebrated in various towns in Greece, and in the
Greek colonies, as Sparta, Thebes. Eretiia, F.pli
Agrieentum. and others. But the place where it was
held with the greatest solemnity, and where the particulais
of its celebiation are best, known, was Athens. It was in-
troduced at Athens, according to some writers, by Oif
and according to Herodotus ii. 171 by the daugln
Danaus from Fgypt. Its celebration was confin
women, especial ! women. It commenced .
year on the 1 1th of 1'vaiu psion. and lasted accnrdi.
some writers for four, and according to others for live
da\s. The discrepancy in this case, as well as in that of
other Greek and Roman festivals, seems to have arisen
from the circumstance that the real festival was in many
instances preceded by one or more days devoted to pre-
parations and purifications, and that some writers reckoned
these davs as belonging to the festival. Now that the
Thesmophoiia v. ed by such preparatory d;
cxprcssh stated, and during these days the Athenian
women underwent various kinds of purifications. Wellauer.
in his little work cited below, has rendered il more than
probable that the festival itself did not last more than
three days.
Previous to its celebration the women of each demos
I from among themselves two matrons to conduct
the solemnities, whose husbands, provided th < ived
a dowry of not less than three talents, had to pay the
expenses of the festival as a liturgy. (Isaeus, DC Cirnnis
W., p. 208.) The first day m the festival
avolot or itoioiJof, that is, the procession, because the
women went from Athens to Eleiisis in a procession in
which they carried on their heads certain lav
written either in books or upon tablets. During the night
'•n the first and second day the women solemnized
their mysteries at Kleusis. The second day. called vriania,
or • the Fast,' was a day of mourning, on which the women
were not allowed to take any other food than cakes of
ie and honey, and t!i- part of it thev spent
sitting in mournful attitudes on the ground around the
T H E
353
THE
statue of the goddess. Meursius and others think that tlie
procession to the Thesmophorion (the temple of Demeter
Thesmophoros) at Athens, which is alluded to by Aristo-
phanes (Thetmopbor., 276, &c.), and in which the women
walked behind a waggon laden with baskets containing
mystic symbols, took place in the afternoon of this day,
tli.' whole of which was a sacred day at Athens, on which
neither the senate nor the people were allowed to hold
their usual meetings. The third day was called KalXiyivna,
a surname of Demeter, by which she was invoked on this
occasion. (Aristoph., Thesmophor., 296, with the Scholiast.)
On this day the women made up for the day of mourning,
and indulged in various kinds of merriment in imitation of
lambe, who was believed to have created a smile on the
lace of the goddess during her grief. Hesychius mentions
a sacrifice called Zemia (£;;/«a) in connection with the
Thesmophoria, which was offered to propitiate the goddess
for :my neglect or fault that might have been committed
during the celebration of her festival ; but whether this
sacrifice was oft'ereU at the close of the third day or after
the festival, cannot be decided.
( .Meursius, Graecia Feriata, s. v. etcr/io^opia ; Dictionary
fif Greek and Roman Antiq., s. v. Thesmophoria ; Wel-
lauer, De Thesmophoriis, Breslau, 1820, 8vo.)
TIIESPE'SIA (from Seujrcuioc), the name of a genus of
plants belonging to the natural order Malvaceae. The
species are trees with large entire leaves. The calyx is
truncate, and girded by a 3-leaved deciduous involucel ;
the fruit is a capsule with 5 cells, each cell is semi-parted,
with 4 seeds at the base.
T. populnea, Poplar Thespesia, has roundish, cordate,
pointed, 5-7-veined leaves, with dot-like scales beneath,
with the peduncles equal in length to the petioles. This
plant is a native of the East Indies, Guinea, and the Society
Islands ; and is known, where it grows amongst British
colonists, as the umbrella-tree. It attains a height of
about 40 feet, and has large yellow flowers with a dark
red centre. In the tropics it has gained for itself a sacred
regard, and is planted about monasteries and convents ;
hence the name Thespesia (divine). There are two species
natives of South America: they are all trees, with
handsome, showy flowers. In their cultivation they will
thrive well in a mixture of loam and sand, and cuttings
will strike freely in sand or mould under a hand-glass in a
hot-bed. (Don's Miller, vol. i.)
THESPIS •• oiffjHc), a native of Icaria in Attica, who
lived in the time of Solon and Pisistratus, about 535 B.C.
The antient traditions unanimously represent him as the
inventor of tragedy. The manner in which this invention
is said to have originated is stated differently. According to
one account, which is also adopted by Horace, it arose from
Thespis travelling during the festival of Dionysus through
Attica upon a waggon, on which he performed comic
I. This tradition however is based upon a confusion
of tragedy with comedy, the invention of which is not
ascribed to Thespis by any antient authority. The inven-
tion of Thesis ( '(insisted in nothing else than in introduc-
ing a person who at the Dionysiac festivals in the city of
Athens entered into conversation with the chorus, or related
a story to it. The designation of this actor was Hypocrites
(virotpiriif), that is, the 'answerer,' because what he -said
or acted answered or corresponded with the songs of the
chorus. By means of masks, the invention of which was
likewise ascribed to Thespis, he was enabled to act different
characters one after another. Some writers who considered
tlie chorus itself as a second actor, speak of two actors in
the time of Thespis, and consequently state that .<Eschylus
introduced a third actor. (Themistius, Orat., xxvi., p. 382,
edit. Dindorf.) Whether Thespis wrote his plays is not
quite certain, although Donatus (De Comoed, et Tragoed.,
in (Ironovius's T/tr-.iaurus, viii., p. 1387) expressly says so,
but the tragedies bearing the name of Thespis in the time
ot the Alexandrines cannot be considered as genuine. It
is an historical fact that Heraclides Ponticus forged tra-
gedies under the name of Thespis ; and the few frajgments
of Thespis quoted by antient writers are unquestionably
h supposititious works. The tragedies of
Thespis must have fallen into oblivion and have perished
at the time when the Attic drama reached its perfection :
some of his choral songs however appear to have been
known as late us the time of Aristophanes, as we may infer
from ling scene of the ' Wasps.' We know the
title* of his tragedies: ' Pentheus,' ' The Funeral
P. C., No. 1532.
Games of Pelias or Phorbas,' ' The Priests,' and ' The
Youths ;' but of their construction nothing is known, ex-
cept that each seems to have commenced with a prologue.
(Themist, Orat., p. 382.)
Respecting the history of Thespis very little is known.
Solon was present at the performance of one of Thespis's
plays, and highly disapproved of dramatic performances, as
tending to lead men to falsehood and hypocrisy. Towards
the end of the career of Thespis tragic contests, were in-
troduced at Athens, and Thespis probably contended for
the prize with Choerilus and Phrynichus, who is called his
disciple. Thespis is also said to have distinguished him-
self in orchestic, or the ait of dancing (Athenaeus, i., p.
22), which however can only refer to his skill in instruct-
ing the chorus.
(Bode, Geschichte der Dramat. Dichtkunst der Hd-
lenen, i., pp. 40-57 ; Miiller, Hist, of the Lit. of Greece,
i., p. 292, SEC.)
THESPRO'TIA (Qtawpuria), a district of the antient
Epirus, around the river Acheron. Its boundaries are not
distinctly stated by antient writers, but the district seems
to have included the coast from the mouth of the Ambra-
cian Gulf northwards to the river Thyamis, and the country
inland as far as Mount Tomarus. The south-eastern part
of Thesprotia, south of the river Acheron, was called Casso-
paea, and is sometimes reckoned as a distinct district ; but
the other statement appears more correct, since Herodotus
makes the Thesproti neighbours of the Ambraciots and
Leucadians. (Herod., viii. 47.)
Thesprotia was one of the chief abodes of the Pelasgi.
This is intimated by the legend which makes Thesprotus
the son of Lycapn. In Thesprotia was the oracle of Do-
dona (Herod., ii. 56), the chief seat of the old Pelasgic
religion. [DODONA.] In Thesprotia Aristotle found the
Hellenes under their antient name of Graeci (rpawoi,
Aristot., Mtiterolng., i. 14.) From this country the Thes-
sali migrated to take possession of Thessaly, about sixty
years after the Trojan war, having previously left, their
original seats in Thessaly, and proceeded into Thesprotia,
about eight generations before the Trojan war. (Herod.,
vii. 176; Thucyd., i. 12; Plutarch, Pyrrh., c. i. ; Velleius,
i. 3 ; Clinton's Fasti Hellen., i. 19-20, 28.)
Its chief cities were Nicopolis, built by Augustus on the
peninsula opposite the promontory of Acte, or Actium,
m commemoration of his victory over M. Antonius ; Cha-
radra, on the west of the Charadrus ; Bucheta, or Buche-
tima, on the coast. The above are on the south-eastern
side of the Acheron. Above the Acheron were, — Cichyrus,
formerly Ephyra, on the Acherusian Gulf; Pandosia,
higher up the Acheron ; Elatria or Elatia, and Batiae, in-
land ; Chimerium, on a promontoiy of the same name,
west of the mouth of the Acheron ; north-west of this, Sy-
bota : the positions of Bolurus and Torone are unknown.
[EPIRUS.]
(Leake ; Pouqueville ; Cramer ; Hoffmann's Griechen-
land.)
THESSALONIANS, Epistles of St. Paul to the. Chris-
tianity was introduced among the Thessalonians in A.D. 50,
bv St. Paul, when he first passed over from Asia Minor into
E"urope to preach the gospel. According to the account
in the Acts of the Apostles (ch. xvi.), St. Paul was engaged
in communicating to the churches in Asia Minor the
decree of the first council of the ' Apostles and elders
which were at Jerusalem,' when on his arrival at Troas a
vision appeared to him in the night, in the figure of a man
of Macedonia, ' who prayed him, saying, Come over into
Macedonia, and help us.' In obedience to this call, St.
Paul, together with Silas and Timothy, visited the cities of
that country, and among the rest Thessalonica, which was
at that time the residence of the Roman governor of the
province of Macedonia, and a city of great resort. St. Paul
found there a synagogue of the Jews, ' and went in unto
them, and for three Sabbath days reasoned with them out of
the Scriptures,' endeavouring to convince them that Jesus
was the Christ or Messiah expected by them. Though
some of them believed, his success with the Jews does not
appear to have been great : but a considerable number
of the ' devout Gentiles' were converted, and many women
of distinction : so that the Christian church at Thessalonica
was composed both of Jews and Gentiles, of whom the
latter were the more numerous. The Acts of the Apostles
(ch. xvii.) informs us that St. Paul only spent three Sabbat li
days in preaching to the Jews ; but from some expressions in
' VOL. XXIV.-2 Z
T 11 I.
8M
T II E
hit own letters to the ThenuJonians, coupled with the fact of
his receiving money from Plulippi more than once while
he was at Theisalonica (Phtlijiji., iv. Hi , it would wem
that he remained fur some time in that city. Still he was
unable to carry his designs into e\. 'he uncon-
verted Jews stirred up a persecution against him, BO that
himself and hi* companion* • were tent away by night by
the brethren ' to the neighbouring city of Beroea. Here
again the Jews of Thessalonica stirred up a tumult against
St. Paul, so that he was obliged to retire to Athene, leav-
ing however Silas and Timothy at Beroea. At Athens he
was subsequently joined by them, and being naturally
anxious about his recent converts at Then Monica, and
• when he could no longer forbear' (1 Thru., iii. 1), he
sent Timothy from Athens Mo establish them, and to com-
fort them concerning the faith.' St. Paul then visited
Corinth, and on the return of Timothy with • good tidings
of their faith and charity, and that they had a good remem-
brance of him always' (.1 'Mr*., iii. 6), he wrote his first
epistle to them, A. D. 52. from Corinth, and not from Athens.
as the subscription of the epistle imports.
It was one of the enrliot, if not the very first, of all St.
Paul's epistles, and in chap. v.. ver. U7. lie' expresses Ins
desire that it should be read not at Thessalonica only. >> •:
in all the churches of Macedonia. Its genuineness has
always been admitted : together with the second epistle, it is
quoted and recognised as the work of St. Paul, by Irenceus,
Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Origen, and all subse-
quent ecclesiastical writers. (Lardner, as quoted in Home's
Introduction, vol. iv., p. 372.) The immediate occasion
of St. Paul's writing this Kpistle was the favourable intelli-
gence brought by Timothy of the steadiness with which
the Thessalonians adhered to Christianity in spite of the
persecution with which they were assailed by their own
countrymen. Besides being exposed to direct persecution,
there can be little doubt that they were also in danger of
being moved by the reasonings of their religious adver-
saries, to which the sudden disappearance of St. Paul from
Thessalonica, and his apparent desertion of them at a
critical moment, might give some plausibility and apparent
confirmation. To counteract the natural result of all this
ue of the chief objects of Timothy's mission, and the
First Kpistle to the Thessalonians was written with the
same design. Accordingly in chap, i., after a short intro-
duction, in which he couples the names of Timothy and
Sylvanus (the Roman form of Silas) with his own, he ex-
presses his thankfulness fortheir 'work of faith and labour
of love, and patience of hope in our Lord Jesus Chri>t,'
and then (vers. 5-10) reminds them of the proofs • of power
and of the Holy Ghost ' with which the preaching of the
gospel among them was accompanied, as evidences of its
truth, and commends them for the constancy of their faith.
In chaps, ii., iii., as a further confirmation of the truth ol
the gospel, he reminds the Thessalonians of the conduct and
character of himself and the other preachers of Christianity.
That as a missionary and apostle of Christ, ' he had .suf-
fered, and been shamefully entreated'— that in preaching
the gospel, he had sought neither temporal profit, nor
favour, nor honour. He also explains and vindicat.
own conduct in leaving them, and says that alth.
from them in presence, he was not iii heart, — that 1
endeavoured to see them again with great desire, but had
been hindered : till at last, when he could no longer fo
he sent Timothy to them, at whose good tidings of them
he expresses the greatest satisfaction and joy.
In chap. iv. St. Paul exhorts them to persevere in
the observance of the duties and practical virtu
Christianity, in conformity with the commandments he
had given them at first : and further enj.
sorrow or lament over those that were dead, but rather
(even as they believed that .Tc,i.s died and rose agai
forward to their resurrection, when the day of the
Lord Jews, that is, the day of judgment. me.
Inchap. y. (1-5) St. Paul warns the Thc-alonians of the
ncertainty of this event, and concludes the epistle with a
ranch ,,)„ anj admonitions addr. l\ t,.
"hole church, partly to its pastors and tea.
ipied with some reproofs, which, as we n
*K<?r"i.ror ^ the "Tegularities and failings
' Thesialonians were not yet exempt.
". ' Mfned coincidences between this Epistle and
-ties ' are commented upon by Paley in
*»or»» Paulino;,' pp. 293-311.
fi
The Second Epistle to the Thessalomans was written
soon after the first, and ii«>m the same place. Silvanus and
Timothy being joined with the apostle in the inscription of
this Epistle, as well as oft: and an in chap, in..
vcr. '2. he request* the prayers of the The.ssalonians lor ln-
• !i Ir.erance 1'min wicked men, it is not improbable that he
wrote it soon after the insurrection of the Jews at Corinth,
when they drained liiin before Gallio, and accused liim of
persuading men to worship God contrary to the law.
This Epistle seems to have been occasioned by tlu- in-
formation which St. Paul received on t) I tin-
church at Theesalonica from the messenger who cm
his first letter to the elders of the church, and his report of
the effect produced by its contents. From some expres-
sions in that Epistle (iv. 15 ; v. 4-6), compared with chap-
ter ii. of the Second, it m that a number of
Thessalonians had come to the conclusion that the day of
judgment was at hand, and would happen in their genera-
linn. To correct this misapprehension, and to pre\ent the
anxiety and the neglect of secular affairs which resulted
from it, appears to nave been the main object and desimi
of St. Paul in writing this Second Epistle to th
Accordingly, in chap. i.. alter a short introduction, the
apostle proceeds to commend the growing frith and chant)
of the Thessalonians, and to express his joy at their
patience under tribulation, of which he had heard from
the messenger who carried his first letter, and he assures
them of his constant prayers for their welfare.
In chap. ii. he rectifies their mistake about the day of
judgment, and warns them against those who might at-
tempt to deceive them on that subject. Ii;. ttin^
their minds at rest about it, he assures them that the
event would not come to pass until ' a great apostacy ' had
overspread the church, and the revelation of -the liian of
sin, the son of perdition,' should have taken pla.
phrases have been variously interpreted, but the generality
of Protestant commentators have agreed ii: them
to the Roman pontiff's and the Romish church. Some in-
deed understand them to apply to the rise of Mohamme-
danism, and others to the revolt of the Jews from the
Romans. The Romish church contends that one person
only is meant, and not a series or succession of pcrs<
Whatever the apostle meant by these phrases, he in-
forms the Thessalonians that this mystery of iniquity was
already secretly at work, though its full operation was pre-
vented by a restraining power i rrir<x<>vX which the early
Fathers of the Church generally understood to be that of
the Roman emperors and emp'irc. (Tertullian, Apolog.,
p. 31.)
In chap. iii. the apostle desires their prayers for himself
and his fellow-labourers, and then reproves some of the
Thessalonians for their idleness and irregular life, lie
concludes with his apostolic benediction, and writes the
salutation with his own hand, which, as he informs them,
was a token of the genuineness of that and other E[<
similarly authenticated.
This Second Epistle to the Thossalonians is the shortest
of all St. Paul's Kpistles, but not interior to any of them in
style or spirit, and it is also remarkable as containing a
distinct prophecy of the corruptions and delusions which
wen- to arise in the Christian church.
The undesigned coincidences between this Epistle and
the ' Acts of the Apostles ' are given in Paley's ' I
Paulimi'.' pp. :J12-:J±J.
(Mackrught, On the Apostolical I'.jiisilc/t, vol. iii.. pp.
1-1'Jl; Home, Iiitn>(iu<-ti<,n to the Critical Study qf th
\ol.iv., p. :t72; Collyer, Sacra! lnt> I'/iri'ler,
vol. ii.. p. •J7"> ; 1 ' / to the New Ti'xtnnn nt ; \V :
On th 'it.)
THKSS.U.n.M'CA now *iA;»iAi), an antient city of
Ionia, in the district of Mygdonia, was formerly
called Thcrme or Therma : it is in W 38' N. lat. and
22° 96' E. long., about ten miles east of the an:
Kchcdorus. at the head of the modern Gulf of Saloniki,
.lied the Thermaic Bay. from the antient name
of the city. It was at first an inconsiderable place under
its old name of Thcrme. by which it was Known in the
i llemdotus and Thucydi, -< ylax,
who, in his 'I'eriplus,' ma!
Gulf. Herodotus, in his '] :i. IJs . speaks <>f it.
as a place whei. made some May on his inarch
into Greece, and from which he had a commanding view
of the mountains of Olympus and Ossa in ThegsMy. A
THE
355
THE
short time previous to the commencement of the Pelopon-
nesian war (B.C. 432) it was taken and occupied by the
Athenians, but it was soon afterwards restored to Perdiccas,
the king of Macedonia. According to an account in
Strabo (Epit., vii. 330), the name of Thessalonica was
given to it by Cassander, the son of Antipater, in honour
of his wife Thessalonica, who was the daughter of Philip,
king of Macedon, and the sister of Alexander the Great.
With a view to its aggrandisement, Cassander collected
together (about B.C. 315) the population of several adjacent
towns, so as to make it one of the most important cities of
Northern Greece. (Strabo, /. c., p. 330.) After the battle
of Pydna (B.C. 168), in which the Romans defeated Per-
seus, the then king of Macedonia, Thessalonica, with the
other Macedonian towns, surrendered to the Romans, and
was made the capital of the second of the four regions into
which Macedonia was divided by them. (Livy, lib. xliv.,
c. 10 and 45 ; lib. xlv., c. 29.) Livy speaks of it as being
then a very celebrated city, to which its admirable position
materially contributed. It possessed an excellent harbour,
peculiarly well situated for commercial intercourse with
the Hellespont and the JEgean ; and it had the additional
advantage of lying on the great Roman military road, the
Via Egnatia, which, commencing at Dyrrachium, on the
western side of Greece, and extending to Byzantium,
atforded the easiest land communication with Thrace,
Asia Minor, and the shores of the Euxine. In St. Paul's
time it was much frequented by people of different nations
for commercial and other purposes, as appears from the
fact of there being a synagogue of Jews there ; and it was
also the seat of the Roman government. Pliny (iv. 10)
calls it a free city ; and Lucian (Asin., 46) speaks of it as
the largest of the Macedonian towns. In later times,
\mder the empire, it continued to be so flourishing and
important a city, that it was selected as the residence of
the prefect of Illyricum, and the metropolis of the Illyrian
provinces. (Theodoret, Hist. Eccl.,v. 17.) In the reign
of the emperor Theodosius it was the scene of a deplorable
calamity : it was then protected against the assaults of the
Goths by strong fortifications and a numerous garrison.
Their commandant, Botheric, with his principal officers,
was inhumanly murdered by the people of the town, in
consequence of his having thrown into prison one of the
popular characters of the circus, to the games of which
the Thessalonians of that time (A.D. 390) were passionately
devoted. The emperor Theodosius, in the excitement of
his indignation, gave orders for the punishment of the
people ; and, according to the most moderate accounts, no
less than 7000 persons were massacred by barbarian sol-
diers in a promiscuous carnage, which lasted for three
hours (Gibbon, Roman Empire, c. xxxvii.), a deed, the
guilt of which, as Gibbon observes, was aggravated by the
long and frequent residence of the emperor at Thessalonica.
[THEODOSIUS ; AMBROSE.]
For an account of the ruins and antiquities of Thessa-
loniea, see Clarke's and Holland's Travels, vol. ii., p. 50 ;
Dodwell's Tour in Greece, vol. ii., c. 19, p. 190 ; Cramer's
Antie.nt Greece, i. 238.
THE'SSALUS (flt-r-raXis), an antient Greek physician,
son of the celebrated Hippocrates, appears to have lived
at the court of Archelaus, king of Macedonia, about 360
years before Christ. He was one of the founders of the
sect of the Dogmatic), who also took the name of the Hip-
pocratic school, because they professed to follow the doc-
trines of that great man. However, both he and his brother
Dracon, and his brother-in-law Polybus, are accused by
Galen in several passages of not only mixing up with the
opinions of Hippocrates the principles of later philoso-
phers, but also of altering and interpolating his writings.
Several of the works that go under the name of Hippo-
crates are by many critics supposed to have been written
by Thessalus, viz. ' De Morbis,' the second, fifth, sixth, and
seventh books 'De Morbis Vulgaribus,' and the second
book of the ' Praedictiones,' or ' Prorrhetica ;' but this con-
jecture is uncertain.
(Le Clerc, Hint, de la Med. ; Fabricius, Biblioth. Grcvca ;
Haller, Biblioth. Medic. Pract. ; Sprengel, Hist, de la
Mcd. ; Ackermann, Hist. Literar. Hippocr. ; Chpulant,
Handbuch der Biicher kunde fur die Aeltcre Median.)
THE'SSALUS (&nraa\6<-), one of the founders of the
antient medical sect of the Methodici, was born at Tralles
in Lydia, and lived in the reign of the emperor Nero, in
the first century after Christ. He was the son of a weaver,
and followed the same trade himself during his youth, by
which means he lost the opportunity of receiving a good
education, and was never afterwards able to overcome this
disadvantage. He appears however to have soon given
up this employment, and applied himself to the study of
medicine, by which he acquired a great reputation, and
amassed a large fortune. His whole character however,
both intellectual and moral, is everywhere represented by
Galen in a very unfavourable light ; but it must be con-
fessed that Galen himself appears to very little advantage
in these passages, and goes beyond all bounds in his abuse
of him.
Thessalus adopted the principles of the Methodici, but
modified and developed them so much that he attributed
io himself the invention of them. In fact on all occasions
le appears to have tried to exalt himself at the expense of
his predecessors ; lavishing upon the antients the most in-
sulting epithets; calling himself by the title (Wpov.VcT/e
(conqueror of physicians), because he thought that he him-
self surpassed all his predecessors as much as medicine is
superior to all other sciences ; boasting that he could teach
;he art of healing in six months ; and telling the emperor
^ero, in the dedication of one of his works, that none of
;hose who had been before him had contributed anything
;o the advancement of medical science. By his boasting
ie attracted a great number of pupils, whom he took with
lira for six months to visit his patients ; but most of them
ire said to have been common artisans and persons of very
low extraction. Galen accuses him of knowing nothing of
the action of drugs, though he had written on the subject.
He did not care for inquiring into the causes of diseases,
and was satisfied with certain problematical analogies ;
nor did he admit the value of prognostic signs. He did
not recommend tapping in cases 'of ascites. A further
account of his opinions may be found in Le Clerc, Hist, de
la Med. ; Haller, Biblioth. Medic. Pract. ; Sprengel, Hist,
de la Mfd.
THESSALY (etowaXia), one of the principal divisions of
Northern Greece, and the cradle of many of the inhabitants
of Greece in general, is an extensive and generally unbroken
plain, about 80 miles in extreme length and 70 in breadth,
comprising an area of about 5500 square miles, and form-
ing an irregular sort of square. This description applies
only to what may be called Thessaly Proper, which is
bounded on the west, towards Epirus and Athamania, by
the range of Pindus ; on the north, towards Macedonia,
by the Cambunian Mountains ; on the south by the range
of Mount Othrys ; on the east by a range of mountains
running along the coast nearly parallel to Pindus, and in-
cluding the summits of Pelion and Ossa. The basin of
Thessaly is thus surrounded by mountain-barriers, broken at
the north-east corner only by the valley and defile of
Tempe (or the Cut), which separates Mount Ossa from
Olympus, and presents the only road from Thessaly to the
north which does not lead over a mountain-pass. At the
eastern base of the mountain-range which runs from
Tempe to the bay of Pagasae, now the Gulf of Volo, there
is a narrow strip of land called Magnesia, between the hills
and the sea, interrupted in several places by lofty headlands
and ravines, and without any harbour of refuge from the
gales of the north-east. South of Othrys, the southern
boundary of Thessaly Proper, lies a long narrow vale,
through which winds the river Spercheius, and which,
though generally considered as a part of Thessaly, is sepa-
rated from it by the range of Othrys, and is very different
from it in physical features. It is bounded on the south
by the range of CEta, which runs from Pindus to the sea
at Thermopylae in a general direction nearly parallel to the
Cambunian Mountains ; and on its eastern side by the
shores of the bay of Malia, now the Gulf of Zeitoun. Ac-
cording to Greek traditions, Thessaly was known in remote
times by the names of Pyrrha, ^Emonia, and JEo\is. The two
former names belong to the age of mythology ; the last
refers to the time when the country was inhabited by the
.ffiolian Pelasgi, previous to the occupation of any part of
it by the Thessalians, who, according to Herodotus (vii.
176 ; Strabo, ix., p. 444), originally came from Thesprotia,
a region in the west of Epirus, and settled in the country,
which from them derived its future name. At what time
it received the name of Thessaly cannot be determined.
The name does not occur in the poems of Homer, although
the several principalities of which it was composed at the
time of the Trojan war are there enumerated, together
2Z2
T 11 I-
356
THE
with the different chiefs I>y wlioni (hoy were eovemed :
it i» from Homer (//UK/, ii. 7<*h that we derive the
i-arhcst information about this part at
.r\y time* Thessaly was divided into lour
.re'liies. These tetrarcliies were, according
p. 430), Hestia-otis, Pelasgiotis, '1
and Phthiotis : uiul the division, ttunnrh it was a
mticnt institution, existed in the PeloponiMMM) war
The first of these tetrarchies, Ilrittia-ntix, was the
mountainous country between Pindus and Olvmpus;
having generally lor its southern limit tin- river Peneus,
though tliis rivi-f did not form an exact boundary through
all its course. Herodotus (i. 150) applies this name to the
country in the neighbourhood of Ossa and Olympus, the
ial abode of the Dorians before they settled in Pelo-
. sus. From a statement in Strabo (ix., p. 4:t7). it
would seem that the name of Hesti:rotis was denved from
• ict in Kiibcra, whose inhabitants were transplanted
to this part of Thessaly by the I'errhsrbi. The Perrlncbi
themselves however only occupied a small part ol'the ter-
ritory, and as they are mid to have been the oiiirinal in-
habitants of the country of the Lapitha-. they must at one
time have been established in the lower valley of the Peneus.
(Strabo, p. 441.) In historical times they dwelt in the
\ of the Titaresius under Olympus, where they had
shrunk into a small mountain-people. The north-'..
part of Hestiseotis was in ante-historical times (Homer, //.,
ii. 774) occupied by a mountain-tribe of uncertain origin.
called the .ithices. In the time of Strabo (ix., p. I'M)
scarcely any trace remained of them.
The most remarkable towns of Hestiirotis were as fol-
low s: — Phaleria, or Phaloria, the first town of any im-
portance on entering Thessaly from Epinis by the passes
of Pindus (Liv., xxxii. 15) ; Oxyneia and ^ginium, the
latter of which Livy describes as a place of great strength,
ar.d almost impregnable. Gomphi (the Wedges), an an-
tient fortress, situated on the Peneus to the south of Pha-
loria : it was a place of great strength, and might he suid
to be the key of Thessaly on the side of Epirus to the
north: it commanded the 'communication by the gorge of
Clinovo, between this part of Thessaly and the Ambr.u-mn
Gulf. In the time of Caesar (Bel. Civ., iii. 80) it was a larjre
and opulent city: it is supposed to be represented by the
modern Stagous. Tricca, now Trikhala, on the left bank of
the Peneus, about 12 miles south of Gomphi : it is celebrated
by Homer (//., ii. 729), and placed by him under the rule
of the sons of ^sculapius, who was said to have been born
in the neighbourhood. According to Strabo 'ix. 4:i7 .
there was a temple of yEsculapius there, which was held
Jn great veneration : about 12 miles to the north of it is
-ituated the convent of Meteora, whose name (the
Hanging) is descriptive of its situation upon lofty columns
of roek. Metropolis, a town to the north of the Peneus.
which contained within its territory the lands of three
other places not so famous, but more antient, and which
contributed to the formation of the new city. Metropolis,
with Gomphi to the north-west, Tricca to the south-west,
and Pelinna to the south-east, formed a square of fort
in the middle of which was the antient It home, called by
Homer the ' precipitous.' Pelinna, more commonly Pelin-
naeum. was an important city on the north of the Peneus,
and about 10 miles east of Tricca. Ithome has been sup-
posed to have oeeiipied the site of the convents of Meteora :
but it seems to have been farther south. (Kchalia, a city
celebrated in nntholoiry. is coupled by Homer with Tricca
and Ithome. (Jonnus, or (ionni, was a town of considerable
importance and antiquity. It was situated on the left or
north bank of the river Penens, about 20 miles from the
great city of Larissa, and clone to the entrance of the irorge
u\ Teinpc. (Jonnocondylon, a stronghold in the windings
of the valley, vf as situated in the defile above Gonnus, pro-
bably not far from the fortress of Roman construction called
ieo-Castro. The Pelagonian Tripolis, also, a <!.
!i included the three towns of Pvthmm, Azorus, and
l)ohehe, was situated in the north-east of 1 I< -IM otis, and
i» also reckoned under Perrhsebia by I.ivy.
Pekugioti* wa» in the southern part of the lower valley
of the 1'encus, and includes the Pelasgian plains which
ii from Larissa to Pherae, near Pelion, having for its
boundary on the cast the range of Pelion and Ossa.
According to Strabo (ix., p. 441) thin part of Thessalv was
originally occupied by the Perrhaebi, an antient tribe 01
apparently Pelasinc origin. It was 1. from
them by the I.iipith..
original abode w; me of the
IVrrha-bi t> ;irds and across Pindus. while
those who remained in the plan. with
under the common name I1 The
principal towns of 1'ela-^iotis wire as i'o!'..
^ one of the most antient and flourishing town* of
Thessaly, though not mentioned by II
in the most fertile part of the old count r\ of the I'errba-bi.
The constitution of (he city was democrat ical. the in
(rates beim; elected and rcmoveablc by th.
;., I'nhiir.. \.c.) Accordingly in the Peloponne-
sian war. the l.arissa'ans supported the Athenians against
the Laccd-.cmonians. T|u. Alenadir, mentioned by Hero-
dotus as princes of Thessaly at the time of t:
in, and one of the most distinguished and antient
families of the country, were natives of I.aris-a. The
territory of this city was extremely rich and fertile, but it
frequently suffered by the inundations of the I'em us. Mo-
dern travellers are of 0])inion that the present 1
stands on the site of the old town. The name is Pcla-irian.
Cranon, or (.'rannoii. to the south of Larissfi ('the
most antient and considerable towns of this pait ot'Thcs-aly.
The inhabitants of this town are supposed by the antient
commentators to be designated by Homer //.. xiii.
301) as the Kphyri. The Scopadee, a distinguished and
princely family of Thessaly, belonged to it. Tl\c' inhabit-
ants supjHirted the Athenian! in the Peloponni'sian war,
and therefore they may be supposed to have been under a
democratical form of government. Scutussa, to tli
of Cranon, thouirh noticed by antient an' s not
appear to have been known to Homer. Stiv.ho. i\.. \i.
\\ithin its territory was the hill of ('ynoscei)halK',
or Don'-Heada, where a \ b :aned by the Homans
over Philip of Macedon (B.C. 197;. It is one of the hills
which separate the plain of I.ariss.i from that of Pharsalia.
According to some authors, the Thessalian Dodona w;us
also within the district of Scotussa. I'lu kt the
southern extremity of the lake Boebeis. In the 1'elo-
ponnesian war the Pherri'ans assi^teil the Athenians,
whence it is probable that they then had a republican form
of government. Subsequently Jason made himself master
of Pliers1, his native town, and was succeeded in his
authority by his brothers. In later times it fell into the
hands of Alexander, who continued for eleven years to be
the scourge of his native citv. and the whole of Thessaly, till
lie was checked by the Tbebans, under Pelopidas and
Kpaminondas. He was at last assassinated by bis wile
and her brothers, who continued to tyrannise over the
country till it was liberated by Philip of Macedon. (Dio-
dorus, xvi. ">17.1 After many chansres of fortune, it was
taken by the Romans under the consul Acilhis. Li\\,
xxxvi. 14.) Strabo says of it, that the continued tyranny
under which it had laboured hastened its decav. Its terri-
tory, according toPolybius xviii. '- . was most fertile, and
the suburbs were surrounded by irardens and walled enelo-
. Its port was 1'a^asa-. about II or 12 miles distant.
With respect to its modern leatures. • Phera'.' sa\s Dodwcll,
• has hardly ]ircservcd any traces of antiquity : a few scat-
tered blocks of stone and some Doric frusta are the only
antiquities remaining.' The fountain TI\ pereia, mentioned
by Homer Iliml. \'\. \~<~i . 'is in the suburbs of (he modern
town of Helestina, at the foot ol'the antient Aciopolis. A
small lake of about KNI yards ill diameter, and with water
as clear as crystal, bubbles up out of the ground.' Sir \V.
iKIs. that it runs through a coffeehouse, or kiosk.
The Dotius Campus is also in Pelasciotis, on its eastern
side: it is a considerable plain encircled by hills to the
north, and terminated to the south by the lake liocbeis. the
most ( \leiiM\e in Thessaly. and included within the limits
of Pelasgiotis.
\lit was MI .inline to '- 'in its
having been first occupied byThessalians, who came tmm
Thesprotia, and inhabited the plains In
having the district of Pelasgiotis on the ca-t. Tnis te-
trarchy contained towards the sonlb-rast the city ol'Phar-
salus, celebrated for the hat tic fought in tU plains between
Pompey and Ciesar. It is situated not far irom the junc-
tion of" the Knipens and the Apidanns. and was a city of
great size and importance, tboneh no mention is made of
it previous t<> the Persian invasion of Greece. During
the Peloponnesian war, the 1'harsahans generally favoured
THE
357
THE
the Athenians. Xenophon {Hellenic., vi. 1) speaks of it
:is an independent republic, but it afterwards fell into the
hands ol' Jason, tyrant of Pherae. There is a modern town
t • .illed Phersale not far from, if not on, the site of the old
Pharsalus ; but there are only a few antiquities there.
South-west of it there is a hill surrounded with antient
walls, and on a lofty rock above it are other ruins of
greater magnitude, showing a considerable portion of the
walls of an antient Acropolis and remains of the Propylaea.
Other towns of Thessaliotis were — Cierium, supposed by
Miiller to be identical with the antient Arne, the chief
town of the ^Eolian Boeotians ; Ichnae, or Achnee, where
the goddess Themis was especially worshipped ; Proerna,
not far from Pharsalus, mentioned by Strabo (ix., p. 434).
Sir W. Gell observed between Pharsalia and Thaumako
the ruins of an antient city, which he supposed might
belong to Proerna. They are situated upon the projecting
branch of a mountain, where there are many vestiges and
walls.
Phthiotis, according to Strabo, included all the southern
part of Thessaly, stretching lengthwise from the Maliac
Bay on the east to Dolopia and Pindus on the west, and in
breadth from Mount CEta on the south as far as Pharsalus
and the Thessalian plains on the north, an average distance
of about 30 miles. Homer comprised within its limits the
districts of Phthia and Hellas properly so called, and the
dominions of Achilles. Its inhabitants were the Achaeans
('Axaioi *8iiirai), a double name under which they were
generally enumerated in the lists of the Amphictyonic
nations. The principal cities of Phthiotis were Halos or
Alo.s, on the west side of the Gulf of Pagasae, usually called
the Phthiotic or Achaian, to distinguish it from a city of the
same name in Locris. It contained a temple sacred to Ju-
piter Laphystius, which was visited by Xerxes as he passed
through the city ; some remains of the town are thought
to be still existing. Iton, about six miles west of Halos,
on the river Cuarius (Strabo), celebrated for a temple of
Minerva Itonis, who was worshipped under the same name
in Bojotia. The district of Arne, from which the ^Eolian
Boeotians were expelled by the Thessalians, is by some
supposed to have been near these towns and on the
short.-, of the Pagasaean Bay; but Miiller (Dorians, ii.
47"); adduces satisfactory reasons for believing that the
Arne, which the Thessalians first occupied, lay to the
north-west in Thessaliotis, and that it was identical with
the antient Pierium. Xorth of Halos and Iton lay Thebes,
the most important town of this part of Thessaly. It
called Phthiotic, to distinguish it from the Thebes
of Boeotia. In a military point of view it possessed con-
siderable importance, as it commanded the avenues of
Magnesia and the upper parts of Thessaly. It was once
in the occupation of the ./Etolians, but was wrested from
them by Philip, the son of Demetrius, who changed its
name to Philippopolis. According to Livy (xxxix. 25) it
was once a city of great commercial importance. Some
ruins between the modern towns of Armiro and Volo are
supposed by Sir W. Gell to be those of Thebes. They con-
; an Acropolis, with very antient walls constructed
with very large blocks ; some towers also are still standing.
The port of Thebes appears to have been Pyrasus, about
two miles and a half distant. A little south of Thebes
was Larissa Cremaste, or the Hanging, so called from its
position on the side of a hill ; it was also called the Pelas-
gian. It lay in the dominions of Achilles, whence he is
called Larissaeus by Virgil (^Eneid, ii. 198). The ruins of
ii still exist, and Sir W. Gell says of it, 'The form of La-
rissa was, like that of many very ancient Greek cities, a
triangle, with its citadel at the highest point. In the
Acropolis are the fragments of a Doric temple ; and from
it is seen the magnificent prospect of the Maliac Gulf, the
whole range of (Eta, and over it Parnassus.' Melitia
situated at the foot of Mount Othrys, on the river
Enipeus. Its antient name was Pyrrha, and it boasted of
: the tomb of Hellen, the son of Deucalion. It
.ibout a whole day's march from Pharsalus. (Thucyd.,
iv. "8.; To the north-west of Melitia lay the town of
Thaumaki or Thomoko, so called (the Wonderful) from
tin- singularity of its position on a lofty and perpendicular
rock. It «;n'<m the great road leading from Thermopylae
by Lamia to the north of Thessaly. ' After a rugged
route over hill and dale,' says Livy (xxxii. 4), ' you sud-
denly open on an immense plain like a vast sea, which
stretches below as far as the eye can reach.' Dodwell
says of it, ' It is about five hours from Pharsalia. It must
always have been a place of importance. The view from
it is one of the most wonderful and extensive I ever
beheld.'
On the west of Phthiotis, and close to it, but still sepa-
rated from it, lay the territories, of the Dolopians. Ac-
cording to Homer (II., i. 480), Dolopia was at the ex-
tremity of Phthiotis ; but it does not follow that it was in-
cluded in that district ; nor are the Dolopians in early times
ever mentioned as the vassals of the Thessalians. They
occupied the extreme south-west angle of Thessaly, formed
by the chain of Tymphrestus, a branch of Pindus, on
one side, and Mount Othrys on the other. They were
a very antient nation, as appears from their sending
deputies to the Amphictyonic council. At a later pe-
riod they were subjects of Jason, the tyrant of Pherae.
(Xenophon, Hell., vi. 1.) Afterwards the possession of
Dolopia was frequently contested between the jflitolians
and the kings of Macedon, but it was finally conquered
by Perseus, the last king of that country. The limits of
Dolopia were different at different times. Thucydides (ii.
102) seems to have extended it to the west of Pindus. It
was a rugged mountainous district, with few towns of note.
Ctemene, or Ctimene, was perhaps the most important.
Tlie /Enianes lived in the upper valley of the river
Spercheius, being separated from the Dolopes by the
hills of Tymphrestus and Othrys. They were also called
(Eteans from their position on the slopes of Mount O2ta.
They were a tribe of great antiquity and of some import-
ance, as appears from the fact of their belonging to the
Amphictyonic council. Their origin is uncertain, and
they made many migrations from one part of Thessaly
to another. Plutarch says of them that they occupied in
the first instance the Dotian plain ; after which they wan-
dered to the borders of Epirus, and finally settled to the
south of the Dolopes, with Mount O3ta for their boundary
on the south. In Strabo's time they had nearly disap-
peared, having been exterminated by the ^Etohans and
Athamanes, their neighbours on the west. Their chief
town was Hypata, on the banks of the Spercheius.
The Malians, or Melies, as they were called in the
Attic dialect, were the most southern tribe connected with
Thessaly. They occupied principally the shores of the
Maliac Gulf (the Bay of Zeitoun), from the Pass of Ther-
mopylae on the south to the northern boundary of the
valley of the Spercheius. Their country is generally flat ;
the plains in some parts are extensive, in others narrow,
where they are confined on one side by the shores of the
Maliac Gulf, and on the other by the mountains of Tra-
chinia. Thucydides divides them into three tribes, the
Paralii or Shore-men, the Hierenses or Sacerdotal, and the
Trachinians. The second of these classes probably dwelt
near the Amphictyonic temple at Thermopylae ; the third
on the rocky declivities of Mount (Eta. They were al-
ways- a warlike people, and those persons only who had
served as heavy-armed soldiers were admitted to a share of
the government. (Aristot., Polit., iv. 100.) The Amphic-
tyonic council was held in their country, and the Malians
are included in the lists of the Amphictyonic states. They
always maintained friendly relations with the Dorians of
Laeedsemon. The principal towns of the Malians were as
follows : — Anticyra, at the mouth of the Spercheius : it was
said to produce the genuine hellebore, considered by the
antients as a cure for insanity. Lamia, four or five miles
north of Anticyra : it was celebrated as the scene of
the Lamian war, carried on between the Athenians and
their confederates against the Macedonians under Anti-
pater. It is generally supposed to have occupied the site
of the modern Zeitoun. Trachis, or Trachin (the ' rough '),
was so called from the mountainous character of the sur-
rounding country : it was once the chief town of the Tra-
chinians, who were in such close alliance with the Dorians
that Diodorus (xii. 59) speaks of Traehis as the mother-
town of Laeedsemon. The friendship between Ceyx, a
Trachinian hero, and Hercules, together with that of liis
sons, is the mythological expression for this connection.
In later times Heraclea was the most important town of
Trachinia. It was a colony from Lacedi-emon, founded
(B.C. 42C) at the request of the Trachinians, about three
miles from the sea. Their object in making the request
was to gain additional strength against the ^Enianes, or
(Eteans, with whom they were at war : there was also an
old enmity between the CEteans and the Lacedaemonians.
T H i:
3S8
THE
who wen- on thU account the more readily imlu
found the colony. It toon became an object of jealousy
with the other Theasalian tribe*, who frequently hanuwed
it, and the Lacedaemonians often wnt reinforcement! toil*
support. It wan seized by Jason of Phena, who caused
the walls to be pulled down : but it again became a flou-
ruhin '.'linns who sometime* held the
general council of their nation there. It sustained a long
siege from the Roman consul Acilius Glabrio, after tli>>
defeat of king Antiochusat Thermopylie < n.r. I'.H . The
surrounding country was marshy and woody, but the \c—
tiges of the city itself, according to Sir \\'. Gel I. nrc ob-
servable on a high flat on the roots of Mount CEta. On the
coast of Trachis, close to the mouth of the small mer
Asopus, which runs through a gorge in the mountain en-
closing the Trachinian plain, was the village of Anthele,
near to which was the temple of the Amphictvonie '
and the place of meeting of the Amphictyons. This locality
was also famous for the celebrated Pass of Thermomhe.
••ry physically distinct from Thessaly,
but in historical times was subject to it, and politically in-
cluded within it. It is a narrow strip of country between
the mouth of the Peneus and 'the Pagasaean Bay on the
north and south, with the chain of Pelion and Ossa on the
west, and the sea on the east. The people of this district
were called Magnetes, and they were in possession of it
from very early times. (Iliad, ii. 7TH5.) They were an
Amphictyonie state. In the time of Thucvdides they were
dependent on the Thessalians, but they .subsequently, with
the rest of that nation, became dependent on the k!
Macedon, and continued so till the battle of Cynox-ephabr,
when they were declared independent by the Romans. The
extreme northern point of Magnesia was Mount Homole, a
limb of Ossa, celebrated by the poets as the abode of
the antient Centaurs and Lapithae, and a favourite haunt
of the god Pan. (Virgil, .l-'.m-iil. vii. G74.) To the south,
at the foot of Ossa, was Meliboea, a town on the coast,
ascribed by Homer (Iliad, ii. 716) to Philoctetes. Still
farther south was the promontory of Sepias, oft' which the
fleet of Xerxes was wrecked. Beyond the southern pro-
montory of Magnesia, now called Hagios Georgios, the
coast takes a south-westerly direction to the entrance of
the Pagasaean Bay, the Gulf of Volo. Among the principal
towns of Magnesia were Iolcos,Demetrias, and Aphetae. The
first of these was a place of great antiquity, and the birth-
place of the mythological hero Jason and his anc>
It was situated at the foot of Pelion, near the small ri\er
Anaurus : it was once a powerful city, but according to
Strabo, its downfall was hastened by civil discord and bad
government : its ruin was completed by the foundation of
Demetrias in the neighbourhood. The adjoining shore was
still called lolcos in the days of Strabo, though the town
no longer existed. Pagasap, the port of lolcos, and after-
wards of Pherse, was famed in Grecian story as the harbour
from which the ship Argo set sail on her voyage to Colchis :
the name, according to Strabo (ix., p. 430 . \v;\s derived
from the number of springs (nnyoi) near it. The site is
nearly occupied by the present castle of Vplo. Demetrias
owed its name and origin to Demetrius Poliorcetes. It was
lounded about B.C. 290, and the first population was derived
from the neighbouring towns of Nefia, Pagas;r, &c., all of
which were eventually comprised within its territory. It
soon became a flourishing citv. and was one of the most im-
portant fortresses in Greece, being well situated for defend-
ing the approaches to the Pass of Tempe, both on tl
of the mountains and of the plains. Its maritime posi-
tion also contributed to its importance, Eubcea, Attica, and
Peloponnesus being easily accessible from it. After the
battle of Cynoscephalae it became the chief town of the
Magnesian 'republic, and the sent of government : sub-
sequently it was at tached to Die house of Macedon, until
the battle of Pydna, when it fell under the Romans.
xliv. 13.) In the time of Strabo it had lost much oi' iN
splendour, but it was still the' nio-t considerable town of
that part of Thessaly. Sir W. Cell thus speaks of its modem
— ' Pass the ruins of a gate and the walls of nn an-
'•r ruins mark the site of a large place
f Asia Minor was a colony
from the The*salian Magnesia, [ANATOLIA.]
principal -the
he north ; 1'indiis, on the west ; the ridges
Kta, on the couth ; and those of Pelion and
OM, on the east.
The Oambunian range wax a branch from Mount Pindua,
running in a dir ly nt right angles to it, and
separating Thessaly from M Hi -lodotus ine>
tins chain under the name of Olympus. The principal
road between the two countries over the mountains was
by the Pass of Vohtstana, marked in modern maps a.* Vo-
lutza. Another important defile, leading from Thessaly
into Macedonia, passed by Pythium, n village with a
temple sacred to the Pythian Apollo, situate on Mount
Olvmpus, at the north ca'-t extremity of the ran
Through this latter defile many armies marched in
antient times. Thus Xerxes is said by Herodotus (vii.
l:i'Ji to have crossed over Mount Olympus from Upper
ionia into the country of the Perrhapbi in Thessaly.
The road which led through. Thessaly to this Pylhium was
called the Via Pythia ; and, as Pouqueville states, the
shrine of Apollo may have been succeeded by » chapel,
'•reeled on the highest summit of Olympus 'A. D! 1HK) .and
dedicated to the prophet Klias. Tin- defile is still much
frequented by travellers going to Larissa from the north-
u parts of Macedonia. Mount Olympus itself is
one of the most celebrated mountains ofGi . ially
in mythology, the stories of which represented it as being
the habitation of the Gods, where Jupiter sat shrouded in
cloud and mist from the eyes of mortals. It dividi
north-east of Thessaly, or Perrhaebia, from Pieria, the ex-
tremity of Macedonia on the south-east. It i
height of about OTKX) Knglish feet, and the highest parts of
^carcely ever entirely free from snow. The part of
the Cambunian range which lies to the west of Olympus
was called Mount Titarus, an outlier or limb of which,
Mount Cyphus, rises in the upper valley of the Pern
Mount Pindus, the western boundary of Th>
part of the range of mountains which issues from the
Thracian Scomius, and forms what may be called the
Greek Apennines. On the north it joins the Illyrian and
Macedonian ranges, and to the south it is connected with
the branches of CEla and the jUtolian and Acarnanian
mountains. It separates the waters which fall into the
Ionian Sea and the Ambraciau Gulf (now the Gulf of v
from those which empty themseKcs into the northern part,
of the ^Egean. The most frequented pass over Pindus from
Thosaly into Epirus lay over a part of it called Mount
ins, probably not far from the modern town of Me-
rzovo. One of the highest points of Mount Pindus was
Tymphrestus, forming its southern extremity, from which
branched the ridge of Mount Othrys, clo>ing the great lias
of Thessaly on the south, and separating '
which flow into the Peneus from those which run into the
southern Spercheius. Its eastern extremity separates the
Maliac from the Pagassean Gulf, sinking gently toward the
coast. It is often celebrated by the poets of antiquity.
It is now known by the different names of Ildlovo. Vari-
bovo, and Goura. To the south of Othrys lay the ridge of
IKla. which however has no connection with Tin
Proper. It is a huge pile of mountains stretching from Pin-
dcis to the sea, which it meets at the Pass of Thenn<>p\ he ;
it forms the inner barrier of Greece, as the Canilmniaii
range does the outer, to which it is nearh parallel in d
tion and equal in height. On the wot it branchc-
into the country of the Dorians and into yKtolia. On Hie
south-c;i-t. beginning from Mount Callidromus, the hi:
summit of the range, it is continued without, interruption
along the coast of the Eubcean Sea. till it -inks into the
\alley of the river Asopus. By means of imot!
to the south-west, it is connected with Parnassus, and after
skirting the Corinthian Gulf under the names of Cirphu
!lelicon, it forms the northern boundary of Attica,
the names of Cit heron and Pni
I'd' "n of some extent, running from the south-
east extremity of the lake called Uoebcis to th
south Of Magnesia, I'orminga part of the' bounda
saly on the ea»t. Homer (J/iod, ii. 743 i the
f the Centaurs, and it was associated with •
events m Grecian :rment of
Dicaearchus contains a description of Mount I'clion.aud its
botanical productions, which appear to have been very
numerous. It was exceedingly well wooded. To the
north of Pelion and following the line oi the coast h.
chain of Ossa (now Ki M' which mute with
one of the bran> 'n. At its northern
extremity it towers into at-: \\ peak, and ac<
ing to the songs of the country, rivals its neighbour Olym
T H E
359
THE
pus in the .depth and duration of its snows, though it i
1100 feet less in height. Between Ossa and Olympus lie;
the celebrated Vale and Pass of Tempe (or the Cut), thi
Turkish name of which is Bogaz (or the Pass). [TEMPE.]
The two principal rivers of Thessaly into which t.h(
smaller streams fall are the Peneus and the Spercheius. Thi
Peneus rises in the north-west of Thessaly under Pindus
between the lower ridges of which and the outliers of tin
Cambunian range its upper valleys are confined. Nea;
Meteora, not far from the rocky Ithome of Homer, its basii
opens somewhat towards the south. At Tricca it makes a
turn to the east, and its valley expands into a vast plain
towards the south-east, on the right of the river, though i
is still confined by the hills on the left, till within abow
10 miles from Larissa, where there is a considerable flat
on the north, the soil of which is said to be alluvial
After leaving Tricca the course is generally north-east, anc
passing along the Vale of Tempe, the only outlet for the
waters of Thessaly, it empties itself into the /Egean Sea,
Though fed by the most considerable rivers of Thessaly..
it is a very small stream, and generally sluggish and shai-
Ipw, except after the melting of the snows, when it some-
times floods the surrounding plains. The Marsh or Lake
Ni'sonis, on the road between Larissa and Gonnus, is said
to be caused by the floods of the river. The principal
tributary of the Peneus on the north is the Titaresius, now
the Saranta Poros. It was said to rise in Mount Titarus,
a part of the Cambunian range, and it joins the Peneus a
little above the Vale of Tempe. The waters of the two
rivers did not however mingle ; those of the Titaresius
being impregnated with a fat unctuous substance, which
floated like oil on the surface. (Strabo, ix., p. 441.) This
river was also called the Eurptas, and supposed to be a
branch of the Styx, one of the rivers of the Infernal Regions.
At the present day the inhabitants of its banks are remark-
able for their healthy complexion, while the Peneus is sur-
rounded by a sickly population. Its waters also are said to
be clear and dark-coloured, while those of the Peneus are
muddy and white. (Miiller, Dorians, b. i., c. 1, s. 6.) On
the south the affluents of the Peneus were more numerous.
The principal of them were, the Pamisus, the Onochonus,
the Eniptus, and the Apidanus. The Pamisus joins the
Peneus to the east of Tricca, and is probably the modern
Fanari. The Enipeus, rising in Mount Othrys, flowed from
mth-west of Phthiotis and fell into the Apidanus. It
is now called the river of Goura. The Apidanus is now the
Vlacho lani. Herodotus describes it as one of the largest
rivers of Achaia, but still inadequate to the supply of the
Persian army with water.
The second great river of Thessaly was the Spercheius,
now the Hellada. It flows from Tymphrestus, a branch of
Pindus, and after winding through a long narrow vale
between the ridges of Othrys and CEta, it falls into the
Maliac Gulf. It was much celebrated by the antient poets,
and Homer mentions it as belonging to the territory of
Achilles round the Maliac Gulf. Its bed and mouth have
undergone many changes from the deposit of alluvial
matter. (Gt-11, Itiner., p. 216.)
•'Ix <>f Thennaly. — The principal road was that which
led from Larissa to Thermopylae, by Pharsalus, Thaumaku
and Lamia. From the same point another road branched
off to Crannon, Pherse, Demetrias, and along the shores of
the Pagasaean and Maliac bays, terminating likewise at
Thermopylae. From Larissa again there was another route
by the valley of the Peneus as far as Gomphi, the general
direction of which was from east to west. From Gomphi
it crossed the chain of Pindus by the Pass of Clinovo to
Ambracia and Nicopolis.
The islands connected with Thessaly are very few. They
consist of a group lying off the Magnesian coast, and
stivtchini: in a north-easterly direction towards Mount
Athos and the isle of Lemnos.
The plains of Thessaly, with the exception of those of
Baeotia, were amongst the most fertile and productive of
Greece in wine, oil, and grain, but more especially in
grain, of which it exported a considerable quantity. The
alians consequently became very rich, and luxurious
in their mode of life (At/ten., xii. 624) ; and so notorious
were they for it, that they were charged with having en-
couraged'^ the Persians to invade Greece, with a view of
rivalling them in sensuality and extravagance. Thcssuly
was also famous for its cavalry, the best in Greece : its
plpins supplied abundance of forage for horses.
The lands of Thessaly were not cultivated by the Thes-
salians themselves, but by a subject population, the Pe-
nestae. The account given of them is, that they were the
descendants of the ^Eolian Boeotians, who did not emigrate
when their country was conquered by the Thessalians, but
surrendered themselves to the conquerors on condition
that they should remain in the country and cultivate the
land for the new owners of the soil, paying, by way of rent,
a portion of its produce. Many of them were richer than
their lords. (Athenaeus, vi., p. 264.) They sometimes
accompanied their masters to battle, and fought on horse-
back as their knights or vassals. They formed a consider-
able portion of the population, and frequently attempted
to emancipate themselves.
History of Thessaly. — The earliest information about
the history of Thessaly is given by Homer (Iliad, ii. 710),
who describes the country as divided into several inde-
pendent principalities and kingdoms, and enumerates the
chiefs to whom they were subject at the time of the Trojan
war. This arrangement however was not of long continu-
ance, and a new constitution, dating probably from that
epoch, was adopted, as it would seem, by the common
consent of the different states. They agreed to unite in
one confederate body, under a president or Tagus, elected
by the members of the confederacy. Strabo (ix. 429) in-
forms us that this confederacy was the most considerable
as well as the most antient society of the kind established
in Greece. Whether it was in any way connected with
the Amphictyonic body cannot be determined with cer-
tainty, but it is deserving of remark that the majority of
the A-mphictyonic states were either Thessalian or in
some way connected with Thessaly. It does not however
seem that this confederation was productive of any great
benefit to the country ; for, except during a very short
period, under Jason of Pherse, Thessaly never assumed
that rank among the states of Greece to which it was by
its position and extent entitled. Many of the cities more-
over were from time to time in the power of usurpers, or
under the sway of powerful families, so that the nation had
no means of acting as a body. One remarkable instance
of this occurred at the time of the Persian war, when the
Thessalian house of the Aleuadae, the princes of Larissa
(Herodotus, vii. 6, calls them kings of Thessaly), either
because they thought their power insecure, or with a view
to increase it by becoming vassals of the Persian king, in-
vited Xerxes to the conquest of Greece. That the Thes-
salian nation was in general opposed to their schemes
appears from the fact that the Thessalians applied to the
other states of Greece for assistance against Xerxes, and
wished them, in conjunction with themselves, to oppose
tim at the Pass of Tempe. The confederate Greeks did
not think it expedient to do this, believing it impossible
;o make any effectual resistance to the north of Thermo-
pylae ; and the Thessalians, being left to their own re-
sources, submitted to the invaders, to whom they proved
active and zealous allies. A few years before this they
lad sustained a severe defeat from the Phocians, which
aggravated the rancour of an old enmity. The Thessn-
ians, who were eager to take vengeance for this defeat,
availed themselves of their influence with Xerxes to direct
lis march through Phocis, and to stimulate his fury against
he inhabitants (B.C. 480). After the Persian invasion,
;he Greek historians take little notice of the affairs of
Phessaly, except on the occasion of the expedition under-
aken by the Athenians for the purpose of reinstating
3restes, son of Echecratidas, a king of Thessaly, as Thu-
cydides (i. Ill) calls him, who had been banished from his
country. The Athenian general Myronides marched on
hat occasion as far as Pharsalus ; but he was checked in
lis progress by the Thessalians, who were superior in ca-
valry ; and he was forced to retire, without having accom-
)lished the objects of his expedition. In the Peloponnesian
var the Thessalians did not as a nation take any part,
hough several of the towns were in favour of the Athe-
nians, between whom and the Thessalians there was an old
alliance. It would seem moreover that the bias of the
nation was in favour of the Athenians, for Brasidas, the
Spartan general, was obliged to march through Thessaly
B.C. 424) with secrecy and dispatch when traversing that
jountry on his march towards Thrace. (Thucyd., iv. 78.)
Vot long afterwards, some troops which were sent out
>y the Lacedaemonians to reinforce their army in that
[uarter, were so vigorously opposed by the Thessalians,
THE
seo
T 11 K
that : ilocl to return liumc without" having ]
•.Mon. in n. i. rim tin- i
111 lengue with tlio Roeotians nnd their allies, who
hud formed a hostile cunlcdc, -! Sparta. The
Spartans thought it necessary to H c.il from Asia their great
commander Agexilaus, and on hw way home he 1
uiarrh through Thessaly. The Thessalians, with their
cavalry, endeavonitd to harass and obstruct linn mi Ins
mnrrli. His skilful man-i 'ever thwarted tlu-ir
is gained considerable credit liy dc-
,- on their own ground, with horsemen of hi-' own
training, the most renowned cavalry ol' Greece. Kill while
Sparta was struggling against the coalition of which
Thebes was the head, Thessaly was assuming a new po-
sition among the states of Greece. To explain this we
must observe, that though a. kind of ]>olitical and national
unity was nominally acknowledged among the states of
Thessaly, still the country had very seldom been united
under one government. A few great families, such as life
ulii-and the Aleuadse, were sometimes able 1o extend
their influence even beyond the cities of Larissa, Crannon,
and Pharsalus, about which their possessions lay. Occa-
sionally one of them was raised to the dignity of Tagns;
but their power was always liable to be overthrown, even
in their own eities. Towards the close and after the end
of the Peloponnesiaii war, most of the cities acknow-
ledged the ascendency of Pharsalus or 1'hene, the latter of
which was, about B.C. 400, under the dominion of Lyco-
phron. This prince endeavoured to extend his power over
all Thessaly : and Xenophon (Ilrtli'ii., ii. 4 mentions a
victory which he gained over the Thcssalians of Larissa
as one" of the events which happened in the year of the
fall of Athens (B.C. 404) ; but he does not state what were
the resulls of it. Ten years afterwards Lycophron was
still engaged in a contest with Larissa, then subject to
Medius, who was probably one of the Aleuadse. Lyco-
phron was supported by Sparta, and Medius by the Bosotian
confederacy, by the assistance received from which he was
enabled to" make himself master of Pharsalus, then occu-
pied by a Lacedaemonian garrison.
The success of Agesilaus on his return from Asia pro-
duced some change in the affairs of Thessaly, for Pharsalus
soon recovered its independence, and rose to such eminence
as to become a rival of Pheroe. It did not however con-
tinue, as of old, under the power of the Scopadse : it was
divided between contending factions, which, for the sake
of peace, agreed to place themselves under the power of
a person named Polydamas, whose character and \iitue
had gained the confidence of all parties. (Thirlwall, ///.»/.
of Gri'iii', vol. v., p. iju'.'i Polydamas was accordingly en-
trusted with the citadel and the administration of the
revenues of the city, a trust which he discharged with the
strictest integrity.
At Pherse the supreme power passed into the hands of
Jason, who was probably the son of Lycophron, and cer-
tainly the inheritor of his ambitious views, which however
he enlarged into more comprehensive schemes, and, with
superior energy and talents, possessed greater means of
realizing. He kept a standing army of 6000 mercenaries,
all picked men ; and, notwithstanding the opposition of
Phiusalus, he compelled most of the principal Thcssalian
• to enter into alliance with him: moreover, his sv.av
was acknowledged by several of the neighbouring tribes.
The leading states «\ Greece were wasting their strength
in a protracted warfare, and whichever way he turned his
eyes he perceived, or imagined that he perceived, facilities
for gaining the objects of his ambition, namely, the su-
premacy of Greece, and the overthrow of the Persian em-
pire in the Kast ; the same schemes in fact as were sub-
sequently executed by Alexander, king of Mneedon. The
first objects which he had to gain were the title of Tagns,
and the union of Thessaly under his authority. To ;
plish the latter project it was necessary to gain by per-
suasion, or overpower by force, Polydamas, the governor
of Pharsalus. Jason adopted the former method, and.
after a frank statement of his views, prevailed upon PuU-
dama* to second them. A compact was then made be-
tween them; and Polydamas exerted hi- influence so suc-
cewfnlly in Jason's behalf, that the Phai-
indnced to enter into an alliance with him, and to join in
a general pacification, which immediately followed. Not
lAerwardt Jaaonwu either elected Tagua, or assumed
the title, without any opposition, and, by his influence and
.al important . induct d '.
confcdn.i. \ . lie then fixed t' .'iliy
and cavalry to be furnished by the ditlVient states, and
aised them to a .lom'it than they had i vet been
:iy which he could I
. 8000 cavalry and mine than 'JI.IHK) hcavy-
11 mid infantry : and his light tii»>
vi. 1, i. pose the world. For
their maintenance he revived the tribute which
imposed on the subject tribes of the'l i
one of his piedecessors. The extensive coasts ofTheasaly,
its fore , llent ship-limber, and his Kigc KM
also enabled him to raise a considerable fleet, which lie
had no difficulty in manning from (he Pci.. !>ject
population of the country. H:- in fact weie in
every respect so great, that Thcssaly seemed
under him, to become both by sea and land the leading
p«-wer of Greece, and e\en his" projected conquest o!
ua no longer impracticable. Hut these schemes were too
vast for the ordinary duration of a human life, though be
kept them constantly in view, and made all his actions
uciit to them. An instance of this occurs in his
conduct alter the battle of Leuctra, in which the Th.
•ed the Lacedaemonian^, and then invited him to
join them in overpowering Laccdicmon. Jason joined
them with his forces, but lie did not comply with their
request. His policy was to keep an even balance between
the two states, 80 as to ensure the dependence of both on
himself, and therefore, instead of annihilating the power
of Sparta, be offered his services as a mediator between
the contending states, and obtained a truce for the I
daeroonians, under favour of which the remnant of their
forces decamped by night (B.C. 371). In the follow in:;
year Jason's career was terminated, lie hud made
parations for an expedition to the south of Greece, and
had ordered a levy of troops, declaring at the same time
his intention of marching to Delphi and presiding over
the Pythian games: but before the time car.ie he was
•mated by seven young men ; and the honours which
were paid in many of the Grecian cities to tlu
showed the alarm which his ambition had excited. On
the death of Jason, Thessaly relapsed into its former i
nificance, though his dynasty survived him, and two of his
brothers, Polydorus and Polyphron, for a short time shared
his authority between them. Polydorus v
sinated, and Polyphron became sole Tagus. 15y his ad-
ministration the office was changed into a tyranny, and he
put to death Polydamas and eight other principal ci;
of Pharsalus. After a reign of one year, he was murdered
by liis nephew Alexander, who thus gained the govern-
ment, in which he became infamous for his crneltv. The
atrocities which he committed filled all his subjects with
terror, but especially the antient families, who were likely
to be the objects of his jealousy. The Aleuada; of I
accordingly applied to Alexander, the then king of Maec-
don, who, on being thus invited by the Tl com-
plied with their request. He defeated the tyrant, and
took possession of Larissa and its citadel, and afterws
Crannon, and garrisoned both with his troops. The affairs
of his own kingdom however obliged him to withdraw
from Thessaly , and the Thcssnlians. being tlms exposed to
the vengeance of Alexander, solicited aid (B.C. 3CS from
the Thcbans. who accordingly sent Pelopidas to assist them.
The tyrant granted him an interview, which ended in Pelo-
pidas settling the affairs of the country on an apparently
firm footing. Hut the order which he hail establislu
soon deranged by the i onduct of Alexander ; and the
Thcbans, on being applied to again, sent out IVlu
with his friend Ismenias, but simply in the charm;
ambassadors, and without troops. They imprudently put
themselves into the power of the tyrant, who threw them
into prison. To rescue them and avenge the insult, '1 !
sent out an army, which however was reduced to such a
strait by bis cavalry, that it was obliged to ictuat, and
but for the interference of Epaminondas, who accompanied
it, though not as general, it would have hi . i-d.
In the following year :,n.r. :t(i~ an army was again sent
out under Kpaminondas, through fear of whom the pri-
soners were released. Subsequently Alexander renewed
his attacks on the liberty of the Tln-s-aliau cities, and
greatly extended his dominion in the tributary districts.
The 'I : appealed to the Thcbans, and Pelo-
pidas was sent out to aid them (B.C. 304), who fell in his
THE
361
THE
first battle, in which however Alexander was defeated. The
campaign ended in the tyrant being obliged to resign his
conquests, withdraw his troops from Phthiotis and Mag-
nesia, and enter into alliance with Thebes. Still Alexander
did not cease to be an object of hatred and dread to his sub-
jects and foreigners, by his cruelties and piracies, and at
last his wife Thebc conspired with her three half-brothers
to murder him. (B.C. 339.) They effected their purpose, and
one of them, Tisiphonus, under the direction and with the
:ion of Thebe, assumed the government. But his
reign lasted a very short time : for towards the end of B.C.
\ve find Lycophron, another of the brothers, at the
head of affaire. The new dynasty however seems to have
been as unpopular with the'fhessalians as the old one, and
accordingly, with the Aleuadae at their head, they applied
to Philip, king of Macedon, and requested his assistance.
Lycophron applied to his allies, the Phocians, the antient
enemies of the Thessalians, at that time under the com-
mand of Onomarchus. Philip invaded Thessaly, and, after
gaining some success, wa.s obliged to retire ; but he shortly
aids returned at the head of a large army, and made
himself master of the whole country, Lycophron withdraw-
ing into Phocis. Philip wished to be considered as a
liberator; and accordingly he restored popular govern-
ment at Pherte (Diodorus, xvi. 38), though he kept posses-
sion of its port Pagasse, and garrisoned Magnesia with his
own troops. The important services which he thus ren-
dered to the Thessalians secured their attachment to his
intere-ts, and, in addition to this, afforded him the opppr-
luiiit . :ic a strong footing in the country, of which
he diil not fail to avail himself. It would appear however
'Thirl'.vall, ///*/. of Greece, vol. vi., p. 12; that about B.C.
:)H, either the tyiants of Pherae or their party there had
:,icd their ascendency, and Philip i was again invited
fu dislodge them. This he effected with ease, and then
:nself of the opportunity to make Thessaly en-
lirely subservient to his interests, and in fact to render it
virtually a province of Macedonia. After expelling the
dynasty of the tyrants, he garrisoned the citadel of Pherae
v.ith his own troops, to prevent, as he gave it out, any
chance of their restoration to power. He also strengthened
his own authority by effecting what was professedly a
(i to the antient order of things in Thessaly. This
vival of the tctradarchies as political divisions
of the- country, for though this antient division into four
districts still sub>Uted, it had long been rather a geogra-
phical than a political arrangement. At the head of the
four governments he placed his devoted adherents, the
chiefs of the Aleuad party, so that they were in reality his
viceroys or deputies. The result is described by Demos-
thene- 'ili/nlli.. i. 23j as amounting to a total subjection
of the land to Philip, whom it supplied with excellent and
numerous troops ; besides which, he not only received the
.our duties and customs of the country, but also appro-
priated to himself the tribute which had always been paid
to Larissa by her subject Perrhsebian cantons. (Strabo,
ix., p. 440.) On his death the states of Thessaly passed a
decree confirming to his son Alexander the supreme sta-
tion which Philip had held in their councils, and also
Minified their intention of supporting his claim to the
title of commander-in-chief of the whole Grecian con-
federacy. Immediately after the death of Alexander (B.C
.'J'23 , a confederacy was formed against the Macedonians
l.y the Athenians and other states of Greece, which the
in were induced to join. Antipater, the viceroy
!;u-edonia, was unable to raise an army sufficiently
liirge to cope with the confederacy, and after a battle, in
which some Thessalians deserted him and caused his de-
feat, he retired to Lamia, a town of Tlie.ssaly, where he
lioicgcd for some time by Leosthenes, the Athenian
general. The siege was however raised by Leonnatus, an
eminent Macedonian general, and some additional rein-
forcement under Craterus enabled him to bring to a suc-
t'ul issue what was called the Lamian war, in which
the ; s took a very prominent part, and which
nearly proved fatal to the Macedonian influence not only
in Thesealy, but over the whole continent of Greece.
Thessaly was thus preserved to the Macedonian crown till
the reign of Philip, son of Demetrius, from whom it was
taken by the Romans after the battle of Cynoscephalae
Hi? . All The.i.-iily was then declared free (Liv.,
xxxiii. 32; by a decree of the Roman senate and people,
but from that time it may be considered as under the
P. C., No. 1533.
dominion of Rome, though its possession was disputed by
Antiochus (Liv., xxxvi. 9), and again by Perseus, son of
Jhilip, between whom and the Romans it was the arena
of more than one conflict. It w-as already a Roman pro-
vince when the fate of the empire of the universe was
decided by the battle between Pompey and Caesar on the
>lains of Pharsalus.
The slave-merchants of Greece were generally Thessa-
ians. (Aristophanes, Plutus, 517.) Their chief slave-
narket was Pagasse, the port of Pherae.
(Clarke, Dodwell, and Gell's Travels ; Leake's Travels
'n Northern Greece ; Thirlwall, History of Greece ; Cra-
mer, Antient Greece, vol. iii., p. 343 ; Wachsmuth, Helle-
tische Alterthumskunde, vol. i., p. 65.)
THETFORD, a small parliamentary borough, partly in
he hundred of Grimshoe, in the county of Norfolk, partly
n Lackford hundred, in the county of Suffolk, 88 miles
rom London by the Norwich mail-road through Wood-
brd, Epping, Bishop Stortford, Newmarket, and Bury St.
Edmunds ; and 30 miles from Norwich by Attleburgh. It
las been confidently asserted that Thetford existed in the
ime of the Romans, or even antecedent to their arrival ;
:>ut it cannot be identified with any of their towns that
lave been mentioned in antient recoids. Plot and Blome-
ield attempted to fix here the Sitomagus of the ' Antonino
Itinerary ;' others have proposed to fix here the Iciani of the
Itinerary,' but without any solid ground for their opinion.
The Ikeneld or Icknield Street or Way, and a road called
:he Peddar or leddar Way, crossed the Little Ouse above
Thetford, but not very near it. Blomefield describes some
traces of fortifications as existing in his time, but it is not
clear that they were Roman. Some coins of the earlier
emperors, from Claudius to Antoninus Pius, have been
found. Under the East Angles it was a place of im-
portance : a synod was held here A.D. GG9. When the
Danes invaded England in the reign of Ethelred I., they
fixed their head-quarters, A.D. 870, at Thetford (called in
the Saxon Chronicle, Theodford, Theotford, and Theot-
forda ; and by other old writers Tedford and Thedford),
which they sacked : and it is likely that the battle in
which they defeated Edmund, king of the East Angles, was
fought not far off. There appears to have been an abbey
near the town at an early period, for king Edred, the grand •
son of Alfred the Great (A.D. 952), 'ordered a great
slaughter to be made in the town of Theotforda, in revenge
of the abbot, whom they had formerly slain.' (Saxon
Chronicle; Florence of Worcester.) In the reign of
Ethelred II. the town was burnt by the Danes (A.D. 1004)
under Sweyne, but on their return to their ships they were
intercepted by the Anglo-Saxons under Ulfkytel, and did
not make good their retreat without serious loss. They
burned the town again A.D. 1010. In A.D. 1075 the bish-
opric of the East Angles was transferred from North Elm-
ham to Thelford, but remained there not twenty years,
being transferred (A.D. 1094) to Norwich. At this time
Thetford was a town of considerable size and importance ;
it was a burgh with 944 burgesses in the time of Edward
the Confessor ; but at the time of the Domesday Survey
there were only 720 burgesses, 224 houses being unin-
habited. It gave name to the hundred in which it stood.
After the removal of the bishopric to Norwich, or perhaps
before, a Cluniac priory was founded here, the revenues of
which at the dissolution were 418/. C*. 3d. gross, or
312/. 14*. 4|rf. clear. There was also a house of canons,
which was afterwards a nunnery, a Dominican friary, and
several smaller religious houses or hospitals. Thetford was
the seat of one of the suffragan bishoprics established by
Henry VIII. There have been as many as twenty churches ;
thirteen are mentioned in Domesday.
The borough of Thetford, according to the Population
Returns for 1831, comprehends three parishes, with an
area of 8270 acres, and a population of 34G2. The parishes
of St. Cuthbert and St. Mary are very much inter-
mingled, and are partly in Suffolk and partly in Norfolk :
the whole of the other parish (St. Peter) is in Norfolk.
The town is chiefly on the north-east or Norfolk bank
of the Little Ouse ; a smaller part is on the opposite
or Suffolk bank. The town is irregularly built, and is
neither paved, watched, nor lighted, but has a neat
and clean appearance. It has no manufactures, but there
is a good deal of malting, and the trade of the place
is favoured by the river being navigable up to the town,
by means of which an export of agricultural produce and
VOL. XXIV.— 3 A
T II i:
THE
an import of coal are carried on. St. Peter's church
•uts of a nave with two aisle*, chancel, and tower : the. last
rebuilt A.D. 17H9. The antient part M built chiefly of flint,
whence it hu obtained the name of -the black church.'
St. Cuthbert's churvh in of ordinary stnu-turc: it hat an
lower. Both the»e churches are in Norl'oi
Mar)1'* it on the Suffolk Mtlr of the river, and U meanly
There K g-houses for Wealeyans, Inde-
pendents, and Quaker*; ami a Human Catholic chapel.
Considerable remain* of the Cluniac priory, especially the
antient gateway, "till exist on the north-west wde of t he-
town. There are also Rome considerable remains of th.
nunnery, comprehending the chapel and the ruins of some
other parts, at what is called Thetford-place Farm, on the
Suffolk side of the river, south of the town; and some
•her religious structures of the middle ages. The
grammar-school is an antient building.
The boroueh. as we have seen, in as old as the time of
Edward the Confessor : under the Muntaipa] K.-i .rm Act
it has four aldermen and twelve councillors, but is not to
haw- a commission of the peace, except on petition and
(punt. It tir>t sent members to parliament in the time of
Edward VI., and still returns two: the borough limits
were not altered by the Boundary Act. There were 158
voters in 1835-6, and m) in MM*
The livings of St. Mary and St. Peter are rectories, of the
clear yearly value of 031, and 65/. respectively ; that of St.
Cuthberi is a perpi-tuHl curacy, of the clear yearly x aim- of
fWl/. : all are in the rural deanery of Thetford, and the
archdeaconry and diocese of Norwich. There wen- in the
borough Ut 1883, thirteen day-schools. with from :r>7 to
387 scholars, namely. 121 boys, 69 to 79 girls, and 1CS chil-
dren of sex not stated : and three Sunday-schools, with U'.CJ
scholars, namely, 180 boys and 213 girls!
• Hlomefield's Eftrtoryq/ .\>,rfi,/ft ; Martin's History of
Thftfnnl : I'urUamfntary Papert.)
THETIS, Mr. Sowerby's name for a genus of fossil
-h.-lls, said to resemble Martra, but not to have the inter-
nal ligament. It is described as having several small
acuminated teeth, but no lateral teeth ; so that it in some
degree resembles Tallinn without the posterior plication.
THK'VKNOT. MELCHI8KDKC, is -aid by all his bio-
graphers to have died at the age of 71 ; and as his death
happened in 1(>!)2. this places his birth in the year KJ21.
An entry in the printed catalogue of TheVenot's library
informs us that he was uncle of the traveller Jean The-
venot, but beyond this we know nothing of his family or
circumstances. It is probable however, from the respect-
able missions to which he was appointed at an early age,
from the large library he collected, and from his being
•<> devote himself to literary pursuits while apparently
in the receipt of no pension, that his family was wealthy
and v
M veral countries
rope, but the earliest incidents of his life concerning
which we have positive and authentic accounts are those
mentioned in the brief autobiographical sketch prefixed to
the printed catalogue of his library. He tells us that on his
return from travelling in 1(547, he was nominated resident
at Genoa, but that the troubles of the Fronde interfering
to prevent his taking possession of the post, he continued
to follow the court till 1652. He was then sent to Rome.
where he continued nearly three yean; and being there
at the commencement of the conclave which elected
indi-r VII., the royal instructions respecting the part
France intended to take on that occasion were addressed
to him till the time of M. de Lionne's arrival. Thevcimt
alludes in mysterious phrase to a delicate and dangerous
commission with which he was intrusted after the termi-
nation of the conclave, which he says he discharged to the
perfect satisfaction of Mazarin and the other mii:
He attended Mazarin during the campaign in Flanders,
On his return to Paris, Thevenot devoted himself en-
tirely to study. Fremcle, a mathematician, and Stenon, a
naturalist, resided with him ; and in the house adjoining ln-
own he entertained a person to conduct chenu>
menU. The meetings of scientific men which h:t<!
held in the house* of Pere Mervenne and Montmort were
transferred to TMvenot's mansion. The expenses thus
incurred proved too heavy for In- means, and lie proposed
to Colbert the establishment of a public and permanent
of scientific men under the patronage of
the king. The suggestion accorded with the mini-
inclinations, and a grand academy was project cd, intended
to embrace every branch of knowledge. The 1
library was to be the pla
were to assemble there on • d Tlmrsd:.
every week ; the amateurs of the i - on the
Tuesdays and Fridays : the mat' tural
philosophers on the Wednesdays and Saturdays; and ge-
neral assemblies of all the three clam - M on
the first Thursday of every month. 'Hie historical
was allowed to drop, it being feared that its inquiries
might occasion dangerous discussions : the Academic Fran-
caise, instituted by Richelieu, remonstrat. • the
foundation of another literary academy; anil th
of Colbert's plan that was realised was the ' Academic dcs
Science*,' which commenced operations in the month of
June, 1066. Thevenot did not become a member of the
Academy till 1685.
He had in the mean time however been diligently pro-
secuting his favourite studies. 'Each of our cum]
he says, 'had his task and occupation : mine was to collect
and publish in French whatever useful arts we:.
among other nations. About this time I invented an air-
lev el, of which I caused the description to be printed, and
it is now acknowledged to be the most accurate that ha-
yet been tried. To render geography more perfect. I col-
lected and published three large volumes of a collection
of voyages, upon which I had been working for some time.
I had the honour to present them to the King, who exa-
mined them for nearly half an hour, and.
veral finest ions, commanded me to continue the
M. Colbert informed me that he had his majc-ty's orders
to furnish me with everything necessary to carry 01.'
design." This distribution of tasks took place about
before the Academy had received its definitive constitu-
tion. The first volume of The'venot's Voyages was pulv-
lishcd at Paris, in Hi(i2. The author's preface announces
a translation of the Voyages nnd Travels published b\
Hakluyt and Purchas. with the addition of some \
lations from the Oriental languages. The second volume
appeared in HXH : tl •• intimate*, that for tl:-
of the numerous trading companies that have of late been
formed in the kingdom, he has added an account of the
present state of the Indies, noting the principal
mercial establishments and places of resort of the Hutch
and Portuguese; a report from one of tl T the
Dutch Fast India. Company to the < M ex-
tract of a letter from the governor-general of tin-
India Company of France. The third volume
lished in 1066, and the fourth in 1072. In the pref:i
the fourth volume The'venot informs the reader ilia-
constant discovery of travels which had escaped )r,
search has obliged him to abandon the attempt to cl
the voyages inserted in his collection, so that all rcl-
to one quarter of the world should appear together. 'I
four volumes were in folio ; and during the remainder of
his life TheVcnot published in the same form a number
of separate accounts of voyages, which, together with -
left half printed at his death, were bulky enough to form a
fifth volume. The edition of his collection printed after his
death at Paris, in 1696, professes to contain all these mis-
cellanea, but a complete copy is rarely to be met with.
In 1683 Thevr-not published a small book in 12mo., en-
titled « Recueil de Voyages de M. Th6venot.' It contains
•A Discourse on the Art of Navigation, with some Problems
which may supply in part the deficiencies of this useful
art." Among these problems he has inserted an account
of the level above alluded to. The same volume contains
an account of the museum of Swammerdam, with .some
memoirs by that naturalist, said on the special title-page
to be ' Extracted, together with the travels which precede
it, from the Transactions of the Society which met at the
house of M. The'venot.' It will be advisable to conclude
the narrative of The'vcnot's life before attempting to pro-
nounce judgment on the merits of his publications.
Colbert died in 1(>H3. and I... ceding to the
office of superintendent of buildings, succeeded likewise to
the management of the royal library, which was regarded
Ur to that minister'.- department. Louvois aj)-
•1 his son, afterwards known a- the Abln' Lonvois,
who was then only nine \. . litnanan. It was
necessary to find juvenile an officer: the
Abb* Vares was first appointed, but he dying in Septcm-
THE
363
THE
ber, 1684, the office was conferred upon Thevenot, on the
understanding that such of his books as were not already
in the royal library were to be purchased for it. The zeal
which Colbert had manifested at the outset of his ministerial
career for the augmentation of the royal collection had
abated for some years before his death : from 1673 till his
death no important acquisitions had been made. TheVenot
found the library extremely deficient in English, German,
and Dutch works, and he obtained permission to make
arrangements for procuring from those countries their his-
tories, laws, and accounts of their customs; in short,
everything calculated to convey information regarding
their governments and transactions. The inquiry after
Greek and Oriental MSS. in the Levant, begun by Colbert,
was continued by Louvois ; and Thtvenot, by that mini-
- directions, prepared and transmitted instructions to
Messrs. Girardin and Galland and the Pdre Besnier for the
prosecution of the search. It was also at his suggestion that
a native of China, who had brought some Chinese books to
Home, was induced to visit Paris, and his books acquired
for the king's library. Qn the death of Louvois a new
arrangement was made for the management of the king's
library, and about the same time The'venot resigned or
was dismissed from his appointment. There is reason to
doubt whether he had given satisfaction as librarian : the
historical memoir in the first volume of the printed cata-
logue of the king's library, which does ample justice to
other officials, merely notices his appointment and resigna-
tion; and the notice of his life found in his own writing
among his papers alter his death, has very much the ap-
pearance of a defensive statement of his own merits.
Thevenot did not long survive the termination of his
connection with the king's library : he died on the 29th of
October, 1692.
Thevenot, in addition to most European languages, was
able to read Hebrew, Syriae, Arabic, Turkish, and Persian,
lie commenced a series of observations on the variation
of the magnetic needle in 1663, and prosecuted them with
great perseverance till 1681. He suggested, in 1669, the
measurement of several degrees of the meridian along the
Gulf of Bothnia: he invented his air-level about 1600,
nml recommended its adoption to facilitate observations of
the latitude at sea, and he endeavoured to discover a natural
unit of linear measurement for all nations. He possessed
however rather the taste than the talent for strict scientific
observation and reasoning, and this peculiarity was the cause
in the first place of his anxiety to nave men of science for
his habitual visitors, and of his eatrerness to collect books
of travels, printed or in MS., such works being calculated to
gratify a mind which, without, a capacity for severe labour,
I'ond of acquiring knowledge. In books of travels he
found information regarding statistics, history, commerce,
natural history, and science ; and he could relish all these
branches of knowledge and appreciate their importance,
though he could not task himselt to master any one of them.
He undertook to publish a systematic collection of voyages
and travels, as the task best suited to his turn of mind ; but
even this required more continuous effort than he was capa-
ble of: in the fourth volume the systematic arrangement was
abandoned, and only some fragments of the fifth part were
published at long intervals. Thevenot was one of those
who promote science by imparting a contagious spirit of
activity to others more than by anything they accomplish
themselves. His taste for collecting books has been the
means of supplying the king's library at Paris with some
of its not least valuable MSS., some of which have yet
to be turned to account. His collection of voyages too
has been the means of preserving some curious and valu-
able narratives. If he did not, make a good practical
librarian, he at least pointed out the way in which the
library might be rendered more complete ; and besides
preserving materials for geographers to work upon, he
directed attention to the means of rendering the science
more perfect. Some of his MggeBtion* mentioned above
were not without their influence in promoting the appli-
cation of mathematics and astronomy to geographical
research; and he was the first, by directing attention to
the line of communication between the Caspian and China,
and to the literature of China, to commence that series of
investigations which has been so brilliantly carried on by
the Jesuits of the seventeenth. And by the Kemusats and
Klaproths of the past and present century.
Sources from which this sketch has been compiled : —
1, ' Memoire sur la Collection des grands et petits
Voyages, et sur la Collection des Voyages de Melchisedec
Thevenot,' par A. G. Camus, Paris, 1802, 4to. Owing to
the incomplete condition of most copies of Thevenot's col-
lection, this work is necessary to enable the reader to know
what he has published. 2, ' Bibliotheca Thevenotiana,
siye Catalogus Impressorum et Manuscriptorum Librorum
Bibliothecae viri clarissimi D. Melchisedecis Thevenot,'
Lutetiae Parisiorum, 1694, 12mo. This volume contains
the autobiographical sketch above referred to : the cata-
logue of TheVenot's library throws light upon his studies.
3, ' Recueil de Voyages de M. Thevenot,' Paris, 1681.
This volume contains the discourse on navigation, in
which there are some incidental notices of Thevenot's pur-
suits. 4, ' Relations de divers Voyages curieux qui n'ont
point 6te pub)i6es ou qui ont etc1 traduites de Hakluyt,' &c.,
Paris, 1663-1672. The 'Avis' prefixed to the different
volumes of this edition contain matter for the biography
of TheVenot. 5, ' Histoire de 1'Academie des Sciences.'
Tome i. contains a corroboration of Thevenot's assertions
regarding his share in the institution of the Academic
des Sciences. 6, ' Catalogue des Livres Imprimez de la
Jibliothe'que du Roi: Theologie, premiere partie,' a Paris,
173!): supplies the dates of Thdvenot's appointment as
librarian, and of his demission of the office. 7, Le Long et
Fontette ; ' Bibliothfcque Historique de la France,' iv, 66
THE'VENOT, JEAN, was born at Paris the 7th of
June, 1633. In the dedication of the first volume of his
travels to his mother, he attributes to her exclusively the
great care bestowed upon his education ; and from this
circumstance it maybe inferred that his father died while
he was a child. TheVenot distinguished himself as a stu-
dent at the college of Navarre. The author of the sketch
of his life, prefixed to the second volume of his travels,
states that his attainments in the languages, physics, geo-
metry, astronomy, and all the mathematical sciences, were
respectable, and that he had studied with particular atten-
tion the philosophy of Descartes. But it is doubtful
whether all these are to be understood as having been his
college studies.
He left the college of Navarre before he had completed
his eighteenth year. Possessing an independent fortune,
his attention was for some time afterwards engrossed by
the manly exercises which were then deemed indispensable
accomplishments in a gentleman ; but having contracted
a taste for reading books of travels, he caught the conta-
gious spirit of adventure, and commenced traveller him-
self in 1652. He visited in succession England, Holland,
Germany, and Italy ; and, making a prolonged stay at
Rome (1654-55), witnessed the solemnities of the installa-
tion of Alexander VII. He had taken the pains to pre-
pare an account of his observations during this tour, but
judiciously resisted all persuasions to publish it, partly on
account of his youth and partly on account of the want of
novelty in the subject.
At Rome he became acquainted with the celebrated
Orientalist d'Herbelot, who, being a good many years his
senior, and already distinguished for his learning, acquired
considerable influence over him. D'Herbelot freely com-
municated to his young friend the information he had col-
lected regarding the East and its inhabitants, and the result
of their conversations was that Th6venot determined to
devote himself to exploring Asia. D'Herbelot proposed
at one time to accompany him, but being prevented by
some family matters, Thevenot set out alone.
Thevenot began his first journey from Malta on the 1st
of November, 1655 : he arrived at Leghorn, on his return,
on the 8t,h of April, 1659. Having reached Constantinople
in the beginning of December, 1655, he remained there
till the end of August, 1666. Travelling through Brusa
and Smyrna, and visiting Chio, Samos, and Rhodes, he
arrived at Alexandria on the 29th of December. He pro-
ceeded without loss of time to Cairo, which he made his
head -quarters for two years, making in the course of that
time two excursions, the first to Suez and Mount Sinai, the
other to Jerusalem and some of the adjoining districts of
Syria. During his stay at Constantinople and Cairo he
made himself master of the Turkish and Arabic languages.
On his way from Egypt to Italy he touched at Tunis.
From Leghorn TheVenot visited several parts of Italy
which he had not previously seen, and in particular resided
for a short time at the court, of Savoy, before he returned
to France. The first volume of his travels, he says, was
3A2
T II I
; H I
prepared for the pre** to gratify hi- friend- -ially
in- moilu-r : ami tli, ! with lii:
intent uiii' _' niul ob-
.111 publishing. H. assed
_-h the press, and witho Ins friend-
. In* intention, lie loft Paru to renew i
and sailed from Marseille on the Ulli
u;:i.
Tliit. tiini1 his object was tu \ ,nd the Indie*.
the 4tli of February, KKU :
from Alexandria he sailod in a few days to Siilon : and
from Sulon ho \i»ited Damascus. After a May of t \\cnty-
Ibur (lays in that rity ho wont to Aleppo, whore ho rc-
niainod' two months; and thon, travelling by Hir a:ul
:.,-ul. descended the Tigris t.i From
Bagdad ho travelled to Ispahan by tho way of Han.
g romainod tivo months at Ispahan, he loft it, in
company with Tavernior, for Schiraz and Gombroon, in-
tending "to sail for India from that port, but the jealo
tho Dutoh agents obliged him to return to Sohiraz.
•ling tin- niins of Tshelminar (Persepolis) he pro-
1 to Ha-srah, and embarked at that port for Surat,'
whore he arrived on the 12th of January, 1GCC. Surat
continued his brad-quarters till February. KHJ7, during
whieh time ho made excursions to Guzcrat. tho court of
the Mogul, and to the Doeoan. On his return to Persia
he spent five nionths at Ispahan. He had several attacks
of iDneM in India, and havinir been wounded by tin
dental discharge of one of his own pistols at Gombroon,
hisruro was tedious. HJB constitution was probably under-
mined ; for. attacked by fever on his way from Ispahan to
Tabriz, he died at Miana, on the 2Kth of November, 1GG7-
During this journey ho had acquired a knowledge of the
:.in language.
The narrative of Thevenot's first journey to the Ea^'
prepared for the press by himself, but was not published
till alter hi- departure from Persia. The account of his
travels in Persia, and that of his travels in India, wire
published :tho former in 1(71. the latter in Ki'-'l
«-diti,r who i-. called, in the ' Privilege du Hoi,' the Sinn
Luisandre, and who states that he was Thovcnot's executor,
and employs expressions which would lead us to believe
that he ha'd married the traveller*! mother. The editing
of these two volumes has been respectably performed.
Thcvenot possessed a natural talent for obscn ation, and
the power of • itoly and unaf-
dly. Nothing of importance appears to have escaped
his notice : his manner of tolling his story impresses the
• with a confidence in bis good faith, and his statc-
- have boon corroborated on many material points.
lhs mastery of the Turkish. Arabic, and !'•
him an advantage that scarcely any other Oriental
ier of his day possessed. His practice of residing
for some time in the principal towns of the countries he
d familiarised him with the customs of the n:
:.-seriptions of external objects are distinct, and his
s accurate. He had collected a Hortus Siecni in
India, and had laid beside each specimen an account of
the habitat and characteristics of tho plant, along with its
name in the Portuguese, Persian, Malabar, and (what his
biographer term* the Indian and Haitian languages. This
collection came into the possession of Melohiscdee The've-
not, and is mentioned in the printed catalogue of his
library. Jean Thcvenot had also made a collect:
.In and Aiabic manuscripts, of whieh Ta\eniier
aayi the cadi of Miana k''pt the best to himself. The
matured judgment, and talent for observation and do-
hcription. displaced in T1 -oiks, ;ire astonishing
in one who had been a wanderer from bis twentieth
and who died in his thirty-fourth. IIU t
originally published in three volumes, in quarto, which
ly in 16fi">. H'TI. and II
lam, in five duodecimo vohun
JHO, and at the same place, in the same form, in ITH.'i,
mil 17'.!7. A Dutch translation of them was pub-
in Knglish translation in 1687, and a Gor-
man translation in \<
.is been compiled from the account of
,1 to the second vohm
travels themselves, and from some incidental
,icr.
i K\V. K< IUKKT. was the son of an innkeeper in the
•mall town of Patrinfrton, in the East Riding of Yorkshire,
he was born, in thi
llogle-
opor. A.
Tliow continued for a '
-brought up: and ('halm, : the
the Northumberland mill' ..:it]e-
man's 011-
gi-a\ing about the age oftwi-ntv ->i\ : when, it is stated, he
• ork, and although I,,
never pia> •• ;iig. lie pnicured a ci,;
ongravod an old ad. from a picture by ('•
. with such extruordinaiy skill that he was", on the
recommendation of Charles Ko\, the Due:
shire, and I.ady nnnoamion. appoint, d In-
to the Prin, -. Whatever foundation •
be for this story, it nn.- , •. ed with some allov.
indupensoble for the production of a goi
ongr.ning. A more probable account i.- :
•'led at Hull, anil became an e-
cards, kc. C'lialmer- pub-
lished a plan of Hull, which is dated M
that shortly afterwards he solicited
of the dock at that place. The latter are !
tint prints, drawn ar.d engra\ed by Thew, with the a
anoe of F. .hikes in the aqnatinting deiiiirtment : an>l
were published in London by Thew himself, in May. 17*<i.
Copies of them are preserved in the collection,
III., now in the HritWi Museum. In 17^^ Tb,
troduced to Alderman Roydoll by the niarqi;-:
maithen 'afterwards duke ,
had obtained by the constmction of a cam
new principle ; and IJoydell immediately :oned
him to engrave Xorthcoic's picture of the int.
tween the young princes, from • Richard III.. 'act iii..
This plate was published in 171)1, at which time Thew held
the appointment above alluded to, of <
Prince of Wales. He subsequent!;,
oilier plates for the Shakspore Gallery, and part of a nino-
. Several of these are among the best in the collec-
tion, and display a high d<
unusual amount of spirit
entering! M>ev • Henry \ 111..'
act iv., sc. 2.. from n picture by Westall. is particularly
and d, 'lebratod us a : .n-n of th<
known am - as stipple engraving: and in
,ice of its s\iporior beauty, proof-ii. of it
according to the 'Gentleman's Maga/ino,' charged
double the price of any other in the whole work. .
died in July, 1WV.2, at - !\o\le\. accordit
the 'Gentleman's Magazine': in Hertfordshire. '
.l/i/i'.. Oct.. 1S02. p. 1171 : Chalmen'
THIA, Dr. Loach's name I'm
i by M. Milne Edwards under the trite C
in the family (h
i'li-m-rif Chut-' nearly cordiform, n
deal narrowed behind ; its upper surface very smooth, anil
nearly horizontal from before backwards, but much
curved Ira :ting no distinct regions.
wide, lamellar, and rather advam
borders of the carapace delicate and arched. Orbit.-
small. Internal nut' -, Iv under the
: external antenna' inserted in the gap which »
ralestho front from the floor of the orbit, large and sit,
ciliated. ])is]>o-sition of the buccal apparatUt nearly the
siinie as in .lti-lrrt/<-ltis. a genus which immediately pie-
>t in the nrrangemcnt of M. Milne Kduards. Third
joint of the external j<iir-fivt advancing to tho base of the
internal antcnn:i>, but much less elongated, and giving in-
img joint, by n
angle. Sti'rnnl }>!.'
foot short and compressed, but less fhan in Ali/r,,/,-lux .-
the succeeding foot still shorter, and tfrminnted by a
straight and very sharp point. Ali<l'<»n>ii nearly of the
form in both sexes; only that of the mule is rather
narrower, and the three joints which . t are
anehylosen
fbtritt qf tne Genus.— Thia lives buried in the
a small distance from the shore. M. Milne Kdv.
that but on. i - known with any certainty, nan;
Thin jxililii.— Colour rosy: length ten lines; localities
the British Channel and the Mediterranean.
T H I
3G5
T H I
M. Milne Edwar.ls remarks that the aspect of these
small crustaceans is very peculiar, and approximates them
a little to the Anurous section. In other respects, he ob-
serves, they bear a strong analogy to Atclecyclus, and, as
well as that genus, establish a passage between the O.ry-
stomes and the Cancerians.
Thiapolita.
THTAN SHAN MOUNTAINS. [SONGARIA.]
THIAN SHAN NANLU is the name of a Chinese go-
vernment situated nearly in the centre of Asia. European
geographers generally call it Eastern or Chinese Turkistan,
an '1 also Little Biicharia. The name of Turkistan is ap-
plied to it because the bulk of tin- inhabitants in that part
(it \ -ia is composed of Turkish tribes : and as these tribes
are frequently designated by the collective name of Bu-
chaiiaas, from the town of Bokhara, Eastern Turkistan is
.ailed Little Biicharia, or rather Bokharia, to distin-
guish it from Western or Proper Turkistan. which is called
Biicharia without any epithet. Thian Shan Xanlu, in
.Chinese, signifies the ' southern road of the Thian Shan
Mountains,' and has been applied to the countries south of
that mountain -system, because they are traversed by the
southern of the two great commercial roads which connect
China Proper with the countries of Western A-i;i, whilst
the countries north of the Thian Shan are traversed by the
northern-commercial road, and on that account are called
Thian Shan Pelu, 'the northern road of the Thian Shan.'
The last-mentioned countries constitute the government of
Hi. or Songaria. They have been described under SON-
GARIA.
Thian Shan Xanlu lies between 36" and 44° N. lat., and
extends from 71° to 90° E. long. From west to east it ex-
tends about 1250 miles, and its width from north to south
varies between 550 and 300 miles. Its area probably ex-
i 500,000 square miles, so that it is ten times as large
as England without Wales, and twice and a half as ];••.
1'Yance. It is mostly surrounded by countries belonging to
the Chinese empire : on the north is Songaria, or Thian
Shan Pelu, east the province of Kansi, and south Tibet.
Only its western side is enclosed by countries independent
'if China. On the south-west is Ladakh, on the west
Kunduz, including Badakshan and Bokhara, and on the
north-west Khokan. The three last-mentioned countries
are within Western Turkistan, or Great Bucharia.
Thian Shan Nanlu is a country entirely isolated from the
rest of the world. On the north, west, and south it is en-
closed by mountain-ranges of such extent and elevation,
that the places which are permanently inhabited can only
be reached by passing for several days over mountains,
which are not inhabited except for two or three months in
the year, when they are visited by a few families of wan-
dering tribes of mountaineers. On the east of Thian Shan
Nanlu is an extensive desert, which appears to be unin-
habitable. The country enclosed by the three ranges and
the desert receives an abundant supply of water from the
mountains, a considerable portion of which is always
covered with snow, and the numerous rivers which de . < •end
from them form a large river, called the Tarim, which
Hitter compares with the Danube, but which does not
reach the sea; it terminates in an extensive lake situated
on the wc-tern edge of the desert. The basin of the river
Taiirn is the largest closed river-basin on the globe, if
that of the Caspian Sea and the rivers falling into it is
cxcepted.
Mountain*.— At the south-western angle of Thian Shan
Nanlu stands an extensive mountain-knot, called Push-
tikhur, which occupies the space between 36° and 37° N.
lat., and between 71° and 74° E. long. From its western
side issues that elevated chain which is known in Afghan-
istan by the name of Hindu Kush ; from its northern ede;e
another range, called theTartashling, or Bolor Tagh, which
extends northward ; and in the eastern part there begins a
third range, which traverses the whole of Central Asia, and
extends through China Proper to the shores of the Pacific.
This last-mentioned range is called by the Chinese Kuen-
luen, but that portion of it which is contiguous to the
mountain-knot of Pushtikhur goes by the name of Thsung-
ling.
The Thsungling maybe considered as that portion of the
Kuenluen range which extends from the Pushtikhur on the
west (72° E. long.) to the mountain-pass of Karakorum on
the east (between 76° and 77° E. long.), and occupies
nearly the whole of the space between 35" and 37° N. lat.
Very little is known of this mountain-region, which cannot
surprise us, when we learn that, according to an intel-
ligent Mohammedan traveller, an eternal mass of snow
occurs in these parts, which occupies 200 cos (equal to
more than 300 English miles) in length. An extraordinary
phenomenon is stated to occur on the northern declivity of
the mountains, where the Thsungling and Pushtikhur are
contiguous — the continuance of rain for three successive
months. That portion of the Kuenluen range which is
east of the Pass of Karakorum is still less known. As far
as the Keriya Pass (84° E. long.) its snow-covered sum-
mits lower towards the north with a moderate descent, and
a hilly tract of moderate width extends along their base,
which is fertilized by the rivers descending from the
range ; but east of the Keriya Pass no watercourses are
found along the base, which leads to the supposition that
the declivities of the mountains are extremely'steep, and that
they are in immediate contact with the sandy desert which
extends north of them. Two roads traverse the Kuenluen
range. The most western leads through the Karakorum
Pass from Hindustan and Cashmir by the way of Leh in
Ladakh, to Khoten in Thian Shan Nanlu. The road runs
from Leh north-north-east over a mountain-chain, and
descends to the valley of the river Shayuk, the course of
which it follows upwards between the mountain-masses of
the Kuenluen nearly to the source of the river. It passes
by a narrow valley over the highest part of the mountains
(between 36° and 36° 30'), and descends on the north into
the valley of the river Misar, which is a tributary of the
Tarim. In the narrow valley of the Misar the road runs
to Khelasten (north of 37° N. lat.), where the mountains
disappear, and cultivation begins to be general. This
mountain-road certainly does not rise to such an elevation
as those which traverse the Himalaya Mountains, for it is
quite free from snow in summer, and, with the exception of
the highest portion, it does not rise above the line of
vegetation, or even that of trees, as may be inferred from
the fact that fire-wood and fodder for beasts of burthen are
generally abundant, and permanent habitations are met
with in the valleys of the Shayuk and Misar up to the im-
mediate vicinity of the mountain-pass. The highest part of
the pass probably does not exceed 12,000 feet above the
sea-level. This road however is much more frequented in
winter than in summer, because the melting of the snow
on the mountains adjacent to the road renders travelling
in summer almost impossible. We have no account of the
eastern mountain-road that traverses the Kuenluen range.
We only know that it connects the town of Lhassa in
Tibet with Khoten in Thian Shan Nanlu, and that it tra-
verses a very mountainous country of great extent, passing
near the large lake of Tengri-Nor, and issuing from the
mountains by the narrow valley in which the town of
Keriya is built. From Keriya it runs north-west through
a hilly country to Khoten.
The western districts of the Thian Shan Nanlu are occu-
pied by several ranges, belonging to the Tartashling or
Bolor Tagh. This mountain-system extends north of the
mountain-knot of Pushtikhur, from 37° to near 41° N. lat.,
where it descends with long slopes towards the valley of
the river Sihoon or Jaxartes. Its extent from south to
north therefore does not much exceed 2GO miles. It is
difficult to determine its extent from east to west, as nearly
the whole country from 09° to 74°, between the upper
courses of the Sihoon or Jaxartes and that of the Jihoon
or Oxus, is almost entirely unknown, and appears to be
occupied by widely-spread rocky masses of mountain-
ranges, between which only narrow valleys occur, that
are visited by the wandering tribes of the Kirghis only
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during the summer. It doe* not appear that any of the
•overcign* of the contiguous countries have extended tlu-ir
authority over this extensive mountain-region, or over any
part of it, which may be considered as a certain proof that
no portion of it is cultivated ; and this supposition is sup-
ported by the fact, that it is not traversed by any commer-
cial road, and that the two roads which connect Thian
Shan Nanlu witli Western Turkistan run along the south-
ern and northern base of the Tartashling in the upper val-
leys of the two rivers .lihoon iind Sihoon. \\"e have some
account of the mountains enclosing Iliese valleys, whii-h
penetrate upwards of 200 miles int>< Hie mountain-^
but ;i- .'rtions of the region are within Turs
they are noticed under that head. \Ve .-hall only <il
that in the interior of the mountain-region, and within the
tiunndary-line ot'Thian Shan Nanlu. , .ited
plain occurs, which is called the Table-land nf Pamir.
ding to Marco Polo it takes ten days to tra\ crsc it
from ist ; and. according to a Chinese traveller,
it is UXX) li equal to about :$.">(> miles- long, and in some
. HM li or :!."> mills wide, whilst in others it narrows
to 10 li (or between :t and 4 miles i. The elevation of this
table-land is so great, that no trees are found on it. and
travellers feel their respiration rendered difficult In the
rarefaction of the air. The nomadic Kirghis, who visit
this elevated region in summer on account of its excellent
pastures, keep herds of camels and sheep, and of kashgow
or yaks, which latter are to the Kirghis what the rein-deer
is id the Laplander of Northern Knrope, serving them as
animals of burden, and supplying them with food. Their
milk is richer than that of the common cow. but the quan-
tity which the yak yields is less. The tail is the well-
known chowry of Hindustan. On the table-land of
Pamir its hair, which is clipped once a year in the spring,
is made into ropes, which for strength do not yield to those
manufactured of hem]). It is also woven into mats, and
into a strong fabric which makes excellent riding-tru
Among the wild animals peculiar to this region are the
kutch-kar and the rass. The kutch-kar, or wild sheep,
attains the height of a two-year-old colt, and has two fine
curling horns: it congregates in herds of several hundreds,
and is hunted by the Kirghis for its hide and flesh. The
rass is a different animal, having straight spiral horns; it
is loss numerous than the kutch-kar, but equally prized as
food.
TheThian Shan range extends along the northern boun-
dary-line of Thian Shan Nanlu, which is separated bv it
from the government of Hi. This mountain-range has
been noticed under SONG ARIA, vol. xxii., p. 242, where
also the range is described which forms the southern bor-
der <ii ••] river-basin, and connects the Thian Shan
.Mountains with the Tartashling range, and where also the
road is mentioned which, leading o\cr the Thian Shan
-. connects Thian Shan Nanlu with the govern-
ment of Hi.
Hirers. — The largest supply of water is derived from the
Tartashling, in which three of the great branches of the
Tamil river rise. The principal branch originates within
the mountain-region in a large lake, called Karakol, which
is situated near 39" N. lat., and rect •• image of a
c country which surrounds it on all sides. The
river issuing from this lake rims eastward, and is called
Y:unan-yar. It lea\cs the mountain-region below T:\sh-
balik, near ~'.\J :«)' E. long., ami is soon afterwards joined
from the north by i: Daria, which brings In it
the drainage of the north-eastern part uf tl,
ling. Near the (mint of continence the rivers are met In
a third river, which flows in a direction from east t.
and brings down the waters collected on the mountain-
chain winch unites the Tartashling to the Thian Shan.
This river, which is called Kezyl Daria, runs about 2<X)
mile*. Alter the union of these three branches the river
continue* to be called Kashgar Daria. and to flow east-
ward for :«)0 miles, without receiving any supply of I
until. <4Y and Kl" K. long., it is nearly at the
name point joined from the north bv the .\!>MI |):uia. from
the west by the YarUiang Darin, and from the south hv the
Khotan Daria. The Ak-n Daria brings down a
volume of wat. ,,n the southern declivity of the
Western portion of the Thian Shan, and runs about 3X)
mile*. The source-i of II : Daria are near those
of the Jihaon. or ()xn», south of U7U N. Int.. and the upper
COUTH of tbs nver i* within the mountain-region of the.
Tartashling, where it runs eastward, but it issues from it
about 70 miles above the town of Yarkmng by a northern
course. Its course in the plain i- but
below the town ofYarkiang nearly i! "1 parallel
Kashgar Daria for nearly 3X) miles. Alt'
80° E. long, it turns northward, and joins
the Kashgar Dana. Its course UK) miles : and
among its numerous tributaries is the Misar river, which
brings down water derive d from the northern declivity of
the Thsnngling. The Khotan Daria co!
limn the ii' . livityof the Kuenhien ramie, east of
1 runs more than :«K) miles
• ncrnl north direction. In this river, and the moun-
dniined by its upper branches, the yew-
stone or oriental jasper is" found, which is held in :
esteem in ( 'hina. and exported in large i,nani
mostly bought by the court of Peking, its the wearing of
this stone distinguishes the higher classes of the man<
from the lower.
After the confluence of these scvcial branches the river
is called Tarim, or Tarim-gol, and continues to flow in a
nearly due east direction for 4<X> miles more. when, near
88° E. long., it is lost in an extensive lake. Lop Nor, which
is surrounded by still more extensive swamps. It up.
that this lower part of its course is skirted by svvampj,
which extend to a considerable distance from its banks.
The extent of Lop Nor from we- \rccd
70 miles, but its width does not. appear to be half these
dimensions. No river joins the Tarim from the south. >
*V K. long., but it receives a considerable supply of
from the Thian Shan Mountains, by two rivers, the t'kiat,
or Chagar Daria, and the Barun Y'ulduz, or Kaidu Kiver.
The Ukiat Daria, which rises in that part of the Thian
Shan Mountains which encloses Lake Issckul on tl,
[SoNGARiA], runs more than 200 miles in a souti
direction, and joins the Tarim near 84° E. long. The
Kaidu River is probably the largest of the confluents of the
Tarim, as it collects the drainage of the Thian Shan Moun-
tains between 80° and 87° E. long. Its upper course for
about 100 miles is in an elevated valley, parallel to the
Thian Shan range from east to west : issuing from the
valley it turns abruptly to the east, and draining another
parallel valley about 200 miles long by an eastern c
it falls into a large lake, which is called Uostu Nor or lios-
teng Lake, the dimensions of which are stated to be hardly
inferior to those of Ixjp Nor. This lake is surrounded on
the north and south by chains of high hills, but on the.
east by a sandy desert. In the bills which enclose the
lake on the south is a break by which the Uostu Nor dis-
charges its waters into the Tarim. The channel by which
this is effected is also called Kaidu, and reaches the Tarim
about 80 miles above its influx into Lop Nor. The ex-
tensive swamps surrounding Lop Nor seem to begin at
the conflux of these two rivers. The whole course of the
Tarim amounts, according to the estimate of Kilter, to
nearly 12(K) miles in a straight line, and if its windings are
taken into account, and th. i Dm ia considered as
it-, principal branch, it cannot fall short of l.'XX) miles.
The upper parts of this river and its tributaries are proba-
bly too rapid for navigation, and the lower parts of most
of the tributaries of the Tarim. and of this river itself, lie
through countries which are. probably uninhabited. 11 is
also probable that during the latter part of the summer,
and in autumn and winter, the c|iiantity of water is very
small, the rains being very scant \, and the whole supply
of water being derived from the melting of the snow on
the mountains on which its branches originate. Hut the
water of all these branches is used for irrigation, though
that of the Tarim itself is not.
The Plain i» of great extent, measuring on an :\\-
more than 300 miles from north to south, and about !KK)
from west to east. Its elevation is not known: but con-
sidering the peculiarities of its climate and its produc-
tions, it i< presumed that it can hardly be less than 3X>0
evel. The largest ; it is
quite unfit for cultivation, and cannot even be used as
pasture-ground. This is cspc<ially tin- case with the
.11 districts, which are a complete <!. iert. This desert
occupies the whole country cist of K8° E. long., and sur-
rounds the l.i.p Nor and Hostu .Nor on the
South of the river Tarim it extends westward to the banks
of the Khotan Daria (,Kl° K. lat.), so that it covers about
one-half of the plain. The worst part is that which lies
T H I
367
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east of 88°, and is called Han-hai, or the Dry Sea : accord-
ins; to an hypothesis of the Chinese, it is the bed of a lake,
which has dried up at some remote period. Its surface is
covered with a very fine sand, which is frequently raised
into the air by the wind, so that the traces of the caravans
soon disappear, except where they are marked by the
bones of the beasts of burden which have perished in this
desert, through which the nearest road leads from China
to Kami in Thian Shan Nanlu. It is however asserted
that there are a few places, generally two days' journey
from one another, in which drinkable water is found by
digging. That part of the desert which lies west of 88°,
between the Tarim river and the Kuenluen range, is called
the Desert of Lop. Though equally unavailable for agri-
culture or as a pastoral country, the surface is in many
places diversified by large tracts of rocky and stony
soil, in which a few animals, as wild horses and wild
camels, find a scanty subsistence, and which are over-
grown with low shrubs. Water however is scarce, except
in spring time. On the north, where it approaches the
Thian Shan range, this vast extent of desert is skirted by
a narrow tract of hilly ground, which is fit for cultivation
or used as pasture-ground. Its width may vary between
20 and 30 miles, and it is in many places abundantly watered
by rivers which descend from the mountains on the north,
but which as soon as they have traversed the hilly region
are lost in the sand of the Han-hai. Only a small portion
of this tract can be irrigated, but it is cultivated with the
utmost care. It produces rice, wheat, millet, and several
kinds of vegetables, especially pulse : it is famous all
over China for its excellent fruits, especially pomegranates,
oranges, peaches, plums, but above all for its melons and
grapes, which are sent in large quantities to Peking. In
many places cotton is grown on a large scale. The
greater part, of this tract however is used as pasture-
ground for horses, camels, cattle, and sheep.
The country west of 88° E. long., and between the Tarim
river and the Thian Shan Mountains, contains a much
larger portion of cultivable ground, especially in the valleys
of the Barun Yulduz, or Kaidu river. The upper valley,
where the river runs from east to west, is probably very
high, as it is mostly used as pasture-ground for cattle and
horses, which thrive exceedingly well. The pure and
fresh air of this valley is much commended. The lower
valley, where the river flows from west to east, is more
extensive, and a large portion of it is under cultivation,
producing rice, wheat, millet, and sesamum, and contain-
ing large plantations of fruit-trees. The hills enclosing
the valley rise probably more than 1000 feet above their
base, and are used as pasture-ground. Along the base of
the southern ridge of hills are also considerable tracts of
cultivated land which are irrigated by the streams that
descend from the hills, but at the distance of a few miles
their waters are lost in the sandy plain which extends along
the banks of the Tarim river.
Farther west, between 84" and 80° E. long., the hilly
country is not so wide, extending only to the distance of
•H) to 50 miles from the Thian Shan Mountains. The hills
also have less elevation, and yield only a scanty supply of
water for irrigation. The country is only well cultivated in
the vicinity of the great mountain-chain, and grows more
barren as it recedes from it, except along the banks of the
Chagar Daria, or Ukiat River, where cultivation extends to
about 70 miles from the Thian Shan. A large portion of it is
used as pasture-ground, but in approaching the Tarim the
sandy desert occurs. Farther west (between 80° and 77°
E. long.) is the valley of the Aksu Daria, which is enclosed
by high hills, and in its upper part contains very extensive
tracts of fertile land, which are cultivated with great care.
They produce every kind of grain, especially wheat, millet,
and barley, lentils and beans, also cotton, melons, and
several kinds of vegetables. The orchards yield peaches,
apricots, pears, pomegranates, grapes, and mulberries, and
the rich Matures feed herds of horses, sheep, camels, and
cattle. The lower course of the Aksu Daria however lies
through the desert and the swamps, which extend along
the Tarim river and along the lower course of its principal
branches. A few tracts are cultivated on the banks of the
Lower Aksu Daria.
In the plain, west, of the Aksu Daria, which extends
bctwci-n the K'ashgar Daria and the Thian Shan Mountains,
the cultivated land seems to be almost entirely limits! to
the bottom of the Kezyl Daria, where considerable tracts
produce rice and other grain in abundance, as well as rich
crops of cotton. The uplands, which are north of the
river, have a stony and rocky soil, covered with a thin layer
of earth, sufficient to produce abundance of grass during
some parts of the year, and consequently they are used as
pasture-grounds by the Kara Kirghis, or Black Kirghis,
who go in summer with their herds of horses and camels
to the Thian Shan Mountains. The uplands between the
Kezyl Daria and the Kashgar Daria have a sandy soil,
which for the greater part of the year is quite destitute of
vegetation, and can only be used as pasture for a few weeks.
The western districts of the Thian Shan Nanlu, or those
which extend at the base of the Tartashling, are not
more favourable to cultivation than the northern districts
which we have just noticed. Though the general direc-
tion of the Tartashling is from north to south, it seem*
that the ranges which compose it generally extend in
the direction from west to east, and their wide rocky
masses advance far into the plain, leaving only narrow
and elevated valleys between them, which do not admit of
cultivation. These high ranges extend much farther to
the east near the Kuenluen, than in the vicinity of the Thian
Shan Mountains, and terminate rather abruptly in the
plain, so that only a very narrow hilly tract separates them
from the level country. Cultivation is limited to this
narrow tract, and even here to the banks of the several
rivers which drain it. The cultivated grounds are most
extensive on the Kashgar Daria and Yarldang Daria, where
these rivers issue from the mountains, and always yield an
abundant supply of water for irrigation, especially in the
countries surrounding the towns of Kashgar and Yarkiang.
Farther down the country is not cultivated, the soil being
sandy, and the means of irrigation scanty and uncertain.
The principal objects of agriculture are rice, wheat, barley,
and millet, with beans and vetches. Several plants are
raised from which oil is extracted, among which is
srsamum. The mulberry plantations are very extensive,
and large quantities of silk are collected at Yarkiand,
which is partly exported, and partly used in the manu-
factures of the country ; cotton, hemp, and flax are also
cultivated. Fniit-trees are abundant, and their produce,
consisting of grapes, pomegranates, quinces, peaches,
apricots, and apples, constitutes an article of internal
commerce. Melons and cucumbers are of excellent
quality. The greater part of the country, though unfit
for agricultural purposes, is covered with grass, especially
those tracts which are mountainous, and accordingly it
abounds in domestic animals, among which the horses and
sheep are distinguished. The wool collected in these
parts is hardly inferior to that of which the shawl's of
Cashmir are made. There are also numerous herds of
cattle and camels.
We are less acquainted with the productive powers of
the countries which extend along the base of the Thsung-
ling, where our knowledge is limited to the tracts that
surround the town of Khotan, where a large district is
under cultivation, and produces rice, wheat and millet,
cotton, hemp and flax ; large quantities of silk of the first
quality are collected. The vineyards are extensive, and
the grapes grown here' are much prized. Some plants
are raised, which yield dyeing-stuffs, which are exported to
China. Among the domestic animals the yak is numerous,
and also the horses and sheep ; cattle are rather scarce.
North of this cultivated tract is a desert, in which many
bare rocks occur, but whose surface is mostly covered with
sand. This desert, which extends westward to the vicinity
of Yarkiang, and northward to the banks of the Yarkiang
Daria, is known by the name of Kara-kitai or Rikistan.
From this rapid survey of the productive powers of Thian
Shan Nanlu it is evident that probably not more than one
hundredth part of its surface is available for agricultural
purposes. The deserts, and those tracts which are de-
scribed as such, cover at least three-fourths of the area,
and the remainder is mainly occupied with high mountains,
which produce a few trees and good pasture. The utter
sterility of the Han-hai seems to depend on the soil, but
that of the other desert tracts appears partly to be the
effect of climate.
Climate. — The climate of the Thian Shan Nanlu is dis-
tinguished by that dryness which is characteristic of all
table-lands which are considerably elevated above the
sea. As its elevation perhaps does not differ much
from that of the table-land of Castile in Spain, there
T H I
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would probably be a great similarity between the climate-
if the table-Undo! SJ>.MII \, isea, which
isiiot lardi-' :' i. "in il, whilst i
miles from tin- Pacific, which is tin- in The
dim:. 11 Nanlu i -mich drier
than that of Spain. Though abundant rains :•.
perienccd in tlif mountain-ranges which enclose the
plain, and MIOW winter to the dentil
i!ii- quanta .uul ruin which descends on the
plain is very small. In th. MO lain 0
and it is observed that when the ntmo-i
with vapour, ami distant objects au- indistinctly ri«il
does not produce any other e It eel than that of generatimr
iiiely heavy gales, which arc often so stion:,' as to
throw down travellers and thrir beasts of burden. In the
Han-hai they raise a large quantity of sand to n consider-
nble height abo\e the surface. Along the Thian Shan
Mountains only two or three showers of rain are annually
experienced, and generally they do not continue above un
hour. The lain is very minute, and it hardly moistens the
v of the ground. A little snow falls ill the western
disti -i. iii> never to oceur east of the valley of the
Kaidu river. The moisture required fur the growth of
plants is therefore entirely derived from the mountains.
The supply of water from this source is indeed very
abundant, but only for about two or three months of the
\car, and it would only be sufficient for a very limited
agriculture, if the inhabitants had not acquired a peculiar
urt in husbanding this supply. In the districts south of
the Thian Shan Xanlu fiiounl : \oirs
been made, which are filled by the w
the melting of the snow, and from these reservoirs
the greater part of the supply is taken, by which many
tracts are enabled to produce abundant crops. The
.ii disti ict.i do not materially differ from the northern,
except that a larger quantity of snow falls. though it is
moderate in the plain. The temperature of these distiiets
however is much colder in winter, and it is a remarkable
fact that at Yarkiansi the river is for three months covered
with thick ice, and caravans pa-., over it with their i
of burden. The heat in summer is \ery great all oxer the
country, but the cold of the winter seems to <
we proceed from west to east, as fro- Ijr known at
Hami. The Chinese however state that the difl.
between the temperature of the summer and v.ii
very consideiable. The country is subject to eartln;
and several di.-t: ,-d greatly from them in IsiJ.
when they were felt on both sides of the Tarta.shling
Mountains. It is probable that this phenomenon
occurs along the Thian Shan .Mountains, as an extinct
volcano exists in that range, and traces of volcanic action
:itly met with.
-It is remarkable that Thian Shan Nanlu,
h without doub: .My elevated above the sea-
. produces all the grains and fruits which a;.
tivated in the mo.-t southern ] . which are
situated at the same distance from the equator, and are
The olive-tree however has not been
ii'itictd as growing there. Sesamum. which is cultivated
in in lent, supplies the place of the
The plain, as well as the mountains which
' entirely destitute of trees, and even of
shnii ni tree- cover a
small extent of surface, bn! they an- short and crooked,
and only good for lii It i> nut eeitaiu, though it
is no stated by some travellers, that the true rhubarb-
plant gn.v.s im the mountains of the Thstnr
All the dome-tic animals of Kuiope nbound. with the
jption of hogs, which are only kept by the I
settled in the country: all the other inhabit.
Mohammedans, hold tins animal in abhorrcnc.
are kept in the plains and on the mountains. The i.
nl the Tarta>hliiig an I the native place of the
double-humped camel. In the same mountains ti
b) the Kirghis ; the larger species of the do:
d» are found in a wild state in the d Tliian
Shan Nanlu. This is expressly stated ol the horse, the
I, black cattle, and the ass": the la-t is probably the
'•'lii. |ims hemionus of Pallas ; ofthewild
there Hppcarto be several kinds, hut the . enol
On the us the
argali U found, and on th. , ;,^ the kulch-kar and
the ntM above mentioned. The jackal is found in great
numbers, and there are also ti . nxcs, and
nut of tin
aic not numerous, except water-fowl, v. ' .1 in
the hikes of the desert and the s-.vam,
On the Thian Shall Mountains a black eagle ol
is met with, and on the Tartashling a still larger kind,
called sy rym.
Gold is said to be found in the affluents of the Ki
:oe quantity is stated to be collected. H
.iing tothe account of the ' i the
: portion of the Thian Shan Mounts
ever it is n :unly
found at several places, and aie worked, but the localities
are not known. From the volcanic portion of the 'I
Shan Mountains sulphur and Mil-ammoniac aie obtained,
and nearthe same pi., unids
are said to exist in the eastern part of the last-mentioned
range. Several other prei
i them, the yew and th
articles of commerce to china. The «nly found
ill the eastern districts of Thian Shan Nanlu.
1/i/inbitiiiitx. — The bulk of the population is .
origin, and it seems that this nation must be
as the aboriginal stock of the country, as Thian
Nanlu constituted the principal portion of the powerful
empire of the Hiongnu, which w:: • .1 by the
(.'hine.se in the first century alter Christ, and as the 1
of almost all the different Turkish t: v er widely
' this
country. Travellers generally call the Turkish inhabitants
of Thian Shan Nnnlu, I'xbecks, a> they them
exactly in the formation of their body [BOKHARA, vol. v.,
p. 71], and speak the same language. It is howc\e
served, that the Turkish lanirua^e of Thiau Shan Nanlu is
not intermixed, as that of the other Turkish tribe.-, vuth
terms derived fioin the Persian an.:
and it is t , the Turkish
dialects. The Memoirs of Sultan l!ai . :itlcn
in this language. The Turks of Thian Shan Nanlu
are decidedly superior in civili/ation to the I
Bokhara. They exhibit no less industry than ingenuity in
the cultivation of the land, and the articles which are
made in their mannl'actoiies are of good quality and much
prized. Many of them aie also engaged in commc.
They are at' present, divided into two tribes, Ak-tak and
ak, which hate one another, and frequently
war on eac.li other, which circumstance is considered the
principal rca.-on of thi'ir inability to i -st'ully the
invasions of the Oliiths and of the ( '1
two tiibes was governed bv heredii
independent of one another. \Vlien the Chiuesv- occupied
the country, they left the internal attain* in the ban
these chiel i,r for themselves only the military
department and the p ira> regarded the i:
bouring independent states. The army which the (":.
ki'eji hi the country, and which anioii Jii.tHKI
and .'iO.IKHI men. il commanded by Mantcli'
at the places through wlu-.'li the caravan-roin
i. tries the . -ed half of
Chinese and half of Turks. Uut all the other ofiic. ,
appointed b\ the Hakim \l .ailed, but
the Hakim liegs them ii or eonlirmcd 1
court ol' Peking. The tribute which the Chinew govern-
n|ion the inhabitants is .small, but is .somewhat
the merchandise which is im-
ported, and which, according to the latest inform
itants lumc ver are much oppi<
bylheirna1. Chine.sc governiiient aji
to take ii'j notice of the way in which the ined.
For this reason thev arc- ill-dispo.-ed airain-t th
and this haired is still increased by the exten.-iv,
which have lately been erected by the jfrati,.
of the natives. 'Ibe Chinese meieliants v.l;
i hi'ie are not permitted to go to th.
liich are independent .of China, and the foreiijn
i-onmurce u therefore carried on part . but
mostly by the Tajicks. The Turk
Tin' Tiijicks. or Tad- ''ion which considers
the 1'. : s native II !uch is widely
1 : central countries of Aiia, but inhabiti
only a few mountain • ly. In oil
ti:"s their indust. .'ted to the cultivation of
d, but in Thian Shan Nanlu they are chiefly engaged
T H I
369
T H I
in trade, and therefore many of them are met with in all
commercial places. They are known to Europeans by
the name of Bokhaiians, as the merchants from Bokhara
who visit the fairs of Nishnei Novogorod and other places
are Tajicks. They are permitted even to trade in the
western provinces of China Proper, in Shensi and Shansi,
and some of them visit Kiachta. They conform in their
dress and costume to the Turks, but preserve their lan-
guage. They are Mohammedans.
Though Thian Shan Xanlu was subject to the Khalkas
Mongols for a considerable length of time, no traces exist
of this nation ever having formed settlements in the coun-
try. The Olb'th Calmucks, when governed by the Galdan
and his successors [So N'G ARIA, vol. xxii., p. 245], occupiedit
for a short time, and as they expelled the Khalkas wherever
they met them, the total absence of Mongol colonies may be
accounted for. There are however in the eastern districts,
especially in the town of Kami and its vicinity, a considerable
number of Oloth Calmucks, who after the defeat of the Galdan
quietly submitted to the sway of the Mantchoos. The number
of Chinese is not large. Besides the officers of government,
a small number are established in the large commercial
towns as merchants ; some of them also exercise other
trades ; but. it does not appear that agricultural settlements
have been made by them in this country, as in Songaria.
In the mountains at the north-west corner of Thian Shan
Xanlu is a tribe of Kirghis, called the Kara Kir-
ghis. and another tribe of that nation is met with in the
ranges of the Tartashling. Both are nomadic tribes, occu-
py ing during the summer the highest portion of the moun-
tain-region with their herds of camels, yak, horses, and
sheep, and descending in winter to the lower regions.
Commerce, Towns, and Manufactures. — Nearly 1800
years ago a commercial road was established, which tra-
verses this country in its length from east to west, and by
which the commerce between China and Western Asia has
been carried on nearly without interruption. After the
downfall of the empire of the Hiongnu under the dynasty
of Han, when the dominion of the Chinese extended to the
shores of the Caspian Sea, and nearly met the eastern
boundary of the Western or Roman empire, this road was
iirst used for the purposes of commerce, and silk and other
articles were thus brought to Western Asia. This road
passes through the countries which lie along the base of
the Thjan Shan Mountains. Another road, which has
probably been used for an equal length of time, connects
I'liian Shan Xanlu and China with the northern parts of
India, especially with Cashmir, and is also much used at
the present day. As almost all our knowledge of the
towns of this country and their manufactures is derived
from the accounts of the merchants who have passed along
these roads, we shall follow their track in noticing them.
The caravans of China, bound for the western countries,
or Siyii, as they are called there, after leaving the town of
Shatsheou ami the gate of Kia-yu-kooan [TANCUT, vol.
xxiv., p. 32], pass through the desert of Han-hai and
arrive after 20 days' journey at Hami (42° 53' N. lat. and
!i:r 50' E. long.;. " Hami, or Khamil, as it is called by the
natives, is a fortified place, being surrounded by high walls,
which enclose a space about two miles and a half in cir-
cuit. The town is surrounded by large suburbs, where the
caravans stop before they proceed for the west, and is
populous. The streets are straight and regular, but the
nouses low and built of dried clay. The country which
surrounds the town is not distinguished by fertility, but
it is cultivated with extraordinary care and industry.
C! rapes, melons, and other fruits are sent to China in great
quantities.
About 240 miles west of Hami is Pidshan, a fortress
which is nearly two miles in circuit, and near which the
caravan road passes. About 60 miles farther is Turfan, a
considerable place, which however suffered much in
the wars of the last century. Karashar is 290 miles west
of Turfan. Its fortress is not large, not exceeding one
mile in circuit. The town is rather populous, and built on
the banks of the Kaidu river, which is said to be navigable
at this place. Its commerce is considerable, but manu-
factures are not mentioned, except that the inhabitants ex-
<•,•] in 1 he art of embroidery. Kuril, or Kurungli, is situated
on that portion of the Kaidu river which connects the
Bostu Xor with Lop Nor, and contains a population of
about 4(XK> individuals. The country round the town is
P. C., No. 1534.
very fertile. The town is 50 miles distant from Karashar
to the south-west. Bukur or Bugur, nearly 200 miles
distant from Kurli, contains 2000 families, or 10.000 in-
dividuals, and has a considerable commerce in copper, oil,
sheep-skins, butter, and furs, especially lynx-skins.
Kutshe, which is 100 miles distant from Bugur, is a
large town which is three miles in circumference, and
contains a great population, of which 6000 are Turks.
The mountains north of the town contain several mines,
from which copper, saltpetre and sulphur, and sal ammo-
niac, al-e obtained. At this town begins the road which
leads across the Thian Shan Mountains to Kuldsha in Hi,
by the mountain-pass called Mussur Dabahn. Before it
reaches the mountain-pass, it runs through the town of
Sailim, which is built in an elevated valley, and near some
mines. South-west of Kutshe is the town of Shayar, in a
district producing abundance of rice, melons, and fruit.
It contains a population of 4000 individuals.
In the valley of the Aksu Daria are the towns of Aksu
and Ushi. Aksu is a large commercial and manufacturing
town, which, according to one statement, contains COOO
houses, and, according to another, a population of 20,000
families. It is not fortified. Its commercial importance
is not only derived from its being one of the largest places
of depot on the great caravan-road from China, but also
from another road, which leads in a north-eastern direc-
tion to the mountain-pass of Mussur Dabahn, by which
it communicates with Kuldsha, the capital of Hi, and by
which it not only receives the produce of that country,
but also several articles brought from Russia. [SONGARIA,
vol. xxii., p. 245.] Buchanan merchants from -Tobolsk
sometimes proceed as far as this place, and it is likewise
visited by traders from Khokand, Tashkend, and Bokhara.
Its manufactures are numerous, especially those of cotton-
stuffs, among which one called bumaseya is in great request
in Siberia and Turkistan, and a kind of stuff, half silk and
half cotton. Several articles made of leather, especially
those of deer-leather, as harness and saddles, which are
embossed with great art, are also highly valued, and
exported to distant places. There are also some potteries,
and many persons are employed in cutting and polishing
precious stones. The Chinese garrison, consisting of 3000
men, inhabits a separate quarter of the town. Ushi,
which lies higher up in the valley of the Aksu Daria, is
built in the centre of an extensive country of great fertility,
and is stated to contain 10,000 families. This place has a
mint, in which copper coin is made, and it appears to carry
on a considerable commerce.
The town of Kashgar is situated in the north-western
angle of Thian Shan Nanlu, and at the commencement of
the mountain-road which, traversing the chain that con-
nects the Thian Shan with the Tartashling, leads to Fer-
ghana and the towns of Khokand and Tashkend. This
road rftns in a north-north-western direction. At this place
also begins the other caravan-road, which, running south-
east and passing along the eastern declivity of the Tartash-
ling, and passing through the towns of Yarkiang and Kho-
tan, leads over the Karakorum Pass to Leh, Gertope, and
Cashmir. Besides these two lines of communication and
the great caravan-road to China, a fourth road, commenc-
ing at Kashgar, runs north-east over the Thian Shan Moun-
tains by the Rowat Pass, and, skirting the western shorn
of Lake Issekol, leads to Kuldsha and the banks of the
Irtish river. This last road appears to be much frequented
by Russian merchants. The advantages derived from all
these roads concentrating at Kashgar render this town one
of the most commercial in the interior of Asia. It is said
to contain 15,000 houses, and a population of 80,000 indi-
viduals. In the Chinese geography the population is said
to consist of 16,000 persons paying a capitation-tax, which
would carry it to rather more than is stated by Russian
travellers. The Turkish and Bucharian merchants of Kash-
gar visit the countries north of Hindustan, Bokhara, and
Tobolsk ; and numbers of merchants who are settled in the
neighbouring independent states are always found in the
town. All those who are of Turkish origin have free
access to it ; but the entry of Europeans is prevented by
the Chinese authorities. In the middle of the town is a
large square, from which four extensive bazars brinch oft'.
The Chinese garrison consists of 8000 men, wh i are sta-
tioned here to repress any invasion from the side of Kho-
kand, and are quartered in a strong fortress, which is con
VOL. XXIV.— 3 B
I 11 I
370
T H I
tiguoiu to the town. The manufacture* are numerous and
,\o : -lit- largest are those of *ilk, in which several
knitU of Mutt's, a* satin, damask, &c., are made, and some
of them are interwoven with gold and silver tin
manufacture.* of cottons are lew important, but thru colours
are much praised. The jewellers are very expert in cutting
. w and in working gold. Many articles are exported
to China. The latest accounts however Mate that K..
and its commercial and manufacturing industry had sul
much liy the invasion and rebellion of the Kodjas 1 1SJ7 .
and that Yarkiang had become a much more comn.
place than Kashrar. It is very probable that the town
has reco\ ei ed its former importance. South-west of Kashgar
is the town of Tashbaliif, wind- lie an important
. built on the banks of the Yaman-var river, where
it issues from the mi Tartashting. On
o;ul leading from Ka.sh.gar to Yarkiang is Yengi
md, may be considered the capital
of Tliian Shan N.inlu, as the Chinese military go-.
- here. It consists of the cit\
which is surrounded by a high wall of stone, and is more.
than three miles in circumference, and numerous suburbs
which lie round it. In the fortress a garrison of 7<K»
. t. The houses are mostly built of sun-dried bricks ;
but as rain is very rare in this country, they may b.
sidered substantial. The river Yarkiaiu ivided
into two arms, and numerous canals have been mad.
them, by which all the - abundantly supplied
with water. There are numerous public building-.
cmlly mosques and n • !• colleges: the nun.
the medrasses is stated to exceed ten. There are t\v
bazars, one in the city and the other in the suburbs, which
are more than three miles long, and contain a great num-
ber of shops, well supplied with various article.-, of mer-
chandise. Most of the shopkeepers are Chin.
are also several large ca s. The conni
rounding the town supplies it with three important articles
• minerce. silk, line wool, and ! which last
great numbers go to other places, and as far as China.
-e horses are mostly of the Kirghis breed, rather
but very strong, and much prized. The commcrc-
the countries north of Hindustan and with Tibet >
considerable. It is stated that there are several kinds of
manufactures, but only cotton-stutl itied. The
number of inhabitants who pay capitation -tax is Mat ed to be
between iiO.IKXIand 4O.UX). which would gi\ea population
of between 180,000 and 240,000. Many foreigners are
settled in this place. The number of ( 'hiuesc merchants
is only 'JX), but there are many others engaged in trade
and manufactures. A great number of merchants from
Sheiisi and Slian-i \isit Yarkiang. There are also a con-
siderable number of natives of ( 'a-hmir settled here : but
•inly a small number of Hindus, and no .lews or Armenians.
I'he foreign merchants, who are met with in considerable
nun.: , and Cashmir.
Khiitan a :i:uc been formerly the name of the
town wlir i llitsi or Kelcbi, whilst tin
name..! khotati is applied to the country which cxtenih,
along the northern ba>c ot the Th-ungling. This country
i-ontaiiis, according to the latest information, TtXUXX) per-
jiitalion-tax. which would give a populatioi
of between 3,50UOOO sad l.ixxuxxi individuals. Thus it
app. i- by far the most populous am
important part of Tliian Shan N'aiiln. A large number o
theinhabi
them are mini' i.--e. who settle.
there at a \ery carl\ llitsi is d. -
as large ami populous : but we ha\e no peculiar aceoun
of it. It derives its enmniercial importance parti
the productions of the country, and partly from the cir
cum*tance that the great n.ads meet at tliis place. Tin
eastern road passes from llitsi to Kcriya. and through tht
DM* . into Tibet, nnd seem* to be the pi.
line of communication between the last-mentioned country
and the northern provinces of China. The western roai
."•'' •' • ."ea1 caiman n..id which I. -ads fioin Yai iviang !i
iir: Tlie pimeipal articles which the conn
: are the \ nd silk, tht
.11 in large ijiianlities. It
• •.' UM •• lire 111:11, ., ,,f e..p|ier ill tin- ncighhi nn hood, a
vtMtcb of copper are named among the articles manufac
in, I in this place. Silk and c ott on stuffs are sJ*o made
o a great extent, and there are glass-house^
is held, which is sometimes attended b\ 'Ji.iMci
sons. Horses arc e\). . at niinibi
ess pri/ed than fho- i the town of
. through which the road passes to Tibet, me some
;old-nii
The articles which are sent from Yarkiang to Cashmir
are silver, goats' and sheep's wool, leather tanned in the
manner of what is called Russian leather, .
gold and silver, rice, and some
nanufactuiv : there are taken in return shawls of .:
nt qualities, cotton stuffs, sheep-skins and and
.»ne minor article*.
Onl;. ues annually from \
lakshan, which carries a large quan'
•ially rubles. It appears from \V. that
his intercourse has of late been interrupted by the un-
settled state of Hadakshan and of \Vakhan. [Ti KKISTAN.]
The intercom's*; with Khokand, which li.. u m-
erruptcd !•
The articles exported to that com
ea in boxes, and i, of which laige quantitii
consumed by the inhabitants of Turkistan. The imports
rom Khokand are raw silk and different kinds of cotton
The Hncharian merchants settled in K<
! in advancing
;hey bung broad-cloth, i
gold coin, cop]>er. iron, steel, and fur: and they take back
J kinds of cotton s' : am-
moniac.
We are very imperfectly acquainted with th.
eial intercourse between China 1'roper snd Thian Shan
Nanlu. It does not li iliat the govern:
puts any difficulties in the way of it. and it i .1 the
commerce of Yarkiang with the northern piovi:.
active. The principal articles which are sent to Chi:
raw silk, great numb,
other precious stones, and some dyeing stuffs: m ri
are sent, to Yarkmng tea, elm ,d several
manufactured art.
History. — The country of Thian Shan Nanlu
in any way been connected with the political ever
Europe and Western Asia, but frequently with thi
i China, and it is oiih irom the ( 'liincse and M.
ansthat we learn the political ehi
i. Thus we are informed thai
our u-ra this part of » led a
portion of the powerful empire of the Hiongnu. a Turkish
..liich for more than two centuries made war on China,
.t in
the first century after Christ was overthrown by th
.if the Man emperors. It seems that the ( 'hinese thus
for the first time . and they
soon : in extending their
.ud the d. round the Aial. so
' that, period their empire extended to t;
Hut in the fiilh cent. hrist the Chinese were
dispossessed of this country by the Tang-hiang. a Til
and tins and . of the B&1
tinned to go\ ern Thian Shan .Nanlu up to the til.
(ieligis Khan. From the tenth to the thirteenth c,
\ten-ive empire of the Ilia or
of Tangut which, in
l'-!'J7. was the last of I
the Mongol conqueror. [(ii-\c.is Kiivv. \ol. xi.. p. 117.)
As the Mongols soon afterwards go' . .if China.
Thian Shan wits again united to that countrv. and ri -
mained so as long a.s the descendants
.s of China, lint when the Yuan d\
thrown, in I he fourteenth ceni . by the Ming
dynasty, and the Mongol eni|
-. Thian Shan became indc| • . ral small
sovereign* i. -uler chiefs of Turkish origin. The
Ming emperor would probably ha\c succeeded in subject-
ing them, but for the conquests of Tinmr l!eg. or Tamerlane,
ntered the' com i. nirteeiith
centurv, and brought it under his dominion death
the Turkish chiefs gradually resumed their independent
., and preserved it to the middle of the sixteenth
T H I
371
T H I
century, when the Galdan or emperor of the Oloth Cal-
mucks, who subjected to his sway all the tribes north of the
Thian Shan Mountains, began to extend his conquests to
the south of that range. The petty Turkish sovereigns, not
being able to make resistance, yielded, and became tri-
butary to the Ototh Calmucks. " When the Galdan had
been defeated by the Chinese, and had died (1697), the
power passed from the Oloth Calmucks to the Songare.-.
[SoxGAKiA, vol. xxii., p. 345], who soon established their
authority among the Turkish princes in Thian Shan Nanlu,
and even subjected Tibet. They kept it until their widely
extended empire was destroyed by the Chinese in 1756, and
their sovereign, Amursana, fled to Tobolsk, where he died
17~<7 . Tin1 most powerful of the Turkish princes, the
Kodjas of Yarkiang and Kashgar, considered this event
favourable to the establishment of their independence, as
they thought it impossible that the Chinese could send an
army sufficiently numerous for the subjection of Thian
Shan Nanlu through the wide desert which separates Pro-
per China from their country, and they refused to submit to
the authority of the Mantchoo emperor. But the emperor
sent two armies from Hi over the Thian Shan Nanlu
Mountains. The first was only partly successful, and took
Kutshe ; but the other, under the command of Tshaohoei,
subjected the whole of the country, and in 1759 the Kodjas
were obliged to retire to Badakshan.
In 1703 an insurrection broke out in the town of Ushi,
but it was soon put down. In 1826 the descendants of the
Kodjas, having insinuated themselves into the favour of the
Khun of Khokand, and obtained from him the support of a
small army, entered Thian Shan by the Terek Pass, and
• dcd in taking Kashgar, Aksu, Yarkiang, and Khotan ;
but a Chinese army of 00,000 men being sent against them,
they were defeated in three battles, and again retired to
Badakshan, where Wood, in his journey to the source of
the river Oxus, found one of these Kodjas living in
exile.
iDu Halde's History of China; Mailla's Histoire Gf-
df In Chin/'; Klaproth's Magasin Asiatique ;
Wathen's Memoir on Chinese Tartary and Khokan, in
J'lurinil of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. iv. ; Wood's
••;/' >i Jiiurni'i/ tn tin' Source of the R/ri'r n.i-nx :
Ritter's Erdkuiiii •», vol. i., ii., and v.)
THIBAUT V., count of Champagne, and first king of
Navarre of that name, occupies a respectable rank among
the Troubadours. It has been pretty satisfactorily shown
by recent writers on the subject that the scandalous
- told of this king by Matthew of Paris and others
rest, upon no satisfactory evidence. They have however
been more successful in disproving the tales of their pre-
decessors than in substituting anything in their place.
They have rendered Thibaut's biography in a great mea-
sure negative.
He was born about the beginning of the year 1201, and.
has been called Theobaldus Posthumus, on account of
his lather having died before his birth. His mother,
Blanche, daughter of Sancho the Wise, king of Navarre,
took charge of and governed his extensive territories as
regent for twenty years. A taste for literature was here-
ditary in the family of Thibaut. His grandmother, Marie
of France, held, about the middle of the twelfth century, one
of the most celebrated ' Courts of Love,' and some of her
judgments have been preserved by Andre le Chapelain.
Ilis mother Blanche induced by her commands Aubein
•ie Sezane to compose several songs, after he had solemnly
renounced the practice of poetry. With such examples
before him it was natural enough that the young count of
Champagne ^hould contract a taste for rhyming.
An attempt was made in the year 1214 to wrest the
territories of Champagne from the widow and her son.
The father of Thibaut was a younger son: his elder
brother Henry followed Philippe Auguste to the Holy
Land, and, marrying there a sister of Baldwin IV., king of
Cyprus and Jerusalem, had by her two daughters, Alice,
queen of Cyprus, and Philippa, who married Airard de
Brienne. The father of Thibaut V., after his brother's
departure foi Palestine, took possession of Champagne
and Brie, which were held without challenge by him, and
by his widow in name of her son, till 1214. Airard de
Urieniie then claimed them in right of his wife. Philippe
Auguste decided in favour of Thibaut, and the sentence
was confirmed by the peers of France, in July, 1216, on
the ground that Henry, when departing for the East, had
ceded all his lands in France to his brother, in the event
of his not returning. In November, 1221, the seigneur of
Brienne was persuaded to abandon his claims upon receiv-
ing a compensation.
In the same year Thibaut took upon himself the
management of his domains, which rendered him, bv
their extent, and the title of count palatine, which they
conferred upon their holder, the most powerful vassal of the
crown. During the brief and troubled reign of Louis VIII
(July, 1223, to November, 1226), Thibaut distinguished
himself by nothing but the pertinacity with which he in-
sisted upon his feudal rights. At the siege of Hochelle
he consented to remain till the town was taken, but
exacted in return a declaration from the king that by so
doing he did not render himself liable on any future occa-
sion for more than the 40 days' service in arms due by
the vassals of the crown. In the crusade against the
Albigenses (induced probably by regard for the count of
Toulouse, who was his kinsman) he resisted every en-
treaty of the king to remain with the army after the 40
days had expired ; and his departure from it was one of
the foundations for the stories afterwards circulated to his
disadvantage.
On the death of Louis VIII. a league was formed by a
number of the most powerful French nobles to prevent
the queen from acting as regent. Thibaut was at the
outset a party to this confederacy. There are extant
letters of Pierre, duke of Bretagne, and Hugues de
LoMgMIi (dated March, 1226, which, as the year is now
made to commence, would be called 1227), authorizing
him to conclude in their name a truce with the king. The
regent however found means to detach the count of
Champagne from his allies ; for an attempt which they
made soon after to obtain possession of her person and the
king's was frustrated by the opportune arrival of Thibaut
at the head of a strong body of horse.
The duke of Bretagne and his coadjutors were much
incensed at the desertion of the count of Champagne, and
appear to have soon after formed the project of harassing
him by supporting the claims of the queen of Cyprus upon
Champagne and Brie. He was however, on account of
his wealth, too desirable an ally to be lost without an en-
deavour to regain him. Overtures of reconciliation were
made, in consequence of which count Thibaut engaged,
in 1231, to take to wife the daughter of Pierre of Bretagne.
Thibaut had been twice married before ; in his 18th
year, to Gertrude, daughter of the count of Metz, from
whom he was divorced, and afterwards to Agnes de
Beaujeu, by whom he had a daughter. The regent, fear-
ing the consequences of this reconciliation, interfered to
break it off. The marriage-day had been fixed, and the
bridegroom was already on his way to the place where it
was to be celebrated, when letters" from the king, forbid-
ding him to conclude the engagement, were delivered to
him. He obeyed the royal mandate.
This insult determined the confederates to carry into
execution their original project. They sent for the queen
of Cyprus, and invaded Champagne, avowedly for the pur-
pose of putting her in possession of it. The king marched
to the assistance of Thibaut, and under his auspices a
compromise was arranged. Thibaut ceded to the queen
of Cyprus lands to the value of 2000 livres yearly, and
paid her in addition 20,000,000 of livres in money. This
sum was advanced by the king, who received in return
the estates of Sancerre and others, which Thibaut's father
had held before he acquired Champagne.
Here seems the proper place to notice the stories told bv
Matthew of Paris regarding the loves of Thibaut and queen
Blanche, and the poisoning of Louis VIII., laid to the
charge of the former. Matthew only mentions the accusa-
tions as a rumour he had heard. No other historian o.
equal antiquity mentions them. Had Thibaut been
suspected of being the murderer of the king, the charge
would probably have been urged against him by one or
other of the rival factions, with whom he played fast and
loose immediately after. There is not a passage in his
poems that can be interpreted into a declaration of attach-
ment to Blanche, who was moreover thirteen years his
senior. But it is easy to see how the rumour mentioned
ay Matthew ef Paris arose. A rhymed chronicle, appa-
rently of the age of Thibaut, represents him as going
3B2 "
T II 1
T II I
•bout 1230. in disguise to learn how men spoke <>r him.
lit- hail no friends. About tins time there
between tin1 ii i" Paris and
tin- papal legate, and, the queen supporting the legate, 'In-
wild stud. ::'.- iiinde and sang ribald song* attributing this
report to a guilty passion Tor his peraon. In times oi' ci\ il
crally found that parties otlu
totally unconnected cati-li up mid spread each others' lies
when it wit* their purpose. Tin- queen, tin- legate, and
•unt of Champagne were all unpopular; the disso-
• ndent.s had circulated imputations against the chastity
ot'llie two Ibrmer; and the interference ol'thc king to pre-
vent the marriage of the last -mentioned with the dugnter
of the duke of Hrctagne would, under such circumstances,
be easily intciprctcd into a plot of the queen-mother to
him for herself. It was amongst the students that
the first story was invented, and that is the quarter whence
.ew of Paris most probably obtained much of his in-
.tiuri regarding French affairs.
In li>2 Thibaiit married a daughter of Archambaud
VI II. ui liourbon. In April, 1234. h« succeeded to the
throne of Navarre, on the death of Sancho the Strong. In
liSKi he quarrelled with Saint Louis about the ten:
lie had ceded to the king at the time of the arrangement
with the queen of Cyprus, representing them as merely
transferred to the king in security for the money he ad-
,1, while the latter asserted that they had been sold
to him for that sum. It came to blows, and Thibaut was
beaten.
In 1239 Thibaut took the cross, and set out at the head
of an expedition to the Holy Land. He displayed none of
the talents of a general. Unable to procure ships to
transport his fortes to the scene of action, he marched
through Hungary and Thrace. Arrived in the neighbour-
hood of Byzantium, his treasure was so completely ex-
pended, that his followers had to support themselves by
plunder. In an engagement near C'acsarca the division
of the army under his immediate command was beaten,
although the other was victorious, lie got involved in
the defiles of Taurus, and lost two-thirds of his men.
Lastly, at the final defeat near Ascalon, he fled inglorious!^
before the battle was ended, leaving his followers to their
fate.
He returned to Pampeluna, which he had made his
capital, in 1242, and died in 1253, having done nothing
worthy of notice in the interim, leaving a widow and six
children.
The poems attributed to Thibaut are in number sixty-
xix, and there appears no reason for questioning the
authenticity of any of them. Thirty-eight aro devoted to
the expression of passionate complaints and ecstasies;
three recount his amorous adventures with peasant-girls;
twelve are what may be called rhymed law-cases in mat-
ter* of love ; the rest are exhortations to engage in the
Crusade, or invectives against the immorality of the age.
The passion of the amorous poems is not very intense :
there scarcely needed the lew lines appended to most of
them, addressed to some brother-troubadour, to show that
they an- men' displays of the author's cleverness. The
cages for the Court of Love are ingenious and insignificant,
like all other compositions of that kind. The fifty-fourth
song, an exhortation to join the Crusade, is spirited. The
fifth, in which the God of Christian- is compared to
the pelican feeding its young with its blood, is charac-
d by a blended tone of toleration and enthusiasm.
In the sixty-sixth he starts a theory that the law of (Jod
is ripe ana wholesome fruit, and 'that Adam sinned by
.g unripe fruit. Thihant's versification is correct and
sweet. There is a spirit of generosity about his poems
that is creditable to himself: the neatness and finish ot
his verses are more attributable to the degree of perfection
to which the art had been previously carried by others
than to the author's own talents. Altogether his literary
productions leave a more favourable impression of }\\<
character than the part he played as a warrior and politi-
cian. There is tergiversation and something worse in his
public conduct, but the disposition evinced by his writings
le«d» to the conclusion that he sinned more through want
of firm nem than from ill-will.
Po'ftif* du Roy d« Nurarrr, par Levesque de la
JUvahere, Pari-. 17 IJ. 12mo; //;.« J, Lnys, IX.
Ju nvm, liny de France, par Messirc Jean, Sire de Joinville ;
par M.Claude Menard, '. 1'aii-. Kil7.
l.ilin I'/.. Hasilm Johannc Herede
authore. liasiliae. l.'iOi, !•.!.: H.tyle: Morcri ; and Hiugra-
: ln> I tin : r*> •!!<•. in voce ' Thib..
TI1IKKT. [TIIIKT.]
TIIIEL, or TIKL. is the chief town of a district in the
province of (ieldcrland in the kingdom of the Netherlands.
It is situated in 51° THr1 N. lat. and .V 2C' K. long., on the
river Waal, about !."> miles from Nimcgcn, in
called the Bctnwe. which is celebrated for its fertility.
The town of Thiel contains 5000 inhabitants ; the district
of which it is the chief place. -ls.2(K). The chi.
tionsof the inhabitant 'lure and the 1
cattle; they ha\ e also manufactures ol w oolleii, linen.
water-colours. (Stein, Lexicon ; Has&cl ; Cannabich.)
THIKI.KN. .IAN I'HII.II' \ ,-hlin
in 1018. He was of a noble family, and lord of t'owcn-
burg. Though hi- received an education suitable t.
rank, and was instructed in every bianeh of polite .
ture, his predilection for the art of painting induced him
to become a disciple of Daniel So gen..
Having voluntarily placed himself under so able an in-
structor, his improvement, as might have been
was rapid. His subjects were usually in the •
garlands of flowers, with some historical design in
centre, or festoons twining round vases enriched with
representations in bas-relief. He alv. ••[ na-
ture, and chose his flowers in the entire perlection of their
beautv, grouping them with great taste. His pictm>
very highly finished, with a light touch, perhap-
spiritcd than the works of Segers : but it is sufficient
praise to say that his performances rivalled those of his
He was much employed by Philip IV., king of Spain,
and most of his finest performances are (or at least were*)
in the Spanish royal collection. Two of his capital pie-
were at Mechlin ; they represented garlands and
flowers, and many insects of different kinds on the l>
all finished with exquisite delicacy. The figure of St.
Bernard is in the centre of the one, and that ol St. A
in the other. Weycrmann also highly commends
which has in the centre a nymph sleeping, watched by a
satvr, the figures being painted by Poelenil
Von Thielen seldom inscribed his name on any of his
works; he generally marked them .1. or P. ( 'onweiiburg.
THIELT is the chief town of the district ol the same
name in the province of West Flanders, in the kingdom of
Belgium. It is about 15 mile* south-wed of Urugi
the road from Ghent to Dixnindcn. Thielt is a cheerful
town, with two churches, 1700 houses, amor.;; -Ahieh are
many handsome modern buildings, and rj.lXKl inhabitants,
and is the chief market for the (lax-trade of Flanders. At
the weekly market there is a great sale for linen, corn,
cattle, and' butter. The inhabitants h;i\f H Mish-
inents for bleaching wax and linen, six breweries, and
many flourishing manufactories. There are an
several literary societies, a musical society, and s*
Ii. [ Fi. \Mn.iis', \\KST.]
Stein. / i 'atmabich, Ishrhiirh ; Hoffmann,
/)ri/t.M-/i/nint mill xi-ini' /Ifim/nii'i; \ol. iii.)
THIKKS, a town in France, capital of an anondisseinent
in the department of Puy de Dome, 27.i miles from I'.uis
by \e\iTs. Moidins, and Koanne, Hud 24 from Clcmiont-
Ferrand, the capital of the department : it is in 4.V 51' \.
lat. and 3* :t:i' K. long. Thiers originated in the middle
There was a stiong castle here in the earlier periods
of the French monarchy , which became under the feudal
system the head of one of the principal fiefs of Anvirgne.
The town stands on the crest and side of a hill sloping
down to the northern or right bank of the Durole, a little
stream flowing into the Dore, which itself flows into the
Allier. It is in a picturesque situation, amid wild so
and commanded byloftyand well-wooded hills on the north,
down the side of which the road from Lyon to Thiers runs
by a remarkably steep slope. The houses at this cut ,
• So m«ny valuable picture! wore carried off or drtlrm isl. not nn\\
the Fn-nc h <Mv;ijt,,tiitn, luit in thr diiordiT* of lat« year*, that it ii »li(Firnlt t>
•prnk |«>iitively. Tbiu the Frrnch king, I
IhaChcialicr Tuylor loS|wiii to|i« icn Ilin rxn of
tho popular* wa« ilirfciiil n^»in*i '> Tlio chevalln .1 -• ,i.[iti;l/
s|«in. atul pun-hum) Imn i n-litref; many
of oliii-h «ir« IhiTfliy M\M| friMn ( hr»«hpr Taylor in)*
Dial hr uw MOM finv jitcturM by I'aul VCIUUOM dotroyed, in ipitc of hl>
entreaUra and ooen to parchaw lliora.
T H I
373
T H I
of the town present a pleasing appearance, from their being
painted in fresco in a manner similar to those of Nice ; but
on proceeding into the town the steep, narrow, dark
streets, bordered by gloomy houses, disappoint expectation.
There is no public building worthy of notice, and no
public square or place except one at the entrance of the
road from Lyon : the town is inhabited by workpeople,
and presents very few (' not a score,' says one of our
authorities) decent houses. The chief manufactures are
of paper and playing-cards, fine cutlery and hardwares,
leather, and candles. The paper-mills are on the Durole,
in the steep rocky banks of which excavations have been
made for the sites of the mills : this branch of industry has
been established in the town from the sixteenth century.
The quality of the paper manufactured here is good, and a
large portion of it is sent to Paris. The razors, knives, and
scissors, though of ordinary quality, command a good sale,
and are exported to Spain, Italy, the Levant, and the East
and West Indies : the iron is brought from Nivernais,
Berry, and Tranche Comte. There are in and round the
town GOO manufactories or workshops for cutlery, employ-
ing, it is said, 6000 persons. The candles are made from
the fat of the goats reared on the surrounding hills.
There is a large poor-house, in which woollen cloths, lace,
and trimmings are made, and other manufactures are car-
ried on. These various manufactures employ three-
fourths of the population of the town and the villages
for many miles round. The population of the com-
mune of Thiers, in 182G, was 11,613; in 1831, 9836, of
whom G5HG were in the town itself; and, in 183G, 9982.
There are an inferior court of justice, a tribunal de com-
merce, a chamber of manufactures, a council of prud'-
hommes ; some fiscal or administrative government offices,
an hospital or poor-house, and a high school, or college.
There are eight yearly fairs.
The arrondissement of Thiers has an area of 332 square
miles, and comprehends only 39 communes, with a popu-
lation, in 1831, of 67,870 ; in 1836, of 70,657 : it is divided
into six cantons or districts, each under a justice of the
peace.
(Vaysse de Villiers, Itiiieraire Dcscriptif de la France;
Malte-Brun, Giographie ; Dictionnaire Gcographique
THIMBLE, a metallic cap, in the shape of a hollow
truncated cone, worn on the finger in sewing, in order to
allow the needle to be pressed through the work with ade-
quate force, without injury to the finger. Thimbles used by
sempstn ~M s usually have slightly convex tops, which, as
well as the upper part of the Circumference of the cone, are
pitted with numerous small indentations symmetrically ar-
ranged, which serve to prevent the end of the needle from
slipping : but those used by tailors, upholsterers, and needle-
men generally, have no tops, but have the like indentations
upon the sides of the cone, with which alone the necessary
pressure is applied to the needle. Although occasionally
made of other materials, as porcelain and ivory, for orna-
mental purposes, thimbles are most commonly formed of
sheet silver, steel, white alloys, or brass ; or of silver and
steel so combined as to retain the advantage of the su-
perior hardness of the latter metal for the parts which
come in contact with the needle, while those which are in
contact with the finger are of silver. This is sometimes
done by making the cap and tipper part of the cone of
steel and the lower part of silver ; and sometimes by
making the body of the thimble entirely of iron or steel,
and lining it with silver or gold. As thimbles form an
indispensable part of the furniture of a lady's work-table,
much ingenuity is often displayed in their decoration by
embossing, engraving, and inlaying with gold. They are
usually formed by means of a stamping-machine, but the
following process, for the description of which we are in-
debted to Dr. Ure's ' Dictionary of Arts,' Sec., p. 1239, has
been practised by MM. Rouy and Berthier, of Paris: —
Sheet-iron, one twenty-fourth part of an inch thick, after
being cut into strips of convenient size, is passed under a
!>• inch-press, by which it is cut into circular discs of about
two inches diameter. These discs are then made red-hot,
and laid in SIUTI-MOII upon a series of mandrils, with hol-
lows of successively increasing depth, into which the
softened discs are forced by striking them with a round-
t'uri'd punch, about the size of the finger. After IK in /
thus brought to the required shape, the thimble is placed
in a lathe, when the inside is polished and the outside is
turned, cut with circles for the reception of gold orna-
ments, and indented or pitted with a kind of milling-tool.
After this the thimbles are annealed, brightened, and gilt
inside with a very thin cone of gold-leaf, which is firmly
united to the surface of the iron simply by the strong
pressure of a smooth steel mandril. Gold fillets are then
fixed by pressure in the grooves turned to receive them.
Sail-makers, in those coarse kinds of sewing which re-
quire the application of considerable force to the needle,
employ, in lieu of thimbles, circular plates of cast-iron, in-
dented or pitted on the surface. These are called palms,
and are secured to the palm of the hand by straps.
The name 'thimble' is applied to the metallic eyes, in
the form of rings with a groove in their circumference to
receive a rope, which are used in rigging where it is de-
sired to form a loop or eye at the end of one rope, through
which another may slide with very little friction.
THINOCORI'IsLE, Mr. G. R. Gray's first subfamily of
the family Chionididce, containing the genera Attagis,
3. Geoff, and Less. ; Ocypctes, Wagl. ; and Thmomrus,
Eschseh.
THINO'CORUS, Eschscholtz's name for a genus of
birds placed by Mr. G. R. Gray in his subfamily THINO-
CORIXJE.
THION DE LA CHAUME, CLAUDE-ESPRIT, an emi-
nent French physician, was born at Paris, January 10, 1750.
His lather, who was a banker, gave him an excellent edu-
cation, and destined him originally for the bar, but he
himself preferred the study of medicine. He commenced
his studies at Paris with great success, but, for some un-
known reason, took his doctor's degree at Rheims. In
1773 he was appointed physician to the military hospital
at Monaco in Italy, which was then occupied by a French
garrison ; and in 1778 to that at Ajaccio in Corsica. His
zeal and talents were rewarded by the rank of chief phy-
sician to the troops destined to lay siege to Minorca and
shortly afterwards to Gibraltar. Here he had to treat a
fatal epidemic which prevailed among the combined
French and Spanish forces in a typhoid form, the descrip-
tion of which same disease immortalised the name of
Prince towards the middle of the last century. This same
squadron had already put ashore and left at Cadiz a great
number of Frenchmen that had been attacked by the dis-
ease, when, in the beginning of September, 1782. it. came
to the bay of Algesiras. Here the. naval hospital could
only receive fifty of their sick, while as many as five hun-
dred were in want of admission ; and to place these in
private houses-was not only a very difficult, but also an
undesirable proceeding. In these embarrassing circum-
stances Tliion de la Chaume conceived the happy idea of
making the sick encamp under tents as soon as tney landed,
an arrangement which was dictated by the climate, the
season, and the nature of the disease, and of which the
boldness was justified by success. La Chaume himself
w;ts attacked by the epidemic, and a great number of me-
dical officers of all ranks, as well as the nurses, were car-
ried off by it. When peace was concluded La Chaume
returned to France, and was received with distinction by
the Comte d'Artois (afterwards Charles X.), who had been
a witness of his self-devotion and success at Algesiras, and
who appointed him to be one of his own physicians.
Shortly afterwards he married, but in the winter of 1785-6
he found that, in consequence of the rapid progress made
by a pulmonary disease which had for some time threatened
him, it was necessary for him to go to the south of France.
Here he met with the kindest attentions from the officers
of the regiment which he had formerly taken charge of at
Ajaccio, who were at this time in garrison at Montpellier ;
at which place he died, October 28, 1786, at the early age
of thirty-six. Thion de la Chaume wrote but little, though
he is said to have carefully noted down every night what-
ever he had seen during the day worth recording ; he
nevertheless occupies a high rank in the list of army sur-
geons. His writings consist almost, entirely of articles in
medical dictionaries and periodicals, of vyhich the most
interesting is the account of the epidemic at Algesiras,
which was published in the second volume of the ' Journal
de Medicine Militaire.' (Biographic Medicals.}
THIONURIC ACID. When nitric acid is made to
act upon uric acid, both are decomposed, and alloxan, a
compound of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and azote, is ob •
T II I
T II I
tained in crystal*. If sulphurous acid ca- ho passed
through a saturated solution ot' alloxan r dliant
white crystals are obtained, which :•. itc of am
nioma : these are to be decomposed by m • •
tin- thionurate of lead formed is to be dci
i. Hy separating the sul]>hun't of lead,
: tlio lii|iior. thionuric aci>!
properties are, that it is a vrliitt1 semi-crystalline mass,
readily soluble in water, and the solution reddens litmus
it contain* the elements of two e<]uivulenti of
sulphurous acid, one equivalent of ammonia, and one of
alloxan, or —
11 equivalents of hydrogen . . 7
!HJ
Fourteen equivalents of ov . \\'2
Three equivalents of . . -I-
Two equivalents of sulphur . . :w
Kqnivalcnt . . Ulii
\Vhen heated, it is decomposed, much sulphuric acid
remains in solution, and :i crystalline compound is formed,
which is termed iiramil.
Thionnric acid combines with bases to form salts, which
i med thionunitcx ; they are not however of sufficient
importance to require description.
THIONVILLK, an important town in France, capital
i>f nn arromlissemcnt in the department of Moseli
miles east-north-east of Pans, by Me:iu\. Chateau Thierry,
Chilons-snr-Marne, Ste. MiW-hould, Verdun, and Met/:
it is in 41° 2i>' N. Int. and C" 1 1' E. 1.
Thionville (Latinized, Theodonis Villa) was a place of
• (ueiH-e in the time of the kings of France of theCar-
lovingian dynasty, who had a palace here : several im-
portant councils were held at Thionville in the reign of
Charlemagne and his son Louis le Debonnair. After the
extinction of the C'arlovingian dynasty, the place came
'y into the hands of the counts of Luxembourg,
the dukes of Hor.rgognc, and the house of Austria, p
to the Spanisli branch of that family. The duke of Guise
it from the Spaniards, A.II. l.V>S. but it was restored
the following year. In A..D. l(i;!!l i: :cd by the
h, who v, ere entirely defeated by an army sent to its
relief: it was however taken by the prince of Condf, A.D.
. after the battle of Kocroy, and hits ever since re-
mained in the power of the French. It was bombarded
vi>. 17'.I2, and again by the al'
!s!4. Thioiivi! ••muled by strong fortilica-
-- of the thinl class, and one of the
• it- Khenish province- of l'i
tin' left or west bank of the .Moselle : the
i the right bank : the two commir
which arc of stone, and the np'per
|«irt •• it pleasure. The town is skirted
ie south-east side by tlie canal of YuU, over which
- of stone and one of wood. The entrance
into the town i- - : the houses have little ••
a Rood parade, a parish church whicii
•animation, a riding-school, a corn-market, a
theatre, an arsenal, a college or high school, which occii-
"f the monks of St. Augustine, an
v prison. There are some manufac-
llen cloth, hats, household furniture,
cs, tan-yards, and oil and
bark mill*. There is one yearly fair.
population of the commune of Thionville, in 1826,
in IKM.5lVI.~i of whom 1 112 were in (lie town):
a subordinate court of j
•1 admini-' • rnment office", and n
:eulture and industry.
The arroiidisscnicnt of Thionville has an a>
Mquare miles, an 1 17 communes : it!
nd, in IK:< 0: it
• 'iis or districts, each mi-
ni music, classed among the imper-
•blc to alteration ; that is. the
'her niiijnr or minor. The ratio of the
Major Tin :|,e Mm,,r Thinl, (i : 5. The
f'jrmer comprises one major and one minor tone, as c «.
The latter comprises a major tone and a semitone, as
A c. Kxample : —
Major Thinl.
Minor Third.
-O-
<>r. according to the mode of description adopted by
writers on the subject, the Major Thinl compri-es, inchi-
. five semitone* ; the Minor only four, Kxample • —
M..J,,,.
Minor.
THIRLAGE. a tenure or custom former!'. mon
in Scotland, by which the owi:
lands were compelled to take their corn to a parli
mill, to which the lands were said to be tin, icteil.
and to pay a certain proportion of it, \arying in iht!
as a remuneration for the grinding, and for the
expense ol ;ion and maintenance of the mill,
lants of thirlage also bound the occupiers of the
iLstricted lands to the performance of eeitain ~^
for the maintenance of the mill and mill-dam, the c:i
of millstones from the place at which they were pm-
!. iSce. Thu-lage was of three kinds, ol which the
- the thirlage of gi
by whicii the tenants or posses- iauds
merely compelled to carry to the mill sii'
thi-ir corn as they might require to use for food,
thirlage of growing corn extended to all the corn n
upon the thirled lands, with the exception of
and such as might be used as food for hoi-
farms in the state of grain. I lea this kind of
t hii-lngi! was modified by a provision to enable the i;i
on payment of a certain proportion of co'
tion, to sell the remainder of his grain without t.
the mill to be converted into meal. The third kind of
thirlacc, called thirlage of inrprtu ft it/ntn. required that
all corn brought, within the thirled district, wheiei
might have been raised, should be taken to the ilom
mill, that is to say. the mill to which the
astricted or bound. This kind of servitude, lun ing be
in many cases r . has fallen int.
•: annual payment in grain he: .ted for it.
Further particulars respecting this ten <• found in
dia,' ait. • Thirlngc :' and in i
in the fourth edition of 1i
eloiia ilia Hritanr
TIIIRO'P-PKKA. Spix's name for a genus of CujU-
HOPTERA which, according to Cuvier, seems to Imvc main
charactei-s in eonimon vvith .\ttiln\\ii.i: its thnifil
small concave palette which is peculiar to it, and ei:
it to hook itself better than it ot[ier\M-e could.
mple, T/iiri>)>ti-m Irii-nlnr. Spix. :«i, f. 9.
( 'UVIIT remarks that he p' -'.ihgenus with doubt,
iption is incomplete.
TIIIKSK. [YdKKsiiiKK.]
TH1KST is the peculiar sensation which excites the
desire to drink. \\ ater is the proper object of this de-
sire. Of all the warm-blooded animals which are subject
to thirst, man alone is either disposed, or, by the circum-
stances of his artificial mode of life, compelled,
it with any other liquid; and in all the variety of 1
rages which man has invented, the water with which 0
Ingredients are combined is the only part which is essential
to the ^itist'acliiin of th
The times and degrees in which thirst is felt during
health are. in general, such that, by satisfying it. the
• idcd with the quantity of wa' iy for the
repair of its tissues and the mar <>t' their p:
id for the replacement of the fluid whicii is
constantly lost bv perspiration and other di- lint
the quantity of water necessary for this pui |
. according to the diti'ciciit circumstaiir
sex, and temperament, and still more aci In.- (,, ||u.
nature of the food taken, t: 'he atmo-plieie, the
mode of life, and the custom of the individual. Dry anil
T H I
375
T H I
hard or salted food excites great thirst, probably because
a large quantity of fluid is abstracted from the blood for
its digestion ; but fruits and soft vegetables assist, by the
quantity of water which they contain, in quenching thirst ;
and infants, receiving their food and drink at once from
the milk which is naturally provided for them, are perhaps
not sensible of thirst as a healthy sensation different from
that of hunger. Strong drinks, again, excite thirst, but in
a peculiar manner ; either by their irritation of the nerves
of the digestive canal, or by the great quantity of fluid
which, by exosmosis, they withdraw from the blood.
As a general rule, the degree of thirst during health is
directly proportioned to the rapidity of the exhalation of
fluid from the skin and lungs. Hence the naturally greater
thirst in summer, and the desire for the fresh fruits of the
season, which both supply water and produce moisture of
the mouth by exciting a flow of saliva ; hence also the
less natural thirst which is produced by remaining in hot
and crowded rooms, arid that which is so painfully felt by
who work about iron-forges and steam-engines, and
which they can satisfy only by frequent and enormous
draughts of water. Of the same kind is the thirst which
many have felt in ascending high mountains, on which, as
the atmospheric pressure diminishes, the evaporation from
the skin is increased ; and that which is produced by ex-
posure to a dry brisk wind.
The sensations and other circumstances accompanying
ordinary thirst need not be described. The sensation
of dryness of the mouth and throat, which most strongly
characterizes it, is not always the result of those parts
being really deficient in moisture, nor is it removed by
supplying the mouth alone with fluid. It is an example
cif that class of local sensations which are indicative
of peculiar general conditions of the body, or of the
state of some other part in which no sensation is per-
il. These have been called reflex sensations; and
one of the characters common to many of them, as well as
to thirst, is that the animal perceiving them is impelled to
actions which tend to the health of the body. For
example, the irritation which is felt at the upper part of
the throat, and which induces one to cough, is often due,
not to a direct excitement of that part, but to the existence
of some irritating substance, such as mucus, in a distant
and insensible part of the air-passages. From the latter
part an impression is conveyed to the nervous centre ;
thence, without directly giving rise to a sensation, it is
supposed to be reflected to the sensitive nerves of the
glottis; and the sensation which is perceived through these
excites the desire to cough, and thus leads to the expul- I
sion of the irritating substance. In like manner the sen-
sation of dryness in the mouth induces one to drink, and
so to remove not merely the sensation, but the more im-
portant condition, such as a deficiency of water in the
blood, of which it is a SIL'H.
But as cough may be produced by a direct irritation of
the upper part of the larynx, so a sensation similar to that
of thirst is often due only to a rapid evaporation from the
mouth and throat, as in long speaking or singing ; but this
may be removed by merely washing the mouth and throat,
or by exciting a flow of saliva ; means which are insuffi-
cient for the remedy of real thirst. That the introduction
of water into the blood is necessary for quenching thirst
has been often proved in persons who in attempting suicide
have divided the pharynx or oesophagus, so that they could
no longer swallow in the ordinary mode. Repeated wash-
ing of the mouth has been altogether unavailing to relieve
their thirst; but the injecting of water through the wound
into the stomach has quickly removed the sensation of
dryness in the mouth, though none of the water passed
through it. Similar facts have been observed in those \\ ho,-
being unable to swallow or to have liquids forced into their
stomachs, have been long immersed in baths, and in ship-
wrecked sailors who have had no fresh water and have re-
lieved their thirst by keeping their clothes soaked with sea-
water.
The thirst of many diseases, such as acute fevers and
important inflammations, affords another proof of the sen-
sation peculiar to it. being chiefly a sitrn of some general
condition ; for in these the sensation often continues not
only when the mouth is moist, but after large quantities
of water have been imbibed, being here probably depend-
ent on some condition of the blood which dilution does
not remedy. In certain cases also the sensation seems to
be entirely subjective, and dependent on a peculiar condi-
tion of the nervous system. This is remarkably the case
in a disease of which the true pathology is unknown, and
which has been named polydipsia, from its chief symp-
tom being an excessive and insatiable thirst. Several ex-
amples have been recorded, in some of which the thirst
probably depended on a constant discharge of fluids from
diabetic Blood, or by dropsical effusions, or otherwise : but
in many it could not be traced to such an origin. One of
the most remarkable of them is described by Mr. Ware, in
the ' London Medical and Physical Journal ' for 1816 : the
patient was a man 22 years old, whose health was in other
respects good, but who was compelled to drink six gallons
of water daily. He had been accustomed to drink nearly
as much from his childhood ; and, if deprived of a suffi-
cient supply, his head was always affected, and fainting
and dullness of the senses ensued. Nearly all the cases of
the same kind which have been published are collected
in a paper by M. Lacombe, in the French medical jour-
nal 'L'Experience,' for May and June, 1841, and re-
ferences to several are given by Tiedemann, in his ' Physio-
logic des Menschen,' Band iii., p. 71.
If thirst be long unallayed, it produces one of the most
dreadful states which a man can be compelled to bear.
Those who have attempted suicide by starvation have been
unable to resist the desire to drink, though they have en-
dured many days of abstinence from food, and have been
compelled thus for a time to protract their lives. The
same tortures have been endured by sailors wrecked far
from land. As the thirst increases, the mouth and throat
become painful and burning hot, the respiration grows
difficult, and the expired air feels hot and dry. The voice
becomes hoarse, the speech thick and indistinct, and the
pulse small and rapid. All secretion diminishes or is sup-
pressed, the skin is hot and dry, and the eyes become
painful and inflamed. The sensibility of every part of the
body seems exalted, at the same time that the power of the
muscles fails ; the mind passes slowly from restlessness and
anxiety to despair, and at last, as the body grows weaker,
begins to wander in a low delirium. At the close of life
there is an utter prostration of strength, and, in general,
insensibility ; but the inflammation of the mouth and eyes,
and of all the parts that are not projected from the air by
a thick cuticle, increases, and proceeds sometimes to gan-
grene. The time during which so miserable a state can be
endured varies with the strength of the sufferer. Haller
; Eli-nx'iiln I'hiiaioliiffiee, t. vi.) has collected examples of
men who lived for at least fifteen days without drinking ;
but the more ordinary period is eight or ten days.
THIRTY TYRANTS (of Athens). In the year 404 B.C.,
when, after the Peloponnesian war, Athens had fallen into
the hands of Sparta through the treacherous designs of
the oligarchical party, the Spartans themselves did not
interfere in any direct way with the political constitution
of Athens (Diodorns, xiv. 4), but their negotiations with
Theramenes and others of the same party had convinced
them that even without their interference the democracy
would soon be abolished. In this expectation they were
not disappointed, as this was really the object of the oli-
garchical party. But as this party did not sufficiently trust
its own power, Lysander, who had already sailed to Samos,
was invited to attend the Assembly at Athens, in which
the question of reforming the constitution was to be con-
sidered. The presence of Lysander and other Spartan
generals with their armies, and the threats that were
uttered, silenced all opposition on the side of the popular
party, and on the proposition of Theramenes a decree was
•.I that thirty men should be elected to draw up a new
iHition. (Xenophon, Hellen., ii. 3,2.) Lysias (in
A'/w/<«/7i., p. 126, ed. Steph.) gives a more satisfactory
account of the proceedings on that memorable day than
Xenophon. These thirty individuals were invested with the
sovereign power of the republic. Theramenes himself nomi-
ten, the Athenian ephors ten others, and the election
of the remaining ten was left to the people. The names of
the Thirty are preserved in Xenophon (Hi'llfn., ii. 3, 2).
Their government, a real reign of terror, which fortunately
did not last more than one year, was called in Athenian
history the year of anarchy, or the reign of the Thirty
Tyrants. From the moment that they had thus acquired an
apparently legal power, they filled the vacancies in the
T H I
378
T H I
setiBt.-nr.il tho magistracies with their own friends and
• .•• code of laws which th.
drew \er made, tlnit they might nut put am
>nts upon ' . and might always be at liberty
:.-y pleased. A -tins: often
moil, perhaps appointed by I.ysander liiinsclr. \\a.s in-
trusted with tlic government . Tlir oh/
the l ' us to (lie condition ol' nn
unimportant town, and to make the people forget the
.,•-- in which it had been raised byThenn-
fho splendid arsenal of \
pulled do-. . .-r.il ui' the fortresses of Attica were
dosti 'isli their Uranny the Thirty found it
• riil of a numl • -ns obnoxious to
them. Tin- first that wore put to death were the syco-
phants, who during the time of the democracy had con-
tributed i: .throw by their shameful
praet 'lie senate, as well as every well-mcaninir
citi/en, was glad to see the republic delivered of such a
pestilence1. The senate acted in the.-e trials as the
supreme court of justice, and the Thirty presided in it.
AH the votes of the senators however wen1 gi-.cu openly,
that the (wants misrht be able to sec which way each senator
voted. This mode of proceeding, though it was at first
onU directed against individuals equally obnoxious to all
parties, became alarminir when all the distinguished men,
who had been imprisoned before the day on which the new
constitution was established, in order that they might not
frustrate the plans of the oligarchs by their oppo-it ion, were
in like manner sentenced to death. The apprehensions of
the people were but too well founded, and Critias, the
most cruel among the Thirty, gave sufficient indications
that the Tyrants did not mean to go on with the same
moderation. That they might aiwa\s have at band an
I force to support them, they sent an embassy to
Sparta to ask for a garrison to occupy the Acropolis.
Tins was granted, and came under the command of Calli-
bius as harniostes. His arrival rendered the Thirty secure.
They courted the Spartan hannostcs in the most ob-
sequious manner, and he in return placed his troops at
their disposal for whatever purpose they might wish to
employ them in establishing their dominion more firmly.
The assistance of the senate in the trials for political
offences began to be dispensed with, and the number of
the unhappy victims increased at a fearful rate. Not
only persons who opposed or showed any dissatisfaction
with the rule of the Tyrants, but all who liy their merits
had piined favour with the people, were regarded as
dangerous persons, who, if they could choose, would piefer
.•alar government, and were condemned to death in a
very summary manner. Tho reign of the Thirty now
bewail to display all its horrors, and no one could feel
safe. To be possessed of wealth, especially in the case
ofali .fficient to bring a man to ruin, for the
tyrants, independent of all political considerations, I
t'o murder for no other purpose than that of enriching
themselves by the confiscation of the property of their
victims. The remonstrances of Therameiies against this
reckless system of bloodshed were not followed by any
other consequence* than that the Thh1 : :!iK)ii
Athenians who were to enjoy a kind of franchise, and who
. not be put to deatli without a trial before the senate.
The rest Of the Cltizei •impelled to uue up their
arms, and were treated as outlaws. By this expedient the
Thirty hoped to strengthen t; and to become
incident of the Spartan garrison. The opposi-
tion ot Thcramonc-. to this arrangement involved bis own
destruction. [TllBlLV i he horrors which were now
perpetrated became every day more numerous and fearful.
and numbers of Athenians fled from their native country
to seek refuge at Argos, Megara. Thebes, and other
placi n't with an hospitable and kind rcccp-
The tyrants soon began to be uneasy at the crouds
of exiles who thus gathered round the frontiers of Attica,
and applied to Sparta to i: The Spartans issued a
••ring the Thirty to arrest the
in any part of G elding any ((reeks'
interfere on their behalf. This command was entirely
disregarded by the < , i-cially the Thehiins. who
declared that the Athenian fugitives should I
1 and protected in all the towns of Hosotia. Tl
whose mode of action was not dictated by a generous and
humane I but
rather arose fiom jo: •/., thus became the
rallying point for n great numl»
i>riiing. In what manner
the rule of the Thirty T; >wn,
and the dcnii.eratieal constitution
Mole TilK.vsviM
iiiphon. //'•//,;;., ii. '.i ; Diodorus. xiv. 3, 8
Thirl, e, i\ .. ]). 17-1. &
THIRTY TYRANTS under >,'•
This name has I to a set of usurpers who sprung
up in vario the Unman empire in the
Tins
appellation of the Thi: . in imitation of the Thiity
Tyrants of Athens, is highh improper, and 1 .iiogy
to the Thirty of Athcn-.' They lose m different ;•
assuming the title of emperor, in irregular -
and were pift down one after another. Their number
moreover does not amount to thirty, unless women and
children, who were honoured with the imperial title,
included. Trebellins Pollio, who, in his wink on the • Tri-
ginta Tyranni.' describes the adventures of each of '
has taken great pains to make out that their number
was thirty. There were however only nineteen real nsiir-
pers, — ('\iiadcs. Macii::nns. Balis'a. Odcnatlms. and '/.<•-
nobia. in the eastern provinces; Posthumns, I. oil:
Victorinus and his mother Victoria, Marius, and Tot
in Gaul, Britain, and the western provinces in go:
Ingemuis, Hegillianus, and Bureohis. in Ilhrienm ai
count; ;hc Danube: Saturninns. in 1'ontus: Tre-
bellianus, in Isauria : 1'iso. inThe.siU : \alons.inAe.
Aemilianns, in Kgypt ; and (Vlsii-, in Africa. Th.
jority of these usurpers were persons of low birth, wr
any talent or virtue, and scarcely any on
a natural death. The best among tliem were 1'iso and
Oderrathns, and the latter, who maintained himself at Pal-
myra, received the title of Augustus from the Uoman senate,
and was enabled to bequeath his empire to his widow, the
celebrated Zenobia.
(Trebellius Pollio, Trigiiita Tyranni ; Gibbon,
of the Declu/f and lull. chap. \. : Man-o, I.
&tiiii//n'\ a . ]). 4:<:i. x
THIRTY YKAUS- WAR is the name of that memo-
rable contest which lasted from K11K to 1<; , n the
emperor and the Uoinau < of Germany on
one side, and the Protestant stales, with their allies,
mark, and afterwauls Sweden and Franco, on the •
side. Spain, Holland, and Transylvania also took part in
it, but their interference was less direct. This long struggle
has generally been considered a religious war. 1
indeed its origin in religious differenec.-. but political
ambition afterwards became the real motive of the con-
tending parties, and religion was used to veil tile d<
of the leaders, and to keep up the enthusiasm of ihe
people. The Thirty Years' War arose out of the si,
political and religions confusion into which the German
empire was thrown b\ the Hi-formation, and which in the
beginning 0 uteonth century had become so in-
extricable, that a civil war, without foreign intcifci
illy the shortest if not the only means to
uin.
In • understanding of the history of
the Thirty Year-' \\ar. we shall iir-1 cm- a short view of
the state of rch • political alt'ans in Germany
dining the latter part of the, sixteinth century.
When the war between Charles V. and Maurice elector
of Saxony was terminated l.\ the IreaU of Passui
and after the conclusion of the Second IV: Ivion
l.'i.Vi , the memory of the dangers from which Germany
had escaped preserved the empire during a long p,
from the calamity of a new religious war. The Proli
religion was propagated, without am uolcnoc. in i
provinces which had until then been faithful to Komi
early as 1.1.SO the most powerful hereditan princes of the
empire, i \ocpt the archdukes o! ml the duke,- of
Bavaria and of ('loves, were all converted to the docilities
of Luther; the Koman Catholic , .d even tin- ( ni-
perots Ferdinand L. and Maximilian II.. '1 to
make many concessions in religious matters in order to
In i p i ; is in ohedii
liy the Second Peace of Hehgion the princes had ac-
ijnired the ' HIS reforiuandi,' iha-l is. the light of jiruteoting
T H I
377
T H I
their subjects in religious affairs, which right was gradually
considered by them as a right of reforming the state of
religion. For this purpose the Roman Catholic princes
employed the Jesuits and the Capuchins ; the Jesuits were
active in the conversion of men distinguished by birth,
bv knowledge, or by their social position, and the Capu-
chins worked upon the mass of the people. Their zeal
and success occasioned bitter complaints among the Pro-
testants, who' however gave causes of complaint equally
numerous and equally well founded to the Roman Catho-
lics. The dissatisfaction of the people was augmented by
the selfish policy of their princes.
The ecclesiastical dignity of a bishop having lost all its
signification in the Reformed religion, the Protestant
bishops became mere temporal princes. Among their
number were the archbishops and bishops of Bremen, of
Magdeburg, of Verden, of Liibeck, of Osnabriick, of
Ratzeburg, of Halberstadt, and of Minden. There being, at
the same time, some hope that the Protestant bishops
might become hereditary princes in their bishoprics, the
Roman Catholic bishops of Miinster, of Paderborn, of
Hildesheim, and the elector archbishop of Cologne, mani-
fested their intention to adopt the Protestant faith.
Availing themselves of the privilege granted them by
the ' jus reformandi,' they encouraged their subjects to
adopt the Protestant religion. The Roman Catholic princes
tried all in their power to prevent such changes, but the
Protestant princes favoured them, and each party had its
motive for doing so, as the younger sons of the princes and
nobles of both parties were usually appointed bishops,
abbots, and canons.
The Roman Catholic party recovered its political influ-
ence towards the end of the sixteenth century. The
Protestant elector archbishop of Cologne, Gebhard, count
of Truchsess, was driven from his see, and his successor,
Ernst, duke of Bavaria, who held together the bishoprics
of Cologne, of Liege, of Miinster, and of Hildesheim,
oppressed the Protestants in all his extensive dominions.
The bishops of Wiirzburg and of Bamberg, assisted by the
Jesuits, compelled their Protestant subjects to emigrate,
and the archbishop of Salzburg treated the Protestants
with unheard-of cruelty. In Strassburg there were at the
same time a Protestant and a Roman Catholic bishop,
who, after a bloody feud, were both sustained by the
emperor Rudolph II. in those parts of the bishopric
which they had conquered ( 1593). The Roman Catholic
people were equally persecuted by the bishops of Halber-
stadt and of Osnabriick, and the troubles were increased
by the differences which arose in the Protestant party
itself between the Lutherans and the Calvinists.
The leader of the Calvinists was the elector palatine
Frederick IV., who, with a small number of Calvinist
princes, refused to appear at the diet of Regensburg
( 1.VJ4), which was assembled by Rudolph II. for the pur-
pose of obtaining the assistance of the empire against the
Turks. Frederick and his party declared that they would
not assist Rudolph in the Turkish war, unless he satisfied
all the claims of the Protestants, and at the same time
they promised a subsidy of 400,000 gulden to Henri IV.
of France if he would restore the Protestant bishop of
Strassburg to the entire bishapiic. The Lutheran princes
expressed the utmost indignation at the treacherous con-
duct of Frederick IV., and they sent their contingents to
the Turkish war. But from that moment there was a
French party among the princes of the empire, and we
shall afterwa'rds see how dexterously France managed her
influence over Germany.
The diet at Regensburg was dissolved in 1608 without
any results with respect to the peace of the empire. The
Roman Catholic states claimed the restitution of all the tej--
ritories, bishoprics, abbeys, and churches, which had been
seized by the Protestants since the treaty of Passau (1552) ;
but so far were the Protestant, and especially the Calvinist,
princes from yielding to these claims, that they resolved to
t them by every means in their power. For that pur-
pose they concluded the ' Protestant Union ' on the 4th of
May, 1008, of which however the elector of Saxony de-
clined to become a member. The elector palatine Fre-
derick IV., a Calvinist, was the leader of the Union. The
members of the Union immediately levied troops, and
sent ambassadors to England, France, and Venice, thus
giving the example of a well-organized rebellion, and
P. (;., No. 1535.
showing that they would resist the emperor and break
:he constitution of the empire with the assistance of
foreigners.
The confusion of political and religious interests in-
creased after the death of John William duke of Jiilich,
Cleves, and Berg (1609), one of the most powerful princes
of the Roman Catholic party. The succession to his rich
and extensive territories was disputed between John Si-
gismund, elector of Brandenburg, a Lutheran ; the count
palatine of Neuburg, Philip Louis, a Calvinist ; and
Christian II., elector of Saxony, a Lutheran, but a friend of
the emperor. Alarmed by this latter circumstance, the
elector of Brandenburg and the count palatine resolved
to govern those duchies in common, until they could find
an opportunity to settle this affair ; and they immediately
took possession of Jiilich, Cleves, Berg, and the dependent
counties. This act was declared by the emperor to be a
breach of peace ; he ordered the vacant inheritance to be
sequestrated, and he appointed Leopold of Austria, bishop
of Strassburg and Passau, to carry the measure into effect.
He was assisted by the whole Roman Catholic party,
which, alarmed at the loss of such a powerful member as
the duchy of Cleves, concluded a union, to which they gave
the name of the ' Liga' (llth July, 1C09). This Liga was
afterwards the strongest support of the emperor during
the Thirty Years' War ; Maximilian, duke of Bavaria, was
at the head of it. But as early as the llth of February,
1610, the Union concluded an alliance with Henry IV. of
France, and occupied the bishoprics of Wiirzburg and
Bamberg. French troops entered the duchy of Jiilich.
King Henry seemed to have found an opportunity of
carrying into effect his plans of a European republic, but
he was murdered on the 14th of May, 1610. Frederick IV.
died only five months later, and the Union concluded a
peace with the Liga at Munich on the 34th of October,
1610. In the mean time a deadly personal animosity had
broken out between the elector of Biandenburg and Wolf-
gang William, the son and successor of the count palatine
Philip Louis, owing to their common government in the
states of the late duke of Cleves. Wolfgang William, in
order to obtain assistance against Brandenburg, adopted the
Roman Catholic religion ; and the elector of Brandenburg
made himself a Calvinist for the purpose of obtaining the
assistance of the Union, which was chiefly composed of
Calvinist princes. The confusion which arose from these
sudden changes became still greater by the interference
of the king of Spain, Philip III. This king became afraid
of new religious troubles in his provinces of the Nether-
lands, situated on the boundaries of the duchies of Cleves
and of Jiilich, and he therefore ordered his general, Spi-
nola, to occupy them for the count palatine with a body
of 30,000 Spaniards. But no sooner had his army entered
these territories than the United States of the Netherlands,
then at war with Spain, sent troops into the same countries
under the pretence of occupying them for the elector of
Brandenburg (1614). This was the first example of a war
between foreign powers being carried on in Germany.
The empire was now on the eve of a general war. It
was generally expected that it would begin on the banks
of the Lower Rhine, but, on the contrary, it broke out in
Bohemia.
By a solemn declaration of the emperor Rudolph II.,
liberty of religion had been granted to the Utraquists, a
numerous Protestant sect in Bohemia (9th of July, 1609).
The document containing this declaration had the name
of the ' Majestats-Brief.' Civil troubles having broken out
in Bohemia, and Rudolph II. having taken arbitrary mea-
sures to put an end to them, the Bohemians deposed him,
and chose his brother Matthias king in his stead, in 1611.
Rudolph II. died of grief in the following year, and
Matthias likewise succeeded him on the Imperial throne
(1612). The number of Lutherans and Calvinists having
greatly increased in Bohemia, they claimed the same re-
ligious liberties with the Utraquists. Matthias refused to
yield to these claims, and serious differences arose between
him and the Lutheran and Calvinist Bohemians. They
were joined by the Utraquists, who were afraid the em-
peror might abolish the ' Majestiits-Brief.' Matthias sent
commissioners to Prague, who assembled the deputies of
the Bohemian states in the royal castle of the Hradshin,
and declared to them that their king and emperor would
not extend the ' Majestiits-Brief ' to the Lutherans and
VOL. XXIV.— 3 C
T H I
878
T II I
Cmlvimsts. Suddenly :ci .1,111. -i p.ui\ of Bohemian noble*.
11 tin- room
nert andtl a.s»cinbled.
isMartinitz
henna, and they and
thru,
ami
T!u- happened mi ', -, and this day is
justly ic'_'.udcd ;is the bc;:ininni; ot the TlilrU Years' War.
The conduct nl tin- Bohciii .!•> tin- Imperial
com1 '-.I- bv in -in act <il i i-hness Of
anger. The party of the Utiaiu;, ->lvcd
upon it, because they wanted In i;ivc the signal for iin in-
.'. ill.'ll bad tl. alllOU!* all
tin' 1' ,f Bohemia anil her dependent provinces
Mora ilia, a* well a> ,»e of
the archduchy Tilt- in»urifents immediately
organised ;i rcirular administration of the kingdom. They
also levied an army, which wa> commanded by the count
,ud whirh was icirfiirccd by a hod) of the troops
ot' tin- Union, commanded by Christian, prince of Anhalt,
1 his time. The emperor
•Jillh <if March. IGlil , and
:aml II.. aivluh.Kc ot Austrian v •! liim
as emperor. Pnvi,m-\ lo tbj lie 2Nt of May,
crowned o« future .-;
Matthias in Bohemia.
The leaders nf the Union encouraLred tlie Bohemians
to further , h Ferdinand II. promised
rclidoiw liberty to all tl, its of Hoheinia, tliey
nevertheless sent their troops agaiwl him, and declared the
throne vacant. Frcdiric!, palatine, the son-in-
law of James I. ol' England. «as chosen tun:,' ut' Bohemia,
and he was crowned ut Prague on the 4th of November,
liil'.t. In the mean time the count of Thurn had mad-
progress in Austria. In the month of .Inly. lOlil, he was
under the walls of Vienna, and. although this city was re-
lieved, he remained with his army in the adjacent country.
There he was joined by Betlen (labor, the sovereign prince
of Transylvania, who had overrun Hunirai y and vv bo took up
his winter-quarters in ith the count of
Thurn. In the same winter Hil'.i Ki2ii the new kins; of
Bohemia made a defensive and offensive alliance with the
ol' Hungary, and he proposed a si-
milar alliance to Sultan Ahmed I. This imprudent and
unpatriotic policy made bis cause unpopular among all
parties in Germany.
Ferdinand II. took vigorou* though arbitrary i:
recover Bohemia and her dependencies, those extensive and
rich countries which are now inhabited by upwards of ten
millions of inhabitants. The pope, Spam, Bavaria, and
even the Protestant elector of Saxony, promised their
nee to the emperor. In the autumn of Hi'JO the
Lower Palatinate was occupied by the Spaniards under
Spinola : the dnke of Havana overran the Upper Palatinate
and entered Itohemia: John G ot' Saxony
(since Kill . conquered I.nsatia; and AuMiia
by the emperor himself, who had made peace with Betlen
Gabor. At !a-t the i: commanded by their duke
and the celebrated Tilly, forced the Bohemians to make a
stand on the V. _r under the walls of I'
Then ,iletely defeated on the Mill of Novem-
ber, 10aO. Frederick tied from his capital, and after a short
«tay in his second capital. Bre.slan, he abandoned his kinj-
di.m and took refuse in Holland.
Bohemia, with all her dc|> m the hands
of the emperor, who rewarded Ins ally, the
Saxony, with the province of I.n^itia. He punished the
mians severely . V urieat number of i,
and their
iiiber of fugitives wen- contiscate.l ; but an
-|uoad vitamet honoreiu') was ^'iveii on the 4th
all tho*' who bad not been ciind.
before that day. The Lutheran andCalvim-t nm
x-d, and their churches were ihnt up; but not
of ll ' IIIIL; the • Ntajestiits-Biiel '
• ' 'I IK Roman OathoUei iren restored to all
UMirriKfaU; and the university of Prague and the whole
»aUonal education were put und.-r the direction of the
J««uU. The emperor then put king Frederick under tin-
ban of the empire, declared hia electorship to be for:.
and proposed the dn
This pic, position IIOVM
m, Yfho conadi I'anishmeiit of KredencU
^al because the conm-il ot
ally pronounced it according to the constitution of th«
emin
Tlie power of the emperor increased ao much by hi*
coni|iie-t of Bohemia, ami the K "iic stale* were
h enco\iraifed. that they claimed those
abbeys, and churches which had been reforn
-inee the Second Peace of Religion.
Bel liohcmirv v, i I\".,
kinir of Denmark and duke of 1
northern Germany, and the ainbiosiulo. land,
'i. and the United States of the Netherlands, held a
congress at Seireberir m Holstem for the pi ;,]mi-
in^ an alliance against any ambition-
peror. After the battle on the \Vei.sse I'
rick also ca . and claimed th,
of the northern princes in order to recover his
These princ , r had assembled cx<
own interests. The bishopric's of I.ubei k
Verden. of Scbvverin, of Halberetadt, an,
had been bestowed on youmrcr M)ns of the reiirniui; b
of Holstein and of Brnnswicli, and 1
them if the Roman Catholic party had i
Mem. Frederick therefore found only one li
iiristian, duke of Brunswick and 'bishop of 11
stadt, an unprincipled man, who lovi
land, the wifeoftne unhappy kins; of the Boheiniaii*. ajul
svvore he would die for her. With a -
entered the Palatinate. He. was beaten by Tilly at I1
(tith June. 1022 . Christian now joined the count of Mans-
fcld, a man not less unprincipled than himself, and
retired to northern Germany as far as
They plundered and robbed friends as well :^
but, pressed bv Tilly, they disbanded their i tied
to Knirlaud December, lu'lit . Maximilian of 1!;,
^ been chosen elector at the diet of lli-i. and Tilly
bt-ini; then in possession e northern bishojiiies,
kini; Christian concluded an alliance with England and
nited States of the Netherlands for the purpose of
obtainini; subsidies for the war which he intended to
declare airaiii-t tlie i-ni])eror. Christian of Halbe
and the count of ManslVld promised their assistance. The
former went to France and levied troops there, and Mans-
feld, who had obtained a commission as an Er.:
ral. levied a strong force in England. They united i.
Netherlands, and. al'ter many adventures and dar
Mansfeld succeeded in joining the duke of Mecklen
who w:us an ally of the kins: of Denmark. Mear
the latter kin:r bad been appointed eommander-in-chii t ol
the united forces of the ciicle of I , ny, and. tboui.'h
the greater part of the ])rinces of this circle shortlj
made their peace with the emperor, the kinir ad-
vanced into Hanover, where Tilly was ready to receive him
The emperor was then in a very embarrassed situation.
The war in northern Germany was carried on by the
troops of th nl principally by those, of li;r
commanded by Tilly, who was at the same time com-
mandcr-in-chict of the force* of the Union. The duke
of Bavaria had consequently an immense influence in
public: nll'nirs ; the emperor was obliged to cede to bun the
•it of ins archduchy as an in-
demnification for his expenses in the Bohemian war. and
to appoint him bis biirh commissioner in the clectom
the Palatinate. On the other > Inland 11. v\:,-.
threatened by the count of Mansfeld, who uas ll:,
lift head of a atroni; army in the duchies of Me,
and who was ready to invade 1.
join Betlen Gabor. prince of T
had airain taken nun- . and there was only
a small ln«ly of Imperial troops to check him.
Albrechl "of Waklstein [\V\ii : the
Thirty \ears' War. SJIV.M! the cinpcior and pi. --crM'd the
empire. Known sts a skilful general, and in possession of
iuke of Kiiedland in
In 1 ( ;•_•.-! Kerdmand II. ap]iMiiited him eommaiidei-
in-chief of an Impeiial :\nn\ which did . but
winch was created by VValdstein in a very short time.
T H 1
379
T H I
Waldstein advanced towards the Lower Elbe, and took
a fortified position at Dessau. There he was three times
attacked by Mansfeld. On the 1st and on the llth of
April, 1626, Mansfeld was beaten ; on the 25th of the
same month he was put to the route. He reinforced his
army in Mecklenburg, and in June invaded Silesia with
20,000 men, in order to join Betlen Gabor. Waldstein
marched in a parallel direction, and weakened his enemy
liy skirmishes. On the 8th of September Mansfeld was on
the banks of the Waag in north-western Hungary, with
only one-fourth of his army, while Waldstein with fifty
thousand men stood between him and Betlen Gabor. This
prince made peace with the emperor, and Mansfeld, leav-
ing the remainder of his army to the command of John
Ernst, duke of Saxe-Weimar, fled to Venice, but died on
his way, in a village in Dalmatia. Christian of Halberstadt,
his fellow-adventurer, had died before him, in the 27th
year of his age.
While Waldstein was victorious in eastern Germany,
Tilly carried on the war in the country west of the Elbe
against the king of Denmark. In consequence of a fall from
his horse, which had affected King Christian's mind to an
alarming degree, he firmly believed that God had chosen
him to be the champion of the Protestant religion. But
half of his army was destroyed by the skilful manoeuvres of
Tilly, and at last the king was obliged to make a stand at
Lutter am Barenberg, between Goslar and Hildesheim.
A battle ensued, in which the Danes were completely
dd'eated 17th of August, 1626), and Christian fled beyond
the Elbe into his dominions.
Tilly employed the following year (1627) in besieging
and taking the towns on the left side of the Elbe, which
were occupied by Danish garrisons. In the month of
July he was joined by Waldstein, who, after his victories
over Mansfeld, had driven the Danes from the countries
•if the Elbe. Waldstein, after having put the dukes
(if Mecklenburg to flight, attacked the king of Denmark,
who had assembled a new army (1628), and in one cam-
i his troops conquered all the continental possessions
liristian IV., who was compelled to beg for peace
before the end of the year. A congress assembled at
Liibeck, and on the 22nd of May, 1629, Waldstein granted
peace to the king of Denmark, on conditions unex-
pectedly favourable : Jutland, Slcswik, and Holstein were
restored to Christian, who promised not to interfere in the
German affairs nor to make any furl her claim on bishoprics
on behalf of his kinsmen. Immediately after the peace of
Liibeck, Waldstein was invested with the duchies of Meek
lenburg, the dukes having previously been dispossessed
and put under the ban of the empire for their adherence to
the king of Denmark.
One of the most remarkable events in the Danish war
was the siege of Stralsund on the Baltic, a town which
belonged to the Ilimseatic confederacy, though it was sub-
ject to the duke of Pomerania. Stralsund being occupied
by a Danish garrison, it was besieged by the troops of
Waldstein, who conducted the siege during the months
of June and July, 1G28. On the 14th of July the town
capitulated ; but before the Imperial troops had taken pos-
m of it, a Swedish fleet appeared off Stralsund, and
landed a strong body of troops, who took possession of the
fortress. Although the inhabitants of Stralsund had pro-
mised obedience to the emperor, the Imperial troops were
not allowed to enter the town, which remained under the
command of a Swedish general. Of this most unfair and
insulting interference on the part of the Swedes, Wald-
htcin was previously aware ; and this was one of the
reasons why he allowed such favourable terms to the
king of Denmark at the peace of Liibeck ; another cause
-.i daring design of the emperor on the liberty of
the Protestant religion. Encouraged by the success of his
armies, and misled by imprudent counsellors, Ferdinand
II., on the 6th of March, 1029, issued the ' Edictum Resti-
tutitmU.' By this edict he deprived the Calvinists of their
religious liberties ; and he declared that, conformably to the
Mid Peace of Religion, all the bishoprics, abbeys, and
churches which had been taken from the Roman Catholics
since that, peace should be rentored to them ; and that the
Roman Catholic pOMewon of Protestant territories should
not be hindered from the enjoyment of the privilege--
granted by the ' Jus Refotmandi.' The ecclena
states which had been ceded to members of the house of
the elector of Saxony, who -was still an ally of the em-
peror, -were alone excepted from this ordinance. If
the ' Edictum Restitutionis1* had been executed, a general
civil war would have been the immediate consequence;
but it met with much opposition. Only a few Protestant
bishoprics were conferred upon Roman Catholic princes,
and the legal execution of the Edict was made dependent
upon the arbitration of a general meeting of all the
states. This meeting was called the ' Day of Composi-
tion,' and was fixed for the month of February, 1631.
The religious troubles seemed now to be nearly at an
end. All the states of Germany wished for peace; and all
hoped that this peace was to be settled on the ' Day of
Composition.' The Protestant party was still powerful
enough to obtain favourable conditions for their religion.
The emperor's power had much increased, but the ambi-
tion of his counsellors and the haughtiness of his generalis-
simo, Waldstein, met with vigorous opposition among the
members of the Liga, who obliged the emperor to deprive
Waldstein of his rank as commander-in-chief of the Im-
perial forces M030). Foreign interference was not at all
necessary. But foreign interference was nevertheless pre-
pared by France and Sweden.
Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, was master of all
the countries which lie around the northern and eastern
parts of the Baltic, and his favourite plan was to make this
sea into a Swedish lake. He was also a pious man, and
sincerely attached to the Protestant faith. Deeply
afflicted by the dangers to which this religion was exposed
in Germany, he formed the plan of becoming its protector,
and he pursued this plan with the more zeal and persever-
ance, as he was convinced that by becoming protector
over the Protestant religion he would also become master
of the Baltic. Immense influence in Germany, and the
possibility of being raised to the dignity of emperor, would
nave been the consequence of success in either of his
iimbitious designs. (Extracts of documents contained in
Breyer, Beitrage zur Geschichte des Drtissigjdhrigen
Kntget, pp. 210, 219, 221, 252.) France, then weakened
hy civil troubles, was unable to interfere directly in the
German war, and her minister, Richelieu, employed
every means id his power to persuade the king of
Sweden to make the first attack. Gustavus Adolphus
being then at war with the Poles, Richelieu tried to nego-
tiate a truce between the belligerent parties ; but the
emperor, anxious to prevent, any such peace, sent his gene-
ral, Arnheim, to Poland, with those troops who had been
employed in the siege of Stralsund. Although the Swedes
had first violated the German territory by occupying that
fortress, they nevertheless considered the assistance which
the emperor gave to the Poles as a declaration of war.
But, instead of attacking the hereditary states of the em-
peror on the Polish frontier, Gustavus Adolphus, by the
mediation of the French ambassador, Charnacc, made a
truce with the king of Poland for six years, at Altmark, in
the month of September, 1629. He then made great pre-
parations for an attack on the German countries along the
Baltic, and ordered his fleet to blockade the towns of Wis-
mar and Rostock in Mecklenburg, which were occupied
by the troops of Waldstein. The king of Sweden was the
more active because he was checked in his designs on the
Baltic by Waldstein, who had assumed the title of Imperial
admiral of the Baltic, and who, by means of the Hanseatic
towns, wished to restore the supremacy of the German navy
in the northern seas. But, having been deprived of his mili-
tary command by the emperor in 1G30, Waldstein saw him-
self compelled to defer the execution of these gigantic plans.
French subsidies enabled Gustavus Adolphus to be ready
for the new war as early as the spring of 1630. On the
24th of June he landed 16,000 men on the island of Use-
dom, on the coast of Pomerania. He styled himself Pro-
tector of the Protestant Faith, and came to Germany at a
moment when the princes were assembled at Regensburg
for the purpose of settling their religious affairs, and when
the Protestant party itself had sufficient power to protect
its faith. The first act of Gustavus Adolphus was to
compel Bogislav XIV., duke of Pomerania, a Protestant
prince, to appear in his camp, and to surrender to him his
capital, Stettin, a town equally important by its fortifica-
tions and by its situation near the mouth of the Oder. He
then gradually occupied all Pomerauia, and on the 13th o£
January, 1631, concluded a treaty with France, by which
3C2
T H I
360
T H I
ho engaged himself to cam- on the war against Austria
with 10,000 cavalry mul 30,000 fi>ot,on tin- condition of an
anni: "l -MIO,(KX) thalers. Meantime In- sum-
• •tcstant princes to join him, but when
Membled at Leipzig (10th of Fcbraary to 12th of April.
Hill they declared the king of Sweden an intruder, and
they promised to a-ssist tlic emperor \\itli all their i
p, duke cil' Bnuiswick Liinchurg, was the only
prince who joined the Swedes, m the hope of obtain-
ing some ecclesiastical territory as an addition to his
Vcciv cd in his •• pro-
•ant faith attacked (: 'liam.
elector of Unit ••• .ho was his brother-in-law and
one of the first Protestant princes of the empire. He com-
1 him to surrender his fortress of Spamlau, and he
then made an alliance with the citv of Magdeburg.
This rieh and populous Imperial town joined the Swedish
party for the purpi - i'ing the dancer of being
nceiipied by the Imperialists, who were ordered to defend
that fortress against the Swedes. Kor this conduct Mag-
deburg was put under tin ban of the empire. Tilly having
been chanted to execute the ban. and to take the town by
the citizens of Magdeburg hoped to be n
by the king of Sweden, who had promised his assistance,
but Gustavus durst not advance as far as the Elbe, unless
his rear was secured by an alliance with the electors of
Brandenburg and of Saxony. Magdeburg was taken by
storm by Tilly and Pappeuhcim. whose troops plundered
the town during three davs and dest roved it by fire (20th
of .May. l(i;il . The unhappy fate of this opulent town was
made the subject of a charge against the king of Sweden,
who however had pained such influence over the princes
of northern Germany, that his political credit was in no
•••. eakened by this event. He forced the elector of
Brandenburg to conclude an alliance with him : he drove
the Imperial garrisons from Mecklenburg, and restored the
dukes; and he ravaged the electorate of Saxony until the
elector surrendered his towns and concluded a defensive
and offensive alliance with (itistavus Adolphus 14th of
September, 1631). Previously to this, William V., land-
grave of Hesse-Cassel, had voluntarily attached himself to
the Swedes, for the sole purpose of profiting by the
confusion into which the empire was thrown by their in-
terference. Hernhard, duke of Saxe-Weimar. offered his
services as general to Gustavus Adolphus. and he was
immediately put at tli • part of the Swedish army.
While the king of Sweden thus had his power increased
by the forced or voluntary adherence of the princes, Tilly
reinforced his armv, and occupied Leipzig. But on the
17th of September, liw • N. S.), Tilly lost the battle of
Leipzig against the united force- of the Swedes and Saxons ;
and such was the disorganization of the Imperial army, that
Gustavus Adolphus found no enemy to oppose his march
to southern Germany. However, instead of invading the
hereditary states of the emperor, the king of Sweden con-
quered the bishoprics of Wurzburg and Bamberg in Frnn-
conia. which he intended to keep for himself. He then
took the archbishopric of Main/ and the Palatinate, but
did not restore it tn ter, the ba
of Bohemia. Frederick V. At last he marched to
ia. and forced his wayacio-s the l.ecli after :i bloody
victory over the Bavarians, who lost ther general, Tilly
il. lliii'^ . Aui'-bnrg. a free lni])erial towu.wa's
i to pay homage to ' \<l.>]phus. who on the
7th of May made In- mto Munich, the capital of
During tbi« time 1 . thecompulson allies
of tb' iable part of Bohemia
and Silesia. The great d. - G "Iphus now
became manliest. He proposed to George William, elector
indcnburg, that Krederick William, the elector's son.
:d marry his only daugliter Christina. Frederick Wil-
liam WM thus to become ma-tcr of Sweden. Finnland,
inannlanil. F.-thonin. I.ivonia, Ctirland. Prussia. Bian-
denbiirg. Mccklcnlmig. Pomerania, of the bishop
Kainberg. Wijrzburg. Mainz. Magileburg, Hsilbi-i
r. !ind Worms, of the Palatinate, and of all the conn-
tnen which the king hoped to conquer in southern ('•••r
ninny. But this biilliant offer was refused by (•
\\ilham. It ii said that this prince, who wn-
Calvinut, would not allow Ins s,,,, to become a Lutheran.
diti.in of tins marringe being to assist the
King of Sweden in his designs on the Imperial crown, it
seems that the elector refused the proposals, because he
would not make himself the instnuueir
The emperor was then in tin He
had no army to oppose to • -. and if he had hail
one. the only general who. -after Tilly's death, was able to
lead it with success Hgainsi ' Vlnlplm-. Wa!.:
had been deprived of his rank as commander-in-chicf,
and had become a deadly enemy of the emperor. 1
nand was obliged to humiliate himself before his \
and at last Waldstcin consented to resume tin- command
of the Imperial armv . , but U it
and independent master. This army however did not
exist, but was to be created by Waldstein.
When Gustavus Adolphus occupied Miini< -h. Wali:
had already levied a strong body of troops, with which he
expelled the Saxons from Bohemia. 'Hie defeat of his
ally obliged the king i 'o relinquish the atta-
Austria, to leave Bavaria, and to hasten to tin
.<>ny. then exposed to the victorious Impcri;
lie made a stand at Nuraberg, in order to o Im-
perial army .January, 1032'. In the month of .luly Wald-
stein arrived at Fu'rth, near Ni'imbcrg. and took u]
• ui, by which he checked the king, and i-
the supplies of provisions which were destined for the
Swedish camp. Gustavus Adolphus assaulted the cam]) of
Aersary on the 24th of August, but his troops were
driven back with great slaughter: and the king, seen
army exposed to hunger and disease, left his camp on the
8th of September, and retired to Sa\on\. Waldstcin fol-
lowed him, and in the month of October both the a:
were in Saxony. Waldstein divided his army into two b-
in order to enter into winter-quarters, thinking that the
'. king of Sweden had renounced hostilities for that winter.
But on the (ith of November lie va* suddenly attacked by
the Swedes at J.iitzcn. a small town in the environs of
Leipzig, and he lost the battle in consequence of a part of
his army having been separated from the main body.
This victory however was fatal to tli.
of the death of Gustavus Adolphns. who was killed ; and
the battle v i by Bcrnhard. <! ••-Weimar,
whoimmcii the command of the Swedish armv.
Waldstein retired to Bohemia, where' lie remained. Strangely
inactive, although he soon repaired bis losses at the
of Liitzcn.
The death of Guslavus Adolphus did not lessen the
edes, nor change their polities : the chan-
cellor OxciMienia directed their atl'airs with the same
and the same skill a-, the late king : and the new ;
ralis-iino, Bernhard of Saxi'-Weimar. wa-. one of the ino-t
<listinguisheil captains of his time. In 1033 Oxenstierna
concluded an alliance with the states of the cii.
Suabia, of Franconia, of the I'pper Khinc. and of the Lower
Khine. and duke Bernhard got ,
Waldstein however dest roved the Swedish armv
conquered I.n-atia. and entered into negotiations for the
purpose of concluding a separate pi are with Biamlcnburg
and Saxony, those compulsory allies of the Swedes, wim
were afraid of the dangers to which Germany w .
bv the Swedish protection of the Protestant church. But
Waldstcin. whose pride heeann insupportable, anil whose
I of high treason l>-
numerous enemies : and he was assassinated in the midst
of his armv, on the i"ith of February. !(>.'M. Ferdinand of
• the emperor, succeeded Wald-
stein as commander-in-chicf of the Imperial and Bavarian
armies: his lieutenants w .mil John von \\
both experienced generals. Reinforced bv a cor;
Spaniards, he attacked the Sw, i the
7th of September. 1(1:14. The Swedes were routed, their
1 1, Horn, was made prisoner, and southern Germany
fell into the hands of the Imperialists, who. though tin
acted heavy contributions from the Protestant mhabi'
ie-peeted the liberties of the Prote-taut church. The
Protestant princes of southern Germany, who Imped to
iidize their states by means of the Suedes, were
linted bv the defeat of their protectors; but they
found another powerful ally, who v ready to
encourage (lie German princes in their rebellious under-
takings airainst the authority of their emperor. Tins ally
•• .anee. !.•'• • llor of the duke of
Wiirtcmberg. and Streif, n privy counsellor of the mar-
grave of Baden, negotiated an alliance between their
T H I
381
T H 1
sovereigns and France (llth of November, 1634). The
kin? of France being one of the first Catholic princes, he
durst not assume the title of protector of the Protestant
church, as the king of Sweden had done, and he there-
fore styled himself the protector of the liberties of the
states of Germany against the tyranny of the emperor.
His policy was nevertheless severely blamed by his fellow-
believers. Jacob Keller, a German Jesuit, wrote a book
concerning the policy of Louis XIII., who, at the same
time, protected the Protestants in Germany, and persecuted
them in his own kingdom ; but this book was burnt in
Paris by order of the Sorbonne. Duke Bernhard of Saxe-
Weimar at the same time having sold himself and his
army to France, Saxony and Brandenburg saw at last that
any longer adherence to the Swedish alliance would be the
ruin of themselves and of all Germany. Saxony concluded
peace with the emperor on the 30th of May, 1635, at
Prague ; and Brandenburg gave in its adherence to this
peace on the 27th of August following : the favourable con-
ditions which they obtained proved that the emperor had
given up all schemes of oppressing the Protestant
church. The landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, the dukes of
Mecklenburg, of Brunswick, and of Saxe-Weimar (duke
William), the cities of Frankfort, of Erfurt, &c., the Hanse
towns, and at last the whole circle of Lower Saxony,
became parties to the peace of Prague in the course of
the same year. Among all the Protestant states of im-
portance, Hesse-Cassel, Wiirtemberg, and Baden were the
only states which continued their alliance with the foreign
invaders. This fact also proves that the Swedes had
not armed for the sake of the Protestant religion, as they
pretended ; and that their sole purpose was conquest.
If they had taken arms for the liberty of their faith, they
would have made that liberty a principle, and they would
have withdrawn from Germany as soon as this principle
had ceased to be interfered with. Such disinterested conduct
is indeed rare in history, and is often regarded as contrary
to the substantial welfare of that nation which adopts
it. But is the rarity of the fact a proof of its absurdity ?
To veil ambition with moral or religious pretexts is a
common practice, but it deserves to be stigmatized with
the name of public hypocrisy ; and such was the Swedish
interference in the Thirty Years' War.
The most important event from the year 1635 to 1639
was the conquest of Alsace by duke Bernhard of Saxe-
Weimar, who hoped to posses-, that Austrian province as an
hereditary dnchy. His plans however were contrary to
the policy of France, who herself aimed at the possession
of Alsace, and had bribed the duke for the sole purpose of
employing him as an instrument. No sooner had the
duke's intentions become manifest, than he fell suddenly
ill, and died on the 8th of July, 1639. His army, a strong
and experienced body, was bought by France, who imme-
diately occupied Alsace. The Imperialists however, rein-
forced by the Saxon troops, gained a victory at Haseliinre
over the Swedish general Knyphausen, who was killed
(December, 1635); and they forced Magdeburg to sur-
render H636 . They and the Saxons were beaten in their
turn at Wittstock by the Swedish general Baner (24th of
S j.tember, 1636); and duke Bernhard defeated them at
Kheinfelden (21st of February, 1638), and made prisoners
generals Savelli and the celebrated John von Werth.
Previously to this the emperor Ferdinand II. died (15th of
February, 1637), and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand
III., who had been king of the Romans since 1636. Leo-
pold William, the brother of Ferdinand III., was appointed
generalissimo of the Imperial army ; and as early as the
spring (if 1640 he succeeded in driving the Swedes, under
iian«'r, from Bohemia, and he pursued them as far a.s Hesse
and Hanover. In the autumn of 1640 the emperor issued
a proclamation, granting to the rebellious Protestant
princes a general amnesty and the sovereignty over their
temporal dominions on the status quo of 1630, and over
their ecclesiastical territories on the status quo of 1627.
But these princes treated the proclamation with neglect,
still hoping that by their alliance with the foreigners they
would acquire some privileges and some little territory
more. They sent new contingencies to the army of Bane>,
who, in January, 1641. advanced as far as Hegensburg.
He was reinforced by a French corps, commanded by the
Marshi'.l <le (tm'briand, but their united forces were de-
feated by the Imperialists, and on their retreat they lost
half of their troops. Baner died in the month of May,
1641, and his successor was Torstenson, who led the Swedes
to new triumphs.
The war had now lasted for twenty-three years.
Swedes, Danes, Spaniards, Dutchmen, Frenchmen, half-
savage warriors from Hungary, Transylvania, and Croatia,
had ravaged Germany from one sea to the other. Adven-
turers from all the countries of Europe flocked to Germany
to learn warfare, and to enrich themselves by the plunder
of the country. The foreigners pretended to protect the
churches, but the churches were laid in ruins; they pro-
fessed to defend the liberties of the cities, but the cities
were deserted ; they promised to maintain the privileges
of the princes, and they robbed them of their dominions,
and led them to disobedience and anarchy.
Before the war commenced, the people were told that
they were on the eve of a religious contest, but they hesi-
tated to believe it ; no deep religious hatred, no fanaticism
disturbed their domestic peace. After the war had lasted
some years, their passions were roused, and their warlike
spirit excited them to take up arms, some for the defence
of their hearths, and others to follow Waldstein or any
other leader of the time. The pretext which the princes
made of religion was shown by their attacks on the pro-
perty of the church, and thus the people lost their respect
for religion. The example of Christian of Halberstadt,
of Mansfekl, of Waldstein, who supported their armies by
robbing indifferently Roman Catholics and Protestants,
corrupted both peasants and citizens ; and commerce and
industry being ruined, and agriculture becoming an uncer-
tain means of living, they formed bands of robbers, who
ravaged the country. From these bands the Swedes re-
cruited their troops, who, after the death of Gustavus
Adolphus, were chiefly composed of Germans. The armies
presented an aspect like those of the Goths when they
invaded the Roman empire. One-third and often only one-
fifth of them were soldiers : the remainder were vagabonds,
women, and children, who followed the army, carrying with
them on carts the property which they had stolen on their
march. The greater part of the women were prostitutes,
who, in the army of Waldstein, had a perfect military
organization. They were divided into regiments, companies,
and sections, each body being commanded by a prostitute,
and the women having the same rank among these female
adventurers which their lovers had in the army. The pro-
vinces which were the principal theatre of war were laid
waste, and the inhabitants fled, or were killed, or died of
hunger and disease. Of 500,000 individuals, the population
of the duchy of Wiirtemberg in 1618, only 48,000 remained
at the end of the war in 1648.
Torstenson, the new generalissimo of the Swedes, con-
quered, or rather traversed, in the spring of 1612, Saxony,
Silesia, and Moravia, and his light horse appeared in the
neighbourhood of Vienna. At the same time the Marshal
de Guebriand penetrated into Suabia, in hope of joining
the Swedish army under the walls of the emperor's capital.
The Imperial generals however succeeded in delivering the
hereditary states of Ferdinand ; and while Torstenson re-
tired to the north, where his presence became urgent on
account of a new war with Denmark, the French army was
compelled to cross the Rhine. Gu6hriand was killed in an
engagement near Rotweil, and his successor, the count of
Rantzau, a German nobleman in the French service, who
had again appeared on the right bank of the Rhine, was
surprised by the Imperialists under John von Werth, Mercy,
and the duke of Lorraine. The battle was fought on the
24th of November, 1643, near Duttlingen, and the French
army was almost annihilated. Christian IV. of Denmark
was not more fortunate in his war with the Swedes than he
had been against Tilly and Waldstein ; but while he was
fighting with Torstenson in Jutland, Gallas, the general of the
emperor, suddenly appeared in Holstein, with the view of
placing the Swedes between two fires. From this dangerous
position Torstenson escaped by a bold manoeuvre, which he
executed with his usual rapidity. He advanced as if to
attack Gallas, but suddenly turned to the right, crossed
Holstein, and penetrated by rapid marches into the heart
of Germany, thus obliging the Imperial army to follow him
in order to protect the hereditary states of the emperor. The
Swedes often made a stand to engage in skirmishes which
proved disastrous to the Imperialists, and Gallas brought
only half his army back to Austria. In the mean time
1 II 1
382
T H I
France h;id levied H , h was put under the
roinmand
lllldc
attacked the Imperialists under Mercv, who. nllant
nee and Mirious success, v
the east of the Black Forest, leaving Ihe Palntmate, Alsace,
nnd Baden in the hands of the French autumn, 1044 >. The
Imperialists were still more unfort •! Germany.
Torst. 'hem am! - nt Jankau in
a bloody battle -(itli of March. li>-t."> , ami thi-ir ircneral.
HaUfcld, was made prisoner. In one campaign Torsten-
son made himself master of Sile-iii and Monma. iind en-
camped near Vienna: and his lieutenant. Kiinicsmark,
i-onquered the bishoprics of Bremen and Verden. Tlie
<r of Saxony,and the elector of Brandenburg, Frederick
William, who liad succeeded hi* father Georire William
in 1640, renounced their alliance with the emperor, and
made their separate peace with Sweden: nnd their ex-
ample was followed hv Maximilian, elector of Bavaria.
This hitherto faithful ally abandoned the emperor in 1C47.
after the victory of Tureiine at Allerheim. and after the con-
quest of Suabia by Tureiine, who advanced towards Miinich.
The defection of "the elector of Bavaria excited the discon-
tent of his army, and was considered an act of hiirh
11 by his trenerals. John von Werth, the idol of the
soldiers, conceived the plan of putting the Bavarian army
under the command of the emperor, and of seizins: the
elector and his ministers for the purpose of Confining them
in order to secure their fidelity. The plot was betrayed at
the moment when it was to have been carried into effect.
But John von Werth escaped, and Ferdinand created him a
count of the empire. This event was followed by a victory
of the Swedes at Susmarshauseu, near Augsburg (7th of
1048'. Kiiniifsniark, their gen?111!! now invaded
Bohemia, and on the Hist of July conquered that separate
part of Pi-ague which is called the Kleinseite. This con-
quest was the last important event of the Thirty Years' War,
which beean and ended at Prague.
Pence »f ffe«tpfuU(a.—\» early as 1640 the Diet at
Reirenshiir:: was occupied in putlinir an end to this awful
war. nnd in 1041 preliminaries were prepared at Hamburg
under the mediation of Denmark. Miinstcr and Osua-
briick were afterwards chosen for the places of congress,
and the meeting was to be held in the spring- of 1042. but
it was not organised before the sprinsr of 104.'». The count
of Auersbern was the emperor's ambassador at Osnabnick.
where he was to negotiate n peace with the Swedish
ambassador, John Adler Salvius ; and the count of .N
met at Miinster the count d'Avaux, the ambassador
of the kine of France. The states of Germany sent like-
.-linisicrs or agents to both these towns ; ambu-
of Venice and of the pope came as mediators: and Spain
and the United States of the Netherlands sent their ple-
nipotentiaries for the purpose of settling their private
differences, and interfering in those of Germany. The
negotiations lasted three years : the various chances of the
~jr«i prevented the parties from aetinir upon an invariable
principle, and the troublesome intervention of the German
States were an obstacle to private interests beinc made
subordinate to the general interest. At. last the count of
Trautmannsdorf, ' the most honest amonir all the amhas-
i'i:i with full powers, and on the
14-24th of October, HV4H, a double peace was concluded
at Miinster and at O-nabriiek. which was legally <'11"-
-ider. under the name of the 1'eace of Wc-t-
phalia. Previously to this Spain nnd the United St:
the Netherlands hat! likewise made pence at Miinster, on
the an-3()th of January, 104H. These are the principal
conditions of the peace of Westphalia : —
I. Conditiont concerning the cession of territories and
rig/its to foreign power ».
1, Sweden, an ' an indemnification for her expense in
the war and for ceding several of her conquest.* to their
former pOMemorR,' acquired 1'omrrania. except a pail of
Pomerania ('iterior (duke Boirislav XIV. had <h,
1837,: the town of Wismar in MecUcnburtr : the arch-
hi»hopric of Bremen, and the bishopric of Vcid.
hereditary duchieH : a sum of five millions of tl
which win not to !»• paid |)v the i-mperor, but by those
' >wh«re<fciirt«vii» Adolphus had promised to protect
the Protestant church. In respect of these tcni1
Swedi -i member of the empire.
I -Vance acquired the sovereignty in er the
of Met/. Toul, and Verdun, the pov
been ceded to kinir Henry II. in I."
over Piirnenil : the. town of By.
•>n in Philippsbnrc ; the land.
I'ppcr and !..<«, r A . .,:,<| the 1m;
rights OMT ten free towns in Alsace, but not ovi
These territoi 1 to France in full
L'nty. and the kin>r of France consequently did not
become a member of the empire.
:f. The Tinted States of the Netherlands and tin
federacy of the cantons of Switzerland wen
by the emperor as independent states; lei;all\
these countries were parts of Germany until tin
Westphalia.
II. Conditi aim? tlii' i-i-\\inn nf trrr'
right* tn member* nf Iff
These indemnifications were effected by secularising
bishoprics and other ecclesiastical temturii
1, Hesse-Casse! acquired the abbey of Hersfeld, some
of the fiefs of Suhaucnburg, and six hundred thu
- which were to be paid by Roman Catholic bishops.
•2. Brandenburg acquired the bishoprics of HalherMadt,
of Minden, and of Camin, :LS hereditary principalities ; and
the archbUhopric of Ma^deburi; ;LS an liereditaiy duchy.
.'t, Mecklenburg acquired the bishoprics of Rat/.
and of Schwerin ;i» liereditaiy principalities, arm
commanderics of Mnow and Ncmerow, which were taken
from the Knights of St. John.
4, Brunswick acquired the convents of Walkenried and
Gronin^en, and the privilege of appointing a jirin.-
Ihe lei^nini: house bishop of Osnabiiick ; on this con-
dition, however, — that the bishopric was to In
alternately by a Protestant bishop of the House of li
wick, and by a Roman Catholic bishop, who
chosen by the chapter.
I'lic duke of Bavaria was confirmed as elector, and
rewarded with the. Upper Palatinate and the county ol
(/ham.
0, Charles Louis, the .successor of the, banished elector
palatine Frederick V., wits restored to his dominion-
cept that pad of them which was reded to lta\;
the electorship of his father \v;is forfeited, an eighth
torship wa> created and bestowed upon him.
III. Conditions rnm-crning religion and the constitution
of the em i
The principle of these conditions was.
amnesty with regard to those who had rebelled ai^air,
emperor, though the word 'rebel' was not cmp'.
and the maintainins of the status quo of Kiln.
beirinuine of the Bohemian war, with iciravd to the
tutiou of bishoprics, churches, »Scc., which had
seized by either of tie-
A. Ki-liginn.
1, The treaty of Pa^au and the Second
Religion were contirmed.
J. The religious qualitj of n territory or
decided alter the status quo of the 1st .,:' Jannan ,
-. .S. .
;-), Kqualily of political riirhts between the Homan
Catholics, the Lutherans, and the Calvinists or Reformed.
4, The Jus Reformandi was reduced to its original
meaninir as a mere protection of religion. This principle
.lecked by numerous and complicated cxcejitions,
wliieh al'terwanls led to many complaints.
5, The . :il jurisdiction of ti
confeired iijion the Protestant princes as a risrlit of
lu'iity: in the Roman Catholic territories it remained
in the hands of the bis!
li. Constitution nf / •
I. The princes acquired theriirhl of concludiu:' se|iarate
defensive and otfensive alliances with loi-ci^n states;
anil they became almost so\ereii_fn with regard to their
subjecls.
'J, The Clerman en: chanced into a kind cf
the emperor
becoming a mere director of the public affairs.
T H I
383
T H I
IV. Conditions concerning the relations between
Germt'.i/y and foreign poteen.
1, The peace of Westphalia was guaranteed by Sweden
and France.
The Thirty Years' War was the Peloponnesian War of
Germany, and by the Peace of Westphalia the German
princes prepared the destruction of their independence
and the downfall of the empire. The German princes
were originally rich landowners appointed by (Tie em-
perors as high judges ("graven, comites) and military com-
manders (herzoge, duces). From the eleventh century they
endeavoured to obtain possession of these functions as
hereditary ngnr,s. During five centuries they carried on a
system of rebellion against the Imperial authority, and
gradually usurped rights and privileges which the em-
perors were compelled to confer upon them in due form.
Thus both legislation and administration became here-
ditary in the princes. Having succeeded with regard to
political rights, they considered the Reformation of Luther
as an opportunity of usurping ecclesiastical legislation.
It was granted to a great number of them by the Peace of
Westphalia. Luther's reforms gave birth to the Protestant
faith, but this faith required to be supported by a church.
A Protestant church did not exist before the Peace of West-
phalia, nor was it established by this peace, nor is there
now any general Protestant church in Germany. The
princes considering themselves as legal successors of the
bishops, the episcopal rights became a part of political
sovereignty, and the ministers of the faith gradually
became functionaries of the princes. Their first duty was
to obey them ; they not only obeyed, but they crouched
before them and their ministers ; their abject behaviour
is shown by numerous works published during the latter
part of the seventeenth centviry and the eighteenth cen-
tury. When the people saw the dependence of the minis-
ters on the temporal authority, they confounded the com-
mands of their faith with the laws of their princes, and, not
discovering any divine character in these laws, they forgot
the divine origin of their religion. Thus they fell into that
remarkable indifference concerning religious matters which
now prevails in the greater part of the Protestant coun-
tries of Germany. This religious state is a consequence of
the Thirty Years' War.
The political consequences of that war are still more
evident. Germany was a wilderness— its material strength
wag ruined — its political power was broken — its intellec-
tual development was checked — and the fierce and manly
spirit of the nation was broken by their thousand arbitrary
rulers, who themselves became slaves of the French.
Divided into factions by the private interests of the princes,
Germany became the theatre where the armies of all Europe
met to settle the differences of their kings. This state of
things lasted a hundred and fifty years, and ended with
the destruction of the German empire by Napoleon.
rK. A. Menzel, Geschichte den Dreusigjdhrigen
Krifafx, 2 vols. Kvo., Breslau, 18*5-37 ; Breyer, Ge-
nrhichte den Dreitsisjrihrigen Kriegesnachungedruckten
Ptipieren, 1st vol., Miinchen, 1811, 8vo. ; Breyer, Beitrage
zur Gexchichte den Dreittigja/ingen Krieges aui bisher
ungfflrurktfn Papien-n, Miinchen, 1812, 8vo. ; Schiller,
QetchichtG den Dreixsiffjahrigen Krieges : this work,
distinguished by the beauty of its style, contains the most
interesting description pf the Thirty Years' War; but its
historical value is not very great ; Leo, Li'hrliurh der
Universal Genchichte, vol. iii. : the author's description is
remarkable for the application of philosophical principles
to history; Eichhorn, />«/«•//>• Ktnatu- und Rechts-Ge-
nchichtf, vol. iv. : the author starts from a legal point of
view, but he treats political and religious rights rather as
a lawyer than as a publicist ; Woltmann, Geschichte
liiilixrhi'ii fr'rii'dens, Leipzig, 1808-9, 2 vols.
8vo. ; Meiern, Acta Pacts WestpnOMat /mf/lica, oder
Wettphizlitche Friedemhandlun gen, Gottingen, 1734-6,
fi vols. Ibl.i
THISTLE, the common name of Cardmu, a genus of
plants belonging to the large natural order Composite.
From the time of Theophrastus down to that of Caspar
Bauhin, all plants that possessed a spiny involucre were
comprehended in the genus Carduus. The artichoke
'Cynara) and the teasel fDipsacus) were included in it by
Tragus and Lobelius. Morison confined the genus to
those plants that Had spiny scales of the involucre and a
crown of feathery down (pappus) surmounting the seed.
Plants resembling them, but without a spiny involucre, he
called Cirsium, and those without the feathery pappus
Carduus improprie dictus. Tournefort adopted these dis-
tinctions. Vaillant defined Carduus more accurately,
giving it to plants with a globular involucre composed of
spiny scales, with compound flowers, tubular florets,
stamens united by the anthers, a hairy receptacle, and a
hairy pappus on the seeds. If the pappus was feathery,
he called the genus Acama ; and when the receptacle was
not hairy, but honeycombed, he used the term Ono-
pordon, a name previously applied to thistles by Pliny.
When the scales and receptacles were fleshy, he named
the genus Cynara. Linnseus adopted these genera, but
changed Vaillant's Acama into Cm'cus, a name which had
been previously employed by Tournefort for another genus.
The genus Carduus, Common Thistle, consists of upwards
of 30 species, most of which are inhabitants of Europe.
None of them are found in the New World.
C.nutans, Musk-Thistle, has decurrent spiny leaves, with
handsome drooping flowers ; the scales of the involucre
cottony, the outer ones spreading. It is a common plant
on waste ground, in dry, stony, or chalky soils, in Great
Britain. It gives out, especially in the evening in warm
weather, a strong smell of musk.
C. marianus, Milk-Thistle, has spinous leaves embracing
the stem ; the scales of the involucre leaf-like, recurved
and spinous at the margin. It is a native of England ;
scarce in Scotland. The leaves are distinguished by the
milky whiteness of their veins. This milkiness is said,
according to an absurd story, to have been produced by a
drop of the Virgin Mary's milk, just as the Milky-Way
was supposed to arise from that of Juno. This plant is an
esculent, and may be eaten young as a salad, or boiled and
eaten as greens. The young stalks, when peeled and
soaked in water, are also excellent.
The root may be prepared like salsify and skirret, and
the receptacle maybe cooked and eaten as the artichoke.
When cultivated, the seeds should be sown in spring, and
the plants kept at a foot and a half distance from each
other, and the earth thrown up round them till they are
etiolated.
The genus Cnicus, Plume-Thistle, is known by the fea-
thered down that crowns the seeds. It is a large genus :
nine of the species are inhabitants of Great Britain.
The Cotton-Thistle is the Onopordon, which is known
by its honeycombed receptacle. The O. Acanthium is a
British species. The leaves are ovato-oblong, sinuated,
spinous, decurrent, and woolly on both sides. It attains a
height of from four to six feet. It is cultivated in Scot-
land as the Scotch Thistle ; but it is doubtful whether
this national badge has any existing type, as the repre-
sentations of the Scotch Thistle on ancient wood-carvings,
coins, and armorial bearings, differ more from each other
than any known species of thistles. The receptacle and
stalks of the Cotton-Thistle are sometimes eaten, in the
same manner as the artichoke and cardoon. [CYNARA.]
The Carline Thistle forms the genus Carh'na, which
obtained that name from a tradition that the root of the
Common Carline (C. vulgarit) was shown by an angel to
Charlemagne as a remedy for the plague which prevailed
in his army. The genus is known from the others by the
inner scales of the involucre being spreading and mem-
branous, and of a yellow colour. The Common Carline is
a frequent plant in Great Britain on dry hilly pasture and
in fields. It is about one foot high.
The Blessed Thistle is the Centaurea benedicta, the
Ciinliiiix hftiedictus of old writers. The involucre of the
genus Centaurea is not spiny, and the seeds have a very
simple pappus, or none. The Blessed Thistle is a native of
the Levant, and in the middle ages was held in extravagant
estimation on account of its supposed virtues. It is still
cultivated in some places on account of its medical pro-
perties.
For Sow Thistle, see SONCHUS.
Some of the species of thistles are admitted into gar-
dens. They form a pretty variety for borders, and require
little care in their cultivation. They sow themselves very
extensively by means of their winged seeds. On this
account they are great pests to the farmer. In fields the
annual kinds may be got rid of by the weeding hook, but
T II I
384
T II L
the perennial kinds must be ploughed and the roots ;
out. The Cardtnu arrrnti» has not the imiiif of < 'nr-.-.l
Thistle, on acrount of tin- difficulty of eradicating it
grown. Although injurious In ninn,
\haustmg ttu- xiil of that nutriment which plants sup-
g food require, thi'ir seeds are generally eaten by
birds, and the larvte of many insects live entirely on their
leaves.
THISTLE. The thistle, with its strong prickly leaven and
stem, establishes itself in the meadows and corn-fields,
when it is not very carefully eradicated, and oeeupii •> the
place of more useful plant*. There are many vancticsof the
thistle, some of which are not destitute of elegance when
in lull blossom. Considered as a weed in our nel.l-
principal olijeet is to eradicate it, which, in consequence of
the ready dispersion of the seeds by the wind, is nut easily
done, as a slovenly fanner may seed the whole country
around ; and where the thistles are not eradicated from the
hedge< and sides of roads and paths, it is imposMble to
•'V them entirely: wherever the soil is newly turned
up. especially when it is of a nature where wheat will
grow well, thistles invariably arise: hence the saying of the
blind man in choosing land. ' Tie me to a thistle.'
Those crops which are usually hoed can readily be
cleared of thistles : but where the seed is sown broadcast,
the labour of weeding them out is much greater. If they
are not extracted with the root, they will soon grow again
with redoubled vigour. In a moist season the) max be
pulled up by means of a wooden or iron forceps, which
grasps them strongly near the crown of the root, and. as it has
a projection which serves as a fulcrum, a pressure on the
handles draws the root out when they are brought to-
gether. When a field has been long infested with thi-tles.
the best way of clearing it is to watch when the thistle is
in full bloom and the seed is just forming : if it be then cut
off at the root it will die. Thus in two years a field may
be entirely cleared of thistles.
It is chiefly in arable land that thistles are most trouble-
some. In pastures it is sufficient to eradicate them once,
and to permit none to grow along the hedges and ditches.
The seed does not readily update, unless it finds a loose
soil : and little birds are so fond of it, that they will lea\ e
none that is not covered with earth, especially in the be-
ginning of winter. In some countries there are penalties
inflicted on those who allow thistles to remain in their
hedges or along the high road which borders their land ;
and a man may complain to a magistrate of a neighbour
who will not destroy the thistles on his land, when the
delinquent will be admonished or fined, as the case may
require. Such a laxv would be very advantageous in many
parts of the country, where no attention is ever paid to the
weeds which grow in the hedges or in waste .spots.
TIIISTI.K. OKDKK OK T11K, an antient Scottish.
order of knighthood, sometimes called the order of St.
Andrew. The early history of this order is involved in
some obscurity, and the most absurd attempts have been
made to establish its claim to high antiquity, of which it
is sufficient to allude to the legendary account recited 111
the warrant for the restitution of the order in 10X7. and
given most minutely by sev cral Scottish antiquari.
tributing its formation to Admins, king of the Sc .
commemoration of a victory obtained by himself and llun-
gus, king of the I'icts. over Athelstan." Nicolas obs,
as a fitting illustration of this legend, that Achains died
upwards of a century before the reign of Athelstan
he further shows that the thistle was not the acknoxvl.
badge or symbol of Scotland until the latter part of the
nth century. Kven alter it became a national
mcnt. and formed a distinguishing feature of a coll.
iing that now worn by Knights of the Thistle, it is by
no means certain that it was considered the badge of an
'.f knighthood; and the searching inv otigation of
I irris Nicolas, which in detailed at gnat
length in the third volume of his recently published • His-
tory of the Orders of Knighthood of the British Kmpiie.'
leads him to the conclusion that it is difficult to beh-
ustcricc of the Order of the Thistle, as an orgam/.i .1
fraternity, until the reign of .lames \ ]]. ,,| Scotland and
Kngland. Whether it had any such prior existence
or not, ' it in admitted.' he adds. - even by the assertors of
the antiquity of the order themselves, that, alter the K.
formation orders of knighthood being considered in Scot-
| land as relics of popery, it fell into desuetude ;
queutly it is not pretended that there w,
of St. Andrew." or " of the Thi-
King .lames VI., in l."><;7.' Tl..-
Uie re-in-stitution of the ' most ancii nt and honourable
order of the Thi>tlc,' which is printed nt full by Nicolas,
and which asserts that by authentic proofs, docu;
records, the order ' continued in spK ndour
lor many hundreds of \eais,1 bears, date Windsor, Ma) —I.
U.sT: but, although statutes were issued, and eight ki
nominated bx .lames 11.. the patent or diploma lor
the restitution of the order never passed the great
Owing to the abdication of James, the order a gam fell into
abeyance, until it was finally revived by Anne in 17113.
In the warrant of 1(>K7 it is staled that the order consisted
originally of the king and twelve brethren in allusion to
the Saviour and the twelve apostles . and the same number
XMLS ordained as the full complement by Anne, although it
was not filled up for several years. This continued with-
out alteration until July 10. is21. when, in consequence of
'lonation of George IV.. an ordiuane
the appointment of four extia members, who shoul,
come regular knights as vacancies should occur ; and in
May, 1827. the number of knights brethren was pcima-
nently extended to sixteen. Originally none but Scottish
noblemen were admitted to the Older: b-.it since the time
of Cleorge I. it has also been conferred upon several
English peers. No foreigners have been admitted to the
order : nor have any comni. pting a few win
heirs-apparent (o dukedoms. It is usual for knights of the.
Thistle to resign the ensigns of the order when elected into
that of the Garter, although the statutes contain no c
provision to that effect : but in a few instances this custom
has been dispensed with, as a special mark of royal favour.
The decorations worn by the knights consist of a collar of
enamelled gold, composed of sixteen thistles, intei
with sprigs of rue. fastened to the mantle by a white
riband ; a small image of St. Andrew, also of enamelled
gold, suspended from the collar; a medal or badge of
gold, having an image of St. Andrew within a circle
taming the motto of the order, • NKMO MK IMW.N i
i I..SMI •' ! .No one provokes me with impunity':, and a
thistle; a green riband, to which the medal is attached,
and which is thrown diagonally over the left shoulder:
and a star, consisting of a thistle enamelled in its na-
colours upon a ground of gold, and surrounded by the
motto and raxs of silver. The star is worn on the left
shoulder, on a mantle of green velvet, which, with other
parts of the dress, arc minutely desciibed by Nicolas.
Although the original statutes of the order, which were
printed by Sir N. II. Nicolas in IS'JS. do not strict!) deiinc
the method of admission, it was oidained by (Jeorge I., in
1717, that vacancies should be tilled up by election in a
chapter of the order; but the usual practice has been for
the sovereign to appoint to vacancies xvithout summoning
a chapter. His late Majcstx . William I V., re-established
the practice of election in a chapter of the knights bre-
thren, but it has been again dispensed with by her pi<
.. The officers of the order are the dean, the chan-
cellor, the secretary, the king-al-anns. and the usher, each
of whom receives an annual salary, and a fee on the .
tion of a knight, excepting only the chancellor,
officer never having been appointed, although he is men-
tioned in the statutes of Kis7. I71K1. 1717. and IKCi :
duties arc performed by the secretary. A complete list of
knights of the Thistle, from the revival or creation i
order in His7 to 1SIO, is given in the work abov c cited,
from which thisbiief account is condensed.
TIILASl'I'DIvK, a tribe of plants of the natural 01
Oucifera-, having for its t\ pe the genus Thlaspi. It is
also called I'leurorhizir. from having the radicle of the
embryo nt the side of the cotyledons. The silii
xx ilh a very narrow dissepiment, and has keeled navieular
valves. Tile seeds are oval, with flat aceiiinbent cotxledons.
The principal gcncia of this tiibe are. T/I/HI-JI', the IJaMaid
Cress; Il»>ris. the Candy-tuft : lliili-lui.-xni .-and Hm-tilr/lti,
the Itucklcr-Mustard. 1 he) are most of them insignificant
plants, po.ssi-»ing the acrid biting properties of the whole
order. The genus Thlaspi is known by its siliclcs being
cmarginatc at the apex with the valves winged at the
bi'i-k : the petals are equal, the pedicels bract less,, and the
flowers arc white. Sunic of them, as the TMunpm urventit,
T H O
385
T H O
Penny Cress, have a strong alliaceous odour. They grow
on rocks and barren places, and are frequently found
amongst collections of rubbish from mines, &c., and are
inhabitants of most parts of the world in cold and tempe-
rate regions.
Hnichinsia was named by Sir J. E. Smith after Miss
Hutchins of Belfast, who contributed many observations on
marine plants to the ' English Botany.' It has an ellip-
tical silicle with wingless valves, equal petals, entire
leaves, bractless pedicels, and variously-coloured flowers,
bnt never yellow. All the species are mountainous plants.
They possess no active properties, but are pretty little
plants, and will grow on rock-work or in small pots. They
are best grown in a soil composed of sand, loam, and peat.
The annual kinds may be propagated by seeds; the peren-
nial, by dividing the roots or by cuttings.
The Candy-tuft is known by two of its petals being
larger than the other two : they are of a white or purplish
colour, but never yellow. They are mostly mountainous
plants, but grow well in gardens ; and, if the seeds are sown
at different periods, will blossom all the summer, and even
through a mild winter. The shrubbery species are also
well adapted for rock-work, and may be propagated by
cuttings. [IBKRIS.]
Biseatella has a flat silicle with one-seeded cells, a
long permanent style, a compressed seed, and yellow
flowers, fhey are also alpine plants. In the
garden they form a pretty variety with the other plants, on
int of their yellow flowers. A dry sunny situation in
a light sandy soil suits them best. They are best propa-
eated l.y seeds and may be kept in blossom during the
summer by sowing at different periods of the year.
THOA, a genus of Polypiaria ; included by Linnaeus in
Sertularia.
THOMAS, e«>/uc. XQN.TI (in Greek,
John,
xi. 16; xx. 24), one of the twelve apostles of Christ.
(Matt., x. 3.) The Hebrew and Greek names both sig-
nify a twin. St. Thomas is presumed to have been a
Galilean : but no particulars of his birth-place or call to
the apostleship are given, and the first notice of him indi-
vidually is in John, xi. 40. Christ having expressed an
intention of returning to Judaea, in order to raise his friend
Lazarus from the dead, Thomas encouraged the other
•les to attend him, although he regarded death as
the certain consequence of this step. The impulsiveness
of character thus indicated was not long after very differ-
ently displayed. Thomas happened to be absent when
Christ, after his resurrection, first appeared to the apostles ;
and when made acquainted with the fact, he expressed
an incredulity which could only be satisfied by the manual
evidence of inserting his finger in the holes which the
spear and the nails had made in the body of his crucified
master. Eight days after, when Christ again appeared,
Thomas was present ; and the reaction in his mind was
very strongly expressed by him, when he was pointedly
rolled upon by Jesus to stretch forth his hand and take
the desired proof. (John, xxi. 24-29.) Thomas is not
again mentioned in the New Testament. Doubtless he
laboured, like the other apostles, in the propagation of the
Christian doctrines : and ecclesiastical traditions make him
one of the apostles of the Gentiles. It is alleged that he
travelled eastward, and laboured among the various nations
which then composed the Parthian empire. (Euseb., iii.
1 ; Rufin., x. 9; Recognit., ix. 29.) There is a singular
concurrence of Oriental and Western testimony (which
may be seen in Assemanni and Baronius), to the effect
that St. Thomas extended his labours farther eastward,
and then southward, until he reached the coast of India
and Malabar, where, having exercised his apostolic labours
with success, he passed on to the coast of Coroman-
del ; and having made great conversions to the faith in
those parts, he proceeded over to some coast on the east,
called China (which may possibly have been the country
now called Cochin-China), and afterwards returned to Co-
romandel, where, having suffered martyrdom, he was
buried in the mount since called St. Thomas's Mount.
In the quarters indicated there are Christian churches
which bear the name of St. Thomas, and claim him for their
founder. If they derive their existence as a church un-
interrupted from the apostolic age, this fact may be taken
as a corroboration of the above traditions. But if the
P. C., No. 1536.
effects which resulted among them from the labours of
Mar Thoma and other Nestorian missionaries, at the com-
mencement of the sixteenth century, were really an original
conversion, or at least a re-conversion, and not, as is often
supposed, the revival of a fallen but not extinct church —
then this claim is to be regarded only as an echo of the tra-
dition which has always prevailed in the Syrian churches,
and which must be estimated by its intrinsic probability
and value.
(Besides Assemanni and Baronius, see Tillemont, i. 397,
sq. ; Cave's Antiq. Apostolical ; Winer's Biblisch.es Real-
icorlerbuch, art. Thomas; Buchanan's Christian Re-
searches ; Yeate's Indian Church History ; and Principal
Mill's Letter to the Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel (July 29, 1822), 'inserted in Christian Remem-
brancer for Nov., 1823.)
THOMAS A^ KEMPIS. [KEMPIS.]
THOMAS AQUI'NAS. [AQUINAS.]
THOMAS, ANTOINE LE'ONARD, was born at Cler-
mont in Auvergne, on the 1st of October, 1732. His
father, it has been generally believed, died while Thomas
was an infant, leaving a widow with three sons and a
daughter. The eldest son, Joseph Thomas, who embraced
the clerical profession, died in 1741 : he composed a dra-
matic piece, entitled ' Le Plaisir,' which was acted with
success in 1740. The second, Jean Thomas, died in 1755,
professor in the college of Beauvais : he published some
Latin verses, and introduced into his college an improved
method of teaching Latin. It appears therefore that the
taste for literature was common to the whole family.
Antoine Leonard was educated at home till he had com-
pleted his ninth year, and was then sent to prosecute his
studies at Paris, where his brothers preceded him. In a
letter which he addressed, in 1767, to Madlle. Moreau, he
mentions that his second brother had taken great pains
with his education. They were an attached family : An-
toine retained all his early devotion for his mother till her
death, in 1782 ; and his sister, the only member of the
family who survived him, lived with him till his death.
Antoine Leonard Thomas distinguished himself at the
university. In 1747 he carried off two of the prizes dis-
tributed in his class in the college of Duplessis : in 1748
and 1749 he studied rhetoric in the college of Lisieux, and
obtained four prizes : from October, 1749, to August, 1751,
he studied philosophy with equal distinction, at first in the
college of Lisieux, subsequently in that of Beauvais.
When he finished his university career, his friends wished
him to study for the bar, and he did so far comply with
their desire as to attend law classes and the office of a
solicitor. This continued till the death of his second
brother, in 1755, at which time he had retired, apparently
on account of his health, which was always infirm, to his
native district. A short time after he accepted the offer
of a professorship in the college of Beauvais. He con-
tinued to discharge the duties of his appointment till
1761, when, finding them injurious to his health, he re-
signed, and was appointed private secretary to the Due de
Praslin.
Thomas commenced his career as author in 1756 by pub-
lishing ' Reflections Philosophiques et Litteraires sur le
PoSme de la Religion Naturelle.' This was throwing clown
the gauntlet to the whole school of Voltaire : the patriarch
himself took no notice of the publication, and Grimm spoke
of it as the work of ' a silly lad -just escaped from the
school of the Jesuits.' In the same year Thomas addressed
an ode, full of hyperbolical compliments, to Sechelles,
controller-general of finance : the flattery was successful ;
it obtained from the minister an addition to the revenues
of the college. In 1757 Thomas composed, on the occa-
sion of the great earthquake at Lisbon, a ' Memoire sur les
Causes des Tremblemens de Terre,' which was crowned by
the Academy of Rouen. In 1759 he published ' Jumar-
ville,' a poem in four cantos, on the death of a French
officer, killed, as the French alleged, under circumstance*
of peculiar atrocity, in the war between the French and
English, in the backwoods of America. Freron praised
this poem in the ' Annee Litteraire,' a tribute of thanks to
the young author who had ventured to attack Voltaire.
These early works of Thomas are remarkable only for their
turgid style, commonplace ideas, and for the eagerness
of the author to avail himself of the, popular topic of tho
day.
VOL. XXIV.-3 D
T II O
T H O
About tin* ti
render tl>
brgnn to
,!.. I'
ron:
Pell
time. Jli-
crow tied in
17«''l. In IT'
HI w-ts assign, d. In these eotn-
it more matter, more
tlation in •
The connection with the I)uc> (It1 Praslin was less ;i.1\ mi-
Thomas than it promised to !
tuke procured for him th- appoint in.
uterpreter to tli> '!llt ;l v
nay, this minister, \vlio
personal quarrel w-jth Marmontel, soiiffht to obtain it
liaii tlio masrnanimi';.
the appointment, nrginirthe superior claims of Marmontt -I.
This art of ho- him the lavoiir of tin- D
;' office winch was op-
to him. The admission to the Academy was not ho
lonir deferred. lie delivcreil his inaugural address to
that body on the 'J2nd of January. !7<i7.
Hot ween 17IU and I7fi7 h> d— ' Ho.-
finllv.' crowned in 17G3 : ' Elosre <!,
in 17(>f>: in 17(J(i. ' Kloire de l.ouis. Dauphin de I-'i
composed and published at the request of the Cointe
iviller: and his inaugural discourse. In October,
17».7. his opera of Amplr. Touirht out, but with-
i by a pro-
•nprovonient in execution. They differ also
from his juvenile productions in an attempt to adopt the
.ling and antithetical style of the Encycloi
in the complete appropriation of their hold satirical tone
in respect to politics, although much of the author's juve-
nile respect for reliirion remained with him to the last. As
ot'the change. Grimm h:ul by thistime
begun to praise Thomas, and Freron had cooled in his ad-
miration ot'him : Voltaire had written a complimentary lettpr
mi the • K ut had on the othei
remarked to hi- • y ouirht. now to substitute
the word ifii/ii/inmnx \\IT ffii/iniiithinn : Diderot continued
implacable. It was rumoured that the court, enra
the tree strain of the ' Epilre au Peuplc,' and tli
- launched and the feudal 8
in the • KLij-e (hi Dauphin,' threatened the lib.
principal publications of Thomas, from the IP
his admission into th« Academy till his death, arc — • Eloge
my in 17711. and pub-
lished in 177"). His reply, as director of ' ny. to
the i': Of Toulon-.
in 17, et I'K.sprit
177-. ' K.ssai sur les
' de rEloquence
d '( )u\ raL'e.' published in 177-f. in an
lie comiii. "in on
a tilill
eompleted his death. The in.
ical skill ovy itself in
''empts
! ima-
jrinat ipt to
• ll. II;- . •- •. on the
character and man-
have swelleil his d
;• a bulk, i
! them 1. -
nder the '•
•.-. ork ;
- but utiai.
Ubotire i:, -v and art iatiire
which haa all tht falsehood of oratory without the interest
which attaches to the eloquence oV the bar or »e
from its power of producing
The partial'v
th. but th. '
rule poems, in the manner Illonirh n -.nld-
sinith s • 'J'raveller.' They never could lm\e been made
parts of an .
nas died on the 17th of Septcml
'K-en uiulermineil by m-
d U supposed to Ilin >
!.-nt which ha]))'
: . That he
ble 01 'ion he showed
when i 'ur of the Due de Praslin by
'• a x-at in the Academy to the exclusion
ot Mannontel. That ! jble ol sincere atted i
d by the footing on which .M'ti Ins family
and friends. The iiisimiat. . and
veracity thrown out by Diderot >eem to
foundation than the ehamre of tone in Ins later Iron
earlier publications. The truth is, that, like many other in-
ferior littfrtiti-iirs, Thomas was a men- •
which he was surrounded. He took his colonnn.
from his pi. of whom were e - : in
after-life', from the sceptical literary conversation of the
works, a kind of composition too inaccurate to have
as history, too cold and remote from the real hnsin.
• oratory. He stands however hinh anioiii:
writers. The hitrh finish and some of the bril-
liancy of the r'rench school cannot be denied him; though
for this he was indebted quite as much to the company In-
kept as to natural talent, or even his unquestionable i
taking.
r/vi de M. Thomas, Paris, 1702: '7J/r;vv Post-
de M. Thorna-;. Paris. An \. Iso-J : -Sketch of
Thomas." hy Saint Sunn, in the Itinunifihi.
THOMAS. ST. .Santo Thome , an island in the Gulf of
Guinea, extends from 1' to -V X. lat., and from (iu iV to
liM:i' K. lunur. It is about Ml) miles west-north.
Lope?. The is'und is nf an o\ al shape :
length is about 'M miles, and its greatest breadth about IK
miles. Its area may be estimated at about -i'JU square
miles. It is of basaltic formation, and mountainous:
the Pico ile Santa Anna de ('h,.\es is 7«XHi feet hiL'h.
The mountains arc mostly covered with wood, and •
are m , anls well supplied with lish. The .
tation is abundant. The chief exports are sugar, indigo,
and cotton. The island i ihe PortuL'uese; and
the inhabitants, who are chiefly comp.i-cd .'I I'oitu.
and of negro slaves, amount to about 1S.IXH). A number
of inn live iu the mountains. The chief
town is called Santo Thome.
•IHOMAS. ST.. Island. [Ynic.lN ISLANDS.]
THO.MASIN.orTOMASlN.surnamedT. .ir.or
Zerkler, a German jioet of the thirteenth century. He was a
native ut'tiic Italian province of Knnli, and born about the
Hein-r thus an Italian by birth, or. n» he
liinis. \Valich, he wrote in his earlier da\
Italian work, probably a didactic poem. 'On Courteous
Manners,' which is no longer extant. In the course of the
.Jlii. when he- had just reached his thirtieth year,
lie wrote in the space of ten moi : didactic poem
in German, which fiom his native country he called • The
Welsh .'1 which consists of
ten books. This poem, of which there exist many
niie of the most splctidl.1
duet].. the thirteenth ecntnn,
and, although llu-authoi i- er, the work br>
throughout a ]. in spirit, and displays all the
depth and intensity of German thought and leclim:. In
the beginning of his poem Thomasin admits that he is not
a pen which he used : bir
i sliirht. tl.
nd knowledge of the old Gem. . di»-
ncr. Kschenburi; tl" ; poses that
ills native eonnlrv is a
mere fiction. Hut this MIJ.J. i well as another, that
the • Welfh Gi-est ' is meicK a (iermaii lianslation of the
itlioiit lounda-
tion. mill contradicted bj numerous p ilie lormer
work. The object of this poem is to show m what virtue.
T H O
387
T H O
piety, and good conduct consist, and why man should
strive after them. It shows that a remarkable progress
had taken place in the mind of Thomasin during the
interval between the composition of the Italian and that
of the German work. In the former, as he himself states.
he had proceeded from the idea that courteous conduct
and nobility of birth were always combined with a noble
mind, or, in other words, that the changeable rules
respecting good manners were of greater value than the
eternal law of morality which is implanted in every
man's heart. This prejudice is altogether given up
in his German poem, where he declares that a man is
foolish who thinks himself great because he is of noble
birth and possesses courteous manners, and that it is only
a man's heart and real character that make him worth
anything. Virtue with him is now a fundamental prin-
ciple, and not a mere expedient. He describes virtues
and vices, and their respective consequences, with a truly
Socratic spirit and dignity. Thomasin was well acquainted
with the history of antiquity, and it is among the antients
that he found his best models of really virtuous men.
The whole poem is a sublime and altogether practical
system of morality : it is a philosophy in the garb of poetry
and occasionably embellished by figurative language.
But he does not write in the spirit of any particular school ;
his object is in general to instruct man on matters con-
cerning his physical and spiritual welfare.
This masterpiece of early German poetry and phi-
>liy has never yet been published entire, but it is .-aid
that Frornmann is preparing an edition of it. Fragments
of it are printed in Eschenburg's ' Denkmaler Altdeutscher
Dichtkunst,' p. 121, &c. ; compare Gervinus, ' Geschichte
der Poetischen National Literatur der Deutschen,' vol. i.,
p. 450, &c.
THOMA'SIUS, CHRISTIAN. The real name of this
author is Thomas, and in the works which he published in
his mother tongue he always calls himself Christian
Thomas. He was born at Leipzig, on the 12th of January,
1055. and was the son of Jacob Tliomasius 1022-1084,), a
distinguished professor of philosophy, and some time
rector of the celebrated Thoinasschule at Leipzig, under
whose auspices Leibnitz was educated. The education of
Christian Tliomasius was conducted by his lather, whose
knowledge of philosophy and its history gave his mind at
an early age a decided turn. Christian had scarcely
attained his fourteenth year when he was found sufficiently
prepared to enter the university. In his sixteenth year he
obtained the degree of bachelor of arts, and the year after
that of master of arts. The chief subjects of his studies
were philosophy and law, more especially the law of nature,
which he regarded as the basis of all other laws. The
instruction of his father and his own experience at the
university had convinced him that the methods of teaching
then followed were pedantic and deficient, and he de-
termined to remedy these delects as much as was in his
power. In 1075 he went to Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where
he began a course of lectures on law, but they do not
appear to have been well received by his colleagues, and
a few years after, in 1079, after having obtained the degree
of doctor of laws, he left Frankfort, and made a literary
journey to Holland. On returning to Leipzig he com-
menced the practice of the la\\'. But this occupation did
not offer sufficient scope for hiln, and he again became an
academical teacher, in which capacity he brought about
the most beneficial reforms. The law of nature, which
had until then bten almost entirely neglected in the uni-
versities, continued to be the principal subject of his
studies. The older professors, who found themselves di.--
turbed in their routine of teaching by the energy and
boldness of the young man, began to clamour against him.
So long as his father lived, violent outbreaks were pre-
vented, partly because he restrained his son's eagemi's*
for reforms, and partly because the other professors
med him too much to hurt his feelings by open
attacks upon his son. When however his father died,
in 10H4, the bitterness and boldness with which young
Thomasius attacked antiquated prejudices of all kinds
together with their champions, involved him in numerous
disputes. This enmity was not. only provoked by the
matter and the manner "of his teaching, but also by several
publications which tended to destroy established opinions.
One of them, on polygamy, especially gave great offence ;
he asserted that polygamy was at least not contrary to any
law of nature.
Up tQ this time it had been the general custom in all
German universities to deliver lectures in Latin, and to
make all public announcements of them in the same
language. In the year 1087 Thomasius published his pro-
gram in German, and announced that he would deliver a
course of lectures in German, and on a subject which
appeared altogether foreign' to a university, — viz. on the
manner in which the Germans should follow the example
of the French (' Diseours, welcher Gestalt man denen
Franzosen im gemeinen Leben und Wandel nachahmen
soil,' published at Leipzig, 1087, 4to.). This daring inno-
vation was regarded by his colleagues as a perfect heresy,
though, after the example was once set, it was gradually
followed by other professors, until it became the universal
practice in all German universities to lecture in German.
It was a necessary consequence of this that books of a
scientific character now began to be written in German.
Notwithstanding both the open and secret attacks to
which Thomasius had thus exposed himself, he continued
to combat prejudice, pedantry, and error. He was un-
sparing in his censure, which was usually combined with
wit and satire, and even his former teachers did not
escape. In the year after, 1C88, he established a German
Monthly Review, under the title, ' Freimiithige, jedoch
vernunft- und gesetzmassige Gedanken fiber allerhand,
fiirnemlich aber neue Biicher,' which he conducted from
1C88 till 1690, and which gave him immense influence in
all parts of Germany, and the means of chastising his
enemies. His enemies in their turn tried every means to
avenge themselves ; and although Thomasius at. first suc-
ceeded in averting the danger that was gathering around
him, yet the disputes became daily more vehement und
serious, especially with two divines, Pfeifer and Carp-
zovius, who charged him with atheism. The theological
faculty of Leipzig was likewise gained over to their side.
H. G. Masius, court preacher to the king of Denmark,
who had been rather severely dealt with by Thomasius in
his Journal, and who made a reply, to which Thomasius
answered in a very energetic manner, persuaded the king
of Denmark to have all the published parts of Thomasius's
Journal burnt in the market-place of Copenhagen by the
hangman, 1089. Such proceedings in a foreign country
were treated by Thomasius with contenpt ; but the storm
was gathering over his head. In the sanje year he became
involved in disputes with the Pietists, and also came
forward to justify marriages between two persons of
different religions, which enraged the divines of Witten-
berg to such a degree, that the chief consistory was
induced by various charges which were made against him
to issue an order for tiie apprehension of Thomasius. He
escaped the danger and fled to Berlin, where he met with
a kind reception and the protection of Frederick III., the
great elector of Brandenburg (afterwards King; Frederick 1. ;,
who not only permitted him to settle at Halle, but also
to lecture in the Ritteracademie (academy for young
noblemen) of that place. He began his lectures here in
1090, and met with the same approbation on the part
of the students as at Leipzig ; and the increase in the
number of students induced the elector in 1094 to found
the university of Halle, in which he appointed Thomasius
professor of jurisprudence, and conferred upon him the title
of councillor, with a salary of 500 thalers. In this new
position too Thomasius continued to be annoyed by nu-
merous disputes, partly with his former adversaries and
partly with others. In the year 1709 he had the satisfac-
tion to receive an invitation to the chair of jurisprudence
in the university of Leipzig, which however he refused.
King Frederick I. of Prussia, pleased with the determina-
tion of Thomasius not to leave his service, rewarded him
with the title of privy-councillor. In 1710 Thomasius was
elected rector of the university of Halle, and dean of the
faculty of jurisprudence. He died on the 23rd of Sep-
tember, 1728, in the seventy-third year of his age.
If ever a man exercised a beneficial influence upon his
age and country, an influence which will extend to the
latest posterity, it is Thomasius. He was one of the few
men, like Luther and Lessing, who now and then rise up
in a nation, give it an impulse, and determine its course.
At the time when Thomasius began to make himself known,
philosophy and theology were studied and taught in such a
'3D2
T II O
388
T II O
manner 1)
created by the 1
All philosophic
Latin, wh.
,'irit which hail been '
ther. ;
••vritten in |
an ina .'i for commum-
ircqncntly
nl imperfect on that account, or tin- Ian:
barbarous. In the universities also Latin was
tin1 ordinary language for communicating knowledge,
which thus remained in tin- exclusive possession ol 'a small
numlx-r, and without influence upon the nation at
Thomasius prepared the way tor better thinirs, first by
communicating knowledge in his native language, and b\ ex-
tending the sphere within which -peculation had until then
been carried on. At the >aine time he urgi-d the nc<
of writing in a clear and intelligible style, whrch many of
'intiymcn in recent times have greatly neglected.
.vn sHle. thonirh not always pure, is precise and
vigorous. As in places of learning Ihomasius destroyed
old prejudices and pedantry, he also boldly combated
superstition and hypocrisy in the affairs of common life,
such as the belief in ghosts, spectres, and witchcraft ; and
il most entirely owing to his exertions that trials tor
witchcraft and torture were abolished in -Germany. In
reference to this, Frederick the (treat says of Thomasius,
• 11. denounced trials for witchcraft so loudly.that persons
began to be ashamed of them, and from that time the
female sex ha.-, been permitted to crow old and die in
peace.' All this would alone be sufficient to immortalize
his name, even if he had no claim to it by what he did in
philosophy. Here lie indeed found things in such a state,
that it required all bis energy to clear the field from the
weeds with \\hich it was overgrown, before it was fit to
receive the seed, and accordingly his philosophy is more
of a destructive than of a constructive character. But in
this negative way he has done incalculable sen ice to his
nation, and Frederick the Great justly says, that, among all
the philosophers of Germany, none have contributed more
to render its name illustrious than Leibnitz and Thomasius.
The number of works of Thomasius is considerable.
I)c>idcs those mentioned above, the following must be
noticed : ' Kinleitung zu der Yernunftlehre, worinncii
durch eine leichte, und alien vemiinftigen Menscheii.
vvascrlci Standes oder Geschlechts sie seyu, verstiindliche
Manier. der AYcg gczeigct wird, ohne die Syllogistica, das
\\ahrc. 'Wahrschcinliche und Falsche von emander zu
iciden und neue AYahrheiten zu erfinden,' i
1091, 8vo. The fifth and last edition of this work appeared
at Halle, 1~1!», Hvo. ; it was the first readable book that
had ever been produced iu Germany on logic. ' Von der
Kunst vemiinftig und lugendhnft zu lichen, als dcm cin-
zigen Mittel zu einem gliickscligcn. galanten, und xer-
• n Lebcn zu gelangcn, oder Einleitung der Sitten-
li-hre.1 Sec.. Halle, l(i!li Hvo.; an eighth edition of it
appeared in 172G. This work contains a system of •
better than any that had appeared before him. ' II
der Wcisheit imd Thorheit,' in three parts. Halle.
Hvo. • \Veitere Krliiutcrung durch untei-schie,!, ,ie l'.\-
cmpel, anderer Menscheii Gcmiithcr keniien n\ 1<
Halle. l(i:«, Kvo., reprinted in 1711. 'Der Kern wahrcr
und niitziicher vYeltweishcit,' Halle. Hi!):!, Svo. : this i> a
translation of Xenophon's • Memorabilia of S,.,
which Thomasius strangely enough took from the I'rcnch
translation of Charpentier, although he himself w;
acquainted with the Greek. ' Versuch vom 'Wcscn lies
.•s, oder Gnindlehren die einem Studioso Juris /u
wissen und auf I'liiversitiitcn zu lerneii niithig siud,' Halle.
Svo.. reprinted in l~lli). ' 1 aber doeh
muntere und verniinftige Gedanken und Krinnci
iibcr allerhand auserlesene juristische Hiiudel,' -1
Halle, 172D-J1. His miscellaneous and smaller •
appeared in a collection under the title ' Kleine 1).
Sciinftcn mil Kleiss niMnunengetragen,1 Halle, 17ol. Byo.
A complete list of his works is given in I.uden's f'hri\linii
Thonuuiu* nach teinrn tv-hirkfili'ii unit St-hrijtrn ilnr-
>ll, with a preface by Johannes von Miiller, Berlin,
: and in JBlden'l I.<:i-ilu,n Drulxrlu-r Uirhti'r
unit i. vol. v., p. :fi.-7i'.l.
TIloM.vsirs. .IACOH. [THOMASIUS, CHRISTIAN.]
TH'IM ASTON. [MMNK. p.
THoMuM). THOMAS, an architect who practised at
and held the rank of a major in tl>.
«un Krviee, wa» a native of France, and bom at Nancy,
•Illillll ill till WUUUV, UI1U III ,1. M . >I 111 I IL
w here he at tirst siippdrtert him-.
!' his pencil, which not only l>iun.;
ivourablv known to t i-burs: imlilic.
•Jl. 17-V.i. Scaicelv had 1 .1 Ins pro-
fessional education at Paris, wh. •'•.•••\ rciuli-ii il
.r him, he and his
remain in the countn,-. and ho
. where he at first sup
o!' his
favourably known to the St. lYtcr-hu:
he displayed in architectural .1 k-nirth t.
beini: employed bv the government in that lua
which he had original i to follow, and one of the
.'rks of any importance intnistcd t<i hii::
Thiatre eieelcd by the German architect Tiscll-
bcin. 17^--s:r, which he'v.as c<immi>siijned to ini)
and partly remiK'.el. in lst)l. Although not
from the peculiarities of the French school, the ta.-adc and
octastyle Ionic portico which h. that stni
is one of the noblest \ . . liitectnre in the northern
capital of Ku-sia, and. of its kind .und date. inKuroj., . Had
he executed nothing els*', that alone would have entitled
him to rank higher in his j. hau many
who owe their celebrity as much to the number as :
merit of their works, lint he h..
displaying his taste and ability in another ve:
public edifice at St. I'ctersburi:. namely, the Im;
Birzha, or Exchange, erected by him between the
md l^Hi. which is an insulated structure (about
of the Roman Doric order, peripteral and
dcca-t\lc at each end although without prdiin
lumng altogether -I I columns. Situated at the southern
point of the \ a-- ilievskii Island, immediately I'ai-ing the
N'cva. it stands in the centre of a spacious '•tilntrlind, or
'place,' upon a rich architectural terrace, wnii
out so as to form a semicircular esplanade in front, at
extremity of which is- a fliirht of steps leading down to the
river, and amasshc rostral column 1'3) feet high. Taken
altogether, the architectural combination thus produced is
exceedingly picturesque, and may be said to be unique.
Thomond ,d tome private mansions and other
buildings at St. 1'etersburi:. the mausoleum oft]
Paul at Pavlovska, the theatre at Odessa, and the Pultava
monument. In INSS he published some of his buildings
and architect in al designs in a quarto volume, very iin
: y executed howc\.-r: and he also wrote a ti
on paintiuir. an art to which he was i;rcatlj attached. He
.-.lu'iist 2;{, 1813.
Kukolnik. in K/uitl'i;Jir\ti: inn/n G:izrl<i, 1S37.)
THOMPSON. SIR )!. [Rrv
THOMSON, JAMBS, wai born at Kdnam in Roxburgh-
shire on the llth Sc])tember, 17<X). His lather was c'
man of the place, and distinguished for his piety and
(oral character, .lames was fii>t sent to the grammar-
: ;il .ledliiiix'h. and completed his education at the
T'liiveisity of Edinburgh, where in 1711) he was admitted
as a student of divinity. In 1720 his father died. ' and
this,' says Dr. Murdoch, ' affected him to an i
decree, and his relations still remember some e\li:i!..:dinary
instances of his irriel and filial duty on that
Thomson turned from divinity to poetn o\\mir to the
following incident: — The Rev. Mr. Hamilton, who then
tilled the chair of divinity.
psalm in which the majesty and power 0
ed. ( it' thi« ]
and illustration as the exercise required, but in so poetical
and figurative a styl' 'onish the audience. Mr.
Hamilton complimented the performance and pointed out
to the s'udcnls its most strikinu' point™: but, tnnn
Thorn '1,'isti-d that it' he intenil.
minis: ; beep a stricter rein over his imagination
and learn to be intelliirible to an ordinary eoiiL.
•ement held out to hiiii by )..-
Bailie following this intimation of the Professor, he detiT-
mined to u'ivc up divinity and try his fortune in London.
Slender as this pretext of • encouragement '
have been main poi t . who have thus sought their fortune
from no st i. on. The truth is. Thomson wanted
to try his capacity in Loud. , ed on tin- U a pre-
text. Aimed there, says Dr. Johnson, he was one day
loitering about 'with the irapinir curiosity of a new-comer,
his attention upon e\. kd,'
when Ins handkerchief, containint: hi . om-
mendation to scveial -tolen
from him. And now the lonely poet in the va.st city
T H O
389
T H O
felt his inexperience and his poverty. A pair of shoes
was his first want ; his manuscript of ' Winter ' his only
property. A purchaser for this poem was found with
great difficulty ; but Mr. Millar consented to give a trifle
for it, and it was published in 1726. It was little read
till Mr. Whately and Mr. Spence spoke so favourably
pf it that attention was attracted, and it rose rapidly
into popularity, and one edition very speedily followed
another.
This success procured him many friends, among whom
was Dr. Rundle, who introduced him to the lord chancellor
Talbot ; and some years after, when the eldest son of that
nobleman made a tour on the continent, Thomson was
appointed his travelling companion. Meanwhile his
poetical powers were fully employed, and in 1727 appeared
his 'Summer;' in 1728, his 'Spring;;' and in 1730, his
' Autumn.' Besides these he published, in 1727, ' A Poem
sacred to the Memory of Sir Isaac Newton,' and ' Britan-
nia,' a poetical invective against the ministry for the in-
difference they showed to the depredations of the Spaniards
in America. By this piece he declared himself a favourer
of the opposition, and therefore could expect nothing from
the court.
The tragedy of ' Sophonisba' was acted in 1727, Wilks
taking 1he part of Masinissa, and Mrs. Oldfield that of
Sophonisba. So high were the expectations raised, that
every rehearsal was dignified with a splendid audience
collected to anticipate the pleasure that was preparing for
the public. Its success however was very equivocal.
' There is,' says Johnson, ' a feeble line in the play : —
" O, Sophonisba, Sophonisba, 0 1 "
This gave occasion to a waggish parody,
" O, Jemmy Thomson, Jemmy Thomson, O ! •'
•vhich for awhile was echoed through the town.'
At this time long opposition to Sir Robert Walpole had
filled the nation with clamours for liberty, and Thomson,
instinctively seizin;; the poet's office to utter in verse the
wants of the nation, determined on writing a poem on
' Liberty.' He spent two years on this undertakin<r, and
viewed it as his noblest work, probably because it had cost
him the most trouble. It was divided into five parts,
which were published separately, thus : ' Antient and
Modern Italy compared ; being the first part of " Liberty,"
a poem,' 1735. ' Greece ; being the second part, &c.,'
!":»•">. ' Rome ; being the third part, &c.,' 1735. ' Bri-
tain ; being the fourth part, &c.,' 1736. ' The Prospect ;
li< -ing the fifth part, &c.,' 1736. The poem of ' Liberty' does
not now appear in its original state, having been shortened
by Sir George 'afterwards Lord) Lyttelton. Of all Thomson's
works this is the least read, and deservedly so ; for, inde-
pendent of the feebleness of its execution, it is obvious, as
Johnson remarked, that ' the recurrence of the same
images must tire in time ; an enumeration of examples to
prove a position which nobody denied must quickly grow
disgusting.'
His friend Talbot appointed him secretary of briefs, a
place requiring little attendance, suiting his retired indo-
lent way of life, and equal to all his wants. When his
patron died. Lord Hardwicke succeeded him, and kept the
office vacant for some time, probably till Thomson should
apply for it ; but either his modesty, pride, or depression
of spirits prevented his asking, and the new chancellor
would not give him what he would not request. This
reverse of fortune increased his literary activity. In 1738,
besides editing his own works in two volumes and writing
a preface to Milton's ' Areopagitica,' he produced the
tragedy of ' Agamemnon,' with Quin for his hero. For
this hr iriit ' no inconsiderable sum,' though it had but
poor success. Johnson says that on the first night Thom-
son seated himself in the upper gallery, and was so inter-
in its performance, that ' he accompanied the players
by audible recitation, till a friendly hint frighted him to
silence.'
Thomson's next tragedy was ' Edward and FJeonora,'
which was not allowed to be represented on account of
(•••itain pretended allusions. He then wrote, conjointly
with Mallet, the masque of ' Alfred,' which was represented
re the prince and princess of Wales at Clifden in
1740. This masque contains the national song of ' Rule
Britannia,' which Mr. Bolton Coniey ascribes, 'on no slight
evidence," to Mallet,
Thomson's next work was another tragedy, 'Tancred
and Sigismunda,' which, being taken from the interesting
stoiy in ' Gil Bias,' instead of the Grecian mythology, as
were his other pieces, had more success. Garrick and Mrs
Gibber played the principal parts. His friend Sir George
Lyttelton now appointed him surveyor-general of the Lee-
ward Islands, from which, after paying a deputy, he re-
ceived about 300/. a year.
The 'Castle of Indolence,' which was many years under
his hands, was now finished and published (1748). It was
at first little more than a few detached stanzas, in the
way of raillery on himself, and on some of his friends who
reproached him with indolence, while he thought them at
least as indolent as himself. But the subject grew under
his hands till it became his masterpiece.
A violent cold, which from inattention became worse,
at last carried him off, on the 27th August, 1748.
He left behind him a tragedy of ' Coriolanus/ which was
brought on the stage by Sir George Lyttelton for the
benefit of his family. A considerable sum was gained,
which paid his debts and relieved his sisters. The remains
of the poet are deposited in Richmond churchyard.
Thomson was ' more fat than bard beseems;' of a simple,
unaffected, indolent, sensual character ; silent in com-
pany, but cheerful among friends, of whom he had many
and true. This character is discernible in his writings.
His simplicity is seen in the purity and warmth of his sen-
timents, sometimes even childish; his indolence in the
slovenliness of his versification, and the inappropriateness
of so many of his epithets : he never seems to have thought
anything worth the toil of polishing, and hence the per-
petual use of pompous glittering diction substituted for
thought or description ; his sensuality appears in the gusto
with which he describes all luxuries of the senses, and the
horrors of deprivation. Amidst much that is truly exqui-
site both in feeling and expression, he mingles the ab-
surdities of a schoolboy's trite commonplaces and mecha-
nical contrivances to piece out his verse. A sweet line of
almost perfect beauty is followed by a bombastic allusion,
or some feeble personification as tiresome as the first was
bewitching. A touch of nature is overloaded by super-
fluous epithets — a picturesque description is often marred
by pedantry or carelessness. Hazlitt says that ' he is
affected through carelessness — pompous from unsuspecting
simplicity of character. He is frequently pedantic and
ostentatious in his style, because he had no consciousness
of these vices in himself.'
In spite of these drawbacks, Thomson is a charming
poet, and one whose works have always been the delight
of all classes. The popularity of his ' Seasons' equals that
of any poem in the language, and it is said that some one,
finding a .shabby copy of it lying on the window-seat of a
country ale-house, exclaimed, ' That's true fame !' Thom-
son's beauties are genuine : his descriptions of nature often
come with the force of reality upon the mind ; and no one
ever painted more successfully the ' changing scene' and
the ' rustic joys' of England.
His ' Castle of Indolence' may be regarded as his best-
sustained effort, for, although separate passages of the
' Seasons' may be superior, yet on the whole it has fewer
defects, while some of the stanzas, especially in the first
canto, fill the mind with lazy luxury.
Of his tragedies we need say little : their neglect has.
been so signal, that we may accept so unanimous a ver-
dict without further examination ; indeed the genius of
Thomson was eminently undramatic.
(Dr. Johnson, Lives of the Poets; Murdoch's Life of
Thomson ; Thomson's Seasons, edited by Bolton Corney ;
Hazlitt's Lectures on the English Poets ; Campbell's Spe-
cini"tis of the British Poets.)
THOMSONITE. This mineral occurs generally in
masses. Structure fibrous and radiated, the fibres prolonged
into small columnar crystals in the occasional cavities.
Primary form a right rhombic prism. Cleavage parallel
to the diagonal planes of the primary form. Fracture un-
even. Hardness — scratches fluor spar, or 5- 0. Colourless,
translucent, and in small fragments transparent. Lustre
vitreous. Brittle. Specific gravity 2-35 to 2 '37.
Before the blow-pipe it intumesces and becomes opaque,
but does not fuse ; at a red heat it loses water.
It occurs at Kilpatrick, near Dumbarton, in trap asso-
ciated with analcime and prehnite.
TH O
390
T H O
I'-
.
.
.
le of iron .
.
1.-. .1(1
II I.I
l:t m
1TT3G
l'1«-
0-40
13-10
100-07
TMONOX.
TIHW VCK
JS.l
DUCT is the principal trunk of the lym-
•n, and Ihe canal through which
part of the chyle and lymph u 1 into
the blood. It commences, below, at what is called the
hyli. which receives all the principal absor-
ni the intestines and from the 1.
tor and middle part of the
abdomen, on the upper lumbar vertebra and on the right
•.the aorta. In man the diameter of the reeeptacu-
lum it but little greater than that of the thoracic duct,
which is continued from it : in most other animals it is
considerably greater, and the d in them to com-
mence in a large pouch. From the receptaculnm ehyli
the thoracic din ..wards, on the right side of the
. and behind it, from the abdomen into the chest.
being joined in it* conise by the lymphat; ••!' the
.•lit organs. Opposii,. th,' sixth doisal vertebra it
begins to bend to the left, and, alter passing behind the
arch of the aorta, it o the level of the seventh
forwards and downwards, and
:<•!! subclavian vein, usually near its junc-
tion with the left jugular vein. At this orifice of the tho-
dnct there are two valves, like those of the veins,
which open to permit fluid to pass from the duet, but close
when any is forced against them from the vein. Other valv es
in uncertain number are found in different parts of the
duct, and have all the same direction a-s those of veins.
[AHM.KMKMS ; CMYI.K; DKJKSTION.]
THORAX. [RKSPIRUION.]
THORDO is the Latinized name of a celebrated Danish
. al name wasThord, or, more completely,
Jin. He lived in the rcicn of \Valdemar III.,
king of Denmark, and was descended from an antient family
of that country. Concerning his life little is known
beyond the fact' that he was chief judge of the province ol
Jutland. His name ha- come down to us through a col-
i laws which he formed into a kind of code,
earliest Danish laws, to which DO Historical
I be assigned. as well iis the subsequent laws which
V.D. 13M) and 1377. by the
ir'.ianiciit, and sanctioned by the kinirs. They are
.•I chronological order, but systematically,
and comprise civil as well as constitutional laws. The)
are ol ' value to the student of the social and po-
litical hist or) of Denmark. Danish editions of this unai!
at Ripen, l.'KM, -Ho. : and at ('open'!.
Ho. Lndewiir, in his • Reliquiae Maiuiscriptonnn
o mills aevi diplomalnm ac monunientoruni incditnrnm,
vol. xii., pp. HlG-JKi, has published a Latin translation ol
this code of laws. In the title to them Thordo calls him-
self, • Thordo Icgifcr Daciae,' where Daciae must mean
. that is. JVni!
THORDSO.V S'lTKLA. belonged to the celebrated
Icelandic family of the Simla: bis name Thordson indi-
that hi! was a son of Thoido. He was a nepli
ihison. and born about A.I). 121S. i
a man of Inch rank and treat knowledge, hcwasapp
most important offices by the Danish kings llaem
• their command that he wroti
the history of '. :i,l Noiway. lionitln
time where the work - broke off. This
history bears the title of • HUloria Stnrlungorum,' but the
work which is now extant under that n ily an
flbri'1 • atter part isal-
i'ice ol tin .11 Tor-
. arum.' who. MI In. 1'rolego-
rnii. alsoeivi ulnngoinm.
lordnun died _'-••<. at the age of Seventy.
THOHKR. [To,,,M-s]
THORESBY, RALl'H (born 1888, died 1725), a virtuoso
It cunt
origin
no
and antiquary, ami an early Fellow of Ihe Royal Society.
was the son of a merchant at Leeds, and born in that town.
He hail his early education iU grammar-school,
but, lieinir intended hv .it life, lie
did not pass to any ol the lii.:h II
had however what m.n a liljeral eommeieial edu-
•iter to Holland lor the pu
of becoming acquainted with the mode of conducting I>UM-
.ilrv. and of ac(|uirini; the modern lan-
,s to London lor a similar pin;
"led in his native town, where his i.
nected with some of the principal persons who titeit formed
the society . id wheie he hail a busiin ss |ir, j.
for him, winch had I his
lather, vvlto died when the son was ji.
Thoresby possessed fioiii a Tery early pi-nod of In
ea^er curiosity respecting the things and , ound
him which presented any lealures of historical interest, and
a desire of collecting ubjeels ol c niioMtv, natttial or artifi-
cial. His father bad soinethinit of th ivin?
pureha-sed the collection of coins and medals which had
Been formed by the family of Lord Kairtax, the parlia-
mentary general, and this collection : the
miiseiim formed in a lew \eais by the son
\\as a means of bringing him acquainted with all the
biated antiiniarie.s and naturalisi.s of the time, and wan a
perpetual attraction to persons of curiosity, who oftvn
visited Leeds for no other purpose than to see it. It is not
too much to say of it that it was perhaps the best museum
ever lornied in KnirUuul by a gentlemen of private and
rather small fortune: contaminj. il "ine things
which would now be esteemed of not the smallest v
but also many object!, of very hi^h value, especi-
ally in the two grand departments of manuscripts and
coins.
As lie advanced in life, the curiosity which had at first
been directed upon the objects more immediately around
him became expanded so as to comprehend objci
suore general interest, and in fact the whin what.
is usually understood to be comprehended in the term an-
tiquarian literature. In the department of natural history
he was also not merely a collector, but an observer, and he
made many communication!, esteemed of value, to Ills
private friends or to the Royal Si .
With this turn of mind, it will hardly be supposed that
he was very .successful in his mercantile affairs. He had
however the good sense In withdiaw houi
:mie was entire!) lost to him, and about Ihe
sixth year of his ms to have wliollv letned from
it, and to have formed the determination of living on the
little income which the portion of his propeitj that re-
1 would afford him.
Besides ain.i"in_' Mich manuscript matter as he eouJd by
any means become possessed of, lie wax himself a labo-
rious transcriber, ami accustomed to commit to
vvi;tiiiLT notes of things which he observed, or information
eollectid liom his iriciid-. or the old people of Ins time.
U'hei: com the can new, he had leuura to
il he entered upon the prepaia-
tion for the piess of two vvoiks. which It w;i.s intended by
him should contain all that he had gathered in what hud
been from the first his iavourite subject, the illustration of
the history, and whatever belonged to it, of his nativetown.
One of them was to be in the form of a topographical
survey of the whole of the laryc parish ol LIMN, and of
a few of the smaller parishes which are supposed to have
been comprehended under the \eiy anlient local term
•Khnete:' t he other, a history of the various transactions
of which that district had been the id more enn
nent inhabilani- "'factors, and of the
changes which had taken place in the state or fortin
its inhabitants. The liist of il
eomplished. The work appr;: volume in
17 lii. under the title of 'I)i i opo-
iTraphy of the Town and 1'arish of Leeds.' This woik
little for the inhabitants of the town to desire in this
,.1 that he h also,
to which Ihe author is perpetual!) icicnnii; the i.
The woik is mole than its : .ce it contanrsii
odv of genealogical infora < udm;,' the.
lUofnearl] all the tannin jiu-ni-e who III-
habilcd the central paits of the West Hiding. There, in also
T H O
391
T H O
a very large descriptive catalogue of the treasures deposited
in his museum.
The ' Ducatus ' is the principal literary work for which we
are indebted to him. As a kind of supplement to it, he
published, in 1724. a history of the Church of Leeds, under
the title ' Vicaria Leodiensis,' which, like his former work,
has many things not strictly belonging to his subject, bill
in themselves valuable. A new edition of the 'Ducatus,'
containing also all the matter of the 'Vicaria' which pro-
perly belonged to Leeds, was published by Thomas Dun-
ham Whitaker, LL.D., in 1816.
The writings of bishop Nicolson, bishop Gibson, Oba-
diah Walker, Calamy, Strype, Hearne, and many other
persons, show how willing Ihoresby was to give assistance
to any of his literary friends in their various publications.
Thoresby kept during the greater part of his life an exact
diary of each day's occurrences. Large extracts from the
portions which remain of it were published in two octavo
volumes in 1830, and two more volumes were published
at the same time of selections from the letters of his various
friends : these were published under the care of Mr.
Hunter. They exhibit the peculiar features of a somewhat
remarkable character, and the particular incidents of his
life. A large account of him may be found in the ' Bio-
graphia Britannica,' and another prefixed to Dr. Whitaker' s
edition of his topographical work.
THORITE, a mineral in which thorina was discovered
to exist by Berzelius. It occurs massive and compact.
Fracture uneven, very brittle, and full of cracks. Hardness
about 5-0. Lustre resinous: vitreous; opaque. Colour
black. Specific gravity 4'63 to 4- Ml.
Before the blow-pipe, gives off water, and becomes yel-
low, but does not fuse.
It is found in syenite, in Norway. It contains nearly 58
per cent, of thorina, mixed with thirteen metallic and
other bodies.
THO'RIUM, or THORI'NUM, a metallic body dis-
covered by Berzelius in an earth to which he had given
the name of thurinn. When this was converted into
chloride of thorium, and treated with potassium, after
washing the mass a heavy metallic powder was left of a
deep leaden-grey colour, which, when pressed in an agate
mortar, acquired an iron-grejttint and a metallic lustre. It
i^ not. oxidized by water, either hot or cold, but when
heated in the air it burns brilliantly, and is converted into
oxide of thorium, or thorina. which is perfectly whn<
devoid of any trace of fusion. Thorium is scarcely at all
acted upon by nitric acid, and slowly by the sulphuric;
but hydrocloric acid dissolves it readily with the evolution
of hydrogen gas.
ii'.iijL'i-n i' ml Thorium combine to form oxide of thorium,
or thorina, by heating the metal in the air, or by decom-
posing the chloride by means of an alkali. When it has
been strongly heated, its density is il-402, and it is then in-
soluble in any acid but the sulphuric, and in that with
difficulty. It is precipitated in the state of hydrate from
••hitioiis by the alkalis, and in this state it is readily
soluble in acids, and is converted into carbonate by ex-
posure to the air. The alkaline carbonates dissolve the
hydrate, carbonate, and subsalts of thorma; thorina is
precipitated from solution by the ferrocyanide of potas-
sium. Thorina probably consists of —
One equivalent of oxygen ... 8
One equivalent of thorium . . .0(1
Equivalent, . . (is
Besides combining readily with oxygen, as already men-
tioned, thorium unites energetically with chlorine, sulphur,
and phosphorus ; but the compounds which they form
have not been minutely examined.
THORX. [CRAT.KOUS.]
THORN-APPLK. [DATURA.]
THORX • in Polish, Tnruiiini is a celebrated fortress in
the government of Marienwerder, in the province of
ia. It is .situated in 53° N. lat. and 30° 25' E. long.,
on the right bank of the Vistula, over which there is a
bridge, which is the only standing bridge over the Vistula
in its whole course. (The others are floating bridges.; It
ita .>f H..,, |,;uts, the German and the Polish bridge,
which are separated by an island called the Mazarkiimpe.
The German part, from the town to the island, is 1246 feet
long ; the Poluh part is 927 feet long. The whole distance
from Thorn to the opposite bank of the Vistula (including
296 feet for the island) is 2409 feet: the breadth of the
carriage-way is 18 feet ; it is 17 feet above the river at its
ordinary level.
Thorn is divided into the old and the new town. There
are two Lutheran and three Roman Catholic churches, two
monks' convents and one of Benedictine nuns, a celebrated
Lutheran gymnasium, a Roman Catholic school (formerly
a Jesuits' college), four elementary schools, one girls'
school, four hospitals, an infirmary, and a house of correc-
tion. The most considerable buildings are the cathedral,
built in the Gothic style ; St. John's church, containing the
monument of Copernicus, who was born here in 1473 ;
the town-house, built in 16Q2, on the model of that, at
Amsterdam (the doors, inlaid with ebony and ivory, the
marbleHables, and the paintings on the walls are memo-
rials of former splendour) ; the well-known leaning tower,
like that at Pisa ; and the house in which Copernicus was
born.
Thorn is indebted for its foundation to Herman Balk,
master of the Teutonic order, who immediately on his
arrival, in 1231, fortified the antient castle of furno, at
Old Thorn, about five miles from the present town. In
the following year he founded the town, but, finding the
situation inconvenient, pulled it down in 1235, and chose
another site eight miles farther up the Vistula. At the
commencement of the fourteenth century Thorn joined
the Hanseatic League, and during the dominion of the
Order became rich and flourishing through its extensive
commerce. It afterwards joined ' The Union of the Prus-
-1:111 • 'ities,' and with it threw otf the authority of the
Knights: it took an active part in the sanguinary war
arising from this step, which ended with the peace con-
cluded in its walls in 14(iO, by which West Prussia was
annexed to Poland. Commerce continued to flourish
under the Polish government, but the city suffered severely,
partly from the internal troubles of the kingdom, partly by
flie wars with Sweden, during which it was twice plun-
dered by the Swedes (1655, 1703). Charles XII. entirely
destroyed the fortifications. The Reformation was favour-
ably received at an early period, but led to very harsh
measures on the part of the Roman Catholics, and to in-
ternal troubles. These dissensions continued from the
time of Sigismund I. ('1506-1548), through the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries: and at the beginning of the
eighteenth century occasioned what is called the ' Thorn
Tnigedy,' a persecution excited by the Jesuits, which
ended, on the 7th December, 1724, with the execution of
the burgomaster John Ressner and eleven of the principal
citizens.
When West Prussia was separated from Poland in 1772,
Thorn and Danzig remained under the Polish govern-
ment, but their prosperity declined in consequence of the
many obstructions to their commerce caused by the
regulations of Prussia for the navigation of the Vistula.
Alter its union with Prussia, on the second partition of
Poland, in 17'J3, its commerce and prosperity revived
Since 180!) it has been again converted into a fortress. It
is also important as a commercial port for the exportation
of the produce of the country, corn, timber, linen, raw
lides ; especially however corn. The population, in-
cluding the garrison, is nearly 12,000 inhabitants.
(A. E. Pri-uss, J!r\i-'/i/-fi/ii/iiff rim 1'ri-iiaxi'H ; Brockhaus,
iiri'i-xiilinns Lexicon, 7th edit.; Hassel ; Cannabich ;
Hursclielmauii.
Tl K )RN BURY. [GLOUCESTERSHIRE.]
TMORNE. [YORKSHIRK.]
THORX EY. [CAMBRIDGESHIRE.]
THORNHILL, SIR JAMES, an eminent painter (Juring
he reigns of Queen Anne and George I., and, says Wal-
x>]e, 'a man of much note in his time, who snivelled
^errio, and was the rival of Laguerre in the decorations of
our palaces and public buildings,' was descended of a very
antient family in Dorsetshire, and was born at. Weymoutli
u 107(i. Through^ the extravagance of his father, who
lisposed of the family estate, Thornhill was compelled to
support himself by his own exertions. He adopted the
mil'ession of a painter, and, by the liberality of an uncle,
)r. Sydenhiim. the eminent physician, he was enabled to
his studies in London,' where lie placed himself
a painter, whose name is not known, with whom
iowever he did not remain long. Thornhill appears to
T II O
392
T II 0
made rapid progress in the public favour, for in his
•:cn hi' umde a tour throu;: . IIol-
,«nd, and France, lit- was sufficient'
many valuable pictures of the old master*, ami .
his return hi' received tin- roiimr. Ouccii
to paint the interior of tin- cupola of Si. Paul's
cathedral, in which 1 illustrating
(li,. : St. Paul, painted in rhiar'otcuro, with the
lights hatched in gold: for this work hr w:is appointed
historical painter to the quct • paid only toity
shilh :uare ynnl lor Ins production. Tliornlnll's
reputation was now established, and, through the favour of
the carl of Halifax, lie received the commission to paint
the prim •• ilampton Court, which the
lord chamberlain, the Duke of Shrewsbury, hail intended
should be painted by Scbastiano Ricci. then in g.>
vour with the court 'in England ; but the Earl of Halifax,
who was then first commissioner of the treasury, declared
that il Ricci painted it he would not pay him. Sir .James
executed many other great w le staircase, the
gallery, and several ceilings in the palace at Kensing-
ton, a' hall at Blenheim, the chapel at Lord <
Wimpole in Cambridgeshire, a saloon for Mr. Styles al
Moor Park in Hertford-hire, and the ceilings of tin
hall at Greenwich Hospital. Sir .lames commenced the
•••. ork in 1703, and was occupied upon it for -
ijiient years, but it was not entirely painted by his
own hands. "The paintings are allegorical : on the ceiling
of the lower hall, which is 1 12 feet by ">U, are represented
the founders of the institution, William III. ;.ml
.. in the centre, surrounded by the attributes of na-
tional prosperity; in the other compartments are figures
whieh represent the zodiac, the four seasons, and the four
elements, with naval trophies and emblems of science,
among which are introduced the portraits of famous ma-
thematicians who have advanced the science of naviga-
tion, as Tycho Brain'. ( 'npernicus, Newton, and others.
On the ceiling of the upper hall are represented Queen
Anne and her husband Prince George of Denmark ; other
figures represent the four quarters of the world ; on the
side walls of the same apartment arc the landing of Wil-
liam III. at Torbay, and the arrival of George I. at Green-
wich ; on the end" wall lacing the entrance are portrait
groups of George I. and two generations of his family,
with accessories, and Sir James Thornhill's own portrait.
These works, which are executed in oil, have little to
iiuncnd them bc-ides their \astness ; yet in invention
and arrangement they are eqvial to the majority of Mich
works in the great buildings on the continent : in design
and colouring however they arc inferior.
Walpole has preserved some interesting details respect-
ing the remuneration Thornhill received for some of his
works : he says, ' High as his reputation was, and laborious
as his works, b from being generously rewarded
for some of them, and for others lie found it difficult to
in the stipulated price-. His demands were co-
. * rnwich ; and though I. >-eivcd 21KXI/. for
his work at Montague Ilou-e. and w;ls allowed "HKI/. for
his d - could obtain but fortv shillings
a square vard for the cupola of Si. I'aul's, and \ think no
more for Greenwich. When the affairs of the Son'
Company were made up, Thornhill, who had painted thcii
ease and a little hall, by order of Mr. Knight, thcii
ca-hier. demanded l.VK)/., but, the directors Icarui-
he had been paid but twenty-five sliillii lor the
hall at Blenheim, they would allow no more." He had a
longer contest with Mr. v o hail agreed to give
him 350U/., but, not <-ticd with Hie execution, a
lawsuit was commenced, and Dahl, Kiel,
others were appointed to inspect the work. They appeared
in court bearing testimony to the merit of the perform-
ance ; Mr. Styles was condemned to pay the money, and,
by their arbitration, .VK)/. more, for dcco. mt the
'•. and for ThornhJH'i acting as surveyor of the build-
ing.' Thornhill obtained permission, through the '
'. \. to copy the Cartoons of Raphael at Hampton
'. upon winch he bestowed t' labour; he
al- i a -mailer -et. one-fourth Ilie size of t!
id di-tinct studies of the heads, hail'1
i. t account ol tbe whole for the
.ipptared. Tin
wto of the Cartoons were sold the year after his de..th,
with his collection of pictures, among which were a few
capital specimens ol the gieat uiii>t.
-old for -c'M'iity-livc gum.. :iy, a
puce, says Walpole, which can haw 'y to
the cncunistancc .'i lew ] their
large enough to receive tin" pur-
chased by the duke of Hedlord. ami i his
gallery at Bedford House in Bloom-'
emained until that house was pulled down, when
they v led by the owner to the K
'ihornhill painted:: port raits a.
painted the altar-piece of tin All
at Oxford; and one which he pi'
church of bis native tn\\n. \Veymouth. There i- a:
Oxford, at ' Dall.iv.ay. a good portrait of Sir
Christopher Wren by Thornhill : and in the hall of Green-
wich Hospital there is by him th> of .John Worlcy,
in his ninety-eighth y pcu-ionc:-
mitted into the hospital: it u painted in a bold can
style, and was prc-cnted to the hospital by Thornhill him-
self. In 172-1 lie opened an academy for drawing at his
bouse in Cos cut Garden. He bad prc\iotisl\ proposed to
the earl of Halifax the foundation of a Royal A
Is, with ap. ' without ]•'
Sir James estimated the cost at 31W/. ; for, among-1
other occupations, he occasionally ' dabbled' in an i
(lire. At the end of bis life he was afflicted with the
gout, and in the spring of 1734 he retired to his paternal
t Thornhill, oearWeymouth, which he had the
faction of repurchasing; but his period of repose was
uely short, for, says Walpole, * four days after his
arrival, he expired in his chair, May 4, 17 fifty-
seven, leaving one son named .James, whom he had pro-
cured to be appointed Serjeant-painter and painter to the
navy ; and one daughter, married to that original and un-
equalled genius, Hogarth.'
Sir James Thornhill amas-ed considerable property
a man of agreeable manners, was a Fellow of the Royal
Society, and represented bis native town, Weymouth, in
parliament for several years until his death. II.
Knighted by George I. : his widow, Lady Thornhill, died
at Chiswick' in I7">7.
D'Argrnville, .Ibrcge de la Vie des p/i/.s fitineti.r Frin-
Walpolc, Ain-ril'ili-x i if I'nJHtinif in . . Pil-
kington, l>irtiniiiiri/ "/" 1'ninti-n.)
THORNTON, BONN ELL, was born in London, in the
year \~1\. He was educated at 'Westminster School, and
at Christchurch, Oxford. In compliance with the wish of
his father, who was a physician, he studied medicine, but he
-reins not to have liked the proles-ion, and left it for 1
ture. ' "Inian the Klder was his fellow-student both
at Westminster School and at Clni.-tchuich. though about,
nine ycais younger than Thornton. Similarity of taste led
to friendship, and they commenced in conjunction the
of periodical essays called 'The Connoi-.-eur.' which
was continued from January HI. 17.~>l. till September 30,
17-Vi. The papers are chiefly of a humorous character,
and the wit and shrewd observation of life which they
y well entitle them to the place which they still
ictain among the works of British cs-a\is',». Thornton
contributed largely to 'The St. Jame-'s Magazine,'
•The Public Advertiser.' 'The Covent-Garden .Journal,'
and other periodic::! lie published separately
•An Ode on St. Cecilia'- Day. adapted to the anlient
British music, viz. the salt-box, the .Jews'-harp. the mar-
row-bones and cleavers, the hum-strum or hurdy-gurdy,
Sec., with an Introduction giving an account of those truly
British instruments.' London, 1"(>2, -Ito.
In 17C7, in conjunction with Colman and Richaid
Warner, he published two volumes of an Kugli-ll transla-
tion of Plautus. 'The Comedies of Plautus. translated into
familiar Blank \'ei:.e.' Of the plays contained in these two
volumes. Thornton translated 'Amphitryon,' ' The Brag-
gart Captain,1 'The Treasure.' 'The Miser,' ami • The
Shipwreck;' 'The Merchant' was. tn y Colman,
and 'The Captive- ' by, Warner. 'I i the play-
tiaiiilatcd by V lied, alter
Thornton's death, in two :ties. In 171>S
Thornton published 'The Baltleol'th additional
Canto to Dr.'GartJ
Thornton, who appears to have inje institution
by habitual indulgence in drinking, died May 9, 1768, at
T H O
393
T H O
the age of 44. There is an inscription to his memory, by
Thomas Warton, in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey.
(Baker's BiograpMa Dramatica, by Reed and Jones.)
THOROUGH-BASE, the art of playing (on keyed in-
struments, and according to the rules of harmony) an
accompaniment from figures representing chords, such
figures being placed either over or under the notes of the
instrumental base staff. This is one of the many absurd
terms employed in music, and its meaning is altogether
arbitrary.
The figures used in Thorough-Base are the nine units.
These represent certain intervals or sounds. Thus a 6
placed over a c in the base, points out A as an accompani-
ment : and that figure also implies two other notes attend-
ant on it, namely, the 3rd and 8th, which are called the
accompaniments of the 6th. A 0 and a 5 placed under
it (r\ indicate the intervals of the 6th and 5th played
together ; and also, as accompanying notes, the 3rd and
8th. The figures 3, 5, and 8, singly, or together, represent
the perfect or common chord. But in Thorough-Base a base
note without any figure is supposed to carry a perfect chord.
The chords are, as a general rule, assigned to the right
hand of the performer, and the intervals are, in most
cases, counted from an octave above the figured note.
This will be more clearly understood by referring to the
articles ACCOMPAMMENT, CHORD, and HARMONY.
The following is a tabular view of the figures used in
Thorough-Bate io represent chords, together with those,
not written, but understood, representing the accompani-
ments which, with the base, form the chords: —
( 'lionls ilniirnatrd
3rd, accompanied by a
5th, „
8th, »
Oth, „
7th,
2"<1,}
, ('sometimes called the llth),
| accompanied by a .
'?th,|accompanied by an . .
6th (sharp 6th)
Oth, ,
Jth,}
7th)
Accompanying
intervals.
5th and 8th.
3rd and 8th.
5th and 3rd.
3rd and 8th.
8th.
3rd, 5th, and 8th.
3rd and 8th.
major 6th.
6th.
\5th and 8th.
8th.
3rd and 5th.
5th.
3rd.
5th, 4th, and 2nd.
BH other chords of an extraordinary kind are occa-
• I : but they are always clearly denoted, in
Thorough-Base, by an ample number of figures.
The above chords exemplified.
\\heh two figures are placed in succession over one base
P. C., No. 1537.
note, the time of the latter is divided between them.
Example : —
56 43 08
A sharp, or flat, or natural, placed alone over a base
note, relates solely to the 3rd. Example : —
When other intervals are to be raised or lowered, the pro-
per characters for the purpose are prefixed to them. A
dash through a figure is equivalent to a sharp.
The practice of figuring a base staff, whether in a score
or in the part assigned to a keyed instrument, has fallen
into disuse, the harmony being now fully and clearly pre-
sented to the eye of the accompanyist in notes placed in a
treble staff over the base. But a knowledge of what is
yet too commonly misnamed Thorough-base, that is to say,
harmony, is absolutely indispensable to the good musician,
and very much abbreviates the labour of those who, as
amateurs, only aspire to a practical skill either as vocal or
instrumental performers. The rules of harmony stand in
the same relation to music as those of grammar do to lan-
guage.
The invention of a Figured Base (Basso Cifrato, as the
Italians so well denominate it) has been stated to have
taken place in 1605, and is commonly attributed to Ludo-
vico Viadana, Maestro di Cappella at the cathedral of
Mantua. But this kind of musical abbreviation was earlier
practised, and by an English composer, Richard Deering,
who, in 1597, published his Cantiones Sacrce, at Antwerp,
in which a figured base appears. And we have now before
us Jacopo Peri's serious opera Euridice, printed at Flo-
rence in 1GOO, in which the base is figured throughout.
Lying by us also is Caccini's Nuove Mitsiche, likewise
printed at Florence, but one year later, and here we find
the base regularly figured. The edition of the latter work
referred to by Dr. Burney, is dated Venezia, 1615 ; it is to
be presumed therefore that the active historian of music
was not so fortunate as to have met with the first edition
of Caccini's remarkably curious and now very rare work.
THOU, JACQUES-AUGUSTE DE (or, as he culled
himself in Latin, Jacobus Augustus Thuanus), was born at
Paris, on the 8th of October, 1553: he was the third son
of Christophc de Thou, first president of the parlement of
Paris, and of his wife Jacqueline Tuellen dc Celi. Besides
their three sons and four daughters, who grew to be men
and women, De Thou's parents lost six children in infancy ;
and he himself was so weak and sickly a child till he
reached his fifth year, that he was not expected to live.
In the exemption which this state of health procured him
in his childhood and early boyhood from severer task-
work, he amused himself in cultivating a turn for draw-
ing, which was hereditary in his family ; and in this way,
he tells us himself, he learned to write before he had
learned to read. Although originally intended for the
church, he went in his early studies the whole round of
literature and science as then taught ; and while yet only
in his eighteenth year he had conceived from the perusal
of some of his writings so great an admiration of the cele-
brated jurist Cujacius, that he proceeded to Valence in
Dauphinc-, and attended his lectures on Papinian. Here
he met with Joseph Scaliger, with whom he contracted an
intimate friendship, which was kept up for the thirty-eight
remaining years that Scaliger lived. In 1572, after he had
been a year at Valence, he was recalled home by his
father ; and he arrived in Paris in time to be present at the
marriage of Henry, the young king of Navarre, and to wit-
less the horrors of the massacre of St. Bartholomew which
VOL. XXIV.-3 E
•I1 11 <>
894
T H <>
PMMB
in that c
the accc
them ut
e reWes that hr saw the dead body of Co-
( from tin- gibbet <>n Moutmarlrc. The next
in tin1
\ . on n
•named
rv till ' 71. and
•irv III., tin- I..
, u IV !-'(>i\ home. Ill 1 .'>,
a journey to Flanders and IIoll;viul. In l.*7
Jean dc la Garde, Sieur -
iral counsellors "n entrance
public life "Inch, li
withdrawing him in p»
and the cultivation of literature, in which he would have
been much better pica.-, -d to spend his days. The next
e l,»t his . .;u this time it began
proposed that, for :: chance of continuing
the family, his original destination should be changed, ana
that he should quit his ecclesiastical for a ci\ii career.
Some years elapsed however before this scheme was
finally "determined upon. Meanwhile he continued to
pursue his usual studies : and he states that he had already
conceived the project of his great historical work, and
begun industriously to collect materials for it wherever he
went.
It was in the year 1582, while on a \i~it to Bord
that he made the acquaintance of Montaigne, whose cha-
racter ns well a.s genius he lias warmly eulogized.
tame year his lather died: and having alto by this time
lost his second brother, he. in 1" 1 his rank
-Kisticid counsellor, and on the 10th of April in
pointe<l by the king to the office of master of rc<.
which 1 he'll wa> wont to be held indill'erently by eccle-
ct or laymen. Two years after he obtained the re-
•n of the place held by bis uncle, of one of th.
sidcnts au mortier in the parlement de Paris ; and in l.>7
he married Marie, daughter of Francois Harbanson, Sieur
de Cam. \Vhcn, in the next vear. in the increasing dis-
tractions of the state, Henry III. found himself obliged to
I'an-. He Thou, who, as well as bis lather and his
brothers, adhered steadily throughout the troubles of tin-
time to the royal party, accompanied his majesty to Nor-
mandy, and alters aids to 1'icardv. At Chart res, in August,
lie was admitted a counsellor of state : and from this
date he took a leading part in all the principal public
Actions which followed. When the estates of the
kingdom were assembled at BloU. in October of this year.
De Thou, as he tells, was there couited with much bland-
ishment by the duke of Guise, but steadily resisted the
attempt to seduce him from his loyalty. He had left Blois
and was in Paris when the news of the murders of the
duke of Guise and his brother the cardinal (on the j:!:d
and '.Mill of December readied the capital; and li
(Treat difficulty in effecting his escape from the popular
••ceded however in rejoining tile king at
: and having soon alter been dispatched on a mission
into Germany and Italy iccours of men and
money for the royal cause, he1 was at Venice when he
heard' of the death' of Henry, in August, i:>s:i. II, imme-
diately set out bv the1 way of Swit/erland for '
met the king of rsavarre, now calling himself Henry IV..
dun. He wa" received very graciously; and
lor some years from tliis time he was constantly with
Henry, or employed on m: - • ittcrent quarters in his
In 1591, while Henry was at Nantes, he received no-
counts of the death n. I A n \erre reiv
for his translations of Plutarch and other (ireek autl
upon winch his majesty immediately bestowed his office
the royal De Thou. It was in the
year 1503, as he has noted, that he at last actually com-
.(I the composition of his History . which I.
4«te» he had conceived in bis mind so loi
•'U the diatti of his uncle opened to him hi>
reversionary office of one of thi
'.HIS.
Among other important transactions in which he 1
part after this. : the Kdiet of Nantes, pn!
in 15;)H. which IK was greatly instrumental ii
i an left an account of his own life.
•i lull, in which tb.
li the di-atli ol . • . !
he published the first eigv .' The
was r,
public thro: and,
•juvc umbrage t
Catholic faith, it was not till
erary
in it
. .
:\'.. in ItilO, did not deprive DC Thou of 1 - the
mnistry; but he had no longer the same inf
' and a new appointment, which he received the
following year, of one of the three directors charged with
he management of the finances, on the retirement of the
•v as felt by himself to he not so much mi ::
• cr or honour, as a burdensome and obno-.
oilice forced upon him. for which he was titled neither by
habits, nor cr.. -. In tin- same year Ins
brother-in-law, Ac-hill-
first president of the -,
De Tnou would be nominated hi
.en to another. These disappointment.1; ai:>
er with the loss of a second wife, n
hortened the life of De T!
the 7th of May, 1017, in his sixty-fourth year. V,
I wife, whose family name •
three sons and three daughters, one ol ' 'iOm,
Francois Auguste de Thou, the inheritor of 1
virtues and of a considerable share of hi- U a
snciitice to the inexorable revengeofCiudiir.il Richelieu,
one of whose last acts was his putting this nnfor'
young man to death for his alleged participation in
vied tin conspiracy of ( 'in(|innrs : — 1
at l.yon, in hi.s thirty-fifth year, on the 121!' nber,
1(!4'2. not three months before Richelieu's own death.
The president De Thou is the author of a i
Latin poems, one of the principal of which, entitled
• De He Accipitraria' (on Hawking , was published in
: but his lame rests, upon bis • Ilistona sni ",
jioris,' or 'History of his own Time,' written :il
Latin, in Ills books, of which Hie th.-l sn :i|
his lifetime, the remainder not till l(i'3>. The space over
which it extends is from the year 1044 to 1C07. compre-
hending the closing years of the reign of Francis I., the
entire reigns of Hein'y II., Francis II.. Chailes IV.
Henry HI., and nearly the whole of that of Henry IV.
For about one-half of this period of sixty -tin.
has the value belonging to the narrative of one wh
himself a principal actor in many of the affairs which he
relates, and who with regard to many others was so placed
as to have air opportunity of seeing much that was con-
cealed from the. common eye: hut in truth, from the
author's family connections, anil his extended acquaintance
among the eminent and remarkable persons of his time,
this is an advantage which belongs in some degree '
earlier a.s well as to the later part of the woik. It i-
admitted to have throughout the merit of a rare ii.
tiality : with no deficiency of patriotic feeling, and j •
steadiness to his own political principles. De Th.
always ready liunkly to recognise the high oualiti
what'ever kind, thai may have belonged either to the
citizen of a rival state or a part) opiionmt. As for
oils prejudice, he shows so little of that, aslo haveev
himself to tin- imputation ol having i
of not being really a believer in the form
the Uomai. which he professed. Bn'
of tbi us In be no ground.
tation of his •]! •, ever stands not so milch
the i. ined in it. that are not elsewhere '
found, as upon the skill displaced in its composition
.•li upon the material as upon the workmanship;
and it is vciy evident that with all the pains 1
the collecting of information, this was the praise of which
lie was t! nbitions, .is indeed may ]
with the most fainiM.*
t i Hume and Gibbon an.- Hut De Thon's
T of wilting, though flowing and eloquent, i
; iiing
--.. by
writii. ' 'it in style, with
till if- ' lie has
T H O
395
T H R
taken great pains to give it as uniformly classical an air as
possible, not only by metamorphosing all his modern names,
both of places and persons, so as to give them antique forms,
o It en to the no small perplexity and hindrance of the
reader, but, what sometimes produces still more obscurity
or ambiguity, by generally endeavouring to describe
modern proceedings and transactions in the established
legal, political, and military phraseology of the old Ro-
mans. The best edition of De Thou's ' History' is that
published at London in 1733, in seven volumes, folio,
under the superintendence of Samuel Buckley, Esq., and
at the expense of Dr. Mead. The last volume of this edi-
tion contains De Thou's autobiographical memoir (first
published in 1620, and also written in Latin), in six books,
together with a mass of additional materials illustrative of
the history of his life and works.
THOUARS. [SKVRKS, DEUX.]
THOUARS, LOUIS MARIE AUBERT DU PETIT,
an eminent French botanist, was born at the chateau de
Boumois, in Anjou, 1756. His family was wealthy and
noble, and being destined for the army, he was early sent
to the school of La Fleche. He was made a lieutenant of
infantry at the age of 1G. This was in a time of peace,
and he occupied Ins leisure in studying the science of
botany and its literature. At the time of the loss of
La Perouse and his companions. Aristide du Petit Thouars
proposed to his brother Aubert that they should go in
a of him. To this he willingly con^i'iiled. hoping to
add t -\i of plants and his fame by the vo;.
The two brothers sold their patrimony, raised a subscrip-
tion, and having secured the patronage of Louis XVI.,
were ready to start on their voyage, when a curious acci-
dent separated them. The ship that was to have taken
them lay at Brest, and Aubert, with his vasculum (the tin
box which botanists carry to put their plants in) at his
back, intended to botanise on liis way from the capital to
the port. He was however found by some gens (formes
in the woods, and being suspected as an enemy of his
country in those days of disorder, he was arrested and
thrown into prison at Quimper. He was however soon
>cd, but too late, as his brother had sailed. He fol-
lowed him to the Isle of France, but his brother had again
departed ; and being here without money and without
friends, his only resource was hia botanical knowledge,
and he accordingly applied for employment to some of
the rich planters of that island. He quickly obtained an
.vinent. and remained in the island nearly ten years.
On this spot he was very favourably placed for making
those observations for which his previous studies had so
well prepared him ; and during his sta\ here he collected
most of the materials for the numerous works which he
published on his return. Whilst a resident in the Isle of
France he made a voyage to Madagascar, and collected
plants from that island. He returned to Paris in 1802.
Many of the results of his researches in the Isle of France
and Madagascar were communicated to the Institute and
other scientific bodies in Paris. His first work on the
botany of the islands which he had visited, was published
at Paiis in 1804, with the title ' Plantes des lies de
I'Afrique Australe formant des Genres nouveaux,' &c.,4to.
He also published on the same subject the ' Histoire des
\ eLrrt;iux (les lies de. France, de Bourbon, et de Madagas-
car,' 1804, 4to. In the same year Bory St. Vincent gave
an account of the vegetation of the African islands, in his
Voyage dans les quatre principales lies des Mers
il'Afrique,' Paris, 4to., although he did not go out till
Du Petit Thouars had returned. In 1800 Du Petit
Thouars was appointed director of the royal nursery-
ground at Paris, which office he held till the closing of
this institution a short time before his death, which took
place in May, 1831. In 1806 he published another work
on the plants of Africa, with the title ' Histoire des Vdge-
t;mx recueillics dans les lies Australes d'Afrique,' Paris, 4to.
In 181(1 his 'Genera nova Madagascariensia ' appeared,
in which the Madagascar plants were arranged according
to the system of .lussieu. His latest work on systematic
botany was one on the Orchidaceie of the African islands,
' Histoire des Plantes Orchidces recueillies dans les trois
lies Australes d'Afrique,' 1822, Paris, 8vo. His publications
on vegetable physiology are equally numerous. Most of
these had their foundation in observations and experiments
which he made whilst in the Isle of France. In 1805 he
published his 'Essai sur ['Organisation des Plantes,' Paris,
8vo. ; in 1809, another essay on the vegetation of plants ; in
1811, ' Melanges de Botanique et de Voyages,' Paris, 8vo. ;
in 1819, a kind of botanical miscellany, passing in review
his own labours, under the title ' Revue generate des Mate-
riaux de Botanique et autres, fruit de trente-cinq annees
d'observations,' Paris 8vo.
As a systematic botanist the views of Du Petit Thouars
were uncertain and speculative, and the delay in the pub-
lication of his works on African botany deprived him of
the merit of introducing to the world many new species.
In his physiological works his views are ingenious, but in
most cases wanting in sufficient data to establish them.
His views on the formation of buds, the motion of the sap,
and the origin of wood, are those which have excited most
attention. But each of these is perhaps more indebted
to the speciousness of its reasoning than to the correctness
of the facts, for the importance that botanists have
attached to it. But at the same time his great activity of
mind, his extensive erudition and original observation,
have had a great influence on the progress of botany in
the present century. He was a contributor to the ' Bio-
graphie Universelle,' and wrote the lives of many of the
botanists in that work. The genus of plants Thouarea was
named after him, and Bory St. Vincent named Anbertia in
honour of him.
King. Univ., Supp. ; BischofF, Lehrbuch der Botanik.)
THOURET, MICHEL-AUGUSTIN, an eminent French
physician, was born in 1748, at Pont-1'Evfique, in the an-
tient province of Normandy and the modern department of
Calvados, where his father was royal notary (notaire
royal). His education was commenced at his native town,
and finished at the university of Caen. He afterwards
went to Paris, and in 1774 w-as admitted gratuitously by
the Faculty of Medicine in that city to the degree of M.D.,
an honour which was gained by public competition (con-
nuti-x). A few years later, upon the foundation of the
Royal Society of Medicine, Thouret became one of its
earliest members, and enriched the Memoirs of the Society
by several valuable essays. The most important public
work in which he took a part was the exhumation of the
bodies in the cemetery of the Holy Innocents, of which he
drew up a most interesting report. This cemetery, toge-
ther with a church of the same name, stood on the spot
now occupied by the Marchc des Innocens, and had be-
come in process of time so unhealthy from being the prin-
cipal burial-ground in Paris, that it was absolutely neces-
sary to destroy it. This great work had^een several times
attempted, but as often abandoned on account of the dan-
gers and difficulties of the undertaking ; at last however,
in 17K5, a committee was named for directing the works,
v. Inch were carried on without any intermission by night
and by day for more than six months, and which were at
length completely successful. Thouret afterwards filled
several public, situations with equal zeal and integrity;
and in the midst of the labours of his numerous employ-
ments was carried off, after a few days' illness, by a cerebral
atteelion, at Meudon, near Paris, June 19, 1810. Great
honours were paid him after his death by the Faculty of
Medicine at Paris, of which body he was dean. His works
consist almost entirely of essays published in the ' Histoire
et Memoires de la Societe Royale,' of which perhaps the
most interesting are the ' Rapports sur les Exhumations. iiu
C'imetiere des SS. Innocens,' mentioned above. These were
afterwards published in a separate form at Paris, 1789,
12mo. ( Biogruphie Mcdicale.)
THOUROUT is a town in the province of West Flan-
ders, in the kingdom of Belgium, in the district of Bruges,
on the high road from that city to Menin and Courtray.
It is a well-built town, with a population of 8000 inhabit-
ants, who have a considerable trade in linen, flax, and lin-
leed. They also manufacture hats, starch, and wooden shoes.
[FLANDERS, WEST.] (Stein, Lexicon; Schulz, Allgemeine
Knlliunde, vol. xvii.)
THRACE (epy'itj;, Thracia) was in earlier times
the name of the country bounded on the north by the
Danube, on the south by the Propontis and the ^Egean
Sea, on the east by the Black Sea, and on the west
by the river Strympn and the chain of mountains which
form the continuation of Mount Rhodope. This coun-
i divided into two parts by Mount Hsemus (now the
Balkan), which runs from west to east, separating the
of the lower Danube from the rivers which flow into
the /Egean Sea. This mountain probably derived its name
3 E 2
I I! 11
T H H
from ihi cold and snowy lop, since Hn>mii» sc.
tainthe same root n^ '• •' whence
atoconMthc nwne of the Ibm.ilava Mountains. T-.M.
range* branch lr of
at about a hundred mile* 1'rom the
:e, which runs in ft south-eastern direction towards
•imtinople; the other, \vliic-h is far inches
ices of the llehre.s. and
.uth-enst. The latter bor> the- n:;
and is now called the Desj
two ranges there are many plum-, which an
the I1 principal river of 'I
and i t'lirthcr account of the i>!<
the reader is referred to the articles BALKAN
!T*A.
In ancient times there was a great quantity of corn and
wine grown in the valley of the Hebnis. In the 'Iliad'
. !' the Ach scans arc described a> bringing wine
•imcnmon from Thrace (\\. 7- : Mid the
.vine, which retained its reputation in the time of
Pliny //.-»/. A,//., xn.li . is spokenof in tl y'(ix.
l'.<7 ". In the mount. - of the country there were
also mines of precious, metals. '.hist in, viii. 3.)
The Thraeians were divided into many separate and in-
dependent tribes; hut the name of Tii: ins to
h.i\e been applied to them collectively in very early
times. Thrace, according to Stephanus Uyzantinu-
. :,\ was previously called Perec (Ilfpiri;). It signifies
onntry in the north, according: to Vkcrt {Ci'i^ni^ltn-
'i-n inn/ llniiifr, I., i.. p. 2H2 . who quotes the
"k of Andron of Halicarnassus (Schol. att Lycophr.,
inus had four daughters. A-ia. Libya.
Europa. and Thrace, from whom the four pails of the
worl<: icd : and thence he conehules that Asia sig-
nitic.l the cast. Libya the south. Europa the west, and
Thrace the north. This conclusion however hardly amounts
to asmal) probability. Jpsephus and many Biblical scholars
tnippose that the name is derived from Tiras I.DTJT1. the
son of Japhet (Genfsit, x. 2 , but this opinion rests on
little moie than an apparent similarity of sound.
The Thraeian nation, according to Herodotus (v. 3), was,
next to the Indians, the most numerous of all, and if united
under one head would have been imincihlc. He observes
that the usages of the different tribes were similar, with
the exception of the (ictir [(TKT.E], the Trausi. and those
who dwelt above the ( 'rc.-toiwi. The account which he
fives of the most striking national peculiarities of the
Thracians. represents them as a barbarous and savage
people, which is supported by other antient writers, though
the districts on the southern co; 0 have attained to
some degree of civilization, owing to the numerous Creek
- which were founded there at various times. The
Thracuns, says Herodotus (v. (i , sell their children to be
carried out of the country as slaves: they do not guard
their young women, but permit them to have intercourse
with whatever men they please: they purchase their
wives with great sums: they puncture or tattoo their
bodies, winch they regard as a sign of noble birth
culture they despise, and consider it most honourable to
li\e by war and robbcn. Deep drinking prevailed among
them extensive!), and the quarrels over their cups be-
came almost proverbial. .•;.. i. Is and 27.) In
earlier times, however, there must have been a greater
• e of civilization among some of their tribes ill
than prevailed at a i I. The eai
Orpheus, I.inus, Musceus, and others, are all
W coming from Tin; ' nmolpus too, who founded,
according to tradition, the Eleiisinian mysteries at
M also said to have been a Thraeian. At an early period
likewise the Thraeians spread extensively over southern
Tlmeydidcs ii. 2!» . says that they once dwelt ill
•rabo (Ix. 401. 4 In speaks of their settlement in
Ba-utia; and their invasion of Attica under Kumolpiis, who
iit against Ereeht hens, is mentioned b\ many v.
Strabo, . M.cvd., 11. l.-i: 1'au.san.'. i. :
Thiacians are (aid to have been subdued hv Sesos-
1.. 11. KM;, and subsequently by ti
and ) ; , ,,-',. the
frojan war. and penetrated as fur as the Ionian Sea and
Hut the first real tn-t
"incut by Mega!
the general of Dan us, who conquered all the separate
tribes, with the exception of the Satrn-. w!
Tluacian jieople thn'
down to the time of Herodotus. 11 .n. ill.
Atler the failure of the expedition 0
..ppear to ' . ervd their indi •[•
in the time of the Peloponncsian war we find n powerful
native empire in Thrace, which was under the
Ices, who i- called by Thueyii
- •
-
1 the Thia,
coast from Abdera to the mouth of the Danube, a distance
of four days' and four nights' sail with a favourable •
and was by land a journey of eleven days by t!
road for an active man:" it extended inland
zantium to the I.a-a-i and t m, a jouni.
tern da\s. The tribute p.--
Sitalces, was 4(»0 t alen'
to himself and the Odrysian nobles. Time,
of all the kingdoms between the Ionian (iul.
Euxine, this was the greatest in revenue and opul,
but that it was inferior to the Scythians in milit;;:
and numbers. In the third year of the i'el'
war. n. c. 4'Jil. Sitalces, who had foniied an alliance with
Athens, invaded the 1, of Perdiccas, king
donia. with an army of l.">(),000 men: but being d
pointed of the co-operation of an Athenian fle.
persuaded by his nephew Seuthes to accept the overtures
of Perdiccas. and return home with his army. all.
ing in Macedonia thirty days. In the year ii.t . !_'
fell in battle against the TYiballi, the most powerful Thni-
eian people between Mount Ihtmus and the Da
was succeeded by his nephew Seuthes. The power .
.an empire however did not last long. In
more than twenty years from the den had
lost its former greatness; and when Xenophon ci.
over into Thrace, in H.C. 4<K), he found Medonis. the reign-
ing king of the Odrysians. unable to command the
obedience of his Thraeian subjects. '.Compare Amib.. vii.
2. s. :i± ,Vc. In the reign of Philip, the lather of Alex-
ander, Cotys was the i ml of the Thraeian c
and is usually called king ot'Tlnaee: but he vva
by Philip of almost all his dominions between tli. v
and the Nestiis. and became little else than a
the Macedonian kingdom. He v\as ;id vindic-
tive barbarian, and v ated in n.f. :>5S. Hi
Cersoble]ites succeeded to the throne : but he was evcntu-
• lipped of all his territories by Philip, who red
in n.( . :H:i. the whole of Southern Thnu I, and
compelled it to pav tribute. Diodonts, xvi. 710 On the
dealh of Philip there was a general movement :
ans to throw off the Macedonian su; ' the
head of which the Triballi placed tin : ii;.; Alex-
ander, bv his activity, suppressed this rising: 1
the Hicmus. marched into the eoun'i iballi, and,
after defeating them, advanced as far as the Danube, which
he crossed, and offered 11; its right bank.
(Arrian. .lit<>/>., i. 2. 9 . ii.:«HO On tb.
Alexander, Thrace fell to the share of I.v simachns, who
• 1 it into an independent monarchy: but it •
qncntly came under the dominion of the Macedonian !.
They seem however to have left the coiintr.
government of its native rulers, and were prohahlv
! with what the Cricks called a hegemony. In the
Roman war against 1' ftheThrftc
is in, ig : though the llini.
just bel'ore the war broke out, had sought the alliai
the Komans. I, ivy. \lii. 2!t. ~>\ : compare xlii. 1!).
the conclusion of the war. however. Cotys was allowed to
continue in possession of his kingdom, notwithstanding
the assistance he had rendered to Peisens. l.r.
At vvliat time Thrace was reduced to tin K<>-
man province M uncertain, but it seems not to have con-
stituted a distinct province till a late period. Vnder
<l|s. (lie p:. 'h lif the Ha'lll
(juered by the Koina'r-. and wa- :1o a
ite jirovinee under the name of M,r-ia. [M.i
The name of Thrace was tli, 1 to the co-
ol'the Ilirmus, and between llie Kuxine. the I'ropontis. and
the ,'Kgean Sea. Us boundary on tin' west ditl'eii
various times : in the time of Ptolemv ni. II
: hut as the Strymon was anti
the boundary between Macedonia and Thrace, it will be
T H R
397
T H R
convenient, in the following description of the principal
places in Thrace, to consider the district between the Stry-
mon and the- Xestus as belonging to the latter country.
Beginning then on the left bank of the Strymon, the
first town we come to is Amphipolis, which was founded
by the Athenians, and was one of the most important
towns in Thrace. [AMPHIPOUS.] It was situated in the
countiy of the Edones, who dwelt between the Strymon
and the Nestus, but originally inhabited the Macedonian
district of Mygdonia. (Thucyd., ii. 99.) The next town
of importance east of Amphipolis was Philippi, which
was founded by Philip of Macedonia : it was previously
called Crenides, but was then only a small place in-
habited by the Thasians, who settled there for the pur-
of working the gold and silver mines in its neigh-
bourhood. West of Philippi the country was an extensive
•plain stretching towards Amphipolis, which has become
memorable on account of the battle fought there by
Antony and Octavius (Augustus) against Brutus and Cas-
Mii-i. "Under the Romans Philippi became a colony, and
v. as the chief city in that part of the country, when it was
visited by the Apostle Paul. (Acts, xvii. 12.J It still
retains the name of Filibi, but is only a village.
West of the Nestus the first town of importance on the
c-oa»t is Abdera. [ABDERA.] Next comes Dic-ira or
Dicii-opol is, which was a Greek city on the shores of the
lake Bistonis (Herod., vii. 109) ; and then Maroneia and
rus, which were both in the country of the Cicones,
wheiv J'ivssc* landed and was defeated by the inhabitants,
after lie had taken their city. CMys., xi. 39, &c.) The
Maronean wine has been already mentioned, and the city
was in consequence sacred to Dionvsus, as may be seen
from its coins. It was originally called Orthagoria. Its
ruins are still named Maroni. Ismarus is not mentioned
by later writers as a city, but only as a mountain cele-
brated for its wine. Following the coast we next come to
Stryme, a colony of the Thasians; then to Mesembria,
built by the Samothracians (Herod., vii. 108) ; and next
to Dori-scas. situated in a large plain, in which Xerxes num-
bered his army. (Herod., v. 59.) Crossing the Hebrus we
come to A'nos, which, according to Virgil (/£'«., iii. 17,
>K:e. , was founded by j*Eneas, but it is mentioned under
this name by Homer, as the place from which Pirous came
to the Trojan war (//., iv. 520;. It was a place of con-
siderable importance in later times, and under the Romans
was a free town. (Pliny, Nat. Hist., iv. 18.) It is still
called Knu>.
After passing round the head of the Gulf of Melas, now
the Gulf of Saros, we come to the Thracian Chersonese
(Xtppvvriaoc, or Xtpaovrjaoz T; iv Opdrp), now Gallipoli,
which was very early colonized by Greek settlers, and
though but of small extent is of considerable importance
in antient history. In early times it was inhabited by the
Dolonci, a Thracian tribe, who being hard pressed in war
by the Apsinthii, were led to invite Miltiades, the son of
( 'yp.-i.-lus, an Athenian, to be their king, in consequence of
an answer given them by the oracle at Delphi. This was
about the year B.C. 560. Miltiades complied with their
request, and took with him to the Chersonese a colony of
Athenians. On his deatli he was succeeded by his nephew
i;oras, and he by his brother Miltiades, the son of
Cimon. who fled to Athens to escape the vengeance of
Darius, on account of the advice he had given to the
Ionian chiefs in the Scythian expedition of Darius. (Herod.,
vi. 34, &c.) [MILTIADES.] When the Persians were
driven out of Greece, the Chersonese came into the hands
of the Athenians, who retained it till the end of the Pelo-
ponnesian war. Shortly afterwards the Lacedaemonians, at
the request of the inhabitants, built a strong wall across
the isthmus to protect the country from the incursions of
the Thiacians. (Xenoph., Hell., iii. 2, s. 8-10.) It sub-
sequently came under tne power of Athens, who wrested it
from Cersobleptes, the son of Cotys, when he was deprived
of his other dominions by Philip. Afterwards it formed
part of the kingdom of Lysimachus, who founded the city
.ysimachia on the isthmus, which he made his capital.
It wiw on the western side of the isthmus, not far from the
antient Cardia, the inhabitants of which he removed to his
<-ity. (Diodorus, xx. 29 ; Pausan., i. 9, s. 10.) South
of Lysimachui were Agora, Ide, Paeon, and Alopecon-
nesus, the last of which only was of any importance. It
was an TEolian colony, and was one of the chief towns of
the Chersonese in t'hu time of Demosthenes. On the
eastern side of the Chersonese, upon the Hellespont, the
most southerly town was Cynossema, near which the
Lacedaemonian fleet was defeated by the Athenians under
the command of Thrasybulus and Thrasyllus, in B.C. 411.
(Thucyd., viii. 104, &c.) Above Cynossema was Madytus,
which was also one of the chief towns of the Chersonese in
the time of Demosthenes (Demosth. pro Cor., p. 256) ; and
nian fleet was totally defeated by Lysander, in B.C. 40"),
who was enabled in consequence to obtain possession of
Athens and put an end to the Peloponnesian war. Above
.fljgospotamoi were Callipolis, now Gallipoli, which has
given its name to the peninsula, and Pactya, opposite Ly-
simachia.
As the other towns are not of so much importance as
the preceding, a brief notice of them will be sufficient. On
the Propontis the chief seaport was Perinthus, afterwards
called Heraclea, and sometimes also Heraclea Perinthus.
(Zosimus, i. 62 ; Diodorus, xvi. 76.) On the Bosporus (not
Bosphorus, as it .is frequently, but incorrectly, written in
modern maps and works), which connected the Propontis
and the Euxine, the antient Greek city of Byzantium was
situated, which occupied part of the site of the modern
Constantinople. [BYZANTIUM.]
On the European coast of the Euxine the chief towns
were Salmydessus, Apollonia, and Mesembria. The two
former were colonies of the Milesians, and the last of the
Megarians. (Strabo, vii., 319.)
In the interior of the country the towns most worthy of
mention are Trajanopolis, on the Egnatian road to the west
of the Hebrus ; Plotinopolis, so called in honour of Plo-
tina, the wife of Trajan, to the north of Trajanopolis ;
Hadrianopolis, on the Hebrus, originally called Orestias,
and now Adrianople [ADRIANOPLE] ; and, lastly, Philip-
polis, also on the Hebrus, now called Filibi. The names of
these towns sufficiently show by whom they were built or
enlarged.
The Via Egnatia, which was the great road of com-
munication between the Ionian Sea and Byzantium, and
which is spoken of under MACEDONIA (p. 243), entered
Thrace at Amphipolis, and passed by the towns of Phi-
lippi, Neapolik Abdera, Maximianopolis, Trajanopolis,
Cypsela, Apri, Heraclea, till it reached Byzantium.
Xenophon, in his ' Anabasis ' (vi. 4), speaks of Thrace in
Asia, which he describes as extending from the junction
of the Bosporus and the Euxine along the Asiatic coast as
far as Heracleia: the country within these limits was iVi-
habited by Thracei Bithyni. The harbour of Calpe was
about the middle of this coast-line. [BITHYNIA.]
THRA'CIA, Dr. Leach's name for a genus of testa-
ceous mollusks described as intermediate between Anatina
and Mya, and as having some resemblance to Corbulu.
THRAPSTON. [NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.]
THRASA'ETOS, Mr. G. R. Gray's name for a genus of
Eagles, Harpyia, Cuv., FALCO destructor, Daud. [FALCO-
NID.E, vol. x., p. 174.]
THRA'SEA PAETUS. His praenomen is uncertain ;
some writers call him Lucius, and others Publius, but he
is generally called simply Thrasea Paetus or Thrasea. He
was a native of Patavium, Padua (Tacitus, Annal., xvi. 21 ;
Dion Cass., Ixii. 26), and, like most men of talent at the
time, he went to Rome, where he afterwards became a
senator and a member of the priestly college of the quin-
decimviri. The first time that Thrasea came prominently
forward in the senate was in A.D. 59, when a senatus-
consultum was passed by which the city of Syracuse
obtained permission to employ a greater number -of
gladiators in the public games than had been fixed by a
law passed in the time of S. Caesar. (Tacitus, Annul., xiii.
49; Dion Cass., liv. 2 ; Sueton., Caes., 10.) Although the
matter was of no importance, Thrasea took an active part
in the deliberation, merely to impress upon his colleagues
the necessity of paying attention even to the' smallest
matters belonging to the administration of the senate.
In the same year Nero determined to carry into effect his
design of getting rid of his mother Agrippina. [NERO ;
AGRIPPINA.] When the crime was committed, and when
the emperor sent a letter to the senate in which he
endeavoured to exculpate himself, the degraded senators
congratulated him upon having got rid of so dangerous
a woman. The only man who on that occasion had the
II R
T II i:
courage to »how his d
Caw., )xi.
, Nildly claim
' tot
I lorn- of
emperor, thouj
crime wa* Tin
«•..
: in
! in-
OVI1H
pro-
u their iir • > had
'..in. The
the pro-
ll iiiTh Ihl quaestor atn.ed .1 . i . ::' i.il v a MOW
red the
ii'iammoiis
- him virt
...I. • I would t! 1 me ;
Juven
which LTllided hii
which Plutart hisbu
iti .r^c.
rom the
Pint; .nil '.\~t : (
!nu i'/ii/ui-i-fii, p. His. Husti.1
work on Thrasea and Ileh idins, in which !
conducted the
ambition t
ils of their independence, and degraded them into
flatterers of influential provincials, who thus obtai
improper power. '! 1 lo the
measure to remedv the evil, hut although it met with
imscii. laei
alter on tne proposal ot .\
\V. -jr)-±!. Nero iihca '
I'oppaca. the wife of Nero, was expecting her contine-
. iitiurn, and all •
n1. Thra-
philosopher bore this insult with his usual
calm' o afterwards indeed declared to S
that ' '• :M this was probably
no more than an expression of his 1,-ar. Tlie inflexible
character of Thra>ea. Iris refusal to take any part in t.
grading proceedings of the senate, and the esteem which he
enjoyed amoii£ his contemporai ••' i'od of
Nero, who only waii. mirable opportunity '
rid of him. li A.D. 63*11;
'.(led the meetings of the senate. 'I
a.ssed away, w hen at length, in A.D. (K). his old enemy
CoautianiU brought forward a number of char
Th.ras.ca. the substance of which was that lie took lr
no part in public ati'aiis, and that when he did so. it was
only to oppos* thu n . nmcnt ; that he
of tlie emperor, and fulfilled neither
his political dutie^ as a senator nor his leliirious chr
a pne-l. :i personal interview
with' >r, \\liich was refused. lie then wrote to
him. asking for a statement oft!. ',i,and
decl;! he would refute them. When Ni
read this letter, instead of which he had expected a con-
fession of guilt nnd an humble petition for pardon, he
-.•nate. to decide upon the chmi
Tlirasea and others. Some of Thru
him to attend the meeting, but :aded him
it. One yonni and ;Viend, Kusticus Arulenus,
WM tribune rif the people. uttered to put hi
upon the *enatu*-ron*ultnm, which however Tl
prevented. Tin 'hdrevv to 1
home. In the mdcd by :
upon Co«- -i their attacks upon
Jnnwea.
soldi
Id choo»e their ; : '
'''irawa, an-! '
Italy. The :
tor o'f the .
was ira-va. who had a^einbled aronnd him a
turn!
he armed, a friend. '
him of the decree of tin
•
her !
the la»t iupport which n
them as men uf the puie.-t integrity— -ion which
became fatal to the author. i><uint., 10 ; Tacitus,
TIIU \SlIl.N(i. Tl i from the
com has
simpl' I'he
of the tcrain may be read1
llirushini; is still in onler to obtain the liiu -
\ arda
with the Jliil, which is the in&tru-
nient most generally adopted for thra.-hin:r corn, ll is
iieedl- die this instrument, which rally
known. It requires some pra> :nally
and to avoid accidents to the thrasher himself or ti.>
>taudcrs. The flail bcins; swmiir round the head, the hi.il-
t of it is ; : hori/ont;;: • iiich
. ad on tin1 tin. i- p tlu> ]>art
onally under th
'.\\ up to be beaten. This is dune without
'iine when M-veral men are thrashini;
icr. If it were not that thrashing is nn»tly done in
winter, when no out-door work could well be done, few
labourers would submit to ., difficult
me the entire separation of the i;rain without |
;:id attention on the part of the ma>ler or over-
li'the labour is paid by the day, much time a usually
ind if it hi1 by tlie ijuantity of irniin lhia--hed or by
the number of sheaves, tin ti temptation for the
to hurry over the work, as d out
Win 1 out 11111:1
jiut into a .
e\ti n-i\c tiacts of lich land arc soun \\it\i <-orn two
or three times without much tillage or manuring, and then
icst and i1.
most common p la poilion of a field, and
lajini: the corn in the straw in a larije. circle, to drive
all trodden out. T
thu method alluded to in Scripture, and can only take
where th. Till in-
1 ines to (.upcrsede the thn
)
i imitating the motion of
of the tl'i;
that no mechanism could well imitate the motion of his
iven up. ami an imitation
rubbing • nn the eai> between the
hand*, combined with tl of a fl;.\
machine, irradnally produced the preat-nt improved thrash-
iout a figure it would be difficult lo describe the
different pai l.s and motion innr-maelnn.'. They
lire however now MI common. Unit it will virli
the f . and to mention .soil
lest improvements in it. A rapid motion is -riven to
a hollow cylinder round a . : on the outer
'jocting rib» parallel to the axi- .it
T H R
399
T H R
equal distances from each other; the width of these is
from two to six inches. Around half the cylinder is a
case the inner surface of which is lined with plates of cast-
iron grooved in the direction of the axis. The ribs or
beaters come quite close to these grooves, so that an ear
of wheat or other corn cannot well pass between them
Without being flattened. The sheaves of corn, having
been untied, are spread on a slanting table, and in some
machines are drawn in between two iron rollers, of which
one is plain and the other fluted. The motion of these
rollers i» slow, while that of the cylinder or drum is very
rapid. The beaters act on the straw as it comes through
the rollers, and beat out most of the corn ; but what
remains is carried in between the beaters and the fluted
case, and when it has made half a revolution all the grain
has been beaten and nibbed out. It falls on a sieve which
lets the grain through, but retains the straw, which is
raked off by hand or by circular rakes moved by the
machine!}. Some of the best implement-makers in Eng-
land have found the 1\vo rollers superfluous, and have
accordingly dispensed with them. The straw is at once
subjected to the beaters, and the machine may be fed
more or less rapidly according to circumstances. It
requires a little more attention in the person who feeds
the machine, but more work is done and some power
saved. The great perfection of a thrashing-machine is to
rub out every grain and to break the straw as little as pos-
sible ; the larger the scale of the machine the better it
this. Hand-machines have been made on the same
principle, but they do not. effect any saving in the expense,
requiring many men to produce the effect, of one horse.
The great advantage of hand-machines is that men and
women can be employed to thrash who could not use the
flail skilfully. Movenble thrashing-machines are very
generally in use in Ens-land where farms are small. They
itcii the property of an industrious labourer or me-
chanic, who undertakes to superintend the work, the
farmer finding horses and men. Thus he goes from farm
tn farm and earns his livelihood from a small capital laid
out in the purcba~c tit a machine. The price of tin;
in this \i ay is about half of what is usually paid for I !
ing with the flail : it is more rapidly done, there i
chance of pilfcrinsr. and fewer grains remain in the straw.
On very large farms it hnx been found economical to
erect, a ';ie to work the thrashing-machine,
chatt'-cutter, and other domestic implements. Where
coals are cheap there is a great saving. A steam-i
costs little to keep it in order. When not working, tin
interest on the original price is the only loss, whereas
I mint be fed whether they work or not. The price
of steam-engines is so much reduced and their construc-
tion so simplified, that they will probably soon form an
essential part of the implements on every farm.
There are some thrashing-machines on a new principle
which are said to work well. The drum is furnished with
rows of spikes, and similar spikes are fixed into the cover
which work in the intervals between the first. The corn
in the straw is drawn in by the spikes on the drum, vhicl
revolves rapidly, and the ears being beaten in all directions
by the fixed and the revolving spikes, the grain falls onto
the ear and is coll( '-tc<l below. Such a machine was ex
hibitedat the Agricultural Meeting at Cambridge in 1840
but it seemed to break the straw more, and to be more ap
to clog, than the machines in general use. These will no
doubt be made gradually simpler and cheaper, till the;
entirely supersede the flail, even in very small farms.
THRASYBU'I.US OoaT/^nuXoc), the son of Lycus, was
born at Steiria in Attica. In the year B.C. 411 the oligar
dial party at Athens trained the ascendency, and tbnnei
a new senate of 400 member*. The oligarchs in the flee
"ined at Samos ende, bring about a siinila
ilution there, but their efforts failed ; and among tin
men who exerted themselves to maintain the demon-alien
utuiiou, ThriLsybulus, who then had the command of a
triri t. He and his friend Thrasyllus com
peli is to swear to keep quiet, and not t<
attempt anv alteration in the constitution. The geneial
j'.vn to belong to the oligarchs were removed
and Thra«vbulus and Thrasyllus were appointed in thei
steail. The army under their command assumed the right
anil of Athens, and in an assembly o
the i-ainpThru ' a decree passed, by which AIci
bia a the chief support of the demo
ratical party, and who was living in exile with Tissa-
>hernes, should be recalled. Thrasybulus set out to fetch
lira to the camp. (Thucyuides, viii. 81.) In 410 B.C. he
greatly contributed to the victory which the Athenians
gained in the battle of Cyzicus. In B.C. 408, when Alci-
)iades returned to Athens from Byzantium, Thrasybulus
was sent with a fleet of eighty galleys to the coast of
Thrace, where he restored the Athenian sovereignty in
nost of the revolted towns ; and while he was engaged
lere he was elected at Athens one of the generals, "toge-
ther with Alcibiades and Cpnon. In B.C. 400 Thrasybulus
was engaged as one of the inferior officers in the Athenian
leet during the battle of Arginusae-; and after the battle.
le and Theramenes were commissioned by the generals to
save the men on the wrecks : but a storm prevented their
executing this order. Respecting the fate of the generals
and the conduct of Theramenes on this occasion, see THE-
RAMENES. Thrasybulus is not charged with any improper
act during the proceedings against the generals, and for two
years after his name does not occur in the history of Attica.
During the government of the Thirty Tyrants at Athens,
he was sent into exile, and took refuge at Thebes. The
jalamities under which his country was suffering roused
;iim to exertions. The spirit which prevailed at Thebes
igainst Sparta, and against its partisans at Athens, em-
[widened him to undertake the deliverance of his country.
With a band of about seventy, or, according to others, of
only thirty fellow-exiles, he took possession of the fortress
of rhyle, in the north of Attica. The Thirty, sure of vic-
tory over so insignificant a garrison, sent out the 3000
Athenians whom they had left in the enjoyment of a kind
of franchise, and the knights, the only part of the population
of Athens who wore allowed to bear arms. On their ap-
proach to Phyle some of the younger men, eager to dis-
tinguish themselves, made an assault upon the place, but.
were repelled with Considerable loss. The oligarchs then
determined to reduce the fortress by blockade ; but a heavy
fall of snow compelled them to return to Athens. During
their retreat the exiles sallied forth, attacked the rear, and
cut down a great number of them. The, Thirty now sent
the greater part of the Lacedaemonian garrison of Athens
and two detachments of cavalry to encamp at the distance of
about fifteen stadia (nearly two miles) from Phyle, for the
purpose of keeping the exiles in check. The small band
of Thrasybulus had in the meantime increased to 700, as
the Athenian exiles flocked to him from all parts. With
this increased force he one morning descended from Phyle,
surprised the enemy, and slew upwards of 120 hoplitesand
a lev,- horsemen, and put the rest to flight. Thrasybulus
erected a trophy, took all the arms and military imple-
ments which he found in the enemy's camp, and returned
to Phyle.
The Thirty now began to be alarmed at the success of
the exiles, and thought it necessary to secure a place of
refuge in case the exiles should succeed in getting pos-
on of Athens. For this purpose they, or rather Critias,
devised a most atrocious plan. By fraud and force he con-
trived to secure 300 citizens of Eleusis and Salamis capa-
ble of bearing arms ; and after they were conveyed to
Athens, he compelled the 3000 and the knights to condemn
them to death. All were accordingly executed, and
Kleusis was deprived of that part of its population to
which it might have looked, for protection. In the
meantime the number of exiles at Phyle had continued to
increase, and now amounted lo one thousand. With these
Thrasybulus marched by night to Piraeeus, where he was
joyfully received, and great numbers of other exiles imme-
diately increased his army. The Thirty no sooner heard
dl' this movement than they marched against Pirn-ens with
all their forces. Thrasybulus by a skilful manreuvre
obliged the enemy, who was .superior in numbers, to oc-
cupy an unfavourable position at the foot of the hill of
Munychia. In the ensuing battle the army of the tyrants
was put. to flight and driven back to the city. Critias fell
iu the con'
The consequences of this success showed that there had
been little unity among the oligarchs, and that an
open breach had only been prevented by fear of Critia.s.
Some of the Thirty and a great many of the 3000 were in
their hearts opposed to the atrocities which had been com-
mitted, and had avoided, as much as they could, taking
part in the rapine and bloodshed. They also were aware
that the hatred and contempt under which they we.ru
T H i;
•UN)
T H K
: their col-
power they now resolved to kacrifice thoir colleagues. An
!d in \\hii-h tho Tin; posed, and
i men, one from each tribe, .mted
uiient. Two of these ten luul formerly
v.and tin' rest of the Thirty withdrew
i s under '1
buhls, the new government ot' Athens "as no less deter-
mined to put them down than the Thirty had Urn.
Thrasybulus 11; >:itinucd to strengthen himself.
nnd to prepare for further operations. H ! gra-
dualiv for he
,-ed alien* in hi- 1 them, incase
immunities at Athens as those
.'toriXfin',. Anns, tit' which lie
•ill in want, were generally supplied by the wealthy
citizens of Pirnceiis and other places, and by the ingenuity
of his own men. As the danger from the exiles became at
.iimincnt. the Ten i«t' Athens applied to Sparta
for assistance. At the same time the faction at Klcusis
• . Spr.rta : but the government of
Sparta refused to send an army for .in undertaking from
which it could reap no advantages. However l.vsamler,
as harmostcs. ob'ained leave to le\y an army, and his
brother Libys was appointed admiral to blockade Pi:
;der went to Kleiisis. and got together a mini
army. Hcing thus enclosed by land and ihrasy-
buhis and his army had no prospect except to surrender.
But their deliverance came from a quarter whence it
could have least 1 ecu expected. The power and influence
which Lysander had gradually acquired, had excited the
of the leading men at Sparta, even of the ephors and
kings, nnd they were now bent U]X>n thwarting his plans.
- was accordingly sent out with an army to
ivvedly to :ider in his operations, but
in reality for the purpose of preventing the accomplish-
ment of his designs. He encamped near Piraeeus, as if he
designed to besiege the place in conjunction with I.vsan-
der. After several sham manoeuvres against the exiles,
inias chained a victorj' over them without following it
up. He now sent sccreth an embassy to them, requesting
them to send a deputation to him and the ephors; and he
also suggested the language which the deputies should
use. At the same time he invited the pacific party at
Athens to meet and make a public declaration of their
sentiments. Hereupon a (nice was concluded with the
•putation of them, as well as of the pacific
party at Athens, was sent to Sparta 1" negotiate a general
settlement of affair*. As soon as the Ten of Athens heard
nl this, they al- • ovs to Snarta to oppose the other
embassy. Hut this attempt failed, and the ephors ap-
pointed fifteen miners with full [lowers, in con-
junction with king I1 He all the differences
bclv - in Attica. In accordance with the
wish' and the peaceful party of the city, the
commissioners proclaimed a general amnesty, from which
none were to be excluded except the Thirty, the Kleven,
and tin- Ten who had formed the government of Piraeeus.
Any one who might not think it safe to return to Athens
• tiled to take up his residence This
nintclligiblc. unless we suppose that the Spar-
-till wished to see Klcusis in the hands of a party
which mijrlit check the reviving spirit of Independence
•sparta guaranteed the exeention
of the proclamation. Pa Mich-ew his forces, and
Tlirasylmhis at the head of the exiles entered All ••
triumph, and matched up the Acropolis to offer thanks to
Athena. An assembly was then held, in which Thra-j -
btilus impressed upon all parties th. •, uf strictly
observing the conditions of the ]-
-,vas now the seat of the most violent of the oli-
garchical party, and they still indulge'! pc ..i
. cring vvh.r They assembled a body of mer-
cenaries to renew th'- civil war; but A' • out a
strong force against them. Xenophon says that the
oft -MI to a conference and then
put to death. This isolated statement is rather -
in all olln ipular party sh
''•',\ after the quelling of tli<
•"in ' lueed the Athenians to pro-
Hmnnrty, from which no one was to '
eluded. This amnesty was faithfully observed. The first
step after the abolition of t:
-•orcd the demo icnt.
'I'linwybulus acquired the esteem <.l Ins fellow-citizens
by the courage and perseverance which he had shown in
the deliverance of his country, and althouirh lor many
jears he docs not come forth very prominently in thu his-
'.i, lie was no less active in i. 'hens
to her former greatness, than he had been in wresting her
from the hands of her enemies. His la-t inihtarv undcr-
the \car H.C-. :W!l. when ll
of Ati
with which he was to support the deinocratical party in the
island of HhiHles. On his arrival there be found that no
eded, and he sailed to the north part of
_,'ean. In Thrace he settled a di.spu' two
princes, and iraim-d them a-
tium and Clmlcedon also the influence of Athens was
restored, and with it n .emu- to the republic
were opened. After this he sailed to MiUlcnc, the only
town in the island of Ix-sbos in which the Spa-
had not gained the ascendency. Thrasybulus lu
a battle with Therimachus, the Spartan harmostes, who
leated and slain. Several towns were now red'
Mid a Her he had plundered the lands of those win-
submit to Athens, he pn pared to sail to Rhodes ; but before
he landed there, he sailed alone the southern eo
Minor to levy some contributions there. His flee!
anchor in the mouth of the river Eurymedon in Pamphylia,
near Aspendus. In consequence of some outrage com-
mitted by his soldiers on land, the Aspcndians
panted, and during the night they surprised and killed
rhrasyhnlns in his tent, in n.c. .'ML
(.Thucydides, vni.; Xenophon, Helhn.. i. 1, 12; i. G, 36;
ii. :t. -12 : ii. 4, 2, Sec. ; iv. K. '25. &c. : Diodorus Sic., xiv.
32, &c. ; 94 and ! Ml : ('. Nepos, Thrnxybulus ; i
1'h. Ilinrichs, De T/ifru
ft Ingenio, Hamburg, 1820, 4to. ; Thirlwall, History
i,f lir-'i'i-i: ^(l\. iv.)
' THK \s\ HI LUS (epoffw/SouXoc), of Collylus in Attica,
<-onteniporary of Thrasybulns, the deliverer of
Athens, from whom he is usually distinguished by the
epithet of the Collytian.. He was one of the Athenian
exiles who joined his namesake at Phyle and afterwards at
Piraeens. Demosthenes, in Tinini-riit.. p. 742. In the
war against Antaleidas he commanded eight Athenian
galleys, with which he was taken prisoner by the Spartan
admiral.
\enophon, Hellen.,\. 1. 2(i. i>ce. : compare Aischmes
'.. p. 7:i. ed. Steph.
THRASYBU I.I S o;,,mr.-!m-\m; i. a tyrant of S\ racu.se.
IK was a son of Gelo, and brother of Hiero the Klder,
who ruled over Syracuse till the year H.C. 4(J<;. Hiero
was succeeded by his brother Thrasybulus. who was a
bloodthirsty tyrant, and CM the people still more
than Hiero: great numbers of eiti/cns were put to death
and others sent into exile, and their property tilled the pri-
vate cotters of the tyrant. In order to protect In;
against the Mizens, he got together a large
force of mercenaries, and relying on tins new support, he
carried his reckless cruelties so far. that at !a-1 the !
ciisaus determined to rid themselves ,,f their tyrant.
chose leaders to give them a military orgatn/
that they might be enabled to resist the men i ;
of Thrasybulus. The tyrant at first endeavoured to
stop the insurrection by pci-Mm-ion. but this attempt fail-
ing, he drew reinforcements fromCatana and other places,
and also engaged new mercenaries. With this :
sisting of about 15.(IUI men. he occupied that pail of the
city which was called Achrndina, and the fortified island,
and harassed by frequent sallies the citizens, who lorti-
in a quarter of their city called Ilyce.
Tin- S. sent rmov ..1 Greek towns in the
interior of Sicily, soliciting their aid. The request was
readily complied with, and they soon had an army and a
fleet at their disposal. Thrasylmlus attacked them both
by sea and land, but his fleet was compelled to sul
to the island alter the los- of .several triremes, and his
-.MLS obliged to retreat to Achrndina. Seeing no i>os-
sihihtv of maintaining himself, he sent ambassadors to the
with offers of ten . liich was
lition of Ins quitting S !-\lm-
ius submitted to these terms, alter having scarcely reigned
one year, and went toLocri in Southern Italy, in "B.C. 4WJ,
T H R
401
T H
in exile. After the Syracusans had thus delivered them-
selves of the tyrant, they granted to his mercenaries free
departure, and also assisted other Greek towns in Sicily in
recovering their freedom. (Diodorus Sic., xi. 67 and 68.)
THRASYMEXE LAKE (Trasimenus Lacus, in the best
Latin MSS. ; in Greek writers, »} X/^vi; Tfavvplvij, or 6pa-
mfiivij), the antient name of the Lago di Perugia in Italy.
It was in Etruria, and was the scene of the third defeat of
the Romans by Hannibal after he had crossed the Alps.
rHANXiBAi..] " The lake itself is fully described under
'•-.KroiA.
THRAULITE. Hisingerite. Hydrated Silicate of Iron.
Occurs in roundish nodules. Fracture uneven or imper-
fect conchoidal. Structure curved, foliated. Brittle.
Splendent. Nearly opaque. Lustre vitreo-resinous. Colour
brownish-black.
Gives out water when heated in a glass tube ; imper-
fectly fused by the blowpipe, and is, after heating, attracted
by the magnet.
It, occurs at Riddarhyttan in Westmanland (1) and at
Bodenmais in Bavaria (2), accompanying iron pyrites.
Analysis by
(1) HUinger. (2) Kobell. •
Silica . . 36-30 31-28
Peroxide of Iron . 44-39 50-86
Water 20-70 10-12
101-39 101-26
THREAD (French, Fil ; German, Zicirn ; Dutch, Garen ;
Italian, R-/K ; Spanish, Hilo, Torzal ; Russian, Nitki}, a
small line formed by twisting together fibres of vegetable
or animal substances, as flax, cotton, or silk. Sewing-
thread, and the various kinds of thread used in the manu-
facture of bobbin-net, lace, and some other kinds of textile
fabric, consist of two or more yarns, or simple spun threads,
firmly united together by twisting, just as a rope-strand
consists of several yarns or distinct cylinders of hemp.
[RopK. vol. xx., p. 154 ; SPINNING, vol. xxii., p. 34!).]
In a paper on the manufactures of Paisley, printed in
the Appendix to Anderson's ' History of Commerce' (.edi-
tion of I~s7-!)), it is stated that ' the manufacture of thread
\va-i first attempted in this country by Mrs. Millar, of Bal-
garran, in 1722, on having received some information and
machinery from Holland.' Her example was speedily fol-
lowed by several families in Paisley, where the manufac-
ture soon became of considerable importance. The first
manufacturers imitated the kind called Nuns' or ounce
thread, which was made up in hanks of forty threads each,
reeled upon reels a yard in circumference ; but when
the profits of the manufacture were diminished by com-
petition, it was injured by the surreptitious practices of
some of the manufacturers, who reduced the number of
threads in each hank from forty to thirty, and when this
became notorious in the market, put but twenty-eight
threads in the hank, or reduced the diameter of their reels,
and consequently the length of the threads. These frauds
were carried to such an 'extent that it became necessary,
in 1~8«, to pass an act of parliament requiring all manu-
facturers of this description of thread to use uniform stand-
ard reels of thirty-six inches in circumference, and to put
thirty threads or rounds of the reel in each hank. From
the statement above referred to, it appears that the num-
ber of machines employed at Paisley in twining thread, in
1784, was not less than 120 ; and that the number employed
in the thread manufacture in the whole of Scotland at that
time was at least 500, of which about 200 were engaged in
the production of the different species of ounce threads.
These consumed upon an average 2400 spindles of yarn
each, or 480,000 in the whole ; and these spindles, valued
at 4*. Gil. each, when manufactured into thread, amounted
to 108,000/. The 300 machines employed in making other
kinds of thread consumed upon an average 2000 spindles
each, or 600,000 spindles in the whole, which, estimated
. !)-/. each when manufactured, amounted to 112.000/.
Thus the total annual value of the thread manufactured in
land about 1784 was 220,000/. ; and it is stated that
the manufacture gave employment in its various operations,
from the ginning of the" flax to the finishing of the
thread, to upwards of 20,000 women, besides 4000 or 5000
men.
The manufacture of thread from fibres of cotton-wool, for
sewing and other purposes, is one of the many important
dep;t: lintish industry called into exercise by the
;'. C., No. 1538.
improvements effected by Arkwright and his successors m
spinning-machinery, and forms a considerable branch of
business both in Manchester and in Scotland, for exporta-
tion as well as for home consumption.
The operation of combining yams of cotton or linen into
thread is performed by a mauilme called a doubling and
twisting frame, somewhat resembling the throstle of the
cotton-spinner. Engravings of this machine, with a minute
description, are given in Dr. Ure's ' Cotton Manufacture of
Great Britain,' vol. ii., pp. 226-234, and ' Dictionary of
Arts,' pp. 1239-1241, from which authorities the following
account is derived. Along the centre of the machine is
an elevated creel or frame-work, which supports two parallel
rows of cops or bobbins of yarn, one row towards each side
of the macnine. The cops or bobbins arc placed vertically,
or nearly so, and the lower ends of their axes rest in oiled
steps or hollows, while the upper ends are supported by
wire eyes, so that they may revolve with facility. The
number of cops or bobbins of yarn is twice as great as that
of the twisting spindles when the thread is to consist of
two yarns, three times as great for thread formed of three
yarns, &c. ; and the yarn with which they are charged is
frequently gassed, or passed quickly through a series of
coal-gas flames, to singe off' any loose downy fibres, before
it is taken to the doubling and twisting frame. From the
cops the yarns are conducted over horizontal glass rods,
which are fixed parallel with the creel, and thence down-
wards into troughs filled with water or very thin starch-
paste, which by moistening the yarns facilitates the sub-
sequent process of twisting. To ensure the equal moisten
ing of the yarns they are, while being drawn through the
troughs, made to pass either under a glass rod, or through
eyes which may, if necessary, be lifted out. of the trough
without wetting the fingers, by means of upright stems
provided for that purpose. The wetting-troughs and other
apparatus are alike on each side of the machine ; but in
further tracing the progress of the thread we shall confine
our attention to one side, and to the apparatus necessary
for producing one thread, although a great number of such
trains of apparatus are combined in one frame, and set in
motion by one train of impelling machinery. After being
wetted the yarns pass over the rounded edge of the trough,
which is covered with flannel for the purpose of absorbing
the superfluous moisture ; and thence under and partly
around an iron roller, which is made to revolve with any
required velocity by a train of wheel-work. Upon this
roller rests another, of box-wood, which revolves solely by
contact with the iron roller, its axis playing in vertical
slots. In passing under the iron roller, then between it
and the wooden roller, and finally over the latter, the yarns
required to form the thread are brought together and
slightly compressed ; but although thus prepared for a
more intimate union, they are not yet twisted together.
The action of the winding and twisting apparatus may be
illustrated by a diagram, in which none but the essential
parts are shown. In this figure a a represents the un-
twisted thread, or rather the united yarns which are to
form the thread, and b is a fixed eyelet through which
they are conducted to the flyer c, which is mounted upon
and revolves with a long vertical spindle set in motion by
a whorl or pulley and strap at d. e is the bobbin upon
which the finished thread is wound by the revolution of
the flyer, which also gives to it any predetermined degree
of twist. The spindle passes freely through a hole in the
centre of this bobbin, which rests upon a bar called the
copping-rail, the transverse section of which is indicated
VOL. XXIV.— 3 F
I 11 K
402
T H
by u tint in the cut ; and the copying-rail, which extends
ttif whole \viilth ol" tin- machi: -.1 intervals
..f \vliirli is si To these
rods, and consequently to the copping-rail and bobbins
supported by them, ;i . citiciilni
parted through the connecting pie ;n the
MOt lever 11. which i> pr- bj mo-
tion • • • adjustable friction-roller /.from an ei
trie or hemrt wheel m. Thus by (lie eomhim il rotatory
motion of the spindle and flyer, and rising and falling
motion of the bobbin, the thread is ;it once twisted and
wound regularly upon the bobbin*, \vhieli may K- easily
removed when full. [I :l the cou-
'.y which motion is communicated to various
•.• liine. and it is sufficient to add that, by
the relative sizes of some ofthe toothed wheels
liich the moving-power is di>trihuted from the main
. the spindle-, winch always revolve much faster than
the rollers, may he made to do so t
so as to impart a greater or li of twist to the
thread.
Silk thread i*, according to Dr. Ure, commonly t
in length* of from lilty to a hundred feet, with band-reels
-hat similar to those employed in rope-making.
(Anderson, Hist/try of r<, //,„/, nv, vol. iv., pp. 70:!-4 ;
Dr. I're's I'.ittnn Manufacture if (imit Uritdiv, vol. ii.,
pp. 226-2U : Di'-t. "f'.lrts; &C.)
THREATS AN'l) THREATENING LKTrKHS. By
the criminal law of England, threats of personal violence,
or any other threats by \vhich a man of ordinary firmness
and prudence may be put in fear, and by means of which
money or other property is extorted from him, amount to
the crime of robbery. [RoBBBBY.] And by the statute
7 Will. IV. & 1 Viei.. c. «7, sect. 7, a person demanding
by menaces any property of another with intent to steal
ame, is declared to be guilty of felony, and is liable to
imprisonment for any term not exceeding three
Besides these offences, it is a misdemeanor at common
law to threaten another in order to deter him from
doing some lawful act, or to compel him to do an un-
lawful one, or to extort money or goods from him, or
to obtain any other benefit to the person who makes the
threat.
The offence of sending or delivering letters or wi-i'
threatening to kill or injure the person to whom they are
or delivered, or to burn his house, or to accuse him of
some heinous crime for the purpose of extorting i
was formerly Considered to be high treason -lat.SHen.
V., c. 6) ; and under the stat. 9 Geo. I., c. 22, continued
for more than a century to be punishable as a capital
felony. By the stat. 4 Geo. IV., c. 54, s. 3, it v
to be desirable that a less punishment should be substituted
for that of death ; and it was enacted that, 'if any i
shall knowingly and wilfully send or deliver any writinir.
with or without any name or signature subscribed thereto,
or with a fictitious name or signature, threatening to kill
or murder any person, or to burn or destroy his house, out-
house, barns, or stacks of corn or grain, hay or straw, the
•ler shall be guilty of felony, punishable with trans-
portation for life, or not less thrui seven years, or im;-
ment for any term not exceeding seven years." By a more
it statute, 7 .V s Geo. IV., c, 2'.), Met. H. it is" enacted
that, 'if any person shall knowingly send or deliver any
l.tiei or writing, demanding of any person with menaces.
and without any reasonable or probable cause, any chattel,
money, or valuable security : or if any person shall accuse.
or threaten to accuse, or shall knowingly send or deliver
any letter or writing accusing or threnteiiini; to accuse.
any person of any crime punishable by law with death,
transportation, or pillory, or of any assault with intent to
mil any rape, or of any attempt or endeavour to com-
mit any rape, or of any infamous c>nne tin- meaning o
which term is specially defined in the !Mh sei
same statute), with a view or intent to extort or train from
mich person any chattel, money, or valuable sccuritv .
such offender shall he guilty of felony, and shall be
punishable with transportation for life or not lex* than
•even years, or with imprisonment not exceeding four
yearn, with or without whipping.
TUKKK. un.K OF, the technical name of the rule
in arithmetic by which, three quantities beini: given, the
first and second ol one kind, a fourth is found such that
the four afc in proportion, or that the first is the »arne
multiple, part, or part*, of i which the third is of
.rth.
Ill the earliest mod, -, arc fimiu'. the explana-
tory headings of this piuve-vs from which the denomina-
tion nil- </ //</•»• has been formed by sbbicviation.
most all such . : >m the time uhcll
systems of commercial arithmetic began to be written, that
is, about the beginning of the sixteenth century, i;
that time. - nncd
demonstrations from full definitions ; and it was not ji:
iry to provide the simple :'• :;ding a fouith
'tional to three ifiven numbers with a
or to divide the I from oth<
ever was done by trail : daily practice, vvli
parated the rule of three from the other pa:1
and called it th an older term,
than /•«/••'///<;•.•(•. Bishop T
his chapter on the .
•:in eomni' this iiKUinii:
omnium re iae detiibus notis quartum i
noticiam eu - ah Anthmeticis traditui.
'in niiri'iim voeat ; quia 1
reirulis velut c;eteri.s metallis auruill pra-stct.' H
Recoiile i 154<) calls it the ' feate of the rule of pi'
tions, whiche for his excclleneic is called the gulden rule.'
Humphrey Baker l.'ii'J uses the phrase • rule of three,' and
sayt that 'the philosophers did name it the golden rule.... I nit
nowe in these' latter daies, by us it is called the rule of
three.'
The immense variety of questions which are to be solved
by finding a fourth proportional del. --iticatiun:
but they may all be reduced to one form, though it may
in particular eases not be • the mode of reduc-
tion. That form is : — A produces B ; what will (
It may be that it is money which produces iroo.i-
whicli produce money, or money which produces im.
or money of one country which produces money of another,
or time which produces distance travelled. Xc. ice. X.-.
The difficulty to beginners is the reduction of the question
given to the above simple form, which must be done
what is i or used to be, called the nt/itrtiii'iit of I he
question can be made, namely, the writiiiir down the
numbers A, B, C, in the proper order, with the mar
proportion between them :
A : B : : C : the answer requiied.
It is proper enough to say that this is a question of pro-
'ii when numbers only are considered: but absurd
when the things represented by the numbers are used in-
stead of the numbers. Thus, if fi pence buy 10 apples,
7 pence will buy 14 apples, and the number S is t
In is to 14, or 5 in the ,-aine fiaction of 7 as 10 is of 14.
But it is absurd to say that ") pence bear the same propor-
tion to 10 apples that 7 pence bear to 14 apples: simply
because ."> pence are not any assignable traction of 10
apples. That there is a ri'lutmn i.s true : but that relation
is not proportion. Thus, it is not absurd to say, in the
common language of the rule. As ~> pence are to 10
apples, so are 7 pence to 14 apples; for the tiisl
to the second in the same relation as the third to tin-
fourth: ;"> pence must, at all rates, do as much I
i>urchase of 10 apple* , towaids that ol 1 1 a;
With this understanding there is no objection to the
mon mode of statement, and the proof of the rule is H
lows: — If A of the fn>t produce H of the second, then, at
the same rate of production, 1 of the first must produce.
n
-T- of tlie second ; whence C of the first must produce
II CB
C X -7-, or -j- of the second.
The importance of the mle of tin, I arithme-
ticians to attach two other rules to it : the inverse rule of
three i called by Heeorde. Uakcr. N;e.. the //•• : and
the double rule of three. Some of the writers of Cocker'*,
school, apparently by an abbreviation of his un;
that the rule of tlircc inverse is used ' when less i,
more and more requires less;' meaning that '
the third of the given numbers, UM less will be the an
and i-i' r VtrtH. Thus, suppose that K)/. ha- been lent me
for :t months, and I want to know how loin; I ouirht to
lend a given sum : other than Ml. in retmii : i \ idently the
more I lend, the less the time for which I 01 Lrht to lend
it. If the sum be !•>/., then 8 months is to the tin
T H R
quired, not as 10 to 15, but in its inverse ratio, as 15 to 10
or 15 : 10 : : 3 : 3X 10-:- 15, or 2; and 2 months is th
answer required.
The double rule of three (at least in the class of ques
lions which are usually considered as falling under it) i
applied where time is an element in the production which
the question supposes. For example : supposing it known
that A men can pave B square feet in C days, it may be
asked how many men can pave b square feet in c days, o
how many square feet can a men pave in c days, or hou
many days will it take <i men to pave b square feet. I
we write down the data and answer in two lines, and in th
following order— force employed — effect produced — tini
of production — thus,
ABC
a b c
the rule is — Take such an answer as will make the ex-
tremes of each line multiplied by the mean of the other
the xime in both. That is, let A6C=aBc, and according
f>, or c is to be found, the mode of working is as fol-
lows : —
_ A6C _ a Be _ A6C
The proof is as follows : — One man in C days could pave
-£ square feet, and in one day .—, square feet. By similai
b
reasoning one man in one day could pave — square feet
Hence
B b
TT< = — ; °r °Bc
AC «c '
The principal caution which a beginner requires is; — not
to suppose that the rule of three (or the rule of finding ;i
fourth quantity which, with three others, shall constitute
a proportion is to be applied in all cases in which three
quantities are given to find a fourth. That such a caution
i- Decenary nrU". from the defect of works. on arithmetic;
which frequently exhibit this rule without any mention of
proportion, and leave it to be inferred that there is but one
way of obtaining a fourth quantity from three others.
THREE RIVERS. [CANADA.]
THRIOTHORUS, M. Vieillot's name for a genus of
birds, Si/lrin, Lath., and placed by Mr. G. R. Gray in his
subfamily TROGLODYTIN/K. of his family Certhiiln-.
TIlRlbTHUTUJS, M. Vieillofs name for a genus of
Birds 'Xi/lrin, Lath.), placed by Mr. G. R. Gray in his
subfamily TROGLODVTIN.K.
THROCMORTON, SIR NICHOLAS, was descended
from an antient family in Warwickshire, and his ancestors
had been employed in the higher offices of stale for some
rentuiies. His father, Sir George Throcmorton, had been
in favour with Henry VIII. , but, being a zealous papist, lie-
incurred the king's displeasure by refusing to take the oath
•jiremacy, and about 1338 was imprisoned in the Tower
nf London, where he remained several yeais.
Nicholas, who was Sir George's fourth son, was born
about the year 1513. Having been appointed page to the
Duke of Richmond, the king's natural son, he accompanied
Ins master to France, and remained in his service till the
ilukr's death in 1536.
Sir George Throcmorton was released from the Tower in
15 13. His sou Nicholas was then appointed sewer to the
king, in which it was his duty to atlcnd the
' marfthall'd feast,
Serv'd up in liall with sewer and seneschal.'
In 1544 he headed a troop in the armament against
France which Henry VIII. commanded in person ; he as-
! at the siege of Boulogne, and after his return re-
il a pension from the king as a reward for his s< r\ ices.
After the king's death he attached himself to the queen-
dowairer Catherine Parr, and to the Princess Elizabeth.
In l.~>47 I'6 distinguished himself in the campaign in Scot-
land under the Protector Somerset ; he was present at the
hat'le of Pinkey (or Mnsselburgh), and Somerset sent him
to London with the news of the victory. He was soon
afterwards created a knight, appointed to a place in the
privy-chamber, and admitted to great intimacy with
Edward VI. The king bestowed upon him some valuable
manors, and made him umler-treasuref of the Mint. He
sat in parliament during Edward's reign as member for
Northampton.
)3 T H R
A short time before the king's death, Sir Nicholas mar-
ried the daughter of Sir Nicholas Carew, and on taking
his wife to visit his father at Coughton in Warwickshire
he was received with coldness by the old knight ; partly
perhaps on account of his Protestant principles, but chiefly
because he had been knighted before his eldest brother
lp remove this cause of otFence, he took his brother back
with him to court, and, at the request of Sir Nicholas, the
king raised him to the dignity of a knight.
Sir Nicholas Throcmorton was present when Edward VI
died at Greenwich in 1553. He was aware of the designs
of the partisans of Lady Jane Grey, but, though a Protes-
tant, he was too much attached to law and legitimacy to
give the least sanction to them. He therefore came im-
mediately to London, and despatched Mary's goldsmith to
announce to her the king's demise.
On the 2nd of February, 1554, Sir Nicholas Throcmorton
was arrested and committed to the Tower on a charge of
being concerned in the rebellion of Sir Thomas Wyatt.
On the 17th of April he was brought to trial at Guildhall,
London. This trial is the most important and interesting
event in his life. A report of it, taken from Holinshed,
is given in the 'Library of Entertaining Knowledge— Cri-
minal Trials.' It is certain that he was acquainted with
Wyatt's intentions, and there is little doubt that he was to
some extent implicated in the rebellion. He was tried
before commissioners, some of whom were bitterly inimi-
cal to him, and who seemed to regard his trial as merely a
form necessary to be gone through previous to his execu-
tion. Sir Nicholas however conducted his own defence;
and this he did with such admirable adroitness, such
promptness of reply and coolness of argument, intermixed
with retorts, spirited, fearless, and reiterated, in answer to
the partial remarks of the lord chief justice and other com-
missioners, and followed up by an impassioned earnestness
of appeal to the jury, that, in defiance of the threats of the
chief justice and the attorney-general, he obtained a ver-
dict of acquittal. Sir Nicholas was directed to be discharged,
but was remanded, and kept in prison till the 18th Jan.,
1555. The jury were made to suffer severely for their in-
dependent verdict. Two were fined 2000/. each, six were
fined 1000 marks each, and four, who expressed contrition,
were not fined. All were remanded to prison, where they
remained till the 12th of December, when five were dis-
charged on payment of the reduced tine of 220/. each,
three on payment of GO/, each, and four without fine.
Sir Nicholas Throcmorton, after his release, avoided the
approaching storm of persecution by going to France,
where he remained till 1556. Though he afterwards served
in Queen Mary's army under the iCarl of Pembroke, he
ievoted himself chiefly to the princess Elizabeth, whom
lie visited privately at Hatfield. When Queen Mary died,
fie was admitted to see her corpse, and, as Elizabeth had
requested, took from her finger the wedding-ring which
lad been given to her by Philip, and delivered it to Eli-
zabeth. Elizabeth gave him the office of chief butler of
England, a situation of some dignity, but inconsiderable
emolument, and afterwards made him chamberlain of the
exchequer. In 1559 he was sent on an embassy to France,
and remained at the French court as resident ambassador
ill the beginning of 1563. Dr. Forbes has published the
greater part of Throe-morion's correspondence with his
>wn government while he was in this confidential situa-
ion. It displays great diplomatic skill and management,
)ut perhaps rather too much tendency to intrigue ; and he
iiipported. the cautious aud somewhat doubtful policy of
-lecil with zeal and discretion. Indeed he was on the most
confidential terms with Cecil during the whole of this
>eriod, but after his return a coolness arose between the
wo statesmen, which increased till it became a strong
>ersonal animosity.
In 1565 Throcmorton was sent on a special embassy to
Scotland, to remonstrate with Mary Queen of Scots against
ler intended marriage with Darnley ; and when Mary was
mprisoned at Lochleven in 1567, Throcmorton was com-
mssioned by Elizabeth to negotiate with the rebel lords
or her release.
In 1569 Throcmorton was sent to the Tower on a charge,
which indeed appeal's to have been well founded, of ha.v-
ng been engaged in the intrigue for a marriage between
ilary Queen of Scots and the Duke of Norfolk. Though
le was not kept long in confinement, he never afterwards
egained the confidence of Elizabeth, and the distress of
3F2
T H R
•101
T H R
roinil occasioned by the loss of her favour has been thought
to have hastened his death, which took place at tin- house
of the Earl of I., u-.-i.-r. Feb. l-j. i:>7l. in his 3hth year.
.ilsiugliam, in a letter to tin- Knrl <«t' l.ci-
OMter, on the occasion of Th ;li. says of
him that • for counsel in peace and for conduct in war he
hath not left of like sufficiency that 1 know.' Camdeii
says he wa» 'a man of large • . piercing judg-
ment, iiinl . luckily fur
himself :u: iy. \n- III.' and estate being in great
danger by reason ..i his turbulent spirit.'
in l.iliniry of Kiitrrtiiininif Kii'ur-
Ifilgt ; I'irturial llittory if Kiiylmid.)
II I ROM BUS is a tumour formed by blood effused from
a vein after bleeding, and coagulated in the adjacent ei •!-
lular tissue. It is a kind of intense ccchyinosis or bruise.
and usually arises from the puneture in the vein nut having
been made exactly opposite that in the skin, so that some
of the blood, instead of flowing out, is infiltrated between
the vein and the surface. It is rarely of sufficient impor-
tn require treatment, and is usually removed like the
effused blood of an ordinary bruise. Sometimes however
inflammation ensues around the tumour, which should be
treated by leeches and cold ; or, if it proceed to suppura-
tion, should be managed like a common abscess.
THKOSTLK. [THKUSHKS.]
THRUSH, or Aphthae, is a disease which commonly
appears in the form of minute opaque-white vesicles
scattered over the interior of the mouth and fauces.
Vesicles or blisters of this kind often appear in a succe»ion
of eruptions, those which were lirst formed bursting and
leaving tender and raw surfaces, while others are breaking
diit : and thus continuing through the whole course of
some general disorder of the svslein.
The only variety of thrush in which the eruption is tin
most obvious sign of disease is that which is called milk-
thrush, or aphtha infantum, or sometimes, in the suppo-
sition that it is the primary disease, idiopathic thrush.
This however is almost alwajs connected with disturbance
of the digestion and other functions, anil is usually traceable
to some error of diet. It is most frequently observed in
children that are brought up ' by hand ;' and. in ordinary
. requires only the means adapted to correct tin dis-
turbed digestion, such as small doses of magnesia and
gentle purgatives. In very weakly children however, and
in those that are ill fed and clothed, the surface of the
mouth and faun i by the bursting of the vesicles,
may slough or ulcerate; and this condition is alwa\s a
sign of the necessity of administering tonics, nutritious
i powerful stimulants, such as wine or
brandy. It is this form of thrush which is usually de-
scribed as aphtha maligna.
In adults, thrush is a vciv common occurrence in the
advanced stages of many diseases, such as typhoid and
other acute feven, the luctic fever accompanying phthisis,
diabetes, fcc. : in short, in nearly all cases in which there
is great prostration of strength, thrush may occur. In
these cases, the only treatment that can be applied pecu-
liarly to it is local. (ire at relief is often afforded by
lightly sponging the affected surfaces with a solution of
nitra- . in the proportion of eight or ten grains to
an ounce of water. Gargles, consisting of a drachm of
alum to a pint of water or acidulated infusion of roses, or
of one or two drachms of sub-borate of soda to half a pint
of water, are oil en beneficial ; and so is the inel boracis
of the Pharmacopoeia, when a small quantity of it is
held for a few minutes in contact with the all
part.
THRUSHES. Under this name many ornithologists
treat of the whole of the MKKITI.IU.V, in which article the
viewi of Mr. Vigors, Mr. Swainsou. and the 1'rince of Mu-
itgnano, now Prince of Canino, with regard to this family,
fen.
Since the articje Aferulidrc was written, Mr. (i. H '
ha* published his • List of the Genera of Muds," and we
prut
Mr. G. H. Gray makes the Tiinlnln- '/'<//</</*, I. inn.
family of his third tribe Itriitinntn-x of In-
•ecoml 'i. der /',, i. •,•(•.* i. The I)rnlir»xtr<'x arc placed In
him IM-I-AI-CII (lie T<-iiiiirn*trcx ami the ('miinitlfi-x, anil
thir / ..n-I the Mii--,,;,j,i,l,i-.
>id genera into which
Mr. G. H. Gray divide, the. Tin-did* :_
Subfam. I. Formicannip.
Genera: — \nt lYiuui.: .(;•; r.Ix-ss. ;
Dasycephaln. Sw. : I'lthy*. Yieill. ; l-'urmirn
Myrmrrisa, (i. H. Grav : /
Curytkopif, Snndev. ; Hrnrhyfiti-ryr, Hoi •
.lard, and Selby ; Tinnrtnr. ,,. Hodd. :
t'httnnrza,\"\\z.\ (.Inillariu, Vieill. : CIXHI. li,
f/tyuriix, Thiinb. ; Myio]>hontu.v, Teniin. ; llydrnlmtn,
Vieill.
Subfam. 2. Turdinse.
(icnera -.—Pi-trocosxyiihus, Boie ; Orocftet, G. R. Gray ;
hiri-iniru, Hodgs.; Betsonorni\. Smith; > •
Less.; ''/(>«•/"/<>. Sw. ; Geocichla. Kuhl ; '/.<«>thi -ru, Vig. ;
Mi/iii/!.1!.'^-'. Less.; tiri'iM-itir/u, Gould ; T/in/ux, l.inn. ;
Mcritlti U.iv . Hoic ; Muniix. Hriss. ; 'I',, i n\imna, Wag].
Subfam. 3. Timal.
icra: — Doaacobiut, Sw. ; I'rlliir>n'uui,Sv;.; .lijiu-
in'Hiiii, Sw. ; Crateroput, Sw. ; (jnrruti.i tiim-
i/in-ii, Gould ; Ci/i<-l<ixt>Hiti, Vig. and Horsf. ; >'////•;. 1 1>
Si/iin, Hodgs.; Trm'u, Hodgs. ; .17" : Ti-
inaliu. Ilorsf. ; PomatorhinUt, Hoist'.; ;' I'tilinli-
culu, Hodgs. ; Ictcr/n. Vieill. ; Tiiriiiigrii, Leas.
Subfam. 4. Orioli
Genera: — Du/uf, Vieill. ; >'///(«-o,' lifi-i: v, Vieill. ; < trial u\,
Linn.; Mime.ta, Vig. and Horsf.; Analciput, Sw. : Sri-
culus, Sw. ; Oi'inlni. .]. Geoff.
Subfam. :"). Pycnonotinse.
Genera : — Microscelis, G. R. Gray ; Microtarsua, Eyton ;
Mnlacopter<in, Kvton : Trii-lmiilmrux. Teniin. ; llyjixipetett
yiihinii, Hodgs. ; PhyUattTtphut, Sw. ; Ilrfina-
tnrni.-t.Sv;.; J'i/c/i'i/i'i/nx.K\\}\\; Andrupttduy, Sw. ; ? Tn-
Xi't'iriu'it. I
Mr. G. H. Gray, with his usual diligence and acci
givesthe suionyius of all these genera; and observes* with
i to some of them, that Dryiiinjtliiln, Sw.. has, been
used in botany: that LeptorhynchuS, Mi-m-str.. was pre-
viously employed; Pi-tn,]iliiln, Sw., used in bo';
*.V;.'//ii, ^'ig., used in entomology, only the termination is
there in «,v : Cirhhi. Wagl., ]iie\i(Uisly used in ichthy-
ology : Paludii-oln, Hodgs., previously eni))loyed in her-
jjetology ; and Mii-rii]iii.\. and Hr<trhy]ii<*, Sw., previously
used in other branches of natural history.
Some of these forms have already been noticed in detail
in this work, and we shall here confine ouisclvcs to the
tine thrushes, or those so nearly allied to them, that, iu
common parlance, they arc so termed.
KruorxAN Timrsii
The following thrushes are European : —
Jilack Ouzel, or BLACKBIRD, Manila ni/ffuri.-., Kay :
the Hiiiff ftuzrl, .If/'ru/d lon/itntn, liriss. ; the Mi^nilnry
. .M'riilit /iiiifi-a/iirin, Sw. ; the lil<irh-thi-<niti-d
7'// /•«»/(, Tun/iti atrorularis, Teniin. ; the l'ni(tjnr<>, 7'nr-
du.t pilaris, Linn. ; the lii'ilirin^, Tur-l<i* I'liu-ii*. Linn.;
the Missrl 77//-/M/I, Tiirilii* rixrirm-u*. Linn. ; :
'rhru\li, or T/irn.\//f, Tiirilux mtixicii\. Linn. ; .\
Thruxh. Tunlitx .\niii/iiirnii, Teniin. ; the Pullid Tliruxh,
Turdux )in//iilii.t. Pall. : ll'liitr's Thnnh. Tunlnx It'hilri,
Kvion: tlu •>'///<•/•/</// ThrwhtTurd*t Sibericus, Pall.: the
OHZI-/, or ('illinium Uij/'i'. Cinclut ii(jii-i'
t. : the Black-bellied It'iili-r-Ouzr/, ('uiclii* iiii-Iiiiin-
. lirelim : I'.ili.is's Il'u/i /• Duzt'l, ('nirlu
Tc-uiiu. : the Hi-i-h-Tlu-iixli, P<-tfn<-iiicI,i Mi.rnlitix, ^
and the Blue-Thrush, Petncincla fi/iim-itx, Vig.
Of these, (he WATKU Of/KL, or Common Itijijx-r ; I he
.l//\v/ Ttn:"*/i ; ///;///•"*• Thruxh occasional only : the
>'<;/;•,' Thriixh; the I'trlilfitrr ; the Hrilii-nig ; the Ji/m-h-
luni; and the Ring (}n:i:l, or Hive; HI.ACKHIKD, are
British.
We select as an example the sweetest songster among
tins tribe, in our opinion at least, and we write it without
[iect to the rich mellow whistle of the blackbird, n
the loud .stirring notes of the missel thrush.
The Tlii'nxtli- or Xmix Tin •;/.*/(.
This well-known bird neeils no description. It is the
(irii-i- and J'rtili' (inn' of the Kreuch :'--ri/n rom-
HIHIII-. and Tnrdu Hnttm-rni of the Italians: Siii^-,/ri/M.f/,
in // 'i-<.\*-i/n,\\i'/. of the Germans; M.in-.. \\ ilh the other
names above given, of the mcxicrn lirilisli ;" and AJ»ryn
nlk of the antient Uiitisli.
Geographical Distribution.- — Inhabits evciy country in
Europe, haunting gardens and woods near streams or tuea-
• N U. 'Hie tlatcu of the French ii the KcdKitg.
T H R
405
T H R
dows. Bechstein says that in Germany, as soon as the au-
tumnal fogs appear, the throstles collect in large flights to
seek a warmer climate, the principal time of passage being
from the 15th of Sept. to the 15th of October, and the
return about the middle or end of March, when each pair
seeks its own district. In Britain it is permanent, and
spread over England, Wales, Ireland, Scotland, and its
islands. Russia, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway possess
.it. In the south, besides Germany, France, Italy, and
Greece have it. It has been seen in winter at Smyrna and
Trebizond. Professor Nilsson states that it leaves Sweden
for the winter, and comes farther south. Mr. Selby ob-
serves that such visitors arrive in Britain with a north or
north-east wind, and, after staying a few days to recruit,
move southward.
11 ' :bils, Food, <$-c. — Worms, insects, snails, and fruits
form the food of the throstle. The common garden-snail,
Helix liortenxix, and the wood-snail, Helix nemoralis, are
killed and eaten in great numbers by this species. The
bird beats and breaks the shells against a stone to get at
the animals. The nest is made of green moss generally,
and fine root-fibres on the outside, and is lined within with
cow-dung and decayed wood, the lining forming a cement,
so perfectly spread that it will hold water. Eggs four or
iive, of a light blue, the larger end having a few small
black specks or spots. Time of incubation thirteen days.
The first hatch generally comes forth in April, but the
young have been known to be out at the end of March.
There are generally two broods in the year. Both the
cock and the hen sit, but the former less than the latter.
He often feeds her on the nest. A holly, a thick bush — a
tall one is mostly preferred — a dense and somewhat high
shrub or a fir, is usually selected ; but the bird has been
known to breed in an open shed or tool-house, and does
nut seem to shun the neighbourhood of man. In 1833 a
pair built their nest in a low tree at the bottom of Gray's
Inn Gardens, near the gates where passengers are going
by all day long. The hen laid her complement of esrgs,
and was sitting on them, when a cat climbed up and killed
her on the nest. The cock immediately deserted the place.
Bechstein states that in captivity the Throstle is easily
taught to perform airs. For taking it he recommends a
perch with a limed twig as the best mode of capturing a
fine-toned male: but in September or October he says that
they may be caught in the water-traps, where they repair at
sunrise and sunset, so late that they sometimes cannot be seen,
and the bird-catcher is only guided by his ear. He observes
that, when the birds enter the water, there must be no haste
on the part of the fowler, because they like to bathe in
company, and assemble sometimes to the number of ten or
twelve at once, by means of a peculiar call. Bechstein
tells us that the first which finds a convenient stream, and
wishes to go to it, cries in a tone of surprise or joy, 'sik,
* //i, .v//,j, \>ki. t-\in', txnr, txac .•' then all the thrushes in the
iibourhood immediately reply in concert and repair to
tin- place. The bath is entered however with a good deal
oi' circumspection on their parts, and they seldom venture
till they have seen a Red-breast bathe without danger.
Hut the first that bathes is soon followed by others, and
they begin to quarrel among themselves if the bath is not
large enough to accommodate all satisfactorily. Bechstein
further remarks that it is a good plan to have a tame bird
running and fluttering on the banks of the stream, as a
decoy to attract them.
ASIATIC THRUSHES.
Example, Turdus erythrngirxter.
Description. — Male. — Grey-c;rrulescent above; the
cheeks, the sides of the neck, and the quills black ; breast,
abdomen, and rump red ; beak and tarsi black.
Female differs in being cirrulescent-brown, the lower
part of the back obscurely banded with brown; neck in
front whitish marked with dark browrt ; breast, abdomen,
rump reddish-white marked with undulations. Length
H* inches.
Mr. Gould (Century <>J Mirth from the Himalaya. Moun-
tain*, states that, this beautiful species exhibits a marked
departure in the style of colouring from its more typical
emi<ri-n< rs; and were it not that its form dictated the
situation in which it is retained, it would otherwise seem
to be allied in many respects to the genus Petrocimla,
I/ir/ility. — The rocky districts of Himalaya ; never found
in the low lands.
AFRICAN THRUSHES.
Example, Turdus strepitans, Smith (Merula Letsitsi-
rupa of the same).
Description. — Male. — Front and top of head brownish-
grey ; occiput, upper aspect of neck, interscapulars, sca-
pulars, and shoulders deep yellowish-grey, faintly shaded
with brown ; back, rump, and upper tail-coverts dirty ash-
grey. Under parts white, tinted in places with ochre-
yellow ; sides of the neck, whole of the breast, flanks, and
belly variegated with blackish-brown pyriform spots, one
on each feather, the large end reaching nearly to its point.
Sides of the head white, slightly tinted with ochre-yellow,
variegated below the eyes with three blackish-brown
bands ; the foremost proceeds from the base of the lower
mandible, the second from the middle of the under eyelid,
and the third from the outer angle of the eye ; the first
extends nearly horizontally, and the two others obliquely
downwards and backwards till they unite with the hori-
zontal one. Primary wing-coverts and primary quill-
feathers deep brownish-red, the latter tipped and edged
externally with yellowish-white ; the first two-thirds at
least of the inner vanes of these feathers are of a clear
buff-colour, darkest towards the shafts ; secondary wing-
coverts and secondary and tertiary quill-feathers dark
greyish-brown, the outer vanes lightest, all margined ex-
ternally and tipped with dirty white. Eyes reddish brown ;
upper mandible and tip of lower inferiorly as well as the
claws liver-brown ; lower mandible elsewhere, and the
cutting edge of upper, pale saffron-yellow. Feet and in-
sides of the bill deep straw-yellow.
Figure robust and rather short. Bill long, and mode-
rately strong ; upper mandible broad and slightly depressed
towards the base, narrow and distinctly notched near the
tip ; culmen between nostrils elevated and rounded,
towards the point of the bill strongly curved ; nasal
fossae large and membranous, the nostnls narrow longi-
tudinal slits near to the edges of the mandible ; wings short
and rounded, and when folded they reach over tte first
half of the tail ; the first quill-feather rudimentary, the
third rather the longest ; the second and fourth of equal
length, and scarcely shorter than the third ; the fifth a
little shorter than the fourth, and the remaining primaries
diminish in length successively'. Tail short and slightly
forked. Legs long, tarsi robust, anteriorly indistinctly scu-
tcllatcd, posteriorly entire ; toes strong, the inner and
outer toes of the same length ; claws strong, much curved
and pointed. Length Irom point of bill to tip of tail eight
inches six lines
T H R
T I! K
pied, its resort
n m, i- Baku
n.n
rut
female differing but little in colour, if at all, from the
male. (SmitlO
itity, HMts, Fowl, fr.— Dr. Smith state-, thit iin
mediately upon reaching KnrichaO^M tl: MI to
appear in the thickets, mui
sionaJIv a specimen even in the \icr 'roi>ic. It
seeks, he says, its food upo: 1. and, \v)i
uhlx by the natives ii-om the
"T in displacing
the insects it i-,
the country
•lio vigour
i rest translation
lio can give is 'Ground-Scraper.'
Dr. Smith further remarks that the form of its bill, par-
ticularly towards the bast-, the length of its legs, and the
fchortness ul' its tail, an- all characters which reinoxcit from
the more typical species of the ireiius Tunliu : but yet
there is in'its structure and habits what necessarily con-
a true thaib.!i. I/lti*lr<itiunt of the Zim/'U*y nf
S-mt/i .-Africa.)
Tiintni itrepifeni, male. (Smith.)
AMERICAN THRUSHKS.
Kx-runjile. Tirnlii* »iti\trlinux, Om.
!>• ^-njiti'in. — Above, bright cinnamon brown, bright-
ruing into rufous <m Hie head, and inclining to olive on
the rump nnd tail. Heneath, whitish, thickly marked
with pencil-shaped dusky spots. Vent jinre wfiitc. Or-
bils of the eye white, liill dusky brown, slightly nolelud.
lower mandible flesh-coloured towards the base.
and cla ••. s very pale flesb-folour. Iris dark chocolate.
Length H inches : a!:tr extent l:t inches. iNuttall.!
This appears to be the '/'»;•</• in nnd
Tin-ill/ Thrush of Pennant, nnd is generally known us tin-
' Tlirn^.
• till/, Jlubils. I -\uttall states that this
solitary and retiring sinister inhaliits, during summer, the
whole continent from Hudson's Max to Florida, air
cording to his friend Mr. Ware, nth a- the
vicinity of Natchex, in i ippi. II'
Ks that it is not satisfactorily ascertained whether
• mils (lie boundaries of the United States in
winter, because the bird is then silent, and ahva\s difficult
ess. Hi- thinks it probable that this Thrush may
'hi- Southern States, as a you us; bird, gl.
iad been caught in a garden in Boston
Oil the 2fit!l October.
1 Thrush may winter, it »\
from the 1st to the 15th of April.
-onj; and habits : —
' At the dawn of morning lie announces hi* pn ->
the Wuods, nud from the top of some fail tree.
Urn. :< ,in,| si,;, '
clear and harmonious note* in a ]•
inspired by the enthusiasm of renovated nature. The
prelude to this tana resembles almost the double ton/uini;
of the flute, blended with a tinkliui;. shrill, and solemn
warble, which re-echoes from h
nf s,.iiU' sad recluse who slur haunts of
life. The whole air consists itMmlly of foi
which in deliberate tinie, and finally i
together in im]>ressivu and soothini; harmony, bi eoniini;
mellow and RW.
formers seem to challenge each jiarls
of the wood, vxiii!? for the favour of their ma)
sympathetic responses and softer '
life, terminate the warm .li-p»'
to combat and violence. Like the Hobin and the Thni
in dark nnd gloomy weather, when other bird-
shell. rut, the clear notes of the \Vood Thrvish
are heard through the dropping woods, from dawn to
ip that, the taddi I the sweeter and mote i
hissonir. His clear and interrupted whistle is hi,.
nearly the only voice of melody heard by the traveller, to
mid-day, in the heat of summer, as he tra\erses the silent,
dark, and wooded wilderness, remote from the ham.'
men. It is nearly impossible by words to ci
idea of the pecnliar warhlc of 'this \ocal hermit.
amonest his phi. .md of 'uirli •.-. peculiarly liquid,
and followed Dy a trill, repeated in two interrupted
is readily recosrnisablc. Attunes tlinr notes bear a con-
siderable resemblance to those of Wilson's Thrush, such as
i'h rlu-hu 'rrrhii, then varied to '<h i-tlliu rilliii, V/i rillin
rri'/ni. then. '<-h rilln rilln. hiu!i and shrill.
• The Wood Thrush is always of a shy and retiring
disposition, appearinir alone, or only in single pairs, and,
while he willingly charms us with his sonir, lie is content
and even solicitous to remain concealed. His favourite
haunts are low shady glens by water.- i rendered
dark with alder-bushes, mantled with the trailing giape-
vme. In quest of his insect prey he delights to follow the
meanders of the rivulet, through whose IcaiV shades the
sunbeams .-teal only in a lew uninterrupted rays oxer the
sparkling surface of the running brook. So partial is this
bird to si.litnde, that I have known one to sing ai
uniformly in the same place, though nearly half a mile
from his mute and nest. At times, indeed, he would
venture a few faltering low notes in an oak near his
consort, but his mellowest morning and evening v.
was always delivered from a tall hickory, overtop]
grove of hemlock firs, in which the dimness of twilight
prevailed at noon. The Wood Thrush, like the Night-
ingale, therefore, feels inspired in darkness, but, instead of
waiting for the setting sun. he chooses a retreat where the
beams of day can seldom enter. These shady re'
also an additional attraction to our Thrush : it is here that
the most, interesting scene of his instinctive labour I.:
and ends, here he first saw the light, and breathed into
"ice, and here he now bestows his nest in a sapling
oak. or in the next thick laurel or blooming alder, xvbose
berries afford him an ample repast in the coming autumn.
Outwardly it presents a warm bed of withered beach or
oak leases, above these a layer of coarse old grass and
leaf-stalks is laid, tempered with a mixture of mud :md
decayed wood smoothly plastered, sxi as to form a
like the nest of the Kobin. The whole is then surmounted
by a thin lining of the black fibrous radicles of the fern.'
.
Th«> same, author states that the eggs, which arc four or
T H U
407
T H U
five in number, are scarcely distinguishable from those of
the Robin, and of an uniform bright greenish blue destitute
of spots. Beetles, caterpillars, and other insects, and in
autumn berries, constitute the principal food of the species.
Nuttall further states that the young remain for weeks
around gardens in quest of berries, and that they are
particularly fond of those of the various species of cornel
and ribiirtiiim. At this season, he says, they occasionally
leave their favourite glens, and in their devious wander-
ings, previous to their departure, sometimes venture to
visit the rural suburbs of the city. The young, it appears,
are easily reared, and, like our Throstle, sing nearly as well
in the cage as in their native wilds. (Manual of the
Ornithology of the United States and of Canada.)
THUA'NUS. [Tnoi-, DE.]
THUCY'DIDES (eot*«>fc«i,e), the son of Olorus, or Oro-
his, and Hegesipyle, was a native of the demus of Alimus
in Attica. He was connected by his mother's side with
Hit- family of the great Miltiades, and the name of his
lather was a common one among the Thracian princes.
It he was forty years old at the commencement of the Pelo-
ponnesian war, according to the statement of Pamphila
(Gellius, xv. 23 j, lie was born in B.C. 471. In his own
work he nowhere mentions his age or the time of his
birth, but he says that he lived through the whole of the
Peloponnesian war, and that he was of the proper age for
observing its progress (v. 20 .
Our principal information respecting the life of Thucy-
dides is a biography of him written by Marcellinus, which
is however fnll of contradictions and doubtful stories.
There is also an anonymous biography of him prefixed to
manv editions of his works, which is still worse than that
of Alarcellinus. Thueydides mentions incidentally a few
tacts concerning himself, which is almost all that we know
with certainty about his life.
There is a well-known story that when a boy he heard
Herodotus read his History at Olympia, and was so much
moved that he burnt into tears. Hut there is good reason
for believing that this recitation of the History of Herodo-
tus never took place at the Olympic games [HERODOTUS] ;
and if there is any foundation for the story of Thucydides
having heard him read it, we would rather refer it to a
later recitation at Athens, which is mentioned by Plutarch
and Eusebius. Snidas is the only writer who says that
Thucydides heard Herodotus at Olympia ; Marcellinus and
Photius relate the same tale without mentioning where the
recitation took place.
There seems nothing improbable in the accounts of the
antient biographers that Thucydides was taught philoso-
phy by Anaxagoras and rhetoric by Antiphon ; but their
statement that he accompanied the Athenian colony to
Tliurii is probably a mistake arising from their confound-
ing him with Herodotus, who, we know, was of the colo-
nists. But whether he went to Thurii or not, it is certain
that he was in Athens in the second year of the Pelopon-
iicsiiin war, H.C. 4.'W, when he was one of those who had the
plague. (Thucyd., ii. 48.) In the eighth year of the war,
B.C. 424, he was in command of an Athenian fleet of seven
ships, which lay otf Thasos. Hrasidas, the Lacedaemonian
commander, made an attempt to obtain possession of Am-
phipolis on the Strymon, which then belonged to Athens ;
and Thucydides, as soon as he heard of it, sailed to protect
Amphipolis, but was only in sufficient time to save Eion, a
seaport at the mouth of the Strymon. Amphipolis had
fallen before he could arrive there. (Thucyd., iv. 102, &c.)
For this he was either condemned to death or banished by
the Athenians in the year following, H.C. 423 ; and in con-
sequence of the sentence passed upon him he spent twenty
years in exile, namely, till B.C. 403. (Thucyd., v. 20.) This
year coincides exactly with the restoration of the democracy
by Thrasybulus, when a general amnesty was granted, of
which Thucydides seems to have availed himself. Where
In- pn-wc'd the time of his exile is not mentioned by him-
cellinus says that he first went to JEgina, and
afterwards to Scapte-Hyle in Thrace, opposite the island of
Tliasos, where he had some valuable goM-mines. (Compare
Plutarch, />/• / / //0, p. 605.) It appears however not im-
probable that he visited several places during his exile:
the intimate knowledge which he shows respecting the
history of the Italiotes and Siceliotes almost inclines one
to suppose that he may have visited Italy and Sicily after
the failure of the Athenian expedition in the latter island.
His property in Thrace would however naturally lead him
to pass the greater part of his time in that country. This
property, which was very considerable (.Thucyd., iv. 105),
was probably derived from his family, which came from
! Thrace, though Marcellinus says that he obtained it by
marrying a Thracian heiress.
How long he lived after his return from exile, and
whether he continued at Athens till the time of his death,
is quite uncertain. According to some accounts he was
assassinated at Athens, according to others he died at
Thasos, and his bones were carried to Athens. He is said
to have been buried in the sepulchre of the family of Mil-
tiades.
The Peloponnesian war forms the subject of the History
of Thucydides. He tells us that he foresaw it would be
the most important war that Greece had ever known, and
that he therefore began collecting materials for it$ histoiy
from its very commencement ; that, where he had to rely
upon the testimony of others, he caremlly weighed and
examined the statements that were made him ; and that he
spared neither time nor trouble to arrive at the truth, and
that in consequence of his exile he was enabled to obtain
information from the Peloponnesians as well as his own
countrymen (i. 22; v. 26). Though he was engaged in
collecting materials during the whole of the war, he does
not appear to have reduced them into the form of a regular
histoiy till after his return from exile, since he alludes in
many parts of it to the conclusion of the war (i. 13 ; v.
20, KO.)I He did not however live to complete it : the
eighth book ends abruptly in the middle of the year B.C.
411, seven years before the termination of the war. Even
the eighth book itself does not seem to have received the
last revision of the author, although there is no reason at
all for doubting its genuineness, as it bears on every page
indubitable traces ni' his style and mode of thought. Some
antient writers however attributed it to his daughter, others
to Theopompus or Xenophon. As the work of Thucydides
is evidently incomplete, it would appear that it was not
published in his lifetime ; and there is therefore great pro-
bability that the statement is correct which attributes the
publication of it to Xenophon. Niebuhr has brought for-
ward reasons which seem to render it almost certain that
Xenophon's ' Hellenics' consist of two distinct works, and
that the last five books were not published till long after
the first two. The first two, which seem to have borne
the title of the ' Paralipomena ' of Thucydides, complete
the histoiy of the Peloponnesian war, and were not impro-
bably published by Xenophon, together with the eight
books of Thucydides. (Niebuhr, in Philological Museum,
i. 4STi, &c.)
The first book of Thucydides is a kind of introduction to
the history. He commences by observing that the Pelo-
ponnesian war was more important than any that had been
known before ; and to prove this, he reviews the state of
Greece from the earliest times down to the commencement
of the war (c. 1-21). He then proceeds to investigate the
causes which led to it, of which the real one was the
jealousy which the Peloponnesians entertained of the
power of Athens ; and interrupts his narrative to give an
account of the rise and progress of the Athenian empire
down to the commencement of the war (c. 89-118). He
had an additional reason for making this digression, since
this history had either been passed over by previous writers
altogether, or had been treated briefly, without attention
to chronology (c. 97). He resumes the thread of his nar-
rative at c. 1 19, with the negotiations of the Peloponnesian
confederacy previous to the declaration of the war : but
the demand of the Lacedaemonians, that the Athenians
should drive out the accused, which was answered by the
Athenians requiring the Lacedaemonians to do the same,
leads to another digression respecting the treason and
death of Pausanias (c. 128-134) ; and as proofs were found
implicating Themistocles in the designs of the Spartan
king, he continues the digression in order to give an ac-
count of the exile and death of Themistocles (c. 135-138).
He then resumes the narrative, and concludes the book
with the speech of Pericles which induced the Athenians to
refuse compliance with the demands of the Peloponnesians.
The history of the war does not therefore begin till the
second book ; but it would be out of place to give here an
abstract of the remainder of the work.
Thucydides had formed a high opinion of the value and
importance of the work he had undertaken. It was not
his object to afford amusement, like former writers, but to
T H U
406
T H U
give »<ich a faithful representation of the part at would
•crre a* a guide for the future i. ."_' Hi- ..b-eivalion
of human character wa§ profpuiul : he penetrates wit
traordmary elcanBghtednei* into tlie motives ami policy of
the leading actors of the war: and lie draws fruin the
:.-lates those leasons of political wisdom which
ilwaysmadc his work a favourite study with thought-
ful men of all count i
1. urn- for himself the merit of the strictest accuracy,
and it is impossible to read his Ilistm-y without being cou-
I of tn# trustworthiness of his statements. His im-
partiality also it conspicuous : although he had hem
banished from hit native city, he does not. like Xenophon,
turn renegade, and try to misrepresent the conduct and
ni.it; nwii countrymen. Although a contempo-
rary, and one who had taken an active part in public
affairs, he writes at free from prejudice and party-feeling
as if he had lived at a time long subsequent to the events
he narrate*.
Ih- Ili-tory is constructed on entirely different principle*
from those of his predecessors. He confines himself
y to his subject, and seldom makes any digressions.
H. feel- deeply the importance of his work, and constantly
strives to impress the same feeling; upon his readers. He
had proposed to himself a noble subject, and writes with
the consciousness of the value of his labours, and the pre-
sentiment that his work will be read in all future
There U consequently a moral elevation in his style and
mode of treating a subject, which is scarcely to be found
in any other writer except Tacitus.
In narrating the events of the war, Thueydides pays
particular attention to chronology. He divides each year
into two portions, the summer and the winter, and i-
ful to relate under each the events that took place respect-
ively during that time. The speeches which he introduces
are not mere inventions of his own, but contain the general
sense of what the speakers actually delivered, although
the style and the arrangement are his (i. 22).
Ihe style of Thueydides is marked by great strength and
energy. " Not only his expressions, but even single words
teem to have been well weighed before they were used ;
each has its proper force and significance, and none are
used merely for the sake of ornament and effect. The
style is not easy, and it is probable that Thucydides never
intended it should be so, even to his own countrymen : his
work was not to be read without thought. Still his style is
open to serious objevtigns. He does not sufficiently con-
sult perspicuitv, which is the fir-t virtue in all writ-
ing. His sentences too are frequently unnecessarily
long, and the constructions harsh and involved. These
remarks are more especially applicable to the speeches
inserted in the History, which Cicero found as difficult
at we do. (Orator,, 9.)
The Greek text was first published by Aldus, Venice.
I ."mi and the scholia in the following year. The first
Latin translation, which was made by Lanrcntius Valla,
app \~tVA, fol. The first Greek and Latin
edition was that of Henry Stephens, the Latin being the
translation of Valla, with corrections by Stephens, 1.">(U.
fol. Among the modern editions, those most worthy ot
notice are Poppo's. which contains two volumes of prole-
gomena, with the scholia and numerous notes. Leipzig,
111 vols. 8vo., 1821-1838; Haack's, with selections from the
k scholia and short notes, which the student will find
very useful, 2 vols. ftvo., Leipzig, ]S3>. rcpiinled in London,
in 3 volt. 8vo. 1823 ; GollcrV, 2 vols. s\o., Leipzig, 1836,
2nd edition, reprinted in London ; and Arnold's, 3 vols.
8vo., Oxford, 1K«I-1K}5, of which a second edition is in
course of publication.
There are translations of Thueydides into most of the
modern European languages. In' Kngli-.li the first trans-
lation was made by Thomas Nicolls, from the 1
version of Seysel, and was published in Ix>ndon, 1550, fol.
Thi* wat succeeded by the translations of Hobbes and
William Smith, which have been frequently reprinted.
The most recent it by S. T. Bloomfteld, 3 vols. 8vo., Lon-
don, 1H29. The most recent translation in German
Klein. Miinchcu. 1H2<>, Kvo. ; and in French one of the
best i- -aid to hi' '•••: '
ofThucydidet, the reader may consult
Dpdwell,' et Xenophonteii,'&c.,Oxf.
17"i 4to. ; at < hungcn iiber das Le-
ben de» Thucydidtk,' Merlin, i
THUG (liom Hindu-lain ••• <n» a
--r. and is the sp.
in India, whom since the year 1*111 it has twcn the >•::< tea \our
of the British government to root out. (>:
can be said with any decree .if certain^ ' .em-
it to the remotest antiquity, and there is no
doubt that the ceremonies with which Hi,. 'heir
murderous trade can be traced as fai
I'urana, where we find them described with 1
accuracy. Hut before we proceed to ii
history, of which we hnve only a slight and 1111-
knowli he them • tin-
time of their discovery. Their gangs, counting ol from
ten to two or three hundred men of all me.
and religions, yet all joining in the worship of Kali, in
about all parts ol' India, sacrificing to their tiitela
every \ietini that they could «ci/e. and sharing the plunder
vill the\ -lied no bin. -.hen
forced by circumstances; murder being their religion, the
performance of its duties re- .uid the instru-
ment of death was a rope or a handkerchief, which •
excite no suspicion. They were strangle:
had its leader, the Ji-in/nlur or
(turn, whose duty it was to initiate the novice into the
secret of using the r<x»nnl, or handkerchief. Then <
the Ji/iuttdtrx. that is stranglers. and the Si.l/iax, or cn-
trappers. and at last the /.iii'/im-es, or gravediggcrs. In a
country like India, the striking character of whose' in!
ants is an almost incredible apatln, it , ;n to
commit the most is murders without exciting the
interest of the victim's iclations. The immen-
which border the roads afforded the Lughm ility
for effectually concealing the bodies : and the prevailing
custom of travelling in parties prevented the designs of the
Sotha from being suspected, whenever he sin-
offering the protection of his Jemadar to travellers whom
their wealth induced him to entrap. The Thugs generally
assume the appearance of merchants, which increases the
confidence of their victims, whom they despatch with the
greatest celerity whenever they find a convenient j
Whilst the Hlmttotes arrange themselves in a man-
effect their purpose with facility, the Lnghaecs dig the
hole; and at a given signal the. mm- -d the
neck of the traveller, and. being taken unawares, he is
strangled without being able to make any resistance. Ib-
is then thrown into the hole, and large incisions are made
in the abdomen to prevent the corpse from swelling, and
the whole is covered over with a layer of dry sand, another
of thorns and bushes, and over all is thrown the
which had been dug out, which they smooth down
not to attract the notice of travellers. Alter every murder
they offer a sacrifice, to Kali, which they call ,
It is performed in the following manner :— A large si;
spread over the cleanest spot they can se!
is cast a pile consisting of one rupee and lour annas' \\oith
of coarse sugar : near this th>
:\e all instrument sacred to Siva and Hhavani . and
a piece of siKi <. or silver oft'-
The leader then sits down on the sheet, and tlu
stranglers place themselves on each side of him with their
i. They then distribute the sugar and cat
it in solemn silence. Hut for this as well as other
monies we must refer to the works of ( 'olonel Sleeman and
( 'aptain Meadows, as well as to an article in the \'M\\\ num-
ber of the Minlmr!!/! Hi-rifir. Here it will suffice to
that many ceremonies to which the Thugs attach the
gnatcst importance are scrupulously performed by them
both before and after the murder is committed; s'u
ling the omens, propitiating Devi, thanksgiving.ke.
We have already observed that Thugs were found
exercising their fearful trade in all parts of India. In the
Dcecan they are called IMuinsTgars ; from 6
noose) or noosers, and on them we have a very inten
paper in the 13th volume of the ' Asiatic Ucsearclics.' Their
customs are the same as tho-e of the northein TlniLrs ; but,
having fewer Mohammedans among them, the; are more
strict observers of the duties which their religion imposes;
they kill neither women, nor old men. n. r any of the
subjects which the K'lliUa I'ur.lna in the llu<t/iii-<i .lli/,ii/,i
U- ii'ifit i<
there i., nil'
them, by Mr. Shaiespear: both w
in 1810.
T H U
409
T H U
The origin of this atrocious worship is undoubtedly
Hindu. The Thugs maintain that their occupation is
represented in the caves of Ellora, as well as all other
trades. Moreover the terms they use are chiefly of Sans-
crit origin ; and the worship of Kali corresponds so well to
the religious ceremonies of the Thugs, that there can be
no doubt as to their identity. To satisfy the reader on
this head we refer to the 5th volume of the ' Asiatic Re-
searches,' where a chapter from the Kalika Purana has
been translated and communicated by Mr. Blaquiere.
All the ceremonies of the Thugs are fixed by this
Puntna, the date of which it is difficult to ascertain, but,
frequent allusions being made to it in the Vira Charita, a
drama of Bhavabhuti, who lived at the court of king
Bhoja in the beginning of the eighth century of our aera,
we have sufficient reason to refer it at least to his time, if
not to a previous period.
The Thugs then are a degenerate sect of Kalt wor-
shippers. They are very numerous in Bengal ; but they
offer only buffaloes and kids (Colebrook, ' Essays,' i. Ill),
and shed their blood, which they present to the idol in
cups that are kept for that purpose. In like manner as
the Sakta-s left the pure worship of Siva in order to indulge
their gross sensuality, the Thugs abandoned the original
wor-hip of Kali to get a livelihood by plunder. Both
nevertheless adhere strictly to the injunctions of their
re hgion, which is taught in the Tantras of the Saktas and
in the tradition of the Thugs, and thereby convert crime
into a sacred duty. As well may be expected, secrecy
was dictated by prudence, and hence it is that we find
the Thugs seldom mentioned by travellers.
Thevenot, in his Travels (part iii., eh. 22), is the first to
notice them ; he describes them as infesting the road
from Agra to Delhi, and using a long rope furnished with
a noose, which they throw with great dexterity round the
traveller's neck, and he relates that their Sothas were
frequently women. About ten years after Thevenot, Dr.
Fryer found them at Surat, where a gang of them were
executed. He describes them as Thevenot does, and it
appears from the description that they belonged to the
laooltaneat, a peculiar class of Mohammedan Thugs.
Although the whole of the ceremonial is Hindu, the
Thuirs tin m-elves, whether Hindu or Mohammedan,
maintain that they descend from seven Mohammedan
clans, Thu^s, lilivs, Bnrsote, Kachunee, Huttar, Ganoo,
and Thumlee (' Rama>eeana,' p. 11); the seven clans are
admitted to be the most antient and the original stock on
which all the others have been engrafted. This circum-
stance may lead us to suspect that Mohammedams were
indeed the first to give a sort of political system to the
Thugs; and tin: seven clans of Ismailis, whose occupation
v. ;is murder as dreadful as that of the Thugs, may, when per-
secuted in the last days of their political existence, have
joined themselves to the Hindu Phansigars, and, adopting
their ritual, have given rise to their present institution.
This point is investigated with much ingenuity in an
article on the ' Secret Societies of Asia,' in the 49th vol.
of ' Blackwood's Magazine' (part civ.). Shah Jehan and
Aurengzebe instituted criminal proceedings against them.
After this we again lose si<;ht of them until the time of
Hyder AH, who proceeded against them in a summary way.
Mysore however seems to have been their favourite resi-
dence ; for in order to suppress them, in the reign of Tippoo
Sultan, many of them were apprehended and sentenced to
hard labour, and others suffered mutilation. It was in
Mysore also that the English government first discovered
them soon after 1791) ; but it was not before 1810 that any
measures were taken for their extermination ; and a plan
for their suppression, which promises success, was adopted
in 1830 by the then governor-general, Lord William
Bentinck. Since that time their numbers have rapidly
diminished, and it is to be hoped that they will soon be
. extinct.
. or Vocabulary of the Peculiar Language
' Iii/ tin- Thugs:, Calcutta, 1836; this work is written by
Col. Slceman ; The Confessions of a Thug, by Captain
, 1840, London ; Illustrations of the History and
1'rnrnrfn nf t/ir> Thugs, London, 1837-)
THUJA, or THUYA, the name of a genus of plants be-
longing to the natural order Coniferae. This name is derived
from Oi'ia, as, on account of the pleasant odour given out by
the wood in burning, it was used in antient sacrifices. The
species 01 is are more commonly known by the
P. C., No. 1539.
name of Arbor Vita;, but why this name has been given
to it is a matter of uncertainty. Clusius, who wrote in the
sixteenth century, gives it this name, and Dr. Royle says
that the Cypress, an allied genus, is called the tree of life
in the East. It belongs to the section of Coniferse called
Cupressinae by Richard, in which Cupressus, Callitris,
Taxodium, and Juniperus are also included. The pistils
and stamens are in separate flowers on the same tree. The
male catkins are terminal and solitary ; the pollen of each
flower is included in four cases that are attached to the
inner face of the scale towards its base. The female cat-
kin is terminal ; the ovary is united to the bractea, form-
ing together a kind of receptacle ; each receptacle has
two ovules ; the receptacles are semipeltate, imbricated,
and smooth, or, in some cases, have a recurved beak near the
tip ; the seeds in some are slightly winged. The leaves are
scale-like, closely imbricated or compressed. The species
are evergreen, either trees or shrubs, and are inhabitants of
Asia, Africa, and North America.
T. occiderttalis, the Western or American Arbor Vitae,
has the branchlets 2-edged ; the leaves imbricated in four
rows, ovato-rhomboid, adpressed, and tuberculated ; the
cones are obovate with the interior scales truncate and
gibbous beneath the apex. This plant is a large shrub or
small tree, and is a native of North America, from Canada
to the mountains of Virginia and the Carolinas. It is not so
frequent in the Southern states, and is found there on the
steep banks of mountain-torrents. In the Northern states
of America it is sometimes called the white cedar, but
more commonly arbor vitse. It grows best in cool moist
places, on the borders of rivers and lakes, and in swamps,
some of which it covers to the extent of 50 to 100 acres.
The stem of this tree seldom rises straight from the ground,
but makes a short bend before it becomes straight. On
this account it is difficult to obtain trunks of any length,
and, although the timber is very durable, it is not much
used in building. It makes good posts and rails, which last
three or four times as long as any other species. Its branches
are used for making brooms, a recommendation of which
is, that they exhale an agreeable odour. In Great Britain
the American arbor vitae is planted as an ornamental shrub,
for which purpose it flourishes best in low moist and shel-
tered situations. It will bear cutting well, and hence is
employed for making hedges. It grows slowly, making
6 or 8 inches of stem in a year ; the largest specimens in
this country have attained a height of from 30 to 45 feet.
T. Drift/tail's, the Oriental or Chinese Arbor Vitae, has
2-edged branchlets ; imbricated, ovato-rhomboid, adpressed
haves, furrowed in the middle and in 4 rows ; the cones
are elliptic with the interior scales blunt, and mucronate
beneath the apex. It is a native of rocky situations in
Siberia and China, and on the mountains of Japan. It is
a low tree and easily distinguishable from the American
species by its denser foliage and lighter green colour. It
has a straight trunk-, and seldom exceeds 18 or 20 feet in
height. It is a hardy plant, and flourishes in the gardens
about London, where it was first introduced by Miller in
1762.
T. pendula, the Pendulous or Weeping Arbor Vitse, has
opposite, decussating, spreading, lanceolate, mucronate,
keeled, somewhat distant leaves; globose cones; convex
smooth scales ; filiform pendulous branches. It is a native
of Tartary, and is an elegant shrub, but only a few speci-
mens exist at present in this country.
T. articulata of Desfontaines is now ca-lled Callitrifi
quadrivalvis, four-valved Callitris. The genus Callitris
differs from Thuja in having the scales of the female cat-
kins, from 4 to 6 in number, opening like the valves of a
regular pericarp, and the seeds at the base of these scales
winged on the margin. The four-valved Callitris has flat-
tened articulated leaves ; the female catkin with four oval
pointed valves, two of which have seeds. It is a native of
Barbary, and attains a height of from 15 to 20 feet. It
was first discovered by Desfontaines on Mount Atlas in
17!)(i. The Kiini-sandarac of commerce [SANDARAC],
according to Broussonet, Brongniart, and others, is the
produce of this tree, although it is often ascribed to the
Juniperus communis. This substance is brought into the
market in tears, which are clear, shining, and diaphanous,
and of whitish-yellow colour. When reduced to a fine
powder, it makes an excellent pounce. Dissolved in
spirits of wine, it forms a delicate varnish. Under the
name of alerce, the wood of this tree is in great repute in
VOL. XXIV.— 3 G
T ii r
T ii r
tin- K.u-l fur Imildi:.. I edifices. Captain b. K.
:i»cert»ined that tin- root' of th.
; lie cathedral of Cordo\ a, which was built in the ninth
- constructed of the wood It ap-
pears to he a hardy tree, and would probably grow well
in this climate in the open inr.
:-f!itin<t l-'rutiertiun ttritnniiirnn'. : Lilld-
.•;;/.
"THI LDEN, THEOOOB VAN, born al Due in
'11117. w.i.-> one of the most distinguUhcd scholars and as-
sistant* of Hubens, with whom lie wan also a favounte.
He was with Rubens in Paris, and is said to ha\e executed
the greater part of the celebrated .-erics of Ihe so-called
v of tlie Luxembourg, painted in honour of Man lie'
Medici, Yan Thulden is distinguished both as a painter
and iu> an etcher. A* a painter he excelled in various
.lie several larire pictures, both historical
and allegorical, by him, dispersed over Germany and the
painted also small pictu; inmon
life in the manner of Teniers, such as markets, fairs, and
the like ; and he was frequent ly employed by architectural
and landscape painters to embellish 'their pictures with
small appropriate figures, in which he was excellent ; he
painted many such in the pictm I and Slceuwyck.
i Thulden's style in his greater works is altogether
that of Rubens, and, although inferior in boldness of de-
sign and colouring, his works may easily be mistaken lor
those of Rubens; the Martyrdom of St. Andrew, in St.
Michael's church at Ghent, was long thought to be a work
of Rubens. In chiar'oscuro. \ an Thulden was quite equal
to his master. A St. Sebastian, in the church of the Ker-
nardines at Mechlin, and an Assumption of the Yinrin, in
the church ofthe Jesuits at Bruges, were considered two ol
his best altar-pieces. While at Paris he painted twenty-
four pictures of the Life of St. John of Mat ha in the church
of the Mathnrins, which he himself etched on copper in
!(>;{;$; the pictures have since been painted over. \ 'an
Thulden's etchings are numerous, and in a masterly stvle :
he published a set of .X plates from (he painting's of Nic-
colo Abati at Fontainebleau, after the designs of Prima-
tieeio, which are srreatly valued, for as the paintim
destroyed in 173K, they are all that remains of the original
designs. They have been copied several times; tl
ginal set appeared under the following title : ' Lcs Travaux
d I lysse, uesseignez par le Sicur de Sainct-Martin, de In
facon qu'ils se voyent dans la Mnison Royalc de Fontaine-
bleau, peint par le, Sienr Nicolas, et craves a\i cuivre par
Theodore van Thulden, avee le suject et 1'explication
morale de cliaquc iiirnre.' He etched also -42 plates after
Rubens, of the entrance of Ferdinand the Cardinal-Infant
into Antwerp : ' Pompa introitus Ferdinandi,' &e. The
plates of the History of the Prodigal Son. to which he
put Rubens' name, are now said to be from his own designs ;
they are entitled, 'De verlooren Soon, door P. P. Rubens.
Th. \ an Thulden fee.' Van Thulden died in his native
place, Bois-le-Duc, in 1676.
(Descamps, La /";<••/'•* I'rintrrs Flamandt, &c. ; 1
Alliifiin-itirit Kiinstler Lea >•
THULITE, a mineral, the texture of which is usually
granular. Lustre vitreous. Translucent on the edges.
Hardness between 5 and (i: but the grains separate so
easily that it is rather difiicult to determine it. Colour
rote-red; streak creyish-wlnle. Specific gravity :H(».V».
Before the blowpipe fuse- with carbonate of soda into a
;-.h-whitc bead ; with hoiax forms a colourless •
parent bead ; but on the addition of nitre become- \iolrl.
It has been found in Norway: and to Gmelin,
consist* of— sih ; alumina, 31-144; lime, ls-7-<i;
soda and a trace of potash. 1-sin : u\id,- of iion. .
Olid* pf IBmganeM, l(i:r>; water, (HMO: tdlal. '.IH ,
TIM MMF.I.. MO KIT/ AHM'ST VON. a (icrman
writer win' l\ nil;iiired by In- eontemporari'
who still continue- to hold a hiirh literary rank with his
own roiintrvnien. He was born at Schiinfcld. near I.eip
_7th. I~.'W. where hi* father po— cs-cd •
demble property, but lost much of it by the plund
iroo]» in Saxony. I7-I">. Moritl, wh
the second wn of a family of nineteen, was sent to the
univ. i|,7i.r in 1750. There he found in (,
not only an in 'a friend : a"d he
»n acquaintance with \Veisse. Habcner. von I
Md. among othm, with an old « :
at hi* death, in 1776. left him the itunc,
twenty-four thousand dollain. This acccx-iou nf wealth
' up the places he held under Duke
Ernest of Sax< -i Kammer-junker, and, •
1768, a- . in 17Kt
•leborn, an estate of Ins wife, ut which place and
at (iothu he continued ch :itil Ins death,
which hap]icued while he was on a visit at Colmr:
•JUtll, 1H17. Thiinr.'iers literary n-pul
e-lalihshed by his • Wiihelniine,' a 'comic jioem in ] :
tii-st published in 171>1. This short production, for it is
in only live cantos or chapters, was received as some'
alloirethcj- new in (icrmnn literature, and as a in
ol polished humour and plaU'uUatire. It w. 'I not
only into French, but Dule'li, Italian, and Russian : w
has been reprinted entire 111 Wolff's • F.ncyclopa^
His poetical tale, • Die Inoculation der l.iebe.' 177 i
other pieces in verse, did not add much to his fame ; but
his last and longest work, ' llcise in den Mitta-rliehen
Provinzen von Frankreich ' (Travels in tin i Pro-
vinces of France , in '.( vols.. 17:l!)-lMl.">. is also
chef-d'osuvre. Instead of being, as its title would import,
the mere record of his tours in that country, it is, like
Sterne's ' Sentimental Journey.' to a great extent, a work
of fiction, interspersid with frasrinciits in verse, which
breathe more of poetry than his other productions of that
kind. It abounds with satiric humour and pleasantry,
with witty and shrewd ob-ervations. and shows the author
to have been an accomplished man of the world, inti-
mately acquainted with human nature. That it is n work
of no ordinary merit and pretension mny be suj :
from the notice it has obtained from Schiller, in bi-
er Naive und Sentimentulische Dichtiunr;' who, if
he praises it with ercater reserve than other critics, admits
that, as a work of amusement, it is one of a superior kind,
and will as such continue to enjoy the character it bus
obtained. A portrait of Thiimmei. alter t )eser. i- pre-
fixed to the Gth volume of the 'Nene Bibliothek der Sch.'i-
nen 'Wis.-cnschuften,' a complete edition of his works, in
six volumes.
.liiiden's Ij'.i-irnn : Schiller's Kfritirrt* Prti*<iinrhffirhrif-
Wiichler's i'(ir/t'tti>in
THl'N, :i town in the canton of Hern in Switzerland,
situated on the river Aar, about a mile below
from the lake of the same name. Part of the town Mam!
on an island formed by the liver, and part is on the ri<rht
bank, at the foot of a hill, on which is built the castle, the
keep of which was, in the middle aces, the reside';
the counts of Thun. On the opposite or southern side are
seen the Alps of the Uberland, covered with perpetual
snow. The parish church, with its loftv tower, is a re-
markable buildinic. There are also a handsome town-
au hospital, an orphan asylum, a public library of
7(XK) volumes, and a military school tor the artillery and
cntrinecr corps of the federal sen ice. [SWITZERLAND.]
The population of Thun amounted, by the la-t ecu
4833 inhabitants. fLen-ihe. nirlnnintin 'liqtir
Xl'i/ixtn/ii" (/-• /'i S,/(*,v, 1-.
The lake of Thun. Thnuersee in German, is 14 miles
long from south ih-wesl. about three miles in its
-1 width, and about 7lX' feet deep. Its surface is
17^1 feet abo\e the sea. The Aar. coming from the lake
ol'Bn< Hiilh-ea-t end. and issues from
it at the opposite cMrcmiH. Ttie Kander, swelled by the
Simmen. also entei-s the lake from the south. The lake
abounds with fish : and its banks, planted with vineyards
in some places, and risiujr abruptly to steep mountains in
. afford a variety of scenery. ' A steam-boat plies on
the lake.
TIMMiKRO, CARL PF.TTF.R. an eminent Sw,
traveller and botanist, and professor of natural history in
the mmersily of I'psil. was born on the llth ol
her, 17-W. at .lonkopini: in Sweden, where his father was
a eleriryman. He was early scut to the un;
for the purpose of studying luedicinc, and became
a pupil of the creat Linnnrus'. Vnder his instruction he
acquired that taste for natural histoiy which ably
iiished the school of l.iun:ens. und whii-h has ^ivcn
to the world so many famous naturalists. . uni-
pleted his course of study, lie irii'dnateil in 1770. and
WM honoured by havii d upon him the Kohrcnn
i lor the spac<' of three years. Although the sum
WM small, about fifteen pound- per annum, he determined
to use it for the purposes of improvement, and accordingly
U
411
T II U
left Upsal for the purpose of visiting Paris and the uni-
versities of Holland. Whilst in Amsterdam, he became
acquainted with the botanists and florists of that city, and,
they suggested to him the desirableness of some person
visiting Japan for the purpose of exploring its vegetable
treasures. Thunberg immediately offered his services, and
a situation as surgeon to one of the Dutch East India Com-
pany's vessels having been obtained for him, he left Am-
sterdam for Japan in the year 1771. He landed at the
Cape of Good Hope for the purpose of learning amongst
the Dutch settlers there the Dutch language, which is the
only European language spoken extensively in Japan, and
also in the hope of adding to his knowledge of natural ob-
jects by researches in Africa. Here he made several ex-
cursions into the interior, visiting various of the native
tribes, and after having remained at the Cape three winters,
where he collected much valuable information, he set sail
in 1//3 for Java and the Japan Isles. He remained in
these islands five years, making large collections of the
plants of these countries, as well as observations on the
habits, manners, and language of their inhabitants. His
ability to labour, however, during his residence both in
i and Asia, was very much diminished by a frightful
accident which he met with on first leaving Holland. The
keeper of the stores in the ship, having inadvertently
given out white lead instead of flour, it was mixed with
flour and used for making pancakes, of which the whole
crew partook. All were ill, and many suffered very
severely at the time, but none was so bail as Thunberg";
he only gradually recovered his health, and through his
long life always laboured under the debility and derange-
ment his system had thus received. He returned to his
native country in 1779, making first a short stay in Eng-
land. Here he iormed the acquaintance of Sir Joseph
Banks, Dryander, and Solander, and availed himself of the
extensive collection of plants from all parts of the world,
and valuable library of Sir Joseph, for the purpose of
adding to his botanical knowledge. During his absence
he had been made demonstrator of botany at Upsal in
1777, and in 1784 was installed in the chair of the great
Liniwus as professor of botany. In 1785 he was made a
knight of the order of Wasa, and in 1815 commander of
the same order.
On gaining his home, Thunberg immediately com-
menced arranging the vast mass of materials he had col-
lected in his travels for the purpose of publication. His
first important work was a description of the Japanese
plants, which was published at Leipzig in 1784, with the
title, ' Flora Japonica, sistens Plantas Insularum Japonica-
rum, secundum Systema Sexuale emendatum,' 8vo., and
illustrated with thirty-nine engravings. In this work a
great number of new plants were described and arranged
according to the Linnaean system, in which he ventured to
dispense with the three classes called Monoscia, Dioacia,
and Polyjramia. He subsequently published some bota-
nical observations on this ' Flora,' in the second volume of
the ' Transactions ' of the Linnaean Society.
In 1788 he commenced the publication of an account of
his travels, under the title, ' Resa uti Europa, Africa, Asia,
forattad aren 1770-1779,' Upsal., 8vo. This work was
completed in four volumes, and contains a full account of
his eventful life, from the time he started from Upsal with
his Kohrean pension, till he returned to the same place
laden with treasures from a hitherto unexplored region.
In these volumes he has taken great pains to collect all
possible information on the medicinal and dietetic proper-
ties of plants in the countries he visited, as well as their
uses in rural and domestic economy. He recommends
al new plants for cultivation in Europe as substitutes
for those in present use. This work also gives a simple
and pleasing account of the original natives of the places
in which he sojourned, as well as of the European settlers.
It has been translated into German by Groskund, and
published at Berlin in 1792. It appeared in English at
in in 1793, and in French at Paris in 1796. His next
work was a ' Proilromus Plantarum Capensinm, Annis
1772-1775 eollectarum,' Upsaliae, 1794-1800; being an
account of the plants he had collected at the Cape. From
to ist)5 hi' published in folio, under the title ' Icones
arum Japonicarum,' Upsaliae, a series of plates illus-
(! of the Botany of the, Japan Isles. Tin-
lowed by the ' Flora Capensis,' Upsaliae, 1807-1-'! «'•'>- In
thi» work the most complete view of the botany of the
Cape of Good Hope is given that has hitherto been pub-
lished. In 1807, in conjunction with Billberg, he pub-
lished the ' Plantarum Brasiliensium Decas Prima,' Upsali.v;,
4to. In this work the plants collected by Freireiss arid
SauerlUnder, in the province of Minas Gerae's in Brazil, are
described ; but the subsequent parts were published by
other hands.
Besides the above works, on which the reputation of
Thunberg as a traveller and a botanist mainly rests, he was
the author of almost countless memoirs and academical
dissertations. The subjects of these were chiefly those
which his long residence in Africa and Asia atforded.
The majority of them are upon botanical topics, not a few
however are devoted to a consideration of zoological sub-
jects. Although botany was his primary object in his
travels, he yet lost no opportunity of obtaining a know-
ledge of the new animals he met with, and several of his
papers are descriptions of these. He published several me-
moirs in the London ' Philosophical Transactions,' and the
' Transactions ' of the Linnsean Society, also in the Trans-
actions of Russian, German, French, and Dutch scientific
Societies and Journals, and a much greater number in
those of Sweden. The academical dissertations bearing
his name, and presented at the university of Upsal, are
nearly one hundred in number, and were published be-
tween the years 1789 and 1813.
Thunberg was elected an honorary member of sixty-six
learned societies. He died at the advanced age of eighty-
five, on the 8th of August, 1828.
Retzius named a genus of plants in the natural Order
Aeanthaceae, in honour of him, Thunbergia. The follow-
ing genera of plants have species named after him : —
Ixia, Isolepis, Cyperus, Imperata, Spatalla, Convolvulus,
Campanula, Gardenia, Atriplex, Hydrocotyle, Rhus, Cras-
sula, Berberis, Erica, Passerina, Thalictrum, Cocculus,
Equisetum, Hypnum, Fissidens, Cystoseira, Gyalecta, and
Endocarpon. Of insects, the genera Harpalus, Lygeeus,
Pyralis, and Tinea have specific names after Thunberg.
Thunberg was an amiable kind man, and highly
esteemed by his friends and pupils. The great additions
that he has made to our knowledge of the plants of the
world, as well as their uses to man, place him amongst
the most distinguished botanists of the last and present
century. He was not great as a vegetable physiologist,
nor did he attempt anything more in systematic botany
than a slight emendation of the system of Linnaeus. In
this he was followed by very few ; and those who at the
present day have recourse to that system for arranging
plants, generally adopt the primitive plan of Linnaeus.
As a traveller, Thunberg is remarkable for the accuracy
of his observations on the manners, habits, and domestic
economy of the people that he visited.
(BiscnotT, Lehrbuch dcr Botanik ; Resa uti Europa, &e. ;
Kongl. Vetensk. Acad. Handlingar, 1829.)
THUNDER is an explosion accompanied by a loud
noise, which is heard after a discharge of lightning from
the clouds. The character of the noise is variable : it
sometimes resembles that which is produced when a single
piece of ordnance is fired; at other'times it is a rolling
sound like the successive discharges of several great
guns ; and occasionally it may be compared to a series of
sharp reports from a fire of musketry.
The identity of lightning with the electric fluid is now
well known [LIGHTNING], but the physical cause of the
detonation which accompanies the flash is still the subject
of conjecture ; in general it is considered that lightning,
by its heat, creates a partial vacuum in the atmosphere.
and that the sudden rushing of air into the void space-
produces the sound; but various reasons have been as-
signed for its prolongation. It was formerly supposed that.
the rolling noise is merely the result of several echos
caused by the sound being reflected from mountains,
woods, buildings, or clouds, or from the latter alone when,
a thunder-storm takes place over the ocean : this opinion
seems to have been founded upon the fact that the report
of a fire-arm discharged in a mountainous tract is prolonged
by the echos during at least half a minute, which is about
the time that the rolling of thunder continues. But though
the reflections of sound are, very probably, in part, or at
times, the causes of the prolongation of the report arising
from the explosion, yet it must be admitted that these will
not always afford a satisfactory explanation of the pheno-
mena. It may hapnen, for example, that, when the sky is
3G2
T H U
ua
T M r
uniformly covered \\ith clouds, a fla-h of lightning will
durt from tin- zenith, ami, after a !• w seconds, (lit- crash of
thuiuler will take place accompanied by n rolling sound :
MOO, a second flash may pn-u • U in iln- /. mill
and thunder may follow," but nnw tlio c-nu>h. though loud,
may not be prolonged. It is justly observed In M. Arago
that this u very different from the phenomena
and the explanation which was iirst proposed by Dr.
Hooke C Posthumous Work-. . hum that which
pOSMSseathi I,.:'. -' degree of piobabilnv . Tin- lla-h. - oi
lightning, I > < s, are cither simple or multiple:
tin- lii - but une small portion of space, uin!
rise to an i i- report ; the multiple tla-h takes
place at ditl'eiviit parts of one long line: n thc-c parts
should be situated in a circular arc. and the observer should
be in iu> centre, all the reports would arrive at his car at
the same time, and still one loud crash only would be
heard; but if the pails were nearly in a straight line, and
the observer were at one of its extremities, the reports,
whether they take place at the .same instant or in s
Mon, would arrive at his ear at different times, depending
wholly or partly on the distances. It may be MHUidereQ
therefore that the rolling arises from the circumstance
that the points of explosion are at different distances from
the observer; and it will follow that the duration of
the noise is equal to the time in which sound travels
through nn interval equal to the difference between the
lengths of two lines drawn from the observer to the two
uities of the flash. The flush of lightning and the
report of the thunder take place in reality at the same
moment; but since sound travels at the rate of IKK) feet
per second, while the passage of light from the cloud to
the observer may hi' considered as instantaneous, it fol-
lows that, on counting the number of seconds which elapse
between the time of seeing the flash and hearing the
report, the distance of the thunder-cloud from the ob-
may be ascertained if 1100 feet be multiplied by that num-
ber of seconds.
The experiment* of Lavoisier and La Place have shown
that the molecules of water, in evaporating, convey away
from the earth a portion of the electricity which It con-
tains, and which the water has acquired in being converted
into vapour. This electricity becomes diffused in the upper
regions of the atmosphere, and, when the vapours again
become condensed so as to form globules ot water, the
electricity disposes itself on the surface of the globules in
different quantities according to their magnitudes, When
these globules have equal volumes, those quantities are
equal ; and, an equilibrium then subsisting with respect to
electricity, no sensible ett'ect is produced: but when a con-
siderable difference takes place between the quantities of
electricity on the different globules, the tendency of that
element to return to a state of equilibrium causes it to
pan rapidly in flashes from those globules which have
more, to those which have less, than their mean quantity :
and thus, if the condensation be great and take place sud-
denly, vivid flashes of lightning and loud peals of thunder
may take place. The effect is probably the greatest when
two masses of clouds in opposite states of electricity are
carried rapidly against one another by winds blowing in
contrary direction!.
An opinion prevails that thunder has been heard when
the sky was without a cloud, but the fact can scarcely be
said to be satisfactorily established : for the sounds which,
in countries subject to earthquakes, have been supposed to
be thunder, proceed from under the ground, and may result
from a different cause. Volm-y however relates that, being
one day at Pontchartrain near Versailles, when no cloud
was visible, he heard distinctly four or five claps of thun-
der: he adds that about an hour afterwards the sk\ 1
overcast, and a violent hail-storm followed. On this relation
M. Arago observes that the sounds could not have
heard if they had come from clouds at a greater distance
than six leagues; and if the clouds bad been at, or a little
within, tliat distance, they must have been v isible, unless it
be supposed that they were not more than a few
fhe ground: but the' hail which followed the thunder must
have proceeded from clouds having great elevation, though
at the time the chips were heard they were too rein
allow any sound I'mm them to reach the ear; and th.
he concludes that the sounds must have been .
the air itself. For an account of death caused bv electricity
in the air when the thunder-cloud was very distant, and
for the theory of the retumn
•-!,<, m. \ol. Ixx.
From the meteorological i
by, and Captains I'ln; : pean that
neither thunder nor lightning u known to •
\ond the 7i>th degree of north latitude : cv
7dth i1 e phenomena are very rare ; and in the
tables of Captain Parry the o. l thunder and
lightning U mentioned hut once bctwun June. 1821, and
September, 1KH. < '.iptam Fr.uikhn also, in UTi° N.
beard thunder on one day only between September,
and August. IK.'(i.
THrM>KK-KOI), a bar of metal attached generally to
aside of a building, and extending from below the level of
the ground to a point several fi-et above the higln-'
of the roof, or of the steeple, if the buildi! ie, in
order to secure the edifice from the effect- of thiiiii
lightning: the upper extremity of the rod or bar term;
in a point.
When a thunder-cloud passes above an elevated oi
it produces in the nearest part of the object the k:
electricity which is opposite to that of the cloud its.
that a rapid and abundant communication take* ]
cither the electric matter in the cloud rushes towards (In-
earth, or that of the earth rushes towards the cloud : and if
the materials of the building are not good coi.
the fluid, the latter in its passage exerts an explosive action
IA which the building is destroyed or greatlj injured. The
thunder-rod, from the conducting property of its metallic'
substance, selves to convey the fluid harmlessly to tin-
earth or air. When it has happened that there 'is an in-
terruption of the communication, by the rod being bi
or even by being much diminished in magnitude in
part of its length, the electric fluid has been observed to
pass between the parts of the rod above and below the
place of fracture.
Buffon, and Dalibard, at bis suggestion < IT")- . appear
to have been the first persons who drew lightning from the
atmosphere by means of pointed rods of imlal : and in (he
following year M. de Romas elevated a paper kite to the
height of iVH) feet for the like purpose: this was about
twelve months before Dr. Franklin, without any know-
ledge of what had been done in Europe, performed the
like experiment in America. The object of the French
pliilosoplu rely to obtain by tho-i- m-
trieal sparks or flashes of fire ; but it is to Dr. Franklin
that the world is indebted for the idea of raising pointed
rods in order to secure buildings from the effects of atmo-
spherical electricity; and the recommendation was imme-
diately adopted both for edifices on land and ships on tin-
water.
Soon after the first employment of thunder-rods in
Europe, an opinion prevailed that when their extrei
were pointed thev created a danger which did not exi-t
before, and that they attracted lightnings which would,
without the rods, have discharged themselves at a diet
and in order to diminish the risk, it was proposed to crown
the .summits of the roils with knobs or balls of metal. This
notion vva.- entertained by the Abbe Nollet, in France;
but in the Royal -Ion the question concern-
ing the relative efficacies of pointed and knobbed con-
ductors was agitated with great vehemence, chiefly through
the obstinacy of Mr. Wilson, one of the Fellow-, who, in
1TTS, made himself the head of a party in support of tin-
latter kind of conductors, in opposition to the president.
! 1'nisiji.r., JOHN.] It is remarkable that both George III.
of F.nglaud and Frederick of Prussia placed thein-elves on
the side of the opponents of Franklin; the first king
giving the preference to balls over points, and tin- ,
while he consented to have conductors raised on hi-
racks and powder-magazines, prohibited the enrti
them on his palace of Sans Souci. It is now admitted that
the prejudice against pointed thunder-rods was entirely
without foundation : those conductor ha\ e been found not
only to protect buildings when struck, but also to diminish
the number of shocks which in a given time the\ have ex-
perienced. An experiment which was made b\ \\^ ecaria,
in IT">:l. might have shown the superiority of pointed con-
ductors over those with balls : for that distingni.-hcd elec-
trician set up on the roof of the church c.: San (Jiovanni,
at Turin, a metallic rod bent near the top and terminating
in a point: the upper part was capable 0 lirned
round by means of a silk line, so that the point could be
T H U
413
T H U
directed upwards or downwards at pleasure, and the lowei
part of the rod terminated upon substances which were
imperfect conductors of electricity. On directing the
point towards the sky when a thunder-cloud passed over
the church, electrical sparks issued in abundance from
the foot of the rod ; but when the point of the rod was re-
versed so that the bend was upwards, few or none were
obtained. The conducting-rod set up by Professor Rich-
man, at St. Petersburg, may be said to have been the
cause of his death (in 1753) ; but the house would most
probably have been struck if there had been no conductor.
The immediate cause of the melancholy accident was that
the rod led into the apartment, and the unfortunate Pro-
fessor was standing too near its lower extremity. (Phil.
Tmns., vol. xlviii.)
Some doubt however still exists concerning the distance
to which the protecting influence of the rod extends, but
it is generally supposed that this influence is limited by
the circumference of a circle described about the rod with
a radius equal to double its height above the top of the
building.
When the magazine at Purfleet was struck by lightning
in 1777, the shock took place on an iron cramp which
united two stones of the cornice, at the distance of 24 feet
from the thunder-rod, measured horizontally ; and the
upper extremity of the rod was 11 feet above the top of
the roof on which it was erected. Again, in 1781, the
workhouse at Heckingham in Norfolk, though provided
with eight rods, was si nick by lightning at a spot which
was distant 5."i feet measured horizontally from the nearest
rod, while the pointed summit of the latter was 22 feet
above the level of the part struck ; and many other in-
stances might be cited in confirmation of the supposition.
It may be inferred therefore that large buildings ought to
be secured by several rods, and that the less these are
elevated the greater ought to be their number ; also that
no point of the building ought to be at a greater horizontal
distance from the nearest rod than twice the height of the
rod above the top of the building. Mr. Cavendish, Dr.
Priestley, and other English philosophers, recommend them
to stand 10 feet above the roof; but in France their
height is sometimes more than 30 feet.
The most elevated objects are not always those which
are struck by lightning ; for in 1829, the sails of a mill at
Toothill in Essex being at rest, the electric fluid left un-
touched the arm, which was in a vertical position, and fell
on a knob of iron at the middle of one of those which wits
inclined to the horizon in an angle of 45° ; and it has fre-
quently happened that buildings containing in their walls
conducting substances have been struck much below their
summits by a lateral action of the fluid; bars or plates of
metal in the side walls having served to attract it more
powerfully than the materials on the roof. This happened
to the cathedral at Lausanne in 1783.
In order that the points of rods may not become blunt
by rust, they are generally made of copper and covered
with gilding ; but it appears to be the practice of late to
make the upper part of the rod of platinum, this metal
being not only unaffected by the corrosive power of the
air or rain-water, but also incapable of fusion by heat. As
the erection of a thunder-rod requires in general an ex-
pensive scaffolding, the latter metal, even though more
costly than iron or copper, will from its durability be in
reality more economical than either of the others.
Thunder-rods are frequently made to terminate at the
upper extremity with one point in a vertical position, and
about this a number of points diverge from the rod at dif-
ferent inclinations to the horizon : by this construction
there is not only a probability that some of the points will
be acute when others may have been blunted by the action
of the atmosphere, but also among them there will always
be one which presents itself in the most favourable posi-
tion for attracting the electric fluid. Observations have
not yet however been sufficiently multiplied to enable phi-
losophers to decide whether conductors so terminated have
any advantage over the more simple rods of Franklin.
The thunder-rod should be thick enough to carry the
electric fluid to the ground without being melted by it ;
in general a cylindrical rod about half an inch in diameter
will be sufficient to prevent this effect from taking pi.
whether of iron or copper, it should be covered above
ground with a coating of paint ; and the part undur ground
u usually formed with two or more branches in order to
facilitate the passage of the electric fluid into the earth.
It must be observed however that, if the lower part of an
iron thunder-rod descends into water, it is liable to become
corroded by rust ; and a dry soil is not a good conductor
of electricity. On the Continent it has been the practice
to let the lower part of the rod enter into a pit filled with
ashes of burnt wood or powdered coke. If the rod is
made of a kind of metal which does not become corroded
in water, its lower extremity may be allowed to enter
about three feet below the surface : the water should be
that of a natural pond, for, if it be in an artificial reservoir,
the walls of the latter, being sometimes formed of, or
covered with, conducting substances, may prevent the
electric fluid from diffusing itself in the earth.
When a building is provided with several rods, each of
these should be continued quite to the ground : at the
level of the parapet the several rods should be connected
together laterally by slender iron bars ; and the plates of
iron which enter into the construction of roofs should in
like manner have a metallic communication with each
other. As the thunder-rod is necessarily made to follow
the outline of a cornice and roof, the part below that
which projects above the roof may be made of metallic
cords, in order to avoid the formation of angles in its
length ; for experience has shown that lightning in de-
scending a rod has quitted the latter at its angles, and,
after passing through the air, has struck objects which
were situated in the line of its first direction. In the ex-
pectation of being able to attract the lightning entirely
away from powder-magazines, or any building containing
explosive materials, thunder-rods have been attached to
masts at the distance of a few yards from the building :
this practice has many advocates, and the only objection to
it is, that it. is attended with considerable expense.
Many lofty buildings contain in their construction the
means of securing them from the effects of lightning, and
such is the case with the Monument on Fish-Street Hill ;
this building, whose height is more than 200 feet, is
crowned with a metallic ball surrounded by bands which
terminate in points tending upwards. From the ball
descend four bars of iron which serve to support a flight of
steps, of the same metal, and one of them is in connection
with the iron railing which extends from the balcony to
the ground. In 1764 lightning struck the steeple of St.
Bride's Church in Fleet Street, and descended from thence
along an iron bar about 20 feet in length and two inches
in breadth, which was almost buried in the stones : the
electric fluid left no traces of its passage along this bar,
but at the place where the metal terminated the damage
commenced, the stones being destroyed or thrown to a con-
siderable distance. A similar accident has this summer
(1842) occurred to the church of St. Martin in Westminster.
A ship at sea, like an edifice on land, may, when there
is an accumulation of electric matter in the upper part of
the atmosphere, be struck alofl ; or, when the atmosphere
is in a contrary state, the lower part of the ship may be
struck, the lightning in the latter case ascending along the
mast : and ships unfurnished with metallic conductors
have frequently suffered serious injury during thunder-
storms, while those which have been so provided have ge-
nerally escaped. When Captain Cook was at Batavia,
lightning fell on the sliip with such force that the shock
resembled an earthquake ; the conductor, which was very
slender, appeared to be on fire from the mast-head to the
sea, yet no damage was done to the ship. In 1814, while
a great, storm raged at Plymouth, of all the ships then in
port only one was struck by lightning, and this alone was
not provided with conductors. And in the roads at Corfu,
three violent flashes struck the ship Etna, which had conduc-
tors, without doing any injury, while two ships not far dis-
tant, being destitute of such protection, were much damaged.
The rigid bars of Franklin are oonsidered inapplicable,
as conductors, to ships, and instead of them chains of
copper have been generally employed ; these are attached
to the masts at their upper extremities ; and, following the
standing rigging, they pass down the ship's sides into the
water. Objections have been made to them on account of
their want of continuity, and their liability to be injured or
broken during storms ; and copper links attached to the
masts by flexible spiral wires were suggested by Mr. Singer.
M. le Roy also recommended a chain of copper rings
which were to encircle the main-topmast backstay ; but
neither of these methods has been put in practice. In
T ii r
414
T II I
Mr. Snow Harris proposed (• ()b»e > the
ng on Float me I ' -ntly
d to be executed for ships, conductor* consisting of
i sufficient thickness to prevent them from
being fused; those slips are inserted, in two layen. in a
groov itudinally along the mast, the joints <
layer the middle purls of the other, and
:ire fastened to the nut-' The
whole hue of metal passe* down from the ce,pp,-r spindle
at the top of the mast-head, and at the junctions of the
upper and lower masts the slip is made to join a cylinder
of copper which lines each sheave-hole: the. lower part of
the line is connected with :i plate of copper which i-
on the keelson, at the step, and from thence then* is a com-
munication with the three copper bolts which
past) quite through the keel.
THURGAU, a canton of Switzerland, hounded on the
north partly by the lak<- .d parUrBytb*
Rhine, which divides it from thu canton of Schatthau-cn :
on the east and south by the canton of St. Gullen, ami on
the west by that of Zurich. The river Thur, which •
from the canton of St. Gallon and is joined by tlu
from Appenzell, has given its name to the canton 'Thur-
iraii.' or • district of the Thur,' the river crossing the middle
part of it from east to west, The N;H Thur is se-
parated from the basin of the ln!>
siou of lulls which i! ices on both Miles, and are
intersecteel -1 \allcys. On the south and west
aides other hills divide the Thin-gnu from the valley of the
Toss in the canton of Zurich. The whole country belongs
to the plateau or table-land of Switzerland, and is a con-
siderable distance from the Alpine region. The clu;
the Thurgau is comparatively mild : a great part of the
country is planted witli fruit-trees, especially apple, pear,
and cherry: the vine also thrives in several localities.
The produce of corn is not sufficient for the consumption.
• .dim; to a late return, there were in Thurgau about
28,000 head of horned cattle, 3TXX) sheep and goats, and
2550 hones. The rivers and the lake abound with fish.
The area of the canton is estimated at about IJGo English
square miles; and the population in !S3Ti was 84.12-1 inha-
bitants, of whom about 66.000 follow the tenets of the
Reformed or Protestant communion, and the rest are
Roman Catholu "i is the language of the coun-
try. About one-third of the population is employed in
trade and manufactures. The principal manufactures cem-
sist of cotton poods, in which above 3000 looms are em-
ployed. The average wanes of a workman are about 7J
batxen, or eleven pence sterling per day. About 3000 ,
of tine linen from native t\;i\ are made annually : but this
manufacture is on the decline. There are also spinning-
factonus which produce yarns , , the. quality from Xo. 40
to 00. The tariff' of the (ierman commercial league has
much diminished the exportation of manufactured goods
Some silks are manufactured for the French market. The
other exuort.s consist of wine, cattle, oats, dried fnu
cider. The principal imports are — iron and metal ware
in England; coarse woollen goods from (ie-i
maiiy . fine woollen from France and Delirium: fine cottoi
yam : salt from Bavaria and \Yiirtcrabcrg
The revenue of th- • about 1 Oil XX
florin-, or K.VXI/. sterling, and is deiu.-d from ehr
salt an-1 other articles imported, stamps, transfers of pro-
perty, and an income'
mention has be-cu ini])roved of late •
There arc abwr u of which nrc for I'
tanU, 58 for He. man ( '.ithohe-s. and six mixed of both coin
munions. About 17,000 children attend the i
school for teachers has been established at Kreiit/h
Thai* is a fund, the capital of which amounts to abou
half a million of florins, for the -.nppi.it of the JKIOI-. be
•We» -'e it a small poor's; rate on property. Tin
annual expendituie for tin- pour van.-, from l.">.000 to
30,000 HoniH. There is a special fund I'm- I.
sJso a benevolent fund. Switzerland in general is a
try remarkabl. :,it.
Thurgau it divided -Krauenfrld.
Steck-
•aenhofrn. 'I'he ;•! 'tin are — 1.
Krauenfrld, which i* the h. ad town of the
in a fertile valley near the eon!'
wrth th* Thur. It consists of 162
mildings, formi '-; the inhabitants
iinount to about 1300. '! 'a-rlv the
esiilelii'e of the ' .:au ;
he town-house, where the Helvetic diet used to Msenblt)
n the time of the e>ld e : and the
iiomuii Catholic clum-he*, are- the chief
mildiii -••eckborn, a small busy town pleasantly
situaleel on the b.mks of the '/,< : L.isin of
he- la!, iiice-, has M'\ eral mm,
1900 inbabiUnts, Int! irhoodofs ,the.
line e e- called ArenalxTir. which wan pur-
e-base ii ,'lune'
Ueauharnais and wife of Loin \-Kini; of
Holland, and in which she died in l*i!
heil'cn. on the left or southern bank of the Rhine-,
rable trade in agricultural produce, unel
bout 1000 inhabitants. 4. Hi- the cem-
e-ne'e' of the- Sitter ami the Thur, is a walled town, with
a collegiate church of the ninth century, an old ca-
lontr biidire on the Thur, sv\einl schools, and about lot")
inhabitants. ',. Arbon, a small town em the-
bank of the Bexlensee, or i nitaaee, of which it
enjoys a splendid view, is KIH! te> be built on the site of a
Roman station i. lii.
Thu canton of Thin ile'inocracy
with a legislative assembly, -Grosser R;ith,' and an c\
I. ' Kleiner Rath.' The right of votin::
elections of members of the legislature is subject to -
qualifications; but by the last accounts we have seen the
constitution was undergoing a revisal.
tionnaire (jrn^r<i),h :iquedelii
: J. Bow-ring's Report on the Commerce und Muitti-
.'•x <f Sicitzerlana.)
THttRINGER \VAI.D. [GHRMANY: PRT-SSIA.]
THt'RINGIA (Thurinsi'ii < is the antient name of an
ive tract of country in the central part of Germany,
situated between the Han Mountains, the ri
and Werra, and the Thiiringcrwald. These- luiuevcr an-
not the boundaries of the great Kingdom of Thi'irinuia.
which extended to the Elbe, and northwards nearly to
deburp. southwards to the vicinity of the Danube, and
--bended on the west the- greater part of the country
afterwards called Franconia. It cunnot be positively M
tained what people originall IThnringia. Ace
ing to (lale-tti, it was formerly inhabited b; : ac-
coreliriL' to F. \Vachter and Wilhelm, by the Cheruse-i.
ins mentions the Thoringi about the year -KM. \-.-.
conjectures have been made respecting the- derivation of
the name ; and author*, misled b\ a similarity of m:
have confounded them with others. The history of the
count- and h;is hee-n the subjee
numerous work's, such • of Thurir
: and \\ ae-hte-r's History, in 3 \ols. Thin
gave the title of m. to the- elector ol
: ly speaking, there is no country now called Thu-
rhiL'ia : ' it is elivi.le'el amonir Pru-sia. S;i\e--\Veim:u-.
Ichwaxburg-Sonderhausen, and Ke-hwarr-
burg-Rudolstadt. The name is still jM-e-scrve-el in Tln'i-
.•..-\!e!, a continuation of the Fichte'lirebirge'. tiom
which it bmnches out near Miinchberg anil <
the- kingdom of Ha\aria: ne'nr Kise-nae-li. Marksuli1.
Salzuniren it rises above the \Venathal ; runs sonth-
leini: the- frontier of the former circle's ,,t' Vppe-r
Saxony and Fraiu-emia, till it turns, n, -tein,
however it rece-i\e-s the- imnie-
of l-'ranke-nwald , and decline"-, near Kmnnch. intei the-
Maintti.il. The' length is 7n F.nglish miles, and its
from '.I to IN miles. It covers nbmit
:tl(Ml se|uare- miles, ami has a j of 'J'JIKX:
in 'JH te)wiis anel ">70 villa:.'!1-. It i< .
mountain-chain with a nam mel it is only near the
Schiieeko]if. e>n the road between Suhl and Ohrdnif. tint
is a pl.itcnu two or three mi! 'Hi.- two
: punts arc the- Schneckopf. 'JTtlO !<•<•<. and the
•_t«)l feet, above tt
'•''<•• nn<1 princi-
sin,rmi! with 'pinc-forrsts, mixed in n fi with
Ihis chain,
\\hichilowon one side into th i mi the- other
Stein's
•in.)
Hrock
T II II
415
T II U
THURLOE, JOHN, who held the office of secretary of
state during the Commonwealth, was born in 1616, at
Abbots Roding, in Essex, of which place his father, the
Rev. Thomas Thurloe, was rector. He was designed for
the profession of the law. Through the interest of Oliver
St. John, who was his patron through life, he was ap-
pointed, in 1045, one of the secretaries to the parliament
commissioners for conducting the treaty of Uxbridge. He
was called to the bar after this, in 1647, by the society of
Lincoln's Inn; and in March, 1048, he received the
appointment of receiver or clerk of the cursitors' fines,
' worth at least 350/. per annum,' says Whitelocke; ' and
m this place was Mr. Thurloe sen-ant to Mr. Solicitor St.
John.' (Afrmoriafx, p. 296.)
Thurloe has left behind him a distinct denial of know-
ledge of or participation in King Charles's death, which
took place, as is well known, in January, 1649. Writing
to Sir Harbottle Grimston for the purpose of contradicting
reports that St. John had been Cromwell's counsellor on
that and on other occasions, and ' that I was the medium
or hand between them by which their counsels were com-
municated to each other,' he says, ' I was altogether a
stranger to that fact and to all" the counsels about it,
having not had the least communication with any person
whatsoever therein.' (Thurloe's State Papers, vol. vii.,
p. 014. ) It was very unlikely that a person in Thurloe's
subordinate position at that "time should have been con-
.-ulted ; and if it were :i question of any importance whe-
ther he approved of the king's death or not, his subse-
quent continual identification with the authors of that
event is more than sufficient to fix him with responsibility.
On the llth of February, 1650, Thurloe was appointed
one of the officers of the treasury of the Company of un-
dertakers for draining Bedford Level, a new effort to drain
this tract of country having been set on foot the year
before. [BEDFORD LEVEL.] In a letter from St. John to
Thurloe, dated April 13, 1652 (Staff Papers, vol. i., p.
•3)."; . which is interesting as showing the terms on which
Thurloe and St. John were, we find that Thurloe was then
on-an official tour of inspection : ' Now you are upon the
place, it would be well to see all the works on the north
of Bedford river to be begun. Pray by the next let me
know whether Bedford river be finished as to the bottom-
ing.' In the same letter are directions from St. John, now
lord-chief-justice, for the purchase of a place for him in
the neighbourhood of London, from which it would appear
that Thurloe v.as in the habit of managing St. John's
private affairs for him. The same letter contains St. John's
congratulations to Thurloe on his appointment as secretary
to I tie council of state, which appointment had just taken
place : ' I hear from Sir Hen. Vaync, and otherwise, of
your election into Mr. Frost's place, with the circumstances.
God forbid I should in the least repine at any his works of
, ulence, much more at those relating to your own good,
and the sood of many. No, I bless him. As soon as I
heard the news, in what concerned you, I rejoiced in it
upon those grounds. No, go on and prosper: let not
your hands faint : wait, upon Him in his ways, and he that
'hath called you will cause his presence and blessing to go
along with \ •<)«.' In the course of the previous year, 1651,
Thurloe had" been to the Hague, as secretary to St. John and
Strickland, ambassadors t o the states of the United Provinces.
When Cromwell assumed the Protectorship, in Decem-
ber, 1653, Thurloe was appointed his secretary of state.
In consequence of his attaining to this distinction, he was,
in the February succeeding, elected a bencher of the
society of Lincoln's Inn. Thurloe was elected member for
the Isle of Ely in Cromwell's second parliament, called in
June, 1634, and framed on the model prescribed by the
Instrument of Government. He was re-elected for the Isle
of F.ly in the next parliament, called in September, 1056.
Cromwell obtained from this parliament an act settling
the office of post of letters, both inland and foreign, in
;>>r ever, and granting power to the Protector to
for eleven years at such rent as he should judge
.nable ; and it was let by him to Thurloe, at a rent of
4000'. a veur, as we learn from a memorandum drawn up
by him wh-ii the Rump Parliament had cancelled the
mint. (I /-.», vol. vii., p. 788.) It, is to be in-
ferred (hut he made much profit, by this farming ol the
postage. The salary of hi- -»>!' (lt' state W!ls ***>'•
a year. He is d-srribi-d in a ' Narrative of the Late Par-
liament,' reprinted in the ' Hnrleian Miscellany' vol. m.,
p. 453), as ' secretary of state and chief postmaster of Eng-
land, places of a vast income.
There is the following entry in Whitelocke's ' Memorials,'
under the date of April 9, 1657 : — ' A plot discovered by
the vigilancy of Thurloe, of an intended insurrection by
Major-General Harrison and many of the Fifth-Monarchy
men ' (p. 655). Thurloe afterwards, by Cromwell's desire,
reported on the subject of this plot to the parliament,
and received in his place the thanks of the house, through
the Speaker, for his detection of the plot, and ' for the
great services done by him to the commonwealth and to
the parliament, both m this and many other particulars.'
On the 13th July, 1657, he was sworn one of the privy
council to the Protector, appointed in accordance with
the 'Humble Petition and Advice.' Honours now came
thick upon him. In the year 1658 he was elected one pf
the governors of the Charter-House and chancellor of the
university of Glasgow.
In September, 1658, Cromwell died, and his son Richard
was proclaimed in his stead. In the parliament that was
called in December, Thurloe was solicited to sit ibrTewks-
bury, in a letter which is worth extracting, as showing his
estimation and position at this time, and the spirit of con-
stituencies:—' Noble Sir, We understand that you are
pleased so much to honour this poor corporation as to
accept of our free and unanimous electing you one of our
burgesses in the next parliament, and to sit a member for
this place. Sir, we are so sensible of the greatness of the
obligation, that we know not by what expressions suffi-
ciently to demonstrate our acknowledgments; only at
present we beseech you to accept of this for an earnest,
that whomsoever you shall think worthy to be your part-
ner shall have the second election ; and our zeal and
hearty affections to serve and honour you whilst we are,
as we shall ever strive to be, Sir, your most humble and
obliged servants,' &c. : signed by the bailiffs and justices of
Tewksbury. (State Papers, vol. vii., p. 572.) He was not
after all chosen for Tewksbury. He was elected for Wis-
bech, Huntingdon, and the university of Cambridge. His
election for the last was communicated to him in a letter
from the celebrated Dr. Cuclworth, who wrote to him in
this strain :— ' We being all very glad that there was a per-
son of so much worth and so good a friend to the university
and learning as yourself, whom we might betrust with the
care of our privileges and concernments.' (Stata Papers,
vol. vii., p. 587.) Thurloe made his election to sit for the
university of Cambridge. .
The meeting of this parliament was the beginning of
discontents and of Richard Cromwell's fall. We find
Thurloe, in a letter to Henry Cromwell, viewing the com-
plaints of the army and of the opposition in parliament as
pointed principally against himself, and stating that he
had asked the Protector's permission to retire from his
office ' I trust,' he adds, ' other honest men will have
their opportunity, and may do the same thing with myseli
with better acceptance, having not been engaged in many
particulars, as I have, in your father's lifetime, which must
be the true reason of these stirrings ; for they were a 1 set
on foot before his now highness had done or refused one
single thing, or had received any advice from any one
perlon whatsoever.' Thurloe remained however secretary
of state. It was one of the objects set before themselves
by the royalists in this parliament, who, by uniting with
the republican party, formed a most troublesome oppo-
tion to Richard Cromwell's government, to impeach
Thmloe but this object was yet undeveloped when the
parliament was dissolved. Thurloe appears to have given
Ftrong counsel against the dissolution.* . The immediate
consequence of the dissolution was the summoning by
Fleetwood and the council of officers, of the Rump of the
Long Parliament, and Richard Cromwell's deposition.
.
One of the • mmiy h..n-st men v.ns ,loubtlc»s
Thurloe.
at . ne
Clarendon's • Stute Vapet.,' Tol. in., pp. «0 60.
T II U
416
T II U
The letter* written during Richard Cromwell's short
Piotcclorale, in the third voh, Mendon's • State
Paper*,' are lull ui' acknowledgments of Thurloc's influ-
with Kit-hard Cromwell, and of the importance at-
tached to him by the intriguing Royalist*. Thus, Cooper,
one of Hyde's spies, writes to him, February l;i. HiV.t,
:iwell is governed by Thurloe, whether for fear or
! l,iiiiv. not ; but .sure it is. lu> hath power to dispose
him against the sense of right, or indeed his own interests.
Thurloe 's malice, I doubt, will never suffer him to do us
pood ' p. 4i"> i. Again Hyde writes to another of his
txgents, Brodrick, • There is nothing we have thought of
more importance, or have given more in charge to our
friends inner the beginning of the parliament, than that
they should advance all charges and accusations against
Thurloe and St. John, who will never think of serving the
king: and if they two were thoroughly prosecuted, and
some of the members of the High Court of Justice, Crom-
well's spirits would fall apace ' (p. 428). ' It is strange,'
Hyde write* a month after, March 10, 1659, ' they have
not in all this time fell upon Thurloe and those other per-
sons who advanced Cromwell's tyranny ' (p. 436). Then
overtures to Thurloe to aid the king are thought of. ' I
do confess to you,' Hyde writes, ' I cannot comprehend
why Thurloe, and even his master St. John, should not be
very ready to dispose Cromwell to join with the king, and
why they should not reasonably promise themselves more
particular advantages from thence than from anything else
that is like to fall out ' (p. 449). After the dissolution of
the parliament, serious thoughts seem to have been enter-
tained of soliciting Thurloe's and St. John's aid (p. 177 .
Hut Thurloe afterwards becomes again an object of fear to
Hyde. During the government by the army, he writes.
' I do less understand how Thurloe shapes, and i> in dan-
ger to be exempted out of the Act of Oblivion, and at the
same time employed in the greatest secrets of the govern-
ment, for I have some reason to believe that he meddles as
much as ever in the foreign intelligence ' (p. 532).
On the 14th of January, 1660, Thurloe was succeeded in
his office of secretary of state by Scot, one of the repub-
lican party ; but he was reappointed on the 27th of Feb-
ruary. His patent as chief postmaster had been cancelled
in the interval, on the 2nd of February. (Common* Jnur-
nalt, vol. vii., p. 533.) In the movements that followed for
the restoration of Charles II., Thurloe made an offer of
his services to those who were bringing about that event.
Sir E. Hyde writes to Sir John Grenville, April 23rd, 1660,
' \Ve have, since I saw you, received very frank overtures
from Secretary Thurloe, with many great professions of
resolving to serve the kinc. and not only in his own en-
deavours, but by the i; lends, who are easily
enough guessed at. This comes through the hands of a
person who will not deceive us, nor is easily to be de-
ceived himself, except by such bold dissimulation of the
other, which cannot at first be discerned. . . . The king re-
turned such an re fit, and desires to sec some
effects of his good affection, and then he will find his
service more acceptable.' (Thurtoe's Slate Papers, vol.
vii.. p. 807.) And Hyde goes on to instruct his correspond-
ent to consult Monk as to Thurloe's character, and as to
his power to be of use, supposing lie were sincerely will-
ing. On the ir.lli uf May Thurloe was accused by the
parliament of high treason, and ordered to be secured ;
uf .hme a vote was passed allowing him
' liberty to attend the secretary of slate, at such times :i
[the House] shall appoint, and for so long a time as they shall
own his attendance for the service of the state, wit hoiit any
trouble or molestation during such his attendance, and iii
his going and returning to and from the seeietary ol
state, any former order of this House notwithstanding.
After his release from Imprisonment, lie retired t<> Great
Milton in Oxfordshire, where he generally resided, except
in term-time, when I i his chamber* in l.im-oln's-
Inn. It is said that he was often solicited l>y Charles II.
to resume public business, and always refused, telling the
king that he despaired of sen-ing him as he had
•.ell, whose rule was to seek out men for \
not place* for men. (Birch's /.//-•</ Thiirlo-; prefixed to
-rt, p. xix. , Thurloe died at J.incoln's-Inn on
the 21
He had been twice married, and left four sons and two
•UfMen, all by his second wife, a sister of Sir Thomas
Overbury. He WM possessed, during the days of power,
of the manors of VVhittlesey - and \\ 1,
Andrews, and the rectory of \Vli i the
Isle of Ely, and of \Visliech Castle,' w'h tiilt.
Hut alter the Restoration they reverted to the Bishop of
Kly. There is an entry in the Commons' Journals ol the
isth of May, KM! : -'.Mr. Thurloe |>ut out of
the ordinance for assessment ot the islt • >l.\iii., p.
36.) Dr. Hirch says he had an estate of about 41MI/. a-ycar
at Astwood in Huckinghumshire. In a monumental in-
scription to the memory of his son-in-law in St. Paul's
Church, Bedford (<•<,/,•'* .1/NS., vol. iii., p. 43), Thurloe it
described as of Astwood, Bucks.
Thurloe does not appear to have possessed any sinking
qualities, either moral or intellectual, to impress the minds
of his contemporaries ; and we know little else of him than
that he had great powers of business. Burnet describes
him as 'a very dexterous man at getting intelligence.'
(Hist, of his oicn Timet, i. 66.) From a story in Burnet
relative to Syndercombs conspiracy against Cromwell,
and from what is said by Pepys of Morland, when assistant
to Thurloe, who played Ins master false, and gained a
baronetcy from Charles II. for his treachery, it might
appear that he was not of a very genernns disposition,
or much liked by those who were under him. Morland
attributed his misconduct to 'Thurloe's bad usage of
him.' (Pepys, vol. i., p. 133.) [MoHi.\M>, SIR SAMI:KI..]
Burnet's story is, that Thurloe treated lightly information
which had been given him of the design on Crom-
well's life, and that when, on the subsequent discovery of
this design, Cromwell became aware that information had
been given to Thurloe, on which he had not acted, and
blamed Thnrloe lor his conduct, Thurloe availed himself
of his influence w ith the Protector to malign his informant ;
'So he (the informant) found,' says Burnet, ' how danger-
ous it was even. to preserve a prince so he called him1,
when a minister was wounded in the doing of it, and that
the minister would be too hard for the prince, even though
his own safety was concerned in it '(vol. i.. p. 79).
Thurloe's 'State Papers,' 7 vols. fol.. 174'J. contain a
large mass of records of his official transactions, together
with a number of private letters and papers. They were
edited by Dr. Birch, who gives the following history of
Thurloe's papers : 'The principal part of this collection
consists of a series of papers discovered in the reign of
King William, in a false ceiling in the garrets belonging to
Seeietary Thurloe's chambcis, .No. xiii., near the chapel in
Liucoln's-Inn, by a clergyman who had borrowed those
chambers, during the long vacation, of his friend Mr.
Thomlinson, the owner of them. This elergvinan soon
after disposed of the papers to the Right Honourable John
Lord Somers. then lord high chancellor of Kngland. who
caused them to be bound up in (i? volumes in folio. 1
afterwards descended to Sir Joseph Jckyll, master of the
rolls; upon whose decease they were purchased by the
late Mr. Fletcher Gyles, bookseller.' They were published
by Mr. Gyles's executors. Dr. Birch, the editor, received
many other papers from diti'erent individuals, especially
from Lord Shelburne and the then archbishop of Canter-
bury, which he has iucoipoiated in the collection. For
historical purposes this is an invaluable collection.
THl'RLOW, KinVAKl). LORD, was born in the year
1732. at Little Ashlield near Stowmarket in Suffolk, 'ills
father, Thomas Thurlow, was a clergyman, and held
. l\ the In ings of Little Ashliel'd, and of Strati
Mary's In Norfolk. After receiving the rudiments of his
education from his father, young Thurlow was sent t.
grammar-school at Canterbury at th
Donne, who sought (as Mr. Southey states in his • Life of
Cow per' upon the authority of Sir Egerton 1!
gratify a malignant feeling towards the head-niaster. by-
placing under his care ' a daring, refractory, clever boy.
who would be sure to torment him.' The motive ascribed
to Donne is far-fetched, and seems improbable : but. there
is no doubt that Thurlow was educated at the ( 'anterbury
school, and that he continued there several years, and
until he was removed to Cains < .imbndgc. ll-.s
character and conduct at the university did nut promise
any meritorious eminence in future life. He gained no
academical honours, and was compelled to leave Cam-
bridge abruptly in consequence of turbulent and indeco-
rons behaviour towards the dean of his college. Soon after
he quitted Cambridge he was entered as a member of the
Society of the Inner Temple. In Michaelmas term, 1754,
T H U
417
T H U
he was called to the bar, and joined the Western circuit in
the ensuing spring.
Thurlow immediately applied himself to the practice of
his profession with great assiduity ; and although he
brought with him an indifferent character from the uni-
versity, he attained unusually early to reputation and em-
ployment both in Westminster Hall and on the circuit.
His name appears frequently in the Law Reports soon after
he was called to the bar ; and his success in the profession
he had chosen was clearly ascertained in less than seven
years from the commencement of his practice. In 1761
he obtained the rank of king's counsel ; and it may per-
haps be inferred from an anecdote which is related by his
early friend and associate Cowper, in one of his letters
(Cowper's Works, vol. v., p. 254, Southey's edit.), and
which refers to this period, that Thurlow had then acquired
a degree of reputation which suggested the prediction that
he would eventually rise to the highest office in his profes-
sion. A more convincing proof of his position in the law
is however recorded in the Reports, from which it appears
that immediately after his appointment as king's counsel
his practice in the courts rapidly increased, and, during ten
years preceding his appointment as solicitor-general, was
exceeded only by that of Sir Fletcher Norton, and one or
two others of the most eminent advocates of his time. To
have succeeded so early and to so great an extent, without
adventitious aid from influence or connection, and in com-
petition with advocates of unquestioned ability and learn-
ing, is a substantial argument of professional merit. His
employment in preparing and arranging the documentary
evidence for the trial of the appeal in the House of Lords
against the decision of the Court of Session in the Great
Douglas Cause fwhich, according to professional tradition,
resulted from mere accident) may have had the effect of
bringing his talents, industry, and legal acquirements under
the immediate notice of persons of power and influence,
and of thus opening the way to his subsequent elevation.
In the new parliament called in 1768 he was returned
as member for the borough of Tamworth, and became a
constant and useful supporter of Lord North's administra-
tion. Upon Dunning's resignation of the office of solicitor-
general in March, 1770, and Blackstone's refusal to accept
it (' Lite of Sir William Blackstone,' prefixed to Blackstone's
yi''7/ort«),Thurlow received the appointment, and in January,
1771, he succeeded Sir William De Grey as attorney-gene-
ral. Soon after his introduction to office, he attracted the
particular notice of George III. by the zeal and energy
displayed by him in supporting the policy of Lord North's
government respecting America, and in which the king is
known to have taken the warmest interest. Thurlow's
strenuous and steady support of the minister in the great
parliamentary contest which ensued respecting that policy,
procured for him a degree of confidence and even of per-
sonal regard on the part of the king, which continued un-
abated for upwards of twenty years, and had unquestion-
ably great influence in \\tf remarkable vicissitudes of party
which occurred in that period.
In the summer of 1778 lord chancellor Bathurst resigned
his office ; and on the 2nd of June in that year Thurlow
was appointed his successor, and raised to the peerage
with the title of Baron Thurlow of Ashfield in the county
of Suffolk. Four years afterwards, in March, 1782, when
Lord North was removed from power, and the ephemeral
Rockingham administration was formed, Thurlow remained
in possession of the great seal by the express command of
the king, and in spite of Mr. Fox's opposition to his con-
tinuance in office ; thus furnishing an instance without a
parallel in the history of English party, of a lord chan-
cellor retaining office under an administration to all the
leading features of whose policy he was resolutely op-
posed. Nor was he content in this inconsistent association
to differ from his colleagues in opinion only ; on the con-
trary, he took no pains to conceal his hostility to their
principles, and even opposed in the House of Lords with
all his characteristic energy the measures which they
ui.animously supported. Thus, after the bill for prevent-
ing government contractors from sitting in the House of
Commons had been introduced into the House of Lords,
where it was supported by Lord Shelburne and all the
ministers in that house, the lord chancellor left the wool-
sack, and himself moved that ' the bill be not committed,'
denouncing the measure as ' an attempt to deceive and
betray the people,' and designating it ' a jumble of con-
P. C.. No. 1540.
tradictions.' (Hansard's Parl. Hist., vol. xxii.,"pp. 135G-
1379.) The inconvenience produced by this embarrassing
disunion of councils was deeply felt, and was one of the
principal reasons for Mr. Fox's retirement from administra-
tion on the death of the marquis of Rockingham ; and
when the administration was dissolved in February, 1783,
upon the coalition formed between Lord North and Mr.
Fox, Lord Thurlow was compelled to retire from office,
notwithstanding the exertions of the king to retain him.
But though no longer chancellor, he still continued to be
one of those who were described by Junius as ' the king's
friends,' and was supposed to have been his secret and
confidential adviser during the short reign of the Coalition
ministry. Upon the dissolution of that ministry at the
end of the same year in which it was formed, the great seal
was restored to Lord Thurlow by Mr. Pitt, who then be-
came prime minister. He continued to hold the office of
lord chancellor for nine years after his reappointment ;
and until the occurrence of the king's madness in 1788,
appeared to act cordially with the rest of the cabinet ; but
when that event rendered a change of councils by means
of a regency probable, he was suspected, with good reason,
of some intriguing communications with the Prince of
Wales and the" Whigs (Moore,'s Life of Sheridan, vol. ii.,
chap, xiii.), and was always subsequently regarded with
distrust by Mr. Pitt and his colleagues. On the other
hand, Lord Thurlow took no pains to conceal his dislike of
Mr. Pitt ; and that minister felt himself so embarrassed by
the chancellor's personal hostility to him, that in 1789 he
complained to the king, who immediately wrote to Thur-
low upon the subject, and obtained from him a satisfactory
answer. His angry feeling however still continued, until
at length, in 1792, probably relying upon his personal in-
fluence with the king, he ventured to adopt a similar
course to that which he had followed in very different cir-
cumstances under the Rockingham administration, and
actually opposed several measures brought into parliament
by the government. In particular he violently opposed
Mr. Pitt's favourite scheme for continuing the Sinking
Fund, and voted against it in the House of Lords, though
he had never expressed his dissent 1'rom the measure in
the cabinet. This kind of opposition, though submitted to
from necessity by a weak government like that of the
marquis of Rockingham, could not be endured by so pow-
erful a minister as Mr. Pitt ; and on the next day he in-
formed the king that either the lord chancellor or himself
must retire from the administration. The king, without
any struggle or even apparent reluctance, at once con-
sented to the removal of Lord Thurlow, who was ac-
quainted by command of his majesty that he must resign
the great seal upon the prorogation of parliament. Lord
Thurlow is said to have been deeply mortified by this
conduct on the part of the king ; and he is related to have
declared in conversation that 'no man had a right to treat
another as the king had treated him.' Subsequently to
his notice of dismissal, and before he quitted office, his ill
humour was displayed by his opposition to another mea-
sure prepared and supported by Mr;- Pitt, the object of
which was the encouragement of the growth of timber in
the New Forest. On this occasion he reflected severely
upon those who had advised the king upon this measure,
and went so far as to say that his majesty had been im-
posed upon. (Tomline's Life of Pitt, vol. iii., p. 398-9.)
One of his latest acts as lord chancellor was to sign a pro-
test in the House of Lords against Mr. Fox's Libel Act.
The opportunity of his retirement from office was taken to
grant him a new patent, by which he was created Baron
Thurlow, of Thurlow, in the county of Suffolk, with re-
mainder, failing his male issue, to his three nephews, one
of whom afterwards succeeded to the title under this
limitation.
After his retirement from office in 1792, Lord Thurlow
ceased to take any leading part in politics, and having
little personal influence with any party, became insignifi-
cant as a public character. He occasionally spoke in the
House of Lords on the subjects of interest which were dis-
cussed at the period of the French revolution ; and it is
worthy of remark that he frequently opposed the measures
adopted by the Tory government at that time for the sup-
pression of popular disturbances. Instances of this occur
with respect to the Treasonable Practices Bill and the
Seditious Meetings Bill, in 1795 ; and a comparison of the
sentiments expressed by him on these occasions, with his
VOL. XXIV.— 3 H
I II U
T 11 U
spee?he* respecting America during I/>rd North* admi-
nistration, afford* a striking example of political ineon-
•stenrv. A circumi.tanc, I m the '
Sir Samuel Romilly ' vol. ii.. \>. 124 \ which proves that
till within n few month* of liis death I/>rd Thurlow was
Mill confidentially consulted l>.v members of the
fcmilr. On occasion of the first comnv r the
charge* made by Lady Douglas against ••*» of
Wale» in 1808, tlie p. ected
that Thurlow should he consulted, and the particulars of
.Mterview between him and Sir Samuel Romilly are
lintr.
died :i1 Brighton, on the 12th of Septem-
ber. 1826, after an illness of two years.
1'H, a German architect of some
note, was bom at Munich, November :<. 17*'.'. '"it did not
begin to apply himself to architecture professionally until
when he became a pupil of Professor Fischer's, and
had for hU fellow-students Gartner, Ziebland, Ohlmuller
[ihiLMi-LLKR], and many others who have since rendered
themselves more or less di- i. At the end of the
foil,, :i previous visit to Home at the com-
mencement of it h- joined Hubsch, Heger (died 1837),
and Koch, in a professional excursion to Greece, where lie
•pent five months in studying and drawing the remains of
hml.i theomsome fc-.v nf which he published on
hn return, with the title of • Ansiehten von At hen vind
seine Denkmaler,' 18:23-0. He did not however confine
of the Grecian style, nor v
•r of it as to have no relish lor any
other; on the cunt! nan style ol
the time of I.t-o \. to l>e equally worthy of the architect's
attention, and to deserve, to lie far better, more faithfully
and tastefully, represented by menus otmgrwriafp than it
previously had been, lie accordingly joined with Guten-
sonn in bringing out a ' Samrnlung von Deukmaler,' &c.,
lection of Architectural Studies, and Decoral ions from
Buildings at Home, of the fifteenth and sixteenth centu-
ries/the first number of which appeared in !S2(i : but.
unfortunately, it did not meet with the encouragement it
deserved, aikl was therefore given up, when very little
progress had been made with it. The publication how-
ever was BO far advantageous to Thurmer, since it i
mended him to notice, and led to
at the same time two different invitations, one from
Frankfort, the other from Dresden, to which la-t li-
the preference. He was there made professor-extraordi-
nary at the school of architecture, and in 1K12 was pro-
moted to be first professor of architecture, in which capa-
he did very much for the advancement of the art am'
the improvement of taste. Though he has left \er\
little executed by himself in that city, the only public
building in it entirely by him being the post-onV
though the ' Banptwache,' or guard-housi led by
him, it was after Schinkel's designs . his opinions bad a
very beneficial influence. That he should have
few' opportunities for displaying his ability, is not very sur-
prising, nor doe- ' I'roin his reputation, since fie dii
not lone survive the completion of his first edifice : he iliei
November 13th. 1KJ3. while Maun- at Miinich. What hi
might have done, had a longer life been granted him. is
ritown by the number of designs he left, all more m- l<— -
stamped by originality and artist ical feeling. Tliat the
grateful regard expressed for his memory and his talents
by hi* friends and pupils was not a mere temporary <-r!V
. in proved by their ImMiiir erected a. bronze bust am
monument to him, ii: ie Academy <if Art*.
-. LST. der Nru< . Morgenblatt, 183fO
TlirUNKVSSKR /I'M Till UN. LK< INAK1). :
braled alchcmi-' <>loger, was horn in !.">:« i ai
where his father carried on the trade of a goldsmith. 1 1
wa» himself brought up to this employment, but he >
obliged to leave his native place when •
age, on account of having sold to a Jew a piece of cilt le:u
ire goW. He ftrrt went to England, t hence to France
and afterward* to (Germany, whc-i v he enlisted nmong th<
troops of the margrave of Brandenburg. The following
year he was taken prisoner : from that tun. ii.
military life, nml having visited the mines nn>!
Ctcrniany and the north of Kurope, he came t
• 'irnberg, Htrasuburg. and Hnstmt/. H.
carried on the trade of a goldsmith, and made much money
skill in the art
tit end dif-
I558 he went to
ill, on account of his reputation I
ii' mining, he was scut for to tin
'••rent mineral works.
I'arenz in Upper Innthal. ami
account in that place, as well as at 8t.
'
mted still more '
lad so much confidence in him that he sent bin;
-it land, the Orkney I
rhurneysser also visited the coasts <>;
Egypt, Arabia, Svria, and 1'
Tyrol in 1507. Two years afterwards, at the request of
ne prince, he apiin visited the mines of Hungary
md Bohemia. Tlie publication of his works made him
nne to go to Miinster and Frankfort on t!
which latter place he became acquainted with l;
of Brandenburir. whose wife he cured of a dangerous ill-
ness, and v- ' -1 to attach him ;
hope that he might discover in ) ^omc unknown
mineral treasures. Thurneysser accepted the offi<
])hvsieian to the prince, and accompanied him to Berlin,
where, from his skill in profiting by the prejudices and
weaknesses of his contemporaries, and from l>cing ac-
quainted with all the resources of charlatanism, he soon
succeeded not only in acquiring considerable wealth, hut
also in passing himself oft' for one of the most learned and
scientific men of his acre. At length however, by the
of others, and still more by his own imprudence, his d.
tions were discovered, and he was. in 15s!. obliged to leave
Berlin. He v.,nt to Prague. Cologne, and Home: and
after bavins thus led a wandering life for sonn-
died at last in a convent at <
in l.">'.(0. He was an advocate for the pret
of alchemy and uromaney, and his whole hi tlfat
of most similar characters is a proof of tlie infh
that may be acquired in an icrnorar.t
enterprising man, when he po-
tion above the generality of his contemporaries.
writings were numerous, hut of little worth, and tin •
now very seldom looked into. The titles of twelve of them
.en in the Binffnijifiir .^fft^^ra^f, from which work
the preceding account is taken.
Till HOT/, or THUHo ^11 count;- in Hun-
iii the circle on this side the Danube. It is
on the north by Arva. on the east In l.eiitan :<nd Su1
the south by liars, and on the wi^t In
Its area is 4-15 sipiare mi!i-s. and the population -J2.000 in-
• •hiefly Slowacs. of whom about two-thirds are
ians and one-third Roman Catholics, except about
T>00 Jews. ' This country is justly called a beautiful
den ' says the anonymous author of the description of
Hungary, Croatia, and Slavonia', for it is surrounded on
all sides" with lofty mountains. ;us with walls, within which
nature has been ' lavish of the mo.st beautiful scenery.
Tliis only two entrances in the northern part,
through which the "river Waaf enters and Icavi
country. The first entrain - inountai'i-
chailU called theGreat and the Little Fatra. and the other
it Fatra has two summits, the
StocV lii-'h. and the Tlmrocz Krivan. 'hJo
The climate is cold, but healthy. Though the soil
.- no superfluity of natural product!"-
pi-odi- 6, but nearly s'uificicnt corn !chicfl\ I
imntion of the inhabitants: and so
much - that some portion can K
.if different kinds abounds, especially lap-.
1 peas. Potatoes are extensively cultivated, and
also a species of turnip peculiar to this country. Tlie in-
habitants collect a considerable quantity of a balsam from
tin- m
and extolli --ing great medicin.
cvportcd to <;,>ni y, and even toAmei.
numerous I' '-lieep on the lin "•] the
numerous MiUiv-. ( if i:isi.s-ji acics of productive land,
only <i-. I i/ ivered
-. The chief town is St. Martin, on the river
Thurocz, which ha.- m inhabitants. It lias a
handsome: count} -hall, and Ii Itomnn Catholic
, ,- Blumculiacli. <>
TIH - KK.]
THURSO.
THY
419
THY
THUS. [BOSWKLLIA.]
THYATEIRA. [LYDIA.]
TIIYLA'CINUS. [MASSUPIALIA, vol. xiv., p. 455.]
THYLACOTHE'RIUM. [MARSUPIALS, vol. xiv.,
p. 404.]
THYME. [THYMUS.]
TIIYMELA'CE^E, a natural order of plants belonging-
to the tubiferous group of Incomplete Exogens. The name
of this order is derived from Thymelaea, a plant spoken of
by the antients, and which some have supposed to be the
Daphne Gnidium, a plant belonging to the present order.
This order consists of shrubs or small trees.very rarely herba-
ceous, with non-articulated, sometimes spiny branches
ha\ ing a very tenacious bark. The leaves are entire, simple,
without stipules, and alternate or opposite. The flowers are
capitate or spiked, terminal or axillary, occasionally solitary.
The calyx is tubular, coloured, 4-cleft with an imbricate
ation ; the stamens 2-4 or 8 in number, inserted into
the tube with 2-celled anthers, dehiscing lengthwise in the
middle ; the ovary is solitary, with a solitary pendulous
ovule ; the fruit is hard and dry, or drupaceous ; the seed
has little or no albumen, a straight embryo, with a short
radicle and entire cotyledons. This order is related to
Santalaceae, from which it differs in its inferior calyx. It
is also allied to Elaeagnaceae and Proteaceae, from both of
which it is distinguished by its pendulous ovules. Lindley
- to this order Bartliug's Anthoboleae, on account of
tlu'ir superior fruit. [Exoc.vHPUs.] The species are
found in Europe, but are not common ; they occur in
greatest abundance in the cooler parts of India and
South America, at the Cape of Good Hope, and in New
Holland.
The most prominent property of this order is their caus-
ticity, which resides in their bark. When applied to the
skin, it products vesication, and pain in the mouth when
chewed. The bark of several of the species is very tough,
and may be manufactured into cordage. Passenna tinc-
toria yields a dye which is used in the south of Europe to
colour wool yellow. The various species of Daphne pos-
sess active properties ; some are used for dyeing, some are
poisonous, and the Daphne Lagetta is the Lace-bark-tree
of Jamaica.
<! Mewrrum.
ilh flown; 2, ditto with fruit; 3, sinslc flower; 4. calyx
. ih.r»-ins Hie insertion of the etarocru ; 5, section of ovary, thowing the
,119 seed.
THYMUS (Mpot), the name of a genus of plants
.. urine to the natural order Lamiaceae or Lahiatae. It
ha* an ovate bilabiate calyx with thirteen ribs ; the upper
lip is trifid, the lower lip is bifid with ciliated subulate
segments, and throat villous inside ; the corolla with the
upper lip erect, nearly plane, notched, lower jmtenl anil
tnAd : stamens straight, exserted ; anthers ^-ccllc.1 ; styles
bifid at apex. All the species are small un
with usually purplish flowers. Between twenty and
thirty species have been described by botanists, most
of them inhabitants of Europe, especially the region of
the Mediterranean : one only is a native of the British
Isles.
T. vulgaris, Common or Garden Thyme, is an erect
plant, or sometimes procumbent at the base, or clothed
with a hoary pubescence ; the leaves are sessile, linear, or
ovato-lanceolate, acute, with revolute edges, fascicled in
the axils ; the teeth of the upper lip of the calyx are lan-
ceolate, but the segments of the lower lip are subulate and
ciliated. This plant is a native of the south-west parts of
Europe, in dry plains and on hills, and uncultivated places
free I'rora woods. The- plant is very much branched, and
has purplish flowers. This species is cultivated for culinary
purposes, and many varieties of it are met with in
gardens. It has a pungent aromatic odour and taste. These
properties are communicated to water by infusion only to
a slight extent. They depend upon an essential oil, an
ounce of which may be obtained from thirty pounds of the
plant.
T. serpyllum, Wild Thyme, or Mother-of-Thyme, is a suf-
fruticose plant, with capitate flowers, branched decum-
bent stems, with plain, ovate, obtuse, entire, petiolate
leaves, more or less ciliated at the base. It is a native of
Great Britain, on hills and in dry pastures, and throughout
Europe and the north of Asia. This plant has the same
sensible properties as the last, but is more inclined to
produce varieties, several of which have been described as
species. These vary principally in the colour of the
flowers and the size of the leaves and plant. One of the
varieties, T. s. citrutu*, is known by the name of Lemon-
Thyme on account of its scent resembling the lemon. The
seeds will not however maintain this property : if required
to be preserved, the plants must be propagated by means
of slips or cuttings.
Both this and the former species, when cultivated, are
best raised by means of seeds, although they may be easily
propagated by parting the roots or planting slips and cut-
tings. The seed may be sown in March or April, in a light
tinr soil, and when the plants are two or three inches
high, they should be transplanted. Roots or slips should
be planted in the autumn. The plants produce abundance
of seeds in the summer and autumn, which, when gathered,
should be rubbed out, and preserved for planting in the
following spring.
These plants are not so much used in medicine as for
culinary purposes. The volatile oil is frequently used as
an application to carious teeth. Linnaeus recommends
them as a remedy for dissipating the effects of intoxicating
liquors, and a decoction is used in France as an application
for the itch.
T. maslichina, Mastich-Thyme, or Herb-Mastich, has
ovate or oblong, obtuse, petiolate leaves, narrowed at the
base and not ciliated ; the calyx is villous, with feathery sub-
ulate teeth, which are longer than the tube. It is a native
of dry, sandy, uncultivated places in Spain, Portugal, and
Barbary. It exhales a scent resembling mastich. It is
the Ma rum vulgare of older botanists, and at one time
had some reputation as an errhine. Several other species
of thyme are cultivated ; they do not require much care ;
the more delicate and rarer kinds are found amongst col-
lections of alpine plants.
THYMUS GLAND, which in the calf and lamb is
called the sweetbread, is an organ situated 'behind the
ntrrnum, in the anterior mediastinum, in front of the peri-
cardium and the large vessels arising from the base of the
In the embryo and the infant it has, in proportion
to the rest of the body, a very considerable size ; in after-
life it becomes comparatively smaller, and at last near'y
disappears. It is of an elongated form, its greatest dimen-
sion being from above downwards, and is composed of two
chief portions, which, by careful dissection, may be sepa-
rated in the middle line. At each end it bears two pro-
cesses or horns, of which the upper are longer and more
slender than the lower, and the right are usually longer
than the left. It is supplied by several branches from the
internal mammary, inferior thyroid, and mediastinal arte-
ii which veins of considerable size correspond. Its
absorbent vessels are numerous and large, but not more
so than in other glands of equal vascularity.
The thymus gland is composed of a great number of
similar small masses or lobules, which may be separated
3H 2
T 11 Y
4-20
T I A
by di*wtion, and are held together by fine cellular tissue
continued from that which invests the whole glund. The
tubules va; . rom half a line to three lines in dia-
meter, and have simple or complex cavities filled with a
nirrky flu; ' "<>|»-r , T/if .Imttnmy of thf
Tfiymu* Gland) says that the lobules are arranged in
spiral lines so that the eland may be unravelled into a sort
of knotted rope of lobules, which are wound around a
central cavity or reservoir, with which the cavities of the
lobules communicate. But the existence of such a cen-
tral cavity is not generally admitted.
The fluid contained in the cells of the thymus gland is,
in \oung and healthy animals, opaque and creamy. It
has been particularly examined by Mr. Gulliver (Appendix
to Gerber's General Anatomy), who has found that both in
its chemical composition, and in the abundance and struc-
ture of the globules which it contains, it closely resembles
the fluid of the lymphatic elands.
Of the function of the thymus gland scarcely anything
probable is known. Whatever it be, it is performed most
actively during fcetal life and the first year of extra-uterine
life : for during this time the thymus gland grows at the
same rate as the rest of the body, its cells are full of fluid,
and the fluid is thick and abundant in globules. From the
end of the first to the end of the third year its size does
not materially vary; but after this time it gradually di-
minishes, and after the twelfth or fourteenth year it is rare
to meet with more than a slight trace of it. It is also of
considerable size and is full of fluid in hybernating animals :
and this, together with its activity during foetal life, has
suggested that its office is in some way connected with the
preparation of the blood, when respiration is either inac-
tive or has not commenced. But, in these same circum-
stances, digestion is not going on, and it is therefore just
as probable that the thymus gland may have the office of
preparing a fluid and' globules, like those of the chyle,
from the materials which have served for the nutrition of
the body and have been re-absorbed ; in other words, that
its function is analogous to that of the lymphatic glands.
This was the opinion of Hewson (Experimental Eiiifn
it is supported by the observations of Mr. Gulliver and
many others, and is on the whole more probable than any
other yet advanced.
The thymus gland is rarely diseased. The only affec-
tions of it yet described are an unnatural enlargement of
it, and its persistence in the dimensions which it has in
fcetal life. When it is enlarged there is generally a more
than usual development of all the lymphatic glands; and
not unfrcquently there are at the same time signs of serious
general disorder of the health, such as rickets, hydro-
cephalus, &c. It has been supposed, especially by the Ger-
man pathologists, that a peculiar affect ion of the respira-
tion, which has been called Thymic Asthma, is the gene-
ral result of enlargement of this gland; but the connec-
tion of the two affections is not yet clearly established.
THYO'XK. [HOI.OTHURIA, vol. xii., p. 2<j<>.]
THYROID GLAND is an organ situated in the middle
and fore part of the neck, in front and by the sides of the
thyroid cartilage of the larynx (from which it has its
name), and of the cricoid cartilage and the upper part of
the trachea [LARYNX], to which it is closely fixed by
cellular tissue. It is composed of two chief lateral por-
tions or lobes, and a smaller portion or isthmus connect-
ing them. A fourth portion, which is long and slender,
•ned the middle column or horn, usually passes
upwards from the isthmus in front of the larynx. The la-
teral lobes are of a somewhat pyramidal form, about two
inches long, and an inch wide at their bases. The whole
gland is proportionally larger in the embryo than in the
adult, and in women than in men.
The substance of the thyroid gland is firm, fleshy, and
v»ry vascular. It receives a copious supply of blood from
two superior and two inferior thyroid arteries ; the former
are branches of the external carotid, the latter of the snb-
clavian arteries; their branches communicate freely in the
•jliiud, and they are accompanied by veins and lymphatics
.•responding size. The interior of the gland contains
mimci'UM very minute cells, lined by polished membranes,
and in young persons filled by a clear albuminous fluid, in
which, or in the walls of the cells, there are numerous
granular corpuscles.
Of the function of the thyroid gland no more is known
than of those of the spleen and thymus gland, between
which it seems, in structure, to hold an intermediate
place ; resembling the spleen in its va*cularity. which is
far greater than u required for \\> nutrition, and the thymus
in tin- existence of cells cont.iiiimg a fluid, and in its dcve-
lop.nciit during early life. \Vhiit has been said of their pro-
bable functions might be repented hen1.
The thyroid ghrul is subject to several chances of struc-
ture, most of which, being attended with enlargement, are
comprehended in the name of bronchocele or gottre
[DKII.M HOCKLK], to which the reader is referred. In many
cases the cells of the gland are enlarged, and its structure,
which in health is with difficulty discernible, may in these
be easily demonstrated.
THYSANO'PODA. [STOMAI-ODS, vol. xxiii., p. 81.]
TIA'HA niijm or rn'iftac ,. a high kind of hat, which was
in antient times worn by the inhabitants of Middle and
:n Asia, especially bv the Persians, Paithian-. Ar-
menians, and Phrygians, 'flu-re were two kinds of 1'
the upright tiara was only used by kings, priests, and oilier
persons of the highest rank, and the upper part had Ire
quently the shape of a crown; the tiara worn by other
people was of a son and flexible material, so that it hung
down on one side, as in the case of the so-called Phry-
gian bonnet. (Hesychius and Suidas, s. r. j-capa.) The
tiaras of persons of high rank were of the most costly
colours, such as purple, and adorned with gold and pre-
cious stones. (Ovid, Metnnwrph., xi. 1H1 ; Valerius
Klaccus, vi. 699 ; compare Dictionary of Greek and Rom.
Aiitiq., under 'Tiara.')
In modern times the term tiara is applied to the head-
dress of the popes, which is worn on solemn occasions, and
consists of a triple crown. Hence it is also used in a figu-
rative sense to designate the papal dignity.
TIA'RA, Mr. Swainson's name for a genus of ' Mitrinse,"
his term for the subfamily of testaceous mol'usks. the
shells of which are termed ' Mitres' by collectors. fVoLU-
•nn.t:.] N.B. This generic name comes too near to FIAKM.
TIARl'NI, ALESSANDRO, one of the most celebrated
painters of the Bolognese school, was horn at Bologna in
l.~>77. He first studied under Prospero Fontana. and, after
Fontana's death in l"i!)7, under Hartolonico (Vsi : but
having in a quarrel discharged a pistol or similar weapon
at a fellow-scholar, without however doing him any injury,
he was obliged to fly from Bologna. He went to Flui
and there engaged himself with a port rait -painter, for
whom he painted hands and draperies, and some of his
performances having attracted the notice of Domenico da
Passignuno, he was admitted by that painter into his studio
as a scholar. Tiarini remained with Passignano seven
years, and by (hat time acquired so great a reputation, that
he received invitations from Bologna to return to that city.
In Bologna his works excited universal admiration for their
invention and earnestness of character, and for their bold-
ness of foreshortening, correctness of design, and propriety
of colouring: the tone of Tiarini's pictures is sombre : he
used little red, and avoided gay colours generally. His
works, which are very numerous, consist chiefly in oil-
paintings; he executed comparatively little in fresco:
tln>>e in public places alone, in Bologna and its vicinity,
and in Mantua. Modcna, Kcggio, Parma, Cremona, and
Pavia, amount to upwards of two hundred: their subjects
are generally of a melancholy or serious nature. The fol-
lowing are the most celebrated : — A Miracle of St. Domi-
nic, in the Capella del Rosario, in the chinch of San Do-
menico at Bologna, painted iu competition with Lioncllo
Spada, in which the saint restores a dead child to life ; the
exhumation of a dead monk, in the convent of San Mi-
ehele in Bosco ; and St. Peter repenting his Denial of
Christ, standing outside the door of the house of the high
1'iiest, with the Mocking of Christ in the background,
illuminated by torchlight.
LudovicoCarracci. MUM style Tiarini ultimately adopted.
was a great admirer of his works : when hi first' saw Tia-
rini's picture of the Miracle of San Domenico, he is re-
ported to have exclaimed that he knew no living master
that could be compared with Tiarini. ."M. ini's
pictures, out of Bologna, have been attributed to one or
other of the Carrac.ci : such was tin case with the cele-
brated Deposition from the Cross, now in the Gallery of
the Academy of Bologna, formerly in the church of 'the
college of Montalto : it is engraved in the work of Rosas-
11111:1, • I-ii Pmacoteca della Ponteficia Accadenua delle
Belle Arti in Bologna.'
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421
T I B
Several of Tiarini's pictures have lost their colour, owing
to his practice of plazmg ; in some the colouring consists
entirely of glazed tints, the design being executed in grey
He opened a life academy in Bologna, and had many
scholars. Malvasia has preserved the name of a famous
model that he used frequently to engage, Valstrago. Tia-
lini died in 1668, aged ninety-one.
(Malvasia, Felsina Pittrice; Lanzi, Storia Pitturica,
&c.)
TIA'RIS, Crestlet, Mr. Swainson's name for a genus of
FKIMGILLID.E, placed by him in the subfamily Cocco-
thraustinee, between Amadina and its subgenera and
Carduelis.
Generic Character. — Bill perfectly conic, entire ; com-
missure sinuated, and consequently angulated. Nostrils
almost naked, round. Wings moderate ; first quill rather
shorter than the second, third, and fourth, which are equal
and longest. Tail even or slightly rounded. Feet mode-
rate. Middle toe and tarsus of equal length ; lateral toes
equal ; hinder toe much shorter than the tarsus. Claws
small, fully curved. Head crested. Locality, South
America only.
Example, Tiaris nrnatus. PI. Col., 208 (Classification
of Bird*).
Mr. G. R. Gray arranges this genus in the subfamily
Frnigillinee, between Pytelia, Sw., and Carduelis (Antiq.),
Briss. (list of the Genera of Birds.}
TIBALDEO. [TEBALDEO.]
TIBALDI, PELLEGRFNO, otherwise called PeDegrino
Pellegrini, or sometimes Pellegrino da Bologna, distin-
guished himself both in painting and in architecture. He
was born in 1527, at Bologna, where his father, who ori-
ginally came from Valsolda in the Milanese territory, \v;is
only a common mason. How, so circumstanced, the father
was able to bring up his son to a profession requiring
means beyond those of his own condition in life, does not
appear ; neither is it known from whom Tibaldi received
his first instruction in painting. In 1547 he visited Rome,
with the intention, it is said, of studying under Pierino del
Vajra, but as the latter died in that same year, he could
hardly have received any lessons from him. Whether he
became a pupil of Michael Agnolo is unknown : he cer-
tainly studied his works very successfully, lor while he
caught from them grandeur of style and energy of forms,
he so attempered their severity by the freedom and grace
of his pencil, that he afterwards acquired from the Car-
racei the name of ' Michelagnolo Riformato,' and may be
considered as the originator of that style which they per-
fected. We must, however, conclude that although he
was employed there in the church of S. Lodovico di Fran-
cehi, he did not display any great ability with his pen-
cil during his residence at Rome, it being related of him
that he felt so discouraged as to have determined to starve
himself to death, from which desperate resolution he was
withheld only by Ottaviano Mascherino, who advised him
to give up painting and devote himself entirely to archi-
tecture, for which he had shown considerable taste. In all
probability this anecdote has been strangely exaggerated,
nor are we informed how he set about putting Mascherinp's
advice into practice. That he partly adopted it, is certain,
and equally certain that if he renounced painting for a
while, he returned to it : in fact, not very long after the
circumstance just spoken of, he was sent to Bologna by
Cardinal Poggi to adorn his palace (afterwards occupied by
the Academia Clementina), where he painted the history
of Ulysses. For the same prelate he also painted the Poggi
Chape), which had been erected after Tibaldi's own de-
signs, and it was those productions which excited the ad-
miration of the Carracci. He was next employed at Lo-
retto and Ancona, where he executed several works in fresco,
and among them those with which he adorned the Sala de'
Mcrcaiiti, or Exchange, in the last-mentioned city.
HLs reputation as an architect in the meanwhile increased,
and after being employed to design, if not to execute, se-
veral buildings at Bologna, and the Palazzo della Sapienza,
or Collegio Borromeo, at Pavia (which last was begun by
Cardinal Carlo Borromeo in 1564), he restored the Archi-
1'alace at Milan, and was appointed chief archi-
tect of the Duomo, or cathedral, in that city (1570). He
suggested the idea or first design of the modern facade
lied to that celebrated Gothic structure, — a design
which has obtained him both praise and censure in almost
equal degree. Among other buildings by him at Milan
are the church of San Lorenzo, that of S. Fedele, and that
of the Jesuits. But the work which, if less celebrated than
some of his others, is considered by one of his critics his
chef-d'oeuvre, and a masterpiece for the contrivance and
ability shown in it, is the ' Casa Professa, ' or that of the
Jesuits at Genoa, with its church, &c., where he completely
mastered all the difficulties arising from the inconvenience
of the site. Neither his fame nor his works were confined
to Italy, for the former caused him to be invited to Spain
in 1586, by Philip II., where he was employed both in his
capacity of architect and in that of painter, in which last
he executed many admirable frescoes in the Escurial. Li-
berally rewarded by Philip, who also conferred on him the
title of Marquis of Valsolda (his birth-place), Tibaldi re-
turned to Italy after passing about nine years in Spain,
and died at Milan in 1598 ; such at least is the date assigned
by Tiraboschi, though some make it much earlier, luiio or
1591, and others about as much later, viz. 1606.
(Tiraboschi ; Lanzi ; Milizia ; Nagler.)
TIBALDI, DOMENICO, younger brother, not son of
the preceding, as he is sometimes called, was born in 154Z,
and was, if not equally celebrated, like him both a painter
and architect, but ranks far higher in the latter than in the
other character. He executed many buildings at Bo-
logna, the principal among which are the Palazzo Mag-
nani, the Dogana, or custom-house, the chapel in the
cathedral, so greatly admired by Clement VHI. as being
superior to anything of the kind at Rome, and the small
church of the Madonna del Borgo. Domenico also prac-
tised engraving with success, and in that branch of art
was the instructor of Agostino Carracci. He died at
Bologna in 1583.
(Milizia; Nagler.)
TIBBOOS. [SAHARA.]
TIBER. [PAPAL STATE.]
TIBE'RIAS. [PALESTINE; SYRIA.]
TIBE'RIUS CLAU'DIUS NERO was born in Rome,
on the 16th November, 42 B.C., according to Suetonius.
He belonged to the gens Claudia, an old patrician family
of great distinction, which was known for its aristocratical
pride. Tiberius belonged to this house by the side of his
lather, Tiberius Claudius Nero, as well as his mother, Li via
Drusilla, who was the niece of her husband, being the
daughter of Appius Pulcher. This Appius Pulcher was a
Brother of Tiberius Claudius Nero the elder, and they were
both sons of Appius Caecus. His father was quaestor to
C. Julius Caesar, and distinguished himself as commander
of the fleet in the Alexandrian war. He became succes-
sively praetor and pontifex, and in the civil troubles during
the triumvirate he followed the .party of M. Antonius.
Being compelled by Octavianus to fly from Rome, he es-
caped by sea, and hastened to M. Antonius, who was then
n Greece. His wife and his infant son accompanied him
n his flight, and they happily escaped. Tiberius the
;lder soon made his peace with Octavianus ; he gave up
:o him his wife, Livia Drusilla, who was then pregnant
with Nero Claudius Drusus, and he died shortly afterwards
(38 B.C.). Thus Tiberius the younger and his brother Nero
Claudius Drusus became step-sons of Octavianus, who
"rom the year 27 B.C. was Augustus.
The great talents of Tiberius were developed at a very
early age. In his ninth.year he delivered a public speech
in honour of his father ; in 29 B.C. he accompanied Octa-
vianus in his triumph after the battle of Actium, and rode
on his left side, Marcellus being on the right. After having
assumed the togavirilis,he distinguished himself bysplendid
entertainments which he gave to the people. He married
Vipsania Agrippina, the daughter of Agrippa, and the
granddaughter of Cicero's friend T. Pompomus Atticus.
She brought him a son, Drusus, and she was again with child
when Tiberius was obliged to sacrifice her to the policy
of Augustus, who compelled him to marry his daughter
Julia, the widow of Marcellus and of Agrippa, and the
mother of Caius and Lucius Caesar. (12 B.C.) Tiberius
obeyed reluctantly, but he never ceased to love Vipsania.
Such was his affection for her, that whenever he saw his
repudiated wile he would follow her with tears ; and ac-
cordingly an order was given that Agrippina should never
appear in sight of Tiberius. For some time Tiberius lived
in harmony with Julia, and had a son by her, who died
young. But the scandalous conduct of Julia soon dis-
gusted him, and he withdrew from all intimate intercourse
with her.
T I H
'I1 I M
part in public
, ami .'i Hi,
•••>• the in-
st cam-
During thU time Tiberius took a
affairs. He defended the
.1 |f .,. , ,.; ( tff ; .- i : ' • >
TheauJiMM : he WM active in obU
habitanU of 1-aodic, iti
X suffered from an cartl
•MuUace of the senate: i
C*pio, who had conspired against
lor hih treason and
.... . .. ..
:or. and succeeded in Watering
lUMMI to lhe Ihron* <•!' Ann. ma. i-.nil in Imciug the
uan» to surrender the eagles which they Imd t;iken
issiis. He returned to Home in IS in. During
inniand in Gallia Comata, the peace
n-h proM: '.bird b\ depute- between the
princes a . Uuians,
In 1") u.r. lie and his brother Dm-us brought the Alpine
nations of Rhaetia to obedience. He also put an end to
the war in Pannonia, which had lasted since 18 B.C., and
viminatcd by subduing the Brcuei, the Scor-
. and the Dalmatae, who were allied with the Pan-
noni, The Germani having defeated M.
Lollius and taken ; •>!' the fifth legion in 10
HIS Paterculus, li. 117 , Drusus was sent to the
Rhine, and Tiberius returned to Rome, where lie
.1 his first triumph. In the Rhaetian war Tiberius
had shown irreat military skill, but the Romans carried
on the war with unheard of cruelties against the inha-
bitants, of whom the majority were killed or c
In memory of liis victories, a monument
reeled at Torba now Monaco, in the neighbourhood
of Ni//a . on which the n ty-live Rhaetian tribes
were inscribed. I'hnius. Hixt, \nt., in. '24.} In 13 B.C.
Tiberius was appointed consul, together with 1'. Quintilius
'ied on the war in Germany
with irreat Micros ; but in 9 H.C., on his retreat from the
banks of the Kibe to the Rhine, he had a fall from his
horse, which proved fatal. Tiberius was then at Puvia,
but as soon as he was informed of this accident, he
ied to Germany, and arrived in the camp of his
brother, near the Ysse'l and the Rhine, just before he died.
Tiberius led the army to Mainz ' Moiruntiacum . He
ordered the body of his brother to be carried to Rome,
Mild he accompanied it on foot. Alter discharging this
pious duty, lie returned to Germany. In the new war with
. iherius at first defeated them, and
planted -lu.iHHl SiL'ainbri from the right bank of the lower
Rhine to the left bank: but lie afterwards em
peace ures, and by negotiation he obtained more
influence over them than his brother Drusus by all his
:ies. (VclleiusPatercnhis.ii.y7: Tacitus. Annul..
ii. 2<i. He !••!! tin; command in Germany in 7 H.I:., and
returned to Rome, where he celebrated his second triumph,
and i. .;-ul lor the second time in the same, year.
Tiberius was now at the height of his lame : lie was re-
spected bv the army, and admired by the people ; and he
enjo^ the emperor. He nevertheless
'•nly abandoned his important functions, left Rome,
and, • i ng his motives to anylnxi
tired to the island of Rhodes. So firm was his resolution
tore:; ublic alfairs. that, he refused to take any
nourishment for lour days, in order to show his mother
Her prayers and tears could not keep him any
in Rome. in. During
ytflM he led a private life at Rhodes, renouncing all
honours, and livinir in tl>. 11 terms of
equality with those around him. with whom he kept up a
thendly i> .'k plulo-
poets. The Romans were surprised to see lh>
their emperor retire to a di-tanl island ; and various hy-
potheses were raised to explain the motive of his voluntary
. The disgusting conduct of his wife Julia was »up-
poted to be a sufficient cause for thU extraordinai ,
lution ; but Tiberius himself afterwards avowed that he
had renounced public business in order to escape all
chmntcs of having formed ambitious schemes again
•Upton*. Oatus and Lucius C»sar, who were created
' principes juventiitis,' and appointed successors <>
rust in m tn« very ye»r in rius went to H:
It teems that he wns dtssatisfled with the elevation of
these two young men, and that there was discord between
ued to go back
tu Rome, Augusti;. would i. :esar
hud conscir .iiiuld
take no part in 1 ; all
this »e may COIP .nisand Ins me'
had ]•
Casar from the NUCCCS-UIII, and t: la volun-
tary exile • . banishment, such us was in-
his own <i. But
•osition, aii' on which a
iiiishcd wife Julia, Tiberius acted with
.-li'-acy. notwithstanding her conduct, and In
sough' i to leave her all those presents win.
.en to her. Suetonius. . . . 12,
was received by the ,
- ( 'si-sar died a
Marseille', and Ins death was lull
Inothcr. who died in 4 A.D., m
which he had leceived in the Parthian war. Au-
gustus then adopted'1 hi- futu n-. in
4 A.U., and Tiberius in his tun ipelled In
- to adopt Drusus Germanicns, the late
brother Drusus x ippa,
the posthumous son of Agrippa and Julia, but he did uot
designate him as a successor in the empire. The impirial
throne W:LS thus secured to the house of the Claudii. In the
same your - 4 A.U.) Tiberius was appe .i.ander-in-
chief in (iermany, and he w :: by the historian
Velleius Paterculua, who was )> |uitum. After
having subdued the Bructeri. and renewed the alliance
with the Chatti, Tiberius in ."> A.D. made a cam;
it the I.ongobards ; who were defeated, and he u!
the whole north- • rmaiiy to acknowledge the Un-
man authority. In the following year ti A.D. i he led
70,000 foot and 4000 horse against Maroboduus, the king
uf the Marcoinanni, who was saved from ruin i
of the inhabitants of Pannonia and northern Illui
who intercepted the commiiiiications of the Roman army
with Italy. Tiberius employed fifteen legions and an equal
number of auxiliaries against these nations, and, in spite
of difficult; . ry description, he quelled the out-
break within tin -tally dan-
gerous because the Germani threatened to join the Pan-
nonians, but Tiberius prevented their junction by nego-
tiations and by tin- his arms. After having
celebrated his third triumph, he was again sent agMMt
the Germani, who had slain Yarns and his army (9
Tiberius, who was accompanied by Gei •nianicus.
in preventing the Germani from invading the countries on
the left bank of the Rhine, anil he then celebrated his
fourth triumph. Velleius Paterculus, an able jiul
military talents, gives us a most favourable idea of him
as a general. Suetonius says also that, sharing in all
the hardships of the common soldiers, he maintained a
seven- discipline, but that at the same time he carefully
watched over the security and the comfort of the soldiers.
Augustus died at Nolaon his return from Naples. •
he hail accompanied Tiberius, who was going to conduct
the war in Illyria cJDth of Aiuru-t. A.D. 1 i us to
see her son at. 1 in Koine.
; the emperor's death until Tiberius, w ! • :-med
of it by messengers, had arrived at Nola. (Dio. Cassii
30, JW
Tiberius becamo emperor iu his fifty-fifth year, at an
both tho \irtne< and the vices have acii
ill from habit, and when a man's clmrae.
es. Until that time he \ -rd to
•- irtiioiis man; his virtues were imbued with the
severe gravity of his character. Among hi-, i
none has blamed his early li! M he
•! with cril most.
I and di-: ! lis former life is rep'
dissimulation and hypocrisy. An cxami^ dis-
simulation is known in In I his
real intentions for thirty years ; however. o\ his
real character which he thus concealed. l>\it by retiring
from aftairs. and by simulating disease and intirinitr, he
made the cardinals bclicM- thai by choosiiur him pope
they would make him their instrument, i ITS m-
tirmitics would not allow him to act with en'
Tiberius h" ight years that he spent
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423
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in Rhodes, was constantly employed in matters which,
although they would have allowed him to conceal his
real disposition, he could never have managed with such
success, unless his conduct had been directed by the force
of his real character.
Augustus succeeded in making himself master of the
republic by accumulating: in his person the different
high functions of the state. Tiberius, proud and energetic,
abolished even the shadow of the sovereignty of a nation
which he despised. The Romans being sufficiently dis-
posed to obedience, the only obstacles in his way were
the worn-out institutions oi' the nntient republic. Imme-
diately upon the accession of Tiberius, Agrippa Postumus
was put to death, probably by order of Tiberius (Sue-
tonius, Tiberius, c. 22; Tacitus, Amial., i. 6.) About
this time the supreme power was ottered by the troops on
the Lower Rhine to Germanicns, who however refused it ;
and the mutiny was quelled by him and by Drusus, the son
of Tiberius, who commanded in Pannonia. Tiberius began
by some enactments which tended to ameliorate the state
of morals ; he abolished the comitia for the election of
the various officers of the state, and transferred the elec-
tion to the senate, the members of which were subservient
to liim. It has been already said that Tiberius intended
to destroy the last remnants of the antient sovereignty of
the people, and to supplant the majesty of the Roman
nation by the majesty of the emperor. Augustus had
already employed the Lex Julia Majestatis to punish the
authors of libels against his person (Tacitus, Annul.,
i. 72) ; and his example was followed by Tiberius, who
established the .Indicia Majestalis. by which all those who
were suspected of having impugned the majesty of the
emperor, either by deeds or by words, were prosecuted with
the utmost severity. The number of the delatores, or
denouncers of such crimes, daily increased, and a secret
police was gradually established in Rome, as well organ-
1 1 supported by spies, as the secret police
ot Napoleon. The property, honour, and life of the
citizens were exposed to the most unfounded calumnies,
and a general feeling of anxiety and moral disease pre-
vailed through the empire. The natural severity of
Tiberius gradually degenerated into cruelty, and he showed
symptoms of that, misanthropy and that gloomy state of
mind which increased with years. In the mean time Ger-
manicus, the favourite of the army, had avenged the de-
feat of Varus. but Tiberius recalled him from Germany,
ami sent him into the East (17 A.D.). Germanicus con-
quered Cilicia ami Commagene, and he renewed the alli-
ance with the Parthians. but he died suddenly at Antioch
(19 A. D.) : public opinion accused (Jneius Piso, the com-
mander in Syria, of having poisoned Germanicns by order
of the emperor ; but before Piso could be sent to trial, he
was found dead.
.inus, the son of a Praefectus Praetorio, succeeded
in obtaining the confidence of the emperor (19-22
A.D.\ who henceforth gradually abandoned to him the
direction of public affairs, of wnich Seianus became the
absolute master from the year 22 A.D. Drusus, the
son of Tibvriiis. who had governed the Roman part of
Germany with great ability, was poisoned by Seianus
-i A.D.), and this crime was followed by a great many
others, with which it is po~-iblc that (he emperor was very
imperfectly acquainted. His practice was to shut himself
up within his palace, and to spend his time in the most
revolting debauchery. After the death of Drusus, Tiberius
nmended to the. senate as his successors, Nero and
Drusus, the sons of the unfortunate Germanicus and of
Aerippina, who was still alive. In 2G A.D., Seianus at
last persuaded him to retire from public affairs. Tiberius
fiillo'.vfd his advice and went to Capua and Nola, until at
last he fixed his residence on the island of Capreae in the
Gulf of Naples. The life which he led at Capreae was a
series of infamous pleasures.
From this time all public affairs were directed by Seianus ;
the emperor was inaccessible. T. Sabinus, a friend of Nero,
was put to death; statues were erected to Seianus, and re-
ceived divine honours. Afterthe death of Livia, in 29 A.D.,
the authority of Seianus was at its height ; but at last An-
tonia.the aged mother of Germanicus, penetrated through
the barriers ot ( 'aprcoe, and informed the aged Tiberius that
-ins had left him only the name of emperor. She was
.oiled by Macro, the commander of the Praetorian
guard. In consequence of this information, Tiberhis
ordered the senate to condemn Seianus; and the senate
obeyed : Seianus, his family, and his friends were put to
death in 31 A.D. Some time after this event, Tiberius
retired from Capreae, and took up his residence at a villa
near Misenum, which had formerly belonged to Lucullus.
(Suetonius, Tiberius, c. 73.) On the 16th March, 37 A.D.,
he fell into a lethargy, and everybody believing him to be
dead, Caligula, the third son of Germanicus, the favourite
of old Tiberius, was proclaimed emperor. However
Tiberius recovered, and Macro, in order to save himself
and the new emperor, ordered him to be suffocated in his
bed. Thus died Tiberius, at the age of seventy-eight, after
a reign of twenty-three years. (Tacitus, Anna/., vi. 50 ;
Suetonius, Tiberiv», c. 73.)
There is little doubt that the crimes said to have been
committed during the reign of Tiberius, either by himself
or by others in his name, are real facts. But the question
is whether they are all to be imputed as crimes to
Tiberius. His insanity is a fact which can hardly be
doubted ; a dark melancholy, disgust of life, and misan-
thropy, had taken possession of him, and his struggle with
the idea of self-destruction often threw him into wild
despair. He found consolation in the sufferings of others,
and thus gave those bloody orders which he afterwards
regretted. The unnatural pleasures to which he was
addicted were only another mode of soothing the despair
of his soul. It is prolKible that his insanity was complete
when he retired to Capreae. Sometimes he had lucid
intervals, in which he wrote those letters of which Sue-
tonius gives some extracts (Tiberius, c. 67), and in which
he confesses the wretched state of his soul. His physical
health was excellent, until some days before his death.
Tiberius loved the arts and literature. According to Sue-
tonius he wrote a lyric poem, ' Conquestio de L. Csesaris
Mortc ;' he also wrote poems in Greek, choosing for his
models Euphorion, Rhianus, and Parthenius, the author of
an erotic poem which has come down to us.
(Suetonius, Tiberius i Velleius Paterculus, ii., c. 94, &c. ;
Tacitus, Annal., lib. i.-vi. ; DionCassius, lib. xlvi.-xlviii. ;
Horn, Tiberius, ein Historisches Gem'dlde. The character
of Tiberius has been defended by Buchholz, Philosophische
Untersuchungen, vol. ii., p. 49, &c.)
TIBE'RIUS II., ANI'CIUS THRAX, FLA'VIUS CON-
STANTI'NUS, one of the greatest and most virtuous
emperors of the East. He was born in Thrace towards
the middle of the sixth century A.D., and belonged to a
rich and very distinguished family, the history of which is
unknown to us. He was educated at the court of
.histinian, whose successor, Justin II. (565-578), loved
him as his son, and employed him in various civil and
military offices. In 573 Tiberius, who was then general
of the Imperial guards, commanded the army against the
Avars, who were powerful north of the Save and the
Danube. His lieutenant having neglected to watch the
passages of the Danube, Tibenus was surprised by the
Avars and lost a battle. However, he recovered this loss,
and concluded a peace, by which the possession of the
important fortress of Sirmium, now Mitrowicz, on the
Save, near its junction with the Danube, was secured to
the Romans. This was one of the few advantages
obtained by the Greek armies during the unfortunate
; of Justin II. Italy, which had been conquered by
Justinian, was overrun by the Longobards ; the Berbers
ravaged the kingdom of Carthage, which had been taken
from the Vandals ; and on the Persian frontier Chosroes
^Khosrew) made various conquests. Justin, feeling his
incompetency, and having lost his son, looked for a co-
regent, and his choice fell upon Tiberius. The great
talents of Tiberins, his amiable character, his generosity
and love of justice, and his sincere piety, had won him
the hearts of the nation, and the esteem of the emperor
and his ministers. Justin was confirmed in his choice by
the empress Sophia, whose private views on this occasion
harmonised with the interest of the state. Tiberius was
the handsomest man at the court, and it seems that
Sophia intended to marry him on the death of Justin.
However this may be, before she declared in his favour,
she asked him whether he was married. Tiberius imme-
diately guessed the motive of the question, and answered
that he was not, although he was secretly married to a
lady named Anastasia. He thus gained the protection
dl the empress, and was proclaimed Caesar by Justin on
the 7th of December, 574, in a most solemn assembly of
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tin- civil and military officers, and of the clergy under the
pmiilt -:ic\ "I Hi*' patriarch Eutvchiu>. liy whom T
was crowned" with the imperial UMJML In this a.v,cinbl>
nperor Justin addressed to his future successor the
following remarkable speech Theophvhetua, ni. 11),
which Gibbon translates thus: — • You MOoU tin- ensigns
of supreme power. Yon are alxiut to rccci\c them, not
from my hand, but from the hand of God. Honour tin-in,
and from them you will derive honour. Respect the
empress your motlicr — you arc now her son — befon
were her servant. Delight not in blood, abstain from
revenge, avoid those actions by which I have incurred tin-
public hatred, and consult the experience rather than the
example of your predecessor. As a man, I have sinned ;
as a sinner, even in this life I have been severely punished :
but these servant* , his ministers', who have abused my
confidence and inflamed my pas-ion, will appear with me
before the tribunal of Christ. I have been dazzled by the
splendour of the diadem : be thon wise and u'>
iiber what you have been, remember what you are."
To this speech of a dying sinner, Tiberius answered : —
' If von consent, I live ; if you command, I die : may the
God of heaven and earth infuse into your heart whatever
I have neglected or forgotten."
The burden of government devolved upon Tiberius,
whose authority was never checked by Justin. The war
with Persia prevented Tiberius from expelling the I.ongo-
bards from Italy ; but he sent there all the troops he could
dispose of, and succeeded in maintaining the imperial
authority in the Exarchate of Ravenna, on the Lignrian
coast, in the fortified places in the Cottian Alps, in Rome,
in Naples, and in the greater part of Campania and of
Lucama. He saved Rome and pope Pelagius II. from
the Longobards by sending a fleet laden with provisions
(775). Some years later he concluded an alliance with
the Franki>h king Chilperic, who checked the Longobards
in the north of Italy, and Tiberius succeeded in bribing
several of the thirty Longobardian dukes, who, after the
murder of king Clepho .".7;>-.~>7l and during the. minority
of Antharis, imitated in Italy the Thirty Tyrants of Athens.
The daughter of king Alboin and Rosamond, who had fled
from Italy, was then living at the court of Constantinople.
The most important event in the reigns of Justin and
Tiberius was the war with Persia. Klu»rew. the kin<; of
Persia, had made extensive conquest.- in Asia Minor during
the reign of Justin. In 575 Tiberius concluded a partial
truce for three years with him, on condition that hostilities
should cease except on the frontiers of Armenia, where
the war was still carried on. These frontier* being easily
defended on account of the great, number of defiles in the
Armenian mountains. Tiberius levied a strong army while
Khosrew lost time in forcing passages or in besieging
small fortified places. For several centuries the Eastern
empire had not seen such an army as was then raised by
Tiberius. A hundred and fifty thousand men, among
whom were many Teutonic and Slavonic barbarians.
crossed the Bosporus in 570, under the command of Jus-
tinian, and advanced to the relief of Theodosiopolis, tin-
key of Armenia. Theodore, the Byzantine general,
defended the fortress against the whole army of Khosrew.
At the approach of Justinian the Persian king left the
siege ana advanced to meet the Greeks. The encounter
took place near Melitene (in the district of Melitem-
in Armenia Minor). The Persians were routed, and
many of them were drowned in their retreat across
the Euphrates; twenty-four elephants, loaded with the
treasures of Khosrew and the spoil of his camp, were sent
to Constantinople. Justinian then advanced as far as the
in Gulf, and a peace was about to be concluded in
•"•77 : but Khosrew broke off the negotiations on account
of a victor}- which his general Tamchosroes (Tam-khosrew)
unexpectedly obtained over Justinian by surprising
him in Armenia. Tiberius now recalled Justinian, and
appointed in his place Mauritius, who was afterwards
emperor. Mauritius restored the old Roman precaution
of never passing the night except in a fortified ramp ; In-
advanced to meet the Persians, who had broken tin- truce
"t 575, and attacked the empire on the sidi
PoUn , , The Persians retired at the approach of
Mauritius, who took up his winter-quarters in Mesopo-
tamia 577
On the 28th of September, 578, Tiberius became sole
emperor by the solemn abdication of Justin, who died on
the 5th of October next. After tl,
when the new emperor appeared in the Hippodii-me. Un-
people became impatient to we the empress. The widow
of Justin, who was in the Hippodrome, expected to lu-
lled to the people as empress; but she was soon
undeceived by the sight of Anastasia, who suddenly ap-
peared at the side of Tiberius. In revenge, Sophia formed
a plot against Tiberius, and persuaded Justinian, the
r commander in the Persian war. to put himself at
the head of the conspiracy. Tiberius however was informed
of this design. Justinian was arrested, and the emperor
:doning him made him for ever his faithful li
Sophia was deprived of her imperial pension and pa..
and slu- died in neglect and obscurity.
A quarrel broke out between Knt \ chins, the patriarch,
and Gregorius, the apocrisiarius of Constantinople, who
could not agree on the state of the soul after death. The
Greeks were then the most disputatious people in the
world about religious matters, and their disputes often
led to serious trouble. The emperor accordingly under-
took to settle this dispute. Adhering to the opinion of
Gregcrius, he convinced the patriarch that he was wrong,
and he persuaded him to burn a book which h
written on the corporeal nature of the soul after death.
Khosrew died in 57!!. after a reign of forty-eight \
He had entered into negotiations with the Greeks, but his
successor, Hormisdas (.Onnuz). broke them oft' and re-
commenced the war. Hormisdas was defeated by Mauri-
tius and his lieutenant, Narses, a great captain, who must
not. be confounded with Narses. the victor of the Ostro-
Goths. They overran Persia in one campaign
in 5SO they routed the army of Hormisdas in a blood .
tie on the banks of the Euphrates, and took up their winter-
quarters in Mesopotamia. At the same time the Greeks
obtained great advantages in Africa. Gasinul, king of the
MauritaiiL or Berbers, had defeated and killed three (
generals, Theodore, Theociiatea, and Amabilis. But in
580 he was defeated by the exarch Geimadius, and put
to death. Tiberius was less fortunate in Europe, the Avars
having surprised and taken the town of Sirmium. Hut in
the following year 5s 1 Mauritius destroyed the Persian
army in the plain of Constantine, and their general, Tain-
Khosrcw, lust his life. Mauritius had a triumph in Con-
stantinople, and on the 5th of August he was crr;i;,-d
i by Tiberius, who was then worn out by illness, and
who had no male i— ue. Alter having given his daughter.
Constantina, in marriage to Mauritius. Tiberius died on
the 14th of August. 5Si and, since the time of the
Theodosius, no emperor's death caused regret so mm
It i.-. a remarkable circumstance in the reign of this em-
peror, that he was always provided with money without
oppressing the people by taxation ; and yet his liberality
wa> so great that the people used to say that he had aii
inexhaustible treasure. But all the.se resources did not
enable him to save Italy, which may be accounted for
thus: — During the invasions of Italy and other parts ot the
Roman empire by the barbarians, many rich men s;i\cd
great quantities of gold and silver, which they carried to
Constantinople, then the only sale place in Europe. This
city being the centre of the arts, and the commerce and
industry of the East being very cxtcn>i\e, e\en the money
which fell into the hands of the barbarians gradually found
its way into the Greek empire, where the barbarians pur-
chased all those articles which they had not skill < i
to fabricate themselves. This view is corroborated 1-y the
fact, that notwithstanding the immense tribute, which the
Greek emperors often paid to the barbarians, thciv
always a want of coin in the barbarian kingdoms. On the
other hand, the Greeks having lost their martial habits, the
emperors were obliged to recruit their armies among the
barbarians. These people however were as ready to fight
against the emperors as for 1 1 icin ; audit would ha\
dangered the existence of the empire if too large a num-
ber hod been engaged in its service. Tin: pre-
ferred bribing the l.ongobardian dukes to laising a large
army of barbarians, who would probably have joined the
Longobards as soon as they had got their pay.
(Cedrenus ; Theophanes ; Thcophylaclu- : Xonara* ;
Gregorius Turoncnsis; Paulus Diaconus; Gibbon, Decline
and Full ; I,e Beau, Ilntnin' tin
TIBE'RIUS AI.!-:\A\PI-:R. prefecl of Kgypt , was the
son of Tiberius Alexander who was alabareha of Alex-
andria, and the brother of Philo Judams, the well-known
T I B
425
T I B
writer. Tacitus calls him an Egyptian, but this only means
that he was a native of Alexandria ; for he was a Jew,
though he afterwards adopted paganism. Nero appointed
him governor of Judaea, where he succeeded Cuspius
Fadus, and he made him a Roman eques. In the last
campaign of Corbulo against the' Parthians, Tiberius Alex-
ander and Vinianus Annius, the son-in-law of Corbulo,
were given as hostages to king Tiridates, who came to the
Roman camp for the purpose of settling his differences
with the Romans (A.D. 63). Tiberius Alexander was
afterwards appointed prefect of Egypt, in which capacity
he quelled a dangerous insurrection of the Jews of Alex-
andria, who were jealous of the favour which Nero showed
the Greek inhabitants of that town. The resistance of the
Jews was so obstinate, that Tiberius was obliged to employ
two legions and five thousand Libyan soldiers against
them ; and it is said that more than fifty thousand Jews
perished on this occasion. On the 1st of July, 69, Tiberius
Alexander proclaimed Vespasian emperor, pursuant to a
scheme which had been concerted by Vespasian, Titus,
and Mucianus, the proconsul of Syria. In consequence of
this event, the 1st of July, 69, is regarded as the beginning
of the reign of Vespasian, who showed great regard for
his governor of Egypt. When Titus, the successor of Ves-
pasian, was about to undertake the siege of Jerusalem,
which resulted in its capture, he was accompanied by Ti-
berius Alexander.
(Josephus, A ii tiff. Jud. and De Bella Jud.; Suetonius,
its; Tacitus, Annul., xv. 28; Hist.,\. 11; ii. 74,
79 ; the notes of Ernesti to Suetonius and Tacitus.)
TIBERIUS (Ti/Stpioc), an Alexandrine grammarian, who
probably lived in the fourth century of our aera. Suidas
(,«. ». Tt0t(xof), who calls him a philosopher and a sophist,
ascribes to him a long list of rhetorical works, all of which
are lost, with the exception of one, which formerly used to
be called iripi ruv wapa ^fioaSivti a\i}^ar>i>v, and which is
one of the best works of the kind that were produced at
the time. The cditio princeps of it, which is ascribed to
Leo Allatius, appeared at Rome in 1643. The next edi-
tion is that of Gale, who incorporated the work of Tiberius
in his ' Rhetores Selecti,' Oxford, 1676, 8vo. A reprint of
this collection of rhetoricians was edited by J. F. Fischer,
Leipzig, 1773, 8vo. In all these editions the work of Ti-
berius contains only 22 short chapters, which treat on Sche-
mata, that is, those forms of expression which are not the
natural forms, but are adopted for ornament or use. In
the year 1815, J. F. Boissonade published at London a new
edition, in 8vo., from a Vatican manuscript, in which the
work is called irtpi a^miartav ptiropuciav, and in which there
are 26 chapters more than had ever before been pub-
lished ; and this second part of the work treats on the so-
called ' figurae elocutionis,' or the ornamental forms of
elocution. This edition of Boissonade also contains a work
of Rufus, entitled ri-^vi] (>i]Topu:ij, the author of which has
only become known through the Vatican MS. containing
the complete work of Tiberius : in the editions of Gale and
Fiadier it was called the work of an anonymous writer. A
few fragments of other works of Tiberius are preserved in
the scholiast on Hermogenes, ii., pp. 385 and 401, edit.
Aldus.
'Ooddeck, Initia Hixtnriae Graecorum Literariae, ii.,
p. 173: Westermann, Geschichte der Griech. Beredtsam-
keit, p. 251, &c.j
TIBE'RIUS ABSI'MARUS became emperor of the East,
in A.I). 698, under the following circumstances: — Leontius
dethroned and banished the tyrant Justinian II., and having
ned the imperial title in 095, continued the war with
the Arabs in Africa. Notwithstanding the Greeks were
v the Berbers, they lost Carthage in 697; they
reconquered it shortly afterwards, but in 698 the Arabs
retook the town from the Greeks and entirely destroyed it.
A powerful fleet, commanded by the patrician John, was
then off Carthage ; but although John entered the harbour
with a division of his fleet, and landed a body of troops,
his measures had only a partial effect, and he was obliged
to leave Carthage to her fate. The destruction of this
famous town was attributed by the Greek officers to the
incoi. nf John, and they were afraid to return to
Constantinople without having prevented the ruin of Car-
thage. Ali.-iimarus, the commander of the Cibyratae, or
the trii.ip, ,if the province of Cibyra, then the collective
r.ami- of ('aria and Lyoia, turned the discontent of the sol-
diers to hii own profit. He persuaded his men that the
P. C., No. 1541.
emperor would punish them severely for not having
obtained some advantage over the Arabs, and that thejr
ran the risk of suffering for the faults of their commander-
in-chief. When the fleet was off Crete, a mutiny broke
out. The Cibyratae proclaimed Absimarus emperor, the
rest of the fleet followed their example, and John was
massacred.
Absimarus having arrived at Constantinople, cast anchor
in the bay of Ceras (now the Golden Horn), between this
city and the suburb of Sycae. . Leontius prepared a vigor-
pus resistance ; but the courage of his soldiers and of the
inhabitants was weakened by an epidemic disease, and at
last Absimarus found his way into the town by bribing
some sentinels.
Absimanis assumed the name of Tiberius and was
acknowledged emperor : his rival, Leontius, had his nose
and his ears cut off, and was confined in a monastery.
Tiberius Absimarus continued the war with the Arabs,
and appointed his brother Heraclius commander-in-chief.
This experienced general conquered Syria in 699 and 700,
and treated the Mohammedan inhabitants most barbar-
ously : it is said that two hundred thousand of them lost
their lives by the sword of the Greeks. This war continued
during 701, 702, and 703 ; and, although the Greeks did
not recover Carthage, they obtained many signal advan-
tages. Tiberius Absimarus had great influence in Italy,
where popes Sergius and John VI. were continually
harassed by John Platys, and afterwards by Theophylact,
the Greek exarch of Ravenna.
Tiberius Absimarus lost his crown 1)y a sudden revohi •
tion. When Leontius dethroned Justinian II., this prince
had his nose cut oft', and was banished to the town of
Cherson, in the present Crimea. Some years after, he
fled to the khaghan, or khan, of the Khazars [TARTARS,
Khaxurs], who received him respectfully, and assigned for
his residence Phanagoria, once an opulent city, on the
island of Tamatarcha. ^TAMAN.] The khaghan, whose
name was Busirus, gave him in marriage his sister Theo-
dora; but Tiberius Absimarus bribed the khan with a
large sum of gold, and Justinian was only saved by
the affection of Theodora, w'ho discovered to him the
treacherous design of her brother. After strangling with
his own hand the two emissaries of the khaghan, Justinian
rewarded the love of his wife by repudiating her and send-
ing her back to her brother Busirus ; and he fled to Ter-
belis, or Terbellus, the king of the Bulgarians. He now
formed the plan of recovering his throne, and he purchased
the aid of Terbelis by promising him his daughter and a
part of the imperial treasury. At the head of fifteen thou-
sand horse, they set out for Constantinople. Tiberius
Absimarus was dismayed by the sudden appearance of his
rival, whose head had been promised by the khaghan, and
of whose escape he was yet ignorant. Justinian had still
some adherents in Constantinople, who introduced his
troops into the city by means of an aqueduct. Tiberius
escaped from Constantinople, but he was seized at Apol-
lonia on the Pontus Euxinus (705), and Justinian ordered
him, his brother Heraclius, and the deposed Leontius, who
was still alive, to be dragged into the Hippodrome. Before
their execution, the two usurpers were led in chains to the
throne, and forced to prostrate themselves before Justinian,
who had sworn not to spare one of his enemies. Planting
his feet on their necks, the tyrant watched the chariot-race
for more than an hour, while the people shouted out the
words of the Psalmist, ' Thou shall trample on the asp and
basilisk, and on the lion and dragon shalt thou set thy
foot.' He then gave orders to behead Tiberius, Leontius,
and Heraclius. Justinian II. reigned till 711. The Greeks
gave him the surname of Rhinptmetus, that is, ' he whose
nose is cut off.' Tiberius Absimarus had two sons, Theo-
dore and Constantine, who probably perished with their
father. It is said however that Theodore, who is also
called Theodosius, survived his father, and became bishop
of Ephesus and one of the leaders of the Iconoclasts ; but
this is doubtful.
(Theophanes ; Cedrenus ; Zonaras ; Gibbon, Decline and
Fall ; Le Beau, Histoire du Bus Empire.)
TI'BET is the most southern of the three great table-
lands of Middle Asia. The name Tibet is derived from
' Thu-pho,' that is, the country of the ' Thu,' who founded
an empire in Northern Tibet in the sixth century A.D.
The name ' Thu-pho ' has been mutilated by foreigners,
and especially by the Mongols, into Thupo, Tobut, Tobbt,
VOL. XXIV.— 3 I
i n
I I I',
d Tli
of III
ami I
north.' Sanang Se1-i
which signifies the • country of the snow ' in
i mime which is analogous •
M hlCU,
in the
ail viil '
I I 111 \
wlm
•'i
this
t.. r.
ol t'
to t
thro
U'h
del
ner,
t-t . V>
points
are almost unknown
inning
.rust, ]~\~>,
March,' i;
nearly thi' whole ' '•• from
i: in Tibet : anil ir. our own ilays Tur-
. rciofl. ami (iciaul liavi arts of it.
Tibet, in the largest sense of the word,
Tlif Holor Mountains, a branch
of the Hindu Rush, \vhii' the uorth-
.. form tlir western lion:.
Tile length of this frontier is about K7 miles. It
mi the south-west by the llimlu Kush. fioiii M
kan Mutlami and th. -tern part .
as fur -•'•in frontier of Nepal, a d1
INI mile-. The southern boun II J by the
of the Himalaya from the western froiih,
to the eastern iioiitiVr of Bnotan, a distaure of about 710
-. and by the northern boundaii 111, Burma,
,irt of the Chinese province of Yunnan. Thi- latter
part, which is nearly unknown, runs in a south-i
direction, anil m l':"' ^ "»' junction of the
Yu-lcang-Ho. or Ld-tchou, with the Kincha-Kiang, or
Yanj; . in Yunnan, between 1(12° and 1(M"K. long.
The length of this part of the frontier in a straight line be-
tween the two extremities is about 320 miles. The whole
111 of the southern frontier, according to a roui;:
• in miles, but as this frontier I'uim- a curve, its
real length is much more. Tin on tier of Tibet is
n boundaries of the Chinese provinces
i. and Kansu. This frontier
has ! i leans only know
i.ed in the Itineraries of the
Chili- 'in the junction of the Yu •!•
Ho with the Kmeha-Ku; mirthwaul-
probably alone the ri\er Ya-long-Ki .1- the :UMh
>• of N. Int. It then takes a north-eastern din
farasKiai. Mgc of \\i]i:
E malis, are called the Yun-ling
i. At Kiai il takes a north-west direct ion, <•
tile llolil!
chin, and then takes a north-west direct i>
m the mountain)) of Amegancar, in 3
ong. That part 01 ivc\er
lat., and east of
the Kincha Kiang, or the mom:
to China in 1727. and is now under the hum.
.tyof the emperor of China. The whole extent of the
:;tieis of Tibet is at U iL^t <.KN) inile^. \Vehaveno
noilherii frontiers. They begin
in tl. which they were tra
bj I", i iw<://y/;/'. tom.\iii., p. 117.
on h: :" I.eh. From thence 11
Mid t • a-t along the mountains of K;'i-
nikorum U far as a point situateil in (lie mount::
'a, or kulkoun). in :t.V N. lat. and
.ong., acrowi thi . Klior anil of Katehi, or Katchc.
Til* 1 1 :i north-ea.-t and east, until they reach the
eastern li ••. hich we ha\e mentioned
above, a* situated in US* 25' N. lat. and 10(>0 K. long.
Tin i.iilier. including the
: l:«Hl miles. II is le
. i Khu-kli
in north-. , el in the political
: IK in Iron'
Ka»t. Hitter.
northtrn
. :u a
althoug
on the we-t by I
( 'hi;
Tibet, comprised between these limits,
imme
-In Kiish and the mountain <uim,
and through it t, the
:.i flow, n
nbundaiK i .a.
Mountains. — Tibet .
which are more than h
This table-land is divided into ••
tinct parts. The first, which i-
begins in the east, near M
and stretchi's to the noil
Himalaya and of the Hind
the range of the mountai: n in the r
:u its whole length In
of the Iiul <\ver or north-western pa;'
lialtistan, is also called the l-'irst Tibet, or 1
-t state. Its upper .
has the name of Ladakh, and is also called t
or Great Tibet, because it is larger than Haltistaii. v
times the name of Little Tibet is j_
of the Indus, l.adakh is a'-
most eastern pa:
belongs to China, liallistan and Lai'
scribed under the heads of Ilimalava :
xii., p. 2111, -Ve. . Iialti>tan and t.adakh bclo'
in the mo>t cxtcii-
second great division of Tibet begins in the »
Mount Kailasa, and is an iimii.
n part of which is called Khoi.
Katehi. Its boundaries are the r; i tlie
the Kueiduu mountains on the north; the snowy
mountains around tli .if the Kincha i<
Om-Tsiu, and the lake of Tcngri-Nor in tl. ! the
mountains of Dcang and Nga:i in tlie south. Khor and
Katehi have never been vi- [h the
i Jiait is traversed In ' >iad which :
.ud. in Chinese Turkistan. Tlie '
division of Tibi' :lu- remainder of tl:
which lies , nth of Khor and Katehi.
The second and third natural di\isi.
name of Kastern or Tliinl Tibet, oi1 Tibi ••
i tlie word. E:usterii iiina.
All that we can say about Kb.
are an immense table-land, some parts of which
feet above the level of the >ca. J'ln-
is not a level plain. It is a cmmta '.
mountains, winch have a height \.
4000 feet above their base. [3,000 to I
above the sea. The midd!. ated
than the boundaries. ;us the countiy conta.
which terminate in the table-laid ; and the southern and
e higher than the eastern and northern
parts, the direct' > r number of th
hi ing from the west to tlu rom the south to the
north.
The aspect of th« southern and ea- ihinl
Tibet is \cry ditt'erent 1'n'in that of Kb' tehi.
Third Tibet is travciscd by luimc:
mountains, the direction of" which .
and from north-west to south-c;:-'.. I-'HHII tl
am out in different direc
tainii. between them. In p prin-
cipal chains advance towaids thi
towards one another, and thus the \
grndunlly become narrower, until all:.
Yunnan an<l Hnrma. they .
;iot there ai allel vallc '
of th' world, and the !
four %. • hun-
dred miles. Hut the lange ol the molinl: ii and
diverges from the Uinialav.-i : and the \alley bc-
hich is traversed by the Dzangbo', be-
T I B
427
T I B
comes broader as it advances towards the east. The
chain which, in the south-eastern corner of Tibet,
separates the Kincha-Kiang in the east from the Lang-
t.-ang-Kiang in the west, has the name of Ning-tsing-Shan,
or Mang-li ' Moung-lan) ; and, since 1727, the frontiers
between Tibet and China run along the foot of this
chain, the summits of which are covered with eternal
snow. The height of the mountains in south and eastern
Tibet is much greater than in the northern and central
parts of the country, and the whole tract towards China,
Nepaul, and Bootan, is an immense alpine country. Se-
passes in the Mang-li mountains are from 10,000 to
11,000 feet above the sea; the region of perpetual snow
is to begin at 12,500 feet, and as the snow always
^ an immense number of summits and whole ranges,
it is evident that the number of summits which have an
lute elevation of above 12,500 feet must be very con-
able. Some of them probably attain the height
.OOO feet above the sea. The extent of the Mang-li
mountains between Bathang on the Kincha-Kiang, and
.idp on the Lang-tsan-Kiang, according to the Chine e
itineraries, is 140511. of 250 to a degree. I Hitter, iv. 202.)
All this country is intersected by deep valleys and chasms.
The summits of the mountains are covered with denial
snow, and the traveller CTO-. e.-. thr cha-ms by means
of bridges which are enveloped in the clouds. The moun-
north of the Mang-li, around the sources of the Lan-
tsan-Kiang, in the province of Tsiamdo.are no less elevated,
but they have never been visited by Europeans. A very
extensive lange begins at Mount Kailasa in the Himalaya,
-t retches to the east as far as the ninetieth degree of
ea>l longitude, in a direction di- M the Himalaya
in Nepaul and Bootan. These are the mountains of Xirari
and Dzang, the most western part of which is called Gang-
ilisri, or the country of the snow mountains. At the be-
this westernmost part, and in the north-eastern
province of Xgari, is situated the celebrated
Mount Kailasa, which is said to be higher than the Dhav. a-
. The Kailasa is steep on all sides, and is 140 li in
inference; its summit is always covered with -
lie water tumbles down from it in cataracts into the
This mountain has also the name of
Oneuta. Ka>t of the Kailasa are situated four moun-
l.iins, or perhaps groups of mountains, the K liabhabhs,
of winch resembles a different animal. The first is
the Horse-mountain, or Tam-tsiogh-K'habhabh : the se-
is the Elephant-mountain, or Lang-tsieii-K'h ; the
third is the Lion-mountain, or Sengghe-K'h ; and the
fourth is the Peacock-mountain, or Mabghia-K'h. The
length of these four mountains is said to be 800 li, and
v, itli respect to the valleys which begin at their foot and
stretch in different directions, they resemble Mount St.
Gothard iu Switzerland. The mountains on the southern-
of Tibet have been described in the article
HIMALAYA.
r». — The sources of the Dzangbo are on the east
.,!' the K'habhabhs, in the province of Ngari. Its
complete name is Yaru-Dzangbo-lsu, that is, the pure
front i • the went. According to the Chinese geo-
grap! ource of the Dzangbo is on Mount Tam-
il, in 30° 10' north latitude, and 79° 35' longituil.
1 1 is. It flows in an cast-south-eastern direction, through
tlie whole of Southern Tibet, a distance of about 700 miles,
and waters the provinces of Ngari, Dzang, and Wei. The
\alley of this river is formed by the Himalaya on the
, and the mountains of Ngari and Dzang on the
north. The country through which it flows being very
extensive, and all the mountains bein:' covered in winter
v.ith snow, of which an immense quantity melts in the
summer, the volume of water in this river must be very
lerable. The tributary rivers of the Dzangbo, on its
left or northern side, are : the Nauk-Dzangbo ; the Dzang-
1-.il, or Galdjao-muren, that is, the ' furious river,' which
:<-e.s in the north-east, about 200 miles from its
junction with the Dzangbo near H'Lassa, anil which is
sometimes confounded with the Dzangbo itself. There
insideiable rivers between the Nauk-Dzangbo
;he Dziant:-Nii. The tributary rivers on the right or
ire: the Guyang, which has its source near
n the Himalaya (there are five other consider-
i:ome down from the Himalaya of
Xep:il , : and the Vai-nom-tsu, or Fuaug-dze, along which
Turner travelled, from its source at Phaii to its junction
with the Dzangbo, and which has a fine iron bridge of
thirteen arches. An iron suspension-bridge is thrown over
the Dzangbo, south of H'Lassa, on the great road from the
west to this town. The course of the Dzangbo is known
as far as a point which is situated about 100 miles east of
H'Lassa, in 26° 30' N. lat. according to D'Anville ; in
3 30' N. lat. according to Klaproth ; and in 29° 15' N. lat.
according to Berghaus. It has been conjectured that the
Brahmaputra is the continuation of the Dxangbo [Bu.\HMA-
PUTRA], but it is now known that they are different rivers.
The continuation of the Dzangbo is the Irawaddy. We
owe this discovery to Julius von Klaproth, who published
several memoirs on the course of the Irawaddy, of the
Brahmaputra, and the Dzangbo.
All that we know about the Southern Nu-kiang is con-
jectural. Ritter says that the Nu-kiang is a southern tribu-
tary river of thaDzangbo, but this is impossible, and instead
uthern' we must read ' northern.' (Ritter, iv., pp. 212-
223.) The sources of the Gakbo-dzangbo-tsu, or the clear
river of Gakbo, are situated in 31° 30' N. lat., between the
mountains of Sangtsen-sum-do-ri and Barkala, on the
frontiers of the provinces of K'ham and of Wei. Its upper
course has the name of Sang-chu or Dziangbo-tsiu. Its
direction is at first south-east. The great road from China
to H'Lassa crosses this river some distance cast of the cele-
brated temple of H'Lari. The Gakbo-dzangbo-tsu then
enters the country of Gakbo, where it receives a considera-
ble river called Bo-Dzangbo, which enters it on the left or
eastern side. Alter having entered the country of H'Lokba,
it probably takes a southern direction, but we have no
positive knowledge of it. According to the Chinese map of
the emperor Khien-Long, of which the ' Carte de 1'Asie
i 'eiitrale' of Klaproth is a reduction, the Gakbo-dzangbo-
tsu enters the Chinese province of Yunnan, and there re-
the name of Lung-ehuan-Kiang. As to the Om-tsu,
or Oui-tsu, another great river, there is great difference of
opinion. According to the Chinese maps, the Om-tsu is
formed by the junction of three rivers, the Ser-Sumbu, orSer-
tsu, in the east, the Uir-chu in the west, and the Kara-us-su,
the largest river, in the middle. The source of the Kara-us-su.
is said to be in the table-land of Middle Tibet, about 32"
30* N. lat. and 90° to 91° E. long. The Om-tsu has a south-
east course, and flows in a very deep and narrow valley,
enclosed by steep rocks of an immense height ; it enters the
province of Yunnan in China, where it receives the Chinese
name Nu-Kiang, that is, ' the river of the barbarians.'
The latter part of its course within Tibet is unknown
to European geographers. The Lang-tsang-Kiang tra-
alfflost the whole extent of eastern Tibet, from
north-west to south-east. Two rivers, the Om-chu in the
and the Dzo'chu in the east, the sources of which
are situated north of the upper part of the Om-teu, in the
province of K'ham, join at Tsiamdo, and thus form the
Lang-fsang-Kiang, the direction of which is from north-west
to south-east. From the 30th to the. 27th degree of N. lat.
tin' l.ang-tsang-Kiang traverses a country quite unknown
to Europeans. This river is also called La-chou, La-tsu,
Lo-tsau, and Lo-tsu. After having traversed Yunnan, it
enters Lao, forms the frontier between Siam and Cochin-
China, and flows into the Chinese Sea in 10° N. lat., after
a course of more than 1700 miles. The sources of the
Kincha-Kiang, or Yang-tse-Kiang, which traverses China
from west to east, are situated between 37° and 38" N. lat.,
and between 89" and 92° E. long., on the table-land to-
wards the north-western frontiers of Eastern Tibet. Its
upper part is called Muru-us-su by the nomadic Mongols
of that country; its middle part has the Tibetan name of
Bourei'-tsu ; and it is only in China that it is called
Kincha-Kiang. Its direction is east as far as 95° E. long. ;
from this point to Batang the direction is south-east and
south ; from Batang to its junction with the Litchtu
(the old frontier of Tibet), it is again south-east. This latter
part of the Kincha-Kiang forms a part of the present fron-
tier between Tibet and China. The Ya-long-Kiang is an
important tributary of the Kincha-Kiang. Its source
about 29° N. lat. and 97° 30' E. long., in the Bayan-Khaia,
a range of high and wild mountains itretching in a south-
east direction, between the Kincha-Kiang and the Ya-
long-Kiang in the south, and the sources of the Hoang-Ho
in the north. The direction of the Ya-long-Kiang is at
first south-east for about 200 miles : east of 100" E. long.
it runs southward for about 300 miles: during the latter
naif of ita course the direction is at first cast, as it seems,
312
T I
438
'I 1 15
«nd then again south for about 1UU ; : all this is
turnl. The Hoang-Ho, or Yellow :a iU
I-M north of thr Bnian-Khnra. in thr province i'l'
•ul a part of its upper com -
in Tilu't anil in Khu-Klm-N
northern part of Tibet, of which wo liavi- alre.i
The do«oription of this river ha-
Thc whole country between the up].
Ho in the north and in the west, the '. m the
south-west, and tin I'rontier of China in . 'Mho
eailcrn pa n and Khu-Khu-No: . -. d h\
inch mountains covered with perpetual snow ;
it is an unknown country to u-.
Laka.—1'\w IT, the largest hike of Tibet, is
nine days' journey noiih of Il'Lassa. The Chinese cull it
Thian-chhi, or the Celestial Lake. This lake app
bo Mirounded by high mountains and r<» '.with
snow and ice. It ivoncs the Tarku-DAngbo, a river
which comes from the west. The lake of Paltc, which is
situated south-west of H'I,assu, in the valley of the
Dzamrbo. resembles a large ditch surrounding an extensive
inland which tills up the middle of the lake. On the
Tibetan maps it has the name of Bhaldi-Yumtso, and the
Chinese call it Yar-brok-Yumtso. According to the Chi-
nes*. geographers there is a nunnery on that Island which
mie of Dhordze-phagh-mo, or the • 1'alace of the
Holy Sow.' which is said to be one of the finest in Tibet.
It is said that north of this lake there is a high mountain
railed Kambala, from the summit of which c\i
ranges of high snowy Al]>s may be seen to the north.
-.- an- nmst probably the mountains which surround
Lake Tengri-Nor. In the extreme north of Tibet is situ-
ated the Lake Khu-Khu-Nor, or Koko-Nor. that is. -the
Hlue or the Celestial Uiko.' which name has been given
to all the surrounding country. The lakes of Kailasa, in
the southern part of Tibet, nave been described under
ds, lynxes.
( 'iimatf. — Til>et is known in India and China as a coun-
try of hunger and misery, and as such it is represented by
the Mongol historian Sanani: Setsen. However cold and
barren the table-lands and the mountains may be, on
account of their extreme elevation and of the snow which
• etually covers whole tracts, the climate of the valle\s.
and especially of the valley of the Dzangbp, is hot. From
March to September the weather is fair, interrupted only
by some showers ; the winds are not wgular, as in India.
In H'Lahsa the trees bud at the end of April and in the
beginning of May. Corn and peas are sown towards the
end of the spring and in the beginning of the summer:
and the harvest is reaped in the months of August ami
Scptcmt>er. Dew falls in the summer nights; it hails
ulleii: Hie snow is not deep in the winter. On the high
table-lands the climate is very different. Turner, who
visited a part of them on his way from Bootan to
Toshu Liimtiu, gives an interesting description of it. From
May to October the sky is always clear, and the sun shines
with uncommon brightness. FYom October to May there
are violent gales. 'I 11 rocks
breaks in pieces, which the air dissolves into fragments as
small a* dust ; and clouds of this 1 by whirl-
winds, are driven from the plain to the summits of the
mountains, and from the mountains down to the houses of
the inhabitant*, The air is excessively dry, and its effects
nble those of the dry heat of the Sahara. Th.
wither ; their leaves maybe ground to pnwd
the I anks and beams break, and the inhabitants
the timbers of their houses with wet towels in ordei
to preserve them against the destructive cft'e. ••
Thr timber never rots. T
• the open air becomes dry. and ma\ !»•
like bread, and Huts preserved during yean. This flesh
i mon food in Ti!
-Among the minerals then
tin : salt, which is taken from the »ai
l>eng-t-a\ga : corundum stone, l.ipis la/nli.
tunjuois, and agate. Besides a great number of grasses
whu non in Kurope, Tibet produce-
ipeiiin Bathamr. and
•«, rhubarb, madder, saftiowor. apples nut
.rranate., and (•,-,„• . the
ir, buffaloca, the bnflalo which is called
IK- jak, goat* with a very fine fleece, goat» with lon£
tine hair, silk-worms, wild-cats
.\itli horns ot
white . ''. swans.
known in Tibet, and the 1 irnt. Fi^<
::it in the '.hey are not eaten, being pro-
: id'ha.
-1. The territory of the Dalai-tama
contains the eastern and north-eastern parts of Tibet. The
capital, H'Lassa or Lassa, is situated in a beautiful ;
on the banks of the l)/ang-tsn, about twel\, '10111
its junction with the ])/.angbo. It is a pepuiout and
town, and distinguished by many fine
public bull lally convents, among which then-
is the first temple of the Buddhists. Tin :. -mall-
pox hospital, a printing-office, and several schools, i
cially for divinity. 'J'he town has walls and five fortified
In the neighbourhood ol' the town, in the north,
the east, the south, and the are four n.
convents, the largest amonu' the :UKK) convents oi' Til
great number of which contain several thousand monks.
The residence of the Dalai-I-ama is in the convent of
PobnOK-Marbu ithe red town) on Mount Holala, north-
II'Lassa. It is said that the principal huildiii
this residence, or the Lapninga. hiirli, and
it contains 10,(XK) rooms. , Hitter, iv. 'J-13.1 On tlie walls oi
one of its large rooms are most probably suspended those
chorographieal tables which Father de la Penna admired
when he was in II I,assa. Tile environs of H'Laasa arc
full of convents and palaces, of which the most magnificent.
is that of Dznndzio-lu-Khang. Besides the capital we only
know some points on the iireat mails which lead to HI
from the e;ust and from the west, but no considerable to win
are mentioned on these re -.i-u'iinu'-Lrhar, a
town which is inhabited by '20.(XK) families, and which is
situated east of Il'Lassaon the Dzang-bo.
'2. Tlie territory of the Teshu-Lauia contains the pro\ inces
of D/aiiLr and Nirari.and perhaps also the countries of Khor
and of Katchi. His residence is at the palace, or rather
the convent of Teslui-U'Luinbu, in 29° 4' N. Int. and
'-t.i" 7' K. long., accordini: to Turner, who visited this place
in 17S3. It was founded in 1 H7. on a small plain sur-
rounded by lofty mountains ; but as this plain is a part of
the high table-land, the environs are cold and i!
Teshu-H'Lumbu lies almost opposite to a pa>saeioss the
Himalaya of Bootan, which is defended by the fortr.
D/iLrsdxe-.Tcuni:. Teshu H'Lumbu. or, more correct H,
FI'Lunibo, contains from :«HI to -4<XI houses, con-
vents, temples, and palaces, which are surrounded by
a wall, and all communicate with each other. The chief
building, where the Lama resides, has the name of
Lapianira, the most remarkable pad of which is the
ilenm of the Teshu-Lama, who died in Peking in
1~N1. This mausoleum, of which Turner iri\c-~ a careful
description, has a most beautiful appeaiai a fine
specimen of Tibetan sculpture. It is said that :»7i*l(!'.
or monks are daily occupied in the performance Of their
various religious duties in the palace of Teshu H'Lunilni.
The trreater part uf the country between Teshu H'Llinil/u
and II 1-a.ssa is a feitile and beautiful tiact. which extends
along the river Dzangbo from well to east. At one.
journc) east of Teshu H'l.umbu is 1'ina Hainani . a smaH
town with a fortified castle. Haldi or Bedi. another small
town, lies on the northern bank of Lake 1'alte.
fnhabtfantt <iml Ilixlury. — According to the lecrend
Tibet was originally inhabited by animals and demons. At
•cut toTibel the king of the monkeys,
who led there the life of a hermit :
tion WiLs the performance of religious duties, and he was
absorbed in the pursuit of the knowledge of nonentity.
\Vhcn he was just on the point, of attainim: the object of
liis pursuit, he was disturbed in his contemplation
the \isit of a female Munggus. The Mam::
Sanscrit name IB Rakihaa, are ugly demons, who
.. dopt any iiirure they please. The MaiiL'gus who
came to the king ol the monkeys had assumed a beautiful
Iiirure, and propost-d to the kini; to marry her. The king
• ulleired hi« moi'.a-tical duties, but' at last he nirtr-
i led the Mani;i.rus. and their descendants are the pi i.plr of
Tibet. Schmidt. l'<iri'-hnnii<'ii, p. -II. 'l"h,- aeeniint.
however, ridiculous as li iiiu\ appear to a Kuropcan, is all-
important to a nation which helioses in the metempsy-
chcisis, and is proud n. ' lioni a monl\e\, bd
one of the most cunning of animals. The first ac-
T I B
429
T I B
counts of the history of Tibet are in the annals of the Mon-
gols and of the Chinese. The Tibetans belong to the Mon-
gol race : they were at first divided into many independent
tribes which led a nomadic life, like all the other Mongol
1 1 ibes before the time of Genghis Khan. The first king of
Tibet, according to Sanang "Setsen, was Seger-Sandiiitu-
Khaghan-Tiil-Esen, whose youth resembles that of Moses,
for he was exposed by his father, and afterwards found in
a copper box swimming on the river Ganga. He became
king in 313 B.C., and united the four great tribes of Ngari,
of Dzang, of K'ham, and of H'Lassa or Wei. One of his
descendants was H'latotori, who was born in 348 A.D., and
who became king in 367 A.D. In the fortieth year of-
his reign (407) Buddhism was introduced into Tibet.
[ BUDDHA.] The history of Tibet becomes more certain
from the reign of king Srongdsan-Gambo, who was born in
617, and who ascended the throne in 629. He founded the
Town of H'Lassa, where he held his residence, and he built
a splendid palace on Mount Pudala. His reign is par-
ticularly remarkable for the invention, or rather introduc-
tion, of the Tibetan alphabet. Tongmi Sambhoda invented
this alphabet, which is only a modification of the Sanscrit
alphabet ; and he made the first Tibetan grammar. Srong-
(Uan-Gambo, who is also renowned as a legislator and ad-
ministrator, died in 699. His successors earned on war
with China, in which they were often successful ; but in
821 Tibet was compelled to pay tribute to China. Under
king Dharma, who ascended the throne in 901, Buddhism
«:ts almost destroyed, the king having adopted the Black
•ion, or the Islam. Buddhism again became the do-
minant religion after Dharma had been murdered by a
priest in <J25.
In the beginning of the eleventh century each of the
seven grandsons of king Bilamgur-Dzang became an in-
dependent prince ; and from this event dates the entire
decline of the kingdom of Tibet, the power of which had
been already broken by the civil troubles which accom-
panied the persecution of Buddhism. One of the new king-
doms was Tangut, in the northern part of Tibet. Genghis
Khan subdued all Tibet in 1206, according to Sanang Setsen,
but Schmidt affirms that the Chinese and Mohammedan his-
torians do not mention this fact. It is nevertheless a fact
that Tibet was conquered and ravaged by the Mongols ;
and it was not before the end of the thirteenth century
that the country recovered from the calamity of the Mon-
gol war by the careful administration of Khublai-Khan.
The easternmost parts of Tibet, which during the middle
extended much farther to the east than they do at
present, were gradually conquered by the Chinese in H25,
]255, 1362, and 1371; and in 1727 another part of Tibet
incorporated with China, which has been mentioned
above. Since the year 1720 all Tibet has been a vassal
state of China, and Chinese garrisons are in its towns, and
they watch the passes in the frontier mountains : the number
of Chinese troops in Tibet amounts to 64,000 men. The
tribute which Tibet pays to the emperor of China is com-
'1 of a great many ditt'erent articles, which Rittei
;l, enumerates, The national government
<jf Tibet is supported by a perfectly organized hierarchy.
The name of the chief priests is Lama; and the Dalai-
Lama is the first of them. The second is the Teshu, or
!<.>-Lama. The people are kind, tolerant, polite, and
much more civilized than the Mongols, although they
ally poor. They live in a state of polyandry, thai
•veral men cohabit with one woman; but it is only
brothel's who are allowed thus to have one woman in com-
mon. Arts and literature are cultivated, but the works
and Hie language (it the Tibetans are almost unknown in
Kurope. The extreme north of Tibet is inhabited by no-
madic Mongols, and Turkish hordes sometimes appear in the
deserts of Khor and of Katchi. Both the Lamas are abso
lute princes in religious matters, but their sovereignty is
checked by the authority of the emperor of China, who
•units or generals in Tibet, who control the
Lamas, and who have the command of the army and the
direct ion ol 'temporal affairs. The high functionaries an,
almost all Chinese. A great number of officers are em-
uloyed in the administration of the studs for breeding
hoi ; ihe stores for the army.
: liter, Knlkmxli; vol. iv. ; Turner, Embassy tit the
Court </ Ti'uh'trt Lama in Tihet ; Moorcroft, in Asiat
Journ., 1826, vol. xxi. ; Klaproth, Tableaux Historiquet
dc I' Aw ; Abel Hemusat, Rucherches sur let Languvs
rartares, vol. i. ; Kircher, China Illustrata, cap. iv. ;
Sanang Setsen, History of the Mongol,'!, ed. Schmidt ;
Schmidt, Forschungen iin Gebiete der Volker Miltel-
asiens.')
TI'BIA. [SKELETON.]
TIBIA'NA, a genus of Polypiaria. [SERTULARLKA.]
TIBULLUS, A'LBIUS, lived in the time of Augustus,
and was a friend and contemporary of Horace. He was of
equestrian rank, and originally possessed considerable pro-
perty, of which he lost the greater part (Tibull., i. 1, 19,
&c. ; iv. 1, 128, &c.), probably, as it is conjectured, in
consequence of the assignments of lands among the vete-
•ans of Augustus ; and this supposition is rendered still
nore probable by the circumstance that Tibullus never
celebrates the praises of Augustus, like the other poets of
lis time. He was not however reduced to absolute
loverty ; the estate on which he resided at Pedum (Horace,
Kp., i. 4), a town between Praeheste and Tibur, appears to
lave been his own, and to have descended to him fvom his
ancestors. (Tibull., i. 10, 15, &c.) Here he passed the
greater part of his time in the enjoyment of a quiet country-
ife, which had for him the greatest charms. He left "it
lowever to accompany his patron, Valerius Messalla, into
Aquitania, and was present with him through the cam-
paign, either in B.C. 28 or 27. (Tibull., i. 7, 9.) He after-
wards set out with him to Asia, but was taken ill at
Corcyra; but that he died at Corcyra, as is stated by
some modern writers, is only a conjecture, unsupported
by any antient authority, and is directly contradicted
by what Ovid says. It appears from an epigram of Domi-
tius Maraua (in Tibull., iv. 15), who lived in the age of
Augustus, that Tibullus died soon after Virgil ; and as
Virgil died in u.c. 19, we may perhaps place the death of
Tibullus in the following year, B.C. 18. It has been already
mentioned that Tibullus was the friend of Horace ; two
poems have come down to us addressed to him by the
latter (Cli/v/i., i. 33 ; Epist., i. 4). Ovid too laments his
death in a beautiful elegy, from which it appears that his
mother and sister were present at his death (Amor., iii. 9).
It is difficult to determine at what time Tibullus was
born ; and we can but at best make some approximation
to it. In the epigram of Domitius Marsus, already referred
to, he is called juvenis, and Ovid deplores his untimely
death. We must not however be misled by the expression
juri'iiis into supposing that he was quite a young man, in
our sense of the word, at the time of his death, since the
antients extended the meaning of juvenis to a time which
we consider to be that of mature manhood. Several circum-
stances tend to show that he could not be much less than
forty at his death. Ovid speaks of Tibullus as preceding
Propertius, and of Propertius as preceding himself ; and
as Ovid was born B.C. 43, we must place the birth of
Tibullus a few years at least before that time. Again.
Horace in the first book of his Odes addresses Tibullus as
an intimate friend, which hardly allows us to suppose that
Tibullus was a mere youth at the time. If Bentley's sup-
position is correct, that the first book of the Odes was
published about B.C. 30 or 28, Horace was then about
35, and Tibullus may have been a few years younger.
Moreover he does not appear to have been a very young
man when he accompanied Messalla into Aquitania in
B.C. 28 or 27. We may therefore perhaps place his birth
at about B.C. 57. There are indeed two lines in Tibullus
(jii. 5, 17, 18), which expressly assign his birth to B.C. 43,
the same year in which Ovid was born ; but these are,
without doubt, an interpolation derived from one of Ovid's
poems (Trist., iv. 10, 6).
We have thirty-six poems of Tibullus, written, with one
exception, in elegiac metre, and divided into four books.
The first two books are admitted by all critics to have
been written by Tibullus, but of the genuineness of the last
two, considerable doubts have been raised. ,T. H. Voss
and others attribute the third book to a poet of the name
of Lygdamis, but the style and mode of treating the sub-
jects resemble the other elegies of Tibullus, and there do
not appear sufficient reasons for doubting that it is his
composition. There are however stronger grounds for
supposing the first poem in the fourth book, written in
hexameters, not to be genuine. It differs considerably in
style and expression from the other poems, and is attri-
buted by some writers to Sulpicia, who lived under Domi-
tiau, by others to a Sulpicia of the age of Augustus ; but
I we know nothing with certainty respecting its author. Of
T I C
T I C
the other pooms in thin book, almost all bear traces of I
kind.
In the earlier period
Nvmrsu, ami their i
m his po.
.ilia. Init those are tho !
his \\nrk-, lor he iloe» not aopcar to h
Tibiillus is placed by Qiiinctilian at the head of the
• t. 'Inil., \
M of fccline, which
same
warmest sympathies. He ~ecui^ !••
••eminent, and to lui\e looked at
.;s from a gloomy point of view; hence we lintl the
subject of death " frequently introduced, and the enjoyment
,,f |i interrupted by (lark forebodings of the
future II. . o',-t ant ly describes the pleasures of a co
••f nature, for \vhieh lie had the mo-t
i-\i|iii-ite relish : ami tiiere is in these descriptions a natu-
-s and truthfulness which place him above hi-
lemporury 1'ropcitins. His si vie too is not ol' the artificial
character which distiniruishcs the elegies of 1'ropcilius;
anil his subjects are not, like the latter, mere imita'
translations of the Greek poets, but essentially original
Tihnllus was formerly edited together with Catullus and
I'l-opei-lius. the earlier editions of which are mentioned
undi ' The principul sepaiatc editions are
by H Ani-t.. 17IK 4to. '.. Vulpii:s 1'adua. 174i»,
n reprinted, of which
the fourth edition, containing the notes of \Vinulerlieh
and Dissen. appeared in 1S17-III, 2
.1. H. Voss 'Heidelberg, lull. Kvo.\ Uach Lcipz.. 1SIJI,
(ini. ili.V .. ilcrlin.
l«2'.>. Kvo. . and Dissen idotlingen. KC>. 'J vol-. Svo.), of
which the two last contain the best text.
Tibullns has been translated into Knglish by Dart
I73i>, and d r59). The moft modem German
Utions are by .1. II. Vi».s Tiibuiircn, Islil . Giinther
..-.. 1*2.-.. arid Kichter ' Masjdcbiirg. ls:jl . There
are also French nnd Italian translations.
Respecting the' life of Tibullns and the Roman elegy in
Oder may con-nit with ad. uppc's
• Die Komische Elegie,' Leipz., IKW.
TIIJUK. FTr.
TIC Don.oruKiA. i \.M-n\t.oiA.]
'I'K HK1KI.D. [TirciiKiKi.D.]
TICH(yDROMA. [CKKKPKH, vol. viii., p. 147.] M
•rcnus in the Mibfamily Troglodylina
lain Mr. Cr. H.
:: under the siibfamily <'i-rthinn: h.
:nm..anil'. v.v. (Lilt of tin' <,
of Bit
TICI'NO. CANTON O! and Ger-
man \. one of tin1 cantons of the Swiss Confederation, is
I the I.epontiiu1 and Khii'tian Al])s, and the
;>c- towards and mcrces in the L'reat ])l:iin of
• ai.lv. It ':ton in tin Contrdeia-
.bard diHli
Milanese, and are Italian in their hal'i
manners: they are all Uornan Catholics. The canton
. om the inerTicino. which basitssoir
the irrcat central irronp of the St. fiothanl, flows southward
nlon. it inn, pas.se> by llellin/ona. and then
enters the Lairo M:i 's noithe'
ii»uc- . !i«l hy tin
. 'iardy. [!' MIOUII-
valle Mid -mall, lie '
lariT' ly pamlle1 •
Hi. The pnm i
ineulione>>. iial in
Inch nms in a southern direction through the
centre of the canton. Kast of the Val I.eventin:i
and
which i» a
•w canton ol ' the VBJ Morobbia, winch
down fron. iltel-
lina, nnd 11
licllinzona. \\'.
li d Val I.avi/zara ; il th.c river
m, which .
•
•:icm.hu1 : . the
i >ntcnione and •
.(ii'h the} both join at its lowi . the lAgo
ore.
A lidge called M>
bank •
basin of the lake of Lugano, which is thus from
the rest or northern part of the canton, the hich
run into tin ailed
. lies within the territory of 11 with
nity. whic'.
. is about '20 miles, but the breadth is lit
than a mile, except in front of the town of Lug;
it is about two miles wide: the surface i-
:d the greatest depth num-
ber of trading-boats ply on the lake. Its outK'
by the riv. ,u-h runs into the I
TTie lake of Lugano separates the
canton, con-isii:ig of the district of Memhisio and the
circle. which form part of the district of Liu
from the rest of the canton, which lies north of the
lake.
Only the northern extremity of 1h
''i the canton Tieino. [L.\<;u M\<:c;ir.
canton of Tieino is bounded on the north by the
• alais. and the Orisons; on the cast partly by tin
:•• and partly by the province of Como i
Lombardy, on the" soiilh by the province of Milan, and on
the west bv the Sardiniai The wirfa
canton of Tieino mav he divided into five
region of the vine, the tig, and the peach, which in,
the lower valleys and hills, and extends •••
•2100 feet above the Lap. . The oli
and lemon-trees thri
. of the chestnut, the pear, the apple, and i '
•.•.hich rise-, about In.!
. which rises to about -l.'j'JO fee! level
lake. -1. The Alpine pastures, which reach a.s 1
6000 feet. 5. The region of perpetual snow. which iin
! Alpine summits between HOOO nnd !HHX> feet high.
There is consequently a great variety of c'
of productions in the canton, but the people are not, .
rally speaking, as Indus' The
horned cattle amount to about 52,000 head, 1!
i'J.(HH). goats to •'>,( KK), and pigs to 27.<XH>. The number
of horses and mules is about 20OO. \Volves and be:.
I in the mountain*. The rivers and :md in
tish. The prim
wine : n the nuin
<|uarn Hie ninnu-
imporlan.
chief! cloth, leather, platted straw, and tobacco.
Tlie silkworm is reared in some loeaii'
The population of Tieino amounted ill 1833 to lOO.IHXt.
jnited at about 1 1IH) square mi!,
•nd peopl. ar to work in
i"cola1c-n].
< Hers of barometers. Many of them return homo
p, bringing with them some sa .
n is div ided into eight districts, which are sub-
ntina,
the no
the high Aljis; 2. liellinzonn, south of the '
lino, at the n. ly of the 1
on the border-, of the canton of tin '
which stretches on both banks of H.
name
upon the lowland of '
:i on the north-
ine. in n lovely silua-
I lion, enjoying an Italian climate, has some fine churches
T I C
431
T I C
with paintings by Luvini, a pupil of Leonardo da Vinci,
some large mansions or palaces, as they are called in Italy,
an hospital, a theatre, manufactories of silk, paper,
tobacco, leather, and iron and copper works, and 4500 in-
habitants. There are at Lugano many merchants, it being
one of the great hia;h roads between Switzerland and Italy.
The fair, which is held in the month of October, is well
attended. Lugano has a college under the direction of
the Fathers Spmaschi, which is attended by more than one
hundred pupils, several elementary schools, a school of
drawing, a reading-room, and three newspapers in the
Italian language. The country around Lugano is planted
with \incs, olives, and other southern trees, and full of
country-houses. 2, Bcllinzona, a walled town situated
in the valley of the Ticino, on the high road of the St.
Gothard. has a very fine church, a college, an arsenal, and
about 1500 inhabitants. There are several rained castles
of the middle a<res in the neighbourhood. 3, Locarno, a
small town with a fort on the Lago Maggiore, in a ro-
mantic situation, has several churches worthy of notice, a
castle, which is now the government-house, and about
1700 inhabitants. It was once a thriving town with 5000
inhabitants, but many of the principal families, bcins;
banished about the middle of the sixteenth century, for
having unbraced the doctrines of the Reformation, carried
away their fortunes and their industry to Zurich and other
places, and Locarno has never since recovered from the
blow. The families of Orelli and Muralt, long established
at Zii originally from Locarno. 4, Mendrisio, a
town of 1700 inhabitants, in a fertile country, and on the
hiirh road to Como and Milan, has a college, s>
churches and convents, a printing-press, and some silk
manufactories. 5, Capolago, at the southern extremity of
the lake of Lugano, known lor its printing-press, where
many Italian works are printed to avoid the censorship of
the government of Italy.
The valleys and highlands of which the canton of Ticino
consists were inhabited in the antc-Romantimes bytheLe-
pontii and other aboriginal tribes of mountaineers, who were
finally reduced to subjection under Augustus. After the
fall of the empire, the Longobards spread their dominion
over the country. After several more vicissitudes in subse-
truent centuries, we find the country partly under the
dominion of the Visconti, dukes of Milan, and partly under
the feudal barons of Sax and other Kh;i-tian lords, till the
fifteenth century, when the Swiss of the Forest cantons
conquered the YU Leventina, and soon after acquired Bel-
linzona and the country north of Mount (,'enere by a formal
cession from the barons of Sax. In the Italian wars of
Louis XII., at the bet;innin<r of the sixteenth century, the
S \vi-s obtained possession of Locarno, Lugano, and tin:
rest of the country, which they formed into several Land-
vogteyen, or bailfiages, some of which were under the ex-
clusive dependence of the three Forest cantons, and others,
such as Lugano and Locarno, were subject to -the whole
•tion. This state of things continued till
the French invasion of Switzerland and the dissolution of
the old confederation in 1798 ; the Cisalpine republic at-
tempted to annex them by force to its territory, but the
people of Lugano stood firm to their Swiss connection and
repulsed the Cisalpines, and took i'rom them several stand-
which are still seen in tht> church of San Lorenzo of
Lugano. The distinction between sovereign and subject
i having at the same time disappeared from Switzer-
land, the whole district was united into one canton of the
new Swiss confederation by the name of Ticino, and as
such it was acknowledged by Bonaparte in his Act of Me-
diation, and afterwards by the allied powers in yH4. In
June, 1830, the canton of Ticino changed its constitution
and adopted one by which the franchise is (riven to all
natives of the canton not younger than twenty-five years,
and who are burgesses of a commune and are possessed of
real property or capital placed at interest of the value of
at least 300 francs. The qualification required for mem-
bers of the Great Council is four thousand francs. The
mcil, or legislature, consists of 114 members,
elected for four years, and appoints the members of the
Little Council, or Kxecutive, as well as the judges of the
\ari<. In ecclesiastical matters the canton of Ticino
depends partly mi the bishop of Como and partly on the
archbishop of Milan. The public revenue amounts to
about 800,000 francs, derived chiefly from customs, stamps,
salt monopoly, and other taxes. There is a public debt of
about four millions of francs. New codes have been
lately framed, but much remains to be done to ensure the
proper administration of justice in the canton, where
venality, corruption, and infractions of the laws are evils of
antient date, and still of not unfrequent occurrence. The
standard of the intellectual and moral condition of the
people in general is considered to be lower than that of
most other cantons of Switzerland. Yet the canton of
Ticino has produced several distinguished men in various
branches, such as Professor Soave, the Abbe Fontana,
Franscini, who is still living, the architects Fontana, Borro-
niini, Maderna, Albertolli, and Bianchi, several sculptors
and painters, several members of the family of Quadn, one
of the principal families in the canton, and others. The
people of Ticino are not deficient in intelligence, but they
want instruction.
(Leresche, Dictionnaire Geographiqite Statistique de la
Suisse ; Franscini, Stalistica delta, Svizzera, and his more
especial description of his native canton.)
TICINO, River. [Po, BASIN OF THE.]
TICKELL, THOMAS, an English poet of unblemished
mediocrity. He was bom in 168G, at Bridekirk in Cum-
berland. He was sent to Queen's College, Oxford, and he
took his degree of Master of Arts in 1708. Two years after-
wards he was chosen fellow of his college, and as he did
not comply with the statutes by taking orders, he obtained
a dispensation from the crown for holding his fellowship,
till he vacated it by marrying in 17'2G.
His praises of Addison were so acceptable that they pro-
cured him the patronage of that writer, who ' initiated
him,' says Johnson, ' into public affairs.' When the queen
was negotiating with France, Tickell published ' The Pro-
spect of Peace,' in which he raised his voice to reclaim the
nation from the pride of conquest to the pleasures of tran-
quillity. This, owing perhaps to AddisOn's friendly praises
of it in ' The Spectator,' had a rapid sale, and six editions
were speedily exhausted.
On the arrival of King George I. Tickell wrote ' The
Royal Progress,' which was printed in the ' Spectator.'
Johnson says of it that ' it is neither high nor low,' a very
equivocal criticism, considering Johnson's habitual tastes.
The translation of the first book of the ' Iliad ' was the
most important thing in Tickell's poetical career, having
been published in opposition to Pope's ; both appeared at
the same time. Addison declared that the rival versions
were both excellent, but that Tickell's was the best that
was ever made. This praise ceases to surprise us when
we find strong suspicions of Addison himself being the
translator, as Pope, Young, and Warburton asserted. Dr.
.Johnson says, ' To compare the two translations would be
tedious ; the palm is now universally given to Pope. But
I think the first lines of Tickell's were rather to be pre-
ferred ; and Pope seems since to have borrowed something
i'rom them in connection with liis own.'
During the dispute on the Hanoverian succession Tickell
assisted the royal cause with his ' Letter to Avignon,' of
which five editions were sold. Addison now employed
him in important public business, and when, in 1717, he
himself rose to be secretary of state, he made Tickell under
secretary. On Addison's death, Tickell published his works,
to which he prefixed an elegy on the author, which John-
son pronounces to be equal to any funeral poem for
sublimity and elegance in the English language. Con-
sidering that we have the ' Lycidas' of Milton, this sounds
oddly : on turning to this elegy, we are forced to admit, with
Steele, that it is only ' prose in rhyme,' and very bad prose
too. Such lines as —
' O'er my dim eyeballs glance Uie smUli-n tears '
indicate the substitution of sound for sense, which writers
like Tickell delight in. He never asked himself whether
it was his eyeballs that were dim or whether tears glanced •
all he knew was that dim, eyeballs, glance, tears, were
common poetical phrases, and therefore suited his purpose.
In 1725 Tickell was made secretary to the Lords Just ires
of Ireland, a place of honour in which he continued till
his death, on the 23rd April, 1740.
(Johnson's Lives of the Poets ; Campbell's Specimens of
British Pnets.}
TICKHILL. [YORKSHIRE.]
TICONDERO'GA. [NEW YOKK.]
T I D
TH'O'X/I. STK'KANO, Lorn in 17<'.i in theVal Sawina,
in Hi. studied at Milan, and aftei
at Pa
pointed in. untry parish n. : m his
mitiv. When tlie Kreiu-li invaded I.ombardy in
lie nnd his brother Cesaic F. ;io was an
ndvo . il tin- revolutionary movement : but when
ime back in IT'.l'.l. Tun//! .-d to
emigrate into F;;ricc, and his brother
ti to ('attain. Ticozzi returned with thcvic-
- French in the following M-ar. and was Upointed to
:l political offices under the Italian republic, and in
IS Hi was : .elect ot'the department of the I'iaM-
nude: N n. In Isld he published
i monastic, institutions: • Degli Is-
tituti Olaustrali Dialoghi Tn-.' SMI., Hcllnno. He lost his
situation on the tall of Napoleon, and retired to Milan,
where he lived mainly In literary labour. He tiiinslated
into Italian Sisniondi's ' History pf the Italian Republics,'
LJorente's 'History of the Inquisition,' Agineourt's • History
ol' the Arts,' and other works. In 1H1K he published his
• Di/ionario dei Pittori dal Rinnovamento dclie Arti fino al
which he afterwards merged in his larger work,
iiiario dcgli Architelti. Scultori, Pittori, Intagliatori
in ranic e in pietra, t'oniatori di Mcdaglie, Musaieisti,
Niellatori, Intarsiatori d'ogni Kta e d'ogni Na/.ione,' Milan,
-. s\o. This i> a really useful compilation, although
not always exact about dates. He also published — 1,
' Memone Storiehe,' Florence, 1'* vols. 8vo., being a scries
of historical tales taken from the history of Italy in the
middle ages; 2, 'Viaggi di Messer Francesco Novello da
( 'air;; di Padova. e di Taddea d'Kste, sua consortc,
n diverge parti d'Europa.' J -.. a work also ill
tive of the same period ; 3, a continuation of Corniani's
biographical work, ' I Secoli della Lctteratura Italiana.'
down to our own times, and also a continuation of li.
collection of letters concerning the arts : ' Haccolta di Let-
ten- sulla Pittura. Scultura, cd Arehitettura, scritti dai pid
celebri Pcrsonaggi dei Secoli \\.. xvi.. e xvii.. eontinuata
lino ad nostri Giorni.' H vols. Kvo. ; and likewise a con-
tinuation ol'Vcni's -History of Milan:' ' Storia di Milano
del < 'onto Pietro Verri, dai suoi piu rimotiTempi fino al l.")2.~>.
eontinuata tino alia presente Kta,' Milan, 0 vols. 12mo.,
besides several dissertations upon various paintings and
other minor works. He left medited and unfinished a
\ ! foe on the Art of distin-
guishing Copies from the Originals in Painting.'
Ticozzi died in IKki. He married a granddaughter of
the historian Giannone, by whom he had several children.
. Hinynijin </!'i'/i lt<ili<uii lllustri.}
T1DF.-MII.L. a kind of water-mill in which the ma-
ehineiy is im]>elled by the alternate flow and ebb of the
title, instead of a stream continually flowing in one direc-
tion and at a nearly uniform level. Although tide-mills
ha\e never been brought into very common use in this or
in other countries, they arc by no means of recent origin.
Hcckmann. in his • History of Inventions ' < : English edition
of 1H14, vol. i.. p. il.V, states that ' at Venice and other
places there were mills which righted themselves by ebb-
nnl flowing of the tide, anil which CM-IT six hours
chanced the position of the wheels;' and he adds that
• /anctti h;ts shown, from some old charters, that such
mills e\i-ted about the year KM I. and with still more ccr-
1070. MM 1107.' Helidor, ill his 'Architcc-
i-iliquc.' d- • 'de-mill which W;LS used at
Dunl, y in the last century, and attributes the in-
arpcnter of that place, named i
The expense attending the constniction of tide-mills ren-
'licir adoption (inadvisable in ordinary cases : but in
many situations in which other mills are Inapplicable,
owing to the want of a sufficient current, or the ne.
of avoiding any in'- with the na\igation
iv be erected with advantage. The water
required for impelling their machinery may be admitted
either from the side of a tidal liver or immc.;
the sea.
Tlie late T)r. Gregory, in the second volume of his
' Treatise on Mechanics.' has devoted several pages to an
account of various plans for obtaining a moving-pou. r
i. '.MI the rising and falling of the tide ; and. although he
doe* not pretend to notice all the contrivances which have
been proponed for the purpose, he divides the most im-
T I D
portant into four classes, varying from each other in the
manner in which the motion of the water--.-
and applied to the machinery of the null. In •
•he wheel turns in <•
rising, and in the opposite direction while it tails; in the
second the passage of the water is so regulated by si
that the wheel may always turn in one direction ; in the
third the wheel itself rises and falls with the tin
ve a tolerably equal degree of immersion, or a uni-
form head of water to act upon its float-hoards : an.l in
the fourth the axle of the wheel is permanently 1i\
one level, and the wheel is so constructed as to revolve
whether partially or completely immersed in the v.
Of these conditions it , ed that the first and third
have been usually exemplified in one machine, and that
the second and fourth may icadilv be united in another.
Dr. Gregory therefore treats uf tide-nulls under two
heads, which are as follow : — 1. Tide-mills in which the
water-wheel rises and falls, and turns one way with flu-
rising tide, and the contrary when it ebbs: and. 'J. Tide-
mills in which the axle of' the water-wheel neithei
nor falls, and in which that wheel is made always t
volve in the same direction.
Of the first of these v arieties of tide-mill a good example
is given from acorn-mill erected on the hank of the Thames.
-t Greenwich, by Mr. Lloyd. Tin- details of the me-
chanism are fully explained by Gregory, and al-
fessor Barlow, in his 'Treatise on Manufactures and
chinery' in the ' Encyclopedia Metropolitana :' but flu-
essential features of the contrivance may be briefly de-
scribed. The side of the mill which is parallel to the
river is forty feet wide, and is capable of being opened to
the river by shuce-galcs which are carried down to low-
water mark". Thus there is a water-way forty feet wide
through the mill, bv which the rising tide cnl>
voir, which covers about four acres of land. A smaller
reservoir beyond the principal one affords the means for
cleansing the whole apparatus by flushing or scoun
low-water. The water-wheel is a cylinder twenty-si v
long and eleven feet in diameter, with thirty-two float-
's, arranged in four divisions on the same priiicr, •
the divided paddle-wheel described under STKAM-\' •
vol. xxii., p. f><)9. in order to equalize the action of the
water: and its axis is laid in a position parallel to the side
of the river, so that it may be turned with equal facility by
in flowing from the river into the reservoir, or
the reservoir into the river, according to the direction in
which the tide is moving, and the positions of :
for admitting the head of water on one side, and al'.i
free vent for the tail-water on the other. At each end of
the water-wheel is fixed, upon the same axis, a large
bevil-wheel, from which the rotatory motion is communi-
cated to an upright shaft, bv means of two small hori-
zontal bevil-whcels. called wallowcrs, either of which may
he readily thrown into connection with the large wheel,
while the other revolves freely, without coming in contact
with it. Thus, by throwing the upper wallower into
while the water-wheel icvolvcs in one direction, and t In-
lower one when its motion is reversed, the vertical si
m:ulc to revolve continually in one direction. The v.
wheel, and the parts immediately connected with it, form-
ing an apparatus of the weight of nearly twenty Ion-
go mounted as to rise and fall by the action of tin- water,
with very little attention: the bottom of the whccl-i.
being connected with a kind of horizontal folding-door,
which prevents any communication between tl>.
the re ecpting in the required direction, wh,;
maybe the position of the wheel-frame. The moti.
the vertical shafts is communicated to the machinery of
the mill by large horizontal wheels which turn with the
but do not rise and fall with them. The weight of
upportcd by a » 'ion-
rollers resting upon a stationary part of tli
that the vertical shafts, which are squared to fit the i
may slide freely up and down, although they cannot turn
round without turning the wheels.
Of the means for effecting the objects required in flu-
second of the above-i 'ii-s of tide-nu-
light notice will suffice. Helidor describes a water-
wheel contrived by MM. Go-set and DC hi Deliille. in
which the float hinged in such a manner tha-t,
while at Ihe bottom of the wheel, they would press against
T I D
433
T I E
the radii or arms of the wheel, and would present thei»
full surface to the action of the current, while in any other
position they would, by turning on their hinges, present little
more than their edges to it. Such a wheel will revolve
when completely immersed in water, although an ordinary
water-wheel would be quite stationary. Gregory describes
also a bucket-wheel invented by Mr. Dryden, which will
work with nearly equal force, whether the head of water
lie within one or two feet of the top of its periphery, and
the tail-water above the level of the axle, or the tail-water
ievel with the bottom of the wheel, and the head at a pro-
portionate elevation, but below the level of the axle. The
float-boards, or divisions between the buckets, are all set
at one angle with the radii of the wheel, and asmall space
is left, between each float and the drum-boarding, or sol-
ing of the wheel, to allow air to enter the buckets freely
as they rise out of the water, and thereby to prevent the
loss of power occasioned by the formation of a partial
vacuum in the rising bucket, causing it, in the language
of the miller, to ' suck up the tail-water.' The uniform
rotation of the wheel in one direction must be provided
for by having two passages, provided with sluices, from
each end of the water-way in which the wheel is placed ;
one passage leading to the river, and the other to the
voir. By opening and closing the sluices alternately,
the current, whether from the river to the reservoir or
from the reservoir to the river, may always be made to
pass under the wheel in the same direction. M. Navier,
in his notes to the new edition of Belidor, published at
Paris in 1819 (in which tide-mills are treated of at con-
siderable length . states that the former kind of wheel,
with hinged floats, had been tried successfully in Spain,
by M. Dussaussoy, an officer of artillery. A work by AJ-
dini on the tide as a moving-power for mills was published
early in the present century.
T'lDEMAN, PHILIP, was a native of Niirnberg, where
he was born in the year 1657. lie studied first under a
painter named Nicholas Raes, with whom he remained
eight years, and was distinguished by his diligent appli-
cation to his art, in which he attained great proficiency.
Desiring however to improve his knowledge and taste, he
went to Amsterdam to study the capital works of the great
s in the collections in that city. '
I.airesse being at that time in great esteem at Amster-
dam, Tidcman resolved to place himself under his direc-
tion : and so gained the good opinion of his teacher by his
-ing manners and his talents, that Lairesse conceived a
great affection for him, and not only gave him the best
instruction in the art, but employed him to assist in some
important works on which he was engaged. In executing
these works Tideman gave such evident proof of his abili-
ties, that he soon obtained sufficient employment inde-
pendent of Lain
His compositions of fabulous history and allegory in-
dicate a lively fancy, genius, and invention; insomuch
that in thi^ respect Ins designs have been recommended as
models lo succeeding artists. Two of his capital composi-
tions were Venus complaining to Jupiter of Juno's persc-
is, and Juno applying to /Kolus to destroy
the Trojan fleet. He died in 1715, at the age of fifty-eight,
leaving a very great number of sketches and designs, which
afford proofs both of his industry and the fertility of his in*
vention.
Pilkington ; Fuseli ; Bryan.)
TIDES. [WAVE.]
Tl DKSVVELL. [DERBYSHIRE.]
TIDORE, one of the Moluccas, is situated in the strait
which divides the island of Gilolo from that of Celebes,
and is traversed by 45' N. lat. and by 127° 25' E. long. It
is only about 21 miles in circumference. Near the southern
coast rises a mountain in the form of a cone, which is of
'. olcanic origin. According to an estimate its summit may
be about 4000 feet above the sea-level. The soil is com-
posed of volcanic matter mixed with a considerable por-
tion of vegetable mould, and abundantly watered by nu-
merous rivulets which descend from the mountain : it is of
' fertility, well cultivated, and produces rice in abun-
dance. The sago-tree, as well as the clove and nutmeg-
grow wild, though the Dutch have been at great
pains to otirpalf the trees, to secure the monopoly in
*. Tlie inland is \ ery populous, and governed by a
sultan, who alxi |)(),M..,,.S the southern and middle
tions oi '(;•!.,!::," hi Te the towns of Maba,Wida, and Patang
P. C., No. 1542.
oelong to him. He claims also the islands which are
situated between Gilolo and Papua, namely, Wageeow,
Battanta, and Mysole, and lives in great state. The in-
habitants are Malays and Mohammedans. At the time of
Forrest's visit (1774) there were twenty-five mosques oil
the island.
This island was first visited by the vessels with which Ma-
galhaens sailed round the globe in 1521, and the Spaniards
loaded their ships with spices. They returned five years
after, and found that the Portuguese had begun to establish
their authority on the Moluccas. This gave rise to a war be-
tween the Spaniards and Portuguese, which ended, in 1529,
by the emperor Charles V. renouncing his rights to the.
Moluccas, and receiving from the king of Portugal as an
equivalent a loan of 350,000 ducats. Tidore was visited by
Sir Francis Drake in 1579. In 1613 the Dutch tookallthe Por-
tuguese settlements on these islands, and began to subject,
their sovereigns to a more strict obedience for the purpose of
establishing their monopoly in the spice trade. They treated
them for some time with great harshness. In 1778 the sultan
of Tidore was dethroned and exiled to Batavia, but he was
afterwards re-established. In 1796, when the British took
Amboyna under Admiral Rainier, Tidore, being dependent
on its government, fell also into their power : it was re-
stored by the peace of 1801. In 1808 the sultan of Tidore,
disagreeing with the Dutch at Amboyna, was expelled and
obliged to fly to Papua. He applied to the English for
assistance, and with their aid he recovered the greater part
of his possessions. Soon afterwards (1810), the English
having again taken possession of Amboyna, the sultan of
Tidore became dependent on them ; but in 1814 all the
settlements on the islands of the Indian Archipelago which
had been taken by the English, were again restored to the
Dutch, and the sultan of Tidore is now dependent on the
Dutch government.
(Forrest's Voyage to New Guinea and the Moluccas;
Stavorinus, VOI/U^PS to the East Indies.)
TIEDEMANN, DIETRICH, a German philosopher, was
born the 3rd of April, 1748, at Bremervorde, near Bremen,
where his father was burgomaster. He received his ear-
liest education at home, and as he was scarcely allowed to
have any intercourse with other children, his leisure hours
were spent in reading. His father sent him in 1703 to
Verden, where he was chiefly engaged in acquiring a
knowledge of the antient and some modern languages.
After a stay of two years there he entered the Athenseum
of Bremen. The system of education and the distinguished
masters of this institution had great influence on young
Tiedemann. It was here that he first conceived a love for
philosophy and its history, and he began his philosophical
studies by reading the works of Descartes, Locke, Hel-
vetius, and Malebranche. After spending eighteen months
at Bremen, he entered the university of Gottingen, with
the intention of studying theology pursuant to his father's
wish ; but he continued the study of classical literature,
mathematics, and philosophy. Ihe study of philosophy
raised in his mind strong doubts respecting certain main
points of the Christian religion, which he was unable to
overcome, and this led him to abandon the study of theo-
logy. He now tried jurisprudence, but notwithstanding
the entreaties of his father to devote himself to some pro-
fession, he abandoned the study of the law also, and at last
determined to follow his own inclinations, and to give
himself up entirely to philosophy and its history. His
father, dissatisfied with his son's conduct, refused to send
him further means of subsistence. After having spent two
years and a half at Gottingen, Professor Eyring proposed
to him to take the place of tutor in a nobleman's family in
Livonia, which Tiedemann accepted very reluctantly. In
1769 he entered his new situation, in which he remained
four years, although he was shut out from all means of
prosecuting his own studies, and had to devote almost all
his time to his pupils. Nevertheless he found time to
write a little work on the origin of language, a favourite
topic with the philosophers of that time. It was pub-
lished under the title, ' Versuch einer Erkliirung des Ur-
sprungs der Sprache,' Riga, 1772, 8vo. In the year follow-
ing he returned to his native place, and after having spent
a year there in studying various subjects which he had
neglected in Livonia, he again went to Gottingen. His
friend Meiners, who was now a professor in the university,
introduced him to Heyne, who immediately made him a
member of the philological seminary. The small income
VOL. XXIV.— 3 K
T I B
T I K
<
had rec
. \\\w
:e publication. In '
:lc\uc
was applu
IDUIll
II< \ in- i i • pled
:a without telling him of it. TiciUmann
'ed with tin' place, as it iliil not i niiirli
put him in connei ' of the
philo-
li zeal
igour. Tin- pni)o»O] u-li hr hail im-
nrs whom lie hiul most studied tended
: luit his irici vigorously
..1 tin-in. ;nul at length succeeded in turning liis
mind in a different diivctiun. In tin1 year 17^'. when tin1
ii up, Tk'ilrlliuim v,a 1 \\ilh
to W iiburg. Ii'"'1' he lectured at dif-
tinic- iii! 'lu1 law of natuic. on
moral phi'.. ,] . ::mversal history, hisi
philosophy, and" sonk'tiim-.s also on smile classical (ircck
r. His lectures were MTV popular, ami his kind ill--
petition made hi.-> hearers luok'upon him more as a friend
than as a muster. Sometimes, especially during ihr la-t
,1 of his lite, ho did not conduct himself with the
a philosopher in combating the
jihi'.i Kant, to which he w L lie died
in the mioat of literary undertakings, after a short illness,
on the 'Jllh of .May. Isoii.
Icmann wits beloved and esteemed by all who knew
him. His life was spent in intellectual occupations and
1'odiK exercise, of which he was MTV fond. His striking
(juaJiiies were great self-control, cheerfulness, and a total
all pretension to literary superiority, alt
hu works were extremely popular. Hi works
alre.ulv mentioned, the following deserve noticcj-
•linngcii iiher den Menschcn,' Leipzig, 1777. tee..
;jvnls. SMI. : ' Griechonlands erete Philosophen, odei
Ucr in tin
'1 a
and
Till' imme-
Bcihn and Stettin. 17sl. Svo. This work i- a tianslation
• Ceist der Spe-
.vcn 1'lu! - 17'.U-'.i7. <i Mils. Hvo.
• •y of philosophy from the time of
• LcilimU and t'hristian \VoHf, and il
:,ieh it contains. In style and
lent, and the author did not possess
knowledge of ]>hilosi>phy which
abled him tu p--rcii\c the oigame conucc-
tion and the necessary succession of the \arions philoso-
•!er iibcr da- mciinchliclu.'
'7!M. 8vo. ; •Handbuch der I'sycho-
•iitcd alter the author's death
:;y L. \Vuchlcr. who h;us prefixed to
naun. He-ides thc.-c
Ihu I'n-nch : he nlso
1 K is the author
which wi
.Hum
: pi nit, I7SU,
It ae fuerit artiiim ma-
raecm
li his ad ' pmpa-
• .
demami. in his Hun <//<//, li
' ' / 'j ' ' ' . . M . , . p. | I . M,.
IIUISIOI'II A I <-l ST. The
• . an . .akcn his place
among the (ierman an horn :i:
Altin 17'iJ. II . life
. la- father
; nt 1 1,1
' hildren in
wtutc
but QutViitrwta.:ding the lavouiubk- opinion
nil of the prosperous I
ailllcil '• ' !n i|iultinLr Hindi he was
by (ileim I , ith him ai
• ul 171U, v. hen he i
:ry to Don-.1 a : and though he died ill
the followii .-Hied in the family upon
the same footing during the life of Madame Mm Stedern,
• her diath, in \TM. secured to him a
competency. Being thus placed peu I his
circuit; through the noitli of (lerinany .
and visited Berlin, where it was his mind lortuue a:rain to
meet with Madame \on der Keeke. and the intimacy thus
resumed continued for life. Though not in ac
with the ordina, 1 society, it \vi
from the slightc- i of impropriety, and no more
10 it than -nilnr domesticatioii of C'owper
with Mrs. I'nwin. This union, of a kind so exeeedinsrly
rare that Q) at been invented fur it. was that ol
two noble and pure minds, congenial in their tastes, and
equal:. Mtha feeling for poetry and those pui
which', wliile they rctine. also elevate our natuic.
author of • I'rania' was as well shielded from seaml
was the author of the • Task :' for although very diii
in form, the iirst-mentioned poem is. like the other, deeply
tinged by religious sentiment : and its m
immediately recognised, for it. went through several edi-
tions within a very short time fiom i!- i aranee in
In ISO-I Tit-dire and his female friend visited Italy, where
they remained about two years: and of this journey we
11 account from the pen of Madame xon der 1!
.:ch ciner Rcisc.' tec.. -I vols. s\c-.. with a
: and notes by Hiitliirer, which, besides i
superior to the gcticial ela.-s of tour-books, ntt'ord
of her being a zealous thoinrh candid 1'rotestaut. and a
woman of strict pictv. On their return to Oermany.
Madame von der Heckc ninde Berlin, and aUcrwards Islll
Dresden, her chief place of residence, pa.-sing the summer
months at Teplitz or Carlsbad. The mil) chanire '[ i
henceforth experienced was that occasioned by the le
his companion and benefactress, for she had taker,
that her death lKt;)i should ean-e no chantre whatever in
his outward ciieum-lanees, not even that of bis resid;
as she directed that her establishment should be kept up
for him precisely as before, and that he should continue to
enjoy the luxuries and comforts he had so long been ac-
customed to. Nor wa.- her anxious solicitude for her
friend's welfare i pre-eminently -,
favoured beyond the ordinary lot. that he not only attained
an unusual age, but nearly free from all infirmities of
mind. In his eiirhl) -ninth v i ar. sav - one
have known him personally, he did not
to be much more than sixty : the onlv alteration in
him was. that for some year- he could not take exercise on
or stir out except in a carriairc or a wheel-chair,
but a week before his death March Nth. IS-H he
: the biitl, i one of his frien
death, his • Life and Literary Ken:
Liivcn to the world by Dr. K. FHlkenstein. in -4 Vi
all his works, in 111 vols.. i
uf publication. After In
original production is perhaps his • \\ ;r
des Lcbens. IKt(i. which, like
. and siniilarin fcnden-
-niedly religions ehaiacter. the
its moial preci pi's beniLT n-lieved by the; :i\ful
irony which pervades many part em. Hi* prin-
cipal other productions I
• KIcLMc:-,' and his • Kiaucn-pieirel.' all which have eontri
buli-d iitation. 'I • in which the p
• iniir M|' liis
n, has just
Or .if which.
,. liti ia ; -. and
T I F
435
T I F
another to make some provision in their declining years
for meritorious writers who may have fallen into adversity
in consequence of age and infirmities^
(df t L,:r:con ; Wolff's Encyclopadie ; Mor-
genblatt, 1842; Litteraturblatt, 1842.)
~ TIEL. [THIEL.]
TIETOLO, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, a celebrated
Italian painter of the eighteenth century, was born of a
good family at Venice in 1003. Tiepolo, says Lanzi, was
the last of the Venetians who acquired a European fame ;
celebrated in Italy, in Germany, and in Spain. He studied
as a boy under Gregorio Lazzarini, painted at first in his
manner, then imitated the style of Piazzetta, but attached
himself eventually to that of Paul Veronese. Already at
the age of sixteen he was known even out of Venice,
and when still young he received invitations from various
Italian cities to decorate their churches and their pub-
lic buildings. His works in the north of Italy, both
in oil and in fresco, are numerous : one of his first works
of note was the Shipwreck of San Satiro, in the church of
St. Ambrose, at Milan : he excelled chiefly in fresco, and
his colouring and the folds of his draperies bear great re-
semblance to those of Paul Veronese. In Germany also
Tiepolo executed several works : at Wiirzburg he painted
the staircase and the saloon of the bishop's palace and two
altar-pieces. He was afterwards invited by Charles III.
to Spain, where, in .Madrid, he painted the ceiling of the
saloon in the new palace of the king, and the hall of the
rojal guard, by winch he is said to have excited the
jeahx igs: he executed also the chief altar-piece
in oil for the convent church of St. Paschal, at Aranjuez.
He died in Madrid in 1709 or 1770.
Tit-polo's style was slight and brilliant, yet his colouring
was not glaring : the effect of his paintings was not pio-
duced by a recourse to bright colours, but by a judicious
contrast of tints: his drawing was however feeble, yet
this weakness was nearly concealed by the gracefulness of
liis attitudes. One of his best pictures in oil is the Mar-
tyrdom of St. Agatha, in the church of St. Antonio, at
Padua. He etched several plates in a very free and
spirited manner. He left two sons, Giovanni Domenico
ami Lorenzo, who were both painters: the elder etched
some of his lath. ;
ictli, Itrllit I'ltliir/i I '/ •m:/,'n,i. Sar. ; Lanzi, fiturin
1'itt'irirn. tec.; Kiorillo, Getchichte der Mnhlerry, vol. li.)
TIFLIS. orTKFI.lS. the capital of the Rus-ian province
of Georgia, is in about, 41° 43' N. lat., according to (.'apt.
Monteith. In 182!) Mr. Federof, who accompanied Pro-
i his \isit to Mount Ararat, found the lati-
tude of the cathedral church to be 41° 41'. The longitude,
according to Birdin, is 02° 34' E. from Ferro, or 44° 50'
E. of London. Professor Parrot fixes the elevation of the
stone bridge over the river Kur at exactly 1100 feet above
the level of the Hlack Sea, and 31 feet above the mean
level of the river. The Kur flows throim-h a valley confined
between two ranges of lofty mountains. The river i
the valley on the north, and ' at the extremity of the defile,'
says Sir K. K. Porter, • we saw the capital of Georgia, the
Tiflis rising on the precipitous and sub-
lime hanks of the Kur. lint the effect, produced here is
of a deeper tinge. The town itself stands at the foot of a
line of dark and barren hills, whose high and caverned
sides irlooun'ly overshadow it. Every house, every build-
ing within its walls, seems to share the dismal hue of the
surrounding heights ; for a deep blackness rests on all.
The heavy battlcmc-i.1 ml the still majestic towers
of the ancient citadel, the spires of Christian churches, and
other marks of European residence, could not for some time
the horrible dungeon impression of Asiatic dirt and
barbarism received at first view of the town.' Th:
i in 1K17.
The town is liuilt on both sides of the river; but the
larger portion, which is on the ritrht or west bank, contains
ttie houses of th; wealthiest inhabitants, the great bazar,
the principal squares, the finest churches, the public offices,
the residence of the military governor, and of the com-
niander-in-cbief. This is the city properly so called, which
again is divided into two parts, the old and new town.
The limits of the old 'own are distinctly marked by the
ruins of tin- antient fortifications. The new town extends
to the north and w.>t beyond these walls, and is distin-
d from the old knvii by its new buildings in tli
ropean style and broader streets. The greater part of it
is called by the Georgians Goretuban, that is, the street
out of the city. On the left bank is the extensive suburb
Awlabar, a large caravansary, the barracks, a long icw
of houses inhabited by colonists from Southern Gem
and the fortress or citadel, built by the Turks in 1570.
Toward the south the town leans against the chain of
hills running from the south-west, on the summit of which
are extensive ruins of a veiy antient fortress ; its highest
point at the western end of the old wall is 392 feet above
the bridge ; towards the west it rises higher, and from
thence a small stream of water is conducted to the city
the bed of which however is generally quite dry, except
immediately after rain.
There are in Tiflis 15 Greek churches, 20 Armenian, and
2 Roman Catholic, some of which are very handsome. At
A. point where the river in its course through the town is
hemmed in by rocks, a bridge of a single arch connects
the town with the suburb of Awlabar. Here also are
the ruins of an antient fort, church and houses, and about
two miles farther from this side of the city stand the re-
mains of another sacred edifice, on the summit of a lofty
hill.
The houses in Tiflis are ill-built, and the streets so nar-
row that only one carriage can pass through the widest,
and in the smaller streets there is scarcely room for a
horseman. \Ve must not however derive our ideas from
the description of travellers, before or for a few years after
the incorporation of Georgia with the Russian empire in
JSOl. The letters on the Caucasus and Georgia in 1812,
written by the wife of a Russian envoy, speak of Tiflis as
'a mass of nuns, melancholy monuments of the ravages of
Aura Mahomet and the Persians.' Sir Robert Ker Porter,
in 1817, says that the governor was making great, improve-
ments, ordering all ruinous houses to be repaired, or en-
tirely pulled down to make way for the erection of new
ones. Among these improvements are the alterations in
the great bazar, along narrow \\indiugstreet with shops
on both sides, which he had caused to be entirely roofed in,
with circular apertures to admit air and light. Professor
Kichwald, who visited Tiflis in 1825 and 1820, and gives
some particulars as late as 1829, says, 'Since the year 1801
tranquillity and security have returned, and are now firmly
established in Georgia ; civilization and commerce increase
every year; since that time Tiflis has been improving in
its appearance, is continually enlarged by new buildinsls,
and its inhabitants have easily become familiar with all the
comforts and even the luxuries of European life.' Profes-
sor Parrot, who was there in 1K29, speaks in similar terms
of the improvements introduced by the Russian govern-
ment, but does not appear to be so .satisfied with the intro-
duction of European fashions.
One of the worst effects of the habitual intercourse with
Europeans is the change that has been made in the
manners of the women, who have thrown off their former
Asiatic restraint, without adopting the reserve and de-
corum of European manners. This effect is much more
decided among the lower orders, because the troops arc
quartered in the houses of the inhabitants, so that the
customary line of separation between the women and the
men could no longer be preserved. This circumstance
greatly disgusts the Georgians, and they accordingly
hailed with delight the judicious ukase of 182i>, by which
the proprietors of newly-built, houses are exempted from
receiving soldiers into tlieir houses for six years.
Tiflis has been chiefly indebted for its celebrity to its
warm baths, and its Georgian name, Tphilisk Alaki, is
equivalent to ' warm town.' Parrot says, its name is derived
from the Georgian word tbili, warm, which may have
"i\en il either on account of the warm springs, or
from the contrast of the great warmth of the climate of
Tiflis, with the preceding residence of the Georgian Kin.
ul Mx.rhct, which lies on the declivity of the Caucasus,
and has a much cooler temperature. The building of Tiflis
and the transferring of the royal residence to this place
were effected about the year 455, by king Waktang I.,
Gork-Aslan. (Klaproth, Ri-iw, i. 715; ii. 104.) The
mineral springs rise in considerable numbers at the south
end of the city, between the strata of limestone, whence
they are conducted into the cavern excavated in the solid
rock, under one immense roof, divided into different apart -
ui'-nis for the men and the women, into which not a ray
of day-light is admitted, and which are merely rescued
from total daikness by the faint glimmerings of a few
3K2
T I 1-
496
T 1 O
twinkling lamp* struggling with the vapour arising from
,]„. „ and the dis.udcr and
fill), .imimition lenders visible.
the who'e
having been lei' .ivvever lh.it this
ider and cleanliness is not to be wondi
. the baths i, fi, <• I.) all. and they
:\ into every chauil
• these baths, ami wits much smpiised at
bring niged by a gentleman who accompanied him, to
view the Iwiths'of the women, to which tln-j wire -hown
by an old -. I'heir eiitnince did not stem to
aiiy alarm or astonishment. These waters are leputed to
:i. ficial in rheumatic complaints and cutaneous
chemical analysis that can be depended on
en made. Pairot, who examined 17
ditfcrcut baths, states the hottest at :f7°.
and the coolest at 1'J" Reaumur. There are only two
springs below :hr , the temperature of the air in the khnde,
: the baths, was from 15" to 1(1° Reaumur.
The situation of Tillis would certainly make it one of
the most delightful spots in the world, if the mountains
between which it lies were not totally destitute <>l
fhcv no-.v only relied the rav so! the sun from the southern
iiich also keeps off the cooling
north and north-east winds .and thus produce in the valleys
an oppressive lu-at. which often strikes like the glow of a
furnace, and may perhaps be the cause of the bilious dis-
eases prevalent here. The greatest heat during th.
drni . n the 28th of .lulj , between
3 and ~> in the afternoon. :tOu -I' Reaumur.
Though Professor Parrot state, that • notwithstanding
the great advantages held out by the Russian gov eminent,
which cut. ini from Russia and other coun-
II, from the eounsello. :id general down
to the clerk and common < 'o.ssick, often long in a few-
weeks to return to their native country as to a lost para-
dise ;' jet the population is constantly and rapidly in
ing. I'll IH'JU it was stated not to exceed l."..(KK). and is
now probably nearly -45.1HK). it having been -!(),<XX) three
Full one-half are Armenians, the remainder
cliiiflj Georgians, that is, old Greek Christians, some
Koma'n Catholics, and about a hundred Mohammedans.
It is the residence of a Georgian patriarch, a Georgian
metropolitan, anil an Armenian archbishop. There are
some manufactories of woollen, cotton, and silk.
Tillis is most favourably situated to be the medium of
an extensive trade between Kurope and Asia, but it is only
since the arrival of the Russians snd the peace of Gu-
hslan that there has been any direct commerce with
At first, and till the emperor Alexander :
to the trans-Caucasian province, the Armenians
merely purchased such goods as they wanted for eommon
.1 the fair of Nishnci Novgorod, to which they brought
.01 goods. .iwls, and pearls, which
they exchanged for woollens, linen, printed calicoes, kc. :
they often bought with ready inoncv. In 1K21 the ukase
granting freedom of trade was published, and commerce
greatly increased. In 1S23 a rich Armenian went to
sa, where lie purchased goods to the amount of many
thousand pounds, which he disposed of to great adv;i
atTitli-.
In the following year for the first time, six Armenian
merchants came to Lrip/ig fair, where they pun
Kuropenn manufactures to the amount of UX).(XN) rubles
banco i'l.lXXl/. ,. which they conveyed through Galicia and
the south of Russia to Odessa, where they w ere embarked for
Ucdout Kale. In the year lsi"> the value of the goods
purchased at Leipzig was 1,200,000 rubles, and in the
following year twice a* much. Pmli-ssor Kichvvald
i- much to be wished that some Kuropean merchants
might settle in Tiflis, and endeavour to improve th.
from that city to Persia, Afghanistan, Hokhara, and Tibet.
Then the caravans from Cashmere. Cabul, and Tibet
would no longer go to Tauris and Ispahan, but cross the
Caspian Sea, and so up the Kur to Tiflis. whence the goods
would be forwarded over the Hlack Sea to Kuropc.
Tlir trade with Persia in very important, and is almost
Mitirely in the hands of the Armenians of Hushirc on the
ill and of Tillis. The former trade chiefly to the
K**t In.h. part ol the ships which n;.
in the I in. mm t '
cat: only a it- mi: to Uushire.. The
value of giKxls brought from India to lYis.a w.-u two
millions of iluc:r
India "rtXMNK) dn< -.,t A ,
takes the .-iah. iKmi which p'.
factures of Kngland and India go up the
are disposed of in Turkey. The \iansit I,
which chiefly come from I.clp/ig, is an
i of the tiade between Tillis and Persia. On the
the commerce of Titli.s is inn
ind value.
Sir Robeit Ker Porter. .' .
;;; !/<•,/
lierlin, lKi4 ; Eichwald, li.
TIGA. Piofess<,r Kaup's name for a genus of :
i(*/try>.i>H'iti<\, S\v. ; J'li-iit, Ho i .
.
[WoODPBCKKR8.1
TIGER-BITTERNS. [TICKISOMA.]
TIG KIM 'ATS. [TIGKK.
TIGERS. Although there is but one s;
]>.operlj- so called, th.
genus relit in which the ligerine eh..
may he also treated of under the title before us.
Tile Hnj/iil Tif;i-r, 1'flix Tigris, claims our first no-
and, although poets and poetical zoologists have join
elevate the lion with hi.s majestic mane to the M
it may be doubted whether the Tia<-r is not thcU|K.'o(
the lerociou-, and blood-t hirst \ g.
Some havi' thought that this-; ,,u( little known
to the antients: but. we think, with no sufi
The numerous pits-ages in which the wonl
in Greek and Latin authors, leave litil.
doubting this knowledge ; and Hjrcania, with which it is
so ficijucntly associated by the latter, is a locality well
suited to what we now know of its geographical distribii-
tron.
When Aii-totle ///.»/..//,///)., \iii.28X treat ing of In -
brid animals which spiing from an intermixture of diHe-
rent laces, sjij's that \ end that the dogs of India
are bred tiom the tiger (rov n'ypiof) and a bitch, not indeed
lit the first union, but at the third, we sec no n
sidenng the locality which he assigns to the //i'/i\. and
the opportunities which the
gave lum of knowing the animals of India, wh\
word should be rendered otherwise than by '/V.t/r in
our pi- .ilation of the term. ' The ti-
Pliny .V.i/. ///.v/., vih. IS:. • is produced in H\
India;' following this up with an allusion to the
meiulous swiftness ' of the animal, and the strong attach-
ment which the Tigress, notwithstanding accidental ex-
ception, is known to manifest for her nibs. Again l/m/.,
vi. 'Jl . he notices the Indian nati' -.nuli'ig in
wild tigei-s. Of course he does not omit the -
origin of the Indian dogs from the Tiger, and the rejection
of the two first In:, i- as ion feiocions. while the thild 1-
takcn and brought up. i Iliiil.. viii. 40. lint, luttl'er. it
is (|iiite clear from the same authority, that the '/'
had been exhibited at Rome, and that Pliny and n
well knew the distinction between tha- o.irds
and panthers. After mentioning the two last, and referring
to an ancient decree of the senate that African I
should not be imported, but stating that the tribuni
Cneiuf Aufidim i plebbcitum to b liich
permitted their importation for the Circensiaii games, he
stales the numb*!* brought, fin! 1>\ Scanrns. and then bj
Pompey the (Jreat and Augustus: adding that Auguslii>
was the first who showed a t.nne tigi. .1 den
at Rome, upon the dedication of the Theatre of Marcclhis,
during the consulship of (). Tub. TO and l-'ahins Maximus ;
and that the emperor Claudius showed four together.
' l/iid., viii. 17.) Suetonius :An.<f., \\i\\. : slates that it was
the habit of Augustus, besides the exhibitions at tin-
great spectacles, to show to the public any rantv
that Wits brought over, 'ut rhinocerotem a pud septa;
• : anguem c|uin<|iiaginta ciibitonnn pro
eomitio :' and Dion remarks that the tigers (rr)
first seen In the Romans, and. as he thinks, bv the
s also, were those sent bj tile Indians a-, gilts when
they were suing for peace from Augustus. The emperor
, Philip on one occasion exhibited ten tigers, together
. with thirty-two elephants, ten elks, r-ixty lions, thirty
TIG
437
T I G
leopards, ten hyaenas, one hippopotamus, one rhinoceros, I
forty wild horses, twenty wild asses, and numbers of deer, '
goals, antelopes, and other beasts ; the brutal exhibition
being crowned by the mortal combat of two thousand
gladiators.
Gordian III. also exhibited ten tigers, and they were
present in the shows of Antoninus and Elagabahis. Aure-
lian, in his triumph over Zenobia., showed lour, together
with a giraffe, an elk, and other rare animals.
Oppian cannot be mistaken when he writes (Cyneg., iii.
130),
Tt Soai, irat n'ypiff moXovwroi ;
for here we have leopards and tigers in the same line, and
the epithet aioXovwroc (having a variegated back) is quite
applicable to the latter.
The Latin poets abound with allusions to the Tiyri-i.
that, in most instances, can hardly be allotted to any animal
lut the Royal Tiger; for, though Virgil, in his fourth!
•Georgic' (1.407;,applies the epithet 'atra' (black) to Migris' i
in the passage where (Jyrene is warning Arisheus as to the
forms into which Proteus will transform himself, the word,
evidently, does not there allude to colour, but to ferocity.
In the fourth ' jfineid,' Dido, in her exclamation against
/Kneas, says,
- * Duri3 ifenuit tc cautibus horrcns
Caucasus, tlyrcanff'iuc aJiuoriint ubvra ttfVM.'
The tig*rs of Bacchus may be considered more doubtful.
In the '(lemmie et Sculpture Antiquae' there is a repre-
sentation of a large female 1'i-lin with the thyrsus from a
carnelian (corgnola), with the superscription, 'Tigre di
Bacho ;' but though the figure, generally, might pass for a
Tiger, the tail of the animal is terminated by a shagiry
lul't, and ro tiger's tail is. Claudian comes much nearer
to the murk where he describes lacchus as marching
Crowned with ivy, dnd clad fin the skin) of the Parthian
TiLTfi. When Virgil describes Orpheus, as ' mulcentem
litres' as • soothing tigers' (Georg. iv., 1. 510), and Horace,
with nearly the same thought, addresses Mercury,
' To poles tigre* comttesque sylvaa
Duoere'
•;. iii., O<le ii. : ; and airain, in his epistle to the Pisos
Arte Poctica,' 1. 393), says of Orpheus,
' Diaus ah hoc lenire tigres, rabidusque leones ;'
they make the Tiger personify the greatest ferocity, and
they certainly could not have chosen a more apt represen-
tative.
Martial speaks of the Tiger in the time of Titus and
Domitian. (Spect., Epig. 18, and lib.i., Epig. lOfi.j
To conclude this branch of the subject, we shall advert
to one more literary proof, and one piece of pictorial evi-
dence : and we think that no doubt can exist that, al-
though the Royal Tiger was not so abundant in the
Koman shows, particularly the earlier ones, as the leo-
pard and the panther, its form and colouring, as distin-
guished from the other great cats, were as well and fami-
liarly known to that people.
Piinj, in his chapter ' De Atlantis Arboribus et Oedrinis
Meiisis,' Sic. \n/. ///-,/., xiii. 15 ..speaking of the grain or
pattern of these tallies, says that where it was oblong or
lengthened, they were called tigrine, but where it was
v. real lied or curfed ' ii-turtu',, they were termed pantherine.
The pictorial evidence (so to speak) was furnished by
tin- mosaic found at Uoi'.ie near the arch of Gallienus. In
this woik of art, executed not improbably in commemora-
tion of the exhibition of Claudius above noticed, four
Royal Tigers, each devouring his prey, are well re-
presented.
Our Zoological Societies and menageries have so in-
creased in number during a long period of peace, that it
I c mines almost superfluous to describe a form so well
knuun. But as a description of an animal holding so im-
portant. a rank in the animal kingdom may be expected,
we select that of Mr. Bennett, who, in the Tuirnr Menu-
ie, remarks that the Tiger, closely allied to the Lion in
in power, in external form, in internal structure, in
zoological characters, in prowling habits, and in sangui-
nary propensities, is at once distinguished from it, and
from every other of their common genus, by the peculiar
miii-kiii^s of its coal. 'On a ground which exhibits in
ditSVrent individuals various shades of yellow,' says Mr.
Bennett, ' he is elegantly striped by a series of transverse
black bands or bars, which occupy the sides of his head,
neck, and body, and are continued upon his tai! in the
form of rings, the last of the series uniformly occupying
the extremity of that organ, and giving it a black tip of
greater or less extent. The under parts of his body and
the inner sides of his legs are almost entirely white ; he
has no mane ; and his whole frame, though less elevated
than that of the Lion, is of a slenderer and more graceful
make. His head is also shorter and more rounded.'
There is a paler variety, almost approaching to whitish,
and with the stripes visible only in particular lights : this
has been exhibited in this country. According to Du
Halde, the Chinese Tiger (Lou-chu, or Lau-hri) varies in
colour, some being white, striped with black and grey.
The size of the Tiger varies also ; but the dimensions of
the form, when fully developed, are, if we are to give credit
to some accounts, the veracity of which has not been im-
pugned, most formidable. Buffon notices an individual
which was (tail included) 15 feet long ; and it is on
record that Hyder Ali presented to the Nabob of Arcot
one which measured 18 feet in length. The average
height varies from about four feet to about three feet, and
the length from about eight or nine feet to six.
Geographical Distribution. — Asia only, and not the
south of Africa, as BufFon erroneously states ; but authors
generally agree that the Tiger is now rarely, if ever, met
with on this side of the Indus. It is said to be found in
the deserts which separate China from Siberia, and as far
as the banks of the Oby ; and in the south of China, and
the larger East Indian Islands (Sumatra, for instance), it is
common. Pennant states that it is found as far north as
China and Chinese Tartary, and about Lake Aral and the
Altaic Mountains. ' It inhabits Mount Ararat,' says the
same author in continuation, ' and Hyrcania, of old famous
for its wild beasts ; but the greatest numbers, the largest,
and the most cruel, are met with in India and its islands.
In Sumatra the natives are so infatuated that they seldom
kill them, having a notion that they are animated by Ihe
souls of their ancestors. They are the scourge of the
country ; they lurk among the bushes on the sides of
rivers, and almost depopulate many places. They are
in-idioiis, blood-thirsty, and malevolent, and seem to
prefer preying on the human race.' Hindustan may be
considered the head-quarters of this destructive animal ;
there it is that he reigns unawed even by the lion, with
which he disputes the mastery, and which is comparatively
rare in that peninsula.
Habits, Chase, cf-c. — The bound with which the am-
bushed tiger throws himself upon his prey is as wonderful
in its extent as it is terrible in its effects. Pennant justly
observes that the distance which it clears in this deadly
leap is scarcely credible. Man is a mere puppet in his
gripe ; and the Indian buffalo is not only borne down by
the ferocious beast, but carried off by his enormous
strength. If he fails, it has been said that he makes off.
This may be true in certain instances, but in general he
does not slink away, but pursues the affrighted prey with a
speedy activity which is seldom exerted in vain. This
leads us to the observation of Pliny celebrating its swift-
ness,* for which the Roman zoologist has been censured,
most unjustly, apparently ; nor is he the only author
among the ancients who notices its speed. Oppian
(Cyneg., i. 323) speaks of the swift Tigers as being the
offspring (yevsOXjj) of the zephyr. ' Pliny,' saysPennant, ' has
been frequently taken to task by the moderns for calling
the Tiger "animal tremendae velocitatis ;" they allow it
great agility in its bounds, but deny it swiftness in pursuit.
Two travellers of authority, both eye-witnesses, confirm
what Pliny says : the one indeed only mentions in general
vast fleetness ; the other saw a trial between one and a
swift horse, whose rider escaped merely by getting in time
amidst a circle of armed men. The chase of this animal
was a favourite diversion with the great Cam-Hi, the
Chinese monarch, in whose company our countryman
Mr. Bell, that faithful traveller, and the Pure Gerbillon,
saw these proofs of the tiger's speed.' •)•
In the ' 'EKa-iwrac, sen Centuria Imaginum Hierogryphi-
carnm ' (do. lac. xxiii.) is a wood-cut (here copied; that.
may refer to such a scene.
Ferocious as the Tiger is, and much as it may deserve
the odium heaped upon it, the general chorus of the herd
of authors who eulogize ' the courage, greatness, clemeridy,
and generosity ' of the lion, contrasting it with the unpro-
* Ante, p.,436. t Bell's • Travels,' ii. 01 ; Du HaUe, ii. 2 13.
T I G
T I C,
Tifrr ponuiaf a m»n on honcbacV..
voked ferocity, unnecessary cruelty, and poltroonery of
th* T:
".t. The lion has owed a good deal
to his mane and his nohk' and dignified a-; ' ' : !".'
trances are not always to lie trusted. Mr. I' .
with ' truth, characterizes the king
powerful but treacherous. • Happ\ .oiler,
' for the pca-antn . the I' mma!- that
are th , and gene-
rous nature, that so oft has fired the imagination of
ii>ali/ed. and that his royal ]>aw disd: If in
the blood of any sleeping creature ! The lion. i;i fact, is
one of the most indolent of all the beasts of prey, and
never gives himself the trouble of a pursuit unless hard
pressed by hmii:
1'eimnnt gives the following as an instance, alter stating
that there is a sort of cruelty in the de\ I the
unknown to the generous lion, as well as poltn
in its Midden retreat on any disappointment : ' I was
inforn. .1 authority, that in the beginning of
this eenti:. . d ladies, being on a party
of pleasure under the sha -. mi the hanks of a
ri\iT in Bengal, observed a tiger preparing for its fatal
-prinir : one of tin- ladie.-. wi'h amazing p.. mind,
Inid hold of an umbrella and furled it full in the animal's
which instantly retired, and gave the company an
opportunity of removing from so terrible a neighbour/
This is a verj pivtu (he heroine deserves all
praise, though It is not \ery dear what is meant by//
an umbrella, so as to make re with the
context, and the tiirer was undoubtedly vcrv polite. Hut
om a con~
••in ambush : and we suspect that a iTo-s-cvaininatioii
of the part. ;ed might base slighth 'damaged the
(Granting, however, that tin- boiil lady walked
up to a crouch, .d suddenly opened an "umbrella
in it* 1 iat, we prcKimie. is tile action meant . we
may easily conceive that the •- >a\ have utterly
.uncled him ; but this is not poll Indeed the
author immediately all.
proof of the animal's daiiic Ujer party had not the
hirer daited among them while they
it dinner, «eixed on one genii, led him off,
and hi .,d of."
•. sad one, which is
'g hardihood ; we allude to
son. Mr.
- the horrible . •.• in a
' 'tins unfortunate gentl. Mi. Wood, • accmn-
mined
>on. when they retired to the
"here they had
-ho.it a deer, heaid a dreadful roar, and
rn. and rush with him into
With the g him tin
made
. hit aman among
WM to fire at the tiger: and it is evident that theii
... a few ni li fler, Mr. MI.M.I stag-
1 with blon.'. and fell.
that the -hi|i af> i n, cured lor
' in vain ; he expired in i
:is in the .
torn. In, »kull fmc.
covered with wounds made by the claw* of the savage
beast. It ! tint neither
fire that w- (hem. nor the I'.oiv
laughter which i
inert tin* purpose.' Con-
ns with the story told !
•' !
which the Lion, though warmed with1
the terrified .l:i. j when, in
1 from a
liic butt-end of hi* shot less gi>
enemy. This im.\ poltroonery, if such a 'crni be
Hut it any doubt an to the courage of the tigi
tained. l-'atlivr Tach.. ,it of a i-onib;:1
that bca>t and two eleiibants at Siam will be suit:
pronf. He: :ihoo pa:i*ade wa.-> ei v
occuj)ying an an'a of about l(M) l.-et M|iiaie. Into this
cneld le])hant.s were introduced v. ilh their i
and trunks shielded by a kind nf ma.-k. A -rwat
now brought from its den, and held with cords
the eli . lied and inflicted two or tl
on its hack with his trunk, so heavily laid on
stunned, as if dead. Then tl No
sooner did he recover than he spiang wilh a dreadful
at the elephant's trunk stretched out him;
but the wary elephant drew up hi.s trunk, and
the tiger on hi.- tn»ks. hurled him into the air. This
cheeked the' fmy of li>
up the contest with the elephant ; but
round the palisade, frequently springing at the -
Allcrwards three elephants
turn dealt him such heavy blows that .
and would have been killed, it' •
incorrectly called, had not been tupped. .Nothing could
be more unfair towards the tiger than the whole of this
proceeding: and we will venture to sty that no quad
except a liritish bull-dog could have shown more -pluck,'
to use a vulgar but expressive term, than this shamefully
treated ben
The older authors generally state that after the tiger
has secured its prey it plunges its head into the be
the animal up to its with
blood till the corpse i- exhausted, before it teals it to
pieces. The best modern accounts tend to prove that (he
tiger is not more bloodthirsty and has no more blood-
sucking propensities than the other great cats: and that
this blood-drinking habit is gross iled.
Th. our or the cubs
at a time : and she i- ..ud niother,'bra\ ing i
them, and fnrioiislv attacking man ai
their .I The anticnts knew this well. Sec Martial
lib. iii.,Kpig. 4-J) : —
• Noa ttgtii catulli citata raptit,' &c. ;
and Juvenal x//., \i.) : —
' Time grivlt III.i Tiro, tune orlx ligrMr |K-j.>r :'
and though it is on record that I iinu-s
devoured her cub, one should : this unna-
tural act was done ill captivity.
cats have done the same. Hut that in a state ol'ii
the maternal feeling i- .g in the tigress, tin i
be no doubt. Captain U'illianison. for example, r
that tv.o tiger-cubs were brought to him when In
stationed in an Indian district. The country-people had
found four in th. --. The t
to the put in a stable, where they made a
loud noise . uiL'ht-. The bereaved nii.tlicr ar-
rived at last, replying to their cries with fearful hou .
and tin . under the apprehension
the infuriated tiirress might break in. In mg it
ind that she had earned them away.
For an . ;lie hi/briil* between th.
the aitiele I.iux, vol. xiv.. ;
ousilevic n put in requisition l
annihilate this destructive quadruped, and we shall men-
tion one or two of them before we advert to the clmce i f
the animal upon a grander mei-ly
d bv the !
d within the p- here their pov.cr and in-
fluence ex' ' icwanl, hi.' conjointly
with the poorer
i) it.
A kind of spnng-bow was formerly luid. in its way and
T I G
discharged a poisoned arrow, generally with fatal effect,
when the animal came in contact with a cord stretched
across its path, and this method is said still to he in use in
some places. Again, a heavy beam was suspended over
the way traversed by the tiger, which fell and crushed
him on his disengaging a cord which let the beam i'all.
A Persian device is said to consist of a large spherical
strong interwoven bamboo cage, or one made of other
sble materials, with intervals throughout, three or four
inches broad. Under this shelter, which is picketed to the
ml in the tiger's haunt, a man provided with two or
thn-e short strong spears takes post by night, with a dog
or a goat as his companion, wraps himself in his quilt and
to sleep. A tiger arrives, of whose presence the man
is warned by the (log or the goat, and generally, after
:ing about, rears himself up against the cage, upon
which the man stabs him resolutely with his short spear
through the interstice of the wicker-work. It seems hidi-
';:lk of taking a tiger with birdlime ; but it is said
aptured in Oude. When a tiger's track is
taintd, the peasants, we are told, collect a quantity of leaves
:ibling those of the sycamore, and common in most
Indian underwoods; these they smear with a kind of bird-
lime which is made from the berries of an indigenous and
by no means scarce tree, and strew them with the adhesive
Kubat&nce uppermost in some gloomy spot to which the
resorts m the heat of the day. If he treads on one of
the limed leaves, he generally begins by trying to shake it
from his paw, and not succeeding, proceeds to rub it
'st his jaw in order to get rid of it. Thus hi
'utinated, and the uneasy animal rolls,
perhaps among many more of the smeared leaves, till he
.11 -s ( M\cloped : in this state he has been compared
to a man who lias been tarred and feathered. The tiger's
irritation and uneasiness find vent in dreadful howlings ; on
ants hasten to the spot, and shoot him
without difficulty.
plan of the box-trap and looking-glass, a device to
b ind in antient sculpture according to Montfaucon. i.s
to be practised among the Chinese at the present day.
So much for the trapping of the Tiger. The. tiger-lnmt
is perhaps the grandest and most exciting of wild-sports.
i sin-h occasions the whole neighbourhood is on the
mo\e, and two hundred elephants have been known to
take the Held ; from ten to thirty of these gigantic animals,
-portsmcii armed with rifles, have not un-
; art eel fur the jungle.
itain Mundy gives a short but spirited description
uf a tiger-hunt. The party, he tells us, found immense
quantities of game, wild-hogs, hog-deer, and the Ncil-
gliie ;" they, however, strictly abstained from firing,
i heir whole battery for the nobler game of which
in pursuit. They had to pass through a thick
finest, and the author gives a very interesting description
of the power and dexterity of the elephants in overthrow-
ing trees to make a road : — ' On clearing the wood,
we entered an open space of marshy grass, not three
feet high ; a large herd of cattle were feeding there, and
the herdsman was .silling singing under a bush, when, just
as the former began to move before ns, up sprang the \cry
tiger to whom our visit was intended, and cantered otf
i a bare plain dotted with small patches of Im-h-
juiigle. He took to the open country in a style which
1 have more become a fox than 'a tiger, who is ex-
<1 by his pursuers to light and not to run, and as he
''ushed on the flank of the line, only one bullet was
fired at him ere he cleared the thick grass. He was
unhurt ; and we pursued him at full speed. Twice he threw
M out by stopping short in small strips of jungle, and then
."ig back after we had prised : ;>i,d he had given us a
;ast trot of about two miles, when Colonel Arnold,
who ild, at last reached him by a capital
ng in full career. As soon as he felt him-
•ied, the tiger crept into a close thicket ol
and bushes, and crouched. The two leading sportsmen
t where he lay, and us I came up I saw
him, throiiuh an aperture, rising to attempt a charge. Aly
mahout had just before, in the heat of the chase, dropped
Inch 1 had refused to allow him to
iliant being notoriou , and
• by the goading he had undergone, be
consequently un .le; he appeared to see the tiger
• Nyl-ffl «u. [kinnotr., vol. ii, p. 76.]
T I G
as soon as myself, and I had only time to fire one shot,
when he suddenly rushed with the greatest fury into the
thicket, and falling upon his kneesj nailed the tiger with
his tusks to the ground. Such was the violence of the
shock, that my servant, who sat, behind, was thrown out,
and one of my guns went overboard. The struggles of
my elephant to crush his still resisting foe, who had fixed
one paw on his eye, were so energetic, that I was obliged
to hold on with all my strength, to keep myself in the
houdah. The second barrel too of the gun, which I still
retained in my hand, went off in the scuffle, the ball
passing close to the mahout's ear, whose situation, poor
fellow, was anything but enviable. As soon as my ele-
phant was prevailed upon to leave the killing part of the
business to the sportsmen, they gave the roughly used tiger
the coup-de-grace. It was a very fine female, with the
most beautiful skin I ever saw.'
In the 'Asiatic Annual Register,' fur 1804, a gentleman
who had been present at the killing of above thirty tigers
gives an account of a hunting-party of fhe Nawab Asuf-
ud-Dowlah. After describing the immense cavalcade of
the Nawab, he says : — ' The first tiger we saw and killed
was in the mountains ; we went to attack him about noon ;
he wii-.i in a narrow valley, which the Nawab surrounded
with above two hundred elephants ; we heard him growl
horribly in a thick bush in the middle of the valley. Being
accustomed to the sport and very eager, I pushed in my
elephant; the fierce beast charged me immediately ; the
elephant, a timid animal, turned tail, and deprived me of
the opportunity to fire. I ventured again, attended by
two or three other elephants ; the tiger made a spring, and
, reached the back of one of the elephants on which
liiree or four men; the elephant shook himself so
forcibly as to throw these men off his back, and they tumbled
into the bush ; I gave them up for lost, but was agreeably
surprised to see them creep out unhurt. His Excellency
was all this time on a rising ground near the thicket, look-
ing on calmly, and beckoning to me to drive the tiger
towards him. I made another attempt, and with more
success ; he darted out towards me on my approach, roaring
furiously and lashing his sides with his tail. I luckily gut.
a shot and hit him ; he retreated into the bush, and ten or
twelve elephants just then pushed into the thicket, alarmed
the tiger, and obliged him to run towards the Nawab, who
instantly gave him a warm reception, and with the. assist-
ance of some of his omras, or lords, laid the tigersprawling
on his side. A loud shout of wha ! irha ! proclaimed the
victory.'
There is in Bishop Heber's ' Journal ' a most graphic de-
scription of a tiger-hunt, but our limits will not permit us
to indulge in more of these stirring accounts.
Those who have represented the tiger as untameablo
have no ground for the assertion. It is as capable of being
tamed, and of attachment, even to fondness, for its keeper,
as any other animal of its kind. We have seen many in-
stances of this mutual good understanding between the
man and the beast, and Mr. Bennett mentions a remarkable
example in his ' Tower Menagerie.' A tigress of great
beauty, in the Tower when he wrote, and scarcely a j-ear
old, had been, during her passage from Calcutta, allowed
to range about the vessel unrestricted, and had become
perfectly familiar with the sailors, showing no! the slightest.
symptoms of ferocity. On her arrival jn the Thames, the
irritation produced by the sight of strangers instantly
changed her temper, rendering her irascible and dangerous.
So sulky and savage was she, that Mr. Cop.-, who then kept
the lions in the Tower, could hardly be prevailed on by
her former keeper, who came to see her, to allow him to
enter her den ; but as soon as the tigress recognised her
old friend, she fawned on him, licked him, caressed him,
and manifested the most extravagant signs of pleasure ;
and when, at hist, he left her, she cried and whined for the
remainder of the day. The tame tigers of the mendicant
priests, or Fakirs, of Hindustan, are weU known.
But whilst, there can be no doubt of the tameable quali-
ties of the tiger, and indeed of all the great cats, they are
not to be incautiously trusted. The natural disposition
is always ready to break out; and the mildest of them,
though
' Ne'er so tame, so clierish'J, and lock'd up,
Will h;Lve ;i »ild trick of his ancestors.'
Thus Bontius states that, in 1628, a tiger at Batavia,
which had been brought up from a cub, and accustomed
T I O
t,> rm-;i Ml its Hfr. escaped from its eas?, fastened on a
img near, and killed it ; so that the
• with tiri'-arms and dew it in its
liief.
;,;,rt iif our sketch with the account
bv -.John Mason, who formerly kept the Leasts in
to Mr. Wood, of Ins fearful encounter with
thc-v en) '
t the vear IHO'2 a tiger had been purchased by
to sVnd to the emperor of Germany, and placed
in the Tower, there to remain for a few days, till the ship
destined to eonvev the animal abroad was ready. Hie
onliucdin a large. sufficiently ventilated, wooden
lined with iron hoops, some of which he ripped oil
ni"lit of his confinement, and gnawed the
CMe^nrt -ig perceived, the next day
;ue was repaired by the' addition only of a strong piece
nailed on the outside. • The consci|i
Mr. Wood. ' might well be expected. The turer renewed
his efforts, and in the course of the following night made
.and sprung upon a wall ten feet high, where he
remained till Mason came in the morning. 1 he tear ot
l.-Miigsueh a valuable animal induced this poor lellow, fo
a reward of ten guineas, to hazard his life in an attempt
•cure the tiger. For this purpose he engaged a ser-
in- other persons to assist him. whom he
1 in a room, the door of which opened upon the
. from whence he could reach the animal. He then
provided himself with a strong rope, one end ot which he
throush the window to his companions, and with the
. having a running noose upon it, he slowly ap-
hed the tigei, and threw it over its neck. This was
the critical moment: the people within were directed to
pull the rope and si-cure the beast : untortunately the
noose slipped off', and the enraged animal immediately
ig upon the keeper, fixing Ins teeth into the llcshy
of his arm, and tearing his breast and hand in a
dreadful manner with his claws. In this shocking situ-
ation the poor man lay under the tiirer : while the s
> bullet into four parts, and, having loaded his mi
he fired through the window at the animal : who. the mo-
men! he received the shot, quitted his hold; and. alter
-eiiug for a few minutes, expired. The bullet however
which destroyed the tiger had nearly been equally fatal to
the man. one of the quarters having glanced against his
:e, and deprived him of all sense and motion for a
lerable time. Nevertheless, after keeping his bed
a fortnight, he gradually recovered, and is now 1*117 pcr-
'!. thouirh hew-ill carry the marks of his enemy
about with him as long as he lives.' (Zoography, vol. :.)
Royal Tiger.
In the Kant the tiger is associated emblematically with
power. Thus tin- l'lnn.->e mandarin-, covered their s.
with its skin. In pi. 17 of the atlas to Sir <;
'o:i's ' Kmba-.sy to China." representing a military
pod, two swordsmen are habited and shielded -» as to ex
I lie tiL'cr soldiers of ll\<
ong the choicest of their I
is with jewels, that formed the
of the thniiie of Hydei and Tippoo.
!>•, the Hritish aiiiong the spoils of the
at Seriiigapatum. is well known : ait is th<
.••illation, clumsy enough it must he admitted, of a
T I G
royal tiger tearing to pieces a soldier in the pay of tin;
British, and imitating the u'rowlmir of the beast aim
• I' the man, taken also upon the same
Sec the Museum at the India ii
The term • Tii; .isly applied to
;uar. [LEOPARDS, vol. xiii.. p. 430.J
Fossil. Tic; ms, NIC.
Professor Buekland notices the remains of the Turer in
• Kilkdale, at Plymouth, and in a of
Phe great fossil" 'Hirer or Linn Felft
Goldfi :ier extinct cats, lived before man was in
Dee. The following fossil cats are enumerated by
Von M
•iv. : /'. /
'.oiz. and .i
.lob.: /•'. .Irrr/i >.. and Job.; /. tf
Brav. ; !•'. i-itltruli-its, Brav. ; /•'. nj,!-
•.Kaup; and /•'. prisca, Kaup. [FKLIDX, vo:
JL]
Dr. Lund, in his -View of the Fauna of Brazil pie.
to the last Geological Revolution,' remarks that the Hunt-
ing Leopard /•'/•//.•. jiifi,it,i. Linn.; I'ynni.'iirii!., Wagl. .
which differs from the rest of the Cats in many essential
characters, has been very properly formed into a separate
genus: for its claws are not retractile, it is gregarious, and
of so mild a disposition that it is frequently tamed and
employed in thechaee. Hut. he observes, as a remarkable
contrast to this, that its dental system is upon a more mur-
derous plan than that of the true ./•'•/<*, not having the flat
projection on the large tearing molar of the upper jaw,
which is found in all the other predacecnis gencia. and the
development of which is in inverse proportion to the ani-
mal's carnivorous propensities. Dr. Lund icco-miscd this
form of dentition in a small animal of the1 extinct Fauna
of the Brazilian region, which was the scene of his valuable
labours, not exceeding a domestic cat in size ; and h
named it Cifiiiiiliiriin iniiniliix. Besides this he discovered
the remains of two species of the normal feline form, one
- the long-tailed tiger-cat l-'i/i.- macroura, IV.
Max. , the other larger than the .lagnar /•'-•//.% Onpi,
Linn. , and comparable to the Tiger and the Lion, the
largest species uf the Old World.
TlGKK-L'ATS.
Under this title may be classed all those lesser striped
and spotted Asiatic. African, and American Cats which
do not come under the well-understood dcnominalio
. and Panthers.
Before we proceed to any description or illustration of
this beautiful trroup.it will be advantageous to the student,
to he put in possession o: M. Temminck's well-cm^ ideicd
and digested monograph of the genus 1','lix divided into
Actions according to their coographical distribu-
tion.
Section 1.
This comprises the l'clnl<r of the Old Continent and iU
archip.
1. / including the three varieties of Hiiifiiiry,
'. and Pertia. [ l.i
2. 1 -. the Kovai Tiger (here treated
;{. .' to, the Hunting Leopard. [LKOI-ARDS, vol.
\in.. p. -4H3.]
I. /' »t, the Panther. | LKOT VKOS. | Of this
M. T, inminck gives the following character : — When adult,
less than the Lcopaid : tail as long as the body and Un-
its extremity when turned back reaching to the tip
of the nose: colour of the fur deep y< llowish t'ulvoi.-
internal part marked with lose like spots of the same hue
as the ground-colour of the fur: the numerous spois
closely approximated : the rose-like spots from 12 to II
at the utmost in diameter: caudal vc
N.B. The number of caudal vcrti' -d to the.
Leopard by M. Teinminck is 'J'J. It would appear that
there is no correct Jigiire of the true Paul
The Black Ti. '"" Kvatbanf. of Sir
Stamford Rattles, is considered as only a dark varieu of
the Leopard.
- considered as also to be erased from the
list of species, as it is only the youmr of the Leopard or
Panther.
(i. /•;•/'/ v i/Kii-ruetlu, the RmMU-D.ihaii. [Ltui'AKDi,
vol. xiii., p. -1'M.J
T I G
441
T I G
7. Fells Sereal, comprising F. Serral and F. Capemis,
Linn., the Chat-pard of Desmarest, and the Caracal ot
Bruce.
8. Felis cervaria. For the characters of this and the
seven species of Lynx which follow it in M. Temminck's
monograph, see LYNX, vol. xiv., p. 217.
16. Felis Cat us. [FELID.E, vol. x., p. 221.]
17. Felts mtiniculata. [FELID.«, p. 222.]
18. Felis minula, identical with the Felis Javanensis
of Horsfield's ' Zoological Researches in Java,' and there-
fore not to be adopted.
Section 2.
This comprises the Felidte of the New Western World.
19. Felis concolor, the Puma. [LioN.]
20. Felis Onca, the Jaguar. [LEOPARDS, vol. xiii.,
p. 434.]
21. Felis Jagifarondi.
22. Felis celidogantcr. Bought by M. Temminck at the
sale of Mr. Bullock's collection, for the museum of the
Netherlands.
2J. Felis rufa, Guldenst. Bay-Cat of Pennant : with
this M. Temminck describes also a specimen brought from
Mexico, which may prove distinct. Bought by 51. Tem-
minck at Mr. Bullock's sale for the museum of the Nether-
lands.
24. Felis pardali.i, the Ocelot.
25. Felis macroura, — N.B. These two last confounded
together by Linnaeus under the name of F. pardalis. The
Mexican Tiger of Pennant is said to appear to be a repre-
sentation of F. macroura.
26. Felix miti*, the Chati, F. Cuv.
27- Felis tigriiiit.
This monograph, as far as it goes, has been of great
benefit ; but the student should examine the menageries
and museums, as well as the works of other authors, and he
will find several cats noticed both before and since the
publication of M. Temminck'a catalogue. Among other
authorities the publications of d'Azaia, of Sir Stamford
Raffles, of M. F. Cuvier, of M. Desmarest, of Mr. .1. E.
Gray, of Dr. Horsfield, and Mr. Vigors in the Znolnffienl
Journal, of Dr. Horslicld in the Xoo/oyicul Hem-arches in
Jnni, of Prince Maximilian, of M. Lesson, of Sir William
Jardine (Naturtt/ixf\ /.i/n-nri/. Miinii/in/iii.\dl. \\.,Felina-),
and of Mr. 1 lanvin (Zoology of the Beagle), may be con-
sulted with advantage.
Dr. Horsfield and Mr. Vigors (Zool. Jour., vol. iv., p.
380) remark that they are not of M. Temminck's opinion,
that the determination of species in such groups us these
re-K upon any examination, however acute, of preserved
specimens in cabinets, or in any research, however exten-J
sive. into the stores of furriers. Such examination, they |
think, leads to conjecture ; probable and plausible conjec-
ture, it may be true, but still conjecture, and not facts.
They add that we are in this way as likely to fall into (he
error of confounding true species as into that of creating
nominal ones, and they express their opinion that the
truth can be satisfactorily attained only by diligent re-
searches in the native country of these animals, or by
accurate observations on their changes and differences as
to sex, age, and season, when in a living state and in con-
finement.
M. Temminck, in his Tableau Methodique (1827), states
that then there were known thirty distinct species of cats
and seven or eight other doubtful indications.
ASIATIC TIGKR-CATS.
Example, Felis Nepalensis, Horsf. and Vig.
Description. — Size of Felis Jiiennenxin, Horsf., but its
habit more slender, the tail and neck proportionally elon-
gate. Ground-colour grey, with a very slight admixture
of tawny ; bands and spots of the head, back, neck, throat,
abdomen, and thighs, deep black ; superior longitudinal
bands resembling those of F. Javanentu. Ground-colour
of throat and abdomen nearly white ; the lower flanks
marked with a faint tawny longitudinal streak. Cheeks
streaked with two parallel longitudinal lines, at the ter-
mination of which follows a transverse lunar mark which
passes with a bold curve to the angle of the mouth, near
which a very narrow band cresses the throat. Sides of the
neck appearing marked with two broad waving bands, at
the termination of which stands an oblong regularly
band. Neck underneath nearly immaculate.
Shoulder and flanks exhibiting irregular, diversified marks,
P. C., No. 1543.
the anterior oblong, the posterior angular, of a mixed
tawny and black, and, individually, above or posteriorly
with a broad dash of saturated black: they are scattered
over the sides without any regular longitudinal disposition ;
but they have generally an oblique direction. Abdomen
marked throughout with uniform oval spots ; anterior
thighs within exhibiting one, the posterior thighs two
broad black bands. Hump and thighs marked externally
with roundish or oblong spots. Tail above, to within
about an inch of the tip, with uniform roundish spots,
arranged posteriorly in regular transverse bands. Plead
above and ears agreeing generally with those of F. Javan-
ensis. Length from extremity of nose to root of tail, 1 foot
10.} inches. Length of tail 10$ inches. (Vig. and Horsf.)
Dr. Horsfield and Mr. Vigors observe that the distin-
guishing characters of this species are, its comparatively
lengthened habit; the slenderness and proportional length
of the tail ; the disposition of the marks on the flanks, and
the character of these marks as far as regards their diversi-
fied form ; and the saturated black patch with which
they are individually marked at their upper or posterior
edge.
' In the Bengal Cat,' say those zoologists, ' these marks
have a different disposition ; they are oblong, and arranged
on the flanks in regular succession longitudinally. The
materials contained in the museum at the India House
have enabled us to make this statement, which is founded
on the examination of a specimen brought by General
Hardwicke, and on a careful drawing prepared under the
eyes of Dr. Hamilton. We have thus two distinct species
of small cats from India, and the elucidation of this point,
is of some importance, as it appears, from the following
remark in M. Temminck's monographs, " texistence de
cette espece ilniia I'l/nle ii'rst pas constatee" that he enter-
tained some doubts on the existence of the Bengal Cat.
It is not our intention, at present, to give a comparative
analysis of all the species which resemble our animal. The
discrimination of many species of Felis is at all times a
difficult subject; and on many of them naturalists still
disagree. Our immediate object is to indicate a new form
of Felis, from the upper provinces of India, differing essen-
tially from that which is found in the plains of Bengal ;
and so direct the attention of naturalists in that country to
a more careful investigation of the various Oriental species
of this interesting genus.'
The same authors state that the specimen in the collec-
tion of the Zoological Society of London was presented by
Captain Farrer, of the East India Company's service. It
came immediately from Calcutta, where it was said to have
been sent from Nepal. It lived some time in the Society's
gardens, but was extremely wild and savage. It generally
remained in a sitting posture, like that of the common
Domestic Cut, and never paced its den in the manner of
most other animals of the group. (Zool. Journ., vol. iv.) •
Felis Ncpali'il is.
AFRICAN TIGER-CATS.
Example, Felis fit-mil, the Serval.
Description. — Upper parts clear yellowish, with black-
spots ; lower parts white, with black spots also, but. they
are less numerous. Upon the head and neck the markings
are most conspicuous, and form symmetrical lines on
each side directed towards the shoulders. On the other
parts of the body they are placed irregularly. On the
back they are lengthened, and show a disposition to form
four rows; on the body and thighs they are larger and
round, and they are smaller but equally round on the ex-
tremities. Upon the face and muzzle they are minute,
VOL. XXIV.— 3 L
T I G
1IJ
T I 0
Buk of the ean black at the '. l.yatmns-
. tips of tlir ground-colour of tin- body.
.urns black
bars : Ilic' hind limbs with similar marking*.
• joints (if the limbs of a paler tint
than ' the body, the spots on them round anil
il with eight black rinirs. tip of tin- name
colour. 1 of tail, 1 Unit 11} inches: tail '.I
inches. Height when standiiu it 1- inc
th'1 shoulder, and l.'i inches at the hind (|uarters. [ K. Cuv.
The animal from which the above description w:i.» taken
,- male. It- temper was mild and -Tenth-,
and r n sportive. It played like a domestic eat.
I, chasinsr its tail, and amnsinir itself with
•tint it could roll with its paw.
locality. — The Serval is a IK. live of southern Africa.
Tlicrc arc generally seme living specimens in our mena-
. It h:us been exhibited in that of the Zoological
ty of London, and may be seen there now IsfJ .
The <
AMERICAN TIOER-C
But it is in America that the tiger-cats are most nnme-
-.nd beautiful, and there their manners have bevn lu--t
• d by competent observers: \\ Inn \ain-
ples of th- ties of fonn aud colouring exhibited by
this group in that quarter of the globe.
lUI. The Ocelot. This, the must
beautiful perhaps of all the //•. hnost deti-
•uui. Mr. K. Hennctl has howe\er given a very faith-
ful account from two living specimens, one existing when
he wrote in the Town of London, and the other in the
'the Zoological Society in the Keirent's Park.
1>< H full grown nearly three feet
in length; tail rather more than one: medium hei;rh!
about 18 inches. Ground-colour of fur. grey, miiurlcd
with a slight tiiiire of fawn, clcirantly marked with nume-
rous longitudinal band.s, tin- dursal . nnioiiH and
cnth i he lateral < six or seven on rach side) eon-
-i-lii ] spots with
:\ distinct, sometimes
r. The cei ! a deeper
•'.rnal to tin m : this deeper
HI tin- brad mid neck, and on
l.s, all of which parts an- incirularly
'iiics and spots ci| v:
'. or more frei|neiltlv
. which are full black
— Icnorly. and enclose
a narrow fawn-coloured space with a black margin ;
these there i-. a single longitudinal, somewhat
', narrow black line, occupying the centre of
the neck above. Kara short and rounded, externally mar-
wifh black, surrounding n larirc ccuhal vvhiti.-'.
•hili-h, spotted with black, and
d, which is of the same ground-colour with the '
aUo covered with black upots. Hennett, Tuin-r
remark* that he has, in th
:th of the tail at morp than a foot : and
in nil the known ocelot-, a- well a , in all the »]
which then arc severnl} that approach it in form and
«wounng, the proportionate length of the tail i» at
equal to that which lie has irivcn ns its average measure-
ment. The tail however of tl: n u did not
.uality
and he felt
as a new
uf
throughout and it- abnipt slui:,
that this :.'
by no means inclined to regard that
-. tn be distinguished by the
that appendage, by the unusually pale colour oi
-lit peculiarity in the mode of their
nl. which. 1 . \arie- in every individual
-••en.
and probably I1.
J/nliitx. .\v.— Tb.- ocelot remain* in the' d.
during the day. sallying forth at nijrht in -mall
quadrupeds and birds, the latter of which it sticecs-fully
chases in the trees, for it i- \pcrt climber. It it
be, as is generally supposed, the 'r/nr<,<,zi'lntl. Tlnl^n-hll,
Pardiu Mtxicanus of Hernandez, it is sniii
iiself out as if dead on the limb of some tree when il
monkeys in the neighbourhood. They, urircd by cun
proceed to examine the supposed defunct, and fall \
to their curiosity.
The Ocelot has been so completely tamod as to be left
at liberty, and it it said to be capable of stronir attachment
to its master. Mr. Bennett states that the specimen in the
Tower, a male, was perfectly u'ood-tcmpered, cxcecilinsrly
fond of play, and had much of the diameter and ma.
of the domestic cat. Its food consisted principally of
rabbits and birds; the latter it plucked with irreat clex-
terity, and always commenced its meal with the 1» .id, of
which it seemed particularly fond : but it did not eat with
the ravenous avidity which characterizes nearly all the
animals of this tribe.
The Owlot.
< W///.V. F. Cuv.; The Chnti. Cfiiliiffinrzu of
I)'. l~ir r<i:' !•'/•/ i.\ ('hibigittizu, Desm.
OK, — About a third larger than the domestic
eat: length, exclusive of tail, rather more than two feet :
tail eleven inches, height to middle of back, about one
foot two indies. Ground-colour of fur on the upper
pale \ello\vish: on the lower, pure white: at the
dull grey, anil very thick and close. Body covered with ir-
regular dark patches : those upon the back entirely black
and disposed longitudinally in four rows; those upon the
sides surrounded with black, with the centres of a clear
fawn, arransrcd in nearly five row-. Spots upon the lower
pa it of the bodv, where the ground-colour of the fur is
white, full, and arranged in two lines composed of six or
'•even patche- on each side. Limbs covered with nearly
round spots of smaller dimensions : on the fore-legs, near
the body, two transverse bauds. On the >rt of
-'liar, and on the under-jaw two crescent-vliaj.ed
sp->ts. Behind cadi eve two bands about two ii
terminating Opposite the ear. Forehead bordered bv two
between which are numerous spots. :md. at their
firi-rin, a blackish mark from which the whiskers spiing.
Outside of the ear. black, with a white spot upon the
small lobe. l!a-e ..f the- tail spotted with small blotches,
which towards the end run into half-rings, which are
broadest on the upper surface. 1'upil round. F. Cuv.)
This animal (a ten: i-'K gentle; and if
frith whom it wa* familiar paisi or did not
approach it, it w ss its discontent by a short cry.
It manifested gr. • when it was caressed. . It lived
T I G
443
T I G
Felis mills.
in the Paris menagerie, and was procured from a dealer ii
Brest. Locality.— South America.
Desmarest and others identity this animal with the Chi
biijuazu of D'Azara. Temminck, who received a skii
from Rio de Janeiro, considers it distinct.
D'Azara's description conies very near to that above
given as far as colouring is concerned ; but lie gives tin
average length as three feet six inches; the individual
which he described, the largest male lie hail seen, was foui
feet all but an inch in length ; tail thirteen inches; height
at shoulders one foot and a half, and behind one foot seven
inches and a half. It was so fat that immediately aftei
death it weighed five-aiid-thirty pounds ; the females, he
arc rather
The same acute observer, speaking of his ftlribigwi,
remarks that some of the Guaranese call the domestic
cat Clubi, and others Mbrac.nyd. In the same manner, he
says, some gi\c the wild animal of which he is treating
the name of Chibi-guuzu, and others that of M/nintcayd-
lit; both appellations signifying Gi- Many
Spaniard*, he add.-,, call it (iiizu 'Ounce,.
He states that the species is so common, that his friend
Nosed* captured eighteen individuals in two years, within
two leagues of his jiueblo ; but he adds that, notwith-
standing this abundance, few are acquainted with it, the
huntsman and docs never falling in with it, and being
unable to penetrate to it.- haunts : he very much doubts
whether any quadruped hides itself more effectually. He
describes it as remaining by day in the most impenetrable
places, and as coming forth after dusk, especially on dark
stormy nights, when the chibignazus daringly enter the
corrals and court -yards, though no instance is known of
their detection by the dogs. When the moon shines they
abstain from visiting inhabited spots, and never are trapped :
to lie in wait for them with a gun is hopeless, so sharp a
look-out do they keep. They carry oft domestic fowls
from trees which they climb, sometimes six in one night,
and often leave several dead. Men and dogs are avoided
by them with extreme caution, and each pair is supposed
to live in a separate district, for a male and female, and no
linn e, are always caught in the same place. Noseda formed
a trap of strong stakes, with three divisions : in the middle
dmsion he placed a white fowl, so that it might not only
be heard but seen at a distance : the other divisions were
.•.iiied as to shut by the falling of the planks as soon
as the cliibiguazus entered. This trap was set in the
place.-, to which they resorted for prey, and those caught
were turned into a great den in Noseda's court-yard. Some
uf these cot away, and were taken again two or three times
in the same trap : they were recognised by ear-marks and
other proofs: D'Azara infers from this that the idea of
danger was obliterated from their recollection by their
pos.-ess the fowl. He remarked that all which
were kept in the den deposited their excrements in their
drinkirnr-place. and when he substituted a narrow-necked
jug to prevent this, they mounted to its edge for that pur-
. and never missed th" vessel or its immediate neigh-
bourhood. Nearlv the whole day was spent by them
up in a ball, and, when a chibiguazu wished to
stretch hiniitelf. In- first licked the one at his side. When
straw was put into their den, or so that, they could reach it
by thrusting their paws through the bars, it. was always
found tliat on the day following they had placed it in a
heap, after having divided it into bits some quarter of an
inch long, and on this they reposed. The small sticks and
twigs with which the inside of their den was furnished
were broken and torn to pieces in like manner. Twilight
and mght were passed in pacing to and fro close to the
sides ot their den ; and if crossed or interrupted by an-
other, they fuffed and gesticulated like an angry cat but
without, using their paws. They never quarrelled, unless
they were very much irritated, and then they struck at
each other with their fore-paws. They devoured live
pounds of flesh per day when first caught, hut afterwards
three sufficed. A portion was prepared for each of the
twelve or fourteen individuals confined, and they took it
with their paws according to the length of time they had
been there, without any interference on the part of the
others. It' however the animal whose turn it was did not
take his portion, or disregarded it, another immediately
snatched at it without any defence on the part of the right
owner except by sneezing, and sometimes by blows with
its fore-paws. A walk was made for them, enclosed by a
sort of hurdle, so that rats, fowls, ducks, or young dogs
could be introduced into it : upon opening the cage it was
observed that usually one only went out for each victim, and
almost always according to the order of their confinement.
Cats and dogs they seized with their mouth by the nape
Of the neck, overlaid them, and then kept them so that
they could not stir, till they were dead. Cats' flesh ap-
peared to produce the mange, fretting the chibiguazus,
making them mew like cats, and at last destroying them.
Snakes, vipers, and toads were also eaten by them, but
this diet occasioned violent and continual vomiting; they
wasted to skeletons, and died in a few days. If the dog
introduced equalled them in size, they touched him not,
for it appears that they do not assist each other. If a
chibisruazu cannot master any prey alone, he leaves it.
Birds were caught by the head and neck, and thoroughly
stripped of their feathers before they were eaten. No
unnecessary cruelty was manifested. Noseda observed
that one did not kill a fowl put into his den till the third
day. D'Azara and his friend frequently closed the doors
of the yard, and opened the den that the ehibiguazus
might leave it: those most lately caught went iirst : and
sometimes the old ones would not go out even when their
len was entered that it might be swept. They were left
at liberty for several hours, during which they examined
every crevice, and then lay down to sleep. When boys
persecuted them with sticks, they retreated to their den
without turning on their persecutors, even when severely
jeaten. A male on one occasion becoming very lazy, on
•utering his den he was abused and bitten by l)'is Cemale,
is it' to punish him. Some individuals were incarcerated
'or more than a year without exhibiting any sign of love.
Tn the night their eyes shone like those of a domestic cat,
aid they resembled that animal in their form and habits,
n lying down, licking and cleaning themselves, washing
heir faces with their paws, flitting, sneezing, — in fact in
every way. D'Azara concludes by stating that his friend
•aught a young one, and it. became so thoroughly tame
hat it. slept in the skirts of his clerical gown, and went
ibout loose. He affirmed that no animal could be more
ractable : but it devoured the poultry of his neighbours,
nd they killed it.
Felis 1'iiji'ros. — The Pampas Cat, Pajero, or Jungle-
l)< -.rriji/i'i/i. — Fur of great length : longer hairs of the
jack upwards of 3 inches, and those of the hinder part of
lie back from 4J to 4J inches in length. General colour
>ale yellow-grey. Numerous irregular yellow or some-
imes brown stripes running obliquely from the back along
he sides of the body. On each side of the face two stripes
f yellowish or cinnamon commencing near the eye, and
xtending backwards and downwards over the cheeks, on
le hinder part of which they join, and form a single liiu ,
vhich encircles the lower part of the throat. Tip of the
iiizzle and chin white; a spot in front of the eje, and a
ne beneath the eye, of the same colour; belly, inner side
nd hinder part, of fore-legs, white also. An irregular !>!:,•
ne running across the lower part of the chest, and extend-
ig over the base of the fore-legs externally : above this
ne two other transverse dark markings more or less dc-
ued on the chest. On the fore-legs three broad black
ands, two of which encircle the leg : on the posterior legs
jout five black bands externally, and some irregular dark
3L2
T I G
HI
T I G
»poU inv. I yellowish, and und
Of „ . hue. On the belly numerous lartrc
with Ion- \vliitr
i xternall . - tin- head,
i^nck. ami form a
umev.hat bushy, and devoid of
those
on tl . ':i tin' upper part of the body each hair
. at the base, then yellow, and at tin- :ipr\ black.
ie liind.-r pait ol' tin- back the hairs ahnmt black at
I hr base, and, mi the sides of tin- body, each hair L-
tin- 1 is then a considerable space ol' yellowish-
\vhitc colour: towards the apex they are while, ami at the
black. 'Hie irrcaler number of the hairs of the
moustaches white. I.cn-th from nose to root of tail. 'J(i
inches; 'of tail fur included , 1 1 inch. s. Ilci-hto!
at shoulders, 13 inches. Six,' about equal to (hat of the'
:i>n wild-eat of Europe : hut the 1'anipas cat is stouter,
i.l smaller, and its tail shorter. \Yaterh..
Mr. \Vatcrhoi; ••/';/' Hi'1 H-'niffi- oliservcs that
the markings of this animal \ary sli-htly in intensity:
those on the body, he remarks, are -cnci-.illv indistinct ;
but the black rings on the legs are alwa\s'\cry conspi-
cuous.
ulily. — D'Azara says that he knows not, nor has he
I. that this spi cii--- exists in Para-nay, although it for-
merly mav have been seen there : but as the country
became tolerably well peopled, and there were fewer plains,
the inhabitants nrobably extirpate. 1 it. He can-hl four in
the Pampas of Buenos Ayrcs. between 3.V and 3U" S. hit.,
nnd three others on the to. He -ays they are
found on both sides of the La Plata.
Darwin i Air. ril.' -i\c-; as its habitat Santa Crux, Pata-
gonia f April), and Hahia Blanea Auirn.sf . He states that
common o\er the whole, of the -real plains which
compose the eastern side of the southern part of America :
anil lie says he has reason to believe, from the accounts he
received, that it is found near the Strait of Magellan,
which would srive it a ransje of nearly 1-HX) miles in a
north and south direction, D'Ar.ara having stated that it
.vis northward as far as 30° S. lat. One of Mr. Darwin's
specimens was obtained in 50° S. lat., at Santa Cruz.
//• 'A//*-. I-'ood, $-c. — D'Azara says that the natives call
this animal ^ntn jmjrrn, because it lives on the plains.
concealing itself in jungles, without entering into the woods
and thickets. Aiirrrax, or iruinea-pi-s, according to him,
form its principal food. Mr. Darwin states that it takes
its name from • paja,' the Spanish word for straw, from its
habit of frequenting reeds. The specimen taken by him
at Santa Cnu was met witlv in a valley whcie tliickets were
crowing. \Vlien disturbed it did not run away, but drew
itself up and hissed.
Punpu Ca». (Zool.
We here conclude our notice of the Hirer-cats, a race
•illy appointed as the principal a-ents for kcepin-
down the birds and smaller mammalia, which abound in
Warm Him
TI'GLIUM. -CKOTON.-]
TIM! \'\KS. km- Of Armenia, the ally of Mith;
1 he (i real, who i,'iue him hi s daughter Cleopatra in marriaste.
He wits master of the Inr-e tract between Kjrypt. in the
M>llth-weft and the Caspian Sea in the north-ea«t, wlii<-!i
vrai bounded by Assyria and Media on the east, and In
the kingdoms of Pontus and of Cappadocia on tin
and north-west. The earlier history of Titfrancs, is little
known; Strabo (p. 532, Cas.) and .lustm \x\iii. :»•• state
that he was sent in h, a hostage to the king of
•he Parthian-, V Mm to liberty.
He conquered Gordyene ai: .niia. and the S\ nans
chose him for their kin:; in H.c. 84, or. . to A'ppian
De Reb. Syr.,70 .in n.f. HO. Uefore H.c. 7-1 lie cone.'ided
an alliance with Mithridatea, who was thi n his
thiid war with the Romans. The conilition-
NMTC, that Mithridates should be master of th'
which Ihey hoped to conquer, and that <
the inhabitants and ail the nioveahle ]iroperty that he could
carry oil'. Plutarch slates Lun. '. 'Xyland.' that
my of Ti-iranes VMIS composi-d of -JWI.iKH) men, —
20.1KH) nrchei-s, fw.tXK) hor>e. i:*UXK) foot, and ItVlKK)
pionee'-s and train, — and that Arabs and warlike Albani
from the Caucasus abounded in the Aimeiiian camp. The
campaign was opened in H.C'. 7-t. Cap|)adocia and Bithy-
nia were conquered, anil .Mithridates laid sie-e to C\/iciis
in Bithynia, but Lucullus came to relieve it. and alter vari-
ous reverses Mithridates was compelled to My to Tu-
(i:i . The conduct of the Armenian kin- had I .
cere during thoe events, and, the Honians hein- now
victorious, he not only refused to receive his father-
in-law, but set a prize of a hundred talents on his head,
on the pretext that the kinsr had persuaded his son, who
was likewise called Ti^ranes, to rebel a-;unst his father
and to join the Romans. .Milhridates nevertheless
cecded in pacilYiii!; his son-in-law, and they joined their
armies to meet f.ucnllus, who had crossed the Kuphrates
and theTi-ris, and had laid sie-e to Tiirraiiocerta. the new
capital of the Armenian kingdom. [TUJKAMH.-KKTA.] A
battle ensued near this town, in which Tiirrancs was com-
pletely defeiitcd ^(ith October, Git . and his capital fell into
the hands of the Romans. Tiirranes and .Mithridates
luuim; entered into negotiations with ljhn«ite> III., kin-
of the Parthians, for the purpose of drawing him into
their alliance, I.ucullns, who had now carried his con-
quest in Armenia as far as Artaxata on the upper part,
of the Aiaxes. marched to Mesopotamia to attack the
Parthians. lint a mutiny of his soldiers compelled him to
retreat to Cappadocia, where the) dispersed, as it seems, by
the instigation of Pomjx'y, who aimed at the supreme, com-
mand in the war (C>7 . The Romans lost Cappadocia, and
Ti-ianes carried on" a t;reat number of the inhabitants of
this piovincc, as well as of Cilicia and Galatia. Pompey
entered Asia Minor in B.C. tiU. and in the sune year he
defeated Mithridates in a irreat battle on the Kupl
Mithridates, having e\])erieiiced the faithless character of
i-in-lavv, fled to Phana-oria in the island of Tainan,
while Tiirranes humiliated himself before the Romans,
then encamped in the neighbourhood of Artaxata. He
went to the tent of Pompey. and, kneelinj; before his vie-
torious enemy, took oft' his royal diadem, which Pompey
however would not accept. The policy of the Romans
required an independent kingdom between their dominions
and the dan-emus power of the Parthians. Ti-ranes :!
fore wa--, reinstated in Armenia, t xcept the districts of (ior-
dycne and that of Sophcne, or the westernmost part of
Armenia Maiina, which he was obli-ed to cede to his
rebellions son Ti-iancs, then an ally of the Romans.
Besides these districts, he ceded to the Romans his king-
dom of Syna, includintr Phirnieia and all his conquests
in Cilicia, (ialalia. and Cappadocia: he ]mid six thousand
talents, and he ir;i*c half a miiia to each Homan soldier, ten
mirni- to each centlirion. and sixty miiia1. or one talent, to
carhtiibnne. Plutarch, l.in-ulliix. p. 637, Nylatid. ; com)).
Aj'pian, J>>' Hclln Mithrid., c. KM. It seen, s that alter
this humiliation Ti-ianes led an obscure and tranquil life,
for his name disappears from history, and the year of his
Coin of Tarawa.
Britiili Mmrum. Actual ittc. Sihcr. WcljW, 2J3J Jrniiu.
T I G
445
T I L
death is unknown. His successor was Artavasdes. [MiTHRt-
DATES ; POMPKIUS ; LUCULLUS.]
(Valerius Maximus, v. 1, 9 ; Velleius Paterculus, ii. 33,
1, and c. 37; Cicero, Pro Lege Manilla ; Woltersdorf,
I'ninmentatio Vitam Mithridatis M. per annos digestam
sintetix, Goettingae, 1812.)
TIGRA'NES, prince of Armenia and lord of Sophene,
was the son of Tigranes, king of Armenia. During the
last war between the Romans and Mithridates aided by
his ally king Tigranes, prince Tigranes forsook his father and
went over to the Romans. When his father humiliated
himself before Pompey, he sat by the side of the Roman
general, but he did not rise before his father, nor did he
show him the slightest degree of filial respect. Having
been created lord of Sophene and Gordyene, he refused to
Mirrender the treasures of Sophene to Pompey, who
suspected him of being in secret communication with
Phraates, the king of the Parthians, whose daughter he had
married. Tigranes also became suspected of having formed
a plan for seizing or putting to death his father, and
accordingly he was arrested by order of Pompey, who sent
lu'm to Rome. He figured in the triumph of Pompey.
Appian (De Bella Mithrid., c. 105 and 117) states that
Tigranes was afterwards put to death in his prison. [Ti-
t,UA.\ES.]
TIGRANO'CERTA (T.rpavo«pra), for some time the
capital of Armenia, was built by king Tigranes after he
had extended his dominion over Mesopotamia, Syria, and
Phoenicia. Artaxata, the old capital on the Araxes, being
situated in the north and the neighbourhood of the Cauca-
sian nalions, then the allies of Armenia, Tigranes seems
to have thought it convenient to have his capital near
those countries, which often required his presence on
account of their possession being still insecure. This
danger arose principally from the neighbourhood of the
Romans, who, from the time when Attains left them his
kingdom of Pergamus by testament (B.C. 133), formed
designs on all Asia Minor, and at the time of the founda-
tion of Tigranocerta (between 84 and 74 B.C., but nearer
ti.i SI, were at war with Mithridates, the neighbour and ally
of Tigranes. Tigranocerta was situated a short distance
from (he Upper Tigris, on the Nicephorius, a river of con-
siderable breadth, as Tacitus states. Stert or Sered, a
small town, surrounded by antient ruins, is generally sup-
posed to be on the site of Tigranocerta. Sered is situated
on the banks of a small river, the modern name of which
is unknown, and which flows into another river of consider-
able length, the Bedlis of Haji Khalfah, which has its
sources south-east of lake Van, and flows into the Tigris.
This latter river is called Khabur by D'Anville, but this is
a mistake, the Khabur, according to Haji Khalfah, cited
by Rennell, being another tributary river of the Tigris
nearer its middle course. It has been supposed that the
river C'entrites was also called Nicephorius, and this
opinion is principally founded on the circumstance of
tin: river which parses Sered being a very small stream,
while the Nicephorius at Tigranocerta was of a consider-
able breadth. This opinion however is rejected by Ren-
nell, and indeed no mins have been found on the banks
of the C'entrites, though it has not yet been shown
that there are none. We are likewise ignorant as to the
changes which may have taken place in the direction of
theCentrites, which, after having left the mountains at the
village of Kala Zerke, flows through an open and level
country at some leagues distance east from Sered. Ac-
confing to Tacitus, Plutarch, and Appian, Tigranocerta
had very strong fortifications ; its suburbs contained gar-
dens arid fish-ponds. The town was inhabited partly
by barbarians, and partly by Greeks, the inhabitants
of twelve Greek towns who were transplanted thither by
Tigranes after he had ravaged Cappndocia. The mili-
tary position of Tigranocerta was admirably chosen. By
(nation opposite the passage formed by the narrow
valley of 1he C'entrites in the C'arduchian Mountains, it
commanded one of the principal roads which led and still
leads from the valley of the Tigris into Armenia across
the mountains. It was also opposite the gorge in the Cardu-
chian Mountains, which, it short distance south of the
junction of the Ccntrites with the Tigris, came so close to
the Tigris as to render it impossible for an army to
move along the left bank of the river. Xenophon, in con-
flicting the retreat of the ten thousand, apparently in-
tended to enter Armenia by the valley of the C'entrites,
but he found this passage between the Tigris and the Car-
duchian Mountains impracticable ; and taking suddenly a
north-east direction, he ascended the steep Carduchian
Mountains, and crossed the Centrites in its upper part.
Master of Tigranocerta, the king of Armenia could sud-
denly invade Cappadocia, Mesopotamia, and Syria ; and
in case of defeat he could retreat under the walls of
Tigranocerta and defend the defiles in the mountains
against a superior army. Lucullus, in his campaign
against Mithridates and Tigranes, laid siege to this key of
Armenia before he ventured to enter the defiles. The
united kings hastened to relieve the town, but they were
beaten, and Tigranocerta with immense treasures fell into
the hands of the victor (6th October, 69 B.C.), who sent
the greater part of the Greek inhabitants back to their
homes in Cappadocia. After the fall of Tigranocerta, all
Armenia was open to the Romans, who overran the coun-
try as far as Artaxata. But no sooner was Lucullus in-
formed that Phraates, the king of the Parthians, was about
to attack him, than, instead of descending the Araxes and
making an attack on the northern part of Media, he hast-
ened back to Tigranocerta. If he had remained a little
longer on the Araxes, the Parthians would have forced
the position of Tigranocerta, and the Roman army would
have been shut up within Armenia. Strabo (p. 532, Cas.)
says thatj when Lucullus took Tigranocerta, it was only half
finished, and that after its destruction there was nothing
but a little village on the spot. However it soon became
again a town, and in the wars of Corbulo, 63 A.D., it was
a considerable and well-fortified place. (Tacitus, Annal.,
xv. 4.) Hesychius, s. v. Kepra, says that xipra signifies a
town, in Armenian, and this opinion is corroborated by
Stephanus Byzantinus s. r. Ttypaw5«pra, who says that, in
the language of the Parthians, Ttypavoicepra is the same as
TiypaiWiToXic in Greek. The word ' certa ' also occurs in
Carcathiocerta, a town which is also called Amida, and is
now known by the name of Kari-Amid and Diyarbekir.
Soping, in his notes to Hesychius, says that «pra or cripra
is the root of Carthago. [TIGRANES; LUCULLUS; POMPKY.]
.Strabo, p. 532, 539, 747, Cas. ; Appian, De Bella
Mithrid.; Plutarch, Lucullus; Pompeius ; Tacitus, An-
nul., xii. 50; xiv. 24; xv. 4, &c. ; Rennell, Illustra-
tions of the History of the Expedition of Corns, 'and the
Retreat of the Ten Thousand Greeks; Rennell, Geo-
graphy of Asia Minor.)
TIGRIS, River. [See End of Letter T.]
TIGRISO'MA, Mr. Swainson's name for the Tiger-
Bitterns.
Subgeneric Character. — Bill as in Ardca. Face, and
sometimes the chin, naked. Legs almost feathered to the
knees. Inner toe rather shorter than the outer. Claws
short, stout, regularly curved. Anterior scales reticulate
or hexagonal. Mr. Swainson considers this to be the
rasorial type, and he arranges it as a subgenus of the
family Ardeadee [HEROXS], between Butor, Antiq., and
Nyctiardea. Example Tigrisoma lineatum, ' PI. Col.' 860.
(N.B. According to the principle generally received
among zoologists, neither Butor nor Nyctiardea can be
retained as generic names. The first is identical with the
Botaurus of Brisson and Stephens : for the reasons against
admitting the second, see NYCTICORAX.)
TI.IU'CA, M. Lesson's name for a genus of birds
(Chrysopteryx, Sw. ; Attila, Less. ; Ampelis, Nordm).
Mr. G. R. Gray arranges it between Calyptomena, Raffl.,
and Procnias, Hoffm., under the Ampelincc, Mr. Gray's
third subfamily of the Ampelidee.
TILBURG is an inland town in the kingdom of the
Netherlands, in the province of North Brabant and district
of Bois-le-Duc : it is situated in a heath on the banks of
the river Ley, 13 miles east of Breda, 14 south-west of
Bois-le-Duc, and 38 north-east of Antwerp. It has three
churches, a large castle, and 12,000 inhabitants, of whom
between 5000 and 6000 are employed in the manufacture of
fine woollen cloth and kerseymeres. They likewise manu-
facture calmucs, beaver coating, baize, and cloth for the
army. Extensive barracks have been built by the present
king of Holland. Lying out of the great road from Flan-
ders to Holland, it, is little visited by travellers.
TILBURY FORT, a fortification erected on the north
bank of the river Thames, opposite to Gravesend, for the
purpose of commanding the navigation of the river. It
was originally formed as a mere block-house in the time
of Henry VIII. : but after the Dutch fleet, under De Ruy-
TI L
H6
1 i I.
partially
into the Thames and Medway in 1007,
into a :• >u, to
fort stands principally in the paii.-l. ''• ilbury, but
in the adjoinin. '. It is »ur-
vvhich may be filled
tor when necessary; and i' ut for-
eamion toward the river. The
k ; biit it has a portal,
whicli renders it a prominent object fiom
she river, which is I: mile
\Vithin t: commodious barracks BIU! other
.'iding of !
, criUnvinir during floods and b|
n i> by no means salubrious. A view of Tilbury
the river, is given in No. 120 of th- • Penny
TII.E. a kind of thin brick, or plate of baked clay.
chiefly for covering roofs, but ally for paving
drains, .Vc. The Knsrlish name, and
by which known in other European lan-
••>, arc derived from the Latin tfgiila. which contains
r. This becomes, in
Dutch, tt'ifi'l, t'-ghcl,- tii :
^el ; in Italian,
ilia ; and in French,
An account of the use of tiles among the antients, illus-
: tiles found at Pompeii, is
in ilii- • Dicti,. k and Roman Antiquities,'
Tegula,' in which it is stated that roofing-tiles were
originally made, like bricl
luced tiles of marble about the
year (ii) in:. In addition to the superior beauty and dura-
bility of such tiles, they were made of much larger dimcu-
practicable in clay, and consequently the
effect produced by their parallel joints might be brought
into harmony with the rest cf the building. A still more
aaLrmticcut method of roi>: mally
adop' • '"d in the use of tiles made of bronze anil
gilt. Tiles were originally made perfectly Hat, or with
nothing more than the Iiook or nozlo underneath the
upper border, which fulfilled the purpose of fixing them
upon the rafters. They were subsequently formed 'with a
1 bonier alons; each side, on the upper snrfac.
! th.' tile were made to com erirc towaids tlie
lower end, in order tl might
not prevent the slice - of tiles from overlapping
each other neatly. The lines of junction between the Hat
ivd by small semi-cylindrical tiles, called
; which, extending from the ridge to
. divided the surface of the roof into
along which water descended to the gutter.
the iiiilirii-i->. terminated at th
of tl. o nameiital pieces; mid the whole appear-
i Was hand-nine. Another kind of antient
tiling, me i. Pliny under the name of/
imchcular form at their
winch, when laid in overlapping rows, somewhat
le-cinbK the train of a peacock.
of maki. -iniilar to '
brick-making [HmiK, vol. v., p. 4(17], that it will be sufii-
Ihat only the best qualities of bricl.
'since the year iKKf no .
; upon thv manufacture of tiles, the
prejudicial, esp.
of the duty on sfatcs, although it produci
• •cl in tins .
Df two MM1- lat, ol
i Mil u.-ually about, ten inches and a
wide, and five-eiirhtlis of an inch
Menhir uut-
. that, when laid on the
'•ile on« si.,
iian
' 1 n Mid a hall or Ibm-
"'d a hall ut nine inches wide,
i SR|,. to side. Plan.
are made with a hole near their upji.
the.
ha!
ft wooden peg, by which they are Itung upon the laths of
the r..
in such a i:
other about si \ inches. Pun-tiles have iu> holes, liu
liiuig upon the laths by ! ried ut tl
: they do not requii.
quently form a lig:
. the two kinds ol'tihi.
kinds . and the snitabh
. vol. XX., p. I . of a
form, laid in mortar with tlieii .
• commonlj made in the form a
arch, and laid or bedded upon flat till
information will be found in a paper • On tin
noniical Manufacture of Drainin
Robert Heart, in the second volume of the •. Journal of the
Royal Agricultural Society ;' and in the same volum
of the admirable tile-making machinery invent
the marquis of Twceddale, which has
into extensive operation.
and of greater thickness than those r . In
antient as well as in more recent times paving I
frequently decorated with ornamental devices in various
colour!), so as to produce an effect resembling that of mo-
nt.
TILK'SIA, a genus of Polypiaria mentioned by I.a-
mouroux.
TII.GATK HKDS. A portion of the irreat sen.
in the \Veald of Kent and Sussex, interposed between the
green-sands and the Portland oolite, is thus named by l'i.
Mantell, who has described the numerous and inlen
orgaiii* which it c The reptil,
- d iu Professor U-.M . t to the 1!
Association.' 1S41.
TI'LIA, the name of a srenns of plants belonging to the
1 order Tiliacca'. The trees in Kngland are called
l.iiiii'-tr<-i'f. in Sweilish Linn, and in (ierinan and Dutch
I.iinl' n. They are characterised by ; ;.rted
deciduous calyx: ~> petals; numerous free or sonn
polyadelphous stamei .-elled
All the species -u hiiiidsoine trees, with alte:
-ii.ijud, acute, serrated, decidi. • fra-
grant yellowish panicled flowcj-s. Tlie wood is
smooth, and white, and their sap pi-
quantity of sugar. The) are principally natives of Kurope
and Amen
'/'. l-Mr'i]:rfit, the Kuropean or Common Lime-trei .
petals without scales, and cordate, acuminate, serrated
-. which are smooth, with the exception of a tuft of
hair at the origin of the ,
of the petioles; tlie cymes are many-flinvercd. and
the fruit iscoria : downy. This tree is abu;.
in the middle and north of Europe. It is very common in
Uiitain, althoc. 'nave been exp:
as to its In-ill^ truly il nlted
intoall li.itish !" ilure can lie no doip
• \\ naturalised in this country,
well known to the antients, and is spoken •
both 'I ! Plinv. It 1 favourite,
in Kr is planted in pub!;-
in 1'iaur
and* .1. Forth -i/e. hand-
some >-. and prnfiisioii ol well
adapt it. The v. to in cons! il is
white, ight, and smooth, and i-
by the cabinet-nii'.i.t l! is
easily . vvell A* durable, and on this accouii
the line i
. the lihr..
Trinit;. lidge, and at Chatswoilh, arc of this
wood. Il is also used for wood-cutting. The librcs of the
ry tough, and rones and mals are manufactured
iinm them. The;, are employed for tl niny
I Kngland, but in Russia and S
il .sideiable '. lien
for ibis purpose the tn led in tin
nl' tin- year, and the bark is -lecped in water, alt. i which
it is hung up to dry ; and ihe I; rk, beiir.'
rated, are cut into ni
art twisted into
and uplk. . The. flow.
T I L
447
T I L
a large quantity of nectar, and exhale a delicious scent.
On this account they are great favourites with bees, and
when expanded they are constantly beset with these insects.
The honey thus procured is in great repute, and has
given celebrity to the honey of Kowno, on the Niemen, in
Lithuania, a small town which is surrounded by a torest of
limes. It is chiefly used for making liqueurs. The seed
of the lime possesses a large quantity of albumen, which
is nutritious and perfectly innocuous. It was proposed by
Missa, a French physician, to use it in the same way as
that of the cocoa-tree. It was found to answer this pur-
pose, but when prepared it will not keep ; hence any
extensive manufacture of it, although it was attempted in
Germany, has been abandoned. Cattle will eat the leaves
cf the lime, but it is said to communicate a bad flavour to
the milk of cows. The flowers were considered anodyne
and antispasmodic by older physicians, and were adminis-
tered in fevers when the Cullenian doctrine of spasm pre-
vailed. Hoffman strongly recommended them, and relates
cures effected by them, and they entered as an ingredient
into most of his prescriptions. They are not much used
in modern medicine.
The linden attains a great age ; and many specimens,
celebrated for their age and size, exist. ' At Neustadt, in
Wirtemberg, there is a prodigious lime-tree, which gives
its name to the town, which is called Neustadt an der
Linden. This tree is said by Evelyn to have had in his
time a trunk above 27 feet in circumference, and the dia-
l>ace covered by its branches to have been
403 feet. It was 'set about with divers columns and mo-
numents of stone ?K-i in number, and formerly above 100
more), which several princes and noble persons have
adorned, and which as so many pillars serve likewise to
• rt the umbrageous and venerable boughs ; and that
even the tree had been much ampler, the ruins and dis-
tances of the columns declare, which the rude soldiers
luive greatly impaired.' Evelyn adds copies of many of
the inscriptions on the columns, the oldest of which is
dated l."»O, and the column on which it is inscribed now sup-
ports one of the largest limbs, but was at a considerable
distance from the tree 300 years ago. (London.) This tree
is si ill in existence. There are many other very aged in-
dividuals in this country and on the Continent. The family
name of Linnaeus is said to have been derived from an an-
tient linden that grew near their residence. The principal
street of Berlin is called 1'nti'r dfn Linden, from the lime-
trees which are planted on each side.
Many varieties of this tree are described ; and, as is
usual in these eases, some authors have elevated them to
the rank and importance of species. The following are
found in collections : T. E. l<irinintn, in which the leaves
are smaller than those of the common species, and are
deeply and regularly cut and twisted. It seldom attains
a large size. T. E. aurea, which differs only in its twigs
having a bright yellow colour. T. E. dasyityla, possesses
a toin le, and differs from the species in the form
uf its fruit. Some botanists admit only one European
species, thu Tiliu Europ&a.. Koch, in his 'Flora Ger-
manica.' has two, tin- T. <;r<indifolia and T. parvifMa,
and give- '/'. l-'.iirnjifii as a synonyme of the latter. Hooker,
in the 'British Flora,' admits all three; and De Candolle,
in lii-> ' Prodromus," has three species, besides the European,
which are as follows : — •
T. »iii'rn)i/iytl<i. Small-leaved Lime, lias its petals with-
out nectaries or srales, cordate, roundish, acuminated, ser-
rated leaves, smooth above and glaucous beneath, with
scattered as well as axillary hairy blotches, and compound
inanv-llowcred umbels. This is identical with the T. par-
: of Ehrbart and other writers. It is a native of sub-
alpiue districts in the north of Europe. In Great Britain
it i> common in the woods of Essex and Lincolnshire; and
Mr. K. Foister thinks it probable that this is the only true
T. rit/i/-ii. Hod Lime, has cordate leaves, unequal at the
base, bairv beneath as well as the petioles, with a tuft ot
hair at the ba-,e of the veins ; the fruit globose and smooth.
I native of Taurida, and some few specimens are grow-
ing in England. The young branches are of a beautiful
i, thence it nas been called T. i-nnillimi.
Thi-, by most other writers considered a variety
of T or T. gr'indifolta.
T. / ul-ieaved Lime-tree, has petals with-
«ut nectaries; cordate, serrated leaves, downy beneath;
origin of the veins, woolly; branches, hairy; un
three-flowered ; fruit woody, downy, turbinate, with promi-
nent angles. This is the T. grandifolia of Ehrhart and
other botanists. It is more common than the other species
in Switzerland and the south of Europe. There are se-
veral specimens of this tree in England and Scotland, but
they can scarcely be said to be wild. Specimens of this
tree exist in the churchyard of Seidlitz in Bohemia, with
leaves contracted to the form of a hood. They are said to
have miraculously assumed this character from the time
that the monks ot a neighbouring convent were all hanged
upon them.
All the foregoing species are distinguished by not having
nectaries or scales at the base of their petals ; there are
six other species characterised by possessing nectaries.
Four of these are inhabitants of North America.
T. alba, the White or Silvery Lime, has cordate, ser-
rated leaves, unequal at the base, clothed with white down
beneath, but smooth above, and four times longer than the
petioles ; fruit ovate, with five obscure ribs. This is the
T. argentpa of Desfontaines ; T. panonica of Jacquin ;
and T. tumentosa of Moench. It is a native of the woods
of Hungary, and is very readily distinguished from the
other species by the whiteness of its leaves, which becomes
especially evident when ruffled by the slightest breeze.
It was introduced into this country in 1767, and there are
now existing several very fine specimens, one at Walton-
on-Thames, 60 feet high, and a number at Highclere in
Berkshire. T. petiolaris was described by De Candolle
from dried specimens sent to him from Odessa, where the
tree is cultivated in gardens. The leaves are twice the
length of the petioles, and their under surface downy like
the last.
T. glabra, the Black or Black American Lime-tree, has
leaves deeply cordate, serrated, and somewhat coriaceous
and smooth ; the petals are truncate and crenate at the
apex, and equal in length to the style ; the fruit ovate and
somewhat ribbed. This tree is a native of North America
in ( ,'anada and the northern parts of the United States ; in
the Southern states it is only found at a considerable ele-
vation on the Alleghany mountains. In external cha-
racter it, very much resembles the European species ; its
flowers and leaves are however larger. Although it was
introduced into this country by Miller as early as 1752, it.
is not much grown, and very few specimens exist. In
America the wood and bark are lised for much the same
purposes as that of its representative in Europe.
T. la.ciflora, Loose-flowered American Lime, has cor-
date, serrated, smooth leaves, loose panicles of flowers,
emarginate petals, and globose fruit. It is a native of
America, from Maryland to Georgia. It has been known
in this country only since 1820, and but few specimens
are at present planted. London, in his 'Arboretum' (vol.
i., p. 374), states his conviction that this and the other
species of American limes are only varieties of T. glabra,
and he has arranged them accordingly. He has however
assigned no other reason for this opinion than their general
resemblance.
T. juilx'scoix, the pubescent American Lime, has some-
what cordate and oblique leaves, truncate at the base, and
pubescent beneath; the petals emarginate, shorter than
the style, and the fruit srlobose. II is a native of the
son! hern parts of the United States, from Virginia to
Georgia, where it is found principally on the banks of
rivers. It is a much less vigorous tree than the two last,
and has much smaller leaves and more slender branches.
There is a variety called by Ventenat T. p. leptop/iylla,
which has very thin leaves and delicate serratures.
T. heterophylla, the White American Lime, has ovate
leaves, downy beneath, sometimes cordate at the base,
sometimes obliquely or equally truncate ; globose fruit
with 5 ribs. This tree is abundant in Maryland, Dela-
ware, and the Western states of America, and is found on
the banks of the Susquehanna, Ohio, and Mississippi. The
leaves and flowers of this species are larger than any other.
It seldom attains a height of more than forty feet in its
native districts, and specimens in Europe do not exceed
more than twenty feet. It is a handsome ornamental tree,
and deserving of cultivation. It has been known in France
nearly a century, but was not introduced into England till
1811.
In the cultivation of the lime it should be placed in
moist situations, in an argillaceous, loamy soil. It grows
T I L
4-ls
T I L
• on plains than hill*, and in moist than dry placet.
Tin- tree* may be propagated by seeds, which should be
sown at soon as they an- gathered : bnt this is a veij
proce**, and the mort frequent mode of propagating them
i* by layers. In France H tree is cut down to the roots.
and the shoots are encouraged to grow, niul in the <
of two or three years they may be planted in tin- positions
in which they lire to stand. Lime-trees will ;
planting ut a greater age than most lives ; when large trees
minted, they .should have their roots cut rounil
three, or four feet from the stem the year before they are
taken up. This stunts their growth, and makes them bear
removal better.
(Loudon, Arbor, rt Frut. Itril.. vol. i. and iv. : Hischoff,
lj hrlnt.-h ili-r li-.tnink : Koeh. / i-tni<->i ; Hooker.
Itnlish l'l»r,i ; Don's Miller's Diet., &C.)
TIU.U'K.li, a natural order of plants belonging to the
nip of polypctalouB Dicotyledons, This
order consists of trees or shrubs, seldom of herbaceous
plants, with simple, toothed, alternate leaves, furnished
with stipules. The Mowers are axillary. The calyx con-
sists of four or five sepals, which are valvular in a-st na-
tion : the petals four or live, with mostly a little pit at
their base; the stamens are hypogynons, mostly indefinite,
with oval or roundish two-celled anthers bunting length-
wise : the disk is formed of glands, which arc equal in
number to the petals and opposite to them: Uje Ovary M
single, composed of from four to ten carpels, with a single
s Me and stigma divided into lobes according to the num-
ber of the carpels; seeds numerous, with erect embryo,
and abundant albumen. This order is nearly allied to
StcrculiaecK and Malvace;p, from which it differs in its
glandular disk, distinct stamens, and two-celled anthers.
The species, of which there are about two hundred and
fifty, are arranged in thirty-two genera, and are generally
diffused throughout the tropical and temperate parts of
the globe.
Tiliaeca' possess no active properties; they abound in a
mucilaginous wholesome juice. The fibres of the inner
bark are very tough, and are used for a variety of economi-
cal purposes. [Til.n.] The wood is genei ally white, light,
and tough ; that of (liviri.i i-lm-tii-it is used for making
bows iu India. The Trincomalee-wood used at Madras
for making the Ma>soola boats is the produce of Bcrrya
Auunonilla. The (!orchorus olitoiius is cultivated in
i'.gypt for use as a pot-herb.
1. ami if , with aowrn tii.1 tcif ; 9. wrtion of ovary. iWing lh« «Ui;
:t. ilnirli- flowiT ; 4. «M
TI'I.lQr.V. Mr. J. K. Cray's name for a genus of SKM-
'I'ln :III\NS.]
K, applied to arable land, is the stirring and
of the surface of the soil, so as to render it lit
for the vegetation of the s,.,.i]s Committed io it : its object
- tlie destruction of n.
The whole art of culli\ation consists in tillage and ma-
nuring, and the profit of the husbandman depends on the
perfection of the tillage and the economy of labour i'
duciug the effect. A defect in tillage will c.t
deficiency in the' crops in online
the soil should be in such a state that the
and dews may readily be diffused through it. without
giving it a wet appearance, or cv aporating too rapidly.
It requires great knowledge and expcric
particular soil the exact portion of tillage which is suited
to it. A fine garden-tilth, as it is called, is th
feet for light soils which have been long cultivated and
manured; when they can be biought to such a stale that
after continued rains the surface dries without forming a
crust, and crumbles of its own accord, the tillage has been
good ; and the deeper this soil is stirred, the more it will
produce : but where clay abounds in the soil, which in
dry weather can be readily pulverised by crushing the dry-
clods, and be reduced to the finest powder, too much til-
lage may do more harm than good. The fine ell
Converted into mud at the snrfae.- \,\ the least rnin, be-
lt is not sufficiently porous to let the water through
it; it dries into a hard crust, which effectually precludes
the access of air, and consequently stops the vegetation
of the seed. It is only by abundant manuring with organic
matter, especially of animal origin, that this natural tend-
ency in clays to cohere can be overcome ; and until this
is effected il is best to stir clay soils as deep as possible by
means of subsoil-ploughs, but the;/ should not be pul-
\criscd so that the water cannot run down between the
lumps and clods, and especially the surface should be left
in such a stale of roughness that heavy lains cannot cover
it with a coat of mud. The clods which are left on the sur-
face imbibe the moisture more gradually, and in drying
fall to pii ccs, by which the young plants are imigo
and. as it were, moulded up. This is particularly the
in winter after a frost, as all clay-land farmers are well
aware. It is very easily ascertained whether a soil will
bear much tillage or not. It is only necessary to try some
of it in a large pot or box : make the surface very fine Iry
breaking the clods, then water it abundantly, and let ft
dry in the suiu if a crust is formed in drying, that soil will
not bear too much harrowing and pulverising, and should
be left in a moderately rough state after sowing or drilling
the seed; but if, a Her it dries, the surface is Km-.
porous, then the liner the f jJlage the better the seed will
\cgetate. The whole depends on the ready admission of
air or its exclusion. \\'hcn grass-seeds are sown, tlu
face should be well pulverised ; but this cannot be safely
done if the soil is apt to run together when much rain falls
soon after the seed is sown. S.nne plants, like beans, will
their way through a very hard surface; but small
seeds are too weak to do ^o, a:id their growth is entirely-
stopped by the least crust on the surface. H, •sides the
preparatory tillage Of the soil before sowing the seed, there
is a great advantage in the stining of il as the plants are
growing. On this depends all the meiit of the row-culture
for every kind of , . cia'ly those which have escu-
lent roots or extensive foliage, and which are chiefly cul-
tivated for the sustenance of cattle. The effect of deep
tillage is here most remarkable. If rows of turnips or cab-
bages lie sown at such a distance that a small plough Or
other stirring implement can be used between them, and
the intervals be stirred more or less, and at different
depths, it will be found that the deeper and more frequent
the tillage, until the foliage covers the whole interval or
the bulbs swell to a great sixe. the heavier and •
abundant the produce will be. It is worth while to try
the experiment :— Sow Swedish turnips or mangold-wurzel
in rows three feet apart : let some of the rows be m
kepi clear of w eeds by -surface-hoeing, and the plants be
thinned out to the distance of a foot apart : let other inter-
val, lie stirred to different depths; some three inches,
some six iuchi s. and some nine inches or more. The
result v. ill be. that the first rows will appear to have bccii
sown much too far from each other, not half the ground
being covered with the foliage of the plants; the others
will lie covered more and more as the tillage has been
r, and the last will completely cover the whole in-
tervals. The roots or bulbs will be- in exact proportion
to the richness of the foliage, and the weight of the deeply
T I L
449
T I L
tilled rows will far exceed that of any of the others, while
the first will, by comparison, appear a poor and scanty
crop, however clear of weeds the surface may have been
kept. The soil best suited for fhis experiment is a good
light loam on a dry or well-drained subsoil ; for stagnant
moisture under any soil will chill the fibres and check the
growth of'the plants, however dry the surface may be. It
was this which led Tull, the father of drill husbandry, to
the conclusion that tillage was all that the soil required to
maintain perpetual fertility. He carried his conclusion too
far ; but we shall not be wide of the truth if we assert
that with proper tillage the soil will be gradually im-
proved, and a much smaller quantity of manure occasion-
ally added to recruit the waste produced by vegetation
will render the soil much more fertile than it would be
with more manure and less tillage : and as tillage can be
increased by mechanical contrivances where labourers are
scarce, whereas the supply of manure must generally be
limited, it follows that, as a general rule, the land should
be well and deeply tilled, due attention being paid to the
nature of the soil and its property of retaining or transmit-
ting moisture. Very loose sands should not be much
stirred until they are consolidated by the admixture of
marl, clay, chalk, or well-rotten dung ; but in all cases the
manure should be mixed as intimately as possible with
the soil, and as deep as the tillage has gone, not including
the stirring of the subsoil ; for the roots will always pene-
trate thus far, and find the nourishment which they re-
quire. Those plants which throw out roots from the
bottom of the stem, as wheat, barley, and oats, require the
surface to be most pulverised and enriched to allow these
roots to spread ; a spring tillage is therefore highly advan-
tageous, which can only be given when the seed has been
deposited in rows by drilling or in patches by dibbling.
This last method is found to give much finer crops, from
the circumstance that the hoe not only loosens the earth
between the rows, but also between the different patches
of the growing corn, by which the coronal roots are
strengthened and the tillering of the stems so much en-
couraged, that it is not uncommon to sec twenty, thirty,
or more strong stems a" bearing fine ears arising from one
tuft of plants, the produce of one or more seeds, whose
roots are matted together and send out fibres in every
direction. The crowding of several plants does not pre-
vent their growth, provided the fibres can spread around
in a rich mellow soil, weU pulverised, and admitting the
air and moisture readily.
A* a perfect tillage requires much labour and minute
attention, and in many situations where the farms are large
labourers cannot be procured at moderate wages, nor can
; !\v;iys be depended upon to perform the work with
mflicient care, mechanical ingenuity has been taxed to
invent implements oi' tillage by which it may be more
pel Cecily accomplished, and at a smaller expense, by using
the power of horses instead of that of men, and making
implements which will till a considerable breadth at once,
ami thus save time.
The old plough, and which, however it may be improved,
still acts on the same principle of turning up a fresh por-
tion of the soil, burying that which has for some time
:it the surface, will probably always continue to be
hief implement of tillage ; but the minuter operations,
which are taken from garden culture, require particular
contrivances to effect them by instruments. The harrows
are but an imperfect substitute for the garden rake, and do
not stir the soil to a sufficient depth. Other implements
have therefore been invented, which by means of wheels
can be regulated so as to act at a greater or less depth.
These have received the different names of scarifiers,
grubbers, cats'-claws, or cultivators, according to the fancy
of the inventors. Many of these answer the purpose well,
and save labour. They can be used in all directions so as.
to pulverize the soil to any degree. Heavy rollers with
ami without spikes around them are used when many clods
require breaking; and, although not yet adopted in this
try, the Hclgian tniiiienit, a strong frame -of wood
boarded over, and loaded with weights if required, is a
most effectual instrument in levelling tho surface and
crushing duds, without pressing them into the soil as the
roller frequently does.
It would be endless to enumerate all the implements of
tillage which arc daily invented : some of the most u
have been already described. [ARABLE LAND; PLOUGH.]
IJ. C., No. 154 1.
As the cultivation of the soil approaches more to that of
the garden, more perfect instruments will be used ; such as
can be directed with great accuracy between parallel rows
of growing plants without danger of injuring them. When
the width of the stetches or beds accurately corresponds
with the width of the instrument, so that the wheels will
run in the intervals and the horses step in the same, the
soil may be tilled perfectly, although the rows of plants
have but a small interval between them : and the largest
field will thus present to the eye extended seed-beds or
equal rows of growing plants, as we are accustomed to see
in a kitchen-garden. The result will be the same as when
for the sake of experiment we sow the common grains and
leguminous plants of the fields in a plot of garden-ground •
in such case the produce is so far greater, that it quite baffles
our calculation when extended to a large surface, and hence
the incredible results which we continually meet with in the
reports of experiments on some new produce lately intro-
duced : everything is on a magnified scale, owing to supe-
rior tillage. No doubt many fields possessed of fertile
soils might, by attentive tillage, be made as productive as
the Uest garden-ground. The Chinese have, as we are
told, already accomplished this by their incredible num-
bers and indefatigable labour ; but science and mechanical
contrivance are a substitute for millions of labourers when
judiciously applied- as our manufactures fully prove.
The same ingenuity applied to tillage might increase the
produce of the earth, if not indefinitely, at least far beyond
what we may now suspect.
In the early ages of agriculture tillage was almost con-
fined to the ploughing of fallows to clean the land, which
was very imperfectly executed, and in ploughing the
stubble of one crop to prepare for the seed of another, as
long as the land would give a return for the labour. The
idea of tillage for the sake of a permanent improvement of
the soil was only entertained by a few men who reflected,
and that of encouraging the vegetation while the crop was
growing was not even thought of. The plough to stir and
the harrows to cover the seed were the only instruments in
use, and they were very rude of their kind. A return of
three or four times the seed sown satisfied the farmer and
the landlord ; and yet the first was hardly repaid for his
toil, and the landlord received for rent what now would
scarcely satisfy the tithe-owner. Trie present state of agri-
culture may be contrasted with this, and perhaps hereafter
the comparison may be as diaadvanfogeoui to us as it now
appears in our favour when we look back a few centuries.
TILLA'NDSIA, the name of a genus of plants belong-
ing to the natural order Bromeliacese. Linnaeus says of
the plants belonging to this genus, 'Tillandsise cannot bear
water, and therefore I have given this name to the genus
from a professor at Abo, who in his youth having an un-
propitious passage from Stockholm to that place, no sooner
set his foot on shore than he vowed never again to venture
himself upon the sea. He changed his original name to
Tillands, which means ore Or by land; and when he had
subsequently occasion to return to Sweden, he preferred a
circuitous journey of 200 Swedish miles through Lapland
to avoid, going eight miles by sea.' Dr. Elias Tillands,
whose name and idiosyncracy have thus been perpetuated,
was professor of physic at Abo, and died in 1692, at the
age of fifty-two. He published in 1683 an alphabetical
catalogue of plants in the neighbourhood of his residence,
which was afterwards followed by wood-cuts of 158 of the
plants in the catalogue.
The genus Tillandsia of Linnaeus comprehends the plar.ts
described by Sloane as viscuin caryophylloides, and by
Plumier as Caragata, and is characterised by possessing a.
persistent calyx divided into three oblong, lanceolate,
pointed segments ; a corolla tubular, longer than the calyx,
with the limb divided into three segments ; six stamens not
so long as the corolla, and inserted into it, and the anthers
sagittate ; the ovary superior, surmounted by; a style with
a trifid obtuse stigma; the fruit, a trilocular capsule con-
taining several seeds, each of which is supported on a long
stalk of aggregate fibres, which in the end constitutes a
feathery wing. The species are most of them parasitical,
and are natives of South America.
T. utriculata, the Wild Pine of the colonists of Jamaica,
has linear, channelled, recurved, dilated leaves, inflated at
the base ; stein closely panicled. It is found growing on
old and decaying trees in the forests of Jamaica. The stem
is three or four feet high, and the leaves are a yard long,
VOL. XXIV.— 3 M
T I L
T I L
and place.) within one another in - v that the
water which runs down th aided
baton Thu Uur* then swell out and form a rewnoir or
botth 'ted "I tlio neck, prcve.its the
he»t ill' tb> a evaporating th,
vain will each hold ubuut a <ju: .-. and during the
dry M-amin they arc the resort of all kuuU of uniiuals lor
>be take of the water, and travellers are often able to oh-
tain » stipplv o: i this source when all oth,
Dampicr. iii his Travel-, gives the folio -nt of
tin* plant : — ' The wild pine is a plant so i
somewhat resembles the Imsh of MM rround the
true pirn -apple. The \vild pines commonly grow from
some hunch, knot] or excresci 'rec, where they
lake ring upright. The root is short and thick,
from whence t> one within the
other, spreading ofcii to the top of the tree. They are of
a good tin v, and so compact as to c-atch and
i he nun-water when it falls. They will contain a
pint, or a pint and a half, or a quart; and tl
frc-hcs the leaves and no:,. mot. When \vc tind
these pines, we stick our knives into tile leaves just above
the roots, and let out the water, which we catch in our
hats, as 1 have done many times myself to my great relief.'
Tin1 s,-e(U of these plants are furnished with whiffs, by
which they are blown from tree to tree, on which they
, I'nlcss they possessed such means of transportation,
they would fall to the ground, where, being parasitical, the
i, 011111: plants would perish.
T. iniirniili-ii. the Long-Moss Tillandsia, or
1 iril of the French, the .' •ri/nphylltiidet of
Sloane, has a twisted, thread-slur, -tern, much
branched, with channelled leave.-. This plant is a native of
the forests of .North America, fioiii Virginia to Florida.
also of the \\Y-t India Islands and the liiazils. It has
\ery minute roots, and its long wiry • icms creep
the stems and branches of old 'trees, sometimes hang-
ing down in a bunch like the hairs of a horse's tail. The
flowers are small and of a blue colour, and are developed
at the ends of the branches. This plant grows on other
in dry and arid plains, as well as in alpine di-1
It attains a larger si/c in the mure temperate localiti-
filamcnton- steins, when deprived of their bark. 1.1
used for the -nine puiposi s as horsehair, and are used in
this manner in America. They are also in some places
made into cordage. The only preparation thuy require
previous to being used is being put into water for a fort-
night or more, according to the temperature, when, on
; taken out and diied. the bark easiU from
the t'ibie-. and they are lit for use. In medicine this plant
hat been recommended as a remedy in hn-morrhoii1
. tl'cctnal diaphoretic.
T. .>/. Single-spiked Tillandsio, has the- radicle
leaves linear, channelled, recurved, broad, and sheathing
at the base; the stem simple, clothed with imbn
•imple ; the hractca 'icave.
This plant is a native of the AVest Indies. The flow,
of a snow-white colour. \ils of the
bract-, which surround a rachis two or three inches lonir,
and this ari-es from a mass of 1, ,:i the form
(if a \sthelea\esaiid bracts are eolouied \ ari-
-,nd white, the whole plant loo!
r ; and when numerous upon the
•Hi which t: , odnce a very handsome and
,1 this as well as most
of II,.- oil' serve as reservoirs for water,
thin* its: most of
then III America, especially o!
and of th, tin1 Audi-: two or three of the
speci "ind in the southern states of North
America.
TII.I.KMl'Vr. SKHASTIKN I.KNAIN DK. U b
ral writer of coiiMdeiable no! n at Pans liotli
November. Hi.'t". II- i I.enain. i
yftb- R
a child he alwii\ > hicvous pranks
in which children commonly indulge. \Vhen be1
nine are of age he w.i
of tt •• icty then established
*M the vacant al anil under these in-
strin ' him-clf to the e\ci<
w>d ] ,'ithor, while at school, was I
a prclcicnce indi
studies. He studied logic and ,
Nicole ; and ln-
cvinucd the carne-tnt--, with which he pursued it, and put
the knowledge of his instructor to He
i the tin 0 iiom which, when about
eighteen years uf age, he turned with mm •!•
the .study of the Scriptures tin msehes, and oft I,
and while thus cngau a to collect the hi-toiical
notices of the Apostles and Apostolical Katheis, and to
arrange them alter the plan of L -
- of his conscience, anil the stricl
notions of duty, kept him lor some time imdetermined
the choice of a |- Al llie age of '-{
the Episcopal seminary of licau-. .
with such respect from his for historical k
. fearing it migh 'us humilit .
contemplated leaving it. but was pcisiiadcd to rein:.,'
le of the members of the Society ol
Royal, whom he had cho.-en t'oi his spiri: H,.
remained three or four years in
and then spent rive or six with Godet'roi Hermant, e
of that city. He was much respected ami
bishop of licauvais, Choart de l!u/anval. and i
that this estimation would male him \ain, In
left the place and leturned to Paris, win
two yeais with his intimate friend and school-fell
Uoval, Thomas du Foss.' ; but not findin
that retiremenl which he desired, he witlnl- l.am-
X-rt, a country parish in the neighbourhood of thai city.
In September. \f>7'2. at the mature age of thirty-fiv
became subdeacon. and iifteen nionlhs ait
The following extract from a letter an
Pierre Lenain, then or an
evinces at once his piety and his humility. After htiiting
that it was at the desire "of Isaac de Sacy, his friend and
guide, that he had become 'Subdeacon and v.,-,
take on him the dcaconship, he goes on. • I
dearest brother, that it is with great agitation ai.
I have resolved to comply with his wish, for 1
am far from those dispositions which I in
-ary for entering upon this ofh'ce : and n
am obliged to confess that I have profited little from Ihe
grace which I might have received from the
duties of the subdeaconship. Hut on the ol:
could not resist one whom I believe I ought toolny in
:hing, and who, I am well aware, has 11:
love forme. I beg of you then, my dearest :
pray to God for me, and to ask him either to can
de Sacy to see things in a different light. , lo me
such dispositions that the advice of my friend may be for
my salvation and not for my condemn
In \.D. KiTli lit received pric . at the further
•,sion of De Sacy, who contemplated making him his
—or in the office of spiritual director of the li
dine nuns, now re-established in their original scat, tin;
abbey of Port Hoyal. to the immediate' neighbourly
which establishment Tillemont removed. He was how-
ever, in I(i7!l, obliged to remove, and he took up his
residence at the estate of Tillemont, a sho:t distance from
near Vincemie.-, which belongidto his familv
from which he too\ his name. In \.n. Kisl he visited
Flanders and Holland : and in ,v.i>. Kis-j undcitook the
charge of the parish of St. l.am!
I. but soon gave it up at the desire of his fall:
whom he ever j
Having prepared the first volume of his irical v.ork OH
• d luston. .lout to publish il when it
was stopped by the censor, under wlu>.-c notice, as a
'.vitfi theology, it had to pass, ami who :
Vuactcr. Tillc
mciiit rel'usi-d to alter the parts specified, deeming them
not justly within the censor's province- ; and chi
I he work, uponwhicl. he continued to
labour diligently, though without any imni ntion
of publishing it.
This e\erci-e of the censorship led to an alteration of
his plan : he determined ; from the rest of hii
work Ihe history of the Koman en .nces
ere inter- in of the
Clni-tian church, and to publish ii
volumi of this work, which, as not being theological, was
exempt from tho censorship, appeared in 1090, and was
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451
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•oceived with general approbation. It excited a desire for
the appearance of his Church history, and the chancellor
Boucherat, in order to remove the obstacle to its publica-
tion, appointed a new censor. Thus encouraged, he brought
ont the first volume in 1693, under the title of ' ,Mc-
moires pour servir a 1'Histoire Ecclesiastique des Six Pre-
miers Siecles.' A note to this volume, on the question
whether Jesus Christ celebrated the Passover the evening;
before his death, in which he examined the views of Ber-
nard Lami, a learned priest of the Oratory, on that question,
involved him in a controversy with that writer, who read
Tillemont's note before publication, and examined the
arguments contained in it in a subsequent work of his own.
Tillemont in consequence addressed to Lami a letter,
which is printed at the close of the second volume of his
' Memoires,' and is remarkable for its spirit of modesty and
meekness. Lami replied, but Tillemont declined to con-
tinue the discussion, thinking that he had said enough to
enable those interested in the question to form a judgment.
Faydit de Riom, an ecclesiastic whom the Congregation of
the Oratory had expelled from their body, a man of con-
Mderable talent, but of jealous disposition, published at
li;Vu-, A.ri. 1695, the first number (28 pp. 4to.) of a work, to
be continued every fortnight, entitled ' Memoires centre
K's Memoires de M. Tillemont.' It contained several
violent and unjust strictures on the work, to which Tille-
mont did not reply, though some of his friends with need-
h-" Apprehension procured the stopping of Faydit's work,
which never proceeded beyond the first number. Faydit
repeated his attack in a subsequent work, but it produced
little effect.
The remainder of Tillemont's life was passed in the quiet
pursuit of his studies. He was attacked by a slight cough
at the end of Lent, 1697, and in the course of the summer
was seized with fainting, owing to a sudde.i chill while
hearing mass in the chapel of Notre Dame des Anges :
toward the end of September his illness increased so as to
excite the anxiety of his friends. He consequently removed
to Paris for the sake of medical advice; and there, after
an illness which rendered his piety and submissiveness to
the divine will more conspicuous, he breathed his last, on
Wednesday, 10th January, 1G9H. aged sixty years. He
was buried in the abbey of Poit Royal, in which the Ber-
nardiup or Cistertian nuns, to whom the abbey had origi-
nally belonged, were n<<w u^ain established.
The works bv which Tillemont is known are, his ' His-
toire des Kmpercnrs,' and his ' Memoires pour servir a
1'ITistoire Keclexiastiquc.' The first was published in G
vils. tto. : the fiist four during the author's life, at inter-
vals from 1690 to 1697 : the remaining two after his death,
in 1701 and 1738. The earlier volumes were reprinted
at Brussels in 12mo., in 1707, et seq., and a new edition
appeared at Paris, in 4to., in 17:*)-23, with the author's
latest corrections. He explains his plan in the ' Aver-
nent' to the first volume : his intention'was to illns-
llie history of the Church for the first six centuries;
bi't instead of commencing with the first persecutor, Nero,
lie noes baek to Augustus, whose edict occasioned the
journey of Joseph and Mary to Bethlehem, and thus deter-
mined the place of our Lord's nativity. The history ends
with the Byzantine emperor Anastasius (A.D. 518). The
is unpretending, and consists for the most part of^a
tiniislation of the original writers with slight modifications,
and with such additions (marked by brackets) as were
needed to form the whole into one continuous narrative,
fh reflections as the author deemed requisite to cor-
rect the false morality of heathen writers. To each volume
are appended notes relating to difficulties of history or
chronology which require diseusssion of a kind or extent
unsuited for insertion in the body of the work. ' There is
nothing,' says Dupin, ' which has escaped the exactness of
M. Tillemont ; and there is nothing obscure or indicate
which his criticism has not cleared up or disentangled.'
The ' M6moires,' &c. extend to 1(! vols. 4to., of which
the iir^t appeared in 1093; three volumes more during
the author's lifetime, in 1094-5-6; and the fifth was in
the press at the time of his death. These five volumes
,nd edition in 1701-2, and were followed
in 1702-1711 by the remaining eleven, which the author
had left in manuscript. This great work is on the same
being composed of translations from
• •iL'inal writers, connected by paragraphs or sent-
in brackets. Dupin characterizes it as being not a continu-
ous and general history of the Church, but an assemblage
of particular histories of saints, persecutions, and heresies,
a description accordant with the modest title of the work,
' Memoires pour servir i 1'Histoire,' &c. The author con-
cerns himself chiefly with facts, without entering into
questions of doctrine and discipline ; and notices not all
the saints in the calendar, but only those of whom there
are some antient and authentic records. Each volume has
notes of similar character to those given in ' L'Histoire des
Empereurs.'
Tillemont supplied materials for several works published
by others, as for the Life of St. Louis, begun by De Sacy
and finished and published by La Chaise ; for the lives or
St. Athanasius and St. Basil, by GodetVoi Hermant ; of Ter-
tullian and Origen, by Du Fosse1, under the name of La
Mothe,' &c.
(Vie deM. Lenain de Tillemont, by his friend Trouchay,
afterwards canon of Laval, Cologne, A.D. 1711 ; Dupin,
Bibliothcque des Auteurs Ecclgsiastiques du Dixseptieme
.SYtV/f .- liiosi-ajtliic I ?niverselle.)
TILLOCH, ALEXANDER, LL.D., was born at Glasgow
on the 28th of February, 1759, and was educated with a
view to following the business of his father, who was a
tobacconist, and for many years filled the office of magis-
trate in that city. He was, however, more inclined to the
pursuit of scientific knowledge than to the routine of busi-
ness. His biographer states that in early life his attention
was greatly attracted by the occult sciences, and that al-
though he was not long subject to their delusions, he never
was inclined to treat judicial astrology with contempt. One
of the earliest subjects to which Tilloch applied himself was
the improvement of the art of printing; his experiments
have been alluded to in a previous volume. [STEREOTYPE,
vol. xxiii., pp. 42 and 43.] After carrying on the tobacco bu-
siness for a time in his native city in connection with his
brother and brother-in-law, Tilloch abandoned it, and for
several years exercised that of printing, either singly or in
partnership with others. In 1787 he removed to London,
where he subsequently resided ; and in 1789 he, in connec-
tion with other parties, purchased the ' Star,' a daily evening
newspaper, of which he became editor. This office he
continued to hold until within a few years of his death,
when bodily infirmities and the pressure of other engage-
ments compelled him to relinquish it. The political
opinions of Tilloch were temperate. For many years he
devoted attention to means for the prevention of the for-
gery of bank-notes, and in 1790 he made a proposal to the
British ministry on the subject, which met with an unfa-
vourable reception. He then offered his invention to the
French government, who were anxious to apply it to the
printing of assignats ; but, after some experiments had
been made, and negotiations had been urgently sought
by the French authorities, all communication on the sub-
ject was cut short by the passing of the Treasonable Cor-
respondence Bill. In 1797 he presented to the Bank of
England a specimen note, produced by block or relict'
printing, which was certified by the most eminent en-
gravers to be impossible of imitation ; yet nothing was
done towards the adoption of his or of any similar plan.
Considering that there was room for a new scientific
journal, in addition to that published by Nicholson, Til-
loch published, in June, 1797, the first number of the ' Phi-
losophical Magazine,' a periodical which has ever since
maintained a high reputation as a record of the progress
of science, and a digest of the proceedings of learned
societies at home and abroad. Of this work he was sole
proprietor and editor until a few years before his death,
when Mr. Richard Taylor, who succeeded him in its
management, became associated with him. In the earlier
numbers of the ' Star ' Tilloch published several essays on
theological subjects, some of which, relating to the pro-
phecies, were subsequently collected into a volume by
another person, and published with the name ' liiblicus ;'
and in 1823 he issued an octavo volume entitled ' Disserta-
tions introductory to the study and right understanding of
the language, structure, and contents of the Apocalypse, in
which he endeavours to prove that that portion of Scripture
was written much earlier than is usually supposed, and
before most of the apostolical epistles. His views on this
and other points are discussed at length in a notice of this
work, published soon after his death, in the ' Eclectic
Review.' The last work undertaken by Tilloch was a
weekly periodical entitled the ' Mechanic s Oracle,' devoted
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T I L
principally to the instruction and improvement of the
working classes. The first number appeared in .Tnlv
and it was discontinued soon afler Ins death, which took
.1, on the 20th of January,
Tilloch married early in life. His wife "died in 17*.!.
who becau; Gait.
uliar, and he was one of
.ot a small body who took
the name of Cb -. and nut for worship in a
private ho
of many learned 'ritain and elsewhere,
and was propo-
a fellow Of the K ut his nan.
withdrawn :nmg to the ballot, in co:iseqn«
anii.- at he would be objected to, not on ao
of a;r v in talent or character, hut solely because
tor of a newspaper. A memoir of Dr.
Tilloch appeared in the 'Imperial Magazine ' foKMarch,
from which, with the ;•.- i other obituary
notices, the above account is condensed. This was re-
printed in the last number of the ' Mechanic's U.
with a portrait.
TII.LOTSOX. .10I1N, D.D. born UxJO, died 1C
prelate and one of the most celcbiated divines of the
Church of Kngland. He was born at Soweihy in York-
shire, a member of the great parish of Halifax, of a Puritan
family. His father, who was engaged in the clothing trade,
belonged to that extreme section i>f the Puritans who
-tablishing a genera! system of Independency, and
be belonged himself to an Independent church, of which
Mr. H Alter having been a pupil in
the grain';, ntry, the writers of his Life
not having told us what scb :• an, but doubtless the
grammar-school at Halifax became a pensioner of
.bridge, in 1017. and a fellow of the c
in Ki-'il. It appears that he remained in the University till
IC57. Puritanism was at that, period in the ascendency at
Cambridge : but Tillotson very early freed himself from his
educational prejudices, became a great admirer of the
writings of Chillingwoith, and soon showed himself one of
a class of per-ons who were then beginning to be coii-idcr-
able in Kngland. who, taking their stand on the Scriptures,
opposed themselves at once to Homanism on the one
hand and to Calvinism on the other. This position he
ever after maintained, and his celebrity arises principally
from the ability with which he illustiated and defended,
both from the pulpit and the press, the' principles of
••-in. and of a rational and moderate orthodoxy.
It may he . that -o much of the effects of his
original Puritan education remained with him, that he
Whig, although it must be owned that he
Mined and occasionally expressed notions of the duly
liich. if acted upon, would have maintained
on the throne.
ore he entered holy ordeis, he was tutor in the
family of Prideanx. the attorney-general to Cromwell.
This led to his residence in London, and brought him into
acquaintance with several eminent persons. I Ie w as thirty
yeaw of age before h. ordination, and the service
:rs to have been performed with sonic drg
privacy, n- it is. we believe, not known when or where it
:ined, and only that the bishop fiom whose hands
lie received it vvas not a bishop of the Kuglisli church,
but the bishop of (talway in Scotland. Dr. '1 homas Sydserf.
All tl ! iinperleclioiis 'of his
asserted t! ought
before the public by the noii-juring paitv. when tl •
him elevated to the prii : which Bancroft had
retired.
li is said by his biographer. Dr. Thomas Uirch. that he
was not p. 'islied with the terms of m'lM
conformity required by the act of ICIiJ, which i
'•linrch of Km:! ..n the whole he
r to nccc| 'ime a
nt'oimable III'IM ' church.
H. y.a, for a short tune curate at Cheshunt. and also
' time rector of Kcttoii in Suffolk, a living to
which h.
of tiw Puritan friend*. Hut IP Mo a wider
1. in llidl. the preacher at
's Church in
the Je • ,s that those sermons were iirca.
which attracted crowds of the most accomplished and the
learned of the time, and which have been since read and
studied by many succeeding divines of eminence, and are
at this day the basis of Ins fame.
The course of his preferment in the church during the
reign ot Charles 11. was — l(i(ii). a prebendary in the church
.lerbury; ll>7'-!. anterbnry ; 1<;7~>, a pre-
bendary in the church of St. Paul ; and 1U77. a canon
residentiary in the .-.anie cathedral. Hut as soon as Kim,'
\Villiam was established on the throne he was made
of St. Paul's and clerk of the closet ; and in April. lOill,
he was nominated by the king to the arclibishopric of
Canterbury, an appointment which appears to have been
really received by him with reluctance, and winch
posed him to no small share of envy from very ditt'erent
parties. The truth is. that besides bis eminent merits »»
having been the ablest opposer both of popery and
irreli^ion, in a reisjn when the tendencies of '
\alted stations were in one of these direct
he had a strong personal interest in the new ki.
lions, who is .said, on credible authority, to have
that there was no honcster man than Dr. Tillostoii. nor
had he ever a better friend. He was archbishop only three
years and a half, dyiiiLT at the ai;e of sixty-four, lie was
interred in the church of St. Lawrence Jewry, which had
been the cli: : his hiirh popularity.
He ilied ()0or. He had survived both his children:
but he left a widow, who \\as a : '.] and the
isrhter of Hisho|> \Vilkins, without any
exi'ept the copyright of his works, which it issaidprmi
The kin^ granted her a peiiMon, fii-st cf -1(M)/.. and
afterwards of 200.'. more, which she enjoved till her death
in 1702.
An account of the Life of Dr. Tillotson was published in
s\o.. 1717- There i- a n.uch larger Life of him by Dr.
liirch. prefixed to an edition of the works of Tillotson, and
published also in an Svo. volume, the second edition of
which was printed in l7-~':i, containing additional m; '
There is also an account of him in Le Xeve's • Lives of the
Prote>1ant Archbishops of Kngland.' Hirch's edition of
the Works is in :> vols. folio, 17^)2.
TILLY, or T1I.LI, .JOHN TSKKCLAS Count of, was
the s in of Martin 'IVerclas, of Tilly. The Tserclas, whose
is also written T'Seiclaes, were an old patrician
family of Hrussels ; John, a member of this family, ac-
quired, in 14 IS. the lordship of Tilly, in South lirai
John Tilly was born in 155!), at the castle of Tilly, and he
early entered the order of •'• 'i whom he acquired
that spirit of fanaticism, of blind obedience, and of abso-
lute command, which distinguished him during his whole
life. He soon abandoned 1. -lical profession, and
of Philip II. , kiiii: i'f Spain and K:itl of
the Netherlands, and he learned the pi: war
under Alba,* Requeaens, the governor of th' -inds.
Don Juan of Austria, and Alexander '
of the Spaniards auain-t the Pmlestaiit inl.abitants of the
MI Netherlands he acquired that hatred of heretics
and thai warlike enthusiasm for the Roman Catholic reli-
gion, which became one of the most prominent features of
his ehaiacter. Towards the end of the sixteenth century
ilie service of the emperor Rudolph II. , and
distinguished himself, first its lieutenant-colonel, ami
'loncl and commander of a regiment of
Walloons, in the wars against the Hungarian insni:
and II: 1 III. and Ahmed I. Alter the ]
of Sitvatorok in KKH}. between Rudolph II. and Ahmed I..
• pointed roiiimamlcr-in-cliicf of the ainn of
uilian. duke of Havana, which was in a veiy d
'e. In HiO!) Tilly commanded the ex|icdition
against Donauwcilh, an ini]ierial town which had I
put under the ban for having persecuted the Roman
Catholics, and which surrendered to Tilly without ileti
The I.ig.i. or the union of the Roman Cathohi
appointed him <-omniaiider-in-chicl' of •
. and he held this high office until his death. Tilly
gained the (ii-st great victory in the Thirty Years' Uar,
which broke out in KilH. [T'liiicrv YKAUS' WAR.] After
having coii(]iiercd the' Upper Palatinate with the troo:
\\>c I.ig.i and those of the duke of Havana, he i.n.po-,
ipeiuil geiieials to pursue the armv of I-'rederiek,
king of Itoheinia. insteail of taking wint. | and
all the fruits of their comjuc.sts. Warfare in
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453
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winter was, in the seventeenth century, a very uncommon
thing, and Tilly met with much opposition to his plan ;
but at last the Imperial generals consented to continue
the war. Tilly attacked the Bohemians, who had taken
up a fortified position on the Weisse Berg, near Prague,
and in a few hours the Bohemian army was nearly de-
stroyed (8th of November, 1620), while only some hun-
dreds of the Bavarians were killed. Several of the Bohe-
mian nobles, who lived at Prague or resided in their
castles, were warned by Tilly to fly if they would avoid
the vengeance of the emperor ; but they paid no attention
to this generous advice, and were surprised : twenty -seven
of them were beheaded.
After the brilliant victory on the Weisse Berg, Tilly
hastened to the Rhine for the purpose of preventing the
count of Mansfield from joining the margrave of Baden.
He succeeded in this object by his skilful manoeuvres. The
margrave of Baden-Durlach was attacked in the defiles of
Wimpt'cn, and defeated, after an heroic resistance (1622).
On the 2nd of June, 1622, he defeated Christian of Halber-
stadt at Hoohst ; he pursued Christian and Mansfield to
Westphalia ; defeated them at Stadt-Loo, near Miinster, in a
battle which lasted three days (4th to the 6th of August,
16215 :, and forced them both to disband their troops and
to take refuge in England. For his victory at Stadt-Loo,
Tilly was created a count of the empire. It has been
related, in the article THIRTY YEARS' WAR, how skil-
fully Tilly first weakened and then destroyed the army
of kini^ Christian IV. of Denmark ; but the principal
glory of this campaign was earned by Waldstem, WOO,
alter having joined Tilly on the banks of the Lower
Elbe, persuaded Tilly to turn his arms against Holland,
and to leave him the conquest of Denmark. After Wald-
stein had been deprived of his command in 1630, and
Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, had landed in Ger-
many, Tilly was appointed field-marshal and commander-
in -chief of the imperial army. He appreciated so justly the
military talents of his new opponent, that in the assembly
of the electors at Ratisbon he declared Gustavus Adolphus
to be so great a commander, that not to be beaten by him
wa> as honourable as to gain victories over other generals.
The first great event of the new campaign was the cap-
ture of Masfdeburir, on the 10th of May, 1631. The Croats
and the Walloons in the imperial army committed unheard-
of cruelties against the unhappy inhabitants ; 30,000 of
them were killed, and the town was entirely destroyed after
three days' plunder. It has generally been believed that
some Imperial officers besought Tilly to stop the atrocities of
the soldiers, and that he coolly answered, ' Let them alone,
and come back in an hour.' But this is a mere invention,
and however severe Tilly was, he cannot be charged with
having urged the commission of cruelty, although he con-
sidered the plunder of a conquered town as the fair reward
of the soldier. On the 14th of May Tilly made his en-
trance into the smoking ruins of Magdeburg. In a letter
to the emperor he said that since the destruction of Troy
and Jerusalem there had been no such spectacle as that
which Mairdi-burg presented. Six months later Tilly, who
was in a fortified camp at Breitenfeld near Leipzig, was
forced, by the impetuosity of his lieutenant, Pappenheim,
to engage in battle with Gustavus Adolphus before his
reinforcements had arrived. Tilly himself was successful
in his attack on the left wing of the Swedes, which was
broken, and the elector of Saxony, who commanded it,
fled as far as Eilenburg. But Gustavus Adolphus, who
had beaten the left wing of the Imperialists, under the
command of Pappenheim, stopped the progress of Tilly,
and alter a long and bloody straggle the imperial army
was routed. When Tilly saw the flight of his .soldiers, he
swore that he would not survive the day on which he, the
victor in thirty-six battles, was to fly for the first time in
hi* life. Alone on the field the old field-marshal, bleed-
ing from three wounds, shed tears of despair, and looked
for death as his only consolation. However Duke Rudolph
of Saxc-Lauentmrg persuaded him to withdraw; and
Tilly, putting himseh' al the head of fonr regiments of
fought his way through the main body of the
SwulUh army. He narrowly escaped from the bold
attack of a Swedish captain, called 'Long Fritz,' who was
killed by a pistol-»hot at the moment when he was seizing
the field-marshal (17th of September, 1631). After the
loss of tlie battle of Leipzig, fortune abandoned Tilly for
ever. Although he afterwards succeeded in driving the
Swedes from Francor.ia, Gustavus Adolphus compelled
him to retire beyond the Lech. In order to prevent the
Swedes from penetrating into Bavaria, Tilly took up a very
strong position near Ram, on the right bank of that river.
Gustavus Adolphus, having arrived on the left bank oppo-
site Rain, opened a fire from all his batteries on the Bava-
rian camp, while his pontooniers endeavoured to construct
a bridge over the river (5th of April, 1632). Tilly made
the most active resistance, but a ball broke his thigh, and
he was removed from the field and carried to Ingolstadt.
After the fall of Tilly, the elector of Bavaria abandoned
his invincible position, and the Swedes crossed the river.
Tilly died on the day after the battle, in his seventy-third
year, without leaving any issue.
Tilly was a little ugly man, with red hair, large whiskers,
a pale face, and piercing eyes. He continued to lead a
monastic life in the midst of the noise and the licence of
his camp ; he boasted that he had never touched wine nor
women ; he spoke little, but thought much ; he despised
honours and money ; the emperor wished to confer the
duchy of Brunswick-Calenberg upon him, but Tilly refused
it, and he died poor.
(Julius Bellus, Laurea Austriaca ; Breyer, Geschichte
des Dreissigjdhrigen Krieges ; Schiller, Geschichte des
Dreiuigjanrigen Krteges ; Leo, Univerml-Geschichte.~)
TILSIT (more correctly TILSE), the chief town of Prus-
sian Lithuania, is situated in 55° 4' N. lat. and 21° 56' E.
long., in a fertile country on the south bank of the river
Memel (called in Russia the Niemen). The little river
Tilzele (pronounced Tilshele) forms on the south side of
the town a large basin, and discharges itself, between the
town and the suburbs, into the Memel, over which there is
a bridge of boats, which is 1150 feet long without the ap-
proaches. The thirty-six boats or pontoons are removed at
the approach of winter into the Tilzele, and replaced in
spring. The master of the Teutonic Order built the old
castle in 1289, which was repaired and enlarged in 1356 ;
but the present castle, to the east of the town, was not built
till 1537- In process of time a considerable town grew up
round the castle ; favoured by its excellent situation it
became the channel for the great trade between the in-
terior of Russian Poland and the port of Memel, so that it
was one of the most flourishing towns in the province.
The principal buildings and public institutions are, the
castle, the town-hall (built in 1752-55), the German Lu-
theran church, with a very lofty and curious steeple, the
very pretty Lithuanian church, the Calyinist church, and
the Roman Catholic chapel on an eminence at a short
distance from the town ; the gymnasium, founded in 1586 ;
a Lutheran and a Roman Catholic hospital, a poor-house
and infirmary, and other charitable institutions. The bar-
racks, COO feet in length, 36 in breadth, and two stories
high, were erected in 1794-1800, by a society of the citi-
zens, that the troops might not be quartered in the houses.
The inhabitants, about 12,000 (exclusive of the garrison),
chiefly draw their subsistence from the trade in corn, lin-
seed, and timber ; many are engaged in agriculture (the
town possesses lands of its own, and many of the citizens
have considerable estates) ; and there are likewise brew-
eries, distilleries, tanneries, and all the trades usually
carried on in large towns. The shoes of Tilsit are cele-
brated for durability and neatness, and great quantities
of them are exported. There are many good gardens in
the town and environs, particularly those of the Horticul-
tural Society.
Tilsit has acquired historical celebrity by the treaties of
peace concluded on the 7th and 9th of July, 1807, between
France, Russia, and Prussia, the terms of which are too
well known to be stated in this place : yet in five years
after this peace, which seemed to have laid continental
Europe prostrate at the feet of Napoleon, a part of that
immense army which was to have subdued Russia (Mac-
donald's division) was seen to return desponding, silent,
and miserable over that same river which had so lately wit-
nessed the triumph and splendour of the conqueror.
(Miiller, Handbuch ; Preuss, Beschreibung von Preussen ;
Hassel, Ge.ogr. -Handbuch.)
TILT-HAMMER, a large hammer worked by machinery,
impelled either by a water-wheel or a steam-engine. Such
hammers are extensively used in the manufacture of iron
and steel, and the name tilt-mill is sometimes applied to
the mechanism of which they form the principal feature.
In the process ol shingling or blooming [laoN, vol-
T ! M
T i M
H. the heated iron is subjected (n a very heavy
.1 ne\j
Iross. Tho kind of lilt-l nnerly
•irpose i» rppri ' i'id. in hfs
in Ijirdner's M'aliinrt
've ul' the
hammer as nine feet in length, ami thirtv inches
in circumfprenc and rlamned at intervals
with stout iron hoops. This shtifl passed through the head
of the hammer, which was a mas> • in, weighing
nr eight rwt.. and was secured at the opposr
to a r . the hum!, the pro-
which formed the axis or centre of
motion, and were sustained by a strong frame-work of
tiinl the hammer was placed a very strong hut
igh ash bound with iron i
;>ring to increase the
• .>ke. the head of the hammer was
thrown up ' -, a ponderous circular frame
of iron, with lour projecting arms or teeth, which came in
contact with the shaft very near to the head of the
hammer. '11, is circular frame, or nrm-rasp, was fixed
immediately upon the axis of tin heel which
•ied the mo\ing-power. In modern iron-works, the
.ally formed entirely of iron, the
:ing the actual head of the hammer being
east-iron helve in such a manner
that it may ho remo\ed when worn out. The spring-beam
• mently dispi -us, -d with, and the hammer is lifted
anus acting upon the extremity of the
helve, beyond the hammer-head, or by an eccentric, or
cam. revolving in contact with a projection from the under
side of the hehe, between the hammer-head and the axis
or centre of motion. Holland represents a tilt-hamn
the latter construction, which is about six tons in weight,
and nine feet five inches long from the axis to the centre
of the head. The hammer-head itself is circular, and
nit eight, cwt. Such a hammer makes about
one hundred and fifty si yokes per minute.
'Hie tilt-hammers iised in tfie manufacture oi' steel are
smaller and much more rapid in their action. Instead of
receiving the impulse of the cams near their head.
hammers are set in motion by tappets or cogs striking
downwards upon the tail of the hehe or shall, which is
iigcd beyond the axis. The tail of the helve is thus
11 down forcibly upon an anvil, from which it
rebound) with great velocity, causing the hammer to make
from three to seven hum: - in a minute. Tilt-
hium plied with great advantage to the forging
When tilt-hammers are impelled by water-wheels, it is
ible to fix the cams or arms upon a separate shaft.
which may revolve at any required velocity without in-
;ig the \eloeity of the water-wheel itself, by the
intervention of snilai wheels. Without Inch an
arrangement much of the useful effect of the water may
he Ic-'. owing to the the wheel to a
TniAKl'S T.>n.,.r .the son of Andromachus, was born
:it Tauromenium in Sicily, whence he is sometimes called
-romenian. and sometimes a Sicilian, to distinguish
him ,ns of the same num.
hi- birth was B.C. Tt.V.2. Tie ,vas a disciple of I'hili'sciis of
Miletus, who had hiinselr been instructed b\
. ..null) In
.1)1011 he wc'nt "t This
11 in-. :tl(), when
Ihocle*, af '; iH-ra, and before taking his
arirn iou* pretext* the
f hiswcalt •-, and endeavoured l
i-scs.ioii- in SieiK by putting to death or sending
ichai he thought il Id .-.ardshim. Din-
Sic., xx. : arsatAth.
drtudving. , Polybii - About the year
n.<. •_><;<). when Athens WU taken by Antigomi*. Timaeus
• his native country, cither to 'I'auromenium or
.t the remainder of bis life, and
•>l, the main subject
Sicily. It began at the c
i down to Olyiupiiid U'.i
J04'. where the woik of Polybius begins. (Polybius,
i. 5.^ How many hook* the rtain,
though we know that (her.
.•en divided into la-
which formed in itself a -
spoken of by several writers as so m»' -
Thtiii one section bore the • and
contained the early history of Sicily in connection with that
of Italy ; another was called 'SitiXii.-.! rni'KKXqi-irri. and con-
tained the history of Sicily and >
the Athenian expedition* to Sicily. An< again
contained the history of Airatboeles : ami the last t!i
lory of Pvrrhus. especially his campaign* in Italy and
Sicily. Tins last section was, according to the testimony
of Cicero A>l l-'umil.. \ . 1'J . a separate work, thongh, sj
regards the period which it comprehended, it m,.
1 as a continuation of the great historical work.
This history of Timaeus, which, with the exception
vrablc number of fi . "as com-
menced by him during his exile at Athens, and »' :
advanced 'age ; but he did not complete it till after hfs
return to his own country ; and it was here that be ndded
the history of the last years of the reign of Agathocles and
wrote the history of Pyrr!
and value of the work the antients do not ngr
bius is a vehement opponent of Timaeus. and compla-
ins ignorance of political as well as military a flairs; he
furthe: .it Timaeiis made blunders in the
graphy even of places and countries which he himself had
visited. His knowledge, he says, was altogether d
from books; his judgment was puerile; and the whole
work bore strong marks of credulity and superstition.
But this is not all that Polybius blan
him with wilfully perverting the truth. Tin
which Timaeus himself had for censuring others is said
to have drawn upon him the nickname of Kpiti,
(fault-finder). (Athentrus, vi., p. 272.' Most parts of this
severe criticism of Polybius may be perfectly just ; but in
1 to others we should remember thst these two his-
torians wrote their works with such totally different \
that the work of Timaeus, who knew the world only from
his books, must in many respects have appeared absurd to
the author of a ' pragmatical' history, and to a statesman
and general like Polybius. Hut the lo<s of the work of
Timaeii-. e\cn if lie did no more than make an uncritical
compilation of what others had told before him, is one of
the greatest in antieut history. Other ancient w
such as Diodorus, Agatharchidi <. Cicero, and others, judge
far more favourably of Timaeus. The style of the work.
as far as we can judge from the fragmem -.cen-
sured by some antient critic ril and dec'.
lory character ; although others, like Cicero !>•• 'Intl..
ii. 14 ; Hmtii*. !)."> . speak of it with praise. Timaeus i-
the first ('.reek historian who introdr.-
of ehronoli-. . he regularly n .• cord-
ing to Olympiads and 1h. : and al-
i. in the ear!} his history, his want of
-in led him into gloss rhn ' the
example which . ' . fill and convenient.
It must ha\e been with a view to an accurate study of
chronology that he wrote a work on the \ictois in the
Olympian Camis, of which we still possess a few frag-
The fragments ol'Ti. in (ililler's work,
.' ]). 'Jd7. <Ve.. which also
contains 'pp. ]"!> 'Jnr. 'lion on the life
and writings of Timaens. The 1'ia^nnnl
1 T. Miiller. • .rtim
1 1. pp. l!i:.
I >f II. . p. 1 i7. edit. \Ycsti -rmami : Clinton.
fcc.
'I'l.MAl-'.I s i,, a Greek Sophist, who. according to
the supposition of Kulinkcn. lived in the third century uf
the Clnistian MT:I. ( 'oneerning his life nothing is known :
me has onh come d. i.m with a
little vocabulary containing the explanation of words and
phrases which occur in the writings of Plato. 11 heals the
title it TUIV TOV nXoVuvoc XJJ/i.u. and is iledieaied to one
Gentianus, of who ". \Vhether
9eH I he gemo :|ry pf Ti-
miiens is doubtful ; a i »< from
[n it which ha\e no leference to Plato,
and in . one
might feel iMaMI WbflHer the \vork as it now stands
T I M
455
T I M
as an abridgment of the Glossary of Timaeus, if Photius,
who must huvi' had the genuine work before him, did not
describe it as a very little work ((Spax* irovi)fidrcov iv ivi
\vfif). But notwithstanding its brevity, the work is very
valuable; and Ruhnken owns that he has not discovered
in it a single instance of a word or a phrase being ex-
plained incorrectly. There is only one MS. of this Glos-
sary, which appears to have been made in the tenth cen-
tury of our aera, and which was unknown until Montfaucon
drew attention to it. It'was first edited, with an excellent
commentary, by Ruhnken, at Leyden, 1754, 8vo. ; a second
and much 'improved edition appeared in the same place,
1783, 8vo. Two other editions have since been published
in Germany, with additional notes by G. A. Koch (Leip-
zig, 182H and 1833, 8vo.).
Suidas (s. v. Ti/imos) ascribes to Timaeus, the Sicilian
historian, a rhetorical work, called 2t/XXoy»} pi/ropuwv a<fa>(j-
ftwi; in sixty-eight books, which Ruhnken, with great
probability, attributes to Timaeus the Sophist, who wrote
the Glossary to Plato.
Uuhnken, Praefatio ad Timaei Glossarium Platoni-
rnni.
TIMAEUS (Ti'paiof ";, of Locri, a Pythagorean philosopher.
He was a contemporary of Plato, who is mentioned among
hi pupils, and is said to have been connected with him by
friendship. (Cicero, De Finibus, v. 29 ; DC Re Publ.,
i. 10. j There exists a work, Fltpi rijc roO c6<r/jou ^"Xijc
•l)e Anima Mundi ;' or, on the Soul of the Universe ;,
written in the Doric dialect, which is usually ascribed to
Tiinaous the Locrian. It contains a brief exposition of the
Kiine ideas which are developed in the Dialogue of Plato,
which is called after him Timaeus. (Tenneraann, Si/*t<-ni
i/i'i- 1'lntoiiiM-lii'n P/>i/r,s<iphie,i., p. 93, &C.1 Sepaiate
editions of it have been published by D'Argens, at Berlin,
1702, Hvo., with a French translation ; and by J. J. de
(icMcr. at Leyden, 1830, 8vo.
This Timaeus of Locri is said by Suidas to have also
wrilteu the Life of Pythagoras : but the usual carelessness
of Suidas renders this a doubtful point, as be may possibly
have confciundL'd the Locrian with the Sicilian Timaeus,
who in his great historical work must have treated of the
History uf Pythagoras at considerable length.
(Fabricius, Itililinth.Uruir.. iii.. p. !»4, &;<•.; Goller, De
nrisinf Si/r/ii-iitiii-iim, p. 200, &c.)
TIMA'LIA, a" genus of birds characterized by Dr.
..•Id.
fj'rnri ir f'/mracter. — Bill strong compressed, deep
altuml. Nnxtrilx subrounded. Wings short, rounded.
Tail elongated and graduated. Feet strong : hind-claw
twice as large as the middle anterior claw.
Dr. Horsfield states that a peculiar character is ex-
hibited in bothjhe species of Tininlin recorded by him, in
the structure of the plumes, which cover the back and the
upper parts of the neck, as well as the breast, belly, vent,
ami thighs. He remarks that the separate filaments
' of Illiger), which constitute the vanes or webs of
those plumes, are not in close contact, as is generally the
case, but, being inserted into the shaft at a small distance
from each other, they diverge with perfect, regularity.
' The parts which they cover,' says Dr. Horsfield in con-
tinuation, ' are accordingly marked with delicate parallel
lines, and wherever several plumes lie over each other,
they form a beautiful reticulation. On the posterior part
of the abdomen, the vent, and the thighs, the plumes
have a similar structure ; but. the filaments are greatly
rated and pendulous, so as to envelop those parts
with a lax plumose covering, which on near inspection
appears covered with delicate hairs. This appearance is
•u-rd by a series of very minute parallel villi, on each
of the separate filaments, arranged with great regularity
and beauty. Plume* in which this structure can be
i tied with the naked eye are named decompound by
id described as those whose radii are pinnated
ei lateral radii ; and the effect which the
arrangement of these decompound plumes has in the
nrance of the bird is exhibited with accuracy both in
the figure of Tii,/">m pilrata and Timalia guluri*:
nil', Tiil"ili" / if'-nf".
/i -Body ovate, rather stout. General colour
above, brown with an olivaceous tint ; underneath, testa-
::rey. Head capped with saturated
•mt and "cheeks white. Breast white in-
clining to grey, marked with intensely black stripes by the
shafts of the plumes. A narrow white band commences
at the forehead, near the base of the bill, passes back-
ward, encircles the eye, and unites with the white plumes
of the cheeks. Axillae white ; which colour al.-o shows
itself in a narrow border of the wing. Quills and tail-
feathers of a more pure brown colour than the other parts ;
very narrow transverse undulations, of a darker colour, ob-
servable on the tail-feathers by close examination. Plumes
of the hypochondriac, thighs, and vent, long, pendulous,
decompound, and villose. Lesser wing-coverts, as well as
the plumes which cover the nape and back, greyish-blue at
the base ; which colour shows itself on the separate fila-
ments or radii, if the plumes are accidentally deranged.
Tail underneath brown, with a hoary tint. Bill black and
shining. Feet brown. (Horsf.)
Locality, Habits, $c. — Dr. Horsfield observes that the
species is not unfrequent in the groves and small woods
which abound throughout Java. It often, he says, ap-
proaches villages and plantations, constructing its nest in
the hedges ; and he speaks of it as one of the social birds
that delight to dwell in the vicinity of cultivation. In
large forests he did not notice it. . He describes its flight
as low and interrupted, and adds that wherever it resides
it is a welcome neighbour, in consequence of the peculi-
arity and pleasantness of its note, which consists of a slow
repetition of the five tones of the diatonic scale (c, n, E,
F, G), which it chants with perfect regularity, several
times in succession, and at small intervals of time. Dr.
Horsfield further remarked that the sixth tone was some-
times added ; but as this required apparently an extraor-
dinary effort, it was by no means so agreeable to a musical
car as the simple repetition of the five notes, which
appeared to be the natural compass of the bird's organs.
(Zooiogvtfi Researches in Java.}
Timalia pileata. (Horef.)
TIMALI'N^E, Mr. G. R. Gray's name for his third sub-
family of Tiii-didee. [THRUSHES ; TIMALIA.]
TIMANBE8. [SIERRA LEONE.]
TIMANTHES, a native of Sicyon or of Cytlmos, was
one of the most celebrated painters of Greece ; he was
contemporary with Zeuxis and Pan-basins, and lived about
400 B.C. The works of Timanthes were distinguished par-
ticularly for their invention and expression, and one of the
chief merits of his invention was, that he left much to be
supplied by the imagination of the spectator. There is a
remark in Pliny (Hint. Nat., xxxv. 30), probably a quota-
tion, which bestows the highest praise upon Timanthes : it
says, though in execution always excellent, the execution
is invariably surpassed by the conception. As an instance
of the ingenuity of Timanthes' invention, the same writer
tells us of a picture of a sleeping Cyclops, painted upon a
small panel, but in which the painter had conveyed a per-
fect idea of the giant's huge size, by adding a few satyrs
measuring his thumb with a thyrsus.
Though Timanthes was evidently one of th™ greatest
painters of antiquity, antient authors have mentioned only
••I' his works: Pausanias makes no mention of him at
all, and Cicero classes him among the painters who used
only four colours.* He painted a celebrated picture of the
• See ' Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities,' art. ' Colores.'
T I M
45C
r i M
stoning to death of the unfortunate Palamed**, the victim
of thr ignoble revenge of Ulysses for having proclaimed
Im apparent insanity to be feigned = » subject worthy of
tin- pencil of a great master. This picture is said to have
made Alexander shudder when he saw it at V.\-'
•cs, C/iil.. \iii. !!>«: Junius, Cat. Arti/., v. •Tinmn-
Tinmnthcs entered into competition with Parrha-
snis at -S«m<*, and gained the vntorv . the sub-.
the paintings was the contest of Ajax and I'lysses for the
arms of Achilles. [PARRHASH-V! Hi* most eel.
work however was that with which he bore away the
palm from Colotes of Teos; the subject was tin- c
tire of Iphigenia ; and perhaps no other work of antient
art has been tlie object of so much criticism, for and
against, as this painting, on account of the concealment ol
the face of Agamemnon in his mantle. Theantients have
all given the incident their unqualified approbation, but
its propriety has been questioned by several modem critics.
especially by Falconet and Sir Joshua Reynolds : Fuseli
however, in an elaborate and excellent criticism in In
lecture, has probably finally settled the matter in favour of
the painter. The Sacrifice of Iphigcnia was given as the
subject of a prize-picture to the students of the Royal
Academy in 177H, and ail the candidates imitated the
• trick ' o'f Timanthes, as Sir Joshua Reynolds terms it,
which was the origin of his criticism upon the subject in
his eisrhth lecture: he says, 'Supposing this method of
leaving the expression of grief to the imagination to he, its
it was thought to be, the invention of the painter, and
that it deserves all the praise that has been given it, still it
is a trick that will serve but once : whoever does it a
second time will not only want novelty, but be justly sus-
pected of using artifice to evade difficulties.'
The shallow remark of Falconet about Timanthcs' ex-
posing his own ignorance by concealing Agamemnon's lace,
is scarcely worthy of an allusion. It may be questioned
whether Agamemnon, under such circumstances as he was
placed, could have been well or even naturally repre-
sented in any other way : although many things might
combine to render his presence at the sacrifice absolutely
necessary, still it is not to be supposed that he could
calmly stand by and be un eye-witness of his own daugh-
ter's immolation ; notwithstanding his firm conviction that
his attendance was m-ces-ary to sanction the deed, he
could not look upon it ; it would be unnatural. The cri-
ticism of Quintihan, Cicero, and others, that the painter,
having represented Calchas sorrowful, Ulysses much more
so, and having expressed extreme sorrow in the coun-
tenance of Menelaus, was in consequence compelled to
conceal the face of the father, is not more pertinent than
that of the modem critics. 'They were not aware,' says
.i, 'that by making Timanthes waste expression on
inferior actors at the expense of a principal one, they rail
him an improvident spendthrift, and not a wise econo-
mist.'
Falconet observes that Timanthes had not even the
merit of inventing the incident, but that he copied it from
Euripides: upon this point Fuseli remarks — 'It is oh-.
by an ingenious critic that in the tragedy of Euripides the
C cession is described; and upon Iphigenia's looking
k on her father, he groans and hides his lace to conceal
his tears: whilst the picture gives the moment .that pre-
cede* the sacrifice, and the hiding has a different object,
and arises from another impression ' v. 1550).
' I am not prepared with chronologic proofs to deride
whether Kuripides or Timanthrs. who were contemporaries
nbout the period of the Peloponncsiaii war. fell li
tins expedient ; though the silence of Pliny and Quintilian
on that head seems to be in favour of the painter, neither
of whom could be ignorant of the celebrated drama of
Kuripides, and would not willingly have suite red the ho-
nour of this master-stroke of an art they were so much
better acquainted with than painting, to be transferred
to another from its real author, had the poet's claim been
prior.' As far as regards priority, the 'expedient' was
made use of by Polycnotus long before either Timanthes
or Kuripides; in the Destruction of Troy, in the I.esche at
Delphi, an infant is holding his hands over his eyes, to
avoid the horrors of the scene. (Pausanias, 1'hnr., x. 13!.
The fifth work ol'Timanthcs mentioned by the aiitienN
was the picture of a hero, preserved in the time of Pliny
in the Temple of Peace at Rome, an admirable per-
form ance.
There was another antient painter of the name of Ti-
manthes : he was contemporary with Aiatiis, and distin-
guished himself for a painting of the battle ul lY!lcnc. in
Arcadia, in which Aratus .
Hans. ( (lun. l:i.1.l -'-Jll M.c. . Plutarch 'praise, tin' pic-
ture ; he terms it an exact and animate representation
(Aral nt. :t'J .
TIMBER-TRADE. Several centuries ago the woods
and forests of Kngland were sufficient to supply all the
timber required for the building of ships and hou->
well as for fuel. In the sixteenth century we begin to
hear complaints ot their exhaustion. An act having been
passed in ITi.'tl requiring coopers to sell their
fixed prices it 11. n. \ 111., c. -I . they were allowed by
another act :t."> Hen. VI 1: piuofd twelve
afterwards, to increase their prices. Various circumstances
rendered this change necessary ; but at the time, t In-
great er scarcity of timber, though only n:: :' the
rise of the material, was regarded as the sole i
evident from an act passed during the ».u . • lor
the preservation of woods' uC> Hen. VIII.. <•. 17 . in the
preamble of which ' the decay of timber and woods uni-
versally within this realm of Kngland 'is said to ;
great, • that unless speedy remedy in that behalf be pro-
vided, there is great and manifest likelihood of scarcity
and lack as well of timber for building, making, repairing
of houses and ships, as also for fuel and tire-wood.' The
act relating to the price of barrels required, amongst other
things, that the exporters of beer should import •
sufficient to replace the barrels sent out of the country ;
and the other act was designed to entorre certain iv
tions respecting the felling of trees, and to prevent the
conversion of woodlands into pasture or tillage. The
wealds of Kent, Sussex, and Surrey, where iron-works had
been carried on from very antient times, were excluded
from the provisions of this act. In 15.~>rt however an act
was passed (1 Eliz., c. 15 , entitled 'An Act that timber
shall not he felled to make coles for the making of iron,'
which prohibited the use of timber one foot square in
iron-works within fourteen miles of the sea, or within the
same distance of eight of the principal rivers of Kngland,
or any navigable stream having an cutlet on the coast :
but the three .southern counties previous! v mentioned
exempt from the operations of the act. The design seems
to have been to encourage the trade in timber fit for
building, and to benefit those parts of the country which
did not possess a sufficient supply. Iron-works having
been subsequently erected not far from London, and
within the prescribed distance of the Thames.
within other limits, and which required so much fuel that,
the woods 'daily decav and become scant,' an act was
1 in l.'isil ii Kli/... <•. "> to prevent, the erection of
new iron-works within the limits mentioned by the act of
I.ViH, and tile restrictions respecting felling trees vvcio
renewed. In 151)2 the subject again attracted notice, and
an act was passed :r> Khz., c. II , which, amongst other
things, prohibited aliens exporting fish, unless they im-
ported clapboards : and altogether prohibited the exporta-
tion of wine-casks. In the following century the scale of
prices turned in favour of pit-coal. Defore the discovery
of the process of smelting iron with pit-coal, the transfer
of tins branch of industry to the colonies in North Ame-
rica was seriously entertained, and Wits carried into effect
to some slight extent. It was also suggested that the
waste lands of Kngland should be planted : and the v
of Ireland being less exhausted than those of Kngland, a
considerable quantity of iron was for some time smelted
there.
During the decline in the internal supply of timber, it
gradually became an article of extensive demand from
oilier countries. In 1K«), according to a statement of .Mr.
Huskisson, the fir timber used in Kngland for building
purposes was nearly all brought from abroad. The
portion of timber of native production used for similar
objects is not known or even guessr(l at. > th of
Kurope, especially the countries on the Haltic. and our
colonies in Uritish North America, are the great source.- of
supply. Teak is brought from the v. :rica,
maboganv from theHa\ of Honduras and other places, and
fane\ and dye woods from a number of other quail
but none of these come into competition with the building
timber of the Haltic or of our North American possessions.
The timber of the north of Europe is generally of excellent
T I M
457
T I M
quality, and much superior to the colonial timber. Sir
Robert Seppings, formerly surveyor of the navy, stated
before a parliamentary committee, ' that Canada timber is
peculiarly subject to "dry-rot; that frigates built of fir,
the growth of North America, did not average half the
durability of other timber ; and that the Royal Navy had
suffered so much from the use of Canada or North Ameri-
can timber, that its use was now altogether discontinued,
except for deals and masts.' A number of timber-mer-
chants, builders, and carpenters gave evidence before the
-same committee as to the inferior quality of the colonial
timber. One of the witnesses said : — ' It is not allowed to
be used in government buildings, nor is it ever used in the
best buildings in London. It is only speculators who use
it, from the price of it being much lower than the Baltic
*iruber.' The inferior colonial timber is forced into use
by enormous differential duties, which, before the recent
alteration of the tariff, amounted to a bonus of 1000 per
cent, in some cases, as the following table shows : —
Duty on Ditto from Differential
Foreign
Timber.
£. s. d.
Battens, per 120 . . . . 10 0 0
UritUh
possessions.
£. s. d.
1 0 0
200
0 15 0
0 10 0
060
0 15 0
0 10 0
0 10 0
0 12 0
050
duty
per cent.
1000
1000
566 J.
550
1000
533t
550
550
625
560
Lath-wood, por fathom
M i ts, 12 incite* and upwards
, average duty per 12U
inks. JMT load .
, eac
450
i 2 15 0
300
400
2 15 0
< t.ik ditto, ditto .
- . •
l'u enumerated timber .
2 15 0
3 15 0
1 8 0
In 1787 the duty on foreign timber was only 6*. 8rf. the
load of fifty cubic feet, but it was raised at different times,
until, in 1804, it amounted to 25*. In 1810 the duty was
raised to 54s. 8</. ; and from 1814 to 1820 it was 64*. llrf.
and 65*. the load. The trade in colonial timber had
:'ly any existence before 1803, although until 1798
it had been admitted free of duty ; and the duty imposed
in that year was only 3 per cent, ad valorem, which was
changed in 1803 to a specific duty of 2s. the load. In
consequence of the war there was a great rise in the price
of European timber, and Memel fir advanced from 78*. to
320*. the load. In order therefore further to encourage
the supply from our own colonies, North American timber
was asrain", in 1806, admitted duty free. The stimulus was
no doubt justifiable, but it was continued after the tempo-
rary causes in which it originated had passed away. The
following table shows the effect of the differential duties
in substituting colonial timber for that of the north of
Europe : —
'juantitieg
•iU of
I iv Year..
l!,iltic. N. A. Colonies. Total.
Ld>. Lds. I/1-.
Per Centa^o
proportion.
Baltic. Colonial.
> 1793
219,396
9.660
22_',i»5r
y.i
1
I'O.'i
1797
164,000
1 ^2.»
165,825
99
1
2,916
180,935
99
1
1803
1D07
1C.533
W9.070
94
1
1SI2
73.718
IZO.S37
191,^55
38
62
1814
1H1S
IL'S.MS
147,597
273,453
46
M
ISl'J
1823
H«,6XM
335,556
452,158
X
74
If 24
1KJM
I'.M.H'.H.
410903
602,"»93
3-2
64
1W.7S3
411,682
5:::.,4iV,
24
76
The return to a sounder principle of taxation has been
very slow. In 1821, in consequence of recommendations
from both Houses of Parliament, the duty on European
timber was reduced from G5v. to 55*. the load, and a duty
ol UK. was imposed on colonial timber, leaving a prefe-
rence duty of 45*. still in operation. In 1831, the govern-
ment of Karl Grey proposed, by gradual reductions, spread
over three years, to lower the duty on European timber
15*., which would still have left it at 40*.,' or 30*. higher
than colonial ; but the measure was defeated in the House
of Commons by a majority of 236 to 1!K). A committee
of the House of Commons which inquired into the timber
duties in 1835, recommended a very inadequate reduction
;u- to that proposed by Earl Grey's government), but
it was not followed by any result ; and in 1841 the govern-
ment of Lord Melbourne proposed a reduction from 5.~>v.
on foreign timber, and an increase from
Id . the load to 15*. on colonial; but subsequent party
changes prevented this alteration being effected. In the
tariff of in 12 5 & 6 Viet., c. 47), the duty on colonial
timber has been reduced to a merely nominal sum,
namely, 1*. the load, and to 2v. on deals, and tid. on lath-
wood. The reduction on foreign timber is partly prospec-
tive. Until the loth . 1843, the duty will be 3().v.
*,he load on timber, and after this date 25*. ; on foreign
P. C., Is
deals the reduction in the first instance is to 35*., and after
October, 1843, it will be 30*., and the duty on lath-wood is
at once reduced to 10*. the load. In 1841 the duty bn
timber produced 1,566,291/., and, without allowing for an
increase of consumption in the first year, the loss of reve-
nue is estimated at 601,4911. ; and for the year ending
October, 1844, when the reduced duties will be fully in ope-
ration, the loss to the revenue will be 589,99H. according
to the estimate of the minister, who allows for an increase
of 12 per cent, on foreign and 20 per cent, on colonial tim-
ber, and 20 per cent, on foreign and 24 per cent, on colonial
deals. (Speech of Sir R. Peel, llth March, 1842.) The
mode of charging the duty has been improved and rendered
less complex under the present arrangement. Plankst
deals, and battens were formerly charged by the great hun-
dred (120) in classes, and the duty was disproportionably
heavy on the smallest and least valuable kinds. In mea-
suring timber in logs, or unsawn, the cubic contents were*
it is alleged, not fairly calculated, but were over-estimated
to the extent of from 10 to 20 per cent. ; and the sawyers
complained that timber partly cut up was charged with a
lower proportional duty than in the log, by which their
interests were needlessly injured. The public however
have still reason to complain that the duties are calculated,
as before, to interpose restrictions on the use of superior
timber, in order to benefit those who are engaged in sup-
plying the inferior article. The direct loss sustained pre-
vious to the recent alteration of duty was estimated at
1,500,000^. annually ; and a great sacrifice of revenue has
now been made without attaining the benefits which
might have attended a return to a better policy, though
the disproportion will be only 24*. instead of 45*. the load.
Prussia, Norway, Sweden, and other countries are still
restricted in the means of exchanging their products for
British manufactures ; the preference duty on Canadian
timber prevents a supply of timber being derived from
the forests on the banks of the Danube and on the coun-
tries bordering the Bk,ck Sea ; and the general shipping
interests have been sacrificed to the owners of six or
seven hundred half worn-out ships. In the colonies
the monopoly duty has diverted industry from agriculture.
It has been repeatedly shown that neither to any portion
of the shipping interest here nor the timber interest of the
colonies would a complete equalization of the timber
duties be more than temporarily injurious. 'The fixed
capital embarked in saw-mills does not, it is believed,
exceed 200,000/., and some descriptions of Canadian timber
would command the English market under any circum-
stances, while there is a growing demand for all kinds in
the Northern states of the American union. The floating
capital now engaged in the trade of ' lumbering ' could of
course be transferred with little difficulty to the cultiva-
tion of the soil, and the export of flour, tobacco, hemp,
flax, and ashes, would fill up the vacuum occasioned by
the diminished export of timber, and would require the
shipping which had not found full employment in the
new channels to which the timber-trade would be directed.
The consumption of timber in the United Kingdom in
1841 was as follows : —
Battens and Batten Ends
Deals and Deal Ends from
British America
Deals and Deal Ends from
other parts
Staves
Timber 8 in. sq. and upwards
from British America .
from other parts.
Great Hunda. Gross Herenne.
18,969 £156,120
44,148 90,113
24,242
89,699
l/i, ills.
613,079
131,479
491,980
40,777
337,795
370,302
Other sorts are technically called ' woods,' meaning fancy
woods for furniture, &c., and dye-woods. Of mahogany
the consumption was 18,170 tons in 1841, having been
20,451 tons in 1840. (Report of Committee on Timber
Duties, 1835 ; British and Foreign Reciew, No. 4 ; Por-
ter's Progress of the Nation, vol. ii.)
TIMBER AND TIMBER-TREES.— Timber-trees are
those the wood of which is used for building or repairing
houses. Oak, ash, and elm, of the age of twenty years
and upwards, are the trees most generally included undev
that, denomination ; but there are many other kinds of
trees, such as beech, cherry, aspen, willow, thorn, holly,
horsechesnut, lime, yew, walnut, &c., which are, by the
VOL. XXIV.— 3 N
T I M
TI M
i of certain parts of Knglaud. • i as timber-
trc«*,ai betoff those used ir
Most of the c«- ' as to
what trees are to be i
fcrcnce to UM- stat. 46 Edw. 111..
enacted tint great jr groftx; wood of th.
ihirU or upwards, should
ipduti, or underwood, should 1>
Miy« that •
first, what should In- considered as h:
1 age thoM gion« or
rst, the answer was,
that in this art the word frot «d as
luul been or was custom of
lor the act di>. ".d to other
• •r would nut serve for li
Ihou. • >s or greatness of timber.
i hose gro-
ild lu'. the statute resolved tin
theae words: -Great wood of the a ire of ;
,ls:' which words w. cd a-s dc
the common law on the subjcit. - I/a.:.. u-TJ.
li appears now to be settled, though there
'.-ontiadictory decisions on the point, that ti
- and upwards, spume from old
•ithin the exemption of i
in consequently to be considered as timber. (4 M. &
The timber-trees growing upon land belong to tin-
owner of the inheritance. A tenant tor life
qualified i llu-m. ill so far as they afford him
and shelter, and a right to take the mast mid fruit. If
unit lor life fells timber-trees on the land to any amount
cr than he is entitled ' hat is to say, the
•ud necessary for the reparation of !
us, he becomes liable to an action of watte
-IK]; and the trees, which by these or any
means, accidental or otherwise, have become severed trom
•cd by the owner of the inheritance,
iin'may be brought by him for them. <;t P. \\ .
•. er. the estate' of the tenant for life be
\\iihout impeachment of waste, he ha.s the full right to
fell timber, and also the property in all timber-trees felled
and blown down during hi-
The Court of Chancery has sometimes directed the
timber growing on an esta'te. whereof a person was tenant
for life, to be cut down, for tli debts
•rtred upon the inheritance. 2 Vcrn., I.Vj.
••cry has also directed timber in a slate
of decay to be cut down for the benefit of the person en-
titled to the ini provided no damage were done
to the tenant i. 2 Ycrn., Jls. . The prac>
these cases is to order the mom from the sale of
the timber to be invested, and'the interest of it paid to
the tenant for 1:
In leases for lives, when timber is included, if the li
tells the trees, the lessee may maintain an action oi
pass against him, because the lessee, though he may not
cvit down the trees without being subject to an action of
waste, has an interest iu them for shade and shelter, and a
to take the mast and fruit, and may also lop them if
be not thereby injured. Hut v.
d in a lease, which is usually done, the lessee has no
hatevcr in them, and the lessor may bring an
action of trespass against bun if he tells or damage.- them.
The lessor has also a power, incident to the except
me on the land in order to fell a,nd take away the
trees; though tint power, for the sake uf molding ques-
tions, is olti-n c\pi.
The timber growing on copyhold estates is, by the
neral custom ot most manors, the property ot the lord, win.
i. provided he leaves a sufficient quantity
,urs of the copyhold, which the copyholder is
entitled to of - lini the
the copyholder to ha
and for ploughbote nnd lu-dgcbntc. maybe i.
custom, namely, that he shnll not take it wit
ment from the lord or his bailiff, ( l:( /.' *
the custom of the manor is th;. li em-
ploy the timber cut down in the r< : bis tene-
••>, he may sell the tops and bark toward
the expenses ol the repairs. U» Hulx.. 282.) A cop) !
in fee may, by the particular custom of the manor, have a
right to but
.-ell th
his M
but a
limb
hold, nnd
long
no-
r in
lion
•!•, and contrary to the nalmc ol a life
•ng consid.
of the lancU held In
•ii (ieo. MI.. 0. "i'J. the incumbent of am
cut from the i
equality of exchange, or for tin - or lands
purchased by him under the statutory powers vested in
him for Mich" pur]
Trustees to preserve contingent remainders are bound to
preserve not only the limitations of the settlement under
which they are trust'.-. the inheritance of which
the timber is part ; and the Court of ' will inter-
fere at their suit to prevent the owner of the particular
estate joining with the person entitled to the inheritance
for the time being to cut down the timber on the i
(2Swan-t..
T1MHKK1,. a musical instrument of the highest anti-
quity; the (yinjiiii/iiw Icre of the Roman poets, ai'd, in the
opinion of all writers of any authority, ' in an
almost unaltered state, as that now known in every part of
e under the names of tabor, tambourine, ttn/iltuitr dc
VV~' TKMBOCTU, TOMBOOKTOO, ^
placed by Mr. Arrowsnuth.
of" a number of routes, in 17" 8' X. lat.
Air. M'Qui'en, to whom we arc s>o much in-
debted for the extension a
i'rica. had placed it in 17
2" 30' "\V. long. ; but • readily yields tl
The)- . j;ncd by ,M. .nith may be assumed
id until tl:
by astioiHiinic.il ubscrwitions on the sp(.' ihca,
thanti .Micics among the statements of tliose who
•ertain the positions . on the
. .Niger show some or all of these ijcntlciucu to ha\ c
been.
The position of Timbuctii is one which is most impor-
tant to nave ascertained, not merely on aco
the ccnlrc of sn mar.1.
e to calculate the hori/oii> - and
distances ol" many places: but also as being, what the cir-
cumstance of so many routes meeting there might ol'
ha\e shown, the index of tin
. and dcpi the interior of Western A.
It is for tie in important position relati
to the history of the >
OBtnentof the trade of Africa, and of its progn
ral <-i\ili7ation.
The rude map of the northeni curve of the Kowara by
the seh.Mihuaster ot Sultan Hello, the sketch of the po-
of Timbnctii given to Mr. Park by an old Somonil Moor,
and th inn of central 1. 1 •- :.> Ptolemy,
all concur i 'ing the Niger at the most northern
point ol il- : .wing fn>,t
to the north, then to the cast, and ultimately to the south.
The d: .•!' modern English tiavellers on the Upper
nnd I. r place it beyond a doubt that tin
iiatioiH must be in the main and tJic
.it number of different • lined
from Arab travellers from the c: o, Al-
giers. Tunis, and Tripoli, to the interior, as well as from the
the interior themselves, all harmonize with and
UN. It is h. HMlts
cp with this \ lew that -• ;rcd he has
not intentional!) deviated from \ciacih. atnl ;
a int of the • and con-
dition ol irdividnal places. hwc can by no
to stand on the declivity of an incon
miles north of the N
• Not! he, ' is to be seen iu all
T I M
459
T 1 M
but immense plains of loose shifting sands of a yel-
lowish-white colour.' From the point where Caillig
quitted the Niger, to Cabra, the port of Timbuctu, a dis-
tance of three miles, he passed along a narrow canal, and
as he remarks that ' the negro slaves hauled the canoe
along by a rope, as the pole would not have been suffi-
cient to move it,' the natural inference is that he was pro-
ceeding up the stream. Between Cabra and Timbuctu he
passed two lakes. These appearances coincide with the
statements of Arabian geographers that a wady, filled
during the rainy season with a stream of water, extends
from north-east of Timbuctii, and, passing to the south of
that town, disembogues into the Niger to the south-west
of it. The same authorities mention a number of similar
wadys at a distance of eight or ten days' journey to the
north-east of Timbuctu, extending over a tract of country
nearly 60 miles iu breadth, and all apparently converging
as they descend towards it as to a central point. TheGozen
Zair, which falls into the Niger a short way to the south-
east of Kabra, flows from the west. All these circum-
stances concur to indicate a strong analogy between the
great northern curve of the Niger south of Timbuctu and
the great northern bend of the Hoanghu. Both rivers,
descending from elevated mountain ridges in a general
northerly direction, are encountered by the slope of an ex-
tensive elevated plain, run some time in a direction from
west to east at its side, and then turning to the south flow
off through mountain defiles. It is this peculiarity in the
structure of the plain on which Timbuctu is situated that
has rendered that site from a remote antiquity the meeting-
place of so many converging lines of traffic. It is the
nearest point at which the traders from the commercial
di.-tricts that skirt the coasts of the Mcditenanean west of
Barca, and of the Atlantic north of Cape Nun, can strike,
after crossing the great desert, the fertile lands extending
to the south-east and south-west along the Upper and
Lower Niger.
Leo Africanus states that Timbuctu was built by Mansa
Suleiman, about the year 610 of the Hejira (A.D. 1214), and
that it soon became the capital of a powerful state. See-
ing however that Ptolemy places towns of the name of
Kiipha K<«p(() and Nigeira Metropolis (Niysipa MqrpoiroXif ),
tlu' former nearly in Hie probable meridian ol Timbuctu, and
the latter somewhat to the east, at the confluence' oi a tri-
butary with the Niger, there can be little doubt that the
town built by Mimsa Suleiman was not the first, important
commercial station iu those regions. Indeed an author
quoted by Cooley (Negroland <>j the Arabs, p. 68) would
load us to believe that a town bearing the name Tombuti
' (1 in those regions as early as the year 297 of the
Hejira. Rulers with the title Mansa continued to govern
Timbuctu from 610 to 792 of the Hejira.
The chiefs of Marocco and Fez rendered Timbuctii tri-
butary, and from that time the communications of the
Arabs with that country became more frequent and re-
gular. Leo Africanus mentions that the grand mosque of
tin- town and the palace of the king were built by an ar-
chitect from Granada. The Arab conquerors allowed how-
ever the native dynasty to remain on the throne. The ex-
jiulsion of the Arabs from Spain, and the weakening of the
Arab power in North Africa by the Turkish conquests in
Tunis, Tripoli, and Algiers, in the course of the fifteenth
iry, increased the impunity of the predatory nomade
hordes; and about the same time, or a little later, the for-
mation of settlements on the west coast of Africa, first by
the Portuguese and afterwards by the English and French,
by creating a new line of traffic with the interior, diminished
the importance of Timbuctu as a commercial entrepot.
About the year 1500 a negro general of Soniheli, king of
Timbuctii, raised the standard of revolt on the death of his
master, overturned the Moorish supremacy, conquered a
number of the neighbouring provinces, and recalled to Tim-
buctii a part of the trade which had left it for Jenne. on the
r. When Leo Africanus visited this part of Africa, the
•ones of Abu-Bekr-Ishieh, the negro conqueror, ex-
tended nom Agadez on the north to Kashnah on the south.
^Etnol ', 1">73; describes the commerce of Timbuctu as in
a flourishing coiniilion in his day. According to the infor-
mation collected by Mr. Jackson, Timbuctii would appear,
about Hi(jH or I07U. to have fallen under the dominion ot
the king of Bambana: for Mullah Arshid, of Talilet.
having driven Sidi Ah of Suz from his territories, the
live was protected by the king of Bambarra, and created
by him commandant of Timbuctu. Sidi AH made his
peace with Mullah Ismael, successor of Mullah Arshid,
and the consequence was that Timbuctii became tributary
to the prince of Tafilet. This connection terminated with
the death of Mullah Ismael (1727), and since that time
Timbuctu appears to have been governed by a negro ruler,
that is, by one who is neither an Arab, nor a Tuarik, nor a
Fellatah. The security of person and property, and the
commerce of Timbuctii, appear to have fallen off since
the accession of the negro dynasty.
Caillie estimates the permanent inhabitants of Timbuctu
at from 10.000 to 12,000. After the arrival of the caravans
the town assumes for a portion of the year a much more
populous and probably a much more bustling appearance.
During his stay it was dull and listless. The streets are
clean, and wide enough to allow three horsemen to pass
abreast. The houses are of sun-dried bricks, and consist
entirely of a ground-floor ; in some a sort of closet is con-
structed over the entrance ; the apartments are built on
the four sides of an open court in the centre. Both within
the town and round about it there are numerous straw huts
of a conical form. The town is not walled. In the centre
of the town is a square surrounded by circular huts, and
planted with a few trees: in the middle of it a large hole
is dug as a receptacle for filth. Two enormous heaps out-
side of the town appeared to be accumulations of rubbish.
Some buildings on the east side of the town are over-
whelmed with sand. There are seven mosques ; two of
them large, and part of the largest apparently of consider-
able antiquity ; each is surmounted by a brick tower. To
the west-south-west of the town are large excavations from
35 to 40 feet deep, which collect in the rainy season the
supplies of water which serve the inhabitants for drinking
and culinary purposes throughout the year. There is no
spontaneous vegetation near the town except some stunted
mimosa-trees. Near the reservoirs are some small planta-
tions of bad tobacco. The inhabitants of Timbuftn draw
from Jenne their supplies of millet, rice, vegetable butter,
honey, cotton, Soudan cloth, pepper, onions, dried fish,
pistachias, &c. Fire-wood and timber for building, and
provender for cattle, are brought from Cabra. They pur-
chase cattle from the nomades of the tribe of Zawat, who
-s the country two days' journey distant from Tim-
buctu to the north-east ; from the people of'Sala, ten days
journey to the east; and from the Tuariks, who are thp
most powerful race, on all sides. They procure salt. I'oi
their own consumption and for the trade with Soudan from
Tadeini, which lies twenty days' journey north-west of the
town.
The negro and Arab inhabitants of Timbuctii are ex-
clusively engnared in trade. Great part of the MOP
from the sea-einist ; they start with an adventure to Tim-
buctu, reside for some years there, and when they have
acquired enough, return to their native country. The negro
inhabitants dress like the Moors, and are zealous Moham-
medans. They have several wives, whom, as well as their
slaves, they employ in menial affaire. The Moors, who are
only temporary residents, cohabit with their slaves. Caillie
represents all classes of the inhabitants as cleanly both in
their persons and houses. Several villages on the Niger
are subject to Timbuctu. Cabra, the port of Timbuctu, is.
secured against the inundations by being slightly elevated
above the marshes; the sandy desert commences imme-
diately to the north of it. This place appeared to Caillie
to contain about 1000 or 1200 inhabitants, all of the
poorer class, engaged in the service of the merchants of
Timbuclu. The dwellings are either mean houses or small
huts; the street is neat, but the landing-place is dirty.
The merchandize is conveyed between the port and Tim-
buctii on asses and camels : these belong in general to the
inhabitants of Cabra ; but sometimes the poorer Tuariks
hire their camels for the purpose. The Tuariks are the
terror of the surrounding country: they exact tribute from
the inhabitants of Timbuctii, and tolls from all merchant*;
who pass to the town overland or by the Niger. The
nomade Arab tribes appear to stand in awe of them : the
Fellatah to the south keep their ground against them ;
but as they surround Timbuctii for some distance on all
sides, they hold the entire trade of these regions at their
mercy.
(C. Ptolemaei Oeographia, lib. viii. ; James M'Queen,
A Geographical Surrey of Africa ; C. A. Walckenaer,
Recherches GSographiques sur I'Interieur de FAfrique ;
3N 2
T I M
460
TI M
kr Arab* ; Tratelt of Park, Lyon,
11 M K. Thu w oru may be considi
ence to our abstract idea of ilu- thnu hj it. or lo
the measures of it which have been contrived for use in the
buaine* of life. Something on the first point of \ icw will
be found in the article SHACK AND TIMK, to which the
following intiv be added.
When we think of time in the usual manner, it is of a
real thing external to ounelves, which we cannot help
imagining to have an existence and a measure, both of
which would iciniiin though tliosc who now speculate
upon the conception were annihilated. A little more
I hat we are indebted for the idea to
. nts. or at least for the power of
appi. ica to external objects. No description
.•i- adequate ; if we say thai fhaiige necessarily im-
plies tun:; aiul t!i:it the perception of that which /»• being
different Iroin that which trust, * ie notion of an in-
:it we have already i u 1 1 y assumed the idea of
time in the vuuds /»• and /r.iv. liut we may say that space
and the objects which lill it exist independently of our-
selves, and would undergo changes though we were not in
existence to perceive them, and that therefore the times
which those changes require would also exist : this in-
volves the whole of the most abstruse part of metaphysics,
and is much beyond the scope of our article. \\ e shall
• >iv turn to" the mode of moa-ming time : we have
a thorough comiction that time i» a magnitude, that
is, has its more and less. We must ask oun-clvcs in the
first instance what we mean by a greater or a smaller
time.
In the perception of time as a magnitude, that is, of in-
tervals of time as containing more or less of duration,
we lefer in the first in-tance to a habit derived from con-
tinual acquaintance with those great natural successions
on which the usual actions of our lives depend, with
which we can constantly, though unconsciously, compare
tlie duration of our thoughts and actions. There is no
more an absolutely long or short time than there is an
absolutely great or little space ; these words are only
comparative. If, for example, any one were to affirm
that the universe was continually grow HI i.l less,
a!l its pails altering in the same proportion, and the
dimensions of the human race with the rest, in such
manner that the whole solar system would now go into
a nut-shell, such as nut-shells were a thousand years ago,
it would be impossible cither for him to prove it, if true, or
for any one else to prove the contradiction, if false. In
like manner if any one were to say that the revolutions of
all the heavenly' bodies were continually accelerating, but
that the properties of matter were also continually altering,
and the speed with which ideas are formed and communi-
cated, and muscular efforts made, continually increasing:
it would be impossible to prove a contradiction. The
oriental story is tin beat illustration of this : — A prince was
ridiculing the legend of Mohammed being taken up by an
angel, and holding many long conferences with his
views of heaven and hell to the
• i short a time, speak inir with rei'
to thines upon earth, that on his being brought back, the
water had not (juite flowed out of a jug which lie had
dropped from his bund when the angel cauirht him. A
at the court of this pi'mr. liis laughtei
prove the possibility of the story, if his
-.mill only dip his head into a basin o'f water.
.'ed, and the instant his head was
1. found himself lying by the sea-shore in a st ran ire
r a reasonable quantity of malediction upon
..agician, he found himself obliged by hunter to iro
limning town, and seek the means of support.
In time h link-pendent, married, and brought up
a family, but was gradually stripped of all his substance
anil buried his wife and children. One day he
.isclf into the sea to bathe, and on hiti
head out of t. that he had only lifted i!
out .in and th .irtiers
On his bitterly reproaching I!
il him, and was confirmed by all tl:
•tenders that he had done nothing but just dip his
-,• the
Is about 11 •
i of the two tales
may think that neither t* true, a little reflection will show
lhat either iiiixht be so. Perhaps U ;y might
have been suggested by what is known to Ink
dreams ; there ?s e\ ulem-c enough that man .
of these illusions reully occupy r.. ,. if so much as,
a second or two by the pendulum. [l)ni:vxi, p. 143.]
In the laws of motion it sc-cms as if.
took cognizance of time: a particle of matter will con-
tinue to describe equal spaces in fqiial times, until I
on by force from without. Yet it would be possible t.i
state this law as follows, in such a manner as to avoid the
comparison of quantities of duration. If two paj'
acted on by no external forces, are at A and a at the
epoch of duration, and at B and b at the same -
epoch, then if A (,' be in times A B, and if a c be m i
a b, the law of motion is that (' and c will be i.
attained at the same instant. The mathematician wifl
readily see that the equations of motion do not depend
upon the absolute recognition of time as a mcasuiablc
quantity, but that any moving particle, as A. beiiur acted
on by no force, the distance A ( '. described in 1:
might be introduced into all formula' instead of the tune,
without any question as to whether, time being phys!
considered, the space AC varies as the time. It is ei
that the uninfluenced motion of any other particle should
be connected with that of the standard particle b\
law above described. But though we can thus avoid the
idea of measurement of time, we cannot get rid of its
existence or of the notion 0 !is ; grant,
that we can reduce dynamics to a ihi'iiry </ siiniiltui.
'ii,i of particles of matter, without reference- to the
absolute length of time employed in passing from
position to another, there is still the notion of time in tin-
notion of simultaneous. But, nevertheless, the idea of
succession thus introduced is hardly, if at all, more ph.
than that which comes into most of the branches of pure
mathematics, a point on which it will be worth while to
dwell for a moment.
When Newton, in his doctrine of fluxions, or flowing
quantities, imagined length, space, solidity, and oven num-
ber, to be generated by a continual and gradual
line by the motion of a point, a surface by that of a line,
and so on, it was objected that he introduced the ideas of
time and motion, both of which were foreign to pure ma-
thematics, and properly belonged to mechanics. T.
rid of these intruders, {he theory of limits, which th.
tion of fluxions immediately requires, was attached, not to
flowing quantities, but to variable quantities. Let .r be ft
variable quantity, is one of the most common phra.-
the systems which have supciseded that of Newton. Now
variation means change ; it is never pretended that a va-
riable has two values at once. All the difference is, that
by Newton the object of consideration is supposed to
larger or smaller, while the moderns pass in thought from
a larger quantity to a smaller, or ri<-/' «v/-.wi. taking one-
first and the other afterwards. If so slight a difl
this be worth a contest, the distinction of pure and mixed
science must be trivial enough: the fact is. that bot1
terns con>; -'.vc values, and xnrrfsnion is timr.
If two computers were to quarrel which was the purer
arithmetician, the one who stood still and counted the car-
- as they passed by him. or the other who walked from
one to another and counted them as they stood still, they
would, to us. much resemble some of the disputant
and against the piinciplc of flux:.
The actual measure of time depends upon our being abfu
TC successions of similar events which si :
epochs separated by equal intervals of time. We cannot
do this by our thoughts, except approximately, and for
short periods. The memory of a musician, aided 1
sentiment or feeling of tune which is part of a good tur
for music, will do remarkably well for a short period : a
pel-sou who could not well preserve the division of a second
into eight parts at least would make a ) in an
As to the judgment, of considerable
time, it is materially influenced by the manner in which it
has been spent : u time which .V/V/HA- to have
through weariness linx been long, and the contraiy. mi
ground* already alluded to. Tin of mature a
reallv, to the thoughts, of a different length from one of
childhood. Again, when we talk of a long period of time
having pa.-scd quickly or slowly, we speak not of the time,
but of our mode ot ''remembering it. A person of rapid
T I M
461
T I M
recapitulation always says that time has passed quickly,
another of a contrary habit the contrary ; and this whether
the rapidity is a consequence of quickness of ideas, or ol
having little to recall.
In all the more correct machines which have been in-
vented to measure time, there is but one principle : a vi-
bration is kept up by the constant application of forces
only just sufficient to counteract friction and other resist-
ances, and machinery is applied to register the number
of vibrations. The remarkable law noted under ISOCHRO-
NISM and VIBRATION makes it comparatively immaterial
whether the vibrations are of precisely the same extent.
But the imperfections of such instruments, or rather, our
ignorance of the precise action of disturbing causes, and
particularly of changes of temperature, renders them com-
paratively useless for measuring long periods, so that if we
could not have recourse to the motion of the heavenly
bodies, there would be no permanent measure of time.
And even in astronomical phenomena there is no absolute
recurrence at equal intervals, though nearly enough for
common purposes. The value of such phenomena for the
most accurate measures consists in most of their irregulari-
ties being truly distributed about a uniform mean, so that
the excesses of some periods are compensated by the de-
fects of others, giving, in the long run, power of determin-
ing that mean with as much accuracy as our modes of mea-
surement can appreciate. The determination of time for
civil reckoning may be divided into two parts : first, the
mode of making the different periods derived from the sun
and moon agree with each other so as to afford an easy
method of reckoning co-ordinately by both [PERIODS OF
REVOLUTION] : secondly, the mode of procuring true and
convenient subdivisions of the natural unit consisting of a
day and night. To the second of these we now turn our
attention.
The actual revolution of the earth, as measured by the
time elapsed between two transits of the same star over the
meridian, is called a sidereal day. It is divided, as are all
other days, into twenty-four hours of sixty minutes each,
&c. The time so given is called sidereal time. If the sun
were a fixed star, this sidereal time would be the common
mode of reckoning. But the sun having its own slow
motion in the ecliptic, in the same direction as the revolu-
tion of the earth, the interval between one meridian transit
of that body and the next is [SYNODIC] longer than the
simple revolution of the earth, for just, the same reason
that the time which the minute-hand of a watch moves
from coincidence with the hour-hand to coincidence again
is longer than the hour, or simple revolution of the minute-
hand. If the sun moved uniformly, and in the equator,
the real solar day, which means the interval between two
meridian transits of the sun, would always be of the same
length, and a little longer than the sidereal day. But the
gun neither does move uniformly, nor in the equator ; and
each of these circumstances causes a slight irregularity in
the absolute length of the solar day, or, as it is called, the
real solar day. This is the reason why the time shown by
a sundial does not agree with the watch. To remedy this
inconvenience, a fictitious sun is supposed to move in the
ecliptic, and uniformly, while another fictitious sun moves
in the equator, also uniformly. Both the fictitious bodies
have the average motion of the real sun, so that the years
of the three are the same; and the fictitious sun of the
ecliptic is made to coincide with the real sun at the perigee
and apogee, or nearest and farthest points from the earth ;
while the fictitious body in the equator is made to coin-
cide with the fictitious body of the ecliptic at the equinoxes
(from which it arises that there is also a coincidence at the
solstices). This fictitious sun of the equator is that to which
clocks are adjusted ; the interval between two of its transits,
which is always of the same length, is called a mean solar
day, which is divided into twenty-four mean solar hours, &cc.
The difference between time as shown by the real sun and
the fictitious sun in the equator, is called the equation of
time.
The determination of the equation of time is a mathe-
matical problem of some complexity : what we have here
to notice is, that owing to the joint action of the two
sources of difference, it presents a very ii-egular series of
phenomena in the course of the year. If the sun moved
regularly, but in the ecliptic, there would be no equation
lit' time at the equinoxes and solstices : if the sun moved
with its elliptic irregularity, but in the equator instead of
the ecliptic, there would be no equation of time at the
apogee and perigee. Between the two the equation of
time vanishes only when the effect of one cause of irregu-
larity is equal and opposite to that of the other ; and this
takes place four times a year. In this present year (1842)
the state of the equation of time is as follows : — January
1, the clock is before the sundial 3m 51s, and continues to
gain upon the dial until February 11, when there is
14m 35s of difference. This then begins to diminish, and
continues diminishing until April 15, when the two agree,
and there is no equation. The dial then is before the
clock until May 14, when the equation is 3m 55s, which
diminishes until June 15, when there is again no equation.
The clock is now before the dial, and the equation increases
till July 26, when the equation is 6m 10s, which diminishes
until the 1st of September, when there is no equation, for
the third time. The dial is now again before the clock j
and by November 2 the equation has become 16m 18s, from
which time it falls off until December 24, when it is
nothing for the fourth and last time. The clock then gets
gradually before the dial till the end of the year. The
phenomena of the next year present a repetition of the
same circumstances, with some trivial variations of mag-
nitude. There are several slight disturbing causes fa
which we have not thought it worth while to advert in a
popular explanation : in particular, the slow motion of the
solar perigee [YEAR; SUN], which will in time wholly
alter the phenomena. For instance, when the perigee
comes to coincide with the equinox, there will be only two
periods at which the equation of time vanishes, namely,
when the sun is at either equinox.
The sidereal day is 23'> 5Cm 4s. 09 of a mean solar day,
and the mean solar day is 24'> 3m 56s. 55 of a sidereal day.
We have in this article only to do with the mode of obtain-
ing a uniform measure of time, or of intervals of time ; this*
being premised, the subject will be taken up again in the
article YEAR.
TIME BARGAIN. [STOCKS.]
TIME OF DESCENT, the technical term for the time
employed by a material particle in falling down an arc of
a curve under the action of gravity, the mode of obtaining
which is explained in VELOCITY. When any number of
curves are drawn from a given point, and another curve isi
so drawn as to cut off from every one of them an are whichi
is described by a falling particle in one given time, that
curve is called tautochronous, or a tautocttron. But when
a curve is such as the cycloid, namely, that a particle,
wherever placed, will fall to the lowest point in the same
time, such a curve is also called tautochruiinus by various
writers, and isochronous by others. Our only object in.
inserting this article has been to note this confusion of
language.
TIME (in Music) is :—
I. The measure of the duration of sound.
II. That which divides a bar into two or three equal/
parts, and subdivides these.
III. The movement — i.e. the quickness or slowness — of
a composition.
1. The degree of sound, or pitch, is shown by the place1
on the staff of any one of the characters called notes ; but
its duration is known by the particular note ; that is, as
minim, or crotchet, &c. The longest note, in relation to:
time, used in modern music, is the senlibrevc, which is
considered the measure-note, and its average length is
about four beats of a healthy man's pnlse. The five other-
notes are proportionate parts of this. Thus the minim is.
in duration £ of a semibreve ; the crotchet is £ , &e. : con-
sequently two minims, or four crotchets, &c., are equal to>
one semibreve, as exhibited in the annexed table : —
T I M
T I M
2. Time i* either duple or triple. The former divides
•very bar, or mea*u jual pails; the
Utter inti- . Time* are marked !•;.
C, — also by this letter barred (CK )• an(^ ' "^c
C, whether barred or not, indicate* Common Turn' ; that
M. duple time. I, mug one semibreTe, or it§ e<(
note*, in each bar. Figures represent the fraction
acmibrcvc. the uiipt i
denominator. When 1:.> iinnierator is 'J •
dupK- or 1'J. it i-
common ; anil when compound-triple, lint in
reality, there are only two times, — binary tint! ternary ; or,
duple' and triple : a i'act which would lo'nir ago have been
recognised and acted on, had music, UK A system, made
advances which have long been witnessed in the
other arts and sciences.
has hitherto had a third meaning
annexed to it in musical language, by its employment in
the sense of movement, a practice which has produced
some confusion. The Italian word Tempo, signifying the
came, is now growing into nst — a manifest improvement,
which, it is to be hoped, will not have to encounter those
professional prejudices under which music has so long
laboured. [MKTBONOM.B.]
On the subject of Time (Temt) Rousseau has well re-
marked, that a succession of sounds, however skilfully
arranged as to high and low, produces only vague effects.
It is measure, the duration, relative and proportional, of
sounds, wluch fixes the true character of the music, and
endows it with all its energy. Time (under which tenn
ne, of course, includes rhythm is the soul of sonsr. Airs
make us pensive; but a
spirited, and well eadenc. IH with joy, and
our feet can hardly be r. :.»m dancing. Break
the measure, confound tint relative limes of the sounds,
and the very same airs which proportion had rendered so
agreeable, at once lose all their character, all their charms,
and are incapable of exciting tli it decree of plea-
sure. Time, on the contrary, possess. a power, in
itself, and acts independently of a diversity of sounds. The
dnim furnishes a proof of this, rough and imperfect as the
instrument is, because (the author ought to have said its
beats are in rhythm, though the sound is unvaried.
TIMO'LKON general and 8
man. He was a native of Corinth, and the son of Timo-
demus and Timariste. Respecting his youth we know
nothing, except that he v ; distinguished by his
noble character and his love of freedom than by his illus-
trious descent. When he had grown up to manhood, his
elder brother Timophanes, who nad been elected general
by the Corinthians, assumed the tyrannis in his native city
by the hell) of hi- friend.- and his mercenaries. Timolcon
at first only remonstrated with his brother, but when this
was useless, he formed a plot against him, andTimoj
was killed. Soon after this event, which threw nil Corinth
into a state of violent agitation, some extolling the con-
duct of Timoleon as magnanimous and worthy of a real
patri" -'irsing :md condemning him as a fratricide,
there arrived at Corinth ambassadors from -olicit-
ing the aid ot the l.Vrintln : its oppressor*. This
was a favourable opi Timo-
•-f his followers, while at the same time il
con a field of action in f
Ung to his principles and deliver the
- ors. Timoleon was accordingly s.
Syracuse with a small band of mercenaries, which he him-
self had raised, 344 B.C. - *as then dividrd into
parties: the popular party, which hud engaged the
service of Timoleon ; a ( larthaginian party ; and the paih of
DionvMiis, the tyrant, who had returned from Italy in ii.c.
346. Dionysius had already been driven out of a pan
city by Hiectas, the tyrant of Lcontini, who support.
Carthaginian party. On the arrival of Timuleoii, Iliceta-
w«« compelled to withdraw tu I
was reduuedtosurrender himself an. Ithe citadel lo
was allowed to ijint the island in safety, and he withdrew
mth. in B.C. 343. [ni<.Nv,irs. i
become dc- •• cessive r<
warfare, i r and the sprii.
wa»u, :.j.,-:.>:-c
ing those w..
from other part* o
thish
tginians an
in oni
HlCi-'.l-. ~>I!
i inns-
• hot
oat against the enemy, ana i >
ralnhip he succt.
Carthaginians on the bank-
tiiicd them to the pan
and the western coast, n.< . .
couclnsion ofu peace with
; the tyrants in nther I . whom he <
pelled to surrender or withdraw, partly by the terror
name and partly
s.incr, and condemned to death by the Syracuse::
wife and family.
:• freedom and the ascendency of Syracuse wen
restored in the greater part of Sn-ily. Ti
his attention to the restoration of the prospei
towns and the country. The former, esp.
were still thinly peopled, and he invited colonists
Corinth and other parts to settle there, end distr;
lands among them. He himself, with the con*
Symciisans, undertook to revise and amend their constitu-
tion and laws, and to adapt them to t
circumstances of the state. Although it would
easy tor him to establish himself as tyrant and to sec
his descendants the kingly power at Syracuse, he fi.
the duties of the office entrusted to him with a 1..
which has rarely been equalled. He had no ot
view but the establishment of popular libi :
prepared and trained the people. Some acts of c
apparent injustice with which he. is chin
• in the character of those whom he had to deal with,
for the Syracu.-ans at that time were a motley and i
ralized people, who could not be managed without Timo-
leon's assuming at times the very power which it w;.
wish to destroy. Hut Syr:! cily felt the b
of his institutions for main . his di ath. an.!
tinned to enjoy i.i
During the" latter part Timoleon was blind
and lived in retirement, respected and beloved by the
Sicilians as their liberator and benefactor. in the
. . :n7. and was buried in the Agora ol
where subsequently his grave was sin
and adorned with a gymnasium called the Tin;
(Plutarch, and C. Nepos, Life of Timoleon : and ]>io-
dorus Siculus, lib. xvi.)
IVcadrnchra of Syraeue, lurrlod M a ram|>lr of tile Coins of Kyracuie.
Muslim. Actual Kir. Si . lailu.
TIMO'MAi'lirs. a celebrated antient painter, a '
ofHyrantium. and -aid to have been
it. Hit.!., i\\\.
'*sar purchased two pictp
maohus. for SO I7.'2M)/. ; .
Itutlllg Ajax the -on of Telftmon broodiiur nver In-
fortunes; the other. Medea about to
'bcaU'd them in 11. <
much celebrated b\
there are several c| igram- ii|ion them in the fircel; antbo-
ind they are all (hid in the two following
-
I ir int.
<• Aj«
iii.l I',.- 1.
barbarous
.«.. ii. 525.)
; .'-.v-.r.-1 •:,•••: ••i:'-:1""-1""
T I M
463
T I M
We learn from Pliny also that the" picture of Medea was
not finished ; its completion was interrupted apparently
by the death of the painter, yet it was admired, he says,
more than any of the finished works of Timomachus, as
was the case likewise with the Iris of Aristides, the Tyn-
daridfe of Nicomachus, and a Venus by Apelles, which
were more admired than any of the finished works of their
respective masters. This picture is noticed also by Plu-
tarch < D,° And. Poet., 3) in a passage where he speaks of
the representation of improper subjects, but which we ad-
mire on account of the excellence of the execution.
In the common text of Pliny, Timomachus is said to be the
contemporary of Caesar (' Julii Caesaris aetate '), but Durand,
in his ' Histoire de la Peinture Ancienne,' &c., expresses
an opinion that the word aetate is an addition of the
;^t, for which he a.s=i<rns several reasons. The con-
jecture has much in its favour ; the price of these pictures
i 17.2HU/. i is enormous, if we suppose it to have been paid
to a living painter ; but on the contrary it is a case with
many parallels if we suppose the money to have been
paid tor two of the reputed masterpieces of antient paint-
incr. The fact of the Medea being unfinished puts it
beyond a doubt that the picture was "not purchased of the
painter himself; and from a passage in Cicero < In lrerr., \.
iv., c. 60) it seems equally clear that both pictures were
purchased of the city of Cyzicus ; and from the manner in
which they are mentioned with many of the most celebrated
productions of the antient Greek artists, it would appear
that they were works of .similar renown, and were likewise
of an artist long since deceased. Timo-
machus was therefore most probably a contemporary of
I*au»ias, Nicias, and other encaustic painters, about 300 B.C.
Pliny himself, elsewhere speaking of fimomaehus, mentions
him together with the more antient and most celebrated
pain1 <-e, with Nieomachus, Apelles, and Aris-
tUNt, M in the passage above quoted.
Pliny mentions also the following works of Timoma-
: an Orestes; an Iphigema in Tauris ; Lecythion, a
gymnasiast ; a 'eognatio nobilium ;' two philosophers or
others, with the pallium, about to speak, one standing, the
othci -id a very celebrated picture of a Gorgon.
TIM ,i/), a Greek poet and philosopher who
lived in the reign of Ptolemaeus Philadetphus, about 270
1J.C. He v. i of Timarchus, and a native of Phlitis
• territory of Sicyon. He studied philosophy under
•ra, and under Pyrrho, in Elis. 1U"
'ly spent some time in the countries north of the
• n, and thence went to Athens, where he passed the
remainder of his life, and died in the ninetieth year of
ige.
Diogenes Laertixis, who has written an account of
Timon (ix.. <•. 12:, ascribes to him epic poems, 60 tragedies,
sntyric dramas, 30 comedies, silli 'T<\AOI), and cinaedi
(fivnifot) or licentious songs. The silli however appear to
have been the kind of poetry in which he excelled. They
were satires directed against the arrogance and pedantry
<>!' the learned. Timon wrote th;re books of silli fAthe-
naeiis, vi., p. 2ol : vii., p. 279), in which he parodied all
the dogmatic philosophers of Greece: he himself was a
tic. The metre of these poems was the hexameter,
and it appears that sometimes he took whole passages from
Homer which he applied as parodies. In the first book
Timon spoke in his own person ; in the second and third
the form of the poems was that of a dialogue, in which he
.on versed with Xenophanes of Colophon, who was sup-
; to have been the inventor of the silli. (Diogenes
I.aert., ix. 1110 We now only possess a few fragments of
these poems, which show that in their way they must
have been admirable productions. They are collected in
II. Sit-phaniis, ' Poesis Philosophica ;' in F. Paul, ' De
Sillis Graecorum,' Berlin, 1821, p. 41, &c. ; in Branck's
it. <>7; and iv. 139. Respecting the other
;s ascribed to him we possess no information.
•inrich, De Timone Sillographo, in 3 parts,
Linaiac, 1720-23.)
I'l \IO\ 'Tiptav'), surnamed the Misanthrope, was a son
•hecratidos, and a native of Colyttus, a demos in
i, Tiiwin, c. 7; Tzetzes, Ch.il., vii. 273.)
He lived during the Peloponnesian war, and is said to
have iiointcd in the friendships he had funned,
lie conceived a bitter hair
all man\ivl. i! c period tlr.it his mind
\VM i was very extraordinary. He lived almost
entirely secluded from society, and his eccentricities gave
rise to numerous anecdotes, which were current in anti-
quity. The sea is said to have separated even his grave,
which was on the sea-coast, from the mainland, by forming
it into an island and thus rendering it inaccessible, i, Plu-
tarch, Anton., 70; Suidas, s. v. airopp&jas.) The comic
poets, such as Phrynichus (Bekker, Anecdota, p. 344),
Aristophanes (Lysistr., 809, &c. ; Aves, 1548), Plato, and
Antiphanes, ridiculed him in their comedies. Antiphanes
wrote a comedy called ' Timon,' which perhaps furnished
Lucian with the groundwork for his dialogue in which this
misanthrope acts the most prominent part. His name has
remained proverbial to designate a misanthrope down to
the present day, and is immortalized by the genius of
Shakspere.
(Hemsterhuis, On Lucian, voK i., p. 99, of the smaller
edition.)
TIMOR. [SUNDA ISLANDS, LESSER.]
TIMORLAUT. [SUNDA ISLANDS, LESSER.]
TIMOTE'O DA URBl'NO, or DELLA VITE, a cele
brated Italian painter of the Roman school, was born at
Urbino in 1470, or rather 1480. In about his 20th
year, by the advice of a brother living in Bologna, he re-
paired to that city to learn the business of a jeweller, &c. ;
but displaying a power of design worthy of a greater pur-
pose, he devoted himself to painting, and according to
Malvasia attended the school of Francia in Bologna for
about five years : Vasari however says that Timoteo was
his own master. At the age of 26 he returned to Urbino,
where in a short time he so far distinguished himself, says
Vasari, as to receive an invitation from his cousin Raphael
in Rome to repair thither and assist him in some of his ex-
tensive works. This statement creates a difficulty not
easy to be cleared up : Vasari says that Timoteo died in
1524, aged 54 ; yet we find him in his 27th or 28th year,
consequently in 1497 or 1498, going to Rome to assist
Raphael, who however did not go to Rome himself until
1508: 1524 was very probably therefore a misprint for
1534 in the original edition of Vasari, and the error has
found its way into all the later works. By this supposition
and by allowing a year or two to have elapsed between his
return to Urbino and his visit to Rome, the various dates
may be easily reconciled, and what Vasari says about Ti-
moteo's assisting Raphael to paint the Sibyls in the Chiesa
della Pace, which were painted in 1511, becomes quite con-
sistent. He did not remain long in Rome, but returned
to his native place at the solicitation of his mother, much
to the displeasure of Raphael. He remained however
quite long enough to learn to appreciate and to imitate the
beauties of Raphael's style, and to become one of the most
distinguished painters of the Roman school ; yet there are
in all his works traces of the style of Francia, a certain
timidity of design, a delicacy of execution, and a richness of
colouring. His chief works are at Urbino, at, Forli, and in
the neighbourhood ; he executed many of them in com-
pany with Girolamo Genga, as a chapel at Forli and part
of the paintings in the chapel of San Martino in the Ca-
thedral of Urbino ; the altar-piece was painted entirely by
Timoteo : he executed also some excellent works in fresco
at < 'a.stel Durante. Further, in Urbino there, are — in the
Cathedral, a Magdalen; in San Bernardino, outside (he
city, a celebrated picture of the Annunciation of the Virgin ;
and another fine picture with several figures in Santa
Agata ; also in the residence of the Dukes of Urbino, an
Apollo and two of the Muses, extremely beautiful ; besides
many other works. Vasari remarks that he left some
works unfinished at his death, which were afterwards com-
pleted by others, and he adds that there could not be a
more satisfactory evidence of the general superiority of
Timoteo. He was of a cheerful disposition, and used to
play every kind of instrument, but, especially the lyre,
which he accompanied with his voice, with extraordinary
grace and feeling. Lanzi says that the Conception at the
Observantines at Urbino, and a Noli me tangere in the
church of Sant' Angelo at Cagli, arc perhaps the best of
his works that remain. The same writer observes that
Pietro della Vite, the brother of Timoteo, also a painter,
was probably the priest of Urbino mentioned by Baldi-
nucci (vol. v.) as Raphael's cousin and heir.
(Vasari, Vite de' Pitlori, &c. ; Lanzi, Storia Pittorica
Mia Italia.)
TIMO'THEUS (Ti/i69toC), son of Conon of Athens. He
inherited from his father a considerable fortune, and if we
T I M
104
T I M
• . ' s irith l-o< ; V.c.s. P',.1'0. and
ic manner in which others
trticulan are known rcsp-
, . ird in
l)u- t 'iintrv, was durini; the war between
ThelH-s and Spatta. In tii :i7-"». after the battle
<\os, the Thcbanv who were threatened with an in-
; bj the I-acedirmonians, requested the Athenians to
i'
:us they had done at tile beginning of the Pcloponnesian war.
The . - implied with, and 1'imotlicus was
appointed commander of a fleet 'lips, with which
is to sail round Peloponnesus and along the v,
coasts of Greece. In this expedition he first took Coivua,
which he treated with the utmost mildness and without
•ig any use of his right as conqueror. The conse-
quence was, that he had work with Cephalcnia
and Acaruania, and that even Alcettt, king of tin Molos-
ttians, was induced to join the Athenian alliance. But
while Timotheus was thus reviving the power of Athens
in that part of Greece, the Ixiccdamonians sent out a fleet
st him, under the command of Nicolochus. A battle
was fought near the bay of Alyzia, in which the Spartans
ated. Soon after Nicolochus offered another
battle, but as the fleet of Timotheus had suffered too
much to allow him to accept it, Nicolochus raised a
trophy. But Timotheus soon restored his fleet, which
mforcements of the allies to seventy
ships, against which Nicolochus could not venture any-
thing. The original object of the expedition howev
now accomplished, as the Spartans had not been able to
make their projected invasion of Boeotia, and Thebes
was thus enabled to direct her forces against the Bosotian
towns wh. d their independence. Timotheug af
the head of his large fleet had no means of maintaining
it, for Thebes herself had contributed nothing towaid
it, and Athens, which was not in a very prosperous
condition, had been obliged to bear all the cxpi
the fleet, with the exception of what Timotheus him
self had furnished from his private purse. Athens there
fore concluded a separate peace with Sparta, and sen
orders to Timotheus to return home. On his way (hit he
he landed at Zacynthus a body of exiles who probably be
lonired to the democratical party of the place, and who hai
lit his protection. He provided them with the mean
of opposing and annoying their enemies, the oligarchic^
party of Zacynthus, which was in alliance with Sparta
The oligarchs sent envoys to Sparta to complain, am
Sparta sent envoys to Athens to remonstrate against th
conduct of her admiral. But no satisfaction was given, as
Athenians would not sacrifice the Zaeyiithian exile
for the purpose of maintaining the peace. The Spartan
therefore looked upon the peace as broken, and prepared
for new hostilities.
Soon after these occurrences Corcyra was hard pressed
by the Peloponnesian fleet, and implored the Athenians
for protection. Timotheus, who, on his former expedition,
had given such £reat proofs of skill and talent. wa~
entrust- d with the command of sixty ships, lint Athens,
which was itself in great financial difficulties, had not the
means to equip them, and Timotheus in t of 373
B.C. failed to the coasts and islands of the .Ksrean to
iciiian allies to provide him with the means
of aiwi-1ing the < 'orcvrae:. pears to b.-
•!i.. p.l iss .
and in Macedonia 1 'atious with king
Arm gs however went on very slowly,
and apparently with • -.s. tor he \MIS of ton
gentle a disposition to force the allies to furnish what they
d not give conveniently. At last however he had
tailed M far as the island of Calaurea, where his men began
to murmur beeausi: they wen- nut. paid. T
affairs in Corcyra had irrown wor- . Ilisinc-
1 upon the slowness of his progress as
a favours! ': nity for aiming a blow nt him. Iphi-
tnitus came forward to accuse him, where-
upon he was recalled, nnd the command of his fleet
to bin accusers and C'habrias. His trial was deferred tiH
late in the autumn ; but he was acquitted, not ind-
account of his innocence, though it was well attested, but
onu' ii i' <>l 'Alci t as, the M<
Jiuon of Pherar, who had come to Athens to pr< .'• • t hrn.
In ii. c. 301. after the removal of his rival Iphicrafc*.
'imothi ;is n rined the ciimmand <;f the licet on the
i. He tonk 1'utidaea and Torone from
Jlynlhus. and the-e conquests were followed by the rcduc-
ion of all tin1 Chalcidian towns. From thence he pre-
ceded to the Hi-lies; -out, where, with the as- \rio-
>arzanes, he again gained posses- owns. In
'.r following he commenced his opeiations aiMinst
Amphipolis, in which however he had no success at all,
>robabiv on account of the interference of the Maccdo-
lians, who .supported the town, and Timotheus was nearly
•ompellid to take to flight.
In the year ;C>7 B.C. Timothens and Iphicrates, who had
"or some time been reconciled to each other through the
marriage between a daughter of the former and a son of
he latter, obtained the command of a fit ct of GO sail
iLrainst the rebellious allies of Athens, especial!) airainst
Samos. But the Athenian arms were unsucccsslnl, and a
.•. as concluded between tl Inch put
in end to the Social War. The Athenian generals however,
Timotheus, Iphicrates, and Mcnesthci:- .uired with
having caused the ill-luck of the Athenians, and brought
to trial. Timotheus in particular was accused of having
leccived bribes from the Chians and Hhodians. His col-
leagues, who were themselves in the greatest dantrer. were
so convinced of his innocence, that they declared they
were willing to take all the responsibility upon themselves.
But he was nevertheless condemned to pay a fine of 100
talents. As lie was unable to pay the sum. he withdrew
to Chalcis in Kubnea, where he died soon after, in B.C. 354.
The injustice of this sentence was tacitly acknowledged by
the Athenians after the death of Timotheus, by the manner
in which his son Conon was allowed to settle the debt of
his father.
Timotheus was no less distinguished as a man than as a
general. He was of a very humane and disinterested cha-
racter. He sacrificed all nis property in the service of his
country, while other men of his age, used public offices
only as a means of enriching themselves. When A
and Jason came to Athens to protect him, they lodged in
his house, at which time he was so poor, that he was
•d to borrow furniture to receive Ins illustrious friends
in a manner worthy of their station. Kveu his enemies,
when they came to know him, could not help feeling
attachment and esteem for him.
(Xenophon, Hellen., \. 4, 63, &c. : vi. 2, 11, &c. ; Iso-
!>:• I'cninttuli'iiii' : (,'. Nepos, Timnlhfus; Diodorus
Sic., xv. and xvi. ; compare Thirlwall, History qf 6,
vol. v.)
TIMOTHEUS (T.,io3eoc) of Miletus, a Greek musician
and lyric poet. The time when his reputation had reached
its height was about the year it.r. ;f'.is. Diodorus Sic.,
xiv. 46.) He was a contemporary of Kuripides, and spent
the last years of his life at the court of .Macedonia, where
he died in in. ;t->7. at the advanced age of H7. He in-
creased the number of the strings of (lie lyre to eleven, an
innovation which w.i i d by the Spartans, who
would not LTO beyond the number of seven stiino, to be a
corruption of music, and a decree was passed at Si
which is siill extant in Boi-'thius, condemnatory of his inno-
vation. : Plutarch, 7V .!/»*., p. 1 1 11, ed. Frank!'. ; Atlu-
naeus, xiv., p. CM\. Suida.s mentions a great number of
poetical compositions of Timotheus, which were in tluir
lime very popular in Greece; among them are nineteen
nomes, thirty-six proocmia. ci:::itccu dith\ rHinbs, and
twenty-one hymns. All these \\oiks are now lost, witii
the exception of a few fragments which are preserved in
Athenaeiis and the iriammaiians.
v- • ssius, De i p. 4(i ; Bode, (ii-srhirhtr
:/'/• l/,ll:ni'ii, vol. ii., p. .'«)•">,
TIMOTHEUS (T><tt«oc , an Athenian poet of tl..
called middle comedy. Suidas mentions the till1
:-.nd Athenaeiis M., p. 2-U Ims pre-
•irment of one which bme the title ' The Little
\. MeiiuUi-. llintvi-. 'irum
"ruin. ]}. l'_'-v.
TIMOTIH. Kl'Isfl.KSOFST. I'Al 'I. To. Timothy,
to whom t! Kpistle. B -'<!. was a native of
; niia. in Asia .Minor. His father was
:i Greek, or Gentile, but his mother. Kunn v,e-s.
Uoth his mother and grandmother Lois were Christian
believers i, « Tannt/i.. 1.5), who were probably coin cited
T I M
465
T I M
to the faith by the preaching of Paul and Barnabas on
the occasion of their first apostolical journey among the
Gentiles. Whether Timothy was himself converted by St.
Paul or by the teaching of his mother does not appear ;
but it is certain that she had taken great pains with her
son's education, for from a child, as St. Paul says, ' he had
known the Holy Scriptures.' (2 Tiinoth., iii. 15.) His
devotion to his new faith was so ardent, and the progress
he made in the knowledge of the gospel so great, that he
gained the esteem and good word of all his Christian
acquaintance. Accordingly when St. Paul paid his second
visit to Lystra, the believers both of that city and Iconium
commended him so highly to Paul," that he ' would have
Timothy go forth with him' as the companion of his
travels. Previously to commencing them however St. Paul
circumcised Timothy, 'because of the Jews,' who were
numerous and powerful in those parts, and likely to take
offence at the preaching and ministration of an uncircum-
ci*ed teacher. (Acts, xvi. 1-3.) He was then solemnly ad-
mitted and set apart to the office of an evangelist, or
preacher of the gospel, by the elders of Lystra and St. Paul
himself laying their hands upon him (1 Tim., iv. 14;
2 Tim., i. 61. though he was probably not more than
twenty years of age at the time. From this period
(A.D. 46) mention is frequently made of Timothy as the
companion of St. Paul in his journeys, as assisting him in
preaching the gospel, and in conveying his instructions to
the different Christian churches. His first mission was in
company with St. Paul and Silas, when they visitad the
churches of Phrygia and delivered to them the decrees of
the council of elders at Jerusalem, by which the Gentiles
released from the obedience to the law of Moses as a
requisite for salvation. From Phiygia he proceeded in the
same company t« Troas, and thence to Macedonia, where
lie assisted in foundingthe churches of Philippi, Thessalo-
nica, and Beroea, at the last of which cities he and Silas
were left when St. Paul was driven from Macedonia by
the persecution of the Jews in that country and retired to
Athens. In this city St. Paul was subsequently joined by
Timothy 1 T/ii'in., iii. 1), who gave him such an account
of the afflicted state of the Thessalonian Christians as in-
dutvd him to send Timothy back to ' establish and comfort
them, concerning their faith" : a charge both of difficulty
and danger. From Athens St. Paul went to Corinth, where
he was joined by Timothy and Silvanus, who both assisted
hint in converting the Corinthians and establishing the Co-
rinthian church, for a period of a year and a half. (2Cor.,i.)
When St. Paul left. Corinth, Timothy appears to have accom-
panied him on his return to Asia, where' they resided nearly
three yea.s, without interruption, except during the visit of
St . 1'aul to Jerusalem, to keep the feast there, in which how-
ever it does not appear that he was accompanied by
Timothy. Towards the expiration of their residence at
Kphcsus, St. Paul despatched Timothy and Erastus to-
U'ethei to precede himself on a journey to Macedonia.
, xix. 22.) It would also seem (1 Cor., iv. 17) that St.
Paul at the same time charged Timothy to visit the church of
Corinth. On returning from Corinth to Macedonia, Timothy
was joined by St. Paul from Ephesus, and henceforward
they were frequently together, till Timothy was appointed
by St. Paul to govern the church of Ephesus. In the in-
terval between St. Paul's joining Timothy in Macedonia
and the appointment of the latter to the superintendence
of the church at Ephesus, Timothy appears either to have
accompanied St. Paul on his first journey to Rome, or to
have visited him there. St. Paul, as is well known, was a pri-
soner at Rome, though under but little restraint, and from
Hebrews (xiii. 23) we may conclude that Timothy also suf-
fered imprisonment either at Rome or elsewhere in Italy ;
and that he was released before St. Paul left that city.
The subsequent history of St. Paul and Timothy is not
clearly given either in the Acts of the Apostles or the
Epistles of the New Testament ; but it is reasonable to
suppose that when they were both set at liberty, they re-
il the journeys made for founding new churches and
.tint; old. (See Hebrews, xiii. 23 ; Philipp., i. 1 ; ii. 19 ;
1 Tim., 1. 3.)
Timothy was eventually left with the charge of the
church at Kphesus, where St. Paul had made his head-
quarters in Asia. How long Timothy exercised this office
in not known, nor can we determine the time of his
death. A tieal tradition relates that he suffered
martyrdom, being killed with stones and clubs (A.D. 97)
P. C., No. Kilfj.
while he was preaching against idolatry in the neighbour-
hood of the temple of Diana at Ephesus. His supposed
relics were removed to Constantinople, with great pomp,
A.D. 356, in the reign of the emperor Constantine. Shortly
after Timothy's appointment to the superintendence of the
church at Ephesus, St. Paul wrote to him his first Epistle ;
the date of which was probably about A.JO. 64, after St.
Paul's first imprisonment at Rome. Some critics indeed
assign to it as early a date as A.D. 56, supporting their
opinion by 1 Tim., i. 3, from which it appears (1.)
that Timothy was in Ephesus when the Apostle wrote his
first letter to him ; (2.), that he had been left there when
Paul was going from Ephesus into Macedonia. A careful
examination however of the narrative in the Acts will
convince the reader that the contemplated journey into
Macedonia, of which the Apostle speaks (1 Tim., i. 3),
is some journey not mentioned in the Acts, and therefore
subsequent to St. Paul's release from his first confinement
at Rome. But whatever doubt there may be as to the
date of the first, there is none about the genuineness
of either of the two Epistles to Timothy. They have
always been acknowledged to be the undisputed pro-
duction of the Apostle Paul. The object and design of
the First Epistle to Timothy were such as we might have
expected from the relation between St. Paul the writer,
and Timothy, to whom it was addressed. It was written
with the view of guiding and directing the latter in his
responsible and difficult ministry as the head of the church
at Ephesus, to instruct him in the choice and ordination of
proper officers, and to warn him against the false teachers
(Michaelis thinks they were Essenes) who had ' turned
aside ' from the simplicity of the gospel, to idle con-
troversies and ' endless genealogies,' and who, setting
themselves up as teachers of the Law of Moses, had
insisted upon the necessity of obedience to it as a
requisite for salvation.
In chap, i., accordingly, St. Paul alludes to the com-
mission given by him to Timothy at parting, and specifies'
the particular errors which he was to condemn, together
with the truths which he was to inculcate.
In chap. ii. the apostle describes the manner in which
the public worship of the church at Ephesus was to be
conducted.
In chap. iii. St. Paul explains the qualification of the
persons whom Timothy was to ordain as bishops and
deacons, and tells him that he had written the letter with
a view of teaching him ' how he ought to behave himself
in the house of God, which is the church of the living
God, the pillar and the ground of truth.'
The last verse of this chapter has occasioned much
controversy respecting the reading of the word 6101;, or
' God,' for which one MS. has bj, ' who,' and another u,
'which.' The majority of the MSS. read Gtoc, or ' God,'
and several of the antient versions express the 8 or
' which,' instead of 6e6f.
In chap. iv. St. Paul foretells the heresies which were
to arise in the church in after-times, and strongly condemns
them. He also exhorts Timothy to a faithful and ex-
emplary discharge of his duties, and to a steadfast con-
tinuance in the doctrines of the Gospel.
In chap. v. St. Paul instructs Timothy in the right
method of admonishing the old and the young of both
sexes. He also describes the age and character of such
widows as were to be employed by the church in teaching
the younger women the principles of religion, for which it
would seem that the former received some recompense
from the funds of the church.
In chap. vi. St. Paul describes the duties which he
wished Timothy to inculcate on Christian slaves, as owing
from them to their masters, whether infidels or believers.
He also reprobates strifes about words, and perverse dis-
putings, which seem to have been rife in the Ephesian
church ; condemns an inordinate love of money, exhorts
Timothy to charge the rich to be ' rich in good works,'
and concludes with a most solemn charge before God and
Jesus Christ, that he should keep ' the commandment,'
without spot and unblameable. «
The Epistle was written from Nicopolis in Macedonia
(Titus, ill. 12), and not from Laodicea, as the subscription
informs us. The undesigned coincidences between it and
the Acts of the Apostles are given in Paley's 'Horar
Paulinae,' p. 323-338.
The Second Epistle of Paul to Timothy.— Prom chap, i.,
VOL. XX.IV. — o O
T I M
T I M
ether he
:ll much
i ol' the
omtinc-
ncr bis lu'st imprison:
• •••• '.'•/ i! t. hta
\, : to 1 1 • i m form ' : i
the seci
tin
iris : '
the latter not knowing how
• name in the siilnta-
Kome. Ti .night
"i the opinion of tin1
t church are. we think, concl
.liter his first impri-
.-. here, after being kept in
as an • •' '•'
martwdom, A.P. »)(!. As tli.
- Timothy iv. 21 to come to him at
ire white:. •!>• writt«>n in July or
-ed that Timothy
was at Kphe.stis when St. \ il to him.
The immediate desiiru of St. Paid in writing thisKpistle
was, it would seem, to apprise Timothy of the circum-
stances that had recently happened to himself at Rome,
and to request his immediate presence tin
ither from the last chapter of this Kpistle. that St.
Paul was closely confined as a malefactor for some crime
laid to his chaise: that when he was brought before the
Roman in to make his first answer, • no man
stood by him, but all men forsook him ;' that only Luke
was with him : that beimr thus deserted by almost all, he
was great! Timothy, -his dearly be-
loved son in the irospcl." before the Mime of his departure,'
which he knew • was at hand.' He therefore req
him to come to Home immediately, but being uncertain
whether he should live to see Timothy again, he gave him
in this Epistle a variety of adi> .id en-
This Kpistle in fact is an appropriate and
affecting sequel to the first, the principal injunctions and
waning! of which it re peats, but with addition:! I
and fervour. St. Paul, as if for the last time chap. i.\ con-
jures Timothy to apply himself with all his s\\
to his holy work, to hold fast the doctrine which he had
•oin him. and not to ••!' the
my of the Lord or of St. Paul's own suit.
In chap. ii. St. Paul airain cautions Timot i here-
tics and 'foolish qin d exhorts him to personal
holiness. In chap. ili. he irivcs a description of the ' perilous
which should come.' and which we mtici-
ni in performing the duties
of a Christian minister. To this work, in chap, iv., he ev-
1 him by a solemn charge before 'God and the Lord
Jesus Christ, the juil quick and the dead.' He
then depicted hi nt state, and his presentiment
of an approaching maitvidom: and alter requesting the
immc ;iig to
him ' rcn at
Komi Timothy arrived at Rome in time to find St.
Paul air. e.doe- not any where a; • iientic
information we havi JLT him being given in this
'•I Timothy, in conjunction with those to
\tremely valuable, as
10 the truth of many of the
iigned
'/'//« ')//i// and the
Their value in a Mac-
knight. Preface to 1 Timothy — •
i the church, M they exhibit to Christian
H-ons in every age the mo-
thc duties of their functi. the manner in which
duties should be performed: describe the qualifica-
-lary in those who aspire to Mich oltic<
explain t! which they were instituted, and are
still . i the church.'
l',ni<,lhi/,\\ Paul
toTr ; companion and
an il! Tm, j,,
if these
' ' inliiiKitc ail'! ;.. v..
>iy doctrine or precept at all di;!
is enforced in the KpUtlei addressed •
ws and hopes and motu.
:hc sime in both: a proof of th.
•y. and an evidence th li il
double doctrine, one for the learned and th t the
vulgar.
1 1 "rue's Iiitriiiliiclin,! In th
•.ol. iv., p. :\~K: Mackiiight, \.
Prefece to 1 and 'J Tinmihy .
TIM'dTIi • so called liom a p.-rxm ol' thai
name who succes-lully cultivated it ill Ninth Am.
where it seems to irrow mine luxuriantly than any •
kind of grass. I
and it* common Kuirhsh name i-
It has been hitrl' by manv agriculturists for the
MM of hay which it niaki
L'rowth when depastured. It i
stand till it is tit for I .LI her
it so readily imbibes moisture, that 11 •
carious. This is a principal reason why its cult;
not been much extended in England, it
and early heil and.
mixed with other grasses, may be very useful in la;
down land to p;i>turc for a C
The soil which suits timothy-: .- a good i:
and rather stitt' loam. On gravel or chalk it soon du -
arcely to be recommended without a mixture of
other grasses, although very heavy crops nf it have
grown; and from its strong stem, v.hcn full srrown, it
should always be fed off when
horses and cattle before the stem i
growth. That it is not a crass naturally suited to ti.-
mate of Great Britain appears iVom its not-
found in the best natural pastures. In rich land v
1 of clover it may form a very good substilr
cut up srreen and de]>a-Uin
which have been made with timotli not suili-
ciently satisfactory to form a decided opinion ol its real
merits, and it well deserves the attention of experimental
ITMIR. srj-TAN. KIAMKAM KOTli-KD-Dl'N
GUROAN s.\'lll-;il-KIRA'N .UHA'NCilR. t)
tan Timur, the fortunate, the axis of the faith,
wolf.the masterof tini: I nf the world.' 'l
a name which frequently occurs among the pn
n Turks, iron' in the .lacata'i di
and corresponds to theOsmanli 'demur.' Timn
on the 5th Or 25th of Sha'b.in. "7'MJ A.H.
Srb/. a suburb of Kesh, a town south-east of S.
kand. Ho was the son of T;u;'ii:hai'-Nowiaii, win
chief of the Tnrkish tribe of II uhich inhabited
the district of Kesh. Timur was descended from a
yonnser son of Hardam-Khan Behadir, or lia^hatur, ••
eldest son. YessiigaV, was the lather of Gensihis-Khan,
and he W;LS a direct desccmlaiit of Cenirhis-Khan on
male side. lie was consequently ol liirin,
and. beimr :ood, he held a hiixh rank amon:
Mongol nobility which was founded by Cengtns-Khan
amonir tin [TARTARS.] This rank is cx-
il by the title Nowian, which was added to the name
father. Yet the power of his family was not ;
Timur was a soldier at the airc of twelve v ears, and he
spent his youth in the continual feuds betwiVn the nobles
Of those different kingdoms and principalities into which
upire of Genghis-Khan was divided In lii-surcess«».
Allcr the death of his father, his imcl
chief of the Herlas, being the eldest of the I'amiK ; but a
war havini: broken out between Husein. khan c
Khurasan, and Maweniinn.
and Timur-Togluk, khan ol the (ides Cii-tur . in Ni.r
Turkistan, young Timur activelyslipported Husein, an.
appointed chief of the Iribe of "the Herlas i,, A.n. 7i,;(
l:iiil . In this war Timur. t wound in his thigh,
in consvqiieiiee of which he i ::ie. Krom this
he was called Timur-lcnk. or the lame Timor, which has
been corrupted \>\ Knropeans into Tamerlane, by whieh
name Timur is as well known in Kn , i his real
name. Ilusrin rewarded him also with the hand of his
sisier Turkan, A.M. 705 (A.I>. I'.M . Notwithstanding
I imnr intrigued againd his ]iroteetor; and
niter the' death of his wile he openly rebelled against him,
A.H. 707 (A.U. 13W5). With a body of only iX) horsemen
T I M
467
T I M
he surprised and took Nakhshab, a town which was de-
fended by a garrison of 12,000 men, among whom there
were most probably a great number of traitors. In A.H.
768 (A.D. 13GG ! he defeated Husein near his capital, Balkh,
and this prince was murdered by some emirs, who, seeing
their former master forsaken by fortune, endeavoured to
obtain the favour of Timur by putting his rival to death.
Balkh, which was defended by the adherents of Husein,
was taken by storm and destroyed by fire after a siege of
three years, A.H. 771 (A.D. 1369), and Timur was proclaimed
khan "of JagataV in the same year by the KumltaT, or the
general assembly of the people. He chose Samarkand
for his capital. Husein-Sofi, khan of Khowaresm (Khiwa),
having imprisoned Timur's ambassadors, was attacked
by Timur, who, after five campaigns, at last succeeded
in taking the town of Khowaresm, in A.H. 781 (A.D.
1379). The town was destroyed, and the principal inha-
bitants, especially artists and scholars, were transplanted
to Kesh, which became the second capital of Timur's
empire. Previously to this the khan of the Getes, who
was master of the country between the Sihun, or Jax-
and the Irtish, had likewise been compelled to
pay homage to Timur, who thus became master of a
part of Siberia and of the whole country which we
now call Turkistan, and which was formerly known by
the name of Great Tartary. After these conquests
Timur thought himself strong enough to carry into
effect the plan of making himself master of all those
countries which had once obeyed his ancestor Genghis-
Khan. He first attacked Khorisan, or the north-eastern part
of Persia, which was then divided between Gaiyath-ed-dtn-
Pir-'Ali, who resided at Herat, and Khojah-'Ali-Murjid,
whose capital was Sebsewir. Khojah-'Ali-Murjid, whose
dominions were on the boundaries of JagataV, paid homage
to Timur as soon as he was summoned ; but the master of
Herat prepared a vigorous resistance. Timur took Herat
by storm, but did not destroy it. He carried off as his
only trophy the iron gates of this town, which were noted
for their beautiful workmanship, and which he ordered to
be transported to his birthplace, Kesh. The larger towns
of Khorisin surrendered without resistance, and Timur was
only checked by several strong fortresses, such as Shabur-
k'm, Kabushin, and especially Kahkaha, between Balkh
and Kelat, in the mountains of the Hindu-Kush. When
these fortresses fell, all Khon'isiin was under his yoke. The
inhabitants of Sebsewar having revolted, Timur took the
town by storm: two thousand of the inhabitants were
placed alive one upon the other, till they formed a mass
like a tower, and each layer of human beings was fastened
to the rest by mortar, as if they were so many bricks.
Beginning his career at an age when other conquerors
are satisfied with their laurels, Timur had employed twenty
in reflecting on the principles of warfare. He
led his armies with the prudent boldness of an ex-
perienced general, but not with the superiority of genius.
The differences between the numerous successors of Gen-
ghin-Khan enabled Timur to attack them one after another,
and each was pleased with the fall of his rivals. He em-
il the same policy in his war against Persia. This
country was governed by several princes. Shah-Sheja, of
the dynasty of .Miwaffer, who reigned in Pars and southern
Irak, or in that part of Persia which was most exposed to
any army from the east, submitted to Timur without re-
sistance. Thus Sultan Ahmed, of the house of the Ilkhans,
the master of Northern Irak and Azerbijan, or Western
Persia, had alone to sustain the attacks of the Tartars, A.H.
788 (A.D. 13865. Timur entered the dominions of Ahmed
by following the coast of the Caspian Sea. In one cam-
paign he conquered the provinces of Mazanderan, Rei,
amf Rustemdar, and took the towns of Sultania, Tabris, and
Nakhshiwan. He crossed the Araxes at Julfa on a mag-
nificent bridge, which was strongly fortified on both sides,
but which is now destroyed. Kars, now the key of Eastern
Turkey, fell into his hands; Tiflis surrendered, and the
prince of Georgia purchased his protection by adopting
the Mohammedan faith. The prince of Shirwan sent tri-
bute to the camp of Timur, nine pieces of each thing sent
'nine was a holy number among the Mongol princes), but
only eight slaves; the ninth was himself. On these
terms he was allowed to remain in possession of his do-
minions. Taherten, king of Armenia, submitted to Timur
without, any resistance; but Kira-Yiisuf, prince of Diyar-
bckir, and master of the country round Lake Wan, prepared
to defend himself. A body of Timur's army marched
against him, and took the fortresses of Akhlat and Adil-
juwaz by storm ; and Timur himself conducted the Metre.
of Wan. This famous fortress fell after a siege of twenty
days, the garrison was cast from the steep rock on which
this town is situated, and the fortifications were razed by
ten thousand miners and pioneers. Ready to cross the
Carduchian Mountains and to descend into the valley of
the Upper Tigris, Timur was obliged, by a revolt of the
inhabitants of Ispahan, to march suddenly to southern
Persia. He took Ispahan by a general assault : he spared
the lives and the houses of artists and scholars, but the re-
mainder of the city was destroyed, and the inhabitants
were massacred. More than 70,000 heads were laid at the
feet of the conqueror, who ordered his soldiers to pile them
up on the public places of the town, A.H. 789 (A.D. 1387).
Satisfied with having conquered the greater part of
Persia, Timur turned his arms towards the north, and over-
ran the kingdom of Kiptshak, which was then governed by
Toktamish-Khan. This war lasted from A.H. 789 to 799
(A.D. 1387 to 1396). [TARTARS, Kiptshak.'} We shall
here only mention the march of Timur in the campaign of
A.H. 793 (A.D. 1391). According to Sheref-ed-din, Timur
started from Tashkend, on the Jaxartes, on the 13th of
Safer, A.H. 793 (19th of January, 1391). He marched in
a northern direction, and passed by Kura-suma, Yazi,
Kara-chuk, and Sabran, until he reached Sarik-Uzen, on
the river Arch : thence he proceeded as far as Mount
Kuchuk-dagh, and subsequently crossed Mount Ulu-dagh,
or the range of the Altai. He then took a north-western
direction until he reached the upper part of the river
Tobol in Siberia, and thence proceeded westward, crossing
the Ural Mountains, and the upper part of the river Ural,
or Yai'k, where he drew up his army on the banks of the
Bielaya, a southern tributary of the Kama, which flows
into the Wolga. Toktamish, who awaited Timur in the
environs of Orenburg, was not a little astonished to find
him so far advanced towards the north ; but being informed
of his having taken that direction, he hastened to the
country of the Bielaya (Bashkiria >, and fought that dreadful
battle which took place on the 15th of Rejeb, A.H. 793
(18th of June, 1391), in which his whole army was slaugh-
tered.
In the following year (A.H. 794; A.D. 1392) Timur re-
turned to his residence at Samarkand, and he left the war
with Kiptshak to his lieutenants ; he only appeared in the
field in A.H. 797 (A.D. 1315) in order to stop the progress of
Toktamish in the Caucasian countries. Meanwhile
troubles broke out in northern Persia, which were put down
by Timur's generals, who committed unheard-of cruelties,
especially in the town of Amul, where the whole tribe of
the Fedayis was massacred. Timur himself attacked
southern Persia after his first return from Kiptshak. The
country of Fars was governed by several princes of the
dynasty of Mozaffer, vassals of Timur, who aimed at inde-
pendence. After having occupied Loristan, Timur entered
Fars by the mountain-passes east of Shiraz, which were
defended by the stronghold of Kalai'-zefid ; but this for-
tress and the capital Sniraz were taken, the princes were
put to death or fell in battle, and Timur's son Mir&n-
Shah was invested with the government of Fars and Khu-
zistan. From Shiraz Timur marched westwards to attack
the king of Bagdad, Ahmed Jelair, of the house of Ilkhan.
Bagdad surrendered without resistance, and Sultan Ahmed
and his family fled towards the Euphrates, accompanied
by a small body of cavalry. Timur and forty-five emirs
mounted on the swiftest Arabian horses pursued the sultan,
and came up with him before he had reached the Eu-
phrates. In the engagement which ensued Ahmed was
again defeated and compelled to fly, leaving his harem and
one of his sons in the hands of the victor. The scholars
and artists of Bagdad were transplanted to Samarkand ;
Timur remained at Bagdad for two months, allowing so
little licence to his soldiers that he ordered all the wine
which was found in the town to be thrown into the Tigris.
During this time Kara-Yusuf, prince of Diyarbekir, had
recovered part of those districts round Lake Wan which
Timur had taken from him in a former campaign ; and se-
veral princes in Armenia and Georgia were still indepen-
dent. Timur resolved to bring them to submission, and
after having succeeded in this, to attack the kingdom of
Kiptshak on its boundaries in the Caucasus. Starting from
Bagdad in A.H. 797 (A.D. 1394), he marched to the Upper
302
T I M
468
I M
liv Tcknt, lloha or Ede«i*,Ho-s<i, and Keif, nil situ-
•.imia. lit- laid niece to Mardin, H
plant in (In- movintnin-pHwes south-. -,.~i < .'. but
.Mi- In t.lke It. l\<- contented himself with the
>oof an annual tribute which Sullnn Iza, thr
..red tn ]iay. ami In- marrhril In Divaibckir.
Tills town \\ii-. taken and plundered. From Diyarbckir
Tiiiuir mar. •!»•.! to Akhlat, north ol ,. eroding
the mountains, a.- it seems, by tin- passes of the Hedhs. or
Cfiitnt--.-. [Ti(.n \MK-KKTA.]' Alter having rabdued all
Armenia and Georgia, Timur rearhed the1 river Terek in
ills, and there fought another bloody battle willi
the khan ol Kiptshak. In v.iv l:t'i:> and 1 :»!)<; Timur con-
quered all Kiptshak. and pep. ;ar as M.
whereupon lie left the ronitnaml of these countries to his
lieutenants, and returned to Samarkand, in order to pre-
'..ir a. campaign ilia.
•i-r the deatli of I'irus-Shah. the master of India
•iie Indus and the Ganges, several pretenders
made claims to the vacant throne. At last Mahmud suc-
making himself master of Delhi, and in esta-
blishing his authority all over the empire of r'irns-Shah.
I'nder the ]iretext of supporting the ii\a!s of Mahmud,
Timur declared war against India ; and such was the re-
nown of his name, that ambassadors from all the countries
of the East arrived at Samarkand and congratulated him
on his new conquests before he had obtained any triumph.
Timur left his capital in A.M. 801 (A.D. 1398). He took
his way through the passes in the Ghur Mountains, or the
western part of the Hindu-Kush ; and on the Klh of Mo-
harrem. A.M. X01 (19th of September, 1398), he <
the Indus at Attock, where Alexander had entered India
f ALEXANPKK THE GREAT], and where Genghis Khan had
been compelled to give ii]) his plan of advancing farther.
Timur traversed the Punjab in a direction from north-west
to south-east, crossing the rivers Uchut. Chunab. Ra\ee, the
Beeali, the Hyphasis of the antienls, where Alexander ter-
minated his conquests, and the Sutlej, the easternmost of
the five treat rivers of the Punjab. Although no great
battle had been fought, the Tartars had already made
mere than 100,000 prisoners ; and as their number daily-
increased, Timur ordered them all to be massacred, to pre-
vent any mutiny, which might have become fatal to him
in case of a defeat. At last the Indian army was defeated
in a battle near Delhi, and this town, with all its immense
treasures, fell into the hands of the conqueror. Delhi was
plundered, and a part of it was destroyed, the inhabitants
having set fire to their houses, and thrown themselves
with their wives and children into the flames. Several
inds of artists and skilful workmen were transplanted
to Samarkand. Timur pin-sued the army of Mahmud as
far as the sources of the Ganges, and after having esta-
blished his authority in the conquered countries, returned
markand in the same year in which he had set out
for the conquest of India.
Meanwhile troubles had broken out between the vassal
princes in Persia and the countries west of it ; and Timur's
own sons, who were (fovernore of this part of his empire,
had attacked each other, and one of them was accused of
having made an attempt to poison his brother. These
events became as many occasions of new conquests for
Timur, who overran the whole country between Persia and
Syria. Siwas Scha-ste), one of the strongest towns of
Asia Minor, which belonged to the Osmanlis. was taken
after a siege of eighteen days. The Mohammedan
inhabitants were spared ; the Christians, among whom
were more than 4(HKI Armenian horsemen, were in-
I alive. \.ii.sut; A.D. 1400.) Among tl>.
•oners was Krtoghrul. the son of !iaya/id. sultan of the
Osmanlis, who defended the town for "his father, and who
wai put to death after a short captivity. The fall of
Siwas and the murder of Krtoghrul were the signals for
war i imur and Baya/id. who had filled I-
with the terror of hin name, and who was tin
• mtinoplc. The rapidity of his marches and the 1111-
-ity of his charges |iad procured him the surname of
1 lid. Tim,' or the ' Lightning •' and accustomed to \u
over the knights of Hungary, Poland, France, an.!
many, he did not dread the Tatars of Timur.
he h.id negotiated withTimnr about
Turkish emirs in Asia Minor, and especially about
(Armenia, a vassal of Timur, who hi'i.i
deprived by IJayazid of several of their bust towns, and
whom Timur protected. To humble his pride, Bayazid
imprisoned the Tatarian ambassadors, and Timur in rev •
carried de\astation into the dominion-- of the Osmanlis.
lieforc Baya/id had crossed the Ho-|>oni-, Timur. otl'cnded
by Fcrruj. Sultan of Kvypt. 'hen a depend-
ence of Kgypt. The aimy of Fcrmj was routed with dread-
ful slaughter at Haleb, and this populous town was taken
by tin -ho entered it with the flying F.gypt.
Plunder, blood-hed, and cruelties -ignali/.cd this new con-
que-t(llth to 14th of Kebuil-ew \val, A.H. Sl>:t : 3Olh of
October to 2nd of November. 1400 A.!).", which wa-
lowed by the fall of Damascus (9th of Sha'ban, A.H.
tilth of March. Mill . Aiti«1s and workmen w<-
earned off to Samarkand and other towns of Turk.
Ferruj became a vassal of the Tatars. Bagdad having
revolted, Timur took it by storm on the 27th of /ilkide,
•suj v.ic. i !Hh iif.luly. 1 !<>l" A.H. , and 00,000 human 1
.led up on the public places of the town.
Hitherto negotiations had still been earned on be'
Timur and Baya/id, who had adv. -meed into Asia Minor
with a well-disciplined although not very numerous army.
But Baya/id having discovered that lirnur had bribed
several regiments of Turkomans that were in the army of
tin- Osmanlis. the negotiations were broken oil', and the
two greatest conquerors of their time advanced to meet
each other in the field.
After the fate of Haleb, Damascus, and Bagdad, Timur
had assembled his army near Haleb, and. cro--mg the
range of the Taurus, he had proceeded north-wcstwaids
to the northern part of Anatolia. At Angora he met with
Baya/id. The battle, one of '.he moM eventful which
ever been fought, took place on the 1'Jth of Xilhiji
\.H. JHh of .Inly, 1402 A.D.). After an ob>tinatc :
ance the Osmanlis, who were much less numerous than the
Tatars, were routed. Old l!aya/id, to whom flight was un-
known, dcspUcd every opportunity of saving himself, and
so strong was the habit of victory in him, that he could
not conceive his defeat even when he saw the general rout
of his warriors. At the head of his janU-:irie«. H,
maintained himself on the top of a hill; his soldiers died
of thirst or fell by the sword and the arrows of the T
at last he was almost alone. When the niirht came her
tried to escape ; his horse fell, and Bayazid t
prisoner by the hand of Mahmud Khan, a descendant
of Genghis Khan, and who was umler-khan of Jauatai'.
One of his sons. Mu/a. was likewise made prisoner: another,
Mustafa, fell most probably in the battle, for he was never
more heard of; three others, Soliman, Mohammed, and
Iza, escaped with part of their troops. Timur received his
royal prisoner with kindness and generosity. Alter
when some faithful Osmanlis tried to save their master, he
was put into chains, but only at night. Accompanying
Timur on his march, he sat in a • kales.' that is. in a sedan
hanging between two horses, and this was the origin of
the fable that Timur had put Bayazid in an iron • -
like a wild beast, a table which has chiefly
'. 'd by Arabshah and the Byzantine Phran/cs i.. 0,
26). Bayazid died in his captivitv at Akshehr. about a
year after the battle of Angora (14tVi of Sha'l.an, sii:> v.n. ;
8th of March, 1403 A.D.), and Timur allowed Prince Mu/a
to carry the body of his father to Bnisa.
The- sons of Timur pursued the sons of liavax.i.l as far as
the Bosporus, but ha v ing nofleet, they did not cross this chan-
nel. Thc\ ravaged the country, and" afterwards joined llieir
father Tinmr. who with the main body of his army took
us and laid siege, to Smyrna. This town, which he-
1 to the Knightsof St. .lohn at Khoeles. fell alii r a gal-
OCe, in the month of December. 1-102. Ilo
the conquest of Asia Minor from the Osmanlis was einly a
temporary triumph, for a short time allcrwanis >•
n ru\|.red by Mohammed I., the son and successor of
the unfortunate Bayazid. After having thus carried his
arms as far as the shore of the Ionian Sea. Timur withdrew
to Persia to quell an insurrection, and then rctircel to Samar-
kand, lie was preparing for the conquest of I 'hina. but he
died on his inarch to that country, at Otraron the. la \artes, on
the 17th of ShaVm, 807 A.M. ..'I'.lth of February. I •!().") . in
e-nty-first year, after a reign of thirty-six years, leaving
thirty-six sons and grandsons, anil seveiitee-n giand-
claughters. A considerable pait of Timur's western and
northern conquests, Ar-ia Minor, llagelael. Syria, (uiirgia,
Armenia, and the whole kingdom of Kiptshak, were lo^t by
his successors almost immediately alter his death. In
T I N
469
T I N
Persia and Jagatai his descendants reigned for a century;
and for three centuries they ruled over Northern India
under the name of the Great Moguls.
Timur has been compared with Alexander, but he is far
below him. It is true, that except in India, Alexander
found only effeminate nations on his way, while Timur
fought with the most warlike nations of the world; but
the enemies of Alexander formed great political bodies
which were governed by one absolute master, while the
warlike nations which were subdued by Timur were divided
into a multitude of tribes and governed by numerous
princes, each of whom was jealous of his neighbour. Timur
overran the territory of two mighty nations, the Turks-
Osinanlis, and the latars of Kiptshak, but he was not able
to subdue them. Both Alexander and Timur protected
Hie arts and sciences, but Timur could only transplant
them by force from one place to another, while poets and
scholars flocked to Alexander because he could appreciate
their talents. Timur's cruelty was the consequence of his
savage and barbarous temper ; Alexander only forgot the
laws of humanity when he was overpowered by wine or by
.'in. Timur was a man of extraordinary talents, who ac-
complished great things after long experience and severe
struggles : Alexander, a true genius, came, saw, and van-
quished. The greatness of Timur inspires awe, and we
shrink from it with terror ; the greatness of Alexander
attracts us because it is adorned with the amiable qualities
of his character.
The life of Timur is the subject of many valuable works.
Sheref-ed-din-'Ali wrote the history of Timur in Persian,
which has been translated into French by Petis de la Croix,
under the title ' Histoire de Timur-Bec, connu sous le nom
du Grand Tamerlan,' &c., Paris, 1722. This is the best.
work concerning Timur, although the author often flatters.
Arabshah, a Syrian, on the contrary, depreciates the cha-
rt'-tei- of Timur; his history, or rather his epic, has
hern translated under the title ' Ahmedis Arabsiadae
Vita ct Rerum Gestarum Timuri qui vulgo Tamerlanes
dicitur, Historia,' Lugduni-Batavorum, 1636. Longdit,
Arirote de Molina, Petrus Perundinus Pratensis, Boekler,
Kicherius, &c., have also written the life of Timur.
Among the Byzantines, Ducas, Chalcondylas, and Phran-
• iintain many valuable accounts, though Phranzes
critical than the others. A very interesting book is
' Schildtbererer, eine Wunderbarliche und Kurzweilige His-
toric,' &c.,4to. The same book was translated into modern
German by Penzel, Miinchen, 1813. Schildtberger, a
German soldier, was made prisoner by the Turks in
the battle of Nicopolis (139G), when he was only sixteen
years old. In the battle of Angora he was taken by
the Tatars, and became a kind of secretary to Shahrokh
and Miran-Shah, the sons of Timur. He finally returned
to Gei many in 1427, after a captivity of thirty years, and
then wrote the history of his adventures.
Gibbon gives a splendid view of Timur's conquests in
the 'Decline and Fall,' chap. Ixv. Another most valuable
work is Clavijo, ' Historia del gran Tamerlan, e Itineiario,"
&c. Clavijo, ambassador of king Henry III. of Castile at
the court of Timur, was present at the battle of Angora.
' I, ll'mtniri" <l«x llunx, vol. ii.) Timur may be
( -onsidered as the author of the ' Tufukat, or the Code of
Laws.' This work was originally written in the East-
Turkish language, and was translated into Persian. The
Persian version, with an English translation and a most
valuable index, was published by Major Davy and Professor
White, Oxford, 1783, 4to. ; and Langles has translated the
,n version into French, under the title, 'Instituts
Politiques et Militaires de Tamerlan,' Paris, 1787. This
work is of great importance for the history of Timur ; we
at this Tatarian conqueror was provided with maps
and works concerning geography, which were composed
by his order.
TIN. This metal is one of those which were earliest
known, though it occurs in comparatively few countries :
mtance of the antients with this metal, though
' occur in the native state, is accounted for by
iiTiunstdtices that the ore is found frequently near the,
i''e, and is easily reduced by charcoal and a moderate
degree of heat to the state of meial.
AI-. !ius, tin is found in England, Saxony,
Bohemia, Hungary, the isle of Banca, the peninsula of
Malacca, in chili" M-J\ .Mexico: Malacca furnishes the
purest tin, and Cornwall the largest quantity.
Tin occurs in two states of combination, the peroxide
and double sulphuret of tin and copper: this last is rath IT
a rare substance, and it is from the former that the metal
is almost entirely obtained.
The peroxide of tin is found in Cornwall in two forms : —
1. In veins in primitive countries, where it is intimately
mixed with several other metals, as arsenic, copper, zinc-,
and tungsten : this is common tinstone. 2. In loose
rounded masses, grains, or sand in alluvial soil, in which
state it is called stream-tin. The former, when reduced to
the metallic state, yields block-tin ; while the latter yields
grain-tin, which is the purer of the two.
Oxide of Tin — Tinstone — Occurs in attached and im-
bedded crystals, and massive. Primary form a square
prism, which is commonly terminated by four-sided pyra-
mids. Cleavage parallel to the lateral planes and both
diagonals. Fracture uneven or imperfectly, conchoidal.
Hardness 6 to 7 : gives sparks with steel, and is brittle.
Colour white, yellow of various shades, red, brown, and
black. Streak paler. Lustre adamantine, vitreous. Trans-
parent, translucent, opaque. Specific gravity 6-96. In-
soluble in acids. Before the blow-pipe, in powder on
charcoal, it is reduced to the metallic state. Fine crystals
of this substance occur, more especially in Cornwall and
Saxony.
Analysis of the oxide of tin of Cornwall by Klaproth : —
Tin ... 77-5
Oxygen
Iron
Silica
21-5
0-25
100-0
The Masiii'i' Varieties of (aide of tin are called stream-
tin. What is termed wood-tin is found in reniform and
botryoidal masses, or in wedge-shaped pieces, which have
arisen from their partial destruction : the surfaces are gene-
rally water-worn. Wood-tin exhibits various shades of
brown, which sometimes appear in concentric bands,
giving it a ligneous appearance, whence its name.
Stream-tin has evidently been derived from the de-
struction of tin veins or "lodes, the lighter portions of
stony matter having been carried away by the water,
which has rounded the fragments of the ore.
At Finbo in Sweden oxide of tin has been met with
containing nearly 2' 5 per cent, of oxide of columbium.
Tin Pyrites. — Stilphuret of Tin, a double Sulphuret of
Tin and Copper, is a rare substance, having been found
only in Cornwall at Huel Rock, in the parish of St.
Agnes.
Occurs crystallized and massive. Primary form of the
crystal a cube. Cleavage parallel to the faces of the pri-
mary form. Fracture uneven, with a metallic lustre.
Hardness : readily scratched and reduced to powder ;
brittle. Colour steel-grey, mixed with yellow. Specific
gravity 4-3.").
Massive Variety. — Fracture granular and uneven, with
a metallic lustre. Hardness 4. Brittle. Opaque. Spe-
cific gravity 4'35 to 4'76.
Analysis by Klaproth : —
Tin .... 34
Copper . . 36
Iron .... 2
Sulphur ... 25
97
Having now described the ores, we proceed to state the
Properties of Tin. — This metal is of a silver-white
colour, very soft, and so malleable that, it may be re-
duced into leaves l-1000th of an inch thick, called tin-
foil : it suffers but little change by exposure to the air,
and that which does occur arises rather from impure sul-
phurous vapours than from oxidation ; for it is not oxidized
even by the combined action of air and moisture. Its
tenacity is but slight, so that a wire l-15th of an inch in
diameter is capable of supporting only about 31 pounds :
a bar a quarter of an inch in diameter was broken by 296
pounds weight. Tin is inelastic, but very flexible, and
when bent it produces a peculiar crackling noise. When
rubbed it imparts to the fingers a peculiar smell, which
remains for a considerable time. Its specific gravity is
about 7-29; at 442" Fahr. it fuses, and if exposed at
the same time to the air, its surface is tarnished by oxi-
dizement, and eventually a grey powder is formed. When
T I N
470
T I N
to whiteness it takes fire, and burns with a white
fUme, an.! :tcdinto; . tin. If slowly
•11, il exhibits a crystalline »p]>
nut Tin do not readily combine at common
unite in three proportions, |., ruling
If. sometimes called acid, tlir sesqui-
.er-or bin-oxide, riri|ui-ntly termed stannic
•:n cannot he proeuud perfectly pure
.rtion: the best niclhoil ,11; it' is to
•!' protochloride of tin. fvn]ionito it
mill then t lit unite it in a mortar with
.!'i/.ed curb -la. which decomposes
d le:ive-i tile protoxide of tin.
\Yhcn th i washed, and dried run-fully on the
if ;i fine bluish-hlai k colour, is very soluble
in hydrochloric ncid, and when heated in the air it takes
fin-. "burns, :»nd is converted into peroxide: the d'-usity of
\ideoftin isU-GGC: it is soluble in solution ol potash
:mil soda, hut not in ammonia, nor do the alkaline carbo-
it. It N composed of —
( )ne equivalent of oxygen . . 8
One equivalent of tin . . . ">S
Equivalent . . 66
The alkaline solutions of this oxide gradually deposit
metallic- tin. mid peroxide remains in solution. Its salts
icadily absorb oxygen from the air, and form corn-
Is which readily yield oxygen; and it is on this
ai-eount tliat it converts the scsquioxidc of iron into prot-
oxide, and precipitates silver, mercury, and platimi in
their metallic, state. With gold a purple compound is
d, known by the name of the purple powder ol
1'he hydrate of this oxide of tin is white.
' Tin is formed by mixing fresh precipi-
tated and moist hydrate of peroxide of iron with a solution
of protochloride of tin, as free as possible from hydro-
chloric acid : by the mutual action of these substances a
slimy grey matter is thrown down, which is generally
slightly yellow, from the of a little peroxide o
iron, "it'is composed of —
( )ne equivalent and a half of oxygen 12
One equivalent of tin . . 58
Equivalent . . 70
It is soluble in hydrochloric acid, and also in ammonia
which last property distinguishes it from the protoxide
and it is distinguished from the peroxide by giving a
purple precipitate with the salts of gold.
J'i ' "!'• "f Tin, in- Maniiir Arid. — This i
readily prepared by the action of strong nitric acid slightly
diluted upon tin: violent action occurs, and the binoxidi
formed remains in the state of hydrate : after washing and
drying and exposure to a red neat, the binoxide remain
pure, and is of a straw-yellow colour : the pcrchloride o
tin, when decomposed liy an alkali, also yields binoxide o
tin : when it has been rendered red-hot it is quite in
soluble in acids, and acts as an acid by forming solubl
compounds with the alkalis, which are called ttanimlrx
the moistened hydrate acts as an acid also in reddeniiiL,
litmus-paper, when melted with glass it forms a whit
enamel.
It is composed of—
Two equivalent* of oxygen . . ie
equivalent, of tin ... 58
Kqmvalent . . 71
f'hlnrini' unil Tin combine to form the protochlorid
and the pcrchloridp. The protochloride is pn-paied li
dimtolving the metal in hot hydrochloric acid till tl
lution nl hydn ascs : the solution i
and deposits crystals, which -ometimes arc ncicii1.
at others prisms" of considerable size. They consist of—
One equivalent of chlorine .
One equivalent of tin . . . ~M
Three equivalents of water . . -J7
Kquivalent . • 1-1
When heated to about 212°. the whole of the
a exiielled: nt a higher temperature hydrochlon
I. an. I oxiehloride of tin remains. It i
soluble in a ninall quanli . but decomposed 1.
» large quantity, oxiehloride of tin being prccipitat
The protochloride of tin is used as a nioidant in ca
rrintiiig. and in chemical i .1 de-oxidi
rting ill the mode ah ulrvd.
1'rotoehloride of tin may I i by distilling a
nixture of equal weigh! i tin and bieh!
>!' mercury, or of protochloilde of inereuiy. or liy I
nitting hydrochloric acid ga< over tin healed in a
uhe ; in all these ca.-i . and
s a grey solid, of a resinous lustre, which I-. icd-
16M anil sublimes at a high temperature.
Itir/ii /':,•/ may be prepared in several mn
.ir.-t. by heating the ]irotoeliloride ill chlorin
-..King tile hydrated peroxide ill hydrochloric acid;
third, by putting tin into the mixture of hydrochloric and
litric acid, called uijuti rrffiii, which yieli
line ; fourth, when a mixture of 1 part of tin with -1 :
of bichloride of mercury is distilled with a gentle heat, a
colourless limpid liquid is obtained, which fumes strongly
in moist air; this is the bichloride of tin, formerly ki
by the name of the fuming liquor of I.ibavins : it boils at
•j'lH". is. rendered solid by the addition of one third of
its weight of water, and dissolves in a larger quantity : by
the action of alkalis it is decomposed, hjdrated j
tin being precipitated.
It consists of —
Two equivalents of chlorine 72
One equivalent of tin . . ")S
Equivalent^ . . 130
A solution of this salt under the name of mtromuriate of
tin is extensively used in dyeins; and calico-pin, i
>V//j/i«r and fin combine in three proportions : the ];ro-
tosulphuret is prepared by adding to melted tin ai: equal
weight of sulphur, and stirring the mixture till combina-
tion is effected; the product is to be powdered when cold,
mixed with an equal weight of sulphur, and thrown in
small portions into a hot crucible and eventually heated
to redness. Its properties are. that it is of a bluish-black
colour, has a metallic lustre, fuses at a red heat, and when
cooled has a lamellated texture. When bydrotulphurio
acid ::as is passed into a solution of protochloride of tin, a
similar compound is obtained ; hydrochloric acid dissolves
proto.sulpluuet of tin with the evolution of hydrosulphurie
acid gas, a solution of the protochloride of tin being
Conned*
It is composed of —
One equivalent of sulphur . 16
One equivalent of tin . . 58
Equivalent . . 74
Sesqiiixiiljilniri't if Tin. — To prepare this, finely pow-
dered protosulphuret of tin is to be mixed with a third of
icht of sulphur, and the mixture is to be heated to
moderate redness until sulphur is no ion'jvr volatilized.
It has a deep greyish-yellow colour, and when strongly
heated is reconverted to the state of protosulphuret;
when heated in hydrochloric acid, hydrosulphurie iras is
given out.
It is constituted of —
One and a half equivalent of sulphur -I
One equivalent of tin
Kquivalent . . . S'J
JliMi/ji/niri't "f Tin may be prepared in diil'erent in
when hydi-osiilphuric acid or hvdrosulphatc of ammonia is
added to a solution of bichloride of t.m.a bulky precipitate
of a dirty yellow colour is obtained ; this is hydralcd bisul-
phuret of liu : in the dry way it is procured D] heating in
a retort twelve parts of tin amalgamated with .six p.,.
mercury, rubbed up with seven parts of sulphur Mi
of hydrochlorate of ammonia; the mercury facilitati
combination of the tin and sulphur, and the ammoniaeal
salt, 1 iiation, appears to prevent the 1<
becoming so high as to decompose the bisulphuiet of tin
formed. This substance, formerly known to the alche-
mists by the name of .•turn/it nniMriuii, or ,'d, is
in crystalline scales, and sonietu nle plates, of a
golden-yellow colour and metallic lustre. It is not soluble
in any aeid, but mi-eent chlorine, in the form of what was
I'oimerly called <njii:i i-i'ain, dissolves il : it is soluble also
in solution of potash and soda, forming what. 1m. c been
called suli
T I N
It consists of —
Two equivalents of sulphur
One equivalent of tin
471
T I N
32
58
Equivalent . . 90
Phosphuret of Tin is readily formed by adding phosphorus
to the melted metal ; it is of a silvery-white colour, am
soft enough to be cut with the knife. After fusion it crys-
tallizes on cooling ; when thrown upon a red-hot coal, the
phosphorus burns. This compound does not appear to havi
been accurately analyzed; but when phosphuretted hydro-
gen is made to act upon a solution of protochloride of tin,
a terphosphuret is formed, which is readily oxidized by the
action of the air.
It consists of —
Three equivalents of phosphorus 48
One equivalent of tin . . 58
Equivalent . . IOC
I'ulides rif Tin.— To prepare the protiodide, two parts of
granulated tin are to be heated witn five parts of iodine ;
the resulting iodide is a red translucent substance, very
fumble, soluble in water, and volatile at a high tempera-
ture.
It consists of —
One equivalent of iodine . 126
One equivalent of tin . 58
Equivalent . . 184
The Periodic!/' nf Tin is formed by dissolving the
hydrated peroxide of tin, precipitated by an alkali from
the solution of the bichloride, in hydriodic acid ; it forms
crystals of a silky lustre, which are resolved by boiling
water into peroxide of tin and hydriodic acid.
X • A •niiiri't i if Till. — When tin is fused with selenium,
they combine with the evolution of light. The compound
formed is a spongy mass, of a grey colour and metallic
lustre ; when heated, selenium is expelled and peroxide of
tin remains.
OXISALTS OF TIN.
Protonitrate of Tin is formed by dissolving either the
metal or the protoxide in dilute nitric acid ; a yellow un-
cry^allizable solution is obtained ; by exposure to the air
it absorbs oxygen, and peroxide of tin is precipitated.
It is probably composed of —
One equivalent of nitric acid . 54
One equivalent of protoxide of tin 66
Equivalent . . . 120
fprnitrate of Tin. — When tin is acted upon by strong
nitric acid, the peroxide formed remains entirely insoluble
in the acid ; to procure the pernitrate it is best to cause the
hydrated peroxide to dissolve in dilute nitric acid. The
solution is colourless and yields no crystals ; when diluted
or heated, it is rendered turbid.
Xiiijihiiti-f i if Tin. — By boiling excess of tin in sulphuric
acid, a solution is obtained from which colourless acicular
..Is of sulphate of tin are deposited. When, on the
other hand, tin is boiled in excess of sulphuric acid, or
hydrated peroxide of tin is dissolved in the acid, persul-
phate of tin is obtained in solution, but it cannot be made
to crystallize.
Carbonate of Tin. — When carbonate of potash is added
to protochloride of tin, a white precipitate is formed, which,
supposing it to contain carbonic acid while moist, loses it
during washing and drying ; it appears therefore that a
permanent carbonate of this metal is not attainable.
I'hoxphates of Tin. — When phosphate of soda is added to
a solution of protochloride of tin, an insoluble white pre-
cipitate of protophosphate is obtained ; the perphosphate,
also an insoluble colourless precipitate, may be procured
by adding the phosphate of soda to a solution of perchlo-
nde of tin.
Having described the principal and best known oxisalts
of tin, we shall mention the characters of the salts of tin,
as given by Dr. Thomson ; they are as follows : — The proto-
salts of tin are white, and the solutions of them are usually
colourless ; their taste is astringent and metallic, and
highly disagreeable ; when in solution, they rapidly absorb
oxygen, and are converted into the corresponding per-
salts.
When a plalc of lead or zinc is put into a solution of
tin, it is thrown down in the metallic state. Ferrocyanide
of potassium occasions a white gelatinous precipitate when
dropped into these solutions, and sulphuret of potassium
occasions a coffee-brown precipitate in the salts of the
protoxide of tin ; but neither gallic acid nor infusion of
galls occasions any precipitate. When chloride of gold is
poured into solutions of protoxide of tin, a purple-coloured
precipitate falls. A solution of potash throws down a
white precipitate, which dissolves in excess of tHI alkali
If the solution be boiled, a black powder falls, which is
metallic tin ; while a compound of peroxide of tin and
potash remains in solution. Ammonia throws down a
white precipitate, not soluble in excess of the alkali.
ALLOYS OF TIN.
Most of the malleable metals are rendered brittle by
alloying with tin ; it combines readily with potassium and
sodium, forming brilliant white alloys, which are less
fusible than tin ; the potassium alloy burns readily when
it contains more than one-fifth of potassium. With
arsenic it forms a metallic mass which is whiter, harder,
and more sonorous than pure tin. With antimony tin
forms a white, hard, and sonorous alloy. Bismuth forms
with tin an alloy which is more fusible than either of
the metals separately, a mixture of equal weights melt-
ing at 212° ; this compound is hard and brittle. Copper
and tin form alloys which are well known and highly use-
ful ; they are bell-metal and bronze. With mercury tin
readily amalgamates, and the compound is used for silver-
ing mirrors. With iron tin forms white compounds which
are more or less fusible according to the proportion of
iron they contain ; tinplate is of all the alloys of tin the
most useful, and the preparation of this and of pewter are
the most extensive applications of this very valuable
metal.
TIN, MANUFACTURE OF. Under this head may
be noticed, first, the processes required to bring tin into a
marketable state, embracing the smelting and refining of
the metal ; secondly, the manufacture of tin-ware, or of
articles of tin-plate ; and, thirdly, a few of the manufac-
tures of compound metals in which tin forms the principal
ingredient. The process of TINNING, or of covering plates
of iron, the inner surfaces of vessels of iron or copper, &c.,
with a thin coat of tin, forms the subject of a separate
article.
Smelting and Refining of Tin ; preparation of Block
and Grain Tin. — The processes by which tin-ores are me-
chanically separated from the grosser impurities which are
usually found with them, and broken into fragments con-
venient for the subsequent operations, are briefly noticed
in the article MINING, vol. xv.,. pp. 244 and 245. After
being thus reduced to a coarse powder, the ore is roasted
or calcined in a reverberatory furnace, until it ceases to
exhale arsenical vapours, by which, together with some
subsequent processes, it is further cleansed from the admix-
ture of foreign matter and prepared for smelting. A very full
account of all the processes connected with the prepara-
:ion and smelting of tin-ore, as practised about sixty years
since, is given in the ' Mineralogia Cornubiensis ' of Pryce,
of Redruth ; but, although most of the processes are still
performed with little alteration, we have depended more
;br the following account of them upon an extensive
article on ' Tin,' in Dr. Ure's recently published ' Dic-
tionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines,' in which the
previous operations of mining are also minutely described.
The ores of tin raised in Cornwall and Devonshire are
always reduced, or smelted, within those counties, their
exportation being prohibited ; but this arrangement is
stated not to be injurious to private interests, because the
vessels which bring the fuel from Wales for the smelting-
furnaces return to Swansea and Neath laden with copper-
ores. The smelting-works do not generally belong to the
proprietors of the mines, but to other parties who pur-
chase the ore from them, their value being determined by
a kind of assay. When several bags of ore, of nearly uni-
ibrm quality, are taken to the smelting-works, a small
sample is taken from each, and these samples, after being
tended together, are mixed with about four per cent, of
ground coal, placed in an open earthen crucible, and
leated in an air-furnace until the ore is reduced. As the
\irnace is made very hot before the crucible is introduced,
;he assay is finished in about a quarter of an hour ; after
which the melted metal is poured into a mould, and the
drossy substances which remain in the crucible are pounded
T I N
472
T I N
in * mortar, in oi.k: to separate, and to add to the ingot,
•ny minute granules of tin remaining :.mong Hum. Dr.
In fusing tlir on-, mixed with five per rent, of ground
i a crucible liui-il with hard-rammed char-
coal. A gentle hi-at should In- applied to the rrurible
during the first hour. 11 stronger heat during the m
hour, i*d, finally, an intense heat for a quarter of an hour.
tit from four to five per edit, more
tin than tin1 oilier ; but it is .-tated that it IIILS the incon-
\fiiieiiee oi' reducing the iron, if any 1 . which
, lent solution in nitric
aciil. 1 milted, would be too
.1* for ordinar)- adoption, as the smelter may have
.1 samples in one day; and that fust
.iied. wlulc imperfeet iii a chemical point of view,
U :i similar result to that nv.Uised by the smelter On a
large scale.
The smelting of tin-ores is effected by two different
methods, whieh may be briefly deseribed by staling that in
the (ir>t and most common, the ore, previously mixed with
I'ulin, is expo>ed to heat upon the health of a icvcrbcratory
furuaee. in which ])it-eoal is used as fuel ; while in the
.1. whieh is applied merely to strriim tin (the tin
procured from stream-works \ and which is followed in
order to obtain tin of the finest quality, the ore is fused in
a blast-furnace, called a blowing-house, in which wood-
charcoal is used for fuel.
In the former process the prepared ore, which is called
h. is mixed with from one-fifth to one-eighth of its
weight of powdered anthracite, or culm, to which a little
slaked lime or fluor-spar is sometimes added as a flux.
These substances are carefully blended together, and a
little water is added to the mixture to facilitate the opera-
tion of charging the furnace, and to prevent the charge
I: om being blown away by the draft at the commencement
of the smelting process. From twelve to sixteen cwt. of
the above mixture forms an ordinary charge : but in the
smcltiiig-furnaces at St. Austle, or Austell, in Cornwall, of
which rcpicsciitations are given by Dr. Ure, each charge
amounts to from fifteen to twenty-four cwt. The charge
is -;>read ujwn the concave hearth of the furnace, and then
the apertures by whieh it is inserted are closed and luted,
and tiie furnace is gradually heated, and kept hot for six
or eight boms, by which time the reduction of the ore is
"omplete. The gradual application of the required tem-
peiature i- necessary to prevent the tin oxide from uniting
with the quartz of II. or refuse poition of tl
and forming a kind of enamel. \Vheii the fusion or reduc-
tion of the ere is considered to be finished, one of the
apertures of the furnace is opened, and the melted mass is
I it]) to complete the separation of the tin from the
'lieh aie then drawn out by means of an iron
rake. These bcoii;r consist principally of masses of lel'use
matter from which no more tin can be profitably extracted.
and which are therefore immediately thrown awax : but
among them are pieces which yet retain a consiuYiablc
quantity of tin, and which are separated and resei .
further pro So soon as these refuse matters are re-
moved, a channel is opened, by which the melted tin (lows
from the hearth into a large vessel called the basin of
•lion, where it is allowed to rest for some time, in
order that the impurities vet remaining with the
separate, by their different specific gravities. \Vlieii
it ha.s si tiled, the tin is ladled into moulds, so as to form it
into large blocks or i
The ingots produced b) the above process frequently
contain po iron, copper, .:
together with small quantities of sulphurets and avsciiiurcl.s
that have escaped decomposition, unreduced oxide of tin,
and earth-. which have not pa-scd off with the
•corite. To remove these the tin is
to the process of njnting, whieh conmii ir cs h\ plaeinir
the block* or ingots on the hearth of a second revcrbc-
ratory furnace, similar to that used ng the1 me.
and applxing a moderate heat, which causes the tin to
melt, and to flow into a basin provided for it. leaving upon
the health a residuum whieh consist, ol a vcix ferruginous
alloy. Fresh blocks ar<' then placed in t .with-
out removing the unmcltcd remains of the foiiuer, until
about five tons of tin have flowed into the basin. This
part of tl .-i ned a ////H.I//-/H. and is followed
by Uie actual refining, which is usually effected by plung-
ing billets Of gfMn WOOd into the melted tin in the refining
basin, by n;t apparatus erected bx it. The' heat
us the di- Me vohim
•n the wood, and thus a kind of ebullition is pro-
duced in the tin, which causes the lighter impuriti<
the Mil luce in a trolhy form, and the heavier to fall
to the bottom. The froth or scum, which consists chiefly
of the oxides of tin and foreign metals, is slummed oil'
and returned into the furnace ; and when the 1m is suffi-
, boiled, the green wood is lifted out. and the v
is allowed to settle, ill doing which the purest tin n
the top. that with a trifling admixture of
remains in the middle, while the foule.st portion
to the bottom. \Vlienthc mass 1. iconics so cool that no
Imther separation can take place, the tin is again ladled
into moulds: the quality of the blocks thus produced
varxing according to tin- order in whieh the n
filled. The blocks formed from : part of the tin
aie usually so impure as to need a repetition of the K lining
process. The operation as above dcscrib,
or six hours; of which the first is occupied in tillim-
basin, the three following in boiling the tin with the billets
of wood, and the remaining time in subsidence. A Bl
effect is sometimes produced by an operation called
in'j. in which, instead of the ebullition produced b
green wood, the mass of melted tin is agitated by a work-
man repeatedly lifting a quantity of tin in a ladle, ar.i:
ting it fall iiito the basin fiom a considerable height.
After continuing this agitation for some time, the M.
is skimmed carefully : and if the upper part of the tin be
yet too impure for the market, the refining is ren.
more perfect In keeping the metal in a fr.scd slate, wilh-
out agitation, until the impurities sej nslx.
After refining, the tin is cast into blocks of about thicc
cwt. each. The moulds used for this purpose aie fre-
quently made of granite ; and the tin thus prepared i-
as blw-k tin. From avciy remote period, almost to the
it time, a duty was paid upon all tin raised in Corn-
wall to officers appointed by the duchy, who required all
blocks, before being sent to market, to be taken to them
for the purpose of being r-jiii<-tl. or marked with a distin-
guishing stamp. The mode of collecting the duty on tin
was very inconvenient, as it required all tin to be cast inlo
blocks ibr coining, although it might have to
quently re-cast into some' other form for sale in foreign
markets: besides which the miner or smelter had to bear
the expense of sending it to one of the places appointed
for coining, and the inconvenience of waiting for one of
the periodical coinages, xvhieh were usually three months
These duties weie abolished by 1 Jsi 12 Viet .
120, which set lies a peipi-tnal annuity on the duchy of
Cornwall equal to the axciuge produce of the. tin i:
for ten years previous to its coming into operation.
It. has been stated that the' richer
left by the process of smelting; is reserved for further opera-
tions. Such as contain small grains of tin among tin
or refuse are taken to a stamping-mill, and broken and
washed in a similar manner to the ore : while those which
contain much tin are re-smelted without any previous pre-
paration. From these scoriic. which aie called pri/liun*
an inferior kind of tin is produced bx a second smelting.
The inferiority of this product max lie readily imagined,
observes Dr. I're. since the metal which forms the granu-
lations among the scoria' is what, being less fusible than
.re tin, solidified quickly, and could not flow off into
the metallic bath, or basin Of reception. The <
siduiim of the i efining fuinace is fused b\ incrcasii:
file alter the removal ol the refined tin. and is then run
out into a separate basin, in which it is allowc :
The upper poition is then cast into mouM • tin,
which needs a second refilling, and the int.
mixli. - deposited on the bottom
in the form of a brittle white alloy, with
line fi act lire, which contains so large a pro;
•ii metals that no use is made of it.
The average quality of the tin-on'. the
smelting-turnaccs, is such that 'JO \n\, I from 12J
to 13 parts of metallic tin. or fiom •
and the quantity of coal required for producing
•SoDl.rr.-; lull i ,<•- ll'.f w linl
pillion, or jtilliim-ti»t ntl't .i.
I! [ illu->!1 ''"-' buiuc/"*i7/ U) ci<]>|>cr ill >.
T I N
473
T I N
tin is about a ton and three-quarters. Respecting thi
time when this economical fuel was substituted for wood
charcoal in the smelting of tin-ores, authorities are at va-
riance. Pryce, in his ' Mineralogia Cornubiensis,' p. 282,
says that ' Necessity at last suggested the introduction o
pit-coal for the smelting of tin-ore, and, among others, to
Sir Bevil Granville, of Stow, in this county (Cornwall)
temp. Car. I., who made several experiments, though with-
out success ;' and he adds that the ' effectual smelting o
tin-ore with pit-coal' did not take place till the seconc
year of Queen Anne, ' when a Mr. Liddell, with whom
Mr. Moult, a noted chemist, was concerned, obtained her
majesty's patent for smelting block tin with fossil coal in
iron furnaces.' ' The invention of reverberatory furnaces
built with brick, stone, sand, lime, and clay, soon followed
this discovery ; the form of which,' he states, writing about
1778, ' has admitted little improvement to the present
time.' Holland, after observing that the commencement
of this important substitution is generally supposed to
have been about 1680, states that the question as to the
discovery of the fitness of pit-coal for the purpose lies
between Pryce's account, as above cited, and that of Becher
(whose name he incorrectly gives Beecher), an ingenious
German who, in consequence of persecutions in his own
country, visited England in the reign of Charles II., and
introduced several improvements in the art of mining ; and
he quotes a passage, but without referring to his authority,
in which Becher claims for himself the credit of the in-
troduction of coal for smelting tin. Whatever may have
been the precise time or manner of this improvement, its
importance is indisputable ; and such is the effect of the
superior economy of this and other metallurgic operations
as performed in England, that experiment has shown the
possibility of bringing tin-ore from the Malay countries to
this island for the purpose of smelting, and sending the
tin back to the East at a lower price than it can be pro-
duced for on the spot.
The smelting or reduction of tin by the blast-furnace,
with wood-charcoal, is practised on a limited scale for the
production of tin of the greatest possible purity. The
fim-t ores supplied by stream-works, and the finer tin
sands, are selected for this operation, and as these are free
from many of the impurities found in other ores, they do
not require calcination. The works in which blast-fur-
naces are employed are commonly called blowing-houses.
The furnaces used are about six feet high, from the con-
cave hearth to the throat, or commencement of the long
narrow chimney, which, after proceeding for some distance
in an oblique direction, contains a chamber in which the
metallic dust' carried off by the blast is deposited. The
furnace is lined with a vertical cylinder of cast-iron, coated
internally with loam ; and it has an opening called the
liii/f-rc near the bottom, by which the blast is introduced,
i ither from large bellows or from cylinders. No substance
is added to the ore and charcoal, unless it be the residuary
matter of a previous smelting ; and the proportion of char-
coal consumed is about one ton and six-tenths for every
ton of tin produced. The melted tin runs from the furnace
into an open basin, whence it is run off into a large vessel
in which it is allowed to settle. The scoriae which run
with the metal into the basin of reception are skimmed
off, and separated into two portions, one consisting of such
as retain tin oxide, and the other of such as have no oxide,
but contain tin in a granulated state. The subsequent
operations of refining by allowing the mass of metal to
rest, and then submitting the upper and purer portion to
the refining basin, and re-melting the lower part, and of
agitating the tin by the green-wood ebullition, are much
the same as with block tin prepared in a reverberatory fur-
nace with pit-coal. In order to convert the blocks of tin
produced by the blast-furnace process into the form known
a* grain tin, or, according to the more appropriate French
term, (tain en larmes, ' tears of tin,' they are heated until
they become brittle, and made to fall from a considerable
height in a semi-fluid state, thus producing an agglomerated
mas» of elongated grains.
From a comparison of the results of the two methods of
smelting above described, Dr. Ure shows that the rever-
beratory furnace with pit-coal occasions less loss of metal
than the blast-furnace, and is by far the most economical.
To produce a ton of metal by the former process requires,
v before stated, a ton and three-quarters of pit-coal, while
a ton and six-tenths of wood-charcoal is consumed in pro-
P. C., No. V
ducing the like quantity of metal by the blast-furnace ;
and as one ton of wood-charcoal is about equivalent, in
calorific effect, to two tons of pit-coal, the difference in
favour of the reverberatory plan is very great. The supe-
rior quality of the tin produced by the other process is
attributable partly to the greater purity of the fuel, and
partly to the finer quality of the ore selected for the pur-
pose.
Manufacture of Tin-ware. — It is unnecessary here to enu-
merate the various purposes to which tin is applied in the
useful arts, either as an ingredient in many useful alloys, for
which its ready fusibility, its cleanliness, and its beautiful
appearance render it especially valuable, or as the basis of
chemical compounds used in dyeing, &c. It is rarely
employed alone in our metalline manufactures, but when
laid in a thin coat upon the surface of sheet-iron by the
process of TINNING, it produces a material of such exten-
sive use in the manufacture of culinary and other articles,
that a more detailed notice may be given. Holland ob-
serves that in this country the greater portion of the tin
used in the manufacture of articles composed exclusively
of that metal is that which is expanded by rolling or ham-
mering, or by a combination of the two operations into
leaves or sheets barely one-thousandth part of an inch in
thickness, under the name of tin-foil. This is the sub-
stance which is laid upon the back of glass mirrors, and
there amalgamated with mercury, so as to form what is
called the silvering.
The art of tin-plate working, or of forming sheets of
tinned iron into an almost endless variety of useful vessels
and utensils, depends more, observes the author just cited,
on the manual dexterity of the workman than upon any
peculiarity in the tools which he requires, which are few
and simple, consisting of bench and hand-shears, mallets
and hammers, steel heads and wooden blocks, soldering-
iron and swages. In the formation of a vessel the first
operation is to cut the plate to the proper size and form
with shears ; and when the dimensions of the article re-
quire it, to join them together, which is done either by
simply laying the edge of one plate over that of the other,
and then soldering them together, or by folding the edges
together with laps, and then soldering them. Similar joints
are required when gores or other pieces are to be inserted,
and also at the junction by which a cylinder is closed in.
The usual method of forming laps, bends, or folds for this
or other purposes is to lay the plate over the edge of the
bench, and to bend it by repeated strokes with a hammer ;
but as it is impossible by this means to make the bend as
even, or at as true an angle as is desirable, Mr. J. Basset,
of Birmingham, contrived a simple and effectual apparatus
Tor the purpose, for which he was rewarded by the Society
of Arts in 1831. An end view of this apparatus is given
in the subjoined cut, in which a a represents a metal block
screwed down firmly to a bench, and having a longitudinal
cylindrical cavity, within which is laid a long iron cylinder,
:he end of which is distinguished in the cut by a tint. The
liameter of the cylinder is such that it will turn freely
upon its axis within the cavity in which it lies, and which
las a slit or opening about half an inch wide along the top
if the cylinder at b. A squared axis projects from each
nd of the cylinder to receive a handle c c , which, when
he instrument is at rest, lies in an horizontal position, and
s supported by the block d. These handles are not fixed
the square axes of the cylinder, but are capable of being
VOL. XXIV.— 3 P
T I N
474
T I \
taken off and put on a^nin in any position of the cylinder, |
the length of whi -h -li..,iM be equal to that of the K
lap* or bcnd». Longitudinal ruts, •••
the edge of a tin-plate, arc mail.- in the cylinder from the
circti: 'ivards the centre to any required depth or ;
•tan) mglc, as at b, t. nnd /." In order to make
a right -angled Inp, such as is shown in the marginal figure
G, the c\ Under is turned into the position shown in tho
figure, with one of the radial cuts under the longitudinal
opening in the block a a ; the handles nre put on, and the
edge of the tin-plate g it inserted in the uppermost slit in
the cylinder. The handles are. then moved in the direction
indicated by the arrow and dotted lines, and the plate is
forced to assume the position of the dotted lines K', re-
ceiving at the some time the required lap or bend. By
returning the handles towards their original position, the
plate may be easily removed. If, in addition to the making
of the lap, the plate is to be bent so as to form a hollow
cylinder or tube, the motion of the handles is continued
until the cylinder is turned completely round, by which
means the plate will be wrapped or rolled round it. The
cavity in the block a a is made large enough to receive the
cylinder with this addition to its" thickness ; and if this
operation be intended, one side or cheek of the cavity is
made moveable on a pivot, so that it may be opened for
the purpose of lifting out the cylinder. The pipe is sub-
sequently removed from the cylinder by detaching the
handles and sliding it off longitudinally. Appended to the
description of this apparatus, In the Society's • Transactions,'
is an account of a method of bending pipes of tin, copper,
or brass, by filling them with hard solder, and passing them
through two thick rings of the same substance, one of
which is fixed in a vice or work -bench, while the other is
attached to a handle of such length aato give the operator
sufficient leverage for bending the pipe in that portion
which intervenes between the rings. As the solder is
softer than the material of the pipe, the rings will give wa\
to any dangerous pressure sooner than the pipe itseli'.
When the required curvature is obtained, the solder is
melted from the inside of the pipe. It is observed that in
performing this operation upon brass pipes, they should be
previously tinned on the inner surface, in order to -
a perfect union between the tube and the core of
solder.
After a tin vessel has been rounded upon a block or
mandril, by striking it with a wooden mallet, and the
seams finished as above described, all its exterior edges are
sticngthened by bending a thick iron wire into the proper
form, applying it to what would otherwise be the raw
of the metal, and dexterously folding them over it
with a hammer. By this mean* the :i; of the
articles is improved, and their durability and strength are
greatly increased. A superior kind of tin-ware, commonly
known as block-tin, is carefully finished by beating or
planishing with a polished steel hammer upon a metal
stake ; by which means the surface, which otherwise ap-
pears somewhat wavy, is made very smooth and silvery,
especially after it has been polished with dry whiting. It
is principally in the production of block-tin wares that
acaging ^ revolted to an a ready means of producing
grooved or ridged borders or other embossed ornaments.
This piocess consists in striking the metal between two
steel dies or swages, the facw of which bear the desired
pattern, and are made counterparts to each other. The
mouldings round the edges of dish-covers and other similar
articles are produced in this way: the swages embossing
the pattern in short lengths, and the article being gradually
turned round until every part of its circumference has been
(ubmitteil to their action. It was formerly usual to make
Mich mouldings separately for large articles, and to attach
them with solder; and Holland Mates that the practice ol
swaging them was introduced by Mr. King, a tinman in
Holburti, who executed very bold and handsome mould-
ings by placing the outside of the article upon a concave
bul or Ic ad, having a hollow line or groove sunk into it,
into which the rim of the cover or vessel was forced by
the application of a huge hammer on the inner side, until
the required degree of projection was obtained. The
border wa, then completed by the application of swages.
•» 1 • iibed. The lower die is usually fixed in
an apparatus to which moveable guides are attached to in-
sure the • -ion i.t the article to be operated on,
and the upper is made in the form of a hammer, the handle
aud
; tin
of which is pivoted no as t i-ely
the right p' - ap-
.•'iply working the \i\ ag.'-lmm-
iner itself; but in
mer is struck with a mallet. Very rni1.1
articles are produced by enit .
in the same manner
press or other machinery. Many cheap •
manufactured at Birmingham in this way; and t
similar articles lire s.
panned. A very beautiful method of orname
wares by producing a crystallized appearance on the sur-
face was much practised a few years since, under the name
o(rnoirf>' metattimu, < rd tin-pi
in applying diluted nitro-mnriatic acid to the surfs >
the plate while slightly heated, and then with
water, and covering witn a lacquer varnish, without which
the lustre of the crystalline appearance is speedily lost by
the action of the air. Dr. t're observes that -it would
seem that the acid merely lays bare the crystalline rt
ture really present on ever)' sheet, but masked by a film of
redundant tin ;' and he gives the following directions for
performing the process :— The tin-plate, slightly heai-
to be placed over a tub of water, and to have it
rubbed with a sponge dipped in a liquor composed <>;
parts of aquafortis and two of distilled water, holding one
part of common salt or sal-ammoniac in solution. V
the crystalline spangles appear to be thoroughly brought
out, the plate should be immersed in water, washed wiih a
feather or a little cotton taking care not to rub so hard as
to disturb the crystallized film of tin which constitutes the
feathered surface , dried with a gentle heat, and imme-
diately coated with lacquer. If the whole surface be
plunged at once in cold water, but parti it by
sprinkling cold water upon it, the crystallization will be
variegated with large and small figures. • Similar i.
will be obtained." he ailds, • by blowing cold air through a.
pipe ou the tinned surface, while it is jusi pa
the fused to the solid state; or a variety of <!
may be traced by playing over the surface of the plate
with the pointed flame of a blow -pipe.' '. IHrt. nf Arl/t,
p. KM and pp. li">.f, r_'5l.< By using col
very beautiful boxes and other ornamental >v be
produced by this process.
• nri" i'f Tin Allni/x. — Rritnnnin M'tul. — Tin
forms the principal ingredient in various kinds of j
and other white metallic alloys, which are manufactured
into domestic utensils by cast ;
n which much ingem Hand
gives ail interesting account of the manufacture of tea-
pots and similar articles of Britannia metal, which 111
briefly noticed here. This manufacture was comm.
on a large scale at Sheffield, where it is still carried on,
about the year 177*1. by two individuals of the nan
Jessop and Hancock ; nnd the brilliancy, lightness, and
cheapness of the wares, which, when well made, greatly
resemble silver, have secured for them a
sale in this and other countries. The extreme facility
with which such allot shape
leads however to the manufacture of many articles of so
flimsy a character that they speedily lose their form nnd
beauty. Various authorities differ gn • the com-
position of Britannia metal, but the proportions given by
Holland are SJcwts. of the best block- -tin, 2S Ibs. of mar-
tial regulus of antimony, S Ibs. of copper, and 8 1!
brass. The tin isfirst melted and raised to a red heat in a
stout cast-iron pot, and then the antimony, copper, and
brass are successively poured into it from the crucibles in
which they have been melted ; the mass being stirred
during the operation, to complete the mixture. The fusion
i by the continued application of fire under
the pot, the metal is removed by ladles to cast-iron boxes
or moulds, in which it is cast 'into slabs fifteen inches
Jong, six inches wide, and one inch thick ; or if for cast-
ing small articles, into smaller moulds to form it into con-
The thick slabs of metal are then ex-
tended bypassing them betwi 'Hers
until they are reduced to the r> mity.
This operation is performed without any annealing or
softening; and the edge< of tht me a little shat-
( racked by it.
Although most article's manufactured in silver are also
produced in Britannia metal, and in other alloys of sirailw
T I N
475
T I N
character, the principal consumption is in candlesticks,
tea-pots, coffee-bigs^ns, and other vessels for containing
liquids. The feet of candlesticks, the bodies of tea-pots,
and other articles containing embossed work, are stamped
between dies ; and when the shape of the article will not
allow it to be stamped in one piece, as in the case of a
cylindrical vessel with raised work upon the sides, it is
sometimes stamped in halves, which are subsequently fitted
and soldered together. Articles approaching the globular
form may in like manner be stamped in three or more
pieces. In stamping brass, silver, and plated metal the
dies must in almost every case be of steel, and the patterns
upon them are executed at a very great expense, but in
the manufacture of Britannia metal a cheaper process is
followed. Plaster casts are produced of the required pat-
terns, either from original models or designs, or from ma-
nufactured articles of silver, and from these are made
moulds or dies of fine hard pig-iron, which, with a very
little finishing, form dies fit for stamping so tractable a
metal. When very thin, it may even be stamped in dies
of brass or of spoon-metal.
The great facility with which this alloy maybe moulded
to any required form is illustrated by the operation termed
a ing, by which the bodies of tea-pots with concentric
circular swells are usually formed. A wooden chuck or
model of so much of the intended vessel as may be slipped
off the chuck when completed is fixed in a lathe worked
by steam-power, and to this is applied a circular piece of
sluvt-metal cut to the proper «ize with shears. This is
•d against the centre of the chuck by a circular piece
of wood with a blunt centre-pin ; and as the whole re-
volves rapidly, the workman bends the plate over the
model-chuck by pressing it with tools of haul wood or
polished steel until it is brought into precisely the same
form, 'ihc tools are applied at first very gently, so a» to
avoid crumpling or lacerating the metal ; and such is the
dexterity acquired by some workmen, that Holland states
that some individuals can spin twenty dozen of these tea-
•odies in a day. The form is perfected upon a second
chuck: and in some cases articles are partially formed by
ike in a die previous to the spinning. Spherical ar-
ticles are, a* in the case of stamping with dies, usually
formed in two or more parts ; but in some instances they
,nde to overlap the model, which is then composed of
al segments, that may be taken out of the finished
i by removing a centre-piece, in a similar manner to a
boot-last.
Many small vessels, spoons, and other articles are cast in
an alloy somewhat harder than that which is roiled into
sheets. The facility with which Britannia rnetal may be
nil) into any shape and cut in the lathe, as for turning
ures and small vessels previously formed by casting, is
a great recommendation to the manufacturer. Articles <>r
this metal are cleaned from the oil, rosin, and other im-
.es acquired during their formation, by boiling in
water containing sweet soap; after which they are po-
lished, either by hand, or more commonly by the buff and
brush set in motion by a steam-engine. The buff is a
solid cylinder of wood, resembling a grindstone in form,
the rim or periphery of which is covered with buff leather
dressed with fine sand from the bed of the river Trent,
which, after being dried and sifted, is mixed with oil. The
brush is a similar but smaller circle of wood set all round
with four (>;• li\e lows of briMlcs ; it, as well as the buff, is
d with sand and oil, and afterwards for finishing
with powdered rotten-stone and oil. The brush is used
generally for such articles as from their form cannot he-
applied to the buff, and also for all stamped or embossed
work. After buffing and brushing, the articles are boiled
in a solution of pearlash, and finally hand-brushed and
hand-polished by an application of soft soap, a little oil,
and powdered rotten-stone. This operation is usually per-
formed by fern is found that no instrument can
supply an effectual substitute lor a soft hand, which is one
of the first requisites inquired into when persons apply for
work in this department.
••!n,iiiir>i fif Arts, SfC.; Manufactures in Metal
cby Mr. Holland , in Lardners Cabinet Cyclopaedia, vol.
iii. ; 'i iiis of the Society of Arts, vol. xlviii., pp.
24-4-2 is. ,
TIN' TIJADK. The history of the trade in tin com-
•'* with the very earliest records of commercial i
Urititih islands. [(JASSITERIDKS ; and Pict.
History of England, vol. i., pp. 91-95.] We shall only
notice this trade as it has existed within the last two cen-
turies. Davenant gives some interesting information con-
cerning it soon after the middle of the seventeenth century.
In 1003 our exports of tin to all foreign countries amounted
to 153 tons; in 1669 to 240 tons; in the three years of
peace, from 1698 to 1700, on an average to 1297 tons' ; and
in the ten years of war, from 1700 to 1710, on an average to
1094 tons. In these last ten years the annual purchases of
the Dutch amounted to 300 tons, of the estimated value of
21,374^. Davenant accounts for the great increase in thu
exportation as follows : — ' All our neighbours,' says he, ' as
well as ourselves, have increased in the luxurious way of
living ; such who heretofore were content with pewter are
now served in plate ; and such as made use of trenchers,
wooden platters, and earthenware, will now have pewter ;
all which is visible within forty years, and has occasioned
this great call of a commodity almost peculiar to us.' But
the produce of the mines more than kept pace with the in-
creased demand ; and when Davenant wrote, Queen Anne
had between 4000 and 5000 tons of tin on hand, a quantity
equal to four or five years' consumption. 'As the case
stands at present,' he adds,~< Holland is the great, magazine
for tin : the necessities of such as have it upon their hands,
either in merchandize or security, drive it thither, and the
Dutch set what price they please upon this rich product of
England, to the damage of the public.' He proposed that
a thousand tons of the dead stock should be coined into
tin half-pence and farthings. The produce of the mines
went on increasing, and the accumulation to which Dave-
nant alludes is only about a year's produce of the mines at
present.
In the ' Journal of the Statistical Society of London '
(vol. ii., part iv.), there is a valuable paper, by Joseph
Carne, Esq., on the ' Statistics of the Tin-Mines in Corn-
wall, and of the Consumption of Tin in Great Britain,' from
which we borrow some of the following statements. From
17"<!) to 1785 the produce of the mines varied from 2273
tons, the lowest amount, to 3005 tons, which was the
great est quantity in any one year : the average production
for this period was 2757 tons, and the average price 64*. Qii.
per cwt. From 1789 to 1816 the annual average quantity
was 2875 tons, at 79*. M. per cwt. From 1817 to 1&37
inclusive, the annual average was 4211 tons, and the aver-
age price paid to the tinner was 73.*. the cwt. In 1787
Banca tin was imported into this country' for the first time,
and the price of Cornish tin soon fell to 58s. the cwt.,
and would have declined still further if a new market had
not been opened. It appeal's that the purser of an India-
m%n, who took some tin from the Molucca islands to
China in 1787, found the speculation so profitable that the
East India Company were induced to direct their atten-
tion to the trade, and the Company shortly entered into
arrangements with the Cornish tinners for an annual sup-
ply. The purchases of the Company were made at low
prices, but the tinners were indemnified by the artificial
scarcity which raised prices in the home market. At first
the Company paid only 68/. 13.». 4J, the ton, delivered on
board in London ; in 1792 they gave "ill. ; and on the re-
newal of the Company's charter they agreed to purchase
800 tons annually at 75/., and offered to take half as much
more at 68/. 13s. 4d. In 1809 the difference between the
prices paid by the Company and the prices in the home
market was so great that the tinners refused to supply the
Company, and their exports ceased; but in 1811 they
agreed to pay 78/., and in 1812, 80/. per ton. The con-
nection finally ceased in 1817, as the supply of the home
market had become more profitable.
The gradual increase in the consumption of tin in Great
Britain is shown in the following table : —
Periods. Annual Avevaerr.
1783 to 1790 920 tons.
1791 to 1800 754
1800 to 1810 1118
1811 to 1820 1600
1821 to 1830 2616
1830 to 1837 3303
Until 1838 all the Cornish tin paid a duty of 4.?. per
120 Ibs. to the duchy of Cornwall, which, with the fees,
was equivalent to 5s. This duty is now abolished. About
10,000 men, women, and children are supposed to be em-
ployed in the Cornish mires.
From 1783 to 1790 the proportion of British tinexported
3P2
TI N
•17(1
T I N
wa*7-10thsof the produce of the mines; in thr next ten
year* it was 3-4tl>8; from 1MK) 1» IsJ) one huh: from
1821) to 1830 it luul dimintMud to -J-.Mhh; and from IKiU
to 18H7 to l-5th. The quantity of foreign tin imported,
the greater part of which is intended t> tation,
since 1815, was as follows :— From 1815 to 1831 the annual
average quantity imported was 213 tons; < M ••.•.•• .1 annu-
ally daring tin- same pi nod -J24 tons. From 1831 to 1838
the imports of foreign tin averaged annually 1.VJ7 tons, and
the exports were 1482 tons. This foreign tin c-an IK- sup-
plied cheaper in Europe and America than the Cornish
tin. In 1841 the imports were :N.i:U i-wt.,or 14-1 tons, of
which 1 7,913 cwt. were from Singapore, <il!)7 cwt. from Java,
and r>:tji . -«t. from the East India Company's territories. In
the same year the exports of forviirn tin w.r. i">.."U4 cwt..
or 1287 tons, principally to the United States, Holland,
Russia, France, Italy, and Germany. Tin' exports of
British tin in 1841 were 12H7 tuns. France took 8905
cwt. : Turkey, 4OGI cwt. ; Russia, 2780 cwt. ; the United
-. 1783 CWt.; and Italy, 13211 cwt. : l>ein<; more than
three-fourths of the whole. In the ( 'ustom-House records the
quantity of tin manufactures exported is not distinguished,
but in 1840 the exports of • tin and pewt er wares and tin
plate' were valued at 3oUHl(i/. Under the tariff of 1842
(5 & 6 Vict.,c. 17 ,1'oreiiriit ill-ore will he admissible for the
first time, on paying a duty, which is UK. the ton if from
a British possession, and if of a foreign, 50*. But as none
of the British possessions contain tin likely to be brought
into the English market, the real duty is 5<Vv. The former
duty of 10.v. the cwt. was prohibitory. The quantity of
tin annually produced in Banca is estimated at 2700 tons,
and in the Malayan peninsula about 1300 tons : and these
are the parts from which a supply of ore, if any, is likely
to be received.
TIM (Medical Propertiet of}. It cannot be con-
fidently asserted that tin in a metallic state has no influ-
ence over the human system, as many respectable writers
afHnu that tin-filings are decidedly anthclmintic, and that
this is not owing to mechanical 'irritation of the worms
causing them to be detached from the surface of the intes-
tines; it is stated that water in which tin has been boiled,
and wine digested in a tin vessel, are also anthelmintic.
Others, denying to tin any inherent power over worms, have
attributed these effects to the presence of a small portion
of arsenic. Be this as it may, it is a very crude method of
treating worms to exhibit such a material as tin-filings.
[AvuiKi MIMICS.] Even oxide of tin is of doubtful
efficacy, as might be expected from its extreme insolubility.
Its powers may be heightened by occasionally meeting
with ncids in the stomach, such as the hydrOchloHC,
ami therewith forming a chloride. Two compounds oi
chlorine with tin are Known, one the protoehloride. the
other the bichloride. Both of these are exc i .
soluble; the latter so much so that it can with diffi-
culty 1)6 kept in the solid state, and more frequently
oceuis in the liquid state, and is then called the spiriiiis
finnans I.ilmii.or butter of tin. The former is much used
by dyers, among whom, when in the solid state, it is called
/ tin, and when liquid, spirit nf tin. In the former
condition, it has sometimes been mistaken for common salt :
it has t Ims 1 icen the source of poisoning, though it is not very
active when introduced into the stomach. A few grain's
injected into the juirular vein prove rapidly fatal to
In case of any of it being swallowed, emetics or
toraRch-pump, demulcent drinks, and, if nee.
moderate • . followed after'a
time by vital stimulants. 'Il has been thought by some to
to allow fluids containing acids, such as the
weak acid wines, or cyder, or even fatty, saline', or albu-
minous substances, to remain long in 1 ill-vessel*, as an in-
jurious action of these on the tin is supposed to occur.
If any serious effects hav« ever followed from such a cause,
it is most likely that these vessels were only coated super-
ficially with tin, which being rubbed off, exposed the more
potent metal beneath to the solvent power of these sub-
stances. It is therefore prudent to examine from time to time
all copper and other vessels to see that the tinning is entire.
TIN 1'I.ATK. [TiNxiNo.]
i'YKI'iT.s. jTm.]
|R. I'lince Maximilian's name for one of the
Ant -Thru-Oie* (Formicarinef, (I. R. Gray). This genus is
the Oxyvygo, Men. and belongs to Muiothera,
Cuv., and nmtmofkOut, \ ieill.
Example, Tiimclor/utcu*, Guer. .l/<ir. i/< /.aul., t. 10.
•UK-.]
* ll.\ A MID.i:. [TiNKMuti.]
TI.N.VMO'TIS. Mr. a of birds
(Kutlrniiiin. D'Orb. and .1. (nottr.\ i I
TI'NAMOU (TiiHiiiiiix, ].ath l.mn.. Tridac-
tylun. Lace p., Cryjituruv, 111..
birds placed by Cuvicr, Mr. A mso-i
among the TKTRAOMU.K, in which article the account
iri\en by the hust mentioned zoologist of their liabils and
utility to man will be found.
The I'lin :io (Birds of Europe and .Yo/Y/i Atne-
ha>a family t'rijjituriiltf, noticed in the
iKur. \\i\.. p. 2.V) , and, we pre.Mi,
there ]ilace the Tinamous.
Mr. (}. H. (iray makes the 'Fiinunitltr, the sixth family
of the (ialliiiff. according to his ai
the following subfamilies and genera: —
Subfam. 1. Turnii .
Genus : — Turnir, Bonn.
Subfam. 2. Tiiiamin.-e.
Genera: — Tinamus, Lath.: .N'// \. • Khyn-
r/inln\: S]iix ; 'fiiniiii/ili\. \ lLr.
This family is placed by Mr. G. R. Gra\
to the Chronididee, aiul at the end of the I,
next order to which is formed by the Strut/iitir-
\\'e i>roeeed to illu>tiutc the pivi-ciit :;
the Tinamous pro[:i'rly MI called.
(iriii-rir C/iiinirtfr i,f Tintimus. — Bill nun'.
pressed, broader than hiirh. tip obtuse, back bioad.
trils lateral, medial, o\ate, exjiandt^l, and ojien.
four-toed, cleft ; hind toe very short. Tail no;
short, concealed by the rump-feathei.s. \\ n
Example, Tinnmuis Tn/aupa, Var.
Description. — Tmamou with the body above du>kv-
nifous, immaculate. Head and neck dusky-black; chin
while ; throat, neck, and breaM cinereous : body beneath
whitish; \cnt and flanks lufous-black, tb
gincd with white. Bill and irides red. Total lenu
inches. (Sw.)
Mr. Swainson, in his work on the ' Classification of liinls."
•es bi> ojiinion that the Tinamous probably repre-
sent the trump of Uustaids in the New World
NID.K, vol. xxiv., p. 255]; but in a previous pubhcaliuii
J.ni>l<i<riciil Illustrations, 1st series j, he says that they
there ' seem to hold the same scale in creation whicli
the partridges do in the Old Continent." He refers, in the
book la>t mentioned, to the work of M. Temminck (I1,
[//.:, who, he obseue.-. has described tweht
and he st.:tes tliat the bird under con-i.li'ialion is the
smallest of its family. He found it only once in the
interior 01' 1'aliia, where, he says, it mils! lie very rare, or
frequent in particular districts only. Though differing in
•.ome res])eels from M. Temininck's description, he is in-
clined to consider it only a variety.
Tiimnui T.iUupa. Vjr. i
Mr. D.irwin, in his irrajihic descii]>liiMi ol the country
around Maldonado, when he had reached the l;ulhest
T I N
477
T I N
point which he was anxious to examine, says : — ' The
• country wore the same aspect, till at last the fine green
turf became more wearisome than a dusty turnpike -road.
We everywhere saw great numbers of partndgea (TVnoMW
ntfi'(cens). These birds do not go in coveys, nor do they
conceal themselves like the English kind. It appears a
very silly bird. A man on horseback, by riding round anil
round in a circle, or rather in a spire, so as to approach
closer each time, may knock on the head as many as he
pleases. The more common method is to catch them with
a running noose or little lazo, made of the stem of an
ostrich's feather, fastened to the end of a long stick. A
boy on a quiet old horse will frequently thus catch thirty
or forty in a day. The flesh of this bird, when cooked, is
delicately white.' (Journal of Researches in the Countries
rixited by H. M. S. Beagle.)
TIXCA, a genus of fishes founded by Cuvier, and which
has for type the common tench, Cyprinus tinea, Linn. :
TnK-a. rulgaris, Cuv. This fish belongs to the carp family
(Cyprinidee'), and is separated genetically on account of the
small size of the scales with which the body is covered,
combined with the small antero-posterior e'xtent of the
dorsal and anal fins, both of which are destitute of the ante-
rior bony spine or any such as are observable in some allied
fishes — as in the dorsal fin of the barbel for instance ; the
barbules to the mouth are very small.
The tench, observes Mr. Yarrell, inhabits most of the
lakes of the European continent. In this country, though
frequent in ornamental water and ponds, it is but sparingly
found in the generality of our rivers. There is some doubt
whether, like the carp, its origin be not foreign, and
whether those rivers that can now boast of it are not in-
debted for it to the accidental escape of fish from the pre-
served waters of neighbouring gentlemen. The rivers it is
mostly in are those which are slow and deep, and in such
situations it does not appear to be so prolific as in ponds.
Cuvier observes that the tench inhabits by preference
stagnant waters. This is in accordance with the observa-
tions of .Mr. Yarrell, and, rivers being an unnatural habitat
for the fish, will account for their being less prolific in
such situations.
The author of the interesting work on British Fishes,
just mentioned, quotes the following account illustra-
tive of the habits of the tench and of its tenacity ofr life :
it U from Daniel's ' Rural Sports :' — ' A piece of water
which had been ordered to be filled up, and into which
wood and rubbish had been thrown for years, was directed
to be cleared out. Persons were accordingly employed ;
and, almost choked up by weeds and mud, so little water
remained, that no person expected to see any fish, except-
ing a few eels, yet nearly two hundred brace of tench
of all sizes, and as many perch, were found. After the
pond was thought to be quite free, under some roots there
seemed to be an animal which was conjectured to be an
otter ; the place was surrounded, and on opening an en-
trance among the roots, a tench was found of most singular
form, having literally assumed the shape of the hole, in
which he had of course for many years been confined.
Hi* length from eye to fork was thirty-three inches ; his
circumference, almost to the tail, was twenty-seven inches :
his weight eleven pounds nine ounces and a quarter; the
colour was also singular, his belly being that of a char, or
veimilion. This extraordinary fish, after having been in-
spected by many gentlemen, was carefully put into a pond,
and ;it the time the account was written, twelve months
afterwards, was alive and well.'
Experiments have shown that a tench is able to breathe
when the quantity of oxygen is reduced to a five-thousandth
part of the bulk of the water: ordinary river water gene-
ral ly containing one per cent, of oxygen.
The general colour of the tench is greenish brown, or
olive having a golden hue, which latter tint is most con-
ipicuous on the under parts of the fish. From the carp
it is readily distinguished by the small size of its scales, and
also the small extent of the dorsal fin : its form is rather
i-c]) in proportion to the length. It spawns usually
about the middle of June, and deposits its ova on weeds.
TINCTURES are solutions of the active principles,
mostly af vegetables, sometimes of saline medicines, and
more rarely of animal matters, in certain solvents. From
possessing more or less of colour, they have obtained this
. They are distinguished according to the kind of
solvent employed. When alcohol is used, they are termed
alcoholic tinctures, or more generally simply tinctures,
when sulphuric asther is used, they are denominated
(ctherial tinctures. When wine is used, though differing
little from pure alcohol, the term medicated urines is
applied to them ; and when the process of instillation is
employed to aid the extraction, particularly of volatile oils,
the result is termed a spirit, such as of rosemary. Ammo-
nia is sometimes conjoined, and the proceeds termed an
ammoniated tincture.' In some cases less of the principal
ingredient is taken up or dissolved when ammonia is used,
than when simple alcohol is employed, as in the tinctura
guaiacum ammoniatum. Formerly some tinctures were
called essences, from the term esse, it being thought that
they contained only the purer or more refined portion, the
alcohol leaving all the baser principles, such as the starch,
gum, woody fibre, &c., undissolved : quintessence was a
still higher degree of this. These terms are now disused
by pharmaceutists, though retained by the people. Elixirs
differ only from being of a greater consistence : they are not
uni'requently turbid from the extractive matter suspended
in them. Tinctures are further distinguished into simple and
compound. They are called simple when one substance
only is submitted to the solvent ; compound, when two or
more are. Another important distinction among tinctures
is founded upon the degree of strength of the alcohol em-
ployed. Where the active principle is nearly pure resin,
a strong spirit is needed ; when much gum is associated
with the resin, a weaker is required. Hence some tinc-
tures are prepared with proof spirit, as the greater num-
ber ; a few with spirit above proof; and some with rec-
tified spirit.
A well-prepared tincture should be clear, possessing the
colour of the article which is its base, and partaking in an
eminent degree of its characteristic odour and taste. As a
general rule, five or six parts of the liquid chosen is to be
used for one part of the solid material, which is to be
bruised or comminuted before being submitted to macera-
tion. The maceration, which should be conducted in
well-stopped glass vessels, is generally continued for four-
teen days, during which the ingredients are to be frequently
shaken, and at the end strained. The pure tincture is
then to be preserved in a tightly-stopped bottle, which
should be opake, or sheltered from the light. From seve-
ral tinctures a deposit falls down, either from some slow
chemical change taking place among the ingredients, or
from the evaporation of some of the spirit. This renders
old tinctures not uni'requently turbid, and of variable
strength. Thus tincture of opium When newly prepared
contains one grain of opium in nineteen minims, but after
some time one grain of opium is contained in only fourteen
minims. This inconvenience may be avoided with all
recent vegetables, by forming what are termed ' vegetable
juices.' These are merely the juices of the fresh plant
expressed by a powerful wooden press, and the juice
allowed to stand twenty-four hours, during which a copious
precipitation of feculent matter takes place, which is
further promoted by adding alcohol 56° over proof, in the
proportion of four fluid ounces to every sixteen fluid
ounces of the juice. After standing for twenty-four hours,
the juice is to be filtered through bibulous paper (prepared
from wool), when it will keep unimpaired for a length of
time.
These vegetable juices always retain their purity, and
are of the same degree of strength at last as at first. By
this means not only is the process simplified, and the time
required for their preparation greatly abridged, being
reduced from fourteen days to two ; but their medicinal
efficacy is greater than that of the ordinary tinctures, and,
from containing less alcohol, they can be given in cases
where the stimulating action of this principle interferes
with the effect of the substance dissolved in it, or renders
its exhibition improper, as in the case of young children.
In preparing the officinal spirits, the directions ot the
Pharmacopeia are rarely complied with. Most chemists
content themselves with dissolving some of the essential
oil of the plant in alcohol of the requisite strength, by
which much expense and trouble, as well as loss ot time,
are sivoidcd.
(See a pamphlet on The Best Method of Obtaining the
Most Puwerful Vegetable Preparations for Medical (
In IMward Bentley.)
TINDAL, MATTHEW, LL.D., was the son of the Rev.
John Tindal, parish clergyman at Beer-Ferres in Devon-
T I N
478
TI N
*hir«, whrrf Matthew WM bom about the year 1057. In
Ifl7i he w$» admitted of Lincoln Cnllc-irc. Oxford, where
Dr. Hicke* was hi* tutor; hut he afterwards removed to
r College ; and he was finally fleeted to a law fel-
lowship at All Soul*, *oon alter h« had taken his degree
V., in 1070. He proceeded I.I. H. in 1079, and wan
created I.L.D. in 10«f>. If we may believe certain charges
which were lone afterwards made in print by the oppo-
nent* of his theological opinion*, tos debaucheries while
he redded at Oxford were no scandalous as to have drawn
down upon him on one occasion a public reprimand from
lij-< college. Soon after ho obtained his doctor's degree
In1 went over tu the Church of Koine, not without subject-
ing himself (o the imputation of Imvinsr an eye to the
worldly advantages which such a stop might seem to pro-
mine u'nder the popish king just come to the throne. It
does not appear however that he actually obtained any
court favour or patronage by hit change of reliirion ; and,
ding to his own account, given in a pamphlet he
published in his own defence in 1708, he reverted to the
l.'hnrch of Kngland some months before the Revolution,
having attended mass for the last time at Candlemas,
low. and publicly recei\ed the sacrament in his college
chapel at Easter following. He asserts that his mind,
which cHine a tabula rota to the university, had been pre-
pared for being seduced by James's Romish emissaries by
the notions as to the high and independent powers of the
clergy which then prevailed there, and which he had
adopted without examination. Accordingly, when he
threw off popery, he abandoned his high-church principles
at the same tinie : or rather, as he puts it. he discovered
that these principles were unfounded, and that at once
cured him of his popery. ' Meeting,' he says, ' upon his
going into the world, with people who treated that notion
of the independent power as it deserved, and finding the
of popery to be much greater at hand than
they appeared at a distance, he began to examine the
whole matter with all the attention he was capable of:
and then he nuic.kly found, and was surprised at the dis-
V, that all his fill then undoubted maxims were so far
from having any solid inundation, that they were built on
as great a contradiction as can be, that of two independent
powers in the name society. Upon this he returned, as he
had good reason, to the' Church of England, which he
found, hy examining into her constitution, disclaimed all
that independent power he had been bred up to the belief
of." The Revolution having taken place, he now also, na-
turally enough, became a zealous partizan of that settle-
ment. The history of the rest of his life, during which he
appears to have resided mostly in London, consists almost
entirely of that of his successive publications and of the
controversies in which they involved him.
He first appeared aa an author in November. 1C93, by
the publication, in4to..of ' An Essay concerning Obedience
to the Supreme Powers, and the Duty of Subjects in ail
•Revolutions, with some considerations concerning the pre-
sent juncture of affairs.' This was followed in March,
1GU4. bv ' An Essay concerning the Law of Nations and
the I 'a second edition of which, with
additions, wan brought out in Uie same year. This year
•:tcr to the Clergy of both Uni-
i;-ndation of certain alterations which
WM then some talk of making in the Liturgy ; and
in lUffi another pamphlet in support of the same views.
Hut the first work by which he attracted general attention
WM an Hvo. vol : i he published in 1700. entitled
• The Right* Of imrch Asserted, agai-
Komi-h and all other priest* who claim an independent
power over it.' This work, which is an elaborate »u.i. \
upon the theory of al impremacy, or what are
commonly called high-church principles, immediately
raked avast commotion. Itisielated that to a friend who
found him one day engaged upon it, pen in hand, he said
that he wan writing a book which would make the clergy
mad. Replies to it were immediately published by the
;itcd \VilliamWotton, by Dr. Hickes ( Tindal's old
college tutor i. and others; the controversy continued to
liir several years: a bookseller and his shopman were
indicted for selling the book. In I7(»7 Tindal pu!'
• A Defence' of his work, and, a few months aft«
.' butli Hi' which he republished- tor
addition*, in 1709: tho same year he also rcj
hk two Ba*ay* on Obedience and thu Law of Nations, alou^
with • A Discourse for the Liberty of the Press, and an
Essay concerning the Rights of Mankind in matters of
Religion :' about the same time he i -a-
pamphlet, entitled ' New High Church turned Old Pres-
byterian,' in exposure of the pr
Sachevercll and his party : upon which the' i
mom, which the day before had condemned SH
sermons to be burned, on the 25th of March. 17 111, impar-
tially ordered Tindal's ' Rights of the Christian Church'
and the second edition of his two • Defences' to be com-
mitted to the flames at the same time. Tins proceeding
drew from Tindal the same year three more pamphU '
the first, entitled 'A High-Chun
• The .lacohitism, Perjurv, and Popen
Priests:' the third, -The Merciful Judg
(.'Imrch triumphant, on Offending Clergymen an s
the reign of Charles I.' The next year, on the 1
House of Convocation having drawn "up and printed ' A
Representation of the present state of Religion, with re
gard to the late excessive growth of Infidelit \ . Hi-n ~y, and
Profaneness,' Tindal forthwith replied in • The Sation
Vindicated from the Aspersions cast on it ' in the Mid
representation. The second part of this perlbrman
occupied with an explanation and defence of wha:
since been called the doctrine of philosophical in-i
in opposition to the assertion of the Convocation, that Midi
views went to overturn the foundations of all morality, and
of all religion, natural as well as revealed. For -
years from this date Tindal's active pen was <
occupied with the politics of the day ; but .
do not appear to have been very effective at the tune, and
have been long forgotten. It i- remarkable however that
in so voluminous a work as I • moirs of Sir K
Wnlpole,' no notice should be taken of a personal contro-
versy in which Tindal became involved with that mi-
after his resignation in 1717. and which produced various
pamphlets on both sides. Tindal considered himv
have been ill-used by Walpole, who, according to his ac-
count, liad first courted his alliance, and then suddenly
dropped him alter he had so far committed himself in
writing that it was imagined his hostility in print was not
to be dreaded. Walpole, on the other hand, or his friem's.
d Tindal of a treacherous desertion to the opposite
faction as soon as he found that Walpole had been or was
about to be deprived of power. It is probable that then1
was some misunderstanding on both sides. In any case
this ministerial rupture was merely a personal quarrel, in
which little or no public principle was invoked: and it
implies therefore no political versatility or ir,<
in Tindal that a few years alter this, i'n 17:! 1. 17±i and
1723, when Walpole was at the head of the mmi-tiv, he
carne forward as a strenuous defender of 1m government
in a succession of pamphlets. He did not return Ul
original field of theological polemics till n he
published ' An Address to the Inhabitants of the two great
- of London and \\ iMimn.-U -r.' in reply to a pastoral
letter which the bishop of London, Dr. Gibson, dad ad
dressed to the people of his diocese on the subject of An-
thony Collins'* ' Scheme of Literal Prophecy Consii!.
and other recent deistical writings. A ' Second Pastoral
Letter,' soon after published by the bishop, called forth a
' Second Address' from Tindal : and both addresses were
reprinted the same year, in an Hvo. volume, with alterations
and additions.
From this date Tindal seems to have remained quiet till
the year 17_H(), when he produced, in a 4to. volume, the
work by which he is now chiefly remembered, his 'Christ-
ianity aa Old as the Creation, or the Gospel a Republica-
tion of the Religion of Nature.' The object of this work.
[ as is indeed sufficiently declared in its title, is !o contend
that there in nothing more in Christianity, prop
than what the human reason i< quite capable of
discovering for itself, and b\ implication to deny that any
special revelation has ever been made by tli
man. It did not however con \press denial of
tlu- truth nl' Christianity; of win- : the author and
his partisans rather professed to think that he bail found
out a new' defence stronger than > pre-
\ion>K thought of. 'Tindal,' amid Wsrbn. VMM
alter. • n kind of bastard • our spe-
culations from heaven to •
advancing the antiquity of Christ -mred to under-
mine its original.' The book made a great noise, and
T 1 N
479
t I N
various answers to it goon appeared, the most noted of
which were — Dr. Waterland's ' Scripture Vindicated,' 1730 ;
'The Usefulness, Truth, and Excellency of the Christian
Revelation defended,' by Mr. (afterwards Dr.) James
Foster (the eminent dissenting clergyman), 1731 ; 'A De-
fence of Revealed Religion,' by Dr. Conybeare (afterwards
bishop of Bristol), 1732 ; and ' An Answer to Christianity
as Old as the Creation,' by the Rev. John (afterwards Dr.)
Leland fanother learned and distinguished dissenting
divine), 1733. The book is also discussed in the last-men-
tioned writer's more celebrated work, his 'View of the
Principal Deistical Writers,' published in 1754. Tindal
defended himself in ' Remarks on Scripture Vindicated,
and some other late Writings,' published along with a
new edition of his ' Second Address to the Inhabitants of
London and Westminster,' in 1730. But this was his last
publication; his health now began to give way, and he
expired on the 16th of August, 1733, at a lodging in Cold
Bath Fields, to which he had been prevailed upon to re-
move a few days before from his chambers in Gray's Inn.
Tindal never held any preferment except his fellowship ;
but it ii stated, in the 'Biographia Britannica,' that in the
: of King William he frequently sat as judge in the
Court of Delegates, and had a pension of 200/. a year
gi anted to him by the crown for his services in that capa-
city. It is added that he 'rarely, if ever, practised as an
advocate in the courts of civil or ecclesiastical law ;' which
would seem to imply that he had been called to the bar, or
been admitted an advocate at Doctors' Commons, although
that fact is not mentioned. A new edition of his ' Essay
on the Law of Nations' was published the year after his
death ; but the publication of a second part of his ' Christ-
ianity as Old as the Creation,' which he left ready for the
press, is said to have been prevented by the interference' of
Bishop Gibson. A will, in which he left nearly all he had
1o Eustace Budgell, in whose hands he was for some time
before his decease, was contested by his nephew, the Rev.
Nicholas Tindal, and was at last set aside : the will was
printed in a pamphlet, with a detail of circumstances con-
nected with it, in 1733.
Of the amount of talent and learning shown in Tindal's
writings very different estimates have been formed by his
admirers and his opponents. Waterland, in the Introduc-
tion to his 'Scripture Vindicated,' characterises his anta-
gonist in the following terms : — ' His attacks are feeble, his
artillery contemptible. ; he has no genius or taste for lite-
rature, no acquaintance with the original languages, nor
so much as with common critics or commentators ; several
of his objections are pure English objections, such as affect
only our translation : the rest are of the lowest and most
trifling sort.' Dr. Conyers Middleton, on the other hand,
in a letter which he addressed to Waterland immediately
after the latter had published his book, says, ' For my own
part, to observe our English proverb, and give the devil
his due, I cannot discover any such want of literature as
you object to him ; but, on the contrary, see plainly that
his work has been the result of much study and reading ;
his materials collected from a great variety of the best
writers ; his pages decently crowded with citations ; and
his index of authors as numerous as that of most books
which have lately appeared.' Tindal's English style is
unaffected and perspicuous.
TINDAL, REV. NICHOLAS, was the son of a brother
of Dr. Matthew Tindal, and was born in 1687. Having
studied at Exeter College, Oxford, and taken his degree of
M.A. in 1713, he was afterwards elected a Fellow of Tri-
nity College in that university. In 1722 he was presented
by his college to the vicarage of Great Waltham in Essex ;
in 1738 Sir Charles Wager, then first lord of the admiralty,
with whom he appears to have some years before sailed for
a short time as cnaplain, appointed him chaplain to Green-
wich Hospital ; in 1740 he is said to have been presented to
the rectory of Colbourne in the Isle of Wight, upon which he
resigned Great Waltham ; and very soon after he appears to
have obtained his last preferment, the rectory of Alverstoke
in Hampshire, from the bishop of Winchester (Hoadley).
lie died at Greenwich Hospital on the 27th of June, 1774.
Mr. Tindal's first literary attempt was a work published
in monthly numbers in 1724, under the title of ' Antiquities,
1 and Profane, being a Dissertation on the excellency
History of the Hebrews,' &c., which is described as
a translation from the French of Calmet. This was fol-
lowed by two numbers of a History of Essex, which \VBS
then dropped. He then engaged in his most memorable
undertaking, the translation, from the French, of Rapin's
'History of England,' which appeared in a successson of
octavo volumes in 1726 and following years, and was re-
printed in two volumes folio in 1732. This second edition
was dedicated to Frederick, prince of Wales, who in return
presented the translator with a gold medal of the value of
forty guineas. In 1744 a Continuation of Rapin, by Tindal,
began to be published in weekly folio numbers, which was
completed in two volumes (commonly bound in three), in
1747, the history being brought down to the end of the
reign of George I. A second folio edition of this Con-
tinuation appeared in 1751, and a third, in 21 vols. 8vo., in
1757, with the addition of the reign of George II. down to
that date. The translation and continuation of Rapin were
very successful speculations ; and the publishers, the
Messrs. Knapton, of Ludgate Street, evinced their gra-
titude by making Tindal a present of 200/. It is generally
stated that, he was assisted in both undertakings by Mr.
Philip Morant, to whom solely is attributed the Abridg-
ment or Summary of the History and Continuation given
at the end of the latter, and also printed in 3 vols. 8vo. in
1747 ; but it does not appear upon what authority it is
asserted by Coxe, in the Preface to his ' Memoirs of Sir
Robert Walpole,' that the Continuation, though published
under the name of Tindal, ' was principally written by Dr.
Birch.' There is no hint of this in the very full and ela-
borate Life of Birch, in the second edition of the ' Bio-
graphia Britannica,' which is stated to be compiled from
his own papers and the communications of surviving rela-
tions and friends. ' His papers,' Coxe proceeds, 'in the
Museum and in the Hardwicke Collection, which I have
examined with scrupulous attention, and various other
documents which were submitted to his inspection, and to
which I have had access, prove great accuracy of research,
judgment in selection, and fidelity in narration. He de-
rived considerable assistance from persons of political
eminence, particularly the late Lord Walpole, the late earl
of Hardwicke, and the Honourable Charles Yorke. The
account of the Partition Treaty was written by the late
earl of Hardwicke. The account of Lord Somers's argument
in Barker's case was written by his great-nephew the late
Mr. C. Yorke. I can also trace numerous communica-
tions by Horace Walpole, though they cannot be so easily
specified. Birch was a stanch Whig, but his political
opinions have never led him to forget his duty as an his-
torian. He has not garbled or falsified debates, or mis-
stated facts ; he has not wantonly traduced characters, or
acrimoniously reviled individuals because they espoused
the cause which he disapproved ; but in his whole work,
whether he praises or blames, there is a manly integrity
and candid temperance, which must recommend him to
the discerning reader.' This is a sufficiently just character
of the Continuation of Rapin : but, although in some parts
the work has a claim to be considered as an original au-
thority, it is in the greater part, not only a compilation, but
a mere transcription from preceding writers. The authors
indeed frankly state in their prefatory notice that they
have not scrupled to copy or imitate any part of the se-
veral authors they have made use of, when conducive to
the usefulness of the work, or where there was no occasion
to alter or abridge. The numerous documents inserted at
full length make the Continuation a convenient repertory
of authentic information; and the notes which accompany
the translation of the preceding part of the work add
greatly to the value of the original text. Tindal's other
translation, from the Latin, of Prince Cant emir's 'History
of the Growth and Decay of the Othman Empire,' which
appeared in a folio volume in 1734.
TINIAN is one of the Ladrone or Mariane Islands [vol.
xiii., p. 269] : it lies near 15° N. lat. and 146° E. long. It
is uninhabited and of small extent. It owes its name in
the world not to its real importance, but to the circum-
stance that Lord Anson, just one hundred years ago,
remained there nearly two months, from 26th of August, to
the 21st of October, 1742, and that in the account of his
voyage a description of the island is given in glowing
colours. It extends about 12 miles from south-south-west
T I N
480
T I \
to north-north-east, ami Uie breadth it about half a* much.
The soil u som y antl healthy.
The land rise* in gentle alopM from the brach to the
middle of the island, but the . i'tcii interrupted
\s, many ol which wind irregularly
through Un- country. These valleys nod the gradual
• >f tho ground are most beautifully diversified by
an alternation of woods and lawns, which traverse the
island. The woods consul of tall and well-spread tree*,
mostly without under-wood, and the lawns are covered
with a clean turf composed of \cn fine trefoil and inter-
mixed with a variety of flowers. There are no running
ins, but good water is found by digging a fe
In-low the surface, and near the middle of the island there
.ire three small lakes. Black cattle, in a wild state, are
numerous, and at the time of Anson's \i-n :ln- number was
computed to amount to at least ten thousand. Our com-
mon domestic fowl is plentiful in the woods, and several
kinds of wild fowl are found in the lakes. There is also an
abundance of wild hogs. Besides the cocoa-nut palm and
the bread-fruit tree there are guavas, limes, and sweet and
sour oranges, and antiscorbutic plants in mvat abundance,
by the use of which the crew of the Centurion, the vessel
commanded by Lord Anson, which suffered much by the
-<ored tp health in a short time. Tin-re is
no harbour, but only an open roadstead near the south-
western extremity of the island, which is dangerous during
the prevalence of the western monsoon, from .June to Oc-
tober, but tolerably safe during the remainder of tin
^f round the ll'nriil ; Kotzcbuc's Voyage
• •wry i'nt'i tin- S>,uth Sfd, $c.)
' TINNKVKI.I.Y. [HiNjH STAN, p. 203.1
TINNING, TIN-I'I.ATK MANUFACTURE. The art
of tinning, or of coating other metals with a thin layer of
tin, so as to protect them from oxidation, was known to
the antients. although it does not appear to have
very extensively practised. Professor Beckmann, in his
investigation into the early history of tin and tinning Hit-
lory 'if Inrrntinns, English edit, of 1814, vol. iv.. pp. 1-45),
- that we have no account of the process antien;
ployed in tinning, although the use of the words incoquere
and tiir<jcti/iii by Pliny seems to indicate that it was per-
formed by immersing the vessels in melted tin. The de-
gree of perfection to which the process was carried is indi-
lement, accompanied by an expression of
wonder, to the effect that the tinning did not increase the
weight of the vessels, which shows that the tin must have
been applied, as at present, in a very thin layer.
The art of tinning plate-iron is more modern than
that of coating copper vessels with tin, and is sup-
posed to have been invented either in Bohemia or in Ger-
many. Mr. Parkes, in a paper on the manufacture of tin-
plate, or tinned sheet-iron, addressed to the Literary and
Philosophical Society of Manchester, in 1818, which was
published in their ' Memoirs' (Second series, vol. iii., pp.
:M7-380), states that our ancestors, from time immemorial,
procured that article from Bohemia and Saxony, where
the manufacture was established near the tin-mines of the
Erzgebirge mountains, which were the most extcnsi\c in
F.urope after those of Cornwall. From the time of the in-
vention of tin-plate down to the close of the seventeenth
•iry, if not later, both Kngland and the whole conti-
nent of Europe depended upon the above-named countries
for their supply of tin-plate ; but about the year 1665 an
attempt was made to introduce the manufacture into Kuir-
land. cntlemen who sent the ingenious Andrew
.'iton int» • obtain information respecting it.
Yarranton's account of the experiment . which is quoted at
length by Parkes, was published in li;s|. in the second
part of his curious work entitled ' England's Impro-.
by Sea and Land,' now very ran-. lie was allowed freely
to inspect the tinning establishments, and li<-
well acquainted with the process, that alter his return to
i ml he made many thousand plates of iron, from the
-t of Dean, tinned with Cornish tin, the quality oi
which wai admitted to be even auperior to that of the
an tin-plates, which they surpassed in toughness and
flexibility. Before however the new manufacture could
be fairly established, its promoters were stopped by a
patent, which Yarranton says was 'humped up' for 'the
purpose by parties possessing court influence. The pa-
tentees did not understand the art sufficiently to enable
them to succeed, and thus England remained dependent
for some years upon the ('. r a mann!;
which she possessed the create-- Parkes
that he does not liml
was established in this country until between 17-" and
17.><). and that the first wn . ponl. in Monmouth-
shire, where, according to Watson's •Chemical
was practised as early as 1730. Shortly before thru time
t was introduced into France by M. Ke.mniur. v. ho
communicated an account of the process, as practised by
the Germans, to the French Academy of Sciences in the
7-">. in a paper which was translated by I
published iii the .T>th volume rf the ' Philosophical Trans-
uctions' (No. 406, published in December. 172H). I
introductory remarks Hutty states that the making of tin-
plates, or, as they were sometimes called, ltttt< -i> or lutlin,
was not commonly practised in Kngland, notwithstanding
the great consumption : and that we were obliged '
port our own tin to Germany, and to receive it !
when manufactured. Anderson (Hilt, of Cominerot, 1O\.
iii., p. 220) states that about 17-10 the manufacture of tin-
plate was brought to such perfection in England thai
little was imported from foreign countries, and thai
British manufacture was superior to the foreign in glossi-
ness of surface, owing to the plates being drawn um
rolling-mill, instead of being hammered, as was common
in those made beyond sea. The difficulty of extending
iron, in what may be deemed the infancy of the manulac-
ture, into thin uniform sheets, with a \ nooth and
clean surface, which is essential to the adhesion of the tin
in an equal film, was one of the principal « the
progress of this department of the art of tinning.
The process of tinning depends upon the strong affinity
which exists between tin and the metals to which it is ap-
plied, and it co: tially, in rendering the si
to be tinned perfectly clean and free from oxide, and then
bringing it into contact with melted tin, which forms an
alloy with the harder metal, imparts to it a bright B
appearance, and protects it from oxidation. The tinning
of sheet-iron, as the most important application of the
process, will be first noticed. This operation is min
described by Mr. Parkes. in the paper above cited, liom
which, with occasion:*' t" more recent accounts,
the following description iscondeix d. Reaumur's account
of the German pi-ore--, in the • Philosophical 'IV.-
may also be consulted by those who are curious as to the
details of the earlier method of tinning, which
that about to be described in all essential points.
The finest English or Welsh bar-iron, prepared with
charcoal, instead of mineral coke, and known to the trade
as tiii-inm, is used for making tin-plates. This material
is first, made into flat bars, or slabs, about thirty inches
long, six inches wide, and weighing eighty pounds. These
bars are made red-hot, and exit issing them re-
dly between rollers, until they are rcducul to about
three-eighths of an inch in thickness. YA'hen cooled, these
are cut by shears, worked by machinery, into plates
about ten inches by six, which are
and rolled, until they are reduced to as thin a s-
process will conveniently allow. The sheet is then d(n
and again rolled until reduced in thickness one-half.
which it is doubled again, and rolled until still further
diminished in thickness. When thus brought to the re-
quired tenuity, the thin sheet is cut into plates of the
required to suit the market (most commonly about thirteen
inches by ten'i. and then the several thicknesses or lamimr
paiated, — an operation which needs the application
.-I considerable force, as the compir-Mcm of the
- them to adhere strongly together. Pa
that the cutting of the plates wa-. wlun he wn ••
performed with hand-shears, but that an ingenious white-
smith in Glamorganshire had invented a machine for the
purpose, which wa> impelled by a \\: •• :§nd would
cut A quantity equal to a hundred boxes (of two hundred
and twenty-five plates e:<.-h in a day, which is four limes
as much a.s a hand-shearer could accomplish. Alter
shearing, the plates are piled in h<-.ips. one being laid
cross-wise at intervals, to separate the number required to
form a box. That name is technically applied to the
number of plates just mentioned in all the subsequent pro-
. although it is not until they arc completed that
the plates are actually placed in boxes.
T I N
481
T I N
The next operation to be performed is the removal of
every particle of oxide or other impurity from the surface
of the plates. For this purpose each is bent to an angle
of about GO0, so as to bring it into the form of an inverted
\ or n,.and then steeped^ for a few minutes in a leaden
trough containing a weak solution of muriatic acid. Four
pounds of acid to three gallons of water makes a mixture
of the proper strength, and sufficient for eighteen hundred
plates. After being immersed for four or five minutes in
this cleansing liquid, the plates are taken out, arranged on
the floor in rows, and then removed, by means of an iron
rod, to a reverberator}' furnace or oven, in which they are
submitted to a red heat. The reason for bending the
plates now becomes obvious, because if they were flat, the
two sides could not be equally exposed to the flame by
which the furnace is heated ; whereas by bending them, and
placing them upon their edges, the flame is allowed to
play upon both sides. The heat to which the plates are
exposed, combined with their previous washing in the acid,
causes them to throw off a scale of rust or oxide, whence
this operation is termed scaling. If well performed, it
gives to the iron a mottled blue and white surface, some-
what resembling marbled paper. The plates are then
flattened by beating them upon a cast-iron block, and sub-
mitted to a second or cold rolling, which removes any
warpinir acquired in the previous processes, gives a high
degree of smoothness to their surfaces, and imparts elas-
ticity to the iron. The rollers, or rolls, employed in this
operation are formed of cast-iron, rendered very hard by
casting in thick cold iron boxes or moulds, and their sur-
faces are carefully polished. Parkes states that rollers of
about thirty inches diameter are much better than those of
smaller dimensions for this purpose : the length of the rolls
.ally seventeen or eighteen inches. After the cold
rolling the plates are immersed singly, in a vertical posi-
tion, in an acidulous preparation called the ///>•*, consisting
of water in which bran has been steeped for nine or ten
days, until it has fermented and become slightly acid. In
this the plates are kept for ten or twelve hours, and occa-
sionally turned, to insure an equal exposure of every part
of their surface ; and from the lye-trough they are trans-
ferred to a leaden vessel containing diluted sulphuric acid,
the strength of which is varied according to the judgment
of the workman. This trough is divided into compart-
ments, which will contain a box of plates each; and both
it and the 1;. • • -trough are slightly heated by flues, to assist
the acti«n of the acid menstrua. Parkes states that a tem-
perature of 90" or 100' Fahrenheit is sufficient for this ope-
ration, which is called pickling, and which requires some
nicety, to prevent the plates from being strained or blis-
tered by remaining too long in the acid. They are usually
agitated in the weak sulphuric acid for about an hour,
until they become bright and free from black spots. They
aie then removed into pure water, in which they are
scoured with hemp and sand, to remove any remaining
oxide; and in this bath of pure water the plates remain
until wanted for tinning, because, even if left for months,
they will remain perfectly free from rvist.
As the sole object of these operations is to cleanse the
iron plates from rust and dirt, it is evident that the details
may be varied considerably ; but it is not necessary to
notice particularly any deviations from the usual process.
The tinning of the plates is effected in a range of cast-
iron pots heated by flues, and forming together an appa-
ratus called the stow. The plates are removed one by one
from the last-mentioned bath of pure water, and dried by
rubbing with bran, after which they are immersed singly
iii a pot filled with melted tallow or grease, in which they
are left for about an hour. The grease preserves the sur-
face from oxidation, and appears also to increase the affi-
nity of the iron for tin ; and for this purpose burnt grease,
Or any kind of c-mpyreuinaiic fat, is found preferable to
pure fresh tallow. From the grease-pot the plates are re-
1, wi'h the grease which adheres to their surfaces,
into the metallic bath, which contains a mixture of block
and grain tin, covered with a quantity of grease sufficient
four inches deep. Parkes states that the
mixture of block and grain tin usually contains about
i of each ; but he conceived that manui'ac-
iil tind it advantageous to use grain-tin alone ;
sim-t'. although it would be rather more expensive, its
.uid fluidity would occasion it to adhere to
tut: inm in a thinner film. The tin-bath or pot is heated
I'.C., No. -
to such a degree as almost to inflame the fatty mixture
upon the surface of the tin; and its dimensions are such
that it will receive two or three hundred plates standing
upright on their edges. The precise size is immaterial, so
that the number of plates put in is such as to prevent any
from falling down ; but it is convenient to make it large
enough to hold a box and a half of plates, or about three
hundred and forty. When the plates have remained in
the tin-bath a sufficient time (usually about an hour and
a half, but more for thick plates), they are lifted out with
tongs, and placed upon an iron grating, to allow the super-
fluous tin to drain off; but as there still remains upon
them much more than the proper quantity of tin, they are
afterwards subjected to a process called washing, which
consists in dipping them into a pot containing a quantity
of pure grain-tin in a melted state, then rubbing them
with a peculiar kind of brush made of hemp, plunging
them again for a moment into the melted tin in the wash-
pot, and then into a pot filled with clean melted tallow, or
lard free from salt, which contains pins, to prevent the
plates from touching each other. The heat of this second
tin-bath melts and detaches the superfluous and coarser
portions of the tin from the plates, and the drossy impu-
rities rise to the surface ; while the other portions unite
with the grain-tin, and so deteriorate its quality, that, alter
washing sixty or seventy boxes, it becomes necessary to
remove about three cwt. of tin from the wash-pot, antf to
supply its place by a block of pure grain-tin. The impure
tin thus removed from the wash-pot is put into the bath
in which the plates receive their first tinning. As it is
desirable, in the final dipping of the plate, to preserve it
from contact with the dross or scum which collects upon
the surface of the bath, a partition is inserted in the wash-
pot, to keep one compartment free of scum. The last dip
serves to eradicate the marks of the brush, and to replenish
the coat of tin wherever it may have been rubbed too thin ;
and the subsequent immersion of the plates in the grease-
pot causes any superfluous metal to run off. The heat of
the tallow-bath, and the period of immersion in it, must
be regulated with care. Thick plates require the tallow
to be cooler than for thin ones, because they retain mo(re
heat in themselves ; and if a thick plate were placed in a
bath of proper temperature for thin plates, it would come
out of a yellow instead of a silvery-white colour ; while,
on the contrary, a bath intended for thick plates would be
too cool to eft'ect the tequired purpose upon thin sheets.
Too short a period of immersion has a similar eft'ect, and.
leaves too much tin upon the surface, and that in a wavy
irregular film ; while if left too long in the grease-pot, the
tin would run off to such a degree as to render another
dipping necessary. So soon as the workman employed in
washing has placed five plates in the grease-pot, a boy lifts
the first from it into a draining-pan with a grated bottom ;
and when the man has placed the sixth in'the tallow, the
boy removes the second. Notwithstanding the apparently
complicated character of the operations just described,
they are performed so rapidly, that an expert wash-man
will wash and brush twenty-five boxes, or five thousand
six hundred and twenty-five plates, in twelve hours.
Owing to the vertical position of the plates during the
preceding operations, a selvage of tin accumulates along
their lower edge, which is removed by the process called
lixtiiig. This is performed by taking the plates one by
one, as soon as they are cool enough to handle, and dipping-
their lower edges into a pot called the list-pot, or listing-
pot, which contains enough melted tin to form a layer a
quarter of an inch thick. The selvage of tin being thus
melted, is shaken off by a smart blow with a stick, leaving
only a faint stripe, which may be discerned upon all
finished tin-plates. After listing, the plates are cleaned
from grease by rubbing them, while yet warm, with dry
bran ; after which they are packed in boxes of wood or
sheet-iron.
The tinning of the inner surfaces of cooking utensils and
otln'T vessels of capacity is performed by scouring the sur-
face until it is perfectly bright and clean ; then heating-
the vessel, pouring in some melted tin and rolling it
about, and rubbing the tin all over the surface with a
piece of cloth or a handful of tow : powdered rosin is
used, as in soldering, to prevent the formation of oxide,
which would impair the mutual affinity of the metals.
Pure grain-tin should be used for this purpose, but it is
frequently adulterated with lead. By this means vessels.
Vol.. XXIV.— 3 Q
T 1 \
: •
T I \
ol' cvp|*T. Draw, and cast-iron are u i.ally. and
i fit for the most dell, ate culinary '•
similar way any small portion* °oi
-.M'il till.
other small articles, are tim.ed bv immcr-i::-
in ttiiid tin. Mr. Gill, in tl
nic-al Repository,' p.
of tinning nails or tacks and other small v <
aiM* in cleaning the surface by pickling the artii
diluted sulphuric, muriatic, or nitnc acid, washing •
afterwards in water, and then puttinir them into H gallon
bottle of stone-ware, with an oval body and a narrow neck,
..T with a quantity of bar or grain tin, and of sal-
>el is then to be closed, and laid on
its aide over a charcoal fire, made upon a forge-hearth,
and by turning it round, and frequently shaking it. the tin
is to be uniformly distributed over the surfaces of the in-
closed articles. \Vheii tinned they are taken out, washed
in water to remove the sal-ammoniac, and dried :n
sawdust. The great advantage of the process c<
in the employment of the stone-ware bottle, which pre-
vents the dissipation of the fumes of the sal-amm
and gives up the whole of the tin, which no metallic
would do. The method of tinning pins is described under
PIN, vol. xviii., p. 161.
(Memoirs nf thr Lit?r<iry and Philosophical Swii'ty nf
MiHr/ii-.iirr, second series, vol. iii., pp. 347-HU : Pfilkso-
fthirttl '/'/• December. 172S : .!/</;///
Mi'tnl (in Lardn. :iet Cyclopaedia,' vol. iii. :
Dir.ti
TINNITUS AU'HIUM, ringing in the ears, ma\
from many different conditions. It is sometimes \\
an unnatural state of the circulation in some part of the
cor, the movement of the blood producing a vibration ot
the nerve which the mind does not distinguish from that
produced ! - vibrations of the air. Hut mo
quently the sensation is due to some di
the auditory nerve, and is entirely subject i. ,. It is thus
. .ed in some discuses of the brain, in nervous1 p
and in those who are. much debilitated; and is
!' organic disease of the auditory nerve it
analogous, in 11. -. to the subjective sensii;
sparks and flashes of light which is perceived in ca
disease of the retina or optic nerve. It may tin
sign of a dangerous condition, or :i preli iplete
deafness; but in the great majority of cases it is unimport-
ant, depending on some local temporary affect ion ol the
disluibance of the digc'stivc or-a::s with
which pait of the brain sympathizes.
Tl.VNU'NCUU S, Vieillofs name, after the an?:
iidee. Type, Tiiiiiiiiirnliix <ilnn,i
'ninuni-ultir, Linn., of which we proceed to
•1. Tcmminck's
1','vi-i/itnni. — Wings reaching to three-fourths of the
length of the tail ; upper plumage, of the male varied
numerous black spots; quills striped internally; .
always black.
I'eniminck states that this short indication is in
to enable the observer to n at the fi-
this s|
or L<-* , and he then proceeds to give the fol-
lowing details : —
head bluish-grey ; upper parts red-
dish-bro.vn, regularly sprinkled with angular black spots;
l..wer parts white, sBghtly tinged v.ith reddish and wjlh
oblong l.ronn spots; tail ash-coloured, with a. wide black
band towards ji .dilated with while;
bill bl ,es, iris, and fee;
low. Length about 14 inches.
larger than the male ; all the upper parts of a
bnghter reddish ; lower narts yellowish rusty, with oblong
spots; tail reddish, wit'h nine or ten narrow black
kind of that colour near its ex-
ticimty, win. i with reddish-white.
illi the upper pints of a reddish hue
-pott. -ck ; the ton (if the head ni.
clouA .gilt blue; the plumage variegattd with
ntirelv white.
e oppninjF ot the bill a small black
iris brown ; cere yellowish-green.
can be little or no doubt, the Kiytpic
"f Aristotle (Hitt. Anim., ii. 17; vi. 1 ; \
. and so most loologtsts are disposed to con.-i>:
. unculu* of the antient lu.
.-., x. 37.) It is the fbei/M
incvio, Acen lh, Kilchetto tit Torre. Ukgpfjio, and
ellit of the modern Italians; CercreUe, (Juerct
•n-IL- anil l-iirrri,'r rlrv 4lnllfttft nf thp Vi .
h ; and I'udyll cSch
•iirajihictil Dittribulton. — Riuupe eenerally, but not
habitually beyond the regions 01 :
place is occupied bythc .MERLIN. Kne;lai.
Ireland. Smyrna, in winter at least Strickl.
from the north to the south. ;iiu-k.
,d, accordiiii; t>
India iSelby'! ; bank
old ;:nd l!i:
that iiyiires of it, occur in dunvin.
mantle brow
form the angl
the top of the bead, the nape, and the
J ttrtaked with black ; these streaks
ick ; on the first quills are
reddish and whitish npota ; tail reddish, undulated ivith
grey-««h and tratMrerscly striped as in the female ; throat
l. mule ftiifl fr
, Food, iV-r. — The • name ' Wind!
well expresses the this
Mr. Mudie
iittcn
-.I'.ins with
liawk. h?r,<l to
fail and winnowinjj v. :
: uhen t! 1
nnei-rinirlypn the surprised ])iey. AVhen ti
the fields ••
.ird farmers exult in brin: little
thinking that the bird was the:: 'c of
their : Ir. ^'ater. : the
rel well, and shown : <.' is the
of the agricnltut
it nndoubledly pi
and their larva?, and eftrthv
liawkinc; nfler eockcli:
the evening. Tic watched o
i£rh mi.
"II beetles
l\1r. Sclby saw one
ilgaris) late in
a glass, and saw the
TI N
483
T I N
bird dart through a swarm of those insects, seize one in
each claw, and eat them on the wing. The kestrel returned
to the charge again and again, and Mr. Selhy ascertained
the fact beyond doubt, for lie afterwards shot the bird.
If a kestrel can find the nest of a crow or a magpie as a
receptacle for its eggs, it will not take the trouble to make
one ; indeed, it probably never does build : sometimes it
lays upon the bare ledges of rocks and in old ruined
towers. The number of eggs is four or five, and their
ground-colour reddish-white, which is mottled closely with
dark reddish-brown and sometimes blotched with reddish-
brown. The young come forth from the egg towards the
end of April or beginning of May, and are covered with a
yt>llowi.-,li-v
In the F'urli-in'/x d'Oij-i au.r, the following quatrain sums
up the qualities of the Kestrel : —
t*, ft antre vermine
1 "iv]le.
i. Colonihelle,
QuV , , uyseaiix de rapine. '
The allusion here made to the friendship of the Kestrel
for the Dove is probably taken from the passage in Pliny
to which we have above called attention.
N.B. M. Brchm would make three distinct species from
tin- hawk, under the names of, 1st, Hochkopjiger (high-
headed); 2nd, Mitllvrcr ('middle); and 3rd, Plalthopfiger
'flat-headed). Upon this M. Temminck drily observes,
that those who wish to multiply the catalogue of names
and of species in favour of each accidental or local variety,
may consult the work of M. Brehm. [FALCONID.E, vol.
x., p. 182; KESTREL.]
TINO. [TEN-OS.]
TIXOTOKUS. [FoRAiiiN-iFERA, vol. x.. p. 348.]
TIXTAGELL. [BOSSIXKY.]
TIXTERN ABBEY. [MOXMOUTHSHIRK.]
TIXTORETTO, JA'COPO, one of the most celebrated
painters of modern times, and one of the heads of the
Venetian school, was the son of a dyer (Tintore), whence
the agnomen of Tintoretto : his family name was Robusti;
and he was bora at Venice in 1512. He exhibited a
remarkable facility for drawing at a very early age, which
induced his parents to place nim in the school of Titian.
Ten days however after young Tintoretto had entered the
school of the great painter, he was sent home again to his
parents ; Titian's attention being attracted by some very
spirited drawings hi; saw in his studio, he inquired who did
them, and upon Tintoretto's acknowledging himself the
author, Titian ordered one of his scholars to conduct the
boy h
This remarkable rebuff in the career of the young painter
tii have added vigour to his energies, and he com-
menced a course of indefatigable application. He pur-
chased some casts from flu antique and some from the
models of Daniel da Volterra, from the statues of Michael
o of Morning, Twilight, Night, and Day, at the
lii-i, in San Lorenzo at Florence, resolving
ti> follow the .-ty'.c ol' Michael Angelo in design, and to
combine with it the colouring of Titian, — whioh intention
he proclaimed to his visitors by the following line, which
he wrote upon the wall of his apartment : —
' II div^no di Michel Angelo, e '1 colorito ili Tiiiano.'
By day he copied pictures by Titian ; and by night he
made drawings upon coloured paper, with chalk, from his
casts, lighted merely by a candle ; by which means he
acquired a taste for strong contrasts of light and shade, a
peculiarity for which all his works are conspicuous. To
these studies he added the occasional study of the living
model and of anatomy; and to attain a still greater mastery
of chiar'oscuro, he used to make models of figures in wax,
and place them in pasteboard cases, making apertures for
the light as he required it : he also suspended models and
trom the ceiling, for the purpose of becoming familiar
with various p(. . iews of the figure. In addition
to these studies, he is said to have received much gratuitous
assistance from Schiavone in colouring. Tintoretto's first
'traded notice was one containing portraits
of himself and his brother, by candle-light, himself hold-
ing a cast in his hand, and his brother playing the guitar,
lie exhibited this picture in public, and shortly afterwards
he exhibited a large historical piece upon the Kialto, which
him a rank amongst the great painters of Venice,
undertook every commission which offered itself, and
frequently painted large works merely for the price of the
materials. It would be impossible to enumerate all his
works here ; they amounted to many hundreds. One of
his first great works in fresco was a facade in the Arsenal,
which he painted in 1546, representing Balshazzar's Feast
and the Writing upon the Wall. Of his first oil pictures,
the following were most remarkable : — The Tiburtine Sibyl,
for the church of Santa Anna ; the Last Supper, and the
Washing of the Disciples' Feet, for the church of Santa
Marcola ; for San Severe, a Crucifixion, very large ; and
in the church of the Trinita, the Temptation of Eve and
the Death of Abel, besides some others.
Tintoretto was so eager for employment, and so desirous
of public notice and applause, that rather than be inactive
or unoccupied with any public work, he frequently volun-
teered his services, or at most required no further outlay
from his employer than would cover the cost of the ma-
terials. He painted upon such terms the facade in fresco
of a large house near the Ponte dell' Angelo ; on the lower
part of the house he painted a very spirited representation
of a cavalry battle, above which he placed an ornamental
cornice in bronze ; over this he painted a large historical
composition containing many figures ; between the win-
dows he introduced various figures of women ; and at the
top a rich frieze : the great extent and the boldness of
these paintings astonished the Venetian painters of that,
period. Upon very similar terms he executed two of his
greatest works, at Santa Maria dell' Orto, where he painted,
for 100 ducats, two immense pictures fifty feet high. In
one was the Procession of the Jews with the Golden Calf,
and Moses upon a rock in the background receiving the
Tables ol' the Law, which were supported by a group of
naked angels ; the other was a representation of the Last
Judgment, containing an immense number of figures ; an
extraordinary work, which, in the opinion of Vasari, would
have been perhaps without its rival as a work of art, if the
execution of the parts had been equal to the conception of
the whole.
The following works also are accounted amongst Tinto-
retto's masterpieces : — Saint Agnes restoring to life the son
of the Prefect, painted for the chapel of Cardinal Conta-
rino ; the Miracle of St. Mark, called ' II Miracolo dello
Schiavo,' where the saint delivers a Venetian, who had be-
come a Turkish slave, from a punishment ordered by his
master, by rendering him invulnerable, so that hammers
and other instruments of torture were broken upon his
body without hurting him ; this picture, which is gene-
rally considered the best of all Tintoretto's works, was
painted in his thirty-seventh year, for the brotherhood of
St. Mark, and when it was finished and put up, the worthy
friars disputed with one another about the price, a dispute
which Tintoretto settled by ordering the picture to be
taken down and sent home, and telling the brotherhood
that they should not have it at any price. He however,
after some entreaty, restored it to its place and received
his own price, and the friars further gratified him by
ordering him to paint three other subjects from the life
of the same saint, — the Exhumation of the Body of the
Saint at Alexandria, through the two Venetian merchants
Buono da Malamocco and Rustico da Torcello ; the Trans-
port of the Body to the Ship ; and the Miraculous Preser-
vation at. Sea of a Saracen Sailor through the Saint : the
miracle of the slave is in the Academy of Venice ; it has
been engraved by J. Mathan ; the other three are in the
Scuola di San Marco. Pietro di Cortona is reported to have
said, that if he lived in Venice, he would never pass a
holiday without going to see these works ; he admired
chiefly the drawing. The pictures he painted for the Scuola
di San Rocco are equally celebrated : they consist of the
famous Crucifixion, which was engraved by Agostino Car-
racci, to the greatest satisfaction of Tintoretto ; the Resur-
rection of Christ, engraved by E. Sadeler; the Slaughter
of the Innocents and the Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes,
engraved by L. Kilian ; and several others of less note.
To these must be added three painted for the Padri Groci-
feri, an Assumption of the Virgin, and a Circumcision of
the Infant Christ, painted in competition with Schiavone ;
and a Marriage at Cana, now in the church of Santa Maria
della Salute. .The Miracolo dello Schiavo, the Crucifixion
at, San Rocco, and the Marriage at Cana, are said to be
the only pictures to which Tintoretto put his name. There
is an engraving of the Marriage at Cana, by Volpato, and
a spirited etching by E. Fialetti.
Tintoretto executed many great works for the govern
3Q2
T I N
T I P
went of Venire, Ixith in oil and fresco ; a-
i\ -'uity. perseverance, and success, that 1 to be
' • orked
with iiupled rapidiu tha
11 1'' .a del Piombo said that Tin'
could do as much in two days as lie could do i •
IK- jointed for the senate, in the council-hall, the C Corona-
lion of Frederick Barbarossa, by Pope Adi i Uome ;
ami in consequence of 1'aul Veronese painting n pit turc in
the same half, Tintoretto procured i it an-
olher, in which lie reprcM'ntc ier 111. sur-
rounded by cardinals and .i:iii;nie«ling the
>« me emperor: the pope was represented throwing the ex-
tinguished candle amount the populace, and a crowd of
ing forward to endeavour to catch it. He
pain'. 'In- senate, in the hall dello Sciiitiuio, the.
celelir.ited naval victory of the Venetians orec the Turks in
1.171. He painted many other works in the ducal palace,
.ical and allegorical, commemorating the history of
Venice, of which the most famous arc the capture of Zara
by storm; and the great picture of Paradise, upon can\as,
74 feet liy .HJ. containing a surprising numbti
This was his last great work ; he comiuenceil it in •
pieces in the Scuola Vecchia della Misericordia, and
finished it, with the help of his son, in its place on the
ceiling of the great council-hall of the Senate, now the
libra
Tintoretto painted at Venice eight friezes for the duke of
Mantua, recording the duke's feats, to be placed in his
castle, and he \i-itcd the duke at Mantua, with all his
family, and was splendidly entertained by him. He painted
the portrait of Henry III. of France and Poland,
when that king visited Venice ; of which picture Hidolfi
relates a curious history. Tintoretto was engaged with Paul
nese in painting xmie figures in chiar'oscuro upon the
arch of triumph erected !>v Palladia at Venice in honour
of the landing of Henry III., king of Finnic and Poland ;
but wishing to take a portrait of the king as he landed, he
prevailed upon Paul \ eronese to complete the arch ; und
he dressed himself as one of the doge's attendants, anil went
in the Hucintoro, the state barge, with the others to
• e the king, whose portrait he drew in small, in
crayons, unknown to the king, whilst he was pn ".-ceding
in the barge to the landing-place. This portrait he- after-
wards enlarged in oils, and procured permission from tin-
king to retouch it from life. The king exprcs-e.l him-cif
:!\uch pleased with the po -H-ccplcd it from
. whom he wished to en-ate acavaliere; but
Tint'.! :|ie honour, upon the plea that ',
•ut with his habits. Henry III. aftcr-
- presented the portrait to the doge Luigi Mocenigo.
Tintoretto painted many portraits, all in a remarkably
bold style ; he painted several of the series of doges' por-
.dong the frieze of the great council-hall.
It has been said above that Tintoretto was a remarkably
iapid painter: he was however as careless about tin- i
lion of the parts as he wa> bold. There are pictures by him
painted in his youth thai are extiemely carefully 1'u
.v : Susanna at the Bath with the two
. i> of thin cla of his large pictures are
.•! coloured, and many of them were painted oil'
without th , . ; :
'. pioductiniis v. ijiieiit
source of complaint to his fello Upon one occa-
liocco reqi
us lor a picture of t!i< Apolln
-, that they mi..' -t of iliem, Tin,
sent his finished - soon as the others ei-nt in (heir
•i-, uffirmin had no other way of diawing;
and to ensure it* being rived in its de ••••. he made'
the institution a present of the work. Although Tintoretto
professed to draw in the style of Michel Angclo, and to
colour like Titian, there are few traces of either quality in
the great majority of his works; they are however all
his own peculiar style 0
which it frequently both heavy and cold. In his larger
principal < the number of
figure*, which are often crowd ,d the
;n vain for a spot of . •• the
not the case with such pictures as
i.r.o and other
..id C'arracci feM eloquently expressed the i;
tlu's great paint, r— that if he wa-.
he was ofte:
say that he had three pen
and the other of iron. In his design .
eular, but lean, and often i
his draperies frequently mean an
wait not gaudy, like that of ma::
ollen e\en cold, and shadow pi.
lures. He was once asked win
colours, and he answered 'black and while.' It was :
maxim of his that none but . i inii-'-
draw from the living model, as they Vr ere not cap:.;
distinguishing between the .';id the inij
of an individual model. Tintoretto painted Aretin's por-
-.!id Kidolfi relates the following am.'
with it :— Aretin nd of Titian's, and v.
the habit of abusing Tintoretto oeca.-ionaliy : the latt.
day meeting the poet, invited him to com . i'im
for his portrait, to which Aretin
sooner seated himself in the paint
pulled out with great violence a pistol from i
•! and came towards him : up jum,
great fright, and cried out ' .Tacopo, what
•Oh! don't alarm yourself.' t,aid Tintoretto. ' I am
to measure you;' and suiting the action to th-
said, 'you are just two pistols and a half.' • \'.
mountebank you are ! ' returned Aretin ; ' you are alw .
to some frolic.' The por'
and they became friends. Kidolfi records a few .
whimsical feats of Tintoretto's. He di
aged eighty-two. He had two children — a SOL, Dorn
and a daughter, Marietta — who both practised pai
Domenico was born in 15G2, and died in 10:i7. He fol-
lowed in the steps of his father both in history and por-
trait ; but, says Lan/i, as Ascanius did those of . i
passihus acqnis. Marietta \-..is Lorn in 1500. and died be-
fore her father, in 1590. She painted very excellent por-
traits.
(Kidolfi, I." Murariglif i/<>!' Arl<\ urnm I,- ]'<!,•
•i 1'ittori Veneti, e dello Stato ; Xanctti. .
turn Veneziana, e delle Opcre pubbliche de' ]'fin';iani
'n'. &c.)
TIOO.MKN. [Su.ERi.v.]
TIPEKAH MOUNTAINS. [HINDI-STAN, p. 216; SIL-
HKT.]
TIPPKKAKY. an inland county of the province of Mnn-
Ireland. It is on the northern border of the pro-
•ndcd on the north-east by Ki-
and Queen's County, and on the r. count v of
Kilkenny, all in the" province of Leinster. On the south-
i.ita it ij bounded by the count-
on the south-west by that of Cork, and on t:
of Limerick and Clare, all in Mnn-tcr. O.i the nort'li
i! is bir.inded by the county of Galway in Conn:
which, as well as from Cln pnraled I
Shannon or th>- lakes through which it I'..
of tin- i' the Irish ' only
•
iiiaught, and Donegal in l~ -ill is
from north to south, from the junction of the Lower Hi
with the Shannon to the Arm glen, (is mi!
breadth is from the border of I he eou i ;ty of Li ;
Tipperary and iimii' in i lo the border oi
county of Kilkenny, north of Cr.rriek-on-Suir, aboi
The area , lifted. In the Pojiulii-
ID ICnglish ;
on Tithe Lordt' Sessional Papert,
acres (=1583 square miles : con
- -timate H19,(ii)8 acres f = 12-.
of cultivated land . IS'J. 117 a.
of unimproved mountain or bog, and II. —18
square mil -. The c
above the ] lemarknblc, and won'.!
it liable to suspicion if it v. less
eminent authority. The population, in ls;ti. v.
.'or 254 i-ihnhitantx toasijuaic in
.
('lonmell orClonmel. ' on thcSuir, 'JOmilei
T I P
485
T I P
in a direct line south-south-west of Dublin, or 103 miles
by the road through Naas, Castle-Dennot, Carlow, Leighlin
Bri lire. Kilkenny, and Callen.
Surface; Geology ; Bngs.— The Knockmeledown Moun-
tains, on the south border of the county, where it is conter-
minous with Cork, rise to the height of 2700 feet above
the level of the sea. They are placed in ' a table-land of
clay-slate, partly bordered on the flanks by sandstone, and
on the higher grounds sustaining isolated caps of the same
rock, or upholding more continuous mountain-masses.'
The position of the sandstone on the flanks is generally
conformed to the inclination presented by the surface of
the subjacent clay-slate, but the masses on the higher
grounds approach more and more to a horizontal arrange-
ment. This tract (of clay-slate) is surrounded by floetz
limestone on the north, the west, and the south : ' this
limestone tract on the north separates the Knockmeledown
Mountains from the Galtees, of which the principal sum-
mils (3000 feet high) are in this county. The general
direction of these two ranges is nearly east and west : tlie
intermediate limestone plain or valley is watered by two
streams (with their respective affluents), one, the Tar,
flowing eastward into the Suir ; the other, the Puncheon,
•westward into the Blackwater. North of the Galtees, from
which they are separated by a narrow valley (the Glen of
Aherlow), rise the Slievh-na-Muck Mountains, which form
a subordinate and lower range, and have the same general
direction of east and west. Both the Galtees and the
Slievh-na-Muck are composed wholly of sandstone, and
the intermediate valley or glen appears to be occupied by
the same formation. The northern face of the Galtees,
towards this narrow valley, is in many parts extremely pre-
cipitous, and even inaccessible: the southern face, towards
the broader valley or limestone plain, which separates them
from the Knorkmeledown Mountains, is of atamer character.
The strata of the sandstone are, in the upper region of the
Galtees, almost horizontal, yet gently curved, following
the form of the summit, and precipitously broken off on
the sides, where they frequenfly crop out. On the flanks,
where they are not abruptly broken off, they become more
inclined, and appear to be conformed to the surface of the
•ate on which they rest. The sandstone varies much
in character, but in general it is a fine-grained rock, com-
posed of grains of quartz closely aggregated. The sand-
stone of S!ievh-na-Muck yields excellent flags.
In the south-eastern corner of the county, north of
Clonmell and Carrick-on-Suir, is a group of hills called
Slie\ h-na-Man, the geological character of which is similar
to that of the mountains already described : the group
4 consists of a nucleus of clay-slate, surrounded and sur-
mounted by sandstone.'
In the centre of the county is another important range.
It commences in the county of Limerick, north of the
little river Mulkerne, or Bilboa, which joins the Shannon
a short distance above Limerick. At this extremity the
range is known as the Doon Mountains ; but as it extends
north-eastward into Tipperary, the most important summits
nown as the Bilboa and Keeper Mountains (the latter
2100 feet high) and the Devil's Bit : it crosses the county
of Tipperary in a north-eastern direction by Templederry
:m<l Hoscrea, becoming narrower as it advances, and enters
Queen's County and King's County, which it separates
from each other, and where it is known under the desig-
nation of Slievh Bloom. The geological character of
these mountains is similar to those already described :
Keeper and Bilboa and the adjacent parts of the range
.; of clay-slate, generally flanked by sandstone, except
small space on the north-west side, near the village
of Sih ermines, where, at the foot of the hills, the clay-slate
ontact with and immediately supports the floetz
'one. To the north-east of Templederry the range is
entirely composed of sandstone. The direction of the
i of the clay-slate varies in this mountain-range. The
in one part, near Newport, on the west side of
. is a coarse red conglomerate, and rests uncon-
<,n the clay-slate. Copper was formerly dug in
.itnins, at Lackamore,tive miles east of Newport.
• • three veins, one of them thicker than the rest,
Bg rich copper-ore in bunches. The workings on
this vein extended above 700 feet in length anil LID fret.
nth. An attcin. • de early in the present cen-
to renew the works, but the machinery was insufficient
to keep the mine free from water.
Considerable quantities of lead mixed with silver w ere
obtained last century in an opening at the junction of the
clay-slate with the floetz limestone, near the village of
Silvermines. This opening had been filled with clay,
sandy clay, sand, decomposed slate, and scattered blocks
of limestone, Lydian-stone, and sandstone, the whole mass
being penetrated or cemented by metallic depositions of
various kinds ; and in this ' softness,' as the miners termed
it, the operations were conducted.
Near the lower part of Lough Derg, one of the lakes
through which the Shannon flows, are the Arra Mountains,
a group occupying a small part of this county on the
western side, and extending across the Shannon into the
county of Clare (where they are known by the name of
Slievh Bernagh) ; they consist partly of clay-slate and
partly of sandstone. There are quarries in these mountains
which yield slate not inferior to that of North Wales.
The rest of the county is occupied by the fioetz lime-
stone, except a portion of the district between the southern
groups of mountains (Slievh-na-Man and the Galtees) and
the Central range, which is occupied by the coal-field of
Killenaule ; and one or two small tracts on the western
side of the county, where trap rocks appear interstratified
with the limestone. This floetz limestone presents in its
connection with other rocks and in its organic remains
several features similar to those of the mountain limestone
of Derbyshire and the north of England ; but differs in
this, that the tract occupied by it forms an extensive plain,
marked only by slight undulations.
The coal-field of Kiljenaule extends about eighteen
miles in length from north-east to' south-west, from near
the river Nore to the neighbourhood of Cashel, and about
six miles in breadth. It is partly in this county and partly
in that of Kilkenny. There are two very small outlying
portions near Cashel. This coal-field forms a low range
of hills, placed upon the floetz limestone, and elevated
above it. It varies in its elevation, being highest and
most abrupt on the north-western side, where the hills rise
from 300 to 600 feet above the limestone plain. On this
side the dip both of the limestone and superincumbent
coal strata is greater than on the other side. Towards the
south-east the surface declines gradually, and the streams
which water the tract mostly flow in that direction. The
strata are more gently inclined here. The aspect of the
hills varies, but they are commonly rounded with inter-
vening hollows. The junction of the limestone with the
coal-formation is generally at the foot of the hills, but
sometimes half-way up their side. Immediately above the
limestone, shale and gritstone alternate, there being two
beds of each : the upper gritstone, when not. covered by
the superior beds, constitutes the main body of the elevated
part of the coal-hills : it is marked by repeated undulations,
forming unequal ridges, with intervening hollows or troughs,
having their greatest extension or length generally from
north-east to south-west. In these troughs the coal-beds are
found resting upon fire-clay, which intervenes between
them and the gritstone and forms the floor of the coal,
and covered by shale, grit, and then shale again.
Sometimes this series is repeated so as to give two seams
of coal. The troughs are generally from fifty to seventy
yards deep from the surface to the coal, near the centre of
the trough, and from 500 to 700 yards wide at the surface.
The coalis of the nature of blind-coal or anthracite. The
coal-works have been earned on with increased activity of
late years : before 1825 the yearly produce was valued at
about 12,000/. ; since that period it has been nearly doubled.
The principal bogs are m the eastern and central part of
the county : one continuous line of bog extends from near
the border of the coal-field, near Killenaule, to the south-
eastern foot of the central range of hills at Roscrea, a dis-
tance of nearly 30 miles ; and there are smaller detached
bogs westward of this, and some in the northern part of
the county, between the Lower Brusna and the Shannon.
Hydrography and Communications. — The greater part
of the county is comprehended in the basin of the Barrow
and the Suir, two rivers which unite in Waterford Haven.
A small part on the eastern border is drained by the Min-
ster, or Kincr's River, a small affluent, of the Npre, which
itself is an affluent of the Barrow. The Nore rises in this
county, but has its course chiefly in that of Kilkenny. But.
most of the waters flow into the Suir, which rises north of
Templemorc, on the south-eastern slope of the mountains
that there cross the county, and flows by Thv.rles, Golden,
TI I'
'I I P
and Cuhir. to the junclior
in along th
after
'
Urge, and arc
urn! .urn:
Its course in '
•mall. On the
Golden Bridge ;
Aherlow, between tin
the Tar, which drain* '
KIIU) knock
11. The
county, on the
lamk, belongs to the 1. Two i'
>• border. 1;> !ow Carrick. The Suir is navigable by
Urge barges up to Clonmcll.
That part of the county which lies north-west from the
central chain of mountains (the Keeper. Dilboa, and
of the Shannon. The
Shannon r
s.!>irt the norlh-wastcrn bord
ible throughout. Tin.
!<>n,
cipal arc th<
and I
which it flows,
for al
.-. liich flow 1'rom the
tral c :
n are navigable : the prin-
-hc town of Xciiasih.
'.hi- 1101 th-
and unites with the Shannon at the north-
Tnere sre TIO lakes in this county ; hut Lough Berg is on
re are no navigable canals. The road from
. !e of the comity,
•j»»c* through Clonmell a: n. Another road
i 'oik by Athy
.;! from Dublin through Kildare and Mary-
mtVj to l.imcri. the nortli-
•:ra, and Nenagh: an-
.:\ through Tullamore andParsonstown
(both in • ith the foregoing at
in Limcric'
county on the k-on-Suir, and ;
through Clonmcll, Cahir, and Tipperary. There are roads
from ' 'l.iTimcli ' -id to Cahir, and from Tip;
.ds of less importance, win-
>:i. In the evidence taken befoie the
1S30, vol. xxxiii.j,
Is in tli, . Middlethird — which, as compre-
part of the mountainous country (including Siicvh-
valley or plain bet ween t!.
> m mountains, may be taken to rep
•vge — arc described as good and sufficiently
tjllitrr •''-. — The in-
• 1 from
H-ndix • licport
\xiii.), has lefricnce to the
•id, from which aln- s were
•d ; but it m . in a great
ible to the rest of the county.
and m Hie barony was estimated in the county
iit was old, and regarded :LS
.; plantation acres : the plantation or
;iii Kuglisl re and
to la. -Jr. ll»,-!,p. The land was
held an follow*: —
70 persons held above 100 acres.
I! '
Ill-
UK
na-
tr;
' •
do;
31
idr
B61
759
746
IOM
2«0
The soil of the bai
• at urn
'age or pasture
mon any •
acres in cenlli
I or GOO acrcK of
m 80 to 100.
&0 to HO.
20 to 60.
10 to 20.
R to 10.
1 to 6.
leas than 1 acre.
>ny is chiefly a rich loam of some
ally adapted
no pnbh
hi"
e: here are <
, and (bat in the nortl •
irony: in the southern part the wanl of
imlerof the barony, alter
triflmir deductions, one-third or one-fourth is pn
land, nnd the rest in tillage. Grazinfr-fnrnu are chief! •.
pasture having
• illv hound
than in uthen.
Kent* liave been decreasing : it was that th
..
but the prantinp i .» troiiii^ i: «nd fan
of which the leases hail fallen in during the
years v
term of fa;- years, or tl,
tagc and glebe lands an comim-';
Since the subletting act, it i i!to"grant1ea»e»
•:mts in common; si;<
OUF; tliey had prevented draining and inclosing, and other
improvement*. About one-fourth of the barony was at \!;.-
time of the inquiry held under iniddh -
is going into disuse ; ain1 :ot usually
-tand-
iug that the le- iblet. There lia* l)een a
disposition in the landowners to consolidate small .
but whc> ive tnk«n place lliey have
been resisted by the peasantry,:
and outrages committed upon those who s--.ceecd to the
occupation of the vacated land : considerable difficult
thus been placed in the way of consolidation.
The average rent of Inml is not iriven : the competition
•all holdings is howi \ ' that whe:;
occurs men will bid more than will allow them to make a
from the land : and in most cases t
tenant cannot obtain nion Tile
rent of these small holdings is gcr
This competition for land lias In c:i a fruit fi .1
crime. Good land may probably be worth from -/. l(l\. to
U'. per acre ; but when let as cu.
rent, which is usually paid in rm<
•id to his own labourers. T);ury-laml is wort!
an acre more than tillage-land, and grazing-land
more valuable.
The usual rotation of crops is threefold ; potat'
and oats form tli nl if the land will bear it. t
•A!. The potatoes are manured chiefly with
manure.,' which sells in the towns for 2v. a;
cwt. The farm i lly the smaller <
little stock ; and stall-feeding for the pur
manui
and lioer-caith are carried to the dune-yard to ;
down. .'.ut of the lain
expedients are resorted to in order to pioc
potatoes trrown both by 11
cominonly the white potatoes, becau-
miality. thi 1) and on i ' land.
Potat i
practi ,ii>j them in by the plough i.\
more common : fi
a- nrich to give
ol the potato crop as
ally manured with lime, winch is bur:
small-coal from the collieries in '
Wheat i.i more commonly crown alter potatoes
Billow: the seed is ge.ncra
serve it from smut ; and the crop win
1 once, and rolled. Many d tin-
break the lumps with a wooden mallet. iV
i* of the first (junlity : n good deal is threshed out by the
small farmers immediately after bar
or other debts : the large farmers do i
fore November.
The cultivation of clover, rye-frrM*. an
much increased of late years : er turnips nor
Alter the common rotation <
" best lands three or four
times, the grouivl is ].-f« to ^rass for six
T I P
487
T I P
Grass or clover seeds are usually sown with the oats the
last crop of the tillage course; and for the two following
years the produce is mown, and then grazed until the land
is again broken up by the plough. Small farmers fre-
quently do not sow any grass seeds nor mow the crop ;
they also break up the ground after a shorter interval.
Owing to the warmth and moisture of the climate, and
from the later period (the month of August) at which they
are cut, the crops of hay are heavier than would be pro-
duced by land of equal goodness in Great Britain ; but it
is probable that from its more succulent nature the hay will
not support or fatten cattle better than a smaller quantity
of English hay.
The long-horned Leicester breed of cattle was intro-
duced many years ago ; but the Durham and Hereford
breeds are more in request. The common Irish (Limerick)
breed is however most generally used, as being the most
hardy. The stock of all kinds is very good. There are
not so many cattle fattened for export as there were for-
merly, still some are ted for the English market, and are
exported from Waterford to Liverpool. Cattle are fit for
slaughter from three years and a half old ; they weigh
when fat from four cwt. to six cwt. Many young bullocks
are sold at a year old to Roscommon and Gahvay men ;
others for grazing are bought in the neighbourhood or at
Ballinasloe. The Ayrshire and Kerry cows are not much
used except by gentlemen. The quantity of butter made
is not great, but the quality is in general good, and the
mode of preserving it is improving : Clonmell is the prin-
cipal market. Very little cheese is made.
There are not many sheep kept : they are in general a
of the Leicester breed, and are large well-made ani-
mals. There are no large flocks, and folding sheep is not
in use ; the small fanners keep two or three sheep for the
sake of the wool ; and those who have dairies mix some
sheep in their pastures with their homed stock.
The horses are of an active light-boned sort, very useful
i'ur all fanning purposes. Oxen are never employed in
labour. Pig's are numerous, and of an improved breed :
they are considered to be still improving.
Agricultural implements have undergone much improve-
ment of late years. An iron plough, after the form of the
Scotch plough, has superseded the old-fashioned one, which
is now seldom seen in Use : the harrows, though not so
well made, yet, from I nature of the soil, do their
work efficiently: ro' liing more common every
year ; and these, as well as the harrows, are borrowed by
the farmers from each other. The carts are of cheap con-
struction, with narrow wheels and low sides formed of rails ;
Uiey carry only a small load, and are drawn by one horse.
The plough is used in the cultivation of every crop except
potatoes, for which, among the small farmers, the spade
it used; but the use of the spade is diminishing eu.y
year. The flail is used in threshing, except when the straw
Is wanted for thatching, and then the corn is often knocked
out against a board by the hand.
The dairy-farmer have in general more capital than
other farmers. They have better houses, and these, with
their cattle-sheds and other farm buildings, are usually in
good condition. Mud-walls are found to answer best for
dairies, and little air is admitted.
Many of the resident gentry have set an example of
;or cultivation, and have been the means of introduc-
ing improved stock and implements. They crop the land
less severely than the common farmers, and give it longer
intervals of rest or more manure, in which they are fol-
lowed by the larger farmers.
The con-ai'i'c system is common; these allotments are
commonly taken by the cottiers to raise their own food,
but a considerable number are taken by servants and
women with a view to profit from the sale of the produce.
The usual quantity taken by a family is a quarter to hall'
an acre; and the labouring class are always anxious to
obtain it.
The demand for labour at the time of the inquiry was
i to have <; while the population had
increased. W;i h had in the course of ten years
.inution of about two-pence per day, were
v for men li</. a day with food, and in harvest 1*. a
day with food ; or when hired for a whole year, 7i^- a day
in sii a day in winter, without food. Hoys
i I'ceived Hi/, a day in harvest-time, or if hired
by the year 13*. per quarter, or in some baronies 20*-. per
quarter. If a labourer worked 250 days in the year, at 8il. a
day, he received 8!!. 6s. 8rf., which may be considered as the
full average of the yearly earnings of the class. In the sea-
sons when work is slack, mid-winter and a month before
harvest, many of them resort to begging. To this the labourer
may add a little by eggs and about 3^. by his pigs. When
food is dear, the labourer has to work sometimes for six
weeks in July and August, merely for his food, consisting
generally of potatoes and milk. When a farmer feeds his
labourer, he gives him commonly better food than he would
have at home. If a labourer has a cottage, potato-garden,
and milk from his employer, as is usual, these are con-
sidered equivalent to a third or a half of his wages. The
labourers in the richest grazing districts are the worst otf.
The labourers when they obtain permanent employment,
at fixed wages, exhibit generally increased cleanliness and
decency of appearance, and their cabins are better fur-
nished.
There is no employment for women, except in some of
the baronies in harvest-time, and perhaps in the potato-
planting and digging seasons, when they earn about (J</.
a day. Formerly they spun wool for their own clothes,
but this practice has ceased for several years, probably
because the manufactured article can now be purchased
cheaper. The rearing of fowls is the source of some profit ;
and a couple of pigs will bring in about 3/., which is
depended upon to pay the rent of the potato-garden.
There is no work for children under fourteen years of age :
they are not employed in hoeing or weeding corn or other
crops.
The cottier tenants, occupiers of less than ten acres of
land, are enabled to feed and clothe their families better
than a labourer, but are themselves worse fed than the
labourers who are dieted by the fanners. Cottiers seldom
keep a cow ; they hold their land' from year to year, and
are generally in arrear for rent, which is always (if a man
holds five acres or more) expected to be paid in money.
The potatoes which the labourer or small cottier grows
constitute the food of his family ; he himself is frequently
fed by his employer. Milk is not used in more than one
half of the families. The greatest expenditure on tobacco
is Gd. a. week. Candles for six months amount to 3;/. per
week, and other necessaries, under the general designation
of kitchen,' cost from M. 10s. to 21. 10.$. for the year.
The labourers do not consume any description of groceries.
The fees to the Roman Catholic clergy form an important
item in a labourer's outlay. The fee for marriage is liw.,
for churching a woman 2?. Gd., and for blessing the clay
and saying mass at a funeral 5*. ; at confession at Easter
and Christmas Is. is expected : but these fees are often
remitted.
The dwellings of the labourers are of the most Wretched
description, nor has any perceptible improvement taken
place of'late years. During the alarm of cholera they were
whitewashed, but that is now neglected. They are gene-
rally 20 feet long by 12 broad, with walls from 7 to 8 feet
high, divided into two or perhaps three very small apart-
ments, and never having a second story ; covered only
with a thatch of straw, and having nothing but the bare
ground for the floor, and that often full of holes, which in
wet weather become little pools of water. A hole in the
roof allows the escape of the smoke, and their windows,
15 inches square, are more commonly without glass than
with it, and almost universally destitute of shutters. They
have rarely any outhouse except a pigsty, and in many cases
where they have not even that, the pig sleeps in the house.
These wretched hovels usually cost in erection about It)/.,
and the tenant pays from 20s. to 30*-. a year as rent ; with
a rood of land, the rent is near 21. 10s. The cabins are
always kept in repair by the tenant. They are usually
built separate, not grouped in villages or hamlets, and for
convenience near the road-side.
It rarely happens that there is more than one bed for
the whole family; a bedstead, a dresser, two chairs, a large
iron pot, and some crockery, all of the worst description,
usually complete the catalogue. In some wretched cabins
even these are not found, and the family lie on the floor.
The chief article of food is the potato : the peasantry
grow this in preference to corn, because it yields a more
abundant supply with less care and less manure. A
labourer, when employed, gets three meals of potatoes a
day, his wife and children only two. In July and August,
when the old potatoes have become unfit for food, and the
T I P
488
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new CIOTM art ready, colic or otlicr bowel complaints are
-omenew of the diet ; and the
.1 dis-
.ision
I, which h, -id by
]>.iving double the market-price.
'•lothim;. • le improvement has
taken place, though the peasantry are still very mditt'er-
luiao-
ture, but the women generally make up their own dresses:
iiowcver t:. able to do this, uud h
pay f, made. The use of shoes and
• in and
\pcnditure of a
labourer's family on clothes is seldom less than a pound.
,el is turf: ne:. -;,eap,
but to one living at a distance of H or ID miles from a tur-
\Vhen fuel is scarce, pi'
and the destruction of woods and fences are common.
and dried cow -dung are i. for turf.
Tlie county ha.s always been one of the most disturbed in
d : • although there is an ebb and flow of crime in
Tippcrary has always kept up steadily to
hiirh-watcr-inarlc.' This \ .'incut of the n
istiate of Cashel. (See Parliamentary j
p. :i57.)
\-r. — Tlie county is divided into eleven
baronies, a.s follows : —
.nv. Situation. Pop. in 1831.
Clanwilliam'. . . \V. 152
Elio_'.itiy .... Central 38,531
Ilia and "l )i!a :! S.E. 38,702
West s.\v. 1.12
Ike, in. . . . N.K. 27.H77
Kilnemana-h . . \\ • 30.771
Middlcthird . . . Central .11.103
id Lower). . N. 45,006
Ormond (Upper) . Central 21, SOT
Owney and Am. . W. 32.454
Slievardagh ... E. 32.7(15
402,5(13
It contains the county-town of Clonmell or Clonmel
[CI.ONMKI.]; the city of Cashel [CASHKI.] ; the ex-bo-
ro-.lirh (formerly parliamentary) of Fethard ; the maiket-
- of Cahir', Carrick-on-Su'ir [CAKKH K-oN-Suiu], Clog-
. Killenaule, Nenasrh. Koserea, Tern; •'. more, Thuilcs.
and Tippcrary ; the post-towns of 1! iinriis-
o'-Kane, Cloghjordan, Golden, Littleton. N'e-.v Birmingham,
and Nfwpoit : and the villairc-. , dy, Mullina-
hone, Silvermines, Toomavaia. and others. Some o.
are d ,red to above : of the others w .
some account here.
Kelhaid is in the barony of Middlcthird, W> miles from
Dublin by Kilkenny and ('alien, and '.) miles north from
Clonmell. The town contained, in 1S31, 5S2 houses, in-
habited by OH;) famiiies: 3;> houses uninhabited, and 5
l.nilding, with a population of 3405: the whole parish
.OHM'!,, inhabited by 7!'7 families ; -II houses
iniiii: .',d 7 buihlinsr : with a population of 4050.
i on both banks, but chiefly
on the left or north-eastern bank of a small stream, the
Glashall, which ulti:: li the Suir below Clonmell.
ard Ls an ai • •',•<•. ived town, in a b\c situation.
with little trade. Of the IMU.M-S about 120 arc slated, and
ire that chid cabins, and of
the poorest description. There arc a parish church: a
I'rimitive .Methodist meetini;-!.
two Roman Catholic chapels, one the regular parish
i 1, the other attached to an Aiigustinian friary. The
:i church, of which the chancel is in ruins, und the
friary chapel, are autient structures. There U a good
1 school-house. Tlie town was formerly walled, and
some portions of the walls an I •••.•, -\ !,iv.
main. Then1 are ,.r »eie lately four mills und a Ian-yard
or two: the principal tnde i* snoemaking; but the chief
.ilion of the labouring class is agriculture.
to.vn was im :i»d : the
.itcd lil Kd'.vard ill.. A.D. 1370:
but the corporation has .1 \cd l:y the late Iri-h
Mr,:,, uibi'is
to Hi 'it, but was disfranchised at the I
' t on Saturday, but it is of minor inipor-
tance : the yearly sale of wheat i« about 8UOO
oats about 3000
and a charitable' loan-fund
.ntcd in Is of all kind-
cluditiir a national school with ISO boys on Ih.' Uiok
an avei;i'j;e daily attendance' uf l:ui.
Cahir, or Caller, is in the barony of I Ha and Oiia \
11 1 miles south-west from Dublin by Clonincll. from -
it is distant 7 : n had, in
i, inhabited by 7OO families: Gl hou
and 10 building, with a population •
parish had 12:11 houses, inhabited by 11..
- uninhabited, and 23 building, v. ilh
Cahir is pleasantly situated on the b:
Suir, at tin
and the Kiun-kincledown : it is. )..
toun, very clean, and has been stiadily incniLsinir,!!'.
not rapidly : the new houses are chiefly 01
.-. oith I'roin H)/. to-U)/. per annu:t;
a parish chur, liolic
chajH'!, and a (Quakers' meeting-house. Near tlu
• -valry barracks; and on the 1..
are the demesne and residence of the Karl ol G
atteni])t w;is made many years .11:0 to establish
manufacture, but it failed: since then the straw-p!:,.
introduced, an.! .j.loYnieiit to a nun.:
females: there are also some exten
market is on Friday, and is an importa:
the Vi'arly silos of wheat had increased from ii.1
in 182G, to 50.131 in i
steady through the ssimo period, at :i7,(MK) barn
is a bridewell, and a body of co
town : there are also a dispensary and i'evcr-h
(by returns to parliament in lsa."> tiller
kinds; one of them a national school, with 2KO clu
(boys and girls) on the books, and an average :
of i."M) ; and two others on Erasmus Smith's !•
one with 51 girls on the books, and an a\ i
of 25 ; the other containing 11 boys. Near ti
an island of the Suir, are the picturesque ruins of the
of Cahir.
Clogheen is in the barony of Iffa and Offa (West), 120
miles south-west of Dublin through Clonmell, and IH
miles from Clonmell. The town is chiefly in tl.
Shanraghan : it contained, in ]s31, 2!tl nouses, inh;
by 357 families : 17 houses uninhabited, and 3
with a population of l'.)2S : the whole parish hai'.
houses, inhabited by 11!)'.) families; 31) Inn
and 4 building: tne parish of Tulla£horlon. into
the town extends, had -JT housi's. inhabited !•'
Ik's; "> liuuses uninhabited, and 5 bnildiii!:. wit;
lion of 1 !)<;.">. \Vhat portion ut
we have no means of ascertaining. There is a !!
ic chapel in the town: the paiisli church ol
raghan is in the immediate neighbourhood. Tu
parish has no church. A lar«;<' corn-market
Saturday, at which the yearly a
from 42,125 barrels in I H2C, to 02,824 in :
ley had decreased from .'{'iKI barrels in Is
in Is35: li . en Hour-mills in and round the
the flour from which is sent by laud to ( 'lonmell. anil
thence down the Snir to \Vaterford, where it
laix'e brewery. A body
arc po-tcd in the town ; and there are a small , .
I small bridewell, and a dispensary and fe\ :
Near the town are the ruins of an antieiit parish ,
and of an antient abbey. Shanbaliy Castle, the -
Lord Lismorc. is also in the neighbourhood. Uyt:
turns to parliament in ls:r> there were in the two parishes
eiu'ht private schools, but not any national or otl
Bupported by subscription or endowment.
Killenaule is in the barony of Slievai-daiih.
south-west from Dublin by Urlingford, and 111 a
Clonmell by Fethard. The town, in 1S31, coi '
bouses, occupied by 321 families; 31 ho:
and 2 Imildinir. with a po|)ulatio:i of ; ,
parish had 27'' houses, inhabited by 300 families : :i In
uninhabited, and :i building, with a population of lss;i;
making a total population of 3l(i7. Th.Te aie a church,
a Roman Catholic chapel, and a dispensary: the church
ill and antient. Tin i
ral yearly fairs are held : a portion of tne county constabu-
lary is stationed in the town. Several of the collieries of
T I P
489
T I P
the Killenaule coal-field are in this parish. By the returns
to parliament, A.D. 1835, there were in the parish six
schools, all supported by the payments of the children :
school-houses had been built by subscription for two of
these schools.
Nenagh is partly in Upper Ormond, but chiefly in Lower
Ormond barony, between 95 and 90 miles south-west of
Dublin, on the road to Limerick. The town qontained, in
1831, 1282 houses, inhabited by 1703 families; 55 houses
uninhabited, and 9 building, with a population of 84G6 :
the remainder of the parish contained 104 houses, inhabited
by 104 families, and 2 houses uninhabited, with a popula-
tion of 693 ; making a total population of 9159. This
town antiently belonged to the Butler family, who had a
strong castle here : it had two ecclesiastical foundations ;
an hospital for the canons of St. Augustin, founded A.D.
1200 ; and a friary for conventual Franciscans, deemed the
richest foundation of that order in-Ireland, founded in the
reign of Henry III. The town was burned, A.D. 1550, by
the natives under O'Carrol, and the friary was included in
Ihe destruction, but the castle was saved by the garrison.
The town was repeatedly taken and retaken in the great
civil war in the reign of Charles I. It was taken by the
native forces of James II., A.D. 1688, but after a time aban-
doned and burned by them. The town stands on the river
Nenagh, which flows with a circuitous course from the
Keeper Mountains into Lough Derg, and consists of four
streets meeting in the centre. The ruins of the castle,
consisting chiefly of a large circular donjon or keep, called
Nenagh Round, are on one side of one of the streets,
i e Street. There are a barrack for cavalry ; a fever-
hospital and dispensary ; a church, rebuilt some years
since ; a Roman Catholic chapel ; and a bridewell, unless it
has been disused since the completion of the county gaol,
lately erected here. Some remains of the Franciscan friary
may be traced. A portion of the county constabulary are
stationed here. There is a well-attended market on Thurs-
day for corn and cattle. The number of barrels of wheat sold
on the average of the years 1826 to 1835 was above 45,000,
of barrels of u;its about 4500, and of barrels of barley 1300.
The salt: of bere, which was about 1000 barrels in 1826,
had quite ceased before 1835. There are in or near the
town a brewery, a flour-mill, and a small stuff manufac-
tory. There are several yearly fairs. There were in the
parish, by the return made to parliament in 1835. eight
schools of all kinds, including a national school, with an
average attendance of 190 boys; a parish free-school, with
an average attendance of 40 boys and girls ; and a school
mi Kiusmus Smith's foundation, with an average attendance
of 28 boys and girls.
Roscrea is in"the barony of Ikerin, 75 miles west-south-
west of Dublin, on the road to Limerick, and about 50 to
r>2 north of Clonmell. A monastery for regular canons is
>;iid to have been founded here by St. Cronan as early as
the beginning of the seventh century, which became sub-
sequently the seat of a bishopric, afterwards united to
Kiilaloe. According to Keating (Histnry of Ireland) there
.uitii-ntly a great fair held at Roscrea on the festival
of St. Peter and St. Paul, at which fair, about the middle
of the tenth century, an army of Danes, collected from
Limerick and Cuiimutght, attempted to surprise the natives ;
• liese, having sonic suspicion of the attack, had brought
arms with them, and made so stout a resistance, that they
repulsed the enemy, with the loss of their leader and four
thousand men. In 1213 King John erected a castle at
Roscrea, of which a circular tower remains ; and there is
in the centre of the town a square castle of the Ormond
family, occupied as a depot for the troops quartered in the
infantry barracks. About A.D. 1490 a Franciscan friary
was founded.
The town of Roscrea is in a fertile and pleasant situation :
it consists of several streets, irregularly laid out, and had,
in 1831, 907 houses, inhabited by 1136 families; Gl houses
uninhabited, and 6 houses building, with a population of
:V,12. the whole parish, which extends into the baronies
of Ballybrit and Clonlisk in King's County (Leinster), had
].">!(; houses, inhabited by 1797 families ; 79 houses unin-
md 12 building ; with a population of 9191). The
:<!roh is an antient building, with Norman dpor-
1 several sepulchral crosses and curious
jui'lii :ilions. Near the church is a round
nd 15 feet in diameter, with a window
with an arch of (in- UMUI! form, 15 feet from the ground,
P. C'., No. 1549.
and a window with a pointed arch, about 30 feet from the
ground. There are some remains of the antient monastery
of canons of St. Augustin, consisting of the western gable,
having an arched doorway, which forms an entrance to the
present churchyard. There are also some remains of the
Franciscan convent, which are (or at least were some years
since) in good preservation : the tower of the conventual
church forms the entrance to the present Roman Catholic
chapel. There are a Primitive and aWesleyan Methodist,
chapel and a Quakers' meeting-house in the ecclesiastical
union of Roscrea (comprehending the parishes of Roscrea
and Kyle), but we are not aware whether they are in the
town.
The town has considerable trade as the mart for the sur-
rounding district. Formerly there was a considerable
manufacture of woollens, especially serges and stuff's, in
which a thousand looms are employed ; but this had so
fallen off about 1835, that it gave employment only to a
hundred looms. There were at that time a distillery and
three breweries. There are -two weekly markets and se-
veral yearly fairs for cattle and farming stock : there an;
public shambles and a commodious market-house. The
sale of grain at the markets is considerable : the average
yearly sale of wheat had increased in the ten years from
182G to 1835, both inclusive, from 4140 barrels to 6700 ;
and that of oats from 18,500 to 22,100 barrels ; the yearly
sale of barley had continued steady at 13,000 barrels. There
is a savings' bank, the deposits in which had (in 1835) con-
siderably increased : the depositors were chiefly farmers,
small tradesmen, and servants : there were at the same
time a fever hospital, a cholera hospital, and a dispensary.
The number of places where spirits were sold was very
great, amounting to above two hundred in the town alone ;
of these nearly half were licensed public-houses. There
are a small bridewell, an infantry barrack, and a station of
the county constabulary. There were, by the Parliamentary
Returns for 1835, ten day-schools in the parish, including
a national school, with an average attendance of 52 boys ;
a school on Erasmus Smith's foundation, with an average
attendance of 91 boys ; and a day-school for young girls in
connection with the Ladies' London Association and the
Hibernian Society, with an average attendance of 45.
Templemore is in the barony of Eliogarty, about 87 miles
south-west of Dublin, and about 39 or 40 north of Clonmell.
It is supposed to derive its name from the Knights Tem-
plars, who had a house here, of which the remains form an
entrance to the demesne of the Garden family. There were
in the town, in 1831, 404 houses inhabited by 609 families ;
12 houses uninhabited and 7 building ; with a population
of 2936 : the whole parish had 664 houses, inhabited by
885 families ; 15 houses uninhabited, and 18 building ;
with a population of 4583. The town is pleasantly situ-
ated near the right or west bank of the Suir, and is (com-
paratively at least) a well-built and neat town. The church,
which has a handsome tower and spire, was rebuilt about
fifty or sixty years ago ; there are a handsome and spacious
Roman Catholic chapel, a good market and court-house, a
bridewell, extensive barracks, a fever hospital and dispen-
sary, and ball and news-rooms. The town is approached
on all sides by avenues of ash-trees ; and there are several
gentlemen's seats and the remains of some very antient
castles in the neighbourhood. There were, according to
the returns of 1835, seven schools in the parish, including
a free-school on Erasmus Smith's foundation, with an ave-
rage attendage of 47 scholars, boys and girls.
Thurles is in the barony of Eliogarty, 96 miles south-
west from Dublin by Templemore, and about 32 from Clon-
mell. It is a place of considerable antiquity, and was in
the tenth century the scene of a severe battle between the
native Irish and the Danes. There is a tradition that the
Knights Hospitallers had a house here, but no record of it
has been discovered. A Carmelite monastery was founded
here about A.D. 1300 ; and in the fourteenth century a
castle was built by the Butler family, which in the ciVil
war of Charles I. was garrisoned by the Royalists and
taken by the Parliamentary forces. Of these buildings
there are some remains : a tower and some part of the
north transept of the church of Ihe monastery stand on the
east side of the Suir ; and there are considerable portions
of the walls of the castle, inclosing an extensive area, and
flanked by towers, some round, others square. There were
not. long since (and perhaps still are) some remains of St.
Mary's church, built in the fifteenth century, and very
VOL. XXIV.-3 R
T I P
490
•I 1 1
•,\ e mansion. formerly I brewr; • ,-arly fnirs arc I. con-
afHMnt .of the
, hbishop i
the other of the
.,iu»e, a good in lor in-
fantry. *• '• well.
and a "i ""•
town : the :i monthly
::\ in the t;
.ilile"; the'whcat sold in the year increased from
in l*2i > to rio.iim in 1835; and i
. f,.im '.Mint ha. I 1,000 in Is3r> : that
of oats had continued stationary at from :iOOO to HXK) bar-
rels. Some brcv
bytl,
including • .'-ms of tb.
, '1 of ('•<> irirls. and a
•hool of 120 t:iil-. Kept by the nuns of the Ursuline
-chool with an" "endance of 200
'ion of the Helicons Brothers; and a
: under the superintendence of the curate
: church and some of the parishioners, with nearly
40 children.
Tipperary is in the barony of Clamvilliam, 110 miles
i -west of Dublin, and 23 miles west-north-west ofrl.in-
mell. A monastery for Eremites of the rule of St. AM.
iiinded here in the rei^n of Henry III. In th.
Hvard III. \.i>. 132:1 the town "was burned by the
' ;en (VBii nier impoitanc.
en name to the county, and by
n antiently incorporated ; but it
no longer the same relative importance, and the
corporation has Ion. .111 is
chiefly in the parish of Tippemrv. but t tho-e
"rdangan and Kilshane : it hail, in 1H31,
inhabited by 12SI families ; 3(i houses uninhabited and IS
building; with a population of 0072: the whole parish of
Tipperary had 1113 houses, inhabited by 137!) Jamil'..
houses uninhabited, and 1G building ; with a population of
7'JiXi.
The town of Tipperary stands near the little river
which flows into the Suir, and consists of one principal street,
from which smaller streets branch oft' at n
.al of the houses are well built, and of b;,;
pearance : many old buildings have been taken down and
:1 m their place, so that the town has a neat
. The inhabitants are supplied
with water from a public fountain. The church is a i;
;.nd there is a Roman ( 'atholic chapel. Then- are
:ins of the Augustinian monastery, chief!
an arehii. in front of the buildil
cupicd by Erasmus Smith's classical school, which has
obtained "from this circumstance the popular designation
of 'the abbey school.' The principal trade is in bir
which a large quantity is sent to Limerick and to Water-
ford for exportation. There are two weekly i;;
which tlu-ie a.e a in at market-house with a
o\er it, in the cciihe of the town, and shambles and four
yearly fairs. Ti -mall : but it had in
; the tin years from lK2(>to 1KT>, from U2r> t.)
;liat of oaU had increased from 77<)S to
Ill.tiT ile of barley had declined from
(11(1 to 250 1m; ny. u fever hos-
pital, a temporary barrack, and a small bridewell : a por-
tion • 'ationed here. There
were in Tippcrarv paiish, according to the return M.
parliament m 1K3T), nineteen schools of all kinds, iucludiu_r
a classical boarding-school on Iva-mus Smith's Inundation
Abbey School i, with about 30 se:
on the same foundation with about ,'t-l childi,
girl*, and national scho>
each by about 1 10 <;c] olan. Kil-hane parish had no
and CurdanKan on! . hool, with 21 scholai-s
in winter ana about ,
Burri»-o'-L«a;: isillegli, is in the pari
keen, in t .1. !i-j miles sou'
ablin. It bail, in Iv .nhabiled i
iMinilie., J 1 building, with a po-
pulation of 13O1. The parish church and the H
Catiiolio chapel am botU in llio town. There is a small
' > 'JJl cbiUlren :
-.•.lib i! children, partly supported by private <
trilnit..
Uunis-u'-Kane, or Bnriis-o'-Kean, or Burros-n'-Ki-ai
in the : "iml, !M 111
of Dublin. The town had, in 1KS1. JHi houses, inha
liv 217 • uninhabited and 1 I uiKlinc ;
w'ith a
inhabi . nninhabi'
buildi: population of 2634.
much improved i
built. a Human '
chape!. 'lie jiRiish chn
y and l'i-\ •
!i-d Tumb.
LT. There were in the jiarish. by the retu,-
six schools, including Hire,
childi. led with tin- Bapti-1 : an-
other with :«t boys, in connection with the l di.--
COuntenancine Vice ; »nd a third, with an attendance in
sunmu Is, supported by prival ,,:!ion.
in Hie parish of Modereny, in the barony
of Lower Ormond, nearl\ '.Ki mill s west-soutli-wi
Dublin. It had, in 1S31, 12!) M I
families. 6 houses uninhabited and 3 building, with a po-
pulation of S24. There are a district, church of the
blishmcnt. of lit;ht and elegant nn-hitecture, built A.D.
and niec1. '. 3 i'or Bapt . and
l'iimiti\e Methi . a dispensary and fev, ;
jiital. There i- .able di-tiller\. Tb
irty for the relief snd diminution of
pauperism, called ' the deacons' poor fund,' exists in this
and the adjacent parishes. There were no schools i
district pari.-h of (.'loubjordan in ls:T): but in the whole
of Modereny pnrish there were the day-schools, including
twu parochial schools, one with about 50 Inn
other with about CO L e were also tliree Sunday-
schools for reliici. 'ion.
(loldcii is in the jiarish of Kclickmurry. or llelifrmurrj-,
in the barony of ( 'lanwilliam, about. 102 mil.
Dublin, between Cashel and Tipper e. in
i.i the town. 101 houses inhabited by It1"'
1 houses uninhabited, and 5 buildiiiir : with "a popula:
(iS-l. It is a neat and improving place, situated in 'the
(iolilcn Vale.' one of the most ferl ts of the county,
and is divided into tv. • the river Suir, over which
is a stone bridge. It ha^thc mills of an old castle; and in
the neighbourhood :ue the remains of Athassd Auinistinian
Abbey, originally one of the most splendid eci
structures in th. i : the ruins ai. and
worth} of notice. The pari.-h church and a Roman Catholic
chapel are. in the town. There are flour and oatmeal
mills; and four held yearly. There is :i
tin- conn' , ..!ai} Hie )
here. The united parishes of Helii knuiny and Atl
had, in 1S3.~>. six day- le, with 00 children, partly
suppoil .'hew.
Littleton is in the ) .rislcidl. in the barony of
:,ty, !X> miles S.\V. of Dublin. It contained, in
•II houses inhabited 1 > uninhabited,
and 1 building; \\itli a jmpulation of 2K5. It i-. a place
quite ol modem origin, cliii fly erected by the late 1'ev.
Tliomas Grady. The parish-cnurch, a handsume building,
is in the town ; and there . •iMteiisai} : a 1 ••
iinfy constabulary a. cd hue. "'i
in lKi."i, five da : one of them was the parish-
sehool with about M child; held
in a school-room creeled bv subscription,
. Birmingham is in "K
-.arda^li. !15 mi
.
i'or two weekly m - but these
• •nlrmicd, and the pi: .paralively
. d. There are a Human ( 'alholic chapi I and a small
i. There were, in 1s .i...bitcil by (J2
families, and 1 IIOUMI uninhabited : with a population
TIP
491
TI P
Newport is in Kilvolane, or Killevolane, parish, in the
barony of Owney and Arra, 109 miles S.W. of Dublin, on
the road to Limerick. It had, in 1831, 127 houses inha-
bited by 162 families, 24 houses uninhabited, and 12
building ; with a population of 852. The houses are for
the most part neatly built. The parish-church is in the
town ; and there are a Roman Catholic chapel, a bride-
well, a dispensary, and infantry barracks. There are four
yearly fairs, one of them a large cattle-fair.
Ballina is in Templeichally, Temple Ichally, or Temple-
kelly parish, in the barony of Owney and Arra, on the
bank of the Shannon, near where it leaves Lough Derg,
opposite Killaloe. This village is connected with Killaloe,
of which it may be considered as a suburb, by a bridge of
nineteen arches over the Shannon. The population of the
village, in 1831, was 832. There is a Roman Catholic
cliapel ; and a body of the county constabulary are posted
here. There is a yearly fair for pigs. Near the bridge
are the remains of a castle erected to defend the passage
of the river.
Emly is in the barony of Clanwilliam, near the western
border of the county, about 9 miles west of Tipperary.
It is of great antiquity. An abbey of regular canons of
St. Augustin was early founded here ; and the town sub-
sequently became the seat of a bishop's see. Some
of the prelates appear to have exercised temporal power
as well as spiritual ; and one of them in particular, in
the ninth century, distinguished himself as a warrior
against the Danes. King John granted to the town the
privilege of holding markets and fairs; but the privilege
of a market, if ever used, is now disused. The diocese was
united to that of Cashel A.D. 15C8, and the removal of its
episcopal seat caused the decline of the place. It had, in
1H31, a population of 701. A body of the county consta-
bulary are posted here ; and there are two yearly fairs.
The parish church is in the village, and there is a
Roman Catholic chapel. There are the ruins of a church
and a large stone cross. Some antiquities have been
dug up in the neighbourhood.
Mullinahone is in Kilvemnon parish, in the barony of
Slievardagh, on the road between Callen and Fethard ;
it is also between Carrick-on-Suir and the Killenaule
coal-district, so that it is a common resting-place for
the car-drivers in their way from Carrick. A consider-
able quantity of butter is sold here in a weekly market
(though the '^Aave ranks only as a village), held on Thurs-
day, and Bent to Kilkenny, Clonmell, or Carrick. There
are several well-attended yearly fairs for cattle and
pigs, and a body of the county constabulary are posted
lere. There are a Roman Catholic chapel and a dis-
ry. The population of the village, in 1831, was
1 17r>.
Silvermines is in the parish of Kilmore and the barony
of Upper Ormond, about 5 or 6 miles south of Nenagh.
It is at the foot of the north-western slope of the cen-
tral hills, and takes its name from the lead-mines for-
merly worked, the produce of wfiich yielded an unusual
quantity of silver. The population, in 1831, was 791.
Some of the houses are neatly built : the parish church
and a Roman Catholic chapel are in the village, and there
is a dispensary. There are four yearly fairs.
Toomavara, or Toomavarra, is in the parish of Aghna-
meadle, in the barony of Upper Ormond, between Nenacrh
and Burris-o'-Leagh ; it had, in 183), a population of 790 :
are a Roman Catholic chapel, a national school, and
a dispensary in the village. There are at least two yearly
fairs, and a body of the county constabulary are posted
here.
Divisions for Eccleticutical and Legal Purposes. — This
county was formed at what is commonly deemed to be
the first establishment of counties in Ireland, by King
John, A.n. 1210; though Sir James Ware has shown that
counties or some equivalent divisions must have existed
before that time. The county was subsequently enlargeq*
by the annexation of what, was called ' Cross-Tipperarv ,' :i
district having a sheriff and other officers distinct from the
••y. Antient records speak of the ' Vice-Comes
Crorcao Tippcrjiry.'
It contains the whole or part of a hundred and sixty-
three parishes. (Pop. Returns for 1831.) These p:u
ituti; or are comprehended in one hundred and
unions or other ecclesiastical benefices, in several dioceses,
08 follows :—
r
h
Diocese.
Cashel
Emly .
Killaloe
Lismore
Meath
Total Number
of
Beuetires.
49
9
28
22
1
10D
Rectories
and
' 39 *""
7
24
20
1
91
Perpetual
Curi-s.
2
1
2
Cures.
6
P.irisltes
e \virtiout
cure of souls.
2
1
2
1
Cashel was an archbishopric, having in its province the
united dioceses of Cashel and Emly, the diocese of Cloyne,
the united dioceses of Cork and Ross, of Killaloe and
Kilfenora, of Limerick, Ardfert and Aghadoe (which
last two were incorporated), and of Waterford and Lis-
more. By the Act 3 and 4 William IV., c. 37, a further
union of the dioceses of Cashel and Emly with Waterford
and Lismore was enacted, to take place on the next avoid-
ance ; and this union has now been effected. The greater
part of the county is in this united diocese. The same
Act deprived Cashel of its archiepiscopal rank, on the de-
cease of the then existing holder of the see, and added the
province to that of Dublin : this change has been effected.
The only part of the county in the diocese of Meath is the
parish of Eglish, which is partly in this county and partly
in King's County, and is comprehended in the ecclesiastical
union of Fircal. The diocese of Meath is in the ecclesias-
tical province of Armagh ; but with the exception of the
small part included in that diocese, the rest of the county
is in the ecclesiastical province of Dublin.
In the Roman Catholic church the archbishop of Cashel
retains his dignity, and is primate of Munster. His cathe-
dral is at Thurles. His province includes the united dio-
ceses of Cashel and Emly, of Cloyne and Ross, and of
Waterford and Lismore, and the dioceses of Cork, Kerry,
Killaloe, and Limerick. In which of these dioceses the
county is included we have no means of ascertaining ex-
actly ; but the greater part, if not the whole, is included
in those of Cashel and Emly, Killaloe, and Waterford and
Lismore.
The county is included in the Leinster circuit ; the
assizes are held at Clonmell : the county-gaols are at Clon-
mell and Nenagh, the latter very lately erected; and
there are bridewells at Cahir, Clogheen, Tipperary, Cashel,
New Birmingham, Thurles, Templemore, Roscrea, Nenagh
(we are not sure if this is continued since the completion
of the county-gaol), Burris-o'-Kane, Newport, and Carrick-
on-Suir. The county-gaol at Clonmell comprehends a
gaol, house of correction, and sheriffs'-prison : the house
of correction is under very good management ; the silent
system of prison discipline is acted upon, the prison not
being adapted for the introduction of the separate system.
Considerable improvements had been made in the sheriffs'-
prison according to the ' Nineteenth Report of the Prison
Inspectors ' (1841), the last we have seen ; but a complete
system of discipline could not be introduced until the re-
moval of part of the prisoners to Nenagh gaol, which was
not then completed. The bridewells are many of them in
a bad state ; those of Cahir, Cashel, and Templemore are
miserably dilapidated, and that at Cahir very badly ma-
naged ; those of New Birmingham, Burris-o'-Kane, and
Tipperary, insecure and altogether insufficient: Carrick
bridewell, though new, is badly finished and ill-managed
by the keeper ; and that at Clogheen, though in tolerable
good order, falls very far short of the well-regulated bride-
wells of other counties : those of Newport, Nenagh, Roscrea,
and Thurles (the last a large prison) are in good order.
(Inspectors' Report, 1841.) It is stated in a note to that
Report, that great improvement has been made in seve-
ral of these prisons since the inspectors' visit.
The number of criminal offenders committed for trial in
1839 was 2110, being greater than in any county of
Ireland, except the metropolitan county (including the
city) of Dublin ; and more than twice as great as in any
other county, except only Cork (including the city of
Cork) ; Gahvay (including the town of Galway) ; Limerick
(including the city of Limerick), and Kerry ; and of these
the only one which approached it was Cork (1932 com-
mittals), which had more than twice the population ; the
others barely exceed half the number in Tipperary, though
Gahvay rather exceeds it in population ; Limerick has
about three-fourths of the population of Tipperary, and
Kerry nearly two-thirds. So far therefore as the number
3 J 3 R 2
T i r
of committals is a, test of the state of crime, Tipperary thnt
. xceeded all other counties in Ireland, c\c. pt that
lilin, and in most cases vcr. them. < >'.
j I in person* committed, IMC wen nml
1 liil aciiuitlcd or discharged ; 9 of the convi' •
lor capital offences, and 4 of the criminals were executed.
- 10 the number of committals was 1 , unity
(.till retaining, or nearly so, its unhappy pre-eminence : of
live persons committed, 718 were convicted, and 02
c|»iltfd or discharged ; 5 of the convictions were for capital
ottcuce.s, but no piT-oiis were executed. A large propor-
tion ol Ilit' olt'r murders, manslaughter*, assaults,
and other violent oli'cnces, indicative of the prevalent
tendency to di-'nrl.ance and insubordination.
The county returns two members to parliament, who
1 at Clonmell ; and one incmher each is returned
irom the borough of Clonmell and the city of Cashel. The
HiimlH-r of registered eleetors for the county in February of
•7, and 18-H, was ;LS follows:—
SOI. SOI. 20f. lot. in/. llolilrnof
Free- Lmi«- Free- Ix-asc- a rent-
holder*. holders, holtlero, huM*r». holders, charge. 1V;J.
I*i5 COO lUil '2 1-15!) 2 1
1837 rtl 437 13 177:! 51 5
isn 7;>2 3io K> 1217 120 44 2302
The number of voters in Clonmell and Cashel, in the
same three years, was at> follows : —
w.
IK35
1S37
1841
1RJ3
1H37
isll
1X11
MQ
302
207
TKI.L.
:/.
Freemen.
'. '. '.Mi
100
TiH.il.
686
7! »5
C87
308
353
Bcfore the Union the county returned eight memK
the Irish parliament, namely. two for the county itself, and
two lach tor Clonmell, Cashel, and Kotlmrd, but the
was disfranchise nion, and Cashel and Clonmell
rcdured to one member each : no change in the number
of members was made by the Reform Act.
The amount of grand jury presentments for the years
nl 1H40 was as follows :—
IMC.
New roads, bridges, &c. .£ 2,21!) 13 5 £3,10513 (I
Impairs of roads, &c. . . ln.s/1 17 7 2-I.S3I 8
( 'uiirt and Sessions houses,
lion anil repair* ol . :••*> I) () C.IKK! 10 0
Gaols, bridewclli-, S:e..
tion and repairs of . . 3,!)!)!) 17 1 4,098 0 11
County gaol and bridewell,
. 0,77C 8 1 8,001 13 2
Salaries to ulliccrs in u'aoU 237 0 8 :«)2 13 0
Constabulary police. puy-
nienls to witnesses, Jiic. . 17,i!l5 11 2 17,337 15 4
Salaries to county of)
1
1
i
lectors' poi . 5,071 3 3 5,518 (i
Public charities . . . (..His 17 1 '/. I-',! 18
L!.;*(>7 11
2.33s 13 (
Repayments to goveraoMal 1,1)5:) 1 n
. -llancuu* .... 2,834 13 7
527 3 10 £82,241) 2 11
The county constabulary on the 1st January, 1840, and
1H| I. : :—
Hi-ad
T«. Coofttaljln. ConiUblci. Cxnutul-li-it. Horse*.
• '2nd 3rd lit 1'u.l
rale rate. rate. rntc. mte. rnle.
l.l
Sod
r .'.•
IRIO 2 445 2 15 I 170 not
J .". 7 3 2 1 r.:!l 7!l 17
The whole expenditure on the constabulary force in the
yearlK3:i nd in 1840,1 •-. lo,/
The amount of the constabulary force and the cost ol
maintaining it ore greater than in any other county in
Ireland.
There is a county lunalic asylum at Clonmell; which in
'•i, I'-.ll. i-onl-.i
an expense of 'i-^l. : :
ur ZU. (i». 9rf. for each patient. There i* a county in-
T i r
iirnmry fit Clonmell, into which the following number of
patient! were admitted: —
In-l'atirnu. IhiM'.itimU. TnUl.
470B
1830 27H -17.'!)
326 7700
There are liver hospitals at Hurris-o'-Kane. Cahir,
Carrick-on-Suir, Cashel, Clogheen, Clonmell, Clou'lijoulan,
Nenagh, Uoscrea, Templemore, and Tippcrarv : and dis-
pensaries at Ballinsriirry. liallymackay, HaliynKin'y and
Kilcooley, Hallyporcen. BirdMll, Houruey, Uurris-o'-l.i-auh,
Hunis-o'-K:uH^ Cahir. Ca])])airhwlnte, Carrick-on-Suir,
Cloirheen. (Monniell, Cloghjonlan, l)rancan. Hundnim,
l-'ethard. Golden, Grancemoekler, Killcnaulc. Kilshelan,
Littlt'on, Lorrha, Mnlliiiahone, Ni'iiairh. Newcastle, New-
port, Portroe, Poulmucca, Koserca. Rosegreen, Sil vejmiaeti
1'emplemore, Teni]>letuohy, Thomastown, Thurles, Tippc-
rary. and Toomavara.
History and Anlii]ititirs. — Sir .lames \Vnre siipposes that
the Coriondi i Kopioi^oc) and the Udiae, or rather I odi
I odiac
11), of Ptolemy, occupied this county and the adjacent
ones to the west anil south-west. We think it not impro-
bable that the Briirantes Hp/ynrr^ may have occupied
the south-eastern parts, while the Uodiae occupied the
south-western.
In the division which prevailed before the Enuli-Oi con-
quest the following territories are noticed by
Ware as corresponding to portions of this comity : —
.Irailli-i'liarh: probably the half-barony of Arm. in the
western part of the county, on the bank of Lough Dcrij
and of the Shannon.
Corca-Eatlir'icli: the territory round Cashel, compre-
hending part of the Vale of Goulin, or Golden Vale. Some
I consider the territory of North Desiesto be identical
with this.
KiiS'marht: a name common to a sept or clan, and to
the territory occupied by them near Thurles.
Hij-Fiigurta: the country of the sept of OTogarty, in
the neighbourhood of Thurles.
Hy-Kfri» : the country of the sept of O'Meneher. This
territory has retained its name with little alteration, being
now the barony of Ikerin.
Mufi-iaifn-Tliii-i-, or .Vnsrniighe-TMre: the country
the sept of Kennedy, now the baronies of Upper and
Lower Ormond, :i name which signifies East .Minister.
In tin iaiU periods of Irish history these tern'
appear to have been divided between the kimrdo
Thomond or North Minister, governed by princes o'l the
-Man race; and Desmond, 01 South Minister, held l'\
princes of the Koganacht or Kugeniau family; the ]•••
of which two kingdoms appear to have possessed in alter-
nate succession the paramount dominion of Minister.
Karly in the ninth century, soon after the landing of tl e
Northmen or Dams or as they are usually termed in Irish
history, from the position of their Original country with
;rr to Ireland, the (•si-men, or Ka-t-men under
their king Tnrgesius, Feidlim Mac-Crimthan. king o:
monil. held the paramount sovereignty of Minister. The
capital of his kingdom was Ca-hcl. His course, which
was one of violence and tyranny, was marked by success :
he was victorious over tlie chieftains of Connaught and
over the king of Meath, the nominal sovereign of all Ire-
land. At the • .iient ol the tenth century the
were united ill Cormac
MacCulimui, bishop of Cashel and kiiiir of MunMer. of the
act race. He was not the iirst of his family in whom
had been combined. In 907 he defeated
Klann-Siona, king of Meath and titular monarch of Ireland,
on the heath of Moylcna, in King's County; but having
attempted to enforce the tribute which 'the people of
Leinster had been compelled reluctantly to pay i
I Munster, he was defeated and siain \.K'. IKi'-
nister forces, supported by the monarch of Ireland
and the princes of the northern part of the island. Coimae
built a chapel at Ca-hel, which still retains his name, and
1'iiled author of the history commonly called
• The Psalter of Cashel.'
Callachan, who was king of Cashel towards the middle
of the tenth century, appears in the history of this troubled
period a, an acfi\i> but unprincipled \vairior. II
render v,-n subjects into the hand • ol Miirkrrlach,
of to the monarchy of Ireland. In the latiei
part of the same century the throne ol Munster was occu-
TIP
493
T I P
pied successively by Mahon and his brother Brian Borornh,
or Bp>nimhe, or Boru, two princes of the Dalcassian family,
the latter of whom acquired the monarchy of Ireland. At
the commencement of the twelfth century (A.D. 1101)
Murkertach, king of Munster, gave over the city of Cashel
to the church, dedicating it to God and St. Patrick. The
holders of the see of Cashel had previously assumed the
rank of archbishops.
In the English invasion, Henry II. (A.D. 1172) summoned
an assembly of the Irish prelates and princes at Cashel,
where the sovereignty of the English king was recognised,
and various regulations made, increasing the power of the
clergy, and more completely assimilating the practices of
the Irish church to those of the church of Rome. Tip-
perary, or part of it at least, seems to have remained under
the dominion of Donald of the sept of O Brien, native
prince of Thomond and Ormond, subject to the nominal
sovereignty of the English king. In the irregular warfare
which followed Henry's departure from Ireland, a body of
Anglo-Normans under Richard, earl of Strigul, surnamed
Strongbow, and governor or commander in Ireland, and of
Hervey of Mount-Morris, entered the county (A.D. 1174)
to attack Donald O'Brien, and advanced as far as Cashel,
where they were to be joined either by a department
from the Anglo-Norman garrison of Dublin or by a body
of Ost-men from that city : but this detachment was sur-
prised near Thurles by Donald, and put to the sword almost
without resistance ; and Strongbow and Hervey retreated
to \Vaterford. The invaders appear to have crossed the
county again the same year, in their march to Limerick
(which was also under the dominion of Donald), which
they succeeded in taking. In A.D. 1175 a consider-
able Anglo-Norman force with a body of native allies
entered the county under Raymond Le Gros, marching to
the relief of Limerick, to which Donald O'Brien had laid
siege. The Irish, hearing of their approach, advanced, and
entrenched themselves in a defile near Cashel, where they
were defeated with great slaughter : the garrison of Lime-
rick was relieved, and on the banks of the Shannon or of
Lough Derg, near Killaloe, the victorous Raymond received
the submission not only of Donald O'Brien, but of Roderick
O'Connor, titular king of Ireland ; and exacted hostages
from both for the faithful performance of the engagements
into which they entered.
This county was probably included in the grant of the
principality of Thomond to Philip de Braosa (A.D. 1177),
but the prudence or the cowardice of that noble prevented
his dispossessing Donald O'Brien, who still retained posses-
sion. In A.D. 1185, while prince (afterwards king) John
was in Ireland, sent over by his father, as lord of the
island, the Anglo-Normans erected castles at Tipperary
and Ardfinnan in this county; that of Ardflnnan was how-
i'ver soon taken by Donald, who, in A.D. 1190, defeated the
Anglo-Normans under William, earl-marshal (who had
married Strongbow's only child and succeeded to the Irish
• s of that nobleman) near Thurles. Donald died A.D.
1194. The oldest part of the present cathedral of Cashel
was built by him. Tipperary appears to have passed in
the course of a few years afterwards into the hands of the
Anglo-Normans, as it was one of the counties erected by
King John (A.D. 1210), during his expedition to Ireland,
:it the head of a considerable army. It is probable that
the northern part at least of the county was part of the
seat of war (A.D. 1274-1277) between the O'Briens, who
retained a portion of Thomond, and the Anglo-Norman, or
e may now term them, Anglo-Irish family of the De
Clares.
It is probable that the Septs and their Irish allies were
iu this county (A.D. 1317) in the invasion of Ireland by
Edward Bruce and his brother King Robert, since they
ravaged the country from Kilkenny as far as Limerick.
In A.D. 1328 the royal privileges in the county were
granted to James Butler, earl of Carrick, now created also
if Ormond ; these royalties were long retained by the
carls of Oimond. In A.D. 1330 Brien O'Brien, prince of
Thomond, ravaged the county and burned the towns of
Athsuwel (near Cashel) and Tipperary to the ground. In
the i Diarchy which was contemporaneous with
the war of the Roses m England, and continued long after
war was closed, the county was included in the scene
ronlf>N between the rival septs or families
of the duraldines, to which belonged the earls of Desmond
ICildare, and of the Butlers, at the head of which was
the earl of Ormond. The burning of the cathedral of
Cashel was one of the charges brought against the Earl of
Kildare in his examination before the privy council (A.D.
1496). His reply to the charge was characteristic : ' Spare
your evidence,' said he ; ' I did burn the church : for I
thought the bishop had been in it.'
In the great civil war in 1642, Clonmell, Cashel, Carrick-
on-Suir, Fethard, and all the other towns in Tipperary, were
seized by the insurgents, or, as they were termed, ' the Con-
federates,' almost at the first outbreak in the central and
southern provinces. At Cashel, Fethard, and Silvermines
there were some murders committed : those at Cashel were
perpetrated by the relatives of some persons recently put
to death by Sir W. St. Ledger, president of Munster, who
had previously entered the county with two troops of horse
and exercised great severity. The Ear] of Inchiquin, who
commanded in Munster for the parliament, invaded the
county A.D. 1647, took Cahir by capitulation, and stormed
Cashel, where he mercilessly slaughtered twenty priests
and an unresisting multitude who had taken shelter in the
cathedral. He levied contributions in all the neighbour-
hood, and was prevented from taking Clonmell only by
Want of provisions. When Cromwell invaded Ireland, and
(A.D. 1649) was opposed by the Royalists and Confederates,
now united under the Earl of Ormond (to whom Lord
Inchiquin, shocked at the execution of the king, had joined
himself), a detachment from his army took Carriek-on-Suir,
where Cromwell himself crossed the river to besiege
Waterford. A body of Royalists under Lords Inchiquin
and Taafe, attempting to retake Carrick (24th October),
was repulsed with severe loss. Ormond with the main
body of his army was about this time near Clonmell watch-
ing Cromwell, whom sickness and the approach of winter
obliged to raise the siege of Waterford ; soon after which
Ormond withdrew to Kilkenny, having posted a consider-
able body of Ulster men at Clonmell.
About the latter end of February, 1650, Cromwell
opened the campaign by taking Cahir, Cashel, Fethard,
Clogheen, and other places in this or the adjacent counties ;
and in the course of the following April laid siege to Clon-
mell. This siege cost him more trouble and loss than any
other part of his Irish expedition : he lost above 2000 men
in a fruitless assault ; however after a siege of two months
the place was obliged to surrender for want of ammuni-
tion : the garrison had previously withdrawn to Waterford
without Cromwell's knowledge, and the townsmen obtained
good conditions, Cromwell supposing that the garrison
was still in the town. In 1651 Ireton, who was after Crom-
well's departure, general-in-chief for the parliament, con-
centrated his army at Cashel and marched to the bank of
the Shannon, over which he forced a passage at Killaloe.
On the restoration of royalty in Ireland, which rather pre-
ceded its restoration in England, Clonmell was one of
the towns occupied by the Royalists.
In the war ot the Revolution Clonmell was abandoned
by the Jacobites on William's advance toward the south
after the battle of the Boyne (A.D. 1690). William, after his
unsuccessful siege of Limerick, retired with his army to
Clonmell, and there leaving them, proceeded to Duncannon
and embarked for England.
In the rebellion of 1798 this county was not involved ;
and though it has been the scene of much agrarian disturb-
ance, there has been no serious outbreak to require particu-
lar record.
{Map of Ireland, by the Society for the Diffusion of
Useful Knowledge ; Second Report of the Irish Railway
Commissioners; Geological Transactions; Lewis's anil
Carlisle's Topographical Dictionaries of Ireland ; The Tra-
veller's New Guide through Ireland ; The Scientific Tourist
in Ireland; Parliamentary Papers ; Ware's History and
Antiquities of Ireland; Cox's HiberniaAnglicana; Moore's
History of Ireland ; Gordon's History of Ireland; Dr. W.
C. Taylor's Civil Wars of Ireland ; &c.)
TIPPOO SAIB, sultan of Mysore, was born in the year
1749. His father Hyder Aly Khan [HYDER ALY], sensible
of the disadvantages under which he himself laboured from
want of education, procured for his son the best masters
in all the sciences which are cultivated by the Moham-
medans. But Tippoo, although he had acquired a taste
for reading, did not make any considerable progress, and
he preferred martial exercises, into which he was initiated
at an early age. The French officers in the employment
of his father instructed him in tactics ; and in 1767, when
T I P
194
T I P
Hrder Aly overran the Carnal ic, Tippoo was enfolded with
the command of a corp* of cavalry. He was at thai time
niiii-tovii yean of nge ; but the success with which he car-
ried on the war in the neighbourhood of Madraaauflk-icutly
1 how m.ich he liiul profited by bin European teachers.
During tin- war with the Mahrattaa, which luted
ppoo acquired the universal esteem of tlir
i high in the fevourof his father ami
mi's, that the left division of the Mysore army,
put under hit commainl. With this farce Tipp<
.iley in the neighbourhood of 1'cmiihaknm. on
^eptember, 17-M' il -d to retire; but
on ti. 'he same month an engagement . in which
-aid to have taken an active part, ended in
defeat of the English army, i ^r tin-
war . natic |?ave him opportunities of perfecting
himself in the art of war; and on the 18th of February,
he showed hi* skill in the attack and complete de-
feat of Colonel Braithwaite, on Uie banks of the Kolerun.
This was undoubtedly his greatest stroke of generalship. A
uonths afterwards he was obliged to move towards the
south, in order to meet the English troops in the provinces
.njore and Malwa, under the command of Colonel
Humbert.son. On the 20th of November Tippoo found
the K:i_-iish at 1'aniany. He made a vigorous attack, but
id compelled to retreat. He crossed the
river I'.iniany. and prepared himself for another engage-
ment, when, on th« llth of December, 1782, he received
intelligence of the death of his father. On the lS)th he
iganatam, where he mounted the musnud with-
.mny. Hehadscarcely performed
the Imu-ral rites of liis father when he returned to A root.
and assumed the command of his army. But whilst he was
engaged in the Carnatic General Matthews took On or*,
and the country of Hednore was in the hands of the Ens -
lish. In order to regain these more valuable possession;,
Tippoo was obliged to relinquish his conquest in the < 'ar-
HHtic, and by the end of March, 1783, scarce a Mys
was left in that country. His operations were so rapid
Kiul successful, that on the 2Hth of April Tippoo Sail) had
already reduced the garrison of Hednore to the ni
.minting. General Matthews and several of the
pnncipal officers were barbarously put to death. After the
reduction of this city, it was Tippoo's object to repossess
himself of Mangalorc, the principal seaport in his do-
minions. But the place was well defended ; and in the
midst of his preparations for the assault accounts were re-
1 in the camp of peace having been concluded be-
tween Kngland and France. It was early in July, 17K'i,
when M. de Hussy, in consequence of this news, declined
to act any lunger against the English. He quitted the
ramp with his detachment. A considerable reinforcement
having arrived under General Macleod, Tippoo agreed to
a suspension of arms ; and early in the year 17Ht Sir George
iStaunton and two other ambassadors from
in the camp, and on the llth of March a treaty of \-
which stipulated for the liberation of all the pnsoners and
the restitution of all places taken by either party during
the war, was concluded. About the end of the sain.
Tippoo concluded a treaty of pi-ace with the court of
ih. He then returned to Seringapatam, and assumed
the title of . Sultan, thereby throwing off all dependence on
or all' i he captive llaja 'imprisoned by his fatherl
or the Great Mogul.
In 1788 he occupied himself with internal n
and from an inventory made at this pen ! that
the treasure, jewels, and other valual esti-
mated at eighty millions sterling. He i >ni ele-
phants. lilKK) camels, 11,000 horses. -KNMKKI Imllorks au-l
KKMHHI buffaloes, (XIO.UMI sheep. :«XUK«
300,000 matchlocks, 'JdO.OttO sword-, and Sum
iid an immense quantity of gunji
military stores. HU regular army consisted of IK.INHI
c*val ») artillery, and 7(1. (KM') infantry, li
also "il Mi roelii.-t-men. and 40,1X10 irregular infantry.
ing the yearn 17*7 and 17KK the attention of the
Sultan was principally engaged in the conversion ai
jeqtion of the Nairn, or <•: abar. lie i- siid to
have carried aw 70.IMXH 'lni-tian-. and
<ve made Muwi IIKMKKI Hindus. This he
effected by forcible circumcision, and compelling them to
eat beef.
It was about IhU time th*t he published an edict forlhc
destruction of rill the llil'dll temples I'.i til- dolun I-. i'\-
ih. Por-
- officers did in •• 'ibnrous regula-
tion.
Although Tippoo Sultan did not show any overt hos-
tility toward the English after he had sigi .ry of
>t in 17<7 he sent an cmbns-y to i
into an otlcn-i\.- and defensive :
the court of Versailles to a i>]'.
with Kngland. The ambassadors returned t
patam in the month of May. I7^!>. without 1
tamed their iibjt-ct. The disappointed Si
rage by putting two of them to death
his inte-, -•-. Tipjioo hated 1l>; lintish ]u> •
he took every opportunity to annov such of the i
as were under its protection. The Raja of Tra\»
hud by the treaty of Mangalore stipulated fur the security
of his territories. In April. 1"!HI, Tippoo invnrled the
country and subjected the whole of the northern district.
The reasons assigned by Tippoo for the infraction of the
of the treat v were that two fort-,
and .lyacotta, which were on the northern hoi
the RJija's possession, had belonged to his father,
aggression was considered by the English equivalent to
a declaration of war, and Colonel II;' -'-nt with a
considerable detachment to the ja. At
this intelligence Tippoo withdrew his army from Travan-
iiul returned to Seringapatam, when, to his d:-
he heard that, the Mahrattas and the Ni/am had piv
the English a zealous co-o)ieration with their Ic
On the 15th of June, 17!K), the English troops, under the
command of General Met! d the Sultan's terri-
tory, and took possession of the fort of Carur without re-
sistance. Daraporani and Coinibatore were shortly aller-
\\aids reduced. About the same time a detachment, under
Colonel Stuart, captured Dindigul and 1'aligantehery. The
movements and operations of the English forces were so
well conducted, that Tippoo found himself unab1'
them, and he resolved to follow the plan of
by his father : instead of defending his own te-
tste those of his enemy. Tins he did with considerable
ability; for in the beginning of 1~!>1 the English, instead
of being masters of great part of Mysore, as they bad ex-
i. found themselves attacked and annoyed in the very
neighbourhood of Madras.
On the 'Jittli of January, 1791, Lord Cornwallis assumed
the command of the army, and on the llth of the
month he was at Vellore." On the 21st of March the fort
df Bangalore was taken by storm. On thi- :m>oo
retired to some distance, and wrote to Lord Cornwallis,
requesting a truce. This was refused, and he proceeded to
.mi, leaving his army under the comm
of his generals, to watch t. of tin- l-'n -'>li. On
the 3rd of May Lord Cornwallis \\ •. ithin
sight of tin .Mpital : but his :
great deal from want of fond and forage, and he was coni-
towards Bangalore. The Mahratia- •
rer to his assistance, and the warfare was carried on
with great slice
.ever, whilst the English were earning on their suc-
ins in the north-w.
the Sultan made a diversion (<"•
to the south of v
with the whole i era made • The
skill of Tip; i enabled him to protract the war till
the month of February, 17!'-, when the allies Hie K<
the Mahrattas, and tl.: "-imped iu
of the capital. Hut it was not until General Aber-
1 united his fon of Lord Cornwallis,
and bad determined to take the town by storm, that the
haughty mind of the Sultan was humbled. He
me half of his dominions, and to pay thorn
in the course of twel. IM of three Kroies and
thirty lacs of rupees :i,o:tl).(KHI/. all the i
ers. and to deliver up I dul-
khalik and M« i the two
princes, and the attention and kindii- '' by Lord
Cornwallis towards t: iiii.rh-
est gratification to the Sul'
definitive treaty of the Ifatl the Sultan
one half of his dominions. L .itteil
the neighbourhood of Scrin.gnpatain, and Tippoo sought
T I R
495
T I R
the means of replenishing his treasury. This was soon
done by imposing exorbitant and extraordinary taxes,
which were chiefly levied upon the agriculturists.
Notwithstanding this seeming tranquillity from 1792 to
1796, the Sultan was engaged in inciting all the native
chiefs against the British power in India ; but it was not
until 1798 that the whole extent of his secret machina-
tions and intrigues became known. At the commence-
ment of this year ambassadors were sent from Seringapa-
tam to the Mauritius. Their object was to renew the
Sultan's relations with Fiance, and to solicit the aid of
10,000 European and 30,000 negro troops. The proceed-
ings of the embassy were first made known in the month
of June to the Marquis Wellesley, the governor-general.
About the same time intelligence was received in India
of the operations of the French in Egypt. Circumstances
like these left no doubt as to the intentions of the Sultan,
and on the 3rd of February, 1799, orders were issued for
(he British armies and those of the allies immediately to
invade the dominions of Tippoo. Hostilities commenced
on the 5th of March ; and, on the 5th of April, General
Harris took a strong position opposite the west side of
Senngapatam. Alter besieging the place some time, a
ral attack was made on the 4th of May, 1799. The
Sultan had scarcely finished his repast when he heard the
noise of the assault. He instantly repaired towards a
breach which the English had succeeded in making a few
l>efore. His troops lied ; he endeavoured to rally
them ; and so long as any of his men remained firm, he
continued to dispute the ground against an English column
which had forced the breach and gained the ramparts.
1'inding all his efforts against the enemy fruitless, he
mounted his horse, and, in endeavouring to effect his
retreat, arrived at a bridge leading to the inner fort ; but
the place was already occupied by the English, and in
his attempts to proceed he was met by a party of Eu-
ropeans from withinside the gate, by whom he was at-
!. Owing to two wounds which he received in his
1 . he fell from his horse ; his attendants placed him
upon a palankeen, in one of the recesses of the gateway,
and entreated him to make himself known to the English.
This he disdainfully refused to do. A short time after-
wards some European soldiers entered the gateway, and
one of them attempting to take off the Sultan's sword-belt,
the wounded prince, who still held his sword, made a
thrust at him and wounded him in the knee ; upon which
the soldier levelled his musket and shot him through the
hrad. On the afternoon of the 5th of May he was buried
in the mausoleum of Hyder Aly. Four companies of Eu-
ropean troop escorted the funeral procession, which was
strikingly solemn.
When Tippoo met his death he was in his fiftieth year.
He was of dark complexion, and about five feet nine
inches high ; he had a round face, with large black eyes,
and an aquiline nose, which gave much animation and ex-
>n to his countenance. Although after his misfor-
tunes in 1792 he oppressed the people more than they had
ever been in the time of his father, he was nevertheless
very popular; and even now the Mysoreans consider him
as a martyr to the faith, and as a prince who fell gloriously
in the cause of his religion. He used to pass a great por-
tion of his day in reading, and his library, consisting of
about 12,000 volumes, was well selected. About one-hall
of this collection is preserved at the East India House,
London; the other half was left at Fort William for the
of the college. The Museum and the Library of the,
Ivi^f India House contain many articles both of value and
c-.urio<ity which once belonged to Tippoo Saib.
lemoirs of Tippoo Sultan,' in Stewart's Descriptive
Catalogue nf th ary of the fate Tippoo SM-
l.in i,f Mi/xore, Cambridge, 1809. This is the most au-
account of Tippoo's life.)
TIPTON. [STAFFORDSHIRE.]
TIKABOSCHJ, GIRO'LAMO, born at Bergamo in 1731,
studied in the college of Monza, and afterwards entered
the order of the Jesuits. About 17(56 he was made pro-
• • in the university of Milan, where he wrote
-t work, the history of a monastic order long since
mppreMed, under peculiar circumstances : ' Vetera Huniili-
. Milan, 1766. In 1770 he was ap-
poiii1 ,dcna librarian of his rich lil
in tli nclli, deceased. Henow applied
himself to the undertaking of his great work, ' Storia della
Letteratura Italiana,' published at Modena, 1772-1783,
which he completed in eleven years. The subject was vast
and intricate ; the only author who had yet attempted to
write a general history of Italian literature, Gimma of
Naples, had only sketched a rough and very defective out-
line of it in his ' Storia dell' Italia Letterata.' There were
however local histories and biographies concerning parti-
cular towns and districts, and the rest of the materials had
to be sought among the archives and libraries of Italy.
Tiraboschi undertook to write the history of the literature
of autient and modern Italy in the most extended sense
of the word, including most of, if not aU, the individuals
deserving of mention in every department of learning,
who have flourished in Italy, from the oldest times on
record, beginning from the Etruscans and the Greek colo-
nies of Magna Graeciaand Sicily, and then proceeding with
the history of Roman literature through its rise, progress,
and decay, down to the invasion of the northern tribes, with
which the second volume concludes. The author distri-
butes the great divisions of learning in separate chapters ;
poetry, grammar, oratory, history, philosophy, medicine,
jurisprudence, and the arts ; he gives an account of the
principal libraries, and of the great patrons of learning, and
although he does not profess to write biography, properly
speaking, yet he gives biographical notices of the more il-
lustrious writers and of their productions. The third volume
comprises the literary history of Italy during the dark
ages, as they are commonly called, from the fifth to the
twelfth century. The author makes bis way through the
scanty and obscure records of those times, and brings to
light much curious information concerning the intellectual
state of Italy under the Goths, the Longobards, and the
Franks. The ecclesiastical writers come in for a great share
of this part of the work. The fourth volume includes the
period (rom 1183 to the year 1300. The revival of studies,
the formation of the Italian language, the foundation of uni-
versities, notices of the civilians and canonists who flou-
rished in that age, an account of the Italian troubadours,
of the earliest Italian poets, and of the Italian Latinists, and
a view of the splendid architectural works of Arnolfo di
Lapo, of Niccol6 and Giovanni of Pisa, and other artists,
impart a cheering aspect to this period. The fifth volume
embraces the 14th century, the age of Dante, Petrarca, and
Boccaccio. The author is particularly diffuse in speaking
of Petrarca. The sixth volume concerns the 15th century,
an age of classical studies ; the age of Cosmo and Lorenzo
de' Medici, of Poggio, Filelfo, Niccoli, Palla Strozzi,
Coluccio Salutati, Paolo Manetti, Cardinal Bessarion,
and other collectors of MSS., founders of libraries, and
encouragers of learning, and the age also of distinguished
jurists and ecclesiastical writers. Thisvolunieis veiy large
and is divided into three parts, whilst the preceding
volumes are divided each into two parts, each part being
subdivided into books and chapters. We cannot help
thinking that this mode of division is too formal and cum-
bersome, and that it might have been simplified and made
clearer.
The seventh volume of Tiraboschi's history treats of the
16th century, the age of Leo X., the Augustan age, as it
is sometimes called, of Italian literature. This volume,
which is still more bulky than the one preceding, ia divided
into four parts. After giving a sketch of the general con-
dition of Italy during that period, of the encouragement to
learning afforded by the various princes, of the universities,
academies, libraries, and museums, the author treats first
of the theological polemics which arose with the Reforma-
tion, then of the philosophical and mathematical studies,
of natural history and medicine, of civil and ecclesiastical
jurisprudence, of historical writing, and of the Italian Hel-
lenists and Orientalists. He passes next in review the
Italian poets, among whom Ariosto and Tasso hold a con-
spicuous place, and afterwards the Latin poets, the gram-
marians, rhetoricians, and pulpit orators, and lastly the
artists, among whom Michael Angelo, Raffaello, Tiziano,
and Correggio stand prominent. It is impossible to peruse
this long list of illustrious names without being struck with
the seemingly inexhaustible fertility of the Italian mind in.
almost every branch of knowledge.
The eighth volume embraces the 17th century, which in
Italy is scornfully styled the age of the ' seicentisti,' or the
age of bad taste, a reproach however which applies mainly
to the poets, and not even to the whole of them. The
department of history is filled with good names, as well as
T I U
T I It
that of the mathematical H : which Galileo hoia»
the first rank. \Ynli the 17th c,
hi* work. Various reasons prevented his <
of contemporary hirtory. 1 >iu b«*n ii
late years by Lombanii, in his contin
work : ' Storia della I. .an* nel Secolo \
TiraboK-hi'i work was went
through numerous editions in \. The
uuthor bin .ntcnded the second edition ol' • Mo-
in wlu'ch he made correction* and «dditiona,
chiefly in the shape of notes to the text. Antonio I-amli
made an abridgment nt' the work in French, which was pub-
: at Paris, and at Betn. in 17*4 ; and .1. Ketzer made ;i
similar abridgment ol it in the German language. \Vhen
the work of Tiraboschi aiipeareil. no other country of Europe
had a general history nt its own literature. The learned
Benedictines of St. Nlaur had begun a work of this kind
literature of France, which however they
The work of Tiraboscln does not give aO
the infoniiation that one might wish, but it contains pro-
. as niucli infoniiation ;is could l>e collected and
Mlier by any one nuui upon the sub-
It has been slid to be deficient in crilici.sin, and in
s of conspicuous works, of which he has not
; extracts: but this, ii-s be >ay> in his preface, did not
tiirm part of his plan, which wits already extensive enough,
or the work would have had no end. His accuracy and
icntiousiic-s arc undisputed. The tone of his
renia ally on religions matters. is perh.
..ilid be expected from a man of hif
i, times, and country, who was a sincere believer in
of his church, though not a bigot. For a proof
of this we might refer the reader to Tiiaho>clii's U Iter to
Fall ii. a Dominican, who edited at Home an
edition of Tiruboschi's great, work with corrections and
10 iliose passages which were not consonant with his
high notions of Papal prerogative and Koman
maey, buth spiritual and temporal. Tiraboschi's
Ished at Modena in 17ST», and \VILS after-
il the end of the last volume of the -
.iilion of the • Ilistoiy of Italian Lite
of refined cutting irony, half veiled, under a most
-tvle of . pervades the whole of the
. T!u- French writer Ginjruen6 has followed •
Tiraboschi's footsteps in his ' Ilistoire Littt'raire d'ltalie','
which however contains only the modern part, or the
y of the literature of the Italian language. [Gi.N-
*«'.]
The duke of Modena, Krcole III. of Este, in consider-
ation d labours, made him a knight,
and ap|x>intcd him nicmber of his council in I7^>. B\
-ipprcssioii of the older of Jesuits. Tiraboschi had
ilar pnest. Ill 17M he began to publish
another work of bibliography and biography: ' liiblioteca
M(Mleiie>e. o Notiria della Vita e delle Uperv degli ScriUori
del Seienissinio Duca di Modeiia,' 0 \ols.
!7M-sii: to which he afterwards added a
•ice.-, of the artist.-- who were
born in the dominions of the house of Este. Having thus
illustrated the literary history of Modcna. and of the other
territories of the house of Este, he all el -wards wrote the
ral history of the same country, in his • Mcmoric
. lie Modcncsi. col eodice diplomatico, ilhisliato con
! le also published the
antieiit nuiniisteiA and abbey of Nonantola
in the duchy of out the middle of the
11 eciitnrv 'inns. Duke of Frmli. and after-
: L-rcatlv enriched bv nd oilier ]
and which 'became n poweiinl community during the
middle aged: ' Storia dell' au^u-ta Bailia di S. Sil\i
Nonantola, aggiuntovi il < loinatico di-lla mede-
.illustiato con i 17M. The
, • world of Tiraliosdii are : 1, ' Vita del Contc I). Fnlvio
Te«ti.' Testi wa» a lyric poet of the seventeenth century.
and enjoyed for a lime a high office nt the court of
. na, but ended his day» in pri-on for state reasons.
c- intorno ai viaggi del Sigr. 1!
the ' Notizie Lettcrarie ' of Cesenn. 17;'-': :'•. ' Memoria
delle cogni/ioni che si avevano di nti del Nilo
prima del \'iaggio del Sigr. .lacopo Hnic, : in the
l-i sol. of the • Memorie dell' Aceademia delle Scienze di
Mantova;' 4, Two memoirs on (ialileo, h
L-i coudvianatiuu by the IiujuiwUwi, inserted in the last
vol. of the second Modcna cd.uoii
Italian J.iteratun n S.
.a e
iessa della I'hiesa d
Kambnldo de Conti
r writing • in answ,
of Ins • HiMory of Italian Literature.' He K-ft unpub-
lished: 1. ' Dizionario To|ioi:ialieo ilegh
published since at Mourn;
del l.ibri del gii L'ollegio del (ie>uiti di Hi c
sulla Venn! olio in Italia ;' -1. • Vila di <
nandr. : Ferrarese :' :>. • Noti/ie
Tiniboschi du i .Tune, 17 sea§»
brought oil by sedentary lil'e
lie was buried in the church <
outside of the city, and a Latin inscription •.
on his tomb, written by Kalhei- l'o//..-'.ii. who succeeded
him :us librariaM. coninicmoiati\c of his laliours and his
virtues, among which modesty and charit) con-
s)iii'UOU8.
iliwhi. by Pozzetti, •
the later editions of the ' History of Italian Liter:.'
I goni. Sturiii di'llii i
ini'ti'i • \ /"///.; Lombardi, ,S/ur/t( delta It!
turn Italian . A'/ ///.
TIRA'.NO. [\AI.IU.I.INO.]
TlHHfT. [HlM>l'STAN. p. 217.]
'JTHIDATES, ])rince of Medi
Armenia, was the brother of \ .ng nf the 1'ar-
thians. that is. of Media. He i
A.I). 5:i. in the first war of Corbui
(Tacitus. //;>/., xii. M;, who was compelled to desist Irom
upon Armenia in v.». ">4. In A.D. ;">S, hov.
the Parlhians again overran Armenia, having been invited
by the inhabitants of that country, ami \
his hiother Tiiidates. who tin
king of Armenia. As the Hon. . not allov.
country to become a . of the Parthians. Corbulo
directed his forces against the n . s, knowing thai
..as pieM-utcd i iiis ai my against
him in consequence of aniusmi. the ]>rovince ol
Hxrcauia. ( 'oil iido therefore soon persiiadi'd Tiridatcs to
submit to tin rmpci'or Nero, and to prefer a moderate de-
pendence to an uncertain and dangerous indrpen.:
When they were about to i; e the ci n-
ditions of the peace, Tiridate-i suddenly became aliaid of
some treacherous design on the part of the Komai'-
lie therefore broke oh' the negotiations and renewed the
war. Corbulo however defeated him at Artavita on the
Araxes, took and destroyed this old capital of Armenia,
and forced the new capital, Tigranocerta [TICKAMH i •,
to surrender after a short siege, i Tacit us, JJint., \i ,
Frontimis, Strn/n. '.cmpl. .").
Tiridatcs fled to his brother, who bad taken the field
against the ll\i>. ,dwho entrusted him with tint
command of a new army, with which Tiiidates hop.
c\pc! the Komans from Annenia. He attacked them on
the side of Mesopotamia, but the strong position which
the Romans kept at Tigiaiiocerta, and the care which they
• •ing the passages of the F.uphrutcs, prc-
1 him from either pi ; lie valley of tht-
I'ppi r from invadi: niana'i'r.
which Corbulo would ba\. 'en tcithe-
il province, and to leave Annenia to the incur-
s. Tiridir
to the pacific ])roposals of the Romans, who we
to avoid any war with the Parthian*, if they could do
conditions winch would secure their inll
nienia. Their intention was not to make a Roman pro-
vince of Armenia. A J in
ibulo, and they declared, in the name of
Tiridates and his brother was
1'iiiit to Nero, as a \ -md that Volo-
.vuiild kc( \ Ii the
Romans than bel'ori'. In day
was fixed on which Tiridati s was to :ip|,, ai in ! lie camp ot
Corbulo, who sent Tiberius Alexander [TniKKi-
. ) and his son-in-law >
iuto Uie camp of Tirid»tc» (\.D, UJ,. \\ hen Tiudatcs cu-
T I R
497
T I R
tered the tent of Corbulo, he took off his royal diadem, and
placed it at the foot of a portrait of the emperor Nero,
taking; an oath that he would not exercise any right of
sovereignty in Armenia till he had again received the
same diadem from the hands of the emperor in Rome.
(Tacitus, Hist., xv. 28, 29.) Tiridates arrived in Rome in
A.D. 66, and when he approached the city a great number
of people came out from the gates to behold the entrance
of an oriental king descended from the mighty sovereigns
of the Parthians. In Zumpt, ' Annales veterum Reg-
norum et Populorum, imprimis Romanorum,' the Arme-
nian king who entered Rome in A.D. 66 is called Tigranes,
but this is a typographical error. (Tacitus, Hist., xvi. 23.)
The latter circumstances of the life of Tiridates are un-
known. [PARTHIA.]
TIRLEMONT (in Dutch, Tienen), situated in 50° 50'
N. lat. and in 4° 50' E. long., is an inland town in the
kingdom of Belgium, in the province of South Brabant,
on a small river called the Great Geete. It is a pretty
well-built town, and has 8000 inhabitants, who have con-
siderable manufactures of flannel and stockings. There
are also brandy distilleries, and breweries which produce
a celebrated kind of beer. It is said to have been for-
merly more populous and thriving than at present. In
the wars of the French revolution, several battles took
place here between the French and the Austrians ; first, in
November, 1792, when the Austrians were defeated ; se-
condly, on the 16th of March, 1793, when they again sus-
tained a check, for which they took ample revenge two
days afterwards by the decisive victory of Neerwinden.
(Hassel ; Stein ; Cannabich ; Hbrschelmann.)
TIRO. [CICERO.]
TIRVALORE, TABLES OF. [ViGA GANITA.]
TIRY, or TYREE. [HEBRIDES.]
TIRYNS was an antient city of Argolis, in the Pelopon-
nesus, situated in 37° 40' N. lat. and 41° 1' E. long., at no
.great distance from the head of the Argolic Bay, now the
Gulf of Napoli di Romania. According to a legend in
Strabo (viii., p. 373, Casaub.), it was built by Proetus, an
antient king of Argolis, who in the construction of the
citadel employed masons from Lycia, who were called
Cyclopes. The Greeks attributed most architectural works
which were characterised by rude massiveness and great
antiquity to the Cyclopes, and such works were conse-
quently described as Cyclopean. Homer (Iliad, ii. 559)
calls Tiryns the ' walled,' or rather the ' wally ' Tiryns : and
Pausanias (ii. 25), 1000 years after him, thus describes the
remains, as they existed in the second century of our sera.
' The ruins of Tiryns,' he observes, ' were on the right
of the road leading from Argos to Epidaurus. The wall
<it' the fortification, which still remains, is the work of the
Cyclopes, and is built of unwrought stones, so large that
not even the least of them could be even moved by a pair
of mules. The intervals between them have been long
since filled up with smaller stones, so as to make the whole
mass solid and compact.' No cement or mortar was used
in these constructions, and it is evident that they were the
first rude attempt at building with stone among the Pe-
lasgic Greeks, and constituted their first style of architec-
ture. The second is still visible in the remains of MY-
CENjE.
The ruins of Tiryns are thus described by Col. Leake, in
his ' Morea,' vol. ii., p. 350 : — ' They occupy the lowest and
flattest of several rocky hills, which rise like islands out of
the level plain. The length of the summit of that of
Tiryns is about 250 yards, the breadth from 40 to 80 ; the
height above the plain from 20 to 50 feet ; the direction
nearly north and south. The entire circuit of the walls
Mill remains more or less preserved. Some of the masses
of the stone are shaped by art, some of them are rect-
angular ; but these are probably repairs, and not a part of
the original work described by Pausanias. The finest spe-
cimens of the Cyclopean masonry are near the remains of
the eastern gate, where a ramp, supported by a wall of the
same kind, leads up to the gate. The ruined wall of the
fortress still exists to the height of 25 feet above the top
of the ramp ; but, this is the only part in which the \yalls
rise to any considerable height above the table summit of
the hill within the. fortress. On one side of this gateway
I measured a stone of 10. 0 by 3.9 by 3.6. Here the wall
N 2Ji feet in tlm-lou^s ; in other parts from 20 to 23. But
tin', principal <!iili;mee was not here, I think, but on the
kouthern side, adjacent, to the south-east angle of the
P. C., No. 1550.
fortress, where a sloping approach from the plaiii is still te
be seen, leading to an opening in the walls.'
In its general form the fortress appears to have consisted
of an upper and a lower enclosure of nearly equal dimen-
sions, with an intermediate platform. The southern en-
trance led, by an ascent to the left, to the upper level, and
by a direct passage between the upper inclosure and the
eastern wall of the fortress into the lower inclosure, having
also a branch to the left into the middle platform, the
entrance into which last was nearly opposite to the eastern
gate already described. There was also a postern on the
western side. In the eastern, as well as in the southern
wall, there were galleries in the body of the wall of sin •
gular construction, the angle of the roof being formed by
merely sloping the courses of the masonry. In the eastern
wall there are two parallel passages, of which the outer
has six recesses in the exterior wall. These niches were
probably intended to serve for the protracted defence of
the gallery itself, and the galleries for covered communi-
cations leading to places of arms at the extremities of
them. One of these places of arms still exists at the south-
west angle of the fortress, and there may have been others
on either side of the great southern entrance. The passage
which led from this entrance to the lower division of the
fortress was about 12 feet broad ; and about midway there
still exists an immense door-post, with a hole in it for a
bolt, showing that the passage might be closed upon oc-
casion. In these contrivances for the progressive defence
of the interior we find a great resemblance not only to
Mycenae, which was built by the same school of engineers,
but to several other Grecian fortresses of remote antiquity.
A deficiency of flank defence is another point of resem-
blance : it is only on the western side, towards the south,
that this essential mode of protection seems to have been
provided. On this side, besides the place of arms at the
south-western angle, there are the foundations of another
of a semicircular form, projecting from the same wall, fifty
yards farther to the north ; and at an equal distance, still
farther in the same direction, there is a retirement in the
wall, which serves in aid of the semicircular bastion in
covering the approach to the postern of the lower inclo-
sure. This latter division of the fortress was of an oval
shape, about 100 yards long and 40 broad : its walls formed
an acute angle to the north, and several obtuse angles on
the east and west. Of the upper inclosure very little remains.
The fortress itself is only a third of a mile in circum-
ference, so that in all probability it must have been no
more than the citadel of the Tirynthii, the town itself being
situated in a plain of two or three hundred yards in breadth,
on the south-west of the fortress : beyond this plain lies a
marsh, extending a mile farther towards the sea.
Proetus, the reputed founder of Tiryns, was succeeded
by his son Megapenthes, who is said to have transferred it
to Perseus. Perseus transmitted it to his descendant
Electryon, whose daughter Alcmena married Amphitryon.
The latter prince was expelled from Tiryns by Sthenelus,
king of Argos ; but his son Hercules recovered his inherit-
ance, and was in consequence called Tirynthius. (Dio-
dorus, iv. 10 ; Pindar, Olymp., x. 37.)
From Perseus to Amphitryon, Tiryns was a dependency
of the neighbouring city Mycenae. At the time of the
Trojan war, Homer (Iliad, ii. 559) represents it as being
subject to the kings of Argos. Subsequently it was par-
tially destroyed by the Argives. The date of that event
is uncertain ; but from two passages of Herodotus (vi.
83, and ix. 28), in which mention is made of Tiryns,
it appears that it existed up to B.C. 480, and it is
probable that it was overthrown about the same time as
Mycenae, B.C. 4G8. (Clinton, Fasti Hell., ii., p. 425.) Ac-
cording to Strabo (viii., p. 373), the Tirynthians, on leaving
their homes, retired to Epidaurus : according to Pausanias
(ii. 25), the greater part of them were sent to Argos.
Pausanias also notices what he calls the chambers
(flaXauoi) of the daughters of Proetus lying between Tiryns
and the sea ; but he gives no description of them. Strabo
speaks of some artificial caverns near Nauplia, which he
places at the distance of only 12 stadia from Tiryns, and
says that they were attributed to the Cyclopes. It is not
improbable that he alludes to the same excavations as
Pausanias ; but Strabo had probably not seen them, for he
never saw Mycenae. The Tirynthian citadel was also
called Licymnia, from Licymnius, a son of Electryon, and
brother of Alcmena. (Pindar, Oh/mp., vii. 49.)
VOL. XXIV.-3 S
Tl S
T 1 S
H.363; Cramer* GY
a onrf Argoiit; Dodwcll,
, one of
entury,
. where
d to an
but he
brother.
and dc-
>.fl
OM*
•iIJKl.N..H>HN HKNH
the mo*t celebrated pn,
wa* tin t
he was born in 17-'J. He w
le on the n.
him. in hi- i year, w
lot in Cassel, of the name of Zimmermann. He
:*) »ome instruction from Van Freese. the court
painter at Casae), and soon gave proof of his ability. Tisch-
uith an early and a valuable patron in Count
n. through whose assistance he was enabled, in 1743,
.here he remained five yean with <
V'unloo, and acquired his style of painting. From Paris he
. and there studied tight months with Piaa-
letta: from Venice he went to Home, where he remained
two years; he again visited i'l.izzetta in Venice, and after a
7.")1. he returned to Cas»el, where, in 17^-,
'.met painter to the landgrave.
:bcm excelled in historical and mythological sub-
in which lines are his In s, painted from
about 17li2 until 1785 ; he died in 17H9, as director of the
Academy of Cassel, and a member of the Academy of
Bologna. A biographical no!; • hein with criti-
cisms upon his works was published in .Niirnhcrg in !,••,.
ught r bis death, by J. F. Engelschall, entitled
• .1. H.' Tisehbein, als Men&ch und Kiinsth r dargcsleilt.'
In that work there is a list of 141 historical pin
TUchbein, of wl ich tlie following liave been considered
; est: — the Resurrection of ChrUt. very large figures,
painted in 1763, for the altar of St. Michael's chu.
Hambuig: the Transfiguration, in the Lutheran church
at Cassel, 17Ui> ; Hermann's Trophies after his A
over Varus in the year 9, in the palace of Pyrmont, 1768 ;
ten pictures of the Life of Cleopatra, painted in the palace of
Wcfssenstein, 17<>'.>-70; sixteen from the life of Telemac.hu*.
in the palace of \\ilhelmsthal ; an Ecce Homo, in the Ro-
man Catholic chapel at Cassel, 177H; a Deposition from
the Cro.*, and an Ascension, altar-pieces in the principal
church of StraUund, 1787; Christ on the Mount of <
an altar-piece presented by him to the church of his native
place Hayna, 1788; the Death of Alcestis. 17H<) : and the
Restoration of Alcestis to her husband by Hercules, 1777.
Tischbein painted many pictures from the antient poets,
and some from Tasso ; several of which are now in the I'ie-
ture-gallery at Cassel. He painted also a col lection of female
portraits, selected chiefly for their beauty, which is now at
the palace of Wilhelmsthal near Cassel. He also fre-
quently copied his own pictures. Nearly all his works
remain in his own country, on which account he is little
known out of it. It is remarkable that of all the great
galleries of Germany, Munich is the only one that pos-
sesses a specimen of his works, and that is only u portrait,
slowly, but he was very indus-
trious : he was generally at his easel by five in the morn-
ing in the nted until four in the
afternoon. He painted in the l-'rench style: his col..
was a mixture of t: and thc'\ md in
•;wing and ehiar'-
OSOUi' -in me In,- as in-
conv. as his soui
'nation would allow I. and it is a fault that
elsJIy the '• t.) the critics he gene-
rally contrived in his aiitienl
look much moi. n hnicn and Germans than'
or Unman-. In his relign IIP was more success-
ful : he was no follower of Leasing'* theory of bean-
I.. ' . .; ill •• e.,:;- >pn r.-e. H. etched'*, v,
Jars* ntv ics: — Venus ;
•Mil
fans; Tlietii
Tischbein WM a mi :>rl an
<»H «erv*nt named Conra..
s*y In' should ho In had a cook also wh.
with him 21 yen .is twice married, and yet was a
husband »• i year* : I .
1786, bjr whom he had two dattghters ; he lived with her
his great picture of Hie
three year*, when she died, and in 1750 he married her
with whom however . month*.
;i r daughter Amalia waa a diver p . wa*
a member of the Ac;. ;uisel ; she
to her lather for many of the It-male* in hi*
hi-toncal work*. After Tisehbein'* death, the Landgrave of
Catiel purchased all the work* that were in hi* house, and
planed them tnLTi'thrr iii the palace ol
(Meuiel, .Mttccliantfn Artntuchfii Inha/ts; t'iMi,AU*
.HilIN ilKNKV \V1I.T.IAM. called the
Younger, the youngest *on of John Conrad Tischhcin, and
nephew of the preceding, with whom he i* sometimes run-
founded, wa* born at Hayna in 1751. He wan iiis.li
by his uncle .John Henry at Cassel in historical painting,
and he afterwards .studied landscape painting three yean
with his unclu John Jacob at Hambui
to Holland, when- he remained two yean, and in
return 1 and painted p»rtraiu and lands*
I :inner and Berlin, and painted mam
traits in both places. In 1779 he left Cassel. by thedeiiire
of the Landgrave, lor Italy, but i' ul two years in
/iirich, where ho painted ni:uiy pert raits and
lebnited picture of Conradin •
phiyiiu;. after his sentence to death, a irame at dn.
wil'h Frederick of Austria. In 17K1 TiM-hbein arri\
lirat studies were some ( -opie» in oil after
Haphnel and Guercino, and some drawinu-
lichino. and Ltotmrdn da Vinci. His ftnit- on
picture wa* Hercules clnu
alter which be painted his picture of Conradin of Suabia,
now in the palace of Pyrnumt. In 17KT he went to
Naples, and the next year painted the portrait of the
crown-prince for the queen, who presented Tisehbein with
a valuable snuff-box and 200 ducats, expressing her com-
plete satisfaction with the picture. In N, 'pears
to have acquired laurels rapidly, for in 17'.«>
pointed director of the Academy with a sain:; of ii<*l
ducats per annum, which however 1 in in 17'.i'.i,
at the breaking out of th. it he
found no difficulty in obtaining ]HTrnis-ion from the French
authorities to r«turn
to take with him. He accordingly ei.il aikeil. with
the painter Hackert and another, for ' king with
him the plates of his illustrations to Homer, his design*
for Sir \V. Haiiiillnn's second collection of vascn. and
other works of art: but the ship wan driven by a utorm
upon the coast of Corsica, and was captured by a I
ship of war : it was however set at liberty aeuin, and
a troublesome journey of four months Tisehbein at. last
reached Cassel in safety. During his resilience in Naples
he published there, in 1790. a remarkable work upon ani-
mals, in two parts, folio, entitled 'TOtes des Different* Ani-
mau\, dessines d'apres Nature, pour donncr une id fa plus
exacte de leiirs caract.V. •-..' The first part contains Hi
s of animals, and the first plate of this part is the
celebrated design called in Italy Tisehbein's I-aocoon ; it
r*prt*«ntl a Inr^e -i!:il,e tittacKiiiLr ainl dettTO] nr.r a liuiie-s
and her young in their den: R design of remarkable power
and spin't : the second part contain- X plates on
ingot chai. ads of men and gods, as— !
:<ir Rosa, Michael Anpelo, Kaphnel. Sci]iio Africanns,
ilia, .ln|iiter, and Apollo. Tisehbein after Ins i
icipally at Ha:;: l-'.utin
in Oldenburg near I.iib. ek : the m;O
in the possession of < e of OMenb HL' : tlie
following paintings arethn >st celebrated >•
t Cassandra, painted in !••
Children come unto me.' painted in ISMi. fort
the church nf St. Angari at Uremen : an<l He.
in ]«!(). II
Of II.-v ne. iiiul .
In C;;;ttingen in IKIM-1 he published in ' bin
favourite work on Homer, with explanati.
' Homer, nachAntiken gi'xeichn i'ein,
Direektur. K .in-.n \on Chr. ('•••" . !i
i.-vi.. each number containing (I p
:oes were c n. Tiscli-
on of
vase*, published at Naples from 1791, in 4 vols.
tied • A Collection of Kn-
gravings from Antient Vases, mostly of pure Greek wurk-
I manship, discovered in Sepulchres in the Kingdom of the
T I S
499
T I S
Two Sicilies, but principally in the environs of Naples,
daring the years 1789 and 1700 ; now in the possession of
Sir W. Hamilton, published by William Tischbein, direc-
tor of the Royal Academy of Painting at Naples.' The
text, which is in French and English, is by Italinsky.
Tischbein published other works, and etched also several
plates, after Paul Potter, Roos, Rosa di Tivoli, Rem-
brandt, &c. As a painter his drawing was correct, and
his expression and colouring good, and he excelled in
drawing animals. He died in 1829. There were many
other artists of this family, of various degrees of merit,
but they are unknown beyond their own circles.
(Fiissli, Allgemeines Kiinstler Lexicon; Kugler, Hand-
buck der Geschichte der Malerei.)
TI'SIAS. [ORATORY.] \
TISSAPHERNES. [CVRUS THE YOUXGER.]
TISSOT, SIMON ANDREW, an eminent Swiss phy-
sician, was born at Lausanne, in the canton de Vaud, in
1728. He studied first at Geneva, and then at Montpellier,
from 1746 to 1749, where he took his degree of Doctor of
Medicine. He then returned to Switzerland and settled at
Lausanne, where he joined to an extensive practice a con-
siderable degree of theoretical knowledge. His reputation
spread rapidly through Europe in consequence of his me-
dical publications, and caused him to be consulted from all
parts. He was also offered at various times several im
portant situations at different foreign courts and univer-
sities, all which he declined, and remained satisfied wilh
the respect and comfort which he enjoyed at home, and
with the office of professor of medicine at the college of
Lausanne. However, in 1780, he could not resist the warm
solicitations of the emperor Joseph II., who conferred on
him the professorship of clinical medicine at the university
of Pavia. Being thrown thus late in life into so difficult a
post, and being naturally of a modest and shy disposition,
he did not at first answer the expectations formed of him.
However there soon after broke out in the province an
epidemic bilious fever, as to the treatment of which the
physicians of the place were not agreed. On this occasion
the Count de Firmian, the celebrated minister under the
archduke, gave orders that Tissot's directions should be
followed, as he had treated a similar disorder with great
success in the canton of Le Valais in 1755. His system
was again successful, and the students not only celebrated
his triumph with ffites, but, wishing to render the memory
of it more durable, they caused a marble inscription, be-
ginning with the words Immortali Pra'<-rptt>ri, to be
placed under the portico of the school. After holding his
professorship for three years, Tissot obtained permission to
retire from office. During his stay in Italy he had made
use of the vacations to travel through the finest parts of
that country, and was everywhere received with the most
marked and flattering attention. Pope Pius VI. signified
his desire of seeing so estimable and eminent a man ; he
accordingly received him with much kindness, excused
him i as being a Protestant) from the ceremonial customary
at presentations at the Papal court, and made him a pre-
sent of a set of the gold medals struck during his pontifi-
cate.
Having always lived economically and without any dis-
play, Tissot had saved while in Italy a sum of money suf-
ficient for the purchase of a country-seat, which he in-
tended to be the retreat of his old age. He had only
engaged himself in the Austrian service for a very limited
period ; he had now finished the medical education of a
favourite nephew ; and, lastly, as he himself with charac-
teristic playfulness expressed it, having received the title
of ' Immortal,' he thought it prudent not to run any risk
of descending from such a height, and of outliving (as he
might easily do) his apotheosis. He was succeeded in his
professorship at Pavia by the celebrated J. P. Frank, and
tlii-d unmarried, on the 15th of June, 1797, in his native
land, at the age of sixty-nine. A complete list of his works
: .en in the ' Biographic Mcdicak',' from which work
the abb ve account is taken : of these the following are the
• interesting : ' Tentamen de Morbis ex Manustupra-
tione Ortis,' Louvain, 8vo., 1760; which was translated
into French, and has been frequently republished. 'Dis-
gertatio dr Uiliosix, sen Historia Epidemiae Lau-
aanensis anni 1755,' Lausanne, 1758, 8vo. ' Avis au Peuple
l.anaanne, 1761, 12mo., which was translated
into no loss than seven different languages, and in loss
i six years reached the tenth edition. It has since been
frequently reprinted, and contributed more than any of his
other works to make the author's name known throughout
Europe. It served also as the model and foundation for
many similar popular works in more recent times. ' De
Valetudine Litteratorum,' Lausanne, 8vo., 1766, which was
translated into French, and frequently reprinted, and of
which the latest and best edition is that by F. G. Boisseau,
Paris, 1826, 18mo., with notes by the editor, and a
memoir of the author. ' Essai sur les Maladies des Gens du
Monde,' which has also gone through several editions. There
is a complete edition of his works by J. N. Hall6, in 11
vols. 8vo., Paris, 1811, with notes by the editor and a me-
moir of the author. Besides these original works Tissot
edited at Yyerdun, 1779, in three volumes 4to., the treatise
of Morgagni, 'DeSedibus et Causis Morborum per Ana-
tomen Indagatis,' to which he prefixed a history of the
Life and Works of the author.
TISSUES, VEGETABLE. The various organs of plants,
as the leaves, flowers, roots, stem, &c., are composed of
certain ultimate structures, which are called elementary
organs or vegetable tissues. Most parts of a plant, when
cut into, present to the naked eye an almost perfectly ho-
mogeneous character ; and it is only by calling to our aid
the microscope that we can distinguish the various struc-
tures of which they are composed. On taking a leaf or a
portion of the stem of one of the higher plants, and sub-
mitting it to the microscope, it will be found to consist,
1, of a thin transparent homogeneous membrane, which is
arranged in the form of cells or cylindrical tubes; 2, of
fibres, which are arranged in a spiral form in the interior
of the cells or tubes ; and 3, a fluid of varying density,
filling the cells and existing between them, and containing
in it globules of various sizes and kinds. These parts
constitute what are known respectively as ' elementary
membrane,' ' elementary fibre,' and 'organic mucus.' Ele-
mentary membrane, and the fluid from which it is developed,
are the only two which are constantly present in all plants.
Fibre is only found in the higher forms of plants.
The primary form in which organization appears is that
of a simple cell containing or surrounded by a fluid ; and
however complicated may be the forms which the tissues
of plants may assume, they mostly originate in this primi-
tive form. Some late researches on the development ot
tissues in animals seem to lead to the conclusion that,
some of these tissues are formed from a primitive fibre ;
and from analogy it has been supposed that the same may
occur in vegetable organization. Whether however the
coll or the fibre shall be determined to be the primitive
form of tissue in the animal kingdom, there can be little
doubt that the cell is so in the vegetable kingdom.
The development of the cell itself is a subject of much
interest, and great light has been thrown on this obscure
department of physiology by the late researches of Dr.
Schleiden. It was long since observed by Robert Brown
that in the cells of the tissue of Orchidaceous plants there
was an opaque spot, or ' areo/a,' in the interior of the cell :
Schleiden, finding this spot very constant in the cells of
certain plants, concluded that it must have some important
relation to them, and submitted it to a very strict exami-
nation. He found that these bodies were the original
particles from whence the cells were formed ; hence he
called them cytoblasts. The best parts of the plant for
observing the phenomena to \yhich these bodies give
rise are, the large cell which exists between the embryo
and the membranes of the seed, and in which the albu-
men is subsequently deposited, the embryonal sac, and
the end of the pollen-tube, from which the embryo itself
is developed. In the gummy fluid that exists in these
parts in the process of growth a number of granules are
developed, rendering this transparent homogeneous fluid
opalescent, or almost opaque. It is among these granules,
which assume a brownish-yellow colour under the influence
of tincture of iodine, that the cytoblasts make their appear-
ance. Whilst in this state the cytoblasts increase con-
siderably in size, becoming larger than the granules of the
gum; and as soon as they have attained their full size, a,
delicate transparent vesicle rises upon their surface : this
is the young cell, which at first represents a very flat seg-
ment of a sphere, whose plane side is formed by the cvto-
blast, and the convex side by the young cell, which is
situated on it, somewhat like a watch-glass on a watch.
In its natural medium it is almost distinguished by this
circumstance alone, that the space between its convexity
3S2
T I «
500
T I S
•nd the cytob.a»t is perfectly clear and transparent, and
prubalily tilli-il with an aqueous fluid, luid i» boiiiuli-il by
the surrounding mucous granules, pressed back by
puuion. Rut i il u-' mucous
granule* may almost shaking the
•Uge of the' micros., long
..•il. a» they cntirclv dissolve in a few minutes in dis-
tilled water, leaving the cytoblasts behind. The vesicle
gradually gets larger an.! - mure consistent, its
}, mg formed entirely of vegetable gelatine (Gal-
. jit tlir cvtohlast. which alwavs forms a portion
of tin1 wall. The whole cell now gradual! v enlarges !••
the edges of the cytoblast. ami gets so large, that at last
t!u- latter appears as a small body enclosed in one of the
side this jioiiit the cyt'oblast assumes the cha-
racter of the nreula described by Hrown. 'Hie young eell
frequently presents great irregularities, a proof th;it the
expansion does not proceed regularly from a fixed jiiiint.
The cell groin progressively, and become*, under the in-
flucnce of surrounding objects, more rcgvilar, and most
frequently assumes tin- form of a rhomboidal do i
The cytoolast still remains in the cell, partaking of the
life inherent in the cell, unless it is in cells destined to a
higher development, when it is either reabsorted in the
walls of the cell, or cast off into the cell as a useless mem-
ber, and there reabsorbed. It is only after the rcabsorp-
tionof the cytoblaM that seconda.'V K positions are observed
to commence on the inside of the ivalls of the cell.
(Schleiden.)
The cytoblast remains in the cells in only a small num-
ber of cases. They are found in a portion ofthe cellular tissue
of Orchidacc;e. also of < 'aclai , :e. In hairs likewise, and
cells in which the function of c\ ; vied on, they arc
very frequently permanent: also in the pollen granules ol
Abietin:e. Di. Schleiden always found them present in
recently-formed cellular tissue.
The increase of the bulk and -i/.\- of plants depends upon
the development, in the interior of the old or oiigiimlh
formed cells, of several new cvtohlasts. each of which
develops a new cell, and causes b\ its presence tlu
absorption or destruction ofthe old one.
But all the parts of plants do not cou-i-t of simple cells :
the cells become elongated, forming libioiis or woody tis-
sue, and spiral tilircs are generated both in cells and lubes,
i'uting tin- various forms of til.ro-ccllular and vascu-
lar tissue, and it will he i a lew words on
their development. One great error that lias arisen from
the naming and classification of the tissues of the plant:
has been the supposition that they were essentially distinc
and possessed a dill in. This is seen in the
theories of the origin of wood. Woody fibres are nothing
more than elongated cells with thickened walls; but the)
opposed to originate in a different manner from tin
cellular tissue; and an ingenious theory of Du Peti'
Thouars has been adopted by many eminent botanists foi
the purpose of explaining this phenomenon.
In referring to Du Petit Thouars' views. Dr. Ijndleysays,
'The wood is not formed out of the bark as a mere deposi-
tion, but it is produced from matter elaborated in the leave.
downwards, cither through tin i the inne
bark along with the matter for forming the liber, by vvhicl
it is subsequently parted with, or it and the liber are
•nitlcd distinct from one another, the one adhering It
the albumen, the other to the bark. I know of no proo
ofthe former supposition; of the latter there is every rea
ton to believe the truth.' And again, 'It is not merely in
the property of increasing the species that bud- arrec v'vitl
seeds, but that they emit roots in like manner : and Ilia
the wood and liber are both formed by the dow-
nt of bud-roots, at first nourished by the moi-
the cambium, and finally imbedded in the ccllula
which is the result of the organization of that set-ration.
This theory then supposes that woody tissue is sent dowi
as a deposit from buds and leaves. But it is much too
general, anil whatever may be the agency of the leaves ii
-ating the sap, and preparing the secretions of plants
they are certainly not the only agent* engaged in develop
ing the woody tissue. There are many parts of plan'
pOMe« no leaves, and some whole orders, u Cactacea-
that potftcss no leaves that yet develop woody tissue
Trees alto that have the hark removed in a circle from tin
•tern at the spring of the year, before the leaves are de
TelopeU, will at the end of the year exhibit between thi
«rk and wood new woody tissue. This was proved by a
of experiments performed on Dr.
-inkester. Tin- existence of w t|1(.
•ark of trees is also another fact oppos IVtit
fliouars' theory. These ex i '-\i-t in the ('..-m of
cnobs. and are most frequent on the beech, projecting from
lie bark of the tree. » >n e\amining them it will be found
hat they have no connection with th
mil consist of several layers of contoii
.1 in a bark ot'lheir own, consisting of liber aiu!
ular integument. They are of all si/cs. from a men' point
i he smallest consist of cellular 1
.n the centre of which a darker spot is seen, as though. the
lissue wns injured or diseased. It is around this spot that
ihe fibres of woody tissue develop themselves. These
liodies a])|X':ir to have their origin in an undeveloped bud :
lience they are called by Dnt rochet rniliri/n-l,inl\ ; but as
they goon increasing in size, and development occurs in
a circular, rather than a longitudinal direction, they are de-
scrihcd by I.inkester as abortirt- hrunrhes. From th.
searches of Schleiden there can be little doubt but that the
elongated tissue is developed in the same manner as i
•tion that still arises, and requires solution
whether the single lihrcs of woody tissue are the produce
of a single cvtoblast or of several. In t ailed
pitted or lSothrcnch\ma. there are evident indications of
its cylindrical tubes being form- ,al cells i;
together, and the walls, being absorbed at their point of
union, have thus produced a continuous tube.
The above observations of Schleiden have set aside the
supposition that the cell • d entirely of spiral
fibres intimately siipci |Ki-cd. liut still the question recurs
a.s to whether tibre may not be generated independent of
membrane. Meycn found fibres without membrane in the
genus Sti-H* ; I,mdley obscived them in Cnllnmiti : and
many oilier instances are known in which fibres are found
in punt* without anv apparently enveloping membrane.
The late researches of Dr. Martin Harry on the develop-
ment of animal tissue from the spiial fibre of the hlood-
b'loliule have induced some botanists to examine this <
tion ; and Dr. 'U'illshirc, in a paper in the ilth volume of the
•Annals of Natural ll\^«, •dcavourcd to prove
that the irregular-shaped liodies marked with dark lines,
and found in the juices of many plants, arc tin
of pure lihrous tissue. If such a development of fibre '
place, it can lie only in exceedingly i: Schleiden
in his memoir on Phylogenesis stales that lihrcs arc never
formed free, but always in the interior of cells, and that the
walls of these cells in thcjmmg state are simple and of
a very delicate texture'.
\Vhclher tibrc is formed independent of membrane or
not. there is no doubt of ils formation in a large number ol
- in the inside of cells and tubes forming the fibro-
11 and fibro-vascular tissues, A< Schk-idcn.
the cells in which the development of iihre take-, place are
in the commencement of the formation of the fibres tilled
with starch, rarely with mucus or gum, although the starch
passes into the state of mucus or gum. and then into that of
gelatin i gallcrtc i. From this latter vegetable fibn -
formed which in their development always follow the direc-
tion of a spiral line, whose coils are narrower or widei
iiiigto circumstances. The development of the tilue
is the same in the spiral vessel as in the spiral cell, there
being no difference between the two but in their dimen-
In tlu> first volume of the 'Transactions of the
Microscopic. il Society of London" (1*1-.! . Mr. Quekctt
give- the following account of the development of fibre in
the vascular tissue of plants: — 'When the voung \<
;that is. membranous tulles'! are n co- ar as
pellucid glossy tubes, with a rylohlast in some part of
their interior: earlier than this they arc not to lie icadiiy
recognised from cell*. As they grow older tin
diminishes, and the contents, which at fiisl and
gelatinous, become le-, tiansparcnt Irani containing thou-
sands of granules, which are too small In allow of the pas-
sage of light, and consequent >'. nits:
these atoms are about (lie ,^,0!' an inch in diameter, and
have the motion known aa" act i vi .'' If the vessel
be wounded at this period contents pour
slowly out, and then the of these
molecules are still more cl' These atoms, from
their freedom of motion, are arranged nn! iy in
the interior of the vc^d, but in a short time, some of them
T I S
501
T I S
enlarge, and then transmit a little light, which, on account
of their minute dimensions, is not suffered to pass as a
white pencil, but is decomposed in its course, the granule
thereby becoming of a greenish hue. The granules ex-
hibiting this greenish hue are now in a fit state to enter
into the composition of the fibre that is to exist in the in-
terior of the membranous tube.' This is effected in the
following manner : — ' The granules which are in active
motion in the viscid fluid near one of the ends become
severally attracted to the inner wall of the vessel, begin-
ning at the very point ; those granules first attracted ap-
pear as if cemented to the spot by the viscid fluid in that
direction losing some of its watery character; for there
appears a string of a whitish colour, besides granules, in the
line which the fibre is to occupy. As the other granules
are attracted to those already fixed in an inclined direction,
the spiral course is soon to be seen, and the same action
progressively goes on from the end where it began towards
the other, around the interior of the tube in the form of a
spiral ; the fibre being produced, like a root, by having the
new matter added and continually attached to the grow-
ing point, thereby causing its gradual elongation.' Spiral
cells and vessels thus formed exhibit a great variety of
appearance, depending on the period in the age of the
cell or tube at which the development of the fibre takei
place, as well as the modifications that occur in the
chemical changes of the substances from which the fibres
are formed. The cause of the arrangement of the par-
ticles in a fibrous form is still got satisfactorily explained,
and it is most commonly referred to an attraction between
the sides of the membrane, of the cell, and the particles it
contains, but why they form a spiral is a mystery yet to be
solved. [SPIRAL STRUCTURE OF PLANTS.]
The various forms of vegetable tissue found in the dif-
ferent organs of plants are included in the following ar-
rangement : —
I. FIBROUS.
Tissue in which elementary fibre is alone apparent.
II. CELLULAR.
Tissue composed of membrane in the form of cells whose
length does not greatly exceed their breadth.
1. Merenchyma, the cells of which touch each other only
at some points.
2. Parenchyma, the walls of the cells of which are ge-
nerally united.
3. Prosenchyma, the cells of which are always fusiform,
and overlie each other at their ends.
III. VASCULAR.
Tissue composed of cylindrical tubes of membrane con-
tinuous, or overlying each other at their ends.
1. Pleurenchyma, with the sides of the tubes thickened
and tapering to each end.
2. Cinenchyma, the sides of the tubes of which anasto-
inoze, and convey a peculiar fluid.
IV. FIBRO-CELI.ULAR.
Tissue composed of cells, in the inside of which fibres
are generated.
a. Genuine.
1. Fibrous cells.
b. Spurious.
2. Porous cells.
3. Dotted cells.
V. FlBRO-VASCULAR.
Tissue composed of tubes, in the inside of which one or
more spiral fibres are more or less perfectly developed.
a. Genuine.
1. Spiral vessels.
2. Annular vessels.
3. Moniliform vessels.
b. Spurious.
4. Scalariform vessels.
5. Porous vessels.
(Bothrenchyma.)
G. Dotted vessels.
This arrangement includes the principal forms of tissue
observed in plants, but the divisions are not founded upon
any pssrutiM difference in the structure or functi
. The most important distinction exists
I between membrane and fibre, which arc apparently deve-
loped under the influence of different forces. The cell and
the tube differ but in their dimensions, and the same is
true of them when fibre is generated in their inside.
Fibrous Tissue. — Although the development of fibre in-
dependent of membrane is still undecided, many of the
parts of plants exhibit fibres divested of membrane. Fibres
spirally arranged and adhering only together by vegetable
mucus, which is dissolved away by the application of water,
were discovered by Brown, in the seed-coat of Casuarina,
and by Lindley, in the same position in Collomia iincaris.
Meyen, who maintains that all cells may be composed of
minute fibres, records many instances of vegetable struc-
ture in which fibre of a spiral form alone is most apparent,
as the parenchyma of a species of Stelis, in the external
layer or bark of the aerial roots of many species of Orchi-
daceae, and also in species of Melocactus and Mammillaria.
Fibres not assuming a spiral form, and independent of
cells or tubes, have been described by Purkinje. In the
lining of the anthers of Polygala Chamsebuxus they are
found short, straight, and radiating ; in the anthers of Li-
naria cymbalaria they form distinct arches ; and in those
of some species of Campanula, they are arranged like the
teeth of a comb. The fibre in all cases is very minute,
varying from ^ to -^ of an inch in diameter. It is most
commonly transparent and colourless, but in some cases
has been observed of a greenish colour. Purkinje, who
has recently investigated it very attentively, asserts that it
is hollow ; but Lindley, Schleiden, and Morren are of
opinion that it is solid.
Cellular Tissue; also called utricular and vesicular tissue •
the Parenchyma of Lindley and Morren, tela cellulosa ot
Link-, and contextus and coinplexus cellulosus of older
writers ; Zellgewebe, Germ. ; TuiU cellulaire, French. —
This tissue consists of cells or cavities, which are closed on
all sides, and are formed of a delicate, mostly transparent
membrane developed from a cytoblast. It is present in the
whole vegetable kingdom ; and all the lower forms of plants,
constituting the class Acrogens, are composed entirely of it,
and have hence been called Cellulares. In the higher
plants it is most abundant in fruits and succulent leaves.
It exists in larger quantity in herbs than trees, and the
younger the plant is the more it abounds, and constitutes
the entire structure of the embryo.
The normal form of the cells is spheroidal, and when
they exist in this or in an elliptical form, and only touch
each other at a few points without exerting pressure, they
constitute the tissue called by Meyen Merenchyma. The
cells in this case may form a regular or irregular layer, a
distinction which may be of some importance. Such tissue
is found in many parts of plants, especially those which
are delicate and easily torn, as in the pulp of fruits like the
strawberry, in the petals of the white lily, in the stem of
Cactus pendulus, where they are spheroidal, and in the
leaf of the Agave Americana, where they are elliptical.
The cells also which constitute the entire of many of the
lower plants belong to this division of cellular tissue.
They are seen separate or loosely adhering to each other
in the Protocqccus nivalis, the plant of the Red snow
[SNOW, RED], in many of the smuts and brands, as Ustilago
and Uredo. Chroolepus, and many of the lower forms of
alga: and fungi, consist of filaments which are entirely
composed of spheroidal cells arranged one upon another.
In the higher forms of plants the vegetative force is
greater, and a greater number of cells being generated in
a given space, they press on each other on all sides,
assuming a variety of forms, and constituting the tissue
called by Meyen Parenchyma. The most common form
which the cells present under these circumstances is the
rhomboidal dodecahedron, which is the mathematical form
that a globe assumes when subjected to the pressure of a
number of globes touching each other at the same time.
These cells when cut through, as in the section of a por-
tion of pith, or the leaf of a plant, will present their cut
margins, when seen through the microscope, in the form
of hexagons, (a and b. Fig. 1.) But the pressure is not
always equal on all sides of the cells, so that a great mir.i-
ber of secondary forms are the result. When the vesicles
are elongated, the dodecahedrons assume the form of right-
angled prisms, terminated by four-sided pyramids, whose
faces replace the angle of the pyramids at varying degrrcs
of inclination to the axis. Many of the forms thus iisMimed
characterise parts of plants, and are very constant in the
T I S
502
TIS
Dune specie* of plant*. The principal rarictie* of Paren-
chyma distinguished by Meyen are
Fig. I.
a 4
V* 1
1. The cubical, which exists in the cuticle of some
leave*, and is not unfrcquently met with in bark and pith,
as in the pith of Viscum album, (c, Fig. 1.)
The rnlamnar, of which there arc' two varieties: the
rifHnrlrir<tl 'cylindrenrhymu of Morrcn , examples of
which may be seen in Cham nnd in Agaricus inuscarius ;
. ,-i,tii,iiii\i .hymn;, frequently seen in the
•lie hark of plants, and when compressed it be-
inuriform tissue (t, Fig. 1;, which is constantly
: in the medullary rays, and has its name from the
beitv.; arranged as bricks in a wall.
:t. The ii ••<! : the natural form of parenchyma
when the cells are of equal size and exert on each other
equal pressure, and when cut present a hexagonal form.
1
1. The strllatrd (actinenchyma), in which the cells,
from the irregularity of their walls, assume a star-like form,
seen in Musa.
The tubulated, seen in the epiphlaeum of many
plants: other forms, as conical (conencnyma ; ft, Fix. 1 .
oval {iimichyimi , fusiform (atractgnchymd), sinuous
branched :i;jled (d<e-
;ive been described b\ Morren.
differs from Parenchyma in the cells
always having an elliptical form which taper to theii
extremities, where they overlie each other. This form of
tissue is found only in 'the bark and wood, and is a tran-
sition from cellular to what is called woody tissue. Meyen
applies this term esp< . ially to the tissue finning the wood
In these families thi-
is marked with do'ts, which are surrounded by a circle.
Fig. '2.
(Fir. Z) These dots were formerly supposed 1 • •
ana to seci. -inoiis matter which abound-, in them,
and hence it was called • glandular woody ti--ue.' Tin
nx-arche.- have hov. u (hit
dobt are the result of the development of fibre wilhii
alls of the cells, and in this Mrw the Prosenchyma
not only constitutes a transition from cellular to \:
tissue, but also a transition from libro-cellular to fibro-
vascular tissue.
- 'if Cells. — The vesicle of cellular tissue
it rises from its cytoblast is a thin transparent m.'i
which as it eniarsres becomes thirki-ncd from within b\
the i, rr nutriment which is contains
in the cell. This cell in the early ktagcs of its growth is
filled with a fluid, at fir»t clear, but afterward* opa'
f. "in tin- development in it of minute granules,
granule* are of various shapes and sizes, and always exces-
sively minute. In their early stages they possess the
characters of starch, more particularly the proper'
assuming a blue colour when
tincture of iodine. In the older .
>e character of starch, nnd possess nv
Some of them, and these more minute than thos*
arc not coloured by iodine, and arc soluble in alcoho!
partake of a resinous character. They jr iliar
colour to the elaborated sap, v and
in plants with milky juices constitute the ca
which they yield. They seem also to be '
of the volir sins, balsams, rums, &c. t
yield. [SECRETK nothcr set of glubiiUi
are also found present in old cells, and these conv
what is called chlnrophyl, or chromulf, and exist espc
in the cells of plants <
[Su'.l It is from t':
vh that the cc!
appropriated by the walls of the cell they are
into a substance
It is from tl vini: in :i
plants, that the cells arc •
uembrane in many eases bccon. hard,
as in the stones of manyfru I oflhe ]'
Maerocarpa, and the wood of r.: In simpl*
lular tissue and in woody tissue this material is ap]<lied
equally to the whole e pillar
: in the tibro-cellular and fibro-vascular tissues it is
appropriated in the form of fibre.
Another class of bodies found in the interior of <
and which appear to have nothing to do with tl!'
of the plant, are those crystalline bo. I llaphides.
They occur singly or in bundles, and have an aeieular
form, and are long or short according to ciituiu>1:
In length tl :-e from J^th to Tjmth part of an inch.
These crystals were first obsened in tin1 proper juices of
plants and have been subsequently found in all paru ut
plants where celluln: They \\ere formerly
supposed to exist between the cells, but later ohs.
have seen them in cells, and they probably exist in
situations. The form of these bodies is not satisfactorily
determined. Mold describe* thorn ; four-
sided prisms vanishing into poiir
the latest ol
four-sided prisms, but not always n<,'ht
which are conglomerated are called crystal -glands '.'kryutal-
i bv Mcvcn. They seldom present more than the
pyramid of each little crystal composing them. Tin
portion in which they exist in plants is sometimes very
ureat. In some spec:, cec, according to Qui
the crystals equal the wcicM of th<- ilried ti
hundred grains of Tu .irb-root 31
and 40 grains oi
Seilla maritima yielded 10 grains. In m
Is are composed of •
lime. Raspail says the cr.
four-sided prisms will
of the phosphate, six-siiied prisms. In (.'ham crystals of
carbonate of lime occur in preat abundance on the out-
side of tht • I we ha\t- ohscncd them in the in-
tercellular passages immediately under the epidermis,
but they do not occur in the interior parts of the plant.
Schiible'r found that the crystal-glands of Hydiuius
tallophorus consisti d of carbonate of lime, and Saigey and
De la Fosse found silica in th. l the Mi:.
Jalapa. Silica the
Graminacca-, but is .-
the hardness to '
i article of commerce und.
'tl leu ill of the c
in plants it may be inferred that - form tin :
side 's the above. Thene bixlies do in :
:irts of the tissues in which tlu\
.^red by Link to calculi and oil1.. >:is in
the animal kingdom. This view is rendcreii
by the fact
nients wliieh the plants tal,
nutriment. Mejeii h:ui pointed out , 'ants
.11: near the sea will thn> iMtvi;
of clil •<Iium in II. ' I_M>
nd we have fon
i wliich it
'ance. JL'hosphate of lime
T I S
503
X I S
is necessary to the nutrition of many plants, and the ele-
ments of oxalic acid exist in the sap of all plants; and
when these are in greater abundance than the vital ener-
gies of the plant can appropriate, the laws of chemical
affinity come into play, and crystallization is the result.
Growth, Form, $c.— The vesicles, of cellular tissue are
very small, and cannot lie distinguished with the naked eye ;
and in fact all investigations on the structure, development,
and functions of the tissues of plants, can only be con-
ducted with the aid of the microscope. The measure-
ments of the cells give them a size varying from 3yh to
?'le TjW1 °f an inch in diameter. In the lower tribes, as
in the Fungi, their generation is very rapid, and it is well
known that mushrooms, puffballs, &c. will attain a
groat size in the course of .a single night. The force too
with which they are generated is very great, and there are
many well-authenticated instances of" agarics springing
up beneath pavements and displacing stones of great
weight and size.
The walls of the loose spheroidal cells in merenchyma
consist of a single membrane, but the walls of the more
closely-pressed cells of parenchyma consist of two mem-
branes, originally distinct, but fused into one by growth.
It frequently happens that the walls of the cells are
not accurately applied to each other, and consequently
spaces of various kinds occur between the cells. These
are called intercellular passages. They occur in the
greatest abundance in the loose merenchymatous tissue.
When these passages exist between the walls of two cells
whose sides are united in their middle and recede towards
their margins, they are called by Link meatus intercel-
lulares. These are most frequently met with in the epider-
mis of piants. Where the passages are formed of three or
more cells the sides of whose walls do not touch, they are
called (Indus intercellulures. These are very well seen in
the parenchyma of the stem of the iris and hyacinth, and
Heracleum. These passages have been supposed by De
Candolle and others to convey the sap ; but this has pro-
bably arisen from an error in observation, as they are easily
iilled with sap when cut through. Others again confound
these passages with the peculiar vascular tissue described
by Schultes as Laticiferous tissue (Cinenchyma).
Another kind of intercellular formation are the air-cells,
the lucunif nitfrcMulares of Link, which are large cavi-
1 ie.s formed in the tissue of plants, and whose walls are
entirely formed of cellular tissue. They may be very dis-
tinctly divided into two kinds, the regular and the irregu-
lar. The regular exist under the epidermis of many plants
and vary in size, but have in all cases a regularity of struc-
ture, their sides being formed of equal-sized cells of cellu-
lar tissue. They may be seen in the leaf-stalk of Calla
sethiopica, the stem of CEnanthe Phellandrium, and the
petioles of Nymphaea. They are very common in water-
plants. They are always filled with air in these plants,
and serve as a means of buoying them up in the water.
The irregular air-cells, lacuncs of Link, are found in old
plants ; they arise from the growth of the plant tearing
asunder the cellular tissue, or from a deficient develop-
ment or even the absorption of this tissue in particular
directions. They may be seen in the stem of the fronds
of the Aspidium Fihx Mas, of Hippuris and Equisetum,
and in nearly the whole of the family Umbelliferae.
The other organs which are formed by and found in the
midst of the cellular tissue are the sap-cells and gland*.
The sap-cells, the opangia of Link, consist of enlarged
cells of tissue, varying much in size, but always filled with
elaborated sap. They are found in the skin of the fruit of
the citron, pomegranate, &c. These are regular in form,
but in the roots and rhizomata of such plants as the ginger,
Archangelica, and Aristolochia, they are found of an irre-
gular form. The glands, which are by some supposed to
be the agents by which the peculiar secretions of the plant
immediately separated from the latex, are composed
iU pressed together, and assuming a variety of forms.
When examined, these cells are found to contain in many
iii^Hm-cr, the ri-sin, sum, oil, &c. which give to the plant
some of its peculiar physical properties.
The organs just enumerated as present in the cellular
tissue are met with chiefly in the merenchymatous and
parenchynintotis forms.
Vascular or Tabular Tissue consists of continuous I
of simple membrane, and comprehends the woody and the
laticifercus tissues. On the one hand they are distinguished
by their length from the forms of cellular tissue, and on
the other hand by their plane membrane from those tissues
of which fibre forms a constituent element.
Pleurenchyma,ot Woody Tissue (vasajibrosa of Link, ana
Fasergefasse, German), is found abundantly in the wood,
and especially the liber, of all plants. It is composed of
very long, thin, tough, transparent, membranous tubes.
No bars or dots are seen in their walls, although when
they cross each other the points at which they touch may
be taken for such markings. They taper acutely to each
end, and do not appear to have any communication one
with the other, although they arc occasionally seen with
open extremities, which Slack supposes to arise from the
breaking off of one fibre where it was united to another.
In the wood and bark of dicotyledonous plants they are
frequently mixed with prosenchyma, and in monocotyle-
donous plants with parenchyma. They grow by increasing
in length both above and below. Their diameter varies
from T^J to 3^55 of an inch. The walls increase in thickness
by the deposition of vegetable jelly, called by Turpin
sclerogen, to their insides, and in the woody tissue of
Betula alba and other trees the sclerogen may be seen
forming successive layers around the sides of tho tubes.
Their form is mostly cylindrical, but in Cycas revoluta
Link has observed them assuming a prismatic form.
The tubes of woody tissue are very tough, and will resist
considerable force without breaking. It is on this account
that they are used extensively in the manufacture of cloths
of various kinds. The plants used most commonly for this
purpose are the hemp and flax. The fibres of Tilia, Daphne,
Lagetta, and of many of the plants of the order of Mal-
vaceae, are used for making mats, cordage, whips, &c. The
following is a comparative statement of the relative strength
of silk and some woody fibre : —
Silk supported a weight equal to 34
New Zealand Flax 23J
Hemp ..... 10J
Flax llj
Pita Flax (Agave Americana) . 7
Woody tissue gives firmness and tenacity to the plant,
and assists in conveying the sap from the roots to the
leaves.
Cinenchyma, or Laticiferous Tissue, consists of tubes
which are mostly branched and anastomosing ; their walls
are exceedingly delicate in young plants, and thicker in
old ones ; and they are characterised by conveying a fluid
called the latex, which differs from the sap in other parts
of the plant. [SAP.] The older botanists, Spigelius, Mal-
pighi, and Grew described them, but they were generally
confounded with woody tissue, till they were very fully
investigated by Schultes. In older writers they are called
vasa propria or peculiar ia ; by Link, v asa opophora. Some
writers have supposed that they are nothing more than
intercellular passages, and have denied that they po-
membranous parietes ; but their existence has been ascer-
tained, and the observations of Schultes on their structure
confirmed by Link, Meyen, Mohl, and others. The walls
of these vessels are mostly plain, but have been sometimes
observed marked with bars and fibres. They do not exist
in all plant*, and have not been found at all in the lower
forms of Cryptogamia, nor in some of the Phanerogamous
plants, as Valisneria and Stratiotes. Their most frequent
position is on the sides of spiral vessels, or amongst the
bundles of this tissue found in the midrib and nerves of
leaves. They are most obvious in the order Euphorbiaceee,
where the latex is of a white colour. This juice is not
always coloured or opalescent, but is sometimes quite clear.
The tubes are not always regular in size. In some species,
as in Glycine Apios, they are irregularly contracted and
expanded ; in Papaver nudicaule they have a moniliform
appearance ; in Acer platanoides they are very regular.
In the stem they are generally simple, but in very young
plants and the younger parts of plants they are branched,
and anastomose. (Fig. 3.) Link has observed their termi-
nating in blind extremities. In their distribution they
gradually diminish in size, and have been traced into the
most delicate parts of plants, as the hairs.
Schultes supposes that these vessels perform the same
functions in the plant as the arteries and veins in animals.
The fluid in them has a peculiar motion, which he calls
cyclosis. [SAP.]
Fibro-ceitular Tissue, or Inenchyma, consists of cells
formed of membrane, in the inside of which fibre is de-
T J S
504
T I S
veloped. This tissue maybe divided into two kinds, ge-
nuine and spurious ; the genuine being that in which tin-
fibre is distinctly marked on the inside of the cell, and the
spurious that in which the fibre, either by absorption or
the union of its various parts, forms rings, bars, dots, and
other appearances on the sides of the cell. The genuine
fibro-cellular tissue is mostly found in parenchymatous
and prosenchymatous cells. It lias been known for a long
tune amongst botanists, and was first described by Hedwig,
who was followed by Moldenhawer and others. Th.
hbumlant in the external parchment-like layers of aerial
roots of Orchidaceie, and nave been described by Mcyrn
in Oncidium altissimum. Acropera Loddigcsii. Hni.-sav ola
cordata, &c. They occur in the hairs of the pericarp of
many of the Composita-, as in Perdicium taraxaci, Se-
. flaccidus, and Trichocline humilis. Horkel has de-
.-cribed them in the epidermis of many Labials-, us Zizi-
phora, Ocymum, and many Salvi»>. The seed-coats of
many plants possess them, as Gilia Ipomopsis, Polemonium
( 'anfua, and Caldaria; and Kippist has lately demonstrated
their presence in many of the species of Acanthaceae. In
some of these cases, and many others might be mentioned,
the fibre appears to constitute the whole of the cell, as
Mated under fibrous tissue.
The fibre in these cells varies in its position and form.
In the cells of the leaf of Oncidium altissimum they are
v cry distinct, and occasionally branched. In the testa ol
the seed of Maanandya Barcleyana, where thcv were first
pointed out by Lindley, the fibres run in different direct ion-
ovcr each other, forming a network. In the endothecium
of Calla a-thiopiaca they are parallel, and in this form are
eomimm in the Mime onran of other plants. Jn the
endothccium of Nymphza alba the fibres form regular
arelies arising from a plane base. In the elaters of .Inn-
trermnnnia and in the testa of Acanthodium the cells arc
•iy elongated, with a silicic spiral fibre in their inte-
rior.
The spurious fibro-ccllular tissue includes the porous
and dotted cells of many authors ; the rcllultr pnrosee et
i:iiitr/nltf> of Link. If a portion of the parenchyma ol
Viucum album be examined, the inside of the cells will be
found to possess a number of bright spots. They were first
discovered by Treviraiuis in C'ycas revoluta, and supposed
by him to be granule-. Tln-y \\ere thought by other
observers to l>e pores: hence their name porous cells.
Sprengel, Mold, and Link consider them little vesicles,
but Meyen has given a different explanation of theii
nature. He ascribes their existence to a metamorphosis
"f tlr Derated in cell*. They are ol ten met with
in the name cells an fibres, and it is by the union of some
part* of the fibre and the absorption of others that tin
space* are produced, which when tirsl viewed appear at>
though they were granules, pores, or vesicles. Tin
appearance i* frequently found in the various forms ol
fibre- vascular tissue, where there can be little doubt of tin
spots arising from the irregular formation of the
hren thow botanists
on this point with regard to cellular
rectneM in vascular U«ue. As it must be admitted thai
there U no essential ditleiem-e between the cellular am:
vascular tJMues, it is undoubtedly a correct inference thai
these spoU have the same origin in both ti-
A transition from porous e,-iU to porous tubi-.-t is seen ii
the tiwue which has been called IJothrcnchyma. In this
Usuc, which can be well seen in I'hytorrene, as well a*
cas, a number of truncated porous "eel Is an placed oiu:
on the other no as to form arvln: . mbe
>y the absorption or rein- ;.:irlitions.
Porous vascular t :.nvd to tins form by l.indley
imler the n;i <tinuous Hothrenchyma, as'thc pur
jtions or union of the cells are not visible. When the,
joints of union of the cells are evident, lie calls it articu-
lated Hothrenchyma.
Dotted cells have their walls marked with dark spots,
l -ei-n observed in the pith of ('alvcanlhus
loridus and in the stem of Drac;i>na terminal!*. They ap-
jiear only to ilitt'er from the porous cells in the- matter from
which they are fornn trreater opacity, and not
transmitting the liiiht so fr,
l'ilirii-i-iiM-iil<ir Ttxmi". or Trnrhrtn-hijiiin rxvi xjiii-
of Link), consists of tubes, in the ii: nch spiral
fibres are generated. The fibres of this tissue, like the
last, are subject to metamorphosis, the consequence of
which is, the tubes present the appearances of nngs, bars,
and bright and dark spots.
The tubes consist of a very delicate membrane, which is
mostly cylindrical ; it may MweTer UBUM a pnsmatical
form when the tubes are in bundles and closely pr<
together, as in ferns and many monocotyledonous plants.
The fibres generated in this tissue are mostly comprised,
and wind up the sides of the tube in aspiral form. \Vhen
the membrane i* broken, the fibre in most cases may be
unrolled. It is in the younser tubes that this is most ,
effected ; as in the older tubes those changes sro on which
connect the membrane and the fibre firmly together, and
convert the latter into bars, dots, £cc. fhe numl"
fibres included in a tube varies; it is frequently single,
but in some instances as many as twenty-two have been
counted. They have no fixed direction ; some pas- limn
right to left, others from left to right. Some difference of
opinion luis existed as to whether the fibres are tubular or
not. Schleiden says in most instances they are solid, but
where they are formed from large globules of jelly they
appear to be tubular in both vascular and cellular ti
Link divides fibro-vascular tissue into grunt in- and
spurious; the former includes all those re*ad* which
possess perfect fibres. The principal forms of
the xjiiral, aiinulur, and niiuiilijnriii vessels. The
(•CAM'/ consists of a tr.be, m which one or more fibres run
continuously along its sides from one end to the other.
(ti,e,f, Fig. 4.) When the fibres are single, they are called
Fig. 4.
: when there is more than one. ciinijn>ini<l. The
spiral vessels are most abundant in young plants, as their
character becomes changed by :n;e.' When the fibres ad-
here to the sides ol" the membiaiie, they are said to lie
The spiral vessel v\ as at one time considered a
veiy important tissue, performing especial vital functions,
the circumstance of air being frequently found in
them, and this air containing a larger quantity of oxyjren
than the atmosphere, they were supposed to cany on tin-
function of respiration. Subsequent observation "however
proves that they as frequently convey liquid as air. and
Meyen supposes that they are only filled with nir when a
larger quantity of fluid ceases to be required by the plant.
Anntiliir ri'Mi'/x or </urt.\ consist ol tubes with perfect
nni_rs of fibre on their sides, (g, 1'ig. 4.) These arc evi-
dently formed from the interruption of the spirit, and the
union of the broken ends, as they are lieqm-ntly found
t with a spiral fibre m I: be. They are
mostly larircr than the spiral vessels, and the fibre is also
thicker: they arc very abundant in mouocotylcdonouij
T I S
505
T I T
plants; amongst dicotyledons they are found chiefly in
quick-growing plants, as Cucurbitacese.
Moniliform vessels have successive dilatations and con-
tractions of the tube, and a perfect spiral fibre in their in-
side. It has been proved by Slack that these vessels de-
rive their peculiar form from accidental compression. They
are found in the knots of trees where branches are given
off, in roots, and other parts where they meet with obsta-
cles to their longitudinal development.
Spurious fibro-vascular tissue includes scalariform,
porous, and dotted vessels. The spurious vessels are not
found in the tissues of young plants, and are either de-
veloped after the appearance of the genuine spiroids, or
are formed from them. Meyen maintains the latter view,
but Link and other botanists are still inclined to give to
some of the barred and dotted tissues an original develop-
ment. In the medullary sheath, the spurious spiroids are
never found in the young plant, although they are some-
times in the albumen and bark ; but it is not necessary
that a pure spiral fibre should always be visible previous
to its being converted into some one of the forms of spurious
spiroids. If in a very large number of cases there is evi-
dence that lings, bars, and dots are formed from the
metamorphosis of spiral fibres, we may fairly conclude that
in those cases where no observation proves to the con-
trary, the same effect? are to be attributed to the same
cause.
Scalariform vessels consist of tunes mostly prismatical,
with spots on their walls resembling bars or straps. These
bars are placed one above another in a ladder-like form ;
hence their name. They are abundant in ferns, where the
prismatic form of the spfroid is most frequently seen.
Porous vessels are tubes with bright spots upon their
walls (A, i, Fig. 4) ; they constitute the continuous Both-
renehyma of Lindley. They are found in greatest abun-
dance in the old wood of Coniferae, in the same positions
where spiral vessels are found, in the young wood, and
also in the roots of plants. The dots constituting what
were erroneously thought to be pores, have the same
character as those of fibre-cellular tissue. These vessels
often attain a great size, measuring as much as a quarter of
a line in diameter.
Dotted vessels constitute the tissue which has been called
' glandular u-O'idi/ tisstn;' and to which Meyen applies pe-
culiarly the term Prosenchyma. (F/g. 3 ; t>, Fig. 4.) The
dotted vessel, like the dotted cell, has dark spots on the in-
side of its membranous walls ; but in addition to the dot
there is also a circle. This dot does not appear to be formed
by the remains of a pai tly-absoibed fibre, or the crossing of
the fibres, as in some of the forms of porous cel!s and
vessels, but from the sinuous flexures of one or more
fibres uniting together and forming between them a little
cavity or depression : this is attended with depression of
the external membrane, which gives the appeaiance of
the larger circle surrounding the depression. (Fig. 2;
b, Fig. 4.) These phenomena make their appearance veiy
early in the tissues of Coniferous plants ; but if buds and
very young plants are examined, the sinuous spiral vessels,
called by Link vasa tfiroida Jlbrota, may be easily seen.
Function. — The function of the tissues of vegetables is
not so varied as their forms have led botanists to suppose.
As a summary of them we give the following. In the
simple cell we have the type of all the other tissues, and
in the lowest forms of plants it alone performs all the
functions of the higher plants. The cell of the Ustilago
absorbs nutriment from without : this nutriment undergoes
the changes that fit it for becoming a part of the structure
of the cell. This is the process of nutrition. Within this
cell another is generated, which is capable of performing
the same functions as its parent. This is reproduction.
As we ascend in the scale of organization of plants, the
structure becomes more complicated. Cells are accumu-
lated together ; some simply absorb sap, others expose the
sap to the atmosphere ; whilst others separate peculiar
secretions, and another set are employed as the depositaries
of these secretions. As the functions of the plant become
more localised in the organs called leaves and flowers,
tissues strong enough to bear them up in the air are re-
quired, and the cells are elongated and strengthened by
an increase of thickness in their membrane, and woody
tissue is formed. Where the same objects are required,
and at the same time space for a large quantity of fluid to
pass through the cells, fibre is generated within the mem-
P. C., No. 1551.
brane ; and for this reason fibre-cellular, and especially
fibro-vast-ular, tissue is found abundant in succulent
plants, and in those which require a large supply of mois-
ture. These tissues are absent, or very small in dry plants,
as well as those which are constantly immersed in water.
In the higher plants the conveyance of the prepared juices
from one part of the plant to another is provided for by
the Laticiferous tissue. It is upon the cell of the ovule
in the Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous plants that
the mysterious dynamic agency is exerted by another cell
from the anther, the result of which is the pioduction of
another plant, similar to the one from which it is deve-
loped. It will thus be seen that all the tissues ot plants
partake more or less of the functions of the simple cell,
which, as the fundamental form of vegetable organization,
performs in all cases the most impoitant functions. It is
not so much by a difference in the form as by a difference
in the function of particular cells that the complicated
organs of the highest plants are distinguished fiom one
another.
(The principal works consulted in preparing this article
have been Meyen, Pflanzen-Physiulogie, band i. ; Link,
E'ementa Philosophies Botanical; De Candolle, Organo-
graphie Vggttale ; Lindley, Elements of Botany, and Intro-
duction to Botany ; Guadichaud, Rccherches stir I'Organo-
graphie, $c. des Vgggiaus; Bischoff, Lehrbuch der Botanik.
Papers :— Quekett, On the Development of Vascular Tissues
of Plants, in ' Trans. Microscop. Soc.,' vol. i., 1842; Kip-
pist, On the Spiral Cells of Acunthucea?, ' Linnaean Trans-
actions,'vol. xix., 1842 ; Schleiden, Beitr'dge zur Phylo-
genesis, Miiller's ' Archiv,' 1838; Willshire, On Vegetable
Structure, ' Annals of Natural History,' vol. ix. : Sc-hultes,
Sur la Circulation duns les Plantes ; Lankester, On the
Origin of Wood, ' Ann. of Nat. Hist.,' 1840.)
TITANIC ACID. [TITANIUM.]
TITA'NIUM. This metal was first recognised by
Mr. Gregor, in 1701, as a distinct substance ; he detected it in
a black sand found in the bed of a rivulet near Menaccan
in Cornwall. In 1795 Klaproth discovered it in some
other mineials, and he gave it. the name it now bears. The
properties of titanium were not however satisfactorily de-
termined until 1822, when Dr. Wollastou examined and
described it as it occurred in its perfect metallic and n\s-
tallized state, in the slag of an iron-furnace at Merthyr
Tydfil in South Wales. The form of the crystals is the
cube ; their colour resembles that of bright copper ; they
are sufficiently hard to scratch rock-ciystal, and their spe-
cific gravity is 5-3.
Titanium is not acted upon by nitric, hydrochloric, or
sulphuric acid, either cold or hot, concentiated or di.uted;
aqua regia, or nascent chlorine, is also powerless, but a
mixture of nitric and hydrofluoric acid dissolves titanium :
for fusion an extremely high tempeiature is required:
when strongly heated with nitre, titanium is oxidized and
rendered soluble in hydrochloric acid, and it is precipitated
from solution by the alkalis in the state of a while oxide.
We shall now describe the principal minerals known to
contain titanium, except PYROCHLORE, POLYMIGNITE, ZIR-
CON IA, &c., which aie described under these heads.
Anatase, Octaedrite, or Oisanite. — This is protoxide of
titanium nearly pure. It occurs in attached and imbedded
acute octohedral crystals. Primary form a square prism.
Cleavage parallel to the terminal planes, and to those of
the octohedron. Fiacture conchoidal. indistinct. Hard-
ness : scratches phosphate of lime, and is scratched by
quartz. By friction becomes negatively electrical, and
when heated gives out a reddish" yellow phosphorescent
light. Colour, various shades of brown, more or less dark,
sometimes indigo blue. Streak white. Lustre adaman-
tine. Translucent, transparent. Specific gravity 3-826.
It occurs in Cornwall, in Dauphiny, at Bourg d'Oisans,
in Spain, Switzerland, and some other places. It consists
almost entirely of oxide of titanium, probably the prot-
oxide.
Rutile, or Titanite : Peroxide of Titanium, or Titanic
Acid. — Occurs crystallized and in crystalline masses. Pri-
mary form a square prism. Cleavage parallel to the lateral
planes. Crystals frequently geniculated. Fracture uneven.
Hardness : scratches glass, and sometimes quartz. Colour
red, reddish brown, and occasionally yellowish. Streak
very pale brown. Lustre adamantine. Translucent, trans-
parent, opaque. Specific gravity 4'249 to 4-4. Occurs not
unfrequently inclosed in quartz, in fine red filamentous
VOL. XXIV.-3 T
T I T
50fi
T I T
ervrtals Rutile is found in Perthshire, Bohemia, Switzer-
land. specially at St. Golhard, and "ther parts
f Furope; and also in Brazil and No.th America. It
cotuUts of. according to H. Rose-oxy, iita,
n G6t> .requently more or lev, nu\«d with
oxide of iron and of manganese, and sometimes with oxide
- a dimorphous variety of rutile.
Occurs in atlacl. "an I'"-''1 -\ "K111 ™*£
xism Cleavage parallel to the latc.al p'.anes ami short
diagonal. Fracture uneven. Hardness : scratches fluor-
spar. and is scratched bv phosphate ol lime. Brittle
dolour, deep red, and reddish or yellowish brown. S
yellowiah white adwnMtine. Translucent, t.ans-
b*rent. opaque. Specific gravity unknown. Occurs in
bauphinv and Switzerland, but in la. J» al Snow-
don in Wales. It has not been completely analyiM, but
appears to be titanic acid with traces ol iron and 111:111-.
The minerals which wo shall next describe are the tita-
niate* of iron : they vary greatly both in form and com-
•lon, some being crystallized and other* granular; the
fatter are frequently termed titaniferous iron-sand.
Kibitelophan ; Axolomous Iron.— Occurs in imbedded
crystals. Primary form a rhomboid. Cleavage perpen-
dicular to »he axis ; distim-t. Fracture conchpidal. Hard-
ness 5-0 to 5-5. Brittle. Colour dark iron black, weak
black. Lustre imperfect metallic. Opaque. Specific
gravity 4-661. Found at Gastein in Salzburg ; in Sweden,
and Siberia. Analysis of a specimen from Gastein, by
Kobell :— titanic acid, 53-00; protoxide of iron, 30-00-
peroxide of iron, 4-23 ; protoxide of manganese. l'G.>.
Jlmfrtite— Occurs in imbedded crystals. Primary form
a right rhombic prism. No cleavage observed. Fracture
uneven to conehoidal, with a vitreous lustre. Hardness
50- scratches glass slightly. Colour black. Opaque. Spe-
cific gravity 5-43. It is found near Lake Ilmen in Siberia.
Analysis by Mosander:— titanic acid, 40-92: protoxide of
iron, 37-86 ; peroxide of iron, 1074 ; protoxide of manga-
nese, 2-73; magnesia, 1-14.
Crichtonite.— Occurs in attached crystals. Cleavage
parallel to the axis. Fracture concnoidal, splendent
Hardness: scratches fluor-spar, but not glass. Brittle
Does not obey the magnet. Colour shining black. Streak
black. Lustre imperfect metallic. Opaque. Specific
gravity 4. It has not been completely analyzed ; but, ac-
cording to Berzclius, it consists of titanic acid and oxide o
iron.
Mohtite.— Occurs in attached muled crystals. Pn
mary form a rhomboid. No visible cleavage. Fracture
conchoidal, shining. Hardness : scratches glass readily
Brittle. Does not affect the magnet. Colour iron black-
Streak black. Lustre metallic;. Opaque. Found in Dau-
phiny. It appears to be a titaniate of iron, but has not
been completely analyzed.
Of granular titaniate of iron and titaniferous iron-sand
we shall describe three varieties : —
Nigiin.— Occurs in flat rounded grains of about the size
of a pea, with occasional indications of a crystalline form
Stiucture foliated. Very hard. Brittle. Colour greyish
black. Lustre metallic. Specific; gravity 4-44.~>. Ana-
lysis by Klaproth :— titanic acid, 84 ; protoxide of iron
14 : protoxicle of manganese, 2. Found in Transylvania.
mite. — Occurs in small angular grains. Struc
tnre imperfectly lamellar. Fracture fine-grained, uneven
Hardness— yields to the knife. Colour greyish black
Lustre glistening. Opaque. Specific tenuity 4'427. Oc
curs in rivulets in the parish of St. Kvverne, Cornwall
it has also been found in New South Wales. The picket
grains, analyzed by Dr. Colquhoun, gave — titanic acid
&7-1H7; protoxide of iron, 39-780; protoxide of manganese
-
hfrtnf. — Occurs in very small flatfish angular grains
which have a rough glimmering surface. Structure la
mellar. Crosi fracture conchoidal. Very hard. Slight);
attracted by the magnet. Opaque. Lustre semi-metallic'
Specific gravity about 4-5. Found on the Kicscngcbirge
rn-nr the- origin ol the river Iser in Silesia : in Bohemia
ir. the river Don in Scotland, and that of the. Mersey op
• Liverpool. By the analysis of H. Ko-c, it consist
of— titanic acid, SV) 12 : protoxide of iron, 40-88. It i
probably a variety of Mi im.'cAiuto.
ite: Titaninle nf M'inganett. — Occurs in smal
amorphous mattes and crystallized. Primary form pro
ably an oblique rhombic prism. Hardness, greater than
liatof fluor-spar or phosphate nf lime, but does not scratch
glass. Colour deep io-c red : tin- crystals are splendent,
xcept the terminal laces, which are often dull and tar-
nshcd. Specific gravity 3'4 I. It is found in the man-
ganese deposit of St. Marcel in Piedmont. Analysis by
M. < 'arcane.: — titanic acid, 7-1 •"> : oxide of manga'
24-8.
/./n'-iif ; S]>inthtrp: Silir/t-litaniatfnfLimt. — Occurs in
ittached and imbedded crystals, and massive. Primary
brm an oblique rhombic prism. Cleavage indi-i
•'racture even, slightly concnoidal. Hardness : sci;r
ihosphatc of lime, but is scratched by felspar. Colour,
.aiious shades of grey, green, yellow, and brown. Streak
white or greyish-white. Lustre adamantine, resinous,
ria.isparcnt, translucent, opaque. Specific giavity:-
o 3'0. Sphene is found interspersed in primary rocks, as
,n granite and gneiss and more particularly in syenite, in
Norway. Germany. Switzerland, and also in America. The
"of the analysis of spheiio vary considerably ; the
following is by Klaproth : — titanic acid, 33 ; silicic acid,
3,") ; lime, 33.
Aeschymte. — Titaniate of zirconia and cerium, &c.
Occurs crystallized. Primary form a right rhombic prism.
Cleavage difficult, and only parallel to the basis of the
primary form. Fracture conchoidal. Hardness: scratches
phosphate of lime, and is scratched by felspar. Colour
black : streak greyish-black. Lustre resinous. Opaque.
Specific gravity 5* 14. Found at Miask, in the Uialian
IVIountains, Siberia. Analysis by Hartwall : — titanic ai:id,
56-0; zirconia, 20'0; oxide of cerium, 15-0; lime, 3-8;
oxide of iron, 2- 6 ; oxide of zinc, 0 • 5.
The principal natural substances containing titanium
being now described, we proceed to consider its artificial
compounds.
Oj-ygni mill Titanium. — It has already been stated
that these combine with difficulty by direct means. When
rutile, or titanic acid, is dissolved in hydrochloric, acid, a
piece of zinc, immersed in the solution occasions the form-
ation and precipitation of a deep purple-coloured powder,
which is protoxide of titanium : so great however is the
facility with which it returns to the state of peroxide, that
it cannot be collected; and hence the composition of this
oxide has not been perfectly determined. It is however
probably composed of —
One equivalent of oxygen . 8
One equivalent of titanium . 21
Equivalent . . 32
When also titanic acid is exposed to a strong heat, a
portion of it loses oxygen, and a black mass is formed,
which is the protoxide ; it has an earthy fracture, i-
luble in acids, and difficult to reconvert to the titanic acid.
It lias been already mentioned thai auata>c is probably the
protoxide of titanium.
Peroxide of Titanium, Titanic Acid. — Rutile is tii
acid nearly pure : when it is reduced to fine powder and
fused in a platina ciucible, with three times its weight o(
carbonate of potash, titaniate of potash is obtained, mixed
with some excess of carbonate of potash ; this is to be re-
moved by washing with water, and titanic acid is then
precipitated by dilution and heat ; and after washing with
dilute hydrochloric acid, is nearly pure titanic acid
properties are, that when pure it is quite white, very infuri-
ble, and after it hag been heated is soluble only in hydio-
fluoric acid. Its acid powers are feeble ; it is insoluble in
water, and does not act on vegetable blues ; it combines
however with alkalis and metallic oxides, forming salts
which are termed titaniatet. It is probably composed
of—
Two equivalents of oxygen . 16
One equivalent of titanium . 24
Equivalent . . 40
<'lilorin» and Titanium combine when the gas is passed
over metallic titanium at a red heat. It is a colourless
tiansparent fluid, and boils at a little above 212', is vola-
tilized, and condenses unchanged. When c \po.-cd to the
air it deliquesces and when a lew drops of it are mixed with
an equal bulk of water, combination takes place with con-
nide.able violence and the evolution of intense heat. It
absorbs dry ammoniacal gas, and from the compound so
T I T
507
T I T
jbtained Liebig prepared metallic titanium. It appears
to consist of —
Two equivalents of chlorine 72
One equivalent of titanium . 24
Equivalent . . 90
Tincture of galls, when added to a solution of titanic
acid, occasions an orange-red colour, probably owing to
the tannic acid which the tincture contains ; this is very
characteristic of the presence of titanic acid.
The other compounds of titanium are but little known ;
the peroxide, or titanic acid, unites both with bases and
acids to form saline compounds : the former are called
titaniates.
TITANS CftTavif, fern. TiraWac) is the name by which
in the mythology of antient Greece a certain class of sons
and daughters of Uranus and Gaea are designated. The
original name of Gaea was said to have been Titaea, from
which Titans was derived. (Diodorus Sic., iii. 5(5.) The
beings generally comprised under the name of Titans were
Oceanus, Coeus. Ciius, Hyperion, lapetus, Cronus, Thetys,
Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Dione, and Them.
(Apollodor., Bibliolli.,i. 1, 3; Diodorus Sic., v. 66.) Other
writers, as Stephanus of Byzantium (*. r. "Alava\ Pausa-
nias (viii. 37, 3), and others, differ both in the names and
numbers of the Titans. Uranus had by Gaea t«o other
sets of children, viz. the Hecatoncheires 'centimani, or
beings with a hundred arms), and the Cyclops; and these
two he east into Tartarus, at which Gaea, their mother,
was so indignant, that she induced the Titans to revolt
against their lather, Uranus, and gave to Cronus an ada-
mantine sickle with which he castrated his father. Ocea-
nus took no part in this rebellion. After Uranus was
deprived of the sovereignty, and the Hecatoncheircs toge-
ther with the Cyclops were led back from the lower world,
the supreme power was gh in by the brothers to Cronus.
But Cronus again threw them into Tartarus, and married
his sister Rhea ; as however Gaea and Uranus had prophe-
sied to him that he would be deprived of the sovereignty
by his own children, he devoured all the children whom
Rh";i bore him. But when she was pregnant with Zeus,
she withdrew to Crete, where she gave birth to him in a
cavern, and afterwards had him educated by the Curetes
and nymphs. To deceive Cionus, she had given him a
stone wrapt up like a child, which he devoured. When
Zeus had grown up, he took Metis, the daughter of Ocea-
nus, and with her assistance he administered a poison to
Cronus, which made him vomit out the children he had
swallowed, viz. Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Pluto, and Poseidon,
and with their aid Zeus now commenced a war against his
father, which lasted for ten years. This straggle, celebrated
in mythology as the war of the Titans, wa* terminated by
Zeus relieving the ( 'yclops from Tartarus, and by his gain-
inj with their weapons the victory over the Titans, who
were now cast, into Tartarus, and were guarded there by
the Hecatoncheires. Zeus and his brothers now divided
the sovereignty of the world among themselves. (Apollo-
dor., Bibiioth., i. 1 and 2.)
The name Titan has also been given to those superhuman
beings who were desc-ended from the Titans, such as Pro-
metheus, Hecate, Latona, Pyrrha, Helios, &c. It more-
over occurs as a designation "of a very early race of men in
Crete and Egypt.
(Lobeck, Aglaophamat, p. 763; BiHtiger, Ideen zur
Kunntmythfjlngie, p. 217, &c. ; Viilcker, Mythologie des
filer files, p. 280, &c.)
TITC'HFIELD. [HAMPSHIRE, vol. xii., p. 32.]
TITHES are the tenth part of the increase yearly
arising and renewing from the profits of lands, the stock
upon lands, and the personal industry of the inhabitants,
and are offerings payable to the church by law.
Under the theocratic government of the Jews the tenth
part of the yearly increase of their goods was due to the
priests by divine right. ' And behold I have Riven the
children of Levi all the tenth in Israel for an inheritance,
for their service- which they serve, even the service of the
tabernacle of the congregation.' (Numbers, xviii. 21.) And
again, 'Thou shall truly tithe all the increase of the seed,
that the field bringeth year by year.' (Deut., xiv. 22.)
•And all the tithe of the land, whether of the seed of the
land or of the fruit of the tree, is the Lord's ; it is holy
unto the Lord.' ' And concerning the tithe of the herd or
of the flock, even of whatsoever passeth under the rod,
the tenth shall be holy unto the Lord.' (Levit., xxvii.
30. 32.)
In the earliest ages of the Christian church offerings
were made by its members at the altar, at collections, and
in other ways, and such payments were enjoined by decrees
of the church and sanctioned by general usage. For many
centuries however they were voluntary, and not enforced
by any civil laws. When the church was struggling
against persecution, the Christians brought all their
worldly goods into a common stock for the benefit of all.
' And the multitude of them that believed were of one
heart and of one soul : neither said any of them that aught
of the things which he possessed was his own ; but they
had all things in common.' ' Neither was there any among
them that lacked ; for as many as were possessors of lands
or houses sold them, and brought the prices of the things
that were sold, and laid them down at the apostles' feet :
and distribution was made unto every man according i»s
he had need.' (Acts, iv. 32, 34, 35.) They then had no
other object than the defence and support of their faith ;
they required no compulsion to make offerings to their
infant church. But when the church had increased in
power, and began to number amongst its members many
who adhered to it because it was the prevailing religion,
rather than on account of any enthusiasm or reverence for
its divine origin and doctrines, it was found necessary to
enforce certain fixed contributions for the support of the
ministers of religion. The church relied upon the example
of the Jews, and required a tenth to be paid. Meanwhile
the conversion of temporal princes to Christianity, and their
zeal in favour of their new faith, enabled the church to
obtain the enactment of civil laws to compel the payment
of tithes. In Easjland the first instance of a law for the
iiC of tithes was that of Off'a, king of Mercia, towards
the >odcfthe eighth century. He first gave the church
a civil right in tithes, and enabled the clergy to recover
them as their legal due by the coercion of the civil power.
The law of Oft'a was at a later period extended to the
whole of England by king Ethelwulph. (Prideaux, On
Tithes, 167.)
At first, though every man was obliged to pay tithes,
the particular church or monastery to which they should
be paid appears to have been left to his own option. In
the year 1200, however, Pope Innocent III. directed a
decretal epistle to the archbishop of Canterbury, in which
he enjoined the payment of tithes to the parsons of the
respective parishes in which they arose. This parochial
appropriation of tithes has ever since been the law of
the land. (Coke, 2 Inst., 641.1 The same pope gave
similar instructions in other countries at about the same
time.
The tithes thus payable were of three kinds, viz. prreciial,
mixed, and personal. Precdiul tithes are such as arise
immediately from the ground, as grain of all sorts, fruits,
and herbs. Mired tithes arise from things nourished by
the earth, as colts, calves, pigs, lambs, chickens, milk,
cheese, and eggs. Personal lithes are paid from the
profits arising from the labour and industry of men engaged
in trades or other occupations ; being the tenth part of the
clear gain, after deducting all ciiarges. (Watson, On
Tithes, c. 49.)
Tithes are further divided into great and small. The
former consist of corn, hay, wood, &c. ; the latter of
the prsedial tithes of other kinds, together with mixed and
personal tithes. This distinction is arbitiary, and not de-
pendent upon the relative value of the different kinds of
tithe within a particular parish. Potatoes, for instance,
grown in fields have been adjudged to be small tithes, in
whatever quantities sown (Smith v. Wyatt, 2 Atk., 364),
while corn and hay, in the smallest portions, still continue
to be treated as great tithes. The distinction is of ma-
terial consequence, as great tithes belong, of right, to the
rector of the parish, and small tithes to the vicar.
No tithes are paid for quarries or mines, because their
products are not the increase, but are part of the substance
of the earth. Neither are houses, considered separately
from the soil, chargeable, as having no annual increase.
By the common law of England no tithe is due for things
that are/mz? naturec, such as fish, game, &c. ; but there
are local customs by which tithe has been paid from such
things from time immemorial, and in those places such
customary tithes may be exacted. Tame animals kept for
pleasure or curiosity are also exempt from tithes.
3T2
T 1 'I
T i r
Tithe* were all originally paid in kind, i.e. the tenth
whrat-shcaf. Iho tenth lamb or pig. ns the case might In-,
1-eloiigcd "f right to the parson of the parish as his tithe.
The inconvenience and vexation of such a mode ":
raent are obv ions. Tin- practice could only have ongin-
m times and in countries in which barter formed the
only means of exchange, and the products of the c.irtli
the >i>le tc-t uf value. The unproved habits anil
civilization of eenturies were nevertheless unable t.
what had been sanctioned 1>V custom since the memory
of raan, and no attempt had been made in this country,
until very recently, to introduce a general improvement
in the mode of collection. The inconvenience of paying
tithes in kind must long since have been felt, and certain
modes of obviating it were occasionally practised. Some-
times the owner of land would enter into a composition
with the parson or vicar, with the consent of the ordinary
and the patron of the living, by which certain land should
be altogether discharged from tithes, on conveying other
land, or making compensation. In other words, the
r of the land purchased an exemption from tithes.
Such arrangement* between landowners and the church
were re -cognised by law, but it was found that they were
often injuiious to the church by reason of an insufficient
value being given for the tithes. The acts 1 Elizabeth,
c. 19, and 13 Elizabeth, c. 10, were accordingly ]i
which disabled bishops, colleges, chapters, parsons, and
vicars from making any alienation of church property for a
longer term than twenty-one years or three lives. In order
to establish an exemption from tithes on the ground of a
real composition, it is, therefore necessary to show that
such composition had been entered into before the statute
of Elizabeth. Since that time compositions have rarely
been made, except under the authority of private acts of
parliament.
Another method of avoiding the payment of tithes in
kind was that of a tiiodiu decimaiidi, commonly known as
a modus. This consists of any custom in a particular
place, by which the ordinary mode of collecting tithes has
been superseded by some special manner of tithing. In
some parishes the custom has prevailed, time out of mind,
of paying a certain sum of money annually for every a. -re
of land, in lieu of tithes. In others a smaller quantity of
produce is given, and the residue is made up in labour, as
every 12th sheaf of wheat instead of the 10th, but to be
housed or threshed by the owner.
A large portion of the land of this country is tithe-free,
from various causes. Some has been exempted under
real composition, as already explained, and some by pre-
scription, which supposes a composition to have been for-
merly made. The most frequent ground of exemption is
that the land once belonged to a u-ii^ious house, and was
therefore discharged in this manner. All abbots, priors,
and other chief monks originally paid tithes from the
lands belonging to them, until Pope Paschal II. exempted
all spiritual persons from paying tithes of lands in their
own hands. This general discharge continued till the time
ol'King Henry II., when Pope Adrian IV. icstraiucd it to
the three religious orders of Cistercians, Templars, and
Hospitalers, to whom Pope Innocent III. added the Prae-
monstratenses. These four orders, on account of their
exemption, were commonly called the privileged order-.
The Council of Lateran, in 1215, further restrained this
exemption to lands in the occupation of those religious
orders of which they were in possession before Hint coun-
cil. Bulls were however obtained for discharging parti-
cular monasteries from the payment of tithes, which would
not otherwise have been exempt ; by which means much
land has been ever since tithe-free. Another mode by
which lands belonging to religious houses became not
liable to the payment of tithes, v.as that of unity </ pos-
tcition; as where the lands and the rectory belonged to
the same establishment, which would not, of course, pay
tithes to itself. Yet the lands were not absolutely dis-
charged by this unity of possession, for upon any disunion
the payment of tithes was revived ; so that the union only
suspended the payment. The act 31 Hen. VIII., c. 13,
which dissolved several of the religious houses, continued
the discharge of their lands from tithes, though in the
possession of the king or any other person. Many mo-
nasteries had previously been dissolved by act of parlia-
•nt, but as no such clause as that contained in the 31
Hen. VIII. had been introduced into other acts, the lands
of the nun them became chargeable
with ti1
\\ e have stated enousrh concerning the r.i'r.ic of i
and the various circumstances affecting them, to show how
complicated mu.-t be the laws, and how cut in-
- of different parties who had ;
them, lint apart from such considciations it may be well
to inquire whether tithes be, in their original nature, a lit
mode of supporting a religious establishment ; and if not,
in what manner they might be made so. i
'.v be a doubt that the pavmciit of tithes in Kind is a
cause of constant irritation and dispute between a (•]•
man and his parishiom is. \Vith the best intentioi
both sides, the very nature of tithes is such, that i:<
and difficulties must a ,-u them ; and even v.
there is no doubt, the form and principle of paymen'
odious and discouraging. The haulship, and injust:
tithes upon the agriculturist are well described by Dr.
Paley : — 'Agriculture is discouraged by every constitution
ot landed property which lets in thoM who iiave no con-
cern in the improvement to a participation of the profit :
of all institutions which are in this way adverse to culti-
vation and improvement, none is so noxious as Hi
tithes. A claimant here enters into the produce who
tributed no assistance whatever to the production. When
years perhaps of care and toil have matured an improve-
ment : when the husbandman sees new crops ripening to
his skill and industry ; the moment he is ready to p.
sickle to the grain, he finds himself compelled to divide
his harvest with a stranger.' .Mural mid J'"liticnl Philo-
sophy, chapter xii.)
If tithes then be in principle an injurious and restrictive
tax upon agriculture, and if the mode of collection be
vexatious and unpopular, it became the duty of a h
tureto provide a remedy for these evils. But tithes are un-
like any othertax, which being found injurious to the slate,
may be removed on providing others. They are not the
property of the state, but of its subjects ; they are payable
not only to the church, but to lay impropriators : they have
been the subject of innumeiahle private bargains: land has
been sold at a higher price on account of it- , I'rom
tithe ; the value of the patronage of the greater portion of
the livings of this countiy is dependent upon the existing
liability of land to tithes ; in shoit. the various nlalx
society have been for centuries so closely connected with
the receipt and payment of tithe?, that to have abolished
them would have been a gross injustice and spoliation to
I many, and no advantage to the community ; for the whole
! profit would immediately have been enjoyed by t'
| lands were discharged from payments to wh'ich tlicv bad
always been liable, and subject to which they hnd
probably been purchased.
As for these reasons the extinction of tithes was imprac-
ticable, a commutation of them has been attempted and
has been found most i. l)r. Paley. who v.
clearly the evils of tithes, himself suggested" this im;
ment. ' No measure of such extensive i
to me so practicable, nor any single alteration s,, |,
cinl, as the conve'rsion of 'tithes into eorn-ri
commutation. I am convinced, might be so adjusted as to
secure to the tithe-holder a complete and peipetual equi-
valent for his interest, and to leave to iudnstrv its full
ration and entire reward.' (Moral n/id Political I'luin-
.vo////y, chapter xii.) This principle of commutalion
lirst proposed to be applied by the legislature to Ireland.
In addition to the common evils of a tithe system, that
country was labouring under another. Its people
pay ini: tithes for the support of a clerin possessing a reij_
gion at variance with their own. Resistance to the pay-
ment of tithes occasioned by this appropriation ol I
had become so general, that a commutation w;>
absolutely necessary for the safety of the church of Ireland.
It was recommended by committees of both houses of
parliament in 1832, but not finally carried into effect until
isaa
The statutes for the general commutation of tithes in
England are the 6 & 7 Will. IV., c. 71. the 7 Will. IV.
and 1 Viet., c. 69, the 1 & 2 Viet., c. 64, the 2 fc :i Viet.,
c. 32, and the 5 & 6 Viet., c. 54. Their object is to sub-
stitute a rent-charge, payable in money, but fluctuating
according to the average price of corn for seven preceding
years, for all tithes, whether payable under a modits or
composition, or not. A voluntary agreement between
T I T
509
T I T
the owners of the land and of the tithes was first promoted,
and in ease of no such agreement, a compulsory commuta-
tion was to be effected by commissioners. Incase of dis-
pute, provision was made for the valuation and apportion-
ment of tithe in every parish. The rent-charge was to be
thus calculated : — The comptroller of corn returns is re-
quired (o publish in January the average price of an impe-
rial bushel of Biitish wheat, barley, and oats, computed
from the weekly averages of the corn returns during seven
preceding years. Every rent-charge is to be of the value
of such number of imperial bushels and decimal parts of
an imperial bushel of wheat, barley, and oats, as the same
would have purchased at the prices so ascertained and
published, in case one-third of such rent-charge had been
invested in the purchase of wheat, one-third in barley, and
the remainder in oats. For example, suppose the value
of the tithe of a parish to have been settled by agreement
or by award at 300/., and that the average price of wheat
for the seven preceding years had been llis. a bushel, of
barley 5s., and of oats 2*. Gd. ; the 300/. would then repre-
sent 200 bushels of wheat, 400 bushels of barley, and 800
bushels of oats. However much the average prices of
corn may fluctuate in future years, a sum equal in value
to the same number of bushels of each description of corn,
according to such average prices, will be payable to the
tithe-owner, and not an unvarying sum of 300/. The
quantity of corn is fixed, but the money payment to the
tithe-owner varies with the septennial average price of
com. Land not exceeding 20 acres may also be given
by a parish, on account of any spiritual benefice or dignity,
as a commutation for tithes to ecclesiastical persons, but
not to lay impiopriators. (6 & 7 Will. IV., c. 71,
s. 26-28.)
By the last Report of the tithe commissioners, it appears
that already voluntary proceedings have commenced in
9381 tithe districts ; 6348 agreements have been received,
of which 5804 have been confirmed ; 2178 notices for
making awards have been issued ; 1355 drafts of compul-
sory awards have been received, of which 1030 have been
confirmed ; 5220 apportionments have been received, of
which 4347 have been confirmed. Of the whole business
of assigning rent-charges and apportioning them, about
half is completed.
The complete and final commutation of tithes must be
regarded a.-* a most valuable measure. It is perfectly fair
to all parties, and is calculated to add st/i-uiity and perma-
nence to the property of the church, and to remove all
grounds of discord and jealousy between the clergy and
their parishioners. Nor must we omit to mention an im-
provement in the mode of recovering tithes, consequent
upon the commutation. There were formerly various
modes of recovery, in the ecclesiastical as well as in the
civil courts, and before justices of the peace, all more or
less leading to unseemly litigation. The present mode of
recovering the rent-charge, if in arrear, is by distraining for
it in the same manner as a landlord recovers his rent ; and
if the rent-charge shall have been forty days in an-car,
possession of the land may be given to the owner of the
rent-charge until the arrears and costs are satisfied.
Indeed the whole principle of the tithe commutation
Acts is to strip tithes of the character of a tax, and to
ilate them as much as possible to a rent-charge
upon the land.
[AGRICULTURE ; BEXEFICE ; FIRST-FRUITS ; IMPROPRIA-
TIONS ; TAX, TAXATION ; TAXATIO ECCLESIASTICA ; TENTHS.]
TITHING (Tithinga ; from the Saxon, Theothunge) is
an antient municipal division of land in England under the
Saxon kings. The whole country was divided into tithings
and hundreds by Alfred the Great. The former was ;i dis-
trict containing ten heads of families ; the latter comprised
ten tithings, or one hundred heads of families. Every
tithing had its chief man annually appointed to preside
over the rest, who was called the tithing-man or borsholder,
and sometimes the headborough or borough's elder. Each
of these little communities was bound to keep the peace
within their own jurisdiction, and the members were re-
sponsible for each other. So important were these asso-
ciations deemed to be, that no man was allowed to abide in
England above forty days without being enrolled in some
tithing. Although the institution has long ceased, the name
and division are still retained in many parts of England.
TITI, SANTI DI, an Italian painter and architect, born
of a noble family at Borgo San Sepolcro in Tuscany, 1538,
was a scholar of Bronzino's, and, according to Lanzi, also
studied under Cellini. While at Rome he was employed
upon some subjects in the chapel of the Palazzo Salviati,
and painted a St. Jerome in San Giovanni de' Fiorentini,
besides executing several works in the Belvedere of the
Vatican. He returned to Florence in 1566, with a reputa-
tion for great ability in design ; nor was such reputation at
all diminished by the works he there produced, for among
them are some of his best, including his Resurrection and
Supper at Emmaus, in Santa Croce ; of which, and of his
other performances, a full account is given by Borghini, in
his ' Reposo.' It was also at Florence that he chiefly exer-
cised his profession of architect. The Casa Dardanelli, the
Villa Spini at Peretola, and his own house at Florence, are
enumerated among his works of that class, but without
much commendation ; although he is said to have dis-
played great taste in some of his architectural backgrounds
in painting, in which he also showed great knowledge of
perspective. His pencil was frequently employed on
merely temporary decorations, either on occasions of
solemn funeral obsequies or splendid festivities, of which
latter kind were those which he painted at the celebration
of the nuptials of the duke of Bracciano. Santi died in
1603, leaving a son named Tiberio, who was also an artist,
and who did not long survive him.
(Biogr. Universelle ; Lanzi ; Milizia ; Vasari.)
TITIAN. [VicELuo, TIZIANO.]
TITICA'CA, LAKE. [BOLIVIA, vol. v., p. 86.]
TITLARKS. Mr. Swainson characterises the Titlarks
(genus Anthus) as slender-shaped birds, having the plu-
mage and long hinder toes of the true larks, but with the
slender bills of the Wagtails; and he places the former
next to the East Indian genus Enicurus, which in his view
succeeds to the Wagtails (Motacilla. and Budytes). Anthus
indeed seems to him to have its position at the very ex-
tremity of the DENTIROSTRES, just as the family of the
Alaudince, or True Larks, is in the circle of the Coniros-
tres ; ' in other words, they are not only analogous, but this
analogy actually blends into an affinity.' (Classification
of Birds. [LARKS.] In the Synopsis, at the conclusion of
the work, Anthus is arranged as the last genus of the Mo-
tacillinep, with the following
Generic Character.— Bill very slender, the sides com-
pressed, the upper mandible longest, with the tip deflected
over the lower, and distinctly notched. Wings moderate ;
the four first quills nearly equal : tertials obtuse, length-
ened. Tail moderate, slightly forked. Legs slender, black.
Tarsus and middle toe equal. Lateral toes and claws of
the same length and size. Example, Anthus aquatictts
(Fauna Boreal i-Americana, pi. 44). The Prince of (,':i-
nino also places the genus Anthus among the Motacillina*,
which, in his arrangement, is the sixth subfamily of the
Turdidce.
The True Larks are placed by the Prince, in the saniR
highly useful work (Birds of Europe and North Amcru ,- ,
under the Alaudince, the fourth subfamily of the Frin-
gillidce, standing between the Emberizincs and the
Loxinee.
The Alaudince of the Prince comprise the following
Genera. - Cerlhilauda, Sw. ; Alaitda, Linn.; Galerida,
Boie ; Phileremos, Brehm (Eremophilus, Boie) ; and Me-
lanocorypha, Boie. Mr. G. R. Gray (List of the Genera
of Birds) also makes Anthus one of the genera of his Mo-
tacillince, placing it between Ephthianttra, Gould, and
Corydalla,* Vigors. The MotacilliiKC, in Mr. Gray's
arrangement, form the seventh subfamily of his Lus-
cinidce.
The True Larks (Alaudince') are arranged by him as the
sixth subfamily of the Fringillidce, with Ihe following
Genera. — Alauda, Linn. ; Galerida, Boie ; Otocoris,
Bonap. ; Melanocorypha , Boie ; Saxilauda, Less. ; Erana,
G. R. Gray ; Mirafra, Horsf. ; Calandrella, Kaup ; Frin-
falauda, Hodgs. ; Megalophonus, G. R. Gray ; macronyx,
w. ; and Certhilauda, Sw.
The Alaudince are placed by this zoologist between the
Emberizincc and the Pyrrhulmce.
But we must now return to the Titlarks, and we quite
agree with Mr. Yarrell, who, in his British Birds, observes
that it would assist correct definition if, among ourselves,
the term Titlark could be discontinued entirely; 'the Tree
• In Ihe Appendix Mr. Gray itatea th;it Ptpastrl, Kaup. and f-t-inumiitirn
Kaup, bhnuM come next to Antlmi, aucl that Mr. Swuiawu's jenus
should be placed here.
T I T
510
T I T
Pipit being called the Titlark by M>me, the Meadow Pipit
a Titlark by other*; and round the sea-coast , where the
• i* generally the most frequent of the three, that
it alio called Titlark.'
Bedutein tcparated the Pipits from the true I.arks,
Othe fonner the generic appellation of Anlhut, and
arr«ll elevates them into a family, Anlhidtf.
- mi' linti»h: —
The Tree I'lpi!. .Imfim trniaiit; the Meadow Pipit,
Anlhut praienttt ; the K»<-k Pipit, Anlhut obtcurut (An-
tkutpetronu, Klein.. Jen. ; Anthiu uijutiticut, Selby, Gould ;
Ala*da obtcura, Auct. i ; and Richard* Pipit, Ant/tut Ki-
ocrdi.
The Titlark of Pennant is the Mtadotr Pipit of the
above list ; and Mr. Yarrell well observe* that scarcely any
two British birds have been so frequently confounded toge-
ther ai the Tree and the Meadow Pipits; but when the
two sprue* are examined in hand, obvious and constant
distinctions appear; and there are. he adds, bt sides, dif-
c» in the habit* of these birds, as well as in the lot a-
lities they each frequent. • The Tree Pipit is rather the
larger bird oi the two ; the beak is stouter and stronger;
the spots on the breast longer and fewer in number : the.
claw of the hiutl :..e !•> not so long a* the toe itself: the
tertial feathers of the. wings are rather longer in propor-
tion to the primaries; the white on the outer t:iil-i>
on each side is neither so pure in colour, nor is it t\
-.) large a portion of the feather; and, as far as my
own observation goes, it doe* not appear to be so nu-
merous as a specie* as the Meadow Pipit.'
Unlike the Meadow Pipit, the Tree Pipit is a summer
visitor, only arming in our well-wooded enclosures to-
wards the end of April. The male generally begins his
agreeable song from the top of a bush or an upper branch
of some 'hedge-row elm ;' fn>m his perch he uses into the
air, his wings shivering, till he has reached an elevation
about as high again as the tree from which he started. As
soon a* he has attained his greatest height he poises his
wings, spreads his tail and slowly descends, singing all the
while, to the same station whence he rose, or the top of
some neighbouring tree. The nest, placed generally en
the ground, is framed of moan, root-fibres, and withered
grass, lined scantily with bents and hairs. The eggs, four
•romber, vary much bi colour in different nesU.
J oat rfihi Tr«. Pipit. (V
Mr. Varn-ll considers the mo:-' :stic hue to be
•!i-white clouded and spotted with jn:i pie-brown or
purple-red ; the length of the egg about 10 lines, diai.
H. Fc tl and worm*. Total length uf the bird
about (ty inches. This bird must not ..icii with
OD-LAKK.
The winter-quartern of this species are probably in
Northern and Western Afrieii. It is a Miulena biiii
also inhabits Japan.
The Mean remain* wit hut throughout the
and is the smallest and most common - 'total
length being 0 inches only. It haunts heathy and hilly
district*, a* well a* meadows and marsh-lands. Mr.
rell thu* describe* its habit*: — 'When progressing
place to place, the flight of this bird is performed bysho.t
unequal jerks; but when in attendance on its man and
undisturbed, it rises with an equal vihiatory motion, and
sings some musical soft notes on the wing, sometime*
whilst hoveling over its nest, and return round
after singing. Occasionally it may be seen to settle on a
low bush ; but is rarely observed sitting on the bianchof a
• •i perched on a rail, which i^ the common habit of
the Tree Pipit. The Meadow Pipit, when standing on a
si ight mound of earth, a clod, or a sto moves
his tail up and down like a wagtail ; and Mr. Neville
Wood mentions that he has hraid him sine; while thug
situated on or very near the earth. The Meadow Pipit
seek* its food on the ground, alum; which it runs nimbly in
pursuit of insects, worms, and small slugs. In the stomach
of one of these birds, examined in the month of Din :
.Mr. Thompson, of Hellast. found two specimci
mu* lubricus. It is, according to the laM-named zoolo-
gist, the Mots-cheeper of the north of Ireland, a name
which Sibbald gives as applied to it in Scotland.
Nest on the ground, generally among grass, made of
dried bents on the outside, with a lining oi tnu-r onesand a
few hairs: eggs from four to six, reddish brown mottled
with darker ; length nine lines by seven.
Pennant gives Cor Hedydd an the Welsh name of the
Titlark, and Hedydd y cue as that of the Field-lark, Aland,-.
minor.
Tr»t PifH. (ClMM )
Pipit, mulr ami frm.ilc. (Could.)
'lil'I.K UASKRS.]
Di.l.DS. [VKNDOM AND PURCHAJIW.]
. OF VoLUJII THK TWKNTY-FOUJITH.
l-oulon: I'rin'.'li.j WMIIAM Cu'wn inJ Soin, Siamford-Mmt,