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C.1 

GERSTM 


|    At-.t   »« 


THE 


PENNY    CYCLOPAEDIA 


OF 


THE  SOCIETY 


FOR    THE 


DIFFUSION    OF    USEFUL    KNOWLEDGE. 


VOLUME    XXIV. 
TAI-WAN TITLARKS. 


<& 


s 


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MDCCCXLII. 


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COMMITTEE. 

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Hon.  U.VHI.  SPENCER. 
-JOHN  WOOD.  E.O.. 


...... I  All...  F.q..  F.R.  aad  R.A  S. 

'.I  i.ln  Hranfort.  R  N..  F. K.  tun  ll.l.l. 
O»>i,.-  M   II. 

Pliatami  i  «rrf    A  U. 

....     M  I' 
,..  <  ...ilm.  R«| 

TVr  R  ,1.1  R.v  i,,,  B  .Wop. I  >t.  D.t U'».  D.D. 
)    ¥    n. rl..  K«I..  F.H  S. 
Wr  Hrar\  Dr  ta  Brchr.  F.R  s. 
Tlir   llljl'il    II. ,1,     l.onl    llrnm.n. 

1  •<! 

II.'  Illdit  Hrr    n, r  H  -i.,.|,  of  Durham.  I)  U. 
T    r.  Kill.    K..,      A  U  .  F  It.A.H. 
J.hn   Klllnl.nn.  U.I)..   F.R.S. 
-  .n 

•  bra.  M.D.  P.R.8. 

Mir  I    I.  :t..  F  R.  and  R.A  S. 

FiancU  Henry  Ooldamld,  Eaq. 


R   ftomprrts.  Kaq..  F.R   and  R  A.3. 

•  -o..  F.K    «nd  I..S. 

1  ,rt..  A.M. 

M    I)    H.II.    KMl.QC 
Rowl.n.l  HUI.  '  •    .  c  It  A  s 
Ril-hi  Hon.  Sir  J.  <\  Hobliaiiar.  R«rl  ,  M-P 
Tl.o.  lli.ljl.iii.  MD 
Darlil  Jafilmr.  F.U).,  A. II. 
Hr>  r.   R    Ktr.  F.»q. 

Hlofrunr   Kr. 

Rlr  II.  in.  \f  Mai.li.nl.  Ilitl. 

:lr.    I..-:,,.. II.    lUtl,   II  P. 

liruifr  C    L*wi>.  K..O-.  A.U 
J.mr.  Loth.  F..n  .  UP..  F.U.t. 

^.U. 
l'.i,l.-.«lr  Ullilrn.  A.M. 

A.  r.  iuikui,  i.. ,.  A.U. 


Mr. 

M.itrl K..,|     F.R.S,  P.d.l. 

I 'ir  Itlrht   Hon    Lulil  N,,gria 
W    ".  (I'lll-rll.   V.tt\..  M.P. 

I'ruf^itor  Quain. 

P.  M.  ll.wn.  M.n.  S»t.  R.S.,  P.R.A.S. 

n.  W.  Roil.ii.nr,.  K.q..  A.U 

Sir  tlnilin  Archer  -l.f.  P  II.  A  .  K.It. 8. 

Sir  (iron,-  T.  si.iiuiuii,  ll.u..  M.I'. 

loin,    l»iriiir.  F.»q    F  II. s 

Profoaor  Ilion Ml).  K.I..S. 

\'»nl.,d.  KPH 

Jwoli  »alry.  Knj  .  II. A. 
J..t  WlJhlf.  K.i,  .  f.H.>  .  I'r.  U.I..CIV.  Kot. 

H.  «•->,„.,  ,t!.  r...t. 

Tli".    W.b.lrr.  E.i|..  A.M. 

R,«ht  H..II.  U...1  \V  r-xtiJt^.  A.M.,  F.R.A.S. 

J   A.  V.l...  Eao. 


-l««.  SI,,f~J,kt,i~  Rt».  J.  P.  Jonn. 
<«><.n««     lie*    K    \Vllll.aa. 
ttfr    \V.  .l.,l.ii*on 
—  Mlllrr,  KM) 

fl«iiti'rt|,>  --  IU>nrrkft.  Raq. 
Wllllntn  (irll.Mr.  K.o. 
(-  J.t.  L.  Driimmunil,  M.D. 
4««  —  Paul  Uoon  J.uir*.  K.q  ,  Ti  f  •!• 


l—  J.mti  Wllllami.  F.q. 
il—  J.N.Kanilm.  F..q.   K.O.S.  I  Anrrmon 
J.  ltr,..),l,u     K»q..   7'f^'iti.r^r. 
J.  II.  Ratlin.  K.  ,  ,  F.I..S..  >e,  ./(«r». 
Cmlemttn  —  Jnmr.  Vnnnir.  Faq. 

C.  W.'  C.mrr, 

C«»in.(,^—  Hr>.l.x.aar.l  IniTtil.  MA  .F  I.  S 
lift.  Jolin  l...,l,r.  U  A. 
Itrr    I'rul    ir.i.-,.  ,  k.  U  A.,  F  R  »   Hi  O.8. 
-  /  —  Join.  Hrn.i.  K..|..  A!drrni«n. 

.m   M..lrr.     K.q. 

(«..,(/,-  I'hom.t  Harnm,  U.l>n  F.R.8.E. 
C*rn»rnra  —  R    A    I'oolr,  F.q. 
William  Ritl.rrlm.  K»q. 
Hrory   P..II..  F.q. 
C.(  .  IVi,,lT.K.q. 

».  J.  \VI,l|rld|f. 
t«rCa—  John  Crawford.  Baq. 

Pi.  lo   Prlr  i.lra 
e'»r^/..-C.  Br.r.   ».n 

/>«,»,,*_  I  k,.^..  r,,,,.   F.^. 
Vtnf—  Juwph  Sir.ui.  Riq. 
Mw  U.P 


Jvtiu  Ni.riti.ii.   r  .q 

1.1.  Col.  C.   H.mllion  Sn<llh.  F  R  S. 


v»rr  R*».  ilf  D 
.  8.  Tiaill,  Ml). 


Z.OCAX.    COIVI1VIITTEES. 

Etnnin — Joii.li  Wrdfwood.  Eaq. 
^lrt,T  —  S     I  vrrrll.  Faq. 

Ji.l.n  UlllorJ.  K.q    (C«.. 
Olamorjigiiviirr-VV.    Wllllann,   Kiq,   Abrr- 

nittgau—  K.  Kinlar.  F.aq. 

Alriannrr  M.l.r^ur,  K.q 

Jainr.  C,,,.|  r 

A.  J.  0.  D'Orary.  F.aq. 
r7Nrmi«t; — F    C.  Uikl«,  K.q. 
ll.tchtm,    Smff,,Ut-n,i.    Prufraauc    H«nllow, 

M   A.    K  I.  -     ' 
Hull — J«-.  Boodrii.  K^]. 
Ltnlt-J    U.r.1,.11.  F.q. 
/««fi-J.  W.  Woollrar,  Ftq 

Henry  llrownr.  Eaq. 
t  i*'n  o  ,,"/../•.  ^,. —  I.  Mnllrnruw,  Egq. 

Hrr.  \\m    Shrplirrd.  L.I..D 
J/«M,(»ii>-i-,rnirnl  T.  Smytli,  Kaq. 

John  Caar.  Kaq. 
JU«ncA»frr   /«.  *,.— G.   W.  Wood.    Eaq.. 

•    Hrrn-ooH    Bt  .  TrraUMrrr. 

n>rt    M  r. 
T.  N     -  .,,..  /;„„.  Stc. 

Mr  J.  J.  bur.!.  Bin.,  If. P. 
.1/iH' Ain*«»i!<r0ii— ..'  >lm  G.  Rail,  Eaq. 
A'cvifA— Jolin  It.iMi.n.l.  F.aq. 
'—  llrr    W   Tnrnrr. 
T.  Soiiwlih.  K.q  .  i 

Ktntl   It',  «/   If , ««/— Ad.  Clark«.  Kaq. 
T   Cnokr   J,,,,..  KM 
R     (i     K.rkialruk.  F.Q. 
h'noNir/  f*frlt-J.  Millar.  K.q. 

t— It'll, .nl  II. ion.  K.q. 
Wni    For.irr.  K.n. 

rWtt 


.nl.fnr  M  D.F  II  S  Prof  Cl.r 

Rrr    lli<il,-n  Po.vfli.SaT.Pof. 

Hr».  John  JoriUn.  It. A 
/'«J/A.  /Viray.in/  —  Count  Sirflitnyl 
/'lam'.ufA— H    Wi.ollroiuhr,  K.,|     K  A.S..C 

Wm.  Snow  Hanii.  K-q..  K.li.S. 

E.  Moorr.  M.ll  .  P.I..S..  N«cr.(,i.». 

G.  Wlphnviclt.  K.,|. 
I-ruifgo—  Rt.  Iliiu.Sir  II.  llrydftM.  llarl. 

A.  W.  liar,..  II. I). 
Ripo*—  Hr»    H.I'.Hnmi  IOII.M.A..F  K.*  ,<i 

n»r    P    Kwan.  M.A 
*7«/Ai»— Tlie  Rer.  llir  Warden. 

Humi'lirry.  .lonrK,  KMI| 

/»»rf*.  /.  «C  HVJAf-SIr  11,1.  Simron.  III. 

S(i.'r>»«rv  -  Rrr.  J.  Barlilt. 

SleftM—  I    H.  Al-rali.nl.  R<q. 

Wc,,i«.  ilxlttt—a.  F.  llur-oilglia,  Kiq. 

\*r««,4«r,, -  |(    A.SImrr.  K.q. 

X...I*  fWtrrfnn-J.ilin  Ni.  li.ilrlln.  K.q. 

S(«c<rmrf-  R    Manlatiil.  K.,| .,  Tir 

Hrnrv  Coi.pnck.  K.n«  .VT,#/fM». 
\,,rf.«,.  AVir  S.  H'alf,  -  W.  M     M.i.lllng,  r-< 
Sinnm— Miittbrw  M,'.-rr,iipf.  F.aq. 
r*ii*ii/i.r* —  Rrr.  W .  I 

John  Rninllr.  h.a  .  M.P. 
Tftrn — Hrnry  Spwrll  si.ikr.,  K.q. 
•.',.«>  nrfjr   ll> /i— Dr    Vrnl. 

r— Rolirrl   Itlnrli.n.  F.q. 
I'iiyi.Ni.  r.  S. —  l*torr«aur  Tiickrr. 
•rr—  Clim   Ha.llng..  U.I). 

C.  H.  Hrhl..  F.q. 
tt'tritiani— Tin, inn.  Kilicnoilh.    Kid. 

Mai..r  Sir  Wllllnm  l.loril 
Turmafllt— C    K    Ruinlinld    K»i|. 

DawMin  'I  urnrr    F.»q. 
!'or«— Rrr.  J.  Kf  nrlck.  M.A. 

John  Pbilllpa,  riq  ,  F.U..S.,  K.'i.--'. 


THOMAS  COATES.  Eaq..  oVcntary.  No.  M.  LlMok'a  In  F1«U«. 


LoD'lom  I>iiiurd  bT  Wlt-UiM  CLVWII  aad  Suxi.  Sljmtord  SHnt. 


THE  PENNY  CYCLOPAEDIA 


OF 


THE   SOCIETY   FOR  THE    DIFFUSION   OF 
USEFUL  KNOWLEDGE, 


T  A  I 

TAI-WAN  (Taywan")  is  the  Chinese  name  of  an  island 
which  in  Europe  is  known  by  the  name  of  Formosa,  and 
Hermosa,  and,  according  to  the  Dutchman  Valentyn,  is 
called  by  the  aborigines  Pekan  or  Psek-and.  It  lies  be- 
tween 21"  58'  and  25°  15'  N.  lat,  and  between  120°  and 
122°  E  long.,  and  extends  from  south  by  west  to  north  by 
:ibout  240  miles.  In  width  it  varies  much.  From  its 
most  southern  point,  where  it  is  only  about  four  miles 
wide,  it  increases  gradually,  so  that  at  23°  N.  lat.  it  is  60 
miles  w'ide,  and  at  24J  N.  lat.  nearly  100  miles.  Its 
northern  portion  decreases  in  width,  but  very  slowly,  for 
near  its  northern  end  it  is  still  60  miles  wide.  A  rough 
calculation  gives  the  surface  an  extent  of  about  14,000 
square  miles,  which  is  about  half  the  area  of  Ireland,  and 
3000  square  miles  more  than  that  of  Sicily. 

The  north-western  point  of  TaV-wan  is  only  about  80 
miles  from  the  coast  of  the  Chinese  province  of  Fukian,  or 
Fokian;  but  farther  south  the  channel  of  Fokian,  as  the 
ctween  TaV-wan  and  China  is  called,  grows  wider.  In 
the  parallel  of  Amoy,  34°  407  N.  lat.,  it  is  150  miles  across, 
and  still  wider  south  of  that  parallel.  This  part  of  the 
China  Sea  contains  several  banks,  and  the  soundinirs  are 
also  extremely  irregular,  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Ponghu  or  Phensrhii  Islands,  called  also  Pescadores,  or 
Fisher  Islands.  The  southern  extremity  of  TaV-wan  is 
divided  from  the  Bashee  Islands,  which  are  south-east  of 
it.  by  the  channel  of  Formosa,  which  is  nearly  80  miles 
wide,  and  has  also  very  irregular  soundings. 

The  broad  promontory  which  terminates  the  island  on 
Hith,  and  forms  the  south-east  and  south-west  cape,  is 
a  low  flat,  but  at  the  distance  of  about  two  miles  the 
country  suddenly  rises  into  mountains,  which  continue  to 
run  in  an  unbroken  chain  northward  nearly  through  the 
middle  of  the  island  to  its  northern  extremity,  terminating 
with  high  chit's  nt  the  north-east  cape.  As  it  is  certain 
that  tl  of  mountains,  which  is  called  Ta  Shan,  or 

Great  Mountain,  is  nearly  the  whole  year  round  covered 
with  snow,  its  ( -It" ,:;d. in  h;i»  been  estimated  by  Humboldt 
at  »bo:tt  12.IXK1  feet  above  the  sea.  The  declivities  of 
tin >se  mountains,  with  the  exception  of  the  crests  of  the 
nio-,t  ili>,ated  portion,  are  covered  with  fine  trees  and 
•Mtore-grounds,  and  thus  the  island,  when  seen  from  the 
sea.  presents  a  very  pleasing  appearance,  whence  it  was 
called  Hermosa  by  the  Europeans  who  advanced  thus 
far  into  the  Indian  Sea.  These  mountains  have  never 
been  visited  by  Europeans,  but  from  the  accounts  of  the 
Chinese  geographers,  which  have  been  collected  by  Kla- 
proth,  it  appears  that  there  is  more  than  one  volcano  on 
this  island.  The  Tshykang  filed  Mountain),  south  of  the 
town  of  Fung-shan-hian,  was  once  an  active  volcano,  and 
there  is  still  a  lake  of  hot  water  on  Shin  Mountains. 
The  Phy-nan-my-shan,  south-east  of  Fung-shan-hian, 
emits  in  the  night-time  a  brilliant  lustre.  The  Ho-shan 
(Fire-Mountain:,  south-east  of  Tshu-lo-hian,  is  said  to 
contain  many  wells  from  which  flames  issue.  There  arc 
gome  other  mountains  which  exhibit  traces  of  volcanic 
P.  C.,  No.  1488. 


T  A  I 

action,  and  sulphur  constitutes  an   important   article  of 
export. 

The  mountains  have  a  steep  declivity  on  both  sides,  but 
on  the  west  side  they  terminate  at  a  considerable  distance 
from  the  sea,  so  as  to  leave  a  wide  tract  between  them 
and  the  shore.  This  tract  has  an  undulating  surface,  and 
terminates  on  the  sea  in  a  low  sandy  beach.  The  ad- 
joining sea  is  full  of  sand-banks  and  snoals,  and  can  only 
be  approached  in  a  few  places  by  vessels  drawing  more 
than  eight  feet  of  water.  On  the  east  of  the  Ta-shan 
range  the  mountains  seem  to  occupy  nearly  the  whole 
space  between  the  crest  of  the  range  and  the  sea,  and 
high  rocks  line  the  shore.  There  are  no  soundings  along 
this  coast.  This  circumstance,  united  to  the  strong  cur- 
rent which  sets  along  this  side  from  south  to  north,  is 
probably  the  reason  why  this  part  of  TaV-wan  has  never 
been  visited  by  European  vessels  ;  nor  does  it  appear  that 
Japanese  or  Chinese  vessels  have  any  intercourse  with 
this  part  of  the  island.  It  is  an  unknown  portion  of  the 
globe. 

Rivers  are  numerous  on  the  west  side,  but  as  they  ori- 
ginate in  a  very  elevated  region,  from  which  they  descend 
in  continuous  rapids  and  cataracts,  they  bring  down  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  earthy  matter,  which  they  deposit  at 
their  mouths,  forming  bars,  which  have  so  little  water  as 
to  admit  only  small  vessels :  this  however  seems  to  be  no 
great  disadvantage,  as  there  are  numerous  islands  along 
the  shore,  between  which  junks  of  ordinary  size  (about  200 
tons  burden)  find  good  anchorage.  Some  of  the  rivers 
however  are  said  to  be  navigable  for  a  considerable  dis- 
tance inl  nd,  especially  the  Tan-shuy-khy,  which  falls  into 
the  Tan-shuy-kiang  Bay,  which  lies  in  the  narrow  part  of 
the  channel  of  Fukian.  The  rivers  also  offer  the  gjeat 
advantage  of  an  abundant  irrigation,  though  they  are 
sometimes  destructive  to  the  crops  by  their  inunda- 
tions. 

No  portion  of  the  ocean  is  subject  to  such  violent  gales 
as  the  sea  surrounding  TaV-wan  on  the  west  and  east. 
Both  monsoons,  the  north-eastern  and  the  south-western, 
blow  in  the  direction  of  the  channel  of  Fukian,  and  as 
they  are  confined  between  two  high  mountain-ranges,  the 
mountains  of  Fukian  and  of  TaV-wan,  their  violence  is 
much  increased.  At  the  change  of  the  monsoons  the 
most  violent  gales  come  on  suddenly,  and  are  accom- 
panied by  typhous,  whirlwinds,  and  waterspouts.  Many 
Chinese  vessels  are  annually  lost  at  these  seasons.  The 
Japan  Sea,  which  lies  north  of  TaV-wan,  is  noted  for 
its  terrible  tempests.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  island 
the  north-eastern  monsoon  generally  lasts  nine  months, 
as  it  continues  to  blow  to  the  beginning  of  June. 
In  other  respects  the  climate  of  the  island  is  very  tem- 
perate, neither  the  heat  nor  the  cold  being  excessive  on 
the  plains  along  the  western  coast.  The  island  is  subject 
:  I  iqi  lakes,  and  they  are  sometimes  very  violent.  In 
\~i^'l  I  lie  whole  lower  portion  vas  laid  waste,  and  the  sea 
inundated  the  country  to  the  base  of  the  mountains  for 

VOL.  XXIV.— B 


T  A  I 


T  A  L 


twelve  linui>.  A  great  part  of  the  capital  was  destroyed, 
and  M'nir  hundreds  of  junk-  were 

Tin-  soil  of  thi'  lower  tracts  and  tli  lie   slopes 

of  the  mounta;  it  ttilc.  and  produces  abun 

:n,  which  1  to  the  hailiour>  of  Fukian,  of 

which   the   island  i>  said  to  he  the   giauai\.      It   produces 

rice  of  excellent   ijualitv;  also  wheat,  millet,  maize,    and 

•  i!i!c>.  am, ins;  whieh  lire  truffles.  The 

sugar  teiuively  cultivated,  and  the  sugar  made  in 

•  land  guc.s  to  c>  a-  Peking.     Orchards  are 

care:  They  produce  manges.  pine-applet, 

guavas.  coeoa-i  fruit,  and  other  1'mits 

I'onnd    in    the    East    Indies;   a1 

grapes,  pomegranates,  anil  chestnuts.  Melons  arc  also 
much  grown.  Only  cultivated,  and  it  is 

I  that  it  forms  an  article   of  export  to  China,  where 
as  a  medicine.     The  blossoms  of  the-  wild  jas- 
mine  are   diied  and   exported   to   China,  where   tl:. 

to  give  a  scent  to  tin-  tea.     Other  a  \port 

iinphor.  pepper,  aloes,  and  timber.     Timber  abounds 

in  tli.  :  the  northeni  districts  of  the  island. 

It   is  ,1   that    coffee,  cotton,   and  silk  arc  pro- 

I  to  a  small  amount. 

The  domestic  animals  are  cattle,  buffaloes,  horses,  asses, 

ami  goats.  i,ut  .sheep  and  hogs  are  rare.    The  horses  are 

small,  and   Ihc  Chinese  find  them  unlit  for  their  cavalry. 

It   is  said  that   on  i  nnkmr.vn   iiortion  of  the 

e  many  bca>t-  of  prey,  as  tigers,  leopards, 

and  v.  not   found  on  '  side, 

where  wild  hogs,  ilccr,  monkeys,  pheasants,  and  game  are 

abundant.     Salt   is   made   to   a   EI  .and. 

•r  with  sulphur,  form-  Mticle  of  export. 

populatii  <l  of  abori- 

.   The  Chinese  arc  only  found  on  the  west  side  of  the 

•tied  a  hundred  and  eighty  years 

J  .     Their  number  many  years  ago  wa 

'.out    "><X).(H)0    individuals.      Tli  from 

Fukian,  and  have  preserved  the  customs  of  their  original 

:id  the  spirit  of  industry  and  enterprise  by  which 

their  countrymen  are  distinguished.    A  considerable  mim- 

:'  aborigines  are  sett!.  'he  Chines,.,  to  whom 

they  are  subject,  and  are  obliged  to  pay  a  tribute  in  corn 

and  money.   Tl.  the  tribute  I  .who 

are  required  to  know  the  language  of  the  aborigines  for  the 

purpose  of  explaining  to  them  the  orders  of  the  court.      It 

I  that  tin-  .  to  which  the  aborigri 

luently  causes  them  : 

in  rebellion.     These  aborigines  are  ol  a  slender  make,  and 

in  complexion  resemble  the  Malays,  but  they  do  not  differ 

from  the  Cliine-e  in  features.     Their  language  shows  that 

belong    to    the    widely    spread    race    of  the   Malay 

nations  ;  and  it  is  said  that  they    greatly  resemble    the 

i'oras   of  'he    Moluccas.      Then    religion    resembles 

what  is  called  Shamanism.    The  Dutch  look  sonic  s 

.  ;t  them  to  Christianity,  but  their  sway  on  the  island 
in  limited  and  of  too  snort  a  duration  to  produce  any 
lasting  effect.     Nothing  is  known   of  the   aborigines  who 
inhabit  tl:. 

to  th  and  are  said  to  be  continually  at  war  with 

them.  Inhabiting  a  country  covered  with  lofty  mountains. 
they  are  said  to  subsist  mostly  on  the  produce  of  the  chase 
ana  by  fishing. 

( 'hinese  portion  of  TaV-vvan  is  divided  into  four  dis- 
M>uth   to  iioitli.  are  Fung-shan-hian, 

-  an-hian,   Tshul-lo-hian.  and  Thung-hua-hian.     The 
Ml,   Tai'-wan-fu,  u  a  hie    place,  and  has  a 

-m  of  HP.KNI  troops.    The  wall  was  built  in  17i'«.    The 

•  •lie  another  at   right 

angle-:   they  arc  tiili  abundantly  pio- 

i  all   article*  of  Chinese  industry.     The   I 
.-   that  uln 

i.     Then  .nail  church 

Mted  that  l(KN)  junk- 
in  the  harbour;  but  as  the  simile  en' 
I.iit    fioni    :  n  feet    of 

i  liad  a  greater  dciilh  of  wale.-,  and  for  the 

Dutch   had    built    the  fortress  of 

hut  it  i*  '  ranee  has  been  filled 

of  this  place  with  China  is 

Lind- 

i'-h  was  tl.  1  with 

junksaodi  coasting  ve«els  which  brought  the  pro- 


!  the  coun1  lly  rice  and  sugar,  to  this  j 

.-it  the  rmbiiucliiin-  of  111, 

khy,  is  at  the  innermost  recess  of  a  fine  bay,  vvhi< 
1 1   for  u  mimcroiis  11, 

t remit y   of   the   island,   and    is   railed   Ky-long— hai :    the 

Dutch  call  it  Quelon^.     It 

:JO  large  vessels,  and  is  the  station  of  the  Chin, 

the    island.      An  active   comuii  -.,    at   this 

The  commerce  of  the  island  is  limited  to  that  wit! 

-  of  China,  especially  Fukian.  to  which  it 
sends  it.s  agricultural  produce,  with  sulphur  and  salt 
from  which    it   imports  tea,   raw  silk,   woollen  anil  c 
stutl's.  and  other  mam.  i  that  the  i 

her  of  junks  that   annually  enter   the  port*   amour, 
more  than  KKH).    The  navigation  of  the  channel  • 
though  difficult  on  act-omit  of  the  sales  and  the 
is  rendered   much  less  so   i 
Islands,  which  offer  a 

rocky  islands  arc  thirty-six  in  number,   most  of  them 
small,  and   ;  ..ewhat    larger.     Tin 

excellent  harbour,  in  which  vessels  , 
ten   feet  draught    may  anchor   in   security.     Th 
have  erected  some  fortifications  on  them,  as  th, 

.  who  fre- 
quently infest  the  adjacent  i  :mia. 

Opposite  the  i-oulhcin  cxluim'y  «f  the  eastern  r<>;. 
TaV-wan  i»  the  island  of  Hotol  Tabago-xima.   It  i- 
and  about  ten  miles  in  circumference.     It  is  surroii 

i  a  without  soundings,  and   no  na\  • 
landed  on  it.     It  is  said  to  In  very  popul, 

It  appear- that  the  island  of  Tai-wan  wa»  known  t 
Chinese  and  Jap.  i  early    period,  but  they  did  not 

settle  on  it  nor  subject  it  to  their  sway.  \Vheii  the  Dutch 
appeared  ill  these  seas,  following  the  track  of  the  1" 

-cttlcincMt    either  on  the 

Ponghu  IsfamU  or  on  TaV-wan.  me  fortifi- 

cation on  the  I'onghii  Islands,  and  in  Hi:il  thvy  built  the 
fortress  of  /elandia  at  the  entrance  of  the  harbour  of 
TaVwan-fu,  where  there  was  then  a  small  town.  They  built 

small  fortress  at  the  harbour  of  Ky-lonir 

tion  which  was  thus 

number  of   faiuilio    fioin    Ful-  !e    in   the 

island,  and  the  colony  lly  in  importance.     Mean- 

while China  was  laid  wa-te  by  the  wars  which  tcrmi 
in  the  overthrow  of  the  Ming  dj 

meiit  of  tli  .  iinily  on  the  throne.     The  adherents 

of  the  former  dyna-ly  maintained   their  Inutinir   IOIIL'. 
the  eastern  and  soutliern  provinces,  Chekia 
Quanirtun.   but  being  pressed  by  their  enemies,  they  » 
doned  the  mainland,  and    continued  the  war  on  tin 
One   of   their  chiefs,  Tshing-tshing-knng,    called    b. 
Europeans  Koximra.  sailed,  after  the 
Pongnu  Islands,  and  occupied  them. 

i-wan,   and  linding  only  a  m  the 

Dutch  forlre-s.  he  took  it,  : 

Thus  the  Dutch  lost  the  island,  alter  having 
in  possession  of  it  for  twenty-eigbl  years.     Tsb 

,ng  of  TaV-wan.  favoured  ti 
country  men,  the  inhabitants  of  Fukian,  an 
in  a  short  time  w:u  converted  into  a  Chinese  colony.     He 
.Durable   to  the  Kiiulish.   who  had.  durim:  bis 
.mincrcial    establishi 

which   they  carried    on   an  active   commerce    \\ith  Amoy. 
The  province  of  Fukian.  which  continued  i 
the  victorious    Matitchoos   lomrer  than   any  other  p;, 

China,  had  been  compelled  to  submit  to  t  and 

linjr-tshing-kum:  had  died,  and  the  th: 
was  occupied  by  a  minor,  a  Chinese   licet   in 
possessii.ii  of  the  1'oUL'hu  Islands.      The  Chines, 
preparing  a  descent  tmTai'-wan,  when,  in  1'  nrcil 

which  ;,'ovcnicil  in  the  name  of  the  yoniiir  jirince  thought 
it  most  prudent  to  surrender  the  island  '  .it  of 

Peking  without  a  war. 

(Per  :-!ianti'x  rt  rnrii-n\,'it,   vol. 

xviii. ;    Klaproth's  1> 

'/iiiHiix,  in  I.a 

/'•;  and  1  r  <t"g6 

':/"  /A  .   i'i  /''//-- 

'I  AI.VI'I  II.NS  is  the  name  given  by  the  PoiliiL'ucse.and 
after  them  by  other  Euio]ic.in  nations,  to  tl> 


T  A  L 

priests,  or  rather  monks,  of  Siam,  and  is  supposed  to  be 
derived  from  the  fan  which  they  always  cany,  usually 
made  of  a  leaf  of  the  palmyra-tree,  and  hence,  says  Craw- 
furd  (Journal  nf  Embassy  to  Siam,  p.  358),  denominated 
by  the  Sanscrit  word  Talpat.  Tal  is  the  common  Indian 
name  for  the  palmyra ;  and  the  older  travellers  give  Ta- 
lapa  as  the  Siamese  word  for  a  fan.  In  the  Pali  (or  learned 
tongue)  theTalapoins  of  Siam  are  said  to  be  called  Thayn- 
ka  ;  but  in  the  common  language  of  the  country  they  are 
spoken  of,  as  well  as  to,  simply  by  the  term  Chau-cou,  or 
Chau-ca,  which  signifies  My  lord  (or  literally  Lord  of  me), 
the  first  of  the  two  forms  being  that  commonly  used,  the 
other  thai  employed  to  express  extraordinary  inferiority  on 
the  part  of  the  speaker.  (La  Loubere,  Du  Royaume  de 

'.  i.  407.)  Mr.  Crawfurd  states  that  they  are  called 
Plira.  which  IK-  says  is  a  Pali  word  signifying  Lord,  ap- 
plied also  to  Gautama  or  Buddha,  to  the  king,  to  the  white 
elephant,  to  the  idols  of  Buddha,  &c.  By  the  Burmese 
the  Talapoins  are  said  to  be  called  Rahans,  whence  seems 
to  come  the  name  Raulins,  given  to  them  by  the  Moham- 
medans ;  as  by  the  Chinese  they  are  called  Ho-changi ;  in 
Tibet,  Lama-seng  or  Lamas ;  and  in  Japan,  Bonzes.  (Pre- 

//  v/r,//v>  Genemlp  (l"a  Voyages,  vi.  328 ;  and  Dr.  Fr. 
Buchanan,  '  On  the  Religion  and  Literature  of  the  Bur- 
mas,'  in  A  -arches,  vol.  vi.)  In  Ceylon  the  name 
for  the  ordinary  priests  is  stated  to  be  Tirounnanse  ;  but, 
as  the  novices  are  said  to  be  styled  Saman  Eroo  Ounnanse, 
find  certain  inspectors,  exercising  a  general  superintend- 
over  the  temples,  NaYke  Ounnanse  and  MahanaYke 
Ounnanse,  it  would  seem  that  the  name  for  priests  of  all 
kinds  is  Ounnanse.  (Joinville,  '  On  the  Religion  and  Man- 

of  the  People  of  Ceylon,'  in  Asiatic  Researches,  vol. 
\ii.  i  SamaMfi,  or  Somona,  according  to  Dr.  Buchanan,  is 
a  title  given  in  Burma  both  to  the  priests  and  to  the  images 
of  Buddha ;  whence  the  Buddhists  are  often  called  Sama- 
nians.  It  is  derived,  he  says,  from  the  Sanscrit  word  Saman, 

living-  gentleness  or  affability. 

Ample  information  on  the  subject  of  the  Talapoins  is 
by  La  Loubere,  who  visited  Siam  in    1687-8,   in 

y  of  envoy  from  the  French  king,  in  his  work  entitled 
'  Du  Royaume  de  Siam,'  2  vo!s.  12mo.,  Amsterdam,  1 001. 
vol.  i.,  chaps.  17.  18,  19,  21,  pp.  341-368  and  381-120; 
and  by  Mr.  Crawfurd,  in  his  '  Journal  of  an  Embassy  from 
tor-General  of  India  to  the  Courts  of  Siam  and 
Cochin  China' (in  1821-22,,  4to.,  London,  1828,  pp.  350, 
&c.  Tlu  y  are,  as  has  been  stated,  a  species  of  monks 
living  in  communities  of  from  ten  to  some  hundreds,  and 

lying  their  time  in  devotion,  religious  study,  and  me- 
ditation, and  in  begging,  or  rather  receiving  alms,  for  they 
are  not  permitted  actually  to  solicit  charity.  Their  monas- 

.  in  which  each  monk  has  his  separate  cell,  are  always 
adjoining  to  some  temple  ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  the 
Talapoins  officiate  as  priests  or  ministers  of  religion  in  our 
sense  of  the  term.  Neither  are  they  considered  as  forming 
or  belonging  to  the  literary  or  learned  class :  the  pursuit 
of  any  secular  study  is  looked  upon  as  unseemly  and  pro- 
fane in  a  Talapoin  ;  and  in  fact  they  are  mostly  very 
ignorant.  Yet  the  instruction  of  youth  in  the  elements  of 

mgappears  to  be  chiefly  or  exclusively  in  their  hands. 
Every  Siamese,  we  are  told,  becomes  a  Talapoin  for  some 
time.  '  Every  male  in  the  kingdom,'  says  Mr.  Crawfurd, 
'  must  at  one  period  or  another  of  his  life  enter  the  priest- 
hood, for  however  short  a  time.  Even  the  king  will  be  a 
priest  for  two  or  three  days,  going  about  for  alms  like  the 
rest,  and  the  highest  officers  of  the  government  continue 
in  the  priesthood  for  some  months.'  Usually,  it,  may  be 
supposed,  a  man  goes  through  the  ceremony  of  getting 
himself  made  a  talapoin  without  any  intention  of  perma- 
nently forsaking  the  world  ;  but  if  he  enters  one  of  the  sa- 
cred communities  a  second  time,  he  cannot  again  withdraw 
from  it.  The  Talapoins  are  said  to  be  very  numerous ;  but 
they  sei.-m  to  consist,  for  the  greater  part,  of  mere  tempo- 
rary members  of  the  order,  and  of  persons  who  have  thus 

•  :d  it  for  the  second  time  in  advanced  life.     Its  ad- 

iges,  or  temptations,  are,  a  life  of  idleness,  exemption 
.•taxation  and  from  the  conscription,  security  of  sub- 
id  comfortable  raiment,  together  with  the  cere- 
ith  which  a  talapoin  is  every- 
All  the  monasteries  are  endowed  by  the 
government,  or  by  wralthy  individuals,  under  whose  protec- 

i  hey  are  considered  to  be.     La  Loubere  has  given  a 

!iig  of  one;    imd   another   is  described  in  FinTaj 
account  of  •  The  Mission  to  Siam  and  Hue  in  1821-22,' 


5  TAL 

p.  110.  In  their  dresses  of  yellow  cotton  or  silk,  which 
are  of  the  same  fashion  with  those  of  the  Buddhist  priests 
in  Ava  and  Ceylon,  the  Talapoins  of  Siam  present  a  highly 
favourable  contrast  to  the  rags  and  squalidity  of  the  gene- 
ral population.  On  the  other  hand,  a  talapoin  is  not  only 
separated  from  society  by  being  condemned  to  celibacy, 
and  is  prohibited  from  possessing  property,  but  is  expected 
to  observe  very  strictly  several  of  the  precepts  of  the 
national  religion  which  are  very  little  attended  to  by  any- 
body else,  especially  the  prohibitions  against  the  slaying 
of  animals  (although  they  will  eat  them  when  slain),  steal- 
ing, adultery,  lying,  and  drinking  wine.  There  are  differ- 
ent orders  of  Talapoins,  and  La  Loubere  says  there  are 
also  female  Talapoins,  whom  he  calls  Talapouines ;  but 
these,  according  to  Crawford,  are  only  a  few  old  women 
who  are  allowed  to  live  in  the  unoccupied  cells  of  some  of 
the  monasteries.  The  national  head  of  the  Talapoins, 
styled  the  Son-krat,  is  appointed  to  that  dignity  by  the 
king,  and  always  resides  in  the  royal  palace. 

TALAVE'RA  DE  LA  REYNA,  or  LA  REAL,  a 
large  town  of  Spain,  formerly  in  the  province  of  Toledo, 
but  now,  since  the  late  division  of  the  Spanish  territory, 
the  capital  of  the  province  of  its  name.  It  is  situated  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Tagus,  at  the  end  of  an  extensive 
and  well  cultivated  plain,  38°  52'  N.  lat.,  6°  39'  W.  long. 
It  was  called  by  the  Romans  Ebora  Talabriga,  as  the  in- 
scriptions and  remains  found  in  its  territory  show.  It  has 
a  fine  Gothic  church,  the  foundation  of  the  celebrated 
Rodiigo  Ximenez,  archbishop  of  Toledo,  the  author  of  a 
history  of  the  Arabs  and  a  Latin  chronicle  of  Spain,  about 
the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  town  is 
badly  built,  and  the  streets  are  narrow  and  crooked.  The 
population  does  not  exceed  12,000,  who  are  chiefly  occu- 
pied in  the  manufacture  of  pottery  and  hardware,  for 
which  Talavera  is  famous  all  over  Spain.  A  large  silk 
manufactory,  which  belongs  to  the.  government,  employs 
also  many  of  the  population.  In  July,  1809,  Talavera  was 
the  scene  of  a  battle  between  the  British  under  Wellington 
(then  General  Wellesley)  and  the  French  commanded  by 
.lourdan.  The  battle  was  long  and  obstinately  contested, 
but  it  ended  in  the  complete  defeat  of  the  French.  The 
exhausted  condition  of  the  English  troops,  who  were 
without  provisions,  prevented  them  from  following  up 
their  Advantage  and  pursuing  the  enemy.  There  is  an- 
other town,  in  La  Mancha,  called  Talavera  la  Vieja,  or 
'  the  old.' 

TALC,  a  mineral  which  occurs  crystallized  and  massive, 
and  it  is  probable  that  some  distinct  species  of  minerals 
have  been  so  called.  Primary  form  of  the  crystal  a  rhom 
boid,  but  usually  occurs  in  the  secondary  form  of  hexa- 
gonal laminae,  and  sometimes  in  long  prisms.  Cleavage 
distinct,  perpendicular  to  the  axis.  It  is  easily  separable 
into  thin  plates,  which  are  flexible,  but  not  elastic.  It 
is  easily  scraped  with  a  knife,  and  the  powder  is  unc- 
tuous to  the  touch.  Colour  white,  green,  greyish,  and 
blackish-green  and  red.  Becomes  negatively  electrical  by 
friction;  lustre  pearly.  Transparent;  translucent;  opaque. 
Specific  gravity  2" 713. 

Crystallized  talc  is  mostly  white,  or  of  a  light  green 
colour ;  is  met  with  in  serpentine  rocks  in  small  quantity, 
with  carbonate  of  lime,  actinoiite,  steatite,  and  massive 
talc,  &c.  It  is  found  in  the  mountains  of  Salzburg  and 
the  Tyrol :  it  occurs  in  many  other  parts  of  the  world,  as 
in  Cornwall,  in  Kynan's  Cove,  where  a  bed  of  it  underlies 
serpentine.  It  also  occurs  in  Scotland,  in  Glen  Tilt, 
Perthshire  ;  and  in  Saxony,  Silesia,  and  Piedmont,  &c. 

The  massii-c  varieties  of  talc  are  less  flexible  than  the 
crystallized  :  they  are  principally  of  an  apple-green  colour, 
and  sometimes  of  a  radiated  structure.  It  is  met  with  in 
considerable  quantity  in  beds  in  micaceous  schistus,  gneiss, 
and  serpentine. 

Some  of  the  varieties  of  talc  are  infusible  ;  others  be 
come  white,  and  yield  a  small  button  of  eiiamel  with 
borax. 

Indurated  talc  is  massive,  of  a  greenish  grey  colour  ;  the 
structure  is  schistose  and  curved :  it  is  of  a  shining  and 
sometimes  of  a  pearly  lustre,  and  somewhat  translucent. 
It  is  soft,  and  rather  unctuous  to  the  touch.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  2' 9. 

It  occurs  in  primitive  mountains  in  clay  slate  and  ser- 
pentine, in  several  countries  on  the  continent  of  Europe  ; 
in  Britain,  in  Perthshire  and  Banflshire  in  Scotland,  and 
in  the  Shetland  Islands. 

B2 


I   \  I. 


T  A  I. 


According  to  Vauquelin,  lamellar  talc  coiuwt*  of 
..... 

V,  ••:,-..' 

. 

on    .... 
er      ..... 

100- 
lite,  and   other   msgnesian  mincrali   arc 

nearl-.  uuca,  aiul  they  uc  mineralogists 

.  s  of  the  none  substai 

TAI.K.C  \I.I  \  Mr.  (•  K  day  makes  the  M'gapo- 
ilinur  tlir  third  and  lost  subfamily  of  his  7'u/u»i< 

in.  . 

The   MfffajxHlinifr  comprise  the  following  genera:  — 
-.    •  Alffiurn,   I-ath.  ;  Less.  ; 

•hrturiix.  S 

Gaim.  [Mw;\iMii»tu>.K  :  CK\<-II>.K,  vol.  viii.,  p.  I:U 
titet  f  J.  Gcotl'r.  :  .\ti-iinrn,  Shaw  (Parkintoniu*.  B< 
Me  fil»nli  ii^.  \\-Asl.     [M.tiM-Kv];     .•ll,-rt/ii-!nt,  Less.  (nee 

•('KM  inf..  \ol.  viii.,  p.  133J. 

Ue  proceed  in  this  article  to  notice  tlio  genera  7W#- 
jfu/Ai.  />///<«/,  anil  .1/»'i'<i/xK/ii/*,  the  natural  history  of 
vvhici  ly  with  legarxl  to  their  habits  and  nidifica- 

tion.  ha*  lately  been  satisfactorily  made  out. 
1  first  of 

Talcgalla. 

,-rif  Chiirurlfr.  —  Bill  very  robust,  very  thick,  one- 
third  of  the  length  of  the  head  compressed"  above,  with 
the  upper  mandible  convex  ;  nostrils  basal.  lateral,  oval- 
oblong.  pierced  in  a  large  membrane  :  lower  mandible 
less  high  but  wider  than  the  upper,  nearly  straiirlit  below. 
with  smooth  edges,  the  branches  widened  at  the  base,  and 
that  width  filled  up  by  a  feathered  membrane  :  checks, 
entirely  naked  :  head  and  neek  furnished  with  feathers 
with  simple  barbnlc-.  Wings  rounded,  moderate,  th 
quill  very  short,  the  seeond  rather  longer,  the  third  longest 
of  all,  tlie  fourth  and  fifth  diminishing  in  length  alter  the 
third.  Tail  rather  long,  rounded  :  tarsi  rather  robust,  mo- 
derately long.  furni-hcd  with  lai_rc  -cutclla  in  fiout  :  toes 
rather  lonir,  the  middle  longest,  the  external  shortest  ;  the 
three  front  toes  furnished  al  their  origin  with  a  membra- 
nous border,  which  is  widest  between  the  external  and 
middle  toes;  claws  convex,  flattened  below,  slightly 
curved  and  moderately  robust  ;  the  hind-toe  long,  resting 
entirely  on  the  ground,  and  furnished  with  an  equally 
robust  claw.  (Lesson.) 


H««d  «nj  tiot  ofTal<ir»n«.     (OooU.) 

Example.  Tnlex<ill.i  hitli 

Latham,  in   In  /  Hint's  Mil.  i 

d  and  figured  this  binl  under  the  name  of  th- 
•/'/    I'ultiirr  ;    but.   .  lie.   in   the 

tenth   \olnnie,  placed    it    among  the  {iallinaeeous  Minis, 
with  the  gene;  turn,  whirl)  hail  been  pre- 

viously employed  to  designate  a  group  of  Fly 

M.  Lesson  places  the  genus  at  the  end  of  the  I'hatia- 
nulf. 

Mr.  Swainson.  in  his  I'  /»•  (vol.  i., 

1836),    treating  of   the     I'lilturi'lrr.    notice^   1: 
under  the  name  ol  the-   New   Holland  Vulture, 
like  a  lasorial  bird,  that  sunn-  authors  ha. 
ha%ing   M'CD   a   •.preimen     a~  tu   what   on  ;\  be- 

longed.   •  So  eompli  ' 

I  Iliu  rare  and  extras: 

of  that   type   whii-h   it    is   to  repre.-cnt   in   its  own  Ihnnlx. 
that  it  hn-  clashed  I 

nur.iof  the  name  Continent  ;  and  it  must  I-  I  that 

if  clear  n. IP  i  ptiontol  the  diH'erence  betw, 


affinity  are 

the  two  bird*  are  for: 

but,  then,  so  are  th. 

bird  not  much  bigger  than  a  robin.  u'enera,  in 

short,   are  rema 

nig  and  slight  ly  curved   claw-. 
length,  or  i 
is  by   - 

:   those  unnatural  combinations   which    > 
founding  our  notions  of  classification 

tting  to  look  at  the  full  cou-eijiu-n. 

i   operatio 

this  the  only  peculiarity  of  the  New  Holland  Vul' 
for.  unlike  all  others  of  its  family,  it  possesses 
feathers,  iii  its  tail.    -An  examination  of  the  bill,'  Mr. 

Swamson   gives  a  cut  of  it.  'which  i 

joined    with   in.iiu    other   considerations,    shows   that    all 
these  are  but  an: 

real  affinities  of  the  bird  are  in  tin-  en 
of  which  it  forms  the  rasorial  type.     A   ], 
of  th:-  Milture.  now  1. 

Allan  Cunningham  in  the 
Ijind  is  to  speak  of  r 

examination.'     In  the  synopsis,  to  M 
volume  (1837),  we  find   it  in  the  family  I'ulturnltr. 
the  name  of  (\ithrtunix  which  cannot   b, 
tween   A"-'.  'j.ltr-.ii   ami   (iyixftn- 
' 


type  of  the  1'iilturiila-.     And  yet  it  is  no  bird  of  p. 
all.     Latham,  in  his  tenth  volume,  and  Lesson 
in  considering  it  a  rasorial  spec, 

fJould.   to  whom  we  are   indebted    for  a  full   and 
ictory  account   of  the   habits  of  this  extraon! 
'.i  which  we  shall  presently  advert,  n: 
i  all   the  facts  that   have  it  will 

be  i  \  ident  that  its  natural  situation  is  among  tli< 
and  that  it  forms  one  of  a  great  family  of  birds  peculiar  to 

alia  and   the   Indian   Islands,  of  which    M 
forms  a  part  ;  and  in  confirmation  of  this  MCW  I  IUM\ 
that  the  sternum  has  the  two  deep  cniaiTinatiun-  -o  truly 
characteristic  of  the  (inllinnrrrr  :   at  all  . 
way  allied  to  the  I'liltnridtr.  and  is  ; 
Irom  M'-inirn.'     It    seems  to  us   that    'l\il 
may  be  considered,  in  a  degree,  as  the  n 
the  turkey  in  Australia. 

Description.  —  Adult  mulf  :  whole  of  the  upp. 
wiiiL's,  and  tail,  blackish-brown:   the  feathers  of  the 
surface  blackish-brown  at  the  base,  beo.mini;  silver-, 
at  the  tip  ;  skin  of  the  head  and  neck  deep  pink-red,  thinly 
sprinkled    with  short    hair-like    blackish-brown 
wattle  bright  yellow,  tinged  with  red  where  it  mutes  with 
the  red  of  the  neck;  lull  black;  irides  and  feet  brown. 

'    a  fourth   less  than   the   male  in   size,  but 
une  in  colour  as  to  render  a  separate  de- 
scription unnecessary.     She  also  possesses  the  wattle,  but 
not  to  so  v  dd.) 

Size  about  that  of  a  turkey. 

Mr.  Gould  gives  the  following  synonyms:-  -\.-tr  !f',//,ni,l 
{'nl  tun-.  Lath.  :  gcr, 

.'.  !•'.    '  ".Hid  J'ulliirf,  C,,//i,  t,,nn 

S«.  :  L.  n.  .lamcson  :   Uriah  Turhfy  of 

"f  the  ab.'  'lie  Namoi. 

//''  -Mr.  Gould  dc-. 

hitlniHii.M  the  II  •it!l,-J    ,  bird, 

.illy  moving   about   in  small    co 
tlie  in  .mil.   liki- 

that    tribe,  as  \.  .].      \Vheii 

tuiiii'd.    he    .states    thai    it    rcadilv    eludes    jMirsiilt    b, 
facility  with  which  it  runs  through  the  tangled  brush.     It 
hard  pressed,  or  where  rushed  upon  I  iuv, 

the  native  dog.  the  whole  company  spring  upon  the  I. 
most  bough  of  some  neiirhhoming  tree.  and.  bv  n  si,, 
slim  of  leaps  from  hianch  to  1,  •  ml  t'o  the 

and    cither    perch   there  or  fly  o  If  to  allot! 

'..i    to'the    branches    of   tree,   ns   a 

shelter   from    the  sun    in   the   middle  ]y,  a  habit 

which  Mr.  Gould  note  .itlv  tending  lo  'then 

'ii  :   for  th  .,1,,,. 

and    the   birds,    like    '  will 

allow  a  succession  of  .-ho1  ,1   the\  are  all 

I  do-.vu. 

Hut   the  most  reiiaikab'  ..  j||, 

its  mditication. 


T  A  L 


5 


T  A  L 


hatch  its  eggs  by  incubation.  It  collects  together  a  great 
heap  of  decaying:  vegetables  as  the  place  of  deposit  of  its 
eii'us,  thus  making  a  hot-bed,  arising  from  the  decompo- 
sition of  the  collected  matter,  by  the  heat  of  which  the 
young  are  hatched.  Mr.  Gould  describes  this  heap  as  the 
result  of  several  weeks'  collection  by  the  birds  previous  to 
the  period  of  laying,  as  varying  in  quantity  from  two  to 
four  cart-loads,  and  as  of  a  perfectly  pyramidical  form. 
This  mound,  he  states,  is  not  the  work  of  a  single  pair  of 
birds,  but  is  the  result  of  the  united  labour  of  many  :  the 
same  site  appeared  to  Mr.  Gould  to  be  resorted  to  for 
several  years  in  succession,  from  the  great  size  and  entire 
decomposition  of  the  lower  part,  the  birds  adding  a  fresh 
supply  of  materials  on  each  occasion  previous  to  laying. 

'  Tne  mode,'  says  Mr.  Gould  in  continuation,  '  in  which 
the  materials  composing  these  mounds  are  accumulated  is 
equally  singular,  the  bird  never  using  its  bill,  but  always 
grasping  a  quantity  in  its  foot,  throwing  it  backwards  to 
one  common  centre,  and  thus  clearing  the  surface  of  the 
ground  for  a  considerable  distance  so  completely,  that 
scarcely  a  leaf  or  a  blade  of  grass  is  left.  The  heap  being 
accumulated,  and  time  allowed  for  a  sufficient  heat  to  be 
engendered,  the  eggs  are  deposited,  not  side  by  side,  as  is 
ordinarily  the  ca.-e,  but  planted  at  the  distance  of  nine  or 
twelve  inches  from  each  other,  and  buried  at  nearly  an 
arm's  depth,  perfectly  upright,  with  the  large  end  up- 
wards :  they  are  covered  up  as  they  are  laid,  and  allowed 
to  remain  until  hatched.  I  have  been  credibly  informed, 
both  by  natives  and  settlers  living  near  their  haunts,  that 
it  is  nut  an  unusual  event  to  obtain  nearly  a  bushel  of  I-LTLC-- 
at  one  time  from  a  single  heap;  and  as  they  are  delicious 
fating,  they  arc  eagerly  sought  after.  Some  of  the  natives 
state  that  the  females  are' constantly  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  heap  about  the  time  the"  young  are  likely  to 
be  hatched,  and  frequently  uncover  and  cover  them  up 
i.  apparently  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  those  that 
may  have  appeared  ;  while  others  have,  informed  me  that 
the  eirL's  are  merely  deposited,  and  the  young  allowed  to 
force  their  way  unassisted.  In  all  probability,  as  nature 
'lopted  this  mode  of  reproduction,  she  has  also  fur- 
nished the  tender  birds  with  the  power  of  sustaining  them- 
selves from  the  earliest  period;  and  the  great  size  of  the 
•vould  equally  lead  to  this  conclusion,  since  in  so  large 
c  il  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  bird  would  be 
much  more  developed  than  is  usually  found  in  eggs  of 
Her  dimensions.  In  further  confirmation  of  this  point, 
I  may  add,  that  in  searching  fur  cirirs  in  one  of  the  mounds, 
I  discovered  the  remains  of  a  young  bird,  apparently  just 
excluded  from  the  shell,  and  which  was  clothed  with  fea- 
ther,, not  with  down,  as  is  usually  the  case  :  it  is  to  be 
hoped  that  those  who  are  resident  in  Australia,  in  situa- 
tions favourable  for  investigating  the  subject,  will  direct 
their  attention  to  the  further  elucidation  of  these  inte- 
resting points.  The  upright  position  of  the  eggs  tends  to 
strengthen  the  opinion  that  they  are  never  disturbed  after 
being  deposited,  as  it  is  well  known  that  the  eggs  of  birds 
which  are  placed  horizontally  are  frequently  turned  during 
incubation.  Although,  unfortunately,  I  was  almost  too 
late  for  the  breeding-season,  I  nevertheless  saw  several  of 
the  heaps,  both  in  the  interior  and  at  Illawarra:  in  every 
instance  they  were  placed  in  the  most  retired  and  shady 
.  and  on  the  slope  of  a  hill,  the  part  above  the  nest 
•  ehed  clean,  while  all  below  remained  untouched, 
the  birds  had  found  it  more  easy  to  convey  the  ma- 
terials down  than  to  throw  tlvm  up.  In  one  instance  only 
was  I  fortunate  enough  to  find  a  pci  1'rct  egg,  although 
the  shells  of  many  from  which  the  young  had  been  ex- 
cluded were  placed  in  the  manner  f  have  described.  At 
Illawarra  they  were  rather  deposited  in  the  light  vegetable 
mould  than  amojig  the  leaves,  which  formed  a  considerable 
i  above  them.  The  eggs  are  perfectly  white,  of  a  long, 
oval  form,  three  inches  and  three-quarters  long  by  two 
inches  and  a  half  in  diameter.'  (Bird*  of  Australia.) 

The  game  author  relates  that  these  birds,  while  stalking 

about   the  wood,  frequently  utter  a  loud  clucking  noise; 

and.  in  \arion*  parts  of  the  bush,  he  observed  depressions 

in   the  rarth,  which  the  natives  informed  him  were  made 

by  the  birds  in  dusting  themselves.     The  stomach  is  stated 

by  \Ii.<!ouM  to  be  extremely  muscular ;   and  he  found 

op  of  one  which  he  dissected  filled  with  seeds,  ber- 

id  a  fuw  in- 

The  composure  with  which  these  birds  sit  to  be  shol  at, 
aa  above  noticed,  must,  as  Mr.  Gould  observes,  lead  to  an 


early  extinction  of  the  race  ;  an  event,  he  remarks,  much 
to  be  regretted,  since,  independently  of  its  being  an  inte- 
resting bird  for  the  aviary,  its  flesh  is  extremely  delicate, 
tender,  and  juicy.  There  is  no  doubt  that  this  species 
may  be  domesticated,  and  it  would  make  a  noble  addition 
to  those  foreign  denizens  of  the  poultry-yard  which  enrich 
our  homesteads  and  tables.  Mr.  Gould  saw  a  living  spe- 
cimen, which  was  in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Alexander 
M'Leay  for  many  years.  '  On  my  arrival  at  Sydney,'  says 
Mr.  Gould,  '  this  venerable  gentleman  took  me  into  his 
garden  and  showed  me  the  bird,  which,  as  if  in  its  native 
woods,  had  for  two  successive  years  collected  an  immense 
mass  of  materials  similar  to  those  above  described.  The 
borders,  lawn,  and  shrubbery  over  which  it  was  allowed 
to  range  presented  an  appearance  as  if  regularly  swept, 
from  the  bird  having  scratched  to  one  common  centre 
everything  that  lay  upon  the  surface  :  the  mound  in  this 
case  was  about  three  feet  and  a  half  high,  and  ten  feet 
over.  On  placing  my  arm  in  it,  I  found  the  heat  to  be 
about  90°  or  95°  Fahr.  The  bird  itself  was  strutting  about 
with  a  proud  and  majestic  air,  sometimes  parading  round 
the  heap,  at  others  perching  on  the  top,  and  displaying 
its  brilliantly  coloured  neck  and  wattle  to  the  greatest 
advantage  :  this  wattle  it  has  the  power  of  expanding  and 
contracting  at  will  ;  at  one  moment  it  is  scarcely  visible, 
while  at  another  it  is  extremely  pronrnent.' 

Before  Mr.  Gould  left  New  South  Wales,  this  bird, 
which,  during  the  greater  part  of  the  period  when  it  was 
in  Mr.  M'Leay's  possession,  was  at  large,  and  usually 
associated  with  the  fowls  in  the  poultry-yard,  was  unfor- 
tunately drowned  in  a  tank  or  water-butt.  On  dissection 
it  was  found  to  be  a  male,  thereby  proving,  as  Mr.  Gould 
remarks,  that  the  sexes  are  equally  employed  in  forming 
the  mound  for  the  reception  of  the  eggs. 

Locality. — Mr.  Gould  states  that  the  extent  of  the 
range  of  this  species  over  Australia  is  not  yet  satisfac- 
torily ascertained.  It  is  known,  he  says,  to  inhabit  various 
parts  of  New  South  Wales  from  Cape  Howe  on  the  south 
to  Moreton  Bay  on  the  north  ;  but  the  cedar-cutters  and 
others, who  so  frequently  hunt  through  the  brushes  of  Ilia 
warra  and  Maitland,  have  nearly  extirpated  it  from  those 
localities,  and  it  is  now  most  plentiful  in  the  dense  and 
little-trodden  brushes  of  the  Manning  and  Clarence.  Mr. 
Gould  was  at  first  led  to  believe  that  the  country  between 
the  mountain-ranges  and  the  coast  constituted  its  sole 
habitat ;  but  he  was  agreeably  surprised  to  find  it  in- 
habiting the  scrubby  gullies  and  sides  of  the  lower  hills 
that  branch  off  from  the  great  range  into  the  interior. 
He  procured  specimens  on  the  Brezi  range  to  the  north  of 
Liverpool  Plains,  and  ascertained  that  it  was  abundant  in 
all  the  hills  on  either  side  of  the  Namoi.  (Ibid.) 


Talegnlla  Lalharai.     (Gould.; 

M.  Lesson  describes  the  species  from  New  Guinea, 
which  serves  as  the  type  of  his  genus  Talegalla  Cuvirri, 
figured  in  the  Zoohgie  de  la  Coquitte,  as  entirely  black,  of 
the  size  of  a  common  small  hen,  and  recalling  to  the  ob- 
server some  of  the  forms  of  the  Porphyriones.  [RALI.ID/E, 
vol.  xix.,  p.  281.] 

The  history  of  Talegalla,  affords  a  striking  instance  of 
the  futility  oi"  classification  based  upon  reasoning  which 
has  no  sufficient  data  for  its  foundation  :  most  of  the  errors 


T    \  L 


T  A  L 


of  our  loologicml  system*  may  be  traced  to  the 
•our. 

Lcipew.     (Gould.) 

'.irlrr. — Hili  marly  a*  long  as  llir  hcnel, 
slenelcr.  tume.scent  at  the  base,  the  cdircs  undulated  ami 
incurved  at  the  hose,  the  Mxtrila tntpTa,  etblonir.  < 
with  an  operpulum,  and  placed  in  a  central  hollow.  Head 


Head  and  Foot  of  Lelpo*. 


subercsted.     ll'myi   am  pie,  rounded,  concave  :  fifth  pri- 
mary quill  the  longest  :  11  nearly  a»  long  as  the 

priOMMa.      Tall  rounded.  tail-fcuthcrs    fourteen. 
iiHHlemte.  robust,  covered  with  scuta  nnteriurly.  and  pos- 
teriorly with  scales  whii-h  are  rounded  and  unequal. 
rat  her  short  :   lateral  toes  nearly  equal,      i  Gould. 

Kxampli'  <iiOa.     (Gould.) 

II  v  -n/tion.  —  Hend  and  crest  blackish-brown:  neck 
nnd  shoulders  dark  nsh-grey  :  the  lore  port  of  the  neek 
from  the  chin  to  the  breast  marked  by  a  series  of  lanceo- 
late feathers,  which  lire  black  with  li  white  stripe  down 
the  centre  ;  back  and  winsrs  conspicuously  marked  with 
three  distinct  bands  of  greyish  white,  brown  nnd  black 
near  the  tip  of  each  feather,  the  marks  assuming  an  ocel- 
lated  form,  particularly  on  the  tips  of  the  secondaries  : 
primaries  brown,  their  outer  webs  marked  with  two  or 
three  7.isr/asr  lines  near  their  tip  ;  nil  the  under  surface 
light  butt',  the  tips  of  the  flank  feathers  barred  with  black  ; 
(nil  blackish-brown,  broadly  tipped  with  buff;  bill  black; 
feet  blackish-brown.  'Gould.) 

In   size  this  beautiful  bird  is  inferior  1o  Tn/i'zn// 

Ifnnii.  and  it  is  more  slender  nnd  more  eleirantlv  formed. 

uling  to  Mr.  Gould,  it  is  the  AV""'  of  the  aborigines 

of  the    lowland  :  \gmr-on   of  (he   mountain  districts  ot 

!ia  :  and  A'utirr  l'/trasant  of  the  colonists 

i.l  Western  Australia. 

ll'iliilx.  !•'•,'  at.  \iiiificitlinn.  A-'".  —  Mr.  Gould,  in  his/fr/v/.s 
•  in.  irives  nn  account,  collected  by  Mr.  John 
Gilbert,  from  G.  Moore,  Esq.,  advocate-general,  Mr.  Arm- 
strong, the  aboriginal  interpreter,  and  some  of  the  more 
intelligent  natives  of  Western  Australia.  The  Ocef/ntrrf 
Ijfijmn  is  there  described  as  a  ground-bird,  never  taking  to 
a  tree  except  when  closely  hunted:  when  hard  pursued,  il 
will  frequently  run  its  head  into  a  bush,  and  is  then  easily 
taken.  Food  generally  consisting  of  seeds  and  berries 
The  note  mournful,  very  like  that  of  a  pigeon,  but  with  r 
more  inward  tune.  KL'L'-  deposited  in  a  mound  oi' 
tin-  formation  of  which  is  the  work  ol  'both  sc  \,  -.  \ 
i»g  to  the  -lie'  bird-,  scratch  up  the  sand  for  main 

yards  around,  forming  a  mound  about  three  feet  in  height 
of  which  is  constructed  of  alternate  la; 

UMfc,  So-..  among  which  1\veKe   eirtrs  and 
npw:e  .'Land  an-  co\ered  up  by  the  birds  as 

they  are   laid;  or,  as  the   nativi  .   e-xpu-s.   it'.   •(]),.   i-oun- 
tenam-es  ul'the  eggs  are  never  visible.'     Upon  Ihcs. 
the  I  it  \\hen  she  hns  laid  out   her  lay,  as 

the   henwttr*   say,  the  uli  .1    up.    when   llie 

mound  of  sand  resembles  nn  ant  s  nest.     The  eggs,  which 
slightly   tinged   with    red.  and   about   the 
'  -0111111011   fowl's  eiru'.  arc-  hutched  by  the-  h 

the   vegetable   lininc  retaining  suflic-ic  ul 

warmth  during  the'  nisrht  :  the-,  .ted  in  layers,  no 

'   to  lie  \\ilhout  a  division.     The 

!   of  the  eggs,  rob  these  hillock* 

'inc.-  iii  a  season  ;  and   tin  -\  jud^c-  of  the1 

number  of  C-L'L'S   in  a   mound  by  the'   cjnant'ity  of  l\-:ithei> 

Iving  about.     If  the  fealliers  be  abundant,  'he  hillock  is 

and  then  they  imtne  ,,  and  take'  tile  whcde. 

Tin-  binl  will  then  begin  to  ln\  :,bc-d. 

illy  lay  a   third  tinie.      I'pon    (jiiestioning 

.edition,   he 
•   nt    of  its   halm 

iicurmting;  adding,  that  in  all  the  mounds  tlu  v 
opencd,  they  found  ants  almont  as  ntimcroui  08  In  an  ant'- 


iill  ;  and  that  in  many  n:  •  ol  the  monn(t 

surrounding  the  li  >un  ul'the  enir»  had  bccoi 

iard.  that   they  were  obliged   to  chip   round   them  with  a 
chisel  to  iret  tile  egg*  o.it  ;  the  msules  ul'the  me' 
alwayi  hot. 

•  ho  had  just  returned 

om  lu~  expedition  to  the  north-ucst  ec>ast.  inlbi-med  Mr. 
Gould  that  he  had  never  fallen  in  with  the  nests  but  i 

i.tion  of  country.  \i/. 

nnd   so  tliickly  woodc-cl  \Mth  a  species  of  d 
miim.lhat  if  the  traveller  strays  from  the'  native  jiatb- 
aliiuist    ini])ossible  for  him  to  force   his  way  through.      In 
these  close  scrubby  woods  mnall  open  glades  occasionally 
occur,  and  there  the  N  DDCtrucU  il  large 

heaji  i  f  sand,  dead  tcrass  and  bungle,  nt  1. 
diameter  and  three  feet  in  heiirht  :  Captain  Grey  luul 
them  even  larger  than  this.     I  i 
saw  c-irt's  in  thcsc>  nests  :   they  were-    [ 
from    each  other,  and  buried  in  the  earth.     Captain  ' 
states  that  he  is  not  sure  of  the  number,  but  the  account 
Driven  by  the  native's  led  him  to  believe  that  at  1 
numbers  were'  found. 

hlii.     \\ ,  tralia.     Mr.  Moore  saw  a  great 

many  of  them  about    sixty  miles  north  of  I'erth  :    I 
mist    favourite  covm! .  to   be   the-   ba 

plains  of  the  interior.   l(X)  miles  north  an 
The   furthest   point   north  at    which  Captir,     ' 
breeding-places    \v,-|s    (.aiitheaumc-    Hay.       ('aj)tain 
states   that   the  natives   of  Km:  that 

the  same  or  n  nearly  allied   species  exists  in  that  n 
bourhood.     (Hir<lx  (\f  Aiixtriil.n. 


.     (OouM.) 

Megapodius. 

In  the  article  CR.MIDK  (vol.  viii.,  p.  V.\'l    the  irc-nerie- 
character  o  IIHH  and  an  account 

iJujifrrri/i  is  s;ive'n.     It  is  there  staled  that  it  would 
that  the  Meirapodius  ol'  the'  Philippines    h'aves  its  .• 
the   fostering  hc-at   of  the  sun.     Mr.  Gould,  in  the 
work  from  which  vvr  have  already  drawn  sue-h   iiilere 
accounts  of  this  extraordinary  group  of  birds,  has,  from  the' 
notes  of  Mr.  Gilbert,   laid   before  the  public  n  most  satis. 
factory  statement   relative   to   the    habits   of    M 
'' 


mid  foot  of  MrsTodl"".     (Oonld.) 

••rip/inn.—  Ib-ad  and  cieM  very  deep  einnnmoii- 
brown  :  back  of  tlic'  iii-ck  and  all  the  under  surface  \c-iy 
bae-k  and  wings  e-innanion-brown  :  ujipei-  and 
under  UuI-OOVertl  dark  chestnut-brown:  tail  blae-kish- 
brown  :  iiide-s  geiieially  dark  brown,  but  in  some  speci- 
mens light  reddish-brown  ;  bill  reddish-brown,  with  yellow 


T  A  L 

edges  ;  tarsi  and  feet  bright  orange,  the  scales  on  the  front 
ol'  the  tarsi  from  the  fourth  downwards,  and  the  scales  of 
the  toes,  dark  reddish-brown.  (Gould.) 

Size  about  that  of  a  common  fowl. 

This  is  the  Onregoorga  of  the  aborigines  of  the  Cobourg 
Peninsula ;  the  Jungle-foicl  of  the  colonists  of  Port  Essing- 
ton. 

Habits,  Food,  Nidification,  <$-c. — On  Mr.  Gilbert's  arrival 
at  Port  Essington  his  attention  was  attracted  to  numerous 
great  mounds  of  earth  which  were  pointed  out  to  him  by 
some  of  the  residents  as  being  the  tumuli  of  the  abori- 
gines. The  natives,  on  the  other  hand,  assured  him  that 
they  were  formed  by  the  Jungle-fowl  for  the  purpose  of 
hatching  i;  Hut  this  last  statement  appeared  so 

extraordinary,  and  so  much  at  variance  with  the  general 
habits  of  birds,  that  no  one  in  the  settlement  believed 
them,  and  the  great  size  of  the  eggs  brought  in  by  them 
as  the  produce  of  this  bird  strengthened  the  doubt  of  the 
veracity  of  their  information.  Mr.  Gilbert  however,  know- 
ing the  habits  of  L''i]inu,  took  with  him  an  intelligent 
native,  and  proceeded  about  the  middle  of  November  to 
Knocker's  Bay,  a  part  of  Port  Essington  harbour  compara- 
tively but  litlle  known,  and  where  he  had  been  informed 
a  number  of  these  birds  were  to  be  seen.  He  landed  be- 
side a  thicket,  and  had  not  advanced  far  from  the  shore 
when  he  came  to  a  mound  of  sand  and  shells,  with  a  slight 
mixture  of  black  soil,  the  base  resting  on  a  sandy  beach, 
only  a  few  feet  above  high-water  mark  :  it  was  enveloped 
in  the  large  yellow-blossomed  Hibiscus,  was  of  a  conical 
form,  twenty  feet  in  circumference  at  the  base,  and  about 
fi\e  feet  high.  On  asking  the  native  what  it  was,  he 
replied,  '  Oregoorga  Rambal '  (Jungle-fowl's  house  or 
Mr.  Gilbert  scrambled  up  the  sides  of  it,  and  found 
a  young  bird  in  a  hole  about  two  feet  deep  ;  the  nestling, 
apparently  only  a  few  days  old,  was  lying  on  a  few  dry 
withered  leaves.  The  native  assured  Mr.  Gilbert  that  it 
would  be  of  no  use  to  look  for  eggs,  as  there  were  no  traces 
of  the  old  birds  having  lately  been  there.  Mr.  Gilbert 
took  the  utmost  care  of  the  young  bird,  placed  it  in  a  mo- 
derate-sized box,  into  which  lie  introduced  a  large  portion 
,tl,  and  fed  it,  on  bruised  Indian  corn,  which  it  took 
rather  freely.  Its  disposition  was  wild  and  intractable, 
and  it  effected  its  escape  on  the  third  day.  While  it 
remained  in  captivity,  it  was  incessantly  employed  in 
scratching  up  the  sand  into  heaps,  and  Mr.  Gilbert 
•hat  the  rapidity  with  which  it  threw  the 
tand  from  one  end  of  the  box  to  the  other  was  quite  sur- 
prising for  so  young  and  small  a  bird,  its  size  not  being 
larger  than  that  of  a  small  quail.  At  night  it  was  so  ^^-~\- 
•hat,  Mr.  Gilbert  was  constantly  kept  awake  by  the 
noise  it  made  in  endeavouring  to  escape.  In  scratching 
up  the  sand  the  bird  only  employed  one  foot,  and  having 
i-d  a  handful  as  it  were,  threw  the  sand  behind  it 
uitli  but  little  apparent  exertion,  and  without  shilling  its 
standing  position  on  the  other  leg:  this  habit,  Mr.  Gilbert 
<1  to  be  the  result  of  an  innate  restless  dis- 
position and  a  desire  to  use  its  powerful  feet,  and  to  have 
but  little  connection  with  its  feeding ;  for,  although  In- 
dian corn  v.  as  mixed  with  the  sand,  Mr.  Gilbert  never 
detected  the  bird  in  picking  any  of  it  up  while  thus  em- 
ployed. 

Mr.  Gilbert  continued  to  receive  the  eggs  without  any 
opportunity  of  seeing  them  taken  from  the  ground  until  the 
h< •L'nining  of  February,  when,  on  again  visiting  Knocker's 
Bay,  he  saw  two  taken  from  a  depth  of  six  feet,  in  one  of 
the  largest  mounds  he  had  met  with.  In  this  instance  the 
holes  ran  down  in  ah  oblique  direction  from  the  centre 
towards  the  outer  slope  of  the  hillock,  so  that  although 
the  eggs  were  six  feet  deep  from  the  summit,  they  were 
only  two  or  three  feet  from  the  side.  '  The  birds,'  s-ays 
Mr.  Gilbert  in  continuation,  '  are  said  to  lay  but  a  single 
ceg  in  each  hole,  and  after  the  egg  is  deposited  the  earth 
is  immediately  thrown  down  lightly  until  the  hole  is  filled 
up ;  the  upper  part  of  the  mound  is  then  smoothed  and 
rounded  over.  It  is  easily  known  when  a  Jungle-fowl  has 
been  recently  excavating,  from  the  distinct  impressions  of 
itg  feel  on  the  top  and  sides  of  the  mound,  and  the  earth 
being  so  lightly  thrown  over,  that  with  a  slender  stick  the 
direction  of  the  hole  is  readily  detected,  the  ease  or  diffi- 
culty of  thrusting  the  stick  down  indicating  the  length  of 
time  that  may  have  elapsed  since  the  bird's  operations. 
Thus  far  it  is  "easy  enough  ;  but  to  reach  the  eggs  requires 
no  little  exertion  and  perseverance.  The  natives  dig 


T  A  I, 

them  up  with  their  hands  alone,  and  only  make  sufficient 
room  to  admit  their  bodies,  and  to  throw  out  the  earth 
between  their  legs  ;  by  grubbing  with  their  fingers  alone 
they  are  enabled  to  follow  the  direction  of  the  hole  with 
greater  certainty,  which  will  sometimes,  at  a  depth  of 
several  feet,  turn  off  abruptly  at  right  angles,  its  direct 
course  being  obstructed  by  a  clump  of  wood  or  some  other 
impediment.  Their  patience  is  however  often  put  to 
severe  trials.  In  the  present  instance  the  native  dug  down 
six  times  in  succession  to  a  depth  of  at  least  six  or  seven 
feet  without  finding  an  egg,  and  at  the  last  attempt  came 
up  in  such  a  state  of  exhaustion  that  he  refused  to  try 
again  ;  but  my  interest  was  now  too  much  excited  to 
relinquish  the  opportunity  of  verifying  the  native's  state- 
ments, and  by  the  offer  of  an  additional  reward  I  induced 
him  to  try  again  :  this  seventh  trial  proved  successful,  and 
my  gratification  was  complete  when  the  native  with  equal 
pride  and  satisfaction  held  up  an  egg,  and,  after  two  or 
three  more  attempts,  produced  a  second  :  thus  proving 
how  cautious  Europeans  should  be  of  disregarding  the 
narrations  of  these  poor  children  of  nature,  because  they 
happen  to  sound  extraordinary  or  different  from  anything 
with  which  they  were  previously  acquainted.' 

Upon  another  occasion  Mr.  Gilbert  and  his  native,  after 
an  hour's  excessive  labour,  obtained  an  egg  from  the 
depth  of  about  five  feet.  It  was  in  a  perpendicular  posi- 
tion. Tile  holes  in  this  mound  (which  was  fifteen  feet 
high  and  sixty  in  circumference  at  the  base,  and,  like  the 
majority  of  those  that  he  had  seen,  so  enveloped  in  thickly 
foliaged  trees  as  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  the  sun's 
rays  reaching  any  part  of  it)  commenced  at  the  outer  edge 
of  the  summit  and  ran  down  obliquely  towards  the  centre : 
their  direction  therefore,  Air.  Gilbert  observes,  is  not  uni- 
form. Tile  mound  was  quite  warm  to  the  hands. 

How  the  young  effect  their  escape  does  not  appear ; 
some  natives  told  Mr.  Gilbert  that  the  nestlings  effected 
their  escape  unaided  ;  but  others  said  that  the  old  birds  at 
the  proper  time  scratched  down  and  released  them.  The 
natives  say  that  only  a  single  pair  of  birds  are  ever  found 
at  a  mound  at  a  time.  Our  space  will  not  permit  a  more 
detailed  account  of  these  highly  curious  mounds;  but  the 
reader  should  consult  Mr.  Gould's  highly  valuable  work 
for  other  particulars  :  we  can  only  spare  room  for  Mr. 
Gilbert's  description  of  the  general  habits  of  this  interest- 
ing species. 

'  The  Jungle-fowl  is  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the 
dense  thickets  immediately  adjacent  to  the  sea-beach  :  it 
appears  never  to  go  far  inland,  except  along  the  banks  of 
creeks.  It  is  always  met  with  in  pairs  or  quite  solitary, 
and  feeds  on  the  ground,  its  food  consisting  of  roots  which 
its  powerful  claws  enable  it  to  scratch  up  with  the  utmost 
facility,  and  also  of  seeds,  berries,  and  insects,  particularly 
the  larger  species  of  Coleoptera.  It  is  at  all  times  a  very 
difficult  bird  to  procure  ;  for  although  the  rustling  noise 
produced  by  its  stiff  pinions  when  flying  away  be  fre- 
quently heard,  the  bird  itself  is  seldom  to  be  seen.  Its 
flight  is  heavy  and  unsustained  in  the  extreme  ;  when  first 
disturbed  it  invariably  flies  to  a  tree,  and  on  alighting 
stretches  out  its  head  and  neck  in  a  straight  line  with  its 
body,  remaining  in  this  position  as  stationary  and  motion- 
less as  the  branch  upon  which  it  is  perched  :  if  however 
it  becomes  fairly  alarmed,  it  takes  a  horizontal  but  labo- 
rious flight  for  about  a  hundred  yards  with  its  legs  hang- 
ing down  as  if  broken.  I  did  not  myself  detect,  any  note 
or  cry,  but  from  the  native's  description  and  imitation  of 
it,  it  much  resembles  the  clucking  of  the  domestic  fowl, 
ending  with  a  scream  like  that  of  the  peacock.  I  ob- 
served that  the  birds  continued  to  lay  from  the  latter  part 
of  August  to  March,  when  I  left  that  part  of  the  country; 
and,  according  to  the  testimony  of  the  natives,  there  is 
only  an  interval  of  about  four  or  five  months,  the  driest 
and  hottest  part  of  the  year,  between  their  seasons  of  in- 
cubation. The  composition  of  the  mound  appears  to  in- 
fluence the  colouring  of  a  thin  epidermis  with  which  the 
ejjgs  are  covered,  and  which  readily  chips  off,  showing 
the  true  shell  to  be  white  :  those  deposited  in  the  black 
soil  are  always  of  a  dark  reddish-brown  ;  while  those  from 
the  sandy  hillocks  near  the  beach  are  of  a  dirty  yellowish 
white  :  they  differ  a  good  deal  in  size,  but  in  form  they 
all  assimilate,  both  ends  being  equal :  they  are  three 
inches  and  five  lines  long  by  two  inches  and  three  lines 
broad.'  (Birds  of  Australia.) 

Mr.  Gould  has  thus  given  the  history  of  these  three 


I   \  I. 


8 


T   A    I. 


nrir'  as  he  observes,  part  of  a 

MIUII!  In  i  xtcud 
tin-  liulinn 
i»lia.     Mrfapodius  Tiimulii*  i 

.  over  tin-  whole 

ol   tin'  (.'ol.ouri:  I'l-iiuiNiiIa  on  the  north  const  of  th. 
:!,    where    the    Unti-h    M-tt lenient  Ol 
Ellington  it  now  established  ;  and  he  thinks  that  future 
research  will   require   us  to  assign  to  it  a  much  wider 
range,   probably   over  the   whole    extent  of   the   north 
coast. 


Mrzapudiui  Tumului.  Mound  nu>in(  M«(*podc,  vitli  not  in  the  distance. 
(From  Gould.) 

TAI.KN'T  (rnXai-rox)  was  the  highest  denomination  of 

Greek  wiiL'hts  :uid  money,  and  was  also  common  K 

by  Greek  writers  as  the  translation  of  words  signifying  a 

n  weight  in  other  languages.  It  is  necessary  to  ob- 
serve that  the  talent  is  properly  only  a  denomination  of 

:>t.  There  was  no  coin  of  that  name ;  and  when  used 
in  reference  to  money,  it  meant  originally  a  talent-weight 
of  gold  or  silver,  and  afterwards  a  certain  quantity  of  cur- 
rent money,  the  weiirht  of  which  : supposing  1  lie  real  and 
nominal  value  of  the  coin  to  be  the  same  amounted  to  a 
talent. 

I.  THE  HEBREW  TALENT,  or  KIKKAR   123..  contaiucd 

T       • 

3000  shekels,  and,  according  to  Mr.  IIu--c\'s  computation, 
its  weight  was  ICJlbs.  I2o/..v  aMiirdupois.  and   its  \alue  as 
•iit.'tt.Wil.     |SiiKKKL.]     The  Hebrews  hod 
-•ild  money  of  their  own. 

II.  TIIK  GREEK  TAI.KNT. 

'1'hc   following   were   the    principal    denominations   of 
weight  and   money  among  the  Greeks :—  <5/3oXoc,  fpay/ny, 
-liXaKTor,  of  Much  the  tpo\r>t  was  the  smallest.    Their 
relative  proportions  are  shown  in  the  annexed  table: — 
Obol 


0      I      Drachma 
000~  100 


Mina 


30,000 


0000 


Talent. 


This  system  prevailed  throughout  Greece,  but  the  actual 
values  of  the  talent    \aried    in  different   states.      Mo-t   of 
these  variations  may  be  included  under  two  chief  standards, 
immclv.  the  Atlp  'tan. 

|.    .  .  alue    of   the   Attic    talent 

•si  ilon  is  a  matter  on  which  •.-,!•  po--e— 

hardly  any  historical  information,  thonirh  we  may  peihaps 

arrive  nt  11  MTV    probable   result.     Looking  then  at   the 

system  after  Solon  had  remodelled  the  coma- 

,d  that  th'  rr  money  was  celrlnated  for  its 

purity  :  and  therefore  from  the  coins  of  that  period  which 
•-till  "exist   we  may  determine  the  value  of  the  standard 
with    tolerable   certainty.     Now  the   chief  coin   was   the 
drachma  of  hiher,  tl  weight   of  which,  from  the 

tune  of  Solon  to  that  of  A  is  found  to 

be  66-5  grains.     From  this  we  iret  the  following  values  in 
avoirdupois  weight  :  — 

ih.     o«.        ta, 
Obol      ......        11-08 

Drachma        ...... 

Mum  .          ..      I.'-       VI  7:. 

Tal.  .         .         :>';     l.'-i    I"" 

Til's  was  ',hc  standard  n'  ,  and 

was  therefore  called  '  tin-  silver  standard.' 


H.  -i.lc-  lhi>  there  was  a'  -he  chief  \\ 

of  which  wa-  called  //:  /ini  i'/  i/ir. 

and   contained    1IW  il 
weights  in   the  silver  mini  MI  Ijoekh,  ' 

p.,  i.  12M.  \^  I    :   that  is.  not  that  a  commercial  mina 
contained    l;ts  ctmatrrcial   drachmae,  but    that    this   was 
quite  aditferent  standard  from  that  used  for  sihcr  in 
its   unit   being   to  that  of  the  latter   in  the   lalio  i< 
:100;  while  the  rrlutirr   proportions  of  the  weight- 
the  same  in  both  systems.     The  following  table  shows  the. 
value  of  the  Attic  commercial  standard  :  — 


Obol       . 
Drachma 
Mina 
Talent 


lb.      01. 


1    4J 

75    5|     11GSI 


ft. 

15-29 
!H  -77 


These  weights  were  used  for  all  commodities,  except  such 
as  were  expressly  required  by  law  to  bo  sold  by  the  silver 
standard. 

This  commercial  standard   is  most   probably,  as  Hiickh 
'MIWII.  the  real    antieiit    Attic  standard,  as  it    exi-tid 
before  the  time  of  Solon.     The  purpose  of  Solon's  ch 
was  to    lower   the  value   of  money,    in   order   to  i. 
debtors.     The  only  direct   information  we  have  of  the  na- 
ture  of   the   change    is  the    statement   of   Plutarch,   that 
-.  made    the  minn  of   1(X)  drachmae,  which   had  for- 
merly contained  7".'  which    is  probabh  a   mi-take   made 
by   Plutarch,   through   not    understanding    the  woi 
Aiulrotion.  whose-  authority  he  follows.     The  true  meaning 
seems  undoubtedly  to  be,  that  mil  'if  tin-  sumr  i/u<i»ti/y  n/ 
\ilrrr  which   in  the  aiitient   standard   made   7:!  draci. 
Solon  coined  100,  or  a  mina  :    that  is.  that  he  lowered  the 
standard   in   the   ratio  of   100  :  7:i.     Now  the   latio  of  the 
commercial  to  the  silver  standard  is  1:18:  100=  l(KI:72y. 
Hence  the  commercial  standard  and  the  old  Attic  only 
diil'ered  bv  a  small  fraction. 

Still  this  ratio  of  UK) :  7:>  is  a  very  singular  one  for  Solon 
to  have  adopted.  The  1110-1  pn.hahlc  explanation  is  that 
Solon  meant  to  lower  the  standard  by  a  quarter,  th. 
in  the  ratio  of  101)  :  "."',  and  that  the  new  coinaire  by  an 
accident  of  not  uncommon  occurrence  in  minting,  was 
found,  when  actually  made,  to  be  a  little  too  light,  namelv, 
in  the  ratio  of  72JJ  :  100,  or,  in  round  numbers.  73  :  UK) 
to  the  old  money,  instead  of  73  :  100  :  and  that  then,  to 
preserve  tin:  purity  of  the  Attic  mint,  this,  its  actual  \ahie, 

;ited  a-  runooinal  value. 

This  view    is  stromily  confirmed  by  a  reference  to  an- 
other standard  mentioned  by  Greek  writer-.   namcU,  thr 
Eulin'ii-  tii/i'n!.     This   talent  was   oKcn   reckoned   M  equal 
to  the  Attic  compare  Herod.,  iii.  SI),  with  Pollux.  i\.  (i   ; 
but  it  is  also  described  with   greater  puvi-ion  by  Aili.in 
i  I'ur.  llixt.,\. '22  .  as  having    to  the  Attic    \\. 
72  :  70.  which   is  the  same  ::-  7">  :  72)|,.     .Now  if  we  sup- 
pose  that    the  in!<-ntl--'l  value  c.i  ..lent,  had  toils 
;r,i/  value   the   ratio  ot  7")  :  72JJ,  we   have   this  intended 
value    equal    (ncirlectimr  a   \ci\    small    fiaetion      to    the 
talent.      Hence  it  i-  inferred  that  Solon,  proposing 
to  lower  t!                      mlard.and  perceiving  the  advantage 
of  assimilating  it  to  that  of  the  neighbouring  island  of 
i  Kuboea,  intended  to  adopt  the  latter  for  Ins  new  standard, 
;  but  that  in  fact  a  slight  difference WU  caused  b\  accident. 
The  Homans   reckoneil    both    the  Attic   and    Kubo;. 

ud  to  80  Roman  pounds    -  olyb.  xxi. 

1  I.  with  \xii.  2(i.  and  l,iv.  xxxvii.  -l.'i.  with  xxxxiii.  3 

The  Alii'-  commercial  standard  underwent  an  alteration 
by  the  edict  abcr,  to.  which  made 

its  mina  =   150  draelnn:> 
"i  min«'   =        6  minir     commer< 

its  talent  =    (>.*i  inina'    commercial) 
In  tin.-,  ncv.  slandaid  the  <i\e-miiiif  weight  was  npml  lo 
7lb.    llijoz.    1-J-iMigrs.,    and    the    talent    to    K-)lb-.   -JJ  oz. 

707  gm. 

Athenians  took  the  L  'heir  -tan.! 

of  wciirht.     The   principal  set    v  1   in   the  A 

o.ili-.   and    theie   weie    other   sets    in   the  I'rytancum,  at 

in  n.-i-d    by  th ••  Athenians  was  the  tetra- 
drachm.  or   piece  of  four  iliachmac  :   the  mina  and   talent 
d.  but  were  paid  in  diacli  :.  ,Vc. 

The  li'llowi  the  \alne  of  all  the  denomina 

i  Atiie  silver  money,  according  to  the  computation 
I  his, cy  :  — 


T  A  L 


T  A  L 


£          S.       A.         fdrtkiagi. 

Chalcus  (of  copper)  -81 '25 

JObol    .  1-625 

*0bol    .  3-25 

Obol       .  12-5 

Diobolon  3      1 

Triobolon  4      3'5 

Tetrobolon  6      2 

Drachma  9      3 

Didrachm  172 

Tetradrachm  3    3 

Mma      .  413 

Talent    .  243     15 

2.  The  Aeginetan  talent.  It  is  a  disputed  question 
what  was  the  ratio  of  the  Aeginetan  to  the  Attic  talent. 
Pollux  (ix.  76.  86)  says  that  the  Aeginetan  talent  con- 
tained 10,000  Attic  drachmae,  and  the  Aeginetan  drachma 
10  Attic  obols,  which  would  give  the  ratio  of  5  : 3  for  that 
of  the  Aeginetan  to  the  Attic  talent.  According;  to  this 
statement,  the  Aeginetan  drachma  weighed  110  grains 
English.  Now  the  existing  coins  give  an  average  of  only 
96  grains ;  and  the  question  therefore  is  whether  we  are  to 
follow  Pollux  or  the  coins.  Mr.  Hussev  takes  the  latter 
course,  explaining  the  statement  of  Pollux  as  referring  to 
the  debased  drachma  of  later  times,  which  was  about 
equal  to  the  Roman  denarius.  Bockh  adheres  to  the  state- 
ment of  Pollux,  explaining  the  lightness  of  the  existing 
coins  by  the  well-known  tendency  of  the  antient  mints  to 
depart  from  the  full  value.  He  has  supported  his  view  by 
some  very  strong  and  ingenious  arguments,  and  on  the 
whole  he  appears  to  be  right. 

There  were  other  talents  used  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
most  of  which  seem  to  have  been  derived  from  one  of  these 
two  standards,  but  the  accounts  of  antient  writers  respect- 
ing them  are  very  contradictory.  Their  values  are  dis- 
cu-sod  ut  length  by  Bockh  and  Hussey. 

The  most  important  variations  of  the  Aeginetan  stan- 
dard were  those  used  in  Macedonia,  Corinth,  and  Sicily. 

The   above  talents  were  all  reckoned  in  silver  money. 

Then-  was  also  a  talent  of  gold,  which  was  much  smaller. 

It  was  used  chiefly  by  the  Greeks  of  Italy  and  Sicily,  whence 

it  was  called  the  Sicilian  talent  as  well  as  the  gold  talent. 

It  was  equal  to  6  Attic  drachmae,  that  is,  about  }  oz.  and 

71  grs.     It  was  divided   by  the  Italian   Greeks  into    24 

ni,  and  afterwards  into  12,  each  minimus  containing 

2J  litrae.     When  Homer  uses  the  word  talent,  we  must 

always  understand  bv  it  this  small  one  of  gold.     In  other 

classical  writers  the  word  generally  means  the  Attic  talent. 

(Bockh,     Mftrolrjs.     I  iitrrxuch.  ;      Hussey,     Antient 

fili  unit  Money ;    Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Ronnui 

.lufn/iii/ii-f,  1842.) 

TALE'S.  At  common  law,  when  the  number  of  jury- 
men in  attendance  was  so  small,  or  so  much  diminished 
by  challenges  that  a  full  jury  could  not  be  had,  a  writ 
(then  in  Latin  issued  to  the  sheriff,  commanding  him  to 
summon  xm-k  tales)  other  fit  persons,  &c.  for  the  purpose 
of  making  up  the  jury.  The  jurors  so  procured  were  called 
talesmen,  from  the  Latin  word  used  in  the  writ.  By  the 
statute  :i.~>  lieu.  VIII.,  c.  6,  the  defect  of  jurors  misfit,  at 
the  request  of  the  plaintiff  or  defendant  in  an  action,  be 
.supplied  from  such  other  able  persons  of  the  said  county 
then  present,  and  these  were  ordinarily  called,  from  the 
words  in  the  Latin  writ,  '  tales  de  circumstantibus.'  Sub- 
sequent statute*  extended  and  regulated  the  application  of 
this  statute.  But  the  act  now  in  force  is  6  Geo.  IV.,  c.  50 ; 
the  37th  "iection,  which  contains  the  existing  law  on  the 
subject,  and  is  in  the  following  words  : — '  Where,  a  full  jury 
shall  not  appear  before  any  court  of  assize  or  Nisi  prius, 
or  before  any  of  the  superior  civil  courts  of  the  three 
counties  palatine,  or  before  any  court  of  great  sessions,  or 
where,  Piter  appearance  of  a  full  jury,  by  challenge  of  any 
of  the  parties,  the  jury  is  likely  to  remain  untaken  for 
default  of  jurors,  every  such  court,  upon  request  made  for 
the  king  by  any  one  thereto  authorised  or  assumed  by  the 
court,  or  on  request  made  by  the  parties,  plaintiff  or  defen- 
dant, demandant  or  tenant,  or  their  respeeti\  c  attorneys,  in 
:iuy  action  or  suit,  whether  popular  or  private,  shall  com- 
i  the  sheriff  or  other  minister,  to  whom  the  making 
of  the  ii'turn  shall  belong,  to  name  and  appoint,  as  often 
'•d  shall  require,  .-o  many  of  such  other  able  men  <,!' 
the  county  tlien  present  as  shall  make  up  a  full  jury 
th"  sheriff'  or  other  minister  aforesaid  shall,  at  such 
mand  of  the  court,  return  such  men  duly  qualified  as  shall 
P.  C.,  No.  1489. 


be  present,  or  can  be  found  to  serve  on  such  jury,  and  shall 
add  and  annex  their  names  to  the  former  panel,  provided 
that  where  a  special  jury  shall  have  been  struck  for  the 
trial  of  any  issue,  the  talesman  shall  be  such  as  shall  be 
einpannelled  upon  the  common  jury  panel  to  serve  at  the 
same  court,  if  a  sufficient  number  of  such  men  can  be 
found ;  and  the  king,  by  any  one  so  authorised  or  assigned 
as  aforesaid,  and  all  and  every  the  parties  aforesaid,  shall 
and  may,  in  each  of  the  cases  aforesaid,  have  their  respec- 
tive challenges  to  the  jurors  so  added  and  annexed,  and 
the  court  shall  proceed  to  the  trial  of  every  such  issue 
with  those  jurors  who  were  before  einpannelled,  together 
with  the  talesmen  so  newly  added  and  annexed,  as  if  all 
the  said  jurors  had  been  returned  upon  the  writ  of  precept 
awarded  to  try  the  issue.'  (2  Williams's  Saunders,  349  n. 
(1).)  [JURY.] 

TALIACO'TIUS,  CASPAR,  TAGLIACOZIO,  or  TAG- 
LIACOZZI,  was  professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery  at  Bo- 
logna, where  he  died  in  1553,  at  the  age  of  64  years.  His 
name  is  now  known  chiefly  through  his  reputation  for  re- 
storing lost  noses;  but  during  his  life  he  was  equally  cele- 
brated for  his  knowledge  of  anatomy  and  his  excellence  as 
a  lecturer.  These  last  are  indeed  the  only  qualities  for 
which  he  is  praised  in  a  tablet  put  up  after  his  death  in 
one  of  the  halls  of  the  school  at  Bologna.  A  statue 
erected  in  the  amphitheatre  formerly  recorded  his  skill  in 
operating  by  representing  him  with  a  nose  in  his  hand. 

Some  writers  have  spoken  of  the  original  Taliacotian 
operation  as  a  mere  fable,  pretending  that  it  never  could 
have  been  followed  by  success.  But  several  credible  wit- 
nesses have  recorded  that  they  either  saw  Taliacotius 
operating,  or  saw  patients  to  whom  he  had  restored  noses, 
which  very  closely  resembled  those  of  natural  formation. 
The  truth  is  that  the  operation  which  Taliacotius  really 
performed  is  not  commonly  known ;  the  generally-enter- 
tained notion  of  it  being  derived  from  the  accounts  of 
those  who  had  some  reason  to  misrepresent  it.  It  will 
therefore  be  worth  while  to  give  a  somewhat  detailed  ac- 
count of  it. 

The  work  in  which  it  is  described  was  first  published 
forty-four  years  after  Taliacotius'  death,  with  the  title  '  De. 
curtorum   chirurgia    per  insitionem   libri   duo,  Venetiis, 
1597,  folio.'    It  is  divided  into  two  parts,  of  which  the  first 
is  chiefly  devoted  to  a  disquisition  upon  the  dignity  of  the 
nose,  lips,  and  ears,  and  upon  their  offices  and  general 
construction,  and  the  theory  of  the  operation,  which  he 
considers  to  be  exactly  analogous  to  that  of  grafting  upon 
trees.     In  the  second  book  he  describes  the  mode  of  ope- 
rating, dwelling  first  at  great  length  upon  the  necessary 
number  and  character  of  the  assistants,  the  kind  of  bed  to 
be  used,  its  position  with  regard  to  light,  &c.,  and  several 
other  minor  matters,  on  all  which  he  speaks  like  one  tho- 
roughly experienced  in  surgery.     In  the  operation  itself 
he  used  the  following  plan: — A  part  of  the  skin  of  the 
upper  arm  of  the  proper  size,  and  bounded  by  two  longi- 
tudinal parallel  lines,  being  marked  out  over  the  middle  of 
its  lore  part,  was  seized   between   the  blades  of  a  very 
broad  pair  of  nippers.    Each  blade  was  about  three  inches 
broad,  so  that  it  might  include  the  whole  length  of  the 
portion  of  skin  to  be  removed,  and  had  a  long  slit  near  its 
edge  through  which  a  narrow  knife  could  be  passed.    The 
portion  of  skin  of  which  the  new  nose  was  to  be  formed 
being  raised  up  by  the  assistant  who  held  it  in  the  nippers, 
Taliacotius  with  a  long  spear-shaped  knife  transfixed  it 
through  the  slits  in  the  blades  of  the  nippers,  and  cut  it 
through  the  whole  length  of  the  latter  from  above  down- 
wardsT     Through  the  aperture  thus  made,  which  might  be 
compared  to  a  very  broad  incision  for  a  scton,   a  band 
covered  with  appropriate  medicines  was  passed,   and  by 
being  drawn  a  little  every  day,  the  wound  was  kept  open 
like   a  seton  wound.     When   all  the  inflammation   had 
I  away,  which  was  usually  in  about  fourteen  days, 
Lhe  flap  of  skin  was  cut  through  at  its  upper  end,  and  thus 
i  piece  bounded  by  three  sides  of  a  parallelogram  was 
•ai>ed  from  the  arm,  and  remained  attached  to  it  by  no- 
thing  but  its  fourth  side  or  lower  end.    In  this  state  it  was 
allowed  to  cicatrize  all  over,  till  it  acquired  the  character 
of  a  loose  process  of  skin.    This  being,  after  some  days, 
completed,  and  the  piece  of  skin  having  become  firm  and 
lard,   it   was   deemed   ready  for   engrafting.     The   head 
therefore  being  cleanly  shaved,  a  dress  and  bandage  of 
angular  construction,  intended  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
ami  in  its  due  position,  were  carefully  fitted  on.      Then 

VOL.  XXIV.-G 


T  A  L 


10 


T  A  L 


-'  l.i. il  asi  '  •  .if  tin-  old  nose  was  scarifiw 

in  a  moth  bleeclinir  surface 

:  taken  on  •  -  Inins 

-kin  on  tin-  nrni 

ami  a  portion  of  the  lait.  :m-  t'onn  nnd  si/ 

in  th  .inner  made  raw.     Sutur.  • 

'I   both   these  v 
lie  :uni  t  cini;  held 
With  and   the   paiin  ot    tht 

hand  upon  tne  head.  \>\  the  dress  and  bandag*  :. 

•ionod.     Tlic  paits  were  thus  retained   in  apposition 
for  about  twct:  the  end  of  \vliich.  the  surfaces 

haviiii;  united,   the  1  •  ;kcn  oil1,   nnd  the  por- 

tion nf  skin  \vhieh  was  now  affixed  to  both  the  face  and 
the  aim  wa>  cut  away  from  the  latter.     It  almost  direetly 
became  white   and  cold,  but   it  did  not  slouch,  and  gra- 
dually  increased   in  vasculnrity  and  heat.     In   about  four- 
teen days  it  v,a.s  usually  firm  and  secure  in  its  place:  and 
as  soon  as  this  was  evident,  the  skin  was  shaped  into  the 
iblanceof  a  nose  by  cuttim;  it  accordim:  to  carcfnlly- 
measuivd  lines  and  bv  fiiimimr  the  nostrils  in  it.    A  tedious 
re  performed  upon  it  before  the 

repair  wa  but  at  length  it  is  said  that 

in  gonnal  the  rcsto:ation  was  truly  admirable.    Taliacolius 
himself  however  admits  that  it  had,  even  in  th  • 
sevei; 

After  this  account,  no  one  can  reasonably  doubt   that 

:ul.     That  it 

should  be  !  by  the  Indian  method,  as  it  is  called, 

in  which  the  skin  for  the  new  nose  is  taken  from  the  fore- 

.    hcim;   a   le-s  tedious  and    le.-s 

.  .1  operation,  rather  Uiau  to  its  being  more  certain  of 

The  number  of  in-taucc-  i:i  which  later  attempts 

to  imitate  the  Taliacotian  operation  have  failed,  are  due  to 

performed   not   according  to  the  original 

method,  but  acc.uding  to  some  of  the  |>!aus  which  Talia- 

cotius  is  erroneously  su])]iosed  to  have  followed. 

The  indecent  joke  which  Butler  has  made  popular  in  his 

'  Hudibras '  has  little  foundation.     Taliacotius  does  indeed 

taking  the  skin  for  a  new  nose 

fiom  the  arm  of  another  person  ;  and  he  concludes  that 
for  s  ,n.s  it  would,  il  better 

to  do  so  :  but  he  says  he  cannot  imagine  how  it  would  In- 
possible  to  keep  tu  i,  (I  together  for  the 
necessary  lime  and  with  the  i  1  ian<]uillity,  and 
that  he  never  heard  of  the  plan  being  attempted."  The 
when  the  original  proprietor  of 

the  skin  died,   i.-  founded    mi   an  absurd  story  which  Van 
-    to   prove  at    !  a  distance  sym- 

pathy can  act.  A  gentleman  at  Brussels,  he  says,  had  a 
new  nose  made  for  him  by  Taliacotius  from  the  arm  of  a 
Bolognese  porter  ;  and  about  thirteen  months  afterwards, 
as  he  was  walking  in  Brussels,  it  suddenly  became  cold 
and  dropped  off,  at  the  very  instant  at  winch  the  ; 
died  at  Bologna.  Similar  stories  are  told  by  Campanella, 
Sir  Kenelm  Digby,  and  others;  hut.  as  already  shown, 
thev  are  i:  tor  Taliacotius  never  at- 

tempted to  transfer  the  skin  of  one  man  to  the  body  of 
another. 

(Biambilla,  Mijria  (//•///•   .<*•<.. 

llluntri  Iliilinni,\u\.  ii.  ;  Sprengel,  Geschichte  der  ('/:/- 
rurc 

VGK.] 

the  law  of  retaliation  ;  the  notion  of 

which  is  that  of  a  punishment  which  shall  be  the  same  in 
kind  and  degree  as  the  injury.  This  punishment  was  a  part 
of  the  ,ivv  :  'breach  for  breach,  eye  I'm 

blemish  in'  a.  man."  so 

it  be  done  to  him  a  train'  (Let-it.,  xxiv.  3)  .  The  name 
'  talio  '  occuis  in  the  .  i.fthcTw.  :  it  is 

not  there  defined  what   it 

the  t.  •  collected   from   other  place-.     Th. 

contains   the   -same  element  as  the  word  tii/is,  'such,'  or 

TALIPAT  or  TALIPOT    1'Al.M.     [(VHY.-IIA.] 

TA  I.I  si  |.     [GEOKCIA..) 

TALISMA'N  an  Arabic  word,  ived 

from  the  (,  metal 

or  cut  in  stone,  and  made  with 
monies,  -vlieu   two   plajicls    :ne    incitiju1  lien  a 

wrtain  star  u  at  it»  culminating  point.     .'  thus 

lui  pared   i*  supposed   to  '  r   the 

bearer,  preferring  him  from  disease,  rendering  him  invul- 


nerable in  battle,  and  to  forth. 

.:i!U  to  avert  disca.se,  for  we  lind  them  mentioned  in 
the  ID  dieiue  among  all  anlie.  '  The 

Ksryptians  made  use   of  fiiruies   of   - 
as   the   ibis   am!    the   seaiaba-us.  which    i 
rally  KU.-pended  from   their  neck*.      The   Arabi  an-1 
Turks  did  the  same.  v. hen  th* 

their    <  ,  -ed    sentence-     Imni 

the  Koran,  taken  chietlv  i 
titled  'The  Incantati,  i 

rolls  of  vellum  or  pa].. 
pended   from  their  neck  ; 

Military  men  used  suiulai 
on  the  hilt  or  blade  of  their  swords;  on  tl. 
niets.  and  other  pieces  of  armour;  or  u. 
irarni.  i-tian  niitions  even  v\ . 

tln>   sii]i<'rstitioii.     In   the    middle   i! 
consec  lies,  and  iv 

and  still  are.   in  Spam    am: 

Africa!)  neirroes  have  their/t'/ic/i,  and  tl:  .1  In- 

dians their  meilicin-. 

Keinau.:  'ilium  ilu  Cubimt  du  Due 

-.  1'aris.   : 
TALLAGE  is  derh  ,1^  to  Lord  Coke,  from  the 

tin  word  tnl!,isntni  or  t<ii/(if.rn<»i,  which,  ; 
•  cometh  of  the  French  woul  /,;. 
part,   and  metajihorically  is  taken  when  the  k.' 
other  hath  a  sliare  or  ]>arl  of  the  va 
sr  chattels,  or  a  share  or  part  of  the  annual 
amis,  or  puts  any  charge  or  burthen  upon  aiiuii 

: a nt  is  a  treneial  word,  and  dotn  includ. 
sidies.  taxes,  tentlis.  tilteent :  .burthens 

nit  or  set  upon  any  man.'    It  was  u'e' 
ined  in  its  sense  to  taxes  receiv . 
mportant,  statute  on  the  subject  is  ciitill. 
ion  concedendo,'  which  v.  in  the  ,'Ji 

Mlwaul    III.     to    (juiet     the    oliscontent     then    unix . 
hrouirhout  the  kinsfdom.     It  h:i  niom:  the  . 

of  the  kiutr  havinir  tukc  ;. 

of  all  riiies.   borouirhs.  and  towns  vvilhu-.it    the 
mrlianienl.      lie  was  embroiled   also  with  the  nobles  and 
Btidowuers.   from   having  attempted,   unsuccessful]^  how- 
-ver.  to  coni]iel  all  freehold 
vventy  pounds  to  contribute  either  men  IM   . 
lis  wars  in  Klan  lirst  chapter  nf  th. 

he  most  important  :    •  Nullum  talliurium  vel  a;i\ 

-ir<is   ii!  reu'im 

evetur  sine  voluiitatc.  c-t  assciisii  arcluepi- 
•opormn.  comitum.  barouum.  uiilitum,  ! 
iliorum  liberoruin  communinm  de  rcijno 
allaire  (.raid  may  be  set  or  levied  b1  r  heirs  in 

air  kiiiirdom  without  the  good  will  an  ,  the  arth- 

lishops,  bishops,  counts,   barons,   kuiulits.   buimssi-s,  and 
.ther  free  men  of  the  commons  of  our  kiliL'doi. 

These  word*,  as  Lord  •  jiliiin  without 

cmple,  absolute  without  any  wivinir:'  and,  if  t:. 
lave  bei  n  perleet  reliance  on  !!:• 

>cen    eiitirelv  satist'aetoiy.     Hut    the  same  kinir   had  just 
iolated   almost    the  sanii1    <  -itered   int. 

limself  mil- 

Confirmationes  Chartarum ;'  .' 
TAl.I.KYKAND-l'KHKiOKl).  CIIAKl.KS  .MAI  i; 
)K.     This  extraordinary  man  is.  and  11. 

..ntinue  a  i  ••  of  M.  .!>   . 

need    b\    M.    de  rallejmnd.    in    the 
Seiem  -  et  Politiqiles,  only  t 

lis  own  death,  he  ^aid  :  •  A  minister  In, 

'v  of  appealing  open,  :»l   tl 
hut  lie  remains  impeiielrable  :   of  being  in  n 
lthoii!;h  pcrfccth  fiank  in  I 

i  portrait.      His    power  of  conccaliiu- 
lid    his    steady   adlierence   to    the    princip 

•   ii]ion  his  . 

.|)]iositioii.  have  bad  the  eticct   of  ki 
nit  (.!'  his  . 

ionod    bi- 
vhich  he  did  no! 

iuircd  for  him  a  ivputati. 

d.      Il    is  lelt 

life  ..  ... 

in  which    lie  wa-   CH..MI:.  d.  but  with   Miut    injunc- 
lonslhat   they  shall  not   !•  I    until    tin 

hall  have  elapsed  from  the  time  ol  h»  death.     Il  this  Irt 


T  A  L 


11 


T  A  L 


true,  even  when  the  public  shall  have  been  put  in  posses- 
sion of  the  contents  of  these  papers,  it  will  only  have  ac- 
quired another  statement  in  addition  to  those  previously  in 
its  possession,  by  the  comparison  of  which  it  must  have  to 
•-  at  the  truth.  At  present  however,  while  those  me- 
moirs continue  a  sealed  book,  and  scarcely  any  of  M.  de 
Talleyrand's  intimate  friends  have  yet  contributed  their 
fragments  of  information,  no  resource  is  left  to  the  biogra- 
pher but  by  collating  his  writings,  his  ostensible  share  in 
the  politics  of  his  age,  and  the  incidental  communications 
of  himself  or  his  acquaintances  to  estimate  as  near  as  he 
can  what  probable  foundation  in  reality  there  is  for  the 
accounts  of  M.  de  Talleyrand,  which  have  been  compiled 
from  what  may  be  called  public  gossip. 

Charles   Maurice   de  Talleyrand-Perigord  was  born  on 
the  13th  of  February,  17.34,  the  eldest  of  three  brothers. 
His   family  was  antient  and  distinguished;  but  he  was 
neglected  by  his  parents,  and  placed  at  nurse  in  one  of  the 
faubourgs  of  Paris.     The    effects  of  a   fall  when   about 
a  year  old  rendered  him   lame   for   life,  and  being  on 
this  account  unfit  for  the  military  career,  he  was  oblisrcd 
to    renounce    his    birthright    in    favour    of   his    second 
brother,  and  enter  the  church.     The  contempt  and  aver- 
sion  for  him,  which  his  parents  did  not  attempt  to  con- 
ceal, impressed  a  gloomy  and  taciturn  character  on  the 
hoy.     From  the  charge  of  his  nurse  he  was  transferred  to 
the  College   d  Harcourt,  and  thence   successively  to  the 
nary  of  St.  Sulpice  and  to  the  Sorbonne.     In  all  of 
•  institutions  he  maintained  the  character  of  a  shy, 
!,  bookish  lad.    He  showed  in  after-life  a  task  lor 
.•'tine,  and  such  an  extensive  acquaintance  with  and 
•.in  of  science  as  sits  gracefully  on  the  statesman; 
and  the  taste  and  knowledge  must  have  been  acquired  at 
irly  acre,  for  his  turbulent  career  after  he  was  fairly 
launched  into  busy  life  left  little  leisure  for  that  purpose. 

By  the  time  he  had  attained  his  twentieth  year  his  re- 
putation for  talent  and  his   confirmed  health  appear  to 

reconciled  the  vanity  of  his  parents  to  the  nc.- 
of  acknowledging  him.     They  introduced  him  to  the  so- 
,  of  his  equals  in  rank  for  the  first  time  at  the  festhitics 
with  which  the  coronation  of  Louis  XVI.  was  celebrated 
1774  ,  under  the  title  of  the  Abbe   de  Perigord.      His 
opinions  and  tastes,  and   his  temperament,  combined  to 
'•.T  the  clerical  proj'e>sion  an  object  of  detestation  to 
him,  but  he  could  not  escape  from  it.     He  availed  himself 
t.,  the   full  extent  of  the  indulgence  with  which  his  ago 
and  country  regarded  the  irregularities  of  the  young  and 
noble  among  the  priestly  order ;  but  the  pride   and  re- 
wit  h  which  twenty  years  of  undeserved  neglect  had  in- 
spired his  confident  and  strong  character  served  him  in  part 
moral  check.     He  was  a  strict  observer  of  the  appcnr- 
:uici-s  exacted  by  the  conventional  morality  of   society; 
and  this  good  taste  exerted  a  powerful  influence  over  his 
i!  future  career.     Thrown  back  upon  himself  from  the 
beginning, he  had  necessarily  become  an  egoist;  vigorous 
both  in  mind  and  body,  he  had  a  healthy  relish  of  pleasure, 
and  he  engaged  with  eagerness  in  the  pursuits  of  pleasure; 
but  the  enjoyments  of  the  mere  voluptuary  were  insuf- 
ficient for  one  of  his  intellectual  character  and  fastidious 
tastes. 

in  1776  Voltaire  visited  Paris.  M.  de  Talleyrand  was 
introduced  to  him,  and  the  two  interviews  he  had  with  him 
left  such  a  deep  impression  that  he  was  accustomed  to  talk 
of  them  with  a  lively  pleasure  till  the  close  of  his  life. 
Voltaire  and  Fontenelle  were  M.  de  Talleyrand's  favourite 
authors  ;  upon  whom  he  formed  his  written  and  still  more 
his  conversational  style.  Conversational  talent  was  in  great 
demand  at  Paris  when  he  entered  the  world,  and  both  his 
love  of  pleasure  and  his  love  of  power  prompted  him  to 
cultivate  that  which  he  possessed.  That  he  did  so  with 
eminent  success  the  concurrent  views  of  the  best  judges  of 
his  age  declare.  Excellence  of  this  kind  is  like  excellence 
in  acting :  it  is  impossible  to  convey  an  adequate  impres- 
sion of  it  to  postenty.  The  reporters  of  flashes  of  wit  and 
felicitous  turns  of  conversation  uniformly  communicate  to 
tli'-iii  something  of  their  own  inferiority,  and  vulgarise 
them  in  the  telling.  Again,  superior  excellence  in  con- 
ation is  an  art ;  the  artist  is  and  ought  to  be  judged 
not  by  his  materials,  but  by  the  success  with  which  he 
uses  them.  Written  ban  mntx  are  necessarily  estimated  by 
their  originality,  the  quantity  and  quality  of  thought  ex- 
|,r — .1  in  them:  they  are  judged  as  we  judge  the  w 
••!  a  poet:  whereas  the  person  who  introduces  them  with 


effect  in  conversation  ought  to  be  judged  as  we  judge  the 
actor,  of  whom  we  do  not  think  less  because  he  merely 
says  what  the  poet  has  put  into  his  mouth. 

The   robust   and  healthy  Epicurean  who  requires  the 
stimulus  of  intellectual  in  addition  to  physical  pleasures, 
is  almost  inevitably  driven  to  seek  the  former  in  the  pur- 
suits of  ambition.     M.  de  Talleyrand  was  no  exception  to 
the  general  rule.     And  the  Abb6  de  Perigord  must  have 
displayed,  even  when  he  was  apparently,  when   perhaps 
he  believed  himself  to  be,  living  only  for  pleasure,  qualities 
which  inspired  a  belief  in  his  business  capacity ;  for  in 
1780,  while  yet  only  in  his  twenty-sixth  year,  he  was  ap- 
pointed general  agent  of  the  clergy  of  France.     He  dis- 
charged the  functions  of  this  important  office  for  eight 
years.     The  Gallic  church  was  all  along  the  most  inde- 
pendent in  its  relations  to  the  Papal  chair  of  any  church 
that  remained  in  communion  with  Rome.     It  was  also  a 
powerful  church  viewed  in  its  relations  to  the  state,  of 
which  it  formed  an  element.     Its  revenue  derived  from 
landed  property  was  large,  that  derived  from  other  sources 
perhaps  still  larger :  it  had  regular  assemblies  in  which  it 
legislated   for  itself,    determined    what    contributions   it 
ought  to  pay  to  the  state,  and  in  what  proportions  its 
members  were  to  be  assessed.     Here  was  a  wide  field  for 
cultivating   experimentally    a    talent   for   administration. 
Nor  was  this  all:   the  dignified  clergy  of  France  took  an 
active  part  in  secular  politics.     There  is  a  passage  in  the 
eloge  of  M.  de  Heinhard  already  alluded  to,  which  seems 
an  echo  of  the  impressions  received  by  M.  de  Talleyrand 
in  this  period  of  his  life  : — •  I  will  hazard  the  assertion 
that  his  (M.de  Keinhard's)  first  studies  had  been  an  excel- 
lent preparation  for  the  diplomatic  career.     The  study  of 
theology  in  particular  had  endowed  him  with  a  power, 
and  at  the  .same  time  with  a  dexterity  of  ratiocination, 
which  characterise   all    the  documents  which    have  pro- 
ceeded from  his  pen.    To  guard  myself  against  the  charge 
|  of  indulging   in    paradox,    I    must   here    enumerate   the 
names  of  some  of  our  most  distinguished  statesmen,  all 
theologians,  and  all  distinguished  in  history  for  the  success 
with  winch  they  conducted  the  most  important  political 
transactions    of    their    times.'     And   he    follows    up   tha 
remark  with  a  very  respectable  list.    The  general  agent 
of  the  clergy  was  their  minister  of  state:  and  M.  de  Tal- 
;  leyrand,  while  he  continued  to  fill  the  office,  was  a  power- 
ful subject,  and  occupied  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  eye 
of  the  public.     In  1788  he  was  appointed  bishop  of  Autiui. 
The  commencement  of  his  political  career,  in  the  strict 
acceptation  of  the  term,  is  synchronous  with  this  promo- 
tion.    An  article  upon  M.  de  Talleyrand  in  an  early  num- 
ber of  the  '  Edinburgh  Review ' — the  materials  for  which 
were   furnished   by   Dumont, — asserts  that  he   owed   his 
advancement  to  the  see  of  Autun  to  a  '  Discours  sur  les 
Loteries,'  which  he  pronounced  in  his  capacity  of  agent 
for  the  clergy  of  France,  in  the  Assembly  of  Notables  which 
met  at  Versailles,  in  February,  1787.     As  bishop  of  Autun 
he  was  a  member  of  the  Etats  Gfti#raux  convoked  in  ?>Iay, 
1789,  which  continued  to  sit  as  an  Assemblee  Constituante 
till  it  dissolved  itself  on  the  30th  of  September,  1791.    The 
interval  from  the  meeting  of  the  Notables  till  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  Assembly  is  an  important  one  in  any  attempt 
to  solve  the  problem  of  M.  de  Talleyrand's  real  character. 
Previously  to  the  meeting  of  the  States-General,  M.  de 
Talleyrand  indicated  the  course  he  intended  to  pursue,  in 
a  discourse  which  he  addressed  to  the  assembled  clergy  of 
his  diocese ;  and  in  which  he  advocated  the  equality  of  all 
citizens  in  the  eye  of  the  law,  and  free  discussion.     When 
the  three  orders,  by  assenting  to  meet  as  one  body,  had 
enabled  the  Assembly  to  proceed   to  business,  the  pre- 
cise   directions    given    by   many  of   the    bailliages    to 
their   deputies   were   found  an   impediment   in  the   way 
of  practical  legislation :    M.  de   Talleyrand  moved    that 
they  should   be    entirely    disregarded,   and    carried   his 
motion.     A   constituent   committee   was   appointed   im- 
mediately after  the  capture   of   the  Bastille,  and  he  was 
the  second   person  nominated  a  member  of  it.     In  this 
capacity  he  was   called  upon  to  take  part  in  maturing 
measures  which  have  had  a  lasting  influence  upon  the 
progress  of  affairs  in  France  :    the  first  of  these  was  the 
re-distribution  of  the  national  territory  into  districts  better 
adapted  than  the  old  provinces  for  the  purposes  of  govern- 
ment ;   the  second  was,  the  organization  of  a  system  of 
finance.     In  the  financial  discussions  which  took  place  in 
the  committee  and  Assembly,  M.  de  Talleyrand  retained 

C2 


T  A  r. 


Ifi 


T  A  L 


his  dislike  of  lotteries.    He  supported  nil  or  most  of  the 
vinous  loans  proper  kcr;   and  seconded   Mna- 

-  exhortations  to  keep  faith  with  the  national 
tor.     He  suggested  practical  mea.stircs  \\ith  a  view  to  this 
•  ml.  and  among  others  the  sale  of  church  lands  (he  had 
previ.  ,'itcd   the   abolition  of  tithes',   reserving 

however  .1  ciinii  cti  n!    provi-ioii   fur   the   priesthood,   nud 

•improving  the  condition  of  UK  He 

alto  proposed  to  establish  a  '  caissc  i\';c  t,'  as 

an  additional  guarantee  to  the  state'-  Tin  t.  -k 

of  making  arrangement-  lor  levying  the  pint  of  the  revenue 
.>m  taxes  upon  persons  exercising  professions, 
and  upon  '.  I   property,  devolved  upon  M.  de  Tal- 

leyrand. Connected  with  his  labours  in  preparing  a  new 
territorial  division  of  France,  and  11  new  method  of  collect- 
ing the  national  revenue,  was  the  motion  which  he  made 
and  carried  in  the  Assembly,  in  August,  17'.H»,  to  the  effect 
that  the  king  should  be  int'rcatcd  to  write  to  his  Britannic 
majesty,  to  engage  the  parliament  of  England  to  concur 
with  the  National  Assembly  in  fixing  a  natural  unit  of 
weights  and  measures;  that,' under  the  auspices  of  the  two 
nations,  an  equal  number  of  commissioners  from  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  and  the  Royal  Society  of  London 
might  unite  to  determine  the  length  of  the  pendulum  in 
the  latitude  of  4;V.  or  in  any  other  latitude  that  might  be 
thought  preferable,  and  to  deduce  from  thence  an  invariable 
standard  of  w  eights  and  measures.  At  the  same  time  t  hat  he 
was  taking  part  with  his  colleagues  of  the  Constituent  (  Vm- 
inittee  in  these  labours  he  was  charged  by  them  with  the 
important  task  of  preparing  the  report  upon  national  edu- 
cation, which  was  read  to  the  Assembly  on  the  10th,  llth, 
and  li)th  of  September,  l~'.)\.  The  basis  of  the  system 
advocated  in  this  report  was  the  secularization  of  instruction : 
education  was  to  be  the  gift  of  the  state,  not  of  the  church ; 
the  state  was  to  provide  instruction  for  those  who  proposed 
to  enter  the  church,  exactly  as  it  was  to  provide  instruction 
for  those  who  proposed  to  enter  any  of  the  other  learned 
profesM.ins.  Equal  sires-  was  laid  upon  the  establishment 
of  elementary  schools  in  every  canton  ;  and  of  a  higher 
fhiss  of  schools,  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  were  not 
destined  to  embrace  a  learned  profession,  in  the  chief  town 
of  every  district.  Two  acts  of  M.  de  Talleyrand,  which 
have  been  much  commented  upon,  appear  to  be  as  it  were 
necessary  corollaries  of  the  principles  avowed  in  the  legis- 
lative career  we  have  been  passing  in  review : — his  ap- 
pearance as  principal  actor  in  the  theatrical  celebration  of 
the  ar.niver.-ary  of  the  capture  of  the  Bastille;  and  his 
taking  upon  him  the  office  of  consecrating  the  national 
clergy. 

It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  some  estimate  he  formed 
of  the  conduct  and  character  of  M.  de  Talleyrand  while  a 
member  of  the  first  National  Assembly,  as  a  guide  to  an 
appreciation  of  his  far  more  enigmatical  subsequent 
.  M.  de  Talleyrand  entered  the  Assembly  with  the 
reputation  of  a  dexterous  negociator,  which  he  had 
acquired  in  his  discharge  of  the  office  of  agent  to  the 
flergy.  He  had  then,  and  he  retained  in  after-life,  the 

cter  of  a  self-indulgent  man,  of  a  man  with  a  large 
instinct  of  self-preservation,  but  also  of  a  humane  man. 
The  disciple  of  Voltaire  and  Fontenelle  could  scarcely  be 
a  very  zealous  Christian,  but  M.  de  Talleyrand  had  always 
been  a  n -pcctei  of  conventional  morality:  his  «•;• - 
cisely  that  kind  of  disposition  and  intellect  that  supports 
a  church  not  from  belief,  but  as  a  useful  engine  for  prc- 

•ig  order  in  society.  M.  de  Talleyrand,  like  all  the 
literati  of  his  day,  had  .1  tin »n -lii -al  belief  in  the  equality  of 
men  ;  at  the  same  time  that  with  regard  to  the  privih 
the  nobility,  he  was  inclined  to  support  them  in  the  same 
way  that  he  did  the  authority  of  the  church— as  a  useful  po- 
litic al  engine,  lint  involuntarily  and  perhaps  unconsciously 
M.  de  Talleyrand  was  .1  wanner  partisan  of  tin 
than  the  clergy  :  he  was  noble  by  birth  and  attached  by 
taste  to  the  habits  of  a  select  society,  whereas  the  ecelesias- 
1'cal  character  forced  upon  him  against  his  will  had  some- 
thing rcpulhivc  to  him.  In  short,  M.  de  Talleyrand  saw 
clej-riy  the  roltc-nncss  and  the  absurdity  of  many 'of  the  old 
institutions  of  his  country  :  he  was  willing,  desirous,  that 
government  should  be  organi/cd  and  act  in  a  manner  to 
promote  the  general  happiness  ;  lint  he  had  no  faith  in  the 
capacity  of  men  for  -elf-gov  eminent ;  and  he  had  been 

1  •liurch,  many  of  who-e  members   v. 

that  time  obliL-  .ences  to  remain- 

ing in  it  by  adopting  the  maxim  that  they  were  deceiving 


men  for  their  own  good.     M.  de  T.dVv  rand's  idea,  and  ho 

enteitaineil  it  in  common  with  .-. 

that  the1  Revolution  might  be  gi:i<  :c-red 

!>v  approximating  the  con-tilu-  h  to 

that  of  the  English  government.  He  cared  little  lor  the 
creed  ol 'the  church,  but  he  wish,  irch, 

and  to  render  it  in  France  what  the  established  church 
was  in  England.  Hence  hi*  \mg 

hands  on  the  property  of  the  church  for  tl 
the  state,  to  retain  an  adequate  provision  for  the  clergy. 
hence   his  anxiety  to  identify  the   clcigy  with  the  n. 
Hi.  ;\!  lablish  a  constitution  modelled  upon  that 

of  Knglun'i  ivas  always  avowed.     His  \ie\-. 
adopted,  it  is  not  meant  to  attribute  originality  to   thenii 
regarding  territorial  divisions  and  the  organization  of  local 
government,  finance,  and  education,    though    oven 
fora  time  in  the  storm  of  the  Revolution,  have  n 
been  adopted  by  the  Empire,  tin  11.  and  the  pre- 

sent dynasty.     The  n  '  :i-  to  the  means  by  which 

he  attained  his  ends  which  he  displayed  even  at  this 
period  of  his  career  is  no  evidence  of  insincerity,  but 
merely  of  the  want  of  faith  in  men,  whirl,  nient 

he  had  experienced  in  early  life,   and  his  observation  of 
the  society  he  habitually  mixed  in.  had  instilled  into  him. 
It  was  his  weakness  through  life  to  pride  himself  in  the 
display  of  his  power  of  retincd  mockery,  regardless  of  the 
enemies  it  created  :    he  gave  vent  to  his  spirit  of  raillery 
in  actions  as  well  as  in  words;  and  thus  lent  a  grot* 
colouring  to   his  i-'iii/iv  it',-lut,  which  rendered  them   more 
startling  than  if  they  had  been  as  prosaic  as  those  of  Other 
men.    The  world  is  perhaps  less  (.tart led  with  the  atrocity 
of  passion  in  a  statesman,  than  with  a  laughing  air  • 
shows   his   contempt  for  it.    The  most  startling  of  his 
devices  is  his  solemn  inauguration  of  the  constitutional 
monarchy  by  the  religious  celebration  of  the  14th  of  July. 
But  the  love  of  theatrical   presentation  and  the  del 
belief  that  good  may  be  effected  by  it   is  strong  in 
man  at  some  period  of  his  life.  Talleyrand  in  all  likelihood 
looked  forward  at  that  moment  to  being  the  founder  and 
future  primate  of  a  church  which  should  be  to  F: 
what  the  Anglo-Episcopal   has  been  to   England.      The 
means  to  which  he  was  driven  to  h;i-  I   in  order 

to  carry  through  the  installation  of  the  national  bishops, 
undeceived  him.  and  brought  back  his  i  ai !  r  the 

-ion  with  redoubled  force.  He  not  long  alter  resigned 
his  bishopric  of  Antun,  and  at  the  same  time  reno' 
his  ecclesiastical  character. 

The  history  of  M.  de  Talleyrand  from  the  'dissolution  of 
the  Constituent  Assembly,  in  September,  I7!H,  till  the 
overthrow  of  the  monarchy,  on  the  loth  of  August,  17!'-. 
would  be  instructive  were  it  merely  as  a  demonstration  of 
the  folly  of  the  self-denying  ordinance  with  which  that 
body  terminated  its  career.  Its  members  were  declared 
ineligible  to  the  m\t  assembly,  and  also  incapable  of 

mg  any  appointment  from  the  crown  until  two 
had  elapsed  from  the  date  of  its  dissolution,     't 
qcnce  was,  that  .M.  de  Talleyrand  among  others  was  icn- 

ineapable  of  any  legislative  or  ministerial  office.  It 
was  at  that  time  an  object  with  all  who  desired  that  the 
Revolution  should  have  fair  play,  to  preserve  pe:u<>  with 
England,  which,  although  still  ostensibly  neutral. 

••ting  additional   symptom-  .lion. 

The  "court  party  bated  M.  de  Talleyrand  for  having  li 

naiikly  with    the'  Revolution  ;   the  republic 
him   lor  his  advocacy  of  a  limited   monarchy;    all   [ 
distrusted  him  on  account   of  his  eternal  sneer;    but  nil 
i  c-d   that    he   was  the   only   man   whose   talents 
fitted  him  for  the  delicate  mission  to   England.     And  it 
was  impossible  to  appoint  him  to  it.     He 

,  c T.  in  January.  17112,  without  any  ostensible  diplo- 
matic character,  to  sound  the  English  ministry,  .-incl  attempt 

::i;,  nee  negotiations.  His  \\ant  of  an  official  charac- 
ter allowed  the  quern  to  indulge  her  -onal 
dislike  to  the  ex-bishop  of  An  tin  i  bv  turning  her  hack  upon 
him  when  he  was  pn-sciilcd  .mil  this  >• 
lion  at  once  ensured  his  exclusion  from  general  society, 
and  rendered  him  powerless.  Aflcr  the  accession  of  the 
Girondr  t..  office, the  attempt  to  ensure  :\t  least  neutrality 
on  the  part  of  England  was  renewed  :  Chauvelin  w:>- 
to  England  as  nomin  <g  with  him  Talleyrand  as 
real  ambassador.  By  thi-tii  :  the  French  govern- 
ment had  1  •  neral  public  of 
England  as  to  the  court  circles:  the  torrent  was  probably 


T  A  L 


13 


T  A  L 


too  strong  to  have  been  stemmed  by  Talleyrand,  even 
though  he  had  been  in  a  condition  to  act  directly  and  in 
person.  He  could  do  nothing,  forced  as  he  was  to  act  by 
the  instrumentality  of  a  man  too  jealous  and  opiniative 
to  conform  honestly  to  the  directions  of  one  whose 
authority  necessarily  made  him  feel  himself  a  mere  puppet. 
Talleyrand's  good  faith  at  this  period  in  labouring  to  pre- 
serve peace  between  England  and  France,  as  the  only 
means  of  rendering  a  constitutional  monarchy  possible 
in  the  other  country,  and  the  steadiness  with  which  he 
pursued  his  object,  undaunted  by  the  most  gross  personal 
insults,  are  satisfactorily  established  by  the  narrative  of 
Dumont. 

Talleyrand  was  at  Paris  when  the  events  of  the  10th  of 
August  put  an  end  to  the  monarchy ;  and  it  required  all 
I  :s  dexterity  to  enable  him  to  obtain  passports  from  Dan- 
ton,  to  enable  him  to  quit  Paris.  He  fled  to  England, 
and  having  saved  little  of  his  property,  he  was  obliged  to 
sell  his  library  there  to  procure  himself  the  means 
of  support.  The  English  government,  jealous  of  his  pre- 
sence, after  some  time  ordered  him  to  leave  the  country 
in  twenty-four  hours ;  and  proscribed  in  France,  he  was 
obliged,  with  a  dilapidated  fortune,  to  seek  refuge  in  Ame- 
rica, when  he  had  almost  attained  his  fortieth  year. 

Madame  de  Stael  has  claimed,  and  apparently  with  a 
good  title,  the  credit  of  instigating  Chenier  to  demand  the 
recall  of  M.  de  Talleyrand  after  the  fall  of  Robespierre  and 
the  termination  of  the  reign  of  terror.  The  National  In- 
stitute was  founded  about  this  time,  and  M.  de  Talleyrand 
had  in  his  absence  been  appointed  a  member  of  the  class 
of  moral  and  political  science.  At  the  first  sitting  of  this 
society  which  he  attended  he  was  elected  secretary,  an 
office  which  he  held  for  six  months.  During  this  period 
he  read  two  papers,  afterwards  published  in  the '  MSmoires 
de  la  Classe  des  Sciences  Morales  et  Politiques  de  1'Institut 
National,'  which  are  justly  considered  not  only  as  the  most 
able  and  original  of  his  published  writings,  but  as  those 
which  are  most  indisputably  his  own.  The  first  of  these 
is  entitled  '  Essai  sur  les  Avantages  u  retirer  de  Colonies 
Ts'ouvelles  dans  les  Cireonstances  presentes ;'  the  second,  ! 
•  Mrmoires  sur  les  relations  Commerciales  des  Etats-TJnis 
avec  1'Anglctcrre.'  The  latter  is,  properly  speaking,  a 
supplement —  perhaps  rather  a  '  piece  justificative'  ap- 
pended to  the  other.  The  great  object  of  both  is  to  point 
out  the  importance  of  colonies  to  a  country  like  France, 
in  which  the  revolutionary  fervour,  though  beginning  to 
burn  dim,  was  still  sufficiently  powerful  to  prolong  the  reign 
of  anarchy  and  suffering,  unless  measures  were  adopted  to 
neutralize  it.  There  can  be  no  mistake  as  to  the  views 
being  those  of  M.  de  Talleyrand  himself.  They  are  such 
as  con  Id  only  occur  to  a  person  entertaining  the  political 
opinions  he  had  advocated  in  the  Constituent  Assembly, 
who  having  been  exiled  by  the '  reign  of  terror '  which  deci- 
mated his  countrymen,  was  living  in  a  country  where  a  suc- 
ul  revolution  had  quietly  and  speedily  subsided  into  a 
settled  form  of  government ;  in  a  country  where  he  felt  that 
'  an  Englishman  becomes  at  once  a  native,  and  a  Frenchman 
remains  for  ever  a  foreigner.'  Not  satisfied  with  pointing  put 
in  what  manner  colonies  might  be  rendered  powerful  a^isl- 
ants  in  tranquillising  France,  the  essayist  entered  deeply 
into  the  principles  of  colonization,  explaining  the  advan- 
tages to  be  derived  from  colonies,  and  the  law  by  which 
their  economical  advantages  might  be  perpetuated  even 
after  their  political  relations  with  the  mother-country  had 
ceased.  In  hi.s  treatment  of  his  subject  he  evinces  a  clear 
and  deep  insight  into  the  structure  of  society  both  in 
France  and  America,  and  just  and  extensive  views  in  po- 
litical economy. 

It  was  not  however  so  much  the  political  talent  displayed 
in  these  essays,  as  M.  de  Talleyrand's  skill  in  employing 
the  reviving  influence  of  the  sahnt  of  Paris,  that  obtained 
him  the  appointment  of  foreign  minister  under  the  Di- 
rectory. Here  again  he  was  indebted  to  Madame  de  Stael, 
who  assisted  him  through  her  influence  with  Barras.  M. 
de  Talleyrand  accepted  office  under  this  unprincipled  go- 
vernment with  a  ]K>rfect  knowledge  of  its  character  and  its 
weakness.  His  conviction  that  a  Frenchman  could  never 
.a  home  in  America  prompted  him  to  grasp  at  the  first 
opportunity  of  returning  to  his  native  country  :  his  shat- 
:  fortune  and  taste  for  expensive  luxuries  rendered 
employment.  nere-sary  for  him,  and  political  business  was 
the  only  lucrative  employment  for  which  he  was  qualified. 
There  is  nothing  in  his  life  to  contradict  the  belief  that  he 


again  engaged  in  politics  with  a  desire  to  promote  what 
was  right  and  useful  as  far  as  he  could ;  but  he  engaged 
in  them  aware  that  he  might  be  ordered  to  do  what  he 
disapproved  of,  and  prepared  to  do  it,  under  the  plea  that 
his  functions  were  merely  ministerial,  and  that  the  responsi- 
bility rested  upon  his  employers.  His  position  under  the 
Directory  was  consequently  an  equivocal  one.  He  was 
engaged,  so  long  as  he  occupied  it,  in  intrigues  which  had 
for  their  aim  the  maintenance  of  himself  in  office,  even  if 
his  employers  should  be  turned  out ;  and  he  was  obliged 
to  do  their  dirty  work.  The  part  which  he  took  in  the 
attempt  to  extort  money,  as  a  private  gratification,  from 
the  American  envoys  who  arrived  in  Paris  in  October, 
1797,  was  probably  forced  upon  him  by  the  directors :  had 
it  been  his  own  project,  it  would  have  been  conceived 
with  more  judgment,  and  the  Americans  would  not  have 
been  driven  to  extremes,  for  he  understood  their  national 
character.  But  allowing  himself  to  be  used  in  such  a 
shabby  business  betrays  a  want  of  self-respect,  or  a  vul- 
garity of  sentiment,  or  both.  He  had  his  reward ;  for 
when  public  indignation  was  excited  by  the  statements  of 
the  American  envoys,  the  minister  of  foreign  affairs  was 
sacrificed  to  the  popular  resentment. 

Having  adopted  a  profession  in  which  success  could 
only  be  expected  under  a  settled  government,  believing 
a  monarchical  government  to  be  the  only  one  which 
could  give  tranquillity  to  his  country,  and  anxious 
with  many  others  to  run  up  a  make-shift  government  out 
of  the  best  materials  that  offered,  he  naturally  attached 
himself  to  the  growing  power  of  Bonaparte.  When  the 
future  emperor  returned  from  Egypt,  M.  de  Talleyrand 
had  been  six  months  in  a  private  station ;  though,  had  he 
still  retained  office,  he  might  with  equal  readiness  have 
conspired  to  overturn  the  Directory.  Bourrienne  is  not 
the  best  of  authorities,  but  the  earlier  volumes  of  the 
memoirs  which  pass  under  his  name  are  less  falsified  than 
the  later ;  and  an  anecdote  which  he  relates  of  Talleyrand's 
interview  with  the  first  consul,  after  being  reappointed 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  is  so  charactenstic,  that  its 
truth  is  highly  probable : — '  M.  de  Talleyrand,  appointed 
successor  to  M.  de  Reinhart  at  the  same  time  that  Cam- 
bacc'res  and  Lebrun  succeeded  Sit-yes  and  Roger  Ducas  as 
consuls,  was  admitted  to  a  private  audience  by  the  first 
consul.  The  speech  which  he  addressed  to  Bonaparte 
was  so  gratifying  to  the  person  to  whom  it  was  addressed, 
and  appeared  so  striking  to  myself,  that  the  words  have 
remained  in  my  memory : — "  Citizen  Consul,  you  have 
confided  to  me  the  department  of  foreign  affairs,  and  I 
will  justify  your  confidence  ;  but  I  must  work  under  no  one 
but  yourself.  This  is  not  mere  arrogance  on  my  part :  in 
order  that  France  be  well  governed,  unity  of  action  is  re- 
quired :  you  must  be  first  consul,  and  the  first  consul  must 
hold  in  his  hand  all  the  main-springs  of  the  political 
machine — the  ministries  of  the  interior,  of  internal  police, 
of  foreign  affaire,  of  war,  and  the  marine.  The  ministers 
of  these  departments  must  transact  business  with  you 
alone.  The  ministries  of  justice  and  finance  have,  without 
doubt,  a  powerful  influence  upon  politics  ;  but  it  is  more 
indirect.  The  second  consul  is  an  able  jurist,  and  the  third 
a  master  of  finance  :  leave  these  departments  to  them  ;  it 
will  amuse  them ;  and  you,  general,  having  the  entire 
management  of  the  essential  parts  of  government,  may 
pursue  without  interruption  your  noble  object,  the  regene- 
ration of  France."  These  words  accorded  too  closely  with 
the  sentiments  of  Bonaparte  to  be  heard  by  him  otherwise 
than  with  pleasure.  He  said  to  me,  after  M.  de  Talley- 
rand had  taken  his  leave,  "  Do  you  know,  Bourrienne, 
Talleyrand's  advice  is  sound.  He  is  a  man  of  sense."  He 
then  added  smilingly: — "Talleyrand  is  a  dexterous  fellow  : 
he  has  seen  through  me.  You  know  I  wish  to  do  what 
he  advises  ;  and  he  is  in  the  right.  Lebrun  is  an  honest 
man,  but  a  mere  book-maker ;  Cambaceres  is  too  much 
identified  with  the  Revolution :  my  government  must  be 
something  entirely  new."  ' 

Napoleon  and  Talleyrand  may  be  said  to  have  under- 
stood each  other,  and  that  in  a  sense  not  discreditable  to 
either.  The  good  sense  of  both  was  revolted  by  the  blood- 
shed and  theatrical  sentiment,  the  blended  ferocity  and 
coxcombry  of  the  Revolution:  both  were  practical  states- 
men, men  with  a  taste  and  talent  for  administration,  not 
mere  constitution-makers.  Like  most  men  of  action,  nei- 
ther of  them  could  discern  to  the  full  extent  the  advantage 
an  executive  government  can  derive  from  having  the  line  of 


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14 


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action  to  a  considerable  extent  prescribed  by  a  constitution ; 

but   Talleyrand  saw  better  than  Napoleon  that    thu    laws 

limiting  DM  arbitrary  \\ill  of  the 

ruler,  in  turn  protect  li'im  by  teaching  then  legitimate 
inothoda  of  defending  their  rights.  In  another  t> 
they  resembled  each  other — neither  was  remarkably  scru- 
pulous as  to  the  means  by  winch  he  attained  his  ends; 
though  thii  laxity  of  numd  sentiment  was  kept  in  check  by 
the  natural  h\imanitv  of  both.  Their  ven  .litl'er- 

•verc  calculated  to  cement  their  union.  The  observant 
self-centred  mind  of  Talleyrand  was  lamed  by  it*  want  of 
power  to  set  other-  in  motion  :  it  is  only  through  sympathy 
that  the  contagious  love  of  action  can  be  conveved.  The 
impassioned  and  imaginative  soul  of  Napoleon  was  made 
to  attach  others  to  him  and  whirl  them  along  with  him  ; 
and  this  power  was  often  too  strong  for  itself:  Napoleon, 
though  capable  of  reflection,  was  too  often  hurried  away 
by  his  instinctive  impulses.  Each  of  these  men  felt  that 
the  other  was  a  supplement  to  himself.  Talleyrand  really 
admired  and  appreciated  Xapoleon.  If  he  flattered  him, 
it  was  by  the  delicate  method  of  confirming  him  in  the 
opinions  and  intentions  which  met  his  approbation,  lie 
dared  to  tell  the  First  Consul  truths  which  others  were  afraid 
to  utter;  and  he  ventured  to  arrest  at  times  the  impetuosity 
of  Napoleon,  by  postponing  the  fulfilment  of  his  orders 
until  he  had  time  to  cool.  He  opposed,  as  long  as  there 
was  any  prospect  of  success,  the  divorce  from  Josephine  : 
but  his  virtue  gave  way  in  the  business  of  the  Duke 
d'Enghien,  for  even  though  we  exculpate  him  from  parti- 
cipation in  the  execution  of  that  pnnce,  to  gratify  his 
master  he  sanctioned  the  violation  of  a  neutral  territory. 
This  was  however  the  only  instance,  in  so  far  as  Bona- 
parte is  concerned,  of  his  sacrificing  the  duty  of  a  friend 
to  flattery  that  can  be  brought  home  to  him.  Napoleon's 
frequent  recurrence,  in  his  conversations  at  St.  Helena,  to 
the  subject  of  Talleyrand's  defection,  his  attempts  to  solve 
the  question  at  what  time  that  minister  '  began  to  betray 
him,'  show  his  appreciation  of  the  services  he  had  re- 
ceived from  him. 

For  a  time  their  alliance  continued  harmonious,  and  that 
was  the  time  of  Napoleon's  success.    The  arrangement  of 
the  Concordat   with  the  pope  was  the  basis  of  the  future 
empire,  and  that  negociation  was  accomplished  by  Talley- 
rand.   The  treaty  of  l,une\ille,  secularising  tl" 
tical  principalities  of  Germany  :  the  treaty  of  Ainu 
cognising  on  the  part  of  England  the  conquests  of  ! 
and  the  new  form  given  to  the  Continental  states  by  the 
Revolution  ;    the  convention  of  I.yon,  which  gave  form  to 
the  Cisalpine  republic;  all  bear  the  impress  of  the  peculiar 

-  of  M.  de  Talleyrand.  And  the  minister  of  i 
httairs  was  fully  aware  of  his  own  consequence.  In  ISO  I, 
when  obliged  by  the  state  of  his  health  to  use  the  waters 
of  Bourbon  rArchambaud,  he  wrote  to  Napoleon  : — '  I 
regret  being  at  a  distance  from  you,  for  my  devotion  to 
your  great  plans  contributes  to  their  accomplishment.' 
After  the  battle  of  Ulm,  Talleyrand  addressed  to  the  em- 
peror a  plan  for  diminishing  the  |  lower  of  Austria  to  interfeic 
with  the  preponderance  of  France,  by  uniting  Tyrol  to  the 
Helvetian  republic,  and  erecting  the  Venetian  territory 
into  an  independent  icpnblic  interposed  between  the 
kingdom  of  Italy  and  the  Austrian  territories.  He  pro- 
posed to  reconcile  Austria  to  this  arrangement  by  < 
to  it  the  whole  of  Wallachia,  Moldavia,  Bessarabia,  and 
the  northern  part  of  Bulgaria.  The  advantages  he  antici- 

!  from  this  arrangement,  were  that  of  removing  Austria 

from  interfering  in  the  sphere  of  French  influence,  without 

exasperating  it,  and  that  of  raining  in  the  East  a  power 

able   than  Turkey  to  hold  a  balance  with  Ku—ja. 

Napoleon  paid  no  attention  to  the  proposal.     After  the 

ry  of  Austerlitr,  Talleyrand  again  pressed  it  upon  his 
notice,  but  equally  without  ctt'ect.  No  change  in  the  feel- 
ings of  the  emperor  and  his  minister  can  positively  be 

I  to  this  event ;  but  we  see  on  the  one  hand  a  pertiim- 

repctition  of  a  favourite  proposal,  and  on  the  other  a 

silent  and  nit  her  contemptuous  rejection  of  it.    \Ve  find  at. 

a  much  later  period  Napoleon  complaining  of  the  pcrtina- 

••  I'h  which  Talleyrand  was  Mem-ton;  at  any 

advice  which  he  considered  important;  anil  we  find  Taf- 
leyrfind  sp..aking  of  Napoleon  as  one  who  could  not  be 
served  because  he  would  not  listen  to  advice.  And  we 

t  hut  see  in  the  diftV  -pinion  just  men' 

lh«  commencement  of  that  coolness  which  indip 
rand,  on  the  IHh  of  August,  1H07.  to  resign  the  portfolio  of  j 


foreign  affair*  and  accept  the  nominal  dignity  of  vice- 
grand-elcctor  of  the  titles  of 

grand-fhamberlam  and  prince  01  H.  Inch  had 

;red  upon  him.     An  unpreccii 
career  ol    victory  had    renilcnd    Napoleon    impatient   of 

- ;  the  contciousnei*  of  important  services  had 

ation 

thus  originated  was  increased  and  confirmed  hy  IIP-  da*h- 
ing  hut  vulgar  soldiers,  v.:  .i:fluenlial 

part    of  the   emperor's  court,   and    their   silly  :r 
wives,  who  •  M  M.  de  Talleyrand  his  sup 

refinement,  and  who  had  all  in  tin 
portable  suca-m.     Na]H)leon  in  exile  is  said  to  Ir 
sented  the  resignation  of  M.  de  Talleyrand  as  in 
and  rendered  necessary  by  lus  stock-jobbing  propeu- 
It  is  not  impossible  that  the  minister  may  have  - 
more  deeply  in  the  funds  than  was  altogether  pi 
had  there  been  no  oth- 

could,   and  often   did,  wink  at   more  flagrant 
delinquencies.  M.  de  Talleyrand,  in  his  charactci 
chamberlain,   did   the  honours  of  the   impciia 
Erfurt  ;  and  was  on  more  than  one  occasn 
suited  by  the  emperor,  who  one  day  said, 
to  ha.  In  iso;)  how.- 

loud  and  unreserved  in  his  comlcmr 
expedition,  that  Napoleon,  on  his  return  from  '. 
sula,  deprived  him  of  the  office  of  clumbcrlnin.     The  tost 

'•ars  of  the   empire   elicited  UK: 
from  M,  de  Talleyrand,  which   were   duly  earn 
ears  of  the  emperor,  who  retorted  by  sallies  of  abuse  v- 
irritated  the  prince  wit hou  ;   him  leas  pov. 

In  1812  M.  ue  Talleyrand  is  said  to 
overthrow  of  the  em  put.    In  IKI:J  overtur.  - 

him  with  a  view  to  his  resuming  the   por" . 

affairs,  but  without  success.      In    |Kl!   he  re-appeai. 

i-  of  active  life  on  his  own  account. 
In  1S14.  as  vice-graud-clcc  tor  of  the  empire,  he  was  a 
member  of  the  regency,  but  was  prc\enu-d  JOUUI.L: 
Blois  by  the  national  guard  refusing  to  allow  him  to  quit 
Paris  —  iiot.   much  against  Ins  will.     When  Paris  ca 
lateil,  the  emperor  Alexander  took  uphis  reside 

of  the  prince  of  Bcnevento.     The  words  attri! 
by  the  Memoirs  of  Kourrienne  to  Talleyrand,  in  ; 
sations  with  those  in  whose  hands  the  fortune  ol  war  had 
for  the  time  placed  the  fortunes  of  France,  are  charact cr- 
ime, and  in  keeping  with  his  opinions  and  subse- 
quent conduct: — 'There  is  no  other  alternate 
poleon  or  Louis  XVIII.     After  Napoleon  there  is  no  one 
who-c   personal  qualities  would  ensure  him  the  sup] 
ten  men.     A  principle  is  needed  to  give  consistency  ' 
new  government,   whatever  it   maybe:   Ixniis  \\lli 

is  a  principle.     Anything  but   Napoleon  or  Louis 
\\  111.  is  an  intrigue,  and  no  intrigue  can  be  strong  enough 
to  support  him  upon  whom  it  might  confer  power."     Tins 
view  lends  consistency  to  the  conduct  of  M.de  Talleyrand 
at  the   close  of  Napoleon's  career.      Their  alliance  had 
long  been  dissolved  :  they  stood  confronting  each  otl 
separate  and  independent  powers.    M.  de  Talleyrand  had 
advocated   a   limited   monarchy,  until  the  old   ifiion.- 
violently  broken  up  and  overturned  ;  he  had  lent  his  aid 
to  construct  a  new  monarchy  and  a  new  aristocracy  out  of 
the  fragments  of  old  institutions  which  the  Revolution  had 
••.v    France   a  train   without   a  government,   and, 
with  his  principles,  he  might  have  consistently  taken  office 
under  any  government,   holding,  as  he  did/the  opinion 
that  any  government  is  better  than  none,  and  thu: 
man  may  hold  office  under  it  provided  he  take  • 
as  much  good  and  as  little  ha; in  a.»  he  can.     But  M.  '.•• 
Talleyrand   did  more:  he  exerted   thr  influence   IP 
sesseo.  over  Alexander  to  obtain  the  combination  <> 
stitutiomil  forms  with  the  recognition  of  legitmi. 
X  \  111.  saved  appearances  by  insisting  upon  being  ai1 

tit  the  (-barter  spontaneously,  but  it  was  M.  de  Tal- 
leyrand's use  of  the  iciii  ititiouary  party 
that  made  him  feel  the  necessity  of  this  i  i,  As 
minister  Talleyrand  i  ith  a 
precision  I  i  an  object  of  annny- 
•'i  the  courti eis  ot 'the  !•'  '.  as  ever  the  pedantic 
Clarendon  irrounded  i  'luules  II. 
-  t  out  tor  li  •  \  icnna.  in  September, 
1*11,  the  court  of  F.I  id  to  have  piescntcd  the 
:i-pc.  •  <>l  nt  the  commencement  of  the  holi- 
The  powers  who  had  refused  to  concede  to  Napoleon  at 


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15 


T  A  L 


the  head  of  a  victorious  army  anything  beyond  the  limits 
of  France  in  1792,  gave  more  favourable  terms  to  M.  de 
Talleyrand,  the  representative  of'a  nation  upon  which  they 
had  just  forced  a  king.  He  baffled  the  emperor  Alexander, 
who  said  angrily,  '  Talleyrand  conducts  himself  as  if  he 
were  minister  of  Louis  XIV.'  On  the  5th  of  January,  1815, 
he  signed,  with  Lord  Castlereagh  and  Prince  Metternich, 
a  secret  treaty,  having  previously  obliged  Prussia  to  remain 
contented  with  a  third  of  Saxony,  and  Russia  to  cede  a 
part  of  the  trrand-duchy  of  Warsaw.  The  imbecility  of  the 
Bourbons,  by  inviting  the  descent  of  Napoleon  at  Frejus, 
asrain  unsettled  everything.  M.  de  Talleyrand  dictated 
the  proclamation  of  Cambray,  in  wmch  Louis  XVIII.  con- 
fessed the  faults  committed  in  1814,  and  promised  to  make 
reparation.  He  susgested  the  more  liberal  interpretation 
of  the  charter,  announced  from  the  same  place.  He  ob- 
tained an  extension  of  the  democratic  principle  in  the 
constitution  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  recommended 
the  rendering  the  peerage  hereditary,  and  induced  the 
king,  restored  for  a  second  time,  to  institute  a  cabinet 
council,  of  which  he  was  nominated  the  first  president. 

The  constitutional  monarchy,  the  object  of  his  earlier 
wishes,  was  now  definitively  established ;  but  the  part  he 
was  destined  to  perform  in  it  was  that  of  a  leader  of  oppo- 
sition. In  his  note  of  the  21st  of  September,  1815,  he  pro- 
tested, as  prime  minister,  against  the  new  terms  which  the 
allies  intended  to  impose  upon  France.  He  said  they  were 
such  conditions  as  only  conquest  could  warrant.  '  There 
can  only  be  conquest  where  the  war  has  been  carried  on 
against  the  possessor  of  the  territory,  that  is,  the  sovereign ; 
>ion  and  sovereignty  being  identical.  But  when  war 
is  conducted  against  a  usurper  in  behalf  of  the  legitimate 
possessor,  there  can  be  no  conquest;  there  is  only  the  re- 
covery of  territory.  But  the  high  powers  have  viewed  the 
enterprise  of  Bon?parte  in  the  light  of  an  act  of  usurpa- 
tion, and  Louis  XVIII.  as  the  real  sovereign  of  France  : 
they  have  acted  in  support  of  the  king's  rights,  and  ought 
to  respect  them.  They  contracted  this  engagement  by 
their  declaration  of  the  13th  and  their  treaty  of  the  25th  of 
March,  to  which  they  admitted  Louis  XVIII.  as  an  ally 
against  the  common  enemy.  If  there  can  be  no  conquest 
from  a  friend,  much  more  can  there  be  none  from  an  ally.' 
His  argument  was  fruitless:  Louis  XVIII.  bowed  to  the 
dictation  of  his  powerful  allies :  and  M.  de  Talleyrand  re- 
signed office  two  months  before  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty 
which  narrowed  the  frontiers  of  France  and  amerced  her 
in  a  heavy  contribution.  By  this  step  M.  de  Talleyrand 
enabled  himself  to  contribute  essentially  to  strengthening 
the  constitutional  monarchy,  to  which,  if  he  had  any  prin- 
ciple, he  had  through  life  preserved  his  attachment.  Had 
he  been  a  party  to  the  treaty,  he  must  have  shared  with  the 
elder  branch  of  the  Bourbons  the  odium  which  attached  to 
all  who  had  taken  part  in  it ;  and  hence  thrown  the  oppo- 
sition into  the  hands  of  the  enemies  of  the  constitution. 
By  resigning  office,  he  obtained  a  voice  potential  in  the 
deliberations  of  the  opposition  ;  and  no  Kuirlish  nobleman 
born  and  bred  to  the  profession  could  have  discharged 
more  adroitly  the  functions  of  an  opposition  leader.  For 
fourteen  years  his  talun  was  a  place  of  resort  for  the 
leaders  of  the  liberal  party;  in  society  he  aided  it  by 
his  conversational  1;ilents;  in  the  chamber  of  peers  he 
lent  it  the  weight,  of  his  name  and  experience.  He  de- 
fended the  liberty  of  the  press  in  opposition  to  the  cen- 
sorship; he  supported  trial  by  jury  in  the  case  of  offences 
of  the  press;  and  he  protested  against  the  interference 
of  Fiance  in  the  internal  affairs  of  Spain  in  1823. 
By  this  line  of  conduct  he  was  materially  instru- 
mental in  creating  a  liberal  party  within  the  pale  of  the 
constitution;  and  to  the  existence  of  such  a  party  was 
owing  in  no  small  degree  the  result  of  the  revolution  of 
1KJO,  in  which,  though  the  dynasty  was  changed,  the  con- 
stitution survived  in  its  most  important  outlines.  .  That 
revo'ution  also  placed  Prince  Talleyrand  in  a  condition  to 
realise  what  had  been  one  of  his  in  I  wishes  at 

the  outset  of  his  political  career— an   alliance   between 
France   and  Kngland  as  constitutional  governments.     To 
accomplish  this  he  had  laboured  strenuously  in  1792;  to 
h   tins  was  one,  of  the  tirst  objects  he   aimed   at 
i  appointed  mini  .ter  for  foreign  affairs  under  Hie  con- 
sulate:  he  accomplished  it  as  representative   of  Louis 

M.    de   Talleyrand   was   appointed   ambassador   extra- 
ordinary and  minister  plenipotentiary  to  the  court  of  Great 


Britain  on  the  5th  of  September,  1830 ;  and  he  held  the 
appointment  till  the  7th  of  January,  1835,  when  he  was 
succeeded  by  General  Sebastiani.  During  these  four  years 
M.  de  Talleyrand,  besides  obtaining  the  recognition  of  the 
new  order  of  things  in  France  by  the  European  powers, 
procured  a  similar  recognition  of  the  independence  of 
Belgium,  and  concluded  the  quadruple  alliance  of  Eng- 
land, France,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
establishing the  peace  of  the  Peninsula. 

After  his  return  from  the  mission  to  England,  M.  de 
Talleyrand  retired  from  public  life.  The  only  occasion  on 
which  he  again  emerged  from  domestic  retirement  was 
when  he  appeared  at  the  Acad£mie  des  Sciences  Morales 
et  Politiques,  to  pronounce  the  eloge  of  Count  Reinhard, 
only  three  months  before  his  own  death.  He  died  on  the 
20th  of  May,  1838,  in  the  eighty-fourth  year  of  his  age. 

The  object  of  this  sketch  has  been  to  present,  as  far  as 
the  very  imperfect  materials  which  are  attainable  would 
permit,  a  view  of  this  very  extraordinary  man  undis- 
torted  by  any  partisan  feeling  either  with  regard  to  his 
person  or  principles.  It  must  be  admitted  in  favour  of  M. 
de  Talleyrand  that  he  was  warmly  beloved  by  those  who 
were  his  intimate  friends,  and  by  all  who  were  at  any  time 
employed  under  him.  It  must  also  be  allowed  that  when 
his  life  is  contemplated  as  a  whole,  it  bears  the  imprint  of 
a  unity  of  purpose  animating  his  efforts  throughout.  Free- 
dom of  thought  and  expression,  the  abolition  of  antiquated 
and  oppressive  feudal  forms  and  the  most  objectionabte 
powers  of  the  church,  the  promotion  of  education,  the 
establishment  of  a  national  religion,  and  a  constitutional 
government  compounded  of  popular  representation  and  an 
hereditary  sovereign  and  aristocracy — these  were  the  ob- 
jects he  proposed  for  attainment  when  he  entered  the 
arena  of  politics.  He  attempted  to  approach  this  ideal  as 
far  as  circumstances  would  admit  at  all  periods  of  his  long 
career ;  and  he  ended  by  being  instrumental  in  establish- 
ing it.  No  act  of  cruelty  has  been  substantiated  against 
him  ;  and  the  only  charges  of  base  subserviency  that  ap- 
pear to  be  satisfactorily  proved,  are  his  participation  in  the 
attempt  to  extort  a  bribe  from  the  American  envoys,  and 
in  the  violation  of  an  independent  territory  in  the  seizure 
of  the  Due  d'Enghien.  His  literary  was  subordinate  to  his 
political  character.  It  is  difficult  to  say  how  much  of  the 
writings  published  in  his  name  were  really  his  own. 
Latterly,  we  are  informed  upon  good  authority,  he  was  in 
the  habit  of  explaining  his  general  views  on  a  subject  to 
sotne  one  whom  he  employed  to  bring  this  communication 
into  shape ;  and  when  the  manuscript  was  presented  to 
him,  he  modified  and  retouched  it.  until  it  met  his  views, 
throwing:  in  a  good  deal  of  that  wit  which  gave  zest  to  his 
conversation.  The  domestic  life  of  M.  de  Talleyrand  has 
not  been  alluded  to  ;  for  almost  every  statement  regarding 
it  is  poisoned  by  the  small  wit  of  the  coteries  of  Paris. 

The  report  upon  education  of  1791  ;  a  report  to  the  first 
consul  upon  the  best  means  of  re-establishing  the  diplo- 
matic service  of  France  ;  the  essays  upon  colonization,  and 
the  commercial  relations  of  England  and  America ;  and 
the  eloge  of  M.  de  Reinhard — may  all  be  regarded  as  his 
own  composition.  The  first  is  the  most  commonplace; 
the  other  three  are  master-pieces  in  their  different  ways. 
They  bespeak  an  elegant  and  accomplished  mind,  a 
shrewd  insight  into  character  and  the  structure  of  society, 
and  a  felicitous  and  graphic  power  of  expression.  The 
wit  of  M.  de  Talleyrand  was  the  wit  of  intellect,  not  of 
temperament.  It  was  often  full  of  meaning;  always  sug- 
gestive of  thought ;  most  frequently  caustic.  His  reserve, 
probably  constitutional,  but  heightened  by  the  circum- 
stances of  his  early  life,  and  cultivated  upon  principle, 
was  impenetrable.  In  advanced  life  it  seemed  even  to 
have  affected  his  physical  appearance.  When  at  rest,  but 
for  his  glittering  eye,  it  would  have  been  difficult  to  feel 
certain  that  it  was  not  a  statue  that  was  placed  before  you. 
When  his  sonorous  voice  broke  upon  the  ear,  it  was  like  a 
possessing  spirit  speaking  from  a  graven  imago.  Even  in 
comparatively  early  life,  his  power  of  banishing  all  ex- 
pression from  his  countenance,  and  the  soft  and  heavy 
appearance  of  his  features  was  remarked  us  contrasting 
startlingly  with  the  manly  energy  indicated  by  his  deep 
powerful  voice.  Mirabeau  in  the  beginning,  Napoleon 
at  the  close  of  the  Revolution,  threw  him  into  the  shade  ; 
but  he  outlasted  both.  The  secret  of  his  power  was 
patience  and  pertinacity;  and  his  life  has  the  appearance 
of  heing  pretcrnaturally  lengthened  out  when  we  recollect 


T  A  L 


16 


T  A  L 


the  immense  number  of  widely  removed  character*  and 
everts  of  which  In-  was  tin-  contemporary.  It  may  be  said 
on  tlio  one  hand  that  he  accomplished  nothing  which  time 
did  not  in  a  manner  brine;  about ;  but  on  the  other  it  may 
be  said,  with  equal  plausibility,  that  scarcely  any  of  the 
leadn  A  Inch  have  occurred  in  France  in  his  day 

would  base  taken  the  exact  shape  they  assumed  hud  no't 
his  hand  interfered  to  give  them  somewhat  of  a  bias  or 
direction.  Next  to  Napoleon,  he  certainly  is  the  most 
extraordinary  man  the  revolutionary  period  of  France  has 
given  birth  to. 

udes  rt  Portraits  Politiquei,  par  A.  Mignet,  Brux- 
elles,  1841,  pp.  131-194;  Rapport  sur  iln\truftion  1'ub- 
liquefait  an  nom  du  Comiti  de  Constitution  d  FAssemblce 
Rationale,  let  10,  11,  et  19  Septrmbrf,  1791,  par  M.  de 
Talleyrand,  Paris,  1791-4;  Klinburyh  Jtfrieir,  voU.  vi. 
and  vii. ;  Menwira  par  Etienne  de  Dumont ;  Correspon- 
dence beticeen  the  Envoyt  of  the  American  States  ana  M. 
tie  Talleyrand,  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs  m  i'rance, 
London,  1798,  12mo.  ;  Considerations  sur  lex  jjnnripnit.r 
frenrments  de  la  Revolution  Franpaise,  par  Mme.  la  Ba- 
ronne  de  Stael ;  Dix  Annies  <FKril,  par  la  imlme  ;  Mt- 
mnires  par  A.  L.  F.  de  Bourrienne,  Pans  et  Londres,  1831  ; 
Mrmt,rt'il  de  Si.  Ileltnf ;  Mf moires  pour  serrir  a  I'Hit- 
toire  de  France  sou*  Napoleon,  par  MM.  les  GG.  Mon- 
tholon  et  Gourgaud  ;  Kloge  de  fa.  le  Comte  de  Reinhard 
prononci  a  /'.trutlemie  <lei<  Srience*  Morales  tt  Poliliques, 
par  M.  le  Prince  de  Talleyrand,  dans  la  Seance  du  3 
Mars,  1838,  Paris,  1838.) 

TALLIS,  THOMAS,  who  is  considered  the  patriarch  of 
English  cathedral  music,  was  born  at  about  the  same 
period  as  the  famous  Italian  ecclesiastical  composer 
Palc&trina,  whose  birth  took  place  in  the  year  152!). 

It  hits  been  slated,  but  most  probably  erroneously,  that 
Fallis  was  organist  to  Henry  V  111.  and  his  successors. 
He  undoubtedly  was  a  gentleman  of  the  chapel  to  Edward 
VI.  and  Mary  ;"  and  under  Elizabeth  the  place  of  organist 
wan  added  to  his  other  office.  He  seems  to  have  devoted 
himself  wholly  to  the  duties  of  the  church,  for  his  name 
does  not  appear  to  anything  in  a  secular  form.  His  entire 
Service,  including  prayers,  responses,  Litany,  ami  nearly 
nil  of  a  musical  kind  comprised  in  our  liturgy,  and  in  use 
in  our  cathedrals,  appears  in  Dr.  Boyce's  Collection,  to- 
gether with  an  anthem  which  has  lone;  been  in  high  repute 
with  the  admirers  of  severe  counterpoint.  Hut  tor  the 
smaller  parts  of  his  Service  he  was  indebted  to  Peter 
Marbeek,  organist  of  Windsor,  who  certainly  is  entitled  to 
the  credit  of  having  added  those  solemn  notes  to  the 
suffrages  and  responses  which,  under  the  name  of  Tallis, 
are  still  retained  in  our  choirs,  nnd  listened  to  with  reve- 
rential pleasure.  [MARHECK.] 

In  l.~>7.~>  Tallis  published,  in  conjunction  with  his  pupil, 
Bird  (or  Byrde),  Cantinni-x  Sacra;  master-pieces  of  their 
kind;  and  these  are  rendered  the  more  remarkable  from 


Pig.  1. 


having  Ix-en   pr.  twenty-one  year*  by  a  patent 

from  l^ncen  Kh/abcth,  the  first  of  the  kind  that  e\er  was 
granted.  One  of  these.  'O sacrum  con v mum,'  was  adapted 
bv  Dean  Alilrich  to  the  words  -  I  call  and  I  the 

above-mentioned  anthem,  which  still  continues  hi  1 
quently  performed  in  most  of  our  cathedials.     Two  more 
of  his  anthems  are  (irinted  in  Dr.  Arnold's  Collection. 

Tallis  died  in  15x5,  and  was  buried  in  the  parish  church 
of  Greenwich,  in  the  chancel  of  which  Strypc.  in  his  con- 
tinuation of  Stowe's  Surri-ij.  tells  us  he  saw  a  brass  plate, 
on  which  was  engraved,  in  old  English  letter,  an  epitaph, 
in  four  stanzas  of  four  lines  each,  giving  a  luicf  historj  of 
this  renowned  composer.  The  plate  was  carried  aw«y, 
and  most  likely  sold  by  weight,  by  some  barbarian,  when 
the  church  wax  repaired  about  a  century  ago.  The  verse* 
are  to  be  found  in  Hawkins,  Burney,  and  most  other  pub- 
lications relating  to  English  church  music. 
TAI.I.mV.  [FAT.] 

TALLOW,  MINERAL  or  MOUNTAIN.  [HjLKittini*.] 
TALLOW -TKKK.     (  Si  ,M.IN<;IA.] 
TALLY.     This  word  appears  to  be  derived  from  the 
French  taille,  or  /.////<•/•,  each  of  which  expresses  tin 
of  cutting  or  notching. 

The  use  of  notched  sticks  or  tallies  may  be  traced  to  « 
very  remote  period,   and  there  that 

they  were  among  the  earliest   nn-ai;-  dc\iscd  for  keeping 
accounts.   Some  writers  conceive  that  the  Greek  syniboluiii 
(avpfioXov)  was  in  some  cases  a  species  of  tally,  which  was 
used  between  contracting  parties;    being  broken  in  two. 
and   one-half  given   to   each.      In  the   •  Pictorial   Bible" 
(note  oaEzi-k.  xxxvii.  31  .  much  curious  information  is 
brought   together  on  the   subject   of  writing  or  marking 
with  notches  upon  sticks.     The  writer  of  that  note  refers 
to   the  tablets  of  wood    called   a.rones,  upon  which  the 
Athenians  inscribed  the  laws  of  Solon,  and  to  the  pi:: 
of  the  antient  Britons,  who,  he  says.  •  used  to  cut  their 
alphabet  with  a  knife  upon  a  stick,  which,  thus  inscribed, 
was  called  CtH'Ibrrii  tj  Hi'ird'l.   "the  billet  of  signs  of  the 
bards,"  or  the  Bardic  alphabet.'     '  And  not  only.'  In 
tilliies.  'weie   the   alphabets  such,    but  compositions  and 
memorials  were  registered  in  the  same  manner.'     These 
sticks,  he  adds,  were  commonly  squared. but  weie  sometimes 
tliree-siiled  ;  each  side,  in  either  case,  containing  one  line  of 
writing.    A  cut  which  accompanies  the  note  from  win 
quote,  shows  the  manner  of  mounting  several  such  inscribed 
sticks  in  a  fi.inie.  su  that  they  might  1 
Another  illustration,    of  later  date,  is  the  el- 
described  by  Dr.  Plot,  in  ItiSli.  ns  still  common  in  Slatl'ord- 
shire.  Such  calendars,  which  had  the  various  days  marked 
by  notches  of  different  forms  and  si 

made  small  enough  to  carry  in  the  pocket,  and  sometiiiiiTt 
larger,  for  hanging  up  in 'the   h  :nilar  cal. 

are  saul   to  have  been  formerly  used  in  Sweden.      Perhaps 
the  most  curious  of  the  illustrations  collected  in  the  notu 


I.   d.   d.  d.  rf.rf.rf.  rf. 

11      11*4      1    1    1  1  i  i 


i     i       i 

S.10U  Krivr-l'ule  UM-d  la  the  I  tie  of  PoitUnd. 


Kg.  2. 


Ux>:ii-i|i»-r  Tally. 


referred  to  is  the  Saxon  Reive-Pole,  which  either  is,  or  ha» 
been  down  to  a  iod,  used  in  the  Isle  of  Portland 

l-ir  collecting  the  yearly  rent  paid  to  the  king  as  lord 
of  the  manor.     This  rent",  which  amounts  to  14/.   14*.  3d., 
in  collected  by  the  reive,  or  steward,  every  Michaelmas; 
the  sum  which  each  person  has  to  pay  being  scored  upon 
a  squared  pole,  a  portion  of  which  is  represented  in  the 
subjoined  cut,  with  figures  to  mark  the  amount  inch 
by  each  notch.     •  The  black  circle  at  the  top,' oh 
the  work  from  wliich  we  quote,  •  denotes  the  parish  of 


Southwell,  and  that  side  of  the  ,  ount 

of  the  lax  paid  by  the  parishioners:  each  pci-on\  account 

divided    from  that  of  Ins   neighbour  b\   t) 
indentation*  between  each.     In  the  present  instance  the 
first  pays  :>}</.,  the  .-  -'/•.  the  n.At  one  laylhiug, 

and  soon.'     The  other  hide  of  the   pole  which  is   n 
seilteit  in  the  cut  is  a]  to  file  parish   ,,f  \Vnkcm, 

of  which  the  cross  within  a  circle  is  the  ili-tnntue  mark. 

The  talli.  '   the    K\dieijiier  (one   of  which   is 

represented  by  fig.  'i)  answered  the  purpose  of  receipt* 


T  A  L 


17 


T  A  L 


as  well  as  simple  records  of  matters  of  account.  They 
consisted  of  squared  rods  of  hazel  or  other  wood,  upon 
one  side  of  which  was  marked,  by  notches,  the  sum  for 
which  the  tally  was  an  acknowledgment ;  one  kind  of 
notch  standing  for  1000/.,  another  for  1001.,  another  for 
20/.,  and  others  for  20.s.,  1*.,  &c.  On  two  other  sides  of 
the  tally,  opposite  to  each  other,  the  amount  of  the  sum, 
the  name  of  the  payer,  and  the  date  of  the  transaction, 
were  written  by  an  officer  called  the  writer  of  the  tallies  ; 
and,  after  this  was  done,  the  stick  was  cleft  longitudinally 
in  such  a  manner  that  each  piece  retained  one  of  the 
written  sides,  and  one-half  of  every  notch  cut  in  the  tally. 
One  piece  was  then  delivered  to  the  person  who  had  paid 
in  the  money,  for  which  it  was  a  receipt  or  acquittance, 
while  the  other  was  preserved  in  the  Exchequer.  Madox 
observes  respecting  these  rude  and  primitive  records, '  The 
use  of  them  was  very  antient ;  coeval,  for  aught  I  know, 
with  the  Exchequer  itself  in  England.'  They  were  finally 
discontinued  at  the  remodelling  of  the  Exchequer  in  1834; 
and  it  is  worthy  of  recollection  that  the  fire  by  which  the 
Houses  of  Parliament  were  destroyed  was  supposed  to  have 
originated  in  the  over-heating  of  the  flues  in  which  the 
di-carded  tallies  were  being  burnt.  Clumsy  as  the  con- 
trivance may  appear,  tallies  were  effectual  in  the  preven- 
tion of  forgery,  since  no  ingenuity  could  produce  a  false 
tally  which  should  perfectly  correspond  with  the  counter- 
tally  preserved  at  the  Exchequer;  and  no  alteration  of 
the  sum  expressed  by  the  notches  and  the  inscription 
could  pass  undetected  when  the  two  parts  of  the  stick 
were  fitted  together.  A  correspondent  of  the  '  Gentle- 
man's Magazine'  for  November,  1834  (p.  480),  states  that 
forgeries  were  attempted  immediately  alter  the  discontinu- 
ance of  tally  receipts.  The  officers  of  the  Exchequer 
commonly  called  tellers  (talliers),  as  well  as  several  other 
functionaries,  derived  their  name  from  the  word  tally. 

Many  different  kinds  of  tally  are  used  in  gardens  and 
trboretums,  to  bear  either  numbers  referring  to  a  cata- 
logue, or  the  names  of  the  plants  near  which  they  are 
placed.  Loudon  describes  several  sorts,  of  wood,  metal, 
earthenware,  brick,  &c.,  in  his  '  Encyclopaedia  of  Garden- 
in?.'  Wooden  tallies  are  sometimes  marked  by  notches 
instead  of  writing  or  painting;  particular  forms  or  com- 
binations of  notches  being  used  to  represent  either  Arabic 
numerals  or  the  Roman  letters  commonly  employed  in 
numeration.  Tallies  formed  of  brick-earth,  witn  a  recess 
for  containing  a  printed  card,  which  is  sheltered  by  a  piece 
of  glass,  have  been  introduced  of  late  years,  and  are  par- 
ticularly recommended  for  use  in  arboretums.  Instead  of 
being  stuck  in  the  ground,  like  tallies  of  wood  and  metal, 
these  brick  tallies  are  formed  with  a  broad  base,  which 
rests  upon  its  surface. 

I'ictorial  Bible,  note  on  Ezek.  xxxvii.  20  ;  Madox's 
Hi^i',1 1/  i if  the  Exchequer,  fyc.  A  popular  history  of 
tallies  is  given  in  vol.  xxiv.  of  the  Mirror  (pp.  325  and 
341),  partly  condensed  from  the  Times  newspaper.) 

TALMA,  FRANQ9IS  JOSEPH,  an  eminent  French 
tragedian,  was  born  in  Paris,  January  loth,  1763.  His 
lather,  who  was  a  dentist,  went  to  England  shortly  after 
the  birth  of  his  son,  and  practised  his  profession  for  some 
years  in  London.  At  nine  years  of  age  young  Talma  re- 
turned to  France,  and  was  placed  in  a  school  at  Chaillot, 
which  was  kept  by  Monsieur  Lamarguiere,  a  great  ad- 
mirer of  the  drama,  who  delighted  to  discover  and 
encourage  a  similar  taste  in  any  of  his  pupils.  A  year 
alter  Talma  had  joined  the  school  he  was  intrusted  with  a 
part  in  an  old  tragedy,  called  'Simois,  Fils  de  Tamer- 
lane,' which  Monsieur  Lamarguiere  had  selected  for  per- 
formance by  his  scholars ;  and  so  deeply  did  the  future 
tragedian  enter  into  the  feeling  of  the  character,  that  he 
burst  into  a  flood  of  tears  at  the  recital  of  the  sorrows  of 
the  hero,  whose  brother  he  represented.  At  the  age  of 
twelve  he  wrote  a  little  drama,  in  the  composition  of 
which  he  further  developed  his  knowledge  of  the  stage. 
He  again  visited  London,  and  returned  a  second  time  to 
Paris  at  the  latter  end  of  the  year  1781,  when  he  com- 
menced the  study  of  logic  in  the  College  Mazarin.  In 
17X!  he  made  a  coup  d'essai  at  the  Th6atre  de  Doyen,  in 
the  character  of  Seide,  in  the  tragedy  of  'Mahomet.'  A 
council  of  friends,  appointed  by  himself,  to  judge  of  his 
performance,  pronounced  it  a  failure :  '  He  had  not  le,  feu 
Talma  deferred  to  this  unfavourable  opinion,  and 
quietly  resumed  the  study  of  his  father's  profession  ;  but  a 
few  years  afterwards  the  very  same  friends  were  called 
P.  C.,  No.  1400. 


j' 

I.! 


upon  to  reverse  their  judgment  and  confess  their  mistake. 
On  the  21st  of  November,  1787,  he  made  his  debut  at  the 
Theatre  Franeais,  and  in  1789  created  a  great  sensation  by 
his  performance  of  Charles  IX.  At  the  commencement  of 
the  French  Revolution  he  nearly  fell  a  prey  to  a  severe 
nervous  disorder.  On  his  recovery  and  the  retirement  of 
Larive,  Talma  became  the  principal  tragic  actor.  He  re- 
formed the  costume  of  the  stage,  and  first  played  the  part 
of  Titus  in  a  Roman  toga.  During  the  reign  of  Napoleon 
he  enjoyed  the  emperor's  friendship  ;  and  was  no  less 
honoured  or  esteemed  by  Louis  XVIII.  In  1825  he  pub- 
lished some  '  Reflections  '  on  his  favourite  art ;  and  on  the 
llth  of  June,  1826,  appeared  for  the  last  time  on  the  stage 
in  the  part  of  Charles  VI.  During  his  last  illness  the 
audiences  of  the  Theatre  Frai^ais  every  evening  called  for 
an  official  account  of  the  state  of  his  health  previously  to 
the  commencement  of  the  performances.  He  died  on  the 
19th  of  October  following,  and  was  buried  in  the  cemetery 
of  Pere  la  Chaise,  in  presence  of  an  immense  crowd.  MM. 
Arnault,  Jouy,  and  Lalour  pronounced  orations  over  his 
grave.  The  Theatre  Fran<;ais  remained  closed  for  three 
evenings,  and  the  Opera  Comique  and  Odeon  were  also 
closed  on  the  day  of  his  funeral.  The  actors  of  the  Brus- 
sels theatre  (of  which  company  he  was  an  associate)  wore 
mourning  for  him  for  forty  days,  and  a  variety  of  honours 
were  paid  to  his  memory  at  the  principal  theatres  through- 
out France  and  the  Netherlands.  Talma  is  said  to  have 
created  seventy-one  characters,  amongst  the  most  popular 
of  which  were  those  of  Orestes,  CEdipus,  Nero,  Manlius, 
Ciesar,  Cinna,  Augustus,  Coriolanus,  Hector,  Macbeth, 
Hamlet,  Othello,  Leicester,  Sylla,  Regulus,  Danville  (in 
•  L'Ecole  dcs  Vieillards';,  Leomdas,  Charles  VI.,  and  Henry 
VIII.  He  has  been  accused,  remarks  one  of  his  biogra 
phers,  of  having  spoken  the  verse  of  tragedy  as  though  it 
were  prose  ;  but  this  avoidance  of  the  jingle  of  rhyme  was 
one  of  the  greatest  improvements  which  he  introduced 
upon  the  French  stage.  In  person  he  was  about  the 
middle  height,  square-built,  and  with  a  most  expressive 
and  noble  countenance.  His  voice  was  exceedingly  fine 
and  powerful,  his  attitudes  dignified  and  graceful.  In 
private  life  he  was  distinguished  for  his  manly  frankness, 
his  kind  disposition,  and  unaffected  manners.  He  spoke 
English  perfectly,  and  was  a  great  admirer  of  England 
and  her  institutions.  He  was  the  friend  and  guest  of 
John  Kemble,  and  was  present  in  Covent  Garden  Theatre 
when  that  great  actor  took  his  leave  of  the  stage. 

(Almanach  des  Spectacles,  1827;  Biographie  Nouvelle 
des  Conte inporains ;  Xeio  Monthly  Mug.;  Personal  Re- 
collections.) 

TALMUD.    [HEBREW  LANGUAGE.] 

TALPA.     [TAIPID*.] 

.  TALPASO'REX,  M.  Lesson's  name  for  a  genus  of  So- 
HECID.*,  comprising  the  Shrew-mole.     [Vol.  xxii.,  p.  265.] 

TA'LPID/E,  the  family  of  Moles. 

The  genus  Talpa  of  Linnaeus,  as  it  stands  in  the  12th 
edition  of  the  Systema  Natures,  between  the  genera  Di- 
dclphis  and  Sorex,  comprises  two  species  only,  Talpa 
Europeea,  the  Common  Mole,  and  Talpa  Asiatica.  [CHRY- 
SOCHLORIS.] 

Cuvier  places  the  Moles,  confining  them  to  the  genus 
Tallin,  between  Sorex  [SORECID/E]  and  CONDYLURA. 

Mr.  Swainson  places  the  genus  Ta/pa  between  C/iryso- 
chloris  and  Centenes.  [TENKEC.] 

ORGANIZATION. 
Skeleton.—  The  cranium  is  elongated  and  pointed,  and 


Skull  of  Mo'.e. 


there  is  a  peculiar  bone  for  the  support  and  working  of 
the  muzzle.    The  part  which  extends  from  the  internal 

VOL.  XXIV.— D 


T.A  L 


!  the  jaws  terminates  ir 
middle  iHisrer  and  n. 
than  the  other  two.      The 


18  TA.L 

i  the    means  of  a  long  bladebone,  and  sustains 

edtre     clavicle,  carric*   a: 

d  by     which  is  always  tr.nn.-il  outwaro*  or  hackwa 


Skoleton  of  Mol».     (IV  BliinTilR)    Th«  uuchal  U>n«  and  vxcxnry  cnrral  n!t>f  shaped  be 


living  form  has  the  compressed  phalangeal  bout1-.  MTU  in 
4^ljHp  except  the  mole.  The  second  phalanx  of  the  nn- 
dieits  or  fincersof  the  mole  is  the  only  known  living 
analogue  of  the  similar  bone  in  the  hind-foot  of  Glyplodon. 
The  sternum,  like  that  of  the  birds  ami  bats,  has  ;m  ele- 
vation or  crest  affording  room  for  the  laru'e  pectoral  mus- 
cles. The  pelvis  anil  hinder  extremities  are  comparatively 
feeble.  The  bones  of  the  ptibi-  med. 

This  bony  framework  is  set  in  motion  by  very  powerful 
muscles.     Those   of  the   anterior  extremities.  I  In 
and  the  neck  are  most   \  ,d  in  the  cei\i<-:il  ]ii.'a- 

nient  a  peculiar  bone  is  even  formed.  The  wide  hand, 
which  is  the  great  instrument  of  action,  and  perl'omis  the 
offices  of  a  pickaxe  and  shovel,  i<  sharp-edited  on  its 
lower  margin,  and,  when  clothed  with  the  integuments,  the 
fingers  are  hardly  distinguishable,  but  the  terminating 
claws  project  lone,  stronir.  flat,  and  trenchant. 

us  compare  for  a  moment  the  bats  with  the  moles 
with  reference  to  their  locomotion.  Both  are  insecti- 
vorous, but  how  widely  different  in  their  conformation. 
The  bat  has  to  winnow  its  way  through  the  air:  the  mole, 
like  the  bat,  has  to  react  against  a  triven  medium,  a  very 
different  one,  certainly  ;  and  is  endowed  with  a  pn- 
moving-  through  that  medium  by  means  of  a  modification 
of  the  locomotive  organs  beautifully  adapted  to  its  den- 
sity. Instead  of  the  lengthened  bones  of  the  forearm  tlmt 
so  well  assist  the  bat  to  make  its  way  with  outstretched 
wing  through  the  air.  all  in  this  part  or  tile  organization  of 
the  mole  is  short  and  compact,  to  enable  it  to  bore  through 
the  dense  medium  where  it  is  to  live  and  move  and  have 
its  being.  The  development  is  all  anterior :  the  fore  part 
of  the  mole  forms  an  elongated  cone ;  the  posterior  part  is 
narrow  and  small,  and  the  whole  of  its  proportions  are 
admirably  fitted  to  :i-  '•>  speak,  in  flyme:  through 

the  earth.    The  long  and  almost  i  da.  the  ex- 

panded humerus,  the  enormous  power,  in  short,  of  the  an- 
terior extremities,  and  the  great  strength  and  compart  m-s 
of  the  fingers,  are  all  fitted  for  the  diircim:  duty  they  have 
to  do.  Add  to  this  a  soft  short-cut  velvety  eont.  to  which  no 
particle  of  soil  ever  adheres,  and  yon  have  the  perfection 
of  organization  for  rapid  proirrc^s  through  the  ground. 

Nor  is  it  void  of  interest  to  observe  tin-  niceties  of  adap- 
tation according  to  circumstances.  The  CHRYSOCHI.OIUS 
(Tuljift  inireii  of  the  older  authors)  is  an  inhabitant  of 
Africa,  and  burrows  in  »and.  This  medium  required  a 
modification  of  organization  different  from  that  required 
to  permeate  the  heavier  soils,  and  we  have  it.  Though 
some  of  the  bones  are  strong,  the  general  strength  i»  les- 
than  in  the  common  .Mole.  The  principal  burrowing  in- 
strument is  the  great  double  anterior  toe  (ring-In 
and  there  is  an  enormous  development  of  the  pMtbnn 
bone. 

In  the  museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  in 
London,  No.  2R2  G,  of  the  V1 
the  anterior  half  of  the  body  o  /'.;//«/  I'.m 

Linn.\  in  which  the  diaphiairni  and  principal  muse 
the  right  extremity  are    directed  and  exposed,  as  illus- 
trative of  one  of  the  principal  structure*  for  burrowinir. 

Nervou*  Syttem  am?  The  muzzle  of 

the  mole  is  evidently  a  delicate  organ  of  touch,  and  that 
sense  is  considerably  developed  in  the  large  and  broad 
hands  and  feet.  Neither  is  the  tail  without  a  considerable 
share  of  sensation,  to  give  notice  to  the  animal  of  the 
approach  of  any  attack  from  behind. 


.Jden 


Taxtf  and  Smell.— 1\ . 

especially  the  latter,  appear 

Xight. — Almost  rudimentary.  ThellUll 
in    the    fur.  that  its    . 
denied.     It  appears  to  be  designed  for  o]> 
warning  to  the  animal  on  its  emcrcinLT  in; 
indeed   more  acute  vision   would   on 
cumbrauce.     No.    1772 

'he  anterior  part    of  a    us 

Linn.',  showing    the   minute    circular    palpehml  o 
defended  by  the  short  thick  fur. 

lli'iiriiiff. — Hut   if  the  siirht  be  imperfect,   the.  bcn^e  of 
hearint:  is  very  highly  developed,  and  the  tympamu:. 
though  them 

jet-ting    concha.       No.    1UI8.    in    the    department   > 
museum  of  the  Royal  Colleirc  of  Iv. 
to,  exhibits  the  anterior  part   of  a  mole  ( '/'«///«  tin 
Linn.),  from  which  the  hair  has  been  removed,  to  show  the 
external   orifices  of  the   cars  and  eyes,  in  both  of  which 
bristles  are  placed.     No.    KiO'J  i*  also   the  anttrm 
of  the  same  animal  with  the   fur  left   on,   showing  the 
entrance   to  the  meatus  auditorius    externus  unprovided 
with  a  projecting  concha,  or  external   car,  which  would 
be  an  impediment  in  the  act  of  burrowing,  and  an  unnc- 
y  appendage  :  the  meatus  is  defended  in  this  animal. 
which  lives  habitually  in  the  soil,  by  the  smallncss  <>t  the 
external  opening.     John  Hunter,  in  his  M>inu\crijil 

.  introductory  of  this  part  of  th. 
an   external   concha  is  not  to  be   found   in  ma 
whose    life  is  principally  led  underground,   »uch  as  the 
mole;  and  perhaps  because  the  earti  rably 

in  vibration. 

There  is  nothing  that  calls  for  anv  particular  notice  in  the 
l»nrxliri<  Sif.\/i'/n  of  the  Mole.  The  alimentary  cnnal  i-. 
short,  simple,  without  a  caecum.  The  \oracity  of  the 
mole  corresponds  with  the  activity  and  rape. 

(rftirriitirp    /n/il    I'rimtry    Ni/v/^m.  —  No.    'J.~><t.~i    < 
Phvsioloi:!'  '  '/'/''.  exhi! 

mole  with  the  abdomen  laid  open  to  show  the  testes  as 
they  appear  in  winter.     They  are  lodged  in  large  cremas- 
jioiiehcs  in  the  perinu'al  rcirion.  nuikinir  no  ]>rojec- 
tion    externally.      The   risrht    tcstis    i>   dr.-ivHi    into    the 
abdomen  by  the  Mile  of  the  bladder,  and   it 
extremity  mav  be  seen  attached  to  the  u\\ 
the  let)    testis   has  its  anterior   extremity   proji 
the  abdominal   cavity.     Tip 
sist  (.l':i!i  ;iLT_ri'i'::atc  of  cii-cal  tubes,  are  just 
the  bladtler.      No.  'i"<(Mi  is  :i  nude  killed   in 
prepared   t<>  show  the  increased 
commencing   sexual  ilex  clopment   of  the   ] 
No.  'J."m7  m  a  mole  Killed  in  the  bci'i 
1'iepared  to  ..how  n  further   increase  oi 

\    prostatic    L'lantl-:    the   latter  h:i>e  now  iitl\:ini-cil 
forw:i  •  -h   side   of   the   urinary   bladdei1.   >o 

encompass  its  neck  :    the  left   tr-tis  li;t.s  1  •• 
into  the  alxlomeii,  and  IK 

mn-.teric  jioiich  tlis]i!nyed.  No.  i~><JS  is  a  mole  killed 
about  the  Litter  end  of  March,  and  dissected  to  show  the 
rouij.  |.m.  nt  of  ' 

The  lone  penis  and  r 

'J509  is  a  mole  whuh 

WHS  killed   in  mituiim.  p  v  the  collapsed 

state  of  the  te»te»,  and  the  atrophied  cond 


I'hintl 


and 
1  ac- 


T  A  L 


19 


T  A  L 


static  glands  ;  but  the  testes  in  this  case  had  not  yet 
returned  to  the  small  size  which  they  exhibit  in  winter. 
No.  2510  is  a  preparation  showing  a  side  view  of  the  male 
organs  of  generation;  and  No.  2511  exhibits  the  male 
organs  of  Chrysochloris  capensis.  (Cat.,  vol.  iv.) 

The  increase  and  decrease  of  the  testes  in  BIRDS  and 
FROGS  are  well  shown  in  preparations  in  the  same  noble 
museum  ;  the  first  in  Nos.  2A57  to  24G2  (both  inclusive), 
the  second  in  Nos.  2412  and  2411.  John  Hunter,  in  his 
'  Animal  CEconomy,'  observes  that  these  seasonal  or  peri- 
odical changes  are  common  to  all  animals  which  have 
their  seasons  of  copulation.  '  In  the  buck,'  says  that  great 
physiologist,  '  we  find  the  testicles  are  reduced  to  a  very 
small  size  in  winter ;  and  in  the  land-mouse,  mole,  &c. 
this  diminution  is  still  more  remarkable.  Animals,  on  the 
contrary,  who  are  not  in  a  state  of  nature,  have  no  such 
change  take  place  in  their  testicles ;  and  not  being  much 
affected  by  seasons,  are  consequently  always  in  good  con- 
dition, or  in  a  state  to  which  other  animals  that  are  left  to 
themselves  can  only  attain  in  the  warmer  season.  There- 
fore in  man,  who  is  in  the  state  we  have  last  described, 
the  testicles  are  nearly  of  the  same  size  in  winter  as  in 
summer ;  and  nearly,  though  not  exactly,  the  same  thing 
may  be  observed  in  the  horse,  ram,  &c.,  these  animals 
having  their  seasons  in  a  Certain  degree.  The  variation 
above  taken  notice  of  is  not  confined  to  the  testicles,  but 
also  extends  to  the  parts  which  are  connected  with  them  : 
for  in  those  animals  that  have  their  seasons  for  propagation 
the  most  distinctly  marked,  as  the  land-mouse,  mole,  &c., 
the  vesiculce  are  hardly  discernible  in  the  winter;  but  in 
the  spring  they  arc  very  large,  varying  in  size  in  a  manner 
similar  1o  the  testicle.  It  may  however  be  alleged  that 
the  change  in  tlu>c  bairs  might  naturally  be  supposed  to 
take  place,  even  admitting  them  to  be  seminal  reservoirs ; 
but  what,  happens  in  the  prostate  gland,  which  has  never 
been  supposed  to  contain  semen,  will  take  off  the  force  of 
this  objection;  since  in  all  animals  which  have  such  a 
gland,  and  which  have  their  season  for  propagation,  it 
undergoes  a  limited  change.  In  the  mole  the  prostate 
ffland  is  hardly  discernible,  but  in  the  spring  becomes  very 

and  is  tilled  with  mucus.' 

No.  2807  exhibits  the  posterior  part  of  a  mole  (Talpa 
Ei'i-'ijietii ',  \vith  the  female  generative  and  urinary  organs 
exposed.  The  uterus  is  turned  to  the  right  side,  princi- 
pally to  display  the  course  and  attachments  of  the  ovarian 
and  uterine  ligaments.  The  ovarian  ligament  commences 
anterior  and  external  to  the  kidney,  and  carries  forward 
with  it  a  fold  of  the  peritoneum  as  it  advances  to  the 
ovarium.  The  uterine  ligament,  or  liganientum  rotun- 
dum,  is  continued  from  the  extremity  of  the  cornu  uteri, 
and  runs  along  the  posterior  edge  of  the  preceding  fold 
to  the  part  corresponding  to  the  abdominal  ring  in  the 
male,  where  it  expands  upon  the  fascia.  The  left  ovary 
and  oviduct,  the  cornua  and  corpus  uteri,  are  also  ex- 
hibited. The  ovary  is  tuberculate,  and  inclosed  in  an 
almost,  complete  peritoneal  capsule.  The  oviduct  is 
attached  to  this  capsule,  and  pursues  a  wavy  course  to  the 
horn  of  the  uterus.  Xo.  2808  displays  the  female  organs 
of  a  moil!  /«  tii't//,  the  vential  parietes  of  the  abdomen  and 
chylopoietic  viscera  having  been  removed.  The  cornua 
.drical  tubes,  describe  three  abrupt  curves  before 
joining  the  corpus  uteri,  with  uliieli  they  form  almost  a 
risrht  angle.  The  body  of  the  uterus  is  continued  without 
any  constriction  or  interruption  into  the  vagina:  the 
whole  canal  is  somewhat  flattened,  and  is  disposed  in  two 
or  lh  folds  before  it  leaves  the  abdo- 

men.    No.  USOJ  is  al.-,u  the   posterior  half  of  a  mole,  with 
mali-  or^ms  similarly  displayed,  but  minutely  in- 
i.     Tin-  cornua  uteri  are  divaricated,  to  display  the 
it  of  the  broad  liiraments.     No.  2810  is  :i  MM-IIOII  of  a 
mole,  in  which  the  left  ovary, oviduct,  and  uterine  horn, and 
the  left  side  of  the  uterus  and  vairiua,  liuvc  been  removed, 
but  exposing  the  remainder  of  the  generative  apparatus 
hibitiiig  its  relative  position  to  the  urinary 
bladder,  tin.'  rectum,  and  the  pelvis.     The  contracted  area 
uterine  cavity,  the  absence  of  anyos  tmene  dividing 
it  fiorn  the  vagina,  and  the  distinct,  muscular  and  internal 
memhi.Tious  tunics  of  the  flattened  tortuous  utero-vaginal 
.  aic  clear!} -displayed.     A  bristle  is  inserted  into  the 
i]  of  the  uti'rii>,  ami   another  is   passed  through 

I   by  the  urethra.     '  '1 

cotiti:  .  the  author  of  the  catalogue, 

'  the  agina,  and  rectum  open  by  distinct  01 


on  the  exterior  of  the  body,  and  all  three  canals  he 
anterior  to  the  pubic  bones,  and  consequently  outside  the. 
pelvis.' 

No.  1234  of  the  same  series  exhibits  the  kidney  of  a 
mole  injected  and  longitudinally  divided.  Theuninjected 
tubuli  may  be  plainly  seen  extending  through  the  cortical 
substance,  as  is  shown  in  the  injections  of  the  kidney  of 
the  horse,  Nos.  1209  to  1214,  both  inclusive.  (Cat.,  vol.ii.) 

Generic  Character. — Body  stout  and  thick,  furry ; 
head  elongated,  pointed ;  muzzle  cartilaginous,  strength.' 
ened  by  the  snout-bone  ;  eyes  very  small ;  no  external 
ears ;  anterior  feet  short  and  wide,  with  five  united  toes 
armed  with  trenchant  nails  proper  for  digging ;  posterior 
feet  with  five  toes  also,  but  weak  ;  tail  short. 

Dental   Formula : — Incisors  - ;    canines  — jr—  ;    molars 
o  0 


Teeth  of  Mole,  considerably  enlarged.     (F.  C'uv.) 

Example,  Talpa  Europera,  the  common  mole. 

This  well-known  animal,  so  familiar  to  all  that  it  would 
be  a  needless  waste  of  space  to  describe  it,  is  La  Taupe  of 
the  French,  Talpa  of  uie  antient  and  modern  Italians, 
Topo  of  the  Spanish,  Toupeira  of  the  Portuguese,  Maul- 
imrf  of  the  Germans,  Mol  of  the  Dutch,  Muload  and  Stirk 
of  the  Swedes.  M/;!dt:arp  of  the  Danes  ;  Male,  Mole-warp, 
Moldwarp,  and  Want  of  the  modern  British;  and  Givadd 
and  Twrch  daear  of  the  antient  British. 

Habits,  Fond,  Reproduction,  $-c.  —  'A  subterraneous 
life,'  says  Pennant,  speaking  of  the  mole,  '  being  allotted 
to  it,  the  seeming  defects  of  seveial  of  its  paits  vanish; 
which,  instead  of  appearing  maimed  or  unfinished,  ex- 
hibit a  most  striking  proof  of  the  fitness  of  their  con- 
trivance. The  breadth,  strength,  and  shortness  of  the 
fore-feet,  which  are  inclined  sideways,  answer  the  use  a« 
well  as  the  form  of  hands,  to  scoop  out  the  earth,  to  form 
its  habitation,  or  to  puisne  its  prey.  Had  they  been 
longer,  the  falling  in  of  the  earth  would  have  prevented 
the  quick  repetition  of  its  strokes  in  working,  or  have  im- 
peded its  course  :  the  oblique  position  of  the  fore-feet  has 
also  this  advantage,  that  it.  flings  all  the  loose  soil  behind 
the  animal. 

'  The  form  of  the  body  is  not  less  admirably  contrived  for 
its  way  of  life :  the  fore-part  is  thick  and  very  muscular, 
yuin:/  irre.al  strength  to  the  action  of  the  fore-pait,  en- 
abling it  to  dig  its  way  with  great  force  and  rapidity,  either 
to  pursue  its  prey  or  elude  the  search  of  the  most  active 
enemy.  The  form  of  its  hind  parts,  which  are  small  and 
taper,  enables  it  to  pass  with  great,  facility  through  the 
earth  that  the  fore-feet  had  flung  behind  j  for  had  each 
part  of  the  body  been  of  equal  thickness,  its  flight  would 
have  been  impeded  and  its  security  precarious. 

'  The  skin  is  most  excessively  compact,  and  so  tough  as 
not  to  be  cut  but  by  a  very  sharp  knife  ;  the  hair  is  very 
short  and  close-set,  and  softer  than  the  finest  silk;  the 
usual  colour  is  black,  not  but  that  there  are  instances  of 
these  animals  being  spotted,  and  a  cream-coloured  breed 
is  sometimes  found  in  my  lands  near  Downing. 

D2 


T  A  L  2 

'  The  Hnallness  of  the  eye*  (which  gave  occasion  to  the 

antienU  to  deny  it  the  sense  of  sight'     i*  to  ti 

peculiar  happiness ;  a  small  degree  of  x  i»ion  is  sufficient  for 

an  animal  ever  destined  to  live  underground  ;  had  these 

organs  been  larger,  thcx  would  have  been  pel petually  liable 

to  injuries  by  tin-  earth,  fulling  into  them  :    but  nature,  to 

prevent  that  inconvenience,    bath    not  only  made    them 

small,   but    also  covered    them    v  cry  closely  with   fur. 

,  mention    besides  these    a  third  x  en  wonderful 

ity.  and  inform  us  that  each  eye 

is  furnished  with  a  certain  'muscle,  by  which  the  animal 
has  the  power  of  withdrawing  or  exerting  them,  according 
to  its  e\iir> 

•  To  make  amends  for  the  dimness  of  its  sight,  the  mole 
is  amply  recompensed   by  the    great   perfection  of  txvo 
other  sense*,  those  of  hearing  and  of  smelling:   the  first 
gives  it  notice  of  the  most  distant  approach  of  danger  : 
the  other,  which  is  equally  exquisite,   directs  it  in  the 
midst  of  darkness  to  its  food  :   the  nose  also,  bein: 
long  and  slender,  is  xvell  formed  for  thrusting  into  small 
holes   in  search   of  the  xvorms  and   insects  that  inhabit 
them.   These  gifts  may  \\ith  reason  be  said  to  compensate 
the  d  -ight,  as  they  supply  in  this  animal  all  its 
wants  and  all  the  purposes  of  that  sense. 

•  It  is  supposed  that  the  verdant  circles  so  often  seen  in 
grass-grounds,  called  by  country-people  J'niry  ring*,  are 
owing  to  the  operations' of  these  animals,  who,  at  certain 
seasons   perform    their   burrowing*    by    circumgyrations. 
which,  loosening  the  soil,  give  the  surface  a  greater  fertility 
and  rankness  of  grass  than  the  other  parts  xvithin  or  with- 
out the  ring. 

•  The  mole  breeds  in  the  spring,  and  brings  four  or  five 
young  at  a  time  :    it  makes  its  next   of  moss,   and   that 
alxx-ays  under  the  largest  hillock,  n  little  below  the  surface 
of  t lie  ground.     It  is  observed   to   he   most   a, -live,  and   to 

•ip  most  earth,  immediate!)  before  rain,  and  in  the 
winter  before  a  thaw,  because  at  those  times  the  xvorms 
and  insects  begin  to  bein  motion  anil  approach  tl 

-    on  the  contrary,  in  very  dry  weather  this   animal 

'in  or  never  forms  any  hillocks,  as  it  penetrates  deep 
after  its  prey,  which  at  such  seasons  retires  far  into  the 
ground.  Dining  summer  it  runs  in  search  of  snails  and 
worms  in  the  night  time  among  the  grass,  which  makes  it 
the  prey  of  owls.  The  mole  shows  great  art  in  skinning  a 
worm,  which  it  always  does  before  it  eats  it  :  stripping  the 
skin  from  end  to  end,  and  squeezing  out  the  contc 
the  body.' 

Thus  "far  Pennant  :  but  the  most  diligent  and  instruc- 
tive historian  of  the  mole  is  Henri  Lc  Court,  who,  Hying 
from  the  terrors  that  came  in  the  train  of  the  French 
revolution,  buried  himself  in  the  country,  and.  from  tin 
attendant  on  a  court,  became  the  biographer  of  this  hum- 
ble animal.  The  discoveries  of  this  indefnliira: 
have  been  laid  before  the  public  in  the  work  of  De  \  an\ 
(1803),  and  a  summary  of  them  by  Geotf'roy  St.  Hilaire,  in 
the  Cuiii-x  tfHittoirt  \<iturr//r  '/<•*  MaaumflrM.  The 
latter  visited  Le  Court  for  the  purpose  of  testing  his 

'vutioii*.  and  appears  to  have  been  charmed  by  tin 
facility  and  ingenuity  with  which  I.e  Court  traced  am 
demonstrated  the  subterranncan  labours  of  this  obscure 
worker  in  the  dark. 

One  of  the  experiments  which  Le  Court  made  affordec 
ample  proof  of  the  rapidity  with  which  the  mole  vvil 
travel  along  its  passages.  He  watched  his  opportunity 
and  xvhen  the  mole  was  out  on  its  feed  at  one  of  the  most 
distant  points  from  its  sanctuary  or  fortress,  to  which  poiiv 
tin-  mole's  high  road  leads.  I.e  ( 'ourt  placed  along  the  coursi 
of  that  road  between  the  mole  and  the  for!  il  little 

camp-colours,  so  to  speak,  the  stall  of  each  being  a  straw 
and  the  flag  a  bit  of  paper,  at  certain  distances,  the  straws 
penetrating  down  into  the  passage.  Near  the  end  of  tin 
subterraneous  road  he  inserted  a  horn,  the  mouth-piece  o 
which  stood  out  of  the  ground.  When  all  was  ready.  I.i 
Court  blew  a  blast  loud  enough  to  fright  all  the  mole! 
xvithin  hearing  from  their  propriety,  and  the  little  gentle 
man  in  xelvet.  whose  p  the  spot  he  bad  wel 

tuineil.   was  affected    accordingly.       Down   went   the 
little  flag*  in  succession  with  an  astonishing  ccle 
the  horrified   mole,  rushing  along  towards  his  sanctuary 
cane  in  contact  with  the  flag-straws;  and  such  mettle  hai 
terror   put   into  the   animal's    heels,  that    the  spectators 

•  '  Aat  tnlii  aifll  (ajcn  cubili*  blip*.'    Virj  .  Omrg.  I.,  183. 


T  A  L 

iflirmed  that  its  swiftnass  was  equal  to  the  speed  of  a 
torse  at  a  good  round  trot. 

This  experiment    xva*   perfectly  sa'  tc   the 

.uditory  and  travelling  powers  of  tin-  mole  ;    but  another 
nade    bx    I  .'-d    that    I  :it    of 

is., .•!  possessed  by  the   animal  is  an 
wants,  and   that,  with  all  the  in; 

it  warns  it  of  danger.  Le  Court  took  a  spare  xvatcr- 
>ipe  or  gutter  open  at  both  ends.  Into  this  pipe  he  intro- 
luced  several  in  St.  Hilaire 

stood  by  to  watch  the  result,  at  the  farther  end  of  the  tube. 
As  long  as  the  i]  the  introduced 

mole   made  the  best   of  bis  way  through  the    pipi 

•  1;    but  if  they  moved,  or  even  raised  a  finger,  the 

d  then  retreated.    Siv.ral  repetitions  of 
the  experiment  produced  the  -ame  results. 

Hut  we  must  describe  the  mole's  domain.  The  principal 
point  is  the  habitation,  or,  as  it  has  been  termed,  the  for- 
tress, and  is  constructed  under  a  considerable  hillock 
raised  in  some  secure  place,  oil  en  at  the  root  of  a  tree. 
under  a  bank,  or  any  shelter  that  offers  protection.  The 
fortress  is  domed  by  a  cement,  so  to  B]  .rth  xvhich 

has  been  beaten   and   compressed   by  the  architect    into  a 
compact    and   solid    state.      Within,   a    circular 
formed   at   the    base,  and    communicates  with  a  smaller 
upper  gallery  by  means  of  five  passages,  which  are  nearly 
at   equal    distances.      Within    the    lower  and   under  the 
upper  of  these  galleries  is  the  chamber  or  dormitory,  which 
has  access  to  the  upper  gallery  by  three  similar  pas- 
Froin  this  habitation,  xve  should  here  observe,  the   high 
road  by  which  the  proprietor  reaches  the  opposite  end  of 
the  encampment  extends,  and  the  various  galleries  or  ex- 
cavations open  into  this  road,  xvhich  the  moje  is  continu- 
ally earning  out  and  extending  in  hs  search  for  food,  and 
which   has    been   termed    its    hunting-ground.      But    to 
return  to  the  chamber.     From  il  another  road   ext 
the  direction  of  which  is  downward  at  first,  and  that  for 
several  inches,  xvhen  it  again  rises  to  open  into  the  high 
road  of  the  territory.     Some  eight   or  nine  otln 
open  out  from  the  external  circular  gallery,  but  1h. 
tires  of  these  never  come  opposite  to  the  -hidi 

connect  the  external  gallery  with  the  internal  and   upper 
gallery.     The  extent  of  these  y.  greater  or 

:mg  to   circumstances,   and  they  each   return  by  an 
irregular  and  semicircular  route,  opening  at  v. 
lances  from  the  habitation  into  the  high  road,  which  i! 
considerably  from  all   the  other  :  lions, 

both  in  construction  and  with  rcirard   to  the  use  to  which 
it  is  applied.     From  the  habitation  th  .1  out 

nearly  in  a  straight   line  and  forms  the  main  passage  of 
communication   between  the  habitation,  the  different  por- 
tions of  the  encampment,  and   the  alleys  leading  to  tin- 
hunting-ground  which  open    into    il   on"   cadi    side.      In 
diameter  it  exceed*  the   body  of  a   mole,   but  its  si/e  will 
not  admit   of  two  moles  passing  each  other.     The 
from   the   reiterated    pressure   of  the   mole's   sides   n. 
them,    become    smooth   and  compact,    and   it' 
remarkable    for   the  comparative    absence    of   mole-hills, 
which    are    frequent    in   connection    with    the   allcxs    and 
quarries,  as  they  have  been  termed,  in  constructing  which 
the  earth  is  removed  out  of  the  way  to  tin-  ^.mie- 

tiines  a  mole  will  lay  out  a  second  or  even  a  third  road   in 
order   to    the    extension    of    its   operation-  tunes 

several   individuals  use  one  load   in  common,  though  they 
nexer  trespass  on  each  other's  hunting-grounds.     In  the 
event  of  common  usage,   if  two  moles  should   happen   to 
meet,  one  must  retreat  into  the  nearest  alley,  unless   both 
should  be  pugnacious,  in  which  case,  the  weakest  is  often 
slain.     In  Conning  this  tunnel,  the  mole's  instinct  sii| 
the  place  of  science,   for  hi' drives   it    ai    a    greater  <> 
depth,  according  to  the   quality  of  the  soil,  or  concurrent 
cireitni*1ancc*.      When    there    is   nothing   - 
threatening  a  disturbance   of  its  security,   it    i- 
cavated  at  a  depth  of  some  four  or  five  inche*  :  but  if  it  is 
carried  under  a  road  or  a  stream,  a  foot  ai:d  a  half  of 
earth,   sometimes   more,  is   left   above   it.     Thus  does  the 
little  animal  cany  on  the  subterraneous  works  necessary 
for  his  support,  travelling,  and  comfort  ;    and  his  tunings 
never  fall  in. 

The  alleys  opening  out  from  the  sides  of  the  bigb 
have   general!)    a   somewhat    downward    inclination    from 

their  commencement  toward*  their  end.     It  has  been  ob- 
served that  when,  on  opening  one  of  these  alleys,  a  plen- 


T  A  L 


21 


T  A  L 


tiful  supply  of  food  is  found,  the  mole  proceeds  to  work 
out  branch  alleys  from  its  termination,  up-heaving  new 
mole-hills  as  it  advances  in  quest  of  prey :  should  how- 
ever the  soil  be  barren  of  the  means  of  existence,  the  ani- 
mal commences  another  alley  at  a  different  part  of  the 
high  road.  The  quality  and  humidity  of  the  soil,  which 
regulate  the  abundance  of  earth-worms,  determine  the 
greater  or  less  depth  of  the  alleys. 


Habitation  or  fortress  of  Molt1. 

The  main  road  being  the  highway  of  communication 
to  its  different  hunting-grounds,  it  is  necessarily  passed 
through  regularly  in  the  course  of  the  day,  and  it  is  in  this 
road  that  the  mole-catcher  sets  his  traps  or  practices  his 
devices  to  intercept  the  animal  between  its  habitation  ami 
the  alley  where  it  is  carrying  on  its  labours.  Some  mole- 
catchers  will  toll  you  that  the  hours  when  the  moles  move 
are  nine  and  four,  and  others  that,  near  the  coast,  their 
movements  are  influenced  by  the  tides ;  to  which  state- 
ments the  hearer  is  at  liberty  to  give  as  much  credence  as 
he  chooses.  Resides  the  varioustraps  which  are  set  for  them, 
there  is.  or  very  lately  was.  n  man  who  travelled  the  coun- 
try with  a  dog  and  destroyed  them  without  any  trap  at  all, 
bv  the  following  process:  Taking  his  station  at  the  pro- 
;me  and  place,  attended  bv  his  dog,  and  armed  with 
a  spear  or  spud,  he  waits  till  the  do;;  indicates  the  pre- 
sence of  the  mole,  and  then  spears  or  spuds  the  animal 
out  as  it  moves  in  its  run.  Pointers  will  stop  at  moles  as 
steadily  as  at  game,  when  the  latter  are  straying  on  the 

surface. 

lirMdes  the  excavations  already  noticed,  the  moles  pur- 
sue another  mode  of  hunting  in  light  loose  soils,  newly 
sown,  when  gentle  rains  have  led  the  earth-worms  towards 
the  surface,  along  which  they  follow  the  worms  up,  rapidly 
digging  a  shallow  trench  in  the  superficial  layer  of  the 
soil.  The  female,  when  with  young,  is  said  to  be  princi- 
pally addicted  to  this  easier  method  of  subsistence. 

All  the  animal  passions  are  strong  in  the  mole,  and  it  is 
a  most  voracious  animal.  It  has  been  supposed  that  it 
was  a  vegetable  as  well  as  an  animal  feeder,  and,  as  a 
proof  of  the  former,  the  fragments  of  roots,  &c.,  found  in 
its  stomach  have  been  appealed  to  ;  but  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  these  vegetable  matters  had  been  conveyed 
into  the  stomach  with  the  earth-worms  (their  favourite 
food  and  the  larvsc  of  insects.  The  structure  of  its  teeth 
indicates  that  its  food  should  be  animal,  and  indeed  mice, 
lizards,  frogs,  and  even  birds  have  been  known  to  fall 
victims  to  its  voracity;  but  it  eschews  toads  even  when 
pnv^ed  by  hunger,  deterred  probably  by  the  acrid  secre- 
tion of  their  skin.  [FROGS,  vol.  x.,  p.  493.]  All  doubts 
as  to  the  carnivorous  nature  of  the  mole  have  however 
hern  removed  by  the  experiments  of  M.  Klourens,  who 
found  that  moles  restricted  to  carrots,  turnips,  various 
kinds  of  herbs,  and  vegetable  substances  which  were 
abundantly  supplied  to  them,  died  of  hunger.  The  mole 
'ipears  to  require  much  nourishment,  and  a  short 
«ves  fatal  to  it. 

\Ve  must  not  omit  to  notice  the  provision  of  this  ani- 
mal 5  :i  supply  of  water,  for  its  voracity  makes  it 
a  great  di inker.  If  a  pond  or  ditrh  be  at  hand  in  those 
I  u'nere  many  mule-,  use  the  same  common  highway, 
a  run  is  always  formed  to  the  reservoir:  when  it  is  too 


distant,  the  animal  sinks  little  wells  in  the  shape  of  deep 
perpendicular  shafts,  which  hold  water.  These  wells  have 
sometimes  been  seen  brim-full. 

During  the  season  of  love,  at  which  time  bloody  battles 
are  fought  between  the  males,  the  male  pursues  the  female 
with  ardour  through  numerous  divaricating  superficial 
runs  wrought  out  with  great  rapidity,  termed  '  coupling 
runs'  and  'rutting  angles'  by  our  mole-catchers,  and 
•  traces  d'amour '  by  the  French.  The  sexual  attachment 
appears  to  be  very  strong  in  the  moles.  Le  Court  often 
found  a  female  taken  in  his  trap,  and  a  male  lying  dead 
close  to  her.  The  period  of  gestation  is  two  months  at 
least,  and  the  young  are  generally  produced  in  April,  but 
have  been  found  from  that  month  to  August.  From  four 
to  five  is  the  general  number,  though  from  three  to  six 
have  been  recorded,  and  in  one  case  seven*  in  one  nest. 
The  nest  is  distinct,  usually  distant  from  the  habitation, 
and  not  always  crowned  with  a  hillock ;  but  when  a  hil- 
lock exists,  it  is  much  larger  than  an  ordinary  mole-hill. 
It  is  constructed  by  enlarging  and  excavating  the  point 
where  three  or  four  passages  intersect  each  other ;  and 
the  bed  of  the  nest  is  formed  of  a  mass  of  young  grass, 
root-fibres,  and  herbage.  In  one  case,  Geoffrey  St.  Hi- 
laire  and  Le  Court  counted  two  hundred  and  four  young 
wheat-blades. 

In  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  in 
London,  No.  3573  of  the  Physiological  Series  is  the  pos- 
terior half  of  a  pregnant  mole,  with  the  uterus  and  three 
foetuses,  each  about  half  an  inch  in  length,  exposed  in 
situ:  the  ovarium  is  contained  in  a  thin  and  transparent 
peritoneal  capsule,  around  which  the  oviduct  may  be  ob- 
served passing  in  the  form  of  an  opaque,  whitei  narrow 
band  :  the  uterine  dilatation  next  the  left  ovarium  remains 
open,  and  the  foetus  is  exposed  inclosed  in  its  membranes  ; 
the  other  uterine  dilatations  are  left  entire  ;  they  resemble 
blind  pouches  developed  from  one  side  of  the  uterine 
tube.  No.  3574  is  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  trunk  of 
a  pregnant  mole,  with  the  uterus  and  five  feetuses  dis- 
played in  situ  ;  one  of  the  dilated  chambers  of  the  left 
uterine  horn  is  laid  open,  and  the  foetus  is  exposed  with 
it.s  membranes.  The  placenta  is  a  spongy,  vascular  sub- 
stance, in  the  form  of  an  oblong  flat  band,  with  its  long 
axis  parallel  to  that  of  the  fetus.  One  of  the  uterine 
chambers,  with  the  corresponding  chorionic  sac,  is  laid 
open  in  the  right  horn  of  the  uterus,  and  the  fetus  is  dis- 
placed. No.  3575  presents  the  female  organs  of  a  preg- 
nant mole  with  four  fetuses,  each  one  inch  and  a  quarter 
in  length ;  one  of  these  is  exposed  in  situ  in  the  uterine 
sac,  two  others  hang  suspended  by  their  membranes  and 
the  placenta;  from  the  parietes  of  the  uterus:  in  the  lower 
of  these  embryos  the  foetal  placenta  is  partly  separated 
from  the  maternal  portion,  showing  the  fine  areolar  struc- 
ture of  the  latter,  which  receives  the  fetal  plaeentary 
filaments:  the  maternal  placenta  is  minutely  injected,  but 
no  portion  of  injection  has  passed  into  those  foetal  fila- 
ments which  are  here  exposed ;  the  capacity  of  the  cho- 
rion  is  very  little  larger  than  the  foetus  which  it  contains. 
In  the  embryo  which  has  been  displaced  from  the  chorio- 
nic sac,  the  short  umbilical  cord,  and  the  characteristic 
form  of  the  short  and  strong  fossorial  anterior  extremities, 
may  be  discerned :  the  external  apertures  of  the  eyes  and 
ears  are  completely  closed.  The  canal  leading  from  the 
uterine  horns  to  the  external  opening  of  the  vagina  is  laid 
open,  showing  the  absence  of  any  os  tinea?  dividing  the 
uterus  from  the  vagina:  a  bristle  is  passed  into  the  ure- 
thra, which  is  continued  through  the  clitoris.  The  author 
of  the  catalogue  (Professor  Owen)  observes  that  the  pecu- 
liar position  of  the  vagina  of  the  mole,  on  the  outside  of 
the  pelvis,  is  well  displayed  in  No.  2810,  above  noticed, 
and  that  by  this  modification  the  contracted  pelvis  offers 
no  impediment  to  parturition.  (Cat.) 

Heavy  charges  have  been  brought' against  the  mole  by 
agriculturists  and  horticulturists,  and  the  more  grave  ac- 
cusation of  being  ancillary  to  the  destruction  of  dykes  has 
been  in  some  instances  proved  upon  it.  Mr.  Bell,  in  his 
interesting  Ilixlnn/  uf  Britixli  Qtitidrupcd/!,  sums  up  the 
evidence  against  it  and  in  its  favour  thus : — '  In  order  to 
arrive  at  a  time  solution  of  the  question,  it  is  necessary  to 
divest  our  minds  as  well  of  the  prepossessions  of  the  natu- 
ralist as  of  the  prejudices  of  the  agriculturist;  for  we  shall 
probably  find,  as  in  most  other  cases,  that  the  truth  lies 
between  the  two  extremes.  According  to  its  accusers, 
•  toudon'«  '  Magazinn  of  Nat.  Hist.,'  vol.  ?1IL 


I  r. 


•->  labours,  no   peculiarity  of  its 
s,    no    function  of  r 
means  or  t:  ;  ra\aire  and  devastation  to  our 

\  fltc.i  lld.Tcd     (! 

killed  by 

n  <if  tin-  rouls;    tilt   J 
overthrown   l>y  the  f  the 

from  their  root- 
.•ml   by  t:  i  run* 

-  up  either  in  search  of  I 

'  ' 
irried  uft'l') 

'C  resort  of  t  he  i 

other  noxious  animals.     Thus  the  iield  ami  the  meadow, 
and  the  plantation,  are  iilike  t  .if  n, 

culates  that  <  -  which  it 

:ons  to  the  spring  corn  alone   mav  be  caJcnhr 

other 

idiced  judccs  allow  DOthil  merit 

whi(  '  -i ruction  of  innumerable  v. 

i  the  larva  and  perfect  state:   this  ad- 
uied   by  DC  \'aux.   \vlio  declares  that 
on  the  most   harmless  of  those  ani- 
.vorm,  and  that  it  refuses  those,  which  are 
injurious  to  mankind.     Its  more  benevolent  advocates,  on 
itlier  hand,  contend   not  only  that  the  injury  which 
jt  perpetrates  is  slight,  but  that  it  is  more  than  counter- 
balanced by  thi'  Inch  it  produces  by  turning  up 
and  lighteninc  the  soil,  and  especially  by  its  mimcn 
struction  ot 'earth-worms  and  many  other  noxious  animals 
which  inhabit  the  superficial  layer  of  the  ground,  and  oe- 
m   creat  injury  to  the  roots  of  urass.  corn,  and  many 
other  plants.      If  we  examine  the  real  nature  and  decree 
a  the  one  side,  and  its  utility  on  the  other, 
!all    probably  find   that    both   parties   are   erroneous. 
The   fact  of  its  devastation*  cannot  be  denied,  it  is  only 
in  the  decree    and   extent  of  them   that    the  estimation  is 
incorrect ;  and  whilst  its  utility  in  clearintr  the  ground  of 

-  uf  injury  miisl   :  -owed, 
it  c;i:i                                       i  that  the  lierhtcnhi!;  of  the  soil 

nine  up  of  its  hillock-  i-.  at  most,  more  than  a 
very  equivocal  source  of  advantage.' 

Tims  w<-   .see  that  'much  maybe  said   on  both  «i 
AVe  have  heard   advocates  for  the  mole  declare  that  in 
;j-walks  whence   they  have  been  rooted  out,  the 

r  of  the  feed   lias  been  altered,  and  ti 
-    have  been  obliged  to  introduce   them   again, 
and  we  have  heard  si  -denied.   , Too  much 

•  er  may  be  laid  on  its  sen  ices  as  a  destroyer  of  the 

;   it  may  be  well  doubted  whether  it  aids 

.(mist  by  the  destruction  of  an  animal  that  does 

I.     [1, CMIWH  i-s,  sol.  xiv.,  ]>.  I'JO.] 

\Yi  .f  the  case,  the  persecution 

of  th  -  in  cnltuateil  countries  amounts  almost 

iinination.    The  numbers  annually  slauch- 

Mi    Hell  Mr.  .laekson,  a 

flowed  th. 

i    1'ioin    forty    to   tifty 

I  to  J.e 

.  m  ti\e  months,  six 

.1  their  bite  is  very  sharp: 

their  hi.-  M.  and  they 

•n.  n  hold  like  a  bull-doir. 

'.rope 
npa  ra- 
ni with  it  in  most  p; 

• 
Scotland,  thou;; 

.1   record   of   its 

i  in  the  ( >i  km  •.  '  :and,  or  Ireland. 

Tin  1    (iirured,  m    I 

.1  work,   /  ni  Itii/tcii.  tin  R] 

.     and   the     '  •'  Inch    may 

are  longer  than  the  re-t  :  in  the  rom- 

•   are  all  equal,  and  De  Ymix  states  that 

it  tomj  i:.  '•pflR^hjMl  918^  '"  ''"'  habit- 

and  architect  me  of  the  two  specie*.     Mr.  Bell  suggest* 


I      \    M 

that  as  both  species  are  inhabitant*  of  Kurope.  the  oriental 

trivial  name  E>i< 

name. 

For  Dr.  Richards..!. 
from  America,  see  the  arti. 

The  fossil  remains  of  the  mole  have  been  found  in  the 
averns;  as.  for  example,  in  thr  .-.tritz  and 

at  Pauland     see  Huckland. 
have  also  been  found   in   the    bone-eiuciiH   in  Hvlciuui 

nerling). 

Hon.  ,  ri    olit.Hined    fiom    the   brown 

.we  undi  .  fur 

the  remains  of  luards. 

The  (jiiestions  which  arise  upon  this  disco,,  i\  :i:e:  — 
1st.   Were   they  tru.  that  formation 

quently  introduced?   and  this  their  condition  mii:!.- 
termine. 

2nd.  Are  the  fossil  remains  identical  with  the  bo.i 
the  common  mole!' 

An  inspection  of  the  remains  themselves  miirht  n 
a  solution  of  both  tin 
that  the  fossils   are.  thro  ss  of  Professor 

wick,  about  to  i 

Hut  throughout  this  inquiry  it  bear 

in  mind  that  though  this  quad'  :' the 

earth,  performing  all  its  fund; 
the  sui  face,   and    1!) 
the  freijii. 

a   f(.>sil    .state,    Inn'   fossil    bones  of   the   mole    ha\. 
hitherto    been    described.       The    dancer     to    be    BIT 

;  with  regard  to  those  specimens  fmind  it 
nnd  Mipcrii.  is  that  a  burrowing  animal 

into  tho- 

their  formation  and  tl 

\\  e   therefore   look  forw aid   to   I1  inion 

upon   the  ctinriilinii  of   these  remains    and    tin 
distinction  with  much  int. 

TALUS,  or  TAI.r  I.  from  '  tadio,'  Hal.,  a  cut 

-  on  fortili. 

f  a  rampart,  or  parapet,  t.'  e  which  is 

inclined  to  the  horizon.  Thus  the  upper  surface 
called  the  snpeiior  talus  or  Mope  :    and  t 
of  a  rampant  or  paiapet  which 

towauls  the  town,  is  called   the  exterior,  or  the  interior, 
talus  of  the  work     liu.  ~.  B 

The  superior  talus  of  a  paiapet  is  usually  formed  in  a 
plane  which,  if  produced  towards  the  country,  would 
nearly  meet  the  top  of  the  count.  it,  in 

ihat  the   defenders   of  the   rain;  le   to 

tire  into  the  coveicd  way  in   the  event  of  the  latter  i 
occupied  by  the  ( iiemy.  their  musk  laid  upon 

that  slope.     The  exterior  or  the  interior  I. 
of  earth  usually  forms,  with  the  horizon,  an  u 

:  i  face 
nf  caith,  of  medium  tenner  >'  unsiipp. 

TA.MAN,  a  p. 

by  the   mam   branch  of  the   ii\cr  Kuban,  which   en 
into  the  Hi:  i.-h  of  the 

river,  which  flow-  ^heoldfor- 

i  TcinruU.     Ti 

•i  the  north  aiff 

BbMcSeaon  tin  .  is  bounded  on  the  v 

Strait  of  V 
the  Hay  ol'  Tar 
of  a  lobstc 
">7  mi  -  irrcwert 


•Uddle  of  the  island  :  ruk- 

skoi  Liman  ;inik.  and  : 

mainins:  pwt  beinir  uot(  : 

a  manner  as  to  present  iv  -land 

than  a  real  island.     The 

..ntient     peninsula  c.f  ']'•    Mela, 

i.    Ill;  Strnbo,    | 

traversed    i  ISO 

leet  Inch  :   they  run  I.  vil- 

lage of  Sen  nay  a   i' 

runs  ti'  !  tii'   lake  formed  by 

the  Kuban  before  it  i. 

ruk,  and  terminates  in  a  .-lip  of  hind  which  divides  thin 
lake  into  two  unequal  parts.    The  other  branch,  the  direc- 


T  A  M 


1i<m  of  which  is  north-east,  forms  the  isthmus  between  the 
lake  of  Ternruk  on  the  east,  and  the  bay  of  Taman  on  the 
west,  and  terminates  before  it  reaches  the  isthmus  between 
the  lake  of  Temruk  and  the  Sea  of  Azof.     The  north- 
western part  of  Taman,  or  the  peninsula  between  the  Sea 
of  A^of  and  the  bay  of  Taman,  is  no  less  elevated  above 
the  sea,  but  although  it  is  a  continuation  of  the  mainland, 
it  is  separated  from  the  eastern  hills  by  a  flat  sandy  isth- 
mus, which  seems  to  have  been  covered  by  the  sea  at  a 
period  not  very  remote  from  our  own  times.     All  these 
hills  are  mere  masses  of  sand  and  pebbles  cemented  with 
clay.    The  higher  part  of  them  is  barren,  but  the  slopes. 
and  the  low  grounds  between  them  and  the  sea  or  the 
lakes,  are  covered  with  soil  and  fit  for  agriculture.    They 
also  make   rich  pasture-grounds.    The  isthmus  between 
the  Temrukskoi  Liman  and  the  bay  of  Taman,  and  princi- 
pally that  between  the  lake  of  Temruk  and  the  Kubanskoi 
Liman,  have  a  very  pleasant  aspect,  being  covered  with 
the  neat  farmhouses  of  the  Cossacks ;  and  on  the  meadows 
there  are  numerous  flocks  of  cattle,  some  of  which  are 
sent  thither  across  the  strait  from  the  neighbouring  coast 
of  the  Crimea.    The  eastern  part  of  Taman  is  formed  by 
two  flat  and  narrow  isthmuses,  and  a  somewhat  broader 
tract   of    lowland    between    the    two    branches   of   the 
Kuban.     The  whole   of   this   country  is  marshy,   partly 
covered  with  pastures   and   partly   with  a  luxuriant  ve- 
getation of  rushes  and  reeds,  which,  in   the  neighbour- 
hood of  Kalaus,  as  Dr.   Clarke  states,   attain   a   height 
of  from  sixteen   to   twenty   feet.     Everywhere   there   is 
a  struggle  between  land  and  water;  gulfs  become  creeks 
and  lakes,  creeks  are  changed  into  marshes,  and  as  soon 
as  these  get  a  continental  aspect,  the  waters  again  swal- 
low them  up.     In  the  rainy  season,  says  Pallas,  all  this 
country  is  overflowed  by  the  waters  of  the  Kuban,  and  the 
higher  part  of  Taman  is  separated  from  the  continent  by 
an   immense   lake   which  extends  from   one  sea  to   the 
other  ;  but  notwithstanding  the  apparently  overwhelming 
power  of  the  waters,  the  solid  element  makes  constant 
progress.     Thus  M.  Durtau  de  la   Malle  is  correct  when, 
in  his  '  Ge'o'jraphie  Physique  de  la  Mer  Noire,'  he  s:iys 
that  all  the  lakes  on  the  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Azof,  which  arc 
separated  from  the  sea  only  by  flat  and  narrow  isthmuses, 
have  once  been  bays  and  guli's,  and  that  the  barriers  be- 
tween them  and  the  open   sea  are  a  deposit  formed  by 
the  astonishing  masses  of  mud  and  sand  carried  into  this 
sea  by  the  Don  and  its  tributary  rivers.     As  to  the  whole 
rn  part  of  the  island  of  Taman,  it  is  also  a  mere  re- 
cent production  of  the  immense  quantities  of  clay  and 
mud  which  the  Sea  of  Azof  and  the  Kuban  have  depo- 
sited before  the  mouth  of  this  river.    The  western  and 
elevated  part  however  in  its  whole  geognostical  structure 
belongs  to  the  opposite  continent  of  the  Crimea,  from 
which  it  has  apparently  been  separated  by  the  current  of 
the  Cimmerian  Bosporus.    Two  characteristic  peculiari- 
ties of  this  latter  part  are  the  Sewernaya  Kossa,  a  long 
but  very  flat  and  narrow  slip  of  land  which  stretches  from 
the  north-west  extremity  of  the  northern  peninsula  in  a 
south-west  direction  to  the  middle  of  the  mouth  of  the 
bay  of  Taman  ;  and  the  cluster  of  small  islands,  the  prin- 
cipal  one   of  which  was    known   to   the   Byzantines   by 
the  name  of  Atcch,   which   extend  from  Point  Yunaya 
north-west  till  they  reach  the  centre  of  the  strait.    These 
islnmN  will    probably  become   a  continuous    land,   and 
by  joining  the  opposite  Sewernaya  Kossa,  will  separate 
the  whole  bay  of  Taman  from  the  Bosporus.      Numerous 
small    craters  are  situated  on   the   ridge    of    the   hills 
•round  the  Bay  of  Taman,  as  well   as  along  the  lake  of 
Temnik.     They  present  all  the  external  appearances  of 
volcanoes;  though  the  matter  which  they  throw  out  is 
not  lava,  but  a  thick  mud  of  a  deep  black  colour,  which 
they  discharge  at  irregular  periods.     The  largest  of  these 
^ituated  on  the  southern  extremity  of  the  north- 
west peninsula,  and  :v  description  of  the  most  remarkable 
eruption  of  it  is  given  by  Pallas  in  the  work  cited  below. 
This  traveller  attributes  these  phenomena  to  the  burning 
'•  layer  of  coals,  upon  which  indeed  the 
whole  island  of  Tnman  seems  to  repose.    The  apparition 
of  an  inland,  which,  on  the  5th  of  September,  17'J3,  sud- 
denly rn*«  from  tin;  Sea  of  Azof,  near  the  coast  of  Temnik, 
a  pip  vinr-h  was  preceded  and  accompanied  by 

;i   kind  of  ciirth'iu:ik",  and  all  the  other  symptoms  of  a 
••'lie  eruption,  was  undoubtedly  the  effect  of  the  garni 
subterraneous  cause.    The  new  island  however  soon  dis- 
appeared in  the  sea. 


23 


T  A  M 


The  Greeks  knew  this  remarkable  island  under  the  name 
of  Eion  (Hi'wv),  and  founded  several  colonies  in  it.  The 
most  considerable  of  them  were— Phanagoria,  a  famous 
commercial  town,  which  contained  a  beautiful  temple  of 
Aphroditeof  Apaturon  (Strabo,  p. 405.  Casaub.) ;  Kepos, 
or  Kepi,  a  colony  of  the  Milesians ;  Hermonassa,  founded  by 
the  lonians;  and  Achilleion  :  some  ruins  and  marbles  are 
the  only  traces  that  remain  of  their  antient  splendour.  The 
island  belonged  for  a  long  period  to  the  kingdom  of  Bos- 
porus, and  was  afterwards  conquered  by  Pharnaces,  the 
son  of  Mithridates.  At  the  beginning  of  the  middle 
ages  it  belonged  to  the  dominions  of  the  Goths,  and 
afterwards  of  the  Khazars,  a  Turkish  people,  renowned 
for  their  industry  and  commerce.  It  was  then  known 
under  the  name  of  Tamatarkha.  In  the  tenth  century  a 
Russian  prince  founded  there  the  petty  kingdom  of  Tmu- 
tarakan  ;  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  however  were 
Tsherkessians  and  Turks,  and,  from  the  time  of  the  in- 
vasion of  the  Mongols,  the  Tartars  remained  the  only  mas- 
ters of  it.  Numerous  old  tombs  still  attest  their  long 
residence  on  the  island.  They  were  at  last  driven  out  by 
the  Russians,  who  repeopled  the  country  with  Cossacks  in 
order  to  defend  it  against  the  invasions  of  the  Tsherkessians 
beyond  the  Kuban.  There  are  now  only  two  towns  :  Tmu- 
tarakan,  the  Tamatarkha  of  the  middle  ages  and  the  Pha- 
nagoria of  the  Greeks  ;  and  the  present  town  of  Phanagoria, 
which  was  built  by  the  Russians  on  the  shore  of  the  bay 
of  Taman,  three  miles  east  from  Tmutarakin,  on  account 
of  its  harbour  being  deeper  than  that  of  the  latter  town. 

(Pallas,  Bemerkit/iypn  aitf  einer  Reise  in  den  Siidlichcn 
Prnrinzrn  des  Russischen  Seiches;  Dr.  Clarke,  Travels  in 
Russia.  The  best  map  of  the  island  of  Taman  is  contained 
in  the  great  Atlas  of  Russia  published  at  St.  Petersburg ; 
the  map  in  Pallas's  Bemcrkungcn  is  also  good  ;  that  of 
Dr.  Clarke  has  some  interest  for  lovers  of  antiquities,  but 
is  far  from  being  geographically  exact.") 
TAMA'NDUA.  [ANT-EATER,  vol.  ii.,  p.  G5.] 
TAMARICA'CE^E,  a  small  natural  order,  belonging 
to  the  syncarpous  group  of  polypetalous  Exogens.  The 
species  are  either  shrubs  or  herbs,  having  straight  rod- 
like  branches,  with  alternate  entire  leaves,  resembling 
scales ;  the  flowers  are  in  dense  spikes  or  racemes. 
The  calyx  is  4-5-parted,  persistent ;  the  petals  inserted 
into  the  calyx,  both  with  imbricate  aestivation ;  stamens 
hypogynous,  distinct  or  united,  equal  in  number  with  the 
petals  or  twice  as  many ;  ovary  superior,  with  a  short  style 
and  3  stigmas  ;  fruit  a  capsule,  3-valved,  1-celled,  with 
numerous  seeds,  which  are  comose ;  embryo'sbaight  with 
an  inferior  radicle. 


Timarix  gernwnica.  a,  cutting,  showing  tlio  straight  branches  anil  ncale-lil'.e 
Iravei;  b,  single  flower;  r,  flower  wilh  calyx  ami  corolla  removal  thawing 
monndelphom  stamens ;  d.  capsule  with  mmosr.  secils  escaping. 

This  order  is  placed  by  De  Candolle  wiih  those  which 
have  perigynous  stamens,  but  there  is  no  doubt  now  that 


T  A    M 


24 


T  A   M 


it  ha*  hypogynou*  stamens,  although  closely  related  tu 
tin-  i  ,>nler  IllccebraceJD.     It  haa  also  affinities 

\\ith  1'urtulaccte,  LyUtrace*,  Onagracee,  and  Rcaumuri- 

• 
The  species  are  found  onlv  in  tin-  Old  World:    the 

st  number  being  met  with  in  tin-  basin  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. According  to  Khrcnbcrg,  tin-  order  is  bounded 
<,n  the  south  by  the  Hth  or  'Jth  parallel  of  N.  lat.,  and  on 
the  north  by  that  of  00°  and  30°,  in  Siberia,  Germany,  and 
England. 

Thr  plant*  of  this  order  are  innocuous,  and  all  are  more 
or  less  astringent ;  and  their  ashes  after  burning  are 
remarkable  for  possessing  a  large  quantity  of  sulphate  of 
soda.  Myricaria  Germanica  is  recommended  as  a  diuretic. 
[TAMARIX.] 

"  TAMARINDS.  M,<l,,;,l  I'rn/x-rtiet  qf.  Of  the  two 
.•I'  the  only  species  of  this  genus,  the  fruit  is 
much  larger  in  the  East  Indian  than  the  West  Indian. 
The  shell  being  removed,  there  remains  the  tint  -quart' hard 
seeds,  imbedded  in  a  pulp,  with  membranous  fibres  running 
through  it.  In  the  bast  Indies  the  pulp  is  dried,  cither  in 
the  sun,  and  this  is  used  for  home  consumption,  or  with 
salt  added,  and  dried  in  copper  ovens,  which  kind  i 
•  rope.  (.L'rawfurd's  Indian  Archipelago.}  Tli'- 
called  natural  tamarinds,  is  much  darker  and  drier  than 
the  West  Indian,  which  are  called  prepared  tamarinds. 

The  West  Indian  tamarinds  reach  maturity  in  June, 
July,  and  August,  when  they  are  collected,  and  the  shell 
being  removed,  they  are  put  into  jars,  either  with  layers  of 
sugar  put  between  them,  or  boiling  syrup  poured  over 
them,  which  penetrates  to  the  bottom.  Prepared  tama- 
rinds therefore  contain  much  more  saccharine  matter  than 
the  others.  According  to  Vauquelin,  prepared  tamarinds 
contain  per  cent,  citric  acid  9-40,  tartaric  acid  1-55,  malic 
acid  ()••}."),  bitartrate  of  potash  3".1">,  sugar  '2~>,  gum  4-7, 
•able  jelly  (pecten)  G  2.~>,  parenchyma  34'3u,  water 
•J7-.V).  This  prepared  pulp  has  a  pleasant  acid  astringent 
taste,  with  a  somewhat  vinous  odour. 

It  presents  an  example  of  one  of  those  natural  combina- 
tions of  gummy,  saccharine,  and  acid  principles  which  are 
of  such  great  utility  in  hot  climates.  It  is  vised  not  only  in 
India,  but  in  Africa,  as  a  cooling  article  of  food,  and  the 
travellers  across  the  deserts  carry  it  with  them  to  quench 
their  thirst.  In  Nubia  it  is  allowed  to  stand  in  the  sun 
till  a  kind  of  fermentation  takes  place:  it  is  then  formed 
into  cakes,  one  of  which  dissolved  in  water  forms  a  refresh- 
ing drink.  In  India  a  kind  of  sherbet  is  made  with  it, 
and  bv  the  addition  of  sugar  it  becomes  a  source  whence 
v  inegar  is  readily  obtained.  In  the  fevers  and  bilious 
complaints,  and  even  dysenteries  of  these  climates,  it  proves 
highly  serviceable ;  in  small  quantity  it  acts  as  an  astringent, 
but  iii  larger  it  proves  laxative.  Boiling  water  poured  over 
tamarinds  yields  a  drink  which  is  very  grateful  in  the  in- 
flammatory complaints  of  our  own  country,  particularly  in 
the  bilious  fevers  of  autumn.  An  agreeable  whey  may  be 
made  with  it,  bv  boiling  two  ounces  of  tamarind-pulp  with 
two  pints  of  milk.  Tamarinds  are  frequently  given  along 
with  senna,  but  they  are  said  to  lessen  its  purgative  pro- 
perty. They  form  an  ingredient  in  the  confectio  sennae 
and  confectio  cassiae. 

In  times  of  scarcity  in  India  the  seeds  are  eaten,  being 
first  toasted  and  then  soaked  for  a  few  hours  in  water, 
\vhen  the  dark  skin  '  ly  oil':  they  are  then  boiled 

or  dried,  and  taste  like  common  field-beans. 

TAMARINIWS,  the  name  of  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the'  Kcctembry  on*  division  of  the  natural  order  Legu- 
mmosac.  It  possesses  the  following  characters :  — calyx 
cleft,  tubular  at  the  base,  the  three  upper  lobes  are  reflexed, 
tin-  two  lower  ones  joined  together,  but  usually  indentate 
at  the  apex;  petals  3,  alternate  with  the  three  upper  lobes 
of  the  calyx,  the  middle  one  cneullate  and  the  lateffcl  ones 
ovate  ;  the  stamen-  are  !)  or  10  in  number,  two  or  three  of 
which  are  longer  than  the  other*,  united  at  the  base,  and 
bearing  anthers,  whilst  the  remainder  are  sterile;  the  fruit 
iia  legume  seated  on  a  pedicel,  1-ccllcd,  compressed,  with 
from  3  to  6  seeds,  and  the  valves  tilled  with  pulp  In 
the  endoearp  and  epicarp,  their  inner  nnd  outer  lining  ; 
the  seeds  are  ovato-quadrate  in  form,  possessing  cotyledon* 
unequal  at  the  base. 

There  are  only  two  species  belonging  to  this  trcmis,  both 
of  which  are  trees  with  abruptly  pinnate  leaves,  bearing 
many  pairs  of  small  leaflets  and  laecnie-  <>i  !!• 

The  '/''"iriniiiltii  fiiilini,  thcKust  Indian  Tamarind,  was 
the  earliest  known  species,  for  a  knowledge  of  which,  in 


Europe,  we  arc  indebted  to  the  Aiabians.     Dr.  F   Hami.- 
toil,  ill  hlsc.  mm-,  icinarks 

on  the  specific  t!>  .f  I  In-,  plant,  that  li   i-  •  a  vile 

pleonasm,'  the   fact  of  its  beiin:  Indian   being  refcired  to 
ill    the    generic    name     Tu  our    won! 

Tamarind.     The  Indian  Tamarind   is  distinguished   I 
elongated   legumes,   \\lueh  are  six  tunes  or  mo 
than  they  are  broad.      It   is  a  native  of  various  districts  in 
the  East   Indies  and  also  of  the  tropical  parts  of  A. 
It  forms  a  handsome  tree  with  spreading  branches  bearing 
leaves  of  a  light  colour  and  flowers  with  a  straw -coloured 
calyx  and  yellow  pitals,  sticakcd  with  red  :    the  filaments 
of  'tin'  stamens  are   purple  and   the   anthers  brown.     The 
timber  of  this  tree   i-veiy  firm.   haul,  and   heavy,  and  i* 
applied  to  many  useful  purposes  in  building. 

The  second  specie-  is  the  Tuiniirimliis  tti-rirli'iitulis.  the 
Indian  Tamarind,  which  is  distinguished  from  the 
other  by  possessing  short  legumes  not  more  than  three 
times  longer  than  they  are  broad.  It  is  a  native  of  South 
America  and  the  West  India  Island*,  forming  also  a  large 
spreading  tree,  with  yellowish  flouc  with  red 

and  purplish  stamens. 

These  plants  may  be  grown  in  this  country,  by  sowing 
the  seeds,  which  can  be  easily  obtained,  in  a  hot-bed,  and 
when  the  young  plants  obtain  a  height  of  two  or  three 
inches,  planting  them  out  in  separate  pots.  For  th< 
dical  and  dietetic  properties  of  the  tamarind  see  TAMA- 
RINDS. 

TAMARIX,  the  name  of  a  genus  of  plants,  the  type  of  the 
natural  order  Tamaricacea1.     It  has  a  -1-  or  5-partcd  calyx  ; 
4  or  5  petals  :  4  or  5  stamens  alternating  with  the  ] 
united  at  the  base ;  a  tapering  ovary  with  :i  stigma- 
tufted  seeds,  the  tuft  being  composed  of  a  number  of  hairs 
proceeding  from  the  apex  of  the  .seed.     'J'i  have 

generally  paniculated  spikes  of  small   flowers  of  a  red 
colour. 

T.  gal/ica,  the  French  tamarisk,  is  a  glabrous  glancou.- 
shrub,  with  minute  acute  leaves  clasping  the  stem,  with 
slender  lateral  spikes  of  flowers,  five  times  longer  than 
broad.  This  species  is  a  native  of  France,  and  also  along 
the  Mediterranean:  it  is  also  a  native  of  the  coasts  of 
Cornwall,  Hampshire,  and  Sussex,  in  England.  Ehren- 
berg  has  described  a  great  number  of  varieties  of  this 
species,  one  of  which,  the  T.  g.  iintnniffrii,  known  by  its 
glaucous  powdery  appearance,  he  savs,  produces  the 
manna  of  Mount  Sinai.  This  manna  however  does  not 
contain  any  crystalli/.able  mannite,  but,  according  to  Mit- 
scherlich,  consists  of  nothing  more  than  a  mucilaginous 
sugar.  This  is  one  of  the  species  of  tins  genus  remark- 
able for  the  large  quantity  of  sulphate  of  soda  which  its 
ashes  contain. 

T.  Inilini,  the  Indian  Tamarisk,  is  a  glabrous  greenish 
plant,  with  stilt'  twiggy  branches;  >hort  ovate  acute 
leaves  with  while  edges:  elongated  spikes  of  flowers,  with 
bracts  shorter  than  the  flowers  and  longer  than  the  pedi- 
cels, and  stamens  longer  than  the  corolla.  This  plant  is  a 
t  Indies.  It  is  subject  to  the  attack-  of 
a  cvmps.  which  produce  galls  that  possess  astringent  pro- 
perties, and,  according  to  Dr.  Koylc.  they  are  on  this  ac- 
count used  in  medicine  by  the  native  doctors  of  India. 
The  -ame  property  al-o  re'ndrrs  them  valuable  in  dyeing. 
Other  Indian  species  of  the  Tamarisk  produce  [rails,  which 
are  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  those  of  '/'.  liu/ic.t. 

i/ririiini.  the  African  Tamarisk,  is  a  glabrous  glau- 
cous shrub,  with  lanceolate  imbricated  leaves,  with  i! 
scaly,    -im,  with   ovate  chafl'v    biaets. 

and  a  ,'1-valvcd  capsule.     This  is  a  native  of  UU  I 
along   the   shores  of  the    Mediterranean.     It   is    found   in 
Mauritiana.   around  the   Hay  of  .Naples,  in   Egypt,  and  in 
the  Levant.      It  has  very  much  the  appearance  of  T. 

utitsflov. '  gcr,  and  bark  darker.     Like  '/'. 

yield  a  large  quantity  of  sulphate  of 

The  bark,  a.s  in  nio-t  of  the  slice:  htly  bitter  and 

astringent,  and  ha-  been  used  in  medicinr  a-  a  tonic. 

'/'.  i Ira-iil, ilix,  the    Ka-lcrn  Tamarisk,  is  a  tree  attaining 

a  height  of  from  ID  to  31  feet  :   it  I-  L'lalinr,-  all  OT6T,  wild 

minute,  distant,  sheathimr.  rnucroiiate  leave-,  with  slender 

id  a  4-valvcd   capsule.      This  is 

a  native  of  Arabia,  Persia,  and  the  East  Indies,  and  u  one 
of  the  larL'e-1  and    most    elegant  of  the  species  i,  I  'the  Ta- 
marisk.     One  of  the  finest  specimens  of  this  tree    existing 
ilabyloii.  The   '/'.  '  !  be  .-i  vaiictyot 

this  plant". 
Nearly  all  the  species  are  elegant  and  delicate  shrubs, 


T  A  M 


25 


T  A  M 


deserving;  a  prominent  position  in  the  shrubbery.  The 
hardy  species  do  not  require  much  care  in  their  cultiva- 
tion.  They  will  grow  in  almost  any  soil  or  situation,  and 
may  be  propagated  by  cuttings  planted  out  in  the  open 
ground  either  in  the  spring;  or  autumn,  where  they  will 
ivadily  strike  root.  Those  requiring  heat  and  protection 
thrive  best  in  a  soil  composed  of  loam  and  peat,  and  may 
also  be  propagated  by  cuttings  placed  in  sand  under  a 


TAMATIA,  Cuviers  name  for  the  Puff-Birds. 

Mr.  Swainson,  in  addition  to  his  description  in  the 
Zifilinfii-nl  II  I  uxl  rations,  speaking  of  these  birds  in  his 
-ays,  that  they  sit  for  hours  together  on  a 
dead  or  withered  branch,  from  which  they  dart  upon  such 
insects  as  come  sufficiently  near,  and  that  the  Hermit 
birds  '.Mij/iau'i,  Vieill.)  have  similar  habits.  [BARBKTS, 
'O1.  m.,  p.  434:  KINGFISHERS,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  227.1 

TAMAULIPAS.     [MKXICAN  STATES.] 

TAMBOW,  a  province  of  Great  Russia,  is  situated  be- 
:i  51°  30'  and  55°  20'  N.  lat,  and  between  39°  40'  and 
43°  40"  E.  long.  The  area  is  24,200  square  miles,  and  the 
population  1,600,000.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Xischnei-Xovgorod,  and  for  a  very  small  distance  on  the 
north-west  by  Wladimir  ;  on  the  south  by  \Voronesh  :  on 
t!ie  west  by  Riasan,  Tula,  and  Orel  (  by  the  two  last  for  a 
very  small  distance);  and  on  the  <  ast  by  Penza. 

This  government  is  a  uniformly  level  country,  without 
mountains,  large  rivers,  or  considerable  lakes  :  on  the 
north  there  are  great  forests  and  on  the  south  extensive 
steppes.  The  soil  in  the  northern  half  is  sandy,  marshy. 
and  poor  :  in  the  southern  part  it  mostly  consists  of  loam 
or  black  mould,  and  is  fertile  and  productive.  The 
steppes  produce  excellent  pasturage,  and  when  they  have 
been  brought  under  cultivation,  make  good  arable  land: 
they  are  designated  as  steppes  only  because  they  are 
destitute  of  wood.  The  river  Oka  enters  the  government 
1'rom  Riasan,  but  passes  only  through  one  circle,  where  it  is 
joined  by  the  Mokscha,  a  considerable  stream  of  which  the 
Xna  is  a  tributary.  The  Oka  runs  northwards  to  join  the 
Volga.  Another  great  Russian  river,  the  Don,  pusses 
through  a  small  part  of  the  government.  In  the  forests 
on  the  north  there  are  marshes  which  might  easily  be 
d.  The  mineral-waters  at  Lepetzk  are  celebrated 
and  much  frequented.  The  climate  is  temperate  and 
healthy,  but.  colder  in  winter  than  in  Tula  and  Riasan, 
which  seems  to  be  owing  to  the  slope  of  the  open  plains 
being  towards  the  north. 

The  northern  part  of  Tambow  has  a   poor   soil,   but 
the  south  is  very  fertile,  and  this  province  ought  to  be 
a  corn    country   if  a   better  system   of  cultivation  were 
introduced.     In  the  south  the  land   does  not  require  to 
lie  tallow,  and  needs  no  manure,  but  acquires  from  the 
feeding  of  cattle  sufficient  strength  to  produce  fresh  crops, 
which  generally  yield  from  five  to  ten  fold.     In  the  north 
nd  is  indeed  not  manured,  but  after  yielding  five  or  six 
must  be  tallow  for  some  years  ;  and  then  it  produces 
from  three  to  five  fold.     All  kinds  of  corn  usually  grown  in 
Russia  arc  raised,  wheat,  rye,  oats,  millet,  and  buckwheat, 
and  other  pulse  ;    poppies,  great  quantities  of  hemp, 
bat  barley,  flax,  and  hemp  are  cultivated   only  in  some 
rircles.    Horticulture  is  in  a  very  backward  state,  for  though 
there  are  many    gardens,  only  the  most    ordinary  vege- 
tables are  cultivated  ;   some  hops  are  grown  in  the  gar- 
dens, but,  there  is  little  fruit,  and  that  of  the  most  ordi- 
nary kinds.     Though   the  forests  are  so  extensive,  it   is 
only  in  the  northern  circles  that   there  is  sufficient  wood 
for  fuel  and  building.     The  crown  forests  supply  timber  for 
tin-  navy  :    in  their  vicinity  the  inhabitants  arc  for   the 
part  carpenters,  coopers,  and   cartwrights.  or  em- 
•d  in  making    pitch,  tar,  lamp-black,   ami  charcoal. 
The  breeding  of  cattle  is  carried  on  I  \init 

in  the  in,  and  meadows  ol'  tin  The 

steppe   from  Tambow   to  Nova  fthopertaSaja-Krepi 
covered  with  immense  herds  of  oxen  and  horses.     Oxen 
.sed  for  draught,  and  great  numbers  are  fattened  for 
exportation.    Sheep  and  swine  are  bred  in  great  numbers. 
but  the  wool   of  the  sheep  is  i  urn  the 

breed  has  been  improved  by  the  importation  of  merinos. 
Domestic  poultry  suffices  for  the  consumption  of  the  in- 
habitant*: tin  re  is  little  same,  and  fish  is  by  no  means 
plentiful.  Among  the  wild  animals  are  the  marmot  and 
the  ham*:  f  bees  are  kept.  The  mine- 

ral product*  arc  lime,  freestone,  iron,  and  some  saltpetre. 
P.  C.,  No.  1491. 


The  manufactures  of  this  government  are  unimportant : 
the  peasantry  barely  make  their  own  clothing :  in  some 
parts  they  manufacture  wooden  utensils,  and  agricultural 
implements,  which  they  take  to  the  fairs.  A  great  advance 
has  however  been  made  within  the  last  twenty-five  years. 
The  brandy-distilleries  are  numerous.  The  export  trade 
in  the  products  of  the  country  is  very  considerable.  The 
principal  articles  are  wheat  (1,200,000  chetwerts,  or  864,000 
English  quarters',  cattle,  hone}',  tallow  (400,000  poods,  or 
about  500  English  cwt.),  butter,  cheese,  wool,  hemp, 
iron,  brandy,  hides,  coarse  cloth,  and  wooden  wares.  Pro- 
perly speaking  there  is  no  great  commercial  town.  Tam- 
bow, Selatma,  and  Morschansk  alone  have  some  com- 
merce with  foreign  countries. 

The  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are  Russians. 
There  are  some  thousands  of  converted  Tartars  and  Mord- 
wins,  and  a  few  gypsies.  These  Tartars  and  Mordwins  live 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  Russians,  but  retain  their  own 
dialect,  and  live  apart  from  the  Russians,  and  generally 
intermarry  with  their  own  people.  The  religion  of  the 
Mohammedan  Tartars  requires  a  different  mode  of  life. 
Among  these  various  nations  the  Tartars  are  the  most 
civilised,  have  the  most  knowledge,  and  the  purest  morals, 
and  enjoy  the  most  prosperity. 

Education  is  at  a  low  ebb.  According  to  Schnitzler, 
only  1  put  of  323  of  the  population  receives  any  school 
instruction.  The  only  printing-office  belongs  to  the 
government. 

The  Greek  church  is  under,  the  bishop  of  Tambow  and 
Schazk,  who  has  in  his  dioeese  739  parishes  and  0  monas- 
teries. The  Mohammedan  Tartars  have  their  mosques, 
imams,  and  teachers. 

TAMBOW,  the  capital  of  the  government,  is  situated 
nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  province,  on  the  river  Zna,  in 
52°  44'  N.  lat.  and  41°  45'  E.  long.  It  is  a  large  town, 
with  20,000  inhabitants,  and  was  founded  in  1030,  as 
a  bulwark  against  the  Nogay  Tartars.  Scarcely  any  traces 
of  the  antient  fortifications  now  remain.  There  is  nothing 
remarkable  in  the  town,  which  has  however  been  much 
improved  in  its  appearance  since  the  beginning  of  this 
century.  Almost  all  the  houses  are  built  of  wood :  tne 
principal  buildings  are  the  monastery  of  Our  Lady  of 
Casan,  in  which  there  are  two  churches ;  seven  stone  and 
six  wooden  churches,  the  gymnasium,  and  the  civil  hospital. 
There  is  a  military  school,  founded  and  endowed  by  the 
nobility  in  1802,  a  seminary  for  priests,  and  a  district, 
school.  The  bishop  resides  in  this  city.  The  inhabitants 
manufacture  shawls,  kersey,  sailcloth,  cordage,  and  woollen 
cloth ;  and  there  is  an  Imperial  alum  and  vitriol  manu 
factory.  The  inhabitants  carry  on  some  trade,  but  their 
chief  occupation  is  agriculture. 

The  following  are  the  other  chief  towns.  Jelatma,  the 
most  northerly  town  in  the  government,  situated  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Oka,  carries  on  by  means  of  that  river  a 
very  great  trade  with  Moscow  :  it  has  ten  churches,  eight 
of  which  are  of  stone :  the  inhabitants,  6000  in  number, 
have  some  manufactures  of  woollen  cloth,  vitriol,  and  sul- 
phur. Koslow,  situated  on  the  Lesnoi  Woronesh,  has 
above  8000  inhabitants,  who  follow  various  trades  and 
professions:  near  the  town  is  the  convent Troitzkoi,  where 
a  great  annual  fair  is  held.  There  are  eight  churches,  of 
which  five  are  of  stone  :  the  principal  trade  of  the  town 
is  in  oxen,  salt,  meat,  and  hides.  Lipetsk,  on  the  Woro- 
nesh, near  the  north  extremity  of  the  government  of  that 
name,  a  town  with  0500  inhabitants,  is  celebrated  for  its 
mineral-waters,  which  were  first  used  in  the  reign  of  Peter 
the  Great.  Morschansk,  a  town  of  6000  inhabitants,  situ- 
ated on  the  Zna,  has  manufactures  of  linen,  sail-cloth, 
cordage,  and  tallow,  and  a  brisk  trade  in  corn,  cattle,  arid 
'Hassel,  d'eography ;  Stein;  Horschelman  ;  Schu- 
bert :  Schnitzler.) 

TAMBURI'NI,  PIETRO,  born  at  Brescia,  in  1737, 
studied  in  his  native  town,  took  holy  orders,  and  was 
made  professor  of  philosophy,  and  afterwards  of  theology, 
in  the  episcopal  seminary  of  Brescia.  After  filling  those 
chairs  for  twelve  years,  he  was  invited  to  Rome,  where 
Clement  XIV.  (Ganganelli)  made  him  director  of  the 
studies  of  the  Irish  College,  in  which  situation  lie  remained 
for  six  years.  In  1778  he  was  recalled  to  Lombardy  by 
the  empress  Maria  Theresa,  and  appointed  professor  of 
theology  in  the  university  of  Pavia,  and  at  the  same  time 
director  of  the  studies  of  the  German  Hungarian  college 
in  that  city,  and  also  censor  of  the  press.  In  1795  he  was 

VOL.  XXIV.— E 


T  A  M 


T  A    M 


made  1*rofi»»«or  >  ilh  a  pension.     In  17H7.  when 

Die  K  i'-d\.  'I  .unburini  was  obliged  by 

in.-  i  active  dutie,  at   1'avia,  as 

•.    and   of  'jus    nalur.i 

of  confusion  of  ideas  and  of 

•iouMMM.    Tamburini  boldly  fulfilled  bis 

liy  proclaiming  wholesome 

afterwards  his  chair 

was  s  '  i-  was  appointed  rector  of  the  lyceum 

icn  Bonaparte  assumed  the 
d   North  Italy.  Tamburini  was 

sent  iigiiin  to  1'nvia  as  professor  of  morn!  philosophy  and  of 
•rentium,'  in  which  chair   he  continued  for 
eight,  ill  some  yeais  after  the  Restoration,  when 

the  emperor  Francis  made  him  again  Professor  Emeritus 
nnd  pr.r-.ul  of  the  faculty  of  law  and  politics  in  the  nni- 
I'avia.  Tamburini  was  also  ft  knight  of  tin- 
order"  of  the  Ironl'iown.  He  died  at  1'nvia.  in  March, 
1*27.  at  uineU  after  the  death 

of    his    brothe'r    professor,     Volla.       His    remains    were 
buried  with  the  honours,  being  followed  to  the 

grave   by   the    whole    of  the   professors   and    above    six 
hundred"  students,  with  marks  of  sincere  respect  and  deep 

ct. 

The  work  for   which   Tamburini    in    mostly   known   is 

i    della    Santa    s,-de.'     published    anonymously    at 

Pavia.  in  17«4.     An  extract  from  the  author's  preface  will 

niie  idea  of  the  nature  of  this  work:  '  I 
often  'happens  that    to   the   most   common   and   hncknied 
-  a   vague  and  indeterminate  meaning  i.s  attri- 
buted.    A   word  was  originally  fixed  upon  to  signify  a 
',<\  thing.     The  idea  of  it  vvas  perhaps  clear  and  pre- 
n,  but  as  in  the  course  of  time  the  ideas  of 
men  change,  the  word  is    still  retained,  though    people 
attach   to   it   different    meanings.     Hence   obscurity  and 
confusion  and  interminable  disputes  arise,  and   still  the 
•he  disputed  word  is  kept  up.  without  convening 
any  distinct    idea  of  what   it  means.     Numberless  exani- 
migbt  be  (jiioted   of  Mich   an  occurrence.     For  in- 
stance, in  our  own  times  everybod-   ,  •>(  the  Holy 
;'.ic  See.  tho  chair  of'St.  Peter,  the  Roman 
ch'ireb.    which    are    so   many   expression:,    ,-ignifung   flu- 
thing,  and  which  in  anlient.  times  ,  vpie^ed  a  simple 
and  clear  idea,  but  which  now    convci    to  the   minds  ol 
people  the  most  vague  and  indeterminate  notions.    Things 
the  most  disparate  are  identified:   people  confound  one 
subject   with    another,  the   see   with    the.    incumbent,  the 
chair  with  the  court  of  Rome,  the  court  with  the  church  ; 
and  from  this  medi                     confusion  of  ideas  through 
which  every  decree  that  proceeds  from  Rome  heroines  in- 
.  d  with  thi                              'e  authoiity  of  the  chair  ol 
St.  Peter,  of  the  Apostolic  See,  of  the  church  of  Rome — a 
confusion   followed   by  tl  enees 
not'                                                        "  the  universal  church, 
dild  to  the  /                                    i.      In  order  to  support  cer- 
tain                                     -anated   from  Rome,  some  short- 
ed theologians  have  attributed  to  the  Roman  See  new 
:iknown  to  the  earlier  ages  of  the  church, 
an  I  I  hey  have  had  r                                       I  infallibility.  .  .  . 
Other  men  have  contested  these  prerogatives,  and  in  the 
•warmth   of   thi                      ty  the   rial   claims   of  ti' 
See   have   been                                .1    forgotten.  .  .  .  One    pilitv 
has  maintained  that,  on  the  pica  of  infallibility,  every  de- 
mating  from  Rome  ought,  to  be   received  with 

as  imagined  that 

by  iiitallibilitv    every  au- 

thority as  i.  .  .  .  Hou 

extr.  it  of  just  and  enact  notions 

on  the   nature,  the  and   the   ]  .f  the 

Ho  it  work  is  intended  to  establish  these 

notions.     A  little   French   book    tell    into    my  haiii. 

\-iforilc 

[ii'on  lui  attrihue."     In  the 

first  part  the  author  1ms  well  '   the  idea  of  the 

Koine  :  nnd 


in  the  second  part  h 
nee.     !  have  a<l 
little  work,  cor 


I  hn 


wants  of  our  li 
see.  and  lia\ 


lesof  this 
part*,  and 

iiintry. 

to  the 

of    the 


Roman   rifcretal-.  ninl  to  mi.ke  our  own  conduct  prac- 


with  the-  . 
authority  of  the  see  of  RCM 

At  the  appcai.  it  nasstigma- 

li/ed  as  ,};t\:  although   the   author   h»- 

jierhap*   MJ   tar  as   some   of  the    Fr.-neli 
llishop    Rieei    and   his   s\ : 

•  I.)     The  reasoning   is   clo*ely 

supported  by  numerous  i.  :  »  of 

it  were  published  at  Rome  and  other  ' 
other  win  k>  of  Tamburini  are— 1.  •  Introdu, 
della  Filosotia  Morale.'  Milan,  17 
sofia    Morale    e    di    N  ale    Diritt. 

vm.lMtMi-l-J:   3.  •  Kleiiienl.i.ln 

•iui  sulla  1'erfi  Itibilil.'i  dell'  Umana  Fa 
in  which  the  author  refutes  the 

of  indefinite    perfectibility    and    univcixil     happim- 
luima  .     'Ilie  philosophy  of  Tainburim  is  of  the 

F.electic  kind. 

(Defendentc  Sacchi,  J'urif/d  Ltttfrim,  Mil.  i.  :  Mafl'ci. 
Slorm  iMI:!  i-it  ltdiianu,  b.  vi.,  ch.  l.'l: 

(//  l-'ii-fn:,:  No-. 

TAMK.   i!  insmuK.] 

TA.MKR.  Hi  .W\LI..] 

TAMKKI.ANK.     [TIMI-H.] 

TA'MIV          -  .  vol.  xxii..  pp.  :t!K  :i!i:i.  i- 

TAMMKAMA.     [Sunn 
TAMl'ITO.     MKXU  vv  STATKS.] 
TAMl'I,.     [II.  .  o.  2-28.] 

T.YMI  s.  the  imiiv  of  a  genus  of  jilan:- 
the  natural   order  Die-  This  g(- 

the  fctamens  growing  on  one  plant,  and  the  pistils  o 
other.     The  flower*  are  alike  in  having  n  perianth. 

rtcd.  the  cahx  and  corolla  being  undistii 
In   the  male  flowers   there   are  (i  stamens.      In  the  female 
flowers  the  remains  are  seen   of  <>  al  tin- 

ovary  is  trilocular  ;    the  style  tritid.  with  3  .    the 

fruit  a  berry.     This  genu>  I  to  be  the  I  r.i  'l'<i- 

inii/ia  of  Pliny:  hence  its  jiresent  name. 

Tiitniii  ciimnniiiix.  the  common  Black  Briony,  has  un- 
divided  cordate,  acuminate  leaves,  and  is  .  :>mon 
plant   in  hedges  and  thickets  throughout  Kurope.      1' 
frequent  plant  in  England.     It   has  n  long  twining  stem, 
spreading  in  all  directions,  and  reaching  from  branch  to 
branch  of  hedges  and  thickets  :   its  flowers  are  greenish- 
white  :  the  fruit  is  of  a  red  colour,  and  hangs  in  bunches 
from  its  trailing  branches.     The  berries  are  likely  to  be 
plucked  and  eaten  by  children  :    tli 
poisunoiis.  although  the  whole  plant  contains  a  bitter 
principle,   which   renders   it    umvlio                     I'his   acrid 
principle  is  dcstroved  by  heat:    and  as  the  roots  of  this 
plant    contain    a    -irat    deal   of  sliirch  or  ferula,  a  v 
some  and  1111111:                                    Mined  from  them  l>\ 
.washing  and  boiling.     On   the  surface   of  tin 
found   blackish   tubercle-.,   wlm 
tity  of  acrid  principle  than  the  rest  of  the  plant,  and 
should   be    removed    previous   to   preparing  tla 
eating.      The    young   shoots  of  this   plant    taste,    when 
boiled,  like  asparagus,  and  are  eaten   by  the  Moors  with 
oil  and  salt. 

TAMWORTH.a  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough 
on  the  border  of  Staffordshire  and  \Varwieks1iiie:  the 
municipal  borough,  which  includes  11  part  of  the 

towii.  and  the  parish,  which   is  far  m 
an  area  of  lH.'.l-i'  divided  between  the  two  . 

ties:  the  p.  tlv   in  the  imi-thern  and  partly  in  the 

southern   division   of    Otflow  hundred    in   the 

d.  and  partly  in   Hemlingford  hundred  in  \Vai 
shire.     The  church  is  in  Statl'onlshne.  on   which  account 
IWD  is  commonly  de-i-ribcd   as   being  in  that  eoiintv. 
Tain  worth  is  1(12  miles  in  a  direct    line  nnrtli-wcsi.  of  the 
'-t-ofliec.   London,  or    12!)  miles  by  the  London 
and    Itirmingham    Railway   to    Hampton    in    Ardcn.   and 
from    thence    by  the    Birmingham    and    Derby    .lot 
Railwav. 

The  'town  first  comes  into  notice   in  the  time  of  the 
Heptarchy:  seveial  of  the  Mercian  kings  appear,  from  the 
date  ol    eliaiters  grajitrd   by  them,  to   have  had  thei. 
dence  at  Tamworth.     In  the  Dam-h  built 

here  in  the  reign  of  Kdwiud   t!  s.o.  !!!:(    by  bis 

sister  F.ihe.  '  who  died  at  Tamworth, 

passed  under  the  direct  dominion  of 

Kdwa  I  the  submlmion  of  the  T:inuuirth 

men.  A.I).  Uft!.     Shaw   < Hl*t.  of  Slaffordxli  ;,c»  to 


T  A  M 


27 


T  A 


Ethelfleda  the  mound  on  which  the  present  ruins  of  the 
castle  stand,  but  the  ruins  themselves  are  of  later  date. 
An  old  ditch,  yet  visible,  called  'the  king's  dyke,'  which 
surrounds  the  town  on  three  sides,  is  supposed  by  Shaw  to 
be  of  yet  greater  antiquity  than  the  time  of  Edward.  In 
the  Saxon  •  Chronicle'  the  town  is  called  Tamaweorthige, 
Tameweorthige,  Tamanweorthe,  or  Tamweorthe  :  in  other 
antient  writings  the  orthography  is  still  further  varied. 
The  place  is  not  described  in  '  Domesday  ;'  but  the  'bur- 
gense-,'  burgesses.)  of  Tamworth,  are  mentioned  in  that 
record,  in  the  notice  of  other  places. 

After  the  Conquest,  the  castle  and  adjacent  territory 
were  granted  to  Robert  Marmion,  hereditary  champion  to 
the  dukes  of  Normandy  ;  and  afterwards,  on  the  extinction 
of  the  male  line  of  his  family  in  the  time  of  Edward  I., 
passed  to  the  family  of  Frevile.  The  castle  now  belongs 
to  Marquis  Townshend.  Sir  Walter  Scott  has  enumerated 
'Tamworth  tower  and  town'  among  the  possessions  of  his 
fictitious  Marmion  :  but  the  family  had  become  extinct 
long  before,  as  observed  by  Sir  Walter  in  the  Appendix  to 
his  poem. 

The  town  stands  on  the  north  bank  of  the  rivers  Tame 
and  Anker,  just  at  their  junction,  and  consists  of  several 
streets  not  very  regularly  laid  out.  The  streets  are  paved, 
but  had  not  been  lighted  when  the  Municipal  Boundary 
Commissioners'  Report  was  drawn  up  (Parl.  Papfrx  j'<n- 
1837)  ;  the  inhabitants  were  however  about  to  assess 
themselves  for  the  purpose.  'The  church  is  a  large  and 
handsome  edifice,  with  a  fine  tower,  and  a  crypt  under 
part  of  the  church.  Some  portions  are  of  decorated  date, 
and  some  perpendicular,  and  both  good:  some  of  the 
windows  have  hud  very  fine  tracery.  In  the  tower  is  a 
curious  double  staircase,  one  from  the  inside  and  one  from 
without,  each  communicating  with  a  different  set  of  floors 
in  the  tower.'  iRickman's  Gothic  Architecture.)  The 
remains  of  the  castle  are  on  a  mound  close  to  the  Tame  : 
they  are  of  various  periods,  and  some  modern  buildings 
have  been  added  to  adapt  the  whole  to  the  purposes  of  a 
modern  residence:  the  eastle  commands  a  fine  prosperl . 
There  art-  some  Dissenting  place*  of  worship  :  an  alms- 
house,  founded  by  Guy.  the  founder  of  Guy's  Hospital  in 
Southwark  ;  a  town-hall,  with  a  small  and  inconvenient 
gaol  beneath  ;  and  two  bridges,  one  over  the  Tame,  the 
other  over  the  Anker. 

The  population  of  the  municipal  borough  in  1831  was 
3537,  that  of  the  whole  parish  (containing  several  hamlets 
and  townships  j  7182.  Some  manufactures  are  carried  on  ; 
but  the  whole  number  of  men  employed  in  them  in  the 
parish  was,  in  1831,  only  38.  Some  coals  and  brick-earth 
are  dug  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  bricks  and  tiles  are 
made.  The  market  is  on  Saturday  :  there  are  three  char- 
tered fairs  for  cattle  and  merchandise,  and  several  new 
fairs  for  cattle  only:  some  of  them  held  at  Fazeley  in  the 
parish.  The  Coventry  Canal  passes  near  the  town. 

Tamworth  was  a  borough  by  prescription  :  but  the 
town  having  declined  and  ceased  to  be  regarded  as  a  cor- 
poration,  \MIS  incorporated  anew  by  letters  patent  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  :  the  governing  charter  is  one  of  Charles 
II.  By  the  Municipal  Reform  Act  the  borough  has  four 
aldermen  and  twelve  councillors,  but  is  not  to  have  a 
commission  of  the  peace  except  on  petition  and  grant. 
The  criminal  jurisdiction  of  the  corporation  had  fallen 
into  disuse  before  the  passing  of  that  act,  as  well  as  the 
court  of  record  :  quarter-sessions  were  held,  but  for  civil 
purposes  only. 

Tamworth  first  sent  members  to  parliament  in  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth:  it  still  returns  two  members.  The  number 
<>i'  voters  on  the  register  in  1835-6  was  531 :  in  1830-40, 
501. 

The  living  of  Tamworth  is  a  perpetual  curacy,  of  the 
clear  yearly  value  of  170/.,  with  a  glebe-house.  There  are 
in  the  piiii-.li  the  perpetual  curacies  of  Kazeley.  Wiggin- 
ton,  and  Wilnecote,  of  the  clear  yearly  value  of  235/. 
(with  a  glebe-house  .  !»2/.  andlKl/.  respectively  :  the  curate 
ni  Tamworlh  presents  to  Wigginton  and  Wilnecote.  There 
are  al*o  in  the  parish  two  c.hapelries,  Amington  and 
Hopwas. 

There  were  in  the  borough,  in  1833,  three  endowed  and 

three  unendowed  <la\  -schools,  with   IK')  children,  namely 

I  1-'  ul  21)  children  of  sex  not  stated  ;  anil 

'lay-schools,  with  2(13  children,  viz.  97  boys  and 

i  of  the  pnii-.li  were  one  infant-school, 

i>a:1iy  .upported  by  subscription,  with  88  children,  namely 


41  boys  and  47  girls  ;  ten  day-schools  of  all  kinds,  with  96 
boys,  80  girls,  and  80  children  of  sex  not  stated,  making 
256  children  in  all  ;  and  three  Sunday-schools,  with  288 
children,  namely  150  boys  and  138  girls.  (Shaw's  Staf- 
fordshire ;  Parliamentary  Papers.) 

TANA-ELF.     [TRONDHEIM.] 

TANACETUM,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Compositae,  and  the  suborder  Corymbiferse 
or  Asteracea-.  The  involucre  is  imbricated  and  hemi- 
spherical. The  receptacle  is  naked ;  the  flowers  of  the 
ray  are  3-toothed,  those  of  the  disk  5-toothed,  tubular,  and 
hermaphrodite.  The  fruit,  nn  aehenium,  is  crowned  with 
a  membranous  margin,  or  pappus.  The  flowers  are 
yellow. 

The  most  common  species  is  the  Tiinitn-fiu/i  rulgarp, 
common  Tansy.  It  has  bipinnatifid  leaves,  with  serrated 
sections  or  lacinice.  This  plant  is  abundant  in  Great 
Britain  and  throughout  Europe,  on  the  borders  of  fields 
and  road-sides.  It  possesses  in  a  high  degree  the  bitter- 
ness of  the  whole  order  Composite,  which,  in  the  section 
Corymbifene,  is  combined  with  a  resinous  principle.  It 
is  recommended  and  has  been  extensively  used  in  medi- 
cine as  an  emmenagogne  and  anthelmintic.  Although 
the  flavour  and  smell  of  this  plant  are  both  at  first  dis- 
agreeable, a  taste  for  it  may  be  acquired,  and  it  has  been 
used  in  cookery  for  the  purpose  of  flavouring  puddings  and 
sauces.  The  young  shoots  yield  a  green  colouring-matter, 
and  are  used  by  the  Finlanders  for  the  purpose  of  dyeing 
their  cloths  of"  that  colour.  It,  is  said  that  if  meat  be 
rubbed  with  the  fresh  leaves,  it  will  not  be  attacked  by 
the  flesh-fly. 

TA'NAGERS.     The  genus  Ttuwgrn  of  Linusi-us  stands, 
in  the  12th  edition  of  the  f!y,<str»in  Nitiira- ,  between  Embe- 
>nd  Frivgilla,  in  the  order  Paxsrres. 

Cnvier  characterises  the  genus  as  having  a  conical  bill, 
triangular  at  its  base,  slightly  arched  at  its  arrtp.  and 
notched  towards  the  end  :  wings  and  flight  short.  He  ob- 
serves that  they  resemble  our  sparrows  in  their  habits,  and 
seek  for  seeds  as  well  as  berries  and  insects.  The  greater 
part,  he  remarks,  force  themselves  upon  the  attention  of  the 
spectator  of  an  ornithological  collection  by  their  vnid 
colours.  He  places  the  genus  between  the  Drongos  (l-'.-'i:- 
litu,  Cuv.)  and  the  Thrushes  (Turdus,  Linn.),  thus  subdi- 
viding it  :  — 

1.  The  Euphonous  or  Bullfinch  Tanagers  (Euphones, 
:in  Tdiuf'tras  Boucrrt.'i/x'. 

These  have  a  short  bill,  presenting,  when  it  is  seen  ver- 
tically, an  enlargement  on  each  side  of  its  base  :  tail  short 
in  proportion. 

Examples,  Tanagrrr  riolacm,  rayi'ttnrnsis,  &c. 
2.  The  Grosbeak  Tanagers. 

Bill  conic,  stout,  convex,  as  wide  as  it  is  high  ;  the  back 
of  the  upper  mandible  rounded. 

Examples,  Tbnagrrf  mugntt,  nfru,  fee. 

:i.  Tanagers.  properly  so  called. 

Bill  conic,  shorter  than  the  bead,  as  wide  as  it  is  high, 
the  upper  mandible  arched  and  rather  pointed. 

Examples,  Tanagrrr  Titian,  trin.lor,  &c. 

4.  Oriole  Tanagers  (Tangaras  Lnriots}. 

Bill  conic,  arched,  pointed,  notched  at  the  end. 

Examples,  Tanasrrr  <fii>iirix,  piteafa,  &c. 
5.   Cardinal  Tanagers. 

Bill  conic,  a  little  convex,  with  an  obtuse  projecting 
tooth  on  the  side. 

Examples,  Tanagrer  cristat.a,  brtintim,  &c. 
6.  Ramphocelc  Tanagers. 

Bill  conic,  with  the  branches  of  the  lower  mandible  con- 
vex, backwards. 

Examples,  Thnagrrr  Jacapa,  Brasilia,  &c. 

The  views  of  Mr.  Vigors  on  the  subject  of  this  group 
will  be  found  in  the  article  FRINGILLID.E. 

Mr.  Swainson  remarks  that  the  Tanagriiuc,  or  Tanagers, 
form  that  group  which  is  probably  the  most  numerous,  a* 
it  certainly  is  the  most  diversified  of  all  those  in  the  com- 
prehensive family  of  the  Friiiffiflicfa:  As  the  detftirostml 
division  of  that  family,  it  is,  he  observes,  typically  distin- 
guished from  all  the  others  by  the  bill  having  a  distinct 
and  well-defined  notch  at  the  end  of  the  upper  mandible, 
the  ridge  or  culmen  of  which  is  much  more  curved  than 
onys;  or,  in  other  words,  the  culmen  is  more  curved 
downwards  than  the  gonys  is  upwards:  this  inequality,  he 
further  states,  as  in  the  genus  Plni-ms,  very  much  takes  otf 
from  that  regular  conic  form  of  bill  so  highly  characteristic 

E  2 


TAN 


TAN 


of  the  greater  number  of  t he  finches:  so  th 
ti.ni  of  these  two  charaetcrs  is,  he  l!i. 


imhina- 

th,    !••  -• 


.. .   he 
la  in"  tlu-ir  c 

the  whole,  as  far  as  has  luthcrt  n  nn- 

.fthe  warmer  ]>:irts  ol"  America,  being  most  abundant 
111  those  region*  nearest  to  the  equhux-tial  line.  'Tiny 
an-.'-  -  \ainson  in  roiitinuution,  •  in  central  Miiail 

-i    being  intermediate   between  a  sparrow 
and  ;i  thrush,   while  tin-  majority  ilo  not  exceed  tlir 
.1  lin.  .-w  are  even  smaller.       It  is  quite  evident, 

from  the  great  strength  of  bill  possessed  by  some,  ami  the 
nuteh  whirh  is  coiupicuoiu  in  nil.  that  these  liirils  feed 
ii|Kni  weds  and  creeping  insects  picked  from  tile  branches 
of  li.  .cry  tew 'of  them  an  ever  -cell  upon  the 

ground.  Tlieir  colours  in  general  are  bright  ;  and.  in  a 
number,  particularly  rieli  and  beautiful.  The  little 
bird-,  forming  the  genus  Afilnin,  in  Tact,  are  ornameiilnl 
with  the  mo.-t  \ivid  hues  or  glossed  with  rieb  refleetions  of 
told,  rendering  them  interior  only  to  the  Humming  HinU. 
Some  posse->  considerable  \neal  powcis:  and  the  notes  of 
the  subgenus  l-jifihiiiiia,  as  it*  name  implies,  are  said  to  be 
particularly  nni.-ieal.  The  impossibility  however  ot'  pro- 
viding the  Tanagen  with  their  native  sweet  food  !>. 
\entedtliemfrom  ever  being  brought  alive  to  the  Hiiropean 
menageries,  to  which  their  beauty  would  render  them  the 
greatest  ornaments.' 

Mr.  Swainsou  then  dwells  on  the  obscurity  which  at- 
tends the  examination  of  this  group,  which  he  states  to  be 
one  of  the  most  difficult  to  be  understood  in  the  whole 
circle  of  ornithology.  He  points  out,  for  instance,  that  the 
comparative  strength  "f  the  bill  is  so  vaj-iiible  in  th. 
subgenus,  that  such  variation,  indicative  of  genera  in  other 
families,  is  in  this  no  more  than  a  discrimination  of  sections 
or  species.  Nothing,  according  to  him.  can  illustrate  this 
fact  more  than  the  affinity  between  1'itylim  and  Tarilirnlii. 
Looking  to  the  types  of  each,  he  observes,  we  should  sa> 
that  they  did  no)  belong  even  to  the  same  subfamily;  for 
the  bill  of  the  first  is  nearly  as  large  as  in  the  hawfinches 
(Coccothrauistrs,  HAWFINCH),  while  that  of  Turilirt. 
comparatively  slender  that  it  seems  more  akin  to  the 
LARKS  than  to  the  Tanagers;  and  yet,  he  remarks  in  con- 
tinuation, between  these  two  extremes  or  type.-,  he  had 
when  he  wrote,  before  him  such  a  perfect  scries  of  gradu- 
ated forms,  wherein  not  only  the  bill,  but  all  the  other 
subordinate  characters  of  the  two  groups,  progress  in  slid 
a  ]>erpetual  and  almost  imperceptible  manner,  that  he  was 
actually  at  uloss  to  know  where  Tin/iru/.i  ends  and  I'iti/lui 
begins.  The  foregoing  affinity  being  admitted,  and  i' 
should  be  remembered  that  some  of  the  best  ornithologies 
writers  have  placed  it  as  a  genus  in  a  totally  different 
family.  Mr.  Swainsou  next  proceeds  to  inquire  into  flu 
ie  of  so  remarkable  a  variation  in  the  bill  of  such  closely- 
united  species.  He  first  states  that  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
seed-eating  birds  of  Tropical  America  are  composed  of  the 
Tanagers,  which,  in  those  regions,  supply  the  place  of  the 
other  finches  so  abundant  in  all  parts  of  Kurope.  The  in 
numerable  small  and  bard  fruit >  produced  in  the  America! 
forests  are,  he  observes,  the  appointed  food  of  the  Tanagers 
the  parrots  living  principally  upon  the  larger  nuts,  and  flu 
bill  of  the  former  birds  is  constructed  accordingly, 
noticing  the  disparity  of  the  bills  in  the  fine-lies,  taking  th< 
common  linnet  and  the  hawfinch  for  example,  he  remark 
how  little  reliance  can  be  placed  on  such  diversity  in  de 
tenniuing  genera:  but  this.  In  will  not  explaii 

the  great  difference  which  often  exists  in  the  si/e  am 
plumage  of  species  which  all  writers  agree  in  arranging 
within  the  limits  of  the  same  subgeiius:  and  he  takes  tin 
restricted  genus  I'ltylu*.  '  m  example.  Some  0 

the  species  of   that  genus  are   green,   some   black,   other 
;  and  in  size  they  vary  from  the  dimensions  of  a  spar 
row  to  those  of  a  small  thrush. 

The  doubt->  which,  in  Mr.  Swain-on's  opinion,  bang  ovc 
the  i  of  the  views  which  he  entertained  with  re 

spcct  to  the  natural   affinilii-  of  tin-,   birds,  may.  1  • 
be  said  to  binge  almost  entirely  upon  his  not  having  beei 
able  to  examine  specimens  of  Frniffilln  Xi'im,   win. 
certain  peculiarities  which  lead  him  tocxpcct  that  it  forms 
the  (ype  of  one  of  the  principal  divisions  among  the  Tjma- 
gern,  or  that  it   connects  bis  genus  Aglum   with  I'ljnlln 
On  '.'  i>o-ition.   /•'.  Xfiiu  would,  accoidmg  to  Mr 

•titntc   the  passage  from  the  true  sparrows 
(.Pyrgita)  to  the  subgenus  Tanagia  proper;  while  by  the 


second,  I'ijiilln  would 

and  'I'tiii'iL'i':!,  and  thus  constitute  the  rasoriaJ  g> 

whole  subfamily :  and  this  latter  arrangement 

lim    to  lie   the    natural    one.      II  :    the    two 

\pical   group-  <•  .1  1'tnrm* 

vhile  those  which  he  thinks  abe; 

ind  J'i/,i//n.     It  was  only  between   the   1\\, 

C  had  not    as  \i  I    aii\   affinit)   sufficiently 

.tiong   to  justify  the  belie!'  that    the-.  -in  a 

•iiele   more  or  less  complete :  the  difficulty  being  how  to 

•onnect  A^Iiiui  with  1'ijiilln.      He    then    takes   aicM. 

he  genera,  for  which  we  must  refer  our  readers  to  the  work 
lf:    and.   in   the   NV//O/.V/V   at    the   end   of  the   volume. 

nakes  the  TtiHiiariiin:  which  he  ]>!aces  between  the'' 
thrtHutiiiir  and   the  t'rimfilliH,f.  consist  of  the  following 

genera  and  subgenera,  all  of  which  he  c-hanu-teri/t  s  : — 

Tun 

Sii/i/'iinii/i/  Chni-iifti'i-. — Hill  e(|Ually  conic;  the  u 
mandiliie  more  or  le-s  arched,  und  ver\  ili-tmetly  not. 
Ke.-t  formed  for  ])crching.  '  \d  and  fnily  cir 

Genera. 

Tiirilirtiln,    Titiinyrii    with   the  subgenera  1'itylit*. 

.  ami  Kninjilnijii^'i.  PhtPin^unn  iwith  the  suligciieta 
Pfugnitoma,    Tncftyphonut,   and   l.i  • 
,-lgluin  (with  the   subgenera  /./// 
And  j'/iii//n   with  the  siibgenus./r/v/' 
of  Hi, 

The  I'rince    of  Canino  (finds  of  Europe  anil   North. 

aces  the  'I'liiKisrinii-  between  the  /•' 
and  the  Em  1'yrnHL'H  is  the  onh 

.iging  to  the  Tii>iiii.r''ifif. 

Mr.  (i.   K.  Clray  makes   the    T,i,«i<rriiirt-   the   third 
family  of  the  FrinfiUidtr,  arranging   it  between  tin 
cothrauitti»a>m<\  I'riiiaillintf.     The  following  _ 
enumerated  by  Mr.  (riay  a-  belonging  to  the   third 
family: — 

Em,  .  Tcmm.  :     Pipiln,  Vieill.  :    l'.nil'i-ni<iyrit, 

I.es-.  :   Arri'iii<iii.\'\i'\\\.:   '  -ill.:  1'iti/lit*.  < 

'/'<I/KI am.  Linn.  :    Siiltatnr.  Vieill.  :    > 
Selhy  ;    Rampfiopsit,  Vieill.  :    /. 
Vieiil.  :    I.'inin.  Vieill.  :     TiH-hi/ii/iHinm,  \  ieill.  : 
Vieill. ;    Tninif:ri'//'i.  Sw. :  J'JI/I/K,H,:«.  IVsm.  ;  t 
G.  11.  Gray  :  Step/utnophorus,  Stnc\d. :  ('n 

Mr.  Gray,  with  his  usual  industn,  gives  the  niinn 
synonyms  of  each  genus.  (List  a'/  "  "inl*, 

2nd  edition,  is, 

\Ve  select  Nuttall's  description  oft! 
nr  Jl/ar/i-i/'i/ufi-:!  Sit/ii/iii-r  lli'd-Jiinl,  TH  mi  am  riilirn.  ' 
^subgenus  Pi/run 

The  male  is  scarlet-red,  with  the  wings  and  notched  tail 
black  :   the  base  of  the  plumage  is  ash,  then  white, 
female,   young,  and   male  in   autumn,  arc   dull   green,  in- 
clining to  yellow  in  the  latter:  yellow  beneath  ;  win: 
tail   il  igth  about  -i\  niche-  and  a  hal. 

ten'  ten  inches  and  a  half. 

'This  splendid    and    transient    resident.'  Mall, 

npnnying  fine  weather  in  all  In- 

from    his  winter   station    in  tiopieal    A  mci  n  a  li  •  .111  ' : 
ginning  to  the  middle  of  M 

N'uv  a  Scotia  ;i>  well  asCanada.      \Vith  the  -hy, 
unsocial,  and   sn  ilut-  of  lus  gaudv  fialernitv.   he 

takes  ii])   his  abode   in   the  deepest    rece—  <-   of  the   ; 
where,  timidly  flitting  from  observation,  he  diirl- 
to  tree   like  a  flashing  me-  ndy  sylph, 

of  his  brilliance,  and   the   expo-tire   to   which   it    sul 
him,  he  seems  to  avoid  remark,  and  is  only  solie 
known  to  his  humble  mate,  and  bid  from  all  beside.     He 
therefore  rarely  ;••  •  the  habitations  of  .men.  i 

|i<  the   skirts  of   the   orchard,  where  'line, 

-t.  and  tul,  .•!'  the  earl . 

inviting,  though  forbidden  chei. 

•  Among  the  thick  foliage  of  the  tree  in  which  be 
suppoil  and   shelter,  from  the   lolly  brand  • 

his   alnio-t    monotonous    l*hi].-ir'iti'r.    />//.. 
tthtkadtf,  l.\hijhtiil/'t'.  icpeated  lit  .-holt  ii.ier\aN.  aii.; 
pensive  under-tone,  heightened    by  the   -olitnde   in  which 
he  iK  light-  to  dwell.      The   ..nine    note    1-   a!-o    uttered    liy 
the  female  when   the  heisclf  and   youni'   i 

proiiched;  and  the  male  occasionally  utters,  in  iccognitioii 
to    hi-   mate,    a.-   they    perambulate    the    brand, 
whispering  '/ml,  in  a  tl  '(ion  and  tenderncsvi.     lint 

be-id'i  11  on   the  female,   he   has  also,  dining  the 

period  of  his  incubation,  and  tor  a  considerable  time  after. 


TAN 


29 


TAN 


a  more  musical  strain,  resembling  somewhat,  in  the  mellow- 
ness of  its  tones,  the  sons;  of  the  fifing  Baltimore.  The 
syllables  to  which  I  have  hearkened  appear  like  'tshooi-e 
'irnit  'trail,  'rehiiirit  trait,  and  'irait,  'reftotcit  vea  wait, 
with  other  additions  of  harmony,  for  which  no  words  are 
adequate.  This  pleasing  and  highly  musical  meandering 
ditty  is  delivered  for  hours,  in  a  contemplative  mood,  in 
the  same  tree  with  his  busy  consort.  If  surprised,  they 
flit  together,  but  soon  return  to  their  favourite  station  in 
the  spreading  boughs  of  the  shady  oak  or  hickory.  This 
SOUK  has  some  resemblance  to  that  of  tin-  Red-eyed  Vireo 
in  its  compass  and  strain,  though  much  superior,  the  'u-att 
'  being  whistled  very  sweetly  in  several  tones,  and  with 
emphasis ;  so  that,  upon  the  whole,  our  Pyranga  may  be 
considered  as  duly  entitled  to  various  excellencies,  being 
harmless  to  the  farmer,  brilliant  in  plumage,  and  harmo- 
nious in  voice.' 

Nest,  Food,  fyc. — The  same  author  describes  the  nest 
("which  is  built  about  the  middle  of  May,  on  the  horizontal 
branch  of  some  shady  forest-tree,  commonly  an  oak,  but 
sometimes  in  an  orchard  tree)  as  but  slightly  put  together, 
and  usually  framed  of  broken  rigid  stalks  of  dry  weeds  or 
slender  fir-twigs,  loosely  interlaced  together,  and  partly 
tied  with  narrow  strips  of  Indian  hemp  (Apocy  num.),  some 
slender  grass-leaves,  and  pea-vine  runners  (Amphicarpa), 
or  other  frail  materials ;  the  interior  being  sometimes  lined 
with  the  slender,  wiry,  brown  stalks  of  the  Canadian  cistiis 
( Hi'liiiiithi:niii,ii  -,  or  with  slender  pine-leaves ;  the  whole 
so  thinly  platted  as  to  admit  the  light  through  the  inter- 
stices. The  three  or  four  eggs  are  dull  blue,  spotted  with 
two  or  three  shades  of  brown  or  purple,  most  numerous 
towards  the  larger  end.  As  soon  as  their  single  brood, 
which  is  fledged  early  in  July,  is  reared,  they  leave  for  the 
south,  generally  about  the  middle  or  end  of  August. 

'  The  female,  'says  this  interesting  author  in  continuation, 
'  shows  great  solicitude  for  the  safety  of  her  only  brood  ; 
and,  on  an  approach  to  the  nest,  appears  to  be  in  great  dis- 
tress and  apprehension.  When  they  are  released  from  her 
mure  immediate  protection,  the  male,  at  first  cautious  and 
di.stant.  now  attends  and  feeds  them  with  activity,  being 
ther  indifferent  to  that  concealment  which  his  gaudy 
oa  to  require  from  his  natural  enemies.  So 
attached  to  his  now  interesting  brood  is  the  Scarlet  Tana- 
ger,  that  he  has  been  known,  at  all  hazards,  to  follow  for 
half  a  mile  one  of  his  young,  submitting  to  feed  it  atten- 
tively through  the  bare  of  a  cage,  and.  with  a  devotion 
which  de>pair  could  not  damp,  roost  by  it  in  the  branches 
of  the  same  tree  with  its  prison." 

The  food  of  this  species  consists  mostly  of  winged 
insects,  such  as  wasps,  hornets,  and  wild  bees,  the  smaller 
kirn!  of  beetles,  and  other  Coleoplera.  Seeds  are  supposed 
to  be  sometimes  resorted  to,  and  they  are  very  fond  of 
who'-tle  and  other  benit  s. 

It  is  in  August  that  the  moult  of  the  male,  when  '  he 
exchanges  his  nuptial  scarlet  for  the  greenish-yellow  livery 
of  the  female,'  commences.  (Manual  of  the  Ornithology 
of  the  I  'niti-'I  States  and  of  Canada.) 

TA.NAGKI'NjE.     [TANAGERS.] 
'   TA'NAIS.     [DoN.J 

TANAUO.     [Po.] 

TANCRKD,  of  Hauteville  in  Normandy,  was  a  feudal 
baron  who  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  tenth  and  begin- 
ning of  the  eleventh  century.  After  doing  military  service 
for  some  years  under  Richard  the  Good,  duke  of  Nor- 
mandy, he  retired  to  his  hereditary  mansion,  where   he 
lived  poor,  and  reared  up  a  numerous  family  of  twelve 
and  three  daughters.     All  his  sons  were  remarkable 
for  their  comeliness,  their  great  strength,  and  their  courage. 
The  eldest,  Serlon,  followed  William  the  Bastard  in  his 
conquest  of  England,  and  the  others  went  successively  to 
seek  their  fortune  in  Apulia,  where  Rainulf,  another  Nor- 
mau  adventurer,  had  already  obtained  the  countship  of 
•nn  Sergius,  duke  of  Naples.     William,  one  of 
Tancred's  sons,  called '  Fier  a  bras,'  or  strong  of  arm,  became 
count  of  Apulia,  and  after  his  death,  his  brother  Robert, 
called  Wiskard,  or  '  the  wise,'  became  duke  of  Apulia  and 
>ria,  and  the  founder  of  the  Norman  dynasty  of  Sicily. 
Two,  llntury  <>f.~\  Their  father  Tancred  died  at 
a  \  cry  great  age  at  Hauteville.     Traces  of  the  chateau  of 
ied,  according  to  old   popular  tradition,   were   still 
•  years  since  in  a  pretty  valley  near  Hauteville, 
lour  miles  Hurt h  of  the  town  of  Marigny,  in  the  arron 
uient  of  Coutances  department  of  La  Manche.    (Gaultier 


d'Arc,  Histoire  des  Conquftes  des  Normands  en  Italie,  en 
Sici/e,  et  en  Grece.) 

TANCRED,  son  of  Eudes,  a  Norman  baron,  and  of 
Emma,  sister  of  Robert  Wiskard,  duke  of  Apulia,  ac- 
cording to  some  (Gaultier  d'Arc,  Histoire  des  Cofiquctes 
des  Normands  en  Italie,  en  Sidle,  <£c.),  and  nephew  of 
Bohemund,  son  of  Wiskard,  and  prince  of  Tarentum  ac- 
cording to  others  (Giannone  and  the  authorities  he  quotes), 
was  serving  with  Bohemund  under  Roger,  duke  of  Apulia, 
son  and  successor  of  Wiskard,  at  the  siege  of  Amalfi,  A.D. 
1096,  when  the  report  of  the  great  crusade  which  was  pre- 
paring for  the  East  determined  Bohemund,  who  was  not 
on  good  terms  with  Duke  Roger,  to  join  the  Crusaders. 
Tancred  followed  him  with  a  vast  number  of  men  from 
Apulia  and  Calabria.  The  exploits,  true  or  fabulous,  of 
Tancred,  in  Syria  and  Palestine,  have  been  immortalized 
by  Tasso  in  his  poem  of  '  La  Gerusalemme.' 

TANCRED,  king  of  Sicily.   [SICILIES,  Two,  History  of.) 

TANGENT.  In  the  article  CONTACT  we  have  given  the 
first  notion  on  this  subject,  which  we  now  resume  in  a 
somewhat  more  general  manner,  annexing  the  usual  de- 
tails of  formulae,  but  without  proof. 

It  is  usual  to  apply  the  word  tangent  to  the  tangent 
straight  line  only,  on  which  see  DIRECTION  :  generalizing 
the  definition,  it  will  be  as  follows:—  Of  all  curves  of  a 
given  species,  or  contained  under  one  equation,  that  one 
(B)  is  the  tangent  to  a  given  curve  (A)  at  a  given  point, 
which  passes  through  that  given  point,  and  is  nearest  to 
the  curve  (A)  :  meaning  that  no  curve  of  the  given  species 
can  pass  through  the  given  point,  so  as  to  pass  between 
(B)  and  (A),  immediately  after  leaving  the  point  at  which 
the  two  latter  intersect. 

To  ascertain  the  degree  of  contact  of  two  curves  which 
meet  in  a  point,  proceed  as  follows.  Let  y  =  d>v  and 
y=^x  be  the  equations  of  the  curves,  and  a  the  abscissa  at 
the  point  of  contact  ;  so  that  d>a=^ft.  At  the  point  whose 
abscissa  is  a+h,  the  difference  of  the  ordinates  of  the 
curves  is,  by  Taylor's  theorem, 


h  + 


+  (<£"'a-,| 


as  to  which,  generally  speaking,  it  will  be  found  that  ft 
can  be  taken  so  small  that  the  series  shall  be  convergent  : 
if  this  be  not  so,  the  method  of  arresting  the  series  given 
in  TAYLOR'S  THEOREM  must  be  employed.  Now  of  two 

series  of  the  form  AJi"+Bfi"  +  ____  the  value  of  that  in 
which  m  is  the  greaterwill  diminish  without  limit  as  com- 
pared with  the  other,  when  h  diminishes  without  limit. 
Consequently,  every  curve  y=$x,  which  has  <f/'</=:^>'«,  will 
approach,  before  the  point  of  contact  is  attained,  nearer  to 
y=d>.K  than  any  other  in  which  ty'a  is  not  =d>'a.  Again, 
when  d>'a=-j,'a,  those  cases  of  y=4/x  in  which  ^"a=d>"a,, 
will  approach  nearer  to  y=0.c  than  any  in  which  d>"a  is 
not  =tj/"a  ;  and  so  on.  Hence,  to  make  y=i//.r  have  the 
closest  possible  contact  with  y=(px  when  x=a  ;  —  give  such 
values  to  the  constants  in  y  —  ^x  as  will  satisfy  as  many  as 
possible  of  the  equations  (f>a=^a,(jifa=^la,<f>''a-=^"a,  &c. 
consecutively  from  the  beginning.  This  is  a  brief  sketch, 
which  can  be  filled  up  from  any  elementary  work  ;  and  the 
following  are  the  principal  results  :  — 

1.  When  the   string    of    equations    is    satisfied  up   to 

<jj     a=>j/     a,  the  contact  is  said  to  be  of  the  wth  order. 

2.  In  contact  of  the  nth  order,  the  deflection  (f>(a+h)  — 

•4/Ca+A;  diminishes  with  h  ,  and  vanishes  in  a  finite  ratio. 
to  it. 

3.  In  contact  of  an  even  order,  the  curves  intersect  at 
the  point  of  contact  ;  in  contact  of  an  odd  order,  they  do. 
not  intersect  at  that  point. 

4.  When  curves  have  a  contact   of  the  nth  order,  no1 
curve,  having  with  either  a  contact  of  an  order  inferior  to* 
the  nth  at  the  same  point,  can  pass  between  the  two. 

5.  A  straight  line,  generally  speaking,  can  have  only  a. 
contact  of  the  first  order  with  a  curve  ;  and  the  equation 
to   the   tangent  straight  line  of  the  curve  y=d»;  when 
x=a,  is  y  —  d>a=<p'a(x—a).     But  if  it  should  happen  that 

d>"a=0,  <£'"a  =  0,  &c.,  up  to  <f>Wa=0,  then  for  that  point 
the  tangent  has  a  contact  of  the  wth  order.  Thus,  at.  a 
point  of  contrary  flexure  the  tangent  has  a  contact  of  the 
second  order,  at  least,  with  the  curve. 

6.  A  circle,  generally  speaking,  can  be  made  to  have  a 
contact  of  the  second  order  with  a  curve,  and  the  equation 


\    N 


T  A   N 


of  the  inosi     . 
curve  y  -    . 


;  HVATUBK,  to  the 

,  <t>'«<  \+4*>   \   .[  i+^«   ]_ 

-"+—  ?>:—)  +{*-+"—$"„  7* 

/         -  2\1 

Vl+0'u   J 


Tins  circle  cu'  e,  generally  speaking  :  it  not,  a- 

\amplc.  at  tin  :   an  ellipse,  il   u  evidence 

that  the  circle  lias  a 

'Jin-  until    nl   llir  circle  of  curvature  is  :i  point  on  the 
normal.  being  that  :it  which  the  normal  touches  tl 

Illtf.       [IrsVUU'TK   AM)   KVOLITE.] 

•   only  i>  tin1  ti-nn  tangent  most  generally  applied  to 
the  closest  straight  line  only,  hut  frequently  only  to  that 

'.MI  of  the  straight  line  which  falls  between  [fa  point 
i'i    contact  and  the  axis  of  .r.     Again,  the  nonnal  is  a 

_-lit  line  perpendicular  to  the  tangent,  drawn  through 
the  point  of  eontaet  :  hut  this  term  also  is  frequently  ap- 
plied only  to  that  portion  which  falls  between  the  jniint  of 
contact  and  the  axis  of  .7-.  It  is  with  reference  to  this 
limitation  that  the  terms  subtangent  and  subnormal  are  to 
lie  understood  :  the  first  meaning  the  distance  from  the 
loot  of  the  tangent  to  the  foot  of  the  orilinate:  the 
that  liom  the  foot  of  the  ordinatr  to  that  of  tin-  nonnal. 
The  funuula  for  the  subtangctit  is  <fn-^-<fi'..  :  that  for  the 
subnormal  ^w/X(^'o. 

/}  be  the  angle  made  by  the  tangent   with   the  a\;> 

:    usually  the  angle  made  In   I  hat  part  of  the  '; 
which  has  positive  ordinates  with  the  ]iositi\e  side  of  the 

.if  .r.     Then  /3,  at  the  point  whose  al>-  .  is  de- 

termined by  the  equation 

tan  /3  =^y  ;  and  subtangent  =  y-r-,  subnormal  =  tj-~-. 

If  we  take  the  more  general  mode  of  measurement  pro- 
posed in  Si^\,  this  equation  remains  equally  t  me.  Now. 
Keeping  strictly  to  that  mode,  let  ft  be  the  angle  made  by 
the  tangent  with  the  axis  of  j;  t*  the  angle  made  by  the 
radius  vector  r  with  the  axis  of./-,  and  p  that  made  by  the 
nt  with  the  radius  vector.  It  will  be  lound.  then',  t  hut 
in  all  cases 

tie 


Unless  the  mode  of  attributing  signs  be  carefully  at- 
tended in.  these  last  equations,  though  alwajs  considered 
a.s  universally  true.  ;ire  not  so  in  reality. 

\\'e  now  come  to  the   consideration  of  a  surface.     The 
mode  of  defining  contact  of  a  given  order  resemble*  that 
adopted  with  reference  to  a  curve.      Thus  if  :~<f> 
and  i=C     i.  if    be  the  equations  of  two  surfaces  coincid- 
ing when  ./•  =  </,  y  =  b.  so  that  <£(o,  6)—  then  if 

the   point   be  taken  at  which  .;  —  <i+A.  tf=l>  +  li.  \\\. 
tact   i  I    the   two  surfaces  is  of   the   n\\\  order,  when  the 
deflection 

<t>  (a+h,  6  +  k)-  +  (a+t,,  b+  k) 


being  developed  iu  powers  of  //  and  k  by  Taylor's  Theo- 
rem.   shows     M.'     tmiis     lower   .than    those    of   the    form 


'A  +  ...  +  MA".     This  is  tantamount  to  the 
following:    two   surfaces  have  ..i'the    /dh    onler 

1'lau.'   whatever  drawn   through    the    point   ol 
'•t  cuts  Hi.  in  two  cunes  which  have  a  con- 

tact of  the  /<th  or  a  higher  order. 

ha.-,  at   c\ci\  pom!   a  plane  which  has  a 
complete  ..rder.      If  z  -  <fj 

.i.y.z  be   the   co-ordinates   of  the   point   of  ei 
£.  i/.  i  tin.  si   of  anj   |),,int   in  the   tangent    plane,  then  the 
equation  of  I  he  tangent  plane  ia 

>/:  ,1: 

«--'=  +rtV('~ 

But  if  the  equation  be  gi\cu  in  the  form  <jj    '  •  !/•  - 
it  i> 

•l<t>  it<t>  il<t> 

•-•'  +  S  "-*"  +  ^({-*)=o- 

In  (he  i  jimlioiiii  of  the  normal,  a  line 

drawn  through  the  point  of  contact  perpendicular  to  the 
tangent,  are 


«-*  +     «-*)«  A  t- 

In  the  latter  ca.-,c.  they  are 

t-j  _  •»-  y 


= 


I.  not  cut 


t 


The  tangent  (• 
in  a  sphere  :  -J. 

whole  line.  ILs  III  the 

as  in  the  ease  ui    :tn  h\  |-cil>oloii1  nun! 

'()!«  about  1he   i  the  lig'u: 

The   ciilerion    i.f    distinction    belv. 
casts  depends  on  the  \alu. 

ft      #s  #:  \- 


nl  the  point  of  contact.     Imagine  a  plane  to  p. 
the   normal,  cutting  the  surface  in  the  c'.i  ,|  t|,e 

tangent  plane  in  the  straight  line    :  .  while  tin- 

plane  revolves  about  the  normal.  ,  1.    is  a; 

1.  Let  I    be  positive.      Then     I.    h. 
contact    of  the   iirst    onler  with  i('  .  the  - 
passes    tlnoiiLrh    the    tangent    phine.    and    we    ! 
such   contact   as   is   seen   at   any   point    of  a 
ellipsoid. 

2.  Let  U=0.    Then    1.   has  never  more  than  a  cot 
of  the  tirst   order   with   s('.   except   whi: 

one    position,  in  which  there  is   a   con!:. 

order.     If  U=0at   the  point  ol  coir 

to  take  value  ill    all   adjacent   points,  nothing'  u: 

appear  than  in  the  la^t  ca.se.  except  that  in  on. 

direction  from  the  point  of  contact,  and  in 

surface   would   seem  to  grow  nearer  to  t. 

than  in  any  others.     Hut  if  LT=l)  at  all  )« 

face,  this  approach  to  the  tangent  plane  in  one  piu-t 

direction   becomes   more-   maiked:   for  the 

that  plane  in  a  straight  line.  Ih 

plane  meets  the  surface  in  u  straight  l;ii 

tended  both  ways:  and  the  plane  is  tangi  • 

at  every  jwint  of  that  straight  line.   Such  - 

those  in  which  I!  is  a]  ways  =0.  are  developable,  or  can  he 

unrolled  without  any  overlapping,  rumpling,  i 

-  and  cylinder-  m.  if  I'  —  r 

throughout  me  whol  but   throughoi,' 

ticular  line  upon  it,  that   line  will  be  a  plane   • 
its  plane  will  be  tangent   to  th>  mt  in 

which  it  meets  the  surface. 

:t.   J.et  I    he  negatne.     Then     I.     ha-  i 
a   contact    of  the   tirst    order  with     ' 
t'erent    positions,  in   both   of  which    I 
higher  order.     Draw  lines  marking  out  th.  - 

.and    conse<|Ueutly  dividing   the    tangent 
lour   parts,  with  four  angles   lournl   the   p,  • 
In  one    ]>air  of  the  . 

one  side   of  the   tangent    plane,  and   in   the   oil' 
other. 

lia,  as  the  plane  which  revolves  mum!  (he  normal 
lakes  its  di  tl'e.rcnt  positions,  tli 
(  '    changes.      The  tvvo  p, 
which  the  • 

inlo  the  ma 

jeet.  hut    shall    .  jxipulHr  ill 

tion  of  this  rem:.:l,ab!e  point. 

-II.    unbroken,    to     1  with 

cither  veil.  i.'ist.     The    descent   will    In-   equallj 

nipid  in   all   directions,   or  the  curvature  at  the  h' 

.if  all   the  \crtieal  svctjons  will   be  the  same,      lint 
'"•II     to    be    so    placed     that     some 

,  dilate    between    the    two     ve-1 
The  descent   will   not   then    be    equn' 

is,   or   the   curvatures  of   the  >  iions  will 

not    be   the   same.     The   direction  of 
will  be  at  right  angles  to  that  ol 

•.I   plane  has  here  a  contact  ol'  the    Iirst  «,|    th,    • 
kinds   above    mentioned.     If  tl  contnet  of  the 

I  kind,  all   the  eirciin  \e«'pt 

that  the  direction  of  least    rapii! 

Uvelyspeaking.no  descent   at   all  nt  the  t  It 

we  take  a  cylinder,  or  other  developable  wirlace,  and 


TAN 


31 


TAN 


make  a  tangent  plane  horizontal,  there  is  absolutely  no 
descent  in  one  direction,  or,  by  going  along  the  tangent 
plane,  we  can  remain  entirely  on  the  surface,  in  one  cer- 
tain direction,  as  before  observed.  And  the  direction  ol 
most  rapid  descent  is  at  right  angles  to  this  direction  ol 
no  descent. 

To  put  a  case  of  the  third  kind,  suppose  a  saddle  placed 
on  a  horse,  and  we  take  the  lowest  point  of  the  seat.  The 
tangent  plane  then  cuts  through  the  saddle  horizontally. 
In  gome  directions  there  is  descent,  in  others  ascent,  with 
two  directions  in  which  there  is,  comparatively  speaking, 
neither  ascent  nor  descent.  The  direction  of  most  rapid 
"-(•nit,  which  is  from  the  lowest  point  of  the  seat  directly 
towards  the  head  or  tail  of  the  animal,  is  at  right  angles 
to  the  direction  of  most  rapid  descent.  Mathematically 
speaking,  the  curvatures  of  the  vertical  sections  are  some- 
times positive,  and  sometimes  negative,  and  the  direction 
of  the  greatest  negative  (or  algebraically  least)  curvature 
is  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  greatest  positive 
i.  or  algebraically  greatest)  curvature. 

As  to  points  connected  with  the  apparent  physical  cha- 
racter of  the  tangent,  which  have  been  in  various  places 
referred  to  this  article,  it  will  be  more  convenient  to  con- 
sider them  under  the  word  VELOCITY. 

TANGHI'.NIA.  the  name  of  a  semis  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  ApocynaeesD.  This  name  was  irivc.n 
by  Aubert  du  Petit  Thmiars  to  the  plant  which  produces 
the  celebrated  Tanghin  poison  of  Madagascar.  The  genus 
possesses  an  int'undibulifbrm  corolla,  with  a  clavate  tube, 
and  5-tuothed  throat :  the  anthers  are  subsessile  :  the  fruit 
is  a  drupe,  with  a  fibrous  ligneous  putamen  or  stone,  which 
contains  one  or  two  seeds.  The  specific  name  T.  veneni- 
fera  was  given  to  the  plant  which  yields  the  poison.  It 
has  dense  leaves,  with  erect  branches,  and  pauiculated 
terminal  flowers.  At  the  time  Du  Petit  Thouars  described 
this  plant,  he  stated  that  it  was  closely  allied  to  theCerbera 
Manghas  ;  and  since  its  cultivation  by  Mr.  Telfair  in  the 
Mauritius,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  its  belonging  to  the 
genus  Cerbera,  and  the  plant  is  now  called  C.  Tanghin. 
native  island  this  plant  attains  the  size  of  a  tree,  and 
has  a  hard  wood  which  may  be  used  for  many  kinds  of 
carpentry.  But  the  part  which  yields  the  poison  is  the 
kernel  of  the  fruit.  Although  this  kernel  is  small,  not 
much  larger  than  an  almond,  Mr.  Telfair  says  that  it  con- 
tains enough  poison  to  kill  twenty  persons.  Its  great  use 
in  M  .vas  as  a  means  of  trial,  the  innocent  being 

supposed  able  to  resist  its  action,  whilst  the  guilty  suffered 
under  its  influence.  Radama,  the  late  king  of  Madagascar, 
was  desirous  of  abolishing  its  use,  but  found  great  diffi- 
culty in  doing  so  on  account  of  the  prejudices  of  the  na- 
tucs.  Mr.  Telfair  witnessed  a  sad  instance  of  its  use. 
The  king  Hadania  was  taken  ill,  and  got  well  by  the  use 
of  mercury ;  but  this  medicine  affected  his  mouth,  so  that 
the  impression  produced  upon  his  '  skid,'  or  physician,  was 
that  the  king  hail  been  poisoned.  He  therefore  in- 
that  the  Tanghin  should  be  administered  to  himself  and 
all  the  servants  of  the  household,  in  order  to  ascertain  the 
guilty  party.  The  king  protested  against  the  procedure, 
but  in  vain.  The  whole  household  were  shut  up  during 
the  night  without  food,  and  in  the  morning  were  brought 
out  for  trial.  The  presiding  '  skid,'  or  physician,  then 
pounded  the  Tanghin  bean  to  a  pulp  between  two  stones, 
and  applied  a  small  quantity  to  the  back  of  the  tongue  of 
each  individual.  The  effects  varied  in  different  indivi- 
duals, lu  some  it  produced  vomiting,  and  the  poison  be- 
ing ejected  from  the  stomach,  they  recovered.  In  other* 
convulsions  were  brought  on  with  violent  efforts  at  vomit- 
in?,  which  soon  destroyed  life.  (Botanical  Magazine,  fol. 
•»KiM. 

TAN'fUKK.     [MAKOCCO.] 
TANGLE.     [SKA-WBKDS.] 

TAN'GUT  is  the  historical  name  of  a  country  in  Asia, 

whid,  the  centre  of  the  eastern,  more  extensive, 

and  more  elV%  ated  table-land  of  that  continent  [Asi.v,  vol. 

ii..  p. -Kit  1. 1. 1 1  ere  a  nation,  which  originally  inhabit  cd  Tibut, 

anil  Tang,  founded  an  empire  in  the  seventh 

century,  which  was  very  powerful  for  a  long  time,  and  was 

his  Khan  in  1227.     The  country  still 

me  of  Tangut,  though  at  present  a  pail  of 

it  is  i  <l  in  the  Chinese  province  of  Kansi,  whilst 

ily  in  possession  of  two  Mongol  nations, 

tip-  ( (loth  'IVhi  ii-os  and  the  Torbod  Mongols. 

•i  on  China  Proper  on  the  north-west,  ex- 
i  33"  and  42°  N.  lat.,  and  between  W  and 


107°  E.  long.  To  the  south  of  it  is  Tibet ;  to  the  west  Chi- 
nese Turkistan,  or  the  government  of  Thian-Shan  Nanlu  • 
and  to  the  north  Mongolia,  of  which  also  a  portion  is  in- 
cluded within  the  lately  erected  province  of  Kansi.  As  the 
boundary-lines  of  the"  country  are  not  politically  deter- 
mined, it  is  not  possible  to  give  an  estimate  of  the  area. 

The  southern  portion  of  Tangut,  or  that  which  lies  south 
of  38°  N.  lat.,  is  one  of  the  most  mountainous  tracts  on  the 
globe,  and  extends  over  the  upper  course  of  the  river 
Hoang-ho  and  the  basin  of  the  lake  of  Khookhoo-nor. 
Along  its  southern  border  there  is  a  very  elevated  range, 
which  divides  the  upper  courses  of  the  rivers  Hoang-ho 
and  Yan-tse-kiang,  and  is  called  the  Bayan  Khara  range. 
[BAYAN  KHARA  MOUNTAINS.]  Another  elevated  range 
traverses  the  country  in  the  same  direction  from  cast  to 
west  near  38°  N.  lat.  This  range  rises  at  a  short  distance 
from  the  banks  of  the  Hoang-ho  north  of  the  town  of  Lan- 
tcheou,  and  in  its  eastern  part  is  called  Kilian  Shan  ;  but 
farther  west  it  takes  the  name  of  Nan  Shan  (or  Southern 
Chain).  It  rises  to  a  great  elevation,  especially  towards  the 
west,  where  manyof  their  summits  are  covered  withsnowand 
united  by  extensive  glaciers.  This  mountain-chain  is  sup- 
posed to  be  connected  with  the  Kuenluen  range  near  92°  E. 
long.  These  two  ranges  above  mentioned  occupy  a  great 
portion  of  the  country  between  33°  and  38°  N.  lat..  and  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  remainder  of  the  country  is  filled  up  by  a 
third  range,  which  connects  these  two  ranges,  and  extends 
from  south-east  to  north-west,  being  on  the  north  united  to 
the  Nan  Shan,  and  on  the  south  to  the  Bayan  Khara  Moun- 
t  kins.  This  chain  bears  the  name  of  Sine  Shan,  or  Snowy 
range,  on  account  of  the  numerous  summits  which  rise, 
above  the  snow-line.  The  river  Hoang-ho  breaks  through 
this  range,  but  the  huge  rocky  masses  compel  the  river  to 
make  a  great  bend  towards  the  west  between  34°  and  30° 
N.  lat.,  and  the  circuit  which  the  river  makes  shows  the 
immense  extent  of  these  masses  of  rock.  In  this  part  of 
its  course  the  river  is  said  to  be  hemmed  in  by  lofty  moun- 
tains, so  that  no  communication  can  be  established  along 
the  banks.  Its  course  above  this  bend  is  very  imper- 
fectly known,  and  the  fabulous  accounts  of  its  sources  show 
that  they  have  never  been  visited  even  by  Chinese  geo- 
graphers. The  river  enters  a  wide  valley  by  n  narrow 
gorge  formed  by  two  very  elevated  mountains  a  little 
above  the  town  of  Ho-cheou  (36°  J^.  lat.  and  102°  E. 
long.).  At  the  opening  of  this  gorge  is  a  fortress,  called 
Tsy-shy-kuan. 

Tangut  is  separated  from  China  Proper  by  a  fourth 
range,  the  mountains  of  Sifan,  which  run  south  and  north, 
being  connected  at  their  southern  extremity  with  the 
Bayan  Khara  Mountains  and  the  Siue  Shan  by  au  exten- 
sive mountain-knot,  which  is  in  the  country  formerly  called 
Sifan,  whence  the  chain  has  obtained  its  name.  Though 
this  range  is  less  elevated  than  the  Siue  Shan,  it  rises  in 
several  places  above  the  snow-line,  and  occupies  a  con- 
siderable width.  It  is  supposed  to  terminate  near  the 
banks  of  the  Hoang-ho,  a  tew  miles  south  of  38°  N.  lat. 
Opposite  to  it  and  on  the  northern  banks  of  the  river  rises 
another  chain,  which  may  be  considered  as  the  continua- 
tion of  the  mountains  of  Sifan  ;  but  this  range,  which  con- 
tinues along  the  western  bank  of  the  river  as  far  north  as 
42°  N.  lat.,  rises  only  to  a  moderate  elevation,  and  is 
stated  to  occupy  in  many  places  only  three  or  four  miles 
in  width :  it  is  called  Holang  Shan,  and  slopes  on  the 
west  down  into  the  steppe  of  the  Oliith  Tshoros.  This 
range  is  distinguished  from  all  the  other  ranges  of  Tangut 
by  being  thickly  wooded  on  its  eastern  declivity. 

Only  a  small  portion  of  the  countries  enclosed  by  these 
mountain  masses  is  fit  for  cultivation.  It  does  not  appeal- 
that  there  is  any  cultivation  in  the  upper  valley  of  the 
Hoang-ho  above  the  fortress  of  Tsy-shy-kuan.  Below  that, 
place  and  as  far  as  Lan-tcheou,  the  valley  is  wider,  and 
narrow  tracts  along  the  banks  of  the  river  are  cultivated 
and  fertile.  This  part  of  the  valley  is  compared  wilh  that 
of  the  Adige  in  Tyrol.  Farther  down,  and  as  far  as  the 
neighbourhood  of  Ning-hia,  a  town  built  on  the  western 
janks  of  the  Hoang-ho,  at  the  eastern  declivity  of  the  Ho- 
lang Shan  (3HU  32'  N.  lat.),  the  valley  has  not  been  visited 
jy  Europeans.  At  this  place  the  river  runs  in  a  wide  \  alley 
which  has  been  rendered  fertile  by  numerous  canals,  which 
uc  fed  by  the  waters  of  the  river,  nnd  in  which  lire,  is  ex- 
tensively cultivated.  There  arc  also  numerous  plantations 
of  fruit-trees.  The  soil  contains  much  saltpetre.  The  town 
of  Ning-hia,  the  ant  lent  capital  of  Taugtit,  is  of  consider- 
able extent,  being  fifteen  li  (equal  1o  five  miles)  in  cir- 


TAN 


32 


TAN 


rnit.     It  has  some  very  good  manufactures  of  carpets  and  through  which  the  road  run-.     Tin-  road  leave*  ihr  vall,-y 

and  a  coi:  <  ommerce   with   the    nomadic  of  the   Houug-ho  ;it  the  town  of  Lai,  '   HINV.  Mil. 

ho  wander  about  in  the  country  west  of  the  Holang  vii..  ji.  so],  the  capital  of  Kansi,  and  runs  1:1:1  noil  I 

Shan.     IMow   the    town   of    Nmg-hia    the  valley  of   the  west   ilireetioii  ov  er  a  stony  and   hilly  country  to  the  town 

:nws  voider,  ust!.  the  Holang-nhan  re-  of  Liang-tcheon,  a  considerable  place,  of  which   however 

vest,  but  its  fertility  decrMMa,  About  eighteen  nothing  is  reported,  exeepl   that   the  district  in  \vhieh  it  is 


miles  from  Ning-hia  the  canals  cease  and  no  rice  is  cul- 
tivated. Other  gram  is  still  grown  about  :«)  miles  farther 
north,  where  the  country  gradually  changes  into  a  sandy. 


situated  is  fertile,  and  contains  a  great  niimher  of  ullages. 
From  Liang-tchcou  the  road  runs  north-west  to  Kan-ti  i 
fix),  a  large'  and  woll-liuilt  town,  which  has  many  ma- 


arid  desert,  interspersed"  with   hills,   swampy  tracts,  and    tures  of  woollen  stuffs  and  felts,  which  nr  ;i  giciit 


part  urea. 

The  lateral  valley  of  Si-ning-tcheou  opens  to  the  Hoang- 

ho  from  the  west  above  the  town  of  I^ui-tchcou  hi' 


demand  among  the  nomadic  tribes  of  the  Olilth  Tsl 
who  inhabit  the  contiguous  part  of  the  (iolii,  anil  In: 
the  place  their  wool,  1:  le,  and  sheej).  I 


the  Kilian  Shan  and  the  most  elevated  portion  of  the  Sine  also  large  quantities  of  rhubarb  from  the   Kill: 

:.     The  \allev  is  not  extensive,  hut  appears  to  be  fer-  From  Kan-tchcoi:-foo  the  road  continues  in  a  north 

tile:  it  contains  the  town  of  Si-ning-tc.hcou,  which  is  not  direction   to  So-tchcou,  a   large  and  well   fortified  town, 

quite  as  large  as  Ning-hia.  but  a  much  more  commercial  j  with  numerous  bazars,  well   provided  with  prov  i 

place,  as  the  road  which  connects  northern  China  with  manufactured  articles.     The  town  is  divided  into 

Hlassa  in  Tibet  passes  through  it.     This  road  leads  from  t ions,  one  of  which  is  occupied  by  the  <  'hincse,  and  the. 

Si-ning-tcheou    westward   over   a   chain    to   the    lake   of  other  by  the  foreign  merchants  from  liokhara  and  Turkis- 

Khookhoo-nor,  which  is  ol  great  but  unknown  extent.     It  tan.     l*he  latter  is  di\  ided  from   the   formei 

i  alpine  la1.                  i  by  Inch  mountains,  and  has  no  wall,  the  nates  of  which  are  shut   at   night:  in  other  re- 
outlet.     The  remainder  of  the  road  lies  partly  over  nu-  cpcct.s   foreigners  do  not   experience  any    different   1; 
merous  large  mountain-masses,  furrowed  only  by  narrow  mcnt     from    natives.      As   So-tcheon    is    the    last 
glens  and  ravines,  and  partly  over  rocky  and  sandy  table-  place  through  which  the  caravans  pass  before  they  enter 


lands,  and  the  whole  is  described  as  a  desert,  in  which  only 
a  small  number  of  nomadic  mountaineers  are  met  with,  and 
where  the  traveller  for  forty  days'  journey  finds  no  other 

i  modal  ion  than  the  tents  of  the  poor  mountaineers. 
In  spite  of  the  difficulties,  the  road,  as  it  appears,  is  much 
travelled,  and  the  bazars  of  Si-ning-tcheou  are  well  pro- 
\  ided  with  provisions  and  articles  of  luxury.  Even  coffee 
and  dates  may  be  got  there.  This  town  is  also  the  depot 
of  the  Turkish  rhubarb,  which  grows,  as  it  appears,  onlv  on 
the  more  elevated  parts  of  the  Siue  Shan  and  Kiliau 
Shan,  and  is  sent  from  Si-ning-tcheou  to  all  parts  of  tin- 
world.  Before  the  commerce  between  China  and  Siberia 
was  established,  this  article  was  brought  to  Europe  through 
Turkistan,  Persia,  and  Turkey,  and  therefore  is  still  called 
Turkey  rhubarb,  though  at  present  it  comes  through 
K  iaehta  and  Russia.  When  the  Jesuits,  who  had  been  sent 
to  these  countries  by  the  emperor  Kang-hi.  were  at  Si- 
ning-tcheou,  they  we're  astonished  at  seeing  the  quantity 
of  rhubarb  which,  during  the  months  of  October  and  No- 
vember, was  daily  Drought  from  the  adjacent  mountains 
to  the  town. 

The  northern  part  of  Tangut,  with  the  exception  of  the 
valley  of  the  Hoang-ho,  is  occupied  by  a  wide  desert  plain, 
which  constitutes  a  portion  of  the  Gobi.  [Gom,  vol.  xi., 
p.  280.]  The  steep  declivities  of  the  Kilian  and  Nan  Shun 
however  do  not  come  close  to  the  desert,  but  are  separated 
from  it  by  a  hilly  tract  from  30  to  50  miles  wide,  which 
contains  some  extensive  tracts  fit  for  cultivation,  and 
in  which  some  large  towns  have  been  built,  as  the  great 
commercial  route  which  connects  China  with  the  coun- 
tries of  Western  Asia  runs  longitudinally  through  this 
hilly  tract,  and  is  confined  to  it  by  the  extensive  sandy 
dcs."-rt  on  the  north,  and  the  still  less  practicable  mountain- 
desert  which  bounds  it  on  the  south.  According  to  our 
be-t  information,  the  ranges  of  the  Kilian  Shan,  am! 

I  of  the  Nan  Shan,  are  covered  with  eternal  snow,  and 

one  would  imagine  that  they  give  origin  to  rivers  which 

bring  down  a  great  volume  of  water,  but  that  is  not  the 

The  volume  of  water  is  very  moderate  :  a  part  of  it 

isumed  in  irrigating  the  adjacent  fields,  and  the  re- 
mainder is  absorbed  by  the  sandy  soil,  as  soon  as  it  readies 
the  plain,  after  having  left  the  hilly  tract.  This  evidently 
shows  that  the  watershed  of  the  mountains  must  be  at  a 
•  distance  from  the  Gobi.  The  surface  of 
the  hilly  tract  consists  of  an  alternation  of  high  lands  and 
«il  depressions,  running  from  the  mountains  northward  to 
the  border  of  the  dc-ert.  The  high  lands  are  of  considera- 
ble extent,  their  upper  surface  broken  and  rocky,  and  only 
occasionally  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  earth  unfit  for  the 
growth  of  tree*.  In  general  the  rocks  are  bare.  Tl< 

•  ins  between  these  high  grounds  an-  hs>  extensive, 
nut  exhibit  a  eonsidcrahl.  of  fertility  where  they 

are  irrigated.  Kven  in  those  parts  which  are  beyond  the 
reach  of  irrigation,  they  are  chiefly  cultivated.  To  protect 
this  hilly  region,  and  the  great  commercial  road  which 
.11  it.  against  the  nomadic  tribes  of  the  Gobi,  the 
Chim-«e  have  continued  the  Great  Wall  along  its  northern 
bonier  westward  to  98°  B.  long.,  and  along  the  wall  arc 
built  the  fortre*ie«  which  protect  the  line  and  the  towns 


the  desert,  between  Tangut  and  riiian-shan-nahr :  the 
commerce  is  M'  pecially  in  provisions.  About 

50  or  GO  miles  west  of  So-tcheou  is  the  most  western  gate 
of  the  Great  Wall,  called  Kia-yu-kooan,  or  the  gale  of  the 
'one  (jasper  ,  through  which  the  caravans   pass  to 
enter  the  desert  of  llan-hai.  which   r,  d   in 

orderto  reach  Hanii  in  Thian-Shan-Nan'm.  The  last-men- 
tioned town  is  'JGO  li,  or  :>2t)  miles,  from  the  gate  of  Kia- 
yu-kooan,  and  that  is  the  width  of  the  Gobi  at  this  place, 
which  is  considered  the  narrowest  part  of  it. 

The  towns  hitherto  noticed  lie  along  the  great  caravan- 
road,  but   farther  west    the   Chinese   geographers   mention 
other  places  of  importance.     The  la. 
Ngan-si-lbo.  n  town  of  the  first  rank,  anil  the  capital  of  the 
whole  district.     North-west  of  it,  and  on  the  border  of  the 
desert,  is  the  town  of  Yu-mcn-kiang,  which   is  built    near 
a  pass  between  high   hills,  through  which  a  road    leads 
northward  to  Hanii.  of  which  we  have    no   information. 
South-west  of  Ngan-si-tbol  are  the  towns  of  Toong-ho. 
kiang.  and  Sha-teheou.      The  last-mentioned  place,  v 
name  means  Sandtown.  -ecms  to  be  the  la-t  inhabited  ; 
towards  the  west.     It  has  not  been   visited  by  Europeans. 
except  by  Marco  Polo,  who  describes  it  as  rather  a  large 
place  :  he  says  that  the  inhabitants  live  on  the  prod: 
their  fields  and  orchards,  and  have  little  commerce.   From 
his  account,  and  that  of  a  Chinese  traveller,  it  is  evident 
that  two  roads  run  north-west  and  west  from  this  i 
Marco  Polo  reached  it  after  traversing  the  desert  of  Lop, 
by  a  thirty  days' journey,  having  departed  from  the  town 
of  Lop,  (Rued   is  on   the   banks  of  the   lake  of  the   same 
name.     The  intermediate   tract    was   mostly  covred  with 
sand,  but  in  some   places   the    -  vd  of  bare  and 

broken  rocks.     A  Chinese   traveller  departing   from 
tcheou.  and  taking  the  western   route,  seems  to  have  tra- 
il worse  country,  until   he  reached  the  town  of 
Khotan.     [Tui  v  •-  Sn  v  N  ,\  \  N  i.u.] 

That  portion  of  the  Gobi  which  lies  north  of  the  <• 
Wall  contains  many  tracts  which  are  covered  with  : 
and  supply  pasture  to  the  Oliith  Tshoros.  but  others  have 
a   sandy  or  stony   soil,  and   are   quite   barren.     In    some 
places  there   are    extensive   swamps,  especially  where  the 
.ire  lost,  which  descend  from  the  Kilian  Shan,  among 
which  the  Etzina  probably  runs  more  than  'JOO  miles.    Milt, 
the  Han  Hai.  or  that  portion  which  lie's  between  tin 
of  Kia-yu-kooan  and  Haini.  is  nearly  uninhabited,  as  water 
is  rarely  met  with,  and    the   gra.-sv  ti 

(juent.  The  sand  with  which  the  SUIT.  .  ed  is  very 

line,  and  frequently  raised  into  the  air  by  -.hong  winds. 

Our  information   respecting  the   climate   of   Tangut    is 

•  •anty.     The  cold   in   winter  is  intense,  and  la-' 
several  months.     Tin  i,>nnd   the   '  near 

4O"  N.   hit.,  at   the  end  of  November,  covered   with   thick 
ice,  so  that  the  caravan  was  able  to  pass  ov  er  it,  11. 
the  river  was  more  than   .'«»>  yards  wide.      At   Ning-hia  a 
heavy  tall  of  snow  was  experienced  in  the  middle  of  April. 
In  summer  the  ' >ut  much  less  than  in  the 

low  countries  of  China:    the    climate    is   con- 
extremely  healthy. 

We  are  no  better  acquainted  with  the  productions  of 


TAN 


33 


T  A  N 


Kvi-ry  kind  of  grain  is  grown  in  the  few  tracts 
whose  soil  is  fit  for  cultivation,  and  rice  is  raised  where 
irrigation  is  practicable.  The  nomadic  nations  have  nu- 
merous herds  of  camels,  horses,  and  cattle,  and  large  flocks 
of  sheep  and  goats.  In  the  mountain-region  is  found  the 
yak  or  mountain-cow,  whose  tail  gives  the  chowry.  It  is 
used  for  riding  as  a  saddle-horse.  In  the  desert  are  nu- 
merous wild  animals,  such  as  wild  hogs,  deer,  the  argali, 
and  hares.  It  is  also  said  that  in  the  woods  of  the  Holang 
Shan  there  are  wild  horses.  Wild  cattle  are  found  on  the 
declivity  of  the  Kilian  Shan.  No  mines  are  worked.  In 
the  desert  some  extensive  tracts  are  covered  with  agates, 
cornelians,  and  other  precious  stones,  which  are  collected 
by  the  nomadic  tribes  and  sent  to  China. 

The  inhabitants  of  Tangut  are  a  very  mixed  race. 
Mongol  tribes  inhabit  the  Gobi,  and  occupy  also  the 
mountain-ranges  north  of  Lake  Khookoo-nor,  but  the 
mountaineers  who  are  in  possession  of  the  mountain- 
region  south  of  Lake  Khookoo-nor,  derive  their  origin 
from  Tibet.  It  is  even  supposed  that  in  this  part  there 
may  still  exist  small  tribes  of  the  Miotse  and  Yuet-shi,  who 
are  considered  as  the  aborigines  of  this  region,  but  have 
been  nearly  exterminated  by  the  wars  with  their  neigh- 
bours the  Mongols  and  the  inhabitants  of  Tibet.  It  is  not 
known  if  that  Turkish  nation  which  is  called  Sobko,  and 
which  inhabits  the  western  part  of  the  Kuen-luen  moun- 
;  TIBET],  extends  over  the  western  districts  of  Tangut. 
The  agricultural  population  is  mostly  composed  of  Chinese 
and  their  descendants,  among  whom  a  small  number  of 
families  of  Turkish  origin  are  settled.  But  in  the  towns 
the  number  of  Turkish  settlers  seems  to  be  considerable. 
They  are  Mohammedans,  and  there  are  mosques  in  the 
towns  of  Tangut,  especially  in  those  which  lie 
along-  the  caravan  road.  All  the  other  inhabitants  are 
Buddhists.  In  the  time  of  Marco  Polo  there  were  also 
.\(  tin ian  Christians  in  the  towns,  but  they  have  disap- 
peared. 

The  Chinese  emperors  subjected  the  country  of  Tangut 
n]y  during  the  dynasty  of  Han,  shortly  before  the 
birth  of  Christ,  and  maintained  their  authority  over  this 
and  the  countries  fart  her  west  to  the  eighth  century,  in 
spite  of  their  long  protracted  wars  with  the  Hiongnu,  a 
Turkish  nation  which  then  was  in  possession  of  the  desert 
north  of  Tangut.  In  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century 
they  extended  their  dominion  even  over  Western  Turkistan 
to  t'he  eastern  banks  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  But  in  the  eighth 
century  Tangut  was  occupied  by  a  nation  of  Tibetan 
origin,  which  founded  in  these  parts  the  empire  of  Thufan ; 
and  though  it  was  overthrown  by  the  Chinese,  and  some 
Turkish  tribes,  their  allies,  in  the  ninth  century,  the 
Tibetans  erected  in  the  following  century  the  empire  of 
Taugiit  or  Ilia,  which  maintained  its  power  till  it  was  de- 
stroyed by  Genghis  Khan,  in  1227,  and  by  its  overthrow 
the  conqueror  opened  to  his  countrymen  the  road  to  China, 
of  which  they  took  possession  a  few  years  afterwards.  With 
the  downfall  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Mongols  (1341),  the  best 
part  of  Tangut  remained  under  the  sway  of  the  emperors 
of  the  dynasty  of  Ming,  though  the  Mongols  after  their 
ret  n  at  from  China  had  occupied  the  northern  and  more 
desert  portion  of  it,  where  they  maintained  their  indepen- 
t  dence  to  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century.  In  the  ware 
'  of  the  Galdan  of  the  Oloth  [SONGARIA,  vol.xxii.,  p.  245], 
a  tribe  of  the  Oloth  Mongols  expelled  the  Khalkas  from 
the  country  west  of  the  Hoang-ho,  and  took  possession  of 
it.  But  alter  the  defeat  of  the  Goldan,  they  submitted  to 
the  Chinese  emperor  in  1690,  and  since  that  time  the 
whole  of  Tangut  has  been  annexed  to  China.  The  Chinese 
government  is  very  assiduous  in  promoting  agriculture  in 
Tangut,  and  in  increasing  the  agricultural  and  commercial 
population,  this  being  couriered  the  most  efficacious  mode 
of  restraining  the  nomadic  tribes  which  inhabit  the  northern 
and  southern  districts  of  Tangut.  To  give  to  its  measures 
grcater^tability  and  to  forward  their  extension,  it  has  con- 
verted the  greater  part  of  Tangut,  with  some  of  the  ad- 
jacent countries,  into  a  province  of  China  Proper,  under 
the  name  of  Kansi.  (Du  Hahlf's  History  of  China; 

lliiiiuli-  run  Anien,  vol.  i.) 

TAN.IOKK.adistnct  i  n  Southern  Hindustan,  was  formerly 
a  small  in •:  kingdom  or  principality,  and  though 

now  under  British  superintendence,  is  still  governed  by  its 
raja.     The  district  is  included  in  the  province  of  th 
natic  and  presidency  of  Madras:  it  is  bounded  on  th 
bytl      ;  'nl,  and  extends  from  Point  Calymere, 

P.  C.,  No.  1492. 


10°  18'  N.  lat,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Coleroon,  11°  25'  N. 
lat.  To  the  north  and  west  it  is  bounded  by  the  Coleroon 
and  the  district  of  Trichinopoli :  and  to  the  south  and  west 
by  the  sea  and  the  territory  of  the  Pol}  gars. 

The  river  Cavery,  near  Trichinopoli",  separates  into  two 
branches,  of  which  the  northern  is  called  the  Coleroon, 
and  falls  into  the  sea  a  little  to  the  north  of  Devicotta ; 
the  southern  branch  retains  its  name  of  Cavery.  These 
two  streams  however,  after  flowing  about  twenty  miles  at 
some  distance,  again  approach  each  other,  and  are  only 
prevented  by  a  narrow  neck  of  land  from  re-uniting  and 
discharging  the  whole  river  by  the  channel  of  the  Coleroon. 
To  prevent  this  junction  large  mounds  have  been  formed, 
and  are  kept  in  repair  at  a  considerable  expense.  The 
Cavery,  thus  separated  from  the  Coleroon,  flows  through 
the  flat  territory  of  Tanjore,  and  divides  into  a  number  of 
smaller  streams,  which  are  conducted  into  reservoirs  and 
canals  for  the  purpose  of  irrigation  :  by  this  means  nearly 
the  whole  district,  which  would  otherwise  be  a  sandy 
desert,  is  rendered  one  of  the  most  fertile  in  Hindustan. 
From  Devicotta  to  the  salt  swamp  near  Point  Calymere, 
and  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal  to  the  city  of  Tanjore,  the 
whole  country,  with  its  rich  covering  of  alluvial  soil,  has 
the  appearance  of  a  garden:  from  Tanjore  to  Trichinopoli 
it  is  like  a  desert. 

The  principal  product  of  the  district  is  rice,  of  which  two 
crops  are  obtained  annually  :  the  next  in  importance  is  in- 
digo :  both  are  exported  to  Madras  in  considerable  quan- 
tities, besides  cocoa-nuts,  grain,  paddy,  and  lamp-oil. 

The  district  of  Tanjore  has  never  been  in  the  actual  oc- 
cupation of  the  Mohammedans.  Its  Hindu  religious 
structures  are  therefore  uninjured,  and  in  no  part  of  Hin- 
dustan are  they  so  numerous,  so  large,  and  so  imposing. 
There  is  hardly  a  village  without  its  brick  pagoda  and 
lofty  gateway.  Almost  all  the  principal  offices  are  in  the 
hands  of  the  Brahmins,  and  they  are  also  the  chief  land- 
holders. 


long., 

tal  of  the  rajas  of  Tanjore  :  there  are  remains  which  indi- 
cate its  former  splendour,  and  its  pagodas  and  tanks  are 
still  very  fine  :  it  is  chiefly  inhabited  by  Brahmins.  Devi- 
cotta (Devicata,  the  fort  of  the  goddess),  11°  20'  N.  lat., 
7'.)J  5.V  E.  long.  Nagore,  10°  49'  N.  lat.,  79°  55'  E.  long., 
a  sea-port  with  a  considerable  export  and  import  trade. 
XKOAPATAM.  TRANQUEBAR.  The  villages  are  numerous, 
and  the  population  dense. 

The  antient  sovereigns  of  Tanjore  were  the  Chola 
dynasty,  who  probably  gave  to  the  whole  district  the  name 
Chola  Mandala  (corrupted  into  Cpromandel),  the  former 
term  in  Sanscrit  signifying  an  orbit  or  circle,  and  thence 
a  region  or  tract  of  country.  The  kingdom  of  Tanjore 
was  wrested  from  its  original  Hindu  sovereigns  by  the 
Mahratta  chief  Eccojee,  the  brother  of  Sevajee,  in  1675. 
It  has  ever  since  been  retained  by  the  Mahratta  race  ;  so 
that,  though  the  language  of  the  inhabitants  is  Tamul,  the 
language  of  the  court  is  Mahratta.  In  1771  a  dispute 
broke  out  between  Mohammed  Ali,  the  nabob  of  the  Car- 
natic,  and  Tuljajee,  the  raja  of  Tanjore,  with  respect  to  the 
keeping  in  repair  the  mounds  which  prevent  the  stream  of 
the  Cavery  from  falling  into  the  Coleroon.  The  mounds 
are  in  the  territory  of  Trichinopoli,  and  the  nabob,  as 
sovereign  of  that  territory,  claimed  the  right  of  repairing, 
and  consequently  of  neglecting  to  repair,  by  which  a  por- 
tion of  the  nabob's  territory  might  have  been  fertilized,  and 
nearly  the  whole  of  Tanjore  rendered  a  desert.  The  raja 
had  been  compelled  to  pay  tribute  to  the  nabob,  but  had 
never  been  subject  to  him,  and  appealed  to  the  British  to 
protect  him  in  his  right  to  repair,  which  had  always  been 
exercised  by  the  rajas  of  Tanjore,  and  for  which,  he  con- 
tended, he  paid  his  tribute.  The  British  however  took  the 
part  of  the  nabob.  On  the  20th  of  August,  1773,  the  siege 
of  the  city  of  Tanjore  was  commenced,  and  a  passage 
twelve  feet  wide  having  been  completed  across  the  wet 
ditch  which  surrounds  the  walls  of  the  forts,  on  the  16th  of 
September,  when  the  sun  was  in  the  meridian  and  the 
raja's  troops  were  taking  repose,  the  British  unexpectedly 
made  the  assault,  and  earned  the  fortress,  with  hardly  any 
resistance,  the  raja  and  his  family  being  taken  prisoners. 
The  nija  was  then  made  subject  to  the  nabob;  but  in  con- 
sequence  of  the  disapprobation  which  these  proceedings 
met  with  in  England,  on  the  llth  of  April,  1776,  the  re- 

VOL.  AA.J.V,— E 


34 


\ 


«h>iwtion  "i  tti. 


-.,,'  i  . 

.  „!,'.!- 


ud  ' 


ill  tin- 
Ill' 
!  Ollc- 
le  of   till'  t. 

also  ret.., i.-  his  pah-  • 

of  Snrbojce.  who 

ous  i. 


wus  intrusted   by  him   at    I 

,,va:z.      Of  the  circu:  which  the 

,  vwcr  was  ultimately  obtained  by  Sarboj.  . 
,',  the  half-brother  of  Tuljajee,  an  account  is 
given  in  the  ar  VHZ. 

\--xt  Iinliii  •  Malcolm's  '/' 

miuitun  unit  Chin.i   in    lKW-7:    Mill's  History  of 
!.\   II.  II.  Wilson. 

TAN. H  IKK.  the  capital  of  the  district  ol  ::i  1(1° 

47'N.lat.  and  7K"  W  E.  lone.,  is  about  40  miles  ca,-l  from 
Trichinopoli,  nnd  about  57  miles  we-t  fioin  the  1 

•].  direct  distances.  The  city  is  situated  not  far  from 
the  south  bank  of  the  Cavery,  and  is  live  or  six  miles  in 
circumference,  including  the  suburbs.  It  is  a  pi. 
great  strength,  being  defended  by  two  foils,  which  are 
connected,  and  both  are  surrounded  liy  wall.-  built  of  large 
stones,  and  by  broad  and  deep  wet  ditches.  The  city  is  in 
a  flourishing  i-tate  :  it  is  regularly  built,  and  is  said  to  con- 
tain a  larger  proportion  of  good  houses  than  any  other 
town  in  Southern  Hindustan.  The  population  is  probably 
not  less  than  70,000  or  80,000.  The  palace  of  the  raja". 
where  he  resides,  is  in  the  larger  fort  :  in  one  of  the  halls 
of  audience  is  a  colossal  statue  of  Sarbojee.  by  Flaxman. 
which  was  executed  by  commission  from  Sarbojee  himself. 
The  pagodas  of  Tanjore  are  very  large,  with  paved  yards 
and  extensive  irardens :  one  of  the  largest  in  Hindustan  is 
situated  in  the  smaller  fort  :  it  contains  a  bull  finely  sculp- 
tured in  black  granite.  The  Protestant  Mission  church 
wa-  built  at  the  expense  of  the  missionary  Sehvvarx  :  it  is  a 
spacious  and  handsome  structure,  and  has  been  thoroughly- 
repaired  by  the  prc.-ent  raja.  Schwarx  was  buried  behind 
the  pulpit :  the  spot  is  marked  by  a  slab,  on  which  is  an 
inscription  in  English  poetry,  ascribed  to  the  raja  Sarbojee. 
,-  i-  pei formed  in  the  church  on  Sundays  both  in 
Tamul  and  in  English.  The  Protestant  communicant-  be- 
longing to  the  Tanjore  mission  amount  to  about  7-">0,  and 
tin-re  are  also  ln-lweeii  400  and  "XMI  Koinau  Catholic  con- 
verts, under  priests  who  are  chiefly  Jesuits  from  Gm. 

Hamilton's  1.  '"er;  Malcolm's  YVn 

linulmt'ii:  tii/rl  China.) 

TAN  K,  a  reservoir  for  water  or  other  fluids.  The  name 
is  sometimes  applied  to  large  open  receptacles,  or  ponds, 
formed  b.  md  and  disposing 

moved  earth  in  the  form  of  bank-  to  retain  the  water;  but 
the  tanks  which  will  here  be  especially  treated  of  are  the 
smaller  covered  reservoirs  used  to  collect  and  retain  water 
and  liquid  manure  for  dorm-  i','ricultinal  pur- 

poces.  Respecting  the  construction  of  ponds  it  will  be 
sufficient  I  EMUANKMKNT.  vol.  ix.,  p.  :i7:»,  for  the 

method  of  tin-min::  ling  banks,  and  to  < 

vol.vi..  p.  'Jl'J.  '  -  d  the   piocess  of;il/(/(///«jf 

with   clay,  v.hich  i.s  alwa.  ry  in  Ionium;   a 

voir  in  a  porous  soil,  unless  the  more  expen 
of  paving  or  lining  with  chalk,  brick?,  stone,  or  limber. 
be  resorted  to.    See  also  ol.  \\n  .  p.  lu 

notice  of  the  means  used  to  regulate  the  drawing  oil  of 
water  from  ponds,  and  to  prevent  accident  from  their  be- 
coming over-filled. 

In  high  mountainous  pastures,  tanks  are  indispensable 
to  supply  both    men   and   cattle  with    water;    and  they 
ought  to  be  very  carefully  constructed  of  such  material!. 
a*  are  at  hand.     In  the  pastures  of  the   Jura,   I  • 
France  and  Switzerland,  the  tanks   are  u-uallv   n: 
wood,  in  the  following  manner:    a  sqim  'ion  is 

made   in  the   L-  .-.-niv.  is  lined  with  a 

•IK  of  clay  or  impervious  earth  to  prevent  the  • 

tir-treeft,  d.  their   bark,   are  then 

hud  (hw  together  and  fastened   with  wooden  pin*,  M  as 

,  m  the  floor,  and  the  sides  are  lined  in  n  .-.imila: 
oer.    The  tank  is  coM-ml  with  a  roof  of  the  name 


i*  made    it  tlii 
thai  it  ;,,-'-  a-  a  t.inuel  to  > 
fulls  upon  it  into  th 
.k   cool,  and   , 

cow  house,  if  there  lie  one  : 

.'llowi-d  out,  to   the   I 

reijuired. 

1  ii  and  v.  :, 

i   abundant   supply  of  wait 
mcr.thirh  \  lia\i   to  be  supplied 

them. 

The   importance  oi  rain-wat, 

cient  or  lie  at  a  srreat  depth,  ha.-  luxn  much  0',  • 

this  country.     \Vaiatell,  in  the  work  n 

of   this  article,   urges    the   importance  of    plae 

round  all  the  buildings  of  a  farm  to  collect  tin 

which  falls  upon  them  into  a  tank 

that,   be.-ides   the  \alne  of   the   supply  ol 

tained.   the  buildings  will 

-  being  kept  drier  than  when  tin  a  the 

-.i'civd   to  fall  upon  them.     He 
(mantity  of  water  that  falls  annually  upn< 
superlieial  feet  or  siaiarv  of  building    in  ' 
about  1400  imperial  gallons;  and  this  statement   ap 
to  be  fully  borne  out   by  the  observations  recorded   in  tlii 
article  RUN.   \ol.  xix.,  p.  270.     If  therefore   the  cv 
.-.in  laces  of  loot's  were  adapted  to  the  collection  • 
rain-water  which  falls  upon  them,  and   mean- 
\ided  for  conveying  it  to  covered  tanks,  in  which  it  < 
be  preserved  from  evaporation,  and  kept  free  from  a> 
mixture  of  impurities,   almost   e\ei\  house  miirhl  I. 
dily  and  cheaply  supplied  with  a  (juantn 
water  sufficient  for  the  ordinan  want-  «i  '  r.  -  i 
The  extensive  roofs  of  churches  and  other  pi 
ings  might  be  employed  in  like  wa\  to  collect  «a- 
i]ip!x   of  ponds  or  tanks  I'or  public,  use.     In 
cases  even  the  drainage  of  lands   might,   also   be 
available,  as  the  water  may  be  submitted  to  any  rei. 
process  Qf  filtration  before  il  is  allowed  to  enter  the  tank. 

Tanks  or  cisterns  to  hold  water  for  domestic   pir. 
may  be  conveniently  situated  beneath   th.  if  the 

ground,  so  that,  being  pa\  ed   over,   they  occupj    no  va- 
luable  space.     They  are   formed   of 
into   each  other  anil  .set   in  cement;    of  V 
large  paving-tile.-  bedded  in  cement  :    of  1 
plates  of  cast-iron:   or  of  thick  wooden  p', 
by  charring  and  pitchimr.  or  lined  with  - 
brick  tanks   dc.-ciilud   b\    WiiUtcll   aie    eireniju 
.  built  like  a  well,  with  In  it  loin-  of  an  iu\  . 

.-hape,  of  very  sU^ht  convexity.     I'he  t,.; 

shajied,  and  has  an  opening  in  the  centre 

receive  a  man,  in  order  that  the  tank  m;- 

cleaned  out  when  necessary.     Tin-  opem-.n.'. 

be  ii]ioil    the  surface  of  the   ground,   or   a    littl< 

-lion1  ,-d  with  an  oak  tlaji  pn-n-^d  wiih  a  number 

of  holes,   or  with   an   .  ,:'!_'.     The  i!i  \A\\  ami  widl 

of  the  lank  should,  il  is  stated,  be  nearly  equal.      Il  , 

sary.'a  smaller  brick  • 

side  of  the  tank,   in    which   the  water   ma\    i 

ilnouirh  u'  charcoal,  &c.  before  entering  it.    It 

is  rrcommcnded   to  make 

-  the  lank  near  the  top.     Hnck  tank-  . 
tion    may   be    rendered   water-tiKht    by   laying  tin- 
COUI>i  I   in  cement,   and    pla-H-iimr  t1 

the  inside  with  the  same  to  the  Itnr 
quarters  of  an  inch.    To  enable  them  without   inj< 
bear  the  great  weight  of  water  when  nearly  full,  tin- 
should  lw  rammed  closely  round  tli  .  k.  and  it 

should  be  allowed  to  settle   thorouirhU 
quantity  of  water  is  admitted. 

kind  of  brick  tank,  contrived   by  Mr.  Malli  t    t,>   UTi 
pense  in  construction,  by  adoptmc  a  li-_'i  .niuiii 

capacity  and  minimum  surface.  Mallet  propose.-.,  when 
the  tank  i-  larirc.  to  adopt  the  spherical  form:  and  when 
of  less  than  th  .  -ter.  that  of  a  short 

vertical  cylinder  with  hemispherical  ends.     liy  puddling 


^ 


TAN 


35 


TAN 


with  clay  roundabout  the  tank,  the  necessity  for  the  use 
of  Roman  cement  is  avoided. 

In  the  forty-ninth  volume  of  the  'Transactions'  of  the 
Society  of  Arts  Cpart  ii.,  p.  12'i,  is  a  communication  from 
Mrs.  Davies  Gilbert  respecting  a  cheap  method  of  con- 
structing tanks  for  receiving  water  from  the  roofs  of  cot- 
tages, which  has  been  successfully  practised  at  Eastbourn, 
in  Sussex.  A  reservoir  having  been  dug  seven  feet  deep 
and  about  the  same  wide,  the  bottom  was  covered  with 
flints  laid  in  liquid  mortar  composed  of  one  measure  of 
grey  chalk  lime  (made  of  chalk  marlj  well  beaten  up  with 
three  measures  of  clean  sea-sand.  The  side  walls  were 
built  of  the  same  materials,  leaving  a  small  space  at  the 
back  of  the  wall,  which  space  was  filled  up  with  the  same 
sort  of  grout  or  liquid  mortar.  The  tank  was  then  roofed 
over  with  a  dome,  formed,  without  any  centering,  of 
smaller  flints  well  bedded  in  mortar.  A  hole  was  left  in 
the  centre,  and  covered  with  a  hood,  within  which  was 
hung  a  pulley  with  a  rope  and  bucket  for  drawing  water 
from  the  tank.  This  account  was  published  in  1833,  and 
in  1H37  an  article  appeared  in  the  '  Labourers'  friend 
Magazine,'  in  which  it  i's  stated  that  such  tanks  had  been 
found  very  useful  during  three  dry  summers.  One,  less 
than  seven  feet  deep  and  wide,  had  supplied  two  labourers' 
families  during  that  time,  while  most  of  the  springs  in  the 
neighbourhood  were  dry.  This  paper  describes  a  brick 
tank  with  sloping  sides,  the  diameter  at  the  base  being 
smaller  than  at  the  top,  and  with  a  dome-shaped  top 
formed  by  making  each  row  of  bricks  project  one-third 
•d  that  immediately  below  it,  and  balancing  the 
it  by  filling  up  the  back  with  earth  as  the  work  pro- 
.  One  of  the  flint  tanks,  constructed  as  above  de- 
scribed, nt  the  Kastbourn  workhouse,  is  twenty-three  feet 
deep  and  eleven  feet  wide.  Only  ninety  bushels  of  lime 
were  allowed  for  its  construction,  including  two  coats  of 
plaster,  and  the  work  was  executed  at  ten  shillings  per 
hundred  square  feet. 

In  the  article  last  quoted  from,  it  is  observed  that  a 
currunt  of  air  has  been  supposed  to  promote  the  purity  of 
the  water  presened  in  tanks.  If  so,  it  may  be  easily  pro- 
vided for.  Where  the  pre\  ailing  winds  do  not  blow  soot 
and  leaves  upon  the  roof,  the  water  is  found  to  remain 
good,  even  for  drinking,  without  clearing  out  the  rubbish 
more  than  once  a  y 

In  addition  to  tanks  for  water,  every  farm-yard  should 
have  one  to  collect  the  liquid  portion  of  tne  manure, 
which  is  washed  by  the  rain  through  the  refuse  litter,  and 
also  the  urine  of  the  stalled  cuttle.  Though  not  yet  gene- 
rally adopted  in  England,  in  France.  Germany,  and  espe- 
cially in  Belgium,  such  tanks  are  considered  as  necessary 
to  a  farm  as  any  of  its  most  common  buildings.  They  are 
usually  constructed  of  an  oblong  shape,  of  brick  well 
ited,  with  one  or  more  divisions,  and  capable  of  con- 
taining at  lea^  ten  times  as  many  hogsheads  as  there  are 
heads  of  cattle  on  the  farm.  They  are  vaulted  over, 
having  a  small  aperture,  in  which  a  p'ump  is  placed,  suffi- 
cient to  allow  a  man  occasionally  to  clear  out  the  sedi- 
ment, when  the  liquid  has  been  pumped  up.  The  best 
shape  to  contain  a  large  quantity  in  the  smallest  space 
would  be  like  (host-  before  described;  but  they  cannot 
•  niently  be  made  sufficiently  large,  and  a  cubical  to:  in. 
or  rather  that  of  several  cubes  in  succession,  is  preferred. 
A  tank  for  a  farm  of  200  acres  of  arable  land  should  be  15 
feet  wide,  15  deep,  and  45  long,  giving  3  cubes  of  15  feet, 
or  a  cavity  capable  of  containing  upwards  of  !(),()(»)  cubic 
feet  of  liquid.  In  this  tank  the  urine  is  diluted  with  water 
to  prevent  too  rapid  decomposition,  and  also  to  retain 
the  ammonia  which  is  formed  ;  for  which  purpose  gypsum 
and  sulphate  of  copper  are  sometimes  put  into  the  tanks. 

It'  the  soil  be  not  sandy,  clay  will  answer  in-trad  of  mor- 
tar to  connect  the  brickwork,  and  a  plastering  of  lime  «r 
cement  will   be   Miffieient  to  ke-p  out   the  worms:   but  in 
ils  the  bottom  and  sides  must,  be   puddled, 
••p  in  the    liquid  ;    and   it.  may  be  advantageous  to 
h.uld   tin-  walls  in   cement,  altogether.     The   liquid  from 
'aWes  is  carried  into  (lie  tank  by  a  main 
nieted  of  brick  or  stone,  and  which  receives  a 
ier  of  smaller  drains  from  every  part  of  the  yards 
'•attV-xhi-d-.     Thus  the  litter  in"  the  yard  is  always 
dry,    and  none  of  the  richness  of  the  manure  is  lost  by 
ion. 

'c  is  vaulted  like  a  cellar  under  the 
Mouse  and  stables,  which  are  Washed  out  twice  every 


day,  and  all  the  dung  and  water  are  swept  into  a  cess-pool 
communicating  with  the  tank.  Thus  a  very  diluted,  but 
rich  liquid  soon  fills  the  first  division  of  the  tank  :  a  sluice 
is  then  shut,  and  the  next  washings  run  into  a  second 
division,  and  when  that  is  full,  into  a  third.  In  the  mean- 
time the  contents  of  the  first  tank  have  undergone  a 
certain  fermentation,  by  winch  the  caustic  ammonia  first 
evolved  has  become  mild  and  impregnates  the  water. 
It  is  then  in  a  fit  state  to  be  carried  on  the  land  in 
tubs  or  water-carts.  When  properly  diluted,  it  accele- 
rates vegetation  in  a  surprising  degree  ;  but  if  put  on 
fresh,  it  burns  the  grass  or  any  vegetable  it  touches,  be- 
cause the  ammonia  is  in  a  caustic  state.  If  a  cow  drop 
her  urine  in  a  field  in  a  hot  summer's  day,  all  the  grass  it 
has  touched  becomes  yellow  and  is  burned  up  :  but  if  the 
same  happen  in  rainy  weather,  the  spot  soon  becomes 
very  green,  and  the  grass  luxuriant;  because,  in  this  case, 
the  urine  is  amply  diluted  and  its  caustic  nature  corrected. 
Those  who  live  near  gas-works  may  collect  the  ammonia- 
cal  gas-water  in  a  tank,  and,  by  the  addition  of  sulphuric 
acid  in  very  small  quantities,  they  may  produce  a  very 
fertilising  liquid,  which  will  stimulate  vegetation,  and  be 
a  very  good  manure. 

The  necessary  concomitant  of  a  tank,  whether  for  water 
or  manure,  is  a  water-cart,  that  is,  a  large  cask  put  upon 
wheels  to  bring  water  from  some  distance.  When  (here 
are  no  means  of  bringing  water  in  pipes,  a  water-cart  is 
quite  indispensable.  It  is  simply  a  cask  placed  on  the 
frame  of  a  cart,  with  a  plug-hole  in  the  end  or  lower  part, 
from  which  the  water  may  be  let  out  by  a  cock,  or  drop 
on  a  flat  board  or  into  a  bucket  with  holes,  so  as  to  spread 
it  about.  The  plug-hole  is  shut  by  a  valve  inside,  which 
can  be  opened  by  means  of  a  string,  the  pressure  of  the 
liquid  keeping  it  close  to  the  plug-hole. 

Many  of  the  artificial  manures,  of  which  a  number  have 
been  lately  proposed,  would  make  excellent  liquids  by 
merely  mixing  them  up  with  water  in  a  tank,  and  allow- 
ing a  certain  degree  of  fermentation  to  take  place.  Thus 
nothing  is  lost,  and  all  volatile  substances  are  taken  up  by 
the  water.  The  soluble  portions  are  dissolved  and  the 
earthy  matters  diffused,  so  as  to  be  more  equally  spread 
over  the  land.  If  it  be  true  that  the  ammonia  found  in 
some  plants  is  chiefly  derived  from  the  very  small  portion 
discovered  in  rain  water,  it  follows  that  a  scarcely  percep 
tible  impregnation  with  this  salt  may  have  most  powerful 
(.•Beets  on  vegetation. 

Wl:cn  a  farm-yard  is  situated  on  a  hill,  and  there  are 
fields  cr  pastures  on  a  lower  level,  at  no  great  distance 
from  it,  trie  liquid  from  the  tank  may  be  conducted  by 
channels  lined  with  clay,  having  small  sluices  to  direct 
the  streams  to  any  particular  field.  It  may  thus  be  made 
to  irrigate  temporarily  a  considerable  surface,  which  it  will 
greatly  enrich.  It  may  be  led  into  the  common  furrow?, 
between  the  lands  or  stitches  in  ploughed  land,  and  allowed 
to  soak  in  them,  and  then  it  can  be  spread  with  the  earth 
of  the  furrow,  by  means  of  broad  shovels,  over  the  growing 
crops,  and  will  greatly  invigorate  them.  This  species  of 
irrigation  is  common  in  Lombardy,  where  much  ingenuity 
is  shown  in  the  manner  in  which  water  is  made  to  flow  in 
small  rivulets  between  the  rows  of  growing  vegetables. 
The  water  here  is  supplied  by  streams,  but  the  same  method 
would  distribute  the  tank-liquor  with  great  effect.  A  very 
small  quantity  of  this  liquor,  allowed  to  flow  into  the  main 
feeder  of  a  water-meadow,  will  soon  prove  how  great  effects 
are  produced  by  impregnations  which  are  scarcely  percep- 
lible  iiy  chemical  analysis. 

Small  as  the  experience  has  hitherto  been  in  tills  coun- 
try of  the  advantages  of  liquid-manure  tanks,  it  has  suffi- 
ciently proved  their  use  to  induce  every  man  who  con- 
!  a  farm-yard  and  erects  buildings  to  take  in  the 
tank  as  an  essential  part  of  his  plan;  and  even  if  it  only 
collected  the  refuse  fluids  which  are  allowed  to  nan  off  in 
common  sewers  from  most  houses,  it  would  soon  repay  the 
co-t  i if  its  construction,  while  it  rendered  the  ditches  in  the 
neighbourhood  less  .subject   to  noxious  emanations  from 
irrupted   matte;-  which   now  flows  into  them.     Tlje 
:e,  of  air  into  or  out  of  a  manure-tank,  and  the  cou- 
nt, exhalation  of  noxious  vapours,  may  be  prevented 
by  the  use  of  air-traps,  similar  in  principle  to  those  de- 
scribed   under   SKWKRS,  vol.  xxi.,  p.  310,  at  the  points 
where  the  drains  enter  it. 

The  use  of  metallic  cisterns  or  tanks,  in  lieu  of  wooden 
casks,  for  containing  a  supply  of  fresh  water  for  long 

F2 


TAN 


36 


TAN 


,  U  one  of  the  great  improvemenU  effected  of  late 

1:1  naval   economy,     llie  nineteenth  volume  of  the 
•  Transaction*' of  th'   S  ;.  Arts  contains  an  account 

(ll-  ,.x  ::il  Samuel  Hen 

thiiin.  in  I79f>aml  tin-  following  yeara,  the  succeti  of  which 

induced  the  SocicU.  in  Iwtll,  to  present  to  him  their  gold 
medii  n  jars  have   been  tried  tor  this  pur- 

pose ;  but.  while   they  keep  the  water  very  pure,  th- 

lenient  for  general  u»e  an  metallic  tanks,  wlm-h 
may  be  fitted  to  the  shape  of  the  vessel,  so  as  to  avoid  any 
lose  of  room. 

U'aistell's  Designs  for  Agricultural  liu/ltlinyx:  Lou- 
don'*  Enci/r/'-!«rtfnt  ty  Cottage,   1'iirni,  ninl  1'il/u  .-In-fn- 
re;  TranMcti','  j,  v,  sols.  xix.  and 

IsilxiuriTx'  I-'ru-iiil  Mti£<i:iiu-.  1K!7,  p.  131.) 
TANNAHII.L.  ROHF.RT.  horn  :it  Paisley,  in  Scotland, 
on  the  3rd  of  June,  177-1.  was  the  son  of  poor  parents.   b\ 
whom  he  was  brought  in)  to  the  occupation  of  a  v 
which    he    pursued    iii  his  native  town  and  at   Glasgow 
throughout  the  short  period  of  his  life.     The  earliest   pre- 
dilection  of  Tannahill  was  for  poetry,  and  his  taste  was 
formed  hv  the  constant  study  of  Allan  Ramsay.  Fci_ 
and  Hum's.     He  failed  to  attain  the  spirit  of  these  masters 
of  Scottish  song;  but  his  pieces  generally  excel  th- 

<     and   sweetness.      A  specimen   of  this    sweetness   is 
found  in  his  famous  song, '  Gloomy  winter's  now  awa  :' 

•  Tow'riii^  o'er  tin1  Ni'wt"ii  woods, 
Livior-19  Inn  ilu-  Mmw  wluu'  i  l.m'U; 
sillrr  -.vi^h*.  w  i'  il  >v.  iii''  luld*. 

n  the  Iwnks  v  if  i  1 1'  i  i'-,  I  V 
•i  1  111*-  ->  h  in  fiiry  lionks 
Ffntli'rv  lini-.,  rock», 

tin-  l>r,u-  ''  i'  l>urmc  jouks. 
Ilka  tiling  U  cliei-ri.  ,  <  '  ' 

'  Jessy,  the  flower  of  Dumblane.'  is  his  best-known  effort. 
The  '"Song  of  the  battle  of  Yittoria'  has  the  merit  of  re- 
deeming iii'iti  the  degradation  of  worthless  words  one  of 
the  finest  airs  of  Scottish  minstrelsy,  and  restoring  it  from 
a  whistled  jig  to  the  solemn  tone  of  a  triumphal  song. 

His  songs  were  commonly  inspired  by  the  immediate. 
-ion  ;  were  the.  unlaboured  fruit  of  his  imagination  or 
feelings.  Decides  the  charm  of  harmony  and  of  a  perfect 
mastery  of  his  language,  which  is  almost  exclusively 
,i\c  not  a  little  of  their  effect  from  the  vein 
of  desponding  melancholy  which  runs  through  them.  This 
melancholy  was  in  some  degree  constitutional  in  Tanna- 
hill.  but  it  was  aggravated  by  the  neglect  of  the  world, 
and  a  hopelessness  of  ever  raising  himself  above  eircum- 
o  unfavourable  to  genius  as  those  in  which  for- 
tune had  thrown  him.  A  kindred  spirit,  the  Ettrick  Shep- 
herd, made  a  long  pilgrimage  to  visit  him  at  Paisley. 
After  a  night  .spent  in  the  most  delightful  interchange  ol 
feeling.  Mr.  Hogg  took  his  departure.  '  Farewell,  we  shall 
never  meet  again.'  were  the  words  emphatically  pro 
nouneed  on'this  occasion  by  Tannahill,  and  their  meaning 
was  shortly  afterwards  explained.  He  committed  suicide 
by  drowning  himself,  in  his  thirty-sixth  year.  His  remains 
are  interred  at  Paisley. 

Tannahill's  songs  were  published  in  Paisley,  in  his  life- 
time, in  a  small  volume.  They  are  in  every  modern  col- 
lection of  Scottish  melodies,  and  are  occasionally  printed 
.under Tannahill's  name)  with  selections  from  Hums.  For 
his  life,  see  Chambers'*  S*-i>ttix/i  Itii'xrnphy. 

TANNER,  THOMAS,  was  the  eldest  'son  of  the  Re\. 
Thomas  Tanner,  vicar  of  Market  Lavington,  Wiltshire, 
where  he  was  horn.  2.~>th  January.  Ki74.  Ill  November, 
hi'  v.  as  entered  a  student  of  Queen's  ( 'ollege.  Oxford  : 
but  alter  having  taken  his  degree  of  H.A..  he  rcmo\ccl  in 
January.  Ifi'.H,  to  All  Souls,  and  he  was  elected  a  feliow 
of  that'  society,  2nd  Nov..  HiiWi.  So  early  as  1G!I3,  when 
he  was  only  nineteen,  he  had  published  proposals  I'm 
printing  all  the  works  „(  the  antiquary  John  I.eland.  from 
the  original  manuscripts  ;  but  this  design,  which  was  after- 
wards partially  executed  by  Hcarnc.  did  not  receive  such 
encouragement  as  to  induce  him  to  proceed  with  it.  The 
reputation  he  had  very  early  acquired  for  his  knowledge 
of  Knglish  antiquities  may  appear  from  the  fact  IK 
thony  a  Wood,  at  his  death  in  Kiilii,  left  his  pa; 
Tanner's  care.  That  same  year  Tanner  published  at  Lon- 
don !;is  |'u si  work,  an  Hvo.  volume,  entitled  '  Notitia  Mo- 

i   the   Religious  Houses  in 

and  and  Wales.'     llaung  taken  order.,  he  was  soon 
after  appointed  by  Dr.  Moore,  his!"  icli.  one  of 

his  chaplains;    and  having,  in   1701,  married  Rose,  the 


eldest  daughter  of  that  prelate.  1: 

from   his  father-in-law  ;  the  chancel1  Nor- 

wich about  the  time  of  liis  mairiagc  ;    the  offii 
missarv  for  the  arclidcacomy  of  Noilo'k  in   1~H3  :    that  of 
commissary  for  the-  archdeaconry  of  Sudbury  in  17U7  :  and, 
in  1713,  a  prebend  in  the  cathedral  of  Kly.  to  which  dio- 
cese Moore   had    been  by  this  tn  !       Meanwhile 

Tanner's  wife  had  died,  at  the  age  of  twenty-five,  in  17(Hi. 
In  the  same   year  he  was   presented   by  a  fnend    to  the 
•.  of  Thorp,   near   Norwich;    and    he    then  married 
Frances,  daughter  of  Jacob  Preston,  Ksq..  of  London,  w  horn 
however  he  lust  ill  171  X.   II  Is  next  publications  new  edition 
of  \Vood's'  Athenae  Oxonienses.'  enlarged  by  the  ad'! 
of  ."XK)   new   lives  from  Wood's  manuscripts,  appeared   at 
London,  in  'J  vols.  t'ol.,  in  17-1.     In  December  that 
Tanner,  who  had  taken   his  degree  of  D.I),   in  I7H1 
appointed   hv  Dr.  (ireen,  bishop  of  Norwich,  to  the  arch- 
deaconry of  Norfolk  :  and  in  1723  he  resigned  hi 
at    Kly.  and  was  appointed   canon  of  Christ's  Clnm-h. 
ford.      He  lated   to  the  bishopric  '.I   Si.  .\saph. 

in  January.  17:i2:  and  in  May.  17:ti.  he  married  Mrs. 
Elizabeth  Scot  tow  of  Tb'irp.  receiving  with  her  a  fortune 
of  15.1KH)/.  :  but  he  did  not  long  cnjoi  the  -  -is  of 

wealth  and  honour.  Ins  death  taking  place  at  Oxford  on 
the  1  1th  of  Deceinfer,  \~'.'*>.  By  his  second  wife  he  let! 
one  son  Thomas,  who  died  rector  of  Hadlcy  rmd  M- 


Kly   in   Suttblk.  and   prebendary  of   Canterbury,   in 
His   widow    married  Robert  Britirle.  Ksq.,   M.P.,  and  siu- 
\i\ed  to  1771-     A  new  edition  of  the  •  Notitia  Monastiea." 
with  large  additions  un  part  by  the  editor!,  was  pubi. 
in  a  folio  volume  at   London,  in    17-H.  by  th> 
brother,    the    Rev.  John  Tanner,  vicar   ol  t    in 

Suffolk  ;  and  a  third  edition,  considerably  improved,  by 
the  Rev.  James  Nasinith,  appeared  at  Cambridge,  i 
same    form,   ill   17KT.       The  greater  part  of  this  last  im- 
pression having  been  consumed  in  u  fire  which  happened 
in  Mr.  Nichols's  printing-house,  on  the  night  of  Mir 
the  8th   of  February.  1K08,  the  book   is  very  scarce.      Ilu 
Tanner's  literary  reputation  rests  principally  on   his 
biographical  and    bibliographical  work,  entitled  '  Diblio 
theca   Bntannico-IIibernica.    she    de  Scriptoribus  (|iii   in 
Anglia.  Scotia,  et    Ilibernia.  ad   Saeculi  xvii.   initium  tlo 
ruerunt.  litcrarum  online,  juxta   famiharuin  nomina.  dis 
posit  i-,.  i  'ouunentarius,'  which  had  been  the   labour  of  his 
leisure  for  forty  years,  and  which  was  published,  in  folio. 
at  London,  in  174H,  under  the  care  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  David 
Wilkins.     It  is  a  work  of  extensive   research   and    great 
general  accuracy.      Bishop  Tanner  had  made  la 
lions  of  charters,  grants,  deeds,  and  other  instruments  re- 
lating to  the  national  antiquities,  which  he  bequeathed  to 
the  Bodleian  Library.    Some  letters  from  him  are  published 
in  Dr.  Bliss's  collection   of  '  Letters  written    by   Kminenl 
Persons,"  Jscc.,  2  \ols.  8vo.,  Lon.,  1813.     (Biographia 


TANNIC  ACID,   or  TANNIN,   a  peculiar  vegetable 
acid  existing  in  every  part  of  the  bnrk  of  each 
(|ueicus.  but    especially  in   the   bark  :   it  is  found   ho-. 
in  the  greatest  quantity  in  the  gall-nut.     The  name  ot  this 
substance  is  derived  from  its  properly  of  combining  with 
the   skins  of  animals,   or   in    tanning,  by   which   they  are 
rendered    impervious   to  water,   and   prevented   from   pu- 
t  rcfving. 

To  prepare  tannic  acid,  galls  are  to  be-  reduced  to  coarse 
powder,  and  digested  in  a  percolator  in  ii'ther  which  lias 
been  previously  mixed  and  .shaken  with  water:  in  the 
lower  part  of  tlie  vessel  two  strata  of  liquid  appear,  the 
heavier  of  which  is  a  strong  solution  of  tannic  acid,  by 
evaporating  which,  and  by  subsequent  purilicatior 
acid  U  obtained  possessing  the  following  proper: 
a  colourless  or  slightly  yellowish  mass,  which  docs  not 
cTvstalli/c,  but  resembles  dried  gum.  It  is  icadih  soluble 
in  water:  the  solution  has  an  astringent  but  not  a  bitter 
taste;  it  reddens  vegetable  bin.  ;ilka- 

.-.  ith  effervescence:  weak  alcohol  dissolves 
it,  but  :i'ther  only  slightly;   when  the  aqueous  solution   is 

••d  to  the  air,  espec'ially  if  the    tenmeiatu 

oxygen  gas  is  absorbed,  and  an  equal  volume  of  carbonic 

I.  while  the  tannic  acid    is  converted   into 

.mil  elagic  acids.     Tannic  acid   precipitates  gelatin 

Million  :  the  compound  has  been  called  tiiiintigrltitnt, 

and    when   the   acid   is  in   excess  a  viscid   elastic   mass  is 

formed,  which  contains  about    half  its  weight   of  tannic 

acid  ;  when  the  liquid   from  which   the   gelatin  is  pre- 


TAN 


TAN 


cipitated  is  heated  to  ebullition,  the  tannogelatin  is  re- 
dissolved  ;  tannic  acid  also  precipitates  albumen  and 
starch. 

When  dried  at  212°  tannic  acid  consists  of 

Eighteen  equivalents  of  carbon  .  .  108 
Five  equivalents  of  hydrogen  .  .  5 
Nine  equivalents  of  oxygen  .  .  72 

Equivalent          .  185 

With  Three  equivalents  of  water  .       27 

When  exposed  to  a  temperature  of  240°,  the  water  is 
expelled. 

Tannic  acid  combines  with  the  alkalis  to  form  salts, 
which  are  called  tannatfs,  and  it  precipitates  most  me- 
tallic oxides  from  solution.  The  salts  of  protoxide  of  iron 
suffer  no  change  when  a  solution  of  tannic  acid  is  added 
to  them ;  but  by  exposure  to  the  air  a  deep  bluish-black 
precipitate  is  formed.  Tannate  of  peroxide  of  iron,  formed 
by  the  action  of  the  acid  on  a  persalt  of  the  metal,  is  the 
nl  writing-ink,  and  is  a  black  pulverulent  precipitate. 

TANNIN,  ARTIFICIAL.  It  has  been  shown  by  Mr. 
Hatchett,  that  when  powdered  charcoal  has  been  digested 
for  a  considerable  time  in  dilute  nitric  acid,  it  is  dissolved, 
and  a  reddish-coloured  liquid  is  obtained,  which  by  care- 
ful evaporation  yields  a  brown  glossy  substance,  amount- 
ing to  about  120  parts  from  every  100  of  charcoal  em- 
ployed. 

The  properties  of  this  substance  are  that  its  taste  is 
astringent  and  bitter,  is  soluble  in  water  and  in  alcohol, 
and  forms  with  a  solution  of  gelatin  an  insoluble  precipi- 
tate, consisting,  according  to  Mr.  Hatchett,  of  36  of  tannin 
mid  04  of  gel.it  in  in  100  parts.  Sulphuric  acid  and  hydro- 
chloric aeid,  when  added  to  a  solution  of  artificial  tannin, 
-ion  brown-coloured  precipitates,  which  are  soluble  in 
hot  water ;  the  alkalis  combine  with  this  tannin,  and  it 
forms  a  precipitate  of  difficult  solubility  when  added  to 
lime,  barytes,  or  strontia  water,  and  also  with  most  metallic 
solutions.  These  precipitates  are  of  a  brown  colour;  un- 
like natural  tannin,  the  artificial  resists  the  action  of  nitric 
acid. 

When  camphor  and  various  resins,  as  shell-lac,  benzoin, 
and  dragon's  blood  are  digested  in  sulphuric  acid  till  it 
becomes  black,  a  variety  of  artificial  tannin  is  procured; 
when  the  blackened  acid  is  poured  into  water,  a  black 
powder  is  deposited,  which,  by  digestion  in  alcohol,  fur- 
nishes a  brown  matter  soluble  in  water,  and  forming  an 
•  ;nble  compound  with  gelatin. 

Although  in  certain  respects  the  above  artificial  sub- 
stance agrees  with  tannic  acid,  yet  the  late  discoveries  as 
to  the  real  nature  of  this  principle  tend  to  the  opinion 
the  natural  componnd  is  essentially  different  from  the 
artificial. 

TANNIN,  PURE,  or  TANNIC  ACID,  Medical  Pro- 
firrii<:\  if.    This  substance  in  combination  with  extractive 
een  long  known  under  the  name  of  tannin,  and  re- 
coirnixed   as  the  active  principle  in  almost  all  astringent 
:  ablcs.      [ASTRINGENTS.]      As   many   of    these   are 
it'ul   in   restraining    excessive    discharges,   whether 
bloody  or  otherwise,  it  was   conjectured   that   the   pure 
principle  would  be  yet  more  efficacious  than  when  in  a 
of  combination.     Accordingly  it  has  been  adminis- 
tered  in   some    passive   haemorrhages,    chiefly   from   the 
^  and  the  bronchial  tubes.     To  effect  any  good  it  re- 
quires to  be  given  for  several  days  in  small  doses.     It  is 
with  difficulty  absorbed  into  the   circulation,  being  with 
great  reluctance  taken  up  by  the  lactcals,  and  producing 
'.Teat,  constipation,  from  its  direct  astringent  action 
over  the  intestinal  canal,  with  which  it  is  brought  into 
contact.     Tannic  acid  has  been  recommended  in  cases  of 
incurable  organic  diseases  affecting  (he    uterus,  accom- 
panied «itli  wasting  discharges.     These  it  may  for  a  time 
moderate,  but  the  constipation  induced  ne\er  fails  ulti- 
mately to  n^irravate  the  disease   and   discomfort  of  the 
patient.    There  is  little  therefore  to  induce  practitioners 
to  employ  it. 

TANNING  is  the  process  of  converting  the  skins  of 
animals  into  leather,  by  effecting  a  chemical  combination 
between  the  gelatin  of  which  they  principally  col 
and  the  astringent,  \egetable  principle  called  tannin. 
[BARK,  vol.  iii..  p.  4.">f; ;  LEATHER,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  :)7!) ; 
and  the  preceding  chemical  articles  on  TANNIN.]  The 
object  of  the  tanning  process  is  to  produce  such  a  che- 
mical change  in  skins  as  may  render  them,  as  observed  by 


Dr.  Ure,  unalterable  by  the  external  agents  which  tend  to 
decompose  them  in  their  natural  state  ;  and,  in  connection 
with  the  subsequent  operations  of  dressing,  or  currying,  to 
bring  them  into  a  state  of  pliability  and  impermeability  to 
water  which  may  adapt  them  for  the  many  useful  pur- 
poses to  which  leather  is  applied.  Similar  effects  are 
produced  by  forcing  oil  or  grease  into  the  pores  of  the 
skin,  or  by  preparation  with  alum ;  processes  which  mav 
be  briefly  noticed  in  connection  with  the  more  immediate 
subject  of  this  article. 

The  preparation  of  skins  by  tanning  or  other  analogous 
processes  has  been  practised  from  the  earliest  times ;  and, 
although  it  has  engaged  the  attention  of  several  scientific 
men,  and  has  been  the  subject  of  many  curious  experi- 
ments, it  has  received  less  modification  from  recent  im- 
provements in  chemical  science  than  many  other  manu- 
facturing processes.  Several  plans  which  have  been  sug- 
gested with  a  view  to  expediting  the  process,  which,  on 
the  old  system,  is  a  very  tedious  one,  have  been  found  to 
deteriorate  the  quality  of  the  leather,  and  have  therefore 
been  wholly  or  partially  abandoned  ;  and  others,  which 
appear  to  be  more  successful,  are  as  yet  adopted  by  a  few 
manufacturers  only.  One  of  the  probable  causes  of  this 
comparatively  slow  progress  of  improvement  in  the  leather 
manufacture  is  suggested  in  an  interesting  article  on 
'  Tanning,'  in  the  seventh  edition  of  the  '  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica,'  the  author  of  which  observes  that,  owing  to 
the  slow  turning  of  money  in  consequence  of  the  length 
of  time  occupied  in  tanning  the  heavier  kinds  of  skins  or 
hides,  the  tanner  '  must  have  capital  enough  to  pay  for 
twelve  months'  hides,  bark,  &c.,  labour,  and  contingent 
expenses,  besides  keeping  a  stock  of  leather ;  and,  when 
his  capital  has  been  turned  at  the  end  of  twelve  or  more 
months,  it  must  pay  him,  in  one  single  profit,  the  in'erest, 
&c.  of  twelve  months.'  '  This,'  he  proceeds  to  say,  '  has 
confined  the  trade  to  a  few  wealthy  individuals,  who  look 
upon  tanning  as  an  investment  for  capital  rather  than  as  a 
business  which  might  be  improved  by  science  ;  and,  being 
in  comfortable  circumstances,  they  are  not  driven  to  per- 
sonal exertion  and  close  application,  which  would  be 
required  of  less  wealthy  tradesmen.'  '  It  is,'  he  adds, 
'from  these  circumstances,  that  tanning  has  been  more 
stationary  than  any  other  manufacture,  and  that  the  few 
improvements  which  have  been  made  in  it  have  not  been 
made  by  tanners.' 

The  larger  and  heavier  skins  operated  upon  by  the  tan- 
ner, as  those  of  bulls,  buffaloes,  oxen,  and  cows,  are  tech- 
nically distinguished  as  hides;  while  the  name  skins  is 
applied  to  those  of  smaller  animals,  as  calves,  sheep,  and 
goats.  The  process  necessary  to  convert  hides  into  the 
thick  hard  leather  used  for  the  soles  of  boots  and  shoes, 
and  for  similar  purposes,  will  be  first  noticed.  The  hides 
are  brought  to  the  tanner  cither  in  a  fresh  state,  when 
from  animals  recently  slaughtered,  or,  when  imported 
from  other  countries,  dried  or  salted,  and  sometimes  both, 
for  the  sake  of  preserving  them  from  decomposition.  In 
the  former  case  the  horns  are  removed,  and  the  hide  is 
scraped  to  cleanse  it  from  any  small  portions  of  flesh  or 
fatty  matter  which  may  adhere  to  the  cutis  ;  but  in  the 
latter  it  is  necessary  to  soften  the  hides,  and  bring  them 
as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  fresh  state,  by  steeping  them 
in  water,  and  repeated  rubbing  or  beating.  After  this 
the  hair  is  removed  ;  sometimes  by  steeping  the  hides  for 
several  days  in  a  solution  of  lime  and  water,  which  has 
the  effect  of  loosening  the  hair  and  epidermis,  or  outer 
skin ;  and  sometimes  by  suspending  them  in  a  close 
chamber  called  a  smoke-house,  heated  a  little  above  the, 
ordinary  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  by  means  of  a 
smouldering  fire ;  in  which  case  the  epidermis  becomes 
loosened  by  incipient  putrefaction.  In  either  case,  when 
the  hair  and  epidermis,  or  cuticle,  are  sufficiently  loosened, 
they  are  removed  by  scraping  with  a  curved  knife,  the 
hide  being  laid  upon  a  convex  bench,  or  '  beam.'  The, 
hides  are  prepared  for  the  actual  tanning,  or  immersion  in 
a  solution  of  bark,  by  steeping  them  for  a  few  days  in  a 
pit  containing  a  sour  solution  of  rye  or  barley  flour,  or  in 
a  very  weak  menstruum  consisting  of  one  part  of  sulphuric 
acid  mixed  with  from  five  hundred  to  a  thousand  parts  of 
water.  By  this  process,  which  is  called  '  raising,'  the  pores 
of  the  hides  are  distended  and  rendered  more  susceptible 
of  the  action  of  the  tan,  and  the  substance  of  the  skin  is 
apparently  increased  ;  but,  as  the  process  does  not  add  to 
the  gelatin  of  the  skin,  a  hide  which  is  much  thickened  by 


T  A  N 


88 


T    \    \ 


the  :  stance  when  conden- 

• 

Different  tan-  ibovf- 

ccsses,  a.s  wull  as  in  those  which 
follow,  and  w'::  the  uctunl   tanri 

jielt'  into  leather.     O^k  Imrk  is 

i   ommollly    Used    III   Mlppb. 

coarse 

ami  otlu-i 

157.       Ill  the 

of  tanning,  which  is  not  vet  entirely  abandoned,  the  hides 
and   powdered  Imrk  WITI>  laid  in   alten:  in  the 

tan-pit,  which  was  then  filled  with  water  to  the  brim. 
After  some  months  the  pit  was  emptied  and  re-filled  with 
fresh  bnrk  and  water,  ami  this  process  was  repented  when- 
ever •  the  bark  w»i  exhausted.  In  this  way 
the  time  hides  varied,  ac- 
cording to  their  thickness  and  other  circumstances,  from 
one  to  four  years.  The  process  has  been  groat h  expc- 
dited  l)_v  the  improvements  introduced  in  consequence  of 
the  experiments  of  M.  Seguin,  a  French  chemist,  which 
arc  detailed  in  Nicholson's  •  Journal,'  vol.  i.,  p.  271 
quarto  sciies.  published  in  the  year  17!»7  .  of  tanning 
with  concentrated  solutions  of  Lark,  formed  by  pass- 
ing vwiter  through  a  mass  of  powdered  bark,  until,  by 
suocessjvo  infiltrations,  it  is  completely  deprived  of  its 
soluble  tanning  principle.  Scguin  expected  that,  by  the 
use  of  very  strong  solutions,  hides  and  skins  might  be 
tanned  in  as  many  days  as,  under  the  old  system,  they 
would  require  months:  but  these  expectations  have  been 

imperfectly  realised  in  practice,  although  the  new 

11,  which  has  been  very  extensively  adopted,  has 
been  productive  of  an  important  saving  of  time.  With- 
out entering  into  a  minute  investigation  of  the  objections 
to  the  use  of  concentrated  tanning  infusions,  it  may  he 
sufficient  to  state  that,  as  observed  by  the  late  Sir  Hum- 
phry Davy,  in  hisvaluab!"  paper  on  the  operation  of  astrin- 
gent vegetables  in  tau'uiig,  published  in  the  'Philosophi- 
cal Transactions'  tor  1803,  experience  shows  that 
which  are  quickly  tanned,  by  the  use  of  strong  solutions. 
prod-  of  less  (Unable  quality  than  that  which  is 

'   formed.     Dr.  I'rc.  in   reference  to   this  important 
point'  t.  of  Arts,  &X.,  p.  l'22(i   :—•  The  older  tan- 

••. ho  prided  themselves  on  producing  a  substantial 
article,  were  so  much  impressed  with  the  advantages  of4 
slowly  impregnating  skin    with    astringent    matter,    that 
they  employed  no  concentrated   in;  '      in  their 

iiatilicd  the  sKins  with  abundance  of  ground 
bark,  and  covered  them  with  soft  water,  knowing  thai  its 
active  principles  a:  'nblc.  and  that,  by  being 

gradually  extracted,  they  would   penetrate-   uniformly   the 
whole  of  the  animal  film--,  in -lead  of  acting  chiefly  Upon 

dace,  and  making  !  Micr,  as  the  strong  in- 

fusions never  fail  to  do.'     In  illustration  of  these  re; 
he  states  that  KXtlbs.  of  skin,   quickly   tanned  in  a  - 
infusion  of  bark,  will  produce  l.'tTlbs. "of  leather,  while  the 
same  weight  of  skin,  slowly  tanned   in   a  weak   soil 
produce  only  117^1  bs. ;  the  additional  19ilbs.   in  the   for- 
mer case  lending  to  swell  the  tanner's  bill,  although  it 
deteriorates   the   leather,   and   causes   it   to  contain  I 
the  textile  animal  solid.     Leather  so  highly  charged  with 
tannin  is.   mop.  -,    as  to  allow    moisture  to 

pores  :   but    the   saving  of  time 
-irons*  temptations  to    the 

r  to  adopt  tin-  s\-teiu  of  tanning   v.illi   concent 
infusions. 

The  variations  of  practice    among  different   tannei- 
teud  to  the  substance  used  as  an  astringent,  as  well  as  to 
Hie  manner  of  applying   it.     (Ironud  oak-bark,  which  was 
l\   material  in  common   u-i  'ill  the 

1    leather    of    a    light-lawn 
' 
imported  forth. 

inclined   to 


<ohdity  and   w 
ml  whi< 


from 


i  the 


Xli.,      p.     -I   Ij.      <ll!ll     Is  OUglH 

Mor.          '          !iu.  or  terra  ja- 


-iis  to  water.     Another   substance    vvhu •!• 
used  of  late  years  is  a  kind  of  bonn-pod 

Till  sc     s!.|.st;inci  ,.>•     imliv  id    -a'ty   Or    itl 

In   the    • 

ning  Some 

tanin  ..i  hers  hot 

water  or  steam  ;    others  at. 

ploy  ooze,,  or  tanning  liquid,  which  has  been  exhausted  h\ 
use.      A  I'm  t  her  point  of  diffeiencc  is  found  in  ll 
of  the  d.   which 

the   i:1  -i  of  the   hides  v  itii 

laying  them  ilat  in  the  tan-pits,  they  are   : 
out  to  renew  the  solution  ;   and  the  skins 
near  the  top  of  one  pit   arc   laid  near  th- 
next,  so  as  to  equalize  the  amount  of  hvd: 
Sometimes   the   tannin;:   is  facilitated   In    snspendir 
skins   vertically   in  the    liquid,   by  which 
penetrated    quickly:     but    the   plan   rcqui:- 
room  :  and.  unless  the  skins  are  freip1- 

sious  injurious  folds  in  the  leather.      Another  plan,  which 
answers  well  for  small  light  skins,  that  require  i 
time  for  tanning,  is  to  sew  up  the  skin  into  t; 
a  bag,  to  fill  it  with  tan-liquor,  and  then  immerse  it  in 
the  pit.     The  great  space  required  is  the  principal   o! 
lion  to  this  plan.     In  whichever  of  the  above 
tanning    is    effected,   the  hide  is  subjected   to  the  "action 
of  solutions  increasing  PP  111  strength,  until  it 

is  so  perfectly  penetrated,  that  when  cut   i 
scuts  a  uniform  brown  colour:  any  appearance  of  n  light 
streak  in  the  middle  of  its  thickness  bemoan  indicati. 
imperfect  fanning.     When   the  process  is  complete,  the 
hides  are  hung  up  in  a  shed,  and  allowed  to  dry  slowly  : 
and.  while  they  are  (Irvine,  they  are  compressed  !>\ 
ing  or  rubbing,   or    lr.  them    between   rolfc 

irive-    them    firmness    and  \    vcl'ow  dcpe 

how    found    upon    the    Surface    of   the    leather,  to  which 
the  name  of  'bloom'  or  'pitching'  is  technic;.1 
and,  although    this    depos:'  .jucntly  n 

the  shoemaker  in  the  operation  of  buffi:: 
useless  a. 1.1,! ion    to  the   weight    and  cost  of    the   leather, 
the  prejudice  of  pun  quires  that    it    : 

the  si  the    tanner.     According  tu  the 

tion  of  the  '  Encyclopivdia   liritanniea.'  this  N 

.   the  finer  portion  of  tin  from  the  interior 

of  the   skill,   dissolved     by   the    • 

mains  upon  the  surface  by  capillary   attraction  :   and  the 
waste  and  deterioration  occasion!  .iidd 

be  prev ente  1  bv  the  careful  removal,  by  j  if  the 

exhausted  ooze. 

Although,  owing  to  the  many  differences  in  the  pra> 
of  tanning,  no  definite  time  can  be  stated  for  the  various 
operations  mentioned  above,  il   may  !  i  that   the 

uMial   period   required  for  tanning  such  h; 
for  tin  i.en's  boots  is  from  six  to  twelve  mouths, 

and  that  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  months  A  d  in 

.ng  those  of  the  thickest    kinds,  which   a 
•butts  It     rema:  noticing    the 

r.g    the    thinner    kin.  'her. 

to    advert    to    some    of    the    methods    which    h 
contrived   for    ell'ecting    a    greater    saving    of   time    than 
could  bo  accomplished  by  any  .  Men- 

tioned. 

Several  schemes  have  been  devised  for  fun-im;  a  tanning 
solution  tin.  hide  by  m 

;:iued  a  patent  in   Isj 

:ianner  :— The  hides, 
after    i  .  cleansed,  and  otlle. 

'  manner,  were  to  be  . 

to  sou:  dental  hole  being  then  sewed  Uj 

a.s  to  n  '  u-hl.     Three  frames  v 

prov  ided  of  similar  shape,  and  of  such  n  form  and  si/e  thai 
when  laid  upon  each  other,  with  two  I  .  i  between 

might  lie  screwed  to. 
ing  tin.  •  eting  ears,  so  that  tbi 

a    (hit  water-tight    chamber,  circumscribed    by  t!. 

•hen    placed    m    a  v(  rtical 

ii-liquor  was  introduced   '  r  or 

•en  the  hides   through  a    pipe    inserted    in   the 
.'.a me  :   the  air  being  allo  .'her 

pipe,  which  should  be 

came  filled  with  the  liqu:  -up- 

phed    fioni    an    i  required   degree  of 

hydrostatic  the  chamber; 


T  A  N 


39 


TAN 


the  effect  of  which  was  to  distend  or  swell  out  the  sides, 
and  to  force  the  liquid  through  the  pores  of  the  skins, 
it  making  its  appearance  OH  the  outer  sides  like  drops  of 
dew  or  perspiration.     When  the  leather  appeared  to  be 
sufficiently  tanned,  the  liquor  was  drawn  off  by  a  stop- 
cock, the  frames  were  unscrewed,  and   the   compressed 
edges  of  the  hide  were  cut  oft'.     Spilsbury's  process  was 
soon  abandoned ;  the  reason  of  its  failure  being,  aecord.- 
ing  to  the  author  before  quoted,  in  the '  Encyclopaedia  Bri- 
tannira,'  that  a  large  excess  of  tannin  dissolves  gelatin ;  so 
that  taunate  of  gelatin  was  found  on  the  outer  sides  of  the 
skins  in  the  form  of  long  masses  of  slime,  while  the  leather 
had  lost  much  in  weight,  was  very  porous,  and  unequally 
tanned,  in  consequence  of  the  tun-liquor  penetrating  most 
readily  the  thinnest  or  weakest  parts  of  the  hide.     The 
error  of  the  principle  of  this  method  not  being  generally 
understood,  several  similar  plans  were  subsequently  con- 
trived by  different  persons ;  but  these,  or  most  of  them, 
have  been  found  unsuccessful.     Of  these,  allusion  may  be 
made  to  the  process  patented  by  Mr.  Drake,  which  con- 
i  in  sewing  two  skins  together  (after  they  had  re- 
ceived a  slight  tanning  in  the  ordinary  way),  so  as  to  form 
a  watfr-tight  bag,  which  was  filled  with  tan-liquor.     The 
bag  thus  formed  was  compressed  between  two  vertical 
gridiron-like  frames  or  racks,  by  which  it  was  prevented 
from  bulging  at  the  sides,  and  the  liquor  was  confined  to  a 
thin  vertical  stratum.     As  in  the  last  process,  the  aqueous 
portion  of  the  tan-liquor  percolated  through  the  hides  ; 
and   this   penetration  of  the   leather  was   facilitated   by 
heating  the  room  so  as  to  promote  evaporation  from  the 
exterior  surfaces  of  the  bags  or  skins.    To  prevent  the 
bars  of  the  racks  or  frames  from  producing  permanent  in- 
dentations in  the  leather,  it  is  necessary  to  shift  the  bags 
a  little  occasionally  during  the  process.     In  another  some- 
what similar  plan,  contrived  by  Mr.  Cox,  the  hides  were 
to  be  sewed  up  in  the  form  of  bags,  and  supported  by  a 
casing  of  canvas  ;  and  in  the  process  of  Mr.  Chaplin,  the 
bags  were  laid  in  an  inclined  position,  and  turned  periodi- 
cally to  equalize  the  action  of  the  tan.     With  every  pre- 
caution however,  it  is  difficult  to  tan  a  hide  equally  by  any 
such  process  ;  and  the  objection  urged  against  Spilsbury's 
plan  applies  to  nil  the  modifications  of  it.     In  another 
plan,  which   has  been  tried  under  several  forms,  the  tan- 
ning liquid  is  applied  to  both  sides  of  the  hides,  which  are 
E  laced  in  an  air-tight  vessel,  and  is  forced  into  their  pores 
y  hydrostatic  pressure,  the  air  being  previously  pumped 
out.  The  operation  may  be  repeated  ;H  often  &s  in  d 
with  infu-ions  gradually  increasing  in  strength  ;  air  being 
allowed  to  fill  the  pores  of  the  hide  between  each  immer- 
sion.    Another  plan  which  may  be  alluded  to  here  is  that 
of  an  American  tanner,  Osmond  Cagswell,  described  by 
II  'bert  (Engi/i  \Ji'i-liiniir'x  i./i<-i/rl',],ffdin,^o\.\\., 

p.  04),  from  the 'Journal'  of  the  Franklin  Institute.  It 
consists  in  laying;  the  hides  upon  a  quantity  of  sawdust, 
contained  in  shallow  boxes,  of  which  any  required  number 
may  be  arranged  in  a  suitable  framework,  about  twelve 
inches  above  one  another.  The  hides  are  not  laid  fiat,  but 
have  their  edges  a  little  raised,  so  that  their  upper  surfaces 
form  shallow  troughs  capable  of  holding  a  layer  of  the 
tanning  solution,  which  must  be  replenished  from  time  to 
time  as  it  filters  through  the  hide  and  the  sawdust,  or 
other  soft,  porous  substance  upon  which  it  is  laid.  The 
spent  liquor  runs  off'  from  the  bottom  of  the  box  or  trough, 
which  is  somewhat  inclined  for  that  purpose,  into  :i 
or  channel  provided  for  it.  -The  improvement  consists, 
according  to  the  specification  quoted  by  Hrbert,  '  in  ap- 
plying a  solution  of  oak  or  other  bark  to  hides  or  skins  in 

i  manner  as  that  when  the  glutinous  (gelatinou 
tides  uf  the  hide  have  ab-nrheil  and  become  mixed  vutl 
the  tanning  or  astringent  principle,  the  other  part  of  tin 
solution  (i.e.  the  water)  may  pass  off,  and  leave  the  hidi 
free  to  receive  more  of  the  solution  ;  and  so  on  till  it  i*> 
tanned.'  The  operation  was  performed,  it  is  stated,  in  a 
very  short  time  ;  but  as  the  outer  parts  or  edges  of  tin 
hides  were  not  perfectly  tanned  by  it,  it  was  necessary  to 
immerse  them  in  vats  in  the  usual  manner  for  tnret 
or  four  weeks,  to  complete  the  process.  If  the  principle 
were  iound  to  be.  advantageous,  this,  which  forms  ; 
'  defect  in  Mr.  Cagswell's  scheme,  might  be  readily 
avoided. 

Still  more  recent  than  any  of  the  above-mentioned  plan 
.  Herepath  and  ( 'ox,  of  Bristol . 
which,  an  far  as  present  experience  can  show,  appears  to 


fleet  the  desired  object  very  completely.  Their  process, 
which  was  patented  November  16,  1837,  is  founded  upon 
he  principle  of  washing  a  sponge,  by  alternately  allowing 
t  to  imbibe  water,  and  then  forcibly  expressing  it.  In  the 
)ld  system  of  tanning,  the  hide  may  be  compared  to  a 
ponge,  which,  after  being  saturated  in  a  weak  solution,  is 
emoved  to  a  stronger,  without  the  fluid  contained  in  its 
>ores  being  squeezed  out ;  while  in  the  new  plan  the  weak 
illusion,  or  ooze,  is  forced  out  of  the  pores  of  the  hide  be- 
bre  it  is  subjected  to  a  stronger,  so  that  the  fresh  ooze 
may  be  able  to  act  more  efficiently.  This  is  effected  by 
connecting  a  number  of  hides  together  by  strings,  so  as  to 
'brm  a  continuous  belt,  and  passing  them  between  rollers 
.urned  by  steam  or  other  power,  while  they  are  being  re- 
moved from  one  solution  to  another.  In  order  to  produce 
a  tolerably  uniform  belt  or  continuous  sheet  of  hides,  they 
are  either  placed  alternately  head  to  head  and  tail  to  tail ; 
or,  if  laid  across  the  belt,  with  the  heads  and  tails  towards 
each  side  alternately.  In  one  of  the  arrangements  de- 
scribed in  the  specification,  the  hides  are  united  into  an 
endless  band,  and  are  always  passed  between  the  rollers 
of  which  a  pair  is  erected  over  each  pit)  in  one  direction  ; 
Kit  in  another  plan  the  ends  of  the  belt  are  not  connected 
:ogether,  and  the  motion  of  the  rollers  is  reversed  when 
necessary,  so  that  the  belt  of  hides  may  be  delivered  into 
.he  tan-liquor  alternately  on  each  side  of  the  apparatus. 
The  latter  arrangement  is  that  described  in  the  recently 
published  article  in  the  '  Encyclopaedia  Britaunica,'  from 
ffhich  the  following  details  are  derived.  The  lower  roller 
s  about  thirty  inches  in  diameter,  and  is  covered  with 
Horsehair  cloth  ;  and  the  upper  roller,  which  is  pressed 
igainst  the  lower  one  with  any  determinate  degree  of  force 
by  means  of  weighted  levers,  is  only  about  eighteen  inches 
in  diameter,  and  is  covered  with  woollen  cloth.  By  this 
process  a  strong  hide  may,  it  is  stated,  be  tanned  through 
in  from  one  to  two  months,  and  calf-skins  and  hips  (the 
hides  of  young  cattle)  in  from  twenty  to  thirty  days. 
Double  the  usual  quantity  of  work  is  performed  ;  one-half 
of  the  capital  required  in  the  common  process  is  rendered 
unnecessary  ;  the  saving  on  bark,  labour,  and  general  cost 
of  manufacture  is  about  1J'/.  per  Ib. ;  and  the  increase  in 
the  weight  of  butt  leather,  as  compared  with  that  made  in 
the  usual  way,  is  as  34  Ibs.  to  28  Ibs.  The  very  thick  hides, 
known  as  '  butts,'  when  prepared  by  the  patent  process, 
are  sent  to  market  within  four  months  from  the  time  of 
their  delivery  in  the  tanner's  yard  ;  and  the  profits  arising 
from  quick  returns,  great  weight  of  leather  produced,  and 
reduced  cost  of  production,  are  stated  to  be  eight  times  as 
great  as  upon  the  old  plan,  the  prices  of  hides,  bark,  and 
leather  being  the  same.  It  should  be  further  observed  that 
the  leather  made  in  this  way  is  more  elastic  and  imper- 
vious to  water  than  any  other. 

Although  the  general  principles  involved  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  all  kinds  of  leather  are  the  same,  and  some  of 
the  processes  above  described  are  performed  with  little 
variation  upon  the  skins  of  smaller  animals  as  well  as  upon 
the  thick  hides  of  various  kinds  of  oxen,  the  precise  course 
of  operations  requires  many  modifications  which  cannot 
be  here  described.  Of  the  preparation  of  several  of  the 
lighter  and  more  ornamental  kinds  of  leather,  a  familiar 
account  is  given  in  No.  652  of  the  '  Penny  Magazine.' 
which  is  devoted  to  a  sketch  of  the  processes  followed  at 
one  of  the  great  leather-manufactories  of  Bermondsey. 
\Ve  have-  hitherto  alluded  chiefly  to  the  preparation  of  the 
thick  hides  used  for  sole-leather,  among  which  several 
varieties  may  be  found,  each  distinguished  by  a  different 
technical  name,  by  which  its  thickness,  quality,  or  mode 
of  preparation  is  known ;  but  the  thinnest  and  weakest, 
hides,  as  well  as  the  skins  of  calves  and  other  animals,  are 
aUo  prepared  for  use  as  upper-leathers,  in  which  case  it  is 
itary  to  reduce  their  thickness  by  shaving  or  paring 
them  down  upon  the  flesh  or  inner  side,  before  they  are 
subjected  to  the  action  of  the  tanning  infusions.  Such 
hides  or  skins  also  require,  after  leaving  the  hands  of  the 
tanner,  to  be  nibbed,  softened,  and  dressed  by  the  currier, 
in  order  to  bring  them  to  the  necessary  degree  of  flexibility 
and  smoothness.  The  currier  also  has  recourse  to  shaving 
or  paring  with  a  peculiarly  formed  knife,  to  bring  the  skin 
to  the  requisite  tenuity;  and  it  is  his  office  to  blacken 
tin-  surface,  which,  for  common  shoe-leather,  is  done  on 
the  flesh  side,  although  for  some  purposes  leather  is 
blackened  upon  the  outer  or  grain  side.  Horse-hides, 
which  are  comparatively  weak  and  thin,  are  sometime* 


TAN 


40 


TAN 


dressed  in  the  latter  way,  under  the  name  oi  cnnloeat 
hides,  from  tin-  circumstance  of  such  leather  having  been 
form.  -  •  -\ins  Mipph 

the  tjuality  of   leather  most    generally   preferred    for   tin 

i  )>art  of  IxHita  and  shoes. 

Of  the  thin  -km*  prepared  fur  ornamental  purpose* 
many  are  tanned  with  a  substance  ealled  sumach,  i>reparc< 
from  a  plant  of  the  same  name.  [Km-s.vol.  xix..  p.484/ 
At  the  establishment  aho\  c  referreil  to,  which  is  common!) 
known  as  the  Neckingci  Mills,  sumach  leather  is  exteiisiv  clx 
prepared:  the  most  important  kind  beinir  that  callcc 
DCOO,'  which  iMiiade  from  goat-skins.  In  the  routini 
•ed  ill  the  paper  from  which  wo  quote, 
thi-  pruees-.es  of  cleansing  the  skins  from  fleshy  impurities 
and  removing  the  hair.  Jce.,  present  no  material  \ariation 
i  those  before  described.  During  these  processes,  tin 
lime  employed  to  assist  in  the  depilation  enters  the  pores 
of  the  skin  so  completely,  that  it  would  impede  the  action 
of  the  tanning  liquid  if  allowed  to  remain.  It  is  there- 
fore removed  by  immersion  in  an  alkaline  solution,  which 
opens  the  pores  in  a  way  resembling  the  pro, 
'  raisin;:.'  described  in  a  previous  column.  The  tanning 
is  then  performed  by  sewing  up  each  skin  into  the  form  ol 
a  bag.  with  the  grain  or  hair-side  outwards,  and  nearly 
filling  it  with  :•.  iution  of  sumach  in  water.  The 

bag  is  then  fully  distended  by  blowing  into  it,  and  the 
aperture  is  tied  up:  after  which  it  is  thrown  into  a  large 
shallow  vessel  filled  with  hot  water  containing  a  little 
sumach.  The  distended  bags  float  in  this  vessel,  and  are 
ionally  moved  about  with  a  wooden  instrument, 
until  the  solution  which  they  contain  has  thoroughly  pene- 
trated their  substance.  Owing  to  the  thinness  of  the 
skins  and  the  heat  to  which  they  are  exposed,  this  opera- 
lion  is  performed  in  a  few  hours.  The  process  is  expe- 
dited by  taking  the  bags  out  of  the  solution  and  piling 
them  upon  a  perforated  bench  or  rack  at  the  side  of  the 
tub,  so  that  their  own  weight  may  force  the  confined 
liquid  through  the  pores.  \Vhen  the  tanning  is  completed, 
the  bags  are  opened  to  remove  the  sediment  of  the  su- 
mach ;  the  skins  are  washed,  rubbed  on  a  board,  and  dried  ; 
after  which  they  are  ready  for  dyeing  and  finishing  with  a 
ridged  instrument,  which  imparts  to  the  surface  that  pe- 
culiar grain  by  which  morocco  leather  is  distinguished. 
An  inferior  kind  of  leather,  known  as  '  imitation  morocco,' 
is  prepared  in  a  similar  manner  from  sheep-skins.  The 
wool  is  removed  from  these  skins  by  the  fellmonger; 
after  which  they  are  subjected  to  great  pressure  in  a  hy- 
drostatic press,  in  order  to  remove  the  oleaginous  or  greasy 
matter  which  they  contain  in  a  much  larger  quantity  than 
goat-skins.  Surprising  as  it  may  appear,  these,  as  well  as 
larger  and  thicker  skins,  are  often  divided  or  split  by  a 
machine  into  two  thicknesses,  each  of  which  maybe  made 
into  leather  suitable  for  some  of  the  purposes  to  which  it 
is  applied,  as  the  covering  or  lining  of  books,  work-boxes, 
hats,  .K:c. 

'/'•nririg  is  the  name  applied  to  the  process  by  which 
the  skins  of  sheep,  lambs,  and  kid.s  are  converted  into  soft 
leather  by  the  action  of  alum.  Of  this  kind  of  leather 
gloves  are  usually  made.  Skins  intended  for  tawing  pass 
through  a  series  of  operations  resembling  those  by  which 
.skins  are  prepared  for  tanning,  but  they  are  then  subjected 
to  a  solution  of  alum  and  salt,  to  which,  for  the  superior 
kinds  of  leather,  flour  and  yolks  of  eggs  are  added,  instead 
of  a  vegetable  astringent  solution.  Sometimes  the  skins 
are  put  into  a  kind  of  barrel  with  the  solution,  and  then 
the  whole  is  made  to  rotate  lapidly,  by  which  the  skins  are 
quickly  penetrated  :  and  in  other  cases  the  impregnation 
is  effected  in  an  open  tub,  the  skins  being  worked  in  the 
pasty  liquid  with  the  hands,  or  trampled  upon  by  Hie 
naked  feel  of  a  man.  until  the  emulsion  is  thoroughly  in- 
corporated with  them.  They  subsequently  require  :i 
deal  of  stretching  and  nibbing  over  a  kina  of  blunt  . 
knife,  and  some  oilier  finishing  operations,  to  give  them 
the  requisite  smoothness  and  suppleness.  Many  of  the 
gloves  sold  ax  kid  are  really  made  of  lamb-skins,  of  which 
considerable  numbers  are  imported  from  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean.  These  are  brought  with  the  wool  on; 
and,  as  it  would  l>c  injured  ti\  tlie  action  of  lime,  it  is 
loosened  by  inducing  fermentation  or  incipient  putielar- 
lion  in  subterranean  vaults  or  cellars  ;  an  Operation  which 
require*  great  nicely,  since  the  pelt  would  be  injured  by 
allowing  the  fvrmentation  to  proceed  too  far.  After  the  ! 
wool  luw  been  removed,  and  the  skins  have  been  btraped  ] 


to  free  them  from  a  slimy  substance  which   i  \udus  from 
the   pores,  the  |  -,-d  in  lime-watc 

nove  the   grea.se  which   \.  in  them. 

The  subsequent  operations  of  r<  •,  ing. 

&c.,  are  similar  to  those   required    for  other   skins.      In 
tawing    sheep-skins  with   the   wool  on.    |,,  ,   and 

similar  articles,  the  wool  side  is  carefully  folded  in 
to  protect  it  from  the  tawing  liquid   or  paste,  wlr 
then  applied  to  the  flesh  side  only.     Other  skii: 
sionally  converted   into    leather  "without     rein. 
wool  or  hair. 

The  only  other  kind  of  leather  to  be  here  noticed  is  that 
in  which  oil   or  i  , ced  into  the  pores  ol'  the 

to  take  the  place  of  the  animal  matter,  which  would  tend 
to  its  decomposition  by  putrefaction.    This  kind 

:ts  name    from  a'tine  soil    leather  prepared  from  the 
skin  of  the  chamois  goat  :  and  the  procc-s  bV  which 
made  is  called  shamo\iug  or  shannnying.     Such  leather 
was   formerly  very  much   used   a-  an  "aid  liing, 

especially  by  soldiers;  and  it  is  still  applied    ' 
useful    purposes,   for  which    its  pecuh  and   plia- 

bility  renders   it  valuable.      Wash-leather  may  i 
a  common  example  of  this  kind  of  pn 

of  deer,    goats,    sheep.  Jic.    are   dressed    in   this  way:   and 
much  shamovcd  leather  is  made  from  the  infen. 
regular  portion  of  split  skins,  in  cases  whci, 

en  taken  oft'  carefully  of  a  uniform  thicku 
partition  in  a  different  way!     In  general,  when  wlrole  skii^ 
are  shamoyed,  the  grain  surface  is  icmovc.i 
rubbing  with  pumice-stone.      Alter  the  usiiaf  preparation 
with  lime-water,  and  subsequent  washing  in  a  sour  im 
of  bran  or  some  similar  liquor,   to  remove  the  hmc  and 
open   the  ]Kires.    the  skins   are  made    as  di  .  le  by 

wringing  or  pressing  them.  and.  in  the  pi-oce-s  prr. 
at  the  Ncckingcr  Mills,  are  then  exposed  to  the  action  of 
fulling-stocks,  which  consist  of  hea\y  wooden  ham; 
faced  with  copper,  and  set  in  motion  by  connection  with  a 
revolving  shaft.     A  wheel  revolves  near  the  head  of  each 
hammer,  of  which  two  are  mounted  together  in  one  li. 
work  ;  and  this  wheel  is  made,  during  its  revolution,  alter- 
nately to  raise  the  hammer  about  a  foot,  and  to  let  r 
into   a  trough  fitted   to  receive   its  head.     The   lca:lu-r.  or 
rather  a  roll  of  the  skins  which  are  tobe  made  into  leather, 
is  placed  in  this  trough,  and  beaten  by  the  hammers  until 
f  is  perfectly  dry.     Cod-oil  is  then  poured  upon  the  skins, 
and  forced  into  their  pores  by  the  action  of  tfie  hammers 
>r  stocks  :  the  form  of  the  trough  being  such  that  the  skins 
gradually  turn  themselves  over  and  over  during  the  opera- 
tion, to  render  the  heating  uniform.     When  the  oil  is  tho- 
roughly beaten  in,  the  skins   are    hung  up  to   (ivy,  after 
which   they  are  returned  to  the  trough  to  receive  'a 
supply  of  oil  and  a  repetition  of  the  beating.     Ti 
repeated  eight  or  nine  times,  until  two  or  three  gallons  of 
oil  have  been  imbibed  by  one  hundred  skin.-  :    and  when 
hc\  are  sufficiently  impregnated   with  it,  they  are  placed 
n  large  tubs,  or  bung   up   in  e  1  chambci 

which  they  undergo  a  kind  of  fermentation,  by  which  the 
wres  are  distended,  and  the  action  of  the  oil  upon  the 
ibres  is  completed  :  and  finally  they  are  imnie.sed  in  a 
weak  solution  of  potash,  which  removes  whatever  CM  - 
)il  may  have  remained  in  the  leather,  forming  with  it  a 
saponaceous  mixture.  They  are  then  hung  up  in  the  open 
lir  to  dry. 

(Dr.  Ore's  l)i<  ti<uinry  of  Arts,  &c.,  art.  'Leather;'  EII- 
!/,•/:, ;,<fi/id  UriliiMiiii-ii,  seventh  edit.,  art.  'Tanning;' 
lebei1'  ..'j'r'.v  Kiicyrlojiffiliti,  art. 

J.cat  iii  M:i^i:;inr,  No.  (i.VJ. 

TAXSI'I.1.0.  i.riCI.  born  of  a  noble  family  at  \,,la. 
n  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  about  the  year  1.11(1.  w:ote  in 

.!h  a  licentious  poem,  entitled  'II  VendemniKi' 

>r  '  the  Vintager.'  wherein  he  deals  largely  in  the  obscene 

ml  scurrilities  in  which  the  peasantry  of  his  country 

ing   the  vintage    season,   something   after  the 

nanner  of  the  antient  Saturnalia.     This  poem,  which  the 

intbor  did  not  intend  for  the  press,  wits  published  by  some 

riend  through  an  abuse  of  confidence.      In  older  to  make 

mends. Tansillo  wrote  a  pious  poem,  entitled  •  I.e  I.agrime 

i  San  1'ietro.'  of  which  a  part  oulj  was   published  I, cfi.ro 

1th.     A  more  complete  edition  of  it  was  published 

n  llXMi.      Malherbe  mad.'  a  translation,  or  rather  wrote  an 

imitation  ol  I  '  Lea  Larmes  de  St.  itcVs 

dn  Tansillr.   an    Km    Henri  III..'    1.1S7.      Tansillo   re, i. led 

chiefly  at  Naples,  at  the  court  of  the  Spanish  viceroy 


TAN 


Don  Pedro  de  Toledo  and  his  son  Don  Garcia.  He  accom- 
panied the  viceroy  in  an  expedition  against  the  Barbary 
powers.  He  died  about  1584.  He  wrote  also  a  georgical 
poem,  entitled  '  II  Podere,'  and  another  didactic  poem, 
entitled  '  La  Balia,'  besides  sonnets,  canzoni,  and  other 
lyric  poems,  in  which  he  has  displayed  great  poetical 
powers.  Pie  has  been  compared  by  some  with  Petrarca. 
A  complete  edition  of  Tansillo's  works  was  published  at 
Venice  in  1738,  in  4to.  (Tiraboschi,  Storia  della  Lettera- 
t  a  ni  llnli/ina;  Corniani,  Secoli  delta  Letteratura  Italiana.) 

TANSY.     [TANACETUM.] 

TANTA'LID/K,  a  family  of  Wading  Birds.     [GRALLA- 

TORES.] 

The   genus  Tantalus  of  Linnaeus  stands  between   the 
genera  Arden  'and  tjaifnpa.r,  in  the  twelfth  edition  of  the 


Cuvier  places  the  genus  Tantalum  between  the  Open- 
beaks  (Hiutis,  Lacep_.  :  Anastomiw,  111.)  and  the  Spoonbills 
•  I'/ntntmi.  Linn.).  He  characterizes  the  genus  as  having 
the  feet,  the  nostrils,  and  the  bill  of  a  stork;  but  the  back 
of  the  bill  is,  he  observes,  rounded,  and  its  point  curved 
downwards  and  slightly  notched  on  each  side  :  a  portion  of 
the  head,  and  sometimes  of  the  neck,  is,  he  adds,  de- 
nuded of  feathers.  He  notices  the  following  species:  the 
American  Tantalus.  Taiitnlux  loculator,  Linn.  ;  the  Afri- 
can Tantalus,  Tmitalux  Ibis,  Linn.  ;  and  the  Ceylonese 
Ibis.  Tiiiitiiliin  li-nriiri')ili<iln*<  the  largest  of  all. 

Of  T'liilnlii-i  lltix.  lie  remarks  that  it  is  white  slightly 
clouded  with  purple  on  the  wings,  with  a  yellow  beak,  and 
the  skin  of  the  fare  naked  and  red,  adding  that  it  was  for 
a  lung  time  regarded  by  naturalists  as  the  bird  so  much 
revered  by  the  antient  Egyptians  under  the  name  of  //;/*•, 
but  that,  recent  researches  had  proved  that  the  Ibis  is  a 
much  smaller  species,  of  which  he  intends  to  treat  there- 
after. This  species,  lie  states,  is  not  commonly  found  in 
Eirypt,  but  that  it  had  been  brought  from  Senegal.  Tan- 
tnlii.i  he  arranges  in  the  family  f'tit/irnxtrt'*. 

ffiix,  Cuv.,  finds  a  place  in  the  Rcgin'  Animal.  as  the  se- 
cond genus  of  Cu\ier's  LotlgifWtFet,  between  Scolopax 
and  yiiuviniix,  Cuv. 


II>U  rtiliyioi-i,  Cuv. — Adult. 

Cir.  'hut    In1  has  separated  the  Ibises  from  the 

Tuiiliili  oi   Gmelin,  because  their  bill,  arched  like  that  of 
the  Tuiiliili,  is  ne\ertlieless   much   more  feeble,   and  with- 
out any  notch  at  the  point,  whilst  the  nostrils,  pierced  to- 
the  back  of  its  base,  are  each  prolonged  into  a  furrow 
i   continues  to  the  tip.     The  bill,  he  adds,  is  rather 
thick,  and   nearly  square  at    its  base:  there  is  always,  he 
further  remarks,    some    part  (if  the  head,  or  even  of  the 
neck,  denuded  of  i'enilier~.     The  external  toes  are  notably 
palmated  ni  then  bue,  and  (tie  hind  toe  is  sufficiently  long 
to  toucli  the  earth.    Some  of  the  species,  he  observes,  have 
P,  I'.,  No.  1 4!K». 


41  TAN 

the  legs  short  and  reticulated:  these  are  the  most  robust, 
and  have  the  largest  bill. 

Of  this  genus  Cuvier  notices  the  following  species: — 

L'Ibis  sacrc  (Ibis  religiosa,  Cuv. ;  Abou-Hannes,  Bruce, 
pi.  35;  Tantalus  Mthiopicus,  Lath.).  For  the  adult  of 
this  species  he  refers  to  Ossemens  Fossiles,  torn,  i.,  pi.  1 
and  2  (skeleton  and  perfect  bird) ;  and  for  the  young  to 
Savigny,  Descrip.  de  I'Egypte,  Hist.  Nat.  des  Ois.,  pi.  7. 

'  This,'  says  Cuvier,  '  is  the  most  celebrated  species :  it 
was  reared  in  the  temples  of  antient  Egypt,  with  venera- 
tion which  approached  to  worship ;  and  it  was  embalmed 
after  its  death,  as  some  said,  because  it  devoured  the  ser- 
pents which  would  otherwise  have  become  dangerous  to 
the  country:— according  to  others,  because  there  was  a 
resemblance  between  its  plumage  and  some  of  the  phases 
of  the  moon :  finally,  according  to  other  some,  because  its 
advent  announced  the  rising  of  the  Nile.  For  a  long  time 
it  was  thought  that  this  Ibis  of  the  Egyptians  was  the  Tan- 
talus of  Africa :  we  now  know  that  it  belongs  to  the  genus 
of  which  we  are  treating.  It  is  as  large  as  a  hen,  with 
white  plumage,  except  the  end  of  the  wing-feathers,  which 
is  black ;  the  last  coverts  have  their  barbs  elongated,  loose, 
black,  with  violet  reflections,  and  thus  covering  the  end 
of  the  wings  and  tail.  The  bill  and  the  feet  are  black,  as 
well  as  all  the  naked  part  of  the  head  and  neck :  this  part 
is  covered  in  youth,  at  least  on  its  upper  surface,  with 
small  blackish  feathers.  The  species  is  found  throughout 
the  extent  of  Africa.'  [ABOU-HANNES.] 

The  other  species  noticed  by  Cuvier  are — L'Ibis  rouge 
(Scolopax  ruber,  Linn. ;  Tantalus  ruber,  Gra.)  and  L'Ibis 
vert,  vulg.  Courtis  vert  (Scolopax  falcineUus,  Linn.). 
iRcgHf  Animal.) 

The  following  is  the  description  of  L'Ibis  vert  (Ibisfal- 
cinellus): — Purpled  chestnut,  with  deep  green  mantle. 
The  young  with  the  head  and  neck  sprinkled  with  whitish. 
Locality,  South  of  Europe  and  North  of  Africa.  (Regne 
Animal.} 

This,  Cuvier  observes,  is  to  all  appearance  the  species 
which  the  antients  called  the  Black  Ibis.  [ABOU-HANNES, 
vol.  i.,  p.  38.] 

The  views  of  Mr.  Vigors  with  regard  to  the  position  of 
Tantalus  will  be  found  in  the  article  HERONS,  vol.  xii., 
p.  1G5. 

Mr.  Swainson  states  that  the  Tantalidee,  or  Ibises,  are 
large  and  very  singular  birds,  living  almost  entirely  on  the 
swampy  banks  of  rivers  and  fresh  waters,  rarely,  if  ever 
frequenting  open  shores,  like  the  more  typical  waders. 
He  observes  that  their  habits  and  structure  seem  com- 
pounded of  those  belonging  to  the  HERONS  on  one  side 
and  to  the  Rails  [RALLID.E]  on  the  other :  their  flight  and 
size,  he  says,  remind  us  of  the  former,  while  their  long  toes 
and  insectivorous  nature  are  more  in  unison  with  the  latter. 
He  traces  their  analogy  to  the  Tenuirostres  in  the  metallic. 
colours  of  their  plumage  and  in  their  having  their  heads 
frequently  bare  of  feathers,  as  in  the  Ampelidec  and  other 
tenuirostral  types.  The  majority,  he  remarks,  live  in  tro- 
pical latitudes. 

In  the  Synopsis  the  following  characters  of  the  family 
(which  is  placed  between  the  Ardeidce  and  BalKdce)  are 
given :  — 

Tantalidee. 

Family  diameter. — Size  large.     Bill  hard,  considerably 
lengthened,  cylindrical,  and  curved  from  the  base.     Face 
and  head  more  or  less  naked.     Hinder  toe  on  the  same 
plane  as  the  others.     Plumage  metallic. 
Genera. 

Anastomus,  111.  Open  beak.  Bill  straight,  hard,  heavy, 
solid,  compressed,  marked  with  longitudinal  wrinkles. 
Upper  mandible  very  straight ;  the  base  thickened  at  the 
top  and  as  high  as  the  crown  ;  the  tip  notched ;  the  mar- 
gin dentated :  under  mandible  greatly  curved  upwards, 
and  only  touching  the  upper  at  the  base  and  at  the  tip. 

Example,  Anastomus  lamelligerus. 

T't/i/uttis,  Linn.  Bill  nearly  as  thick  at  the  base  as  the 
head  ;  cylindrical  and  attenuated  towards  the  tips,  which 
are  slender  and  slightly  bent:  margins  entire.  Upper 
mandible  notched.  Nostrils  naked,  vertical,  basal,  oval- 
oblong.  Toes  connected  at  the  base. 

Example,  Tantalus  loculator.  , 

Ibis,  Antiq.  Bill  much  more  slender ;  cylindrical,  and 
arched  from  the  base.  Nostrils  basal,  lateral.  Wings 
broad,  ample  :  the  second  and  third  quills  longest. 

Example,  Itn't  rnlifi-. 

VOL.  XXIV.-G 


I  \ 


I.' 


I'   A   I' 


.trumiu,   Vieill.     Bill   lengthened,  slightly  curved   to- 
wards tin-  ]x>int,  which   is  entire  and    indexed.      I'nder 
mandible  cunt-d   from  about  the   middle  and  angulalcd. 
Furrow  of  the  MMbik  long.    Nostril*  lateral,  remot 
the  base,  longitudinal.    Feet  long.    Hnllux  elevated.    An- 
terior toes  divided   ;it   their  ha>e.     Wings  moderate  ;    the 
two  fir>t  i|\iill>  shorter  than  tin-  third,  which  is  the  I 
America. 

.    .IniMM     tcolofxicitit.       (("  >n    of 

(  'anino  places  tlii'  Tniiliilidir  between  the 
:iges  uiidt'r  tlu>  former 
and    lbi».     (Bird*   qf  I. 

Mr.  G.  H.  Gray  makes  the  Tuntnliiur  the  fifth  an-: 
subfamily  at  \he  Ardeidte,  placing  it  next  to  the  Cicuniiur, 
and  arranging  under  it  the  following  genera:  — 

I.  inn.     Ibit,  Moehr.    ii--n>Hticitx.  Waul-    Cer- 
',  \Vagl.     Phimottu, 


. 

l'/i/rinf/li(s,  (Ray)Bectut.  Vieill. 

Mr.  '  -  the  synonyms  of  all  these  genera.     (Lift 

.;/•//  .'Mir  edit.) 

Wi    I  .  illustrate  the  Ibivs  nt'  Ainenea  In,  Xut- 

tall's  description  of  the  Scurlrt  I/JIK,  I/iis  riibnt  of  Yieillot, 
Taiit/iliis  riibrr  of  Linnaui  -shy. 

This  specii  s  is  ±i  inches  in  length  and  ;•  ex- 

tent.    Bill  5  inches  long,  thick,  and  u!'  a  somewhat  square 
form  at  the  base,  gradually  bent   downwards  and  .sharply 
ridged  ;    black,  except  near  the  base,  \\here  it  inclines  to 
red.     Iris  dark-hazel.     The  face  naked,  slightly  wrinkled. 
pale.  -red.     Chin  bare,  wrinkled  also.    Pliimagc'iich,  glow- 
i>t  about  three  inches  of  the  extremities  of 
the   four  outer  (mill-feathers,  which  are  deep  steel-blue. 
pale  red  ;  the  three  anterior  toes  united  by  a  mem- 
brane as  far  as  the  first  joint.      N'uttall.  i 

•This  brilliant  and  exclusively  American  .species,  in- 
habits chiefly,'  says  Xuttall.  •  within  the  tropics,  abound- 
ing in  the  West  India  and  Bahama  Islands,  and  south  of 
the  equator,  at  least  as  far  as  Brazil.    They  migrate  in  the 
course   of   the   summer   (about  July   and    August     into 
Florida,  Alabama,  Georgia,  and  South  (  'arolina  ;  but  retire 
into  Mexico,  or  the  Caribbean  Islands,  at  the  approach  of 
cool  weather.     They  .generally  associate  in  numhc: 
(mcnting  the  borders  of  the  sea,  and  the  banks  ami 
aries  of  neighbouring  rivers,  feeding  on  small  fry,  shell- 
li«h.   crustacca,  worms,  and  insects,  which  they  col! 
the  ebbing  of  the  tide.     The)  are  said  to  be  in  the  habit 
of  perching  on  trees  in  companies  ;  but  they  lay  their  eggs, 
which  are  greenish,  on  the  ground,  amidst  the  tall  giass 
of  the  marshes,  on  a  slight,  iii'-t   of  leave.--.     When  just 
hatched,  the  young  are  black,  soon  changing  to  grey,  but 
are  nearly  white  before  they  arc  able  to  fly  : 
they  attain  their  red  plumage,  which  is  not  complete  until 
the  third  year.     The  young  and  old  associate  in  distinct 
bands.      In   the  countries   where  they  abound,   they   are 
sometimes   domesticated,    and    accompany    the    poultry. 
The  Ibis  shows  great  courage  in  attacking  tie 
will  even  defend  itself  from  the  insidious  attacks  of  the 
cat.     It   is  generally  esteemed  as  good  food  ;    and  r 
and  gaudy  plumage  is  used  by  the  Brazilians  for  various 
iirnam  ithology  ff  the  I'nilnl 

Slut'*  unit  nf  C'lnnitti.) 

TANTALITE.     [COLUMBIUM.] 

PANT  ALUM. 

TVNTAI.rS.      Ornithology.)     [TANTALio.K.l 

sYSI'l'TKKA.     [KINGFISHERS,  vol.  xiii..  p.  212.] 
I  MMMI'N'A. 
TAOS.     [Mi  . 
TAT  ROOT, 

TAl'A.IOS.      [l!:vm..1 

'•KM.     [KN,W.<-A.] 

TAl'KSTKY    French.  Tiifii^i'rii-  :  Italian.  71  •/  , 
Thin  name  is  most  commonly  applied  to  the  textile  fabrics. 
u.siially  composed  of  wool  or  silk,  and  sometimes  enriched 
with  gold  and  -  embroidered  with  1 

landscapes,  or  ornamental  devices,  it  ml  used  as  a  In 
covering  for  the  walls  of  apartment-       l!  i-  derived  from 
the    French   '  tnpis."  which  is  fiom   the  I.alin  'tap 
'  tape  I.:.  tin    won'  -me    as    (In- 

r   '  lapis'  'raTrijc,  rajrtj).  'ii   and 

^'nificU  u  carpet   or  covering  for  a  bed   or 
i  •  tapi«."  though  uencrally  applietl  to 
carpets,  is  also  used  to  evpn  In  used 


a>  .,,  \erings,  cueh  us   tile 

most   probably,  we   base  the  common  expre^-ion  'on  the 

tapis,'  us  applied  to  subjects  under  ' 

•  n.      Of  the  use    of  the  wmd    1 
extend  I  here   is  an   in-1 

inedy  of  Krror-,'  act  iv..  BC.   1.  where  Antijiluilu- 

ills  to  Adrmmi,  informing  her  that 

•Inllr 

Th«i'.  eorcnd  o'er  with  Turkish  Ur«lry, 
Tbero  a  •  purar*  of  ilue»i»,'  &r. 

.lohnson,    who    eile>   this   passage,    gives    also    one    from 
Dryden.  in  which  taji.  d  in  the  -eu-r  of  cai 


'  Thp  catrrai-nt«  mrc  with  jfolilrn  \imne  « 
\od  hor.,V  boob,  fur«irili,  on  nlkrn  U|x»it)'  f**d.' 

In  this  more  geneial  sense  the  term  is  used  bv  M. 
Achille  Jnbinal,  in  his  recently  published 

•  Kccherehes   siir  l'l:snge    el    I'Oiigii" 
which  he  extends  his  inijuiiy  to  worked  01 
tapi.-serics  a  ym  1  I'm  inanv  other  purpOM 

the  covering  of  warn.    To  this  work  we  are  ii.i 
much  of  the  following  information  respecting  the  1>. 
of  ta]^. 

The  early  historv  of  the  art  of  producing  figured  fabrics 
bv  the  loom  nun  be  more  convenient!)  ircn'.i-d  of  under 
WBAVI^O  than  in  this  place:  and  it  may  i 
to  observe,  that  although  the  loom  \\:i 

!  times  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans    for  the  produc- 
tion of  ordinary  ti  roes,  its  application  to  the  v\va\ 
ornamented  or  figured   fabric  swas  chiefly  Oriental. 
probable   also   that  many  of  the  early  tape.-tries  wi  ; 
broidered    by   hand    or  'worked    with    the   needle.      This 
kind  of  work,  of  which  the  Dayeux   tapcstiy   is  a   ccle- 

eontinued   long  alter  the  prae' 

weaving  tapestry  ill  the  loom  had  become  common.  The 
ornamented  curtains  of  the  .Jewish  tabernacle. 
in  the  twenty-sixth,  thirty-fifth,  and  thirty-sixth  chapters 
of  Exodus,  are  generally  considered  to  have  been  embroi- 
dered by  the  needle.  Jubinal  supposes  that  they  were 
worked  with  a  needle  in  thread  of  silk.  gold,  or  wool,  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  imitate  the  brilliancy  of  the  plumage 
of  birds;  but  be  conceives  thai  the  vail  of  the  Holy  nf 
Holies,  which  is  described  in  the  Knglish  translation  of  the 
Bible  as  of  •cunning  •  .  \x\i.  Ill:  andxxxvi. 

1C)  .  and  which  was  ornamented  with  cherubim,  was  pio- 
(luced  by  the  skill  of  the  weaver,  -that  il  to  say.  executed 
by  the  shuttle  with  woofs  of  various  colours,  and  in  v 
st'ntf.' 

The  Jews  are  supposed  to  have  derived  their  skill  in 
embroider)-  and  other  ornamental  work  of  similar  cha- 
racter from  the  Kgyptians,  who  produced  figured  cloths 
both  by  the  needle  and  the  loom,  and  practised  the  art  of 
introducing  gold  thread  or  wire  into  .  \Vilkin- 

son  observes     1;  ;  ('nxtumx  nfthe  .  \nln-nt  i 

vol.  iii..  p.  liN  .  •  Many  of  the  Egyptian  stud's  pre- 
sented   various    patte  >  the   loom. 

independent  of  those   produced  by  the  dyeing  or  printing 
process,  an  ,  '.led  with  cloths 

embroidered  by  the  needle'     .lubinal   ipi,  •  il  an- 

tient    autbiv  '  i    figured   tissues   as  made   and 

u~ed    !  ,d   other  nations   of  antiquity. 

Babylonians  to  rcpn-ent  the 
mysti-  and   to   perpetuate   histo 

PhilostratU  lonius  of  Tyaua.  mentions 

Babylonian  ^ineiited   witli   siiver   anil   gold. 

.  eeks  ]irai  irl  of  embroidering  figures  upon 

cloth,  and   attributed    it.s    invention   toMinciva.      I: 
alludes,  in  several   pa-^nge-i  of  the  '  Iliad'  and  •  Oil;. 
to  embroidered  stutl's  o!   the  character  designated   by  .lu- 
binal 'tapisseiies  a  ymaiges.'  among  which  he  com 
even  some  artici.  Without  attemptiiu 

the  investigation  of  this  subject  mil,: 

of  the  chaiai-tcr  of  tlie-e  ornamental  li--ues  may   In'  given 

•  thi'  article  •  I'cphim  '  in  the  •  Diclionai) 

!  IvMinan  Antiimilics.'  edited  h)  Dr.  Smith:   the 

au  thor  of  the  article  'Peplum'ol  '  of  all  the  pro- 

duction   nl  tie.'  loom.  upon  which  the 

••-.t  *kill  and  labour  wen  employed;  and  that  ihesul)- 

•  nteil  upon  them  wen-  so  various  :n,.|    l;,sletul, 
thai  j'i  if  iihe  them,    lie  adds  thai  • 

and  whi'li.  with  Vaiil  M  •  aimng  Im:, 


TAP 


43 


TAP 


pieces  and  a  sreat  variety  of  subjects,  belonged  to  the 
temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  and  was  used  to  form  a  mag- 
nificent tent  for  the  purpose  of  an  entertainment  (Ion, 
1141-1162) ;  for  it  is  to  be  observed  that  stores  of  shawls 
were  not  only  kept  by  wealthy  individuals  (Homer,  Odyssey, 
xv.,  104-108),  but  often  constituted  a  very  important  part 
of  the  treasures  of  a  temple  (Euripides,  Ion,  329,  330), 
having  been  presented  to  the  divinity  on  numerous  occa- 
sions by  suppliants  and  devotees.  (Homer,  Iliad,  vi., 
271-304";  Virgil,  Mneid,  i.,  480,  Ciris,  21-35.)' 

Several  substances  appear  to  have  been  used  by  the 
antients  as  materials  for  the  ornamental  fabrics  alluded 
to.  Jubinal  states  that  flax,  wool,  and  byssus  [Bvssus, 
vol.  vi.,  p.  81]  entered  into  their  composition;  and 
that  the  richest  colours,  embroidery,  precious  stones,  and 
gold,  were  used  in  them.  It  is  not  very  clear  in  what 
form  and  manner  gold  \vas  applied  in  many  cases.  In 
the  third  verse  of  the  thirty-ninth  chapter  of  Exodus, 
iks  of  beating  gold  into  thin  plates,  and  then 
cutting  it  into  wires,  to  work  it  into  the  ephod  with  cun- 
ning work :  and  Wilkinson  states  that  probably  the  gold 
thread  used  in  Egyptian  embroidery  was  formed  in  like 
manner,  and  rounded  by  the  hammer.  Beckmann  <  Ilix- 
tory  of  Inventions,  vol.  ii.,  p.  212,  &c.)  enters  minutely 
into  this  question,  and  states  that  he  had  not  met  with  a 
single  passage  in  antient  authors  where  mention  is  made 
of  iiu'tal  being  wire-drawn;  yet.  Jubinal  thinks  that  gold 
was  perhaps  Mimetimes  used  in  antient  tapestry  in  the 
form  of  fine  drawn  wires,  flattened  and  wound  round 
threads  in  a  manner  resembling  modern  gold  thread.  He 
further  supposes  that  gold  was  sometimes  introduced  sub- 
sequently to  the  weaving  of  the  tissue,  by  loosening  its 
texture,  and  inserting  the  gold  between  the  threads. 

Sranty  as  are  the  notices  of  tapestry  in  antient  writers, 
our  information  respecting  it  during  the  middle  ages  is 
not  much  fuller.  Jubinal  observes  that  we  find  females 
:ed  in  working  tapestry  with  the  needle  from  the 
earliest  epochs  of  the  French  monarchy.  Gregory  of 
Tours,  writing  towards  the  close  of  the  sixth  century,  in 
his  description  of  the  rejoicings  which  followed  the  pro- 
fession of  Christianity  by  Clo\is  and  his  people,  speaks  of 
the  streets  being  shaded  with  painted  cloths  or  curtains 
'  rr//\  ilij,irii.\  .  and  the  churches  being  adorned  with 
hanirinirs  :  and  airain.  in  describing  the  consecration  of 
the  chinch  of  St.  Denis,  he  mentions  tapestries  embroi- 
dered with  irold  and  irarnished  with  pearls.  The  fabrica- 
tion of  tapestry-hangings  by  the  loom  appears  to  have 
be, -n  introduced  into  France,  at  the  earliest,  about  the 
ninth  century,  until  which  time  the  needle  had  been  used 
-ivcly  in  their  production;  and,  long  after  that 
period,  the  two  processes  were  piacti.--.ed  concurrently. 
At  this  time  we  often  find  embroidered  cloths  cnum 
amon;r  tlif  decorations  of  churches.  Jubinal  quotes  Fa- 
ther Lubbe  for  the  statement  that  many  tapestries  were 
made  for  the  church  of  Auxerre  prior  to  the  year  K40  : 
and  he  n •!.  there  existed  in  the  abbey 

Klorent.  nl  Sii'iniur.  a  great  manufactory  of  .stuff's, 
.  which  were  woven  by  the  inmates. 
From  contempoiary  notices',  it  i.-;  trident  that  there  was  a 
celebrated  manufacture  of  t;ipr-,h  v  at  Poitiers  as  early  as 
IH-J.Y  Nor  was  the  manufacture  of  tapestry  confined  to 
France  at  this  period.  The  inhabitants  of  the  north  of 
Europe  also  practised  it,  and  Knglish  embroidery  was 
much  admired  and  highly  prized  on  the  Continent.  In 
the  Kast  also,  where  the  art  had  been  culthuted  from  the 
earliest  antiquity,  fine  embroidery  was  produced  in  the 
:ith  century.  Much  of  the  early  Oriental  tapcstry 
was  adorned  with  erotcsque  i  >d,  long  after  it 

became  usual  to  depict   natural  ;;d  scenery  upon 

tapestry,  such  devices  were  often  used  in  ornamental 
bordi 

In  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  ccntr  e  of  tapes- 

try <-\ti'!ided  greatly.    It  pa*sed  from  churches  and  monas- 
teries, in  which  it  had  been  used  for  curtain*,  palls,  altar- 
•  •luth.-i.  vestments.  &<•..  1n  the   residences  of  the  nobilitv. 
Ke, pectins:  this  chant,'-,'.  Jubinal  observes :—' If,   in  the 
le  of  the  cloister,  the  monks  had,  as  .' e  h;i\e  seen, 
'  of  wool  and  silk  for  the  sake  of  oc- 
ion,  ladies  and  their  followers,  shut  up  in  their  <•• 
durin  .inirs  of  winter,  the  tedium  of  which 

•'pled  only  by  the   periled   of  works  of  piety  or 
chivalry,    •  I    with   their    needles  the    glorious 

action  The  high  walls  of  these  cold 


rooms,  built  of  stone,  spoke  far  more  effectually  to  the 
hearts  and  imaginations  of  those  who  lived  under  their 
protecting  shelter,  when  they  were  covered  with  interesting 
histories,  with  important  instruction,  or  with  glorious  re- 
membrances of  the  past,  than  when  nothing  appeared  to 
veil  their  nakedness.'  The  use  of  tapestiy  in  this  way  was 
one  of  the  luxuries  introduced  from  the  East  in  conse- 
quence of  the  increased  intercourse  occasioned  by  the 
crusades.  The  crusaders  brought  accounts  of  the  Oriental 
practice  of  covering  walls  with  prepared  and  ornamented 
skins,  chiefly  those  of  goats  and  sheep.  These,  which 
were  probably  at  first  used  of  their  natural  size  and  shape, 
were,  at  a  later  period,  cut  into  rectangular  pieces,  about 
two  feet  high,  and  rather  less  in  width,  and  united  by 
sewing  into  very  solid  and  handsome  hangings,  which 
were  well  adapted  to  resist  damp.  Such  hangings,  or 
leather  tapestry,  were  manufactured  much  at  Venice  and 
Cordova,  and  were  sometimes  either  gilt  all  over,  or  orna- 
mented with  gilt  devices,  in  which  case  they  bore  the 
name  of  (for  buxuiie.  The  Oriental  origin  of  the  more 
ordinary  kind  of  tapestry  is  indicated  by  the  name  Sun/- 
sins  or  Sarazii/ois.  which  was  frequently  applied  in  France 
to  the  early  manufacturers. 

Numerous  allusions  to  the  use  of  tapestry  iu  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  centuries,  collected  from  contempo- 
rary documents,  arc  given  by  Jubinal.  It  was  then  not 
only  used  to  cover  the  nakedness  of  interior  walls,  but 
was  also  employed,  on  great  occasions,  as  for  instance 
on  the  public  entries  of  princes,  to  decorate  streets,  and 
to  impart  a  joyful  appearance  to  towns  and  public  places. 
It  formed  part  of  the  decorations  of  festal  halls,  and  was 
employed  to  ornament  the  galleries  and  other  erections 
required  at  tournaments.  Rich  embroidery  was  also  much 
employed  in  the  decorations  of  the  horses  and  men  who 
formed  the  actors  in  those  chivalric  amusements  ;  and  the 
brilliant,  though  often  grotesque  devices  of  heraldry,  which 
formed  so  important  a  part  of  the  display  upon  such  occa- 
sions, afforded  extensive  employment  to  the  workers  of 
tapestry  and  other  ornamented  tissues. 

The  art  of  making  tapestry,  for  which  the  Flemings  had 
been  celebrated  from  the  twelfth  century,  made  consider- 
able progress  in  Flanders  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and 
attained  its  highest  perfection  there  in  the  fifteenth. 
Cinicciardini  has  ascribed  the  invention  of  tapestry  to 
Flanders ;  but,  if  received  at  all,  this  statement  must  be 
supposed  to  refer  merely  to  such  as  is  produced  by  the 
loom.  It  is  certain  however  that  Europe  is  much  indebted 
to  the  Flemings  for  the  revival  and  improvement  of  tapes- 
try, and  for  the  production  of  many  of  the  finest  speci- 
mens yet  existing.  The  countess  of  Wilton,  whose  inte- 
resting volume  on  '  The  Art  of  Neddlework'  contains 
much  information  upon  the  subject  of  tapestry,  is  probably 
correct  in  assuming  that  the  weaving  of  tapestry-hangings 
was  not  practised  until  they  had  become,  from  custom,  a 
thing  of  necessity.  '  Unintermitting  and  arduous,'  she 
observes, '  had  been  the  stitchery  practised  in  the  creation 
of  these  coveted  luxuries,  long,  very  long,  before  the  loom 
was  taught  to  give  relief  to  the  busy  finger.'  Tapestry 
manufactories  were  early  established  at"  Brussels,  Antwerp, 
Oudenarde,  Lisle,  Tournay,  Bruges,  and  Valenciennes ; 
but  that  of  Arras*  was  more  celebrated  than  any  other, 
and  its  productions  were  so  highly  prized,  that  the  name 
arras  became  a  common  expression  for  the  finest  tapestry 
generally,  whether  made  in  that  place  or  elsewhere.  The 
hangings  of  Arras,  as  well  as  those  of  other  manufactories 
in  France,  were,  says  Jubinal,  for  the  most  part  executed 
in  wool.  Hemp  and  cotton  were  also  used  in  them,  but 
no  silk  or  gold  thread.  The  fabrication  of  tapestries 
formed  of  these  substances  was  carried  on  chiefly  at  Flo- 
rence and  at  Venice.  The  recollection  of  this  difference 
is  important  in  discovering  where  old  tapestries  were  made, 
and  Jubinal  refers  to  instances  of  the  difference  in  some 
of  those  engraved  in  his  great  work  on  this  description  of 
monuments.  Writing  of  the  period  under  consideration, 
he  observes  that  the  devices  (ymaiges)  of  the  tapestry 
were  very  various.  We  have  seen  that,  they  sometimes 
represented  scenes  from  antient  history,  from  the  fabulous 
.  of  heroes,  and  from  modern  historical  c\enl-  : 
but.  the  imagination  of  the  tapestry-designers  did  not  stop 

*  T;ipestry  of  Arras,  represoiitivu;  the  battle*  of  Alexander  the  (Jrent,  foi -innl 
l«rt  of  llio  yran'ilt  sent  liy  thu  kiiu;  of  Cnuiiv,  in  \\SI6,  to  the  sultan  ll:ij:i/.<>t. 
to  inJtico  him  to  ransom  some  captives  taken  at  tho  battle  of  Nioopolli.  (Mac- 
pherson,  Amals  nf  Commerce,  vol.  i.,  i>.  608.) 


TAP 


T  A  ]' 


tlu-ri'.     Tin-  hangings  of  tin-  fourteenth  century  nl'icii  ic- 
•iiril   Imuts.    fantastical   animals,  or  tin-   Occupations 

peculiar  to  the  differ*  i  :  ami  romantic 

ami  i-liivalrii-   poems  att'oidcd  a  rich  store  of  subji . 
illuslialion.      .lubinul    quotes    inventories   of    tnji. 

i  In-  fourteenth  century,  in  which  tapestries 
of  tin-  above  anil  «if  seveial  other  varieties  arc  men' 
Tlii-  account  given  of  those  belonging  to  Charles  \  .  ..i 
France  is  particularly  curious.  It  i-  ta\en  from  an  in- 
ventory picservcd  ill  the  Hibliothcque  ilu  Hoi,  which, 
jiestries  ornamented  with  figures.  mentions  he- 
raldic  tapestries  (tapitserite  furinnirio,  anil  t<i/,]>iz  r,ln\. 
or  hairy  or  shaggv  tapestry.  The  fifteenth  century  ait'oul- 
inaiiy  similar  documents,  though  .lubinal  does  not  give 
them  so  fully.  ILJ  gives  however  very  long  extracts  from 
a  MS.  in  the  Hihliothiquc  ilu  Koi  respecting  Mime  old 
•lie-,  from  w Inch  it  is  evident  that  the  names  /«///»• 
&irrti:iiini\  anil  tnjiix  di-  Tun/uir*  were  often  applied  to 
hangings  fabricated  in  the  West,  they  being  probably 
made  in  imitation  of  Oriental  work.  In  this  epoch  tapes- 
try was  often  alluded  to  by  poets,  and  to  it  is  attributed 
the  fabrication  of  most  of  the  tapestries  to  which  the  tenn 
'  tapisseries  historiccs'  has  been  applied. 

The  sixteenth  century,  which  was  an  age  of  general  im- 
provement in  Fiance,  pave  a  new  impulse  to  the  produc- 
tion of  tapestry.  Francis  I.  founded  the  manufactures 
of  Fontainebleau,  in  which  threads  of  gold  and  siKcr  were 
skilfully  introduced  into  the  work.  It  was,  we  are  in- 
formed, with 'this  now  impulse  that  the  practice  was 
commenced  of  weaving  tapestry  in  a  single  piece,  instead 
of  composing  it,  as  before,  of  several  smaller  pieces 
joined  together.  This  prince  brought  Primal iccio  from 
Italy  [PuiMATiccio,  FRAM-KSHI.  \ol.  xix.,  p.  1],  and, 
among  other  works  of  art,  commissioned  him  to  make 
18  for  several  tapestries,  which  were  woven  at  Fon- 
tainebleau. Francis  spared  no  pains  in  the  encourage- 
ment of  this  department  of  the  fine  arts.  He  engaged 
Flemish  workmen,  whom  he  supplied  with  silk,  wool, 
and  other  materials,  anil  paid  liberally  for  their  labour : 
and  documents  exist  to  prove  that  he  also  patronized 
the  tapestry-makers  of  Paris.  Henry  II.,  the  son  and 
successor  of  Francis,  continued  to  cncourairc  the  manu- 
factory at  Fontainebleau,  and  established  a  manufacture 
nf  tapestry  on  the  premises  of  the  Hopital  de  la  Trinitc, 
which  attained  its  highest  celebrity  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
IV.,  and  produced  many  tine  tapestries.  In  l.~>!)4  Du 
Bourg,  the  most  eminent  artist  connected  with  this  esta- 
blishment, made  there  the  celebrated  tapestries  of  St. 
Mni.  which  were  in  existence  until  a  recent  period:  and 
these  pleased  Henry  IV.  so  much,  that  he  determined  to 
re-establish  the  manufacture  of  tapestry  at  Paris,  where 
it  had  been  interrupted  by  the  disorders  of  the  preceding 
reigns.  This  he  did  in  15!)7,  bringing  Italian  workers  in 
gold  and  silk  to  assist  in  the  work. 

The  narrative  of  M.  .lubinal,  from  which  most  of  the 
preceding  facts  ;ue  taken,  does  not  extend  later  than  the 
close  of  the  sixteenth  century  :  but,  to  continue  the  history 
of  the  tapestry  manufacture  in  France  without  interrup- 
tion, we  may  turn  to  the  volume-  recently  published  by 
the  Countess  of  Wilton.  A  few  years  after  the  e\cnts  last 
mentioned,  as  appears  from  his  •  Memoirs,"  the  Due  de 
Sully.  Menu's  minister,  was,  act  i\  eh  engaged  in  promoting 
this  branch  of  industry.  In  K;o">  -,,,.,•  laid  the  founda- 
tions of  new  edifices  for  the  tapes! ry  -wcavcis,  in  the  hurse- 
market  at  Paris;  and  at  that  time,  or  a  little  later, 
Flemish  workmen  were  engaged  to  superintend  the  manu- 
facture. The  establishment  languished,  if  it  did  not 
iiic  quite  extinct,  after  the  death  of  Henry  IV.  ;  but 
when  the  royal  palaces,  especially  the  Louvre  and  the 
Tuileries,  were  receiving  their  rich  decorations,  in  the 
ri-ign  of  Louis  XIV..  his  minister  Colbert  revived  it.  and 

that   time  the  celebrated  royal  tapcstrv-manui 
of  the  Gobelins  dates  its  origin.     This  was  established  111 
premises  which   had   been   erected  by  celebrated   d\n-. 

•  InilncrlMni;.  in  a  niuK-nurnt  page,  »  romarknlOo  1Yn!nn  Lii»'«try  of  tin- 
riitnath  o-ntury,  rml«-lliabi-d  with  onhtanatlr  .  !.  I,  mm-  in  the 

reunion  of  the  Man|iii<*  de  Lagoy,  at  Alx,  Juhioal  ob«ai  n«  that  the  uniM 
Peniu  tanmtrin  art  the  pr.«lm-e  of  KhoraiMn.  mpreull;  at  the  toon  of 
Yead.     Tnw,  W  add*,  al*  what    i 
taauuF  (toy  cone  from  Iht  Ottoman  nnptn,  l«it  bream- 
of  the  puuM  round  thr  C.-M 
communication  with  Prnla      The  nlahli. 
tadM  In  Prano  put  an  pn<l  tn  the  Importation  of  : 

at  workin j  It  u  itahrf  to  be  cgotiniuj  nnn>fUlly  In  the  Kul,  ««  lo  our  OK n 
d*T» 


named  (inbelin  [GonKi.iv,  \ol.   \i..    p.  >ii;|.    but   which 

purchased  b\  I.onis  \1\  .  in  ,,,-  M,,uil  the  Mar 
ami  adaiited  to  the  tapesti  y-inainilaclure.  under  the  name 
of  Hotel  Uoxal  ties  (iobelins.  Porvgo  artuts  and  work- 
men were  eiiguired.  lawswcre  drawn  up  for  the  protection 
and  gin  eminent  of  the  manufactory,  and  evei  \thini;  was 
'»  lender  it.  what  it  has  ever  since  remained,  the 
iislmient  of  the  kind  in  the  world.  'Theijuiin- 
tit\  of  the  finest  and  noblest  works  that  hau-  li,i  11  pn>- 
duced  by  it,'  ol«*erves  the  work  above  referred  to,  '  and 
the  number  of  the  best  workmen  bred  np  tl 
incredible:  and  the  present  flourishing  condition  of  the 
a:N  and  mainifactui  •  .e  is.  in  i_'reat  me. 

owing  thereto.'    The  production  of  tapestry  at  the  (Julie- 

said    to   have  attained  the  hiu'hest  perfection  in  the 
time   of   the    minister   Colbeit    and    his  successor   M.   lie 
Louvois.     J.e  lirun,  when  chief  director  of  the  establish- 
ment. made   many  designs  for  working  after:    and  M.  de 
Louvois   caused    tapestry  to   be    made    I  om   some   of  the 
finest    designs    of   Raphael,    Julio    Romano,    and 
Italian   painters.      A   further  account    of   this   celebrated 
manufacture    is    ;ri\ci>   in   the   elegant   volume  wine! 
just    appeared    under   the    title   of   'The    Hand-book    of 
Needlework.'  the  authoress    of  which  writes    under   her 
maiden  name.  Miss  Lambert.     She  states  that  the  manu- 
facture declined  greatly  at  the  Revolution,  but  was  revived 
under  the  KOVernmetU   of  Napoleon,  and   has 
been  carried   on  successfully,  tlioiiL'h   by  no  means  to   tin- 
same   extent    as   formerly.      About     IsilJ   ninety    persons 
were  employed  in   it.  chiefly  in  preparing  tapesiry  for  the 
palace  of  St.  Cloud.     'Tile  pieces  executed.  '  according  to 
the  wink    last    named.  '  are   generally  historical    sill. 
and   it  occasionally  requires  the  labour  of  from  two  to  si\ 
years  to  finish  a  single  piece  of  tapestry.'     'The   produc- 
tions of  this  manufactory  .'say-;  the  same  authority.  '  which 
is  entirely  supported   by'  the  "government,  are  ch'ielh 
lined  for  the  royal    palaces,  or  for   presents  made   by  tin- 
kin;;:    but    some  few   pieces,  not  designed  as  siicli 
allowed  to  In-  sold.'     Wool  is  the  only   material  now  used. 
it  being  found  to  retain  ils  colonis  better  than  any  other: 
and  in  connection  with  the  weaving  establishment   is  one 
for  dyeimr  wools,  under  the  direction  of  able  chemists,  in 
which  many  colours  are  dyed  for  this  purpose  exclusively. 
From  a  passage  ill  Fv  ely  n's  -Uiary'    Oct.  4.  |I!KJ  .in  which 
be  speaks  with  admiration  of  some  new  French   t:i| 
he   had  seen   in   the  apartments  of  the  duchess  of   i 
mouth.it  appears  that  the  product  ions  of  this  manufactory 
were  Known  in  England  at  that  time. 

The  preceding  historical  notices  respectiii";  ta,< 
refer  almost  exclusiv  ely  to  France,  but  we  must  retrace  ou'i 
steps  to  take  a  brief  review  of  the  use  and  manufacture  of 
ihis  kind  of  fabric  in  Knirland.  Ues|ii'etin^  the  Aiiirlo- 
Saxon  period,  it  i.-  obscru-d  in  the  'Pictorial  Hist.Viy  of 
Kngiand"  (,\ol  i.,  p.  :t23  ;  :  —  'The  dwel]in<rs  of  the  hisl'her 
ap]>ear  to  have  been  completely  and  MPiietimcs 
sjjlendidly  furnished  :  their  walls  were  hung  with  silk 
richly  embroidered  with  irold  or  colours.  The  needle-work 
for  which  the  Kn^lish  ladies  were  so  famous  was  herein 
displayed  to  great  advantage.  Inirulphus  mentions  some 
hainiinirs  oniainentcd  with  golden  birds  in  needle-work, 
and  a  veil  or  curtain  on  which  was  represented  in  einbroi- 
dciv  the  destruction  of  Troy.  In  the  An-;lo-Saxon  poem 
of  lieowiilfwe  read  that,  in  'the  great  wine-chamber'  — 


'  'I'ln- 


uiih  LM!.I 


llfcadi  of  HIP  w.ktrion 

Tluit  would  gout  on  It  hrramp  vlriblu.' 

'Tlie  Saxon  term  for  a  curtain  or  han-rins  was  imnri/t  : 
and.  in  the  will  of  Wynflu'da.  we  find  the  bequest  of  a 
Ion;,'  /im//  irnhrijl  and'  a  short  one.  The  same  lady  also 
beipieaths  three  coverings  for  benches  or  Mt) 

.'  The  llvvn  \  Tvi'i-:srin  \  ol.  i\  ..  p.  (is  is  per- 
hajis  the  most  anlielit  piece  of  needlework  in  existence. 
It  was  probably  owint:  to  the  expi-n.se  of  such  hanirinifs, 
when  of  larire  si/.e.  and  the  very  lonir  time  required  for 
their  production,  that  the  less  comfuilable  device  of 
painting  the  walls  of  chambers  was  extensively  adopted 
ill  the  early  Norman  period.  Of  this  time  the  work  before 
quoted  obs.  '.  i..  p.  (i.'C)  :—  'The  hamriiiL's  of 

needle-work  and  embroidery  which  adorned  the  walls  of 
the  Anirlo-Saxon  palace*,  seem  to  have  been  partially  su- 
perseded in  the  course  of  this  period  by  the  fashion  of 


TAP 


45 


TAP 


painting  on  the  walls  themselves,  or  the  wainscot  of  the 
chamber,  the  same  historical  or  fabulous  subjects  which 
hail  hitherto  been  displayed  in  threads  of  colours  and 
gold.'  Many  instances  might  be  enumerated  of  this  kind 
of  decoration,  but  it  is  sufficient  to  refer  to  the  directions 
given  by  Henry  III.  early  in  his  reign,  for  the  painting  of 
his  wainscoted  chamber  in  Winchester  castle  with  the 
same  pictures  with  which  it  had  been  previously  adorned; 
a  circumstance  presumed  by  Walpole  to  indicate  the  very 
early  existence  of  historical  painting  in  England.  The 
practice  alluded  to  appears  to  have  extended  considerably 
during  the  reigns  of  Henry  III.  and  his  immediate  succes- 
sors ;  and,  according  to  the  same  authority  (vol.  i.,  p. 
804),  the  paintings  were,  in  several  instances,  directed  to 
be  made  in  imitation  of  needle-work  tapestries.  Lady  Wil- 
ton states  that  tapestry  of  needle-work,  like  the  Bayeux 
tapestry  of  Matilda,  which  'had  been  used  solely  for  the 
decoration  of  altars,  or  the  embellishment  of  other  portions 
of  sacred  edifices,  on  occasions  of  festival  or  the]  per- 
formance of  solemn  rites,  had  been  of  much  more  general 
application  amongst  the  luxurious  inhabitants  of  the 
South,  and  was  introduced  into  England  as  furniture  hang- 
ing by  Eleanor  of  Castile.'  That  tapestry  was  not  origi- 
nally introduced  by  that  queen  will  be  seen  by  the  facts 
staled  above;  and  we  know  not  whether  there  is  any 
further  authority  for  the  statement  than  the  mention,  by 
Matthew  Paris,  of  her  having  used  tapestry  for  covering 
floors,  the  word  being  apparently  used  in  the  sense  of  carpet. 
(Pict.  Hint,  'if  En  iii  a  ml.  vol.  i.,  p.  865,  note.)  Chaucer 
mentions  a  '  tapiser,'  in  company  with  a  '  webbe'  and  a 
'  dyer,'  among  his  Canterbury  pilgrims ;  from  which  cir- 
cumstance it  may  be  presumed  that  the  business  was  not 
a  very  uncommon  one  towards  the  close  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  In  the  fifteenth  century  the  use  of  tapestry 
greatly  extended  in  England  ;  but  then,  and  for  long  after, 
the  principal  supply  appears  to  have  been  from  the  Con- 
tinent. In  the  sixteenth  century  a  kind  of  hanging  was 
introduced  which  holds  a  place  intermediate  between 
painted  walls  and  woven  or  embroidered  tapestry.  Shak- 
spere  alludes  to  these  hangings  under  the  name  of 
'  painted  cloths.'* 

The  appearance  of  the  rich  tapestry  common  in  the 
Elizabethan  period  is  admirably  described  by  Spenser,  in 
his  •  Faerie  Queene,'  book  iii.,  canto  ix.,  in  the  account  of 
tlic  tapestry  seen  by  Britomart  in  the  apartments  of  the 
house  of  Busirane,  m  the  following  lines  :  — 

*  For  round  about  the  walls  yelothed  were 
With  iMoflly  arms  of  great  nuijesty, 
Woven  with  -"M  .'mit  MlUeso  close  and  nere, 
That  the  rich  metall  lurked  privily, 
As  fainii:    t  '  In1  hid  from  envious  eye; 
Yet  iiere,  and  there,  and  everywhere,  unwares 
It  shewd  ilfielfe.  and  shone  unwillingly; 
Like  a  iliscolourd  snake,  whose  hidden  snares 
Through  the  greene  gras  his  long  bright-heruUht  back  declares. 

The  poet  described  what  he  was  in  the  habit  of  seeing, 
and  sufficient  remains  yet  exist  to  attest  the  accuracy  of 
his  description  ;  although  in  most  cases  the  brilliancy  of 
the  metallic  threads  and  the  beauty  of  the  colours  are 
greatly  impaired,  and  in  some  instances  the  gold  and  silver 
threads  have  been  artfully  withdrawn,  their  intrinsic  value 
proving  too  strong  a  temptation  for  cupidity  to  resist. 

The  introduction  of  tapestry-weaving  into  England  is 
usually  attributed  to  a  gentleman  named  Sheldon,  late  in 
the  reign  of  Hemy  VIII.  Lady  Wilton  mentions  indeed 
an  intimation  by  Walpole  of  its  origin  as  early  as  the 
time  of  Edward  III. ;  but  if  any  attempt  was  made  to  in- 
troduce the  art  at  that  time,  it  does  not  appear  to  have 
produced  any  important  result.  According  to  her  '  Art 
itf  Needlework,'  Sheldon  allowed  an  artist,  named  Robert 
links,  to  use  his  manor-house  at  Burcheston,  in  Warwick- 
shire, for  the  practice  of  the  art;  and  mentioned  him  in 
his  will,  which  was  dated  1570,  as  '  the  only  auter  and 
beginner  of  tapistry  and  arras  within  this  realme.'  At 
Burcheston  were  worked  in  tapestry,1  on  a  large  scale, 
maps  of  Oxfordshire,  Worcestershire,  Warwickshire,  and 
Gloucestershire,  some  fragments  of  which  were,  it  is 
[,  in  Wai  pole's  collection  at  Strawberry  Hill.  Little 
mon-  U  known  of  this  establishment.  James  I.  endea- 
t  lie  manufacture  of  tapestry  by  encourag- 
ing and  !t-,<i--tiiig  in  the  formation  of  an  establishment  at 

•  Iu  Malone'i  edition  (1821)  many  references  to  this  kind  of  substitute  f,.r 

woven  0  1  tapestry,  by  various  authors,  are  ejven.     See  notes  on 

ni.,  pp.  4*1-6),  and  'Henry  IV.,'  Part  i, 

.    •  i  <v« I  \\,,  ,.,,  n,,.  latter  passage  it  would  appear  that 

the  hangings  alluded  to  were  sometimes  painted  in  witer  colours. 


Mortlake,  about  1619,  under  the  management  of  Sir 
Francis  Crane.  James  I.  gave  2000/.  towards  the  forma- 
tion of  this  establishment,  which  appears  to  have  been 
originally  supplied  with  designs  from  abroad,  but  subse- 
quently by  an  artist  named  Francis  Cleyne,  or  Klein,  a 
native  of  Rostock,  in  the  duchy  of  Mecklenburg,  who  was 
engaged  for  the  purpose.  This  undertaking  was  a  favorite 
hobby  both  with  James  and  his  successor,  who  regarded 
Cleyne  so  favourably  that  he  bestowed  upon  him,  in  1625, 
an  annuity  of  100/.  (Rymer's  Fa>dera,  vol.  xviii.,  p.  112), 
which  he  enjoyed  until  the  civil  war.  In  the  same  year 
Charles  I.  granted  2000/.  a  year  for  ten  years  to  Sir  Francis 
Crane,  in  lieu  of  an  annual  payment  of  1000/.  which  he 
had  previously  covenanted  to  pay  for  that  term,  as  the 
grant  recites,  '  towards  the  furtherance,  upholding,  and 
maintenance  of  the  worke  of  tapestries,  latelie  brought 
into  this  our  kingdome  by  the  said  Sir  Francis  Crane,  and 
now  by  him  and  his  workmen  practised  and  put  in  use  at 
Mortlake,  in  our  countie  of  Surrey  ;'  and  of  a  further  sum 
of  6000/.  due  to  the  establishment  for  three  suits  of  gold 
tapestries.  (Foedera,  vol.  xviii.,  p.  CO.)  After  the  death 
of  Sir  Francis  Crane,  his  brother,  Sir  Richard,  sold  the 
premises  to  the  king,  and  during  the  civil  war  they  were 
seized  as  royal  property.  After  the  Restoration,  Charles  II. 
endeavoured  to  revive  the  manufacture,  and  employed 
Verrio  to  make  designs  for  it,  but  the  attempt  was  unsuc- 
cessful. Lady  Wilton  however  conceives  that,  although 
languishing,  the  work  was  not  altogether  extinct,  '  for,' 
she  observes,  '  in  Mr.  Evelyn's  very  scarce  tract  entitled 
"  Mundus  Muliebris,"  printed  in  1690,  some  of  this  manu- 
facture is  amongst  the  articles  to  be  furnished  by  a  gallant 
to  his  mistress.'  During  its  period  of  prosperity,  this 
manufacture  produced  the  most  superb  hangings,  after 
the  designs  of  celebrated  painters,  with  which  the  palaces 
of  Windsor  Castle,  Hampton  Court,  Whitehall,  St.  James's, 
Nonsuch,  Greenwich,  &c.,  and  many  of  the  mansions  of 
the  nobility,  were  adorned.  Five,  at  least,  of  the  cartoons 
of  Raphael,  which  appear  to  have  been  bought  by 
Charles  I.  for  that  purpose,  were  worked  in  tapestry  at 
Mortlake.  These  celebrated  works  were  designed  for  the 
purpose  of  being  copied  in  tapestry,  and  were  originally 
worked  in  Flanders.  [CARTOON,  vol.  vi.,  p.  330.]  An 
act  of  parliament  was  passed  in  1663  to  encourage  the 
linen  and  tapestry  manufactures  of  England,  and  to  re- 
strain the  great  importation  of  foreign  linen  and  tapestry. 

The  use  of  the  word  '  hangings,'  as  applied  to  tapestry, 
as  well  as  to  other  kinds  of  lining  for  rooms,  perhaps  suf- 
ficiently indicates  the  manner  in  which  such  decorations 
were  formerly  put  up.  '  The  tapestries,'  observes  the 
Countess  of  Wilton,  '  whether  wrought  or  woven,  did  not. 
remain  on  the  walls  as  do  the  hangings  of  modern  days : 
it  was  the  primitive  office  of  grooms  of  the  chamber  to 
hang  up  the  tapestry,  which,  in  a  royal  progress,  was  sent 
forward  with  the  purveyor  and  grooms  of  the  chamber.' 
She  relates  a  curious  anecdote  in  illustration  of  this  prac- 
tice. Henry  IV.  of  France,  wishing  to  do  honour  to  the 
pope's  legate,  the  cardinal  of  Florence,  when  visiting  St. 
Germain-en-Laye,  sent  orders  to  hang  up  the  finest  tapes- 
try ;  but,  by  an  awkward  blunder,  the  suit  selected  for 
the  cardinal's  chamber  was  embellished  with  satirical  em- 
blems of  the  pope  and  the  Roman  court.  The  mistake 
was  discovered  by  the  Due  de  Sully,  on  whose  authority 
the  anecdote  is  given,  and  another  suit  was  substituted  for 
that  with  the  offensive  devices.  In  a  subsequent  chapter, 
on  '  The  days  of  good  Queen  Bess,'  after  showing  the  uni- 
versality of  tapestry  and  similar  decorations  in  the  houses 
of  the  nobility  and  gentry  of  England,  it  is  stated  that 
tapestry  was  at  that  time  suspended  upon  frames,  which 
were  probably,  in  many  cases,  at  a  considerable  distance 
from  the  walls,  as  we  frequently  read  of  persons  conceal- 
ing themselves,  like  Falstaff  (Merry  Wives  of  Windsor, 
act  iii.,  scene  3),  'behind  the  arras.' 

The  interest  attached  to  antient  tapestries  as  historical 
monuments,  as  well  as  in  the  character  of  works  of  art,  is 
of  no  mean  order.  The  most  important  work  on  this  de- 
partment of  archaeology  is  that  of  M.  Jubinal,  the  author 
of  the  historical  treatise  quoted  in  the  former  part  of  this 
article,  entitled  '  Les  Anciennes  Tapisseries  Historiees,'  in 
which  are  given  minute  descriptions,  illustrated  by  many 
large  folio  plates,  of  the  most  remarkable  tapestries  made 
from  the  eleventh  to  the  sixteenth  century,  and  preserved 
to  the  present  time.  Such  monuments,  as  he  observes  in  his 
preface,  sometimes  represent  to  us,  with  a  charming  and 


TAP 


16 


I     \   I1 


faithful 
ment  : 


MoBtai 

t<>  im  mo«t  litenulj  the  modi  of  life  <>t'  mu 

us   then  -    their  churches,   their 

dre-si  ...  th.'ir  ami-.  ami  even     thanks  to  their  expl:i: 

is  their  language  at  different  epochs.  Further  tli;\n 
thi-.  it'  we  refer  to  the  inventory  of  Charles  \  '..  made  in 
|:)7'.i.  we  find  that  all  the  French  literature  of  the  fruitful 
ling  the  era  of  that  wise  monarch  had  been  by 
hi-  ordei-  translated  into  wool.'  At  a  later  period,  al- 
though the  beauty  of  tapestry  was  increased  by  improve- 
ments in  the  arts  of  weaving  and  du-ing.  and  by  the  adop- 
tion of  superior  de-isms,  much  of  its  peculiarly  interesting 
character  was  lost.  .luhina).  in  the  smaller  work  frequent  1\ 
quoted  ill  the  earlier  part  of  this  article,  regrets  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  Gothic  labels,  \vhich  contained  quaint 
descriptions  of  the  subject-  represented  :  of  the  p: 
architecture  of  the  middle  ages  'nrrhilrrtin;-  <i  nyin-x'. 
and  of  the  furniture  and  our  forefathers  :  and 

Miccivcs  that  their  place  is  but  ill  supplied  by  the 
imitation.  •  clever  in  the  great  masters,  but  detestable  in 
their  disciples.'  of  Greek  and  Roman  forms,  of  which  he 

-  to  •  celebrated  and  grievous  examples  in  the  com- 
positions of  Hubens  reproduced  bv  the  manufactory  of 
the  Gobelins  ;  in  the  tapestries  of  Beauvais,  and  in  tin  —  • 
of  Aubusson.' 

In  the  primitive  method  of  working  tapestry  with  the 
needle,  the  wool  was  usually  applied  to  a  kind  of  canvas, 
ami  the  effect  produced  was  coarse  and  very  defect  i\  e  : 
but  some  finer  kinds  of  tapestry  were  embroidered  upon  a 
silken  fabric.  The  procc-s  of  weaving  by  the  loom,  after 
the  manner  known  as  the  lunite  I  ism;  or  high  warp,  was 
practised  in  the  tapestries  of  Flanders  and.  according  to 
.lubinal.  in  those  of  England  nlso\  as  early  as  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  centuries;  the  only'  essential  dif- 
ference between  these  and  the  productions  of  modern 
times  being  that  previously  noticed,  the  comparative  size 
of  the  pieces  woven  in  the  loom.  The  weaving  of  tapestry, 
both  by  the  '  haute  lisse'  and  the  'basse  IISM  .'  app: 
he  of  Oriental  invention  :  and  the  difference  between  the 
two  methods  ma)  be  briefly  described.  In  the  '  haute 

the  loom,  or  rather,  the  frame  with  the  warp-ti 
is  placed  in  a  perpendicular  position,  and  the  weaver 
works  standing  :  while  in  tin'  •  basse  lisse'  the  frame  with 
the  warp  is  laid  horizontally,  and  the  weaver  works  in  a 
sitting  position.  Inweaving  with  the  'basse  lisse,'  which, 
now  relinquished,  the  painting 

to  In-  copied  is  laid  beneath  the  threads  of  the  warp,  which 
are  stretched  in  a  manner  resembling  that  of  common 
weaving,  the  pattern  being  supported  by  a  number  of 
transverse  threads  stretched  beneath  it.  The  v.  . 
sitting  before  the  loom,  and  leaning  over  the  beam,  care- 
fully separates  the  threads  of  the  warp  with  his  tinkers,  so 
that  he  may  see  his  pattern  between  them.  He  then 
in  his  other  hand  a  kind  of  shuttle,  called  a  fti'itr. 
charged  with  silk  or  wool  of  the  colour  required,  and 
een  tin-  threads,  after  separating  them  in 
the  usual  way  by  means  of  treddles  worked  by  th> 
[\Vx\viM;.]  The  thread  of  woof  or  shoot  thus  inserted  is 
finally  dri-.  i>  to  the  linished  portion  of  tin 

by  means  of  a  rc'-d  or  comb  formed  of  box-wood  or 
th.1  teeth  of  which  ai  :  between  the  threads  of  the 

.      Ill   this    prur  t   of  the  tapestry  is  down- 

-.  so  that  the  weaver  cannot  examine  hi*  woik  until 
the  piece  is  completed  and  removed  from  the  loom.  The 
frame  of  the  'haute  !i-se'  loom  con-i-ts  of  two  upright 
side-pieces,  with  large  rollers  placed  hori/ontalh  In 
them.  The  thread.-  of  the  warp,  which  usualh  cnn-i.-l  ol' 
twisted  wool,  a  iv  wound  round  (lie  upper  roller,  and  Un- 
finished web  is  coiled  round  the  lower  one.  'I 
or  design  to  be  copied,  i-  placed  perpendicularly  behind 
the  back  or  wrong  side  of  the  waip.  and  then  the  principal 
outlines  of  the  pattern  are  drawn  upon  the  front  of  the 
warp,  the  threads  of  which  are  sufficiently  open  to  allow 
the  artist  to  see  the  design  between  them.  'I  he  cartoon  is 
then  reui"\r<!  -o  tar  back  from  the  warp  that  the  weaver 

place  himself  between  them  with  his  hack   towards 
that    he    must    turn    round  whenever  Ill- 
wishes  to  look  at  it.     Attached  to  the  upright  side-pieces 
of  the  frnme  are  contrivances  f 


the  wnrp,  so  as  to  all. 

the    •  baise  >.  as   it    were,   blind- 

fold :   but    by  walking  round  to  tin-   front    nf  the   loom   he 
may  see  the   progress  of  hi*  wo.',,    ami    m.i\    ftdju  ' 
•  .  which  IIIIM-  not  be  iut<i  their  ns:iii 

or  comb,  with  a   la'  .1   an 

iiiyiii/  The    jiroi  •  .king    with   the 

i-  much  slower  than  the  other,  and  is  iiidenl. 

sa\s  .lubinal,  almost  as  slow  as  that   of  working  with  the 

l\  Wilton,  in  describing  the  pn  I  the 

Hold    Ho\al    des   Gobelins,    observes   that  'Not   the 

-ling  part  of  the  ]>roeess  was  that  performed  by  the 

.  or  fine-drawers,  who  so  unite  the  I 

the  tapestry  into  one  picture,  that  no  seam  i-  di-cernible. 
but    the  whole   appears  like  one   desiirn.'      Now.  Inu- 
tile piece-  are  win eii  so  wide  that  joining  is  \ eiy  seldom 

in  for  the  largest  pie. 
.lubinal. 

irt   nf 

rurk.  edited  by  the  Right  Honourable  th. 
of  Wilton  :   Th''  H<iii<lln><:k 
bert  : 

TAI'HO/.OVS.   [('HEIROPTBRA,  vol.  vii..  p.  21. } 

TAl'lO'CA,  a  farinaceous  substance.  ])iepari-d  in  South 
America  from  two  species  of  .lanipha,  or  the  bitter  and 
sweet  Cassada  or  Manioc  plants,  which  two 
regarded  as  one  species,  and  comprehended  under  the 
name  of  .latroplia  Slauiliot.  till  Pohl  distinguished  them, 
calling  the  bitter  Mitiii!.-  the  sweet 

Munhn!  .!</./  1'ohl,  /'/.  /<n/.w7..  ic.  i.  :(2t.2l.  Tin- 
chief  distinction  between  them  is  that  a- tiingh  ligneous 
fibre  or  cord  runs  ihe  heart  of  the 

-.a  root,  of  which  the  latter  is  destitute.'     Tl 
the  bitter  i-ontains  a   highU  acrid   and    ;  juice. 

from  which  the    sweet   is  exempt.  \  et   the  bitter  is  cul- 
tivated   almost    to    the    entire    exclusion    of   the    other, 
which  is  probably  owing  to  the  greater  facility  with  which 
it  can  be  ground  or  rasped  into  flour,  owing  to  the  ab- 
sence of  the  ligneous  centre.     The  ;  . •rinciplc  of 
the  bitter  manioc  is  thought  to  be  of  the  nature  of  hydro- 
cyanic acid.  (Guibourt,  Hint.  r/'A  l>r>n;iti'x.  torn.  ii..  ] 
Hieme  I'd.  :       It  is  easily  dissipated  or  decomposed  !> 
or  fermentation  :  hence  the  flour  becomes  perfectly  whole- 
some in  the  process  of  baking  the  ca«s»va  bread, 
vol.  vi.,  p.  344.]     The  juice,  alter  e\  may  be  in- 
spissated by  long  boiling,  or  formed  into  a  soup,  with  flesh 
and    spices,  called  casMircpo.     Uy  means  of   n 
can  be  fermented  and  converted  into  intoxicating  drink. 

The  fecula,  or  flour,  after  the  juic  .'fully 

expressed.   ha\ing  be.  '.  and  dried  in  the  air  with- 

out heat,   is  termed  mnnrlinrii   in  lirazil.    n  in  the 

Antilles,  and  ryy//»  in  Cayenne.  This  constituted  the 
Brazilian  arrow-root  of  Knglish  commerce.  \Vheii  this 
fecula  is  jirepared  h\-  drying  on  hot  plates,  it  becomes 
granular,  and  is  calli  irs  in  in. 

lumps  or   mains,   and   is   \;  bible    in   cold    \ 

The    granules,   diffused   tbrouirh  water,   and   examii;. 
(he  mi.  '  uniformity  of  sue.  and  smaller 

than  those  of  arrow-:.  Tapioca   is 

very  nutritious  and  «  -tion.  being  free  from  all 

stiiimlating    t|ualitics.      It    i-   tlien.n.ie    sen    ni 
distinguish   it    from  an  artificial  tapioca   made  with 
and    potato    starch,    which    is   in    laigcr  'rriinulcs.  whiter. 

oluble  in  cold  water  than 
the  genuine. 

TAI'IK,    Tnj.iri:--.    the  inline  of  a 
inatous  quadrup 

I.im  not    notice    tlie  Taj)ir  in  the 

last     edition  of  the  .V 
it  as  the    Ii 
siilci.-.       -'•,•-'.    \at.  \.  i..  p.  7!.  u.  -. 

it    under    the    title    'f'i}n'i\  bi ; 
llii'i-iiroi 

Cuvier    aiiangcs    the   ffcnu-  a.,   th,  :  :s    I'urhy- 

•g    it    innni  '.    tin- 

extinct    I'nli.'nllii'rin    and    I.oplnodons.      Tin-    rein. 
well   known  to    the    older  i    the 

natural  products  of  Am.-ii 

'  MZMIIIN. 

Bhtlelnii.     \\lu-n  viewed  in    jirofile.   the  pMiimiilal  ele- 
vation 'I  of  the  Tapir,  calling  to  mine! 


T  A  P 

be  seen  in  the  hog,  strikes  the  observer  forcibly.  But  th- 
pyramid  of  the  Tapir  differs  from  that  of  the  hog  in  having 
only  three  faces;  and  also  in  this,  that  its  anterior  line  i 
formed  by  the  meeting  of  the  lateral  faces,  and  it  is  onl} 
towards  the  front  that  it  is  dilated  into  a  triangle,  which  i 
due  to  the  frontal  bones :  these  are  early  united  and  directei 
a  little  backwards.  At  the  middle  of  the  base  of  this  tri 
angle,  to  which  the  bones  of  the  nose  are  articulated,  is  ( 
point  which  penetrates  between  them  ;  and  from  the  twc 
sides  above  the  orbits  descends  a  deep  furrow  producee 
by  the  structure  of  the  upper  border  of  the  orbit,  am 
which  approaches  towards  the  suborbital  hole  :  it  serves 
for  the  insertion  of  the  muscles  of  the  proboscis.  The 
orbit  descends  lower  than  the  mid-height  of  the  head,  is 
very  wide,  and  has  the  postorbital  apophyses  but  little 
marked. 

That  part  of  the  cranium  which  is  in  the  temporal  fossa 
is  convex.     The  occiput  is  a  small  demi-oval  extremely 
concave  plate,  because  the  occipital  crest  projects  con- 
siderably backwards  in  a  parabolic  shape.     The  occipita' 
bone  ascends  on  the  cranium.     The  frontal  bones  descent: 
largely  in  the  temple,  and  are  there  articulated  with  the 
lachrymal,  the  palatine,  the  two  sphenoids,  and  the  tem- 
poral bone.     The  parietals  are  square,  very  large,  occu- 
;  a  great  portion  of  the  sagittal  crest,  and  united  also 
i iut ween  them.    The  nasal  bones  are  no  less  striking 
than  the  form  of  the  cranium.     They  are  very  short,  arti- 
culated to  the  frontals  by  their  base,  and  to  those  of  the 
by  a  descending  apophysis  ;  but  they  are  free  and 
projecting,  forming  a  kind  of  triangular  penthouse  above 
the  cavity  of  the  nostrils.     This  structure,  which  reminds 
the  observer  of  that  of  the  elephant,  indicates  the  pre- 
sence of  a   moveable   proboscis.      The   aperture  of  the 
osseous  nostrils  thus  becomes  extremely  long,  nearly  hori- 
zontal, and  bordered  in  great  part  by  the  maxillary  bones, 
which  advance  well  beyond  the  bones  of  the  nose,  to  form 
the  projecting  part  of  the  muzzle  ;  they  carry  the  inter- 
maxillary bones  which  (a  remarkable  thing,  observes  C'u- 
vier    were  anchylosed  together  in  the  individual  examined 
In    him,  although  it  was  very  young,  and  consequently 
formed  but  a  single  bone,  and  Cuvier  remarked  the  same 
conformation  in  other  crania.     It  was  only  in  a  nascent 
tapir,  when  no  tooth  had  come   forth,  that  he  found  the 
suture  which  separates  the  maxillaries  from  each  other. 
These  same    intermaxillaries  form   a   ceiling   under   the 
orbit.     The  lower  border  of  the  orbit  and  the  half  of  the 
arch  are  due  to  the  OK  mala;  or  jusral  bone  :  the  rest  to  the 
temporal  bone.     The  zycomatic  arch  is  cuned  downwards 
at  its  anterior  portion,   and  upwards  at  its  posterior  por- 
tion:  it,  projects  moderately  outwards.     The  os  unjfuis,  or 
lachrymal  bone,  touches  the  malar  bone,  and  advances  a 
little  on  the  cheek,  and  moderately  in  the  orbit.     There 
o  lachrymal  bones  in  the  very  border  of  the  orbit, 
separated  by  an   apophysis,  the  upper  of  which   is  the 
largest.     The  suborbital  hole  is  oval,  rather  large,  and  at 
a  little  distance  in   front  of  the  suture,  which  unites  the 
and   the  lachrymal  to  the  maxillary  bone.      The 
'!e  is  elliptical  and  very  long,  in   great   part, 
in  the  maxillary.     The    posterior  nasal  fossa?   notch  the 
palate  towards  the  fifth  molar.     The  suture  which  sepa- 
ihe  palatine  from  the  maxillary  bone  corresponds 
with  the  third.     The  palatine  bones  contribute  much  to 
the  ptcryir'iid  nt'f,  and  the  sphenoid  very  little  :  these 
re   short   and  truncate,    with   a   small   hook  which 
represents  the  internal  ptery,'"id  wing,  and  which  remains 
considerable  time  a  detached  bone.     The  sphenoid 
hone  docs  not   rea'-h   the  parietal  in  the  temporal  f 

mains  separated  from  it   by  the  squamose  portion. 
::ilatine   bone   there  forms  a,  lonir  and  narrow  tract, 
•vhicli  proceed-,  forward  for  the  length  of  the  upper  border 
maxillary  bone  up  to  the  suborhi'.al  canal.     Behind 
•noid   cavity  of  the  temporal  bone,  which  is  very 
large,  is  a  semicircular  lamina,  descending  vertically  and 
ling  itvlf  forwards  and  inwards:  it  interrupts  the  la- 
•ind  posterior  motion  of  the  lower  jaw.    Between  this 
lamina  and  the  mastoid  apophysis  is  a  rather  narrow  notch 
•he  meatii    auditorim  internus  is  found.     The  mas- 
Is  as  low  as  this  lamina.     It  rca 
•  i  I   bone   by  its  anterior  tubercle,  and  the  occi- 
analogous  to  the  spheno-pala- 

i<  in  the  nuii  orbital  tract  of  the  palatine  bone, 

-•o-palatinc  bone  is  below  it,  on 
with  the.  maxillary  bone.     The 


47 


TAP 


optic  foramen  is  small,  and  placed  on  the  suture  of  the 
frontal  and  of  the  anterior  sphenoid  bones.  The  spheno- 
orbital  and  round  foramina  are  only  separated  from  each 
other  by  a  delicate  lamina.  There  is  a  rather  large  vidian 
canal.  The  oval  hole  is  confounded  with  the  anterior  and 
posterior  apertures,  so  that  a  great  portion  of  the  petrous 
bone  is  separated  from  the  sphenoid  and  basilary  by  a  space. 
The  tympanic  bone  does  not  appear  to  be  ever  anchylosed 
with  the  neighbouring  bones,  and  falls  easily,  as  in  the 
hedgehog,  the  opossum,  &c. 

The  lower  jaw  exhibits  a  striking  width  at  its  ascending 
ramus,  and  presents  a  rounded  contour  backwards  at  its 
posterior  angle.  Its  coronoid  apophysis  elevates  itself  in 
the  form  of  a  pointed  falx  above  the  condyle,  which  is 
transverse  and  large.  The  two  jaws  are  a  little  concave 
laterally  at  the  vacant  interval  of  the  teeth,  and  are  very 
much  narrowed  there  ;  their  edge  is  trenchant. 


Skull  of  American  Tapir. 

Bones  of  the  Neck  and  Trunk.  — The  lateral  apophyses 
of  the  atlas  are  wide,  but  little  extended  outwards:  the 
spinous  process  of  the  axis  is  an  elevated  crest ;  the  trans- 
verse processes  are  small  and  irregular;  the  odontoid  is 
large  and  obtuse  ;  the  transverse  processes '  of  the  three 
succeeding  vertebrae  descend  obliquely,  are  a  little  widened 
at  the  end  and  cut  nearly  square  ;  their  spinous  processes 
are  very  small.  The  fifth  cervical  vertebra  has  a  small 
apophysis  on  its  transverse  process,  which,  for  the  rest, 
resembles  that  of  the  preceding  vertebra1,  but  is  rather 
onircr  :  its  spinous  process  is  also  rather  longer ;  still  more 
s  that  of  the  seventh  vertebra,  the  transverse  process  of 
which  is  very  small — in  short,  a  simple  tubercle.  The  arti- 
cular facets  of  the  cervical  vertebrae  rise  obliquely  from 
within  outwards,  so  that  the  articular  facet  of  one  vertebra 
s  below  that  which  responds  to  the  preceding  vertebra. 
The  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  are  convex  forward  and  con- 
cave behind,  an  organisation  which  is  more  or  less  re- 
Jeated  in  the  rest  of  the  spine.  The  number  of  dorsal 
ertebnt'  amounts  to  twenty  ;  the  spinous  apophysis  of  the 
second  is  the  longest.  They  decrease  and  incline  back- 
vards  to  the  eleventh,  from  which  they  become  straight, 
iquare,  and  nearly  equal.  Their  articular  apophyses  are 
,0  fitted  that  those  of  one  vertebra  are  in  advance  and 
ibove  those  which  correspond  with  it  in  the  vertebra  below. 
Juvier  found  twenty  pairs  of  ribs  in  one  individual,  nine- 
een  in  another,  eight  of  which  are  true,  all  slender  and 
ounded  for  the  greatest  part  of  their  length.  The  breast - 
rone  is  composed  of  five  bones :  its  anterior  portion  is 
:ompressed,  and  projects  in  the  form  of  a  ploughshare, 
^here  are  four  lumbar  vertebrae,  the  transverse  apophyses 
f  which  are  rather  large.  Those  of  the  last,  which  are 
ather  shorter  and  oblique,  are  articulated  with  the  first 
acral  vertebra.  These  transverse  apophyses  have  on  their 
)ase  the  same  elevated  crests  as  the  dorsals  have  for  arti- 
ulation  with  the  ribs. 

The  os  sacrum  of  the  adult  consists' of  seven  vertebrae, 
he  spinous  apophyses  of  which  are  distinct  and  inclined 

ards;  the  five  last  of  these  apophyses  are  short  and 
crminate  by  a  widened  disk.  The  tail  has  seven  ver- 
ebraa. 

v  nf  the  Extremities.— The  blade-bone  has  a  strong 
emicircular  notch  towards  the  lower  part  of  its  anterior 
'order;  the  rest  of  this  border  is  round  as  well  as  the 
pper  border :  the  posterior  border  makes  an  angle  up- 

and  then  descends  a  little  concave.   There  is  neither 

ion  nor  coracoid  process,  if  a  hook-like  process  be 
excepted.     The  spine  of  the  bone  terminates  at  the  lower 

of  it;   its  greatest  projection  is  at  its  middle  ;    the 
is  oval  and  higher  than  it  is  long.     This 


TAP 


48 


T  A  P 


hlade-bone,  says  1'nvicr,  emphatically,  and  not  more  em- 
phatically than  truly,  cannot  be  confounded  with  that  of 
nnv  other  animal. 

The  head  of  the  humenis  is  powerful,  behind  the  axis 
of  the  bone.  Its  larrre  tuberosity  is  bilobated  by  a  rounded 
notch  :  it-*  bu-ipita)  ranal  is  simple  and  not  wide:  the 
ndge  is  little  marked  ;  the  comlvlcs  do  not  project  much. 
The  radial  articular  face  is  divided  bv  a  projecting  nb 


into  an  entire  pulley  on  the  internal  side,  and  the  half  of.  the  radius. 


one  on  the  external  side  ;  both  the  one  and  the  other  cor- 
respond to  projections  of  the  radius.  MI  that  this  hi.-t  has 
no  rotation.  It  is  even  ]irobablc.  ol  nicr,  that 

with  nirc  it  isanchyloBedtoth«ulna,wl  -throuirh- 

ont  its  length  OH  the  external  edge  of  the  anil.  The  upper 
head  of  the  radius  is  nearly  rcctantrular :  ils  bodv ,  rounded 
in  front,  is  flattened  behind.  The  body  of  the  ulna  is 
triangular.  One  of  its  crests  follows  the  external  crest  of 


ot  American  Tapir. 


The  carpus  of  the  Tapir  bears  a  near  resemblance  to 
that  of  the  RHINOC  KROS,  especially  in  having,  like  it,  a 
sinjfle  small  bone  articulated  with  the  wcdire-shaped  and 
unciform  bones,  in  lieu  of  the  trapezoid  and  thumb  :  but 
this  bone  is  articulated  with  the  metatarsal  bone  of  the 
index,  which  is  not  the  case  in  the  rhinoceros.  The  other 
bones  of  the.  wrist  are  nearly  of  the  .-aiue  form,  excepting 
that  their  width  is  less  in  proportion  to  their  heisrht.  a 
condition  which  is  true  even  with  regard  to  the  unciform 
hone,  although  it  has  to  cam'  two  complete  metacarpals, 
whilst  in  the  rhinoceros  it  only  carries  one  and  the  vcstiirc 
of  another.  The  pisiform  bone  is  also  longer  in  propor- 
tion in  the  Tapir.  The  metacarpal  of  the  middle  tinker 
is  longest  and  straiirhtest  :  those  of  the  index  and  rinsr- 
ti nirer  are  curved  nearly  symmetrically  one  with  reference 
to  the  other,  as  in  the  rhinoceros.  But  the  Tapir  has 
also  one  small,  short,  and  rather  irregular  metacarpal. 
The  three  first  iinirers  are  those  which  touch  the  earth. 
and  their  unirual  phalanires  resemble  those  of  the  rliino- 
:  the  little  iinircr  does  not  touch  the  ground.  The 
lirsl  phalanges  are  lomrer  than  they  arc  wide,  but  the  con- 
trary is  the  case  with  regard  to  the  second. 

The  widened  part  of  the  ossa  ilii   is  very  broad  trans- 

'v.   and    a   little   concave   outwards.      The   external 

.•I' this  hone  is  larger  than  the  internal  one;    the  an- 

liorder  is  liirgely  concave,  and  the  two  spines  are.  as 

it  were,   truncated:    its  neck  is  narrow,  with   reference  to 

its  lenjfth  ;    theo\al   holes  are   lonircr  than  they  are  wide. 

and  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  ischinm  terminate-  in  a 

point  very  distant  from  it's  correspondent.     The  anterior 

passage  of  the  pelvis  is  as  long  as  it  is  wide,  and  nearly 

circular. 

The  femur  has  its  great  trochanter  pointed,  forming  n 
projection  backwards,  and  (riving  off  a  rib  which  descends 
along  the  external  bonier.  Besides  the  two  ordinary 
niters,  there  is  a  third,  which  i-  flattened  and  re- 
curved in  front.  In  these  points  its  resemblance  to  that. 

of  the  none  is  perceptible,  mil  it  differs  much  in  having 
the  two  borders  of  the  rotular  pulley  neaily  cmial.  The 
fibula  is  curved  outwards,  which  scp;::  .'.•-  it  a  little  fiom 
the  tibia  :  tliis  last  has  its  upper  head  rather  marked,  but 
the  tiiberosity  which  terminates  this  end  above  is  obtuse 
ami  curved  but  little.  Its  lower  head  is  wider  than  it  is 
long,  is  oblique,  and  its  antero-posterior  diameter  on  the 


internal  side  is  wider,  and  this  bonier  more  projecting  than 
that  of  the  tilmlar  side. 

The  tarsus  of  the  Tapir  is  still  better  modelled  than  its 
carpus  alter  that  of  the  rhinoceros,  of  which  it  seems  to 
be  only  a  repetition  :  only  the  os  calcis  is  much  more 
elongated  and  more  compressed;  but  its  facets  are  the' 
same.  The  neck  of  1  hi'  astiairalns  is  lonircr  and  touches 
the  cuboid  bone  by  a  narrower  facet.  There  is  no  Vi 
of  a  hind  toe,  but  the  little  finger  is  represented  In  an 
elongated  bone,  bent  at  the  end.  articulated  to  the  -ea- 
phoid.  to  the  small  cuneiform  and  the  external  metatarsal 
bones.  The  posterior  tubercle  of  the  cuboid  hone  is  less 
projecting  and  less  honked  than  in  the  rhinoceros.  O\v- 

Illl-llx    /'''/'W'/C.V. 

Cuvier,    in    hi-  ical  comparison  of  the   Indian 

Tapir  with  the  American  form,  observes  that  a  irlance  at 
the  profile  of  their  respective  crania  is  sufficient  to  impres-. 
upon  the  observer  their  specific  ditt'ercnces.  The  forehead 
of  the  Indian  Tapir  i-.  he  n!>-.<;  •,  es.  so  convex,  that  : 
higher  than  the  occiput  :  it  elevates  in  its  iise  (he  nasal 
hones,  which  much  prolongs  the  ascending  part  of  the 
ml  the  descending  portion  of  the  fiontal  bones  alouir 
the  external  aperture  of  the  bony  nostril-,  thus  srivinir 
much  wider  room  lor  the  comparatively  larire  pro!" 
and  adding  Icnirth  to  the  furrows  where  the  muscles  are 
inserted.  This  organization,  he  observes,  explains  why 
the  Indian  Tapir  has  a  more  powerful  and  extensible  trunk 
than  that  of  America.  There  is  even,  he  adds,  in  the  In- 
dian species,  on  the  base  of  the  nasal  bones  at  their  junc- 
tion with  the  frontal  hones,  and  on  each  side,  a  deep 
which  does  not  exist  in  the  other  species.  This  elevation 
of  the  forehead  is  accompanied  by  a  depression  of  the 
occipital  cre.-t.  which,  far  from  forming  a  pyramid,  as  in 
the  American  species,  lather  descends  backwards.  The 
aperture  of  the  bony  :  enlarged  by  ihe  prolonga- 

tion of  the  maxillary  bones,  terminates  below  and  forwards 
bvmore  elevated  inicrmaxillancs.  which  are  for  the  rest  an- 
clnloscd  together  in  early  youth  as  in  the  American  Tapir. 

The  interval  between  the  canine  and  the  fust  molar  is 
less  in  proportion  in  the  Indian  Tapir,  whoso  dentition  is 
otherwise  the  same  with  that  of  the  Ann-Mean  species. 

I  hi  /v  _  ..main  apophysis  of  the  Indian  species  is  a  little 
higher  backwaid  and  less  forward  :  its  mastoid  apophysis 
is  more  t  universally  turned. 


TAP 


49 


TAP 


The  occipital  surface  of  the  skull  offers  a  difference  cor- 
responding to  that  of  the  profile,  inasmuch  as  it  is  le.s.s 
hiirh,  but  it  is  also  much  wider  in  proportion  ;  and  from 
tliis  width  results  another  difference  in  the  upper  surface 
of  the  cranium,  namely,  that  the  sagittal  crest,  instead  of 
remaining  throughout  its  length  linear  and  narrow, 
widens  much  backwards,  and  even  remains  rather  wide  at 
the  point  where  it  is  most  narrowed  by  the  approximation 
of  the  two  temporal  fossae.  The  triangle  which  these  two 
fossce  leave  in  front  upon  the  frontal  bones  is  also  wider 
and  its  surface  more  convex.  The  triangle  formed  by  the 
true  bones  of  the  nose  is  wider  at  its  base.  For  the  rest, 
the  composition  of  the  cranium,  the  connexion  of  its 
bones,  its  sutures,  its  foramina,  entirely  resemble,  as  well 
as  I  he  teeth,  those,  of  the  American  species. 

Cuvier  then  remarks  that  the  rest  of  the  skeleton  of  the 
two  species  does  not  offer  such  appreciable  differences. 
The  blade-bone  of  the  Indian  species  is  rather  the  wider ; 
but  the  notch  towards  the  lower  part  is  smaller  and 
rounder.  The  anterior  hook  of  the  great  tuberosity  of  the 
humerus  is  more  projecting  ;  the  unciform  bone  of  the 
carpus  is  narrower ;  the  last  phalanges  of  the  middle  an- 
terior toe  are  wider  and  more  rounded,  and  the  same  may 
be  said  of  the  middle  toe  of  the  hind  feet ;  the  great  tro- 
chanter  of  the  femur  is  larger  ;>the  neck  of  the  astragalus 
is  shorter :  but  all  these  differences,  Cuvier  observes,  are 
of  so  little  importance,  that,  without  those  of  the  crania, 
they  would  hardly  justify  the  conclusion  of  specific  dis- 
tinction. (Osseiiiriis  Fotfil 

Mr.  Yarrell,  in  the  4th  vol.  of  the  Zoological  Jniinml. 
gives  an  account  of  the  post-mortem  appearances  in  an 
American  Tapir  brought  to  this  country  by  Lieut.  Maw, 
H.N.,  which  survived  its  arrival  in  the  gardens  of  the 
Zoological  Society  in  the  Regent's  Park  only  a  f^ 
hours. 

When  dead,  the  animal,  which  was  said  to  be  about 
twelve  months  old,  measured  from  the  nose  to  the  root  of 
the  tail  48  inches,  and  its  girth  was  35  inches.  The  in- 

C\*M  teeth  -  were  very  much  used  ;  the  edges  coming  into 

i-ontact  when  the  molars  are  in  action.    The  canines 

—  were  small  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  removed  a  short 

distance  from  the  lateral  incisor,  for  the  admission  of  the 

4—4 
larger  canines  of  the  lower  jaw  ;  the  molars  were  5 — -• 

o  • •  o 

Of  tho.-,e  in  the  lower  jaw,  the  first  had  three  lobes,  with 
ihe  points;  the  second  and  third  two  lobes,  with  four 
points.  Of  the  four  upper  molars,  the  first  had  two  outer 
ami  <me  inner  point;  the  other  three  had  each  two  lobes 
with  four  points :  all  the  parallel  points  or  tubercles  were 
connected  transversely  by  a  slight,  triangular  ridge  ;  and 
'•ai'h  uf  (hoc  triangular  ridges,  with  their  connected  tu- 
bercles, shut  into  similarly  shaped  ca\ities  in  the  teeth 
opposed  to  them,  throughout  the  whole  length  of  their 
continuous  surfaces.  The  second,  third,  and  fourth  upper 
molars  had  each  a  small  additional  but  less  elevated 
point  on  the  external  anterior  angle,  increasing  somewhat 
in  size  from  the  second  tooth  backwards.  On  cutting 
through  the  bones  of  the  palate  in  order  to  the  complete 
removal  of  the  brain,  Mr.  Yarrell  found  the  crown  of 
another  molar  tooth  on  each  side,  posterior  to,  and  some- 
what within  the  line  of  range  of,  the  last  exposed  molar. 
This  tooth  hail  a  fifth  tubercle  of  increased  magnitude. 

The  cartilage  of  the  septum  narium  was  thick  and  strong, 
and  the  central  ridge  of  the  skull  very  much  cle\iitcd. 
The  ligamentum  nuclni-  was  composed  of  three  strong 
cord-like  portions,  two  of  which,  passing  in  a  parallel 
direction  from  the  elongated  spinous  process  of  the  ti:  ,t 
vertebra,  were  inserted  together  upon  the  extreme  supe- 
rior posterior  angle  of  the  central  ridge  of  the  cranium, 
supporting  the  whole  length  of  the  elevated  crest  and 
mane.  The  third  portion  of  this  strong  ligament  passed 
between  the  other  two,  and  was  inserted  into  the  more 
el.  >ated  portion  of  the  elongated  spinous  process  of  the 
dcntata. 

The  anterior  portion  of  the  sternum  was  keel-like  and 
rounded  in  shape,  and  projected  forwards.  There  were 
twenty  ribs  on  each  side  and  four  lumbar  vertebrae.  The 
trachea]  cartilages  were  firm  :  the  rings  however  were  in- 
complete throughout.  One  large  and  one  small  lobe 
formed  the  right  lung ;  one  large  and  two  small  ones  the 
P.  t1.,  X,.. 


eft:  they  were  inflamed.  The  pericardium,  which  was 
loaded  with  fat,  was  of  unusual  thickness  ;  but  the  heart 
presented  nothing  remarkable  :  the  coats  of  the  arteries 
were  particularly  thick  and  firm. 

The  oesophagus  was  narrow :  the  stomach  presented  a 
single  cavity,  rather  small,  measuring,  when  moderately 
distended  with  air,  8  inches  only  from  right  to  left,  and 
1.">J  inches  in  circumference  :  the  parietes  were  thickened 
about  the  pylorus,  but  the  internal  surface  was  not  ex- 
amined, the  organ  having  been  preserved  entire  :  it  con- 
tained a  loose  mass  of  tow,  hair,  string,  and  shreds  of 
cloth. 

The  spleen  was  narrow,  thin,  and  12  inches  long. 

The  liver  was  divided  into  four  lobes  : — two,  one  large 
and  one  small,  on  the  right  side  ;  and  two,  large  and  equal, 
on  the  left ;  the  lower  of  these  last  was  divided  and 
notched  on  the  edge.  There  was  no  gall-bladder. 

The  small  intestines,  uniform  in  size  throughout  their 
length,  measured  21  feet,  and  were  inflamed. 

The  ciecum  was  capacious  compared  with  the  stomach, 
measuring  14  inches  in  the  line  of  its  long  axis,  and  24 
inches  in  girth  at  the  largest  part,  and  had  two  deep  and 
several  smaller  circular  indentations  externally,  and 
marked  with  one  strong  longitudinal  band  on  each  sur- 
face ;  tapering  somewhat  to  a  point  at  its  closed  extremity, 
but  without  any  appendix  vermiformis.  The  colon,  at  two 
feet  from  its  commencement,  doubled  suddenly  upon  itself, 
and  formed  a  fold  16  inches  long,  the  inner  surfaces  of 
which  were  closely  connected.  The  large  intestines  mea- 
sured seven  feet  in  length. 

The  sexual  organs  (the  animal  was  a  female)  presented 
about  the  uterus,  its  eornua,  and  the  ovaria,  a  degree  of 
vascularity  which  rendered  it  probable  that  the  period  of 
life  was  approaching  when  breeding  would  have  com- 
menced. 

Mr.  Yarrell  refers  to  Sir  Everard  Home's  paper  in  Phil. 

-ii/i*.  (1821),  in  which  Sir  Everard  points  out  the  dif- 
ferences existing  in  the  skulls  of  the  Sumatra,]!  and  Ame- 
rican Tapirs,  and  has  described  a  part  of  the  viscera  of  the 
former.  In  the  Sumatran  Tapir  the  stomach  is  large,  the 
intestinal  canal  very  long,  and  the  caecum  small ;  in  the 
American  Tapir  the  stomach  is  small,  the  intestines  of 
moderate  length,  and  the  caecum  large. 

Mr.  Yarrell  adds,  that,  of  the  species  described, 

The  length  of  the  Sumatran  Tapir  is  eight  feet ;  and  the 
whole  length  of  its  intestinal  canal  is  89  feet  6  inches. 
Proportion  as  11  to  1. 

The  length  of  the  American  Tapir  is  four  feet ;  and  the 
whole  length  of  its  intestinal  canal  28  feet.  Proportion, 
as  7  to  1. 

In  the  Physiological  Series,  preserved  in  the  Museum  of 
the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  in  London,  No.  754,  is  the 
anus  of  an  American  Tapir,  in  which,  as  in  the  ordinary 
mammalia,  the  intestinal  canal  has  a  distinct  external 
orifice,  situated  behind,  and  not,  as  in  the  osseous  fishes,  in 
front  of  the  genito-urinary  outlet.  Professor  Owen,  the 
author  of  the  Catalogue,  remarks  that  this  example  of  the 
mammiferous  type  of  anus  is  preserved  on  account  of  the 
peculiar  jagged  appearance  and  abrupt  termination  of  the 
common  integument  at  the  verge  of  the  anus. 

No.  1217  of  the  same  series  is  a  section  of  the  kidney  of 
a  Tapir  (Tapir  Aim  /•/«;//«*),  with  the  arteries  injected,  and 
the  pelvis  laid  open  to  show  the  terminations  of  the  tubuli 
uriniferi,  as  in  the  horse.  No.  1286  is  the  suprarenal  gland 
of  an  American  Tapir  laid  open,  showing  the  central  dark- 
coloured  substance  very  distinctly.  No.  2778  exhibits  part 
of  the  vagina,  with  the  urethro-sexual  canal,  vulva,  and 
clitoris  of  the  American  Tapir,  in  which  the  clitoris  pro- 
jects within  the  anterior  margin  of  the  vulva:  it  is  a  short 
pyramidal  body  with  two  small  lateral  lobes.  The  urethro- 
sexual  canal  is  separated  from  the  vagina  by  a  broad 
transverse  semilunar  fold,  beneath  which  is  the  wide  aper- 
ture of  the  urethra.  No.  2527  B,  is  the  distal  extremity  of 
the  penis  of  the  Sumatran  Tapir.  The  upper  and  lateral 
parts  of  the  base  of  the  glans  present  three  rounded  pro- 
cesses, beyond  which  the  extremity  of  the  glans  is  con- 
tinued forwards,  and  terminates  in  a  large  truncate  slightly 
convex  surface,  in  the  middle  of  which  is  situated  the 
orifice  of  the  urethra. 

(li-neric  Character. — Molars  presenting  on  their  crown, 
before  they  are  worn,  two  transverse  and  rectilineal  tuber- 
cles (collines).  Nose  terminated  in  a  small  moveable  pro- 
boscis, but  not  terminated  with  an  organ  of  touch  like  that 

VOL.  XXIV.— H 


T  A  r 


50 


I    A  I' 


of  tin-  elephant :  neek  rather  long ;  skin  rather  thick,  and 
,1  \\iili  h.iir,  looking  as  if  it  had  ln-cn  close  sluirn  : 
two  inguinal  niammtr.     Anterior  feet  with  four  l.n  -,  :   pos- 
terior feet  with  1 1 

Dental  formula:— incisors^;  canines  : — r  ;  molars  .7 

0  1—1  o— o 

=42. 


Teeth  of  Sumatran  Tapir 

Geographical  Dixtrihutimi.— Asia  and  America.  M. 
Lesson  observes  that  it  was  for  a  long  time  believed  that 
this  genus  was  peculiar  to  America  :  but  that  the  rich  nnd 
beautiful  discoveries  of  MM.  Diard  and  Duvaucel  have 
proved  that  it  is  also  proper  to  Asia  :  of  which  observation 
more  will  presently  be  said. 

i  ic  TAPIU. 

Up  to  the  year  1810  it  appears  to  have  been  thought 
that  the  Tapir  form  was   confined    to  America,  and  tin- 
species  known  in  collections  as  the  American  Tapir 
to  have  been  regarded  as  the  only  example  of  the  : 
M.  I.c-son,  who  >o  swccpiii^ly  chums  the  discovers  of  the 
Asiatic  species  for  French  naturalists,   is  not  the  on: 

of  that  country  who  puts   I'oith  .-ueli  pretensions. 
'    :mctt  has  thus  "corrected  those  pretensions: — 

1  Some  vague  notices  had  reached  Sir  Stamford  Raffles 
of  the  existence  of  a  similar  animal  in  Sumatra  and  the 
Malayan  Peninsula  :  but  to  Major  Farquhar  belongs  the 
credit  of  bavins;  first  procured  a  specimen  and  submitted 
its  description  to  the  world  at  large.  The  hislory  of  this 
transaction  affords  too  striking  an  illuslialion  oftfie  injus- 
tice of  certain  among  tin-  French  yoologi.sts  1o  the  meiits 
of  Our  countrymen  to  be  passed  over  without  observation. 
"  The  knowledge  of  this  animal  in  I 

marest,  in  his  •  Mainmalogic.'  carefully  shielding  himself 
under  an   equivocal   form   of   expression,   "  is  due    to   M. 
Diard."  But  M.  LesttD  goes  farther;  and  echni 
the  dicta  of  his   prcd  Hi  a  slight   addition  of  his 

own.  speaks  of  the  Indian  tapir  asaspccu  s  "  di -covered  by 
\I.  Diaid."  Again,  in  Ihe  '  Dictionnanc  dc-  Seienc 
turelles,'  M.  Dc-marcst,  forgetful  of  his  former  caution, 
heightens  the  farce  still  more  by  averting  that  its  "dis- 
covery in  the  forces  nf  Sumatra  and  the  Peninsula  of  Ma- 
lacca i»  due  to  MM.  Duvaucel  and  Diard."  In  none  nf 
thc-e  works  is  the  leu.st  indication  given  that  the  animal 
in  question  had  previously  been  even  seen  by  an  English- 


man  ;  much  less  is  the  fact  suffered  to  tian-pirc  that  long 
M.  Diard  had  "discovered"  it.  not  in  the  forests  of 
Sumatra  or  the  Malayan  Peninsula,  but  in  the  menagerie 
of  the  (niM-nior-gi-neral  of  Mritish  India  at  Barrackp 
full  description,  together  with  a  figure  of  the  animal  and 
of  its  skull,  had  been  laid  before  the  Asiatic  Socielv  by 
Major  Farquhar,  for  publication  in  their  •  Researches.1 
This  latter  circumstance,  it  is  true,  was  not  mentioned  by 
M  .  Frederick  ( 'in  ier  when  he  figured  the  tapir  of  Malacca 
in  his  splendid  work,  from  a  drawing  made  by  M.  Diard 
in  the  iJarrackpore  menagerie,  or  by  that  gentleman  him- 
self in  the  published  part  of  his  accompanying  letter: 
but  there  seems  (o  have  been  no  int.  ilieir  parts 

wilfully  to  mislead  their  readers.  That  M.  Diait}  at  least 
could  not  have  beer.  i>yam  »nch  desire  is  fully 

proved  t>\  several  pa.-sagcs  in  the  note  appended  by  him 
to  Major  Farqnhar's  original  description,  in  which  he 
speaks  of  the  gallant  officer  as  ••  the  excellent  naturalist 
who  h:  ith  sn  important  a  <! 

and  attributes  the  "honour"  to  him  "a 'one.  '  Ha  mil  ('uv'icr 
too.  in  the  recent  edition  of  hi-  •  R.igne  Animal.'  silently 
rejects  the  unmerited  distinction  in  favor  of  his  stepson 
and  friend  ;  and  candidly  quote-.,  as  the  first  descnber. 
our.  in  this  instance,  more  fortunate  countryman.* 
this,  we  trust  that  we  shall  hear  no  more  of  t  lie"  disc. 
of  the  Indian  tapir  In  MM.  Diard  and  Dnxanccl.  wlio 
have  too  many  real  claims  on  the  consideration  of  zoo- 
logists to  require  tc  be  tricked  out  in  the  borrowed  plumes 
with  which  it  has  hitherto  been  the  fashion  among  our 
neighbours  to  invest  them.'  (Thfdn.  <strie 

ofihc7.ru  ir/i/  ilffl Ill'tltnl.  vol. 

Dr.  Hoi-'.  -  that  the  first   intelligence  of  the 

fi-tence  of  this  inteiesting  animal  in  Sumatra  was  given 
the  government  of  Fort  Marlborough  at  Bencoolen,  in 
the  year  1772,  by  Mr.  Whalfeldt,  who  was  enipKn. 
making  a  survey  of  the  coast.  In  the  month  of  April  in 
that  year,  it  is.  according  to  Dr.  Horsfield,  noticed  in  the 
records,  that  Mr.  Whalfeldt  laid  before  the  government 
his  observations  on  the  place* southward  of  ( 'awoor.  where 
he  met  with  the  tapir  at  the  month  of  one  of  the  i 
He  considered  it  to  be  the  hippopotamus,  and  described 
it  In  that  name;  but  the  drawing  which  accompanied  the 
report  identities  it.  says  the  Doctor,  with  the  tapir.  Dr. 

.•Id  adds  that  this  mistake  in  the  name  may  readily 
be  explained,  when  it  is  recollected  that  in  the  lentil 
edition  of  the  •  Sy-tcma  Nat  urns'  of  Linmvus  the  tapir  is 
placed  a-  ;\  .species  of  hippopotamus,  while  in  the  twelfth 
edition  no  mention  is  made  of  that  animal. 

•  Tlu>  learned  author  of  the  '  Hist.  Wil- 

liam Mar-den.  KM|..'  continues  Dr.  Ilorstield.  •  was  at  that 
time  -  Hincnt  at  llciieooleii  :  and  the 

public  OWe*  to  hi  ...llccting  even  valuable  infor- 

mation relating  to  that  island  the  lir-l  notice  of  the  . 
ence    of  this  animal,   which    is    by   the    Mala\s   in    many 

denominated    Kiulu  Mppo-potamns. 

A  tier  the  first  di-eoveiy.  in  177'-!.  the  !. 
for   a  coiisideiable   period.      Fiom   the  same   e: 
Sir  T.  S.  Rallies   which   ha-  fnrni-hcd  the  dc-cripti 

-  that  in  the  \  .i\ing   spceiim 

1<,  sir  (leoigc  l.c  ith.'v.  hen  lieutenant -governor  of  Pel 

It  \\a  ;uhar  in  the  \\- 

oinitv  of   Malacca.      A  diawing  and  description  of  it 

\  him  to  the-  Asiatic  Society  in  Islli,  and 
a   living   subject  .arils  sent    to   the  menage 

liarraekimre    from    Uencooleu.       At   this   place  a  drawing 
was  made   In   M.  Diard   in   the   year    ISlS,  which,  a. 
panied    In   ail  extract    from   the  dc.-ciiption  of  Major  Far- 

'Hinicated    to   his    fii, 
in  March.  ISM).  M.  Ficd.  Cuvier  published   it   in  hi- 

lilhographic  work  on  the  mammalia  of  the  menagerie  in 

Pans.' 

1  In  the  month  of  September,  l«ii,  the  first  specimen  of 

tin-    Ma::nau    tapir    was    received    ill     England    I'lom    Sir 
.  inford  Raffles,  with  the  general  1  col- 

lection of  mammalia  and  birds,  the  descriptive  catalogue 
of  which,  being  contained  in  the  13th  vol.  of  the  'Tians- 
actions  of  the  I.inman  Society.'  has  been  already  referred 
to.  This  specimen  of  tapir  was  accompanied  by  a  com- 
plete skeleton,  and  the  ihoiaeic  and  abdominal  \: 

preserved  i  wine.'     Dr.  Horefleld  then  rel 

the  use  made  b\  Sir  Kveiaid  Home  of  these  materials  in 
tiie  pap.  .illuded  ty. 

•  Calling  him  '  Farklnrie'  Iwwevcr. 


TAP 


51 


TAP 


A  living  specimen  of  this  species  was  lately  brought  to 
this  country.  ;md  publicly  exhibited  in  the  garden  of  the 
Zoological  Society  of  London,  where  it  died  more  than  a 
year  a_ro. 

Description  of  Tapir  us  Malayanus — Tapir  us  f adieus  of 
the  French  zoologists  ;  Le  Mniba,  F.  Guv.,  Mamm.:—'  The 
Malay  Tapir  resembles  in  form  the  American,  and  has  a 
similar  flexible  proboscis,  which  is  six  or  eight  inches  in 
length.  Its  general  appearance  is  heavy  and  massive, 
somewhat  resembling  the  hog.  The  eyes  are  small ;  the 
ears  roundish,  and  bordered  with  white.  The  sldn  is  thick 
and  firm,  thinly  covered  with  short  hair.  There  is  no  mane 
on  the  neck,  as  in  the  American  species.  The  tail  is  very 
short,  and  almost  destitute  of  hair.  The  legs  are  short  and 
stout ;  the  fore-feet  furnished  with  four  toes,  the  hind-feet 
with  three.  In  the  upper  jaw  there  are  seven  molars  on 
each  side,  one  small  canine  inserted  exactly  on  the  suture 
of  the  incisor  bone,  and  in  front  six  incisors,  the  two  outer 
of  which  are  elongated  into  tusks.  In  the  under  jaw  there 
are  but  six  molars;  the  canines  are  large  ;  and  the  number 
of  the  incisors,  the  outer  of  which  are  the  smallest,  is  the 
same  as  in  the  upper  jaw.  The  general  colour  is  glossy 
black,  with  the  exception  of  the  back,  rump,  and  sides  of 
the  belly,  which  are  white,  and  separated  by  a  defined  line 
from  the  parts  that  are  black.' 

Such  is  the  description  of  Sir  Stamford  Raffles,  for  the 
accuracy  of  which  we  can  vouch,  having  compared  it  with 
the  living  animal  in  the  garden  of  the  Zoological  Society. 
Major  Farquhar  describes  a  young  Tapir  of  this  species 
which  he  had  alive  in  his  house  thus:— 'It  appears  that 


until  the  age  of  four  months  it  is  black,  and  beautifully 
marked  with  spots  and  stripes  of  a  fawn  colour  above  and 
white  below.  After  that  period  it  began  to  change  colour, 
the  spots  disappeared,  and  at  the  age  of  six  months  it  had 
become  of  the  usual  colour  of  the  adult.'  ^See  post, 
American  Tapirs.) 

Marsden,  as  we  have  already  seen,  notices  the  animal  as 
the  Hippopotamus ;  coodo-ayer.  In  Sumatra,  according 
to  Sir  Stamford  Raffles,  it  is  known  by  different  names  in 
different  parts  of  the  country :  thus  by  the  people  of  Limuu 
it  is  called  Saladang;  by  those  of  the  interior  of  Manna, 
Gindul;  in  the  interior  of  Bencoolen,  Babi  Alu;  and  at 
Malacca,  Tctnin. 

Habits. — The  habits  of  this  species  in  a  state  of  nature 
are  probably  similar  to  those  of  the  American  Tapirs.  In 
captivity,  Major  Farquhar  describes  it  as  of  a  mild  and 
gentle  disposition.  '  It  became  as  tame  and  familiar  as  a 
dog ;  fed  indiscriminately  on  all  kinds  of  vegetables,  and 
was  very  fond  of  attending  at  table  to  receive  bread,  cakes, 
or  the  like.'  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  adds  that  the  living 
specimen  sent  from  Bencoolen  to  Bengal  was  young,  and 
became  very  tractable.  It  was  allowed  to  roam  occa- 
sionally in  the  park  at  Barrackpore,  and  the  man  who  had 
charge  of  it  informed  Sir  Stamford  that  it  frequently  en- 
tered the  ponds,  and  appeared  to  walk  along  the  bottom 
under  water,  and  not  to  make  any  attempt  to  swim.  Sir 
Stamford  also  states  that  the  flesh  is  eaten  by  the  natives 
of  Sumatra. 

The  individual  exhibited  in  the  Regent's  Park  was  very 
mild  and  gentle. 


a  i 


Tapir  Mal.iynuu* 


AMERICAN  TAPIRS. 

John  <!'•  Laet  <  1  (>.'!:(  ,  spcakinir  of  the'province  of  Vera- 

Mr.it  among  the    living   quadrupeds  which   are 

found  the  ttrc.itest   is  that  which  the  barbarians  <  all 

.  and  the  Spaniards  Dti/ita,  an  animal  not  unlike  a 

calf,  but  with  shorter  ICLCS  ami  :irticulaled  alter  (lie  manner 

elephant's:    the  anterior  feet  have,  he  states,  five 

-tenor  only  four.     The  head   he  de- 

.LT,    the   forehead  rather  narrow,  the  eyes 

1  :'in  to  the  bulk,  and  the  proboscis  as  being 

a  p«l':  '>ve  the  mouth.     When  the 

ihat  it  erects  itself,  and  grinning 

which  are  like  those  of  hogs.     The  cars 

••*  an  acute,  the  neck  contracted,  the  tail  short 

and  imini,  the  skin  MTV  thick,  HO  that/it  may 

with  difficulty  be  giasped  by  the  hand  or  perforated  by 

iron.     It  feeds,  he  says,  on  grass  and  sylvan  herbage.    The 


natives,  he  adds,  eat  its  flesh,  and  relate  that  they  are 
taught  venesection  by  this  animal,  for  when  it  finds  itself 
o\  crloaded  with  blood,  by  rubbing  against  rocks  it  opens 
the  veins  of  the  h'«rs  and  lets  blood.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  animal  here  meant  is  one  of  the  American 
Tapirs. 

Marcgrave  gives  a  very  rude  figure,  not  however  to  be 

mistaken  for  anything   but   a  Tapir,   under   the  name    of 

'I'tijiii'rfte,  Atita   of  the  Spaniards,  describing  it  and  its 

habits  with  considerable  general  accuracy;  but  Mr.  Bennett 

observes  that  he  speaks  of  the  teeth  as  consisting  of  ten 

incisors  and  ten  molars  in  each  jaw,  an  error  which  Mr. 

It  remarks  held  its  ground  for  nearly  two  centuries, 

and  having  passed   successively  through  the  writings   of 

lirisson,  Buffon,  Gmelin,  and  Blumenbach,  was  first 

corrected  by  Geoffrey  St.  Hilaire. 

Towards  the  close  of  last  century  the  fabulous  clouds 

H2 


TAP 


T  A  P 


that  had  gathered  about  the  history  of  this  animal  began 
to  clear  away  before  the  lights  of  observation.  Button  hail 

•  I  tin-  only  American  Tapir  then  known,  as  the  1 
animal  of  the  New  World  ;  but  this  i-an  hunlly  be  said  of 
it  when  the  Elk  anil  tin-  Wapiti  are  remembered.  Geoffroy 
M.  Hilaire  anil  Baron  Cuvicr  first  accurately  defined  its 
zoological  characters:  and  Sonnini  nnd  D'Azara  cave  a 
correct  account  of  its  lialiits.  Button's  figure,  alter  a 
drawing  by  I.a  Condamine.  was  the  first  at  all  approach- 
ing to  accuracy.  A  living  individual  was  afterwards 
brought  to  France,  b\it  died  lie:  •.  al  at  Pan 

furnished  a  Mill  better  desiirn.  published  with  further  in- 
formation, derived  chiefly  from  Sonnini,  and  M.  Bajor.'s 
memoir  on  the  anatomy  of  the  species,  in  the  Supplement 
to  Button,  \ol.vi.:  but  still  some  of  the  errors  wen-  re- 
tained ;  nor  was  the'account  of  two  other  individuals  living 
in  the  menagerie  belonging  to  the  Prince  of  Orange,  by 
Allamand,  complete. 

Lieut.  Maw,  in  his  Journal  of  <<  Pitssagr  from  Ihr 
I'<iriflc  to  the  Atlantic  (1829),  speaks  of  the  Tapir  as  com- 
mon in  the  woods  and  ri\ers about  Egas,  there  called  Anln, 
and  which  is  the  same  animal  with  the  Sachywaka,  Dante, 
or  Gran  Bestia  of  Peru,  of  which  they  had  heard  much 
both  before  and  since  embarking.  Two  kinds  were  de- 
scribed to  them,  one  bavin*;  the  tips  of  its  cars  white,  and 
which  is  the  lariresl  :  when  young  it  was  stated  to  be 
striped  and  spotted  like  a  deer,  the  spots  disappearing  M 
it  crows  older,  till  it  becomes  entirely  of  a  dusky  bay 
colour.  Here  we  have  a  clear  intimation  of  the  knowledge 
of  two  species  by  those  inhabiting  the  spot. 

The  form  of  the  species  best  known  has  since  been  ren- 
dered familiar  to  Englishmen  by  the  exhibition  of  living 
specimens  in  the  gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  Lon- 
don in  the  Regent's  Park. 

But  this  is  not  the  only  American  Tapir :  fur  M.  Konlin, 
about  thirteen  years  since,  laid  before  the  French  Academy 
a  description  and  figures  of  a  new  species  inhabiting  the 
mountainous  parts  of  the  same  districts,  the  plains  of  which 
are  frequented  by  the  other;  and  his  account  is  given  in 
the  An  miles  des  Sciewi't  \<itnr>  -Ili-s :  from  this  it  would 

appear  that  the  American  Tapir  of  the  mountains  is  more 
nearly  allied  to  the  Asiatic  species  than  the  American 
Tapir  of  the  plains. 

\Ve  take  as  our  example  the  species  first  known. 
.liii-rirniiiix,  Gmel. 

Denrrijiti'iti.  General  colour  throughout  deep  brown 
approaching  to  black.  Sides  of  the  lower  lip.  hand  on  the 
under  and  middle  part  of  the  chin,  upper  edges  of  the 
cars,  and  naked  line  at  the  junction  of  the  hoofs  pure 
white.  Scanty  hair  of  the  body  very  short,  closely  ad- 

1  In  the  surface:  hardly  distinguishable  at    a 
distance.     The  skin  beneath  it  is   of  threat   density,  belli:,', 
according  to  M.  Uoulin,  not  !:•  <  n  lines  thick  on 

the  hack,  and  eight  or  nine  lines  on  the  cheek,  and  so 
touch  that  Sonnini  frequently  shot  at  a  female  which  was 
•us;  the  river  with  her  young,  without  disturbing  her 
or  makine  her  turn  out  of  her  course,  though  he  saw  the 
impression  of  a  ball  which  he  had  tired  on  the  animal's 
check.  There  is  a  thick  rounded  crest  on  the  hack  of  the 
neck,  extending  from  the  forehead  ns  low  as  the  level  of 
the  eyes  to  the  shoulders,  and  bristled  with  a  not  thick 
mane  of  still' blackish  hairs.  Mr.  Bennett  icmail.  that  it 
is  peculiar  to  the  present  species,  but  is  not  found,  accord- 
ing to  M.  Konlin,  in  the  female  at  Cayenne:  although 
D'A/ara  states  that  the  female  is  equally  furnished  with  it 
in  Paraguay.  In  the  female  brought  by  Lieut.  Maw  from 
Para,  and 'formerly  in  the  menagerie  "of  the  Xoological 
:yof  I/ondon,  it  was  \ cry  conspicuous.  Head  very 
long  ;  muzzle  prolonged  and  covered  above  with  hair  of 
Miie  colour  as  that  of  the  body,  but  naked  and  flesh- 
coloured  at  its  extremity  (which  !s  flattened  ;  and  under- 
neath. F.yes  very  small,  of  a  dull  lead  colour. 

The  colour  of  the  individual  dissected  by    Mr.  Yarrell 
was  rusty  reddish-brown,  with  indications  of  lighter  spots 
and  horizontal  lines  on  the  ribs,  flanks,  and  tin 
fawn-coloured  spot*  and  stripes.'  MI;,  s  Mi.    Yarrell,  'are 
common  to  both  species  of  Tapir'  (the  Sumatran  and  the 
American  species  then  known  are  meant    '  while  young  : 
that  of  Sumatra  not   exhibiting  till  it   is    ,i\    mon'ths  old 
any  appearance  of  the  well-defined  black  and  whiti 
which  afterwards  distinguishes  the  adult  animal. 
J'liirn.,  vol. 

Mr.  Bennett,  too,  remarks  that  the  young  is  of  a  much 


lighter  brown  than  the  adult,  with  numerous  small  white 
-pus  on  the  cheeks,  a  whitish  muzzle,  and  MX  or  eight, 
complete  narrow  hands  of  white  pacing  along  each  side 
of  the  body  from  the  shoulders  to  the  haunches.  •  Ke- 
irnlnr  rows,  says  Mr.  Bennett,  in  continuation.  •  of  small 
white  spots,  placed  at  equal  d)  m  cadi  other, 

alternate  with  these  bands.  The  vipper  parts  of  the  limbs 
are  marked  in  a  similar  manner:  their  inner  sides,  as  well 
the  under  surface  of  the  body,  are  white;  and  their  ex- 
tremities of  the  ground-colour  of  the  whole  body,  with  a 
lew  fainter  spots  scattered  over  them.  Before  the  end  of 
the  first  year  of  their  age  this  livery  becomes  comp'< 
lost  :  it  is  partially  visible  in  the  young  specimen  in  the 
Society's  museum,  but  not  at  all  in  the  living  individuals 
at  the  Gardens  i  1X10  .  Similar  markings  occur  in  the. 
young  of  the  Sumatra!  :md  also,  we  may  observe, 

in  that  of  the  Hog  in  its  native  state.  The  adidt  female 
of  the  present  species  has  generally  a  considerable  number 

of  whitish  bain  intermingled  with  the  brown,  which  give-. 
her  somewhat  of  a  grizzled  appcaiancc." 
•  irirnl  f*'irii'ttf  ili'/ini- 

I  iliti/.  South  America.  'Few  animals  of  equal 
si/e."  says  the  author  last  quoted.  'hav  e  MI  extensive  a 
lange  as  the  American  Tapir.  It  is  found  in  even  part  of 
South  America  to  the  east  of  the  Andes,  from  the  Siraits 
of  Magellan*  to  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  :  but  appears  to  lie 
•  ••minion  within  the  tropics.  M.  Koulin  dwells  upon 
it  as  a  singular  fact  that  although  it  occurs  as  far  . 
south  of  the  equator,  it  ceases  suddenly  at  about  K°  north, 
in  a  situation  where  it  is  extremely  abundant. and  where  no 
adequate  cause  has  yet  been  assigned  to  bar  its  further  pro- 
gress, no  huge  riveis  nor  lofu  mountains  intervening,  nor 
any  change  in  the  character  of  t!  'inn  of  the 

country  being  manifest.  The  left  bank  of  the  Atrato  near 
ith,  and  the  part  of  Darien  inhabited  by  the  inde- 
pendent Indians,  i.iav  be  considered  as  its  northern  limit. 
Its  highest  range,  iii  the  province  of  Maraqmta  at  least, 
appears  to  be  from  :«K«)  to  lilJOO  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  while  the  new  species  discovered  by  M.  Konlin  is 
only  met  with  at  a  much  greater  elevation.' 

Ilutiit*.  C/iiin;  ,\  r.  The  inmost  recedes  of  deep  !• 
are  the  chosen  haunts  of  this  species,  which  is  not  gregari- 
ous, and  ilies  from  the  proximity  of  man.  It  is  for  the 
most  part  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  sleeping  or  remaining 
quiet  during  the  day,  and  at  night  seeking  its  food,  which, 
in  its  natc.ial  state,  consists  of  shoots  of  trees,  buds,  wild 
fruits.  &e.  If  we  are  to  believe  D'A/aia,  and  he  Wl 
accurate  observer,  it  is  very  fond  of  the  barrero.  or  nitrous 
earth  of  Paiaguay.  Il  is  however  a  most  indiscriminate 
swallower  of  everything  filthy  or  clean,  nutritious  or  other- 
wise, M  the  farrago  found  in  the  stomach  of  the  individual 
••i-d  by  Mr.  Yarrell  showed.  Pieces  of  wood,  clay, 
pebbli  esarcnol  un  frequent  h  taken  out  of  the 

stomachs  of  those  which  are  killed  in  the  woods  :  and  one 
kept  by  D'.'i  silver  snutt'-ho  -.  and 

s,  allowed  ill'.'  contents. 

l!    is  a  powerful  animal,  and  everything  in  the  under- 
i_v  to  its  rush.    It  is  in  the  habit. 

of  making  runs  or  roads  through  the  brushwood,  and  Ihe-e 
beaten  tra.:.  -lected  h;. 

through  the  t'oi- 

Quiet  and  peaceable   in   i(s  demeanour,  it  is  hunted  for 
kt  of  its  tough  hide  and  its  Mesh,  which,  though  not 
liked  by  the  Knropcan    for  it  is  coarse  and  dry   .  is  relished 
by  the  unsophisticated  palate  of  the  Indian. 

The  lasso  i-  not  often  employed  in  its  capture,  not  only 
from  its  haunts  being  geneially  unfavourable  to  that  mode 
of  hunting,  but  because  its  determined  inshand  strength 
will  at  a  single  effort  snap  the  line  which  is  sliong  ei 

eer  of  a  bull.  The  hunters  will  sometimes 
lie  in  wait  with  their  dogs  near  a  Tapir's  road  as  evening 
approaches,  and  so  get  between  him  and  the  water  to 
which  he  usually  directs  his  <  the  purp. 

bathing  and  wallowing  at  the  commencement  of  In- 
turnal  career.     He  n,  d  tight  and  inflicts  | 

wounds  upon  the  dogs  with  his  teeth,  especially  if  lie 
can  reach  the  water,  where  he  stands  at  bay, 

deep  and  defies  the  fiercest  of  them:  for:  com- 

pelled to  swim  to  the  attack,  the  Tapir  bides  his  time,  and 
seizing  them  by  the  backs  of  their  necks  as  they  succo- 
siveh  come  within  his  reach,  shakes  them  oft,  not  without 
biting  a  piece  out. 

•  A'  '.  :it  ]  rrsont. 


TAP 


53 


TAP 


But  it  would  seem  that  the  most  common  method  of 
catching  them  is  by  imitating  their  sharp  but  not  very 
shrill  whistle,  and  thus  bringing  them  within  shot  of  the 
Indian's  poisoned  arrow. 

Lieut.  Maw,  who,  as  we  have  above  seen,  brought  a 
young  animal  of  this  species  to  England,  speaks  of  it  as 
feeding  \ipon  herbs  and  the  branches  of  trees,  and  going 
much  into  the  water,  walking  along  or  rather  perhaps 
aeross  the  bottoms  of  rivers.  '  It  possesses,'  says  Lieut. 
Maw,  '  great  strength,  particularly  in  the  fore  part  of  the 
body  ;  but  is  harmless,  except  when  attacked.  It  is  said 
to  pass  directly  through  the  thickets  without  following 
any  previous  track.*  We  were  told  that  when  the  Tapir 
is  :it  lacked  by  a  Tiger'  (Pel  is  On  fa)  [LEOPARD,  vol.  xiii.,  p. 
4:Vi],  '  the  Tiger  generally  springs  upon  the  Tapir's  back, 
when  the  latter  rushes  into  the  woods  and  endeavours  to 
kill  the  assailant  by  dashing  him  against  some  large  tree. 
Although  strongly'vand  apparently  heavily  made,  the  Tapir 
is  s;iiil  to  be  fleet.'  (Journal  of  a  Passage,  &c.) 

This  species  is  mild  in  captivitv  and  easily  domesticated. 
Sonnini  states  that  several  tame  Tapirs  are  permitted  to  go 
at  liberty  through  the  streets  of  Cayenne,  and  to  wander 
into  the  woods,  whence  they  return  in  the  evening  to  the 
house  where  they  are  kept  and  fed.  He  adds  that  they  are 
capable  of  attachment  to  their  owner,  and  expresses  his 
opinion  that  care  and  attention  might  convert  its  qualities 
of  strength,  docility,  and  patience  to  account  as  a  beast  of 
burthen. 


AmerSrnn  Tapir. 

FOSSIL  TAPIRS. 

Dr.  Buckland,  in  his  Itctiqnice  Diliirinna;  notices  the 
remains  of  Tapir  in  company  with  those  of  rhinoceros, 
elephant,  horse,  ox,  deer,  hyaena,  bear,  tiger,  fox,  wolf, 
mastodon,  hog,  and  beaver,  in  the  Val  d'Arno,  on  the 
authority  of  Mr.  1'entland  ;  and  in  his  interesting  and  in- 
itractive  fint plate  illustrative  ol\a*BridgeiDater  Tn-ttti.\<- 
figures  a  Tapir  in  little  among  the  mammalia  of  the  first 
period  of  the  Tertiary  series  (Eocene  of  Lyell).  In  the 
Kppleshcim  sand  (Miocene  of  Lyell),  Professor  Kaup 
found  two  species  larger  than  those  now  living. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  second  or  Miocene 
system  of  tertiary  deposits  contains  a  mixture  of  the  ex- 
tinct genera  of  lacustrine  mammalia  of  the  first  or  Eocene 
series,  with  the  earlie.-t  forms  of  existing  genera.  M. 
Desnoveis  i'r.,t  noticed  this  in  the  Faluns  of  Touraine, 
where"  the  remains  of  I'lilrrntlu'rintii.  Anthrucothvriiini, 
and  Ijiphifid'in  were  found  mixed  with  the  bones  of  the 
tapir,  mastodon,  rhinoceros,  hippopotamus,  and  horse. 
These  remains  were  i';;\<-tun •<!  and  rolled,  .and  sometimes 
ccncrcd  with  flustra,  and  must,  Dr.  Buckland  observes, 
have  been  derived  from  carcasses  drifted  into  an  actuary 
or  sea. 

Von  Meyer  records  the  following  species :  Tapir 
-,  Croiz.  and  Job.,  from  the  diluvium,  Puy-de- 
Dfime,  Cussac;  Tapir  Mailodontoidtt,  Harlan,  from  Ken- 
tucky, wit li  a  justifiable  query,  whether  it  is  a  Tapir  at 
all  :•'•  and  Tnjiir  Prisms,  Kaup,  from  the  Epplesheim  sand, 
iuilesto  other  remains  noticed  m  the  works  of 
lift,  and  Kichwald.  (Diluvium,  Irawadi.i 

Dr.  Lund,  in  his  '  View  of  the  Fauna  of  Brazil,'  states  that 

he  h:id  in  vain  looked  for  either  remains  or  foot-prints  o! 

the  living  Tapir;  whence  he  concludes,  that  it  does  not 

:  but.  -he  says  that  he  is  in  possession 

of  fo  which    evidently   belong  to   the   genus 

•   Iltlt  te«  aliovr. 

t  I'r  ,fr«ir  OWTO  l«-l,.nci  UiU  »  called  T»pir  to  Iw  the  young  of  }Iatl<iAm 

•VBt. 


hough  they  are  too  imperfect  to  determine  their  relation 
o  the  recent  animal. 

TAPPING,  or  Paracentesis  (in  Surgery),  is  the  operation 
.isually  employed  for  the  removal  of  fluid  from  any  of  the 
serous  cavities  of  the  body  in  which  it  has  collected  in  a 
dangerous  quantity.  It  is  accomplished  by  means  of  an 
'nstrument  called  a  trocar,  and  a  tube,  or  canula,  in  which 
t  exactly  fits.  The  trocar  is  of  steel,  cylindrical  through 
;he  chief  part  of  its  length,  and  terminated  by  a  three- 
sided  pyramid  which  ends  in  a  very  sharp  point.  The 
L-anula  being  placed  upon  its  shaft,  the  trocar  is  thrust 
nto  the  cavity  containing  the  fluid,  and  being  then  with- 
drawn through  the  eanula,  the  latter  is  retained  in  the 
aperture  till  all  the  fluid  is  discharged.  The  diseases  for 
which  tapping  is  chiefly  performed  are  ascites,  hydro- 
:horax,  hydrocele,  and,  occasionally,  hydrocephalus,  and 
•fins-ions  of  fluid  in  the  pericardium. 

TAPTY.     [HINDUSTAN,  p.  211.] 

TAPUH.     [SooLoo  ARCHIPELAGO.] 

TAR,  a  well-known  empyreumatic  product. 

The  properties  of  tar  are,  that  it  is  a  viscid  brown  semi- 
luid  mass,  which  long  preserves  its  softness.  If  it  be 
mixed  with  water,  it  acquires  a  yellow  colour  and  the 
:aste  of  tar,  with  slightly  acid  properties  ;  this  solution  is 
well  known  by  the  name  of  tar-water,  and  has  been  used 
in  medicine.  Tar  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  in  aether,  and  in 
:he  fixed  and  volatile  oils. 

If  tar  be  distilled  with  water,  there  passes  over  a  brown 
iquid  which  consists  of  much  empyreumatic  oil  and  some 
oil  of  turpentine  ;  this  product  is  called  oil  of  tar  ;  by  redis- 
illation  with  water  it  becomes  colourless ;  the  substance 
•emaining  in  the  still  is  pitch ;  so  that,  in  fact,  tar  is  a 
mixture  of  oil  and  pitch. 

?.  Within  a  few  years,  tar  has  been  subjected  to  a  minute 
examination  by  Reichenbach,  who  has  obtained  from  it  a 
variety  of  substances  possessing  very  different  properties  ; 
the  most  important  of  these  is  creasote.  [CREASOTK.] 

After  what  has  been  stated  of  the  many  different  com- 
pound substances  of  which  tar  is  constituted,  no  exact 
analysis  could  of  course  be  stated  ;  its  chief  constituent 
is  carbon,  combined  with  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  and  a 
small  portion  of  azote. 

TAR  (French,  Goudron ;  German,  Them ;  Italian,  Ca- 
trame;  Spanish,  Alquitran;  Polish,  SmolaGesta;  Russian, 
Degot,  Smola  shitkaja ;  Swedish,  Tjiira),  is  obtained  from 
wood  or  coal  by  distillation  in  close  vessels,  or  in  piles  from 
which  the  air  is  excluded.  Pitch  (French,  Poix ;  German, 
Pcrh ;  Italian,  Pece ;  Spanish,  Fez ;  Russian,  Smolti  gus- 
taja)  is  commonly  obtained  by  the  jnspissation  of  tar,  or 
by  boiling  it  until  all  the  volatile  matters  are  driven  oft'. 
For  the  chemical  properties  of  tar,  see  the  preceding 
article. 

Tar  is  extensively  manufactured  from  the  roots  and 
branches  of  pines  and  firs  in  Norway,  Sweden,  Germany, 
Russia,  North  America,  and  other  countries  in  which  those 
trees  abound ;  but  that  made  in  the  north  of  Europe  is 
considered  far  superior  to  what  is  produced  in  the  United 
Stales.  The  process  usually  followed  is  described  in  Dr. 
E.  D.  Clarke's  'Travels  in  Scandinavia,'  and  is,  he  states, 
similar  to  that  which,  according  to  Theophrastns  and 
Dioscorides,  was  practised  by  the  antient  Greeks.  He 
observes  indeed  that  '  there  is  not  the  smallest  difference 
between  a  tar-work  in  the  forests  of  Westro-Bothnia  and 
those  of  antient  Greece.'  After  describing  the  noble  fores! s 
which  cover'the  soil  down  even  to  the  water's  edge,  about 
the  inlets  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  Dr.  Clarke  says,  '  From 
the  most  southern  parts  of  Westro-Bothnia  to  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  Gulf,  the  inhabitants  are  occupied  in  the 
manufacture  of  tar,  proofs  of  which  are  visible  in  the  whole 

extent  of  the  coast The  situation  most  favourable  to 

the  process  is  in  a  forest  near  to  a  marsh  or  bog  ;  because 
the  roots  of  the  fir,  from  which  tar  is  principally  extracted, 
are  always  most  productive  in  such  places.  A  conical 
cavity  is  then  made  in  the  ground  (generally  in  the  side  of 
a  bank  or  sloping  hill),  and  the  roots  of  the  fir,  together 
with  logs  and  billets  of  the  same,  being  neatly  trussed  in  a 
stack  of  the  same  conical  shape,  are  let  into  this  cavity. 
The  whole  is  then  covered  with  turf,  to  prevent  the  vola- 
tile parts  from  being  dissipated,  which,  by  means  of  a 
heavy  wooden  mallet,  and  a  wooden  stamper  worked  sepa- 
rately by  two  men,  is  beaten  down  and  rendered  as  firm  as 
possible  above  the  wood.  The  stack  of  billets  is  then 
kindled,  and  a  slow  combustion  of  the  fir  takes  place, 


T  A  R 


5-1 


I    A    1! 


without  flame,  a»  in  making  charcoal.     During  this  com 
bustion  the  tar  exudes;  ami  a  cast-iron  pan  hfiiiir  nt  th 
bottom  ol the  1'iiiuifl,  with  a  spout  \\iiuli  project*  thruuirl 
thf  >uli'  Hi  thr  hank,  barrels  an-  placed  lifiu-uth  tlii»  gpou 
to  collect  the  tliml  H.I  it  comes  away.     An  fust  as  thf  bar 
n  Is  arc  filled,  they  an-   Imnged  anil  insult-  ready  tor  ex 
[inflation.'     •  From   this  <lf« •niitiiiti.'  he  adds.  •  it  will  IK. 
fMilfiit  that  the  mode  ol'  obtaining  tiir  is  by  a  kind  of  dit- 
tillation  i* i-   ilnrimtum  ;    the   turpentine,  melted  bv   tin. 
fire,  mixing  with   the  MI p  and  juices  of  thf  fir,  while  ti 
wood  itself,  becoming  charred,  is  converted  into  charcoal. 
The   procesH  of  tar-making  in  Sweden,  north  of  the  ll.iih 
mini  (rulf.  has  been  more   recently   described   in   l,aing' 
'Tour  in  Sweden.'  in  which  work  it   is  stated  that  fir-tree 
which  are  stunted  in  growth,  or  from  their  situation  im 
suitable  for  the  saw-mill,  arc  prepared  tor  thiit  purpose-  by 
peeling  off  the  bark  to  the  height  of  one  or  two  fathom* 
up  the  stem.     This  is  done  by  degree*,  so  that  the  trei 
may  not  decay  and  dry  up  at  once,  but  may  remain  foi 
ti\f  or  six  years  in  a  vegetative  slate, — alive,  but  no1 
growing.     The  sap,  thus  checked  in  its  circulation,  makes 
the  wood  licher  in  tar,  so  that,  when  cut  down,  the  tree  is 
almost   entirely  converted  into  the  substance  from  vvhicl 
tar   is   distilled.      The    roots,   rotten    stubs,   and   .-corchci 
trunks  of  trees  felled  in  clearing  land,  are   all  applied  to 
the   purpose  of  producing  tar.     It    is  slated,  in  the  last 
mentioned  work,  that  the  state  of  the  weather  during  tin 
process  of  burning  or  distilling  greatly  affects  the  amount 
of  produce.     The  labour  required  to  convey  the  tar  from 
the  forests  to  the  rivers  is  often  very  irreat ;  and  not  un- 
frcquently  the  barrels   are  committed   to  the   stream   in 
(udiT  to  pass  rapids  or  falls. 

In  some  parts  of  France  and  Switzerland  tar  - 
in  a  kind  of  oven  or  kiln,  built  of  stone  or  brick,  in  tlu 
form  of  an  egg,  with  its  smaller  end  downwards.  These 
kilns  are  sometimes  as  much  a.s  ten  feet  deep  and  sixfict 
in  diameter:  and  they  are  provided  with  a  gun-barrel  or 
lube  at  the  lower  eiid'to  conduct,  the  tar.  as  it  is  made,  to 
U  placed  to  receive  it.  The  wood  is  cut  into  billets, 
and  freed  from  its  bark;  and  the  kiln  is  rilled  with  bundles 
of  billets,  chips  being  inserted  to  fill  up  the  interstices.  A 
layer  of  chips  is  also  placed  at  the  top  of  the  kiln,  which, 
when  charged,  is  covered  over  with  flat  stones,  so  arranged 
as  to  form  a  kind  of  vaulted  chimney.  Fire  is  applied  to 
the  dry  chips  at  the  lop,  through  a'n  opening  left  in  the 
centre,  and,  a*  soon  as  the  pile  is  fairly  lighted,  the  chim- 
ney is  closed  in  with  a  large  stone,  and  wet  earth  is  heaped 
upon  the  top i>f  the  kiln  until  the  escape  of  smoke  is  effec- 
tually prevented.  It  is  however  necessary  occasionally  to 
h  the  lire  by  the  admission  of  a  little  air  throuirh 
holes  in  the  sides  of  the  kiln.  The  avcraire  product  of  tar 
ted  to  be  from  ten  to  twelve  per  cent,  of  the  weight 
of  the  charge:  but  the  red  wood  and  the  knots  furnish 
about  one-fourth  of  their  weight  of  tar.  Hy  this  plan 
the  wood  is  chaired  more  equally,  and  the  tar  is  (.f 
superior  quality.  A  Me  quantity  of  lamp-black 

collects  upon  the  stones  which  form  the  roof  and  chimney 
of  the  kiln,  and  this  is  removed  after  each  operation.  l'io- 
bably  a  still  better  plan  would  be  to  distil  the  wood  in 

milar  to  those  used  in  the  manul'ac' 

coal-ir;us  :  but  any  such  apparatus  is  unsuitable  for  the  wild 
lore»t  districts  in  which  tar  is  principally  made. 

The   great    importance   of  lar  and  pitch  its  naval 
enabled  the  Tar  Companv  i.in   ITOM,  to  put  Eng- 

land '  able   inconvenience,  by  refusing  to  supply 

•  their  own  price,  in  such  quan- 
M  thc\  miirht  i  i  in  Swedish  shipping. This 

circumstance  induced  parliament  to  offer  bounties  for  the 
mipoitation    of   these    and    other    naval    stores    from    the 
Uiitish  colonies  in  North  America,  a  measure  which  pro- 
duced highly  beneficial  results.      It  wnscomp. 
period   that    the   annual   consumption   of  '  >r'and 

pitch  in  (treat  Hritain   and    Ireland  was  about   1(H>" 
and   that   of  other  Kuropcan  countries  about  "XKKI  lasts,  of 
wlurli   iour-filllis  was  tar;  and  it  was  stated  that   1 

:    :d,-<l    the    chief  supply,  considerable 
in  Norway  and  inmusia.     Probably 
this  estimate  was  much  too  small  ;    for    And. 
that  in    173O  the  quantity  of  tar  annually   shipped   from 
Archangel    ill   Russia  was  computed  to  be  4<),lHKi 
The  Amei:  i    independence,  by  interrupt  ing  the 

trade  between  Knu'l.ind  and  North  America,  revived  the 
funnel-  difficult)  respecting  the  supply  of  lar,  and  led  to 


the  establishment  of  the  manufacture  ol  tar  liom  p- 
an  object  which  hail  :  attempted.      If 

.;,'!!  chemist,  w!i  ,,ut  (he  time  of  Char, 

is  supposed  to  have  1  Mo  piopose  the  makinir  of 

coal-tar;  and  it  wan  made  :mpn, 

of  l.icifc,  and  in  other  parts  ,tr  dis- 

tilled in  a  kind  ,  •!  the 

•  Philosophical  Tiaiisactious'    vol.  \i\..  \>.7>\l  .  wh: 
published   in    May,    1(>!»7.  contains    . 

making    of    pitch,  tar.  and  oil  out    of  a   blackish  stone  in 
Shropshire,  communicated  bv  Mr.  Martin  i 
of  it.'     The  mineral  used  is  described  as  a  blackish  ; 
rock,  lung  over  the   sliiita    of    coal,  in   Jirosclcy.  Hcntlv  , 
I'itchford.  .Vc.  ;  and  the  bituminous  part  was  separated  by 
breaking  the  rock  to   powder,  and  boihnir  it  with 
About  the  year  ITT'-I,  in  consequence,  as  before  slated,  ol 
the    American    war,  some    lamp-black    in,.  ,-rs    at 

lln-tol    turned  their  attention  to  the   manufacture 
from  pit-coal;  and  in  17NI.  Lord  Dundonald,  a  nobleman 
distinguished  for  his  scientific  pursuits,  obtained  a 

for  improvement*  upon  the  pioecss  pievumsly  fol. 

Mr.  Pitt,  of  1'endeford.  near  \Volverhanipton.  in  a  lellei 
addressed  to  the  Socictv  of  Arts,  in  17UO,  on  the  snbj 
converting  the  smoke  of  .steam-engine  furnaces  into  tar. 
alludes   to  three  establishment*  at    liradlcy.  Tipton,  and 
Dudley  Wood,  erected  bv  Lord  Dundonald  and  the  gentle- 
men associated  with  him  :  ai:d  stales  that  the  !• 
then  carried  on  with  succc  >    tar-work- 

Pitt.-are  erected  in   the  \ieinityof  large   iron  and  coal 
works:  the  iron-masters  furnish   the  tar-works  with  raw- 
coal   gruti*,    and    receive    in    icturii    the    cokes   piv 
by  suc'h  coal  ;  and  the  proprietors  of  the  -   have 

the  smoke  only  for  their  labour  and  int.  :|iital.' 

'l'r<inii<irtiiin\  nf  Ihr  Xm-ii-nj  tif  Art*.  vol.  iv..  p.  l:t2.)  The 

-s   adopted   at   these   works   is   fully  detailed   1 
Pitt.     The  manufacture  ol  coal-tar  has  not  proved  so  im 
|)ortant  as  was  at  one  time  anticipated,  although  for  somi 
inn-poses  it  is  deemed  superior  to  that  made  from 
The  author  of  the  article  'Navy.'  in  the  > 

''i/iffi/iii  Britun/iiea,  considers  tar   I 
be  an  important  resource  in  case  of  Kn--l. 
pelled   to   revert   to  her  own  resources   f, 
and  observes    that    for    painting    or    tarring 
of  ever)'  kind,  it,  is  said  to  stand  exposure  to  the  weather 
better  than  the  common  tnr.     He  also  refers  to  the  pitch- 
lake  of  Trinidad  [TRINIDAD]  as  a  source  whence  an  almos' 
inexhaustible  supply  of  mineral  pitch  and  tar  miirht   be 
obtained.     Tar  is  produced  in  large  quantities  in  the  ma- 
nufacture of  coal-:ras  :  but   in  some   districts   its  value  i> 
considered   so   trifling   that   il    is  mixed  with    the   fuel   bv 
which  the  retorts  are  heated.     It  is  usual!  1  from 

the  iras  by  condensation  ;  but  the  introduction  of  a  quiin- 
titv  of  brushwood  into  the  condenser,  so  as  to  form  a  me- 
chanical interruption  to  the  passage  of  the  Lras.  is  found 
'rcat!)  lo  a-sisl  the  operation. 

The  import  duty  upon  tar  has  bei  n  for 
12v.  per  last,*  if  from  liritish  possessions,  and  l.'i.v.  n 
Ibreign  countries:   but   under  the  ne.v  taritt'of  Sir   Hoberi 

!s;-J  .  i;  i,  re-peetively  (></.  and  2v.  (if/.  ])er  last.  The 
jiiantitv  ini]iorted  in  the  five  years  from  iKCi  to  IsU'.l.  was 
ii'.ii-j-j  lasts,  or  about  1'J.l'Jt  lasts  per  annum  :  of  which 
")S.l(Hi  lasts,  or  ll.li'JI  lasts  annually,  were  entered  for 
ionic  consumption.  During  this  period  the  duty  amounted 
o  •!  l,tr.U/..  or  upon  an  avei:iLr,  B804/.  per  annum.  Ofthe 

quantity  Russia   funiisheil   about    .~>0.1.V>    lasts:   the 
Sweden.  ±i!>7  la-ts  :    Denmark. 
I.'&X)  lasts:   and  Norway.   Ills'  lasts;   |)H.   remainder   ' 

up  of  small  quantities  from  Germany.  Prussia. 
Pitch  is  extensively  manufactured   in  (ireai   Hritain.  \et 
he  quantity  imported  in  IS;M  is  stated,   by  M'Culloeh.   lo 
lave  been   about    10.7">2  <-vvt.      The'  duty  is    la/,  per  cwt., 
f  from  foreign  countries,  and  0</.   if  from  Uiitish  p, 

or.  under  the  new  tariff,  i'xl.  and  b/.  per  cwt.  re- 
pi-e!i 

Dr.  K.'  D.  Clarke's  Tnir  <  .  pp. 

i"il,  i")2;    Laimr's   '/',,•//•  //;  Sirnl,;i    in   1S.-(M,  p.   17(i:    M-,, 

il's     Allllillx    "f   f'nmilir/-:  ;•  ;    M'Crlli,  ,,,,nj 

TAUA.     [SniKHn.] 
TAKAIU.c  MA.] 

TAKAI.     [HiM.is.vN.  p.  -217.] 


*  A  lost  i»  iwchr  l»«i  ''<••  <  '-i>.tnm-IIoHsc  regula- 

•»lnuolmor»lli'ti  Oiiity  uiwgttllm«  and  •  half. 


TAR  55 

TARAKAI  is  the  name  of  a  large  island,  which  ha 
Ions;  figured  on  our  maps  under  the  name  of  Saghalien  o 
Saghalian,  and  has  at  different  times  been  supposed  to  b( 
called  Tchoka,  Karafto,  and  Sandan.  This  island  extends 
from  south  of  46°  to  54°  20'  N.  lat.,  more  than  600  miles  ir 
length,  but  the  width  is  various.  Towards  the  southern 
extremity,  north  of  the  Bay  of  Aniva,  it  is  nearly  100  miles 
wide,  hut  it  soon  contracts  to  about  25  miles,  which  is 
about  its  average  width  as  far  north  as  the  Bay  of  Patience 
where  it  suddenly  expands  to  120  miles,  Cape  Patience 
running  far  out  into  the  Pacific.  From  this  point  (49°  N. 
lat.  i  northward  the  island  asrain  grows  narrower,  but  ver\ 
gradually,  so  that  at  51"  N.  lat.  it  is  still  nearly  80  miles 
wide.  Farther  north  its  average  width  does  not  exceed 
50  miles.  The  area  of  the  island  probably  exceeds  30,OOC 
square  miles,  which  is  not  much  more  than  that  of  Scot- 
land, if  we  include  the  islands. 

Taraka'i  extends  along  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia  between 
142°  and  145°  E.  long.,  and  is  separated  from  the  continent 
by  a  strait,  which  is  called  the  Gulf  of  Tartary,  because 
the  country  of  the  Mantchoos  for  a  long  time  was  known 
by  the  name  of  Tartary.  This  <rnlf  or  strait  is  200  miles 
wide  at  its  most  southern  extremity,  but  it  grows  nar- 
rower as  we  advance  farther  north,  until  near~51°  30'  N. 
lat.  it  is  less  than  40  miles  wide.  So  far  this  sea  has  been 
navigated,  hut  at  that  point  a  shoal  extends  across  the 
gulf,  on  which  there  is  only  water  for  boats.  That  portion 
of  the  gulf  which  lies  between  51°  30'  and  52°  30'  N.  lat. 
is  not  known.  Krusenstem  thinks  that  this  part  of  the 
island  of  TarakaV  is  united  to  the  continent  of  Asia  by  an 
IU8,  but  I.a  Perouse  expressly  states  that  dried  fish  is 
carried  from  the  western  shores  of  the  island  to  the  river 
Amur  in  boats,  which  could  not  be  done  if  the  isthmus  of 
Krusenstem  existed.  It  may  appear  strange  that  these  two 
navigators  have  not  been  able  to  decide  this  point,  a.s  one 
sailed  up  from  the  south  to  r>l°30',  and  the  other  from  the 
north  to  nearly  53°  N.lat.,  but  they  found  the  sea  always 

•  •d  with  thick  loirs,   and  hardly  ever  could  see  a  tew 
mile-,  before  them,  and  the  water  shoaled  so  suddenly  and 
constantly  that  they  did  not  think  it  advisable  to  proceed 
farther.     If  an  isthmus  exists,  it  must  be  near  52°  30*  N. 
lat..  where  a  low  sandy  cape  certainly  stretches  so  far  to 
the  east  as  to  approach  very  near  the  western  shores  of  the 
island.     North  of  this  narrow  and  shallow  part,  the  gulf 

's  a  circular  basin,  about  50  miles  wide,  which  re- 

-  the  waters  of  the  river  Amur,  and  is  therefore  called 
by  Krusenstem  the  Liman  of  the  Amur.     This  basin   is 
united  with   the  sea  of  Okhotsk  by  a  strait,  which  in  the 
narrowest  part  is  about  ten  miles  wide.     It  does  not  ap- 

that   there   is   any  current   in   this   gulf,  which   is 

in  favour  of  the  opinion  of  Krusenstem.     The  southern 

•iiity  (if  Taraka'i  is  divided  from  the  island  of  Yeso  by 

••rait  of  La  Perouse,  which,  between  Cape  Crillon  on 

Taraka'i  and  between  Cape  Soja  on  Yeso,  is  hardly  thirty 

miles  wide,  and  in  which  the  tides  run  with  great  velocity. 

.  who  visited  the  Gulf  of  Tartary  in  June,'found 

luthem  winds  were  blowing  nearly  uninterruptedly; 

but  Broughton,  who  was  there  in  September,  experienced 

i  and  north-eastern  winds. 

Though  the  eoa-t  of  the  island  is  of  great  extent  and 
much  indented,  it  does  not  appear  that  there  are  many 
good  harbours.  Along  the  western  shores  only  open  road- 
steads have  been  found.  At  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  island,  between  Cape  Crillon  and  Cape  Aniva,  is  a 
bay,  the  Bay  of  Auiva,  which  is  enclosed  bv  two 
projecting  tongues  of  land,  and  extends  50  miles  "from 
south  to  north.  Tlv  ,,1  anchorage  at  its  'most 

northern    extremity.      The     projecting   headland,   which 
occurs  near  49°  N.  lat.,  on  the  eastern  side  of  TarakaV,  and 
terminates    with   Cape    Patience,  endogel    Die  Hay  of   Pa- 
tience, which  is  very  extensive,  but  open  and  exposed  to 
11  and  southern  winds.     At  the  most  northern  ex- 
J    of  the    island   is  the  Northern  Bay,  between  the 
cape  of  that  name   and  Cape  Mary.     It  is  not  very  large, 
ami  oll'ci     in  several  places  LTOOI!  anchorage  and  shelter. 

The  island  is  naturally  divided  into  three  tracts:  the 
mountainous,  which  occupies  the  southern  portion;  the 
level,  in  the  middle;  and  the  hilly  tract,  which  extends 
over  the  northern  districts.  The  mountain-region  i 

•uds  more  than  one-half  of  the  island, 
Hie   north  at  Cape  Delisle  de   la  (V 
•"'1  '  N.  lat.  .     A  chain  of  mountains  begins  at  Cape 
Crillon,  and  continues  in  an  uninterrupted  line  northward 


TAR 


to  an  elevated  summit  called  Peak  Bernizel,  where  it 
seems  to  be  united  to  another  and  lower  chain,  which 
traverses  the  eastern  peninsula,  and  incloses  the  Hay  of 
Aniva  on  the  east.  Cape  Aniva  is  formed  by  a  high 
isolated  hill,  which  is  connected  by  a  low  isthmus  with 
I  he  chain  of  hills  which  lies  farther  north,  and  joins  the 
principal  range  at  Peak  Bernizel.  Farther  north  occur 
other  summits,  as  Peak  Lamanon,  Peak  Mongez,  and  Mount 
Tiara :  the  two  last  mentioned  are  north  of  50°  N.  lat. 
None  of  these  summils  have  been  measured,  but  their 
elevation  probably  does  not  exceed  5000  feet  above  the 
sea-level.  Along  the  western  coast  the  mountains  in  some 
places  come  close  up  to  the  water's  edge,  but  a  narrow  level 
tract  generally  separates  them  from  the  shore,  and  this 
tract  is  covered  with  high  trees,  while  the  delivities  of  the 
mountains  are  mostly  bare,  probably  owing  to  the  rapidity 
of  their  slope.  Extensive  flats  occur  at  Aniva  Bay  and  the 
Bay  "of  Patience.  The  low  country  .which  skirts  the  shore 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  mountains  appears  to  be  more 
extensive  and  less  interrupted  than  that  along  the  western 
shores.  On  the  eastern  side  the  shore  in  some  places  is 
level  and  low,  and  in  others  elevated.  The  country  ex- 
tending from  51°  to  53°  N.  lat.  is  so  low  that  the  shores  are 
not  visible  at  the  distance  of  five  or  six  miles,  and  it  is 
sandy  and  overgrown  with  hushes.  The  interior  is  in  gene- 
ral level,  partly  sandy  and  partly  swampy,  and  a  great  part 
of  it  is  covered  with  short  bushes  or  small  trees.  A  num- 
ber of  low  sand-hills  are  dispersed  over  the  country,  which 
are  destitute  of  trees,  and  appear  like  islands  in  a  sea  of 
verdure.  The  hilly  tract  occupies  the  most  northern  part 
of  the  island,  or  that  which  extends  from  53°  N.  lat.  to 
Cape  Elizabeth.  The  coast  is  in  general  high  and  steep, 
being  generally  composed  of  perpendicular  white  cliff's. 
There  are  only  a  few  tracts  in  which  the  coast  sinks  down 
to  the  level  of  the  sea ;  and  here  the  villages  are  built. 
The  interior  consists  of  a  succession  of  high  hills  covered 
with  full-grown  trees  to  the  very  summits  ;  the  valleys 
which  intervene  between  them  are  partly  wooded  and 
partly  covered  with  a  fine  close  turf.  This  part  of  TarakaV 
seems  to  possess  a  considerable  degree  of  fertility. 

Clirnntii. — As  European  navigators  have  only  occasion- 
ally visited  this  island,  and  have  only  stayed  there  a  few 
dii\  t,  or  at  the  utmost  a  couple  of  weeks,  our  information 
respecting  the  climate  is  extremely  deficient.  We  only 
know  that  even  at  the  beginning  of'June  the  higher  sum- 
mits of  the  mountains  have  still  some  snow  on  them,  which 
indicates  that  the  country  must  be  much  colder  than  Great 
Britain,  which  is  nearly  at  the  same  distance  from  the 
pole  :  otherwise  the  summer  months  seem  to  be  temperate, 
but  the  continual  fogs  which  enclose  the  island  nearly  all 
the  year  round  are  more  dense  than  those  that  occur  on 
the  coasts  of  Nova  Scotia. 

l'rtiilitrti<iiix.—No  kind  of  grain  is  cultivated,  not  e\en 
•ound  the  settlements  of  the  Japanese,  nor  are  orchards  or 
titchen-gardens  mentioned.  The  inhabitants  however  de- 
rive profit  from  the  spontaneous  products  of  the  soil  :  they 
hy  the  roots  of  a  species  of  lily  for  winter  food,  and  collect 
great  quantities  of  garlic  and  angelica,  which  are  found 
MI  the  skirts  of  the  woods.  The  forests  consist  of  oak, 
maple,  birch,  and  medlar,  but  chiefly  of  fir.  Large  tracts 
are  covered  with  juniper-trees.  Gooseberries,  raspberries, 
and  strawberries  abound,  and  also  wild  celery  and  water- 
-.  It  does  not  appear  that  \\ild  animals  are  nu- 
nerous  :  only  martens  and  bears  are  mentioned,  and  even 
:hese  do  not  seem  to  be  common.  The  sea  supplies  the 
nhabitauts  with  the  means  of  subsistence.  Salmon  is 
jerhaps  nowhere  so  abundant  as  in  the  Gulf  of  Tartarv. 
The  account  of  La  Perouse  in  this  respect  seems  hardly 
credible.  Dried  and  smoked  salmon,  together  with  the 
skins  of  salmon,  are  prepared  for  the  foreign  market,  and 
•onslitute  the  principal  articles  of  export.  Herrings, 
which  are  very  abundant,  are  likewise  cured  and  exported. 
Cod  occurs,  liul  it  docs  not  seem  to  be  taken  to  such  an 
amount  as  to  form  an  article  of  export.  Whales  are  nu- 
nerous  in  the  Strait  of  La  Perouse  and  along  the  eastern 
•oasl,  and  train-oil  in  bladders  is  an  article  of  export.  In 
he  same'  parts  seals,  fur-seals  ^(Phoca  ursina),  sea-lions 
Phnca  jiibata),  and  sea-otters  (Lutra  marina)  are  very 
frequent.  No  mines  are  worked. 

The  inhabitants  are  aborigines,  among  whom  a  few  Japa- 
icse  have  settled  on  the  Bayof  Aniva,  and  a  few  Mantchoos 
on  the  Northern  Bay.  In  the  Japanese  settlements  are  a 
Tew  Japanese  officers,  but  no  Chinese  authorities  have  been 


T  A  i; 


56 


T  A  I! 


wen,  nor  is  thU  island  enumerated  among  tin*  pOMe«iuons 
of  t hr  Chinese.  The  aborigines  call  themselves. /Vm»«(f.». 
men),  and  are  at  present  known  u  ml  IT  that  niinif  us  a  nation. 
Tin-  nation  extends  northward  to  the  pMUMul*  of  Kamt- 
chatka,  of  which  it  occupies  the  must  southern  extremity 
near  Cape  Lopatka.  :uui  it  inhabits  the  Kurilc  Islands,  the 
Japanese  island  of  Ycso,  T.iraka'i.  and  the  eoast  of  the 
cniitiiieiit  of  Asia  from  the  mouth  of  the  Amur  river  south- 
ward to  tlie  very  boundary-line  of  Corea.  Tliev  never  cul- 
tivate the  soil,  nor  apply  themselves  to  hunting  wild 
animals,  and  they  keep  no  domestic  animals  except  dogs, 
which  they  use  in  winter  for  drawinsr  their  sledges,  like 
the  inhabitants  of  Kamtehatka.  T.a  1'erousc  found  them 
somewhat  shorter  in  stature  than  Europeans,  rarely  ex- 
ceeding ti\e  feet  six  inehes,  and  some  hard!)  the  feet. 
Their  countenances  are  benevolent  and  friendly:  thev  have 
tolerably  large  eyes,  thiek  lips,  rather  high  check-Vines, 
and  u  somewhat  broad  and  compressed  no.-e.  Their  cheeks 
and  chins  are  covered  with  long,  thick,  black  beards :  there 
are  many  individuals  whose  body  is  covered  with  hair, 
as  occasionally  is  the  case  in  Europe.  The  only  kind  of 
manufacture  among  them  is  a  kind  of  cloth  made  of  the 
bark  of  willow-trees,  which  are  very  common  in  the  island, 
and  do  not  seem  to  differ  from  the  European  species.  They 
use  iii  this  manufacture  a  machine.  The  other  articles  <,t 
cloth  thev  obtain  by  barter  from  the  Japanese  anil  Mant- 
choos. They  show  also  some  skill  in  the  erection  of  their 
huts  and  the  building  of  their  boats.  Their  huts  are  of 
wood,  covered  with  the  white  bark  of  birch,  and  have  a 
roof  of  wood  thatched  with  dry  straw.  I,:i  IVrouse  com- 
pares them  with  the  cottages  of  the  peasants  of  France. 
fheir  boats  are  of  large  size  and  strongly  built.  Some  of 
their  costumes  are  evidently  adopted  from  the  Chinese,  as 
the  practice  of  letting  their  nails  grow  to  a  considerable 
length,  and  their  mode  of  saluting  by  prostration.  Like 
them,  thev  sit  on  mats,  and  eat  with  little  sticks.  Their 
language  does  not  resemble  either  that  of  the  Japanese. 
Chinese,  or  Mantchoos.  The  Mantchoos  visit  the  northern 
and  western  coast  to  barter  dried  and  smoked  salmon,  and 
dried  herrings,  for  some  nankeens,  tobacco,  and  utensils. 
The  Japanese  visit  the  southern  arid  eastern  districts, 
where  they  obtain  train-oil,  herrings  and  salmon,  ami  a 
few  furs,  and  give  in  return  lacquered  wooden  eating  and 
drinking  vessels,  tobacco  and  tobacco-pipes,  kitchen  uten- 
sils, rice,  coarse  cotton-cloth,  and  some  minor  articles. 

(La  Perouse's  I'lii/n^,'  rntunl  tin'  II  nr/i/ :  Hroughton's 
I'litjua,'  of  Disrorcnj  in  thi'  \'irt  fit'fii  /'<//•/  nf  the'PiiriJic: 
Krusciistcrn.  I'uynf!''  rniiinl  the  ll'urlil;  and  Krnsenstern's 
Hi  i-in  il  ili'  .\lt'iii'iir<:<  i-.i  jilicatifs,  <^c. ;  LftDffldorf'a  I'oyages 
unil  Tfarflx  in  ruriiiiix  1'iuix  nf  tin-  Wand.) 

TA  It  A  NTA'SIA,  or  TAUANTAISE.     [SAVOY.] 

TARANTISMUS  is  the  name  given  to  a  peculiar 
nervous  affection  which  was  lung  supposed  to  be  the  con- 
scqunce  of  the  bite  of  the  Tarantula  Spider.  It  seems  to 
have  occurred  frequently  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples  during 
the  sixteenth  century,  and  to  have  been  nearly  similar  in 
its  characters  to  the  disease  which  was  originally  called 
St.  Vitus's  dance  [CnoKK\],  and  to  that  which  has  occa- 
sionally prevailed  in  parts  of  Scotland,  and  has  been  called 
the  •  leaping  ague.' 

T  he  'pat  ients,  nearly  all  of  whom  were  women,  soon 
after  being  bitten  (as  it  was  supposed)  used  to  fall  into  a 
profound  stupor,  from  which  nothing  roused  them  but  the 
sound  of  such  music  as  pleased  them,  on  heaiiug  which 
they  had  an  irresistible  desire  to  dance.  So  long  as  the 
music  continued,  and  was  in  tune  and  sufficiently  lively, 
they  would  go  on  jumping  and  dancing  till  they  fell 
exhausted;  and,  all  the  time,  some  used  to  shriek,  some 
to  laugh  and  sing,  some  to  weep.  When,  after  a  short  rest, 
they  had  recovered  from  their  fatigue,  they  would  ag.iiu 
begin  to  dance  with  an  much  vigour  as  before,  mil 
music  were  played  slowly  or  confusedly,  when  they  would 
stop  and  grow  anxious  and  melancholy,  or  even,  if  the 
music  were  not  soon  made  agreeable  to  them,  would  fall 
into  a  dangerous  stale  of  stupor.  The  disease  u-cd  to  last 
about  four  days,  and  seemed  to  be  cured  by  the  ] 

orations  brought   on  by  the  active  exercise:    but   it 
often  returned  at  the  same  iime  in  the  following  year,  or 
even   for  a  succession  of  years,  and   on  every  o< 
required  the  same  treaine:it.' 

Since  it  has  been  found  that  the  bite  of  the  Tarantula 
can  produce  no  such  strange  effects  as  these,  many  have 
suspected  that  the  disease  ascribed  to  it  never  really 


existed,  but  was  feigned   lor  tin  pity 

or  for  the   pleasure  of  dancing.     Th.  'ii   to 

believe  that  in  most  instance-  il  wa-iudclv  d.-.inlcrfcitcd: 
lull  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  such  a  disease  had  oei 
and    had    given   occasion   to    th.  t.f   the'    fiaiul. 

Hcsides   its  similarity  to  di-i  8  ivalitv    i-  n  neralK 

admitted,  such  a-  the  St.  Vilu-'s  dance  and   the  leaping 
agne,   cases   have   occasionally   been   met   with   in    i 
times  which  closelj   resemble  It,  and    in  which  there  could 
be  no  just   suspicion  of  fraud.      Such  a  case  is  described 
by  Mr.  K.  Wood,   in  the  seventh  volume  of  the  •  M. 
Chirurgieal    Transactions;'    another    is    recorded    by    Mr. 
Ciichton,  in  the  :Ust  volume  of  the  '  Kdiul.urgh   Medical 
and  Surgical  Journal  ;'    and  in  the  '  Cxclopu -ilia  of  i 
lical    Medicine.' art.   '  Chorea,'  sev  .ial   ca-i  -  of  ana! 
affections  are  related.     All  the.-e  however  occurred  a 
That  the  Tarautismus  and  the  St.  Yitu.s's  dance  should  have 
assumed   the  characters  of  epidemics   may  be  a-cribed   to 
their  propagating  themselves,   a-  all   convulsive  aliectimis 
are   apt    to  do  among  nervous  and  superstitious  pci 
by  the  propensity  to  imitation,  the  effects  of  which  arc  still 
frequently  seen  in  the  production  of  hvsteria.  chorea,  and 
other  similar  diseases. 

TATIANTO,  a  town   of  Apulia,   in   the   kingdom    of 
Naples,  in  the   administrative  province  of    •  IVna 

d'Otranto.     It  is  an  archbishop's  see.   and   the   head  town 
of  a  district  :    it  contains  1S.IXX)  inhabitants.     I 
only  a  small   part   of  the   site   of  the   au'ieiit    Tareiitum, 
being  coniined  to  the  island  or   peninsula  at    the  entrance 
of  the  inner  harbour  or  Mare  piccolo,  on  which  formerly 
stood   the   fortress  or  acropolis  of  Tareiitum.     1 
few  remains   of  the  aiilienl  town.      Modem  Tarento  is  ill 
built :  it  is  fortified  and  has  a  castle,  several  eh 
convents.      It  carries  on  some  trade   by  sea  in  small 
It  has  also  some  manufactures  of  linen  anil    of  '  pinna 
marina,'  the   name  of  a  kind   of  mussel  or  shell-fish,   the 
silky  filaments  of  which  are  woven   into  gloves  and   other 
articles.     A  part  of  the  population  is  employed  in  fishing. 
Excellent  oysters  are  found   on  the  coast.     The  inner  port 
is  nearly  tilled  up,  but  the  outer  or  large  pa  -sible 

to  ves-els  of  good    sixe,   and    is   protected    by  two   islands 
which  are  situated  at  the  month.     Tarauto  has  tlic  advan- 
tage of  being  the  only  sale  harbour  in  that    part   of  the 
eastern  coast  of  Italy  which  extends  from  Messina  to  ('ape 
Leucas.     The  large  gulf  whieh  lies  between  the  ci  . 
Calabria  and  the  Iap\  gian   peninsula  is  called  the  gulf  of 
Taranto.     Much  wool  is  grown  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Taranto.  Two  lagoons,  one  of  them  of  considerable  extent, 
which  lie  south-east  of  the  town,  and  which  coniinu: 
with  the  sea,  yield  a  great  quantity  of  sail  by  evaporation. 
The  district  of  Taranto  contains  above  S7.IXKI  inhabitants. 
[Oru.vvro,  TKKUA  >».]      iNcigcbaur:    Scrri-tuii;    Alan  di 
Rivera,    < 'niisiilii;i-i'nii  xiilli-  iluc  Sii-i/n- :    i'ctmni. 
.\iiin'iiiii  i/i'l  1'i'iili  Itniiiinj. 

Antient  Tareiitum,  the  Taras  ,  T^i.,,;  of  the  Circeks.  was 
one  of  the  pi  incipal.or  rather  the  ]>rincipal  CJreek  city  on  the 
cast  coast,  of  Italy.  It  is  said  to  have  been  a  town  of  the 
Messapi  a:is.  to  which  were  joined  some  ( 'rctan  colonists  from 
the  neighbouring  town  of  Uria.  About  G94  H.C.,  according 
to  the  story.  1'lialantu-,  one  of  the  Partheiiia',  or  illegiti- 
mate sons  of  the  Spartan  women  born  during  the  al 
of  their  husbands  in  the  first  Messcnian  war,  having  Icfl 
his  country  with  a  number  of  others  of  the  same  condition, 
arrived  on  the  coast  of  lapygia,  took  Tareiitum,  and  c. 
pellcd  the  original  inhabitants.  lie  organi/cd  the  new 
colony,  and  remained  at  the  head  of  it  until  he  v. : 
pellcd  by  an  insurrection,  and  withdrew  to  Brunduaium, 
where  he  died,  i  Justin,  iii.  4.:  A  war  between  the  Ta  - 
rentines  and  the  lapygiaiis  ensued,  in  which  the  people  of 
Ithcgium  assisted  the  Tarentines.  hut  they  were  d. •;• 
by  the  lapygians,  who  destroyed  a  great  number  of  the 
'I'arentines.  .  Diodoru-.  \i.  Tareiitum  however  rccoxcivd 
from  its  losses,  and  it  nourished  by  commerce,  acquired 
a  considciahle  extent  of  territory,  and  became  the  most, 
powerful  city  of  Magna  Gra'cia.  Hci,i<-|ca  vva-  a  colony 
of  Tarentmn.  Herodotus  iii.  llili  nit  .to]ihilides 

as  king  of  Tarenlnm  in  the  time  of  Darius  Ilvstaspc-. 
The  government  however  underwent  several  changes,  and 
Slrabo  ,1.  1!>.'1  s)ica].s  of  Tareiitum  as  being  at  one  time 
a  democracy.  Archvtas.  a  native  of  Tarcntum.  is  said  to 
have  made  a  bod)  of  laws  for  the  Tarentines.  |  AitcnvTAS.] 
About  :t:W  ».<•.  the  Tarentiues,  being  engaged  in  war 
with  their  neighbours  the  Lucanians,  applied  to  Sparta 


T  A  It  5 

for  assistance.  Archidamus,  the  son  of  Agesilaus,  was 
sent  to  them,  and  he  was  killed  in  fighting  on  their  side. 
Some  years  after,  being  hard  pressed  by  the  Lucanians 
and  Bruttii,  the  Tarentines  applied  to  Alexander,  king  of 
Epirus,  and  uncle  to  Alexander  the  Great.  He  came  to 
Italy  with  troops,  obtained  considerable  advantages,  but 
was" at  last  surprised  and  killed  by  the  Bruttii,  near  Pan- 
dosia,  B.C.  323.  (Justin,  xii.  2 ;  Livy,  viii.  24.).  The  Ta- 
rentines had  by  this  time  degenerated ;  like  most  of  the 
Greeks  on  the  Italian  coast,  they  had  become  luxurious 
and  effeminate.  JE\\an  (Var.  Hist.,  xii.  30)  speaks  of  their 
habit  of  drinking  early  in  the  morning,  and  their  appear- 
ing intoxicated  in  the  forum. 

In  the  year  282  B.C.  the  Romans,  after  having  conquered 
the  Samnites,  made  war  upon  the  Lucanians.  The  Taren- 
tines, who  saw  with  jealousy  the  encroachments  of  Rome, 
unexpectedly  attacked  a  Roman  fleet,  commanded  by 
the  Proconsul  L.  Valerius,  which  was  sailing  near  their 
coast,  and  killed  a  great  many  of  the  crew.  The  Roman 
senate  sent  commissioners  to  demand  reparation  for  the 
outrage,  but  the  Tarentines  treated  them  with  insult. 
Aroused  however  to  a  sense  of  their  danger,  they  applied 
to  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  for  assistance,  and  sent  vessels 
to  convey  him  over  with  his  troops,  B.C.  281.  Pyrrhus 
soon  found  that  the  Tarentines  were  too  effeminate  to 
give  him  much  support,  and  he  was  obliged  to  assume  a 
dictatorial  power  in  order  to  enforce  something  like  order 
and  obedience  among  them.  Chiefly  with  his  own  troops, 
he  carried  on  the  war  against  Rome  for  several  years,  but 
defeated  by  the  consul  M.Curius  Dentatus,  and 
obliged  to  re-embark  for  Epirus ;  leaving  however  a  garri- 
son in  Tarentum,  B.C.  275.  [PYRRHUS.]  The  Tarentines 
having  shortly  alter  quarrelled  with  the  Epirote  garrison, 
applied  to  the  Carthaginians  for  assistance  to  drive  away 
the  Epirotes.  The  Romans  having  had  notice  of  this 
negotiation  through  Milo,  the  Epirote  commander,  sent 
the  consul  L.  Papirius  (.'ursor,  who  took  Tarentum,  and 
allowed  the  Epirote  garrison  to  return  home.  It  appears 
however  from  Li\y  [Epitome,  xv.  1)  that  the  Tarentines, 
though  treated  with  severity,  were  placed  in  the  condition 
of  allies  of  Koine,  which  they  continued  to  be  till  after 
the  battle  of  Cannae,  when  Hannibal,  who  occupied  Cam- 
pania and  Apulia,  began  to  carry  on  secret  intelligence 
with  some  of  the  Tarentine  chief  citizens,  who  were  dis- 
satisfied with  their  forced  Roman  alliance. 
)  |  In  the  year  212  B.C.  the  hostages  of  the  Tarentines  ran 
away  from  Rome,  but  being  pursued  and  overtaken  near 
'•ina,  they  were  brought  back,  and  after  being  beaten 
with  rods  were  thrown  down  the  Tarpeian  rock.  This 
cruel  punishment  irritated  the  people  of  Tarentum.  an 
agreement  was  made  with  Hannibal,  and  his  troops  were 
admitted  into  the  city  by  night.  The  Roman  garrison 
stationed  in  the  citadel  was  besieged  by  sea  and  by  land. 
The  example  of  Tarentum  was  followed  by  Metapontum 
and  Thorium.  The  Roman  garrison  in  the  citadel  of 
Tarentum  defended  it  most  gallantly,  although  they  suf- 
fered greatly  from  want  of  provisions.  An  attempt  which 
was  made  to  introduce  supplies  by  vessels  from  Sicily  was 
defeated  by  the  Tarentine  squadron  under  Democrates, 
with  the  loss  of  several  Roman  ships.  In  209  B.C.  the 
1  Q.  Kabius  Maximus  retook  Tarentum  by  surprise, 
and  through  the  treachery  of  the  garrison  left  by  Hanni- 
bal, which  consisted  of  Bruttian  auxiliaries.  The  Taren- 
tines made  only  a  slight  defence.  Nico,  Democrates,  and 
Philomenus,  the  leaders  of  the  party  which  was  hostile  to 
Rome,  fell  during  the  assault.  A  great  booty  was  made 
by  the  Unman*,  said  to  be  nearly  equal  to  that  made  at 
the  taking  of  Syracuse.  But  the  consul  Fabius  abstained 
from  taking  the  statues  of  the  gods,  saying  he  would  leave 
to  the  Tarentines  their  angry  deities.  (.Livy,  xxv.  7,  11; 
xxvi.  39  ;  and  xxvii.  15,  16.) 

From   that  time  Tarentum  remained  in  subjection  to 

Rome  ;  and  although  it  greatly  declined  in  wealth  and 

importance,  it  was  still  a  considerable  place  in  the  time  of 

Augustus.     Horace  calls  it  'molle  Tarentum'  (Satir.,  ii. 

:id  'imbelle  Tarentum'     (Epist.,  i.  7).    The  Greek 

language  and  manners  were  retained  by  the  inhabitants 

alter  the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire.     Tarentum  was 

one  of  the  chief  strongholds  retained  by  the  Byzantine  em- 

Soiitheni  Italy.     About  A.D.  774,  Romualdus,  the 

obard  duke  of  Beneventum,  took  Tarentum  from  the 

UN  /iintines.     The  Saracens  landed  at  Tarentum  about  A.D. 

830.     The  town  was  afterwards  several  times  taken  audre- 

P.  C.,  No.  14'J.-). 


1*  A  R 

taken  and  sacked,  and  it  was  during  this  period  that  the  old 
to\yn  on  the  mainland  was  abandoned,  and  the  inhabitants 
retired  to  the  island  as  being  more  fitted  to  their  reduced 
numbers,  and  also  better  capable  of  defence.  At  the  break- 
ing up  of  the  Longobard  state  of  Beneventum,  Tarentum 
was  for  a  time  a  separate  principality,  like  Capua  and  Sa- 
lernum.  In  the  eleventh  century  it  was  taken  by  the  Nor- 
mans with  the  rest  of  Apulia,  and  Robert  Guiscard  made 
his  son  Bohemund  prince  of  Tarentum.  Under  the  Suabian 
dynasty,  Frederic  II.  gave  the  principality  of  Tarentum  to 
his  illegitimate  son  Manfred.  Charles  II.  of  Anjou  gave  it 
to  his  younger  son  Philip,  whose  descendants  acted^a  con- 
siderable part  in  the  civil  wars  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples 
under  Joanna  I.  Tarentum  came  afterwards  into  the 
possession  of  the  powerful  family  of  the  Orsini,  upon  whose 
extinction  it  reverted  to  the  crown. 

(Giannone ;  Giovani,  De  Antiquitate  et  varia  Tarenti- 
norum  For  tuna;  D' Aquino,  Delia ce  Tarentinat  LibrilV., 
Naples,  1771.) 

TARARE.     [RH6NE.] 

TARASCON,  a  town  in  France,  in  the  department  of 
Bouches  du  Rhone,  452  miles  south-south-east  of  Paris,  by 
Auxerre,  Lyon,  Valence,  Le  Pont  St.  Esprit, and  Beaucaire ; 
and  48  miles  west-north-west  of  Aix,  the  capital  of  the 
department. 

Tarascon  is  mentioned  by  Strabo,  who  writes  the  name 
Tapaaaiav,  and  by  Ptolemy,  who  writes  it  Tafiovanwv  ;  but  it 
appears  to  have  been  of  little  importance  in  antient  times. 
Under  the  counts  of  Provence,  to  whom  in  the  middle 
ages  it  was  subject,  it  was  of  more  consequence  from  its 
frontier  position.  It  had  a  castle  at  least  as  early  as  A.D. 
1251 ;  of  which  the  present  castle  occupies  the  site.  This 
latter  was  built,  according  to  Millin,  by  Louis  II.  of  Anjou, 
count  of  Provence  (A.D.  1384-1417) ;  but  according  to 
other  authorities  Charles  II.  le  Boiteux  (A.D.  1285-1309) 
commenced  the  structure  and  Louis  finished  it.  It  is  popu- 
larly called  '  Chateau  du  Roi  Rene'  ('  King  Rene's  Castle'), 
but  it  was  undoubtedly  erected  before  his  accession.  i  u 

The  town  is  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhone,  immediately 
opposite  Beaucaire,  on  a  rocky  site  sufficiently  elevated 
aho\  e  the  bed  of  the  river  to  secure  it  from  inundation. 
The  communication  with  Beaucaire  was  antiently  by  a 
stone  bridge ;  a  mass  of  stone-work,  the  remains  of  this 
bridge,  lately  existed,  and  probably  still  exists,  in  the  middle 
of  the  river,  between  the  two  towns  ;  the  rest  of  the  bridge 
had  been  swept  away  by  the  stream.  In  later  times  the 
communication  was  by  two  bridges  of  boats,  extending 
one  from  each  bank  to  this  fragment  of  the  old  bridge. 
Within  the  last  few  years  a  suspension  bridge  of  iron-bars 
has  been  constructed. 

Tarascon  is  surrounded  by  an  old  ruined  wall  flanked 
with  towers,  and  is  entered  by  three  gates.  Some  of  the 
streets  are  straight  and  tolerably  wide.  The  castle  is  a  pic- 
turesque Gothic  building  of  freestone  in  pretty  good  pre- 
servation :  from  the  platform  on  the  top  of  the  castle  there 
is  an  extensive  view  along  the  valley  of  the  Rhone.  Sainte 
Marthe  (Martha)  is  the  principal  church  in  the  town  ;  in 
the  crypt  is  a  monument  with  a  marble  statue  apparently 
sculptured  early  in  the  16th  century,  and  shown  as  the 
monument  of  Sainte  Marthe.  In  the  same  church  is  the 
uncouth  figure  of  a  monster  called  the  Tarasque,  which, 
according  to  the  legend,  fed  on  human  flesh  and  haunted 
the  banks  of  the  Rhone  between  Aries  and  Tarascon,  and 
was  overcome  by  Sainte  Marthe.  This  figure  is  paraded 
through  the  city  on  Whit-Monday  amidst  the  shouts  of 
the  idlers  of  the  place,  whose  riotous  behaviour  frequently 
leads  to  serious  accidents :  it  also  makes  part  of  the  pro- 
cession on  the  festival  of  Sainte  Marthe.  These  customs, 
which  had  been  disused  after  the  Revolution,  were  renewed 
under  the  empire  of  Napoleon,  if  not  before.  There  are 
a  town-hall,  a  court-house,  a  commercial  court  (Tribunal 
de  Commerce),  two  hospitals,  a  theatre,  barracks,  and 
abattoirs,  or  public  slaughter-houses ;  these  are  most  of 
them,  if  not  all,  modern  buildings. 

The  population  of  the  commune,  in  1831,  was  9225  for 
the  town,  or  10,967  for  the  whole  commune.  The  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  town  is  very  fertile,  and  a  considerable 
trade  is  carried  on  in  corn,  wine,  and  oil ;  the  townsmen 
are  engaged  in  throwing  silk  and  spinning  cotton-yarn, 
and  in  manufacturing  hussars'  and  grenadiers'  caps,  hats, 
brandy,  vinegar,  and  starch;  there  are  tan-yards  and 
cooperages.  There  are  three  fairs  in  the  year.  The  in- 
dustry of  the  inhabitants  and  their  lively  temperament 

VOL.  XXIV.— I 


TAR 


inpt 

i...- 


.ary  dulnes*  of  Beaucaire. 
nal  college  or  ln^li  school  uiul 
ii  v.  i-  the  birth-place  of 
Tin-   town   sv;u,  fur  a  long 
liitiou   the   seat  of  a  subprefeeture, 
.meat  :    lint  about  the   time  of 
.'ion   of  the  Bourbons,   the  tubprvfoctur* 

;iirr.  Desrriptif  d«  i 
i/tigt  dtim    lei    Hi'/  \f»li   de  la 

Th,  Iher  town  in  Frai  1  '.D.ISCOH.  in  the 

depai'  •  and  n!i  thf  ii-  liuse  Foi\: 

-Jim-times  distinguished  u 

sur-Ariege.     D'Anville  is  dispu  iiify  it  with  the 

i  I'liiiy  ^Hist.  AW.,  lib.  u  .  which 

others  would  fix  at  Taragcon  un  tin1  Rhone.  Taraseon- 
sur-Ariei:e  is  ;i  small  place,  11  mart  of  tin-  ironstone  dug 
in  the  adjacent  Pyrenees.  The  population  is  probably 
about  : 

M.     [I.u.vn.noN.l 

TAUAXOXA,  a  considerable  district  of  Aragon  in 
Spain,  bordering  un  the  noith  and  east  on  the  ]ini\inee  u! 
Na\;irre:  on  the  -outh  on  the  province  of  Soria :  ;, 
the  went  on  the  Carregimiento  de  Uorja.  The  capital, 
Tara/ima,  the  anticnt  Turiii-w,  i-  situated  at  the  foot  of  a 
lolly  mountain-.  inks  of 

the  liver  Quell.  i5'  X.  lat..  r  V  \V.  long.     Tum- 

/.oaa  .  'fa  hi-hup,  who  is  sufi'innan  of  Saragosna, 

Tlif  town  is  l.adly  hniit,  and  the  street*  narrow  and 
crooked.  With  the  exception  of  the  cathednil,  a  liue 
Gothic  pile  eieeted  in  the  thirteenth  century,  there  is  no 
oilier  building  worth  notice.  Mifiano  (Diccicnario  G«o- 
grajlcii.  sol.  viii..  p.  3.U  e-timate-.  the  population  ot'Tara- 
zona  at  10,000  inhabitants.  ii»  1H'J7.  The  neighbourhood 
is  well  cultivated,  and  yields  abundant  crops  of  all  sorts  of 
giain.  There  is  also  a  small  town  in  La  Mancha  called 
Tarazona. 

TARHES.  a  town  in  France,  capital  of  the  department 
of  Haute*  Psri'ni'-cs.  or  High  l'_\  n-nr,->  :  about  UK)  miles 
from  Paris,  in  a  diiect  line  south-south-svcsl  ;  -l.">3  mile* 
by  the  shortest  road  through  Orleans,  (Jhuleauroux,  Limo- 
ges, Pt'riguenx,  Agen,  and  Auch:  or  533  miles  by  Limo- 
ges, Cahurs.  Moiitauban,  Toulouse, and  Aueh,  which  is  the 
given  by  Keichard  in  his  llinrraire.  It  in  in  43"  13' 
X.  )at. "amlo"5'K.  lonir. 

Tarbes  is  nientio  led  in  the  '  Notitia  Provincianim  el 

.turn  Galiiue,'  where  it  is  called  Tuiba:    it  was  the 

chief  town  of  tlie  Bigerrones,  Bigerri,  or  Uegeiri,  a  nation 

which  has  uiveii  name  to  the  distiict  of  Ui^oriv.     In  the 

town  or  adjacent  to  it  was  a  fortress,  culled,  in  the'  Xotitia,' 

Cufirum  Bigorra,  the  nite  of  which  is  now  occupied  by 

the  cathediai.     In  the  middle  ages,  Taibes  was  the  capital 

of  the  county  of  Bii:  ,!lciv,l   from  the  ravages  of 

the  .Saracens  and  the  .Normans,  and  was  held   for  a  time 

by  the  English.     There  wa»  some  sharp  iiirhtini;  near  the 

tuwn,  inth.  ,e  ol  \Velhnirton,  A. n.  lh!4. 

Tarbc*  is  cituuted  in  a  fertile    )>lain,   nearly  1000  feet 

above  the  level  of  11  rrcd   by  the  .\<ionr  von  the 

•  ank  of  which  the   town   stands     and   by  (lie  Leche7. 

and  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Pyrenees.     The  town  is 

i  ;    the  streets  are  well  laid  out,  broad,   paved,  and 

watered  by  little  foro.  in-,  which  contiihut 

to  coolness  and  cleanliness.     There  nre  two  public  , 

or   squares,  that  of  Muubouricct,   which  is   planted  wiili 

.ind  that  of  Murciulieu,  remarkable  for  its  sue:    I.e- 

;.MI  places,  there  is  an  agreeable  promenade. 

.     The  house*  in   the 

town  are  penerally  of  t'vo  or  three  stories,  well  built,  of 
brick,  some  of  maible.  and  roofi  d  with  dales.  They  haye 
for  tl.  •<«!  Lraulens.  The  principiil  public 

buildings  me  the  catheihal  ;    the  iirelc.-t's  office,   fin 
the  i  tin'  bishop,  which  from  its  elevated  situa- 

tion   coinni:tti<U    a    pleasant     pro-pcct  |    .mil    a    handsome 

..f  the 

•>  i*  used  as  a  prison.      Tarbe*  has  five 

-.  on  the   five   muds  which   lend    from 

t-:    the  suburb*  art-  that  of  Kabax- 

.  on  the  right  hank  of  the  Adour.  which 

;e»  it  lii.m  the  town:  that  o!  Vie  on  the  north;  that 

on  the  houth;  all  on  the  road*  leading  retfec- 

tive.y  to  those  places ;   that  of  SainUt  Anne  on  th*  w*«t, 


58  T  A  II 

on  the  road  to  Pan  :   and  Hi.  the 

south-west,  on  the  road  to  I.uiini  cllez. 

:iimune.  in  -  S712;  in 

1831,  y7(K>:    in  1S30,  are  copper-mills  and 

manui..  .U.   papci 

yards;    the  town  is  the  general  mart  for  t: 
department  ;  there  i»  :, 
for  agricultural  prodiu  .  kind  and  : 

frecpieiited  by  tl  - 
lise  stock.  a  marble-t,  '.I-AII. 

Tarb,  iliordmate  court  ol  j>.  mer- 

fiscal   and  other   gcjser;  -. ;    a 

communal  •  !  svith  a  library,  and  school  but 

1  an  Intectiire  ;    u  lice  school  of  drawing  and 

••'id.  lor  winch  there  are  1 

and  a  handsome  riding-school,  just  ou  ..MI. 

The  aiTondissement  of  Tin  be-  ha*  an  ar.  'jiiar* 

and  comprehend*  1H7  commune-  :  tlic   j 
in   KM.  was   lOi.02'2;    in    IKUi.    IHl.M'J:    and 
into  eli-sen   canton-,   or  d,-  h   under  a  justice  of 

ace.     The  bishopric  of  T..  sixth 

•  niipivhends    the     department  :     the 
bishop  is  a  Miffiagun  of  the  \iich. 

i  Mihin,  / 
Malti'   Urn. 


'I'ARDl'GKADA,  <  .    fn>t  family  of 

\(\.  comprisins;,    of  .cia.    the    ^ 

only.     [Ai  ;  I'.N.u-.]     The    '/'../  -.in  the  eiglali 

oi<lei-  in  llliirer's  method,  and   coinpri»e   the  Sloth- 

,/«,v ;  but  the  latter  cannot  he  said  to  base  any 
claim  to  such  a  collocation.  [Bk.\H.  sol.  iv.,  pp.  ;HJ.  !>l.  ] 

TARDI'VOLA,   Mr.  Snainson's  name  tor   a    genu*  of 
ubfamily   TANAC.KI.V.K.   and    thus  chaiacterued   by 
him  :  - 

Bill  lengthened,  conic,  somewhat  slender  :  the  sides  not 

iribbous  :  the  commissure  slightly  or  not  at  all  sinnuled. 

U'niir.s   sen    short  ;    the  first  quill  shorter  than  the  four 

.Inch  arc  equal  and  lonirest.     Tail  lengthened,  cu- 

1  or  graduated,     l-'eet  larire.     Tar»us  and  toe-  lonir. 

Outer  toe   miller  shorter  than  the  inner.     Claws  slender, 

sliirhtly  curved. 

Kxainple,  Turtlirnln  t.):iifin<ra.     [TANAGKHS.] 

TAHK.     We  liardly  knosv  whether  nil  the  svords  tare, 
trel,  cln/f,  stilt/*'.  ••/,  are  still  used  in  commerce  ; 

they  all  hold  their  places  in  svorks  of  arithmetic.     Tare 
is  said  to  be  the  allowance  for  the  weiirht  of  the  box  or 
hair  in   whu:h  goods  are  packed  :    trrt,  an  nllowai 
4  b.   in    lOllb.  for  waste:    rln'T,  un  allowance  of  '2  b.  in 
3cwt..  that  the  sveiabt  may  hold  pood  when  -oM  by  re- 
tail :  the  ifiofs  weight,  that  of  the  poods  and  package  all 
toirelher:    the   tuttu   weisrhl.   that    svhicii   remains  when 
tare  only  is  allowed  :  the//'/  weight,  that   which  remains 
svhen  ail   allowances  are   made.      \V<     shall    merely 
what  we  knosv  of  these  v, 

'I'n-r    wiitten  ii.rti  in  some  of  our  older  arithmetical 
is  made  from  the  Italian  tarnrt,  to  nbatc.     In  that 
lanirnasi-  turn  is  a  technical  term  implying   ahati'inent  of 
any  kind,   not   for  weiirht  of  package  only.     \\'c   I" 
dnft'\o  have  been  the  Knirhsh  word  svhicii  oriirinalls 
fur  the    allowance    tor    imckace  :    in  our  older   arithme- 
..    Ian1    and    clotle   1,'enerally   iro    together,   and    the 
latter  seems  to  be  for  the  package,  the  former  lor  other 
abatement-..     I 'lull'  or  rloi/s/i  is   defined   in  an  old  dic- 
tionary as  that  wherein  any  tliinir  is  jmt  for  c*ri 
Humphrey  Baker  i  \'>li-2    s']ienks  only  of  t  off'e  ; 

MnUfWD  (  hVfJ  .  of  lara.  clofte.  and'tret.  hut  the  ti.st  two 
ire  uwd  logethrr.     \\  e  cannot  find  cloft  used  in  the 
.  iven  to  it  l>\  mir  modern  books  of  arithmetic  until 
about  the  end  of  th.-  sesenteenlh  century. 

Tret  seems  to  be  from  the  Italian  Irilnrr.  to  crumble. 
Stevimik,  in   his   Ijitii  un  lumk-kivpii.: 

trrlriinriitu/H  in  the  sense  of  deduction  from  tin 
chaiired    lV'i  t    no  <!•*    no  explanation;  the 

Italian   form   n«ttn  wan  formerly  used   for  net  svei^ht.     It 
lieing  well   known  that   these   teuns  t'c'iiernlly  . 
from  the  Italian.  \ve  must    snppo-e  --nttle  to   be   liom  »',/- 

•  i    fine   and   snlnable.  and 
i»  applied  to  the  finer  part,  an  separated  from  the-  co: 

!  our  old  wiiter»  Ma-lei-un.  •  Ant  Innetike.'  15:12) 
IIM8  snttle  weiirbt  in  a  manner  which  nuikes  us  imau'ine 
we  MA  the  origin  of  the  hnmlrrd  weight  being  a  hundred 


TAR 


59 


TAR 


nnd  ticefre  pounds.  Without  any  explanation,  as  if  it  were 
matter  of  notoriety,  he  contrasts  suttle  and  arerdupois 
weight,  the  former  having  100  pounds  to  the  hundred- 
weight, the  latter  112.  In  the  rougher  sort  of  goods,  at 
the  same  period,  the  tare  was  (as  appears  by  the  tables 
they  give)  very  often  12  pounds  in  112:  perhaps  then  the 
hundredweight  of  112  pounds  was  only  an  allowance  for 
the  weight  of  the  box,  barrel,  or  other  package1. 

TARES  are  a  most  important  green  crop  in  the  improved 
systems  of  agriculture,  especially  on  heavy  soils,  where 
they  thrive  best.  When  sown  in  autumn,  with  a  small 
sprinkling  of  wheat  or  rye,  they  cover  the  giound  in  spring, 
and  supply  abundance  of  fodder  in  summer.  A  good  crop 
of  tares  is  fully  equal  in  value,  if  not  superior,  to  one  of 
red  clover :  it  conies  off  the  ground  in  sufficient  time  to 
give  the  land  a  hasty  summer  tillage,  which  is  so  useful 
in  destroying  weeds,  and  to  allow  turnips  to  be  sown  in 
the  same  season.  They  smother  annual  weeds  if  the  crop 
is  plentiful,  which  should  always  be  secured  by  an  abun- 
dant manuring :  thus  they  are  a  good  substitute  for  a 
summer  fallow  in  heavy  soils,  and  amply  repay  the  labour 
and  manure  bestowed  upon  them. 

There  are  many  species  and  varieties  of  tares  ;  but  thai 
which  is  found  the  best  adapted  for  agricultural  purposes 
is  the  common  tare  (Vicia  sativa\  of  which  there  are  two 
principal  varieties,  very  slightly  differing  in  appearance, 
one  of  which  is  hardy,  and  will  stand  the  severest  winters : 
the  other  is  more  tender,  and  is  therefore  only  sown  in 
sprint: ;  but  it  has  the  advantage  of  vegetating  more 
rapidly,  so  that  spring  tares  sown  in  March  will  be  tit  to 
cut  within  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks  after  those  which 
were  sown  in  autumn.  By  sowing  them  at  regular  inter- 
vals from  September  to  May,  a  succession  of  green  tares 
in  perfection,  that  is,  in  6loom,  or  when  the  pods  me 
formed,  may  be  cut  for  several  months,  from  May  to  Oc- 
tober. A  prudent  farmer  arranges  his  crops  so  that  he 
shall  have  artificial  green  food  for  his  horses  and  cattle  at 
least  six  months  in  the  year,  by  having  tares  fit  to  cut 
between  the  first  and  second  cut  of  clover.  When  there 
are  more  tares  than  is  absolutely  required  for  this  purpose, 
and  the  weather  permits,  they  make  excellent  hay ;  or,  if 
the  weather  is  not  favourable,  they  are  cut  and  given  to 
sheep,  which  are  folded  on  the  portion  already  cut.  It 
is  an  advantage  to  have  portable  racks  for  this  purpose, 
that  the  fodder  may  not  be  trod  under  foot  a*hd  wasted ; 
or  the  tares  may  be  placed  between  hurdles,  tied  two  and 
two,  which  form  extemporaneous  racks.  It  is  prudent  to 
raise  sufficient  seed  for  another  year ;  but  a  crop  of  seed- 
tares  raised  for  sale  is  seldom  profitable,  as  they  greatly 
exhaust  the  soil  :  and  the  price  varies  so  much  in  dif- 
ferent seasons,  that  it  becomes  too  much  of  a  specula- 
tion for  a  farmer.  The  difficulty  in  distinguishing  the  seed 
of  the  winter  tare  from  the  spring  variety  is  so  great,  that 
it  should  either  be  raised  at  home,  or  only  purchased  from 
neighbours,  or  from  the  most  respectable  seedsmen.  It 
is  a  common  practice  with  dealers  to  mix  the  seeds  of  the 
Winter  tares,  after  the  time  of  sowing  is  past,  with  spring 
tares,  which  are  in  request  at  a  later  period.  The  incon- 
venience of  this  is.  that  they  do  not  vegetate  equally,  and 
consequently  the  winter  tare  is  not  in  bloom  when  the 
spring  tare  is  fit  for  the  scythe.  Foreign  tares,  which  are 
imported  in  large  quantities,  are  often  the  growth  of 
southern  climates,  and  will  not  stand  the  winter ;  or  they 
have  been  raised  from  seed  sown  in  spring,  so  as  to  be 
really  spring  tares.  The  difference  is  probably  more  owing 
to  habit  than  to  any  real  botanical  distinction  between 
them.  When  spring  tares  are  sown  in  autumn  instead  of 
winter  tares,  they  may  occasionally  stand  the  frost,  if  not 
severe ;  but,  in  general,  they  rot  on  the  ground 
and  never  recover ;  whereas  the  real  hardy  winter  tares, 
whose  vegetation  is  slower,  seem  insensible  to  the  severest 

In  the  early  part,  of  summer  green  rye  and  tares,  mixed, 
are  sold  at  a  great  price  in  large  towns,  for  horses  which 
have,  worked  hard  and  been  highly  fed  in  winter.  They 
act  as  a  gentle  laxative, and  cool  the  blood:  near  London, 
w  here  e\  cry  produce  is  forced  with  an  abundance  of 
manure,  tares  are  often  fit  to  cut  early  in  May,  and  the 
land  '  ately  ploughed  and  planted  with  potatoes. 

or  sown  with  mangel   wurzel  or  ruta  baga,  which  come 
i  iff  in  Septcml,.  ibe'r,  in  time  for  wheat -sow  intr. 

two  V<MV  profitable  crops  are  jaised  during  the  time 
that  the  land,  according   to  the  old  system,  would  have 


been  fallow ;   and  at  the  same  time  it  is  left  as  clean,  by 
careful  hoeing,  as  the  best  fallow  would  have  made  it. 

There  are  a  great  many  species  of  tares  or  vetches,  for 
the  terms  are  synonymous,  many  of  which  have  been  pro- 
posed to  be  introduced  into  general  cultivation  ;  but  none 
seem,  on  the  whole,  to  be  so  well  adapted  to  our  climate 
as  the  common  tare  :  some  have  biennial  and  some  pe- 
rennial roots.  The  Vicia  biennis  has  a  strong  stem  and 
large  leaves,  and  grows  four  or  five  feet  hisrh  ;  but  it  is  not 
so  succulent  as  the  common  sort.  It  might,  perhaps,  by 
cultivation  and  early  cutting,  become  a  useful  early  fodder, 
and  it  may  be  worth  while  to  make  some  experiments 
with  it.  There  are  several  species  of  tares  which  grow 
wild  in  bushes  and  hedges ;  but  they  have  never  been 
cultivated  in  the  fields,  peihaps  from  the  difficulty  in  col- 
lecting the  seeds,  which  shed  as  soon  as  they  are  ripe.  Of 
these,  the  Vicia  craca  appears  most  deserving  of  attention. 
It  bears  its  blue  flower  on  stems  or  spikes  longer  than  the 
leaves,  which  are  downy.  It  is  very  common  in  France 
among  wheat;  and,  although  a  decided  weed  there,  it  is 
not  much  dreaded  by  the  peasants,  as  it  improves  the 
fodder  greatly.  It  has  the  appearance  of  great  luxuriance 
in  its  growth,  where  it  meets  with  a  proper  support.  If 
it  were  mixed  with  some  plants  with  a  strong  stem,  such 
as  the  Bokhara  clover  (Melitotus  arborea  altissima),  which 
itself  affords  much  fodder,  it  might  probably  be  cultivated 
to  great  advantage. 

In  the  south  of  France  there  is  a  white  perennial  vetch 
or  tare,  called  Vicia  pisiformis,  which  is  cultivated  for  its. 
white  seeds,  of  which  soups  are  made,  as  with  the  pea  and 
lentil.  It  grows  in  very  light  soils;  and,  although  indi- 
genous to  a  southern  climate,  it  is  said  not  to  be  impatient 
of  frost.  It  has  been  called  by  some  the  Canadian  lentil, 
or  the  white  tare. 

We  shall  only  notice  one  more  of  the  wild  tares,  which 
is  an  annual ;  it  is  called  the  yellow  tare  ( Vicia  lutea). 
It  grows  in  stony  soils  and  among  bushes,  is  very  branching, 
and  rises  from  one  to  two  feet,  high.  From  some  experi- 
ments made  by  the  Agricultural  Society  of  Versailles 
several  years  ago,  it  would  appear  that  this  tare  might  be 
cultivated  with  great  advantage,  and  is  even  superior  to 
the  common  sort,  because  it  can  be  cut  two  or  three  times 
during  the  summer,  and  affords  a  very  good  pasture  in 
winter,  which  does  not  stop  its  vegetation  :  it  will  even 
bloom  in  a  mild  winter.  Although  short,  it  is  so  thick  upon 
the  ground,  that  its  first  cut  is  as  heavy  as  that  of  the  com- 
mon tare,  which  is  seldom  worth  cutting  a  second  time. 

Tares  should  be  sown  on  land  which  'js  well  pul- 
verised. If  after  wheat,  the  stubble  should  be  ploughed 
in  with  a  deep  furrow  after  a  powerful  scarifier  has 
gone  over  the  land  several  time?  to  loosen  it :  five  or 
six  cart-loads  of  stood  farm-yard  duns:  should  be  ploughed 
in.  The  tares  should  be  drilled  or  dibbled,  and  the  sur- 
face well  harrowed.  The  intervals  should  be  hoed  early 
in  spring :  this  will  accelerate  the  growth,  and  insure  a 
complete  covering  of  the  ground.  As  soon  as  the  tares 
show  the  flower,  they  may  be  cut  daily  till  the  pods  are 
fully  formed  ;  after  this,  any  which  remain  uncut  should 
be  made  into  hay  or  given  to  sheep  ;  for  if  the  seeds  are 
allowed  to  swell,'  the  ground  will  be  much  exhausted. 
Another  piece  should  be  ready  to  cut  by  this  time,  and 
thus  there  may  be  a  succession  of  tares  and  broad  clover 
from  May  to  November.  Tares  may  be  sown  as  late  as 
August,  on  a  barley  or  rye  stubble,  for  sheep-feed  early  in 
winter,  or  to  be  ploughed  in  to  rot  in  the  ground  where 
beans  or  peas  are  intended  to  be  sown  early  in  spring : 
this  is  perhaps  the  cheapest  mode  of  manuring  the  land, 
the  only  expense  being  the  seed ;  for  the  tillage  is  ne- 
cessary at  all  events.  In  light  soils,  tares  and  buckwheat 
sown  together  immediately  after  barley  or  rye  harvest,  will 
produce  a  considerable  crop  of  vegetable  matter,  which 
may  be  ploughed  in  in  November.  In  favourable  seasons, 
wheat  may  be  sown  immediately  after,  without  fearing  the 
effect  of  two  white  crops  following  each  other ;  for  the 
:ares  and  buckwheat  intervening,  by  their  shade,  and  the 
wo  ploughing  of  the  ground,  one  when  they  are  sown, 
and  the  second  when  they  are  ploughed  in,  will  entirely 
lf>troy  all  weeds,  and  give  to  the  soil  that  improvement, 
w  hich"will  enable  it  to  bear  as  good  a  crop  of  wheat  as  it: 
would  have  done  had  it  been  sown  the  year  after  on  a 
clover  ley.  Clover,  which  could  not  be  sown  with  the 
>arley,  from  the  foul  state  of  the  land,  maybe  sown  among 
he  wheat  in  the  next  spring,  when  it  is  hoed  for  the 


T  A   K 


GO 


1    A  H 


second  lime.    Tliis  is  held  out  us  a  hint  to  show  bow  an 

ntal    interruption    in   a   rotation    inuy  lie    remedied 
.  'op  or  great    deviation.      As   no  nile 
:-  without  exception,  so  no  rotation  can  always  lie  strictly 
adhered   to;   and  tho  '.ich   admit    oi'  bciuL- 

fTenol  times, .<' the  \  car  are  of  tin-  greatest  u-e  as  sub- 
stitutes for  other*  which  could  not  he  convenient]?  «own 
without  materially  altering  th-  n  of  crops.  In 

the  coinin  of   cultivation  of  hca\v  .soils,   where 

•ional  fallows  are  necessary  to  clean  tile  land,  one- 
hiilf  of  the  land  which  requires  fallowing  may  1" 
with  tares:  and  thus  the  clean  unproductive  summer  fal- 
low will  only  return  at  every  second  rotation.  ]!'  the 
tares  have  been  manured,  or  if  they  are  fed  off  with  sheep 
folded  upon  the  land,  the  wheat  or  other  crop  which  is 
sown  after  them  will  he  as  good  as  on  a  clean  fallow,  or 
after  ;v  giM>d  crop  of  clover.  This  alone  would  make  tares 
a  valuable  crop  :  and  they  may  be  compared  in  their  effect 
on  heavy  lands  to  turnips  on  lighter 

The  seeds  of  the  tare  are  occasionally  pound  into  meal 
and  made  into  bread.  It  is  a  very  poor  food  :  and  when 
there  is  more  seed  than  can  be  profitably  disposed  of,  it 
may  be  given  to  pigs:  buf  poultry,  especially  pigeons, 
are  very  fond  of  it.  When  given  to  horses,  the  seeds  of 
tares  are  found  very  heating;  and  although  they  produce 
a  fine  glossy  coat,  they  are  not  to  be  recommended  for 
this  purpose. 

TAREXTl'M.     [TvKAN-TO.j 

TARGUMS,  or  CHALDEE  PARAPHRASES  OF 
HIE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  During  the  Babylonish  cap- 
•iv  it  v .  the  language  of  the  Jews  was  affected  by  the  Chal- 
iee  dialed  spoken  at  Babylon,  to  such  an  extent,  that 
upon  their  return  they  could  not  understand  the  pure 
Hebrew  of  their  sacred  hooks;  and  therefore,  when  Ezra 
and  the  Levites  read  the  law  to  the  people,  they  found 
themselves  obliged  to  add  an  explanation  of  it,  undoubt- 
edly in  (Jhaldee.  (Nehem.,  viii.  8.)  [HEBREW  LANGUAGE; 
ARAMAKAN  LANGUAGE.]  In  course  of  time  such  expla- 
nations were  committed  to  writing,  and  from  their  being 
not  simple  versions,  but  explanatory  paraphrases,  they 
were  called  by  the  Chaldee  word  Targum  (D13~)D),  which 
signifies  '  an  explanation.' 

There  are  ten  Targums  extant  :— 1.  Tli<>  Tiir<;iim  nf 
Onkelot,  on  the  Pentateuch,  is  the  most  antient.  Onkelos 
is  supposed  to  have  lived  at  Babylon.  The  Babylonish 
Talmud  makes  him  a  contemporary  of  Gamaliel,  at  the 
very  beginning  of  the  Christian  sera.  \o  critics  place 
him  lower  than  the  second  century.  His  language  ap- 
proachcs  nearer  than  that  of  the1  other  Targums  to  the 
pure  Chald.'e  of  the  hooks  of  Daniel  and  K/aa.  He  fol- 
Mic  Hebrew  text  so  closely,  that  his  work  is  ].•--  a 
paiaphiasu  than  a  version,  and  lie  is  free  from  the  fables 
which  prevailed  among  the  later  .lews. 

'J.  '/'//'•  Tiirxti'ii  ';/'  JnHiit/1'Ut  /''•//  I ';;i<-/.  on  the 
Prophets,  is  by  many  ascribed  to  an  author  contemporary 
with  Onkelos,  or  even  a  little  older,  namely,  Jonathan  the 
son  of  Uzziel,  a  disciple  of  the  elder  Hillel.  The  men- 
tion oi  his  name  in  the  Tahnuds  proves  him  to  have  lived 
earlier  than  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries.  Hut  Jahn 
points  out  certain  internal  marks,  from  which  he  con- 
cludes that  this  Targum  was  compiled,  towards  the  end 
of  the  third  century  ;.  st,  from  other  paraphrases. 

some  of  which  at  least  were  considerably  older.  The 
Jews  make  Jonathan  contemporary  with  the  prophets 
Malachi,  Zechariah,  and  Haggai,  and  relate  marvellous 
stories  respecting  the  composition  of  his  Talmud. 

This  Targum  is  more  paraphrastic,  than  that  of  Onkelos; 
iU  dialect  is  not  so  pure;  the  version  is  not  so  aCC 
and  indeed  varies  in  accuracy  in  different  parts;  but  it  is 
free  from  the  fabulous  stories  of  the  later  Tahnuds.  It 
comprises  the  PropheU,  in  the  Jewish  sense  of  the  word. 
namely,  the  books  of  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  Kings,  Isaiah, 
Jeremiah.  Ezekicl,  and  the  twelve  minor  Prophets. 

3.   Tin'  Ti  ran  in  ';/  //<«  ji.\rti<l<i-.l<n<itlh<iii.  on  the  Penta- 
teuch, i-  -n  called  from  it*  having  been  erroneously  ascribed 
to  Jonathan  Ben  Uzziel.     In  purity  of  dialect,  in  its  gene- 
ral ntvlc.  and  1:1  its  mode  of  e\pn-ilion.   it  is  far  inferior  to 
:ignm  of  Jonathan.     It  abounds  in  silly  I'al.lcs  and 
Hebrew  onthc  part  of  its  author, 
inttrial  evidence,  such  as  its  mention  of  the  Turks 
and  Lombard-,   it  i-   ividcnt    that   it   could  not    have  been 
written  earlier  than   tin-  seventh,  or  perhaps  the  eighth, 
century. 


-1.   The  Jeruttn  „,  on  the  Pentateuch,  of  which 

however  it  omits  lar::>  .   and   sometimes  explains 

only    single    word-.    1-    ,  vidcntly    later    than    that    of    the 
pseudo-Jonathan,  which  it  generally  follows.  closely. 
sioually  departing  from   it    for  the  worse.     It-  ilia'.. 
verv  impure,  abounding  in  Greek,  Latin,  and  Persian 

Tl»e  other  Targums  scarcely  di-M-rv.  i,.    notice. 

An  account  of  them,   and   lists  of  the   editions   and  Latin 

versions  of  the  Targuma,  will  be  found  in  the  works  ijuoted 

at   the  end  of  this  article.     Taken    together,   the  Targums 
form  a  paraphra.se  of  the  whole  of  the  Old  Testamen- 
t-cot   tile    books   of    Daniel,   E/ra.   and    Nchemiah.    which 
called  the  le.-v.  lor  such  an  exposition,  as  they  are  to  a 
extent  written  in  <  'haldee. 

Piidcar.x's   ('•m/'-'-tinii.   pt.  ii.,  hk.  viii. ;    the  'Intro- 
ductions' of  Home  and  Jahn. 

TAKITA.  a  small  sea-port    town  situated    in  the  nar- 

part    of  the  Strait   of  Gibi altar,  on  a  point  m 
projecting   into    the    sea:    in   :«;"  :i'  N.    hit.   and  .V    'Mi' 
W.  long.     The  Arabs  called  it   Je/irah  Taiif    the   Island 
of  Tarif  .    because    a    Berber,    named    Tarif    Ibn    Malek 
Al-ma'feii,   who  was  the   lieutenant  of  Mfisa  Ibn  Ni. 
landed   on   the  little  island   facing  the  [port   with  a  small 
force,  two  years  before  the  final  of  Spain  by  the 

[MOOHS.]     Taiil'a   is  now  a  dependency  of  Cadiz, 
which  has  been  made  of  late  the  capital  of  a  provi; 

lie  name.  In  rj.r>.~>  it  was  besieged  by  the  Africans 
under  Abu  Ynsuf,  but  it  was  stoutly  defended  by  Don 
Alonso  Perez  de  Guzman  '  c'l  Bucno.'  the  progenitor  of 
the  dukes  of  .Medina  Sidonia,  who  would  not  surrender  that 
fortress  to  them,  notwithstanding  they  threatened  to  lie- 
head  his  only  son,  which  they  did  before  his  eyes.  In 
1340  a  great  battle  was  fought  near  Tarita.  1. 
phonso  XI.  of  Castile  and  Abii-1-hasan,  sultan  of  Fez  and 
Marocco,  when  the  former  was  victorious. 

TARIFF,  a  table  of  duties  to  be  paid  on  goods  imported 
or  exported.  The  principle  of  a  tariff  depends  upon  the 
commercial  policy  of  the  body  by  which  it  is  framed,  and 
the  details  are  constantly  fluctuating  with  the  clian 
interests  and  the  wants  of  the  community,  or  in  pursuance 
of  commercial  treaties  with  other  states.  The  British  tariff 
has  undergone  six  important  alterations  within  the  last 
sixty  years,  namely  in  17«~.  in  1*0:1.  isi'l.  1S2.~>,  IS.'i.'i.  and 
1842."  The  act  embodying  the  tariff  of  1H:«  is  the  :J  vV  -1 
Wm.  IV..  c.  .">(!.  Its  character  has  been  described  in  the 
Report  of  a  Committee  of  the  House  of  Common-  in  IMO, 
on  the  Import  Duties,  as  presenting- neither  congnnty  nor 
unity  of  purpose  :  no  general  principles  seem  to 
applied.  The  tariff  often  aims  at  incompatible  ends: 
the  duties  are  sometimes  meant  to  be  both  productive  of 
revenue  and  for  protective  object*,  which  are  frequently 
inconsistent  with  each  other.  Hence  they  sometime.- 
Operate  to  the  Complete  exclusion  of  foreign  produce 
in  so  far  no  revenue  can  of  course  be  received  :  and  - 
tunes,  when  the  duty  is  inordinately  high,  the  amount  of 
revenue  becomes  in  consequence  trilling  An  attempt  is 

made  to  pi  it  variety  of  particular  interests  at 

the  expense  of  the  revenue  and  of  the  commercial  inter- 
course with  other  countries.'  The  schedules  to  the  act 
It  ^  -|  \Vm.  IV.,  e.  .•>(!.  contain  a  list  of  I  15l>  articles,  to 
each  of  which  a  specific  duty  i<  affixed.  The  unenume- 
lated  a  re  admitted  at  an  ./•/  nil'iri'iit  duty  of  ~> 

and  of  'JO  per  cent,  the  rate  having  previously  been  20 
and  ."ill  per  cent.  In  ls;{S-!>,  seventeen  articles  'produced 
'.)4J  per  cent,  of  the  total  customs'  duties,  and  tb. 
mainder  only  "4  per  cent.,  including  twenty-nine,  which 
produced  .'{^  percent.  The  following  table  of  the  tariff  of 
hnwmg  the  duties  received  in  ls:ts-!l,  is  an  analysis 
of  one  prepared  by  the  inspector-general  of  imports  for  Un- 
parliamentary committee  to  which  allusion  has  been 
made  : —  N..  ..r  \UM  i  .  £ 

1.  Articles  producing  on  an  average  }    .,.,, 

less  than  2 1/.    . 

2.  Ditto  less  than  240/.      . 
li.   Ditto  less  than  7KJ/.       . 

Ditto  less  than  2.2* I/.    . 
5.  Ditto  less  than  'JJ.lsnf. 
(I.    Ditto  le-s  than   IHJ.wril'. 

7.  Ditto  less  than  2.O(i.'i 

8.  Articles   on   which  no  duty 

been  rccciv  ed    .  .  ) 


l.TJ 

40 

107 

83 

10 

11 

147 


&QOO 

31,029 

32,066 

244,933 


1,838,630 


'I  dr.iw- 


802 


TAR 


6] 


TAR 


The  new  tariff,  which  is  on  the  point  of  becoming  law, 
contains  very  numerous  alterations.  Cattle  and  fresh  meat 
are  admitted,  for  the  first  time,  on  payment  of  duty ; 
and  the  reduction  of  duty  on  salt-meat  is  considerable. 
Time  will  be  required  to  show  the  result  of  the  various 
changes  which  it  contains.  The  heads  of  the  tariff  are 
comprised  under  nineteen  heads,  and  the  articles  enume- 
rated are  as  many  as  those  in  the  tariff  of  1833. 

-TARIK.     [RoDERic.] 

TARLTON,  RICHARD,  a  comic  actor  of  "great  cele- 
brity in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  was  born  in  the 
hundred  of  Condover,  in  Shropshire.  The  date  of  his  birth 
is  not  known.  He  died  in  1588,  and  was  buried  (Septem- 
ber 3)  at  St.  Leonard's,  Shoreditch,  London. 
"  Tarlton  was  especially  distinguished  for  his  performance 
of  the  clowns  of  the  old  English  drama,  in  which  he  is 
spoken  of  as  having  been  unrivalled,  and  seems  besides  to 
have  been  one  of  those  clowns  who  spoke  '  more  than 
was  set  down  for  them  :'  he  was  famous  for  his  extempore 
wit,  which  indeed  must  have  been  an  important  addition 
to  the  dull  and  vulgar  speeches  generally  assigned  to  the 
clowns  before  Shakspere's  time  — he  interlarded  with  his 
wit  the  lean  and  hungry  prose.  Dr.  Cave,  '  De  Politica,' 
Oxford,  4to.,  1588,  says  (we  translate  Cave's  Latinl,  '  We 
English  have  our  Tarlton,  in  whose  voice  and  countenance 
dwells  every  kind  of  comic  expression,  and  whose  eccen- 
tric brain  is  filled  with  humorous  and  witty  conceptions.' 

Stow  mentions  that  Tarlton  was  one  of  the  twelve  actors 
whom  Queen  Elizabeth,  in  1583,  constituted  grooms  of 
the  chamber  at  Barn  Elms  :  he  seems  indeed  to  have  been 
one  of  her  especial  favourites  ;  for  Fuller  says,  that  '  when 
Queen  Elizabeth  was  serious  (I  dare  not  say  sullen),  and 
out  of  srood  humour,  he  could  undumpish  her  at  his  plea- 
sure. Her  highest  favourites  would,  in  some  cases,  go  to 
Tarlton  before  they  would  go  to  the  queen,  and  he  was 
their  usher  to  prepare  their  advantageous  access  to  her.' 

One  of  Tarlton's  last  performances  was  in  'The  Famous 
Victories  of  Henry  V.  :'  this  was  in  1588,  at  the  Bull  in 
Bishop>gale  Street,  to  which  theatre  he  seems  to  have 
been  generally  attached.  Of  this  play,  which  is  a  much 
earlier  one  than  Shakspere's  'Henry  V.,'  a  full  account  is 
given  in  the  introductory  notice  to  'Henry  VI..  Parts  I. 
iind  II.,'  in  Knight's  'Pictorial  ShakspereV  It  is  one  of 
the  'Six  Old  Plays,'  printed  by  Nichols  in  1779- 

Tarlton  is  known  to  have  written  at  least  one  play,  'The 
Deadly  Sins,'  which,  though  never  printed,  and  now 
lost,  was  much  admired.  Gabriel  Hervey,  in  his  '  Four 
1, "tiers  and  eeitaine  Sonnets  especially  touching  Robert 
Greene  and  other  Paities  by  him  abused.'  4to.,  1792, 
speaks  of  :i  \M>i!i  written  by  Thomas  \:i-hc,  '  right  for- 
mally conveyed  according  to  the  stile  and  tenour  of  Tarl- 
tim's  president,  his  famous  playe  of  'The  Seven  Deadly 
Sinnes,'  which  he  designates  as  a  '  most  deadly  but  most 
lively  playe.' 

There  is  a  portrait  of 'Tarlton,  in  his  clown's  dress,  with 
his  pipe  and  labor,  in  the  Harl.  MS.  :!SS5  :  and  a  similar 
pin-fruit  of  him  'probably  the  one  is  a  copy  of  the  other) 
in  the  title-page  of  a  pamphlet  called  '  Tarlton's  Jests,' 
4to.,  1611.  A  copy  of  the  former  portrait  is  given  in 
Knight's  •  Shakspere,'  at  the  end  of  'Twelfth  Night.'  The 
peculiar  flatness  of  his  noso  is  said  to  have  been  occasioned 
by  an  injury  which  that  feature  received  in  parting  some 
•uid  bears. 

i  Baker's  Itiographia  Dranifitint,  by  Reed  and  Jones.) 

TARN,  a  river  in  France,  belonging  to  the  system  of 
the  Garonne.     It  rises  near  Mount  Lozere,  one  of  the  C6- 
vennes,  in  the  department  of  Lozfire,  and  flows  first  west  to 
Sainte  Enimie  in  the  same  department,  27  miles,  and  then 
i-west  27  miles  to  Milhau,  in  the  department  of  Avey- 
ron;  from  thence  west-south-west  88  miles,  by  Alby  and 
Gaillac,   department  of  Tarn,  to  St.  Sulpice  ;    and  from 
thence  48  miles  north-west  and  west  by  Montauban  'de- 
partment of  Tarn  and  Garonne)  into  the  Garonne,  below 
ac.      The   navigation   is  marked   in  Brue's  map  of 
France  a*  commencing  at  Gaillac,  and  has  a  length  of 
about  (X)  miles;    other  authorities  make  the   navigation 
\lby.  and  this  statement  agrees  with  the 
"fti  '  iich  assign  to  the  river  a  navigation 

'  miles,     li  . al  tributaries,  but  none  of  them 

u:mu-:iblc.      [KIIVNCK;    GARONNE;    TARX    (depart- 
metr  '    .KONNK.] 

TARN,  a  department  in  the  south  of  France,  bounded 


on  the  north  and  north-east  by  tha^of  Aveyron,  "on  the 
south-east  by  that  of  Herault,  on  the  south  by  that  of  Aude, 
on  the  south-west  and  west  by  that  of  Haute  Garonne,  and 
on  the  north-west  by  that  of  Tarn  and  Garonne.  The  form 
approximates  to  that  of  a  parallelogram,  having  its  sides 
respectively  facing  the  north-east,  south-east,  south-west, 
and  north-west.  The  extreme  length  from  north-west  to 
south-east,  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Penne  on  the 
Aveyron  to  the  border  of  the  department  of  Herault,  near 
St.  Pons,  is  G5  miles ;  the  extreme  breadth,  from  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Valence  to  that  of  Puy-Laurens,  is  46  miles. 
The  area  is  estimated  at  2222  square  miles,  which  is  some- 
what under  the  average  area  of  the  French  departments, 
and  rather  greater  than  the  conjoint  areas  of  the  two 
English  counties  Surrey  and  Sussex.  The  population,  in 
1826,  was  327,655;  in  1831,  335,844;  and  in  1836,346,614, 
showing  an  increase  in  five  years  of  10,770  persons,  or  above 
3  per  cent.,  and  giving  156  inhabitants  to  a  square  mile. 
In  amount  and  density  of  population  it  is  below  the  average 
of  the  French  departments,  and  is  very  far  below  the 
county  of  Surrey  alone  in  amount,  and  in  density  of  popu- 
lation below  both  Surrey  and  Sussex.  Alby,  the  capital, 
is  on  the  Tarn,  339  miles  in  a  straight  line  nearly  due  south 
of  Paris,  or  482  miles  through  Orleans,  Chateauroux, 
Limoges,  Cahors,  Montauban,  and  Toulouse ;  a  very  cir- 
cuitous route,  but  the  only  one  laid  down  in  Reiehard's 
Road-book. 

The  department  is  very  mountainous  in  the  south-east 
part,  where  it  comprehends  a  portion  of  the  Cevennes.  A* 
range  of  hills  branching  oft'  from  this  chain,  and  running 
nearly  parallel  to  it,  crosses  the  north-west  part  of  the  de- 
partment, skirting  the  valley  of -the  Tarn;  and  there  are 
some  other  ranges  of  less  elevation  and  importance.  The 
peak  of  the  Cevennes,  which  overlooks  the  town  of  Soreze, 
in  the  south  of  the  department,  has  an  elevation  of  1760 
feet.  The  eastern  side  of  the  department,  bounded  by  a 
line  drawn  southward  or  south  by  east  from  the  junction  of 
the  Viaur  and  the  Aveyron,  is  chiefly  occupied  by  the 
granitic  or  other  primary  or  by  the  earlier  secondary  forma- 
tions :  west  of  this  boundary-line  the  tertiary  formations 
prevail ;  only  on  the  banks  of  the  Cerou  and  the  Aveyron 
in  the  northern  part,  and  about  Puy-Laurens  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  department,  the  secondary  formations,  which  lie 
between  the  cretaceous  group  and  the  new  red-sandstone 
group,  crop  out  from  beneath  the  tertiary  rocks.  The 
mineral  productions  are  of  no  great  importance.  There 
was,  in  1834,  only  one  coal  mine  worked;  it  gave  employ- 
ment to  273  workmen  within  the  mines  and  42  others, 
making  a  total  of  315 :  the  quantity  of  coal  produced  was 
19,933  tons,  and  the  total  value  13,152/.,  or  13s.  9rf.  per 
ton  on  the  average.  The  quantity  produced  in  1835  was 
18,420  tons.  There  were,  in  1834,  two  iron-works  with 
three  forges  for  the  manufacture  of  wrought-iron :  the  ore 
was  converted  directly  into  malleable  iron,  and  charcoal 
was  the  only  fuel  employed.  Lead  and  copper  ore  are 
said  to  be  found,  but  no  mines  are  now  worked.  There 
are  marble-quarries,  plaster-pits,  and  pits  for  porcelain  and 
potters'  clay. 

The  department  belongs  entirely  to  the  basin  of  the 
Garonne.  The  Tarn,  one  of  the  principal  feeders  of  that 
river,  touches  the  border  of  the  department  just  above  the 
junction  of  the  little  river  Ranee,  and  flows  along  the 
border  till  that  stream  (which  belongs  altogether  to  the 
department  of  Aveyron)  joins  it;  it  then  quits  the  border 
and  flows  westward  to  Alby  and  then  south-west  to  the 
junction  of  the  Agout,  shortly  after  which  it  quits  the  de- 
partment to  enter  that  of  Haute  Garonne :  the  navigation 
commences  at  Gaillac,  or,  according  to  some  authorities, 
at  Alby.  Just  above  Alby  the  Tarn  has  a  fall,  or  rather  a 
series  of  falls,  over  the  steep  face  of  a  limestone  rock,  in 
which  it  has  worn  a  number  of  channels,  which  so  divide 
the  stream,  that  when  the  water  is  low  it  may  be  crossed 
by  leaping  from  one  prominence  to  another:  this  fall  is 
called  Saut  du  Sabot  or  Saut  du  Tarn.  The  tributaries  of 
the  Tarn  which  belong  to  this  department  are  the  Aveyron, 
the  Tescou,  and  the  Agout.  The  Aveyron  has  only  a  small 
part  of  its  course  in  this  department,  and  another  small 
part  along  the  border;  its  affluent  the  Viaur  has  part  of 
its  course  along  the  border;  but  the  Cerou  and  the  Verre, 
two  other  affluents  of  the  Aveyron,  belong  to  this  depart- 
ment, almost  entirely.  The  Agout  rises  in  the  department 
of  Herault,  but  belongs  almost,  entirely  to  this  department, 


TAR 


TAR 


as  do  its  Affluent*,  the  Viau  (which  receives  the  Vebre\ 

,i(iii    'whii  '  and  thr   Bcrlou),  the 

' 

'•:\ga*,  and  the  Adou.     None  of  the  tributaries  of  the 

Tarn  or  their  affluents  arc  though  some  of  them 

:Me  lenpt!  •   abo\c   1J"I 

.  (lie  Viai;  './out  75.  and  Ihc  Adou  43;  the 

others  are  smaller. 

There  are  in  the,  department  five  I!  or  go- 

vernment roiuls.  which  hud,  January  1,  1837 
length  of  207  Hi  'ncli    llli  miles  were 

pair,  85  miles  out  ol' ••  '  (i  mi'e-  unfinished.    None 

Ot'the.se  roads  are  of  tile  tir-1  da— :  the  principal  are  those 
which  lead  from  Alhy  south-w  '.liar.  I.i-' 

' 
.a  ruadfroi:- 

and  north-ca-t  by  Carmeaux  to  Rode*,  in  the  department 

of  .\\c\Ton.      1!  e|i  from  the  . \lliy  :uul  Toulouse 

road  at  Gaillac,  and  lead,  one  west  to  Montaubanand  Bor- 
deau\.  "lie.  north  by  Cahusac  and  Coidcs  to  Aurillac.  in 
the  department  of  (,'antal.  Another  road  load- 

\   I.avaur  to  Toulouse.     The  depaitmental  roads  had 
at   the  same   time  an  nppivpate   leiipth  ol'   -)s5  ,,n 
whieli  2iM5  were  in  repair  and  lSi)out  ol' repair.     The  \ieinal 
roads  had  an  estimated  aggregate  length  of  7300  miles  in 
round  numbers. 

The  area  of  the  department  is  equal  to  rather  more  than 
1,400,000  acres  ;  considerably  more  than  one-half  of  Ibis  is 
under  the  plough.     The  soil,  except  in  the  mountainous 
U   generally    fertile  ;  hut    agriculture  is  in  a  very 
backward  state  ;  manures  e  ted.  and  tin-  system  of 

rotation  is  very  faulty.  The-e  drticit-m-ic-  are  ehiefh  ob- 
servable in  the  arrondi&sements  of  Albv  and  Gaillac.  which 
comprehend  the  beautiful  N alley  of  tiie  Tarn  :  in  (lie  ar- 
rondisv-ement-  of  ( ';t-trr-  and  l.a\aur,  in  the  south  of 
the  department,  inij-  ha\e  been  more  readily 

adopted.     The   produce   in   grain,  comprehending  wheat, 
barlev.  oats,   rye,  maize,  and  buckwheat,  is  sufficient  to 
supply  the  consumption  of  the  department  and  to  leave  a 
little  for  exportation.     Pulse,  flax,  hemp,  wo 
coriander,  and  satl'ion  arc  also  raised;   (lie  growth  of  woad 
is  of  lonp  establishment  and  considerable  importune- 
meadow  and  gra.->s  lands  may  be  estimated  at  about  100,000 
and   the  heaths,  commons,  and  other  open  pastures 
•-.     The  valleys  and  the  slope*  of  the  hills 
afford  good  pasturage,  and  the  breeding  of  cattle  is  one  of 
lineipal    -ourees  of   the  wealth  of  the  department. 
•   and   pi:r<   are    numerous,    and   the   veal   is   in   high 
repute.     The  breed  of  hor.-cs  is  imprininp.    The  \iu. 

v  nearly  SO.(KX)  acres:  the  cultivation  of  the  vine  is 

-kilfully  and  carefully  managed.     The  red  wines  of 

f'uiiac,  Cai>ai:uet,  St.  .lurry,  St.  Amar.ms,  and  Gaillac  are 

of  the  first  class;  those  of  Meilhart,  I.a  Koque,  Florentin. 

[.a  Gra\e,  Tecon,  and   Kabastcns  are  of  the  second   das-  : 

Gaillac  produces  some  white  wines.     Tlie  a\ crape  produce 

of  the  vintape  is  e-timated  at  above  430.000  hectolitres, 

1  at    5,5(KUHH>  francs.      The  orchard.--  and    gardens 

occupy  about  6000  acres.     The  olive  is  not  cultivated  to 

any  extent. 

Tlie    woodlands   occupy   200,000  acres ;    the    oak,  the 
the   maple,  the  chestnut,  the  walnut,  the 
mulberry,  and  the  wild  cherry-tree  are  common. 

are  numero'.i-,  but  the  breeding  of  the  .silkworm  is 

nut  carried  on  to  the  extent  of  which  it  is  capable.  The  wild 

boar,  the  roebuck,  the  wolf,  the  fox,  the  biulger,  the  pole- 

"id   the    hedgehog   are   found;  and   smaJl   game  is 

tolerably  ahum! 

Tlie   department  is  divided  into  four  arrondiasemenU,  as 
follows :  — 


N 


V    H. 

C<*tre«{  »n<l  K. 
Outline  N  \V. 
Lavaiir  8.W. 


A  run  In 


r»1>iilatinn. 

I- 

'•         84 
131,184 


'.Hi         N 


93     1 1 


490 

:i\-> 


rvj.ip 


7J.IXU 


57 


B 

5 


-W      346,014    327    85 

In  the  ammduiwmient  of  Alby  are— Alby.or  Albi  on  the 
Tarn  ;  population,  in  1H31,  0049  for  the  town,  or  1 1.(i(i5  for 


|  the  whole  commune:  in  1S30,  11.R01  for  the  commune 

''mont 

•  on  the  Adou,  and  Vi' 
that  ri 

or   it-   tn' 

as  Caatelnau-de-Bonnafoux.  i-  built  o 
the  north  bank  ol'  the  Tarn,  just  be!' 

1  bj  an  old  castle.     l.c«-iirc  was  a-" 
..    li'ttle    above   Alby.     Ri'alinont   1. 
chnri-h,  and  i>  a  -.ell-built  town  :  tlm 

linen   maiiutV.ctoiie-.  and  a  blear1  . 

and  worsteil   ho- 
the  to-^  ii. 

Valciic  laid  out   with  in  a 

well-wooded  di.strict,  from  whici  c  cmantily 

of  timber  is  .-eat  to  Alby,  G.iillac.  and  Hoi-  town 

has  five  la-  .  hielly  for  cattle.      1. 

are  made   at  Carincaux:   and   co:iM<!erab!e   trail 
on  at  Monestii's  in  linen,  thread,  and   cattle. 
has  thirteen  liiirs,  Sail.  IVilleneine   ib- 

i\e-sur-Vi:  I'nmpellone,    i 

.  isMinouiided  by  tin- 

lias  two  pates.       There  are  two  principal   Si 
large  places  or  s(marc~.     ('o:i-idei;di  -•  -ie  iii 

'oths,  which  are  manufactured;    and   t!,< 
yearly   • 

In   the  arronit,  n-s,  on  the 

Apout,  )iopnlation,  iii  IR'il.  1  i()32  for  the  town,  or  HU18 
•   whole    commune  :  in  !*.!(>.  17.(!O2  for  the   whole 
commune  [CASTKKS]  ;  Brassac,  Fort-de-Kcrrici 
courbe.  Burlats,  and   Vii-lmcur.  all  on  the  Apout  :    A 

Hautpoul,  Mazamel    pop.  :t«!)fj  for  t; 
the  whole  commune;,  and  La  1! 
tributaries  ;  I.a  (  'aune  (pop.  l(i.">0  for  the  ! 
the  whole  commune:,  on  t1  the  Gijoii  : 

Mondrapon,  on  the  Adou;   I.a 

twccn  the  Adou  and  the  Apout  :  and  Doiirpne  and  s 
(pop.  1574  for  the  town,  or  2S17  for  the  whole  commune  , 
in  the  southern  corner  of  the  department.      Hia- 
irnishcd   as  Brassac-de-Be!  the   centi. 

siderable  manufacture  of  dimity  and 

caiiied  on   in  the  village  of  Hi  '  h   U 

included  in  the  commune  of  the  town  .  and  other  \: 
around.     Fort  de  Feoiirea  lakes  n~  Mime  from  an  a 
nee  u-i  d  a-  a  slate  prixm,  now  a.s   a   inamifacti 
cotton   goods.     Hoijneeonibe,  situated   in  a  fertile   i! 
has  a  1'iote-laiit  church,  and  is  the  x  at    of  a   eou>i,;; 
manufacture  of  woollen  stoekinps  ;  it  has 
Vielmeur,  or  Viclmur.  has  a  manufacture   of  CO 


and  of  knitted  sloekinp.-  ;  it    has  five  f;iir-.        mri 
manufactures  of  woollen  and  cotton  yarn,  and  woollen  and 
cotton  goods.     Hautpoul   has  an  antient    castle,  formerly 
the  capital  of  the  barony  of  Hiuitpouloi.-  :  it  was  -tornied, 
A.D.  121  VI.    by  Simon  de  Mont  fort.     Mazamet    i-    a 
town  ;   it  has  a  number  of  manufactories  for  woollen 
ol'\a:i  -ome  dve-housi  ,d  paper-- 

it   has  four  fairs  for  cattle,  wool,  and   manufaetured  goods. 
'ankets,  and  oilier  woollens  are  mam 
.  ili-tinpui-'  BrugiJre-Dulac  :  hosiery  and 

dimity  at  I.a  ('mine  :  and  calicoes,  dimitie-.  and  oth, 
ton  poods,  and  tlannel  at  Yabres,  di.-tiripui>hed 

-  ha>  a  I'ro'e-tant  chnreh  :  four  fairs 

Id  in  the  year.    Mondrapon,  now  of  little  importance, 
was  formerly  of  considerable  note  :  it  has  six  yearly 
a   number  of    pi  ;    In  re.      I.autrcc  i-  on  a   small 

eminence,  and  oat  the  ruin-  of  au  antient  castle  :  it  lia-steii 

fairs.     The  neighbourhood  Jirm  1  wine  and 

melons.     Lautrec.  was  formerly  a   via  »a>  held 

in  the  time  of  Francois  I.,  by  Odon  de  1  :'l  of 

considerable   distinction   in   tile  Iliilm  Unp. 

Dourpne  has  some  mumifa.  three 

lairs,  and  iu  the  environ-  some 
white    and    pray  marble.     Son^e    h- 
ilietine  abbey,  wl 

but  without  fortune,  recei\ed  : 

has  now  a  <  \\iz\\  »chi  f  the  nio.-t   im- 

'  in  the  south  o:  -m  yarn,  woollen  and 

cotton    ho-icry.  and   leathe-  :   and   there   are  two 

'.Soir/.c  was  loititied  by  the  Hn-nenols  in  tlie 

reliiridn-  wars  of  the  sixteenth  century,  but  the  ramparts 


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63 


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were  destroyed  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  At  La  Ro- 
quette,  near  Castrcs,  aiv  t\vo  remarkable  natural  curiosities  : 
Le  Rocher  tremblant,  a  mass  of  stone,  comprehending 
about  360  cubic  feet,  and  resting  on  a  very  narrow  base,  so 
as  to  rock  or  vibrate  sensibly  when  pushed,  like  the  Logan 
or  Logging  Stone,  in  Cornwall ;  and  the  grotto  which  bears 
the  name  of  St.  Dominic,  from  having  served  as  a  retreat 
to  that  celebrated  ecclesiastic. 

In  the  arrondissement  of  Gaillac  are  —  Gaillac  (population 
in  1831,  5552  for  the  town,  or  7725  for  the  whole  com- 
mune ;  in  1836,  8199  for  the  commune'),  on  the  Tarn ; 
Lisle  (pop.  1726  for  the  town,  or  5065  for  the  whole  com- 
mune) and  Rabastens  (pop.  3417  for  the  town,  or  69G6  for 
the  whole  commune),  on  the  same  river;  Penne,  on  the 
Aveyron ;  Cordes(pop.  2239  for  the  town,  or  2602  for  the 
commune),  on  the  Cerou ;  Cestayrols,  Cahuzac,  Castelnau 
de  Montmiiail,  and  Puiceley,  on  or  near  the  Verre  ;  Sal- 
v:iigiiac,  near  the  Tescou  ;  and  Cadalen,  between  the  Tarn 
and  the  Adou.  Gaillae  is  on  the  right  or  north  bank  of  the 
Tarn  :  it  is  an  old  town  without  any  striking  public  build- 
ing:  then1  are  an  hospital  and  a  small  theatre.  East  of 
the  town  is  a  suburb,  well  laid  out  and  pleasantly  situated. 
There  are  brandy  distilleiies  and  cooperages,  and  one  or 
t\vo  tun-yards,  dye-houses,  and  yards  for  building  boats  and 
other  river-craft.  Trade  is  carried  on  in  com,  wine,  and 

;il>le.s:  there  are  seven  yearly  fairs.  Lisle  (otherwise 
L'lle  d'Alby),  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tarn,  is  a  small 
town,  \\ith  a  place  or  square  re«ru!arly  laid  out  and  adorned 
with  a  fountain.  Considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in  corn 
and  wine,  and  there  are  seven  yearly  lairs  for  cattle,  linen 
elutli.  and  wool.  Rabastrns, in  a  fertile  plain  on  the  ritrht 
nf  the  Tarn,  is  an  ill  laid  out  and  ill-built  town. 
There  is  a  pleasant  suburb,  and  adjacent  to  it  an  agree- 
able promenade.  Some  blankets  are  manufactured,  and 
some  trade  carried  on  in  corn,  wine,  and  fruit  :  there  are 

I'arly  fairs.     Rabastens  has  the  ruins  of  an  antient 

.  which  was  taken  by  Simon  de  Montfort  in  the  reli- 
gious wars  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  by  the  English 
in  the  wars  of  the  fourteenth  ccntuiy.  Cordes  is  on  an 

'ed  site  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Cerou  :  it  has  a  hand- 
some place  or  square,  and  the  ruins  of  an  antient  castle  : 
linen  and  leather  are  manufactured  ;  there  is  a  consider- 
able weekly  market  for  corn  and  fruit,  and  there  are  six 
yearly  fairs.  Castelnau  de  Montmirail  was  antiently  a 
of  strength  :  it  is  in  a  district  fertile  in  corn  and 
fruit.  Coarse  marble  is  quarried  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Puiceley  is  on  a  height  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Verre,  not 
far  from  C'astelnau  de  Montmiiail  :  the  chief  business  of 
the  town  is  the  manufacture  of  casks,  joiners'  and  other 
wood  woik,  and  cheeses  of  great  delicacy :  there  are  lour 
yearly  fairs.  Abundance  of  wood  is  obtained  in  the  ad- 
jacent forest  Hi  (i.i'sine.  Salvaignac,  or  Salvagnac,  is 

antly  situated  on  an  eminence  not  far  from  the  left 

of  the  Tescou  :  it  has  some  iron-forges,  and  consider- 
able trade  is  carried  on  in  cattle  :  there  are  six  yearly  fairs. 
Some  trade  in  < -attic  is  carried  on  at  Cadalen. 

In  the  arrondissement  of  Lavaurare — Lavaur  or  Laveur, 
near  the  A;,rout  (population  in  1*G1.  4422  for  the  town,  or 
717J  for  the  whole  commune:  in  1S3G.  7205  for  the  com- 
mune). Giroussens  and  St.  Sulpice,  on  or  near  the  same 
river;  Puy-Laurens  I  population  1793  for  the  town,  or  (ilCO 
for  the  whole  commune),  near  the  head  of  the  Giron,  an 
unimportant  feeder  of  the  Garonne  :  and  Graulhet  (popu- 
lation 2458  for  the  town,  or  5097  for  the  whole  commune  1 
and  Hi  iatexte,  on  or  near  the  Adou.  Lavaur  is  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Agout,  which  is  here  crossed  by  a  modern 
bridsre  of  hold  ronsd-m-tiun.  The  town  was  defended  by 
-  and  protected  by  a  castle  in  the  eleventh  century. 
In  the  religious  war*  which  signalised  the  early  part  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  it  was  one  of  the  strongholds  of  the 
Albigente*.  from  whom  it  was  taken,  A.I>.  1211.  by  Simon 
de  Montfort,  who  committed  the  n  ,1  cruelties. 

The  place  U  divided  into  the  old  town  nnd  the  new  town, 
but  ii  altogether  ill  built.  The  chief  branch  of  indn-lrv  is 
silk-throwing.  'Hie  raw  silks  of  Haut  or  Upper  Lunguvdoo 

.iniL'lil  here  :  and  when  thrown  are  sent  to  Nfmes  and 
MHO    silk-stuff*   for   the   upholsterers,    and   silk- 
nacle  ;  and  there  are  dye-houses  and  tan- 
yards  :  there  are  three  yearly  fairs.    "Lavaur  ha-  a  hiyh 

'>!,  a  small  public;  library,  an  agricultural  socie! 
a  subordinate  c-omt  of  justice.     Giioussens  was  form 

•h.  and  the  object  of  contest  in  the  Knglish 
wan  of  I)  ath  century.     It  stands  on  the  right 


bank  of  the  Agout :  the  townsmen  manufacture  brown 
pottery,  but  their  ware  is  less  in  request  than  formerly. 
There  is  one  yearly  cattle-fair.  Puy-Laurens  is  on  a  small 
eminence  commanding  the  surrounding  fertile  plain.  It 
was  one  of  the  strongholds  of  the  Huguenots  in  the  reli- 
gious wars  of  the  sixteenth  century  :  but  the  fortifications 
were  rased  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.  The  town  appears 
to  have  been  after  this  still  occupied  by  the  Protestants,  who 
had  here  an  Academy  of  Sciences,  which  was  suppressed 
after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict,  of  Nantes.  Silk-throwing 
is  carried  on,  and  there  is  considerable  trade  with  Spain  in 
horses  and  mules :  there  are  five  well-attended  yearly 
fail's.  Graulhet,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Adou,  has  a  con- 
siderable manufacture  of  hats  and  woollen  stuffs,  and  a 
number  of  tan-yards.  Considerable  trade  in  horses  is  car- 
ried on,  and  there  are  five  cattle-fairs.  The  district  round 
the  town  is  fertile  :  millstones  are  dug. 

The  population,  when  not  otherwise  described,  is  from 
the  census  of  1831. 

That  part  of  France  which  now  constitutes  this  depart- 
ment was  chiefly  comprehended,  in  the  earliest  historical 
period,  in  the  territory  of  the  Kuteni.  The  southern  por- 
tions were  comprehended  in  the  territory  of  the  Umbranici, 
and  the  south-western  in  that  of  the  Tolosates.  That  part 
of  the  territory  of  the  Ruteni  which  was  comprehended  in 
the  department  is  considered  by  D'Anville  to  have  been 
occupied  by  the  Ruteni  Provinciales,  distinguished  by 
'  by  that  epithet  from  the  other  Ruteni,  as  being 
within  the  limits  of  the  Roman  province  at  the  time  of  his 
command  in  Gaul.  The  Umbranici  and  Tolosates  were 
also  within  the  province.  The  Ruteni  were  defeated  by 
Fabius  Maximus,  B.C.  121,  and  it  was  probably  at  this  time 
that  part  of  them  (the  Ruteni  Provinciales)  became  sub- 
ject to  Rome.  The  independent  Ruteni  took  an  active 
part  in  the  general  revolt  of  the  Gauls  under  Vercinge- 
torix,  near  the  close  of  Caesar's  command,  and  were  sent 
by  Vercingetorix  to  ravage  the  lands  of  the  Volcae  Areco- 
mici,  who  were  Roman  provincials.  They  were  subdued 
by  Ceesar.  All  these  nations  appear  to  have  belonged  to 
the  great  Celtic  stock.  Under  the  Romans  the  Ruteni 
•including  the  Ruteni  Provinciales)  appear  to  have  been 
comprehended  in  the  province  of  Aquitauia  Prinia ;  the 
Umbranici  and  Tolosates,  in  Narbonensis  Prinia.  The 
town  of  the  Albienses  (Civitus  Albie/isium)  of  the'Notitiu' 
was  probably  Alby  :  the  Albigi  of  the  anonymous  Geo- 
grapher of  Ravenna  was  probably  the  same  place.  No  other 
Roman  town  can  be  identified  with  any  locality  within  the 
department.  The  river  Tarn  is  noticed  by  Ausonius  (Mo- 
xeltee  Desrriptiu,  465)  and  Sidonius  Apollinaris  (Carmen, 
xxiv.  45)  under  the  name  of  Tarnis  :  the  former  bestows 
on  it  the  epithet  'aurifer,'  'the  gold-bearing;'  the  second 
calls  it  'citus,'  the  'swift.' 

In  the  middle  ages,  and  down  to  the  period  of  the  Revo- 
lution, the  larger  portion  of  this  department  was  known  as 
the  territory  of  L'Albigeois  ;  the  arrondissement  of  Lavaur, 
and  the  adjacent  parts,  formed  the  district  of  Le  Has 
(Lower)  Lauraguais  :  both  these  were  comprehended  in  Le 
Haut  (Upper)  Languedoc.  Alby  was  the  chief  town  of 
L'Albigeois  ;  Lavaur  of  Bas  Lauraguais. 

Upon  the  downfal  of  the  Roman  Empire  this  part  of 
France  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Visigoths,  and  subse- 
quently of  the  Franks  under  Clovis.  The  district  of  L'Albi- 
geois was  part  of  the  great  duchy  of  Guienne  in  the  time 
of  the  later  kinsrs  of  the  Merovingian  dynasty.  It  was  sub- 
sequently held  in  succession  by  the  counts  of  Toulouse, 
the  \iscouuts  of  Be/iers,  and  the  counts  of  Carcassonne: 
and  was,  in  the  early  part  of  the  thirteenth  century,  the 
scene  of  the  fearful  cruelties  perpetrated  in  the  crusade 
airainst  the  Albigeois  or  Albigrnses,  a  sect  deriving  their 
name  from  the  district,  and  persecuted  by  the.  Romish 
church  as  heretical.  [AuuflcKNUS.]  In  the  sequel  of  this 
de  the  district  of  L'Albigeois  was  annexed  to  the 
crown.  The  district  of  Lauraguais  was  successively  held 
by  the  counts  of  Carcassonne  and  Barcelona;  one  of  these 
hitter,  ha\ing  become  king  of  Aragon,  ceded  Le  Lau- 
raguais  to  the  Viscount  of  Be/iers,  who  again  ceded  it  to 
St.  l.ouis,  king  of  France.  It  wa.-  alienated  by  Louis  XL, 
who  gave  it  to  the  counts  of  Auvergne,  but  was  reunited 
to  the  crown  by  Henri  IV. 

TARN  ET  GARONNE,  a  department  in  the  south  of 
France,  situated  between  43°  47'  and  44°  23'  N.  lat.,  and 
0"  40'  and  2°  0'  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  department  of  Lot,  on  the  north-east  by  tlia.t  of  Avey- 


T  A  R 


64 


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ron,  on  the  cast  anil  south-past  by  that  of  Tarn,  on  Ihe 
south  bytlmt  of  Hautr  Garonne,  on  the  south-west  by  tluit 
of  Gers,  and  on  tin-  north-wc-t  by  ili-.it  ot  ..nine. 

Its  form  is  irregular:  1lu>  irrei'.ic-t  lensrth  is  from  north- 
east to  so>  Ihe  border  of  the  department  <u' 

Areyron  near  Pan-ot,  lo  the  bank  of  the  little  river  Ijirax. 
near'  Ijivit-dc-1.  ••'<  mile-:  the  creates!  lireailth  :it 

rijrht  anirles  lo  tile  lcni:lh.  i-  IV.  mi  tin-  border  of  the  dc- 
i,  nne.  near  Montaiirut.  to  the  border  nf 

the  department  of  Haute  Garonne.  ticai-Gri/alle-.  -I  \  mile-. 
The  area  1.  1  the  department  is  estimated  :it  14-J1  square  miles. 
which  is  not  -o  miieli  as  two-thirds  of  the  average  area  of 
the  Kreneh  departments.  and  is  rather  less  than  the  area  of 
the  Knirli-h  county  of  Sussex.  The  population,  m  Is'Jf.. 
wa-  -JII.  :.-«;:  in  'isUl.  1J4:>,50!>  :  and  in  \XW.  ^1'J.lsl. 
showing  a  very  trilling  inerea-e  5!N  persons.  le.-s  tlian 
O-i"i  per  cent.'  in  the  ten  years  from  1820  to  IKMi  :  and  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  term'a  positive  decrease.  The  num- 
ber of  inhabitants  to  a  square  mile,  in  IKili,  was  170. 
which  is  rather  above  the  average  den-in  of  the  population 
of  France;  but  the  department  is  inferior  in  amount  of 
population  to  most  other  departments:  and  both  in 
amount  and  density  of  population  to  the  English  county 
with  which  we  have  compared  it.  Montauban,  the  capital. 
is  :t:O  miles  in  a  direct  line  south  by  west  of  Paris,  or  -His 
miles  by  the  road  through  Paris,  Orleans,  Chatcauroux, 
Limoges,  and  Cahors. 

This  department  was  not  one  of  those  formed  at  the  first 
establishment  of  the  departmental  division  of  France  by 
the  National  Assembly.  A.D.  1790;  but  was  created  by  a 
si  'iiatu—  eonsultum  under  the  reign  of  Napoleon,  A.D.  1808. 
Jt  was  formed  from  the  Rrromlissement  of  Montauban, 
taken  from  the  department  of  Lot  ;  the  arrondissement  of 
1  Sarrasin,  taken  from  the  department  of  Haute 
Garonne  :  the  cantons  of  Auvillard.Montaigut,  and  Valence, 
taken  from  the  arrondissement  of  Alien,  in  the  department 
of  Lot  et  Garonne  :  the  canton  of  Lavit-dc-Loma<rne,  taken 
from  the  arrondissement  of  Lectoure,  in  the  department  of 
Gere;  and  the  canton  of  St.  Antonin,  taken  from  the  ar- 
rondissement of  Villefranche,  in  the  department,  of  A\ey- 
ron.  The  department  thus  formed  was  divided  into  three 
new  aiTondissements,  Montauban,  Moissac,  and  l'a-te! 
Sarrasin. 

The  department  has  no  mountains  and  scarcely  any 
hills;  slisrht  undulations  alone  vary  its  surface.  The 
greater  part  is  occupied  by  the  tertiary  formations  of  the 
ba-in  of  the  Gironde  :  the  part  north-cast  of  St.  Antonin, 
on  the  Aveyron,  and  Puy-la-Koqne.  is  occupied  by  ihe 
secondary  formations  which  intervene  between  the  chalk 
and  the  red  marl  or  new  red  sandstone.  Some  of  our 
authorities  enumerate  coal  among  the  productions  of  the 
department  ;  but  this  is  hardly  consistent  with  its  geoloiii- 
cal  character,  nor  were  any  coal-mines  wrought  in  1834 
and  1835,  of  which  the  official  returns  are  before  us.  Some 
iron  is  obtained;  and  there  was.  in  1834,  one  iron-work. 
with  two  furnaces  for  making  pin-iron.  and  live  forces  for 
making  wrought-iron.  Charcoal  wa.-  the  fuel  iilmo>t  ex- 
clusively employed.  Marble  and  irood  freestone  are 
quarried  in  the  "north-east  parts  of  the  department  ;  and 
limestone,  marl,  and  pottcr-'-clay  are  dug  in  several 


The  department  belongs  altogether  to  the  basin  of  the 
Garonne.  The  Garonne  itself  enter.-  it  on  the  south  side. 
a  little  below  Grenade,  and  flows  north-west  by  Verdun 
and  I/e-Mas-Garnier,  to  the  junction  of  the  Tarn  :  it  then 
flows  a  few  miles  west  bv  Auvillard:  and  turning  again 
north-west,  and  passim:  Valence,  quits  the  department. 
It  has  about  4<)  miles  of  its  course  (4i)  miles,  according  to 
the  official  account  in  tlnsdcpartment,  navigable  through- 
out. The  Tarn  enters  the  department  on  the  south-east: 
it  flows  first  north-we-l  by  Montauban  to  the  neighbour- 
hood of  I-a  Franchise  ;  and  then,  in  a  winding  channel, 
westward  into  the  Garonne,  which  it  joins  on  the  rii;ht 
bank:  its  whole  course  in  this  department  may  be  e-ti 
mated  at  36  miles  (40  according  to  the  official  account  . 
naviirable  throughout.  These  are  the  only  navigable 
rivers.  Of  smaller  streams,  the  Garonne  receives  on  the 
left  bank  the  I.amhon.  the  Gimone,  and  the  Scrre,  above 
the  junction  of  the  Tarn;  and  the  Larax,  or  Rats,  below 
the  junction  of  that  river.  The  Barifuelonc  lonmd  b\ 
the  junction  of  theGraodt  Barffuelone  and  the  Petite  liar- 
jtnelone)  and  the  Saone  (which  receives  the  Seum 
the  Garonne  on  the  right  bank,  below  the  junction  of  the 


Tarn,  and  beyond  the  limits  of  the  department,  to  which 

however  a  con-iderable  part  of  their  course  he!, 

.\\eyron,  a  con-i  .  .ierof  the  Tarn,  which  it  joinsoll 

the  riirht  hank.  I  ••lontanhan  and  I 

the  lower  part  of  it- course  In  this  department  01  aionir  the 

boundaiy.     The  Tarn  .d-o  the  T.  which 

Mi.  •  Tc-  •.-!., met    is  a  feeder'  and   the    I.eml  .-.  hieb 

Ihe  I  .all.'-  i-  lioth  on  the  riirht  hank.     The. \\e\- 

ton  reeetvi  >  the  s>  ye,  the  Honncttc.  and  the  la-re,  on  the 

riirht    Imnk;    and  the  Verre  and    tl  i  the    hit 

bank. 

The  department  had,  1  Jan.,  1837,  seven  Ron), 
or    iro\  eminent   roads,  with   an   air^reirate    length   of    l.'is 
mile-.  \  i/.  |5()  miles  in  L.-OOI!  re-pair  and  K  miles  imtini-bed  : 
the  aggregate   lenirth   of   the  departmental   road.-   at    the 
same  time  was  ZH  miles.  \  i/.    !."><;  miles  in  irood    repair 
and  7*  miles  unfinished  :    the  bye-roads  and  lane-  had   an 
au'irrciralc  lensrth  of  above  4800  tfllea,   The  principal  road 
is  that  from  Paris  to  Montauban  and  Toulouse:     it    . 
the  department   on  the   north  side,   at    the   ul 
Madeleine,  and  inn-  southward  by  Cans.-ade  and  Kealville 
to  Montauban  ;  and  from  thence' still  southward.  l< . 
xalles.  a   little   beyond  which   it   ((nits  the  depaitmc'nt.  to 
Toulouse.     A  road  from  Montauban  i  .us  west-north 
parallel   to  the  cour.-e   first   of  the  Tarn,  afterward   of  the 
Garonne,  by  La  Francai-c,  Mol-sac.  and   Valence,  to  Hor- 
deaux  :     another  road  runs  south-west.   h\    Montcch  and 
Beaumont-de-Lomagne,  to  Audi  ;  and  a  third,  east -south- 
east, to  Gaillac  and  Alby.  in  the  adjacent  department   of 
Tarn.     A  road  which  enters  the  department  on  the  north- 
east run-  b\  Cay  I  us  and  Sept  Ions,  and.  unit  imr  with  Hi. 
from  Paris  to  Toulouse  at  Caussade,  forms  the  communi- 
cation between  Hodez  and  Montauban.     A  road  runninsr 
from  Moissac  along  the  valley  of  the  Garonne,  by  ' 
SaiTa.-iu.  St.  Porquier,  Sealalen,  and    Finnan,  to  Gri/alle.-, 
forms  the  shortest  cominunication  between  Hordeau 
Toulouse. 

The  climate  is  generally  mild,  but  subject  to  variations, 
which  occasion  frequent  attacks  of  catarrh  and  rheumatism. 
The  mean  temperature  in  winter  is  from  lili"  to  Hi)"  of  Fah- 
renheit, that  of  spriiiir  and  autumn  from  511-  to  (>1J.  and 
that  of  summer  from  81"  to  86°.  Mains  are  frequent  in 
sprinsr  :  the  summer  heat  increases  irradnally  towards  the 
end  of  .Inly,  when  it  is  very  great  :  autumn  is  the  plca- 
santest  season  of  the  year:  winter,  thonirh  sometime.-  verv 
cold,  is  generally  dry.  Snow  rarely  tails. 

The  area  of  the  department  may  be  estimated  at  about 
910,000  acres  in  round  numbers,  of  which  about  .")75.(XX» 
acre-,  or  above  six-tenths,  are  under  the  plough.  Tli. 
is  various;  in  some  parts  stiff  and  clayey,  in  others  liirht 
and  sandy;  so  sandy  in  some  places  a.-  to  he  incapable  of 
cultivation.  The  greater,  part  however  is  \ery  fertile:  the 
plains  and  alluvial  tracts  which  line  the  banks  of  th 
ronne,  the  Tarn,  and  the  Aveyron,  are  anioni:  the  richest, 
in  France  ;  but  those  alona;  the  hanks  of  the  Garonne  are 
to  be  injured  by  the  inundations  of  that  river. 
The  farms  are  generally  separated  by  quick-hcd_!c<.  and 
adorned  with  clumps  of  Ike  wild  quincc-tice.  The  most 
important  article  of  agricultural  produce  is  wheat,  which 
is  of  excellent  quality.  It  is  ground  into  Hour,  especially 
at  Montauban  ;  and  larire  quantities  are  exported  to  Ann  - 
rica.  llarley.  oats.  rye.  maixe.  pulse,  potatoes,  vegetables 
of  excellent  quality,  rape,  flax,  and  hem]),  are  also  culti- 
vated to  a  considerable  extent. 

The  meadows  have  an  extent   of  about  43,000  or  4  : 
acres,  the  heath- and  open  pastures  of  more  than  4  I.IKKI 
acre-.     The  number  of  horned  cattle  and  sheep  is  m 
any  means  so  considerable  as  it  misiht   be:    the  breed  of 
sheep    has    been    however  gradually  improving,  and   tin- 
wool  is  of  good  quality.     Horses,  fitted  lor  the  liirht   ca- 
valry, are  reared  ;  and  a  considerable  number  of  mule 
bred  for  the  Spanish  market.     The  breediiiir  of  swine  is 
on  the  increase.     Poultry,  especially  duck-  and  srccse,  are 
numerous:  they  are  salted  in  considerable  quantity:    and 
their  livers,  which  sometimes  weiirh  two  pounds,  are  made 
into  the  pies  for  winch  this  part  of  France.  Toulouse  espe- 
cially.  is  so  famous.     The  quills  also  form  an  important 
article  of  trade. 

The  \ine  is  extensively  cultivated  on  the  slopes  and 
more  elevated  plains,  where  the  soil  is  commonly  of  a 
whitish  colour,  Of  mingled  ''lay  and  fine  sand,  little  adapted 
for  the  growth  of  corn,  but  suited  to  the  vine,  which 
succeeds  admirably  in  the  district  between  the  Taj-n  and 


T  A  K 


65 


TAR 


the  Garonne.  The  vineyards  have  an  extent  of  about 
90,000  acres.  A  large  part  of  their  produce  is  made  into 
brand)'  for  exportation.  The  wine  is  of  fair  quality,  but 
not  first-rate  ;  and  in  general  of  a  deep  colour,  which  it 
loses  by  age. 

The  orchards  and  gardens  occupy  about  4500  acres  :  the 
walnut  and  chestnut  trees  are  of  great  size :  the  white 
mulberry  is  cultivated  in  order  to  rear  the  silk-worm, 
which  is  an  object  of  attention,  though  not  so  extensively 
as  it  might  be  made.  The  woods  occupy  about  110,000 
acres.  Game  and  fresh-water  fish  are  abundant :  great 
quantities  of  the  lamprey  and  the  shad  are  taken  in  the 
Garonne  in  the  spring. 

The  department  is  divided  into  three  arrondissements, 
as  follows :  — 

Situa-    Area  in  Population  iu  Can-    Coin- 

Nam'',  lion.    Sq.  miles.       1831.  1836.         tons,  mimes. 

Montauban     E.        619     107,853     106.799     11       62 
Moissac        N.W.     341       62,489      62,735      6      49 
Castel-Sar- 
rasin 

1421     242.509     242,184     24     191 

In  the  anondissement  of  Montauban  are — Montauban, 
on  the  Tarn  (population,  in  1831,  18,255  for  the  town,  or 
25.400  for  the  whole  commune  ;  in  1830,  23,865  for  the 
commune)  [MOXTAUBAN]  ;  La  Fran9aise  (pop.  3C86),  near 
the  Tarn  ;  Varen,  St.  Antonin  (pop.  2861  for  the  town,  or 
5482  for  the  whole  commune),  Montricoux,  Bioulle,  Negre- 
pelisse,  and  Realville  (pop.  3030),  on  or  near  the  Aveyron  ; 
Bruniquel,  on  the  Verre  ;  Parisot,  on  the  Seye ;  Caylus 
(pop.  1518  for  the  town,  or  5319  for  the  whole  commune), 
on  the  Bonnette ;  Puy-la-Roque,  Septfons,  Caussade  (pop. 
2441  for  the  town,  or  4479  for  the  whole  commune),  on  or 
near  the  Lere  or  its  affluents ;  Montpezat  and  Molieres, 
on  or  near  the  Lemboulas  ;  Mirabel,  between  the  Lerc  and 
the  Lemboulas;  and  Montclar,  on  the  Tesoounet.  La 
Fianraise  has  a  manufacture  of  pottery  from  the  fine  clay 
which  is  dust  in  the  neighbourhood.  St.  Antonin  is  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  A\  eyron,  at  the  junction  of  the  Bon- 
nette. There  are  manufactures  of  serge  and  other  woollen 
stuffs,  and  there  are  tan-yards  and  paper-mills:  con- 
sideiable  trade  is  carried  on  in  leather  and  dried  plums. 
Montricoux  has  twelve  yearly  fairs:  marble  is  quarried 
near  the  town.  Negrepeliste  was  formerly  inhabited 
chiefly  by  the  Huguenots ;  and  when  Louis  XIII.  besieged 
M.mtaulian  \.n.  1021  ,  he  put  a  garrison  into  this  town  ; 
but  the  inhabitants  rose  upon  the  garrison,  and  put  them 
to  the  sword,  in  consequence  of  which  the  town  was  taken 
and  burnt  by  the  royal  army.  Cotton  goods  are  woven, 
and  trade  is  carried  on  in  corn,  wine,  and  hemp:  there  are 
ten  yi  -  At  RraKille  consideiable  trade  is  carried 

on  in  corn  and  flour  :  there  are  five  yearly  fairs.  Bruni- 
quel has  an  iron-work.  Caylus  has  eleven  yearly  fail's,  and 
a  trade  in  corn.  Caussade  has  some  manufactures  of  linen 
and  woollen  ;  and  the  townsmen  carry  on  trade  in  corn, 
flour,  saffron,  and  truffles  :  there  are  eight  yearly  fairs. 

In  the  arrondissement  of  Moissac  are — Moissac,  on  the 
riitht  hank  of  the  Tarn  (population,  in  1831,  5950  for  the 
town,  or  It),  105  for  the  whole  commune;  in  1836,  10,618 
for  the  commune)  [Moiss.\c]  ;  Auvillard  or  Auvillar  (po- 
pulation 1903  for  the  town,  or  2302  for  the  whole  com- 
mune), on  the  Garonne ;  Valence  (population  1994  for  the 
town,  or  2875  for  the  whole  commune),  between  the  Ga- 
ronne and  the  Bareuelone ;  Lauzerte  (population  1753  for 
the  town,  or  3085  for  the  whole  commune)  and  Miramont, 
on  the  Petite  Barguelone  :  Monjoy  or  Montjoye  and  Castel- 
Sagrat,  on  or  near  the  Saone;  Le  Bourg-du-Visa,  on  a 
small  feeder  of  the  Saone ;  Montaigut  or  Montaigu  (popu- 
lation 2000  for  the  town,  or  4172  for  the  whole  commune) 
and  Roquecor,  on  the  Seune;  and  Dunes,  near  the  west  em 
border  of  the  department.  At  Auvillard  or  Auvillar 
(sometimes  written  Auvillards)  are  manufactures  of  earthen- 
ware and  worsted  hose:  there  are  four  yearly  fairs.  The 
neighbourhood  is  productive  in  wine.  Valence  (distin- 
guished as  Valence  d'Agen)  has  four  yearly  fairs:  the 
i  tan  leather  and  prepare  quills  for  writing. 

Lauzcrto  is  in  a  picturesque  situation  on  a  rocky  eminence, 
'•  junction  of  the  Lendou  with  the  Petite  Barguelone: 

it  has  eleven  fairs,  where  much  business  is  done  in  corn, 

win'  Montaigu    has  some   manufactures  oi 

;uid  leather,  and  five  yearly  fairs.      Dunes 

lairs  for  cattle,  corn,  and  linen  cloth. 
P.  C.,  No.  14W. 


In  the  arrondissement  of  Castel-Sarrasin  are— Castel- 
Sarrasin,  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Garonne  (population* 
in  1831,  3346  for  the  town,  or  7092  for  the  whole  com- 
mune ;  in  1836,  7408  for  the  commune) ;  Verdun  (popu- 
lation 1809  for  the  town,  or  4234  for  the  whole  com- 
mune), Le  Mas-Garnier,  and  St.  Nicolas-de-la-Grave,  on 
the  Garonne ;  St.  Porquier,  Scatalen,  Montech,  Fignan 
or  Finhan  (population  1600  for  the  town,  or  1730  for 
the  whole  commune),  and  Grizalles  or  Grizolles  (popula- 
tion 1724  for  the  town,  or  2091  for  the  whole  commune), 
between  the  Tarn  and  the  Garonne  ;  Bouillac,  near  the 
Lambon;  Beaumont  de  Lomagne  (population  3126  for  the 
town,  or  4130  for  the  whole  commune),  on  the  Gimone; 
and  Lavit  de  Lomagne,  near  the  Serre.  Castel-Sarrasin 
suffered  much  in  the  religious  wars,  and  the  quantity  of 
bones  and  of  arms  dug  up  in  the  neighbourhood  bears  tes- 
timony to  the  frequency  or  severity  of  the  conflicts  it  lias 
witnessed.  The  town  is  agreeably  situated  in  a  fertile 
plain  about  a  mile  from  the  Garonne,  and  is  well  built. 
The  old  walls  and  ditches  have  been  destroyed,  and  re- 
placed by  agreeable  promenades.  The  townsmen  manu- 
facture serge  and  other  woollen  stuffs,  hats,  and  leather: 
there  are  three  yearly  fairs.  There  are  one  or  two  subor- 
dinate government  offices.  Verdun,  distinguished  from 
other  places  of  the  same  name  as  Verdun-sur-Garonne,  is 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  river :  it  has  much  declined  from  its 
former  importance,  but  has  still  some  woollen  manufactures 
and  three  yearly  fairs.  St.  Nicolas-de-la-Grave  is  known 
for  the  excellent  melons  grown  in  the  surrounding  district : 
there  are  four  yearly  fairs.  St.  Porquier  is  known  for  the 
extensive  cultivation  of  tobacco  and  saffron  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood :  it  has  three  yearly  fairs.  Grizalles  or  Grizolles 
is  in  a  fertile  plain,  a  short  distance  from  the  right  bank  of 
the  Garonne  :  the  townsmen  manufacture  a  considerable 
quantity  of  cutlery,  especially  excellent  scissars  :  there  are 
three  yearly  fairs  for  cattle  and  horses.  At  Beaumont-de- 
Lomagne  coarse  cloth  and  other  woollens,  hats,  and  leather 
are  manufactured,  and  trade  is  carried  on  in  corn :  there 
are  seven  fairs  in  the  year. 

The  population,  when  not  otherwise  described,  is  that  of 
the  commune,  and  from  the  census  of  1831. 

This  part  of  France,  at  the  earliest  historical  period,  was 
occupied  by  the  Cadurci,  a  Celtic  people,  who  were  north 
of  the  Garumna  (now  the  Garonne),  the  Tarnis  (now  the 
Tarn),  and  the  river  now  known  as  the  Tescou ;  by  the 
Tolosates,  also  Celts,  who  inhabited  the  part  south  of  these 
rivers ;  and  by  the  Lactorates  (of  the  Aquitanian  stock), 
in  whose  territories  that,  small  portion  of  the  department 
which  lies  south  of  the  Garonne  and  west  of  the  Larax  or 
Rats  was  included.  Perhaps  some  small  portions  of  the 
north-western  border  may  have  belonged  to  the  Nitiobriges, 
a  Celtic  people,  and  some  portions  of  the  eastern  border 
to  the  Ruteni,  who  were  also  Celts :  but  these  portions,  if 
there  were  any,  must  have  been  very  small.  The  Tasconi 
of  Pliny,  who  appear  to  have  left  tneir  name  to  the  little 
rivers  lescou  and  Tescounet,  on  the  banks  of  which  they 
dwelt,  were  probably  either  a  subdivision  of  the  Tolo- 
or  a  small  tribe  subject  to  them.  In  the,  Roman 
division  of  Gaul  the  Tolosates,  with  the  Tasconi,  were  in- 
cluded in  the  province  of  Narbonensis  Prima ;  the  Cadurci 
and  the  Ruteni  in  that  of  Aquitania  Prima;  and  the  Nitio- 
briu'es  and  Lactorates  in  Novempopulana. 

Only  two  places  mentioned  by  Roman  authorities  are 
supposed  to  have  been  in  tlus  department.  Cosa,  men- 
tioned in  the  Theodosian  or  Peutinger  Table,  was  probably 
on  the  bank  of  the  Aveyron,  near  Realville  ;  and  the  Fines 
of  the  same  authority  may  be  placed  on  the  Tescou,  near 
the  iunction  of  the  Tescounet. 

Iii  the  middle  ages,  the  north-western  parts,  about  Mon- 
taisrut,  Castel-Sagrat,  and  Valence,  as  far  south  as  the 
Garonne,  were  included  in  L'Agenois ;  the  northern  and 
north-eastern  parts,  as  far  south  as  the  Tarn,  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Le  Bas  Quercy,  except  just  about  Parisot  and  St. 
Antonin,  which  belonged  to  La  Basse  Marche  in  Rouergue  ; 
L'Agenois,  Quercy,  and  Rouergue  were  all  subdivisions  of 
Cinienne.  South  of  the  Garonne  the  whole  was  included  in 
Gascogne  or  Gascony ;  the  part  west  of  the  Larax  being 
comprehended  in  Le  Condomois,  a  district  of  Gascogne 
er;  and  the  part  eastward  of  the  Larax  in  Lomagne 
and  Riviere-Verdun,  two  districts  in  Bas  (Lower)  otherwise 
Noir  (Black)  Armagnac.  The  districts  between  the  Garonne 
and  the  Tarn  belonged  to  the  district  of  Le  Toulousain, 
or  the  county  of  Toulouse,  properly  so  called,  in  Languedoc. 

VOL.  XXIV.-K 


TAR 


\  R 


Th««e  territories,  upon  t>  !  Ionian  em- 

pire, pM»eil  into  the  hand-  ..I  tin    \  irom  whom 

they  were  afterwards  wrckted  l»  In.     Tin-  county 

of  TOuloilM  was  annexed  to  the  crown  in  Hie  rri<rn  ol' 
Philippe  III.  Icllanh:  the  couiitv  ;-t  by 

Ix>ui§  XI.  and  finally  by  Henri  1\ '.',  and  K  finally 

by  Kranrois  I.     I,e  l,)uerc\  anil  I.'Aireno!-  :i  long 

time  ptrt  of  the  Knglish  possessions  in  France.     Th> 
lish  were  tinnlly  driven  out  in  tin-  middle  of  the  fifteenth 
centurv. 

T  A  K  N  <  H'I  >].  is  a  circle  in  the  eastern  part  of  Austrian 
Galicm,  l>ordering  on  the  Ru— ian  government  of  Podolia. 
The  area  is  about  1400  square  miles,  mid  the  population 
•JU.rxHt.  of  whom  nhout  13.000  are  Jews.  The  surface 
of  the  country  is  an  undulating  plain  broken  only  by  a  few 
hills.  The  forests  m,  ••  n-ivc,  and  the  soil  in  gv- 

neral  extremely  fertile  :  it  produces  corn,  flax,  hemp,  to- 
hncco.  irarden  vegetables,  and  fruits.  'The  tine  meadows,' 
says  Hassel,  '  would  enable  the  inhabitants  to  breed  great 
numbers  of  cattle,  but  it  is  only  the  breeding  of  horses 
that  is  more  considerable  than  in  the  rest  of  Oalicia;  they 
are  of  the  true  Polish  race.  In  1817  there  were  3(i.-_r7."i 
horses,  9412  oxen,  26.339  cows,  and  5!).2H2  sheep."  Ac- 
cording to  the  very  detailed  statistical  tables  ft 
("published  in  I  KM.  which  are  the  latest  that  we  have  seen), 
there  were  41,223  horses,  11,  HO  oxen,  2(i.iKii>  cows,  and 
81,283  sheep.  There  is  no  large  river  in  the  circle  ;  the 
Podhorze  form*  the  eastern  boundary  towards  Russia,  and 
the  interior  is  watered  by  the  Sered,  the  Tryna,  the  Quila, 
and  other  small  streams. 

TARNOPOL.  the  capital  of  the  above  circle,  is  a  consi- 
derable town,  with  10,500  inhabitants,  of  whom  nearly  half 
are  Jews.  It  is  situated  on  the  river  Sered,  which  "there 
passes  through  n  lake.  There  are  in  the  town  a  Roman 
Catholic  and  a  Greek  church,  three  svnagogue-.  a  Jesuits' 
College,  »  gymnasium,  n  ml  a  philosophical  seminarv .  In 
the  year  1820,  50  of  the  Jesuits  expelled  from  Russia  were 
allowed  to  settle  in  a  Dominican  convent  at  Tarnopol. 
The  sum  of  300  florins  a  year  was  assigned  to  each,  with 
a  moderate  sum  for  the  establishment  of  the  gymnasium, 
it  being  intended  that  they  be  solely  employed  in  the  edu- 
cation of  youth  in  and  out  of  the  town.  The  inhabitants 
have  a  pretty  considerable  trade,  but  have  not  made  much 
progress  in  manufacture*.  The  principal  establishments 
are  tanneries.  As  in  most  Polish  towns,  the  houses  are  of 
wood,  and  the  streets  unpavcd,  where  filth  of  all  kinds  is 
suffered  to  accumulate. 

(Hassel ;  Stein  :  Cannabich  ;  Mission  from  the  Church 
!  f'i  the  Jews,  ls|-j. 

TARNOW.  a  circle  of  Austrian  Galicia,  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Vistula,  which  separates  it  from  Poland, 
on  1)  R/cszow,  on  the  south  by  Jaslo,  on  the 

south  Miiok,  and  on  the  west   by  Hochnia.     The 

area  is  2fHX>  square  miles,  and  the  population  at  present 
must  be  at  least  240,000:  since,  according  to  the  statisti- 
cal tables  for  1830,  it  was  liis,i.-,:i,  of  whom  14,008  were 
Jews.  The  country  is  an  extensive  plain,  with  hei 
there  an  inconsiderable  eminence.  The  soil  is  on  the  whole 
•  •rtile,  in  many  parts  sandy,  and  ill-cultivated. 
The  rivers  are,  the  Vistula  on  the  north, th  on  the 

and  the  Wisloka.  which  flows  through  the  middle  of 
the  circle.  Though  the  chief  Occupation  of  the  inhabitants 
iculture, its  operation  ::ned  in  a  very  slm  en!  v 

manner,  and  the  breeding  of  cattle  is  by  no  mean-  in  pni- 

ntry:  the  forests  however 

are  very  profitable,  and  there  is  no"  other  circle  in  Oalicia 
where  the  people  make  so  many  wooden  wares  of  various 
kind*,  pipe-staves,  Sec,  Thin  -,  pro- 

-peaking.  except  in  the  chief  town   and   its  neigh- 
bourhood, but    tin-    country-people   manufacture  ;• 
quantity  of  linen. 

TARNOW,  the  capital  of  the  circle,  is  plca-antlv  -ituated 
On  an  eminence  near  the  river  Uiala,  over  which'thi 

ic   arch   cf   Hll   frl  •• 

which    i-    entii.  '  ,,f  tii,. 

without  the  suburb,  is  2250,  of 

burl,  the  populate  ,es  are 

1  part  well  built  of  1  high.   Thit 

town  if  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop,  and  \\, 

of  the  tribunal  ithedral,  a 

a  synagogue,  a  gv  nina-ium.  a  J»".\i»h  in- 
firmary, a  imh'.iry   ': 
schools.     The   , 


n-wnre,  and  cabinet -work.     They  have  many  tan- 

the  momimeiit-  of  the  princes  Januu  von  Ostn 

the  counts  of  Twnow-Tarnoswsk)  :  two  of  them  are  from  60 

to  70  feet  high,  and  reach  1  of  the  church.    I 

two  monuments  are  very  highh 

TARl'KIAN    ROCK:     IR.-.MK.] 

TARl'OKI.KY.     [CiiESHiKK.] 

T AKIJl'l Ml  'Tapri'i'in,  or  Tapcot'iWO.  «n  nir 
of  Ktruria.  on  the  southern  bank  of  the  river  Marta.  which 
empties  itself  into  the  sea  a  few  miles  bclo 
Strabo    \.  2.  j).  H35,  ed.  Tnuchnitz  \  the  town  w: 
by  Tare-on,  one  of  the  companions  of  Tyrrhenus   ' 
Hv/ant..  v.  f.  Tnnruvia;   Viriril.   ./-.>».,  viii.   ."><>.">:   Silii 
lieu-,  viii.  -I":!  ;  and,  aci-onliiiL  .  it  was  a  colony 

of  Tllessalians  and  Spinambriaus.     In  the  ic:iru  of  .' 
Marcius,  Demaratusof  Corinth  is  said  to  ha\e  come  with  a 
band    of   his   countrymen  to  Ktruria.  and   to    ha\e 
favourably  received   by  the  Tarquinienscs ;  and  the  story 
describes  him  as  the  lather  of  I..  TaiquiniusPriscus.  (TxH- 
griNirs.]      Whatexer  may  be.  thought  of  this  tradition,   it 
seems  clear  that  Ktruria  and  Tarquinii  in   particul, 
perienced  at   an  early  jieriod  considerable  influence 

!C.  Tarquinii  apjieai-s  to  have  become  in  a  short  time 
a  great  and  powerful  city,  a-  i-  clear  from  the  wars  which 
it  carried  on  with  Rome'  and  from  the  important  remains 
which  have  recently  been  •!;  and  there  is  little 

doubt  that  it  formed  one  of  the  twelve  republic- 
consisting  of  the  city  and  an  cxten-ise   territory  around  it. 
After  the  expulsion  of  Tarquinius  Snperbns  from  Rome,  in 
B.C.  50!),  the  Tarquinienses  were  the  most   forward  in  his 
and  unsuccessfully  endeavoured  to  restore  him  bv 
force  of  arms.      (I.iv..  h.  (I.  Xe.        About  the  v  ear  !).• 
the  Tarquinienses  again  made  war  upon  the  Unmans,  and 
ravaged  their  territory,  but  they  were  defeated  by  A.  Postu- 

indL.  Julius.  This  however  did  not  deterthein 
renewing  their  hostilities  against  Rome,  and  from  n, 
Inroads  upon  her  territory.  It  wasonsuchai!  .mthe 

year  H.C.  35s,  that  a  war  broke  out  between  the  two 
which  lasted  for  several  year-.     The  Roman-  in  thci 
campaign. under  the  consul  c.  i-'abiu-.  were  un-uei-e-sful, 
and  the  Iwquiniensei  made  3TJ? Roman  soldiers  prisoners, 
all  of  whom  were  saciiliccd  to  the  gods.     Rome  for 
time  carried  on  the  war  on  the  defensive,  while  her  ene- 
inie-  acquired  new  allies,  and  invaded  the  Roman  territory 
a-  far  as  the  Salinsr,  at  the  mouth   of  the  Titu 

r.  in  ,'t."i(i   ».<•..  they  were    defeated    by  the   dictator 

Marcius  Rutilus.and  the  year  after  thej  were  compelled  by 
(-.  Sulpicins  to  lay  down  their  arms.  The  Romans  now  took 
cruel  revenge  for  the  outrage  which  had  been  committed 
upon  their  prisoners.  The  common  Tarquinien-e-  who  fell 
into  the  hand-  of  the  Roman-  were  all  ma-sacred,  hut  :t5s 
nobles  were  sent  to  Rome,  where  they  wen  ileath 

in  the  forum.    <I.iv.,  \ii.  12-11).      Shortly  after  the  Tarqui- 
nienses sued  for  a  truce,  which  was  granted  for 
Tarquinii,  like  the  re-t  oft:  in   town-,  v 

forth  neutral  in  the  wars  of  Rome  with  nil.  -.  and 

remained  in  almost  perfect  in.lcpcnde-  ic.  Shortly 

alter  the  expiration  oftlietruee  the  Tarquinienses  obtained 
a  peace  of  the  same  duration.      At  a  later  period  Tarquinii 
became  a  Roman  Municipium  ;('icen>.  />rn  Caecin.,  A  . 
The  site  of  the  antient  Tarquinii  is  clearly  discernible  in 

:ins   still   extant   on  the  hill   of  Tarchiuo,  near  the 

n  town  of  Cornclo.     The  place  ha-  in  modern  1 
acquired  a  peculiar  interest  through  the  numeroiiswoiks  of 
art  which   have    been   discovered   in   the  tombs  and 
comb-.      The  first  of  these  were  opened  in  what 

unl  in  them  was  described  by  liuonarolti.     Nt 

<•  frequently  been  111  that  tune  ; 

-I  important  are'tbe  paintings  with  which  the 
of  the  catacomb-  aie  decorate  I  :  but  be-idcs  thc-e.tl, 
and  ti  :  'insiiie-and  vases,  and  other 

worK-of  art, are  found  there.   Rcspcctins.'t! 
sec  Wilcox   and    Morion.  ./ 
.llKirtiWHlH    irilli    Eli 

,\v.,   ill  the    I'lul  '•  17'i3.\i 

127;   Von  Stack'  '    </''''   M 

at    <f  a   I!  "Hi    Tart  j  i 

TAR(Jl''INIl'S.     Ai -i •. tiding  to  caih  Roman  history  the 

family  of  the  Tarquinii  gave  t-.\o  lungs  and  one  consul  to 

il  to  the  town  of  Tarquinii  in 

:.  and  thence  to  Greece.      Modern   investigations 


TAR  67 

however  have  shown  that  the  Tarquinii  did  not  come  from 
Etruria,  but  must  originally  have  belonged  to  Latium,  and 
that  from  the  earliest  times  there  existed  at  Rome  a  gens 
Tarquinia.  (Xiebuhr,.r%/.o/.r?o™e,i.,p.373,&c.)  We  sub- 
join a  list  of  those  members  of  the  house  of  the  Tarquins 
who  play  a  prominent  part  in  the  early  history  of  Rome. 
_  Lucius  TARQUIMUS  PRISCUS.     The  old  story  concerning 
his  birth  and  his  arrival  in  Rome  ran  thus :— During  the 
tyranny  of  Cypselus  at  Corinth,   Demaratus,   a  wealthy 
merchant  who  belonged  to  the  noble  family  of  the  Bac- 
chiads,  was  obliged  by  the  tyrant  to  quit  his  native  city. 
He  sailed  to  Etruria,  which  he  had  often  visited  before  on 
his  mercantile  voyages,  and  took  up  his  residence  at  Tar- 
quinii.    Here  he  married  a  woman  of  noble  rank,  who 
bore  him  two  sons,  Luciano  and  Aruns.     (Dionys.,  iii.  46; 
Liv.,  i.  34 ;  Polyb.,  vi.  2.)     As  an  aspiring  foreigner  could 
never  hope  to  satisfy  his  ambition  in  Etruria,  Lucumo, 
after  the  death  of  his   father   and   brother,   resolved   to 
ate  with  his  wife  Tanaquil  and  a  numerous  band  of 
fi lends  to  Home,  where  several  strangers  had  already  ob- 
tained the  highest  honours.     He  was   confirmed   in  his 
expectations  by  a  miraculous  occurrence  which  happened 
just  when  he  was  approaching  the  city,  and  by  the  inter- 
pretation of  it  by  his  wile,  who  was  well  skilled  in  augury. 
At  Rome  Lucumo  was  favourably  received  by  Kin<r  Ancus 
Marcius,  and  lands  were  assigned  to  him.  To  omit  nothing 
mi  his  part  which  mitrht  characterize  him  as  a  complete 
I'oman,  he  adopted  the  name  of  Lucius  Tarquinius,  to 
which  subsequently  the  name  Priscus  was  addecf  to  distin- 
guish him  from  other  members  of  his  house.     His  wealth 
and  prudence  induced  King  Ancus  to  allow  Tarquin  to 
take  part  in  all  the  affairs  of  state,  and  in  his  will  lie  made 
him  the  guardian  of  his  children,  who  were  yet  under  age. 
^  MARCUS.]     Tarquin  himself  aspired  to  become 
kinsj  of  Rome.  Accordingly,  on  the  death  of  Ancus,  he  ienl 
the  young  princes  out  limiting,  and  during  their  absence 
M  the  corr.itia  for  electing  a  successor  to  Ancua,  and 
eded  in  persuading  the  people  to  elect  him,  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  sons  nf  Aliens,  616  B.C. 

the  common  story  of  the  descent  of  the  fifth  king 
of  Rome,  of  the  manner  in  which  he  came  to  Rome,  and 
aised  to  the  throne.  How  much  there  may  be  his- 
torical in  the  tradition  cannot  be  ascertained.  Thus 
much  however  appears  certain,  that  the  arrival  of  Dema- 
ratus in  Etruiia  cannot  have  been  contemporaneous  with 
the  tyranny  of  Cypselus,  and  that,  as  stated  above,  Tar- 


T  A  R 


quimus  was  not  a  foreigner,  but  belonged  to  a  Latin  gens 
Tarquinia.     ; Xielmhr,  ///*•/.  <,f  H<,m>\  i..  p.  373,  &c.) 
L.  Tarquinius  Priscus  distinguished  himself  during  his 
>   no  less  in  war  than  in  the  peaceful  adminisi, 
e  state.     His  first  war  was  against  the  Latins,  limn 
whom  he  took  great   spoil.     With  equal  success  lie  car- 
ried on  war  with  the  Suhines,  whom  he  defeated  in  two 
great  battles,  and  from  whom  he  took  the  town  of  Colla- 
tia  with  its  tenitory.      After  this  he  again  made  war  on 
the   Latin*,  and    iiiler    lie  had  subdued  them  and    made 
himself  master  of  many  of  their  towns,  he  concluded  a 
peace  with  them.      During  the    intervals  between  these 
1 10  introduced  \arious   improvements  into  the  consti- 
tution of  the  Mate,  which  are   mentioned  in  the  a> 
ROME,   p.  104,  and  SENATUS,    and  which  were  intended 
to  oi'L  body  of  the   plebeians,   and   perhaps  to 

place  them  on  an  equality  with   the  patricians.     Hut  he 
could  only  partially  carry  his  schemes  into  effect,  as  he  w;is 
thwarted  by  the  auuur  Attus  .\;uius,  who  probablv  acted 
at   the  instigation  of  the  patricians.     After  his  first  Latin 
war,  Tarquin  built  the  Circus  Maximus  for  the  exhibition 
of  the  public  spectacles,  and  is  said    to  have    been  the 
founder  of  the   Roman    or  great  games  ^Ludi   Magni   or 
Romaui:.     He  also  assigned  the  ground  round  the  forum 
to  private  individuals,  that  they  mi^lit  there  build  pot 
.laces  for  transacting  bu.-incss:  and   lastly  he   i 
.e  formed  the  plan  of  enclosing  the  city  by  a  stone 
wall,  which  he  was  prevented  from  accomplishing  by  the 
outbreak  of  the  Sabinc  war.    After  the  second  war  against 
the  Latins,  he  recurred  to  his  plan,  and  is  said  to  have  made 
ions  for  building  the  wall ;  but  the  comple- 
tion  o  .ed   for  his  successor  Servius  Tullins. 
The  greatest  work  at  Rome,  which  owes  its  origin  to  Tar- 
aiid  which  has  survived  all  the  vicissitudes  of  the 
re  the  gigantic  sewers  (cloacae)  in  the  lower  districts 

U.A.] 

The  sons  of  Ancus  Mart-ins,  who  had  been  deprived  of 


the  throne  by  their  guardian  Tarquin,  never  forgot  the 
injury,  and  when  they  discovered  that  it  was  his  and  Tana- 
quil's  intention  to  secure  the  succession  to  Servius  Tullius, 
they  formed  the  design  of  murdering  Tarquin.  [SERVIUS 
TULLIUS.]  For  this  purpose  they  hired  two  sturdy  shep- 
herds, who  went  to  the  king's  palace,  and  there  con- 
ducted themselves  as  if  they  were  engaged  in  a  violent 
quarrel.  At  last  the  king  himself  appeared  to  settle  their 
dispute,  but  while  he  was  listening  to  one  of  them,  the 
other  split  the  king's  head  with  an  axe.  Thus  died  L. 
Tarquinius  Priscus,  after  a  reign  of  thirty-eight  years,  in 
B.C.  578.  The  queen  kept  his  death  secret  until  the  suc- 
cession was  secured  to  Servius  Tullius.  The  assassins  were 
seized,  and  the  sons  of  Ancus  fled  to  Suessa  Pometia. 
(Livy,  i.  34-42;  Dionysius,  iii.  46-73.)  Tarquinius  Priscus 
left  two  sons,  Lucius  and  Aruns  Tarquinius. 

During  the  reign  of  this  king  Rome  appears  as  a  power- 
ful state  in  comparison  with  what  it  is  said  to  have  been  be- 
fore him.  According  to  the  historians  this  greatness  was 
not  the  result  of  his  reign,  but  is  supposed  to  have  existed 
before  it,  and  to  have  enabled  him  to  do  what  he  did,  so 
that  this  increase  of  the  power  and  dominion  of  Rome 
must  have  taken  place  previous  to  his  reign,  although  we 
do  not  know  how  it  was  effected.  Some  traditions  men- 
tioned (Tacitus,  Anna!.,  iv.  65)  that  under  Tarquinius 
Priscus  an  Etruscan  of  the  name  of  Caeles  Vibenna  came 
with  a  colony  to  Rome  and  settled  on  the  Caelian  hill, 
which  derived  its  name  from  him. 

Lucius  TARQUIMUS  SUPERBUS-,  the  seventh  and  last  king 
of  Rome,  was  the  son  of  Tarquinius  Priscus,  and  brother  of 
Aruns.  Tullia,  a  daughter  of  Servius  Tullius,  was  married 
to  the  gentle  Aruns,  and  her  sister  to  L.  Tarquinius.  In  con- 
cert with  Lucius,  Tullia  murdered  her  own  husband  Aruns 
and  her  sister,  and  then  married  L.  Tarquinius.  Lucius 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a  conspiracy,  and  murdered 
his  own  father-in-law,  the  aged  Servius  Tullius.  Tarqui- 
nius, who  received  the  surname  of  the  Haughty  or  the 
Tyrant  (Superbusl,  succeeded  his  father-in-law  as  king  of 
Rome,  584  B.C.,  without  either  being  elected  by  the  peo- 
ple or  confirmed  by  the  senate. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  hatred  of  the  very  name  of 
king  which  prevailed  at  Rome  during  the  republic,  has 
greatly  contributed  to  exaggerate  the  cruelty  and  tyranny 
of  the  last  king,  and  thus  to  corrupt  his  history.  But  not- 
withstanding all  this,  it  is  clear  that  Tarquin  by  his  talents, 
both  as  a  general  and  a  statesman,  quickly  raised  Rome  to 
a  degree  of  power  which  it  had  never  possessed  before. 
The  first  act  attributed  to  him  after  his  accession  is  the 
death  of  all  the  senators  who  had  supported  the  reforms  of 
Servius  Tullius.  and  in  order  to  render  his  own  person 
safe,  he  formed  an  armed  body-guard  which  always  accom- 
panied him.  He  in  fact  undid  all  that  Servius  had  done  : 
he  took  on  himself  the  administration  of  justice,  put  pei-- 
sons  to  death  or  sent  them  into  exile  according  to  nis  own 
pleasure,  and  kept  the  whole  internal  and  external  adminis- 
tration in  his  own  handsj  without,  either  consulting  the 
people  or  the  senate.  In  order  that  the  senate  might,  sink 
into  insignificance,  he  never  filled  up  the  vacancies  which 
so  frequently  occurred  through  his  executions,  banish- 
ments, or  through  the  natural  death  of  senators.  To 
secure  himself  still  more,  he  formed  a  close  connection 
with  the  Latins,  to  one  of  whom,  Octavius  Mamilius  of 
Tusculum,  he  gave  his  own  daughter  in  marriage.  The 
influence  which  he  thus  gained  among  the  Latins  was 
most  visible  in  their  assemblies  on  the  Alban  Mount  by  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Latiaris,  in  which  Rome  also  had  a 
vote.  Tarquinius,  by  cunning  and  fraud,  or,  according  to 
others,  by  force  of  arms,  subdued  the  towns  of  Latium  and 
placed  Rome  at  the  head  of  the  league  (Livy,  i.  50,  &c. ; 
Dionysius,  iv.  45,  &c. ;  Cicero,  De  lie  Publ.,  li.  24),  which 
was  now  also  joined  by  the  Hernicans  and  the  Volscian 
towns  of  Ecetra  and  Antinm.  The  wealthy  town  of  Suessa 
Pometia  was  besieged  and  taken,  perhaps  because  it.  had 
refused  to  join  the  league.  The  Latin  town  of  Gabii  ex- 
perienced a  similar  fate.  Sextus,  the  king's  youngest,  son, 
went  thither  under  the  pretext  of  being  a  deserter,  and 
contrived  to  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Gabian  army. 
After  having  put  to  death  or  sent  into  exile  the  most  dis- 
-hcd  citizens  of  Gabii  by  the  advice  of  his  father,  he 
treacherously  surrendered  the  town  to  him.  The  whole 
account  of  the  war  with  Gabii  bears  the  character  of  a 
fable,  and  resembles  in  many  respects  other  fabulous  stories 
of  early  Grecian  history.  The  treaty  which  was  formed 

K  2 


T  A 


A  K 


with  Gabii  after"  its  surrender,  was  engraved  on  a  wooden 
shield,  and  preserved  in  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Fidius  to 
the  t:  Tari|iiin  founded 

in  the  conquered  territory  of  tbe  Volscians  the  two  colo- 
nies •  i  ii.  by  whifli  he  extended  and 
strengthened  the  power  of  Rome. 

Tarquin   is  said   to   have  been  fond  of  splendour  and 
magn.  lie  Imilt   the  capitol,  with  the  threefold 

temple  of  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Minerva,  and  adorned  it 
with  brazen  statues  of  the  gods  and  of  the  early  kings. 

.  i.  53;  Dionysins,  iv.  ;")'.»;    Pliny,  ///*/.    • 
•1:  xxxiv.  l:t.      Here  lie  also  deposited  the  oracular  books 
which  he  had  purchased  from  a  Sibyl.     [SIBYL.]     After 
the  establishment  of  the  colonies  of  Sigma  and  Circeii,  a 
fearful  omen  was  seen,  which  -  •  bode  ruin  to  his 

family  ;  and  in  order  to  ascertain  its  import  he  sent 
sons,  Sextus  and  Aruns,  accompanied  by  his  nephew.  I.. 
Junins  Brutus,  to  Delphi.  To  the  question  as  to  which  of 
the  three  ambassadors  was  to  reign  at  Rome,  the  Pythia 
answered :  he  who  shoidd  first  kiss  his  mother.  Brutus, 
who  had  always  assumed  the  appearance  of  an  idiot,  un- 
derstood the  oracle,  and  on  landing  in  Italy,  fell  down  and 
kissed  the  earth,  the  mother  of  all.  Tarquin's  cottV 
now  exhausted  by  the  great  works  that  he  had  undertaken, 
and  he  was  tempted  to  make  himself  master  of  Ardea,  a 
wealthy  town  of  the  Rutuli.  As  however  he  did  not  succeed 
in  his  first  attack,  he  laid  siege  to  the  town.  While  this 
was  going  on,  a  dispute  arose  between  the  sons  of  Tarquin 
and  their  cousin,  C.  Tarquinius  Collatinus,  respecting  the 
virtue  of  their  wives.  This  led  to  the  violation  of  the 
chaste  Lucretia,  the  wife  of  ( 'ollatinus.  who  lived  at  Colla- 
tia,  bv  Se\tu>.  the  kind's  eldest  son.  As  the  highest  pride 
of  a  Roman  woman  at  this  time  was  her  virtue,  Lucretia 
sent  for  her  husband,  father,  and  Brutus,  and  killed  hersell 
in  their  presence,  after  having  cursed  the  family  of  the 
king,  and  implored  her  friends  to  avenge  the  injury  which 
she  had  suffered.  Brutus  immediately  marched  with  an 
armed  force  from  Collatia  to  Rome,  and  roused  the  people 
to  avenge  the  indignity  and  throw  off  the  yoke  of  their 
tyrant.  The  citizens  were  easily  persuaded:  they  deprived 
the  king,  who  was  yet  in  the  camp  of  Ardea,  of  Ins  im- 
perium,  and  banished  him  with  his  wife  and  children 
from  Rome,  510  B.C.  Alter  these  occurrences  Tarquin 
hastened  to  Rome,  but  finding  the  gates  of  the  city  shut 
upon  him,  and  learning  that  he  was  declared  an  exile,  he 
retired  to  Caere,  whither  he  was  followed  by  his  son  Aruns. 
His  other  son  Sextus  sought  a  refuge  at  Gabii,  but  the 
citizens,  remembering  his  former  treachery,  put  him  to 
death.  The  simple  fact  of  the  banishment  of  King  Tar- 
quin, which  was  commemorated  at  Rome  every  year  by 
a  festival  called  'The  King's  Flight'  i  Regifugium  or  Fu- 
galia\  is  beyond  all  doubt  historical ;  but  what  is  described 
asitsimrm  '.and  itsaccompanyingcircumstanc.es, 

may  be  poetical  inventions. 

Tarquin  however  did  not  give  up  the  hope  of  recovering 
what  he  had  lost.  He  first  sent  ambassadors  to  Rome  to 
demand  the  surrender  of  his  moveable  property.  During 
their  stay  in  the  city  the  ambassadors  formed  a  conspiracy, 
in  which  young  patricians  chiefly  are  said  to  have  joined 
them.  The  conspirators  were  discovered  and  put  to  death, 
and  the  moveable  property  of  the  royal  family  wits  given 
up  to  the  people,  in  order  to  render  reconciliation  im- 
possible. The  king  is  said  to  have  found  favour  and 
protection  with  the  inhabitants  of  Caere  and  Tarquinii. 
and  with  the  Veientines,  and  to  have  led  the  united  ibices 
of  these  people  against  the  Romans.  \\ho  however  defeated 
their  enemies  near  the  forest  of  Arsia.  linitus  fell  in  this 
battle  in  single  combat  with  Anms.  Tarquin  now  sought 
and  found  assistance  at  Clnsium,  which  was  then  governed 
by  the  mighty  I.ar  IVrsenna.  [PoHsKNvv.]  During  the 
war  of  this  chieftain  with  Rome  Tarquin  is  entirely  lost 
sight  of  in  the  narrative  of  the  historians;  but  after  its 
conclusion  we  find  him  supported  by  the  I-atins,  and 
•waging  a  fresh  war  against  Home  under  the  Latin  dictator 
Octavius  Mamilius  of  Tusculuni.  The  battle  near  lake 
Regillus(496  B.C.),  in  which  the  king  lost  his  only  surviving 
son,  decided  the  whole  contest.  The  account  of  the  detail 
of  this  battle  is  as  fabulous  as  any  part  of  the  early  histoiy 
of  Rome,  and  formed,  as  Niebunr  supposes,  the  conclud- 
ing part  of  the 'Lay  of  the  Tarquins.'  The  aged  king,  now 
ilipMM-d  of  all  his  hopes,  retired  to  Cniilae.  which  was 
then  governed  by  the  tyrant  Aristodemus,  where  he  died 
the  year  following,  490  B.C. 


ii.  111.  Sec.  :  Dionysius,  vi.  2,  Sec. ;  Xiebuhr,  ///«/. 
of  Rom*,  i..  p.  ."i.Vi.  \ 

I.rcns  T\HQI  ivirs  Cou.ATisrs,  the  son  of  Kgeriuft, 
and  the  husband  of  Lucretia.  After  the  banishment  of 
he  king  he  was  elected  consul  together  with  I.,  .lunius 
lirutus.  But  the  people  beginning  to  suspect  that  he 
might  perhaps  be  tempted  to  follow  the  example  of  bis 
kinsman,  and  endanger  the  freedom  of  the  young  republic, 
he  wag  compelled  to  abdicate,  and  to  submit  to  the 

i  exile,  which  was  now  pronounced  upon  the  whole 
family  •  iiuii.       l.i\  \.  i.  57.  GO  ;  ii.  2.) 

TARKAGO'N  A.  a  province  of  Spain,  bordering  on  the 
north  on  Catalonia,  on  the  south  on  Valencia,  and  on  the 
west  on  Aragon.     The   capital.  Tarragona,  is  situated  on 
the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  declivity  of  a  moun- 
tain rising  to  ~W)  leet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  near 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Krancoli.  41°  7'  N.  lat.  and  \-  17' 
K.  long.     Tarragona,  the  Roman  Tarraco,  is  one  of  the 
most  antient  cities  of  Spain  :  o.s  it  is  supposed  to  have 
founded  by  the  Pho?nicians.     During  the  second   Punic 
War  it  became  a  Roman  colony  (Plin..  ///.»•/.  \nt.,  iii.  :»  . 
and,  Subsequently   under  Augustus,  the    capital  of   II.- 
pania  Citenor,  or  Tarraconensis,  which  comprised   ' 
Ionia.    Aragon,   Navarre,   Biscay,  the  Asturias,  Gah. 
portion  of  Leon,  and  the  Balearic  Islands.  Tarrac 
the  chief  city  of  one  of  the  seven  COnventUB,  or  divisions  of 
the  province  for  purposes  of  administration,  and  i  hieH\  for 
justice.     In  A.D.  4(>7  it  was  taken   by  Kurie.  king  of  the 
(ioths.  and  levelled  with  the  earth.     The  Arabs  reduced  it 
in  710.  like  most  cities  on  that  coast,  and   it  remained  in 
their  hands  until  Raymond  IV.,  count   of  Barcelona,  took 
it  from  them,  about  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century. 
The  city  being  found  in  a  very  ruinous  and  dilapi.i 
state.  Don  Bernardo,  archbishop  of  Toledo,  undertr 
rebuild  it  on  condition  that  the   pope  would   absolve   him 
of  an  oath  he  had  taken,  and  not  fulfilled,  of  repairing  to 
the  Holy  Land.     The  absolution  having  been  granted,  the 
archbishop  of  Toledo  destined  the  greatest  portion  of  the 
rev  enues  of  his  see  to  the  rebuilding  of  Tarragona.   1 ) 
the  War  of  Succession.  (In-  Fnglish  took  possession  of  the 
city,  which   they  intended   to   Keep  and   began   to   fortify. 
Some  of  the  outworks  and  redoubts  thrown  up  by  them  are 
still  visible.     In  1810  the  French,  under  Marsha!   Suchet. 
laid  siege  to  it.  and  took  it  by  storm  on  the  29th  of  June. 
1811,  after  a  siege  of  several  months.     The  conduct  of  the 
French   commander  on  this  occasion  is  greatly  to  blame  : 
he  not  only  justified,  but  even  encouraged,  the   perpetra- 
tion of  all  kinds  of  atrocities,  on  the  ground  that  he  wislu  .1 
by  one  dreadful  example  to  terrify  the  people  and  pi, 

further  resistance.    An  attempt  to  retake  the  • 
in  June,  1813.  by  the  allied  forces  under  General  Sir  John 


by 
all 


Murray,  failed  completely  :  for  at  the  approach  of  Suchet, 
who  was  advancing  from  Valencia,  that  officer  raised  the 
siege  and  re-emhaiKid  his  troops  with  such  precipitation 
that  he  left  all  his  artillery  and  stores  behind. 

Tarragona  is  tolerably  well  built,  and  the  Roman  re- 
mains render  it   interesting,      liesidcs  the  circus,  which   is 
now  almost   entirely  built   upon.it   has  a  very  fine  amphi- 
theatre, in  a  good  sta;  .  ation.  and  a  large  Rinnan 
building,  probably  a  temple,  which  the  inhabitant-  call  'the 
of  Augustus.'     The  remains  of  a  splendid  aqueduct. 
which  once  supplied   Tarragona  with   water,   which   was 
brought    from     a    distance    of    Hi    miles,    afford    lil,, 
a  proof  of  the   importance  of  the  city  under  the  !{..•: 
About    tin.                     ;ist    of  the   city  there   is  a  very   fine 
mausoleum,  which  the  vulgar  call    '  HI    Sepu!. 
Scipiones'    the  tomb  of  the  Scipios),  from  a   I 
('incus  and   Publius  Seipio  arc  buried  under  it.     Of  Hie 
Moorish  domination  there  remain  no  oil. 
large  building  close  to  the  sea,  which  i-  In  lieved  to 
been  their  arsenal.     The  cathedral  is  by  far  the  most  iutc 
resting  building  in  the  city,  and  is  well  deserving  of  atten- 
tion tor  its  vast  dimensions  and  the  (  Ii 
its  Gothic  architecture.     It  d   in  the  year  1117, 
but  has  sim                    ieatly  added  to.     The  chape]  of  Santa 
Tliecla.  which  is  entirely  built  of  rich  marbles  and  jaspei-. 
is  one  of  the  richest  and  mo-t    ta-teinl'v   d.ematcd    111    the 
church.     The  great    altaipicee   too   is   much    admired   for 
its  exquisite  can                     'dcd    by  a  native  artist  in   I  I'Jli. 
Tarragona  is  the  see  of  an  archbishop,  who  once  disputed 
with   that   of  Toledo   the   primacy  ol    Spain.      During  the 
Moorish  domination,   sc\cial  provincial  and  general  coun- 
cils were  held  there.    At  the  first,  which  took  place  in  81G, 


TAR 


69 


TAR 


it  was  ordained  that  the  Sabbath  should  commence  on 
Saturday  night.  The  immediate  neighbourhood  of  Tarra- 
gona is  well  cultivated,  and  yields  com,  wine,  oil,  and 
hemp,  in  great  abundance.  The  principal  manufactures 
are  cloth,  coarse  cotton-goods,  hats,  and  cutlery,  which  are 
exported  to  all  parts  of  Spain,  and  to  the  island  of  Cuba. 
TARSHISH  v^'Iihnj  is  a  place  mentioned  in  the  Old 


Testament,  particularly  in  connection  with  the  commerce 
of  the  Hebrews  and  "Phoenicians.  In  Gen.,  x.  4,  the 
name  occurs  among  the  sons  of  Javan,  who  are  supposed 
to  have  peopled  the  southern  parts  of  Europe.  (Compare 
Ps.  Ixxii.  10;  Isaiah,  Ixvi.  19.)  In  other  passages  it  is 
mentioned  as  sending  to  Tyre  silver,  iron,  tin,  and  lead 
I'.zflu/j,  xxvii.  12  ;  Jerem.,  x.  9)  ;  and  from  Isaiah,  xxiii. 
10,  some  have  inferred  that  it  was  subject  to  the  Phoe- 
nicians. The  prophet  Jonah,  attempting  to  avoid  his 
mission  to  Nineveh,  fled  from  Joppa  in  a  ship  bound  to 
Tarshish.  (Jonah,  i.  3  ;  iv.  2.)  In  several  passages  of  the 
Bible  '  ships  of  Tarshish  '  are  spoken  of,  especially  in  con- 
nection with  Tyre  ;  and  it  is  pretty  generally  agreed  that 
that  phrase  only  describes  a  species  of  large  ship,  such  as 
those  used  in  the  trade  with  Tarshish,  just  as  we  speak  of 
'  Indiarnen.' 

From  a  comparison  of  the  above  passages,  the  majority 
of  critics  have  concluded  that  Tarshish  must  be  sought  for 
in  tho  western  part  of  the  Mediterranean,  or  even  outside 
the  Straits  ;  and  it  has  been  generally  identified  with  the 
Phoenician  emporium  of  Tartessus  m  Spain,  a  place  which 
would  undoubtedly  furnish  the  products  said  to  have  been 
brought  from  Tarshish.  The  Phoenician  name  '  Tarshish  ' 
would  easily  become  the  Greek  Taprti<ra6f  ;  in  fact  the 
Aramaean  pronunciation  of  '  Tarshish'  would  be  'Tarthesh.' 
We  have  abundant  proofs  that  the  Phoenicians  had  esta- 
blished an  extensive  commercial  intercourse  with  Spain 
at  a  very  early  period. 

But  there  is  a  considerable  difficulty  about  the  position 
of  this  Tarttssus.  The  antient  geographers  place  it,  some 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  liaetis  Guadalquivir),  the  most 
antient  name  of  which  river  they  state  to  have  been  also 
Turtessus  ;  while  others  identify  it  with  the  city  of  Calpe, 
or  Carteia,  near  Mount  Calpe,  the  rock  of  Gibraltar. 
C  Herod.,  iv.  152;  Strabo,  p.  140.  14S-ir>l  ;  Mela,  iii.  6; 
Plin.,  iii.  1;  Pausan.,  vi.  1U:  Steph.  Byzant.,  r.  Taprijawof.) 

The  best  way  to  explain  and  reconcile  these  statements 
with  each  other,  and  with  the  biblical  accounts  respecting 
T;u  -.lush,  seems  to  be  by  taking  the  latter  as  the  name  not 
of  a  Dingle  place,  but  of  the  whole  country  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Gibraltar.  In  this  district  there  may  have 
been  more  than  one  city  bearing  a  name  like  Tartessus. 
The  name  survives  in  various  forms  in  the  names  of  the 
rock  Calpe,  of  the  neighbouring  city  Calpe,  Carpe,  or 
Carteia  (for  it  is  written  in  all  these  ways),  and  of  the 
people  Carpetani.  Tin's  statement  will  be  more  clearly 
undei  i  a  reference  to  the  articles  on  the  letters 

<  ',  P.  and  T.  In  confirmation  of  this  view,  Strabo  states 
that  the  country  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Calpe  was  called 
TartessU. 

Respecting  the  difficulty  arising  from  the  conjoint  men- 
tion of  Tarshish  and  Ophir  in  the  book  of  Chronicles,  see 
OPHIK. 

TA'RSIUS,  Storr's  name  for  a  genus  of  QUADRUMANA. 

Geii'i-K  ''/<>t/-acter.  —  Head  rounded;  muzzle  short; 
very  large  ;  posterior  limbs  very  much  elongated, 
with  the  tarsus  thrice  as  long  as  the  metatarsus.  Tail 
long. 

Dental  formula:—  incisor*  -;  canines.  —  r;  mohus 

«  1  •"•  1  U  —  "  O 

=  34. 

ilple.    '/'.//'  w'//\   HllHI'HHHIt. 

I>  ".n  ,f,  linn.  —  Dr.  Horsfield  remarks,  that  although  the 
Tarsius  from  Banca  agrees  in  the  essential  points  with  the 
other  species  of  this  .singular  genus  which  have  hitherto 
been  discovered,  it  has  no  intermediate  front  teeth,  and 
the  exicrior  tooth  on  each  side  is,  compared  with  the 
other  species,  very  minute.  Counting  (with  Desmarest) 
one  canine  tooth  on  each  side,  above  and  beneath,  it  has, 
nays  Dr.  Horsfield,  only  five  grinders  in  each  jaw. 

'The  head,'  continues  Dr.  Horsfield,  '  in  proportion  to 
the  size  of  the  body,  is  large  ;  the  arch  of  the  forehead 
rises  highs  and  the  occiput  is  regularly  spheroidal.     The 
proximity  of  disposition  and  excessive  size  of  the  < 
equally  characteristic  in  this  as  in  other  species.    The 


Teeth  of  Tarsius,  much  larger  than  the  nat.  size.  fF.  Cuv.) 


Front  view  of  the  teeth  of  Tarsius  Bancanus.  (Horsf.) 

rostrum,  or  extremity  of  the  face,  is  short  and  obtuse  ; 
the  nose  is  slightly  rounded,  almost  flat  above ;  and  the 
nostrils,  as  usual  in  this  genus,  are  pierced  laterally.  The 
ears,  which  from  their  erect  position  and  their  projection 
beyond  the  cranium  give  a  peculiar  distinctive  character 
and  appearance  to  the  other  species,  in  our  animal  are 
disposed  horizontally,  and  instead  of  rising  up  towards 
the  crown  of  the  head,  incline  backwards  and  extend  but 
little  from  its  sides ;  the  lobes,  as  usual,  are  very  thin, 
membranous,  semitransparent,  thinly  beset  with  delicate 
hairs ;  several  tufts  of  longer  hairs  arise  from  the  base, 
where  the  interior  membranaceous  lobules  are  discovered, 
but  in  our  specimen  too  much  contracted  to  admit  of  a 
detailed  description.  The  neck  is  very  short,  and  the  an- 
terior extremities  have  the  same  proportion  to  the  body  as 
in  the  other  species.  The  hands  are  externally  covered 
with  a  very  soft  down  ;  internally  they  are  naked,  and 
provided  with  several  rather  prominent  protuberances, 
which,  according  to  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Fischer,  are  calcu- 
lated to  assist  the  animal  in  climbing.  The  fingers  are 
deeply  divided  and  very  delicate  ;  those  of  the  hands  have 
the  same  proportion,  one  to  the  other,  as  they  have  in 
man  ;  on  the  feet  they  are  more  lengthened  and  slender ; 
the  third  finger  is  longer  than  the  middle  finger,  and  the 
thumb  is  proportionally  short.  In  all  the  third  phalanx  is 
somewhat  thickened,  and  surrounded  by  a  projecting 
orbicular  border,  which,  in  the  thumb  particularly,  con- 
stitutes a  delicate  ball,  supporting  the  nail.  The  nails  of 
all  the  fingers  of  the  hand,  as  well  as  of  the  thumb  and 
the  third  and  fourth  finger  of  the  feet,  are  triangular,  and 
represent  a  delicate  compressed  scale  :  on  the  index  and 
middle  finger  of  the  feet  they  are  erect,  sharp,  compressed, 
slightly  curved,  and  not  inaptly  compared  by  Mr.  Fischer 
to  the  thorns  of  a  rose-bush,  constituting  one  of  the  esscn- 
iiaracters  of  this  genus.  The  body  is  handsomely 
formed,  and,  as  in  the  other  species,  somewhat  contracted 
towards  the  pelvis;  the  lower  extremities  also  have  in 
general  a  similar  character,  but  the  tarsus  has  less  of  the 
extravagant  length  which  is  common  to  the  other  Tarsii. 


TAR 


70 


TAR 


The  tail  has  nearly  the  length  of  the  body  and  head  taken 
IUT;  it  is somewhat  thicker  :it  the  base,  nearly  naked 
two-:!  ,^th.  hut  «-o\crcd  towards  the  extre- 

mity with  a  soft  down,  which  form-,  near  the  tip.  a  very 
-.n.  The  fur  is  remarkably  soli  tn  the  touch  :  it 
ii  composed  of  a  thiek  and  very  delicate  wool.  \vhich  en- 
velopes the  body,  head,  and  extremities,  forming  a  otfi  at 
an  unp«|iial  Miriacc,  IVom  which  irregular  stra 
project  :  at  the  root  of  t lie  tail,  and  at  the  hands  of  both 
nitics,  it  terminates  abruptly  in  the  form  of  a  ring. 
The  general  colour  is  brown,  inclining  to  grey  ;  on  the 
breast,  abdomen,  and  interior  of  the  extremities  it  is  grey, 
inclining  to  whitish  :  a  rufous  tint  is  sparingly  dispelled 
over  the  upper  paits,  which  shows  itself  most  on  the  head 
anil  i  -  the  naked  parts  of  the  tail  near  the  root 

iat)lv  darker  than  the  extremity.'     {Zoological 

• 

Locality.— Dr.  Horefield  obtained  this  animal  in  Banca, 
near  Jeboos,  one  of  the  mining  distii,-(s.  where,  he  says. 
it  inhabits  the  extensive  forests  in  the  vicinity. 


Tirtiii*  llaneannt.     (Ifonf.) 

M.  F.  Cuvier  remarks  that  the  dentition  of  the  T 
.approximates  the  animal  move  to  the  (inli-<iinthi'ci.  and 
even  to  the  bats,  than  to  the  (Jitndrtiinuiin.    '11 
this  genus  are  well  represented   in   the  excellent  Osteo- 

'.    M    de  lilaiiuille. 

TARSI'S,  now  TKKSOOS.  a  town  on  the  Cydmi-. 
ated  in  Itshili,  a  divi-imi  of  Caraman.  and  formerly 
the  chief  tonnsol  'din  ia.     h  is  about  twch  e  miles  distant 
liom  the  sea,  and  is  n  .11'  K.  long.     The 

.mis   about    its  on-.  i. us.      It  has  H,  , 

Tarshish  ol  Sciipture,  but  neither  Koebait. 
•iiintcnalices  this 
conjecture. 

wa*  founded  by  Sardanapalus    SIT   the  inscription  nn  the 
toml)  of  that  in-  '7-.  n!.  Ca-aub.  .    Ainiuia- 

..  /V/I//IM/..  c.  \li.,  assert 

that   P  •';•  T     l.iiean.  iii.  'J'J'i  .   and   the 

name 

<  lancifnl 

se«  Slcphanu-,  I!)/..     Sti  ,t   it  was  i\  setlle- 

niade   by  those  who  accompanied  Tnpt. 

»l    In    |..  7  ••  ib.  .     The  first 

historical  notice  of  Ti  Ins  is  in  Xcnophon. 

it   and  flourishing  city 
t-  taken  and   plundered   by  the  younger  ' 
iflerward*  com-;  ,is.  kinir  of 

\\elcarn  Uui    in.  i  .  that  Alexander  the.  Grwt 


arrived  at  Tarsus  just  in  time  to  save  it  iVom  being  burnt 
by  tin  inhabitant*  joined  tin- 

party  of  Julius  Casar,  in  honour  of  whom  they  took  the 
name  Juliopplis ;  they  were  in  y  pu- 

nishi  d  by  Caani 
who  niadi  e  city.    (D  :.  fol., 

."Veil    the    favour   ol 

tutor  Athenodorus.  a  Stoic,  was  a  native  of  this 
place,  anil    ,  .ntry- 

nn'ii  liom  all   laxatioi;.     i.I.ueian.  M  ..i;ii.n. 

Athe .ininir  to  hi>  natue   iilace  in  his 

old  ate.  e\|ielled  a  troublesome  faction,  at  tfie  head  of 
which  wa.s  Hoi-thus,  an  unprincipled  dema:.''igiic.  and  re- 
modelled tin-  constitution. 

>Ollle    cliriou;,  details..      Hi    \va-  -iu  -i-i  cdi  -a  in    lux    L'oM-ni- 
ment  1>\  NI--IHI.  an  Ai-ademician. 
Tanu*  continued  to  flourish  under  the  <  mdcr 

Whom    it    Jissnmed    th.  liino- 

diana,  Antoninopolis. 

drinopolis,  and  finally,  in  the  tune  of  Valerian.  Hail 

•.ma,  Antoniniiina.     •  Eekhel,  /'  111..  •  Tar- 

au».')      The  Tni>  irdinir   to   Strain),   excelled    in 

quickness  of  repartee  and  e\ery  kind  of  ready  wit  :  and 
their  schools  of  philosophy  were  not  than 

those  of  Athens  and  Alexandria.     The  chief  ainons;  the 

were    the  two  Athenodon  :    among  the 
i-ians.  Nestor.      Atheiueu.-     \.,  'Jl.'i.  id.  I'a-anl. 

an  Kpicurcan.  who  w:is   tynn 
tune.     The  coins  of  this  city  inl'onn  -. 

(.'ilieia  and  the  adjacent  provinces.  The  MI-.I  nptiona 
KOIMiv  Kl  \IKI  \i'.  on  a  ii  :nple:  KdlSdi 

'll'lt.'N   KIIM'XI1.'  i -0111111011  to  the 

three    provinei  >  of  Isaiina.  ('ana.  and  l.yeaonia.  are  to   be 
found  in  Muinnet.  ]<ITII--I/  <!'•«  McJui/lrx,  iii.     That  <• 
a  nu-ti(i|iolis  appears  from  an  inscription  on  a  com,  MH- 
TI'OIIOAEUS    T1XH.  and  from  the  testimony  of  Strabo; 
and  Appian's  statement  that  it  was  a  lice  city  i>  eontirmed 
by  the  title  K.\  nti!-:i- A.    St.  Paul  wa-  a  native  ot  this  place. 
(Acts,  xvi.  37;  and  xxii.  iV2s.       Other  interesting 
and  inscriptions  occur  on  the  coins  of  Tarsus. 

•  -ins  there  is  iiKIIIII'KI  A    OA1MIIIV    KIII- 
NEIK1A,  rceording  his  \n  •  er  in 

Ciliria.    .lupitii  Xii  ephorus,  Apollo,  Hercule>  engaged  in 

of  his  labours.  1'.  mrafl  H  nh  I1 

t\]ie«.    and    continn    the   testimony   of    Dion   » 'hrys. 
<Ji'tit..'.M.  'JO',  uhu  mentions  these  among  the  chief  u 
of  the  place. 

The    figure   of  Triptolemus.  the  reputed  founder. 
occurs;  and  the  name  BOHtxn.  referring  perhaps  to  the 
demagogue  of  that  name.     The  imperial  series 

.  and  contains  some  siher  coins,  a  proof 
of  the  great  wealth  and  importance  of  Tarsus.  In  the 
S\  ue  -demusof  Hieroeles.  T.  in  the  I'ruMiicia 

( 'iliciir  Hiima,  and  stvled  Metropolis;  ( 'oiistantiiie  1'or- 
phjrogennetus  lib.  ii..  Them.  13)  places  it  in  the  Theme 

neeia.  and  adds,  that  it  was  an  important  outpost  for 

al>s.      It  had    been  seized  by  them  during   the  early 
times  of  their  empire,  and  had   :  ly  fort  i  tied   |i\ 

Harun  al   Kashid,  wh  ';d   siicecs-or   Al   Mainun, 

was  buried  there.  A.I).  KU.  It  was  rci-o\crcd  by  Nirepho- 
rus  Phocas.  the  MUCC--UI  of  < 'nnstantine  I'oijih): 

Leo  Diacoii..  iv.3 

llaukal.  an   Oriental   geogiapher,  who  wrote  in  the  tenth 
centurv.  thus  desciifies    it  :      •    I 
town,  with   a   double  wall  of  stone.     The  inha: 
valiant  men.  hoi-semen,  and  fond  of  warlike  achicxei. 
It  K  a  strong  and  pleasant   jilaee.     From  it  to  the  1" 
nf  Uoum  an-  many  hills  ami  mrnintains  of  difficult  ,T- 
•i\  that  inTarsinis  there  are  above  a  thousand  h 
men  :   and  in  all  the   chief  cities  of  I- 

:iinan.  and  1'ais.  and  Khiuistan.  and   ' 
ami  Kgvpt.  there  are  inns,  or  public 
the  peo'ple  of  this  town.' 

-wards  retaken  by  ti  but    it  v,a> 

I  limn  them  In   the   '  under  the  command 

<il   Tancred,   the   nephew  of  Moemond.    wl,  i    hi.s 


coiupie  I  to  Baldwin,  afterwards  count  uf  Kdessa.  (.Gmbert 

de    Nugent,   lli.\tniri-  iii'   Iii    l'i  in.    Ill's: 
(iui/ir                     ',il.  ,i  I'llixl.  ii                    iv. i      \Villiamol 

•    at    this  time  as  a  i  ..icia, 

vv'ith                                           i    a    |M>pulation  -   and 

Anne                       :>  oppressed   \>\  d'Aix 

il  w;us    pyjiulous,  and  well   fortified.  In   the 


TAR 


71 


TAR 


twelfth  'century  Benjamin  of  Tudela  speaks  of  it  as  the 
limit  of  the  Greek  empire  (i.  58,  Asher's  translat.)  ;  and  in 
the  thirteenth,  during  the  caliphate  of  Mostazem,  the  Arabs 
attempted  to  recover  Tarsus,  but  failed.  (Abulpharagius, 
p.  ICO,  ed.  Poeocke,  Oxon.,  1673.)  It  was  finally  taken 
by  Mohammed  II.,  in  1458.  (Von  Hammer's  Geschichte 

f)s>na>iischen  Retches,  ii.  35.) 

Very  few  remains  of  the  antient  city  of  Tarsus  exist :  at 
the  north-west  end  of  the  antient  town  is  part  of  an  old 

fateway,  and  near  it  a  very  large  mound,  apparently  arti- 
cial,  with  a  flat  top,  from  which  is  an  extensive  view 
of  the  adjacent  plain  :  on  an  eminence  to  the  south-west 
are  the  ruins  of  a  spacious  circular  edifice,  probably  the 
tryinnasium.     Lucas,  who  visited  it  in  1704,  only  noticed 
one  inscription,  which  he  gives  (i.  271-2,  Amster.,  1714). 
For  the   probable  situation  of  the   tomb  of  Julian,  see 
Rennel,  Western  Asia,  88,  &c.     On  a  rock  three  or  four 
,cs  from  Tarsus  is  a   fortress,  called  the  Castle  of 
Giants.     Kazalu,  the  port  of  Tarsus,  is  now  about  twelve 
distant,  iind  is  closed  up  by  a  sand-bar.     (Beaufort's 
i  nf  f':i/-'">mni(i,  '^76.)     The  population  of  Tarsus  is 
about  6000,    chiefly   Greeks    and   Armenian    Christians, 
governed   by  a   Moosellim  :  its   site   is    unhealthy.     For 
further  information,  see  Michaud  and  Poujoulat's  Corre- 
snoiiikiirr-  d'Orii-nt,  vii.,  146. 

TARTA'GLIA,  NICHOLAS,  a  learned  Italian  mathe- 
matician, who  was  born  at  Brescia  about  the  beginning  of 
the  sixteenth  century.     When  he  was  six  years  of  a<:e  his 
father,  who  followed  the  humble  occupation  of  a  nK-scn- 
•>r  carrier,  died,  leaving  him  in  indigent  circumstances, 
and  without  education.  Even  his  family  name  is  unknown, 
and  that  which  he  bore  (designating  one  who  stammers) 
.'iven  him  in  derision  by  his  young  companions  in 
queiice  of  an  impediment  in  his  speech  arising  from 
a  wound  which  he  received  on  his  lips  from  a  soldier, 
when  the  French  army  under  Gaston  de  Foix  relieved 

a  in  1512. 

No  account  has  been  transmitted  of  the  means  by  which 
Tartairlia  obtained  a  knowledge  of  the  rudiments  of  science, 
and  it  is  probable  that  he  owed  but  little  to  a  preceptor. 
His  oun  i  aided  only  by  a  mind  endowed  with 

the  power  of  readily  comprehending  the  processes  of  ma- 
thematical investigation,  enabled  him  at.  length  to  attain 
the  highest  rank  among  the  geometers  of  his  time.  Having 
i'1'iil  years  as  a  teacher  at  Verona  and  Vicenza, 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  at  Brescia,  and 
in  15,'U  he  removed  to  Venice,  where  he  held  the  like 
pn.->t  till  his  death,  which  took  place  in  1557. 

Tartaglia  wrote  on  military  engineering  and  on  natural 

philosophy,  but  it  is  on  his  talents  as  an  algebraist  that  his 

fame  principally  rests.     In  that  age  it  was  the  custom  for 

mathematicians  to  send  difficult  propositions  to  each  other 

for  solution,  as  trials  of  skill  ;  and  in  the  work  entitled 

'Quesiti  ed  Invention!  Diverse,' which  Tartaglia  published 

in  1546,  there  are  contained  some  interesting  accounts  of 

the  circumstances  connected  with  the  algebraic  questions 

which  he  had  received  and  answered.     Among  these  are 

his  investigations  relating  to  equations  of  the  third  degree; 

and  the  solutions  of  two  eases,  in  which  both  the  second 

'hird  powers  of  (lie  unknown  quantity  are  involved, 

arc  shown  to  have  been  discovered  in  1530,  on  the  oeca- 

if  ;;  iiuestion  proposed  by  a  person  who  kept  a  school 

at  Brescia:  Tartaglia  states  also  that,  in  the  year  1533,  he 

!  out  the  solutions  of  two  equations,  in  which  the  first 

and  third  powers  of  the  unknown  quantity  enter  without 

the  second,  while   preparing  himself  for  a  public  contest 

with  Aiitonia  Maria  1'iore,  who  then  resided  at  Venice, 

liallenged  him  to  a  competition,  in  which 

Ive  a-,  many  as  he  could  of  thirty  questions 

:   by  the  other.     It   is  added  that  larttiglia, 

iswered  all  those  of  his  opponent  without 

•lution  from  the  hitter  in  return. 

:in,  who  had  been  informed  of  the  disco- 

ia,  applied  to  the  latter  for  the  solution  of 

:i  (mentions  which  he  proposed,  in  the  hope  of  ob- 

„'  from  him  a  knowledge  of  the  processes  which  he 

employed  iii  obtaining  the  roots  of  equations  of  the  kind 

H'ntioned.  The  application  was  made  at  first  through 

:•!  afterwards  by  letter;  but  Tartaglia,  who, 

MI  of  his  secret,  enjoyed  great  advantages 

•iie  other  mathematicians  of  the  time  in  resolving  the 

MIS  which  wtre  proposed  to  him,  declined  \\- 
any  communication  by  which  his  method  might  become 


publicly  known.  Though  disappointed  in  these  attempts, 
Cardan  soon  afterwards  succeeded,  by  a  promise  of  intro- 
ducing him  to  an  Italian  nobleman,  who  had  the  reputa- 
tion of  being  a  great  patron  of  learned  men,  in  inducing 
Tartaglia  to  make  a  visit  to  himself  at  Milan  :  the  latter, 
while  there,  yielded  to  the  entreaties  of  his  host,  and  hav- 
ing exacted  a  promise  of  inviolable  secrecy,  gave  him  a 
key  to  the  rule  which  he  had  discovered.  Cardan  imme- 
diately found  himself  embarrassed  with  what  is  called  the 

irreducible  case,  in  which  the  expression  jQa— ™P8  [IR- 
REDUCIBLE CASE],  entering  into  the  value  of  the  unknown 
quantity  under  the  sign  of  the  square  root,  is  negative, 
and  he  applied  to  Tartaglia  on  the  subject :  the  latter 
however  declined  giving  a  direct  answer  to  his  inquiry, 
being  himself  unable  to  conquer  the  difficulty ;  in  fact  the 
solution  of  the  equation  in  this  case  is  even  now  usually 
obtained  by  the  aid  of  trigonometrical  functions. 

In  the  work  of  Tartaglia  above  mentioned  there  is  an 
account  given  of  a  dialogue  which  took  place  in  1541  be- 
tween himself  and  a  Mr.  Richard  Wentworth,  who  then 
resided  at  Venice,  and  to  whom  it  appears  that  Tartaglia 
had  given  lessons  in  mathematics.  On  being  pressed  by 
that  gentleman  to  give  him  the  rules  for  the  solution  of 
equations  containing  the  second  and  third  powers  of  the 
unknown  quantity,  the  Italian  mathematician  declined 
doing  so,  on  the  plea  that  he  was  about  to  compose  a  work 
on  arithmetic  and  algebra,  in  which  the  rules,  he  said, 
were  to  appear. 

In  1 545  Cardan  published  his  work  entitled  'ArsMagna,' 
and,  in  direct  violation  of  his  solemn  promise,  gave  in  it  the 
rule  for  the  solution  of  the  cubic  equation  containing  the 
first  and  third  powers  of  the  unknown  quantity.  He  does 
not  assert  that  he  is  the  discoverer  of  the  rule,  but  observes 
that  it  was  first  found  out  about  30  years  previously  by 
Scipio  Ferreus,  of  Bologna;  and  adds  that  it  had  since 
that  time  been  independently  discovered  by  Tartaglia.  The 
publication  of  this  work  produced,  as  might  be  expected, 
the  most  animated  remonstrances  from  the  man  who  thus 
lelt'himself  seriously  injured  and  aggrieved  :  Tartaglia  how- 
ever revenged  himself  in  no  other  way  than  by  sending 
challenges  to  Cardan  and  his  disciple  Lewis  Ferrari,  to  hold 
with  him  a  disputation  on  mathematical  subjects,  by  which 
the  public  might  be  judges  of  their  several  merits.  The 
discussion  actuallytook  place  in  1549,in  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria,  in  Milan,  bet  ween  Tartaglia  and  Ferrari;  but  during 
the  sitting,  on  the  former  pointing  out  an  error  which  had 
been  committed  by  Cardan  in  the  solution  of  a  problem, 
the  people,  who  appear  to  have  taken  the  side  of  their 
townsman,  excited  a  tumult,  and  the  assembly  broke  up 
without  coming  to  a  decision.  Tartaglia  has  received  no 
more  justice  from  posterity  than  he  experienced  from  his 
cotemporarles,  and  the  formula  for  the  value  of  the  un- 
known quantity  in  such  equations  is  still  designated  Car- 
dan's rule.  It  must  be  admitted  however  that  Cardan  was 
the  first  who  published  its  demonstration. 

The  works  of  Tartaglia,  all  of  which  were  published  at 
Venice,  are — 'Nuova  Scienza ;  eioe  Invenzione  nuovamente 
trovata,  utile  per  ciascuno  speculative  Matematico  Bom- 
bardiero,"  &c.,  1537 :  this  is  a  treatise  on  the  theory  and 
practice  of  gunnery,  and  it  was  translated  into  English  in 
1588.  '  Eucfide,  difigentemente  rassettato,'  &c.,  1543  :  this 
is  said  to  be  the  first  Italian  translation  of  Euclid.  'Archi- 
medes Opera  emendata,'  &c.,  1543.  'Quesiti  ed  Invcnzioni 
Diverse,'  1550 :  this  is  the  work  above  mentioned,  and  it  is 
dedicated  to  Henry  VIII.  of  England:  it  contains  the  an- 
swers to  questions  which  had  been  proposed  to  Tartaglia 
concerning  mechanics  and  hydrostatics;  and  to  one  of  the 
books  there  is  a  supplement  concerning  the  art  of  fortify- 
ing places.  '  La  Travagliata  Invenzione,  ossia,  Regola  per 
sollevare  ogni  atfondata  Nave,'  &c..  1551:  'Ragionamenti 
-o])i:i  la  Travagliata  Invenzione,'  1551;  'General  Trattato 
lie'  Numcri  e  Misure,' 1556-1560 ;  'Trattato  di  Aritmetica,' 
155(i:  •Dcseri/.ione  dell'  Artih'ziosa  Macchina  fatta  per  ca- 
varc  il  Galeone,'  1560 ;  '  Archimedis  de  Insidentibns  Aqua 
Lihri  duo,'  1565;  '.Tordani  Opusculum  de  Ponderositate,' 
1565.  A  collection  of  his  principal  works  was  published 


in  1606. 
TARTAN. 


[\VKAVINO.] 


TARTAR.     [POTASSIUM.] 
TARTAR1C  ACID.     This  acid  was  first  obtained  in  a 
separate  state  by  Scheele ;  it  exists  in  several  vegetable 


TAR  7 

product*,  but  principally  in  bi-Urtrate  of  potash,  which 
u  usually  called  cream  <>J  tortur,  a  salt  which  is  deposited 
from  wine. 

The  tartaric  acid  of  this  salt  is  obtained  first  by  convert- 
ing the  excess  of  it.  one  half  of  it,  into  tart  rate  of  lime  by 
the  additi.  and  the  other  hall  into  the  same  salt 

by  means  of  chloride  of  calcium  ;  the  resulting  tartratc  of 
lime  ost-d  by  sulphuric  acid,  by  which  sulphate 

oflin:  !,  and  the  solution  of  tartaric  acid  thus 

obtained  by  single  elective  affinity  and  decomposition 
is  evaporated,  and  crystals  of  the  acid  are  deposited  on 
cooling. 

The  properties  of  tartaric  acid  are,  that  it  is  coloi, 
inodorous,  and  very  sour  to  the  taste  ;  it  occurs  in  crystals 
of  a  considerable  size,  the  primary  form  of  which  is  an 
oblique  rhombic  prism  ;  it  suffers  no  change  by  exposure 
to  the  air:  water  at  CO"  dissolves  about  one  fifth  of  its 
weight,  and  at  212°  twice  its  weight:  the  solution  acts 
stronglv  on  vegetable  blue  colours,  turning  them  red. and 
it  becomes  mouldy  and  decomposes  when  long  kept  ; 
alcohol  dissolves  it",  but  more  sparingly  than  water.  The 
•Is,  when  heated  a  little  above  "the  boiling-point  of 
.  melt  into  a  liquid,  which  boils  at  2TX)°,  leaving  on 
cooling  a  semi-transparent  mass,  which  is  rather  deliques- 
cent :  it'  it  be  more  strongly  heated  in  a  retort, tartaiic  acid 
is  decomposed,  and  converted  into  pyrotartaric  acid,  ac- 
companied with  some  other  products.  When  very  strongly 
heated  in  the  air,  a  coaly  mass  is  procured,  which  is  even- 
tually dissipated.  Sulphuric  acid  acts  upon  and  decom- 
poses  taitaric  acid,  with  the  production  of  acetic  acid  ;  by 
means  of  nitric  acid  it  also  suffers  decomposition,  and  a 
portion  of  its  carbon,  by  acquiring  oxygen  from  the  de- 
composed nitric  acid,  is  converted  into  oxalic  acid. 

Solution  of  tartaric  acid  acts  with  facility  upon  those 
metals  which  decompose  water,  as  iron  and  zinc ;  it  com- 
bines readily  with  alkalis,  earths,  and  metallic  oxides  ;  and 
these  salts  are  called  Inrlniti-x.  For  an  account  of  the 
more  important  of  these  we  refer  to  the  respective  bases. 
Tartaric  acid  has  a  remarkable  disposition  to  form  double 
.  one  of  the  most  distinct  and  remarkable  of  which 
is  the  tartrate  of  potash  and  soda,  which  has  long  been 
employed  in  medicine  under  the  name  of  Rochelle  Salts. 

Tartaric  acid  free  from  water,  in  which  state  it  may  be 
obtained  by  exposure  to  a  heat  of  302°  in  an  oil-bath  for 
some  time,  consists  of 

Two  equivalents  of  hydrogen  2  or    3- 

Four  equivalents  of  carbon    .         24   „  3(i-4 
Five  equivalents  of  oxygen   .        -40  „   60-6 

Equivalent          .         .         (JO      100' 
It  is  insoluble  in  cold  water. 
In  the  crystallized  state  it  consists  of — 

One  equivalent  of  anhydrous  acid    66  or  88 
One  equivalent  of  water          .         0  „  12 

Equivalent  .         .          .         75      100 
By  the  action  of  heat,  so  as  partially  to  decompose  it, 
tartaiic   acid   is  converted   into  tartrelic  acid  and   tartralic 
acid,  which  are  not  of  sufficient  importance  to  require 
description. 

Tartaric  acid  is  largely  employed  as  a  discharge  in 
Calico-printing,  and  for  making  what  arc  called  sodaic 
powders,  which  are  extemporaneous  imitations  of  soda- 

TARTAKIc  .VII)  i-  entirely  confined  to  the  vegetable 

kingdom,  and  is  found  free  or  uncombined  in  tamarinds,  in 
the  unripe  gi  ape,  and  hi  pepper;  and  in  combination  in 
tamarinds,  ripe  |  mulberries,  squill. dan- 

delion, chenopodrum  vulvaria,  hilarious  species  of  pines, 
and  as  tartrate  of  lime  in  the  fruit  of  the  Khus  typhina. 
For  medical  piirpo.es  it  should  be  remarkably  pure,  when 
it  is  without  odour,  but  makes  a  poweifiil  acid  imoression 
on  the  organs  of  taste.  In  small  doses,  properly  diluted,  it 
acts  as  a  refrigerant,  and  is  of  much  value  in  fever 
tieularly  mucous,  and  in  biliary  remittents  It  .  \.  ,tes  the 
appetite  of  persons  in  whom  the  stomach  is  in  a  healthy 
condition:  and  those  who,  by  long  indulgence  in  stimu- 
lating food  and  drinks,  experience  loss  of  appetite,  painful 

•lipation.  with    a   yellow  and   altered  coun- 

•e,  and   diminished  muscular  power,  find  in  tartaric 

acid  a  remedy  of  singular  power.     Vor  this  state  of  system 

a  few  crystals  should  be  dissolved  in  two  small  tumblris. 

and  drank  in  the  morning  fasting,  an  hour  into  \  eni 


T  A   K 

tween  the  tumblers.  A  few  grains  arc  sufficient  for  each 
tumbler,  as  when  made  too  strong  it  .  Mtion,  fol- 

lowed by  purgin:  .nail)   it   disturbs   the    nervous 

system    in  a  distressing  way,  so  that    patients    refuse  to 
continue    its  use.     This   plan  has  in   many  in-tanc. 
claimed  individuals  addicted  to  habitual   it  n,  to 

which  they  have  Heve  a  painful  feeling  of 

sinking  and  craving  of  the  stomach,  which  is 
removed  by  the  acid  draught.     This  is  also  useful  after  an 
attack  of  delirium  tr< 

Tartaric  acid  enters  the  circulation,  and  diffuses  itself 
through  the  whole  body,  and  may  be  rc<  n  the 

mine,  ircncrally  in  combination,  often  with  lime.  Tar 
acid  i-  much  used  to  decompose  alkaline  >  •,  and 

form  effervescing  draught*,  the  employment  of  which  re- 
quires caution.  [Avi.vi  i 

TARTARS,  ,„.  more  correctly.  TATARS  Khazar 
Kiptshak  .  The  name  Tatars  once  designated  a  great 
number  of  different  nations  in  Middle  Asia  and  F.astcrn 
Kurope.  which,  accoiding  to  ^ciicial  opinion,  were  of  one 
Cpnunon origin.  Careful  research  however  into  their  his- 
tory, language,  and  ethnographical  relations,  has  shown 
that  tl'  i  Tatars  never  designated  any  particular 

race,  although  it  was  at   li 

among  which  there  was  no  difference  of  race.  It  has  how- 
ever gradually  become  a  collective  name,  under  which  arv 
comprehended  different  nations  of  Mongol,  Turkish,  and 
even  Finnish  origin.  The  nuiner.  and  the  iii' 

cable  confusion  in  the  earlier  historians  who  have  written 
on  this  subject  can  only  In  ip  by  going  back  to 

the  historical  origin  of  ihe  name  ol'T, 

As   earlv  as  the   beginning  of  the  ninth   century,   the 
Chinese  knew  a  people  called   Tata,  who  lived  to  tb- 
and  south-east   of  the  lake  of  Baikal,  towaids  the  upper 
part   of  the  river  Amur.     They  were  also  called  Tatuol, 
the  Chinese  pronunciation  of  Tatar,  and  tin  (ably 

identical  with  theTaidjod  of  the  Mongol  historian  Si'inang- 
Sctscii.     In  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century  the  Tata i- 
div  ided  into  three  tribes,  the  White,  the  Wild,  and  the  Black 
or  Water  Tatars,  the  last  of  which  lived  about  the  sources 
of  the  Amur,  and  were  subject  to  the  White. until  In- 

.  the  father  of  Genghis  Khan,  a  prince  of  the 
Water  Tatars,  subdued  the  White  Tatars,  in  the  middle  of 
the  twelfth  century.  He  then  united  the  Wild  and  all  the 
other  tribes  of  his  race;  and  his  son  Genghis  Khan  irave  to 
these  warlike  nations,  the  general  name  of  which  seems  to 
have  been  Hcdc.  the  name  of  Kokc-Mongols,  that  is,  the 
Blue  Bold,  c,r  the  Celestial  Mongols.  A  j  articular  cir- 
cumstance made  the  change  of  their  name  ainecablc  to 

The   word   Tatar  signifies   in   tl. 

language  'a  tributary  people,"  and.  in  consequence,  could 
not  be   agreeable  to  nations  which   had  not   only  < 
to  be  tributary,  but  boasted  of  the  noble  title  of  M.. 

Sanani:  Sctscn.  llixtunj  "f  tlx1  Ki\/i'rn  .l/"//ir"A.  cd.  .!.  .1. 
Schmidt,   p.  "I.  and   notes  21    anil  22:    Pa' 
lirii-litfii  iihi-r  <//<•  M 


ti-n.  \ol.  ii.,  p.  42!t :  Schmidt,   Forschungtn  i<; 
i/i',-  I  ",',!!;  ,  p.  59.) 

When  Genghis  Khan  sent  his  son  Tushi  Khan  to  conquer 
the  west,  all  the  Turkish  nations  which  were  scattered  over 
Middle  A-ia.  from  the  sources  of  tlie  Amur  to  the  Caspian. 
were  subjugated,  and  thus  becamcTatars,  that  is.  tributary 
subjects  of  the  Mongol  empire.  Fasten!  Kurope.  inha- 
bited by  other  Tutk- and  numerous  nations  of  the  Finnish 
laee.  shared  their  fate;  the  tributary  inhabitants  were 

1   to  tight   under  a    Mongol   chief:     and   ihe  : 
of  Mongols  ami  Tatars  were  not  only  confounded,  but  the 
latter  soon    gained    the  ascendency,    because  it  designated 
the    irreat    majority  of    Mongol    subjects.     In  1223.  when 
the  Mongols  made  their  first  invasion  of  Russia,  they  were 
>lly  called    Tatars;    and  when  Hatn.  the  iriandsoii  of 
Genghis  Khan,  after  having  laid  wa-te  Russia  and  Poland, 
appeared  on  the  frontier  of  Germany,  the  emperor   I 
lie    II.  summoned   the    princes  to   rise  against    the  T 
The   battle  of  Wahlstatt,   or   I.icgnilz.   was   foiidit    on  the 
itth  of  April,    12-41.   in   which  the  Mongols,  although  they 
defeated    a    feeble   arm)    of    Poles   and    Geiniaiis.    were   so 
struck  with  Ihe  heroic  resistance  of  the  Teutonic  knights, 
that  they  did  not  advance  i  This  latt  lew 

sometime  <  ailed  the  Tatar  Battle :   seven 

-ian  nobles  who  survived  that  day  had  and  have  still  Tatar- 
,11    their   armorial    1  •  '     iman 

kniirht.  whose  descendants  aie  still  living,  had  his  name 


TAR 


73 


TAR 


changed  in  commemoration  of  the  day ;  but  his  new  name 
•was  not  Mongol,  but  Tader.  A  further  proof  of  the  great 
numerical  preponderance  of  the  tributary  nations  over  the 
true  Mongols  is,  that  an  army  of  600,000  men,  with  which 
Batu  occupied  Russia  and  the  Ural  country,  contained 
only  160,000  Mongols ;  while  500,000  belonged  to  the 
subdued  Turkish,  Finnish,  and  Slavonic  nations.  (Ham- 
mer, Geschichte  der  Gold/ten  Horde  in  Kiptshak,  p.  114, 
115,  141 ;  Karamsin,  iii.,  p.  275.) 

These  well-known  facts,  which  might  easily  be  aug- 
mented, are  sufficient  to  prove  that  the  name  of  Tatars 
•was  first  known  in  Europe  in  its  etymological  signification  ; 
that  it  got  a  political  signification,  and  was  applied  to 
nations  which  were  not  of  Mongol  origin ;  and  that  it  had 
lost  all  precise  ethnographical  signification  even  before  it 
reached  the  West.  Tatars  became  a  general  name  for  any 
nomadic  and  barbarous  hordes  which  invaded  Europe 
from  Western  Asia,  and  thus  it  appears  why  in  Sweden 
the  gipsies  were  once  known  under  the  name  of  Tattars,  and 
why  in  the  duchy  of  Holstein  they  are  still  called  either 
by  the  name  of  Zikhainers  or  by  that  of  Tatars.  (Benzelius, 
Epitome  Commentariurum  Moysis  Armeni,  Stockholm, 
1723,  4to.,  p.  89.) 

The  incorrect  orthography  Tartars  occurs  as  early  as  the 
appearance  of  the  Mongols  in  Europe,  and  was  probably 
introduced  by  superstitious  monks  and  writers,  who,  struck 
with  the  seeming  analogy  between  Tatar  and  Tartarus,  be- 
lieved them  to  have  come  from  the  infernal  regions.  This 
at  least  is  more  probable  than  the  opinion  that  the  name 
Tartars  was  introduced  by  Saint  Louis,  who,  in  a  letter  to 
his  queen  Blanche,  about  the  approaching  danger  of  the 
Tatars,  speaks  of  them  in  the  following  terms:—'  This  di- 
vine consolation  will  always  exalt  our  souls,  that  in  the 
present  danger  of  the  Tartars  either  we  shall  push  them 
back  into  the  Tartarus  whence  they  are  come,  or  they  will 
bring  us  all  into  heaven.'  (Klaproth,  Asia  Polyglutta, 
p.  202.)  These  words  rather  prove  that  in  King  Louis's 
time  the  name  and  its  origin  were  known. 

If  the  empire  of  Genghis  Khan  had  lasted  longer,  the 
name  of  Mongols  would  certainly  have  prevailed  over  that 
of  the  tributary  nations,  in  the  same  way  as  that  of  the 
Franks  supplanted  the  names  of  the  Gauls,  the  Romans, 
the  Goths,  and  the  Burgundians.  But  the  name  of  Mongols 
disappeared  in  Europe,  and  was  no  longer  heard  of  except 
in  the  remote  deserts  of  eastern  Asia.  The  old  name  of  Tatars 
however  lasted  as  a  designation  of  the  different  inhabitants 
of  the  empire  of  Kiptshak,  which  was  founded  by  the  de- 
scendants of  Genghis  Khan  on  the  frontiers  of  Asia  and 
Europe.  There  the  princes  only  and  part  of  the  nobles 
were  Mongols,  and  they  were  sometimes  called  so  by  those 
foreigners  who  were  able  to  perceive  the  ethnographical 
differences  among  the  inhabitants  of  Kiptshak  (Treaties 
between  Venice  and  the  Golden  Horde,  cited  below),  but 
the  remaining  population  was  composed  of  Turkish  and 
Finnish  tribes,  of  which  the  former  were  the  more  numerous. 
The  Russians,  who  were  under  the  dominion  of  the  Mongols 
for  above  two  centuries,  knew  the  Finnish  tribes  by  the  name 
of  Tshudes,  and  their  application  of  the  name  of  Tatars  ex- 
clusively to  the  Turks  of  Kiptshak  gave  rise  to  the  present 
signification  of  the  name.  The  other  nations  of  Europe 
were  less  able  to  make  such  distinctions.  Thus,  for  in- 
stance, Olearius,  the  secretary  to  the  duke  of  Holstein's 
embassy  to  Persia,  says,  in  his  '  Travels,'  that  Moruma 
(Murom  on  the  Oka)  was  '  the  first  town  of  Tartary  on  the 
\\ay  from  Moscow,  and  that  at  Wasiligrod,  at  the  entrance 
of  the  Sura  into  the  Wolga,  began  the  country  of  those 
Tatars  who  are  called  Tsheremisses.'  But  Murom  is  situ- 
ated just  at  the  entrance  of  the  country  of  the  Mordwins, 
one  of  the  oldest  Finnish  tribes  known  to  history,  and  the 
Tslicii'nii?si's  are  likewise  of  Finnish  origin.  Nevertheless 
Olearius  calls  them  Tatars.  He  observes  however  that 
their  language  had  a  particular  character,  and  resembled 
neither  the  Turkish  nor  the  Tatar  language,  an  observation 
which  proves  that  Tatar  has  here  two  meanings  :  it  first 
.'nates  the  inhabitants  of  the  conquered  territory  of 
Kiptshak  (Tartary),  and  then  in  a  narrower  sense  the 
Turkish  inhabitants  of  that  country. 

At  present  the  name  of  Tata*  is  still  given  to  the  Turkish 
inhabitants  of  southern  and  eastern  Russia,  and  as  their 
origin  is  well  known,  there  is  no  more  reason  for  dropping 
the  name  for  that  of  Turks,  than  there  is  for  refusing 
the  French  their  name,  and  calling  them  Gauls.  It 
it  nevertheless  an  important  fact  that  the  Tatars  call 
P.  C.,  No.  1407. 


themselves  Turks,  and  feel  highly  offended  by  being  called 
Tatars,  a  name  which  in  their  idiom  signifies  '  robbers.' 
This  fact  refutes  the  hypothesis  of  Klaproth,  who  believes 
that  the  subjects  of  the  Mongol  empire  adopted  the  name 
of  Tatars  as  a  title  of  honour,  on  account  of  its  being  the 
antient  name  of  the  chief  tribe  of  the  ruling  nation. 
Klaproth's  opinion  becomes  also  entirely  untenable  if  put 
in  connexion  with  a  fact  stated  by  Sherefeddin  and  Arab- 
shah,  who  tell  us  that  Timur,  who,  as  a  descendant  of 
Genghis  Khan,  undoubtedly  belonged  to  the  Mongol  race, 
in  a  letter  to  Bayazid,  calls  himself  a  Turk,  upbraiding 
this  sultan  of  the  Osmanlis  with  being  a  vulgar  Turko- 
man. Can  we  believe  that  the  subdued  nations  should 
have  distinguished  themselves  by  an  ignoble  name  of 
their  masters,  while  these,  at  the  same  time,  made  a  boast 
of  that  of  their  Turkish  subjects !  It  must  be  repeated 
that  the  tributary  nations  were  called  Tatars  by  the  Mon- 
gols and  by  foreigners,  and  disliked  the  name  on  account 
of  its  meaning ;  and  that  the  ethnographical  signification 
of  it  was  supplanted  by  the  general  and  glorious  name 
of  Mongols.  [TURKS.] 

This  account  of  the  origin  and  the  gradual  diffusion  of 
the  name  Tatar  is  more  or  less  different  from  those  given 
by  Klaproth,  Abel  Remusat,  and  Schmidt,  but  it  is  founded 
entirely  on  facts  the  knowledge  of  which  we  owe  to  these 
authors,  and  especially  to  Julius  von  Klaproth.  Besides 
the  above-cited  works,  the  reader  may  consult  Schmidt,  in 
Hammer,  Fundgruben  des  Orients,  vol.  vi.,  heft  3 ;  Klap- 
roth, Beleuchtung  und  Widerlegung  der  Forschungen 
des  Herrn  Schmidt;  Abel  Remusat,  Recherches  sur  les 
Langues  Tartares ;  Abulghasi  Bayadurkhan,  Histoire  Ge- 
ncalogique  des  Tartars,  Leyden,  1726,  8vo. ;  Ahmtdis 
Arabsiadae,  Vita  et  Res  gestae  Timuri,  ed.  Manger,  ii., 
cap.  19 ;  Sherefeddin  Ali,  Hist,  de  Timour  Bey,  trad,  par 
Petis  de  la  C'roix,  1.  v.,  c.  14.) 

The  above-mentioned  Turkish  nations  were  known  in 
history  long  before  they  were  called  Tatars.  Part  of  them 
founded  the  empire  of  Khazaria,  between  the  Dniepr  and 
the  YaTk. 

The  Khazars,  the  Ghysser  or  Ghazar  of  Moses  of  Kho- 
rene,  inhabited  in  the  time  of  this  Armenian  author,  in  the 
fifth  century  A.D.,  the  country  north  of  the  Caspian  Sea ; 
and  in  the  sixth  century  they  penetrated  into  the  coun- 
tries north  of  the  Kuban  and  the  Black  Sea,  where  they 
founded  a  powerful  empire.  Among  the  Byzantine  his- 
torians, Theophanes  is  the  first  who  mentions  them.  As 
early  as  A.D.  625  they  allied  themselves  with  the  emperor 
Heraclius,  and  in  conjunction  with  him  attacked  Anushir- 
w  an,  the  king  of  Persia,  and  from  that  time  were  in  con- 
tinual political  intercourse  with  the  Byzantine  emperors, 
who  were  always  anxious  to  maintain  peaceful  relations 
with  this  people.  Contemporary  historians  state  that  the 
Khazars  consisted  of  two  principal  races :  one  of  them 
was  little,  ugly,  with  black  hair,  and  probably  of  Finnish 
origin ;  the  other  was  tall  and  handsome,  and  spoke 
a  Turkish  dialect :  many  other  races  however  were  mixed 
up  with  them,  so  that  Leo  Diaconus  justly  calls  them  a 
'  colluvies  gentium." 

(Ouseley,  Oriental  Geography  ofEbn  Haukal,  pp.  185- 
190 ;  Frahn,  Veteres  Memories  Chazarorum  ex  Ibn  Tusz- 
lano,  #c. ;  Memoires  de  VAcadbnie  de  St.  Petersbourg, 
vol.  viii. ;  Theophanes,  iii.  28 ;  vi.  9.) 

Their  kings  were  called  Chagan,  or  more  correctly  Kha- 
ghan,  which  was  the  name  of  the  old  Mongol  kings  a  thou- 
sand years  before  the  appearance  of  the  Khazars.  In  the 
time  of  the  emperor  Constantinus  Porphyrogenitus  the  Kha- 
zarian  empire  extended  in  the  south  to  the  Black  Sea,  and 
contained  the  northern  part  of  the  Crimea,  which  preserved 
the  name  of  Khazaria  until  the  thirteenth  century,  and  the 
island  of  Taman,  then  inhabited  by  Goths ;  on  the  Caucasian 
isthmus  it  was  separated  from  the  Alans  by  the  present  river 
of  Manytsh.  The  western  coastof  the  Caspian  Sea  belonged 
to  it  as  far  as  Derbent  in  the  present  country  of  Daghestan, 
where  they  were  contiguous  to  the  Arabs.  The  eastern 
boundaries  of  it  were  probably  the  river  of  Yai'k  or  Ural. 
On  the  north  it  extended  even  beyond  Kasan,  and  on  the 
west  it  was  bounded  by  the  Dniepr.  In  the  eighth  cen- 
tury the  Khazars  made  the  Russians  of  Kiew  for  some  time 
tributary,  as  well  as  the  Sewerians,  the  Radiwitshcs,  the 
Viatitshes,  and  other  Slavonic  nations.  Constantinus  Por- 
phyrogenitus recommends  his  son  to  maintain  an  alliance 
with  the  mighty  Khazars,  but  he  severely  blames  his  pre- 
I  decessor  Leo,  who  had  assumed  the  imperial  dignity 

VOL.  XXIV.-L 


TAR 


74 


T  A  H 


•minst  the  will  of  the  patriarch,  and  who  had  crowned 

(us  .!  •    agahst   tlir   ecclesiastical  authority   by 

marr\  ie  Khaghan.  '  For,' adds  ll. 

11  being  orthodox  Christia 
it   nil.  but  impious,  heathens;  and  l.co  was 
punished  for  his  crime  by  a  carbuncle  in  1  which 

lie  died  voting,  alter  severe  sufferings.'*     Christianity  in- 
deed, although  some  feeble  traces  of  it  appear  in  Kl 
as  early  as  7  Id.  was  not  adopted  by  the  majority  of  the 
Khazars.     On    the   contrary,  their   kin^s  were  .lew-..,  and 
many  Jews  had  founded  great  families  in  that  country. 

Hinvever  strange  thin  circumstance  may  appear,  it  is  an 
undoubted  fact.  According  to  Friihn,  one  of  the  best 
writers  on  the  Kharars,  the  religion  of  Moses  was  pro- 
pagated among  this  people  by  the  Jews,  who  were  ex- 
pel led  from  the  Byzantine  empire  at  the  end  of  the  eighth 
century.  Tlie  princes,  states  Ibn  Haukal.  were  obliged  to 
be  Jews,  but  the  nine  ministers  of  the  Khaghan  might  be 
Jew-.  Christians,  Mohammedans,  or  heathens,  a  fact  from 
which  we  must  conclude  that  there  was  great  toleration  in 
Khazaria.  In  the  subsequent  centuries  we  meet  with 
some  Christian  princes,  such  as  Georges  Tzuda,  in  1016, 
hut  the  Khaghan  Cosro  (Khosrew'i,  who  reigned  about 
HID.  was  a  .lew  who  had  been  converted  to  the  religion 
of  Moses  by  the  rabbi  Isaak  Sangarus,  as  is  stated  by  the 
rabbi  Jehudah,  in  his  work  cited  below,  which  is  dedicated 
to  that  king. 

(Ibn  Haukal;  Massudi,  in  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  C/irrst. 
Arabe:  Herhelot .  KbtiotMqHt  Orifiitud',  sub  voce  'Khozar ;' 
Frahn;  Lehrberg,  L'ntertuchungtn  xur  iilteren  (ii-xrliidilr 
/I'.vxv/.iWv;  Karamsin  and  Bulgarin,  Hist,  of  Russia ; 
Miiller,  Her  Ugrische  Volhx\t<nnin  :  Joh.  Buxtorfius,  fll., 
Lihfr  Cosri,  Basileae,  HKXJ,  4to.  This  last  book  was  ori- 
ginally written  in  Arabic,  by  Jehudah  Levita,  and  was 
translated  into  Hebrew  by  Jehudah  Abn  Tybbon,  both 
Spanish  rabbis.) 

The  Khazars  were  very  different  from  those  barbarous 
Mongol  tribes  which  afterwards  invaded  Europe.  Although 
many  of  them  led  a  nomadic  life,  they  were  generally 
settled  in  villages  and  towns,  which  they  embellished  with 
magnificent  buildings  erected  by  Arabian  and  Byzantine 
architects,  and  the  ruins  of  which  still  attest  their  former 
splendour.  Ignorant  historians  have  asserted  that  neither 
navigation  nor  commerce  flourished  among  them,  but 
there  are  numerous  facts  which  prove  the  contrary.  In 
the  first  place,  the  number  of  Jews  and  the  toleration  that 
existed  in  Khazaiia  may  be  considered  as  certain  indica- 
tions of  the  flourishing  state  of  its  commerce.  The  Khazars 
were  renowned  for  their  fine  carpets,  which  were  princi- 
pally manufactured  in  their  capital.  Itel,  the  present 
Astrakhan,  which  was  also  called  Bilindsher  and  Nihije, 
Semend,  with  the  surname  of  Serai'  Banu.or'the  palace  of 
the  lady,'  now  Tarku,  Old  Kasan,  and  Sarkel,  a  fortress  on 
the  Don,  were  also  commercial  towns.  Honey,  skins, 
leather,  furs,  fish,  salt,  copper  of  the  Ural,  were  tne  goods 
they  exchanged  in  the  southern  countries  for  silk,  wines, 
spices,  jewellery,  which  they  carried  to  the  inhabitants  of 
the  north.  Gold  and  silver  vessels,  which  were  fabricated 
in  India  in  antient  times,  have  been  found  in  our  own  days  at 
Perm  on  the  Kama,  in  the  north-eastern  corner  of  Russia. 
The  Wolga  with  its  tributary  rivers  and  the  Dwinawere  the 
commercial  roads  by  which  they  communicated  with  the 
kingdom  of  Perm,  the  Hiannia  of  the  old  Scandinavian 
and  Anglo-Saxon  writers,  and  with  the  Norwegians,  who, 
after  having  doubled  North  Cape,  anchored  in  the  mouth 
of  the  Dwina.  This  route  ceased  to  be  used  when  the 
Tatars  of  Kiptshak  stopped  all  intercourse  across  eastern 
a,  and  was  not  re-opened  before  the  end  of  the 
•ith  century,  when  Jenkinson,  an  Englishman,  dis- 
ed  it  again.  Another  road  followed  the  Dniepr  as 
far  as  Orkha,  and,  reaching  the  Duna  in  the  west  and  the 
Wolkhow  in  the  north,  brought  them  into  communication 
with  the  Baltic,  and  with  Julin,  the  famous  city  of  the 
Wcndes.  The  Arabs  took  a  considerable  part  in  this 
commerce,  and  their  presence  in  these  northern  regions  is 
•  d  not  only  by  their  geographers,  such  as  Ibn  Koszlan, 
Massudi,  Shemseddin,  and  Yakut,  but  also  by  nun. 
Kufic  coins  which  have  been  found  in  Scandinavia,  and  in 

•  CoulMthiiu  confound*  two  of  hU  prnitecnon.  Tht  eratxror  Kl«\  i>n 
CflMUollDiii,  •  KTr.i  hrratlc.  martini  Im»,  th*  <Uu|bUr  of  th.  Kliwlun. 
•ml  ili.il  In  TO  ;  Ilirir  too  PUriut  L*<>,  lurnamml  Chuunu,  on  account  of  lit< 
m.ilrtn.l  origin.  "•••  •  ulll  rrmfr  hnrtle.  and  riml  in  7«0.  of  carhiini-l*.  in 
U>  f  ,co  in  kW  ihirtMh  )*u.  (Buniluriui.  Cum  in  mp.  13,  Do  Admix.  Imp. ; 
Dm  Ouf*.  U<U.  Bftnt.  P.  1.  FamUiat  a,  Slrmmaa,  p.  124-1S6.1 


the  vast  country  !  lie  and  the  Black  and  the 

.»  scan.     In  short,  in  the  period  fr Hie  seventh  to 

the  eleventh  century,  the  Khn/nrs  and  the  Arabs  Ml 

certain    commercial    ionics   in  Russia,   the  nati. 

tages  of  which  were  HO  nh\  ions,  that  the  emperor  <  'oiistan- 

tinu.-   I'orphyrogeiiitus,  overlooking  entirely  the  trae 

I  ween    the   upper   part  of  the  Duicpr  Uld  the   sources   of 

the  l.ovat,  believed  that  the  Ri 

t   Novgorod  on  the  Wolkhow,  sailed  with  theii 
directly  to  Kievv  on  the  l)nie]ir.      i  Itc  .li/rii.  Inn 
The   present    canal   system  of  Russia,  which    i> 
regarded  as  the  realization  of  an  idea  nf  I'eter  the  ' 
and    field-marshal   Miinnieh.  is  founded    on  thai 
commercial  intercourse  winch  had  been  carried  into  . 
by  the  Khazars  a  thousand 

The  power  of  the  Kha/iirs  in  Europe  vva«  broken  hv  the 

us  in  1(110.  who  made  their  Khagha-  [Vula 

a   prisoner:  but   in  Asia  it  continued   for  tw.> 
longer,  until  it  gradually  sank   under  the  n 
of  the  Pecl^  .  the  Kun 

the  Yasses,   and  their  very  name  had   disnppe:i, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  eastern  K 

.erwhelmed  by  the   greatest  of  all  coniru. 
ghis  Khan.     (GoiuteBtimn  I'orphyrogcniti'- 
Inuiiln  Imperio;    Nestor:   Frahn":  Lchrherg : 

I'rtr>i/»iHttitifi>',  >ol.  iii.,  p. -i(i;    .l/i- 

ddnie   de   Si.    I  •«•,    vol.    i.,   p.    ">'J7:     vol.    ii., 

p.  2!t7:  vol.  hi.,  p.  73;  vol.  viii.,  p.  577:  Hiillman- 
xrhirh If  ilex  Byzantinitcken  II  uul"/< ;  Mo- 

IK/II/'   till   (,'nl/r,  . 

of  Perm,  in  Herman-  • -he  Annul.  •'!("/ 

the  Commerce  of  Rtutia,  in  Storch,   ' 
schen  Retches,  vol.  iv. :    Krestinin,  (ifsrhirhtf  il"r   - 
Archangel;  Lelewel,  Numismatique,  sect. ' Poland ;'  Han- 
way,  Hittoriful  Art-mint  uf  tlir  ltrili.\!i    Tr<ule   nrrr  the 
Caspian  Sea;   Hakluyt,  Navigation,  with  regard  to  Jen- 
kinson and  Chancellor.) 

Tatar*  of  tln>  Golden  Horde,  or  of  Kiptxhak. — While 
Genghis  Khan  was  earn  ing  his  arms  into  India  and  China, 
Batu,  his  grandson,  invaded  the  west  as  far  as  the  frontiers 
of  Germany,  commcrcd    the   easternmost  part  0 
which  was  inhabited  by  Slavonic,  Turkish,  and  Finnish 
nations,  and  compelled  the  princes  of  Russia  to  become 
his  vassals.     One  of  Genghis  Khan's  last  acts     l'^!7 
tu  bestow  upon  Batu   the  dignity  of  a  Khan   or 
the  western  conquests,  which  formed  one  of  th. 
afterwards  five,  uluses,  or  under-kingdoms.  into  which  the 
Mongol  empire  was  divided.     The  new  viceroy  cho- 
his  \ast  dominions  the  name  of  Kaptshak,  more  eoirci-tly 
Kiptshak,  or  'the  hollow  tree,'  winch  was  the  name  of  a 
warlike  Turkish  people  who  lived  in  the  flat  country  be- 
tween  the  Wolga   and   the   Don,    the  name  of  \\hiei 
Deshti  Kipt.shak.  or  'the  steppe  of  the  hollow  tree.'     The 
narrower  fignilication  of  this  name,  which  still  : 
a  district  near  the  mouth  of  the  Terek,  must  therefo 
be  confounded  with  its  larger  meaning  as  that  of  an  em- 
pire the  frontiers  of  which  varied  according  to  th 
success   of    its   inhabitants.     A  second    name   of    I! 
kingdom  was  that  of  the  Golden  Horde,  or  rather,  of  the 
(ioldcn  Camp,  ordn,  the  camp,  having  been  confo! 
with  arila,  the  horde.     In   his  golden  tent,  which  w 

Sera'i  on  the  Akhtuha,  a  branch  of  the  lower  part  of 
the  Wolga.  Hat  ii  1C  Russian  p-inccs  who  vv  civ  his 

vassals;   Saython.  Kingof  Armenia  ;  and  Piano  Carpini  and 
Rnvshroek     Rul>rii|iiis  .   the  ambassadors  of  Saint.  1. 

•  'f  France,  who,  while  fighting  against   the  Moham- 
medans in  Egypt  a^  enemies  ol'Cluist.  courted  the   1.: 
ship  of  heathen  Tatars  as  useful   in   his  seheii' 

.  iy.      Batn  founded   the  town  of  <•  .  his 

capital  ;     Serai',    called    aftcrwaids    Haghji-SeiaT.    i 

.1  ;  and   New  Kasan  at  a  short    distance   from  Old 

lie  died  in  1255. 

After  the  short  reign  of  Sertak  and  Ulaghji. 
and  the  youngest  .sons  of  l!atu,  the  thrui  ijiied 

by  their  paternal  uncle  Berke,  who  seized  '  uicnt 

in  spite  of  the  right  of  the  second  and  the  thiid  sons  of 
liis  late  brother.  Berke  was  the  first  khan  of  Kiptshak 
who  was  converted  to  the  Mohammedan  religion,  and  he 
showed  himself  SO  zealous  that  he  ordered  all 
be  put  to  death  who  refused  to  follow  the  Koran.  This 
happened  bcfoic  1J.V,  and  thus  the  Islum  took  root  on 
the  bank-  of  the  Wolga  and  in  the  .snowy  deserts  of  Sibe- 
ria. In  1200  Berke  scut  NoghaV,  his  greatest  captain, 


TAR 


75 


TAR 


against  Hulaim,   the   Mongol   governor  of  Persia,  who 
aimed  at  independence,  but  was  defeated  on  the  19th  ol 
January,   12G3,  in  a  bloody  battle  on  the  banks  of  the 
Terek,  and  had  a  considerable  part  of  his  army  drowned  in 
retreating  across  the  frozen  river.   It  was  in  the  same  year 
that   Marco  Polo  came  to  the  Golden  Camp,  where  he 
stayed  for  a  whole  year.     Berke,  who  is  generally  repre- 
sented as  a  prince  of  great  merit,  and  whose  influence  in 
Asia  Minor  was  sensibly  felt  by  the  Byzantine  emperors, 
died  in    126(3.  and  was  succeeded   by  Mengku  Timur,  a 
grandson  of  Batu.     This   prince   ceded  to  the  Genoese 
Kaft'a  in  the  Crimea,  a  town  which  was  then  one  of  the 
great  markets  where  the  Tatars  used  to  sell  the  immense 
number  of  prisoners  that  they  made  in  Russia  and  Poland, 
ns  slaves  to  the  southern  nations,  and  especially  to  the 
Sultans  of  Egypt,  who  there  recruited  the  body  of  the 
Miunluks.     He  sent  commissioners   into  all  the   subject 
Russian  towns,  who  sold  as  slaves  all  who  did  not  pay  the 
y  poll-tax  imposed  upon  them  by  the  Tatars.     This 
proceeding   caused    such    great    mischief   to   the    com- 
i'  of  Old   Novgorod,   that  the  Germans  of  Liibeck 
and  other  Hanseatic  towns,  in  order  to  save  their  stores, 
sent  ambassadors  with  rich  presents  to  Mengku  Timur, 
who  reached  the  Golden  Camp  in  1269.     Mengku  Timur 
Khan  died  about  1283.     His  successors,  Tuday   Mensjku 
and  Talabugha,  ravaged  Hun<raiy  and  Poland,  threatened 
my.  and  kept  up  diplomatic  relations  with  France. 
I  Remusat,  Memoiren  de  I'Acad.  des  Inscript.  ct  B.  L., 
TO).  •, 

The  following  khan  was   Toktay,  whose   reign   is  im- 
portant in  many  respects.     Under  him,  paper  money,  an 
old  invention,  afterward*  imitated  in  Persia,  was  introduced 
into  Kiptshak  under  the  name  of  Jaw,  many  years  before 
any  such  tiling  was  known  in  Europe.     (J.  von  Klaproth, 
•  Vnnry  ;  Von  Hammer,  p.  222.)     Toktay 
owed  his  elevation  to  the  throne  to  Noirha'i.  above  men- 
tioned, a  powerful  under-khan  of  the  southern  Turks  of 
Kiptshak,  who  belonged  to  the  house  of  Genghis  Khan,  and 
who  was  married  to  Euphrosyna,  a  natural  daughter  of  the 
emperor  Michael  Palacologus.     The  power   and  the  in- 
fluence of  Nogha'i  were  so  great,  that  he  would  perhaps 
have  made  himself  master  of  Kiptshak,  if  jealousy  had  not 
i  among  his  sons  and  led  to  a  civil  war,  in  which 
Tuktay  took  an  active  part.      After  a  strasrsrlc  of  seven 
years,  Noehai  was  defeated,  and  died  of  u  wound  in  I2.I5, 
but  he  left   h;s  name  to  his  tribes,  who  from  that  time 
to   the   present    day    have    been,   and    are    still    known 
undi-r  the  name  of  Tatars  NosihaT.s,  or  Nogay  Tartars. 
y  Khan,   who  died   in   the   year   1313,   abandoned 
the  Islam  and  adored  idols  and  the  stare,  but  he  never 
(1  himself  intolerant  to  other  believers.     He   was 
married  to  a  natural  daughter  of  his  ally   the  emperor 
Andionicus,  who  followed  the  policy  of  some  other  By- 
zantine emperors,  who  gave  their  legitimate  princesses  to 
ClnUtian    princes,    while    they   abandoned   their  natural 
to  Turks  and  Tatars,  who   did  not  set  much 
on  the  difference  between  legitimate  and  illegitimate 
children. 

I  M.ei;,  the  successor  of  Toktay,  a  boy  thirteen  years  of 
nge,  found  the  Russian  princes  disobedient:  they  delayed 
,<•  the  oath  of  vassalage  until  the  young  khan  pe- 
remptorily ordered  the  first  of  them,  Michael,  grand-duke 
of  Moscow,  to  appear  in  the  Golden  Camp.     Michael  im- 
fe!y  went,  justified  himself,  and  was  dismissed  with- 
out punishment,  but  IVbcL'  .-ei/ed   him  some  years  later, 
and,  after   having   punished   him   for   some   months,  or- 
dered him  to  be  put  to  death.     This  happened  (in  1319) 
precisely   a  year  after  the  pope    had  written  a  letter  to 
Usbeg,  in  which  he  thanked  him  fur  the  kind  protection 
that    lie    had    granted    to   his   Christian    subjects.     (Mo- 
i,  ///A/.   '/'•  .'.,  p.  130.)    In  1327, 

an  garrison  of  Twer  having  been  surprised  and 
y  the  Russian  inhabitants,  who  were  ex- 
t  ol' national  v  l,y  their  prince 

j'-z,  Usbeg  Khan  invaded  the  coun- 
1  the  inhabitants,  expelled  Alexander,  and 
i'/hn  Jaroslawicx,  prince  of  RiHsan,  to  be  exe- 
>o  and  nis  two  sons  were  beheaded  in 
death   was   preceded  or  followed  by  the 
.re,  amonsr  whom  was  Juri  Dani- 
l.iki;   iif  Mo  vow.     Many  common  people 
ii-  fate,  ami  fur  tV.rty  years  aftc-r  this  bloody  re- 
aa  never  a:ram  duturbed  in  Russia  by  any 


rebellion  against  the  authority  of  the  Tatars.  By  a  treaty  of 
the  7th  August,  1333,  the  first  which  was  made  between  the 
Tatars  and  European  states,  Usbeg  granted  consideiable 
commercial  advantages  to  the  Venetians  of  Azof  or  Tana. 
(The  treaty  is  contained  in  Hammer,  Geschichte  des  Osma- 
nischen  Reiches,  vol.  iii.,  p.  665.)  Usbeg's  court  was  bril- 
liant. Although  as  a  Mohammedan  he  had  several  wives, 
he  was  far  from  keeping  them  in  that  close  confinement 
to  which  the  women  of  the  Oriental  nations  have  always 
been  subjected.  Sitting  on  a  silver  throne  under  a  golden 
canopy,  and  surrounded  by  his  royal  children  and  the 
nobles  of  his  court,  the  gallant  khan  rose  when  one  of  his 
women  entered  the  room,  and  stepping  forwards,  took  the 
hand  of  the  unveiled  lady  and  led  her  to  a  seat  by 
his  side.  (Hammer.)  One  of  his  daughters  was  mar- 
ried to  Kusun,  sultan  of  Egypt,  a  native  of  Kiptshak. 
Usbeg  died  in  1340,  and  his  descendants  became  khans  of 
some  Turkish  tribes  to  the  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  which 
are  still  known  by  the  name  of  Usbecks. 

One  of  Usbeg's  successors,  Berdibeg  (1359),  murdered 
his  old  father,  strangled  his  twelve  brothers,  and  assumed 
the  title  of  '  king  of  the  just,  the  sublime  support  of  the 
world  and  of  religion.'  He  himself  was  murdered  three 
years  later,  and  with  his  death  the  house  of  Batu  became 
extinct.  The  reign  of  all  the  following  khans  was  short 
and  bloody.  Civil  wars  shook  the  empire,  and  Kiptshak 
was  divided  for  some  time  into  several  khanats,  the  most 
powerful  of  which  were  those  of  Kasan,  of  Astrakhan,  of  the 
Crimea,  and  of  the  Yai'k,  each  of  which  claimed  the  supre- 
macy. At  last  Mamay  was  successful  in  reuniting  them 
for  a  short  time.  He  made  an  alliance  with  Jaghello,  the 
Errand-dttke  of  Lithuania,  for  the  purpose  of  subjugating 
the  different  Russian  princes,  who  had  become  less  depend- 
ent on  Kiptshak  in  proportion  as  its  strength  was  under- 
mined by  war  and  rebellion.  Dmitri,  the  grand-duke  of 
Moscow,  had  just  assembled  his  troops,  when,  on  the  8th 
of  September,  1380,  he  was  attacked  in  the  plain  of  Kiili- 
kow,  by  700,000  (?)  Tatars  and  Lithuanians.  (Karamsin, 
v.,  p.  31  ;  and  all  the  other  Russian  historians.)  The 
Tatars  were  defeated  with  dreadful  slaughter ;  200,000  (?)  of 
them  were  left  on  the  field,  and  Mamay  fled  to  Kaffa  in 
the  Crimea,  where  he  was  treacherously  murdered.  For 
the  first  time  during  a  hundred  and  forty  years,  a  hope  of 
national  independence  consoled  the  Russians. 

Toktamish  Khan,  the  son  of  Urus  Kkan,  who  was  the 
founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the  White  Horde,  avenged  the 
defeat  of  Kulikow.  In  1382  he  took  Moscow  by  storm, 
burnt  the  town,  and  ravaged  Russia.  He  renewed  the 
treaties  with  the  Venetians  and  the  Genoese,  and  Kiptshak 
was  in  a  fair  way  to  recover  from  all  its  calamities,  when 
Timur,  or  Tamerlane,  the  conqueror  of  Asia,  appeared  on 
he  banks  of  the  YaVk.  Toktamish  was  twice  defeated 
Dy  Timur,  and  in  a  third  battle  on  the  banks  of  the  Kama, 
north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Bielaya,  which  happened  on  the 
18th  of  June,  1391,  his  whole  army  was  slaughtered.  The 
<han  of  Kiptshak,  however,  did  not  despair  :  he  appeared 
n  the  field  with  a  new  army,  and  advanced  to  meet  Timur. 
The  encounter  took  place  near  the  mouth  of  the  Terek,  on. 
:he  15th  of  April,  1395;  but  notwithstanding  their  heroic 
resistance,  the  Tatars  were  again  defeated,  and  Timur's 
host  overwhelmed  Russia.  Serai  and  Astrakhan  were 
destroyed,  Moscow  was  threatened,  and  saved  by  the  in- 
terposition of  the  Holy  Virgin,  who  appeared  on  the 
walls  (26th  of  August,  1395),  and  Toktamish  fled  to 
Witold,  grand-duke  of  Lithuania.  Meanwhile  Timur  had 
eft  Kiptshak,  and  his  beys,  unable  to  maintain  themselves 
n  the  hostile  country,  were  driven  out  in  1399  by  some  en- 
:erprising  Tatar  chiefs.  One  of  them,  Kpstlogh  Timur, 
became  khan  of  Kasan,  and  the  others  maintained  them- 
selves in  the  Crimea,  on  the  Yai'k,  and  at  Great  Serai',  the 
ihan  of  which  assumed  the  name  of  khan  of  the  Golden 
florde,  without  having  much  authority  over  the  others. 
Encouraged  by  the  divisions  among  their  masters,  the 
ilussian  princes  paid  their  tribute  very  irregularly,  and 
ceased  to  appear  in  the  Golden  Camp  and  to  take  the  oath 
of  vassalage.  In  1450  Haji  Ghiray  was  almost  independ- 
ent in  the  Crimea.  From  1462  there  were  constant  wars 
>etween  the  khan  of  Kasan  and  Ivan  Wassiliewicz,  grand- 
duke  of  Moscow,  who  at  last  conquered  the  whole  khanat, 
and  took  the  capital,  Kasan,  in  the  autumn  of  1468. 
During  this  time,  Casimir,  king  of  Poland,  defeated  the 
Southern  Tatars,  and  when  the  Great  Khan  of  SeraY  was 
)old  enough  to  send  ambassadors  to  Ivan  to  claim  the 


T  A  rt 


76 


T  A  S 


tribute  which  was  due,  the  grand-duke  refused  it  haughtily, 
rut  i itt'  the  noses  of  the  ambassadors,  and  sent  them  back 
in  this  state  to  the  Golden  Camp.  He  then  allied  himself 
with  Mengli,  khan  of  the  Crimea,  and  attacked  the 
klinn,  who  was  defeated,  in  USO.  at  the  Oka,  and  near  A*of 
on  the  Don.  This  was  the  last  war  between  Russia  and 
the  Golden  Horde.  Russia,  free  from  the  yoke  of  lure 
was  master  of  Kasan ;  Mengli  became  an  independent 
khan  in  the  Crimea,  and  Yaghmurji  in  Astrakhan.  The 
khanat  of  Astrakhan  was  conquered  by  the  Russians  in  1.1  U. 
The  khanat  of  the  Crimea,  although  it  became  a  vassal 
state  of  Turkey,  existed  for  three  centuries,  when  it  was 
conquered  byPotemkin,  under  Catherine  the  Great.  Thus 
the  powerful  kingdom  of  Kiptshak,  the  creation  of  Genghis 
Khan,  became  a  province  of  Rus-ia. 

In  this  long  struggle  with  the  Tatars,  the  Russian- 
taught  to  bear  chains,  and  to  force  them  for  other  nations. 
From  1210  to  1440,  two  hundred  and  fifty  Rus-ian  princes 
went  to  the  Golden  Camp  and  humbly  knelt  before  the 
majesty  of  a  Tatar  king;  twelve  of  them  were  beheaded. 
t  )ne  hundred  and  thirty  noble  families  of  Russia  and  many 
of  the  common  people  arc  descended  from  the  Tatars. 
Many  words  in  the  Russian  language,  several  legal  cus- 
toms, various  social  usages,  and  articles  of  dress,  several 
names  of  weights,  measures,  and  coins,  ceremonies  at  the 
emperor's  court,  the  knout  itself,  are  of  Tatar  origin.  The 
influence  of  the  Tatars  upon  the  Russians  has  never  been 
better  characterized  than  by  that  bon-mot  of  Napoleon : 
•  Scrub  a  Russian,  and  you  will  find  a  Tatar.'  [ASTRAKHAN  ; 
CASAN  ;  CRIMEA  ;  TI-RKKV  ;  Truits.] 

(Hammer,  Geschichte  der  Goldenen  Horde  in  Kiptshak; 
Mohammed  Riza,  Asseb  us  Sfyiar  (the  Seven  Planets) ; 
llntoire  des  Khans  de  la  Crimfe,  traduite  du  Turk  par 
Mirza-Kasem-Bey,  1832,  in  4to.;  Abulghazi ;  D'Ohsson 
K  .  -tinin.  Geschichte  der  Kasanischen  !/.are,  Petersburg, 
ITsil  :  Fischer,  Sibirische  Geschichte,  Petersburg,  1768; 
•rnes,  Histoire  des  Huns.) 

TA'RTARUS  (Tripropoc)  was,  according  to  the  notions  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  a  part  of  the  lower  world,  and  was 
inaccessible  to  the  light  of  the  sun  and  to  the  winds. 
Homer  describes  it  as  being  as  far  below  Hades  as  heaven 
is  above  the  earth,  and  as  being  provided  with  brazen  gates 
at  its  entrance.  (Iliad,  viii.  13,  &c.,  481.)  He  further  re- 
gards it  chiefly  as  the  place  in  which  the  gods  were  pu- 
nished. Hesiod  entertains  on  the  whole  the  same  idea,  imt 
he  adds  that  Tartarus  is  surrounded  by  a  brazen  wall  and 
triple  night ;  the  roots  of  the  earth  and  the  sea  limit; down 
into  it.  It  is  the  prison  of  the  Titans.  (Hesiod,  Tln'nfi., 
720,  &c.)  In  later  times  Tartarus  designated  that  part  of 
the  lower  world  in  which  the  shades  of  the  wicked  w  en- 
punished  (Plato,  De  Re  Pub/.,  p.  616;  Virgil.  ./;'«.,  vi. 
and  the  ideas  then  formed  of  it  were  more  awful 
uhan  in  earlier  times.  According  to  Virgil's  description, 
which  we  may  take  as  an  example  of  the  later  ideas,  t  In- 
road into  the  lower  world  was  dmded  at  a  certain  point 
into  two  roads,  the  left  of  which  led  into  Tartarus,  which 
was  surrounded  by  a  triple  wall  and  the  tier)-  river  Phlege- 
thon,  and  was  closed  with  an  adamantine  gate.  At  its 
outer  side  Ti  si  phone  kept  watch,  and  at  the  inner  side  the 
fifty-headed  hydra.  Rhadamanthvs  was  the  judge  in  Tar- 
tarus, and  at  his  command  the  Furies  scourged  the  shades 
of  the  wicked.  Tartarus  was  twice  as  far  below  the  eaith 
as  heaven  above  it. 

Tartarus  was  also  the  name  of  a  small  river  in  Gallia 
Trnnsnadana,  which  is  now  called  Tartaro.  It  was  con- 
nected with  the  Padus  and  Athesis  by  the  Fossae  Philis- 
tinae. 

I  VRTARY,  or  more  correctly  TATARY.  This  name 
was  in  former  times  given  by  .the  European  nations  to  the 
country  of  Kaptshak  or  Kiptshak  [TARTARS],  or  the  three 
Khanate  of  Astrakhan,  Kasan,  and  the  Crimea  [ASTRA- 
KHAN; CAS\N;  CMMKA],  the  last  of  which  had  the  special 
name  of  Little  Tatary.  [TriiKKv.]  Great  Tatary.  on  the 
contrary,  designated  the  vast  country  between  the  Caspian 
Sea  on  the  west,  the  desert  of  Gobi  on  the  east,  Siberia 
on  the  north,  and  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and  Tibet  on  the 
south.  The  greater  part  of  it  has  now  the  more  convenient 
name  of  Turkistan.  [TURKISTAN.]  The  name  of  Tatary  has 
entirely  disappeared  from  geography,  but  it  occurs  fre- 
quently in  the  history  of  those  regions. 
r.  .Itifn.) 

T  \KTKSSUS.     [TARSIUSH.] 

TARTI'NI,  GIUSEPPE,  a  name  celebrated  in  the  annals 


of  music,  xvas  born  at  Pisano,  on  the  coast  of  Istria,  in 
.<:id  educated  lit  the  university  of  Padua,  lor  the  pro- 
fession  of  jurisprudence  ;  but  his  love  of  music  triumphed 
over   his    Braver    pursuit,  and   alter   some  struggles,    and 
.1    adventures  of   rather  a   romantic    kind.  —  among 
which  the   fighting  of  many  duels,   the  marrying  a  car- 
dinal's niece  against  her  uncle's  and  his  father's  consent, 
and  his  consequent  flight  to  a  monastery,  where,  to  . 
the  effects  of  his  emmency's  resentment,   be   rcm 
during  two  years  secreted,  maybe  thus  slightly  men!  ioned, — 
he  became  a  professed   violinist,  and  the   founder  of  a 
school  which  in  after-times  boasted  of  a  Nardini,  a   i 
nani,  a  Viotti,  and  a  liaillot  among  its  disciples. 

Tartini  was  also  a  composer,  and  his  productions  are 
much  extolled  by  a  very  competent  judge,  M.  Kaillot,  an 
eminent  French  violinist  and  good  critic  :  but  he  is  more 
generally  known  by  his  writings  on  the  art,  among  which 
his  Truttiitn  <li  Miitica  seconda  la  vera  Srii  nzn  ili-li'Ar- 
monia  (1754),  a  strictly  scientific  work,  is  still  read,  and 
i-ely  and  ably  translated  and  explained  in  1771,  by 
Kdward  Stillingfle'ct,  under  the  title  of  '  Principles  and 
Powers  of  Harmony,'  who  cleared  it  of  many  of  the 
obscurities  which  D'Alembert  justly  complained  of,  and 
li\  In-  additions  and  illustrations  rendered  it  entertaining 
as  well  as  instructive.  This  Treatise  is  partly  founded  on 
the  author's  theory  of  a  Third  X<iund,  a  subject  which  has 
so  long  engaged  the  attention  of  all  writers  on  acou 
and  on  which  most  of  Tartini's  work  is  built,  that  wi 
give  an  explanation  of  it  nearly  in  the  words  of  the  above- 
named  translator,  or,  rather,  commentator. 

'Two  sounds  being  given  on  musical  instruments  that 
admit  of  the  tones  being  held  out.  and  strengthened  at. 
pleasure,  as  violins,  oboes,  horns,  &c.,  a  third  sound  will 
be  heard.  On  the  violin  let  the  intervals  CE,  cSy.,  UK, 
no,  B[>G,  be  sounded  with  a  strong  bow,  and  the  third 
sounds,  represented  by  the  black  notes  in  the  subjoined 
example,  will  be  heard : — 

Q Q_ 


'  A  similar  result  will  occur  if  the  same  intervals  be 
sounded  by  two  players  on  the  violin,  distant  from  each 
other  about  12!)  or  '.HI  feet  ;  always  using  a  strung  bow,  and 
holding  out  the  notes.  The  auditor  will  hear  the  third 
sound  much  better  if  stationed  exactly  between  the  two 
instruments.  Two  oboes  will  produce  the  same  effect 
placed  at  a  much  greater  distance.' 

'This  discovery  of  the  GVnr"  Ifurmninrx,  as  these  third 
sounds  arc  called,  was  made  so  nearly  at  the  same  time  by 
Tartini  and  Kornieu.thnt  both  seem  to  have  an  undoubted 
claim  to  be  considered  as  discoverers.  M.  Roniieu  was  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Sciences  of  Mnntpellier. 
The  memoir  which  he  read  before  the  society  is  entitled 
"A  New  Discovery  of  Grave  Harmonic  Sounds,  which  are 
very  sensibly  produced  from  the  union  of  Wind  Instni- 

Tartini  died  at  Padua  in  1770.  To  the  Dirtintnuiiri'  </<•*• 
Mii-ticii-nx  we  are  indebted  for  what  relates  to  his  early  life  : 
which  work  also  furnished  M.  Prony  with  materials  for 
an  interesting  memoir  in  the  Biofraphie  r,nr,-r\r//<\  In 
the  Knryclitjirdif  is  an  flngf  by  M.  Ginguenfi  on  the  com- 
positions of  Tartini.  in  which  they  are  most  indiscreetly 
compared  with  those  of  Corelli. 

TAKTKATKS.     [TARTARIC  ACID.] 

TAKIMUNT.     [M.M!,,rco.] 

TASHKKM).     [Tt  HMSTKN.I 

T  \SMAN,  ABEL  .IANSSEN,  one  of  the  greatest  na- 
rs  of  the,  se\enteeuth  century,  whose  fame  has  not 
equalled  his  merits  owing  to  his  countrymen,  the  Dutch, 
having  neglected  to  make  known  the  important  -n-viees 
which  he  rendered  to  geography.  In  the  sen  ice  of  the 
Dutch  East  India  Company  he  gave  such  proof  of  his 
enterprise  anil  ability  as  to  induce  Anthony  Van  Diemen, 
the  most  distinguished  governor-general  who  had  presided 
over  the  affairs  of  that  company,  to  commission  him,  in 
1642,  to  proceed  on  n  'he  object  of  which  was  to 

ascertain  the  extent  of  the  Auslialian  continent,  on  the. 
western  coast  of  which  di-covc  lies  had  been  made  by  pre- 
vious Dutch  navigators. 

On  the  14th  August,  1642,  Tasman  sailed  from  Batavia 


T  A  S 


77 


T  A  S 


in   command   of   two   vessels,   the    Heeraskirk   and    the 
Zeehaan,   directing   his  course  first   towards  the   Isle   of 
France,  where  he  put  in  for  provisions  and  water.     From 
the  Isle  of  France  he  set  sail  on  the  3rd  October,  and  pro- 
ceeded south  to  about  41°  S.  lat.,  afterwards  to  the  south- 
east, to  about   50°  S.  lat.,  and   then  due   east.     Having 
passed  127°  E.  long.,  he  sailed  to  the  north  and  east,  and 
on  the  24th  November  discovered,  at  10  miles  distance,  a 
land  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Van  Diemen.     He 
did  not  remain  here  long,  nor  did  he  meet  with  any  of  the 
natives,  but  he  continued  on  his  voyage,  sailing  to  the 
south-east,  and  doubled  what  he   conceived  to  be  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  Australian  continent,  or  New 
Holland,  but  what  in  fact  was  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  island  of  Tasmania,  or  Van  Diemen's  Land.     He  made 
an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  anchor  in  a  bay,  to  which  he 
gave  the  name  of  the  Bay  of  Tempests— Storm  Bay — on 
the  south-eastern  coast  of  Van  Diemen's  Land ;  and  then 
ran  to  the  north,  where  he  found   secure   anchorage  in 
another  bay,   to  which  he  gave  the  name   of  Frederik 
Hendrik  Bay,  42°  52'  S.  lat.,  147°  57'  E.  long.  On  the  shore 
he  erected  a  standard,  to  which  he  attached  the  colours  of 
the  Dutch  East  India  Company,  and  on  the  5th  set  sail 
again.     Unfavourable  winds  prevented  his  surveying,  as  he 
had  intended,  the  north  coast,  and  he  therefore  bore  to 
the  east,  proposing  to  visit  the  Solomon's  Islands,  of  which 
some  account  had  been  given  by  previous  navigators.    But 
on  the  13th,  being  in  about  42°  10'  S.  lat.  and  170°  E. 
long.,  he  found  himself  in  view  of  a  high  and  mountainous 
country,  which  he  named  Staaten  Land — land  of  estates — 
now  known  as  New  Zealand.     Tasman  supposed  this  land 
to  be  part  of  the  contment  of  Australia.     He  sailed  along 
the  coast  towards  the  north-east,  and  on  the  17th  anchored 
at  the  entrance  of  what  he  concluded  to  be  a  great  bay. 
The  natives  from  the  shore  approached  in  their  canoes, 
but  still  remained  at  a  distance,  and  refused  to  come  on 
board  either  of  Tasman's  vessels,  although  every  amicable 
demonstration  was  exhibited  by  the  crews.  Gathering  con- 
fidence however,  they  afterwards  came  in  large  numbers, 
and  a  quarrel  ensuing  between  them  and  the  Dutch,  three 
sailors  were  murdered.     The  bay  in  which  this  happened 
received  the  name  of  Mordenaars'  Bay,  or  Murderers'  Bay 
(40° 40"  S.  lat.,  173°  E.  long.).  Tasman  did  not  revenge  the 
death  of  his  men,  but,  availing  himself  of  a  favourable  wind, 
set  sail.    Being  followed  however  by  two  and  twenty  canoes 
with  natives  armed,  he  fired  among  them,  killed  one  or 
two  natives,  and  drove  the  rest  on  shore.    He  did  not  make 
any  progress  owing  to  the  variableness  of  the  weather,  and 
was  obliged  to  anchor  again  in  a  bay  to  the  east  of  Mas- 
sacre or  Murderers' Bay,  which  yet  preserves  his  name  — 
Tasman's  Bay  (about  41°  S.  lat.,  173°  30'  E.  long.).    When 
enabled  to  resume  the  voyage,  he  continued  his  course 
along  the   coast,   bearing  northwards,   until,  on  the  4th 
January,  1C43,  he  found  himself  in  a  situation  in  which  the 
violence  of  the  current  bearing  to  the  west,  ancUthe  swell- 
ing of  the  waves,  which  bore  to  the  north-west,  led  him  to 
conclude  that  the  sea  in  that  part  afforded  a  free  passage. 
To  the  west  he  perceived  a  group  of  small  islands  which 
he  named  the  Throe   Kings  i  in  about  34"  3'  S.  lat.,  172° 
5'  E.  long.).     Those  islands  were  inhabited,  but  the  vio- 
lence  of  tin-    \\MMS   prevented  all  intercourse  with  the 
natives.     Tasman  now   resolved  to  sail  to  the  east,   and 
afterwards  to  the   north  as  far  as  17"  S.  lat.,   and  then 
to  the  west  towards  the   isles  of  Cocos  (15°  50'  S.  lat., 
174°  10'  W.  long.),  and  of  Hoorn  (14°  S.  lat.,  178°  20' 
W.  long.),   with  a  view  of    obtaining  some   fresh   pro- 
visions at  one  of  these  islands.     On  the  6th  January  he 
saw  an  island  to  the  south  at  three  miles  distance,  but 
no  name  is  given  to  it.  On  the  8th,  being,  as  he  represents, 
in  32°  S.  lat.  and  174°  E.  long.,  the  force  of  the  waves  which 
rolled    from   the   south-east    suggested   to   him   that   he 
ought  not  to  look  for   land  in  that  direction ;  he  there- 
red   his   course  to   the  north,  and  on  the  19th 
!  an  island  which   he  called    Pyllstaart  (22°  22' 
S.  lat.,   17i>°  W.  long.).    On  the  following  day  he  saw 
two  other  islands,  and    on  the  21st  approached  the  more 
northern,  which  he  named  Amsterdam,  the  native  name 
being  T.mtra  Taboo  (21°  30'  S.  lat.,   175°  2CX  W.  long.) ; 
the  otlifr  Middelburg,  the   native  name  being  Eoa,  the 
Ka-oo-wee  of  Cook    (21°   24'   S.   lat.,    175°  W.   long.). 
The  isl.inders  brought  various  fruits  in  their  canoes,  and 
Tasman   has   described   them    as    uniting   courage   with 
mildness.    While  here  he  discovered  some  other  isles, 


before  one  of  which  he  anchored,  naming  it  Rotterdam, 
the  native  name  being  Ana  Moka  or  Annamooka,  20°  15' 
S.  lat.,  174°  31'  W.  long.  Captain  Cook,  when  he  visited 
these  islands  about  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  afterwards, 
found  the  tradition  of  Tasman's  visit  preserved  among  the' 
natives. 

On  the  1st  of  February  Tasman  discovered  the  islands 
of  Prince  William,  but  his  provisions  being  nearly 
exhausted,  he  could  not  stay  to  visit  them.  For 
several  days  subsequently  the  sky  was  so  cloudy  as 
to  prevent  his  ascertaining  the  situation  of  his  vessel, 
and  when  fine  weather  partially  returned,  he  judged 
it  best  to  sail  towards  5°  S.  lat.,  and  then  to  bear 
towards  New  Guinea,  apprehending  the  return  of  un- 
favourable weather,  in  which  he  might  be  cast  upon  an 
unknown  coast.  By  the  22nd  of  March  he  was  in  5°  2'  S. 
lat.,  and  having  the  advantage  of  clear  weather  and  the 
east  trade-winds,  he  soon  came  in  sight  of  a  cluster  of 
islands  which  had  been  visited  by  two  navigators,  Schouten 
and  Le  Maire,  and  by  them  named  Ontong  Java.  On 
the  29th  he  sailed  past  the  Green  Islands  (4°  53'  S 
lat.,  154°  50'  E.  long.),  and  on  the  30th  the  Isle  of  St. 
John  (3°  50'  S.  lat.,  153°  50'  E.  long.).  This  island,  he 
says,  appeared  to  be  well  cultivated,  to  abound  in  flesh, 
fowl,  fish,  and  fruit,  and  to  have  a  numerous  population. 
Schouten  having  before  sustained  some  injury  from  the 
natives,  Tasman  did  not  attempt  to  land.  On  the  1st  of 
April  he  was  in  sight  of  what  he  supposed  to  be  New 
Guinea,  but  in  fact  of  New  Britain,  and  shortly  after  he 
doubled  the  cape  to  which  Spanish  navigators  had  before 
given  the  name  of  Cabo  Santa  Maria — Cape  St.  George 
of  Dampier  (5°  S.  lat.,  152°  15'  E.  long.).  The  orew  were 
suddenly  awoke  on  the  night  of  the  12th  by  what  resem- 
bled the  shock  of  an  earthquake :  the  situation  of  the 
vessel  at  the  time,  as  Tasman  states,  being  3°  45'  S.  lat. 
They  sounded,  supposing  that  the  ship  had  struck,  but 
could  find  no  bottom.  Several  shocks,  each  less  violent, 
succeeded.  On  the  20th  they  were  near  to  Brandande 
Yland,  or  Burning  Island,  which  had  been  mentioned  be- 
fore by  Schouten :  on  the  27th  they  were  in  sight 
of  another  island,  which  he  calls  Jama,  a  little  to 
the  east  of  Moa  (8°  21'  S.  lat.,  127°  45'  E.  long.), 
where  they  obtained  cocoa-nuts  and  other  fruits.  Tas- 
man has  described  the  inhabitants  as  absolutely  black, 
and  speaking  a  copious  language,  in  which  the  frequent 
repetition  of  the  letter  r  is  noticed.  He  anchored  on  the 
following  day  at  the  Isle  of  Moa,  where  he  was  detained 
for  eight  days  by  unfavourable  weather.  The  Dutch  car- 
ried on  an  interchange  of  knives  for  cocoa-nuts  and  Indian 
figs  with  the  natives.  On  the  12th  of  May  he  coasted 
the  island  to  which  Schouten  had  before  given  his  name 
(50'  S.  lat.,  136°  20'  E.  long.),  and  which  is  described  as 
fertile  and  populous :  the  natives  gave  proof  of  their 
commerce  with  different  Spanish  vessels  by  the  production 
of  various  articles  which  they  had  received  in  barter. 
Having  now  fulfilled  his  instructions,  Tasman  directed  his 
course  back  to  Batavia,  where  he  arrived  on  the  15th 
June.  A  map  of  his  discoveries  was  sent  to  the  Stadt 
House  at  Amsterdam. 

The  success  of  this  voyage  induced  Van  Diemen  to 
commit  to  Tasman  the  command  of  a  second  expedition, 
the  objects  of  which  are  set  forth  in  the  instructions  given 
by  the  governor-general  on  the  occasion.  These  instruc- 
tions are  printed  in  the  introduction  to  Flinders'  Voyages. 
After  quitting  Point  Turc,  or  False  Cape,  situated  in  8° 
S.  lat.,  on  the  south  coast  of  New  Guinea,  he  was  to  con- 
tinue eastward  along  the  coast  to  9°  S.  lat.,  carefully  cross- 
ing the  cove  at  that  place,  looking  about  the  high  islands 
or  Speults  River  with  the  yachts  for  a  harbour,  despatch- 
ing the  tender  Do  Braak  for  two  or  three  days  into  the 
cove,  in  order  to  discover  whether  within  the  great  inlet 
there  might  not  be  found  an  entrance  to  the  South  Sea.* 
From  this  place  he  was  to  coast  along  the  west  coast  of 
New  Guinea  (Carpentaria)  to  the  farthest  discoveries  in 
17°  S.  lat.,  following  the  coast  farther,  as  it  might  run 
westward  or  southward.  It  was  feared  that  he  would  meet 
in  those  parts  with  the  south-east  trade-winds;  from 

1  The  great  inlet  or  cove  where  the  passage  was  to  be  sought,  is  the  north- 
west part  of  Torres  Straits.  It  is  evident  tltat  a  suspicion  was  enterlaineil  in 
1(141  i.t'  snrh  a  strait;  but  that  the  Dutch  wero  ijmouint  of  its  having  been 
p.ii-.'it.  The  '  hijjli  Uland-.'  are  those  which  lie  in  10"  S.  lat.  on  the  west  siiie  of 
the  straits.  Speults  river  appears  to  be  the  opening  between  the  Prince  of 
Wales  Island  :ind  Cape  York ;  through  which  Cook  afterwards  passed,  and 
named  Endeavour  Strait.  (Flinders'  Voyage, '  Introduction.') 


TAB 


78 


T  A  S 


which  it  would  be  difficult    to  keep  tlie  coast  on  board, 

if  he  stretched  to  the  south-fast;  hut   notwithstanding  he 

was  by  all  means  to  endeavour  to  proceed,  that  it  uiiirhl 

whether    the    laud   was  divided  from  the 

great  known  South  Continent  or  not.     Ti  .'lions 

were   signed   in    1044,    2'Jtli    Juuuary,    by    the    Kovcruor- 

.-.il,  and  two  vessels— the   Xeehaan  and  the  Hraak  — 

,1  at  Tasman's  disposal.     But  of  the  results  of 

this   second   voyage   absolutely    nothing   is   known    wilh 

certainty  ;    nothing   was   ever"  published.     '  It   seems   to 

the  general  opinion. 

man   sailed    round    the   Gulf  of  Ci  and    tlien 

.ard  along  Anihem,  and  the  noHhern  const  of  Van 
Dieinen's  Land;  and  the  form  of  those  coasts  in  Tln'u'- 
not's  charts  of  10G:t,  and  in  thos.  -ueeeedinsr 

,  en  up  to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, is  snppo-ed  to  have  resulted  from  this  voyage. 
This  opinion  i*  strengthened  by  finding  the  na,. 
Taxman,  and  of  the  governor-general,  and  of  two  of  the 
c-ouneil,  who  signed  his  instructions,  applied  to  places  at 
the  head  of  the  gulf;  •  that  of  Maria,  the 

daughter  of  the   governor,  to   whom   Tasman   is  said  to 
hme  been  attached.     In   the    notes   also  of  Burgomaster 
•  m-crning  the  inhabitants  of   Xcw   Guinea   and 
Hollnndia  Nova,  as  extracted  by  Mr.  Dalrym, 

.  Ta.sman  is  mentioned  as  anionir  tlio.se 
from  whom  his  information  was  drawn.'  Of  the  private 
life  of  Tasnian  nothing  is  known,  neither  when  nor  where 
he  was  born  or  died. 

An  account  of  Tasman's  first  voyage  is  given  in  the  ( ' 

tion  ilc  Thrrcnnt.  partie  iv. ;  in  Harris's  Navifantium  alque 

-•nitii/in  l!i///i-it/t't;i.    17  It,  fol. ;   at  the  end  of  the 

•  rrru,  tome  ii.,  Paris ;    in   Tfrm  Atis/ru/is 

'In,  or   J't,/fiifri.<:  to  tin'   Tfi-rn  Ami  nil  is  <Iuri»<:  ///•• 

lander,  Kdin.,  1700.    From  these  sources,  and  from  1 ! 

.-sclle,  tome  45,  the  substance  of  this  article 
has  been  collected.     Tasnian  is  not  even  named  in  Chal- 
.    nor  in   many  other  universal  biographies   in   the 
Kn^'lish  language. 

TASMA'.M  V,  more  generally  known  by  the  name  of 
Van  Diemen's  Land,  is  an  island  and  British  colony  situated 
in  the  southern  hemisphere,  south  of  Australia.  It  lies 
between  40"  -15'  and  -13"  -15'  S.  lat.,  and  between  144°  45' 
and  148"  30' E.  long.  It  is  separated  from  Australia  by 
;  Strait,  which  washes  its  northern  shore.  On  the 
vrest  of  the  island  is  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  on  the  cast  the 
Pacific.  On  the  south  it  i.s  washed  by  that  portion  of  the 
ocean  which  connects  the  two  first-named  oceans,  and  ex- 
tends southward -to  the  shores  of  the  newly-discovered 
antarctic  continent.  [Sourn  POLAR  CorvmiKs.]  Prom 
Cape  Grim,  its  north-western  extremity,  it  extends  south- 
south-east  to  South  Cape,  a  distance  of  about  2;JO  miles,. 
and  this  is  its  greatest  length.  Its  greatest  width  occurs 
near  41°  20'  S.  lat.,  between  Ordnance  Point  on  the  west 
and  St.  Helen's  Point  on  the  cast,  which  are  about  190 
miles  distant  from  one  another.  According  to  a  roush 
.ate,  the  surface  is  34,000  square  miles,  or  about  4000 
square  miles  less  than  the  extent  of  Ireland. 

Coast-line  anil  l\!'iinln. — The  western  o  inning 

on  (lie  north  at  Cape  Grim,  and  extending  to  South-Weil 
Cape,  is  about  240  miles  long.  It  is  less  accessible  than 
the  other  shores  of  the  island,  as  in  general  it  runsinacon- 


Rhclter.    This  coast  is  therefore  rareh  \  i-ited  by  vcsse' 

no  settlements  have  been  established  on  it,  except  at  Mac- 

qiiarric   Harbour   and    Port   D;.  :ivicts 

are  kept  to  cut  wo..d.     The  northern  pail.-,  of  this 

and  as  far  south  as  Macqnarrii  .  are  in  ^eneial 

low,   lint    smith    of    Macquairie    Harbour   thc\ 

South  6f  Cape  Grim,  which  eo  ..frno- 

'"   elevation,  the   const    is  loimed   liy  low  Mack  rocks, 
which  tow  Point   sink  down   to   the  level   of  the 

!id  in  this  part  then' 

Point,  which  H  formed  by  a  short,  low,  and  sandy 
projection,  d,  the  mouth  of  the  river  Arthur,  the  beach  is 
low  ;i:id  sandy,  mid  behind  it  extends  a  swampy  lev.  '. 

•  es  to   the   distance    of  three    or    four 
e   country  rises   into   low   hill-. 

places  the   low  beach  in  interrupted  by  rocky  cliffs.     This 
low  coabt  continues   to  Ordnance  Point,  near   which   is 


.Inc. ill's   Harbour,  which  is  accessible  to  boats.     At  Ord- 
nance Point  the 

it    is    eminently    interrupt.  ,    and   windy   1i 

The  shores  are   overgrown    with  low 
moderate   extent    occurs   between   the   mouth   uf  the 
PcddiT   anil   Sandy  Cape,   but   r  .1   use-lew. 

;  art  of  the  coast  which  extends  Iron.  e  to 

;-    almost    iinki 

chi.t'n  'dy  low  shores,  without  u  beach,  ai 

the   back  of  which   there   are  hills,  some  nf  whu 
considerable  i.      Macquarrie  Harbour  is  a  fimj 

sheet  0  \tendinir  neiiily  25  miles  south-south 

and  tcrniinalinir  wilh   two   line   basins,   Kirch's   Inlet  and 
Kelly's  lla-in.      It    is   on    an   avcraire   live  miles  wide,  and 
affords  good  anchorage  and  complete  shelter :  but  lie, 
entnmce  is  a  bar,  which  has  only  nini  iter.     The 

harbour  is  surrounded  by  wooded'hills.  I,  forming 

the  western  side  of  the  entrance  of  Macquarric  I : 
a  steep  and  rocky  promontory,  and  farther  south  the  . 
line  is  hiirh  and  rocky,  and  here  and  there  :  -  pro- 

ject  into   the   sea,  but  the  sumll  bays  thus  formed  do  not 
afford  shelter  airainst  the  swell  of  the  sea,  and  I 
sale  hmdinir-placc.     At  the  back  of  the  beach  the, 
steep  and  lolly  hills.     Cape  Hibbs  is  formed  by  a  moun- 
tain-mass projecting  three   or  four   miles   into   tin- 
South  of  it  the  coast  rises  still  hiijher,  and  between  that 
cape  and  Rocky  Point  two  hills,  which  project  about  two 
miles  from  the  shores,  constitute  a  harbour,  in  which  small 
vessels  may  anchor,  but  it  is  open  to  the  west.     The  hiirh 
shores  continue  to  Port  Davey  and  to  South-NVcst  i 
Port  Davey  is  the  best  harbour  on  j 

trance  it  is  about  four  miles  wide,  and  it  continues  at  that 
width  about  6  miles  inland,  when  it  divides  intohv 
That  branch  which  runs  northward  is  called  Cockburn, 
and  is  about  two  miles  wide  and  six  long  :  tin 
which  runs  eastward,  does  not   much  exceed  a   mile    in 
width,  but  extends  more  than  10  miles  inland,  tnrninir  nt 
its  eastern  extremity  to  the  south.     These  two  bra 
have   cood   anchorage,  and  afford  sale  shelter,  bciny 
rounded  by  hisfh  hills:  but  the  wide  buy.  of  which  they 
are  branches,  is  open  to  the  westerly  winds  and  the 
of  the  sea:  the  anchorage  however  is  pood. 

The   southern   coast,   between    South-West  Cape   and 
Whale  Head,  is  about  5O  miles  lonir,  and  runs  in 
pentine  line,  forming  several  bays,  of  which   a  few  have 
good  anchorage,  as  Cox  Biprht.  east  of  South-West  i 
and  the  nameless  wide  bay  which  lies  we-t  of  South  i 
and  at  wlt<  a  harbour  about  1i\  e  miles 

long  :ind  a  mile  wide,  which  has  a  cood  entrance,  and 
affords  anchorage  and  shelter,  but  it  has  not  been  renula'Iy 

i  cd.    This  harbour  is  separated  from  the  wide  bay  by 
a  tongue  of  land  of  moderate  elevation,  on  which  Hi 
breaks  with  a  heavy  surf.     The  shores  of  this  coast  arc  in 

;il  rocky  and  high,  and  constitute  the  lower  declivity 
of  the  mountain-masses  which  extend  over  this  pait  of  the 
country.  Several  small  islands  opposite  this  co:is|  break 
the  swell  of  the  sea,  and  as  most  of  them  are  elevated,  they 

The  south-eastern  .  uls  from  Whale  Head,  the 

most  south-eastern  promontory  of  Tasmania,  to  Cape  l-'re- 
derik    Heiidrik,  about    CO    miles    in  a  straight  line,  but, 
long  the  shores,  it   is  probably  double  that   ex- 
tent.      It  Contains   a   water    number   of  sale    anchi •; 
than   probably  any  other  country  of  the  same  extent    on 
the   dobe.      There   is  hardly  a    mile   along  this  coast-line 
which  does  not  otter  a  safe  refuse   to  vessels.     This 
advantage    is    owing     pailly    to    the    size    and    form    of 
the    island    of    liruiii.    which    extends    alonir    the    . 
and    partly    to    two    far-projecting    pioniontoH 
Ralphs  Peninsula  and  Tasman's  Peninsula.     The  island  of 
liruni    extends    about     'M    miles   nearly   due    south    and 
north,   but    it    varies  greatly   in   width,   as  the   istlun 

.nan   is  only  a  tew  hundred  pa.  whilst  the 

mountain  tract   south  of  ii   is  more  than  emhi  miles  wide. 
It  consists  of  three   isolated  tracts  of  hiu'li  hills,  ronu. 
by  isthmusi  - :   the   most    southern   of  these   hac -is  has  the 
foiiu  of  a  hook,  and  d  with  the  ccntial  moun- 

tain-tract   by  a    low  isthmus   about   a   mile  wide   and   two 
miles  loiii;,  which  se|  Ha\   from    I)"d  Hay. 

The  central  mountain  n:^  the  main  body  of 

the  island,  is  about   15  miles  I. MIL:  l'»m  south  to  uoilh/and 
more  than  eiirht  miles  w  ide  in  1 1  part,     It  is  con- 

nected with  the  northern  muunliiin-tiact  b\  the  istlun 


T  A  S 


79 


T  A  S 


St.  Aignan,  which  is  five  miles  long,  and  only  a  few  hundred 
paces  wide.  It  is  low  and  sandy,  and  separates  Isthmus 
Bay  on  the  west  from  Adventure  Bay  on  the  east.  The 
northern  mountain-tract  is  about  12  miles  long,  and  so 
much  indented  on  the  western  shore  that  its  average  width 
does  not  exceed  three  miles,  though  in  some  places  it  is 
five  miles  across.  The  mountains  of  this  island  do  not 
appear  to  exceed  1200  feet  in  elevation :  they  are  covered 
with  wood,  and  supply  numerous  streams.  Along  the 
western  side  of  the  island  are  five  harbours,  which,  from 
south  to  north,  are  called  Great  Cove  or  Taylor's  Bay, 
Little  Cove,  Isthmus  Bay,  Great  Bay,  and  Burnes  Bay. 
Thev  all  have  excellent  anchorage  and  shelter,  except 
Taylor's  Bay,  which  is  rather  too  large,  and  exposed  to  the 
gusts  of  wind  which  come  down  from  the  mountains  on 
the  mainland.  On  the  eastern  side  of  Bruni  Island  are 
three  bays,  Bad  Bay,  Adventure  Bay,  and  Trumpeter  Bay. 
Bad  Bay  is  useless,  being  open  to  the  southern  winds,  and 
subject  to  a  very  heavy  swell,  which  causes  such  a  tre- 
mendous surf  at  the  foot  of  the  rocks  which  surround  the 
basin,  that  landing  is  almost  impossible.  Adventure  Bay 
is  open  to  the  east,  but  is  so  far  protected  by  Tasman's 
Peninsula,  that  the  inconveniences  of  this  harbour  during 
easterly  winds  are  reduced  to  a  difficult  landing.  Before 
the  foundation  of  the  colony  it  was  frequently  visited  by 
whalers.  Trumpeter  Bay  is  of  moderate  extent. 

The  strait  which  divides  Bruni  Island  from  the  mainland 
of  Tasmania  is  called  D'Entrecasteaux  Channel,  or  Storm 
Bay  Passage,  and  extends  45  miles  in  a  straight  line  from 
Whale  Head  to  Pilot  Strait,  or  the  narrow  arm  that  divides 
the  northern  extremity  of  Bruni  Island  from  Tasmania.  Its 
southern  entrance  between  Whale  Head  and  Bnmi  Head  is 
wide  and  open  to  the  south  and  west ;  but  on  the  western 
shores  there  are  two  excell  :nt  harbours,  Recherche  Bay 
and  Mussel  Bay.  North  of  Mussel  Bay  the  channel  begins, 
which  is  30  miles  long,  and  varies  in  width  from  one  to 
eight  miles.  In  all  its  extent  it  has  excellent  anchorage 
and  sufficient  depth  ;  even  opposite  Isthmus  Bay,  where  it 
is  shallowest,  it  is  40  feet  deep.  Being  mostly  surrounded 
by  hills,  which  shelter  it  on  all  sides,  it  is,  properly 
speaking,  an  immense  harbour,  the  only  inconveniences  of 
which  are  that  it  is  subject  to  gusts  of  wind,  and  that  the 
bottom  consists  of  an  earth  somewhat  too  tenacious.  On  the 
in  shores  of  the  channel,  besides  several  smaller  har- 
bours or  coves,  there  are  three,  or  rather  four,  large  and  ex- 
cellent ports :  Esperance  Bay  or  Adamson's  Harbour ;  Huon 
Bay,  or  the  extcn-ui'  n-,Uiary  of  the  river  of  that  name, 
which  extends  nearly  20  miles  inland,  and  has  sufficient  depth 
of  water  for  larne  vessels ;  Port  Cygnet,  or  Swan  Port, 
situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  Huon  aestuary  ;  and  North- 
West  liay,  which  constitutes  the  most  northern  extremity 
of  D'Bntrecuteaiix  Channel,  and  resembles  the  harbour 
of  Portsmouth.  North-West  Bay  is  two  miles  wide  at  its 
entrance,  and  extends  nearly  six  miles  inland.  The  low 
and  level  country  surrounding  this  excellent  basin  is  the 
im»t  southern  district  of  Tasmania  in  which  cultivation 
has  made  any  progress.  The  strait  leading  from  it  to 
the  wide  ;ch!~i::iry  of  the  river  Derwent  is  only  one  mile 
and  is  called  Pilot  Strait. 

'  of  Bnini  Island,  and  between  it  and  Tasman's 
Peninsula  is  Storm  Bay,  extending  about  fifteen  miles 
from  south  to  north,  and  as  much  from  west  to  east. 
Though  it  has  good  anchorage-ground,  and  is  almost  en- 
tirely free  from  danger,  it  cannot  be  considered  as  a  har- 
bour, being  open  towards  the  south,  though  protected  on 
the  three  other  sides  by  high  hills.  Storm  Bay  however 
leads  to  two  extensive  arms  of  the  sea.  which  open  to  the 
north  of  it,  and  are  respectively  called  the  rcstuary  of  the 
Derwent  and  Frederick  Henry  Bay.  These  two  arms  of  the 
sea  are  separated  by  Ralph's  Peninsula,  which  extends 
about  20  miles  from  north  to  south  ;  and  this  distance  may 
msidcred  as  the  length  of  the  two  arms  of  the  sea,  the 
sestuary  of  the  Derwent  advancing  a  few  miles  farther  in- 
land. At  the  entrance  of  the  aestuary  is  a  small  rocky 
island,  Ironpot,  on  which  a  lighthouse  hag  been  erected. 
Within  the  aestuary  is  Ralph's  Bay, on  the  east.  This  bay 
is  formed  by  a  low  sandy  spit  of  land  which  projects  from 
the  west  side  of  Ralph's  Peninsula,  and  surrounds  the  bay 
on  the  south  and  west ;  and  by  another  spit  of  land  which 
project*  to  the  south.  The  entrance  of  Ralph's  Bay  is  a 
short  channel,  nearly  two  miles  wide,  which  leads  to  a 
"•itrht.  miles  long  and  three  wide,  with  excellent  an- 
chorage, and  sheltered  on  all  sides.  Ralph's  Peninsula 


consists  of  two  mountainous  tracts  united  by  a  low  isthmus. 
This  isthmus  is  only  half  a  mile  wide,  and  is  the  place' 
where  Ralph's  Bay  approaches  nearest  to  Frederick  Henry 
Bay.  This  last-mentioned  bay,  which  has  also  the  name  of 
North  Bay  (Bai  du  Nord)  is  united  to  Storm  Bay  by  a 
channel  situated  between  Ralph's  Peninsula  and  Tasman's 
Peninsula,  which  is  five  miles  long  and  five  miles  wide. 
The  bay  itself  consists  of  three  basins,  North  Bay,  Pitt 
Water,  and  Norfolk  Bay.  North  Bay,  which  occupies  the 
centre,  is  a  basin  about  eight  miles  long  from  south  to  north, 
and  six  from  west  to  east.  It  has  good  anchorage,  with 
sufficient  depth  of  water,  and  is  generally  well  sheltered. 
Along  its  northern  shores  there  is  a  low  and  sandy  tongue 
of  land,  with  an  opening  at  its  eastern  extremity,  which 
leads  to  Pitt  Water,  an  arm  of  the  sea  extending  from 
east-south-east  to  west-north-west  about  eight  miles,  with 
an  average  width  of  two  miles,  which  branches  out  into 
numerous  small  coves  and  inlets  affording  safe  anchorage 
for  small  vessels,  but  the  entrance  has  only  sufficient  depth 
for  them.  Norfolk  Bay  lies  to  the  east  of  North  Bay,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  a  channel  about  three  miles  wide. 
This  bay  is  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  Tasman's  Penin- 
sula, and  constitutes  one  of  the  finest  harbours  on  the 
island :  it  has  excellent  anchorage,  with  a  convenient 
depth  of  water,  and  is  sheltered  by  high  hills.  It  is  eight 
miles  long,  and  the  width  varies  from  three  to  five  miles. 
It  is  free  from  all  danger,  and  branches  out  into  numerous 
coves. 

Tasman's  Peninsula  extends  about  25  miles  from  south 
to  north  :  it  consists  of  two  larger  peninsulas,  of  which  the 
southern  is  properly  called  Tasman's,  and  the  northern 
Forestier's  Peninsula.  Tasman's  Peninsula  surrounds  Nor- 
folk Bay  on  the  south  and  west :  it  extends  west  and  east 
about  15  miles,  with  an  average  width  of  eight  miles.  The 
surface  of  this  tract  is  covered  with  mountains,  which  rise 
with  a  steep  ascent  from  the  water's  edge,  and  are  mostly 
composed  of  basalt  columns,  especially  between  Maingon 
Bay  and  Fortesque  Bay.  On  the  west  side  of  the  penin- 
sula, on  the  east  shores  of  Storm  Bay,  is  Wedge  Bay,  which 
has  tolerably  good  anchorage.  Maingon  Bay,  on  the  south 
coast  of  the  peninsula,  is  quite  open,  but  on  the  north  it  leads 
into  a  safe  harbour,  Port  Arthur,  which  runs  more  than  six 
miles  inland,  and  is  more  than  a  mile  wide.  The  high  rocky 
isthmus  which  divides  its  northern  extremity  from  Norfolk 
Bay  is  only  three  miles  wide.  On  the  eastern  shores  of 
Tasman's  Peninsula  is  Fortesque  Bay,  which  is  large,  and 
lias  excellent  anchorage,  but  it  is  open  to  the  east.  Pirates 
Bay,  farther  north,  is  still  more  open  :  it  is  separated  from 
Norfolk  Bay  by  an  isthmus  called  Eagle  Hawk  Neck, 
which  is  only  GOO  feet  wide  and  700  feet  long,  and  which 
connects  Tasman's  Peninsula  with  Forestier's  Peninsula. 
It  is  low  and  sandy.  Forestier's  Peninsula  extends  10 
miles  from  south  to  north,  with  an  average  width  of 
seven  miles :  it  is  a  roundish  mass  of  high  rocky 
mountains,  scantily  covered  with  low  trees,  and  it 
has  a  sterile  soil.  The  high  rocky  masses  along  its 
eastern  shores  run  in  a  continuous  line.  On  the 
north  side  of  the  peninsula  is  Frederik  Hendrik  Har- 
bour, in  which  Tasman  anchored  in  1642:  it  has  good 
depth,  but  is  open,  and  along  the  southern  side  it  is  lined 
with  shoals  and  rocks.  The  isthmus  which  joins  Forestier's 
Peninsula  to  the  mainland  of  Tasmania  is  called  East  Bay 
Neck,  and  the  northern  portion  of  Norfolk  Bay  is  also 
known  by  the  name  of  East  Bay :  it  is  about  two  miles  long, 
and  half  a  mile  wide  in  the  narrowest  part:  it  is  low  and 
sandy.  The  bay  which  extends  between  this  neck  and  the 
most  northern  portion  of  Forestier's  Peninsula,  and  is  called 
Blackman's  Bay,  is  spacious  and  well  sheltered,  but  beset 
with  shoals  and  rocks,  especially  along  the  southern  shores 
and  its  entrance,  so  as  to  admit  only  small  vessels. 

The  eastern  coast  of  Tasmania  extends  from  the  northern 
extremity  of  Forestier's  Peninsula  to  Cape  Portland  on 
Strait,  more  than  150  miles  in  a  straight  line.  The 
southern  part,  or  that  south  of  42°  S.  lat,  resembles  in 
some  degree  the  south-eastern  coast :  it  contains  many 
places  of  refuge  for  vessels,  though  in  general  they  are 
much  less  numerous  than  on  the  south-east  coast,  and  not 
quite  so  safe  and  commodious.  The  wide  bay  on  the  north 
of  Forestier's  Peninsula,  from  which  a  channel  leads  to 
Blackman's  Bay,  has  a  flat  sandy  shore,  no  which  the  sea 
breaks  with  a  heavy  surf,  so  as  to  render  it  inaccessible,  but 
towards  the  north  are  several  email  coves  for  boats.  Cape 
Bernier  is  formed  by  a  high  conical  hill :  between  it  and 


T  A  S 

Proawr's  Bay  the  coast  is  high  and  rocky,  except  at  Sand- 
spit,  where  it  is  low,  and  forms  a  shallow  cove.  Prower's 
Bay  is  of  good  size,  being  three  miles  wide  at  its  entrance, 
and  extending  in  two  arms  five  miles  inland.  There  are 
several  shoals  in  it,  but  it  bus  good  anchorage,  especially  m 
the  northern  arm.  Between  1'rosser's  Bay  and  Cape  Bailly 
the  coast  is  high,  rocky,  and  well  wooded.  At  ( 'ape  Bailly 
begins  Oyster  Buy,  the  largest  of  the  bays  of  Tasmania:  it 
miles  long  from  south  to  north,  and  l.~i  miles  wide  at 
the  entrance,  but  it  narrows  gradually  towards  the  north, 
being  at  its  northern  recess  10  miles  across.  It  contains 
good  anchoring-ground,  and  is  tolerably  safe,  for  though  it 
is  open  towards  the  south,  the  island  of  Maria  and  several 
smaller  islands  in  that  direction  break  the  swell  of  the  sea. 
The  surrounding  country  is  hilly  and  well  wooded.  Near 
Cape  Bailly  is  Little  Swan  Port,  a  moderately  extensive 
ba.-m  with  a  shallow  entrance.  It  admits  only  boats.  The 
western  shores  of  Oyster  Bay  are  high  and  steep,  and  may 
be  approached  with  safety.  On  the  northern  side  of  the 
bay  is  a  tongue  of  land  less  than  a  mile  wide.  It  consists 
of"  low  sand-hills,  and  terminates  on  the  east  at  a  nar- 
row and  shallow  channel,  which  leads  northward  to  an  arm 
of  the  sea,  which  winds  through  a  low  country  for  more 
than  10  miles.  This  arm  of  the  sea  is  shallow,  and  called 
Moulting  Lagoon.  The  eastern  side  of  Oyster  Bay  is 
formed  by  Vanderlin's  Peninsula  and  Schouten's  Island. 
Vanderlin's  Peninsula  is  nearly  12  miles  long,  and  consists 
of  two  masses  of  rocky  mountains,  united  by  a  low  sandy 
neck,  about  one  mile  and  a  half  long  and  one  mile  and  a 
half  wide,  on  which  is  a  small  fresh-water  lake.  To  the 
west  of  this  neck  is  Refuge  Bay,  and  to  the  east  Thouin  Bay. 
'  The  first  is  a  safe  harbour,  but  the  second  is  open  and 
rather  shallow.  Another  low  and  sandy  neck  about  three 
miles  long  and  a  mile  wide  connects  Vanderlin's  Peninsula 
with  the  main  body  of  Tasmania.  The  mountains  of  the 
southern  massof  Vanderlin's  Peninsula  are  the  highest  in  the 

Eeninsula.  Schouten's  Island  is  separated  from  that  peninsula 
y  Geographe  Strait,  which  is  nearly  three  miles  long  and 
about  one  mile  and  a  half  wide  on  an  average :  there  is 
good  anchorage  in  the  strait.  Schouten's  Island  has  nearly 
the  form  of  a  square,  and  extends  about  four  miles  m  every 
direction.  On  its  southern  side,  in  Faure  Bay,  there  is 
anchoring-ground.  The  island  consists  of  a  mass  of 
rock,  descending  on  the  east  with  a  steep  declivity  to  the 
water's  edge,  but  on  the  west  with  a  gentle  well-wooded 
slope. 

South  of  Oyster  Bay  is  the  island  of  Maria,  which  is 
about  12  miles  long,  and  consists  of  two  large  masses  of 
rocks  connected  by  a  neck  of  land.  The  northern  mass 
extends  7  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  consists  of  elevated 
mountains,  the  highest  part  of  which,  called  the  Bishop 
and  Clerk,  is  about  3500  feet  above  the  sea-level.  The 
declivity  of  the  mountains  towards  the  east  is  very  steep 
and  terminates  on  the  beach ;  but  the  slope  is  gentle 
towards  the  west,  where  it  leaves  a  broad  level  tract  along 
the  sea,  which  is  sandy  and  scantily  wooded.  The  low 
sandy  neck  south  of  it  is  only  300  paces  across,  and  about 
two  miles  long.  On  the  west  of  it  is  Oyster  Bay,  which  is 
well  sheltered  and  has  good  anchorage,  but  is  shallow 
near  the  land ;  and  on  the  east  of  the  neck  is  Reidle  Bay, 
which  is  deeper,  but  has  a  rocky  bottom,  and  is  exposed  to 
the  easterly  and  southerly  winds.  The  southern  peninsula 
of  Maria  Island  is  one  mass  of  rocks,  rather  well  wooded, 
which  descends  towards  the  east  in  precipices  and  towards 
the  west  with  a  gentle  slope.  The  strait  which  divides 
Maria  Island  from  the  mainland  is  about  five  miles  wide  on 
an  average,  and  is  nearly  equal  to  D'Entrecasteaux  Channel 
in  the  advantages  which  it  affords  to  navigation,  having 
good  anchorage-ground,  and  being  generally  well  protected 
against  the  winds  and  swell  of  the  sea.  North  of  Maria 
Island,  towards  the  entrance  of  Oyster  Bay,  is  a,  small 
island,  White  Rock,  to  which  seals  resort  in  great  num- 
bers. 

The  remainder  of  the  eastern  coast,  beginning  at  Cape 
Tourville  on  the  south,  is  as  difficult  of  access  as  the 
western  coast  of  Tasmania.  In  an  extent  of  more  than 
100  miles  not  one  harbour  occurs  which  can  be  entered 
by  vessels  of  moderate  size,  and  even  small  craft  find  only 
three  or  four  places  where  they  can  anchor  with  safety. 
The  coast  between  Cape  Tourville  and  Eddystone  Point  is 
elevated  and  rocky,  and  always  beaten  by  a  heavy  surf. 
Sou'h  of  Cape  Lodi  the  hills  are  barren  and  generally 
destitute  of  trees.  -m  Farther  north  however  they  are  still 


>  T  A  S 

more  elevated,  but  tolerably  well  wooded.  Between  Eddy- 
stone  Point  and  Cape  Portland  the  shores  consist  of  a  low 
tract  of  considerable  width  :  the  soil  is  sandy  and  of  indif- 
ferent fertility.  The  woods  which  cover  it  conMst  of  short, 
crooked  trees.  This  part  of  the  coast  is  beset  with  shoals, 
and  cannot  be  approached  with  safety. 

The  northern  coast  of  Tasmania  extends  from  Cape 
Portland  on  the  east  to  Cape  Grim  on  the  west,  and  is 
about  1W)  miles  long  in  a  straight  line,  but  following  the 
coast  it  measures  more  than  220  miles.  North  of  this 
coast  is  Bass's  Strait,  at  the  eastern  entrance  of  which 
is  the  group  of  the  Fumcaux  Islands,  which  consist  of  two 
larger  inlands,  lour  of  moderate  si/c.  and  many  smaller 
islands.  The  larger.  Great  Island,  extends  -10  miles  nearly 
due  south  and  north,  and  is  on  an  average  nine  miles  long, 
so  that  its  surface  maybe  estimated  at  Mi()  square  n 
or  somewhat  more  than  that  of  the  Scotch  island  of  Islay. 
The  interior  of  the  island  is  mountainous,  and  the  moun- 
tains advance  on  the  west  side  close  to  the  sea,  but  leave 
a  tract  of  low  ground  along  the  eastern  shore,  which  is 
sandy  and  in  some  parts  swampy.  South  of  Great  Island 
is  Cape  Barren  Island,  which  extend*  from  east  to  west 
about  20  miles,  with  an  average  width  of  about  five  miles. 
It  consists  of  several  isolated  masses  of  rocks  connected  by 
low  grounds.  These  islands,  as  well  as  the  smaller  islands, 
are  generally  mountainous  and  rather  high  ;  they  con- 
tain many  low  tracts  of  considerable  extent,  but  the  soil  is 
sandy,  swampy,  and  in  general  of  indifferent  quality. 
Trees  are  not  abundant,  and  only  of  stunted  growth.  The 
surface  is  chiefly  covered  with  thick  bushes,  coarse  wire- 
grass,  and  a  kind  of  Chenopodium,  the  ashes  of  which 
may  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  soap.  Fresh  water  is 
scarce.  These  islands  are  always  surrounded  by  great 
numbers  of  seals,  and  are  resorted  to  by  many  v> 
from  Sydney  and  other  places.  The  strait  which  di- 
vides Furneaux  Islands  from  Tasmania  is  called  Banks's 
Strait.  It  is  10  miles  wide,  and  contains  no  hidden 
dangers,  but  as  the  current  sets  through  it  with  great 
rapidity  from  cast  to  west,  it  is  not  much  used  :  the  vessels 
that  sail  to  and  from  Sidney  generally  pass  through  Kent 
Strait,  or  the  middle  strait  of  "the  three  which  constitute 
the  eastern  entrance  of  Bass's  Strait.  This  strait  is  24 
miles  wide  between  Great  Island  and  Kent  Group,  and  in 
general  free  from  dangers.  The  western  current  which 
runs  through  it  is  moderate. 

The  coast  from  Cape  Portland  on  the  east  to  Port  Dal- 
rymple at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Tamar  is  low  and  sandy, 
with  the  exception  of  some  sandy  hills  at  and  between 
East  and  West  Double  Sandy  Points,  and  the  high  cape  of 
Stony  Head,  which  consists  of  elevated  rock)-  masses  over- 
grown with  grass.  The  shores  are  either  cntirelv  barren 
or  covered  with  short  bushes.  In  a  few  places  there  are 
swamps,  and  in  others  some  flat  and  low  rocks  of  small 
extent.  The  bays  have  in  general  sufficient  depth  of 
water  and  good  anchorage-ground,  but  being  wide  and 
open,  they  do  not  afford  security  against  winds  and  the 
swell  of  the  sea.  The  largest  is  Ringarooma  Bay,  west  of 
Cape  Portland. 

Port  Dalrymple  is  the  best  harbour  on  the  northern 
shores,  though  it  cannot  be  compared  with  the  harbours 
on  the  south-eastern  coast.  Before  its  entrance  on  the 
west  is  the  dangerous  reef  called  Hcbes  Reef,  and  even  in 
the  sea-reach,  which  is  two  miles  wide  and  six  long,  there 
are  some  shoals.  The  navigation  is  tedious  and  difficult, 
but  the  Tamar  is  deep  enough  for  large  vessels  as  far  as 
Launceston,  'M  miles  from  Port  Dalrymple  in  a  straight 
line.  West  of  Port  Dalrymple  the  coast  is  high,  being 
formed  by  elevated  and  wooded  hills,  the  highest  of  which 
are  called  the  Asbestos  Hills.  To  the  west  of  these  hills  is 
Port  Sorell,  which  is  rather  spacious  and  has  good  anchor- 
age, but  is  difficult  of  access.  Between  Port  Sorell  and 
Port  Frederick  the  shores  are  low,  and  about  half  a  mile 
from  the  sea  is  a  narrow  lagoon,  which  occupies  more  than 
half  of  the  space  between  the  two  harbours.  Port  Fre- 
derick, or  the  spstuary  of  the  river  Mersey,  resembles  Port 
Sorell.  From  this  harbour  to  Penguin  Point,  west  of  the 
mouth  of  Leven  nver,  the  coast  is  generally  rocky  and  high, 
but  intersected  by  the  mouths  of  several  rivers,  which  how- 
ever do  not  admit  even  boats,  excel)!  the  Leven,  which 
may  be  ascended  by  boats  to  the  distance  of  six  miles  from 
the  sea.  From  Penguin  Point  to  Circular  Head  the  coast 
presents  an  alternation  of  high  and  low  shores.  The  low 
shores  are  sandy  or  swampy,  and  generally  covered  with 


T  A  S 


81 


T  A  S 


thick  busnes,  and  1he  hi«;h  shores  present  in  many  places 
columns  of  basalt,  the  tops  of  which  are  covered  with  a 
layer  of  good  soil,  and  overgrown  with  trees.  There  is  no 
harbour  for  ships  on  the  coast,  except  at  the  mouth  of 
Emu  river,  where  small  vessels  find  good  anchorage  in 
Emu  Bay.  Boats  may  enter  Parish's  Harbour,  not  far 
from  Emu  Bay  to  the  west,  and  Pebbly  Bay,  west  of 
Rocky  Cape,  a  rather  elevated  rocky  mass  projecting  into 
the  sea. 

Circular  Head  is  a  tongue  of  land  projecting  into  the  sea 
to  the  distance  of  about  seven  miles  from  the  mainland. 
Its  northern  portion  is  an  undulating  table-land  resting  on 
basalt  columns,  whose  surface  is  covered  with  bushes  and 
small  trees,  and  affords  good  pasture-ground.  The  highest 
psirt  of  it  is  450  feet  above  the  sea-level.  This  table-land 
is  about  five  miles  long  from  north  to  south,  and  somewhat 
more  than  two  miles  across  in  the  widest  part.  It  is  united 
to  the  mainland  by  a  low  sandy  isthmus  nearly  three  miles 
lon<;  and  about  one  mile  wide.  On  each  side  of  the  isthmus 
is  a  tongue  of  land,  which  advances  four  or  five  miles  into 
the  sea,  and  forms  two  harbours,  called  East  and  West  Bay, 
which  have  sufficient  depth  for  small  vessels.  The  advan- 
tages afforded  by  these  two  harbours,  and  the  pasture- 
ground  on  Circular  Head,  have  induced  the  Van  Diemen's 
Land  Company  to  fix  their  chief  establishment  here.  The 
coast  from  Circular  Head  to  Cape  Grim  is  low  and  sandy. 
In  some  places  there  are  swamps  overgrown  with  tea-trees. 
It  is  lined  by  numerous  shoals,  and  though  there  are  several 
coves  at  the  embouchures  of  the  rivers,  none  of  them  has 
sufficient  depth  of  water  for  a  boat. 

North  of  this  coast-line  are  the  Hunter  Islands,  a  group 
consisting  of  three  larger  and  several  smaller  islands. 
Robliin  Island,  the  nearest  to  the  mainland,  is  divided 
from  it  by  a  narrow  strait,  Robbin  Channel,  which  is  full 
of  shoals,  but  has  good  anchoring-ground  near  the  eastern 
entrance.  The  island  is  about  7  miles  long  from  east  to 
west,  and  5  miles  wide  on  an  average.  The  eastern  portion, 
embracing  about  two-thirds  of  the  whole,  is  low,  and  has 
a  sandy  soil,  covered  with  bushes  and  small  trees  :  it  has 
also  pasture-ground.  The  western  district  is  a  rocky  ridsre, 
covered  with  heath.  Three-Hummock  Island  is  about 
the  same  size,  but  it  is  hilly,  and  chiefly  covered  with 
bushes,  low  trees,  or  grass.  On  its  eastern  side  is  a  cove, 
with  indifferent  anchorage.  West  of  Three-Hummock 
Island  is  Barren  Island,  which  is  the  largest  of  the  group, 
being  15  miles  long,  and  on  an  average  4  miles  wide.  It 
is  likewise  rocky  in  its  whole  extent,  but  less  elevated 
than  Three-Hummock  Island :  in  fertility  it  seems  to  re- 
semble it  very  much.  On  the  western  shores  are  numerous 
reefs,  which  render  the  access  to  the  island  difficult  and 
almost  impossible.  Towards  the  southern  end  of  that 
coa^t  however  there  is  a  cove,  which  is  accessible  to  boats. 
The  strait  between  Barren  Island  and  Three-Hummock 
is  called  Peron  Channel :  it  is  well  protected  by  the  sur- 
rounding islands,  and  has  good  anchorage  at  several 
places,  so  that  it  may  be  considered  the  best  liarbour  at 
the  western  entrance  of  Bass  Strait.  The  basin,  surrounded 
by  the  three  large  islands  of  this  group,  is  called  Boulanger 
Bay.  It  is  well  protected,  but  veiy  dangerous,  being  full 
of  shoals  and  small  low  islands,  especially  towards  the 
north-western  district  of  Tasmania. 

Si/ifnn>  mill  Soil. — As  the  first  European  settlement  on 
Tasmania  was  established  only  forty  years  ago,  it  can  be 
no  matter  of  surpri.-c  that  the  country  is  imperfectly  ex- 
plored. Nearly  one-half  of  the  island  is  almost  unknown, 
namely,  nearly  two-thirds  of  that  portion  which  is  south 
nt'  12;,  and  one-third  of  that  which  is  north  of  that  pa- 
rallel. 

The  t'/ii'.r/ /»ri;f  M'iiinlnii>-lli><;ii»i,  south  of  42°,   oc- 
cupies the  southern  and  western  districts  of  the  island, 
and  reaches  ninth-east  to  the  banks  of  the  river  Derwent. 
This  river,  from  its  source  in  Lake  St.  Clair  to  its  mouth, 
the  well-known    part   of  the  island  from  that 
which  is  entirely  unknown  except  the  coasts  and  the  dis- 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  ofthc  river.     These  districts 
are  occupied  by  an  apparently  continuous  moantain-ranire, 
which  extend.-,  along  the  river  at  a  short  distance  from  its 
banks,  and   in  some'  places  sends  off  branches  which  ad- 
the  nver.     This  range  is  sometimes  called 
the  \Ve-.lein    Mountains  by  the  settlers,  but  has  not  yet 
'•iy  other  name.     It  begins  on  the  sestuary  of  the 
en),    opposite    tiie    entrance   of   Ralph's   Bay,    with 
which  is  considered  to  be  about  1000  i'eet 
P.  C.,  No.  1408, 


above  the  sea.  Hence  it  extends  north-west  to  Mount 
Wellington,  which  is  a  few  miles  west  of  Hobait  Town,  and 
rises,  according  to  Darwin,  3100  feet  above  the  sea.  Far- 
ther on,  the  range,  which  occupies  a  width  of  peihaps  20 
miles,  does  not  seem  to  contain  many  summits  which  rise 
much  above  the  general  level  of  the  range,  which  level 
probably  is  never  less  than  2000  feet  above  the  sea.  The 
summits,  which  have  been  noticed,  are— Mount  Field  (near 
42°  40'\  which  is  estimated  at  3000  feet ;  and  Wyld's  Ci  aig, 
or  Peak  of  Teneriffe,  about  4500  feet  above  the  sea.  The 
latter  is  covered  with  snow  for  nine  months.  It  is  stated  that 
in  several  places  plains  of  considerable  extent  occur  on  the 
top  of  the  range  ;  but  as  the  whole  of  it  is  covered  with 
an  impenetrable  forest,  it  has  hitherto  been  impossible  to 
ascertain  this  fact.  The  mountains  which  surround  Lake 
St.  Clair,  the  source  of  the  river  Derwent,  appear  to  be 
connected  with  this  range,  and  to  constitute  its  northern 
extremity.  At  the  southern  extremity  of  the  range  is  a 
large  peninsula,  formed  by  D'Entrecasteaux  Channel  and 
the  sestuary  of  the  river  Huon,  the  whole  of  which  is 
covered  with  high  hills,  clothed  with  dense  forests  to  their 
summits,  and  broken  only  in  a  few  places  by  valleys,  which 
exhibit  a  great  degree  of  fertility,  but  in  which  no  settle- 
ments have  yet  been  made. 

The  remainder  of  this  region  is  only  known  so  far  as  it 
has  been  observed  from  the  sea  and  a  few  places  from  the 
coast.  The  most  striking  feature  of  this  district  is  a  moun- 
tain-range which  rises  a  few  miles  from  the  southern  coast, 
and  appears  to  extend,  without  interruption,  from  the 
eastern  part  of  Port  Davey,  called  Bathurst  Harbour,  to 
the  vicinity  of  Port  Refuge,  at  the  entrance  of  D'Entre- 
caMeaux  Channel.  Its  lower  parts  are  covered  with  thick 
forests,  but  the  higher  are  without  wood.  Some  parts  of 
them  appear  white,  which  has  suggested  the  opinion  that 
they  are  always  covered  with  snow ;  but  this  fact  is  ques- 
tioned. The  higher  parts  however  are  considered  to  rise  to 
an  elevation  of  5000  feet  above  the  sea-level.  North  of  this 
range  there  are  two  elevated  mountain-masses,  a  few  miles 
south  of  43°  S.  lat,  which  are  called  Harz  Mountain  and 
Arthur's  Range.  The  latter  is  visible  from  Mount  Wel- 
lington, though  more  than  50  miles  distant.  At  the  back 
of  these  masses,  north  of  43°  S.  lat.,  open  plains  are  stated 
to  extend  from  the  banks  of  the  river  Huon  to  the  moun- 
tains which  line  the  western  shores.  A  few  open  plains  of 
moderate  extent  are  also  found  near  the  banks  of  the 
Huon,  where  the  river  runs  eastward ;  but  farther  down 
the  whole  country  is  covered  with  impenetrable  forests. 
From  this  river  to  42°  S.  lat.  the  country  is  entirely  unknown. 
Several  summits  have  been  seen  from  considerable  dis- 
tances. The  most  elevated  appears  to  be  Frenchman's  Cap, 
east  of  Macquarrie  Harbour,  which  is  covered  with  snow 
nearly  the  whole  year  :  its  base  is  said  to  be  surrounded  by 
woodless,  open,  and  grassy  plains  of  considerable  extent. 
The  forests,  which  cover  this  region  almost  without  inter- 
ruption, consist  chiefly  of  different  kinds  of  Eucalyptus, 
especially  Eucalyptus  globulus,  and  different  kinds  of 
pines,  among  which  Tasmania  and  many  tree-like  ferns  arc- 
frequently  met  with. 

The  Valley  of  the  Lower  Derwent  extends  from  Mount 
Nelson  upwards  to  the  confluence  of  the  Derwent  with  the 
Ouse  (near  42"  35'  S.  lat.),  and  is  rather  more  than  50 
miles  long,  measured  along  the  bends  of  the  river.  The 
Derwent  runs  close  to  the  range  of  high  mountains  which 
extend  along  its  western  banks ;  and  the  space  between 
the  banks  of  the  river  and  the  base  of  the  steep  rocky 
masses  hardly  ever  exceeds  a  mile  in  width,  and  is  fre- 
quently not  half  so  much.  The  soil  of  this  narrow  and 
comparatively  level  tract  is  of  great  fertility,  and  a  large 
part  of  it  is  under  cultivation.  On  the  east  of  the  river 
the  valley  extends  to  the  distance  of  about  five  miles,  where 
it  meets  the  higher  hills  that  enclose  the  valleys  which  lie 
r  east  and  north.  The  surface  of  this  part  of  the 
valley  is  level  near  the  banks  of  the  river,  and  subject  to 
inundations  ;  but  at  a  short  distance  from  them  the  ground 
rises  in  gentle  undulations,  on  which  some  low  and  isolated 
hills  are  met  with.  The  soil  of  this  tract  appears  to  be 
generally  of  first-rate  quality:  it  produces  rich  crops  of 
wheat,  and  is  well  adapted  to  orchards.  Cultivation  is 
rapidly  spreading  over  this  tract. 

A  Hilly  Region  extends  east  of  the  Lower  Valley  of  the 
Derwent.  It,  extends  eastward  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific, 
and  northward  nearly  to  42°  J5'  S.  lat.  The  surface  of  this 
tract  is  a  continuous  succession  of  hill  and  dale.  The  tm- 

VOL.  XXIV.— M 


T  A  S 


TAB 


Teller  no  iconer  arrives  at  the  Ixrttom  of  one  hill  than  lie 
cr,  often  three  or  four  times  in  the 
.  :  I'ii .    l:.  -  me  ;  IM<  -  '•'•  ;--';i-  -»,  '•- ;' '    -  •  ;-'- ;| 
height.-',  which 

itutc    the    both': 

iln-  n-L'ion  from  north  to  south,  and 
.  rally  of  model  ate  width,   tile    '• 
marshes  or  plains,  are  comparatively  lew.    Th- 

:rt  of  this  region   appears  to  be  a  ridge  of  high 
ground  which   begins  mi  the  north  at  Table  Mouir 
summit  standing  near  the  south  :ty  of  Lake 

Sure.  11,  whose   i  .;a!cd    at   :isiK)  feet.       The 

ridge  braneliing  oft'  from  it  towards  the  south  is  of  moderate 
ion,  but  considerable  width,  occupying  the  greater 
part  of  the  tract  between  (lie  iivci-  Clyde  aiul  Jordan.  It 
terminate* about  five  miles  from  the  banks  of  the  Dciwciit 
in  Mount  Dromedary,  the  Munmit  of  whieh  is  1HUO  feet 
above  the  sea-level.  .  -i  the  hills  sink  lower  a.-  we 

proceed  -until,  and  the  suifaee  of  Ralph'*  Peninsula,  and  of 
the  count  r.  Pitt's  \Vater  and  North  Bay,  is  only 

undulating.  Cultivation  in  this  region  is  almost  exclusively 
limited  to  tli,'  bottoms  of  the  rivers,  where  there  i.-  a 
strong  soil,  which  produces  plentiful  crops  of  wheat  and 
other  iriain.  The  declivity  of  the  hills  is  sometim 
steep  for  cultivation,  and  they  are  generally  coveicd  with 
thick  woods.  Bui  even  where  the  declivities  arc  gentle, 
whieh  is  most  frequc./lv  the  case,  the  soil  is  too  dry. 
These  declivities,  and  afso  the  upper  parts  of  the  hills, 
where  small  levels  frequently  occur,  are  overgrown  with 
opi-n  forests  without  underwood,  under  the  shade  of  which 
there  is  grass  nearly  all  the  year  round.  These  hills  aft'ord 

ic   fur  sheep   and  cattle.     This  dc.-i  : 

applies  to  the  whole  region,  except  that  portion  which  is 
north  of  Norfolk  Bay,  and  which  appears  not  to  ha\. 
explored.  That  part  of  it  which  lies  along  the  Pacific 
-is  only  of  rocky  masses,  frequently  destitute  of  woods 
and  bushes,  and  in  other  places  overgrown  with  crooked 
and  stunted  ti, 

Tlu  I'/m'ns  are  north  of  the  Hilly  Region,  and 

extend  from  42°  35'  to  about  41"  00'.  They  are  sep 
from  the  Pacific  by  a  higher  tract,  called  Eastern  Tier. 
This  tract  begin*  on  the  south  near  42°  35',  where  it  is  about 
10  miles  wide,  and  extends  northward  to  the  valley  of  the 
South  Ksk,  to  which  it  descends  with  a  steep  declivity.  11 
increases  in  width  as  it  proceeds  farther  noith,  and  on  tin- 
banks  of  the  South  Ksk  it  is  more  than  3()  mi:. 
to  west.  This  region  also  is  entirely  unknown,  and  is  a 
blank  on  our  map.-.  \Vc  can  rind  no  information  respect- 
ing iU  character  and  cap-Abilities.  The  heights  which 
i  along  the  sea  are  very  scantily  wooded,  and  do  not 
lit  a  promising  aspect.  The  plains  themselves  are 
divided  into  the  southern  and  northern  plains  by  a  some- 
what hilly  and  wooded  tract,  which  crosses  them  in  a  dia- 
gonal direction  from  south-east  to  ninth-west,  beginning 
ou  the  Eastern  Tier  with  the  Bine  Hills,  south-east  of  Oat- 
lauds,  and  passing  cast  of  that  township  to  Table  Mount. 
and  the  other  heights  surrounding  Lake  Son  II,  and  hence 
to  the  range  of  mountains  called  the  \\C-leni  Tier  or 
•ni  Mountains,  from  the  southern  extremity  of  which 
it  is  divided  by  the  upper  valley  of  Lake  River.  Farther 
u  Tier  constitutes  the  northern  boundary  ol 
it  hem  plains.  These  southern  plains  arc  di-tiutr 
by  nianv  large  lakes.  The  most  western  of  these  '. 
that  of  St.  Cluir.  the  source  of  tin:  Dvrwcnt  river,  li  is 
about  ten  miles  long  and  three  miles  wide  on  an  average, 
and  differs  from  the  laki  -  <-t  in  having  i;: 

the   shape,   of   an   alpine   lake    and   being    surrounded    by 
mountains.     Ti  .  a-t  of  the  lake  St.  Clair  is  not 

included  in  the  plains,  I.  . .lomitainous,  and  con- 

taining several  high  etweeil  the  Dcrwcnt  on  the 

west  u  the  east.     Iv. .  n   to  the  east  ol 

the  last -mentioned  river  that  pait  "t  'the  country  which  lie- 
neai  the  Dement  is  extremely  uneven  and  hilly,  but  far- 
ther north  the  southern  plains  begin  with  the  tract  that 
surround*  Lake  Kcho.  This  lake  is  of  a  round  form,  but 
only  three  mile*  in  diameter.  The  shape  of  this,  like 
all  those  farther  east,  shows  that  they  an-  not  enclosed  by 
tains,  but  spread  out  in  plains.  North  of  Lake  Keho 
i*  Great  Lake,  the  source  of  the  Shannon,  one  of  the  largest 
tributaries  of  the  Derwent.  It  is  said  that  tin-  lake  i-  -_l 
milt-along,  10  v,  ule,  and,  owing  to  its  immeron-  In  am:  lien.  75 
mile-,  in  circuit  ;  but  our  maps  (rive  it  hardly  liab 
dimensions.  East  of  Great  Lake  we  the  three  Arthur 


lakes,  the  largest 

Hi  mil,-,     i 

(treat  Lake.     Smaller  lai 
.led   tract  whir! 


-<  i  and 

ut  to 
lerous,  . 

Irom  the 

northern   plains.     There   are   lev  i   the   northern 

plains,  and  they  are  all  small,  with  i  the 

:i  Lagoon,  a  el;  -:,  :u 

termination  of  the  Western  Tier,  the  largest  of  winch  may 
be  five  miles  long  and  half  a  mile  wide.  The  woody  tiact 
separatim:  the  plain.-  has  a  hilly  - 

where  It    is    crossed    by   I 

Hobart  Town  to  Lannceston.  In  the  plains  tin-re  are  some 
short  ridges  of  low  hills,  which  li-e  aim-..  .mon 

level   with   very   long   slop' 

.     At  othe.  .i>stly  of  a 

conical   form,   h> 
frequent  in  the  district  which  up, 
In  oil. 

level   or  slightly  undulating.     In   then  natural  fcUtc   ' 
arc  generally  destitute  of  trees,  but  in  a  f,w  spots.  . 
cially  where  the  surface  is  iindulutin<r,  trees  occur  in  small 
clumps.     The  climate  is  much  colder  than  in  the  low  l 
near  the  coast,  as  the  snow  sometimes  co-.  uml 

for  several  weeks,  and  thus  the  soil  imbibes  sufficient  n 
lure  to  maintain  a  vigorous  irrowth  of  ifrass  nearly  all  the 
year  round.     The   pastures   thus  produced  constitute   the 

iiural  wealth  of  this  region,  a-  the  soil  is  seldom  rich 
enough  for  the  growth  of  grain.     Tie  are  much 

better  adapted  for  sheep  than  for  cattle,  ami  the  chid  pail 
of  the  wool  exported  from  Tasmania  is  brought  to  the  sea- 
port.•,  hum  this  reirion.     Amon-  ailed 
Salt-Pan  Plain    requires  notice.     It   lies  near  the  v. 
shed  of  the  Derwent  and  Tamar,  between  the  sou  re- 
the  Macquarrie  river,  which  runs  to  the  Tamar,  and  those 
of  the  Jordan,  which  falls  into  the  Derwent.     In  this  plain 
are  three  ponds,  or,  rather,  hollow  deprc.--ion>,  win,  . 
rilled  with  water  during  the  rainy  season,  but  dry  up  when 
the  rains  are  over,  and  the  soil  is  then  so  strongly  impreg- 
nated with  salt  that  a  considerable  quantity  is  coll> 

ni  for  domestic  purposes. 

The  region  hitherto  described  is  watered  by  many 
streams,  most  of  which  join  1;  ut.  This  nvcr 

originates,  as  already  •  .u  Lake  St.  Clair.     It  runs 

about  (k)  miles  measured  in  a  straight  hue.  until  it  meets  the 
tide-water,  and  its  general  course  is  souti  -,iiii.r 

from  the  lake,  il  trav  eises  for  several  miles  a  plain,  ami  then 
a  narrow  valley  hounded  by  mountains,  in  which  it 
is  joined  from  the  north  by  the  Nive.  and  from  the  south 
by  the  Florentine  river,  the  coui.-e  of  which  two  tribu' 
ig  hardly  known.  It  leaves  the  mountain.-  above  it- junc- 
tion with  the  Dee,  where  it  forms  two  c  mile 
from  one  another,  of  which  the  uppermost  i- :«l  feet  hii:h. 
It  then  tlows  along  the  foot  of  the  western  mountains  with 
a  rapid  current,  and  is  not  navigated,  chi,  l1.  to  the 
numerous  rocks  along  its  banks,  but  also  partly  lu  .;:,-,  its 
volume  of  water  is  subject  to  great  change.-, 
rapids  occur  at  New  Norfolk,  up  to  which  place  the  tide- 
water comes.  Durimr  the  summer  months  the  water  of 
the  river  is  biackish.  and  unfit  for  drinking  at  New  Nor- 
folk :  but  when  it  i-  swollen  by  rains,  it  i-  fresh  to  the 
distance  of  two  or  three  mile-  below  the  town.  The  river 
is  lure  a  quarter  of  a  mile  wide,  and  begins  to  be  navi- 
irabl,'  for  ship-.  A  few  miles  lower  (low  n  the  river  widens 
to  three-quarters  of  a  mile,  which  width  is  gradually  in- 
creased to  two  miles.  Below  Hobart  Town  il  vain 

and   four  miles,  and  is  deep  enough 
vessels,  and  free  from  shoals,  which  are  rather  mum 
above   that  town.     The  tide  ascends  :>H  miles  lioin  Storm 
Bay.     None  of  the  tributaries  which  enter  the  Denvcnl. 
from  the  south,   after  it  has  emerired  horn  the  moim 
are  above  the  »i*c  of  n  mountain-torn  ut  :  but   il  i,  < 

,1111  the  north  which  flow  from  3)  to  'M 
mile-,  a- the  Dee.  theOuse,  the  Clyde,  and  the  Jordan. 
Some  of  them  form  cataracts  and  rapids,  and  none  of  them 

>vigmble. 

The  river  Huoil.  which  drains  the  irre.-Uer  part  of  thu 
mountain-region  west  of  the  Derwent,  na»  a  course  of  a  bout 
H«)  miles  ;  but  this  river  lies  without  the  settled  poition  of 
the  colony,  and  ,  nljf  been  explored  within  a 

lew  years.      No  account  of  it  exists.      It  forms  a  wide  ••- 
like  the  Dei-went,  which   opens   in  I)  Kntrccasteaux 
Bay.     Coal  River  drains  the  undulating  country  east  of 


T  A  S 


83 


T  A  S 


the  Derwent,  and  falls  into  Pitt's  Water :    its  course  is 
about  30  miles. 

We  pass  to  the  description  of  the  northern  part  of  Tas- 
mania i  north  of  41°  50').  The  watershed  of  the  eastern 
districts  of  this  country  lies  close  to  the  Pacific,  as  the  re- 
motest sources  of  the  South  Esk  are  only  from  four  to  five 
miles  from  its  shores.  The  Upper  Valley  of  the  South  Esk 
lies  between  two  large  mountain-masses,  but  the  Lower 
Valley  constitutes  a.  part  of  the  Basin  of  Lincoln.  The 
Upper  Valley  extends  from  the  sources  of  the  river  west- 
ward to  the  vicinity  of  Ben  Lomond  Rivulet,  where  an 
offset  of  the  Ben  Lomond  comes  close  to  the  river,  whilst 
from  the  south  the  most  north-western  branch  of  the  East- 
ern Tier  also  approaches  very  near,  so  that  there  is  a  na- 
tural pass  by  which  the  Upper  Valley  of  the  South  Esk  is 
entered.  This  valley  extends  about  35  miles  from  the 
irorge,  following  the  St.  Paul's  River,  but  nearly  50  miles 
alone:  the  Break-o'-Day  River.  The  mountains  which  ex- 
tend along  the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  and  connect  the 
northern  part  of  the  Eastern  Tier  with  the  range  of  the 
Ben  Lomond,  have  not  been  explored.  When  seen  from 
the  sea  they  constitute  a  high  range,  overtopped  by  several 
summits,  among  which  is  Tasman's  Peak  and  Mount  Cham- 
pagny,  south-west  of  Cape  St.  Helen's  :  the  last  mentioned, 
a  conical  summit,  rises  about  3000  feet  above  the  sea.  It 
has  not  yet  been  ascertained  where  and  how  this  maritime 
range  is  connected  with  Ben  Lomond.  Ben  Lomond  ap- 
pears to  be  the  highest  ground  in  this  part  of  Tasmania, 
and  is  estimated  to  rise  4200  feet,  or  about  1200  feet  higher 
than  the  mountain  in  Scotland  whose  name  has  been 
transferred  to  it.  The  mountain-mass,  of  which  it  forms 
the  most  elevated  portion,  extends  to  a  considerable  dis- 
tance to  the  south-west,  where,  as  already  observed,  it 
comes  close  to  the  banks  of  the  South  Esk,  near  the  place 
where  it  is  joined  by  Ben  Lomond  Rivulet,  and  it  is  pro- 
bable that  it  advances  still  farther  to  the  north-east,  in 
which  direction  this  region  has  not  been  explored.  It  is 
however  certain  that  the  maritime  range  and  that  of  Ben 
Lomond  join  at  an  acute  angle,  leaving  between  them  a 
depression  of  a  basin-like  shape,  which  may  be  called  the 
UnMii  of  Fiuiral,  from  a  township  of  that  name  situated 
near  the  place  where  the  South  Esk  and  the  Break-o'-Day 
River  join.  The  existence  of  this  basin  has  only  been 
ascertained  within  the  last  ten  years,  and  our  information 
respecting  it  is  scanty ;  but  as  the  settlements  begin  to  be 
numerous,  and  an  it  has  been  divided  into  hundreds,  we 
may  presume  that  the  soil  of  this  tract  is  good.  The 
Basin  of  Fiusral  extends  from  north  to  south  about  15 
miles,  and  about  as  much  from  east  to  west.  Its  southern 
districts  are  drained  by  the  Break-o'-Day  River,  which 
rise*  in  the  maritime  range,  and,  running  eastward,  meets 
below  Fingal  the  South  Esk,  which  originates  in  the  Ben 
Lomond  range,  and  waters  the  northern  districts  of  the 
basin.  A  few  miles  below  the  confluence  of  these  two 
branches,  the  South  Esk,  having  a  south-west  course,  en- 
ters a  wide  valley,  about  10  miles  long,  and  afterwards 
reaches  a  plain,  where  it  is  met  by  the  St.  Paul's  River. 
The  valley,  through  which  the  last-mentioned  branch  of 
tiie  South  Esk  descends  from  its  source  in  the  maritime 
range,  is  for  a  considerable  part  of  its  course  so  wide,  that 
it  has  obtained  the  name  of  St.  Paul's  Plains,  which  are 
described  as  an  undulating  country,  in  gome  parts  over- 
crown  with  open  forests,  and  in  others  without  trees,  but 
well  watered,  and  producing  rich  pasture.  Between  the 
Valley  of  St.  Paul's  River  and  the  Basin  of  Fingal  is  a  moun- 
tain-mass, which  is  connected  on  the  east  with  the  mari- 
time range,  and  whose  western  extremity  is  marked  by  a 
dome-like  summit,  to  which  the  name  of  St.  Paul's  Dome 
has  been  given.  It  is  considered  to  rise  2800  feet  above 
the  sea-level.  After  the  confluence  of  the  two  principal 
branches,  the  South  Esk  turns  westward,  and  flows  along 
the  base  of  the  Eastern  Tier,  so  that  between  the  river  and 
the  mountain  south  of  it  there  is  only  a  narrow  strip,  with 
an  undulating  or  hilly  surface,  which  however  has  a  good 
soil.  North  of  the  river  the  valley  extends  to  the  base  of 
the  Ben  Lomond  range,  a  distance  of  five  or  six  miles :  the 
intervening  ground  resembles  in  general  the  St.  Paul's 
Plains,  being  better  adapted  for  pasture  than  for  agricul- 
ture, and  partly  covered  with  thin  forests.  Thus  the  val- 
ley continues  to  the  gorge  above  the  mouth  of  Ben  Lomond 
Rivulet. 

North  of  the  Upper  Valley  of  the  South  Esk  extends 
the  K'irlh-l'jiKtf.rn  Mountain  Region,  the  whole  of  which 


is  probably  occupied  by  mountains  ;  but  the  interior  of  it 
has  not  been  explored,  and  only  the  outskirts  of  it  are 
known.  The  country  along  the  Bay  of  Fires,  between 
Cape  K.  Helen's  and  Eddystone  Point,  is  of  considerable 
elevation,  but  partly  well  wooded  and  partly  covered  with 
a  fine  growth  of  grass.  This  tract  is  supposed  to  be  fit  for 
pastoral  settlements.  North  of  Eddystone  Point  the  moun- 
tains are  several  miles  from  the  shore  :  they  have  only 
been  seen  from  a  distance,  and  appear  to  constitute  one 
continuous  mass,  broken  in  a  few  places  by  ravines,  by 
which  small  rivers  issue  from  them.  There  are  no  striking 
summits,  except  Mount  Cameron,  between  Eddystone 
Point  and  Ringarooma  Bay,  but  its  elevation  is  not  known. 
The  mountains  are  generally  wooded.  The  flat  country 
between  these  mountains  and  the  sea,  from  Eddystone  Point 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Tamar,  is  watered  by  numerous  small 
streams,  but  the  soil  is  generally  dry  and  sandy,  in  some 
places  overgrown  with  bushes  or  short,  crooked  trees,  and 
in  others  covered  with  swamps,  in  which  only  tea-bushes 
are  found.  There  are  a  few  tracts  which  have  a  better 
soil,  and  might  be  cultivated,  as  on  the  banks  of  Piper's 
River.  The  best  portion  of  this  region  is  the  valley  of  the 
North  Esk,  which  opens  to  the  west,  and  stretches  east- 
ward into  the  mountains  on  the  north  of  the  Ben  Lomond 
range.  This  valley  however  is  narrow,  and  contains  very 
few  tracts  adapted  for  agricultural  purposes,  and  the  num- 
ber of  settlements  is  small,  though  the  proximity  of  the 
tovyn  of  Launceston  affords  a  ready  sale  for  their  produce. 
A  ridge  of  sterile  but  wooded  hills  runs  along  the  southern 
side  of  the  river,  and  continues  to  the  banks  of  the  South 
Esk,  where  that  river,  about  a  mile  above  Launceston, 
runs  in  a  narrow  valley  for  a  mile,  and  at  the  point  where 
it  leaves  that  valley  forms  a  cataract  about  40  feet  high. 

The  gorge  through  which  the  South  Esk  flows  above 
Launceston  separates  the  valley  of  the  Tamar,  which  lies 
north  of  it,  from  the  Basin  of  Lincoln,  which  extends  south 
of  it.  The  Tamar  is  only  a  deep  inlet  of  the  sea,  which 
begins  at  the  town  of  Launceston,  and  where  the  two  Esks 
fall  into  it.  Its  length  to  Port  Dalrymple  in  a  straight  line 
is  about  30  miles,  but  measured  along  its  numerous  bends 
it  is  43  miles.  The  tides  come  up  to  Launceston,  at  which 
place  the  inlet  is  only  60  yards  wide,  yet,  vessels  of  150  tons 
may  ascend  to  the  town.  The  width  of  the  navigable  chan- 
nel is  20  yards,  nor  does  it  widen  for  two  miles  below  the  town, 
and  it  is  very  narrow  10  or  12  miles  farther,  though  the  inlet 
itself  widens  to  three-quarters  of  a  mile.  Ten  or  twelve 
miles  below  Launceston  the  inlet  alternately  expands  to  a 
weadth  of  three  miles,  and  contracts  to  a  mile,  so  as  to  appear 
ike  several  small  lakes  connected  by  short  channels.  In  this 
part  are  several  shoals  and  sand-banks,  and  they  only  dis- 
ippear  about  15  miles  from  the  sea.  It  is  a  great  obstacle  to 
:he  navigation  of  the  river  that  the  wind  always  blows  either 
directly  up  or  down  it,  so  that  a  vessel  is  often  obliged  to 
depend  upon  the  tide,  and  it  sometimes  happens  that  a  pas- 
sage from  Port  Dalrymple  to  Launceston  occupies  two  or 
hree  weeks.  The  valley  of  the  Tamar,  measured  between 
he  summits  on  the  two  sides  of  the  river,  is  about  eight 
miles  wide,  but  two  or  three  of  them  are  occupied  by  the 
declivities,  though  these  declivities  are  rather  steep.  Thus 
he  cultivable  ground,  if  the  extent  of  the  inlet  itself  is  sub- 
racted,  varies  between  three  and  six  miles.  Near  the  town 
of  Launceston,  and  to  a  distance  of  about  11  miles  north  of 
t,  the  country  on  both  sides  of  the  river  possesses  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  fertility,  and  is  well  settled ;  but  farther 
down  the  eastern  banks  have  a  dry  sandy  or  stony  soil  of  very 
nferior  quality,  which  is  still  uninhabited.  On  the  left  bank 
of  the  river  the  soil  is  much  better,  and  there  the  settle- 
ments are  numerous,  though  not  so  numerous  as  near  Laun- 
ceston. 

The  Basin  of  Lincoln,  so  called  from  the  hundred  of 
Lincoln,  which  occupies  the  centre  of  it,  is  the  most  fertile 
portion  of  Tasmania.  It  includes  on  the  east  the  lower 
valley  of  the  South  Esk,  extending  to  the  western  base  of 
Ben  Lomond,  and  on  the  west  reaches  the  eastern  base  of 
he  Western  Tier.  It  is  separated  from  the  Northern 
Elevated  Plains  by  the  hilly  and  woody  tract  called  Epping 
Forest.  On  the  north  it  is  bounded  by  the  ridge  of  hills 
south  of  Launceston,  and  the  mountains  which  line  the 
northern  banks  of  the  Mseander  as  far  as  the  mouth  of 
2uamby's  Brook.  It  extends  from  south-east  to  north- 
west about  25  miles,  and  as  much  from  north-east  to  south- 
west. This  gives  an  area  of  GOO  square  miles.  This  basin 

watered  by  several  large  rivers,  which  unite,  and  ulti 

M.  2 


'I1  .\   S 


'I     \   > 


mately  fall  into  the  South  K.-.U  bel'o: 

rivers-  ;uv.  Inn 

Elizabeth  luTer,  Maequwrie  Hirer,  Lake  River.   IVnny- 
royal  River,  anil   Mnandcr  or  Uiver.     Tl 

face  inul  tin-  soil  of  the  Basin  arc  not  uniform.  East  of  tin- 
South  Esk  tin-  higher  count rv  chiefly  consists  of  plains, 
fit  lu-r  Jest  it  uti-  of  wood  or  thinly  wooded,  and  well  adapt  rd 
for  sheep  :  the  wide  bottom  of  the  rivers  yields  rich  crop*. 
Thi-  country  lictwccii  the  South  K>k  and  Lake  Hivcr  con- 
sists of  wide  valleys  along  the  courses  of  the  rivers,  and 
narrow  ridges  of  hills  between  them,  which  however  in 
Mune  places  attain  a  considerable  elevation  above  their 
.  These  hills  arc  generally  wooded,  and  though  the 
soil  on  their  declivities  is  good,  they  ore  at  present  only 
u»ed  as  pasture-ground:  the  wide  level  tracts  along  the 
watercourses  have  a  very  fertile  soil,  most  of  w  hich  is  under 
cultivation.  The  most  level  portion  of  the  basin  is  that 
which  is  wot  of  Lake  River,  for  in  this  district  the  uplands 
do  not  rise  much  above  the  bottom  of  the  valleys,  extend 
with  an  undulating  surface,  and  are  seldorh  interrupted  by 
high  hills.  Like  the  bottoms,  they  were  formerly  clothed 
with  trees,  except  on  the  very  margins  of  the  rivers,  but 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  region  has  been  cleared  and  con- 
verted into  fields.  The  soil  of  the  bottoms  is  very  rich,  but 
they  are  subject  to  inundations,  which  however  are  of  short 
duration.  From  the  Basin  of  Lincoln  all  the  corn  is  brought 
to  Launceston.  which  is  exported  from  that  place,  and 
which  is  the  principal  support  of  the  population  in  the 
country  round  Sydney,  whenever  Australia  cxpenc' 
dearth. 

To  the  west  of  this  basin  is  the  Western  Tier,  or  Western 
Mountain.-.,  which  extend  from  the  banks  of  the  I,akc  River 
a  few  miles  below  the  place  where  that  river  issues  from 
the  Arthur  Lakes,  in  a  west-north-west  direction  to  the 
sources  of  the  river  Mersey,  a  distance  of  about  fH)  miles. 
The  range  lies  between  the  southern  plains  and  the  Basin  of 
Lincoln,  but  we  have  very  little  information  respecting  this 
i.  A  few  summits  have  been  noticed,  as  the  Quam- 
by  Bluff,  near  the  north-western  extremity  of  the  Basin  of 
Lincoln,  which  is  staled  to  be  :{."i()0  feet  high,  and  the  F.x- 
treme  Western  Bluff,  at  the  west  end  of  the  region.  It 
appears  that  the  upper  part  of  the  range  coiistr 
tolerable  level,  on  which  only  a  few  peak*  attain  fKKt  feet, 
and  which  is  covered  with  small  lakes.  grass,  and  an  alpine 
vegetation.  Some  low  rocky  ridges  which  run  across  it 
are  covered  with  crooked  eucalyptus  and  bushes.  The 
width  of  this  elevated  tract  does  not  exceed  a  few  miles, 
but  its  elevation  must  be  considerable,  which  may  be  in- 
ferred from  the  circumstance,  that  even  in  .January,  which 
corresponds  to  our  July,  a  heavy  fall  of  snow  W;LS  experi- 
enced, which  covered  the  ground  some  inches  deep.  The 
whole  vegetation,  especially  the  frequent  occurrence  of 
lichens  and  mosses,  proves  its  great  elevation,  which  pro- 
bably is  not  much  less  than  -KHH)  feet  above  the  sea-level. 
:ts  northern  extremity  the  Western  Tier  i-.  of  con- 
siderable width, extending  from  (Juamhy's  I! lull' to  Extreme 
Western  Bluff',  a  distance  of  about  '£>  miles.  At  its 
northern  declivity  extends  a  depression  or  valley,  from 
east  to  west,  which  may  IK-  called  the  I'nlli'ij  «f  tin' Mrrnn- 
</IT,  as  that  river  drains  the  greater  part  of  it.  Though  a 
cart-road  has  been  made  through  it,  we  are  not  acquainted 
with  its  extent  from  south  to  north,  but  we  are  informed 
that  it  extends  westward  to  the  vicinity  of  the  ( 
when- tins  liver  turns  westward,  being  here  divide 
the  valley  of  the  last-mentioned  river  by  a  narrow  offset 
of  the  Western  Tier.  This  tract  consists  of  level  plains, 
which  are  generally  without  trees,  but  in  several  places 
there  arc  small  clumps  of  them,  and  they  ., 
ally  intersected  by  narrow  belts  of  tun  -I.  extendin. 
the  mountains  to  the  banks  of  the  rivers.  Numerous 
nvem  water  this  country,  the  soil  oJ'  which  is  stated  to  be 
id  quality,  and  equally  adapted  to  cultivation  and  the 
rearing  of  cattle. 

Proceeding  westward  from  the  banks  of  the  Mersey,  two 
high  and  steep  mountain-ridges  must  be  passed  before 
that  region  i*  reached  which  is  called  the  Surn-y  Hills. 
and  which  constitutes  one  of  the  most  remarkable  features 
of  Tasmania.  It  occupies  the  country  for  about  'JO  miles 
on  each  side  of  146°  E.  long,  and  an  equal  exl 
sides  of  41"  30' S.  hit.,  but  properly  speaking,  its  extent 
toward*  the  south  is  not  known,  and  it  is  even  probable 
that  it  reaches  the  foot  of  the  Eldon  range,  a  chain  of 
mountains  which  has  been  seen  from  a  distance,  and  which 


probably  is  nboi  hit.     This  region  gives  origin 

to  a  jrn-a:  number  of  rivers,  which  run  off  in  all  dircc' 
Witli  the  exception  of  a  few  n\  ;  "lr 

coast,  all  the  rivers  which  fall  in! 

E.  long,  and    north  of  -\1    S.  lat.  rise  in  t  Mills: 

they  must  therefore  constitute  the  highest  ground'  in  this 
part  of  Tasmania.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  highest  part 
of  the  region  lies  on  its  outer  edges,  for  the  region  is  sur- 
rounded on  the  east,  and  still  more  on  the  north  and  west, 
by  hills  which  rise  considerably  above  the  general  level, 
xtremely  steep  declivities',  and  narrov  '-on 

their  tops,  but'are  otherwise  covered  with  dense  forests  fre- 
quently matted  together  by  underwood.  Among  the  single 
summits  are  tin  line's  1'eak,  near  the  northern 

edge,  which  isUUKlfeet  above  the  sea,  and  the  Black  Bluff 
Mount,  which  is  said  to  be  :«m  feet  higher.  The  interior 
of  the  legion  is  very  different.  Its  surface  is  formed  by  a 
•  if  low  hills,  which  rise  with  so  gentle  a  slope 
that  it  may  be  considered  a  plain,  and  it  is  intersected  by 
small  brooks,  tl  .  .vhich  are  adorned  with  narrow 

belts  of  beaittiful  shrubs  and  trees.  Whenever  a  hill 
to  a  higher  elevation,  its  declivity  consists  of  level  and 
regular  terraces,  a.s  if  laid  out  by  art,  and  the  summit  is 
crowned  with  stately  peppermint-trees.  There  are  many 
open  plains  of  several  square  miles  in  extent  without  a 
tree.  In  general  there  arc  not  more  than  ten  trees  to  an 
The  hills  are  covered  with  a  vigorous  growth  of 
grass.  The  soil  is  a  dark  vegetable  mould  upon  a  rich 
brown  loam.  The  substratum  appears  to  be  gravel,  which 
renders  these  hills  perfectly  dry,  and  fit  for  sheep-walks,  lor 
which  purpose  they  now  are  used  by  the  settlements  which 
have  been  formed  on  them  by  the  Van  Dieinen's  Land 
Company.  This  country  extends  north  of  St.  Valentine's 
Peak  on' both  sides  of  the  Emu  river,  where  it  appear*  even 
more  park-like  than  farther  south,  being  handsomely 
clumped  with  trees.  This  tract  is  called  the  Hanij 
Hills.  The  elevation  of  the  Surrey  Hills  above  tin 
level  renders  the  climate  much  colder  than  on  the  . 
Snow  covers  the  ground  for  several  weeks,  which  however 
must  be  considered  as  an  advantage  in  a  country  where 
the.  soil  inclines  to  dryncss.  It  has  also  the  benefit  of 
abundant  rains  during  autumn  (March  and  April  . 

Between  the  valley  of  the  Mji'iuidcr  and  the  Surrey  Hills 
on  the  south,  and  Bass's  Strait  on  the  north,  is  the  hilly 
!  region  of  Devonshire.  The  mountains  which  extend  from 
the  gorge  of  the  South  Ksk  to  the  west  of  the  Tamar  north- 
north-west,  and  terminate  on  the  sea  with  1'oint  Flinders, 
appear  to  constitute  a  continuous  range  of  moderate  eleva- 
tion. They  ore  partly  wooded  and  partly  destitute  of  tree-, 
and  in  some  places  covered  with  a  very  scanty  vegetation 
of  shrubs  or  grass.  Farther  west  this  region  is  very  little 
known,  except  that  the  spaces  between  the  rivers  are  tilled 
up  with  mountains  and  high  hills,  and  that  these  heights 
come  close  to  the  shores  of  the  sea.  Few,  if  any.  settle- 
ments have  been  formed  on  it.  This  region  extend- 
ward  to  the  banks  of  the  Emu  River. 

West  of  the  Emu  River  begins  the  (ii;-nl  Plain  of  Tas- 
mania :  it  oeeii|.  ill-western  portion  of  the  island, 
extending  along  the  northern  coast  from  the  Emu  to  I  'ape 
.  and   along  the   western   coa.-t    to  the  Arthur  River. 
The  narrowest  portion  of  this  plain  appears  to  be  between 
the  Emu  and  Detention   Rivers,  where   its  width  .Iocs  not 
!  12  miles,  and  it.  terminates  on  the    south   at   the 
Hampshire  Hill-.     Farther  west  a  continuous  range  of  high 
hills,    called    the    Campbell    Range,    forms    its    bom 
and  terminates  near  the  source  of  the  Detention  River  with 
Dip  Hill.  ;i  mountain  of   moderate  elevation.     The  snrlacc 
of  this  portion  of  the  plain  is  strongly  undulating,  and  in 
many  purls  even  hilly.     Near  the  shores  it    is  o\ei  grown 
with  dense  forests,  winch  arc  made  nearly   impenetrable  by 
the  underwood,  bushes,  and  ferns.     But  about  three  miles 
or  somewhat  more  from  the  sea  the  forests  are  interrupted 
.ill  plains  covered  with  grass  and  des- 
titute of  trees.  They  have  a  light  dry  soil,  are  well  watered 
by  springs  and  sljcunis.  and  surrounded  by  excellent  tim- 
ber.     The  grass  is  coai-r  but  plentiful  :  there  arc  iiiso  some 
fit    for   cultivation.     West    of  Detention   River  Hie. 
plain  grows  wider.     From    Dip  Hill,  at  the  source   of  the 
I  Icily  er    distinguished    the    high    grounds    at   Cape 
(film   and  'West    I'oinl,    though   they   arc   of  very    niode- 
l        plain,   we-t    of   1  >etcnl ion  R'ivcr,  ex- 
ceed 15  miles  in  width.     This   large  tract  however  i> 
ill  adapted  for  colonization.   The  surface,  is  generally  level 


T  A  S 


85 


T  A  S 


and  the  water  not  being  carried  off,  the  country  has  been 
converted  into  an  immense  swamp.  A  portion  of  the  swamp 
is  overgrown  by  low  tea-trees,  and  the  remainder  is  covered 
with  forests  of  eucalyptus  and  underwood.  The  higher 
grounds,  which  generally  occur  nearer  the  shores,  have  a 
sandy  soil  covered  with  heath  or  stunted  trees.  The  only 
tract  which  seems  to  be  applicable  to  useful  purposes  is 
along  the  sea  from  Cape  Grim  to  the  River  Arthur :  its 
width  near  the  cape  is  several  miles,  but  farther  south  it 
grows  much  narrower :  the  surface  is  hilly  and  partly  stony. 
The  soil  has  generally  a  tendency  to  sand,  but  it  is  thickly 
covered  with  kangaroo  grass,  and  makes  good  pasture- 
ground  for  sheep,  and  in  some  places  for  cattle.  Trees 
occur  only  at  considerable  distances  from  each  other.  It 
is  probable  that  the  plain  continues  south  of  Arthur  River, 
but  that  it  is  of  less  extent  there,  as  low  hills  have  been 
seen  at  a  short  distance  from  the  sea,  which  are  dry  and 
only  covered  with  bushes,  but  behind  them  the  hills  rise 
much  higher.  These  parts  have  never  been  visited. 

The  Arthur,  whose  mouth  is  near  41°  lOi  S.  lat.,  is  a 
river  of  considerable  size,  and  brings  down  a  large  volume 
of  water.  There  is  a  bar  across  its  mouth,  on  which  the 
sea  breaks  with  a  heavy  surf.  Its  middle  course  is  not 
known,  but  it  is  supposed  that  the  chief  supply  of  its  waters 
is  derived  from  the  Surrey  Hills,  and  that  two  large  rivers, 
which  rise  there,  and  are  respectively  called  Hellyer  River 
and  Arthur  River,  unite  in  the  country  between  the  Surrey 
Hills  and  the  western  coast ;  and  that  by  their  confluence 
the-  Arthur  is  formed. 

The  other  known  rivers  of  the  northern  part  of  Tasmania 
are  unimportant,  with  the  exception  of  the  Emu,  which  is 
navigable  for  boats  for  a  few  miles.  With  respect  to  the 
Smith  Esk,  which  probably  has  a  course  of  100  miles,  two 
of'its  principal  branches,  the  Macquarrie  and  the  Lake  River, 
rise  on  the  southern  elevated  plains,  and  the  upper  branches 
of  these  rivers  interlock  with  rivers  which  flow  southward 
to  the  Derwent.  As  other  branches  of  the  South  Esk  rise 
near  the  eastern  coast,  and  others  far  to  the  west,  it  is  pro- 
liable  that  the  area  of  the  country  which  is  drained  by  it 
and  the  North  Esk  does  not  fall  short  of  4000  square  miles. 
The  Tamar  certainly  receives  the  drainage  of  a  much  larger 
extent  of  country  than  any  other  river  of  Tasmania. 

I'li mate. — As  no  meteorological  observations  have  been 
published  on  the  climate  of  Tasmania,  we  only  know  its 
peculiarities  by  comparisons  which  have  been  made  be- 
tween it  and  that  of  England  and  Sydney.  There  is  a  con- 
_siderable  difference  between  the  climate  of  Hobart  Town 
on  the  southern,  and  of  Launceston  on  the  northern  coast. 
The  climate  of  Hobart  Town  seems  to  be  greatly  in- 
fluenced by  the  range  of  mountains  west  of  the  town  and 
the  vicinity  of  the  open  ocean.  The  vague  statement  of 
Breton,  that  the  mean  temperature  in  summer  is  70°,  and 
in  winter  between  40"  and  48°,  is  apparently  not  derived 
from  observations,  and  is  not  much  to  be  relied  on.  The 
climate  of  Hohart  Town  is  extremely  changeable.  Heat, 
cold,  rain,  and  sunshine  succeed  each  other  with  a  rapidity 
which  is  rarely  observed  in  any  other  part  of  the  globe.  The 
winter  is  not  more  constant  than  the  summer :  the  same 
alternations,  with  the  addition  of  hail  and  snow,  follow  each 
other  in  quick  succession  ;  but  the  snow  never  remains  on 
the  ground  beyond  a  few  hours,  whilst  at  Launceston  it  falls 
in  greater  quantity,  and  covers  the  ground  for  many  days 
together.  This  statement  does  not  agree  with  another,  ac- 
cording to  which  the  average  number  of  days  on  which  rain 
actually  falls  dors  not  exceed  fifty  or  sixty  in  the  year,  and 
that,  except  on  these  days,  the  sky  is  clear,  the  sun  brilliant, 
and  the  atmosphere  dry,  pure,  and  elastic.  Hot  winds 
sometimes  occur,  which  occasionally  raise  the  thermometer 
to  108°.  They  blow  from  north  and  north-west,  and  rarely 
la>t  a  long  time  ;  but  during  their  prevalence  vegetation  is 
greatly  injured.  However  warm  the  middle  of  the  day  may 
lie,  it  is  invariably  attended  by  a  morning  and  evening  so 
cool  as  completely  to  brace  the  body,  and  to  counteract  any 
enervating  effects  of  the  climate.  Thunder-storms  are  less 
icnt  than  in  Australia,  but  violent  gusts  of  wind  some- 
times occur,  which  cause  great  destruction  in  the  forests, 
and  the  coasts  are  visited  by  much  boisterous  weather. 
Alctii;  tin;  \votern  coast  strong  south-westerly  winds  pre- 
vail nearly  all  the  year  round,  and  render  this  tract  almost 
inaccessible  on  account  of  the  want  of  harbours.  During 
•>n»  of  the  year  westerly  gales  continue  for  many 
weeks  in  Bass's  Strait,  so  that  vessels  sailing  from  Sydney 
to  the  Atlantic  find  that  I  hey  save  time  and  labour  by 


going  round  the  island.  The  climate  is  very  healthy  :  no 
epidemic  or  contagious  diseases  have  been  observed,  and 
acute  diseases  are  generally  mild  and  of  short  duration,  and 
yield  more  easily  to  the  usual  remedies  than  in  anv  other 
country. 

Productions. — The  mineral  wealth  of  the  island  is  not 
known.  The  existence  of  gold  and  silver  rests  on  state- 
ments which  cannot  be  relied  on ;  but  that  of  copper  is 
certain,  and  this  metal  is  rather  abundant  in  some  of  the 
hills  on  the  north  coast.  Iron-ore  is  abundant,  but  not 
yet  turned  to  account.  Some  ore  which  was  subjected  to 
a  trial  yielded  80  per  cent,  of  metal.  There  are  also  in- 
dications of  lead,  zinc,  and  manganese  ;  and  those  of  coal 
have  been  found  all  across  the  island.  Roofing-slate  of 
good  quality  abounds  in  many  parts  :  on  the  Arthur  such 
extensive  layers  were  discovered  by  Hellyer,  that  in  his 
opinion  the  whole  globe  might  be  supplied  with  them. 
Salt  is  obtained  from  the  salt  lakes  of  Salt-Pan  Plain,  and 
is  also  got  from  sea-water  on  Bruni  Island,  but  not  in 
sufficient  quantity  to  supply  the  consumption.  Salt  is 
imported  from  England.  Excellent  sandstone  for  building 
is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  island,  and  marble  is  met  with 
at  various  places.  Basalt  rocks  are  frequent  along  the 
coast  and  in  many  places  in  the  interior. 

No  tropical  grains  or  plants  are  cultivated,  but  all  grains 
cultivated  in  England  succeed  well.  Wheat  is  of  excel- 
lent quality,  weighing  generally  from  62  to  64  pounds  the 
bushel :  considerable  quantities  are  exported.  Barley  and 
oats  will  only  thrive  in  a  good  soil.  Vegetables  of  all 
kinds  are  most  plentiful,  even  those  of  Southern  Europe, 
the  production  of  which  requires  in  England  much  care 
and  expense.  The  apple-orchards  are  of  great  extent, 
and  the  making  of  cider  is  attended  to.  Peaches,  apricots, 
and  nectarines  grow  very  abundantly.  Damsons,  plums, 
cherries,  pears,  and  quinces  are  also  grown ;  but  the  fruit 
is  of  inferior  quality,  for  want  of  care.  Grapes  are  of  good 
quality,  but  no  good  wine  has  yet  been  made.  Rasp- 
berries, gooseberries,  and  currents  are  abundant  and  of 
good  quality  :  strawberries  are  also  good.  All  these  fruits 
have  been  introduced  by  the  settlers. 

The  domestic  animals  of  Europe  have  been  transplanted 
to  Tasmania,  and  thrive  very  well.  Sheep  are  most  nu- 
merous. Wool  and  live  stock  are  exported  to  a  great 
extent.  Black  cattle  are  also  numerous,  and  many  head 
are  annually  exported  ;  and  also  some  horses.  Fowls  are 
extremely  numerous,  but  geese  and  ducks  are  not  much 
kept. 

The  spermaceti-whale  is  very  abundant  in  Bass's  Strait, 
and  many  of  them  are  annually  taken,  but  more  by  the 
inhabitants  of  Australia  than  by  those  of  Tasmania.  Black 
whales  abound  in  all  the  seas  round  the  island,  and  a  very 
lucrative  fishery  is  carried  on  along  the  southern  coast. 
Whalebone  and  train-oil  are  important  articles  of  export. 
A  small  quantity  of  spermaceti-oil  is  also  exported.  Seals 
are  found  on  most  of  the  smaller  islands,  and  especially 
on  the  eastern  coast :  their  skins  constitute  an  article 
of  export.  Some  of  the  animals  of  the  forests  are  common 
to  Australia  and  Tasmania.  The  native  tiger  (Hyaena 
opossum)  and  the  native  devil  (Dasyurus  ursinus)  are  pe- 
culiar to  Tasmania,  and  perhaps  also  the  wild  cat.  These 
are  the  only  carnivorous  animals  in  Tasmania,  with  the 
exception  of  some  species  of  weasel.  There  are  three  or 
four  species  of  kangaroos,  two  kinds  of  opossum,  the  ban- 
dicoot, the  native  porcupine  or  echidna,  the  wombat,  the 
opossum-mouse,  and  the  ornithorhynchus  paradoxus.  All 
the  wild  animals  of  Tasmania,  with  the  exception  of  the 
native  devil,  are  very  easily  tamed  and  domesticated.  The 
birds  are  numerous :  these  are  emus,  black  and  white 
cockatoos,  parrots,  two  kinds  of  magpies,  the  laughing 
jackass,  hawks,  eagles,  the  carrion  crow,  pelican,  black 
swan,  ducks,  teal,  widgeons,  quails,  snipes,  and  bronze- 
winged  pigeons :  the  last-named  are  considered  the  most 
beautiful  birds  in  the  island.  There  are  likewise  several 
varieties  of  snakes,  two  or  three  of  which  are  venomous ; 
also  centipedes,  scorpions,  and  large  ants.  Fish  are 
said  to  be  more  numerous  than  on  the  coast  of  Australia, 
but  they  have  not  been  further  noticed.  The  river-fish 
are  small. 

None  of  the  forest-trees  or  shrubs  yield  an  edible  fruit. 
They  are  all  evergreens,  and  have  that  sombre  olive  hue 
which  prevails  in  Australia,  without  a  single  lively  tint, 
except  that  of  the  native  cherry,  to  break  this  monotony. 
The  most  numerous  are  the  eucalyptus,  which  attains  an 


T  A  S 


T  A  S 


immense  die.  From  on*  of  its  specie*  ft  manna  U  ob- 
tained, which  taates  like  some  kind  of  sugar-plum :  it  form* 

.•(ions  on  the  leaves  and  smaller  branches :  lint  in 
found  in  fin ch  triflinir  quantities  that  it  would  never  repay 
1  he  trouble  of  oollccting  it.  The  most  i;  it  the 

stringy  bark,  which  i*  used  for  building  anil  fern-ing;  and 
the  lifue  gum.  of  which  moot  of  the  boat*  in  the  colony 
nre  built.  The  smaller  trees  are  used  for  matt*  for  small 
VM*el*.  The  ]ii'])|iermint,  so  called  from  the  taste  of  the 
leaves,  is  a  Inrtre  tree,  but  of  very  little  MM.  Tho  Huoli 
pine  is  the  most  beautiful  wood  In  the  island  :  it  is  very 

i or  both  in  colour  and  substance  to  the  Norway  deal, 
but  is  scarce  and  difficult  to  be  had.  The  Adventure  pine, 
so  called  from  the  bay  <>r  that  name,  is  a  species  of  pine 
adapted  for  house-work  and  furniture  :  but  it  i*  not  com- 
mon. The  black  and  silver  wattle  mimosa  are  used  in 
hou»e-work  and  furniture,  but  they  nre  of  diminutive  size. 
The  bark  of  the  black  wattle  is  exported  to  Knglnnd  in 
large  quantities.  The  tea-tree  is  a  shrub  which  grows  in 
wet  situations :  an  infusion  of  its  leaves  makes  n  pleasant 
and,  with  a  little  sugar,  forms  an  excellent  sub- 
stitute for  tea. 

(Hindere's  Voyage  to  Terra  Auttralit ;  Hovel's  Voyagt 
fStirteattfOUX,  &c. ;  Evans's  OtogfffMioal,  llixturinil, 
and  Topograjikicat  Description  of  I 'tin  .' 
Widowson's  Present  State  <>f  Agriculture.  <V-.  in  I 'tut 
Diemea'»  Land;  Bischoft"s  Sketch  of  the  History  iff  I'mt 
Difinen'tt  Land,  <f-e.  ;  and  Breton's  Excursions  in  Ntw 
South  H 

llntory. — In  1803  Lieutenant  Bowen,  commissioned  by 
the  government  of  New  South  Wales,  landed  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Derwent,  and  1'oniially  took  possession  of  Van 
Piemen's  Land  as  a  place  of  settlement.  In  the  following 
year  Colonel  Collins,  the  first  lieutenant-governor,  arrived, 
and  established  the  seat  of  government  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Derwent:  he  gave  to  the  spot  the  name  of  Hobart 
Town,  in  compliment  to  Lord  Hobart,  then  secretary  of 
state  for  the  colonies.  Colonel  Patterson  arrived  in  the 
tame  year  in  the  Tamar,  and  formed  an  establishment  on 
its  west  bank.  Colonel  Pavcy  succeeded  to  the  govern- 
ment in  1x13,  and  under  his  administration  the  ports  of 
the  colony  were  first  opened  to  commerce,  only  transport 
vessels  from  New  South  Wales  having  previously  been  ad- 
mitted. Colonel  Sorellwas  appointed  litmtenant-LTovcrnor 
in  1X17,  and  in  1S19  the  immigration  of  free  settlers  from 
England  commenced,  the  colony  having  been  previously 

lively  formed  of  criminals  sent  from  New  South 
Wales  for  crimes  repeated  there,  and  of  the  civil  and  mili- 
tary officers  charged  with  their  superintendence.  Till  the 
year  1H24  the  government  was  subject  to  that  of  New 
South  Wales,  and  the  chief  civil  and  criminal  questions 
an-ing  111  Van  Dicnien's  Land  were  decided  in  Sydney. 
The  only  courts  in  the  island  were  those  of  police  magis- 
trate*, who  had  cognizance  of  petty  crimes,  air.l  a  court 
for  the  settlement  of  questions  of  value  not  exceeding  ."HI/.. 
in  which  a  military  officer  presided.  Great  inconvenience 
and  mischief  resulted  from  this  state  of  things. 
eases  were  mostly  settled  by  compromise  ;  and  in  criminal 
cases,  the  most  dangerous  offenders  were  allowed  to 
weapc. 

The  most  important  steps  in  the  progress  of  the  colony 
were  made  between  the  years  1M24  and  1K30,  (luring  the 
administration  of  Colonel'  Arthur  :— 

In  lw.Il,  the  population  w;i>   U,r.|:i:  in  IKTi  it  waa  40,283 
„        Number  of  vessels 

which  arrived     .         .'U ;  „                   ill 

„        Sailed  outwards     .         :!.">;  „ 

„         Acres  in  crop            :il.(Ki3;  „ 
„         Pounds    of    wool 

exported        .        l.«l,(KK);  „          1,042,800 
„         Number  of  nianu- 

factoiic-         .               ±2;  „                    133 

Hanks       .          .               •    1 ;  „ 

Kevcmic  .         '  „  £]<• 

;ienditnrc     .      1  f 

Value  of  Imports  -T(,j.<  N  N i : 
l-Aports  I'll. :>()(); 

l  Return*  of  Vnn  Dtentfn't  l^m.l.  ,-,,n,j,il,:l 
hy  the  Colonial  fetMtMjr,  Hobart  T  '  HV/i  Oct.. 

AM 

Huadi  were  formed  and  bridge*  constructed  in  different 
part*  of  the  island ;  wholesome  laws  w«re  introduced ;  the 


tone  of  public  opinion  wra*  improved,  and  the  fnii' 
enterprise  and  industry  were  secured  by  an  improved  police 

system. 

"  That  which  chiefly  contribut,  progress  of  the 

nent  was  extraordiiK!'  t  to 

emigrants.     Grants  of   hind"  wei 
tinned  in  extent  to  the  capital  which  • 
pared  to  invest  in  stock  and  in  agricultural 
The  labour  of  convicts  was  not  only  liberal' 

lonist  was  rewarded  for  employing  it  by  n 
of  rations  for  himself  and  the  convict*  in  hi*  employ  for 
some  time  after  hi*  arrival  :  and  ut  a  later  period,  when 
this  remuneration,  or,  to  speak  more  correctly,  thin  addi- 
tional bonus,  was  withdrawn  altogether,  labour  was  ob- 
tained on  the  .  lion*  ol  the  settler  providing 

clothes,  food,  and  KM!  -signed  I" 

Thert  were  other  advantagi  incident  t< 

purposes  for  which  the  colony  was  founded,  which  a- 
its  progress.     The  character  and  condition  of  1h 
of  the  population  required  that  a  civil  and  mi 
should  be  established  on  the  island,  which.  I" 
tained  by  the  British    government,  introduced    MI  much 
capital  annually.     From  the  magnitude  of  their  crimes  or 
their  dangerous  character,  it  was   not   deemed 
move  from  under  the  immediate   coercion  of  government 
a  large  number,  amounting   latterh  •housands, 

of  the  convicts,  and  their  punishment  was  made  to 
consist  of  hard  labour  at  works  of  public,  utility,  Mich  us 
the  making  and  repairing  of  roads  and  bridges.  While 
the  expense  of  maintaining  these  convicts  was  dcfravi 
the  British  government,  the  settlers  contracted  to  supply 
the  vaiiou.s  articles  which  made  up  that  expense. 

thus    in    a   twofold   manner    benefited:    they   hail 
labourers  employed  for  their  advantage  at  the  cost  of  a 
third  party,  and  they  were  enabled  to  derive  a  profit  from 
the  payment  of  that  labour.     With  such  circumstai-. 
its  favour,   with  a  healthy  climate,  and  a  soil  of  a\> 
capabilities,  it  was  impossible  that  Tasmania  should  n 
vance.     Its  progress  has  accordingly  been  steady,  scarcely 
subject  to  any  of  those  variations  to  which  young  colonies 
are  exposed  ;  —  to  none  indeed  but  such  as  may  be  strictly 
referred  to  that  gambling  spirit  of  speculation  which  the 
occasional    great    protits   of    an   imperfectly    established 
market  are.  apt  to  engender. 

In  1831  the  system  of  colonization  by  free  grants  of  land 
was  abolished,  and  since  then  land  has  been  sol,  I  1 
tion,  first  at  the  unset  price  of  five  shillings  per 
scqueiitly  at  twelve  shillings;    and  latterly  at  twen: 
which  it  remains.     The  system  of  assignment  of  eoiivict. 
labour  is  at  present  only  partially  in  force,  and  it  is  in- 
tended to  discontinue  it.     The  colony   has  prohab: 
\anced  to  that  state  in  which  the  advantages  (advantages 
not  without  some  drawbacks  e\  en  in  the  In  it  .-om- 

pulsory  labour  have  ceased,  and  in  which  the.  iniuuti 
the  good  will,  the  steady  subordination  of  the  servant  are 
to  the'  success  of  industrial  operations. 


. 

Trade  an  The  staple  article  of  production 

in  Tasmania  is  wool,  the  amount  of  which  cxpoitcd  m  the 
year  ending  December,  Is:  is.  cu-ccded  2.4!KI.!I.H)  1  1  is.  <  /'<;/•- 
/  in  mi  •.'•!  i>n  lym  I  innl  II  ootten  Ma 

April  -J!».   IXI'l.  i     The  value   nf  this  wool    in   tl,, 
market  has,  according  to  tb  Report  ol  the  * 

tary  to    the   government    ol    V;n    Diemens   Land,    quoted 
above,  ranged  from   Iv.  (it/,  to  Uv.  li</.  per  Ib.     A  con 
able   trade  has  during  the  last  live   year-,   been   earned   on 
with   the   new  colonies  of  Australia,  South  and 

'hillip,  in  sheep,  the  prices  of  which  have  varied  in 
that  time  so  much  its  from  seven  shilling.-,  to  si\! 
•  ad. 

Owing  to  the  smallncssof  the  demand  for  grain,  am!  tin- 
great  outlay  required  in  the  clearing  of  laud,  a 
operations  have  been  slow  in  Tasmania.     This  ha-  hi* 
been  accounted  for  by  the  circumstance  that  tc 
farmers  emigrated   to   the   colony.     '  The    earlier   settlers 
••hiefly  artuaus  of  intem]K'rate  habits,  unacquainted 
with  hu.sbamhv  .  and  disinclined  to  attain  a  knowledge  of  it. 
liter  from  whose  account  we   quote,  him- 
self for  ten  years  a   colonist    of  Van  Dieinen's  I.  and  i  they 
obtained  and  located  themselves  on  grants  of  land  :  turned 
up  the  soil,  and  threw  grain  into  it  :  and  it  being  grateful, 
repaid  their  rude  essays  with  bountiful  harvests.     This  was 
sufficient.    When  one  piece  ol  land  was  exhausted,  another 
was  broken  up,  and  so  on  in  constant  succession.     Fresh 


T  A  S 


87 


T  A  S 


settlers  continued  to  arrive,  and  obtained  land  too ;  and  as 
these  were  not  agriculturists  either,  they  had  to  copy  their 
predecessors.  Such  was  the  progress  of  agriculture  in  Van 
Diemen'g  Land ;  and  such  is  its  condition  at  the  present 
period  (1838).  The  diversity  of  the  climate  in  the  different 
oistriete  is  still  overlooked  ;  the  seasons  are  scarcely  ascer- 
tained, and  the  proper  times  for  sowing  remain  doubtful, 
and  are  adopted  irregularly.'  (The  Condition  and  Capa- 
bilities of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  by  John  Dixon,  1839.) 
Van  Diemen's  Land  however  produces  not  only  a  sufficient 
supply  of  grain  for  domestic  consumption,  but  has  con- 
tributed for  several  years  to  supply  the  deficiency  in  New 
South  Wales  ;  and  in  the  opinion  of  local  writers  there  is  a 
probability  of  its  being  the  granary  of  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere. Oxen  are  generally  used,  instead  of  horses,  in 
ploughing,  and  the  implements  of  husbandry  are  those  in 
use  in  England. 

Oil  constitutes  the  second  great  article  of  export  from 
Tasmania.  Whales  of  the  black  species  were  at  one  time 
taken  in  trreat  abundance  in  the  bays  on  the  coast  of  the 
island ;  but  we  find  that  Mr,  Dixon  confirms  the  appre- 
hensions expressed  by  an  earlier  writer  on  the  colony 
iont  on  New  South  Wales  and  Van  Diemen's 
Land,  by  John  Henderson,  Calcutta,  1832)  of  their  being 
driven  away  by  an  injudicious  prosecution  of  the  fishery  at 
all  seasons  of  the  year.  Sperm  oil,  as  well  as  that  of  the 
black  whale,  is  exported.  The  returns  derived  from  this 
source  are  still  considerable. 

Among  the  miscellaneous  exports  are  bark,  kangaroo 
skins,  \vhnlc-bone,  and  potatoes  (to  Sydney) ;  but  the  ag- 
>te  of  the  returns  from  these  articles  is  trifling. 

There  are  about  eight  banking   establishments,  with 

branches  in  the  chief  towns.   .They  are  all  joint-stock,  the 

shareholders  being  responsible  to  the  full  extent  of  their 

property.  They  circulate  notes  of  one  pound  and  upwards. 

interest  at  a  recent  date  was  ten  per  cent.,  and  at  the 

period  at  which  this  article  is  written  it  cannot  be  affirmed 

with  confidence  whether  it  is  lowered.     There  are  also 

al  companies  for  the  insurance  of  life  and  property. 

iJirinimis  of  the  Island. — Original'y  Tasmania  was 
divided  into  two  counties,  but  it  has  since  been  subdivided 
into  police  districts,  and  more  recently  into  thirty-six 
counties.  We  are  not  awdre  however  that  any  map  em- 
bracing the  county  divisions  has  been  published,  and  in  the 
following  details  we  adhere  to  the  divisions  into  districts. 
The  district  of  Hobart  Town  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the 
riser  Derwent,  and  on  the  south  and  west  by  the  river  Huon, 
on  the  north  by  New  Norfolk  and  Richmond  districts.  It 
comprises  an  iirea  of  about  400  square  miles,  or  250,000 
ol  which  not  more  than  about  4000  are  yet  in  cul- 
tivation. Richmond  is  bounded  on  the  south  and  east  by 
the  sea,  on  the  north  by  Oatlands,  and  on  the  west  by  New 
Norfolk;  its  towns  are  Richmond,  Sorell,  and  Brighton ; 
liesicles  which  it  includes  several  lariri-  agricultural  e-ta- 
Mi.shmeiits:  it  contains  about  1050 square  miles,  or  072,000 
.  of  which  about  22.(XX)  are  estimated  to  be  under  cul- 
tivation. New  Norfolk  is  bounded  on  three  sides  by  Hobart, 
( 'lydc.and  Richmond  districts,  and  on  the  west  and  south- 
by  unlociited  lands.  The  towns  are  New  Norfolk  and 
Hamilton,  and  it  comprises  about  lf>0()  square  miles,  or 
!Mj,000  acres,  a  great  portion  of  which  is  ban-en  and  rocky: 
about  (MMN'  in  cultivation.  Clyde  is  bounded  on 

the  west  l>y  unloeated  lands,  and  on  the  other  three  sides 
by  Norfolk  Plains,  Campbell  Town,  and  Oatlands  districts  : 
its  only  town  is  Bothwell.  This  district  comprises  1700 
square  miles  or  l.OHKOOO  acres,  about  5000  of  which  are  in 
cultivation.  Oatlands,  bounded  on  the  south  by  Richmond, 
east  by  Oyster  Hay,  west  by  the  Clyde  district,  and  north 
by  Campbell  Town,  contains  900  square  miles,  or  about 
:~>7G,(KX)  acres.  Oatlands  and  Jericho  are  its  towns.  Up- 
ward* of  4000  acres  are  in  cultivation.  Campbell  Town, 
bounded  on  the  south  by  Oatlands,  east  by  unloeated  laiHs 
extending  to  the  sea,  west  by  theClyde  and  Norfolk  Plains, 
and  north  by  Launccston  district,  comprises  about  1200 
square  miles,  or  8f>0,000  acres.  Its  towns  are  Campbell 
Town  and  Ross.  The  land  is  rich  and  fertile,  having  KOOO 
or  9000  acres  in  cultivation.  Norfolk  Plains  are  bounded  on 
(hi-  ,.,'ilh  1,1  the  Clyde,  east  by  Campbell  Town  and  Laun- 
and  by  the  territories  of  the  Van  Diemen's 
Land  (  <mi|j:uiy,  and  north  by  Bass's  Straits.  This  district 
com  'i  square  miles,  or  rather  more  than  1,500,000 

acres.  Longford  anil  Westbury  are  the  townships.  About 
8000  and  are  supposed  to  be  m  cultivation.  Laun- 


ceston  district  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  Campbell  Town, 
on  the  west  by  Norfolk  Plains  districts,  and  on  the  north 
and  east  by  the  ocean.  Besides  the  town  of  Launceston 
it  has  Perth  and  George  Town.  The  district  covers  3800 
square  miles,  or  about  .2,352,000  acres;  not  more  than 
10,000  or  11,000  of  which  are  in  cultivation.  Oyster  Bay 
is  bounded  on  the^south  by  Richmond,  west  and  north  by 
Oatlands  and  Campbell  Town  districts,  and  east  by  the 
ocean.  It  contains  about  900  square  miles,  or  570,000 
acres,  of  which  between  2000  and  3000  are  estimated  to  be 
in  cultivation.  (Martin's  Van  Diemen's  Land ;  Hobart 
Town  Annual.) 

The  other  divisions  of  the  island  are — the  Van  Diemen's 
Land  Company's  territories,  comprising  nearly  half  a  mil- 
lion of  acres  on  the  north-west  corner  of  the  island,  bounded 
on  two  sides  by  the  sea,  on  the  others  by  crown  lands  not 
yet  located,  and  by  the  settled  districts  of  the  Norfolk 
Plains;  and  Tasman's  Peninsula.  Of  the  purposes  to  which 
Tasman's  Peninsula  is  applied,  an  account  is  given  in  the 
article  TRANSPORTATION. 

Towns. — Of  the  towns  mentioned  in  the  preceding  out- 
line of  the  territorial  divisions  of  Tasmania,  only  two  or 
three  are  worthy  of  notice,  the  others  being  little  more 
than  villages  or  sites  laid  out  for  towns  on  which  a  few 
straggling  houses  are  built.  '  Hobart  Town  is  built  upon 
an  undulating  surface,  receding  from  a  cove  on  the  left  of 
the  Dervvent.  Seen  from  the  water,  it  seems  to  run  up 
before  you  on  a  variety  of  ascents,  and  to  spread  itself 
abroad  upon  the  hills  in  the  distance.  Mount  Wellington, 
a  great  mountain,  which  during  nine  months  in  the  year 
is  capped  with  snow,  and  which  rises  four  thousand  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  .sea,  stands  at  the  back,  in  darkness 
and  sublimity,  and  overlooks  the  surrounding  scenery. 
The  town  is  laid  out  with  judgment.  There  are  about  twenty 
streets,  all  wide,  and  dividing  or  intersecting  one  another 
at  right  angles.  A  narrow  and  shallow  rivulet,  which 
takes  its  rise  from  Mount  Wellington,  flows  through  the 
town,  and  affords  the  inhabitants  their  only  supply  of  fresh 
water.  All  the  streets  are  macadamized,  and  none  are 
flagged.  .  .  The  houses  bear  no  common  aspect.  Some 
are  of  brick,  others  of  stone ;  but  all,  instead  of  being 
slated,  are  roofed  with  shingles.  As  every  proprietor  has 
been  guided  by  his  own  taste  in  the  structure  of  his  house, 
few  are  built  alike  or  upon  the  same  plan  ;  and  as  he  was 
not  restrained  by  the  government  to  a  settled  line,  they  are 
often  planted  in  a  zigzag  position.  The  town  covers  a 
great  deal  of  ground,  but  little  of  it  after  all  is  built  upon. 
A  tree  is  seen  sometimes  standing  in  the  midst  of  houses, 
and  a  house  often  in  the  midst  of  trees.  Dwellings  have 
been  erected  long  before  the  streets  were  made,  and  the 
town  being  upon  a  very  irregular  surface,  some  of  the 
buildings  in  consequence  now  occupy  very  awkward  situa- 
tions. On  one  side  of  a  street  they  are  often  elevated 
much  above  the  level  ;  while,  on  the  other  they  are  sunk 
considerably  beneath  it.  Shops  are  scattered  all  over 
Hobart  Town  ;  but  the  business  thoroughfare  is  confined 
to  two  streets.  Some  of  the  shops  are  showy  and  respect- 
able, even  tasteful  and  elegant ;  displaying  an  appearance 
equal  to  that  of  many  in  London.  The  householder  is  as 
particular  in  decorating  the  interior  of  his  house  as  ho 
would  be  were  he  in  England,  and  hence  his  furniture  is  not 
inferior  to  that  of  those  of  his  own  rank  in  the  mother  coun- 
try.' (Dixon's  Account.)  In  1839  there  were  upwards  of 
fifteen  hundred  houses  in  Hobart  Town.  Among  the  public 
buildings  may  be  named  three  handsome  Episcopalian 
churches,  and  one  Presbyterian,  one  superior  edifice  be- 
longing to  the  Wesleyans,  besides  several  of  inferior  descrip- 
tion, the  property  of  the  same  body,  two  Independent, 
chapels,  and  a  Roman  Catholic  church,  by  this  time  proba- 
bly completed.  The  Government  House  is  an  irregular  struc- 
ture, made  up  of  continual  additions  to  an  originally  small 
building,  and  is  shortly  to  give  place  to  another  house  in- 
tended for  the  residence  of  the  lieutenant-governor,  of 
which  the  foundation  has  been  laid.  There  are  custom- 
houses, a  handsome  theatre,  a  court-house,  and  police- 
office,  and  an  exchange  has  been  set  on  foot.  There  are 
many  benevolent  and  religious  institutions  and  societies 
established,  and  two  or  three  of  a  literary  character.  Seven 
papers  are  published,  most  of  which  are  weekly,  besides 
an  official  gazette  and  two  gratuitous  advertising  sheets. 
The  population  of  Hobart  Town,  including  the  convicts  and 
military  as  well  as  the  free  inhabitants,  in  the  town  and 
its  immediate  precincts,  is  not  less  than  ten  thousand.  The 


T  A  S 


following  •  "hit  tin-  aiiuiunt  uf  the  llohart  Town 

imiiDH.s  and  f\|H>rU,  with  the  places  IIKIII  which  rrrrivril, 
and  to  which  sent,  lor  I  he  \carc tiding  December,  )Kf7: — 

Imftrirlt. 
Great  Britain   .         .         .  £230.950 


Smith  Wales    . 
itms 
ita 

Canton     .  .  . 

.Ha    .  .  , 

. 'ore 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 

United  States  . 
Hamburg 


Great  Britain 
New  South  Wale* 
Swan  Kiver 
South  Australia 
New  Zealand 
Mauritius 
Calcutta 
Canton    . 
Valparaiso 


Exports. 


MjMO 

8,141 
4387 

1..-.H 

880 

1,878 

8.OO 

490 


£348,126 


£235,266 


In  a  comparison  of  these  returns  it  is  pointed  out  by  the 
editor  of  the  •  Van  Diemen's  Land  Annual,"  from  which 
publication  they  are  taken,  that  the  apparent  balance  ex- 
hibited against  HobartTown  is  diminished  when  it  is  con- 
sidered that  a  great  portion  of  this  balance  consists  of  pro- 
perty imported  by  individuals  who  have  settled  in  the 
colony.  We  have  not  been  able  to  procure  authentic 
returns  of  a  later  date  than  those  quoted;  but  it  may  be 
concluded  that  the  value  both  of  the  exports  and  imports 
of  Hobart  Town  has  greatly  increased  since. 

Launceston,  the  second  town  of  the  colony,  is  situated 
at  the  confluence  of  the  North  and  South  Esk",  which  there 
form  the  Tamar,  flowing  about  forty-five  miles,  when  it 
disembogues  into  the  ocean  at  Bass's  Straits.  It  is  124  miles 
from  the  capital  of  the  colony.  Lannceston  is  situated  in 
a  marshy  spot,  and  is  neither  in  beauty  nor  in  the  promise 
of  health  to  be  compared  to  Hobart  Town.  The  enterprise 
uf  its  inhabitants,  aided  by  the  vicinity  of  the  richest 
settlements  in  the  island,  is  however  great,  and  it  is  not 
improbable  that  this  town  will  outstrip  its  southern  com- 
petitor in  commerce.  The  imports  in  the  year  1K(7  were 
l'.ll.s-J3/.  in  value  :  the  exports  being 264,5i")!)/..  upward*  of 
twenty-nine  thousand  pounds  above  those  of  Hobart  Town  ; 
and  in  subsequent  years  it  is  believed  that  the  difference 
is  much  greater  in  amount.  Launceston  contains  many 
churches,  t  he  property  of  different  religious  denominations, 
and  the  private  and  public  buildings  are  not  destitute  of 
architectural  beauty. 

The  highway  between  the  northern  and  southern  capitals 
of  Tasmania  is  for  the  most  part  well  laid  out  :  there  are 
inns  along  this  road  at  short  distances  from  one  another, 
the  accommodation  in  which  is  not  far  from  equalling  the 
same  on  the  roads  of  England.  Passing  from  the  highway 
into  what  were  not  long  since  unpeopled  woods,  the 
fashionable  vehicle  as  well  as  the  rustic  waggon  of  the 
settler  is  to  be  seen  dri\en  along  cross  mads  which  are 
everywhere  in  process  of  formation  :  and  here  and  there, 
only  partially  obscured  from  a  distance  by  the  thick  and 
sombre  Australian  foliage,  are  In  ];,•  seen  "mansions  aim.. st 
baronial,  superseding  the  rude  shelter  of  the  aborigine,  and 
the  but,  almost  as  rude,  in  which  the  colonist  first  lodged. 
Population.— In  iKts  »  census  of  the  free  inhabitants 
of  Van  Diemen's  Land  was  mnde  with  a  reference  to  the 
religious  denominations  to  which  they  belonged,  which  ex- 
hibited the  following  summary: — 

Church  of  Knglaml 

( 'hiireh  of  Scotland 

Church  of  Home 

\Veslcvins 
Baptists 
Independents 
Quaker* 
Jews  . 


The  accuracy  of  Ibis  return,  in  MI  far  as  it  referred  • 
relative  number*  belonging  to  different  i<  omi- 

nations.  was  generally  questioned ;  but   t!: 

•-tation  ol   the  amount  of  popul.i1 

admitted.      No   great   increase    b\   IIIHKIL  iatioii    h:is    • 
place  sir.ce,  and  the  new  co  '  Phillip  h:.- 

many  from  Tasmania.     The  return  of  the  number  of  male 
and  female  com  ids  for  the  sain 

Male  convicts      ....        lr. 
Kemale  convict* 
An  account  of  the  com  id  system  of  Van  Piemen's  Land 

•  r\ed   for  the  article  TRANSPORTATION  :  but  11,. 
lowing  returns  are  introduced  I'.cie.  as  they  bear  upon  the 
general  social  condition  of  the  island  : — 

Return  s/wui'iig  the  Disposal  of  the  Convicts  in  1838. 

Sentence  of  transportation  expired  .         793 
Free  and  conditional  pardons 

Transported  to  New  South  \V.,  .  23 

Transported  to  Port  Arthur  .  .      ],30<i 

Absconded  in  1837  .  .         ±£1 

Died  .  K,7 

Executed     .         .  .  .  4 

Confined  in  gaols  .  .          (i!i 

Sick  in  hospitals  .  . 

Invalid  establishments  .  .          PJI; 

Employed  in  chain  gangs 
Kmploycd  in  public  winks 

Artificers  on  loan  to  settlers  .  .         '.!(i'J 

,'ned  to  settlers  ....  (i.ui'J 
'Tickets  of  leave.'  or  conditionally  free  :t,!Mkt 
Constables  and  iield  police  . 

Missing       ...  .  .  'M 


Female  Convicts. 

Sentence  of  transportation  expired 
Conditional  pardons      .         .          . 

Died 

Sent  to  New  South  Wales     . 
Total  number  remaining 


U» 

B3 

16 
1 


2.31  S* 


i if  Crime. — If  Van  Diemen's  Land  has  greatly  be- 
nefited  in  au  economical   sen-e   In  being  a  settlement  for 
convicts,  it  has  undoubtedly  suffered  from  this  cause  in  a 
moral  sense.     A  paragraph  will   not  suffice  to  give  an  ac- 
curate idea  of  the  general  moral   condition  of  the  popu- 
lation.    Referring  therefore  to  the  Transportation  1, 
of  1838,  and  to  a  volume  entitled  '  Australiana."  by  Captain 
Maconochie,  R.N..K.H.  (Parker,  Strand,  1836),  vn  shall 
introduce  here  only  a  lew  details   and  accoinpamin 
planations  taken  from  the  last  of  these  authorities. 
withstanding  the1  strictness  and  vigilance  of  the  police  of 
this  colony,   notwithstanding  the    length  of   time   during 
which  the  prisoners  ha\e  for  the  most  part  been  sub.'. 
to    its  minute    supervision,    notwithstanding  the   decided 
tendency  of  the  age  to  moral  improvement,  and  notwith- 
standing tlie   great  influx  of  free  settlers  into  the  colony 
within    the   last  ten  jears  and   the   hiu'li   personal  respec- 
tability of  most  of  them,   the  proportion  of  cnme  and  dis- 
order'to  the  entire  population    is  not  onl\  .   but 
appeals   in  mam    paitieulars   e\eii    lobe    on  UW  inert 
From   No.  :u  of  \J\tStatittical  /'.;/<• /•*  drawn  up  by  the 
colonial  secretary,  it  appears  that  convictions  for  drunken- 
ness were,  in   IS'.'l.  as  :(,•',  to  UNI  of  the  whole  population, 
and  in                                          timis   under  penal    statin . 

.'i-soiis  in  IS'Jl  were  as  5jJ  to  1IHI.  and  in  IKJ'J  .-is 
7ft;  and  general  misdemeanors  b\  com  ids  in  IsJl  were 

,  to  im.  and  in  IS32  as  I:*,"/,.  After  IKW  the  re- 
turns  arc  differently  made,  and  tin-  several  heads  of  o Hence 
are  multiplied  :  yet,  with  feu  except). 

fact  is  evident.     Thus  drunkenness  among  the  comicts  in 
lX33-3t-:i5    was    as  4fi,    4^,    4^J    respecli\ely    to    1(K). 
The  tendency,  as  is  well  known,  in  Kiiirhsh  society,  ut 
in  peculiar  circumstances,  has  been  rather  steadily,  during 
the  last    ten   or  tucl\e    veais.    towards  sobriety.      Felonies 

'I  ol  summarily  were  in  like  manner,  in  ls3:t-:H-:r>, 
»*  2ft-  +H|.  3JH  to  I'lK):  nmonir  free  people,  as  7)^,  5Jt> 
.!,,  1,1  liHI:  and  what  are,  MIS  otlenee,.  not  in- 

cluded under  pieuo.is  lieads,  as  Iflj,  3^,4^  to  100.    Cap- 

W','  '  .wn.l, 

w  lii'-li  i  \plain  the  difference  between  thoc  totals  ami  tho«e  j.rc\  iou-ly  quoted. 


T  A  S  89 

fain  Maconochie  quotes  returns  of  the  convictions  befor 
the  supreme  court  and  quarter-sessions,  on  which  he  re 
marks  :    l>t.  that  the  ratios  throughout  to  the  whole  popu 
lation  are  enormous,  convictions  in  England  being  scarcel 
1   to  1000  inhabitants,  and  in  Scotland   only  1  to  1300 
those  for  Van  Diemen's  Land  being,  in  1835,   1  to  105^ 
2ml.  the  extreme  vigilance  of  Van  Diemen's  Land  polic 
tends  to  prevent  the  commission  of  great  crimes,  while 
the  latitude  given  to  its  summary  jurisdiction  makes  i 
unnecessary  to  bring  medium  offences  under  the  cogni 
zance  of  the  higher  courts;   3rd,  the  pecuniary  prosperity 
of  Van  Diemen's  Land  is  advancing,    which  shows  tha 
dissipation,  not  distress,  leads  there  to  crime.     Comparing 
the  state  of  petty  crime  in  the  colony  to  that  in  London 
it  is  found  that  "in  Van  Diemen's  Land,  for  drunkenness 
alone,  the    convictions   among  the    free   population   are 
about  14  per  cent. ;  whereas  in  London,  for  every  descrip- 
tion of  petty  offence,  they  are  little  more  than  5  per  cent. ; 
and  Captain  Maconochie  remarks  that  the  returns  in  Van 
DicniiM's  Laud  refer  to  a  mixed  population   of  agricul- 
v.ell  as  town  residents,  which  makes  the  com- 
parison  still  more  disadvantageous.     As  general  charac- 
teristics,  he   mentions   dissension,    bitterness   of   feeling, 
improvidence,  and  a  reliance  upon  authority,  instead  ol 
moral  influence,  in  the  relations  of  master  and  servant. 
He  remarks  also  that  there  is  a  low  standard  of  moral 
principle,  a  characteristic  which,  though  not  so  obvious, 
is  radically  more  detrimental  than  great  occasional  vices, 
and  one  which  it  is  more  difficult  to  correct.     But  as  he 
frequently  points  out  in  his  interesting  work,  and  as  there 
is  a  necessity  of  remarking  here,  in  strictness  a  social  cha- 
racter can  scarcely  be  predicated  yet  in  reference  to  the 
population  of  Van  Diemen's  Land  ;  the  colony  is  not  old 
enough  to  have  moulded  the  character  of  its  inhabitants ; 
and,  amid  much  that  is  painful  in  the  aspect  of  society, 
there  is  also  much  of  an  opposite  character — individual 
l,ciicvolence  and  public  spirit. 

ni-nt. — Van  Diemen's  Land  is  administered  by  a 
lieutenant-governor,  who  is  assisted  by  two  councils.  The 
lieutenant-governor  has  the  initiative  of  all  laws.  The 
conn  :illed  the  Executive  and  the  Legislative. 

Dormer  is  composed  of  official  members,  and  the  latter 
of  official  and  non-official :  all  are  appointed  by  the  crown, 
and  removable  at  the  governor's  pleasure,  with  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  crown.     If  two-thirds  of  the  legislative  council 
:  posed  to  any  act  proposed,  it  cannot  pass :  the  rea- 
"f  dissent  are  entered.     Practically  however  this  pro- 
vision is  of  no  value,  for  half  of  the  council   are  salaried 
(dicers  of  the  local  government.      Laws  passed  by  the 
••il  must,  within  seven  days,  be  enrolled  in  the  Su- 
preme ( 'ourt  ;  and  fourteen  days  from  such  enrolment,  un- 
ihe  jndycs  declare  them  to  be  repugnant  to  British 
law  or  the  charter,  or  letters  patent  of  the  colony,  they 
come  into  operation.     In  case  of  objection  being  made, 
the  irmrrnor  and  council  re-eonsider  the  act.     The  laws 
.'land,  so  far  as  they  can  be  applied,  are  recognised, 
and  embodied  in  local  enactments. 

The  judicature  consists  of  a  supreme  court,  having  two 
judges,  of  courts  of  quarter-sessions,  and  courts  of  requests, 
which  last  are  sometimes  called  courts  of  conscience,  and 
have  jurisdiction  in  matters  to  the  extent  of  ten  pounds. 
( 'liminal  offences  are  tried  in  the  Supreme  Court  by  seven 
military  officers  as  a  jury  ;  civil  cases,  by  a  judge  and  two 
magistrates  of  the  colony  appointed  by  the  go- 
vernor, and  who  are  open  to  challenge  by  the  parties,  the 
challenge  being  determined  by  the  judge":  if  the  assessors 
do  not  a^'i-ee.  the  judge  has  a  casting  vote.  The  Supreme 
<'ourt  may,  on  the  application  of  either  party  in  an  action, 
summon  a  jury  to  try  it.  This  court  declares  insolvencies 
and  distributes  effects :  it  likewise  possesses  equitable 
and  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction.  The  total  estimated  ex- 
penses of  the  judicial  establishment  for  the  year  1839  was 
I.VJM;/.  7*.  erf. 

In  all  the  most  populous  districts  of  the  island  there  are 

nint'istiates,   who   sit   daily   for  the   trial   of  petty 

offences:  their  decisions  are  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 

nor,  who   is  advised   by  the  chief  police  magistrate. 

A  larsfe  constabulary  force  is  maintained,  composed  chiefly 

of  convicts.     The  total  police  estimates  of  Van  Diemen's 

Land  for  IKV.i  exceeded  2(>.(M>/. 

Tin.1  ecclesiastical   provision  is  of  the  most  liberal  cha- 
nominatious,  the  Kpiscopalian, 
in.    and    Roman   Catholic,    reccuc    alien1.: 
'  V.  <_'.,  No.  1499. 


T  A  S 

from  the  state.  They  are  equally  provided  for  in  propor- 
tion to  the  respective  number  of  their  bodies,  and  the 
clergy  of  each  have  the  same  political  status.  In  the 
towns  the  subscription  of  two  hundred  adults  (three  chil- 
dren or  pei-sons  under  a  specified  age  being  considered  equal 
to  one  adult)  to  a  paper,  intimating  their  connection  with 
one  of  the  denominations  named,  desiring  to  have  a  church 
erected  for  the  use  of  such  denomination,  and  the  contri- 
bution of  at  least  300/.  towards  its  erection,  are  the  con- 
ditions on  which  the  government  erects  such  church  and 
provides  for  the  maintenance  of  worship  in  it.  In  the 
rural  districts  the  fulfilment  of  these  conditions  by  eighty 
adults,  residing  within  a  radius  of  ten  miles,  is  required. 
The  sum  expended  by  the  government  on  the  erection  of 
a  church  is  equal  to  that  raised  by  private  contribution. 
The  stipend  allowed  to  the  clergy  in  the  towns  is  250/! 
annually,  and  to  those  in  the  rural  districts  2001.  A  glebe' 
and  ten  acres  of  land  are  also  allowed,  and  in  certain  cases 
a  further  sum  of  money  for  the  feed  of  a  horse.  The  Wes- 
leyans  have  an  annual  grant  of  400/.  voted  in  their  favour 
by  the  legislative  council. 

The  Church  Act  has  stimulated  the  erection  of  churches 
in  the  colony,  so  that  there  is  now  no  deficiency,  compa- 
ratively speaking,  except  in  the  districts  in  which  there  is 
a  very  limited  population.  The  estimated  expenses  of  the 
ecclesiastical  establishment  for  the  year  1839  amounted  to 
70551.  14*.  lid.;  but  the  Church  Act  had  not,  at  the  period 
it  which  that  estimate  was  made,  exerted  so  much  in- 
luence  as  it  has  since  done,  and  at  present  it  is  certain 
hat  the  ecclesiastical  outlay  is  considerably  above  the 
sum  stated.  Numerous  places  of  worship  have  been  erected 
throughout  the  settled  districts  of  the  island  by  Protestant 
denominations,  not  embraced  in  the  government  scheme 
)f  support.  The  government  assists  in  the  maintenance  of 
Sabbath  schools  in  connection  with  the  different  churches. 
Liberal  provision  is  made  for  juvenile  education,  on  the 
>rinciples  chiefly  of  the  British  and  Foreign  School  Society ; 
and,  besides  a  collegiate  institution,  founded  and  maintained 
yy  the  government,  one  has  been  projected  by  the  colo- 
iists,  for  which  subscriptions  have  been  raised.  The  site 
)f  the  first  is  at  New  Norfolk :  the  second  is  to  be  esta- 
jlished  at  Campbell  Town.  These  institutions  are  to  be 
n  the  first  instance  superior  grammar-schools ;  and  gra- 
;ually,  as  professors  can  be  obtained,  and  there  is  a  de- 
mand for  the  higher  brancnes  of  learning,  they  are  to 
eceive  the  character  of  colleges. 

In  the  estimates  of  the  expenditure  of  Van  Diemen's 
-and  for  the  year  1839,  a  sum  of  4000/.  is  put  down  for 
chools;  and  an  additional  sum  of  275 1/,  for  the  '  Orphan 
Schools,'  in  which  the  offspring  of  convicts  are  educated 
nd  maintained.  The  expense  of  the  collegiate  institution 
8  not  included  in  the  sum  of  4000/. :  its  foundation  had 
ot  been  laid  at  the  date  of  that  estimate. 
The  revenue  of  the  colony  is  derived  from  duties  on 
pirits — 10*.  per  gallon  on  brandy ;  7*.  Gd.  on  hollands  or 
eneva,  West  India  Rum,  or  British  gin ;  1*.  Gd.  per 
ound  on  tobacco  :  from  licences  —  251.  per  annum  for 
cence  to  sell  spirits ;  31.  3*.  for  auctioneer's,  and  41.  4s. 
or  marriage  licences :  from  the  fees  of  public  offices, 
nes,  &c.  It  has  increased  progressively  for  many  years. 
n  1826  it  amounted  to  34.G55/.  0*.  \\d. ;  in  1830  it  was 
2,018/.  7s.  8i</. ;  in  1835  it  was  91,320/.  19.».  9Jd.  (Stalis- 
ical  Report  of  the  Colonial  Secretary.)  "With  the  addi- 
on  of  the  revenue  derived  from  the  sale  of  land  in  these 
ears,  it  amounted  to  G5.178/.  17*.  Wjii.  in  1830;  to 
06,6407.  8*.  2d.  in  1835;  in  1840,  the  revenue,  il  was 
stimated,  would  amount  to  200,000/.  Part  of  thU  revenue 
i  appropriated  to  the  immigration  of  labourers,  and  the 
est  to  the  civil,  judicial,  ecclesiastical,  and  miscellaneous 
\penses  of  the  colony,  which  are  not  borne  by  Ire 
Jntish  government.  The  expenditure  of  the  year  1837 
mounted  to  136.85G/.  1*.  tid.  ;  for  1K38  the  estimated 
otal  was  124,143^.  14*.  4d. ;  for  1K39.  11K770/.  (Ali- 
Inirl.  dated  July  5th,  1838,  Colonial  Secretary's  Office, 
fobart  Town.) 

NatircK.—  The  aborigines  of  Van  Diemen's  Land  so 
osely  resemble  in  physical  character  those  of  Australia, 
s  to  leave  no  doubt  of  their  origin  being  the  same.  [Aus- 
RAI.IA.]  M.  Pcron  says  that,  the  Tasmania)!  has  a  law 
cad,  especially  remarkable  for  the  great  length  of  the 
ne  from  the  chin  to  the  sinciput,  and  thai  the  head  of 
ie  New  Hollander  is  less  bulky,  and  is  compressed  in  the 
ack  part,  while  that  of  the  Tasmania))  is  elongated  in 

VOL.  XXIV.— N 


T  A  S 


90 


T  A  S 


the  *•»«  direction.     The  great  ditt.  i  the 

\hu-li  is  stiaight  or  curled  in  th 
woolly  in  thcTasiiiaiiiaii.     /'<!/"/•»" 

Baio  |.       In  language  and  customs  the  resem- 

blance it  equally  apparent.     Tasinan.  in  the  brief  account 
published     in     -Harris's    Collection    of 
mentions  his  observing   on  the 

shores  of  Van  P. emeu's  Laud  liecs  which   had  -a  kind  of 

steps  cut  in  the  bark,  in  order  to  climb  up  to  the  buds' 

...  wen-  the  distance  of  live  feet 

from  each  other,  so  that  we  must  conclude,  that  cither 
these  people  are  of  a  prodigious  size,  or  that  tlu-v  have 
way  of  climbing  trees  that  we  are  not  used  to.' 
Tin-  difficulty  here  suggested  by  Tasinan  has  been  since 
.  ed  :  '  I'lie  natives  of  Australia  climb  trees  by  cutting 
notches  in  the  bark,  by  means  of  a  small  stone  hatchet. 
and  with  each  hand  alternately.  Hv  long  acquired  habit 
a  native  can  supixirt  himself  with  his  toes  on  very  small 
notches,  not  only  in  climbing,  but  while  he  cuts  oilier 
notches  for  his  further  ascent  with  one  hand,  the  other 
arm  embracing  the  tree.'  (Major  Mitchell1!  TravtU  in 
,1/iu.  vol.  ii.,  p.  338.)  In  this  singular  custom  the 
esofVan  Diemen's  Land  and  of  Kastern  Australia 
agree.  The  eorroborec  dance  [SWAN  KIVKR]  is  common 
to  both,  and  the  offensive  weapons  of  both  people  arc 
precisely  the  same.  Major  Mitchell  expresses  a  decided 
opinion  that  the  natives  of  both  countries  are  derived 
from  a  common  stock  Tract-Is,  vol.  ii..  p.  341),  in  which 
other  travellers  have  concurred.  The  natives  of  Tas- 
mania, according  to  the  accounts  of  early  colonists,  ami 
of  Cook  and  1)  Kntrecasteaux.  appear  to  have  been  more 
intelligent  and  friendly  than  those  of  New  Holland 
when  first  approached.  M.  Ijibillardierc.  the  historian 
and  naturalist  of  the  expedition  of  Admiral  D'Kntn- 
iiix.  speaks  of  their  music,  their  knowledge  of  plants, 
and  their  general  acuteness,  in  terms  by  no  means  con- 
temptuous: while  he  highly  praises  tin-  humane  and 
confiding  disposition  which  they  evinced  towards  their 
French  visitors.  Dr.  Ross,  the  Editor  of  the  '  Van  Diemen's 
Land  Annual,'  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  best 
records  of  the  early  history  of  the  colony,  after  many 
years' opportunities  of  intercourse  with  the  aborigines,  thus 
refers  to  them :  'During  all  the  intercourse  1  have  had 
with  this  interesting  people,  I  not  only  found  no  waul  of 
sense  or  judgment  among  them,  but,  on  the  contrary,  much 
to  admire  in  them  as  thinking  men,  as  endued  not  only 
with  much  ingenuity  and  penetration,  but  with  the  tcu- 
upathicsofthe  heart,  and  all  the  nobler  passions 
that  elevate  man  in  the  scale  of  being.' 

Original  hannlessness  of  character  has  not  however  pre- 
served the  Tasmanians  from  the  usual  consequences  ot 
European  contact  —expatriation  or  extinction.  The  his- 
tory o I  the  events  which  have  nearly  extinguished  this 
race  is  briefly  as  follows: — Van  Piemen's  Land  was  colo- 
ni/ed  in  the  first  instance  by  the  most  abandoned  crimi- 
nals. These  men  had  no  wives  ;  no  regular  system  of  dis- 
cipline was  adopted  in  reference  to  them,  but  they  were 
dispersed  in  small  bodies  over  the  territory,  while  others. 
escaping  from  control,  pursued  a  predatory  life.  The  wives 
of  the  natives  were  seduced  by  criminals,  which  excited 
the  animosity  of  the  men.  and  during  several  years  indis- 
criminate warfare  subsisted  between  the  aboriginal  and 
the  colonizing  population.  At  length,  in  1830,  the  local 
government  systematically  interfered,  and  the  free  and 
convict  inhabitants  of  the  colony  were  enrolled  for  the 
purpose  of  killing  or  capturing  the-  aborigines.  Very 
limited  success  attended  this  modi- of  proceeding  after  il 
had  been  in  operation  for  a  considerable  period,  when  Mr. 
Robinson,  an  individual  of  remarkable  courage  and  self- 
possession  volunteered,  with  the  assistance  of  some  friendly 
natives,  to  bring  the  rest  to  terms  of  pacification.  |{y  fan- 
promises  to  the  natives  he  accomplished  a  victory  which 
could  not  be  obtained  by  an  expenditure  of  upwards  of 
36.000/.  (/'.!«  Dinnfn'1  Land  AnniKil  for  1KW,  differently 
directed,  and  the  natives  put  themselves  in  the  power  of 
the  government.  This  triumph,  obtained  by  moral  in- 
fluence, and  which  might  have  been  ma,  u-nt  to 
the  good  of  both  races  consistently  with  theaborign 
maining  on  their  native  soil,  was  converted  to  their  ruin. 
They  wen-  ttansportcd  to  an  unfavourable  spot  (Flindcis' 
id.  in  lia-s's  Straits),  where  a  miserable  remnant  of 
about  eight v  individuals  were  all  that  survived  in  IKKJ  of 
a  population  of  three  or  four  thousands,  the  estimated  abori- 


ginal  population  of  Van  Diemen's  I..iml  when  enloni/ation 
ih.-re.         I'uti    /'  -nit  .liitltlttl  f'lr  IKiS.  pp. 

The  courage  which  faced  the  aborigines  unarmed 

in  a  time  of  warfare,  was  no  evidence  that  the  individual 
who  dared  to  do  this  possessed  the  qualities  essential  lor 
the  successful  treatment  of  an  uncivilized  nice  with  a  v  icw 
to  its  improvement.  However  thai  coinage  was  rewarded 
by  the  appointment  of  Mr.  Robinson  to  the  office  i,f  -cm- 
h/ing'  the  Tasmanians  at  Flinders'  Island.  It  won;, 
tedious  to  detail  the  features  of  the  •  civ  ili/ing  '  system 
pursued  there  :  it  is  sufficient  to  mention  that  every  habit 
and  amusement  peculiar  to  the  aborigines  has  been 
couraged  ;  the  cumbrous  and  uncongenial  forms  and  in- 
cidents of  advanced  civilization  have  been  enforced  in 
every-day  life;  the  native  language  has  been  as  much  as 
possible  suppressed  :  native  names  have  been  made  to 
yield  to  those  of  the  (Jii-sars.  the  Hannibals,  and  the 
Scipios;  a  disposition  to  indulge  in  the  pleasures  of  the 
chace  has  been  recorded  as  a  delinquency  ;  and  the  verbal 
repetition  of  the  Commandment*  and  the  Catechism  i-  al- 
leged as  the  evidence  of  religions  progress,  and  a  confuta- 
tion of  all  disbelief  as  to  the  capacity  of  uncivilized 
to  appreciate  the  doctrines  of  ( 'hristiaiiity.  (M/»«7  ij  tin' 
('iiiii/ri<iinttt/it  <if  Flintier*'  Islitinl ;  J'tirliaiiii'ntary  Pujjfrf, 
1830.) 

An  intelligent  witness  of  the  experiment  carried  on  at 
Flinders'  Island  has  thus  reported  upon  it:  'The  com- 
mandant has  an  establishment  of  thirty-two  eonvi. 
wait  on  the  aborigines,  and  supply  the  deficiencies  of  thei." 
own  labour,  and  is  rewarded  by  a  great  deal  of  reading, 
writing,  singing,  rehearsal  of  the  c;.1eehism.  tailoring,  sub- 
mission, attachment,  decorum,  tranquillity,  everything,  in 
a  word,  which  gratifies  superficial  examination;  and  he 
persuades  himself  that  he  is  eminently  successful  with 
them  :  but  they  have  no  free  agency,  and  are  mere  children 
at  school,  and  they  cannot  escape  from  their  prison,  they 
cannot  subsist  at  a  distance  from  it.  they  must  not  break 
its  rules,  it  must  be  a  place  of  excessive  riiiuii  to  them  :  as 
moral  agents  they  are  lower  now  than  when  savages;  and 
they  die  the  faster,  I  fear,  for  much  of  this  kindness.  The 
commandant  imputes  the  mortality  among  them  to  the 
situation  and  climate,  and  wishes  to  transport  them  to  flu 
south  coast  of  New  Holland  ;  but  in  six  months  1  am  per- 
suaded they  would  be,  on  this  plan,  happy  savages  in  tin- 
bush.'  .U.S.  Letter.) 

TASSIK,  JAMKS.  was  born  of  humble  parentage,  in  or 
about  the  year  \1'.£>.  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Glasgo" 
was  brought  up  as  a  country  stone-mason,  (ioing  to  < 
gow  on  a  fair-day  to  enjoy  himself  with  his  companions, 
he  visited  the  collection  of  paintings  exhibited  by  the 
brothers  Foulis,  who  were  then  endeavouring  to  establish 
an  academy  for  the  fine  arts  in  that  city.  [  Furi.is,  % 
p.  :is;t.]  Feeling  a  strong  desire  to  become  a  painter. 
Tassie  removed  to  (!la.sgow.  and  studied  drawing  in  Foulis' s 
academy,  but  continued  to  practise  his  business.  Though 
poor,  he  was  frugal,  industrious,  and  persevering;  and, 
hoping  at  least  to  become  a  statuary,  if  not  a  painter,  he. 
in  17tfci,  went  to  Dublin,  where  he  was  employed  for 
some  time  as  a  sculptor  and  modeller.  Then-  he  be, 
acquainted  with  Dr.  Quill,  who  was  making  experiments 
in  the  beautiful  art  of  imitating  engraved  gems  by  means 
of  coloured  glass,  or  pastes,  and  who  engaged  him  as 
his  confidential  assistant.  Having  succeeded  in  el 
ing  gnat  improvements  in  the  art  by  their  joint  la; 
Titssie  was  encomagcd  by  his  patron  to  remove  to  Lon- 
don, and  to  follow  it  as  a  profession.  He  accordingly 
-1  London  in  \"i(M  :  and  although,  owing  to  his  dif- 
fidence and  modesty,  he  had  to  struggle  with  many  diffi- 
culties, he  gradually  emerged  from  obscurity,  obtained  a 
comfortable  competence,  and  established  such  a  reputation, 
that  the  principal  cabinets  of  Europe  were  thrown  open  to 
him.  Among  his  earliest  patrons  in  the  metropolis  were 
tin-  Society  of  Arts.  who.  in  17<>7.  awarded  him  the  sum  of 
ten  guineas  for  imitations  of  anticnt  onyx.  In  177")  Tasme, 
who  then  resided  in  Compton  Street.  Suho,  published  a 
catalogue  of  the  antieiil  and  modern  gemsiu  his  collection, 
of  which  he  sold  pastes  or  sulphur  impressions  at  very 
moderate  prices.  1'he  collection  then  amounted  to  more 
than  three  thousand  articles:  but  it  v\as  subsequently 
much  extended,  and  in  17!H  appeared  a  new  catalogue, 
containing  fifteen  thousand  eight  hundred  articles,  and 
forming  two  quarto  volumes.  This  work,  which  is  not 
confined  to  a  dry  description  of  the  gems,  but  contains 


T  A  S 


91 


T  A  S 


much  useful  information  on  that  department  of  antient  art, 
was  compiled  by  Mr.  R.  E.  Raspe,  who  prefixed  to  the 
catalogue  an  introduction  on  the  utility  of  such  a  collec- 
tion of  works  of  art,  and  on  the  history  of  engraving  upon 
hard  stones,  and  the  imitation  of  gems  by  artificial  pastes. 
The  work  contains  also  a  frontispiece  and  fifty-seven  plates 
of  gems,  etched  by  David  Allan.  From  Raspe's  introduc- 
tion it  appears  that  the  demand  for  Tassie's  pastes  was  en- 
couraged, in  the  first  instance,  by  the  jewellers,  who 
introduced  them  into  fashion  by  setting  them  in  rings, 
seals,  bracelets,  and  other  trinkets.  He  was  very  careful  of 
his  reputation,  and  would  not  issue  imperfect  impressions  ; 
but  the  celebrity  of  his  casts  induced  other  and  less  skilful 
modellers  to  sell  their  works  under  his  name.  About  1787 
or  1788  Tassie  received  an  order  from  the  empress  of  Rus- 
sia for  a  complete  set  of  his  gems,  which  he  executed  in 
the  most  satisfactory  manner,  in  a  beautiful  white  enamel 
composition,  so  hard  as  to  strike  fire  with  steel,  and  of 
such  a  texture  as  to  take  a  fine  polish,  and  to  show  every 
touch  of  the  artist  with  the  greatest  accuracy.  Wherever 
it  was  possible  to  do  so,  he  coloured  these  in  exact  imita- 
tion of  the  originals  •  and  in  other  cases  such  colours  were 
used  as  might  display  the  work  to  advantage.  Tassie's 
business  was  continued  by  his  nephew,  William,  on  his 
premises  in  Leicester-square  ;  and  he  added  to  the  collec- 
tion a  series  of  casts  of  coins,  from  the  museum  of  the  late 
Dr.  William  Hunter,  of  which  he  made  a  set  by  order 
of  the  emperor  Alexander,  to  add  to  the  gems  executed 
for  the  empress  by  his  uncle,  who  died  in  1799.  Besides 
the  branch  of  art  for  which  he  is  principally  celebrated, 
IVssie  displayed  considerable  talent  in  modelling  small 
portraits  in  wax,  from  which  he  frequently  made  pastes. 
He  was  much  respected  in  private  life  for  his  piety,  sim- 
plicity, modesty,  and  benevolence. 

(Raspe's  Catalogue  of  Tassie's  Gems,  <5j-c. ;  Dr.  Gleig's 
Supplement  to  the  third  edition  of  the  Encyclopedia  Bri- 
t'ln/iica.  1801.) 

TASSISUDAN.     [BOOTAN.] 

TASSO,  BERNARDO,  born  at  Bergamo  in  1493,  lost 
his  father  when  a  boy,  and  was  brought  up  under  the  care 
of  his  uncle  Luigi  Tasso,  bishop  of  Recanati,  who  was 
living  at  Bergamo.  The  bishop  being  murdered  by 
robbers  in  1520,  Tasso  left  his  native  town,  and  lived 
for  several  years  at  Padua  and  Venice,  and  other  towns 
of  North  Italy,  where  he  displayed  his  talent  for  poetical 
composition.  In  1525  he  engaged  himself  as  secretary  to 
Guiuo  Rangonc,  who  was  general  of  the  Papal  troops  in 
North  Italy.  In  1529  he  went  to  the  court  of  Ferrara, 
where  he  remained  a  short  time.  A  volume  of  Italian 
verses  which  he  published  at  Venice  in  1531  made  him 
known  to  Fen-ante  Sanseverino,  prince  of  Salerno,  one  of 
tlit:  principal  Neapolitan  barons,  who  kept  a  princely  court 
after  the  feudal  fashion  of  the  times.  The  prince  invited 
him  to  come  to  Naples,  granted  him  a  handsome  allowance, 
with  the  liberty  of  withdrawing  himself  from  time  to  time 
from  his  court  to  apply  to  his  poetical  studies  in  rural 
retirement.  Tasso  accompanied  the  prince  of  Salerno  in 
the  expedition  which  Charles  V.  undertook  against  Tunis, 
i:i  1534.  He  was  afterwards  sent  to  Spain,  in  1537,  on  a 
cal  mission,  and  on  his  return  he  spent  some  time  at 
Venice,  where  he  became  acquainted  with  the  celebrated 
Tullia  d'Aragona,  the  illegitimate  daughter  of  a  cardinal  of 
the  royal  house  of  Aragon,  who  was  herself  a  poetess,  and 
led  a  very  free  life.  Bernardo  Tasso  wrote  verses  in 
her  praise.  Having  at  last  disentangled  himself  from  this 
connection,  he  returned  to  Naples,  where  he  soon  after 
married  a  young  lady  of  Sorrento  called  Porzia  de  Rossi, 
by  whom  he  had  a  son,  Torquato.  In  1547  an  insurrection 
broke  out  at  Naples  against  the  Spanish  viceroy  Don 
Pedro  de  Toledo,  who,  in  concert  with  Pope  Paul  III., 
wished  to  establish  the  Inquisition  in  Naples  after  the 
fashion  of  Spain.  The  people  elected  a  sort  of  council 
composed  of  nobles  and  citizens,  under  the  name  of  '  Union 
for  the  service  of  God,  the  emperor,  and  the  city,'  to 
administer  temporarily  the  affairs  of  the  country.  This 
ehose  the  prince  of  Sanseverino  and  the  prince  of 
-  its  deputies  to  proceed  to  Germany  and  lay 
theii  es  before  Charles  V.  Bernardo  Tasso,  against 

the  opinion  i>f  others,  advised  the  prince  to  accept  this 
mission.  Siinseverino  found  the  emperor  highly  incensed 
ml  the  Neapolitans,  and  fearing  for  himself,  he  went 
to  Kraiu-e  and  entered  the  service  of  Henry  II.,  for  which 
he  was  declared  a  rebel  by  Charles  V.,  and  his  property 


was  confiscated.  Bernardo  Tasso  followed  his  patron  to 
France,  where,  after  a  time,  he  found  himself  in  great 
pecuniary  dist.ess.  He  then  returned  to  Italy,  and  went  to 
the  court  of  Guidobaldo,  duke  of  Urbino,  from  whence  he 
passed  to  that  of  the  duke  Gonzaga  of  Mantua,  who  made 
him  governor  of  Ostiglia,  in  which  place  he  died  in  1569. 

Bernardo  Tasso  wrote  a  romantic  poem  in  ottava  rima, 
entitled  '  Amadigi,'  the  subject  of  which  is  taken  from  a 
Spanish  romance.  [AMADIS  DE  GAULA.]  The  plot  or 
plots  of  Tasso's  poem  are  deficient  in  interest,  but  the 
style  is  good,  and  the  poet  excels  in  his  descriptions  and 
comparisons,  but  he  indulges  at  times  in  licentious  strains. 
After  writing  his  poem,  he  detached  one  of  the  episodes 
and  swelled  it  into  a  separate  poem,  entitled  '  Floridante,' 
which  was  published  after  his  death  by  his  son.  He  also 
wrote  five  books  of  '  rime,'  eclogues,  hymns,  odes,  sonnets, 
and  other  lyrics,  some  of  which  are  admired  for  their 
imagery  and  smoothness  of  versification.  He  introduced 
in  the  Italian  language  that  species  of  poetry  which  is 
called  '  pescatoria '  and  '  marinaresca,'  being  descriptive  of 
the  habits  and  occupations  of  fishermen  and  mariners. 
His  letters  have  been  published  in  three  volumes. 

(Corniani,  Secoli  delta  Letteratura  Italiana  ;  Tiraboschi, 
Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;  Panizzi,  Introductory 
Essay  on  the  Romantic  Narrative  Poetry  of  the  Italians, 
prefixed  to  his  edition  of  '  Bojardo.') 

TASSO,  TORQUA'TO,  son  of  Bernardo,  was  born  at 
Sorrento,  in  1544.  At  the  age  of  ten  he  was  sent  for  by 
his  father,  then  an  exile,  and  after  some  time  spent  with 
him  in  several  towns  of  north  Italy,  he  went  to  the  uni- 
versity of  Padua  to  study  law,  for  which  however  he  had 
little  inclination.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  composed 
his  first  poem, '  Rinaldo,'  in  twelve  cantos.  The  subject  is 
romantic,  and  is  taken  from  the  old  chivalric  legends  con- 
cerning Charlemagne  and  his  wars  with  the  Moors.  Ber- 
nardo was  at  first  angry  with  his  son  for  neglecting  his 
more  serious  studies,  but  at  last  he  relented,  and  gave  his 
consent  to  the  publication  of  the  poem,  which  Torquato 
dedicated  to  the  Cardinal  Luigi  d'Este,  brother  of  Alfonso 
II.,  duke  of  Ferrara.  In  1566  the  cardinal  took  him  into 
his  service  as  a  gentleman  attendant,  and  introduced  him 
to  his  brother  the  duke,  and  to  his  two  unmarried  sisters 
Lucrezia  and  Eleonora.  He  was  well  received  by  all,  and 
admitted  into  their  familiar  society.  Tasso  was  young  and 
amorous;  he  had  been  for  some  time  passionately  in  love 
with  Laura  Peperara,  a  lady  of  Mantua,  to  whom  he  ad- 
dressed many  sonnets  and  other  verses  after  the  manner 
of  Petrarch,  styling  her  his  Laura.  This  lady,  with  whom 
he  had  probably  become  acquainted  during  a  visit  which 
he  paid  to  his  father  at  Mantua  in  1564,  came  some  years 
after  to  Ferrara  as  a  lady  of  honour  of  the  duchess,  and  was 
married  to  Count  Turchi  of  Ferrara.  But  in  the  mean 
time  Tasso  appears  to  have  been  struck  with  the  personal 
attractions  and  mental  accomplishments  of  the  princess 
Eleonora,  the  duke's  sister,  and  already  in  1566  there  is 
a  sonnet  by  him,  beginning  '  Nel  tuo  petto  real  da  voci 
sparte,'  which  is  evidently  addressed  to  a  princess  of  a 
sovereign  house.  From  that  time  he  continued  to  write 
amatory  verses  evidently  addressed  to  the  same  person, 
whom  he  styles  his  '  donna,'  or  mistress.  In  some  of  them 
he  mentions  the  name  of  Eleonora,  but  as  there  were 
several  ladies  of  that  name  at  different  times  at  the  court 
of  Ferrara,  this  has  given  rise  to  various  surmises  about 
the  person  meant.  At  last  Tasso  avowed  in  several  ways 
his  love  for  the  princess,  though,  from  the  then  existing 
usages  of  society,  it  was  impossible  that  he  could  ever 
have  obtained  her  hand.  Most  of  the  sonnets  and  other 
lyrics,  which  are  evidently  intended  for  this  object  of  his 
second  love,  are  conceived  in  a  respectful  and  somewhat 
melancholy  strain,  as  if  the  writer  felt  the  hopelessness  of 
his  passion.  The  disparity  of  rank  was  in  those  times  an 
insurmountable  obstacle  to  any  legitimate  result  of  such 
an  attachment,  and  the  house  of  Este  was  one  of  the 
proudest  in  Italy.  Like  Petrarch,  Tasso  seems  to  have 
obtained  friendship  only  in  return  for  his  love.  But  there 
are  some  of  Tasso's  compositions  written  between  1567  and 
1570,  in  which  he  assumes  the  tone  of  a  favoured  lover. 
Such  are  the  two  sonnets  'Donna  di  me  doppia  vittoria 
aveste'  and  'Prima  eolla  belt;\  voi  mi  vinceste,'  the  dia- 
logue between  love  and  a  lover,  beginning  '  Tu  ch'  i  piu 
ehiusi  affetti,'  and  the  madrigal  which  begins  'Soavissimo 
bacio.'  From  the  context,  although  no  name  is  men- 
tioned they  all  evidently  allude  to  the  same  object  as  the 
1  N2 


T  A  S 


T  A  S 


otti«-r  amatory  verse*  addressed  to  his  '  donna.'  There  are 
aUo  some  autograph  lines  of  Tnwo  discovered  liy  Mai 
among  the  Falcnnieri  MSS..  :nul  published  liv  Hctli  nl 
Koine  tiii'i-nii/i-  An-tiili'-".  October,  ls-J7  ,  in  winch  Klco- 
nora  is  mentioned  by  name: 


•  Quando  t»r4  che  d'Elconort  mU 
POM*  foiirrmi  in  Ubrttad.    . 
Ah.  picloo  il .!««'" 
A.lili-i  crlra,  a«lilio  Uuu,  ailiUn  roMOr^.' 

It  would  appear  that  these  verses,  ha\  ing  been  abstracted 
from  Tasno's  papers  by  some  enemy,  and  shown  to  Duke 
Alfonso,  first  roused  lus  Suspicions. 

Professor  Rosini,  in  his  able  essay  upon  the  '  Love  of 
Tasso  and  the  Causes  of  his  Imprisonment,'  Pisa,  IH;!2, 
-.  in  opposition  to  the  assertion  of  Serassi  and  others, 
that  F.leouora  d'Este  was  the  object  of  the  above  compo- 
sitions, a.s  well  as  of  all  the  others  addressed  to  his  'donna.' 
It  is  the  four  compositions  last  alluded  to  that  constitute 
the  real  guilt  of  Tasso  :  they  boast  in  prurient  language  of 
favours  received,  which,  according  to  the  best  circum- 
stantial evidence,  were  never  granted,  and  which,  if  even 
•ed.  ought  not  to  have  been  mentioned.  And  Tasso 
himself  must  have  felt  this,  for  when  he  set  out  for  France 
ill  the  beginning  of  1571.  to  accompany  Cardinal  I.uigi 
d  F.ste  on  a  mission  to  Charles  IX.,  lie  left  his  MSS.  in 
charge  of  his  friend  Rondinelli,  with  directions  to  publish 
them  in  case  he  should  die  abroad,  '  except  those  which 
he  had  written  to  oblige  some  friend,  and  which  must  be 
buried  with  him.' 

This  was  a  subterfuge  to  conceal  the  object  of  the  above- 
mentioned  compositions,  and  to  make  them  appear  as  if 
written  at  the  request  of  others,  which  in  itself  would  have 
been  no  very  creditable  employment  for  a  man  of  genius. 
•  •vcr,  before  the  end  of  the  year  1571.  Tasso  took  his 
leave  of  the  cardinal  in  France.  It  would  appear  that 
while  in  that  country,  where  he  was  introduced  at  the  court 
of  king  Charles  ik.,  and  became  acquainted  with  the 
French  poet  Ronsard,  Tasso  applied  himself  to  study  tin- 
points  of  controversy  then  debated  between  the  Roman 
Catholic  and  the  Reformed  churches,  and  that  his  inves- 
tigations of  those  delicate  matters  displeased  the  cardinal, 
who  .spoke  to  him  strongly  on  the  subject.  But  Tasso  had 
other  and  secret  reasons  for  wishing  to  return  to  Italy. 
Having  returned  to  Ferrara,  he  entered  the  service  of  Duke 
Alfonso  himself,  by  whom  he  was  most  graciously  treated. 
''llieduke  extolled  his  poetical  talent  :  he  often  listened  to 
the  recital  of  his  verses  (Tasso  was  then  engaged  about  his 
•  Geiusali-mme,'  which  he  intended  to  dedicate  to  the 
duke) ;  he  admitted  him  to  his  own  table,  and  to  hi 
familiar  society ;  and  he  refused  him  no  favour  that  he 
chose  to  ask.'  (Seraasi,  I'itn  </<•/  '/'TV.W  ;  Kosini,  S<iggio 
*//»•//  .li/iuri  di  Taxso.)  Such  was  the  conduct  of  Duke 
Alfonso  towards  the  poet,  until  he  discovered,  years  after, 
lus  guilty  compositions.  AVhilst  Tasso  was  thus  a  favoured 
(fuest,  rather  than  a  dependant  of  Duke  Alfonso,  he  wrote 
his  pastoral  drama,  the  '  Aminta,'  in  which  he  ]»• 
with  exquiMte  skill  the  Jiangs  and  the  delirium  of  love 
deemed  hopeless  for  a  long  season, but  in  the  end  requited. 
The  drama  was  performed  at  the  court  of  duke  Alfonso, 
and  its  fame  soon  spread  about  Italy.  Lucrczia,  F.leonora's 
.  who  had  married  Francesco  Maria,  duke  of  Urbino, 
wi-liing  to  hear  the  '  Aminta,'  invited  Tasso  to  her  court 
where  be  remained  several  months.  This  was  jM  |.~>7H. 
\Vhile  Tatuo  was  absent  from  Ferrara.  envy  was  busy  at 
work  against  him  to  lower  bis  credit  with  Duke  Alfonso.  At 
the  same  time  Guarino,  the  poet,  who  was  also  at  the 
court  of  Ferrara,  st rove  to  ingra'iate  himself  with  the  priu- 
Kleonora,  and  this  excited  the  jealousy  of  Taiwo.  It 
appears  that  Tasso  had  been  in  the  habit  of  writing  to  the 
princess,  and  sending  her  some  of  his  poetical  composi- 
tions; hut  now  he  wrote  none  forseveral  months.  At  last 
•nte  her  a  letter,  dated  September,  1 57U,  which  was 
first  published  by  his  biographer  Serassi,  in  which,  attei 
ig  for  Ins  long  silence,  he  sends  her  a  sonnet, 
ieh,'  he  says,  '  is  not  lik«  thos«t  tine  ones  which 
pose  your  grace  is  now  wont  to  hear  very  often,  alluding 
•>->>  of  his  rival  Guarino.  And  he  goes  on  to  siv.  that 
•  iinel  is  poor  both  in  the  conception  and  the  style,  as 
the  author  i»  poor  of  luck.  This  lust  expression  cm 
understood  as  referring  to  his  circumstances,  for  he  • 
in  favour  with  both  the  courts  of  Ferrara  and  t'rbn 
was  receiving  at  the  tune  presents  from  the  duchess  l.u- 
mviaol  Urbino.  Hut  still  he  sends  to  the  princess  Eleonoi a 


the  aonnet,  '  hoping  that,  whether  pood  or  bad.  i(  will  pro- 
Inn-  the  etl'eet  that  In-  '.  which  b. 
Sdrgno.  ilebil    guerrier,  campion  aue  :  of  a  de- 
sponding lover  who  asks  for  me: 
letter  with  the  usual   subterfuge,    that   'til. 
written  on  his  own  account,    but  at  the  request   of   a   pour 
lover,  who  having  been  for  a  tirn.                   th  Ins  mistress, 
is  now  no  longer  able  to  stand  out,  and  surrcndr 
and  a>ks  for  mercy.'     This  and  other  passm.-  mor- 

1    to    by  Professor  Kosini    in   th. 

quoted   essay,  prove   that    the   princes.,  Klconora  had  been 
long  aware  of  Tamo's  passion,  and   felt  flattered  by  it,  but 
probably  looked  upon  it  as  a  poetical  feeling,  for  which 
gave  him  her  friendship.   He  himself  acknowledges  this  in 
several  places:  and  vet  this  same  man  had  already  writ 
in  the  recess  of  his  study,  the  guilty  compositions  which 
have  been  mentioned  a 

Towards  the  end  of  l.~>7:»  Tasso  returned  to  Ferrnro, 
where  he  applied  himself  to  finish  his  great  epic  poem  •  1  a 

ile.lime.'     The  touching  episode   of   Ohmlo  ar, 
fronia,  in  the  second  canto,  was  meant  to  portiav  his  own 
situation  with  regard  to  the  princess  Ele.onora ;   and  in  a 
sonnet  which  he  wrote  to  that  lady  he   evidenth 

i  of  Sofronia  as  meant  to  represent  herself. 

Parts  of  the  '  QwuMlenitne1  began  to  circulate  about  in 
MS.,  and  the  author  was  assailed  by  numerous   pc' 
critics.     He  thought  that  the  (hike  and  his  sister  Klcoiinra 
did  not  take  up  his  defence  with   sufficient   zeal  :    and  this 
slight  sank  deep  into  the  poet's  heart.    Towards  the  end  of 
l.~>7i>  a  false  friend, who  was  in  the  secret  of  his  love  for  the 
princess,  disclosed  some  particulars  of  it  to  others.      I 
having  heard  of  this,  and  meeting  him  in  the  court  of  the, 
ducal    palace,  required  him  to  deny  what  he  had  saii: 
upon  the  other's  refusal,  gave  him  a  blow  in  the  face.  This 
led  to  a  duel ;  the  treacherous  friend  came  escorted  by  his 
relatives,  who  also  drew  their  swords  against  the  poet,  but 
Tasso.  who  was  a   good   swords;:  (led  in  parrv  ing 

their  blows,  and  came  away  in  triumph.     Nothing  : 
cular  happened  after  this  until  June  of  the  folio 
lf>77.  when  Tasso,  on   the   evening  of   the  17th  of   June, 
being  in  the  apartments  of  the  duchess  of  1'rbino.  in  Duke 
Alfonso's  palace  at  Ferrara,  fell  into  a  violent   passion  at 
some  impertinence  real  or  supposed  of  a  domestic,  and 
himself  so  far  ns  to  throw  a  knife   after  him.     He  was  im- 
mediately arrested  by  order  of  duke  Alfonso,  and  cor 
to  n  room  which  looked  on  the  court  of  the  palace.     It  np- 

'hat  between  these  two  incidents  his  or. 
had  been  tampered  with  in  order  to  give  up  his  concealed 
papers.  Tasso  got  information  of  this,  and  looked  out  for 
a  trusty  servant  from  Urbino,  and  wrote  on  the  suhji 
Gnido  Haldo,  marquis  del  Monte,  and  his  letter  is  quoted 
by  his  biographer  Serassi.  He  had  also  felt  for  some  time 
scruples  about  matters  of  faith  :  he  mentions  in  his  dis- 
course to  Scipione  Gonznga,  that  he  had  doubts  concern- 
ing many  points  of  religion  :  he  had  even  applied  ! 
inquisitor  of  Bologna,  who  had  granted  bun  absolution; 
but  still  he  thought  him>elf  under  the  censures  of  the 
church.  All  these  things  added  to  the  anguish  of  his 
mind.  From  the  place  of  his  imprisonment  Tasso  wrote  a 
submissive  letter  to  the  duke,  begging  his  pardon,  and  the 
duke  appearing  to  forgive  him.  released  him  after  a  few 
days,  and  took  him  with  him  to  his  country -seat  of  Bel 
EUgUUdO  about  the  end  of  June.  \Vhat  happened  there 
between  the  duke  and  Tasso  is  not  ascertained,  but  from 
Mime  expressions  of  the  poet  it  appears  that  he  v\as  there 
closely  and  sternly  examined  by  the  duke,  who  hud  pro- 
bably by  this  time  in  his  possession  Tn.sso'spapei-s.  •  in  order 
to  get  from  him  an  acknowledgment  of  what,  if  avowed, 
would  incense  him  against  him.'  (Tasso's  Sonnet.  I 
ning  '  Alma  grande  d'Alcidc,'  addressed  to  thi 
duke  Hercules,  father  of  Alfonso.)  On  the  llth  of  July 
the  duke  sent  Tasso  hack  to  Ferrara  under  an  e-eort.  and 
shut  him  up  in  the  convent  of  St.  Francis,  his  x'cretsm 
having  written  to  the  monks  that  he  was  mad,  and  must 
be  treated  as  a  madman. 

Tasso's  line  adventures,  his  real  or  pretended  madness, 
and  the  causes  of  his  long  impiisonrnent.  made  much 
noise  about  Italy  at  the  time:  and  they  have  been  so 
much  discussed  and  commented  upon  since,  that  they 
have  !  importance,  especially  as  they 

serve  to  illustrate  the  manners  of  the  times.  Duke 
Alfonso  has  been  much  abused,  and.  we  think,  without 
discrimination,  for  his  trealment  of  the  poet.  There  is  a 


T  A  S  93 

mystery  about  the  whole  story  resembling  that  which 
hangs  over  Ovid's  banishment.  Professor  Rosini  has  col- 
lected with  the  greatest  patience  and  care  the  discordant 
opinions,  as  well  as  the  evidence  resulting  from  Tasso's 
own  writings,  published  and  unpublished,  and  from  those 
of  his  contemporaries;  and  the  conclusion  which  he  ar- 
rives at  by  the  help  of  sound  criticism  is,  that  the  Duke, 
having  in  his  hands  the  loose  compositions  of  Tasso 
already  mentioned,  which  joined  to  his  other  compo- 
sitions addressed  to  the  same  person,  and  his  other 
strange  sayings  and  doings,  furnished  full  evidence  that 
his  sister  Eleonora  was  the  person  alluded  to  in  them, 
was  naturally  enough  incensed  against  the  poet,  and 
thought  that  the  only  reparation  that  he  could  make  to 
her  injured  honour  was  to  make  it  be  supposed  that  Tasso 
was  mad.  This  gives  the  clue  to  his  subsequent  treat- 
ment of  the  poet.  He  must  also  have  been  confident 
that  his  sister  was  guiltless,  otherwise,  as  Rosini  observes, 
he  would  have  taken  a  different  sort  of  vengeance,  ac- 
cording to  the  manners  of  the  age.  From  the  convent  of 
St.  Francis,  Tasso  wrote  to  the  duke,  saying,  '  that  the 
clemency  of  his  highness  had  forgiven  him  his  faults,  and 
that  thenceforth  if  he  spoke  to  anyone,  he  should  acknow- 
ledge to  all  that  which  he  clearly  knew,  that  he  was 
under  a  sanitary  treatment.'  He  adds,  that  he  had  re- 
solved, when  the  treatment  was  over,  to  turn  monk  ;  and 
in  a  postscript  he  says,  that  he  earnestly  wishes  that  the 
Duke  may  know  all  the  truth,  that  he  may  not  think  him 
more  mad  than  he  is.  In  a  long  letter  which  he  after- 
wards wrote  to  the  Duke  of  Urbino,  he  says,  that  '  in 
order  to  please  Duke  Alfonso,  he  thought  it  no  disgrace 
to  imitate  the  example  of  Brutus  and  Solon.'  Both  those 
personages,  according  to  Livy  and  Plutarch,  feigned  mad- 
ness. Receiving  no  answer  from  either  Duke  Alfonso  or 
the  Duke  of  Urbino,  Tasso,  about  the  20th  of  July,  ran 
away  from  the  convent,  quitted  Ferrara,  and  made  his 
way  alone  and  mostly  on  foot  to  Naples,  and  thence  to 
Sorrento,  where  his  sister  was  married.  Having  by  kind 
treatment  recovered  his  health  and  his  spirits,  he  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  applied  through  some  agent  of  the  Duke 
to  be  allowed  to  return  to  Ferrara.  Duke  Alfonso  wrote 
in  reply,  that  he  was  willing  to  receive  Tasso  again  into 
.  if  he  would  allow  himself  to  be  treated  by  the 
physicians:  but  that  if  he  continued  his  subterfuges,  and 
to  talk  as  be  had  done  before,  he  would  immediately  turn 
him  out  of  his  territories,  and  never  allow  him  to  return, 
i,  ii]'<m  this,  returned  to  Ferrara  in  the  spring  of  1578, 
with  the  Cavaliere  Gualengo.  He  was  civilly  but  coldly 
received  by  the  Duke,  who  gave  him  to  understand  that 
he  ought  now  to  try  to  compose  himself  and  to  lead  a 
quiet  life,  and  to  avoid  all  excitement.  He  attempted  to 
get  an  interview  with  the  Princess  Eleonora  and  the 
Duchess  of  Urbino,  but  was  prevented.  Tasso,  tired  of 
this  manner  of  life,  having  lost  the  favour  which  he  used 
to  enjoy  at  court,  ran  away  again  from  Ferrara  in  the 
summer  of  1;77H,  wandered  to  Mantua,  Padua,  and  Venice, 
and  then  went  to  Urbino.where  he  wrote  to  the  duke  of  Ur- 
bino, who  appears  to  have  been  then  on  bad  terms  with  his 
own  wife  and  with  the  court  of  Ferrara,  entreating  him 
to  make  the  truth  known,  and  to  contradict  the  reports 
maliciously  '  circulated  of  his  madness,'  saying  that  he  had 
submitted  to  it  in  obedience  to  Duke  Alfonso's  wishes, 
but  that  he  could  not  consent  any  longer  to  lead  an 
animal  life,  far  from  literature  and  from  the  Muses.  He 
wrote  in  similar  terms  to  his  friend  Scipione  Gonzaga  at 
Rome,  to  his  own  sister  at  Sorrento,  and  to  the  Arciprete 
Lamberti,  to  whom  he  sent  a  sonnet,  beginning  '  Falso  e 
il  minor  che  suona.'  In  October,  1578,  he  left  Urbino, 
and  went  to  Piedmont  under  an  assumed  name  ;  but  he 
was  soon  known,  and  his  fame  as  a  poet  secured  him  a 
flattering  reception  from  Charles  Emmanuel,  Prince  of 
Piedmont,  who  offered  to  take  him  into  his  service  upon 
ime  terms  as  the  Duke  of  Ferrara.  But.  poor  Tasso 
had  still  his  eyes  and  his  heart  fixed  upon  Ferrara,  and  in 
of  the  advice  of  his  friends  at  Turin,  and,  among 
s,  of  the  Marquis  Filippo  d'Este,  Alfonso's  relative. 
In;  determined  to  go  to  Ferrara.  He  was  encouraged  to 
I  I'rom  tin-  Cardinal  Albano,  who  it.  appears 
hud  been  commissioned  by  the  duke  to  induce  him  to 
r"tum,  promising  him  a  kind  reception.  He  arrived  at 
ira  on  (hi!  21st  February,  1.77!),  on  the  eve  of  the 
'!  of  Margant:  the  new  bride  of  Duke 

Alfonso.      The  court    was   busy  about   the  preparations 


T  A  S 


to  receive  the  duchess.  The  duke  refused  to  see  Tasso, 
the  princesses  also  denied  themselves,  his  old  apartments 
in  the  palace  were  closed  to  him,  and  the  courtiers  and 
court  attendants  treated  him  with  rudeness  and  con- 
tempt. Tasso  now  became  furious,  and  he  uttered  im- 
pertinent words  against  the  duke  and  the  whole  house 
of  Este,  which  being  reported  to  Alfonso,  he  gave  orders 
to  arrest  him  and  confine  him  in  the  hospital  of  St.  Anna 
as  a  declared  madman. 

Tasso  remained  a  prisoner  in  the  hospital  full  seven 
years,  till  July,  1586.  From  some  obscure  passages  of  his 
own  letters  he  appears  to  have  been  treated  very  harshly 
at  first  by  the  attendants  of  the  hospital.  He  wrote  to  the 
duke,  and  to  the  princesses,  but  in  vain.  At  last  he  grew 
more  calm,  and  was  treated  with  greater  leniency.  The 
wretched  hole  which  is  shown  at  Ferrara  as  having  been 
his  prison  is  no  longer  believed  by  competent  judges  to 
be  the  identical  place  of  his  confinement.  (Valery, 
Voyages  Littcraires  en  Italic,  book  vii.,  ch.  14.)  Political 
party-feeling  in  our  age  has  contributed  to  exaggerate  the 
hardships  of  Tasso's  confinement,  as  religious  party-feeling 
has  exaggerated  the  sufferings  of  Galileo  in  a  similar  con- 
dition. There  was  hardship  no  doubt  in  both  instances, 
and  the  hardship  in  Tasso's  case  was  aggravated  by  the 
state  of  his  own  sore  and  unsettled  mind.  When  Cardinal 
Scipione  Gonzaga  visited  Tasso  at  St.  Anna,  in  the  spring 
of  1580,  he  was  lodged  in  a  large  and  commodious  apart- 
ment, where  he  could  write  and  correct  his  compositions. 
In  November  of  the  same  year  he  was  visited  by  Mon- 
taigne, who  speaks  of  him  as  a  man  whose  reason  was 
overcome  by  the  vivacity  of  his  imagination.  In  July, 
1581,  the  Lady  Marfisa  d'Este  obtained  leave  of  Alfonso  to 
take  Tasso  with  her  for  a  few  days  to  her  country-house, 
where  he  had  a  philosophical  discussion  with  her  and 
her  two  ladies  of  honour,  Tarquinia  Molza,  a  learned 
woman,  and  Ginevra  Marzia,  upon  the  nature  of  love. 
From  the  recollection  of  this  conversation,  Tasso  after- 
wards composed  his  dialogue,  which  he  entitled  '  La 
Molza,  ovvero  dell'  Amore.'  In  September,  1582,  Tasso 
received  at  St.  Anna  the  visit  of  Aldo  the  younger,  who 
brought  him  copies  of  some  of  the  finest  editions  which  had 
come  out  of  his  press,  and  they  spent  two  days  together  in 
speaking  of  their  respective  studies.  Tasso  in  the  mean- 
time was  busy  writing,  or  correcting  his  various  poetical 
compositions  which  were  printed  at  Venice,  but  very  inac- 
curately, to  his  great  annoyance.  He  wrote  in  his  con- 
finement several  philosophical  discourses  or  treatises,  such 
as '  II Gonzaga,  ossia  del  Piacere  Onesto,' ' II  Padre  di  Famig- 
lia,'  the  discourse  'Delia  Virtu  Eroica  e  della  Carita,'  the 
dialogue  '  Delia  Nobilta,'  and  others.  In  his  discourse  to 
Gonzaga  he  says  that  it  was  wished  that  he  should  become 
insane,  and  that  the  cause,  or  at  least  one  of  the  causes,  of 
this  persecution  was  some  lascivious  verses  of  his. 

In  1583  Tasso  grew  seriously  ill,  he  complained  of  his 
head,  of  his  digestion,  of  singing  in  his  ears,  and  other 
symptoms  of  a  like  nature.  He  consulted  his  friend  Mcr- 
curiale,  a  physician  of  Padua,  but  Tasso  was  not  a  very 
docile  patient ;  he  wished  for  none  but  pleasant  medica- 
ments, and  he  would  not  submit  to  a  total  abstinence  from 
wine.  One  of  his  vagaries  was  that,  he  had  a  familiar 
spirit  who  appeared  to  him  to  comfort  him.  In  1584  he 
was  allowed  to  be  out  at  large  during  the  Carnival  season, 
and  he  wrote  a  curious  dialogue  on  that  circumstance  en- 
titled '  II  Gianluca,  o  della  Maschere.'  He  enjoyed  the 
society  of  Tarquinia  Molza,  of  Count,  Girolamo  Pepoli, 
and  other  noblemen  and  ladies  of  the  court  of  Femira. 
He  wrote  about  that  time  the  dialogues  'II  Beltramo, 
ovvero  della  Cortesia;'  '  II  Malpigho,  ovvero  della  Corf  e  ;' 
'II  Ghirlinsone,  ovvero  dell'  Epitaffio ;'  'La  Cavalletta, 
ovvero  della  Poesia  Toscana ;'  and  '  II  Rangone,  ovvero 
della  Pace,'  which  last,  addressed  to  BiancaCapello,  grand- 
duchess  of  Tuscany,  is  dated  from  his  apartments  of  St. 
Anna,  'Dalle  sue  stanze  in  St..  Anna.'  He  was  now  tolera- 
bly composed  and  reconciled,  and  could  hardly  be  called 
a  prisoner.  In  one  of  his  autograph  letters,  written  to  the 
Marquis  Huoncompagni,  in  April,  1585,  and  which  is  in 
the  library  of  Ferrara,  there  is  a  passage  copied  by  Val6ry, 
in  which  he  says  that  'the  duke  does  not  keep  me  in 
prison,  but  in  the  hospital  of  St.  Anna,  where  priests  and 
monks  can  visit  me  at  their  pleasure,  and  no  one  prevents 
them  from  doing  me  good.'  In  several  of  his  unpublished 
letters  he  gives  directions  about,  some  articles  Tor  his  ward- 
robe or  his  table,  and  shows  a  refined  taste  in  both.  But 


T  A   -  « 

in  that  oaii  <»,  a  fresh  source  of  vexations  opened 

upon     him.      11  -  pic     poem.    •  l.a    Gcrusalcmme 

I.lbcrata,'  had  been  imhlisht-d  complete  at  Parma  in  l.'isl, 
and  afterwards  at  Mantua  in  15S4.  A.  holt  of  critic*  fell 
upon  it,  and  by  their  strictures  strove  to  obscure  all  the 
merits  of  the  poem.  At  the  head  of  them  stood  Salviati, 
of  the  Crusca  Academy.  Tasso's  language,  his  p. 
.  his  imagery,  the  plot  of  his  poem,  his  episodes, . 
thing  was  made  a  subject  of  censure.  Tasso,  already 
weakened  by  mental  and  btxlily  suffering,  felt  these  attacks 
bitterly.  He  however  took  up  his  pen  and  wrote  in  a 
nuasured  and  dignified  tone  a  defence  of  bis  poem.  He 
was  at  the  same  time  writing  letters  to  all  his  friends  to 
obtain  his  final  liberty  from  the  duke.  He  wrote  to  the 
citv  of  Bergamo,  to  the  duke  of  Mantua,  to  the  grand- 
duke  of  Tuscany,  to  the  pope,  to  the  emperor,  who  all 
employed  their  good  offices  on  his  behalf  with  Duke  Al- 
fonso, who  hesitated  a  long  time  before  he  consented  to 
his  release.  At  last  Vincenzo  Gonzaga,  son  of  tlie  duke  of 
Mantua,  obtained,  in  July,  l."JS(i.  permission  for  T:. 
accompany  him  to  Mantua.  His  reception  at  that  court 
wa-s  like  a  triumph.  In  order  to  make  some  return  for  the 
kindness  which  he  experienced  from  the  house  of  Gon- 
zaga, he  completed  his  tragedy  of  '  Torrismondo,"  which  he 
dedicated  to  his  liberator  Vincenzo,  on  hi.s  accession  to  the 
ducal  throne  of  Mantua  in  1587.  The  subject  of  the  'Tor- 
rismondo' is  a  supposed  Scandinavian  legend.  Some  of 
the  descriptions  have  been  admired.  After  some  time 
spent  at  Mantua  and  in  his  paternal  town  of  Bergamo, 
Tasso,  depressed  by  a  settled  melancholy,  took  leave  of 
Duke  Vincenzo,  and  repaired  to  Rome  in  the  latter  part  of 
1587,  and  thence  to  Naples  in  the  following  year.  The 
poet  appeared  delighted  with  the  beauties  of  his  native 
country.  At  Naples  he  began  a  lawsuit  to  recover  his 
paternal  property,  which  had  been  seized  when  his  father 
Bernardo  became  an  exile.  The  Neapolitan  courts  of  law- 
have  been  at  all  times  proverbially  known  for  their  dilato- 
riuess.  and  justice  was  wretchedly  administered  under  the 
Spanish  viceregal  administration.  Tasso  made  little  pro- 
iu  his  suit.  But  he  found  a  sincere  friend  in  the 
Marquis  Gio.  Batista  Manso,  who  took  him  in  the  autumn 
to  his  estate  of  Bisaccio,  where  they  spent  the  time  in 
sporting,  listening  to  the  rustic  improvvisatori,  and  con- 
versing in  the  evening  upon  various  topics,  especially 
about  Tasso's  pretended  familiar.  It  was  at  tlie  request,  of 
Manso's  mother  that  Tasso  undertook  his  '  Sette  Giornate 
del  Mondo  Creato,'  which  is.  a  poetical  paraphrase  of  the 
narrative  of  the  creation  of  the  world  in  the  first  two 
chapters  of  Genesis.  In  1589,  Tasso,  always  ic-t less,  re- 
paired to  Rome;  but  finding  himself  in  great  pecuniary 
distress,  he  accepted  an  invitation  of  the  grand-duke  Fer- 
dinand de'  Medici  to  go  to  Florence  in  the  spring  of  1590, 
where  he  was  received  with  great  honour  by  the  court  and 
other  persons  of  distinction,  as  if  to  make  amends  for  the 
annoyance  given  to  him  by  Salviati  and  his  compeers. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  same  year  however  he  went  to 
Rome,  and  in  1591  he  returned  to  Naples,  and  then 
applied  himself  to  re-write  his  epic  poem,  under  the  title 
of 'Gerusalemmel  'onquistata,'  in  order  to  satisfy  the  critics. 
However  the  first  version  of  his  poem  is  in  the  hands  of  all, 
whilst  few everread  his'GcrusalemmeConquistata.'  Tasso 
intended  to  end  his  days  at  Naples;  but  in  15!)2.  Cardinal 
Aldobrandini  having  been  made  pope  by  the  name  of  Cle- 
ment VIII.,  his  nephew,  Cinzio  Aldobrandini,  afterwards 
inal.  who  was  well  acquainted  withTiusso.  invited  him 
in  the  most  pressing  manner  to  Rome,  where  he  came  about 
middle  of  that  year.  He  was  stopped  several  days  at 
Mola  di  Gaeta.  the  road  being  blocked  up  by  the  bands  ,,f 
the  famous  robber  chief  Marco  Sciarra,  who  was  scouring 
the  country  with  perfect  impunity.  Sciarra.  who  was  a 
man  of  birth  and  education,  having  heard  that  Tasso  was 
detained  at  Mola,  sent  him  a  message  to  entreat  him  to 
proceed  on  his  journey,  assuring  him  of  perfect  safety 
from  his  men,  and  ottering  him  an  escoi:,  which 
however  Tasso  declined  ;  upon  wind.  with- 

drew- his  men  from  the  mountains  of  It.;  leave 

the  passage  open  for  Tasso.  Having  arrived  safely  at 
Rome,  he1  completed  lus  '  Gcrusalcinmc  ('onquistata.' 
which  he  dedicated  to  Cardinal  Cinzio  Aldobrandini.  In 
th"  summer  of  1594  he  returned  to  Naples,  and  lodged 

in   the  Mencdictine    monastery  of  San  Si-vein 
afterwards  went   to  a  country-seat"  of   his   tiicnd    M 
Meantime  Cardinal  Cinzio,  out  of  affection  and  gratitude 


1  'I      \    .s 

towards  Tango,  prevailed  on   Pope  Clement   to   grant   the 
poet  the  honour  of  being  solemnly  crowned  with  the  laurel- 
crown    in   the  Capitol,  as   Petrarch   and   others    bad   been. 
This   being  agreed   upon.  Canliual   Cinzio  hastened  to  an- 
nounce the  news  to  'lasso,  urging  him   to  repair  to  Home 
as  soon  as  possible.      Tasso  did  not  seem  at   all    dated  : 
he  observed  to   Manso  that    he   thought   it    more    glori- 
ous to  deserve  honours  than  to  receive  them.     He  how- 
ever assented,  and   took  an   affectionate  have   of  bis  kind 
friend    Manso,  with  a    foreboding   that   it  would    be  the 
last.     He  spent  the  Christmas  festivities  at  the  i 
of  Monte  Casino,  and  arrived  at  Rome  in  the  beginning  of 
I.V.I.'i.      He  was  met    outside  of  the  gates  by   many  gentle- 
men iiud   attendants  of  the  Papal  court,  by  whom   he  was 
led   in  a  kind  of  triumph  to  the  Vatican  palace,  where  he 
was  introduced   to  the   pope,  who  told  him  that   he  had 
•  awarded   him  the  laurel-crown,  in  order  that  it  might  be 
as   much    honoured    by   him.   as   in   foimer    times    it  bad 
served  to  honour  others.'     Tasso  wits  lodged  in  the  Pupal 
palace,  and  treated  with  the  greatest    regard.     \Vhile  tin- 
day  of  the   coronation  was  anxiously  expected.  Cardinal 
Cinzio  fell  ill  ;  and  Lent  coming  on,  the  pageant  was 
poned,  and  then  Tasso  himself  fell  seriously  ill.     He  felt. 
from  the  first  a  conviction  that   this  illness  would  be  his 
last;  and  wishing  to  compose  himself  in  retirement  for  his 
last  moments,  he  expressed  a  wish  to  be  taken  to  the  mo- 
nastery of  St.  Onofrio,  on  Mount  Janicuhmi.    Having  been 
carried  thither  in  one  of  Cardinal  Cinzio's  carnages,  he 
said  to  the  prior  and  his  monks  who  came  to  receive  him 
at  the  gate,  '  I  am  come  to  die  amongst   you.'     II 
led  into  a  comfortable  apartment,  where  he  devoted  lus 
remaining  days  entirely  to  religious  practices,  and  seemed 
totally  weaned   from   worldly   feelings   and   cares.     When 
the  pope's  physician  announced  to  him  his  approaching 
death,  he  embraced   liim,  thanking   him  for  the  happy 
tidings.     To  Cardinal  Cinzio,  who  came  to  take  leave  of 
him,  he  expressed  his  gratitude  for  all  his  kindm 
the  cardinal  and  those  present  could  not  refrain  from  tears, 
he  said  to  them,  '  Yon  think  that  you  are  leaving  me,  but 
I  shall  go  before  you.'    He  expired  on  the  25th  of  April, 
15!)5.  after  fifteen  days'  illness,  being  fifty-one  years  of  age. 
lie  was  buried,  according  to   his  desire,  in   the  church  of 
St.  Onofrio,  with  a  plain  slab  over  his  tomb,  upon  which 
the   monks  engraved  the  simple   inscription,  '  Torquati 
Tassi  ossa  hie  jaccnt.' 

The  lasting  fame  of  Tasso  as  a  great  poet  rests  upon  his 
'  Gerusalemme  Libcrata,'  or  '  II  Goffredo.'  a,s  it   is  some- 
times called,  one   of  the  few  great  epic  poems  of  which 
the  world  can  boast.     The  action   is  complete  :    it   r- 
the  events  of  the   great   crusade,  and  cuds  with  the  osten- 
sible object  of  that  expedition,  the  deliverance  of  .!>• 
lem   from   the   hands   of  the   Moslems.     The   licaui: 
well  as  the  faults  of  the  composition,  have  been  the  theme 
of  many  disquisitions.     Among  foreign  critics.  Blair,  Vol- 
taire,  D'Alembert,   La   Harpe,  and    Chateaubriand    have 
been  loud  in  its  praise.     The  poem  has  a  peculiarity  that 
distinguishes  it  from   most  other  epics:    i'  illy  a 

Christian  poem;  and  breathes  throughout  the  fc. 
the  faith,  and  the  hopes  of  a  Christian.  Tasso,  as  In 
in  his  invocation, 

'    II  Mn«\,  111  rlir  cli  r.nllirlli  nllnri 
Nun  rin-ontil  la  ftontf  in  Klirona, 

1  >  inir.i  i  I'f:  i 
HJII  ill  .stcllc  immurmli  ,-uireu  Coronn.' — (c.  I.,  St.  2.) 

had  drawn  his  inspiration  from  a  sacred  source,  and  has 
thus  afforded  a  refutation  to  those  who  pretend  that  the 
Christian  religion  is  not  so  favourable  to  poetical  ini: 
as  the  splendid  fictions  of  mythology.  A  melancholy 
tinge  pervades  the  poem;  but"  it  is  a  melancholy  lighted 
up  by  cheering  and  constant  hope.  With  the  single  ex- 
ception of  the  episode  of  the  gardens  of  Armida.  the 
language  of  the  •  Gcrnsalcmmc  '  is  eminently  chaste,  and 
the  morality  of  its  sentiments  is  pure  and  elevated,  which 
ra  it  tit  for  the  perusal  of  youth.  Among  its  beauties 
of  detail  we  will  only  instance  the  episode  of  Olindo  and 
Siifronia,  in  the  2nd  "canto :  the  council  of  the  d:rmons, 
in  the  4th  ;  the  flight  of  Knninia.  and  her  meeting  with 
the  old  shepherd  on  the  banks  of  the  .Ionian,  in  th"  7th  ; 
the  introduction  of  the  Turk  Solyman  into  the  besieged 
city,  m  the  loth:  the  death  of  Clorinda,  in  the  121h;  and 
i  light  of  Argante  witli  Tarn-red,  in  the  19th  canto. 
The  other  poems  of  Tasso  have  been  mentioned  in  the 
course  of  this  ail icle.  Hi-  lyncal  compusit ions  are  very 


T  A  S  95 

numerous,  and  many  of  them  exquisite  both  in  languag 
and  sentiment.  Besides  those  which  are  upon  amorou 
subjects,  some  refer  to  contemporary  events,  or  are  i 
praise  of  contemporary  princes  ;  others  are  upon  religiou 
subjects ;  and  others  refer  to  his  own  misfortunes.  Th 
whole  of  Tasso's  poetical  works  have  been  published  i 
one  large  8vo.  vol.  of  nearly  1000  pages,  in  double  column) 
at  Venice,  1833.  Prefixed  to  it  is  the  biography  of  th 
author,  by  his  friend  the  Marquis  Manso. 

Tasso's  prose  works  consist  of  dialogues  and  disserta 
tions,  some  of  which  have  been  already  noticed ;  of  t 
treatise  upon  epic  poetry,  dedicated  to  Cardinal  Pietrc 
Aldobiandini ;  discourses  upon  the  poetical  art,  dedicatee 
to  Scipione  Gonzatta ;  and  of  numerous  letters,  some  o 
which  have  remained  unpublished  till  lately,  '  Lettere 
Inedite,'  Pisa,  1827.  Professor  Rosini  has  edited  a  new 
edition  of  all  the  works  of  Tasso,  begun  at  Pisa  in  1820. 

Tamo's  '  Gerusalemme  Liberata'  has  been  translatec 
into  most  European  languages.  There  are  English  transla- 
tions by  Fairfax,  Hoole,  Broadhead,  Hunt,  and  Wiffen.  It 
has  also  been  paraphrased  into  several  Italian  dialects, 
Milanese,  Neapolitan,  Calabrian,  &e.  The  Life  of  Tasso 
has  been  written  by  Manso,  Serassi,  and  others,  and  has 
been  commented  upon  by  Tiraboschi,  Muratori,  Zeno, 
Maft'ei,  and  other  Italian  philologists. 

TASSO'NI,  ALESSA'NDRO,  born  of  a  noble  family  at 
Modena,  in  1505,  was  educated  first  in  his  native  town,  and 
afterwards  at  Bologna  and  Ferrara,  where  he  studied  the 
law.  In  1597  he  went  to  Rome,  when  he  entered  the  service 
ardinal  Ascanio  Colonna,  whom  he  accompanied  to 
Spain  in  the  year  1600.    In  1603  the  cardinal,  having  been 
made  viceroy  of  Aragon,  sent  Tassoni  to  Rome  to  take 
-TO   of  the    administration  of  his   property  in   Italy. 
During  his  stay  in  Spain  Tassoni  had  opportunities  of  observ- 
ing the  internal  state  of  that  kingdom,  which,  after  alarm- 
ing all   Europe  in  the  preceding  century  by  its  ambition 
and  the  extent  of  its  conquests,  was  now  fast  sinking  into 
decay  under  the  weak  reign  of  Philip  III.     At  Rome  he 
wrote  his  •  Considerazioni  sopra  il  Petrarca,'  published  in 
]U<)!l,  in  which  he  commented  very  severely  upon  numer- 
nilts,  real  or  supposed,  which  he  pointed  out  in  the 
writings  of  that  generally  admired  poet.     Endowed  with 
an  inquisitive  but  somewhat  captious  mind,  Tassoni  aimed 
in  his  writings  at  opposing  received  opinions,  and  he  em- 
ployed sarcasm  and  ridicule  for  the  purpose.     Aromatari 
of  ASMM  took  up  the  defence  of  Petrarch  in  his  '  Risposte' 
to  Taaooni'e  considerations,  and  this  led  to  a  controversy  in 
the  usual  bitter  style  of  Italian  literary  polemics.     In  1612 
ni  published  his  '  Pensieri  Diversi'  in  ten  books,  being 
a  collection  of  remarks  on  various  subjects  of  science  and 
literature  which  he  had   been  in  the  habit  for  years  of 
nig  in  his  memorandum-book.    Among  other  subjects 
he  attacked  the  Physics  of  Aristotle,  although  he  does  not 
to  have  had  himself  very  correct  notions  of  physical 
phenomena.   This  work  led  to  another  controversy  between 
ii   and  ^e\eral  of  his  contemporaries.     Meantime  the 
nial  Colonna  had  died,  and  Tassoni,  being  now  without 
employment,   applied   to  Charles  Emmanuel  I.,  duke  of 
Savoy,  who  promised  him  the  post  of  secretary  to  his  son, 
the  cardinal  of  Savoy.    But  partly  through  court  intrigues, 
and  partly  on  account  of  Tassoni's  known  aversion  to  the 
court  of  Spain,  with  which  the  Duke  of  Saxony  wished  to 
bv  mi  good  terms,  be  was  kept  waiting  for  years  before 
he  could  take   possession  of  his  office  at  the  court  of  the 
cardinal,  who  was  then  residing  at  Rome.     Certain  com- 
po-iiions  entitled  'Filippiche,'  in  which  the  court  of  Spain 
•ly  handled,  as  well  as  another  pamphlet  entitled 
iuie  della   Monarchia  di   Spagna,'  which    appeared 
(liii-inir  that  period,  were  generally  attributed  to  Tassoni. 
TiiaU,,clii  thinks  that  the  first  two  of  the  '  Filippiche'  are 
ni's.  but   that   the   other  five   are   by  another  pen. 
C.)|,i,  ,  u|   this  work  are  very  scarce.     In  1623  Tassoni  left 
the  cardinal  of  Savoy  in  disgust,  and  retired  to  a  country- 
•   in   the  suburb   of  Transtevero,  where  he   employed 
himself  in  study  and  rural  occupation*.     About  this  time 
•I  his  portrait  taken  with  the  rind  of  a  fig  in  his  hand 
and  the  following  di^ich  written  underneath: — 

•  Dexter.i  cur  ficum  qiurris  mea  gpstct  itianfin  ?. 
<>[ieris  mercea  h»c  filit :  nuladedit.' 

In   K;2'»  Cardinal   Ludovisi,  nephew  of  Pope  Gregory 

XV.,  took  Tassoni  into  his  service,  and  gave  him  apart- 

:  .  ill  his  own  palace,  with  a  handsome  stipend.     After 

the  cardinal's  death,  in  1032,  Tassoni  repaired  to  Modena, 


T  A  S 

when  he   was  made    councillor  to    his  sovereign  Duke 

Francis  I.  of  Este,  for  the  remainder  of  his  life      He  diet 

at  Modena  in  1635. 
Besides  the  works  already  mentioned,  Tassoni  made  an 

abridgment  in  Italian  of  the  '  Annals'  of  Baronius  and 
some  '  Annotazioni,'  or  corrections  and  additions  to  the 
Italian  vocabulary  of  La  Crusca.  But  the  work  for  which 
he  is  best  known  is  his  mock-heroic  poem,  '  La  Secchia 
Rapita,'  or  the  '  Rape  of  a  Bucket.'  He  is  considered  as 
having  first  introduced  this  kind  of  composition  in  the 
Italian  language,  as  he  had  finished,  though  not  published 
in  print,  his  poem  years  before  his  contemporary  Brac- 
ciolini  published,  in  1618,  his '  Scherno  degli  Dei,'  in  which 
he  turns  into  ridicule  the  gods  of  the  antient  mythology 
Tassoni's  poem  was  published  in  a  printed  form  in  1622,' 
but  MS.  copies  had  been  in  circulation  long  before.  The' 
subject  is  taken  from  the  annals  of  his  country  under  the 
year  1249,  when  a  war  having  broken  out  between  the  two 
neighbouring  cities  of  Modena  and  Bologna,  the  Modenese 
carried  off  in  triumph  a  wooden  bucket  from  within  one  of 
the  gates  of  Bologna,  which  bucket  is  still  seen  suspended 
by  a  chain  in  the  cathedral  of  Modena.  The  '  Secehia 
Rapita'  has  been  generally  admired  by  Italian  as  well  as 
foreign  critics.  Voltaire  speaks  of  it  disparagingly,  although 
IB  has  borrowed  from  it  (Valery,  Voyages  Littcraires), 
Jut  Perrault  and  other  French  critics  have  done  Tassoni 
full  justice.  The  humour  of  the  poem  is  peculiarly  Italian, 
and  the  admixture  of  the  serious  and  heroic  with  the  bur- 
esque  is  happily  combined.  Some  of  the  descriptive  pas- 
sages are  exquisitely  soft  and  true  to  nature,  such  as  the  song 
n  canto  viii.  which  begins :  '  Dormiva  Endimion  tra 
'erbe  e  i  fiori,'  and  the  beautiful  episode  in  canto  x.  of 
he  voyage  of  Venus  from  the  mouth  of  the  Arno  to 
Naples  for  the  purpose  of  engaging  Manfred,  son  of  Fre- 
deric II.,  to  assist  the  Guibelines  of  North  Italy.  The 

Secchia  Rapita'  has   gone  through  numerous  editions: 
hat  of  Barotti,  Modena,   1744,  is  most  splendid.     Gironi 
has  collected  various  judgments  and  comments  upon  this 
poem   in   his  biography  of  Tassoni.     Muratori   has   also 
vritten  the  Life  of  Tassoni. 

(Tiraboschi,  Storia  della  Letteratura  Ilaliana;  Corniani, 
Secoli  della  Letteratura  Italiana  ;  Zeno,  Note  al  Fonta- 
tnt.) 

TASTE.  The  organs  of  this  special  sense  are  certain 
larts  within  the  cavity  of  the  mouth,  obviously  so  disposed 
is  to  take  early  cognizance  of  matters  about  to  be  swal- 
owed,  and  to  act  as  sentinels  for  the  remainder  of  the  ali- 
icntary  canal,  at  the  entrance  of  which  they  are  situated, 
'heir  special  endowment,  aided  by  an  exquisite  develop- 
ment of  common  sensibility,  enables  them  to  give  timely 
otice  of  any  acrid,  caustic,  or  nauseous  quality,  of  any 
ndue  temperature,  of  any  inconvenient  hardness,  irregu- 
irity,  size,  or  sharpness  in  the  material  submitted  to  them, 
ml  thus  to  protect  the  stomach  against  the  intrusion  of 
many  hurtful  agents.  These  organs  moreover  establish 
or  our  appetites  a  scale  of  liking  and  disliking  :  they 
iperadd  a  discriminative  pleasure  to  the  enforced  assua- 
Ting  of  hunger :  they  modify  that  merely  quantitative  inges- 
on,  which  is  an  absolute  and  daily  need  of  the  organism, 
•ith  a  qualitative  choice,  and  so  give  a  motive  to  those; 
ariations  in  diet  which  experience  proves  to  be  beneficial 
r  necessary. 

Common  language  (as  in  the  word  '  palatable')  seems  to 
:tribute  the  sense  exclusively  to  a  part,  which  is  by  no 
leans  the  only  or  chief  seat  of  it.  In  order  to  give  a  more 
orrect  notion  of  its  extent,  we  shall  first  briefly  sketch  the 
rrangement  of  the  membrane  which  lines  the  cavity  of 
ic  mouth.  It  is  a  continuation  (a  tubular  folding  in,  as  it 
•ere,  through  the  aperture  of  the  lips)  of  the  general  in- 
!gument,  the  skin ;  and  although  somewhat  changed  in  its 
i  characters,  it  yet  preserves,  under  the  name  of  mucous 
lembrane,  a  close  resemblance  to  the  parent  tissue.  It 
nes  the  inside  of  the  cheeks,  invests  the  alveoli,  or  gums, 
nving  to  these  parts  their  polished  smoothness  of  surface, 

reflected  from  the  lower  alveolar  arches  to  the  tongue, 
om  the  upper  alveolar  arches  to  the  palate,  and  from. 
oth  these  organs  prolonged  backward  into  the  throat, 
n  its  palatine  portion,  the  membrane  covers  the  horizontal 
rocesses  of  the  upper  jaw,  which  divide  the  cavity  of  the 
onth  from  that,  of  the  nose,  and,  while  spread  on  this 
ilid  frame-work,  is  said  to  belong  to  the  hard  palate  ;  and 

likewise  extends  backward,  beyond  the  limits  of  this 
ony  partition,  to  form  a  pendulous  flap,  called  the  soft 


TAB 

palate  ;  which,  with  the  niuple-hkc  uvula,  that  hangs  from 

:i  when  the   mouth  U 
opened.      I  i  hi-  tongue,  the  mcmbrai, 

of  that  organ  promi- 
and    i-   ivinaikably  developed    into  a  vast 

i1  led  lu/iif/tr.  which 

(he  1  •  -e  of  the  tongu.  .  ;. plied 

uith  i  i  -"id   variously  concerned  in 

•lie  part.  \TK.] 

V,  viieriinents  out  have  been 

-ur  If 

KiO  .  from  which  the 
. iiii:   icsults   arc  obtained  : — A  smiJl    portion   of   the 

re  the  I>;LSC  of  the  in ula.  the  r. 

part  of  the  back  of  the  tongue,  where  it  corresponds  to  the 
Isthmus  of  the  palate,  and  the  entire  circumference  of  the 
tongue,  are  MI  endowed  ;  while  the  internal  surface  of  the 

•he   gum,  the  remaining  | 

the   soft   palate   and   of  t!  -titute. 

Thus,  thos,   parts  ,,i   th.'  tongue  with  which,  in  sipping  or 
in   masticating,   the  food  would   ha\e  contact  .its  b. 
and.  most  eminentl).  its  tip),  are  gustative  :    and  the   pro- 
peif,  though  in  a  less  degree,  by  the  lingual  and 

palatine  surface's  of  the  isthmus  through  which  the  food 
enteis  the  sphere  of  involuntary  act: 

The  ner\e.  specially  endowed  with  the  .sic.  is 

a  branch  of  the  third  part  of  the  filth  cerebral  nerve, 
from  its  function,  gustatorv  :  but  it  seems  possible  ' 
physiologists  that  the  gloSBO-pharyngeal  ner\e  sha1 
property.  Tin  nerve  is  distributed  to  the  papil- 

Mir'faee  of  the  tongue,  especially  along  its  borders  and 
tip':  the  lingual  part  of  the  glosso-pharyngeal  nerve  is 
restricted  in  its  distribution  to  the  posterior  part  of  the 
tongue,  where  it  supplies  the  mucous  surface  exclu- 
sively. 

Km  the  sensation  of  taste,  moisture  must  be  present  ;  all 

iamiliiir  with  a  temporary  impairment  of  the 
under  the  influence  of  unusual  dryness  of  the  surface  of  its 
organs;  the  parched  tongue  of  fever  is  notoriously  indiffer- 
ent to  all  savours.  Matters  are  only  capable  of  being 
I  when  they  exist  in  a  fluid  form:  an  insoluble  body 
i-  insipid  :  a  solid  body  provokes  an  immediate  How  ot 
saliva,  and  its  sapid  qualities  are  perceived  in  proportion 
only  as  it  dissolves:  certain  gases  are  alleged  to  excite  s<-n- 
sations  of  taste:  but  it  is  only  by  such  as  are  soluble  in  the 
suli\a  sulphurous  acid,  for  instance  .and  Only  in  proportion 
as  they  are  dissolved  that  these  imp!  produced. 

I'he  sensation  of  taste  undoubtedly  admits  of  an  im- 
mense \ariety  of  modifications  which  no"  language  can  ex- 
.  If  a  man  were  to  examine  live  hundred  different 
wines,  he  would  hardly  find  two  of  them  that  had  precisely 
the  same  taste  :  the  same  thing  holds  in  cheese,  and  in 
many  other  things.  Yet  of  five  hundred  different  tastes  ii 
cheese  or  wine,  we  can  hardly  describe  twenty,  so  as  to  i;i\<. 
a  distinct  notion  of  them  to  one  who  had  not  tasled  them." 
The  vairue.  or  not-to-be-dcscrihed.  nature'  of  giislatoiy 
impres.sio  expressed  by  Dr.  Reid,  receives  sonh 

additional  obscurity  from  the  circumstance  that  taste  am 
smell  are  often  simultaneous!)  affected  in  a  manner  wind 
renders  it  difficult  to  abstract  cither.  Various  substance 
after  exciting  the  sense  of  touch  on  the  fauces,  and  that  o 
ta.ste  on  the  tongue,  arc  canaille  of  producing  a  third  im 
'ion.  which  is  popularly  referred  to  the  palate,  but  i: 
really  felt  upon  the  sentient  membrane  of  the  nostrils:  tlu 
fume  of  certain  kinds  of  food  ascends  into  the  cavities  o 
the  nose,  and  produces  this  third  and  distinct  sensation:  it 
administering  medicine  to  children,  it  is  well  known  tha 
the  greater  part  of  what  is  disagreeable  in  its  flavour  maj 
he  avoided  b\  -  when  the  draught  i 

swallowed;  and  by  repeating  this  experiment  upon  1 
articles  of  food,  it  is  easy  to  ascertain   how  much   of  theii 
flavour  depends  upon  one  sense,  and  how  much  is  appre 
elated  by  the  other.'     Mr.  Mayo,   from   whom  tin 
(Traph  IB  quoted,  goes  on  to  classify  the  impressions  pro 
dueed  \i\  taken  into  the  fauces: — 

1.  Where  sensations  of  tnurh  alone  lire  produced,  as  b] 
rock-crystal,  sapphire,  or  ice. 

2.  \Vhere,  in  addition  to  being  felt  upon  the  tongue,  th 
im  .   excites  .\i-,iMiiinn  in  the  nostrili,  as  for  instance 

tin  and  other  o  talg. 

.'t     V.        .  .],..  being  felt  upon  the  tongue,  it  produces 

•  e,,  ..lit. 

4.    \  is  felt  on  the  toiiL'iu    and  tlstec 


T  A  S 

>y  it,  ami  in  addition  excites  a  teiue  of  flavour  in  the 
rils,  as,  I'm  manna,  anil  tit 

itlin<'*  "j  I'liifi"!  'Arv.  p  :U  J. 
inri.ur,  then    1:1  distinction  1 
new  be  attributed  mil  •  poneated  a 

>r  volatility;  :iiul,  b\  8  <l  t  acting  such, 

nul  by  contrasting  their  impression  with  tl.  1  by 

a  simply  sapid   substance    urn-tard    and   salt    ran    illn 
In-  two   cases  ,  it    will   be  noticed   that    Ha. 
xlour,  which.  1'ioni  its  aH'ccting  a  comparatively  unj 
i-nl  part  of  thr  olfactory  appaiatlls.  Is  at  ; 
and  obscurely  recognised. 

tin-  chief  relations  of  the  sense  of  ta-1c  in  : 
and  in  the  animals  which   most   nearly  resemble   In 
structure.     As  the  sense  U  a  provision  I'or  the   - 
tile    di  may    on    sound     ph\ 

grounds  anticipa'  under  a  more  or  lc-> 

(Lifted   I'onn,  in  every  aniina' 
No  nx 

eil   ill  the  invc. 

Mime  tn  infer  in  them  the  p  than 

a-  an  obscure   sense  determining  their  elm.  •  turn 

of  I'ooil  :  to  till.--  extent  it  Undoubtedly  exists  m  them, 
to  the  bottom  of  the  seale — -to  the  infusory  aninialcu]. 
which  Khrciiberg  h:is  witnessed  its  e>  Liuoug  the 

invcrtcbrala.  inolhisks   possess  the  most    highh 
alimentary  organs,  and  it  .seems  probable  that  in   then 
guidin  those  organs  II;LS  a  corresponding  develop- 

ment. 

Through   the   subregnum  of  vertebrata  it  a- 
advancing  mat  are  me  nt  :    in  the   lower  el:'. 
reptiles,  the  organs  are  present,   but  seem  rather  to  b. 
to  the  movements  of  prehension  and  of  deglutition. 
to  the  M  nst    of  taste  :    in  birds  too  the   oriruns  are  little 
developed,  and  the  sense  seemingly  imperfect:    tin 
the  class  of  mammalia  it  is  gradually  augmented  in  acutc- 
but  although  in  certain   orders   of  them,  or  in    par- 
ticular indi\iduals,  the   sense  appears  shar])  and  the  appe- 
tite fastidious,  it  is  probably  in  man  alone  that   the  organs 
and  their  function  are  completely  matured. 

TASTK.  according  to  the  definition  of  Sir  Joshua  Rey- 
nolds, •  is  that  act  of  the  mind  by  which  we  like  or  dislike, 
whatever  be  the  subject.'  (Discourse!  before  tin-  l}ny<il 
Society;  Discourse  vii.) 

Taste  i>  freijuently  spoken  of  as  a  gift,  as  something  in- 
dependent   of   rules,  a   kind    of   instinct,    bestowed 
hhcially  in   degree   upon  some  men  than  upon  others.     It 
has  been  treated  by  some  writers  as  the  result  of  capi : 
fashion,  as   having  no  uniform  or  permanent,  principl- 
the   ground  of  its  decisions.     Others  ha\e  resolved  it  into 
different    complex    elements,    whose   joint    dc\c 
determined  by  certain  principles  of  beauty  or  sublimity  in 
things  external. 

Lord  Bacon  ha*  been  quoted  >ning 

the  idea  of  taste  bcinir  a  kind  of  gill  or  instinct.     '    > 
cannot    tell.'  he   says.  •  whether    Ajielles   or   Albert    I 

thetriller:    whereof  one  would    maK. 

au'e   of  geometrical   propmtions  :   the   other  bs  taking  the 
best  pans  Out  Of  div<  one  excellent.     The 

painter  must  do  it    by  a  Kind  of  fclicilx.  am!  not    by  rule.' 
Sir  .loslma  Reynolds   has  overthrown  ibis   position  in  one 
ice  :    '  I'.M'iy  object  which  pleases  must  irive  us  plea- 
sure upon  some  certain    principles.'     These   prmcipli 
uiH]iie.stionalily  so  intelligible  that  they  may  be  embodied 
in   the    form   of  words,  and   may  be   drawn  out  into 
Hurke.  towards  the  end  of  his  essay  ou  Taste    introdi 
to   the   Sublime   and  licautifnlX  has  likewise   adverted    to 
this  position,  which  will  come  under  notice  again  in  the 
course  of  this  article. 

The  hypothesis  which  refers  our  emotion  of  taste  to  tin- 
influence  of  fashion,  or  temporary  and  varying  <-., 

maintained  in  the   I//<juiri/  intn  thr  I'rinciji 
b\   Mr.  I'ayne  Kniirht.     According  to  Mr.  k 
there  is  scarcely   any  subject  upon  which  men    differ 
than  concerning  the  objects  of  their  pleasures  and  ainn-«e- 
nients  :    and  this   difference  subsists  not  only  among  indi- 
viduals, but  among  ages  and  nations  ;  nlnu   •  rela- 
tion accusing  that  which  preceded  it  of  bad  tVtlln  build- 
ing, furniture,  and  (Ires*;  and  almost   every  nation  having 
its  own   peculiar  modes  and  ideas  of  excellence   in   • 
matters,  to  which  it    perdu                     Ihcrcs,  until  one  par- 
ticular people  ha                                           •  ndcne\  in  ]io\\, 
reputation  as  to  set  what    is  called   the  fashion,   when  (hi* 


T  A  S 


97 


T  A  S 


fashion  is  indiscriminately  adopted  upon  the  blind  prin- 
ciple of  imitation,  and  without  any  consideration  of  the 
differences  of  climate,  constitution,  or  habits  of  life,  and 
every  one  who  presumes  to  deviate  from  it  is  thought  an 
odd  mortal,  a  humorist  void  of  all  just  feeling,  taste,  or 
elegance.  The  fashion  continues  in  the  full  exercise  of  its 
tyranny  for  a  few  years  or  months,  when  another,  perhaps 
still  more  whimsical  and  unmeaning,  starts  into  being  and 
deposes  it ;  all  are  then  instantly  astonished  that  they  could 
ever  have  been  pleased  even  for  a  moment  with  anything 
•o  tasteless,  barbarous,  and  absurd.  The  revolutions  in  dress 
only,  not  to  mention  those  in  building,  furnishing,  garden- 
ing, &c.,  which  have  taken  place  within  the  last  two  cen- 
turies afford  ample  illustration '  Let  no  one  imagine,' 

says  Mr.  Knight,  '  that  he  solves  the  question  by  saying 
that  there  have  been  errors  in  taste,  as  there  have  been  in 
religion  and  philosophy;  for  the  cases  are  totally  different : 
religion  and  philosophy  being  matter  of  belief,  reason,  and 
opinion  ;  but  taste  being  a  matter  of  feeling,  so  that  what- 
ever was  really  and  considerately  thought  to  be  ornamental 
must  have  been  previously  felt  to  be  so ;  and  though 
opinions  may  by  argument  or  demonstration  be  proved  to 
be  wrong,  how  shall  an  individual  pretend  to  prove  the 
feelings  of  a  whole  age  or  nation  wrong,  when  the  only 
just  criterion  he  can  apply  to  ascertain  the  rectitude  of  his 
own  is  their  congruity  with  those  of  the  generality  of  his 
species.'  (c.  i.,  p.  1.) 

This  argument  is  founded  on  an  exaggeration  of  a  fact 
in  reference  to  the  philosophy  of  taste  admitted  by  those 
who  contend  that  taste  is  determined  by  some  definite  and 
invariable  principles:  the  fact  may  be  described  under 
the  general  head  of  the  influence  of  association  on  our 
emotions  of  this  order.  Mr.  Dugald  Stewart  has  observed 
on  the  exaggeration  in  question,  that  the  association  of 
ideas  can  never  account  for  the  origin  of  a  new  notion,  or 
of  a  pleasure  essentially  different  from  all  the  others  which 
we  know.  It  may  indeed  enable  us  to  conceive  how  a 
thing  indifferent  in  itself  may  become  a  source  of  pleasure 
by  being  connected  in  the  mind  with  something  else  which 
is  naturally  agreeable ;  but  it  presupposes  in  every  in- 
stance the  existence  of  those  notions  and  those  feelings 
which  it  is  its  province  to  combine  :  insomuch  that  it  will 
be  found  wherever  association  produces  a  change  in  our 
judgments  in  matters  of  taste,  it  does  so  by  cooperating 
with  some  natural  principle  of  the  mind,  and  implies  the 
existence  of  certain  original  sources  of  pleasure  and  un- 
easiness. This  suggests  si  distinction  in  the  circumstances 
which  please  in  the  objects  of  taste,  between  those  which 
please  in  consequence  of  casual  associations  and  those 
which  are  fitted  to  please  by  nature.  The  perfection  of 
tii-.tr  in  reference  to  the  last  depends  upon  the  degree  in 
which  the  mind  is  free  from  casual  associations ;  in  re- 
ference to  the  first  it  depends  upon  the  facility  with  which 
such  associations  are  formed.  (Elements  of  the  Philosophy 
of  tin'  Uiiinnii  Mind,  c.  v.,  p.  ii.,  p.  364,  4to.) 

The  different  modes  in  which  association  operates  have 
bi-rn  illustrated  with  much  elegance,  and  their  true  place 
in  the  philosophy  of  taste  distinguished,  by  Mr.  Alison : 
'  Fashion,"  he  remarks,  '  may  be  considered  in  general  as 
the  custom  of  the  great.  It  is  the  dress,  the  furniture,  the 
language,  the  manners  of  the  great  world,  which  constitute 
what  is  called  the  fashion  in  each  of  these  articles,  and 
which  the  rest  of  mankiud  are  in  such  haste  to  adopt  after 
their  example.  Whatever  the  real  beauty  or  propriety  of 
(hot;  articles  may  be,  it  is  not  in  this  light  that  we  con- 
sider them.  They  are  the  signs  of  that  elegance  and  taste 
and  splendour  which  is  so  liberally  attributed  to  elevated 
rank  :  they  are  associated  with  the  consequence  which  such 
situations  bestow  ;  and  they  establish  a  kind  of  distinction 
between  this  envied  station  and  those  humble  and  mor- 
tifying conditions  of  life  to  which  no  man  is  willing  to 
belong.  It  is  in  the  light  therefore  of  thi*  connection  only 
that  we  are  disposed  to  consider  them  ;  and  they  accord- 
ingly affect  us  with  the  same  emotion  of  delight  which  we 
receive  from  the  consideration  of  taste  or  elegance  in  more 
permanent  instances.'  (Essays  on  Taste,  Essay  i.) 

Association  then  can  only  modify,  it  cannot  wholly  ac- 
count for  our  emotion  of  taste,  and  it  cannot  even  modify 
except  by  operating  in  a  manner  which  implies  certain  ori- 
ginal sources  of  pleasure  and  uneasiness  in  the  objects  of 
our  emotion.  In  some  cases  association  heightens  the 
agreeable  or  disagreeable  effect  of  objects ;  in  others  all 
the  delight  or  ilisgii>,t  which  we  experience  can  be  resolved 
P.  C.,  No.  IfKX). 


into  the  influence  of  association.  The  distinction  implies 
the  fact  insisted  on.  What  constitutes  the  distinction,  or 
where  are  we  to  find  its  explanation  ?  We  may  with  pro 
priety  employ  our  reason  in  reducing  particular  phenomena 
to  general  principles ;  but  we  must  in  the  end  arrive  at 
principles  of  which  there  is  no  other  account  to  be  given 
jthan  that  such  is  the  will  of  the  author  of  our  nature.  We 
cannot  explain  why  such  forms  please  or  displease ;  we 
must  stop  short  at  the  discovery  of  the  respects  in  which 
they  please  or  displease.  (Stewart.) 

Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  has  referred  the  idea  of  beauty  to 
some  '  central  form'  in  the  objects  of  our  perception.  'All 
the  objects  which  are  exhibited  to  our  view  by  nature, 
upon  close  examination,  will  be  found,'  he  says,  '  to  have 
their  blemishes  and  defects.  The  most  beautiful  forms 
have  something  about  them  like  weakness,  minuteness,  or 
imperfection  :  but  it  is  not  every  eye  that  perceives  these 
blemishes ;  it  must  be  an  eye  long  used  to  the  contempla- 
tion and  comparison  of  these  forms ;  and  which,  by  a  long 
habit  of  observing  what  any  set  of  objects  of  the  same 
kind  have  in  common,  has  acqu'ired  the  power  of  discern- 
ing what  each  wants  in  particular.  This  long  laborious 
comparison  should  be  the  first,  study  of  the  painter  who 
aims  at  the  greatest  style.  By  this  means  he  acquires  a 
just  idea  of  beautiful  forms ;  he  corrects  nature  by  herself, 
her  imperfect  state  by  her  more  perfect.  His  eye  being 
enabled  to  distinguish  the  accidental  deficiencies,  excres- 
cences, and  deformities  of  things  from  their  general  figures, 
he  makes  out  an  abstract  idea  of  their  forms  more  perfect 
than  any  one  original ;  and,  what  may  seem  a  paradox,  he 
learns  to  design  naturally  by  drawing  his  figures  unlike  to 
any  one  object.  (Discourse  III.)  He  observes  in  ex- 
planation in  another  part  of  the  same  discourse :  '  To  the 
principle  I  have  laid  down,  that  the  idea  of  beauty  in  each 
species  of  beings  is  an  invariable  one,  it  may  be  objected, 
that  in  every  particular  species  there  are  various  central 
forms  which  are  separate  and  distinct  from  each  other,  and 
yet  are  undeniably  beautiful ;  that  in  the  human  figure, 
for  instance,  the  beauty  of  Hercules  is  one ;  of  the  Gla- 
diator another ;  of  Apollo  another ;  which  makes  so  many 
different  ideas  of  beauty.  It  is  true  indeed  that  these 
figures  are  each  perfect  in  their  kind,  though  of  different 
characters  and  proportions ;  but  still  none  of  them  is  the 
representation  of  an  individual,  but  of  a  class :  and  as 
there  is  one  general  form  which,  as  I  have  said,  belongs  to 
the  human  kind  at  large,  so  in  each  of  these  classes  there 
is  one  common  idea  and  central  form,  which  is  the  abstract 
of  the  various  individual  forms  belonging  to  that  class. 
Thus,  though  the  forms  of  childhood  and  age  differ  ex- 
ceedingly, there  is  a  common  form  in  childhood  and  a 
common  form  in  age,  which  is  the  more  perfect  as  it  is 
more  remote  from  all  peculiarities.  But  ....  though  the 
most  perfect  forms  of  each  of  the  general  divisions  of  the 
human  figure  are  ideal,  and  superior  to  any  individual 
form  of  that  class,  yet  the  highest  perfection  of  the  human 
figure  is  not  to  be  found  in  any  one  of  them.  It  is  not  in 
the  Hercules,  nor  in  the  Gladiator,  nor  in  the  Apollo,  but. 
in  that  form  which  is  taken  from  all,  and  which  partakes 
equally  of  the  activity  of  the  Gladiator,  of  the  delicacy  of 
the  Apollo,  and  of  the  muscular  strength  of  the  Hercules. 
For  perfect  beauty  in  any  species  must  combine  all  the 
characters  which  are  beautiful  in  that  species.  It  cannot 
consist  in  any  one  to  the  exclusion  of  the  rest ;  no  one 
therefore  must  be  predominant,  that  no  one  may  be  de- 
ficient. .  .  .  There  is  likewise  a  kind  of  symmetry  or  pro- 
portion which  may  properly  be  said  to  belong  to  de- 
formity. A  figure  lean  or  corpulent,  tall  or  short,  though 
deviating  from  beauty,  may  still  have  a  certain  union  of 
the  various  parts,  which  may  contribute  to  make  them  on 
the  whole  not  unpleasing.' 

This  theory  (the  principle  of  which  extends  to  other 
objects  of  taste  besides  those  contemplated  by  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds)  reconciles  the  apparent  inconsistency,  insisted 
on  by  Mr.  Payne  Knight  and  by  other  writers  of  the  same 
school,  between  the  decisions  of  taste  in  one  country  and 
in  another,  as  tending  to  show  that  the  standard  of  taste  is 
wholly  arbitrary.  The  ideal  beauty  of  the  African  is  the 
result  of  the  process  which  has  been  described  applied  to 
the  coloured  inhabitants  of  Africa,  as  the  ideal  beauty  of 
the  European  is  the  result  of  the  same  process  applied 
to  the  inhabitants  of  Europe.  To  institute  a  compari- 
son between  the  beauty  of  the  European  and  that  of  the 
African,  and  to  conclude  that  taste  has  no  invariable 

VOL.  XXIV.— O 


T  A  S 


98 


TAT 


principles  as  its  foundation,  from  the  opposite  derisions  on 
Mich  a  comparison,  involves  the  same  description  of  error 
as  it  would  be  to  arrive  at  tin-  same  conclusion  from  the 
opposite  decisions  in  :i  comparison  between  the  beauty  of 
I-.MI  distil-..  '  I  annuals,  the  one  biped  :nul  tin 

quadruped.  There  is  a  '  central  form '  of  beauty  proper 
to  the  different  races  of  mankind  ;  to  the  two  sexes  of  the 
different  races ;  to  different  ages ;  and  so  on  in  reference 
to  inferior  animals  and  objects  of  inanimate  nature.  \\'e 
.ss  beyond  the  province  of  mere  taste  when  we  com- 
pare object's  in  respect  to  which  the  principles  of  beauty 
arc  altogether  distinct. 

.ch  obscurity  has  arisen  in  discussions  on  the  subject 
of  taste  from  the  twofold  sense  in  which  the  word  taste 
has  been  employed,  as  expressive  of  an  emotion,  and  of 
something  objective  in  which  there  exists  an  aptitude  to 
produce  emotion.  The  term  taste  strictly  applies  to  the 
emotion  only  ;  the  theory  of  the  different  causes  by  which 
the  emotion  is  produced  belongs  to  the  subject  of  beauty. 
We  have  been  obliged  to  refer  to  the  theory  of  beauty  in 
the  preceding  part  of  this  article  in  establishing  the  reality 
of  certain  principles  determining  our  emotions  of  taste  :  in 
what  follows  we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  the  explanation 
of  taste  in  its  restricted  or  proper  sense. 

When  any  object  either  of  sublimity  or  beauty  is  pre- 
sented to  the  mind,  we  are  conscious  of  a  train  ol  thought 
being  immediately  awakened  analogous  to  the  character 
or  expression  of  the  original  object.  The  landscapes  of 
Claude,  the  music  of  Handel,  the  poetry  of  Milton, 
excite  feeble  emotions  in  our  minds  when  our  attention  is 
confined  to  the  qualities  they  present  to  our  senses,  or 
when  it  is  to  such  qualities  of  their  composition  that  we 
turn  our  regard.  It  is  then  only  we  feel  the  sublimity  or 
beauty  of  their  productions,  w'hen  our  imaginations  are 
kindled  by  their  power,  when  we  lose  ourselves  amid  the 
number  of  images  I  hat  pass  before  our  minds,  or  when  we 
waken  at  last  from  the  play  of  fancy  as  from  the  charm  of 
a  romantic  dream.  (Alison,  c.  i.,  sect.  1.) 

The  trains  of  thought  which  are  thus  suggested  are  dis- 
tinguished in  the  nature  of  the  ideas  or  conceptions  which 
compose  them,  and  in  the  nature  or  law  of  their  succession. 
In  the  case  of  those  trains  of  thought  which  are  suggested 
by  objects  either  of  sublimity  or  beauty,  they  are  in  all 
cases  composed  of  ideas  capable  of  exciting  some  affect  ion 
or  emotion.  Mr.  Alison  has  supposed  that  not  only  the 
whole  succession  is  accompanied  with  that  peculiar  emo- 
tion which  we  rail  the  emotion  of  beauty  or  sublimity, 
but  that  every  individual  idea  of  such  a  succession  is  in 
itself  productive  of  some  simple  emotion  or  other.  But  to 
tins  it  has  been  objected,  and  we  think  truly,  that  such  a 
train  of  images  passing  before  the  mind,  and  images  accom- 
panied with  lively  emotion,  could  scarcely  fail  to  be 
remembered  by  us;  or,  at  least,  if  they  are  not  rcmem- 
1  by  us,  there  is  no  reason,  d  priori,  to  suppose  the 
existence  of  them.  (Brown,  Lrctitrea  on  the  Philosophy 
(if  the  Human  Mind,  lecture  Ivii.) 

There  is  this  distinction  between  the  emotions  of  taste 
and  all  our  different  emotions  of  simple  pleasure,  that  in 
the  case  of  these  last  emotions  no  additional  train  of 
thought  is  necessary.  The  pleasurable  feeling  follows  im- 
mediately the  presence  of  the  object  or  quality,  and  has 
no  dependence  upon  anything  for  its  perfection  but  the 
sound  state  of  the  sense  by  which  it  is  received.  The 
emotions  of  envy,  pity,  benevolence,  gratitude,  utility, 
propriety,  novelty,  &c.  might  undoubtedly  be  felt,  although 
we  had  no  such  power  of  mind  as  that  by  which  we  fol- 
low out  a  train  of  ideas,  and  certainly  are  felt  in  a  thousand 
cases  when  this  faculty  is  unemployed.  In  the  case  of 
the  emotion  of  taste,  on  the  other  hand,  it  seems  evident 
that  this  process  of  mind  is  necessary,  and  that  unless  it 
is  produced  these  emotions  are  unfelt.  Whatever  may 
be  the  nature  of  that  simple  emotion  which  any  object 
is  fitted  to  excite,  whether  that  of  gaiety,  tranquillity. 
melancholy,  &c.,  if  it  produce  not  a  train  of  kindred 
thought  in  our  minds,  we  are  conscious  only  of  that 
simple  emotion.  Whenever,  on  the  contrary,  the  train 
of  thought  which  has  been  mentioned  is  produced,  we 
are  conscious  of  a  higher,  and  more  pleasing  emotion: 
and  which,  though  it  is  impossible  to  describe  in  lan- 
guage, we  yet  distinguish  by  the  name  of  the  emotion 
of  taste.  The  emotions  of  taste  may  therefore  be  con- 
sidered as  distinguished  from  the  emotions  of  simple  plea- 
sure, by  their  being  dependent  upon  the  exercise  or  our 


majrination  ;  and  though  founded  in  all  cases  upon  simple 
emotion,  as  yet  further  requiring  the  employment  of  tnis 
faculty  for  their  existence  (£»*</;/  i.,  MMUlsion,  s.  ii., 
Alison);  or,  rather  than  the  rinjilnymfiit  ( a  word  which 
seems  to  intimate  a  deliberate1  intended  act,  in  the  pro- 
cess of  imagination),  as  Dr.  Brown  would  say,  the  opera- 
tion of  the  common  laws  of  suggestion  in  the  mode  to  which 
we  apply  the  word  imagination. 

The  suggestion  of  trains  of  kindred  or  harmonising 
I  which  has  been  pointed  out  u distinguishing  the 
emotion  of  taste,  accounts  for  the  more  enlarged  suscepti- 
bility in  some  than  in  others  of  this  emotion.  The  more 
our  ideas  are  increased  or  our  conceptions  extended  upon 
any  subject,  the  greater  the  number  of  association 
connect  with  it,  the  stronger  is  the  emotion  of  sublimity 
or  beauty  we  rcceue  ironi  it.  •  What  is  it*  (says  Mr. 
Alison)  '  that  constitute*  tint  emotion  of  sublime  delight, 
which  every  man  of  common  sensibility  feels  upon  the 
first  prospect  of  Rome  ?  It  is  not  the  scene  of  destruction 
w  hich  is  before  him.  It  is  not  the  TI|XT.  diminished  in 
his  imagination  to  a  pnltn  stream,  and  stagnating  amid 
the  ruins  of  that  magnificence  which  it  once  adorned. 
It  is  not  the  triumph  of  superstition  over  the  wreck  of 
human  greatness,  and  its  monuments  erected  upon  the 
very  spot  where  the  first  honours  of  humanity  lia\< 
gained.  It  is  antient  Home  which  fills  his  imagination. 
It  is  the  country  of  Csesar,  and  Cicero,  and  Virgil,  which 
is  before  him.  It  is  the  mistress  of  the  world  which  he 
sees,  and  who  seems  to  him  to  rise  again  from  her  tomb, 
to  give  laws  to  the  universe.  All  that  the  labours  of  Ins 
youth  or  the  studies  of  his  maturer  age  have  acquired, 
with  regard  to  the  history  of  this  great  people,  open  at 
once  before  his  imagination,  and  present  him  with  a  field 
of  high  and  solemn  imagery,  which  can  never  be  ex- 
hausted.' 

'  The  beauty'  of  a  theory  or  of  a  relic  of  antiquity  is 
unintelligible  to  a  peasant.  The  charms  of  the  country 
are  altogether  lost  upon  a  citizen  who  has  passed  his 
life  in  town.'  It  is  on  the  principle  in  question  that 
Burke  remarks  that  the  excellence  and  force  of  a  com- 
position must  always  be  imperfectly  estimated  from  its 
effect  on  the  minds  of  any,  except  we  know  the  temper  and 
character  of  those  minds.  (Introduction  to  the  Sublime 
and  Beautiful.) 

The  rules  by  which  tas\e  is  determined  vary  with  the 
objects  to  which  its  decisions  refer;  but  in  respect  to  all, 
this  general  principle  holds,  that  a  composition  is  to  be 
judged  by  its  fitness  to  produce  the  end  designed  by  it. 
If  to  please,  to  instruct,  to  move,  to  create  laughter,  be  its 
design,  its  merits  are  to  be  determined  by  its  aptitude  to 
produce  any  of  these  effects.  If  its  objects  be  to  please, 
\.r.  (inly  a  particular  people  or  class,  it  is  to  be  estir 
under  the  given  circumstances.  If  its  object  he  to  give 
pleasure  or  instruction  to  all  ages  and  conditions  of 
society,  it  is  to  be  estimated  by  its  ruiTc-pondcnce  with 
those  universal  principles  of  human  nature  which  it  con- 
templates. That  eompo-ition  is  the  highest  which  is  of  the 
last  description.  (Hume's  Essay  on  l/ieStniiifuril  <;/'  '/' 

The  reader  who  may  desire  to  see  (hi*  Mibjcct  further  dis- 
cussed is  referred  to  the  article  BKAUTY  ;  to  Mr.  Alton's 
/.Vv '//v  .•  to  Brown's  J.i-i-!nn:\  mi  the  PhilofOti/i  I/  nf  the 
Human  Mind,  lecture  Ivii.;  Hume's  &  xny  'in  the  Standard 
"f  T 

TATARS.     [TARTARS.] 

TATK,  NAHUM,  was  born  in  Dublin  in  the  year  K;.*i2. 
His  father  was  Dr.  Faithful  Tale,  a  clergyman  in  Ireland. 
He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  whence  he 
removed  to  London.  On  the  death  of  Shadwell  in  IO!H). 
the  interest  ol  Tale's  friends  procured  him  the  situation  of 
.uircatc,  which  he  held  till  his  death.  He  seems  to 
have  been  an  improvident  man.  and  somewhat  addicted 
to  intemperance.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  lie  resided 
in  the  precincts  of  the  Mint,  in  Southwark,  where  he  died, 
August  12,  171").  The  Mint  was  then  considered  a  pri- 

<  d    place,   where  debtors  were  not    liable  to 
This  supposed  privilege  however  was  put  down  by  statute 
9  Geo.  I. 

Tate  wrote  'Memorials  for  the  Learned,  collected  out  of 
eminent  Authors  in  History.' Hvo.  Kisti;  •  I'haiacters  of 
Virtue  and  Vice  described  and  attempted  in  Verse,  from 
a  Treatise  of  Joseph  Hall.  Bishop  of  Exon,'  Loud..  Kiill  ; 
•  Miscellanea  Sacra,  01  Pttmi  on  Dhnie  and  Moral  Sub- 
jects,' Lond.,  1698,  8vo. ;  '  Panacea,  a  Poem  on  Tea, 


TAT 


99 


TAT 


Lond.,  1700  ;  besides  Birth-Day  Odes,  and  an  Elegy  or 
the  death  of  Queen  Mary.  He  was  also  the  author  o 
about  ten  dramatic  pieces,  tragedy,  comedy,  and  opera 
including  an  alteration  of  Shakspere's  '  Lear,'  which  kep 
the  stage  many  years,  but  has  for  some  time  been  super 
seded  by  the  original. 

Tate  is  chiefly  known  now  by  his  metrical  version  o 
the  Psalms,  which  he  executed  in  conjunction  with  Dr 
Nicholas  Brady  [BRADY],  and  which  is  now  commonly 
annexed  to  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  of  the  Church  o 
England.  This  version,  though  not  of  high  merit,  has 
deservedly  taken  the  place  of  the  former  version  by  Stern- 
hold  and  Hopkins.  [STEHNHOLD.]  The  first  publicatior 
was  an  '  Essay  of  a  New  Version  of  the  Psalms  of  David 
consisting  of  the  first  Twenty,  by  N.  Brady  and  N.  Tate, 
Lond.,  1695,  8vo.  ;  this  was  followed  by  'A  New  Version 
of  the  Psalms  of  David,  fitted  to  the  Tunes  used  in  the 
Churches,  by  N.  Tate  and  N.  Brady,'  Lond.,  1698,  with  a 
'  Supplement  of  Church  Hymns,'  Lond.,  1700,  8vo. 

(Baker's  Biographia  Dramatiea,  by  Reed  and  Jones  ; 
AVall's  Bibliothfca  Jirifannica.) 

TATIA'NUS,  of  Assyria,  was  a  pupil  of  Justin  Martyr, 
after  whose  death  he  wrote  an  apology  for  Christianity, 
under  the  title  of  '  A  Discourse  to  the  Heathen  ' 


f  *EXX>)voc).  In  this  work  he  gives  some  account  of 
his  own  life.  He  was  brought  up  in  heathenism,  the  dif- 
ferent forms  of  which  became  known  to  him  by  his  many 
travels  ;  and  all  those  forms  appeared  to  him  unsatisfactory. 
He  then  turned  his  attention  to  the  Old  Testament,  on 
which  he  thought  he  saw  the  impress  of  truth.  Arriving 
at  Rome,  where  he  practised  as  a  rhetorician,  he  met  with 
Justin  Martyr,  by  whom  he  was  converted  to  Christianity. 

After  the  death  of  Justin  he  embraced  some  heretical 
opinions,  the  germs  of  which  may  be  seen  in  his  'Dis- 
course to  the  Heathen.'  The  chief  of  his  heresies  were  the 
Marcionite  doctrines  of  the  two  principles  of  good  and  evil, 
and  of  the  evil  of  matter  [MARCIONITES],  and  the  Valen- 
tinian  doctrine  concerning  Aeons.  His  followers  were  how- 
ever chiefly  remarkable  for  the  practical  application  they 
made  of  their  Marcionite  opinions  by  lives  of  the  strictest 
asceticism.  They  lived  in  celibacy,  refused  all  luxuries,  and 
abstained  from  the  use  of  wine  even  at  the  Lord's  Supper. 
Hence  they  were  called  Encratites  (ifxparlTat),  Apotac- 
titcs  i  airoTatTiicoi},  and  Hydroparastatae  (vSpoirapaaTuTai). 
But  it  must  be  observed  that  these  terms  were  often  ap- 
plied to  all  ascetics.  The  Tatianists  were  Encratites,  but 
all  called  Encratites  were  not  Tatianists.  The  date  of 
Tatian's  heresy  is  placed  by  Eusebius  in  the  year  A.D.  172. 

Of  his  lost  works  the  chief  were  a  treatise  on  '  Perfec- 
tion after  the  Pattern  of  the  Saviour  '  (irtpi  row  icard  rbv 
aurijpa  rarafTtffftou),  and  a  '  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels  ' 
(fi'inyytXiov  Ita  Tiaaapuv).  The  latter  work  is  particularly 
noticed  by  Theodoret,  who  found  200  copies  of  it  in  the 
Syrian  churches,  which  he  took  away  from  the  people  on 
account  of  the  heresies  contained  in  the  book.  For  this 
reason,  chiefly,  Neander  supposes  that  the  Harmony  of 
Tatian  was  not  simply  compiled  from  the  narratives  of  the 
four  Evangelists,  but  contained  also  many  things  out  of 
the  Apocryphal  Gospels.  Some  writers,  among  whom  is 
Lardner,  think  that  Tatian's  '  Harmony  '  is  still  extant  in  an 
Arabic  MS.  in  the  Vatican  Library. 

His  '  Apology  '  is  usually  printed  with  the  works  of  Justin 
Martyr.  There  are  separate  editions  of  it  by  Gesner, 
Zurich,  1546,  to).  ;  and  by  Worth,  Oxon.,  1700,  8vo. 

(Eusebius,  Hist.  Ecc.,  iv.  29  ;  Hieronymus,  De  Vir.  II- 
ln\t.,  c.  29;  Clemens  Alexand.,  Strom.,  iii.  12;  Lardner's 
Credibility,  pt.  ii.,  c.  xiii.,  &c.  ;  xxxvi.,  sec.  2;  Neander's 
Gesch.  der  Christ.  Relig.  und  Kirche,  i.,  p.  762,  and 
p.  1131.) 

TATIUS,  ACHILLES.     [ACHILLES  TATTOS.] 

TATTA.     ("HINDUSTAN,  xii.,  221.] 

TATTERSHALL.     [LINCOLNSHIRE.] 

TATTOOING  is  the  name  usually  given  to  the  custom, 
common  among  many  uncivilized  tribes,  of  marking  the 
skin  by  punctures  or  incisions,  and  introducing  into  them 
coloured  fluids,  so  as  to  produce  an  indelible  stain.  It  is 
mentioned  in  Captain  Cook's  account  of  the  South  Sea 
islanders  under  the  name  lattowing;  and,  with  trifling  dif- 
ference in  the  orthography,  the  same  name  is  applied  by 
English  writers  to  similar  practices  among  other  people. 
Tin;  word  '  tattoo*  appears  to  be  formed  by  a  reduplication 
of  a  Polynesian  verb  '  ta,'  meaning  to  strike,  and  therefore  to 
allude  to  the  method  of  performing  the  operation,  and,  if 


this  supposition  be  correct,  it  has  a  curious  resemblance  to 
the  English  word  tattoo,  meaning  a  particular  beat  of  the 
drum. 

From  a  passage  in  the  book  of  Leviticus,  chap,  xix., 
v.  28,  in  which  the  Israelites  are  forbidden  to  make  any 
cuttings  in  their  flesh  for  the  dead,  or  to  print  any  marks 
upon  their  bodies,  it  has  been  supposed  that  some  custom 
resembling  tattooing  was  practised  in  the  time  of  Moses. 
A  note  upon  this  passage  in  the  '  Pictorial  Bible'  states,' 
that  although  tattooing  seems  to  have  been  commonly  re- 
garded in  England  rather  as  a  custom  of  savage  islanders 
than  anything  more,  it  is  also  an  Oriental  custom,  and  that 
too  among  people  whose  proximity  to  the  Hebrews  affords 
a  reason  for  the  prohibition  contained  in  the  text  referred 
to.     '  The  Bedouin  Arabs,  and  those  inhabitants  of  towns 
who  are  in  any  way  allied  to  them,'  observes  the  author  of 
this  note,  '  are  scarcely  less  fond  of  such  decorations  than 
any  islanders  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.     This  is  particularly 
the  case  among  the  females,  who,  in  general,  have  their 
legs  and  arms,  their  front  from  the  neck  to  the  waist,  and 
even  their  chins,  lips,  and  other  prominent  parts  of  the 
face   marked   with   blue   stains   in   the  form  of  flowers, 
circles,  bands,  stars,  and  various  fanciful  figures.     They 
have  no  figures  of  living  objects,  such  being  forbidden  by 
their  religion ;  neither  do  they  associate  any  superstitions 
with  them,  so  far  as  we  are  able  to  ascertain.    They  pro- 
bably did  both  before  the  Mohammedan  sera,  as  their  de- 
scendants in  the  island  of  Malta  do  at  present.     The  men 
there  generally  go  about  without  their  jackets,  and  with 
their  sleeves  tucked  up  above  their  elbows,  and  we  scarcely 
recollect  ever  to  have  seen  an  arm,  thus  bare,  which  was  not 
covered  with  religious  emblems  and  figures  of  the  Virgin, 
or  of  some  saint  under  whose  immediate  protection  the 
person  thus  marked  conceived  himself  to  be.'     '  Thus  also,' 
aroceecls  the  author,  '  persons  who  visit  the  holy  sepulchre 
md  other  sacred  places  in  Palestine  have  commonly  a 
mark  impressed  on  the  arm  in  testimony  of  their  merito- 
rious pilgrimage.1      The  works  of  antient  writers  contain 
many  notices  of  the  practice  of  tattooing,  as   practised 
jy  several   barbarous  races.     As  to   the  Britons,  Caesar 
merely  describes  their  custom  of  staining  their  bodies  with 
vitrum,  or  woad  ;  but  '  Solinus  represents  the  process  as  a 
aborious  and  painful  one,  but  permanent  in  its  effect ;  and 
speaks  of  the  painting  as  consisting  chiefly  of  the  figures 
of  animals,  that  grew  with  the  growth  of  the  body.     He- 
rodian  says  they  punctured  their  bodies  with  the  figures 
of  all  sorts  of  animals.     Isidore  is  still  more  explicit ;  for, 
n  speaking  of  the  Picts,  whose  name  he  derives  from  their 
coloured  skins,  he  tells  us  that  the  painting  was  done  by 
queezing  out  the  juice  of  certain  herbs  upon  the  body, 
and   puncturing   the  figures  with  a  needle.'    (Pictorial 
History  of  England,  vol.  i.,   p.  129.)     Caesar  supposed 
hat  this  practice  was  adopted  for  the  purpose  of  terrifying 
heir  enemies ;    but  probably  this  kind  of  skin-painting 
was  the  national  dress,  and  if  so,  it  may  have  existed  in 
ts  highest  state  of  perfection  at  a  period  anterior  to  the 
loman  invasion.     Tattooing  may  also  have  been  practised 
Dy  our  ancestors  as  a  means  of  distinction,  as  well  as  from 
he  love  of  ornament.     Thus  Herodotus,  who  describes  the 
labits  of  the  Thracians,  says  that  to  be  tattooed  or  marked 
fon'xSat)  was  an  emblem  of  rank,  and  the  want  of  it  indi- 
cated meanness  of  descent  (v.  6).    The  extended  use  of 
Nothing  at  a  later  period  rendered  such  ornaments  super- 
luous,  and  led  to  the  decline  and  subsequent  abandonment 
>f  the  practice.     '  It  is  therefore,'  says  the  '  Pictorial  His- 
ory  of  England,'  '  that  we  hear  no  more  of  this  tattooing 
n  the  south  (of  Britain)  after  it  was  subdued  and  civilised 
nto  a  Roman  province,  though  it  still  continued  among 
he  rude  tribes   of  the  north,  where  it  lingered  until  it 
vas  banished  thence  also  by  the  full  attire  of  civilization.' 
n  a  subsequent  part  of  the  same  volume  (p.  329)  it  is 
tated  that  the  custom  of  tattooing,  or  puncturing  the 
kin,  was  practised  by  the  Anglo-Saxons  as  well  as  by  the 
iritons,  and  that  a  law  was  passed  against  it  in  the  year 
785       It  was  nevertheless   continued  during  the  whole 
)f  the  Anglo-Saxon  period,  and  is  among  the  English 
ices  reprobated  by  William  of  Malmesbury  after  the  Nor- 
man conquest.     Several  other  antient  notices  on  the  sub- 
ect  are  collected  by  Lafitau,  in  his  '  Mreurs  des  Sauvages 
Americmaines,'  which  work  is  cited  in  the  volume  on  the 
New  Zealanders'  in  the  '  Library  of  Entertaining..Know- 
edge,'  where  much  information  respecting  tattooing  is 
' 


TAT 


100 


TAT 


In  in..d.-iii  rimes  the  custom  ni'  tattooing  has  been  found 
in  must  nl  the  inland*  of  tin-  l':u-itir  I  It-can,  anil  among 
many  of  tin-  aboriginal  tribes  ol'  Afrii-n  and  Anu-rit-a,  as.  \\cll 
at, on  a  limited  wale,  an  before  stated,  in  the  Ka.st.  Much 
curious  information  on  the  various  kind,  of  tattooing  i»  col- 

,1  in  tin-  volume  on  the  '  New  /eaJamli  r-.   previously 
filed.     From  this  work  we  condense  the  following  account 
of  the  process  of  tattooing,  as  ]>erl'tirmed  in  New  /< 
upon  an  KiiglUh  sailor,  named  John  Rutherford.  who  v\a- 

:reil  b}  the  native*  in  1810,  and  resided  among  them 

i  arly  ten  years,  and  upon  Mime  companions  who  were 
taken  with  him  : — The  natives  having  seated  themselves 
on  the  irromul  in  a  ring,  the  Englishmen  were  placed  in 
the  middle,  stripped  of  their  clothes,  laid  down  on  their 

El,  and  held  by  five  or  six  men  each,  while  two  others 
commenced  the  operation  of  tattooing.  Having  taken  a 
piece  of  charcoal,  and  nibbed  it  upon  it  stone  with  a  little 
water,  so  as  to  produce  a  thick  liquid,  they  dipped  into  it 
an  instrument  made  of  bone,  with  a  sharp  edge  like  a 
chisel,  ami  shaped  in  the  fashion  of  a  garden-hoe.  They 
then  applied  the  instrument  to  the  skin,  and  struck  it  twice 
or  thrice  with  a  piece  of  wood,  thereby  making  it  cut  into 
the  flesh  as  a  knife  would  have  done,  and  causing  a  great 
deal  of  blood  to  flow,  which  they  kept  wiping  ott' with  the 
side  of  the  hand,  in  order  to  bee  whether  the  impression 
was  made  sufficiently  clear.  If  not,  they  applied  the 
cutting-instrument  again  to  the  same  place.  Various 
instruments  were  however  employed  in  the  course  of  the 
operation,  one  sort  being  made  of  a  shark's  tooth,  and 
another  having  a  serrated  edge  ;  and  they  were  used  of 
different  sizes,  to  suit  the  different  parts  of  the  work. 
Rutherford  states  that  the  pain  was  most  acute,  and  that, 
although  the  operators  were  very  quick  and  dexterous,  he 
was  four  hours  under  their  hands;  and  he  was  completely 
blinded  for  a  time  by  the  operation.  In  three  days  the 
swelling  occasioned  by  it  had  greatly  subsided,  and  he 
began  to  recover  his  sight  ;  but  six  weeks  elapsed  before 
he  was  completely  well.  Rutherford's  account  agrees 
•.\ith  those  of  other  observers,  excepting  in  the  circum- 
stance of  the  whole  operation  being  performed  at  once, 
while  both  Captain  Cruise  and  Mr.  Marsden  state  that  it 
icquired  several  months,  and  sometimes  several  years,  to 
complete  the  tattooing  of  a  chief,  owing  to  the  necessity 
of  allowing  one  part  of  the  face  or  body  to  heal  before 
commencing  the  decoration  of  another  part  ;  but,  besides 
the  probability  that  this  might  apply  only  to  the  more 
intricate  patterns,  or  to  cases  in  which  the  tattooing  ex- 
tended over  a  larger  portion  of  the  person  than  in  the  case 
of  Rutherford,  it  is  possible  that  the  natives  may  have 
'.'(•signed  to  put  his  powers  of  endurance  to  a  severer  test 
than  would  he  required  of  a  native.  Captain  Cruise  states 
that  the  New  /ealander* occasionally  renew  theirtattooing, 
v  faint  by  lapse  of  time  ;  and  from  various 
accounts-  it  would  appear  that  the  tincture  introduced  into 
the  wound  on  the  edge  of  the  cutting-instrument  U  some- 
times obtained  from  the  juice  of  a  tree  ;  and  that,  before 
the  cutting  is  commenced,  the  intended  figure  is  traced 
upon  the  skin  with  a  burnt  stick,  or  a  piece  of  red  earth. 
The  age  for  performing  the  operation  appears  to  van,  from 
i-ight  or  ten  jeaiu  up  to  about  twenty:  and  the  females 
are  not  required  to  submit  to  anything  beyond  a  slight 
tattooing  of  the  face.  Those  among  whom  Rutherford 
lived  had  the  inside  of  their  lips  tattooed,*  as  well  as 

g   marks  on  the  chin,  forehead,  and  sides  of  the  nose 
and  mouth  ;    while  the  men  were  commonly  tattooed  on 
the  face,  hips,  and  body,  and  some  as  low  as  the  knee. 
The  most  complicated  patterns  are  found  upon  cln 
the  highest  order;    and  their  pi -culiai  de\n  es,  or.  n>  they 

:illcd.  amocos,  form  distinctions  which,  in  Home  case*, 
take  the-  place  of  the  sign-manual  of  the  individuals  to 
whom  they  belong.  An  instance  is  related  in  the  •  Mis- 
sionary Register'  for  1810.  in  which  a  chief  in  the  Hay  of 
Islands,  mi  making  a  grant  or  conveyance  of  a  piece  of 
land  to  some  missionaries,  had  a  drawing  of  the  tattooing 
of  his  face  affixed  in  lieu  ofasignatnre  :  while  an  attesting 
witness  added,  in  like  manner,  a  copy  of  the  pattern  on 
one  of  his  cheeks.  Of  the  character  of  these  patterns  a 
better  idea  will  be  conveyed  by  the  annexed  1, 
Shungie,  copied  from  an  engraving  in  the  '  Missionary 

•  Aoeonltai  to  ll,,  ii.rr.Hteoflh.»oy»ii«  nf  H.M.8.  Blonde  In  lli«  ».nJ.  Irh 

llUod.,  the  lldinnf  II.WMilllirO.I,)!,.  ,:„,   „„ 

t..l.r  frmcllr.  of  uuooin,  th.  lipi  uf  ihelr  tousle.,  la  memory  of  lli,-ir ,!-,,.,  usl 


Register'  for  1810,  than  by  the  most  lengthened  description. 
After  it  is  inserted  a  copy  of  a  drawing,  executed  hyTnpni 
Cup*,  *  New  Zealand  duel,  without  the  aid  of  a  g!:i- 
his  own  arnoco,  or  tattooed  pattern.     Tin-  g  in- 

dividual also  drew  from  memory,  while  in  Knghmd.  the 
amocos  of  his  brother  and  of  his  eldest  ton  ;  and 
the  force  of  association  in  his  mind.  that,  on  finishing  the 
latter,  he  held  it  up,  gazed  at  it  with  a  murmur  of  atl'cc- 
tionate  delight,  kissed  it  repeatedly,  and  finally  burst  into 
tears. 


Hm(l  of  Sii;iu<:u-,  from  a  carving  by     . 


on  Ihe  face  of  Ttljiai  Cur«i,  f")T"  ">  dr.iviim;  li>  Mm*  If. 

Tin-  process  of  tattooing  as  practised,  or  rather  a^  it 
•nncrly  practised,  in  other  islands  ot  the  South  Sea, 
was  less  painful  than  that  followed  in  New  /calami  :  for, 
according  to  the  account  of  Captain  Cook,  in  some 
the  punctures  could  hardly  be  said  to  draw  blood.  The  in- 
struments used  were  edged  \\ith  small  teeth,  somewhat 
resembling  those  of  a  fine  comb  ;  and.  as  in  the  case  of 
New  Zealand,  the  colouring  tincture  was  introduced  at 
the  same  operation  as  that  by  which  the  skin  was  punc- 
tured :  the  substance  employed  in  some  places  )>cnig  a 
kind  Of  bop-black.  On  the  brown  skins  of  the  nui 
the  marks  made  with  this  substance  appear  black  ;  but  on 
the  skin  of  a  European  they  are  of  a  fine  blue  colour.* 
Lafitan  speaks  of  powdered  charcoal  a.s  the  colouring- 
matter  commonly  used  by  the  American  Indians;  and 
stales  that  it  was  introduced  by  a  process  subsequent  to 
that  of  cutting  or  puncturing  tlie  skin.  This  insertion  of 
the  colour  appears  to  have  been  the  most  painful  part  of 
the  operation  of  tattooing  as  practised  among  them. 

•  Ruthrrronl  »lnlc«    thai  111.  UtlonlnR  on  the  in»Me  of  Uic  lips  of  New 
women  a|>|M'uri  of  a  IMW  roloiir. 


T  A  U 


101 


T  A  U 


In  addition  to  the  other  reasons  which  have  been  al- 
luded to  for  the  general  adoption  of  the  practice  of 
tattooing  among  savage  tribes,  it  is  likely  that  it  may 
be  regarded  as  an  important  part  of  the  initiation  of  a 
warrior,  of  whose  passive  courage  it  is  a  severe  test. 
'  Thus,'  observes  the  author  of  the  '  New  Zealanders,"  '  in 
the  account  which  Rochefort,  in  his  '  History  of  the  An- 
tilles'  (p.  108),  gives  of  the  initiation  of  a  warrior  among 
the  people  of  those  islands,  it  is  stated  that  the  father  of 
the  young  man,  after  a  very  rude  flagellation  of  his  son, 
used  to  proceed  to  scarify  (as  he  expresses  it)  his  whole 
body  with  the  tooth  of  the  animal  called  the  acouti ' ;  and 
then,  in  order  to  heal  the  gashes  thus  made,  he  nibbed 
into  them  an  infusion  of  pimento,  which  occasioned  an 
agonizing  pain  to  the  poor  patient ;  but  it  was  indispens- 
able that  he  should  endure  the  whole,  adds  our  author, 
without  the  least,  contortion  of  countenance  or  other  evi- 
dence of  sufferins.' 

(Pictorial  Bible,  note  on  Levit.  xix.,  28 ;  Pictorial  His- 
tnry  of  England,  vol.  i.,  pp.  129  and  329 ;  New  Zea- 
litndi'i-x.  •  Lib.  of  Ent.  Knowledge,'  chapters  vi.  and  xiv.) 

TAUHMANN,  FRIEDRKJH,  was  born  at  Wonsees, 
near  Baireuth,  on  the  10th  of  May.  1565,  where  his  father 
\vas  a  shoemaker.  His  father  died  very  early;  and  his 
mother  married  a  tailor,  who  wished  to  bring  up  his  step- 
son Friedrich  to  his  own  business  ;  but  as  the  boy  showed 
little  inclination,  he  was  sent,  in  1577,  to  school  at  Culm- 
bach,  where  he  was  obliged  to  gain  his  livelihood  by  sing- 
ing and  begging.  In  15H2  he  went  to  the  gymnasium  of 
Heilbronn,  when  his  Latin  \crses  and  the  wit  displayed 
in  them  wen-  so  much  admired,  that  he  was  crowned  by 
Paul  Melissus  as  poet-laureate.  Ten  years  later  he  went 
to  the  University  of  Wittenberg,  where  he  distinguished 
himself,  anil,  in  15'J.">,  was  appointed  professor  of  poetry 
and  eloquence,  to  which  afterwards  the  honour  of  court- 
poet  was  added.  He  died  at  Wittenberg,  on  the  24th  of 
.March,  1613. 

Taubmann  was  conscientious  in  the  discharge  of  his 
official  duties,  and  he  was  a  witty  and  humorous  man. 
During  his  lifetime  he  had  the  reputation  of  being  the 
greatest  wit  of  the  age,  and  persons  of  the  highest  rank 
Miiiiiht  his  society.  From  all  that,  can  be  learned  about 
him,  it  is  clear  that  he  did  not,  like  many  others  in  similar 
positions,  forget  his  own  dignity  as  a  man  :  he  never  acted 
as  a  buffoon  or  flatterer,  but  always  manifested  a  straight- 
forward  and  upright  character.  In  his  time  philology 
was  sinking  very  rapidly  in  Saxony,  all  attention  being 
absorbed  by  theological  controversies  and  sophistries,  and 
Taubmann  was  one  of  the  very  few  who,  both  in  earnest 
and  in  jest,  impressed  upon  his  contemporaries  the  ne- 
•y  of  resuming  a  thorough  study  of  tne  antient  lan- 
guages as  the  only  means  of  raising  theological  studies  to 
their  proper  position.  This  he  did  more  especially  in  his 
work,  '  Dissertatio  de  Lingua  Latina,'  the  last  edition  of 
which  appeared  at  Wittenberg,  1614.  With  the  same 
view  he  exerted  himself  in  his  lectures,  and  in  his  editions 
of  Plautus*  Wittenberg,  1621,  4to.)  and  of  Virgil  (Witten- 
berg, 1618,  4to.),  in  which  he  made  his  countrymen  ac- 
quainted with  the  labours  of  foreign  scholars.  His  poetical 
works,  though  very  popular  in  his  time,  have  no  great 
merit.  They  appeared  in  several  collections,  under  the 
titles  of  '  Columbae  Poeticae,'  '  Melodaesia,'  '  Schedias- 
mata  Poetica,'  and  others.  After  Taubmann's  death,  the 
name  of  Taubmanniana  was  applied  to  all  kinds  of  witty 
sayings  and  anecdotes. 

(Erasmi  Schmidii  Oratio  in  Taubmanni  Memoriam, 
Wittenberg,  1013,  8vo. ;  Taubmanniana,  oder  Fr.  Taub- 
mann's Leben,  Anecdoten,  witzige  Einfdllf  und  Sitten- 
i  hi>,  von  Simon  von  Gyrene,  Leipzig,  1797,  8vo. ;  Fr. 
Brandt,  Leben  und  Tod  Frid.  Taubmanni,  Copenhagen, 
HJ75, 8vo. :  the  best  work  however  is  by  Ebert,  Leben  und 
I  'i-nliennte  Fr.  Taubmanns,  Eisenberg,  1814,  8vo.) 

TAULER.  or  THAULER,  JOHANN,  the  most  cele- 
brated German  divine  of  the  fourteenth  century.  He  was 
born  in  1294,  as  some  writers  say,  at  Cologne,  but  accord- 
ing to  others  at  Strassburg.  Respecting  his  life  very  little 
is  known.  He  entered  the  order  of  the  Dominicans  at  an 
early  age,  and  was  held  in  the  highest  esteem  on  account 
•  if  his  knowledge  of  philosophy  and  mystic  theology,  as 
well  as  for  hi»  pious  and  unblemished  conduct,  although 
he  fearlessly  attacked  the  vices  and  follies  of  his  fellow- 
monks.  The  latter  part  of  his  life  he  spent  in  the  convent 
of  the  Dominicans  at  Strassburg,  where  he  died  on  the 


16th  of  June,  1361,  as  is  attested  by  his  tomb-stone,  which 
still  exists  in  that  city. 

Tauler  was  a  man  of  extraordinary  piety  and  devotion,  a 
zealous  teacher,  and  a  great  promoter  of  mystic  theology  in 
Germany,  which  must  regard  him  not  only  as  the  founder 
of  that  school  of  divinity,  but  at  the  same  time  as  one  of 
the  greatest  men  that  have  ever  sprung  from  it.  His  ser- 
mons, as  well  as  his  other  religious  and  ascetic  works,  show 
a  glowing  imagination  and  deep  feeling:  they  are  less 
addressed  to  the  understanding  than  to  the  heart.  But 
although  this  leaning  and  his  love  of  the  mysterious  fre- 
quently led  him  to  religious  sentimentality  and  absurdities, 
yet  he  never  sinks  down  to  the  level  of  some  modern  mys- 
tic divines.  Tauler  was  deeply  read  in  scholastic  philoso- 
phy, and  although  in  his  sermons  he  endeavours  to  steer 
clear  of  it,  yet  they  are  not  quite  free  from  sophistic  sub- 
tleties, and  there  are  passages  which  must  have  puzzled  move 
than  enlightened  his  audience.  In  his  love  of  truth,  and 
the  earnestness  with  which  he  devoted  himself  to  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  people,  he  was  a  worthy  predecessor  of  Luther 
Tauler's  influence  upon  the  German  language  and  litera- 
ture has  acquired  for  him  as  distinguished  a"  place  in  the 
history  of  German  literature  as  that  which  he  occupies 
among  divines.  In  his  time  German  prose  scarcely  existed, 
and  the  standaid  of  sermon-writing  was  very  low.  The 
creation  of  a  prose  literature  belongs  almost  exclusively 
to  him :  his  style  seldom  aims  at  oratorical  beauty,  his 
sentences  are  short  and  abrupt,  but  always  full  of  mean- 
ing. His  language,  which  is  the  dialect  of  the  Upper 
Rhine,  is  as  pure  as  can  be  expected.  It  appears  that 
Tauler  did  not  himself  write  his  sermons,  but  they  were 
taken  down  as  they  were  preached,  by  many  of  his  hearers. 
We  must  therefore  suppose  that  in  the  editions  which 
were  published  shortly  alter  his  death,  the  form  has  been 
somewhat  altered  by  the  editors.  The  first  edition  of  his 
sermons  appeared  at  Leipzig,  1498,  in  4to.,  under  the  fol- 
lowing title  :  '  Sermon  deg  grossgelarten  in  gnaden  erleuch- 
teten  Doctoris  Johannis  Tauleri  predigerr  ordens,  weisende 
auff  den  nehesten  waren  wegk,  yn  geiste  czu  wandern 
durch  uberschwebenden  syn,  unvoracht  von  geistes  ynnige 
vorwandelt  I  deutsch  manchen  menschen  zu  selikeit.' 
This  edition  was  followed  by  another  at  Augsburg,  1508, 
fol.,  and  a  more  complete  one  at  Basel,  1521,  fol.  A 
translation  of  these  sermons  into  the  dialect  of  Lower 
Germany  was  published  at  Halberstadt,  in  1523,  fol.,  and 
another  into  High  German  by  P.  J.  Spener,  at  Niirnberg, 
1088,  4to.  A  new  edition  in  modern  High  German  was 
published  at  Frankfurt-on-the-Main,  in  3  vols.  8vo.,  1825, 
&c.  The  most  interesting  among  his  other  religious 
works  is  that  on  the  imitation  of  the  life  of  Christ,  '  Naci- 
folgung  des  armen  Lebens  Christi,'  which  was  first  printed 
at  Frankfurt  in  1621.  The  most  recent  edition  is  that  by 
Schlosser,  Frankf.,  1833.  A  collection  of  all  the  treatises 
of  Tauler  was  commenced  in  1823,  at  Luzem,  by  N.  Cas  - 
seder,  but  only  two  volumes  have  appeared. 

Most  of  the  works  of  Tauler  were  translated  into  Latin 
by  Laurentius  Surius,  Cologne,  1548,  fol. :  this  collection 
has  been  reprinted  at  Macerata  and  Paris.  There  are 
also  one  Italian  and  three  Dutch  translations :  the  best  of 
the  Dutch  translations  is  that  of  Antwerp,  1685,  fol. 

A  list  of  the  works  of  Tauler,  together  with  the  whole 
literature  on  the  subject,  is  given  in  Jorden's  Lexicon 
Deutscher  Dichter  und  Prosaisten,  vol.  v.,  p.  1-9. 

TAUNTON,  an  antient  town  in  the  south-western  part 
of  Somersetshire,  situated  in  a  fertile  vale  called  Taunton 
Dean,  and  distant  141  miles  from  London,  44  from  Bristol, 
and  33  from  Exeter.  Roman  coins  and  other  antiquities 
have  been  found,  from  which  it  has  been  inferred  that 
there  was  a  Roman  station  here.  Taunton  was  certainly 
a  place  of  considerable  importance  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 

Eeriod  ;  and  in  the  eighth  century  a  castle  was  built  here 
y  Ina,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  in  which  he  held  his  first 
great  council.  The  building  was  destroyed  by  his  queen 
in  expelling  one  of  the  kings  of  the  South  Saxons.  An 
other  castle  was  built  after  the  Conquest  by  one  of  the 
bishops  of  Winchester,  to  whom  the  town  and  manor  were 
granted  ;  and  the  present  remains  are  believed  to  be  those 
of  a  still  more  recent  edifice.  Perkin  Warbeck  held  pos- 
session of  the  castle  and  town  for  a  short  time  ;  and  in  the 
civil  wars  the  town  sustained  a  long  siege  under  Colonel 
(afterwards  Admiral)  Blake,  against  10,000  royalist  troops, 
until  relieved  by  Fairfax. 
The  town  is  about  a  mile  long;  the  principal  streets  are 


T  A  U 


102 


T  A  U 


well  paved,  and  lighted  with  gas  :  and  the  houses  of  brick,  ' 
of  respectable  appearance.  Apart  from  tin-  main  tho- 
roughfares are  wmic  \ci_v  p..,,r  st,,.,-ts.  which,  before  the 
enlargement  of  tlu>  bdftmgh,  were  inhabited  by  persons 
desirous  of  ]ir.ititinir  hy  tin-  parliamentary  taactttM.  The 
woollen  manufacture  was  established  at  Taunton  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  hut  has  long  since  decayed  :  and  at 
present  the  silk  manufacture  is  carried  on,  though  not  to 
any  great  extent.  The  river  Tone  flows  on  the  north- 
western side  oi  the  town,  and  is  crossed  by  a  stone  bridge 
of  two  arches;  but  the  river  is  only  partially  navigable,  and 
in  1SH  a  canal  was  projected  between  Taunton  and  Bridge- 
water,  a  distance  of  12J  miles.  Tin's  canal  is  of  great  impor- 
taticetothe  prosperity  of  the  town  and  district,  bv  enabling 
rultural  and  other  produce  to  Bristol  and 
other  places,  from  wliich  it  receives  groceries,  coal,  and 
other  commodities  in  return  :  there  is  a  branch  from  this 
canal  to  Chard.  In  July,  1842,  the  railway  from  Bristol  to 
r  was  opened  as  far  as  Taunton,  so  that  there  is  now 
a  railway  communication  with  the  metropolis.  The 
markets,  held  twice  a  week,  are  very  abundantly  supplied 
with  lish.  fruit,  and  every  kind  of  provisions.  The  market- 
house  stand*  in  a  spacious  open  area  called  the  Parade,  and 
is  a  brick  building  of  considerable  size  :  the  upper  part 
comprises  the  iruildhall  and  an  assembly-room,  and  the 
low  er  part  consists  of  an  arcade  on  each  side,  in  one  of 
which  the  corn-market  is  held.  On  market-days  the  Pa- 
rade, which  is  enclosed  by  iron  posts  and  chains,  is  occu- 
pied by  butchers'  stalls.  On  the  west  side  of  the  Parade 
there  is  a  handsome  building  of  the  Ionic  order,  erected  in 
Is-Jl.  the  upper  part  of  which  is  appropriated  as  a  library, 
museum,  and  reading-room ;  and  underneath,  and  in  the 
rear,  are  the  markets  for  fish,  poultry,  dairy  produce,  &c. 
The  Taunton  and  Somerset  Institution,  established  in  lsJ3. 
contains  a  pood  though  not  extensive  library,  and  a  large 
public  reading  and  news  room.  The  theatre  is  a  small  neat 
building.  Two  weekly  newspapers  are  published  at  Taun- 
ton. There  are  three  churches.  The  church  of  St.  Mary 
Magdalen  is  a  spacious  and  very  handsome  edifice  in  the 
florid  Gothic  style.  The  quadrangular  tower  at  the  west 
end,  153  feet  high,  is  much  enriched,  and  is  a  work  of 
great  beauty.  The  value  of  the  living,  which  is  a  vicarage, 
is  not  given  in  the  Reports  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Commis- 
sioners. St.  James's  church  is  a  plain  edifice,  with  an  an- 
tient  square  tower  formerly  belonging  to  the  conventual 
church  of  the  priory.  The  living  is  a  perpetual  cunicy,  of 
the  annual  value  of  255/.  Trinity  church  was  consecrated 
18th  June,  1842.  It  is  in  the  Gothic  style,  built  of  whit* 
lias  stone,  with  dressings  of  Bath  stone,  and  contains  sit  tings 
for  aboTe  one  thousand  persons.  It  stands  on  elevated 
ground,  about  half  a  mile  from  the  parish  church,  in  a  poo: 
and  populous  part  of  the  town.  There  are  two  chapels  be- 
longing to  the  Wesleyan  Methodists,  one  erected  in  1778 
under  the  direction  of  Wesley.  The  Roman  Catholics, 
Independents,  Baptists,  Quakers,  and  Unitarians  have 
chapels.  The  free  grammar-school  was  founded  by  Fox, 
bishop  of  Winchester,  in  1522.  The  premises  are  situated 
within  the  castle-gate,  and  consist  ot  a  large  and  antient 
school-room,  and  under  the  same  roof  is  the  dwelling- 
house  of  the  master.  The  endowment  is  worth  about  3G/. 
a  year.  The  number  of  infant,  Sunday,  and  daily  schools 
at  Taunton  was  stated  in  1833  to  be  very  inadequate,  and 
a  large  number  of  poor  children  were  at  that  time  receiving 
no  education.  There  are  various  almshouses  and  other 
c-harities,  all  of  which  are  noticed  in  the  Report  of  the 
Charity  Commissioners  'vol.  v.,  p.  4H4-542X  The  Taunton 
and  Somerset  hospital  was  opened  in  1812;  and  there  are 
other  medical  charii 

Charles  I.  granted  the  burgesses  a  charter  of  incor- 
poration. In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  they  were  de- 
prived  of  this  charter,  in  consequence  of  the  town  having 
displayed  so  much  zeal  for  the  parliament,  but  it  was  re- 
stored, and  in  1"!)2  became  forfeited  by  the  corporate 
body  having  neglected  to  fill  up  vacancies.  The  town 
then  came  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  county  magistral es. 
and  is  still  without  a  municipal  government.  The  bailiffs 
and  constables,  as  the  principal  officers  of  the  town,  take  a 
prominent  part  in  all  public  proceedings.  Taunton  has 
ied  members  to  parliament  since  1295  (23  Homv  I  . 
Before  the  Reform  Act  the  right  of  election  was  in  the 
potwallers  who  had  been  six  months  resident  and  were 
not  in  the  if.-eipt  of  charitable  relief.  The  town  having 
outgrown  the  antient  limits  of  the  borough,  which  was 


wholly  within  the  parish  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen,  a  new 
boundary  was  adopted,  so  its  to  comprise  parts  of  the  fol- 
lowing parishes:—  St.  Mary  M 

James's  on  the  north.  Bishop's  Hull  on  the  west,  and 
Wilton  on  the  south.  By  this  extension  the  population  of 
the  borough  was  iucn-a.scd  I'roiM  ;ViHO  to  1'J.  ding 

tothe  census  of  ls;)l.   In  1826  the  number  of  electors  polled 

(  I;  in  1K-M)  the  number  on  the  register  amounted  to 
Kill),  including  21G  of  the  old  potwallers.  Two  members 
are  returned  to  parliament.  The  I  -  and  the 

Michaelmas  quarter-sessions  are   held  at  Taunton.     There 
is  a  court  for  debts  under  forty  shillings,  the  jurisdiction  of 
which  extends  over  the  hundred.     There  is  no  prisov 
cept  a  lock-up  or  place   of  temporary  confinement.     The 
county  courts  and  offices  are  within  an  irregular  quadnr 
consisting  of  the  remains  of  the  castle. 

(Toulmin's  ///'*/.  nf  Tatinlun,  17'J1  ;  a  new  edition  by 
.   IS-M.  i 

TAUNUS.     [GERMANY.] 

TAURELLIUS.  L.     [TORKU.I.] 

TAU'RICA  CHKRSONK'SIS  was  the  antient  name  of 
the  peninsula  which  juts  out  southwards  from  European 
Sarniatia,  between  the  Pontus  Kiixinns  lilac);  Sea  and 
the  Palus  Macotis  Sea  of  Azof):  it  is  now  called  the 
Crimea.  It  is  called  Chersonesus  Trachea  by  Herodotus. 
who  compares  it  to  the  promontory  of  Sunium  (iv.  llsl). 
Its  form,  size,  and  physical  features  are  described 
under  CRIMEA.  The  istiunns  which  connects  it  with 
the  mainland  was  called  Taphros  or  Taphrae  dY.ppoc, 
Ta^pai),  and  there  appears  to  have  been  a  town  of  the 
same  name  upon  the  isthmus.*  (Strabo.  \ii.,  p.  :«IS; 
Pliny,  iv.  26;  Mela,  ii.  1.)  On  the  wot  of  this  isthmus 
was  the  Sinus  Carcinites  (K<i\irof  o  Kapnvirqc),  now  the 
Gulf  of  Perekop  ;  and  on  the  east  the  shallow  waters  then, 
as  now,  called  the  Putrid  Sea  or  Lake  (,',  i'dTpii  Ai/n-i;. 
Pains  Putris).  The  south-western  point  of  the  peninsula 
was  the  promontory  Parthenion  (ri  Ilap&ivwv),  which  is 
either  the  modem  Cape  (  'hcrsoucse.  or  another  promontory 
farther  south,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  tow  n  of  S 
Gheorghi.  The  southern  promontory  was  called  Criu- 
Metopon  (KpioS  fiiriaieov),  and  either  the  south-eastern  or 
the  eastern  point  of  the  island  was  called  Cora\  (ro  K 
affiov).  On  the  east  the  peninsula  is  divided  from  the 
coast  of  Asia  by  the  Cimmerian  Bosporus  (,'>  Ki/i^fninf 
,  now  the  Strait  of  Kertch  or  \cnikale.  On  the 


south-western  side  of  the  peninsula  is  a  small   pcih 
terminated   by   Cape   Khcrsonese,   and   enclosed   on  the 
north  by  the  Gulf  of  Achtiar,  the  antient  Portus  Kteinis 
(Krfi'oi'c),  and  on  the  south  by  the  Gulf  of  Balaklava.  the 
antient    Port  us  Symboloruiu   (ie/i.ViXmr  X</jij>').     On  this 
peninsula,  at  the  distance  of  100  stadia  from  the  promon- 
tory  Parthenion  (Strabo),   stood  the   city  of  Chers. 
XffipoVijo-oc)  or  Cherrone  (Mela),  the  full   name  of  which 
v.  as  (  'hersonesus  Heracleotica.     It  was  a  colony  of  ! 
clea  in  Pontus.     The  peninsula  itself  was  called  the  Small 
Chersonesus,  and  the  Chersonesiis  Tamica  wa<  sometimes 
called  the  Great  Chersonesus,  to  distinguish   it  from  this 
part  of   itself.     The  other  important  towns  were,  on   the 
isthmus,  Taphros  (>';  Ta^poc),  now   Perekop;    on  the  west. 
coast    Kupatoria    (Eitrrarotiia),   now   Kupatoria    or   Kazlov, 
built  by  Mithridates  Kupator;    on  the  cast    , 
dosia  (»;  Oialooia,  or  <i  <IH'(*IP<TI'H\  now  Kefa  or  Keodosia, 
a  colony  of  the  Milesians  :  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  island, 
on  the  Bosporus.  Panticapaciim  or  Bosporus  '  ITaiTicnT.  • 
now  Kcrtch.     There  were  several  towns  in  the  interi. 
which  the  only  one  worth  mentioning  is  Cimmerion,  now 
Kski-Kiim.  that  is.  Old  Krim. 

The  earliest  inhabitants  of  the  peninsula  appear  to  have 
been  the  Cimmerians,  some  of  whom  remained  in  it  after 
the  great  body  of  the  nation  had  been  driven  from  their 
ieats  round  the  Palus  Macotis  by  the  Scythians.  (Herod., 
iv.  1,11,  12.~i  Clear  traces  of  this  people  remain  in  the 
names  of  Cimmerion,  the  Ciiniiu  rian  Bosporus,  the  <'im- 
meiian  Chersonesus  (as  the  peninsula  was  sometimes 
called!,  and  in  its  modern  names  of  Ciimca  and  Crini- 
y.  In  the  earliest  notices  of  the  <  -.  by 

Greek   writers,    we    find    the   mountainous  i    the 

south  and  south-east  inhabited  1<  I  people,  called 

•  ThU  nam*  wat  probably  ilcriv«l  from  K  <litrh  which  in  u-ry  nntii-nt  time* 
ran  •criHU  Illr  i>lht:ni>.   anil 
ThUdilch  mu«  n   i  ' 
which  nppru*  In  havp  bam  in  the  prniMuU  itopU.  and  at  thp  ruten  ] 

!  iuhr  i  I'rrmudltt  Mrj/to,  i  ,  ),.  1  57  ,    Hahr'i  note  on  llip  puMfc  IB 
Heradottu,  IT.  S.) 


T  A  U 


103 


T  A  U 


the  Tauri,  from  whom  the  Chersonesus  was  called  Taurica, 
and  whose  name  remains  in  that  of  the  modern  Russian 
province  of  Taurida,  in  which  the  Crimea  is  included. 
Who  these  Tauri  were  is  a  question  of  some  difficulty. 
Strabo  (p.  308)  calls  them  a  Scythian  people,  but  Hero- 
dotus (iv.  99)  clearly  distinguishes  the  Tauri  from  the 
Scythians,  as  being  a  different  nation.  The  inhabitants  of 
the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  peninsula  are  not  unfrequently 
called  Scythotauri  or  Tauroscythae.  Judging  from  this 
mixed  name,  from  the  testimony  of  Herodotus  to  the  two 
facts  that  the  Tauri  were  a  different  people  from  the 
Scythians,  and  that  the  Scythians  did  not  drive  out  all  the 
Cimmerians  from  the  peninsula,  and,  lastly,  from  several 
analogous  cases,*  it  seems  most  probable  that  the  Tauri 
were  a  remnant  of  the  old  Cimmerian  inhabitants,  who  had 
maintained  themselves  in  the  mountains  against  the 
Scythian  invaders.  The  name  '  Tauri '  is  supposed  to  be 
derived  from  an  old  root  '  Tau,'  meaning  a  mountain. 
The  Tauri  were  reputed  by  the  Greeks  to  be  inhospi- 
table and  cruel  to  strangers :  they  were  said  to  offer 
human  sacrifices,  especially  of  shipwrecked  mariners,  to  a 
virgin  goddess,  whom,  according  to  Herodotus,  the  Tauri 
themselves  identified  with  Iphigeneia,  the  daughter  of 
Asramemnon,  and  whose  temple  stood  on  the  promontoiy 
of  Parthenion.  (Herodot,  iv.  103  :  Strabo,  p.  308 ;  Mela, 
ii.  1  :  Diod.  Sic.,  iv.  44.)  This  legend  enters  into  the 
composition  of  the  '  Iphigeneia  in  Tauris'of  Euripides, 
and  is  several  times  referred  to  by  the  Roman  poets. 

From  about  the  sixth  century  before  Christ  downwards, 
several  Greek  colonies  were  planted  on  the  Chersonese, 
and  these  were  gradually  formed  into  two  states,  that  of 
Chersonesus,  comprehending  the  smaller  peninsula  on  the 
south-west,  and  the  kingdom  of  Bosponis  on  the  south- 
east. These  two  states  were  united  under  Mithridntes. 
[BospORr.s.] 

Further  information  respecting  the  geography  and  his- 
tory of  the  peninsula  and  of  the  adjoining  delta  of  the 
Kuban  is  given  under  CRIMEA  and  TAMAN. 

TAL'HI'DA,  one  of  the  governments  of  South  Russia, 
sometimes  called  the  government  of  Simferopol,  situ- 
ated on  the  Black  Sea,  consists  of— 1st,  the  Crimea  or 
Tauric  Peninsula ;  2nd.  the  Nogay  Steppe,  with  the  island 
ol'  Taman  [TAMAN]  ;  3rd,  the  country  of  the  Tscherno- 
morsk  Cossacks.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north-west  by 
Kherson,  on  1he  north-east  by  the  country  of  the  Don 
Cossacks,  on  the  east  by  Caucasia,  on  the  south-east  by  the 
Kuban,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Black  Sea.  The  Crimea 
and  all  its  principal  towns  are  described  under  the  respec- 
ti\e  heads.  [BAKTSCHisARAi;  CRIMEA;  KAFFA  ;  SEIJAS- 
TOPOL  ;  SIMFEROPOL.]  The  area  of  the  whole  is  35,000 
square  miles,  with  520,000  inhabitants  of  many  different 
nations,  Tartars,  Cossacks,  Russians,  Jews,  Gypsies,  Ger- 
mans, and  other  foreign  colonists,  &c.  It  lies  between 
44° :«/  and  47°  50*  N.  lat,  and  between  31°  25'  and  40°  25' 
K.  long.  The  Nogay  Steppe  includes  the  whole  of  the  ex- 
tensiYu  country  from  the  Dnieper  and  its  limans  to  the 
Unda.  It  is  a  dry  elevated  steppe  on  a  basis  of  granite. 
The  country  has  precisely  the  character  of  a  Russian 
steppe :  the  soil  is  dry,  poor,  in  part  sandy,  and  saltish, 
without  wood ;  but  there  are  here  and  there  extensive  hol- 
lows with  rich  black  mould,  which  produce  the  finest  grass. 
The  climate  is  extremely  mild,  and  differs  little  from 
that  of  the  peninsula.  The  winter,  though  short,  is  severe. 
The  only  rivers  are  those  which  form  the  boundaries :  the 
Dnieper  on  the  north-west,  the  Konski  Wodi  on  the  north, 
and  the  Buda  on  the  east.  On  the  south-east  is  the  Sea 
of  Azof,  and  on  the  west  the  Black  Sea. 

The  land  of  the  Tschernomorsk  Co--acks  including  the 

il  or  peninsula  of  Taman,    is  bounded  on  the  north 

by   (lie   country  of  the   Don  Cossacks,   on  the   east  by 

mth   by  the  river  Kuban,  and  on  the 

west  by  the  Sea  of  Azof,  and  is  separated  from  the  Crimea 

only  by  the  strait,  of  Yenikale,  which  connects  the  Sea  of 

Azof  with  tin-  Kuxine.     The  coast  is  sandy,  flat,  and  forms 

-idcrable  bays  or  inlets,  called  by  the  Russians 

•-iderable  of  which  is  the  Besugakoi, 

v   in  the  middle  of  the  country.     It  is  an  innnrix- 

plain,  with  a  few  hills  in  the  south,  belonging  to  the  Cau- 

•  For  i.'ump].-.  in  our  own  island  tin-  very  same  thin;  has  happened  In  a 
reopi*  »hom  tome  think  Inn  nrroimt  .  1'  tli>'ir  n  imc 1  to  he  .1  branch  at  tl.ii 
i  'j  rnry,  »lu>,  in  tlie  mountains  of  Wall"),  success- 
fully re*i«t«l  tlu:  >axon  and  Norman  invaders. 


casian  system,  consisting  in  general  of  very  fertile  lowlands, 
which  are  well  adapted  for  agriculture,  but  are  for  the  most 
part  used  as  pasture  for  cattle  :  the  remainder  consists  of  a 
poor  saline  soil ;  and  there  are  some  small  lakes  with  salt 
water :  the  climate  is  very  mild.  The  principal  rivers  are 
the  Kuban,  on  the  south,  which  separates  it  from  Circassia, 
and  discharges  itself  on  the  south  of  Taman  by  a  very  broad 
liman,  and  the  lega,  on  the  north  frontier  next  the  country 
of  the  Don  Cossacks,  which  is  joined  by  several  small 
streams,  and  empties  itself  by  a  considerable  liman  into 
the  Sea  of  Azof.  The  small  streams  in  the  interior  fall 
into  the  Sea  of  Azof,  one  of  which,  the  Besuga,  forms  at 
its  mouth  the  liman  Besugakoi. 

The  countries  forming  the  government  of  Taurida  were 
inhabited  in  antient  times  by  the  Scythians  and  by  Greek 
colonists.  Since  the  time  of  Herodotus,  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury B.C.,  they  have  been  successively  conquered  and 
ravaged  by  many  different  nations.  They  have  been 
subject  to  the  kings  of  the  Bosporus,  the  Romans,  the 
Sarmatians,  then  to  the  Greek  emperors,  and  at  the  end 
of  the  twelfth  century  partly  to  the  Genoese  ;  they  were 
conquered  in  the  thirteenth  century  by  the  Tartars,  and  at 
the  end  of  the  fifteenth  by  the  Turks.  Mohammed  II. 
made  himself  master  of  Taurida  in  1475,  and  expelled  the 
Genoese  and  the  Venetians,  the  former  of  whom  possessed 
Kaffa  and  Kherson,  and  the  latter  had  the  colony  of  Tana. 
Subsequently  to  1698  the  Russian  armies  repeatedly  pene- 
trated into  the  Crimea,  the  inhabitants  of  which  often 
made  predatory  incursions  into  the  neighbouring  countries. 
It  was  not  however  till  1771  that  the  country  was  really 
conquered  by  Dolgorucky,  and  the  Porte  compelled,  in 
1774,  at  the  peace  of  Kutschuk-Kainardji,  to  recognise  the 
Crimea  as  an  independent  country,  to  be  governed  by  a 
khan  chosen  by  the  nation,  and  to  recognise  the  sultan  as 
their  head  in  religious  matters  only.  The  khan  Sahen 
Ghierai,  whose  election  had  been  supported  by  the  Rus- 
sians, being  pressed  by  the  Turkish  party,  was  at  length 
induced  to  seek  refuge  in  St.  Petersburg.  Russia  now  de- 
clared the  Crimea  to  be  her  property,  and  the  Porte,  to 
avoid  a  new  war,  ceded  it  wholly  to  Russia,  in  January, 
1784.  The  khan  received  a  pension  from  Russia,  and  in 
the  sequel  retired  to  Turkey,  but  in  1787  was  beheaded  in 
the  Isle  of  Rhodes  by  the  sultan's  order.  Sultan  Kalli 
Ghierai  is  his  lineal  descendant,  who  lives  (or  at  least  did 
live  some  years  ago)  in  Simferopol,  is  a  Christian,  and 
is  married  to  a  Scotchwoman.  The  Crimea  and  the  pro- 
vinces dependent  on  it  were  formed  into  a  government  in 
1784,  by  the  name  of  Taurida,  and  incorporated  with  the 
Russian  empire.  The  empress  Catherine  II.  added  to  the 
imperial  titles  that  of  Czar  of  the  Tauric  Chersonese,  and 
conferred  on  Prince  Potemkin,  who  had  been  instru- 
mental in  bringing  about,  not  without  violence,  the  sub- 
mission of  the  Tartar  inhabitants,  the  surname  of  the  Tau- 
rian.  The  Porte  indeed  appointed  a  new  khan  in  17H6, 
and  demanded  that  the  Crimea  should  be  replaced  on  the 
footing  stipulated  in  the  last  peace  ;  but  it  was  obliged  to 
cede  it  for  ever  to  Russia  in  the  peace  of  1792.  Taurida 
was  at  first  a  province  of  the  government  of  Ekaterinoslav ; 
in  1797  it  was  incorporated  with  the  government  of  New 
Russia  ;  and  in  1802  it  was  made  a  distinct  government  by 
the  emperor  Alexander. 

Among  the  numerous  authorities  that  might  be  quoted, 
besides  those  already  cited  under  the  heads  of  the 
CRIMEA,  ODESSA,  &c.,  we  may  mention  Muraview  Apostol, 
Reise  durch  Taurien,  1820 ;  Eichwald,  Alte  Geographic 
des  Kaspischen  Meeres  des  Kaukasus,  und  des  sudlirhen 
Russlands,  1838 ;  and  for  the  NogayTartars,  Daniel  Schlatter, 
of  St.  Gallen,  Bruchstiicke  aus  eigenen  Reisen  nach  dtm 
siidlichen  Russland  in  den  Jahren  1822-1828. 

TAURINE,  a  peculiar  crystallizable  substance  con- 
tained in  the  bile.  Its  properties  are,  that  it  has  the 
form  of  a  six-sided  prism  terminated  by  pyramids  of  four 
or  six  faces ;  the  crystals  are  gritty  between  the  teeth,  and 
have  a  sharpish  taste,  which  is  neither  sweet  nor  saline  ; 
they  undergo  no  alteration  by  exposure  to  the  air  even 
at  212°,  and  have  neither  an  acid  nor  an  alkaline  reaction. 
When  heated  in  the  naked  fire,  this  substance  becomes 
brown,  fuses  into  a  thick  liquid,  swells  up,  exhales  a 
sweetish  empyreumatie  odour  resembling  that  of  burn- 
ing indigo,  and  leaves  a  charcoal,  which  is  readily  burnt : 
when  submitted  to  dry  distillation,  it  yields  much  thick 
brown  oil,  and  a  little  yellow  acidulous  water,  which  holds 


T  A  U 


104 


T  A  U 


an  ammonium!  suit  in  solution,  and  reddens  a  mlutnm  of 
prrvhlondc  of  iron  :  one  part  requires  1(1$  part*  ol"  water  at 
54"  for  solution  ;  it  is  much  more  soluble  in  boiling 
water,  and  the  excess  crystallizes  on  coolinir :  it  i»  but 
little  soluble  even  in  boUing  alcohol  of  sp.  gr.  it-x^'i, 
and  is  nearly  insoluble  in  absolute  alcohol,  rum-ni- 
trated sulphuric  acid  dissolves  and  forms  a  light  brown 
solution  with  taurine  ;  nitric  acid  readily  dissolves  it,  and 
when  the  acid  is  evaporated,  it  is  left  unaltered. 

TAURIS.     [TABRIZ.] 

TAUROME'NIUM,  now  TAORMPNA,  a  town  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  east  coast  of  Sicily.  The  aiitieut 
name,  Tauromenium  (Tavpofitviov  i,  like  that  of  the  river 
Tauromeniug  (the  modern  Alcantara:,  at  the  mouth  of 
which  the  town  was  situated,  was  derived  from  Mount 
Taurus,  on  which  the  town  was  built.  Diodorus  Siculus 
(fives  two  apparently  contradictory  accounts  of  its  foun- 
dation, though  both  agree  in  the  main  point,  that  Tauro- 
menium was  founded  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  antient 
town  of  Naxos,  which  lay  a  few  miles  south  of  Taurome- 
nium. In  one  passage  (xiv.  59)  he  states  that  dur- 
ing the  war  of  Dionysius  the  Tyrant  with  Himilco,  tin- 
latter  induced  the  Siculi,  who  had  previously  receded 
from  Dionysius  the  town  of  Naxos  and  its  territory,  to 
occupy  Mount  Taurus,  and  to  fortify  themselves  there  ; 
and  after  the  termination  of  the  war  in  favour  of  the  Car- 
thaginians, the  Siculi,  about  3U2  H.C.,  formed  a  permanent 
settlement  on  Mount  Taurus,  which  they  called  Tauro- 
menium. The  other  account  (Diodor.  Sic.,  xvi.  7)  places 
the  building  of  the  town  somewhat  later,  inasmuch  as  it 
-  that  it  was  founded  by  Andromachus,  the  father  of 
Timaeus  the  historian,  in  conjunction  with  the  inhabitants 
of  the  destroyed  town  of  Naxos ;  but  in  this  account  An- 
dromachus himself  is  called  a  Tauromenian,  which  implies 
tin-  previous  existence  of  Tauromenium.  Consequently 
Diodorus  can  only  have  meant  to  say  that  Andromachus 
assigned  to  the  homeless  Naxians  habitations  in  the  already 
existing  town  of  Tauromenium.  and  that  he  agreed  with 
them  in  the  name  of  Tauromenium  being  preserved. 
(Wesseling  ad  Diodor.  Sic.,  vol.  vi.,  p.  552,  ed.  Bipont.) 
'  vi..  p.  27,  ed.  Tauchnitz)  calls  Tauromenium  a 
colony  of  the  Zanclteans  of  Hybla.  Soon  after  its  founda- 
tion the  new  town  appears  id  have  become  very  wealthy 
and  powerful.  Agatnocles,  the  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  put 
to  death  a  great  number  of  the  inhabitants  who  had  op- 
1  his  usurpation.  (Diodor.  Sic.,  xix.  102.)  In  the 
time  of  Pyrrhus  the  town  was  governed  by  a  tyrant,  Tyn- 
darion,  who  supported  the  king  on  his  landing  in  Sicily. 
After  the  subjugation  of  Sicily  by  the  Romans,  Taurome- 
nium  became  a  •  civitas  foedcrata  ;'  and  being  thus  under 
the  immediate  protection  of  Rome,  it  enjoyed  a  long 
pi-ace,  during  which  its  prosperity  increased.  (Cicero. 
/•/  /  "c/ •;••-.•//.  ii.,  66'.)  In  the  time  of  Verres  the  town  con- 
tained many  statues  of  this  propraetor,  all  of  which,  after 
his  departure,  were  destroyed,  except  the  pedestal  of  one 
which  stood  in  the  market-place,  wnich  was  left  standing 
to  mark  the  disgrace  of  the  Roman  governor.  In  the  war 
of  Ciesar  with  Pompey,  Tauromenium  was  in  the  possession 
of  the  Pompeian  party;  but  when  Ctesar  made  himself 
master  of  it,  he  expelled  the  inhabitants,  and  established 
a  Roman  colony  there.  (Appian,  De  Bella  f'iri/i,  v.  103, 
105,  109 ;  Pliny,  Hilt.  Mil.,  lii.  14  ;  Velleius  Paterc.,  ii., 
79.1 

Taormina  at  present  contains  about  6OOO  inhabitants : 
i'-  situation  on  a  steep  rock  on  the  tea-coast  is  magnificent. 
It  contains  considerable  ruins  of  antient  buildings,  espe- 
cially a  theatre  of  gigantic  dimensions,  the  seats  of  which 
are  cut  in  the  rock,  which  projects  into  the  sea.  This 
theatre  and  the  aqueduct,  or,  as  it  is  generally  called,  a 
naumachia,  of  which  there  are  remains,  were  not  con- 
structed till  the.  time  of  the  empire.  On  the  hills  which 
rise  above  Taormina  there  are  nuns  of  several  castles,  and 
among  them  one  is  very  remarkable,  which  is  called  Mola, 
and  was  built  in  the  ninth  century  of  our  H-ra  by  the 
Saracens,  who  took  the  town  by  storm  after  a  long  and 
brave  resistance  by  the  inhabitants. 

The  principal  deity  worshipped  by  the  antient  Tauro- 
menians  was  Apollo,  which  confirms  the  statement  that 
the  town  was  a  settlement  of  the  Naxians,  among  whom 
Apollo  was  the  national  divinity.  An  Apollo,  with  a 
wreath  of  laurel  ronnd  his  head,  occurs  on  many  coins 
found  at  Tauromenium.  with  the  inscription  APXATBTA, 


or  APXArBTAS;  and  the  reverse  shows  a  tripod,  which 
probably  indicates  that  Naxos  was  founded  under  tin- 
sanction  of  the  Delphic  god.  Other  coins  show  the  brad 
of  Dionysius  or  of  Athena.  There  is  one  emu.  one  side  of 
which  represents  a  head  of  Jupiter,  and  the  other  an 
eaglu  with  the  thunderbolts.  The  name  of  the  town 
U  expre»ed  on  the  coins  by  Taupo,  Tavpo/t,  Tutwipiri, 
or  Tavpo/avirav.  (Eckhel.  l><irtnnn  \IIIH.,  i.,  part  i., 
p.  247,  Stc. ;  Mionnet,  i.,  p.  324,  &c. ;  Sujijilem.,  i.,  i 
Sec.) 

TAURUS,  MOUNT  (o  Taf.pof),  in  the  opinion  of  the 
later  Greek  geographers,  was  a  great  chain  of  mountains 
which  extended  nearly  due  east  and  west    from  the  shon •> 
ot  the  /Kgean   to   those  ol'  the   supposed    Kastern   <>' 
and  divided  Asia  into  two  parts,  Asia  within  the  Taurus 
(JvrAf  roD  Tavpov),  and  Asia  without  the  Taurus     inr 
Tat'pou).     Their  notions  respecting  this  chain  were   by  no 
means  accurate,  and  indeed  only  a  small  part  of  it  ever 
really  bore  the  name. 

The  chain  of  Taurus,  properly  so  called,  commem 
the  south-western  point  of  Asia  Minor,  and  proceeding 
eastward  parallel  and  near  to  the  Mediterranean,  it  en- 
doses  between  itself  and  the  coast  the  narrow  strip  of 
land  which  formed  Pamphylia  and  Cilicia.  At  the  river 
Pyramus  the  chain  divides  into  two,  that  of  Amanus. 
which  proceeds  to  the  east,  dividing  Syria  from  Asia 
Minor  [AMANUS],  and  the  continuation  of  Taurus,  which 
runs  north-east,  along  the  south-east  side  of  Cappadocia, 
across  the  Euphrates  into  the  northern  part  of  Armenia. 
where  it  joins  Mount  Masius.  This  chain  now  bears  tin- 
name  of  Enamas,  Ramadan,  and  Gourin. 

In  Cappadocia  the  Taunis  throws  oif  a  great  branch 
which  was  called  the  Anti-Taurus  (A  'Avriraefwc '.  and 
which  passes  through  the  middle  of  Cappadocia,  north- 
east to  the  sources  of  the  Halys.  and  thence  cast  to  tin- 
Euphrates.  Its  modern  name'  is  Alidagh.  At  Si-baste 
tSiwas)  this  chain  joins  that  of  the  Paryadres  (Chisheshi  ., 
which  extends  north-east  as  far  as  the  mountains  of  Ararat . 
In  modern  jreoirraphy  the  whole  chain  from  the  south- 
west of  Asia  Minor  to  Ararat  bears  the  name  of  Taurus. 
The  name  itself  is  probably  merely  a  form  of  a  root  winch 
occurs  in  several  Oriental  languages,  meaning  mountain. 

Hennell's  Geography  of  Jii-rmlnnix.  i.  ±X,  Jcc.  :  Sclur- 
liu's  Alt'-  (li'umrtijihie.)     [ANATOLIA.] 

TAURUS  (the  Bull),  the  second  constellation  of  the 
ZODIAC.  Its  position  in  the  heavens,  surrounded  by  Aric*. 
Kridaims.  Orion,  and  Perseus,  is  easily  obtained  by  the 
manner  in  which  its  bright  star  ALDKHAHAN  is  connected 
with  the  belt  of  Orion.  In  all  speculations  upon  the  origin 
of  the  zodiac,  Taurus  must  be  an  important  object  of  con- 
sideration, since,  at  the  earliest  date  which  prudent  spe- 
culation can  consider  it  advisable  to  begin  from,  Aldebaran 
must  have  been  at  no  great  distance  from  tin-  vernal 
equinox.  Referring  this  point  however  to  the  article  on 
the  zodiac,  we  shall  merely  notice  that  the  Gree 
usual,  attribute  but  a  paltry  mythological  origin  to  this 
striking  constellation  ;  the  fables  of  Europa  and  lo  being 
the  only  ones  alluded  to  in  statements  of  its  mythological 
meaning. 

The  figure  is  only  a  part  of  a  bull,  the  head,  shoulders, 
and  fore  legs.  Aldebaran  and  the  Hyades  form  the  fore- 
head and  eye,  and  the  Pleiades  are  in  the  shoulder.  But 
Aral  us  must  have  drawn  the  figure  differently,  for  he  puts 
the  Pleiades  in  the  knees. 

The  Hyades  form  a  group,  of  which  five  (some  of  the 
antients  said  seven)  are  distinctly  visible  to  the  naked  «-M  . 
a,  8,  Y,  i,  and  t  of  the  constellation  :  there  are  many  more  in 
the  cluster.  These  stars  are  arranged  in  the  forni  of  a  V, 
a  and  c  being  the  extremes,  and  y  at  the  angular  point. 
The  star  a  is  Aldebaran.  The  name  seems  to  be  derived 
from  i«.-.  to  rain.  The  Latins  called  them  .>•«,•///,/•  ,  little 
pigs,  no  doubt  meaning  Aldebaran  for  the  sow,  and  the 
others  for  her  offspring),  a  name  which  Cicero  and  otheis 
state  to  have  arisen  from  supposing  the  Greek  word  to  have 
been  from  i'»t  (pigs),  and  not  from  rnv.  We  think  however 
it  may  be  possible  that  they  were  right  in  their  idea  of  the 
Greek  word  :  the  large  star  and  the  cluster  of  sn:all 
might  very  easily  suggest  the  notion  of  a  sow  and  her 
litter. 

The  Pleiades  are  so  close  a  group  of  stars  that  it  is  very 
difficult  to  say  how  many  are  seen  by  the  naked  c)c. 
'  They  are  called  seven,'  says  Higinus, '  but  no  one  can  seu 


T  A  U 


105 


T  A  U 


more  than  six  :'  and  six  seems  to  be  the  number  generally 
visible,  though  there  are  many  more  in  the  cluster.  These 
stars  are  17,  19,  20,  23,  25,  and  26  of  Flamsteed.  There  is 
accordingly  a  supposition  that  some  one  star,  once  visible, 
has  now  changed  its  magnitude,  or  disappeared  altogether. 
The  name  has  been  derived  from  irXttv,  to  sail.  One  of  the 
mythological  stories  makes  these  stars  the  daughters  of 
Pltione  and  Atlas. 

The  principal  stars  of  Taurus  are  as  follows  :  (g),  (b),  (m), 
(e),  (c),  (d),  (/),  (h)  are  not  Bayer's  letters,  but  Flamsteed's, 
by  which  he  distinguished  stars  in  the  Pleiades. 


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TAURUS  PONIATOWSKI,  a  constellation  formed  by 
the  AbWPoczobut,  a  Polish  astronomer  (born  in  1728:  we 
d.;  not  know  the  year  of  his  death  ;  but  Lalande  mentions 
his  having  resumed  his  observations  at  Wilna  in  1802),  in 

•  3T«uri  of  Kl.-imst.-f, I  lias  its  only  existence  in  a  mistaken  entry;  and 

'i'llE  "tt£  .Ul  i,  lost;  and  M.  Laland.  »y.th.t  It  i,  no. 
,,,,,,l.     It  i.  however  .till  in  iU  place.     Probably  .1  i>  a  ramble  .tar.' 

t  The  name  a.  23  An  r  ia»  (  ft- 

P.  C.,  -No.  1501. 


honour  of  the  reigning  king  of  Poland,  and  adopted  in  the 
French  (Fortin's)  edition  of  Flamsteed's  maps  (or  rather 
added  to  the  plates).  Poczobut,  in  1778,  proposed  this 
constellation  to  the  French  and  other  academies,  by  whom 
it  was  received.  Bode  conjectures  that  a  resemblance  of 
certain  very  small  stars  in  it  to  the  figure  of  the  Hyades 
was  the  reason  for  the  first  word  of  the  name.  It  is  situated 
between  Aquila  and  Ophiuchus,  and  the  Astronomical 
Society's  Catalogue  mentions  one  star  of  it,  of  the  sixth 
magnitude,  being  2070  of  that  catalogue,  and  (328)  of 
Piazzi. 

TAUSAN,  TAUSSEN,  or  TAGESEN,  JOHN,  the  first 
Danish  theologian  who  made  his  countrymen  acquainted 
with  the  principles  of  the  Lutheran  reformation.  He  was 
born  in  1494,  at  Birkinde,  a  village  in  the  island  of  Fiinen. 
After  he  had  received  his  early  education  in  the  convent 
of  Antworskow,  he  wished  to  continue  his  studies  at  some 
university,  and  the  abbot  of  the  convent  fixed  upon  Co- 
logne. Here  he  became  accidentally  acquainted  with 
some  of  the  earliest  works  of  Luther,  which  excited  in 
him  such  a  desire  to  study  under  the  reformer,  that  he 
defied  the  opposition  of  his  superiors,  and  went  to  Witten- 
berg. After  having  spent  some  time  here  he  went  to 
Rostock,  where  he  took  his  degree  of  M.A.,  and  thence 
proceeded  to  Copenhagen,  to  undertake  the  office  of 
teacher  in  one  of  the  public  schools,  1521.  This  sphere 
of  action  however  did  not  satisfy  him :  his  wish  was  to 
proclaim  the  new  doctrines,  which  he  thought  he  could  do 
more  effectually  if  he  withdrew  to  his  former  convent  of 
Antworskow.  Here  he  gained  great  reputation  as  a 
preacher,  and  at  first  endeavoured  privately  to  make  his 
brother  monks  acquainted  with  the  reformed  doctrines ; 
but  in  1524,  on  the  occasion  of  the  abbot  being  absenl, 
Tausan  delivered  a  sermon,  which  produced  such  an  effect 
on  his  hearers,  that  most  of  the  monks  declared  themselves 
ready  to  abandon  their  old  belief.  The  excitement  and 
disturbance  arising  from  such  proceedings  led  to  Tausan 
being  transferred  to  another  convent  at  Wiborg,  where 
however  he  persevered  in  his  exertions,  and  again  gained 
a  considerable  number  of  followers.  King  Frederic  I.  of 
Denmark,  who  was  favourably  disposed  towards  the  doc- 
trines of  the  German  reformers,  and  wished  to  favour 
Tausan,  sent  him,  in  1526,  a  letter  of  protection,  gave  him 
the  title  of  court  preacher,  and  assigned  to  him  a  church 
at  Wiborg,  where  he  might  preach  without  molestation. 
The  bishop  of  this  place  opposed  him  in  everything  ;  but 
his  attempts  were  fruitless,  as  Tausan  was  supported  by 
the  sympathy  of  the  people.  The  disputes  between  the 
two  iflisrious  parties  now  became  more  vehement  every 
day ;  and  at  last  the  king,  in  order  to  save  Tausan,  invited 
him,  in  1529,  to  Copenhagen,  where  he  was  appointed 
preacher  to  the  church  of  St.  Nicolas.  The  reformation 
m  Denmark,  the  seeds  of  which  had  thus  been  sown,  made 
gradual  and  steady  progress  ;  and  in  order  to  settle  the 
question  permanently,  the  king  issued  a  command  that 
deputies  of  the  Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants  should 
appear  on  the  8th  of  September,  1530,  before  the  assembly 
of  the  states,  and  explain  their  creeds  and  points  of  dispute. 
Tausan  and  the  principal  men  of  his  party  were  present, 
and  it  was  finally  settled  that  the  Protestants  should 
preach  and  propagate  their  doctrines.  The  tranquillity 
thus  restored  was  interrupted  by  the  king's  death  in 
1533,  when  the  Roman  Catholic  party,  and  more  espe- 
cially the  bishop  of  Roeskilde,  again  began  to  trouble 
Tausan,  who  was  on  the  point  of  being  driven  out  of  his 
country.  For  a  time  he  absented  himself  from  Copen- 
hagen ;  but  Protestantism  in  the  meanwhile  made  such 
progress,  that  the  opposition  to  it  in  a  short  time  either 
ceased  or  became  very  weak.  In  1537,  in  which  year 
John  Bugenhagen  was  sent  by  Luther  to  Denmark  to  assist 
in  arranging  the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  the  country,  Tausan 
was  appointed  preacher  and  lecturer  on  theology  at  Roes- 
kilde ;  and  four  years  later  he  was  made  bishop  of  Ripen, 
an  office  which  he  held  until  his  death,  on  the  9th  of  No- 
vember, 1561. 

Tausan  wrote  a  considerable  number  of  theological 
works  in  Danish:  some  of  them  are  controversial,  others 
exegetical,  and  a  third  class  consists  of  translations  of 
portions  of  the  Scripture  and  of  original  hymns.  His  works, 
as  well  as  the  history  of  his  life,  show  that  he  was  a  simple 
and  straightforward  man  ;  but  in  talent  he  was  far  inferior 
to  the  great  reformers  who  were  his  contemporaries. 

(L.  Holberg,   Dannemarckische,  Nbrieegische  Staals- 

voi*.  XX.1V. — I 


T  A  V 


106 


T  A   \ 


.  .  ompare  .ll'ic-hcr.  .]//- 

..  i\..  p.   li 

TAI'TOIIIUOV     iTixu:  Of  DKMKNT.] 

T.UTdl.lTK,    H    mineral    which  rytallimi. 

Primary  I'onn  u  right  rhombic  prism.  Fiacture  conchoi- 
dal,  uneven.  Hardness  (i-r>  in  7.  Very  brittle.  Colour 
xelxet  blai-k :  streak  grey.  Lustre  VltfeOm  Opaque. 
Specific  gravity  3-8G6. 

Before-  tin-  blow-pipe  on  charcoal,  melts  into  a  blackish 
scoria,  which  is  attracted  by  tin-  magnet  :  with  borax  it 
forms  ;i  clear  green  glass. 

It  does  not  appear  to  h»ve  been  accurate'l-. 
but  is  slated  to  lie  probably  silicate-  of  protoxide  of  iron, 
and  silicate  of  magnesia.      It  is  femnel  in  the  volcanic-  rocks 
of  the  Lake  ol'  I.aaeh.  near  Bonn,  on  the  Rhine. 

TAVKRNIKR.  JEAN  HAI'TISTK.  BARON  IVAf- 
BONNK.  the  son  of  an  Antwerp  engnver  who  had  settle-d 
at  Pnris  and  dealt  in  ma]>s,  was  born  in  ](>O.~i.  Hi-  was 
a  timelier  from  bis  boyhood.  The  sight  of  the  maps  with 
whirl)  he  was  surrounded  and  the  coux  citation  of  the 
geographers  who  frequented  his  father's  shop  inspired 
him  with  a  passion  for  seeing  foreign  countries,  whieh 
he  soon  contrived  to  gratify,  it  does  not  very  i-lcarly  ap- 
pear by  what  means  or  in  what  eapaeity. 

Between  1020  and  the  close  of  1680  he  visited  most  of 
the  countries  of  Europe  :  this  may  be  considered  ns  his 
iiticeship  to  the  profession  of  a  traveller.  Between 
KUiU  and  lli(is)  he  made  six  journeys  to  the  Kast  :  this  was 
the  poit ion  of  his  Hie  devoted  to  preiductixc  (nil.  The 
story  of  the  remainder  of  his  life,  from  1070  to  KiHO,  im- 
v. ith  the  idea  of  an  elastic  and  untiri-d  spirit. 
which,  stimulated  in  part  by  his  dilapidated  fortune,  but 
still  more  bv  an  incapacity  of  repose,  sunk  in  an  attempt 
tore-enter  that  world  of  actix  e  exertion  in  which  hi<  place- 
had  been  occupied  by  younger  men.  To  appreciate  Taver- 
nier,  it  is  necessary  to  examine  his  character  as  it  dis- 
played itself  in  each  of  these  three  periods. 

He  appears  to  have  left  his  paternal  home  before  lie 
had  completed  his  fifteenth  year;  for  he  tells  us  that  after 
visiting  England,  Antwerp.  Amsterdam,  Frankfort -on-t he- 
Main,  Augsburg,  and  Niirnberg,  he  was  induced,  by  what 
he  heaid  at  the  last-mentioned  place  of  the  mustering  of 
armies  in  Bohemia,  to  repair  to  tin-  theatre  of  war.  About 
a  day's  journey  from  Niirnberg,  he  met  Colonel  Brunei-, 
son  of  the  governor  of  Vienna,  who  took  him  into  his  ser- 
vice. Tavernier  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Prague. 
8th  November,  1G'2U.  Some  years  later,  he  followed  his 
master  to  Vienna,  and  was  presented  by  him  to  his  uncle, 
the  governor  of  Raab,  at  that  time  xiccreiy  of  Hungary. 
who  received  the  young  Frenchman  into  his  family  in  the 
capacity  of  a  page.  With  this  nobleman  Tavernier  re- 
mained four  years  and  a  half,  and  ultimately  obtained  his 
dismissal  with  a  \ie\v  to  entering  the  sen  ice  of  the  Prince 
of  Mantua.  Something  appears  to  have  made  him  change 
this  determination,  for  alter  a  brief  stay  in  Mantua  he  left. 
it,  about  Christmas,  1629;  and  after  making  a  short  lourin 
Italy,  and  visiting  his  friends  at  Paris,  returned  to  Ger- 
many. During  the  summer  of  1G29  he  made  an  excur- 
sion into  Poland  ;  on  his  ret  urn  from  which  he  at  t  ached  him- 
bl  a  si. ml  time  to  the  family  of  Colonel  Butler,  'who 
afterwards  killed  Wallenstcin.'  Hearing  a  report  that  the 
ion  of  the  emperor  l-Vidinand  II.  i.ait  nperorhitD- 

self,  with  the  title  Ferdinand  III.)  was  to  be  crowned  king 
of  Hi.  in  Rcgeiisburg.  Ta\crnier  who  hail 

:it  at  that  piince's  election  a-,  king  of  Ilur, 

and  his  coronation  as  king  of  Bohemia  (1627),  wuhed  to 

be  present  at  this  thiid  solemnity  also,  and  with  this  %  lew- 
threw  up  his  appointment  ^whatever  it  \vasj  in  Butler's 
household. 

Tavernier  has  nowhere  explicitly  stated  what  were  his 
rank  and  occupations  while  he  ltd  this  unsettled  life.  No 
expre  iiini  to  intimate;  that  he  at  any  time' 

found  himself  at  a  loss  lor  money.     The  appoints 
page  in  the  family  of  a  nobleman  holding  the  high  office 
ol  viceroy  of  Hungary  was  generally  tin  to  the 

command   of  a  troop.     Yet  there   is  a   -.  in  the 

language  of  Tavernier  while  speaking  of  this  pait  of  hi* 
history,  which  leads  us  to  suspect  thai  hi.  more 

of  a  menial  character.  His  lively  and  enterpriaing  disposi- 
tion seems  however  to  have,  made  him  a  general  favourite, 
and  ,  Miig  himself— not  \ery  elegantly. 

if  we  are  to  jnd/c  from  his  Kr.-nch.  yet  intelligibly — in 
ki-veral  European  languages,  rendered  Jiiin  an  eligible  at- 


tendant. TIis  position  \\n^  meist  probubly  that  of  u; 
tlu-  ready-handed,  quick-witted,  not  orer-ocrupulou 
tendants.  with  whom  men  of  hiiih  rank  in  .mill 

it  necessary  to  surround  tin  From  bii.: 

in  ditt'erent   parts  of  !  it  is  highly   probable  that 

he  had  picked    up  some   money  in  the   want:   he  had  ac- 
quired  some  knowledge-  of  the  military  art  :  he  knew  senne- 
thing  of  watch-making  and  jewellery;  and,  abuse   nil,  he1 
had   learned   to  shirt   lor  himself.      Beyond 
acquaintance  with  maps  anel  geography  as  he  had  |u 

up  in  his  lather's  shop,   he    possessed  no  lit  i 

licati;i.  rtes  and  habits  were  those  of  the 

young  rultters  of  his  age.  A  naturally  frank  and  kindly 
though  somewhat  beiisU-rous  temper  had  done  much  to 
neutralize  the  worst  impressions  of  the.  lax  school  i:i  which 
lie-  had  been  ediie-atcil. 

:  such  preliminary  trainmir,   and  with  a  cha:. 
thus  far  developed.  Ta\  ernier  commenced   his  travels   in 
the  Kast.     He1   had   already  been  turning  his  eyes   in  that 
direction,  anil   making   interest    to   !  I    into   the 

suite  of  a  new  ambassador  the  emperor  was  about  te>  de- 
spatch to  the  grand  seignior,  when  the'  confidential  agent 
of  Richelieu,  Father  Jose-ph,  who  had  known  him  at  Paris, 
proposed  that  he-  should  accompany  two  young  French 
noblemen  who  were  travelling  to  Palestine  "by  the  v 

.utino])le.     Taxcrnier  closed  with   the  oft'cr.  anel  in 
company  with  his  cm  '  city  during  the 

winter  o'f   Ki.'iO-lil.      A  recent    biographer  has  stalci 
he  besran  hi>  tirst  journe-y  in  1(>M:    the  origin  eif  the  mis- 
take is  as  apparent  as  that  it  is  a  mistake, 
•alter  the   cere'inony  of  the'  coronation  was  linishcd,'  and 
Ferdinand  111.  was  not   crowned  kinir  of  the  Romans  till 
Dcremlier.  KiUli.     Tavernier  gives  no  dates  in  li 
of  Ins  iirst  journey;  but  we  know  that,  be  embarked  at 

die  for  bis  second  in  September,  1638;  and  w. 
kneiw  that  be  armed  at  Home  em  his  re-turn  from  bis  tirst 
\oyaire  em  the  day  of  Easter.  lie  was  detained  eleven 
months  at  Constantinople  waiting  for  a  caravan,  and 
seven  weeks  by  a  so\  ere  attack  of  sickm-s  at  Alcpp 
if  \vc  assume  he  set  out  freim  Keircnsbiirii  in  December, 
]<i:>(i.  we  ha\e-  only  three  mouths  left  for  the  overland 
journey  from  Resreiisburg  to  Dre-den.  Vie-ima.  Constan- 
tiueiple,  Erzroum.  Tabri/.,  Ispahan.  Bagdad.  Aleppo,  and 
Scanderoon.  anel  the-  voyage  from  Se-anderoon  to  Rome, 
ll  is  ini])ossible  that  Tax  i  •  i  jeiurncy  could  haxe 

been  RMeqnenl  to  Ferdinand's  coronation  as  kinc  of  the 
Reimans.  But  a  stronsr  elforl  xxas  made  by  that  prince's 
lather  to  haxe  him  e-rowne-d  at.  the  close  e>i'  the  diet  held 
at  Regeiisbiirg  in  l(i;i() ;  and  Tavernier,  writing  from  me- 
mory forty  years  later,  may  haxe-  imasruu-d  that  thtc  festi- 
vities he"  xvitnesse-d  at  that,  time  were'  in  honour  of  ?v 
coronation  which  xxas  expected  lei  take  place,  but  elid  neit. 
Two  passages  in  his  Traxcl.-.  si-em  to  place  it  beyond  a 
doubt  that  the  visit,  te>  Regeiisbnn:  which  le-d  to  hi 
journey  took  place  in  HW().  In  his  tirst  volume  p.  < 
"the  Paris  edition  of  1U7(H  the  expression  occurs— -in 
lii.'l'J  on  the  road  from  Ispahan  to  Ba^elat.'  He  only  tra- 
\elled  that  road  once,  ami  that  xxas  on  his  return  from  his 
first  expedition  into  Persia.  It  xvoulel  be:  unsafe  to  rely 
upon  the-  exiele'iice  of  a  figure  in  a  book  not  very  correctly 
printed  :  but  in  the-  account  of  his  tirst  journey  to  Ispahan 
lie  mentions  having  sc  i  n  at  'focal  the-  xi/ir,  who  was  exe- 
cute-d  a  lew  days  later,  after  being  obliged  to  raise-  the- 
sie-ge  of  Bagdad.  This  can  emly  n  lei  to  Khosrew  i 

about  the  end  of  April,  lb':i'2. 

This  date  being  ascertained,  the  e-luouologv  of  th- 
suing  foilv  years  of  Tax  ernie-r's   life  may  be1  gleaned   from 
his   tiavels  xxith   teilerable  accuracy,     lie    began  his   liist 
jouniey  to  the-  |-'.a>t   from  Regeiisbiirg.  in  December.   Ki.'tO; 
|)enetriiteil  by  way  eif  ( 'oiistantinople  andTalni<  to   Ispa- 
han, and  retained  by  Bagdad  and  Aleppo  to  Kurope  c-arly 
in   the   summer  of  'Hsi.'i.     From   this  date    till   the    com 
mcnccmcnt.  of  his  second  voyage   his   histoiy   wemld   lie  a 
complete  blank,  had  he  not  told  in   a  parenilu-sis  that    he 

jipointeel  comptroller   in  the-   lieiuseholel  of  the  due 
d'Orle'-ans.    xxho    gave    him    leaxe    of   al)-cucc    during  his 

,  -  to  the  Kast.      Oil  the'  1,'ilh  of!  r,   Ili.'K  he 

embarked  at  Marseille   in  a  Dutch  ve-sse-1.  and   landing  at 

BoMderoon,  proceeded  by  way  -of  Aleppo  anel  the' 

i    of   the    Euphrates    to    Ha-  a.      There    In:   e'ni- 
Oinnu.    anel     landing    at 

liushirc.  proee-eded  through  Shiia/  to  Is]iahan.  After  some 
stay  in  that  capital,  he  traxellcd  by  Slmax  and  Lars  to 


T  A  V 


107 


T  A  V 


Gombroon,  where   he   embarked   for  Surat.     He  visited 
Agra  on  this  occasion  ;  but  here  again  we  are  at  a  loss  fo 
-  to   enable  us  to  trace  his  routes.     We  only  know 
that   he  passed  through  Burhampore  on   his  return  from 
i  to  Surat  in  1641 ;  that  he  visited  Goa  and  returned  to 
Surat  by  land  about  the  end  of  that  year  ;  and  that  he  was 
t  Ahmedabad,  either  going  to  or  returning  from  Agra,  in 
1642.    That  he  had  revisited  Ispahan  in  the  interval  is  no' 
improbable,  since  he  says  that  '  for  six  journeys  which  ] 
"  made  between  Paris  and  Ispahan,  I  have  made  twice 
as  many  from  Ispahan  to  Agra  and  other  parts   of  the 
Great  Mogul'l  dominions.'     He  was  at  Ispahan  towards  the 
close  of  the  year  1042  ;  and  probably  soon  alter  returned 
to  France.     On   his  third  voyage  he  took  with  him  the 
brother  already  alluded  to,  and  left  Paris  on  the  6th  ol 
December,   1643.     This  time,   after  visiting  Ispahan  as 
usual,  he  embarked  at  Gombroon  for  India.     In  January, 
1645.  he  left  Surat  on  an  excursion  to  the  diamond-mines 
near  Golconda.   In  January,  1648,  he  made  a  voyage  by  sea 
to  Goa ;  and  in  April  of  the  same  year  he  embarked  at 
Mingvela  for  Batavia ;  whence  he  returned  to  Europe  in 
the  Dutch  fleet  in  1649.    Tavernier's  fourth  journey  occu- 
1'i'd   him  from  the  18th  of  June,  1651,  when  he  set  out 
from  Paris,  till  1G55.     On  this  occasion  he  proceeded  from 
na   to    Masulipatan,  in  May,    1652;    he  revisited  the 
diamond-mines  near  Golconda  in  1653,  and  in  1654  he  tra- 
velled from  Ormuz  to  Kerman,  and  after  spending  three 
months  there,  took  the  route  of  Yezd  to  Ispahan,  and  re- 
turned to  Europe  by  Smyrna.  His  fifth  journey  was  begun 
in  February,  1656.     He  was  at  Agra  in  1659,' but  we  are 
at  a  loss  for  other  dates  in  this  journey.    The  sixth  and 
last  expedition  that  Tavernier  made  to  the  East  was  begun 
in  November,  1663,  and  was   terminated   in    1669.     The 
important   novelty   of    this  journey  was   his   tour 
through  the  province  of  Bengal  as  far  as  Dacca,  which 
occupied   him  from  November.  1605,  till  July  or  August, 
Kilili.     He  WHS  at  Ispahan  in  July,  1G67,  and  on  his  return 
to  Ki  i  rope  visited  Constantinople  for  the  second  time. 

The  very  unsatisfactory  arrangement  adopted  in  the 
narrative  of  Tavernier's  journeys  has  rendered  it  advisable 
'  met  from  it  the  preceding  incomplete  chronology  of 
them.  His  first  publication  was  an  account  of  the  in- 
terior of  the  seraglio  at  Constantinople  (Nnurrllt  Rplntinn 
i!  •  I'lntcrii'iir  tin  X»;vw//  ,  published  at  Paris,  in  a  thin  4to 
volume,  in  1(>75.  This  was  followed  by  an  account  of  his 
travi  ,'ti  T/i/-i^"  ",  et  aux  I/id' a  . 

;:t  Paris,  in    two  quarto  volumes,  in  1676.     A  third 
volume  was  added    in   16~9,    containing    an   account  ol 
Japan  and  the  origin  of  the  pcix-ciition  of  the  Christians 
in  these  islands  ;    an  account  of  the  proceedings  of  the 
deputies  from  the  king  and   the  French  company  of  the 
Indies  both  in  Persia  and  India  ;  observations  on  the  com- 
mcree    of  the  East   Indies:  account  of  the  kingdom  of 
Tunquin ;  account  of  the  conduct  of  the  Dutch  in  Asia. 
In  preparing  the  account  of  the  Seraglio  and  the  two  first 
volumes  of  his  Travels,  Tavernier  employed  Chappuzeau,  a 
dull  and  unintelligent  writer :  the  memoirs  contained  in 
the  third  volume  were  prepared  by  Lachapelle,  secretary 
to  the  president  Lamaignon.     The  account  of  the  seraglio, 
and  the  contents  of  the  third  volume  of  the  travels,  are 
partly  memoirs  compiled  from  the  information  of  others, 
and  partly  more  full  expositions  of  topics  touched  upon  in 
his  narrative.     It  is  to  the  first  two  volumes  of  Tavernier's 
travels  that  we  must  look  for  such  information  of  the 
countries  he  visited,  the  time  he  spent  in  them,  and  the 
adventures  he  encountered,  as  is  necessary  to  enable  us  to 
mine  what,  he  witnessed    himself,  what   he   learned 
from  the  report  of  others,  how  far  his   informants  were 
worthy  of  belief,  and  how  far  he  was  qualified  to  under- 
I    their   communications.      Hut   the   arrangement  of 
two  volumes  is  the  very  worst   that   could  be  con- 
I   i'ir  supplying  satisfactory  information  upon  these 
-.     The  first  volume  professes  to  give  an  account  of 
the  various  routes  by  which   the    Parisian  traveller  can 
-tantinople,  Ispahan,  and  the  Persian  Gulf.     It 
is  arranged  ai  a  rimtirr ;  the  result  of  all  Tavernier's  ob- 
'ipon  each  line  of  road  is  given  at  once,  and  it 
is  only  from  incidental  remarks  that  we  learn  when  and  in 
'ion   he  travelled    it.     His   remarks   upon  the 
nient,  and  commerce  of  the  different  coun- 
irown  into   intercalary  chapters.     A  similar  ar- 
I  in  Ins  second  volume,  which  con- 
tain.-, '  ,;s  in  the  south  of  India,  in 


the  region  between  Surat  and  Delhi,  in  Bengal,  and  in  the 
Dutch  possessions  in  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  The  work 
is  neither  a  systematic  account  of  the  geography  and  sta- 
tistics oi  the  countries  in  which  Tavernier  travelled  nor  is 
it  a  personal  narrative  of  the  traveller.  It  is  'an  ill- 
digested  and  unsatisfactory  attempt  to  combine  both. 

Yet  are  the  four  volumes  we  have  mentioned  full  of 
available  matter,  both  for  the  historian  and  the  geogra 
pher.     The  former  will  find  in  it  the  fruits  of  the  forty 
years'  experience  and  observation  of  a  European  merchant 
in  Turkey,  Persia,  India,  and  the  Indian  Archipelago,  in 
the  seventeenth  century.   Tavernier  did  not  possess  either 
the  intellect  or  the  education  of  Thdvenot  and  Bernier, 
but  his  opportunities  of  observation  were  more  varied  and 
protracted.     He  was  a  part  of  that  commercial  enterprise 
and   rivalry  of  which  they  were  only  spectators.     He  is 
himself  a  specimen  of  the  kind  of  adventurers  who  at  that 
time  managed  the  commerce  of  Europe  with  the  East. 
His  unconscious  revelations  of  his  own  character  may  be 
relied  upon,  and  the  naivete  with  which  they  are  made 
encourages  us  to  believe  what  he  tells  us  of  others.     His 
statements  have  not  passed  unchallenged  :   they  wounded 
the  national  pride  of  the  Dutch  too  sore  to  be  left  without 
a  reply,  and  the  partisan  feelings  of  the  Protestant  literati 
of  Europe  induced  them  to  embrace  the  cause  of  Holland 
in  opposition  to  the  prottgt  of  Louis  XIV.     Even  the 
Catholic  literati  took  little  interest  in  a  writer  who  frankly 
confessed  that  he  saw  nothing  interesting  or  valuable  in 
the   plain  of  Troy  or  the  ruins  of  Persepolis.     And  yet 
notwithstanding  the  violent  attacks  of  the  Dutch  and  Cal- 
vinist  writers,  the  silence  of  others,  and  even  of  himself 
(for  Tavernier  did  not  engage  in  a  controversy),  not  one 
naterial  assertion  he  made  has  been  disproved.  Unfriendly 
criticism  has  been  confined  to  the  remark  that  many  of 
lis  statements  regarding  the  Dutch  are  trivial,  and  betray 
i  littleness  of  mind:  this  maybe,  but  they  are  not  the  less 
characteristic  for  that  reason.    Tavernier's  accounts  of  the 
principal  objects  of  Oriental   commerce  in  his  day,  of  the 
eading  markets  and  routes  of  trade,  of  the  money  of  the 
different  countries,  and  the  state  of  the  exchanges,  are 
more  full  and  intelligible  than  those  we  find  in  any  other 
cotemporary  writer.     His  success  in  trade  affords  a  gua- 
•antee  of  the  correctness  of  the  opinions  he  states.     We 
lave  collated  his  routes,  whenever  this  was  possible,  with 
'hose  of  recent  travellers,  and  have  found  them  in  general 
;o  accurate,  that  they  may  be  relied  upon  for  the  purposes 
of  comparative  geography,  and  in  one  or  two  instances  as 
xftbrding  information   regarding  tracts  which   have   not 
seen  visited  since   his  time.     Tavernier's  notices  of  the 
oute  from  Casvin  to  India  by  Candahar,  and  of  the  pro- 
i'K-rs  to  the  north  of  Erivan,  leave  a  favourable  impres- 
ion  of  his  talent   for   extracting   information   from   the 
native  authorities.     He   has  been  accused  of  plagiarism, 
mncipally  because  of  the  striking  coincidence  between  his 
iccount  of  the  Guebres  of  Kerman,  published  in  1676,  and 
hat  which  Louis  Moreri  published  in  1671  from  the  papers 
if  Father  Gabriel  de  Cninon.     It  deserves  to  be  noticed 
hat  Moreri's  publication  is  lucidly  arranged  and  neatly 
expressed,    while  the   account   contained   in  Tavernier's 
ravels  is  confused  and  miserable  in  point  of  diction.   Had 
t  been  taken  from  Moreri,it  is  scarcely  possible  that  the  lat- 
er could  have  been  so  wretchedly  composed.  Add  to  this 
hat  the  information  found  in  the  papers  of  Father  Gabriel 
s  not  said  to  have  been  the  fruit  of  personal  observation  ; 
hat  Tavernier  resided  three  months  among  the  Guebres 
at  Kirman,  and  had  frequent  dealings  with  them  in  India 
and  elsewhere  ;   that  he   and  Father  Gabriel   repeatedly 
met  in  Persia ;   and  it  must  be  allowed  that  the  priest  is 
quite  as  likely  to  have  derived  his  information  from  the 
merchant   as  otherwise.    In  judging  of  the   statements 
made  by  Tavernier,  the  school  in  which  he  was  trained, 
and  his  personal  character  as  it  appears  from  his  own 
story,  must  always  be  kept  in  view.   He  had  no  knowledge 
of  or  taste  for  science  and  literature,  for  art,  or  antiquarian 
research.     He  acted  upon  impulse,  and  his  instincts  were 
love  of  travelling,  and  desire  to  acquire  money  for  the 
sake  of  spending  it  in  feasting  and  personal  display.    A 
diamond  was  a  more  interesting  object,  to  him  than  the 
i  ious  remains  of  Tchelminar.     He  had  no  very  nice 
or  refined  sense  of  honour,  but  he  was  frank  and  veracious, 
and  little  inclined  to  deck  himself  with  stolen  feathers  of 
ure ;  possibly  because  he  could  not  appreciate  their 
value. 

P2 


I     \    V 


106 


T    \    X 


In  this  re  i.ecn  obliged  to  anticipate  that 

]»rt  of  tin-  history  of  the  third  pciunl  <>l "l'a\  crmcr's  HlV, 
which  relates  to  what  may  bo  railed  his  literary  labours. 
.d>lrd  tu  abridge  the  sequel  i>)'  our  narra- 
tive. OnTavciuier's  return  Iron-  his  sixth  journey  he  was 
•ited  with  li-ttn'x  de  noble**'-,  \<\  Louis  XIV..  and  pur- 
chased about  the  same  time  the  barony  of  Aubomie  in  the 
Pais  de  Valid,  \\hcn  hi.s  travels  were  imbhslu  il.  they 
at  been  intimated  above,  fiercely  attacked ;  in 
particular,  most  virulently  by  Jurieu,  in  his  '  Esprit 
de  M.  . \rnauld'  ,  December,  Kisl  :  m.uv  temp.-iatcly  and 
with  a  (greater  parade  of  evidence  by  llenrii-k  vanQuellcn- 
burgh,  in  '  Vimlieui'  Batavir;.  '  Amsterdam.  KN1  .  Taver- 
nier  made  no  reply.  Bayle  has  given  a  characteristic 
aecount  of  hi.s  eoiulnct  relative  to  thr  publication  ot'Jurieu, 
which  was  rather  a  libel  than  a  criticism.  '  He  made  a 
noise  in  the  taverns  anil  streets,  he  threatened  anil  even 
named  the  day  anil  hour  when  he  would  apply  to  the  Wal- 
loon consistory  of  Rotterdam  to  demand  execution  of  the 
canonical  laws  against  the  minister  who  had  dishonoured 
him  :  but  his  thrcatenings  came  to  nothing,  he  retired  very 
peaceably,  and  never  commenced  any  persecution  at  all.' 
The  misconduct  of  a  nephew,  to  whom  he  had  intrusted 
the  management  of  his  affairs  in  the  Levant,  obliged  him 
;n  sell,  some  time  previous  to  10KS,  his  hotel  in  Paris  and 
his  otaic  of  Aubonnc.  He  retired  first  into  Switzerland, 
and  subsequently  to  Berlin,  where  he  was  nominated  by 
the  elector  of  Brandenburg  director  of  a  projected  East 
India  Company.  From  the  time  of  his  first  journey  he  had 
i curetted  being  prevented  from  carrying  into  execution  a 
ilesiirn  which  he  then  entertained  of  returning  from  Persia 
through  the  Russian  dominions.  His  new  appointment 
afforded  him  an  excuse  and  opportunity  lor  making  that 
journey,  and  he  set  out  to  travel  to  the  East  Indies  across 
-ia  in  1G88.  He  was  taken  ill  at  Moscow,  and  died 
there  in  the  month  of  July,  1689.  The  equivocal  conclu- 
sion of  Boilcau's  inscription  on  Tavernier's  portrait  contains 
a  fair  enough  estimate  of  his  character : — 

•  r.u  tons  licux  SA  \rrtu  fut  son  plus  »ur  ftpwii ; 
Kt  bu>n  qu'en  DOS  climats  <!••  rotour  aujuumhui 

En  foule  a  mw  yeux  il  presente 
Lei  pint  rarrs  Uesor*  que  Ic  soleit  enfante; 
11  n'a  rien  rapporte  de  si  rare  que  lui.' 

(Les  six  Voyages  de  Jean  Baptisle  Tavcrnier,  Ecuyer 
Daron  d'Aubonne,  en  Turquie,  en  Prrxr,  i't  mt.r  Indes,  a 
Paris,  1676-9, 4to. ;  L'Esprtt  de  M.  Arnauld,  tire  des  <'•••/•//.»• 
de  lui  et  de  ses  disciples,'  Deventer,  1684,  12mo.  ;  Henrick 
van  Quellenburgh's  findicia?  Batavicer,  oftc  I\ifu/uti<' 

/n't  Trin-iiiet  van  J.  B,  Tavernier,  Chevalier,  Baron 
i/'An/i'inri'',  Amsterdam,  1684,  4to. ;  Bayle,  v.  'Tavernier;' 

nif i/iie  Linuerselle,  v.  'Taverniec,  Jean  Baptiste,' 
I  ar  \Veiss.) 

TAVISTOCK,  a  parliamentary  borough  and  market- 
town,  on  the  south-western  border  of  Devonshire,  307  miles 
from  London,  34  from  Exeter,  and  11  from  Plymouth.  The 
parish  extend.-,  between  the  western  extremity  of  Dartmoor 
and  the  river  Tamar,  and,  according  to  a  survey  made  in 
1781.  comprises  13,987  acres,  or  nearly  22  square  miles; 
but  it  is  probable  that  this  survey  included  lands  within  the 
boundary  of  the  borough  which  are  not  in  the  parish  :  in 
the  census  of  1831  the  area  of  the  parish  is  stated  to  be 
1  l.GtiO  acres.  The  surface  of  the  parish  is  diversified  by 
hills  fnun:«Hlto(i«H)  feet,  in  height,  which  rise  in  continued 
succession  and  are  separated  by  valleys  often  deep  and  nar- 
row, the  general  direction  of  which  is  from  north-east  to 
south-west.  The  higher  ground  towards  Dartmoor  is  of 
granitic  formation,  and  the  neighbourhood  of  the  town  con- 

nf  schistose  rock.  The  town  is  situated  nearly  in  the 
centre  of  the  parish,  on  the  north-west  bank  of  the  Taw, 
which  here  flows  rapidly  through  a  narrow  valley,  from 
which  the  ground  rises  steeply  on  both  sides  to  the  height 
of  several  hundred  feet.  The  riveris  crossed  by  two  bridges 
within  the  town.  A  narrow  valley,  or  gully,  from  the  north, 
is  also  covered  by  houses.  The  climate  is  variable,  and  the 
average  quantity  of  rain  falling  in  lh  !~i  inches. 

In '.Hil  an  abbey  was  founded  at  Tavistock,  which  was 
burnt  by  the  Danes,  ami  afterwards  rebuilt  on  a  larger 
Male.  "Henry  I.  1 100-1  13.~i  granted  to  the  abbot  a 
weekly  market  and  a  fair.  In  l.">13thc  thirty-fifth  abliot 
tru  called  to  the  House  of  Peers,  but  in  I.Y'til  his  succes- 
sor surrendered  to  the  king,  when  the  revenue  of  the 
abbey  was  estimated  at  !X)2/.  A  printing-press  was  esta- 
blished in  the  abbey  goon  after  the  introduction  of  the  art 


into  England.     Fragments  of  the   abbey  still   remain,   but 
are  chiefly  incorporated  with  other  building*;    and  II 

|    is  used  as  an  at  oin.      John,  Lord  Rns-ell. 

ancestor  of  the  Duke  of   Hcilloul,  obtained   H  giant  of  the 
abbey  lands.  An  antient  lazar-lu 

of  the  workhouse.  The  parish  church  is  a  spacious  edifice, 
with  n  tower  at  the  west  end  supported  on  arches.  The 
interior  consists  of  four  aisles  and  a  chancel,  and  contains 
some  good  monuments.  The  living  is  a  vicarage,  valued 
at  302/.  per  annum.  The  Independents.  I 
(Quakers,  and  \Vesle\an  Methodists  have  places  of  worship. 
The  date  ol  the  foundation  of  the  grammar-school  is  not 
known,  but  in  KM!)  Sir  John  Glanville  left  an  endowment 
for  the  education  of  one  buy.  which  yields  about  •!/.  per 
annum';  and  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  in  whom  the  school-, 
is  vested,  allows  the  master  the  use  of  a  house  rent 
besides  other  advantages,  and  20/.  a-year  for  the  education 
of  eight  boys.  There  is  a  LancaMcrian  school  chiefly  sup- 
ported by  subscription,  which  in  1833  was  attended  by 
l;!."i  boys  and  88  girls.  At  the  sime  period  seventeen  other 
schools  were  attended  by  203  boys  and  '224  girls ;  and 
there  were  five  Sunday-schools,  in  which  381  boys  and 
333  girls  were  instructed.  There  are  two  alnisliouses,  one 
for  four  poor  widows,  who  each  receive  21.  a-year ;  and 
another  for  fifteen  persons,  nominated  by  the  Duke  of 
Bedford,  who  receive:!/,  a-year  each.  A  sum  of  1;V.  is 
applicable  to  the  apprenticing  of  poor  children. 

Tavistock  returned  two  members  to  parliament  previous 
to  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Act.  a  privilege  which  it  had 
enjoyed  since  12!)5  (23  Hen.  I.).  The  right  of  election 
was  in  the  resident  freeholders.  The  Tavy  formed  the 
boundary  ofthe  borough  on  one  side,  and  on  the  ot) 
limits  were  defined  by  an  artificial  line.  Under  the 
Reform  Act  the  borough  was  made  co-extensive  with  the 
limits  of  the  parish,  the  manor  ofCudliptown  cxccpteil, 
and  it  still  returns  two  members.  The  number  of  '• 
on  the  register,  in  1840,  was  347.  Tavistock  is  not 
incorporated.  The  portreeve,  who  is  elected  annually  at 
the  court-leet  of  the  lord  of  the  manor,  is  the  chief  public 
officer,  and  makes  the  return  of  the  elections.  Tavistock 
is  one  of  the  polling-places  for  the  county. 

The  parish  registers  of  Tavistock  from  1(117  to  1836  have 
made  the  subject  of  a  more  careful  and  elaborate 
examination  than  those  of  any  other  place  in  England. 
This  task  was  undertaken  by  Dr.  Barham,  and  the  i 
are  given  in  a  series  of  tables  which  are  printed  in  part 
i\  ofthe  '  Tables'  published  by  the  Board  of  Trade  ;  and 
an  abstract  of  them  is  given  in  vol.  iv.,  part  1,  ofthe 
'  Journal  ofthe  London  Statistical  Society.'  The  popula- 
tion of  the  parish,  in  1781,  was  3117;  in  1811,  4723 ;  in 
Is-Ji.  5483;  in  1831,  r>602.  The  increase  between  Isll 
and  1821  is  attributed  to  the  extension  ol  'mining  opera- 
tions in  the  neighbourhood.  There  are  some  small  manu- 
facturing establishments.  Tavistock  is  one  of  the  four 
stannary  towns  in  the  county.  In  1817  a  canal  was 
opened,  which,  after  a  course  of  5  miles.  2  of  which  are 
under  a  tunnel,  enters  the  Tamar  at  Morwell  Ham  quay. 
The  head  of  the  canal  is  connected  with  the  quay  bv  an 
inclined  plane  240  feet  high.  This  canal  conmcls  Tavi- 
stock with  Plymouth.  Sir  Francis  Drake  was  a  native  of 

lock. 

TAWI-TAWI.     [SooLOO  ARCHIPELAGO.] 
TAX,  TAXATION.     A  tax  is  a  portion  of  the  produce 
and  labour  of  a  country  placed  at  the  disposal  of  tit 
vermnent. 

Taxation  is  the  general  charging  and  levying  of  parti- 
cular taxes  by  the  government  upon  the  community. 

Oiuins  OF  TAXATION. 

In  a  free  state  it  is  assumed  that  all  taxation  is  necessary 
for  the  public  good;  if  it  is  not  necessary,  the  reason  for 
it  no  longer  exists.  The  amount  of  expenditure  will  in  a 
great  measure  be  determined  by  the  magnitude  of  a  state 
and  by  the  number  and  importance  of  its  political 
tions;  yet  the  prudence  with  which  its  affairs  are  adminis- 
tered will  afl'eel  the  demands  of  the  government  upon  the 
people,  nearly  as  much  as  its  necessities.  The  expenses  of 
a  private  person  must  be  regulated  by  his  income  :  but  in 
a  state,  the  expenditure  that  is  needed  is  the  measure  of 
the  public  income  that  must  be  obtained  to  meet  it.  A 
civilized  community  requires  not  only  protection  from 
foreign  enemies  and  the  means  of  internal  security,  but  it 
needs  various  institutions  of  civil  government  conducive  to 
its  welfare,  and  which  iU  wealth  enables  it  to  maintain 


TAX 


109 


TAX 


without  an  injurious  pressure  upon  its  resources.  Ir  is  the 
business  of  a  government  to  provide  these,  when  proved  to 
be  necessary,  in  the  best  manner  and  at  the  least  expense 
consistent  with  their  efficiency. 

The  able  and  laborious  committee  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons upon  public  income  and  expenditure  in  1828  'une- 
quivocally declared  their  full  assent  to  the  principle,  that  no 
government  is  justified  in  taking  even  the  smallest  sum  of 
money  from  the  people,  unless  a  case  can  be  clearly  esta- 
blished to  show  that  it  will  be  productive  of  some  essential 
advantage  to  them,  and  of  one  that  cannot  be  obtained  by 
a  smaller  sacrifice.'  The  committee  truly  added  to  the 
statement  of  this  just  principle,  that  '  nothing  requires 
more  wisdom  and  prudence  than  to  fix  the  public  expen- 
diture at  such  an  amount  that  the  real  wants  of  the  people 
shall  not  be  made  to  give  way  to  any  imaginary  wants  of 
the  state :  the  latter  arise  from  so  many  sources,  that  it  is 
frequently  very  difficult  to  prevent  the  operation  of  an 
undue  influence.'  (Second  Report,  p.  4.)  One  of  the  first 
duties  of  representatives  of  the  people  is  to  watch  with 
jealousy  the  expenditure  of  the  public  money.  Every  tax 
should  be  viewed  as  the  purchase-money  paid  for  equi- 
valent advantages  given  in  return.  This  principle  assumes 
the  necessity  of  moderation  in  levying  taxes,  and  will 
scarcely  be  denied  by  any  one  when  stated  in  that  form  ; 
yet  it  is  not  uncommon  to  hear  it  argued  that  so  long  as 
taxes  are  spent  in  the  country,  the  amount  is  not  of  conse- 
quence, as  the  money  is  returned  through  various  channels 
to  the  people  from  whom  it  was  derived.  The  principle 
we  have  just  laid  down  at  once  exposes  the  fallacy  of  this 
doctrine,  by  reducing  it  to  a  simple  question  between 
debtor  and  creditor.  For  example,  by  paying  a  million  of 
money  every  year,  the  people  obtain  the  services  of  an 
army :  this  we  will  suppose  to  be  an  equivalent,  and  we 
will  further  aasume  that  the  food  and  clothing  of  the  force 
are  purchased,  and  that  the  entire  pay  of  the  men  is  spent, 
within  the  country.  The  whole  of  the  money  will  thus  be 
returned  :  but  how?  Not  as  a  free  gift,  not  as  the  repay- 
ment of  a  loan,  but  in  the  purchase  of  articles  equal  in 
to  the  whole  sum.  The  only  benefit  obtained  by  this 
i ctuni  of  the  million  is  clearly  nothing  more  than  the 
ordinary  profits  of  trade ;  for  the  community  has  already 
provided  the  money,  and  then  out  of  its  own  capital  and 
industry  it  produces  what  is  equal  to  it  in  value,  and  this 
it  sells  to  the  state,  receiving  as  payment  the  very  sum  it 
had  itself  contributed  as  a  tax. 

In  whatever  manner  taxes  may  be  expended,  they  must 
be  regarded  as  injurious  to  the  community.  '  Every  new 
tax,'  says  Mr.  Ricardo,  'becomes  a  new  charge  on  produc- 
tion, and  raises  the  natural  price.  A  portion  of  the  labour 
of  the  country  which  was  before  at  the  disposal  of  the  con- 
tributor to  the  tax  is  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  state, 
and  cannot  therefore  be  employed  productively.'  (Political 
I'imy,  chap,  xii.,  p.  206.) 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  TAXATION. 

Having  settled  that  taxation  should  be  generally  and  in 
amount  as  light  as  possible,  it  must  be  determined  upon 
what  principles  and  in  what  manner  taxes  may  best  be 
h'\  ii'd.  No  other  branch  of  legislation  is  perhaps  so  im- 
portant as  the  wise  application  of  just  principles  in  the 
matter  of  taxation.  The  wealth,  happiness,  and  even  the 
morals  of  the  people  are  dependent  upon  the  financial 
policy  of  their  government. 

Adam  Smith  lays  down  four  general  maxims,  which  we 
shall  briefly  cite  not  only  as  being  perfectly  true  in  them- 
selves and  most,  valuable,  but  as  proceeding  from  an  autho- 
rity so  high  that  not  to  notice  them  might  be  accounted 
an  omission. 

I.  '  The  subjects  of  every  state  ought  to  contribute  to- 
wards the  support  of  the  government  as  nearly  as  possible 
in  proportion  to  their  respective  abilities;  that  is,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  revenue  which  they  respectively  enjoy  under 
the  protection  of  the  state.' 

II.  'The  tax  which  each   individual   is  bound  to  pay 
ousht  to  be  certain,  and  not  arbitrary.    The  time  of  pay- 

t,  the  manner  of  payment,  the  quantity  to  be  ^aid, 
ought  all  to  be  clear  and  plain  to  the  contributor,  and  to 

.  other  person.' 

III.'  Every  tax  ought  to  be  levied  at  the  time  or  in  the 
manner  most  likely  to  be  convenient  for  the  contributor 
ID  pay  it.' 

IV.  '  Every  tax  ought  to  be  so  contrived  as  both  to  take 


out  and  keep  out  of  the  pockets  of  the  people  as  little  as 
possible  over  and  above  what  it  brings  into  the  public 
treasury  of  the  state.' 

In  discussing  the  merits  of  particular  taxes  and  classes  of 
taxes,  we  shall  have  to  considerwith  some  minuteness  the  ap- 
plication of  Adam  Smith's  first  maxim.  Its  justice  requires 
no  enforcement  or  illustration,  although  unhappily  the  ob- 
ject is  most  difficult  of  attainment.  The  second  maxim  is  of 
great  importance,  and  the  necessity  of  adhering  to  it  must 
be  universally  acknowledged.  Uncertainty  gives  rise  to 
frauds  and  extortion  on  the  part  of  the  tax-gatherer,  and  to 
ill-will  and  suspicion  on  that  of  the  contributor,  while  it 
offers  a  most  injurious  impediment  to  all  the  operations  of 
trade.  Notwithstanding  the  many  evils  of  uncertainty,  it 
is  by  no  means  an  uncommon  fault  even  in  modern  sys- 
tems of  taxation.  We  would  pass  over  the  practices  oi 
Eastern  despotisms,  where  uncertainty  and  caprice  prevaL 
instead  of  fixed  rules,  but  that  the  vices  of  their  taxation 
are  so  exaggerated  as  to  show  the  evils  of  a  departure 
from  just  principles  in  the  broadest  light.  All  taxation  is 
forbidden  by  the  Koran,  and  although  the  prohibition  has 
been  evaded  and  broken  through  by  the  Turkish  govern- 
ment in  particular  instances,  it  has  always  been  an  ob- 
struction to  any  general  system  of  imposts.  In  the  absence 
of  regular  taxes,  partial  and  irregular  exactions  are  resorted 
to  for  supplying  the  wants  of  the  sultan.  Plunder  becomes 
the  business  of  every  governor  of  a  province,  and  thus  the 
Koran,  instead  of  defending  Moslems  from  tax-gatherers, 
gives  them  up  to  public  robbers.  '  No  man  is  secure  in 
his  property  for  an  instant ;  all  are  compelled  carefully  to 
conceal  their  .  possessions,  lest  they  should  lose  their 
liberty  or  possibly  their  lives  and  their  property  too.  In- 
dustry is  thus  not  merely  cramped,  but  almost  prevented 
or  extirpated,  by  men  being  deprived  of  all  confidence  in 
their  enjoyment  of  its  rewards.  The  country,  fertile  in  its 
resources  of  all  kinds,  is  left  waste,  or  only  cultivated  as 
far  as  the  absolute  necessities  of  providing  sustenance 
may  require.  The  nearer  you  approach  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment, this  is  more  the  case  ;  and  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
capital,  which  in  other  countries  is  naturally  the  scene  of 
extended  labour,  thick  population,  and  great  cultivation, 
is  in  Turkey  marked  by  barrenness  and  neglect.  Constan- 
tinople can  only  be  approached  on  the  land  side  by  tra- 
velling through  extensive  wastes  without  either  man  or 
beast  or  tillage.'  (Political  Philosophy,  ch.  3.) 

In  Persia  the  same  uncertain  and  oppressive  mode  o.f 
exacting  money  for  the  use  of  the  sovereign  is  resorted  to 
and  is  followed  by  similar  results. 

Under  the  more  constitutional  governments  of  Europe, 
the  people  do  not  indeed  suffer  from  violent  exactions, 
but  industry,  production,  and  commerce  are  too  often  re- 
strained by  irregular  and  ill-defined  taxes.  Spain  unhap- 
pily affords  many  examples  of  misgovernment,  and  the 
injurious  character  of  its  taxation  is  shown  in  reference  to 
this  as  well  as  other  principles.  To  select  one  instance  of 
uncertainty  :  '  Every  landowner  is  liable  to  have  his  pro- 
perty taken  in  execution  for  government  taxes,  if  he  is  not 
prepared  to  pay  a  half-year  or  more  in  advance,  according 
to  the  difficulties  of  the  Exchequer ;  consequently  he  is 
often  compelled  to  make  great  sacrifices  in  order  to  meet 
such  exigencies.'  (Madrid  in  1835,  vol.  ii.,  p.  107.) 

Perhaps  there  is  no  better  example  of  the  evils  of  uncer- 
tainty than  that  of  the  Stade  duties  levied  by  the  king  of 
Hanover  upon  all  ships  passing  up  the  Elbe  from  the  sea, 
and  upon  their  cargoes.  The  tariff  taxes  2368  articles  of 
commerce,  and  lays  several  duties  upon  the  same  articles, 
so  that  the  whole  number  of  duties  is  6688.  '  There  are 
35  different  duties  upon  iron  ;  32  duties  upon  yarn  or 
twist ;  18  duties  upon  sugar ;  42  upon  leather ;  36  upon 
oil ;  126  upon  wood,  and  so  on  with  respect  to  other  im- 
portant articles  of  trade.'  The  tariff  also  '  resorts  to  all 
modes  and  devices  of  taxation,  by  weight,  by  measure,  by 
number,  by  value  ;  and  what  is  worse,  it  vests  in  the  cus- 
tomhouse officers  the  sole  discretion  of  determining  by 
what  standard  they  will  charge  the  duty.  The  collector 
imposes  that  kind  of  duty  which  will  produce  the  most 
money  in  the  particular  case.  The  consequence  of  this  to 
the  merchant  is  most  serious.  He  cannot  calculate  or  in- 
form himself  beforehand  how  much  his  goods  will  have  to 
pay  at  Brunshausen.'  (Edinburgh  Review,  No.  el.,  p. 
361 ;  Hutt's  Stade  Duties.}  There  are  also  arbitrary  fines 
for  trivial  informalities  in  the  ship's  papers,  and  which  are 
said  to  rest  practically  with  the  subordinate  officers,  who 


T  A 


11C 


T  A    \ 


-o  haraM  the  merchants  with  a  multitude  of  p.  ;u 

for  their  nwii  advantage.    Such  ft  system,  r 
i'ly  be  said,   i-  mo.t  discouraging  ana  iqjuiio 

Untish   merchants  h;i\e    been   loud  in   their 

.  .iiupiaiuts,  and   thr   governments   of  this  country  itnd  of 

llnnoxcr  haxc  iccentH  cnimgrd  in  n  •.  which,  it 

v.ill  settle  these  obnoxious  duties  upon 

^nmd  and  equitable  prim 

levy  a  tax  •  at  the  time  and  in  the  manner  most 
likely  to  'be  convenient  for  the  contributor  to  pay  it  '  is 
always  a  xvise  policy  on  the  part  of  the  state.  The  time 
•yment  may  often  lie  more  vexatious  than 
the  amount  of  the  tax  itself,  and  thus  have  the  evil  effects 
of  high  taxation,  while  it  produces  no  revenue  to  the  state. 
Suppose,  lor  example,  that  a  merchant  imports  goods  and 
i-  required  to  pay  a  duty  upon  them  immediately  and 
before  he  has  found  a  market  for  them  :— he  must  either 
ice  the  money  himself  or  borrow  it  from  others,  and 
i'i  either  case  he  will  be  obliged  to  charge  the  pup 
of  the  goods  with  the  interest;  or  he  must  sell  the  goods 
at  once,  not  on  account  of  any  commercial  occasion  for 
the  sale,  but  in  order  to  avoid  prepayment  of  the  tax.  If 
he  paxs  the  tax  and  holds  the  goods  the  consumer  will 
haxe  to  repay  not  only  the  tax  but  the  interest;  and  if 
he  parts  with  them  at  a  loss  or  inconvenience,  trade  is  in- 
jured, and  the  ireneral  wealth  and  consequent  productivc- 
n ess  of  taxation  proportionately  diminished.  To  p,-e\ent 
exils  the  handing:  or  vari-hniixin^  sy-tein  was  esta- 
blished, which  affords  the  most  liberal  convenience  to  the 
nan!  and  a  general  facility  to  the  trade  of  a  eoun- 
i  'ei tain  warehouses  are  appointed  under  the  charge 
ol  officers  of  the  customs,  in  which  goods  may  be  deposited 
without  being  chargeable  with  duty  until  they  are  cleared 
tor  consumption,  and  thus  the  tax  is  only  paid  just  when 
the  article  is  wanted,  and  when  it  is  least  inconvenient  to 
pay  it.  [WAREHOI-SING  SYSTKM.] 

Similar  accommodation  is  granted  on  their  own  premises 
to  the  manufacturers  of  articles  liable  to  excise  duties.  At 
present  the  customs  bonding-warehouses  are  confined  to 
the  ports.  An  extension  of  them  to  inland  towns  would 
be  sound  in  principle,  very  convenient  to  trade,  and  un- 
attended by  any  serious  risk  to  the  revenue  or  difficulty  of 
management  and  supervision. 

The  evils  resulting  from  inconvenient  modes  o 
and  collecting  taxes  have  been  very  seriously  felt  in  this 
country  under  the  operation  of  the  excise  laws.  When 
any  manufacture  is  subject  to  excise  duties,  the  officers  of 
the  revenue  have  cognizance  of  every  part  of  the  \. 
inspect  and  control  the  premises  and  machinery  of  the 
manufacturer,  and  often  even  prescribe  the  mode  of  con- 
ducting and  the  times  of  commencing  and  completing 
each  process;  while  the  observance  of  numberless  minute 
lations  is  enforced  by  severe  penalties.  The  manu- 
facturer is  put.  to  great  inconvenience  and  expense,  and 
hi*  ingenuity  and  resources  are  con-tantly  interfered  with 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  impede  inventions  and  improve- 
ment, and  to  diminish  his  profits.  Some  manufactures 
have  been  entirely  destroyed  by  oppresMsc  i  emulations. 
'Fhe  making  of  lenses  of  telescopes  v, :  time  a 

flourishing  trade.  Kneland  had  the  supply  of  the  whole 
»if  Kurope,  but  within  the  last  few  years  the  manufacture. 
has  been  transferred  to  France  and  Italy,  entirely  in  con- 

•  nee  of  the    prohibition  of   the  excise    I. 
conducting    the    ncccssai  •.!    preliminary   experi- 

ments.    (Dig'  - 

Jnifutn/.  p.  13.)     Trades  less  unfoitunatc   than  that  just 
red  to  arc  nevertheless  xci  itf'crcrs.      A  Lon- 

don distiller  stated  to  the  ( 'ommi-sioners  of  Kxi  ise  Inquiry, 
that  amimiing  that  the  duties  on  spiiits  distilled  by  him 
should    be  fully    secured    to    the   revenue,   '  it    would    In- 
well  worth  his  while  to  pay  3000/.  a  year  for  the  )» 
of  exemption  from  excise  interference.'     (lltiil.,  p. 

Any  injury  done  to  trade  is  injurious  to  the  state  by 
diminishing  the  national  wealth  and  the  employment  ul 
labour.  It  has  the  same  effect  also  upon  tb. 

-sive  taxation.  The  high  price  of  the  article  limits 
the  consumption  and  consequently  the  re  venue  arihimr  from 
it.  The.  injurious  effects  of  tl 

•It  in  an  arrumulnted  dcirive  by  the  public  who  are 
the  consumer",  airainst  whom  the  tnx  operate*  by  t 
c'.ition   inade   to  (lie  price  of  the  commodity,   not  only  by 
lt»  direct  amount,   but  by  the  neeescity  of  CO 
the  manufacturer  for  hi»  advance  of  capital  in  delrayirg 


it,  and  al-o  by  the  increased  cost  of  prodiu  lion.' 
p.  15.)     In  the  case  of  a  hi  hich  also  dimin. 

consumption,   the    Ma1-  .lit  : 

but    in    tin  impedi- 

ments to  trade    caused    b\ 

iins   nothing  xvl.  1   the    ma 

and  the  consumer  are  seriously  injured,  without  an  eij 
lent  to  any  party.     If  the  consumer  must  sutler,  it  should, 
at  least,  be  for  the   benefit   of  the   :•  r  then  his 

contributions  may  be  diminished  111  sonic  other  direction. 
'ion   has  been   paid,   of  late   year.-,   to  the  im- 
provement   of  the   excise    regulations.   , -specially    In 
Commissioners  of  Inquiry,  under  tin- able  direction  • 
Henry  1'arnell.     Various  restrictions  ha\e   been  reni' 
and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  t!  11   may  be  ; 

capable  of  beii^  1  without  inflicting  greater  in- 

juries upon  trade  than  other  branch. 

The  net  produce  of  a  tax  is  all  that  ' 

in,  and  therefore  any  violation  of  the  fourth  maxim  of  Adam 
Smith  is  liable  to  the  same  object  ions  as  those  ah- 
in  reference  to  the  third.     Such  violation  increases  the 
amount  of  the  tax  directly,  as  the  former  was  shown  to 
incren.se  it  indirectly,  without  any  advantage  to  the  - 
Facility  of  collection  is  a  great  recommendation  to  any 

id,  on  the  contran,  a  disproportion  between  tin 
of  collecting  and  the  amount  ultimately  secured  i^  a 
ground  for  removing  a  tax.  thouirh  founded,  in  • 

•  •;-.  upon  just  principles.     On  this  account 
well  as  for  the  general  conxenience  of  trade,  it   is  worthy 
of  serious  attention,  whether  the  customs  duties  \\\ 
great  number  of  art  ides  of  import  should  not  be  altogether 
repealed.     Although  great  alterations  Inn 
made  in  our  tariff,  the  number  of  articles  remains  ilie 
same.      In  1S3!)  there  were  ;!40  distinct  articles,  each  pro- 
ducing less  than  100/.  a  year,  and  in  the  airirrciratc  onh 
so.'MI/.     There  are  also  132  articles  producinL'  from  HHI/. 
to  50U/.   each,   and   altogether  31.G2!)/.,   while    Hi   aiticles 
produced   '.)*•;   per   cent,   of  the   whole   customs   revenue. 
(Import  Dulii'a  l^'jmrl,  18-10,  p.  4.)     It  is  obxious  that  tin- 
examination    of   every    description    of    merchandi/e    and 
package,  and  the  assessment  of  nearly  1200  different 
of  duty.  inu>t  irreatlj  increase  the  establishment  required 
for  collecting  this  branch  of  the  revenue.    The  cost  of  col 
lecting  tile  duties  upon  the  larger  and  more  product  ixc 
articles  of  import  could  bear  but  a  small  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  the  tax. 

The  following  table  maybe  interesting  as  showing  the 
rate  at  which  the  whole  revenue  is  collected  in  the  United 
Kingdom : — 

xhniring  tfic  ('<  j    /hi-  1'i'rrniiP  nf  thr 

I'niti'd  Kiiiffiliini  «J'  (Iri'iil  Hrituiii  uii'l  In'liunl  fnr  '/'•// 


)  •.irx.frttin  1832  /"  1SH   nicltixiri'  i  compiled  from   the 
Annual  Finance  Accoun' 

i  fcrit. 

Grow  Rwpipt  of  RflTctme. 

ChargM  of  Collection. 

WM  COl  1    . 

£            .1.     d. 

£          ».     d. 

£    ».    d. 

1832 

411.57  1.  -toil    17     8 

3.(K>I.7(»2  13  11 

(i   i?  ?* 

1K!3 

-•2.ri71.1Ki   II   11 

ii'.i3     4     4 

iK'il 

'.2  Hi   17   11 

4     4 

i;    ].-,      j)j 

1898 

:r_'.;.s:i.:i!ij     4     6 

:.j;!s  IH  n 

(i   15     4* 

1896 

ril.'.l73.(;77     0     (i 

3.4!«.GJ1    17      1 

(i    7     1* 

IK37 

:.737      11        1) 

3.4:tU.ti7'.>     (i     ."> 

(ill      2 

Is.*'-                      '.ili    13    !(( 

3.4:n).!MO    12     4 

G   10     3 

1M31I   ,  :>:.                    1     7 

3.  IS3..">33     4     !l 

(i   Ki    7 

IKHI 

&2,916,04H     8    3 

3..")i'.i.iK»;i  i.'i    .-> 

U   14      1* 

1841 

.•|3..V.Mi.2."iO    1  1      4 

3.:.S2.li3!l     7    11 

01  'I 
Iff        H  1 

There  is   little  \ai,;!'iion    liom    year  : 
chargesof  collection,  but  t!: 

lion    in   the  cost   of  collecting  different    b  the 

revenue.     In   1HI1  the  excise  cost  til.  7«.  8</.  per  cent,  in 
the  collection  :    the  assessed  taxes 41.  2*.  9d.;   and  tl 
venue  arising  from  stamps  only  '21.  3* 

•.emu-  is  collected  at  a  much  iri . 

For  some  jears  past  the  average  rex emic  of  thai  country 
ha- been   1,020,000,000  4(UKHI,IHH»/..  and  t!i- 

DMfes  of  managing  and  collecting  that  sum  haxeamounted 
to  irKMHKUKK)  I-  '   iKKl.llOO/.,  beinir  no  le-s  ti, 

il.     ('•niiini-rrnil  Turijl'*,  I'-irl  //'..  1'rnni  •  .   IS42.  p. 
11.)  It  in  very  probable  Uiat  many  items  may  be  included  in 


TAX 


111 


TAX 


the  French  calculation  of  the  expenses  of  collection  which 
are  not  stated  in  the  English  accounts  ;  but  making  libera 
allowance  on  that  account,  a  great  disproportion  remain, 
between  the  cost  of  collecting  the  revenue  in  the  two 
countries.  It  may  perhaps  be  fairly  estimated  that  thi, 
revenue  of  France  costs  twice  as  much  in  the  collection  aa 
that  of  England.  The  expenses  of  collecting  a  revenue 
may  be  high  without  any  reference  to  the  mode  of  taxation 
An  excellent  tax  may  be  collected  in  a  bad  manner,  either 
by  having  numerous  idle  and  highly  paid  officers,  or  by 
cumbrous  regulations  and  checks,  which  may  cost  the 
i-nment  much  and  protect  the  revenue  very  little.  OJ 
thc»e  two  causes  of  expense  it  is  difficult  to  pronounce 
which  is  most  injurious  to  a  country.  The  i'ormer  will 
generally  be  found  to  form  part  of  a  general  system  of  ill- 
regulated  expenditure  :  the  latter  may  arise  from  unwise 
precautions  for  the  security  of  the  revenue.  In  France  the 
prodigious  number  of  official  persons  is  notorious,  and  in 
that  fact  we  must  seek  for  the  main  cause  of  the  enormous 
cost  of  collecting  the  revenue. 

DIFFERENT  CLASSES  OF  TAXES. 

In  selecting  one  or  more  classes  of  taxes  for  raising  the 
revenue  of  a  state,  the  principles  already  discussed  should 
be  adhered  to  as  far  as  possible  ;  but  these  do  not  point 
out  any  particular  mode  of  taxation  as  preferable  to  others. 
Whatever  mode  of  raising  the  necessary  funds  may  be 
found  to  press  most  equally  upon  clitferent  members  of  the 
community,  to  be  least  liable  to  objections  of  uncertainty, 
or  inconvenience  iu  the  mode  or  times  of  payment,  or  to 
be  attended  with  the  least  expense,  is  fairly  open  to  the 
choice  of  a  statesman ;  unless  objections  of  some  other 
nature  can  be  proved  to  outweigh  these  recommenda- 
tions. 

The  two  great  divisions  under  which  most  taxes  may  bs 
classed  are  direct  and  indirect. 

I.  Direct  Taxes. 

All  taxes  ought  to  be  paid  from  the  income  of  the  com- 
munity. To  derive  revenue  from  capital  is  to  act  the  part 
of  a  spendthrift ;  and  such  a  practice,  as  in  private  life, 
must  be  condemned.  If  the  taxes  of  any  country  should 
become  so  disproportioned  to  its  income,  that  in  order  to 
pay  them  continual  inroads  must  be  made  upon  its  capital, 
»ild  fail,  employment  of  labour  would  de- 
".  and  the  revenue  must  necessarily  be  reduced  by 
the  general  impoverishment  of  the  tax-payers.  Such  a 
system  could  not  long  continue  as  regards  all  capital,  but 
it  may  affect  particular  branches  of  capital,  or  all  capital 
in  certain  conditions.  In  whatever  degree  it  is  permitted 
to  operate  it  is  injurious.  A  tax  upon  legacies  is  avow- 
edly a  direct  deduction  from  capital ;  and  on  that  account 
objectionable,  although  it  is  profitable  to  the  treasury  and 
very  easily  collected.  In  this  country  legacies  left  to 
strangers  are  charged  with  a  stamp  duty  of  10  per  cent., 
and  even  when  left  to  relatives  the  scale  of  duties  is  suf- 
ficiently high  to  cause  a  serious  diminution  of  the  capital. 
A  further  duty  is  charged  on  proving  a  will,  called  pro- 
bate-duty, which  is  perhaps  more  frequently  paid  out  of 
capital  than  income.  The  same  observations  will,  of 
course,  apply  to  duties  charged  upon  succession  to  the  per- 
sonal property  of  intestates. 

With  these  exceptions  it  has  been  the  object  of  the 
British  legislature  to  derive  all  taxes  from  income,  either 
by  direct  a^es.-ment  or  by  means  of  the  voluntary  expen- 
diture of  the  people  upon  taxed  commodities. 

Direct  taxes  upon  the  land  have  been  universally  re- 
sorted to  by  all  nations.  Such  taxes  are  obvious,  and  re- 
quire but  little  refinement  to  devise  ;  and  in  countries 
without  commerce,  land  is  the  only  source  from  which  a 
revenue  can  be  derived.  In  most  of  the  Eastern  mo- 
narchies the  greater  part  of  the  revenue  has  usually  been 
raised  by  heavy  taxes  upon  the  soil.  The  tangible  nature 
of  land  and  of  its  produce  offers  great  temptations  to  immo- 
derate taxation.  In  Spain,  at  the  present  time,  the  taxes 
upon  the  soil  are  most  oppressive  and  injurious.  'The  tax 
imposed  on  corn-fields  is  so  heavy,  that  farmers  in  general 
find  it  more  to  their  interest  not  to  till  their  lands  at  all, 
than  to  run  the  risk  of  losing  their  costs  and  charges,  and 
their  labour  1o  bout,  by  the  exorbitancy  of  the  intendiente's 
demand  which  they  would  have  to  meet.  They  have 
adopt i-il  thr  jihni  therefore  of  sowing  no  more  wheat  1han 
is  ni'ci'.-siuy  lor  the  sustenance  of  their  own  families.  It  is 
quite  clear  indeed  to  all  who  are  conversant  with  the  state 


of  agriculture  in  Spam,  that  unless  a  complete  change 
takes  place  in  the  system  of  taxation,  so  as  greatly  to  re- 
duce the  burthens  upon  the  land,  there  will  not  only  be  a 
stagnation  m  rural  industry,  but  eventually  the  country 
will  cease  to  produce  a  sufficient  quantity  for  its  own  con- 
sumption of  that  superior  wheat  on  which  Spaniards  pride 
themselves,  and  which  was  formerly  and  might  still  be 
grown  m  sufficient  quantities  to  supply  all  the  markets  in 
Juirope.'  (Madrid  in  1835,  vol.  ii.,  p.  109.) 

The  land-tax  in  England   is   one  of  considerable  an- 
tiquity.   We  find  that  under  the  Saxon  kings  a  tax  of  this 
description  was  in  use.    When  the  invasions  of  the  Danes 
became  frequent,  it  was  customary  to  purchase  their  for- 
bearance by  large  sums  of  money ;  and  as  the  ordinary- 
revenues  of  the  crown  were  not  sufficient,  a  tax  was  im- 
posed on  every  hide  of  land  in  the  kingdom.     This  tax 
seems  to  have  been  first  imposed  A.D.  991,  and  was  called 
Danegeld,  or  Danish  tax  or  tribute.     (Saxon  Chronicle, 
by  Ingram,   p.  168.)     It  was   originally  one  shilling  for 
each  hide  of  land,  but  afterwards  rose  so  high  as  seven  :  it 
then  fell  to  four  shillings,  at  which  rate  it  remained  till  it 
was  abolished  about  seventy  years  after  the  Norman  con- 
quest.  (Henry,  Hint.,  vol.  ifi.,  p.  368.)   A  revenue  still  con- 
tinued to  be  derived  under  different  names  from  assessments 
upon  all  persons  holding  lands,  which  however  became 
merged  in  the  general  subsidies  introduced  in  the  reigns  of 
Richard  II.  and  Henry  IV.     During  the  troubles  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  I.  and  the  Commonwealth,  the  practice  of 
laying  weekly  and  monthly  assessments  of  specific  sums  upon 
the  several  counties  was  resorted  to,  and  was  found  so  pro- 
fitable, that  after  the  Restoration  the  antient  mode  of  grant- 
ing subsidies  was  renewed  on  two  occasions  only.  (Report  of 
House  rtf  Commons  on  Land  Tax  as  affecting  Catholics, 
1828.)     In  1692  a  new  valuation  of  estates  was  made,  and 
certain  payments  were  apportioned  to  each  county  and 
hundred  or  other  division.     These  payments  have  varied 
in  amount  from  1*.  in  the  pound  to  4s.  on  the  assessed 
annual  value,  according  to  the  annual  Land  Tax  Acts,  but 
whatever  may  have  been  the  variations  in  the  rate  levied, 
the   valuation   has  been  the   same ;  and  the   proportion 
chargeable  to  each  district  has  continued  the  same  as  it 
was  in  the  time  of  king  William  III.,  as  regulated  by  the 
Act  of  1692.    That  assessment  is  said  not  to  have  been 
accurate  even  at  that  time,  and  of  course  improved  cul- 
tivation and  the  application  of  capital  during  the  last  140 
years  have  completely  changed  the  relative  value  of  dif- 
ferent portions  of  the  soil.     On  account  of  the  generally 
increased  productiveness  of  land,  the  tax  bears  upon  the 
whole  but  a  trifling  proportion  to  the  rent,  yet  its  inequality 
s  very  great.     For  instance,  in  Bedfordshire  it  amounts  to 
2s.  la.  in  the  pound  ;  in  Surrey,  to  Is.  Id.  •  in  Durham,  to 
3fal.  ',  in  Lancashire,  to  2d. ;    and  in   Scotland,  to   2$d. 
(Appendix  to   Third  Report   on   Agricultural  Distress, 
1836,  p.  545.)     Adam  Smith  imagined  that  this  tax  was 
jorne  entirely  by  the  landlords,  but  this  opinion  has  been 
jroved  to  be'erroneous  by  modern  political  economists,  who 
icld  that  the  tax  increases  the  price  of  the  produce  of  the 
and,  and  is  therefore  paid  by  the  consumers.     Of  that  we 
entertain  no  doubt ;  but  we  are  unable  to  agree  with  Mr. 
licardo,  that  the  English  land-tax  is  not  objectionable  as 
egards  Adam  Smith's  first  principle,  viz.  on  the  ground  of 
nequality.     (Political  Economy,  chap,  xii.)    He  assumes 
hat  inferior  land  would  not  be  cultivated  until  the  price  of 
iroduce  had  become  so  high  as  to  remunerate  the  grower 
it'ter  payment  of  the  tax;  and  that  the  owners  of  the  soil 
herefore  would  not  suffer,  but  only  the  consumer.     But 
and  is  often  cultivated  for  pleasure,  for  scientific  experi- 
ment, and  for  speculative  purposes,  while  in  this  country 
he  exclusion  of  foreign  supply  at  a  time  when  population 
vas  rapidly  increasing  has  forced  inferior  soils  into  cul- 
ivation.     Then  admitting  that  the  consumer  pays  the  tax, 
he  owners  of  land  appear  to  us  to  be  in  the  same  relation 
o   each   other  as  merchants  would  be  who  should  be 
charged  unequal  rates  of  duty  upon  articles  in  which  they 
leal.   In  that  case  the  consumer  would  ultimately  pay  the 
ax,  but  no  one  will  deny  that  the  seller  who  pays  the 
lighest  tax  in  the  first  instance  meets  his  competitor  at  a 
[isadvantagc  in  the  market.     He  must  wait  for  very  high 
)rices,  or  must  sell    at  lower  profits.     Such  is   actually 
he  case  where  articles  imported  from  different  countries 
>ear   unequal  rates  of  duty ;    and  such,  we   apprehend, 
must  be  the  case  where  the   land  is  unequally  assessed 
iccording  to  its  value.     [LAND-TAX.] 


TAX 


112 


TAX 


A  lax  upon  the  Rros»  rent  of  land  would  fall  upon  the 
Undloid,  and  would  be  in  fact  a  tax  upon  hi*  annual  in- 
i-.iinr.  and  as  such  would  lall  with  undue  seventy  u]>on 
liiin.  unlev.  ollu-r  classes  of  the  community  should  be  liable 

loportionatc  deduction  from  their  respective  in. 
for  the  benefit  of  the  state.     This  brings  us  to  consider  the 
iiency  of  a  general  tax  upon  nil  men:: 

As  th>-  object  of  taxation  should  hi-  to  obtain  from  each 
individual  in  a  state  a  contribution  to  ilu-  expenses  of 
government  in  proportion  to  his  means ;  and  as,  in  what  - 
ionn  the  tax  maybe  levied.  tin1  contribution  should 
be  paid  in  every  case  from  income,  and  not  from  capital, 
the  simplest  ami  most  equitable  mode  of  taxation  would 
appear  to  be  that  which, after  assessing  the  annual  income 
of  cadi  person  m  all  sources,  should  take  from 

him,  directly,  a.  certain  proportion  of  his  income  as  Ills 
share  of  the'  general  contribution.  Such  a  tax,  equitably 
levied,  would  appear  to  agree  in  theory  with  all  the  four 
maxims  of  Adam  Smith;  but  practical  fy,  every  tax  upon 
income  must  abound  in  inequalities,  in  uncertainty,  and 
in  great  personal  hardships  and  inconvenience. 

In  onler  to  make  such  a  tax  fall  equally  upon  all,  in  the 
first  place,  the  assessment  must  be  equal.  But  how  is  this 
to  be  effected?  By  the  voluntary  statement  of  each  per- 
son, or  by  investigation  and  proof?  If  by  the  former 
means,  the  equality  of  the  tax  would  depend  upon  the 
honesty  of  parties  placed  under  a  temptation  to  hi'  dis- 
honest :  the  least  scrupulous  part  of  the  community  would 
be  taxed  lightly,  and  the  conscientious  would  bear  the 
main  burthen  of  the  tax.  If  by  the  latter  means,  viz.,  by 
investigation  and  proof,  the  dishonest  still  have  an  advan- 
tage over  the  conscientious:  because  income  arising  from 
some  sources,  being  capable  of  direct  assessment,  cannot 
be  concealed ;  while  other  descriptions  of  income  arc  often 
known  only  to  the  possessor,  upon  whose  declaration  alone, 
in  such  cases,  reliance  must  be  placed. 

But  supposing  that  either  by  declaration  or  by  proof,  or 
by  both  combined,  the  actual  income  of  each  individual 
could  be  ascertained,  the  mere  income  of  persons  is  a  most 
fallacious  test  of  their  means  or  ability  to  bear  taxation. 
One  man  has  a  fee-simple  estate  in  land,  or  money  in  the 
funds,  producing  an  income  of  1000/.  a  year,  which  will 
descend  to  his  children  after  his  death ;  another,  by  a 
laborious  and  uncertain  profession,  also  obtains  an  annual 
income  of  1000/.,  dependent  not  only  upon  his  life,  hut  upon 
his  health  and  a  thousand  accidents.  The  annual  incomes 
of  these  two  men  are  the  same,  but  their  circumstances 
are  most  dissimilar.  Before  the  latter  could  be  placed  in 
the  same  position  as  the  former,  he  must  have  an  income 
enough  to  enable  him  to  insure  his  life  for  a  sum  of 
which  the  interest  would  be  HKH)/.  a  year,  and  still  have 
1000/.  left  to  spend  annually,  alter  the  payment  of  the 
premium.  But  even  then,  if  lie  should  lose  Ins  health,  his 
present  income  would  fail  him,  lie  would  not  be  able  to 
continue  the  insurance,  nnd  his  position  therefore  would 
still  be  more  precarious  than  that  of  the  proprietor  of  land 
or  funded  property.  Yet  these  two  men,  with  means  so 
unequal,  would  be  assessed  alike,  and  charged  with  equal 
contributions.  But  suppose  that,  instead  of  insuring  his 
life,  the  professional  man  should  save  half  his  income 
every  year,  he  would  still  be  charged  upon  the  whole,  and 
thus  his  cnjuldl  as  well  as  his  income  would  be  taxed. 

The  case  of  annuitants  also  may  he  instanced  as  one, 
amongst  numerous  others,  of  peculiar  inequality.  One 
person  invests  his  money  in  permanent  securities,  and 
retains  his  capital,  but  denvc~  a  small  income,  and  there- 
fore contributes  a  proportionally  small  rate  of  tax  :  another 
purchases  an  annuity,  and  parts  with  his  capital;  but  as 
his  income  is  much  larger  than  that  of  the  capitalist,  he 
pays  a  higher  tax.  At  first  sight  this  may  appear  a  just 
arrangement  ;  but  in  fact  not  only  the  income  of  the  annui- 
tant is  taxed,  but  also  his  capital ;  for  that  which  is  taxed 
as  his  income  is  derived  partly  from  the  interest  of  his  pur- 
chase-money, and  partly  from  an  annual  repayment  of  a 
portion  of  Ins  principal. 

These  and  many  other  evident  cases  of  inequality  can 

scarcely  be  questioned  ;    but  it  is  alleged  that  other  taxes 

preiis  with  as  much  inequality   upon  different  classes  of 

penon*.  and  that  no  attempts  an-  made  to  cqiiali/e   their 

preuure,  as  the  causes  exist  in  the  circumstances  of  the 

ie.    Hud    not    in    the    nature    of   the    laxe-.         1'ilfs 

•ol.  ui..  p.  0.)      It  is  said  that  ti  taxes 

•fleet  the  professional  man  to  the  same  extent  as  the  man 


of  property.      Diere   is   however  this  essential   differ 
between  taxes  upon   income  and  taxes  upon  expenditure  : 
the  former  are   compulsory,  Un- 
paid or  avoided  at  the  option  of  each  individual.    If  a  man 
lie  saving   money,  an  incon.  s  upun  his  accruing 

capital  :   a  tax  upon  expenditure  is  levied  upon  that  portion 
of  his  income  only  which  he  thinks  it  prudent  to  spend. 

To  smooth  in  some  degree  the  inequalities  of  an  income- 
tax .    1st.   the  annual  premiums  on  policies  of  insin. 
should    not    be   reckoned   as    income    in    the   assessment. 
being  clearly  capital,  and  the  payments  being  no  h 
optional,    as    the    insurance    could     not     be    dUcont. 
without  loss  ;  this  provision  was  made  by  Mr.  Pitt  in  i. 
'Jndly,  incomes  arising  from  realized  property  should  be 
at    a   higher  rate   than   the    profits   of   trades    and 
professions  :     iinlly.  annuitants   should   be   rated   on    such 
terms  a.s  to  avoid    the  assessment    of  any    portion   of  their 
capital  as  part  of  their  income  :  -It lily,  all  persons  should 
be  liable  to  the  tax.  whatever  may  be  the  amount  of  their 
incom 

In  addition  to  the  unequal  pressure  of  an  incom 
which  cannot  be  altogether  corrected  by  any  expedients. 
there  is  much   uncertainly  in  the  assessment   of  certain 

s  of  persons.  The' vicissitudes  of  trade,  bad  debts. 
or  deferred  payments,  render  the  incomes  of  commercial 
and  professional  men  very  uncertain  ;  and  nominal  income 
therefore,  which  afterwards  cannot  be  rcali/cd.  may  be 
charged  with  the  tax. 

But  the  last  and  strongest  of  the  objections  to  an 
income-tax  is  the  inquisitorial  nature  of  the  investigation 
into  the  affairs  of  all  men.  which  is  • 

statement  of  their  incomes.  This  objection  indeed  is 
treated  lightly  by  some  ;  but  by  the  mass  of  the  contri- 
butors 'it  is  considered,  beyond  all  question,  as  the  mo-t 
inconvenient  and  unseasonable  quality  of  an  incom > 
Even  if  the  exposure  of  a  man's  affairs  could  do  him  no 
possible  injury,  yet  as  an  offence  to  his  feelings,  or  even 
caprice,  it  is  a  hardship  which  is  not  involved  in  the  pay- 
ment of  other  taxes.  How  many  persons  are  anxious  to 
conceal  the  amount  of  their  wealth:'  It  may  be  foolish  ; 
but  they  certainly  must  have  strong  motives  for  conceal- 
ing that  which  most  others  are  proud  of  displaying.  Then 
who  cannot  sympathise  with  the  feelings  of  an  honest  man 
who  conceals  the  extent  of  his  poverty,  ami.  by  self-denial 
and  hard  economy,  is  still  enabled  to  bear  up  against  ad- 
:\  ?  It  is  in  vain  to  deny,  what  all  men  feel,  that  the 
appearance  of  poverty  does  degrade  a  man  in  tin-  ej 
other-.  :  and  the  feelings  of  irood  men  ought  to  be  respected. 
But  apart  from  matters  of  feeling,  injury  of  a  real  cha 
is  also  inflicted  upon  indiv  iduals  by  an  exposure  of  their 
means  and  sources  of  income.  Mercantile  men.  from  the 
dread  cX'  competition,  take  pains  to  conceal  from  others. 

iully  if  in  the  same  business,  the  application  of  then- 
capital,  the  rate  of  profit  realized,  their  connections,  ami 
their  credit,  all  of  which  must  be  disclosed,  pcihaps  to 

-.-lions  injury,  when  there  is  an  investigation  of  their 
profits. 
For  these  reasons,  the  mode  of  collecting  the  income 

tax  certainly  cannot  he  approved  of  as  being  '  most  likely 
to  be  convenient  to  the  contributor.'      It-  gcm-ial  unpopu- 
larity when   in  operation   is  the  best    proof  of  its  hardship 
and  inconvenience.   I'pon  the  whole,  a  tax  upon  income  is 
so  difficult  to  adjust  equitably  to  the  means  ol' indivi.i 
and  the  mode  of  collection   is   neccssaiih    liable   to   such 
strong  objection,  that,  if  icsurtcd  to  at  all,  it  should  I 
served   for  extraordinary   occasions    of   stale   necessity    or 
danger,  when  ordinary  sources  of  revenue  cannot  safely  be 
relied  on. 

The  English  assessed  taxes  have  as  few  objections  in 
principle  as  most  modes  of  direct  taxation.  AVith  an 
equitable  assessment  and  special  exemptions  in  certain 
cases,  they  are  capable  of  being  made  to  bear  a  tolciabU 
just  proportion  to  the  incomes  of  the  individuals  paving 
them.  They  share,  however,  in  the  general  unpopularity 
of  all  direct  taxes,  and  it  cannot  be  denied  that  they  often 
prc-s  unequally  upon  particular  :  The  numl 

windows  in  a  house  is  a  \ei\  imperfect  c:  it. -non  of  its 
annual  value,  and  in  our  opinion  the  house-tax  which  has 
been  removed  was  far  prcfciable,  in  principle,  to  the  win- 
dow-duty. \vluch  is  still  retained.  The  inequalities  in  the. 
assessments  were  undeniable:  but  these  miu'lit  have  been 
:,-d  by  caieful  valuation.  1'nder  onlii:ar\  circum- 
stances, a  tax  upon  houses  will  fall  upon  the  occupier, 


TAX 


113 


TAX 


who  is  intended  to  pay  it ;  but  if  a  very  heavy  tax  were 
imposed,  it  would  discourage  the  occupation  of  houses, 
lessen  the  demand  for  them,  and  thereby  diminish  the 
rent  of  the  landlord,  or,  in  other  words,  transfer  the  ac- 
tual payment  to  him.  (Adam  Smith,  book  5,  chap  ii.  ; 
Ricardo's  Political  Economy,  chap,  xiv.)  Such  a  1ax 
would  be  attended  with  very  bad  consequences  ;  it  would 
compel  many  persons  to  live  in  inferior  houses  or  in  lodg- 
ings, and  thus  diminish  their  comforts  and  deteriorate 
their  habits  of  life  ;  and  by  reducing  the  demand  for 
houses  it  would  limit  the  employment  of  capital  and 
labour  in  building.  The  direct  taxes  upon  horses,  car- 
riages, hair-powder,  armorial  bearings  &c.,  being  paid 
voluntarily  by  the  rich  to  gratify  their  own  taste  for 
luxury  or  display,  are  not  likely  to  meet  with  many  ob- 
jectors. The  use  of  such  articles  generally  indicates  the 
scale  of  income  enjoyed  by  the  contributor,  and  the  tax  is 
too  light  to  discourage  expenditure  or  to  make  any  sensi- 
ble deduction  from  his  means. 

A  very  fair  principle  of  levying  a  direct  tax  is  exhibited 
by  the  assessment  of  property  in  every  parish  in  England 
and  Wales  to  the  poor  rates.  Local  knowledge  renders 
a  perfectly  correct  valuation  possible,  and  every  person 
owning  or  occupying  land,  houses,  or  other  property 
within  the  parish,  is  assessed  so  much  in  the  pound  upon 
the  annual  value  thereof,  to  raise  the  necessary  funds  for 
the  support  of  the  poor. 

The  various  modes  of  direct  taxation  are  too  numerous 
to  enter  upon,  especially  as  many  of  them  involve  the 
discussion  of  principles  of  political  economy  which  would 
carry  us  far  beyond  our  limits.  For  arguments  and  illus- 
trations concerning  the  incidence  of  tithes,  of  taxes  upon 
profits,  upon  wages,  and  other  descriptions  of  direct  im- 
posts, we  refer  to  the  able  works  of  Adam  Smith,  Ricardo, 
M'Culloch,  and  other  eminent  writers  upon  political 
economy. 

II.  Indirect  Taxes. 

In  preferring  one  tax  to  another,  a  statesman  may  be  in- 
fluenced by  political  considerations  as  well  as  by  strict 
views  of  financial  expediency,  and  nothing  is  more  likely 
to  determine  his  choice  than  the  probability  of  a  cheerful 
acquiescence  on  the  part  of  the  people.  All  taxes  are  dis- 
liked, and  the  more  directly  and  distinctly  they  are  re- 
quired to  be  paid,  the  more  hateful  they  become.  On 
this,  as  well  as  on  other  grounds, '  indirect  taxes,'  or  taxes 
upon  the  consumption  of  various  articles  of  merchandize, 
have  been  in  high  favour  with  most  governments.  '  Taxes 
upon  merchandize,'  says  Montesquieu,  'are  felt  the  least 
by  the  people,  because  no  formal  demand  is  made  upon 
them.  They  can  be  so  wisely  contrived,  that  the  people 
shall  scarcely  know  that  they  pay  them.  For  this  end  it 
is  of  great  consequence  that  the  seller  shall  pay  the  tax. 
He  knows  well  that  he  does  not  pay  it  for  himself;  and 
the  buyer,  who  pays  it  in  the  end,  confounds  it  with 
the  price.'  (Esprit  des  Lois,  livre  xiii.,  chap,  vii.)  This 
effect  of  indirect  taxes  is  apt  to  be  undervalued  by  writers 
on  political  economy  ;  but  it  is  undoubtedly  a  great  merit 
in  any  system  of  taxation  (which  is  but  a  part  of  general 
government)  that  it  should  be  popular  and  not  give  rise 
to  jarring  and  discontent.  A  tax  that  is  positively  injurious 
to  the  very  parties  who  pay  it  without  thought,  is,  cer- 
tainly not  to  be  defended  merely  on  the  ground  that  no 
complaints  are  made  of  it ;  but  it  may  be  safely  admitted 
as  a  principle,  that  of  two  taxes  equally  good  in  other  re- 
spects, that  is  the  best  which  is  most  acceptable  to  the 
people.  The  very  facility,  however,  with  which  indirect 
taxes  may  be  levied,  makes  it  necessary  to  consider  the 
incidents  and  effects  of  them  with  peculiar  caution.  The 
statesman  has  no  warning,  as  in  the  case  of  direct  taxes, 
that  evils  are  caused  by  an  impost  which  is  productive 
and  which  every  one  seems  willing  to  pay.  When  any 
branch  of  industry  is  visibly  declining,  and  its  failure  can 
be  traced  to  no  other  cause  than  the  discouraging  pressure 
of  a  tax,  the  necessity  of  relief  is  felt  at  once  ;  but  if  trade 
and  manufactures  are  nourishing,  and  the  country  ad- 
vancing in  prosperity,  it  is  difficult  to  detect  the  latent  in- 
fluence of  taxes  in  restraining  that  progress,  which  but 
for  them  would  have  been  greater ;  and  still  more  diffi- 
cult to  imagine  the  new  sources  of  wealth  which  might 
have  been  laid  open  if  such  taxes  had  not  existed,  or  had 
been  less  heavy,  or  had  been  collected  at  different  times  j 
or  in  different  ways. 

P.  C.,  No.  1502. 


The  government  is  directly  interested  in  the  increase  of 
national  wealth,  and  taxes  upon  commodities  should  be 
allowed  to  interfere  with  it  as  little  as  possible.     On  this 
account  duties  upon  raw  materials  are  very  objectionable. 
They  increase  the  price  of  such  materials,  and  thus  limit  the 
power  of  the  manufacturer  to  purchase  them,  and  to  em- 
ploy labour  in  increasing  their  value,  and  in  adding  to  the 
production  and  capital  of  the  country.     They  discourage 
foreign  commerce  and  the  employment  of  shipping  ;  for  as 
the  power  of  buying  is  restrained,  so  also  is  that  of  selling, 
and  the  interchange   of  merchandize   between   different 
countries  is  checked.     Moreover,  by  increasing  the  price 
of  the  exported  manufactures,  they  limit  the  demand  for 
them  abroad  and  subject  them  to  dangerous  competition. 
Similar  objections   may  be   urged  against  taxes  upon 
domestic    manufactures,   since   by  increasing  the   price 
they  diminish  consumption,  and  consequently  discourage 
the  manufactures,  which  if  left  to  themselves  would  have 
given  employment  to  more  capital  and  labour,  and  would 
have  added  greatly  to  the  amount  of  national  wealth  and 
prosperity.     The  object  of  a  government  should   always 
be  to  collect  its  revenue  from  the  results  of  the  successful 
employment  of  capital   and  industry,  and  not  to  press 
upon  any  intermediate  stage  of  production. 

Adopting  this  view  of  the  objects  of  taxation,  the  Bri- 
tish legislature  has  of  late  years  very  wisely  repealed  or 
reduced  various  duties  upon  raw  materials  and  upon 
manufactures.  Of  the  former  we  may  instance  the  cus- 
toms' duties  on  barilla ;  on  raw,  waste,  or  thrown  silk  ;  on 
cotton-wool  and  sheep's  wool,  unwrought-iron,  hemp,  and 
flax  ;  which  have  been  from  time  to  time  very  much  re- 
duced. Of  the  latter,  the  taxes  on  printed  goods,  on 
candles,  and  on  tiles, have  been  altogether  removed;  and 
those  on  plate  and  flint  glass,  on  malt,  and  on  soap,  have 
been  partially  remitted.  There  are  still  many  similar 
taxes  which  need  revision.  Of  these  perhaps  the  most 
injurious  are  the  heavy  duties  upon  foreign  timber,  which 
we  shall  show  other  reasons  for  condemning,  in  treating  of 
protective  duties ;  but  in  this  place  they  must  be  particularly 
censured,  as  offering  a  serious  obstruction  to  ship-build"- 
ing  (one  of  the  most  important  branches  of  national  in- 
dustry in  a  maritime  country),  and  to  the  construction  of 
buildings  for  the  convenience  of  trade  and  manufactures. 
The  amended  tariff  of  1842,  which  for  many  reasons  is  a 
most  important  change  in  the  financial  policy  of  this 
country,  has  reduced  the  duty  on  colonial  timber  to  a  rate 
perhaps  unnecessarily  low ;  that  on  foreign  timber,  though 
much  reduced,  is  still  too  high. 

One  of  the  chief  recommendations  of  indirect  taxes  is> 
that,  when  placed  upon  the  proper  description  of  articlesj 
the  payment  of  them  by  the  consumer  is  optional.  If 
charged  upon  what  may  be  strictly  called  the  necessaries 
of  life,  their  payment  becomes  compulsory,  and  falls  with 
unequal  weight  upon  labour.  Competition  generally 
reduces  a  large  proportion  of  the  working  classes  to  a 
state  which  allows  them  but  little  if  anything  beyond 
necessaries ;  consequently  a  duty  upon  these,  as  it  will 
have  no  effect  in  diminishing  the  competition  of  labour 
and  in  raising  wages,  must  reduce  the  comforts  and  stint 
the  subsistence  of  labouring  men. 

That  class  of  articles  commonly  called  luxuries,  of 
which  the  consumption  is  optional,  is  a  very  fair  subject 
of  taxation.  In  principle  there  is  no  objection  to  such 
taxes  :  they  do  not  interfere  with  industry  or  production, 
but  are  paid  out  of  the  incomes  of  the  contributors,  anc 
paid  willingly,  and  for  the  most  part  without  undue  pres- 
sure upon  their  means.  But  in  laying  on  taxes  upon  par 
ticular  articles  of  this  description  care  must  be  taken  ti 
proportion  the  charge  to  the  value  of  the  article.  Exces- 
sive duties  fail  in  the  very  object  they  have  in  view,  by 
rendering  the  revenue  less  productive  than  moderate 
duties ;  while  the  causes  of  their  failure  are  injurious  U 
the  wealth  of  the  country  by  discouraging  consumption, 
and  to  its  morals  by  offering  an  inducement  to  smuggling. 
It  is  only  by  experience  that  the  precise  point  can  be 
found  at  which  the  revenue  is  most  productive,  consistently 
with  an  unchecked  consumption  and  an  absence  of  smug- 
gling ;  but  it  may  be  assumed  as  certain  that  whenever  a 
tax  adds  very  greatly  to  the  price  of  an  article  of  general 
consumption,  it  puts  it  out  of  the  reach  of  many  who 
are  anxious  to  purchase  it,  and  tempts  smugglers,  by  the 
chance  of  a  large  profit,  to  evade  the  payment  of  the  duty. 
On  the  contrary,  when  a  duty  is  moderate,  it  adds  so  little 

VOL.  XXIV.— Q 


\  \ 


1 1-1 


r   \  \ 


to  the  prke  of  an  article,  that  it  will  scarcely  affect  its 

.uipti  in  ;  and  the   profit  . 

ample 

ill    tile    taxation    of  this  count'  -.'.  in- 

u-ti\e  illustrations. 

In  IS23  the  exei-i-   duties  upon   Scotch  and  Irish  spiiils 
reduced  !  -  -on,  and  the  im- 

mediate effect  pioduccd   upon   the   apparent  consumption 
and  upon  the  revenue  will  appear   by  the    follcminL- 
miMit    for  the  two  years   preceding   and  following  the  re- 
duction. 

Quantities  of  spirits  made  in  Ireland  and  Scotland 
which  paid  duty  for  home  consumption,  slating  the  rale  of 
duty  paid,  and  the  net  revenue  :— 

IRKI.AML 

Rule  of  I'IL'V.  V  '  I: 

H;    Irish  1  ( 
trallon          .1  (. 
-,  :  r    Knirlish     1 
1  Wine  Gallon  from  > 
10th  October        I 

i;.(i!K),3iri  Ditto  771.0!K) 

1«25       :i.2(i2.7!l  Ditto  1,084.191 


Gall 


•7 


1821 

I92t 

iR2;i 

i-ji 

181S 


(Jallon*. 
1, 135 

2.ii7:).55ii 
2.232.72X 
-J.350,:«ll 

5.!IHl.550 


uTLAND. 
Rate  of  Duty. 


v  •'  Hi-venue. 


Ditto 

2s.  from  10th  October 
Ditto 

Ditto 


i«n.i:«; 

!>:»(i.(i5t 
5-jo.<i2-i 


In  1826  (></.  was  added  to  the  duty,  and  again  in  1830  a 
similar  addition  was  made,  the.  effect  of  which  is  shown  by 
a  continuation  of  the  statement:  — 


1820 
1*27 
1828 


O.R'iT.liis 
i.'.il!) 


1830 
1831 
1«32 
1833 


!»,2  12.223 

1,639 

K710.C72 

s.t>57.75i; 

8,168,5!Ki 


Gallon*. 


IRELAND. 

Kate  of  Duty. 

2s.    10'/.     per    Im- 
perial  pal  Ion 


.  . 
Ditto 
Ditto 

SCOTLAND. 

R»te  of  Datv. 


Not  I!  • 

: 


1.3  115.72  1 


1,080 

1.-H2.N15 


Net  It- 


1826  3,988,788  { 

1827  4,752.1(1!)  Ditto 
1S2S  ri.71(>.18«  Ditto 
!«•->:)  5.777.2^0  Ditto 
l«:io  (i.007.031     2».  lOrf.,3*., 
1831  5.700.'  3s.  -1-A 
1H32  5.107.0!)7  Ditto 
1833  5,988,556  Ditto 


.  I/. 


(-72,441 

K0!).55!l 
818.4  !s 
!K«).25s 
!)5<  U)ll 
901,1X2 
988.051 


These  tables  show  the  effects  of  taxation  in   encourag- 
ing 01  ::irlimr,  rather  than  its  influence  ujion 

•nption.     Taking  the  case  of  Ireland,  it   would  be 
impossible   to   believe   that    the   actual   drinking  of  spirits 
could   have   been   increased   more   than  threefold  in 
years,  even  if  there  had  been  no  evidence  of  illicit  distilla- 
tion ;  but   before  tin  I  of  duty  in    1x23,  an  enor- 

mous amount  Of  smuirirhnir  had  been  detected,  and  there 
were  other  means  of  c-timatiiu:  the  extent  of  fraud*  pnic- 
iipon  the  revenue.  For  instance,  in  Isll.th..  duty 
In  1  been  only  2v.  Ij  /.  a  gallon,  and  in  that  , 
than  BJBOOJ361  gallons  had  paid  duty  :  while,  in  1S22. 
when  the  dut)  wt-n- 

brought  to  c-hiu-ne..     The  re\enne  eommi-  -  «hnse 

•niiendation  the  duty  u;i>  reduced   in    KJ-t.  then  e-ti- 
mated  the  annual  consumption  of  spirits  in  Ireland  at  ten 
million-,  of  callous,  and  the  illicit   supply  at  about 
millions,    d'lfth  Ri't/nrt  «f  Revenue  Coaimittioners,  rip. 
s.  19.) 

In  1827  the  duties  on  .spirits  made  in  Enirland  we 
duced  from   12<r.  (kl.  to  7*.  a  irallon.     T 
sumption  for  li  to    lH-_>7   •.  Huns. 

•nd  Uie  revenue  2,2H1,52GA    In  1829  (onl\  t  after 


the  rcducti.  -umption  «as  7,7i»o.7i;i;  irallon- 

the  re\emii  • '  .  or -Jl:».7  '  iliehiirher 

duty  had  produced.    '  1'ann  -ml  Ilrt'irm.  Itii  ed., 

It  till  been  a  common  opinion  that  spirits  should  n 
treated   merely   :  but    that    ! 

injurious  to  the  morals  of  the   peopl.  niption  of 

them  should  he  i  \   heavy  duties.      It  hnv  accord- 

ingly been   the   object    of  this  and   of  other   pi. 
to  limit  the  constini])tion  of  spirits,  and   nt   the 

;ue  fiom  it.     The  object  is  ni; 

tionnl  one  if  it  could  he  secured  :  but  the  : 

of  nnr  ;  i-nnicnts  has  proved  that  •        I          'lould 

.dueled   with   reference   to  the  imns' 

obtai.,1  mie  in  the  best  manner:  and  that  the  in- 

ne   promoted   by  fo!  <  just 

princi;  -.ati'on.  rather  than   by  seeKint,-   indii^ 

and  I-;.  'i  of  those  |irinci: 

which,  if  attainable,  can  only  be  attained  by  oti 
The  siirnal  failu,'  ceiitmy  for  dis- 

.'in^  the  drinKiiisr  of  spirits  is  a  stronir  example  of 
the  futility  of  attempting  to  force  a  change  in  the  habits 
of  the  people  by  a  tax.  In  173<>  a  tax  of  20>.  a  irallon 
v.  a*  imposed  upon  :  .-.  ith  -UTN 

ision  of  the  duty.  Tli  ular, 

nnd  was  evaded  to  such  an  extent,  that    ii 
less  than  12.000  persons  were  convict  i 

the  law.     Indeed  the  .'.ions 

nnd   so  impracticable,   that    it   was   abandoned    after  six 
katiotU  and  unprofitable  trial. 

Hisr.li  duties  upon  fijrciirn  articles  imported  into  n  country 
are  liable  to  all  the  objections  which  ha\e  been  star 
appKinsrlo  iinmodeiate  taxes  upon  consumption,  and  they 
ible  \\ith  another, -  they  diminish  importation, 
and  thereby  restrict  commercial  intercourse  and  the  de- 
mand for  and  exportation  of  domestic  produce  or  manufac- 
tures. 

The  number  of  gallons  of  brandy  and  geneva  imported 
and  retained  for  consumption,  on  an  a\erai;c  of  Join- 
to  1807,  was  1,820,000.      The  duty  was  then  M.v.  a  gallon, 
and  the  revenue    1,:)70,(XK)/.     Ill  ISM   the  duty  was  made 
|su.  !()/..  and  on  an  average  for  the  1> 
the  number  of  gallons  entered  for  home  con-umptin 
7-12,000,  and  the  rexenne  S25.000/.    Thus  a  loss  ,,f  5i;,.. 
a  year  « as  sustained   by  the  revenue,  the  legitimate  trade 
in  brandy  discouraircd,  and  a  rich  premium  ofl'ered  to  the 
smuggler.     The  present  duty  is  I/.  2v  («/.  a  gallon,  and  in 
the  \ear  ended  5th  January,  1H42,  only  l.lvn.i;!!  gallons 
were  entered  for  home  consumption,  the  !,TOSN  revenue  on 
which  was   1.317.-JOU.,  or  23.000/.  less  than  in  IS07,  not- 
withstandinir  the  irreat  increase  of  wealth  and  popu' 
since  that  time,     'lliat  French  brandy  is  emuegled  into 
this  country  in  larire  quantities  is  no- 
consider  that  the  duty  is  estimated  at  -)(X)  or  5(K)  per  cent. 
on  its  original  price  abroad,  the  inducement  to  evade  it  is 
so  irrcat.that  We  cannot  be  surprised  if  all  the  vigilance  of 
our  customs  establishment  is  rendered  ineffectual.    1 
so  regular  and   certain   is   the  smuggling  trade,   that  it  is 
made  the  subject  of  insurance,  li  "iiiiiiercinl  risks, 

and  it  is  e\en  said  at  premiums  of  from  10  to  15  per  ' 
which  hear  no  proportion  to  the  profits,  if  the  .speculation 
be  successful. 

The  duties    upon    articles  of  con- 

sumption, in  encourairing   the  use  of  them,   placing  them 
within  the  reach  of  a  laiirer  number  of  pei  t  th« 

same    time    augmentiui;    the    revenue.    \\as    never    bcttel 
shown   than  in  Lhi  if  eollee.      In  1«2-J  the  <hr 

Hrilish  plantation  coifee    was  1-s.,   vi])ou  F.ast   In- 
and  upon  foieiirn  coffee  2*.  (',/.  peril).   In  1-- 

-  -half,  and  the  consequence  has  ! 
re   than  a   threefold  increase  in  the  consump- 
tion,  while  the  revenue   has  been  moie  than  doubled.      In 
Ilietl;  ..receding  the  reduction,  the  consum, 

and  revenii,  l 


1H22 
lx-2:» 


Qnnnli 

i;:).351  Ibs. 
.l.'.r.M 


N-'t   I! 

,342 


.!•_'('. 


»'  TfcdT  -  «  — "  '•  • 

In  tin'   thrc.  'Mowing  tl.  .11,  the  con- 

miption  greatly  increased,  but  not  sufficiently  to  improve 
le  revci 


TAX 


115 


TAX 


Quantities  cleared 

for  Consumption.  Net  Revenue. 

1826  .       13,203,323  Ibs.       £336,570 

1827  .       15,566,376  399,960 

1828  .       17,127,633  440,245 

But  the  consumption  has  since  been  rapidly  increasing, 
and  in  the  last  two  years  the  consumption  and  revenue 


thus  appear :  — 


Quantities  cleared 
for  Consumption. 

28,708,033  Ibs. 

28,420.980 


Net  Revenue. 

1840  .       28,708,033  Ibs.       £921,550 

1841  .       28,420,980  887,721 

The  slight  tailing  off  in  the  last  year  may  be  accounte 
for  by  the  general  depression  of  trade,  and  perhaps  in  som 
measure  also  by  the  addition  of  5  per  cent,  to  the  custom 
duties,  which  was  then  in  operation. 

In  1835  coffee,  the  produce  of  British  possessions  ir 
India,  was  admitted  at  the  same  duty  as  plantation  coffee 
viz.  6t/.  per  lb.,  and  the  effect  of  the  reduction,  in  encou 
raging  the  growth  of  the  plant  in  India  and  the  consump 
tion  of  the  berry  in  this  country,  has  already  been  verj 
great,  and  perhaps  the  coffee  trade  of  the  East  may  as  ye" 
be  considered  in  its  infancy.  In  1834,  the  year  before  the 
reduction,  8,875,961  Ibs.  were  imported  from  the  Eas 
India  Company's  territories  and  Ceylon ;  and  in  1840 
16,885,698 Ibs.,  or  nearly  double.  The  new  customs  tariff 
effects  a  further  reduction  of  duty.  That  on  foreign  coffee 
is  lor  the  future  to  be  Sd.  a  lb.,  and  on  coffee  the  pro- 
duce of  British  possessions  only  4d.  An  increased  con- 
sumption will  doubtless  be  the  effect  of  this  measure,  anc 
ultimately  the  revenue  will  be  improved. 

Thus  reductions  of  existing  duties  are  proved  by  these 
examples  to  increase  the  revenue  ;  but  whether  the  effecl 
of  them  be  immediate  or  deferred  must  depend  upon  a 
variety  of  circumstances.     If  the  reduction  puts  an  end  to 
extensive  smuggling,  the  revenue  will  derive  immediate 
benefit,  as  both  the  demand  and  the  supply  of  the  article 
already  exist,  and  the  reduced  tax,  without  affecting  pro- 
duction or  consumption,  acts  as  a  police  regulation,  and 
at  once  protects  the  revenue  from  fraud.    But  where  there 
is  little  or  no  smuggling,  and  the  revenue  can  only  be  in- 
creased by  means  of  ndditional  consumption,  the  effect  of 
reduced  duties  may  be  deferred   and  even  remote.     The 
article  may  have  to  be  produced  ;  capital,  skill,  labour,  and 
time  may  be  required  to  provide  it  in  sufficient  quantities 
to  meet  the  growing  d"mands  of  the  consumer;  and  even 
should  the  supply  become  abundant,  the  habits  and  tastes 
of  a  people  cannot  be  changed  on  a  sudden.     The  high 
price  of  an  article  may  have  placed  it  out  of  their  reach, 
and  in  the  meanwhile  they  may  have  become  attached  to 
a  favourite  substitute,  or  may  be  slow  to  spend  their  money 
upon  a  commodity  which  they  have  learned  to  do  without. 
These  and  other  causes  may  defer  for  a  considerable  time 
such  an  increase  of  consumption  as  would  make  up  for  the 
reduced  rate  of  tax,  especially  when  the  reduction  has 
been  so  great  as  to  require  an  extraordinary  addition  to  the 
previous  amount  of  consumption,  before  the  sacrifice  made 
in  the  revenue   can  be  redeemed.     But  where,  the  article 
on  which  it  is  proposed  to  reduce  a  tax  is  already  in  uni- 
and  the  supply  immediate  and  abundant, 
and  where  the  tax  is  so  heavy  as  to  restrain  consumption, 
no  present  loss  need  be  apprehended  from  a  remission  of 
part  of  the  tax,  and  a  very  >pt«ly  increase  of  revenue  may 
b,'  expected.     Sugar  is  an  article  of  this  description.     It 
has   become   a  necessary  of  life   as  well    as   a   favourite 
luxury.     There  are  scarcely  any  limits  to  the  supply  that 
could  oe  raised,  and  the  present  duties  add  materially  to 
the  price  and  check  consumption.     As  a  proof  of  the  sud- 
denness  with    which  the   consumption   of  foreign  sugar 
might  be  expected  to  increase  if  the  excessive  duty  were 
•ed,  we   may  refer   to  the  effects  of  equalizing  the 
duties  on  East  and  West  India  sugars   in   1830.     In  that 
the  duty  on  East  India  sugar  was  reduced  from  3liv. 
.vt.  to  24*.     In  1H35  the  quantity  imported  had  been 
Id  rvvU.  ;  and  in  1837,  one  year  only  after  the  change, 
the   import    had    increased  to  302,945  cwts. ;    in   1838,  to 
474.10(1  eats.  :   and  in  1838,  to  587,142  rwls.     As  the  tax 
iiiMni-hed  only  by  one-fourth,  and  the  consumption 
i.mnediati-ly  more  than  doubled,  the  revenue  at  once 

ably  by  the  reduction  of  duty. 

A  recent  financial   experiment,  will  serve  to  show  how 
little  ed   leveime  can  be  depended  upon  as  the 

re.Mi.'  .tation  of  taxes  upon  articles  ol 

sumption.     In   1840  an  addition  of  5  per  cent,  was   . 


to  all  the  duties  of  customs  and  excise,  and  a  proportionate 
increase  of  revenue  was  anticipated,  but  not  realized     The 
net  produce  of  the  customs  and  excise  in  the  year  endin- 
January  5th,  1840,  amounted  to  37,91 1.506/.     The  estf 
mated  produce  for  the  year  ending  January  5th   184^  wn« 
39,807,08U.,    1,895,575*.  being  elpected   from'  the  add? 
tional  o  per  cent.     The  actual  increase  however  was  only 
306,715;.,  or  little  more  than  one-half  per  cent.,  instead  of 
J  per  cent,  which  had  been  expected.     This  result 
was  undoubtedly  in  part  caused  by  a  general  stagnation  of 
trade,  and  by  the  consequent  distress  which  prevailed  in 
that  year,  but  we  notice  it  because  the  principle  of  an  in- 
discriminate augmentation  of  existing  taxes,  without  refer- 
ence to  their  present  amount,  character,  and  circumstances 
is  very  unwise.     We  have  said  that  experience  alone  can 
show  the  precise  rate  of  a  particular  tax  which  will  not 
affect  consumption  and  will  at  the  same  time  discourage 
smuggling.     It  must  be  presumed  that  existing  rates  have 
been  fixed  in  order  to  secure  these  results,  and  that  they 
are  justified  by  experience,     To  add  to  them  therefore,  not 
because  they  are  insufficient  for  their  immediate  object, 
but  because  a  general  addition  to  the  revenue  is  needed, 
is  to  neglect  experience  and  to  disturb  the  proper  rela- 
tions between  the  amount  of  tax  and  the  value  of  parti- 
cular articles.     During  the  last  century  it  was  a  common 
financial  course  to  add  a  general  per  cenlage  of  increase 
upon  all  the  customs  duties  whenever  the  revenue  was 
found  to  be  insufficient  for  immediate  purposes.     To  this 
unwise   policy   must  be   attributed  many  of  the  strange 
anomalies  which  up  to  this  time  have  existed  in  the  British 
tariff.     Any  recurrence  to  so  unscientific  a  mode  of  taxa- 
tion should  be  avoided.     The  tax  upon  each  article  ought 
to  be  adjusted  by  itself  upon  sound  principles,  and  then 
should  not  be  changed  merely  to  save  the  trouble  or  to  avoid 
the  unpopularity  of  selecting   particular   articles   for  in- 
creased taxation  or  of  inventing  new  burthens. 

Protective,  Discriminating,  and  Prohibitory  Duties. 
The  legitimate  object  of  taxation  is  that  of  obtaining  a 
revenue  in  the  least  injurious  manner  for  the  benefit  of 
he  community;  but  this  object  has  constantly  been  over- 
looked for  the  sake  of  ends  not  fairly  to  be  accomplished 
)y  taxation.     It  is  natural  for  a  legislature  to  endeavour 
jy  every  means  in  its  power  to  encourage  agriculture, 
rade,  and  manufactures ;    and  it  would  be  culpable  to 
neglect  any  proper  means  of  encouragement,  which  are 
not  only  beneficial  to  particular  interests,  but  add  to  the 
general  prosperity.     Unfortunately  however  the  zeal  of 
•nost  legislatures  upon  this  point  has  been  misdirected. 
They  have  seized  upon  taxation  as  the  instrument  of  pro 
ection  and  encouragement ;   and,  using  it  as  such,  have 
njured  the  great  mass  of  their  own  countrymen,  and  ulti- 
nately  have  failed  in  promoting  the  very  interests  they 
lad  intended  to  serve.     All  that  we  can  hope  in  this  and 
ither  European  countries  is  a  gradual  adoption  of  sound 
)rinciples,  and  the  correction,  at  some  distant  period,  of 
he  mistakes  which  have  been  acted  upon  for  centuries  ; 
iut  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  in  the  new  countries  of  the 
vorld,  where  systems  of  revenue  are  not  yet  established, 
r  are  growing  up  with  the  progress  of  society,  none  of 
lie   errors  of  the  Old  World  will  be  suffered  to  have  a 
eginning.     If  once  the  system  of  protection  has  existed, 
evere  injuries  and  even  injustice  are  inflicted  whenever 
n  attempt  is  made  to  undo  the  mischief  which  has  been 
one.     Reason  and  experience  unite  in  teaching  the  im- 
olicy  of  protective  taxes ;   and,  in  our  own  country,  it  is 
ow  so  generally  acknowledged,  that  nothing  but  the  ex- 
•emci  difficulty  of  withdrawing  the  protection  which  has 
een  given  obstructs  legislation  upon  sound  principles. 
The  object  of  a  protective  duty  is  to  raise  artificially 
the  price  of  the  produce  or  manufactures  of  one  country 
as  compared  with  the  produce  or  manufactures  of  another. 
A  heavy  tax  easily  effects  this  object,  and  thus  prevents 
competition  on  the  part  of  that  country  whose  commodities 
are  taxed,  and  establishes  a  monopoly  in  the  supply  of  those 
commodities  in  favour  of  the  parties  for  whose  benefit  tin- 
tax  was  improved.     The  revenue,  the  avowed  object  of  a 
tax,  so  far  from  being  improved,  is  here  actually  sacrificed 
by  the  exclusion  of  merchandise,  which  at  moderate  duties 
would  fill  the  coffers  of  the  state.    The  state  clearly  is  a 
loser;    the  foreigner,  whose  goods  are  denied  a  market,  is 
a  loser.     Who  then  gains  by  these  losses  ?    Not  the  con- 
sumer ;    for  the  more  abundant  the  supply,  the  better  and 

Q  2 


T  A  X 


lift 


T  A  \ 


he  find  the  market  :    but  the  seller,  who  is 
entb!.  iiia  high   price   lor  his  v. 

has  H  monopoly  in  tin-  sale  of  them,  is  the  only  party  who 

Tin-  community  at  large  differ  doubly:  first,  by  ha\  ing 

to  buy  dear  instead  of  cheap  goods,  or  by  being  denied 
tin'  use  of  thriu  altogether  :  anil  Mvoudly.  by  being  obliged 
to  pay  otlu-r  taxes  which  would  not  have  been  required, 
if  theven  articles  which  would  have  made  ineir  purchases 
cheaper  had  been  charged  with  a  moderate  impost.  Kvcii 
the  seller.,  for  whom  all  (|U-.M>  sacrifices  arc  made,  do  not 
derive  the  benefit  whieh  might  be  expected.  In  the 
goods  which  they  sell  themselves,  indeed,  they  aie  gamers  ; 
but  in  purchasing  of  other  monopolists  they  lo-e  by  an 
artificially  high  priee,  like  the  rest  of  the  community.  It 
constantly  happens,  too,  that  although  the  prices  at  which 
they  sell  are  nigh,  their  prolits  are  reduced,  by  the  com- 
petition of  others  selling  the  same  articles,  to  the  general 
level  of  profits  throughout  the  country.  When  this  is  the 
case,  all  parties,  without  exception,  are  losers  — the  state, 
the  community,  and  the  monopolists.  The  general  injury 
done  to  trade  by  the  protective  system  is  too  extensive  a 
question  to  enter  upon,  but  it  is  well  illustrated  in  the 
•  Report  of  the  Committee  of  the  Home  of  Commons  upon 
Import  Duties'  in  1840. 

Protection  may  be  accomplished  by  actual  prohibition 
of  the  import  of  particular  articles,  by  exorbitant  duties 
which  amount  to  prohibition,  or  by  such  duties  only  as 
give  the  home  producer  an  advantage.  Duties  may  also 
discriminate  bet  ween  the  produce  of  different  countries, 
and  give  the  preference  to  some,  to  the  injury  and  ex- 
clusion of  oth. 

In  this  country  all  these  modes  of  protection  have  been 
resorted  to.  For  the  protection  of  agriculture,  foreign 
cattle,  sheep,  swine,  beef,  mutton,  pork,  and  other  pro- 
\isions  have  bei-n  entirely  prohibited.  High  duties  have 
been  placed  upon  the  importation  of  corn  on  a  sliding- 
scale,  so  devised  as  to  exclude  it  entirely,  except  in  times 
pf  scarcity;  and  more  moderate  duties  are  payable  upon 
various  articles  of  agricultural  produce.  The  prohibitions 
however  have  recently  been  removed,  and  moderate  import 
duties  substituted.  The  corn-laws,  though  the  shdmg- 
scale  is  still  adhered  to,  have  been  considerably  modified, 
and,  it  is  hoped,  will  hereafter  admit  a  larger  amount  ot 
foreign  grain,  and  enrich  the  revenue.  The  principle  of  a 
sliding-scale,  we  would  here  observe,  apart  from  its  ge- 
neral policy,  is  very  injurious  to  the  revenue.  When  the 
high  part  of  the  scale  is  in  operation,  it  acts  as  a  prohibi- 
tion ;  and  when  the  lower  duties  only  are  payable,  they 
are  comparatively  unproductive.  The  loss  sustained  by 
the  consumer  on  account  of  the  protective  duties  on  corn 
has  been  variously  estimated  at  from  12,000,000/.  to 
50,000,000/.  a  year;  and  yet  it  is  well  known  that  money- 
invested  in  the  purchase  of  land  produces  a  very  low  rate 
of  interest,  not  exceeding  3  per  cent.,  and  that  persons 
engaged  in  agriculture,  for  whom  the  protection  is  main- 
tained, have  been  continually  complaining  to  parliament 
of  their  distress. 

Upon  various  articles  of  manufacture  there  have  been 

prohibitory  and  highly  protective  duties.      In   1S25  the 

former  were  removed  ;  and  the  latter  have,  in  the  present 

..in  of  parliament  (1842), been  so  modified  as  to  be  very 

fair  taxes  for  the  purposes  of  revenue. 

Duties  are  called  discriminating  when  they  are  not 
levied  equally  upon  the  produce  or  manufactures  of  dif- 
ferent countries.  The  objeet  nf  them  is  to  give  an  advan- 
iiinlry  on  whose  commodities  the  tax  is 
lightest,  as  compared  with  others.  To  obtain  such  a  pre- 
ference has  been  the  object  of  various  negotiations  ami 
commercial  treaties  between  different  states,  ns  it  opens 
extensive  maikcts  to  the  industry  of  the  favoured  nation. 
Uythe  present  commercial  policy  of  England,  the  principle 
of  discrimination  may  be  said  to  be  confined  to  the  pro- 
tection of  our  colonies  against  the  competition  of  foreiirn 
countries.  As  regards  each  other,  all  foreign  countries 
enjoy  equal  commercial  advantages  in  their  inter 
with  England.  Our  colonial  jiolicy  is  so  wide  a  question, 
involving  political  and  commercial  considerations  of  high 
importance,  that  we  can  only  touch  upon  it.  It  max  be 
contended  that  colonies  should  form  an  integral  part  of 
the  mother  country,  and  that  the  commercial  intercourse 
between  the  several  parts  of  the  lintish  empire  ought  to 
be  viewed  as  a  vast  coasting-trade.  If  this  principle  were 
acted  upon,  it  would  certainly  present  a  grand  fiscal  union 
worthy  of  admiration ;  but  the  existing  system  docs  not 


partake  in  any  degree  of  the  character  of  a  coasting- 
trade.  To  pal  it  upon  Mich  a  footing,  the  duties  uii 
colonial  produce  imported  into  the  1'nilei!  Kingdom  fhould 
lie  little  more  than  nominal,  and  we  should  relv  upon  pro- 
ductive imposts  upon  foreign  product1  lor  our  revenue. 
Our  practice  is  the  reverse  of  this.  Where  our  tuxes  dis- 
criminate, we  derive  our  revenue  from  the  colonial  pro- 
duce ;  and  we  either  exclude  foreign  produce  altogether,  or 
limit  its  introduction  so  much  as  to  prevent  it  liom 
tnbuting  materially  to  the  revenue.  The  object  of  the 
upon  the  foreign  produce,  which  would  enter  into 
competition  with  the  colonies,  is  not  revenue,  but  e\ 
sion,  for  the  sake  of  creating  a  monopoly  in  favour  of  the 
latter.  This  system  we  have  already  condemned,  even 
when  established  for  the  protection  of  trade  and  agricul- 
ture in  the  mother  country;  and  upon  fiscal  grounds  it  is 
equally  indefensible  when  applied  to  the  colonies,  and 
quite  as  injurious  to  the  community.  There  are  two  great 
articles  of  consumption,  vi/..  sugar  and  timber,  upon 
whieh  the  discriminating  duties  deserve  especial  in 

imported  from  the  colonies  pays  a  duty  of '24*.  the 
cut.:  from  foreign  countries  (i:l,s.  The  disproportion  is 
so  great,  that  foreign  sugar  is  comparatively  excluded 
from  the  consumption  of  our  people,  who  are  forced  to 
rely  upon  the  colonies  for  the  supply  of  that  important 
article.  The  population  of  the  country  has  rapidly  in- 
creased, and  with  it  the  demand  for  most  articles  of  con- 
sumption. It  is  painful  to  see  the  supply  of  sugar  to 
forcibly  restrained  by  our  commercial  policy  that  th< 
sumption  has  not  increased  for  ten  years.  In  1KJ1, 
3,781,011  cwts.  were  retained  for  home  consumption 
in  1840  only  :}.r>m,s.T2cwts.  So  inadequate  have  the 
colonies  alone  been  to  supply  our  wants,  that  their  exports 
have  actually  been  diminishing.  In  IXtl  the  West  Indies 
exported  to  the  United  Kingdom  4.  UU.NOOcwts.  In  no 
sum  eding  year  has  their  export  been  so  great  :  and  in 
1840  it  had'sunk  so  low  as  2,'214.7(>4cwts.  During  this 
period  the  consumption  of  coffee,  cocoa,  and  tea  had  con- 
siderably increased,  and  the  people  must  therefore  have 
suffered  a  serious  privation  on  account  of  the  limited  sup- 
ply of  sugar.  'Hie  community  is  plainly  a  loser  by  the 
colonial  monopoly;  and  the  falling  off  of  the  produce  of 
the  West  Indies,  in  spite  of  an  increasing  demand  for  it, 
is  not  the  only  proof  that  they  have  not  gamed  much  bv 
their  protection:  meanwhile  the  revenue  has  lost  incal- 
culable sums  by  the  exclusion  of  foreign  sugar,  which, 
with  moderate  duties,  might  be  imported  at  a  low  price  in 
unlimited  quantities. 

The  discriminating  duties  upon  timber  have  been  pecu- 
liarly injurious  to  this  countiy,  and  it  is  extremely  doubtful 
whether  they  have  conferred  any  benefit  upon  the  colo- 
nies. They  nave  acted  as  a  bounty  uf  !.'•».  the  load  in 
favour  of  timber  the  growth  of  British  possessions,  and 
have  obliged  the  consumer  either  to  pay  a  tax  of  2'2."i  per 
cent,  (not  for  purposes  of  revenue,  but  for  the  protection  of 
other  interests),  or  to  use  an  inferior  article,  less  sui:. 
his  uses,  and  cheaper  only  by  reason  of  the  duty.  Kxtcn- 
sive  charges  are,  happily,  about  to  take  effect,  which  will, 
in  some  measure,  equalize  the  duties  upon  foreign  and 
colonial  timber.  On  the  10th  October,  ls-12.  the  duty 
upon  foreign  timber  will  be  reduced  liom  ."».">.»• .  the  load,  to 
30*.,  and  on  the  10th  October,  1K43.  to  iV.  The  duty  on 
colonial  timber  is,  at  the  same  time,  to  be  reduced  from 
10*.  to  l.v.  Kventually  therefore  the  disproportion  will  be 
only  24*.  the  load,  instead  of  4.V. 

Export  Duties. 

We  have  hitherto  spoken  of  taxes  upon  such  commodi- 
ties only  as  are  consumed  by  the  subjects  of  tin  state  im 
whose  benefit  they  are  imposed,  and  which  are  either  pro- 
duced within  the  country  or  imported  into  it.  Duties 
levied  upon  goods  exported  to  foreign  countries  are  ulti- 
mately paid  by  the  foreign  consumer,  and  thus  have  the 
effect  Of  making  the  subject  01' one  state  bear  the  burthens 
of  another.  However  desirable  this  may  appear  to  the 
state,  whose  treasmy  is  ciuichcd  at  the  expense  of 

foreigners,  the  expediency  of  mob  duties  trill  depend  upon 

peculiar  circumstances,  and  great  nicety  is  n 'ipined  in  the 
regulation  of  them.  If  a  country  possesses  within  itself 
some  produce  or  manufacture  much  in  request  abroad,  and 
for  the  production  of  whieh  it  has  peculiar  :u!vanti^;< 
moderate  export  duly  may  be  veiy  desnaMe.  In  this 
manner  Russia,  whieh  has  almost  a  monopoly  in  the 
supply  of  tallow  to  the  rest  of  Europe,  derives  a  consider- 


TAX 


117 


TAX 


able  revenue  from  an  export  duty  upon  that  article.  Upon 
the  same  principle  a  duty  upon  machinery  exported  from 
Great  Britain  would  have  been  politic.  British  machinists 
far  excelled  all  others  in  skill  and  ingenuity,  and  foreign 
manufacturers  were  willing  to  pay  almost  any  price  for 
their  machinery.  Notwithstanding  the  prohibition,  large 
quantities  have  been  smuggled  abroad  at  an  enormous 
cost,  but  the  difficulty  and  expense  of  evasion  have  been 
so  great  that  foreigners  have  latterly  almost  confined  their 
purchases,  in  this  country,  to  models  and  drawings,  and 
nave  made  the  machinery  themselves,  with  the  assistance 
of  British  artizans,  whom  they  have  enticed  abroad  by  ex- 
travagant wages.  (Reports  of  Committees  of  the  House,  of 
Commons  on  Artizans  and  Machinery,  in  1824  and  1825, 
and  On  the  Exportation  of  Machinery,  1841.)  If,  instead 
of  prohibiting  the  export,  a  duty  of  7i  or  10  per  cent,  ad 
valorem  had  been  imposed,  foreign  manufacturers  would 
have  paid  much  less  for  the  machinery  purchased  by  them 
in  England  than  they  could  have  had  it  made  for  abroad  ; 
there  would  have  been  a  large  export  trade  from  this 
country,  and  a  considerable  revenue.  The  partial  relaxa- 
tion of  the  prohibitory  law  in  1825,  by  granting  licences 
to  export  certain  kinds  of  machinery,  has  shown  the  extent 
to  which  the  trade  might  have  been  carried  under  a  more 
liberal  policy.  The  official  value  of  machinery  exported 
under  licence  in  1840  was  593,064/.,  in  addition  to  various 
tools  allowed  by  law  to  be  exported,  of  which  no  account 
was  taken.  (Sess.  Paper,  1841,  No.  201,  p.  257.) 

On  the  same  grounds  a  moderate  duty  on  the  export  of 
coal,  being  a  product  peculiarly  abundant  and  of  good 
quality  in  this  country,  is  a  legitimate  tax,  which  would  be 
paid  by  the  foreigner,  aud,  if  sufficiently  moderate,  would 
not  be  injurious  to  the  coal  trade. 

But  while  moderate  export  duties  upon  articles  of  which 
a  country  has  almost  the  exclusive  supply  may  be  advis- 
able, heavy  duties  will  check  the  demand  abroad  in  the 
same  manner  as  they  have  been  shown  to  affect  the  con- 
sumption of  commodities  at  home.  In  the  same  manner 
also  they  are  injurious  to  trade  and  unprofitable  to  the 
revenue. 

All  duties  whatever  should  be  avoided  upon  the  export 
of  produce  or  manufactures  which  may  be  also  sent  from 
other  countries  to  the  same  markets.  They  would  discourage 
trade  and  offer  a  premium  to  foreign  competition. 

Although  the  temptation  is  great  to  shift  taxes  from  one 
country  to  another  by  means  of  export  duties,  this  tempta- 
tion is  equally  great  in  all  countries  ;  and  if  their  several 
governments  should  be  actuated  by  the  desire  to  make 
foreigners  contribute  to  their  revenue,  their  opportunities 
for  carrying  out  such  a  system  would  probably  be  equal, 
and  thus  retaliations  might  be  made  upon  each  other, 
which,  after  all,  would  neutralize  their  efforts  to  tax 
foreigners,  and  leave  them  in  the  same  position  as  if  they 
had  been  contented  to  tax  none  but  their  own  subjects. 
In  this  power  of  retaliation  lies  the  antidote  to  the  evil  of 
one  state  being  forced  to  bear  the  burthens  of  another  as 
well  as  its  own.  Every  state  would  naturally  resist  such 
an  imposition  upon  its  subjects,  and  export  duties  can 
t  hero  fore  only  be  safely  resorted  to  in  such  peculiar  cases 
as  we  have  noticed,  where  foreigners  are  willing  to  pay  an 
increased  price  for  commodities  which  they  must  have, 
and  which  they  cannot  obtain  so  good  or  so  cheap  from 
any  other  place. 

[CUSTOMS;  EXCISE;  LAND  TAX;  POST-OFFICE;  STAMPS; 
TAXES  ;  TITHES  :  WAREHOUSING  SYSTEM.] 

TAX  A'CE^E,  a  natural  order  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
class  Gymnospermse  : — This  order  possesses  the  following 
essential  characters.  The  flowers  are  monoecious  or 
dioecious,  and  are  naked,  or  solitary  surrounded  by  im- 
bncnted  bracts,  or  in  spikes  surrounded  by  bracts.  The 
male  flowers  have  no  calyx,  and  several  stamens,  mostly 
united  at  the  base,  with  the  anthers  either  combined  or 
distinct.  The  female  flowers  are  solitary  and  naked  ;  the 
ovules  are  naked,  with  the  foramen  at  the  apex.  The 
ll  are  hard,  and  are  sometimes  surrounded  by  a  succu- 
coloured,  cup-shaped  pericarp :  they  possess  fleshy 
albumen,  and  a  straight  dicotyledonous  embryo.  The 
plan'  irder  are  trees  or  shrubs,  having  a  woody 

ti-sue  marked   with    circular  disks,  with   evergreen   and 

v  narrow,  rigid,  entire,  and  veinless  leaves. 
This  older  is  very  characteristic  of  the  class  to  which  it 
beloncs,  in  the  absence  of  any  regularly  formed  ovary, 
and  the  consequent  exposed  or  naked  state  of  the  ovule 


and  seeds.  In  this  respect  it  offers  a  lower  state  of  oi-o-an- 
ization  than  the  Coniferae,  or  Pine  tribe,  the  ovules  of 
which  have  a  kind  of  protection  in  the  hardened  scale- 
like  bracts  which  constitute  the  cones  of  that  order 
The  foliage  also  of  Taxaeese  differs  from  Coniferae,  in  their 
possessing  a  greater  tendency  to  expand  and  form  veins 
within  their  tissue.  In  the  few  species  of  Taxacea-  that 
possess  veins,  they  are  not  straight  and  parallel,  as  in  En- 
dogens,  but  are  forked  and  of  a  uniform  thickness,  similar 
to  those  possessed  by  the  higher  forms  of  Cryptogamia,  as 
the  Ferns. 

This  order  consists  of  plants  that  are  but  thinly  dis- 
tributed on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  They  are  mostly 
natives  of  temperate  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and 
America.  The  order  yields  trees  which  are  valued  for 
their  timber,  and,  like  Coniferae,  possess  resinous  proper- 
ties. The  branches  of  the  Dacrydium  taxifolnim  are 
used  in  New  Zealand  for  making  spruce-beer.  [TAXUS  • 
SAJ.ISBURIA.] 

TAXATIO  ECCLESIA'STICA,  signifies  the  assessment 
and  levy  of  taxes  upon  the  property  of  the  church  and  of 
the  clergy.  The  pope  once  claimed  in  all  countries  the  first 
year's  whole  profits  and  the  tenth  part  of  the  whole  annual 
profits  of  every  ecclesiastical  benefice.  These  were  called 
'  First-Fruits  and  Tenths '  [FIRST-FRUITS  ;  TENTHS],  and 
were,  for  the  most  part,  paid  willingly  by  the  clergy  to  their 
ecclesiastical  superior.  The  popes  founded  their  claim  upon 
scriptural  precepts  and  practice.  They  referred  to  Abra- 
ham, a  priest,  paying  tithes  to  Melchizedeck,  the  high 
priest  (Gen.,  xiv.  20 ;  and  Hebr.,  vii.  4) ;  and  to  the 
Levites,  in  the  Mosaic  law,  paying  the  second  tithes,  that 
is,  the  tithes  of  their  tithes,  to  the  priest :  '  Thus  shall  you 
offer  an  heave-offering  unto  the  Lord  of  all  your  tithes 
which  ye  receive  of  the  children  of  Israel,  and  ye  shall 
give  thereof  the  Lord's  heave-offering  to  Aaron  the  priest.' 
(Numb.,  xviii.  28 ;  Fuller's  Church  History,  p.  220.) 

The  pope  had  his  collectors  in  every  diocese,  who  some- 
times by  bills  of  exchange,  but  generally  in  specie,  yearly 
returned  the  tenths  and  first-fruits  of  the  clergy  to  Rome. 

But  while  the  clergy  were  thus  liable  to  taxation  by 
their  ecclesiastical  head,  it  was  maintained  by  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  that  their  property  enjoyed  com- 
plete immunity  against  all  claims  of  temporal  powers,  being 
set  apart  for  the  service  of  God,  the  support  and  dignity 
of  the  Christian  church,  and  for  works  of  charity.  Upon 
this  point  frequent  contests  very  naturally  arose,  and  the 
vast  possessions  of  the  church  tempted  the  pope  and  tem- 
poral princes  by  various  modes  to  exact  contributions 
from  the  clergy.  The  means  resorted  to  by  these  respective 
powers  to  raise  a  revenue  from  the  clergy,  and  the  laws 
and  customs  that  prevailed  upon  the  matter,  may  be  con- 
veniently stated  by  dividing  the  subject  into — 

1.  Taxation  of  the  church  or  clergy  by  the  pope  for 
ecclesiastical  purposes. 

2.  By  temporal  princes  for  the  service  of  the  state. 

1.  The  pope  was  by  no  means  satisfied  with  the  regular 
contributions  of  the  clergy,  but  continually  applied  to 
them  for  extraordinary  funds  for  special  purposes.  In 
1199  Pope  Innocent  III.  issued  a  bull  commanding  the 
prelates  and  clergy  of  the  Christian  church  to  pay  the 
40th  part  of  all  their  revenues  to  defray  the  expenses  of  a 
crusade.  This  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  attempt  to 
impose  a  tax  on  the  clergy  of  all  nations  by  the  authority 
of  the  pope  as  head  of  the  church.  To  enumerate  only  a 
small  portion  of  the  instances  in  which  the  pope  after- 
wards exacted  taxes  from  the  clergy  in  the  various  coun- 
tries of  Europe  would  occupy  much  space  ;  but  a  few 
examples  from  English  history  may  be  collected. 

In  1225  the  pope  entertained  a  project  by  which  the  re- 
venues of  two  prebends  in  every  cathedral,  and  the  portion 
of  two  monks  in  every  monastery,  in  all  the  countries  in 
communion  with  the  church  of  Rome,  were  to  have  been 
granted  to  the  pope  for  the  better  support  of  his  dignity. 
When  this  project  was  laid  before  the  parliament  of  Eng- 
land in  1226,  they  evaded  a  direct  answer  to  the  papal 
legate,  by  alleging  '  that  this  affair  concerned  all  Christen- 
dom ;  and  that  they  would  conform  to  the  resolutions  of 
other  Christian  countries.'  (Wilkin's  Concilia,  vol.  i.,  p. 
620.) 

Two  years  afterwards  the  king  of  England,  Henry  III., 
in  order  to  induce  the  pope  to  interfere  in  a  dispute  con- 
cerning the  appointment  of  an  archbishop  to  the  see  of 
Canterbury,  recently  vacant  by  the  death  of  Cardinal  Lang- 


TAX 


118 


TAX 


tun,   promised  him  a  tenth  ot'  the  n.  "ly  ui' 

l.ut  nf  the  laity.     1»  this  proceeding   there 

appe..  i  n  twofold  tcln- 

poral    prince  uttered  tho    pope  a   contribution    I'n  in    his 

,.  which   commonly  originated  with  tin-   pope:    and 

i  tax  was  to  be  levied  upon  tlie  laity  nut  for  the 

service"  of   the    state,    but    fur    the    benefit    of   u    foreign 

iie  strangeness  of  the  circumstances  how- 

iid    nut   prevent    the    pope    iVuiu    taking    immediate 

advantage  of  (be  king's  urt'er,  ami  be  accordingly  sent  a 

.>  England  to  collect   the  tenth>.     His  demand 

met  with  Mime  opposition,  indeed,  chiefly  from  the  1 

but  the  pope  and  the  kins:  together  were  tuo  powerful  to 

I.     The  legate,  to  shorten  the  work  of  collection, 

obliged  tin-  bishops  to  pay  the  tax  for  their  inferior  clergy: 

and  when  any  of  them  co'mplained  that  they  had  no  ready 

money,  he  introduced  them  to  eertftin  Italian  usurers  whom 

he  had  brought  with  him  for  that  purpose,  who  lent  them 

the    Minis   demanded    at    an    exorbitant   rate   of  interest. 

(Matthew  Paris,  p.  :;• 

In  the  »ame  reign  the  pope's  legates  were  constantly 
demanding  presents  from  the  bishops,  monasteries,  and 
.  and  enlivening  assemblies  of  the  ehureh  with  no 
other  object  than  to  extort  money.  Their  proceedings 
vd  such  disgust  that  the  great  barons  sent  orders  to 
the  wardens  of  the  seaports  to  stop  all  persons  bringing 
any  bulls  or  mandates  from  Rome,  and  at  la.-t  succeeded 
in  driving  the  legate  himself  out  of  the  kingdom,  i  Matthew- 
Paris.  ]>.  (i.V.l.'i  Little  good  however  was  effected  by  these 
-'ires,  fur  we  find  that  in  1240  the  pope  demanded  the 
half  of  all  the  goods  of  the  non-resident  clergy  and  the 
third  of  those  who  resided.  (Ibid.,  708.)  The  resistance 
met  with  in  this  case  deterred  the  pope  from  enforcing 
his  demand ;  but  the  sums  which  he  continued  to  draw 
from  the  clergy  at  that  time  appear  to  have  been  enor- 
mous, and  the  histories  of  that  period  are  full  of  com- 
plaints and  remonstrances  against  pupal  exactions.  An 
act  was  passed  by  the  parliament  in  1307  (Statute  of 
Carlisle,  35  Edward  I.),  to  restrain,  in  some  measure,  the 
exactions  of  the  see  of  Rome,  but  apparently  with  littk 
good  results  ;  for  seventy  years  afterwards  we  find  the 
Commons  in  pnrliament  still  protesting  against  the  ex- 
tortions of  the  pope.  In  their  remonstrance  to  the  kint, 
upon  that  grievance  they  asserted.  •  that  the  taxes  paid  u 
the  pope  yearly,  out  of  England,  amounted  to  five  time 
as  much  as  the  taxes  paid  to  the  king."  (Cotton's  Abridy 

',  p.  128.) 

Although  complaints  continued  long  after  this  period 
no  measures  were  effectual  in  limiting  the  demands  of  tin 
court  of  Rome  until  the  pope's  authority  was  altogethei 
suppressed  in  England  at  the  Reformation  in  the  reign  o 
Henry  VIII. 

2.  'The  immunities  claimed  by  the  church  were  no' 
effectual  in  protecting  its  revenues  from  being  laid  undei 
contribution  for  the  service  of  the  state.  The  kings  o 
England,  sometimes  by  the  pope's  authority,  sometimes  hi 
forced  or  voluntary  compliance  on  the  part  of  the  church 
and  sometimes  by  their  own  direct  power,  obtained  large 
sums  from  the  clergy. 

William  the  Conqueror  found  the  ehureh  very  wealthy 
and  subjected  it  to  much  spoliation.  (Matthew  1'ari's 
p.  6.)  A  singular  occasion  for  taxing  the  clergy  arose 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.,  A.D.  1120.  An  eccl'csiasii 
cal  council,  assembled  at  London,  denounced  all  marriei 
clergymen,  and  decreed  that  they  should  put  awu\  thei 

I  lie  council  nmittdd   to  the  king  the  cxc'cnlioi 

of  their  decrees,  but  he.  instead  of  compelling  the  dergi 
to  send  away  their  wives,  imposed  a  tax  on  those  wh< 
chose  to  retain  them,  which  is  said  to  have  been  very  pro 
(Illctive. 

The  pope  was  not  unwilling  to  assist  in  oppressing  UK 
:  the  benefit  of  king-*,  when  they  were  ihclincc 
to  further  bis  own  object*,  either  by  undertaking  crusades 
carrying  on  want  against  his  enemies,  or  making  . 
sions  to  him.  He  could  not  sutler  the  immunities  i<f  th, 
church  to  be  infringed  by  Hie  temporal  power,  but  often 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  princes  the  !  (he  chind 

by  his  own  authority.     Thus  the  pope.   l>v  virtue  of  his 
apostolical   power,   granted    King   Henry    HI..   bv 
bulls,  the  goods  of  all   cli  ho  died   intestate,   tin 

mes  of  all  vacant  benefices,  and  of  all  noii-ic-idents 
In  12o:i  Pop,-  Innocent  \\II.  gave  the  first-fruiti  ant 
tenths  of  all  ecclesiastical  benefices  to  the  king  for  threi 


ears.      This  grant   made  u   valuation    .•.    taxation  01    the 
jcncfiues  necessary,  which  was  ;  u  in 

he  following  year,  and  is  Minictiiiies  tailed  the 
faxati.  Pope  1m 

same  prince,  with  the   pope's  concur*,  • 
sums   from   the   clergy  in    12T>5  to  earn  on   Us  war- 
Su-ih.     Hills  amounting  on  the  whole  to   i.>n..~>U)  marks 
were  drawn   upon   all   tin'   bishops,   abbots,   and 
iiien  of  the  kingdom   by  Wallcian.   lushu,. 
ord.  who  resided  at  Rome  as  an  agent   foi 
Kiiglaud  :   these  bills  were  made  over  to  It.i 
who,   it  was  pretended,   had   already  advanced   the  m 
fur  the   Sicilian  war.     All   resistance   on  the   part   of  the 
church   to   these  unjust  demands  of  their   own  spiritual 
superior  was  unavailing,  and  alter  much  remonstrance  and 
opposition   the    money    was   paid.     (Matthew    Paris,   pp. 
815-610.) 

In   128H  Pope  Nicholas  IV.  granted  the  tenths  u>  King 
Edward  I.  fur  six  vcars,  towards  defraying  the  e 
an  expedition  to  tlie  Holy  Land  :    and   in  oidcr  U>  CO 
them  at    their   full  value,  a  taxation  by  the  kin: 
was  begun  in  that  year,  and  finished,  i  ;ovincc  of 

Canterbury,  in  12SI1.  and  as  to  that  of  York  in  the  follow- 
er, the  whole  being  under  the  direction  of  the  bishops 
of  Winchester  and  Lincoln.  This  taxation  is  a  most  im- 
portant record,  because  all  the  taxes  of  the  church,  as 
well  to  the  kings  of  England  as  to  the  pope,  were  after- 
wards regulated  bv  it  until  the  sin  v  cy  made  bv  Henry  \  111.  ; 
and  because  the  statutes  of  colleges  which  were  founded 
before  the  Reformation  are  also  interpret  etl  by  this  criterion. 
according  to  which  their  benefices.  under  a  certain  value, 
are  exempted  from  the  restriction  in  the  statute  21  Henry 

VIII.  concerning  pluralities,      d'rrt, 

.  //"..  by  tin-  ItiTurii  I'niiin: 

In  12i).">  Edward,  notwithstanding  the  pope's  grant,  and 
numerous    exactions    from    the   clergy   in    the   meantime, 
being  still   in  great   need  of  money  to  carry  on  his 
summoned  deputies  from  the  inferior  clergy  for  Hi. 
time  to  vote  him  supplies  from  their  own  body.     In  the 
preceding  year  he  had,  by  threats  and  violence,  exacted 
»  tax  of  half  the  revenues  of  the  clergy;    but   now  be 
thought  it  prudent  to  obtain  their  consent  to  his  demands 
in  a  more  regular  manner.     The  clergy  however  would  not 
obey  the   king's  writ  of  summons,  lesi  they  should  a; 
to  acknowledge  the  tempoial  ]«>wer  :  and  in  order  to  . 
come   this  objection,  the   king  issued  his  writ  to  the  aroh- 
p,  who.  as  their  spiritual   superior,  summoned    the 
cleigy  to  meet    in  convocation,      (.(filbert's  /li\tnr;/  of  tfii- 
~ 


. 

,  p.  ~>1  :   Ilium-,  vol.  ii..  pp.  27H.  27'.). 
This  was  the  commencement  of  the  constitutional  prac- 
tice of  the  clergy  meeting  in  (  '(invocation  at  the  same  time 
as  the  Lay  Parliament,  and   voting  subsi  own 

voluntary  act  for  the  service  of  the  stale.  It  was  not 
viewed  without  alarm  by  the  pope  and  the  high  church 
dignitaries;  and  in  order  to  put  a  stop  to  all  such  exactions 
of  princes  from  the  clergy.  Pope  Huijitaee  \  III.  i-Micd  a 
hull  in  12i)(i.  which,  alter  stating  that  temporal  princes 
were  in  the  habit  of  extorting  hen,  itions  from 

-iastical  persons,  who.  fearing  to  uli'cml  temporal 
power  more  than  the  eternal,  bad  unwisely  acquiesced  in 
such  extortions,  proceeded  to  forbid  churchmen  ot 

B    to    pay  any  tribute,    subsidy,   or    gill    to    laymen. 
without   authority  from   the  see  of  Home,    and  declared 
that  if  they  should  pay.  or  pimces  exact,  or  any  one 
in    levying  such  iinauthui  , 

spcctively  would  incur  the  sentence  of  excommunication. 
i  Rymer's"  /  ol.  i.,  part  2.  p.  s:«i  :  Re. 

uers.  ed.  181G.) 

In  the  same  year  however   Etlward  I.  demanded  Of  the 
clrrgv  a  tilth  ui'  their  moveables.  which   ti  ••!,  on 

the  ground  Hint  they  could  not  disob,  I  the 

was  not  inclined  to  desist  :    anil 

acquiescence  Of  the  clergy,  he  put  them  out  of  the  pale  of 
the  laws.  Onlt  -'nil  to  the  ju<!  r  no 

brought   before   them   by  the   clergy,  hut   to  decide 
all  causes  in  which  Ihcv  were  -ned  In 

were  immediately  exposed  to  violence  ;md  spoliation  nn 
all  sides,  in  spite  of  a  general  sentence  of  excommunication 
pronounced  by  the  archbishop  against  all  persons  who 
should  att;n  .  The 

could  not  long  resist  these  oppressions  ;  and  although 
they  were  unwilling  to  diMibe\  the  Papal  bull,  t  i 
it  by  voluntarily  depositing  awn  equivalent  to  the  amount 


TAX 


119 


TAX 


uded  of  them  in  some  church,  whence  it  was  taken  by 
the  king's  officers.  In  this  expedient  the  whole  ecclesias- 
tical body  acquiesced,  and  thus  yielded  up  their  spiritual 
privileges,  under  coercion  by  the  temporal  power. 

At  the  Reformation,  the  chief  source  of  revenue  to  the 
pope,  viz.,  first-fruits  and  tenths,  was  transferred  to  the 
king  '  for  more  augmentation  and  maintenance  of  the  royal 
estate  of  his  imperial  crown  and  dignity  of  supreme  head 
of  the  church  of  England.'  (Stat.  26  Henry  VIII.,  c.  3.) 
In  order  to  collect  this  revenue  a  court  of  first-fruits  was 
established,  and  the  king  ordered  a  valuation  to  be  made 
of  all  the  episcopal  sees  and  benefices  in  England.  The 
book  which  contains  this  valuation  is  called  the  '  Liber 
Regis,'  and  all  the  benefices  which  have  not  since  been 
exempted  still  pay  first-fruits  and  tenths  according  to  this 
valuation.  The  first-fruits  and  tenths  continued  to  form 
part  of  the  royal  revenue  until  Queen  Anne,  by  the  Act 
2  &  3  of  her  reign,  c.  11,  gave  up  the  proceeds  thereof  on 
the  part  of  herself  and  her  successors,  and  assigned  them 
for  ever  to  the  augmentation  of  poor  livings. 

It  now  only  remains  to  notice  more  particularly  the  prac- 
tice of  taxing  the  clergy  in  convocation,  which  continued 
in  full  force  till  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  It  had  aft'orded 
the  kings  of  England  a  lucrative  revenue  from  the  church. 
Their  influence  as  heads  of  the  church,  and  as  having 
zcclesiastical  preferments  to  bestow,  was  very  great  alter 
.he  Reformation,  and  enabled  them  very  commonly  to 
obtain  larger  subsidies  from  the  convocation  than  those  that 
were  voted  by  parliament.  The  church  therefore  was  not  un- 
willing to  be  deprived  of  the  expensive  privilege  of  voting 
separate  subsidies ;  and  acquiesced  in  an  arrangement  pro- 
posed in  1664-5,  by  which  the  Commons  have  ever  since 
voted  taxes  upon  the  possessions  of  the  church  and  of  the 
clergy,  in  the  same  manner  as  upon  the  laity.  As  a  boon  for 
ibmission  of  the  church  to  temporal  authority,  two  sub- 
s-idies  which  the  convocation  had  granted  were  remitted, 
and  the  parochial  clergy  were  allowed  to  vote  at  elections. 
[CLERGY  ;  CONVOCATION  ;  TITHES.] 

TAXES.  The  general  objects,  character,  and  principles 
of  taxation,  and  of  different  classes  of  taxes,  are  treated  of 
under  the  head  of  TAX,  TAXATION.  In  this  place  it  is 
proposed  to  give  a  short  summary  of  the  amount  and  de- 
scription of  [axel  paid  in  this  and  some  other  countries, 
whether  assessed  directly  upon  property,  or  collected  indi- 
rectly upon  articles  of  consumption  ;  including  not  only 
such  taxes  as  are  paid  to  the  general  government,  but  also 
all  municipal  and  local  assessments  or  contributions. 

United  Kingdom. 

The  chief  sources  of  revenue  are  froYn  indirect  taxes,  as 
will  be  seen  by  the  following  statement,  made  up  to  5th 
January,  1842: — 


Customs  . 

-i-  . 

Stamps     .          . 

eased,  &c.) 

]'o>t -Office 

Duties    on     Pensions 
and  Salaries  . 

Crown  Lands    . 

Small  branches  of  he- 
reditary revenue     . 

Surplus  fees  of  public 
offices  . 


Oral  Rewipt. 

£ 

23,82 1,480 

15.477.<i7» 

7.404,239 

4,73)  457 

1,539,274 

6,752 

438,297 

5,562 
93,501 


Rate  per  cent,  at 

which  collected. 


£ 
5 
6 

2 

4 

60 

1 
8 


s. 
6 
7 
3 
2 
9 

17 
is 


d. 
4 

4 
9V 


Total  ordinary  revenues     53.59<>,250  6  13    8J 

To  these  parliamentary  taxes  may  be  added  the  follow- 
ing local  assessments  :— 

Poor-rates  .  £6,351,828  (which  includes  county 

rates,  TOO.OOW.) 
600,000  (in  round  numbers). 
1,312,812 


Crn>rch-rat(  s       .      . 
Hiirhway-rates    . 
Turnpike-tolls  .Eng- 
land and  Wales)  . 
Grand-jury   present- 
i  (In 


ments  (Ireland) 


1,577,764 

1,265,PG6 


Total  of  local  taxes.   11,108,270 

,  1SJ9  (562),  1841  (344)  (421), 

1842  (138)  (296 


These  include  all  the  local  taxes  of  which  any  account 

can  be  given,  but  there  are  still  many  others,  such  as  rates 

or  paving,  lighting,  and  watching  particular  cities  and 

owns,  and  for  other  municipal  purposes.     It  may  also  be 

added  that  the  tithes  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  amount 

o  4,000,000/. 

It  is  instructive  to  compare  the  present  amount  of  taxes 
vith  that  rendered  necessary  by  a  war  expenditure.  From 
1805  to  1818  the  payments  into  the  British  exchequer  from 
axes  and  loans  in  no  one  year  amounted  to  less  than 
100,000,000^.,  and  in  1813  arose  to  the  enormous  and 
icarcely  credible  sum  of  176,346,0237. 

Denmark. 

The  total  amount  of  all  state  and  provincial  or  country 
commune  taxes  amounted  in  1841  to  2,020,000/.,  upon  a 
population  of  2,100,000. 

Sweden. 
The  state  taxes  amount  to         .         .      £753,404 

Provincial 522,720 

Municipal— Stockholm    .         .         .          28,035 
All  other  towns   ....          50,675 

Total  .         .      £1,354,834 
Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands. 
Total  of  government  and  provincial  taxes  £5,368,874 

France. 

Direct  contributions  for  the  state     .     .     £11,433,204 

„  „  for  the  provinces  .          2,743,131 

„  „  for  the  communes  337,918 

Additional 27.948 


Total   . 

Indirect  taxes  for  the  state  . 
Miscellaneous  items  .... 
Other  sources  of  revenue      . 


.     £15,842,184 

.     £29,544,203 

453,738 

585,600 


General  total       .     .     £46,425,725 

Saxony. 
The  state  taxes  are  :— 

Prussian  Hollars. 

Direct     .      .     .     1.063,584 
Indirect       .     .     1,709,610 


2,073,194  or  £310,929 

Wirtcmli 

State  taxes          .         .         .         £534,445 
Provincial  and  municipal     .  100,938 


Total   . 
Baden. 


State  taxes : — 
Direct      . 
Indirect  . 


£635,383 


£158,333 
344,000 


Total      .  £502,333 

Bavaria. 
Direct  state  taxes 
Indirect  . 

Which,  with  other  sources  of  income, 
produce  a  revenue  of 

Sdrdmfa. 
State  taxes  :— 

Direct      .         .         .         £500,264 
Indirect  .         .          .         1,090,000 


£511,407 
895,119 

2,501,039 


Total      .         .      £1,590,264 
Pome  (Papal  Slates). 
State  taxes  :— 

Direct  .  £497,413 

Indirect  and  Miscellaneous      .         1,261,989 

Kingdom  of  Naples  and  Sirilij. 
Naples  --State  taxes  (exclusive  of  Sicily)  £3,994,957 
Municipal  taxes 

Total 

Sicily :— Direct  state  taxes 
Indirect      .        i 


155,267 


Total 
Municipal  taxes 


£4.150.22-1 
£232^00 
630,639 

£862.86!! 
£1,163,212 


T  A  X 


1-JO 


\    \ 


Portugal. 


Crown  renU 
Direct  taxes 
Indirect  taxes 

Various  rents 

Total 


£  «. 

H'4  10 

71  1* 
1,070,71 

I.U.IUO  7 


.   £2330366    0    9 


Further  interesting  particulars  concerning  the  several 
of  European    Slav*  will  be  found  in   tin-  Parlia- 
mentary Paper.  No.  ±i7.  of  lS4i  ordered  by  the  House  of 
('(millions  to  be  printed,  3rd  May,  Isrj. 

TA\(i'I)H.'M,  from  tuj-us.  t'he  name  of  a  genus  of 
plant.-,  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Conit'cr.i.  The  plants 
ot  this  cenus  are  monoecious.  The  male  flowers  are  ar- 
langed  in  catkins  of  a  roundish  form,  disposed  in  race- 
mose panicles;  the  pollen  of  each  flower  is  contained  in 
live  cases,  which  are  attached  to  the  scale  at  its  inner 
face.  The  female  flowers  are  also  arranged  in  small 
round  catkins  two  or  three  of  which  are  attached  near 
to  the  base  of  the  spike  of  the  catkins  of  male  flowers. 
The  ovules  are  two  in  each  receptacle.  The  fruit  is  a 
globose  strobule,  with  peltate  angled  scales  ;  the  seeds  are 
angled  with  very  thick  integuments;  the  embryo,  with 
from  5  to  9  cotyledons.  The  leaves  arc  linear,  disposed  in 
two  ranks,  and" are  deciduous.  This  genus  has  been  dis- 
tinguished from  Cuprcssus  principally  on  account  of  the 
arrangement  of  its  male  catkins  in  racemose  panicles, 
the  small  number  of  flowers  in  the  female  catkins,  and 
the  numbers  of  cotyledons  possessed  by  the  embryo. 

This  genus  is  we'll  known  through  the  Taxodium  disti- 
rhiun.  deciduous  Cypress,  a  tree  that  was  introduced  into 
Europe  from  North"  America  as  early  as  1640.  This  spe- 
cie* is  characterized  by  two-rowed,  flat,  deciduous  leaves  ; 
leafless  and  panicled  male  flowers,  and  somewhat  globose 
strobils.  It  is  an  elegant  tree,  and  attains  a  height  of 
120  feet  in  its  native  soil.  The  first  plant  that  is  men- 
tioned as  existing  in  this  country  was  grown  in  South 
Lambeth,  and  was  raised  from  seeds  brought  from  Vir- 
ginia. Since  then  it  has  been  introduced  in  various  parts 
of  Great  Britain,  and  many  fine  specimens  are  now  to  be 
found.  In  its  native  districts  in  North  America  it  is 
exceedingly  abundant,  and  in  many  parts,  as  in  Louisiana, 
it  entirely  occupies  thousands  of  acres  of  the  low  grounds, 
which  are  thence  called  ryprifres,  or  cypress  swamps.  It 
is  found  in  Delaware,  on  the  banks  of  the  Indian  River, 
in  38°  50'  N.  lat.,  which  is  its  northern  boundary, and,  pro- 
ivedinc:  southward,  it  is  abundant  in  the  swamps  of  Vir- 
ginia, the  Carolina.*,  Georgia,  and  the  Floridas. 

In  America,  where  the  tree  grows,  its  wood  is  used  for 
all  the  purposes  to  which  timber  is  applied.  In  1819, 
according  to  Michaux,  almost  all  the  houses  of  New 
Orleans  were  constructed  of  the  wood  of  this  tree.  It 
is  considered  very  durable,  and  is  employed  where  this 
quality  is  an  object.  In  Louisiana  it  is  used  for  making 
the  masts  and  sides  of  vessels,  and  also  canoes,  which  are 
fashioned  out  of  a  single  trunk,  and  are  said  to  be  more 
durable  than  when  made  from  any  other  wood.  The  bark 
of  the  tree  exudes  a  resin  of  an  agreeable  odour  and  a  red 
colour  which  is  used  by  the  negroes  for  dressing  wounds, 
but  it  cannot  be  obtained  in  sufficient  quantities  to  consti- 
tute an  article  of  commerce.  The  roots  of  this  tree  are 
remarkable  for  the  production  of  knobs  or  protubci 
which  are  sometimes  five  or  six,  and,  according  to  some 
observers,  many  more  feet  in  circumference.  They  have 
generally  a  conical  form,  and  are  hollow  inside,  with  a 
covering  of  red  bark,  similar  to  that  of  the  roots.  In 
America,  they  are  called  •  c\  press  knees,'  and  are  used  by 
the  negroes  for  bee-hives. 

In  the  cultivation  of  the  deciduous  cypress,  a  rich  moist 
soil  must  be  selected  in  alow  situation.  It  may  In-  in- 
creased by  seeds  from  the  imported  cones,  or  it  may  be 
propagated  by  cuttings,  planted  in  autumn  in  a  moist 
sand  or  heath  soil,  situated  ina  shady  damp  place.  Layers 
also,  when  put  down  in  moist  soil,  will  root  freely  the  tirst 
year. 

During  cultivation,  this  tree  K  exceedingly  prone  to 
sport,  co  that  no  two  individuals  have  precisely  the  same 
appearance.  On  this  account,  a  number  of  varieties  have 
been  named.  The  most  common  is  the  T.  d.  patent,  which 
hag  horizontal  branches.  Another,  with  pendulous  branches, 
is  known  a»  T.  d.  pendulum  ;  a  third,  with  pendulous  first- 


vear's  shoots,  as  7'.  (/.  tiulan*.     Othci 
iia\c  '  .bed.  but    lire    i"  i   or  culth  . 

For  further  information  on  this  i;i  mis,  see  London's.  •  .\,\>. 
et  Knit.  Iliit..'  \ol.  iv. 

TAXI  S    ln.i  I/A-,  Latin  ,  the  name  of  a  genus  of  p' 
the   type  of  the  natural  order  Taxace.c.      Thi- 
monoecioiis ;    the  perianth  of  the  ba  -   is  single 

at   the    ba.se  ;    the  stamens  are   numerous,    with    p- 
anthers  (i-s-celled.  the  cells  opening  beneath.     The  fertile 
flowers  have  a  single,  urceolate,  scaly  perianth  ;   no  style  : 
and  a  fleshy  drupaceous  fruit,  perforated  at  the  extremity. 
The  spec  ics  ,,t   this  genus  an-  i  MMLTCCH  lives,  v.iih  nume- 
rous,  mostly   linear,   entire  leaves.     They  arc    nati\. 
Europe  and  North  America. 

T.  /Hiri-ii/ti,  Common  Yew.  ha.s  its  leaves  vi-ianked, 
crowded,  linear,  flat,  with  the  flower-,  axillary,  sessile  :  the 
receptacle  of  the  barren  flowers  globular.  The  common 
u-w  is  well  known  :  it  is  indigenous  to  most  part>  of  Eu- 
rope, and  is  found  in  every  part  of  Hritain  and  Ireland.  Il 
is  seldom  seen  growing  in  company  with  it"  own  sp- 
but  alone,  or  with  other  species  of  plants. 

The  yew  is  a  low  tree,  the  trunk  rising  three  or  four 
feet   from  the  ground,  and   then   sending  out   num. 
spreading  branches,  forming  a  head  of  dense  foliage,  which. 
when  full  grown,  may  be  sometimes  30  or  40  feet   high. 
It  is  of  slow  growth,  attaining  under  favourable  cii- 
stances  a  height  of  6  or  H  feet  in  ten  \<  a  P.,  and  15  let  t  in 
twenty    years.      The   tallest    yew   in  England   is   in  the 
churchyard    at  Harlington,  near  Hounslow,  which  is  .">s 
feet  high.     A  tree  continues  growing  for  about  one  hun- 
dred years;    it  mostly  ceases  to  LT.I.V  at  that  age,  but  will 
live  for  many  centuries.     The  yew-trees  at  present 
ing  at  Fountain's  Abbey  in  Yorkshire  are  supposed  to  ha\c 
attained  their  full  growth  when  the  abbey  was  erected  in 
1132. 

The  remarkable  characters  and  properties  of  the  yew- 
have  drawn  towards  it  at  all  times  much  attention.  f)io- 
scorides,  Pliny,  and  Theophrastus  mention  its  poisonous 
properties.  Caesar  (Bell.  G<i//..  \i.  31  relates  that  Cativol- 
cus,  king  of  the  Eburones,  committed  suicide  by  swallowing 
the  juice  of  the  yew.  Plutarch  says  that  its  fruit  is  poison- 
ous, and  that  its  shade  is  fatal  to  all  who  sleep  under  it. 
This  is  also  stated  by  Pliny  ;  but  there  must  have'  been  some 
mistake  on  some  of  these  points,  as  it  is  now  well  known 
that  the  fruit  of  the  yew  may  be  eaten  wifh  impunity,  and 
that  its  shade  is  not  more  deadly  than  that  of  other 
trees. 

The  yew  appears  to  have  been  employed  from  the 
earliest  times  in  the  manufacture  of  bows,  and  was  used 
for  this  purpose  by  the  nations  of  antiquity.  The  bows 
used  by  the  English  previous  to  the  introduction  of  gun- 
powder were  made  of  \  ew.  and  there  arc  many  alii. 
amongst  English  poets  to  this  use  of  its  wood.  The 
battles  of  Cressyand  Poictiers  were  gained  by  the  English 
vcw-bows,  and  the  same  weapon  was  used  in  the  wars  of 
York  and  Lancaster.  In  the  course  of  time  the  supply 
of  yew  was  deficient,  and  other  woods  came  to  be  used  ; 
but  the  introduction  of  gunpowder  soon  after  put  a  step 
to  the  use  of  the  bow  as  a  weapon  of  war  altogether. 
Bows  are  now  seldom  made  of  the  yew,  various  ornamental 
woods  frOB  South  America  being  preferred.  In  Swit/er- 
land  the  \  f\\  t  :e  is  called  William's  tree,  because  the 
bow  of  William  1'cll  is  said  toha\e  been  made  of  that  wood. 
The  yew  is  a  common  ornament  of  the  churchyard.  The 
origin  of  the  practice  of  planting  this  tree  in  such  situations 
is  not  at  all  clearly  made  out.  Their  dark  foliage  and 
p>sed  deadly  shade  may  have  pointed  them  out  as  the  tit 
emblems  of  silence  and  death.  Mr.  Bowman  (Magas.  <>f 
.\nl.  Jlif/.,  vol.  i.)  observes  that  '  it  seems  most  natural 
and  most  simple  to  believe,  that  being  indisputably  indi- 
genous, and  being,  from  its  perennial  \  -  ity, 
and  the  durability  of  its  wood,  at  once  an  emblem  and  a 
specimen  of  immortality,- its  blanches  would  be  cmp!< 
by  our  pagan  ancestors,  on  their  first  arrival  here,  as  the 
best  substitute  for  the  cypress  to  deck  the  graves  of  the 
dead,  and  for  other  sacred  purposes.' 

The  yew  used  to  be  frequently  planted  in  gardens  as  an 
ornament,  on  account  of  the  facility  witli  which  it  in: 
cut  into  various  fantastic  shapes.  During  the  past  century 
it  was  not  uncommon  to  meet  with  these  trees  cut  into  the 
forms  of  balls,  pyramids,  beasts,  birds,  and  men  ;  but  this 
practice  havinir  fallen  under  the  well-merited  censure  nf 

Pope  and  other  writers,  only  a  remnant  of  it  here  and 


T  A  Y 


1-21 


T  A  Y 


there  is  seen  at  the  present  clay.  Although  the  fruit  of 
the  yew  is  not  poisonous,  th?re  are  many  well-authenti- 
cated instances  of  the  leaves  producing  death.  Deer  and 
goats  are  said  to  feed  upon  them  with  impunity,  but  to 
cows  and  horses  they  prove  an  active  poison.  The  yew 
has  not  been  at  any  time  used  generally  as  a  medicine, 
although  its  effects  on  the  system  have  been  represented 
as  similar  to  those  of  digitalis,  and  as  being  more  manage- 
able and  less  liable  to  accumulate  in  the  system  than 
that  medicine.  Professor  Wiborg  of  Copenhagen  states 
that  the  leaves  of  the  yew  are  only  poisonous  to  animals 
when  they  are  eaten  alone,  but  that  if  eaten  with  three  or 
four  times  the  quantity  of  other  food  they  are  innocuous. 

There  are  several  remarkable  specimens  of  old  yews 
existing  in  this  country.  Those  at.  Fountains  Abbey  are 
said  to  have  sheltered  the  monks  whilst  that  magnificent 
pile  was  erecting.  The  Tythcrley,  Fortingal,  Arlington, 
and  Loch-Lomond  yews  are  remarkable  for  their  size  and 
age.  Many  of  them,  if  we  estimate  their  age  in  the  mode 
proposed  by  De  Candolle,  must  exceed  considerably  a 
thousand  years. 

The  wood  of  the  yew  is  used  extensively  in  cabinet- 
making.  It  is  very  hard,  compact,  and  of  a  fine  close 
grain,  which  arises  from  the  smatlness  of  its  annual  layers, 
280  being  sometimes  found  in  a  piece  not  more  than  20 
inches  in  diameter.  It  is  also  much  used  by  the  turner 
for  making  snuff-boxes,  musical  instruments,  &c. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  the  common  yew  ;  the  most 
remarkable  is  the  Irish  yew,  which  Professor  Lindley  has 
made  a  distinct  species,  Ttuus  faatighitn.  It  is  distin- 
guished by  its  upright  mode  of  growth,  and  by  its  leaves 
not  being  arranged  in  ranks,  but  scattered.  It  was  first 
discovered  at  Florence  Court,  on  the  mountains  of  Fer- 
managh, and  has  since  been  observed  in  other  parts  of 
In-hind.  Other  varieties  are  described,  produced  by  dif- 
ference in  cultivation,  soil,  &c.  The  Canada  or  North 
American  yew  is  described  as  a  species,  T.  Cmntdfiisis. 
The  leaves  are  narrower  and  smaller  than  those  of  the 
common  yew,  and  are  revolute  at.  the  margin,  and  the 
male  flowers  are  solitary  in  the  axis  of  the  leaves.  It  is 
found  native  in  Canada,  and  on  the  banks  of  a  river 
in  Man-land. 

In  trie  cultivation  of  the  yew,  a  moist  soil  should  always 
be  selected ;  but  it  thrives  best  on  clays  and  loams,  on 
rocks,  and  in  shady  places.  It  is  best  propagated  by  seeds, 
which,  if  gown  as  soon  as  they  are  gathered  in  autumn, 
surrounded  by  the  pulp  of  the  "fruit,  will  come  up  the  next 
or  following  spring  ;  but  if  dried,  will  not  come  up  till  the 
third  year.  Where  the  object  is  to  form  a  fence,  cuttings 
may  be  employed.  Before  transplanting,  whether  they 
be  raised  from"  seeds  or  cuttings,  the  plants  should  be 
three  or  four  feet  high. 

For  further  information  concerning  the  yew,  see  Lou- 
ilon's  Arhwtum  ft  I'nttiri'tum  Britan/iicum.) 

TAV,  River.     [PBRTHSBntt.] 

TAY,    LOCH.       [PERTHSHIRE.] 

TAYGKTUS.     [LvcoxiA.] 

TAYLOR.  ROWLAND,  LL.D.,  was  a  clergyman  emi- 
nent for  his  learnins;  and  piety,  who  was  burnt  at  the  stake 
in  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary.  He  is  said  by  Hishop  Heber 
to  have  been  an  ancestor  of  Jeremy  Taylor.  He  was 
•lain  to  Archbishop  Cranmer,  by  whom  he  was  ap- 
pointed rector  of  Hadleigh,  in  Suffolk,  where  he  went  to 
reside. 

Dr.  Taylor  was  summoned,  in  the  year  1553,  to  appear 
in  London  before  Gardiner,  bishop  of  Winchester,  who  was 
then  lord  chancellor,  for  resisting  the  performance  of  mass 
in  his  church  at  Hadleigh.     He  was  strongly  persuaded  to 
.',  but  refused,  and  presented  himself  before  Gardiner, 
by  whom,  after  a  long  conference,  in  which  he  defended 
hi-  fiinsc  with  unshrinking  firmness,  he  was  committed  to 
tin-  kin^'-,  Bench  prison.     There  he  remained  till  the  22nd 
(if  January,  1555,  when  he  and  other  prisoners  were  cited 
.Gardiner,  and  the  bishops  of  London,  Norwich.  Salis- 
bury, and  Durham,  who  were  joint  commissioners  with  the 
.-liii'icellor.     The  chief  offence  of  which  Dr.  Taylor  was 
-ed  was  his  marriage  ;   but  he  defended  the  fight 
of  priests  to  marry  with  so  much  learning,  that  no  sentence 
of  (1,  pronounced,  though  he  was  deprived  of  his 

benefice.  At  the  end  of  January  the  prisoners  were  again 
broiiLCht  before  th-  ciminii -ioncrs,  by  whom  they  were 
sentenced  to  death.  Dr.  Taylor  was  committed  to  the 
Poultry  ('..mpl-r.  v.hore,  on  the  4th  of  February,  he  was 
P.  C.,  No.  1503. 


visited  by  Bonner,  bishop  of  London,  who  went  there  for 
the  purpose  of  making  him  put  on  the  dress  of  a  Roman 
Catholic  priest.  Dr.  Taylor  resisted  with  his  usual  cou- 
rage, and  the  dress  was  put  upon  him  by  force  :  he  treated 
the  whole  proceeding  with  the  utmost  contempt,  as  a  piece 
of  mummery,  and  Bonner  would  have  struck  him  witn  his 
crosier  if  he  had  not  been  restrained  by  his  chaplain.  On 
the  following  day  the  procession  set  forth  which  was  to 
conduct  him  to  the  place  of  execution.  In  the  course  of 
the  journey  much  persuasion  was  used  by  the  sheriff  and 
others  to  induce  him  to  recant,  but  without  making  the 
smallest  impression  upon  him.  The  procession  passed 
through  Hadleigh,  where  he  was  consoled  and  cheered  by 
the  blessings  and  prayers  of  his  parishioners.  The  exe- 
cution took  place  on  the  8th  of  February,  1555,  on  Aldham 
Common,  near  Hadleigh.  A  stone,  with  the  following  in- 
scription, perhaps  still  remains  to  mark  the  spot :  — '  15:55. 
Dr.  Tayler  in  defending  that  was  gode  at  this  plas  left  his 
blode.' 

Bishop  Heber,  in  his  '  Life  of  Bishop  Jeremy  Taylor,' 
says,  '  There  is  nothing  indeed  more  beautiful  in  the  whole 
beautiful  Book  of  Martyrs  than  the  account  which  Fox 
has  given  nf  Rowland  Taylor,  whether  in  the  discharge  of 
his  duty  as  a  parish  priest  or  in  the  more  arduous  moments 
when  he  was  called  on  to  bear  his  cross  in  the  cause  of  re- 
ligion. His  warmth  of  heart,  his  simplicity  of  manners, 
the  total  absence  of  the  false  stimulants  of  enthusiasm  or 
pride,  and  the  abundant  overflow  of  better  and  holier  feel- 
ings, are  delineated,  no  less  than  his  courage  in  death  and 
the  buoyant  cheerfulness  with  which  he  encountered  it, 
with  a  spirit  only  inferior  to  the  eloquence  and  dignity  of 
the  "Phaedon."' 

(Fox's  Acts  and  Monuments.'] 

TAYLOR  JEREMY,  was  born  at  Cambridge  in  1613, 
where  he  was  baptized  on  the  15th  August  in  that  year. 
His  ancestors  had  been  wealthy  and  respectable,  one  of 
whom,  Dr.  Rowland  Taylor,  is  mentioned  in  Fox's  '  Book 
of  Martyrs '  as  bringing  upon  himself  the  persecution  of 
the  popish  party  in  the  reign  of  Mary,  not  only  by  the 
popularity  of  his  character  and  talents,  but  also  his 
wealth.  Taylor's  father  was  a  barber,  a  calling  generally 
united  in  those  clays  with  surgery.  At  an  early  age  Tay- 
lor was  sent  to  Perse's  grammar-school  in  Cambridge,  and 
in  his  fourteenth  year  ne  was  entered  at  Cains  College  as 
a  sizar,  an  order  of  students  which,  Bishop  Heber  informs 
us,  were  then  what  the  'servitors'  still  continue  to  be  in 
some  colleges  in  Oxford,  and  what  the  '  lay  brethren '  are 
in  the  convents  of  the  Romish  church.  At  little  more 
than  twenty  years  of  age,  having  taken  the  degree  of 
master  of  arts,  and  been  admitted  to  holy  orders,  he 
attracted  the  notice  of  Laud,  then  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, before  whom  he  was  invited  to  preach  at  Lambeth. 
Laud  appreciated  his  elocmence  and  his  talents,  which  he 
encouraged  in  the  most  judicious  manner  by  having  him 
settled  at  Oxford,  where  he  was  admitted  to  the  degree  of 
master  of  arts,  and  by  the  powerful  interposition  of  the 
archbishop,  in  1G3G,  nominated  to  a  fellowship.  Taylor 
does  not  appear  to  have  remained  long  or  uninterruptedly 
at  Oxford.  In  1G37-8  he  was  presented  by  Juxon,  bishop 
of  London,  to  the  rectory  of  Uppingham  in  Rutlandshire. 
About  tliis  time  an  acquaintance  which,  in  common  with 
Land,  he  maintained  with  a  learned  Franciscan  friar, 
Francis  a  Sancta  Clara,  exposed  him  to  the  suspicion  of  a 
concealed  attachment  to  the  Roman  church— a  suspicion 
to  which  the  character  of  his  mind,  which  tended  to  asce- 
ticism in  religion,  and  to  an  extravagant  veneration  for 
antiquity,  and  which  cherished  a  love  of  the  gorgeous  and 
imposing  in  the  ceremonial  of  worship,  gave  some  plausi- 
bility. At  a  later  period  in  life  however  Taylor  solemnly 
denied  that  there  had  ever  been  any  solid  ground  for  ques- 
tioning the  sincerity  of  his  Protestantism. 

In  the  civil  wars  he  followed  the  fortunes  of  Charles, 
whose  chaplain  he  was,  and  in  1642,  when  the  king  was 
at  Oxford,  he  published  there  his  '  Episcopacy  asserted 
against  the  Acephali  and  Aerians  New  and  Old,'  in  which 
he  sought,  to  maintain  a  cause  that  had  then  however, 
unfortunately,  passed  from  the  controversy  of  the  pen  to 
that  of  arms.  Charles  rewarded  Taylor  in  the  only  way 
which  it  remained  in  his  power  to  do,  by  commanding  his 
admission  to  the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity.  This  honour 
v.as  diminished  by  the  indiscriminate  manner  in  which  it 
!  was  conferred  upon  many  other  loyalists  at  the  same  lime, 
'  so  as  to  provoke  an  expression  of  dissatisfaction  from  the 

VOL.  XXIV.— 11 


T  A  Y 


122 


I     \  Y 


-  of  the  University;    and  its  advanu.  over-  ! 

irliich Taylor  i-n  i  tin.-  same  | 

.     when  the  criaia  of  the  civil  war 

-cmirse,    'The   I.il>i 

•in1  dclVat  of  the  royalists  Ta\lor  was 

il,  but  only  tor  .-.hurt  pciiods.    During 

,-torate  he  supported  himself  by 

-I.  111   Wales,  in  company  with  Nicholson, 

,i    \Vyat.    afterwards 

:ulary  of  Lincoln,  by  his  occasional  writings,  and  by 

whatever  contribution  llic  friendship  of  the  carl  of  Car- 

bcry.  on  whose   estate   he  exercised   his  ministry,   might 

:   to   him.     In   tile  year    lo-">K  lie  wa-  cd  by 

Lord  .i:id,  when1  he  divided  liis 

,  a  Lisburn  auJ  1'ort more,  ami  lie  officiated 

in    the   ministry   at    both    these    places.     The     pi. 

whieh  he  received  was  however  so  inadequate  to  his  wants, 

>liged  to  remain  under  obligations  to  his 

friend  John  E\elyn,  who  generously  allowed  him  a  yearly 

In  the'  obscurity  of   Portmore  Taylor  did  not 

iiiihiippv   persecutions  of  that  period.     He  was 

,  an  info'rmcr  with  having  used  the  sign  of  the 

in  baptism,  and  dragged  before  the  Iri--.li  pri\y  coun- 

cil,  from  a  distance  and  in  the  middle  of  a  severe  winter, 

to  be  examined.     A  fever  was   the    consequence   of  his 

.  whieh  probably  induced  the  council  to  act  leniently 

•ds  him. 

In  1CCO  he  travelled  to  London  to  prepare  for  publica- 
tion his  'Ductor  Dubitantium,"  when  he  attached  his  sig- 
nature  to  the  declaration  of  the  royalists,  dated  April  'Jllli, 
in  which  they  expressed  the  moderation  of  their  \iews. 
and  their  confidence  in  the  wisdom  and  justice  of  Monk. 
Taylor  was  thus  favourably  brought  under  the  notice  of 
Charles  II., 'whose  restoration  took  place  this  year,  and  to 
whom  he  dedicated  the  •  Ductor  Dubitantium.  The  king 
nominated  him  under  the  privy  seal  to  the  bishopric  of 
Down  and  Connor,  to  which  he  was  const eiated  in 
January,  10C1 :  in  the  following  month  he  was  made  a. 
member  of  the  Irish  privy  council:  and  in  the  next,  in 
addition  to  his  original  diocese,  he  was  intrusted  with  the 
administration  of  the  small  adjacent  one  of  Dromore,  on 
account,  in  the  words  of  the  writ,  •  of  his  virtue,  his  wisdom, 
and  industry.'  IH  the  course  of  the  same  year  he  vv;u 
i  v  ice-chin  o«Uor  of  the  Universitv  of  Dublin. 
Bishop  Heber  has  deemed  it  necessary  to  account  fin- 
Taylor's  not  having  received  an  English  bishopric.  Bc- 
iiie  eminent  abilities,  and  his  faithful  adherence  to 
the  cause  of  the  church  and  the  king,  he  had  married 
the  natural  daughter  of  Charles  1.,  who  was  his  second 
wife,  and  then  living.  This  la.-.t  circumstance  howe\er,  if 
pleaded  wilh  the  king  in  favour  of  preferment  for  Taylor, 
as  Bi»hop  Helx-r  thinks  may  have  contributed  to  deter- 
mine the  scene  of  his  promotion  :  -Charles  may  not  ha\e 
been  unwilling  to  remove  to  a  distance  a  person  whose 
piety  might  have  led  him  to  reprove  many  paits  of  his 
conduct,  and  who  would  have  a  plausible  pretence  for 
in:;  more  freely  than  the  rest  of  the  dignified 

Tim  new  station  which  Taylor  was  called  upon  to  till 
had  peculiar  and  rreat  difficulties  connected  with  it.  In 
the  revolution  through  which  religion  had  passed,  livings 
had  been  conferred  on  men  whose  feelings  were  at  variance 
with  episcopacy,  and  they  had  to  be  conciliated  to  a  will- 
ing obedience,  or,a»  time  pio\cd,  to  submit  to  the  severest 

•  I'  principle  in  the  sacrifice  of  their  emoluments.     In 
Ireland  there  were  additional  circumstances  to   contend 
with.     The  Episcopal  or  Protestant  church  was  unpopu- 
lar; the  preachers  were  almost  exclusively  English:  the 
ritual  was  English,  and  to  the  mats  of  the  natives  unintel- 
ligible ;  there  was  no  translation  of  the  Scriptures,  and  yet 

dance  at  the  established  churches  was  ((imp 
Bishop  Taylor  laboured  wilh  much  zeal  and 
the  establishment  of  the  Protestant   religion:     hut   with 
little  effect.    He  w*s  attacked  bv  fever  on  the  :; 
l'i(>7.  at  Lisburn,  and  died  in  ten  days,  in  the  fiity-linli 
year  of  his  age,  and  the  seventh  of  his  episcopal -v .     The 
children  of  his  first  wife   died  before    him;   by  his  second, 
who  survived  him.  he  left  three  daupl 

The  writing*  of  Jeremy  laylor  maybe  bronchi  under 
rour  description* :  practical,  theological,  casuistic,  and 
(ievutional.  The  first  comprises  his  '  Life  of  Christ.'  which 
he  i>ubluh«d  in  10.13 ;  '  Contemplations  on  the  State  of 


Man,'  a  posthumous  work;    •  II. .'v    Living  and  Holy  Dy- 

ii..">l  ;   and   In-  S  .lions 

.     A    work    entitle.!  'ion'    has 

'am.  and  published  mlhc  colic. -ted  edition 

of  his  writing^  by    Bishop  ,ut   it   has 

since  been  published  in  tli.  kett,  who 

appears   to    have    been    its  '  com- 

!iis  '  Episcopacj    ;:s-ertid 

:  Old,'  1012;  •  An  Ap 
•  !'  Liturg) ,'    101 1  :   b 

Liberty  of  Prophesying,  with   its  just    limits  and  ten. 
showing    the    unreasonableness   of   p. 
men's    faith,   and   the    iniquity   of    persecuting  difl 
opinions,'   1G47;    the  'Vnuni   Nrcrsxuium  :  or  the 
trine  and  I' 

tus,  or  a  Vindication  of  the  Glory  of  the  Divine 
in  the   question  of  Oi .  -'    the    1': 

Spiritual    of   Christ    ill    the     Blessed     Sucramcnt.     p. 
iigaiiisl  the  Doctrine  of  Transubstantiation,'  1(>5!  :  •  A 
smusivc  from  Popery,'  1064.     The  third  include - 
course  of  the  Nature,  Offices,  and  M. 

with  Rules  of  Conducting  it,'  1057  ;  and  the  'Ductor  Du- 
bitantium, or  liule  of  Conscience  in  all  Her  general 

10GO.     The  fourth  comprises  his  •  Clerus  Domini, 
or  a  Discourse  of  the  Divine   Institution,  Necessity, 
credness.  and  Separation  of  tile  office  Ministerial,  together 
with  the  Nature  and  Manner  of  its  Power  and  (  ' 
10T>1  :   'The  Golden  Grove,  or   a  Manual  of  Da. 
and  Litanies,  titled  to  the  Days  of  the  Week,'  li 

i  of  David,  with  Titles  or 

.Matter  of  each   Psalm,'  1044;  '  A  Collection  of  Ofli' 
Forms  of  Prayer    in    cases    ordinary    and    ixtiaordi 
taken  out  of  the  Scriptures,  and  the  Ancient   IJtuix 
several  Churches,  especially  the  Ctn  ek,'  Ki.'iS;   •  Devotions 
for  Various   Occasions ;'    mid   '  The    Worthy   Communi- 
cant, or  a  Discourse  of  the  Nature,  Effects,  and  Blessings 
consequent   to  the  worthy  receiving  of  the  Lord's  Supper, 
and  of  all  the  Duties  required  in  order  to  a  worthy  pre- 
paration ;  together  with  the  Cases  of  Conscience  occurring 
in  the  duty  of  him  that  ministers  and  of  him  that  commu- 
nicates,' 1UGO. 

Mr.  Hallam  lanks  the  Sermons  of  Bishop  Taylor  '  far 
above  any  that  had  preceded  them  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. An  imagination  essentially  poetical,  and  sp 
none  of  the  decoiations  which  by  critical  rules  are  deemed 
almost  peculiar  to  verse  ;  a  warm  tone  of  piety, 
and  charity;  an  accumulation  of  circumstantial  acces- 
sories whenever  lie  reasons,  or  persuades,  or  describes;  an 
erudition  pouring  itself  forth  in  quotation  till  his  sermons 
become  in  some  places  almost  a  garland  of  flowers  from  all 
other  writers,  and  especially  from  those  of  classical  an- 
tiquity, never  before  so  redundantly  scattered  from  the 
pulpit,  distinguish  Taylor  from  his  contemporaries  by  their 
degree,  as  they  do  from  most  of  his  successors  by  their  kind. 
Hi-  M'iiuonson  the  Marriage  King,  on  the  House  of  Feast- 
ing, on  the  Apples  of  Sodom,  may  be  named  without  dis- 
paragement to  others,  which  perhaps  ought  to  stand  in 
equal  place,  lint  they  are  not  without  considerable  faults, 

of  which  have  just  been  hinted.     The  elc». 
Taylor  is  great,  but  it  is  not  eloquence  of  the  highest  claw; 
it  is  i'ar  too  Asiatic,  too  much  in  the  style   of  Chrys. 
and  other  declaimers  of  the  fourth  century,  by  the  "study  of 
whom  he  had  probably  vitiated  his  taste;  his  learning  is 
ill-placed,  and  his  arguments  often  much  so  ;   not  to  men- 
tion that  he  bu  the  common  defect  of  alleging  nugi 
proofs  ;  his  vehement  -  effect  by  the  circuity  of 

liis    pleonastic    language;    his   sentences   are    of  endless 
length,  and  hence  not  only  altogether  unmusical,  but   not 

.     reducible  to  grammar.     But  he  is  still  tl. 
ornament  of  the  English  pulpit   up  to  the   middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century ;  ana  we  have  no  reason  to  believe,  or 
rather  much  reason  to  disbelieve,  that  he  ha*  any  compe- 
titor in  other  languages.'     (Hallam's  Introduction  ti>  the 

•Inn1  iif  l-jini/u;  vol.  iii..  c.  il..  ]>.  1U5-6.) 
He  has  been  accused  of  having  copied  a  work  of  a 
similar   character   by  Ludolphi:  nia.    a   Homan 

Catholic  writer,  in  Ins  '  Life  of  Christ  :'  but   Bishop  Ilebcr, 

who  hail  examined  both  work*, averU  that  there  is  scarcely 

any  resemblance  between  them,  and  none  which  authorizes 
the  imputation  of  plagiarism. 

•The  Liberty  of  Prophesying'  (that  is  of  interpretation) 
is  the  most  popular  in  the  second  division  of  Taylor's  writ  • 


T  A  Y 

ings.  A  very  good  sketch  of  it  will  be  found  in  the  third 
volume  of  Mr.  Hallam's  '  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of 
Europe,  and  a  more  detailed  one  in  the  first  volume  of 
Ilcher's  edition  of  Taylor's  works.  But  the  discourse  itself 
is  not  lone;,  and  will  well  repay  the  reading.  It  consider- 
ably diminishes  the  admiration  with  which  we  are  disposed 
to  connect  this  production  of  Taylor  with  the  man,  his 
order,  and  the  times,  when  we  take  into  account  the  motives 
which  he  afterwards  assigned  for  its  publication.  '  In  the 
dedication  to  Lord  Hatton  of  the  collective  edition  of  his 
controversial  writings  after  the  Restoration,  he  declares  that 
when  a  persecution  did  arise  against  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, he  intended  to  make  a  reservation  for  his  brethren 
and  himself,  by  pleading  for  a  liberty  to  our  consciences  to 
persevere  in  that  profession,  which  was  warranted  by  all 
the  laws  of  God  and  our  superiors.'  (Hallam,  Introduction 
tn  the,  Lit>'/-"fnrr  ></'  /•>;•'/  e,  vol.  iii.,  p.  11G.)  Bishop 
Heber  has  vindicated  Taylor  from  the  charge  of  tergiversa- 
tion, founded  not  upon  the  above  testimony  which  Taylor 
himself  furnishes,  but  upon  the  character  of  his  procecd- 

when  episcopacy  w'as  restored.  If  we  must,  allow  in 
reference  to  his  Sermon  preached  before  the  Irish  Privy 
Council,  that  the  obedience  which  he  there  insists  upon  is 
only,  as  Bishop  Heber  suggests,  that  obedience  to  the  laws 
of  ecclesiastical  superiors  which  is  paid  by  the  members 
(clergy '>  of  their  own  communion  ;  and  that  il  is  in  fact  no 
more  than  the  privilege  (which  every  Christian  society 
rxeits  and  mu»t  exert  for  its  own  preservation) to  have  the 
offices  of  its  ministry  supplied  by  such  men  as  conform  to 
the  regulation  imposed  by  the  body  at  large  on  those  to 
whom  its  powers  are  delegated  ;  we  ought  to  add  that  this 

.1  tic, u  is  left  in  much  ambiguity;  that  principles  are 
maintained  with  a  much  more  general  signification  than 
this  explanation  allows;  and,  in  one  word,  upon  ninety- 
nine  out  of  a  hundred  readers  the  sermon  before  the  Irish 
Pri\  v  Council  would  produce  impressions  totally  incon- 
sistent witli  those  derived  from  the  '  Discourse  on  the 
Liberty  of  Prophesying.'  After  expressing  his  sorrow  at 

g  the  horrid  mischiefs  which  come  from  rebellion  and 

.'•••,  and  his  hopes  of  better  things,  the  bishop  of 

Down  and  Connor  proceeds  in  his  sermon  before  the  Privy 

( 'oimril  to  siiy  that,  he  sees  no  objection  '  against  his  hopes 

but  that  which  ought  least  of  all  in  this  case  to  be  pretended  :  i 

;ireteml  conscience  against  obedience,  expressly  against 
St.  Paul's  doctrine  teaching  us  to  obey  for  conscience  sake ; 
but  to  disobey  for  conscience  in  a  thing  indifferent  is  nev  cr 
to  IK;  found  in  the  books  of  our  religion.  It  is  very-  hard 
when  the  prince  is  forced  to  say  to  his  rebellious  subjects, 
I  did  to  his  stubborn  people,  'Quid  faciam  tibi '.''  '  I 
have  tried  all  the  ways  I  can  to  bring  ihee  home,  and  what 
shall  I  now  do  unto  thee  ?'  The  subject  should  rather  say. 
'  Quid  me  vis  facere  T  '  What  wilt  tliou  have  me  to  do  .'" 
This  question  is  the  best  end  of  disputations.  '  Corrwm- 
pitur  atque  dissohitur  impcrantis  offickim.  si  quis  ad  id 
quod  facere  ju.ssus  c-,1.  non  obscqnio  debito,  sed  eonsilio 
non  considerato,  respondeat,'  said  one  in  A.  Gellius  :  When 
a  subject  is  commanded  to  obey,  and  he  disputes,  and  says, 

•  \a\  . 'ihcr  i-  better,'  he  is  like  a  servant  that 

-  his  master  necessary  counsel  when  he  requires  of  him 
a  necessary  obedience.  '  Utilius  parere  edicto  quam  efferre 

ilium;'  'he  had  better  obey  than  give  counsel;'  by 
how  much  it  is  better  to  be  profitable  than  to  be  witty,  to 
lie  full  of  goodness  rather  than  full  of  talk  and  argument.' 
..  in  the  .-ame  sermon,  he  distinguishes  between 
a  'tender  conscience,'  which  is  such  in  reference  to  age  or 
ignorance,  or  of  '  new  beginners,'  and  that  which  is  the 

•  tenderness  of  a  boil ;  that  is  soreness  indeed,  rather  than 
tcmlcnies-.   i,  of  the  diseased,  the  abused,  and  the  ini-per- 

1.'     The  first  is.  to  lie  dealt  tenderly  with.     '  But  for 
that    tenderrress   of  conscience  which  is  the  dUeaa 

i  a  conscience,  it  must  be  cured  by  anodynes  and 
soft  nances,  unless  they  prove  ineffective,  and  that  the 
lancet  may  be  necessary.' 

Mr.  Haflam  refers  to  the  'DuctorDubitantiuni'  as  the  most 
extensive  and  learned  work  on  casuistry  which    has  ap- 
Knglish   language.     '  As  its  title  shows,   it 
treats  of  subjective  morality,  or  the  guidance   of  the  con- 
lint  this  cannot  be  much  discussed  without  esta- 
blishing some  principles   of  objective  right   and  wrong, 
some   standard  bv  which  the  conscience  is  to  be   ruled. 
"  The  who  rule  of  conscience,"  according  to 

Taylor,  "is  the  Inw  of  God,  or  God's  will  signified  to 
nature   or  revelation;  and   by  the   several    ma 


T  A  Y 

times  and  parts  of  its  communication  it  hath  obtained  se- 
veral names:  the  law  of  nature,  the  consent  of  nations, 
right  reason,  the  Decalogue,  the  sermon  of  Christ,  the 
canons  of  the  apostles,  the  laws  ecclesiastical  and  civil  of 
princes  and  governors,  expressed  by  proverbs  and  other 
instances  and  manners  of  public  honesty.  .  .  .  These  being 
the  full  measures  of  right  and  wrong,  of  lawful  and  un- 
lawful, will  be  the  rule  of  conscience  and  the  subject  of 
the  present  book."  The  heterogeneous  combination  of 
things  so  different  in  nature  and  authority,  as  if  they  were 
all  expressions  of  the  law  of  God,  does-tiot  augur  well  for 
the  distinctness  of  Taylor's  moral  philosophy,  and  would  be 
disadvantageous^  compared  with  the  Ecclesiastical  Polity 
of  Hooker.  Nor  are  we  deceived  in  the  anticipations  we 
might  draw.  With  many  of  Taylor's  excellencies,  his  vast 
fertility,  and  his  frequent  acuteness,  the  "Ductor  Dubitan- 
tium "  exhibits  his  characteristic  defects :  the  waste  of 
quotations  is  even  greater  than  in  his  other  writings,  and 
his  own  exuberance  of  mind  degenerates  into  an  intole- 
rable prolixity.  His  solution  of  moral  difficulties  is  often 
unsatisfactory  ;  after  an  accumulation  of  argument  and 
authorities  we  have  the  disappointment  to  perceive  that 
the  knot  is  neither  untied  nor  cut  ;  there  seems  a  want  of 
close  investigation  of  principles,  a  frequent  confusion  and 
obscurity,  which  Taylor's  two  chief  faults,  excessive  dis- 
play of  erudition  and  redundancy  of  language,  conspire  to 
produce.  .  .  .Taylor  seems  inclined  to  side  with  those  who 
resolve  all  right  and  wrong  into  the  positive  will  of  God. 
The  law  of  nature  he  defines  to  be  "the  universal  law  of 
the  world  or  of  mankind,  to  which  we  are  inclined  by 
nature,  invited  by  consent,  prompted  by  reason,  but  whici'i 
is  bound  upon  u.;  only  by  the  command  of  God."  Though 
in  the  strict  meaning  of  the  word  law,  this  may  be  truly 
said,  it  was  surely  required,  considering  the  large  sense 
which  that  word  has  obtained  as  coincident  with  moral 
right,  that  a  fuller  explanation  should  be  given  than  Taylor 
has  even  intimated,  lest  the  goodness  of  the  Deity  should 
seem  something  arbitrary  and  precarious.  And,  though 
in  maintaining  against  most  of  the  scholastic  metaphy- 
sicians that  God  can  dispense  with  the  precepts  of  the  DC 
calogue,  he  may  be  substantially  right,  yet  his  rca 
seem  by  no  means  the  clearest  and  most  satisfactory  that. 
might  be  assigned.  It  maybe  added,  that  in  his  prolix 
rules  concerning  what  he  calls  a  probable  conscience,  'he, 
comes  very  near  to  the  much-decried  theories  of  the 
Jesuits.  There  was  indeed  a  vein  of  subtlety  in  Taylor's 
understanding  which  was  not  always  without  influence  on 
his  candour.'  (Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  /y, 
chap,  iv.,  vol.  iv.) 

Bishop  Heber  has  also  remarked  on  some  of  Taylor's 
positions  to  the  same  effect ;  instancing  his  admission  that. 
private  evil  maybe  done  by  public  men  and  for  the  public 
necessity;  his  justification  on  moral  grounds  of  the  sup- 
posed fraud  of  the  children  of  Israel  in  borrowing  je 
of  the  Egyptians  without  any  intent ion  of  restoring  them. 
•In  t  lie  first  chapter  of  the  third  book,  which  treats  <«f 
human  laws  and  their  obligations,  a  case  occurs  in  illus- 
tration of  Rule  iv.,  that  "  a  law  founded  on  a  false  pre- 
sumption does  not  bind  the  conscience,"  in  which  the 
Romish  canonists  seem  to  have  given  a  more  just  decision 
than  Taylor :  Biretti,  a  Venetian  gentleman,  pretends  a 
desire  to  marry  Julia  Medici,  the  daughter  of  a  neighbour, 
with  a  purpose  to  seduce  and  desert  her.  A  contract  is 
made  ;  but  before  its  execution  he  gains  his  end,  ami 
leaving  her,  marries  another.  The  canonists  clr 
former  contract,  followed  by  congress,  to  be  a  mama  ire, 
and  that  he  is  bound  to  return  to  Julia.  "No,". 
Taylor,  "  if  he  did  not  lie  with  her,  '  affectu  maritali,'  "  he 
was  extremely  impious  and  unjust;  but  he.  made  no  mar- 
riage; for  without  mutual  consent  marriages  arc  not 
made."'  To  these  illustrations, adduced  by  Heber,  may  be 
added  another,  referred  to  elsewhere:  Rule  xi.,  484,  he 
maintains  the  right,  of  using  arguments  and  authorities  in 
controversy  which  we  do  not  believe  to  be  valid ;  a  rule 
of  which  'he  appears  to  have  taken  advantage;  for, 'in 
the  Di'l'i'iin'  «f  Episcopacy,  published  in  1642,  he.  main- 
tains the  authenticity  of  the  first  fifty  of  the  apostolic  . 
canons,  all  of  which,  'in  the  "  Liberty  of  Prophesyin:  . 
very  few  years  afterwards,  he  indiscriminately  rejects.' 
-Hallam.;  " 

On  devotional  subjects  the  character  of  Taylor's  mind 
lifted  him  to  write  with  most  success.  In  these  we  find 
his  most  glowing  language,  his  aptest  illustrations;  and 


T  A    V 


124 


T  A  Y 


'whether  1  -  tin-  duties,  or  dangers,  or  In 

nmn,  or  tli-  ower,  nnd  justice  nl'  the  Most  High  : 

whether  hi'  exhorts  or  instructs  liis  brethren,  or  offers  up 
his  ittpplicaiions  in  their  behalf  to  the  common  Kiillu-r  of 
all.  Ilia  conn-plums  nnd  his  expresriont  belong  to  the 
litftii-st  and  nio-l  sacred  description  of  poetry,  of  which  they 
only  wiiut  what  they  cannot  be  said  to  need, the  name  and 
the"  metrical  arrangement.'  'Hfber,  Life  mi<l  H'urks  of 
Jrrrtnti  Taylor.  15  vols.,  1820-22.) 

TAYLOR,  JOHN,  best  known  by  the  title,  which  he 
-  1. 1  have  given  to  himself,  of  Thf  ll'n'fr-l'ix-t  -The 
Kind's  Majesty's  Water-Poet'1,  was  born  in  the  city  of 
Gloucester  in  the  year  13HO.  His  education  was  limited, 
for  he  himself  informs  us  that  he  was  '  travelled' in  his 
•  Aci-uleiu-e,'  and  could  iret  no  farther.  He  came  to  Lon- 
don, and  was  bound  apprentice  to  a  waterman,  an  occu- 
pation from  which  he  derived  his  title  of  •  \\ 'ater-1'oet,' 
and  which  afforded  him  the  means  of  subsistence  during 
a  great  part  of  his  life.  He  had  however  for  fifteen  or  six- 
teen  years  some  situation  in  the  Tower  of  London  ;  and  he 
afterwards  kept  n  public-house  in  Phoenix-Alley,  Long 
Acre.  Being  an  enthusiastic  royalist,  when  Charles  1. 
was  beheaded  he  hung  up  the  sign  of  the  Mourning  Crown, 
which  however  he  was  compelled  to  take  down,  and  he 
then  supplied  its  place  by  a  portrait  of  himself,  with  the 
following  couplet  under  it : — 

.'  There'*  many  a  kind's  hr.nl  Imnij'tl  up  for  a  sl~n. 
And  many  a  taint'*  head  tuo:  thoti  why  Dot  miuc  :' 

Taylor  was  not  satisfied  with  the  distinction  which  his 
literary  productions  procured  for  him :  he  was  fond  of 
fixing  public  attention  by  other  extraordinary  perform- 
ance. He  once  undertook  to  sail  from  London  to  Ro- 
chester in  a  boat  made  of  paper,  b\it  the  water  found  its 
way  into  his  l>oat  before  he  reached  his  destination,  and 
he  had  some  difficulty  to  pet  safe  ashore.  A  journey 
which  he  performed  by  land  is  described  in  one  of  his 
tracts,  entitled  'The  Pennyless  Pilgrimage,  or  the  Money- 
less Penunbulation  of  John  Taylor,  alias  the  King's  Ma- 
jesty's \Vater-Poet;  how  he  travelled  on  foot  from  London 
to  Edinburgh  in  Scotland,  not  carrying  any  money  to  or 
fro.  neither  begsring,  borrowing,  or  asking  meat,  drink,  or 
lodging.'  He  left  •  the  Bell  Inn  that's  extra  Alders^ate' 
on  the  14th  of  July,  1018.  A  full  account  of  this  journey, 
abstracted  from  Taylor's  pamphlet,  is  given  in  the  •  Penny 
Magazine,'  Nos.  022  and  623.  He  was  attended  by  a 
servant  with  a  horse,  and  they  had  a  small  stock  of  pro- 
visions and  provender,  which  more  than  once  relieved 
them  when  the  occasional  inhospitality  which  they  met 
with  had  reduced  them  to  the  extremity  of  hunger.  His 
course  was  through  St.  Albans,  Stony  Stratford,  Coventry, 
Liehtield,  Newcastle-under-Lyne,  Manchester,  Preston, 
istcr,  Penrith,  Carlisle,  Kdinbursih,  Dunfermline, 
Stirling,  Perth;  and  being  then  in  the  Highlands,  he  had 
an  opportunity  of  teeing,  at  •  the  Brae  o'  Mar.' one  of  those 
u'reat  deer-hunts  which  were  then  frequent  in  that  part  of 
S  -utland,  and  of  which  he  gives  in  his  pamphlet  an  enter- 
taining and  picturesque  description.  The  whole  journey 
till  his  return  to  London  occupied  about  three  months. 
But  a  sort  of  voyage  which  he  afterwards  performed  was 
apparently  not  less  difficult.  He  published,  us  usual,  an 
account,  of  it  himself,  'John  Taylors  last  Voyage  and  Ad- 
venture, performed  from  the  20th  of  July  last,  1041,  to 
the  10th  of  September  following  ;  in  which  time  he  | 
with  a  sculler's  boat  from  the  citie  of  London  to  the  cities 
and  townes  of  Oxford,  Gloucester,  Shrewsbury,  Bristol. 
Bathe,  Monmouth,  and  Hereford.'  From  this  title  it  might 
be  supposed  that  he  went  all  the  way  by  water,  i 
which,  seeing  the  courses  of  the  rivers,  and  the  want  of 
canals  in  those  days,  was  an  obvious  impossibility  :  but 
the  fact  is,  that  when  a  river  cea-ed  to  be  navigable,  or 
ran  in  a  wrong  direction,  he  shipped  his  boat  and  himself 
in  a  wain  or  waggon,  and  voyaged  overland  till  he  came 
to  another  river  which  suited  his  purpose:  still  a  irreat 
part  of  the  voyage  was  performed  by  water,  and  thus,  to 
use  his  own  words,  'in  lesse  than  twenty  da\s"  labour, 
1200  miles  were  parsed  to  and  fro,  in  most'  hard,  difficult, 
and  many  dangerous  pu-siycs ' 

Taylor  died  in  1051,  in   his  7~>lh  Mar,  and  was  buried  in 
the  church-yard  of  Covent-Oarden,  London. 

His  publications,  which  amount  to  upwards  of  eiirhty, 
*r*  some  in  prose,  some  in  ver»e,  and  rr.any  both  in 
•.'«!  verse.     A»  literary  productions  they  are  of  little  or  no 
value,  the  ver»e  mere  doggrel,  and  the  prose  such  as  might 


be  expected  from  a  writer  not  without  observation.  I 

no  great  power  of  mind,  and  almost  entirely  n 

Still  they  are  by  no  means  without  their  value.    Nearly  all 

of  them  beinir  short  occasional  productions  a'i 

the   circumstances  in  which  he   was   plae, 

many  curious  descriptions,  as  well  as  intci, 

of  the  opinions  and  manners  and  general  .-•  ..  .  icly 

of  the  times  in  which  he  lived.     Sir  Kirerton  Bruises,  in 

1  Vnsura  Litteraria,'  has  given  a  full  li-t   . 
writing,  and  a  tolerably  copious  one  is  also  given  in  V. 
•  Bibliothec*.  Britannica.' 

Baker's  liinyriijiltiu  Dramnlini,  by  K«rd  and  Joii' 
which  work  he  has  obtained  a  place  in  conscquci] 
having  written  a  pageant,  'Triumphs  of  Fame  and  II.,- 
nour,'  -it.'..  li::u. 

TAYLOR.  SILAS,  otherwise  called  Domville,  or  IVOm- 
ville,   by  Antony  Wood,  was  the   sun  of  Svlvanus  Taylor, 
one  of  the  commissioners  during  the  civil  war- 
in^  those  of  the  clergy  called  •  scandalous  and  insufl 
ministers.'     Silas  Taylor  was  born  at  Harley  near  Much- 
Wenlock,  in  Shropshire,  July  10,    1024,  and  after  ! 
educated  at  Shrewsbury  and  Westminster  school 
a  commoner  of  New  Inn  Hall  at  Oxford  in  Kill.     II 
taken  thence  by  his  father  to  join  the  parliamentary  arnn, 
in  which  he  had  a  captain's  commission.     After  the  war 
he  was  appointed  by  the  interest  of  his  fall  '-ator 

of  the  royalists  in  Herefordshire,  in  discharge  of  which 
office  he  conducted  himself  with  so  much  modeiah 
to  conciliate  the  kinir's  party.  Part  of  the  bishop's  palace 
at  Hereford  fell  to  his  own  share  in  the  general  spoliation, 
and  he  acquired  considerable  wealth,  all  of  which  he  was 
compelled  to  restore  at  the  Restoration. 

On  that  event  he  was  treated  by  the  royalists  with  : 
lenity,  and  appointed  commissary  of  ammunition.   Si 
Dunkirk,  and  about  1G65  made  keeper  of  the  king's  stores 
and   storehouses  for  shipping  at  Harwich.     lie  died   .No- 
vember 4,    1078.  and  was  buried  at  Harwich.     Taylor  was 
much  interested  in  the  antiquities  of  bis  country,  and  was 
enabled  in  the  confusion  of  the  civil  ware  to  ransack  (he- 
libraries  of  Hereford  and  "Worcester  cathedrals,  and  in  the. 
course  of  these  resi  arches  is  said  to   have  discovere  i 
original  charter  in  which  King  Kdirar  asserts  his  claim  to 
the  sovereignty  of  the   seas,  which   is  printed   in  Sc' 
'  Mare  Clausum,'  lib.  ii.     He  left  materials  lor  a  ]•.-. 
of  Herefordshire,   which  afterwards   came  into  the   h 
of  Sir  Edward  Harley  of  Bntmpton  Brian  in  that  county. 
To  this  collection  belong  Nos.  4()10,  4174.  <i7'ji;.  07111;. 
C856,  and  G8C8  of  the  Harlcian   MSS.,  containing  pail  of 
a   ircneral    history  with  notes  and  special  topographical 
::ition    under    the   several     parishes,    c\liacts    from 
'Domesday,'  Leland,   tec.     From  these  papers  Mr.  'Wil- 
liam Brome,  a  subsequent    collector  tor  the  same  county, 
is  said  to  have  borrowed  largely.      flou;;!  '"'';/" 

HO/AS,  'Herefordshire.')    In  tl 

MSS.   is   a   paper  of  Taylor's    on  the  making  of  cider. 
' 


(Ayscough's  Ciitiiltixiir,  'Tail  lor.*) 

His  published  woiks  are,  'The  History  of  (iavelKiud  — 
with   some   observation:,   and    remarks  upon    many  s)  - 

occurrences  of  British   and  Kn^lish   histmv.    T,'i  t 

added  a  shoit  hislon  -of  William  the  <  'oni|iieror,  written 
in  Latin  by  an  anonymous  author  in  the  time  of  Henry  1.,' 
London.  l'W;;t.  4lo.  ' 

A  Hisloiy  of  Harwich  was  published  from  his  pajn 
Samuel   Da'le,  in    1~JC,  and   another  edition,  or  the  same 
with  another  title  page,  London,  17-12. 

Wood  (Athfii.  i  LI  that  Taylor  wrote  many 

pamphlets  before  the  Restoration,   but  without  his  name  ; 
that    he  \v:is  a  '.rood  classical    scholar  and   mathematician, 
and  possessed  of  much  general  information:    th.it    In 
an    <  vr'Icnt    musician,    and    that    he    compo-' 
anthems,  anil  edited  '  Court  Ayres,'  &C.,  It  Mitcd 

bv  John  I'lavluid. 

'TAYLOR,  BROOK;  TAYLORS  THKORFM.  In 
rctcning  all  mailers  conncete<l  with  iilirehiaical  devel<ip- 
menl  to  TVYI.OK'S  TIIKORKM,  we  were  partly  moved  by 
the  idea  that  so  little  was  known  of  the  life  of  the  dis"- 
co\crcrof  that,  theorem,  that  the  additional  space  required 
by  our  plan  would  not  a]iiuiir  more  than  was  due  10  the 
eelchritv  of  the  subject.  We  timl  oursches  however  \  cry 
much  deceived  in  two  point!.,  since  both  the  hist, 

-i-id  that  of  his  theorem,  are  to  be,  and 
ran  be,  reccnered  from  the  neirlect  into  which  they  have 
fallen,  at  least  in  this  country. 


T  A  Y 


125 


T  A  Y 


Nothing  is  said  of  Brook  Taylor  in  the  '  Biographia 
Britannica,'  or  Martin's  '  Biographia  Philosophica  ;'  and 
Hutton,  &c.,  give  nothing  but  the  date  of  his  birth  and 
death*  entrance  into  college  and  the  Royal  Society.  The 
x  Biographic  Universelle'  was  the  first  work  which  gave 
any  detail  of  his  life,  and  this  is  due  to  the  following  cir- 
cumstance :  —  In  1790,  some  members  of  the  French  Aca- 
demy, struck  with  the  scantiness  of  the  existing  informa- 
tion relative  to  so  celebrated  a  man,  requested  Mr.  William 
Seward  to  make  some  inquiry  on  the  subject  in  England. 
This  gentleman  applied  to  Sir  William  Young,  Brook 
Taylor's  grandson,  who  accordingly  drew  up  an  account* 
of  his  ancestor  from  family  materials,  and  printed  and  cir- 
culated it  privately.  It  is  from  this  work  that  the  follow- 
ing account  is  taken,  as  to  the  facts  of  his  private  life  :  — 

lirook  Taylor  was  born  at  Edmonton,  August  18,  1685, 
and  was  the  son  of  John  Taylor,  of  Bifrons  House  in  Kent, 
liy  Olivia,  daughter  of  Sir  Nicholas  Tempest,  of  Durham, 
Baronet.  John  Taylor  was  the  son  of  Nathaniel,  who,  to 
use  a  phrase  of  his  ownt  diary,  'tugged  and  wrestled  with 
the  Lord  in  prayer,'  and  was  member  (elected  by  Crom- 
well's summons;  for  the  county  of  Bedford  in  the  (Bare- 
bones)  parliament  of  1653.  Brook  Taylor's  father  was 
the  most  despotic  of  parents  :  his  son  was  educated  at 
home,  where,  besides  enough  of  the  usual  learning  to 
enable  him  to  begin  residence  at  St.  John's,  Cambridge, 
in  1701,  he  became  excellent  both  in  music  and  painting. 
'  His  numerous  family  were  generally  proficient  in  music, 
but  the  domestic  hero  of  the  art  was  the  subject  of  this 
memoir.  In  a  large  family  picture  he  is  represented,  at 
the  nge  of  thirteen,  sitting  in  the  centre  of  his  brothers 
and  sisters,  the  two  elder  of  whom  crown  him  with  laurel 
bearing  the  insignia  of  harmony.'  The  paintings  of  the 
future  writer  on  perspective  are  represented  as  not  needing 
the  allowance  always  made  for  amateurs,  but  as  capable 
of  bearing  the  closest  scrutiny  of  artists.  At  Cambridge 
he  applied  himself  to  mathematics,  and  acquired  early  the 
notice  of  Keil,  Machin,  and  others.  His  first  writing  was 
on  the  centre  of  oscillation,  in  1708,  as  appears  by  a  letter 
to  Keil  afterwards  given  in  Phil.  Trans.,  1713,  No.  337).  In 
1  709  he  took  the  degree  of  I.L.B.,  in  1714  that  of  LL.D.  :  in 
I712hewaselected  to  the  Royal  Society.  As  yet  he  had  pub- 
lished nothing:  his  letters  to  Machin  (preserved  in  his  fa- 
mily ,  from  1709  to  1712.  treat  of  various  subjects;  and,  in 
particular,  contain  a  solution  of  Kepler's  problem.  We  may 
here  conveniently  put  together  a  complete  list  of  his  works. 

In  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  1712  (No.  33C),  On 
the  ascent  of  water  between  two  glass  planes  ;  1713 
(No.  337),  On  the  centre  of  oscillation  ;  also  on  the  mo- 
tion of  a  vibrating  string  :  in  the  same  year,  a  paper  on 
Music,  not  printed.  1713  (No.  344),  Account  of  experi- 
ment made  with  Hawksbee  on  the  law  of  attraction  of  the 
magnet.  1717  (No.  352),  Method  of  Approximation  to 
the  roots  of  equations;  (No.  353)  Appendix  to  Mont- 
mort  on  infinite  series;  (No.  354)  Solution  of  a  problem 
proposed  by  Leibnitz.  1719  (No.  360),  Reply  to  the  accu- 
.-ittions  of  John  Bernoulli.  1721  (No.  367"),  Propositions 
on  the  parabolic  motion  of  projectiles  ;  (No.  368)  Expe- 
riments on  magnetism.  1723  (No.  376),  On  the  expansion 
of  the  thermometer.  Besides  these,  the  separate  publi- 
cations are  :  — 

1715.  Methodus  incrementorum  directa  et  inversa.  Lon- 
dini. 

1715.  Linear  perspective,  or  a  new  method  of  represent- 
ing justly  all  manner  of  objects  as  they  appear  to  the  eye 
in  all  situations.  London. 

1719.  New  principles  of  Linear  perspective,  or  the  art 
of  designing  on  a  plane  the  representations  of  all  sorts  of 
objects  in  a  more  general  and  simple  method  than  has 
done  before.  London.  A  different  work  from  the 


former:  its  second  edition  (called  the  third,  by  an  obvious 
mistake)  bears  '  revised  and  corrected  by  John  Colson, 
London,  1749.'  Joshua  Kirby's  well-known  work,  though 
culled  Brook  Taylor's  perspective,  is  not  an  edition  of 
Taylor,  but  a  new  work  founded  on  his  methods. 

•  •  Not  publinhrtl.  Contemplatio  Philo-'oiihica;  a  jK^lhiimons  work  of  tho 
Ule  Brook  T:i'  lor.  I.L.I)..  F.ll  S.,  Rome  linn-  secretary  of  the  Uo>al  Society. 
Tow  hi-  h  i-  pn'li  \.-.l  a  Lite  of  tin:  author,  by  liii  ;.'VIM<|-[.H.  Sir  William  YUMI',.. 
Hurt.  F.K.S.,  A.SS.,  \»ilh  ;in  anjjemlix,  containing  Mindly  original  ii.qjcjs, 
.rul  .ti,  |  rinf-'l  liy  W.  Hiilmcr  nnil  t'o.,  shakspcrue  I'rint'iiiL'  -illi'-c,  17'.i;{  ' 
Th.'  n«.  r.unt  !fh'-n  h>  I'l-.ii',  in  thr  '  l;in;:r.i]>lii>'  I  "nn  (TM'lle  '  (l^Jt'O  is,  we  are 
aimo-it  Min-,  out-  drawn  tip  .-it  tlie  tim"  from  Sir  W.  Young's  manirri  i:,i  ..n-^nttt 
m  for  !  sentences  inserted  just  before  i  ul) 

t  Hi*  ^rnn«lv>t)'t  l*|'tisrnal  name  waa  probably  in  memory  of  the  noted 
puritan,  Lord  Brouk. 


In  January,  1714,  he  was  chosen  secretary  of  the  Ko.yal 
Society.  In  1716  he  visited  Kits  friends  Montmort  anil 
Cpnti  at  Paris.  He  had  just  had  a  warm  correspondence 
with  the  former  on  the  Newtonian  doctrine,  and  on  the 
tenets  of  Malebranche.*  His  posthumous  work,  or  rather 
tract,  the  '  Contcmplatio  Philosophical  seems  to  contain 
his  latest  thoughts  on  the  opinions  of  Malebranche  and 
Leibnitz.  In  France  he  formed  the  acquaintance  of  Bi- 
shop Bossuet  and  Lord  and  Lady  Bolingbroke,  with  all  of 
whom  Sir  W.  Young  has  printed  some  of  the  correspon- 
dence. He  returned  to  England  in  February,  1717;  but 
his  health  was  now  impaired,  and,  throwing  up  the  secre- 
taryship in  October,  1718,  he  retired  to  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
On  returning  to  England  early  in  1719,  he  seems  to  have 
abandoned  the  mathematics  almost  entirely:  among  his 
papers  of  this  period  are  essays  on  Jewish  Sacrifices,  and 
on  the  lawfulness  of  eating  blood.  At  the  end  of  1720  he 
went  to  visit  Lord  Bolingbroke  at  La  Source,  near  Or- 
leans, and  returned  to  England  in  1721.  After  the  middle 
of  this  year  he  wrote  nothing  for  publication,  nor  could  his 
grandson  find  anything  of  a  mathematical  character  among 
his  papers,  with  the  exception  of  reference  to  a  treatise  on 
logarithms,  which  it  seems  he  had  placed  in  the  hands  of 
his  friend  Lord  Paisley  (afterwards  Abercorn)  to  prepare 
for  the  press,  but  which  was  never  printed. 

At  the  end  of  1721  he  married  a  young  lady  of  small 
fortune,  a  circumstance  which  occasioned  a  rupture  with 
his  father.  Some  months  after  his  marriage,  and  when 
there  appeared  hope  of  issue,  his  wife  was  informed  that 
the  birth  of  a  son  would  probably  accomplish  a  reconcilia- 
tion between  her  husband  and  his  father.  On  this  she  fixed 
her  mind  with  such  earnestness,  that  on  finding  herself 
in  due  time  actually  delivered  of  a  son,  she  '  literally  died 
of  joy :'  the  infant  also  perished.  This  melancholy  event 
led  to  the  reconciliation  the  hope  of  which  had  caused  it, 
but  not  till  the  autumn  of  1723.  Dr.  Taylor  returned  to 
his  father's  house,  and  in  1725,  with  his  father's  consent, 
married  the  daughter  of  a  neighbouring  proprietor.  In 
1729  he  succeeded  to  the  family  estate  by  the  death  of  his 
father,  and  in  the  following  year  his  wife  died  in  giving 
birth  to  a  daughter,  afterwards  the  mother  of  the  writer  of 
the  memoir  from  which  we  cite.  This  blow  was  fatal ; 
Lord  Bolingbroke,  now  settled  again  in  England,  endea- 
voured to  divert  the  thoughts  of  his  friend  by  inducing 
him  to  pass  some  time  in  his  house,  but  in  about  a  year 
after  the  stroke,  Dr.  Taylor  died  of  decline  (in  London,  we 
suppose),  December  29,  1731,  and  was  buried  in  the 
churchyard  of  Saint  Anne's,  Soho.  The  family  estate  of 
Bifrons  is  still  in  the  possession  of  the  descendants  of  his 
brother  Herbert. 

We  shall  dismiss  other  points  with  brief  notice,  and  as 
well  known,  in  older  to  come  to  the  history  of  the  theorem : 
such  are  the  celebrity  of  Taylor's  solution  of  the  problem 
of  vibrating  chords,  the  questions  he  proposed  to  the 
foreign  mathematicians  in  the  war  of  problems,  his  answer 
tn  those  of  Leibnitz,  the  accusation  of  plagiarism  made 
against  him  by  John  Bernoulli,  and  his  reply.  With 
reference  to  the  celebrated  works  on  perspective,  the  first 
was  mathematital,  the  second  intended  for  artists  who 
hardly  knew  anything  of  geometry.  Bernoulli  charged 
Taylor  with  having  taken  his  method  from  another,  and 
Prony  states  that  it  is  in  fact  the  one  given  byGuidoUbaldi, 
though  he  thinks  Taylor  could  not  have  seen  that  method. 
The  work  referred  to  is  '  Guidi  Ubaldi  Perspectives  Libri 
Sex,'_Pisauri,  1600,  at  which  we  have  looked  in  conse- 
quence. Nothing  is  more  easy  than  assertion  about  old 
books  :  if  Prony  had  really  looked  attentively  at  the  works 
of  Ubaldi  and  of  Taylor  together,  he  would  nave  seen  that 
whereas  the  formert  only  introduced  the  use  of  vanishing 
points  as  to  lines  which  are  horizontal  (the  picture  being 
vertical),  Taylor  introduced  the  method  of  vanishing  points 
for  all  lines  whatsoever,  and  made  them  of  universal  appli- 
cation. We  cannot  think  that  he  had  never  seen  LIbaldi's 
work  :  a  man  of  learning,  an  artist  from  early  youth,  was 
not  likely  to  be  ignorant  of  so  celebrated  a  production. 
He  must  have  seen,  and  generalized,  the  method  given  by 
Ubaldi.  If  indeed  any  one  between  the  two  is  asserted  to 
have  a  claim,  that  claim,  when  proposed,  must  be  dis- 
cussed :  but  a  general  charge  of  plagiarism  from  John 
Bernoulli  is  literally  no  more  than  a  record  of  the  fact  that 

*  Fontenpllc,  in  his  Kloge  of  Malebranche,  says  that  the  *  Kecherche  cle  la 
Vi'riliV  was  translate*!  into  I'.iiylish  liy  a  relative  of  Taylor  of  the  same  name. 

+  'Hie  very  title  pfi^e  of  tTbaUH's  work  announces  by  a  diagram  that  its 
distinctive  feature  is  the  use  of  vanuliing  points  all  at  the  height  of  the  eve. 


.    AY 


'•-'•' 


T  A  v 


ft  MI) 

bMH  « 

\    „:,',!,„ 

It  ii  not 


had  n  quarrel. 
w  Inn-  in  that 

-:eral 


used  tfii    part  ien!;ir  u'M  lav  lor  th- 

lible  tlmt  Ubnliti  »•»• 

ution.  or  if  In-  VMTC  so.  Sti  -  in  rjifiiu 

wa*  published  in  KiOSl  vras  not  ;*  hut  Stevinns  did  not 
tut  any  •»«  vcept  tho-c  ni  li-u-s  parallel  to 

the  ground,  nor  t'lialili  neither:  while  Taylor  did  i/*r 
thrill,  which  i-  the  di-tim-tive  feature  of  his  -\  stem.  Airain. 
it  is  ;  in  favour  of  Taylor's  orifrinalitv 

in  this  point,  tlmt  works  published  abroad  shortly  ailer  hi> 
time  do  not  contain  it.  For  example.  Hie  •  K 
Kmleitun;;  zur  1'erspectiv,  von  J.  ('.  Bischott',  1711,'  a 
quarter  of  a  century  after  the  time  of  Taylor's  publication, 
contains  no  use  of  vanishing  points  except  at  the  height  of 
the  i 

The  Mfthntlit*  Iiicrementorwn  is  the  first  treatise  in 
which  what  U  at  this  day  called  the  calculus  of  finite  dif- 
ferences is,  proposed  for  consideration.  Besides  what  are 
now  the  ni.>st  common  theorems  in  this  subject,  there  are 
various  purely  fluxional  or  infinitesimal  theories,  such  as 
the  change  of  the  independent  variable,  integrations,  .T. 
Bernoulli's  series,  Sec.,  and  various  applications  to  inter- 
polation. the  vibrating  chord,  the  catenary,  dome,  tec.. 
centre  of  oscillation  and  percussion,  law  of  density  of  the 
atmosphere.  refraction  of  li;;ht.  The  first  enunciation  of 
the  celebrated  theorem  is  as  follows:  — 

PROP.  VII.    THEOR.  III. 

Sint  x  et  x  quantitaten  duie  variabilcs.  (juanim  z  unifor- 
miter  aupetur  per  data  incremonta  *,  ct  sit  n:  =  r, 
r  —  z=Y,  V  —  r—  "/•,  et  sic  porro.  Turn  Hieo  (mod  quo 
tem|x>re  :  crescendo  fit  c+r,  :r  item  crescendo  fiet 


Corollary  I.  expresses  the  corresponding  theorem  for  decre- 
ments. 

CdHOLL.    II. 

Si  pro  Incrcmeiitis  evaiiescentihus  scrihantur  (luxiones 

ipsis  proportionales,  factis  jam  omnibus  VV,  V,  r,  ,r,  ,,r. 

i  ijnalibus   quo   tempore    z   uniformiter  fluendo   fit 


x  +.r  —  r  +  .r 

U 


r-  &c. 


vel  mutato  signo  ipsius  r,  quo  tempore  s  decrescendo  fiel 
x— r,  T  decrescendo  fiet 

..•        .*.     *.• 

-,&c. 

Taylor  does  not  make  much  u»e  of  his  own  theorem  in  the 

Mel /i  'iit'iit'inim.  but  lie  shows  bis  command  over 

it  in  the  paper  above  cited  on  the  root*  of  equations,  ii 
which  he  extends  Newton's  method  to  other  than  alge- 
braical equations. 

One  would  have  supposed  that  such  a  theorem  ax  thai 

of  Taylor,  the  instant  it  was  proposed,  would  have  been 

hailcJ  a-  the  best  and  most  useful  of  generalization*.     In- 

•I  of  this,  it  sunk,  or  rather  nev  .11  I.nfrransrt 

pointed  out  its  power.     This  is  perhaps  an  assertion  whiel 

some  may  doubt  :    we  proceed  to  make  it  pood.     The  first 

ciltiei-m   upon    the    whole   work    (without    a   word    nbout 

in    was  that   ol   Leibnitz,   in  u  letter  to  John 

•>ulli    June.  17H>,  vol.  ii.,  p.  38(1,  of  their  corrcspon- 

i  what  sort  of  view  t' 

.-nc''.     The  Iran 

i«ufi?"""'": — ''  '  ed  what  Taylor  calls  his  Method 

the  fac'i"'"'1111'"'^    ^'  's  an  "J'l'h'cation  of  the  differential  and 
^1   calculus  to  iiiniiOKrt,  or  rutfu'r  In  ^nn  nil  MH<'- 
-ain  '   "1US  ''"•'  ''•"tflitli  have  placed  the  horses.  B 

elthe   |i.ovcil>.   behind  the  cart.     1  heiran  the  clirl'e- 
alcultui  from  series  of  numbers  ....  and  so  came 
uerid  calculus  to  the  special  gcome- 
intimtesiiiml   calculus.     They  proceed    the  other 


inn  in  a 


e 
•' 


r,,^'  ;'iey  ha\r  not  the  true  method  ol 

>/!/''•'</  ,  •  It   i>  written  obscurely  enough.'     Hernmilli  on- 


'>/! 

„'  '•"///   ''" 
-  J'1  • 


'  Si  adumhraixlip  |arallcl»  icrUf  pur  vilrcura 

inlnr.  niarum  umlinr  <v>..lt'Mt»Ur  rnnnirn-iit  in 

.<!>•  n*l»  pumllr^l:  «•!  tdOAlbrmBiU!  pivlmrntn 

m  —n-nmu  t*tim  •lutudln* mpn  |mviaminni  mint 


s»ers  (August,  17K;,  I  have  at  lentrth  r 

Taylor's  book.     What,  in  the  n:i 

neau  by  the  darkness  in  uhich   hr  m\u]\ 
hint's!'    No  dc 
far  IL-,  I  can  mnl- 

-tolen  from  me,  through  hi-  •  Tlie 

lotion  of   I.eibnil/   p: • 

our  own  day,  ' 
• 

n  which  pure  a'  and 

phj-ii-.   and   even   a  irem •:  f  existing  then 

ed   in  the  lanjjuaire  of  that  Calculus,  was  a  ; 
lively  errotieou-  mod.  line. 

In  Hritain,  two 
i.  STIRI.IM. 

.  102  repeated  the  theorem  as  gi 
adds  that  Herman  h:i'l 

;  and  a>  '  I7'<i. 

1C,    llelllli, 

considered   an  independent    in\c 
the  apjiendix  to  the  Ph'ir/m 

we'  find  only  the  theorem  in 

r   Principja,  and  John   Bernoulli's  series  for  integration. 
Maclaurin    ' I'lin-inm,  17-12,  p.  010     proved  Taylor's  theo- 
111  the  way  which  has  since  become  common. 
But  both  Stirling  and  Maclaurin  use  only  a  partictilai 
of  Taylor's  theorem,  expanding  not  ^  ('./•  +  ;  >-)-;  . 

or  expanding  <•>;  in  po  N.  it!:er  thuiiu-lit  h 

doing  more  than  proving  Taylor's  th-  :illn- 

bute  the    result   to  Tavlor.      Never! b  .-iilur 

ca*e  has  been  since  called  Mac'aiiiiii  .  h,  if 

not  Taylor's,  it  is  Stirling's.     Macl.iurin'.s  booK 
doubt,  more  read  than  either  of  the  other  two:  it  w:- 
answer   to  Berkeley's   metaphysical   objections,   ami 
tsiined   i;reat.  power  and  vast  store  ol  :  and  this 

may  have  been  the  reason  why  a  theorem  which  wa- 
in, and  best   known  by,  Maclfturin's  book,  shoi: 
called  after  his  name.     It  is  well  that  it  should  be  so,  or 
rather,  it  would  be  well  that  the  development  of  0  i 
in  powers  of  :  should  be   called  by  the  name  of  Stirling  : 
for  in  truth   the  development  of  f  ,"  +  ('''/  in  powers  of  Ii  is 
one  theorem  or  another  in  its  n.-es,  and  in  the  eon-eijneiices 
.  according  as  a  or  b  is  looked  at  a.s  the  principal 

In  the  interval  between  Taylor's  death  and  I 
paper  in  the  Berlin  Memoirs  for   177-,  in  which  he  first 
proposed   to  make  Taylor's  theorem  the  foundation  of  the 
Differentia]    Cah-uhis,    the    the:  hardly    known, 

and  even  when  known,  not  known  :• 
not  find  it  in  II  Fluxions  (1736),  in 

nesi's  Institution-.    171^  .   in  I-amlc- 
1701  ,   in  Simpson's    Fluxions  (1737.  in   Kmerson'k   Iii- 
•7'!:t  .  in  Kmcrxm's  Fluxio 

'ictionaiy     174.'t  ,   nor  in   the  first    edition 
of  Montucla's  History     'l7"'«  .      ^'. 

other  places  in  which  it  should  be,  without 
anywhere,  except  in  the  iri<;i1  French  Encvclopsedu 
tide  •  '  certainly  did  tiiul  it,  mentioned 

only  incidentally,  and  attrihut.  *  than 

net   to  D'Alenibert.     Tli  ;v ho  wrote 

the  jircliiniuaiy  i 

'ime;    though  J  .    when   he   published    Ins 

.    of   mathematics,   he    was   better   informed.     \\Y 

.\vards)  that  Cundorcr  n ..p.:»'.ic 

wa.s  in  the  habit  g  this  the   :cm  to  ]>. Member!  : 

not  with  any  unfair  intention,  hut  in  pure  i  The 

bert  (Krc/ifn-/n:\  .\i/r 
i.  aci-ordin;:  to  1 

'•n-d  h\  a  method  of  tindini;  tht 

it  of  T;i\ '  lain  number  of  terms 

have  1  had  never 

In  fact.  n'Alcmherl  1  if  it  uerc 

;uul  without  me-  '  'lie.  which 

:  :  an  tipinion   in  which  we 

cannot  agree.     1'nl.  n^'lish,  we  can- 

not imagine  how  lie  should  have  known  Tav  lor's  theorem, 
nor  even  then,  unlex,  Taylor.  Stii  bnir.  Maelaurin.  or  an  old 
volumi'  of  the  rhilo-o]ibii-al  Ti ansiiet ion-.  -ed  to 

illen  in  his  way.      \Ve  hav  <•  no  doidil  that  D'Alenibert. 
wa»  a  n«W  discoverer  Of  the  tbeoiem.   jmd    that  ''..udoieet 
.  pi  in  his  writint's.     Our  wonder  rather  is 
where  Lapranee  could  have  found  the  name  of  Taylor  in 


T  A  Y 


127 


T  A  Y 


conn;rxron  with  it.  For  the  use  which  Lagrange  proposei 
la  make  of  it,  see  DIFFERENTIAL  CALCULUS,  and  FUNCTIONS 
THEORY  OF.  From  the  time  of  the  publication  of  the  work 
cited  in  the  article  last  referred  to,  Taylor's  theorem  take 
that  place  which,  if  it  had  always  occupied,  we  should  no 
have  had  to  write  any  history  of  it.  Full  justice  is  don 
to  the  discoverer :  it  only  remains  to  restore  to  Stirling  tin 
view  of  the  theorem  which  has  hitherto  been  given  to 
Maclaurin, 

TAYLOR'S  THEOREM.  We  propose  in  this  part  of  fhe 
article  to  giv  e  some  account  of  the  methods  of  algebraica 
development  which  arc  consequences  of  the  cclebratec 
theorem,  the  history  of  which  is  given  in  the  last  article 
The  simplest  parts  of  the  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus 
will  lie  presumed  known.  It  is  not  usual  in  works  on  that 
subject  to  brinsr  together  in  one  place  the  most  conspicuous 
theorems  which  have  arisen  out  of  that  of  Taylor  ;  which 
makes  it  the  more  desirable  that  such  a  thing  should  be 
in  a  work  of  reference.  It  is  to  be  particularly  re- 
membered that  we  do  not  here  profess  to  teach  the  subject 
of  development,  but  only  to  recall  the  steps  of  the  M 
processes  to  those  who  have  already  learnt  them,  and  to 
present  the  theorems,  in  a  form  which  can  be  easily  re- 
ferred to. 

A-,  to  notation,  we  shall  frequently  signify  differentia- 
lion  by  accents  :  thus  <Ji".i-  is  the  second  differential  co- 
efficient of  0r  with  respect  to  ./• :  (<£.ri|/.r)'"  is  the  third 
differential  coefficient  of  the  product  of  (fix  and  ij/.r.  And 

[M]   will    signify  the   product   1X2X3X X   it—  1   X//. 

over  when  a  series   is  written,  three    terms  will  be 
written  down,  and  fhe  general  term  appended. 
Taylor's  theorem  is  as  follows:  — 


'  -=-  +  &c. 


This  theorem  is  true  whenever  .r  has  such  a  value  that  — 
1.  No  one  of  the  set  </>i;  tjj'.r,  &c.  is  infinite.  2.  All  of 
them  do  not  vanish.  Thus  neither  of  the  following  could 
be  allowed  to  be  treated  by  it  when  x=a  : 


and 


~( 


In  the  first  function,  <£'./•,  and  all  which  follow,  are  in- 
finite when  .r  =  n  :  in  the  second  tji  r  and  all  its  differential 
coefficients  vanish  when  ./  -n.  The  meaning  of  this  cir- 
cumstance is  as  follows  :  the  form  of  Taylor's  theorem 
:Mally  requires  that  <j>(x-\-h)  should  be  developed  in 
UCendinK  integer  powers  of  /'  ;  consequently  when  such 
form  of  development  is  impossible,  this  theorem  must  show 
-•  of  being  inapplicable.  Now,  the  first  of  these  func- 
tions (when  x=a)  can  only  have  $(a+A)  expanded  in 
ascending  fractional  powers  :  anil  the  second  only  in  de- 
scending integer  powers.  Those  who  will  only  allow  the 
use  of  converging  series  may  require  also  that  h  should 
be  so  small  that  the  resulting  series  is  convergent:  but 
this  objection  will  afterwards  be  inapplicable,  as  will  be 
seen. 

We  shall  state  five  proofs  of  this  theorem  briefly,  being 
substantially  those  given  by  Taylor,  Maclaurin,  D'Alem- 
bert,  Lagrange,  and  Ampere. 

Tui/lni'x  I'rtuif.  —  Let  «y  =  A,and  form  differences  of  <fi>- 
from  the  series  <j»:  <f,:.r+0\  <£(.r+20),  ....  tf>(jc+>W). 
juently  we  have  [DirnBXNCZJ 


where  Ax  =  6. 


tfi.i-  +  H  A<£r  -f-  >i  —  — 

Throw  this  into  the  form 
,  h— 


Arf>.r 
-—  A+ 


,  &c. 


,  &c. 


without,  limit,  A.c  at  the  same  time  dimi- 
nishing, so  that  )<A.r  remains  always  =A.     Then 


Limit  of 


-,  &C. 


So  that  Taylor's  theorem  is  proved  when  we  know  that 

<(>     rtittl  the  lin>it   of  A  0.r   :   TA./-)'.        This 

WM  :  iition*  of  Taylor's:  but  in  the  modern  dif- 

•  '  Si  pro  incrcoj'  -  '.TiUantur    lluxioDet    ij»i»   |iropor- 

'kiualn,  Sic.'    ?«1h»  lUtrncnl  In  TATI.OH,  Bloom 


ferential  calculus  it  is  a  hetter  plan  to  prove  Taylor's 
theorem  in  another  way,  and  then  from  the  preceding  fol- 
lows the  simplest  manner  of  showing  the  identity  of 

<£    &  and  the  limit  of  A  <f>x  :  (A.r)  . 

Maclaur  iu's  Proof.  —  The  method  here  given  was  first  used 
by  Maclaurin,  and  though  it  was  only  applied  to  develop 
<f>\  0  +  h),  yet  it  will  do  equally  well  for  <j>(x+h)  ;  and  Mac- 
laurin himself  saw  no  difference  (as  indeed  there  is  none, 
<£  being  any  function  whatever)  between  the  two  cases. 
It  turns  upon  <t>(x+h)  giving  the  same  result,  whether 
differentiated  with  respect  to  .r  or  h,  and  assumes  the  form 
of  the  development,  which  is  a  radical  defect.  It  is  as  fol- 
lows: Let^(.r  +  /()=A+BA-fCA!i-l-,&c.;  then  tf>'(x+h)  = 
B  +  2CA  +  3Vh*  +  ,  &c.,  0"(;r  +  A)  =  20  +  3.2DA  +,  &c. 


,      .,  .  ,      . 

'"  (.r+A)  =  3.2D  -j-,&c.,  which,  when  A  =  0,  give  d>x= 
,  4>'x  =  B,  <f>"x  =  2C,  <t>"ijc  =  3.2D,  &c.  ;   from  which 

the  theorem  readily  follows.     The  common  proof,  given 

in  most  elementary  works  on  the  differential  calculus,  is 

but  a  less  commodious  form  of  this. 
D'Alembvrt's  Proof  .  —  The  first  principles  of  the  Integral 

Calculus  give 


»n-|A  />0 

<j>'xdx=-     I 

(I  */     /I 


he  last  step  being  made  by  parts.     Similarly 

/*  a  it h*   rk 

j  2      v  o 


z'dz 


and  so  on :  whence  it  appears  that  if  we  go  up  to  A    in  the 

series,  the  term  involving  A  may  be  followed  by  ano- 
her,  expressed  in  the  form  of  a  definite  integral,  and 

which  alone  represents  all  the  remnant  of  the  series ;  as 
bllows : — 

*%4]^ /X+''rt+/'-^v~~- 

The    conditions  of   integration    require    that    neither 

r,  <j>'.r, ....  0  a?  should  be  infinite  from  x  =  a  to  x-=a 
+A,  both  inclusive  :  this  one  condition  being  satisfied,  the 
difficulty  of  divergent  series  disappears ;  for  the  theorem 
loes  not  give  an  infinite  series  at  all,  but  only  any  number 
ve  please  of  the  terms  of  a  series  together  with  a  con- 
•luding  quantity  which  is  finite  both  in  form  and  reality. 
Phis  integral  might  frequently  be  difficult  to  use,  but  limits 
or  its  value  may  be  readily  obtained.  Let  P  and  p  be  the 

greatest  and  least  values  of  <j>  x  from  .»•  =  a  to  x  =  a 
+  /',  both  inclusive  :  then  the  concluding  integral  lies 
jetween 


P/^z'dz  fmdpf  z'dz  or  p;'"     andX     . 

c/O  v    0  H-4-\  N  -f- 1 

Now  when  a  continuous  function  does  not  become  in- 
nite  between  two  values  of  .r,  every  quantity  which  lies 
jetween  its  greatest  and  least  value  is  one  of  its  interme- 
iate  values:    or  anything  between  P  and  p  is  a  value 

(n  +0A).  for  some  value  of  0  which  is  either  0 


f 


"  "  '  } 


>r  1,  or  between  them.    Hence  the  preceding  expression 
nay  be  written 


The  following  form  has  been  given  by  M.  Cauchy.    Let 
and  p  represent  the  greatest  and  least  values  of  <f> 
•  +  h  -  z} .  z"  from  z=0to  z  =A,  both  inclusive:  pro 
.sely  similar  reasoning  will  give  for  the  last  term  chosen 
f  Taylor's  series,  and  the  value  of  the  remnant, 
n  ,"+i 

.00      h 
g>     a    Y~ 

•here  e  is  either  0  or  1,  or  between  them. 


T  A  V 


128 


We  call  the  preceding  D'Alembert's  proof,  but  it  is 
rather  D'Alembert's  result,  and  even  tluit  in  a  different 
form :  his  real  process  is  as  follows: — To  take  a  case,  in- 
tegrate <£  (j+A)  four  times  with  respect  to  A.  beginning 
at  A»0:  the  results  are  (x+AcX  for  abbrevia 


and  from  this  sort  of  proc.  ilt  is 


.1-  +  A)  = 


(he  two  sides  presenting  the  most  identical  forms  which 
have  yet  occurred.  The  integral  may  easily  he  reduced  to 
the  form  already  given  (.Lacroix,  \ol.  iii..  -p.  :i'.!7  .  U'Alem- 
In-rt  finished  with  the  preceding  form  :  it  was  Lagrangc 
who  first  gave  the  limits  which  we  have  appended 
above. 

Lagrangi's  Proof. — By  this  we  do  not  mean  the  falla- 
cious proof  referred  to  in  FUNCTIONS,  THKOKY  OF,  but 
that  by  which  Ijigrange  established  the  limits  of  the  vnluc 
of  the  remnant,  which,  on  the  ordinary  definition  of  a 
differential  coefficient,  is  a  proof,  and  a'  very  satisfactory 
one,  of  the  whole  theorem.  It  rests  upon  the  proposition 
that  if  a  function  of  .r  have  always  one  sign  from  x  =  <i  to 
/  +  A,  the  integral  of  that  function  taken  between 
UIOM-  limits  will  have  the  same  sign. 

If  then  we  wish  to  establish  Taylor's  theorem  as  far  as.  >ay, 
the  term  involving  h'\  and  to  give  the  limits  of  the  remain- 
der, let  P  and  ;>  be  the  greatest  and  least  values  of  <j>  (<i+.) 
from  z  =  0  to  s  =  h.  Between  those  limits  then  <f>  (a+r) 


same  conditions,  and  we  learn,  step  by  step,  that 


-/«  -<"«,  .s-'u      -  -  P 


are  severally  negative.  Hut  0  .»•  —  ;;  is  positive  from  .r 
=  a  to  :r  =  a  +  li  :  con-e(jUfi;t!y,  proceeding  in  the  same 
manner,  we  find  that,  r  being  not  greater  than  /i, 


is  positive.     If  then  we  make  s  -  li,  we  find  that 
In--    between 

<£,  +  ,//«.;,+  ....+  P. ~-  and 


A* 


and  the  rest  is  as  in  the  last  proof. 

There  is  a  proof  given  h)  M.  Cnuchy  which  resemble- 
the  preceding  in  its  principle,  though  of  very  dit'eivul  de- 
tails, which  nrny  be  seen  in  tin-  Lib.  ('.  A.,  Ililferential 
Calculus,  pp.  OS,  &c.,  7'>7.  Hut  this  proof,  though  very 
well  iii  a  treatise  on  the  subject,  on  account  of  the  col- 
lateral uses  of  the  preliminary  theorems  which  it  requires, 
is  m,t  so  well  suited  to  an  isolated  article  on  Taylor's 
theorem. 

/////  ire'i  I't'-f.— Let  4>r  =  <Jxi  +  P(.r  —  a) ;  differentiate 
ively  with  respect  ton,  and  we  have 

0  =  4>'a  +  P'  (x  -  «)  -  P 

0  =  <{,"<,  +  P"  (.,._,,)_  21" 

0  =  <i>"'<i  +  P'"  (x  -  a)  -  3P",  &c., 


substitute  for  P,  P',  &c.  their  values  :  that  is,  substitute 
from  each  equation  to  the  preceding,  and  we  have,  milking 
•  a  +  A,  Taylor's  theorem  with  Hie  following  result  lor 

the  remnant  following  the  term  which  has  A    in  it 


J"  />.r  -  <JM\ 
(lu*\    x  -a    ) 


making  .r  =  H  +  A  aft  IT  differentiation. 

•une  trouble  to  show  the  limits  of  this  c\ 
-ion.  Ibi-  \\liic-li  we  may  refer  to  Ampere,  •  IV-cU  tie  Cali-iil 
Ditterculiel.'  N:i-.,  .lourn.  Kc.  I'olytcchn..  t-ali.  xiii.,  i>.  IJi. 
This  trart  nf  Ampere  i-.  one  of  tin-  purest  deductions  extant 
of  the  Differential  Calculus  from  the  theory  of  limits. 
In  looking  through  all   the  proofs  which  give   limr 
it  will  he  seen   that  neith. 

nor  any  dili'civntial  coefficient  employed  can  i 
to   become   infinite   between  .r  =  n   and  .r=<i+/i.      \ 
such  a  circumstance  dors  occur,  the  theoivm  ivlati. 
the   limits  may  ctase  to  be  true.     For  instant 
=  (.r—  m)""1,  and  stop  the  series  after  the  first  term,  which 
gives 

_  1        _     1     _         .1  A 

a  +  A     m      a  —  in      (a+0A  —  in/' 

if  a+A  and  a  be  both  greater  or  both  less  than  m.  a  value 
of  0  lying  between  (I  and  1  will  IK'  found   to 
equation,  as  it  should  do  from  the  theorem.     Hut  if  '.I-  =  HI 
between  r=ti  and  .r=a+A,  none  but  an  imaginary 
of  0  will  satisfy  tliis  equation. 

Stirling's  theorem,  a-,  it  should  be  called,  Maclauri:: 
it  is  called,  is  found  simply  by  making  «=U  in  the  d.  \, 
lopment  of  <f>(a+x).    It  gives 


B  being  either  0  or  1,  or  between  them.  Here  ^/"'(l  means 
that  tf>x  is  to  be  differentiated  ;/  times,  and  .r  made  =1) 
after  all  the  (lifi-reiitiation.i.  This  is  the  most  useful  form 
of  Taylor's  theorem,  with  which  it  may  be  consider 
identical  in  one  point  of  view,  and  of  which  it  is  a  parti- 
cular case  in  another:  for  -i  ../+./  ,  absolutely  developed 
by  Stirling's  theorem  is  simply  ^  («+.«•)  developed  limn 
ifn  by  Taylor's  theorem. 

.loiiu  Hernoulli's  theorem,  as  given  in  the  Leipsic  acts 
for  1090,  is  as  follows:— 


Here  is  an  instant-e  very  much  resemblinr  the  eonn. 
of  the  UINOMIAI.  THKOUKM  ']i.  41'J    with  \\'alli<'s  pn 
investigations.      If  \Vallis  had  looked  at  his  own  result  IM 
a  new  point  of  view,  lie  niijjht  not  have  left  the-  binomial 
theorem    for  Newton:    if  John   liemoulli    had    done    (In- 
same,    he  miijht    ha\e    s;iven  the   law  of   development   of 
0(.r+/i  .     Tin'  ]',i  ceding  i--  a  case  of  Taylor's  them  tin,  :i  . 
follows:  by  that  theorem 


l"J  L"T'J 

and  x— Bx  is  the  .-a me  in  meaning  as  0.r,  an  undetermined 
fractional  part  of  .r.    Let  ifr.r  =  f'^jcil.r,  then  ., 
substitution  and  transposition 


x  dx  =  ^r.  x-  V* 


±  J,«-    x    -, 
[>'] 

This  theorem  is  not  of  much  use  as  a  method  of  deve- 
lopment, so  that  we  need  say  no  more  of  it  in  the  present 
article. 

Some  views  of  Lambert  on  the  reduction  of  the  roots  of 
equations  (Actn  lli'lri-lii-ii.  17">s  into  series  were  jrene- 
rah/cd  by  I.a^'raiiL'c  (.W.m.  ,-lrni/.  Sri.,  17(W,  into  a  cele- 
brated theiiiein  of  develojmieut  bearint;  his  name;  and 
this  again  was  generalized  m  form  by  Laplace  (Mec.  Cfl.  •. 


T  A  Y 


129 


T  A  Y 


The  problem  is  as  follows  :  given 

y=V  fjf+xfa)  ....(A) 
required  the  expansion  of  4y<  when  possible,  in  powers  of 
x.  Since  tyy  is,  by  the  preceding  equation,  a  function  of 
x  and  z,  if  z  be  constant,  and  we  differentiate  with  respect 
to  x,  and  then  make  :r=0,  or  y=7z,  we  may  use  Stirling's 
theorem.  But  this  differentiation  would  be  laborious  and 
indirect  ;  it  was  made  more  direct  (by  Laplace)  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  —  A  constant  may  have  any  value  given 
to  it,  or  may  be  made  to  vanish,  either  before  or  after 
differentiation  with  respect  to  a  variable  :  if  then  we  can 
express  differentiations  with  respect  to  x  in  terms  of  dif- 
ferentiations with  respect  to  z  only  (in  which  x  is  constant), 
it  will  be  in  our  power  to  make  x  vanish  before  the  dif- 
ferentiations, which  will  reduce  the  indirect  or  implicit  to 
direct  differentiation.  This  substitution  of  z-difterentia- 
tions  in  place  of  those  of  x  is  done  as  follows:—  Differen- 
tiate (A)  both  with  respect  to  x  and  z  separately,  and  we 
have 


l-j-x  =  F'  (z+x<j>y)  {<f>y+x<j>'y 


whence 


Let  u  be  a  function  of  y  only,  that  is,  not  of  x  or  z  ex- 
cept as  these  variables  are  contained  in  y  :  then 

'/"   ////  itu  ih/  it//  (In 

•j  —  T  =$'/-,  —  f~     or    -=—  =  *v  -7- 
dy  dx       fj  ily  dz  dx       ry  <lz 

From  this  equation  only  it  may  be  shown  (by  INDUC- 
TION) that 

*~     /  _  »  du 


du 


as  follows.   Assume  the  preceding  to  be  true  for  one  value 

of  n,  and,  since  fq&y)  X  du  :  dy  is  a  function  of  y  only,  let 
it  be  dv  :  dy,  v  being  another  function  of  y. 

d  u      d       /dp  dy\      d'v 


a      \dv 


do 


dy 


dv  dy 
'-Jr.±>™ 


dz 


whence  the  theorem  remains  true  after  writing  re-f  1  for  n. 
But  it  is  true  when  n  =  l ;  therefore  it  is  true  for  all  values 
o(n.  If  then  we  make  ,c=0,  or  y=Fz,  which  may  be 
done  before  the  differentiations  on  the  second  side  of  the 
equation,  we  have  (u  being  \fy) 


Apply  this  to  Stirling's  Theorem,  and  we  have  Laplace's 
Tfn'nrem,  namely, 

y=F  (z+X(fnf)  gives  ^y= 

"-W  Hr+.&c. 


the  general  terra,  • 


<**    J  ["] 


Lagrange's  theorem,  from  which  Laplace  generalized, 
is  the  case  in  which  Fa;  =3;  ;  namely, 

y=z+xrfjy  gives  ^y= 


'  &c> 


W3)   ^-IrVi 


rf""'    / 

the  general  term  —  rri| 
dz       I 


y=z+<f,z.x+-(lz-  -3  H— a^T— gj  +.  &c- 

Lngrange's  theorem  leads  to  liurjiitunis  Theorem  (\>n-- 

MBted  to  tlic  institute  in  1796).     The  second  is  in  fact  ihe 

•ami-  as  the  fir.it,  though  very  different  in  form,  and  arrived 

at  independently.    It  is  required,  when  possible,  to  expand 

P.  C.,  No.  1501. 


4x  in  powers  of  $x.  This  might  be  done  indirectly,  by  ex- 
panding <Wlx  in  powers  of  r,  and  substituting  <f>x  for  a? 
in  the  result.  The  form  in  which  Burmanu  obtained 
Lagrange's  theorem  avoids  the  indirect  process.  Let  <ia: 
vanish  when  x=a,  and  let  <j>x=  (x— «):  xa",  or  x=a+<]&; .  xa;. 
We  can  now  employ  Lagrange's  theorem  to  expand  $x  in. 
powers  of  <j>x,  and  we  have 


Now  the  general  term  of  this  has  for  its  co-efficient  the 
value  of 


when  x=a  :  consequently  tyx,  expanded  in  powers  of  <f>r, 
is  found  by  making  x  =  a  in  the  co-efficients  of  the  powers 
of  <f>x  in  the  following  series  :  — 

d  ffx-a\'      N\i  r0.r-)8 

^C-^-;  f*);J  -2-  +•  &c- 

When  in  a  function  of  any  number  of  variables  a-,,  x,,  Sec., 
the  variables  are  severally  to  receive  increments  h,,  h,, 
&c.,  the  law  of  the  development  is  best  seen  by  the  cal- 
culus of  operations.  [OPERATION.]  To  change  x  into 

x+h  is  to  perform  the  operation  e  ,  D  being  the  sym- 
bol of  differentiation  with  respect  to  x  :  the  condensed 
form  of  the  development  now  before  us  is 


B      »  ..... 

where  D,,  D2,  &c.  refer  to  xlt  xv  &c.    The  general  term 
of  the  development  is 


(#,,  x},  &c.) 


which  must  itself  be  developed.  It  is  not  worth  while  to 
pursue  this  case  further  ;  we  shall  only  observe  that  when 
it  is  desired  to  stop,  the  remnant  may  be  obtained  by 
writing  in  the  last  term  #,  +  (?/»,  for  a?,,  x^  +  Qh^  for  a;., 
&c.,  where  0,  the  same  in  all,  is  either  0  or  1,  or  between 
them. 
The  value  of  x  which  makes  cf>x=Q  is  represented  by 


V 


—  &c. :  where  a  is  any  assumed  value  (the  nearer  the  root 
the  better)  and  4>,  <£',  &c.  represent  </>a,  <p'a,  &c.  This 
series  is  obtained  by  common  reversion  from  <f}(a+/i)=0. 
For  the  forms  which  Paoli  gave  to  this  series,  and  also  to 
Burmann's,  see  Lacroix,  vol.  i.,  pp.  306-308.  The  pre- 
ceding series  has  been  used,  as  far  as  three  terms,  in  the 
article  APPROXIMATION. 

All  that  precedes  is  found  in  elementary  treatises,  with 
the  exception  of  a  few  terms  of  the  last  series :  we  now 
come  to  matter  which  has  been  hitherto  only  the  property 
of  the  well-read  mathematician,  but  which  well  deserves 
to  be  made  as  common  as  Taylor's  Theorem.  We  refer  to 
ARBOGAST'S  method  of  derivations.  Few,  even  among 
mathematicians,  are  aware  of  the  power  of  this  process, 
which  may  perhaps  arise  from  their  taking  Lacroix's  ac- 
count of  it,  instead  of  consulting  the  work  of  Arbogast 
himself:  the  former  has  only  exhibited  it  to  show  that  it 
may  be  reduced  to  processes  of  the  differential  calculus  ; 
and  even  the  latter  has  so  loaded  his  method  with  heavy 
applications,  that  he  has  concealed  much  of  its  beauty  and 
simplicity. 

The  foundation  of  Arbogast's  methods  is  a  contrivance 

for  expediting  the  expansion  of  <f>(a  +  bx+c.ri  + ',  into 

a  series  of  the  form  A-f  B.i-  +  C.t*+ The  process  by 

\\hich  B  is  formed  from  A,  C  from  B,  &c.  is  uniform,  and 
is  called  derivation ;  and  A  being  (f>a,  B  may  be  called 
D0«,  C  may  be  called  DD<£a.  or  Ds<£a,  and  so  on.  Hence 
h  ought  to  be  called  Da,  C  ought  to  be  D'-'«,  and  so  on. 
This  notation  is  not  precisely  that  of  Arbosrast,  but  will 
do  lor  our  purpose.  For  more  detail,*  see  the  Differential 
Calculus  (Libra/ y  of  Um-jtd  Knowledge),  pp.  328-3'H. 

•  There  It  a  (.Tent  ili-nl  nil  tlia  silliji-ct  in  tin- '  MulhiTnaticnl  Trmt  •«•» '  (pr,»|. 

'  at  Kdi.ibarjri  in  li  .*      Mr.   \W  l 


. 
humuu*)  of  the  Rev.  John  West,  I'ui 


VOL.  XXIV.  —  S 


T  A  Y 


l:!0 


T  A  Y 


.r,  fora  moment,  we  writi-  thi-  expansion  • 

4,;«0+a1.r  +  ajrt  +  &c.  =  A,  +  A,i  +  ArrM 
and  if  we  differentiate  both  side*  with  respect  to  a^,  x  and 
•11  the  other  coefficients  remaining  constant,  we  have 


&C-)   -  *     = 


which  shows  that  «„  cannot  enter  any  coefficient  ore- 
ceding  A,,  or 

rfA, 

The  first  side  of  this  is  the  same  series,  whatever  letter 
•  was  made  to  vary ;  the  second  side  is  therefore  always 
the  same  series;  whence  we  collect  that  <i\m^n:  <1<in 
does  not  alter  with  the  value  of  m,  being  always  the  co- 
efficient of  j"  in  the  development  of  <f>'(at+a,x+,  &c.  .  It 
is  enough  to  satisfy  this  condition  for  each  letter  and  its 
preceding  one  ;  that  is  to  say,  each  co-efficient  differen- 
tiated with  respect  to  any  one  letter,  is  to  yield  the  same 
result  as  the  directly  preceding  co-efficient  differentiated 
with  respect  to  the  directly  preceding  letter.  The  follow- 
ing rules  are  found  sufficient.  To  pass  from  any  one  de- 
rivative  of  foi  to  the  next,  arrange  the  letters  «,  A,  c,  &c., 
ord,,,  a,,  0r  &c.,  whichever  may  be  used,  in  order,  in 
term:  differentiate  with  respect  to  the  last  letter  in  each 
term,  and  multiply  by  the  letter  which  comes  next  to 
it.  And  when  the  last  but  one  immediately  precedes  the 
last  in  the  alphabet  or  other  consecutive  system,  do  the 
same  with  the  last  but  one,  and  divide  by  the  exponent  of 
the  last  letter,  as  it  becomes  after  the  increase  which  it 
receives  from  the  process  of  the  preceding  letter;  but  in 
no  case,  use  any  letters  but  the  last  or  the  last  but  one. 
For  instance,  beginning  with  <jxi,  in  which  is  only  one 
letter,  we  have  <f>'a .  A,  or 

<t>'".b; 


in  which  are  two  letters,  a  and  A,  consecutive.  Operate 
upon  b,  and  we  have  ^'a.c;  operate  on  <£'<i,  and  \\  e  ha\  e 
again  <ji"a  .  b,  which,  with  the  ft  which  was  in  before,  is 
ff>"a  .  ft*,  which  we  divide  by  the  new  exponent  of  6,  or  by 
2,  whence 

A"n 
D"<£n  =  <f>'a.c+  -^-ft'. 

In  forming  l>n(^i,  we  use  only  c  in  <f>'a  .  e,  because  a  does 
not  immediately  precede  r  :  and  we  get  (the  succession 
being  ",  f>,  r,  <•./,  g,  h,  k,  &c.) 


and  so  on.  As  toon  however  as  the  law  is  established,  it 
is  best  to  form  a  table  of  the  successive  derivatives  of  the 
powers  of  ft  by  this  same  law  :  we  then  have 


as  far  as  -r^-i  A"  i 

in  which  0'a,  <£"a,  &c.  arc  to  be  taken  from  the  function 
by  common  differentiation,  and  the  derivatives  of  the 
powers  of  A  from  the  table.  This  being  done,  we  have 

r,  Scc.)  = 
-,  ^ 


nnd  the  process  is  shortened  to  its  utmost  extent  ;  all  that 
ii  not  differentiation  being  merely  reference  to  a  table  and 
writing  the  result. 

\V.    shall  give  materials  for  proceeding  as  far  : 

.  not  that  so  much  will  often  be  necessary, 
(•ill  because'  it  i-  di-irahle  to  show  with  bow  little  trouble 
.1' enormous  labour  KI  the  ordinary  way, Mich,  for 
instance,  as  that  solved  in  UIAKUM  :KI,  maybe 

looked  at  without  dismay.    We  have  1  •>  form  e  - 
live  of  every  power  of  b,  D«i",  in  which  m  +  n  doe*  not 
exceed  12. 

bu  nfetftaM  «  MUlim.  foe  (hit  of  A  rbogMl.  in  which  he  wlU  |mb.Uy  In  TO 
r«r  Mlomrn.  Th«  «nd.-ut  who  U  not  rmlM  by  ihU,  wd  ouuro*  proou* 
Atbojwt  »»«k.  will  Hod  Wwft  IrwlUn  .UutxllDg  in  ilnintioiii. 


Dft=c       T*b=<t 
A       D«ft=A 
D'ft=n      D'»6=p 
l)A«=2ftc 


«=2'.A  f  - 
D'ft'=26/  +  a-A  - 
D«6*=26m  +2c/+  i'/;  +  'Ifli  +^' 

«=2Am-2cm  +  -  -fh 


D6'= 

Difts=36V+3Ac« 
T)3b'=3biS+6bce+c> 
Wl>>=3b*g  +  66r/+  36««  +  3c«« 

^aft'A  +&>cg+Gbr/+3c1S+3f.e> 


D'6'=36'/  +66c/(  +  6beh  +  Mfg+Wfi  +6ceg  +  &•/ 


< 


D'63=  3ft*/i  +  Oic/n  -t-  66c/  +  Oft/ft  +  &>gh  +  3cV  +  CceA 


D3ft<=46Y+  126>c«  +46^ 


+  Cft»/4 


D8ft4=46''« 


l'J^'A  +  2-! 
ce» 

(!',-  -•' 


D65=5ft4c 
Wbi=5ble+  106'c* 
P36s=5A4/+20frsc«-r-  lO&V 


4-  10 


V«'-c-' 

aM  /i.-  -i  ."'  !  '  Vef 


D6«=6ft»e 
D'ft'=6ftV+1564c« 


D4ft«=  6AV  +30AV/+  1  564P«  +60A*r«r+  1  5A*c« 


rA  +306V-+  1  5fty 

•«'  +30ftcV-r-c« 


- 


1  )  '/:•  -  s  ', 


A/+'>(/'  >-r7»''4.- 


l)'A9=9AV4-3CA7c' 

D»A'=9Ay+ 

DA'"=10A*c 


T  A  Y 


131 


T  A  Y 


To  verify  these  results,  observe  that  if  we  consider  each 

letter  as  of  the  first  dimension,  every  term  of  D"br  is  o_ 
the  rth  dimension  ;  but  if  we  consider  each  letter  as  of  the 
dimension  following  :  — 

6     c    e    f    g    h     k     I    m     n    p     q 
1     2    3    4    5     6     7     8     9    10  11  12: 

then  every  term  of  DV  is  of  the  («+  r)th  dimension.  To 
find  out  if  all  the  proper  terms  be  there,  and  with  the 
proper  exponents,  write  down  the  number  of  ways  in 
which  n+r  can  be  made  out  of  r  numbers.  Thus  to 
verify  this  point  for  D'b3,  write  down  the  ways  in  which 
10  can  be  made  out  of  three  numbers,  namely, 
8+1+1,  7+2+1,  6+3+1,  6+2+2,  5+4  +  1,  5+3+2, 

4+4+2,  4+3+3; 

take  the  letter  answering  to  each  number,  in  the  above 
list,  and  multiply  the  letters  of  each  set  together,  which 
gives 

b't,  bck,  beh,  c*h,  bfg,  ceg,  c/4,  e*f, 

which  are,  coefficients  exccpted,  the  terms  of  D'63  in  the 
table.  To  verify  the  coefficients  separately,  observe  that 

the  coefficient  of  that  term  of  D"6r  which  contains  the  sth 
power,  ah  power,  &c.,  is 

1.2.3..  ..  Q-l)r 
1.2.3.  .".*Xl.2.3...<X  .....  ' 
Thus  in  D4A8,  the  term  containing   Pfe  ought  to  be 
multiplied  by 

1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8 


But  the  best  general  mode  of  verification  is  derived 
from  the  theorem 


dD"b' 


— ,  or 


db 


tliat  is,  having  a  certain  derivative  of  a  certain  power,  the 
lu-xt  higher  derivative  of  the  next  lower  power  may  be 
••1  by  differentiating  with  respect  to  b,  dividing  by 
the  exponent  of  the  original  power,  and  then  performing 
the  derivation.  Thus  : 


differentiate  with  respect  to  b,  and  divide  by  9.  which 

gives 


Now  derive,  which  gives 

86^+5(W/«c/+  2866e2+  168#eV  +7044c', 
the  same  as  is  found  in  the  table  for  D3+16S~l.     Here  we 
verify  the  earlier  result  of  the  table  from  the  later  :    to 
verify  the  later  from  the  earlier,  use  the  following:  — 


n— 2  Z      /•_  ]    r— 2 


up  to    c 


1.2 


in  which  the  derivatives  of  powers  of  c  must  be  formed 
from  the  corresponding  tabular  ones  of  b,  by  changing 
each  letter  into  the  next  following.  There  are  thus  abun- 
dant means  of  verification.  We'  will  mention  yet  one 
method  more.  Only  the  last  letter  and  the  last  but  one  (and 
that  only  when  the  two  letters  are  consecutive)  are  used 
in  the  derivations.  If  we  use  any  letter,  no  new  term  is 
produced,  but  only  a  repetition  of  those  which  other  terms 
give.  For  instance,  in  IW  is  the  term  GOb-cff;  and  in 
passing  to  DV,  we  derive  from  /  because  it  is  the  last 
letter  ;  and  from  e  because,  being  the  last  but  one,  it  imme- 
diately precedes/  in  the  series.  We  do  not  here  use  b  and  r. 
at  all  ;  but  if  we  did  use  them,  we  should  only  repeat  tei  ms 

ivhich  will  come  into  D'65  from  other  sources.  Thus: . 

mifn-f  gives,  ii-om  /,  6Qb*ceg,  which  is  set  down  in  ])"//•  • 

'"V/'-r-S,  or  306V/2,  which  is  also  set  down: 

had  been  used,  we  should  have  had  (Mb'ivf-^-2, 

i.i-  :M>'i-~f,  which,  on  looking,  we  find  set  down,  as  arUmi; 

from  the  last  letter  of  \ObV.     From  b,  in  (Ml/n-f,  had  it 

been   used,   v,e   should   have  got   120Acc^/'-4-2,  or  Utibc-ef, 

'i   is  also  found,  and  arises  from  the' last   letter  of 

.     If  then  we  ever  find  that  derivation  from  one  of 

the  unused   letter^  gives  anything  but  what  arises  from 

of  the  letters  which  are  used,  it  is  a  sign  that  some 

has  been  committed. 


By  help  of  the  preceding  method,  expansions  which 
analysts  usually  avoid  as  much  as  possible,  at  almost  any 
expense  of  circumoperation,  are  carried  with  the  Teatest 
facility  even  further  than  is  necessary.  The  development 
oi>  (a+bx+cx*+  &c.),  already  given,  is  one  instance; 
the  process  in  REVERSION  OF  SERIES  is  another.  This  last 
is  done*  by  expanding  .r  in  powers  of  ax  +  bx''  +  ,  &c.,  by 
Burmann's  Theorem,  and  making  the  expansion  of  the 
negative  powers  of  (a  +  bx+cx*  +  ,  &c.),  which  will  be 
wanted,  by  the  method  of  derivations.  We  shall  state 
some  further  applications  :  — 


,  &c. 

When  m  is  integer,  these  derivatives  are  in  the  table. 
When  6  +  ex  +  &c.  is  a  finite  series,  the  whole  result  is 
brought  out  with  great  ease,  compared  with  the  trouble  of 
the  common  algebraical  operation  :  in  this  case  the  value 
of  every  letter  after  the  last  in  the  finite  series  is  0,  or  the 
last  letter  of  that  series  is  uot  to  be  employed  in  derivation. 
Let  the  reader  try  for  himself  (b+cx+ex^+fx3)'  by  this 
mode  and  then  in  the  common  way,  going  only  so  far  in 
the  latter  as  to  feel  sure  that  the  former  is  of  no  trouble 


compared  with  it.    Let  m,  m 
m,,  &c. 


m-1 


,  &c.  be  denoted  by  m, 


(a  +  bx  +  ex*  +  &c.)     =  a    +  mba  ~  x 

Mt  —  8 

+  (mac  +  OTJ&-)  a       a? 
+  (/wo!e  +  OTjaDi*  +  »;343)  a"  "V 

,-  m-4 

+  (inaf  +  w^^rD^o2  +  w?3ftD03  +  m4b4}  ft       x4 

+,  &e. ;  the  law  of  which  is  evident,  the  only  thing  left 
being  the  substitution  of  the  values  in  the  tables  instead  of 
the  derivatives  of  b.   This  form  is  convenient  for  fractional 
or  negative  powers.     The  following  case  is  worth  exhibit 
ing  separately  :  — 


1 


1 


V-ac 


a  +  bx+,8tc. 
-  aW  +  a*e 


*•  + 


•a? 
u" 

'  +  asD"68  -  a"f 


x* 


— ,  &c.     We  have  avoided  the  formality  of  writing  Db  for 
c ,  T>-b  for  e,  &c. 

A  +  BJ-  +  Cx*  +,  &c.  _  A^  _  Aft-  Ba 
a  +  bx  +  CXL  +,  &u.   ~  a  a' 

A  (A8  -  ate)  -  Bai  +  Ca" 


-  Ba(A--ac) 


a*  +,  &c. 

The  law  is  here  evident  enough  ;  the  next  numerator 
would  be 

A  (b'  —  aDi'+r^IW— ayj-Ba  (b3— aD68+a8e) 
+  Co*  (i*  -  ae)  -  E«3i  +  Fa4 

The  derivatives  of  the  general  term  b    may  be  readily 
formed,  but  the  particular  cases  are  more  useful ;  see  the 

derivatives  of  a  in  the  general  form  above  given.  We 
shall  not  overload  this  subject  with  further  examples: 
enough  have  been  given  to  show  those  who  require  deve- 
lopments of  some  extent  how  much  labour  they  might  save. 
It  frequently  happens  that  the  form  given  is  not 

(f><;a+ba;+cx*+,&c.')but<j>(a+bx  +  ^+^3+.  &c.J, 

n  which  case  the  occurrence  of  the  fractions  in  the  deno- 
minator renders  the  process  more  complicated  than  it  need 

•  M.  Wronski  lias  civen  elegant  forms  of  transformation  and  development, 
which  are  most  accessible  in  Montferrier's  '  Dictiunnaire  des  Sciences  Mathe- 
matiques.'  Paris,  18IH.  The  author  of  these  developments  has  wrapt  himself 
in  a  rloud  (if  (ib-curity.  and  adopted  the  tone  ofan  assailant,  with  uot  a  little 
it  tli"  manner  of  a  charlatan,  which  has  hindered  his  really  remarkable  exten- 
-ions  fioia  re,  eiviii^'  the  notice  to  which  they  are  entitled,  and  himself  from 
oM.-iinini,'  tin-  character  as  a  mathematician  which  no  one  who  reads  his  works 
•in  fir  a  moment  deny  him.  We  do  not  enter  into  his  methods,  because, 
thi.u-h  «<>od  ill  theory,  they  are  not  easily  used,  from  their  excessive  geneiality. 
Koi  instance,  in  the  article  on  Reversion  of  Series,  in  the  dictionary  cited,  the 
inlhor  of  which  is  a  partizan  of  M.  Wronski.  the  results  are  r  ,nie<l  as  Jar  as 
ur  article  on  that  subject,  not  by  the  vaunted  methods,  but  by  the  old 
.if  in, 1, •terminate  coefficients, an  immense  labour,  after  which  the  nann; 
.nciertuker  is  very  properly  recorded.  Torepeat  the  same  processand  to 
carry  it  two  terms  further,  by  Arbogast's  and  Jiunuaun's  methods  combine,!, 
did  uot  take  us  thiee  hours. 

S2 


T  A  Y 


T  A  v 


be.  Wo  put  down  tables  for  the  development  of  this 
(hoctioa.  derived  from  tlir  preceding.  tables,**  far  as  the 
tenth  power  of  x:  to  be  used  as  follow.--  :  — 

ut 


Scc. 
Then 


=4>'a  .  D"'  b  +  <£"a  .  D*" 


a  .  b" 


where  the  derivatives  of  the  powers  of  6,  which  do  not 
mean  the  same  as  hitherto,  are  to  be  taken  from  the  fol- 
lowing table  :  — 

D6=c 


!>•»=/, 


D6«=104«c 


4-G06<Y>  +  l.V 


D'6"=156</ 


D6S=  156V 


I>6=Ar,  Difti 

r><6''=216*(g'+  1056r/+70Ae"  +  105c-'e 
1  )  '  6'  =  :r>61/+2106V<?+  lOSfc3 
J)'6a=356V+  1056V,  DA»=:216V. 


IW  =  2S6Vi  +  1  G8bc  g  +  280&/+  2  10r»/+  280ce» 
IVA'zoCA"^  -t-4206V/+2806V+ai06ci;<;+  105c4 


D6'=286«e 


Dt6"=566i«;+2106Vs, 


D'61  =  366*  A  +  252&-A  +  5046^  +'  315A/<  +  378ei# 

+  12GOr</4-280e8 
IV6'  =  846Vi  +  75Gbtcg  +  12G06V/+  18906e*/+  25206^ 


'1i«=12Cis/+  12G06Ve+  1260A 


'=  106ro +45c/+ 120<?A  4-  21Q/7i  + 126°-' 
D'6>  =  456V  4-  3GOArft  -f  (W06eA  4-  12606/g-  4- 

+  2520eeg-4-  1575r/'+2100<?2/ 
D«64  =   1206n&    +    12G06VA    +  25206V<r   +   1 

+  :J7H06r<#   +    12G006c</  +  28006C3  +  3150cY 

+  (iSOOr'e' 

D»65    =    2106'A   +  25206V^   +  42006V/  4-  9450AV/ 

+  12G006're»  +  12C006cV  +  94:V5 
=  252//t'   +   31506V/  +  21006V?1   4-   126006llc8c 

+  472.V/V 

= 2 1064/ + 2T)206sc< + 3 1506V 
D-6"=  1206V +e>306*c«,  D6»=45««c. 

Vi-  shall  conclude  this  article  by  recommending  that 
the  process  of  derivation  should  be   introduced,  without 
demonstration  of  course,  into  elementary  books  of  nl: 
as  one  of  1helx-.t  ei  simple  al*.rrln:iie:il  opera- 

tion. \Vi:  iin'  firmly  of  opinion  that  the  arithmetician 
and  the  analyst  should  be  trained  early  in  the  performance 
of  opeiations  in  which  numerous  details,  each  very  Dim- 
ple in  itself,  follow  one  another  in  rapid  MiccesMoii  with 
much  sameness  and  some  diversity.  Kor  this  reason  we 
should  recommend, in  aiithmetic,  Homer's  process  [I:\vn- 
ON  AM)  Kvni.i  rin\]  ;  and  in  algebra,  Arbogast's  de- 
rivation. We  proceed  accordingly  to  di vest  thn  method 
of  the  phraseology  of  the  dill'ercnlial  calculus,  and  to  jiut 
it  before  ttie  eienientaiy  student  in  algebra. 

The  name  of  the  process  is  il-  its  primary  ob- 

ject the  raising  of  any  power  of  an  expression  of  tin 
P4-cr  +  er'+/a»  +  ,4c.   immediately,   (hat  is   to  say,   by 
writing  down  the  rcsolt  at   once,  without  any  but  simple 
mental  pioceswn  in  passing  from  term  to  term.     The  rules 
are  as  follows : 


1.  Begin  with  that  power  of  6  which  is  to  be  rail 

2.  To   pass   from   the  coefficient   of  one  power  of  .r  to 
that  of  the  next,  multiply  each   letter  by  its  exponent  : 
then  diminish  that  exponent  by  a  unit  :  then  Introduce  I  In- 
next  letter.     And  if  this  last  process  increase  an  exponent, 
owing  to  the  letter  newly  introduced  having  been  in  the 
term  before,  divide  by  the  increased  exponent.     />' 
member  iierrr  to  operate  on  any  Irttrr  errfpt  the  last  in 

••in,  or  the  last  but  one;  upon  the  last  always,  upon 
the  last  but  one  when  it  immediately  precedes 'the  kit 
in  the  original  series  6,  r,  e,f,  tec. 

3.  If  6  +  rj-4-,  Sic.  be  not  an  infinite  series,  but  a  finite 
number  of  terms,  operate  as  if  the  succeeding  letters 

illy  equal  to  0  :  for  instance,  if  g  be  the  last  letter, 
drop  every  term  in  which  ft  should  appear,  as  fast  as  it 
arise*. 

For  example,  the  fifth  power  of  b  +  cx  +  ex* +/x*. 
Begin  with  6s,  derive  from  it  56V,  the  two  first  terms  are 

To  form  the  coefficient  of  x*,  take  56V,  and  observe 
tlwit  b  and  r  follow  each  other  in  the  series,  so  that  in  the 
next  derivation  there  are  two  processes.  First,  use  c  or  c1, 
the  last  letter,  which  by  the  rule  gives  IrV  or  e  :  so  that 
derivation  applied  to  the  first  power  of  a  letter  gives 
merely  a  change  of  that  letter  into  the  next :  hence  5//V 
gives  56V.  But  64,  which  must  also  be  used,  gives  46V, 
and  56V  gives  5(46*c)c  ;  so  that  c  becomes  c*.  and  we  must 
therefore  divide  by  the  increased  exponent  2,  giving 
106V.  Hence  the  next  term  is 

(56V4-106V)**. 

In  the  next  derivation  56V  gives  only  56</r,  for  6  not  im- 
mediately preceding  e  in  the  series  6,  c,  e,  kc.  is  not  used. 
But  106V  gives 


106'(2ee) 


I0'36*c')  ft 
'—^-—  ,  or  206"ce-f  106V. 


Next  term  (564/+206«ce+1061e>)i». 

In  the  next  derivation  56*/  must  be  neglected  entirely, 
because  /  is  the  last  letter,  and  6  is  not  the  one  imme- 
diately preceding.  Also  206V*1  gives  2()6:V/aiid  206V-  -I-1-! 
or  106V  ;  while  106V3  gives  306V"«  and  2X  lOAf.r'-H.  or 
06r4.  The  whole  value  of  (b+cx+eaf+fx3  f  is  as  follows, 
and  a  little  practice  would  enable  any  one  to  write  it  down 
at  once,  without  any  intermediate  operations  : 

6s-t-56Vx+(56V 


*  +  G06V  (/+  106V  +206cy+306c" 
+(306V/«  +  306V/+  U06<--i/+  2(  )6«-^'  + 
+  (30b'fp  +  306r  */*  +  606r<-'/+  5/«-'  +  3  V  *f/+  1  Or  V  ) 


This  process,  so  simple  as  compared  with  the  actual 
performance  of  the  four  multiplications,  has  hitherto  lain 
hid  in  works  on  the  higher  parts  of  the  differential  cal- 
culus :  it  is  time  it  should  take  its  place  in  every  system 
of  algebra  which  contains  the  binomial  theorem,  of  which 
it  is  the  legitimate  extension. 

TAYLOR,  JOHN,  I.I..1V,  was  born  about  the  year 
1T"H,  at  Shrewsbury,  where  his  lather,  according  to  some 
writers,  was  a  poor  shoemaker,  or,  according  to  oth 
barber.  He  received  his  early  education  at  the  grammar- 
school  of  his  native  place,  and  afterwards  went  to  Cnni- 
biidge,  where  he  entered  St.  John's  College,  of  which  he 
became  a  fellow  in  1730.  The  great  reputation  which  he 
soon  acquired  as  one  of  the  best  Greek  scholars  in  t  Ik- 
University,  procured  him  tin-  nllie.'  <.!'  librarian  of  the  Uni- 
versity library,  which  however  he  afterwards  exchanged 
I'or  that  of  registrar  of  the  rniversity.  His  first  work  of 
importance  was  his  edition  of  the  Greek  orator  Lysias, 
under  the  title  '  I._\siae  (  iratimic-  et  Kragmenta,  Graced  et 
I.atim'::  ad  tidem  codicurn  MSS.  recommit,  notis  critic-is, 
interpretation!',  cacter,M|iic  apparatu  necessario  donavit 
Joanni's  Taylor,'  London,  1731),  4to.  The  year  after  he 
Allied  at  Cambridge  an  octa\o  edition  of  the  same  orator 
for  the  use  of  students,  with  shori  noti-s  and  a  useful  index 
of  the  language.  The  study  of  the  Attic  orators  led  him 


T  A  Y 


133 


T  A  Y 


to  the  study  of  the  Attic  law,  of  which  he  probably  pos- 
sessed a  better  knowledge  than  any  man  of  his  age.  He 
was  also  fond  of  the  study  of  the  Roman  and  English  law, 
and  he  resolved  to  devote  himself  to  the  legal  profession. 
In  1741  he  was  admitted  an  advocate  in  Doctors'  Com- 
mons, and  the  year  after  he  took  his  degree  of  doctor  of 
laws.  On  this  occasion  he  published  a  Latin  dissertation, 
'  Commentarius  ad  Legem  Decemviralem  de  Inope  Debi- 
torc  in  partes  dissecando,'  which  is  a  very  unsatisfactory 
explanation  of  this  difficult  subject.  Soon  after  this  he 
published  an  edition  of  two  Greek  orations,  '  Orationes 
duae,  una  Demosthenis  contra  Midiam,  altera  Lycurgi 
contra  Leocratem,  Graece  et  LatineV  with  notes  and  emen- 
dations, Cambridge,  1743,  8vo.,  and  in  the  same  year  he 
published  the  'Manner  Sandvicence,  cum  Commentario  et 
Notis,'  Cambridge,  1743,  4to.  This  volume  also  contains 
a  useful  dissertation  on  this  celebrated  inscription,  which 
had  been  brought  from  Athens  to  London  by  Lord  Sand- 
wich in  1739.  In  1744  Dr.  Taylor  was  made  chancellor 
of  Lincoln ;  and  some  years  later  he  took  holy  orders, 
though  without  abandoning  the  study  of  the  law  and  of 
1lu>  antient  writers.  He  was  now  successively  made  arch- 
deacon of  Buckingham  and  rector  of  Lawford  in  Essex, 
to  which,  in  1757,  was  added  the  lucrative  place  of  canon 
residentiary  of  St.  Paul's.  In  1755  he  published  at  Lon- 
don, in  4to".,  his  '  Elements  of  Civil  Law,'  a  second  edition 
of  which  appeared  in  1709.  Dr.  Taylor  undertook  this 
work  at  the  suggestion  of  Lord  Carteret,  who  had  intrusted 
him  with  the  education  of  his  grandsons,  whom  he  wished 
to  be  instructed  in  the  principles  and  history  of  the  civil 
law.  The  work  displays  great  learning  and  knowledge  of 
the  subject,  but  it  is  not  well  adapted  for  the  use  of  bcgin- 
ners;  an  abridgement  of  it  appeared  in  1773,  in  London, 
under  the  title  '  A  Summary  of  the  Roman  Law.'  During 
the  last  period  of  his  life,  Dr.  Taylor  had  made  extensive 
preparations  for  a  new  edition  of  the  Greek  orators.  One 
volume  (which  is  the  third)  appeared  in  1748  at  Cam- 
bridge, but  his  death  on  the  4th  of  April,  1750,  prevented 
the  author  himself  from  completing  the  work,  though  all 
the  materials  were  ready  for  press.  The  second  volume 
appeared  after  his  death,  in  1757.  The  work  bears  the 
title,  'Demosthenis,  ^schinis,  Dinarchi,  et  Demadis  Ora- 
tiones :  Greece1  et  Latintf,  cum  notis  edidit  J.  Taylor.' 
The  notes,  which  were  published  at  a  later  time,  are  incor- 
porated in  Reiske's  '  Apparatus  C'riticus'  to  Demosthenes. 
In  a  critical  point  of  view  the  edition  of  Taylor  is  not  of 
any  !jreat  worth,  and  its  chief  value  consists  in  his  notes 
in  illustration  of  the  history  of  the  orations  and  the  Attic 
law.  Dr.  Taylor  is  said  to  have  been  a  most  amiable  and  dis- 
interested man  :  he  had  considerable  taste  for  poetry,  and 
some  specimens  of  his  muse  are  printed  in  the  '  G'entle- 
man's  Magazine,'  and  in  Nichols's  '  Select  Collection  of 
Poems.' 

(Aikin  and  Johnston's  General  Biography,  vol.  ix., 
p.  337,  &c. ;  Reiske,  Pracfatio  ad  Demosthenem,  p.  42, 
sec.) 

TAYLOR,  SIR  ROBERT,  born  in  1714,  was  the  son  of 
a  London  stone-mason,  who  was  more  prosperous  than 
prudent,  for  he  affected  a  style  of  living  very  unusual  at 
that  period  among  persons  engaged  in  business  :  he  kept 
his  carriage,  and  also  his  country-house  in  Essex.  To- 
wards his  sou,  on  the  contrary,  he  appears  to  have  been 
far  from  liberal,  as  he  bestowed  on  him  only  a  common 
school  education,  and  then  placed  him  under  Sir  Henry 
Cheere,  a  sculptor,  whose  chief  work  of  note  is  the  statue 
of  Col.  Codrington,  in  the  library  of  All  Souls,  Oxford. 
On  quitting  Cheere,  he  was  furnished  by  his  father  with 
just  sufficient  money  to  proceed  to  Rome,  where  he  was 
obliged  to  live  with  the  utmost  frugality.  His  studies  in 
Italy  were  however  of  no  long  continuance,  for  he  was 
soon  summoned  home  by  the  intelligence  of  his  father 
being  dangerously  ill  ;  upon  which  he  hurried  back  to 
and  with  as  much  expedition  as  the  state  of  the  Con- 
tinent would  then  permit,  and  was  obliged  to  disguise 
himself  as  a  Franciscan  friar.  On  reaching  home,  he  found 
that  his  lather  was  dead,  and  that  he  had  left  nothing. 
Thus  thrown  entirely  upon  his  own  resources  and  ability, 
all  that  remained  for  him  was  to  set  up  business  as  a 
statuary,  and  he  first  brought  himself  into  notice  by  Corn- 
wall's monument.  His  principal  other  works  in  sculpture  are 
t'l  monument,  near  the  north  door  of  Westminster 
Abbey,  the  fiifme  of  Britannia  at  the  Bank  of  England,  and 
the  bas-relief  in  the  pediment  of  the  Mansion-house,  Lon- 


don. After  this  he  abandoned  sculpture  for  architecture, 
and  one  of  his  earliest  productions  in  his  new  profession 
was  the  mansion  erected  by  him  for  Mr.  Gower,  near  the 
South  Sea  House.  In  1756-58  he  was  employed  in  the 
alterations  of  old  London  Bridge  in  conjunction  with  Dance, 
and  thenceforth  upon  a  number  of  buildings  both  public  and 
private ;  yet  very  few  among  which  display  much  architec- 
tural taste,  and  least  of  all  any  of  that  richness  in  decora- 
tion and  detail  which  might  have  been  expected  from  one 
who  had  been  brought  up  and  had  practised  as  a  sculptor. 
The  wings  added  by  him  to  the  Bank  of  England  (after- 
wards swept  away  oy  his  successor  Soane)  were  at  the 
time  termed  'magnificent,' but  then  it  could  only  be  by  com- 
parison with  the  older  building  by  Sampson,  to  which  they 
were  attached.  This  design  itself  was  only  borrowed  from 
one  of  Bramante's  [BRAMANTE],  and  was  upon  so  small  a 
scale  as  to  look  insignificant  in  such  a  situation.  The 
'Stone  Buildings'  at  Lincoln's  Inn  are  such  a  mere  architec- 
tural blank,  that  the  columns,  instead  of  diminishing  the 
poverty  of  its  character,  serve  only  to  render  it  the  more 
apparent.  There  is  however  some  architectural  character 
displayed  in  that  which  is  called  the  '  Six  Clerks'  Office,' 
situated  between  the  other  building  and  Chancery  Lane. 
The  villa  which  he  built  for  Sir  Charles  Asgill  at  Rich- 
mond is  at  least  unexceptionable  in  taste,  though  it 
hardly  deserves  the  admiration  it  has  obtained.  Among 
his  other  works,  Lord  Grimston's  seat  at  Gorhambury  is 
one  of  the  best.  If  not  very  great,  he  was  eminently  suc- 
cessful, in  his  profession,  and  obtained  several  lucrative 
appointments  and  surveyorships  to  the  Admiralty,  Found- 
ling Hospital,  Greenwich  Hospital,  and  the  Bank  of  Eng- 
land, for  which  he  was  well  qualified,  being  a  man  of  most 
business-like  habits,  and  of  most  extraordinary  diligence 
and  assiduity.  He  was  rarely  in  bed  after' four  in  the 
morning;  was  most  abstemious  in  his  diet,  and  drank  no 
wine.  Whether  in  consequence  of  taking  warning  from  his 
father's  example  or  not,  he  seems  in  almost  all  respects  to 
have  been  the  very  reverse  of  him  in  his  mode  of  living  ; 
and  it  is  not  surprising  that  his  economy,  together  with 
the  appointments  which  he  held,  should  have  enabled  him 
to  realize  a  fortune  of  180,000/.,  though,  as  he  himself 
used  to  say,  he  began  the  world  with  hardly  eighteen 
pence.  He  died  at  his  own  house  in  Spring  Gardens, 
September  27,  1788,  and  was  buried  in  St.  Martin's  church. 
He  gave  the  whole  of  his  property  to  his  only  son,  the 
latr  Michael  Angelo  Taylor,  M.P.,  with  the  exception  of 
a  sum  to  the  university  of  Oxford,  to  accumulate  for  a 
certain  term  of  years  and  then  to  be  applied  to  found  an  in- 
stitute for  the  study  of  modern  languages.  This  bequest 
having  been  incorporated  with  a  similar  one  by  Dr.  Ran- 
dolph for  a  picture  and  statue  gallery,  a  building  was 
begun  in  1H41,  under  the  name  of  the  '  Taylor  and 'Ran- 
dolph Institute,'  from  the  designs  of  C.  R.  Cockerell,  Esq., 
professor  of  architecture  at  the  Royal  Academy.  Taylor 
was  knighted  when  sheriff  of  London  in  1783. 

(Gentleman's  Magazine;   Cresy's  Milizia ;  Dallaway's 
Art  a  in  England;  Companion  to  Almanac,  1842.) 

TAYLOR,  THOMAS,  was  born  in  London  on  the  15th 
May,  1758  :  his  parents  were  respectable  in  their  calling, 
but  not  wealthy.  At  a  very  early  age  he  was  sent  to  St. 
Paul's  school,  and  after  remaining  there  about  three  years 
he  was  placed  under  the  care  of  a  relation  who  held  a 
situation  in  the  dockyard  at  Sheerness,  with  whom  he 
resided  several  years.  During  this  time  he  applied  himself 
assiduously  to  the  study  of  mathematics,  and  also  obtained 
some  knowledge  of  chemistry :  he  next  became  a  pupil  of 
the  Rev.  Mr.  Worthington,  a  dissenting  minister  who  pos- 
sessed considerable  classical  acquirements,  ultimately  in 
tending  to  complete  his  studies  at  Aberdeen  with  a  view  to 
the  ministry.  But  a  premature  marriage  and  pecuniary 
difficulties  compelled  him  to  relinquish  this  plan,  and  to 
accept  a  junior  clerkship  in  Messrs.  Lubbock's  banking- 
house.  While  in  this  employment  he  devoted  his  spare 
hours  to  the  study  of  Plato  and  Aristotle  and  their  com- 
mentators. At  this  time,  and  to  the  end  of  his  life,  Mr. 
Taylor  always  devoted  at  least  six  hours  of  every  day  to 
study,  and  when  not  engaged  in  business  they  were 
generally  the  first  six.  Poverty,  and  the  difficulties  at- 
tending it,  were  no  obstacles  to  him,  and  he  always  hoped 
to  emerge  from  the  obscurity  they  placed  him  in.  He 
first  attracted  public  notice  by  an  attempt  to  discover  the 
secret  of  the  perpetual  lamp,  upon  which  he  gave  a  lec- 
ture and  exhibited  his  experiments  at  tho  Freemasons' 


T  A  V 


134 


\    Y 


>i.  Though  it  WM  a  failure,  it  was  marked  by  some 

made  him 

1    liuu   in 

another  u  .   which   was  li<  »c   of 

:iic  philosophy.    Introducing  ) 

by  such  nu  is  enabled  to  procure  pupils,  to  whom 

hi'  taught  the  langun::c>  i.iul  nuithi  maties,  having  also 

'..I    the 

•  iragcmcnt    of  Arts,  Manufactures, 
and  Commerce,  which  he  held  for  several  years:  he  of 
<•  up  and  was  glad  to  be  emancipated  from  the 
labours  of  the  banking-house.     It  was  in 
.at  he  maci  live  acquaintance 

•il'u-  men  of  all  professions,  and 
>.;»  ranks  who  are  promoter*  of  arU 
Iv  falls  to  the  lot  of  an  obscure 


:ilual :  but  h.'  made  something  more  than  mere  ac- 

acijiiircd  many  friends  who  were  able  and 

i  in   all  Iiis  undertakings,   anil  with 

,i  he  iinally  accomplished  all   that   he  had  in 

.    whii-h   war  to  translate  the  works  of  all  the  un- 
translated antient  Greek  philosophers.     It  was  an  arduous 
le  man,  ;uid  apparently  a  hopeless  one,  serins; 
that  Sydenhani,  with  the   advantage  of  a  more  regular 
education,  bcin  id.  and  a  known  and 

acknowledged  scholar,  liad  not  only  failed  in  his  desire  to 
impa  his  less  learned  countrymen  by  means 

suffered  to   perish   in   the 
attempt  for  want  of  patronage,  'to  the  sorrow  and  shame 

;-.  biographer  says  i  of  every  friend  of  literature  :'  yet 
Sydeiiham  was  a  good  man,  hiirhly  respected,  and  had 
many  frie:i  -vcd  he  had  :  he  must  have  been  a  re- 

cluse, for  the  circumstances ol  his  death  seem  to  have  caused 
surprise.  .Mr.  Taylor  was  fond  of  society,  and  always  in 
it :  there  was  no  appearance  of  abstraction  about  him  ; 
and  a  stranger  would  not  have  suspected  him  of  be- 

ludious ;  he  was  always  ready  to  join  in  conversation 
with  any  one  who  happened  to  be  near  him,  and  upon 
any  subject;  there  were  few  subjects  upon  which  he  had 
not  read,  and  he  could  always  amuse  or  instruct  if  re- 
quired. '  Being  gifted  with  a  very  extraordinary  memory, 
he  not  only  regained  the  immense  store  of  knowledge  he 
ha  1  amassed,  but  he  could  bring  it  all  into  use  at  his  will :' 
he  was  deep!)  n  ad  in  tilings  that  many  like  to  hear  of, 
though  they  are  no  longer  studied,  sorcery,  witchcraft. 
alchemy,  See.,  and  his  fund  of  anecdote  was  quite  inex- 
haiutible  :  all  this,  joined  to  simple  and  unobtrusive  man- 
ners, and  irreproachable  conduct,  made  him  not  only  an 
agreeable  companion  to  many,  but  to  some  lie  became 
line.  Men  whose  occupations  had 

prevented  their  leading,  though  they  were  desirous  of 
knowledge,  were  particularly  delighted  with  the  company 
'I'  Mr.  Taylor,  am!  .such  were  his  great  supporters.  It 
was  by  making  friends  chiefly  that  Mr.  Taylor,  who  was 
as  poor  as  Sydenhum,  contrived  to  print  works  tliat  inu.-t 
have  cost  more  than  lO.WXI/.,  that  were  not  of  the  most 
saleable  description,  and  that  upon  the  whole  produced 
no  pecuniary  profit.  The  duke  of  Norfolk  printed  Plato, 
and  from  some  unaccountable  whim  locked  up  nearly  the 
whole  edition  in  his  house,  where  it  remained  till  long 
after  his  decease,  but  he  was  attached  to  Mr.  Taylor,  and 
frequently  made  him  his  companion  at  Arundcl.  Mr. 
Meredith.  -man  retired  from  business,  was 

a  man  possessed  ol  sound  mental  faculties,  with  no  aver- 
. '.      :ng  read  Plato  he  wished  al-o  to 

read  Aristotle  in  an  Ki:gli>h  translation,  and  Mr.  Taylor 
was  ready  to  help  him  to  it  upon  no  other  condition  than 
h'.s  undertaking  to  print  it.  which  he  did  ;  and  though  he 
made  a  losing.-;  of  it,  by  printing  too  few  i 

he  was  so  well  :h   M..   1'aylor's  exertions,  that 

he.  not  only  assisted  him  in  bringing  out  some  of  his  minor 
publications,  but  settled  a  pension  of  1(K)/.  a  year  upon 
him,  which  he  enjoyed  till  his  death  :  mich  munificence 
and  lYicmlihip  in  a  man  who  had  earned  his  money,  and 
knew  the  value  of  it,  is  truly  honourable.  Mr.  Mcicdith. 
though  not  versed  in  the  antient  languages,  obtained  a 
A  ledge  of  antient  literature  :  he  was  a  man  who 

.'lit    lor  himself,  and  came  to  just  conclusions  upon 
Mr.  Taylor's  minor  works  some 

will  be  fo-.iml  dedicated  to  persons  who  printed  them  upon 
similar  term.-.  aij<!  1:1  a  lew  cases  gave  him  the  benefit  of 
the  •  :i.  lie  never  exacted  pavment  for  llis 

labour,  except  in  one  or  two  case*  with  tlie  booksellers, 


and  then  he  tedjBMMliMKh.  But  with  such  me 

i'\cr  :lll  hi-  ditti, 

!   and   ha<! 

was  about  3H>/.  a  year.     There  are  some  prr-mi-.  wh. 
not  at  all  pleated   with  Mr.  T.  .nipt  to  i. 

certain  antieiit  opinions:  they  neither  wished  1« 
of  the  works  he  ha>  translated^  nor  his  remarks  upon  them 
iu  English  ;  but  they  arc  th-  ho  broug!.' 

writers  into  notice  by  constantly  referring  to  them,  and 
speaking  of  them  in  terms  that  are  neither  liberal  nor  en- 
tirely merited.     These    writers    were    the    supporters  of 
antient  opinions  and  establishments,  the  failure  of  in 
which  is  now  complete  and  past  recovery  ;   there  can  •' 
fore  be  little  to  object  to  in  their  writings,  and  tl.. 
much  that  is  good  and  worth  prescrvi: 
they  found  translators  in  every  c-iuli/- 
land.    It  seems  then  that  our  p: 
done  their  duty  to  the  public:   II 
translations  with  their  own  annotations,  the    laboi. 
Mr.  Taylor  would  not  have   been   called  for,  and  ai 
marks   he   might    have    made   elsewhere   would    have'  had 
little  weight,  and  have  been  overlooked.     Th. 
nortant  works  yet  untranslated,  and  there  are  n; 
lat  inns  which  arc  disgraceful   to  the  literary  ch 
our  country  :  it  is  time  then  that  our  scholars  should  look 
to  these  matters,  and  sec  that  things  which  must  and  will 
be  done  are  well  done. 

Mr.  Taylor,  during  the  last  forty  years  of  his  life,  resided 
in  a  small  house  at  \Valworth.  leading  a  life 
uniformity,  and  dividing  his  time  between  hi>  luboui 
his  attentions  to  his  friends  and  family.    lie  died  on  the 
1st  of  November,  1835,  of  a  \crypainful  i  the, 

bladder,  which  he  bore   with  extraordinary  fortitude  and 
without  complaining.  He  was  an  Academician 
sion  and  a  Stoic  in  practice;  a  sincere  friend  and 
lightful  companion.     His  works  and  tiaiinlations  are:  — 

I,  'The  Elements  of  a  New  Method  of  Reasoning  iu  ' 
metry,'   4to.,    178(),  a  juvenile  performance  lost  or  stip- 

d  ;  2,  a  Paraphrase  of  part  of  Ocellus  in  the 
European  Mii^nziin1,  17*2  :  a  translation  of  the  whole 
work  in  1831,  8vo.  :  3.  -The  Hymn*  of  Oiphcus,'  12mo., 
1787;  second  edition,  1824,  augmented  ;  4.  'Plotinuson 
the  Beautiful,'  12mo.,  17s7  :  5,  -A  Di>-  crtation  on  the 
Klciisinian  and  Bacchic  M  ,  ,o..  no  date;  (j.  'The 

Rights   of   Unites,'    12mo.,    17U2,  in  ridicule   of    Paine's 
•  Rights  of  Man  ;'  7.  '  Sallust  on  the  Gods  and  the  "World,1 
8vo.,   17'.U:     8,    -The    Phiedrus    of    Plato,'   4to.,    17'J2  ; 
9,  'The   Cratylus.    Phaedon,    Parmenides,    and    Tin. 
8vo.,  1793;  10,  'Proelus  on  Euclid,'  2  vols.  4to.,    17H2; 

II,  'Two  Orations  of  the  Emperor  Julian  to  the  So\> 
Sun  and  to  the  Mother  of  the  Gods,'  8vo.,  1793  ;    1  2. 
sanias'  Description  of  Greece,'  3  vols.  8vo.,  171)4  :  for  this 
translation,  made  in  such  haste  that  Mr.  Ta\  lor  nearly  lost 
the  use  of  his  right   hand  from  continued  exeition,   he 
received  181.     The  work  was  in  such  demand  that  it  sold 
for  a  high  price,  and  a  second  edition  wa-  printed  in  iN'Jl 
without  consulting  the   translator,  who  heard  of  it  acci- 
dentally, when  it  was  too  late  to  correct  it  ;  a  slight  com- 
pensation was  made  to  him,  and  he  added  some  n 

tins  is  an  illustration  of  the  remarks  already  made  ;  a  work 
like  this  should  not  have  been  lelt  to  a  necessitous  writer  : 

13,  l-'i\e  books  of  Plotinus,  '  On  Felicity  :  on  the  Nature 
and  Origin  of  Evil  :  on  Providence  ;  on  Nature,  Contem- 
plation, and  the  One  :  on  the  Descent  of  the  Soul,'  8\o.. 

IT'.M  :   ll.  '  Cupid  and  Psyche,'  from  -•.»..  17U~>: 

I."..    •  Metaphysics  of  Aristotle,'   4to..    1801;    1C.    II, 

'.  Lexicon,'  edited.  4to.,   Is<»3:    17.  -The'  Di- 


Uons  of  Maximus  Tyriuv  2  vol-.  I2rao.,  l*ui  :  is.  -An 
Answer  to  Dr.  Gillies'  .Supplement  to  1):  !t-i- 

of  the  Works  of  Aristotle.  8vo.,    isill  ;    III,  'The  \\ 
of  Plato,'  5  vols.  4to.,    IS(>4  :    includiiTg  reprint-,  of  the 
parts  previously  translated,  and  many  commentaries  taken 
of  which  have  since  been  printed  in  tin- 
original  language:  -Jii.  -'I 

mop]  >i  are  printed  w'ith  Sir.  Bridgcman'*  trans- 

lations. 8u>..  1804  ;  21,  '  Miscellanies  in  Prose  and  \ 
I2mo..  I8U-,,  2nd  ed.  1*211:  22.  'Cofll 
21.  -The  Kmperor  Julian's  Atguinent-  taken   from  ' 
with  Extract-  fnun  In  '    to  the  I  'liris- 

tiaiis,'N\o..  1809;  21.  'The  \Vorks  of  Aristotle,'  i(  vols. 
4to.,  1812,  with  copious  extracts  from  the  antient  com- 
mentators, to  which  are  added  a  dissertation  on  the 
philosophy  of  Aristotle,  and  a  treatise  on  the  elements  of 


TEA 


135 


TEA 


the  true  arithmetic  of  infinites,  both  of  which  had  ap- 
peared in  a  separate  form  ;  25,  '  The  Six  Books  of  Proclus 
on  the  Theology  of  Plato,'  2  vols.  4to.,  1816;  2U,  'Theo- 
retic Arithmetic,'  8vo.,  1816,  containing  what  had  been 
written  on  this  subject  by  Theon  of  Smyrna,  Nicomachus, 
lamblicus,  and  Boethius ;  with  remarks  on  amicable  and 
other  numbers,  and  a  specimen  of  the  manner  in  which 
the  Pvthagorasans  philosophised  about  numbers  ;  27,  '  Se- 
lect Works  of  Plotinus,'  8vo.,  1817  ;  28,  '  Life  of  Pytha- 
goras by  lamblicus,'  8vo.,  1818;  29,  'lamblicus  on  the 
-Mysteries  of  the  Egyptians,  Chaldseans,  and  Assyrians,' 
8vo.,  1821;  30,  'The  Commentaries  of  Proclus  on  the 
Timams  of  Plato,'  2  vols.4to.,  1820  ;  31,  'Political  Pytha- 
goric  Fragments  and  Ethical  Fragments  of  Hierocles,' 
.  1«22;  32,  'The  Metamorphoses  and  Philosophical 
Works  of  Apulcius,'  8vo.,  1822  ;  translated  gratuitously  at 
the  request  of  a  friend,  but  purchased  by  a  publisher 
for  100?. :  Mr.  Taylor  had  a  few  copies  for  his  benefit ; 
33,  'Select  Works  of  Porphyry,'  8vo.,  1823;  some  Essays 
are  added  ;  33,  '  All  the  Fragments  that  remain  of  the 
Lost  Writings  of  Proclus,'  8vo.,  182o  ;  30,  '  Arguments  of 
Celsus  relative  lo  the  Christians,  taken  from  Origen,  with 
Extracts  from  other  Writers,'  12mo.,  1830  ;  37,  '  Proclus  on 
Providence  and  Evil,'  8vo.,  1833 ;  38,  '  Plotinus  on  Sui- 
cide, with  Extracts  from  Olympiodorus,  and  two  books  on 
Truly  Existing  Being,  &c.,  with  Notes  from  Porphyry  and 
Proems,"  8vo.,  1834.  Besides  these,  there  are  many 
papers  written  by  Mr.  Taylor  in  the  '  Classical  Journal ' 
and  other  periodicals,  amongst  which  may  be  specified  a 
complete  and  valuable  collection  of  the  Chaldtean  oracles, 
republished  by  Mr.  Cory- 
TAYLOR'S  THEOREM.  [TAYLOR,  BROOK.] 
TAYWAN.  [TA'I-WAN.] 
TCHAD,  LAKE.  [SOODAN,  p.  249.] 
TCHERMGOV.  [CZER.VIOOF.] 
TEA.  [THEA.] 

TEA,  PARAGUAY,  or  MATE',  is  the  produce  of  a 
plant  belonging  to  the  family  Aquifoliacese.  It  was  for- 
merly Mippnsed  to  be  the  produce  of  the  Ilf.v  ro/nitoria, 
which  is  found  in  North  America,  in  the  C'arolinas,  and  Flo- 
rida; but,  from  specimens  sent  from  Brazil  to  Mr.  Lambert, 
it  appears  to  be  a  distinct  species,  which  he  has  named 
II:  i  paragitanentit.  It  is  a  shrub  attaining  the  size  of 
the  orange-tret- :  it  is  quite  smooth,  with  bluntish  v, 
shaped  remotely  serrated  leaves,  with  umbelliferous  flowers 
1  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  It  is  the  Ilfi  Matt  of 
Hilaire,  and  grows  wild  in  Paraguay  and  Brazil, 
and  is  called  by  the  Spaniards  Yen-n  Mute.  The  leaves  of 
this  shrub  are  in  great  repute  amongst  the  inhabitants  of 
South  America,  and  are  used  in  infusion  in  a  similar  man- 
ner to  the  tea  of  China.  Upwards  of  5,000,000  Ibs.  of  the 
leaves  of  this  tree  are  annually  collected  in  Paraguay,  and 
nt  to  Chili  and  the  viccroyalty  of  Buenos  Ayres.  It 
i-  lint  cultivated,  and  merchants  carry  various  articles  of 
into  the  interior,  which  they  give  the  natives  for  their 
labour  in  collecting  the  leaves  of  the  plant.  After  the 
branches  are  cut  away,  the  ground  is  heated  by  means  of 
a  fire,  and  the  branches,  being  laid  upon  the  heated  ground, 
;\re  dried,  and  afterwards  they  are  beaten  and  pressed  into 
1'ir.T",  in  which  state  it  comes  into  the  market.  There  are 
three  kinds  known  in  the  market :  the  Caa-cuy»,  which  is 
the  bud  of  the  leaf:  (lie  > '<i  i-inini,  the  leaf  torn  from  its 
midrib  and  vein?,  \\ithout  roasting;  and  the  Cun-fumzii, 
or  Yi-i-ni  fif  I'nhi  of  the  Spaniards,  the  i\  hole  leaf  with  the 
petioles  and  small  branches  roasted.  The  first  docs  not 
steep  well,  and  is  seldom  seen.  The  plant  when  used  is 
steeped  in  boiling  water,  to  which  a  little  sugar  and 
times  lemon-juice  is  added.  It  is  drunk  out  of  a 
called  witf,  which  has  a  spout  perforated  with  holes  for 
the  pin-pi.-'-  of  preventing  the  powdered  herb  from  passing 
out  with  the  fluid.  The  Creoles  are  passionately  fond  of 
this  infusion,  nnd  never  partake  of  a  meal  without  it.  The 
properties  of  this  plant,  are  sedative  and  stimulant. 

Another  species  of  Ilex,  the   /.  '.  ,  found  in 

Brazil,  H  applicable  to  the  same   purposes  as  the  last ; 

•Ithonsh  inferior  in  quality,  was  used  extensively  as  a 

true  Paraguay  tea,  when  the  export  of  the 

latter  from  Paraguay  was  forbidden  by  the  dictator  Francia. 

Th  produces  the  Cassena  of  Florida  and 

irohnas,  which  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  correcting 

the  flavour  of  water. 

TEAK.     [TKtTosA.] 

TEAL  (Querquedula  crecca,  Steph. ;  Anus  crecca,  Linn.), 


one  of  the  smallest  of  the  Anatidce,  and  most  beautiful  of 
the  DUCKS,  in  which  article  will  be  found  Mr.  Swainson's 
observations  on  the  subgenus  denominated  Teals,  together 
with  a  description  of  the  Blue-ieinged  Teal. 

Description  of  the  Common  Teal. — Adult  Male.— Top  of 
the  head,  cheeks,  and  neck  of  a  deep  chestnut ;  throat 
black  ;  a  broad  band  of  fine  glossy  green  passing  from  the 
eyes  to  the  back  of  the  neck,  bordered  by  a  pale  margin 
inclining  to  yellowish  ;  head  and  cheeks  chestnut ;  back, 
scapulars,  and  flanks  zigzagged  with  irregular  alternate 
lines  of  black  and  white  ;  breast  and  under  parts  yellowish- 
white,  but  the  breast  is  spotted  with  blackish ;  wing- 
coverts  brown  ;  beauty-spot  (speculum)  rich  glossy  green, 
deepened  at  the  sides  into  a  velvety  black  ;  quills  brown- 
ish-black ;  under  tail-coverts  burl',  with  a  longitudinal 
black  band  ;  bill  black  ;  iris  brown  ;  legs  blackish-brown. 
This  is  the  nuptial  dress ;  but,  in  July  and  August,  this 
brilliant  livery  is  exchanged  for  the  more  sober  hues  of  the 
Ft'iiin lr.~ Top  of  the  head  Sienna  yellow,  with  dashes  of 
deep  brown ;  throat  and  cheeks  dusky  white,  sprinkled 
with  brown  spots  ;  plumage  above  tarnished  or  dull  brown, 
each  feather  with  a  margin  of  a  lighter  colour ;  under  parts 
yellowish-white  ;  beauty-spot  green. 

This  is  the  Sareelle,  Petite  Sarcellc,  Cercelle,  Cercerelle, 
Alebrande,  Gursote,  and  Halebrun  of  the  French  ;  Cerce- 
dula,  Cerrevolo,  Scavolo,  Sartella,  Anitrclla,  and  Anitra 
d'  Inverno  of  the  Italians  ;  Spiegel-Entlein  and  Krickente 
of  the  Germans;  It'inti-r  Tut  ing  of  the  Netherlanders ; 
Aria  and  Kra-cka  of  the  Swedes;  Kestelort-And  of  the 
Norwegians;  Krik-And  of  the  Danes;  Cor  Hiryad  and 
ffrarh  Iliryntl  of  the  antient  British. 

Ifufii/.v.  <i'ri><.'rii-/:/ti<-<i/  JJiistrihutinn,  $c. — Mr.  Yarrell, 
in  his  '  British  Birds,'  now  nearly  complete,  and  forming  a 
most  \aliiiible  addition  to  British  ornithology,  thus  sums 
up  the  information  extant  relative  to  the  habits  and  locality 
of  this  pretty  species,  which  he  notices  'as  an  early  anil 
constant  winter  visitor,  making  its  appearance  by  the  end 
of  September,  sometimes  sooner  than  that,  and  remaining 
with  us  till  spring  has  made  considerable  ],i H^K-S  ;  their 
numbers  are  constantly  recruited  through  the  winter  months 
!>y  additional  arrivals  from  the  northern  parts  of  Europe, 
ind  our  markets  in  consequence  obtain  a  regular  supply 
from  the  \arious  decoys  and  other  modes  of  capture.  Al- 
though numbers  in  spring  return  again  to  more  northern 
localities  to  breed,  many  remain  in  this  country  and  pass 
1he  summer  near  fresh-water  lakes.  That  some  of  them 
jreed  here  also,  in  suitable  localities,  is  proved  by  the  fact 
ihat,  in  the  summer  of  1817,  Mr.  Youell  of  Yarmouth  had 
bur  young  birds  of  the  Teal  brought  to  him,  which  wcic 
hatched  at  Reedham  in  Norfolk.  The  authors  of  the  Cata- 
ogue  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  birds  say  also  that  very  small 
ones  have  been  ol/lamcd  in  company  with  their  parents 
upon  Kan  worth  Broad,  by  Mr.  Kerrisou  of  that  place  :  and 
that  they  breed  also  pnScoulton  Mere.  The  Rev.  Richard 
Lubbock  of  Norfolk,  in  his  note  to  me  on  tin's  species,  says, 
"  the  Teal  must,  in  some  years,  either  breed  abundantly 
with  us,  or  migrate  hither  very  early :  I  have  known  sixty 
or  seventy  Teal  come  in  small  parties  to  the  same  plash 
of  water  at  sun-down  by  the  first  week  in  August."  The 
Teal  bear  confinement  well ;  and  at  the  gardens  of  the 
Zoological  Society,  though  restricted  to  a  veiy  small  pond, 
with  a  margin  of  thick  and  high  grass,  with  some  low 
shrubs,  have  hied  regularly  for  the  l-^\  Cm  Feb., 

1842).  The  eggs  are  white,  tinged  with  buff,  measuring 
one  inch  three  lines  in  length,  by  one  inch  four  lines  in 
breadth.  The  food  of  the  Teal  consists  of  seeds,  grasses, 
water-plants,  and  insects  in  their  various  states.  In  con- 
finement they  require  gvain.  Some  Teal  breed  about  the 
lakes  of  Wales,  and  a  few  in  Romney  M.irsh.  Mr.  Selbv, 
who  has  paid  attention  to  the  habits  of  Ihiri  species  in 
Northumberland,  says,  'our  indigenous  broods,  I  am  in- 
clined to  think,  seldom  quit  the  immediate  neighbourhood 
of  the  place  in  which  they  were  bred,  as  I  have  repeatedly 
observed  them  to  haunt  the  same  district  from  the  time  of 
their  hatching,  till  they  separated  and  paired  on  the  ap- 
proach of  the  following  spring.  The  Teal  breeds  in  the 
long  rushy  herbage  about  the  edges  of  lakes,  or  in  the 
bociry  parts  of  the  upland  moors.  Its  nest  is  formed  of  a 
mass  of  decayed  vegetable  matters,  with  a  lining  of 
down  and  feathers,  upon  which  eight  or  ten  eggs  rest. 
Dr.  Heysham,  in  his  catalogue  of  Cumberland  animals, 
says  that  a  few  Teal  certainly  breed  in  the  mosses  of  that 
county  every  year.' 


T  i:  \ 


136 


T  i 


White,  in  n  U-tterJo  the  Hon.  Daines  Harrington,  dated 
Svlhorne,  July  8,  1773,  »ay»,  'Some  young  uu-n  went  down 
lately  to  a  pond  on  the  verge  of  Wdmer  Forest  to  hunt 
flappers,  or  voting  wild  dock*,  many  of  which  they  caught, 
and,  among  the  rest,  some  very  minute,  yet  wtlMUdged 
wild  fowls  alive,  which,  upon  examination,  I  found  to  be 
teals.  1  did  not  know  till  then  llwt  •  ITU!  in  the 

south  of  England,  and  was  much  pleased  with  the  diseo- 
this  I  look  upon  as  a  great  stroke  in  natural  history.' 

llut  to  return  to  Mr.  Yarrell,  who  thus  proceeds:  'In 
Ireland  the  Teal  is  found  in  great  numbers  throughout  the 
winter,  and  a  few  are  resident  there  all  th<  -.r  Ro- 

Iwrt  Sihbald,  and  other  authorities  sinre  his  time,  notiee 
the  teal  as  inhabiting  the  edges  of  the  Scottish  lakes  :  Mr. 
Dunn  however  says  that  it  is  not  numerous  either  in  Ork- 
ney or  Shetland,  although  the  most  so  in  winter ;  luit  that 
a  few  pairs  occasionally  remain  during  summer  and  breed. 
They  prefer  the  inland  lakes  to  the  sea-shore.  Kichard 
Dunn.  KMJ..  sent  me  word  that  this  beautiful  little  duck  is 
widely  and  numerously  dispersed  over  the  whole  of  Nor- 
way and  Sweden,  but  Is  most  plentiful  in  the  north  during 
the  breeding  season.  It  breeds  all  over  Lapland,  both 
•TII  and  eastern,  and  is  very  abundant  in  the  Dofre 
Kiell,  within  the  range  of  the  birch-trees.  The  eggs  vary 
in  number  from  ten  to  fifteen.  It  breeds  also  in  the  cuf- 
tivated  districts  in  all  the  mosses  and  bogs.  Mr.  Proctor 
says  the  Teal  is  pretty  common  in  Iceland.  Eastward  of 
Scandinavia  it  is  found  in  Russia,  and  is  abundant  in  Ger- 
many, Holland,  Kiance,  Spain,  and  Italy ;  visits  .North 
Africa  in  winter,  and  has  been  noticed  "at  Smyrna  and 
Trebizond.  The  Teal  was  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Caucasian  range,  by  Russian  natural's)*,  and  is  included 
in  catalogues  of  the  birds  of  various  parts  of  India,  ( 'lima. 
and  Japan.  The  Teal  of  North  America  is  distinct  from 
the  Teal  of  Europe  and  Asia.'  (liritixh  fiirds.) 

Mr.  Gould,  in  his  great  work,  •  The  Hirds  of  Europe,' 
remarks  that  M.  Temminck  names  Northern  America  ns 
among  the  native  localities  of  the  Teal ;  but  Mr.  Gould 
says  that  he  is  inclined  to  dissent  from  this  opinion,  for 
the  American  examples  may  always  be  distinguished  by  a 
white  crescent-shaped  band  on  each  side  of  the  chest  ni-ar 
the  shoulders.  This,  together  with  the  absence  of  the 
white  tertial  feather,  will  constitute,  he  thinks,  fair  grounds 
for  a  genuine  specific  distinction. 

M.  Temminck,  in  the  fourth  volume  of  his  '  Manuel." 
has  himself  corrected  this  error,  acknowledging  the  differ- 
ence, and  referring  to  Dr.  Richardson,  '  Fauna  Boreali- 
Air.encana,'  vol.  ii.,  p.  443. 

The  teal  flies  vigorously.  Drayton,  in  the  'five  and 
twentieth  song"  of  his  '  Polyolbion,'  alludes  to  this  power. 
After  celebrating  the  Duck  and  Mallard,  he  continues:— 

'  An-l  necre  to  Ihctn  yo  sec  Ilir  lr«rr  diMilin;,'  'IV  il<% 
In  Ininrlirs,*  with  liu-  first  thit  fly  from  men  In  marc, 
At  they  above  Uic  reM  were  lord*  of  rarlli  and  •>«.' 


Commua  Trml,  Qiwrquolulm  encai. 

Utility  to  Mm. — ThU  species  is  one  of  the  most  deli- 
cate of  the  duck*.  Willughby  remarks,  that  for  the  taste 
of  its  flesh,  and  the  wholesome  nourishment  it  affords  the 

•  '  the  word  in  Falconry  for  »  company  of  TeUc.' 


body,  it  'doth  deservedly  challenge  the  fust  plate  among 
those  of  its  kind.' 

In  the  '  Portraits  d'<  .tin-  following  qua- 

train celebrates  its  excellence  and  alludes  to  its  habiU: — 

'  llifa  frtl  muvmt  M-  ploii^o  |»  urrrllr 
Bvlre  deux  raux.  dc  U'|iirU*  U  chair 
K»t  •!>  lie  .!••  -  niiwi  • 
Autanl  qu'oymti,  <pi  «.it  |,lii  n>ramr  clip.' 

ordingly  we  see  it  holding  a  high  place  in  aniicnt 
feasts.  We  find  it  among  the  •  goodly  provision '  a!  the 
banquet  given  at  the  enthroning  of  G  .ell.  arch- 

bishop ol  'York,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.:  •  Mallaides 
and  Teales,  41KKJ.'  The  piice,  in  the  Northumberland 
HovwhoU  Hook,  is  •Tcylles,  Id.,'  mallards  being  :>•/. 

In  the  provision  for  the  marriage  of  Roger  Kneklcy  and 
Elizabeth  Ne\  ile.  14th  January.  17th  Henry  \  III. ."there 
appear  among  the  dishes  for  "the  first  course  at  dinner 
'Teals,  7  of  a  dish  ;'  and  in  the  account  of  the  expen-c  in 
the  week  for  flesh  and  fish  for  the  same  marriage,  -Mal- 
lards and  Teal,  80  doMB,' are  ckargcd  -.l':t  II  s.'  AKo 
in  the  charge  of  Sir  John  Nevile  of  Chete,  the  fat! 
the  bride  above  mentioned,  at  Lammas  assizes,  in  the  3D h 
Henry  VIII.,  lie  then  being  sheriff  of  Yorkshire,  we  find 
•12  shillings  charged  for  '  Mallards,  Teal,  and  other  wild 
fowl.' 

TEAM.  Nothing  is  of  greater  importance  in  the  ma- 
nagement of  a  farm  than  the  cattle  which  perform  Un- 
necessary work  in  ploughing  and  other  opcrat ions  on  the 
soil,  in  drawing  manure  to  the  land  and  carrying  the  pro- 
duce to  market.  It  is  evident  that  the  smaller  the  expense 
of  the  team  which  does  the  requisite  work  in  proper  time, 
the  greater  the  profit  of  the  farmer,  and  every  saving  in 
this  part  of  the  expense  of  cultivation  is  so  much  added 
to  the  clear  gain.  Wherever  the  land  is  only  partially 
cultivated,  and  a  portion  of  it  remains  in  coarse  pasture, 
which  costs  little  or  nothing  to  the  occupier,  or  where  ex- 
tensive open  commons  afford  cheap  food  for  oxen,  these 
last  are  naturally  employed  in  farm  labour.  If  four  oxen 
do  only  the  work  of  two  horses,  they  are  maintained  at  a 
much  smaller  expense,  and,  after  working  for  two  or  three 
years,  their  value  is  improved  for  the  purpose  of  fatting 
for  the  butcher.  The  necessary  gear  is  much  less  expen- 
sive, especially  where  the  old  yoke  is  still  in  use,  whether 
across  the  neck  or  the  horns.  In  fact  for  a  poor  man  who 
has  only  a  few  acres  of  land,  and  who  is  situated  near  a 
waste  or  common,  oxen,  and  even  cows  anil  heifers,  arc 
by  far  the  most  economical  team.  Many  writeis  on  agri- 
culture, who  in  general  have  more  theoretical  than  prac- 
tical knowledge  of  husbandry,  have  maintained  the  geneial 
superiority  of  an  ox  team  over  that  composed  r.f  h 
and  have  given  calculations  which  appear  clcarlj  t< 
blish  their  point.  But,  on  the  other  side,  it  ma\  1 

!.  that  wherever  suable  land  is  the  chief  object  of 
the  farmer's  attention,  and  the  tillage  of  the  soil  is  luoiiL-ht 
to  any  degree  of  perfection,  there  oxen  are  never  teen  at 
work,  but  have  been  invariably  superseded  by  active 

It  has  been  urged  that  at  Windsor  Park,  where  it  may 
be  supposed  that  the  farms  in  which  (ieorge  III.  took  so 
much  inteiest    were  conducted    by  the   most   experienced 
agriculturists,   a  ccnsideiable   tram  of  oxen  was  kept,  and 
did    most  of  the   work,   even   the   earning   on    the   n 
Tills  is  a  continuation  of  what  we   have   observed   before. 
The  oxen  feed  on  the  grass  of  nn  extensive  park,  the  value 
of  which  is  not  brought  to  account.    They  are  very  lightly 
worked,  and  fatten  well   after  two  or  three  years'  work  ; 
but  if  a  rent  had  to  be  paid  for  their  pasture,  or  if  it  were 
calculated   how  many  young  oxen   and  heifers  or  sheep 
oould    have   been  kept    on  the   pasture   consumed  by  the 
u\en,  and  the  profit  of  thc-c  \\cic  set  againM  the  value  of 
the  work  dime,  it  would  probably  appear  that  then-  Wl 
gieat  economy  in  the  ox-team  compared  with  the  li 
In  Switzerland,  which  is  tolerably  advanced  in  its  agricul- 
ture,  oxen    an-   veiv    geneinllv  used    for  the   wink   of   tin- 
farm:   but  there  the   Msteni  of  Mall-feeding   is   iiimcisal, 
and   having  a  coiiMdeiable   portion  of  glass-land,  which 
can  be  irrigated  by  the  streams  from  the  mountains,   they 
cut   the  ctiaise   long   giiLv   produced   there   for  their  . 
and  oxen  :   and  this  food  is  mure  congenial  to  their  i  . 
than  to  horses,  which  do  not  thrive  on  coarse  w a 
and  icquire  hay  and  emu   nearly  all  the  year  ronnii.      But 
where  then  i-s-laml  and  nu.re  artificial  grass,  such 

liiifoin,  and  clover,  which  is  the  case  in  all  «x- 


TEA 


137 


TEA 


tensive  farms,  there  horses  are  chiefly  used,  this  food  being 
suited  to  their  constitution.  Not  to  enter  further  into  the 
comparative  advantage  of  oxen  and  horses,  we  shall  turn 
our  attention  to  the  most  profitable  management  of  the 
latter,  which  now  almost  universally  compose  the  farmer's 
team. 

The  choice  of  the  horses  for  a  farm  is  of  great  import- 
ance.    It  may  be  very  satisfactory  to  a  rich  farmer  to  see 
fine  large  well-fed  horses  in  his  waggon,  moving  along  as 
il  they  followed  a  procession,  with  bright  harness  orna- 
mented with  shining  brass.     This  is  a  luxury  like  that  of 
the  ric-h  man's  coach-horses,  and  as  such  is  very  natural 
and  innocent.     It  is  the  pride  of  many  a  wealthy  yeoman, 
and  we  would  not  curtail  his  pleasure  or  despise  his  taste ; 
but  as  a  matter  of  profit  or  loss  the  case  is  very  different : 
a  fat  horse  does  little  work,  no  more  than  a  fat  coachman. 
Horses  to  be  in  working  condition  should  be  muscular  and 
active.     The  great  heavy  cart-horse  may,  for  a  moment, 
be  capable  of  a  greater  exertion  at  a  dead  pull,  his  weight 
assisting  him  ;  but  in  a  long  day  the  thin  active  horse  will 
do  with  ease  what  would  sicken,  if  not,  kill,  his  heavy 
companion.     Horses  about  fifteen  hands  high,  with  short 
legs  and  broad  chests,  such  as  the  Suffolk  punches,  which 
walk  as  fast   as  an  ordinary  man,  or   the    active   Scotch 
horses,   which    have   more   blood    and   will    readily   trot 
with  a  moderate  load,  are  the  most  economical  for  farm- 
work.     A  pair  of  such  horses  will  draw  a  load  in  a  cart 
sixteen  miles   and   return,  or  plough   a  Scotch   acre   of 
Iftnd,  equal  to  one  acre  and  a  quarter  imperial  measure,  in 
ten  working  hours,  having  a  rest  of  two  hours ;  while  the 
heavy  slow  South-country  horses  could  not  walk  the  dis- 
tance in  the  time  without  being  over-driven.   This  is  more 
than  the  average  work ;  but  in  the  busy  time  of  the  year 
it  is  a  great  advantage  to  have  horses  which  can,  with  good 
feeding,  work  longer  and  faster  without  suffering  in  their 
health.    The  carriers  on  the  roads,  who  live  entirely  by 
the  work  of  their  horses,  know  how  to  choose  them  and 
how  to  feed  them  to  the  greatest  advantage,  and,  without 
over-working  them,  to  make  them  do  as  much  as  is  con- 
si-tent  with  their  health.     If  hard  work  is  the  cause  of 
some   diseases   in   horses,    comparative    indolence    t 
many  more.     Where  horses  are  sluggish,  the   men   soon 
become  so  likewise.     To  see  a  waggon  with  four  strong 
horses  returning  empty,  at  the  rate  of  two  miles  in  the 
hour,  with  two  men,  or  at  least  a  man  and  a  boy,  lying 
lazily  in  it,  is  a  sun-  siirn  that  the  work  on  the  farm  to 
which  they  belong  is  done  at  the  same  rate.     A  single- 
horse  cart,  or  a  liirht  spring  wasreron  with  two  horses,  driven 
by  a  man  or  hoy  with  reins  and  a  whip,  and  trotting  at  the 
rate  of  five  miles  an  hour,  is  a  perfect  contrast  to  this,  and 
no  doubt  the  owner  has  his  work  done  much  more  expedi- 
tiously,  and  consequently  at  a  cheaper  rate.     The  stage- 
coach proprietors  have  generally  very  light  four-wheeled 
carriages  to  carry  their  corn  from  their  chief  stations  to 
places  where  they  keep  horses,  and  they  often  carry  as  heavy 
loads  as  a  farmer's  waggon   does  when  carrying  corn  to 
market ;  yet  the  two  horses  in  the  light  carriage  trot  with 
their  load,  and  the  three  or  four  heavy  horses  of  the  farmer 
move  at  the  rate  of  two  miles  and  a  half  in  the  hour  at 
most,  both  going  and  returning.     It  is  evident  that  there 
is  a  waste  of  time  and  power  here,  which  is  so  much  lost. 
Horses  half-bred  between  a  cart-mare  and  a  blood-horse 
are  reared  by  some  spirited  farmers,  and  if  they  are  more 
delicate  and  susceptible  of  cold  than  the  common  cart- 
horses, they  have  many  advantages:   sometimes  they  in- 
herit so  much  courage  and  vigour  from  theirsire,  that  they 
become  valuable  as  carriage-horses  or  hunters,  and  well 
repay  the  expense  incurred  in  rearing  them ;   and  at  all 
U  they  are  superior  to  any  others  for  the  work  of  the 
farm,  and  are  in  general  docile  and  tractable.     The  only 
inconvenience  arises  from  their  spirit.     When  any  sudden 
obstruction  arises  in  ploughing,  such  as  a  considerable  root 
of  a  tree  or  a  lar<;e  stone,  they  make  violent  exertions,  and 
sometimes  bleak   the  ploughs  or  other  implements.     In 
this  respect  oxen  are  more  phlegmatic,  and  stop  when  the 
collar  presses  on  them  ;  so  that  in  breaking  up  rough  com- 
or   newly  cleared  woods  oxen   may  be   preferred. 
This  is  almost,  the  only  case  where  spirit  and  courage  are 
not  an  advantage. 

\Vith  respect  to  the  food  of  farm-horses,  as  we  observed 

bi-l'oi.  -  nuiy  !)<•  effected  by  a  judicious  use 

of  many  vegetables  and  roots  which  are  easily  raised  on 

arable  land.     Various  modes  of  preparing  the  food  have 

P.  C.,  No.  1505. 


been  recommended,  such  as  steeping  corn  till  it  sprouts, 
baking  it  into  bread,  or  mixing  it  with  boiled  roots.  All 
these  may  have  their  advantage  where  economy  is  the 
object ;  but,  with  the  exception  of  baked  bread  made  of 
rye,  barley,  and  oats,  and  slightly  leavened,  which  is  per- 
haps the  best  food  which  can  be  given  to  slow-working 
horses,  there  is  nothing  so  congenial  to  the  healthy  stomach 
of  a  horse  as  good  hay  and  dry  oats,  or  beans  bruised  in  a 
mill  and  mixed  with  cut  chaff.  They  require  no  cooking 
to  be  fully  digested,  and  the  digestive  power  of  the  horse 
will  extract  all  the  nourishment  which  they  contain.  But 
there  are  cheaper  fodders  than  hay  and  corn,  especially  in 
summer,  when  they  can  be  given  fresh  and  green.  Tares, 
clover,  lucern,  and  sainfoin,  cut  as  they  are  wanted,  will 
keep  a  horse  in  health  and  working  condition  with  little 
or  no  corn,  and  at  a  comparatively  trifling  expense  ;  car- 
rots are  peculiarly  relished  by  horses,  and  are  very  whole- 
some ;  and  Swedish  turnips,  or  ruta  baga,  given  raw  in 
moderate  quantities  make  their  skins  "shine,  and  thus 
prove  that  they  tend  to  keep  them  in  condition.  Every 
prudent  farmer  takes  care  to  have  a  sufficient  supply  of 
these  cheaper  substitutes  for  hay  and  corn,  keeping  these 
'ast  as  a  reserve  and  auxiliary  to  the  former.  In  a  prize 
Essay  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  on  the 
comparative  advantages  of  raw  and  boiled  grain  as  food 
or  farm-horses,  the  author  adduces  some  experiments, 
which  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  there  is  no  advantage 
n  boiling  grain,  but  rather  the  contrary.  The  cost  of 
keep  of  a  horse  per  day  on  different  food"  has  been  "-iven 
as  follows : — 


Id. 
9 
1 
1*. 

1     0* 

Gd. 


10  Ibs.  of  straw  cut  into  chaff     . 
10  Ibs.  of  oats,  at  3s.  per  bushel 
16  Ibs.  of  turnips,  at  lUv.  per  ton 
Expense  of  cutting  .          . 


or— 16  Ibs.  of  hay,  at  3?.  &/.  per  cwt. 
5  Ibs.  of  oats,  at  3-v.  per  bushel 
16  Ibs.  turnips,  at  10*.  per  tun 


or — 28 Ibs.  of  steamed  turnips 

7  Ibs.  of  coals,  at  1*.  per  bushel 
Expense  of  steaming 
10  Ibs.  of  straw,  at  11.  per  ton    . 


This  last  appears  the  most  economical  food,  but  steamed 
turnips  and  straw  only  would  probably  not  keep  a  horse  in 
good  working  condition,  and  it  is  not  said  how  long  the 
experiment,  was  continued,  nor  whether  the  horses  thus 
fed  lost  weight.  The  food  is  also  valued  at  a  low  rate. 

It  is  evident  that  if  farm-horses  can  be  kept  in  condition 
for  6Jrf.  a  day,  which  is  not  4*.  a  week,  while  on  hay  and 
oats,  in  the  common  mode  of  feeding,  they  will  cost  more 
than  double  that  sum,  the  saving  in  a  year  would  amount  to 
nearly  10/.  on  each  horse  ;  and  as  every  twenty-five  acres  of 
a  farm  of  moderately  light  land  will  require  one  horse  for  its 
cultivation,  there  will  be  a  saving  of  8s.  per  acre,  probably 
half  the  rent,  and  more  than  half  the  profit.  However 
this  may  be,  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  of  great  import- 
ance to  ascertain  what  is,  on  the  whole,  the  best  and 
cheapest  mode  of  feeding  farm-horses ;  and  without  en- 
tering into  minute  calculations,  it  will  be  found  that 
various  artificial  grasses  may  be  made  to  succeed  each 
other,  by  successive  sowings,  so  regularly,  that  the  horses 
shall  be  kept  for  six  months  of  the  year  entirely  on  suc- 
culent green  food,  which  will  enable  them  to  do  all  the 
necessary  work,  and  keep  them  in  good  health  and  con- 
dition. Thus  with  the  help  of  carrots,  potatoes,  and  ruta 
baga,  a  great  saving  of  hay  and  oats  may  be  effected  in 
winter,  and  these  crops  will  take  up  much  less  land 
for  their  production  than  hay  and  oats,  and  exhaust  the 
soil  less;  if  we  except  potatoes,  which  are  more  profitably 
used  as  human  food  or  to  fatten  pigs. 

The  example  of  tradesmen  and  manufacturers  who  keep 
horses,  and  cut  all  the  hay  which  they  use  into  chatf,  mix- 
ing it  with  oats,  may  be  good  for  a  farmer  to  follow,  where 
hay  is  scarce  and  beans  a  good  price  :  but  otherwise  it  is 
fully  as  economical  to  give  the  nay  in  racks,  provided  no 
more  be  given  at  once  than  a  horse  will  eat  up  entirely, 

Vol.  XXIV.-T 


TEA 


138 


TEA 


and  a  certain  ration  be  allowed  lor  each  hone,  which  ex- 
perience has  shown  to  be  sufficient.    In  the-  cavalry,  whcic 
is  paid  to  ecu:  -c  tluir 

oats,  and  straw  to  tin-  .  • 

the)'  .:ue  they  arc  exposed  to:  so  like 

should  be  with  a  unn.  i's  team.  In  the  old  mode  of  i. .  .1- 
ing  horses  with  lu  much  hay  a*  they  would  cat,  and  two 
bushel*  of  oaU  lor  each  bone  per  week,  during  at  least 
nine  montlis  in  the  year,  and  dung  them  tares  or  arti- 
ficial grasses  between  spring  mminc  and  harvest,  when 
•  .  !,•  dmif,  the  expense  of  a  horse  was 
much  greater  than  most  iarmcis  could  now  afford  ;  and 
more  land  was  devoted  to  the  keep  of  Uie  team  than  was 
-saj-y.  The  following  is  the  calculation  of  the  cost 
of  the  keep  of  a  horse  in  this  way  : — 


£  *. 

11  4 

3  in 

3  0 


32  weeks,  at  2  bushel*  of  oats  per  week,  at 

3*.  Gd.  per  bushel 
20  weeks,  at  1  bushel  of  oats  per  week,  at 

3*.  6rf.  per  bushel  .... 
Tares  20  week*,  at  6s.  ( f,  of  an  acre  per  week! 
Hay  32  weeks,  1$  cwt.  per  week  at  4*.  per 

cwt.         ...... 

Shoeing  ...... 

Farrier 


Total     £28    6 

The  hay  and  oats  are  at  high  prices,  but  at  all  events  a 
horse  cannot  be  kept  in  this  way  under  10*.  per  week. 
They  are  then  however  in  excellent  condition,  and  able  to 
work  ten  hour*  per  dsy  in  summer  and  eight  in  winter. 

On  poor  land,  where  gorse  or  furze  grow  readily,  a  MTV 
cheap  food  is  obtained  by  bnii-ini;  or  crushini;  the  younsr 
shoots  of  the  iror»e  to  destroy  the  sharp  spines  which  in- 
jure the  mouths  of  the  cattle.  Horses  reared  in  large 
commons  ant -often  seen  bealinir  the  gorse  with  their  feet, 
and  then  eating  it  greedily  :  instinct  here  teaches  them  tc 
prepare  their  own  food;  and,  if  they  have  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  it,  they  get  fat  and  in  good  condition. 

It  is  of  great  importance  to  a  person  about  to  hire  a 
farm  to  know  exactly  what  number  of  horses  will  be  re- 
quired for  its  proper  cultivation,  and  this  depends  upon 
many  circumstances  which  must  all  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration, and  which  will  make  a  very  material  difference, 
often  as  much  as  half  the  rent  of  the'  land.  He  is  to  con- 
sider the  situation  of  the  farm-buildintrs,  especially  tin 
stalls  and  cattle-yards,  where  the  manure  is  to  be  made 
with  respect  to  their  distance  from  the  fields ;  the  state 
of  the  roads  and  the  access  to  the  fields  ;  the  distance  .. 
a  good  markft-town,  and  whether  the  fields  lie  in  a  ring- 
.UT  scattered.  A  farm  of  good  light  loam  wil 
require  one  horse  for  every  twenty-five  acres  for  its  culti- 
vation, with  an  additional  one  I'm  >  w  iy  JK)  acres;  that  is 
!l  horses  for  200  acres.  The  additional  horse  should  be 
lighter  and  more  active  than  the  n-st,  for  the  farmer  to  ride 
on  and  to  drive  in  a  light  cart  :  yet  it  should  be  capable  o 
supplying  the  place  of  any  of  the  others  in  case  of  ill  i 
accident,  or  when  extra  work  is  required,  as  in  harvest  or 
seed  time.  The  larger  the  farm,  or  rather  the  fields,  tin. 
fewer  horses  are  required  in  proportion  to  its  size,  b. 
much  time  is  lost  in  turning  the  plough  where  the  furrow 
>rt  ;  and  ploughing  is  always  the  principal  work  o 
the  team.  If  more  than  two  horses  arc  required  to  plough 
the  LTOUIld,  the  soil  must  lie  very  comport  ;iml  he:i\\.  am 
if  thi*  is  not  compensated  by  greater  fertility,  Ihe  e\pcn-i 
of  the  bone*  will  much  (MUce  the  profit  of  the  fanner 
It  is  the  uii!»toui  in  some  farms  for  each  ploughman  tohaM 
the  .  iii-.  own  horses:  but  it  is  far  better  to  maki 

the  feeding  and  cleaning  of  horses  the  business  of  retrula 
sen  a  -liould  slci-p   ill  or  near  the  stablo.  ;i. 

very  early,  so  that  the  horses  may  be  fed  and  ready  to  go 
to  work  as  soon  as  the  ploughman  comes.  \Vhcn  a  i.iiu 
has  I  or  ten  hours  holding  a  plough,  he  is  not  no 

capable  of  cleaning  and  nibbing  the  horses  as  one  who 
has  only  had  light  work  in  the  day.     The  horse-kei  pn 
can  prepare  manure,  make  composts,  cut  hay  ainl 
into  chart'  for  the  horses,  mow  tares  or  other  green  food 
or  hoe  the  crops  in  the  season  while  the  horses  are  I 
work,  and  the  last  thing  before  they  lie  down  at  niirl 
should  be  to  «ive  the  horses  tic 

see  that  their  beds  are  comfort  ii  pro 

per  order  in  the  btaUc* :  good  grooming  i.->  cil  a*  great  use 


•. ithout  it  they  • 
andition.     The   harnev   should 


o  a  hone  as  good  feed 

in   pen. 
always  be  cleaned  and 

ilacu,  not,  as  u  too  commonly  .. 

lorses  in  the  stables.     Tie 

ornaments,  but  strength  and  simplicity  should  h< 

The  weight  and  size  of  the  colhu>  u  in  mam  . 

'no   licht,  provided    tl 
111.     The   work   in  the  field  wh-.-n'th. 
should  be  divided  so  as  to  give  the  hor- 

tinir  which  they  should  be  fed  with 
\\hcn  the   fields  are   near   the   stables  the  hoi-. 
'irought  home,  but  a  put  table  munircr  i^ 
nto  the  field,  such  a.-  is  n»cd  at   the  inns  on  the  roads 
where  carriers  stop  to  bait.     In  winter  it  may  be  as 

finish  the  day's  work  with  only  an  interval  of  half  an 
Hour.     The   time    in    summer   should    be    from    ~>  ill   the 
morning  till    1(1.  and  from  2  till  7  if  the  wi-all. 
warm,   resting    I   hon  n    (i   till   11   and  from    1 

till  (i,  resting  -  hours.     In  winter  the  tune  is   : 

:mg  half  an  hour  or  an  hour  hclw.  .  12. 

With  irood  fcedimr  and  grooming  this  is  by  nn   .. 
hard  work  when  the  work  ri 

The  heavier  and  lighter  kind  of  work  should  be»oarra 
that  when  horses  nave  worked  hard  for  a  day  or  two. 
may  have  one  or  two  days  of  lighter  work.     In  i. 
of  England  the  pace  of  the  horses  and  then 
much  less  than   in   Scotland:    two  horses  should  pi. 
an  acre  a  day  or  more,  on  an  n 
can  get  much  more  accomplished  than  1  hive-quart  i 
an  acre,  if  they  plough  a  good  depti 
or  iriass  lays.     In  the  light  s-amU  of  Noifolk  and  Lim 
shiie   they  go   over  much  ground:  but  'here  the  I'm 
are   wide   and   shallow,   and   the   horses   miirht   ca.sih    tint 
with  the  plough  if  the  ploughman  could  keep  up  with 
them.     In  Flanders  such  land  is  ploughed  with  one  i 
only  :    and   the   work   is   well   done.     There   is   y 
room  for  improvement  in  the  use  and  management  of  the 
team  on  most  farms  in  England. 

TEAXO.    [LAVORO,  TERRA  DI.] 

TEAKS.     rKvi:.  p.  M'J.  | 

TKA/I.K    Dtptactu  Fuflbnmn)  is  a  plant  which  : 
wild  in  the  hedges,  but  an  improved   van."  fully 

cultivated   in    those  districts  of   England    win., 
manufactured.      It    is   used    for  the   purpo.-e  of  fonnintr  a 

-  of  brush  with  which  the  i 

fabric  are  diawn  to  the  .surface,  where  they  product 
is  usually  called  the  imp  of  the  cloth.     The  t. 
fine  hooked  awn,   which  very  readily  inr-iu  f  mtci 

the  woollen  web,  and  draws  out  with  it  some  of  the  tine 
of  the  wool;  these  are  afterwards  shorn  smooth,  nna 
leave  the  cloth  with  the   line  \clvcl-like  nap  which  : 
]ieculiar  appearance.     A  further  ai-count  of  the 

Ming,  in  the  woollen  nianulacture,  is  given  in  > 
•  1'hilosopliy  of  Manufactures.'  p.  I'.C. 

Teazles  will  grow  in  any  soil ;  but  they  grow 
and  best  in  a  stiff' loam.     They  require  (he  soil  to  i 
good  heart,  and  are  supposed  to  exhaust  it  much  ;  but  no 
Cicat  portion  of  manure  is  required  to  obtain  a  rjood  crop. 
Like  all  the  tribe   of  thistles.  lhe\   irrow  .ouiid 

newly  turned  vip  from  crais'  which  h;u»  lain  some  time,  lUid 
the  sune  ground  will  not  again  produce  them  c 
:i    ijiudity    till    alter   a  .uterval.       Trie 

toazle  which  grows  in  hedges  appears  nl  liist  Mijht  to  be 
the  same  a-s  lh-  hut  it- w  of  no  u 

tin'  cloth-worker  from  the  weakness  of  the  awns,  which 
break  oil',  instead  of  drawini;  the  wool  out  of  the  surface 
of  the  web. 

The  ifrowing  of  teazles  is  a  peculiar  trade,  and  a  kind  of 
speculation.     The  teazle-grower  hiii  of  ground 

suited   to   his  purpose  from  the    fanner  for  two  \rai-. 
pays  a  considerable   rent.     If  the   ground   is    : 
ironi  grass,  i;  is  ploughed  ius  deep  as  the  slajile  oi   ill. 
l>ennits,  and  as  early  as  possible,  if  before  winter  >o  much 
the  better:  the  ground  is  laid  in  .  on  which 

the    seed     is    drilled    in    April,    in   rows    frvm     1^   • 
inches  apait  ;  moisture  is  necessary  to  make  tin 
inmate.     As  soon   as  the  plants  appear,  they  are  : 
out,  and  the  int. 
the  summer,  the  gron 

:is  it  is  called,  to  a  e<  '.>,   with  \. 

and  long  spades;   this  greatly  i:  •..,    |>lants.     In 

.\y\eiubcr,  some  plants  may  bo  tnuuplauted  from  \ 


T  E  B 


139 


TEC 


they  stand  too  thick,  to  the  places  where  they  hare  failed. 
They  should  stand  about  a  foot  apart  in  the  rows.  During 
the  ensuing  spring,  the  cultivation  is  repeated,  and  earth 
is  drawn  up  to  the  plants,  but  without  burying  the 
heart.  They  soon  begin  to  push  up  their  stems,  and  are 
fit  to  be  cut  in  July,  just  when  the  blossom  has  fallen. 
As  they  do  not  come  to  proper  maturity  at  the  same  time, 
several  successive  gatherings  are  made.  They  are  cut 
with  a  sharp  knife  about  nine  inches  below  the  head,  and 
tied  in  small  bundles  or  handfuls  :  thick  gloves  are  very 
necessary  in  this  operation.  They  must  be  carried  under 
cover  before  night,  as  the  rains  or  heavy  dews  would  injure 
them.  When  the  sun  shines,  they  are  exposed  to  diy  in 
the  same  manner  as  is  done  with  onion  seed,  and  they  are 
never  packed  close  until  they  are  perfectly  dry.  Avhen 
drying  they  are  usually  hung  on  poles ;  so  that  the  air  may 
circulate  between  the  bundles.  The  bundles  are  after- 
wards opened,  and  the  teazles  sorted  into  kings,  mid- 
dlings and  scrubs,  according  to  their  size  ;  9000  kings  or 
20,000  middlings  make  a  pack.  The  scrubs  or  refuse  are 
of  little  value  :  sometimes  the  grower  places  a  certain 
number  in  a  flat  bundle  by  means  of  cleft  sticks,  in  which 
the  stems  are  held  and  the  heads  spread  out  like  a  fan. 
In  this  state  they  are  not  only  more  easily  packed,  but 
more  readily  fixed  to  the  circumference  of  the  drum,  on 
which  they  form  a  continuous  card,  which  bnishes  the 
cloth  as  it  "is  drawn  along  while  the  drum  revolves. 

Teazles  are  a  very  precarious  crop  ;  sometimes  they  pro- 
duce a  very  great  profit,  and  at  other  times  a  serious  loss. 
Care  and  cultivation  lessen  the  chances  of  failure  greatly  : 
but  the  price  also  fluctuates  so  much  that  it  is  an  uncer- 
tain speculation,  resembling  in  this  respect  the  cultivation 
of  hops.  Hence  it  is  undertaken  by  men  who  are  pre- 
pared for  the  event,  and  who  make  the  profits  of  one  year 
repay  the  loss  of  another. 

Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  substitute  artificial 
teazles,  formed  of  hooks  of  very  fine  and  elastic  steel  wire  ; 
and  at  one  time  there  was  so  much  appearance  of  success, 
as  to  cause  the  cultivation  of  teazles  to  be  neglected  :  but 
it  was  soon  found  that  the  wires  tore  the  fine  fibres  of  the 
wool,  especially  where  there  were  knots  in  the  thread, 
whereas  the  hooks  of  the  teazles  gave  way,  and  either 
bent  or  broke  off  before  the  fibre  of  the  wool  was  injured. 
The  card  made  of  natural  teazles  was  found  far  superior  to 
the  artificial  substitutes,  and  for  a  time  the  price  of  teazles 
rose  to  an  extravagant  height  from  their  scarcity,  while 
some  time  before  they  were  quite  unsaleable.  A  quantity 
of  teazles  which  was  sold  at  one  time  in  Berkshire  for  5/., 
being  thought  perfectly  useless,  was  taken  into  Gloucester- 
-hire,  and  there  produced  the  next  year  ISO/.  The  grower 
'lead,  and  they  were  sold  by  his  executors  for  what 
they  would  fetch.  This  was  exactly  at  a  time  when  the 
artificial  cards  were  given  up,  and  no  teazles  were  to  be 
had.  A  good  crop  of  teazles  is  about  10  or  12  packs  on  an 
acre :  this  is  sometimes  exceeded,  but  more  often  it  fails 
by  one-half,  and  a  total  failure  is  not  uncommon.  The 
price  may  average  six  or  seven  pounds  a  pack,  so  that  a 
good  crop  is  worth  more  than  the  land  it  trrew  on.  The 
expenses,  however,  are  great,  and,  taking  all  the  chances,  it 
is  a  crop  which,  except  in  very  particular  situations  and  cir- 
eumstances,  is  not  suited  to  the  regular  fanner,  who  should 
never  speculate  to  any  extent. 

Although  teazles  are  said  to  exhaust  the  ground  much, 
yet  from  the  continual  stirring  of  the  soil  they  render  it  very 
fit  to  grow  other  crops,  provided  a  proper  quantity  of 
manure  is  used  :  thus  very  good  crops  of  wheat  have  been 
obtained  after  a  crop  of  teazles. 

Every  piece  of  fine  broad-cloth  requires  from  1500  to 
2000  teazles  to  bring  out  the  proper  nap,  after  which 
they  are  useless,  the  hooks  being  mostly  broken  off  or 
worn  out.  This  causes  a  considerable  demand  for  them  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  cloth  manufactories,  as  in  Wilts, 
Gloucest  ersliire,  and  Somersetshire.  In  the  new  tariff  the 
duty  is  */.  per  thousand,  whether  from  foreign  countries 
or  British  possessions. 

BALDE'O  or  TIBALDE'O,  ANTCCNIO,  born  at 
Ferrara  about  1463,  studied  medicine,  but.  afterwards  de- 
voted himself  chiefly  to  literature  and  poetical  composi- 
tion, both  Italian  and  Latin.  The  first  edition  of  his  Italian 
poems  appeared  at  Modena  in  1498,  by  his  cousin. Tampo 
Tebaldeo,  apparently  unknown  to  the  author,  wh 
vexed  at  ii  he  thought  that  his  compositio: 

quired  some  final  touches:    '  Sonetti,  Capitoli,  e  Rime, 


chiamate  Opere  d'Amore,'  4to.,  Modena,  1498,  afterwards 
reprinted  several  times  at  Milan,  Venice,  and  other  places. 
In  1519  appeared  at  Milan  another  small  poem  of  Tebal- 
deo, with  the  title,  '  Stanze  nuove  ad  un  Vecchio  che  non 
amando  in  gioventu  fu  costretto  ad  amare  in  vecchiezza.' 
A  correct  edition  of  Tebaldeo's  works  is  however  still 
wanted.  A  selection  from  his  pastoral  poems  has  been 
inserted  in  the  collection  entitled  'Poesie  Pastorali  e  Rus- 
ticali,  raccolie  ed  illustrate  con  note  dal  Dottore  Giulio 
Ferrario,'  Milan,  1808.  Bembo  and  Giraldi,  contempo- 
raries of  Tebaldeo,  speak  of  his  Italian  poems  with  praise, 
but  they  regret  that  they  were  too  hastily  published. 
Tebaldeo  afterwards  applied  himself  to  Latin  poetry,  in 
which  he  acquired  great  reputation.  He  wae  for  a  time 
at  the  court  of  Mantua,  and  afterwards  settled  at  Rome, 
where  he  became  a  favourite  ot  Leo  X.,  who  speaks  very 
highly  of  him  in  some  of  his  epistles,  and  is  said  to  have 
made  him  very  liberal  presents.  After  Leo's  death  Te- 
baldeo fell  into  distress,  and  was  obliged  to  borrow  money 
of  Bembo  and  others.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1537.  A  few 
of  his  Latin  epigrams  and  other  small  poems  are  in  several 
collections. 

(Tiraboschi,  Storia  della  Letteratura  Italiana;  Zeno, 
Note  alia  Biblioteca  dell'  Eloquenza  Italiana  del  Fonta- 
nini.) 

TECTIBRANCHIATA,  Cuvier's  name  for  his  fourth 
order  of  Gastropods,  described  by  him  as  having  the 
branchiae  attached  along  the  right  side,  or  on  the  back,  in 
form  of  leaves  ffeuillets)  more  or  less  divided,  but  non- 
symmetrical.  The  mantle  covers  them  more  or  less,  and 
contains  nearly  always  in  its  thickness  a  small  shell.  The 
Tectibranchiata  approach  the  PECTINIBRANCHIATA  in 
the  form  of  the  organs  of  respiration,  and  live,  like  them, 
in  the  waters  of  the  sea,  but  they  are  all  hermaphro- 
dites, like  the  NUDIBRANCHIATA  and  the  Pulmoniferous 
mollusks. 

The  following  genera  are  comprehended,  by  Cimer, 
under  this  order : — Pleurobranchus,  Cuv. ;  Pleurobran- 
c/itea,  Meckel  (Pleurobranchidium,  Bl.) ;  Aplysia,  Linn. ; 
Dolabella,  Lam. ;  Notarchus,  Cuv. ;  BURSATEI.I.A,  Bl. ; 
Akera,  Mull. ;  Gaitropteron,  Meckel;  and  I'm/ 
Lam. 

Of  these  Pleurobranchus,  Pleurobrancha-a,  and  Um- 
brella are  treated  of  in  the  article  SEMIPHYLLIDIANS  ;  and 
Akera  or  Arera,  and  Gastropteron  or  Gastroptera,  under 
the  article  BULLAD.S.  Aptysiu  or  Laplysia  (for  Linnaeus 
writes  it  both  ways),  Dolabella,  and  Notarchus  therefore 
remain  to  be  noticed  here. 

Aplysia. 

M.  de  Blainville  thus  defines  the  Aplysians  (Aplysiacea) 
the  second  family  of  his  MONOPLEUROBRANCHIATA  : — 

Body  not  divided,  or  forming  a  single  soft  fleshy  mass  ; 
four  tentacular  appendages  always  distinct,  flattened, 
auriform  ;  the  mouth  in  the  shape  of  a  vertical  slit,  \\ith 
two  lateral  subcorneous  labial  plates,  and  a  cordiform 
tongue  beset  with  denticles ;  eyes  sessile  between  the  two 
pairs  of  tentacles ;  the  branchiae  covered  by  a  sort  of 
operculum  ;  orifices  of  the  generative  apparatus  more  or 
less  distant,  and  united  together  by  an  external  furrow. 

Shell  null  or  incomplete,  constantly  internal. 

M.  Rang's  definition  is — 

Animal  not  divided,  furnished  with  four  tentacles  with 
eyes  at  their  anterior  base,  and  sometimes  with  membranes 
proper  for  swimming  ;  the  branchiae  in  form  of  a  plume, 
in  a  dorsal  cavity,  protected  most  frequently  by  a  free 
operculum  at  the  nght  side,  or  simply  by  the  approxi- 
mated edges  of  the  mantle ;  organs  of  generation  very 
distant. 

Shell  rudimentary  or  null. 

The  following  is  Cuvier's  description  ot  Aplysia  : 

Edges  of  the  foot  raised  into  flexible  crests  and  sur 
rounding  the  back  on  all  sides,  being  capable  even  of 
being  reflected  upon  it ;  head  carried  on  a  neck  more  or 
less  long ;  two  upper  tentacles  hollowed  like  the  ears  of  a 
quadruped  ;  two  others  flattened  at  the  edge  of  the  lower 
lip  ;  eyes  below  the  first.  On  the  back  are  the  branchiae, 
in  form  of  very  complicated  leaves  (feuillets),  attached  to  a 
large  membranous  pedicle,  and  covered  by  a  small  pedicle 
equally  membranous,  which  contains  in  its  thickness  a 
horny  and  flat  shell.  The  anus  is  pierced  behind  the 
branch.!*,  and  is  often  hidden  under  the  lateral  crests. 
The  vulva  is  in  front  on  the  right,  and  the  penis  conies 
out,  under  the  right  tentacle.  A  furrow,  which  extends 

T2 


TEC 


140 


TEC 


frmn  ll.e  vulva  to  the  extremity  of  the  penis,  conducts  the 
semen  nt  tho  t:  AII  enormous  membranous 

crop  U'Hi  .lar  inz/urd,  armed  within  \vitli  , 

KlQOi  -,  winch  Hi  .1  third 

i-v-t  with  (n.i::!cd  hooks,  and  a  i 

a  cvcum.    Tl:<  'uniinc-us.     These  ainniaK 

feed  on  (-  A  particular  glan>l 

by  a  ir  Ui  tin:  vulva  a  limpia  1. 

which  i-  -  erid  in  certain  s;  d  from 

the  )  there  oozes  abundantly  a  deep 

purple  liquor,  with  which  the  animal  colours  the  sea  for  a 
lerai'le  distance  around  w  lieu  it  perceives  any  danger. 
Tlio  eggs  are  disposed  in  long  interlaced  glairy  filaments, 
del:.  Unread. 

•  :IT  instances  as  examples  trom  the  European  seas, 

. '•/  'In.  ami  ili'/i.liins. 

The  acrid  humour  notieeil  al)ove  probably  gave  rise  to 
the   accounts  of  the    poison  of  the  Lcj'ux  nnu-i/r 

,  vm,  and  most  probably  Avlyxiti  drpi/m>x)  iiinoni;  the 
antients.  See,  for  example,  1'finy,  Nat.  Hixt.,  lib.  xx.. 
c.  xxi. ;  lib.  xxiii.,  c.  vi..  ^:c. 

In  the  museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  in 
London,  Xo.  625  of  the  Phytidlorical  Seties,  is  ;in  Aplysiii 
iitl/ii,  in  which  the  mantle  has  been  laid  open  on  the  left 
side,  and  the  peritoneal  membrane  dissected  away,  to  show 
the  intestinal  canal  winding  among  the  lobes  of  the  liver : 
the  tunics  of  the  ink-Mint-  being  thin  and  transparent,  per- 
mit the  contents  of  the  canal  to  be  distinctly  seen  ;  these 
-t  of  particles  of  sand  with  comminuted  fragments  of 
zoophytes  and  shells  :  so  that  it  appears  that  their  diet  is 
not  merely  vegetable,  as  Cuucr  seems  to  have  thought. 
•ies  are  inserted  at  the  mouth  and  amis;  the  latter 
e  is  situated  in  the  branchial  cavity,  below  the  trills. 
-Xo.  (j'JG  is  the  intestinal  canal  of  a  'larger  specie-  ol 
•  in,  distended  with  similar  particle  -s  of  earthy  matter; 
and  the  author  of  the  Catalogue  remarks  tliat  this  prepara- 
tion affords  a  striking  example  of  the  powers  of  living 
organized  matter,  and  cannot  be  contemplated  without 
surprise,  when  we  consider  the  force  that  must  be  exerted 
to  propel  a  column  of  such  heavy  and  rude  materials  ulontr 
a  tortuous  canal  provided  with  paiietes  apparently  so  in- 
adequate to  sustain  the  necessary  picture.  No.  I'tll  1  is  a 
small  Aplysia  alba,  Cuv.,  with  a  portion  of  the  mantle 
•ted  away  to  expose  the  branchiae  of  an  arborescent 
structure,  but  more  complex  and  better  defended  than  in 
the  Doris,  the  respiratory  cavity  beiiiir  shielded  by  a  thin 
horny  plate  or  rudimentary  shell.  No.  1012  is  a  larger 
specimen  of  the  same  species  of  Aiilysia,  further  dissected, 
•o  as  to  show,  in  addition  to  the  branchiae,  the  heart  and 
pericardium,  the  month  and  masticatory  organs,  the 
stomach,  nervous  ganglia,  and  the  penis  on  the  liirht  side 
of  the  neck.  A  portion  of  the  shell  is  left  to  show  how 
loosely  it  U  lodged  between  the  layers  of  membrane  form- 
ing the  roof  of  the  branchial  chamber;  and  No.  1013  ex- 
hibits another  species  (Aplysia  Camelus,  Cuv.).  showing 
the  bra:-.;-hi;e  in  their  natural  position,  without  dissection, 
bv  merely  separating  the  dorsal  lobe*  of  the  mantle  and 
elevating  the  roof  of  the  branchial  chamber.  (Cat., 
vols.  i.  ii.) 

M,  de  Blainville  divides  the  genus  Aplytia  into  the  fol- 
lowing sections : 

A.  Species  who»c  lateral  appendages  arc  very  wide, 

divided  behind,  and  depressed. 
Example,  Ajilyxia  d'-i»lnn. 

B.  Species  whose   narrower   appendages  are   united 

and  elevated  behind. 
Example,  Aplytia  vulgaritt. 

C.  Species   whose    appendages   arc   very   wide,  and 

which    have   only  two  tentacles,  behind  which 
arc  the  eyes.     (Genus  Arta-mi,  Okcn.) 
Example,  Aplyxnt  ririilix. 

D.  Elongated  -pccies  with  a  subulate'  tail  :  the  four 

tentacle* long  and  slender;  the  branchial  cavity 
snbdorsal,  without  opcrculum  or  shell. 

Example.  Aply.u'a  Hriin^ninrtn. 

The  other  genera  arranged  by  De  Hlainville.  under  the 
Aplysians  are  Doiabelia,  Burtatella,  ,  and 

Kl.YMA. 

M.  Rang  divides  Aplysia into  two  subgcnera : 

I.  Tlie  Aplvsm:,  properly  so  called  (!.'ii>/i/\>n,  Linn. ; 

Dofabella,  l.un.  ;  'and  Artirmi.  Oken). 
Tlii«  mbgenui  is  tlm»  fharaele.-i/.-.l  by  M.  Rang:— 
Animal  funiislied  with  a  dorsal  slit,  always  median  and 


longitudinal  ;  foot  largo,  branchiir  enclo^.l  in  the  bottom 
ofa  cavity,  wlun.e   their  K-iiirth  doe- 

Muled,  at,  .!„,„. 

'  rudimentary,  calcatvou-.  nu  uiddt-n  in 

tlie  tin  .him. 

•  nup. 

Body  convex  behind,  nn  oblique  postei.  irder* 

of  the  mantle  dox'd  on  the  back,  and  iiii) 
ming. 

Shell  triangular  and  very  calcareous. 
'I  hi  •  :  ,  n,is  Jiii/nhi-llii  of  Ijunarck. 

H\  ////.  Kc. 

2nd  Group. 

Body  narrowed  at  the  two  extremities,  no  disk,  borders 
of  the  mantle  MTV  small  and  improper  for  swim;- 
Shell  subquadrangular  and  calcareous. 
This  uronp,   M.   Kantr  .  :  ,1    ,,f  u,.w 

-,  with  the  exception  of  one,  which  was  erroneously 
arranged  among  the  l>nl  :!,<  II,/-. 
Kxample,  Aj>tyxin  <li>l«l,rifera. 

3rd  Groni>. 

Body  narrowed  at   the  two  extremities  ;    borders  of  tile- 
mantle  dilated  and  proper  for  swimming. 

Shell  siibrounded,  membranous,  and  solidified  bv 
careous  stratum. 

M.  Kaiii:  remarks  that  this  group  has  for  Us  type  the 
srenus  laplyna  of  Linnaeus,  and  he  divides  it  iiit 

'MS. 

A.  A  tube  at  the  membrane  of  the  opcrculum. 
1'A.imple,  Aplytia  fatciata. 

B.  An  aperture  at  the  membrane  of  tin-  operculum. 

II.   Submenus:    Xotiirchim,  Cuv. 

The  other  genera  arranged  |.\  M.  Hang  under  theAply- 
sians  are  Riirxntet/ti  and  actceon.     ,Mniu. 

Mr.  J.  E.  Gray  makes  the  Aflii*i<i<l,r.  the  2nd  family  of 
his  3rd  order  (PleurobrancMala),  consist  of  the  g 
Aplytia,  Dolabella,  and  .\ntnrcliiix.     The  family  is  | 
between  the  Jiiit/idff  and  the  t'nibrclliilrr-. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  genus  .ljt!y*i<i,  we  take  .l/'ly- 


.—  Blackish,  with  large  cloudy  greyish 
or  blotches,  or  of  different   shades  of  brown  tinsred  with 
blue  or  purple. 

Locality  and  Habits.—  European  seas,  where  it  adheres 
to  rocks. 


A].]\>ta  dopllans. 

Dolabella. 

Cuvier  observes  that  this  form  only  differs  from  the 

iliixiff  in  having  the  branchia-  and  that  which  surrounds 
them  at  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  body,  which  re- 
sembles a  truncated  cone.  Their  lateral  crest,  he  adds 
docs  not  close  on  the  branchial  apparatus,  leaving  a  narrow 
furrow,  and  their  shell  is  calcareous. 

Locality  and  Habits. — East  Indian  seas,  and  Mediter- 
ranean, where  it  has  been  found  at  a  depth  of  six  fathoms 
on  sands. 

The  J.aplysians  of  Lamarck  ronsist  of  the  genera  Aplytia, 
and  Diilulifllit  only;  and  M.  Dcshnyes,  in  the  last  edition 
of  the  '  Animaux  sans  Vertehres,'  tins  sums  up  the  infor- 
mation on  the  subject.  Lamarck,  he  observes,  knew  little 
of  the  animals  of  this  family,  thnnch  he  had  indeed  >ccn 
some  species  preserved  in  spirit  of  wine  in  the  anatomical 
collection  of  the  museum.  Thus  he  only  admitted  the  two 
irem-ra  last  above  named  into  the  family.  Since  the  pub- 
lication of  I-'imarck's  work.  M.  de  Hlainville.  in  his  mono- 
graph of  the  Ajtlysia-,  and,  above  all.  M.  llane,  in  lu'n 


TEC 


141 


TEE 


Shell  of  Dolabella  Rumphii.     1,  inside  ;  2,  outside. 

Natural  History  of  the  Aplysians,'  have,   he  remarks 

added  many  important  observations  on  the  animals  of  this, 

group.     M.  Rang,  in  his  work,  having  especially  studiec 

the  Aplysians,  has,  as  we  have  above  seen,  proposed  to 

admit  into  this  family  three  genera  only,  Aplysia,  liiirnit- 

/'•//./,  and  Arta>o//,  and  he  divides  the  great  genus  Aplysia 

into  sub^rnera,  among  which  is  found  the  genus  Dolabella, 

Lam.     There  too  is  to  be  found  the  genus  Noturchus,  Cuv. 

This  last,  observes  M.  Deshayes,  has  in  fact  much  analogy 

with  the  Aplysians,  but  it  preserves  some  peculiar  charac- 

ters capable  of  easy  distinction  ;   and  he  thinks  that  the 

great  ^enus  Ajilyxiii,  as  considered  by  M.  Rang,  ousrbt  to 

be  adopted.     Lamarck  established  his  genus  Drtl«ln  ll«, 

and  separated  it  from  Aplyaia  because  the  shell  is  calca- 

reous, and  not  entirely  corneous,  as  in  that  genus.     La- 

marck, without  doubt,  continues  M.  Deshayes,  would  have 

perceived  the  little  value  of  this  character  if  he  had  been 

able  to  examine  as  many  species  as  did  M.  Rang  :  he  then 

would  have  seen  the  establishment  by  insensible  gradations 

of  a  passage   between  Dolabella  and  Aplysia,  not  only 

with  reference  to  the  form  of  their  shells,  but  with  regard 

to  their  consistence  also.     With  regard  to  the  posterior 

truncation  of  the  animal  of  Dolabellu,  that  may  be  seen 

to  disappear  insensibly,  so  that  there  exist  Dolabella:  with 

a  calcareous  shell,  having  entirely  the  external  form  of 

Ajilysiff.     If,  on  the  one  hand,  we  see  the  Aflysiee  with 

calcareous  shells  (Dolabellae)  pass  into  those  with  corneous 

shells,  we  perceive  on  the  other  hand  Aplysia  with  horny 

shells  pass  into  species  which  have  no  trace  of  such  pro- 

1  ret  ing  body.     These   remarkable  species  have  the  lobes 

of  the  mantle   less  slit,  more  closed  upon  the  back,  and 

nevertheless  preserving  Hie  principal  characters  of  the  true 

•  l/'/i/xif/:     M.  Rang   has  established  on  these  species  his 

subgenus  Ai-li'fia,  remarkable  for  the  singular  tentaculi- 

form  appendages  on  the  bodies  of  the  species  which  form 

it.     Next  to  Ai>/yxiu  M.  Rang  places  .\'>t'ir<-hw>,  and  the 

trehi  are  .l/i/i/xuc  which  have  only  two  tentacles,  and 

whose  mantle  is  more  closed  on  the  back  than  it  is  in  the 

preceding  genus  ;    the  foot  is  extremely  narrow,  it  is  ter- 

minated anteriorly  by  a  double  lip,  and  resembles  rather 

the  foot  of  the  K-yt/,rrr  and  other  mollusks  which  creep 

on  the  stems  of  sea-weeds,  than  that,  of  the  Aplysia;.     It 

is  to  be  wished,  adds  M.  Deshayes,  that  the  Notarchi 

could  be  found  in  sufficient  numbers  for  dissection,  by 

which  means  all  doubt  with  regard  to  them  would  vanish. 

After  the   genus  Aplysia,  M.  Rang   places  Bursatella  ; 

and  M.  Deshayes  remarks  that  this  genus  has  so  great  an 

analogy  with  \ntarchun,  that  a  new  anatomy  of  the  former 

is  much  to  be  desired.    The  animal  seen  by  M.  de  Blain- 

ville  was  much  contracted  in  the  spirit,  and  its  body  was 

•    with  a  small   number  of  tentacular  appendages, 

which  approximate  it  to  the  subgenus  Aclesia,  whilst  in 

form  it  appears  to  come  nearer  to  Nntnrcliux.    The  last 

genus,  says  M.  Deshayes  in  conclusion,  placed   in  the 

family  of  Aplysians  bv  M.  Rang,  is  the  Acteeon  of  Oken, 

which  is  not  sufficiently  known  to  be  definitively  admitted 

into  the  system  ;  so  that  the  family  of  Aplysians  may  be 

rigorously  reduced  to  the  genus  Aplysia,  as  considered  by 

M.  Rang. 

Notarchus. 


Notarchus  Cuvieri. 

TE'CTONA,  a  genus  of  the  natural  family  of  Verbenacefe 
so  named  by  Linnaeus  from  the  Indian  name  (Tehha)  of  the 
famous  Teak-tree  (called  also  Sagoon},  which  is  a  native 
fferent  parts  of  India,  as  well  as  of  Burma,  chiefly 
s  banks  of  the  Irrawady,  and  of  the  islands  from 
Ceylon  to  the  Moluccas.     The  genus  is  characterised  by 
wing    a   5-6-toothed    calyx,    which    becomes    inflated 
the  growing  pericarp.     Corel  1-petalled,  5-6-cleft 
lens  5,  but  often  6.     Germ  superior,  4-celled,  cells' 
.eeded,  attachment  central.     Drupe  obtusely  4-sided 
"oo  ly  spongy,  dry,  hid  in  the  calyx.    Nut  hard?  4-celled 
Seed  solitary.     Embryo  erect,  without  perisperm. 

6*  °WS  t(  a"  immense  size'  and  is 


•mal  furnished  with  a  very  small  dorsal  slit,  which  is 
sometimes  oblique;  foot  elongated,  and  rather  narrow  ; 
bninchkB  oi'ti-n  very  long,  and  capable  of  being  protruded 

i  i  he  cavity;  opcTculum  rudimentary  or  null. 
HhoM  null.  * 


able   fnr  sze'  an     s  '-emar- 

for  its  very  large  leaves,  which  are  from  12  to  24 
nches  long  and  from  8  to  16  broad,  and  are  compared  bv 
Oriental  wnters  to  the  ears  of  the  elephant.    TheSles 
s  well  a,  the  young  branches  and  flower-stalks.are  all 
4-sided  and  the  sides  channelled.     The  inflorescence  is  in 
'ery  large  terminal  panicles,  of  which  the  divisions  are 
i  rst  cross-armed  and  finally  dichotomous,  with  a  sessile 
•tile  flower  in  each  cleft,  the  whole  covered  with  a  hairv 
annaceous  substance.     The  flowers  are  small,  white   and 
ery  numerous.    As  teak  timber  is  so  highly  valued  both  for 
omestic  purposes  and  for  ship-building,  it  is  desirable  to 
otice  its  distribution  a  little  more  in  detail.    The  best 
mber  for  ship-building  was  supplied  to  Bombay  from  the 
mountains  of  the  Malabar  Ghauts,  where  the  tree  is  found 
ather  in  detached  clumps,  of  some  extent  however,  than  in 
tended  forests.     It  is  also  found  on  the  mountainous 
arts  of  the  Coromandel  Coast,  along  the  banks  of  the 
-rodavery   up   to   Poloonsha.      It  proceeds  far  into   the 
itenor  of  India,  and  may  be  seen  in  the  mountains  of 
undelcund,  in  the  form  however  of  only  a  moderate-sized 
irub.     Dr.  Roxburgh  introduced  the  teak  into  the  low 
grounds  of  the  Circars  as  early  as  1790,  and  Lord  Corn- 
wilhl  and  Colonel  Kyd  planted  it  in  Bengal   about  the 
same  time.    The  Calcutta  Botanic  Garden  contains  a  num- 
'  •    o  c  ^e  trees-  From  the  Saharunpore  Botanic  Garden 
KN.  lat.  (where,  its  buds  being  covered  with  scales 
t  is  enabled  to  resist  'cold,  besides  its  leaves  falling  and 
gi\  mif  it  a  season  of  rest),  the  tree  has  been  spread  along 
the  Doab  Canal  ;  the  whole  of  the  intermediate  country 
is  suited  to  its  cultivation,  and  the  East  India  Company  have 
recently  ordered  the  Malabar  forests  to  be  preserved.    The 
most  extensive  forests  are  however  those  extending  along 
the  banks  of  the  Irrawady,  especially  in  Pegu.     A  con- 
siderable timber-trade  has  been  established  at  Moulmein, 
whence  Calcutta  is  supplied  with  some  of  the  finest  teak 
timber.   So  much  straight  timber  is  taken  and  the  crooked 
left,  that  thousand  of  pieces  called  '  shin-logs,'  and  admir- 
ably adapted  for  ship-timbers,  are  left.    The  tree  grows 
quickly,  straight,  and  lofty,  but  requires  from  00  to  80 
years  to  attain  the  proper  size  and  maturity  for  ship-build- 
ing. 

From  extensive  experience  teak  timber  has  been  found 
the  most  valuable  timber  for  ship-building,  and  has  been 
called  the  oak  of  the  East.  The  wood  is  light,  brownish- 
coloured,  easily  worked,  but  at  the  same  time  strong  and 
durable.  It  is  soon  seasoned,  and,  from  containing  a  resin- 
ous oil,  resists  the  action  of  water,  as  well  as  insects  of  all 
kinds.  It  does  not  injure  iron,  and  shrinks  but  little  in 
width.  Some  of  the  old  trees  have  been  found  by  Dr. 
Horsfteld  to  have  large  and  beautiful  burrs  like  the  Kia- 
bouca  wood  of  commerce.  No  other  part  of  the  tree  is 
known  to  be  converted  to  much  use  ;  but  the  leaves  are  said 
to  dye  cotton  and  silk  of  a  purplish  colour.  They  have 
lately  been  imported  into  the  London  docks  carefully  rolled 
up,  but  for  what  purpose  is  not  known. 
TECTUS.  (Conchology.)  [TROCHIIXE.! 

TEES.       [DURHAM.] 


TEE 


142 


TEE 


TEETH.  Since  the  article  DENTITION  was  written,  the 
teeth  have  been  subject.  >i  in  the  most  careful  micro-copic 
examination,  and  the  result  has  Km  the 
great  amount  of  knowledge  in  regard  to  both  their  »tnic- 
turr  anil  their  mode  of  growth.  Indeed  there  if  probably 
no  i>art  of  physiology  in  which  more  remarkable  and  im- 
portant proglM*  has  hern  mmlr  d' 

than  in  this,  to  whirh  the  naiiv  irraphv  has  been 

given.    Tl  !!y  by 

Professor  Purkinje  of  Breslau  and  Professor  Hct/ius  nf 
Stockholm.  The  former  published  his  observations  in 
1835,  in  the  inaugural  dissertation  of  Dr.  Frnenkel  (!>>• 

C'ttnri  Ijrntium  >  .  and  in  that  of  Dr.  Rasch- 

(MtUtmwtii  circa  Dentium  L'CO/M/KWWI'I  ;  and  the 
latter  communicated  his  descriptions  to  the  Koyal  Aca- 
demy of  Science*  at  Stockholm,  in  whose  Transactions 
Uu-y  were  published  in  1H3G.  In  1839  Dr.  Schwann  pub- 
lished, in  his  •Mikroskopische  Untenuchungm,' to  account 
of  the  modes  in  which  the  scvcrul  constituent  tissues  of 
the  teeth  are  developed  :  un<l  in  tiie  same  year  Mr.  Goodsir 
t'urph  .)/•  .I'liiniul,  vol.  li.),  car- 

rying out  the  >ie\v  before  MiL'gcsU'd  by  Professor  Arnold, 
({escribed  that  method  of  their  carlv  growth  which  is  now 
generally  received  as  the  truth.  Mr.  Owen  also,  in  his 
'  Odontography,'  and  in  various  papers,  at  the  same  time 
that  he  has  confirmed  and  greatly  added  to  the  facts  de- 
scribed by  those  already  mentioned,  has  proved,  by  his 
investigations  into  their  comparative  anatomy,  that  the 
minute  structure  of  the  teeth  may  be  taken  as  one  of  the 
most  certain  characters  for  the  discrimination  of  the  ge- 
nera, and  even  of  the  species,  of  both  existing  and  extinct 
animals ;  and  he  has  already  applied  his  knowledge  of 
them  to  the  determination  of  some  of  the  most  difficult 
questions  of  palteonto 

In  the  following  account  .my  of  the  discoveries 

will  be  detailed  except  such  as  relate  to  the  structure  and 
physiology  of  the  human  teeth  ;  for,  various  as  the  struc- 
ture* are  in  the  different  classes  of  animals,  yet  there  is  so 
much  analogy  among  them,  that  the  description  of  the 
tooth  of  one  will,  in  great  measure,  explain  the  general 
plan  of  structure  in  the  rest.  Besides,  the  lately  published 
articles  on  comparative  anatomy  contain  nearly  all  the 
important  facts  regarding  the  structure  of  the  teeth  in  the 
animals  of  which  they  treat. 

The  best  method  of  preparing  teeth  for  microscopic 
examination  is  to  immerse  them  in  dilute  hydrochloric  acid, 
till  their  earthy  matter  is  so  far  dissolved  that  thin  trans- 
parent slices  may  be  cut  from  them  with  a  knife  ;  or,  with- 
>i'teiiing  them  in  acid,  to  make  thin  sections,  in  the 
vertical  and  other  directions,  with  a  fine  saw.and  to  reduce 
these  to  the  necessary  thinness  and  transparency  by  filing 


Fig.  1. 


Pig.  I- 


them,  and  polishing  them  on  a  hard  and  'smooth  whet- 
stone. rV:  \amination,  lenses  magnifying-  about 
"Ml  diameters  are  sufficient. 

In  s  ieh  ;  on  of  a  tooth  three  distinct  •ub- 

stanccsare  seen ;  namely,  the  ilcntine  or  r.  - 
which  forms  the  greater  mass,  and,  m  it  v  :.:ould 

of  the  tooth,  and  which  contains  the  pulp 
enamel  (rr  ,  by  which  the  crown  or  ,  t  «he 

tooth  is  covered  ;  and  the  hone,  ceni. 
dil  ,  which  forms  a  thin  layer  around  tin 
that  pail  at  which  the  vessels  enter  the  ] 
tinned  in  a  liner  and  scarcely  perceptibli  i-r  the 

enamel. 

The  hone,  or  cement,  has  in  each  animal  a  minute  (struc- 
ture similar  to  that  of  which  the  bones  of  its  skeleton  are 
composed.     In  man  it  consists  of  a  basis  of  him 
substance,  a  compound  of.  .m!  earthy  matter,  in 

which  there  are   minute  caxiti.  licate 

branched  canals  leading  from  one  to  the  other.  On  tin- 
walls  of  tii 

sited  more  thickly  than  in  the  i 
when  examined  by  transmitted 
dark  grey.  The  ca\  ities,  arbone-oorptutlex,  in  man  are 

I,  and  flattened;  most  of  them  are  betwi  • 
•nfaof  an  inch  in  length,  about  one-third  as  much  in  breadth, 
and  one-sixth  :is  much  in  thickness.     They  !., 
what  jagged  edges,  from  all  parts  of  which  th< 
the  fine  branching  canals,  to  which  the  name  . 
rout  has  been  given,  and  which  traverse  the  IK.' 
basis  of  the  bone,  and  communicate  irregularly  wii: 
another.     The  diameter  of  the- 
parts,  is  not  more  than  i4-«j  of  an  inch;   tha1 
smaller  branches  is  between  ^  and  &}&,.     Their  general 
direction  is  towards  the  axis  of  the  tooth,  around  which 
the  corpuscles  are  arranged  in  concentric  ci 


Fig.-L 


Wjcrojeopic  view  of  boDe-corpiuclo  and  c»lcl|[aroui  rnnili. 

The  enamel  is  composed  of  solid  prisms,  or  fibres  (/•'- 
a  fl\  about  ^a  of  an  inch  thick,  set  side  by  side  and  U]>- 
right  upon  the  ivory  of  the  crown  of  the  tooth    />  .     One 
end   of  each  prism   i<  lived   in  a  little  di  )  u   the 

rough    outer    surface  of  the    is.  .  (her,    which   is 

somewhat  larL'ci.  is  turned  towards  the  masticating  sur- 
face of  the  tooth  in  the  direction  in  which  the  chief  ex- 
ternal pressure  is  to  be  resisted.  The  course  of  the  p 
is  more  or  less  wavy,  their  curves  bcinir.  for  the  most  pint, 
parallel  i'us.  \  .  but  sometimes  opposed.  Most  of  them 
evtend  from  the  ivory  to  the  surface  of  the  tooth:  and 
where  they  do  not,  small  complemental  prisms  fill  up> 
like  wedges,  the  vacant  spaces. 


fig.*. 


Fig.  4. 


•nn  of 

rnn-n.-l  (T.r-« 


Vlnr  of  the  •rranipinrnt  of  thit  rmun«l-«bvM 
on  the  crown  of  mn  iaotoor  tooth. 

In  the  perfect  slate  the  enamel  contains  so  small  a 
quantity  of  animal  matter,  that  it  cannot  be  dc 
to  the  siirht.  and  the  prisms  are  inseparably  cor 
but  in  young  teeth  it  is  «oft,  and  may  be  broken  up  into 


TEE 


143 


TEG 


its  elementary  parts.  In  the  early  state  also  it  exhibits 
portions  of  a  membranous  animal  substance,  consisting 
of  the  cells  in  which  each  of  its  prisms  was  formed ;  for, 
as  will  be  presently  shown,  the  earthy  matter  is  deposited 
in  what  might  be  called  a  set  of  moulds  formed  by  the 
primary  cells  of  the  enamel  membrane,  and,  as  it  accu- 
mulates, the  membrane  of  the  cell  is  so  nearly  removed, 
t  hat  in  the  perfect  tooth  no  portion  of  it  can  be  discerned. 
Its  former  existence  however  seems  to  be  indicated  by 
fine  close-set  transverse  striae  upon  each  prism  of  the 
enamel. 

The  dentine,  or  ivory,  is  composed  of  a  hard  fibrous  basis 
of  cartilage  and  earthy  substance,  traversed  by  very  fine, 
branching;,  cylindrical  tubules,  which  run  in  an  undulating 
course  from  the  pulp-cavity,  on  whose  internal  surface 
they  open  (see  Fig.  1,  bj  towards  the  adjacent  part  of  the 
exterior  of  the  tooth.  Each  tubule  in  its  course  outward 
makes  two  or  three  chief  curves  ('  primary  curvatures,' 
Owen),  and  is  besides  bent  at  eveiy  part  in  minute  and 
very  close  undulations,  or  secondary  curvatures  ;  but  the 
course  of  those  tubules,  which  are  adjacent  to  each  other, 
is  very  nearly  parallel.  It  is  from  the  parallelism  of  these 
secondary  curvatures  of  the  tubules,  that  the  appearance 
arises,  as  if  the  ivory  were  composed  of  concentric  lamella; 
.:i-d  round  the  pulp-cavity. 

The  chief  branchings  of  the  tubules  of  the  dentine  are 
dichotoraous  (Fig.  3) ;  but  they  also  frequently  give  off 
minute  branches,  which  again  sending  off  smaller  ones, 
till  up  the  spaces  between  the  trunks  (Fig.  G).  At  the 
trunk  each  tubule  has  an  average  diameter  of  about  15lj»  of 
an  inch,  and  the  distance  between  each  two  tubules  is 
nearly  equal  to  the  width  of  three  of  them.  Both  the 
walls  and  the  cavities  of  the  tubules,  as  well  as  the  sub- 
stance between  them,  are  filled  by  the  earthy  constituent 
c.f  the  ivory,  which  is  deposited  in  fine  granules.  The 
basis  of  the  intertubular  substance  seems  to  be  com- 
1  of  bundles  of  flat,  pale,  granular  fibres,  whose  course 
is  parallel  to  that  of  the  tubules. 


Fig.  0. 


Views  of  the  tubule*  of  dentines. 

A  separate  organ  is  provided  for  the  formation  of  each 
of  these  three  constituent  parts  of  the  tooth,  though, 
when  they  are  perfected,  they  contain  no  vascular  tissue 
but  the  pulp  within  the  pulp-cavity,  and  it  is  doubtful 
whether,  in  the  human  subject,  fresh  material  is  ever 
formed  from  this  after  the  tooth  has  once  attained  its  com- 
plete development.  The  first  appearance  of  the  pulp  of 
tooth  is  in  the  form  of  a  minute  process  or  papilla 
5  from  the  bottom  of  a  groove  in  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  mouth  behind  the  edge  of  the  jaw.  In  course 
of  time,  as  the  borders  of  the  groove  grow  around  it,  the 
papilla  seems  to  sink  into  the  mucous  membrane;  and  it 
now  appears  as  if  rising  from  the  base  of  a  follicle,  or  of  a 
fia-sk-like  depression,  in  the  edge  of  the  jaw.  And  lastly, 
processes  of  membrane,  or  operculn,  trrow  from  the  sides 
of  the  mouth  of  the  follicle,  and  as  they  approach  each 
oilier  and  adhere  by  their  mutually  opposed  cdircs,  they 
gradually  close  it,  and  convert  it  into  a  <•:  ;ic,  to 

the  bsse  of  which  the  first-formed  papilla  is  affixed.  In 
the  first-appeariiie  tooth,  the  papillary  state  may  be  seen 
in  the  human  embryo  an  inch  in  length:  the  capsular 
stage  is  completed  at  about  the  fifteenth,  week  of  embry- 
onic life. 

These  three  stages  of  the  formative  organs  of  the  tooth, 

namely,  the  papillary,  the   follicular,  and  the   capsular, 

;  completed,  the  substances  of  the  tooth  itself  begin 


to  be  produced.  The  dentine  is  developed  from  the  pa- 
pilla, which  gradually  assumes  the  form  and  relations  of 
the  proper  tooth-pulp ;  the  enamel,  from  a  special  organ 
developed  at  that  part  of  the  capsule  which  is  opposite  to 
the  papilla ;  and  the  bone  probably  from  the  interior  of 
the  capsule  itself. 

The  papilla  and  the  sac  both  gradually  increase  in  size, 
but  the  growth  of  the  latter  is  at  first  more  rapid  than  that 
of  the  former,  and  the  space  between  them  is  thus  en- 
larged. Within  this  space  there  is  deposited  from  the 
wall  of  the  sac  a  soft,  granular,  non-vascular  substance, 
the  enamel-organ,  or,  as  Mr.  Hunter  (Natural  History  of 
the  Teeth)  termed  it,  the  external  pulp.  And  at  the  same 
time  as  this  is  being  produced  from  the  interior  of  the  sac, 
there  is  formed  on  the  surface  of  the  papilla  a  peculiar 
structureless  membrane,  which  has  been  called  the  pre~ 
fiiriiiative  membrane,  and  which,  when  the  papilla  begins 
to  ossify,  presents  numerous  little  elevations  and  depres- 
sions, on  which  the  enamel  fibres  are  afterwards  fixed ;  for 
as  the  papilla  enlarges,  the  preformative  membrane  comes 
in  contact  with  the  enamel-organ,  and  they  are  exactly 
moulded  the  one  upon  the  other. 

Both  the  papilla,  or  as  it  may  now  be  called,  the  pulp, 
and  the  enamel,  are  composed  of  primary  cells  [Nu'rui- 
TION],  and  it  is  by  the  transformation  of  these  that  the 
tubules  of  the  dentine  and  the  fibres  or  prisms  of  the 
enamel  are  severally  produced.  The  exact  mode  however 
in  which  the  change  is  effected  is  not  yet  known.  All 
that  can  be  seen  is  that  the  superficial  cells  of  the  pulp, 
which  are  at  first  round  or  oval,  and  nucleated,  assume  the 
same  diameter  and  direction  as  the  trunks  of  the,  dentine 
tubules,  and  then  have  earthy  matter  deposited  in  and 
around  them.  And  these  changes  go  on  gradually  from 
without  inwards:  as  fast  as  the  elongated  and  branching 
cells  of  one  layer  are  ossified,  those  of  the  layer  beneath 
them  become  elongated  in  preparation  for  the  same  change ; 
and  so  on,  till  a  great  part  of  the  pulp  is  hardened.  It.  is 
due  to  this  gradual  ossification  of  the  pulp  from  without 
inwards,  that  in  growing  animals,  to  whom  madder  is 
alternately  given  and  omitted  in  their  food,  the  dentine  is 
found  to  consist  of  alternate  rings  of  red  and  white  ivory ; 
for  while  madder  is  being  taken,  all  the  earthy  matter  that 
is  deposited  in  the  most  superficial  layer  of  the  nnossified 
pulp-cells  is  dyed  by  its  colouring  principle,  and  when  it 
is  discontinued  the  same  material  is  deposited  uncoloured 
in  the  layer  of  cells  which  is  subjacent  to  that  already 
•d  and  reddened.  When  nearly  the  whole  of  that 
part  of  the  pulp  which  was  formed  in  the  original  papilla 
is  thus  hardened  by  the  deposition  of  earthy  matter,  its 
base  begins  to  grow  into  one  or  more  conical  processes, 
and,  by  a  hardening  of  these,  through  a  process  like  that 
just  described,  the  fangs  are  formed,  and  the  tooth  rises  to 
the  surface  of  the  gum. 

In  the  formation  of  the  enamel,  the  primary  nucleated 
cells  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  enamel-organ  become 
elongated  and  cylindrical,  or  prismatic ;  they  assume  a 
direction  which  is  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  the  har- 
dening pulp ;  and  then,  their  nuclei  disappearing,  they 
also  are  hardened  by  the  deposition  of  earthy  matter  within 
them,  which  is  continued  till  they  are  inseparably  com- 
pacted, and  their  original  membranous  wall  is  not  dis- 
cernible. These  changes  also,  like  the  preceding,  make 
progress  in  layers ;  but  the  progress  is  here  from  within 
outwards,  and  it  goes  on  till  nothing  is  left  but  a  thin  ex- 
ternal enamel-membrane  on  the  surface  of  the  crown  o'1 
the  tooth.  As  the  enamel  organ  and  the  papilla,  both 
growing  and  hardening,  approach  more  nearly  to  each. 
other,  the  preformative  membrane  also  disappears. 

By  the  transformation  of  this  enamel-membrane,  or  of 
the  superficial  part  of  the  capsule  itself,  that  part  of  the 
bone  is  produced  which  envelopes  the  enamel ;  and  by 
similar  changes  in  that  part  of  the  capsule  which  has 
grown  in  company  with  the  fang-processes  of  the  pulp, 
that  part  of  the  bone  is  formed  which  invests  the  fangs. 
The  changes  in  this  part  of  the  process  are  probably  exactly 
similar  to  those  through  which  new  bone  is  produced 
between  a  periosteum  and  the  old  bone  which  it  sur- 
rounds. 

TKKTH  OF  WHEELS.     [WHEELS.] 

TKFLIS.     [Tm.is.] 

TEF2A.     [MABOCCO.] 

TE'GEA.     [ARCADIA.] 

TEGERNSEE,  THE,  is  a  lake  in  the  circle  of  the  Isar, 


T  E  I 


144 


T  E  1 


in  the  kingdom  of  Bavaria,  about  thirty  mile*  from  Munich, 
at  the  tool  of  the  Bavarian  Alp*.  It  it  about  four  miles 
li.iiir.  our  mile  and  a  quarter  broad,  and  3(10  feet  deep. 
ThU  lake  cave  its  name  to  a  Benedictine  abbey,  which 
was  found,  d  liy  the  Agilolfingers,  in  tlie  timr  of  Kinsr 
IVpin,  w  a*  destroyed  l>y  tin'  Hungarians,  restored  in  IT'.'. 
and  not  alxmslu  d  till  some  \carsafter  the  beginning  of 
tin-,  century.  The  abbots  were  pnnccs,  and  hail  four 
hereditary  offices  in  their  household  which  were  held 
..hlcincn.  The  late  king  of  Bavaria,  Maximilian 
Joseph,  had  the  abbey  converted  into  a  fine  palace,  which 
he  presented  to  his  consort  the  late  Queen  <  'aroline,  with 
the  lordship  depending  on  it,  which  is  about  CO  square 
miles  in  extent,  including  the  village  of  Tegcrnsce.  with 
300  inhabitants.  This  palace  i>  situated  in  a  beautiful 
country  surrounded  with  lolly  mountains,  among  which 
the  Waldberg  and  the  Setzberg  are  sometimes  illuminated 
when  there  are  royal  visitors  at  the  palace.  The  grounds 
are  laid  out  with  great  taste,  and  the  village  church  i 
handsome,  and  contains  some  fine  paintings.  In  the 
\iciuitv  there  are  quarries  of  fine  marble  of  various  colours, 
and  the  mineral  springs  of  Kreiith  and  Schwaighof. 
Kreutli  is  in  a  very  rom.intic  situation,  at  the  foot  of  high 
mountains,  and  is  much  frequented  for  its  sulphureous 
waters.  Near  Tegernsce  naphtha  is  found,  which  is  here 
called  St.  Quirinus  oil,  because  it  was  formerly  pretended 
that  it  issued  from  the  corpse  of  St.  Quirinus,  to  whom  a 
chapel  in  the  vicinity  is  dedicated. 

( Hassel,  Geograpnie ;  Stein,  Geogranhitches  Lexicon  ; 
Cannabich,  Lehrbuch  der  Geographie;  Hiibner,  Zeilungs- 
Ler.inut .  \ 

TKHER AN,  or  TEHRAN.     [PERSIA.] 

TEHUACAN.     [MEXICAN  STATES.] 

TK.Ilf  \NTKPEC.     [MEXICAN  STATES.] 

TEK5N  MOUTH.     [DEVONSHIRE.] 

TEIGNMOUTH,  JOHN  SHOKK,  LORD,  was  the 
elde-t  -on  oi  Thomas  Shore,  Esq.,  sometime  of  Melton  in 
Suffolk,  and  of  his  wife  Dorothy  (other  authorities  say 
Deborah)  Shepherd.  The  family  was  originally  of  Derby- 
shire, Lord  Teignraouth's  great-grandfather  having  lieen 
a  Sir  John  Shore,  of  Derby,  M.D.,  who  was  knighted  in 
1067.  Lord  Teienmouth  was  born,  it  is  believed,  in  Devon- 
shire, Octobers,  1751 :  his  father  died  in  1739,  his  mother 
in  1783,  and  his  only  brother,  the  Rev.  Thomas  William 
Shore,  who  was  vicar  of  Sandal  in  Yorkshire,  and  of  Ot- 
terton  in  Devonshire,  in  1822. 

Lord  Teigmnouth  went  to  Bengal  in  1709,  as  a  cadet  in 
the  Company's  civil  service,  and  was  first  stationed  at 
Moorshcdabad  as  an  assistant  under  the  council  of  revenue. 
In  1773  his  knowledge  of  that  language  procured  him  the 
appointment  of  Persian  translator  and  secretary  to  the 
Provincial  Council  of  Moorshedabad  ;  and  this  was  fol- 
lowed the  next  year  by  a  seat  at  the  Calcutta  revenue 
board,  which  he  retained  till  the  dissolution  of  the  board 
in  1781,  when  he  was  appointed  second  member  of  the 
general  committee  of  revenue,  established  by  the  new 
charier  grunted  that  year.  While  holding  this'  situation, 
Mr.  Shore  lived  in  terms  of  intimacy  with  Warren  Has- 
tings, the  governor-general ;  and  when  Hastings  came 
home  in  1785  he.  accompanied  his  friend  to  Kngland. 
During  this  visit  to  hig  native  country  he  married  Char- 
lotte, only  daughter  of  James  Cornish,  Esq.,  a  medical 
practitioner  at  Teignmouth  ;  and  a  few  weeks  after,  in 
April.  17HG,  he  set  out  again  for  Calcutta,  having  beer 
Appointed  one  of  the  members  of  the  Supreme  Council 
miller  the  new  governor-general  Lord  ('ornwallis.  To 
hi»  activity  and  ascendency  in  the  council  is  mainly 
attributed  the  adoption  of  Cornwallis's  great  measure,  tin 
new  settlement,  in  1/8!),  of  landed  propeitv  in  the  pre- 
sidency of  Bengal,  by  which  the  zemindar-,  hitherto  only 
the  revenue  agents  or  tax-gatherers  of  the  government, 
were  made  the  hereditary  proprietors  of  the  estates  which 
they  tanned,  and  the  ryots,  or  peasantry,  who  had  till  now 
a  right  of  occupation  so  long  as  they  paid  their  assess- 
ments, were  declared  the  tenants  of  the  zemindars,  and 
made  removable  at  the  will  of  their  landlords.  The  new 
judicial  system  which  was  introduced  towards  the  close  of 
Ixird  Cornwallis's  government  in  1793,  also  owed  its  esta- 
blishment in  a  principal  degree  to  Shore,  who  had  been 
mnde  a  baronet  the  preceding  year.  On  the  retirement  ol 
('ornwallis,  in  August,  179:},  Sir  John  Shore  was  appointed 
to  succeed  him  as  governor-general  ;  and  he  held  that 
high  office  till  the  clo»e  of  the  year  1797,  when  he  resifpied 


t  to  the  eurl  of  Mornineton.  and  was  created  an  Irish  peer 
In  the  title  of  Baron  ;!i. 

Upon  the  death  01  in  April,  l~'.»l, 

Sir  John  Shore  was  elected  president   of  the  Asiati, 
ciety  :  and  taking  Ins  seat  in  that  capacity  mi  the  22nd  of 
May,  he  delivered  a  discourse  on   the   merits  of  the  late 
president,  which   is   printed   in   the   fourth   volume  of  the 
Society's   'Transactions.'     Alter   his   return    home    Lord 
Tei^nmouth  published,  in   1H04.  a  -Ho.   volume,  entitled 
•  Memoirs  of  the  Life,  Writings,  and  Correspond. 
William  Jones ;'  and  in  1807  he  produced  an  edition,  in 
13  vols.  8VO.,  of  Jones's  Works,  with  this    l.if, 
Upon  his  leaving  India  Lord  Teignmouth  had  I-  •  • 

dent   of   the  Asiatic  Society  by  Sir  Robert 
Chambers,  in  a  discourse  by  whom,  delivered  at  a  meeting 
of  the  Society  on  the  iHth'  of  Janimiv .  IT'.N.  and   printed 
in    the    sixth   volume    of   their  •  Transactions,'  then 
sketch  of  the  character  and  career  of  Ins  p  In 

ISO  I.  on    the   formation  of  the  British  and   Foreign   Bible 
Society,  Lord  Teignmouth  was  elected  its  first  president  : 
and  this  situation  he  retained  till  his  death,  though  for- 
years  before  that  event  he  was  obliged  to  devolw 
duties  upon  his  successor,  Lord  Bexley.    In  the  prosperity 
of  the  Society  he  at  all  times  took  the  liveliest  inte:'. 

On  the  4th  of  April,  1807,  Lord  Teignmouth  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  commissioners  for  the  ;  India. 
or,  in  other  words,  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Control  :  and 
on  the  8th  of  the  same  month  he  was  sworn  of  the   P 
Council.     He  retained  his  seat  at  the  Board  of  ( 'onti. 
some  years;  and  his  death  took  place  on  the  14th  of  I-Y- 
bruary,  1834. 

Besides  the  publications  already  mentioned.  Lord  I 
mouth  is  the  author  of  '  A  Letter  to  the  Keveu-nd  i 
topher  Wordsworth,  D.D.,   on   the   subject  of  the  Bible 
Society,'   Svo.,   London,    1810;    and   •  Considerations  on 
communicating  to  the  Inhabitants  of  India  the  Knowledge 
of  Christianity.'   Svo.,    London,   1811.     (li  ///.  M'i^.    for 
1834,  pt.  i..  p.'  .V>J 

TEISSIER,  ANT  OIXE,  was  born  at  Montpellier,  28th 
January,    1632.      His    family,   which    was   originally   of 
N imes,    was   Protestant;  and  his  father  was  receiver-ge- 
neral of  the  province  of  Languedoc,  but   he  was  deprived 
of  that  appointment,  and  also  of  whatever  else  In 
sessed,  a  few  months  alter  the  birth  of  his  son,  for  having 
joined  the  revolt  of  Henri,  Due  de  Montmorenci.  or  at 
least  given  up  to  him  the  public  money  which  was  in  his 
hands.     Montmorenci   was   taken    prisoner   at   the   affair 
of  C'astelnandari,    on   the    1st  of  September.    Hilt'J :    his 
insurrection  was   suppressed,  and  on   the  ,'JOth  of  ' 
ber  he   was  beheaded.     After  the  ruin  of  his  family  it 
was   determined   that   Antoine  Teissier  should  he 
cated   for   the   ministry   of   the    Protestant    church,   and 
with   that   view    he    studied   theology   for   some  time   at 
the    Protestant   seminaries   of    Nimcs,    Montauhan,    and 
Saumur.     But   in   the    end    he    made    up    his   mind    to 
adopt    the    profession    of   the    law,    induced,    it    is   said, 
by  the  weak  state  of  his  health:  and  after  having  gone 
through  the  usual  course  of  study  at  Bourges.  and  ta!.. 
doctors  degree,  he  commenced  practice  as  an   ad\ 
before   the   district    court   called   the  Presulial.  . 
His  bodily  strength  however  proved   to   be  no  mon 
ficient  for  the  bar  than  it  had  been  thought  to  he  for  the 
pulpit  ;  and  after  some  time  he   gave  up  hi-,  profession, 
and  took  to  literature  as  a  means  of  subsistence.     On  the 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  in  1GST>.  Teissier  took 
refuge  in   Switzerland,  having,  according  to  the  '  li. 
phie  I'liivei-sclle,'  although   in  extreme  ill  lined 

very  tempting  proposals  which  were  made  through  the 
chancellor  IVAgiiesseau,  to  induce  him  to  remain  in  Kiance. 
But  it  would  no  doubt  be  made  a  condition  that  he 
should  abjure  Protestantism.  He  supported  In 
chieflvat  first  by  publishing  a  French  newspaper  at  Heine; 
then  l>y  giving  a  course  of  public  law  idrcnt  pulm 
/.fiiieh;  and  the  works  he  sent  to  the  press  fmni  tune  to 
time  also  brought  him  something.  At  length,  in  Ki'.l2,he 
was  invited  by  Frederic  III.,  elector  of  lirandcithiirg 
afterwards  king  Frederic  I.  of  Prussia)  to  come  to  Berlin  ; 
and  there  he  resided  till  his  death,  on  the  7th  of  Septem- 
ber, 1715.  Immediately  on  his  arrival  he  had  been  nomi- 
nated a  councillor  of  state,  and  appointed  to  the  office  of 
historiographer;  and  part  of  Ins  time  was  also  occupied 
for  some  \eais  in  superintending  or  directing  the  educa- 
tion of  tlie  hereditary  prince,  afterwards  Frederic  William 


TEL 


145 


TEL 


I.  A  complete  list  of  Teissier's  numerous  publications  is 
given  in  the  '  Biographic  Universelle.'  The  most  cele- 
brated amons^  them  is  his  'Eloges  des  Hommes  Savans, 
tirees  de  1'Histoire  de  M.  de  Thou,'  first  published  at  Lyon 
and  at  Geneva,  in  a  12mo.  volume,  in  1683 ;  then  at 
Utrecht,  in  2  vols.,  in  1696  ;  and  again  at  Leyden,  in  4 
vols.,  in  1715.  In  the  two  latter  editions  the  text  of  De 
Thou  is  accompanied  by  numerous  annotations,  which 
display  much  curious  research.  Teissier  was  an  accurate 
inquirer  ;  but  there  is  no  artistic  quality  or  vital  power  in 
arty  of  his  books,  and  all  of  them,  even  including  his 
'  Eloges,'  may'  be  said  to  be  now  superseded  and  nearly 
forgotten.  One  of  the  most  creditable  is  a  Catalogue,  in 
Latin,  of  the  authors  who  have  written  catalogues,  in- 
dexes, &c.,  in  two  parts,  4to.,  Geneva,  1685  and  1705  ; 
some  others  relate  to  parts  of  the  history  of  Prussia ;  and 
a  great  many  are  translations,  which  have  the  character 
of  being  generally  faithful  enough,  but  of  little  elegance 
or  spirit,  1'rom  St.  Clement,  St.  Chrysostom,  Calvin,  Slei- 
dan,  and  other  Greek  and  Latin  writers,  the  latter  mostly, 
if  not  exclusively,  moderns. 

TEIXEIRA.  "[TEXEIRA.] 

TEJEN.     [PERSIA.] 

TEJUCO.  ~  [BRAZIL,  p.  368.] 

TEJUS.     [SAUVEGARDE.] 

TE'LECLES.     [SCULITURE.] 

TELEGRAPH  (from  rij\i, ' distant,' and  fpa^,H,  'write'), 
a  machine  or  contrivance  for  communicating  intel- 
ligonci..  to  a  distance,  usually  by  means  of  preconcerted 
signals,  to  which  some  conventional  meaning  is  attached. 
On  this  account  telegraphic  communications  may  be  as 
remarkable  for  their  impenetrable  secrecy  as  for  their 
rapidity.  The  name  semaphore  (from  o-i/pa,  '  a  sign,' 
and  ipip,u,  '  bear ';,  is  commonly  applied  to  some  of  the 
machines  used  for  effecting  telegraphic  communication  ; 
which,  in  an  extended  sense,  may  be  considered  to  em- 
brace every  means  of  conveying  intelligence  by  gestures 
and  visible  signals,  as  flags,  lanterns,  rockets,  blue-lights, 
beacon-fires,  &c.,  or  by  audible  signals,  as  the  firing  of 
guns,  the  blowing  of  trumpets,  the  beating  of  drums  or 
gongs,  &c.,  as  well  as  by  the  machines  called  telegraphs 
or  semaphores. 

Although  telegraphic  communication,  as  a  means  of  con- 
veying any  required  intelligence,  is  an  invention  of  recent 
date,  the  use  of  signals  for  the  speedy  transmission  of  such 
brief  messages  as  might  be  previously  arranged  between 
persons,  is  a  practice  derived  from  the  most  remote  an- 
tiquity. The  use  of  beacon-fires,  for  example,  as  a  means 
of  giving  speedy  warning  of  the  approach  of  an  enemy,  is 
alluded  to  by  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  who  wrote  about  six 
centuries  before  the  Christian  aera,  and  who  warns  the 
Benjamites  to  '  set  up  a  sign  of  fire  in  Beth-haccerem  ; 
for  evil,'  he  adds,  '  appeareth  out  of  the  north,  and  great 
destruction.'  (Jeremiah,  vi.  1.)  The  fine  description  given 
by  /EschyliH,  in  his  '  Agamemnon,'  of  the  application 
of  a  line  of  fire-signals  to  communicate  the  intelligence  of 
the  fall  of  Troy,  is  often  referred  to  as  an  early  instance  of 
this  kind  of  telegraphic  despatch  ;  but  if  the  sera  of  the 
writer,  and  not  that  of  the  event,  is  referred  to,  the  passage 
above  quoted  atfords  an  earlier  illustration.  This  simple 
means  of  spreading  an  alarm,  or  communicating  intel- 
ligence in  time  of  war,  is  practised  by  many  nations  ;  and, 
to  come  nearer  home,  we  may  refer  to  the  graphic  stanzas 
of  the  '  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel'  (canto  iii.,  st.  xxv.-xxix.), 
descriptive  of  the  rapid  communication  of  the  approach  of 
the  English  forces  from  the  border  stations,  along '  height, 
and  hill,  and  cliffy— 

•  Till  high  Dunodin  the  Mates  raw. 
From  Soltra  and  Ifcimpondfr  LAW; 
And  Lothian  lu-anl  the  Regent's  order, 
That  all  Hhonltl  botine  them  for  the  border.' 

In  a  note  illustrative  of  this  description,  Scott  refers  to 
an  Act  of  the  Scottish  parliament  in  1455,  c.  48,  which 
t.s  that  one  bale  or  faggot  shall  be  warning  of  the 
approach  of  the  English  in  any  manner;  t«<>  l.ales,  that 
lln-y  Mir  .  '/fed;  and  four  bales  blazing  beside 

each  other,  that  tin;  enemy  are  in  great  force.     Such  sig- 
nals, though  best,  adapted  to  give  information  by  night, 
ulilf  in  the  daytime,  when  they  appeared  as 
columns  of  dense  smoke.     Torches  held  in  the  hand  and 

1  in  any  particular  manner,  or  alternately  di^| 
and   Iml'li  ii  behind   a   screen,  were  also  used   in  antient 
times  as  -  un  from  several  early  writers  on 

P.  C.,  Mo.  1506. 


military  subjects  ;  but  as  they  were  merely  arbitrary  sig- 
nals, which  admitted  of  very  little  variation,  such  devices 
could  only  be  rendered  available  by  previous  concert. 

That  some  attempts  were  made  by  the  antients  to  im- 
prove upon  such  simple  signals  is  evident  from  the 
tenth  book  of  Polybius,  in  which  allusion  is  made  to  a 
device  of  tineas  (Tacticus),  who  proposed  to  write 
several  sentences,  such  as  it  might  be  desirable  to  com- 
municate, upon  two  oblong  boards,  one  of  which  should  be 
kept  by  each  cf  the  parties.  These  boards  were  to  be 
affixed  to  cork  floats  capable  of  rising  and  falling  in 
cylindrical  vessels  of  similar  form  and  size,  one  of  which 
was  placed  at  each  station.  Matters  being  thus  prepared, 
and  the  vessels  filled  with  water,  the  person  desiring  to 
send  intelligence  allowed  the  water  to  escape  from  his 
vessel  by  a  small  opening  until  the  suitable  sentence  on 
the  inscribed  board  had  sunk  to  a  certain  mark ;  making 
torch  signals  to  indicate  the  moment  of  allowing  the 
water  to  run  out,  and  that  at  which  the  board  sank  to  its 
proper  level.  The  person  at  the  distant  station  regulated 
the  egress  of  water  from  his  vessel  by  the  torch  signals, 
and  was  thus  enabled  to  ascertain  which  of  the  sentences 
written  on  the  board  conveyed  the  required  intelligence. 
Complicated  as  was  this  arrangement,  it  afforded  very 
little  more  scope  than  the  use  of  simple  torches  or  fires. 
Polybius  however  describes  a  much  more  perfect  method 
of  telegraphic  communication,  which,  he  says,  was  in- 
vented either  by  Cleoxenus  or  Democlitus,  but  improved 
or  perfected  by  himself.  This  method  is  capable  of  com- 
municating any  required  intelligence  with  the  greatest 
precision,  the  signals  being  made  to  represent  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet,  and  the  message  being  displayed  letter  by 
letter.  Instead  of  quoting  the  description  of  Polybius 
himself,  which  refers  to  the  use  of  the  Greek  aphabet,  we 
shall  adopt  that  of  Bishop  Wilkins,  who  describes  the 
plan  as  applied  to  the  English  alphabet.  The  alphabet 
must  be  divided  for  this  purpose  into  five  portions  of  five 
letters  each  (excepting  the  last,  which  has  but  four,,/  and 
v  being  omitted  as  unnecessary),  and  inscribed  upon  ta- 
blets, as  in  the  following  diagram : — 


I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


1 

2 
3 

4 
5 

a. 

b 

c 

d 

e 

f 


g 


This  being  done,  each  of  the  corresponding  parties  is  to 
be  provided  with  a  copy  of  the  tablets,  and  also  with  ten 
torches,  five  of  them  on  the  right  hand  and  five  on  the 
left.  Any  letter  may  then  be  expressed  by  first  lifting  up 
on  the  right  hand  so  many  torches  as  may  indicate  the 
number  of  the  tablet  in  which  it  is  contained,  as  I.,  II., 
III.,  See.,  and  then  so  many  on  the  left  as  may  show  the 
number  of  the  particular  letter  in  the  tablet,  as  1,  2,  3, 
&c.  Thus  the  word  hntsten  would  be  expressed  by  dis- 
playing the  torches  six  times,  in  the  following  order,  in 
which  the  Roman  letters  indicate  the  number  of  torches 
raised  on  the  right  hand,  and  the  Arabic  numerals  those 
on  the  left  :— 


Right  hand. 

L 

IV. 

IV. 

I. 

III. 


h 
a 

t 
t 
e 

n 


Left  hand. 

3. 
1. 

3. 

4. 
5. 
3. 


Polybius  observes  that  dioptrical  instruments,  framed 
with  two  holes  or  tubes,  should  be  used  to  enable  the 
observer  to  distinguish  accurately  the  right  and  left  hand 
lights  ;  and  that  solid  fences  should  be  erected  upon  each 
side,  behind  which  the  torches  might  be  concealed  when 
if  use.  Bishop  Wilkins,  in  his  curious  work  entitled 
'  Mercury ;  or  the  Secret  and  Swift  Messenger,'  after  de- 
senbing  this  telegraph  of  Polybius,  mentions  another 
which  requires  only  three  lights  or  torches.  The  twenty- 

VOL.  XXIV.— U 


TEL 


146 


TEL 


lour  necessary  letters  of  the  alphabet  are,  according  to 
this  plan,  which  he  give*  on  thv  authority  ol°  Joachimiu 
Fort i us,  to  be  divided  into  three  clmxi  of  eight  letters 
eech.  The  first  class  ia  represented  by  one  torch,  the 
second  by  two,  and  the  third  In  three  .  u'nd  the,  number  of 
the  letter  by  the  number  of  times  which  the  torches  are 
elevated  or  discovered.  Thus  one  torch  raised  once  would 
represent  a.  or  raised  eight  time*.  A ;  two  torches  raised 
one*  would  indicate  i,  raised  twi.  > •.  A  :  or  eight  times,  o  j 
and  three  torches  raised  from  oner  mi--,  would 

give  thu  remaining   .  "in  r  to  jr.     Similar  to  this, 

but  itill  eahirr  of  application.  is  tin-  night -telegraph  con- 
trived by  the  Rev.  .hum •»  Brcmiicr.  nf  tin-  Shetland  Inlands, 
and  rewarded  by  the  Society  of  Arts  in  181B.  A  single 
light  constitutes  ill.-  whole  apparatus  in  this  plan,  ami  thu 
whole  operation  consist*  in  its  alternate  exhibition  and 
concealment.  The  alphabet  is  divided  into  four  classes 
or  divisions,  of  six  letters  each;  and  the  number  of  ob- 
scurations is  to  indicate,  first,  the  number  of  the  division. 
and  secondly,  the  number  of  the  letter  in  that  division;  a 
pause.  being  made  betw  ecn  the  obscurations  which  indicate 
the  number  of  the  division  and  those  which  show  the 
number  of  the  letter  in  that  division  ;  and  a  longer  pause 
between  the  double  set  of  movements  thus  required  lor 
every  letter.  Two  lights,  one  to  represent  the  division, 
and  th«  other  the  number  of  the  letter,  might  in  some 
eases b« used;  but  Mr.  Brcmner  conceives  that,  especially 
in  long  distances,  one  is  preferable,  as  affording  less  risk 
of  env.r.  His  plan  had  been  found  suitable  tor  distances 
of  twenty  miles  and  upwards,  and  had  been  successfully 
put  in  operation  between  the  lighthouse  on  Copeland 
Island  and  Port  Patrick  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  lii-h 
Channel.  Further  particulars  respecting  this,  and  a  de- 
scription of  another  telegraph  for  clay-service,  by  the  same 
author,  are  given  in  the  thirty-fourth  volume  of  the  So- 
ciety's •  Transactions,'  pp.  IUHMF-  Tedious  as  Mr.  Brem- 
ner's  method  may  appear,  it  is  stated  that,  supposing  the 
whole  alphaoet  to  be  used,  sixty  letters  might  easily  be 
eiven  in  five  minutes;  while  the  communication  might 
be  effected  more  rapidly  if,  as  in  some  telegraphic  systems, 
only  sixteen  letters  were  used.  In  addition  to  the  alpha- 
betic systems  which  depend  merely  upon  the  number  or 
alternate  display  and  concealment  of  lights,  Bishop  Wil- 
kins  describes  one  which  depends  upon  the  relative  posi- 
tions of  two  lights  attached  to  long  poles,  and  which,  he 
says,  '  for  its  quickness  and  speed  is  much  to  be  preferred 
before  any  ol  the  rest.'  It  will  thus  be  perceived  that 
that  ingenious  writer  came  very  near  to  the  principle  upon 
which  many  of  the  modem  telegraphic  systems  depend. 
In  suggesting  the  use  of  extended  lines  of  telegraphic 
communication,  he  further  hints  at  the  application  of  the 
telescope  (or,  as  he  styles  it, '  Galileus  his  perspective'),  to 
the  deciphering  of  distant  signals. 

Among  the  scientific  writers  who  seem  to  have  had 
some  notion  of  the  modern  telegraph  are  Kircher,  Schottus, 
and  Ke-slt-r:  the  latter  of  whom  proposed  to  cut  out  such 
character*  a>  it  was  desired  to  show  in  the  ends  of  8  cask, 
which  was  to  be.  ele\ated  with  a  light  enclosed  in  it.  The 
Marquis  of  Worcester  also,  in  his  -Century  of  Inventions,' 
lout,  announces,  '  How  at  a  window,  as  far  as  the  eye  can 
ver  black  from  white,  a  man  may  hold  discourse  with 
his  correspondent,  without  noise,  made  or  notice  taken,' 
&c. ;  and  again,  '  A  way  to  do  it  by  night  as  well  as  by 
day,  though  as  dark  as  pitch  is  black.'  The  cm-lie.-,!  well- 
defined  plan  of  telegraphic  communication  appears  how- 
ever to  be  that  de-cribed  in  :i  paper  addressed  to  the 
Royal  Society  in  1<>H4.  by  Dr.  Kobeit  Hooke,  and  pub- 
lished in  I72Q>nDerham'i  collection  of  his  '  Philosophical 
Experiments  and  Observations'  pp.  M--li)<).  'showing  I 
way  how  to  communicate  one's  mind  at  great  distances.' 
Hooke  states  that  he  had  discoursed  on  the  subject  some 
years  before,  but  that  the  then  recent  siege  of  Vienna  bj 
the  Turks  had  revived  the  matter  in  his  mind.  His  scheme 
will  be  readily  understood  by  the  annexed  cut.  Fig.  1. 
which  represent*  an  elevated  frame-work  supporting  a 
panel  or  screen,  a,  behind  which  were  to  be  suspended  a 
number  of  symbols  or  device*,  formed  of  deal  plank,  of  the 
various  shape*  represented  by  the  small  black  figures. 
The  fir»t  twenty-four  of  these,  which  consist  entirely  of 
straight  linen,  were  to  Htand  for  alphabetic  characters  :  and 
the  mx  il. -vii -es  consisting  of  cuned  lines  were  to  be  used 
a*  arbitrary  signals.  Whenever  it  was  derired  to  display 
»ny  of  Oi«*e  characters,  they  were  to  be  drawn  from  be- 


hind the  screen  by  a  .r  pulleys  in  the 

frame-work,  and  so  rendered  visible  in  the  open  »p; 

j.    TheM  telegraphs  were  to  be  erected  upon  elevated 

• 

.1. 


H 


T+J.3CIHD 

TJTVAXVA^ 

OXC 


stations,  so  chosen  that,  if  possible,  there  might  be  no  re- 
fraction of  the   atmospbeie  to  impede  vision,  and   so  that 
no   intervening  objects  or  disturbed    background    might 
interfere  with  the  clearness  of  the  prospect  ;    and  tele- 
scopes were  to  be  used  by  the  observers.    The  older  of 
connection  between  the  signs  employed  and  the  lett 
the  alphabet  might,  it  is  explained,  be  infinitely  varied. 
for  the  sake  of  secrecy ;  and  none  of  the  parties  einp!. 
excepting  those  at   the  terminal  stations,  need  h:\v . 
knowledge  of  the  message  commnnie  lie  further 

proposed  a  scheme  for  night   communication  by  means  of 
lights  disposed   in   a    ecitain  older.     About   twi-ntv 
after  the  date  of  Hooke's  paper,  Amontons  brought  for- 
ward a  very  similar  plan  in  France,  and  made   public  trial 
of  his  contrivance  before  several  persons  of  rank.     ^ 
other  individuals  subsequently   devised   similar  scb. 
but  nothing  was  effected  in  the  practical  application  of 
telegraphic  communication  until  the  war  of  the  French 
revolution.     Macdonald  states  that.  'Following  the  prin- 
ciples laid  down  by  Dr.  Hooke,  in  1684,  Dupuis,  in  France, 
invented  the  French  telegraph,  which    Don   Gnaltier.  a 
monk  of  the  order  of  Citeaux,  in  1781,  modified,  and  pro- 
posed to  Condorcet,  Milli,  and  Dr.  Franklin,  who  recom- 
mended it  to  the    French   government.'    The   telegraph 
brought  into  use  in  1793  or  1794,  by  M.  Chappe,  \\ 
will  be  seen  by  Fig.  2,  a  very  superior  machine  to  that 
of  Dr.  Hooke. 

Fig.  2. 


Chappe's  telegraph,  which,  from  its  position  when  at 
rest,  is  sometimes  called  the  T  telegraph,  consisted  of  an 
upright  pole  or  jxist.  at  the  top  of  which  was  pivoted,  by 
ntre,  a  transverse  beam,  which,  by  means  of  ropes 
worked  in  the  chamber  below,  that  served  also  for  an  ob- 
servatory, might  be  made  to  assume  any  required  angle 
with  the  post.  Each  end  of  this  moveable  beam  carried 
a  short  arm,  that  was  capable  of  assuming  anv  required 
angle  with  it  ;  and  these  arms  also  were  worked  liv 
which  were  conducted  through  the  axis  of  the  beam,  in 
order  that  the  necessary  degree  of  tension  might  not  be 
disturbed  by  the  action  of  the  machine.  By  this 
trivancc,  without  the  use  of  any  m  i  l"»" 

'which  might  be  indistinct  when  vie-.- 
tance,  or  under  the  influence  of  a  refractive  atmosphere), 
as  many  as  256  different  signs  might  be  made.     A  much 
smaller  number  was   however  sufficient,   as    .M.  (.'happe 
communicated  his  intelligence  letter  by  letter,  and  sim- 
plified the  movements  by  using  an  alphabet   of  only  six- 
teen letters.      The    small    figures    in  the  cut  show  some'  ol 
the  different  positions  assumed  by  the  beam  and  ;, 
and,  as  the  connection  between  these  and  the  letters  they 
were  made  to  represent  was  quite  arbitrary,  their  signifies- 


TEL 


147 


TEL 


tion  might  be  changed  as  often  as  was  necessary  for  the 
purpose  of  secresy  ;  it  being  only  necessary  that  the  key 
should  be  known  to  the  parties  sending  and  receiving  the 
message,  although  it  might  be  transmitted  through  a  great 
number  of  intermediate  stations.  Such  telegraphs  were 
first  erected  on  a  line  commencing  at  the  Louvre,  in 
Paris,  and  proceeding  by  Montmartre  and  other  elevated 
points  to  Lisle,  in  order  to  communicate  between  the  Com- 
mittee of  Public  Welfare  and  the  combined  armies  in  the 
Low  Countries.  Telescopes  were  used  at  each  station, 
and  the  signals  displayed  at  one  station  were  immediately 
repeated  at  the  next ;  four  seconds  being  found  sufficient 
for  effecting  the  required  motions,  and  sixteen  seconds  the 
time  allowed  for  observing  and  noting  down  each  signal, 
during  which  the  machine  remained  stationary.  Barrere, 
in  announcing  the  invention  of  the  telegraph  to  the  Con- 
M-ntion,  on  the  17th  of  August,  1794,  stated  that  the  news 
of  the  recapture  of  Lisle  had,  by  means  of  this  machine, 
reached  Paris  in  an  hour  after  the  troops  of  the  republic 
had  entered  that  place.  (Annual  Register,  1794,  p.  51.) 

The  advantages  of  such  extraordinary  celerity  of  com- 
munication were  so  obvious  that,  in  England  and  other 
countries,  many  plans  were  immediately  brought  forward, 
some  of  which  differed  materially  from  that  which  had 
been  successfully  put  in  practice  in  France.  Among  these 
was  that  contrived  by  Mr.  R.  L.  Edgeworth,  who  states 
that  he  had  made  experiments  as  early  as  1767,  when  he 
proposed  to  use  the  sails  of  a  windmill  as  a  means  of  con- 
veying intelligence  by  signals.  The  report  of  Chappf's 
telegraph  revived  the  matter  with  him,  and  late  in  1794 
he,  with  some  friends,  tried  experiments  with  a  numerical 
telegraph  (or  a  telegraph  expressing  numbers,  which  num- 
bers refer  to  letters,  words,  or  sentences,  in  a  dictionary^,  on 
the  principle  shown  in  the  culFig.  3.  An  index,  or  pointer, 
in  the  form  of  an  isosceles  triangle,  was  so  mounted  upon 
a  post,  or  on  a  portable  triangular  stand,  that  it  might  be 

Fig.  3. 


turned  into  any  of  the  eight  positions  shown  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  cut  ;  these  positions  indicating,  respectively, 
0  and  the  numerals  1  to  7.  Four  such  pointers,  mount  eel 
side  by  side  by  side,  as  in  the  lower  part  of  the  figure, 
afford  power  for  expressing  any  number  from  1  to  7777, 
excepting  H,  !).  IS,  lit,  2H.  29,  and  all  others  in  which  the 
numerals  S  and  9  are  required  :  the  first  pointer  represent- 
ing thousands,  the  second  hundreds,  the  third  tens,  and 
the  fourth  units.  Thus  the  four  black  pointers  in  the 
figure,  being,  respectively,  in  the  positions  indicating 
2,  7,  7,  and  4,  expres-,,  collectively,  the  number  2774.  The 
numerical  system  affords  at  least  equal  facilities  with  the 
alphabetic  or  lettering  plan  for  secrecy  in  the  communica- 
tince  the  connection  between  the  numbers  expressed 
and  the  sentences  to  which  they  refer  may  be  changed  at 
pismire,  and  none  of  the  perso'm  employed  in  transmit- 
ting the  intelligence  need  to  possess  the  dictionary,  the 
niiiiilirr  being  all  that  they  require  to  know.  In  reference 
to  this  distinctive  feature  of  his  plan,  Kdgeworth  observes 
that,  while  '  telegraph  is  a  proper  name  for  a  machine 
which  describes  at  a  distance,  trMnt*ruj>h,  or,  contractedly, 
lr/.'n!fi-'i/i/;,  is  a  proper  name  for  a  machine  which  de- 
scribes wordt  at  a  distance  ;'  and  therefore  he  uses  the 
latter  term.  In  his  '  Essay  on  the  Art  of  Conveying 
Secret  and  Swift  Intelligence,'  published  in  the  sixth 
volume  of  the  'Transactions  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,' 
in  which  the  details  of  his  plan  are  fully  given,  Edgeworth 
notice*  the  great  advantages  derivable  from  the  applica- 
tion of  telegraphic  communication  to  commercial  and 
'•s,  as,  for  instance,  to  the  speedy  announce- 
ment of  market-prices  at  a  distance;  and  even  hints  at  the 
possibility  of  a  line  of  telegraphs  between  Europe  and  the 


East  Indies.  He  also  published  a  pamphlet  entitled  '  A 
Letter  to  the  Right  Honourable  the  Earl  of  Charlemont 
on  the  Tellograph,  and  on  the  Defence  of  Ireland,'  which 
was  reprinted  at  London  in  1797. 

Another  of  the  individuals  whose  attention  was  directed 
to  this  subject  by  Chappe's  telegraph,  was  the  Rev.  J. 
Gamble,  then  chaplain  to  the  Duke  of  York.  He  issued 
a  thin  quarto  pamphlet,  without  date,  entitled  '  Observa- 
tions on  Telegraphic  Experiments,'  in  which,  after  noticing 
several  suggestions  which  had  been  made  for  effecting 
rapid  communication,  he  propounds  another,  of  which  he 
believed  himself  to  be  the  inventor.  The  apparatus  which 
he  proposed  consisted  of  a  frame-work  containing  five 
boards,  or  shutters,  arranged  vertically  one  above  the 
other,  and  pivoted  in  such  a  way  that  any  or  all  of  them 
might  be  closed,  so  as  to  present  their  broad  surfaces  to 
the  eye,  or  opened,  so  as  to  present  merely  a  thin  edge, 
which  would  be  invisible  at  a  distance.  The  various  signals 
produced  by  closing  one  or  more  of  these  shutters  may  be 
applied  either  to  a  numerical  or  an  alphabetical  system. 
A  similar  plan  submitted  to  the  Admiralty  in  1795,  by 
Lord  George  Murray,  was  adopted  in  the  first  government 
line  of  telegraphs  established  in  England,  in  1790,  between 
London  and  Dover.  The  '  Annual  Register'  for  that  year 
(.p.  4  of  the  '  Chronicle')  mentions  the  erection  of  the 
telegraph  over  the  Admiralty  on  the  28th  of  January,  and 
states  that  information  had  been  conveyed  from  Dover  to 
London  in  seven  minutes.  The  action  of  this  kind  of  tele- 
graph, which  was  continued  in  use  by  the  Admiralty  until 
the  year  1816,  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  4,  in  which  A  repre- 
scnt.-,  a  square  frame-work  with  six  octagonal  shutter*, 
1,2,  3,  4,  5,  and  0,  arranged  in  two  vertical  columns,  or 

Fig.  4. 


L.J 


1      2 


sets,  and  turned  into  a  vertical  position,  so  as  to  display 
their  broad  surfaces  completely,  and  B  represents  the 
same  apparatus  with  the  boards  or  shutters  placed  horizon- 
tally, or  turned  one-quarter  round  upon  their  respective 
axes,  so  as  to  present  nothing  but  their  ederes  to  Hie  eye. 
The  central  space  between  the  two  columns  of  shutters 
serves  to  render  them  more  distinct  to  a  distant  obsvn  i  r, 
and  affords  room  for  the  ropes  and  pulleys  by  which  the. 
telegraph  is  worked,  and  winch  are  managed  by  persons 
in  the  observatory  below.  As  shown  by  the  following 
table,  the  six-shutter  telegraph  is  capable  of  express! ni; 
sixty-three  different  signals,  by  closing  one,  two,  three,  or 
more  of  the  shutters,  according  to  the  Arabic  numerals  in 
the  table,  which  refer  to  the  numbers  inserted  in  the  cut 
l-'i  f.  I.  A.  The  position  of  the  apparatus  shown  in  Fig.  4,  B, 
is  not  counted  as  a  signal ;  it  being  the  position  of  rest. 

Table  qf  the  Separate  or  Dittinct  Si  finals  given  by  the 
N;  i  -thutier  Telegraph. 

1  23         124           23fi         1215  3456 

2  24          125            '21.')          12  Hi  12315 

3  25         l.'li           240         1250  123-iO 

4  26         131           250         1345  12350 

5  :!l          135           3-t5          13  Hi  12-451! 
0           35          130           340         135B  13450 

12  3<i         145  :',.-,(;          I  I5(i  23450 

13  15         140  450         2345         123450 

14  40         150         12.'14         2310 

15  (56    234    1235    2350 

16  123    235    1236    2150 

These  signals  affords  the  means  of  expressing  each  letter 
of  the  alphabet,  and  each  of  the  Arabic  numerals,  by  a 
distinct  and  simple  sign,  and  still  leave  several  siens  un- 
appropriated, which  may  be  applied  to  words  or  sentences 
of  common  use,  or  to  arbitrary  signals  ;  and  the  connec- 

U2 


TEL 


148 


TEL 


tion  between  the  signal*  given  in  the  table  and  the  letters 
ornunii'rnls  they  represent  maybe  varied  almost  infinitely; 
to  that  if,  in  time  of  \viir.  (lie  key  were  to  fall  into  tin- 
hands  of  the  encniv,  it  miirht  be  immediately  changed.  In 
a  modification  of  tins  kind  of  telegraph,  intended  for  night 
as  well  a*  for  day  service,  which  was  submitted  to  tlir  So- 
of  Arta,  in  1805,  by  Mr.  Joseph  Davis,  a  seventh 
shutter  or  board  is  added, "which,  instead  of  being  . 
on  an  horizontal  axU,  is  made  to  slide  up  and  down  in 
grooves  in  the  centre  of  the  framework  ;  so  that  it  may 
i-ithcr  range  with  the  Quitters  1  and  2,  3  and  4,  or  5  and  0, 
or,  if  not  required  at  all,  may  descend  into  a  space  pro- 
vided for  it  in  the  roof  of  the  observatory.  By  this  simple 
device  the  power  of  the  machine  is  quadrupled  ;  it  being 
rendered  capable  of  making  the  sixty-three  signals  shown 
in  the  table  without  the  sliding-shutter,  and  the  like  num- 
ber with  it  in  each  of  its  three  visible  positions,  or  two 
hundred  and  fifty-two  changes  in  the  whole. 

About  the  same  time  that  shutter-telegraphs  were  being 
introduced  in  England,  the  Chevalier  A.  N.  Edelcrantz, 
of  Stockholm,  was  devising  similar  machinery  for  use  in 
Sweden.  In  1796  he  published  an  account  of  his  experi- 
ments and  inventions  in  the  Swedish  language,  which  in 
1901  was  translated  into  French  and  published  at  Paris, 
and  was  noticed  in  Nicholson's  '  Journal '  in  1803.  A  few 
years  later  Edelcrantz  communicated  a  model  of  his  tele- 
graph to  the  English  Society  of  Arts,  in  whose  •  Transac- 
tions '  for  1808  (vol.  xxvi.,  pp.  184-189),  it  is  minutely 
described.  He  commenced  his  experiments  in  Septem- 
ber, 1794,  with  a  machine  resembling  that  first  employed 
in  France  ;  but  he  soon  abandoned  it,  and  adopted  a  shut- 
ter-telegraph with  ten  boards  or  vanes,  arranged  in  three 
vei-tic-af  ranks,  of  which  the  centre  one  has  four,  and  the 
others  three  boards  each.  By  this  arrangement  1024 
changes  or  signals  may  be  clearly  shown  ;  and  it  would  be 
possible,  by  observing  the  order  in  which  the  shutters  are 
exhibited,  to  show  4,037,912  changes.  The  minute  atten- 
tion required  in  this  case  would,  however,  occasion  some 
uncertainty;  and  it  is  not  likely  that  any  circumstances 
could  render  so  many  changes  at  all  desirable.  Edel- 
crantz recommends  that  the  vanes  or  shutters,  which  are 
represented  as  of  a  square  form,  should  be  painted  black, 
and  the  frames  which  support  them  either  white  or  red  ; 
and  he  says  that  the  intervals  between  the  shutters 
should  be  greater  than  their  diameters.  The  apparatus 
I'or  working  the  telegraph  is  ingenious,  but  too  comuli- 

i  for  description  here.  It  is  sufficient  to  state  that, 
when  out  of  use.  the  shutters  are  held  open  by  weights. 
and  that  the  leverage  afforded  by  the  apparatus  for  closing 
them  is  such  as  to  enable  one  man  to  hold  them  all.  it 

-sary,  against  a  high  wind,  which,  it  is  added,  could 
not  be  aone  with  the  English  six-shutter  telegraph,  not- 
withstanding the  smaller  number  of  vanes,  without  em- 
ploying several  men.  This  inconvenience  led  Mr.  Henry 
Ward,  who  had  observed  the  difficulty  of  working  the 
telegraph  at  Blandford,  in  Dorsetshire,  to  contrive  an 
ingenious  apparatus  which  is  described  in  pages  207-8 
of  the  same  volume  of  the  •  Transact  ion-, '  of  the  Society  ol 
Arts  as  that  which  contains  the  communication  of  the  Che- 
valier Edelcrantz.  In  this  apparatus  the  grooved  wheel 
or  pulley  which  is  fixed  upon  the  axis  of  the  shutter,  to 
receive  the  rope  by  which  it  is  turned,  has  the  grooved 
portion  of  its  rim  formed  in  two  segments,  which  are  so 
attached  to  the  periphery  of  the  wheel  by  steel  springs 
that  they  fly  off'  and  remain  at  a  little  distance  from  it 
when  there  is  no  strain  on  the  rope  ;  although,  so  soon  as 
the  rope  is  pulled,  its  pressure  forces  the  segments  into 
close  contact  with  the  solid  vim  of  the  wheel.  In  the 
segments  are  formed  two  notches,  which,  when  the  shutter 
is  in  either  of  its  required  positions,  engage  with  a  lived 
catch  so  soon  as  the  strain  on  the  rope  is  relaxed,  and  so 
hold  the  shutter  steady  without  any  aid  from  the  at- 
tendant. The  pulling  of  the  rope,  by  drawing  the  seg- 
ments close  to  the  wheel,  releases  the  catch,  and  • 
quently  enables  the  attendant  to  return  the  shutter  to  its 
original  position.  The  ten-shutter  telegraph  of  Edel- 
crantz had,  at  the  date  of  his  letter  to  the  Society  of  Arts, 
been  in  constant  use  for  twelve  years,  on  both  sides  ol  the 
Baltic,  and  in  other  places  in  Sweden  :  -  chiefly  in  facili- 
tating the  communication  of  posts  between  Ku>-ia  and 
Finland  on  one  side  (of  the  Baltic),  and  Sweden  and  Eng- 
land on  the  otlu-r.'  He  states  that  one  person  was  suffi- 
cient for  working  it  and  making  the  observations,  espe- 


cially at  the  terminal  stations  ;  and  that  six  signals  were 
usually  given  in  a  minute. 

Lieutenant-Colonel  Macdonald,  who  greatly  prefers  the 
numerical  to  the  spelling  or  lettering  system,  r< -n  m;:; 
a  shutter-telegraph  of  still  greater  power,  and  ci 
of  (greater  complexity,  than  that  nf  Edclcraiitz.     His  u-r- 
telegraph,  the  advantages  of  which  he  lists  pleaded 
at   length   in  two  treatises,  published  in  1808  and  1H17, 
consists  of  thirteen  shutters,  arranged,  like  thos. 
crantz,  in  three  vertical  sets,  w  Inch  represi  •  clj , 

hundreds,  tens,  and  units.     As  three  boards  in  c». 
would   only  afford  seven  combinations  for  each   column, 
he  uses   four,   wjm-h    give   fifteen   combinations,   ten  of 
which  are  used  to  express  the  numerals  from  1  to  9,  and  0, 
and  the  remaining  five  for  abbreviations  and  arbitian 
nals.     The  twelve  ordinary  boards  are  capable    of  pro- 
ducing 4095  distinct    combinations,  and  the  thirteenth,  or 
auxiliary  hoard,  which  is  mounted  over  the  centre  of  1 1k- 
machine,  doubles  that  number.     A  flag  or  vane  is  added 
to  the  hundred  side  of  the  apparatus,  to  distinguish  it  in 
whatever  direction  it  may  be  viewed,  and  a  ball  sliding 
upon  the  staff  which  supports  it  affords  the  means  of  again 
doubling  the  number;  so  that,  in  the  whole,  l(i,3so  dis- 
tinct signs  may  be  made  with  this  machine.     Macdonald 
recommends  that  the  shutters  be   made   about   liv. 
square  ;  in  which  case  they  may  be  si-en  with  a  mod 
telescope,  in  clear  weather,  at  a  distance  of  ten  or  eleven 
miles. 

Although  the  shutter-telegraph  was  originally  con- 
sidered an  improvement  upon  that  of  M.  Clumpc,  which 
was  so  complex  as  to  lead  to  considerable  risk  of  < 
unless  it  were  worked  by  a  practised  person,  experience 
has  established  the  superiority  of  telegraphs  or  sema- 
phores with  moveable  arms ;  and  these  hsue  been  great  K  sim- 
plified, so  as  to  avoid  the  objection  raised  to  the  old  French 
telegraph.  Among  the  schemes  proposed  soon  after  tin- 
first  practical  application  of  telegraphs,  was  one  which  con- 
sisted in  dividing  a  large  circle  into  twenty-four  part 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  and  employing  a  tra\crsing 
radius,  or  index,  to  point  them  out ;  wires  being  fixed  be- 
fore the  object-glass  of  the  telescope  to  enable  the  ill-- 
tant  observer  to  determine  the  position  of  the  radius.  Tins 
plan  could  only  be  applied  to  short  distances,  because  re- 
fraction might  render  it  difficult  to  distinguish  between 
positions  so  little  \ar\ing  from  each  other.  The  same 
radiating  principle  wits,  however,  adopted  in  some  ma- 
chines of  more  practical  character;  among  which  was  a 
telegraph  contrived  by  the  Rev.  J.  Gamble  (whose  ori- 
ginal shutter-telegraph  lists  been  before  mentioned  .  con 
sistiug  of  five  beams  or  arms  pivoted  at  the  top  of  n  post, 
upon  one  axis,  and  capable  of  producing  many  dill- 
combinations  without  using  angles  of  less  than  46  .  On  a 
similar  principle  were  constructed  the  French  cosist  tele- 
graphs adopted  in  1803,  to  which  the  name  of  .\r//m/  • 
was  first  applied,  and  from  which  it  hits  been  given  to 
other  telegraphic  machines,  the  action  of  winch  is  de- 
pendant upon  the  motion  of  arms  around  pivot-,  placed  at 
or  near  their  extremities.  These  French  semaphon 
as  they  were  sometimes  called.  '«.  consisted  of 

upright  posts  with  two  or  three  mo\ cable  arms,  turning 
upon  separate  pivots,  one  above  the  other.  Before  they 
were  much  known  in  this  country.  Captain  now  Major- 
General .  Hasley  hsul  been  led  to  observe  the  inferiority  of 
the.  common  land-telegraph  to  that  used  sit  sea,  which  con- 
sisted of  coloured  flsigs.  and  by  which  three  numb' 
rather  three  numerals  combined  to  form  one  number, 
might  he  readily  expressed.  To  remedy  this  defec. 

in  1807  (before  ha  [,.,,1  M.,.n  u,(.  Prencn  aemaj 

vi-ed  what  he  termed  a  •  |MI|\  grammatic  telegraph.'  of 
which  he  published  ade»cnption  ml  he  twenty-ninth  volume 
of  Tilloch's  •Philosophical  Maga/ine.'  This  machine, 
which  is  represented  in  l'ii;  5,  consist ed  ol  I» 

Fig.  5. 


:—  1 

2 

A 

y  4 

\ 

.-] 

\    ' 

\ 

TEL 

the  top  of  each  of  which  was  pivoted  a  pair  of  arms.  Each 
pair  of  arras  was  capable,  by  assuming  the  various  posi- 
tions indicated  by  the  dotted  lines  added  to  the  first  pair, 
of  forming  more  than  a  sufficient  variety  of  distinct  sig- 
nals to  express  any  of  the  numerals  or  the  0 ;  and  con- 
sequently the  whole  machine  could  represent  any  num- 
ber composed  of  not  more  than  four  figures,  besides 
having  several  signals  to  spare.  In  1809  Captain  Pasley 
saw  the  French  semaphore,  which  he  described  in  the 
following  year,  together  with  a  modification  of  his  own 
polygrammatic  telegraph,  founded  upon  it,  in  the  thirty- 
firth  volume  of  the  periodical  just  mentioned.  This  sim- 
plified polygrammatic  telegraph,  represented  in  Fig.  6, 

Fig.  6. 


X 
N 


lias  three  pairs  of  arms,  representing  hundreds,  tens, 
and  unit*,  pivoted  to  different  parts  of  the  same  ver- 
tical post.  This  contrivance  is  adopted  by  Lieutcuant- 
( 'olonel  Macdonald,  with  very  trifling  \ariation,  in  liis 
'  Treatise  explanatory  of  a  new  System  of  Naval,  Military, 
and  Political  Telegraphic  Communication,'  published  in 
Inly.  By  the  addition  of  a  ball  and  vane  at  the  top  of 
the  mast,  it  becomes  a  machine  of  the  same  power  as 
Maedonald's  thiiteen-shutter  telegraph;  as  each  pair  of 
anus  is  capable  of  assuming  fifteen  distinct  positions.  An- 
other semaphore  on  the  same  principle  was  submitted  to 
the  Society  of  Arts  in  1821,  by  Lieutenant  N.  H.  Nicolas, 
anil  dcscnbed.  together  with  a  method  of  applying  a 
shirting  key  to  telegraphic  communications,  for  the  pur- 
pose  of  insuring  their  secrecy,  in  the  thirty-ninth  volume  of 
the  Society's  •  Transactions  ;'  where,  although  allusion  is 
made,  in  a  note,  to  the  similar  plan  published  by  Colonel 
Mucdonald,  nothing  is  said  of  the  earlier  invention  of 
Pa-Icy.  The  telegraph  of  Lieutenant  Nicolas  consists  of 
a  lolly  pole  with  four  pairs  of  arms,  one  above  another, 
the  lowest  pair  representing  units.  For  each  of  the  three 
hmei-  pairs  til'  arms  nine  positions  are  all  that  are  required, 
t)  licnig  indicated  by  both  arms  being  closed  into  the  post, 
and  therefore  concealed  from  sight  ;  bat  the  upper  pair 
are  iiiiiiie  to  represent  any  number  from  1  to  15,  so  that 
the  total  range  of  the  machine  is  from  1  to  15,999.*  This 
i^  cUcctcd  by  making  the  right  arm  represent  1,  2,  or  3, 
•  iing  to  its  portion  as  inclined  upwards,  extended  hori- 
/iintally,  or  inclined  downwards;  and  assigning  to  the  letl 
arm  the  number  4  if  inclined  downwards,  or  H  if  extended 
horizontally.  5,  (},  7,  and  !)  art-  formed,  respectively,  by  the 
combination  of  the  signs  for  4  and  1,  4  and  2,  1  and  3,  and 
H  and  1  :  and,  in  the  case  of  the  pair  of  arms  which  re- 
nt, thousands,  the  left  arm  when  inclined  upwards 
indicates  12:  ami  lo,  11,  l:{,  1  I,  and  15  are  produced  by 
H  ami  2,  8  and  :i,  12  and  1,  12  and  2,  and  12  and  3,  re- 
ively.  The  telegraphs  upon  the  commercial  line  of 
iinnication  recently  established  between  London  and 
the  Downs  are  constructed  upon  another  modification  of 
the  polygrammatic  principle  ;  four  pairs  of  arms  being  em- 
ployed, but  mounted  upon  two  posts  instead  of  one,  as  in 
the  semaphore  last  described,  or  four,  as  in  the  original 
dr-ign  of  Captain  Pasley. 

In  IslG  it.  was  determined  to  change  the  Admiralty  tele- 
graphs int  i  M-rnaphores  constructed  on  the  principle  of 
i  in  France,  with  the  improvements  suggested 
by  Sir  Home  Popham,  who  had  previously  done  much  for 
the  improvement  of  naval  signals.  The  action  of  Pop- 
ham's  semaphore  is  explained  by  Fig.  7,  in  which  dotted 

•K.i  imuro  number  stit^'lin  the  description  of  tin-  m.vhlii'1; 

liMt:l  .t    for  15,999,  u  no  means  is  fleacrilf't   t<"   i>r  > 

in'  uuwwr  !>',  tlUiuii^li  it  u  ewy  to  conceive  bow  U  might  be  dune, 
U  uewtar/. 


TEL 

lines  are  added  to  show  the  various  positions  in  which  the 
arms  may  be  placed,  and  numerals  to  show  the  numbers 
indicated  by  those  positions.  Only  two  arms  are  em- 
ployed ;  but  as  they  are  mounted  upon  separate  pivots, 

Fig- 7- 


-:  4 


each  of  them  can  assume  six  different  positions,  and  the 
two  together  are  capable  of  affording  forty-eight  signals  ; 
which  number,  though  less  than  that  given  by  the  six- 
shutter  telegraph,  is  sufficient  to  express  the  letters  of  the 
i  alphabet  and  the  Arabic  numerals,  and  to  leave  thirteen 
signals  unappropriated,  for  abbreviations  and  arbitrary 
signs.  This  kind  of  semaphore  is  still  used  at  the  govern- 
ment stations  ;  and  for  the  following  table  of  its  various 
changes  or  positions,  and  of  the  letters  and  numbers  in- 
dicated by  them,  we  are  indebted  to  the  article  '  Tele- 
graph,' in  the  seventh  edition  of  the  '  Encyclopaedia  Bri- 
tannica,'  by  Sir  John  Barrow,  one  of  the  secretaries  to  the 
Admiralty. 

Tallin  of  the  separate  or  distinct  Signals  given  by  the 
Admiralty  Telegraph,  irith  their  respective  Significa- 
tion*. 


Siffll:* 

one  an<l  two 
arm*. 

Significa- 
tion. 

Signal  a  by 
two  arms. 

siKninca- 

tiull. 

Signals  by 

I\M>  arm*. 

si-nilir  i- 

tion. 

i 

i 

15 

G 

43 

X 

2 

2 

16 

H 

44 

Y 

3 

3 

21 

I 

45 

Z 

4 

4 

22 

K 

40 

5 

5 

23 

L 

51 

G 

G 

24 

M 

52 

1 

A 

25 

N 

53 

2 

B 

26 

0 

5i 

3 

C 

31 

P 

55 

4 

D 

32 

Q 

50 

5 

E 

33 

H 

01 

G 

F 

34 

S 

02 

11 

7 

35 

T 

C3 

12 

8 

36 

U 

04 

13 

8 

41 

V 

G5 

14 

0 

42 

w 

GG 

SirHomePopham's  telegraph,  in  addition  to  its  superiority 
in  the  important  quality  of  simplicity,  was  a  great  improve- 
ment upon  those  which  preceded  it  in  the  details  of  me- 
chanical construction  and  in  the  mode  of  effecting  the  re- 
quired movements.  These  are  minutely  detailed  and  illus- 
trated with  engravings,  in  the  thirty-fourth  volume  of  the 
'  Transactions'  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  in  whose  museum  a 
model  of  the  telegraph  is  deposited.  The  vertical  post  or 
beam  is  not  a  solid  mass  of  timber,  but  a  hollow  hexagonal 
mast,  which,  turning  on  a  pivot  at  its  foot,  and  in  a  collar 
where  it  passes  through  the  roof  of  the  cabin  used  as  an 
observatory,  may  be  moved  so  as  to  display  its  signals  in  any 
direction.  The  moveable  arms  are  provided  with  balance- 
weights  in  the  form  of  masses  of  metal  attached  to  their 
shorter  ends,  very  near  to  the  pivots  upon  which  they 
turn,  by  which  means  they  are  enabled  to  move  in  any 
direction  with  the  exertion  of  a  very  small  force  ;  and  they 


TEL 


150 


1    1    I. 


tre  made,  when  out  of  use,  to  lull  into  grooves  or  recesses 
in  the  post,  KO  as  to  become  wholly  i  The  nun  <•- 

menU  are  effected  by  means  of  two  winch-handles  m-i»r 
the  base  of  the  ma*t,  within  the  cabin,  one  for  riu  li  ami. 
The  winch-handles  turn  two  small  vertical  bevil-wheels, 
which  communicate  motion  by  means  of  two  horizontal 
bevil-wheels  to  long  upright  shafts  or  rods,  which  pass  up 
the  inside  of  the  hollow  post  of  the  telegraph.  At  the 
upper  ends  of  these  rods,  which  are  held  steady  by  suitable 
bearings,  are  endless  screw*,  which  work  into  toothed 
wheels  fixed  upon  the  axes  of  the  arms,  and  thereby  com- 
municate motion  to  them.  In  order  that  the  person  who 
works  the  machine  may  know  pi  cci.-eh  w  hen  the  arms  are 
brought  to  the  required  positions.  (-imilar  endless  • 
are  added  near  the  lower  eiuls  of  the  vertical  rods,  to  give 
motion  by  toothed  wheels  to  indexes,  which  give  a 
miniature  representation  of  the  motion  of  the  arms.  Ex- 
cepting 1he-c  indexes  and  the  winch-handles,  the  whole 
apparatus  is  enclosed  in  the  vertical  shall  of  the  telegraph, 
on  the  outside  of  which  small  blocks  may  be  added,  to 
enable  a  person,  with  the  assistance  of  a  rope  from  the  top 
of  the  post,  to  ascend  the  machine  for  the  purpose  of  clean- 
ing and  oiling  it. 

About  the  same  time  Sir  Home  Popham  proposed  a 
modification  of  the  semaphore  for  marine  purposes,  which, 
ne  conceived,  would  be  found  very  advantageous  for  the 
merchant-service,  by  superseding  the  necessity  fora  costly 
set  of  signal-flans  :  the  expense  and  wear  and  tear  of 
which  formed  a  serious  objection  to  a  system  of  .g. 

graphic  communication  at  sea.  excepting  in  the  ships 
of  the  East  India  Company.  His  proposed  sea-telegraph 
would  not,  it  is  stated,  cost  more  than  fifty  shillings  at 
(list,  and  it.--  wear  and  tear  would  not  amount  to  live  shil- 
lings a  year.  As  the  height  of  an  apparatus  resembling 
his  land-semaphore  would  he  objectionable  for  marine 
purposes,  Popham  proposed  to  n.-c  two  posts  twel  . 
two  inches  high  and  six  inches  thick,  each  having  a  single 
arm  si\  feet  four  inches  long  and  ten  inches  broad,  p 
to  the  top,  but  not  falling  into  a  slot  in  the  post.  as  in  the 
last-described  machine.  In  a  small  slot  at  the  top  of  earli 
post  is  a  grooved  pulley  or  sheave  fixed  upon  the  same 
axis  as  the  arm  ;  and  at  a  convenient  height  from  the 
bottom  of  each  post  another  precisely  similar  pulley  is 
mounted  in  like  way,  its  axis  passing  through  the  post, 
and  carrying  a  small  wheel  with  four  handles  at  right 
angles  with  each  other,  by  which  the  machine  is  worked  : 
the  motion  of  the  lower  pulley  being  communicated  to  the 
upper  one,  andx  consequently  to  the  aim,  by  an  endless 
rope,  which  has  two  or  three  turns  round  each  of  the 
sheaves,  and  passes  up  by  the  sides  of  the  post.  When  the 
telegraph  is  in  use,  the  posts  may  be  attached  to  the  side 
of  tne  vessel  by  stepping  their  lower  ends  into  blocks 
fixed  for  the  purpose,  and  lashing  them  to  the  bulwarks  ; 
or  they  may  be  mounted  upon  trucks,  so  as  to  be  readily 
moved  from  one  pail  of  the  ship  to  another.  The  descrip- 
tion of  this  machine  in  Sir  Home  Popham's  communica- 
tion to  the  Society  of  Arts  mentions  but  four  positions 
for  each  arm,  and  states  that  when  placed  in  the  four 
positions  diagonally  to  the  post,  one  arm  denotes  1,  2,  3, 
and  4,  and  the  other  5,  G,  7,  and  8.  This  arrangement 
gives  twenty-four  distinct  signals,  and  avoids  the  pos- 
sibility of  mistaking  the  horizontal  for  an  inclined  position 
of  either  arm,  of  which  there  might,  owing  to  the  motion 
of  the  ship,  be  some  risk. 

May  I'li-ley.  in  a  pamphlet  published  in  1823, 

entitled  •  Di-sciiptioo  of  the  1'niversal  Telegraph  for  Day 
and  Night  Signals,'  states  that,  although  bent  one  time 
consideied  I'opham's  arrangement*  to  be  judicious,  he 
now  deems  the  use  of  two  separate  pivots  in  the  land- 
semaphore,  and  of  two  posts  in  that  tor  marine  use.  unne- 
cessary ;  and  that,  conceiving  simplicity  to  be  of  more 
consequence  than  the  power  of  making  many  chan- 
distinct  signals,  he  has  abandoned  the  polygrammatic 
principle,  and  adopted  the  simple  form  shown  in  the  next 
cut,  I'  i  a.  K.  which  represents  wliat  he  st\  les  the  '  universal 
telegraph,'  as  adapted  tor  day-service.  It  consists  of  an 
upright  post  with  two  aims,  both  attached  to  one  pivot  at 


its  uppe 
•even  p 

the  tl 
by  the 


Knch  arm  is  capable  of  assuming  the 

icated  in  the  cut.  besides  what  i- 

•  d  down  m. 
iiiy-eight  distinct  signals  inn 
ppparntus,  as  shown  in  the  suhjoiiud 


table  ;  these-  being  more  than  sufficient  for  the  letters  of 


Kg.  8. 


the  alphabet,  though  not  numerous  enough  to  allow  of  a 
full  alphabet  and  the  numeral  characters. 

Tu/ilc  of  the  separate  or  distinct  ,s>  «•«<;/*•  pi  mi  Inj  1'ntley't 
Universal 


C 

7 

12 

13 

14 


15 

16 
17 
2.! 
24 


25 

2(  i 
27 
34 


3C 
37 
45 
46 
47 


50 
57 
07 


It  had  been  found,  in  using  Sir  Home  Poplxim's  ship- 
semaphores,   that    inconvenience    and    uncertainty    was 
occasioned  by  the  signals  being  sometimes  seen  in  i. 
in  which  case  one  number  or  sign  would  be  confounded 
with  another;    and  this  circumstance  having  been  men- 
tioned  to   Pasley  by  an   officer  in   the  navy,   he  pro 
against   its  occurrence  with  his  universal  tclegiaph  by  tin- 
addition  of  the  auxiliary  arm.  or  indica'- 
the  cut.   which,  in  whatever  direction  the  machine 
be  viewed,  distinguishes  the  side  at   which  the   nu- 
signs  commence.     It  serves  also  to  prevent  the   p.- 
marked  4  from  being  confounded  with  the  stop,  which  it 
might  be  if  there  were  nothing  to  indicate  that  the  tcle- 
giaph is  nt  work,  and  to  enable  the  eye  to  n. 

it.     The   amis   and    indicator  of  this  telegraph    nre 
iiamed  and  pannclled.  for  the  sake  of  lightness,  and  the 
former  move  respectively  before  and  behind  tlu 
indicator  only  turning  up.  by  means  of  a  rope  from  I 
into  a  cavity  in  the  shall,  like  the  arms  of  I'opbam's  sema- 
phore.    The  counterbalance  weights  of  the  arms  ai- 
tixed  close  to  the  pivot,  but  extend  to  some  distance  from 
it.  in  the  form  of  a  slender  framework  of  iron,  with  : 
at   the  outer  extremity,  their   light   nppeniance  rein: 
them  almost   invisible  at.  a  distance.      The   in 
effected   by  an  endless  chain  or  rope,  with  a  conti:- 
for  keeping  it    at   the  necessary  degree  of  ten-ion,   as  this 
plan  is  quicker  in  action  than  that  of  Popham  ;  but  I1 
observes  that  if,  ns  in  a  ship-telegraph,  a  i 
used  instead  of  n  chain,   the  index   attached   t. 
pulley  must  not   be  implicitly  depended   ppon.     In  : 
.sequent    part  of  his  pamphlet    he  states   that,   in  \M 
with  n  rope,   it  i-  best  to  have  the  pulley-groov . 
angular  form,  or  with  notches  of  the  same  form,  cut  into 
projecting  cleats   fixed    to  their  circumference,   in  which 
case  the  turns  of  the  rope  round   the  pullcvs  may  be  dis- 
pensed with.     A  friend  who  was  well  acquainted  with  the 
-  of  the  climate  of  India,  recommended  to  him  that 
no  iron  should  be  used  in  semaphores  to  be  exposed 
and   no   wood,   excepting   tor  the   post,   which    maj   i 

lie  additional  parts  required  to  con v  < -it  the 
machine  into  n  night-telegraph,   for  which  l.amhoo  niny 
be  used.     The-  pannels  of  the  arms  should,  in  such  ,-i 
be  made  of  thiii  sheet-copper,  and  the  other  parts  of  the 
machine  of  brass  or  bronze.     Pasley  stato  that 
should   in   general  be  painted  black,  and.   if  ] 

!   that   they  may  be    seen  without   any  bnckgiotind. 
It  however  a  background  be  unavoidable,  the   i.l.jinph 
should  be  of  such  a  colour  as  to  contrast  with  it.    In 
where    the    ap;  -Aground   v 

much   nt  different    periods  of  the   day.  it    i 

In   paint    the  arms   white  and  black,  in   ! 
each  occupying  half  of  the  width  nnd  half  of  the 
length  of  the  mm. 

The  ingenious  contrivances  which 

for  effecting  telegraphic  communication  are  so  veiy  nu- 
merous, that  anything  like  an  enumeration  of  them  is 


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151 


TEL 


impossible  in  this  place.  Several  depend  upon  the  appli- 
cation of  arms  of  various  forms  to  a  semaphoric  telegraph. 
A  two-armed  telegraph,  of  which  the  two  arms  are  diffe- 
rently shaped,  would  be  capable  of  making  twice  as  many 
signals  as  a  two-armed  telegraph  with  both  arms  of  the 
same  form ;  but,  for  ordinary  purposes,  such  an  arrange- 
ment would  have  many.disadvantages.  A  machine  of  this 
character,  contrived  by  Mr.  Alexander  Law,  for  both  land 
and  sea  service,  is  described  in  the  thirty-third  volume  of 
the  'Transactions'  of  the  Society  of  Arts.  Another  class 
of  telegraphic  contrivances  depend  upon  the  exhibition  of 
devices  or  symbols,  in  a  manner  somewhat  resembling  the 
original  contrivance  of  Dr.  Hooke.  Of  this  sort  JSIac- 
donald  describes  one  under  the  name  of  the  'symbolic 
telegraph,'  in  which  symbols  resembling  those  of  Hooke, 
but  representing  numerals  instead  of  alphabetic  characters, 
are  dropped  from  three  boxes  or  screens  into  as  many 
open  spaces,  which  have  the  values  of  hundreds,  tens,  and 
units  respectively.  An  auxiliary  shutter,  a  ball,  and  a 
vane  or  flag,  as  in  his  shutter-telegraph,  serve  to  increase 
the  powers  of  the  machine  at  pleasure.  Another  contri- 
vance, which,  like  the  last  mentioned,  is  well  adapted  for 
a  portable  telegraph  for  use  in  moderate  distances,  was 
invented  about  the  year  1817  by  Mr.  C'onolly,  and  de- 
M'ribed  by  him  in  a  pamphlet  published  in  that  year,  in 
Knglish  and  French,  entitled  '  An  Essay  on  universal 
Telegraphic  Communication,"  and  also  in  the  thirty-sixth 
volume  of  the  'Transactions'  of  the  Society  of  Arts.  Co- 
nolly's  '  Portable  Telegraph'  consists  simply  of  three  square 
boards  painted  with  simple  devices  in  black  and  white,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  9,  the  colours  on  one  side  being  the  reverse 
of  those  upon  the  other.  The  six  figures  in  the  upper  row 

Fig.  9. 


are  thus  produced  upon  three  boards,  and  each  of  these 
.-ix  figures  is  capable  of  producing  four  different  signals, 
by  turning  each  side  of  the  board  downwards  in  succession, 
as  shown  in  the  four  devices  at  the  lower  part  of  the  cut. 
Thus  the  three  boards  afford  twenty-four  distinct  signals, 
which  are  sufficient  for  alphabetic  communication  ;  and  one 
only  is  sufficient  for  making  numerical  communications, 
with  the  assistance  of  a  smaller  paddle-shaped  board,  the 
two  sides  of  which,  when  it  is  used  separately,  denote  affir- 
mation or  negation.  In  experiments  made  at  Chatham, 
boards  but  eighteen  inches  square  were  found  sufficient 
for  a  distance  of  two  miles,  with  a  telescope  with  a  magni- 
fying power  of  twenty-five  ;  and  Mr.  Conolly  had  also,  it 
is  stated,  exhibited  these  signals  between  Gros-nez  and 
Sarque,  a  distance  of  seventeen  miles,  with  boards  twelve 
feet  square.  The  day-telegraph  of  the  Rev.  James  Brem- 
ner,  alluded  to  in  a  previous  column,  consists  of  a  frame- 
work with  two  circular  openings,  in  each  of  which  a  semi- 
rircular  screen  or  shutter  revolving  upon  an  axis  in  the 
centre  of  the  circle,  in  capable  of  assuming  four  different 
positions.  This  machine  expresses  an  alphabet  of  sixteen 
letters,  by  dividing  the  letters  into  four  classes  or  sets  of 
four  each,  and  making  one  shutter  express  the  class,  and 
tin- other  the  number  of  the  letter  in  that  class.  Major 

U's  Le  Hardy  communicated  to  the  Society  of  Arts,  in 
WW,  a  telegraphic  scheme  of  very  different  character  to 

that  have  been  proposed.     His  telegraph  consists  of 

H  large  frame-work  with  nine  radiating  liars,  representing 

the  numeials  from  1  to  9,  and  four  sets  of  other  bars  in- 

ting  them  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  four  con- 

i<-  poly  irons  (the  whole  apparatus  having  somewhat 
the  ii  of  a  spider's  web),  which  polygons  express 

'  •(  ively  units,  tens,  hundreds,  and  thousands ;  thousands 
tieing  shown  by  the  innermost  polygon.  Attached  to  the 
centre  (if  the  machine  by  pivots  are  four  slender  arms,  car- 
rying as  many  square  boards  of  sufficient  size  to  be  visible 
?t  a  distance  ;  the  respective  lengths  of  these  arms  being 
that  the  board  of  one  may,  during  the  revolution  of 
the  arm,  traverse  the  polygon  which  represents  thousand*, 
that  of  another  the  hundreds  polygon,  &o.  The  action  of 


the  apparatus  is  as  follows:— If  it  be  desired  to  express  the 
number  9202,  the  shortest  arm  is  placed  in  such  a  position 
that  its  board  may  rest  upon  the  radius  9,  at  the  point 
where  it  is  intersected  by  the  thousands  or  innermost 
polygon  ;  the  next  arm  is  turned  to  the  radius  2,  its  board 
covering  the  point  of  intersection  between  it  and  the 
second,  or  hundreds  polygon  ;  the  third  arm  and  board  is 
not  called  into  action  at  all ;  and  the  fourth  is,  like  the 
second,  turned  to  the  radius  2,  the  board  covering  the  in- 
tersection between  it  and  the  outermost  or  units  polygon. 
Thus  far  therefore  the  machine  can  express  any  number 
from  1  to  9999  ;  but  its  power  is  increased  by  the  addition 
of  two  other  boards  at  the  upper  corners,  one  of  which 
denotes  10,000,  and  the  other  20,000,  or,  when  displayed 
together,  30,000 ;  so  that  the  total  range  of  the  telegraph 
is  from  1  to  39,999. 

Several  modes  of  telegraphic  communication  without 
machinery,  or  with  nothing  which  cannot  be  conveniently 
carried  by  hand,  have  been  devised,  especially  for  the 
purpose  of  directing  military  operations,  or  of  conveying 
speedy  intelligence  in  time  of  war,  where  no  line  of  ordi- 
nary telegraphs  can  be  established.  In  1808  such  a  plan, 
under  the  name  of  an  '  anthropo-telegraph,'  was  laid 
before  the  Society  of  Arts  by  Mr.  Knight  Spencer,  whose 
communication  was  printed  in  the  twenty-seventh  volume 
of  their  '  Transactions.'  Mr.  Spencer  had  observed,  in  the 
volunteer  service,  the  inconvenience  and  loss  of  time  occa- 
sioned in  passing  the  orders  of  the  commander-in-chief  to 
the  officers  commanding  distant  divisions,  when  a  great 
number  of  men  were  manoeuvred  together,  and  this  led 
him  to  devise  the  plan  alluded  to,  which  he  put  in  practice 
for  the  first  time  in  1805.  His  apparatus  consisted  simply 
of  two  circular  discs  of  wicker-work,  about  eighteen  inches 
in  diameter,  with  handles  six  inches  long,  painted  white,  with 
a  black  circle  or  ball  in  the  centre.  As  these  did  not  weigh 
more  than  about  a  pound  each,  a  man  could  easily  hold 
them,  one  in  each  hand,  in  any  required  position.  Stand- 
ing in  the  position  of  the  first  figure  in  the  subjoined 
cut,  Fig.  10,  with  both  discs  held  down  and  turned  edge- 
wise to  the  observer,  the  telegrapher  indicated  '  attention' ; 
in  the  second  position,  he  expressed  a  desire  to  convey  in- 
telligence to  the  correspondent  at  a  distance;  turning 

Kg.  10. 


one-quarter  round  again,  and  displaying  one  disk  as  shown 
by  the  third  figure,  he  expressed  the  number  1 ;  in  the 
next  position,  2;  in  the  fifth,  3;  4,  5,  and  6  were  expressed 
by  positions  the  reverse  of  1,  2,  and  3;  the  right-hand  disk 
being  held  edgewise,  and  the  other  displayed ;  7  was 
shown  by  displaying  both  discs  in  the  lowest  position  ; 
8,  as  shown  by  the  last  figure  in  the  cut,  by  both  held  out 
at  arm's  length  ;  and  9,  by  both  elevated  ;  0  was  given  by 
holding  both  discs  above  the  head,  one  behind  the  other, 
so  as  to  appear  but  one  ;  and  the  signal  of  '  point '  or 
'  period,'  used  at  the  close  of  every  number,  by  placing 
the  right  hand  disc  in  front  of  the  breast,  and  the  other 
behind  the  back,  so  that,  like  all  the  other  signals,  it  might 
be  seen  both  in  front  and  rear.  Another  position,  formed 
by  displaying  the  right  hand  disc  in  the  position  1  and  the 
left  hand  disc  in  the  position  6,  formed  a  signal  of  '  error,' 
to  be  used  in  case  of  any  mistake  which  might  require  the 
repetition  of  a  signal.  By  this  simple  arrangement  any 


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152 


TEL 


number  might  be  readily  expressed ;  and  consequently  it 
illicit  lx-  applied  to  any  numerical  dictionary  wha' 
Signals  might  alto  be  made  at  night,  by  attaching  n  i'u  .  - 
tor-lamps  to  the  disc*,  in  such  a  manner  that  they  might 
hang  vertically  in  every  position  of  the  discs,  and  strapping 
anotlier  lamp,  glazed  with  preen  glass,  upon  the  breast  of 
the  telegrapher.  If  intermediate  Nations  be  required,  there 
must  also  be  lamps  upon  the  back  of  the  man  and  of  the 
dues.  The  difference  of  colour  between  the  lamps  upon 
the  body  of  the  telegrapher  and  those  attached  to  the  discs 
U  essential  to  the  distinct  perception  of  some  of  the  signals; 
and  the  difference  between  'attention'  and  'point'  or 
•period,"  in  nocturnal  telegraphing,  depends  solely  upon 
it.  A  letter  from  Admiral  Hunter  accompanies  the  descrip- 
tion ;  in  which,  after  expressing  a  very  favourable  opinion 
of  the  plan,  he  recommends  enlarging  the  discs  to  two  feet 
diameter,  and  painting  one  side  as  above  described,  and 
the  other  with  a  white  centre  and  black  rim,  so  that  either 
might  be  used,  according  to  the  state  of  the  weather. 

In  the  volume  from  which  the  above  details  are  taken, 
there  is  also  an  account  of  a  yet  simpler  contrivance,  in- 
vented by  Lieutenant  Sprat t,  for  telegraphing  by  means  of 
a  white  handkerchief,  held  in  various  positions  to  express 
the  numeral  characters  and  a  few  other  convenient  signs. 
The  inventor  employed  this  mode  of  communication  some 
time  before  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,  as  a  means  of  carrying 
on  conversation  with  a  distant  vessel ;  and  he  had  used  it 
successfully  to  converse  between  Spithead  and  the  green 
ramparts  at  Portsmouth,  Sec.  \Yilh  a  common  telescope 
it  may  be  used  at  a  distance  of  four  miles.  Macdonald 
describes  some  more  complicated  contrivances  of  similar 
character,  by  the  display  of  small  flags,  or  of  two  white 
handkerchiefs  and  a  black  hat  ;  by  the  latter  of  which  plans 
between  lifty  and  sixty  distinct  sitrnals  may  be  made.  He 
also  shows  how  signals  may  be  made  to  any  required  extent 
by  men  changing  their  positions  from  sitting  to  standing, 
Sec.  Twelve  men,  arranged  in  three  sets  of  four  men  each, 
may  in  this  way  be  used  instead  of  his  large  shutter-tele- 
graph. 

Some  of  the  earliest  methods  of  telegraphic  communica- 
tion which  have  been  noticed  above  were  essentially 
adapted  for  nocturnal  use;  but  in  modern  times  the  use 
of  night -signals  has  not  been  extensively  required,  although 
provision  might  have  been  made  for  their  exhibition  in  con- 
nection with  many  day-telegraphs.  Thus,  for  instance,  it  was 
proposed  to  add  lamps  to  the  moveable  parts  of  C'happe's 
telegraph  ;  and  Edelcrantz  suggested  the  application  of 
lamps  to  his  ten-shutter  machine.  In  Davis's  seven-shut- 
ter telegraph,  previously  described  as  applied  to  day-ser- 
vice, night-signals  were  to  be  given  by  a  coloured  lamp 
mounted  in  the  centre  of  the  seventh  or  sliding  shutter, 
and  six  white  lights  attached  to  the  outside  of  the  frame, 
to  produce,  by  their  display  or  concealment  by  slides,  the 
same  signals  as,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  are  given 
by  the  opening  and  closing  of  the  shutters.  These  -idc- 
lamps  were  to  be  secured  to  upright  pieces  of  wood,  slid- 
ing up  and  down  in  dovetailed  groo\  cs  in  the  outside  of 
the  frame-work,  so  that  they  might  be  readily  withdrawn 
when  not  in  use.  Provision  is  made  for  the  adaptation  of 
Pasley's  universal  telegraph  to  nocturnal  communication 
by  adding  a  central  light  at  the  top  of  the  post,  a  lamp  to 
the  extremity  of  each  arm,  and  an  additional  light  as  an 
indicator,  suspended  from  a  light  derrick  or  crane  project- 
ing horizontally  beyond  the  range  of  the  arms,  and  on  a 
level  with  the  top  of  the  post.  This,  the  lamps  themselves, 
and  'the  additional  counterweights  required  with  them, 
should  all  be  removed  during  the  day.  How  little  neces- 
sity there  is,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  for  the  use  of 
telegraphs  by  night,  at  any  rate  in  connection  with  the 
navy,  may  be  assumed  from  the  statement  of  Sir  John 
Barrow,  that  no  attempt  was  ever  made  to  add  lamps  to 
the  six-shutter  telegraphs  formerly  used  by  the  Admiralty, 
notwithstanding  the  ease  with  which  it  might  hav 
done.  The  semaphores  now  used  by  the  Admiralty  are 
also  constructed  without  any  provision  lor  the  display  of 
night-signals.  Macdon.ild's  treatise  (1817)  contains  several 
schemes  lor  night-telegraphs,  both  for  land  and  sea  :  one 
of  which,  consisting  of  three  sets  of  four  lights  each,  with 
an  additional  or  director  light  to  each  set,  has  the  same 
extensive  powers  as  hi-,  favourite  large  shutter-telegraph. 

Marine  telegraphic  communication  is  an  object  of  even 
greater  importance  than  that  winch  has  been  principally 
treated  of  in  this  article,  since  there  are  many  circum- 


stances which  render  personal  commvmic.il ion   between 
vessels  at  sea  impracticable,  and  that  sometimes  in  en 
the  greatest  emergency.    But,  although  n::  •  have 

been,  of  necessity,  long  used,  and  flags  of  various  hums 
and  colours  have  bt-i  .uployed  for  the  pur- 

pose of  making  them,  it  was  not  till  within  a  compam- 
recent  period  that  they  were  reduced  to  anything 
like  an  efficient  telegraphic  system.  Sir  John  B; 
states  (Kuril.  Hrtt.,  ait.  -Navy'i  that  -The  idea  of  num- 
bering the  flags,  and  of  assigning  a  certain  number  of  cor- 
responding sentences  to  certain  combinations 
numbers,  was  reduced  to  something  approaching  a  regular 
system  in  the  fleet  of  Lord  Howe  ;'  and  that  in  th- 
1798  a  new  signal-book  was  issued  by  the  Admiralty,  the 
references  to  which  were  made  by  a  numerical  anange- 
ment  of  flags.  This  book  contained  about  four  hundred 
sentences,  expressive  of  the  most  usual  operations  of  the 
fleet  :  but  it  was  so  imperfect  that,  if  any  order  had  to  be 
transmitted  which  was  not  to  be  found  in  the  dictionary,  it 
became  necessary  to  make  the  signal  for  'a  boat  from 
each  ship;'  an  order  which  could  not  alsvavs  be  complied 
with.  This  inconvenience  was  remedied  by  the  plan,  sug- 
gested by  Sir  Home  Popham,  of  making  the  flag-signals 
represent  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  a>  well  as  words  and 
sentences,  in  connection  with  numbers.  This  individual 
also  printed,  at  Calcutta,  a  new  code  of  naval  signals,  which 
was  subsequently  reprinted  in  England,  greatly  extended, 
and  adopted  for  use  in  the  navy.  Among  the  nuin< 
improvements  introduced  by  him  is  a  new  method  of  cut- 
ting the  signal  flags,  so  that,  as  he  explained  to  the  Society 
of  Arts  in  1816,  'the  selvages  of  the  buntin  are  brought 
on  the  outer  edges  of  the  flags,  and  the  gorings  in  tin- 
centre ;  by  which  means  the  outer  <  ceptible  of 
the  least  air  of  wind,  and  when  the  flag  blow-  out.  the 
gorings  assist  in  keeping  it  out ;  whereas  the  old  flags  had 
a  hem  on  the  outside,  which  rendered  them  difficult  to  I c 
moved  without  a  fresh  breeze,  especially  in  damp  and 
rainy  weather,  as  the  hem  then  became  very  h 
•  Besides,'  he  adds,  '  it  is  impossible,  from  the  nature  of  the 
buntin,  to  sew  a  straight  seam,  for  the  instant  it  is  cut  it 
will  become  in  some  degree  curved.'  (Truiistictimii,  vl. 
xxxiv..  ]>.  174.)  The  only  objection  urged  by  Barrow  to 
the  code  of  naval  signals  now  in  use  is  one  which  i- 
applicable,  more  or  less,  to  all  that  have  been  subsequently 
proposed,  namely,  the  great  number  of  flags,  Jcc..  required 
for  making  numerical  signals  to  the  extent  laid  (town  ; 
which,  in  the  code  in  question,  amount  to  nine  flag-.  Use 
cornettes,  five  triangles,  and  five  pendants.  With  such  a 
number,  he  states,  it  is  next  to  impossible,  in  calm  weather, 
to  make  out  the  figure,  and  colour  of  the  flags  ;  and  equally 
so  when,  though  expanded  by  the  wind,  the  situation  of 
the  observer  causes  them  to  present  only  an  edge  towards 
the  eye.  He  conceives  that  Poaham's  sea-telegraph,  be- 
fore described,  is  capable  of  entirely  removing  this  diffi- 
culty :  and  that  possibly  Pasley's  universal  telegraph  might 
be  applied  in  like  way  with  ad'vantagc. 

The  principle  of  the  numerical  system  as  applied  to 
flag-telegraphs  in  the  nasy  i-  briefly  explained  by  Mae- 
donald.  .Nine  different,  variegated  flag- air  employed  to 
express  the  numerals  1  to  !l,  another  for  0,  and  another, 
called  a  sulmtittili;  to  repeat  am  Hag  under  which  il  is 
hoisted,  in  case  of  the  same  numeral  occurring  twice  m 
the  number  to  be  expressed.  A  pendant  is  also  used  in 
some  cases  as  a  substitute  for  the  uppermost  figure ;  and 
thus,  by  the  use  of  eleven  different  flags  and  a  pendant, 
any  number  from  1  to  !)S)!(  may  be  expressed  without  di  — 
playing  more  than  three  flags,  or  two  flags  and  a  pendant, 
at  once.  In  a  telegraphic  -y-lcm  desised  by  Mr.  ( 'onolh , 
and  fully  explained  in  the  •  Transactions  '  of  the  Society 
of  Arts  ior  1817 (vol. xxxv., pp. 205-208  ,ft  plied 

to  express  numbers  in  a  different  manner  to  tin-  above. 
The  basis  of  the  system  is  an  alphabetical  list  of  the  most 
necessary  English  words,  arranged  in  a  tabular  form  like 
the  figures  in  the  common  multiplication  table  :  the 
column- and  horizontal  lines  being  numbered.  Then 
ninety-nine  of  each:  and  consequently  the  numb' 
squares  or  divisions  is  !)sol.  The  number  of  words  is  how- 
ever great e,  in  some  cases.  «  here  no  ambiguity 
is  likely  to  be  I  by  it.  the  radical  word  and 
several  of  Jta  modifications  arc  placed  in  a  I  ire  or 
disi.-ion  of  the  table.  The  sign:i  jiiare 
T  the  mum-nils  and  (I.  a  substitute,  and  a  pre- 
parative signal),  the  same  number  of  triangular  flags,  of 


TEL 


153 


TEL 


similar  colours  and  devices,  and  a  pendant;  and  any  word 
contained  in  the  table  may  be  expressed  by  one  or  two 
square  flags  to  indicate  the  number  of  -the  vertical  column 
in  which  it  occurs,  and  one  or  two  triangular  flairs  hoisted 
beneath  them,  to  point  out  the  horizontal  column.  In 
case  of  both  the  square  and  the  triangular  flag;  requiring 
to  be  doubled  at  once,  instead  of  the  two  substitutes,  the 
pendant  is  hoisted  between  them  ;  and  if  it  be  necessary  to 
spell  any  name  or  word  not  contained  in  the  vocabulary, 
the  twelfth  triangular  flag  (answering  to  the  square  pre- 
parative signal)  is  hoisted  to  indicate  that  the  twenty- 
four  flags  are  to  be  taken  for  the  letters  of  the  alphabet, 
according  to  a  preconcerted  order. 

We  should  not  quit  the  subject  of  marine  telegraphs 
without  adverting  to  the  very  important  advantages  likely 
to  accrue  to  the  commercial  shipping  interest  by  the 
general  adoption  of  a  simple  and  uniform  code  of  commu- 
nication between  vessels  at  sea,  and  from  them  to  coast 
stations,  or  vice  versa.  This  desirable  object  is  now  being 
greatly  promoted  by  the  commercial  telegraphic  associa- 
tion superintended  by  Mr.  B.  L.  Watson,  whose  signal 
books  are,  in  future,  by  the  direction  of  the  Lords  of  the 
Admiralty,  to  be  supplied  to  all  the  government  vessels, 
iji  order  that  they  may  communicate  with  such  merchant 
vessels  using  the  code  as  they  may  meet  with  at  sea.  The 
whole  code  consists  of  thirteen  flags,  by  which  any  mes- 
sage may  be  communicated  from  one  vessel  to  another,  or 
between  a  vessel  at  sea  and  any  of  the  coast-stations  esta- 
blished by  the  association  at  prominent  points  around 
the  British  islands.  In  connection  with  these  coast  sta- 
tions there  are  lines  of  semaphores  from  the  Downs  to 
London;  from  Holyhead  to  Liverpool;  and  from  the 
Spurn  to  Hull ;  and  from  all  of  them  communications  are 
transmitted  to  a  central  office  in  London,  and  also  to  the 
owners  or  consignees  of  vessels  entered  in  the  telegraph 
list  ;  lor  which  privilege  a  subscription  of  twenty  shillings 
per  annum  is  paid  to  the  association  for  each  vessel.  In 
like  manner  any  message  from  the  owners  of  a  vessel, 
relative  to  change  of  destination,  or  otherwise,  can  be 
communicated  from  any  station  within  sight  of  which  she 
may  pass. 

Having  now  noticed  the  principal  varieties  of  telegraphs 
which  act  by  displaying  Minutls  vi.-ible  at  a  distance,  whe- 
ther for  use  on  land  or  at  sea,  it  only  remains,  before 
alluding  to  contrivances  ofa  different  character,  very  briefly 
to  touch  upon  a  few  points  which  bear  upon  telegraphic 
communications  generally,  but  more  especially  upon  land. 
The  subject  has  been  so  ably  treated  by  Sir  John  Barrow, 
in  the  article  before  alluded  to,  with  the  peculiar  advan- 
tages derived  from  his  connection  with  the  Admiralty, 
that  we  cannot  do  better  than  condense  some  of  hi~  re- 
marks  on  the  comparative  merits  of  different  telegraphic 
systems.  He  observes  that  a  telegraph  employed  for 
public  purposes  should  be  possessed  of  power,  certainty, 
simplicity,  celerity,  and  secrecy .  It  should  have  sufficient 
power  to  express,  by  distinct  positions  or  combinations  of 
moveable  parts,  any  possible  order  or  information,  either 
by  letters,  words,  or  sentences.  Its  certainty  will  depend 
upon  all  its  parts  being  clearly  defined,  wholly  within  the 
field  of  the  telescope,  and  so  distinct  that  there  shall  be 
no  risk  of  mistaking  one  signal  for  another ;  whence  the 
importance  of  simplicity  becomes  obvious.  Bearing  these 
points  in  mind,  Barrow  conceives  that  the  choice  will  be 
iound  to  lie  between  the  six-shutter  telegraph,  Popham's 
semaphore,  and  Pasley'n  universal  telegraph.  Macdonald 
thinks  that  the  arms  of  the  semaphore  are  not  so  distin- 
guishable even  in  clear  weather,  and  not  near  so  visible  in 
cloudy  weather,  as  the  boards  of  a  shutter-telegraph  ;  but 
Barrow  cites  some  observations  of  Mr.  Gamble,  which  tend 
to  a  contrary  result ;  making  it  appear  that,  owing  to  the 
confusion  in  the  image  on  the  retina,  occasioned  by  the 
refraction  of  the  atmosphere,  the  property  which  he  terms 
insul/ilinn  is  generally  more  requisite  than  mere  superficial 
magnitude,  to  give  distinctness  to  a  distant  object.  This 
point  is  illustrated  by  supposing  a  person  to  look  at  the 
letter  I  in  the  midst  of  a  printed  page,  and  to  remove  the 
paper  from  the  eye  until  the  image  becomes  indistinct 
limn  being  confused  with  the  surrounding  letters ;  and 
obMTviag  how  much  more  distinct  the  image  would  appear 
if  the  letter  were  printed  alone  upon  a  sheet  of  white 
paper.  This  question  however  does  not  rest  upon  mere 
theory  or  analogy;  for  it  is  stated  that  every  officer  upon 
the  Admiralty  line  bears  testimony  to  the  superior  dis- 
P.  C.,  No.  1507. 


tinctness  of  the  semaphore  at  all  times,  and  especially  in 
cloudy  weather.  In  order  fully  to  decide  the  question, 
the  shutter-telegraph  at  Nunhead,  near  New  Gross,  was 
left  standing  for  some  time  on  the'same  hill  as  the  new 
semaphore  ;  and  the  result  of  the  trial  for  a  whole  winter 
was,  '  that  the  semaphore  was  frequently  distinctly  visible 
when  the  boarded  telegraph  was  so  much  enveloped  in 
mist  and  fog  that  the  particular  boards  shut  or  thrown 
open  could  not  be  distinguished ;'  and  that  the  number  of 
days  in  the  course  of  the  winter  upon  which  the  sema- 
phore was  visible  exceeded  those  upon  which  the  shutters 
could  be  seen  by  fully  one-third.  Even  in  the  six-shutter 
telegraph  one  shutter  was  occasionally  mistaken  for  an- 
other, and  such  accidents  would  doubtless  have  been  more 
common  had  a  more  complicated  shutter-telegraph,  like 
that  of  Macdonald,  been  employed.  The  objection  urged 
against  the  semaphore  on  the  ground  of  the  longer  time- 
taken  to  move  the  arms,  because  they  describe  arcs  of 
larger  circles  than  the  boards  of  a  shutter-telegraph,  is 
hardly  deserving  of  notice,  as  the  difference  (which  may, 
Barrow  says,  amount  to  one  second  in  each  signal)  is 
amply  compensated  by  the  greater  facility  of  reading  off. 
The  semaphore  has  also  the  advantage  in  the  greater  sim- 
plicity of  its  machinery,  which  is  much  less  liable  to  get 
out  of  order  than  that,  of  the  boarded  telegraph. 

As  shown  by  the  tables  given  in  the  previous  descrip- 
tions of  the  three  machines  particularly  noticed  by  Barrow, 
the  shutter-telegraph  has  the  power  of  making  a  greater 
number  of  combinations  without  the  use  of  the  stop-signal 
(or  signal  which  separates  one  word  or  one  sentence  from 
another)  than  either  of  the  others,  and  Pasley's  universal 
telegraph  has  the  least  power ;    but  this  is  of  little  con- 
sequence, if  the  lowest  power  prove  sufficient.    Although 
the  primary  signals  of  the  universal   telegraph  are   only 
28  in  number,  they  may  be  increased  to  784  by  the  use  of 
two  changes  with  one  stop-signal  between  them  (making 
three  signals  in  the  whole),  or,  by  making  three  changes 
(four  signals,  with  the  stop),  to  21,952;    a  number  con- 
siderably exceeding  the  words  and  sentences  in  Sir  Home 
Popham's   telegraphic   dictionary,  which  do  not   exceed 
13,000.     As  this  dictionary  has  never,  it  is  affirmed,  been 
found  materially  deficient  in  any  of  its  divisions  of  subjects, 
it  is  evident  that  even  when  applied  to  communication 
by  words  and   sentences  instead  of  by  letters,   Pasley's 
simple   telegraph  affords  sufficient  power  for  all   useful 
purposes  ;  and  further,  that,  those  who  have  extended  their 
telegraphic  dictionaries   to   very   high    numbers   (Pasley 
mentions  one  extended  to  140,000),  have  impaired  then- 
usefulness,  owing  to  the  difficulty  and    loss  of  time  in 
finding  the  required  sentence  among  so  many.     '  We  have- 
actually  seen  in  one  telegraphic  dictionary,' observes  Sir 
John  Barrow,  '  120  pages,  of  three  columns  in  each  page, 
and  sixty  sentences  in  each  column,  containing  upwards 
of  20,000  sentences  (about  one-third  of  the  number  of 
words  in  Johnson's  dictionary),  and   each  of  these  sen- 
tences beginning  with  the  personal  pronoun  "  He ;"  20 
pages  witli  '•  If,''  &c."     '  Compared  with  the  use  of  such 
a  dictionary,'  he  proceeds  to  say,  '  spelling  the  sentences 
is  infinitely  preferable  as  to  certainty,  and  in  many  cases 
as  to  celerity.     Indeed  we  should  say  that  the  abbreviated 
nature  of  communications   matie   by  telegraphs  renders 
spelling  by  far  the  most-eligibl'e  mode.     In  clear  weather 
the  rapidity  of  working  single  signals,  the  short  compass 
within  which  any  message  may  be  condensed,  the  impos- 
sibility of  committing  any  mistake  that  cannot  be  imme- 
diately rectified,  more  than  compensate  for  the  difference 
of  a  few  minutes  which  the  use  of  sentences  may  probably 
save.     In  cloudy  or  foggy  weather,  the  latter  method  wifl 
always  be  liable  to  mistake.     If  experience  may  be  as- 
sumed as  a  guide,  the  practice  at  the  Admiralty  of  spell- 
ing all  sentences,  for  the  last  thirty  years,  must  decide  in 
favour  of  that  system.'    In  making  communications  alpha- 
betically, much  time   may  Ue   saved  by  omitting  non- 
essential  words  and  letters,  especially  vowels.  For  example, 
the  meaning  of  the  sentence  '  Ord«r  the  Agamemnon  out 
of  harbour,  and  direct  her  to  proceed  to  Spithead,'  may  be 
sufficiently  expressed  by  '  Agmcmn.  to  Spthed.'     It,  is  also 
important  to  condense  the  substance  of  the  communica- 
tion  as  much  as  possible   into   the  former  part   of  the 
,-e,  so  that  no  serious  mistake  may  arise  if  the  com- 
munication   should    be    interrupted    by   foggy  weather. 
Barrow  relates  a  circumstance  which  occurred  during  the 
Peninsular  war,  in  which  some  anxiety  was  occasioned  by 

VOL.  XXIV.— X 


T  B  L 


1M 


T  K  I 


the  non-observance  of  this  principle :    a  despatch  from  I 
Plymouth  .ntclligcn.  hav-  I 

ing  been  commenced  l>\  I; 

aad  then  broki n  otf  t  -,  loir,  which  '  the  whole 

meaning.  • 

.!ie  message  run  thus.  '  French 

defeated  ;e  iuterniption  of  tin  would 

liave  been  of  far  less  consequence. 

Any  means  of  telegraphic  communication  which  de- 
IH-nds  upon  the  deci;  :nbited  at   a  dis- 

tant station  is  necessarily  dependent  upon  conti 
weather:  but  many  plans  have  been  contrive! 
ing  t:  i  such  a  manner  as  to  he  indepeiide- 

of  light   and  of  the   state   of  the   at  .      For  com- 

munication between  the  different  parts  of  a  house  this 
object  may  be  effected  by  a  mechanical  connection,  by 
chains  or  wires,  between  two  dials  with  revolving  ii 
or  pointers,  in  such  a  way  that  when  one  pointer  is  directed 
to  a  particular  letter  or  word  inscribed  upon  the  dial  to 
which  it  .1,  tlie  other  may  exhibit  a  similar 

movement.  The  attention  of  the  servant  is  engaged  pre- 
viously by  ringing  a  bell ;  and  when  the  required  signal 
lias  been  "made,  n  spring  returns  both  indexes  to  their  ori- 
ginal position.  Such  a  plan,  though  il  for 
domestic  purposes,  is  not  adapted  for  distant  communica- 
tion. Speaking-pipe*,  or  tubes  to  convoy  the  voice  from 
one  place  to  another.  vailable  for  short  distances. 
but  their  range  is  too  limited  for  application  on  an  ex- 
tended scale.  One  of  the  early  schemes  of  this  character 
depends  upon  the  principle  of  water  always  finding  its 
level ;  hut,  independent  of  the  difficulty  which  migb- 
from  the  friction  of  water  in  a  very  long  pipe  of  small 
diameter,  such  as  would  he  required  to  connect  the  ver- 
tical tubes  in  which  the  observations  would  he  made,  such 
a  plan  involves  the  nee  'aving  all  the  com- 
municating stations  at  or  near  the  same  level.  Other 
hydraulic  telegraphs  depend  upon  the  incompressihility  of 
water  or  other  liquids ;  it  being  proposed  to  lay  down 
small  pipes  of  any  required  length,  and  to  indicate  dif- 
ferent signals  by  pressing  more  or  less  upon  the  surface  of 
the  fluid  contained  in  them,  which  would,  it  i 
transmit  the  motion  to  the  opposite  end  of  the  pii>e,  where 
it  might  be  pointed  out  upon  a  dial,  or  in  any  other  con- 
venient manner.  Mr.  Vauance  described  such  a  method 
of  telegraphic  communication  in  a  pamphlet,  published  in 
1825,  of  which  Hebert  gives  some  account 
and  Mecfiiui/i'-  ,  vol.  ii..  pp.  787-8) ;  and 
some  similar  schemes  liave  been  more  recently  pro- 
pounded. Air  confined  in  small  pipes  has  also  been  tried 
to  a  limited  extent  as  a  pneumatic  telegraph  :  but  in  this. 
as  well  as  in  the  hydraulic  system,  the  risk  of  I 
serious  disadvantage.  The  application  of  electricity  to 
telegraphic  communication  is  attended  with  fewer  dif- 
ficulties, and  has  rccentU  on  an 
important  scale  by  Mc-srs.  Wheats:  ooke.  The 
possibility  of  so  apph  ing  it  was  coneeive-i  ,]  per- 
sons long  before  It  was  attempted  on  a  piactie:il  scale. 
Arthur  Young,  who  visited  Fiance  in  17S'7.  17^.  and 
17*!l.  mentions,  in  his  travels,  the  ex]  of  M. 
Lomond,  who  was  able  by  means  of  electricity  to  convey 
messages  from  one  room  to  another;  and  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Gamble,  in  his  description  of  his  original  shutter-telegraph, 
allude*  to  the  project  of  electrical  communication.  Mr. 
Fiancis  Ronalds,  in  a  pamphlet  on  this  subject,  published 
in  1K23,  states  thai  Cuvallo  proposed  to  convey  intel- 
ligence by  passing  given  numbers  of  sparks  through  au 
insulated  wire;  ana  that,  in  lHl(j.  he  had  I 
experiments  upon  this  principle,  which  ! 
promising  than  : 

tricitv,   which    had  nnans 

and  Americans.     He  suee  ntting 

II  through  a  length  of  ciirht  in.  wire  ; 

• 
adapting  the  principle  to  telegraphic  cotmnu: 

It  is  however  to  the  join' 
and  Professor  V 

their  practical  application;  and  in  a 

respecting  their  relative   |  <>n  with  the 

invention,  drawn  up  at  their  request  by  Sir  M.  I.  Brunei 
and   I1  iianiell.  it   is  observed  lh:i 

entitled   to    -land   alone,  a  whom  this 

country  is  indebted  for  having  ,  durcd   and 

carried  out  the  electric  telegraph  a*  a  useful  undertaking. 


promising  to  be  a  worfc  of  national  importance  ;  and  Pro- 
fewor  WneaUtono  i<  nekn  'tific  man 

whose  profound  and  successful  !•  pre- 

the  public  to  ri  ;>nic- 

tieal  n]>])lication.'    Their  '  which  wa- 

in 1837,  acts  upon  principles  fonndr 
brated  discovery,  that  a  magnetic  or  compass  needle 
through  the  agency  of  a  voltaic  curie 
an  artificial  polarity.     [Ei.ECTi<<  •••.,  p. 

:U2.]     -Tims,'    explains   Mr.  < 
trays,  p.  14),  '  as  a  natural  stream   of  el< 
round   the   circumference  of  the  earth  c: 
needles  in  general  to  be  deflected  at  right  an: 
course.  ;ils  the  north  nn<l  south  poles,  so  n'i  artifi- 

cam  of  electricity  of  adequate  strength  will  cause. 
magnetic  ni  ithin  its  influt-  •-imi- 

larly  deflected  at  right  angles  to  ...  t)int 

may  be.     If  then  a  magnetic  n,  placed  parallel 

and  near  to  any  part  of  a  com!; 
suppose  to  be"  laid  down  between  I.nndon  and  Hlar1 
the  transmission  of  an  electric  current  from  a  vollai 
tery  would  cause  the   needle  to  change  its  portion. 
to  stand  during  the  continuance  of  the  current  at  ri<:ht 
angles  to  the  wire,  being  turned  in  one  direction  or  thp 
other  according  to  the  course  of  the  current.     If  th: 
flexion   of  the    needle  were    limited    by  two  fixed 
placed  respectively  at  the  two  sides  of  one  of  its  pules,  the 
motion  of  that  pole  to  one  stop  might  evidently  constitute 
one  signal,  and  its  motion  to  the  another  signal.' 

Such  an  apparatus  is  shown  in  Fig.  1 1,  the  dial  upon  which 
the  signals  are  represented  being  removed.     In  this  . 

Fis;.  H. 


may  be  supposed  to  represent  the  battery,  and  b  l>  the  con- 
ducting wire,  which  is  formed  behind  the   dial   into  a  coil 
c  :  dil  is  the  magnet,  which  is  mounted  upon  an  axi- 
ing  through    the    coil,  and  carrying  upon  its  extremity, 
which  comes  through  the  dial,  an  index  or  poii  ' 
arrows  indicate  the  direction  of  the  current  rcqn 
licet   the   magnet   to  the    ]  .1  in  the  figure  : 

and  a  eui rent   in  the  opposite  dire". 
deflexion  towards  the   opi  .     AVhile  no  current 

-  through  the  v. : 
vertical.     The  next  i  h  in- 

Fig.  12. 


strumcnts  complete,  and  connected  togetli 

:    in    tubes,  which    ni  nffth. 

i  these  maybe  .  lories,  the 

at  an  inter'medi;  n.  and  the  thml  at  Ii 

wall ;  and  as  each  is  provided  with  n  battery,  and  a  handle 
(beneath  the  dial  i   by  which  the  conducting  wi 
connected    with    it    nt    pleasure,    the    attendant 
station  at  which  such  an  instrument  is  placed   can  instan- 
taneously communicate  the  signal  to  •  stop'  or  t,,  •  ^0  on' 
to  all  the  other  stations:  attention  I 

by  ringing  A  bell,  placed   above  the  dial,  by  an  in- 
•i'lii  of  the  \oltaie  current.      liv  this  beau- 
tifully simp  "liar  method   of  working 
the  trairm  upon  the  Blaekwall  railway  [RAILWAY,  vol.  xix.. 


TEL 


155 


TEL 


p.  260]  is  effected  with  the  greatest  ease,  although  it  i.s 
essential  that  the  attendants  at  each  terminus  should  know 
not  only  when  the  train  is  ready  to  start  from  the  opposite 
end  of  the  line,  but  also  when  the  carriages  at  the  five  in- 
termediate stations  are  ready.  In  stopping  the  trains  the 
precise  information  is  required ;  and  it  is  of  vital 
importance  in  case' of  any  casualty  to  the  rope  or  to  any  of 
the  carriages.  It  is  perhaps  not  too  much  to  say  that  the 
mode  of  working  adopted  on  this  railway  would  be  im- 
•i  cable  without  the  aid  of  the  electric  telegraph. 
Some  telegraphs  of  more  extensive  powers  than  the  above 
are  in  use  on  the  Blackwall  railway,  as  well  as  on  the 
Great  Western  and  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  lines.  Fig. 
13,  which  represents  a  dial  like  that  on  the  Great  Western 
Hail u  ay,  shows  how,  by  the  combination  ef  four  sucli 
magnets  and  pointers  as  are  described  above,  all  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet  may  be  expressed,  by  pointing  one  or  two 

Fig.  13. 


needles  towards  them  ;  and  of  course  a  larger  or  smaller 
number  of  signals  might  be  made  on  the  same  principle  if 
necessary.  A  telegraph  with  two  pointers,  showing  eight 
signals,  is  considered  by  Mr.  Cooke  to  be  sufficient  for  all 
ordinary  purposes.  The  wires,  where  several  are  used,  are 
combined  into  a  rope  and  enclosed  in  an  iron  tube,  which 
may  be  either  buried  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth  or 
supported  above  it ;  and  they  are  insulated  from  each 
other  by  wiapping  them  round  separately  with  a  mixture 
of  cotton  and  caoutchouc.  For  details  of  construct!' 
applied  to  various  purposes,  and  for  an  exposition  of  the 
advantages  derivable  from  the  use  of  the  electro- 
utio  telegraph,  especially  in  connection  with  rail- 
,  we  must  refer  to  the  publications  <>f  Mr.  Cooke,  the 
•  Reports  of  the  Select  Committee  of  I  he  House  of  Commons 
on  Railway  Communication'  in  1840;  and  the  '  Hailway 
Times'  for  June  12,  1841.  The  longest,  continuous  line  yet 
completed  is  that  from  Paddington  to  West  Drayton,  about 
thirteen  miles;  but  this  lias  been  so  arranged  for  the  pur- 
•!'  experiment  as  to  be  equal  to  a  stage  of  thirty-nine 
miles,  it  is  reported  (July,  1842)  that  an  electric  tele- 
graph is  about  to  be  laid  down  along  the  South-Westcrn 
Hallway,  from  London  to  Gosport. 

Hampton's  rolybiust ;  Bishop  Wilkins's  Secret  and  Swift 

r;  Durham's  Phit>n'i/,/<i<->i/  J^fjiri-im/'/itx  ;   Mae- 

donald's  Treatise  on    Telegraphic  Communication,  1817; 

/'•graph,  1823; 

Jds's  L>''vrif>t.ii,its  of  ait  Elect  n  :raph,  tyc., 

1823;  Cooke's  Telegraphic  Railways,  1842;  Transactions 
iif  thr  :•'•, •;,'!,/  .,/  .///v;  Enot/ctop<edia  Britannica.} 

TELE'MA.CBUa    (TqXipovoc).    the    son    of    Odysseus 

-••s;    and  Penelope.      When   his   father  joined   the 

Greeks  in  their  expedition  against  Troy,  Telemachus  was 

young,  but  during  his  father's  absence  he  grew  up  to 

manhood.    When  the  gods  had  decreed   that.  Odysseus 

'•1  return  home  from  the  island  of  Ogygia,    Athena 

(Minerva,,  assuming   the  appearance  of  Mentis,  king  of 

the  Taphians,  appeared  to  Telemachus,  and  advised  him  to 

!•!  of  the  .suitors  of  his  mother ;  but  if  Penelope  should 

to  marry  again,  to  send  her   to  her  father's  house, 

he  mitrlit  celebrate  her  nuptials  there.     She  also  ad- 

iil   to  Pylos  and  Sparta,  to  see  whether  he 

1  learn  anything  concerning  his  father,  who,  as  she 

ill  living  in  some  island  where  he  wan 

forcibly  detained;  but  if  he  should  be  dead,  she  enjoined 

i  monument,  to  his  memory,  and  to 

rid  himself  of  f  i  I  his  mot  her  either  by  strai 

or  by  force.     'I  obeyed   the.   comma, '.Js  of  the 

goddess,  aud  visited   Nestor   at  Pylos   and  Mcnelaiu  at 


Sparta.  Both  of  them  received  him  hospitably,  and  Me- 
nelaus  communicated  to  him  the  prophecy  of  Proteus 
about  his  father.  In  the  meantime  Odysseus  arrived  in 
Ithaca,  and  lodged  with  Eumaeus,  the  swineherd,  in  the 
disguise,  of  a  beggar.  In  this  condition  he  was  found  by 
Telemachus,  who,  by  the  advice  of  Athena,  had  also  re- 
turned to  Ithaca.  The  father  made  himself  known  to  his 
son,  and  the  two  devised  a  plan  for  getting  rid  of  the 
suiton;.  They  went  to  the  town,  and  Odysseus  was  ad- 
mitted as  a  beggar  to  a  feast  of  Telemachus  and  the 
suitors.  When  the  suitors  began  to  insult  the  poor  man, 
a  fight  ensued,  in  which  Odysseus  and  Telemachus  killed 
itors.  Telemachus  then  accompanied  his  father  to 
the  aged  Laertius.  Thus  far  the  story  is  described  in  the 
Odyssey.  Later  writers  mention  other  incidents  connected 
with  the  story  of  Telemachus,  especially  relating  to  his 
marriage,  which  however  is  told  in  different  ways.  Ac- 
cording to  one  tradition,  he  married  Circe  or  her  daughter 
Cassiphoue,  and  he  had  a  daughter  Homa,  whom  he  gave 
in  marriage  to  Aeneas.  Servius  (ad  Aeneid.,  x.  167)  calls 
him  the  founder  of  the  town  of  Clusium  in  Etruria. 

In  modern  times  the  name  of  Telemachus  has  acquired 
celebrity  from  the  moral  romance  of  Fenelon,  which  is 
based  upon  the  story  in  the  Odyssey.  [FKNELON.] 

TELEMANN,  GEORG  PHILIPP,  a  name  of  no  mean 
rank  in  musical  history,  therefore  entitled  to  some  notice 
here,  was  son  of  the  minister  of  the  Lutheran  church  at 
Ma<:debur<r,  and  there  had  his  birth,  in  1U81.  Though 
educated  with  other  views,  his  predilection  for  music  was 
too  strong  to  be  combated,  and  it  became  his  profession. 
He  successively  held  many  appointments  in  Germany,  the 
chief  of  which  was  that  of  composer  to  the  Lyric  theatre 
at  Hamburg,  for  which  he  produced  no  less  than  thirty- 
five  operas.  But  these  were  only  a  small  part  of  his 
labours :  lie  is  said  to  have  exceeded  the  prolific  Alessan- 
dro  Scarlatti  in  the  number  of  his  works  for  the  church 
and  the  chamber ;  and,  in  1740,  his  overtures  on  the 
model  of  Lulli  amounted,  Doctor  Burney  tells  us,  to  six 
hundred!  Strange  however  as  it  may  appear,  yet  it  is 
most  true  that  of  this  almost  incredible  number  of  com- 
positions, only  two  or  three  fugues  are  now  known,  at 
in  England,  and  these  only  to  a  very  few  organists  of 
pal  icnt  anudeep  research. 

Telemann  was  a  fellow  student  of  Handel,  and  attained 
considerable  longevity,  having  died  in  1707,  at  the  age  of 
8G.  He  was  twice  married,  and  each  wife  had  ten 
children ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  not  one  of  them 
manifested  the  slightest  inclination  for  the  art  to  which 
their  father  owed  his  fortune  and  Depute 

TELEOSA'UHUS.  Since  the  article  CROCODILE  was 
i  Owen  has  published  his  valuable  Report 
'•a  llritixh  Found  Hrfiti/i's,  in  which  lie  notices,  among 
others,  a  family  of  extinct  crocodilians  characterized  by 
a  combination  of  a  bi-concave  structure  of  the  vertebrae 
with  long,  narrow  jaws,  armed  with  slender,  conical,  sharp- 
pointed,  and  equal  teeth,  adapted,  like  those  of  the  existing 
Gavials,  for  the  seizure  and  destruction  of  fishes.  Profes- 
sor Owen  makes  this  family  consist  of  two  genera,  whose 
characters  mainly  rest  on  the  difference  of  position  in  the 
external  nostril.  In  the  first  of  these,  Teleosaurus,  the 
external  nostril  is  terminal  and  placed  at  the  extremity  of 
the  upper  jaw  ;  in  the  other,  Sleneosaurus,  this  aperture 
is  a  little  beliind  and  above  the  termination  of  the  upper 
jau. 

(,'i'nlogical  Distribution  and' Habits  of  the  Family. — 
The  Tuleuxauri  and  Xl<'n<:o>>auri  are  confined  to  the  oolitic 
division  of  the  secondary  rocks.   At  this  period  there  were 
ly  any  mammals,  but   fishes   were  abundant,  and 
^or  Owen  refers  to  the  just  observation  of  Dr.  Buck- 
land  in  his  Bridgeuuter  Treatise,  that  it  might,  d  priori, 
have  been  expected  that  if  any  crocodilian  forms  had  then 
existed,  they  would  most  nearly  have  resembled  the  mo- 
dern Gavin!.     Professor  Owen  goes  on  to  remark  that  the 
modification  in  the  structure  of  the  vertebral  column,  and 
the  complete,  mail  of  imbricated  bony  scutes,  characteris- 
tic species,  indicate  that  the  habits  of  the  antient 
•imuri  were  more  strictly  marine  than 
of  tlie  modern  Gavials,  and  that  their  powers  of 
swimming,  of  pursuing  and  overtaking  their  aquatic  prey, 
were  greater. 

After  noticing  the  papers  of  Messrs.  Wooller  and  Chap- 
man, in  two  .^epaiatc  communications  in  I'liil.  Trans., 
vol.  50,  175H,  and  the  figures  of  an  incomplete  skeleton 

X  2 


TEL 


156 


TEL 


•here  jr'M-n,  as  imt  of  the  earliest   evidences  nf  nntient 

ilific  publication,  and 

.  in-*  that,  notwithstanding  the  remark  of  Captain 
Chapman,  that  -it  seems  to  have  been  an  alligator,'  I 
Mr.  Wooller,  that  'it  resemble.-,  in  every  respect  ill. 
getic  G.ivial.'  <  'amper  pronouiu-ed  it  to  be  a  whale,  mean- 
ing perhaps  a  dolphin  :  an  opinion  adopted  In  Kanjas,  who 
went  ti  step  I'urlher,  and  referred  it  to  the  genus  /Vn/wr-T. 
Professor  Owen  points  out  Cuvicr's  refutation  ot '  Kaujas 
in  the  first  edition  of  the  O.wmens  Fottiles.  and  hi-  decla- 
ration in  the  same  work  that  it  was  in  truth  a  crocodile. 
The  Professor  adds,  that  t.'uvier's  >ulisc(|tiunt  analysis  led 
him  in  Isl'J  to  the  conclusion  that  it  belonged  to  the 
genus  of  Crocodiles,  and  was  most  probably  identical  in 
species  with  the  crocodile  ol'Honfleur. 

Uut  although  the  opinions  of  Messrs.  Wooller  and  Chap- 
iir.iu  came  much  nearer  to  the  truth  than  those  of  Camper 
and  Katija.s.  thev  were  still  distant  from  it  :  and  Professor 
Owen  proceed*  to  show  that  the  fossil  really  differs  more 
from  the  Gavial  than  the  Gavia)  does  from  any  other 
existing  Crocodilian. 

IVr-uing   his   inquiry.  Professor  Owen   remarks,  that  in 
when  so  many  new  and  singular  genera,  allied  to  the 

ulilian  family,  had  been   added  to  the  catalogues  of 


known  whether  it  is  a  crocodile,  or  one  of  those  new 
genera  discovered  in  the  same  beds.  The  bones  of  the 
extremities  are  too  incomplete,  and  the  head  is  not  repre- 
sented with  sufficient  details,  to  decide  the  question  :  but 
the  vertebrse  appear  to  me  to  be  longer,  in  relation  to 
their  diameter,  than  in  the  new  genera,  and,  in  this  cha- 
racter, more  like  those  of  Crocodiles.  Those  alone  who 
shall  rediscover  the  original,  if  it  still  exists,  will  be  able 
to  inform  us  whether  the  other  characters  respond  to  those 
referred  to.' 

Professor  Owen  inquired  at  the  British  Museum,  to 
which  the  collections  formerly  belonging  to  the  Royal 
ty  of  London  were  transferred,  but  he  stales  that  no 
specimen  corresponding  with  the  account  and  figures 
given  by  Messrs.  Wooller  and  Chapman  exists  in  that 
museum. 

But  a  second  specimen  of  a  Crocodilian  with  a  long  and 
slender  nose  was  procured  from  the  lias  near  Whitby  be- 
tween Stailhs  and  Kunswick  in  17!H,  and  a  more  perfect 
skeleton  was  obtained  from  the  alum  shale  of  the  li;- 
mation  at  Saltwick,  near  Whitby,  in  1H21.  Professor 
Owen  states  that  both  these  specimens  so  closely  resemble 
the  older  fossil  in  all  the  points  in  which  a  comparison  can 
be  established,  as  to  dissipate  the  remaining  doubts  as  to 
the  nature  and  affinities  of  the  specimen  from  the  same 
locality  described  in  Phil.  Trait*.,  17-X.  He  then  refers 
to  the  figures  of  the  skeleton  discovered  in  ls-^4,  in  Young 
and  Bird's  (li-n/'i^ii-n/  Hurny  nf  l/ir  Yorkshire  Coast,  and 
in  Dr.  Buckland's  Bri't^fn-olrr  7V/-.///.V  [('UOCODII.K,  vol. 
\iii.,  p.  1(3!)].  observing  that  it  is  now  preserved  in  the 
museum  at  Whitby,  where  he  closely  examined  it.  •  In 
this  specimen,'  says  the  Professor,  'arc  preserved  the  cra- 
nium, wanting  the  snout,  the  whole  vertebral  column,  the 
libs,  ami  the  principal  parts  of  the  four  extremities,  to- 
gether with  the  dorsal  and  part  of  the  ventral  si 
dermal  bones.  The  entire  length  of  the  skeleton,  follow- 
ing the  curvature  of  the  spine,  is  lift  ecu  feet  six  iiu  ! 
which  may  be  added  tw  inches  for  the  lost 

snout.  The  cranium  posteriorly  is  broad,  depressed,  and 
square-shaped:  it  begins  :  •  :  anterior  to  the  orbits, 

and  gradually  assumes  the  form  of  the  narrow  depressed 
snout ;  the  converging  sides  of  the  maxilla?  arc  concave 
outwardly.  The  zygomatic  spaces  are  quadrilateral, 
longer  in  the  axis  of  the  skull  than  transversely:  the 
orbits  are  subcircular;  they  look  upwards  and  slightly 
outwards;  their  margins  are  not  raised,  and  their  inter- 
space is  slightly  concave.  The  parietal  bone  is  relatively 
longer  than  in  the  Gavial,  and  sends  up  a  longitudinal 
median  crest,  from  the  posterior  part  of  which  a  strong 
process  extends  on  each  side  outwards,  anil  curves  slightly 
backwards  parallel  with  the  ex-oc-cipitals,  to  join  the  ma-~- 
toid  and  tympanic  bone*,  tin-  latter  of  which  expands  as 
it  di-si-cnil,  to  form  the  joint  for  the  lower  jaw.' 

;.'»or  Owen  then  gives  details  of  the  dimension*. 
from  which  he  calciilal, -,  that  the  entire  length  of  the 
kkhll  mu»t  have  exceeded  4  feet  0  inchoo.  He  states  that 


the  cranium  of  one  of  the  <  'at  n  Ti  Vo>aui  i  measures  :t  feel 
•1  inches,  whence  Cu.icr  calculates  the  entire  length  of 
thr  animal  at  near  15  \  remarks  that 

the  W|-itl>\  'I'elr   •  is   with    tin-  Caen  species,  and 

differ*  from  the  Cavial  in  the  following  particulars  :— the 
anterior  frontal   bone  is  less  extended  upon  the  cl 
the  lacrymal  is  much  more  extended,  and  is  laigerat  itu 
and  the  jugal  bone  is  more  slender.     The  posterior 
frontal    bone,    which    separates   the    temporal    from    the 
orbital  cavities,  is  much  longer  and  narrower.     'The  | 
tal  and  occipital  crests  each  form  a  thin  trenchant  plate, 
and   are   not   flattened   aho\e.     The   inastoidean   an: 
not  uninterruptedly  united  with  the  back  ]  arti- 

cular prod—,  of  the  tympanic;  it  is  separated  from  it  \<\  n 
large  depression,  which  is  overarched  by  a  trenchant 
belonging  to  the  ex-occipital.  The  mastoidean  bone  has 
a  concavity  at  its  descending  part,  of  which  there  i-  no 
trace  in  the  Gavial.  The  indentation  between  the  articu- 
lar process  of  the  tympanic  and  the  tnberosity  of  the 
basi-occipital  is  much  smaller  than  in  the  Gavial,  and  the 
basilar  tuberosity  projects  downwards  in  a  less  degree. 
The  pterygoid  ala  is  not  expanded  externally,  as  in  all 
crocodiles,  but  is  contracted  by  a  large  tissiire  at  the 
part  when-  it  is  going  to  unite  itself  to  the  bone:  the 
orbital  margin  of  the  malar  is  not  raised,  and  does  not 
leave  behind  it  a  deep  fissure,  as  in  the  Gavial.  The 
malar  does  not  rise  to  join  the  posterior  frontal  bmie  :  but, 
on  the  contrary,  the  frontal  descends  to  join  the  malar  at 
the  external  margin  of  the  orbit.  The  vacuity  between 
the  orbit  and  the  anterior  part  of  the  tympanum  is  much 
elongated  in  the  fossil,  and  occupies  four-fifths  of  the 
temporal  fossa  ;  the  anterior  part  of  this  fossa  is  narrow 
and  acute.  The  columella,  or  ossicle  of  the  ear,  is  cylin- 
drical, and  much  larger  in  proportion  than  in  any  known 
crocodile  or  other  reptile. 

'Cuvier  calculates  the  number  of  teeth  in  tht'  7 

45-  i 


taunts  Cadowentis  to  be  180,  viz.  - 


The  7V/r..v»/- 


45-45* 

nil  t'li«ii,ii'tniii  has  at   least  140  teeth.    The  Gavial  has 

•JK  —  28 
112,  or  =     —  •    The  teeth  of  the  Whitbv  Teleosaur  are 

£t$  ~*  JM 

as  slender  and  sharp-pointed,  but  not  so  compressed  as  in 
the  Cavial  :  they  correspond  with  those  of  the  Caen  Teleo- 
saur. and  equally  illustrate  the  dental  characters  usually 
attributed  to  the  present  extinct  genus.' 

Professor  Owen  then  shows  that  the  Whitbv  Teleosaur  dif- 
fers from  the  Caen  Teleo&aur,  as  does  the  Monheim  Teleo- 
Soemmering),  in    having    the 


upper  temporal  fossa  longer  in  proportion  to  their  breadth, 
and  that  it  also  differs  from  the  Telcosaurs  of  both  Caen 
and  Monheim  in  the  more  equal  size  of  the  teeth,  and 
from  that  of  Monheim  in  the  greater  number  of  teeth,  the 

Teleosatirus  prisons  having  at  most  .._    ^=106.   He  also 

points  out  other  differences. 

In  treating  of  the   n-rtclini!  rnli/mn,  the  author   states 

that  the  number  of  vertebni-  in  the  true  crocodiles  of  the 

present  period  rarely  exceeds  sixty,  the  number  assigned 

Imn  to  the   crocodile   of  the  Nile.     Cuvier.  he  ob- 

serve-. generally  found  7  cervical,   12  dorsal,   5  lumbar.  - 

sacral,  and  :14  c-iudal  vcitchr;r.      [ntheOocOcA/Utoeicftt*, 

he   remarks,  a  thirteenth  pair  of  ribs  is  occasionally  de- 

veloped. and,  according  to  Plumier,  the  last-mentioned 

species  has  two  additional  caudal  vertebra1:  the  alii 

Alligtttiir  I.ii'-itis)  [CROCODILE,  vol  viii.,  p.  1( 

'Iditional  ones  being  in  the  caudal  region  :  the 
Oavial  has  (17  vertebra?,  viz.  7  cervical,  13  dorsal,  4 
lumbar.  '2  sacral,  and  41  caudal. 

•The  very  perfect  specimen  in  the  Whitby  Museum,' 
-.•IV-  I'rotess'or  Owen,  'displays  the  numberoi'  the  verte- 
bnr  through  the  whole  spinal  column,  and  estab: 
another  difference  between  the  Teleosaur  and  the  Gavial, 
the  former  having  a  number  of  vertebra'  intermediate  be- 
tween the  Crocodiles  and  Gavials,  \i/.  (U.  with  a  special 
peculiarity  in  the  excess  of  costal  vertebra',  as  the  follow- 
ing formula  indicates.  \  iz..  7  cervical.  16  dorsal,  3  lumbar, 

.1,  :«i  caudal.  In  all  subgcncia  of  existing  i 
diles.  as  in  the  extinct  tertiary  species,  the  hind  surface 
of  the  vertebra  i-  convex,  the  lore  surface  concave,  ex- 
cept in  the  alias  and  two  -;ui:il  M-itcbni1.  Cuvier,  who 
had  the  opportunity  of  seeing  only  the  annular  part 
(neurepophyses)  of  the  cervical  vertebrae  of  the  Caen 


TEL 


157 


TEL 


Teleosaur,  regrets  his  inability  to  state  whether  either  ol 
the  articular  extremities  of  the  centrum  were  convex,  or 
which  of  them.  The  Whitby  Teleosaur  decides  this  ques- 
tion, and  shows  that  both  articular  extremities  of  the  ver- 
tebrae are  slightly  concave  in  the  cervical  as  in  the  rest  of 
the  vertebral  series.  The  atlas  in  the  Teleosaur  corre- 
sponds essentially  with  that  of  the  crocodiles,  as  is  shown 
by  the  three  main  component  parts  of  this  bone,  from  a 
Whitby  Teleosaur  in  Lord  Enniskillen's  collection.  The 
body  or  centrum  is  a  transverse  quadrilateral  piece, 
smooth  and  convex  below,  narrowing  like  an  inverted 
wedge  above,  with  articular  facets,  viz. :  a  concavity  in 
front  for  the  occipital  condyle  ;  a  flat  rougher  surface  on 
each  side  of  the  upper  part  1'or  the  attachment  of  the  neura- 
pophyses ;  a  posterior  facet  for  the  anterior  part  of  the  de- 
tached odontoid  element  of  the  axis  ;  and  the  small  sur- 
face on  each  lateral  posterior  and  inferior  angle,  for  the 
atlantal  ribs.  The  neurapophyses  are  pyramidal  pro- 
cesses, with  their  apices  curved  towards  each  other ;  they 
are  relatively  smaller  in  proportion  to  the  centrum  than 
in  the  crocodile.  The  general  anterior  concavity  for  the 
reception  of  the  occipital  tubercle  is  formed  at  its  cir- 
cumference by  the  centrum  and  neurapophyses  of  the 
atlas,  and  at  its  middle  by  the  anterior  detached  odontoid 
epiphysis  of  the  axis,  which  is  here  evidently  the  analogue 
of  the  so-called  atlas  in  the  Ichthyosaurus,  the  true  body 
of  the  atlas  in  the  Teleosaur  representing  the  first  in- 
verted wedge-shaped  bone  in  the  Ichthyosaur.  The 
spine  of  the  atlas  is  a  hu-ge  oblong  piece  articulated  with 
the  neurapophyses  of  the  atlas,  and  partly  overlapping 
those  of  the  axis.' 

The  Professor  then  describes  in  detail  the  cervical  ver- 
tebrae, from  which  it  appears  that  the  same  mechanism 
for  fixing  and  strengthening  the  neck,  as  is  found  in  ex- 
isting species,  exists  in  the  ancient  marine  crocodiles ; 
the  vertebra?  of  the  dorsal  region,  with  16  pairs  of  ribs,  a 
greater  number  than  occurs  in  any  existing  Crocodilian  ; 
a  posterior  dorsal  or  lumbar  vertebra,  which  faintly  in- 
dicates one  of  the  most  striking  characters  of  the  ver- 
tebrae of  STREPTOSPONDVLUS  ;  and  the  caudal  vertebrae, 
which  progressively  diminish  in  every  diameter,  save 
length,  from  the  middle  to  near  the  end  of  the  tail,  the 
terminal  vertebrae  being  shorter  than  the  rest.  The  ster- 
num and  sternal  ribs,  he  remarks,  closely  agree  with  the 
ordinary  Crocodilian  type.  He  had  not  seen  a  specimen 
of  the  abdominal  sternal  ribs. 

Professor  Owen  then  notices  the  structure  of  the  Pecto- 
ral and  Pelvic  Extremities,  as  compared  with  those  of 
existing  Crocodiles,  and  the  Dermal  armour,  the  bony 
dermal  scutes  of  which  are  regularly  disposed  in  the 
Teleosaur,  as  in  them  ;  but  the  scutes  of  Teleosaurus  Chap- 
manni,  he  observes,  differ  as  much  from  those  of  the  ex- 
isting Gavials  and  Crocodiles,  as  those  of  Teleosaurus 
Cadom#ntit  do.  The  following  are  the  species  recorded 
by  the  Professor: — Teleosaurus  Chnpmanni ;  Teleosaurus 
Cadomensis ;  Teleosaurus  Cadomensts,  var. ;  and  Teleosau- 
rus asthenodeirus,  Owen.  [STENEOSAURUS  ;  CROCODILE, 
vol.  viii.,  p.  168.] 

TELESCOPE  (from  the  Greek  telescopos,  rijXtwoTOc, 
'  far-seeing'),  an  optical  instrument  consisting  of  a  tube 
which  contains  a  system  of  glass  lenses  having  all  their 
centres  in  one  common  axis,  or  a  tube  containing  a  me- 
tallic speculum  in  combination  with  such  lenses:  by 
either  kind  of  instrument  distant  objects  are  caused  to 
appear  magnified,  and  more  distinct  than  when  viewed  by 
the  naked  eye.  Those  which  are  constructed  with  glass 
lenses  only  are  called  dioptric,  or  refracting,  and  the  others 
catoptric,  or  reflecting  telescopes.  In  the  former  kind  the 
rays  in  the  pencils  of  light  which  come  from  every  part 
of  the  object  viewed  are,  by  the  first  lens  on  which  they 
are  incident,  made  to  converge  so  as  to  form  an  image  at 
the  focus  of  the  lens.  In  some  eases  the  rays  in  each 
pencil  are  intercepted  by  a  second  lens,  and,  by  its  refrac- 
tive power,  are  made  to  enter  the  eye  in  parallel  direc- 
tions :  in  other  cases,  the  rays,  after  having  crossed  each 
other  at  the  place  where  the  image  is  formed,  fall  in  a 
divergent  state  upon  a  second  lens,  and  by  it  are  refracted 
no  as  to  emerge  from  it  in  parallel  directions.  Frequently 
however  the  parallelism  of  the  rays  is  effected  by  two  or 
more  lenses  in  addition  to  that,  called  the  object-glass,  by 
which  the  image  was  formed.  In  reflecting  telescopes  an 
image  is  formed  by  the  reflection  of  the  rays  in  the  pencils 
of  light  coining  from  the  object,  after  having  impinged 


upon  the  concave  surface  of  the  speculum  :  in  some  cases 
this  image  is  viewed  through  one  glass  lens  or  more,  but 
frequently  the  rays,  before  or  after  forming  the  image,  are 
reflected  from  a  second  mirror,  and  are  subsequently  trans- 
mitted to  the  eye  through  lenses. 

By  these  instruments  objects  even  in  the  remotest  depths 
of  space  are  rendered  accessible  to  human  vision  ;  and 
terrestrial  objects  faintly  visible  in  the  distance  are  brought, 
as  it  were,  close  to  the  eye.  In  the  hands  of  astronomers 
they  were  the  means,  almost  immediately  on  being  in- 
vented, of  making  more  discoveries  in  the  heavens  than 
had  been  made  during  5000  years  previously;  they  form  a 
valuable  addition  to  the  instruments  employed  by  the 
mariner  and  the  surveyor,  and  they  will  ever  constitute 
the  most  agreeable  companion  of  the  traveller,  by  ena- 
bling him  to  distinguish,  in  every  direction  from  him, 
objects  which  it  might  be  difficult  or  impossible  for  him 
to  approach. 

In  exhibiting  the  principles  on  which  a  telescope  is 
constructed,  it  will  be  proper  to  commence  with  an  ex- 
planation of  the  means  by  which  the  image  of  an  object 
is  formed  at  the  focus  of  a  lens  or  of  a  reflecting  mirror. 
With  respect  to  a  lens,  if  it  be  of  the  kind  called  convex 
[LENS],  the  rays  in  the  pencils  of  light  which  proceed 
from  every  part  of  an  object,  as  APB,  in  passing  through 
the  lens,  supposing  the  latter  to  have  a  proper  degree  of 
curvature,  are  made  to  converge  by  the  refracting  power 


of  the  glass  at  points,  as  a,  F,  and  b,  and  the  assemblage  of 
such  points  constitutes  an  image  of  the  object :  if  a  screen 
were  placed  at  F  perpendicularly  to  the  axis  PF,  the 
object  would  be  represented  on  it,  in  an  inverted  position. 

If  the  lens  were  of  a  concave  form,  the  rays  in  the 
several  pencils,  after  passing  through  it,  would  be  made  to 
diverge  from  one  another,  and  consequently  no  image 
could  be  formed  :  yet  if  the  directions  of  the  rays,  after 
refraction,  were  produced  backwards,  they  would  unite 
between  the  lens  and  the  object,  in  points  corresponding 
to  those  which  constitute  the  image  formed  by  the  convex 
lens. 

If  the  rays  in  the  pencils  of  light  proceeding  from  differ- 
ent points,  A,  P,  B,  in  an  object  are  reflected  from  the  sur- 
face of  a  concave  mirror,  supposing  the  latter  to  have  a 


certain  degree  of  curvature,  those  rays  will  unite  in  as 
many  points,  a,  F,  and  b,  and  form  an  image  of  the  object. 
If  a  screen  were  placed  at  F  the  object  would  be  repre- 
sented on  it,  in  an  inverted  position.  The  rays  in  each 
pencil  reflected  from  the  surface  of  a  convex  mirror  are 
made  to  diverge  from  each  other;  and  in  that  case  no 
image  is  formed. 

Now,  if  the  object  AB  be  so  remote  that,  in  each  pencil, 
the  rays  incident  upon  a  lens  may  be  considered  as  paral- 
lel to  one  another,  the  point  F  is  called  the  principal 
locus ;  and  in  the  article  LENS  (p.  421,  col.  2)  there  will 
be  found  a  collection  of  formulae  for  the  reciprocals  of  the 
focal  lengths  of  lenses  of  all  the  different  kinds ;  it  being 
understood  that  the  diameter  of  the  lens  is  small,  which  is 
generally  the  case  with  telescopes,  and  that  the  light  is 
homogeneous.  But,  since  all  light  is  not  of  one  kind,  and 
a  lens  acts  like  a  prism  in  causing,  in  each  pencil,  the  rays 
of  the  differently  coloured  light  to  diverge  from  one 
another :  it  follows  that  each  of  the  coloured  lights  will 
form  its  own  image  at  its  proper  focus;  and  the  image 
formed  by  light  of  one  kind  being  seen  by  the  eye  along 
with  the  images  formed  by  light  of  the  other  kinds,  the 
representation  of  an  object  when  formed  by  a  single  lens 


TEL 

appears  to  be  indistinct  and  surrounded  by  a  coloured 
fring  i  vncs;  Dibi-KRsioN.]    h  may  i 

that  the   principal   locus  of  anv  lens,  with   respect  I 
colovi  MIII  the  formula' in  LK.NS  I 

stituting  in  them  the  value  of  ft   the  imK  .  .ciion. 

for  the  given  kind  of  light. 

Thus,  in  an  optical  instrument,  in  addition  to  the  distor- 
tion of  the  image  arising  lioni   the  sphciicily  uf  th 
there   is  an  im;  1   by  the  dispersion  of  the 

different  colour-making  rays;   and,  in  a  good  U-K  -.  .  p,  .  it 
is  icquisalc  that  both  of  these  impel,  mid  us  far 

us  possible  be  rcinovid.     The  chromatic  aberration,  as  the 
dispersion  of  the  colour  u  called,  ,  ,r  the 

greater  evil   of  the  two,  for  New;  ,.vn  that  it 

.Is  the  former  nearly  in  the  latio  01  ."ii4J  to   1;    but 
fortunately  it  is  that  wliicli,  to  an  extent  sufficient  for 
.cal  purpose*,  admits  of  being  easily  corrected. 

Since  different  kinds  of  glass  have  different  degn 
dispersive  power,  it  is  evident  that  the  chromatic  aberra- 
tion may  be  diminished,  if  not  wholly  removed,  by  causing 
the  light  to  pass  through  two  lenses  of  different  kinds  ol 
glass,  aiid  of  such  forms  that  they  may  refract  the  rays  in 
pencil  in  opposite  directions.  Ihe  object-glass  of  a 
telescope  when  so  formed  is  said  to  be  achromatic,  and 
the  manner  in  which  the  ett'ect  is  produced  may  he  under- 
stood Irom  the  following  description.  Let  PQ  be  the 
direction  of  a  pencil  of  compound  light  incident  on  the 

A    C 


1     V 


B    I) 

first  surface  of  the  convex  lens  AB,  in  a  direction  parallel 
to  the  common  axis,  XV,  of  the  two  lenses.  By  the  refrac- 
tive power  of  this  lens  (crown  glass)  the  red  rays  in  the 
pencil  would,  if  no  object  were  interposed,  proceed  In  the 
direction  Q6,  meeting  XY  in  r,  and  the  violet  ray  in  the 
pencil  would  proceed  in  the  direction  Qr.  meeting  the 
axis  in  r.  But  the  refractive  power  of  the  concave  lens 
CD  (flint  glass)  acts,  from  its  form,  in  a  direction  contrary 
to  that  of  the  convex  lens,  causing  the  rays  either  to 
diverge  from  the  axis  XY,  or  to  meet  it  in  points  beyond 
c  and  r,  towards  Y  :  suppose  the  curvature  of  this  lens  to 
be  such  that  the  red  rays  in  the  pencil  PQ  would,  after 
refraction  in  both  lenses,  meet  the  axis  in  F  ;the  ray  Q6r 
taking  the  direction  bV) ;  then  the  dispersive  power  of 
this  kind  of  glass  exceeding  that  of  the  other  kind,  the 
violet  rays  iti  the  refracted  pencil  will  tend  farther  away 
from  the  axis  than  the  red  rays  do,  and  thus  will  tend 
towards  the  latter;  the  ray  Qn>,  for  example,  taking  the 
direction  cV.  It  is  conceivable,  therefore,  that  thecmva- 
tuivs  of  the  surfaces  of  the  lenses  may  be  such  that,  in 
each  incident  pencil,  the  red  and  violet  rays  (the  extreme 

•  >f  the  spectrum)  shall  after  roll-action  unite  at  the 
place  of  the  image  ;  and  thus  the  fringe  due  to  these  two 
colours  may  be  destroy  ed. 

the  t\vo  kinds  of  glass  dispersed  the  different  eolour- 
makiiig  rays  in  the  same  proportions,  their  contrary  i 
Cons  would  i-aiise  all  the  colours  to  be  united  on  tin-  imacc 
formed  at  K:    no  U\o  kinds  of  glass  h.i\c  Imv, . 
yet  discovered  which  possess  tin  ty;    and  therefore 

the  red  and  violet  images  only  are  united :    fortunaidv  in 
uniting  the  extreme  rays  of  the  spectrum,  the  otln 
brought  so  nea.  .  that  for  ordinary  purpose^  the 

image  is  as  i  .  .•  limn  colour  as  can  be  desired. 

From  the  description  just  given  it  will  he  evident  that 
the   place  F,  of  an  image  in  which  tin:  dispersion  of  the 
:d  violet  rays  is  corrected,  may  be  dc  tciimned  on  ob- 
taining, from  tin-    common  theorems  of   optics,  algebraic 
expressions  &*  I  •  nirtlis  uf  tin-  compound  leu-  lor 

each  of  those   kinds  of  lisrht,  and  making  the  < 
equal  to  one  another.     Tims,  supposing  Iv  ami  S  to  he  the 
radii  of  the  <  <  e»  of  a  d. 

crown  glass,  and  i>  the  index  of  refra.  II.H,  .  one 

kind  ,  red.  lor  r 
the  pencils  of  incident  light  are  paralK  I  to  one  another  and 

through  the  lens  very  near  the  n\is  ;  then,  liv  a  fun- 
damental theorem  iu  optics  we  have,  F  being  the  distance 


T  t:  L 

from   the  focu*  to  the   len»,  which   i,   m  ;ihout 

thiokn. 


but  since,  in  the  present  case,  the  lens  may  be  supposed 

to  be  isosceles  ( R=S>,  we  have    V  =  — — — . 

-  (*  -  1  / 


and 


In  like  manner  the  focal  length  F',  of  a  double  c 

us  of  flint   glass,    It'  being  the  ladiu-, 

id  MMhe  index  of  refraction  for  red  ual   to 

.•1TY7'  "lu  ">'*  being  incident  near  the  axis. 
Hence,  by  a  fundamental  theorem  in  optics, 
K'  It          H'  H  HR' 


and  this  last  term  is  the  local   length  of  the  compound 
lens  for  red  rays.     Its  re.  .   e.jnal  to  "'  M  ~    ^- 

2T/-1) 
—  j^  —  ,  which,  in  the  al^<  )>i  aie  'lie  sum   of  the 

reciprocals  of  the  focal  lengths  of  the  separate  lenses. 

On  writing  p+cp,  and  n'+fp'  in  place  of  u  and  /»'  in 
the  litst  expression,  we  have  for  the  reciprocalof  the  focal 
length  of  the  compound  lens  for  violet,  rn 


R 


In  an  achromatic  telescope  the  focal  lengths  of  the 
compound  lens  for  red  and  s  iolet  rays  are  to  be  eipial  to 
one  another;  and  it  is  evident  that  tlus  condition  will  In 

tu       ta' 

fulfilled  when  ^-  --^-,  =  0.     From  this  equation  we  ha\e 

R  :  R':ii>  I  fy':  then,  dividing  the  antecedents  by  u—l 
and  the  consequents  bv/i'—  1,  we   have  [DlsPBRSIONj   the 

ratio  of  the  focal  lengths  of  the  two  len.-es  equal  to  that  ol 
the  dispersive  powers  of  the  two  kinds  of  class;  and  L 
the  focal  length  of  the  compound  lei 

ire,  those   of  the  sepaiatc   K-n-  .enlly   the 

radii  of  their  surfaces,  may  be  obtained. 

In  order  to  diminish  the  spherical  aberration,  the  object- 
classes  uf  achromatic  telescopes  lVei|ucntl\ 
lenses,  of  which  the  first  and  third  are  of  the  kind  ci 
double  convex,  and  are  formed  of  crown  glass,  whiK 
second  is  double  com-a\c,  and  made  of  flint  clas,.     la  (bis 

lince  the  index  of  refi  action  is  the  same  for  the  third 
lens  as  for  the  first,  if  the  radius  of  each  surface  of  I  he  third 
lens  be  H".  the  reciprocal  of  the  principal  focal  len-t 
the  separate  lenses  for  red  rays  will  be 

2d*-l)         2C/-1)  SOi-1) 

R      '  ~       R'  ~  '  a  ' 

these  being  added  together,  their  sum  will   be  the  reci- 
procal  of  the  focal  leiicth  of  the  compound  K: 
kind  of  light.     On  substituting  in  the  above  leinis.  ,i  +  i'/, 
for  /j.  andi/-|-(V  for  /»',  in  oiderto  obtain  the  reciprocals  of 
the  focal    length   for  \iolet  ray-,  we   shall   ha\e,  when  the 

chroma 

**•       V  ,,,  (  l  ,    1  \    V 

R  ~  Ti'  +  R"  =  °'  "r  H  (H+  H")  =ST- 

tu! 
But  7—  is  known  from  tables  of  the  refractive  indict  - 

dill'crenl  kinds  of  glass:  tlu-refore  if  any  convenient  re- 

lation between  the  radii  of  two  of  the  leiV.  .  med, 

the   values  of  all  (lie    mdii,   and   coilsec|ueiitly   the 
K  iigllis  of  the  scM-ial  lenses,  nmy  be  found. 

The  investigation  of  formula;  for  the  correction  of  the 

spherical    aberration   is   a   p  .d   is 

V  a   lit   subject   except  for  a  mathematical  work  :   it 

-itcd   with    great    p.  n's    •  Me- 

>l    Philosophy,'  vol.  ni.,   from   \\hieh   the  -nbjoim-d 

•n  is  borrowed,  the  notation  only  hi  i  ,|   for 

that  which  USD   in   t!i 

i.  r:\saud  S  .      If  a  compound    object-glass 

-s  and  M 

Hint  cla-s,  ;u.d  a  i.iy  <ii  hcht  be  in- 

.'idenl,  \ipon  ;ner  in  a  direc- 

tion parallel  to  the  axis,  at  a  distance  from  thence,  which 


TEL 


159 


TEL 


is  expressed  by  f ;  the  distance  from  the  lens,  of  the  point 
at  which  the  ray  after  refraction  will  meet  the  axis,  is 
f-f\q+q'J,  where  /  is  the  focus  for  parallel  rays  in- 
finitely near  the  axis,  and  may  be  found  as  above,  and 
'•(g+g')  is  the  aberration.  Here,  neglecting  the  thick- 
ness of  the  lenses  and  the  interval  between  them, 


(R  and  S  being  the  radii  of  the  two  surfaces  of  the  convex 
lens,)  and 

u'-l 


q'  =  - 


_ 
** 


4iy+m  a* , 

F.RW   )   2  : 


where  F  is  the  principal  focus  of  the  convex  lens,  and 

R'S' 
n'ss  — •=-,— -57;  (R'  and  S'  being  the  radii  of  the  surfaces 

of  the  concave  lens.) 

It  is  evident  that,  in  order  to  correct  the  spherical  aber- 
ration, the  values  of  the  radii  of  the  surfaces  must  be  de- 
termined from  the  equation  q+q'  =  Q.  This  equation  is 
however  indeterminate,  because  it  contains  several  un- 
known quantities ;  but  it.  may  be  made  subject  to  certain 
conditions  by  which  there  will  remain  only  one :  for  ex- 
ample, the  different  radii  of  the  lenses  may  be  made  to 
have  any  given  relation  to  one  another,  so  that  the  values 
of  all,  in  terms  of  any  one,  may  be  substituted  for  them. 
In  the  values  of  q  and  q'  the  terms  represented  by  n  and  n' 
are  respectively  equal  to  half  the  radii  of  equivalent  isos- 
celes lenses ;  and  it  has  been  shown,  in  the  investigation 
concerning  the  chromatic  aberration,  that  these  are  to  one 

V 

another  as  fy  to  fy' ;  consequently  n'=  n  — ,  and  there- 
fore «'  is  known  in  terms  of  n.  If  again  it  be  supposed 
that  R'=S,  or  that  the  nearest  surfaces  of  the  convex  and 
concave  lenses  have  equal  curvatures,  the  value  of  R  may 
be  found  from  the  equation  q+q'=Q,  in  terms  of  n,  by  a 
quadratic  equation. 

Sir  John  Herschel,  in  a  paper  on  the  aberration  of  com- 
pound lenses  and  object-slaves  'Phil.  Tranx.,  1821),  has 
also  investigated  formula!  for  the  values  of  the  chromatic 
and  spherical  aberrations;  and  M.  Littrow,  of  Vicnn:i. 
setting  out  with  Euler's  formula  for  spherical  aberration 
(Diiyptn'rn,  torn,  iii.,  17G9),  and  introducing  in  it  the 
values  of  the  focal  lengths  of  two  lenses  so  that  the  former 
aberration  may  be  corrected,  has  obtained  two  equations 
from  which  the  radii  of  the  four  surfaces  may  be  deter- 
mined by  such  conditions  as  may  be  thought  convenient. 
(Memoirs  of  the  Astrrm.  Soc.,  vol.  iii., part  2.)  In  solving 
the  problem  relating  to  the  determination  of  the  four  radii, 
Professor  Littrow  uses  a  method  which  possesses  some 
facilities  for  computation,  and  on  that  account  it  has  been 
adopted  in  the  followinjr  process. 

The  radii  of  the  sur!';i<-es  of  the  first  lens  may  be  deter- 
mined on  the  supposition  that  the  whole  refraction  of  light 
in  passing  through  the  lens  is  a  minimum  :  that  is,  that 
the  incident  and  emergent  rays  make  equal  angles  with 
the  surfaces,  or  with  those  radii.  Thus  let  a  ray  PQ  be 
incident  on  the  first  surface  in  a  direction  parallel  to  th< 
axis  XY  of  the  lens,  and  infinitely  near  it ;  and  RQT  being 


and  -5-  a+a  —  (=T'QF)  is  the  angle  of  incidence  on  the 
second  surface  :  and,  by  optics,  1  is  to  /i  as  this  last  angle 
is  to  ^  +  a(/j-l),  the  angle  of  refraction  (=T'QF')  at 

the   second   surface.     But  by  hypothesis,   this  angle   is 

R     2-« 

to  be  equal  to  a  ;  therefore  -g-  =  -  .     Again,  by  optics, 

-pa  i 

,-r^,  .  -  is  equal  to  the  focal  length  of  the  lens  ;  and 
R+S  ft-l  ^ 

supposing   this  to   be   equal   to  unity,  we   obtain  -g-= 

~M  +  1  :  equating  this  last  term  with  -  -  above,  we  get 
—  1  /* 


p  — 


T"' 


the  radius  (=R)  produced,  of  that  surface  let  t'.e  angle 
PQT  of  incidence  be  represented  by  «;  then  p  '.\'.',n'.- 

'  —  HQF.  the  angle  of  refraction  at  that  surface).  Tint  i 
R'QT'  be  the  radius  (=S)  produced,  of  the  -croud  surface 
then,  in  the  triangle  R'QH,  neglecting  the  thickness  of  the 

R 
l«ns  and  substituting  arcs  fortheir  sines,  S  ;  R  ::  a  •  -go 


R  = 


;  whence  S  = 


Therefore   the   two 


radii  are  found  on  the  supposition  that  the  focal  distance 
of  the  lens  is  unity. 

Now  PQT  being  the  angle  of  incidence  as  above,  and 
QF  the  direction  of  the  ray  after  one  refraction,  we  have 

by  optics,  sin.  RQF  =  -     --  ;    and  by  trigonometry, 
n  the  triangle  RQF, 


UP  =  R  .„„  HP  „ 


also,  respresenting  the  thickness  MN  of  the  lens  by  I, 
sin.  RQF 

Then,  by  trigonometry,  in  the  triangle  R'QF, 
we  get  SF+gS~*  sin.  P'QF  =  sin.  T'QF ; 

Q'T'     |     O / 

Consequently  by  optics,  — ^ n  sin.  P'QF  =  sin.  T'QF', 

or  the  sine  of  the  angle  of  refraction  at  the  second  surface. 
Now  T'QF'-T'QF+P'QF  =  QF'M,  or  the  angle  which 
the  second  refracted  ray  makes  with  the  axis  of  the  lens  : 
but  by  trigonometry,  in  the  triangle  R'QF',  we  have 


Suppose  next  a  double  concave  lens,  the  centres  of 
'  surfaces  are  at  R"  and  R'",  and  whose  radii  are  R 
and  S',  to  be  applied  to  the  convex  lens  on  the  side  N  : 
then,  neglecting  the  thickness  of  the  concave  lens  and  the 
distance  between  the  two,  and  supposing  QF",  QF'"  to  be 
the  directions  of  the  ray  of  light  after  the  third  and  fourth 
refractions  respectively,  we  have  in  the  triangle  R"Q*  ,  try 
IriiTonometry, 


+        sin.  P'QF'  =  sin.  T"QF', 

or  the  sine  of  incidence  on  the  first  surface  of  the  second 
lens  ;  and  by  optics, 


an.  P'QF'  =  sin.  T"QF". 

But  P'QF'  -  (T"QF'  -  T"QF")  =  P'QF";  and  in  the  tri- 
angle R"QF",  by  trigonometry,  we  have 


/sin  T"QF" 
wherefore  NF"  =  R'"(  SSTFJJjP  -1)  '   and  considcrinS 

NR'"  to  be  equal  to  S',  R'"F"  will  be  equal  to  NF"-S'. 
Again,  in  the  triangle  R'"QF",  we  have  by  trigonometry, 

NF"—  8' 
sin.  R'"QF"=  —  gr—  si"-  QF"N 

for  the  sine  of  incidence  on  the  fourth  surface  ;  therefore, 
by  optics, 

H^V  «n-  QF"N  =  sm.  R'"QF'", 

>•>        • 

the  sine  of  refraction  at  the  fourth  surface  :  then 
QF"N-(T'"QF"-T'"QF'")=P/QF'",  or  =QF'"N; 


T  E  L 

and  by  trigonometry,  in  the  triangle  QF'"R'",  we  have 

,„  «,',  «»•  "'"QP"1 

=  a 


160 


TEL 


sin.  gK'"N  ' 

sin.  R'"QF'" 
sjn   g 

the  focal  distance  of  the  compound  lens. 

These  values  being  reduced  to  what  they  become  when 
the  incident  ray  I'Q  is  infinitely  near  the  axis  of  the 
lenses;  that  is,  when  the  angles  are  substituted  for  their 
sines,  there  may  be  obtained 

It'     „-!        S  *S  _i 


MF 


N  I  " 


. 

NF'~ 

i 

'  an 


MF-/ 

y      sy 

NF" 


, 

~ 


By  means  of  the«c  equations,  eliminating  the  quantities 
MF,"  NF',  and  NF".  and  neglecting  powers  of  /  above  the 

first.  there  may  he  obtained  a  value  of     m:    then  diffe- 


rentiating tliis  value  with  respect  to  fi.  ft',  and  NF"',  and 
making  the  resulting  value  of  the  differential  of  NK"' 
equal  to  zero  (which  is  a  condition  necessar)'  in  order  that 
the  chromatic  dispersion  may  be  corrected  for  rays  near 

the  axis),  there  may  be  obtained  a  value  of  jr>  +  g>.  Again 

on  substituting  -—  -  for  R,  and  -^£-~ 
found,  there  will  result 


for  8,  as  above 


Now  the  value  of  NF'"  may  be  directly  computed  from 
the  formula;  first  investigated  ;  afterwards  assuming  dif- 
ferent values  of  R',  and  substituting  them  in  the  last 
equation,  let  the  corresponding  values  of  S'  be  found. 
With  these  values  of  S'  find  corresponding  values  of 


(sin  R'"QF"  "\ 
'  QK"'N  +1  )  '  ^^  **'  °^  ^'"'  anl^  proceeding 
according  to  the  usual  methods  of  trial  and  error,  there 
will  at  length  be  found  a  value  of  NF'"  agreeing  with 
that  which  was  computed  by  the  direct  process :  the  four 
radii  will  then,  consequently,  be  determined. 

Investigations  relating  to  the  dispersion  of  light,  and 
rules  for  computing  the  radii  of  curvature  for  achromatic 
object-glasses,  will  also  be  found  in  an  essay  by  Mr.  P. 
Barlow  of  Woolwich,  printed  in  the  '  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions' for  lsJ7. 

Though  on  thus  uniting  the  red  and  violet  light  by 
lenses  of  crown  and  flint  glass  the  chromatic  dispersion 
is  in  a  great  measure  corrected,  yet  when  the  image  is 
examined,  it  is  found  to  be  surrounded  by  a  green-coloured 
fringe.  The  difficulty  of  procuring  flint  glass  of  sufficient 
purity  is  also  a  serious  impediment  to  the  perfection  of 
achromatic  lenses  for  telescopes ;  and  though  great  ra- 
wards  have  been  offered  for  glass  which  shall  be  free 
from  defects,  the  exertions  of  artists  have  hitherto  been 
almost  without  success.  Occasionally  however  flint  glass 
is  obtained  nearly  homogeneous,  and  the  opticians  of 
Germany  appear,  in  this  respect,  to  have  been  more  fortu- 
nate than  those  of  England. 

The  late  Dr.  Kitchie  obtained  a  disc  of  flint  glass  which 
was.  bv  Mr.  Dollond,  formed  into  an  object-glass  nearly 
7 J  inches  in  diameter.  It  was  applied  to  a  telescope  12 
feet  long,  and  bore  a  magnifying  power  equal  to  700  times : 
it  is  said  to  have  had  scarcely  any  spherical  aberration, 
and  to  have  been  very  free  from  colour.  (Mem.  A»tr. 
.Soc.,  1840.) 

In  the '  Transactions'  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh, 
1791,  there  is  given  an  account  of  some  experiments  made 
by  Dr.  Blair,  from  which  he  was  led  to  the  discovery  of  a 
fluid  medium,  which,  being  applied  between  lenses  of 
crown  glass,  renders  the  compound  lens  completely  achro- 
matic. By  adding  liquid  muriatic  acid  to  chloride  of 
antimony,  or  sal  ammoniac  to  chloride  of  mercury,  he 
succeeded  in  obtaining  a  spectrum  inmhich  the  coloured 
ravs  in  each  pencil  followed  the  same  law  of  dispersion  as 
takes  place  in  crown  glass.  Therefore,  confining  a  small 


quantity  of  either  of  these  himids  between  the  convex 
.surfaces  of  two  plano-con\e\  lenses,  or  between  those  of 
a  piano  and  a  convex  meniscus  K-i.-.  of  crown  gla*.  Pi 
Blair  obtained  an  object-glass  in  which  the  chromatio 
aberration  was  entirely  destroyed ;  and  he  is  said  to  have 
thus  constructed  one  of.)  inches  local  length, and  as  much 
a-  :>  inchi-s  in  diameter  or  aperture.  Object-gkoe*  10 
made  were  lor  some  years  on  sale  in  1-ondon  ;  hut  either 
from  the  crystallization  of  the  fluids,  or  the  negligence 
of  the  artists  in  compounding  them,  the  telescopes  hecamc 
imperfect,  and  gradually  fell  into  disuse. 

l)r.  Sir  l)a\id  Jircwster,  in  his  '  Treatise  on  New  Phi- 
losophical Instruments,'  recommends  the  employment  of 
sulphuric  acid  and  oil  of  cassia  for  the  composition  of 
fluid  lenses,  by  which  the  secondary  spectrum  may  he 
destroyed  ;  the  acid  being,  of  all  known  substances,  that 
which  exerts  the  greatest,  and  the  oil  that  which  exerts 
the  least  action  on  the  green  coloured  rays.  Then'. 
tion  of  the  chromatic  dispersion  hy  means  of  fluids  has 
also  recently  l>een  attempted  by  Mr"  Barlow,  who,  in  com- 
bination with  a  convex  lens  of  crown  glass,  used  a  couca\  e 
lens,  consisting  of  sulphuret  of  carbon  between  two  ur: 
(like  that  of  a  watch  ,  of  each  of  which  the  two  faces  were 
of  equal  curvature  :  this  fluid  has  nearly  the  same  refrac- 
tive index  as  flint  glass,  and  its  dispersive  power  is  more 
than  double  that  of  the  latter  material.  The  crown  glass 
lens  and  the  fluid  lens,  instead  of  being  close  together. 
were  placed  at  a  considerable  distance  from  one  another, 
by  which  disposition  an  increased  magnifying  power  might 
have  been  obtained  without  increasing  the  length  of  the 
telescope.  Probably  from  imperfections  in  the  fan;: 
the  glasses,  the  images  of  objects  were  found  to  be  not 
well  defined  ;  and  the  construction,  in  consequence,  has 
not  been  adopted. 

The  image  formed  by  the  great  speculum  of  a  reflecting 
telescope  is  free  from  the  inconveniences  attending  the 
chromatic  aberration  of  light ;  for  the  angles  of  incidi  nee 
being  equal  to  that  of  reflection,  in  any  pencil  coming 
from  a  point  in  an  object,  all  the  rays  will  converge  to 
one  point  at  the  place  where  the  image  is  formed.  If  the 
surface  of  the  speculum  were  that  which  is  formed  by  the 
revolution  of  a  parabola  about  its  axis,  then  all  the  rays  in 
any  pencil  proceeding  from  a  very  remote  object,  as  one 
of  the  celestial  bodies,  and  being  incident  on  the  speculum 
in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  axis,  would,  by  the  nature  of 
the  parabola,  converge  accurately  in  the  focus  of  the 
curve;  and  on  this  account,  an  effort  is  always  made  to 
give  to  the  reflecting  surface  of  the  speculum  a  parabo- 
loidal  figure.  The  advantage  does  not  how  ever  hold  good 
with  the  pencils  which  fall  on  the  mirror  in  directions 
oblique  to  the  axis;  and  therefore  that  figure  is  of  less 
importance,  when  the  telescope  is  to  he  used  for  viewing 
terrestrial  objects,  than  when  it  is  to  be  employed  lor  l 
nomica.1  purposes  :  for  then,  on  account  of  the  great  dis- 
tance of  the  objects,  the  several  pencils  of  light  fall  on  the 
mirror  with  a  very  small  obliquity  to  its  axis. 

The  telescope  imented  by  Galileo  consisted  of  one  con- 
vex lens  AB,  and  of  a  concave  lens  CD ;  the  distance  be- 
tween them  being  equal  to  the  difference  between  the 
focal  lengths  of  the  two  lenses.  In  this  instrument,  if  the 


object  OP  were  so  remote  that  the  raj's  in  each -pencil  of 
light  might  be  considered  as  parallel  to  one  another,  there 
would  hi'  formed  at  its  principal  focus  an  inverted  iinairc 
op,  of  that  object  by  Hie  union  of  the  rays  in  each  pencil 
in  one  point;  then  the  concave  Un*  being  placed  between 
AB  and  that  image,  in  such  a  situation  that  its  principal 
focus  may  coincide  with  the  place  of  that  image,  th< 
in  each  pencil  will,  by  the  refracting  power  of  the  lens,  be 
made  to  emerge  parallel  to  one  another;  and  in  this 
case,  by  the  optical  properties  of  the  eye,  distinct  vision 
is  obtained. 

The  line  OXo  is  the  axis  of  the  pencil  of  light  from  O ; 
and,  as  this  passes  through  the  ci  ntw  \  of  the  lens  AH 
without  refraction,  the  anirle  X\«  is  equal  to  half  the 
angle  under  which  OP  would  be  observed  by  an  eye  at  X 


TEL 


161 


TEL 


when  no  telescope  is  interposed,  while  (inn  parallel  to  Yo 
being  the  direction  of  a  ray  in  that  axis  after  refraction  in 
CD)  ZYo  is  half  the  angle  under  which  OP  is  seen  in  the 
telescope  :  the  ratio  between  these  angles  is  therefore  the 
measure  of  the  magnifying  power  of  the  telescope ;  anc 
since  the  angles  are  to  one  another  as  YZ  is  to  XZ,  nearly 

XZ 

it  follows  that  =™  nearly  expresses  the  magnifying  power 

This  is  the  construction  of  what  is  called  an  opera  glass, 
and  the  Galilean  telescope  is  now  used  chiefly  for  viewing 
objects  within  a  theatre,  or  an  apartment,  since  if  consider- 
able magnifying  power  were  given  to  it  the  extent  of  the 
field  of  view  would  be  very  small. 

A  simple  telescope  may  also  be  constructed  by  means  ol 
two  convex  lenses,  which  are  placed  at  a  distance  from 
one  another  equal  to  the  sum  of  their  foeal  lengths.  For 
the  imasre  being  formed  at  the  focus  Z,  of  the  fens  AB, 
which  is  nearest  to  the  object,  as  in  the  Galilean  telescope, 


and  being  supposed  to  be  a  plane  surface,  the  light  also 
bcinir  supposed  to  be  homogeneous;  the  rays  of  each 
pencil,  after  crossing  at  the  focus  and  proceeding  from 
thence  in  a  divergent  state,  on  being  allowed  to  fall  upon 
tin  surface  of  the  second  lens  CD,  may  be  refracted  in  the 
latter  so  as  to  pass  out  from  thence  in  parallel  directions  ; 
and  consequently  distinct  vision  of  the  object  may  be  ob- 
tained by  an  eye  situated  so  as  to  receive  the  pencils. 

If  Xo  be  the  direction  of  the  axis  of  a  pencil  of  lisrhf 
coining  from  O,  one  extremity  of  the  object  OP,  which  is 
supposed  to  be  so  remote  that  all  the  rays  in  each  pencil 
maybe  considered  as  parallel  to  one  another;  then  the 
anirlc  ZXo  is  half  the  angle  under  which  the  object  Ol' 
would  lie  seen  by  an  eye  at  X  without  a  telescope,  while 
the  rays  of  that  pencil  entering  the  eye  at  K  in  the  direc- 
tion D'E,  which  is  parallel  to  oY,  the  angle  'L\<>  is  half 
the  angle  under  which  the  same  object  is  seen  when 
viewed  through  the  telescope.  Now  these  angles  are  to 

one  another  nearly  as  ZY  to  ZX ;  therefore  ^FTF  will  ex- 
press nearly  the  magnifying  power  of  the  instrument.  A> 
the  pencils  of  light  fromO  and  P  cross  the  axis  of  the  eve 
at  E  before  they  are  united  on  the  retina,  the  image  of  the 
object  OP  is  formed  in  the  eye  in  a  position  contrary  to 
that  which  is  formed  when  the  object  is  viewed  without 
the  telescope  ;  therefore,  on  looking  through  the  latter,  the 
object  OP  appears  to  be  inverted. 

But  the  image  formed  at  op,  instead  of  being  a  plane,  is 
nearly  on  a  portion  of  a  spherical  surface  whose  centre  is 
at  X  ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  in  order  that  the  ray.s  in 
each  pencil  may  after  refraction  in  CD  be  parallel  to  one 
another,  they  ought  to  diverge  from  a  point  nearly  in  the 
surface  of  a  sphere  whose  centre  is  at  Y,  the  two  spherical 
surfaces  being  in  contact  at  Z  :  consequently  when  the 
distance  between  the  lenses  is  such  that  the  crossing  of 
the  rays  in  a  pencil  parallel  to  the  axis  takes  place  exactly 
at  Z,  the  crossing  z  in  one  of  the  oblique  pencils  will  be 
at  a  certain  distance  from  the  point  z',  at  which  it  ought 
to  be  to  permit  the  rays  in  it  to  go  out  of  CD  parallel  to 
one  another  ;  the  rays  of  the  pencils  which  proceed  from 
the  margin  of  the  object  "will  not  then  emerge  parallel  to 
one  another,  and  consequently  that  margin  will  not  be 
distinctly  seen.  Moreover  from  the  unequal  refrangibility 
of  the  different  kinds  of  light,  the  rays  in  each  pencil  will 
be  decomposed  in  passing  through  the  lens  CD,  so  that 
though  the  chromatic  aberration  were  perfectly  corrected 
in  the  image  at  po,  it  would  exist  in  the  image  which  is 
formed  in  the  eye  by  the  rays  emerging  from  CD. 

The   spherical   aberration  can   only  be  diminished  by 
diminishing  the  inclination  at  which  the  rays  in  the  mar- 
ginal pencils  fall  upon  the  surface  of  the  lens  after  ha\ing 
•  the  focus  of  the  object-glass;  that  is,  by  using 
a  lens  of  le>-s  convexity  or  of  greater  focal  length  :  adding 

ond  eye-glass  in  "order  finally  to  render  the  n 
each  pencil  parallel  to  one  another.  Thus,  if  it,  be  required 
to  preserve  the  same  magnifying  power  and  field  of  view 
P.  C.,  No.  1508. 


as  might  be  obtained  with  any  single  eye-glass ;  let,  as 
before,  X  be  the  place  of  the  object-glass,  op  the  image 
formed  by  it,  and  let  CD  be  the  place  of  the  single  eye- 
glass :  then  draw  a  line  oQ  so  as  to  bisect  the  angle  DoY 

c 
P 


which  may  be  considered  as  the  whole  refraction  pro- 
duced by  the  lens  CD  :  let  G,  on  the  right  or  left  of  op,  be 
the  assumed  place  of  what  is  called  the  field-glass,  and 
draw  GH  perpendicular  to  XY,  the  axis  of  the  telescope, 
meeting  XD  in  H  ;  also  through  H  draw  MHK  parallel  to 
oQ,  cutting  Go,  or  Go  produced,  in  M :  again  draw  MN 
perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  telescope,  and  MR  paral- 
lel to  oY  ;  also  draw  RS  perpendicular  to  the  axis.  I^astly, 
draw  GU  parallel  to  oQ  to  meet  Xo  in  U,  and  UV  per- 
pendicular to  the  axis.  Then,  from  the  principles  of 
optics,  if  a  lens  be  placed  at  G,  having  its  focal  length 
equal  to  GV,  and  another  at  R,  whose  focal  length  is  RN  ; 
the  ray  XoH  will  by  refraction  in  the  first  lens  take  the 
direction  HS,  and  by  refraction  in  the  second  lens  it  will 
take  the  direction  ST  parallel  to  oY  or  DE :  thus  the  present 
visual  angle  STR  will  be  equal  to  DEY,  which  was  ob- 
tained with  the  single  eye-glass. 

Thjs  is  called  the  Huygenian  eye-piece,  and  it  is  that 
which  is  generally  used  for  astronomical  telescopes:  the 
object  seen  through  it  is  inverted,  as  in  the  last-mentioned 
telescope. 

If  the  places  G  and  R  of  the  two  eye-glasses  arc  given 
(GH  being  very  near  op ;  its  focal  length  being  also 
known1!,  and  it  be  required  to  find  the  focal  length  of  RS 
so  that  the  red  and  violet  rays  in  each  pencil  may  emerge 
from  it  parallel  to  one  another,  that  length  might  he  de- 
termined in  the  following  manner.  In  a  pencil  of  rays 
misMng  each  other  at  H,  let  H/»  be  the  direction  of  a 
mean  ray,  and  Hr,  Ht>  those  of  a  red  and  a  violet  ray ; 
these  last  will  make  with  one  another  an  angle  equal  to 


ibout  ^  of  the  angle  DHm,  which  may  be  supposed  to  be 
\nown.  Now,  by  optical  principles,  if  these  rays  are  to 
emerge  from  RS  in  directions  parallel  to  one  another,  the 
bcal  lengths  of  the  lens  for  red  and  violet  rays,  viz.  RF 
ind  R/must  be  to  one  another  as  28  to  27,  and  the  foci  F 
and  /  must  be  in  places  determined  by  perpendiculars 
drawn  to  the  axis  from  points  W  and  if,  in  which  the  line 
[IW  supposed  to  be  drawn  parallel  to  rr'  or  vv',  meets  Hr 
ind  IIu;  that  is,  by  finding  the  position  of  a  line  to  be 
drawn  from  R  to  cut  the  given  lines  H;-,  He,  so  that  RW 
may  be  to  R«'  as  28  to  27.  For  this  purpose,  having 
drawn  the  straight  line  HR,  the  angles  RHW,  RH«'  will 
ie  known  ;  let  them  be  represented  by  a  and  b  ;  also  let 
the  angle  HRW  be  represented  by  6 :  then  by  trigono- 
metry we  shall  have,  after  a  few  reductions,  27  cotan.  a  — 
28  cotan.  6  =  cotan.  0. 

In  order  to  afford  a  view  of  objects  in  the  same  position 

as  they  appear  to  have  when  seen  by  the  naked  eye,  a 

elescope  may  be  formed  with  three  lenses  besides  the 

object-glass.     In  the  construetion  of  this  instrument,  if 

attention  is  paid  only  to  the  rays  which  suffer  a  mean  re- 

..n,  the  first  eye-glass,  or  that  which  is  nearest  to  the 

>l>ject-end  of  the  telescope,  may  be  placed  between  the 

inauc,  formed  by  the  object  lens  and  the  eye,  with  the  foci 

of  the  two  lenses  in  coincidence  ;  by  this  means  the  rays 

n  each  pencil   will  emerge  from  the  first  eye-glass  m 

liiections  parallel  to  one  another,  those  of  the  pencils 

vhieh  are  oblique  to  the  axis  of  the  telescope  crossing 

each  other  at  some  point  in  the  latter  axis.     A  second 

•yc-glass  is  then  placed  at  any  convenient  distance  from 

he  former,  beyond  the  place  where  the  oblique  pencils 

ross  each  other;  and  by  this  lens  a  second   image  is 

VOL.  XXIV.— Y 


TEL 

formed  in  a  position  contrary  to  that  which  in  formed  by 
the  i'1  Lastly,  the'  third  1< 

ire   and  the  eve  at  a  di--  u   the 

r  equal  to  iU  local   length,  ti  -veial 

pencils  will  rmrrire  paiallcl  to  one  another,  and   an 

of  the  object  will  thus  be  formed  in  the  . 
The   ratio    between   the   angles   under  which  an  objrct 
woul'i  :<\  thr  naked  eye,  and  that  by  wlucli  it  is 

orapouuded  of  the  mtios  Of  the 
lengths  of  thr  several  leu-  if  F  be  t!;>' 


TEL 


, 

length   of   thr   object-lent,  /'./".  /'"'  those   of   ll. 
lenses,  reckoned  in  onlrr  towards  the  rye,  the  expression 


^-=7j,  will  denote  the  ma<-'iiifying  power. 


Uut  both  the  spherical  aberration   and  the.  chromatic 
dispersion  in  such  a  telescope  •  onsiderable;  and 

before  the  invention  of  th»  •chTOBMttia  object-glass,  Mr. 
Dollond  endeavoured  to  diminish  the  former  by  »n  c>c- 

.  as  to  divide   the 
'.y  equally   bruvrcn    them. 
not  no\v  u  Mr.  Dollond  suc- 

^d  at  length  in  constructing  telescopes  with  four  eye- 
glasses, from  which  both  distortion  ami  10  re- 
moved as  much  perhaps  as  a  renu>\:il  i-  ; 

This  is  accomplished  by  placing  i 
yond  the  imairr  formed  by  the  object-glass,  and  at 
tance  from  it  less  than  the  focal  length  ef  th;  • 
bv  this  disposition  the  ray*  of  mean  refrangibihty  in  each 
.1  which  diverge*  from  the  image  are  not,  alter  re- 
fraction, parallel  to  one  another,  but  noon  with  diminished 
di>ci.  i  little  way  beyond  the   place   where   the 

of  the  oblique  pencils  cross  the  axis  of  the  t*l< 
is   placed   the  »ecoud  eye-L'lasss  whic.li  is  of  Biich 
length  that  the  mean  refrangible  rays  in  each  pencil 
after  passim;  through  it,  meet  in  a  point,  and  thus  a  .-eeoiii 
image  of  the  objrct  is  formed  near  the  eve:    the  use  of 
lenses,  therefore,  is  to  cause  the  second  image  to 
be  formed  by  a  gradual  convergence  of  the  rays  in  eacl 
pencil.     But  the  several  pencils  of  rays  are  intercepted  by 
the  third  eye-glass  (commonly  called  the  field-glass ,,  am 
the  second'  image  is  thereby  formed  rather  nearer  to  the 
first  than  it  would  be  without  such  field-lens:   from  this 
image  the  rays  in  each  pencil  diverge,  and  by  the  refrac- 
tive power  of  the  fourth  eye-glass  they  are  made  to  enter 
the  eye  in  parallel  directions:  thus  distinct  vision  of  the 
external  object  is  obtained.     The  field-glass  might  have 
been    placed    between   the   eye  and   the   second   image 
a_s  in  the  Huygenian  eye-piece  before  described;  but.  tin 
ahrnatinn  arising  from  the  spherical  form  of  the  glasses  is 
a  little  less  by  the  construction  just  mentioned. 

Now,  in  each  pencil,  the  red   :uul  violet  rays  which  hat 
formed  by  the  object-glass,  and 

which   there   eroded   each   other,  go  on   from   thriicr   di- 
verging from  each  other  till,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
.  i'   the   telescope,  they  fall   upon    the  (surface  of  the 
'Her    pas»i  Ii    this  lens,   the 

\iolel  ray,  which  is  always   more  refi acted  than  the  red 
gradually  converges  towards  the  latter,  and  at  length 
n  some  pla.  of  that  at.  which  the  rays  of 

rrfi action  unite    to  form    the  second  image.    The 

to  IU  the  third  or  field-:. 
at  ll 

of  t!  in  parallel 

direr'  !   a  vii  w  •  :rly  or 

who,  ',ur. 

In  formii  -  it  may  be  ob- 

served that,  they  slm  ill  allow  the  incident 

and  emergent  pencils  of  ia\s  to  be  ncaily  equally  i 
to  tli.  '  '  and  fourth  eye- 

'  side  of  that 

which   is  's    the 

Litter,  and  that  of  the  ol! 

It  bait  been  said  above  that,   i 

speculum  .  of  the  t  irpote 

of  t!  .lass  in  refractin 

us  ;  and  the  manner  in  which,  r 

•  (I  to  the  rye  i 

diagram  r<  B  longitudinal  .ectioii 

through  the  axis  XY  of  the  instrument,  which  Lt  supposed 


containing  two  lenses.       MN  is  the  a1  '   the 

great  speeulnni,  which   bus  n  rircnlai  'ti.  nih,  at 

fl  is  a  small  spendum.  concave  like  tin1  former, 

:.ice    beiiiL'  It    is 

connected  with  the  side  of  the  tube  AH   l>\  the  arm  UK. 
and  is  capable  of  brin^  moved  in  the  direction  of  the 
XY  by  means  of  the  rod  I'S :    the  latter  passes  through  a 
knob  Q,  which  is  fixed  to  the  side  of  the  tube,  and  works 
in  the  knob  H,  which  passes  through  an  oM 
in  tho  side  of  the  tube,  and  is  nttachcrt  to  the  pan 
the  ami  HK.    This  movement  is  given  to  thr  small  n; 
in  order  that  its  locus  may  be  made  to  coincide  with  the 
place  of  the  image  formed   by  the  iri-eat  speculum;  that 
image  bring  at  different  d:-  cord- 

ing to  the  distance  of  the  >  the  oliservrr. 

Lei  ()  be  the  upper  part  of  an  object,  and  let  ON  be  the 
direction  of  the  rnys  in  a  pencil  of  light  diverging  from  <  > : 
the  rays  of  this  pencil  will,  after  •.  -,.(,  ,|  ,,t  N. 

to  i,.  which  will  bo  the  lower  pnrt  of  the  image  ut. 
From  o  the  rays  in  the  pencil  diverge,  and  having  fallen 
upon  the  ratal]  mirror  at  n,  the\  <>m  thence 

towards  the  eye-piece    KF :    having   passed    through  the 
orifice  in/t,  they  fall  on  the  lens  at  F.  by  which  tli, 
made  to  unite  at  ;<.  where  an  in 

formed.  From  j>  the  rays  in  the  same  pencil  again  di- 
vt-ige,  and,  falling  on  the  lens  at  K,  they  are  made  to 

v  ill  parallel  directions,  so  that  the  c\e  is  riiab. 
obtain  distinct  \ision  of  the  object   in  the  -  ion  as 

if  the  latter  were    viewed   bv  the  naked   rjr. 

hring  reflected  at  ;/.  miirht  with  a  due  corn-ax 
the  smaller  mirror  have  united,  as  at  />',  in  front  of  the 
great   mirror,   and   the   second   image   might  have 

d  at  ii1!/ :    in  this  case  the  ia\s  in  each  pencil. 

ng  one  another,  would  have  fallen  in  a  divergent 
state  on  the  lens  at  F,  and  then,  by  the  refract, 
of  both  lenses  they  would  have  entered  the  eye  in  parallel 
directions  :-.  Thr  positions  of  thr  ICIIM.-.  at  F  and 

1  the  curvatures  of  their  surfaces,  aie  d  ac- 

cording to  the  method  of  Huygens ;  and  the  construction 
differs  in  no  respect  from  that  which  has  been  described  in 
speaking  of  the  r\r-piecei«  of  dioptric  tc 

The  magnifying  power  of  a  reflecting  telescope  of 

Gy 

kind  is  expressed  by  the.  forum!:  in  which  \z  ii 

••al  length  of  the  great  speculum,  Gy  is  the  distance 
of  tin  - -ulum  fiom  the  image  /.</,  \;/  is  the 

length  of  the  second  cM'-gla*s.  and  G-  is  the  focal  1< 
of  the  -mall  speculum  for  parallel  i: 

In  ;dl   mirror  • 

made  .  d  it   is  pi.1.- 

alum    MX    bri'orr    the    ii: 
formed;    t!  each  i«.'ncil   conse<iurntly   fall   in  a 

lirior,  and. 
.oriii  the  image  i 
refrae!  •  t  eye-c  '.ass  F.    It  : 

with  rijual   magnifying  power,  will  be  shorter 

than   the  Gregorian   '  ioie  than  twice  the 

focal  1>  le  small  speculum  ;  and  it  may  added  that, 

grcr,  the  spherical  aberration   >  d  by 

V-  two  mirrors. 

.c  one  con 

Jin  at.  the  boll  .   ill  each  pencil 

'it,  thr  ra-  >  a  COIIM 


.h  a  Hi 

of  the  tube  AH. 
open  end  of  the.  tube. 


:  iree.  fixed  in  the  side, 
airror;  thatU  near  the 


TEL 


Ifi3 


TEL 


The  great  telescope  constructed  by  Herschel  differs 
from  the  Newtonian  telescope  only  in  having  no  small 
mirror.  The  surface  of  the  great  speculum,  which  is  4 
feet  in  diameter,  has  a  small  obliquity  to  the  axis  XY,  so 
that  the  image  formed  by  reflection  from  it  falls  near  the 
lower  side  of  the  tube  at  its  open  end:  nt  this  place  there 
is  a  sliding  apparatus  which  carries  a  tube  containing  the 
eye-glasses.  The  observer  in  viewing,  is  situated  at  the 
open  end  of  the  tube,  with  his  back  to  the  object,  and  he 
looks  directly  towards  the  centre  of  the  speculum,  the 
magnitude  of  which  is  such  that  the  rays  intercepted  by 
his  head,  in  coming  from  the  object,  do  not  in  any  sensible 
degree  diminish  the  brightness  of  the  image. 

Formerly  the  great  speculum  of  a  reflecting  telescope 
was  pressed  into  its  cell  by  means  of  springs  attached  to 
the  interior  side  of  the  brass  plate  at  A:  but  the  vibra- 
tions of  the  spring*  were  found  to  cause  tremulous  mo- 
tions in  the  image  at  the  focus  of  the  mirror;  and  this 
(.•fleet  was  so  great  as  to  render  reflecting  telescopes  in- 
ferior to  those  of  the  dioptric  kind.  The  Reverend  Mr. 
Edwards,  who  detected  the  cause  of  the  tremors,  at  once 
removed  it  by  taking  away  the  springs  (Ncut.Alm..  1787); 
and  the  same  gentleman  further  improved  the  distinctness 
of  the  image  by  enlarging  the  aperture  to  which  the  eye 
is  applied.  It  lias  been  observed  also  that  when  the 
great  speculum  is  nearly  in  a  vertical  position,  and  con- 
sequently rests  on  its  lower  extremity,  its  weight  bends  it, 
nnd  thus  causes  a  change  in  the  figure  of  its  polished  sur- 
face :  on  this  account  it  is  recommended  thnt  the  specu- 
lum should  be  made  to  rest  on  two  small  wedges,  placed 
one  on  each  side,  at  about  45  degrees  from  the  lowest 
point. 

lifsides  the  power  of  magnifying  objects,  that  of  afford- 
ing distinct  vision  with  given  quantities  of  light  is  often 
tntiul  riMuiiute  in  a  telescope,  particularly  to  navnl 
men,  who  have  occasion  during  the  obscurity  of  the  night 
to  keep  in  view  a  ship  of  which  they  may  be  in  chase. 
This  subject  was  investigated  by  the  late  Sir  William 
Herschel,  and  an  account  of  his  researches  on  what  1m 
calls  the  'space-penetrating  power  of  telescopes'  was 
printed  in  the  I'hilnMi^hii-nl  Tninxurtioiix/nr  1S()0. 

Herschel  states  that  he  was  aware  of  this  property  of 
>pes  as  early  as  the  year  1777.  when  he  had  con- 
structed  a  Newtonian  telescope  with  a  speculum  whose 
focal  length  was  20  feet :  for,  on  directing  th"  instrument 
to  a  church-steeple  at  a  considerable  distance,  he  could 
distinguish  the  hour  by  the  clock,  though  with  the  naked 
eye  he  could  not  see  th'e  steeple  itself.  In  order  to  obtain 
a  formula  for  the  space-penetrating  power,  he  observes  that 
the  quantity  of  light  received  by  the  natural  eye  varies 
directly  with  the  aperture  of  the  "pupil,  or  with  tlip  square 
of  its  radius,  and  inversely  with  the  square  of  the  distance 
of  the  object:  also  that  the  quantity  of  light  transmitted 
by  a  telescope,  supposing  none  to  be  lost  in  the  reflections 
trom  the  mirrors,  or  in  refraction  through  the  lenses,  will 
vary  directly  with  the  square  of  the  radius  of  the  aperture 
and  inversely  with  the  square  of  the  distance  of  the  < 
But,  from  experiments  on  the  measure  of  light,  it  appears 
that  the  whole  quantity  incident  upon  a  plate  of  glan  m 
to  the  quantity  transmitted  through  it  as  1  is  to  •<);{« I.  or 
to  the  quantity  lost  as  1  is  to  -(.Mil!) ;  and  from  this,  the  whole 
quantity  of  incident  light  being  unity,  an  estimate  may  be 
made  of  the  quantity  of  light  transmitted  through  all'  the 
lenses  of  a  telescope  :  with  respect  to  the  quantity  lost  in 
reflection  from  mirrors  Sir  W.  Herschel  found  that  out  of 
1(10,000  incident  rays,  only  45,242  reached  the  eye  alter  two 
reflections. 

Let  the  quantity  of  incident  light  be  to  that  which 
arrives  at  the  eye  as  1  to  m ;  then  /•  beiuir  the  radius  of 

•Df 

the  pupil,  and  R  that  of  the  aperture  of  a  telescope,  — 

will  express  the  ratio  between  the  quantity  of  light  trans- 
mitted to  the.  naked  eye,  and  through  a  dioptric  telescope: 
therefore  the  space-penetrating  power  varying  with  the 

R     — 

square  root  of  the  quantity  of  light,  —  V'«  expresses  the 

penetrating  power.  With  respect  to  reflecting  telescopes, 
n  K'  be  the  radius  of  the  small  speculum,  the  pern- 

powerwill  be  expressed  by  i,/{m(R«-R«)}.  It  is  neces- 
sary fc  observe  that,  in  these  expressions,  it  w  supposed 


that  the  pencil  of  light  transmitted  by  the  telescope  is  not 
greater  than  the  pupil  of  the  eye. 

TELESCOPE,  HISTORY  OF  THE.  It  has  been  the 
fate  of  almost  every  instrument  by  which  science  has  been 
extended,  or  the  well-being  of  man  promoted,  that  the 
precise  epoch  of  its  invention,  and  even  the  name  of  the 
individual  to  whom  the  world  is  indebted  for  it,  are  alike 
unknown.  This  is  particularly  the  case  with  the  telescope, 
of  which  the  earliest  notices  are  that  it  existed  in  England 
ami  in  Holland  near  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  or  in  the 
beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

There  is  in  Strabo  a  passage  (hi.,  p.  180,  Falconer's  ed. ; 
p.  U8.  Casaub.)  in  which,  speaking  of  the  enlargement  of 
the  sun's  disk  at  his  rising  and  setting  in  the  sea.  it  is  stated 
that  the  rays  (of  light")  in  passing  through  the  vapours 
which  rise  from  the  water,  as  through  tubes,  are  dilated, 
and  thus  cause  the  apparent  to  be  greater  than  the  real 
magnitude  (of  the  object)  ;  and  from  this  it  has  been  in- 
terred (Dutens.  Rfehtrrhm.  &e.\  though  the  inference  is 
probably  without  foundation,  that  there"  then  existed  tubes 
furnished  with  lenses  for  magnifying  objects  by  refracting 
the  light.  It  would  be  needless  to  make  any  observa- 
tions on  an  inference  founded  upon  an  hypothesis  so 
obscurely  expressed :  the  words  in  Strabo  probably  sig- 
nify only  that  the  rays  of  light  might  become  divergent 
in  passing  along  the  intervals  between  the  particles  of 
vapour. 

Omitting  then  all  notice  of  this,  and  of  the  ill  under- 
stood passages  in  Aristophanes  ('Clouds')  and  Pliny  (lib. 
xxxvi.,  c.  67)  concerning  transparent  spheres,  or  lenses  for 
concentrating  the  rays  of  light,  it  must  be  acknowledged 
that  before  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  lenses  of 
glass  were  in  constant  use  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  the 
eye  in  obtaining  distinctness  of  vision.  Vitello,  a  native 
of  Poland,  in  that  century,  gave  some  obscure  indications 
of  the  apparent  magnitudes  of  objects  when  viewed  through 
nent  of  a  sphere  of  glass:  and  Roger  Bacon,  in  his 
•  Opus  Majus.'  both  mentions  the  like  fact,  and  expresses 
himself  in  such  a  manner  as  to  indicate  that  in  his  time 
(he  died  in  12021  spectacles  were  already  in  use.  He  may 
not  have  actually  made  combinations  of  lenses  in  one  in- 
strument, but  there  is  no  doubt  of  his  being  aware  of  the 
tact  that  lenses  might  be  arranged  so  that  objects  seen 
through  them  would  appear  to  be  magnified.  [BACON, 
KooKit :  SPKCTACLKS.] 

The  idea  being  known  to  the  learned,  it  is  scarcely  pos- 
sible to  doubt  that  the  combination  of  two  lenses,  or  of  a 
concave  or  convex  mirror  and  a  lens,  must  have  been  often 
made  during  the  three  centuries  which  elapsed  between 
the  time  of  Bacon  and  that  which  is  generally  considered 
as  the  epoch  of  the  invention  of  telescopes.  Dr.  Dee,  in 
his  preface  to  Euclid's  'Elements'  i  1570 1,  having  men- 
tioned that  some  skill  is  required  to  ascertain  the  numeri- 
cal strength  of  an  enemy's  force  when  at  a  distance,  ob- 
serves that  the  '  captain,  "or  whosoever  is  careful  to  come 
near  the  truth  herein,  besides  the  judgment  of  his  eye,  the 
help  of  his  geometrical  instrument,  ring,  or  static  astrono- 
mical (probably  for  determining  the  measure  of  dis- 
tances .  may  wonderfully  help  himself  bv  perspective 
glasses:'  these  last  can  only  signify  some  kind  of  telescope, 
which  therefore  must  have  been  then  in  genera! 
And  in  the  '  Pantometria '  of  Digges  (  l.T/l  )  it  is  stated 
that  '  by  concave  and  convex  mirrors  of  circular  'spherical) 
and  parabolic  forms,  or  by  frames  of  them  placed  at  due 
angles,  and  using  the  aid  of  transparent  glasses  which 
may  break,  or  unite,  the  images  produced  by  the  reflec- 
tions of  the  mirrors,  there  may  be  represented  a  whole 
region  :  also  any  part  of  it  may  be  augmented,  so  that  a 
small  object  may  be  discerned  as  plainly  as  if  it  were  close 
to  the  observer,  though  it  may  be  as  far  distant  as  the  eye 
can  descrie.'  In  the  preface  to  the  second  edition  (1591) 
the  editor,  who  was  the  author's  son,  affirms  that  '  by 
porportional  mirrors  placed  at  convenient  angles,  his 
lather  could  discover  things  far  off,  that  he  could  knovr 
a  man  at.  the  distance  of  three  miles,  and  could  read  the 
superscriptions  on  coins  deposited  in  the  open  fields.' 
There  is  probably  some  exaggeration  in  this  account,  but 
it  is  sufficiently  manifest  from  it  that  reflecting  telescopes, 
or  optical  instruments  containing  combinations  of  mirrors 
and  lenses,  were  known  in  England  before  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  claim  of  BaptisUi  Porta  'between 
.nd  Ilil'i  to  the  invention  of  the  telescope  appears 
to  have  no  other  foundation  than  the  circumstance  that 

Y2 


TEL 


TEL 


ne  perceived  a  small  object  to  be  magnified  when  \  ic« ,  ,1 
through  a  convex  U-ns. 

It  is  hisrlily   probable  that   tin-  telescope  had  been  in- 
vented lui.  -lu-  value  t>i'  MU-II  an  instrument  was 
duly  appreciated:  mill  it   may  have  been  owing  to  the 
very  irradual  discovery  of  its  importance  that  the  name 
•  •I'  the  inventor  sunk   into   oblivion :   about  the   middle 
of  the  seventeenth  cent urv.  houcver.au   effort    was  made 
to  discover  the  trace*  of  UM  invention,  anil  1'ctcr  Horellus, 
in  his  work  entitled  '  l)e  vero  Tclcscopii  Invcntorc,'  which 
was  publislied   in    MJ.VI   at   the  Hague,  lias  iriven  te-timo- 
nials  in  favour  of  two  persons;  the  first  of  these  is  Xacha- 
riah  Jans,  or  Jansen,  ami  the  other,  Hans  Lapprev.  or  Lip- 
persheiin.  both  of  whom  are  said  to  have  been  opticians, 
or  spectacle-makers,  residing  at  Middleburgh  :  in  B  letter 
written  by  a  son  of  .Jans,  n  is  Mated  that  the  epoch  of  the 
discovery  is  the  year    15SK);  but  by  another  account,  the 
v  ear  IC10.     The  same  author  has  also  given  a  letter  from 
M.  William  Boreel  (envoy  from  the  States  of  Holland  to 
the  British  Court)  which  seems  to  throw  some  light  on  the 
facts.     The   writer  of  the   letter  asserts  that  he  was  ac- 
quainted with  the  younger  Zachariah  Jans,  when  both  of 
tnem  were  children,  and  had  often  heard  that  the  elder  was 
the  inventor  of  the  nnrniK'-,,/,,'  .•  I,,-  adds  that,  about  the  year 
1610,  the  two  opticians  Jans  and  l.apprey  first  const  meted 
telescopes,  and  that  they  presented  one  to  Prince  Maurice 
of  Nassau,  who  desired  that  the  invention  might  be  kept 
secret  as  (the   United  Provinces  being  then  at  war  with 
France)  he  expected  to  obtain  in  the  field,  by  means  oi 
the  instalment,  some  advantages  over  the  enemy.     The 
writer  further  states  that   the  invention  became  known, 
and  that  soon  afterwards  Adrian  Metius   and  Cornelius 
Drebbel  went  to  Middleburgh  and  purchased  telescopes 
at  the  house  of  Jans.      This  account  (litters  from  that 
which  is  given   by  Descartes  ('  Dioptrics,'  cap.  1  ,    who. 
writing  in  Holland,  states  that  about   thirty  years  pre- 
viously,  Metins  (who  was,  he  observes,  a  native  of  Alck- 
maer)l  having  always  taken  pleasure  in  forming  burning- 
mirrors  and  lenses  of  glass  and  of  ice,  by  chance  placed 
at  the  extremities  of  a  tube  two  lenses,  one  thicker  in  tin 
middle,  and  the  other  thinner,  than  about  the  edge  (con- 
vex and  concave)  ;  and  thus,  he  adds,  was  formed  the  in- 
strument which  is  called  a  telescope.     The  'Dioptrics' was 
published  at  Leyden  in   1G37,  and  therefore  the  time  ol 
the  supposed  invention  by  Metius  is  nearly  coincident 
with  that  at  which,  according  to  Horellus.  it  \V:LS  made  b\ 
Jans.     From  the  papers  of  Harriot,  it  appears  that  this 
m.Ulu  matician   observed  spots  on  the  sun,  in  1610,  will 
•clcscopcs  magnifying  from   10  to   30   times  ;  but   it   is 
uncertain  whether  he  got  them  from  Holland,  or  whether 
they  were  made  in  this  country ;  and  the  only  conclusions 
at  which  it  is  possible  now  to  arrive,  are,  that  telescopes 
were  known  in  England  and  Holland  about  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  thai   in  both  countries  they  were 
then  in  a  form  which  rendered  them  practically  useful. 

The  two  .Ian-ens,  father  and  son,  appear  to  have  usec 
their  telescopes  in  observing  the  heavens  ;  and  the  lattei 
is  said  to  have  remarked  four  small  stars  near  Jupiter:  i 
has  been  concluded  from  thence,  that  he  was  the  first  dis 
coverer  of  the  satellites  of  that  planet;  but  though  thii 
may  be,  he  probably  did  not  continue  his  observation- 
long  enough  to  enable  him  to  determine  their  distances 
from  it,  or  the  times  of  their  revolutions. 

The  use  of  the  telescope,  and,  probably,  even  the  know 
ledge  of  the  fact  that  it  had  been  invented,  mu-t  havi 
:  for  many  years  confined  to  the  north  of  Kurope  :  to 
it  appears  that  it  was  not  till  the  year  HXK)  that  (lalilen 
who  then  happened  to  be  at  Venice,  heard  from  a  German 
a  rumour  of  the  discovery  which  was  said  to  have  beei 
made  in  Holland.  The  Italian  philosopher  states,  in  tin 
•Sidereus  Nuneius,'  that  he  had  then  no  knowledge  o 
the  nature  of  the  instrument,  and  that  he  requested  a 
friend  at  Pan*  to  send  him  some  information  concerning 
it.  On  being  informed,  merely,  that  it  was  a  tube  con- 
taining glass  lenses,  his  acquaintance  with  the  nature  01 
the  refraction  of  light  enabled  him,  it  is  said,  to  discover 
that  one  of  the  lenses  must  have  been  convex  and  the 
other  concave,  and  also  to  determine  the  distance  at 
which  they  should  be  placed  from  one  another  in  order 
that  the  objects  seen  through  them  might  appear  magni- 
fied and  distinct.  Without  however  supposing  that 
Galileo  was  here  guturd  by  theoretical  considerations 
merely,  it  is  easy  to  conceive  that,  as  lenses  of  different 


.mil-  were  then  in  use  for  spectacles,  ho  miu-ht  have  ob- 
ained  from  an  optician  some  which  were  nl  different 
legrees  of  convexity  and  concavity  :  and  aller  n  few  trials 
^le  must  have  found  such  as  would  constitute  an  instru- 
uent  possessing  magnifying  pov- 

The  telescopes  which  he  constructed  consisted  of  one 
•onvex  object-glass  and  one  concave  eye-glass,  whieh 
were  placed  at  the  extremities  of  a  leaden  tube  ;  and  the 
"irst  of  them  magnified  the  heights  and  breadths  of  objects 
three  times  only.  Soon  afterwards  he  made  one  which 
magnified  eiirht  times;  and  subsequently  he  succeeded 
in  funning  a  telescope  with  a  magnifying  power  which 
caused  objects  to  appear  about  thirty  times  as  great  as 
they  are  to  the  unassisted  eye. 

The  knowledge  whieh  man  had  acquired  of  the  visible 
heavens  received  many  important  accessions  from  thi 
coveries  which  Galileo  was  enabled  to  make  by  mea. 
the  telescope.     Except  the  sun  and  moon,  not  one  of  tin- 
celestial  bodies  had  hitherto  been  observed  to  have  any 
visible  form  or  magnitude,  and  it  was  to  the  eye  of  rt 
alone  that  those  appeared  to  be  anything  but   plane  sur- 
faees  :    the  fixed  stars  and  the  planets  were  alike  known 
only  ns  luminous  and  ill-defined   points:    but  when 
through  a  telescope,  the  planets  were  found  to  ha\. 
tain  magnitudes,  and  some  of  them  to  undergo  variations 
of  form  ;    while  the  fixed  stars  appeared  unchanged,  or 
only  divested  of  the  radiance  with  which  they  seem  to  be 
surrounded  when  seen  by  the  naked  eye  :    and  hence  it 
became  obvious  that  the  former  must  constitute  a  distinct 
group  of  bodies  infinitely  nearer  the  earth  than  the  others. 
The  sun,  from  the  spots  observed  on  his  surface,  was  found 
to  revolve  on   its  axis,  and  consequently  was  ascertained 
to  be  globular;    and  the  light  and  dark  spaces  on  tin- 
moon  were  distinctly  perceived  to  be  mountains  and  val- 
Icvs.  nearly  resembling  those  features  on  the  surface  of  tin- 
earth.     Galileo  relates,  in  the  work  above  mentioned,  that 
in  the  year  1010  he  discovered  the  four  satellites  of  Jupi- 
ter, and  observed  that  they  revolved  about  that  planet  a-. 
our  moon  revolves  about  the  earth.     Nearly  at   the 
time  he  observed  that  Saturn  presented  a  remarkable  ap- 
pearance :   at  first  he  thought  it  was  accompanied  by  two 
smaller  planets;    but   on  using  a  telescope   of  superior 
magnifying  power,  these  were  found  to  be   portions  of  a 
vast  annulus  which  surrounds  Saturn  without    touehini; 
his  surface;  and  soon  afterwards  he  ascertained   the  fact 
that  Venus  exhibited   phases  similar  to  those  of   the 
moon. 

The  species  of  telescope  which  was  used  by  Galileo- 
continued  for  several  years  unchanged  :  yet  it  is  ex- 
tremely defective,  on  account  of  the  small  extent  of  the 
field  of  view  which  it  affords  when  its  magnifying  ]> 
is  considerable  ;  and  the  Hatavian  or  Galilean  telescope-, 
as  it  was  called,  is  now  chiefly  used  to  distinguish  object-- 
in a  theatre.  It  is  due  to  the  memory  of  Kepler  to  state 
that  he  pointed  out  (in  his  '  Dioptrics'  >  the  possibility  of 
forming  telescopes  with  two  lenses,  both  of  whicU  nix- 
convex;  but  he  did  not  reduce  his  ideas  to  practice  by  the- 
construction  of  such  an  Instrument,  and  the  honour  of 
having  been  the  first  to  do  so  is  to  be  attributed  to  the 
Jesuit  Seheiner.  who,  in  his  •  Kosa  Ursina '  (1CTXI  ,  i_ri\c- 
a  description  of  telescopes  with  one  convex  eye-glass. 
He  observes  that  the  the  imaircs  of  objects  to 

appear  in  inverted  positions;  and  adds,  that  thirteen  years 
previously  he  had  used  such  a  telescope  in  prescni 
the  Archduke  Maximilian. 

Tele-copes  with  a  sinerle  convex  eye-glass  have  1 
since  designated  astronomical,  from  the  circumstance  that 
they  were    long  employed  for  celestial    observations;    the 
r  extent  of  their  field  of  view  having  caused   them. 
notwithstanding  the  inversion  of  the  image,  to  SH|M 
for  that  purpose  the  telescopes  of  Galileo.     It  ought  to 
be  remarked  however  that  telescopes  with  two  <•-, 
by  which  the  object  might  be  seen  in  a  dii  n,  as 

it  appears  to  the  naked  eye.  were  described  by  Kepler, 
and  constructed  by  Seheiner;  but  as  they  caused  the 
object  to  appear  much  distorted  and  coloured  abnut  the 
margin  of  the  field,  they  were  not  esteemed.  Pcre  de 
Kheita,  about  the  same  time,  constructed  for  telescopes. 
eve-tubes  containing  three  lenses,  which,  he  observe-. 
afford  a  better  image  than  those  with  two  :  the  same  per- 
son was  the  inventor  of  what  is  called  a  binocular  tele- 
scope, that  is,  an  instrument  which  consists  of  two  tele- 
scope* haying  equal  magnifying  powers,  and  placed  near 


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each  other  in  such  positions  that  an  object  might  be 
observed  with  both  eyes  at  the  same  time.  -Attempts 
have  been  since  made  to  revive  this  invention  ;  but  the 
advantages,  it'  any  there  be,  are  more  than  compensated 
by  the  trouble  of  directing  the  two  tubes  to  the  object. 

The  magnifying  powerof  adioptrical  telescope  increasing 
with  the  ratio  which  the  focal  length  of  the  object-glass 
bears  to  that  of  the  eye-glass,  and  since,  by  increasing 
the  focal  length  of  the  former  without  increasing  its 
diameter,  the  coloured  border  round  the  image  is  dimi- 
nished so  that  vision  is  rendered  more  distinct,  the  op- 
ticians of  the  seventeenth  century  were  induced  to  form, 
for  object-glasses,  lenses  which  were  segments  of  very 
great  spheres,  that  is,  lenses  of  great  focal  lengths.  Cam- 
pani  at  Bologna,  by  order  of  Louis  XIV.,  made  telescopes 
having  object-glasses  whose  focal  lengths  were  as  great 
as  136  feet,  and  with  such,  Cassini,  in  1671,  discovered 
the  satellites  of  Saturn.  [CAUPANI.]  M.  Auzout  is  said 
to  have  made  a  lens  of  600  feet  focal  length,  but  it  does 
not  appear  that  he  was  able  to  use  it  as  a  telescope. 

Huygens,  who  was  an  ingenious  mechanic  as  well  as  a 
good  philosopher,  contrived  to  use  an  object-glass  of  long 
focus  for  astronomical  purposes  without  placing  the  sys- 
tem of  lenses  in  a  tube.  On  the  top  of  a  long  pole  which 
\\:is  planted  vertically  in  the  ground,  he  mounted  the 
object-glass,  having  fixed  it  in  a  frame  with  joints  so  that 
its  axis  could  be  moved  in  any  direction  by  means  of  a 
string  which  was  held  in  the  hand  of  the  observer ;  and 
the  axis  being  in  aline  passing  through  the  celestial  body, 
a  short  tube  containing  the  eye-glasses  w  as  fixed  to  a  stand 
near  the  ground  with  its  axis  in  the  same  direction.  An 
instrument  of  this  kind  having  an  object-glass  of  123  feet 
local  length,  was  made  by  Huygens  and  presented  to  the 
Koyal  Society  ;  and  with  it  Dr.  Bradley  made  some  of  his 
astronomical  observations.  It  is  described  by  Huygens  in 
his  '  Astroscopia  Compendiaria,'  which  was  printed  at  the 
Hague  in  1684.  But  the  chief  merit  of  Huygens  as  an 
improver  of  astronomical  telescopes  consists  m  his  con- 
struction of  an  eye-piece  with  two  lenses  so  combined  as 
both  to  enlarge  the  field  of  view  and  diminish  the  aberra- 
tion* produced  by  their  spherical  forms. 

There  is  some  probability  that  the  elder  Digges  had 
contrived  an  instrument  which  constituted  a  specie*  of 
catoptric,  or  reflecting,  telescope;  but,  on  account  of  the 
obscure  manner  in  which  the  instrument  is  described,  it 
will  be  scarcely  necessary  to  notice  further  his  claim  to  the 
honour  of  the  invention.  It  appears  that  Pi-re  Mersenne, 
in  his  correspondence  with  Descartes,  and  in  his  'Catop- 
trics' (1651j,  suggested  the  idea  of  a  concave  spherical 
mirror  to  be  used,  like  the  principal  lens  of  a  dioptric 
telescope,  for  forming  in  its  focus  an  image  of  an  object ; 
and  that  this  image  being  viewed  through  a  convex  eye- 
of  proper  curvature,  the  original  object  would  ap- 
pear to  be  magnified.  Descartes,  in  his  reply  to  Mer- 
senne, which  is  said  to  have  been  written  in  1639,  makes 
;il  objections  to  the  scheme,  and  no  effort  was  then 
made  to  put  it  in  practice.  But  the  great  length  of  the 
dioptric  telescopes  which  were  then  in  use  rendering  the 
management  of  them  very  inconvenient,  ingenious  men 
were  induced  to  attempt  a  construction  in  which  with 
equal  magnifying  power  much  smaller  dimensions  might 
be  employed.  Mr.  James  Gregory  of  Edinburgh,  in  his 
'Optica  Promota'  (1663)  published  a  suggestion  for  form- 
ing a  telescope  by  means  of  the  image  at  the  focus  of  a 
concave  speculum.  The  mirror  was  to  be  of  polished 
metal  with  a  paraboloidal  surface,  which  by  the  proper- 
ties of  that  curve  would  cause  all  rays  incident  upon  it  in 
directions  parallel  to  the  axis  to  converge  accurately  at 
one  point.  It  is  uncertain  whether  Gregory  had  any 
knowledge  of  Mereenne's  treatise,  or  whether  the  idea 
originated  with  himself;  but  this  is  of  little  consequence, 
for  not  being  able  to  find  an  artist  who  could  execute 
such  a  speculum,  though  he  came  to  London  for  the  pur- 
pose, the  suggestion  was  abandoned,  and  men  of  science 
continued  to  direct  their  inquiries  to  the  means  of  im- 
proving dioptric  telescopes. 

When,  however,  Newton  had  discovered  the  unequal 
refrangibility  of  light,  and  had  ascertained  that  the  aber- 
ration produced  by  this  cause  about  the  focus  of  a  lens 
many  hundred  times  greater  than  that  which  was 
canned  by  the  spherical  form  of  the  glass,  he  gave  up  the 
hope  of  being  able  to  construct  refracting  telescopes 
which  should  be  free  from  this  defect,  and  applied  him- 


the formation  of  specula  for  those  of  the  catoptric 
kind  :  the  image  formed  by  reflection  from  a  mirror  being 
free  from  what  is  called  the  chromatic  aberration,  and 
consequently  incomparably  more  distinct  than  one  which 
is  formed  by  the  refraction  of  light  in  a  lens  of  any  trans- 
parent medium. 

In  the  beginning  of  1669,  Newton  having  obtained  a 
composition  of  metals  which  appeared  likely  to  serve  for 
a  mirror,  began  with  his  own'  hands,  to  grind  its  surface 
to  a  spherical  form  ;  and  early  in  the  year  1672  he  com- 
pleted two  telescopes :  of  the  construction  and  per- 
formance of  these  instruments  he  sent  to  the  Royal  So- 
ciety an  account  which  was  read  in  the  January  of  that 
year.  The  radius  of  the  concave  metal  in  one  of  them 
was  13  inches,  and  the  telescope  magnified  about  38 
times.  The  rays,  before  forming  an  image  in  the  focus  of 
the  speculum,  were  intercepted  by  a  glass  prism,  or  a 
plane  mirror,  and  the  image  formed  after  this  second  re- 
flection was  viewed  by  a  convex  eye-glass  which  was 
fixed  for  the  purpose  in  the  side  ol  the  tube.  In  the 
telescope  proposed  by  Gregory,  the  rays  in  each  pencil 
of  light,  after  crossing  at  the  focus  of  the  great  speculum, 
were  to  fall  upon  the  surface  of  a  small  concave  mirror  ; 
and  by  this  being  again  reflected,  they  were  to  form  a 
second  image  near  the  anterior  surface  of  the  first  specu- 
lum :  through  a  perforation  in  the  latter  the  image  was  to 
be  viewed ;  a  convex  lens  being  interposed  between  the 
image  and  the  eye  of  the  observer.  This  has  been  always 
called  the  Gregorian  telescope  ;  and  in  1672,  the  year  in 
which  Newton  completed  his  reflecting  telescopes,  M.  Cas- 
segrain,  in  France,  proposed  one  which  differed  from  that 
of  Gregory  only  in  the  rays  reflected  from  the  great  spe- 
culum being  intercepted  by  a  small  convex  mirror  :  from 
this  the  rays  of  each  pencil  were  again  reflected,  and  they 
were  made  to  form  an  image  near  the  anterior  surface 
of  the  great  speculum :  this  image  was  to  be  viewed  through 
a  convex  lens  behind  an  aperture  in  the  latter  specu- 
lum, as  in  the  telescope  of  Gregory.  It  does  not  appear 
that  M.  Cassegrain  constructed  such  a  telescope,  but  it 
may  be  observed  that  the  image  formed  after  reflection 
from  the  convex  speculum  would  be  more  free  from  the 
aberration  caused  by  the  surfaces  of  the  mirrors,  and 
would  also  be  rather  greater,  than  that  which  is  obtained 
from  the  concave  speculum  of  Gregory  or  the  plane  one 
which  was  used  by  Newton. 

The  first  reflecting  telescope,  in  which  the  great  specu- 
lum was  perforated  so  that  objects  could  be  viewed  by 
looking  directly  at  them,  was  executed  by  Dr.  Hooke,  and 
produced  before  the  Royal  Society  in  February,  1674.  But 
the  difficulty  of  obtaining  metal  proper  for  the  purpose, 
and  of  giving  it  a  perfectly  spherical  form,  for  a  long  time 
prevented  reflecting  telescopes  from  attaining  the  desired 
degree  of  perfection.  In  1718  Mr.  Hadley  succeeded  in 
executing  two  telescopes,  each  about  five  feet  long,  which 
were  considered  good  ;  and  he  gave,  in  the  '  Philosophical 
Transactions'  (1723),  a  description  of  the  methods  em- 
ployed in  their  construction.  By  his  advice  Dr.  Bradley, 
who  was  then  professor  of  astronomy  at  Oxford,  in  con- 
junction with  Mr.  Molyneux  at  Kew,  applied  themselves 
to  the  construction  of  these  instruments:  having  executed 
one  which  was  satisfactory,  they  in  1738  instructed  Scarlet 
and  Hearne,  two  London  opticians,  in  the  processes  which 
they  used,  and  these  artists  presently  succeeded  in  making 
•ood  reflecting  telescopes  for  general  sale.  Mr.  James 
ihort,  of  Edinburgh,  also  soon  afterwards  distinguished 
himself  by  his  skill  in  forming  such  telescopes :  he  at- 
tempted at  first  to  make  the  pnncipal  speculum  of  glass, 
but  finding  that  this  material  had  not  sufficient  steadiness 
to  preserve  the  form  of  its  surface,  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  improvement  of  metallic  specula,  and  succeeded  in 
giving  them,  it  is  supposed,  a  correct  parabolic  figure,  by 
which  means  his  telescopes  admitted  of  larger  apertures 
than  any  that  had  before  been  made. 

The  processes  adopted  by  Mr.  Mudge  in  grinding  and 
polishing  the  mirrors  for  reflecting  telescopes,  and  in 
giving  them  the  parabolic  figure,  may  be  seen  in  the  '  Phi- 
losophical Transactions'  for  1777.  See  also  SPECULUM 
MKTAL. 

But  the  reflecting  telescope  was  destined  to  receive  the 
liighest  power  of  which  perhaps  it  is  susceptible  from  the 
hands  of  Dr.  (afterwards  Sir  William)  Herschel :  this  dis- 
tinguished astronomer,  while  residing  at  Bath,  employed 
his  leisure  hours  in  grinding  and  polisliing  specula,  with 


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T  E  L 


v. '..•  !  telescopes,  both  o.  '  mian  and 

• 

i!ly  1u  tli  In*  )>liuit>t  which  in  called 

i'  formation  of  a  speculum  lour 
feet   in  diamet.  T  and  in  focal  1, 

to  which  it  iippertai  ;i  kind,  tin.' 

•i-ing  placed  in  :  pen  mil  oi  ihc 

tulte,  nnd  viewing   the  imase  thro   . 

\Vith  this  '  •      •    •          .      •<•<!'  in 

moznitied  nl'out  (if**)  time*:  and  on  the 
night  alter  it  v,  i.   Dr.  Hi  il  thu 

sixth  satellite,  of  Saturn.  An  ntlrm]>t  is  even  now  being 
to  form  a  reflect  in-,'  telescope  possessing  a  higher 
•ion  than  that  of  Hemchel;  but  th»uirh 
the  expectation  should  be  fulfilled,  telescopes  of  groat 
magnitude  must  always  be  inconvenient  in  the  in: 
incut  ;  and.  from  1hr'e\pen-e  of  their  construction,  they 
will  ever  In'  confined  to  a  few  persons.  It  is  right  to  ob- 
serve moreover  that  the  greatest  discoveries  of  which 
astronomy  cnn  boast  have  been  made  with  telescopes 
w  hose  macmfving  power  did  not  exceed  700  times. 

While  the  unproTement  of  reflecting:  b-  •••win 

progress,  the  efforts  to  combine  glass  lenses  in  order  to 
dimmish  the  colouri'd  fringes  by  which  the  images  in  diop- 
trical telescopes  are  surrounded  were  not  entirely  neg- 
lected :  and  as  early  as  172!),  a  private  gentleman.  Mr. 
ion.'  Hall,  of  Essex,  influenced,  it  appears,  by  an 
opinion  that  the  humours  of  the  eye  are  combined  so  as  to 
correct  the  dispersions  which  each  alone  would  produce  in 
the  different  kind*  of  light,  contrived  to  combine  two 
lenses  of  different  kinds  of  glass  in  such  a  way  as  to  form 
an  im a<je  which  wns  free  from  colours:  it  is' added  that 
telescopes  with  such  object-glasses  were  in  the  poss 
of  several  individuals  many  years  afterwards,  Unit.  Muff., 
.r.  17!*l:  I'liil.  Mag.,  November.  17SIS. 

In  17J7  Kuler.  guided  also  by  the  constitution  of  the 
-itiility  of  forming  a  lens  com- 
pounded ol"  two  hollow  spherical  segments  of  g ';\*~.  in- 
closing water  between  their  concave  sides,  which  should 
be  free  from  the  (-dramatical  and  spherical  aberr;. 
and  in  investigating  the  curvatures  he  assumed  that  the 
logarithms  of  the  terms  expressing  the  ratio  of  the 
tion  of  a  mean  ray  in  passing  from  nir  into  glass,  and  from 
air  into  water,  were  proportional  to  the  logarithms  of  the 
terms  expressing  the  ratio  of  the  refractions  of  red  ia\  -  in 
the  same  media.  He  was  not  able  to  obtain  from  any 
artist  a  Ien»  of  this  nature,  in  which  the  proposed  end  wns 
accomplished,  and  Mr.  Dollond  [Dou.nM>].  in  a  short 
paper  which  is  printed  in  the  '  Philosophical  Transactions' 
17-">i).  contested  the  justness  of  Killer's  principle  on  the 
ground  that  it  was  contrary  to  one  which  he  conceived  to 
be  founded  on  the  experiment*  of  Newton. 

Hut  M.  Klingenstierna.  a  Swedish  mathematician,  hav- 
ing soon  afterwards,  in  a  Mc'moire  which  was  sent  to  the 
Acad'mie  des  Sciences,  pointed  out  that  the  principle 
which  had  been  adopted  by  Dollond  was  not  conformable 
to  the  acknowledged  laws  of  refraction,  the  latter  deter- 
mined immediately  on  havin.  •  to  experiment. 
Kither  euided  by  the  object-glasses  constructed  under  the 
direction  of  Mr.  Hall,  or  from  a  sctics  of  experiments 
made  by  himself  on  the  refraction  of  light  in  we.] 
crown  and  flint  elas- 

convex  le-  Mation  with  a  concave 

I*m  of  the  latter  kind,  the  ray*  of  the  different  colours  in 
each  pencil  of  liirht,  after  refraction  through  both,  might 
be  made  to  um  cus,  and  1 

of  the  object  nearly  free  from  colour.     For  tin 
discovery  Mr.  1> 

f'opleian  medal.  In  I7';*>  Ins  sou,  Mr.  1'eter  Dollond.  di- 
minished the  aberration  of  light  on  account  of  t  he  spherical 
forms  of  the  I>  •  ombining  together  1 

-  of  crown  ghuw  with  a  concave   lens  of  flint  glass 
between  them:    this  construction   is   particularly  nd\ an- 
us, by  the  increased  aperture  which  it  allows   when 

the  focal  length  of  the  compound  lens  is  short. 

For  several  years  after  the  telescopes  thus  improved  by 
Dollond    had    been    in    general  use.  Eider   continued    to 

•  <•  tlmt  all  kinds  of  glass  differed  but  little  trot.. 

•iicir   dispersive    power,   and    he 

cc.s  of  the  Kti;  :   merely  to  a  for- 

'e  determination  of  the  curvature  of  hi*  lenses  ;     but 

having,  in  the  year  1704,  received  information  that,  by 


the  addition  of  lead,  -glass  hi 


been  obtained  whose  dm- 

'  lie  eom- 

•   lot  former  opinion  ; 
of  the 


.  tn   they  were  c.nu 
The  most  eminent  inatheinaliciii' 
and  in  this  country.  ha\e  subseo,nc! 
scientific  principle*,  UM  curvatures  w! 

to  the  surfaces  ol   lenses,  so   that,  th>    , 
compound  lens  being  assumed,  the  chronwtii 
nciil  aberrations  ma\ 
The  Hiiangcui.  -cs  for  the  eye- 

is  of  no  less  importance  ' 
object-glass :  and  Hir. 

in  order  to  dimmish  the  retraction  of  liirht  at  the,  surfiicott- 
to  sin  - 

d  U'U-ftcuj  lenses,  of  cuch  curvatures 

lliat    1lu>  whole  icfraction.  or  tin 
dent  and  emergent  niv  in  tin-  former  con-' 
be  divided  between  the  two  lenses. 

One  mode  of  effecting  this  purpose  is  to  pla. 
eye-irlass,  or  that  win >  -t   to  thcohjci'. 

iuliTcept  the  pencils  comimr  from  the  object -<;la.si>  1  • 
the  rays  are  muted,  and  tin  _re  is  formed  afti 

refraction  of  the  light  in  this  lens  :  the  second  • 
then   placed  so  that   the  rays  falling 
crossed  at  the  place  of  the  imaire.  are  made  t< 

.  rallcl  to  one  another.     A  microim  b  e  ap- 

jilied   to  such  an  eye-piece,  -nice  any  chanire  in  the   place 
of  the  lens  which  is  \,  lie  .  \.   would  doranire  its 

adjustment, :    tin 

achromatic,  and  they  have  the   greatest   i  Id  of 

view:  they  have  therefore  -inn-ted   for  the  pur- 

pose of  merely  viewing  the  celestial  bod  'lond, 

Ramwlen.  and  Frauenhofer.      Mr.  Kamsden  was  the  first 
who   constructed   eye-pieces  with   two   lenses  which 
capable  of  bcitiLT  used  with  a  micrometer:  this  lie  accom- 
plished by  placing  the  tube  containing  those  lenses  so  that 
the  rays  in  the  pencils,  alter  crossim:  at  the  focus  • 

'-Lrlas<.  fell  in  a  divenrini:   state   upon   the  first 

refraction  in  both,  entered   the  eye   m 
parallel  directions. 

With  both  these  kinds  of  eye-pieces  the  object  appears 
to  be  inverted  ;  but  eye-pieces  with  three  lenses,  by  which 
the  object  is  made  to  appear  in  the  erect  position,  had 
been  proposed  byKheita:  these  being  found  dele 
Mr.  Dollond  endeavoured  to  improve  upon  the  construc- 
tion by  dividing  the  refraction  nt  the  first  and  thii.i 
glasses  between  two  lenses,  according  to  the  method  recom- 
mended by  Hnygeus,  and  thus  be  formed  •  with 
five  lenses.  Hut  some  light  is  always  lost  by  reflection 
when  it  falls  upon  slavs ;  and.  in  order  to  diminish  this 
evil.  Dollond  subsequently,  retaining1  the  Ilnyccnian  con- 
struction in  the  two  lenses  nearest  to  the  e\e.  used  but  one 
lens  to  perform  the  office  of  the  second  and  third  in  the 
eye-piece  with  five  classes  .  in  rendering  the  ra\s  of  each 
pencil  con.  had  diminished  the  diver- 
gency caused  by  the  crossing  at  the  locus  of  the  objeet- 
glass:  he  thus  succeeded  m  producing  an  eye-pii  • 
four  lenses  which  was  nearly  njilnnntif.  or  free  both  from 
the  chromatical  and  spheiieal  aberrations:  and  such  are 
the  telescopes  now  in  common  use  lor  viewing  terrestrial 

objects. 

The  chief  improvements,  if  they  may  be  so  called,  which 
have  since  been  made  in  dioptric  telescopes,  consist  in  the 
means  v. Inch   have  been  adopted  to  remove'  those  aberra- 
tions  )  d    the  natures   of  the  dill- 
media  winch  hti\                      <l  lor  this  purpose  bv  I 'r.  Hlair. 
Sir  David  Hrewster.  and  Mr.  Harlow.  [• 
in  the-  article  TBLKSCOPB. 

Attempts  have  been  mndc  by  M.  f'hevalier  to  diminish 
'•rrnfions  by  means 'of  two  achr* 

'in  distance  Iron:  the  tube  : 

and   by  Mr.  Rogers  of  Leith.  b\  convex   lens   of 

plate  glass,  in  combination  with  a  double  achromatic  lens, 
the  convex   lens   being  of  plate-elan*,  nnd   t1 
lens  of  flint-glass.     This  last  gentleman  proposes  to  unite 
I   and  violet  r.  he  object   by  a 

proper  distance  betw.  le  double   lens 

and  t.  Hie  spherical   aberration  either  bv  giving 

proper  cur\  the  surfaces  of  the  compound  lens, 

or  by  ;  >  lenses  at  a  small  distance  from  • 

other.  (Memoir*  of  the  Atlrtm.  N*-.,  vol.  iii.,  part  2.)   Dr. 


TEL 


167 


TEL 


Brewster  has  suggested  (Treatise  on  New  Phil,  lust., 
p.  400)  that  it  may  be  possible  to  remove,  or  at  least  very 
much  diminish,  the  unconnected  colour  in  the  image  by 
the  use  of  two  lenses  of  the  same  kind  of  glass  with  the 
same  or  different  dispersive  powers.  He  proposes  that 
the  exterior  lens  should  have  the  meniscus  form,  the  con- 
vex side  being  outwards ;  in  order,  from  the  obliquity 
of  the  incident  rays  to  the  surface,  that  the  dispersion  pro- 
duced by  that  lens  may  increase  in  a  higher  ratio  than  its 
refraction,  so  that  the  dispersion  produced  by  the  other 
lens  maybe  corrected;  while  in  each  pencil  the  rays, 
alter  refraction  through  both,  may  be  convergent. 

It  would  be  improper  to  omit  here  to  mention  that  M. 
Amici  at  Modena,  some  years  since,  invented  a  species  of 
achromatic  telescope  by  a  combination  of  four  prisms,  all 
of  the  same  kind  of  glass :  the  refracting  edges  of  one  pair 
of  the  pri-ms  were  parallel  to  one  another,  and  those  of 
the  other  pair  were  also  parallel  to  one  another,  but  per- 
pendicular to  the  edges  of  the  first  pair;  and  each  pair 
funned  an  achromatic  combination.  By  the  refraction  in 
the  first  pair  the  breadth  of  the  object  is  magnified,  and 
by  that  in  the  second  pair  the  length  is  magnified  in  the 
same  ratio :  thus  the  result  is  an  image  undistorted  and 
magnified.  Sir  John  Hen,cliel  states  that,  in  1K26.  lie 
*aw  in  the  hands  of  iU  inventor  one  of  these  telescopes, 
which  magnified  about  four  ti:i. 

TKLESCO'PIU-M  .the  Tele-rope  ,  a  constellation  of 
in  the  southern  hemisphere,  surrounded  by  Ara, 
Sagittarius,  and  Oplu'uchus.  Its  principal  stars  are 
as  follows:  — 


£ 

I 

3 

I 

m 

.\--tn  iii. 

«f 

a 

tat. 

X 

ft 

2101 

4 

a 

211.-) 

•H 

/ 

2043 

4 

1 

(361) 

2U8« 

.1 

( 

1517  C 

2120 

5 

TELESCO'PIUM,  De  Montfort's  name  for  the  Cen- 
t/mini T<;'<'*i-t:/<tuM  of  authors.  [ENTOMOSTOMATA,  vol.  ix., 
p.  Lll.] 

TELFOKD,  THOMAS.     In   the   life   of  this   eminent 
man,  as  has  been  observed  in  a  brief  notice  of  the  l; 
of  that  science  of  which  he  v\a-  MI  distinguished  an  orna- 
ment, in  the  preface  to  the  '  Transactions'  of  the  Institu- 
tion  of   Civil    Engineers,    '  another  striking   instance    is 
added  to  those  on  record  of  men  who  have,  by  the  force 
of  natural  talent,  unaided  save  by  uprightness  and  perse- 
vering industry,  laised  themselves  from  the  low  estate  in 
which  they  were  born,  to  take  their  stand  among  the  master- 
spirits of  their  age.'    Telford's  father  was  a  shepherd  in  the 
ia!  district  of  Eskdale  in  Dumfriesshire,  where,  in  the 
:  kirk,   his  only  son  was  born,  on  the  9th  of 
1st,  \7~>7.     Hi«  father  dying  while  he  was  yet  an  infant, 
i  Telford's  early  years  devolved  upon  his  mother, 
Janet   Jackson,  for  whom   he   cherished   an  affectionate 
(1   until  her  death  in   1794;    he  having  been  in  the 
habit,  according  to  Mr.  Hi'ckman,  of  writing  letters  to  her 
in  jn-iiitcil  characters,  that,  she  might  be  able  to  read  them 
without  assistance.     He  received  the  rudiments  of  educa- 
tion in  the  parish  school  of  VVc-terkirk  ;  and,  while  engaged 
during  the  summer  ;'herd  boy  in  as.-: 

IIH  uncle,  he  made  diligent  use  of  his  leisure  in  studying 
the  hooks  furnished  by  his  village  friends.  At  the  age  of 
fourteen  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  stone-mason  , 

ing  town  of  Langholra  ;  and  for  several  years  he 

wa»  employed,  chiefly  in  his  native  district,  in  the  various 

:tioiu  usually  performed  by  a  country  masoti  in  a  dis- 

i!  there  \»  little  occasion  for  the  higher  depart- 

his  art.     The  construction  of   plain  bridges,  of 

i'aim  buildings,  and  of  simple  village  churches  and  m 

afforded  however  good  opportunities  for  obtaining  prac- 

knowledge.     Tellbrd  himself  has  expressed  his  sense 

o!'   the    value    of   tins    humble    training,    observing,    that 

e  and  usefulness  only  are  studied  in 

•ar  advantages  are  of  fried  to  the 

your  In  adopt  his  o\vu  words,  *({.• 

is  not  sufficient  employment  to  produce  a  division  of  labour 


in  building,  he  is  under  the  necessity  of  making  himself 
acquainted  with  every  detail  in  procuring,  preparing,  and 
employing  every  kind  of  material,  whether  it  be  the  pro- 
duce of  the  forest,  the  quarry,  or  the  forge ;  and  this 
necessity,  although  unfavourable  to  the  dexterity  of  the 
individual  workman  who  earns  his  livelihood  by  expert- 
ness  in  one  operation,  is  of  singular  advantage  to  the 
future  architect  or  engineer,  whose  professional  excellence 
must  rest  on  the  adaptation  of  materials  and  a  confirmed 
habit  of  discrimination  and  judicious  superintendence.' 
Chambers  states  that  during  this  period  of  his  life  Telford 
was  remarkable  for  the  neatness  with  which  he  cut  letters 
upon  gravestones.  In  1780,  being  then  about  twenty- 
three,  and  considering  himself  master  of  his  art,  he  visited 
Edinburgh,  apparently  with  a  view  to  obtaining  employ- 
ment. The  splendid  improvements  then  in  progress  in 
that  city  enlarged  his  field  of  observation,  and  enabled 
him  to  contemplate  architecture  as  applied  to  the  object 
of  magnificence  as  well  as  utility ;  and  he  seems  at  this 
time  to  have  devoted  much  attention  both  to  architecture 
and  drawing.  After  remaining  there  about  two  years,  he 
removed  to  London,  where  he  obtained  employment  upon 
the  quadrangle  of  Somerset  House,  then  erecting  by  Sir 
William  Chambers,  an  engagement  in  which,  according 
to  his  own  account,  he  obtained  much  practical  informa- 
tion. About  1784  he  was  engaged  to  superintend  the 
erection  of  a  house  for  the  resident  commissioner'in  Ports- 
mouth dockyard,  from  the  design  of  Mr.  S.  Wyat.  Tel- 
lord's  good  character  and  promising  talent  had  secured  for 
him  the  friendship  of  two  families  resident  in  his  native 
district,  the  Pasleys  and  the  Johnstones,  and  to  their  in- 
fluence his  early  employment  on  important  woiks  is,  in 
some  measure,  to  be  attributed.  He  was  engaged  upon 
various  buildings  at  the  Portsmouth  dockyard  for  three 
years,  during  which  time  he  became  well  acquainted  with 
the  construction  of  graving-docks,  vvhai  f-walls,  and  similar 
engineering  works ;  and  in  17H7,  having  completed  his 

.ementa  there,  he  was  invited  by  the  late  Sir  William 
Pulteney  (a  member  of  the  Johnstone  family)  to  take  the 
superintendence  of  some  alterations  at  Shrewsbury  Castle. 
He  therefore  removed  to  Shrewsbury,  where  he  was  also 
employed  to  erect  a  new  gaol,  which  was  completed  in 
17'M.  and  was  subsequently  appointed  county  surveyor,  in 
which  office  (retained  by  him  until  death)  he  had  to  fur- 
nish plans  for,  and  oversee  the  construction  of,  bridges 
and  similar  works.  The  first  bridge  which  he  designed 
and  built  was  that  over  the  Severn,  at  Mont  ford,  about 
four  miles  wot  of  Shrewsbury,  consisting  of  three  elliptical 
stone  ail-In-,  dm-  of  fi  fly-eight,  and  the  others  of  fifty-five 

pan.  His  next  was  the  iron  bridge  over  the  Severn, 
at  Buildwas,  consisting  of  a  very  flat  iron  arch  of  a  hundred 
and  thirty  feet  span,  constructed  upon  very  superior  prin- 
ciples to  that  erected  a  few  years  previously  at  Coalbrook 
Dale  :  Telford's  object  was  rather  to  introduce  the  trussing 
principle  of  a  timber  construction  than  that  of  a  stone 
arch.  This  bridge  was  built  in  the  years  17'Ji)  and  17!Jl>. 
Forty  smaller  bridges  were  erected  in  Shropshire  under 
Telford's  direction. 

The  Ellesmere  Canal,  a  series  of  navigations  intended 
to  unite  the  Severn,  the  Dee,  and  the  Mersey,  and  extend- 
ing altogether  to  a  length  of  about  one  hundred  and  three 

,  was  the  first  great  work  upon  which  Telford  was 
rd,  his  satisfactory  execution  of  the  county  works 
intrusted  to  him  having  led  its  projectors  to  select  him  as 
their  engineer;  and  from  this  engagement,  which  com- 
menced about  1793,  in  which  year  (he.  act  of  parliament 
was  obtained  for  the  scheme,  his  attention  was  directed 
almost  solely  to  civil  engineering.  The  uneven  character 
of  the  country  occasioned  many  serious  difficulties  in  the 
HI  of  this  canal,  and  rendered  necessary  the 
execution  of  some  works  of  astonishing  magnitude,  i 
cially  in  crossing  the  valleys  of  the  Ceriog,  or  Chirk,  and 
of  the  Dee.  In  the  former  the  canal  crosses  the  river  at 
an  elevation  of  seventy  feet,  by  an  aqueduct-bridge  often 
arches,  each  of  which  is  of  forty  feet  span,  in  the  construc- 
tion of  which  some  important  deviat'ions  were  made  from 
the  previous  practice  of  engineers.  It  had  been  usual  in 

-tinctures  to  form  the  bed  for  the  canal  of  puddled 

.ontined  in  masonry,  a  practice  which  involved  • 
•Xpnue,  and  some  danger  in  time  of  frost,  from  the.  ex- 
pMrion  of  the  moist  puddle.     The  great  elevation  of  tne 

i  aqueduct  would  have  increased  the  difficulty,  but. 
Telford  abandoned  the  puddling  system,  and  formed  the 


TEL 


168 


TEL 


o«d  of  the  canal  of  flanged  cast-iron  plates  resting  upon 
walls  built  on  the  piers,  and  const  met  ed  tin-  sides  of  ma- 
sonry. This  work  was  executed  between  I71H!  and  18111. 
at  a  cost  of  20.HU8/.  The  aqueduct-bridge  over  the  valley 
of  the  Dee,  called  the  Pont-\-<'ysvltc,  is  still  more  remark- 
able: it  consists  simply  of  a  trough  of  cast-iron  ;< 
securely  flanged  tegttMr,  and  supported  by  eighteen  piers 
or  pillars  of  masonry,  the  elev.ition  of  which  i*  a  luuulreil 
and  twenty-one  feet  above  low-water.  These  piers  are 
solid  to  the  height  of  seventy  feet,  above  which  they  are 
hollow,  with  interior  walls.  The  water-way  in  the  cast- 
iron  trough  js  eleven  feet  ten  inches  wide,  of  which  four 
feet  eight  inches  is  covered  by  the  towing-path,  supported 
upon  cast-iron  pillars,  so  as  to  allow  the  water  free  play 
beneath  it.  The  length,  of  the  aqueduct  is  about  one 
thousand  feet,  and  Hie  height  of  the  canal  one  hundred 
and  twenty-seven  feet  above  the  Dee;  and  at  one  end  of 
the  aqueduct -bridge  is  a  great  embankment,  fifteen  hun- 
dred feet  Ions:,  rising  in  parts  to  a  height  of  seventy-five 
feet  above  the  natural  surface.  These  gigantic  works 
were  executed  tn-tween  17!K>and  1805,  at  a  cost  of  47,018/. 
hi  the  locks  of  this  canal  Telford  introduced  cast-iron 
framing  in  lieu  of  timber ;  and  in  one  instance,  where  the 
lock  was  formed  in  a  quicksand,  he  made  every  part  of 
that  material. 

The  Caledonian  Canal  is  another  of  Telfotd's  princi- 
pal worlfs.  In  1773  the  commissioners  of  the  forfeited 
estates  in  Scotland  had  engaged  Watt  to  report  on  the 
practicability  of  a  ship-canal  alone;  the  valley  called  the 
Glen  of  Scotland,  to  be  formed  by  connecting  the  lakes 
which  form  a  series  of  navigable  waters  extending  a  great 
part  of  the  distance  ;  but  although  the  report  was  favour- 
able, it  was  not  acted  upon,  and  the  scheme  was  deferred 
for  some  years  by  the  restoration  of  the  forfeited  c- 
throuirh  which  the  line  would  pass,  in  1784.  In  1801 
however  Telford  was  deputed  by  srovernment  to  make 
a  survey  of  the  coasts  and  of  the  interior  of  Scotland,  and 
to  report  generally  upon  desirable  public  works  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  country.  In  consequence  of  his  reports 
Commissions  were  formed  to  carry  out  the  proposed  canal. 
and  other  improvements  classed  under  the  general  title  of 
Highland  Roads  and  Bridges;  and  the  services  of  Telford 
were  engaged  by  both  boards.  The  Caledonian  Canal  was 
opened  throughout  in  1823.  Its  construction  was  delayed 
by  many  untoward  circumstances;  and  unfortunately  its 
utility  has  not  hitherto  answered  the  expectations  of  its 
projectors.  It  forms  however  a  noble  monument  of  the 
skill  of  the  engineer.  The  locks  are  stated  by  Telford  to 
be  the  largest  ever  constructed  at  that  time,  being  forty 
feet  wide,  and  from  one  hundred  and  seventy  to  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty  feet  long  ;  and  one  of  them,  at  Clachna- 
carry,  near  Inverness,  was  made  under  circumstances  of 
especial  difficulty,  the  earth  being  a  soft  mud,  into  which 
an  iron  rod  might  easily  be  thrust  to  a  depth  of  fifty-five 
feet.  The  means  adopted  for  conquering  this  difficulty  are 
fully  detailed  in  the  engineer's  own  narrative. 

Of  other  canals  constructed  wholly  or  part  ially  under  Tel- 
ford's  superintendence  it  is  sufficient  to  mention  the  Glas- 
gow, Paisley,  and  Ardrossan  (which  was  never  completed  to 
the  length  originally  intended) ;  the  Macclesfield  ;  the  Bir- 
mingham and  Liverpool  Junction ;  the  Gloucester  and 
Berkeley  completed  under  his  direction) ;  the  Birmingham, 
which  was  completely  rcnuxlcllcd  and  adapted  to  the  con- 
duct of  a  very  extensive  traffic,  by  him  ;  and  the  Weaver 
navigation,  in  Cheshire.  He  also  constructed  a  new  tunnel, 
yards  long,  16  IVet  lusrh,  and  14  feet  wide,  at  Hare- 
castle,  on  the  Trent  and  Mersey  Canal,  the  original  tunnel 
of  Brindley  having  been  found  too  small  [TUNNEL]  ;  and  he 
executed  many  important  works  connected  with  the  drain- 
age of  the  fen  country,  especially  of  Bedford  Level.  On 
the  Continent  likewise  he  superintended  the  construction  of 
the  (lot ha  canal,  in  Sweden,  a  navigation  of  about  one 
hundred  and  twenty  English  miles,  of  which  fifty-live  are 
artificial  canal.  This  navigation  rises  one  hundred  and 
sixty-two  feet  from  the  Lake  Wenern,  at  one  extremity,  to 
the  summit-level,  and  falls  three  hundred  ami  seven  f< 
Hie  Baltic,  at  the  other :  the  rise  and  f.ill  :, 
by  fifty-six  locks.  The  canal  is  forty-two  feet  wide  at  the 
ii,  and  ten  feet  deep.  Telford  visited  Sweden  in 
1808  to  make  the  surveys  and  preliminary  arrangements, 
and  again  in  1813,  taking  with  him,  under  the  sanction  of 
the  Bnti>h  government,  several  experienced  worki; 
instruct  the  natives  in  the  works  then  in  progress.  Upon 


the  completion  of  the  canal  a  Swedish  order  of  knighthood 
and  other  honours  we;  1  upon  Tel: 

•.Mirks  executed  by  Telfonl  under  tin1  <  'ommissioners 
(if  Highland   Roads  and   It:. 

His  survey  was   delivered   to  the  Lord*  «(  the  Treasury  in 
ISKIJ.  and   in  the  following  year  the  Commission  WHS  ap- 
pointed.   Of  the  works  committed  to  their  superintendence 
Telford   observes  that  'the  whole   of  Scotland.   In 
southern  boundary,  near  Carlisle,  to  the  northern  extremity 
of  Caithness,  ana  from  Aberdeenshire  on  the  east  10  the 
Argyleshire  islands  on  the  west,  has  been  intersected  by 
roads;    its  largest  rivers,  and  even  inferior  streams,  ironed 
by  bridges  :    and  all   this  in  the  space  of  twenty-live  \ 
under  the  same  board,  and  (with  some  few  exception! 
the  same  individual  Comm.  and  all  this  was 

under  the  direction  of  Telford  alone.  The  pi-.i 
rations  under  this  Commission  embraced  about  a  tho 
miles  of  new  road,  with  twelve  hundred  bridges,  in  a  moun- 
tainous and  stormy  region,  of  which  five  only,  according 
to  Telford's  narrative,  have  required  to  be  renewed.  It 
should  be  explained  that  the  operations  of  the  Commission 
were  not  confined  to  the  objects  defined  in  its  title,  but 
embraced  also  the  Glasgow  and  Carlisle  road  ;  the  Lanark- 
shire roads;  the  improvement  of  several  harbours,  of  which 
the  principal  are  those  of  Peterhead,  Banff'.  Frazcrburgh, 
Fortrose,  Cullen,  and  Kirkwall ;  and  the  erection  of  several 
Highland  churches  and  manses  under  a  parliamentary 
grant  of  1823.  Nor  were  these  Highland  churches  and 
manses  the  only  buildings  in  which  Telfonl  acted  as  an 
architect ;  he  had,  many  years  previously,  erected  a  church 
at  Bridgenorth,  from  his  own  design. 

In  the  improvements  of  the  great  road  from  London  to 
Holyhead,  under  another  parliamentary  Commission,  ap- 
pointed in  1«1;~>,  Telford  had  a  further  opportunity  of 
carrying  into  effect  his  system  of  road-making,  of  which 
an  account  is  given  under  ROAD,  vol.  xx.,  p.  2!t.  Sec.  This 
road,  and  the  works  connected  with  it.  is  probably  the 
most  perfect  specimen  of  Telford's  skill  as  an  engineer, 
and  appears  to  have  been  regarded  by  him  with  much 
satisfaction.  The  Menai  suspension-bridge,  especially, 
is  a  noble  example  of  his  boldness  in  designing  and  prac- 
tical skill  in  executing  a  work  of  novel  and  difficult  cha- 
racter :  it  is  described  under  MENAI  BRIDGK,  vol.  x\ ..  p.  91, 
and  SrspKNsioN-Bunx.K.  vol.  xxiii.,  pp.  :r.H-.Y 

Among  the  other  works  of  Telford  are  many  bridges  ot 
considerable  size,  in  which  he  adopted  the  important  prin- 
ciple of  making  the  spandrils  hollow,  and  supporting  the 
roadway  upon  slabs  laid  upon  longitudinal  walls,  instead 
of  filling  up  the  haunches  with  a  mass  of  loose  rubbish, 
which  may  press  very  injuriously  upon  the  arch,  and  often 
proves  of  serious  inconvenience  when  the  masonry  of  tin- 
bridge  needs  any  repair.  He  employed  this  mode  of  con- 
struction in  a  large  arch,  of  112  feet  span,  erected  uvcr 
the  Dee,  near  Kirkcudbright,  in  18)).-.  and  I8IK).  and  in 
many  subsequent  bridges.  In  his  '  Life'  will  be  found 
particulars  of  the  ingenious  alteration  of  Glasgow  old 
bridge,  by  the  addition  of  a  projecting  footpath  of  east- 
iron  on  each  side,  so  as  to  leave  the  whole  width  of  the 
stone  structure  for  carriages:  and  of  the  new  bridge 
designed  by  him  for  crossing  the  ( 'lyde  at  Glasgow,  and 
commenced  in  1833:  of  the  light  and  elegant  Dean  bridge, 
at  Edinburgh  ;  Path-head  bridge,  of  live  arches  of  "Ml  feet 
span,  over  a  ravine  about  eleven  miles  south  of  Kdinhurgh  ; 
Morpeth  bridge  :  Tewkesbnry  bridge,  erected  between 
1823  and  182fi,  with  a  light  iron  arch  of  170  feet  span  and 
only  1"  feet  rise  ;  the  Over  bridge  at  Gloucester,  and  many 
others.  The  last-mentioned  bridge  lias  an  arch  of  peculiar 
form,  previously  employed  by  Perronet  in  the  Neuilly 
bridge.  The  general  body  of  the  arch  is  an  elliptical 
curv  e  of  15)1  feet  span  and  35  feet  rise,  but  the  external  arch 
stones  ut  the  sides  of  the  bridge  form  scgmcnlal  CUP 
the  same  span,  but  of  only  13  feet  rise:  the  two  arches 
are  coincident  at  the  crown,  and  are  connected  by  a 
vaulted  form  on  the  haunches  of  the  bridge.  •  This  com- 
plex form.'  observes  Telford,  '  converts  each  side  of  the 
vault  of  the  arch  into  the  shape  of  the  entrance  of  a  pipe, 
to  suit  the  contracted  passage  of  a  fluid  ;  thus  lessening 
the  flat  surface  opposed  to  the  current  of  the  river  when- 
ever the  tide  or  upland  tlood  rises  above  the  springing  of 
the-  middle  of  the  ellipse,  lhal  being  at  four  feet  above 
low-water:  a  precaution  rendered  nee.v-sary  in  this  in- 
stance owing  to  the  liability  of  the  bridge  to  vcTy  trying 
floods.' 


TEL 


169 


TEL 


Telford  executed  some  important  harbour-works  at 
Aberdeen  and  Dundee  ;  but  his  most  striking  performance 
of  this  class  is  the  St.  Katherine  Docks,  London.  Owing 
to  the  very  limited  space  which  could  be  obtained,  it  was 
necessary  to  construct  these  docks  of  irregular  forms,  and  to 
adopt  unusual  arrangements  respecting  the  warehouses ; 
and  these  arrangements,  combined  witli  the  admirable 
machinery  employed,  have  reduced  the  time  requisite  for 
unloading  a  vessel  in  an  astonishing  degree.*  There  are  two 
docks,  communicating  with  the  river  by  a  tide-lock  180  feet 
long  and  45  feet  wide,  with  three  pair  of  gates,  so  that 
either  one  very  large  or  two  smaller  vessels  may  pass  the 
lock  at  one  time  :  and  steam-engines  are  provided,  capable 
of  filling  the  locks  in  a  few  minutes  by  pumping  water 
from  the  middle  of  the  river,  so  that  vessels  are  enabled  to 
pass  in  and  out  of  the  docks  with  great  rapidity  so  long  as 
there  is  a  sufficient  depth  of  water  to  receive  them  outside 
the  lock.  The  cast-iron  turn-bridge  over  this  lock  is  an 
excellent  specimen  of  that  kind  of  machinery,  being  easily 
worked  by  two  persons  at  each  end,  although  it  supports  a 
carriage-way  24  feet  wide.  These  docks  were  constructed 
much  more  quickly  than  is  usual  for  works  of  such  magni- 
tude, and  more  quickly  than  the  engineer  could  fully  approve, 
although  he  admitted  the  urgency  of  the  case  as  a  justifica- 
tion of  a  course  against  which  he  could  not  but  enter  his 
protest.  One  of  the  very  latest  engagements  of  Telford 
u:i>  the  survey  of  Dover  harbour,  undertaken, in  January, 
1834,  at  the  request  of  the  duke  of  Wellington,  us  warden 
of  the  Cinque  Ports,  with  a  \ii",v  to  the  adoption  of 
measures  to  check  the  accumulation  of  shingle  at  the 
entrance. 

In  addition  to  the  works  which  he  executed  himself, 
Telford  was  frequently  applied  to  for  his  judgment  upon 
important  schemes,  and  in  this  way  he  made  many  reports 
to  parliament.  For  many  years  he  was  employed  to  re- 
port upon  all  public  works  of  engineering  character  for 
which  loans  were  required  of  the  Exchequer  Loan  Com- 
missioners. Among  his  reports  are  several  of  considerable 
interest,  especially  upon  proposed  canals  between  London 
and  Birmingham,  and  between  the  Knglish  and  Bristol 
Channels,  and  on  the  supply  of  water  to  the  metropolis, 
one  of  the  last  objects  to  which  he  devoted  his  atten- 
tion. For  some  years  before  his  death  he  had  gradually 
declined  as  much  as  possible  forming  new  engagements, 
and  had  made  preparations  for  the  publication  of  such 
a  selection  from  hi*  papers  as  might  leave  on  record 
an  authentic  account  of  the  important  works  in  which 
for  more  than  half  a  century  he  had  been  engaged. 
Having  made  arrangements  with  his  executors  for  the 
completion  of  his  work  in  case  he  should  not  live  to  finish 
it,  he  set  about  it  with  ardour,  and  had  many  of  the  plates 
completed,  the  manuscript  in  a  very  forward  state,  and 
arrangements  made  respecting  the  paper,  type,  &c.  before 
his  death.  The  book  was  not  published  until  1838,  chiefly 
owing  to  the  illness  and  death  of  Mr.  Turrell.the  engraver, 
and  the  difficulty  of  getting  the  plates  completed.  It 
forms  a  thick  4to.  volume,  entitled  'Life  of  Thomas  Tel- 
ford, civil  engineer,  written  by  himself;  containing  a  de- 
scriptive Narrative  of  his  Professional  Labours ;'  and  it 
contains  a  preface  and  supplement,  by  the  editor,  Mr. 
Hickman.  and  a  very  copious  appendix  of  illustrative  re- 
and  other  documents.  The  plates,  eighty-three  in 
number,  constitute  a  companion  volume,  in  large  folio,  to 
which  is  prefixed  a  line  portrait  of  Telford,  engraved  by 
W.  Haddon,  from  a  picture  by  S.  Lane.  From  this  work 
the  materials  of  the  preceding  notice  of  his  principal  works 
are  chiefly  derived  ;  and  from  the  supplementary  notice,  by- 
Mr.  Hickman,  and  some  other  sources,  are  collected  the 
following  additional  biographical  particulars. 

Before  leaving  his  native  district,  Telford  acquired  some 
distinction  as  a  poet.  He  wrote  in  the  homely  style  of 
Ramsay  and  Fergusson,  and  contributed  small  pieces  to 
Huddiman's  '  Weekly  Magazine,'  under  tin:  signature  of 
'  Eskdale  Tarn.'  He  wrote  a  short  poem,  entitled  '  Ksk- 
dale,'  descriptive  of  the  scenes  of  his  early  years,  which  was 
originally  published  in  a  provincial  miscellany,  sub- 
ited  at  Shrewsbury,  at  the  request  of  his 
friends,  and  afterwards  incited  in  the  appendix  to  his  Life. 
Another  pleading  fragment  of  his  composition  is  given  at 
the  end  of  the  first  volume  of  Dr.  Curne's  '  Life  and  Works 
of  Burns,'  published  at  Liverpool  in  1800  :  it  is  an  extract 


•  S<—.  for  mi 
No.  I,V.  nf  I,. i 
I-    ' 


mint,  a  nnri-r  on  'The  Doc!<«,'  forming 


from  a  poetical  epistle  sent  by  Telford,  when  at  Shrews- 
bury, to  the  Ayrshire  poet,  recommending  him  to  take  up 
other  subjects  of  a  serious  nature,  similar  to  the  '  Cottar's 
Saturday  Night.'  He  taught  himself  Latin,  French,  Ita- 
lian, and  German,  so  as  to  read  them  all  with  facility,  and 
to  converse  readily  in  French  ;  and  he  has  left  valuable 
contributions  to  engineering  literature,  in  the  articles  Ar- 
chitecture, Bridge,  Civil  Architecture,  and  Inland  Naviga- 
tion, in  Brewster's  'Edinburgh  Encyclopaedia,'  in  which 
work  Mr.  Rickman  says  he  was  a  shareholder.  He  was 
well  acquainted  with  algebra,  but  he  held  mathematical 
investigation  in  rather  low  estimation.  In  his  early  years 
he  appears  to  have  been  tinctured  with  democratic  opinions ; 
but  after  seeing  the  excesses  of  the  French  revolution,  he 
always  studiously  avoided  conversing  on  political  subjects. 
In  all  the  relations  of  life  he  commanded  respect  and 
esteem  ;  and  he  was  particularly  remarkable  for  his  facility 
of  access  to  the  deserving,  and  especially  for  his  ready 
communication  of  professional  information  to  foreigners ; 
a  circumstance  which,  added  to  his  connection  with  the 
Gotha  canal  and  some  other  continental  works,  procured 
for  him  the  highest  respect  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 
The  Russian  government  frequently  applied  to  him  for 
advice  respecting  the  construction  of  roads  and  canals ; 
and  the  sixty-seventh  plate  in  his  atlas  represents  the 
details  of  a  road  designed  by  him  from  Warsaw  to  the 
Russian  frontier.  The  emperor  Alexander  of  Russia 
acknowledged  his  sense  of  his  sen-ices  on  one  occasion, 
in  1808,  by  sending  him  a  diamond  ring  with  a  suitable 
inscription.  Although  he  was  not  connected  with  the 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  at  its  formation,  he  accepted 
their  invitation  in  1820,  and  became  their  president ; 
and  from  that  time  he  was  unremitting  in  his  attention  to 
the  duties  of  the  office,  having  become,  by  his  partial  re- 
tirement from  .business,  a  pretty  regular  resident  in  the 
metropolis.  He  ardently  loved  his  profession,  and  was, 
observes  Mr.  Rickman,  so  energetic  in  any  task  before  him, 
that  all  other  motives  became  subordinate  to  it.  He  never 
married,  and  hardly  had  a  fixed  habitation  until  a  late 
period  of  life.  He  was  of  athletic  form,  and  reached  the 
age  of  seventy  without  any  serious  illness;  but  in  1827  he 
was  afflicted  with  a  severe  and  painful  disorder,  after  which 
he  became  subject  to  bilious  attacks,  under  one  of  which 
he  died,  on  the  2nd  of  September,.  1834,  at.  his  residence  in 
Abingdon  Street,  Westminster,  at  the  age  of  seventy-seven. 
He  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  The  acquisition  of 
property  was  always  a  secondary  consideration  with  Tel- 
ford;  and  in  certain  cases,  especially  of  abortive  specula- 
tions, he  was  ingenious  in  finding  arguments  for  giving  his 
assistance  gratuitously.  Even  in  increasing  his  charges  as 
his  reputation  and  experience  increased  the  value  of  his 
services,  he  seems  to  have  been  actuated  chiefly  by  a  sense 
of  what  was  due  to  others  in  his  profession,  whose  remu- 
neration was  in  some  degree  dependent  upon  his  own. 
After  his  mother's  death  he  had  few  family  connections  to 
provide  for,  and  he  had  a  great  objection  to  raising  any 
individual  above  his  station  in  life,  which  is  stated  by  his 
biographer  as  his  reason  for  not  leaving  his  property  to  re- 
lations. His  will,  printed  in  the  appendix  to  his  '  Life,'  pro- 
vides for  the  payment  of  handsome  legacies  to  many  per- 
sonal friends  ;  of  2000/.  to  provide  annual  premiums  to  be 
given  by  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers;  and  of  1000/. 
each  in  trust  to  the  ministers  of  Westerkirk  and  Langholm, 
for  the  purchase  of  books  for  the  parish  libraries.  His 
scientific  books,  prints,  drawings,  &c.,are  bequeathed  to 
the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers.  Telford  became  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh  in  1803,  and  of 
that  of  England  in  1827. 

(Life,  edited  by  Rickman  ;  Chambers'.-*  fv.-ittti.ih  Biogra- 
phical Dictionary  ;  Annual  Biography,  vol.  xix.) 

TKLINGA  or  TELUGU  LANGUAGE.  [HINDUSTAN, 
]).  22!).] 

TELL,  WILLIAM,  a  simple  countryman  of  the  village 
of  Burglen  near  Altorf  in  Switzerland,  who  lived  towards  the 
end  of  the  thirteenth  and  during  the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  His  early  life  is  unknown,  and  his  name  would 
probably  never  have  been  heard  of  in  history,  if  the  tyranny 
of  the  Austrians  had  not  called  him  from  his  obscurity. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  when  Albert  I. 
of  Austria  was  endeavouring  to  suppress  the  spirit  of  free- 
dnm  and  independence  in  the  three  Waldstadte,  Uri, 
Sc.hwyz,  and  Unterwalden,  and  was  using  every  means  to 
add  them  to  his  family  estates,  he  sent  bailiffs  'Lamlvogte) 


T  F,  I. 


170 


TEL 


who  perpetrated  the  most  tlai-rant  acts 
ted  the  people  111;  -alion. 

Ihree  Waldfttiidlo.  iii  I3U7,  formed 
headed   h> 


abtmt  its  (ruth 

Danish  kins 


:nilar 
Gramma- 

n  ooimt  01 


prominent  part   in 

uhmllv  .-i 


had  married  «  daitiri 

thu  league,  though  uithoiit  takin 

it.       Till1    object    n!    these  men  wa 
ti)  inrn-iiM'  their  number*,  Mini    ' 
op|M>rtiiiii1y  lor  delivering   thci 

ii-id  :mnn  Oes*- 

ler  111'  'I'll      1..    \\1\ 

Hilton  of   I'ri.  alter 

>  mer  \c\;;ln.us  act»,  caused  tin-  dura  I  lint  of  Austria  to  be 

\ltorl'.   and  com- 

manded ti  .anted  the  polo  should  un- 

liis  lii'iul  ;  ^pectfoM:  i  Aus- 

tria.    William  Toll  with  Ins  little  boy  happened  one  day 
1o  paw  tlie  pole  without  paying  any  regard  to  the  ordois 
ol'lhv  haiiilt  :    and   he  was  immediately  aeiied   and  (alien 
before  Gcssicr.    Tell  had  tho  reputation  of  beinfr  an  excel- 
lent hti-.vmaii,   and  ti.-s-.li-r  ilevised   a  mode  ol'  ))iinislnnent 
whioh   should  put   his  skill   ton  severe   test.     Ho  oi 
Toll's  boy  to  be  placed  at  a  considerable  distance  from  his 
lather,  and  an  apple  to  bo  tixed  on  his  head.     A  on 
and    arrows    were    handed    to    Tell,    who,    withoi.1.    beincr 

.ed.  contrived  to  iret  two  arrows,  and  lie  was  ordered 
to  shoot  the  apple  from  his  own  child's  head.  Tin 
added,  that  if  lie  mi-.scd  the  apple,  he  should  die.  Tell 
Miccet-ded  in  hitting:  the  apple,  Gorier  had  expected  that 
Toll  would  kill  en  hurt  his  child,  and  in  his  disappointment 
hi:  tiled  to  lind  out  some  pretext  for  pnnishintr  the  pre- 
sumptuous peasant  :  he  asked  him  why  he  had  taken  a 
Tell  boldly  replied  :  '  It  was  intended  for 
Ihoe.  n  the  lir.st  had  hit  my  child.'  The  Imilitf.  delighted 
with  this  opportunity  of  satisfying  his  veneeanee.  ordered 
Tell  In  be  hound  and  to  be  conveyed  in  it  bunt  acro->  the 
lake  ol  \Va!dstadteii  to  the  castlc'a:  .(.the  resi- 

douee  of  Ge.'-sier.  who  himself  accompanied  his  pn- 

tlie  boat  was  on  Iho  lake,  a  storm  arose,  winch  be- 
came so  violent,  that   tho  i  i-   imahle  to   n> 

the  boat,  and  proposed   t  to  unfetter  To, 

allow  him  to  assist   them,   as  he  was   known  to   be  an  ex- 
perienced boatman  and  well  acquainted  with  every  part  of 
the  lake.     Tell  wa-  freed  from  his  fetters,  and  talcing  the  '. 
rudder  in  his  hand,  he  steered  ihe  boat  towards  a  part   of 

•  eky  shore,  where  a  Mat  shelf  jutted  out  into  Ihe  lake. 
When  ho  was  near  this  spot,  he  seized  his  bow.  jumped 
upon  the  projecting  rook,  and  with  his  foot  pushed  the 
boat  back  into  the  waters.  The  storm  however  was  abat- 
inir.  and  '  1  his  men  wore  safely  landed.  Tell 

know  the  road  by  which  the  bailiff1  bad  to  pass  to  Kiix- 
imeht,  and  lay  in  wait  for  him  in  a  narrow  defile.  When 
GMsl'  Toll  shot  him  through  the  heart.  This 

happened  towards  the  end  of  the  year  l:j()7.     Tin 
was    followed    by  a   serie-,    of   wais    between    the     S\\iss 
and  the  Austriuns,  whir.h  did  not  terminate  till  ihe  year 
1499. 

The  conduct  of  Tell   was  hiirhiy  il 

friends,   as  they  wished   to  avo.  Land   w  ere  not 

yet  pi.  -pared  to  cany  their  plan-  -tmn.    Alter  this 

adventure  ';  i-ito  his  former  obscurity.  t 

said  to  h.i   •  |iart  in  tin-  battle  of  Morgart  en, 

and  to  ha\e  perished,  in  KtV>,  in  the  river  Sehiiohen  during 

Tell  ha*  been  repr- 
libertv.  by  historians  a-  v,  . 

if  looked  into  more  closely,  will  ap|iear  in  si  ill  I:  • 
His  refusal  to  pay  homage  1o  Ihe  dncal  hat  of  A     I 
indeed  owintr  to  a  noblw  iudepend-.  -  rit  ;   but  his 

obeyini;  the    inhuman   command    of  Gessler  to  shoot   the 
app|e  from   his  child's  b. 
teohnirs,  n 
him«-lf. 

although  in  a  moMure  An  net 
'ir.-u  instances,  yet  in  the  manner  of  I!; 
Jittle  bettor  than  murder. 

lint  tin.  truth  of  the  story  of  Tell,   notwilh-tandintr  it* 
bang  i'onunein< 
other    pi.. 

modern  hifltaciMitf^  v 
von  Miiller,  refrard  it  Mk  gWrtMMwMMy.    Tlic  M06 


.  that  in  t 

••id  publisli 
('  I'rlumdcii    •/, 
I  t  here  is  no  mention  of  si  Gessl 
'1  in  the  t 
ns,  Grimm   mid    Ideler  I  /' 


story.     It 


• 
t  the  Lrronndwork  <it'  the 

]irocessions   to  \isil    tin- 
spot  where  Tell  had    .  in  the   boat.  r\n<l   li- 

the ea  '  the  eelelirated   olisipel  of  Tel 

the  same  spot,  and  it  is  stated   t 

thsit   year  there  were  one  hundred  a-.  n  who   had 

known   Tell   himself.     His   adventure   is  moreover  told  to 

mo  effect  by  all  the  chroniclers  who 
after  the  alleirecl  time  of  the  ooeurronce. 

TKT.I.KK.   \\I1.11K1.M    AUKAHAM.  son  of  Romamis 
Teller,  minister  of  St.  Thomas's  ehr.rch   :      ! 
born  in  that   city,  ilth  .lamiary,  1~H! 
age  of  twenty-two  he  attracted  Ihe  at  tent  ion  ol  i  i  .    I 
Srieal  world  by  a  Latin  Irnnslation  of  Konnieott   on  tho 

n  Text  :    and  sifter  beinir  for  a  year  or  t« 
at   the  Nioolai   church,  very  unexpectedly  I    tin- 

aii]Hiiutment  of  professor  of  thoolotrv  at    Helmstiidt,  from 
the  Duke  of  Hmnswiek.  in  1701.     On  enterinz  ii])on  his 
new  office,  he  published  ns  an  inaugural  disputation  his 
•Topice  Soriptnrsi',"  vhich  was  considered  by  Suporinleiu!- 
ant  Hahrdt   so  heterodox  in  its  opinions,  that  it  was  with 
difficulty  he  could  he  prevailed  upon  not  to  pro:. 
Teller's  appointment.     Not  del  01  red  by  this  cin-imi  •• 
from  expressing  his  own  convictions.  Teller  published  not 
lonsr  afterwards  his  •  Lohrbuch  des  <  hrist  lichen  Glaubens."  a 
production  that  caused  no  little  noise  at  the  time,  excitintr 
violent   disapprobation  in  some    quarters,  and   obtaining 
him  friends  in  others,     .hist  before  this  work  appear. 
Iwd  been  invited  to  accept  the  professorship  <>i 
at  Halle,  then  vacant  by  the  death  of  liaumirarten.  and  lie 
deelined  it  out  of  rezard  towards  his  patron  the  Duke.  Hi.' 
the  persecution  he  continued  to  experience  from  tin 
whom    his  opinions    had  rendered    him    obnoxious  i 
his    re-idence   at    Helmstiidt    so   disagreeable,  that   i! 
without  the  least  reluctance  he  '  it.  about  throe 

years  afterwards.  17'i~.  for  Herlin.  with  the  appoinfnii 
•Obeii  -Kath'  and  Dean  of  Coloirne.     While  it 

ill  him  from  their  immediate  nltsieks.  the  distin 

red  upon   ' 
4MMUMkt  and  nt  the  same  lime  he  him 


ringu 

He 

•I  duti 
to  applv  to  his  tl 


continued 

'ti  in 
The  \a--l   number  of  sermons  and  va: 


publii 

(heolot,'ical  writinjrs published  by  him.  a' test  not  only  his  in- 
dustry, bnl  •;.. inline  reh 
although  1                                                         •'.  '-vailed  ; 

•lid  those  '. 
upon  "ts  than   upon   i 


the 
the 
the 


•  iction  to  the  founer.'    ()• 

teacher  of  vi-!iiri<m.   but  as  a  man — i 
in  private  life  than  in  bis  public 
in  Himself  that  conduct  v 


ihem. 

nnd 

•  mol.iy  h'- 
;  for  though  he 


n'st    M|I  to   the   time    0 
ntly  worn   out  in  bod-. 


T  E  L 


171 


TEL 


faculties  continued  active  to  the  last.     He  died  at  Berlin, 
December  8,  1804.     (Jorden's  l,i'xi<-oi>.  i 

TELLERS  OF  THE  EXCHEQUER  were  the  holders 

of  an  antient  office  in  the  Exchequer.     They  were  lour  in 

number  :    their  duties  were  to  receive  money  payable  into 

the  Exchequer  on  behalf  of  the  king,  to  give  the  clerk  of 

the  pells  i  skins  or  rolls  of  parchment)  a  bill  of  receipt  for 

the  money,  to  pay  all  money  according  to  the  warrant  of 

the  auditor  of  receipts,  and  to  make  weekly  and  yearly 

books  of  receipts  and  payments  for  the  lord   treasurer. 

I  ///s/..  IDS  ;  Com.  Di<r.,  tit. '  Court.'  D.  4,  14,  15.)     The 

office  was  abolished  by  act  of  parliament  (4  &  5  Wm.  IV., 

e.  f5i,  together  with  that  of  the  clerk  of  the  pells  and  the 

tl  offices  subordinate  thereto,  and  a  new  constitution 

'lished,  a  eomptioller-general  of  the  receipt  and  issue 

of  his   Majesty's  Exchequer  being  appointed  to  perform 

the  duties  of  the  four  tellers.      4  &  5  \Vm.  IV.,  c.  13.) 

TELLEZ,  BALTHEZAR,  a  native  of  Lisbon,  was  born, 
according  to  the  statement  of  M.  Weiss,  in  the  •  Biographic' 
Vniverselle,'  in  the  year  1595.  Moreri  states  that  he 
joined  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  the  year  1010.  In  the  eulo- 
gistic letter  of  Dom  Francisco  Manoel,  prefixed  to  Tellez's 

•  History  of  Ethiopia,' he  is  said   i  at  least  this  seems  to 
be  the  writer's  meaning,  which  his  affected  style  renders 
rather  obscure  .  to  have  studied  t<;n  years,  and  taught  foity  : 

.  t-  paid  attention  to  literature  during  the  whole  ten 

year.-,  of  hi.  <  areer  as  student,  but  devoted  two  of  them 

more    especially    to    philosophy,    and    four   of  them    lo 

theoloiry.      He    lectured  upon   ln-lh'x   /-tires   for   twenty 

liing  in  succession  the  most  advanced  literary 

s  in  the  Society's  colleges  at  Braira,  Evora,  Lisbon, 
and  Coimbra.  He  lectured  two  years  on  philosophy,  but 
Mauoel  does  not  mention  in  what  seminary.  Lastly,  Tel- 
lez  was  eight  years  professor  of  theology  in  the  college  of 
St.  Antonio  at  Lisbon.  At,  a  later  period  he  was  appointed 
master  of  the  house  of  the  professed  Jesuits  in  Lisbon, 
and  ultimately  provincial  of  the  order  in  Portugal.  He 
died  in  his  eightieth  year,  on  the  10th  of  April,  1(>75. 
The  published  works  of  Tellez  are  : — 1,  A  compendium  of 
philosophy,  entitled  '  Summa  Uni\  ersae  Philosophise,  cum 

•rionilms  quae  inter  Philosophos  agitantur,'  published 
at  Lisbon,  in  folio,  in  1042;  at  Paris,  in  two  quarto  vo- 
lumes, in  1044:  and  at  Lisbon,  in  four  octavo  volumes,  in 
Iii52:  2.  '  Chronica  da  Companhia  de  Jesus  da  Provincia 
da  Portugal,'  in  two  volumes,  the  first  published  in  1045, 
the  second  in  104s,  both  at  Lisbon  :  3.  '  Historic 

'liiopia  a  alta,'  in  one  folio  volume,  ul  Coimbra,  in 
1000.  He  is  also  said  to  have  lelt  in  MS.  a  history  of  the 
aUmrs  in  tile  East.  The  historical  works  of 
Tellez  are  of  more  value  than  his  philosophical  ti< 
The  History  of  the  Jesuits  in  Portugal  is  a  valuable  con- 
tribution to  the  history  of  that  accomplished  and  energetic 
order.  The  '  History  of  Ethiopia,'  or,  more  properly,  the 
history  of  the  Jesuit-Minions  in  Ethiopia,  is  indispensable 
to  any  one  who  wishes  to  study  the  history  or  comparative 

aphy  of  Abyssinia.  The  first  book  contains  an 
nc  of  the  geography  of  Abyssinia,  of  its  political 
divisions,  government,  and  statistics,  as  they  existed  from 
the  time  that  the  Jesuit  missionaries  first  entered  the 
kingdom  till  their  expulsion  under  Facilidas.  The  remain- 
ing five  books  are  chiefly  occupied  wfth  the  narrative  of 

unary  enterprise,  but  contain  important  contributions 

to  geography,  the  general  accuracy  of  which  has,  on  the 

whole,  been  confirmed  by  the  testimony  of  later  travellers. 

Iivthe  preface  Tellez  gives  an  account  of  the  authorities 

from  whom  he  has  compiled  his  book,  Manoel  d'Almeyda, 

Atfonso  Mendes,  .Teronymo  Lobo.  and  Pero  Pays ;  and  he 

availed  himself  of  their  information  both  with  taste 

and  judgment. 

i"The  authority  statement*  in  this  sketch  are  the 

•  History  of  Ethiopia,'  with  the  preface  by  Telle/  himself, 
and  the  letter  of   Francisco  Manoel  prefixed   to   it:     the 

:   Balthezar  Tellez.  in  the  •  Bibliothcca  Scrip- 
•  •  of  Nicolao  Antonio,  in  the  •  l)ieiio:inaii-, 
of  Louis  Moreri,  and  in  the  '  Biographic 

TKLL I  CHERRY.  [HINDUS-TAX,  p.  207;  MAI.ABAH,  p. 
:M2.1 

M'VA.     [C'ONCHACKA,  vol.  vii.,  pp.  428,  429.] 
i.l.I'MDKS.     [CONCHACEA,  vol.  vii.,  p.  428.] 
TKLLU'RHJM,  a  metal  which  was  discovered   in 
by  Mi'illcr  t,i    K  ...   but    its  properties  were 

minutely  examined  by  Klaproth  sixteen  years  afterwards,  ' 


and  he  gave  it  the  name  it  now  bears.  It  is  a  scarce 
metal.  Its  properties  are  the  following: — its  colour  is 
silver-white,  and  it  is  very  brilliant :  it  is  crystalline  and 
brittle,  of  a  lamellar  fracture,  easily  pulverized,  and  a  worse 
conductor  of  electricity  than  antimony  or  bismuth.  Its 
specific  gravity,  according  to  Klaproth,  is  0-115,  while 
Magnus  makes  it  0-137,9.  Ii  is  nearly  as  fusible  as  anti- 
mony, and  at  a  high  temperature  it  boils,  and  may  be 
distilled.  When  strongly  heated  in  contact  with  air,  it 
burns  with  a  lively  blue  flame,  green  at  the  borders,  and 
forms  a  white  vapour,  which  has  an  acid  odour. 

The  principal  ores  of  tellurium  are  the  following  : — 

Xitfirn  Tellurium. — It  is  found  crystallized  and  masshe. 
Primary  form  a  rhomboid;  occurs  in  minute  six-sided 
prisms,  the  terminal  edges  of  which  are  usually  replaced. 
Cleavage  parallel  to  the  faces  of  the  prism.  Fiaclure  in- 
distinct. Hardness :  scratches  sulphate  of  lime,  and  in 
scratched  by  the  carbonate.  Easily  frangible.  Colour  tin- 
white  or  steel-grey.  Lustre  metallic.  Specific  gravity 
57  to  0-1 15. 

Before  the  blowpipe  very  fusible,  burns  with  a  greenish 
flame,  and  is  volatilized  in  a  white  vapour.  It  is  soluble 
in  hydrochloric  acid. 

MaMfff  I  'urifty. — -.Granular.  .  Colour  splendent  tin- 
white.  Lustre  metallic.  Opaque,  Specific,  gravity  0-115. 

It  occurs  in  Transylvania. 

Klaproth's  analysis  gives, — 

Tellurium        .         .         92  -55 
Iron        .          .          .  7-20 

Gold       .  0-25 


100- 

'//••  'ji/iii-  Tr  Hurt  n  in.     Aiirn-iii-^'-iiliffrniix  Tellurium.  — 

Occurs  cryitallized.     Primary  form  a  right  rhombic  prism  ; 

occurs  in  attached  flattened   cry.-tals,  which  are   generally 

minute.     Fracture  uneven.     Hardness:  scratches  talc,  and 

•  atched    by  calcareous   spar.     It    is    brittle.     Colour 

;rey.     Lustre   metallic.     Opaque.     Specific  gravity 

' 


Before  the  blowpipe  it  readily  fuses  into  a  globule,  and 
iced  to  a  metallic  button  of  a  brisrh!  yellow  colour. 
Soluble  in  nitric  acid,  except  a.  yellow  metallic  residue. 

It  occurs  accompanying  gold  in  narrow  veins  traversing 
porphyry  at  Oii'enbanya,  and  also  at  Xagyau',  in  Transyl- 
vania. 

Analysis  by 


Klii|itnth, 
00 


Tellurium  .  . 
Gold  .....  :«> 
Silver  .....  10 
Lead  ....... 


Herr.fliiis. 

02- 

24.' 

11-3 

1-5 


100  98-8 

Berzelius  found  also  a  little  sulphur,  arsenic,  antimony, 
iron,  and  copper. 

Yellow  Tellurium.—  Occurs  in  imbedded  crystalline 
laminae.  Primary  form  a,  right  rhombic  prism.  Traces 
of  cleavage.  Fracture  uneven.  Hardness:  scratches 
gypsum,  and  is  scratched  by  calcareous  spar.  Rather 
brittle.  Colour  silvery-white,  inclining  to  brass-yellow. 
Lustre  metallic.  Opaque.  Specific  gravity  10-078. 

By  the  blowpipe  melts  into  a  metallic  globule.  Partly 
soluble  in  nitric  acid. 

It  occurs  at  Nagyag  in  Transylvania,  and  in  the  Altai 
Mountains  in  Siberia. 

Analysis  by  Klaproth  :  — 

Tellurium  44-75 


Gold 
Lead      . 
Silver     . 

Sulphur 


20-75 
19-50 
8-50 
0-50 

100- 


Jl/iir/;  Ti-lliirinm. — Occurs  crystallized,  and  in  imbedded 
foliated  masses.  Primary  form  a  square  prism.  C'lea 
parallel  to  the  terminal  plane,  in  thin  flexible  laminii'. 
Fracture  indistinct.  Hardness:  scratches  talc,  and  i; 
scratched  by  gypsum.  Colour  dark  lead-grey.  Lustre 
metallic.  Opaque.  Specific  gravity  7'tH"3. 

liefoiv  the  blowpipe  is  fusible  on  charcoal,  and  cover* 
'h   oxide    of  lead ;    reducible   into  a   iru'y  metallic 
,  uhirh  eventual!)   lca\cs  a  button  of  gold. 
li.iind  at.  Nagyag  and  Ofienbiuiya.  in  Trail  >  i\ ama. 


TEL 


T  E  M 


Analysis  of  the  ore  from  Nagyag 
Tellurium 
Lead 
Gold 

Silver 
Copper 

1  jihur   . 


by  Kmprolh : 
:«••.: 
r.i-it 

9-0 

(>•:> 

!•:» 

8-0 


KM)' 


Brandos  and  Berthier  have  also  analyzed  this  ore  from 
NacyAg  :  tlujir  results  differ  considerably  from  the  above, 
and  'also  from  each  other. 

linmutfiic   Tellurium.      Trlluret  nf  Bismuth.  —  Occurs 

'ilizcd  in  small   six-sided  prisms.     Cleavage  ) 
to'the  liiiM-  <>!'  the  prism.     Fracture  indistinct.      Hardness  : 
he*  calcareous   ~pai.  and    is  snatched   hv  fluor-spar. 
Ciilo\ir   stccl-irrey  or  zinc-white,      Lustre   metallic. 
cifio  eravitv  7'*i 

Fusible  by  the  blowpipe,  and  disengages  the  odour  of 
selenium.     Acted  on  by  nitric  acid,  anal  the  solution  is 
precipitated  by  water. 
It  is  found  in  Norway. 
Analysis  of  Wehrle  :  — 

Tellurium  .....  34-6 
Bismuth  .....  60-0 
Sulphur  and  traces  of  selenium  .  4-K 

90-4 

We  shall  now  describe  the  more  important  binary  com- 
pounds of  tellurium,  beginning  with 

Oxygen  anil  Trlluriuin.  —  It  has  been  already  mentioned 
that  when  tellurium  is  heated  in  contact  with  air,  it 
burns,  and  a  white  %apour  is  formed  :  this  is  oxide  of  tel- 
lurium. or  tellurous  acid.  It  may  also  be  obtained  by 
the  action  of  nitric  acid  on  the  metal;  by  adding  water  to 
the  solution,  part  of  the  oxide  is  precipitated,  and  <he, 
remainder  is  obtained  by  evaporation  to  dryncss.  The 
properties  of  this  substance,  are,  that  it  is  a  white  granular 
anhydrous  powder,  which  slowly  reddens  moist  litmus- 
paper,  and  is  insoluble  in  water  and  acids.  It  is  dissolved 
by  a  solution  of  potash  or  soda,  and  by  fusing  with  their 
carbonates  ervstallizable  salts  are  formed  :  when  th' 
decomposed  by  acids,  hydrated  telh'rous  acid  is  precipi- 
tated, which,  it'  washed  with  very  cold  water,  and  dried  at 
iiperature  not  above  5:1°,  may  be  preserved  without 
tutt'crinar  change,  and  is  soluble  in  water,  acids,  ammonia, 
and  the  alkaline  carbonates,  which  last  it  decomposes  :  the 
aqueous  solution  reddens  litmus-paper:  when  zinc,  tin, 
and  some  other  metals  are  left  in  a  solution  of  tin 
they  deoxidize  it,  and  metallic  tellurium  is  precipitated  in 
tho  state  of  a  black  powder.  Its  salts  are  called  tellurites. 
It  is  composed  of  — 

One  equivalent  of  oxygen  .  .  8 
One  equivalent  of  tellurium  .  .  :)'J 

Equivalent         .         .         40 

liiioxide  of  Tellurium,  or  Tell  urir.  Acid.—  This  is  ob- 
tained: by  fusing  tellurous  acid  with  nitrate  of  potash  :  by 
this  it  is  oxidized  completely,  and  the  result  is  tcllurate  of 
potash  :  when  chloride  of  barium  is  added  to  it,  telluratc 
of  barytes  is  precipitated,  which,  being  decomposed  by 
sulphuric  acid,  yields  a  solution  of  telluric  acid  :  thi's 
yields  hexagonal  crystals  of  |hc  acid:  it  acts  but  feebly 
as»  an  acid,  the  dilute  solution  reddening  litmus-paper 
with  difficulty,  and  its  taste  is  rather  metallic  than  sour- 
the  i  utain  water,  two-thirds  of  which  th 

at  about  212",  and  the  remainder  below  a  red  heat  be- 
comes a  mass  of  a  fine  orange  colour,  which  is  completely 
insoluble  in  water,  either  cold  or  boilinir.  or  hot  hydro- 
chloric or  nitric  acids,  or  solution  of  potash.  Ii  is  d.-'i  om- 
posed  at  a  high  temperature,  and  converted  into  a  white 
powder,  which  is  tellurous  acid.  Its  salts  are  called  lel- 


12 


It  consists  of 

One  and  a  half  equivalent  of  oxygen 
One  equivalent  ol  tellurium  ... 


Equivalent  ...  44 
trogen  and  Tellurium.  —  When  tellurium  is  alloyec 
by  fusion  with  tin  or  zinc,  and  the  compound  is  acted  upon 
by  hydrochloric  acid,  the  hydrogen  of  the  decomposed  acic 
dissolves  tellurium,  and  telluretted  hydrogen  gas  is  ob- 
tained. Thi»  ga»  has  a  smell  somewhat  resembling  tha 


if  Indrosulphuric  acid  :    it  is  soluble  in  water,  forming  a 

•laid   '  ohitiMii  ;   and.  as   it   j,,,^,..^,..,  ncj,|  p, 

U.it    has   been  culled   hvdrotelhine  acid. 


my  metal! 

ellurium  with  the  other  metal.     01 
LTcn  uf  the  air,  all  take  the 
iimim. 
It  coiisi-ts  of 

One  equivalent  of  hydrogen 
One  equivalent  of  tellurium 


ie,  nitric  acid,  and 
'in  the  U'l- 


1 


Equivalent         .          .         33 
nnil   Trlluriuin  form  two  compounds.     When 
a  feeble  current  of  chlorite  -rd  o\er  tellurium  at 

a  hi  lib   temperature,  the   dicliloiide  i 
a  violet-coloured  vapour,  which  -at   first  into  a 

black  liquid, and  eventually  into  nc  colour. 

It   is  decomposed  \i\  the  action  of  water  into  metalli 
lurium,  which  is  precipitated,  and   chloride  of  tellurium 
remains  in  solution. 
It  is  comprised  of 

One  equivalent  of  chlorine         .          .         :!(i 
Two  equivalents  of  tellurium     .         .        M 

Equivalent         .         .       100 

The  C/t/nriilc  nf  Tellurium  is  obtained,  as  abo\e  si 
by  the  action  of  water  on  the  dichloride,  but  is  bettc: 
cured  by   passing  a   larger  quantiU  of  chloric 
lurium  at  a  lower  temperature  than  in  forming  the  dichlo- 
ride.   It  is  volatile,  and  any  excess  of  chloi 
rated  by  agitation  with  mercury  and  rectification,  a  white 
crystalline  solid  is  obtained,  which  is  composed  of 

One 'equivalent  of  chlorine 

One  equivalent  of  tellurium      .         .         .TJ 

Equivalent         .         .         68 

Sii/jifii/r  mid  Tellurium  combine  in  two  proportions  :  the 
sulphurct   is  obtained  when    hydrosulphuric  acid    i. 
passed  through  a  solution  of  chloride  of  tellurium,  tefluroua 
acid,  or  of  a  soluble  telhuite.     It  is  of  a  dark  brown  colour, 
and  is  soluble  in  a  solution  of  potash.     It  is  form 
One  equivalent  of  sulphur        .        .        n> 
One  equivalent  of  tellurium       .         .         '.\- 


Ei|nivalent 


•IS 


PerntlphuTet    nf   Tellurium    is  obtained   by  mixing  a 
solution  of  persulphuret  of  potassium  with  one  of  . 
of  telluric  acid.     It  is  of  a  deep  yellow  colour ;   but 
a  very  unstable  compound,  for  it   speedily  becomes  black, 
and  is  converted  into  protosulphuret. 

TELOPHO'NUS,  Mr.  Swainson's  name  for  a  genus  of 
iMiiiunrr  [SHRIKES,  vol.  xxi.,  p.  410],  which  he  thus  cha- 
racterises :  — 

Bill  more  lengthened  (than  in  I*iniux',  sliglrtlv  ho. 
the  tooth  smaller.     Wing-,  very  short  and  rounded.     Tail 

icned,  graduated.     Liitcia!  .    the  innei 

slightly  shorter  than  the  outer. 

Example,  Telo]'/>ni>n*  taicogrammfcut. 


Hilt  of  Trloplionm  Iciiciwr.iiniiiirui.     (S».,  l'!,:nijicatiim  i/Birdl,  \u\.  ii.) 

TELUGUorTKIJXCA  LANGUAGE,      film.-, 
•• 


TdMMASO,  an   architect   who  is  belter 
known  by  his  writing  n'lati\e  to  Ins  art  than  by  the  build- 
.  hich   he  executed,  was  the  son  of  an  architect,  and 
phew  of  another  an-lnlecl  and 

was  born  at  Venice  in   17n.~>.     Having   iim- 
matical  .studies   in   tho   school   of    1'.  mini 

and  the  eminent  Man  !,,-,•  1'oleni,  he  wa-*  ajipointed  — 
although  then  only  twenty-two  —  one  of  the  a-sistants.  in 
the  Commission  Of  Engineer*,  and  in  1742  became  the 
chief  of  that  body  on  Bernardino  /••?!- 

drini,  a  few  years  before'  the  latter's  death  (1747).  His 
share  in  the  hydraulic  commission  caused  him  for  awhile 
to  be  involved  in  literary  disputes,  he  having  otl'endcd  Hie 
people  of  Padua  by  a  publication  entitled  -Dell  aiilico 
Corso  clc'  Fiumi  in  I'udova  e  suoi  Contorni  ;'  wherein  he 
asserts  that  their  mice-tors  had  attempted  to  turn  the 


T  E  M 


173 


T  E  M 


course  of  the  Brenta.  As  an  architect  he  had  not  many 
opportunities  afforded  him,  for  the  period  of  Venetian 
grandeur  and  enterprise  in  art  had  passed  away.  lie  was 
however  employed  to  execute  one  of  the  very  few  public 
edifices  of  any  kind  erected  at  Venice  in  the  last  century, 
namely  the  church  of  La  Maddrfena,  a  structure  of  the 
Ionic  order,  and  which,  though  it  may  be  said  to  be  com- 
paratively pure,  is  also  somewhat  feeble  and  insipid  in 
design.  'His  other  principal  architectural  works  are — the 
facade  of  Santa  Margherita,  at  Padua ;  the  Rotunda  at 
Piazzolo,  built  at  the  expense  of  the  Contarini  family  ; 
and  the  bridge  over  the  Brenta  at  Dolo.  It  is  as  a  writer 
that  Temanza  is  chiefly  known,  more  especially  by  his 
•  Vitede'piuEc'cellenti  Architetti  e  Scultori  Veneziani,'4to., 
Yen.,  177N  :  which  is  one  of  the  most  copious  as  well  as 
-•.iritten  works  of  the  kind,  not  on  account  of  the 
number  of  lives  it  contains,  it  being  in  that  respect 
scanty,  but  for  the  unusual  extent  at  which  they  are 
given.  In  fact  several  of  them,  Palladio,  Sansovino,  &c., 
had  previously  been  published  separately.  Besides  this 
literary  production — an  important  contribution  1o  archi- 
tectural biography,— he  published  the  '  Antichitl  di  Ri- 
mini,' folio,  1741 ;  and  left  behind  him  another  work, 
'  Degli  Archi  e  delle  Volte,  e  delle  Regole  generali  dell' 
Architettura  Civile,'  which  -was  first  edited  in  1811.  There 
are  likewise  a  great  many  letters  by  him  on  architectural 
topics  in  Ticozzi'*  edition  of  Bottari's  '  Raccolta  di  Lettere 
Milla  Pittura.'  &c. 

Teraanza  died  at  Venice,  June  14,  1789.  and  was  buried 
in  his  own  church  of  La  Maddelena.  There  is  a  portrait  of 
him  in  Gamba's  '  Gallt-ria  d'Uomini  Illustri,'  to  which 
work,  and  to  C'omolli's  •  Bibliografia  Storia  Critica  dell' 
Architettura  Chile,'  we  are  indebted  for  some  of  the  par- 
ticulars here  given. 

TEME.       [SHROPSHIRE.] 

TEMESWAR,  THE  BANAT  OF,  is  one  of  the  finest 
and  most  remarkable  portions  of  Hungary,  comprehending 
(he  counties  of  Torontal,  Temcs,  and  Krassova,  and  the 
German  and  \Vallacho-Illyrian  districts.  These  two  dis- 
tricts are  sometimes  not  considered  as  part  of  the  Banat. 
The  area  of  the  whole  is  11,340  square  miles,  and  the  popu- 
lation is  said  to  be  above  a  million  ;  lint,  there  is  no  part  of 
the  Austrian  empire  the  population  of  which  it  is  so  dif- 
ficult to  ascertain  as  that  of  Hungary.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Maros,  separating  it  from  the  counties  of 
Aiiui,  Csongrad,  and  C:-anad ;  on  the  west  it  is  separated 
by  the  river  "Theiss  from  the  counties  of  Csongrad  and  Bacs, 
and  the  Czaisk  district,  and  by  the  Danube  from  Slavonia  ; 
on  the  south  by  the  Danube  from  Servia  ;  and  on  the  east 
by  the  Cserna,  and  the  offsets  of  the  Carpathians,  extend- 
ing from  Transylvania,  from  Little  Wallachia,  and  Tran- 
sylvania. The-  Magyars  comprehended  it  in  the  mili- 
tary district  of  Kant.  It  was  a  frontier  province  against 
the  Wallachians,  the  Bulgarians,  and  the  Turks.  The 
latter  however  got  possession  of  it  in  1552,  and  retained  it 
till  1710;  when,  in  consequence  of  the  victories  of  Prince 
Eugene,  it  was  restored  to  Austria  by  the  treaty  of  Passa- 
vowitz  in  1718.  Under  the  disorderly  rule  of  the  Turks, 
the  country  was  overrun  with  banditti,  so  that  many  parts 
were  nearly  uninhabited  and  desert.  Field-Marshal  Count 
Francis  Mercy  d'Argenteau,  who  was  appointed  governor, 
and  died  in  1734,  and  Baron  Engelshoi'en,  his  successor, 
exerted  themselves  to  improve  it  by  inviting  numerous 
colonists  from  Germany,  Italy,  and  France,  building  towns 
and  villages,  establishing  manufactories,  and  erecting  forts. 
But  the  Turkish  war  being  renewed  in  1737,  many  of  thest 
establishments  were  ruined,  and  a  great  number  of  the 
foreign  colonists  quitted  the  country.  When  pea* 
restored,  numbers  of  Servians,  Rascians,  Macedonians, 
and  Bulgarians,  came  from  the  Turkish  provinces,  bringing 
their  property  with  them.  In  17">-  the  covcnimr: 

ii'Oni  the  military  to  the  civil  form,  and,  with  the 
exception  of  a  temporary  check  during  the  Seven  Veins 
war,  the  progress  of  improvement  in  this  province  has  been 
constant. 

The  Banat  is  remarkable  for  the  great  varieties  of  cli 
mate :  in  many  parts  the  snow  on  the  high  mountains 
and  in  the  deep  ravines  never  melts,  and  in  other  parts 
it  falls  only  in  severe  winters.  A  third  part  of  the  countri 
M  mountainous,  and  almost  everywhere  well  watered.  The 
ground  which  has  been  gained  by  draining  the  morasses 
on  the  banks  of  the  Theiss  and  the  Danube,  and  in  the 
more  elevated  tracts  by  clearing  the  old  forests,  is  ex 


remely  fruitful.     In  the  middle  of  the  two  military  fron- 
ier  districts  lies  the  most  extensive  sandy  tract  in  the 
(vhole  Austrian  empire,  in  which  there  are  however  many 
oases.    The  principal  points  of  the  high  mountains  are 
Sarko,  Gugu,  Muraru,  and  Godjan  ;   on  the  lower  moun- 
ains  there  are  vast  forests  and  fine  pastures.    The  prin- 
cipal rivers  are  the  Danube,  Theiss,  Maros,  Kiiros,  Neray, 
femes,   and  Bega.      In   1748   and  the   following  years 
canals  were  made  in  order  to  drain   the   marshes :   the 
mncipal  of  these  is  the  Bega  canal,  75  miles  in  length, 
vhich  traverses  the  whole  of  the  counties  of  Ternes  and 
forcntal,   and  is   conducted    into   the  Theiss.      By   the 
draining  of  the  marshes,  tracts  which  in  the  latter  half 
ot   the  last  century  were  stagnant  pools,  the   source   of 
pestilential  exhalations,  are  now  covered  with  the  finest 
corn-fields,  or,  where  they  have  been  imperfectly  reclaimed, 
with  crops  of  rice,  and  the  salubrity  of  the  country  has 
jeen  greatly  improved.     The  protection  which  the  moun- 
:ains  give  against  the  east  and  north-east  winds,  and  the 
mitigation  which  the  north  winds  experience  in  traversing 
;he  great  plain,  raise  the  temperature  to  that  of  a  southern 
country,  and  the  rich  soil  yields  abundant  crops.    The 
wheat  and  maize  of  the  Banat  are  of  the  finest  quality. 
Rice  is  extensively  cultivated.     Successful  attempts  have 
aeen  made  to  cultivate  cotton  and  silk,  and  in  some  parts 
a  sweet  wine  is  produced.    There  is  no  part  of  Hungary 
in  which  colonization  has  been  attended  with  such  favour- 
able results  by  the  settlement  of  industrious  foreigners  as 
the  Banat,  where  there  is  still  so  much  uncultivated  land, 
and  where,  with  the  exception  of  some  marshy  tracts,  the 
climate   is   very  healthy.     Mineral  springs  are  frequent, 
but  little   use   is  made   of  them.      Only  those   of  Me- 
liadia,  which  were  known  to  the  Romans  by  the  name  of 
Tlirriiire  Hurculis,  arc  still  much  resorted  to,  especially  by 
the  Wallachian  and  Moldavian  nobles.     About  this  place, 
as  well  as  in  other  parts  of  the  Banat,  Roman  antiquities 
are  frequently  found.   The  population  of  the  Banat,  which 
is  continually  increasing  by  the  accession  of  foreign  set- 
tlers, consists  chiefly  of  Wallachians,  Rascians,  Bulgarians, 
gypsies,   Germans,    Jews,    French,    Italians,     and    other 
foreign  settlers  :  among  whom,  in  the  mountainous  districts, 
the  Wallachian  language  is  prevalent;  in  the  towns  and 
colonised  plains,  the  German ;  and  in  the  districts  of  the 
military  frontier,  the  Illyrian.      The  natural  productions 
are  horses,  horned  cattle,  swine,  wheat,  maize,  rice,  flax, 
hemp,  tobacco,  fruit,  wine,  woad,  madder,  saifron,  silk, 
timber,  honey :    game  of  all  kinds  and  fish  abound.     The 
minerals   are   gold,  silver,  copper,  zinc,  and  some   iron. 
The  gold  is  obtained  by  the  gypsies,  by  washing  the  sand 
of  the  rivers.     Between  4000  and  5000  workmen,  chiefly 
Wallachians,  are  employed  in  the  mines.   The  chief  occu- 
pations of  the  inhabitants  are  agriculture  and  the  breeding 
of  cattle.    There   are   no  manufactures.     The   county  of 
Temeswar,  as  has  been  stated,  is  one  of  the  three  included 
in  the  Banat,  and  needs  no  separate  description.    A  circle 
of  the  county  bears  the  same  name. 

TEMESWAR,  the  capital  of  the  Banat  and  of  the  county, 
is  a  royal  free  city,  situated  in  45"  45'  N.  lat.  and  21°  10'  E. 
long.,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Temes  and  the  Bega,  and  on 
the  Bega  canal,  in  a  part  of  the  country  which  is  rendered 
unhealthy  by  the  stagnant  waters  in  the  vicinity.  It  is  one 
of  the  strongest  fortresses  and  one  of  the  handsomest  and 
most  regular  towns  in  the  whole  Austrian  empire.  While 
the  town  was  in  the  possession  of  the  Turks  it.  consisted  of 
only  a  few  houses  and1  an  old  castle,  which  is  still  habit- 
able. When  Prince  Eugene  made  himself  master  of  it  in 
1718,  the  strong  fortifications  were  erected  as  a  bulwark 
against  the  Turks,  and  the  town  was  built  in  the  modern 
style.  The  inner  town,  or  fortress,  is  surrounded  with 
triple  walls  and  moats,  and  consists  of  large  uniform  stone 
houses,  in  straight,  broad,  well-paved  streets.  There  are 
•_':tte>.  the  Vienna,  Peterwardien,  and  Transylvania 
gales,  which  are  defended  by  strong  blockhouses.  The 
casemates  are  capable  of  containing  3000  men.  Temeswar 
is  the  seat  of  the  Roman  Catholic  bishop  of  Csanad,  with 
his  chapter  and  seminary,  and  of  the  schismatic  Greek 
bishop  of  Temeswar :  here  too  are  the  court  of  justice  for 
the  uiree  covmties,  the  offices  of  the  governor  of  the 
fortress  and  of  the  commander  of  the  Banat  military 
frontier,  a  military  academy,  a  great  arsenal,  and  many 
other  offices  connected  with  the  military  and  civil  ad- 
ministration. The  most  remarkable  buildings  are — 1,  the 
old  strong  castle  of  John  Hunyady,  built  of  freestone,  the 


T  ]•:  M 


only  relic  of  the  autieiit  Tenics  :  2,  tJ\e  churches  viz.  the  I 
.•it  hie  cathedral  of  St.  George,  bclon.  *  hi-  j 

.-hopric  ofCsunad.theealhedr.il  of  t' 
the  Ki-nunCatlmlic  parish  church,  tb. 

-emiimn,  :  :l,  the  elegant  of  the 

bishop  of  Caan  >g  in  which 

the   c  -ides,  the  I  nunander  of  the 

military  frontier  on  the   parade,  the  large  and  handsome 
county' hall  in  the  great  square,  the  -he  military 

and  civil  hospital-,  t  town-hall, 

which  contains  the  theatre  and  the  assembly-rooms.  Some 
of  the  churches  were  formerly  Turkish  mo- 

."•.*.ir  has  three  suburbs,  one  before  each  g-.r 
the  di  ith  tine  avenues  of  Trees  |, 

to  them       Uefore  the  Vienna  gate  is  the  suburb  M, 
inhabited   by  Walluchian-.  who  have  their  own  chn, 
and  whose  occupations  are  agriculture  and  the  breeding  of 
cattle.     Uefore   the   IVterwnrdien  g;.'  '•',  an 

..int  suburb,  with  very  broad  straight  streets, 
•.-•>es  planted  in  front  of  the  nouses.  Many  wealthy 
families  reside  here  in  the  summer  to  enjoy  the  country,  and 
formerly  to  avoid  the  fevers  that  usually' prevailed  i:i  tin- 
town,  but  which  have  greatly  abated  since  the  surround- 
ing marshes  have  been  drained.  The  inhabitants  of  this 
.suburb  are  Germans.  The  tine  Uega  canal  passes  through 
the  middle  of  this  suburb,  and  communicates  with  tin- 
Danube.  Before  the  Transylvania  gate  lies  the  manu- 
facturing suburb  i  I''iilink'-n  \'nr^lmlr.  so  called  from  the 
great  manufactories  that  were  formerly  established  here, 
but  most  of  which  were  broken  up  in  \~:t*.  v.  hen  a  Turkish 
war  was  apprehended  ;  the  suburb  however  retains  its 
name.  The  Turkish  merchants  have  their  ward 
here.  In  this  suburb  there  is  a  curious  hydraulic  engine, 
by  means  of  which  water  I  in  iron  pipes  under- 

ground into  the  fortress:  the  inhabitants  are  chiefly  K:i.— 
cians.  There  is  A  considerable  trade  at  Temeswar  in  the 
productions  of  the  country,  and  some  niamil'actn 
cloth,  paper,  iron-wire,  and  silk.  The  population  of  the 
fortress  is  about  :«KH) ;  and  that  of  the  whole  town,  in- 
cluding the  suburbs,  13,000,  besides  the  garrison. 

(Brockhaus,  Conversations  Lf.rirnn  -.  Jenny.  Handbuch 
tiirReitftideindemO«iterreichi*'-fit  n  AWw/V./n/r  ;Thiele, 

lii\<-lif  .\nliiiiiiil 

flutist ik    lien    !•  \iscken 

Kaitertnumt ;  ^•hn-ilxni-j.    r«n   I  /•  _ 

Joseph  von  Hammer.  Getckickte  i/e.v  <  txintimxi-i 
Hittoritch-Statiftischtr    '  •  »    der    (>• 

chtn  Monarohie.    These  two  last  works  are  anonymous. 
-ein;    Hlumenbach  ;   Horschelmann  ;  and  Can- 
nabich.) 

MIA.  Le  Variant's  name  for  a  genus  of  IJTSKS-., 
or  perching  birds,  which,  Cuvicr  observes,  M.  Vicillot  h;is 
changed  into  Cri//ixiri>ni,  and  Dr.  Horstield  into  /'hrenp- 
.vhil.-t  M.Tcinminck  arranges  them  undtt Qktvcopis. 

(Jnvior  remarks,  that  these  birds  have  the  carriage'  and 
tail  of  the  magpies,  an  elevated  bill  with  the  upper  mandi- 
ble convex,  and  the  base  furnished  with  velvety  fcathcis. 
nearly  as  in  the  HIRDS  OK  PARADISH.  The  species  most 
antiently  known  is,  he  observes,  the  ('nri-ux  rurinnx  of 
Latham,  which  is  of  a  brou/ed  green  colour,  and  found  in 
India  and  Africa.  Cuvier  places  the  genus  between  Caryo- 
catactts  [NUTCHACKKR]  a;  /j/.v. 

Mr.  Swainson  arranges  Cryjuirin"  in  the  subfamily 
' ilnurnpintf,  or  \Vattle-Oows,  in  his  Cln^ifiratinn  nf 
Hinlx ;  but  in  '  .••ii-nnn.  he  had  made 

i 'iitfitirints  a  subfamily.  In  the  Claxst/ir.ation,  the  L'enus 
ii  situated  at  the  head  of  the  (ilnui-njiiiiii-.  and  is  imme- 
diately succeeded  by  /'•  Sw. 

Mr.  Swainson  thus  characterise*  Cry 

Hill  shorter  than  the  head,  m 


17  i  'i   K   M 

unequal;   hind  toe  and  •  -.  tlie 

ia  i   and    T-uii'a  are 


men  eomidcrably  arched.  a<ul  • 
trils  small,  bawl,  concealed  b 


trnn  :  — 
'lewed;   the  cul- 

nt  i>  ailu-r-.  winch 
•••.  nun  h  n, 


ate  either  toft  or  setaceous.     Wings  -• 

the  primaries  hardly  longer  Ihan  the  si-coni' 

feather*  broad  ami  ••  •  »rcal.    Tin 

middle  toe  and  claw  short,  but  as  long  as  the  tarsus; 


lion  o)    tti 


.  and 

thus  (i 

ujxin  it  in  i 

pies,  -tautlv 

hood, 

and  not  e\i:, 
gated    tail. 

food  ;    whe  i 

and   r 

ground,  in  which   they  aim 

This   s]iei'i'  widely  distiibuted    : 

congenei-s,  being  found  inconsiderable  abundan 

India. 

'  The  head,  neck,  and  crc.-t  are  of  a  MHI:\C  colour  or  a 
blackish-grey j    the    back    light    cinnairKi", 
the  w  ii  the  quills  : 

tawny  :    the   hca  -i   black.       Length    lu'$  in, 

beak  1J  ;  tarsi  1|;  tail  10  inches.' 


Ptem  V«!r»!.ui>d».    (Ootild.) 


Dr. 

of  his  I'hr, 


riant  as  the  .-\  i 
('lii-lsi!  i  the 

I liitl  in  .la-. 
iiliar.nnd  never 


i .  1 1 1  o  n  s   1 1 K  i 
near  solitary  h:. 


(dr.) 


dantlynuj  • 

and    i 

ice    lit'    11' 

slow  :  it  is  chief 

(he  air  in  a 

openings  in  II, e   f.irot.      1' 

the  r 

insects.'     (Zoo/' 


It 

in  t 
;ihun- 

''  niould. 


of  the  wings,  its 

-ailing  heavily  through 
ing  tho 
.ih  of  the   bill 

on  fruits  and 


r  E  M 


175 


T  E  M 


Phrenociix  TVroia.   (HorsfJ 

TEM\U'ivLTS.  [TROCION-IIJ.E.] 
TEMPK  T;/JJTI;,  called  also  Thessala  or  Thessalica  or 
Phthioticn  Tempe)  was  the  antient  name  of  a  beautiful 
valley  in  Thessaly,  lying  between  Mount  Olympus  on  the 
north  and  Mount  Ossa  on  the  south,  near  the  mouth  ol 
the  river  Peneus,  which  runs  through  it.  It  is  a  narrow 
glen,  not  quite  five  miles  Ions,  opening  on  the  east  into  a 
wide  plain  which  extends  to  the  Thermaic  gulf.  It  forms 
the  only  break  in  the  great  chain  of  mountains  by  which 
Thessaly  is  enclosed  on  all  sides.  Antient  tia 
serted  that  tin-  :;i  (if  The-  it  one  time 

covered  with  v  cl  by 

the  vale  of  Tempe,  which  was  opened  by  a  .stroke  of  Xcp- 
tune's  trident,  other  legend,  by  the 

strength  of  Hercules.  The  appearance  of  the  country  has 
led  modern  tiavellers  to  accept  the  mythical  story  as 
meaning  that  1 1  is  opened  at  some  period  by  a 

great  convul-ion  of  nature.     The  rocks  which  enclose  it 
n  precipices  from  the  bed  of  the  I'eneus,  and  at  the 
narrowest   point   these  pi eci piers  approach  so  near  each 
other  that  the  road  is  cut  in  the  face  of  them. 

The  Greeks   reverenced  Tempe  as  the.  place  fiom  which 
Apollo  tra.  to  Delphi  his  sacred  laurel,  and  ad- 

mired it  a  i   their  country.     The 

most  vivid  description  of  :  Ifi.\t., 

iii.  I  -'i  Ovid,  M  c. ;  Li\ius, 

xliv.  G;    Plin.,  Hint.  .\nt..  k.  .  i.,  p. 

379;  the  Tours  of  Clarke,  Holland.  Dodwell,  and  Gel); 
and  Thirhvall's  ///*/.  uf  (;,vm;>.  i..  p.  5. 

TKMPKKAMKXT  „>,/,„.  K,,r,m: .   is  a  . 

and   un^it.  in,    ljut    Mill    it  is  one  which,   as   Dr. 

May  /  ';/'  Hi''  lliiinnn  Mi  ml,  London, 

I'Jui').,    1838,   Append.,   p.  162),   'has  for  many  centmi.  s 
been  found  a  convenient  generalization ;  and,  unless  we 
proposr  tn  sacrifice  knowledge  nt.  the  altar  of  logic,  we 
must  still   be  contented   to  INC  this  or  some  other  equally 
indefinite  term.'    The  word  means  literally  "  /<••////»•;•/'// ir, 
'/n>r,  and  may  be  defined  to  lx>  a  peculiar 
vm  common  to  several  individuals,  which 
:  -  from  the  various  proportions  in  which  the  elemen- 
tary part.-,  of  the  human  body  are  mixed  HJ>  tu^i'/ki'i-,  and 
which    {fives  rise   to  a  1cndc;ic\    to  cerlaiu    phenomena. 
Then-  is  besides  in  each  individual  a  further  peculiarity  of 
combination,  which  serves  to  distinguish  his  temperament 
from  that  of  any  other  person,  to  whom  however  he  may 
in  other  respects  bear  a  :  •nblance.     This   indi- 

vidual temperament  is  call  .i/nmnty  (i.e.  u 

li'ir  i/uxi/in;  together'},  and,  as  the  two  words  are  some- 
confounded,  it  may  be    useful    to   have   pointed  out 
the  distinction   between  them.     All  the  different,  s\ 
of  organs   in   the   human  frame  are   accurately  adjusted 
!i   other,  so  as  to  produce  one  harmonious  whole. 
If  the  disproportion    be   too   great,  disease    ensues;    but 
are  many  gradations,  compatible  with  health,  where 
:is  disproportion   is  very  observable.     Tin;   prcdomi- 
of   any    particular    system   of   organs  modifies   the 
whole  economy,  imprests  striking  differences  on  the  re- 
••'_'>mi/a1ion,    and    lias     ]ierhaps    almost    a, 
an  influence  on  the  moral  and  intellectual  as  on  the 
physical    1.'  This    pn  (luminance     establishes   the 

temperament  :  it  is  the  cause  of  it,  and  constifut.-s  its 
e«*ence.  The  antients  paid  considerable  attention  (o  the 


*ubject  of  temperaments,  and  pointed  out  various  pecu- 
liarities in  the  constitution  and  actions  of  the  human  body, 
which  have  been  seen  so  far  to  coincide  with  general  ob- 
servation, that  their  nomenclature  has  continued  in  very 
sreneral  use  even  to  the  present  clay,  although  the  hypo- 
thesis on  which  it  was  founded   is   universally  discarded. 
They  described  four  temperaments   corresponding  to  the 
four  qualities  of  Hippocrates— hot,  cold,  moist,  and  dry. 
It  was  supposed  that  there  were  four  corresponding  primary 
components  of  the  human   body,  namely,  blood  («!/*«), 
phlegm  or  pituita  (^X^a),  and  the  two  kinds  of  bile  (oi 
Mo  x<>X<n)>  yellow  bile  (|av0>)  %oXij),  and  black  bile  or  atra- 
bilis  (piXaiva  xoXjj) ;    and  the   preponderance  of  one  or 
other  of  these  components  in  different  persons  produced 
the  different  temperaments.     These  four  primary  principles 
of  living  bodies  were  supposed  to  be  compounded  of  the 
simple  elements  or  qualities  of  nature  thus  :  hot  and  moist 
produce  blood;    cold  and  moist,  phlegm  or  pituita;  hot 
and  dry,  yellow  bile  :  and  cold  and  dry,  black  bile.    Bodies 
in  which  blood  superabounds  are  of  the  sanguine  tempera- 
ment ;    if  phlegm  is  in  excess,  the  phlegmatic  tempera- 
ment is  developed  ;    if  yellow  bile,  the  choleric  ;    and  if 
black  bile,  the  melancholic  or  atrabilious  temperament. 
The  following  is  the  description  of  the  different  tempera- 
ments given  by  Paulus  Aegineta  (l)e  llt<  Mtdii-ti,  lib.  i., 
cap.  (il  ;,in  Mr.  Ad  a  m's  Translation  (London,  1834,  8vo.): — 
'  Those  bodies  which  are  of  a  hotter  temperament  than 
the  moderate  will  have  their  teeth  earlier  than  usual,  and 
will  Lrrow  in  like  manner.    They  feel  warmer  to  the  touch, 
and  have  less  fat ;   they  are  of  a  ruddy  colour,  and  have 
their  hair  black  and  moderately  thick,  and  their  veins  are 
larsre.    But  if  such  a  one  be  al.o  fat  and  brawny,  and  have 
larsri-  \cins.  lie  is  fat  from  habit,  and  not  from  nature. 
The  following  are  the  symptoms  of  a  cold  temperament : 
such  bodies  appear  cold  to  the  touch,  are  without  hair,  and 
are  fat:    their  complexion,  like  their  hair,  being  tawny. 
But  when  the  coldness  is  great,  they  are  pale,  leaden- 
coloured,  and  have  small  veins;   and  if  lean,  this  does  not 
proceed  from  nature,  but  habit.     The  dry  is  harder  and 
more  slender  than   the  temperate,  the   hardness  indeed 
being  inseparable  from  the  dry  temperament ;   but  lean- 
ness not  only  follows  the  connate  temperaments,  but  also 
those  which  are  acquired  by  long  habit.     It  is  peculiar  to 
the  humid  temperament   that  the  body  is  oppressed  by 
thinjf-i  of  a  moist  nature.    The  warm  and  dry  temperament, 
in   other  words,  the  rfmleric,  is  extremely  shagsry,  having 
the  hair  of  the  ht  ad  in  early  age  of  rapid  growth,  black, 
and  thick;    but  in  after-life  baldness  follows.     The  veins 
are  large,  as  are  likewise  the  arteries,  which  beat,  strongly. 
The  whole  body  is  firm,  well  articulated,  muscular,  and 
without  obesity  ;  and  the  skin  hard  and  dark.     When  the 
temperament  "is  cold  and  humid,  or  •jihl-^inntir,  the  chest 
is  narrow,  and,  like  the  rest  of  the  body,  without  hairs; 
the  skin  is  soft  and  white,  and  its  hairs  somewhat  tawny, 
especially  in  youth  ;    and  such  pel-sons  do  not  get  bald 
when  they  grow  old  :    they  are  timid,  spiritless,  and  inac- 
tive;   their  \eins  are   invisible  ;    they  are  gross  and  fat; 
their  muscles  and   legs  are  feeble,  and   their  joints   ill- 
formed  ;  and  they  are  bandy-legged.     But  should  the  hu- 
midity and  coldness  increase,  the  colour  of  their  skin  and 
iiair  becomes  tawny,  or,  if  they  increase  still  more,  pale. 
The  hot  and  humid,  or  sanguine,  temperament  is  softer 
and  more  fleshy  than  the  proper,  and.  when  it  incn 
much,  is  subject  to  putrid  disorders ;  but  if  it  be  only  a 
itfle  more  humid  and  much  hotter  than  the  moderate, 
he  bodies  of  such  persons  are  only  a  little  more  soft  and 
leshy  than  the  moderate,  but  they  are  much  more  hairy 
and  hotter  to  the  touch.     But  if  the  cold  and  dry  gTOfl 
equally  together,  and  form  the  melancholic,  temperament, 
such  persons  have  naturally  their  bodies  hard,  slender,  and 
white,  with  fine  muscles,  small  joints,  and  little  hair;  and 
hey  are  cold  to  the  touch.    Although  slender,  fat  is  mixed 
vith  their  flesh.    The  colour  of  their  hair  is  correspondent 
H  the  degree  of  constitutional  coldness.     As  to  disposition 
if  mind,  they  are  spiritless,  timid,  and  desponding.     To 
ay  all  in  a  word,  with  regard  to  the  compound  tempcra- 
nents,  they  are  always  to  be  distinguished  by  the  marks  of 
heprevailing  quality.' 

The  due  admixture  of  these  different  qualities  was  snp- 

!   to  constitute  the  best  form  of  temperament  or  con- 

tiiution   (liiapaaiaj,   of   which    the   following   is   Paulus 

Veeineta'g  description  (Ibid.,  i.  CO) :— '  That  man  is  in  the 

>est  temperament  of  body  when  it  is  in  a  medium  between 

all  extremes,  of  leanness  and  obesity,  of  softness  and  hard- 


T  K  M 


176 


T  i:  M 


,  of  heat  ami  cold,  of  moisture  and  dryness :  and,  in  a  | 
word,  who  has  all  the 

leu  rtate.     II.-  hair  olio  should  tliin.  ; 

neither  black  nor  white.  When  n  hoy.  his  lor!,-  should 
be  rather  tawny  than  Marl,,  but  when  an  adult,  thu  con- 
tran 

ther  information  mpeetiag  the  opinion*  of  the  an- 

tients  on   the  subject    of  tlie   I.  iound 

in  tli'  •  'in.  i., 

ed.  Kiihn  ;  in  (i;ilen'.s  works,  /' 
torn,  i.,  /'     •  •ti-iitis.  torn.  i.. 

i.im.  iv..   l)r  >'  ab.  v., 

torn.  \i..  and  hi-  Arx  .lA'i/icn.  torn,  i.;  ( )ribasius. Synopsis, 
lit),  v.,  cap.  Kl.  sq.  :  I),  iv.. 

"•  i.  sq' :   Hal)  A  ., lib.i.;  Avoir, 

lib.  \i.:    Alsaharavius,    Theor.,  tract,  vi.;    and  Avi. 

.•a. 

Alter  the  revival  of  letters,  this  fourfold  division  was 
adnp*-  .is  by  all  the  most  eminent 

ph\>i,'lo:: .-•  ingeniously  adapted  it  to  the  modern 

.!  the  humoral  pathology  :  and  even  Hocrhauve, 
although  he  ini-rcased  the  number  of  the  temperaments  to 
relinquished  the  erroneous  opinions  of  Hippo- 
and  (Jalen  respecting  the  constitution  of  the  blood, 

'•  still  derived  the  characters  of  his  temperament* 
i'rom  the  principles  of  the  humoral  pathology,  and  sup- 
posed them  to  he  formed  merely  by  different  combination 
of  the  four  cardinal  qualities.  Many  late  physii.1 
have  been  inclined  to  doubt  whether  the  external  cha- 
racters associated  with  the  four  temperaments  are  real  and 

nit  signs  of  diversity  in  bodily  structure,  and  enable 
us  to  distinguish  the  principal  varieties  of  constitution 
which  c\i-t.  Several  attempts  have  accordingly  been 
made  to  define  in  a  more  satisfactory  manner  the  pecu- 
liarities of  organization  and  the  resulting  varieties  of  pre- 
disposition, which  arc  chiefly  interesting  with  regard  to 
patnolosry.  Hoffmann  and  Cullen  have  indeed  retained 
the  old  division,  supposing  that  the.  theory  of  the  antients 
as  to  the  peculiarities  of  constitution  was  founded  origi- 
nally upon  facts,  thouirh  subsequently  combined  with  an 
erroneous  theory.  Haller  seems  to  have  been  the  first 
who  decidedly  opposed  the  antient  doctrine,  not  only  by 
showing  that  there  was  no  foundation  for  the  varieties  of 
the  temperaments  in  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  fluids,  but 
by  substituting  in  their  place  the  vital  actions  of  the 
system.  Darwin  proceeded  upon  the  principle  of  Haller; 
and,  in  conformity  with  the  hypothesis  which  he  adopted 
of  reducing  these  actions  to  the  four  heads  of  irritation. 
sensation,  volition,  and  association,  he  formed  four  tem- 
peraments in  which  these  qualities  were  supposed  re- 
spectively to  prevail.  The  only  attempt  however  to  im- 
prove upon  the  Hippocralic  theory  and  division  which  has 
been  attended  with  any  degree  of  success  is  that 
Gregory,  who  to  the  four  temperaments  of  the  aniients 
added  a  fifth,  which  he  called  the  urn-nil*,  and  bestowed 
upon  three  of  the  others  the  new  appellations  of  the  tnnir, 
the  rrltt.rml,  and  iniixi-ul'tr  temperaments.  Dr.  Prichard 
however  restricts  the  number  to  four,  and  d.  agnates  tin  m 
by  their  original  names;  remarking  that  onlv  tour  strongly 
marked  diversities  nf  external  character  present  themselves 
to  observation ;  that  the  nerve  •<  is  not  so 

di-tiniruished  ;  and  that  lli.  -enlial  part 

of  the  original  scheme  for  the  distribution  of  tempera- 
ments, the  improvement,  proposed  by  Dr.  Gregory  is  lame 
and  defective.  The-  then  of  external  cha- 

really  indicate,  more  or  lc<s  constantly,  well  marked 
(hlli  .ition,  and  likewise  of  morbid  predis- 

position.    There  is  no  doubt  that  peisons  having  the  com- 
plexion and  oil  sanguine  temperament   are 
more  liable  to  certain  classes  of  disorders  than  the  phleg- 
matic or  melancholic,   while   the  latter   have    their  own 
peculiar  tendencies.     Tin  in::  a  fullv 
loped  vascular  structure,  and  therefore  a  •  ircula- 
tion.of  blood,  a  warm  skin,   and  a  hinh  <!• 
feasibility,  arc  more  liable  to  !   im- 
pressions from  external  agents  than  • 
•vital  function-.     They  are  suhj"ct   in  a  r 
•everc  inflammatory 

are  in  them  more  acute :  they  bear  howi  than 

persons  of  more  languid  habit,  evacuation*  Of  blood  and 
the  other  measures  which  are  found  to  1  <T  re- 

medics  for  these  diseases.  The  greater  fulness  of  mood- 
veswls.  Of  tho-r  at  least  which  air  near  I  .-.  the 

greater  warmth  of  the  skin,  and  the  floii  !  ion  of 


reason   to   believe   that    the  d 
;!ns  temperament  i-  not  wholly  unfounded. 
\\  e  1 1  . 

.iges  (tothn  which  are  tcii!i< 

in  the  force  of  circulation  through 

the  arteiir.-.  Individuals  of  the  phlegmatic  tempeiamcnt 
are  j.i.  .  i-ing  from,  or  conn 

with,  u  low  degree  of  vital  en.  r-y.     Local   congestions  of 
blood  arising  independent !v  of  general  excitement  . 
under  this   .  Glandular  and   tubercular  di--, 

take   place   in   bodies   weak    in   the   structures  conn. 
with  the  vital  functions,  and  are  perhaps  m  :it  in 

the  phlegmatic  than  in  other  temperaments.     Inflamma- 
tory  complaints,    when   th,  the   phk- 
less  acute  and  more  disposed  lot,  miniate  in  chrome 
eases  than  are  th.  .lution,  win 

the  latter  have  I 

The  relations  of  the  choleric  to 
inent    are  similar  to   the  relations   which  the  ] 
bears  to  the  saniruine  ;  the  former  di- 
both  in  health  and  disease,  than  the  lattW.     The  chi 
and   saniruine.   when   affected   by  diseases  of  the  nervous 
system,   have  complaints   of  greater  violence  and   acute- 
ne.--:    mania  or  raving  madness  belongs   particular!', 
cording   to   the    oh-ervalions  of   M.   Ksqnirol  and  "man) 
others)  to  these  constitutions.     The  melancholic  tem 
ment  is  most  prone  to  monomania,  attended  with  d' 
sion  and  melancholy    illusions.      Hypoc-bondi! 
more  frequently  affects  the  phlegmatic  and  in. 
though   it    is   occa.sionally   observed   in   persons 
some  of  the  external  characters  of  the  sanguine  tem 
ment.      The   mo  nf  hvpochondriasis,    adds 

Dr.  Prichard,  and  those  which  approached  most  nearly  to 
the  character  of  melancholia,  1  :ilyoccun 

individuals  of  a  dark  leaden  complexion,  fixed  and  sullen 
aspect,  and  lank  coal-black  hair. 

But  it  is  not  merely  on  the  body,  both  in  its  healthy 
and   morbid  state,  that  the  temperament  •-.   im- 

portant, influence:    the   relation  of  the  different    Fon 
physical  organization  to  the  intellectual,  and  even  to  the 
moral,  faculties  is  equally  marked  and  apparent, 
lion  of  mental   peculiarities  to  the  structure  of  the 

d  by  medical  authors  of  every  age,  and  it 
has  been  stated  and 'explained  in   different  v. ;iv>.      I! 
crates  said  that  •  the  -amc  in  all  men,  but  that 

the  body  is  different  in  different  individuals.     The  soul   is 

like  itself  both  in  greater  and  in  less,  for  it  und.  : 
change  neither  by  nature  nor  by  necessity;  but  the   body 

.:rct  to  continual  alterations. — The  affections  of  tin' 
mind  depend  upon  the  body;  there  are  many  stairs  of  thu 
latter  which  sharpen,  and  many  which  obtund  it.'    (Hipp., 
Hi-   /'/r/iJv  lt,i/i.,,i,',  lib.i..  }  21,  torn,  i.,  p.  (J50.< 
mpcritus,  in  a  letter  said  to  have  been  addressed  by  him  to 
Hippocrates,  asserted  that  '  the  intelligence  of  the  mind 
depends  greatly  on  the  body,  the  diseases  of  which  ol 
the  mental  faculties,   and  draw   the   latter  into  con 
(Hipp.,  Kfiiat.,  torn.   in.,   p.  821.)      Among    t! 
of  Galen  there  is  a  tivati-e  entitled   <jm,i!  ./',. 

ata  Mtiiiiuitiir  (torn,  iv.,  ed.  Kiihn), 
written   expressly  to  establish  the  connection   between  the 

ins  and   desires  of  the  mind   and   the   temperaments. 

-    handled    the    subject    \ny    il 

and   1  profound  views,  of  the  :t; 

economy.  But  it  is  in  the  works  of  modern  writer*  that 
we  find'this  doctrine  mo-t  fully  developed,  and  made  a 
foundation  for  a  division  of  human  charact  Tiling 

to  II  .tt'mann.  the  choleric  tempeianu'tit    by   pccnlian 
organizatio  men  to  precipitate 

conduct,  tn  :r.iu'<  r.  audacitv.  iinpatirncr,  tel 
sedition,  and  the  like.     ()n  the  other  hand   th.' 

"id   tlirou^h   tin  the   mem 

which  is  the  result  of  its  cias-itude  in  mclancholi- 

such  persons  timid,  slow  in  bu.-inr-s.  an\ 

with  difficulty  of  forming  or  uttering  opinions.     Th. 
happier  tem]. 

Me.      A  too   abundai  -   the 

]  hleirinalie  to  be  Ia7y,  somnolent,  and  torjiid 
temperaments  qualifj  .(nations  in  lie,.. 

Melancholic   men,   says  Hoffmann,    should    be   the   king's 

ministn-   and    conns. 

appointed  ^enei: 

ductors  of  all  bn  ;  di-patcli  . 

qnaliti 


T  E  M 


177 


T  E  M 


plaining  of  its  inconvenient  effects  in  deranging  his  tem- 
per, is  said  by  M.  Segur  to  have  added,  '  Oependant  sans 
<~ette  mauclite  bile  on  ne  gagne  pas  de  grandes  batailles.' 
-aiine  men,  continues  the  writer  above  mentioned,  are 
•fit  for  courtiers  ;  but  individuals  who  have  the  misfortune 
to  be  of  the  phlegmatic  temperament,  being  quite  incom- 
petent to  any  elevated  condition,  must  be  made  common 
•soMiers  or  labourers,  and  condemned  to  the  lowest  em- 
ployments. (De  Teiripi'ntnii'tttri  l-'ii>i<l<tmp>ito  Morborum, 
i)  10,  quoted  by  Dr.  Prichard.)  It  is  extremely  improba- 
ble that  an  opinion  should  have  held  its  ground  for  so 
many  ages  among  men  of  observation,  especially  on  a 
subject  requiring  no  abstruse  research,  without  some  foun- 
dation at  least  in  fact.  The  doctrine  of  temperaments  is 
true  to  a  certain  extent,  and  has  ever  been  confirmed  by 
an  appeal  to  experience.  States  of  the  mind  are  so  con- 
nected with  affections  of  the  body,  that  it  is  impossible  for 
any  ptrson  who  considers  all  the  physiological  facts  that 
present  themselves  in  connection  with  this  subject  to 
doubt  that  with  each  temperament  particular  mental 
qualities  must  be  associated,  although  it  is  manifest  that 
many  writers  have  indulged  their  fancy  on  this  subject, 
and  have  gone  into  more  full  and  minute  details  than 
experience  will  establish.  Tile  same  may  be  said  of  phre- 
nology, with  which  science  the  doctrine  of  the  tempera- 
•  is  in  this  point  of  view  closely  connected,  as  modi- 
fying in  some  degree  the  intellectual  and  moral  qualities 
rganization  of  the  brain.  This  very 
:  subject  is  di<cu--i'd  at  some  length  in  Dr. 
Prichard's  article  on  '  Temperament'  in  tli 

\[i><lii-ine,  from  which  most  of  flic  preceding  i 
•vations  are  taken.    See  also  Bostock,  Richerand.  and  Miil- 
ler's  works  on  Physiology,  and  other  writers  there  quoted. 

UPF.KA.MKXT.  ""[Tt-MM;.] 
TEMPERATURE.        [ ATMOSPHERE;    CLIMATE;    Iso- 

THKKM  U.  ].: 

TEMPERATURE  OF  THE  EARTH.     [GEOLOGY,  p. 
133.] 

TEMPERATURE.  It  is  intended  under  this  head  to 
notice  the  law  of  the  variations  of  temperature  on  the 
earth  so  far  only  as  to  indicate  its  analogy  with  that  of 
the  variations  of  terrestrial  magnetism  ;  the  formula'  cx- 
ng  the  mean  temperatures  at  different  places  being, 
BS  yet,  very  far  from  affording  satisfactory  results,  and  ob- 
servations being  too  few  to  serve  as  a  basis  for  correct 
theory.  In  CLIMATE  there  are  given  some  general  ob- 

•linns  concerning  the  distribution  of  heat  at  the  sur- 

oi'the  earth,  and  under  ISOTHERMAL  LINES  there  will 
be  found  the  estimated  values  of  the  mean  temperatures 
at  the  equator  and  at  the  geographical  north  pole.  \Vith 
respect  to  the  former,  it  may  be  said  to  have  been  tolerably 
well  determined,  and  to  be  nearly  uniform  quito  round  the 
world  ;  but  the  mean  temperature  at  the  pole  can  only  be 
surmised  from  the  uncertain  evidence  afforded  by  an  ap- 
plication of  the  formula  of  temperature  which  has  been 
found  to  hold  good  in  the  north  of  Europe,  and  a  correc- 

•ounded  on  an  estimated  amount  of  the  frigorifir:  in- 
fluence of  ice  :  even  the  determination  thus  obtained  is 
rendered  still  further  uncertain  by  the  fact  that  the  de- 

••  of  temperature  in  proceeding  from  the  equator 
northv.  iird-i  is  different  on  meridians  which  differ  con- 

ily  in  lonn 

Before  this  difference  of  temperature  on  the  same 
parallel  of  latitude  in  the  old  and  new  continent 
known  or  regarded,  a  simple  formula  was  thought  suffi- 
cient to  express  the  temperature  at  any  parallel  of  terres- 
trial latitude.  The  celebrated  Tobias  Mayer,  from  such 
mean  temperatures  as  had  in  bis  time  been  observed, 
found  that  the  temperature  t  (on  Fahrenheit's  ,,eale)  at 
anyplace  might  be  represented  byT  — 5'2°  sin.-'  L,  where  T 
is  the  mean  temperature  :it  the  equator,  and  L  the  geo- 
graphical latitude  of  flu;  place;  and  in  1810  M.  l.'.Mibuisson 
('Trait*:  dei  e ')  proposed  the  more 

/  =  27°  cos.'  L  (centigrade  scale) ;  which  being  wlaptrd  to 
Fahrenheit's  scale,   considering  the  mean  tem. 
the  equator  to  be  81°,  becomes  32°-r-49°  cos.8  I..     This 
formula  ha.s   been   found   to   serve   for  temperatures   in 
Europe  a.s  far  north  a.s  the  latitude  of  00°  ;  but.  I 
para!'  less,  and  it  supposes  the  temperature  at  the 

to  be  32°,  which  is  much  too  high. 
;n  above  4(HX)  observations  which  were  made  by  Sir 
K'lv  Harbour,  in  74° 

•qy  N.  lat..  and  in  long.  250°  (110°  \V.  long.),  the  mean 
P.  t'.,  No.  15Ki. 


temperature  is  as  low  as  1-33° ;  and  from  above  600  ob- 
servations at  Spitzbergen  (78°  N.  lat.)  Mr.'  Scoresty  found 
the*mean  temperature  to  be  10'99°  :  a  mean  temperature 
of  17°  is  also  found  on  the  American  continent,  in  65° 
N.  lat. ;  and  hence  it  may  be  inferred  that,  between  the 
parallels  of  G5°  and  78°,  and  near  the  meridian  of  Winter 
Island,  there  exists  a  pole  of  minimum  temperature.  The 
mean  temperatures  of  places  in  the  eastern  parts  of  Asia 
have  not  been  well  ascertained  ;  but  since  at  North  Cape 
in  Lapland  the  mean  temperature  is  that  of  freezing 
water,  and  in  Siberia,  as  low  as  the  parallel  of  GO0  N.  lat., 
the  surface  of  the  ground  is  constantly  frozen,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  isothermal  line  of  32°  must  form  a  curve  about 
some  point  as  a  focus  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Asiatic 
continent :  hence,  for  determining  the  mean  temperature 
of  any  place,  no  formula  which  does  not  involve  the  posi- 
tion of  the  place  with  respect  to  the  two  foci  of  coldness 
can  be  expected  to  satisfy  the  phenomena. 

This  circumstance  has  suggested  to  Sir  David  Brewster 
the  formula  T  =  (f— T)  sin."  S  sin."  t'+r  for  the  mean 
temperature  at  any  place :  T  being  that  temperature,  t 
the  mean  temperature  at  the  equator,  T  the  temperature  at 
each  of  the  foci  of  coldness,  and  S,  I',  the  distances  in  de- 
grees between  the  given  place  and  those  foci.  A  corre- 
sponding expression  will  serve  to  determine  the  number  of 
vibrations  which  would  be  performed  by  a  magnetized 
needle  in  a  given  time  if  t  and  r  be  made  to  represent  the 
numbers  performed,  in  an  equal  time,  at  the  magnetic 
equator  and  at  either  of  the  poles  of  magnetic  intensity  : 
the  exponent  n,  both  for  temperature  and  intensity,  is  to 
be  determined  by  means  of  observations,  and  Brewster 
considers  that  the  fraction  g  may  be  the  value  of  it  in 
the  formula  for  temperature. 

The  similarity  of  character  which  is  presented  by  the 
isothermal  lines  and  those  of  magnetic  dip  and  intensity, 
with  respect  to  two  polar  points  in  one  hemisphere  of  the 
earth,  and  the  fact  that  the  poles  of  temperature  and  mag- 
netism lie  nearly  in  the  same  parts  of  the  world,  cannot 
fail  to  suggest  the  idea  that  tiiere  may  be  a  connection 
between  the  temperature  and  magnetism  of  the  earth.  It 
is  generally  believed,  also,  that  the  temperature  of  the 
western  parts  of  Europe  is  now  higher  than  it  was  nearly 
two  thousand  years  since  ;  and  it  has,  hence,  been  inferred 
that  the  poles  of  minimum  temperature  perform  revolu- 
tions about  the  geographical  pole  of  the  earth,  so  that  the 
terrestrial  meridian  on  which  the  greatest  cold  prevails 
gradually  changes  its  position.  If  this  opinion  be  well 
founded,  the  circumstance  will  afford  another  argument 
in  favour  of  the  hypothesis  which  assigns  to  the  tempera- 
ture and  magnetism  of  the  earth  an  intimate  connection 
with  each  other,  by  its  correspondence  to  those  motions  of 
the  poles  of  magnetic  dip  which  have  been  adduced  from 
observations  by  M.  llansteen.  [TERRESTRIAL  MAGNETISM.] 

A^  the  nit  iin  temperature  at  the  surface  of  the  earth  U 
an  element  of  great  importance  in  the  present  state  of 
physical  science,  it  has  been  strongly  recommended  to 
travellers  and  persons  making  distant  voyages,  if  they 
sre  to  remain  only  a  few  days  at  any  place,  that  they 
should,  on  arriving,  lose  no  time  in  burying  in  the  earth, 
to  the  depth  of  from  three  to  twelve  feet,  according  to  the 
power  of  pi  into  the  soil,  bottles  filled  with  water, 

or  with  spirits,  if  there  should  be  any  danger  of  water 
freezing.  These  bottles  should  be  packed  in  boxe-  stuffed 
with  woollen  cloths,  pounded  charcoal,  or  any  other  non- 
conducting material,  and  should  be  allowed  to  remain 
underground  till  the  time  of  departure,  in  order  that  they 
may  acquire,  as  accurately  as  possible,  the  temperature  of 
the  ground.  On  being  taken  up,  the  temperature  of  the 
liquid  should  be  ascertained  by  a  good  thermometer  in- 
i  ill  the  bottle. 

TEMPERATURE  OF  PLANTS.  The  living  processes 
by  which  heat  is  so  evidently  developed  in  animals  go  on, 
though  much  less  actively,  in  plants,  and  give  to  them  a 
peculiar  temperature,  independent  of  the  air  in  which  they 
The  periods  at  which  an  increase  in  the  temperature 
of  plants  has  been  most  evidently  observed  are  those  of 
germination,  flowering,  and  impregnation  ;  but  it  is  only 
,•  those  chemical  changes  which  produce  In  at.  are 
more  active  during  the  performance  of  those  functions 
that  the  heat  becomes  more  evident.  The  great  cause  of 
the  development  of  heat  in  animals  is  the  union  or  com- 
bustion of  carbon  with  oxygen,  which  is  constantly  taking 
place  during  the  process  of  nutrition  in  the  various  tissues  of 

VOL.  XXIV.-2  A 


T  I, 


178 


the  wuimtt  fnxly.  Tl 

'  :     *  ( 


-<     .1.: 


up  from  t; 

mini' 

•.-able  1<)  it-  enuiiiation, 

which  is  evidently  an  analogous  pri- 

ft Vr,  Nan,  anil   Goeppert  have   conducted 
a  variety   ol'  experiments  on  tin'  temperature  of  plants. 

found  that   in  winter  the   parts  that  were  nut 

.,  hiirher  temperature  than  the  .surroundini:  air:    this 

iimch   inure  remarkably  tile  case   in  !.iit    in 

summer  the  temperature  of  the   plant  v.  below 

that   ol'  the  sunoundini;  air.      These  experiments  are  in 

accordance  with  what  we  know  to  lie  the  de\e- 

lopmcnt   of  heat  in  more   highly  ois;animl   textures.     In 

wuiter  the   vital    process  oi'  |'!a>its   are   slow   or  almost 

suspended  :  hence  (lie  small  increase  of  temperature  at  that 

•i.     In  the  sprinir.  the  proc 

and  there  is  the   greatest   cot,  nntiiti\e  matter 

into  the  structure  of  the    plant,  and   it  is 
the  vcar  that  the  ten  i  the  plant  is  highest  abo\e 

me  surrounding  air:    hut  in  summer  the  heat  of  the  air 
lie?  jjreater,  and  the  temp  Mie  plant  is  Kept 

that  of  the  atmosphere  b_\  11]  am  which  is 

illy  troint:  on  from  all  parts  of  , 

Vvelopment   of    heat    during   germination  the 
at  take  place  are  in.  •   starch  or 

:  rounding   the   youiiff   plant    is  •    into 

process  1:i  urouirh  the  sepai ation 

\yiren  in  the  form  oi  ."id,  \vhieh, 

dnnnir  their  union,  give  out  heat.      A  lamilia, 
this   j  <<\  the  increased  lie;1.1 

barley  previous  to  its  beini:  dried  to  ruin, 

The  increase  of  heat  isn  !  still  in  the  flu1, 

.  which,  according   to   Dnnal,   i  MI  the 

of  a  ccitain    }  ,  in  the 

and  petals  of  the  plant  int.  r  the  niitiii 

the    antheis    a:id    ouilcs    i  I,      The    in; 

heat  of  the   llowcrs    of  p 
their  development  v,  ;• 
in  M 

;  'ouch  ;  and  i 

that  tlie. \rurn  cordifolinm  __ 

This  led  Bory  St.  Vincent  t 
on  this  plant,  in  which  he  found   a\cry  hiiri 
heat  developed  din-ins;  its  flpwerinsr,  \vhii-h  was  sometimes 
7"  higher  than  the  sn  ie.     The  !' 

of  the  Arum  tribe  are  vei  ly  constni' 

'pment  and  retention  of  heat  ;  'but  all  flowers.  ]ne- 
to  the    full    di  '    of  their  anthers  and    the 

ion  of  impregnation,  un>!>  which 

increase  of  temperature. 

n  r/u/M>:i.  ii.  ;  and  LimlleyV 


idlini;  plants  she  found 
eh  warmer  than  others. 


TKMPKKINC   ' 

TKMl'KSTA.  A.vn>\lo.;, 
nimal  jiainter and 


d  Italian  battle  and 

nintlng 

manv 


XIII 

o.  tin 


•  imc 


chiefly  at  Hoi; 


•nd 

line 
III- 


style    of    h. 

painti  -   tho.se   in    the  \ 

Slefano  Rotondo,  at  Home  ;  and  two  and 

.ion-,     executed     for    th- 
ai-omul the  luiiiric  o; 
Monte   (.'avnllo  :  afterwards    Pal 
aeeonlinsi  to  his   biographer  and  con' 

sufficient  to 

lion  if  he   had   never   painted  anything  else.      ' 
sented 

(Jrand   Turk.     Tempi 
these   subjects.     His  invention  v. 

.-n  eipialled   bi 
>iu'iis.     Aci  Icllini,  'JV. 

and  about   ."MM  ha\ . 

xither  masters.     He  iJ-.  il  after  other  ma-sUrs  him- 

self;   he    executed    some    battles,    and    -in 
Spanish   story   of   'The   Seven   Twin   Sons  of    ! 
Otho  \'eniu.s  :    Kilibien,  in    his  •  Kr.tretiens  sur  K 
plus  c'-lebics  Peintres.'  has  related  the  storj  at  length,  and 
has  described  the  subject  of  each  plate. 

Tempcsta's  style  of  etching  is  peculiar  and 
f.ble  :  and  although  his  designs  are  bold.  M: 
pand   parts,  they  are   hea\).  his  style  of  di 
com])oM|jo'i  '.  and  his  ! 

disposed  without  la.ste:  his  most  val 
bunts  and  field-sports,  and  his  studies  of  t  if  hi* 

other   pieces  the   following  are  anion:;-  ti: 
most  celebiated  : — 

:  of  I'll)  illustrations  to  the  Old 
•  Tempcsta's  lii!,1 
and  the  Apos.Ho- 

over  the  Amah 
hitis   repu 

d.  but  very  confused  of  Si.  Ar. 

,:om   (hi<l'.s   '  Melani 
13  of  the  Labours    of  H  ind    7  of  the  •- 

Wonders  of  the    Anticnt  \Vorld.      He  etched  many  eaval- 

the    follow  i 

much  in  bis  own  si  vie  to  be  faithful  rcprc-cnta1 

oriirinals  : — Ca.-tor  and  Pollux,  and   : 

d  the  ennc.strian  sta1 

the  Capitol,  at  Home;  the  eipiestiian  slati 
by  John  of  15ol<  'orence  :  thai    of   Henry  I1 

oycd  in  17 
Henry   II.    of   France.     The    last    .statue 

ure  of  Louis  Mil.  was  placed  upon  the 

-.  hich  "a-  originally  designed  for  a  statue  ol  Henry 

II.,  wl  incut.     Tempesia's   juint 

-cription  :  •  l-',Hi. 

Dan.  liicci,  Voltcrrani,  fieri  jussit  K. 
-ii-i,    (jui  ol 

Lupithae,  bj  Tempesta,  was  <'iit  in  a 
'«•.      AS  a  man  Teni| 
his  contemporary  I!airh< 
, 

npi         .  i  lit;  li.st  of 

des 

.<•..  and  in  the  • 
TI-'.1.  <\\\  ALII    ' 

'.nown   in 

:  :  uf  a 
name,  and  was  born  at  Haw- 


Muh< 

COtlfl 


T  E  M 


179 


T  E  M 


.era  in  1037.  He  was  called  Tempesta  through  his  skill 
in  painting  sea-storms  and  similar  subjects,  in  which  lie 
was  excellent,  and  in  some  respects  rivalled  Backhuyzen  : 
he  was  also  nearly  equally  excellent  as  an  animal  painter, 
especially  of  wild  animals,  and  some  have  said  that  had  he 
remained  in  his  own  country  and  pursued  entirely  such 
subjects,  he  would  have  rivalled  Rubens  and  Snyders  in 
that  department.  There  is  yet  another  comparison  to 
make  respecting  him  ;  he  rivalled,  or  perhaps  surpassed, 
the  infamous  Castagno  in  moral  depravity.  Pascoli,  who 
has  written  an  account  oi'  Ternpesta  in  his  '  Lives  of  the 
Painters,'  &c.,  says  that  his  father  wa.s  a  merchant,  and  that 
he  intended  to  bring  up  his  son  to  his  own  bus, 
young  Peter  was  however  naturally  so  fond  of  drawing, 
that  when  a  bov,  instead  of  eoing  to  school,  he  used,  un- 
known to  his  parents,  to  spend  his  time  in  sketching  upon  j 
the  sea-side,  sometimes  drawing  the  sea  and  shipping  oft' : 
the  coast,  and  at  others  cattle  grazing  near  the  shore. 
He  was  eventually  allowed  to  take  his  own  course,  but 
nature  appears  to  have  been  his  only  or  at  least  chief  master. 
After  painting  with  great  success  in  various  cities  of  the 
Netherlands,  he  became  acquainted  at  Antwerp,  in  about, 
his  30th  year,  with  a  monk  of  the  barefooted  Carme 
who  converted  him  from  Calvinism,  in  which  he  had  been 
brought  up,  to  Popery,  and  Tempesta  was  thence  strongly 
induced  to  make  a  journev  to  Rome.  At  Rome  he  found 
a  valuable  patron  in  the  ])tike  Bracciano,  and  ! 
was  beyond  his  expectation*.  He  received  so  many  orders 
I'm  pictures,  that  he  was  obliged  to  eniphu  -  :  and 

the  sister  of  one  of  these,  his  favourite,  known  as  Tem- 
;'),  became  his  wife.  He  however  never  appeals  to 
lived  in  creat  amity  with  her,  but  the  fault  is  said  to 
have  been  Tempesta's.  The  story  of  the  deep  tragedy 
which  followed  is  told  differently  by  Pascoli,  and  the 
writer  in  the  '  Mut>eo  Florentine,'  in  whirl)  there  is  a  Life  of 
Tempesta,  but  there  is  no  discrepancy  in  their  statements 
of  the  main  fact.  Tempesta,  made  up  hi.s  mind  to  leave 
Rome,  it  is  said,  in  order  to  get  rid  of  his  wife,  and  he  re- 
:<m  of  the  Duke  Bracciano  to  depart  :  the 
duke  consented,  but  unwillingly,  yet  ho  presented  Teni- 
with  a  cross  and  a  chain  of  trold.  and  knighted  him  , 
1  his  departure.  Tempesta  left  Hume,  ami  pro- 
mised to  send  for  his  wile  ]  :  he 
ound  by  Venice  and  Mila  hort 
stay,  to  Genoa.  In  Genoa  he  wi  as  he  had 
been  at.  Koine;  but.  soon  after  hi.s  arrival  lie  !/.•• 
enamoured  of  a  beautiful  ('.  !y.  and  being  unable 
to  obtain  possession  of  her  except  by  marri? 
solved  upon  marrying  her,  and  he  trot  o\er  tlir  obstacle  of 
already  having  one  wile  in  the  following  infamous  man- 
ner:- He  dispatched  a  hir  >  to  Home,  with  a  let- 
ter to  hi.s  wife,  ordering  her  to  accompany  the  bearer 
immediately  to  Genoa  :  his  wife,  who  knew  her  hu-; 
character,  and  disliked  the  messenger,  delayed  yoin^.  but 
on  a  second  summons  from  her  husband  she  complied. 
and  commenced  the  fatal  journey.  The  uufor' 
woman  was  murdered  by  the  ruffian,  her  companion,  at 
Sarzana.  The  affair  wa.s  not  long  a  secret,  and  Tem- 
.  who  must  have  already  married  the  Genoese  lady, 
according  to  Pascoli,  was  arrested  upon  suspicion,  was 
tried,  convicted,  and  condemned  to  death.  The  sentence 
was  however  not  carried  into  execution  :  Tempesta  ob- 
tained a  respite,  or,  according  to  the  other  account,  had 
sufficient,  interest  to  obtain  a  commutation  of  si" 
from  that  of  death  to  one  of  perpetual  imprisonment. 

Pascoli  says  he  was  set  at  liberty  again,  after  remaining 
five  years  in  prison,  through  the  intercession  of  the  Count 
di   Mel  gar,  governor  of  Milan;  according   to    the   other 
story,  hi;  obtained   his  liberty  during  the  bombardment  of 
Genoa  by  Ixinis  XIV..  when  the  prisons  were  thrown  • 
having  suffered  an  imprisonment   of  sixteen 
was  however  busily  employed  with  his  pencil  durin 
whole  time,  and  he  found  it  difficult  to  satisfy  t] 
for  his    pie'nri's.     On   recovering   his  liberty   he   went  to 
Milan,  and  there  <  stabhshed  himself,   where,  throueh  his 
unenviable  n  </rcalcr  than  it 

had  been  either  at  Rome  or  at  Genoa.      He 

wasinthe  a  irrcat.  income,  lived  in  splendid  style, 

and  even    kept    a    p  "lingerie,   containing   many 

varieties  of  wild  animals,  solely  for  the  purpose  of  painting 
from i  tlnm.      II  :,t  \\n*  period  of  his  I: 

conn  u  immorality,  i>,r  though  < 

ing  the  greatert  afflurnco,  he  not  only  deserted  his  second 


wife,  but  left  her  destitute,  according  to  Pascoli ;  yet  how 
such  conduct  could  bo  suffered  by  the  laws  is  difficult  to 
understand.  He  had  several  mistresses,  and  he  ac- 
quired the  cognomen  of  Mulier  or  de  Mulieribus  bv  his 
profligate  habits  ;  Peter  Mulier  is  the  name  by  which  he  is 
best  known  in  Italy.  As  he  grew  old  his  powers  of  paint- 
ing forsook  him,  and  his  means  accordingly  gradually  di.- 
minished,  and  as  he  was  too  improvident  to  make  any 
provision  for  his  old  age,  his  affairs  became  embarrassed 
at  the.  end  of  his  life.  He  died  of  a  fever  in  1701,  aged 
04,  in  a  state  of  poverty  when  compared  with  his  former 
affluence.  His  pictures  are  numerous  in  the  collections  of 
the  north  of  Italy :  those  which  he  painted  during  his 
imprisonment  are  generally  accounted  his  best. 

TEMPIO.     [SAKDEGXA.] 

TEMPLARS.  KMGHTS  TEMPLARS,  or  KNIGHTS 
OF  THE  TEMPLE,  are  the  popular  designations  for 
the  Brethren  of  the  Temple  of  Solomon  at  Jerusalem,  also 
called  the  Soldiery  of  the  Temple  (Militia  Templi)  and  the 
Soldiers  of  Christ.  The  three  great  religious  military  Orders, 
the  Knights  of  the  Hospital  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem 
(commonly  called  the  Knights  Hospitallers),  the  Templars, 
and  the  Teutonic  Knights  of  St.  Mary  of  Jerusalem  (or 
German  Knights  of  the  Cross),  all  originated  in  thfc 
twelfth  century  ;  1he  two  former  towards  its  commence- 
ment, during  the  first  crusade,  the  last  not  till  near  its 
close.  The  founders  of  the  Order  of  the  Templars,  which 
is  held  to  d»tc  from  the  year  1118  or  1119,  were  nine 
Knights,  all  French,  of  whom  the  two  chief  were  Hugues 

or  de  I'ligamV.  and  Geotfroi  de  St  Om< 
St.  Ademar  .  One  account  makes  all  the  nine  to  have 
been  previously  members  of  the  Order  of  St.  John  ;  but.  it 
is  at  least  doubtful  if  this  was  the  case.  At.  nil  events, 
the  Hospitallers  were  not  yet  n  military  order;  their 
distinguishing  profession  was  to  entertain  pilgrims  and  to 
attend  the  sick  and  wounded:  the  idea  of  adding'to  the 
three  common  vows  of  chaslih.  and  obcd! 

iiragcment  to  fight  against  the  infidels.  : 
been  first  put  in  practice   by  De  Payens  and  his 
brethren.     Up  to  this  time,  when  a  knight  entered  the 
society  .•  Hospitallers,  he  seems  to  h.ivc  laid  aside  his 

arms.  i\oi  probably  did  the  nine  Knights  forming  the 
new  ae  at  first  contemplate  either  the  extensively 

military  character  which  their  order  eventually  assumed, 
or   even   the    establishment   of    an   order  which   should 
extend  and  perpetuate  itself.      Their   original    vow  wa , 
simply  to  maintain  free   passage   for   the  pilgrims 
should  \isit  the  Holy  Land  ;  nor  did  the\  proceed  to*  ill 
to  their  number  till  six  or  seven  years  afterthoir  : 
In  another  i>  j  their  early  condition  and  pretension: 

were  remarkably  contrasted   with  their  subsequent  stale  : 
I  his  time  Ihey  made  the   greatest  show  of  poverty, 
even  DC  I'.iyeiis.  who  Master,  ami  hi.s  friend  DC 

St.  Onici.  keeping  only  one  horse  between  them,  a  cir- 
cumstance commemorated  in  the  seal  of  the  order, 
which  represents  two  armed  knights  mounted  one  behind 
the  other  on  the  same  horse.  At  this  their  beginning, 
indeed,  the  name  which  they  took,  and  by  which  thej 
were  commonly  known,  was  the  Pauper  soldiers  (Puu- 
iiilitones)  of  the  Holy  City;  and  they  pro- 
1  to  have  no  source  of  subsistence  but  the  alms 
of  the  faithful.  The  king  of  Jerusalem,  Baldwin  II., 
save  them  their  first  place  of  residence,  a  part  of  his 
palace;  to  which  the  abbot  and  canons  of  the  church 
and  convent  of  the  Temple,  which  stood  adjoining,  .added 
another  building  for  keeping  their  arms,  whence  they  ac- 
quired the  name  of  Templars. 

The  new  principle  of  their  association,  however,  im- 
mediately drew  general  attention  ;  so  much  so,  that,  in 
113)  the  Hospitallers  got  their  order  remodelled  by  Pope 
Calixtns  II.  on  the  same  principle.  The  first  regular  em- 
bodying of  the  Templars  was  by  Honoiius  If.,  trie  suc- 
alixt.ns,  who  in  1128  confirmed  a  rule,  for  them 
which  had  been  drawn  up  and  decreed  that  same  year  1>) 
the  Council  of  Troyes,  on  the  requisition  of  Hugm 
Payens  and  several  of  his  brethren,  who  had  conic  to' 
Europe  for  that  purpose  with  strong  recommendation* 
from  king  Baldwin.  Honoiius  at.  the  Mime  time,  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  the  Hospitallers,  who  wen-  arrayed  ill 
a  blank  mantle,  assigned  the  brethren  of  Ihe.  new  order  a 
mantle  for  their  peculiar  dress,  which  they  wore 
plain  till  Eugcnius  III.,  in  114(5,  appointed  them  to  wear 
a  red  cross  on  the  left  breast,  in  imitation  of  the  white 

2A2 


an  ol 


M 


ii  by  th.   !' 

;>on    Ih 


.  '  ItTtlt  1OI1 


180 


T  E  M 


•  a  little  later  (li 

:uul   its  iiitlucn 
wli<i   were   not 


:i£    .1*    III. 
.•     Ill    tin1   :'. 

"ACrflll     H     both.    Oil    (Olid!' 

9     i>(     tin 

^       .:'•••    li:i'i)'.vll  :  ar.d  111  I'll-    c    .1         ..    v     ''M.i 


.-  and  inn  lowered  upon  it  1))  p. 

•  •(  time  it  acquired  ample  , 
.  iiuntry  ol'  Kuropc.     At  the   head  ol'  Un- 
order wa.-.    tin1    MaMcr,    or    Giand-i; 

HS  Mugittrr),  who  v  •  r  not  only  cU-cU-d  by 

tin-   Chapter,   or  ireneral   body   ui'  tin-    Kni/h!-,   but 
much  controlled  hv  tliat  1  .1  ini- 

ujuli-r  him   hi- 

i    officers    V  .   ^C. 

Tin-  several   countries  in  Asia  and  Europe  in  which  the 
order  had   ,  .iiimnatcd  Provinces;  and 

,if  them  v.  :>'  i-hiel'.  • 

inditfcrentU,  a  Grand  Prior, Grand  Preceptor,  or  1'iovmcial 

'.-.      I'ndcr  tile   provincial    master-   were    the    1 
otherwise   called  Bailil's   or  Masters,  who  liail  > 
of  one  of  tlie  distiict.-.  into  which  the  province  was  divided ; 
and  finally,  under  the   prioi-  were  ilie  Prcccploi-..  e:ieh  ol' 
whom  pic-idcd   over  a  single  house  ol'  the  older  (01 
times  over  two  or  three  adjoim  v.hic.h  were  con- 

sidered a.-,  one  establieboncnt),  hence  calli  •  ptory. 

The    head    pro'.  'hat   of  Jerusalem  :    the  affair-  ol' 

the    order,    in    1'aet.  directed    by 

the  ehapter  of  this  province,  whii-h   \va.s  invested   ', 

itulion  with  all  the  ,  al  all 

vh    a   cha,  i uit    a.-rtemblcd.      The 

I-prior  of  .Icru  irer  of  the 

order;   and  in   thi.s  piovince  the  grand--: 
loiu:  as  tin1  (.'lirisliuns  retained  any  footing  in  ti 

:n  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  from  the  oiis'in  of  th 
till    1  1H7,   w'iii'n  :i  ivas  taken,   and  the  kingdom 

founded  hy  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  put  an  end  In,  by  Saladin  ; 
then  (iifli'i  H  retirement  of  lour  years  to  Antu.r 
from  1101  till  1217;  then  at  the'neuly  -h; •;  of  the 

Pil^, :  'a! rd    on    the    sea-coa-,1    a   few   miles 

north  of  '  11   the  fall  .mJ  the  final  ex- 

tinction  of  the    Latin   iio'.ver  in    PaleMinr.   in    1102.       On 
this  the  KniirhN  took  rel'iiLTe  in  the  town  of  I.imi.v>o  (other- 

•  ailed  Limavi!,   in  Cypnis.     The   other  provinces  in 

i-t  were  Tripolis  and  Antioeh  :  to  which  Cyprus,  till 
then  included  in  one  of  these,  was  added  after  that  Ulaml 
became,  the  h.  the  order.  The  v 

provinces  were.  Portugal.  (.';i>tile  and  Leon.  An: 
imil  Auverirne.  Normandy.  Acpiitaine  or  Poitou.  Provence, 
England   (m  which  Scotland   and   Ireland  v, ere  included), 

::my.  rjiper  a-:d  Central   Italy,  Apulia,  and  Sicily. 
For   some   time   after    i1  on    the    onVr   of   the 

Teni])lars   eonsi-ted   exclusively   of   laymen.      Hut   in    the 

1 1(!2,  the  famous  hull  entitled  •(liime  Datum  Opti- 
mum.' is^ii''d  l>y  Pope  Alexander  III.,  anioni;  other  im- 
portant privileges  which  it.  1»  r,  per- 
mitted it  i  -phitual  persons  who 
were  not  bound  by  piv \iont  vows.  ThcM'  .spiritual  nu'in- 
fijains.  They  did  i  r  take 
the  military  vo  ot  only 


' 


in  th'   year   in   tin-   hoii-i 
nder  an  i: •• 

i join  th 

1 
• 

• 
' 


in  the 
illy  invited  by  their 

pointed   preceptor.-.. 


hediencc. 


lie   order  in: 


-brethieii  however  could  not  be  iireeeptni 
I  lie  hiL'he  tile  order.     Latter!),  : 

the  foiiiiei  attending   the    kniirhts  to  ihi-    ieldase^p.. 

us  hundici-iiM-  n 

on  the  land-  p  to  the  order.  The  si 

ol    arms     v,  ;     to    Mini    hv   much 

honourable'   of   the   t  •  .    and    were    treated    with 

much  more  consideration  than  the  others;  but  both  ap- 
}K-ar  to  have    been  equally  entitled  to  be  present  at   i 

:    the   ehapter,   although  it    ma  ..ined   lliat 

,1111: -brethren    either  \otetl  or  took  purt  ill 
the  deliberation*.   The  order  also  associated  to  itself  many 
peison>  under  the  name  of  Affiliated  Member*,  who 
no  MIWS.  as-umed  no  peculiar  drew,  nor  becai: 
to  any  duties  or  services:   but.  contimiin£r  to  pursue  their 
ordinary  secular  occupations  merelv  purchased  enrolment 
in  the  rank.- of  the  powerful  nnd  hiirhlyprix 
of  the   Teui])le    for   the    sake  of  the    ,  and  other 

advantages,  both  temporal  and  spiritual,  v 
a  mere  nominal  membcislnp  i usureii. 
prehended   women  a.s  well  as   men.      Finally.   • 
the    l)<>i::it:   and  the   i ililnti.  consislinsr  of  children 
r  bv  their     -  -  rclation.- 

also   of  persons   of  all   ranks,  both   l.iity  and   i •' 
without   entering  the   order,  pledged  thei: 
by  it  and  to  maintain  its  n 

The  history  of  the  X  mplars  would  cmbrnc 

hi.-tory  of  the  Wl  insl    the    b 

in  thi'  Ka>t  for  :;11  the  time  the.  :ilish- 

ii  the  order.     For  more  than  a  him.: 
lie  Temple  formed  th. 

portion  ul    -  -.  and  almost  every  em 

ter  with  the  enemy   boie   testimony  to  their  unequalled 
prowess   and    daring.     But,  it   may  nevertheless   be 
tinned  whether  the  establishment   of  this  and   the  other 
ilia    military    orders    proved    advantage" 

-i  -.erinirlv  made  to  wrest  the  Hoi)  Land 
from  the  dominion  of  the  Infidels.  The  Templars  and 
Hospitallers  probably  damaged  and  weakened  the  • 
for  which  they  fought,  as  much  by  their  rivalry,  jea- 
jiiently  open  contention,  a.s  they  aided 
it  by  their  valour.  On  SIM  <\\  be- 

tween  the   two   order-  :imke 

them  dcM-rt  or  withhold  a^i-lauee  frmn   each  other  in  the 
•lest  danirers,  but  even  to  throw  one  of  them  for  the 
time  into  concert   with   the   common   enemy. 

.•h  such  charges  have  been  h.".ji  . 
tiaied  .  '  liey  can   I, 

luilled  of  treachery  in  son: 

and   the  mo^t   scandalous  abandonment  of  their  dut: 
the  public  cause.     Then,  the  immcn-  nd  worldly 

'.vhich  the  Templai-s  ill  pailiciilar  s, 

r  and   spin!    of 

their   institution  was   half   a    century   old. 

Within  thi.'  ,i    the  origin  ol   the  urdei. 

two  at  lea-t  of  the  fom  vows  which  the  memlu  : 
tinuc'l  ad  become  a   mockery  and  a  pi 

i\  and    eha-tity,  they  wen 

p  and    pride,  and    the  general  I 

• 

ion,  the   extent  to  which  it    bid 
milications   in   all  d: 

ivc  lonir withstood  tli 
,  within  it,  if  it    had  not   di 
itself  .-in  a.-saidt  from  without  hy  which  it  could  not 

of  the   Tempi:: 


Th 


IV..  suinained   Li 


iip,  who   c 

Ull.    |e,    tl  :.. 

III.,   wine, 


:!     V.itl, 

with  : 


T  E  M 


181 


T  E  M 


pontiff.  His  successor,  Benedict  XI.,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  poisoned  at  the  instigation  of  Philip.  Benedict  was 
succeeded  by  Clement  V.,  who  is  believed  to  have  pur- 
chased his  elevation  from  Philip  on  condition,  among  other 
compliances,  of  co-operating  with  him  ia  the  destruction 
of  the  Templars.  This  was  in  1305.  Obnoxious  already 
as  the  natural  allies  and  defenders  of  the  Holy  See,  and 
tempting  the  attack  of  the  needy  and  unscrupulous  king 
by  their  immense,  possessions,  these  knights  are  also  said 
to  have  further  irritated  Philip  about  this  time  by  their 
suspected  share  in  exciting  an  insurrection  of  the  Parisians 
against  a  debasement  of  the  coinage,  a  practice  which  he 
repeated  so  often  in  the  course  of  his  reign,  that  he  ac- 
quired for  himself  the  name  of  the  money-forger  de  faux- 
monnoyeur). 

In  1306  Jacques  de  Molay,  the  master  of  the  Temple, 
was  drawn  to  Europe  by  a  summons  from  the  pope,  who 
professed  a  desire  to  consult  with  him  on  the  expedi- 
ency of  a  union  of  the  two  orders  of  the  Templars  and 
the  Hospitallers.  The  following  year,  while  Molay  was 
at  Paris,  the  first  distinct  accusations  against  the  Tem- 
plars were  made  by  two  individuals  lying  in  prison 
under  sentence  of  death  ;  Squin  de  Fltxian.  who  had  for- 
merly been  a  member  of  the  order  and  prior  of  Mont- 
faucon,  but  had  been  ejected  for  heresy  and  other  offences, 
and  a  Florentine  called  Noffo  Dei,  also,  according  to  one 
account,  a  degiade.l  Templar,  by  general  admission  a  per- 
son of  the  worst  character.  They  made  their  revelations 
to  Philip  himself,  and  were  immediately  liberated  from 
prison.  Their  •  uputing  to  the  order  the 

matic  practice  and  encouragement  of  all  sorts  of  secret 
immoralities,  as  well  as  the  -trangest  confusion  of  heresy, 
idolatry,  and  infidelity,  arc  far  too  absurd  for  examination. 
Very  soon  after  this,  on  the  12th  of  September.  1307,  royal 
letters  were  issued  sealed  to  all  the  governors  of  towns 
and  other  officers  of  the  crown  in  authority  throughout  the 
kingdom,  and  transmitted  along  with  orders  to  them  to  arm 
themselves  and  the  persons  under  their  command  on  that 
day  month,  and  then  to  open  the  letters  in  the  night,  and 
to  act  as  they  should  find  themselves  therein  directed. 
The  result  was  that  the  next  day  nearly  all  the  Templars 
in  France,  DC  Molay  included,  were  in  custody.  Their 
houses  ainl  goods  were  also  even  where  seized;  tli 
stronghold  of  the  Temple  at  Paris,  the  cl  of  the 

order  in  that   kingdom,  was  entcivd  and  taken  pos- 
of  by  Philip  himself;    and  on  the  following  day,  the  lf>th. 
the  university  met  there,  and  examined  De  Molay  and  some 
other  knights. 

An   act   of   accusation  was  forthwith   published ;    and 
Philip  at  the  same  time  wrote  to  the  pope,  and  aljo  to 
the  king  of  England,  intimating  what   he  had  don.  - 
calling  upon  them  to  second  him.     Edward  II.  exy: 
himself   at   first    disinclined   to    believe    what    was   said 
:st  the  knights  ;   but  on  soon  after  receiving  letters 
;;ent,   he   yielded,    and   the    English    Templars 
were  also  all   seized  and  thrown  into  confinement  about 
the  end  of  December.     Meanwhile  the  examinations  had 
been  going  on  in  France  under  the  direction  of  the  king's 
confessor,  Imbert,  a  Dominican  priest,  and  as  such   the 
inveterate  enemy  of  the  order  of  the  Templars.      Con- 
in   many  cases  incredible  from   their  inherent 
were   extracted  from  many  of  the   knights  at 
Here  by  the  ino-i  I  :  the  con- 

fession was  in  numerous  instjr.r  1  by  a 

recantation  :  but  a  ne\7  application  of  the  wheel,  or  the 
fire,  to  which  the  act  exposed  in  some  cases  till 

the  roasted  flesh  dropped  from  i.  their  feet,  gene- 

rally made    them  repent    th«'ir   former   testimony.     This 
on  for  many  months.     In  August,   13ost,   Clement, 
whose  very  per-on  Philip  had  now  contrived  to  get  com- 
pli-ti-ly  into  his  power,  issued  a  bull,  calling  upon  all  Christian 
princes  and  prelates    to  aid   him  in  examining  into  the 
of  the  order:  and  about  the  same  time  hi--  li- 
nt ed  a  commission,  consisting  of  the  archbishop  of 
->nne  and  other  prelates  and  dignitaries  of  the  chinch, 
to  meet,  at   IVristotrytheca.se.     This  commission   how- 

'lid  not  commence  its  sittings  till  the  7th  of  A 
l:«t:i.     A  few    months   later,   examinations  under  j 
deputed  or  nominated  by  the  pope,  commenced  in  Kng- 
land  and  other  countries.     Altogether  many  hundreds  of' 
kniLr!  \amined  by  these  commissions  during  the 

-I   lu'll  ;    but.  it.  was  only  in  I 
when:  torture  was  made  use.  of,  that  any  admissions  were 


obtained  of  the  crimes  laid  to  the  charge  of  the  order,  or 
any  at  least  that  were  not  manifestly  and  undeniably  un- 
worthy of  all  regard.  Even  the  Paris  commission  however 
did  not  satisfy  the  impatience  of  Philip  :  on  its  requisition 
a  grestt  'number  of  knights  had  stood  forward  to  defend  the 
order,  among  whom  were  several  of  those  who  had  con- 
fessed and  afterwards  retracted.  Philip,  having  forced 
the  pope  to  nominate  Philip  de  Maiigni,  bishop  of  Cam- 
biay,  the  brother  of  Enguerrand  de  Marigni,  his  prime- 
minister,  to  the  archbishopric  of  Sens,  which  had  just, 
become  vacant,  and  then  included  the  diocese  of  Paris, 
got  the  new  archbishop  to  convoke  his  provincial  council 
in  the  capital,  on  Sunday,  the  10th  of  May,  1310;  and 
this  body,  on  the  \Vednesdaymorning  following,  had  fifty- 
four  of  the  defenders  of  the  order,  who  had  formerly  made 
confession,  brought  out  as  'relapsed  heretics '  to  a  field 
behind  the  abbey  of  St.  Antoine,  and  there  committed  to 
the  flames.  They  all  died  asserting  their  innocence  and 
that  of  the  order.  This  terrible  example  was  speedily  imi- 
tated in  the  province  of  Rheinis  and  elsewhere ;  and 
some  months  after,  the  archbishop  of  Sens  held  himself 
another  council,  and  burned  foiir  more  knights.  These 
proceedings  put  a  stop  to  the  attempt  at  defending  the 
order:  the  rest  of  the  knights  who  had  undertaken  this 
task  now  all  declared  their  renouncement  of  it.  Mean- 
while a  general  council  had  been  appointed  by  Clement, 
to  nice!  at  Vienne  in  October,  1311.  It  assembled  on  the 
13th  of  that  month,  but  it  was  not  found  so  compliant  as 
Philip  and  the  pope  had  expected  ;  and  Clement,  having 
put  an  end  to  the  session,  assembled  the  cardinals  and  a 
tew  other  prelates  upon  whom  he  could  depend  in  a  secret 

•'ory,  and  abolished  the  order  by  his  own  authority, 
on  11  ic.  B3nd  of  March.  1312.  When  the  council  iva"»- 
sembled,  pursuant  to  the  adjournment,  on  the  3rd  of 
April.  Philip  was  seated  on  Clement's  right  hand,  accom- 
panied by  his  brother  and  his  sons,  and  attended  by  an 
imposing  military  force  :  and  his  holiness  read  the  bull  of 
abolition,  the  council  listening  in  silence.  It  was  formally 
published  on  the  2nd  of  May  following.  On  the  18th  of 

.  131  K  Molay,  the  grand-master,  and  Guy,  com- 
mander or  grand-prior  of  Normandy,  who  had  all  this 
while  remained  in  prison  at  Paris,  were  brought,  before 
the  archbishop  of  Sens,  condemned  to  death,  and  burned 
on  one  of  the  small  islands  in  the  Seine,  about  the  spot 
where  the  statue  of  Henri  IV.  is  now  erected  on  the  Pont 
Xeuf. 

After  all.  Clement  and  Philip,  the  former  of  whom  died 
suddenly  about  a  month,  and  the  latter,  of  a  fall  from  his 
horse,  within  a  year  after  the  martyrdom  of  De  Molay,  were 
able  to  secure  to  themselves  only  a  small  portion  of  the 
plunder  which  they  had  probably  hoped  for.  The  king  of 
France  seized  and  kept,  or  divided  with  his  confederate, 
the  moveable  property  of  the  Templars  in  that  country; 
but  there,  and  also  in  England,  and  throughout  the  rest  of 
Europe,  with  the  exception  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  it  was 
found  necessary  to  transfer  their  landed  possessions  to  the 
Hospitallers,  or  Knights  of  St.  John  (,at  this  time  commonly 
known,  from  the  place  where  they  had  fixed  their  head 

nee,  :>s  the  Kmu'hts  of  Rhodes).  In  Spain  the  lands 
of  Hie  Templars  were  bestowed  upon  the  Knights  of  Our 
Lady  of  Montesa,  a  new  order,  founded  in  T317 ;  and  in 

/a!  the  society  merely  took  the  new   name  of  the 

nl   Christ,  which  still  subsists.     It  is  affirmed   that 

even  in  France  the  order  of  the  Templars  has  survived  to 

our  own  day:  and  it  is  certain  that  a  society  calling  itself 

by  that,   name  exists  in  Paris,  which  professes  to  be  in  pos- 

i   of  tUe  original  register  and  records  of  the  antient 
;  nd  to   have  been  governed   by  an    unbroken 
of  grand-masters,  many  of  them   of  illustrious 
nee  the  time  of  Jacques  de  Molay.     It  pretemt.s 
therefore  to  be  the  supreme  chapter  of  the  order.     In  Eng- 
land, and  we  believe  also  in  Germany,  the  Freemasons  aie 
in  the  habit  of  holding  themselves  up  as  a  sort  of  repre- 
sentatives of  the.  antient.  Templars. 

It  is  asserted  by  Matthew  Paris,  that  about  the  year  1:11  1 
tin.'  manors  or  estates  in  possession  of  the  Templars  throngli- 
out  Christendom  already  amounted  to  9000;  and    it 
been  calculated  that  the  entire  revenues  of  the  aider  when 
it  was  dissolved  did  not  fall  short   of  si\   millions  sterling, 

;i  it  seems  impossible  that  this  should  not.  be  a  i 

nation.     Their  possessions  in  England  particularly 

at  a  comparatively  early  period  of  great  extent, 

and  value,  as  may  be  seen  from  au  '  inquuitio,'  or  account 


T  E  M 

of  their  land*.  taken 

win. 

pt.  n 

til  ll:  Hied  ill  the  OKI  Temple.  ;•.! 


-IclTI 
-   the 

•at  01' 


nam 

i  RtiL'lnnd. 

i   the  sruilt  »r  innocence  of  the  Templars 
.•en  much 

I  that 

•  >n  which  the\   were  i-oiiilemned 
lor  the  HUH!  part  entirely  unfounded,  some  attempts 


b. 

I 

and  called  . 
in    hi 

Anas.-!  which 

G.C.  Wood,  ha> 
larity   and    connection 
mid  that  famous 


hihty  that.  th. 
Iain  secret  p 

. 


I    the 

there    is    an    KiKrlish     translation 
.  ourcd  to  establish  a  simi- 
i    the   Tem- 

i   a   disquisition. 

printed  in  the  sixth  volume  of  hi-;  •  Minets  dc  1  <  )rie:it,'  the 
;  has  attempted  to  eon\i  i  par- 

ticipation  in  the   apostasy,   idolatry,  and  impiety  of  the 

id  I  iphian. 
W«w«Mvd   liy  M.  Hitynoiinrd.  in  a  Ion?  note  piintcd  in  the 

i    Midland's  •  IfUtoirc    d. 
'nl.  Sic.  :    •.:  MI   i!1    .   in   two  articles  in  thi 

March   and  April,   lull);  and  in   two  otheis. 
published  in  the   '  HihliothtVjiic    Cuivcr-ellc."  torn.  x..  p. 
•nd  torn.  \..  p.  3.      The   documents    relating  to   the 
condemnation  of  the  Templars  were  Mist  published  in  a 
work  entitled  •  Trait.  ;1    ,),.,, 

Templiers.'  par   M.   I)n  Puy,  «\o.,  1'aiis,  ll,.">l:   uMiinted. 
with    additions,   under   the  title  of  '  Histoire  de   la  Con- 
demnation desTemplicrs.'  &iv,  par  Pierre  ])a  Pny.  'J   vols. 
KVII..    Hru\,  lie-.    1713 :  and  under  that    of   -II 
I'Ordre  Militaire  ilea  Templiers,  avec  les  Pieces  .Insdtica- 

Ito.,  Bnixelles,  1751.  Other  works  on  the 
•'  Nicolai GQrtleri  Ilistoriu  Templariorutn.'  s 
Ki'.tl.  and.  with  Inriri-  additions.  ]7(i:t:  •  C!m,ti;i:1i  Thomasji 

•atio  d..  Templariornm  K<|uitum  Ordine  Snblnti  . 
ILihie,    17*lo:   Kaynouard,  '  Mi.num  ,  hitil's 

H    la  rondiinination   des   Tern  Ni:j; 

chap' 

•lmi;er.   '  "'I'drns    <li-r    Teiii])el- 

herren  :"  Wiliki  ''.•mpelheiTPtion 

(he  Middle  A sri-s '  'in  the  '  Lib;, 
Entertaining  Knowledge '),  12mo.,  Lond.,  18^7;  an.! 

ry  of  the  K'nii;!  ,;,!,.  Cliurch.  and 


T  K  M 

' 
snbordiiml 


ose  teinis  havinu'  boon  si 
r*  221  co< 


"f  the   di," 
v>r  tlie  arnmu'«'m 


ficuoo     O.P-TI.HAI- 


:  :  :  ;  ^ 

•  •  •  « 

L"J- 

f::7 

•  

ht 


the 


. 


11111 


:to..  I.ond.. 

fill..  Loud.,  17-11.  pp. 
I  books  and 
Templars. 

Latin  •  Templum  ')  \a  known  of 

the    nations    of  antiquity  is   derived 
chiefly  from  their  temples:  for  of  nil  their  public  edifices 
'V(1  '«'  rHi  tin-  most    numerous,  if  we 

•t    fterhaps    those   of  the    Homr.us,    the    rein:. 

IncK   theatres,   ainiihilli, 

monuments  of  that    class,  are   as  common   as   their 
temples,  and  ha^  ,,]]  of 

w"*'  termed  tl.- 

arcn"'  ':ns.  Greeks,  nm!   Ho- 

.••  temple-     ; 

it  may  bo  said  to  display 
much 
two.  wit1 

.  or  Ihrntttpiece  or  this  .hsi.os,- 

flori  • -l-in  oortil, 

an  ex 
when'  other  partii-n!:- 


Though  so  ^rsmolla?- 

"sitioii  of  the  columns  withoiii 


I"""'1   "I 

or  body 


em  and 

i:,"  eom- 


nuinbi 

I//A////C   in  ant, 

the  nnlii1.  or  tl; 

examples     jii..-tyle    and    amplnpio-- 

there   four   rolnmns   hetv 

t-lraxtyli-  in  «nlix,  and   have  a.-,  ma; 

.   of   \\hn-li  last   the   peripteral 
nmnlc.     Tile   diplci; 

:  and  tlie  hypa  lhr;i 

MM^'for  it  will  be  M 

U    body  mpli;.       In    ; 


i   it.* 

Still  there  is  no  yaiiety  whalevor  as  »u  external  form,  no 
individual  character  as  to  outline  or  even  the  r. 


mple  itself,  either 


1  el»e  pp.rip- 


1'' '•"    '""  •  ''  '"  """I    l"""lyl»pl i  UM   KIM  ln.<>  i.l 
on  the  liu<->  of  lh.»p  in  fmnl. 


T  E  M 


J83 


T  K  M 


portions,  nothing  of  combination  or  of  design,  as  the  last 
term  is  usually  uodenkuxL;  but  the  difference  oi'  effect 
depended  altogether  upon  the  actual  dimensions  of  the 
structures,  upon  material  and  execution,  upon  circum- 
stances of  detail  and  finish,  and  on  the  degree  and  particu- 
lar kind  of  decoration  in  regard  to  sculpture  and  poly- 
chromic  embellishment.  The,  only  instance  of  combina- 
tion and  grouping  is  that  afforded  by  the  Erechtheion,  or 
triple  temple  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  which  has  two 
distinct  porticos,  viz.  an  Ionic  hexa.-tvk  nionoprostyle  at 

-t  end,  and  a  tetrast.yle  diprostyle  of  the  same  order 
on  hs  north  side,  and  upon  a  lower  level ;  besides  which 
there  is  a  smaller  attached  or  projecting  structure  at  the 
south-west  angle,  forming  a  tetrastyle  diprostyle  arrange- 
ment of  caryatic  figures,  raised  upon  a  screen-wall  or 
podium.  The  combination  is  here  not  very  harmonious, 
since  no  regard  has  been  paid  to  symmetry  ;  for  which  very 
reason  it  is  all  the  more  striking,  as  forming  a  decided  con- 
trast to  the  unvaried  and  even  monotonous  uniformity 
pervading  the  temple-architecture  of  the  Greeks.  It  is 
almost  the  only  Grecian  structure  that  can  be  said  to  be  as 
much  distinguished  by  picturesqueness  as  by  elegance  of 
architectural  detail,  and  it  is  therefore  to  be  regretted  that 
it  has  not  been  studied  by  modern  architects,  with  especial 
reference  to  such  quality,  instead  of  their  attention  being 
almost  exclusively  given  to  the  details  and  proportions  of 
the  individual  parts.  Tliis  edifice  moreover  affords  almost 
the  only  instance  in  the  Grecian  style  of  distinct  porticos 
or  prostyles  projecting  from  a  building  [PORTICO],  other 
porticos  being  either  in  a/iti\,  so  as  to  be  renewed  within 
the  main  walls  forming  the  sides  of  the  edifice  ;  or  are 
only  the  end  or  ends  of  the  colonnades  continued  through- 
out the  whole  exterior :  consequently  in  neither  case  does 
such  portico  show  itself  as  an  actual  prostyle.  The  only 
other  known  examples  of  Greek  prostyles  are  the  two 
small  Ionic  temples  at  Athens,  that  on  the  banks  of 
the  Jlissus,  called  the  temple  of  Panops ;  and  that  dedi- 
cated to  Nike  Apteros,  or  Wingless  Victory.  Both  these 
were  amphipiustyle,  and  not  »'«  anlis,  consequently  had 
a  projecting  portico  at  each  end;  and  in  both  the  porticos 
were  tetrastvle.  Of  the  former  nothing  now  remains, 
but  it  is  well  known  from  Stuart's  delineation.-;,  and  the 
order  itself— of  plain  and  bold  but  elegant  character  — has 
been  adopted  as  the  type— not  to  say  stereotype — of 
most  of  our  modem  Grecian  Ionic.  Though  amphipro- 
stvle,  the  porticos  were  not  exactly  similar  in  plan  ;  for 
while  the  one  was  a  mere  monoprostyle,  that  forming  the 
entrance  end  was  also  deeply  recessed  within  the  main 
walls,  after  the  manner  of  a  portico  in  antis  without 
columns.  The  other  temple,  the  ruins  of  which  have  been 
explored  within  only  a  very  few  years,  was  a  very  small 
structure,  a  mere  votive  ch  -<•  by  the  west  front  of 

the  1'  '  i    the  Acropolis,   with  its  hinder   portico 

:  the  si-r.th  wing  of  that  edifice,  yet  turned  obliquely 
from  it,  which  want  of  parallelism  is  utterly  ut  variance 
with  all  modern  notions  of  architectural  symmetry  and 
order.  Yet  although  they  earned  regularity  almost  to 
faulty  e\c  rks  seem  to  have  paid  no  regard  to  it 

whatever  indisposing  buildings  relatively  to  each  other,  fur 
is  a  similar  and  apparently  intentional  want  of  paral- 

:  between  the  Parthenon  and  Krechtheion  on  the 
Acropolis  itself;  nor  are  either  of  them  in  a  line  with  the 
Propylaea,  or  equidistant  from  such  line  or  axis.  [PAR- 
THENON—Plan.] 

This  iiiMtmition  to  uniformity  of  arrangement,  where 
different  buildings  are  IIP  ,-thcr  on  one   general 

plan,  shows  a  striking  difference  ol  taste  in  that,  p 
between  the  Egyptians  ;tnd  the  Greeks.     The  temp 
tin-  Egyptian-,  consUl  oi' various  architectural  p. 
dinate  to  the  principal  strut-tin  Lining  with  that 

and  with  each  other  to  form  a  whole  ;  which  scheme  w;n 
sometimes  further  extended  bv  an  architectural  avenue  of 
sphir  ,-it  of  the  bonding!;  The  Greeks,  on  the 

inly  did  not    attempt   to   imitate   or   rival 
in  the  extent  and   complex  arrang< 

there  can  be  little  doubt   that 

md"litcd  to  them  for  much  of  their 

Their  temples  were  aim- 

not    only  detached    from    but 

adjacent   ones,   instead   of 

::%  ttlth    t 

.1.*  in  the  immediate 


neighbourhood  of  each  other,  and  in  a  part  icular  district  of 
a  city,  as  was  the  case  in  the  Paru  m  and  Capitol  at  Rome, 
where  temple  succeeded  to  temple  almost  uninterruptedly; 
and  the  ruins  of  Paestum,  Agrigentum,  Selinus,  and  other 
places  show  a  somewhat  similar  concentration  of  sacred 
edifices  about  the  same  spot.  Temples  were  frequently 
surrounded  by  a  sacred  grove  or  plantation  of  trees,  Ti'inr- 
iinx,  or  else  placed  within  an  enclosure,  Perilmhis,  formed 
either  by  mere  walls  or  by  colonnades,  but  there  are 
scarcely  any  examples,  .of  the  kind  now  remaining ;  and 
they  are  chiefly  Roman  works,  viz.  the  temples  at  Baalbec 
and  Palmyra.  Similarly  enclosed  and  standing  in  the 
centre  of  a  peribolus  or  piazza  (therefore  very  different  in 
plan  from  an  Egyptian  temple  preceded  by  a  fore-court), 
were  the  temples  of  Jupiter  and  Juno,  Venus  and  Roma, 
at  Rome  [ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE,  p.  74] ;  that  of  Jupiter 
Olympius  at  Athens,  a  work  completed  in  the  time  of 
Hadrian  ;  and  also,  among  Gneco-Asiatic  examples,  the 
temples  of  Minerva  Polias  at  Prienc,  and  Apollo  Didy- 
ma-us  at  Miletus. 

Similar  as  it  is  upon  the  whole  to  that  of  the  Greeks,  the 
temple-architecture  of  the  Romans  differs  from  it  in  many 
other  circumstances  besides  those  of  style ;  which  latter 
was,  with  very  few  exceptions,  Corinthian— the  national 
style  of  the  Romans,  as  the  Doric  was  of  Greece  and  its 
Italian  colonies.  One  leading  distinction  in  regard  to  gene- 
ral arrangement  is,  that  Roman  plans  were  hardly  ever  /'// 
snd  not  often  peripteral,  but  generally  prostyle,  with 
the  portico  projecting  out  from  the  cella,  or  body  of  the 
structure,  three  or  more  intercolumns,  so  as  to  be  tripro- 
xhjli',  &e.  [PORTICO.]  Such  facade  was  generally  i';1 
distinguished  by  having  a  flight  of  steps  enclosed  within 
pedestals  at  its  ends,  which  were  continued  as  a  podium  or 
moulded  basement  along  the  sides  of  the  editiee  ;  whereas 
the  Greeks  raised  the  temples  only  three  steps  or  so  abo\!- 
tin,'  ground,  and  carried  those  gradini  quite  round  the 
structure,  wherefore  each  elevation  or  side  of  their  perip- 
teral temples  was  uniform  in  design,  having  no  other  variety 
than  that  produced  by  greater  extent  and  number  (if 
columns  in  one  direction,  and  by  the  pediments  at  the 
extremities.  The  Romans  certainly  evinced  greater 
for  both  contrast  and  picturesque  combination  than 
the  Greeks,  although  decidedly  inferior  to  them  in  beauty 
of  detail  and  finish  of  execution  ;  except  perhaps  in  one 
or  two  particular  examples  of  that  order  which,  although 
called  Corinthian,  is  so  peculiarly  their  own,  that  Roman 
would  be  the  more  correct  name  for  it.  In  order  to  gi\u 
greater  dignity  to  the  whole  temple  or  to  the  principal 
structure  in  an  architectural  group,  they  elevated  it  upon 
not  a  mere  basement  or  substructure  with  an  ascent  in 
front  or  at  both  ends,  but  upon  a  spreading-out  platform, 
luting  a  terrace  on  every  side.  They  appear  to  have 
lonally  formed  a  succession  of  terraces  of  flights  of 
steps,  leading  tip  to  if  not  continued  .on  every  side  of  this 
building.  The  celebrated  Temple  of  Fortune  at  Prsenest  e, 
usually  supposed  to  have  been  originally  founded>by  Sulla, 
was  a  very  remarkable  example  of  the  kind.  Very  little 
now  remains  of  it,  except  the  terraces  themselves ;  neither 
have  we  any  account  of  the  architecture,  but  besides  the 
principal  edifice  or  temple  there  were  several  subordinate 
ones,  on  the  different  platforms.  '  I  know  of  no  other 
example,'  says  Woods,  in  his  '  Letters  of  an  Architect,' 
'  either  of  antient  or  modern  times,  where  so  great  a  num- 
ber of  edifices,  and  occupying  so  great  an  extent, 
combined  into  one  regular  and  symmetrical  plan  ;  and  our 
admiration  is  still  increased  when  we  consider  that  it  v.as 
•ary  not  only  to  erect  the  building,  but  absolutely  to 
build  a  place  for  it  to  stand  on.' 

Circular  plans  for  temples  are  peculiar  to  the  Romans, 
and  occasion  a  diversity  of  character  not  to  be  met  with  in 
those  of  the  Greeks.  Besides  the  two  simplest  forms,  the 
monopteral  and  peripteral,  which  have  been  shown  above, 
there  were  other  varieties  and  combinations.  For  a 
notice  of  some  of  them  we  refer  to  ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE 
(p.  73). 

Instead  of  entering  into  formal  descriptions  of  particular 
temples,  we  subjoin  a  synopsis  with  accompanying  ren 
Some  of  (lie  measurements  and  other  particulars  stated  in 
it    may  not  exactly  accord  with  other  accounts   of  the 
-tract nms  ;    for  so   great  is  frequently  the  di-,- 
••icy  between  different  authorities,  whether  write 
delineators  and  restorers,  that  it  is  impossible  to  obtain 
complete  accuracy. 


T  i:  \i 


T  E  M 


TABLE 

OP   .SOMB   OF  TH 

K  PRINCIPAL  GKKKK  AND  ROHAN  TKMTM 

At  In 

ion 

Doric- 

II.                                     '.  willi  1'J  inti-reohu:' 

Parthenon 

Doric 

-      :al,  IOOX--                 :    'inn-,  and 

1'n'pylaea 

Hi-                               lioMt.-.  with  w  iuirs  of  a  smaller  order,  at 

lt-3  in   u,->:   fii.iit.      I  I'AKTHKNiiN  —  Plan.]      Miicsic: 

» 

ihthcion 

Hi-vi-Hi                               ust   end,  with  a  Mra-tvle,   dii 

(( 

Panopg 

Ionic 

\    well-known    example,    though   no 

.  ed  by  the  Turks  since  Sti. 

time. 

Niki-  A)i' 
JupiterOlym- 
pius 

Ionic 
i  '.-iiuthian 

Tetra^hle.  amphiprostyle.     Recently  explored,  and  since  rebuilt, 
style,  peripteral,  columns  W  feet  hiirh.  !XJXi">!)  I'eit.   Kin 
by  a  petlbolus.     A  Human  work  originally  he<nm  in  the  tiin- 

Pi-i^lmtus,  continued  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  com]:' 

by  Hadrian. 

Doric 

iiare  Iniildinp;  of  about  180  feet  OH  each  side,  with  a  <!<•. 

stjle  coliinnade  loiuiin^  the 

Ictinus  ;  colonnade  addrd  1  \   Pliilo,  architect,  about  :f!."i 

" 

Propylaeum 

Doric 

IIe\asl\le  on   both   fronts,    with   inner   Ionic   order   as   . 
5(1  X  00    feet.      A     second    and    smaller    propvlrra    within 

peribolus.  distyle  in  :mti<.    See  •  1                   '.iitiijiiities  of  A'' 

ui  ihe.-,e  buildii:  >  now  remain. 

Thoricus. 

•     •      •     • 

Doric 

.  or  with  seven  columns  at  each  end.  and  four- 

tn                                No  cella  remaining;  b-  1 

n  a  double  temple,  with  a  passage  through  the  centie,  1'ioiu 

the  side-,  dividintr  the  eclla  into  two. 

Hhainiuis 

Nemesis 

Doric 

11,  \astyle,  peripteral,  11  intercolumtis  on  sides,  33x70  feet. 

Themis,       or 

Done 

Distyle  in  antis. 

mp. 

of  Nemesis 

jEgina 

Jupiter    Pan- 
hellenius 

Doric 

Hexastyle.   peripteral,  hypsethral,  41  X  00  feet.     '1 
celebrated  for  its  polychromy  and  sculpture                     .tan  ,Mm- 

bles  . 

Olympia 

Jupiter  Olym- 

pills 

Doric 

11.  \ast\le.  jieripteral,  hypaptliral,  95  X  230  feet.     Completed  about 
i.i")  B.C.    Libon,  architect. 

Bassffi 

Apollo     Kpi- 
ius 

Doric 

Hexastyle,  peript(  ,al,liypn.'thral.  I7xli"i  feet.  Date  about  4*)  in. 
Icii'ius.  architect.    In  interior.  Ionic  columns. 

tegea 

Ath 

Ionic 

Peripteral.  h\  pivthral.     Doric  internally;    with  upper  Corinthian 

order.     Scopas,  architect. 

Nemea 

Jupiter 

Doric 

Hexastyle.  peripteral. 

Mil 

JNA-GH*CIA  AND  SICILY. 

turn 

Neptune 

Doric 

Hexa-tyle,  periptenil,  hypa-thral.  7!»X  l!l.'. 

Doric 

HexasUle.  peripteral,  -17  x  107  feet,     f  P.KSTAN  Ai«  un  F<TI  KK.] 

Agrigentum 

Jupiter  Olym- 
pius 

Doric 

Apteral,  or  with  engaged  columns.  e])t;ist\le.  Is-Jx3(iti  -. 
•!•  description,   see   AC;HM;KMTM.       \Vilkins,  in  Ins  n  -toiatio'i 

of  it,  makes  this  temple  licxastyle  amphiprostyle. 

M 

Juno  Lueina 

Hexastyle,  peripteral.  ">7X  I-H  feet. 

(  'oin 

Doric 

II.-v;!~iyle  peripterid,  81XB8                   i>  pronaos  and  opisthodo- 

,, 

Doric 

Hexa-tvlc.  iicripteral.  7'1X  I'.Kl  fc.-t.    All  the  external  eolumr 

find  :                   .  l)iit  no  reuiainv  of  cella. 

Selinua 

Ortastyle,  dipteral,    Hii)  x  :cto   feet,     lln-re  are  remains   of  ii\e 

other   temples,  two    of  which  appear  to   ha\e   been   hexi. 

peni- 

Minerva 

Doric 

•it\le.  l:t  interrolnnins  on  sides  :  now  converted  into  a  church 

with  a  modern  Italian  Corinthian  facade. 

i  ATIC  GREEK. 

Kpheius 

Diana 

Ionic 

Decastyle,  dipteral,  hypaethral  ;   column                                'f  the 
Ian-.      Q         -i  temples,  ln-inir  23>  X  42                          hon  and 

Mel                          .-hitect-.       Date  about   .'HO  Il.C. 

tun 

IJo     Didy- 

Ionic 

:.  Kit  X  :!<>:!  feet.     Columns  !)J  dia- 

t.     A  peritx 

IIcrmi'L-i'iu-s,  architect. 

Minervar 

Ionic 

Ib   ..                                                                                                            about  :mt 

ionic.     This  temple 

ha  !                                          :m:  the  latter  tetrastyle,  with  two 
rows  ol'Mjuare  pillars  within. 

T  E  M                                 185 

T 

E  M 

ASIATIC  GREEK. 

Teos 
Samoa 

Bacchus 
Juno 

Ionic 
Ionic 

Hexastyle,  peripteral.     Hermogenes, 
Alexander  the  Great. 
Decastyle,  dipteral  ;   189  x  346  feet 

architect  ; 

about  the  time  of 

ROMAN. 


Rome 

Concord 

Ionic 

Hexasfyle.    Appears  to  have  been  a  diprostyle,  but  nothing  of  the 

cella  remains. 

i* 

FoitunaVirilis 

Ionic 

Tetrastyle,  diprostyle,  cella  pseudo-peripteral  ;  about  24  X  44  feet. 

»» 

Jupiter  and 

Corinthian 

Two  separate  temples,  alongside  each  other,  in  centre  of  a  colon- 

Juno 

naded  peribolus.     Similar  in  dimensions,  but  the  one  octastyle, 

peripteral  ;  the  other  octastyle,  diprostyle.     Erected  by  Metellus 
Macedonicus,  about  140  B.C.     No  remains  ;   but  the  authority  is 

the  antient  plan  of  Rome  in  the  capitol. 

*f 

Jupiter  Stator 

Corinthian 

Supposed   to   have   been   octastyle,   peripteral.      The   celebrated 

'  Three  Columns,'  in  the  Forum,  are  all  that  now  remain  of  this 

very  fine  example. 

M 

Jupiter  Tonans 

(  'oiinthian 

Octastyle,  dipteral  ;    92  x  115  feet.     Columns  47  feet  high. 

M 

Mars  Ultor 

Corinthian 

Of  this  temple,  sometimes  called  that  of  Nerva,  only  three  columns 

remaining;  but  it  is  said  to  have  been  octastyle,  peripteral. 

»1 

Venus  and 
Koma 

Corinthian 

Decastyle,   pseudo-peripteral,  enclosed    within  a  peribolus  formed 
by    double    colonnades    of    a   lesser    order.     [ROMAN   ARCHI- 

TECTURE, p.  74.] 

»» 

Antoninus  and 

Corinthian 

Hexastyle,  triprostyle  ;  33  X  55  feet. 

Faustina 

_ 

Pmntheoa 

Corinthian 

An  octastyle,  triprostyle,  attached  to  a  rotunda.     [PANTHEON.] 

)» 

Vesta 

Corinthian 

A  circular  peripteral  of  20  columns. 

[For  further  description,  and  an  account  of  other  temples  at 

Rome,  see  ROME,  p.  93.  &c.] 

Tivoli 

Ve-ta,  or  the 

Corinthian 

A  circular  peripteral,  of  18  columns  around  cella.     The  order  a 

Prjeneste 

Sibyl 

Fortuna 

very  peculiar  and  fine  example.     [ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE.] 
No  remains  of  this  celebrated  temple  itself:   but   merely  of  the 

series  of  terraces  and  flights  of  steps  on  which  it  was  elevated. 

Pompeii 

Jupiter 

Corinthian 

Hexastyle.  tctraprostyle  ;  about  50  X  110  feet. 

-NiMH'", 

MaixmCarn'e, 

Corinthian 

Hexastyle.  tripiostyle  ;  order  continued  along  the  cella,  malting  it 

or  Temple  of 

a  pseudo-peripteral  ;  38  X  77  feet.     [NisMEs.] 

Cains       and 

Lucius 

H.I.  i.: 

Great  Temple 

Corinthian 

Decastyle,  peripteral  ;   ICO  X  290  feet.     [BAALBEC.] 

. 

Lesser  Temple 

(  'ui  lal!li:ill 

Octastyle,  peripteral  ;    118X225  feet.     [BAAI.HKC.] 

Palmyra 

Helios,  or  the 

Corinthian 

Octastylc.  peripteral  :   !I5  X   ISO  feet.     Enclosed  within  a  peribolus 

Sun 

about    740   feet   square,    formed    by    an    outer   wall    and    two 

ranges   of  Corinthian    columns,    making   a   double   colonnade. 

[PALMYRA.] 

The  above  table  might  be  rendered  more  copious  and 
greatly  extended  :  and  it  might  also  have  been  differently- 
arranged  in  several  ways,  each  of  which  would  have  had 
something  to  recommend  it,  according  to  the  purpose  for 
which  it  may  happen  to  be  consulted.  Chronological 
order,  for  instance,  if  the  respective  dates  could  be  : 
tained  with  tolerable  accuracy,  may  be  considered  prefer- 
able by  some  persons  ;  or  the  buildings  might  have  been 
clBMtfted  according  to  the  number  of  columns  in  front, 
and  as  being  in  iittti*.  /u->n/i//i'.  ja-rijilfrnl,  Ste. ;  or  else 
according  to  their  relative  size  and  dimensions.  In  fact  a 
separate  table  is  required  for  each  mode  of  classification 
and  arrangement ;  but  as  that  could  not  be  done,  we  have 
adopted  what  we  consider  the  must  satisfactory  upon  the 
whole.  We  may  however  render  it  in  some  measure  more 
complete  by  here  pointing  out  that  the  (/«•«.*////>•  examples 
mentioned  m  it  are  the  Temple-  of  .Jupiter,  Athens;  Diana, 
Ephesns;  Apollo,  Miletus:  Juno.  S:mn^:  \enns  and 
Roma,  Rome  :  and  the  great  temple  at  BAALHEC.  As 
regards  dimensions  and  relative  size,  the  following  arc  the 
largest  structures,  viz. : — 

Wi.llti  of  Kiimt.        I<.n-(li. 

Ephesns  .  .  .  2'20  feet  42.-.  1'eet. 

Agrigentum,  Great  Temple  182  :«;ii 

Selimis,  Great  Temple     .  ICO  :):)() 

\  eiins  and  Roma  .  IKi  :t.Vi 

Athens,   Parthenon  .  100  22H 

Temple  of  Jupiter  .        .      'M  liv.) 

By  way  of  affording  a  standard  of  comparison,  we  add  the 
dimensions ol  St.  Paul's.  London,  and  La  Madeleine,  at  Paris, 
viz.:  the  former,  lHobv">iK>;  the  other  138  by  328  feet. 

TKMPLK,  SOLOMON'S.     For  4-17  yearn  lifter  the  II.  - 
brew*  had  entered  the  land  of  Canaan  they  continued  to 
P.  C.,  No.  1511. 


worship  at  the  tabernacle  which  had  been  framed  for  their 
use  in  the  Wilderness.  The  incongruity  of  n  settled  people 
having  only  a  tent  for  the  celebration  of  their  splendid 
ritual  service  first  occurred  to  the  mind  of  David.  It  ap- 
peared unseemly  to  him  that  the  Ark  of  God  should  still 
•dwell  between  curtains,'  while  he  abode  himself  in  '  a 
house  of  cedar,'  and  he  therefore  proposed  to  build  a 
temple  in  which  the  worship  of  God  might  be  more  be- 
comingly conducted  (I  dhruii.,  xvii.  1).  The  prophet 
Nathan  "was  however  commissioned  to  inform  him  that 
having  been  engaged  in  constant  warfare,  and  shed  much 
human  blood,  he  could  not  be  allowed  to  execute  the 
design  he  had  formed,  which  was  to  be  reserved  for  the 
peaceful  reign  of  his  son  Solomon.  This  undertaking  was 
however  a  principal  subject  of  David's  thought  and  care 
during  the  remainder  of  his  reign  ;  and  to  it  he  appro- 
priated a  large  proportion  of  the  immense  treasure  which 
ins  many  victories  produced.  He  may  be  said  to  have 
provided  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  materials  before  his  death  ; 
consisting  of  large  but  variously  estimated  quantities  of 
gold  and  silver,  brass  and  iron,  stone  and  timber.  He  also 
secured  the  services  of  skilful  mechanics  and  artificers  for 
every  branch  of  the  work,  and  furnished  the  design,  plan, 
and  site  of  the  building  ;  so  that  more  of  the  credit  of  this 
work  seems  due  to  David  than  to  Solomon  (1  C'/iron.,  xxi.; 
xxii.;  xxviii.  11-19). 

The  foundation  of  the  Temple  was  laid  in  B.C.  1012, 
being  the  fourth  year  of  Solomon's  reign  ;  and  in  seven 
and  a  half  it  was  completed.  During  this  time 
IKi.lKMt  persons  were  employed  on  the  work.  Of  Jews 
there  were  IKUXK)  scrung  by  rotation  of  10,000  monthly; 
and  of  Canaanites  there  Were  153,G(K),  of  whom  70,000 
were  labourers,  80,000  hewers  of  wood  and  stone,  and 

Vol.  XXIV.— 2  B 


M 


T  i:  M 


3GOO  overseers  of  the  others.    To  save  the  labour  . 
riage,  the  ports  were  all  prepared  foi 

tin-  rite  nf  the  building,  ami  when  they  \veie  brought  to- 
gether, the  structure  •  <l  without  the  sound  of 
hammers,  axes,  or  tools  of  iron  1  AY 

To  furnish  a  i.  i  of  Solomon's  tt'iniilo  from  the 

materinls  whie-h  hiu.'  n-aelud  IK,  even  if  \ve  take  in  the 
ideal  temple  of  K/ekiel,  \vhieh  is  com-cive-d  tn  lie  framed 
on  (he  same  model,  would  require  such  a  eonihiniitiou  of 
real  architectural  knowledge  with  deep  Hihlical  learning 
as  have  perhaps  never  been  combined  ia  any  one  \ 
Hence  all  the  descriptions  \\liv-h  have  been  ileihur-d  from 
such  materials  ililt'er  greatly  from  one  another.  These  only 
claim  our  confidence  in  the  points  in  which  all,  or  nearly 
all,  of  them  agree  :  for  such  points  of  agreement  appear  to 
ciub.idy  all  the  real  information  which  ha*  hitherto  been 
collected  fii'in  llu-  text.  There  are  however  materials  of 
comparison  nnd  illustration,  which,  taken  along  with  the 
text,  might  furnish  some  clearer  notions  than  ha. 
been  realized  in  a  mailer  which  circumstances  have  in- 
\e--te-elwith  considerable  interest.  1.  It  would  be  ceuisi- 
!  that  the  temple  was  on  the  same  essential  plan  as 
the  tabernacle,  di'f'cring  chiefly  in  materials,  extent,  and 
in  additions  to  the  enclosure".  2.  Reference  would  be 
made  to  other  ant  lent  Oriental  temples,  of  which  we  know 
more,  nnd  especially  to  those  of  Egypt,  some  of  which  are 
in  sufficient  preservation  to  allow  their  relative  parts  and 
proportions  to  he  clearly  understood.  And  in  this  regard  it 
will  be  seen  that  those"  plans  of  the  temple  which  appear 
most  in  agreement  with  the  text  otter  the  most  striking  ana- 
logies to  Kgyptian  temples  Csee  the  chapter  -An  Kgyptian 
Temple.'  vol.  i.,  pp.  li'J-127,  of  '  Kiryptian  Antiquiti 
Library  nf  Knli'rtiiiiiiin:  Kn«n  And  although  it 

is  probable  that,  from  the  friendly  relations  which  Solomon 
had  already  established  with  Egypt,  Kgyptian  as  well  as 
Phoenician  artist*  supplied  the  artistic,  labour  for  the  temple 
in  which  the  Hebrews  were  themselves  deficient,  such 
analogies  need  not  be  necessarily  traced  to  imitation,  but 
to  similar  conditions  and  circumstances  producing  similar 
results.  The  popular  notion  of  a  temple,  as  a  vast  pile  of 
building  in  which,  as  in  our  cathedrals,  large  multitudes 
might  assemble  for  worship  under  cover,  does  not  in  these 
apply.  A  temple  was  a  large  area,  enclosed  by  a 
wall,  and  laid  out  in  courts,  where  the  crowds  worshipped 
and  where  sacrifices  were  offered ;  and  in  colonnades 
around  th.  where  the  worshippers  might  walk  or 

tind  shelter  from  the  sun  or  rain.     Apartment*  for  the  nu- 
ns officiating  priests,  and  chambers   for   stores    and 
treasure-,  also  increased  the  display  of  building  within  and 
around    the    enclosing  walls.      The    cacrcd    editiee    itself, 
being  only  intended  to  contain  the  sacred  symbo!- 
being  entered  only  by  the   prie.sts   for  particular  services, 
never   lartre;    but   what  it   wanted   in  .-i/e  was  made 
up  ir  :i:itciials  and   splendour  of  workmanship. 

:-  npply  equally  to  the  temples  of  Jerusalem  and 
of   Kg>  pt  ;  and  in  both  Hie  saeved   building  was  divided 
into  three  ]»rts,  which  were  in  Solomon's  temple  called 
the  Porch,  the  Holy  1'lace,  and  the  Most  Holy  Place,  an- 
,ree  to  the  porch,  the  nave,  and  the 
i  i  an  churches,  the  parts  of  which  were  indeed 

.••eil  originally  with  an  intended  reference  to  those  of 
the  JcwUh  temple.  Even  Hie  pillars  called  .laehin  and 
lion/,  whieh  Solomon  <-ct  up  at  the  porch,  find  analogies 
in  the  obelisks  which  the  Kgyptians  placed  in  a  corre- 
spuii  '.IITC  of  illiistratiuti  is 

offered  ill  the  more  ample  description  which  is  given  by 
Joseplms  Hi  Herod's  temple-  :  lor  although  that  appears  to 
liare  bi-en  architecturally  a  gre-ate-r  nnd  more  imposing 
fiibric  than  that  of  Solomon,  there  is  no  doubt  that  i!  had 
the  same  |>aits  and  that  they  were  similarly  proportioned 
to  each  other.  4.  The  antient  Christian  "churches  also 
offer  som  *  of  arrangement,  which  claim  to  be 

considered  when  viewed  :is  intended  retrospects  of  the 
Jewish  temple.  Among  the  plans  of  antient  churches 
given  in  ( 'iilemaii  A/I/II/.  i<f  t/ii>  Chnnlinn  Church,  Anelo- 
ver.  I'.  S..  ls||  ,  that  of  the  church  at  Tyre  affords  sonic 
remarkable  illustrations. 

The  site  of  Solomon's  Temple  was  the  summit  of  Mount 
Moriah.  one  of  the  eminences  on  which  .Jerusalem 
This  eminence  rose  to  no  great  height  within  the  city,  but 
wan  high  and  st  .1  the  Kedron.  wliich  it 

overlooked.  It  tared  (he  Mount  of  Olives.  The  Mo^ne  ul 
Omar  now  occupy,  the  same  sile;  and  the  imposing  figure- 


which  it  makes  in  eveiy  view  of  Jer  'hat  a 

.ulvautageoiu  situation  could  not  I  ....    been  <  ! 
The  top  of  the  In  ..ml  the  sides  banked  up  to 

afford  a  sufficient  area.     This  area  was  divided   into 
fbnt    in  Herod's  temple  tin. 

which   stood   the  people.      1  wall 

(or,  as  sonic  think,  by  a  latticed 
inner  court,   called  the  i'ouit  of  the  1'iiests,   in  wind 

.  at  altar  of  burnt  offerings,  and  where  the  | 
I.evites  officiated  in  view  of  the  people,  and  ill  front  ol  the 
holy  house,  or  proper  temple.    The  proper  temp 
viouuly  indicated,  was  an  oblong  building.    It  wa-~0  cubits 
in  length, 20  in  width,  nnd  30in  height  :  tin  how- 

>D  of  the  house  or  holy  place,  for  the 

innermost  sanctuary  was  but  20  cubits  high  1  Kii/f;x,\\. 
20);  and  although  the  poich  i-  said,  in  1  Ohron.,  iii.  -t.  to 
have  been  120  cubits  hiirh,  or  four  times  the  height  of  the 
main  buildinir,  the  numbers  in  that  text  are  now  generally 
admitted  to  be  corrupted  :  211  cubit-,  which  we  find  in  the 
antient  versions,  is  probably  the  tine  number:  being  the 
same  height  as  the  sanctuary.  The  porch  covered  the 
breadth  ot  the  building  20  cubits,  and  was  10  cubits  deep: 
the  holy  place  was  -JO  cubits  leing  by  20  wide- :  and  the 
sanctuary  was  a  perfect  square  of  2O  cubits.  The  building 
fronted  the  east.  Along  the  north  and  south  sides,  and 
the  west  end  of  the  structure,  wi  •!  certain  Imilcl- 

•  ailed   'side    chambers,'   in    tlin  each   five 

cubits  high.    This  made  15  cubits  of  total  elevation,  which 
•it  more  than  half  the  height  of  the  main  building,  in 
whose   walls,   above,    there    was    therefore    room    for    the 
splayed  windows  which  gave  light  to  the  temple. 

The  sacred  utensils  were  of  the    same  description  and 
occupied  the  same  relative  position  as  in  the  tabernacle  : 
but    some   of  them   were   larger,   as  the  altnr,  candle -1 
Sec.,  in  proportion  to  the  more  extensive  establishment  to 
which  they  belonged.     The  principal  of  the  new  uu 
was  the  great  brazen  laver  for  ablutions,  wliich  rested  on 
the  hacks  of  twelve  oxen  of  the  same  metal. 

The  inner  sanctuary  was  separated  from  the  holy  place. 
by  a  rich  curtain  or  veil.  The  whole  of  the  interior  was 
wainscoted  with  cedar,  carved  with  figures  of  cherubim, 
palm-trees,  and  flowers,  and  then  overlaid  with  the  ; 
gold.  The'  doors  were  also  covered  with  gold  :  all  the 
utensils  in  the  house  were  of  that  metal;  and  even  tin- 
floor  appeals  to  hn\c  been  overlaid  with  it  1  Kmif.v, 
vi.  30,>.  It  is  this  lavish  expenditure  of  precious  metal 
upon  the  building,  and  the  elaborate  workmanship  be- 
stowed upon  it.  which,  rather  than  its  a.-chitectnral  effect, 
.nts  for  the  reports  of  its  surpassing  magnificence, 
and  for  the  immense'  wealth  consumed  in  its  erection. 
The  popular  impression  concerning  it,  however.  I 
based  rather  upon  the  exaggerated  statements  of  .loscphns 
than  upon  the  more  sober  in  Scripture,  dec 

doubt,  greatly  exceed  the  truth.     More  might  be  said  of 

ime.s  "than   of  its    grandeur,      its  wealth   is    i> 
attested   by  the   spoliations   of  knu-s   and  con- 

querors; and    it    may  be  well  to  remember  that  thi- 
not,  as  in  other  notions,  one1  of  many  temples,  but  was  the 
iiiple  nf  the   whole  nation,  mid  in  the1  production  of 
which  the  whole  nation  could  therefore  concentrate  its 

The  Temple  of  Solomon  retained  its  pristine  splendour 
only  for  for  hen   its  treasures  were  plundered  by 

Shi-s'iiak,   king  of   Kg\  pt.      After  undergoing  various  other 
profanations     and    pillages,    it     was   finally   d, 
the-    < 'Imlda'iiiis    under    Nc-bnchachie/^ar,    n.r.    ."'•'-•,   aller 
having  stood    117  yeais.      Aller  the  ( 'aplivily,  the  temple 
built,   on   tin-   same'   plan,   and  cm  a  more   extensive 
•eatly  diminished  splendour.     This  temple 
stood    until    some   u  :ir-   befoie  tin'  birth  of  ChiM,   when 
Herod   the'  f«re:d.  to  propitiate  his  subjects,  whom  ni 
the  in  icign  bad  tended  to  exasperate',  un- 

dertook to  rebuild  it  on  a  larger-  M  ale-  iind  with  greater 
magnificence.  In  nine  years,  during  which  Mi.UKi  work- 
men were-  constantly  employed,  l»-  ae-e-e>m|i!ishcd  his  oii- 
ginal  design;  and  produced  a  fabiir,  which,  while-  the 
same-  in  ils  essential  chai  !  the 

Temple  of  Solomon  in  e-vte-ni  and  architecture,  although 
the  precious  metal  may  have1  been  less  1a\i-hl\  e!isp|:iy(.(| 
in  the1  interior  <'.•  •  Main  \  the  Jews 

kept  weiil,me-n  employee!    in    cm1"  rd  in 

tin-  e-re'e-lion  of  additional  buildings  (Jnfin,  ii.  20).  In 
A.D.  64,  nothing  remained  to  he  done,  and  the-  elismi  --al  at 


T  E  M 


187 


T  E  M 


once  of  18,000  workmen  excited  some  alarm  for  the  parl 
they  might  take  in  the  troubles  which  had  already  com- 
menced, and  which,  a  few  years  after,  brought  upon  the 
nation  the  armies  of  Rome  under  Vespasian  and  Titus, 
and  involved  the  temple  and  city  of  Jerusalem  in  one 
common  ruin,  A.D.  70. 

TEMPLE,  SIR  WILLIAM,  an  eminent  statesman,  di- 
plomatist, and  writer,  was  born  at  Blackfriars,  in  London, 
in  the  year  1628,  and  was  the  eldest  son  of  Sir  John 
Temple,  who  was  Master  of  the  Rolls  in  Ireland,  and 
author  of  a  History  of  the  Irish  Rebellion  which  began  in 
1641.  He  was  educated  first  by  his  uncle,  Dr.  Henry 
Hammond,  a  learned  divine  and  zealous  royalist,  and  was 
afterwards,  on  his  uncle  being  turned  out  of  his  living  by 
the  parliament,  sent  to  a  school  at  Bishop-Stortford,  and, 
at  the  age  of  seventeen,  to  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge, 
where  the  celebrated  Cudworth  was  his  tutor.  He  is  said 
by  his  sister,  Lady  Giffard,  who  wrote  a  memoir  of  him,  to 
have  passed  a  gay  idle  life  at  Cambridge,  and,  after  having 
been  there  about  two  years,  he  went  away  without  a  de- 
gree. He  then  went  abroad,  and  having  spent  two  years 
in  France,  and  visited  Holland,  Flanders,  and  Germany, 
he  returned  to  England,  skilled  in  the  French  and  Spanish 
languages.  As  he  was  about  to  start  on  his  travels,  he 
met,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  the  young  lady  to  whom,  after 
many  delays  and  difficulties,  arising  out  of  want  of  fortune 
and  the  opposition  of  the  friends  of  both,  he  was  eventually 
united.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Sir  Peter  Osborne,  a 
devoted  adherent  of  Charles  I.,  and  a  great  sufferer  by  his 
devotion  :  letters  of  hers  which  are  preserved  show  her  to 
have  been  a  very  superior  woman  :  she  remained  faithful 
to  Temple  through  a  long  engagement,  amid  many  and 
frreat  discouragements,  and  at  last,  after  the  death  of  her 
lather,  and  after  six  years'  waiting,  they  were  married  in 
1(J54.  It  appears  that,  among  many  offers  which  she  re- 
jected for  Temple,  was  one  from  Henry  Cromwell. 

Temple  was  trained  to  no  profession,  though  his  father 


plishcd  in  July,  1067,  by  the  treaty  of  Breda,  which  how- 
ever Temple  had  no  part  in  negociating,  and  the  mode  of 
bringing  about  which  he  had  not  altogether  approved  of. 
In  1066  Temple's  services  had  been  rewarded,  without  any 
solicitation  on  his  part,  by  a  baronetcy. 

In  the  close  of  the  year  1667  Temple  received  orders 
from  Arlington  to  repair  to  the  Hague,  to  negociate  a 
treaty  against  France,  and  for  the  protection  of  the  Spanish 
Netherlands  from  that  power ;  and  by  his  energy,  judg- 
ment, and  address  the  celebrated  Triple  Alliance  was  con- 
cluded on  the  23rd  of  January,  1668.  England,  Holland, 
and  Sweden  bound  themselves  bv  this  alliance  to  bring 
about  peace  between  France  and  Spain,  and  to  prevent 
France  from  entering  the  Low  Countries.  Temple  had 
thus  achieved  an  object  which  he  had  had  at  heart,  even 
before  the  treaty  of  Breda,  so  favourable  to  French  views, 
a  blow  to  the  ambition  of  Louis  XIV.  The  successful 
conclusion  of  this  treaty  established  Temple's  diplomatic 
fame,  and  was  of  the  first  importance  to  England  and 
Europe. 

Temple  was  next  appointed  ambassador  at  Aix,  where 
the  negotiations  for  peace  between  France  and  Spain,  in 
pursuance  of  the  Triple  Alliance,  were  to  be  earned  on. 
On  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  Aix,  he  was  appointed 
ambassador  at  the  Hague.  Hero  he  continued,  carrying 
out  the  policy  of  the  Triple  Alliance,  till  September,  1070, 
when  a  complete  change  having  been  silently  worked  in 
the  councils  of  Charles  II.,  and  the  celebrated  secret  treaty 
'laving  been  made  with  France,  Temple  was  ordered  home, 
found  himself  on  his  arrival  in  England  no  longer  in  the 
confidence  of  Arlington,  and  in  the  summer  of  1071  was 
dismissed  from  his  post.  There  was  a  rumour  that  Temple's 
lismissal  had  been  made  a  condition  by  the  French  go- 
vernment. (Temple's  Works,  ii.,  179.)  He  now  retired  to 
Sheen,  and  meditated  never  again  returning  to  public  life, 
saying  that  '  he  had  been  long  enough  in  courts  and  public 
business  to  know  a  great  deal  of  the  world  and  of  himself, 


was  poor,  independently  of  his  appointment  as  Master  of  j  and  to  find  that  they  were  not  made  for  one  another.' 


the  Rolls  in  Ireland,  and  when  deprived  of  this  lor  some 
vcars  during  the  civil  wars,  was  exceedingly  hampered  in 
Iiis  finances.  Sir  John  Tempi;  to  this  ap- 

pointment in  1653,  the  year  before  his  son's  marriage  ;  and 
his  sun,  after  his  marnajr  with  him  in  lr> 

Under  his  father's  roof  hi  Dublin,  or  in  a  country-seat  in 
the  county  of  Carluw,  Temple  pa.-^ed  ii\c  years,  which 


During  this  retirement  Temple  devoted  himself  to  gar- 
dening, the  improvement  of  his  house  at  Sheen,  and  litera- 
ture, and  published  several  of  the  works  on  which  his  repu- 
tation as  a  writer  rests  ;  among  them,  the  '  Observations 
upon  the  United  Provinc-cs,'  published  in  1672.  Temple 
was  summoned  however  from  nis  literary  retirement  in  the 
summer  of  1074,  to  conclude  the  second  Dutch  war,  and 


were  divided  between  literary  pursuits  and  county  busi-    he  obeyed  the  summons.     He  was  on  the  jpoint  of  starting 

and  which  were  marked"  by  the  birth  and  death  of  for  the  Hague,  as  envoy  and  plenipotentiary  for  this  pur- 
iive  children.  In  1UOO  Temple  was  chosen,  without  soli-  ,  pose,  when  the  Spanish  ambassador  in  London  rccchcd 
citation  or  even  previous  knowledge,  member  of  the  Irish  full  power  to  negociate  there,  and  in  three  days  the  treaty 

._*: _i>  il.  _  i  ..    j* .  ..    i  1  .    i  .          L-  t  •        1      _  _  ..I'll'         .         '         j  1        l        1  T* 1  _    _  (i-  I 


convention  of  that  year  for  the  county  of  Carlow. 

After  the  Restoration  he  \\;  >'  for  the  same 


of  Westminster  was  concluded.     Temple  was  now  offered 
the  embassy  to  Spain,  which,  at  his  father's  wish,  he  re- 


county  in  the  first  regular  parliament,  that  was  called  :  he     fused.      He  was  very  soon  after  appointed  again  to  the 

l._  .1  l. .      i-   i  K    _   ,•        l  :     ~  _i»_-  ..  T    _  in      .  Ti  i  i i; ...in 


had  his  father  for  his  colleague,  and  a  younger  brother  was 
member  for  the  city  of  Carlow.  He  appears  to  have  been 
a  very  active  and  useful  member  of  parliament.  In  July, 
1001,  he  was  one  of  the  commissi'iucis  sent  to  wait  on  the 
king,  and  urge  several  measures  affecting  the  intere 
Ireland.  On  the  prorogation  of  the  parliament  in  1003, 
Temple  went  to  reside  in  Knijland.  He  carried  an  intro- 
duction from  the  duke  of  Ormond  to  Lord  Arlington,  secre- 


.  as  ambassador  extraordinary,  and  the  uevt  year 
ambassador  to  the  congress  at  Nimcgucn.  The  peace  of 
Ximegueii,  concluded  in  the  beginning  of  1679,  ill  carried 
out  the  views  which  Temple  assiduously  laboured  to  esta- 
blish, and  he  was  glad  to  avail  himself  of  a  point  of  form 
for  the  purpose  of  withholding  his  signature  to  the  treaty. 
Temple  now  returned  to  England  to  receive  an  offer  of 
the  post  of  secretary  of  state,  which  he  refused,  lie  was 


tary  of  state,  who  conceh  ed  a  great  fondue. -s  lor  him,  and  much  consulted  by  the  king,  who  had  just  lost  the  services 

procured  him  to  be  appointed,  in  Ki'i".  of  Lord  Danby  :  and  in  the  ministerial  difficulties  which 

to  the  bishop  of  Minister.     The  object  of  this  mis-ion  was  followed  upon  Danby 's  impeachment  and  committal,  Tem- 

'•h  over  an  invasion  by  the  bishop  of  VJ  pie  submitted  to  the  kin"  a  plan  of  a  council,  which  the 

"which  England,  then  at  war  king  adopted:    not  always  following  Temple's   opinions 

with  the  Dutch,  had  guarantei  .1  ;  and  though  however  as  to  the  peisons  of  whom  it  should  be  composed, 

the  bishop,  who  bad  made  I  lie  first  achane  and.  above  all,  in  defiance  of  his  advice,  placing  Lord 

went  off  from  hi  it.  and.  in  fear  of  France,  con-  Shafteslmry  at  the  head  of  it.     This  council  was  not  long- 


matic   employment,   that  he  wa.s  appointed  i:i  the 


year,  through  Lord  Arlington's  influence,  ::t  the 

at  liinssels  for  two  years  presents  no 
iar  interest.     It  was  his  bnsine-s  at  fust  to 
neutrality  of  Spain   in  the  Dutch  war,  and 
.•1  understanding  between  Spain 
lo  a  treaty  which  was  then  ! 
'  which  nevei'  i •; 

nit  peace  with  the  United  Pro- 
vinces and  Mice.     This  last  object  was  accom- 


learning  and  rural  pursuits.     He  now  composed  his  'Me- 


moirs.'    He  died  oil  the  27th  January,  1699".     No  particu- 

f  his  death  have  been  transmitted  to  us. 
After  the  Revolution  of  loss,  Sir  William  Temple  re- 
fused office  from  William  III.,  who  was  very  anxious  for 
his  coim-rl   and   for  tlie  authority  of  his  name,     lint  his 
son,  \\ith  his  permission,  accepted  the  plaee  of  secretary  at 
nd  within  a  week  after  committed  suicide. 
:h"i.  ii^  statesman  nor  as  author  does  Sir  William 
Temple  occupy  a  foremost  place;  but  in  both  characters 

'  .1'  ,.1_U1..  rl'l  „     :_     _    , 


he  is  more  than  respectable. 


The  following  is  \\  happy 
2B2 


TEN 


•r  i-:  N 


,.ti..n.  hj  Sir  James  Mackiuto-h.  of  his  character  as 
diplomat)-!    and    .-late-man.      'lie   was  a   mu-t    admirable 
pcisou.      lie  seems  to  be  the  model  of  a   negotiator,  unit- 
ing  politeness  and  address  to  honesty.     Hi-   men: 
donit  i.in    is  also   very   great:  in  an  age  c 

ticnii  attached   In   liberty,   and    .  from 

endangering  the  public  quiet.     1'eihaps  diplomatic  habits 
had  smoothed  away   hi-  turbulence  too  much 
government    a.-   England.'  M  ifkiiit'i^h.  ii.   I'.'ii. 

Dr.  John.-on,  speaking  of  Sir  William  Temple  as  a  writer, 
has  said  that  -lie  was  the  first  writer  who  save,  cadence  to 
Kiiglish  prose.' 

There  arc  two  or  three  biographies  of  Temple;  one  by 
AIM  1  Hover,  published  about  fourteen  years  after  his  death, 
and  anoiher  by  his  si.-ter.  J.ady  (iiffard,  prefixed  to  the 
edition  of  his  works  published  in  1731,  2  vols.  follp.  A 
very  laboured  and  somewhat  diffuse  life  has  been  lately 
published  by  the  late  Mr.  Peregrine  Court  enay,  and  to  this 
work  all  who  wish  for  the  fullest  information  a.s  to  Tem- 
ple's life  will  resort.  The  best  edition  of  Temple's  works 
la  that  published  in  IS14,  in  4  vols.  Svo. 

TENACITY  (.from  the  Latin  '  tcnacitas,'  'Die  power  of 
holding'),  a  property  of  material  bodies  by  which  their 
parts  resist  an  efloit  to  force  them  asunder. 

This  property  is  a  result  of  the  corpuscular  forces  actini; 
within  the  insensible  spaces  supposed  to  exist,  between  the 
particles  of  bodies  :  it  is  consequently  different  in  different 
materials,  and  in  the  same  material  it  varies  with  the 
of  the  body  with  respect  to  temperature  and  other 
circum>tai: 

Those  corpuscular  forces  consist  of  attractions  which 
vary  according  to  unknown  laws  with  the  distances  of  the 
particles  from  one  another,  and  even  at  certain  distances 
they  become  repulsions:  but,  in  all  bodies  except  the 
elastic  fluids,  the  combined  actions  of  all  the  particles 
produce  that  coherence  which  constitutes  the  tenacity  of 
the  massscs.  In  those  fluids  the  particles  have  no  co- 
herence, and  when  the  pressures  to  which  they  are  subject 
are  removed,  those  particles  immediately  separate  from 
each  other  with  forces  depending,  probably,  upon  the 
quantity  of  caloric  with  which  they  arc  combined.  In 
non-elastic  fluids  and  in  solids,  tenacity  exist-,  but  in  very 
different  degree*;  its  force  depending  upon  differences 
in  the  intensity  of  the  attracting  powers  between  the  par- 
ticles, upon  differences  in  the  distances  of  the  particles 
themselves,  upon  the  action  of  the  calorie,  and,  in  some 
ca.sc.-,  upon  variations  in  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  molecules  of  liquids  adhere  tp  one  another,  and 
generally  to  those  of  solid  bodies,  by  attractive  forces 
which  decrease  very  rapidly ;  and,  at  insensible  distances 
from  the  supposed  places  of  contact,  the  adhesion  entirely 
disappears  [CAPILLARY  ATTRACTION]  :  the  real  tenacity  of 
the  molecules  being,  as  Dr.  Young  observes,  equal  to  the 
s  of  their  mutual  attractions  above  the  forces  of  re- 
pulsion arising  from  the  actions  of  tho  calorific  particles. 
It  is  on  account  of  the  small  distance  to  which  the  attrac- 
tions of  the  fluid  molecules  extend,  an'd  to  the  freedom 
with  which  the  particles  move  on  one  another,  that  fluids 
apjiear  to  have  so  little  tenacity;  but  from  the  weight  of 
water  whi.'h  it  supports  in  glass  tubes,  Dr.  Kobison  has 
estimated  that  the  mutual  attiactions  of  the  particles  of 
water  on  a  suifacc  equal  tu  one  square  inch  must  far  ex- 
1  190  pounds. 

•  1  du.-t.  or  sand,  while  dry,   have  no  power  of 
adhering  together,  probably  because  their   fomis  d< 
permit  a  sufficient  number  of  points  on  their  surfaces  to  be 
brought  within   the  dHanec  at  which  corpuscular  attrac- 
tions take  place;   but,  if  .-lightly  wetted,  the  mutual  atliae- 
tions  between  the   ditat    and   the   liquid   produce  a  certain 

,iy  :  this  i-  Me  in  clay  moi-lciud 

with  water:  for  being  then  drawn  into  the  form  of  a  mil, 
it  i>  capable  of  bearing  a  small  wcL-  led  fiom  it. 

Tenacity   exists  ill  various  de::  -id  tluids,  as  oil. 

gnm  dissolved  in  water,  ^c.  :   sealing-wax   and   ;'!a-- 
when  .  ir  biittlcnc.-s,  ami  aic  capab.e  (,i  be- 

ing moulded  into  any  form,  while  their  pailn 
considerable  degree  of  adhesive  pov 

•if  solids  constitute'-,  in  part,  the  subj 
the  power  of  bodiet  to  resist  strains ;  and  in  »IM.S, 

OK,  will   be  found  a  table    p.  s.  col.  -'    of  the 
its  which  would  overcome  the  Ion  ion  in 

•  enbly  lix.  nd  and  pulled  in  the  direc- 
tion of  their  length :  those  weights  may  be  considered  as 


the  measures  of  tenacity  in  the  different  kind.-  of  material  ; 
and  it  may  be  here  added  that,  from  a  mean  of  se\  end  ex- 
periments made  b)  Mr.  Tel  ford  on  the  tenacity  of  I 

the  breaking   -Ircnuth,  when   reduced   to  that  which 
it  would  be  if  tli.  i     -••  section  of   the  liars 

had   been   one   square   inch,   is  l?.i|  tons.     The 

cylinders  or  parafielopipeds  varying  in  length  from  i 

">  inches  to  12  foet  3  inches:  and  in  area  of  section,  from 
<>-.">(>  to  :}• 14  square  inches  ;  they  stretched  in  length  Horn 
'1  inches  to  4  inches  before  they  broke.  Mr.  Tel  ford  found 
also  that  a  bar  of  ca-t -steel  bore  suspended  from  it  'J7'!'2 
ton-,  a  bar  of  bli-tcrcd  steel  17''^7  tons,  and  of  cast-iron 
Welsh,  pi;;  7  -d  ton-;  the  area  of  the  section  in  all  be- 
ing one  square  inch.  Tenacity  in  solid  bodies  varies  greatly 
with  their  temperature.  M.  Coulomb  took  a  piece  of  cop- 
per-wire, which,  when  cool,  carried  ±i  11».  suspended  from 
it  :  and,  upon  brinirin<:  it  toa  white  heat.it  would 'scarcely 
bear  lUlbs. 

Though,  when  a  piece  of  metal  is  fractured,  the  parts 
will  not  by  simple  adjunction  adhere  together;  yet.  in 
some  cases,  by  hammering  them  upon  one  auotlier,  so 
many  points  on  their  surfaces  may  be  bnniirht  within  the 
limits  to  which  the  force  of  colic-ion  extends,  that  they 
will  acquire  a  tenacity  equal  to  that  which  the  metal  hud 
in  its  natural  state. 

The  tenacity  of  wood  is  much  greater  in  the  direction  of 
the  length  of  its  fibres  than  in  the  transverse  direction, 
the  fibres  bciuir  united  by  a  substance  having  little  cohe- 
sive power.  Few  experiments  have  been  made  oil  the 
tenacity  of  wood  perpendicularly  to  its  grain,  as  it  is 
called  :  and  from  those  of  Mr.  Kincrson  it  appears  to  vary 
from  one-tenth  to  one-seventh  of  the  tenacity  in  the  other 
direction.  When  a  strain  takes  place  in  the  direction  of 
the  fibres,  they  become  disengaged  from  one  another, 
and  thus  lose  the  strength  which  arises  from  their  lateral 
cohesion:  they  then  become  subject  to  separate  strains  ; 
the  weaker  ones  are  first  ruptured,  and  at  length  all  give 
way,  leaving  an  irregular  surface  of  fracture. 

With  respect  to  metals,  the  proce-scs  of  forging  and 
wire-drawing  increase  their  tenacity  in  the  longitudinal 
direction  ;  the  augmentation  of  friction  and  lateral  • 
sion,  arising  from  the  particles  bciuir  forced  together  in  the 
transverse  direction,  more  than  compensates  for  the  dimi- 
nution of  the  attraction  which  may  result  from  the  parti- 
cle- being  forced  or  drawn  farther  asunder  longitudinally. 
Copper  and  iron  have  their  tenacity  more  than  doubled, 
while  gold,  silver,  brass,  and  lead  have  it  more  than  tripled 
by  those  metals  being  drawn  into  wire. 

Mixed  metals  have,  in  general,  greater  tenacity  than 
those  which  are  simple:  the  tenacity  varies  with  the  dif- 
ferent proportions  in  which  the  metals  are  mixed  ;  and 
the  proportions  which  produce  the  greatest  strength  are 
different  in  different  metals.  The  only  experiments  on 
this  subject  with  which  we  arc  acquainted  arc  tin 
Muschcnbrock  ;  and  from  these  we  find  that  a  compound 

.  i-  . .  i   :     i.    -.    _..  ii_       »i  i        i  • , 


of  which  'f  were  gold  and  J  copper  had  a  tenacity,  or  force 
of  cohesion,  more  than  double  that  of  the  gold' or  copper 
alone  :  brass,  composed  of  copper  and  zinc,  had  a  tcnacif  v 


more  than  double  that  of  the  copper,  and  nearly  twenty 
time-  as  urcat  as  that  of  the  /"me  :  a  metal  of  which  J  wei'e 
block-tin  and  ]  lead,  had  a  strength  more  than  double 
that  of  the  tin  ;  and  a  mixture  of  which  j  were  lead  and  J 
zinc  had  a  tenacity  nearly  double  that  of  the  zinc,  and 

five  time  i-  that  of  the  lead  alone. 

TK.XAII.I.K,  in  Fortification,  is  a  rampart  raised  in  the 
main  ditch,  immediately  in  front  of  the  curtain  be' 

ind,   in    it-  most  simple  form,  it 

tw. i  lares  coinciding  in  direction  with  the  face-  of  the 
-d.  consequently,  forming  with  each  other  a  re- 
entering  auirlc.  Generally,  however,  it  consist-  of  three 
face-,  of  which  two  have  the  direction-  just  mentioned 
and  the  thud  form.- a  curtain  which  is  paiallcl  to  that  of 
the  enceinte.  See  I',  /'/-.  1,  li  \si  ION,  and  f  in  the  plan, 
1)._.'I77  .  Ki'iuim  STION. 

work  was  originally  proposed  I  I,  in  order 

•.  ethe    jiurpi.se,  in    part,  of  a   tans- e-bra\  c  [  KM 

niii-ketiy  on  it-    faces    uiay    be 

employed,    in    conjunction    with    tliose    of   ailillery     and 
tn   ON  the  flanks  of  the  bastion 
if  the  enemy  acro-s   the   main   ditch   when   alien 
mount  a  breach  in  the  ramparts  of  the  place. 

The  relief  of  the  lenaillc,  or  the    elevation   ol 
above  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  is  determined  iv 


TEN 


189 


T  E  N 


w' lh  the  intention  of  thus  defending  the  main  ditch;  and 
in  order  that  the  defenders  of  the  tenaille  may  not  be 
injured  by  the  shot  fired  over  their  heads,  from  the  flanks 
of  the  bastions,  it  is  usual  to  make  the  crest  of  that  work 


coincid 
below 


;ide  with  a  horizontal  plane  passing  three  or 
rV  the  point  where  a  line  of  fire  from  one 


four  feet 
of  those 


flanks  would  cut  a  vertical  plane,  bisecting  the  angle  of 
the  tenaille  or  its  curtain.  The  height  thus  determined 
will  allow  the  parapet  of  the  work  to  be  elevated  from 
two  to  four  feet  above  the  terreplein  of  the  ravelin  in  its 
front;  and,  consequently,  from  the  curtain  of  the  tenaille 
a  grazing  fire  of  musketry  might  be  employed  to  protect 
the  interior  of  the  ravelin,  or  of  its  reduit,  if  there  is  one, 
should  the  defenders  of  either  of  those  works  abandon  it 
(in  consequence  of  an  assault  being  made)  before  the 
enemy  lias  time  to  cover  himself  in  it  by  a  lodgment  :  that 
fire  will  also  contribute  powerfully  to  prevent  the  enemy 
from  attempting  to  enter  the  ravelin  by  its  gorge. 

Vanban,  at  first,  gave  to  his  tenailles  short  flanks  nearly 


'  ram's  horns '  was  given,  has  seldom  been  put  in  prac- 
tice. 

Any  work  belonging  either  to  permanent  or  field   for 
tification,  which,  on  the  plan,  consists  of  a  succession  of 
lines  forming  salient  and  re-entering  angles  alternately,  is 
said  to  be  d  tenaille. 

TENAILLON,  or  Great  Tenaille,  in  Fortification,  is  a 
species  of  exterior  work  which  has  been  occasionally  con- 
structed before  the  faces  of  a  small  ravelin,  with  a  view  of 
increasing  the  strength  of  the  latter,  procuring  additional 
space  beyond  the  ditch,  or  covering  the  shoulders  of  the 
bastions.  They  were  invented  by  Vauban,  who,  however, 
very  seldom  constructed  them  ;  and  subsequent  engineers 
have  generally  considered  them  as  inferior  in  defensive 
qualities  to  a  counterguard  [QQ,  FORTIFICATION',  Fig.,  p. 
377]  placed  over  the  faces  and  salient  angle  of  the 
ravelin. 

The  form  and  position  of  a  tenaillon  may  be 'understood, 
Y  being  supposed  to  represent  a  small  ravelin,  if  beyond 


parallel  to  those  of  the  bastions,  but  he  soon  abandoned  the  ditch  of  the  latter  the  ramparts  of  the  right  and  left 
that  construction,  perceiving  that  though  the  defenders  faces  be  produced  till  each  of  them  meets  a  rampart 
might  thus  fire  correctly  along  the  main  ditch,  yet  the  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  face  of  the  bastion  and  ex- 
parapets  of  those  flanks  were  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  the  !  tending  to  the  place  of  meeting  from  the  counterscarp  of 
fire  from  the  enemy's  counter-batteries  [H,  Fig.  1,  BAS-  '  the  main  ditch  at  a  point  opposite  the  middle  of  that  face. 
TIO.V],  and  they  were  enfiladed  from  the  rampart  of  the  |  The  works  thus  formed,  one  over  each  lace  of  the  ravelin 


ravelin  (Q),  or  from  the  glacis  of  the  places  of  arms  (L). 

Besides  affording  additional  fires  for  the  defence  of  the 
main  ditch,  the  tenaille  serves  to  cover,  in  part,  the  revet- 
ment of  the  curtain  in  its  rear,  and  prevent  it  from  being 


Y,  constitute  a  tenaillon ;  before  each  line  of  rampart  is 
a  ditch,  and  part  of  the  general  covered-way,  the  main 
ditch  and  that  of  the  ravelin  being  in  the  rear.  The  two 
laces  which  are  beyond  the  salient  angle  of  the  ravelin 


breached  bv  fire  from  any  lodgments  of  the  enemy  on  the    would,  if  produced  towards  the  latter,  form  with  each 

I  '  T.  1  lit  j  '  1  1  —it I*.  1_         1-    -  11  ••« 


glacis.  Its  parapet  serves  also  to  mask  the  postern  in  the 
curtain  of  the  enceinte,  which  would  otherwise  be  so  much 
exposed  to  the  fires  from  the  counter-batteries,  that  the 
defenders  might  be  unable  to  communicate  through  it 


other  a  re-entering  angle,  whose  vertex  would  coincide 
with  that  of  the  said  angle. 

The  objections  to  tenaillons  are.'that  the  besieger  would 
experience  little  difficulty  in  establishing  a  lodgment  on 


with  the  outworks.  On  this  account  the  breadth  of  the  that  part  of  the  covered-way  or  glacis  which  is  imme- 
ditch  between  the  curtain  of  the  tenaille  and  that  of  the  !  diately  in  front  of  the  salient  angle  of  the  ravelin  ;  and  in 
enceinte  is  made  such  only  as  to  allow  the  parapet  of  the  this  situation  he  would  be  able  to  breach  the  faces  of  the 


former,  with  the  relief  determined  as  above  mentioned,  to 
conceal  the  postern  from  the  view  of  the  enemy  on  the 
g!:u-is.  This  ditch  is  advantageous  in  preventing  the  de- 
fenders of  the  tenaille  from  being  injured  by  the  splinters 
which  may  be  detached  from  the  flanks  and  curtain  be- 
hind it ;  and,  when  dry,  it  serves  to  cover  bodies  of  troops 

-_      1       !  I.  '  ,•  .    I  I  1      L    _  1_      Al.      _  1        '   1 


two  half-bastions  in  four  places,  by  fires  of  artillery  directed 
along  the  ditches  of  the  ravelin  and  those  on  the  side 
fare;,  of  the  tenaillon.  The  salient  angles  of  the  tenaillon, 
and  of  the  ravelin  which  it  covers,  may  be  breached  at  the 
same  time,  and,  when  the  ditches  are  dry,  it  would  be 
possible  to  attack  and  cany  the  ravelin  at  the  time  of 


which  may  issue  from  thence  and  attack  the  enemy  while  {  making  the  assaults  on  the  tenaillon:    then,  the  enemy 
_r  the  main  ditch,  prc\iously  to  making  an  assault,     having  trot  possession  of  the  former  work,  any  retrench- 
Il'thc  main  ditch  contains  water,  the  tenaille  serves  to    ments  which  may  have  been  made  in  the  tenaillon  must 


lie  serves  to 

t  the  boats  and  rafts  by  which  the  defenders  of  the 
enceinte  communicate  with  the  outworks. 

The  tenaille  has  been  considerably  improved  by  Bous- 
mard,  who,  returning,  in  one  respect,  to  the  original  idea 
of  \auban,  has  given  flanks  to  the  work  in  order  that 
the  main  ditch  may  be  directly  defended  by  them.  These 
flanks  are  raised  high  enough  to  cover  the  revetments  of 
the  flanks  of  the  bastions,  while  their  upper  surfaces  may 
azcd  by  a  fire  of  artillery  from  thence  ;  and,  instead 


necessarily  be  abandoned  by  the  defenders. 

At  the  siege  of  Lille,  in  1708,  one  of  the  tenaillons 
held  out  a  long  time,  but  this  is  ascribed  by  French 
engineers  rather  to  the  faulty  manner  in  which  the  siege 
was  conducted  by  the  allies  than  to  the  strength  of  the 
work. 

The  re-entering  space  between  the  two  faces  which  are 
in  the  prolongation  of  the  faces  of  the  ravelin,  and  which 
constitute  the  head  of  the  tenaillon,  is  sometimes  occu- 


of  bcirii:  formed  with  open  terrcpleins,  and  parapets  for  j  pied  by  a  small  redoubt,  consisting  of  two  ramparts  per- 


musketry,  as  usual,  each  flank  of  the  tenaille  is  provided 
with  casemates,  or  vaults,  for  four  pieces  of  artillery  which 
are  placed  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  terreplein  of  the 
covered-way.  These  guns  are  consequently  capable  of 
being  directed  against  the  counter-batteries  (H)  of  the 
enemy,  as  well  as  of  defending  the  foot  of  a  breach  in  the 

:ion. 
This  construction  was  adopted  by  Chasseloup  de  Laubat 


pendicular  to  the  faces  which  have  been  just  mentioned  ; 
and  thus  there  may  be  obtained  a  good  crossing  fire  for 
the  defence  of  that  part  of  the  covered-way  which  is  con- 
cealed by  the  salient  angles  of  the  tenaillons  from  the 
defenders  of  the  bastions. 

Demi-tenaillons  are  works  placed  also  on  the  sides  of  a 
ravelin,  and  consisting  of  two  ramparts  which  are  per- 
pendicular to  and  nearly  opposite  the  middle  of  the  faces 


in  the  tenailles  of  the  detached  works  which  he  executed  I  of  the  bastions  and  ravelins:  these   are   usually  accom- 
about  Alessandria,  in  Italy,  when   Napoleon  (after  the    — 
battle  of  Marencn.  proposed  to  make  that,  city  the  base 
of  his  operations  beyond  the  Alps.    But,  in  order  to  avoid 
the  mischief  which  results  from  a  fire  directed  against 
.nates  (the  shot  in  striking  the  cheeks  or  sides  of  the 
emir,  '  Hi  them   splinters,  which   being 

vault  do  more  injury  to  the  defenders  than 


the  >-hot  itself),  this  engineer  raised  before  each  flank  of 
the  tenaille  a  mas.-,  of  earth  which  was  reveted  with  brick- 
work, and  perforated  in  such  directions  that,  in  defending 
1he  ditch,  the   shot,   from   the   casemates  could  be  fired 
through  the  apertures,  v,hile  the  mass  served  as  a  mask 
t  the  enemy  from  seeing  the  cmbra- 
he  flanks  of  the  tenaille. 

Belidor,  in  his  'Science  des  Ingenieurs' (1729),  proposed 
in  the  form  of  a   circular  arc, 


panied  by  eounterguards  which  cover  the  salient  angles 
of  the  latter  works,  and  are  called  Bonnets. 

TENANCY.     [TENANT.] 

TENANT.  [TENURE.]  Tenants,  in  the  more  extended 
legal  sense  of  the  word,  are  of  various  kinds,  distinguished 
from  each  other  by  the  nature  of  their  estates  ;  such  as 
tenants  in  fee  simple,  in  fee  tail,  for  life,  &c.  [ESTATE; 
TENANT  IN  FEE  SIMPLE,  &c.] 

TKNANT  AND  LANDLORD.  The  word  tenant  in  the 
more  limited  legal  sense,  which  is  also  the  popular  sense, 
is  i>ne  uho  holds  land  under  another,  to  whom  he  is  bound 
to  pay  rent,  and  who  is  called  his  landlord.  The  present 
article  is  confined  to  this  sense  of  the  word,  in  which  it  is 
proposed  to  show  the  nature,  construction,  and  effect  oft  he 
conn-act  by  which  the  relation  of  landlord  and  tenant  is 
•c(l;  the  rights,  liabilities,  and  duties  of  each  under  it; 


Main  and  the  shoulder  o1'  it  ceases  or  may  be  terminated  ;    and  the  legal  means 

bastion.     But  this   construction,  to  which  the  name  of    by  which  the  rights  and  duties  of  each  may  be  enforced. 


T  E  N 


190 


TEN 


The  word  land  is  here  used  in  its  comprehanBT6  legal  sense, 

which  means  not  only  the  actual  land  itself,  but  .il-o  all 

things,  such  us  buildings,  woods,  and  water,  v\ ' 

upon  it.     An}  tint  who  ha.s  an  estate  in  Iniul. 

is  also  in  posses-  t  the  land  to  another.  T! 

meter  and  duru; 

tlu1   natnii  ol    the   1< 

partly  by  tin'  contract  of  lettinir.     Thus  uni1   whu  is  tin1 

ouncrol  laiiil  in  fee  simple  iiiiiy  !«•!  the  land  for  any  limited 

period,  while  imr  who  hokls  only  fur  lift-  ciiiinot  let  for  any 

longw  period  than  the  life  upon  which  his  eslu1 

unless  he  has  a  special  \>  .nit  leases  ;    an<l  if  he 

should  let  for  any  longer  perio<  'eiiant 

will  cease  on  the  expiration  of  the  life.     To  constitute  the 

relation  of  landlord  and  tenant,  the  period  for  whirh  the 

land   is   let   must   be  shorter  than   that   during  which  the 

land  is  held  In  the  lessor,  so  that,  the  lessor  may 

>ion.    If  be  part*  with  his  an  a.-.- 

signor,  not  a  lessor.    Where  the  lev  place  by  an 

express  contract  between  the  parties,  the  contract  is  called 
a  lease.  [LEASE.]  A  lease  may  be  made  by  deed,  by 
writing  without  deed,  or  by  a  mere  verbal  agreement,  liy 
the  2it  l_'h.  11.,  c.  3,  s.  1,  all  !<  In  land, 

N-c.  not  put  into  writing,  and  signed  by  the  pai ' 
making  or  creating  the  same,  or  their  agents  thereunto 
verbally  authorized  or  by  writing,  shall  have  the  force  and 
eli'ect  of  leases  or  estates  at  will  only,  and  shall  not  either 
in  law  or  equity  be  deemed  or  taken  to  have  any  other  or 
greater  force  or  effect.  &c.  The  second  section  of  this 
makes  an  exception  in  favour  of  'all  leases  not  ex- 
ceeding the  term  of  three  years  from  the  makinc  thereof, 
whereupon  the  rent  reserved  to  the  landlord  dining  Mich 
term  shall  amount  unto  two  third  parts  at  least  of  the  full 
improved  value  of  the  thing  demised.'  Under  the  con- 
struction which  this  statute  has  received,  an  unwritten 
lease  for  a  longer  period  than  three  years  will  <  i 
tenancy  from  Near  to  year,  and  the  terms  as  to  rent,  &c. 
upon  which  the  tenant  holds  will  be  those  which  are 
.  d  upon  in  the  unwritten  lease.  The  loss  of  a  lease 
will  not  destroy  the  tenancy,  provided  the  previous  exist- 
ence and  the  tenns  of  it  can  be  pro\ed. 

But  the  relation  of  landlord  and  tenant  may  be  created 
otherwise  than  by  a  formal  lease.     If  one  man  with  the 
nt  of  another  occupies  his  land,  a  contract  of  letting 
timed  to  have  been  made  between  them,  and  ' 
cupier   becomes   tenant   to   the    owner.      Formerly    Mich 
tenants  were  called  tenants  at  will,  and  miirlit  ha\ 
turned  out  at  any  time  by  the  landlord  ;  but  now  a  more 
convenient  and  reasonable  construction  of  their  o 
lion  prevails,  and  they  are  considered  to  be  upon  1h: 
fooling  as  if  the  lands  had  been  let  to  them  for  a  year 
dating  from  the  commencement  of  their  occupation.     At 
the  end  of  the  first  year,  a  second  year's  tenancy  begins, 
unless  six  months'  notice  of  the  intention  to  determine  the 
contract  has  been  given  by  cither  party  to  the  other,  and 
soon  from  year  to  yeajr.     The  same  com!  ruction 
plied  to  cases  where  a  tenant  continues  to  occuj 
after  the  expiration  of  a  lease  made  by  deed  ;  but  in  this 
cue  all  the  covenants  of  the  expired  lease  as  to  payment 
of  rent,  repairs,  insmancc,  and  the  like  are  hi 

unless  the  leaM  -iroying  th' 

and  e\en  it  there  should  be,  a  a  dif- 

ferent rent,  still  the  old  c»  '.unless  thi 

is  cancelled.     If  a  party  who  has  the  p<.  t  a-idc 

an  existing  lease  chooses  to  receive  nut  under  it,  he  will 
be  held  to  II;IM  •  ,  it  :  and  c\cn  where 

delcnnim  . 

longer  period  than  he  was  entitled  in  ciaM  on. 
conie   lll>on  his  death  ;   jet  if  Ih 
•ioner  has  allov  to  la}  out  monc\  mi  • 

raises,  he  will  be  prevented  by  a  court  of  equity  I  win 
disputing  the  lease. 

Besides  tenancies  for  fiv  .a  tenancy  may  exist 

i  ami  by  SiittiTancc.      ['I  •  ff.fl  \vr 

AT  Si'KFKKANCK.]      A  tciiiuit  ut   will  cnimut  lawfully  be 

..ossession,  nor  can  the  limdloid  succeed   in 

etmeiit  airaiiisl   bun,  till  :n  uid  to 

quit  lui-  been  MIII.|>'  upon  liim  by  bis  landlonl :   but  a  tenant 

Dy  •utterance  maybe  turned  out  by  an  action  of  ejectment 

without   :•  I.     A  master  may  let  land  to  b 

vant,  mitwhrro  the  MTVant   is   allowed   by  the   in:ister  to 

oeciii  ..-uring  to  him  for  Hie  mere  pmposeof 

more  conveniently  pertbrming  liis  duties  as  sen  ant.  or  as 


in  part  or  total  payment  of  wnge*.  • 

..lered 

to  be    in   Ihe   occu]>ation   of   Ih. 

landlords  and  tenants   irenemlly  applies  also,  so  fur  a.- 
-.aiiid  by  the  ]>articulitr  circuit' 

-.  to  the  cane  of  the  letter* 

the  relation  of  landlord  and  tenant 

either  by  express  or  by  implied  contract,  certain 

terms  are  implied  by  law  to  have  been  agreed  upon  by  the 

itract.     It  is  of  eou: 
.-.here  the  contra.  ss,  to 

implied  by  Ihe  language  o 
Hut  it  ma;, 

comprehensive  in  their  nature. 
in  Jaw,  the  interests  of  par 
by   leaving  them   to  the    ireneial   protect! 

Mils  than  by  attempts  to  dctr 

meration  in  detail  the  resp,  ;  the 

landlord  and  tenant.     The  terms  implied  on  II 
the  landlord  are,   that  the  tenant  shall   (juicth 
premises  ;  on  the  part  of  the  tenant,  that  he  v»i': 
Keep  the  premises  in  repair  to  a  certain  here- 

after mentioned,  and  use  the  land.  Kic.  in  a  fair  and  hus- 
bandlike  manner. 

As  a  general  rule  it  may  be  laid  down  that  the  tenant  is 
not  entitled  to  set  otf  against  his  rent,  di !  n  the 

landlord  to  him;  hi:'  ptions.     When 

the  landlord  is  himself  tenant  of  the  prcmi- 
landloid,   and  neglects  to  pay  bis  rent,  and  the 

'  is  called  upon  to  pa}  it  to  th,   ;.upeiior  la-idli. 
may  do  so,  and  set  it  off  airainst  the  rent  due  from  him  to 
his  own  landlord.    Payments  also  made  b\  ;ndcr 

the  land-lax  ac!  ;38Geo.  III.   may  be  set  off  against  (1. 
due  to  his  landlord.     AVhen  a  landlord  is  bound  to  n 
and  the  tenant,   in  order  to  prevent   further  dilapida 
himself,  expends  money  on  the  repairs,  or  the  lamllo 
undertaken   to   icpax    the   tenant    the   amount  r: 

kc.  paid  in   the  first   instance  by  him,  the   I. 
may  set  off.    If  a  tenant  has  covenanted  without 
or  reservation  to  pay  rent  during  Ihe  term  for  which  the 
lease  has  been  granted  to  him,  he  will  be  bound  to 
e\eu   although   the  (.'remises  should  be   entire!} 
by  fire  or   other  carnally:   ami  liould 

have  assigned  his  Icn-i-  to  another  and  ceased  to  be  in 
possession,  he  will  still  remain  liable  under  In- 
to pay  rent.  But  the  paHy  to  whom  he  ::ed  it 
will,  as  a  general  rule,  remain  liable  for  rent  to  the  original 
landlord  only  so  long  as  he  continues  in  the  possession  of 
the  premises. 

Generally,  the  tenant  is  bound  to  repair  the  prcr 
Repairs   have   been   divided   into   1\vo   Ki  Mntial 

repaii-s    and   ordinary    repairs.      Tlie    di\  •  ars   a 

'imple    one,    but    great   difficulty   often 
•e  in  di-tcuni;iing  to  which  land  any  particula: 
ol  repair  belongs.     Ti  is  are 

said   to  be  liable  for  .substantial  icj 

nant.s  from  ycai 
ordini 

,  no  case,  unless  undi 
:icnt   to  11.  .-lion  for  ni 

i   for  not  rebuil'  l.een 

a  total   destruction  of  tlu  But   in  the  c 

short  t  if  the  landlord  should  not  rebuild  . 

| .  the  tenant  would  be  jus- 

tilied  in  (jiiittint;  the  jiremises  and  would  i  liable 

for  rent.     It  has  In  en  already  observed  ilia'  'iidcr 

a  lease  which  coi  to  repair,  'hug 

rent  alter  the   expiration  of  hi 
ii-nant,  will   still   be   liable  to  rep:. ir  in  the 
manner  provided    loi 

:   and   if  li.  ,ieh  a 

liability,   lie   should  guard 
ment.      In   the   ciuse   : 
has  be.  n  b\  the  |  . 

ol   the   lease  will    be    looked   to 
minitur  what  are  the  duties  and  i 

\.i  tenant,  in  th  .neiit 

to  thiit  d  to  rebuild  al'ler  accident: 

linn   of  the   premises  by  tire.     But  i: 
nant  to  ritpair,  and  /••'-•  ('.  the  tci  -id  to 

rebuild  even  in  the  case  of  destruction  by  file.     Cove- 


TEN 


191 


TEN 


'.••  are  said  to  be  construed  by  tnc  courts 
favourably  for  the  landlord,  but  the  tenant  is  not  bound 
to  counteract  the  natural  consequences  of  the  wear  of  time 
and  of  the  elements. 

In  agricultural  tenancies  the  lease  itself  generally  de- 
termines the  mode  in  which  the  farm  is  to  be  treated,  and 
the  meaning  of  the  expressions  used  will  be  ascertained  by 
the  construction  put  upon  them  by  persons  familiar  with 
husbandry.  Unless  also  the  lease  expressly  or  impliedly 
excludes  the  operation  of  the  custom  of  the  country,  the 
tenant  is  bound  to  conform  to  it.  The  custom  of  the 
country  means  the  general  practice  employed  in  neigh- 
bouring farms  of  a  similar  description,  with  reference  to 
rotation  of  crops,  keeping  up  fences,  and  other  like  mat- 
of  farms  it  is  often  the  practice  to  protect 
the  landlord  against  certain  acts,  of  the  tenant,  such  as 
.liinir  up  meadow  land,  &c.,  by  introducing  certain 
-ions  into  the  lease.  These  provisions  may  operate 
according  to  the  phraseology  used,  either  to  assign  a 
penalty  or  to  determine  the  liquidated  damages  agreed 
to  be  paid  for  the  act  done.  It  is  often  a  matter 
of  great  importance  and  of  some  nicety  to  determine 
under  which  class  the  provisions  fall.  If  under  the 
first,  the  landlord  is  not  entitled  to  the  whole  penalty 
upon  the  act  being  done,  but  he  can  only  recover  in  an 
action  the  amount  of  the  actual  damage  which  has  ac- 
crued. If  under  "the  second,  he  is  entitled  to  the  whole 
amount  of  the  damages  agreed  on.  A  covenant  by  a 
tenant  not  to  plough  up  meadow  under  a  penalty  of  5/. 
for  every  acre  ploughed,  is  an  instance  of  the  first  class : 
a  covenant  to  pay  nl.  rent  1'or  every  acre  of  meadow 
ploughed  up,  is  of  the  second  class.  The  right  to  timber 
and  timber-like  trees  belongs  to  the  landlord  ;  loppings 
of  pollards  and  bushes,  to  the  tenant.  Different  definitions 
prevail  in  different  counties  of  timber  and  timber-like 
trees,  and  various  customs  prevail  as  to  what  amount  of 
wood  the  tenant  may  be  allowed  to  employ  Barter  the 
landlord  has  been  called  on  to  select  il  for  the  puipc-rs 
of  the  farm.  No  tenant,  unless  he  employs  the  land  as  a 
nurseryman  or  gardener,  can  remove  any  kind  of  shrub 
from  tlie  soil,  not  even  a  row  of  garden  box,  though  planted 
by  himself.  [WASTE.]  Neither  can  a  tenant  remove  lix- 
though  put  down  by  himself.  A  fixture  is  a  chattel 
which  is  itself  let  into  the  soil,  or  united  to  some  other 
which  is  let  in.  There  are  some  exceptions  to  this  rule  in 
favour  of  fixtures  used  for  the  purpose  of  trade  or  agri- 
culture, or  merely  ornamental  purposes,  where  the  removal 
will  cause  little  or  no  damage.  (Amos  and  Feraid,  On 
Fixtures.) 

The  tenant  in  occupation  of  the  premises  is,  in  the  first 
instance,  liable  for  all  taxes  and  rates  of  every  description 
due  in  respect  of  the  premises.  The  party  therefore  who 
is  authorised  to  collect  them  may  proceed  against  the 
tenant  in  occupation  to  recover  them.  It  is  generally  a 
matter  m  agreement  between  the  landlord  and  tenant  that 
the  tenant  shall  pay  all  rates  and  taxes  except  the  land 
tax.  If  however  the  landlord  has  undertaken  to  pny  the 
tenant  the  rates  and  taxes,  and  fails  to  do  so,  the  tenant 
may  deduct,  the  amount  from  his  rent,  or  bring  an  action 
to  recover  it;  but  this  should  be  done  during  the  current 
year,  and  if  the  tenant  allows  a  considerable  time  to  elapse 
without  claiming  a  deduction  or  bringing  an  action,  he 
will  be  held  to  have  waived  his  claim  to  recover  them 
from  the  landlord. 

Where  a  fixed  rent  has  been  agreed  upon,  has  become 

due,  and  is  neither  paid  nor  tendered,  the  landlord,  under 

the   exceptions  mentioned  hereafter,  lias  a  right  t» 

growing  crops,  any  kind  of  stock,  goods,  or  chattels,  upon 

the  premises,  or  pasturing  any  common  enjoyed  in  right  of 

the  j  .  hether  such  things  are  the  actual  propcity 

of  the  tenant  or  not;  and  if  the  rent   remain,  unpaid,  he 

may  sell  them.     The  exceptions  are:     Things  in   actual 

.-clothes  then  being  worn,  or  a  horse  on  which  a 

in  is  actually  riding.     The  reason  given  tor  these  ex- 

ons  is  that  the   seizure  of  goods  so  circmiish. 

i  Uad  1o  a  breach  of  the  peace.     Things  sent  to  a 

tradesman  lor  t;  n  of  being  worked  up  by  him  ; 

goods  sent  by  a  principal  to  his  factor  for   sale,,  and  the 

onveying  them  ;  the  (roods  and  cattle 

brio  ;,(.  an  inn  ;   Luoil.s   that    are  already  in 

the   en-tody  ol1  the   law.    vli  a-  i  ncids  in  a  bailiff's  hands 

ition.  fscc.     The  tools.  Sec.  of  a  man's 

plough,  Sec.,  are  not  liable  to  distress 


if  there   are   other  goods  sufficient  in  value   upon  the 
premises.     [DISTRESS.] 

The  contract  of  letting  may  cease  otherwise  than  by  the 
mere  lapse  of  time.  By  29  Ch.  II.,  c.  3,  the  Statute  of 
Frauds,  a  surrender  of  a  lease  can  only  be  by  a  deed  or 
note  in  writing,  signed  by  the  party  surrendering  or  his 
agent  authorised  in  writing,  or  by  act  and  operation  of 
law. 

The  deed  or  note  in  writing  must  proceed  upon  mutual 
agreement  between  the  tenant  in  possession  and  his  im- 
mediate landlord,  and,  besides  being  signed,  must  be  duly 
stamped.  A  lease  may  cease  to  exist  by  act  and  operation 
of  law:  1,  upon  the  acceptance  by  the  tenant  of  anew 
lease  in  writing  for  the  same  premises  from  the  landlord, 
the  operation  of  which  is  to  begin  at  some  period  during 
the  term  for  which  the  original  lease  was  granted  ;  2,  in 
the  case  of  a  yearly  tenancy,  where  the  landlord  permits 
the  tenant  to  quit,  and  he  does  quit,  and  the  landlord 
accepts  the  possession ;  3,  where  the  estate  of  the  landlord 
and  tenant  become  united  in  the  tenant,  the  tenancy 
ceases  to  exist ;  4,  by  forfeiture.  A  forfeiture  may  arise 
either  by  a  breach  by  the  tenant  of  one  of  those  conditions 
which  are  implied  by  or  attached  to  the  relation  of  land- 
lord and  tenant,  as  where  a  tenant  disclaims  or  impugns 
the  title  of  his  landlord  by  acknowledging,  for  instance, 
tin;  rieht  of  property  to  be  vested  in  a  stranger,  or  asserts 
a  claim  to  it  himself,  or  by  a  breach  of  a  condition  which 
is  expressly  introduced  into  the  lease,  the  breach  of  which 
is  to  be  attended  with  a  forfeiture  of  the  tenancy,  as  a  con- 
dition to  pay  rent  on  a  particular  day,  to  cultivate  in  a 
particular  manner,  Sic.  To  this  head  may  be  referred 
provisoes  in  a  lease  for  re-entry  by  the  landlord  on  the 
doing  or  failure  to  do  certain  acts  by  the  tenant,  such  as 
the  commission  of  waste,  the  failure  to  repair,  Sec.  The 
courts  are  said  to  be  unfavourable  to  forfeitures  ;  therefore, 
when  the  landlord  has  notice  of  an  act  of  forfeiture,  or  an 
act  which  entitles  him  to  re-enter,  lie  must  immediately 
proceed  in  such  a  way  as  to  show  that  he  intends  to  avail 
himself  of  his  strict  leccal  right.  If  after  the  commission 
of  the  act  he  does  anything  which  amounts  to  a  subsequent 
recognition  of  the  tenancy,  as  by  the  acceptance  of  rent 
subsequently,  due,  he  will  be  held  to  have  waived  his  riuht 
to  insist  upon  the  forfeiture. 

A  yearly  tenancy,  where  no  period  of  notice  is  agreed 
on,  must  be  determined  by  a  notice  to  quit  at  the  expi- 
ration of  the  current  year,  given  six  months  previously. 
If  the  period  at  which  the  current  year  expires  is  uncertain, 
the  notice  should  be  to  quit  at  the  end  of  the  year  which 
shall  first  occur  after  the  expiration  of  six  months  from 
the  service  of  the  notice.  Where  a  fixed  period  of  111 
is  agreed  on,  what  has  been  said  as  to  the  period  will  apply 
to  the  period  agreed  on.  Where  different  portions  of  tin- 
premises  ha\e  been  entered  on  at  different  times,  tin- 
entry  upon  the  principal  portion  will,  for  the  purposes  of 
quitting  the  premises,  be  considered  as  the  entry  upon 
the  whole  ;  and  in  case  of  a  dispute  at  a  trial  which  i 
principal  portion,  the  jury  must  determine.  In  the  ' 
of  lodgings,  the  time,  when  less  than  a  year,  for  which 
they  are  taken,  will  be  the  time  for  which  a  notice  is  ne- 
\ .  Tims  lodirings  taken  by  the  month  or  week 
require  a  month's  or  week's  notice.  A  notice  to  quit  may 
be  waived  by  an  acceptance  of  rent  or  by  a  distress  for 
rent  due  after  the  expiration  of  the  notice. 

If  by  the  default  of  the  landlord  the  premises  cannot,  be 
occupied  beneficially,  as  where  the  landlord  is  bound  to 
repair,  &.C.,  and  does  not,  the  tenant  may  quit  without 
notice. 

The  notice  to  quit  need  not  be  in  writing,  though,  from 
the  greater  facility  of  proving  it,  a  written  notice  is  always 
desirable.  It  should  distinctly  describe  the  premises,  be 
positive  in  its  announcement  of  an  intention  to  quit  or 
require  possession,  be  signed  by  the  party  giving  it,  and 
ser\ed  personally  upon  the  party  to  be  aft'ected  by  it. 

If  a  tenant,  alter  having  given  notice  to  quit,  continues 
to  occupy,  he  is  liable  to  pay  double  rent.  If  he  does  so, 
no  fresh  notice  is  necessary.  If  he  continues  to  occupy 
after  (lie  landlord  has  in  veil  him  notice,  he  is  liable  to  pay 
double  value  for  the  premise's. 

At  the  expiration  of  the  contract  the  tenant  is  bound  to 
deliver  up  possession  of  the  premises;  but  if  either  by 
special  agreement  or  by  the  custom  of  the  country  the 
tenant  i.,  entitled  to  the  crops  still  standing  on  the  'l;:nd, 
and  which  are  called  away-going  crops,  he  may  enter  for 


TEN 


192 


T  1 


the  purpose  of  gathering  them,  ami  a  is  and 

stables  for  tin-  purpose  of  threshing  and  conveying  them 
away.  The  in-coming  tenant  may  also  enter  during  the 
tcmiiicv  of  the  preceding  tenant  to'plough  and  prepare  the 
land. 

An  action  for  the  recovery  of  rout  may.  rfthe  land  is  let 
by  !i-:i-r  \niiler  seal,  be  in  debt  for  the  amount,  or  in 
uiint  for  the  damages  incurred  by  tlie  non-payment  of  it. 
If  there  is  no  indent ure.  the  action  may  lie  in  debt  on  the 
simple  eontruct.  or  in  assumpsit  for  the  use  and  occupation 
of  tl\e  hind. 

If  the  tenant  refuses  to  deliver  the  possession  of  the 
land,  the  landlord  may  bring  an  action  of  ejectment  to 
.  er  it.  Hy  -1  Ueo.'lL.  c.  2X,  which  was  passed  with  a 
view  to  remove  the  difficulties  existing  undi-r  the  common 
law  as  to  the  necessity  t'.ir  a  formal  entry.  K.e.  by  the  land- 
lord, it  i.s  enacted  that  where  there  is  half  a  year's  rent  in 
nrrear,  no  snflic.  -s  on  the  premises,  and  the  land- 

lord to  whom  the  same  is  due  has  a  risrht  of  re-entry,  he 
may,  without  any  formal  demand  or  re-entry.  sen  e  a  de- 
claration in  ejectment,  which  shall  stand  in  place  of  the 
•feme. 

Hy  the  11  Geo.  II.,  c.  19,  and  57  Geo.  III.,  c.  f>2.  if  a 
tenant,  under  any  lease  or  agreement,  written  or  \ 
though  without  a  clause  of  re-entry,  of  lands  at  a  rack-rent, 
or  rent  of  three-fourths  the  yearly  value,  shall  he  in  arrcar 
for  half  a  year's  rent,  and  shall  leave  the  premises  deserted 
and  without  sufficient  distress,  any  two  justices  of  the 
county,  at  the  request  of  the  landlord,  may  go  and  \ievv 
the  premises,  and  fix  on  the  most  conspicuous  part  ot 
them  notice  in  writing  on  what  day.  distant  foiuteen  days 
at  least,  they  will  return  again  to  view  the  premises  :  and 
if  on  the  second  day  no  one  appears  to  pay  the  rent,  anil 
there  is  no  sufficient  distress  on  the  premises,  the  justices 
may  put  the  landlord  into  possession,  and  the  lease  slial 
become  void.  These  proceedings  are  subject  to  appeal 
before  the  judges  of  assize  for  the  same  county  at  the  cn- 
sninsr  assizes. 

Hy  1  &  2  Vic.,  c.  74,  where  the  interest  of  any  tenant 
of  land,  &c.  at  will,  or  for  a  time  less  than  seven   year- 
liable  to  the  payment  either  of  no  rent  or  a  rent  of  less 
than  20.'.  a  year,  shall  have  ended  or  been  duly  determined 
and  the  tenant  shall  refuse  to  quit,  the  landlord  may  ser\i 
him  with  a  notice,  a  form  for  which  is  given  in  the  act,  to 
appear  before  a  justice  for  the  county  ;    and  if  he  fails  U 
show  satisfactory  cause  why  he  should  not  give  up  ; 
won,  the  justices,  on  proof  of  the  tenancy  and  of  the  e\ 
piration  of  it,  may  give  possession  to  the  landlord.     If  Hit 
landlord  was  not  at  the  time  of  the  proceedings  lawful!) 
entn  in.   he  will  be  liable  to  an  action  o 

trespass  at  the  suit  of  the  tenant,  notwithstanding  the  ac 
t  f  parliament. 

WoodtaH's  Limll',rd  and  Tenant ;    Coote's  Landlord 
unit  Ti-ntinl.: 

TFAA.NT  AT  WILL,  AND  FROM  YEAH  TO 
YEAK.  -Tenancy  at  will.'  says  Littleton,  s.  (is.  'i 
where  lands  or  tenements  are  let  by  one  man  to  anothe 
to  have  and  to  hold  to  him  at  the  will  of  the  lessor,  lv 
force  of  which  lease  the  ion.  In  thi 

case  the  lessee  is  called  tenant  at  will  because  lie  hath  no 
certain  or  sure  estate  ;  for  the  lessor  may  put  him  out  at 
what  time  it  please) h  him.' 

An  estate  at  will  may  arise  by  implication,  as  well  as  by 
express  word*.  Thus,  wl:  at  for  years  continues 

in  possession  after  the  cvphation  of  his  term,  and  pavs  rent 
an  before,  the  payment  and  acceptance  of  rent  constitute 
a  tenancy  at  will.  So,  where  a  man  enters  uiidei  an  agree- 
ment for  a  lease  ora  contract  for  the  purchase  of  an  estate, 
he  must  be  considered  at  law  as  the  tenant  at  will  of  the 
.  the  legal  title.  (10  Vin.,  Ab.,  400;  IB. 
and  (,'.,  -US:  :i  Camp.,  s. 

Where  a  mortgagor  continues  in  possession  of  his  land 
with  the  consent  ol  the  mortgagee,  alter  default  in  pay- 
ment of  principal  and  interest  at  the  time  stipulated  in 
lile  i  Seed,  he  is  tenant  at  will.  So  also,  where 

the  legal  estate  invested  in  a  trustee.  I  lie  beneficial  owner. 

>/.   it    he  be  in  possession,  isi-otisi.: 

law  a»  tenant  at  will  under  the  trustee.  (Cruise,  Digest, 
tit.  i),  c.  I. 

A  tenant  at  will  having  no  certain  estate,  has  nothing 
which  he  can  giant  to  another,  and  a  person  entering 
under  a  grant  from  a  tenant  at  will  is  subject  to  an  action 
of  trespass.  'C  j.  Liu .,  57  a.) 


A  tenant  at  will  has  no  right   to  commit  any  kind  of 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  he  is  not  liable  to  repair  or 
I    houses,    vVc.,   and   then  is    no    remedy 

against   him  for  perm  ,    a  ;   5 

/...  i:i  h.) 
A  tenancy  at  will  may  he  determined  cither  by  e\ 

.lion   of  the    lessor  that    the  U-iiant    shall    hold    no 
oncer,  which  must  be  made  on  the  land,  or  notice  given 
if  it    to    the    Ics-ec   (Co.    Lilt..   .V>  b.  .    or 
iwnership  exercised  by  the  landlord  inconsistent  with  the 
continuance  of  the  estate,  such  as  entering  on  the   land 
ind  cutting  down  trees  demised,  making  a  leotiiucnt. 
lease  for  years  to  commence  immediately.     On  the  p:. 
the    tenant,  any  act   of  desertion,  an  assignment   01 
land  to  another,  or  the  commission  of  v  .luna- 

tion of  his  estate.      A  les  ,,ir  determining  the  tenant-)  !•• 
the  rent  is  due  loses  the  rent  ;   and  on  the  other  hand,  the 

'A ho  determines  it  before  the  rent    is  due  inns! 
withstanding  pay  it  up  to  that   time.     If  either  paity  die, 
the  tenancy,  if  it  be  of  a  house,  continues  till  the  next 
rent -day;    and    if   of  land,   until  the  summer  profit  - 
received  by  the  tenant  or  his  rcpresentatr.  Lilt., 

55  b.  57  a.) 

Where  a  tenancy  at  will   is  determined  by  the  1< 
the  tenant    is  entitled   to  emblemcnts:    but    not   if  it    be 
determined  by  the  tenant  himself.     (Litt.,  $08;    5  AVy.., 
116.) 

It  is  settled  that  a  landlord  cannot  hi  in.  -inent 

against  the  tenant  at  will  or  his  representatives  without 
giving  six  months'  notice  to  quit.  (Cruise,  tit.  '.),  c.  i.,  } 
15.) 

The  courts  are  always  inclined  to  construe  demi 
r.o  certain  term  is  mentioned,  not  as  estates  at  will,  i 
tenancies  from  year  to  year:  and  the  circumstance  of  an 
annual  rent  being  reserved  has  been  considered  sufficient 
to  warrant  this  construction.  (2  Hhu-kst.,  1171.)  "Where 
a  remainder-man  receives  rent  from  a  tenant  under  a  lease 
for  vcars  which  is  void  as  against  him.  before  elcctit 
avoid  it,  a  'enancy  from  year  to  year  is  cieated. 
It.,  -178.)  Also  where  an  agreement  tor  a  lease  for  mine 
than  three  \ears  is  made  byparol,  and  is  therefore  void  by 
the  Statute  of  Frauds,  there  is  a  tenancy  from  v  car  to  year 
regulated  by  the  terms  of  the  agreement.  (•">  T.  I'.,  -171.1 
A  tenancy  from  year  to  year,  when  once  constituted,  is 
binding  not  only  upon  the  rcvcisiom-r,  but  his  assignee 
(1  T.  li..  :i~S),  and  does  not  cease  upon  the  death  of 
the  tenant,  but  goes  to  his  executors  or  administrators. 
Ct  T.  /i.,  13;  15  Ves.,  241.)  The  tenant  is  entitled  to 
six  months'  notice  lo  quit,  ending  at  the  expiration  of 
the  year,  and  thus  a  new  year  is  continually  added  to  the 
term  as  often  as  the  half  year's  pre\ious  notice  is  omitted 
to  be  given  at  the  proper  time.  ('.\  li.  and  ('.,  i 

A  tenant  at  will  is  capable  of  taking  a  release  of  the  in- 
heritance after  he  lias  entered,  but  :  ot  be 
the  foundation  of  a  remainder.  (Litt.,  iii.. -Kk) ;  H  Co.. 

TENANT  A?  SUFFKRAM'K.  says  Lord  Coke,  -is 

lie  that  at  first  came  ia  by  lawful  demise,  and  alter  his 
estate  endcth  coutimicth  "in  possession,  ami  wrongfully 
holdelh  over.'  Tim- a  tenant  pur  nut  re  r/'c.  continuing 
in  possession  after  the  death  of  IT^/IU'I/II,'  nr.  a  tenant 
for  years  holding  alter  the  expiration  of  his  term,  and  a 
person  who.  ha\ing  been  tenant  at  will,  continues  in 

after  the  death  ol  the  It-s.sor,  are  all  tenants  by  suf- 
ferance. 

A-  the  tenant  at  sufferance  holds  only  by  the  lad 
the  owner,  there  is  no  privity  of  estate  between  them,  and 
then-lore  the  tenant  at  sufferance  is  not  capable  of  taking 
a  release  ol  the  inheritance.    (Litt.,  £-lf«0.)     On  the  same 
ground  it   was  held  that  tenants  at   MiflVrnnci 
bound  to  pay  any  rent :  but  by  the  -1  (no.  11..  C.  '>>,  £  1.  it  is 
enacted  that  '  where  any  tenant  holds  over  after  demand 
made  and  notice  in  writing  given  for  delivering  the  |» 
sion.  such   persons  so   holding  over  shall   pay  double   the 
value  of  the  lands  so  detained,  lor  so  long  a  time  as 
the  same  are  detained  ;   to  lie  recovered  by  action  of  debt, 
against  the.  recovering  of  which   penally  there  shall   be  no 
relief  in  equity.'      Hy  the  II  (!eo.  II.,  c.  111.  £  IS,  a  similar 
penalty  is  imposed  On   tenants    giving    notice  to  quit    and 
afterwards   holding  over.      And    by  the  1  fu-o.  IV.,   c.  K7, 

-    piuvisions  are  made    for   cm.bll.ig   land!, 
speedily  to  recover  possession  of  lauds  and  tenements  un 
lawfully  held  over  by  tenants. 


TEN 


193 


TEN 


TENANT-RIGHT  is  the  name  for  a  species  of  custom- 
ary estates  peculiar  to  the  northern  parts  of  England,  in 
which  border  services  against  Scotland  were  antiently 
performed  before  the  political  union  of  the  countries. 
Tenant-right  estates  were  holden  of  the  lord  of  the 
manor  by  payment  of  certain  customary  rents  and  the 
render  of  the  services  above  mentioned,  are  descendible 
from  ancestor  to  heir  according  to  a  customary  mode  dif- 
fering in  some  respects  from  the  rule  of  descent  at  com- 
mon law,  and  were  not  devisable  by  will  either  directly  or 
by  means  of  a  will  and  surrender  to  the  use  of  the  same, 
though  they  are  now  made  devisable  by  I  Vic.,  c.  26,  s.  3. 
Although  these  estates  appear  to  have  many  incidents 
which  do  not  properly  belong  to  villenage  tenure  or  copy- 
hold, not  being  holden  at  the  will  of  the  lord,  or  by  copy  of 
court  roll,  and  being  alienable  by  deed  and  admittance 
thereon,  it  has  been  determined  that  they  are  not  freehold, 
but  that  they  fall  under  the  same  general  rules  as  copy- 
hold estates.  (Doe  d.  Reay  v.  Huntington,  4  East,  271.) 

TENANT  IN  FEE-SIMPLE.  A  tenancy  in  fee-simple 
is  the  greatest  estate  which  a  subject  can  have  in  land. 
[TENURE.]  The  possession  of  an  estate  in  fee-simple  in- 
volves a  complete  power  of  disposition  over  the  land; 
and  after  a  grant  made  in  fee-simple  the  grantor  has  parted 
with  his  whote  interest. 

The  words  necessary  for  transferring  an  estate  in  fee- 
simple  may  be  reduced  to  this  form :  '  I  give  this  land  to 
you  and  your  heirs.'  (Litt.,  1.)  The  addition  of  the  word 
'  heirs7  is  absolutely  necessary  in  a  deed,  and  no  other  ex- 
pre^ion  will  serve ;  for  any  such  words  as  '  I  give  the  laud 
to  you;'  or  'to  you  for  ever;'  or  '  to  you  in  fee-simple,' 
would  carry  to  the  grantee  nothing  more  than  an  estate 
for  life.  But  words  of  limitation,  such  as  '  heirs,'  are  not 
now  necessary  to  pass  a  fee-simple  by  devise.  (1  Vic., 
c.  26,  s.  28.) 

When  the  tenant,  in  fee-simple  dies  intestate,  the  estate 
descends  to  the  heirs  general  of  the  purchaser  (in  the  sense 
in  which  that  word  is  explained  in  3  &4  Wm.  IV.,  c.  106), 
whether  male  or  female,  lineal  or  collateral.  [DESCKNT.] 

Lands   in   fee-simple  in  possession   are   subject  to  the 
courtesy  of  the  husband  and  the  dower  of  the  wife.  fCoua- 
DOWKR.] 

Lands  in  fee-simple  in  the  hands  of  the  heir  were  subject 
at  common  law  to  the  debts  of  the  ancestor  due  to  the 
crown  and  to  specialty  debts.  By  the  11  Geo.  IV.  and 
1  Wm.  IV.,  c.  47,  a  complete  remedy  was  given  for  all 
kinds  of  specialty  debts,  both  against  the  heir  and  devisee  ; 
and  by  the  3  &  4  Wm.  IV.,  c.  104,  estates  in  fee-simple 
are  made  liable  in  the  hands  of  the  heir  or  devisee  lor 
payment  of  the  simple  contract  debts  of  the  ancestor. 

rotates  in  fee-simple  are  forfeited  to  the  crown  for  high 
f  re;ison.  (Co.  Lift.,  390  b.)  In  cases  of  petty  treason  and 
felony  the  forfeiture  to  the  crown  is  only  for  a  year  and 
a  day,  called  the  minus,  dies  et  vastum  ;  after  which 
time  the  estate  escheats  (in  cases  of  petty  treason  and 
murder)  to  the  lord.  By  the  54  Geo.  III.,  c.  145,  the  for- 
feiture and  escheat  consequent  upon  attainder  for  felony, 
except  in  cases  of  high  treason,  petty  treason,  and  murder, 
are  limited  to  the  life-interest  of  the  offender.  It  would 
seem  that  this  statute  leaves  the  offenderthe  power  of  dis- 
posing of  the  estate  alter  Ins  decease.  Trust-estates  in 
nple  may  be  forfeited  to  the  crown,  but  are  not 
liable  to  escheat. 

An  estate  to  a  man  and  his  heirs  may  be  given  upon 
conditions  or  limitations,  which  are  capable  of  abridging  or 
defeating  it.  The  estate  cannot  then  properly  be  called  a 
fee-simple  ;  but  is,  according  to  the  circumstances,  a  con- 
dilional,  qualified,  or  base  fee.  (Co.  Litt.,  1  b.) 

TENANT  IN  TAIL.  The  origin  and  general  nature 
of  estates  tail  have  been  already  described.  [ESTATE  ; 
KF.M.MNDKK;  SETTLEMENT.] 

The  estate  of  the  tenant-in-tail  has  some  essential  cha- 
racteristics.    HP  has  a  right  to  commit  waste  of  all  kinds 
by  felling  timber,  pulling  down  houses,  opening  mines,  and 
_'  other  like  acts  ;  and  this  right  of  the  tenant-in-tail 
my  manner  be  restrained.  (11  fop.,  50 a;  3 Mod., 
•1'js ;  2  Vcni.,  251.)  His  estate,  being  an  estate  of  inherit- 
ance, »  sailed  a  tenant  by  sufferance:  he  is  one  who,  though 
he  rightfully  entered,  continues  to  occupy  wrongfully,  as 
is  subject,  when  it  is  an  estate  in  possession,  to  the  courtesy 
of  t!  1  and  the  dower  of  the  wife.     [COIIKTKSV  ; 

DOWER.]   The  tenant-in-tail  is  also  entitled  to  the  custody 
of  the  title-deeds,  which  the  Court  of  Chancery  will  order 
P.  C.,  No.  1512. 


to  be  delivered  up  to  him.  (2  P.  W.,  471.)  The  tenant- 
in-tail  is  not  bound  to  pay  off  incumbrances  affecting  the 
fee  of  the  estate,  as  he  has  only  a  particular  interest,  and 
not  the  entire  property  in  the  land;  and  it  seems  that  he 
is  not  in  general  even  bound  to  keep  down  the  interest  on 
such  incumbrances  ;  though  if  he  do  pay  off  such  incum- 
brances, it  will  in  general  be  presumed  to  have  been  done 
in  exoneration  of  the  estate.  (Cruise,  Digest,  tit.  2,  c.  1, 
s.  40;  and  tit.  15,  c.  4,  s.  74.) 

By  the  statute  De  Donis  the  tenant-in-tail  was  restrained 
from  alienating  his  estate  in  any  manner  for  a  longer 
period  than  his  own  life,  that  is  to  say,  the  estate  of  the 
alienee,  though  not  ipso  facto  determined  by  the  death  of 
the  tenant  in  tail,  became  thereupon  defeasible  by  his 
issue  or  the  remainder-man  or  reversioner.  (2  Ld.  Ray- 
mond, 779.) 

If  the  tenant-in-tail  conveyed  his  estate  by  lease  and, 
release,  covenant  to  stand  seised,  or  bargain  and  sale  and 
grant,  the  right  of  entry  of  the  issue  and  remainder-men 
was  not  affected  by  the  conveyance.  But  a  feoffment  or 
fine  made  or  levied  by  the  tenant-in-tail  in  possession  by 
virtue  of  the  entail,  caused  what  was  called  a  discon- 
tinuance of  the  estate  tail,  whereby  the  issue  and  the  per- 
sons in  remainder  and  reversion  lost  their  rights  of  entry 
and  were  driven  to  their  action.  (Litt.,  595,  596,  597.) 
This  discontinuance  might  be  either  in  fee,  or  for  a  limited 
period,  according  to  the  duration  of  the  estate  created  by 
the  conveyance  of  the  tenant-in-tail ;  but  while  it  lasted  it 
affected  not  only  the  estate  tail,  but  all  the  remainders  and 
reversions.  (Litt.,  620,  625.)  A  discontinuance  might 
also  be  produced  by  the  obligation  of  a  warranty  by  the 
tenant-in-tail  descending  on  the  person  entitled  under  the 
entail.  This  discontinuance  however  was  but  partial,  ex- 
tending only  to  the  heirs  general  of  the  person  who  made 
the  warranty.  (Co.  Litt.,  328,  329  a.)  A  fine  duly  levied 
with  proclamations  was  an  absolute  bar  to  the  issue, 
though  not  to  the  remainder-men,  creating  what  was 
called  a  base  fee  ;  and  by  means  of  a  common  recovery 
duly  suffered,  the  tenant-m-tail  might  bar  his  issue  and  all 
the  remainders  over,  and  make  an  absolute  conveyance 
of  the  estate.  [RECOVERY.] 

By  the  3  &  4  Wm.  IV.,  c.  74,  fines,  recoveries,  and  war- 
ranties of  land  were  abolished,  and  by  the  Statute  of  Limi- 
tations (3  &  4  Wm.  IV.,  c.  27)  it  was  enacted  '  that  no 
discontinuance  or  warranty  which  may  happen  or  be  made 
after  that  day  (31st  of  December,  1833)  shall  defeat  any 
right  of  entry  or  action  for  the  recovery  of  land.'  It  seems 
therefore  that  no  discontinuance,  properly  so  called,  can 
now  be  produced  by  any  mode  of  conveyance,  for,  what- 
ever may  be  the  form  of  discontinuance,  the  last-mentioned 
statute  takes  away  its  effect. 

The  3  &  4  Wm.  IV.,  c.  74,  which  abolished  fines  and 
recoveries,  has  substituted  for  them  certain  modes  of  as- 
surance whereby  the  tenant  in  tail  may  now  at  once  bar 
his  estate  tail  and  all  the  remainders  over.  [FINE;  RE- 
COVERY ;  SETTLEMENT.] 

In  accordance  with  the  principle  which  prevented  a 
tenant  in  tail  from  alienating  his  estate  for  more  than  his 
own  lifetime,  leases  by  tenants  in  tail  might  be  avoided 
after  their  death  by  the  issue  in  tail.  But  by  the  32  Hen. 
VIII.,  c.  28,  tenants  in  tail  were  enabled  to  make  leases 
for  three  lives  or  twenty-one  years,  which  should  bind  their 
issue,  though  not  the  persons  in  remainder  or  the  rever- 
sioner. 

The  estate  of  the  tenant  in  tail  is  not  subject  to  any  of 
the  debts  or  incumbrances  of  his  ancestor,  except  debts 
due  to  the  crown,  by  the  32  Hen.  VIII.,  c.  39,  s.  75. 

Estates  tail  are  subject  to  the  bankrupt  laws.  The  mode 
of  procedure  as  to  bankrupt  tenants  in  tail  is  regulated  by 
the  :i  &  4  Win.  IV.,  c.  74,  the  55th  section  of  which  ex- 
pressly repeals  the  6  Geo.  IV.,  c.  16,  s.  65,  and  virtually 
repeals  the  1  &  2  Wm.  IV.,  c.  56,  s.  26.  The  powers  of 
the  commissioners  of  bankrupts  as  to  the  disposition  of 
such  estates  are  defined  (ss.  56-69). 

Estates  tail  are  subject  to  forfeiture,  for  high  treason  by 
the  '_>(;  Hen.  VIII.,  c.  13.  By  attainder  for  high  treason, 
the  estate  of  the  tenant  in  tail,  of  his  issue,  and  of  all  such 
of  his  collateral  heirs  as  would  have  been  entitled  to  take 
under  the  estate  tail,  are  forfeited,  but  not  the  estates  in 
remainder  or  the  reversion. 

The  26  Hen.  VIII.  extends  only  to  cases  of  high  treason, 
and  therefore  as  to  felonies  the  statute  De  Dnnix  is  still  in 
force,  and  the  forfeiture  by  attainder  for  felony  extends 

VOL.  XXIV.-2  U 


TEN 


194 


TEN 


only  to  the  life  interest  of  the  tenant  in  tail.    (Co.  Litt., 


TKNANT  KOU  I.1KK.  Tenancy  for  life  of  land*  or 
tenement*  is  the  possession  of  a  freehold  eitatc  or  interest, 
flu-  duration  of  which  is  confined  to  the  life  or  live*  of  flu- 
tenant  ur  sonic  other  person  or  persons. 

The  estate  of  the  tenant  for  fife  is  either  (1)  such  as  in 
created  l>v  deed  or  some  other  legal  assurance,  or  (2)  such 
as  arises  by  operation  of  law. 

tor  life  may  be  created  by  lease  with  livery 
of  seisin,  or  by  any  other  conveyance  :it  common  law  which 
misht  be  employed  in  coim-vim;  tin-  fee,  or  by  a  declara- 
tion of  a  use,  or  by  will.  The  estate  so  limited  may  be 
cither  to  a  person  for  his  own  life,  or  it  may  be  trivcii  to 
one  for  the  life  of  another,  or  for  any  number  of  lives  men- 
tioned in  t  hi:  crant.  In  th  is  in  effect 

one  for  the  life  of  the  survivor  of  the  persons  so  named. 
()n  the  other  hand,  an  estate  may  be  granted  for  the  joint 
lives  of  A  and  U.  in  which  case  "it  is  in  fact  an  estate  for 
the  life  of  the  person  who  dies  first. 

When  lands  or  tenements  are  conveyed  by  deed,  with- 
out a-  s  limitation  of  the  quantity  of  estate  to  be 

taken  by  the  grantee,  he  takes  an  estate  for  life  only. 
This  however  is  the  case  only  "hen  the  grantor  might 
lawfully  create  such  an  estate  ;"  for  if  he  be  tenant  in  tail, 
the  conveyance,  unless  it  be  a  lease  within  the  provisions 
Of  the  s!:it.  :!2  Hen.  VIII..  c.  2S.  will  pass  only  an  estate 
for  the  life  of  the  grantor.  Co.  Litt.,  42  a.)  Before  the 
1  Vic.,  c.  26,  a  devise  without  words  of  limitation  conferred 
on  the  devisee  a  life  estate  only;  but  now  by  sec.  28  of 
that  act,  a  devise,  though  without  any  words  of  limita- 
tion, passes  the  fee  simple,  or  the  whole  of  such  other 
lie  testator  had  power  to  dispose  of,  unless  a  con- 
trary intimation  appear  by  the  will. 

Formerly,  when  lands  were  given  to  A  for  the  life  of 
15  without  any  words  of  limitation,  if  A,  or  the  person  to 
whom  he  had  assigned  his  estate,  happened  to  din  in  the 
lifetime  of  U,  the  estate  was  considered  as  a  kind  of 
li,r,  ,,'  v,  belonging  to  whoever  first  took  posses- 

:  and  the  person  who  did  so  was  called  the  general 
occupant  (Co.  Litt.,  416).     [OCCUPANCY.] 

ift  to  two  persons  for  their  lives  is  an  estate  in  joint 
tenancy,  and  for  the  life  of  the  survivor,  if  the  parties  con- 
tinue joint  tenants;  but  if  the  jointure  be  se\ered,  each 
has  then  an  estate  in  the  moiety  for  his  own  life  only. 
(2  Blacks!.,  Cnni.,  187.) 

A  condition  may  be  annexed  to  an  estate  for  life,  as 
well  a-s  to  an  estate  in  fee  simple:  but  the  condition.it 
appc  !  not  be  one  prohibiting  alienation  on  pain 

or  forfeiture,  such  n  condition  being  considered  inconsis- 
tent with  the  nature  of  the  estate.  is  \  Vs..  .\:\:\. 

(2)  The  estates  fur  life  arisinsr  by  operation  of  law  are, 
the  et  Ret  i>o>sibility  ofiaroe  extinct,  and  the  es- 

tate by  courtesy  and  the  estate  in  dower. 

The  c-tate  ta'il  after  possibility  of  issue  extinct 
when,  by  the  death  of  one  of  the  persons  from  \\hom  the 
inheritable  issueistoproceed.it  ha.-  become  impossible 
that  any  person  should  c\ist  upon  whom  the  estate  tail  can 
descend.  Thus,  if  lands  be  riven  to  A  and  the  heirs  of  his 
body  by  B,  his  wife,  or  to  A  and  B  and  the  heirs  of  their 
bodies,  and  B  die  without  leavinir  any  issue  of  their  two 
\,  from  beinsr  tenant  in  tail  special,  becomes 
t  in  tail  after  possibility  of  issue  extinct;  which  is 
in  effect  nothing  more  than  a  tenancy  for  life,  with  cer- 
tain peculiar  pi  mainin-r  to  tin-  tenant  out  of  his 

former  inheritance,  the  principal  of  which  is  the  riu'ht  of 
committing  waste.  (Co.  Litt.,  '27,  t>\  Cruise,  Digest, 
tit.  4.) 

As  to  the  nature  and  incidents  of  tenancy  by  the  cour- 
tesy and  tenancy  in  dow.  I  and  DOWSR. 

Tenants  for  life  are  entitled  to   estovers;  that  is  t 
to  an  allowance  of  necessary  n  • 
and  fences  on  the  land  ;  but  no  t  > 
tenant  in  tail  after  possibility  of  i- 

iKTthan  is  necessary  for  such  purposes,  or 
build  new  houses,  or  open  mines,  without  licinir  guilty  of 
waste,  unless  his  estate  be,  as  it  may  be,  made  expressly 
without  impeachment  of  waste.  [WASTE.] 

When  a  tenant  for  life  dies  before  harvest-time,  his  ex- 
ecutors will  be  entitled  to  the  crops  then  growrng  on  the 
lands,  M  a  return  for  the  labour  and  expense  of  cultiva- 
tion, and  these  are  called  in  law  Emblements.  (Co,  Litt., 
65  b.) 


A  tenant  for  life  is  not  bound  to  payoff  the 
of  incumbrance*  affecting  the  inheritance,  but  he  is  bound 
to  keep  down  the  interest  of  all  such  incumbtances. 
(1  Bro.  R.,  3W;  1  Ves.jun.. 

lu  real  actions  all  tenants  for  life,  except  tenants  in  tail 
after  possibility  of  issue  extinct,  may  pray  in  aid.  or  call 
for  the  assistance  of  the  person  entitled  to  tin-  inheritance. 
to  defend  his  title,  because  the  tenant  for  hie  is  not  irene- 
rallv  supposed  to  have  in  his  possession  the  evidences  of 
the  title  to  the  inheritance.    <<  'misc.  Hm.,  t.  :t. , 
It  seems  to  have  been  formerly  considered  that  the  1. 
for  life  had  no  right  to  the  cuntody  of  the  title  deeds,  but 
the  contrary  appear*  now  to  be  established.    -  1'.\V.,-177; 
1.  Vex.,  juii..  7U:   1  Sch.  and  iVf.,  319.) 

The  tenant    for  life  may  convey   or  demise   his  t 
inent  by  the  same  means  as  a  tenant  in  fee.  provided  he 
does  not  attempt  to  convey  any  estate  greater  than  hi* 
own. 

If  he  convey  by  prant,  lease  for  years,  bargain  and  sale, 
or  lease  and  release,  he  can  pass  no  interest  greater  than 
that  which  he  himself  possesses,  the  conveyance  t,. 

-  is  merely  void,  and  no  forfeiture  is  incurred,  lint 
a  conveyance  by  feorl'ment,  or  by  any  assurance  equivalent 
to  a  fine  or  recovery,  if  purporting  to  exceed  the  bounds 
Of  the  life  estate,  displaces  the  estates  in  remainder  and 
creates  a  wrongful  fee  ample.  The  person  entitled  to  the 
next  estate  in  remainder  or  reversion  becomes  then  imme- 
diately entitled  to  enter,  thereby  restoring  all  the  estates 
which  had  been  displaced  by  the  tortious  conveyance,  ex- 
cept that  of  the  tenant  for  fife,  which  becomes  absolutely 
forfeited.  (.Lift..  Will,  fill),  415,  416.) 

As  to  the  merger  and  surrender  of  estates  for  life,  sec 
MK.KOKR  and  SCKKKNDKR. 

The  name  tenant  for  life  is  also  applied  to  the  person  to 
whom,  in  settlements  or  wills  of  personal  property,  is  given 
an  interest  for  life  only  in  the  fund  which  is  the  subject  of 
the  settlement  or  will.  [SETTLEMENT;  WILL.] 

TENANT  FUR  YEARS.  [KSTATK  ;  LEASE  ;  TKRM  or 
YEARS  ;  TENANT  AND  LANDLORD.] 

TKNANTS  or  TENANCY  IN  COMMON.  [COMMON, 
TENANCY  IN.] 

TENA88ERIM,  or  TENASSERIM  PROVINCES,  is  a 
term  which  has  lately  come  into  jreneral  use  to  designate 
those  countries  on  the  west  coast  of  the  peninsula  without 
the  Ganges  which  lie  on  the  east  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Mar- 
taban.  and  were  acquired  by  the  Brit i>h  by  the  peace  of 
Yandalm  (IK'J(i)  from  the  Birmans.  At  that  time,  the 
boundaries  of  thi«  country  were  very  imperfectly  known, 
except  that  they  were  washed  on  the  west  by  the  Gulf  of 
Bengal.  Kven  durinir  times  of  peace  predatory  incursions 
had  been  made  both  by  the  Birmans  and  Siamese,  which 
had  the  effect  of  converting  law  tracts  cumiir.ums  to  the 
boundary-line  into  complete  deserts,  and  thus  it  happened 
that  the  limits  of  the  liinncse  and  Siamese  countries  were 
unknown  to  the  t'.vn  states,  which  here  came  into  contact 
with  one  another,  and  even  up  to  the  present  time  tin- 
British  are  very  impcifectly  acquainted  with  the  c\! 
this  possession.  A  river,  Pakcham.  constituted,  according  to 
old  record-,  the  southern  boundary-line  of  Itiiiua  in 
parts,  and  the  fi  *hich  were  published  after  the 

of  Yandabo  laid  the  boundary  down  near  II  N.  Int., 
but  it  was  afterwards  ascertained  that  the  mouth  of  this  river 
thoflO  X.  hit.  and  of  I 'ape  Victoria.  During  the 
occupation  of  the  country  by  the  liirmans,  it  had  been  con- 
sidered that  all  the  country  drained  by  the  rivcis  which  fall 
into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  belonged  to  their  dominions,  and 
that  those  whose  drainage  went  to  the  Gulf  of  Sian  formed 
a  portion  of  the  Siamese  empire.  When  the  lirilish  took 
possession  of  Tena.sserim,  this  watershed  was  thought  to  be 
from  30  to  50  miles  from  the  Hay  of  Bengal,  but  it  has 
been  ascertained  that  in  some  part*  it  is  at  a  much  Lr 
distance,  and  that  between  10"  and  17"  4o'.\.  lat.  il  is  pro- 
bably UK)  miles  from  the  sea.  On  the  map  iimicvcd  to 
Smxlirrass's  liumese  \\'ar,  the  northern  boundary  is  laid 
down  between  lK°and  1!)UN.  Int..  but  it  is  now  known  that 
it  is  formed  by  the  lower  coiu.se  of  the  nver  Tlioung  Yin,  a 
tributary  of  the  Saluen,  and  that  it  docs  not  extend  beyond 
17°  4KY  N.  lat.  Thus  wo  know  that  Tenaoerini  e\! 
I'romMirto  17  -Id'  N.  hit.,  audit  is  supposed  that  t 
boundary,  at  least  m  some  parts,  approaches  icr  :xr  K. 
long.  It  is  evident  that  in  the  present  slate  ofourknow- 
ul  the  country  it  is  impossible  to  determine  the 
area  of  Tenasserim,  but  we  are  inclined  to  think  that  the 


TEN 


195 


T  E  N 


estimate  of  Dr.  Heifer,  who  assigns  to  it  an  extent  o 
:fO.O()0  square  miles,  is  not  too  great. 

The  river  Saluen  or  Salween  from  its  confluence  with  the 
rhoung  Yin  to  its  mouth  divides  Tenasserim  from  Binna 
and  theThoungYiu  divides Tenasserim  from  the  Shan  States 
(Laos)  of  Zimmay,  Laboung,  and  Yaihang.  A  range  o 
mountains  running  from  north  to  south  through  the  whole 
of  the  Malay  peninsula  constitutes  the  boundary  between 
Siara  and  Tenasserim  as  far  south  as  the  source. of  the 
river  Pakcham,  and  from  that  point  the  course  of  the  last- 
mentioned  river  forms  the  boundary  to  its  mouth.  In 
the  Gulf  of  Bengal  and  opposite  to  Tenasserim  are  the 
Andaman  Islands. 

Coast  and  Island*. — The  coast  of  Tenasserim  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Salween  river  on  the  north  (16°  3CC  N.  lat.) 
to  that  of  the  Pakcham  (10°  X.  lat.),  extends  in  a  straight 
line  about  45<)  miles,  and  as  its  bends  are  not  large,  nor  its 
inlets  wide  or  deep,  its  length  probably  does  not  exceed 
500  miles  measured  from  point  to  point.  A  marked 
difference  exUts  between  this  coast  and  that  of  the  oppo- 
site coast  of  Coromandel.  The  coast  of  Coromandal  extends 
in  a  continuous  line  without  a  single  break,  and  does  not 
afford  a  place  of  refuge  even  for  a  small  vessel ;  that  of 
Tenasserim  is  frequently  interrupted  by  short  projecting 
capes,  by  which  several  small  harbours  are  formed,  and  a 
few  capable  of  receiving  large  vessels.  The  rivers  of  Coro- 
mandel do  not  admit  vessels  of  any  size,  on  account  of 
the  bars  at  their  mouth,  but  in  those  of  Tenasserim  a  con- 
siderable depth  of  water  covers  the  muddy  bars  which 
lie  across  their  embouchures.  No  soundings  are  found 
along  the  coast  of  Coromandel  at  a  distance  of  seven  or 
eight  miles,  whilst  along  that  of  Tenasserim  there  are 
soundings  to  the  distance  of  60  or  even  80  miles,  and 
though  in  some  places  considerable  irregularities  occur, 
the  changes  may  be  generally  said  to  be  tolerably  regu- 
lar, the  depth  decreasing  gradually  to  ten  and  even 
eight  fathoms  as  we  approach  the  land.  The  coast  from 
Cape  Kyckmi  or  Kiaykami,  situated  on  the  west  of  and 
close  to  the  town  of  Amherst,  as  far  south  as  Tavoy,  is 
of  moderate  elevation.  Between  Tavoy  and  Mergui  it  is 
generally  low,  and  in  this  part  it  is  lined  by  a  rocky  reef, 
on  whicn  a  great  number  of  small  islands  rise  to  a  moderate 
elevation  above  the  sea-level.  These  islands  are  known 
by  the  collective  name  of  Long  Island,  and  the  reef  on 
which  they  rest,  having  little  water  on  it,  renders  the  ap- 
proach of  this  part  of  the  coast  dangerous,  and  in  many 
places  impracticable  even  for  small  vessels.  South  of 
Mergui  the  coast-line  is  broken  by  several  deep  inlets, 
which  form  large  promontories,  and  enclose  some  con- 
siderable islands.  The  intricacies  on  this  part  of  the  coast 
:ne  so  numerous,  that  even  at  present  it  has  not  been  com- 
pletely surveyed,  and  is  laid  down  rather  by  guess,  though 
of  late  much  has  been  done  to  clear  up  its  position  by 
(-'apt.  IJoyd.  This  indented  coast  extends  from  12"  30*  to 
IT  SO*  N.  lat.  South  of  the  last-mentioned  parallel  in- 
dentations likewise  occur,  but  though  numerous,  they  do 
not  penetrate  to  a  great  distance  inland.  In  these  parts 
the  country  close  to  the  sea  is  more  elevated  than  at  any 
place  farther  north,  and  probably  may  contain  many  har- 
bours for  small  vessels. 

Numerous  islands  occur  along  the  western  coast  of  the 
peninsula  without  the  Ganges,  between  14*  407  and  8*  N. 
lat.  North  of  12°  they  extend  to  the  distance  of  70  or 
80  miles  from  the  shore,  but  south  of  12"  N.  lat.  they 
•  if-eupy  a  space  of  only  30  miles  in  width.  These  islands 
are  comprehended  under  the  collective  name  of  the  Mergui 
Arehipelago.  All  the  sea  between  them  and  the  coast 
of  Tenasserim  has  soundings,  though  near  the  islands  they 
are  rather  too  deep  for  anchorage.  These  islands  also 
break  the  swell  of  the  sea  during  the  south-west  monsoon, 
and  accordingly  the  channels  which  divide  them  from 
the  main  offer  great  advantages  to  vessels  coasting  along 
1hi>  shore,  which  however  have  hitherto  been  little  used, 
because  the  Mergui  Archipelago  has  only  been  surveyed 
within  a  few  years.  The  islands  themselves  are  rather  high, 
and  most  of  them  are  visible  at  the  distance  of  30  to  40  miles. 
Without  including  the  islands  which  occur  between  12° 30* 
and  11"  :t<)'  N.  lat.,  near  the  shores,  and  which  are  divided 
by  such  long  and  narrow  channels  from  the  continent  that 
they  led  as  parts  of  the  mainland,  the  Mergui 

Archipelago  comprehend*  seven  larger  and  many  smaller 
islands.  The  larger  islands  from  north  to  south  are  Tavoy 
Island,  King's  Island,  Ross  Island,  Domel  Island,  Kisse- 


roing  Island,  Sullivan's  or  Lampee  Island,  and  St.  Matthew's 
Island.  These  seven  islands  are  more  than  20  miles  long, 
but  vary  in  width  from  three  to  eight  or  nine  miles. 
They  are  covered  with  timber-trees  and  well  provided  with 
water,  but  all  of  them  have  a  very  rugged  and  uneven 
surface,  and  do  not  appear  to  possess  great  fertility.  No 
part  of  them  seems  to  be  cultivated,  and  they  are  only 
inhabited  by  a  tribe  of  fishermen,  the  Seelongs.  Two  of 
these  islands  require  notice,  on  account  of  their  excellent 
harbours.  The  northern  of  these  harbours  is  called  King's 
Island  Bay,  being  formed  by  the  island  of  this  name  and 
Plantain  Island,  which  lies  east  of  it.  This  harbour  is 
opposite  to  that  of  the  town  of  Mergui  on  the  mainland. 
It  can  only  be  entered  from  the  north  by  large  vessels,  ag 
the  southern  portion  of  the  channel,  which  divides  Plan- 
tain Island  from  King's  Island  has  so  litfle  depth  as  to  be 
only  passable  for  country  boats.  The  harbour  is  spacious 
and  safe,  but  the  entrance  has  some  difficulties,  as  a  shoal 
extends  over  a  part  of  it,  which  has  19  feet  of  water  on  the 
shoalest  part  at  high-water,  and  only  nine  feet  at  low- 
water.  The  second  harbour  is  called  Elephant  Harbour, 
and  occurs  at  the  northern  part  of  the  Island  of  St.  Mat 
thew :  it  is  described  as  very  spacious,  and  capable  of  con 
tuining  the  largest  navy  in  the  world.  The  soundings 
vary  from  17  to  12,  11,  and  10  fathoms  nearly  close  to  the 
shore  in  some  places,  and  the  bottom  is  soft.  It  is  pro- 
tected from  the  sea  by  several  small  islands  at  the  entrance, 
and  on  the  other  sides  it  is  sheltered  from  all  winds  by  the 
high  hills  which  surround  it,  so  as  to  be  completely  laml- 
lorked.  This  harbour  was  discovered  in  1825,  by  Lieut. 
Low.  The  island  of  St.  Matthew  is  the  most  elevated  of 
the  group ;  the  highest  part,  situated  in  the  middle,  is 
nearly  3000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

Mountains. — It  is  supposed  that  a  continuous  range  of 
mountains  forms  the  watershed  between  the  rivers  flowing 
on  one  side  into  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  and  on  the  other  into 
that  of  Bengal,  and  that  this  range  is  the  boundary-line  be- 
tween Siam  and  Tenasserim.  It  is  also  supposed  that  the 
elevation  of  this  range  varies  between  3000  and  5000  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  and  that  the  most  northern  part,  which 
s  known  among  the  natives  by  the  name  of  Thown-gee 
Mountains,  is  the  most  elevated  portion.  It  is  stated  that 
'n  this  part  it  makes  a  great  bend  towards  the  east,  form- 
ng  nearly  a  segment  of  a  circle.  But  we  have  no  account 
if  this  part  of  the  range  :  it  has  only  been  traversed  at  the 
Three  Pagodas,  which  stand  near  tne  sources  of  the  upper 
tranches  of  the  river  Atta-yen  (Attaran) ;  and  in  reading 
he  account  which  Dr.  Richardson  gives  of  his  travels,  one 
would  suppose  that  at  this  place  the  summit  of  the  range 
:an  hardly  be  less  than  1500  feet  above  the  sea-level :  yet 
le  does  not  say  that  he  traversed  it  by  a  mountain-pass. 
The  southern  part  of  the  range,  when  seen  from  the  Gulf 
of  Siam,  presents  only  a  succession  of  peaked  mountains,  of 
which  some  appear  to  rise  to  the  elevation  of  3000  feet. 
The  Siamese  give  to  these  mountains  with  some  propriety 
he  name  of  Sam-roi-yot,  which  means  in  their  language 
the  300  peaks.'  Two  roads  are  said  to  have  formerly  been 
ised  in  crossing  this  part  of  the  chain  ;  and  it  is  certain 
hat  the  chain  terminates,  or  rather  has  a  great  depression, 
at  the  sources  and  upper  course  of  the  river  Pakcham. 
This  river  runs  from  north-east  to  south-west,  and  is  navi- 
gable for  large  boats  to  Karaa  or  Pakcham,  about  40  miles 
rom  its  source.  To  the  east  of  this  place  runs  another 
river  in  an  opposite  direction,  which  falls  into  the  Gulf  of 
Siam,  and  is  called  the  river  of  Choomphon,  from  the 
ilace  where  it  reaches  the  sea,  or  Tehmfoung,  as  Dr. 
leli'er  heard  it  named  by  the  natives.  The  interval  be- 
ween  the  navigable  parts  of  these  two  rivers,  occupying  a 
pace  of  about  six  hours'  march,  or  30  miles,  is  a  level 
ract.  It  is  even  stated  that  at  high  tides  the  rivers  rise  so 
as  to  inundate  this  tract,  and  to  mingle  their  waters  ;  but 
">r.  Heifer,  who  visited  the  place,  does  not  mention  this 
circumstance,  and  it  seems  to  have  been  stated  on  very 
slender  authority.  As  far  as  it  is  .known,  this  chain  is 
chiefly  composed  of  granite  and  gneiss.  These  moun- 
aing  are  scarcely  ever  very  precipitous,  and  are  generally 
rounded  near  the  tops,  which  rise  in  gentle  declivities.  The 
surface  of  the  rocks  is  generally  decomposed  and  covered 
with  vegetation  ;  a  bare  rock  is  rarely  seen.  Only  a  few 
spots  are  occasionally  cultivated  by  the  Kareans,  who  arc 
n  exclusive  possession  of  these  wildernesses. 

Hurfwf,  .Soil,  and  Jtirers. — The  general  character   of 
the  country  is  hilly,  and  in  some  places  even  mountainous, 

2C2 


TEN 


196 


TEN 


but  there  arc  also  plains  of  considerable  extent  and  some 
wide  \ alloys.  The  degree  of  fertility  which  tin-  soil  pos- 
aeaet  cannot  be  determined  with  any  certainty,  as  only 
ill  portion  of  it  is  under  culti\:ition  ;  but  we  are 
inclined  to  adopt  the  statement  of  Dr.  Hi  i  .ng  to 

which  these  provinces  are  nuicli  superior  in  fertility  to  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  by  far  the  greater  part  of  them  being 
really"  fertile,  or  capable  of  being  made  productive.  He 
thinks  that  the  unproductive,  sterile,  or  unavailable  lands 
are  less  than  one-fourth  of  the  whole  :  and  he  ascribes  the 
fertility  not  only  to  the  natural  constituents  of  the  soil,  hut 
partly  "also  to  the  quantity  of  humus  or  decayed  vegetable 
matter  which  has  accumulated  through  centuries,  as  the 
whole  country  is  an  uninterrupted  fore.-t,  the  greater  part 
of  which  has  never  been  felled. 

The  Xnrthrra  jiortion  of  Tenasserim  wo  shall  call  the 
Region  of  the  Atta-yen  (Attaran;,  as  this  ri\er  diains  the 
most  fertile  portion  of  it,  and  its  valley  must  soon  become 
the  centre  of  a  consideral)le  population.  This  region  com- 
prehends the  whole  of  the  country  as  far  south  as  15°  N. 
fat.,  or  the  districts  of  Aniherst  and  Yee.  The  most 
northern  districts  are  mountainous.  Along  the  southern 
banks  of  the  Thoung-yin,  which  forms  the  northern  bound- 
ary of  Tcnasserim,  runs  a  mountain-chain,  which,  as  far  as 
it  'is  known,  constitutes  a  continuous  ridge.  It  is  called  Bo- 
Thowng,  and  rises  to  more  than  2000  feet  above  the  sea- 
level.  It  is  composed  of  sandstone,  limestone,  and  clay- 
slate,  and  its  declivities  are  very  steep.  In  some  parts  it  is 
ovi  rgiown  with  forests  of  bamboo.  It  is  not  known  how  this 
chain  is  connected  with  the  Thown-gee  Mountains,  and 
the  upper  course  of  the  Thoung-yin  river  is  equally  un- 
known. 

The  country  south  of  the  Bo-Thoung,  adjacent  to  the 
river  Salween,  and  to  the  distance  of  ;»  miles  from  it,  for 
the  more  inland  parts  are  not  known,  is  a  plain,  which 
however  contains  numerous  masses  of  rocks,  composed 
chiefly  of  limestone  and  sandstone.  These  masses  are  iso- 
lated, but  they  are  disposed  in  lines  running  north-north- 
west and  south-south-east.  Some  of  them  rise  to  the 
height  of  2000  feet  above  the  sea-level ,  but  in  proceeding 
southward  they  sink  lower,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Atta- 
yen  they  rarely  exceed  GOO  feet.  Their  structure,  spe- 
cially that  of  the  limestone  rocks,  is  remarkable,  as  the 
sides  generally  are  almost  perpendicular,  and  consequently 
bare,  except  in  a  few  places,  which  are  not  so  steep, 
and  where  some  stunted  trees  or  shrubs  crow.  No  level 
ground  occurs  on  their  top,  where  they  are  also  quite  bare. 
On  their  sides  there  are  numerous  chasms  and  caverns.  In 
the  southern  districts  the  number  of  these  isolated  masses 
decreases.  The  tracts  of  land  surrounding  their  bases  are 
distinguished  by  fertility,  the  soil  consisting  of  tine  black 
loam.  The  remainder  of  the  plain  is  much  less  fertile,  the 
soil  being  composed  of  an  arenaceous  clay  mixed  with  a 
small  portion  of  saline  and  vegetable  matter.  The  forests 
which  cover  the  plain  contain  only  trees  of  moderate  si/e, 
and  there  is  no  underwood. 

Within  the  country  just  described  (here  is  an  extensive 
alluvial  tract,  which  occurs  where  the  three  rivers  Salween, 
Gyeng,  and  Atta-yen  join.  The  principal  of  these  rivers 
is  the  Salween  or  Saluen.  generally  called  by  the  natives 
Than-I.weng  :  it  originates  in  the  south-western  part  of 
Proper  Chink,  in  Die  province  of  Yun-nan,  or  farther  to 
the  north;  for  its  upper  course  is  not  known:  in  China  it 
i»  called  Noo-kiang  and  Loo-kiang.  Running  in  a  gene- 
rally southern  course,  it  is  supposed  to  lonu  the  boundary 
between  the'  Shan  States  (Laos),  which  are  subject  to 
Siam,  and  the  Hirman  empire.  This  part  of  is  course  is 
not  known.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Thoung-yin  il  begin-,  lo 
separate  Tenasseinn  from  Duma,  and  this  is  the  only  part 
of  its  course  which  has  been  investigated.  Though  at  this 
point  the  river  is  only  about  loo  miles  from  its  mouth,  and 
nas  a  great  volume  of  water,  it  is  not  na\igablc.  The 
limestone  and  sandstone  rocks,  which  are  very  frequent  in 
these,  parts,  cross  the  bed  of  the  river,  and  form  social 
ledges,  over  which  the  current  rushes  with  great  impetu- 
osity. NearTnvvng-bio-myoi  about  1  7'-«l'  N.  lat.  i  the  lapids 
are  no  strong  as  to  prevent  every  kind  of  navigation  except 
perhaps  dnnng  the  north-east  monsoon.  Then-  are  M'\eial 
other  rapids,  though  less  dangerous,  farther  down,  and 
they  cease  only  at  Colon  Island  near  17"  N.  lat.  i.  where 
the  river  divides  into  two  channels.  The  eastern  channel 
alone  i*  navigable.  The  island  is  rocky,  and  about  Id 
miles  long,  but  only  about  two  miles  wide  in  the  widest 


part.     Even  below  this  island  the  banks  of  the  river  are 
generally  bordered   by  limestone  rocks:  and   the   n:. 
turn   is  very  dangerous,  owing  to  the  force  of  the   ciiiTcnt 
and   the  numerous  eddies  produced  by  the  inequalities  in 
the  bed  of  the  river,  which   in   these  "pine.-  niely 

deep.  A  boat  once  drawn  within  the  vortex  of  a  whirf- 
pool  is  inevitably  lost ;  both  boat  and  crew  are  earned 
down,  and  never  known  to  make  their  appearance  again. 

The  Atta-\eii  or  Attaran   is  known  up  to  tlie  . 
its  source.      Its  principal    blanch  originates  to  the  soutii  ..f 
the  Three  Pagodas  in  the  Thown-gee  range,  and  is  called 
Zimee.     It  flows  north  or  north  by  west,  and  is  rather  a 
dee])  river,  for  even  at  a  short  distance  froi. 
three  feet   deep,   and   this  depth   increases  as  it  pro; 
farther  down,   where  it  is  joined   by  numerous  small 
from  the  Thown-gee  range.     The  current  is  never  rapid, 
and  hence  it  is  used  for  floating  down  teak  timber.     The 
tide  advances  to  Nat   Kyeanng,   about  70  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Atta-yen.     Above  Alta-yen,  which  is  more 
than  :«)  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the'river,  the  /in 
joined  by  the  'Way-nio,  which  comes  fiom  the  south,  and, 
alter    the    confluence  of   the    two  branches,    the  ri\ 
called  Atta-yen.     This  river  has  a  verv  winding   course, 
and  the  current  is  hardly  perceptible.     As  the  tide,  which 
here  rises  to   19  or  20  feet,  advances  more  than  30  miles 
above  the  confluence  of  the  /imee  with  the  Way-nio.  it 
is  very  probable  that  the  whole  fall  of  the  Atta-yen,  which 
amounts  to  50  miles,  if  all  its  bends  are  taken  into  account, 
does  not    exceed  12  feet.     Tlie  liver   isveiydecp:    ill  the 
lower  part   no  bottom  is  found  with  '.)  fathoms,  and  up  to 
Atta-yen  there  is  never  less  than  3  fathoms  of  water. 

The  Gyeng  or  Gain  comes  from  the  east,  but  its  upper 
course  is  imperfectly  known.  It  is  a  broad  river  in  its 
lower  course,  but  is  shallow  and  full  of  sand-banks. 

These  three  rivers  unite  nearly  at  the,  same  place,  about 
30  miles  from  the  open  sea,  and  by  their  confluence  form 
a  broad  sheet  of  water,  which  is  about  15  miles  long  fnun 
north-east  to  south-west,  and  from  five  to  six  miles  wide, 
and  interspersed  with  numerous  wooded  islands.  This 
expanse  of  waters  is  separated  from  the  sea  by  a  large 
island  called  Phulloo-gewn,  or.  according  to  i'lawfurd. 
Hahi.  This  island  is  about  20  miles  long,  and  10  in  ave- 
rage width.  A  chain  of  low  sandstone  hills  runs  through 
Its  length,  never  exceeding  200  feet  in  height.  The  shores 
of  the  island  are  covered  with  low  mangrove  jungle,  but 
it  forms  only  a  narrow  belt,  which  is  traversed  by  several 
creeks  that  penetrate  several  miles  into  the  island,  and 
on  which  behind  the  mangrove  jungle  there  are  plains, 
which  extend  to  the  hills  and  are  covered  with  rice-fields. 
The  water  which  is  collected  above  this  island  finds  its 
way  to  the  sea  by  two  channels,  of  which  the  southern 
runs  due  south  and  is  about  20  miles  long,  and  called  the 
Martaban  river.  The  navigation  of  this  river  is  difficult, 
as  the  depth  of  the  channel  is  not  more  than  two  or  three 
fathoms  at  several  places,  and  there  are  many  sand-banks. 
It  does  not  appear  that  the  channel  north  of  the  island  of 
Phulloo-gewn  is  visited  by  large  vessels. 

The  country  which  surrounds  the  expanse  of  water  into 
which  the  three  rivers  disembogue  is  interspersed  with 
limestone  hills,  but  the  intervening  plains  are  covered  with 
a  thick  layer  of  alluvial  soil.  The  banks  of  the  lake  and 
of  the  rivers  are  covered  with  mangroves,  and  unlit  for  any 
agricultural  purpose,  but  at  a  short  distance  from  the 
water's  edge  the  alluvial  plains  are  destitute  of  trees  and 
.shrubs,  and  exhibit  a  very  considerable  degree  ol  fertility, 
producing  rich  crops  ol  rice  where  thev  are  cultivated. 
This  lich  agricultural  tract  extends  to  the  eonllucii. 
the  /imee  and  \Vay-nio  rivers. 

The  country  drained  by  the  Zimee  is  also  a  plain,  which 
is  much  higher  than  that  on  the  Attu-yc:i  river,  as  the 
banks  of  the'  first-named  river  rise  to  'JO  feel  above  its  sur- 
face, whilst  those  of  the  Atta-yen  are  \ci\  lov\  and  subject 
to  inundation  dining  the  rains.  The  plains  on  the  Ximee 
river  are  nearly  a  dead  level  in  their  lower  dislrn-fs,  und 
no  limestone  hills  occur  above  the  confluence  of  the  two 
rivers;  but  in  proceeding  farther  south  the  surface  of  the 
country  becomes  undulating,  and  in  approaching  the. 
ThOfrn-gee  rang.'  it  is  broken  by  numerous  deep  ravines, 
though  it  cannot  be  called  mountainous.  This  exit 

1^  covered  with  a  deep  layer  of  clay  of  considerable 
fertility,  and  the  country  contains  e\ten.-i\e  lores) s,  in 
which  the  teak  '  -  to  a  large  si/e.  lint  there  ure 

also  tracts  of  less  fertility,  where  the  soil  is  very  hard  and. 


TEN 


197 


TEN 


intermixed  with  small  nodules  of  ironstone :  such  tracts 
are  always  overgrown  with  bamboo  jungle,  and  are  the 
haunts  of'  numerous  elephants,  rhinoceroses,  and  other  wile 
animals. 

The  country  between  the  Atta-yen  river  and  the  sea  is 
covered  by  ridges  of  sandstone  hills  about  500  feet  high. 
These  hills  run  in  continuous  swells  as  far  south  as  14°  30' 
N.  lat.  This  tract,  whose  surface  is  strongly  undulating,  is 
of  indifferent  fertility,  owing  to  the  aridity  of  the  soil,  which 
absorbs  the  moisture.  It  is  chiefly  covered  with  forests, 
more  or  less  thick  according  to  the  depth  of  the  soil.  In 
many  places  the  rocks  approach  the  surface,  and  have  only 
a  thin  layer  of  earth  over  them,  and  in  such  places  there 
are  only  a  few  bushes,  and  patches  of  grass  which  soon  dry 
up  after  the  rains.  This  tract  contains  two  small  rivers, 
which  form  harbours.  The  most  northern,  called  Kal-yen, 
falls  into  the  sea  east  of  the  new  town  of  Amherst,  of 
which  it  constitutes  the  harbour.  On  its  bar,  which  is  of 
soft  ooze,  there  are  two  fathoms  and  a  half  of  water  at  low 
tide ;  but  within  the  bar,  and  as  far  as  8  miles  up,  it  is 
between  five  and  a  half  and  five  fathoms  deep  ;  and  near 
its  mouth,  from  400  to  500  yards  wide.  It  thus  forms  a 
spacious  harbour,  which  most  merchant  ships  can  enter 
at  low-water  neap-tides,  and  at  high-water  ships  of  any 
burden.  Near  15"  12'  is  the  mouth  of  the  Yee  river,  which 
forms  a  wide  itstuary,  but  it  is  too  shallow  to  admit  large 
•Is:  smaller  ships  may  sail  up  to  the  town  of  Yee, 
which  is  about  five  or  six  miles  from  the  river's  mouth. 

The  country  east  of  the  sandstone  tract,  and  surrounding 
the  river  Way-nio  and  extending  to  the  Atta-yen,  is  the 
mo>t  sterile  part  of  Tenasserim.  The  vegetation  is  stunted, 
and  a  great  part  of  this  tract  is  covered  with  bamboo 
jungle.  The  soil  is  an  argillaceous  transition  schist,  unmixed 
with  sanely  particles,  which  quickly  absorbs  all  moisture. 

The  Region  of  the  Tenasserim  River  comprehends  the 
Central  portion  of  the  country,  extending  from  15°  to  12" 
.\.  lat.  The  northern  districts,  as  far  south  as  13°  30',  pre- 
sent a  very  uneven  surface.  Several  ridges  of  hills  traverse 
the  country  from  north  to  south :  they  consist  chiefly  of 
granite  and  gneiss,  and  rise  to  a  moderate  elevation.  They 
arc  generally  rounded  near  the  tops,  and  their  declivities 
are  rather  gentle.  The  valleys  which  are  inclosed  by  them 
are  of  moderate  width,  and  fertile.  The  decomposed  par- 
ticles of  the  adjacent  rocks  arc  washed  by  the  rains  from 
tin-  sides  of  the  hills,  and  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  the 
valleys,  where  they  are  mixed  with  a  large  quantity  of  de- 
cayed vegetable  matter,  which  makes  a  rich  soil.  Level 
tracts  of  a  great  extent  are  rare  :  the  largest  are  near  the 
town  of  Tavoy  and  at  the  foot  of  the  Thown-gee  range, 
where  an  elevated  table-land  occurs,  called  Meta-mio. 
The  soil  of  these  plains  consists  of  clay  or  loam,  with  little 
sand,  and  it  is  very  fertile. 

The  southern  districts  resemble  the  northern,  except 
tliat  the  hilly  ranges,  which  here  also  ran  north  and  south, 
occupy  a  much  smaller  portion  of  the  surface,  the  plains 
being  more  numerous  and  of  greater  extent.  The  largest 
are  those  which  occur  along  the  sea-shore,  but  especially 
tin-  Plain  of  Ttiiasserim,  which  is  many  miles  in  length 
and  several  in  width,  and  extends  along  the  left  bank  of 
the  river  above  the  town  of  Tenasserim.  It  is  covered 
with  a  deposit  of  argillaceous  marl  of  great  depth  and  fer- 
tility. No  less  fertile  is  the  extensive  alluvial  tract  which 
surrounds  the  several  branches  into  which  the  Tenasserim 
river  divides  before  it  reaches  the  sea,  and  which  occupies 
also  the  greater  part  of  the  islands  which  lie  between 
these  branches.  A  part  of  this  alluvial  tract  is  unfit  for 
cultivation,  being  inundated  at  high-water,  and  covered 
with  mangroves.  The  whole  region  is  overgrown  with 
forest-trees,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  spots  which  are 
under  cultivation. 

The  most  important  river  of  this  region  is  the  Tenas- 
serirn.  According  to  Low,  it  rises  near  15"  lit/  N'.  lat.,  but 
other  known  facts  render  this  improbable,  and  its  sources 
are  laid  down  in  our  maps  south  of  15°  N.  lat.  It  flows 
in  a  southern  direction  over  nearly  three  degrees  of  lati- 
tude, or  more  than  200  miles  in  a  straight  line.  The  upper 
part  of  its  course  is  interrupted  by  numerous  rapids  and 
falls,  which  occur  even  farther  down,  and  as  far  as  13^  15', 
where  the  last  great  rapids  are.  To  this  place  the  tides 
ascend,  but  the  river  still  has  a  rapid  current,  numerous 
shallows,  annually  changing  banks,  and  shifting  shoals. 
Dining  the  dry  season  it  is  impracticable  for  boats  drawing 
more  than  17  inches.  It  becomes  deeper  at  its  confluence 


with  (he  Little  Tenasserim,  or  Khioung-gale,  which  joins 
it  at  its  most  southern  bend,  and  brings  down  a  large 
volume  of  water  from  the  Sam-roi-yot  range.  Up  to  this 
place,  where  the  town  of  Tenasserim  is  built,  the  river  is 
deep  enough  for  vessels  of  100  tons.  At  the  same  place 
the  Tenasserim  turns  to  the  west,  having  passed  between 
two  high  hills  to  the  north-west.  Soon  afterwards  it 
begins  to  divide  into  two  arms,  which  in  approaching  the 
sea  again  subdivide,  so  that,  according  to  the  survey  of 
Captain  Lloyd,  it  reaches  the  sea  by  six  or  seven  channels. 
There  are  sand-bare  across  these  channels,  but  the  bar 
which  is  found  on  the  channel  south  of  the  town  of 
Mergui  has  depth  enough  for  vessels  of  moderate  size  at 
high-water,  the  tide  rising  between  14  and  15  feet.  Below 
the  town  of  Tenasserim  the  river  still  runs  above  40  miles 
in  a  straight  line.  Its  whole  course  is  about  240  miles. 

The  river  Tavoy,  which  originates  near  15"  N.  lat.,  runs 
first  to  the  south-west,  but  turns  gradually  to  the  south, 
so  that  its  lower  course  is  parallel  to  the  shore.  The  wide 
a'stnary  by  which  it  is  connected  with  the  sea  reaches  to 
13"  30'  N.  lat. ;  the  whole  course  of  the  river  in  a  straight 
line  is  not  less  than  100  miles.  It  is  stated  that  the  tide, 
which  rises  from  13  to  14  feet,  runs  up  more  than  50  miles 
from  the  sea,  and  that  to  this  distance  the  river  may  be 
navigated  by  boats,  though  the  navigation  is  rendered 
difficult  by  numerous  low  islands  and  shoals.  The  town 
of  Tavoy  is  about  35  miles  from  the  sea,  and  so  far  vessels 
of  120  tons  burden  may  ascend.  There  is  no  bar  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  river,  but  the  navigation  is  intricate,  owing 
to  the  numerous  shoals  and  low  islands,  as  there  are  vari- 
ous channels  among  them  which  in  some  places  have  only 
2  or  2^  fathoms,  but  in  most  parts  the  depths  are  from  0  to 
12  fathoms.  There  is  good  anchorage  on  the  east  side  of 
Tavoy  Point,  which  is  on  the  west  side  of  the  entrance  of 
the  river,  in  G  fathoms,  on  a  soft  even  bottom,  and  it  is 
well  sheltered,  except  against  southern  winds. 

The  Southern  Region  of  Tenasserim,  or  that  which  lies 
between  12°  and  10"  N.  lat.,  is  situated  on  the  long  isthmus 
which  connects  the  Malay  Peninsula  with  the  main  body 
of  Asia,  and  is  known  as  the  Isthmus  of  Krah,  It  is  the 
least  known  part  of  Tenasserim.  Dr.  Heifer,  who  lately 
investigated  its  geology  and  minerals,  found  it  unin- 
habited, with  the  exception  of  a  few  spots,  and  from  his 
observations  it  appears  that  the  whole  country  is  covered 
with  high  hills,  and  contains  only  a  few  small  valleys. 
The  soil  does  not  appear  to  be  distinguished  by  fertility, 
and  it  may  be  conjectured,  that  with  the  Isthmus  of  Krah 
that  sterile  tract  begins  which  extends  over  tile  whole  of 
the  Malay  Peninsula  to  its  most  southern  extremity,  and 
which,  though  favourable  to  the  growth  of  fruit-trees, 
produces  only  scanty  crops  of  rice  and  other  grain.  Tim 
inhabited  places  of  this  tract  are  almost  exclusively 
confined  to  the  banks  of  rivers,  and  do  not  extend  far 
inland.  The  rivers,  though  they  have  not  a  long  course, 
are  said  to  be  large  and  navigable  to  a  considerable  dis- 
tance from  their  mouths.  The  largest  are,  from  nor*h  to 
south,  the  Lenya,  the  Bockpyn,  and  the  I'akchum.  The 
ast-mentioned  river,  which  divides  Tenasserim  from  Siarn, 
las  already  been  noticed. 

Climate. — Like  all  other  intertropical  countries,  Tenas- 
serim has  only  two  seasons,  the  dry  and  the  wet  season. 
They  depend  on  the  monsoons,  the  rains  being  produced 
)y  the  south-west  monsoon,  whilst  the  dry  season  lasts 
during  the  north-east  monsoon.  There  appears  to  be 
some  difference  in  the  wet  season  between  the  climate  of 
Maulmain  and  of  Mergui,  the  only  two  places  in  which  a 
'ew  meteorological  observations  have  been  made,  and  this 
difference  appears  to  depend  on  the  circumstance,  that: 
along  the  southern  coast  the  effects  of  the  south-west 
uonsoon  are  diminished  by  the  elevated  islands  of  the 
Mergui  Archipelago,  whilst  farther  north  they  reach  the 
and  in  all  their  force.  At  Maulmain  the  rainy  season  sets  in 
u.'.anls  the  end  of  May  or  the  beginning  of  June,  and  dur- 
ng  the  first  three  months  the  rains  are  heavy  and  nearly 
ucessaiit,  but  they  gradually  diminish  in  September,  and 
.mtirely  cease  in  October.  This  is  the  hottest  part  of  the 
,'ear,  but  the  heat  is  far  from  being  so  oppressive  as  on 
:he  coast  of  Coromandel.  In  May  the  thermometer 
averages  at  8  o'clock  in  the  morning  78°,  and  at  4  o'clock 
n  the  afternoon  82°,  in  June  it  keeps  at  72°  at  8  o'clock, 
ind  at  70°  at  4  o'clock,  and  in  July  and  August  at  77°  at 
8  o'clock,  and  at  80°  at  4  o'clock.  The  thermometer  has 
never  been  observed  to  rise  above  00°.  The  difference 


T  i: 


198 


'I1  K  N 


between  tin-  temperature  of  the  air  in  tlic  day  and  at 
night  is  remarkable,  as  tin-  thermometer  is  ottcn"  found  at 
iM1,  even  iii  July.  In  the  dry  Mttori  the  ther- 
mometer varies  between  tjO"  und  HO",  and  th*  WMther  is 
very  constant,  rain  rarely  falling,  and  only  in  short  .showers. 
The  heal  i-  moderated  'by  the  sea  und  land  breezes,  which 
blow  MTV  regularly  in  tins  season. 

a  ill.'  rainy  season  Bets  in  towards  the  end  of 
April  or  the  beginning  of  May,  and  lasts  to  the  month  of 
November.  During  the  ttrst  two  months  the  rains  are 
iniHlerate,  but  from  the  middle  of  .lime  to  the  bediming 
.itcinher  they  arc  heavy,  when  they  again  begin  to 
abate,  and  gradually  to  diminish.  Rain  falls  also  during 
the  dry  season,  but  only  in  showers,  which  occur  at  ill- 
's from  four  to  six  weeks.  The  greatest  heat  occurs 
before  the  rains,  and  in  Die  first  two  months  after  they 
have  set  in,  but  it  is  stated  that  the  average  temperature 
of  the  six  hottest  months  does  not  exceed  84°.  Land  and 
sea  breezes  are  regular  during  the  dry  season.  At  some 
places  iii  the  interior,  which  are  considerably  elevated 
above  the  tea,  as  the  table-land  of  Meta-mio,  the  climate 
is  some  degrees  more  temperate  than  near  the  coast. 

The  climate  is  considered  very  healthy.  This  opinion 
is  confirmed  by  I)r.  Heifer,  who  lived  there  many  years, 
and  who  savs  that  it  is  the  most  healthy  of  all  known  tropi- 
cal countries  for  Europeans;  and  he  supports  his  opinion  by 
the  statement  that  the  lists  of  mortality  kept  by  the  medical 
gentlemen  of  the  European  British  corps  stationed  at  Maul- 
main  and  its  dependencies  show  that  the  rate  of  mortality 
scarcely  ever  exceeds  and  is  sometimes  less  than  it  would 
be  under  similar  circumstances  in  Europe.  This  is  the  more 
remarkable,  as  many  of  the  adjacent  countries,  and  especi- 
ally Aracan.  which  resembles  Tenasserim  in  nearly  every 
respect,  have  acquired  a  bad  name  for  their  insalubrity. 
Heifer  cannot  account  satisfactorily  for  this  phenomenon. 
He  finds  no  other  reason  than  that  the  country  is  either 
part  of  a  narrow  peninsula  or  immediately  adjacent  to 
one,  and  that  the  extensive  seas  on  both  sides  produce  a 
constant  though  not  always  perceptible  current  of  air.  by 
which  the  noxious  vapours  that  rise  from  vegetable  matter 
and  other  elements  of  malaria  are  either  destroyed  or  car- 
ried away.  Even  the  exposure  to  the  sun  is  rarely  attended 
by  bad  effects,  and  the  climate  does  not  produce  languor 
or  mental  inactivity,  which  is  partly  to  be  attributed  to 
the  coolness  of  the  nights. 

Productions.— If  the  value  of  a  country  were  to  be  esti- 
mated by  the  number  of  marketable  articles  exported  from 
it,  Tenasserim  would  certainly  be  one  of  the  least  valuable. 
For,  if  a  small  quantity  of  nee  and  some  teak  timber  are 
excepted,  hardly  iny  article  worth  mention  has  been  ex- 
ported from  that  country  up  to  the  last  few  years.  Rut  it 
vies  with  any  country  on  the  globe  in  the  varieties  of  its 
natural  products,  and  when  cultivated  it  will  export  almost 
every  article  which  belongs  to  tropical  countries. 

Though  the  greater  part  of  the  country  has  not  been  ex- 
plored, it  is  known  to  be  rich  in  minerals.  Gold  is  found 
in  some  of  the  rivers,  but  in  small  quantities.  A  silver- 
mine  exist*  in  the  range  of  the  Bo-Thowng,  but  its  value 
is  still  doubtful.  It  has  lately  been  ascertained  that  there 
is  copper-ore  in  the  north-east  portion  of  Sullivan's  Island, 
and  on  the  island  of  Calla-gkiank,  near  Mergni.  Tin  is  (In- 
only  metal  which  hits  ever  been  worked.  The  tin-mines 
are  about  one  day's  journey  to  the  east  of  the  town  of 
Tavoy,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Mergui.  But  Dr.  Heifer, 
who  has  explored  the  southern  districts,  states  that  the 
range  of  bills  which  runs  north  of  the  I'akchain  River  is 
the  richest  in  tin-ores,  the  grains  or  crystals  being -oine- 
times  of  the  size  of  a  pigeon  s  egg,  and  the  layer  in  which 
they  are  found  being  H  or  10  feet  thick.  Itishi' 
difficult  to  work  these  ores,  as  the  contiguous  country  is 
entirely  uninhabited.  Tin-ore  is  also  found  on  the  banks 
of  the  Bokpyn  river  nnd  on  Domel  Island.  The  richest 
deposit*  of  tin-ore  are  probably  yet  unknown.  Iron-ore  of 
good  quality  is  found  in  abundance  in  the  vicinity  of 
Tavoy,  and  at  several  other  places  farther  south.  t^\< 
in  the  districts  south  i,l  the  Ttnasserim  river.  Antimony 
occurs  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Maulmain.  Extensive 
coal-measures  have  been  lately  discovered  in  several 
places  on  the  banks  of  the  Tenasserim  river.  The  coal  is 
generally  of  good  quality,  anil  the  best  kind  is  near  the 
liankx  of  the  river  below  the  last  rapids,  so  that  it  can  be 
brought  to  Mergui  at  moderate  expense.  Three  or  four 
years  ago  thin  mine  began  to  be  worked  at  the  expense  of 


the  East  India  Company.     It  is  1 1, ,;:_•;, t  that  the  discovery 

of  ihi-se  coal-measure*  will  have  sum. 

navigation  of  the  (iuli  of  Mm-. 

laeca.    Limestone  and  marl.:  •  mon  in  the  northern 

distncU. 

Rice  constitutes  the  principal  object  of  cultivation  :  but 
it  do«»  not  appear  that  irrigation  is  practised  ;  and  only 
one  crop  is  tukcii.  \\  ; ,  mtcd  al  a  few  places  on 

a  small  scale.     Other  objects  of  agriculture  are  sesamnm. 
eludes.  jams,  sweet  potatoes,  plantains,  and  melons.     The 
sugar-i-mie,  indigo,  and  tobacco  are  only  grown  for  home 
consumption,  and  also  cotton,  which  is  of  an  inferior  kind. 
It  i*  thought  that  these  la«t  articles  could  be  raised 
great  extent  if  there  was  a  demand  for  them.    Among  the 
trees  which  are  cultivated  the  most  important  is  the 
palm,    which  succeeds  well  as  far  north  as   15°  N.  lat. 
Since  the  occupation   by  the  British,  the   natives  have  lie- 
gun  to  cultivate  it  on   an  extensive  scale,  and  it  will 
yield  a  large  article  of  export  if  the  fruits  of  tins  palm 
should  continue  to  be  used  in  Europe  for  tanning,  in-1 
of  oak-bark  and  sumach.     Of  late  years  c.  nut- 

meg-trees, and  clove-trees  have  been  introduced, 
two  thrive  well,  and  promise  to  remunerate  the  cultivators, 
but  the  success  of  the  dove-trees  is  still  doubtful.  The 
produce  of  the  coffee-trees  is  compared  with  t 
quality  of  Java.  Nearly  all  the  delicious  fruits  which 
grow  in  the  Malay  I'cniiMila  and  the  Indian  Archipelago 
may  be  raised  in  Tenasserim.  The  durian  is  found  up  to 
Id-  \.  lat..  and  is  exported  to  Rangoon  and  other  p' 
of  Ava.  The  mangosteen  has  lately  been  introduced,  and 
thrives  well,  but  only  south  of  ill"  N.  lat.;  mai. 
pine-apples,  guavas,  and  oranges  also  succeed  well.  In 
some  parts  the  arnotto(Bixaorellana  is  raided.  Cocoa-nut 
plantations  are  rather  extensive  near  the  sea,  und  also  the 
nipah  palm  (Nipa  fmticans).  The  toddy  or  palm-wine  of 
the  latter  contains  more  saccharine  matter  than  the  cane. 
Nearly  the  whole  of  Tenasserini  is  covered  with  timber- 
trees,  which  are  not  much  used  at  present;  but  a 
countries  surrounding  the  Bay  of  Bengal  are  mosth  desti- 
tute of  such  forests,  and  the  "demand  for  timber  is  rapidly- 
increasing,  they  will  soon  be  considered  as  a  source  of 
wealth.  Extensive  forests  of  teak-trees  still  exist  on  the 
banks  of  the  Attayen,  and  furnish  at  present  the  most  im- 
portant article  of  export.  A  small  number  of  junks  are 
annually  built  by  Chinese  at  Mergui  and  Tavoy  fn.m 
the  Hopea  odorata,  which  is  also  employed  by  the  Bir- 
mese  in  the  construction  of  small  craft.  The  best 
timber-trees,  except  the  teak,  belong  to  the  Hopcas.  Vati- 
cas,  and  Shoreas;  the  most  numerous  are  the  Di 
carpeae,  which  attain  nn  enormous  size,  but  furnish  an 
inferior  wood.  All  these  trees  when  full  grown  are  from 
70  to  120  feet  in  height,  rising  with  a  straight  trunk  -40  or 
60  feet  high,  and  before  they  throw  out  any  branches  Kiev 
have  a  circumference  of  10  to  3()  feet.  In  addition  to 
timber,  the  natural  productions  which  are  derived  from  the 
forests  and  plants  winch  grow  wild  are  numerous.  There 
are  various  kinds  of  trees  yielding  caoutchouc,  sticklac, 
gamboge,  sassafras,  eajeput-oil,  different  gum-resins,  nut- 
oil,  black  varnish,  sandal-wood,  dammar,  several  tanning 
substances,  several  dyes,  aloes,  and  sapan-vvood.  Carda- 
mnm-plants  arc  said  to  be  found  in  the  mountains  on  the 
eastern  boundary,  and  hemp  grows  wild  on  some  of  the  river 
islands.  Large  tracts  are  covered  with  bamboo-jungle. 
and  bamboo  begins  to  be  exported,  having  been  found  of 
a  superior  quality  to  that  grown  in  the  neighbouring  coun- 
tries. On  the  Sam-roi-yot  range  there  is  an  aromatic 
wood,  called  by  the  natives  callaine,  which  is  brought 
down  to  Mergui,  and  there  shipped  for  Rangoon. 

Domestic  animals  are  not  numerous,  with  the 
of  buffaloes,  which  are  large.  As  to  wild  animals,  Heifer 
observes  that  as  Tenawerim  constitutes  as  it  were  the 
bridge  by  which  the  continent  of  Asia  is  united  to  the' 
Indian  Archipelago,  its  aoology  possesses  several  spi 
peculiar  to  these  two  great  natural  divisions  of  Southern 
Asia.  The  number  of  species  common  to  Bengal  and 
Hindustan  is  comparatively  small,  but  in  the  northern 
districts  of  Tenasserim  there  are  many  species  which  are 
peculiar  to  the  countries  east  of  the  Brahmapootra,  and 
even  several  of  Bootan  and  Nepaul ;  and  in  the  southern, 
others  which  have  hitherto  been  exclusively  found  in  the 
Indian  Archipelago. 

There  arc  five  different  kinds  of  quadrumana:  a  sp. 
of  ccrcopithccus  belongs  to  the  rarest  animals  of  this  class ; 


TEN 


199 


TEN 


it  is  chiefly  found  in  the  northern  districts,  on  the  isolatei 
limestone  rocks.     The  Malay  bear  occurs  in  the  mori 
mountainous  parts  as  far  north  as  13°  N.  lat.     The  roya 
tiger  is  found  in  great  numbers,  and  is  very  strong  ant 
large  ;  but  it  is  said  that  it  rarely  attacks  men.     The  blacl 
tiger  is  common.    There  are  also  leopards  and  wild-cats 
Elephants  are  numerous,  and  they  have  a  wide  extent  o 
forests  to  range  in.     They  are  killed   and  eaten  by  the 
natives,  who  bring  their  teeth  to  Maulmain.     The  rhino 
ceros  is  very  common,  and  all  the  known  Asiatic  species 
are  found.     The  Malay  tapir,  called  by  the  natives  the 
'  great  pig,'  is  found  in  the  most  southern  districts.     The 
wild  hog  is  common,  and  also  the  Sus  Babiroussa.      The 
Cervidae    are    numerous :    Rtisa    Hippelaphus,    Elaphus 
Wallichii,  Cervus    Aristotelis,    C.    Axis,   and  C.   Mont- 
lac,  with  two  other  species,   are  known  to  exist.     The 
Bubulus  Arni  and  Domesticus  are  both  in  a  wild  state 
and  of  the   Bisons,  the  great  Gaurus  is  rather  rare,  bul 
Bison    gayal    is   very   common.     A   variety   of  Cinnyris, 
and   Nectarinia,   in   its    splendid   plumage   and   diminu- 
tire  size,  resembles  the  humming-birds.     Four  specie-!  ol 
Merops  rival  in  colours  the  species  of  Java  and  Australia. 
The  Indian  peacock  is  abundant  in  the  interior  near  moun- 
tain-torrents.  There  are  five  species  of  parrots.   The  Pha- 
sianus   gallus,  the  origin  of  our   domestic  fowl,  is  very 
common  in  the  jungle,  and  the  native  breed  is  kept  up  by 
supplies  of  eggs  from  the  forests.     The  Hirundo  esculenta 
inhabits  the  cliffs  along  the  southern  coast  and  the  islands 
of  the  Mergui  Archipelago,  and  a  considerable  number  of 
the   nests  are   annually  collected  and   exported   by  the 
Chinese.     There  are  several  species  of  hawks,  falcons,  and 
herons,  and  five  kinds  of  pigeons,  some  of  which  are  very 
beautiful.     Fish  is  abundant  between  the  islands  of  the 
Mergui  Archipelago.,  where  an  extensive  fishery  is  carried 
on  by  the  Seelongs,  Malays,  and  Chinese,  who  prepare  fish 
for  market,  which  is  done  by  spreading  it  over  a  framework 
of  mangrove-trees,  and  drying  it  in  the  sun  :  it  is  also  daily 
trodden  with  the  feet  twice.     No  salt  is  ever  employed  in 
curing  the  fish  :  some  kinds  of  fish  are  smoked.     In  these 
parts  there  are  also  shrimps,  prawns,  &c.,  of  which  bala- 
chong,  or  pressed  tish,  is  made,  which  is  an  article  of  com- 
merce.    Whales  are  frequently  seen  among  the  islands  of 
the  archipelago,  and  a  little  oil  is  got.    There  are  also 
some  pearl-banks,  which  were  formerly  fished,  but  an  at- 
tempt made  for  that  purpose  some  years  ago  was  not  suc- 
cessful.   Trepang  is  one  of  the  principal  objects  of  fishery. 
Tortoise-shells,  mother-of-pearl,  and   ambergris  are  col- 
lected  in  small    quantities   by  the  Seelongs.     Wax  and 
honey  constitute  an  important  article  of  internal  commerce, 
and  are  partly  also  exported.     There  are  said  to  be  five  dif- 
ferent species  of  wild  bees,  two  of  which  are  without  stings. 
Snakes  are  numerous,  but  only  a  few  kinds  are  poisonous. 
Inhabitants. — Heifer   estimates  the  population  of  Te- 
nasserim  at  about  100,000  individuals,  and  consequently 
there  are  about  three  to  a  square  mile.     Though  this  po- 
pulation is  very  small,  it  consists  of  very  different  races, 
or  rather  we  find  different  races  mixed.     This  is  chiefly 
to   be  ascribed  to  the  frequent  conquests  to  which  the 
country  has  been  subjected  since  the  time  when  it  was 
first  visited  by  Europeans.     In  the  last  two  centuries  the 
Siamese,  Thalians,  and  Burmese  have  alternately  and  more 
than  once  po^o-cd  Tenasserim.     These  nations  appear 
to  have  adopted  a  policy  which  we  find  mentioned  in  the 
most  antient  historical  records  of  Western  Asia,  namely, 
the  transplanting  of  the  inhabitants  of  one  country  to  an- 
other at  a  great  distance  from  it. 

The  bulk  of  the  population  consists  of  liirmans,  Thalians 
or  Thalains,  Siamese,  and  Karians  or  Karens.  Though 
all  these  nations  have  some  physical  features  which  belong 
t'j  the  Mongol  race,  yet  there  arc  others  which  indicate 
that,  a  mixture  with  other  races  has  taken  place.  The 
Siamese  approach  nearest  to  the  Chinese  :  they  have  a 
flat  forehead,  a  small  nose,  prominent  cheek-bones,  black 
hair,  very  tliin  beards,  thin  lips,  and  a  colour  more  or  less 
'•.v.  The  Hirmans  and  Thalians  arc  half  Malays  anil 
half  Chinese,  and  the  Karians  half  Malays  and  halt'  Cau- 
'1  the  features  of  the  Karians  approach  so 
much  to  the  Caucasian  form,  that  many  of  them  have  aqui- 
line noses,  a  high  forehead,  and  the  European  facial  angle. 
This  resemblance  to  the  Caucasian  race  seems  one  of  the 
reasons  which  has  led  some  American  Baptist  missin 
t  >  consider  the,  Karians  as  the  lost  tribes  of  Israel. 
The  Binnans,  who  were  the  lords  of  the  country  up  to 


the  peace  of  Yandabo,  are  still  the  most  numerous.    They 

are  settled  in  the  plains  on  the  rivers  Atta-yen  and  Gyeng, 

in  the  vicinity  of  Mergui,  Tavoy,  and  Yee,  either  near  the 
sea-coast  or  on  the  banks  of  navigable  rivers  or  creeks, 

and  never  far  inland.  They  are  healthy,  strong,  and  mus- 
cular. Their  principal  occupation  is  agriculture.  They 
are  indolent  and  self-conceited ;  but  honest,  polite  in 
their  manners,  and  neither  passionate  nor  revengeful,  by 
which  they  are  distinguished  from  the  Malays.  They  are 
Buddhists,  and  consider  the  sovereign  of  Ava  as  the  head 
of  their  religion :  they  are  quiet  subjects.  The  children 
are  placed  at  an  early  age  in  monasteries,  established  in 
almost  every  village,  and  endowed  by  the  voluntary  con- 
tributions of  the  inhabitants :  the  children  remain  here 
for  a  certain  time,  during  which  they  are  fed  by  the  monks, 
and  instructed  in  reading,  writing,  and  religion  ;  and  thus 
elementary  knowledge  is  more  generally  diffused  among 
the  lower  classes  than  in  most  countries  of  Europe ;  but 
the  knowledge  of  the  higher  classes  is  not  much  greater. 
The  knowledge  of  their  priests  is  limited  to  the  ex- 
planation of  theological  and  metaphysical  doctrines. 
The  missionaries  have  hitherto  failed  in  their  attempts  to 
convert  them  to  Christianity,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
isolated  instances,  where  Birmans  have  nominally  become 
I  'In  istians  for  the  sake  of  worldly  gain.  This  want  of  suc- 
cess is  not  to  be  ascribed  to  fanaticism  or  obstinacy  on 
the  side  of  the  Birmans,  but  to  their  religious  dogmatical 
indifference.  They  admit  the  beauty  of  the  Christian 
morals,  but  contend  that  theirs  are  equally  good  ;  and 
with  reference  to  the  dogmas,  they  say  that  the  Christian 
are  as  unintelligible  as  the  Buddhist. 

The  Thalians  or  Pegnans  do  not  differ  in  physical  con- 
stitution from  the  Birmans,  and  their  separation  into  two 
lations  might  be  considered  merely  a  political  one,  as  they 
lad  formerly  two  different  governments,  if  it  were  not 
hat  the  Thalians  speak  a  different,  language,  which  is  said 
o  have  scarcely  any  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Binnans. 
!3ut  this  language  is  fast  declining,  as  the  greater  number 
of  the  Thalians  speak  the  Birman  language,  which  has 
>een  adopted  as  the  language  of  the  courts,  of  public 
transactions,  and  of  general  conversation.  The  Thalians 
are  likewise  Buddhists,  and  participate  in  the  education 
>rovided  by  that  religious  establishment.  Their  chief  and 
ilmost  sole  occupation  is  agriculture,  and  rice  is  almost 
he  only  object  of  cultivation.  A  small  number  of  Tha- 
ians  were  settled  on  the  Atta-yen  previous  to  the  oceupa- 
ion  of  Tenasserim  by  the  British,  but  a  much  greater  num- 
)er  have  emigrated  since  that  event.  Having  shown 
luring  the  war  a  great  partiality  for  the  British,  they 
eared  the  vengeance  of  the  Birmans  when  their  country 
1'eiru  was  restored  to  that  nation,  and  took  refuge  in  Te- 
nasserim, where  they  settled  in  the  vicinity  of  the  new 
ettlement  of  Maulmain,  where  there  are  at  present  twenty 
Thalians  for  one  Birman. 

When  Tenasserim  was  subject  to  the  king  of  Siam,  the 
liamese  were  very  numerous,  but  alter  their  conquest  by 
Alompra  they  retired  from  these  provinces  almost  entirely, 
xcept  the  districts  south  of  Mergui,  where  a  number  of 
hem  remained  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers  Lenya  and  Bok- 
>yn,  that  part  of  the  country  having  always  remained  a 
isputed  district.  The  security  and  equitable  administra- 
ion  introduced  by  the  British  have  attracted  a  consider- 
ble  number  of  emigrant s  from  Siam,  who  have  formed 
ettlements  in  several  purls  of  the  country,  especially  on 
lie  banks  of  the  Greater  and  Lesser  Tenasserim  rivers, 
'hey  are,  according  to  Heifer,  an  industrious,  hard}1  Mire, 
nd  more  enterprising  than  the  Hirmans,  besides  being 
4uiet,  obedient,  and  orderly.  He  thinks  that  their  immigra- 
ion  in  greater  numbers  would  be  a  desirable  accession  in 
tie  wilds  of  Tenasserim.  They  have  introduced  the  cul- 
ivation  of  the  sugar-cane  for  the  purpose  of  making  su^rar, 
\hicli  art  they  have  learned  from  the  (.'hinese  ulm  are 
eltled  in  their  country,  though  this  cultivation  has  not 
et  become  important.  Many  of  the  Siamese  are  hiints- 
rien  by  profession,  living  for  months  in  the  wildest  forests, 
fhere  they  shoot  elephants  for  the  i\ory ;  they  are  also 
he  trappers,  tamers,  and  managers  of  elephants  in  general. 
Under  the.  Birman  rule  few  elephants  were  1.:i:;-,"d,  but  at 
iresent  the  practice  is  becoming  more  general  through  thu 
e,  in  whose  country  elephants  are  the  most  import- 
ant of  domestic  animals. 

The  Karians  occupy  exclusively  the  country  adjacent  to 
he  mountain-range  which  divides  Tenasserim  from  Siam, 


TEN 


'200 


T  K  N 


never  being  Ibund  near  the  sca-shor.  I'll,  >  are  said  to 
he  the  Mine  nation  ss  Inch  occupies  several  mountain-tracts 

in  liiriiiu.  .  DMT  tin-  ill- 1  til  ol'  tin-  Jmwaddi 

[liiKMv,  sol.  is.,  p.  Jltii.  anil  to  support  tins  u|)iiniin  it  i» 
affirmed  that  till'  liimiiin  Karians  bordering  upon  China, 
lit  tin-  distance  ol  l:t  degrees  ot'  latitude,  speak  a  din 

,ini'  language  which  is  current  among  the  Knrians  of 
a.  This  liict  requires  to  In-  confirmed,  lor  in 
other  respects  these  nations  differ  greatly  in  habit*.  In 
Ilirma  the  Karians  are  the  most  industrious  cnllisators  of 
the  soil,  and  manufacture  several  kinds  of  cotton  and  silk 
rlotli,  but  those  of  Tenasserim  are  an  agricultural  people 
without  any  ti\rd  habitations,  migrating  every  MOOOd  Of 
third  year.  When  a  Kariim  family  lias  chosen  a  place  for 
.1  plantation,  huts  of  bamboo  thatched  with  palm-leases 
an-  constructed,  and  a  part  of  the  forest  is  cleared,  just  as 
much  as  is  ncci-sarv  to  plant  the  ground  svith  rice  suffi- 
cient to  maintain  tlie  settlers  for  a  year.  The  paddy  is 
sown  upon  the  ground,  which  i.s  imperfectly  cleared,  without 
ans  tillage  or  other  preparation,  and  whatever  else  is  wanted 
(cotton,  indigo,  sesamum,  vegetables,  ice.)  is  sown  or 
planted  promiscuously  on  the  same  spot.  The  following 
year  another  spot  is  cleared  in  the  vicinity,  and  after  some 
years,  or  when  a  death  happens,  the  family  removes  to  a 
greater  distance,  and  begins  again  the  laborious  task  of 
felling  immense  forest-trees,  visiting  only  from  time  to 
time  the  old  establishment,  which  yet  yields  fruit  for  several 
seasons,  and  thus  the  Karian  wanders  all  his  lifetime  with- 
out ever  settling  permanently.  It  seems  however  that  an 
improvement  in  the  condition  of  the  Knrians  is  taking 
.  Their  religion  is  heathenism.  They  believe  in  evil 
spirits,  called  nfits,  which  have  a  direct  influence  on  the 
destinies  of  mankind,  and  they  try  to  propitiate  them  by 
sacrifices  of  fowls,  tobacco,  nee,  and  pieces  of  money, 
which  they  deposit  at  certain  places.  The  attempts  to 
convert  them  to  Christianity  by  the  American  missionaries 
have  been  successful.  A  tribe  of  the  Karians,  called  the 
Red  Karians,  inhabit  the  mountains  north-cast  of  Maul- 
main,  and  these  mountaineers  are  said  to  live  by  robbery. 
The  Seelongs  are  the  lowest  in  civilization  among  the 
nations  of  Tcnn.sserim.  They  are  confined  to  the  islands. 
of  the  Mergui  Archipelago,  and  are  a  race  of  wandering 
fishermen.  s\ho  build  temporary  huts  of  reeds,  palm-trees, 
and  bamboos,  during  the  inclemency  of  the  monsoon,  and 
pass  the  rest  of  the  year  either  in  boats  or  on  the  sea-bench 
under  the  shade  of  trees.  They  never  cultivate  the  ground, 
but  live  upon  the  spontaneous  products,  chiefly  turtles, 
fish,  and  shell-fish,  which  form  their  principal  food.  They 
have  a  peculiar  language,  but  too  little  is  known  of  it  for 
us  tn  determine  whether  it  is  a  mixture  of  languages  or  a 
peculiar  tongue.  They  form  a  petty  tribe,  not  exceeding, 
-aid,  10(10  souls  in  number,  and  it  is  very  difficult  to 
meet  them  in  the  islands  which  they  visit,  as  they  hide 
themselves  whenever  they  see  a  strange  sail  approaching. 
This  is  probably  the  effect  of  their  having  suffered  much 
from  the  pirates,  who,  until  lately,  infested  those  seas,  and 
it  serves  to  explain  the  statement  of  the  early  Kuropean 
nas  igators,  who  landed  on  these  islands,  and  found  them 
uninhabited.  The  Seelongs  have  a  vague  idea  that  there 
are  certain  invisible  beings  which  exercise  an  influence 
over  the  destinies  of  mankind,  but  there  is  no  established 
mode  of  worship,  and  they  are  entirely  ignorant  of  a  future 
state.  No  attempt  has  yet  been  made  to  convert  them. 

Heifer  reports,  that  among  the  natives  the  opinion  is 
general  that  in  the  most  mountainous  part  of  the  country 
is  a  race  of  wild  men,  who  shun  all  intercourse  will 
their  neighbours,  and  seem  to  be  hardly  superior  to  mon 
keys.    He  U  much  inclined  to  think  that  these  wild  men  arc 
the  gigantic  orang-outang  of  Sumatra.     lint  the  Andaman 
Islands  arc  inhabited  by  a  puny  race  of  men,  the   lowest  ii 
the  scale  of  intellectual  beings,   which  seems  to   belong 
to  the  race   of  the   Australian   negroes:    and    only  a  fev 
degrees   farther  south,   in   the   kingdom   of  (jueda,  a  smal 
tube.  IhcSnmang,  are  found  [M,M.\\   PKNINXILS.  sol.  MS. 
p.   :»27I,    who    greatly    resemble   the    inhabitants    of    tht 
Andaman  Islands.     It  is  therefore  not   improbable  that  a 
small  remnant  of  such  a  tribe  may  still  exist  in  '!'• 
inn. 

The  Karians,  Seelong*.  and  the  last -mentioned  race  an 

prohahU  then  have  emigrated  from  (hi 

neighbouring  country.     Many  Chi',,  'in  tin 

j"iiN,    where   they   are    merchants,   ship-owners    ship 

builders,  spirit-distillers,  carpenters,   blacksmiths,  bakers 


,nd  garden'  <>i  them  settled  when  the  country 

was  subject   tn   liirma,   and   others   luise   (nine   since  the 

ilion  by  the  lintish.     They  are   married  to   Ihnnan 

vomcii.    hut    their  children,   if  male*,    arc    br.nijht   up  a» 

'hine.-o,  ani'  customs,  manners,  and  dress  of  their 

tit  hers.     There  are  also  a  number  of  Chuliahs. 

"iiiaudel,   settled    in    the    places   sshere    Kuri-ij 
<  snle.  witli  whose  customs  and  wants  they  are  much  better 
icmmintfd  than  the  natives,  and  by  administering  to  which 

.1111  their  livelihood.  The  same  may  be  said  o; 
ieiigiilccs,  who  howeser  are  always  interior  to  the  people 
if  the  peninsula  of  HinilustAf,  ill  enterprise  and  capacity, 
fheir  number  is  not  great.  Vs  Tena-sscrim  i.s  the  penal 
settlement  t'orthe  Hritish  possessions  in  Hindustan,  about 
JHH)  convicts  base  been  sent  there,  especially  Thugs. 
They  are  treated  with  great  mildne-s,  and  most  of  them 
lave  been  converted  into  useful  members  of  society. 
Many  of  them  have  married,  and  on  the  term  of  their 
lanishmcnt  expiring  have  settled  in  the  country.  At 
Maulmain  a  few  Armenians  and  Pa,  tiled,  this 

jeing  the  only  place  in  Tenasscrim  where  trade  is  carried 
on. 

The  English  settled  in  Tenasscrim  are  almost  all  in 
official  capacities,  either  cisil  officer.*  of  government  or  the 
nilitary  officers  of  the  two  regiments  which  arc  stationed 
icre.  The  number  of  private  person*  is  small,  and  almost 
all  of  them  are  congregated  in  Maulmain,  svhere  they  are 
chiefly  engaged  in  ship-building,  or  otherwise  connect', 1 
with  the  teak-timber  trade.  Besides  a  tew  American  Uap- 
ist  Missionaries,  there  are  many  descendants  of  Portii;: 
Uy  intermarrying  with  native  women,  they  have  partly  lost 
[he  advantages  of  European  cisili/.ation,  their  condition 
l>eing  nearly  the  same  with  that  of  the  natives,  and  fre- 
quently much  lower.  Their  steadiness  in  adhering  strictly 
to  their  faith  preserves  them  as  a  distinct  class.  They  have 
also  mostly  preserved  their  language,  but  it  is  barbarously 
corrupted. 

ToH'im.—In  a  country  so  little  cultivated,  and  the  popu- 
lation of  which  is  dispersed  over  such  an  extent,  there  can 
he  no  large  towns.  When  the  Hritish  took  possession  of 
the  country  they  founded  the  tosvn  of  Amhcrst,  near  the 
month  of  the  Martalian  river,  hoping  that  the  commerce 
of  the  country  would  concentrate  at  this  place.  [AM- 
MKRST,  vol.  i.,  p.  452.]  But  these  expectations  have  not 
been  answered.  Maulmain,  which  was  at  first  only  a 
military  post,  has  since  risen  into  importance  and  is  rapidly 
increasing,  as  its  situation  near  the  confluence  of  the  Afta- 
ycn  svith  the  Sal  ween  is  the  most  favourable  place  for  car- 
rying on  the  trade  in  teak,  svhich  constitutes  the  most  im- 
portant article  of  export.  Ship-building  is  the  only  trade 
which  is  carried  on  to  any  extent.  The  tosvn  of  Tnvoy  is 
also  small,  but  it  has  some  commerce  svith  Rangoon 
and  Mergui.  The  tosvn  of  Mergui  has  the  adsantage  of 
a  safe  ana  well-protected  harbour.  The  roadstead  is  be- 
tween the  mainland  and  Madramacan  Island,  svith  a  soft 
Ixittom  in  from  G  to  1~>  fathoms,  and  !.,•  s  are 

sheltered  from  all  winds.  It  is  about,  six  miles  from  the 
town.  Hut  vessels  of  moderate  size  can  go  over  the  bar 
into  the  river,  and  anchor  off  the  tosvn  in  five  fathoms. 
Though  it  is  at  present  a  small  place,  it  svill  probably  rise 
to  great  importance,  as  in  the  country  at  the  back  of  it  the 
richest  deposits  of  coal  and  tin  have  been  discovered.  The 
neighbourhood  is  also  particularly  ssell  adapted  for  plant- 
of  spice-trees,  and  the  Siamese  have  begun  to  cul- 
tisate  the  cane  for  making  sugar:  it  is  also  svell  situated 
for  commercial  intercourse  overland  svith  Bangkok  and 
the  countries  of  Siam  which  surround  the  gulf  of  that 
name.  Tcnasserim,  an  antient  town,  which  howcscrsvas 
destroyed  in  the  wan  between  the  Siamese  and  Unmans, 

is  in  ruins,  but  ssill  probably  be  revived,  osving  to  the  coals 
in  the  neighbourhood  anil  "the  sloop  navigation  extending 
to  this  place. 

mfuctures  and  Commerce.— It  the  build- 

Ig  and  small    crall  at  Mergui.  Tasny.  and 
Maulmain,  then'  is  no  manufacturing  industry  in 
Tenasscrim;   nearly  the  whole   population  IS  in   that 

of  civilization  in  svhich  it  has  not    vet  accjiiired  a  tnv 
refinement  and  comforK  and  articles  of  foreign  manufac- 
ture are    not    much  in  demand.     Such  articles  as   cotton- 
cloth,   coarse    ehina-svare.   and   iron   cooking-vessels,   are 
•lit   by  the  Cliine-e  from  HangVok.  and   cotton-cloth, 
gunpowder,  and    nrm>  imported    from    Kngland   by  svay  of 
.- 01  Calcutta.     There  are  also  imported  petroleum 


TEN 


201 


TEN 


and  tobacco  from  Rangoon,  and  spices  and  sugar  from 
Penang.  The  chief  exports  are  teak  and  rice;  there  are 
also  exported  ivory,  wax,  tin,  nut-oil,  trepang,  edible 
birds'  nests,  and  bamboos.  The  only  places  with  which  a 
commercial  intercourse  exists  are  Calcutta,  Rangoon,  and 
Penan?.  It  is  hoped  that  an  overland  commerce  will  soon 
be  established  between  Maulmain  and  the  south-western 
provinces  of, China,  especially  Yun-nan,  as  caravans  from 
those  parts  annually  visit  the  Shan  States  (Laos)  north  of 
Tenasserim,  and  the  merchants  of  the  caravans  manifested 
a  few  years  ago  an  intention  to  proceed  to  Maulmain,  but 
were  prevented  by  political  circumstances. 

History.— Nothing  is  known  of  the  early  history  of  these 
provinces.  When  they  were  first  visited  by  the  Portu- 
guese, several  places  were  much  more  thriving  than  they 
now  are.  It  seems  that  at  that  time  the  bulk  of  the  popu- 
lation consisted  of  Thalians,  and  probably  the  country 
formed  a  portion  of  the  kingdom  of  Pegu.  It  was  after- 
wards connected  with  Siam,  from  which  it  was  wrested 
by  Alompra,  the  founder  of  the  present  Birman  dynasty, 
about  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  Notwithstanding 
the  repeated  contests  and  incursions  of  the  Siamese,  it  re- 
mained a  part  of  the  Birman  empire  until  it  passed  into 
the  hands  of  the  British  by  the  peace  of  Yandabo  (1826). 
At  that  time  the  population  was  estimated  at  50,000  indi- 
viduals :  at  present  it  probably  considerably  exceeds 
100,000.  It  forms  part  of  the  government  of  Penang. 

(Crawford's  Journal  of  an  Embassy  to  the  Court  ofAra  ; 
Low's '  Observations,'  &c.  in  Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  xviii.  ; 
Forrest's  Voyage  to  the  Mergui  Archipelago ;  Heifer ; 
several  '  Reports  on  the  Tenasserim  Provinces,  and  its 
Coal-mines,'  inserted  in  the  Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society 
of  Bengal,  1838  1840;  Foley's  'Notes  on  the  Geology, 
&e.  of  the  country  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Manlamyeng,' 
in  J'liirnal  nf  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  1836  ;  Rich- 
ardson's '  Journal  of  a  Mission  to  the  Court  of  Siam,'  in 
Journal  nf  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  1840.) 

TENBURY.     [WORCESTERSHIRE.] 

TEXBY.     [PEMBROKESHIRE.] 

TENCH,  a  fresh-water  tish  belonging  to  the  family  Cy- 
jirinidee,  or  Carp  tribe.  [TiNCA.] 

TENDER.  A  tender  is  the  offer  to  perform  some  act. 
In  practice  it  generally  consists  in  an  offer  to  pay  money 
on  behalf  of  a  party  indebted,  or  who  has  done  some  in- 
jury, to  the  creditor,  or  to  the  party  injured. 

A  tender  to  the  amount  of  forty  shillings  may  be  made 
in  silver  ;  but  beyond  that  amount  it  must  be  in  gold.  If  a 
tender  be  made  of  a  larger  amount  in  silver,  or  in  bank- 
notes, and  no  objection  be  taken  at  the  time  to  the  me- 
dium in  which  it  is  made,  the  objection  to  the  tender  on 
that  ground  will  be  held  to  be  waived,  and  the  tender  will 
be  held  good  to  the  full  amount  to  which  it  is  made.  The 
money  tendered  must  be  actually  produced  and  shown,  or 
at  least  the  ba^  or  other  thing  which  contains  it  shown  to 
the  party  to  whom  it  is  intended  to  be  made,  unless  it  is 
dispensed  with  by  some  declaration  or  act  by  the  creditor. 
This  is  insisted  upon  with  such  strictness,  that  even  though 
a  party  tell  his  creditor  that  he  is  about  to  pay  him  so  much, 
and  put  his  hand  into  his  pocket  to  produce  the  money, 
yet  if  the  creditor  leave  the  presence  of  the  debtor  before 
the  money  is  actually  produced,  no  tender  will  have  been 
made  :  but  if  the  creditor  refuse  to  receive  the  money  men- 
tioned on  the  ground  that  it  is  insufficient  in  amount,  the 
actual  production  of  it  is  not  necessary  to  constitute  a 
valid  tender.  The  offer  must  be  absolute  and  without 
conditions.  An  offer  of  a  larger  amount  with  a  request  of 
change  ;  an  offer  with  a  request  of  a  receipt,  or  on  con- 
diiion  that  some  thing  shall  be  done  on  the  part  of  the 
creditor,  are  not  valid  tenders ;  but  an  offer  of  a  larger 
sum  absolutely  without  a  demand  of  change  is  good.  A 
tender  may  be  made  cither  to  the  party  actually  entitled 
to  receive  it,  or  to  an  agent  or  servant  authorised  to  re- 
ceive it,  or  to  a  managing  clerk  ;  and  a  tender  will  not  be 
invalidated  even  though  before  it  is  made  the  creditor  has 
put  the  matter  into  the  hands  of  his  attorney  and  the 
managing  cierk  of  the  creditor  refuses  to  receive  it,  assign- 
ing that  circumstance  as  his  reason  for  doing  so.  It'  the 
attorney  write  to  the  debtor  demanding  the  monov.  a 
tender  afterwards  made  to  him  or  to  his  managing  clerk 
is  good,  unless  at  the  time  when  it  is  made  they  di 
authority  to  receive  the  money.  A  tender  ought  to  be 
made  on  behalf  of  the  party  from  whom  the  money  is  dm:  ; 
but  if  the  agent  appointed  by  him  to  make  the  tender  offer 
P.  C.,  No.  1513. 


a  larger  sum  than  he  is  authorized  to  do,  the  tender  will 
nevertheless  be  good  for  the  full  amount  to  which  the 
tender  is  made. 

If  the  defendant  in  an  action  plead  a  tender,  he  must 
state  that  he  has  always  been  ready  to  pay  the  money,  and 
he  must  also  pay  it  into  court.  The  effect  of  the  plea  is  to 
admit  the  existence  of  the  contract  or  other  facts  stated  in 
the  declaration  which  form  the  cause  of  action  in  the 
plaintiff.  The  plea  goes  only  in  bar  of  damages.  The 
plaintiff  therefore  in  such  case  can  never  be  nonsuited : 
but  if  issue  is  taken  on  the  mere  fact  whether  or  not  the 
tender  has  been  made,  and  that  fact  is  found  for  the  de- 
fendant, it  is  a  good  defence  to  the  action. 

By  various  statutes,  magistrates,  officers  of  excise.  SEC. 
are  empowered  after  notice  of  action  to  be  brought  against 
them,  to  tender  amends;  and  if  the  amount  tendered  is 
sufficient,  the  tender  is  a  defence  to  the  action. 

TENDON,  or  Sinew,  is  the  tough  white  and  shining 
tissue  by  which  muscles  are  attached  to  the  bones  or  other 
parts  which  it  is  their  office  to  move.  The  name  of  ten- 
dons however  is  generally  applied  only  to  those  which  are 
thick  and  rounded,  and  which  serve  for  the  attachment  of 
the  long  round  muscles,  such  as  those  of  the  biceps 
muscle  on  the  front  of  the  upper  arm :  those  which  are 
broad  and  flat,  and  which  serve  for  the  attachment  of  the 
membranous  muscles,  are  commonly  called  aponeuroses. 
But  whatever  be  the  external  form  of  a  tendon,  its  intimate 
construction  is  the  same,  being  chiefly  composed  of  the 
same  fibrous  or  tendinous  tissue  of  which  a  large  class  of 
organs,  including  the  ligaments,  fasciae,  periosteum,  and 
several  others,  consist. 

The  fibrous  or  tendinous  tissue  is  of  a  peculiarly  glisten- 
ing bluish-white  colour,  dense  and  tough,  nearly  insensi- 
ble, not  vitally-contractile,  and  very  little  elastic.  It  is 
composed  of  bundles  of  delicate  fibres,  which  are  united 
by  cellular  tissue ;  and  each  fibre  is  made  up  of  several 
fibrilliE,  or  filaments,  which  are  discernible  only  with  the 
microscope.  The  filaments  are  transparent  and  cylindri- 
cal, with  well-defined  outlines :  they  vary  in  diameter 
from  3JH,  to  jjtjj  of  an  inch,  and,  though  they  have  a  gene- 
rally straight  direction,  are  finely  undulated.  The  tendin- 
ous fibres  are  from  ^U  to  3^  of  an  inch  in  diameter  ;  the 
filaments  are  arranged  within  them  in  parallel  lines,  and 
are  connected  by  a  firm  substance,  in  which  no  distinct 
structure  can  be  discerned.  The  bundles  of  the  fibres 
are  arranged  in  various  plans  in  the  different  tendons  and 
aponeuroses  :  in  some,  they  are  parallel ;  in  some,  inter- 
laced or  variously  woven  together ;  but  their  arrangement 
is  always  such  that  they  possess  the  greatest  force  of  resist- 
ance in  the  direction  in  which  the  muscle  acts  upon  them. 

The  tendons,  like  the  other  fibrous  tissues,  are  composed 
of  a  substance  slowly  yielding  gelatine  by  boiling.  A  large 
quantity  of  the  ordinary  glue  of  commerce  is  obtained  by 
boiling  down  the  tendons  and  ligaments  about  the  feet  of 
horses.  They  contain  about  60  per  cent,  of  water ;  and 
when  dry  become  hard,  brittle,  yellow,  and  transparent. 
In  vital  properties  they  are  distinguished  by  a  very  low 
degree  of  sensibility.  No  pain  is  excited  by  the  applica- 
tion of  stimuli ;  but  when  stretched  or  twisted,  the  dull 
aching  pain  is  produced,  with  which  most  persons  are 
acquainted  as  characteristic  of  a  sprain.  Their  diseases  are 
few  and  are  peculiarly  slow  in  their  progress. 

The  chief  differences  of  appearance  in  the  tendons  de- 
pend on  the  quantity  of  cellular  tissue  interposed  between 
the  bundles  of  tendinous  fibres.  In  the  round  tendons 
there  is  so  little,  that  it  is  with  difficulty  demonstrated, 
and  they  are,  in  a  corresponding  degree,  compact  and 
strong.  In  the  flat  membranous  aponeuroses  the  cellular 
tissue  is  much  more  abundant,  and  fills  up  large  inter- 
spaces between  the  fibrous  bundles.  The  more  abundant 
the  cellular  tissue,  the  more  numerous  do  the  blood- 
vessels of  the  tendons  seem  to  be.  In  the  round  compact 
tendons  they  are  scarcely  discernible  ;  but  when  well  pre- 
pared, the  same  arrangement  is  observed  in  them  as  in 
the  blood-vessels  of  all  the  fibrous  tissues ;  that  is,  they 
run  in  parallel  lines  between  the  fibrous  bundles,  rarely 
dividing  into  smaller  branches,  and  communicating  by 
short  canals  which  pass  transversely  across  the  bundles. 
The  blood-vessels  of  the  tendon  ure  chiefly  derived  from 
of  the  muscle  to  which  it  is  attached.  In  most,  in- 
s  a  large  branch  runs  across  the  line  of  boundary 
between  the  muscular  and  tendinous  fibres,  and  gives  off 
many  smaller  branches  to  the  latter. 

VOL.  XXIV.-2  D 


TEN 


302 


TEN 


At  that  end  uf  a  tendon  wlm-h  is  affixed  to  a  in 
each  primitive  fibre  or  fasciculus  of  the  latter  [MuscLk] 
terminates  in  an  abruptly-rounded   extremity,  which    i~ 
embraced  by  a  fasciculus  uf  the  filaments  of  the  tendon. 
expanding  and  enclosing  it  in  a  sheath,  or  in  a  manner 
\\liK-h  may  be  coarsely  represented   i 
the  fore  fi'nirer  of  one  hand  within  a  V  the 

of   all   the   tins;ei>   of  the   other  hand.       i 
bundles  of  cellular  and  fibrous  tissue  in  the  tendon  :n 
continuous  with  the  cellular  tissue  which  is  placed  between 
the  secondary  fasciculi  of  the  in: 

At  their  opp  unties  the  tendons  nre  usually 

affixed  to  bones.  Their  fibres  are  intermixed  and  firmly 
muted  with  those  of  the  periosteum,  and  often  pass  into 
the  very  substance  of  (lie  bone. 

iiough  the  chief  and  proper  office,  of  tendons  is  to 
serve  as  media  for  the  action  of  muscles,  yet  many  of  them 
fulfil  other  punxjses  in  the  economy.  Thus  the  aponeu- 
roses  of  the  abdominal  muscles  form  a  great  part  of  the 
walls  of  the  abdomen,  and,  by  their  toughness,  support 
and  protect  the  organs  wit lun  it s  ca\ it v  ;  the  tendons  of 
the  muscles  iif  the  fingers  add  strength  to  each  joint  mer 
which  the)  pass;  and  many,  in  other  parts,  are  arranged 
to  act  like  ligaments. 

TKNDKAC.     [T>.MiKc-.] 

TENDRILS,  or  Cirr/ii,  are  those  elongated  and  fila- 
mentous organs  of  plants  which  possess  a  power  of  twisting 
in  one  direction  or  another,  and  by  which  the  plants  on 
which  they  grow  are  enabled  to  embrace  other  plant 
thus  to  elevate  themselves.  Tendrils  are  only  found  on 
those  plants  which  are  too  weak  in  the  stem  to  enable 
them  to  grow  erect.  In  must  cases  the  tendrils  are  only 
forms  of  the  petiole;  for  although  they  may  occur  on  the 
parts  of  flowers,  yd  the  flowers  must  be  regarded  as  meta- 
morphoses of  the  leaf.  Tendrils  are  distinguished  accord- 
ing to  the  parts  of  the  leaf  from  which  they  grow.  When 
the  tendiil  cnn-i-t-  of  the  elongated  petiole  of  a  compound 
leaf,  it  is  called  a  i-irrhiix  jn'tiolarix,  as  in  the  common 
pea.  When,  as  iu  Smilax  horrida,  it  branches  off  on  each 
side  at  the  base  of  the  lamina  into  a  twisting  branch,  it  is 
called  a  cirrftux  peduncularia.  When  it  is  extended  from 
the  point  of  a  single  leaf,  as  in  the  Gloriosa  superba,  it  is 
a  cirrhus  and  when  it  occurs  in  the  petals  of  a 

flower,  as  inStrophanthus.it  is  call  I'lurix. 

Those  tendrils  which  are  in  connection  with  the  stem  alone, 
as  those  of  the  passion-flowers  and  vines,  are  called  <  '«/- 
preoli.  The  type  of  these  organs  however  is  the  same  in 
all  cases.  (Bischoif,  ll'orterbuch  der  l>  .•'••«  Bo- 

tanik.) 

TEREDOS  (Tevtioc),  an  island  in  the  Greek  Archipelago, 
off  the  coast  of  Troas,'  in  39°  47'  to  51'  N.  hit.  and  - 
to  'Jo'"  5'  E.  long.     It  is  said  to  have  been  antiently  called 
Leucophrys,  ana  to  have  derived  the  name  Tern-Jos  from 
Tennes,  the  son  of  Cycnus,  king  of  Colone  in  Troas,  who 
reigned  over  the  inhabitants,  and  was  afterwards  deified  by 
them.     (Pausanias,  x.  1  I  :  Schol.  in  Horn.  //.,  i.  .'17 
more  fully  Diodor.,  v.  K'5. ,     According  to  Homer  ,ll.,\\. 

.  it  was  sacked  by  Achilles,  and  occupied  by  the  < 
when  they  retired  from  the  siege  of  Troy  inimcdiat 
fore  its  capture.     i\  .,  ii.  21.)     This  connection 

with  the  story  of  the  Trojan  war  has  given  Tenedos  some 
celebrity.     It  was  colonized  by  .liolians  from  Ann 
Laconia,  under  the  command  «f  P.i-aud.  r  and    (> 
'.  Pindar,  .\''i//..  xi.  45  .  i.  151. j     Little  mention  i» 

made  of  T-  lory.     It  was  independent  in 

the  time  of  Cyrus,  king  of  I'er-ia.  but  wa.s  made  subject 
to  Persia  after  the  revolt   of  Ionia  in  the  time  of 
(B.C.   493):    it  is   a    tributary   of    Athens. 

and  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  IVloponm -sian  war  took  part 
with  the  people  of  Metlnmna  airan 

bians.     (Thncy.,  iii.  2.)     Paus;  '»  that  the  Tene- 

dians,  becoming  unable  to  defend  themselves,  subni: 
some  period  of  their  hi.story  to  Alexandria  in  Troas.    Aris- 
totle (Rhi;l.,  i.  lu'    mentions  Rome   dispute    as.   having  re- 
cently occurred  between  them  and  the  Sigeians,  in  which 
they  cited  in  support  of  their  cause  th  .if   IV- 

riander  of  Corinth.    According  to  Cicero,  Verres  robbed 
the  Tenedians  of  a  statue  of  Tennes,  their  founder,  of  most 
beautiful   workmanship.      (In    I'crrrm,    i.    10.)      i 
(Aim.,  xi.)  speak*  of  the  Prytanes,  or  yearly  mat: 
of  Tenedos,  to  one  of  whom,  A  Mrcsscs  this 

ode.     It  appears  from  Slephanus  liy/.antinus  tl. 
wrote  on  the  constitution  of  Tenedos.  On  the  antient  silver 


coins  of  the  island  are  the  types  of  a  double-edged  axe  of  a 

>cculiar  form;  and  on  the  reverse  a  I  i  like  that 

if.lanus.     The'Tenc,  .vas  a 

iroveih  eX|  .  summary  mode  of  executing  justice 

ir  dispatching  an  atl'air:  derived  from  the  law  of  a  king  of 

I'enedos,  mentioned  by  Aristotle  as  quoted  by  Steph 

which  permitted   a   pel-sou  who  caught  others  in  adultery 

o  kill  both  i  an  axe.      Sec  the  passage*  quoted 

'./.  Quintain  I'r.,  ii.  11.)"     The  head 

.      On  the  worship  of  this 

deity  here,  :md  its  tiaiismission  to  Tenea  near  Connti 
MiilJi  i,  i.  -J47- 

According  toStrabo  p.  IKM  there  were  two  harbours 
at  Tenedos.  It  was  used  by  the  emperor  .lustiuiaii  as  a 
depot  for  com  goinir  from  Egypt  to  < .'onstantinople  when 
di-tained  by  contiary  winds.  Acconiinu'  to  .\\mph<« 
•  Athemi-us,  xiii.  609)  the  women  of  the  island  were  ot' 
surpassing  beauty. 

Tenedos  was  \isited  by  (.'handler,  who  'found  there  but 
few  remains  of  antiquity'  worthy  of  notice.     In  the  si 
the  walls,  and  burying-grounds  were  pieces  of  n 
fragments  of  pillars,  with  a  few  inscriptions."     {Trurt-l*  m 
Asm  Mi ii'ir.  p.  20  :    Inscriptions!  AI/IK/.,  pp.  3.  4.)     The 
•  I  the  island  is  from  cast  to  west  :   the  town 
with   its   harbour  is  situated  in  a  low  and  sheltered  spot 
at  the  north-east  corner.     In  the  market-place  is  the  v 
of  Attieus.  father  of  Herodes  Atticus.       Clarke's  Trarrlx, 
ii.  178;  who  refers  to  an  accurate  plan  and  account  of  the 
island  in  Tournefort,   /  'ni/nifi1  tin  Li-ninl,  i..  Pan-.   1717.; 
It    contains    two    hundred   Turkish    and    three    hundred 
Greek   houses.      To    the  north  of  the  harbour  is  a  good 
•  with  forty-two  pieces  of  cannon,  but   commanded 
from  the  heights  in  the  rear.  i^Krankland's  (.'<itintunt<n 
i.  i'i^.       The  aspect  of  Tenedos  from  the  sea  is  barren,  but 
it  is  cultivated  in  the  interior,  and  produces  wheat  and 
•me  red  wine. 

TENEMENT  is  a  word  employed  in  descriptions  of  real 
property.  Though  in  its  usual  and  popular  acceptation  it 
is  applied  only  to  houses  and  other  buildings,  vet  in  its 
original  proper  and  legal  moaning  it  includes  everything 
of  a  permanent  nature  that  may  be  holden,  whether  cor- 
poreal or  incorporeal.  It  is  sometimes  used  in  a  more 
confii'.  in  which  it  is  appropriated  to  subjt 

feudal  tenure  ;  but  in  general  it  includes  not  only  land, 
but  every  modification  of  right  concerning  it.  Tims  the. 
word  '  Liherum  tenenientnin.'  frank-tenement,  or  freehold, 
is  applicable  not  only  to  lands  and  other  solid  objects,  but 
nts,  commons,  and  the  like.  \\.-.n. :  Co. 
Litt..  154.  a.  u.  7.) 

TKNKKIFKK,  or  more  properly  TEXERIFE,  called 
Chinerfe  by  the  original  inhabitants,  the  Guam-lies,  is  the 
largest  and  most  important  of  the  Canarv  Islands.  The 
mo-t  southern  cape.  Punta  Koxa.  is  in  2s"  \".  Int.  ;  and  the 
most  northern.  Punta  del  Hidalgo,  in  2s J  :!»/  N.  lat.  Tin- 
most  eastern  part,  Punta  deAnaga,  ism  Hi-:")'  \\'.  lon-r. :  and 
the  most  western.  1'unla  de  Telia,  in  17"  55'  W.  long.  Its 
h-nslh  from  south-west  to  north-east  is  about  (JO  n 
Towards  the  south-eastern  extremity  it  is  nearly  'M  miles 
across,  but  it  arrows  gradually  narrower  towards  the  north- 
that  extremity  hardly  more  than  five 
miles  wide.  In  Huinholdt's  Travels,  the  area  of  the  island 
is  stated  to  be  73  maritime  square  leagues,  or  8!I7  Knsrlish 
miles,:  bnl  according  to  a  more  recent  estimate,  the 
area  is  KJ-S05  Spanish  square  leagues,  or  1012  English 
square  miles,  which  is  nearly  equal  to  the  area  ul 

About  one-seventh  of  the  area    comprehending  KKUKHI 
or  15li  25  square  miles)  is  available  for  agricultural 
purposes.     The  remainder  is  covered  with  other 

volcanic  productions, and  a  great  part  is  destitute  of  \ 
tation  ;    a  small   portion   onlj    is  covered  with  ti 
hiirhest  ground  of  the  island  is  the  Peak  of  Tenentt'e.  called 
by  the    inhabitants  Peak  of  Teyde.  which  name  is  derived 
IM -beyde,  by  which   term  tlieGuanel,  Hell. 

This  mountain  is  situated  towards  the-  north-western  part 
of  the  island,  and  is  a  volcano  with  two  summits,  of 
which  the  south-eastern  and  more  elevated,  called  Piton, 
is  11, Dili  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  the  north-western, 
Mount  Chahoria.  is  lisss  feet.  Their  bases  are  united  by 
ashort  ndire,  which  is  somewhat  lnwcr  than  the  summit  of 
Mount  Cliahorra.  Uoth  summits  are  extinct,  volca? 
The  cniterof  the  Piton,  called  ( 'aldera.  is  of  oblong  shape, 
and  only  3IHI  feet  long  from  south-east  to  north-west,  and 
200  feet  in  the  opposite  direction.  It  is  distinguished  by  ft 


TEN 


203 


TEN 


high  circular  wall  which  surrounds  it,  and  which'would 
prevent  access  to  the  crater,  if  it  were  not  broken  down 
on  its  western  side.  The  depression  of  the  crater  does 
not  exceed  160  feet.  The  crater  of  Mount  Chahorra  is 
very  large,  as  it  takes  more  than  an  hour  to  go  round  it :  it 
is  about  140  feet  deep.  It  is  not  on  record  that  volcanic 
matter  has  issued  from  either  of  them  :  they  are  at  present 
only  solfataras,  from  the  crevices  of  which  sulphuric 
vapours  are  continually  arising.  But  to  the  west  of  Mount 
Chahorra  are  four  volcanic  cones,  from  which  in  1798  great 
quantities  of  lava  flowed  and  covered  the  adjacent  tracts.  In 
1706  a  great  quantity  of  lava  issued  from  the  north-eastern 
side  of  the  ridge  which  unites  the  Piton  to  Mount  Cha- 
horra. These  lavas  reached  the  sea  and  almost  filled  the 
harbour  of  Garachico,  which  up  to  that  time  was  the  best, 
or,  more  properly  speaking,  the  only  harbour  in  the  island. 
Very  elevated  volcanic  masses  extend  from  Mount  Cha- 
horra in  a  north-west  direction  to  the  Punta  de  Tena, which 
is  the  most  elevated  cape  of  the  island.  These  masses 
rise  to  7000  feet  above  the  sea-level. 

The  Peak  of  Teyde  is  surrounded  on  the  south-west, 
south,  and  south-ea'st  by  an  uninterrupted  ridge  of  moun- 
tain masses,  which  form  a  semicircle,  and  are  about  three 
miles  from  its  base.  These  mountains  are  very  steep  to- 
wards the  volcano.  On  the  other  sides  only  single  moun- 
tains occur.  The  tract  which  lies  between  the  base  of 
the  volcano  and  the  semicircle  is  called  Los  Llanos  de  las 
Ketamas,  from  a  plant  called  retama,  nearly  the  only  plant 
which  vegetates  on  this  tract,  which  is  covered  with 
pumice-stones.  Its  surface  is  uneven,  but  has  a  regular 
slope  from  the  base  of  the  volcano  towards  the  masses 
forming  the  semicircle.  Near  the  base  of  the  volcano  it 
is  about  8000  feet,  and  near  the  semicircle  about  6000  feet 
above  the  sea.  The  mountains  forming  the  semicircle  rise 
from  1000  to  1800  feet  above  their  base.  It  is  supposed 
that  the  Peak  de  Teyde  and  the  mountains  that  belong  to 
it  cover  an  area  of  120  square  miles. 

From  the  outer  edges  of  the  semicircle  the  country  de- 
scends in  rapid  and  broken  slopes  towards  the  sea  on  the 
west  and  on  the  north,  but  on  the  south  and  east  the  semi- 
circle is  surrounded  by  table-lands,  whose  surface  is  like- 
wise much  broken,  but  which  at  the  distance  of  several 
miles  preserve'an  elevation  of  between  4000  and  6000  feet 
above  the  sea.  These  table-lands  are  most  extensive  to 
the  east,  where  they  terminate,  about  20  miles  from  the 
semicircle,  on  the  Plain  of  Laguna.  These  table-lands  and 
the  volcano  taken  together  probably  cover  nearly  half  the 
island.  In  many  places  the  table-lands  and  the  slopes  of 
the  hills  which  cover  it  are  overgrown  with  pines,  but  the 
greater  part  consists  of  bare  volcanic  rocks  or  lava.  No  part 
of  them  is  cultivated,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  portion 
in  the  vicinity  of  Chasna,  south  of  the  semicircle,  where 
corn  is  grown,  and  where  there  are  extensive  plantations  of 
fruit-trees.  On  the  edge  of  the  table-land,  west  of  Guimar, 
is  a  small  volcano,  which  made  an  eruption  in  1705. 

The  Plain  of  Laguna  is  traversed  by  16°  207  W.  long. 
West  of  that  plain  the  cultivable  country  is  found  only  near 
the  sea,  and  from  three  to  four  miles  from  it, with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  table-land  of  Chasna,  which  is  more  than  eight 
mile's  distant.  The  cultivable  tract  along  the  sea  is  so 
uneven  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  find  a  square  mile 
which  can  be  called  level.  A  portion  of  it  rising  in  steep 
and  sharp  ridges  cannot  be  cultivated,  but  where  the  de- 
clivities are  moderate  the  soil  generally  repays  the  labour 
bestowed  on  it.  The  most  fertile  tract  is  on  the  north  side 
of  the  island,  between  Tegina  and  San  Juan  de  la  Rambla, 
especially  west  of  Santa  Ursula,  which  portion  is  called 
the  Valley  of  Taoro.  The  soil  consists  of  a  mixture  of 
sand,  volcanic  matter,  and  some  clay,  and  produces  rich 
crops  of  wheat  and  all  kinds  of  fruit,  especially  grapes. 
West  of  San  Juan  de  la  Rambla  are  a  few  fertile  valleys, 
but  a  great  part  of  the  country  is  covered  with  i 
lava.  The  most  sterile  part  lies  along  the  west  coast,  be- 
tween Punta  de  Tena  and  Punta  Roxa,  where  there  are 
only  a  few  narrow  valleys,  and  where  a  tract  several  miles 
in  length  on  both  sides  of  Puerto  de  los  Clnistianos  is 
quite  barren.  Between  Punta  Roxa  and  Santa  Cruz  there 
arc  several  fine  valleys,  which  have  a  fertile  soil  com- 
posed of  decomposed  pumice-stone  and  tufa  intermixed 
with  gravel  ;  but  their  fertility  cannot  be  compared  with 
that,  of  the  valley  of  Taoro,  which  is  mainly  to  be  as- 
cribed to  the  smaller  quantity  of  rain  which  falls  on  the 
southern  shores. 


The  plain  of  Laguna  occupies  the  middle  of  the  island, 
near  16°  20'  W.  long. :  it  is  about  1700  feet  above  the  sea, 
and  enclosed  by  hills ;  the  surface  is  nearly  a  dead  level, 
occupying  a  space  of  about  12  square  miles.  After  the 
rains  it  is  partly  covered  with  water,  and  hence  is  derived 
its  name.  The  soil  consists  of  a  reddish  clay,  and  pro- 
duces abundant  crops  of  grain,  but  no  part  of  it  is  covered 
with  trees. 

The  eastern  portion  of  the  island,  or  the  peninsula 
which  extends  east  of  the  plain  of  Laguna,  is  only  hilly  in 
comparison  with  the  western  portion,  as  the  highest  sum- 
mit, the  Bufadero,  rises  only  to  3069  feet  above  the  sea- 
level.  In  this  part  no  traces  of  lava  and  no  volcanic  cones 
occur :  the  hills  consist  mostly  of  black  basalt :  the  val- 
leys are  numerous,  but  narrow.  These  valleys  and  the 
adjacent  hills  are  cultivated  and  planted  with  trees  where 
the  surface  is  not  too  steep:  they  produce  the  finest 
fruits  in  the  island.  The  country  descends  gradually 
towards  the  east,  and  Punta  de  Anaga  is  only  elevated  a 
little  above  the  sea-level. 

Climate. — Teneriffe,  being  situated  near  the  tropic,  par- 
takes of  the  climate  both  of  the  countries  within  and 
without  the  tropic  :  it  has  only  two  seasons,  a  rainy  and  a 
dry  season,  but  the  rainy  season  does  not  occur  when  the 
sun  i.s  nearest,  as  in  the  tropical  countries,  but  when  it  is 
near  its  greatest  southern  declination.  It  occurs  in  the 
same  period  of  the  year  as  in  southern  Europe.  The  dry 
season  is  produced  by  the  trade-winds,  which,  when  the 
sun  approaches  the  northern  tropic,  proceed  farther  north, 
and  are  met  with  at  30°  and  even  33"  N.  lat.  These  winds 
blow  on  Teneritfe  without  interruption  from  April  to  Oc- 
tober, and  always  from  the  east-north-east :  they  are 
strongest  from  the  middle  of  May  to  the  middle  of  August. 
The  wind  begins  in  the  morning  between  ten  and  eleven 
o'clock,  and  continues  to  five  or  six  in  the  afternoon,  when 
it  is  followed  by  a  calm,  which  lasts  till  midnight.  From 
midnight  to  seven  or  eight  o'clock  the  land-breezes  blow, 
and  they  are  again  followed  by  a  calm,  which  lasts  till  the 
trade-wind  sets  in.  Along  the  western  shores  of  the 
island  these  winds  are  not  felt,  but  there  is  a  continual 
calm,  which  extends  about  15  miles  into  the  sea.  The 
trade-wind  renders  the  communication  between  the  islands 
tedious  and  difficult.  From  Teneriffe  a  vessel  can  run  to 
Hierro  in  less  than  one  day,  but  to  return  from  Hierro  to 
Teneriffe  it  generally  takes  ten  or  twelve  days,  and  some- 
times even  three  or  four  weeks.  A  voyage  from  Madeira 
to  Teneriffe  is  made  in  two  days,  but  it  takes  more  than 
a  month  to  sail  from  Teneriffe  to  Madeira.  During  the 
prevalence  of  the  trade-winds  the  weather  is  constantly 
fine,  and  not  a  drop  of  rain  falls. 

In  the  rainy  season,  from  October  to  April,  south-west 
winds  prevail  :  in  October  the  winds  turn  to  the  east  and 
south-east,  and  then  the  summit  of  the  Peak  of  Teyde 
begins  to  be  covered  with  clouds  which  proceed  from  the 
south.  These  clouds  accumulate  on  the  Peak,  and  gradually 
descend  lower.  When  they  have  sunk  to  about  6000  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  and  cover  the  most  elevated  part  of 
the  island,  they  produce  terrible  thunder-storms.  The  rain 
beinns  to  descend  in  torrents  on  the  sides  of  the  mountains, 
and  the  summit  of  the  peak  is  covered  with  snow.  In 
summer  the  mountain  is  quite  free  from  snow,  which  is 
only  found  in  a  deep  depression  on  the  northern  slope. 
This  depression  is  called  Cueva  del  Yelo.  The  snow 
rests  on  the  mountain  about  four  months.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  November  the  wind  is  settled  in  the  south-west, 
and  whilst  it  blows  the  rains  sometimes  last  for  three  days. 
In  February,  March,  and  April  the  wind  turns  to  the  west- 
north-west,  north-west,  and  north-north-west,  and  the  rains 
decrease  gradually.  They  cease  at  the  end  of  March. 

The  climate  of  Teneriffe  and  of  the  Canary  Islands  in 
general  is  disagreeably  affected  by  the  wind  called  Kl 
Levante,  which  comes  from  the  south-east,  and  generally 
before  or  after  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season. 
Its  effect  on  all  organic  bodies  is  very  great,  and  the  heat 
which  it.  brines  from  the  Sahara  is  felt  much  more  in  ele- 
vated places  than  near  the  sea-shore,  the  more  so  as  water 
is  very  scarce  in  those  parts,  and  the  thirst  which  the 
wind  produces  is  intolerable.  In  those  higher  places  it 
blows  with  such  force  that  it  frequently  throws  down  men. 
anil  horses.  /The  air  is  misty,  and  it  is  not  possible  to 
distinguish  objects  even  at  a  moderate  distance;  but 
(here  are  no  clouds  in  the  sky.  Sometimes  this  wind 
brings  locusts  in  large  numbers  to  the  island.  It  was 

2D2 


T  F.  \ 


•jr.  i 


TEN 


formerly  thought  that  these  inlets  reached  tin-  island  by 
flyinir,  l"'»'  •'*  *h*1  sucn  immense  numbers  of 

them  are  earned  from  the  Sahara  into  the  sea  as  to  form  a 
thick  layer  :  and  tlr.it  in  t  hi*  way  they  arc  carried  to  the 
Canary  Islands,  and  that  most  of  them  are  dead  when  they 
arrive  there,  but  those  which  cover  the  upper  surfa- 
alive.  1  their  devastation  over  the  corn-fields  and 

plant;1. 

We  Mibjoin  the  meteorological  observations  made  at 
Sanla  Crux  and  at  Laguna:  the  lost-mentioned  place  is 
iibout  1700  feet  above  the  sea. 


Jan 

Feb. 

M.r. 

M.,.U-..U,,.|A.«. 

S,p». 

S.nU  Crat 

63-8J°  6434° 

1-a^uni     . 

5j» 

5'j" 

48°    1   5*-    |   62°    1  64°    ]  ef 

;o° 

Oct. 

IVc. 

Wlntr 

Sprint  Sum.  Amtm. 

Ann. 

mrau. 

S«nla  Cm 

T4«!° 

70-43* 

6581" 

6511° 

71  11°  77-86°t  70-11° 

I    .      .»     . 

66° 

62" 

S3" 

56-33° 

6200°  70-00°  62-00° 

62-8SP 

1 

1            1 

This  table  shows  that  the  climate  of  Teneriffe  i 
tinguishcd  by  its  moderate  temperature,  and  that  the  heat 
rf  the  summer  is  prolonged  to  the  month  of  November, 
October  being  considerably  warmer  than  May,  and  No- 

nril. 

Productions. — All  European  domestic  animals  are 
reared,  and  also  white  camels,  which  are  used  as  l>--asts  of 
burden,  and  reared  on  the  west  coast  of  the  island,  but  not 
in  large  numbers.  Cattle  are  rather  scarce,  on  account  of 
the  want  of  pasture-ground.  They  are  only  kept  for 
slaughter  and  for  the  plough  :  the  cows  are  never  milked. 
Horses  are  still  less  numerous.  They  are  of  good  breed, 
of  a  middling  size,  and  very  hardy.  Goats  are  very  numer- 


pecu 

which  existed  on  the  island  before  the  arrival  of  the  Euro- 
peans. They  constituted  the  principal  riches  of  the 
Guanches.  Sheep  are  also  numerous.  The  breed  i.s  small, 
and  the  wool  is  coarse,  but  abundant :  it  is  consumed  in 
the  island.  Asses  are  rather  mimerous,  but  small  :  mules 

much  used  as  beasts  of  burden.  According  to 
MacGregor,  the  number  of  cattle  is  about  4900,  of  horses 
1000,  of  camels  60,  of  mules  1400,  of  asses  2200,  of  goats 
:»,000,  of  sheep  18,000,  and  of  hogs  3000.  The  silk-worm 

:ensively  reared,  and  the  annual  produce  of  silk  may 
amount  to  8000  Ibs.,  but  it  IV  puce  than  the 

Italian  silk,  not  being  so  well  prepared.  In  1828  the 
cochineal  insect  was  introduced,  and  the  first  trials  at 
rearing  it  succeeded  very  well.  We  are  not  acquainted 
with  the  result  of  this  attempt.  Bees  are  abundant,  do- 

•I-  as  well  as  wild.  The  honey  is  of  the  best  quality. 
especially  that  which  is  collected  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  Peak  of  Teyde,  which  is  extracted  by  the  bee 
the  blossoms  of  the  retama  plant.  Between  7000  and 
8000  Ibs.  of  wax  are  annually  collected.  Rabbits  are  very 
numerous. 

The  domestic  birds  are  fowls,  ducks,  geese,  and  pigeons. 
A  great  number  of  turkeys  arc  reined.  The  number  of  wild 
birds  is  very  great.  Some  of  them  are  always  found  on 
the  island,  'and  others  arrive  only  at  certain  seasons,  in 
their  migration  from  north  to  south,  and  L  The 

most  remarkable  belonging  to  the  first  class  are  the  wild 
pigeon,  various  species  ofTetraonidre,  quails,  and  larks.  The 
\  -bird  is  common.  Fish  is  far  from  being  abundant. 
The  inhabitants  li\  e  mostly  on  potatoes  and  salt  (ish,  which 
is  obtained  from  the  fishery  on  the  coasts  of  Africa  [SAHARA, 
vol.  xx.,  p.  .'J171  :  but  of  hie  the  inhabitants  of  Teneriffe 
have  abandoned  this  branch  of  industry,  and  huv  the  fish 
from  the  fishermen  of  the  other  islands.  Wha! 
sometimes  met  with  among  the  Canary  Islands,  and  still 
more  frequently  do'j  als  rarely  visit  the  c<. 

The  principal  "lture  are  potatoes,  wheat, 

maize,  parley,  ami  rve.    Where  the  soil  is  good,  and  means 
of  irrigation  are  at  hand,  two  crops  of  maize,  and  one  of 
potatoes,  or  two  of  potatoes  a  nd  one  of  maize,  may  be  raised 
in  twelve  months.     According  to  an  avei: 
(18011  annual  produce  w:is  about.  "0,000  quartern 

nt'    potatoes.   21.700  qnaitcrs  of  wheat.   C,~>\\    quai; 
maize.   !i.~i.'l'J  quail  rr->  of  barley,  2200  qua  '-.and 

only  40  quarters  of  oat*.     It  is  how. 
that  time  the  cultivation  of  grain,  and  especially  that  of 
potatoes,  has  considerably  increased.    Other  objects  of  cul- 
tivation are  flax,  canary-seed,  sumach  for  the  tanneries, 


pumpkins,  cucumbers.  Sage,  peamTuii 

garbunzos,  lentils,   lettuce,  capsicum,  onions,  and  i: 
Tlic  orchards  produce  applet,  pears,  cherries,  plums,  apri- 
cots, peaches,  nmlben 

Indian  figs,  oranges,  and  lemons,  and  also  plantains.  ; 
apples,    dale-,    pomegranates,   papayas,   guavas,   anonag, 
and  a  few  other  fruits  <  .'.  The 

.mportant  object   of   cultivation   is  the  vine,   which 
yields  the  largest  article  of  export.    According  t 

live  years  (1800-1804  i  the  animal  pn  sited 

to    21,N)(i   j  ,   conl.iiiiin.';    IlK)   gallons,    but 

stated  that  to  tbi«  quantity  from  5000  to  8000  p 
be  added,   which  during  the  vintage  were  converted 
brandy.  Thus  the  annual  produce  amounted  to  about  30,000 
pipes.    But  the  war  between  Spain  and  its  American  • 
to  which  a  large  quantity  of  wine  and  brandy  w. 
ported,  base  ly  diminished  this  branch  of  indi 

and  at  nresent  the  annual   produce  hardly  exceed*  20,000 
pipe*.  The  best  sort,  known  by  the  name  of  Vidoma,  n 
hies  Madeira,  and  is  sent  to  England.     The  Malvasia  wine 

liiierly  in   great  request,  but  the  demand 
diminished.     The  difficulty  of  obtaining  a  rei: 
price  for  their  wines  and  brandies  has  of  late  indue. 
inhabitants  to  introduce  some  other  objects  of  cultivation. 
Cotton  has  begun  to  be  cultivated;  the  produce 
that  of  Pernambuco.     They  have  also  mad. 
ful  trials  with  coffee.     Two  centuries  ago  the  s'lgar-canc 
was  the  most  important  branch  of  cultivation,  but  at  pre- 
sent there  is  only  one  sugar-mill  on  1  ; 

Large  forests  still  cover  some  of  the  higher  parts  of  the 
island,  though  they  have  been  i 
the  trees  there  are  numerous  kinds  of  Laurus,  as  L.  Ii. 
L.  barbussana,  L.  nobihs,  &e.     Two  or  three  wild-gro 
plants  are  used  for  making  barilla,  and  the  Mesemb 
themnm  crystallimun  is  cultivated  for  that  purpose  on  a 
small   scale.     Two   kinds  of  lichens  which   grow  on  the 
rocks  are  collected  for  their  dyeing  qualities:  the  rocella 
tinctoria,  which  yields  the.  archil,  and  the  parella  :  th< 
mostly  sent  to  England. 

Teneriffe  has  no  metals,  except  some  iron-ore,  of  which 
no  use  is  made.  Sulphur  occurs  in  large  quantities  on  the 
Peak  of  Teyde. 

Population  and  Inhabitants.—  According  to  an  estimate 
of  MacGregor,  founded  on  the  old  census  of  ls()2and  other 

l  he  population  of  Teneriffe  amounted,  i 
85,000  individuals  ;    so  that  on  the  average  there  were  S4 
persons  to  each  square  mile.    The  greater  part  of  the  tribe 
of  Guanches,  who  inhabited  the  island  at  the  arrival  of  the 
Spaniards,  perished  in  the  war  by  which  the  Sp; 
possession  of  it,  and  the  remainder  intermarried  with  the 
Spaniards.      The  present  inhabitants  must    therefi., 
considered  as  Spaniards,  whom  they  also  lescmble  i;i  per- 
son and  character.    The  Spanish  language  alon. 
intermixed  in  the  parts  remote  from  the  towns  with  a  few- 
other  word*. 

Political  Divisions  and  Towns.—  For  the  administration 
of  justice  the  island  is  di\  iiled  into  three  jurisdiction 
courts  for  which  are  at  Santa  Crux,  Laguna,  and  (  ) 
Santa  Cruz  de  Santiago,  the  seat  of  the  iruvcr 
of  the  Canary  Island,,  is  built  on  the  south  coast  of  the 
island,  not  far  from  its  eastern  extremity.     The  hail 
not  large,  and  is  well  protected  against  the  winds,  except 
that  blow-  from  the  south.     At  the  d  ;  from 

~!~)  to  1(H)  fathoms  from  the  land   thu 

in  0  to  12  fathoms,  and  half  a  mile  off  in  25  to  :«)  fathoms. 
The  lowest   part  of  the  town  i.s  more  than  20  feet  : 
the   sen-level,  and   the   ground   rise*  gently.     Th.-  h 
are  built  in  the  Spanish  Moorish  fashion,  with  a  coin 
(patio  in  the  middle,  and  have  only  one  floor.     The  si 

'raight,  but  narrow,  and  have  fi 

population  amounted,  in  1H2U,  to  8620  individuals.    The 
-on  a  coiMdciabh'  commerce,  and  the  harbour 


is  annually  visited  by  80  to  100 

San  Christoval  de  la  Lnguna  is  considered  a.1  of 

the  island,  being  the  seat  of  administration.     It  is  ln-.ilt  in 

the  middle  of  the  plain  of  Laguna,  and  is  a  pleasant  place. 

I  The  streets  are  straight  and  wide,  well   p  !,.ive 

avements.      Mo.,t  of  the  houses  have  only  one  floor. 

The   population  amounts  to   more  than  10,000.     The  rich 

inhabitants  of  Sanla  (  Vuz   pMi  the  summer  inontlis  here, 

j  as  the  climate  of  l.airnn.i  is  much  cooler. 

Tacoronte,  not  far  from  the  northern  coast,  in  a  fine  val- 
ley, has  4600  inhabitants. 


TEN 


205 


TEN 


Orotava  is  on  the  declivity  of  a  steep  hill,  nearly  1200 
feet  above  the  sea-level :  it  is  a  well-built  and  thriving 
place,  with  nearly  8000  inhabitants.  It  carries  on  a  con- 
siderable commerce  by  means  of  its  harbour,  called  Puerto 
de  la  Orotava,  which  is  about  2  miles  distant,  and  contains 
a  population  of  4600. 

Guimar,  on  the  southern  coast,  is  in  a  very  fertile  valley, 
which  produces  much  wine  and  wheat :  it  is  rather  well 
built,  and  contains  3300  inhabitants.  In  the  vicinity  are 
the  tombs  of  the  antient  inhabitants,  the  Guanches.  which 
contain  mummies. 

Muniifa-iurpx  and  Commerce, — There  are  a  few  manufac- 
tures of  silk  stuffs  at  Icod  de  los  Vinos,  a  town  on  the  north 
coast,  with  4000  inhabitants.  These  manufactures  were 
formerly  very  active,  and  their  produce  went  to  America  ; 
but  they  are  now  in  a  declining  state,  especially  since  the 
population  of  Teneriffe  have  begun  to  wear  cotton  instead 
of  silk.  Linen  and  woollen  stuns  are  made  by  the  families 
for  their  own  consumption.  Woollen  stockings  were  for- 
merly made  for  the  American  market,  but  this  branch  of 
industry  has  entirely  ceased.  Earthenware,  especially 
large  water-filters,  is  still  sent  to  Cuba  and  Puerto  Rico. 
There  are  manufactures  of  soap  and  vermicelli  at  Santa 
Cruz.  The  tanneries  produce  a  very  indifferent  leather, 
which  is  not  exported.  The  number  of  distilleries  is  large, 
and  the  brandy  is  hardly  inferior  to  Cognac.  Ropes  are 
made  from  the  agave  ;  and  hats,  baskets,  and  mats  from 
the  leaves  of  the  date-palms.  Good  cabinet-work  has 
lately  begun  to  be  made  for  the  South  American  market. 

The  maritime  commerce  is  concentrated  in  the  port  of 
Santa  Cruz  and  Port  Orotava,  which  are  annually  visited 
by  about  120  vessels,  mostly  English.  The  inhabitants 
have  a  few  vessels,  with  wfiich  they  visit  the  American 
harbours.  The  most  active  commerce  is  that  with 
land,  in  which  about  80  vessels  are  constantly  employed. 
The  imports  consist  of  iron  utensils,  hardware,  iron  in  6ars, 
flax,  gla.-.s-ware,  crockery,  leather,  candles,  soap,  large 
quantities  of  cotton  goods,  provisions,  cod,  and  some 
minor  articles.  The  most  important  exports  are  wine, 
brandy,  and  barilla  :  there  are  also  exported  almonds, 
dry  fruits,  raw  silk,  and  archil.  The  commerce  with  the 
United  States  of  America  and  with  Hamburg  is  also  con- 
siderable. 

Ilin'.nry. — The  Canaries  were  known  to  the  antients, 
who  called  them  the  Fortunate  Islands.  [CANARIES,  vol. 
vi.,  226.]  Teneriffe  was  occupied  by  the  Spaniards  in 
1496.  and  has  always  remained  in  their  possession. 

(Glas,  Hibt'iry  and  Coiir/nt-xt  nf  the  Canary  Ixlmiih  ; 
HumboJdt,  Voyage  an.r  lif^iimx  /:>/;/ /Ho.rm/».v  tin  \m/- 
reau  Continent,  vol.i.;  VonBuch,  Physiknlische Benchrei- 
firiny  (/,,,.  Canarischen  Inseln ;  and  Die  Canarischen 
Inseln  nnch  ihrcm  gegenu>3rtigen  Zustande,  von  Mac 
Gresror,  Hannover,  1831.) 

TEXIERS,  DAVID  (the  Elder),  was  born  at  Antwerp 
in  Io82.  He  had  the  good  fortune  to  study  painting  under 
Rubens,  who  highly  esteemed  him  for  his  promising  genius. 
Besides  the  benefit  of  the  instruction  of  that  great  master, 
he  had  the  advantage  of  learning  his  manner  of  preparing 
rounds  and  managing  his  materials.  It  is  said  that 
he  began  by  painting  pictures  on  a  large  scale ;  but 
having  gone  to  Rome  with  the  intention  of  improving 
himself  in  the  higher  branches  of  the  art,  he  there  con- 
tracted an  intimate  friendship  with  his  countryman  Adam 
Elsheimer,  whose  exquisitely-finished  cabinet  pictures  were 
L'reatly  esteemed,  and  ho  studied  with  him  several  years, 
painting  only  small  pictures.  It  was  here  that  he  ac- 
quired the  neatness  of  pencilling  for  which  his  works  are 
med,  and  which,  with  the  knowledge  of  colours  ac- 
'1  under  Rubens,  gives  to  his  works  so  great  a  charm. 

K'.'turning  to  his  native  country  after  ten  years'  absence, 
he  devoted  himself  with  the  greatest  ardour  to  the  prac- 
uf  his  art,  and  chose  the  familiar  scenes  of  ordinary 
Flemish  lil'i',  such  as  merry-makings,  weddings,  the  inte- 
rior and  exterior  of  public-houses,  rural  games,  chemists' 
ilorips,  and  grotesque  subjects,  such  as  the  Temptation 
•honyand  the  like.    These  subjects  he  treated 
with  the  utmost  truth  and  fidelity  to  nature.     His  colour- 
ing, his  touch,  his  design,  the  pleasing  distribution  of  light 
•hade,  the  skilful  composition  of  his  groups,  procured 
him   great  reputation  and  constant  employment:   every 
lover  of  the  art  was  eager  to  possess  some  of  his  works. 
H'-  may  in  fact  be  considered  as  the  inventor  of  a  new 
manner,  which  was  followed  and  carried  to  a  still  higher 


degree  of  perfection  by  his  son.     He  died  at  Antwerp  in 
the  year  1049,  at  the  age  of  sixty-seven. 

TENTERS,  DAVID  (the  Younger),  was  born  at  Antwerp 
in  1610,  and  received  his  first  and  principal  instruction 
from  his  father.  Some  authors  have  affirmed  that  he  left 
his  father  to  become  a  disciple  of  Adrian  Brouwer,  who 
however  was  only  two  years  older  than  himself,  and  that 
he  had  the  advantage  of  the  precepts  of  Rubens.  Othei-s 
have  pretended  that  he  was  likewise  a  pupil  of  Elsheimer, 
who  died  when  Teniers  was  only  ten  years  old.  He 
adopted,  as  we  have  observed,  the  subjects  and  style  of  his 
father :  but,  with  a  more  fertile  imagination,  he  produced 
compositions  much  more  varied  and  ingenious ;  his  colour- 
ing is  more  vivid,  rich,  and  transparent,  and  the  facility 
of  his  execution  is  enchanting.  He  studied  nature  in 
all  her  varied  forms  with  the  most  critical  attention.  He 
possessed,  in  perfection,  what  we  have  heard  one  of  the 
brightest  living  ornaments  of  the  British  school  call  '  the 
art,  or  rather  the  gift,  of  seeing.'  Hence  the  truth  and 
nature  of  his  pictures,  which  look  almost  like  reflections 
in  a  convex  mirror.  His  pencil  is  free  and  delicate ; 
the  touching  of  his  trees  light  and  firm  ;  his  skies  are  ad- 
mirably clear  and  brilliant,  though  not  much  varied.  The 
expression  of  his  figures,  in  every  varying  mood,  of  mirth 
or  gravity,  good  or  ill  humour,  is  strongly  marked,  striking, 
and  natural ;  he  represented  them  however  precisely  as 
he  saw  them  before  him,  but  was  perhaps  inferior  in  de- 
lineation of  character  to  Jan  Steen  or  Wilkie. 

It  is  remarkable  that  at  the  commencement  of  his  career 
very  little  regard  was  shown  to  his  merit,  so  that  he  was 
often  obliged  to  go  in  person  to  Brussels  to  dispose  of  his 
pictures.  But  he  was  not  long  neglected.  The  archduke 
Leopold  having  seen  some  of  his  pictures,  immediately 
distinguished  him  by  his  patronage,  appointed  him  his 
principal  painter  and  gentleman  of  his  bedchamber,  pre- 
sented him  with  a  chain  of  gold  to  which  his  portrait  was 
affixed,  and  gave  him  the  direction  of  his  gallery  of  paint- 
ings, which  contained  works  of  the  most  eminent  masters 
of  the  Italian  and  Flemish  schools.  Teniers,  who  pos- 
sessed an  extraordinary  talent  in  imitating  the  works  of 
other  artists,  made  copies  of  this  gallery,  in  which  the 
touch,  the  colouring,  and  the  manner  of  the  several 
painters,  however  different  from  each  other,  were  repro- 
duced with  such  a  deceptive  fidelity,  that  he  acquired  the 
name  of  the  Proteus  of  painting.  Some  writers  have  ob- 
jected that  his  figures  are  too  short  and  clumsy,  and  that 
(here  is  too  much  sameness  in  their  countenances  and 
habits:  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  he  designed 
every  object  as  he  saw  it;  and  the  charm  which  his  art  has 
thrown  on  scenes  flat  and  insipid  in  their  forms,  even 
subjects  low,  barren,  and  commonplace,  justly  excites 
the  admiration  of  all  lovers  of  the  art,  and  the  extra- 
ordinary prices  which  are  given  for  his  works  in  every  part 
of  Europe  are  an  incontestible  proof  of  the  universal  ad- 
miration and  esteem  in  which  they  are  held.  This  circum- 
stance is  the  more  deserving  of  attention,  as  his  works,  far 
from  being  scarce,  are  extremely  numerous :  his  extra- 
ordinary facility  of  execution  and  the  great  age  to  which 
lie  attained  enabled  him  to  produce  such  a  number  of 
pictures,  that  he  was  used  to  say  in  joke  that  to  hold  all 
his  paintings  (though  they  were  of  such  small  dimensions) 
it  would  be  necessary  to  build  a  gallery  two  leagues  in 
length.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  while  of  all  the 
Flemish  painters  his  works  are  the  most  popular,  he  was 
liabitually  conversant  with  the  higher  classes  of  society. 
The  suavity  of  his  manners  and  his  irreproachable  conduct 
secured  him  the  esteem  of  all  his  countrymen.  Besides 
Ihe  archduke  Leopold,  he  was  honoured  with  the  favour 
and  protection  of  Christina,  queen  of  Sweden,  the  king  of 
^pain,  Don  John  of  Austria,  who  became  his  pupil,  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  the  bishop  of  Ghent,  and  other  eminent 
personages.  He  often  assisted  the  landscape-painters  of 
iis  tim"  by  inserting  figures  into  their  pictures,  and  many 
works  of  Artois,  Van  Uden,  Breughel,  and  others  derive 
additional  value  from  this  circumstance.  The  galleries 
and  collections  in  England  contain  a  great,  number  of  his 
finest,  works.  He  died  at  Brussels,  in  the  year  1694,  at  the 
advanced  age  of  eighty-four  years. 

(Pilkington ;    Fuseh ;     Conversations    Lexicon ;    Hw- 
graphie    Universelle;  Dr.  Waagen,  Arts  and  Artists  in 
•nd.) 

TENIMBAR  ISLANDS.     [SUNDA  ISLANDS,  LKSSER.] 

TENISON,  THOMAS  (born  1636,  died  1715),  an  Eng- 


TEN 

lish  divine,  son  of  a  clergyman  in  the  diocese  of  Ely,  who 
was  advanced  by  his  own  deserved  reputation  for  piety, 
charity,  learning,  and  liberality,  to  tin- hi.  on  in 

the  English  church.     He  was  Lorn  at  Cottcnliatn  in  Cam- 
bridgeshire, educated  in  the  grammar-school  at  Norwich, 
from  whence  he  passed  to  Corpus  < 
bridge,  where   he  was  admitted   in    lul.J.  and   look    his 
bach.  ee  in   1G.~>7.      The  university  w;us  then  in 

the  stale  to  winch  it  had  hem  brought  by  the  parliamenlaiy 
commissioners,  and  the  turn  of  mind  of  TenUon  not  ac- 
cording with  what  at  that  time  was  expected  from  persons 
undertaking  the  ministry,  he  for  a  time  turned  to  the  study 
of  medicine  ;  but  about  1G5U  he  was  privately  ordained  in 
the  episcopal  method  then  proscribed  by  the  govern- 
ment of  the  time.  The  ordination  was  performed  at  Rich- 
mond in  Surrey  by  Dr.  Duppa.  the  expelled  bishop  of 
Salisbury.  The  restoration  of  the  king,  and  with  it  of  the 
.  ipal  church,  soon  following,  he  was  made  minister  of 
St.  Andrew'.-  church  in  Cambridge,  in  which  situation  he 
gained  much  credit  by  his  attention  to  his  parishioners 
during  the  time  of  the  plague,  in  1GG5.  He  had  other 
preferment  in  the  country,  as  the  church  of  St.  Peter  Man- 
croft  in  Norwich,  and  the  rectory  of  Holy  well  in  Hunting- 
donshire. This  brings  down  his  history  to  the  year  1680, 
when,  being  then  doctor  in  divinity,  he  was  placed  on  a 
more  conspicuous  stage,  being  presented  by  King  Charles 
II.  to  the  living  of  St.  Martin's  in  the  Fields. 

In  this  public  situation  he  acted  with  great  prudence, 
and  with  a  liberality  which  emulated  the  munificence  of 
the  clerirr  of  earlier  times,  giving  more  than  300/.  to  the 
poor  of  his  parish  in  the  time  of  the  distress  occasioned  by 
t  he  hard  frost  of  1G83.  and  endow  inir  a  free-school,  and  build- 
ing and  furnishing  a  library.  In  1085  he  discharged  the  diffi- 
cult duty  of  attending  the  duke  of  Monmouth  previous  to  his 
execution  with  singular  discretion.  In  his  politic!  he  was  a 
Whig,  and  favourer  of  the  Revolution,  and  was  accordingly 
early  marked  out  by  King  William  for  advancement  in  the 
church.  In  HiK)  he  was  made  archdeacon  of  Londjon,  and 
in  1G!H  bishop  of  Lincoln.  This  large  diocese,  which  had 
been  too  much  neglected,  he  brought  into  order.  In  1GU4, 
on  the  death  of  Dr.  Tillotson,  he  was  made  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  in  which  high  dignity  he  remained  for  twenty 
years.  He  died  on  the  14th  of  December,  1715,  and  was 
interred  in  the  parish  church  of  Lambeth. 

A  large  account  of  his  life  was  published  soon  after  his 
death,  without  the  name  of  any  author  in  the  title-page, 
but  evidently  written  by  a  person  possessed  of  good  in- 
formation, and  who  was  fully  sensible  to  his  merits.  He 
speaks  of  him  thus  :— '  And  as  he  was  an  exact  pattern  of 
that  exemplary  piety,  charity,  stcdfastness,  and  good  con- 
duct requisite'  in  a  governor  of  the  church,  so  perhaps 
since  the  primitive  age  of  Christianity  nnd  the  time  of  the 
Apostles  there  has  been  no  man  whose  learning  and 
abilities  have  better  qualified  him  to  discharge  and  defend 
a  trust  of  that  high  importance.' 

The  library  winch  he  founded  in  the  parish  of  St.  Mar- 
tin's still  exists  ;  and  he  may  be  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  the  library  in  the  cathedral  church  of  St.  Paul,  having 
presented  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  to  make  up  four 
hundred  and  fifty,  which  the  dean  and  resident iaries  irave 
for  the  libraries  of  two  clciirymcn  bought  by  them  in  1707. 
His  will  contains  many  munificent  bequests  for  charitable 
and  religions  ohj. 

Archbishop  lenison  has  left  no  writings  behind  him 
which  can  be  said  to  make  part  of  the  irem-ral  literature 
of  the  country,  or  to  establish  lor  him  a  literary  reputation. 
Yet  he  published  several  treat  connected  with 

the  rcliirions  ai.  controversies  of  Ins  age. 

TEN  N  ANT.  sMl  1 II  SON.  a  distinguished  chemist,  was 
born  at  Selby.  in  Yorkshire,  November  :«),  17(il.  and  died 
FcbiT.aiy  .Mi  Isl.-j.  He  was  the  only  child  of  the  Rev. 
Ca! vert  Tennant,  of  whom  little  i-  known  evept  that  la- 
had  been  a  Fellow  of  St.  John' 

was  ali  icnd  oi  Dr.  Rutherford,  Regiun  Prof'  :  <>i  liivmity 
in  that  University. 

While  very  young  he  gave  many  proofs  of  a  particular 
turn  for  chemistry  and  natural  philosophy,  and  after 
quitting  school  he  •  n  of  completing  his 

chemical  studies  under  the  immediate  instruction  of  Dr. 
'ley,  who  was  then  enjoying  hii;li  and  deserved  repu- 
tation  for   the   extent   and   variety  of  his  di-covcnes  m 
pneumatic  chemistry  ;  but  this  was  found  impractiea- 
consequence  of  the  previous  engagements  of  Dr.  Priestley. 


TEN 

In  the  year  1781  he  went  to  Edinburgh  with  the  inten- 
tion of  studying  medicine.  Of  his  companions,  occupa- 
tions, or  studies  while  in  Scotland,  little  is  known,  except 
that  heicccivcd  instruction  fiom  Dr.  Black :  he  did  not 
•  r  continue  long  in  that  University,  for  in  October. 
17s-  he  was  admitted  a  member  of  Christ's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  then  began  to  reside. 

In  the  summer  of  1784  he  travelled  into  Denmark  and 
n,    with   the   intention,    partly   of    examining   the 
mines   of  (lie  latter  country,  but  chiefly  with  the  view  of 
becoming  personally  acquainted  with  Sch.  ..horn 

he  had  conceived  a  high  degree  of  admiration,  especially 
on  account  of  the  simplicity  of  the  apparatus  which  he  cm- 
ployed  in  his  chemical  researches.  In  a  year  or  two  after- 
lie  went  to  Paris,  where  he  became  acquaints!  with 
some  of  the  eminent  chemists:  thence  he  went  to  Holland 
and  the  Netherlands,  after  having  recovered  from  a  serious 
illness  with  which  he  was  seixed  during  his  residence  in 
the  French  capital. 

In  January,  1785,  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  in  17HG  he  left  Christ's  College  and  rein 
to  Emmanuel  College ;    in   1788   he   took   his  deiri> 
bachelor  of  physic,  and  soon  after  quitted  Cambridge  and 
came  to  reside  in  London.    In  17!)G  he  took  a  doctor's  de- 
gree at  Cambridge,  but  as  his  fortune  was  independent, 
he   relinquished  all  idea  of  practice  as  a  physician.     In 
1813  he  was  elected  Professor  of  Chemistry  at  Cambridge, 
having  in  the  previous  year  delivered,  with  great  su> 
a  few  lectures  on  the  principles  of  mineralogy  to  some  of 
his  friends. 

In  the  month  of  September,  1814,  Mr. Tennant  went  for 
the  last  time  to  France,  and  on  his  return  home  on  the  20th  of 
February,  1815,  he  arrived  at  Boulogne  with  Baron  Bulow, 
in  order  to  embark  there.  They  embarked  on  the  22nd,  but 
were  forced  back  by  the  wind,  and  meant  to  embark  again 
in  the  evening :  in  the  meantime  they  took  horses  and 
went  to  see  Bonaparte's  pillar,  about  a  league  off,  and 
going  off  the  road  on  their  return  to  look  at  a  small  fort, 
of  which  the  drawbridge  wanted  a  bolt,  they  were  both 
thrown,  with  their  horses,  into  the  ditch.  Baron  Billow 
was  merely  stunned,  but  Mr.  Tennant's  skull  was  so 
severely  fractured,  that  he  died  within  an  hour  after. 


The  following  character  of  Mr.  Tennant  is  chiefly  coj  ied. 
with  some  variations,  from  the  '  Annals  of  Philosophy,'  vol. 
vi.,  and  the  writer  of  this  brief  notice,  having  well  known 
the  subject  of  it,  is  able  to  testify  to  the  accuracy  of  the 
statements  in  all  the  more  important  particulars. 

Mr.  Tennant  was  tall  and  slender  in  his  person,  with  a 
thin  face  and  light  complexion.  His  appearance,  notwith- 
standing some  singularity  of  manners,  and  great  negligence 
of  dress,  was  on  the  whole  striking  and  agreeable.  His 
countenance  in  early  life  had  been  singularly  engaging  ; 
and  at  favourable  times,  when  he  was  in  good  health 
still  very  pleasing.  The  general  cast  of  his  features  was  ex- 
pressive, and  bore  strong  marks  of  intelligence  ;  and  seve- 
ral persons  have  been  struck  with  a  general  resemblance 
in  his  countenance  to  the  well-known  portraits  of  Locke. 

Of  his  intellectual  character,  the  distinguishing  and  fun- 
damental principle  was  good  sense  ;  a  prompt  and  intuitive 
perception  of  truth,  both  upon  those  questions  in  which 
certainty  is  attainable  and  those  which  must  be  determined 
by  the  nicer  results  of  moral  evidence.  In  quick  penetra- 
tion, united  with  soundness  and  accuracy  of  judgment,  he 
was  perhaps  without  an  equal.  He  saw  immediately  and 
with  gn-at  distinctness  where  the  strength  of  an  argument 
lay, and  upon  what  points  the  decision  was  ultimately  t o  de- 
pend ;  and  he  was  remarkable  for  the  faculty  of  st at! nir  the 
•  of  an  obscure  and  complicated  question  very  shortly, 
and  with  great  simplicity  and  precision.  The  calmness 
and  temper,  as  well  as  the  singular  perspicuity,  which  he 
di  played  on  such  occasions,  were  alike  admirable  :  and  sel- 
dom failed  to  convince  the  unprejudiced,  and  to  discon- 
cert or  silence  his  opponents.  He  had  a  peculiar  cast  of 
humour,  which  was  heightened  by  a  perfect  gravity  of 
countenance,  a  quiet  familiar  manner,  and  a  characte- 
iMic  simplicity  of  language.  In  consequence,  principally, 
of  the  declining  state  of  his  health,  his  talent  for  con- 
versation was  perhaps  less  uniformly  conspicuous  during 
his  latter  years,  but  his  mind  had  lost  none  of  its  vigour, 
and  he  never  failed,  when  he  exerted  himself,  to  dis- 

•  •uliar  powers. 

The  '  Plu'losophical  Transactions'  contain  eight  papers  by 
Mr.  Tennant :— 1, '  On  the  Decomposition  of  Fixed  Air,' 


TEN 


207 


TEN 


1701 ;  2, '  On  the  Nature  of  the  Diamond,'  1797 ;  '  3,  On  the 
Action  of  Nitre  upon  Gold  and  Platina  ;'  4,  '  On  the  Dif- 
ferent Sorts  of  Lime  used  in  Agriculture,'  1799 ;  5,  '  On  the 
Composition  of  Emery,'  1802 ;  6,  '  On  two  Metals  found  in 
the  Black  Powder  of  the  solution  of  Platina,'  1804  ;  7,  '  On 
an  easier  Mode  of  procuring  Potassium  than  that  which  is 
now  adopted ;'  8,  '  On  the  Mode  of  producing  a  Double 
Distillation  by  the  same  Heat.' 

In  the  first  volume  of  the  'Transactions'  of  the  Geolo- 
gical Society,  1811,  he  published  the  analysis  of '  A  Vol- 
canic Substance  containing  the  Boracic  Acid.' 

In  his  experiments  on  the  diamond,  he  proved  it  to  be 
pure  carbon,  by  heating  it  in  a  gold  tube  with  nitre  ;  the 
diamond  was  converted  into  carbonic  acid  by  combining 
with  the  oxygen  of  the  decomposed  nitric  acid,  and  this 
united  with  me  potash  of  the  nitre  ;  by  the  evolution  of 
the  carbonic  acid,  the  quantity  of  carbon,  in  a  given  weight 
of  diamond,  was  estimated.  In  his  paper  on  '  Limestones,' 
he  showed  that  the  presence  of  carbonate  of  magnesia  in 
them  rendered  them  prejudicial  when  calcined  and  applied 
as  a  manure. 

In  the  paper  on  'Emery,'  he  proved  that  this  substance  is 
merely  a  variety  of  corundum,  or  sapphire.  The  two  metals 
which  he  found  in  native  platina  were  osmium  and  indium. 

With  respect  to  these  memoirs  it  may  be  observed  that 
they  all  bear  the  impress  of  originality,  and  that  the  opera- 
tions which  they  include  and  describe  are  of  the  icreatt-st 
possible  simplicity,  and  stated  in  the  plainest  langu: •_ 

TENXANTITE,  a  variety  of  grey  copper-ore,  so  named 
in  honour  of  Smithson  Tennant,  a  distinguished  chemist. 
It  occurs  in  attached  crystals,  which  are  usually  small. 
Primary  form  a  cube.  Cleavage  parallel  to  the  planes 
of  the  regular  octohedron.  Fracture  uneven  and  imper- 
fectly lamellar.  Hardness :  scratches  carbonate  of  lime,  but 
is  scratched  by  the  phosphate.  It  is  brittle.  Colour  vary- 
ing from  tin-white  to  blackish  iron-grey,  frequently  tar- 
nished on  the  surface.  Streak  reddisli-grey.  Lustre  me- 
tallic, sometimes  splendent.  Specific  gravity  4-375. 

When  heated  by  the  blowpipe,  it  decrepitates,  and  burns 

with  a  blue  flame,  emitting  arsenical  vapours,  and  then 

into  a  black  scoria,  which  is  attracted  by  the  magnet. 

It  occurs  only  in  Cornwall,  and  has  there  been  found  in 
several  copper-mines. 

Analysis  oy — 

R.  Phillips.  Hemming. 

Sulphur  2874  21-8 


Copper 

Iron 
Arsenic 
Silica     , 


45-32 
9-26 

11-84 
5-00 


48-4 
14-2 
11-5 
5-0 


10016  100-9 

TENNESSEE  is  one  of  the  inland  states  of  the  North 
American  Union,  and  lies  between  35"  and  36°  4ff  N.  lat. 
and  between  81*30'  and  90°  VV.  long.  The  southern  boun- 
dary, which  runs  alone;  35°  N.  lat  ,  is  contiguous  to  the 
northern  limits  of  the  states  of  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  Mis- 
sis^ippi,  and  is  356  miles  Ionic.  <>f  which  the  boundary  with 
Georgia  amounts  to  100,  that  with  Alabama  140,  and  that 
with  Mis.-.i.s.sippi  116  miles.  On  the  west  of  it  are  Ar- 
kansas and  Missouri,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
Mississippi,  whose  course  along  this  border  amounts  to 
about  150  miles,  measured  alonic  the  numerous  bends. 
North  of  Tennessee  are  Kentucky  and  Virginia.  The 
boundary-line  towards  Kentucky  between  the  rivers  Mis- 
sHr-ippi  and  Tennessee  mns  along  36°  30*  N.  lat.  for  about 
64  miles,  but  cast  of  the  last-mentioned  river  it  follows  its 
•e  for  about  12  miles  until  it  reaches  36°  40'  N.  lat. 
and  :iC°  33'  W.  long.,  and  then  extends  a  little  south  of 
i-a.4  until  it  meets  the  south-western  angle  of  Virginia 
near  83°  30'  W.  long.  The  distance  between  the  Tenn 
river  and  the  last-mentioned  point  is  about  250  miles. 
The  line  which  divides  Tennessee  from  Kentucky  is  con- 
tward  between  Tenessee  and  Virginia  for  105 
miles,  when  it  arrives  at  the  most  eastern  point  of  the  state. 
i-  is  Noith  Carolina;  the  boundary-line 
between  them,  which  is  150  miles  long,  is  formed  by  one 
of  the  ranges  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains,  called  flu- 
Iron  Mountains.  The  length  of  Tennessee  from  cast  to 
-  about  445  mili-s,  nn.l  iK  breadth  from  north  to  south 
104  miles.  The  area  is  about  40,200  square  miles,  or 
2f>,728,UOO  acres.  It  is  about.  10,000  square  miles  less  in 
extent  ttian  England  without  Wales. 


!  Surface  and  Soil.—  This  state  is  naturally  divided  into 
three  regions,  which  may  be  called  the  Eastern  or  Moun- 
tain region,  the  Middle  or  Hilly  region,  and  the  Western 
or  Level  region  ;  and  this  division  coincides  tolerably  well 
with  that  made  for  the  administration  of  justice,  according 
to  which  the  country  is  divided  into  the  Eastern,  the 
Middle,  and  the  Western  District.  The  first  and  the  last 
are  nearly  equal  in  extent,  each  comprehending  about 
10,000  square  miles,  but  the  Middle  District  is  about 
double  that  size. 

The  Eastern  or  Mountain  Region  lies  within  the  ranges 
of  the  Appalachian  Mountains.  This  extensive  mountain- 
system  may  be  said  to  commence  along  and  near  the  southern 
boundary -line  of  Tennessee.  Near  35°  N.  lat.  and  82°  W. 
long.,  on  the  boundary-line  between  South  and  North  Caro- 
lina, the  country  forms  a  ridge  of  hills,  a  continuous  high 
ground  which  extends  westward  to  85°  W.  long.,  a  distance 
of  more  than  160  miles.  In  the  Carolinas  it  is  known  by 
the  name  of  the  Blue  Ridge.  It  does  not  terminate  at 
s.V  W.  long.,  but  west  of  that  meridian  it  forms  a  kind  of 
mountain-knot,  consisting  of  several  ridges,  which  extend 
south-west  and  north-east,  in  the  direction  of  the  whole 
mountain-system.  These  ridges  lie  between  34°  and  35" 
20'  N.  lat.,  and  the  Tennessee  river  traverses  this  tract  in  a 
south-west  direction.  The  highest  of  these  ridges  is  on  the 
east  of  the  river  valley,  and  is  called  the  Look-out  Moun- 
tains. The  elevated  ground  just  mentioned  constitutes 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains  ; 
for  from  its  eastern  extremity,  west  of  82°  W.  long.,  a  ridge 
runs  in  a  general  north-east  direction,  which  is  also  called 
the  Blue  Ridge,  being  considered  as  the  continuation  of 
the  before-mentioned  ridge  so  called,  and  from  its  western 
termination  (near  86°  W.  long.)  there  runs  another  ridge 
under  the  name  of  the  Cumberland  Mountains,  first  north- 
north-east,  and  afterwards  east-north-east  and  north-east. 
The  space  included  between  these  two  ranges  extends  from 
east  to  west  about  200  miles.  It  is  traversed  by  several 
minor  ridges,  among  which  the  most  elevated  and  least  in- 
terrupted is  called  the  Iron  Mountains.  It  extends  south- 
nd  north-east,  is  much  nearer  the  eastern  Blue  Ridge 
than  the  Cumberland  Mountains,  which  are  west  of  it,  and 
constitutes  the  boundary-line  on  the  east  between  North 
Carolina  and  Tennessee. 

The  mountain-region  of  Tennessee  occupies  the  tract  en- 
closed by  the  Iron  Mountains  and  the  Cumberland  Moun- 
tains, whose  most  elevated  parts  are  about  70  miles  distant 
from  one  another.  The  northern  half  of  this  tract  is  tra- 
versed by  three  minor  ridges,  which  in  general  run  parallel 
to  the  larger  ranges,  and  thus  with  the  two  outer  ranges 
form  four  valleys,  which  are  traversed  by  four  of  the  upper 
branches  of  the  Tennessee  River,  namely,  Powell's,  Clinch, 
Holston,  and  Frenchbrpad  River.  The  valleys  are  lather 
wide,  but  as  there  is  little  alluvial  land  along  the  water- 
courses, their  surface  is  uneven  and  broken,  and  the  soil, 
which  consists  mostly  of  siliceous  gravel,  is  of  indifferent 
quality,  except  in  the  valleys  of  the  Holston  and  French- 
broad  rivers,  where  it  contains  a  mixture  of  clay.  Only  a 
comparatively  small  portion  of  it  is  strong  enough  for  the 
growth  of  wheat ;  the  great  erpart  produces  rye  and  oats ;  but 
the  mountains  afford  good  pasture-grounds,  and  large  herds 
of  cattle  and  sheep  are  kept.  The  most  elevated  part  of  the 
mountains  is  overgrown  with  forests  of  pitch-pine,  which 
yield  timber,  and  from  which  tar,  pitch,  and  turpentine  are 
extracted.  The  minor  ridges  terminate  near  35" 50'  N.lat., 
where  the  upper  branches  of  the  Tennessee  river  form  their 
union.  The  country  south  of  35° 50'  can  only  be  called  moun- 
tainous near  the  southern  portion  of  the  Blue  Ridge  and  the 
Cumberland  Mountains,  the  interior  being  covered  by  a 
succession  of  hills  rising  hardly  more  than  300  feet  above 
their  base.  The  soil  of  this  tract  is  of  indifferent  quality, 
and  mostly  used  as  pasture-ground,  but  the  forests  contain 
many  large  trees,  as  pitch-pine,  red  cedar,  and  black  wal- 
nut. Along  the  watercourses  there  are  some  tracts  of  mo- 
derate extent  fit  for  the  growth  of  rye  and  oats. 

The  Hil/t/  or  Middle  Region  extends  from  the  Cumber- 
land Mountains  westward  to  the  Tennessee  River,  where  it 
traverses  the  state  by  running  from  south  to  north.  The 
general  level  of  this  region  is  several  hundred  feet  above 
the  sea-level,  and  it  is  covered  with  numerous  hills,  which 
form  several  continuous  ridges,  such  as  that  which,  under 
the  name  of  Elk  Ridge,  runs  from  east  to  west  near  35°  20* 
N.  lat.  between  the  Elk  River  and  Duck  River.  The  water- 
courses are  usually  much  depressed  below  the  general  level, 


T  1 


208 


T  E  N 


and  must  of  them  run  in  narrow  channels.  This  tract 
greatly  in  fertility.  uml>rrlaml  Mo-.. 

to  the  distance  of  20  miles  I 
chiefly  of  gia\<-l  mixed  with  limestone,  ami  is  OJ 
fertility,  but  in  general  it   is  better  limn  i,i  tin-  immntain- 
region,  and  laru  .  e  fit  for  the  1:1  heat. 

The  country  west  of  this  1;  u-rtile  \w 

Tennessee  :  it   extends  over  Hie  win 
north  to  south,  and  n.  '  .vnrdsto  K7U  \V.  long,  "nil- 

soil  is  not  inferior  to  the  best  j>art  of  Kentucky,  ami  con- 
sists of  a  large  portion  of  clay  and  loam  mixed  with  sand 
and  gravel.  A  large  quantity  of  wheat  in  produced,  hut 
the  staple  articles  are  tobacco  and  maize.  In  the  better 
lands,  especially  along  the  ( 'umherlaml  River,  the  com- 
mon produce  of  maize  is  from  GO  to  70  bushels  for  one, 
and  in  other  places  40  or  50.  The  forests,  whil- 
e-over a  great  part  of  the  surface,  consist  chit-fly  of  ash, 
elm,  black  and  honey  locust,  mulberry,  sugar-maple,  and 
the  wild  plum  ;  and  wild  grapes  are  abundant.  The  w. 
iii*tricts,  or  those  which  lie  near  the  Tennessee  Hivcr,  and 
extend  about  30  miles  east  of  it,  are  less  hilly,  but  they  are 
also  leas  fertile:  they  produce  the  same  articles,  but  the 
'.ontiful.  In  some  places  cotton  is  cultivated. 

The  If'i-xlfrn  or  Lenj  Region  lies  between  the  Tennessee 
and  Mississippi  rivers.  The  surface  is  traversed  by  some 
swells  of  high  ground  :  the  most  extensive  is  that  which 
runs  across  the  state  from  north  to  south,  about  12  miles 
from  the  western  bank  of  the  Tennessee  River,  and  is  se- 
veral miles  wide.  Other  swells  traverse  the  southern  dis- 
tricts, running  from  south-east  to  north-west,  and  ter- 
minating on  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  with  the  Chicka- 
lilutf's.  The  north-west  districts  are  nearly  a  dead 
level,  which  de.-cends  imperceptibly  to  the  hanks  of  the 
Mississippi,  where  it  terminates  in  a  large  wooded  swamp, 
called  tne  Wood  Swamp.  This  region  was  very  thinly  in- 
habited twenty  years  ago,  but  it  cannot  be  of  indifferent 
quality,  if  we  judge  by  the  rapidity  with  which  the  popu- 
lation has  increased.  It  appears  however  that  the  more 
elevated  portions  of  the  country  are  much  more  thickly 
settled  than  the  level  tract,  which  may  be  attributed  to 
the  circumstance  that  the  last-mentioned  tract  contains 
many  swampy  places,  and  is  less  favourable  to  health.  In 
these  regions  every  kind  of  grain  is  grown,  and  cotton  and 
tobacco  are  extensively  cultivated. 

Riven.  —  Numerous  rivers  drain  this  state,  and  some  of 
them  have  a  long  course.  The  larger  rivers  are  navigable 
for  keel-boats  and  for  steam-boats,  but  only  during  the 
boating-season,  which  generally'commences  on  the  20th  of 
February,  and  terminates  early  in  June.  Occasional  freshets 
contribute  to  render  them  navigable  during  a  short  portion 
of  the  other  months,  but  no  reliance  can  be  placed  on  perio- 
dical returns  of  freshets,  except  those  of  the  spring  season. 

The  Tennessee  River  rises  with  numerous  branches  in 
the  Appalachian  Mountains :  the  most  remote  of  them 
originate  in  Virginia  near  81°  20'  W.  long,  and  and  37°  N. 
lat.,  and  run  south-west.  The  largest  branches  are  the 
Clinch  and  Holston  rivers:  they  unite  with  other  branches, 
which  iise  in  North  Carolina,  in  the  country  enclosed  by 
the  Blue  Ridge  and  the  Iron  Mountains,  and  which  break 
through  the  last -mentioned  chain.  The  largest  of  them  are 
the  Frenchbroad  River,  the  Tennessee,  and  the  Hiwassee. 
After  these  numerous  branches  have  united,  the  Ten: 
traverses  the  mountain-knot  between  34°  and  35°  20'  N .  hit . 
It  passes  through  the  ridge,  which  on  the  south  is  called 
Look-out  Mountains,  and  on  the  north  NYaldcn's  Range. 
It  rushes  through  this  gap  with  great  impetuosity  o 
rocky  bed  :  this  place  is  called  the  Suck  :  its  course  within 
the  mountain-tract  is  very  rapid,  and  it  escapes  from  it  by 
another  gap  near  Fort  Deposit,  in  Alabama.  At  this  place 
it  changes  the  south-west  course  into  a  western  course,  and 
alter  draining  Alabama  for  about  200  miles,  it  returns  to 
Tennessee.  In  Alabama  the  river  widens  from  two  to  three 
miles,  and  in  this  part  there  are  extensive  rocky  shoals, 
which  are  known  under  the  name  of  the  Missel  Shoals, 
ivnd  occupy  for  seven  or  eight  miles  the  whole  of  the  bed. 
In  low-wati  T  tlic.e  rocks  entirely  obstruct  the  navigation, 
but  in  the  time  of  the  freshets  boats  of  moderate  size  may 
Mcend  and  descend  without  danger.  The  lower  course  of 
the  Tennemee  River,  as  far  as  it  lies  within  T. 
from  south  to  north.  After  having  entered  Kentucky  it  gra- 
dually declines  to  the  west,  and  falls  into  the  Ohio.  The 
whole  course  of  the  Tennessee  probably  does  not  exceed 
BOO  miles,  reckoned  from  the  source  of  the  Holston  or 


Clinch.  In  the  t»  .1  by  large 

which  it  escapes  from  the  m. . 
ul'its  upper 

i-k.  It  appears  that  withn;  .lachian  Moun- 

tains it  may  be  descended  by  boats,  but  the  asiv 
laborious  and  even  dangerous. 

The  Cumberland  River  rises  in  Kentucky,  in  the  valley 

I  by  the  Cumberland  Mountains  and  ti 
Mountains,  ami  traverses  the  south-eastern  dish, 
state  '  -i  course:  after  a  inn  of  :. 

150  miles  it  turns  to  the  south-west  and  em 
where   it   soon   resumes  its  western   course.     Il 
northern  districts  of  Tennessee  by  a  course  of  about 

and  turning  gradually  more  to  the  north. 
Kentucky,  where  its  general  course  is  to  the  north,     ll 
into  the  Ohio  a  lew   miles  above  the  mouth  of  tin- 
Tennessee.     This  river  runs  about  -1 

current  is  very  gentle,  the  navigation  is  easy  for  sloops  as 
far  as  Nashville,  more  than  150  miles  from  its  mouth.     1; 
is  stated  to  be  navigable  for  river-boats  150  miles  farther 
up,  but  in  Kentucky  the  upper  course  is  obstructed  1 
tensive  shoals  in  several  places. 

Clini ••<•'.—  No  meteorological  observations  made  in  Ten- 
nessee having  been  published,  v. c  are   unable  to  ibim  u. 
precise  idea  of  the  climate.     It    is  v-.-ry   p, 
assumed  by  Darby,  that  the  general  level  of  the  Mountain 
Region   is  about  800  feet  i  the  level 

tract  on  the  Mississippi,  v.bieh  is  about  300  feet  above 
the  sea.  This  of  course  must  produce  a  considerable  dif- 
ference in  the  climate  of  the  two  regions.  ( 'ornelius  found 
the  vegetation  in  Virginia,  east  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  two 
weeks  earlier  than  in  the  valley  west  of  it.  It  is  probable 
that  the  winter  in  the  Mountain  Region  ]:\<-\-  ; 
weeks,  and  that  the  frost  is  rather  scvcic.  In  the  con' 
west  of  the  range  the  rivers  are  generally  covered  with  ice 
for  a  few  days  in  the  winter.  Snow  falls  to  the  depth  of  ten 
inches,  but  seldom  lies  more  than  twelve  or  fifteen  days  on 
the  ground.  In  winter  and  spring  a  considerable  quantity 
of  rain  falls  ;  but  in  the  other  seasons  rain  is  not  frequent, 
nor  does  it  continue  for  any  length  of  time.  The  air  in 
some  parts  of  Tennessee  is  remarkable  for  its  dr\ 

I'rntlurtirms.— The  state  of  agriculture  in  Tennessee  will 
best  be  inferred  from  the  statement  of  the  returns  of  1840, 
according  to  which  the  quantity  of  maize  grown  amounted 
to  42,467,349  bushels,  a  quantity  much  larger  than  that 
produced  in  any  other  of  the  United  Slates.  As  this  grain 

t  adapted  for  the  feeding  of  hogs,  the  miml 
hogs  was  also  larger  than  in  other  states,  amounting  to 
2,795,630.     Oats  were  raised  to  the 'amount  of  8,770.116 
bushels;    wheat,  4,547,273   bushels;    potatoes,  2,373,034 
bushels:  rye.  -JiiT.UKt  l'ii>liels  :  buckwheat,  6187  bush 
and  barley,  only  4758  bushels.      The  quantity  of  cotton 
amounted  to  128,250,308Ibti..  whieh  if  as  much 

as  that  produced  in  :\i  8  Ibs.  .  ami 

the  quantity  tl  .  :  Alabama 

(240,379,669  Ibs.),  but   nearly  as  much  as  was   crown   in 
Gcori':  i    Ohio    (134,322,756 Ibs.). 

•  the  amount  of  •Ji>..~>i2.1  iv 

more  than  one-third  of  the  quantity  irrovvn  in  Virginia 
(74, 157.84  libs.).  Flax. and  hemp  yielded  45.<ra 
and  the  meadows  only  ICO  12  tons  of' hay.  Rice  is  little 
cultivated,  as  the  produce  was  only  7729  Ibs.  :  the  bop 
plantations  yielded  only  8 10 Ibs.  The  cultivation  of  the 
:  :n  seems  not  to  have  made  much  progress,  as  only 
I163fb*.  Of  COCOOns  Were  gathered.  The  value  of  the  pro- 
duce of  the  orchards  v, as  estimated  at  3r.ii.~o7  dollars, 
which  proves  that  horticulture  has  made  O  6  pro- 

A  small  quantity  of  wine  was  made,  amount  i- 
<;53    gallons.      The   sugar   made    from    the   sugar-maple 
amounted    to  '£>  1.7 15 Ibs.      Though  the   produce  of  the 
articles  drawn  from  the  forests  !  -  still 

considerable:   the  lumber  was  e  t  2.<KX),266  dol- 

lars,  I  lit  barrels  of  pitch,  tar.  turpentine  and 

roMn.  and   212  tons  of  pot  and  pearl  a.-hes.      The  number 
of  horses  and   r.  to  :!J7..~>-(>.  that   of  neat 

caitle  to  773,390,  and  that  <  i        : .">!).     The  value 

of  the  poultiy  was  estimated  at  5Ml.5:tl  dollar-.      The  pro- 
duce of  the  'dai.  the  value  of  930,003  do' 
the  quantity  of   wool  was   1,029,52(1  Ibs. ;   and   the  wax 
-,0.715  Ibs. 

Buffaloes  were  once  numerous,  but  they  have  entirely 
disappeared;  the  elk  and  moose-deer  are  only  found 


TEN 


209 


TEN 


in  the  Mountain -Region,  and  the  deer  is  still  abundant 
there.  There  are  bears,  pumas,  wild-cats,  and  wolves ; 
also  beavers,  otters,  and  musk-rats.  Racoons,  foxes, 
squirrels,  opossums,  rabbits,  polecats,  and  minxes  are  very 
numerous :  pheasants,  partridges,  pigeons,  swans,  wild 
turkeys,  ducks,  and  geese  are  abundant.  There  is  fish  in 
all  the  rivers,  but  not  very  abundant.  The  wild  trees  and 
plants  which  yield  fruits  are  the  wild  plum,  the  crab- 
apple,  the  wild  vine,  and  the  strawberry. 

There  is  gold  in  the  mountains  bordering  on  North 
Carolina,  but  up  to  1834  only  12,000  dollars"  worth  had 
been  collected.  Lead  exists  in  the  same  mountains,  but  is 
not  much  worked.  Iron-ore  is  found  in  great  abundance 
on  the  south  side  of  the  Cumberland  River,  and  also  at  a 
few  other  places.  Limestone  and  marble  are  got  in  the 
Cumberland  Mountains,  and  nitre  in  abundance  in  some 
rxtmsive  caves  near  the  Mountain  Region.  Salt-springs 
are  very  numerous,  and  some  of  them  are  strong.  Some 
salt  is  made,  but  not  to  a  great  amount,  as  salt  is  easily 
obtained  from  the  western  districts  of  Pennsylvania  and 
from  Ohio. 

Population.— la  1838  the  Cherokees,  who  up  to  that 
time  were  in  possession  of  the  southern  districts  of  the 
Mountain  Region,  left  Tennessee,  and  went  to  the  west  of 
the  Mississippi.  [NORTH  AMERICAN  INDIANS.]  At  pre- 
sent the  population  consists  of  the  descendants  of  Eu- 
ropeans and  of  slaves. 

By  the  census  of  1820  the  population  consisted  of  422,813 
individuals.  At  the  census  of  1830  it  had  increased  to 
(is  1,904,  which  gives  an  increase  of  Gl-3  per  cent,  in  ten 
years.  According  to  the  last  census  (1840)  the  popula- 
tion amounted  to  829,210,  so  that  in  the  ten  years  preced- 
ing the  census  it  had  increased  21-6  per  cent.,  which  is 
.Mi!!  about  double  the  rate  of  increase  in  most  countries 
of  Europe.  The  increase  however  has  not  been  equal  in 
all  parts  of  the  state.  In  the  Eastern  District  it  had  risen 
from  196,301  to  224,259,  or  about  14'7  per  cent.  ;  in  the 
Middle  District,  from  .'(74,749  to  411,710,  or  only  9'9  per 
cent. ;  and  in  the  Western  District,  from  1 10,854  to  193,241, 
or  74-3  per  cent. 

In  1830  the  population  consisted  of  535,746  whites, 
45")5  free  coloured  people,  and  141,603  slaves;  and  in 
1840,  of  640,627  whites,  5524  free  coloured  people,  and 
183,059  slaves ;  whence  it  is  evident  that  the  slave  popu- 
lation has  increased  more  rapidly  than  the  white,  as  the  in- 
crease of  the  number  of  slaves  amounts  to  29-2  per  cent. 
The  proportion  of  the  white  inhabitants  to  the  sla\. •>  ]•, 
greatest  in  the  Eastern  District,  which  contains  only  18,714 
slaves  and  203,371  whites,  so  that  the  slaves  constitute 
only  9-2  per  cent,  of  the  number  of  the  whites.  In  the 
Middle  District  there  were  301,157  whites  and  107,735 
slaves,  which  raises  the  slave  population  to  32'4  per  cent, 
of  the  number  of  the  whites.  In  the  Western  District  the 
number  of  whites  amounted  to  136,099,  and  that  of  the 
slaves  to  56,610,  so  that  the  slaves  constituted  41-6  per 
cent,  of  the  white  population. 

If  the  population  were  equally  distributed  over  the 
state,  there  would  be  20'6  individuals  to  each  square  mile. 
In  Scotland  there  are  90,  and  in  southern  Sweden  about 
42  individuals  to  each  square  mile.  It  is  remarkable  that 
the  most  sterile  part  of  Tennessee,  the  mountain-region, 
is  the  most  populous.  If  we  allow  it  10,000  square 
miles,  which  is  probably  somewhat  too  much,  it  contains 
22-4  individuals,  whilst  the  Middle  District  has  only  21-2, 
and  the  Western  District  only  19'3  individuals  to  each 
square  mile. 

Political  Divisions  and  Towns. — For  the  administration 
of  justice  the  state  is  divided  into  three  districts ;  and  for 
political  purposes  into  seventy-two  counties.  As  Ten- 
nessee is  eminently  an  agricultural  country,  none  of  the 
towns  have  risen  to  any  importance.  The  capital  is  Nash- 
ville, built  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Cumberland  River, 
where  the  navigation  for  large  boats  begins.  It  is  a  well- 
built  and  thriving  place,  which  in  1830  contained  i'i."i(i.") 
inhabitants ;  and  in  1840,  6929.  Knoxville,  on  the  river 
H  >!-ton,  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  mountain-region,  has 
a  population  of  about  3000.  The  other  towns  are  small. 
Murt'reesborough,  south-east  of  Nashville,  in  one  of  tin: 
most  populous  districts  of  the  state,  has  about  1500  in- 
habitants ;  and  Memphis,  on  the  Mississippi,  near  the 
boundary-line  of  the  State  of  Mississippi,  is  a  very  thriv- 
ing town,  being  a  place  of  resort  for  the  steam-boats  which 
navigate  the  river. 

P.  C.,  No.  1514. 


Manufactures.— Manufacturing  industry  has  not  made 
much  progress  in  Tennessee.  In  1840  the  number  of  per- 
sons employed  in  manufactures  and  trades  was  only  17,805: 
of  whom  10,409  were  in  the  Middle  District ;  4679  in  the 
Eastern  ;  and  2727  in  the  Western.  The  number  of  dis- 
tilleries was  1381,  but  all  on  a  small  scale,  as  may  be 
inferred  from  the  produce,  which  amounted  only  to 
1,080,693  gallons :  in  New  York  38  distilleries  produced 
more  than  4  millions  of  gallons,  and  in  Massachusetts  37 
distilleries  more  than  5  millions.  Cotton  and  linen  stuffs 
for  clothing  are  made  at  home.  There  is  a  small  number 
of  families  who  make  coarse  cotton,  linen,  and  hempen 
fabrics  for  sale  ;  and  there  are  also  a  few  paper-mills  and 
manufactures  of  cordage  and  ropes.  Some  bar-iron  is 
made,  and  nails  are  manufactured.  There  are  also  several 
small  tanneries. 

Commerce. — Tennessee  is  not  favourably  situated  for 
commerce,  as  the  only  river  which  is  navigable  for  large 
boats  all  the  year  round  washes  its  western  extremity.  The 
mountain-region  labours  under  the  greatest  disadvantages, 
as  the  mountains  which  separate  it  from  the  Atlantic 
regions  are  difficult  to  pass.  Its  commercial  wealth  con- 
sists of  live  stock  :  they  send  their  neat  cattle  to  Virginia, 
and  their  horses,  mules,  and  hogs  to  the  Carolinas.  The 
Middle  and  Western  Districts  are  commercially  connected 
with  New  Orleans,  to  which  place  they  send,  by  the  Mis- 
sissippi, cotton,  tobacco,  maize,  pork,  potatoes,  flour,  hemp 
and  flax,  deer-skins,  lumber,  ginseng,  and  bar-iron.  The 
foreign  articles  consumed  in  the  country,  which  consist 
mostly  of  grocery  and  some  other  articles  of  manufacture, 
are  imported  from  Pittsburg  and  Philadelphia,  or  from  New 
Orleans. 

Education  is  not  neglected.  The  number  of  white  per  • 
sons  above  twenty  years  of  age  unable  to  read  and  write 
amounted,  in  1840,  to  58,532  ;  the  number  of  elementary 
and  common  schools  was  983,  and  the  number  of  children 
attending  them  25,090,  of  which  number  6005  were 
taught  at  the  public  expense.  The  number  of  academies 
and  grammar-schools  was  152,  and  they  were  attended  by 
5548  boys.  There  are  five  universities  or  colleges.  The 
best  is  the  university  of  Nashville,  which  has  six  in- 
structors and  a  library  of  about  8500  volumes.  Jackson 
College  is  near  Columbia.  The  colleges  of  Greenville, 
Washington,  and  Knoxville  are  smaller.  There  is  a  theo- 
logical seminary  at  Maryville  in  East  Tennessee  for  Pres- 
byterian clergymen. 

History  and  Constitution. — The  first  settlements  in 
Tennessee  were  made  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century, 
but  in  1760  they  were  destroyed  by  the  Cherokees,  then 
the  possessors  of  this  country,  from  the  northern  and  cen- 
tral part  of  which  they  were  expelled  in  1780.  Since  that 
time  the  number  of  settlements  has  continually  and  ra- 
pidly increased.  Up  to  1790  Tennessee  formed  a  part  of 
North  Carolina,  but  in  that  year  it  was  ceded  by  that  state 
to  the  United  States,  who  converted  it  into  a  territory. 
In  1796  it  was  admitted  into  the  Union.  The  legislative 
power  is  vested  in  a  general  assembly  consisting  of  a  senate 
and  a  house  of  representatives,  elected  by  the  freeholders 
for  two  years.  The  senate  is  at  present  composed  of  25 
members,  and  the  house  of  representatives  of  75  members. 
The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor,  who  is  chosen 
by  the  electors  for  the  term  of  two  years,  and  is  not  ca- 
pable of  holding  office  more  than  six  years  out  of  eight. 

(Cornelius,  Tour  in  Virginia,  Tennessee,  &c. ;  Long's 
Expedition  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  by  James ;  Darby's 
Geographical  View  of  the  United  States ;  Pitkin's  Statis- 
tical View  of  the  Commerce  of  the  United  States ;  the 
American  Almanack  and  Repository  of  Useful  Krtowledge 
for  1842.) 

TENNIS,  a  game  in  which  a  ball  is  driven  to  and  fro 
by  several  persons  striking  it  alternately,  either  with  the 
palm  of  the  hand,  naked  or  covered  with  a  thick  glove,  or 
with  a  small  bat  called  a  racket,  held  in  the  hand ;  the 
aim  being  to  keep  the  ball  in  motion  as  long  as  possible 
without  allowing  it  to  fall  to  the  ground.  Strutt,  on  the 
authority  of  St.  Foix,  a  French  author,  states  that  the 
French  game  of  ball  called  palm-play,  or  'jeu  de  paume,' 
was  formerly  played  with  the  naked  hand,  then  with  a 
glove,  which  in  some  instances  was  lined,  and  that  after- 
wards the  players  bound  cords  and  tendons  round  their 
lands  to  make  the  ball  rebound  more  forcibly ;  and  hence, 
it  is  added,  the  racket  derived  its  origin.  He  states  that 
palm-play,  or  hand-tennis,  was  exceedingly  fashionable  in 

VOL.  XXIV.— 2  E 


T  I 


210 


TEN 


France   during  the  rcigii  of  Charles  V.,  it   being  often 

!  1'Y  tilt-  nobility  lor  large  sums  of  IP  Imps 

the't  i  the  irame  in  England  is  that 

wine!  has  introduced,  almost  in  the  words  of 

the  ..  His  'Hoi.  A  here 

the  dauphin  sends  a  present  of  tennis-balls  in  answer  to 
,'s  demand  for  the  sovereignty  of  France.     Henry 
VII.  V,:i-  a  tennis-player;  and,  as  an  entry  in  :i  MS.  re- 
M-nditure  in  the  thirteenth  year  of  hi*  reign 
iont  an  item  of  twelve-pence  for  liislass  at  tennis  and 
pence  for  the  loss  of  balls,  it  may  be  inferred  that 
•.me  was  played  abroad,  as  the  loss  of  balls  is  not 
likely  to  have  happened  in  a  tennis-eourt.     He  this  as  it 
may."  in  the  sixteenth  century  tennis-courts  were  common 
in  England,  and  the  game  was  very  popular  with  the  no- 
bility, which   it  continued   to  be  down   to  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.,  who  frequently  (liveried  himself  by  playing  at 
tennis  with  his  courtiers.    Tennis-courts  were  divided  by  a 
line  stretched  in  the  middle,  and  the  players,  standing  on 
each  side  with  their  rackets  in  their  hands,  were  required  to 
the  ball  '>r,-r  this  line.     A  similar  same  was  some- 
ith  a  hollow  leather  ball,  inflated  with  air, 
and  cnlleii  •  driven  from  one  player  to 

another  by  striking  with  the  hand,  or  with  a  wooden  bracer 
Axed  upon  the  hand  and  lower  arm.  Farther  particular* 
respecting  the<e  and  other  games  played  with  a  ball  may 
be  found  in  Strutt's  '  Sports  and  Pastimes,'  and  '  Horda- 
AngfM'ynnan.' 

TENON,  .l.U'QUES-RE'NE',  an  eminent  French  sur- 
geon, whose  father  also  belonged  to  the  medical  profession. 
•was  born  in  1724.  He  went  to  Paris  in  1741,  where  his 
zeal  and  talents  soon  gained  him  the  notice  of  Winslow. 
and  also  of  Antoine  and  Bernard  de  .lussieu.  The  first  of 
these  celebrated  men  initiated  him  in  the  study  of  anatomy  ; 
the  two  others  developed  in  him  a  taste  for  botany  and 
natural  history.  In  spite  of  the  prejudices  and  example  of 
his  contemporaries.  Tenon  understood  that  surgery,  far 
from  being  separated  from  the  other  branches  of  medical 
science,  and  restricted  to  the  mere  performance  of  opera- 
lions,  is  on  the  contrary  most  strictly  united  to  them. 
Accordingly  from  this  time  he  had  a  wider  field  opened  to 
him  for  his  professional  labours ;  and  he  united  to  the 
study  and  treatment  of  surgical  affections  minute  ana- 
tomical investigations  and  ingenious  physiological  experi- 
ments. In  a  short  time  he  acquired  a  well-merited  repu- 
tation ;  and  though  inferior  to  some  other  modern  French 
surgeons  in  skill  and  genius  for  that  particular  department 
.••nee.  yet  few  have  surpassed  him  in  the  extent  of  his 
studies  and  the  variety  of  his  information.  In  1744  Tenon 
was  appointed  an  army  surgeon  of  the  first  class  (rfiirur- 
ri'inicri'  chute  "'"'  nrmfes\  and  served  in  the 
following  year  throughout  the  campaign  in  Flanders.  On 
his  return  to  Paris  he  obtained  by  competition  (««  ron- 
rours)  the  situation  of  ch.  :  to  the  hospital  of  La 

Salpetriere.and  founded  near  it  a  celebrated  establishment 
for  inoculation,  a  practice  which  his  labours  contributed 
much  to  propagate.  He  afterwards  became  a  member  of 
the  College  and  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Surgery,  and 
succeeded  Andouille  as  professor  of  pathology.  In 
I7~>7  he  was  received  into  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
Tenon  belonged  to  the  first  Lcirislal'n  v.  and  there 

displayed  the  same  Jfcalous  philanthropy  \\liich  seemed  to 
belong  to  all  his  actions.  Upon  the  re-organization  of  the 
learned  sociclics.  he  became  a  member  of  the  Institute  of 
the  first  class,  and  read  in  that  assembly  many  interesting 
papers.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the  I..  :  ,  ,  <.\  Honour 
and  of  scveial  learned  and  scientific  societies,  and  pre- 
served to  the  end  of  his  life  the  same  lo\e  of  labour  and 
the  same  zeal  for  the  advancement  of  science  which  had 
marked  the  earl  his  caiecr.  He  died  at  l';iris,  on 

the  15th  of  January.  IsHi.  at  the  advanced  age  of  ninety- 
two,  -ons  huve  written  so  many  memoirs  and 
monotrraplM  as  Tenon  :  many  of  these  have  only  been  pub- 
lished'in  the  animal  analysis  of  the  pr<  of  the 
Institute:  he  is  also  said  to  h:r.  liiml  him  .1 
number  of  manuscripts.  More  than  thirty  of  his  we.: 
mentioned  in  the  I,*  »f  which  the  fol- 
lowing are  the  most  important: — •]>••  '  Paris, 
17"i7.  ••'".  '  Mi'-moircs  Mir  rKxfotiatioii  ch  before 
the  Academy  of  Seieii'-e*  iu  I7-">H,  17^'J,  and  17<X),  and 
afterwards  printed,  together  with  some  others,  with  the 
title  '  M''"]i"in  ,  SMI  I'Anatomie,  la  Pathologic,  et  la  Chi- 
rurgie,'  Paru,  1806,  8vo.  '  Mcmoire  sur  les  Hopitaux  de 


Paris,'  Paris,  1788,  4to.;  a  very  able  memoir,  which  haj 
served  as  a  model  for  many  that  have  been  <m<  e  written 
on  the  same  subject,  in  which  ;  i  out  almost  all 

the  improvements  that  have  been  introduced  into  the 
French  hospitals.  His  last  work,  which  was  published 
when  he  was  ninety  years  old.  is  entitled  •  Ottramle  aux 
Vieillards  de  quelques  Moy»-n->  pour  piolom:cr  I;: 

TENOR,  the   name   of  the   most    conn,  adult 

male    voices,    that   which    is   between   the   extrcm 
highest  and   lowest,   or  Conti..  \  TO]   and    ! 

[BASE- VOICE.]  The  compass  of  the  Tenor  is  I'mtu  i,  the 
second  space  in  the  biue,  to  o,  the  second  line  in  the 
treble.  Example,  in  the  tenor  clef: — 


Hence  it  will  be  seen  that  the  tenor  and  treble  are  reci- 
procally at  the  distance  of  an  octave;  consequently,  what 
is  calculated  for  the  one  \oice,  as  relates  to  compass,  will, 
at  a  distance  of  eight  notes,  invariably  suit  the  other. 

The  word  is  derived  from  Teni'«.  /•*  li'ild :  for  in  ;< 
part -compositions,  the  plain-song,  or  air,  if  it  may  1 
denominated,  was  given  to,  or  held  by,  the  Tenor.  [CtEK.] 

TENOH-CLKF  is  the  c,  or  mean  clef,  placed  on  the  fourth 
line  for  the  use  of  the  tenor-voice.  Example : — 


It  is  also  occasionally  used  for  the  violoncello :  and  the 
part  of  the  tenor  trombone  is  written  in  this  de:. 

TENOR  is  also  the  Knirlish  name  for  a  larger  instrument 
of  the  violin  kind.     See  VIOLA. 

TENOS  (Tijvoc),  now  Tino,  a  small  island  in  the  <•  '• 
Archipelago  lying  to  the  south-east    of  Amlros,  and  be- 
tween thiit   island  and   Myconus,  and  1'orming  one  of  the 
group  called  the  Cycladcs.     S.  Nicolo,  on  its  north  < 
is   in    :i7°  'M'   N.  int.  and   25"  1:V  E.  long.     It   is    . 
!.">    miles    lorn;,    and    its    greatest    length    is  from    north- 
west  to   south-east.    It   was   antiently    called    Ih 
because     it     was    well     watered     (xarafrfivrov}        :Steph. 
By/ant.,  v.  rijvoc  ;  Pliny.  //.•>/.  A"'..  i\.   IJ   ;   and  (I; 
i  Strabo.  ]).  487,  ed.  Casauh.  ,  because  it  abounded  in  s> 
In   the  time  of  the   Persian  invasion  of  Greece  a  T 
trireme  rendered  good  service  to  the  Greeks  by  dc>i 
from  the  enemy,  and  uivintr  intelligence  of  their  move- 
ments immediately  before  the  battle  of  Salamis  iji.c.  480). 
The  name  of  the  Tenians  was  in  consequent  i  upon 

the  tripod  at  Delphi  in  the  list  of  states  to  whom  (• 
was  indebted  for  the  repulse  of  the  invader.     Herod.,  viii. 
82.)     Accord  ins;    to  Pausanias   tv.  2.'i    the  Tenians  were 
amonir  MOM'  names  were  inscribed  on  the  it 

of    Jupiter   at    Olympia,   dedicated    by    the   Greeks  who 
ibuirht    at    Platasa.     The    island    paid  tribute,    to  A: 
durimr  the  lYloponncsiao  war.    •:']  liucyil..  vii.  "i7- !    I1 
taken,  and   the   inhabitants  enslaved  by  Alexander,  tyrant, 
of  1'liciic,  B.C.  :t(i~     Dcmosthen.  in  Polycl.,  1207.  !(• 
Clinton,    Fusti   llflli'ii.,  a.  :i(i'J.       In  the  ici^u  of  Til  > 
when   the   Roman   senate    instituted    an   inquiry   into    the 
rights  a::d  privileges,  attached  to  temples  in  the  provinces 
of  the  empire,  the  Tenians  quoted  an  oracle  of  Apollo,  by 
which  they  had   been   commanded  to  consecrate   a  Maine 
and  temple  to  Neptune.   (Tacitus,  Annul. ,  in.  03.  i    Tins 
temple   was  of  considerable  size,  as  appears  from  S 
<  p.  4H7),  and  on  the  coins  of  Tenos  the  trident  of  Neptune. 
is  a  common  type  ;  on  the  reverse  there  is  usually  a  bunch 
pet.     The  island  is  still  celebrated  for  its  wine,  of 
which  about  twenty  sorts  are  grown. 

TKNHKC.     Centttet,  til.;    Ci-iitfiim.   Desm. :    Sftigrr, 
Geoff.  The  Tenrecs  may  be  considered— indeed  they 
been  r  iiogs  with- 

out the  power  of  rolling  themselves  up  into  a  ball.     They 
weie  not  included   in   the1  urenus  Kniim-riis  of  Linnifi 
he  left  it,   in    his  last  edition  of  (hi-  >  hinr  it  he 

12th),  but  in  the   13th  (.Gmelm's)  all  the  known   *y 
were  included  under  that    genus.     Tliey  have  no  tail,  are 
nocturnal  I'or  the  most  part  in  their  habits,  feed  on  ill- 
he  dormant  durini:  a  considerable  portion  of  the  year,  and 
that  durimr  the  hot  season,  and  have  the  skin  beset  with 
spines  or  spine-like  bristles. 


TEN 


211 


TEN 


It  is  in  this  genus  that  we  first  find  the  jugal  bone  want 
ing  among  the  Insectivora. 

Geographical  Distribution  and  Habits  of  the  Genus. — 
Cuvier  remarks  that  three  species  are  found  in  Madagascar 
the  first  of  which,  the  Tenrec,  properly  so  called,  Centetes 
ecaudatus  (Erinaceus  ecai/clatus,  Ginel.j  is,  he  observes 
naturalized  at  the  Isle  of  France. 

Mr.  Swainson  (Classification  of  Quadrupeds)  states  thai 
the  second  division  of  the  family  SORECID*  is  composed 
of  mole-like  animals,  apparently  connected  to  the  Shrews 
by  the  American  Scalops  and  the  African  Chrysochlorit, 
and  that  it  includes  but  three  genera.  [SORECID.E,  vol. 
xxii.,  p.  261.]  Of  the  Tenrecs  (or  Tendrics  as  he  writes 
the  word)  he  treats  as  animals  peculiar  to  Madagascar, 
apparently  as  capable  of  domestication  as  their  European 
congeners.  'Although  inhabiting  a  warm  region,'  pro- 
ceeds Mr.  Swainson,  '  they  are  said  to  pass  the  three 
warmest  months  of  the  year  in  a  state  of  torpidity  :  this,  it 
must  be  owned,  is  a  singular  circumstance,  and  is  the  only 
one  upon  record  of  an  animal  hybernating,  so  to  speak,  in 
the  height  of  summer.  In  other  respects  they  feed  like 
the  European  Hedgehog,  and  are  nocturnal  animals.'  The 
singularity  of  the  circumstance  vanishes  when  we  find  that 
the  period  in  which  the-  Tenrec  becomes  dormant  is  not 
only  the  \Minu  season,  but  the  dry  season,  and  the  apparent 

-•ily  becomes  another  instance  of  the  harmony  of 
adaptation  which  prevails  throughout  nature.  A  suspen- 

of  the  active  powers  of  life  becomes  absolutely  neces- 

lo  insectivorous  quadrupeds,  because  there  must  be 
certain  seasons  when  they  would  find  no  food.  Our  usual 
term  for  the  act  of  retiring,  in  order  to  give  way  to  this 

nsion,  is  hybernation  ;  because,  in  our  latitudes,  this 
abstraction  of  worms  and  insects  takes  place  in  winter, 
when  our  Bats,  Hedgehogs,  and  Shrews  lay  themselves  up 
till  spring  returns  to  call  forth  their  prey.  But  in  Mada- 
gascar the  dry  season  is  that  in  which  the  absence  of 
worms  and  in>ects  occurs;  and  then  it  is  that  the  Tenrec 

into  its  half  living  and  half  dead  state. 


Dental   Formula:— Incisors -;    canines 


1-1 


molars 


G-J3 
0-6 


:  =40. 


Twlh  of  Tntec,  ooe-lhud  target  than  the  natural  me.  (f.  Cuv.) 

The  situation  assigned  by  Cuvier  to  the  Tenrecs  is  be- 


tween the  Hedgehogs  (Erinaceus,  Linn.)  and  Cladobates. 

[TUPAIA.J 

Cuvier  remarks  that  the  muzzle  of  the  Tenrecs  is  very 
pointed,  and  that  their  teeth  are  very  different  from  those 
of  the  Hedgehogs. 

Generic  Character. — Body  spiny  ;  not  capable  of  being 
rolled  up  into  a  ball,  as  in  the  Hedgehogs ;  muzzle  elon- 
gated ;  five  toes  on  each  foot,  separated  and  armed  with 
crooked  claws. 

Examples. — The  species  are  called  Tenrec  and  Tendrac  ; 
but  the  latter  name  is  confusedly  applied  to  at  least  two 
species. 

Of  the  first,  the  Centetes  ecaudatus,  111.,  is  the  largest, 
exceeding  our  Hedgehog  in  size.  It  is  covered  above  with 
long  flexible  spines,  except  on  the  vertex  and  occiput, 
and  has  no  coloured  bands  :  the  under  part  of  the  body 
is  clothed  with  hairs  or  bristles  only,  which  are  yellowish, 
mixed  with  some  longer  black  ones.  Baron  Cuvier,  who 
is  followed  by  Lesson,  states,  in  his  last  edition  of  the 
Regne  Animal,  that  this  species  has  only  four  incisors  in 
the  lower  jaw;  but  M.  F.  Cuvier,  who  makes  the  number 
six  in  each  jaw,  says  that  his  illustration  is  taken  from 
Cent,  ecaudatits  and  Cent,  setosus  ;  and  Fischer  gives  the 
same  number. 


(Viit.-toa  I'Candatus. 


Centetes  sftosus,  111. -The  Tendrac  of  Buffon  and  Zim- 
merman— is  less  than  the  former,  and  the  spines  are  shor* 
and  rigid. 


'IViulrac. 


The  Centetes  semispinosus  is  still  less,  and  hardly  so 
large  as  a  common  mole.  Its  body  is  clothed  with  a  mix- 
:ure  of  spines  and  bristles,  and  is  banded  longitudinally 
with  yellow  and  black. 


Striped  Teurcc. 


2E2 


TEN 


212 


T  I    \ 


v  TENSION  (Mechanics),  the  name  given  to  tin-  force 
by  which  a  bar  or  string  is  pulled,  when  forming  part  of 
any  system  in  equilibrium  or  in  motion.  Thus  when  a 
weight  is  supported  by  a  string,  the  tension  of  the  string  is 
the  weight  winch  is  suspended  tn  it.  KMT\  point  .if  the 
string  may  be  considered  as  a  point  of  application  of  two 
equal  and  opposite  forces,  downwards  and  upwards,  each 
equal  to  the  weight  applied. 

TKNTKKDKN.     [KBIT.] 

TENTERDEN,  CHARLES  ABBOTT,  LORD,  born  at 
Canterbury,  on  the  7th  of  October,  1702,  was  the  son  of  a 
barber,  who  has  been  described  as  '  a  tall,  erect,  primitive- 
looking  man,  with  a  large  club  pigtail,  going  about  with 
the  instruments  of  his  business,  and  attended  frequently 
by  hi»  son  Charles,  a  youth  as  decent,  grave,  and  primitive- 
looking  as  himself/  lie  was  entered  in  1709  on  the 
foundation  of  the  king's  school  of  the  cathedral,  under 
Dr.  Osmund  Beauvoir,  who  is  stated  by  Sir  Egerton 
Brydges  to  have  been  an  admirable  classical  scholar,  of 
fine  taste,  and  some  genius.  Sir  Egerton,  who  for  some 
years  held  the  place  next  to  Abbott  in  the  class,  speaks  of 
him  as  remarkable  even  in  his  school-boy  days  for  accu- 
racy, steadiness,  and  equality  of  labour ;  as  well  acquainted 
with  the  rules  of  grammar,  sure  in  any  examination  or 
task,  and  a  tolerably  correct  writer  of  Latin  verses  and 
prose  themes. 

In  the  beginning  of  1781  Abbott  was  elected  scholar  of 
Corpus  Chnsti  College,  Oxford,  with  an  allowance,  in- 
cluding his  exhibition,  of  50/.  a  year.  His  mathematical 
acquirements  are  said  by  his  friends  to  have  been  con- 
siderable. In  1784  he  obtained  the  chancellor's  medal  for 
the  best  Latin  verses  on  Lunardi's  balloon, ' Globus  Aeros- 
taticus;'  in  178C  his  essay  'On  the  Use  and  Abuse  of 
Satire,'  obtained  the  chancellor's  medal  for  the  English 
This  essay  displays  the  turn  for  neat,  lucid,  and 


exhaustive  arrangement,  which  was  the  most  marked 
feature  of  his  matured  intellect,  and  also  a  good  deal  of 
that  want  of  passion  and  imagination  which,  perhaps  as 
ranch  as  any  of  his  positive  qualities,  contributed  to  his 
judicial  eminence.  He  was  elected  a  fellow  of  his  college, 
and  appointed  junior  tutor  to  Mr.  (afterwards  bishop) 
Burgess. 

By  the  advice  of  Mr.  Justice  Buller,  whose  son  was  one 
of  his  private  pupils,  Abbott  entered  himself  of  the  Inner 
Temple  in  1788.  He  also,  in  compliance  with  the  sug- 
gestion of  the  same  experienced  lawyer,  attended  some 
months  the  office  of  the  London  solicitors  Messrs.  Sandys 
and  Co.  He  afterwards  became  a  pupil  of  Mr.  (sub- 
sequently Baron)  Wood  ;  and,  aided  by  his  recommenda- 
tion, began  to  practise  as  a  special  pleader  with  marked 
success.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  Trinity  term, 
1790. 

He  married,  on  the  13th  of  July,  1793,  Mar}1,  eldest 
daughter  of  John  Logier  Lamotte,  Esq.,  a  gentleman  of 
fortune  in  Kent.  It  is  said  that  when  the  father  hinted  at 
the  expediency  of  a  marriage-settlement,  Abbott  said  he 
had  nothing  but  an  excellent  law-library,  which  the 
lawyers  might  tie  up  as  tightly  as  they  pleased. 

Having  selected  the  Oxford  circuit,  he  speedily  rose 
into  great  business.  The  jealousy  of  his  young  rivals 
gave  rise  to  rumours  of  his  being  too  courteous  to  attor- 
neys ;  but  by  whatever  means  he  may  have  obtained  his 
position,  he  kept  it  by  the  preference  the  leaders  evinced  for 
a  junior  who  could  often  suggest  a  case  in  point,  and  was 
master  of  all  the  technicalities  of  pleading.  To  this  he 
owed  his  appointment,  by  Sir  Vicary  Gibbs,  when  solici- 
tor-general, to  the  office  known  among  the  members  of 
the  bar  by  the  name  of  treasury-devil,  the  junior  counsel 
to  whose  care  the  business  of  government  is  intrusted. 
In  this  character  he  took  part  in  most  of  the  numerous 
Hi  ate  -trials  which  occurred  about  the  close  of  last  cen- 
tury. As  his  character  became  established,  he  was  ap- 
pointed standing  counsel  to  the  Bank  and  other  great 
mercantile  communities.  When  the  returns  of  the  income- 
tax  were  called  for,  Mr.  Abbott's  account  was  looked  upon 
as  a  curiosity,  both  for  its  minute  accuracy  and  for  the 
largeness  of  the  sum-total  of  his  fees  during  the  past  yeai 


In  a  sketch  of  Lord  Tenterden,  which  appeared  in  the 
nixty-ninth  volume  of  the  '  Edinburgh  Review,'  Lord 
Brougham  says  of  his  career  at  the  bar  :  —  '  As  a  leader  he 
wery  rarely,  and  by  some  extraordinary  accident  only,  ap- 
peared ;  and  thu  in  a  manner  no  little  satisfactory  to  him- 


self, that  he  peremptorily  declined  it  whenever  refusal  was 
possible;  and  he  seemed  to  have  no  notion  of  a  leader's 
duty  beyond  exposing  the  pleadings  and  the  law  of  the 
case  to  the  jury,  who  could  not  comprehend  them  with  all 
his  explanation.  His  legal  arguments,  of  which  for  many 
years  fhe  books  arc  full,  were  extremely  good,  without 
reaching  any  very  high  pitch  of  excellence;  the\ 
quite  clear,  abundantly  full  of  case  law  ;  betokening  some 
dread  of  grappling  with  principle,  and  displaying  none  of 
the  felicitous  commentary  that  marked  Mr.  Holroyd's." 

In  1802  Mr.  Abbott  published  his  '  Treatise  of  the  Law 
relative  to  Merchant-Ships  and  Seamen.'  This  work  lias 
gone  through  many  editions:  it  exhausts  the  subji. 
well  arranged,  and  well  written  :  its  merits  have  been  re- 
peatedly acknowledged :  it  is  one  of  the  best  English  law 
treatises. 

In  1808  Mr.  Abbott  wits  offered  a  seat  on  the  bench,  but 
declined  from  prudential  motives,  his  professional  in. 
far  exceeding  the  salary  of  a  judge.  As  years  grew  upon 
him  however,  and  his  fortune  increased,  he  began  to  long 
for  the  comparative  repose  of  the  bench.  In  February, 
1816,  he  was  offered  a  seat  as  puisne  judge  in  the  Court  of 
Common  Pleas,  and  accepted  it.  In  May  of  the  same  year, 
on  the  death  of  Mr.  Justice  Le  Blanc,  he  yielded  t<>  the 
importunity  of  Lord  Ellenborough,  and  was  chosen  to  sup- 
ply the  vacancy  in  the  Court  of  King's  Bench,  and  was 
knighted  about  the  same  time.  On  the  4th  of  November, 
1818,  Sir  Charlee  Abbott  succeeded  Lord  Ellenborough  as 
chief-justice  of  that  court. 

It  has  been  alleged  that  at  the  outset  of  his  judicial 
career  chief-justice  Abbott  was  apt  to  lose  himself  among 
the  minute  details  of  the  cases  which  were  brought  l> 
him.  It  is  allowed  at  the  same  time  that  during  the  last 
seven  or  eight  years  of  his  time  he  took  broader  and  more 
comprehensive  views  of  questions,  and  displayed  great 
judicial  capacity.  He  had  learned  to  deal  with  facts,  and 
his  law  was,  as  it  always  had  been,  safe,  accurate,  and 
ready.  His  statements  and  decisions  were  clothed  in  cor- 
rect, succinct,  and  appropriate  language.  He  wa>  averse 
to  over-curious  subtleties  ;  loved  to  overrule  technical  ob- 
jections both  in  civil  and  criminal  pleadings ;  and  showed 
great  anxiety  to  make  his  decisions  accord  with  com- 
mon sense  and  substantial  justice.  Perhaps  he  shone 
most  in  the  management  of  arguments  which  required  a 
combination  of  scientific  with  legal  knowledge :  '  to  see 
him  preside  over  a  complicated  patent  case  was  a  very 
great  treat,  whether  to  a  lawyer  or  a  man  of  science.'  A 
reasonable  distinction,  a  reasonable  interpretation  of  the 
law,  were  his  favourite  phrases.  He  was,  as  every  learned 
and  judicious  lawyer  must  be,  rather  impatient  of  the 
check  of  a  jury ;  and  was  not  always  able  to  keep  lu's 
temper  in  command  when  arguing  with  the  bar.  His 
impartiality,  as  far  as  the  parties  were  concerned,  was  un- 
questioned. '  It  was  an  edifying  sight.'  says  Lord  Broug- 
ham, '  to  observe  Lord  Tenterden,  whose  temper  had  been 
visibly  affected  during  the  trial  (for  on  the  bench  he  had 
not  always  that  entire  command  of  it  which  we  have  de- 
scribed him  as  possessing  at  the  bar  ,  addressing  himself 
to  the  points  in  the  cause  with  the  same  perfect  calnmc-s 
and  indifference  with  which  a  mathematician  pursues  an 
abstract  truth  ;  as  if  there  were  neither  the  parties  nor  the 
advocates  in  existence, and  only  bent  on  the  discovery- and 
the  elucidation  of  truth.'  Chief-Justice  Abbott's  anxiety 
to  support  the  executive  authority  on  all  occasions  was 
beyond  a  doubt  excessive ;  but  this  appears  to  have  been 
the  consequence  of  temperament  and  very  early  asso- 
ciations: it  shows  itself  even  in  his  prize  essay  upon 
Satire. 

Sir  Charles  Abbott  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1827.  by 
the  title  of  Baron  Tenterden.  He  made  a  successful  debut 
as  a  speaker  in  the  House  of  Lords  in  support  of  Mi  — 
Turner s  divorce  bill  ;  he  pertinacious!)  opposed  the  pass- 
ing of  the  Corporation  and  Test  Act  Repeal  Bill  ;  and  was 
the  most  impressive  speaker  against  the  Roman  Catholic 
Relief  Bill.  His  judicial  labours  rendered  him  tor  the 
next  two  years  an  (infrequent  attendant  in  the  House  of 
Lords;  but  he  recorded  his  protest  against  the  Reform 
Bill.  He  took  at  the  same  time  an  active  part  in  the  busi- 
ness  of  legislation.  Among  his  well-studied  and  carefully 
prepared  acts  are— 9  Gep.  IV.,  c.  14,  for  the  alteration  of 
the  law  an  to  the  limitation  of  actions  of  account  and  upon 
thi'  ca-e :  11  (ieo.  IV.,  e.  15,  to  prevent  a  failure  of  justicu 
by  reason  of  variances  between  records  and  writings  pro 


TEN 


213 


TEN 


duced  in  evidence ;  1  Will.  IV.,  c.  21,  Mandamus  and 
Prohibition  Acts  ;  1  Will.  IV.,  c.  22,  Interrogatories  Act ; 
1  &  2  Will.  IV.,  c.  58,  Interpleader  Act ;  2  &  3  Will.  IV., 
c.  39,  Uniformity  of  Process  Act ;  2  &  3  Will.  IV.,  c.  71, 
Prescription  Acts  ;  and  (prepared  under  his  sanction)  3  & 
4  Will.  IV.,  c.  27,  for  the  limitation  of  actions  and  suits 
relating  to  real  property,  and  for  simplifying  the  remedies 
for  trying  the  rights  thereto. 

As  his  political  opinions  were  of  the  kind  generally  un- 
derstood to  predominate  at  Oxford,  so  his  literary  tastes 
retained  the  impress  of  his  University  education.  When 
Sir  James  Scarlett,  on  the  trial  of  Mr.  Hunt  for  the  pub- 
lication of  '  The  Vision  of  Judgment,'  alluded  to  the 
poetry  of  Lord  Byron  as  familiar  to  the  jury,  Lord  Tenter- 
den  could  not  repress  the  observation  that,  for  himself, 
'  he  was  bred  in  too  severe  a  school  of  taste  to  admire 
the  modern  poets.'  His  favourite  recreations  during  the 
long  vacation  were  the  perusal  of  the  classics,  the  study 
of  botany,  and  the  composition  of  Latin  verses  on  flowers 
and  plants.  He  founded  and  endowed,  in  the  grammar- 
school  of  his  native  city,  two  annual  prizes  ;  the  one  for  the 
best  English  essay,  the  other  for  the  best  Latin  verse.  In 
his  relaxations,  as  in  the  discharge  of  his  public  duties,  he 
displayed  a  mind  narrow,  it  may  be,  and  unimpassioned, 
but  active,  dexterous,  and  elegant. 

His  later  years  were  overclouded  with  ill-health,  and 
alarm  occasioned  by  the  aspect  of  public  affairs.  He  con- 
tinued however  to  discharge  assiduously  the  duties  of  his 
high  office.  He  presided  for  the  two  first  days  at  the  trial 
of  the  mayor  of  Bristol  for  misconduct  during  the  riots  in 
that  city  at  the  time  of  the  Reform  Bill,  but  on  the  third 
he  was  confined  to  bed  by  a  violent  attack  of  inflamma- 
tion. The  disease  baffled  the  skill  of  his  physicians,  and 
he  expired  on  the  morning  of  Sunday,  November  4,  1832. 
Lady  Tenterden  died  on  the  19th  of  "December  following. 
He  had  two  sons,  one  of  whom  succeeded  him  in  the  title, 
and  two  daughters. 

(The  materials  for  this  article  have  been  found  in  a 
notice  of  Lord  Tenterden  in  the  Obituary  of  The  Gentle- 
man's Magazine  for  December,  1832  ;  in  a  '  Life  of  Lord 
Tenterden'  which  appeared  in  the  26th  volume  of  The 
Law  Magazine,  pp.  51-87  ;  in  a  sketch  of  the  '  Judicial 
Character  of  Lord  Tenterden '  by  Mr.  Sergeant  Talfourd, 
in  the  9th  volume  of  the  same  work,  pp.  234-6 ;  and  in  a 
sketch  of  his  career  and  character  by  Lord  Brougham  in 
the  76th  volume  of  the  Edinburgh  Review,  pp.  14-23. 
There  is  a  portrait  of  Lord  Tenterden  taken  by  Owen  in 
1819,  and  engraved  in  mezzotinto  in  a  quarto  form  by  S. 
W.  Reynolds,  and  another  by  C.  Penny  engraved  by  H. 
Meyer.  A  cast  for  a  bust  was  taken  from  his  countenance 
after  death.) 

TENTHRET)O,  a  genus  of  Hymenopterous  insects  of 
the  section  Terebrantia.  The  genus  Tenthredo  of  Linnaeus 
is  in  modern  systems  regarded  as  constituting  a  family,  to 
which  the  name  Securi/era  has  been  applied  by  Latreille, 
and  Tenthredinidee  by  Leach. 

Latreille  restricts  the  generic  term  Tenthredo  to  those 
species  which  have  nine  joints  to  the  antennae,  and  in 
which  these  organs  are  not  distinctly  thickened  at  the 
apex.  Their  larvae  have  from  eighteen  to  twenty-two  feet. 
The  genus  Tenthredo  is  however  still  further  restricted  by 
many  other  authors,  and  it  is  especially  to  Dr.  Leach  (Zoo- 
logical Miscellany,  vol.  iii.)that  we  are  indebted  for  point- 
ing out  distinguishing  characters  for  the  subdivisions  of 
the  very  extensive  Linnean  genus.  By  this  author  the 
Tenthredinides  are  divided  chiefly  according  to  the  struc- 
ture of  the  antennas,  and  the  cells  enclosed  by  the  nervures 
of  the  wings.  The  first  section,  according  to  Dr.  Leach, 
contains  those  species  which  have  the  antennae  short  and 
clubbed  at  the  extremity  and  the  third  joint  long ;  the 
superior  wings  with  two  marginal  and  three  submarginal 
cells.  It  includes  the  genera  Cimbex,  Trichiosoma,  Cla- 
ri't/uria,  Zarea,  Abia,  &c. 

The  species  of  the  second  section  have  the  antennae  of 
moderate  length,  filiform,  and  composed  of  three  joints ; 
the  last  joint  long,  slightly  thickened  at  the  extremity, 
and  in  the  males  ciliated,  and  sometimes  forked.  It  con- 
tains the  genera  Hylotoma  and  Schizocerus.  The  charac- 
ters of  the  third  section  are — antennas  short,  with  nine  or 
ten  joints,  increasing  in  thickness  in  the  middle,  but  end- 
ing in  a  point;  the  third  joint  longer  than  the  fourth;  body 
short  and  increasing  in  thickness  towards  the  apex.  Genera : 
Menna,  Selandria,  and  Fenusa. 

Section  4.— Antennae  composed  of  nine  joints,  mode- 


rately long ;  body  moderately  long;  upper  wings  with  two 
marginal  cells.  To  this  section  belongs  the  genus  Tenthredo 
as  at  present  restricted ;  it  is  distinguished  by  the  upper 
wings  having  four  submarginal  cells,  and  the  antennae 
with  the  third  and  fourth  joints  of  equal  length.  The 
genus  Allantus  differs  only  from  Tenthredo  hi  having  the 
third  joint  of  the  antennas  longer  than  the  fourth.  The 
Allantus  scrophulariee  is  a  very  common  species  in  this 
country,  and  is  found  on  the  scrophularise,  on  the  leaves 
of  which  its  larvae  feed.  The  perfect  insect  somewhat 
resembles  a  wasp,  but  is  of  a  rather  more  slender  form  ;  it 
is  black,  and  has  the  body  adorned  with  yellow  rings  ;  the 
legs  (with  the  exception  of  the  thighs)  and  antennae  are 
also  yellow.  The  larva,  which  is  provided  with  twenty- 
two  feet,  is  white  and  has  black  dots,  and  the  head  is  black. 
When  touched  it  rolls  itself  up  in  a  spiral  manner,  as  in- 
deed dp  the  larvae  of  other  TenthredinideE. 

Section  5. — Superior  wings  with  but  one  marginal  cell ; 
body  short,  narrower  at  the  extremity  in  the  males ;  an- 
tennae simple,  nine-jointed,  slightly  ciliated,  increasing  in 
thickness  in  the  middle,  and  decreasing  at  the  extremity. 
This  section  contains  the  genera  Creesvs,  Nematits,  and 
Cladius,  examples  of  each  of  which  are  found  in  this 
country. 

Section  6. — Antennae  with  numerous  joints ;  body  rather 
depressed  ;  wings  with  two  marginal  and  four  submarginal 
cells.  British  genera  Tarpa,  Lyda,  and  Lophyrus.  The 
larvae  of  the  species  of  Lophyrus  live  in  society,  more  par- 
ticularly on  the  pines,  and  are  said  to  be  very  injurious  to 
the  young  plants.  The  species  of  this  genus  are  very  rare 
in  England.  The  antennae  are  serrated  in  females,  and  in 
the  males  they  are  provided  with  a  double  series  of  denti- 
culations. 

TENTHS  are  the  tenth  part  of  the  yearly  value  of  all 
ecclesiastical  livings.  They  were  formerly  claimed  by  the 
pope  as  due  to  himself  by  divine  right,  after  the  example 
of  the  Jewish  high-priest  who  had  of  the  Levites  a  tenth- 
part  of  the  tithes ;  and  his  claim  was  sanctioned,  in  this 
country,  by  an  ordinance  in  the  20th  year  of  Edward  I., 
when  a  valuation  of  all  livings  was  made,  in  order  that  the 
pope  might  know  the  amount  of  his  revenue  from  this 
source.  The  possessions  afterwards  acquired  by  the  church 
were  not  liable  to  the  payment  of  tenths  to  the  pope,  as  all 
'  >  nigs  continued  to  be  charged  according  to  that  valua- 
tion. (Coke,  2  last.,  627.)  When  the  authority  of  the 
pope  was  extinguished  at  the  Reformation,  Henry  VIII. 
transferred  the  revenue  arising  from  tenths  to  the  crown, 
and  had  a  new  valuation  of  all  the  livings,  so  as  to  obtain 
the  tenth  of  their  true  yearly  value  at  that  time.  (26 
Hen.  VIII.,  c.  3,  s.  9-11.)  By  royal  grants  under  1  Eliz., 
c.  19,  s.  2,  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  the  Bishop 
of  London  were  exempted  from  tenths  and  were  also 
authorized  to  receive  the  tenths  of  several  benefices  as  a 
compensation  for  certain  estates  which  were  alienated 
from  their  sees.  By  the  6  Anne,  c.  24,  all  benefices  were 
discharged  from  the  payment  of  tenths  which,  at  that 
time,  were  under  the  annual  value  of  50/.,  except  those  of 
which  the  tenths  had  previously  been  granted  by  the  crown 
to  other  parties.  There  are  also  some  other  special  exemp- 
tions. At  the  present  time,  out  of  10,498  benefices,  with 
and  without  cure  of  souls,  there  are  4898  which  remain 
liable  to  tenths.  (Parl.  Rep.  First-Fruits  and  Tenths, 
1837,  No.  384.)  Queen  Anne  gave  up  the  revenue  arising 
from  tenths,  as  well  as  from  first-fruits,  which  had  been 
enjoyed  by  her  predecessors  since  the  Reformation,  and  by 
act  2  and  3  of  her  reign,  c.  11,  assigned  it  to  the  aug- 
mentation of  poor  livings ;  for  which  purpose  she  erected 
a  corporation  by  letters  patent  in  1704  to  administer  the 
funds,  called  the  Governors  of  Queen  Anne's  Bounty. 
This  act  declared  that  Episcopal  sees  and  livings  not 
exempted  should  continue  to  pay  in  such  rates  and  propor- 
tions only  as  heretofore,  or  according  to  the  valuation  of 
Henry  VIII. ,  commonly  known  as  the  '  King's  Books.' 
Tenths  under  the  act  1  Viet.,  c.  20,  are  collected  by  the 
Treasurer  of  the  Governors  of  Queen  Anne's  Bounty.  Pay- 
ment is  enforced  by  Exchequer  process,  when  not  duly 
made,  and  the  treasurer  is  required  to  give  notice  of  arrears 
within  one  month  after  the  proper  time  of  payment.  In 
case  of  a  living  being  vacated,  the  Exchequer  is  empowered 
by  act  26  Hen.  VIII.,  c.  3,  s.  18,  to  recover  arrears  of 
tenths,  not  only  from  the  executors  and  administrators,  but 
also  from  the  successor  of  the  last  incumbent.  (2  Burn's 
Ecclesiastical  Law,  9th  ed.,  pp.  273-295.)  [FiRST-Fauns ; 
TAXATIO  ECCLESIASTIC*  ;  TITHES.] 


TEN 


214 


TEN 


TEXTZEL,  or  TEXZEL.  \VII.HF.I.M  FUN  I 
man  historian  :i'i.l  antiqua 

MM  in  Th  <-r  the 

completion  01'  liia  school  > 

In  tlu'  university  of  Wittenberg,  where  In-  chiefly 
'I'll  himself  to  tli.'  study  of  tlu>  antit'iit   a- 

in  connection  with    history.     In   UX>  lir  v.:is 
appointed  teacher  at  tin-  gymnasium 

nit-  time  intrusted  with  tin'  cart1  of  the  rollertion  of 
antiquities  and  coins  belonging  to  tl-n  '  lot  ha. 

al   learned   dissertations   wl.ich   he   pulili-hed    shortly 
after  this  lime  attracted  the  attention  of  nis  learned  coun- 
tryinen,  in  consequence  of  which  lie  became  ;i 
contributor  to  the  '  Acta  Kruditurum,'  and  to  the  •  t 
\aliones   Hallei  ;  I  rinan   who 

conceived  the   idea  of  establishing  a  German  journal   for 

-  and  for  publish, 

In-ill   was  set  on  foot  in   1(JS1).  under  the  title 
'  Monatliehe  Unterredungen  einigcr  guten   l-'reunde   von 
nllerhand  Biicheni   uiul   andern  annehmlichcn  Geschicli- 
ten.'     The.  undertaking  had  great  success,  and  was  carried 
on  till   1688.     The  whole  was  published  in  monthly  parts, 
and  consists  often  volumes.     The  extensive  l;uo\vl> 
history,  especially  of  the  history  and  antiquities  oi 
many,  procured  Tentzcl,  in  1G90,  the  honourable  p. 

pher  to  the  house  of  Saxony  of  the   F.nicstine 
line.     Before   he  commenced    writ  inn  on   the   history  of 

y  he  travelled  through  the  greater  part  of  Germany, 
visiting  several  courts  and  examining  various  libraries  to 
find  materials.  In  1702  the  elector  of  Saxony  (also  King 
(if  Poland  conferred  upon  Tentzel  the  title  of  councillor, 
and  made  him  historiographer  of  the  electorate.  In  thU 
!  took  up  his  residence  at  Dresden,  and  was 
frequ.  ,vd  to  appear  at  court.  But  the  simple 

lightforwardneSB  of  the  man  made  him  a 
subject  for  ridicule  among  the  ignorant  and  idle  courtiers, 
and  as  soon  as  Tentzel  became  aware  of  it  he  resigned  his 
office  and  retired  to  private  life,  devoting  himself  entirely 
to  his  historical  and  antiquarian  studies.  He  died  on  the 
24th  of  Xovemher.  17<I7,  in  great  poverty. 

.des  the  numer.  :;i  the  periodical  publica- 

tions mentioned   above,  the   following  si  ;  rks  of 

Tentzel  deserve  to  be  mentioned  :  •  De  Ritu  I.eelionum 
Sacrarum.'  Wittenberg,  IGsfi.  4to.:  •  Exercitationes Selectee, 
in  duas  purtes  distributu','  Leip/ig.  Ki^'J.  Ho.  :  '  F.pi-lola 
de  Sceleto  Elephantino  Tonnsc  miner  cffosso,'  Gotha  and 
Jena,  1699,  12mo. :  '  Von  dem  Alter  der  Buchdrucker- 
kun-,1.'  (;,)tha,  1700,  12mo. ;  this  interesting  work  is  trans- 
lated into  Latin  and  incorporated  in  Wolf's  •  Monumenta 
Typographic^,'  ii.  (>44,  t<x-.  The  principal  work  of  Tentzel 
is  his  •  Saxonia  Numismatica.  sive  Xummophylaciuin 
Xumisniatiiin  Mnemonicorum  ct  Iconiconim  a  Ducibus 

•AX  cudi  jussoram,'  Frankfort,  17n.">.  2  parts  in  4lo. 
He  also  continued  the  history  of  Gotha  which  had  been 
commenced  by  '  m  two  supplementary 

volumes.     His  history  of  the  Reformation,  'Histoi: 
Bericht  vom  Ant'ang  und  Fortgang  der  Reformation,'  which 
was  edited  by  E.  S.  Cyprian,  in  2  vols.  4to..  Leipzig,  1718, 
is  u  valuable  work,  which  should  still  be  consulted  by  the 
student  of  that  important  period. 

///"•'•»i.  ii'-li-/ti-!iii-I.fficon,\\.,f.  1057,  &c. ; 
m,  s.  V.  '  Ten/el."- 

\ril'l-:l!>l-.s.   1  .-com!  division  ofthe  Con- 

tlie  /  .  I'l'/nrn/ii.  and   l'rni'rii]ii\  ,  the 

•  liacea,  the  Trigunacea,  the  Ac 
and  the  t.'hamarea. 

In  the  h'rst  division,  Crussijii'i]''*.  are  comprised  the  Tubi- 

•  •I'li.  and  the  Mi/iirin. 

'•-].  De-have*,  in  the  last  edition  of  Lamarck,  objects, 
and  we  think  witli  reason,  to  the-.-  divisions  as  being  de- 
•>r  does  he  consider  the  arrangement  capable  of 
amelioration,  because  the   principal   character  i>  t. 
clusi'.  M-I  ves  that  to  follow  it   rigorously  it  would 

be  necessary  to  break  very  natural  links  which  bind  certain 
genei:i 

Cuvicr  made  the  Ti'iiuirottret  the 

fourth   lamilv  of  his  PtMtMUSC,   placing  it  between  the 

..  und  comjirisiiig  under  it 

the  genera  Sitta,  Linn,  r With  the  subgenera  Xenop*,  111.  ; 
.Iri'i/Kitf*,  Tfinm. ;  and  Si/mtl/ii.ri>,  \ ;•  ••thin, 

Ijnn.  (with  the  subgcnera  f'crt/iin.  Cu\. ;   /  iptes, 

Henn.  ;  'l'irh'nln,inii.  III.;  fffturinin.  111.;  DtCefutn, 
Cuv. ;  Mclithrepttu,  Vieill.;  Cinnyris,  Cuv. ;  and  Aruch- 


•.  Temm.  :    7'     /,-.'///*,  Linn.  Dividing  the  pcnim 
into  t'.i-  II 

' 

!\lr.  Vigors.  :i!U>r  pointing  out  • 
the   I.  which  cliinli  :  .imal 

-.  and   tlv 

which   live  only  on  the  nectar  of  flowers,  and 
I'.iimed    for  only    [('IIHEPKH.  vol.\iii..    p.  i 

-  as     the    most    int. 

perhaps    of    the   animal    world.     [Si-Min  \\iii., 

-  that    the  aberrant   i'amili 

-  in  their  i  !  hitherto 
.•toiily  eh: 

.ik  of  tlu-m  with  tl;  ty  which  may  attend 

obsiTvations  on  better  deli: 

;. pears  to  him  to  be  that  form  of  lli. 
whii  h  appn 

5.     Uctaining,  Mr.  \  ,  bill 

of  lh<  I  -,//v  exhibits  somewl 

base  ofthe  bill  of  tli. 
time,  tile  gressorial  feet.     By  in* 

xed  bill  of  w! 

own,  i;  with  thnt 

group.     '  ( )f  the  lini  .  which  m. 

in  M.  l!ii  'ins,' 

continues  Mr.  \  i  nothing  at  present  :  nor 

do  I  wish  to  enter  \\\\ 
the  succeeding  family  of  M 
for  th. 

The  families  admitted  by  Mr.  Vigors  into  this  tribe  of 
.'UEs  will    be   found   in  the  article  .  toe. 

cit. 

Mr.  Swainson(to  whose  publication  on  this  order,  in  !he 
1st  vol.  ofthe  '  Zoological  Journal,'  which 
the  paper  On  tl 

refers),  in  his  tenth  chapter  of  the  second  \oh: 

iiication  of  Birds,'  remarks,  tli  /  :  rant 

division  of  the  inscssoiial  o 

or  honey sii.  'i-d  fmm  i 

.nee  both  from  insects  and  the  nccta, 

which   they  suck   u]i   by  in.  ,.r  tihinic •: 

p'ed  for  the   )j 

Mr.  Swainsoii  in  continuation,  '  are  furthest  reii.. 

the  types  o!' their  older,  they  co  :-ho\\  a  gi. 

affinity  to  the  Scansores  on  one  hand,  a'i 

rnxtri-n  on  the  other,  than  to  the  more  ]i. 

the  pcrehers,  as  seen  in  th.   . 

like    the   scansorial   cicepers,   tl:. 

feet  very  short  :    but    ;  'I'be 

.  ial   birds   derive    their   food    ciilin •:• 

and,  in  general,  have  a  simple  and  pointc.; 

;  aM'lx  loi- 

..•tile,  and  either  sini]i!\  forked,  or  ib 
so  many  slender  i  •-emble  a  paint.  I 

:i:it    it    is  uttcn 
in    the    \\  | 

-.  principa!  t  the  ton. 

chief  member  by  which  life  is  supported.' 

Mr.  Siuiinson  includes  the  following  families  under  this 
tribe  :-  MKi.ii'HA(;m.K  ;  C'imiyritlti'  [SI-NHIKUS]  ;  Ti;. 
LID.K  (Humming-Birds   ;    PHUMKIIUI-IU.E  (Hoopoes;;  and 

i>r  [Bmus  OK  P.\r.  VUISK]. 

The  Tfiiuirnstri'ii  are  placed  by  this  autli.  .  (lie 

SCANSORES  and  the  FISSIKDSTRES. 

M.  Lesson  makes  the   tribe  Ti'iiiiirn\lri'!t  (wlucn  hear- 
between  the  Latirostres  &nd  the  Syndactyles,  . 
sist  ofthe  following  families  and  genera: — 

1.  Promeropidse. 
Genera. — Upupa;  1' 

•2.  CcrthiadsB. 

Genera.— -Crrthia  ;  Tii-fiix/mma  ;  I)<'ii<!rucolaples ;  Cli- 
mactenx  .  1'tirtniriii*  •••um. 

;i.   I'hiledonida-. 

Genera. — Drepanis;  Cinnyrin  ;  Pomatorhinun ;  Pri- 
nia;  Orthotomtu ;  Afyzomela;  Myzant/ia;  Anthochcera , 
Tr<  >iml<ji  hynchus  ;  MMisuga. 

•1.  Tiochilidii1. 
Genera.— Folylmus,  Briss. ;  Ornitmya,  Lew, 


TEN 


215 


T  E  N 


In  Mr.  G.  R.  Gray's  '  List  of  the  Genera  of  Birds'  (2nd 
edit.,  1841),  a  work  remarkable  for  its  accuracy  and  the 
quantity  of  condensed  labour  which  it  contains,  the  Tenui- 
rostres  stand  as  the  second  tribe  of  Insessores,  between  the 
Fissirostres  and  the  Dentirostres,  and  comprise  the  fol- 
lowing families,  subfamilies,  and  genera:  — 

1.  Upupidas.     (See  the  article.) 

2.  Xectarinidae.     [SUNBIRDS.] 

3.  Trochilidae.     (See  the  article.) 

4.  Meliphagidae. 
Subfamily  1.     Myzomelinee. 

Genera.  —  Myzomela,  Vig.  and  Horsf.  (Phylidonyris, 
Less.;  Certhia,  Gm.  ;  Me!iphaga,\\g.  and  Horsf.)  :  Acan- 
thorhyncAws,  Gould  (Ltptoglotnu,  Svv.  ;  Mdilhreptus, 
Vieill.  ;  Certhia,  Lath.;  Metiphaga,  Vig.  and  Horsf.)  : 
Glyciphila,  Sw.  (Mi'liphaga,  Lew.). 

Subfamily  2.     Meliphaginee. 

Genera.  —  Me/iornis,  G.  R.  Gray    ('  rthia,  Lath.  ;  Meli- 
phaga.  Lew.;  Philedon,  Cuv.  ;  Slrigiceps?  Less.):  Pros- 
'idera,  G.  R.  Gray  (Merops,  Lath.  ;  Anthochrera,  Vig. 
and  H«rs.  ;    Philemon,  Vieill.  ;    titurnux,   Daud.  ;    Mi'li- 
pAaga,  Temm.  ;    Philedon,   Cuv.)  :    Ptilotis,  Sw. 
phaga,  Lew.  ;    Philemon,  Vieill.  ;    Certhia,   Lath.)  :  AH- 
tlinrnu,   G.    R.   Gray   (Anthamyza,   Sw.  :    M 
Vieill.;    Furnariut,  Steph.  ;    Certhia,  Span1.;   Ph 
Less.):    Philemnn,  Vieill.   (Aiithochtera,  Vig.  and  Hors.  ; 
Merops,   Gm.  ;    Me/iphaga,    Temm.:     /  (  'uv.)  : 

Phyllornis,  Boie  (Turdus,  Gm.  ;    <  .  Jard.  and 

Selby;  Meliphaga,  Horsf.):  Meliphaga,  Lew.  (Zantfio- 
myza,  Siv.  :  Merops,  Lath.;  I'luli'mmi.  Vieill.  ;  A 
r/iff-ra,  Vig.  and  Hors.;  Xanlhomyzu,  Strickl.  ;  Phili-iloti, 
Cuv.)  :  Anthochfpra,  Vic.  and  Hors.  (Cn'mlimi,  Virill.  ; 
Philedon,  Cuv.  ;  Merops,  Lath.)  :  Acantlm^i'iii/n,  Gould 
liochfura,  Fras.  -".  Sw.  QraciUB,  Lath.; 

Philemon,  Vieill.  ;    Gymnops,  Cuv.  ;    Entomyznn,   Sw.  ; 
Tropidorhyiirhux,   Vitr.  and    Hors.  :  •;••«   (Lew.), 

Temm.):  Tropidorhynchiix.  \'\«.  and  Hois. 
(Juv.  ;  Merops,  Lath.;  Meliphasu,  Tcmm.  : 
Cuv.  . 

Subfamily  3.     Melithrepliiw. 

Genera  :  —  Plector/m.-n;  hut,  <>.  R.  Gray    Plcctnrhyncha, 

Gould   :    ''  .  Vieill.  (Myzantha,  V.  and  H.  ;  Plii- 

•''«*,  Less.  ;  GracuUi,  Lath.)  :   Psop/todes,  V.  and  H. 

(Mutcicapa,   Lath.;    Timalia,  ?    Sw.    :    Kid*,/,  \urnx.    S,v. 

(&urjiiM,Wagl.):  Meiitkreatut,\ie$l.  <  H.EMATOPS,  Gould; 

Gi/mnophryx.  Sw.  ;  Meliphaga,  Temm.  ;  Philedon,  Cuv.  ; 

.hii^ii,  V.  and  H.  ;  Certhia,  Shaw)  :    Entomophila, 

Gould. 

5   Certhidae. 
Subfamily  1. 

Genera  :  —  Cinclodes,  G.   R.    Gray   (Furnarius,   Less.  ; 
'irln/nchus  (Temm.),  Gould  and  G.  R.  Gia\  :   (  /,u- 
certhia,  D'Orb.  :  Motacilla,  Gin.)  :  L'pucerthia,  J.  Geotl'r.  : 
i'liriiiirnix,    Vieill.    (Opetiorhynrlm\,    Ti-mm.  :    !•'•  i 
Spix  ;     Merops,   Gm.  ;     Turdus,    Licht.    :     <:i",xiltn\   Sw. 
/".    D'Orb.  ;    Furnariux,  G.  R.  Gray  ;    Aluuda, 
Kittl.    :   /  'icerthia,  J.Geoiir.    :  Em 

G.  K.  Gray  (Eremobius,  Gould)  :  Ochetorhynchus,  '•. 

i)  !)ib.  cl  Lafr.):  Limnnriiis,  Gould: 
.  Sw.  :    f.  'in  iiii-erlhia,  G.  R.  Qny  (Stenor&ai 

Subfamily  2.     Anabitanne. 
Genera  :—na//ar(>,   \ici!l.     -iJi'^n/rn,   Licht.  ;   Pa- 


.    D'Orb.    et   Lafr.):     Di& 
\Vairl.  (Strrirottrum.   D'Urb.   et   J^fr.  ;  Di'mlroni,. 


Inrhynrhux,  Ronri]).  :  ,  it  in,  D'Orb.  et  Lal'r.) 

.•ibiux,  D'Orb.  et  Ls'tV.  (Aanumbi,  Azara  :  /•«;•// 
Vii'ill.  ;     Spkeaura,     Licht.:     Mihuu-.     Sw.  :     .l.'i'ilmti'x, 
S|iix;    Aiithiis,    Lc^.  :    .-  .    Gould  j:    Aimlinl,^, 

Temm.  (Phil>/d->r,  Spix;    Xpheintm,    Lu-lit.  : 
Gm.  :     Xrmijix,     La  IV.    :    O///,  Strickl. 

rhyiichus,  Temm.  ;  Oxyrunc.us  (olim  ),  Temm.  . 

Subfamily  3.     Dendrocolaptina;. 

icra:  —  Dendropter,    Sw.     A  .M-.VV/,    Less.;  , 

•••«,  Cuv.  and  Temm.i:  (!!i/j'/im-/iyii- 

us  ''oliin  i,  Pr.  Max.  ;   /^  MJ- 

.    Licht.  :  ^iflneilla,   Less.  :  7  Sw.  ; 

ifkl.  •  :     JJ"rii/i-ni-iijix.  Sw.  •  l):-n<lr<>c<,' 
S)iix    •  /,  G.  R.  Gray  (Z>ryocopu*,  IV.  Max.; 

/''/'  .    Licht.,:  Dendrocolaptes,   Henn. 

'",   Gm.)  :  Xiplinrhi/nckug,  Sw. 

w,  Temm.,  Cuv.  ;  Picolaptes,  Less.  ;  I>en- 

<lri,n,]iiix,  Vit-ill.,  :  Pr'ilnptex,  Less.  (Ziphorhynclnn,  Sw.  ; 

Denarocolapte*,Spix.  ;  O.ryurus,  Less.  ;  Dendroplex,  Sw.)  : 


Sittasomus,  Sw.  (Neops,  Vieill. ;  Synallaxis,  Cuv. ; 
drocolaptes,  Temm.). 

Subfamily  4.     Certhinae. 

Genera : — Certhia,  Linn.  :  Oxtiurus,  Sw.  (Synallaxig, 
Less. ;  Sylvia,  Lath. ;  Motacilla,  Gm.) :  Climacteris, 
Temm.  (Petrodroma,  Vieill.  ;  Meliphaga,  Temm.) :  7Y- 
chodroma,  111.  (Petrodroma,  Vieill. ;  Certhia,  Linn.):  Geo- 
bates,  Sw. :  Tatare,  Less.  (Sitta,  Less. ;  Turdus,  Gm. ; 
Thryothorus,  Quoy  et  Gaim. ;  Oriolus,  Forst.). 

Subfamily  5.     Sittinae. 

Genera  -.—Sittella,  Sw.  (Neops,  Vieill. ;   S/V/a,   Lath.): 
"'  'a,  Linn.:  Dendrophila,  Sw.  (Orthorhynchus,  Horsf. ; 
,  Horsf.) :    Dendrodromus,  Gould  :  Xenops,  Hoffm. 
ps,  Vieill.). 

Subfamily  6.     Orthonycinae. 

Genera : — Orthony.r,  Temm. :  Mohoua,  Less.  (Certhia, 
Quoy  et  Gaim. ;  Muscicapa,  Gm. ;  Orthonyx,  Less.). 

Subfamily  7.     Troglodytinae. 

Genera:— Rhinocrypta,  G.  R.  Gray  (PJiinomya,  D'Orb. 

et  Lafr.) :  Menura,  Dav.  (Parkinsoitius.  Bechst. ;  Megu- 

l,   Wagl.):    Pteroptochos,  Kittl.    (Hylactes,   King ; 

'•ir/y.r.    Less. ;  Leptonyx,  Sw.)  :    Seytttlopus,   Gould 

(Muintht'1-a,   IV.  Max.;  Platyurus,  Sw. ;  Motacilla,  Gm.  ; 

MalacorkynchlH,   Menetr.;    Sylria,  Lath.;  Troglodytes, 

Kittl.  :  Xi/li-in.rix,  Less.  ;  Leptonyx,  D'Orb  et  Lafr.)  :  Afr- 

croura,  Gould  (Micrura,  Strickl.) :  Merulajris,  Less.  (  /'/</- 

tyurits,  Sw.;  Malacorhynchus,  Menetr.  :  Mrrufaris,  D'Orb. 

et  Lafr.  j:    Thnoihorus,  Vieill.  (Sylria,  Lath.):  Campy- 

lorAynr/n/x.  Spix  (Turdus,  Gm.  et  Licht.  ;  Cichla,  Wagl.  ; 

..••/•'/,  Licht. ;  Opeticrhynchiis,  Pr.  Max. ;  Picolaptes, 

.  D'Orb.  rt  Lafr.) :  flAa;npAof«e«u.s,"Vieill. 

('/Vv/i'/  ,,/i/ii'x,   Sw.  :    .[.-untistes,   Sundev. ;    Scolo]>uri/iux, 

,   Vieill.   (Motacilla,  Linn.  ;  Anor- 

",  Kenn.  ;  l{i'<;iil-nx,  Briss. ;  Luscinia,  Linn.). 

Of  these  genera,  Mr.  G.  R.  Gray  remarks  that  Antho- 

mysa  had  been  previously  used  in  botany ;  Plectorhyncha 

and  Oxyrhynchu*  in  ichthyology;  Rhinomyza  in  entomo- 

and  that  Eremobius  is  very  like  a  word  employed  in 

ience  ;  that  Dryocopus  had  been  previously  used  in 

Picidte  and  Stciior/tynchus  for  a  cmstaceous  aniiiial.   .'••'/V1- 

iiiirhy/ii-hus  has  also  been  employed  to  designate  a  genus 

of  SEALS.     [Vol.  xxi.,  p.  163.] 

TENURE.  The  general  nature  of  tenure  and  its  origin 
and  history  in  England  are  explained  in  the  article  FEUDAL 
LAW.  A  few  remarks  may  be  made  here  on  tenure  as  at 
present  existing  by  the  law  of  England,  for  which  purpose 
a  short  recapitulation  is  necessary. 

All  land  was  and  is  held  of  the  king  either  mediately  or 
immediately.  All  tenures  were  distributable  under  two 
.d  heads,  according  as  the  services  were  free  or  base  ; 
and  COIIM  i|uently  there  was  the  general  division  of  ten- 
ure-, into  Iranktenement  or  free-holding,  and  Villeinasre. 
The  act  of  Charles  II.  (12  Car.  II.,  c.  24)  abolished  mili- 
tary tenures,  which  were  one  kind  of  free  services,  and 
changed  them  into  the  other  species  of  free  services,  namely 
fri-i-  and  common  socage.  Thus  one  tenure  in  socage  was 
established  lor  all  lands  held  by  a  free  tenure,  which  com- 
prehended all  lands  held  of  the  king  or  others,  and  all 
s  except  tenures  in  frankalmoyne,  copyhold,  and  the 
honorary  services  of  grand-serjeanty  ;  and  it  was  enacted 
by  the  same  act  thai  all  tenures  which  should  be  created 
by  the  kint;  in  future,  should  be  in  free  and  common 
socage.  It  is  particularly  provided  in  the  act  which  abo- 
li  lies  military  tenures,  that,  it  shall  not  alter  or  change  any 
tenure  by  copy  of  court-roll,  or  any  services  incident 
thereto,  nor  take  away  the  honorary  services  of  graud-scr- 
jeanty,  other  than  charges  incident  to  tenure  by  knights' 
service. 

Thus  it  appears  that  tenure  is  still  a  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  the  law  relating  to  land  in  England. 

AH  the  land  in  England  in  the  hands  of  any  layman  is 
held  of  some  lord,  to  whom  the  holder  or  tenant  owes 
some  service.  It  is  by  doing  this  service  that  the  tenant 
is  entitled  to  hold  the  land  :  his  duty  is  a  service,  and  the. 
right  of  the  lord  is  a  seignory.  The  word  tenure  compre- 
hend., the  notion  of  this  duty  and  of  fhis  right,  and  also 
land  in  respect  of  which  the  duty  is  due :  the  land  is  a 
tenement.  As  already  observed,  all  land  is  held  either  mo- 
or immediately  of  the  king ;  and  ultimately  all 
land  is  held  of  the  king.  The  ownership  of  land  in  Eng- 
land is  therefore  never  unlimited  as  to  extent,  for  he  who 
is  the  owner  of  land  in  fee,  which  is  the  largest  estate 
that  a  man  can  have  in  land,  is  not  absolute  owner :  he 
owes  services  in  respect  of  his  fee  (or  fief),  and  the  seignory 


T  F  N 


216 


TEN 


of  the  lord  always  subsists.  This  teignory  is  now  of  leu 
value  than  il  was.  lmt  still  it  subsists.  Tin-  nature  of  the 
old  feud  was  this  :  the  truant  had  the  use  of  the  land,  but 
the  ownership  remained  in  the  lord:  and  this  is  Mill  the 
case.  The  owner  of  a  fee  has  in  fact  a  more  profitable 
than  he  iincc  had  :  but  he  Mill  owes  services,  fealty 
at  least,  and  the  ownership  of  the  land  is  really  in  the 
lord  and  ultimately  in  the  kins.  For  all  practical  jm: 
the  owner's  power  of  enjoyment  is  as  complete  as  if  his 
land  were  allodial.  l>ut  the  circumstance  of  it*  not  being 
allodial  has  several  important  practical  consft|nenccs. 

No  land  in  England  can  l>e  without  an  owner.     If  the 
last  owner  of  the   fee   has  died  without  heirs,  and  without 
-ing  of  his  fee  by  will,  the  lord  takes  the  land  by  vir- 
tue of  Ins  seignory.     If  land  is  aliened  to  a  person  who 
has  a  capacity  to  acquire  but  not  to  hold  land  in   Eng- 
land,  the  king  takes  the  land ;  this  happens  in  the  case  of 
being  sold  to  an  alien.    The  forfeiture  of  lands  to 
the  kinc  for  high  treason  and  to  the  lord  in  cases  of  petty 
treason  and  murder  are  also  consequences  of  tenure. 

The  case  of  church  lands  seems  something  peculiar. 
They  are  held  by  tenure,  though  no  temporal  sen-ices  are 
due.  This  tenure  was  originally  the  tenure  in  frankal- 
moigne. By  the  tenure  in  frankalmoigne  the  tenant  was 
bound  'to  make  orisons, prayers,  masses,  and  other  divine 
es  for  the  soul  of  his'grantor  or  feoffor,'  &c.  .  I.itt.. 
s.  1:}T>; ;  but  he  did  no  fealty.  If  land  was  given 
for  '  certain  divine  service  in  certain  to  be  done,'  &c. 
Litt..  s.  137),  the  lord  might  distrain,  snd  in  this  case  it 
seinied  the  lord  might  have  fealty;  this  tenure  by  cer- 
tain service  was  not  called  tenure  in  frankalmoigne,  but 
tenure  by  divine  service.  Coke,  in  hi*  '  Commentary  on 
Littleton'  (96,  6)  observes,  'for  this  divine  sen'ice  certain 
the  lord  hath  his  remedy,  as  it  here  appears  by  our  author, 
in  f'irii  .v< •ciilun  .-  for  here  it  appears  that  if  the  lord  dis- 
train for  not  doing  of  divine  service,  which  is  certain,  he 
shall  upon  his  avowry  recover  damages  at  the  common 
law,  that  is,  in  the  king's  temporal  court,  for  the  not  doing 
of  it.' 

The  Act  which  abolished  military  tenures  could  not  from 
its  terms  affect  tenure  in  frankalmoigne;  but  for  greater 
caution  it  was  declared  that  this  act  should  not  subject 
tenures  in  frankalmoigne  to  any  greater  or  other  sen-ices. 
Tenure  in  frankalmoigne  therefore  is  now  exactly  what  it 
was  before  the  12th  of  Charles  II.  was  passed.  Church 
lands  then,  which  are  held  in  frankalmoigne,  still  owe  no 
services;  but  the  lord  of  whom  they  are  held  must  be 
considered  the  owner.  And  this  conclusion  is  con- 
sistent with  and  part  of  the  law  of  tenure,  by  which  no 
land  in  England  is  ever  without  an  owner.  Church  land 
differs  from  land  held  by  laymen  in  this,  that  the  beneficial 
ownership  can  never  revert  to  the  lord,  for  all  spiritual 
persons  are  of  the  nature  of  corporations,  and  when  a 
parson  dies,  the  corporation  sole  (as  he  is  termed  by  an 
odd  contradiction  in  terms)  is  not  extinct,  and  it  is  the 
duty  and  right  of  some  definite  person  to  name  a  succes- 
sor. It  is  stated  by  Blackstone  (i.  470)  that  •  the  law-  hits 
wisely  ordained  that  the  parson,  qu<i/i'>iu.\  parson,  shall 
nc\er  die  any  more  than  the  king,  by  making  him  and  his 
Miccessors  a  corporation  ;  by  which  means  all  the  original 
rights  of  the  parsonage  are  presen-ed  entire  to  the  succes- 
sor :  for  the  present  incumbent  and  his  predecessors  who 
lived  seven  centuries  ago,  are  in  law  one  and  the  same  per- 
But  notwithstanding  this  ingenious  attempt  to  make 
a  man,  together  with  others  not  ascertained,  a  corporation, 
the  difficulty  really  is,  th.it  when  a  parson  dies,  there  is 
no  person  who  has  a  legal  ownership  of  the  land  until 
a  successor  is  appointed,  if  Blackstone's  theory  is  true. 
The  comparison  of  the  case  of  a  parson  with  that  of 
the  king  is  unapt,  for  the  successor  to  a  deceased 
king  is  ascertained  by  the  death  of  his  predecessor; 
hut  the  successor  of  a  parson  is  generally  ascertained 
by  the  will  of  some  other  person  being  exercised,  and 
till  the  person  entitled  to  appoint  a  parson  has  nainei! 
one,  and  he  has  been  duly  instituted,  the  lands  of  the 
church  have  no  legal  owner,  unless  the  lord  is  the  owner. 
This  seignory  may  be  worth  nothing,  but  it  still  • 
The  difficulty  may  indeed  be  solved  without  the  s; 
tion  of  a  seignory  still  existing,  and  in  the  following  man- 
ner. There  is  succession  in  the  case  of  one  parson  suc- 
ceeding another,  for  which  the  notion  of  a  corporation  is 
not  necessary.  The  notion  of  succession  is  this:  the  right 
which  is  the  object  of  the  succession,  continues  the  same  : 
Hie  subject,  that  is,  the  person,  changes.  In  order  to  con- 


stitute strict  succession,  the  new  ownership  or  right  mu-t 
begin  at  the  moment  when  the  ].•  1  the  new 

ownership   or    right    is   derived    from   and    ti  nudcd    on  a 
former  ownership  or  right.     Tins  is  ti 
to  the  crown.    In  the  case  of  a  parson,  win 
appointed,  his  right  by  a  fiction  of  law  commences  at  the 
time  when  hi-  predecessor's  right  ceased,  though  an  inter- 
val  has  elapsed    between   the    time  of  In  s^or's 
death  and  his  own  appointment  ;  and  this  was  the  doc- 
trine which  the  Romans  applied  to  the  case,  of  a  heres  who 
did  not  take  possession  of  the  hereditits  till  some  tune  after 
the  death  of  the-  testator  or  intestate.     This  subject  i- 

i   by    Savigny.  Ny •*/''»'   i/'-v  H'»"  /i/v,   &,-., 

vol.  iii.     When  then  the  parson  dies,  the  freehold  m;1 
considered  to   be   in  abeyance  till   the  appointment  of  Ins 
--or.  one  of  the  tew"  instances   in   the  English    law  in 
which  it  is  said  that  a  freehold  estate  can  he  in  abeyance. 

No  seignory,  in  the  sense  above  explained,  can  now  be 
created  except  by  the  king.  It  was  enacted  by  the  statute 
Quia  Emptores  (JH  Kdw.  1.),  that  all  feott'nients  of  land 
in  fee  simple  must  be  so  made  that  the  feoffee  mm*t  hold 
of  the  chief,  that  is,  the  immediate  lord  of  the  aliening 
tenant,  by  the  same  services  by  which  the  tenant  held. 
Therefore  all  seignories  exist  now  which  existed  at  the 
time  when  the  statute  of  Qui.i  Emptores  was  passed.  A 
lord  may  relcsise  the  MTV  ices  to  a  tenant ;  but  it  would  In- 
consistent that  the  king  could  not  release  the  services  due 
to  him,  for  if  that  were  the  case  land  iniirht  become 
allodial,  and  on  the  death  of  a  person  without  heir*  then- 
might  be  land  without  an  owner,  which  is  i 
with  the  fundamental  principles  of  law  relating  to  Eng- 
lish land.  Still  it  is  said  that  the  king  can  release  to  bis 
tenant  all  services,  and  yet  that  the  tenant  holds  of  him  : 
by  this  assumption  of  a  "still  subsisting  tenure  the  c 
quencc  above  mentioned  is  avoided. 

Tenure  of  an  imperfect  kind  may  be  created  at  present. 
Wherever  a  particular  estate'  is  created,  it  is  held  of  the 
rcversioner  by  an  imperfect  tenure  :  this  is  the  common 
case  of  landlord  and  tenant.  If  no  rent  or  other  services 
are  rcsen-ed  from  the  tenant  of  the  particular  estate  for 
life  or  years,  the  tenure  is  by  fealty  only,  and  he  may  be 
required  to  take  the  oath  of  fealty.  But  the  right  of  the 
reversioner  to  whom  sen-ices  are  due  is  solely  incident  to 
the  reversion,  and  is  created  at  the  same  tune  with  it. 
The  perfect  tenure  originated  in  the  pure  feudal  system,  in 
which  the  seignory  of  the  lord  was  the  legal  ownership  of 
the  land,  and  the  tenant  owed  his  sen-ices  for  the  enjoy- 
ment of  it.  The  only  perfect  tenure  now  existing  is  Soeage 
tenure,  the  sen  ices  of  which  are  certain,  and  consist,  be- 
sides fealty,  of  some  certain  annual  rent.  [SocAOK.] 

The  right  of  wardship  was  one  of  the  incidents  to  mili- 
tary tenures.  The  lord  had  a  right  to  the  wardship  of  his 
infant  tenant  until  he  was  twenty-one  years  of  age;  and 
this  light  was  in  many  respects  prejudicial  to  the  in! 
of  the  heir.  This  right  was  abolished  with  the  abolition  of 
military  tenures.  The  right  of  guardianship  to  an  infant 
tenant  in  socage  only  continues  to  the  age  of  fourteen  ; 
but  the.  act  of  Charles  II.  (12,  c.  24)  gave  a  farther  power 
by  deed  or  will,  executed  as  the  statute  preserib. 
appoint  a  guardian  to  any  of  bis  children  till  their  full  age 
of  twenty-one,  or  for  any  less.  time.  The  guardian  in  so- 
cage was  the  next  of  kin  to  the  heir,  and  he  was  chosen 
from  that  line,  whether  paternal  or  maternal,  from  which 
the  lands  had  not  descended  to  the  heir,  and  consequently 
such  guardian  could  never  be  the  heir  of  the  infant.  This 
wardship  then  had  no  relation  to  tenure. 

If  the  services  due  in  respect  of  a  perfect  tenure  are  not 
rendered  by  the  tenant  to  the  lord,  he  may  distrain,  that  is. 
take  any  chattels  that  are  on  the  land  in  respect  of  which 
the  services  are  due  ;  and  an  imperfect  tenure  so  far  re- 
sembles a  perfect  one,  that  a  reversioner  can  distrain  for 
the  services  due  from  the  tenant  of  the  particular  estate. 

A  right  still  incident  to  n  seignory  such  as  a  subject  may 
have  is  that  of  escheat,  which  happens  when  the  tenant  in 
fee— imple  dies  without  leaving  any  heir  to  the  land,  and 
without  having  incurred  any  forfeiture  to  the  crown,  as  for 
high  treason.  It  has  been  observed  that  the  acquisition  by 
escheat  is  not  a  purchase,  because  the  escheated  land  de- 
scends as  the  seignory  would  have  descended.  When 
lands  are  forfeited  to  the  king  for  treason,  or  to  the  lord 
for  petty  treason  or  murder,  the  tenure  is  extinguished ; 
and  generally,  in  whatever  wa\  lands  come  to  the  king  or 
lord,  the  tenure  is  of  necessity  extinguished. 

The  nature  of  tenure  a*  it  exist*  at  present  will  be  bat- 


T  £  P 


217 


T  E  P 


ter  understood  by  consulting  the  following  articles  :  [CO- 
PYHOLD ;  DISTRESS  ;  FEUDAL  SYSTEM  ;  MANOR  ;  RENT  ; 
TENANT.] 

TEOS  (Tiuf),  now  called  Budrum,  a  town  of  Ionia, 
situated  on  the  south-side  of  the  peninsula  between  the 
gulf  of  Smyrna  and  the  gulf  of  Clazomenae,  very  near 
Cape  Courco,  in  38°  15'  N.  lat,  26°  30'  E.  long.  It  was 
originally  colonized  by  Minyae  from  Orchomenus,  under 
Athamas,  and  afterwards  strengthened  by  a  colony  from 
Athens,  at  the  time  of  the  Ionian  migration,  under  Nau- 
clus  the  son  of  Codrus,  Apcecus  and  Damasus,  and  by- 
one  from  Bceotia  led  by  Geres.  (Pausan.,  vii.  3.)  Teos 
was  one  of  the  twelve  cities  which  formed  the  confederacy 
of  the  Panionium  (Herod.,  i.  142),  and  was  recommended 
by  Thales  from  its  central  position  as  the  place  of  con- 
gress for  all  the  Ionian  states.  It  was  also  one  of  the  four 
cities  of  Ionia  which  participated  in  the  Hellenium  at 
Naucratis  in  Egypt  in  the  time  of  Amasis.  (Herod.,  ii. 
178.)  On  the  conquest  of  Ionia  by  Cyrus  the  Teians  re- 
tired to  Abdera  in  Thrace,  where  they  founded  a  colony 
which  eclipsed  the  parent  state.  (Herod.,  i.  168.)  At  the 
battle  of  Lade  seventeen  Teian  ships  are  mentioned  among 
the  forces  of  the  Greeks.  Teos  still  existed  as  an  Ionian 
city  during  the  Peloponnesian  war.  The  Teians  revolted 
after  the  failure  of  the  Sicilian  expedition  from  the  Athe- 
nians, and  destroyed  the  wall  which  they  had  built  towards 
the  continent  (Thucyd.,  viii.  16,  19) ;  but  Teos  submitted 
shortly  afterwards  to  Diomedon,  the  Athenian  general. 

Teos  was  the  birth-place  of  Apellicon,  the  preserver 
of  the  works  of  Aristotle,  and  of  Anacreon,  to  whom  a 
statue  was  erected  there  (Pausan.,  i.  25),  and  who  is  repre- 
sented on  the  coins  of  the  place  playing  on  his  lyre.  It 
appears  from  Livy  (xxxvii.  28)  that  it  had  two  ports,  one 
in  front  of  the  city,  and  the  other,  Gerae,  not  quite  four 
miles  to  the  north-west,  the  entrance  to  which  was  so  nar- 
row as  hardly  to  admit  two  ships  at  a  time  ;  it  is  now  the 
site  of  the  castle  of  Sigah-jik,  whence  a  Sanjak  receives 
its  name. 

Chandler  says  of  Teos,  '  We  found  it  almost  as  deso- 
late as  Erythrae  and  Clazomenae.  The  walls,  of  which 
traces  are  extant,  were,  as  we  guessed,  about  5  miles  in 
circuit ;  the  masonry  handsome.  It  was  with  difficulty  we 
discovered  the  temple  of  Bacchus ;  but  a  theatre  in  the 
side  of  the  hill  is  more  conspicuous.  The  vault  only,  on 
which  the  seats  are  ranged,  remains,  with  two  broken 
pedestals,  in  the  area.  The  city  port  is  partly  dry,  and 
sand-banks  rise  above  the  surface  of  the  water.  On 
the  edge  are  vestiges  of  a  wall,  and  before  it  are  two 
small  islets.  On  the  left  hand,  or  toward  the  continent,  is 
a  channel,  which  seemed  artificial,  the  water  not  deep. 
The  heap  of  the  Temple  of  Bacchus,  which  was  visible 
from  the  theatre  beneath,  on  the  right  hand,  lay  in  the 
middle  of  a  corn-field,  and  is  overrun  with  bushes  and 
olive-trees.  It  was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  structures 
in  Ionia.  The  remains  of  it  have  been  engraved  at  the 
expense  of  the  Society  of  Dilettanti,  and  published,  with  its 
history,  in  the  "  Ionian  Antiquities"  (i.,  ch.  i.).'  (Trarelg 
in  Aniti  Mni'ir,  pp.  111-2;  see  also  Choiseul  Gouffier, 
Voyage  Pittnri>xijii<;  pi.  124.)  This  temple  is  an  example 
of  the  eustylus  of  Vitruvius,  who  tells  us  that  it  was  a  mo- 
nopterus  hexastylus.  It  was  the  work  of  Hermogenes,  the 
inventor  of  the  eustylus,  and  is  probably  of  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  (Miiller,  Archanlogie  t/er  Kunst, 
109.)  Leake  (Asia  Minor,  p.  350)  states  the  diameter  of 
the  columns  to  be  3  feet  8  inches  at  the  base  ;  he  con- 
siders the  whole  length  of  the  front  to  be  about  64  feet  on 
the  upper  step,  with  about  11  columns  at  the  sides,  as  at 
Priene.  According  to  Diodorus  (iii.  65),  the  Teians  believed 
that  Bacchus  was  born  there,  and,  on  his  account,  their 
territory  was  asylus  (aroXoc),  that  is,  sacred  or  protected 
against  violation.  On  the  autonomous  coins  of  Teos  there 
are  griffins,  as  on  those  of  Abdera :  perhaps  this  type  is 
connected  with  the  worship  of  Apollo.  The  imperial  series 
extends  from  Augustus  to  Galtienus.  (Mionnet,  Recueil 
des  Me,<lnillfK  Antiques.) 

TKPHRODORMS,  Mr.  Swainson's  name  for  a  genus  of 
DnjiixH  Xhnln't,  Dicrurinie.  [SHRIKES,  vol.xxi.,  p. 416.] 

','i'niTir  I  '/Ktnirter. — Bill  resembling  Prionops;  the  base 
and  the  nostrils  being  partially  covered  with  procumbent 
setaceous  feathers  and  bristles.  Wings  moderate,  rounded. 
Tail  rather  short,  perfectly  even.  Tarsi  and  toes  short  : 
the  lateral  toes  unequal ;  hinder  toe  longer  than  the  tar- 
sus. (Sw.) 

P.  C.,  No.  1515. 


Examples,  Tep/irodornissuperciliofus,Svr.,  and  Tephro- 
dornis  Indica  (J.  E.  GrayX  G.  R.  Gray  (Lid.  Zool.). 
Locality.— Warm  latitudes  of  the  Old  World. 


Bill  of  Tephrodornis,  Sw. 

TEPHRO'SIA  (from  rt(j>p6f,  ash-coloured),  the  name  of 
a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  papilionaceous  division 
of  the  order  Leguminosae.  The  genus  consists  of  shrubs 
or  herbs,  with  usually  unequally  pinnated  leaves,  and 
lanceolate  or  subulate  stipules  distinct  from  the  petiole. 
The  flowers  are  white  or  purplish,  arranged  in  racemes 
which  are  mostly  axillary.  The  calyx  is  without  bracts, 
5-topthed,  nearly  equal ;  vexillum  of  corolla  large,  silky 
outside,  and  reflexed  in  a  spreading  manner ;  wings  ad- 
herent to  the  keel ;  stamens  separate  or  united  in  one  or 
two  parcels :  legume  mostly  sessile,  linear,  compressed, 
many-seeded,  with  the  valves  flat ;  seeds  compressed. 
This  genus  at  present  includes  84  species,  but  it  is  pro- 
bable that  a  more  accurate  investigation  will  result  in 
making  several  genera  of  the  present  one.  The  Ameri- 
can and  Asiatic  species  are  in  some  measure  distinguished 
by  their  properties.  In  the  former  a  narcotic  poison  is 
more  frequently  secreted  ;  in  the  latter  a  colouring-matter. 

T.  toxicaria,  the  poison  Tephrosia,  is  a  half-shrubby  erect 
plant,  with  18  to  20  pairs  of  oblong-lanceolate,  obtuse 
leaflets,  pubescent  on  the  upper  surface,  silky  beneath ; 
legumes  linear,  velvety,  mucronate.  This  plant  is  a  native 
of  (lie  West  Indies  and  of  Cayenne,  and  is  said  by  Tussae 
to  have  been  first  brought  from  Africa.  The  whole  plant 
affords  a  narcotic  poison,  and  if  the  leaves  are  taken  and 
pounded,  and  then  thrown  into  water  where  there  are  fish, 
they  become  intoxicated,  and  losing  all  power  over  their 
muscles,  they  float  about  as  if  dead,  and  may  be  easily 
caught.  If  placed  in  fresh  water,  or  the  fresh  water  be 
allowed  to  come  in  contact  with  them  as  in  a  stream,  the 
fish  soon  recover.  It  is,  however,  generally  fatal  to  the 
smaller  fish. 

T.  Virginiana,  the  Virginian  Tephrosia,  is  an  erect 
herbaceous  plant,  with  leaves  containing  from  8  to  11  pairs 
of  oval-oblong  acute  leaflets,  villous  beneath  ;  the  calyx  is 
also  villous.  It  is  a  handsome  plant  with  reddish  flowers, 
and  is  covered  with  villi.  It  is  found  in  woods  on  dry  and 
sandy  soils  in  North  America  from  Canada  to  Florida.  It 
is  considered  in  America  a  powerful  vermifuge.  Several 
other  species  of  Tephrosia  are  found  in  North  America, 
and  are  abundant  on  dry  and  sandy  soils,  in  Georgia, 
Florida,  and  the  Carolinas. 

T.  emarginata  is  an  arborescent  plant,  with  tomentose 
branches,  leaves  with  14  pairs  of  linear-oblong  deeply 
emarginated  leaflets,  and  silky  straightish  legumes.  It  is 
a  native  of  South  America,  and  has  been  found  about  the- 
mission-stations  of  the  Orinoco.  The  root  possesses  the 
same  properties  as  the  T.  toxicaria,  and  is  also  used  for  the 
purpose  of  poisoning  fish. 

T.  liiictm-ia,  the  Ceylon  Indigo,  is  a  shrubby  glabrous 
plant  with  five  pairs  of  leaflets,  silky  and  villous  beneath  ; 
Bowers  purple  or  flesh-coloured,  seated  on  axillary  pe- 
duncles ;  straight,  pendulous  legumes.  This  plant  is  a 
native  of  Ceylon,  where  it  is  called  Anil.  Its  tissue 
yields  a  blue  colouring-matter,  which  has  the  same  pro- 
perties as  the  indigo,  and  is  used  in  Ceylon  for  the  same 
purposes.  There  are  other  plants  used  in  Ceylon  f»r  dye- 
ing, also  called  Anil. 

T.  piscatoria,  the  Fisher's  Tephrosia,  is  a  shrubby  plant 
with  five  or  six  pairs  of  leaflets,  which  are  pilose  beneath, 
the  peduncles  are  2-edged,  the  legume  straight,  ascending, 
and  rather  villous.  This  plant  is  found  in  the  East  Indies, 
and  also  in  the  islands  of  the  Pacific.  It  contains  the 
narcotic  principle  of  the  genus,  and  is  used  in  the  East 
Indies  for  the  same  purpose  as  T.  toxicaria  is  in  the  West 
Indies. 

T.  Apollinea  is  shrubby,  and  covered  with  a  close  pu- 
bescence ;  the  leaflets  are  silky  beneath,  and  in  two  or 

VOL.  XXIV.— 2  F 


T  E  Q 


218 


T  H  R 


three  pairs  ;  the  legume  is  6-  or  7-*eeded,  and  rather  pu- 
bescent. It  is  a  native  of  1  !  yields  a  blue 
colouring-matter,  which  is  used  in  dyeing. 

T.  Senna,  Buga  Senna,  U  a  glabrous  shrub,  with     • 
having  six  pairs  of  leaflets,  and  the  legumes  and  r. 
covered  with  pubescence.     It  grows  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Cauca,  near  Buga,  in  Popayan.     Its  lea 
purgative  quality  like  senna,  and  are  used  by  the  i, 
lor  the  same  purposes  as  that  plant  is  u-.  >1. 

In  the  cultivation  of  these  plants  a  mixture  of  loam  and 
peat  should  be  used.  They  may  be  easily  propagated  by 
seeds,  or  by  young  cuttings  planted  in  sand,  ami  eovered 
with  a  bell-glass.  Some  of  the  species  require  the  heat  of 
a  stove. 

TKl'IC.     [Mhxit  AN  STATKS.I 

TEPLITZ,  TOKP1.IT/,  or  TEPLICE,  a  town  in  the 
ui'  Leitmeritz  in  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia,  celebrated 
for  its  warm  sulphureous  springs,  is  situated  in  "X)°  38'  N. 
lat.  and  13"  M  K.  long.  The  name  is  Slavonian,  and 
given  by  the  Bohemians  and  Croatians  to  warm  springs 
in  general.  The  tradition  respecting  the  discovv 
these  springs  is,  that  a  servant  of  a  Chevalier  Kolastug,  a 
vassal  of  Duke  Przemysl,  who  resided  in  the  neighbourhood, 
was  one  day  driving  the  swine. when  several  of  the  animals 
perished  in  the  hot  springs.  This  is  said  to  have  happened 
in  the  year  792.  This  discovery  induced  the  chevalier  to 
build  a  castle,  and  many  settlers  were  soon  attracted 
by  the  salubrious  properties  of  the  water,  so  that  a  street 
•  m  Slavonian,  Alice}  was  formed,  which  was  called  Tepla 
Alice,  '  the  warm  street,'  and  by  contraction  Teplice,  or 
Teplitz. 

This  small  town,  which  has  not  above  2500  inhabitants, 
;-.  situated  on  a  stream  called  the  Saubach,  in  a  beautiful 
plain  or  valley  four  leagues  in  length  and  one  in  breadth, 
formed  by  the  Erzgebirge  and  the  Mittelgebirge.  The 
town  forms  an  irregular  quadrangle,  is  about  half  a  league 
in  circuit,  and  has  three  gates.  The  principal  buildings  are 
— 1,  the  palace  of  Prince  Clary,  to  whom  the  town  belongs, 
with  an  extensive  garden  and  park  open  to  the  public, 
in  which  there  is  a  ball-room  and  a  pretty  theatre  ;  2,  the 
church  of  St.  John  the  Baptist ;  3,  the  tpwnhall,  built  in 
1806 ;  4,  the  chapel  of  the  Cross,  outside  of  one  of  the  gates. 
The  town  is  connected  by  a  row  of  handsome  houses  with 
the  village  of  Schonau.  There  are  several  springs  both  in 
the  town  and  in  Schiinau,  each  of  which  supplies  several 
public  and  private  baths  distributed  in  different  establish- 
ments. '  The  quantity  of  water  which  the  principal  spring 
yields,'  says  Dr.  Granville,  '  is  truly  marvellous,  being 
iiot  less  than  a  thousand  large  pailfuls,  or  one  million 
one  hundred  and  eighty-nine  thousand  six  hundred 
and  seventy  cubic  inches  in  an  hour.'  The  tempera- 
ture of  these  springs  is  said  to  have  increased  within 
the  last  forty  years  from  117°  to  122J  Fahrenheit,  which 
is  the  present  temperature  of  the  chief  spring.  The 
medicinal  effects  of  the  hot  springs  of  Teplitz  are  al- 
lowed by  all  physicians  acquainted  with  them  to  be 
very  beneficial  in  cases  of  suppressed  gout,  chronic 
rheumatism,  diseases  of  the  joints,  contracted  limbs,  old 
wounds,  obstinate  cutaneous  eruptions,  paralytic  affec- 
tions, to  which  Dr.  (iranvillc  adds,  'that  the  specific  virtue 
»f  tliese  baths  lies  in  the  power  they  possess  of  restoring  a 
cripplc.it  matters  little  from  what  cause,  to  perfect  motion 
and  elasticity.'  The  waters  have  been  used  almost  exclu- 
sively for  bathing;  of  late  they  have  been  recommended 
and  used  internally.  Prince  ( 'lary  has  spared  neither  pains 
norexpei.se  to  render  the  place  worthy  of  the  patronage 
ol  the  kings  and  princes  who  habitually  visit  it,  some  of 
whom  have  built  palaces  for  themselves  and  public  hos- 
pitals for  their  invalid  soldiers.  The  number  of  visitors 
every  year  is  from  4500  to  5000.  Besides  the  attraction 
of  its  waters,  it  may  be  added  that  the  expense  of  living 
at  Teplitz  is  far  less  than  in  any  other  watcriiur-place 
in  Germany,  that  the  private  baths  are  fitted  up  in  a  man- 
ner unquestionably  superior  to  those  of  any  other  Spa  in 
that  country,  and  that  there  are  ample  sourcesof  recreation 
and  amusement  without  gaming,  which  is  wholly  pro- 
hibited. 

(.lenny,  Handbuchfiir  Reisende  in  dem  Oetttrrrich in-lu'n 
K'titi-rttaale ;  Die  Ogtterreichische National  Encyrlopiidic ; 
'•rtationt  Lexicon;  Dr.  Granville,  The  Sjxu  of  Ger- 
many. > 

TEPTIARES.     [RUSSIAN  EMPIHK.) 
TE(iUENDAMA.     [GRANADA,  Niw.] 


TE'RAMO,  PROYINCIA  1)  I,  called  aJso  Abruzzo  UU 
tra  I.,  is  an  administrative  division  of  the  Abnizzi  in  the 
kingdom  of  Naples,  stretching  east  of  the  great  Apennine 
ridge,  and  sloping  down  to  the  Adriatic  sc;i.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  east  by  the  Adriatic,  north  by  the  Papal  province 
of  Kermo  and  Ascoli,  wc-t  by  the  Neapolitan  province  of 
Aquila,  and  south  by  that  of  Chieti.  The  principal  rivers 
are  the  Tronto,  which  marks  the  boundary  between  it  and 
the  Papal  State,  the  Tordino,  which  flows  by  the  town  of 
Teramo,  and  the  Vomano,  v.  tlow  from 

-tern  slope  of  Monte  Corno,  called  also  the  'Gran 
•i'lialia,'  the  highest  group  of  the  Apennines  ;».~>OO 
feet  above  the  seal,  which  rises  on  the  borders  of  the  pro- 
vinces of  Teramo  ruiU  Aquila,  occupvint:  great  part  of  the 
area  of  both.  The  river  Pescara,  in  its  lower  course, 
marks  the  boundary  between  the  province  of  Teramo  and 
that  of  Chieti. 

The  province  of  Teramo  is  divided  into  two  admim 
five  districts,  Teramo  and  Penne,  containing  seventy-two 
communes:  the  whole  population  amounted  in  1S37  to 
200,719  inhabitants,  i  Sernstori,  Statistic:!  <ir//.i/«i.)  The 
-  estimated  at  about  1000  square  miles.  Most  of  the 
population  are  employed  in  agriculture.  There  are  some 
manufactories  of  silk,  delft  ware,  liquorice,  paper,  cream 
of  tartar,  and  leather;  copper-ore  is  dug,  anil  smelted  and 
worked  at  Chiarino.  The  principal  towns  are,  1,  Teramo, 
a  bishop's  see,  the  chief  town  of  the  province,  and  the 
residence  of  the  intendente  or  king's  lieutenant  ;  it  ! 
tribunale  civile,  or  court  of  first  instance,  and  a'Gian 
Corte  Criminate  ;'  a  royal  college,  a  clerical  seminary, 
several  churches  and  convents,  and  about  8000  inhabii 
The  surrounding  country  is  productive  in  corn,  fruit,  and 
pulse.  2,  Penne,  or  Civiti  di  Penne,  is  a  town  with  about 
(XXX)  inhabitants.  3,  Civitella  del  Tronto,  a  small  fortified 
town  on  the  frontier  of  the  Papal  State.  4,  Atii.  a  small 
town  which  gives  the  title  of  duke  to  the  anticnt  family  of 
Acquaviva.  i  Pelroni,  Criiitiniriito  ili'i  l{<u/i  doininj  tli  qitH 
del  Faro;  Neigebaur,  Gema/tli'  Italient.) 

TE'liAPHIM  (D^lfi;  Sept.,  fWwXn).     This  is  award 

• 


of  somewhat  uncertain  etymology  and  signification.  That 
the  teraphim  were  of  human  form  seems  evident  from 
1  Sam.,  xix.  13.  They  appear  to  have  been  superstitiously, 
if  not  idolatrously,  reverenced  as  penates,  or  household 
gods  (Gni..  xxxi.'l'J.  :tl.  :i:i:  1  XK//;.,  xix.  13-17:  2  A. 
xxiii.  24).  In  some  shape  or  other  they  were  used  as  domestic 
oracles  (comp.  Zech.,  x.  2;  Jin/  a.,  xvii.  5:  xviii.  fi.  (i.  M-20; 
Has.,  iii.  4\  This  is  confirmed  by  1  Xxw/..  \v.  '2:1. 
teraphim  are  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  arts  of 
divination.  With  this  the  alleged  Syriac  etymology  of  the 
word  coincides  ;  for,  according  to  Bar  Bahlul,  tp/1  means 
in  that  language,  tin  ii/i/iiin  r.  u/ic  ir/m  <•• 

TERBURGH,  GERARD,  a  very  eminent  painter  of 
scenes  of  domestic  life,  of  the  higher  classes  of  sucich,  v.as 
born  at  Zwoll,  near  Overyssel,  in  the  year  KiOS,  and  was 
instructed  in  the  rudiment's  of  his  art  by  his  father,  who  is 
not  much  known  as  a  painter,  but  appears  to  have  | 
some  years  at  Home.  Some  think  that  he  perfected  him- 
self under  another  master  at  Huarlcm  :  however  this  may 
be,  he  bad  acquired  considerable  reputation  in  the  Nether- 
lands as  a  painter  of  porlraitsof  a  small  size,  before  be  ie- 
solveil  to  travel  for  his  improvement.  Heiii.-t  visited  Italy; 
but  what  ever  advantage  be  may  have  derived  from  the  works 
of  the  great  Italian  masters,  he  never  changed  his  style,  and 
proceeding  from  Italy  to  France,  piactised  wild  pi-cat 
success  at  Pans.  From  France  he  returned  to  Holland, 
when1  he  was  highly  esteemed  anil  fully  employed.  He 
visited  Miiiuter  during  the  sitting  of  the  celebrated  con- 

-it  which  the  treaty  that  terminated  the  Thirty  "> 
\\urwas  concluded.  Here  he  painted  his  most  celebrated 
picture,  containing  the  portraits  of  the  sixty-nine  plenipo- 
tentiaries assembled  on  that  important  occasion.  Count 
Piiroranda,  the  Spanish  ambassador  at  Minister,  induced 
him  to  visit  Spain,  where  he  painted  the  portraits  of  king 
Philip  IV.  and  all  the  royal  family,  and  of  many  of  the 
most  distinguished  nobilifv.  His  performances  irave  such 
satisfaction  to  the  Spanish'  kinir,  that  he  conferred  on  him 
the  honour  of  knighthood,  and  presented  him  with  a  gold 
chain  and  medal,  a  sword,  and  silver  spurs.  After  finally 
returning  to  his  own  country  he  married,  and  was  made 
burgomaster  of  the  town  of  Devcntcr.  vvlicic  lie  lived  in 
affluence,  and  died  in  1081,  at  the  age  of  seventy-three  years. 

The  subjects  which  Terburgh  generally  painted  were 


T  E  R 


219 


T  E  R 


portraits,  conversations,  persons  engaged  at  different  games 
performers  on  musical  instruments,  ladies  at  their  toilets 
He  finished  his  pictures  highly,  with  a  light  and  delicate 
touch,  and  is  remarkable  for  introducing  white  satin  in  the 
dress  of  some  figure  in  all  his  compositions:  he  always 
took  care  to  throw  the  principal  light  upon  it,  and  seems 
never  to  have  painted  a  picture  without  satin  drapery.  Dr. 
Waagen  says  of  him,  '  Terburgh  is  the  real  founder  of  the 
art  of  painting  conversation  pieces,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  most  eminent  master  in  this  style.  In  delicacy  of  exe- 
cution he  is  inferior  to  none,  and  in  a  certain  tender  fusing 
of  the  colours  he  excels  all  others ;  but  none  can  be  com- 
pared with  him  in  the  enchanting  harmony  and  silvery 
tone,  and  the  observance  of  the  aerial  perspective.  His 
figures,  which  are  well  drawn,  have  an  uncommon  ease  of 
refinement,  and  are  frequently  very  graceful.'  Many  of  his 
capital  works  are  in  England,  in  the  collections  of  Sir 
Robert  Peel,  the  duke  of  Sutherland,  Lord  Ashburton,  Mr. 
Hope,  the  marquess  of  Bute,  and  Her  Majesty.  (Pilking- 
ton  ;  Fuseli ;  Dr.  Waagen.) 

TERCKIRA  is  considered  the  principal  island  of  the 
Azores  or  Western  Islands,  though  it  is  neither  the  largest 
nor  the  most  fertile.  It  is  situated  nearly  in  the  centre  of 
the  group,  and  it  is  the  seat  of  government.  It  extends 
between  38°  36'  and  38°  50*  N.  lat,  and  between  26°  58'  and 
27°  22'  W.  long.,  and  is  about  20  miles  long  from  east  to 
wtst.  with  an  average  width  of  about  13  miles.  This  gives 
an  area  of  260  square  miles,  or  about  60  square  miles  more 
than  the  smallest  of  the  English  counties,  Rutlandshire. 

Tereeira,  and  all  the  other  Azores,  with  the  exception  of 
Santa  Maria,  has  probably  been  produced  by  volcanic  ac- 
tion, but  its  surface  does  not  exhibit  that  extreme  irregu- 
larity which  occurs  in  the  other  islands,  and  in  general  in 
countries  which  owe  their  existence  to  that  aerncy.  The 
coasts  indeed  are  rocky  and  precipitous,  but  the  higher 
of  the  island  are  chiefly  composed  of  beautiful  and 
fertile  plains,  and  entirely  destitute  of  the  numerous  <• 
craters,  and  peaks  which  distinguish  the  island  of  St. 
Michael.  There  is  however,  about  6  or  7  miles  north- 
west of  the  town  of  Anarra,  a  wide  depression,  from  the 
crevices  of  which  sulphuric  vapours  issue  in  abundance, 
and  which  is  surrounded  by  hills  composed  of  pumice- 
stone.  It  is  called  Furnas  de  Euxofre.  It  is  stated  that 
these  crevices  were  formed  by  the  earthquake  of  1014, 
which  was  the  last  experienced  in  the  island,  up  to  1841, 
when  the  town  of  Praya  was  completely  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake,  and  the  whole  island  suffered  much!  The  in- 
terior of  the  island  does  not  contain  many  steep  or  inac- 
;.!e  rocks,  which  is  mainly  to  be  attributed  to  the 
earth-slips  which  have  been  very  frequent,  and  still  happen 
from  time  to  time.  The  most  elevated  part  of  the  island 
is  iu  the  middle,  and  extends  from  east  to  west,  where  it 
terminates  with  Punta  Seretta.  Near  this  cape,  and  north- 
east of  it,  the  ground  seems  to  attain  its  greatest  elevation, 
which  however  probably  does  not  exceed  3000  feet  above 
the  sea-level.  The  elevated  rocky  coast  along  the  western 
and  northern  shores  cannot  be  approached  without  great 
danger  by  large  vessels,  and  the  whole  island  has  only 
three  harbours,  Praya  on  the  east,  Angra  on  the  south, 
and  Biscoitos  on  the  north-west,  but  the  anchorage  is  bad, 
and  with  certain  winds  vessels  are  obliged  to  seek  the 
open  sea.  The  soil  is  composed  of  volcanic  ashes,  pumice- 
stone,  slaes,  decomposed  lava,  a  quantity  of  ferru- 
ginous matter,  a  small  portion  of  clay  or  sand,  and  a 
little  limestone.  But  a  large  quantity  of  vegetable'  matter 
is  mixed  with  these  materials,  which  imparts  to  the  soil 
a  considerable  degree  of  fertility.  Grain  is  only  cultivated 
on  the  more  level  and  low  tract*  along  the  sea-coast.  The 
interior  is  overgrown  with  trees. 

No  mHc'irulosrical  observations  have  been  published, 
but  the  climate  is  known  to  be  very  moderate,  as  it  is 
I  that  the  average  range  of  the  thermometer  is  only 
from  50 J  to  7">°,  and  rarely  exceeds  these  two  extremes. 
But  the  weather  is  nevertheless  subject  to  great  ch:i 
and  is  only  settled  between  the  summer  solstice  and  the 
autumnal  equinox.  Showers  of  rain  are  frequent  through- 
out the  year,  and  in  winter  so  violent  as  to  cause  constant 
chart:  ireof  the  country,  washing  away  eno i  > 

'one   from  the    mountains,   Hin 
down  proj  'ions  of  the  rocks  composed  n 

volcanic  materials,  and  leaving  (lie  surface  of  the  rocks 
and  heights  in  many  places  quite  destitute  of  soil.  The 
number  of  fine  days  is  estimated  at  about  200,  and  the 


wet  ones  at  sixty.  The  sea  which  surrounds  the  Azores  is 
remarkable  for  the  incessant  gusts  and  gales  to  which  it  is 
subject,  on  which  account  it  is  rather  dreaded  by  seamen. 
This  phenomenon  is  probably  connected  with  the  Gulf- 
stream,  which  reaches  the  most  western  islands  (Flores  and 
Corvo),  and  frequently  extends  over  the  whole  group.  All 
navigators  have  observed  the  frequency  of  these  gusts  and 
sudden  squalls,  especially  along  the  northern  edge  of  the 
Gulf-stream.  The  prevailing  winds  during  the  winter 
range  between  north-west  and  south-west ;  the  south-west 
wind  generally  blows  in  strong  gales,  and  is  attended  by 
heavy  rains.  During  the  summer  the  most  frequent  are 
northerly,  north-easterly,  and  easterly  winds ;  but  at  all 
seasons  the  changes  of  the  winds  are  frequent  and  sudden, 
and  render  the  navigation  between  the  islands  very 
tedious. 

The  soil  being  more  suitable  to  agriculture  and  pastur- 
age than  to  the  cultivation  of  fruit,  grain  and  cattle  are 
the  staple  articles.  The  principal  objects  of  cultivation 
are  wheat,  Indian  corn,  flax,  French  and  broad  beans,  and 
a  little  barley.  The  yearly  produce  of  the  grain  is  stated 
to  be  720,000  bushels,  and  some  is  exported  to  Lisbon, 
Oporto,  and  Madeira.  The  most  common  vegetables  are 
yams,  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  onions,  and  capsicums.  All 
the  fruit-trees  of  southern  Europe  succeed,  but  their  cul- 
tivation has  been  neglected  until  lately,  when  the  inhabit- 
ants have  begun  to  apply  themselves,  to  that  of  the  orange- 
tree,  and  the  oranges  of  Terceira  are  now  hardly  inferior 
to  those  of  St.  Michael,  and  are  largely  exported  to 
England  and  Hamburg.  The  vineyards  are  extensive, 
and  their  annual  produce  exceeds  4000  pipes,  but  the 
wine  is  converted  into  brandy,  and  the  wine  consumed 
in  the  island  is  imported  from  Fayal.  The  apples, 
pears,  figs,  chestnuts,  and  wallnuts  are  tolerably  good. 
On  the  declivities  there  are  some  pine-woods  and  beech, 
but  the  higher  parts  are  covered  with  underwood  and  im- 
penetrable bushes  of  briars,  among  which  are  many  ever- 
greens, such  as  myrtle,  juniper,  and  box,  with  stunted 
cedars.  Quantities  of  orchilla  are  collected  from  the  rocks. 
Cattle  are  numerous,  and  of  good  size  in  the  cultivated 
parts,  and  those  parts  which  are  not  cultivated  serve 
as  pasture-grounds  for  sheep  and  goats.  Goats  are  rather 
numerous.  Only  a  few  small  horses  are  reared  ;  the  oxen 
and  asses,  which  are  numerous  are  used  as  beasts  of 
burden.  Hogs  are  very  numerous,  and  are  fed  on  Indian 
corn  and  chestnuts,  fhere  are  no  wild  animals,  except 
rabbits,  and  no  poisonous  reptiles.  Fowls  and  turkeys 
abound.  There  are  thousands  of  blackbirds,  woodcocks, 
and  partridges,  but  no  pheasants  nor  peacocks.  Fish  is 
said  to  be  abundant.  Sometimes  whales  are  seen  near  the 
island. 

In  1820  the  population  amounted  to  40,717,  and  in  1832 
it  was  estimated  at  50,000  individuals,  which  gives  more 
than  192  persons  to  each  square  mile,  rather  a  large  pro- 
portion when  it  is  considered  that  much  more  than  half 
[he  island  is  not  cultivated  and  does  not  produce  food  for 
man.  Lincolnshire  has  only  130  to  each  square  mile, 
according  to  the  census  of  1841.  This  population  is  settled 
n  three  towns  and  fifteen  villages.  Angra  is  the  capital. 
[ANGRA.]  Praya,  which  has  about  3000  inhabitants,  is 
situated  in  the  centre  of  a  beautiful  sandy,  deep,  indented 
bay,  well  defended  by  nature  and  art,  and  has  some  com- 
merce with  Portugal  and  Madeira :  it  exports  grain  and 
ive-stock. 

Very  good  linen  and  coarse  woollen-cloth  is  made  on 
:he  island  for  home  consumption.  Coarse  earthenware  is 
also  manufactured  to  a  considerable  extent,  the  clay  for 
which  is  imported  from  Santa  Maria.  The  exports  con- 
sist of  grain  and  live-stock,  which  go  to  Portugal  and 
Madeira,  and  of  brandy,  oranges,  and  orchilla,  which  go  to 
'oreign  countries,  chiefly  England  and  Hamburg.  The 
mports  are  principally  coarse  cotton  fabrics,  some  woollen- 
cloth,  hardware  and  cutlery,  and  cod,  most  of  which 
articles  are  brought  from  England. 

Terceira  was  discovered  in  1445  by  some  Portuguese  na- 
vigators who  were  returning  to  Europe  from  Cape  Verde, 
and   it  then  received  its  present  appellation,  being  the 
liiid  of  the  Azores  in  the  order  of  discovery.    It  was  then 
minhabited,  but  it  was  immediately  settled  by  several 
amilies  from  Portugal.     In   1580,  when  Philip  II.  took 
-sion  of  Portugal,  the  inhabitants  declared  against 
u'm,  and  repulsed  his  fleet  from  their  shores ;  but  in  1583 
.hey  were  obliged  to  submit.    In  1828,  when  Don  Miguel 

2F2 


T  E  R 


2-20 


T  E  R 


had  abolished  the  constitutional  government  of  Portuc.il, 
and  proclaimed  himself  absolute  king.Tereeira  declai 
Donna  M.um  :    and,  in    1H2»,  a  large  fleet  and  army  gent 
by  Dun   MiiriH-I   lor  the  rn:n|;u^l   of  the  island  were  re- 
I  with  great  loss  from  the  town  of  Pray  a.     In  ls;tl 
the  other  elands  of  the  group  were  recovered  for  Donna 
;  by  a  small  number  of  troops  sent  there  from  Ter- 
ceira. 

(Ashe'8  History  of  tht  Azores  or  1l',-*ti-rn  AAim/v  ,•  Von 
Buch's  Phytikalische  Betcnreibimg  tier  Canaritchen  In- 
Fowler's  Journal  of  a  Tun-  in  the  iftnlf  <>f 

' 


}''>rk,  nml  Rfturn  to  I'.n  slund  Inj  Ihr  H'rxti'rii  l»l,imis  ; 
Hold's  Drttrritjtion  of  the  Asoret  or  It  ','xti-rn  Mandt  ;  and 
('apt.  Bartholomew,  in  London  Geographical  Journal, 

Vol.  IV.) 

TEREBELLA.  [TfBicoLiD.s.]  (N.B.  This  comes  too 
near  to  Twbrll 

TEREBELLA'RIA,af;enusof  Polypiaria,  included  by 
Blaim  ille  in  the  family  of  Milleponea. 

TEREBELLUM,  Lamarck's  name  for  a  genus  of  tes- 
taceous mollusks,  placed  by  Cuvier  among  his  Pectini- 
hranchiate  Gastropods,  between  Ocula  and  I'uliiln;  by  De 
lilainville  among  \\inAngyostornata,  between  Conns  and 
(Hint:  and  by  Rang  between  M//ru  and  Ancillaria. 

The  fossil  Terebellum  convolutum  is  the  type  of  Mont- 
fort's  genus  Seraphs. 

Generic  Character.  —  Animal  ? 

Shell  delicate,  polished,  subcylindrical,  rolled  upon 
itself;  the  apex  pointed;  the  aperture  longitudinal  and 
triangular,  very  narrow  behind  and  notched  before  :  cdire 
of  the  right  lip  simple  and  trenchant;  columellar  border 
smooth,  truncated,  and  slightly  prolonged  forwards. 

There  appears  to  be  but  one  recent  species  known,  Tere- 
bellum tabulation. 

De  Blainville  divides  the  genus  into  two  sections  :  — 

A.  Species  whose  spire  is  visible,  and  whose  aperture 
is  shorter  than  the  shell.  (Terebellum.) 

B.  Species  whose  spire  is  nearly  entirely  hid  by  the 
rolling  up  of  the  whorls  of  the  spire,  and  whose 
aperture  is  nearly  as  long  as  the  shell.  (Seraphs, 
fossil.) 

Example,  Tert  helium  subulalum. 

Description.  —  Shell  subulate-cylindrical,  rather  thin, 
smooth,  and  polished  ;  the  spire  distinct  ;  the  outer  lip  at- 
tached to  the  columella. 

There  are  at  least  four  varieties:  — 
A.  Clouded   with   chestnut,   quadrifasciate,   or  with   the 

(•••lour  in  patches. 
1!.  Ornamented  with  flcxuons  subspiral  or  transversely  ob- 

lique chestnut  lines. 

C.  Thickly  dotted  with  rich  chestnut. 

D.  Entirely  white. 
Locality.—  The  East  Indies. 


T«r«brllum  inbuUlum. 

FOSSIL  TKRKBBI.LA. 

The  fossil  species  appear  to  belong  to  the  Tertiary  for- 
mation, Eocene  period  of  Lyell  (Grignon,  &c.).  M.  Des- 
haycs,  in  hi*  Tables,  notices  but  two,  Terebelln  nmrnlii- 
titn  and  /uti/orme,  the  same  that  are  recorded  by  La- 
marck. 


Terebellum  convolutum.  (Genui  Strap/u  of  Momfi.rt.l 

TEREBINTA'CE-E,  a  natural  order  of  dicotyledonous 
plants.     They  are  trees  or  shrubs,  abounding  in  :i  res 
gummy,  caustie,  poisonous,  and  sometimes  milky  juice. 
The  leaves  are  alternate  ami  simple,  ternate,  or  pinnate. 
The  flowers  arc  terminal  or  axillary,  mostly  unisexual. 
The  calyx  is  small.     The  petals  and  stamens  are  eijiuil  in 
number  to  the  divisions  of  the  calyx;  sonic!  im 
mens  are  twice  the  number:    the  disk  is  tleshy  ;    ovary 
simple ;    fruit  indehiscent,  with   a   single   exalbuminous 
seed. 

This  order  was  constituted  by  Jussieu,  and  is  adopted 
by  De  Candolle,  Afnott,  Don,  and  other  writers  on  syste- 
matic botany.  Brown  has  however  constructed  five  orders 
from  tlnV,  viz.,  Anacardiaceir,  Burseraccs-,  Connai, 
Spondiaceip,  and  Amyridareu-.  These  orders  have  been 
recognised  by  Kunth,  Lindlcy,  and  others ;  and  their  cha- 
racters and  properties  are  given  in  this  work  under  their 
respective  names.  [  ANACA&DIAI  K.K  :  HI-KSERACE.E  ;  CON- 
NARACE.K  ;  SPONDI.M  \  UIDK.K.] 

TE'REHKA.     [ENTOMOSTOMATA,  vol.  Lv.,  p.  453.] 

TEHEBRA'LIA.  Mr.  Swain-on's  name  for  a  trenus  of 
testaceous  Gastropods,  arranged  by  him  under  t\u-f'--ri- 
thi/irr,  the  filth  subfamily  of  his  MrnrnhitUr,  and  thus 
characterized :  — 

Outer  lip  much  dilated,  generally  uniting  at  .its  b.. 
the  inner  lip,  leaving  a  round  perforation  at   the  1 
the  pillar;    channel  truncate,  operculum  round.     \Mnln- 
coloffy.) 

Mr.  Swainson  places  the  genus  between  Pimm  [M 
NOPSIS]  and  Hhi'iinr/uri.-,  Su. :    and,  among  other  s|n 
refers  to   Trrr/>rn/iii  Ti'li'Ki-njiiiiin.  Ccntlinnn  Trlrsrtipium 
of  authors.  [ENTOMOSTOMATA,  vol.  ix.,  \i.  431.] 

Whatever  may  be  thought  of  this  genus,  the  name,  from 
its  coming  so  near  to  Ti-rr/ir<i.  may  jiroduee  confusion. 

The  reasons  for  not  admitting  I'in'iia  as  a  genus  will  be 
found  in  the  article  MKI. AMU-MS. 

TKKKHK.Y'IV LA.     [BRACHIOPODA,  vol.  v.,  p.  311.1 

TEREDI'NA,  a  testaceous  mollusk  of  the  family  Tn'-i- 
colar  of  Lamarck,  and  belonging  to  the  Ad<-xmn<-ra  of  De 
Blaim  illc. 

lirneric  Character. — Valves  equal,  but  inequilaleial  ; 
umbones  prominent;  when  closed,  crb-like  with  a  v.iili- 
angular  opening  in  front  and  a  subeiicular  aperture  at  tin- 
back.  Tube  testaceous,  subcylindrical.  \ulli  a  terminal 
posterior  extremity,  without  any  septum,  uniting  to  the 
posterior  part  of  the  two  valves. 

This  genus  is  fossil  only.  Lamarck  places  it  between 
Ki'jitariu  [TKRKDO]  and  Ti-rnln;  Cuvier  between  Fi.sTU- 
LANA  and  CLAVAOKLLA. 

Mr.  Swainson  arranges  it  in  his  family  Pholidef,  and 
makes  it  a  subgenus  of  '/V/w/v. 

Mr.  J.  E.  Gray  places  Ti-r,;lina  among  the  Pholailr*, 
between  Joint nm-t in  and  Tn 

M.  1  '  •   edition  of  Lamarck,  observes 

that  this  curious  genus  was  not  well  known  to  that  ron- 
logist,     Tlie    T'-redina,  M.  Deshayes  remarks,   is   a  true 


T  E  R 


221 


T  E  R 


globular  PHOLAS  fixed  at  the  end  of  a  tube,  and  has  in 
fact  the  exterior  characters  of  the  Pholades.  It  carries  an 
escutcheon  on  the  umbones,  and  within  it  is  provided  with 
those  appendages  which  so  readily  distinguish  the  Tere- 
dines and  the  Pholades  from  other  genera.  The  shell  is 
always  external,  and  soldered  by  the  posterior  extremity  of 
its  valves  to  the  anterior  part  of  the  tube,  which  is  very 
thick  and  terminated  by  a  blackish  part  of  a  horny  appear- 
ance, whose  internal  surface  is  sometimes  divided  into 
eight  regular  carinations. 

M.  Deshayes,  in  his  Tables,  gives  two  species,  Teredina 
personata  and  a  new  species,  both  from  the  tertiary  beds 
(Eocene  of  Lyell).  In  the  last  edition  of  Lamarck  no 
notice  is  taken  of  the  new  species,  and  to  the  second 
species,  Teredina  bacillum,  recorded  by  Lamarck,  is  ap- 
pended a  note  stating  that  this  last  does  not  belong  to  the 
genus  Teredina;  and  that,  according  to  the  description 
and  figure  of  Brocchi,  it  can  only  be  a  Clavagella  or  a 
Fistulana ;  but  that  it  is  not  Clavagella  tibialis,  as  M.  de 
Blainville  believed. 


Tcrcilina  pcrsouata.    (Courtagnon,  fee.) 

n.  tube  with  valves;  6.  the  other  termination  of  the  t<ibe;  r,  awcsmry  valve ; 
d,  Talves  with  accessary  valve  in  its  place.  (G.  B.  Sowerby.) 

TERE'DO,  the  name  given  by  Linnaeus  to  a  genus  of 
testaceous  mollusks,  highly  interesting  on  account  of  the 
i  svages  which  one  of  the  species  commits  upon  submerged 
wood. 

Linns- us,  in  the  twelfth  edition  of  the  '  Systema  Naturae,' 
placed  the  genus  among  his  Verntes  testacea,  between 
S/'r/iii/n  ami  Sttbella  :  nor  is  this  certainly  inapt  posilion 
to  be  wondered  at  when  we  consider  the  very  infant  state 
of  malacology  in  his  day. 

Cuvier,  in  his  last  edition  of  the  '  R4gne  Animal,'  makes 
Teredo  one  of  the  genera  of  his  Enfermfa,  the  fifth  family 
of  \mAcephalous  Testaceans,  arranging  the  genus  between 
I'luiliw  and  Fixtulana. 

M.  de  Blainville  arranges  the  genus  in  the  tenth  family 
(Adesmacea)  of  his  Pyloridians,  between  Teredina  and 
Fistulana,  immediately  after  which  comes  Septaria. 

Lamarck  had  placed  the  genus  among  his  Tubicolees, 
and  M.  Rang  adopts  that  arrangement,  giving  it  a  position 
however  between  Jouannetiannil  Fistulana,  next  to  which, 
and  immediately  before  TEREDINA,  Septaria  appears. 

Lamarck  ended  with  this  genus  his  Tubicoteen,  which 
are  immediately  followed  by  the  Pholadaires.  Teredo  is 
immediately  preceded  by  Teredina,  and  this  again  by 
typtaria.  In  speaking  of  the  last-named  genus,  M. 
Deshayes,  in  the  last  edition  of  Lamarck,  observes 
that  although  the  animal  and  the  shell  of  Septaria 
are  not  known  to  him,  the  great  portions  of  its  testa- 
ceous tube  or  sheath,  which  he  had  seen,  convinced 
him  that  the  animal  is  analogous  to  that  of  the  Fixtiilunr/-. 
which  differ  from  it  principally  in  size  only  ;  and  because 
its  two  anterior  siphons  are  very  long,  and  form  for  them- 
*elves  each  a  particular  testaceous  sheath.  The  animal 


ought  therefore  to  have  posteriority,  he  remarks,  a  bivalve 
shell,  which  had  escaped  those  who  have  collected  the 
great  tube,  or  the  portions  of  it  which  we  see  in  cabinets. 
M.  Deshayes  goes  on  to  state  that  he  has  only  seen  a  few 
septa,  unequally  distant  and  entirely  incomplete.  Some 
Fistulana;,  he  adds,  have  also  vaulted  septa  in  the  pos- 
terior part  of  their  sheath  ;  but  the  diminished  or  anterior 
part  of  this  offers  only  particular  tubes  projecting  out 
wards  (1835). 

Again,  when  Lamarck  concludes  his  observations  by 
saying  that,  for  the  rest,  the  Septaria  is  hardly  anything 
but  an  exaggerated  Fistulana,  and  scarcely  deserves  to 
be  distinguished  as  a  genus,  M.  Deshayes  declares  that  if 
we  substitute  for  the  word  Fistulana  that  of  Teredo,  these 
remarks  would  be  perfectly  just.  This  genus,  he  adds 
(Lamarck's  Septaria),  which  had  been  believed  to  be  pe- 
culiar to  the  seas  of  India,  has  been  found  some  years  since 
in  the  Mediterranean  ;  and  he  refers  to  the  paper  pub- 
lished on  that  animal  in  the  '  Annales  des  Sciences  et  de 
1'Industrie  du  Midi  de  la  France,'  Marseille,  1832,  by  M. 
Math6ron,  in  which  that  naturalist  proves  the  animal  of 
Septaria  to  he  similar  to  that  of  Teredo  ;  and  this  resem- 
blance, says  M.  Deshayes,  in  conclusion,  confirms  his  own 
opinion  of  the  necessity  of  uniting  the  Septarice  and  the 
Teredines. 

Mr.  Swainson  (Malacology,  1840)  places  Teredo  with  the 
subgenera  Teredo  and  Teredina,  at  the  end  of  the  '  Pho- 


Mr.  J.  E.  Gray  arranges  Teredo  between  Teredina  and 
Bankia,  under  his  Pholada,  the  first  family  of  his  second 
order  (Cladopoda)  of  Conchifera.    Septaria  is  introduced, 
with  a  query,  into  his  second  family,  Gastrochcsntdce. 
ORGANIZATION. 

It  is  now  36  years  since  Sir  Everard  (then  Mr.)  Home 
laid  before  the  Royal  Society,  with  the  assistance  of  Mr. 
Clift  in  making  the  drawings,  and  the  aid  of  Sir  Benjamin 
(then  Mr.)  Brodie,  his  Observations  on  the  Shell  of  the 
Sea-Worm  found  on  the  Coast  of  Sumatra,  proving  it  to 
belong  to  a  Species  of  Teredo,  with  an  account  of 
the  Anatomy  of  the  Teredo  Navalis.  Sir  Everard  remarks 
that  the  internal  structure  and  economy  of  Teredines  were 
so  little  known,  and  so  much  of  what  was  said  of  them  bv 
Sellius  was  so  vague,  that  it  became  necessary  to  acquire 
an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  common  Teredo  navalis, 
before  any  adequate  idea  could  be  formed  of  the  new 
species,  which  he  names  Teredo  gigantea. 

On  examining  the  shell  of  Teredo  navalis  while  in  the 
wood,  Sir  Everard  found  its  external  orifice  very  small, 
just,  large  enough,  in  fact,  to  give  a  passage  to  the  two 
small  tubes.  The  greatest  thickness  observed  was  ^  of  an 
inch.  The  canal  in  the  wood  at  its  termination,  and  for 
an  inch  in  length,  was  not  lined  with  shell,  but  smeared 
over  with  a  dirty  green-coloured  mucus,  which  was  also 
spread  upon  the  last-formed  portion  of  shell.  According 
to  Mr.  Hatchett's  analysis,  the  shell  of  Teredo  navalis  was 
perfectly  similar  to  that  of  Teredo  gigantea,  being  devoid 
of  phosphate  of  lime,  and  composed  of  97  parts  of  carbo- 
nate of  lime  and  3  of  animal  matter. 

While  the  animal  was  in  the  shell  alive  and  undisturbed, 
what  is  termed  the  head  was  in  contact  with  the  end  of  the 
canal  in  the  wood  ;  but,  on  laying  the  head  bare,  it  was 
drawn  in  for  an  inch  into  the  shell.  The  body  of  the  animal 
filled  the  area  of  the  shell  completely,  but  appeared  much 
smaller  when  taken  out,  in  consequence  of  the  sea-water 
which  it  contained  having  escaped.  The  largest  of  the 
worms  examined  which  were  of  different  lengths  measured  8 
inches  in  length.  Many  of  them  were  alive  24  hours  after 
being  removed  from  their  shell,  and  in  these  the  heart  was 
seen  to  palpitate.  The  blood  in  the  vessels  going  to  the 
head  was  red,  as  also  the  parts  near  the  liver  ;  but  this 
colour  disappeared  soon  after  death. 

The  head  of  the  worm  was  enclosed  between  the  two 
concave  boring  shells,  so  that  what  Sir  Everard  calls  the 
face  was  the  only  part  exposed.  These  shells  were  united 
together  on  what  is  termed  the  back  part  of  the  head  by  a 
very  strong  digastric  muscle,  having  a  middle  tendon  from 
which  the  fibres  go  off  in  a  somewhat  radiated  direction. 
partly  for  insertion  into  the  concave  surface  of  each  shell, 
and  partly  into  a  long  semicircular  process  projecting  from 
the  posterior  part  of  each  shell.  The  two  inclose  the  oeso- 
phagus and  otlier  parts  surrounding  it.  The  double  muscle 
was  inclosed  in  a  smooth  shining  fascia,  When  first  ex> 
posed  it  was  of  a  bright  red. 


T  E  R 


22-2 


T  E  R 


On  the  opposite  ride  of  the  head  the  shell*  were  united 
by  a  ligament  from  which  they  were  readily  separated  ;  at 
this  part  were  two  small  tooth-like  processes,  om- 
the  narrow  edge  of  each  shell,  where  the)   were  joined 
together. 

From  the  middle  of  the  exposed  part  of  the  head  pro- 
1  a  land  of  proboscis;  which  in  the  living  animal  nad 
a  vermicular  motion:  its  extremity  was  covered  by  R 
cuticle  not  unlike  Ihe  cornea  of  the  c\e.  On  removing 
this,  the  cavity  immediately  beneath  it  wax  found  to  cou- 
tain  a  hard  brown-coloured  gelatinous  substance,  like  n 
Florence  flask,  with  the  lame  end  uppermost  in  form.  Sir 
Everard  remarks  that  as  this  proboscis  has  no  orifice,  there 
is  reason  to  believe  that  it  adheres  to  the  wood,  acting  as  a 
centre-bit,  while  the  animal  is  at  work  with  the  shell,  and 
thus  the  canal  in  the  wood  is  perfectly  eylindrieal.  The 
month  was  nearly  concealed  by  the  projection  of  tl: 

Is,  but,  when  exposed,  presented  a  very  distinct  round 
orific.  i    the   proboscis  and   the   large    digastric 

muscle. 

'  The  body  of  the  worm,'  proceeds  Sir  Everard,  '  is  in- 
closed in  one  general  covering,  extending  from  the  base 
of  the  boring  shell,  with  which  it  is  firmly  connected  to 
the  root  of  the  two  small  tubes,  which  appear  out  of  the 
wood.  It  terminates  in  a  small  double  fold  forming  a  cup, 
o;i  the  inside  of  which  are  fixed  the  long  small  stems  of 
two  opercula,  which  become  broad  and  flat  towards  their 
other  extremity.  These,  when  brought  together,  shut  up 
'sell,  and  inclose  the  two  contracted  tubes  within  it : 
not  one  opcrculum  corresponding  to  each  tube,  but  in  a 
transverse  direction.  In  the  Teredo  gigantea,  the  oper- 
cula  are  similarly  situated,  each  shutting  up  one-half  of 
the  bifurcation.  At  the  base  of  this  cup  the  general  cover- 
-  thick  and  ligamentous,  for  about  one-fourth  of  an 
inch  in  length,  where  the  stems  of  the  opercula  are  con- 
'1  with  it  ;  and  at  one  spot  of  this  thickened  part 
there  is  an  adhesion  to  the  cylindrical  shell,  which  is  the 
only  part  of  the  animal  connected  with  it.  There  is  a 
depression  in  the  shell  pointing  out  this  spot.  The  double 
fold  of  the  outer  covering,  that  forms  the  cup,  contains  the 
sphincter  muscle,  which  closes  the  orifice  by  bringing  the 
opercula  together.  The  general  covering  is  compi 
two  membranes,  the  outer  the  strongest,  .and  made  up  of 
circular  fibres,  the  inner  much  finer,  having  no  fibrous 
structure.  On  the  back  of  the  animal,  this  covering  is 
firmly  connected  to  the  parts  underneath,  and  is  there 
strongest.  On  the  belly  it  forms  a  cavity,  and  is  thinner. 
It  i-  everywhere  sufficiently  transparent  to  show  the  differ- 
ent viscera  through  it.' 

Sir  Everard  Home  began  his  dissection  by  dividing  this 
covering  and  exposing  its  cavity,  into  which  there  are  two 
natural  opening*:  one,  that  of  the  largest  of  the  above- 
described  tubes,  by  which  it  receives  the  water  from  the 
sea ;  the  other,  a  transverse  slit  under  the  union  of  the 
boring  shells,  one-quarter  of  an  inch  long,  opening  into  the 
space  before  the  mouth.  The  author  states  t  hat  the  smaller 
tube  has  no  communication  with  this  cavity,  and  that  there 
is  none  between  this  cavity  and  that  of  the  belly,  the  vis- 
cera  having  a  proper  covering  of  their  own  :  the  breathing 
organs  however,  which  are  attached  on  the  posteri< 
face  of  this  cavity,  are  described  as  having  their  ) 
edge  loose  and  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  salt 
so  that  the  larger  tube  is  constantly  applying  salt  water  to 
them,  and  conveying  it  to  the  animal's  month  through  the 
aperture  for  that  purpose. 

Digestive  tiyitem. — The  head  and  abdominal  viscera 
were  found  to  occupy  about  one-third  of  the  animal's 
length,  the  breathing  organs  another  (bird,  and  the 
between  their  termination  and  the  ends  of  the  small  tubes 
the  remaining  third.  The  oesophagus  was  very  short, 
lying  on  the  left  side  of  the  neck.  On  the  right  w, 
large  approximated  eland-  connected  with  its  coat.  The 
n-sophagus  gradually  swelling  out  became  stomach,  which 
externally  appeared  as  a  large  hair,  extending  the  whole 
length  of  the  abdomen;  the  intestine  commenced  ch.se  to 
the  termination  of  the  oesophagus;  but  when  (lie  stomach 
was  laid  open,  a  septum  appeared  dividing  it  into  t\vo  dis- 
tinct bags,  except  at  the  lower  end,  where  they  communi- 
cate. It  may  therefore  be  said,  observes  Sir  Everard.  to 
be  doubled  on  itself.  In  those  worms  which  w era  exa- 
mined alive,  the  stomachs  were  quite  empty  :  but  in 
preserved  specimens  the  content*  were  a  yellow-coloured 
pulp,  of  which  we  shall  have  to  say  more  presently :  the 


quantity  in  a  specimen  from  the  British  Museum  was  about 

intestine  was  very  small,  and  became  dilated  into  a 
containing  a  hard,  white,  globular  body,  oft!" 
of  a  large  pin's  h. -ad,  and  then  made  a  turn  upon  itself. 
Here  the  liver  is  attached  '  ach,  to  which  it  firmly 

adheres.     The  gut  passed  forwaids  till  it  reached  tin 
tral  line  of  the  stomach,  opposite  tb. 
lined  its  course  along  that  viscus,  passing  roum 
end  and  np  again  on  the  opposite  si. 
tinned  on  one  side  of  the  oesophagus  near!;, 
mouth,  where  it  was  reflected  o\er  the  middle  ten*: 
the  digastric  muscle  of  the  boring  shells,  and  ran  along 
the  back  of  the  animal,  till  it  terminated  in  the  small 
through  which  its  contents  arc  emptied. 

N//>/»W.— The   heart  was 

found  in  the  middle  between  the  mouthand  the  lower  end 
Of  the  stomach,  and  was  situated  on  the  back  of  the  ani- 
mal. There  were  two  auricles,  composed  of  a  thin  dark- 
coloured  membrane,  which  opened  by  contracted  valvular 
orifices  into  two  white  strong  tubes,  which  united  to  form 
the  ventricle.  This  ventricle,  Sir  Everard  observes,  may 
be  -aid  to  be  continued  into  an  artery,  which  supplies  the 
viscera,  and  ascends  to  the  muscles  of  the  two  boring 
shells.  The  heart  was  very  loosely  connected  to  th< 
rounding  parts:  its  action  was  distinctly  m  i  the 

external   covering,  and  was  observed,  in  some 
after  it  had  been  laid  bare.    The  first  contraction  was  in  the 
two  auricles,  which  shortened  themselves  in  that  action.  A 
swelling   of  the  ventricle,  followed   by  a  com 
thus  produced.     Sir  Kverard  found  that   '  from 

the  ventricle  could  be  traced  up  to  the  head,  and  the 
vessels  from  the  auricles  were  seen  very  distinctly  as  far  as 
the  breathing  organ-.  The  auricles  were  lined  with  a 
black  pigment,  so  that  their  contents  could  not  be 
through  them  ;  and  the  coats  of  the  ventricle  were  too 
thick  for  transparency:  but  the  muscle  of  the  bonne- 
shells  was  of  a  red  colour,  as  well  as  the  liver,  and  most 
of  the  surrounding  parts  between  the  heart  and  the  head. 

Sir  Everard  observes,  that  this  structure  of  the  Irpart  ad- 
mit-, only  of  a  single  circulation,  as  in  other  animals  which 
breathe  through  the  medium  of  water,  but  that  the  mode 
of  its  being  performed  is  different  from  that  in  fishes:  in 
the  Ti'riiliin^.  lie  remarks,  the  blood  passes  directly  from 
the  heart  to  the  different  parts  of  the  body,  and  returns 
through  the  vessels  of  the  breathing  organs  to  the  heart, 
while  in  fishes  it  goes  first  to  the  breathing  organs,  and 
then  to  the  different  parts  of  the  body.  This  peculiar  cir- 
cnlntion,  he  adds,  becomes  a  link  in  the  gradation  of  the 
modes  of  exposing  the  blood  to  the  air  in  different  ani- 
mals:  it  appears  to  be  less  perfect  than  in  fishes,  since 
the  exposure  to  the  air  is  carried  on  more  slowly,  but  is 
more  perfect  than  in  caterpillars. 

Brain  andNn  '•  m. — Sir  Everard  doubts  not  the 

existence  of  the  brain  and  nerves  in  animals  so  perfect  in 
their  organs  as  the  Teredines,  but  he  failed  to  detect  them 
during  bis  inv  estimation. 

(li'niTiitirr  Si/\trm. — Sir  Kverard  Home  describes  the 
testicles  as  two  Ions  glandular  sub-'  on  each 

side  of  the  stomach,  of  a  whitish  colour  and  granulated 
structure.    From  each  of  them  a  duct  passed  to  the  ovaria, 
which   lay  between  the  two  breathing  organs.     The  ducts 
ran  upon  their  outer  edge,  and   terminated   near  the  base 
of  the  small  tube.     In  this  way,  he  remarks,  t! 
impregnated   before  they  pass  out  at  that  orifice.     In  the. 
worms   from  Shcerncsa,  examined   in   February,   tin 
tides  were  small,  and  no  appearance  of  a  M  be 

.    but    in  specimens  from  the  Hnnterian  .Museum  the 
testicles  were  much  fuller,  and  the  o. 
tiin-t    longitudinal  ridges:    these,  \\lien  examined   under 
the  microscope.  '  in   innumerable  small 

When  the  ovaria  are  empty.  Sir  Ev .  -  that 

there  is  nothing  to  be  found  between  tb-  -ihing 

organ*  but  the  small  seminal  vessels.  He  then  adverts  to 
the  statement  of  Scllius.  who  says  that  the  ••nilix 

ria  full  of  eggs  in  the  spring  and  summer;  that 
cuiet    with  as  late  rs  December ;    but   that  those 
individuals  which   he   examined   in  February   had   their 
ovaria  flaccid  and  empty. 

With  regard  to  T- <  the  same  author  ob- 

serves that,  when  arrived   at    ii-  full   growth,  it   clos, 
tin-  end   ol  md    so  <!u,  SttB/M.      Sellius 

believed  that  the  animal  by  this  act  formed  its  own  tomb, 


T  E  R 


223 


T  E  R 


since  it  could  no  longer  destroy  the  wood  in  which  it  was 
contained.  Sir  Everard  however  remarks  that  in  Teredo 
giguntea  death  is  not  a  consequence  of  seclusion  from  the 
substance  in  which  it  is  imbedded.  In  some  of  Mr.  Grif- 
fiths's  specimens  the  shell  was  just  covered  in,  and  the 
part  close  to  the  termination  extremely  thin,  whilst  in 
others  it  was  increased  twenty-fold  in  thickness.  In  others 
again  the  shell  had  not  only  become  thick,  but  the  animal 
had  receded  from  its  first  inclosure,  and  had  formed  a 
second  three  inches  up  the  tube,  and  afterwards  a  third 
two  inches  further  on,  and  had  made  the  sides  thicker  and 
thicker,  so  as  to  diminish  the  canal  in  proportion  to  the 
diminution  of  its  own  size. 


Animal  of  Teredo  navalis  out  of  the  shell. 

1.  the  opercula  are  wanting,  and  the  tubes  retracted.  2.  the  opcrcula  in  their 
situation,  and  the  tut>e»  protrudfl  a,  a,  the  boring-shells;  6.  the  proboscis; 
f,  tlte  mouth ;  d.  d,  the  contf  nls  of  the  aldomen  seen  through  the  tr  tnsnarent 
external  covering  ;  e,  c,  breathing  organs  seen  in  the  same  way.  (Phil.  Trans.) 

Sir  Everard  considers  these  facts  as  proving  that  Teredo 
gigantea,  when  arrived  at  its  full  growth,  or  whenever  it 
is  prevented  from  increasing  in  length,  closes  up  the  end 
of  its  shell,  and  lives  a  long  time  afterwards,  furnished 
with  food  from  the  sea-water.  Teredo  navalis,  he  observes, 
m  up  its  shell  in  the  same  manner :  it  must  therefore, 
after  that  period,  be  supplied  with  food  entirely  through 
the  medium  of  sea-water.  The  Teredines,  he  adds,  turn 
round  in  the  shell,  to  which  they  are  not  attached,  and 
with  which  their  covering  only  has  a  slight  connection  at 
one  particular  spot,  to  prevent  the  external  tubes  from 
being  disturbed.  This  motion,  Sir  Everard  observes,  is  for 
the  purpose  of  boring. 

Geneve  Character. — Animal  very  much  elongated,  ver- 
miform, with  a  very  delicate  mantle,  open  in  front  and  at 
its  lower  part  for  the  passage  of  a  mammiliform  foot ; 
tubes  separated,  very  short,  especially  that  for  the  dejec- 
tions; mouth  small ;  labial  appendages  short ;  anus  situ- 
ated at  the  extremity  of  a  small  tube  floating  in  the  cavity 
of  the  mantle ;  branchiae  riband-like,  united  on  the  same 
line  throughout  their  length,  and  a  little  prolonged  in  the 
siphon  ;  a  muscular  ring  at  the  point  of  junction  of  the 
mantle  and  the  tubes,  in  which  is  implanted  a  pair  of 
pedieulated  corneo-calcareous  appendages  or  palmules, 
playine  laterally  one  against  the  other. 

Mirll  rather  thick,  very  short,  annular,  equally  open 
before  and  behind;  equivalve,  inequilateral,  angular, with 
triangular  valves,  trenchant  in  front,  and  only  touching 
each  other  by  the  two  opposite  edges  ;  no  hinge  ;  an  elon- 
gated, nearly  straight,  siibfiliform,  spoon-shaped  process; 
a  single  Bligntly-ravked  muscular  impression. 

Tube  oyfindrical,  straight  or  fk'xuous,  closed  with  age 
at  the  buccal  extremity,  so  as  to  envelope  the  animal  and 
its  shell,  always  open  at  the  other,  and  lining  the  cavity 
into  which  tin-  animal  has  introduced  itself. 

Such  is  M.  Kang's  definition  of  Teredo,  excluding  Teredo 
Septaria\  of  which  he  pvei  the  following  de- 
ing  that  it  closely  approximates  to  the 

•  .-  — 

unknown.     (But  see  the  paper  of  M.  Mathtron 
above  referred  to.) 

unknown.     (But  see  the  descriptions  of  Mr.  Grif- 
.il  Sir  Everard  Home  here  noticed.) 
Tube  calcareous,  thick,  solid,  in  the  shape  of  a  very 
elongated  cone,  nml  irregularly  flexuous,  furnished  inter- 
nally with  small,  incomplete,  annuliform  septa ;  terminated 
at  one  of  its  extremities  by  a  convexity,  and  at  the  other 
by  two  slender  and  separated  tubes. 

The  i!  .  oi  TiTi'iln  (exclusive  of  Srpfaria) 

'•k  in  the  '  Animaux  sans  Veil' 
'181H;  v.ere  two,  Teredo  navalis  and  Teredo  palmulatus  : 


of  the  latter  Lamarck,  who  had  seen  neither  its  tube  ncr 
its  shell,  says  that  it  probably  only  differs  from  Teredo  na- 
valis in  its  greater  size,  its  longer  palmules  having  been 
more  easily  observed. 

M.  Deshayes,  in  his  Tables,  makes  the  number  five  living 
and  five  fossil  (tertiary),  exclusive  of  Septaria ;  and,  in 
the  last  edition  of  Lamarck,  adds  to  the  two  species  above 
noticed  Teredo  corniJormis(Fistulanacorniformis,  Lam.), 
Teredo  gregatus  (Fistulana  gregata.  Lain.),  and  Teredo 
arenarhts  (Septaria  arenaria,  Lam.). 

N.B.  Lamarck  had  stated  that  the  Ropan  of^Adanson 
(Senegal,  pi.  19,  f.  2)  belonged  to  the  Teredines,  remark- 
ing however  that  he  (Lamarck)  knew  it  not.  But  M. 
Deshayes  points  out  that  M.  Rang,  on  his  return  from  a 
voyage  to  Senegal,  where  he  had  an  opportunity  of  ob- 
serving ihe  Ropan,  found  that  this  curious  shell  belonged 
neither  to  the  Teredines,  as  Lamarck  believed,  nor  to  the 
Pholades,  as  Bosc  says,  and  still  less  to  the  Gastrochcence, 
as  M.  de  Blainville  supposes ;  but  that  it  is  a  Modiola 
already  known,  Modiola  caudigera. 

Teredo  Navalis. — This  is  sufficiently  described  above, 
and  we  therefore  proceed  te  the  consideration  of  its 

Food,  Habits,  fyc.  —  Some  of  the  Teredines  examined  by 
Sir  Everard  Home  were  sent  from  Sheerness  in  the  wood 
alive,  and  they  lived  in  salt-water  for  three  days  after 
being  brought  to  town.  Sir  Everard  observed  that  when 
the  surface  of  the  wood  was  examined  in  a  good  light, 
while  only  an  inch  in  depth  in  the  water,  the  animal  threw 
out  sometimes  one,  at  others  two  small  tubes.  When  one 
only  was  protruded,  the  other  almost  immediately  followed 
it.  One  of  them  was  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  long ; 
the  other  only  half  that  size.  When  the  largest  was  ex- 
posed to  its  full  extent,  there  was  a  fringe  on  the  inside  of 
its  external  orifice  of  about  twenty  small  tentaeula,  scarcely 
visible  to  the  naked  eye :  these  were  never  seen  except  in 
that  state  ;  for  when  the  tube  was  retracted,  the  end  was 
first  drawn  in,  and  so  on,  until  the  whole  was  completely 
inverted :  and  therefore  in  a  half-protruded  state  it  ap- 
peared to  have  a  blunt  termination  with  a  rounded  edge. 
The  smaller  tube  was  not  inverted  when  drawn  in.  'These 
tubes,'  says  Sir  Everard  Home,  in  continuation,  '  while 
playing  about  in  the  water  appeared  at  different  times  to 
vary  in  their  directions,  but  usually  remained  at  the 
greatest  convenient  distance  from  each  other.  The  largest 
was  always  the  most  erect,  and  its  orifice  the  most  dilated  ; 
the  smaller  one  was  sometimes  bent  on  itself  with  its  point 
touching  the  wood.  In  one  instance,  where  a  small  insect 
came  across  the  larger  one,  the  point  of  the  smaller  turned 
round  and  pushed  it  off,  and  then  went  back  to  its  original 
situation.  In  several  instances  the  smaller  one  appeared 
to  be  the  most  sensible  ;  since  by  touching  the  larger  one 
gently  it  did  not  retract ;  but  on  touching  the  smaller  one 
they  both  were  instantly  drawn  in.  Indeed  whenever  they 
were  retracted  they  always  were  drawn  in  together.  When 
the  worm  was  confined  within  the  shell  the  orifice  was 
not  to  be  distinguished  in  the  irregular  surface  of  the 
wood,  which  was  covered  with  small  fuel.  The  worm  ap- 
pears commonly  to  bore  in  the  direction  of  the  grain  of 
the  wood,  but  occasionally  it  bores  across  the  grain  to 
avoid  the  track  of  any  of  the  others  ;  and  in  some  in- 
stances there  was  only  a  semitransparent  membrane  as  a 
partition  between  two  of  them.' 

Sir  Everard  observes  that  as  the  Teredo  gigantea  bores 
in  mud,  on  which  it  cannot  be  supposed  to  subsist,  or 
even  to  receive  any  part  of  its  nutriment  from  it,  it  be- 
comes a  question  whether  the  Teredo  navalis,  an  animal 
of  much  smaller  size,  derives  support  from  the  wood 
which  it  destroys,  or  in  supplied  wholly  from  the  sea. 
The  last  opinion  seems  the  most  probable  to  Sir  Everard, 
because  the  animal,  having  red  blood  and  very  perfect 
organs,  necessarily  requires  a  great  deal  of  nourishment  for 
the  purposes  of  growth,  and  to  supply  the  waste  constantly 
going  on  ;  but  if,  he  observes,  the  aggregate  of  shell  and 
animal  substance  is  taken,  it  will  be  found  equal  in  bulk, 
and  greater  in  specific  gravity  than  the  wood  displaced  in 
making  the  hole  :  hence,  he  remarks,  it  is  obvious  that  the 
quantity  of  wood  which  the  animal  has  taken  into  its  body 
K  wholly  insufficient  for  its  formation  and  subsistence. 
When  once  it  is  established  that  the  Teredo  can  be  sup- 
ported independently  of  the  wood  which  is  oaten,  and  can 
afterwards  subsist  when  the  communication  between  it  and 
the  wood  is  cut  off,  a  doubt,  he  adds,  is  created  about  the 
wood  forming  any  part  of  its  aliment,  and  it  becomes  pro- 


T  H  K 


bable  that  the  Trret!  like  the  TV/Wo  pi 

forms  its  habitation  in  a  substance  from  which  it  receives 
no  part  of  its  sustenance  ;  and  that  the  sawdust  conveyed 
through  the  intestines  is  not  digested,  particularly  as  that 
examined  by  Mr.  Hatchett  liad  not  undergone  the  slightest 
char 

Mr.  Hatchett  found  the  ten  grains  of  pulp  from  the 
specimen  above  referred  to  to  bean  impalpable  vegetable 
sawdust.  When  burnt  the  smoke  had  precisely  the  odour 
of  wood  ;  it  formed  a  charcoal  easily  consumed,  and  was 
converted  into  white  ashes,  in  ever)' respect  like  vegetable 
charcoal.  Solution  of  potash  did  not  act  upon  it,  as  it 
would  have  done  if  it  had  been  an  animal  substance. 

Sir  Kvenml  Home  suggests  that  the  straight  course  of 
the  intestine  in  the  /  makes  it  probable  that  the 

sawdust  retards  the  progress  of  the  food,  so  as  to  render 
convolution  unnecessary. 

Teredo  Savulis  has  been  found  at  deptlis  ranging  from 
the  surface  to  ten  fathoms. 


22-1 


T  E  U 


Trredo  gigantea.— Rumphius,  in  his  '  Amboinsche  R»- 
itcitkamcr.  liguie-.  Inn-  copied,  of  a  species  of 

ulmlar  shell  found  in  shallow  water  among   mangiove- 
jees.     He  describes  t lie  ground  whence  they  were  brought, 
and  the  mode  in  which  the  large  end  of  the  shell  is  cl 
so  as  to  leave  little  doubt  that    it  was  '/'•  nlfti, 

hough  the  separation  of  the  two  tubes  through  which  the 
«uts  of  the  animal  pass  out  is  different  from  the  specimens 
>rought  home  by  Mr.  Griffiths.  This  difference  however, 
LS  the  latter  observes,  may  have  been  connected  with  the 
.it  nation  in  which  the  ani'mal  was  found,  namely,  shallow 
water  among  the  mangroves. 


Shell  and  tube  of  Teralo  navalis. 

a  tubw  «ilh  valvei  in  their  position  nl  the  i-nil ;  <<,t.  two  vl.-wj  of  the 

ralvei:  <l.  ilouM";  opririiluni ;  r,  rrpnwntMinn  of  the  protrusion  of  the  two 

tob«»  of  tlw  animal .     (flal.  Train. )    O.  11.  Sowerliy . 

It  is  said,  probably  with  tnith.  that  Trrnlo  ntiniti*  was 
introduced  into  Europe  from  warmer  climates.     However 
that  may  be,  it  now  unfortunately  swarms  in  our  seas.  The 
ravaces  of  this  apparently  insignificant  animal  are  terrible 
Ship-,    piles,    all    submarine    wood-works,  are    ruinous!) 
affected  by  it  :  small  us  it  is.  it  threatened  the  submersion 
of  Holland  by  its  destruction  of  the  dykes.     The  living 
specimens  which  formed  the  subject  of  Sir  Everard  Home's 
observations  were  furnished  from  oneofthe  royal  dockyard- 
The  rapidity  of  its  growth  and  the  destructive  celerity  will 
v.-hich  it  v,  or!,.-  are  hardly  credible.     A  piece  of  deal.  :ifte 
a  submersion  of  forty  days.  was  riddled  by  them,  and  soul 
had  attained  considerable  size.     Those  from  the  dockum 
at  Plymouth,  examined  by  Montagu,  wen-  in  piles  \\hicl 
had  been  recently  taken  up  to  be  replaced  with  new  :  1he\ 
had  not,  according  to  the  information  given  to  Montagu 
been   under  water  above  four  or  five  years,  but  they  were 
greatly  perforated,  though  they  were  sound  solid  oak  whci 
they  were   drnen.     The   only  "effectual  wa\  of  prcvcntim, 
the  attacks   of   this  animal  upon    piles   appears   to  be   by 
'ing  all  that   part  which  is  continually  beneath  th 
surface  with  short  broad-headed  nails.     The  action  of  th 
sea-water  on  the  nails  produces  a  strong  coating  of  rust 
said  to  be  superior  to  a  copper  sheathing. 


Wood  rwforaUd  bjr  TmdinM  naralcd. 


Trredo  tigantea(Rum|'li.). 

In  1905  Captain  Maxwell  of  the  Calcutta  F.ast  Indinman 
gave  to  Sir  K\crard  (then  MiO  Home,  a  specimen  of  thi.» 
shell,  five  feet  long,  but  imperfect  at   both  extremi'ies. 
The  captain  said  it  was  brought  from  Sumatra.     Several  of 
Mr.  Home's   friends  considered   it  as   a  mineral   substance, 
a  hollow  stalactite,  being  misled  by  its  radiate.; 
Sir  Joseph  Hanks   decided   that    it  was  a   shell,  and    ij 
analysed  by  Mr.  Hatchett,  who  found  that  it  was  cbmi 
of  carbonate  of  lime  and  an  animal  gelatinous  subs! 
which  was  greater  in  quantity  than  m  Chama  gigtu,  but 

.:!i  in  the  common  oyster.  Mr.  Home  then  applied 
to  Mr.  Marsden,  who  introduced  him  to  Mr.  Griffiths,  and 
the  paper  of  the  last-mentioned  gentleman  immediately 
precedes  that  of  Mr.  Home  in  Phil.  Traits,  for  I 

Mr.  Griffiths  relates  that  a  short  time  after  a  very  violent 
earthquake  that  occurred  in  Sumatra  in  the  year  171*7. 
which  produced  '  a  most  tremendous'  inundation  of  tli 
did  great  damage,  and  caused  the  lossof  many  lives,  these 
shells  were  procured  in  a  small  sheltered  bay  with  a  muddy 
bottom,  surrounded  by  coral  reefs,  on  the  island  of  ISattoo. 
When  the  sea  receded  from  the  bay  after  the  inundation, 
they  were  seen  protruding  from  a  bank  of  slightly  indurated 
mud,  and  two  or  three  specimens  were  brought  to  Mr. 
Griffiths  nt  Padang,  by  the  master  of  a  boat  trading  be- 
tween that  part  and  the  island,  for  cocoa-nut  oil.  sea-slug, 
&c.  Mr.  Griffiths  then  sent  one  of  his  servants,  a  1';., 
CotiVee,  who  was  \ery  expert  at  diving,  in  a  small  praw. 

,i\ant  staled  that  he  had  found  the  shells  in  the 
before-mentioned  bay  and  in  an  inlet  of  the  sea.  sticking 
out  of  lather  haid  mud,  mixed  with  small  stones,  sand, 
&c.  from  eight  to  ten  inches  or  more,  and  from  one  to 
three  fathoms  under  water.  Both  the  master  and  crew 
assured  Mr.  Griffiths  that  the  animal  throws  out  tentacula 


T  E  R 


225 


T  E  K 


from  the  two  apertures  of  the   apex  of  the  shell,   that 
resembled  the  small  actinics  adhering  to  the  rocks  about 
Padang,  and  that  the  body  of  the  shell  was  filled  with  a 
soft  gelatinous  flesh,  similar  to  that  of  the  Teredo  naru/ix. 
but  this  they  had  washed  out  on  account  of  its  putridity. 
They  said  that  the  shells  were  in  considerable  number,  and, 
being   gently  shaken,  easily  taken  up  ;   but  all    of  them 
were  mutilated  more  or  less,  the  effect  probably  of  the 
earthquake,  when  many  large  fragments  of  madrepores, 
corals,  Sec.  were  torn  from  their  seat  by  the  agitation  of 
the  sea.     More  than  twenty  specimens  were  brought  to 
Mr.  Griffiths,  but  not  one  was  complete  :    a  portion  of  the 
shell  with  the  apex  nearly  perfect,  and  another  with  the 
opposite  closed  extremity  nearly  so,  were  however  pro- 
cured.    The  length  of  the  longest  of  Mr.  Griffiths's  shells 
was  5  feet  4  inches,  and  the  circumference  of  the  base 
9  inches,   tapering  upwards  to  2J  inches.      There  were 
other  good  ones  of  smaller  size.     The  large  specimen  was 
nearly  perfect,  having  a  small  part  of  the  lower  extremity 
entire.     Most  of  the  shells  had  adhering  to  them,  about 
one  foot  or  more  from  the  top,  the  small  cockscomb  oyster, 
small  serpulae,  &c. ;  consequently,  Mr.  Griffiths  observes, 
they  must  have  been  protruded  that  distance  from   the 
hard  mud  ;  but  the  water  being  thick  and  discoloured,  the 
people  of  Battoo  had  not  taken  notice  of  them  antecedent 
to  the  earthquake.   The  specimens  were  milk-white  on  the 
outside  and  within  were  tinged  with  yellow.    Mr.  Griffiths 
remarks  that   the   large  end   of  the   shell  is   completely 
closed,  and  has  a  rounded  appearance ;   at  this  part  it  is 
very  thin.     The  small  end,  or  apex,  is  very  brittle  and 
divided  by  a  longitudinal  septum  running  down  for  eight 
or  nine  inches,  forming  it  into  two  distinct  tubes,  inclosed 
within  the  outer  one,  from  whence  the  animal  throws  out 
tentacula.     Mr.  Griffiths  goes  on  to  describe  the  substance 
of  the  shell  as  composed  of  layers  having  a  fibrous  and 
radiated  appearance,  covered  externally  with  a  pure  white 
crust,  and  internally  as  having  a  yellow  tinge ;   and  the 
external  surface  as  frequently  interrupted  in  a  transverse 
direction  by  a  sudden  increase  of  thickness,  which,   he 
observes,  probably  indicates  different  stages  in  the  growth 


Teredo  gigantea. 

1,  tli*  small  OT  upper  extremity  of  the  shell,  the  external  covering  broken 
i»«y  aad  showing  the  termination  of  the  tube*,  one  of  which  ia  broken.     L'.  a 


of  the  shell,  although  they  are  at  unequal  distances,  some- 
times at  six  inches,  sometimes  at  four,  in  the  same  shell. 
Many  of  the  shells,  he  adds,  are  nearly  straight,  others 
crooked  and  contorted. 


1. 


2. 


the 


upper  extreumy      (Phil.  Tr 

1*.  C.,  No.  1010. 


thai  part  of  the  shell  where  thedouhle  tubes  nn-  tonm-il.   !   T,r,,.i..:f.rl    i4lnf     flll    thn    vprepa     nf 
or  newly  so,  the  exception  being  the  imperfect  stale  of      Pr.^Mon    ™at  .a"    tne    Verses    Ot 

<PM.  Traiu.)  critics  to  the  single  metre,  called 

i     1".  l<:  ' 


Teredo  gigantei. 

.  transverse  section  of  shell,  giving  a  front  view  into  the  orifices  of  the 
double  tulie.  and  showing  the  thickness  of  the  shell  at  that  part,  i,  trans- 
verse section  of  shell  at  the  thickest  part  after  it  had  been  polished,  showing 
the  structure,  and  giving  a  front  view  of  the  orifices  into  the  double  tube.  (Phil. 
Traru) 

FOSSIL  TEREDINES. 

M.  Deshayes  in  his  Tables  notes  five  species  of  fossil 
Teredines  in  the  tertiary  formation,  Eocene  period  of 
Lyell :— one  from  the  English  crag,  one  from  Paris,  and  four 
from  Belgium.  Mr.  Lea.(Contributions  to  Geology)  records 
a  species,  Teredo  simplex,  from  the  Claiborne  Beds,  Alabama 
(tertiary).  Professor  Sedgwick  and  Mr.  Murchison  notice 
the  genus  in  their  Table  of  Fossils  found  in  the  Gosau 
Deposit  and  its  Equivalents  in  the  Alps ;  and  also  '  Teredo 
or  Pttolae,'  in  their  Table  of  Fossils  of  Lower  Styria,  as 
belonging  to  the  '  middle  system.'  Dr.  Fitton,  in  his  Syste- 
matic and  Strati  graphical  List  of  Fossils  in  the  Strata 
below  the  Chalk,  notes  the  genus,  with  a  query,  from  the 
gault  of  Kent  and  Cambridge. 

TERE'NTIA.     [CICERO.] 

TERENTIAN  METRES.  Few  subjects  connected  with 
Latin  literature  have  been  treated  with  less  success  than 
the  principles  and  laws  which  govern  the  metres  of  Latin 
comedy.  The  majority  of  readers  seem  to  look  upon  the 
writings  of  Plautus  and  Terence  as  so  much  humble  prose 
arbitrarily  distributed  so  as  to  present  to  the  eye  the 
appearance  of  verse  without  its  realities.  For  them  it 
would  be  better  if  the  whole  were  printed  consecutively, 
and  such  an  arrangement  would  in  fact  be  supported  by 
not  a  few  of  the  existing  manuscripts.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  have  been  writers  who  have  laboured  to  remove  the 
difficulties  that  obscure  the  subject,  among  whom  none 
but  Bentley  and  Hermann  appear  to  have  had  any  success ; 
and  what  they  have  done  still  leaves  the  subject  in  a  very 
unsatisfactory  position.  Even  the  writer  of  the  Life  of 
Terence,  in  the  '  Biographic  Universelle '  (published  in, 
1826),  has  the  following  extraordinary  criticism  upon  the 
metres  of  Terence : — 'The  sole  rule  which  he  observes 
with  tolerable  regularity  is  to  end  each  verse  with  an 
iamb  ;  and  even  this  limitation  he  often  disregards,  as,  for 
instance,  in  the  terminations  hie  consiste ;  si  vis,  nunc 
jam  ;  audio  uiolenter ;  hue  adducam  ;  hanc  venturam,  &c. 
with  regard  to  the  other  feet,  he  freely  substitutes  for  the 
iamb  or  spondee,  a  trochee,  anapest,  dactyl,  double  pyrrhic, 
or  four  short  syllables,  and  a  cretic  or;  short  between  two 
longs,'  &c.  This  writer  thus  starts  with  the  false  im- 

Terence  are  reduced  by 
trimeter  iambic :  where- 
VOL.  XXIV.— 2  G 


T  E  R 


226 


T  E  R 


M,  in  fort,  all  who  have  dealt  with  the  Mibject.  except 
hiaurlf.  are  aware  that  the  poet  has  at  least  three  forma  of 
»MM  which  end  trochaically  :  and  his  second  exception  i» 
di>po*ed  of  by  the  more  corn 

In  England  again,  «>  late  tu  •  nve  a 

i  :ian  meti  ,  whi. !.:.-,  :,.r  .  ...  :,  -• 
of  those  metre*,  the  trimeter-iambic,  gives  us  the  follow- 
ing scale :— 


-    — 

-    — 

u  — 

U  — 

u  — 

w   - 

—  0  U 

_  (J  U 

_  (J  u 

—  J  U 

(JO  — 

U  U  — 

0  U  — 

0   J  — 

with  the  additional  remarks  that  ijun  quid  hunc  may  be  a 
dartvl.  that  Air  auidem  etl,  ttudrt  f.nr,  and  the  thiee  first 
syllables  of  roluptati,  may  pass  for  anapests,  &c.  &c. 
All  tin-.  U  exceedingly  unsatisfactory,  and  it  would  be 
better  to  abandon  the  problem  as  insoluble,  than  to  give 
currency  to  extravagancies  which  would  enable  us  i 
in  any  Jivi-n  chapter  of  C«sar  a  series  of  trimeter-iambics. 
mst  be  admitted  that  the  metres  of  tlie  Greek  drama- 
tist*, and  more  particularly  of  the  tragedians,  irratii'y  lin- 
ear «itl>  rhythms  which,  comparator iy  ^peaking,  are 
smooth  and  appreciable.  But  it  should  be  recollect t-d.  in 
the  first  place,  that  the  Greek  language  is  distimruishcd 
from  among  other  languages  by  its  abundance  of  words 
which  end  in  a  short  syllable,  and  the  advantage  to  the 
poet  is  increased  by  the  large  number  of  instances  where 
these  short  final  syllables  have  a  vowel  ending.  Compare, 
for  instance,  the  accusatives  angular  ftowav,  lov\ov,  rokiv, 
laiftova.  with  the  Latin  mutant,  terrain,  nuriiii,  /• 
the  nominative  and  accusative  plural  £a</u»>tc,  laipovat, 
with  the  Latin  leonct ;  the  numerals  lira,  lua,  with  the 
Latin  trptrm,  deeem  ;  the  verbs  rturrtre,  run-own,  with  tin- 
Latin  tcribitit,  tcribitnl ;  the  ])ronouns  fu,  at.  i,  with  me, 
ft,  tc.  In  fact,  the  Latin  language  exceeds  the  Greek 
1:1  the  number  of  long  syllables,  as  much  as  the  English 
and  German  languages  exceed  the  Latin. 

A  still  more  important  matter  is  the  question  whether  and 
how  far  the  written  language  of  the  Romans  is  an  exact  re- 
presentative of  the  spoken  language.  It  seems  to  be  a  con- 
dition of  language  in  ceneiu!  that  its  pronunciation  should 
always  be  passing  through  a  series  of  changes,  and  that 
those  changes  should  consist  for  the  most  part  in  the  gradual 
omission  of  letters  and  even  syllables.  Thus  the  Roman 
phrase  mea  domina  is  in  Italian  madonna ;  in  French 
madam/' ;  in  English  madam,  ma'am,  and  even  mum  and 
mint.  Meanwhile,  for  the  most  part,  the  changes  in  ortho- 
graphy are  slow,  and  consequently  t  ys  in  arrear 
of  the  orthoepy.  Thus  it  will  be  found  that  the  sounds  of 
English  and  German  words  which  appear  to  the  i 
weighed  down  with  consonants.  arc  in  the  mouth  of  a 
native  tolerably  harmonious.  Was  such  the  ease  with  the 
Roman  also?  We  answer  with  little  hesitation  in  the 
affirmative,  partly  because  the  laws  which  i: 
language  can  scarcely  have  been  wanting  in  antient  Italy, 
and  partly  because  we  find  the  point  cveral 
incidental  remark*  in  Latin  writers.  lomi 


the  laws  and  principle!  of  wr 
nan* — he  was  not  very  obser 
follow  the  opinion  of  those  wl 
as  we  speak.  For  as  t 


Thus  Suetonius  says, 
•  Orthography — that  is, 
laid  down  by  gramma- 
of,  but  seems  rather  to 
>ld  that  we  should  write 
ngine  or  omitting 


not  !:•  ,   li-ttrrs,   hut  even  whole  syllables,  that  i.- 

a  common  error.'     It  should  he  observed  too,  th;, 
toniui  had  himself  teen  the  handwriting  of  the  emperor. 
(Ibid.,c.S7.     Acnin.giiintilian !///>/  says,  'As, 

on  the  one  hand,  it  is  essential  that  •  1  should  he 

clearly  articulated  ;  so,  on  the  other  hand,  to  reckon 
we  may  so  speak,  every  separate  letter,  is  painful  mid 
wearisome.'  In  the  same  chapter  he  further  obsi 

>nly  is  a  coalition  of  vowel*  moo,  but  » 

the  consonants  are  disguiv  ....hen  a 

vowel  follows;'  where  he  must  refer  tosomc  other  letter  than 

•.probably  the  final  t  generally  and  the  fiunl  <l  uf  neuter 
pwoouru.  cian,  who  by  th(  .an  to 

*v«  wn  :ie  Latin  language  had  ceased  tn  |-e 

rn  as  a  lying  tongue,  at  times  throws  out  such  con- 

cturn  a*  the  following :— •  I  think  that  vigil,  i-igilii, 


should  rather  be  pronounced  per  tyncopam.'  \Ve  might 
appeal  to  Cicero's  authority  for  the  fact  Unit  a  final  t  was 
licqnently  omitted  in  pronunciation.  Hut  then-  :uv  (-till 
other  arguir  -'port  of  the  pn 

are  contending.     Within  tt  age 

itself  we   find   such    changes    actually   in    progress — as, 

.  ruti,  ijitui,  neifiie,  ii/i/tir,  tire,  ««•<-.  i  /<; 
runt,  provident,  mihi,  nihil,  quibuf,  j>'ij  nln\. 
opera,  potette,  marolo,  inn 
severally  mage,  HI,  ipte,  nee,  ac,  ten,  «<•//. 
prudent,  mi,  nil,  quit,  poplus  (compare  also  poplirut\  leg- 
men, opra,  fxute,  inalo,  nnril,  noxti,  dfis  or 

.Id  enable  us  to  carry  the  )i  I  nut  to:: 
and  this  still  more  it'  we  employed  the  ana: 
of  the  Greek  tongue. 

Again,  tin-  lai:  :ch  are  acknowledged  to  h 

rived  from  the  Latin,  siu-1.  Mr  Trouhadnu. 

Italian,  French,  Spanish.  Port utrucsc.and  one  portion  of  the 
Knirh-h.  by  their  shortened  forms,  confirm  our  vi. 
tins  will  be  found  to  be  specially  the  case  with  t 
To  those  who  may  express  their  surprise  that  the  1".  • 
should  thus  take  precedence  in  our  argument  ot'tbe  1 . 
the  answer  is,  that  the  French  is  probab  '   irom 

the  Latin   more  completely  than  even  the    Italian.     For 
the   Celtic,   Teutonic,   and   Iberic    languages   spoken    in 
France  before  the  Roman  conquest  uf  i! 
of  too  foreign  a  character  to  mix  with  the   la 
conquerors  or  to  supply  the  place  of  it  in  the  i 
of  the  provincials  with  their  masters;   whereas  in 
then-  already  existed  dialects  which  were  intelligible  to 
those  who  came  from  Rome,  and  for  that  v 
not  supplanted  by  that  particular  form  of  the  Italian  lan- 
guage which  happened  to  prevail  in  the  metropolitan  city. 
In  the  same  way  the  authorised  dialect  of  our  own  t 
is  more  likely  to  become  the  current  language  > 
than  of  Yorkshire.     Add  to  this  that   th> 
called  Italian  belongs  to  Tuscany,  not  to  K. 

Lastly,  we  find  much  to  strengthen  our  present  ar«ri 
in  the  abbreviated  forms  oi  writing  which  were  in  use  among 
the  Romans  and  are  Mill  found  in  manuscripts.     Tin 
word  ro«*«/is  written  ro,v, because  the  //  was  not  proii" 
before  *,  as  Diomedi  :  Putsch. 

Airain,  the  v.ord  inodo  not  unl'ix-ijuently  occupies  such  a 
position  in  the  verses  of  Terence  as  to  seem  to  ret, 
monosyllabic  pronunciation,   such  indeed 
more   consistent   with   its   enclitic    character.     Thin  M/V 
word  enters  into  the  composition  of  the  Latin  qw 
which  again  in  the  languages  derived  from  Latin  a.- 
various  forms:   in  the  Romance,  row;    in  Spanish,  c 
in  Italian,  come;   and  in  French,  comme.    To  this  v. . 
add  the  fact  that  the  Romans  themselves  represented  the 
simple  v.ord  by  the  abbreviation  mo.     Airain,  •  n  •  N  the 
manuscript  mode  of  denoting  the  conjunction  fnim,  i< 
which  must  often  be  pronounced  like  en  to  fulfil  the  con- 
ditions of  Terence's  metre.     We  may  .-.  ord, 
as  of  mode,  that  an  enclitic  should  not  attract  the  attention 
of  the  ear.     A  third  example  shall  be  a  third  enclitic,  viz. 
i/uiifi'/H.     Hentley  himself  observed  the  ti  d  by 
this  word  in  the  verses  of  Terence  (Amir.,  i.:i.  £(>i.  a 
remedy  is  to  drop  the  final  m,  which  howe\er  still  leaves 
the  \erse  encumbered  with  a  superabundance  o!  s\l! 
We  contend  tliat  this  also  is  commonly  a  moimsv ; 
and  on  the  following  grounds.    First,  the  untie  i>t'T, 
requires  it.     Secondly,  if  Vftitt'm  has  a  reduced  form 
analogy  will   gi\                                     :n.     Thirdly,  the  lio- 
mans,  [ike  the  French,  did  not  pronounce  IhcMiwcl  < 
i/lothetv. ise such  u oids, t/(y«<;  for instance,w-ouldha\ clmd the 
i  liable  long),  and  they  also  disguised  the  final  in.  $-, 
Quintilian  implies  in  the  passage  to  which  wr  have  already 
I'hus  we  have  arrived  at  a  sound  he.     Now  tin- 
language  hasawoul  of  precisely  the  same   | 
and  character,  yi,  which  we  strongly  suspect  to  I- 
sune  woid;  so  that  it' our  • 
<vuy(  are  of  one  origin,  as  well  . 
tliere  are  reasons  still  remaining  which  da 
syllabic  pronunciation  for  f/ni</<ni.  A\  .                           ailed 
it  an  encliti'-,  ;::id  it  appeals  hey ond  dispute   in  that  cha- 
racter in  the  winds  iiji' 

itic  should  in  il  '•!!  to  iri\' 

to  the.  word  which  precedes  it.  Yet  if  we  believe  the 
ordinary  teachers  of  Latin  prosody,  i-i/niilim,  though  a  cor- 
ruption from  efoqjtiil  .iiiilrm,  has  the  first  sylla- 
ble short.  Again,  quando  by  itself  has  the  final  o  common 


T  E  R 


227 


T  E  R 


to  take  the  most  unfavourable  view,  for  in  the  poets  of 
the  Augustan  age  it  \vould  be  difficult  to  find  a  single 
example  where  o  is  short :  and  in  quandoque,  qudn- 
docunquf,  the  vowel  is  always  long.  But  add  qui- 
dem,  and  they  say  quandoquidem  has  the  same  vowel 
always  short.  "So  also  si  in  siquidem,  according  to  their 
views,  loses  its  length  the  moment  the  enclitic  attaches 
itself  to  it.  If  our  views  be  right,  the  true  pronunciation 
of  these  three  words  maybe  represented  by  something  like 
eke,  quandoke,  slke ;  the  last  corresponding  to  the  Greek 
«yt .  We  will  here  observe  in  passing,  that  our  pronuncia- 
tion of  quidem  suggests  a  correction  of  a  corrupt  passage 
in  Persius,  Sat.  i.  10  : 

'  Littera.    Per  me  quiiiem  sint  oranin  prolimu  alb».' 

The  current  reading  is  equidcm ;  and  relying  upon  one 
error  the  editors  have  allowed  the  same  equidem  to  stand 
with  dubili's  in  Sat.  v.  45,  when  the  context,  as  well  as 
grammar,  requires  dubitem. 

But  to  return  to  the  subject  before  us.  It  is  not  uncom- 
mon with  critics  to  imagine  to  themselves  that  the  laws  of 
Greek  and  of  Latin  verse  are  based  upon  principles  essen- 
tially different  from  those  of  modern  languages ;  the 
former  depending,  they  say,  upon  the  length  of  sylla- 
bles, the  latter  upon  accent.  This  distinction  we  believe 
to  be  wholly  without  foundation.  We  rely  little  upon 
the  fact  that  Priscian's  treatise  headed  'De  Accentibus' 
is  only  a  schoolboy-like  scanning  of  the  first  lines  in  the 
'  .SJneid,'  because,  as  has  been  already  said,  that  writer's 
authority  is  not  of  great  weight  in  what  concerns  the 
spoken  tongue  ;  and  in  fact,  for  the  same  reason  there  is 
little  dependence  to  be  placed  upon  the  dogmas  of  the 
other  so-called  grammarians,  such  as  Diomedes.  Our 
views  upon  this  subject  are  rather  derived  from  the  perusal 
of  Terence  and  Plautus  themselves,  and  are  confirmed  to  a 
considerable  extent  by  the  hexameters  of  Virgil  and  the 
lyrics  of  Horace.  They  also  seem  to  be  supported  by  the 
general  principle*  of  language.  We  will  endeavour  briefly 
to  state  the  results  at  which  we  think  we  have  fairly  ar- 
lived. 

I.  In  words  of  more  than  two  syllables,  if,  according  to 
the  received  prosodies,  two  or  more  short  syllables,  ex- 
clusive of  the  final  syllable,  occur  together,  the  second  of 
those  short  syllables  was  slurred  over.  For  instance,  in 
some  cases  the  changing  a  vowel  i  or  e  into  the  sound  of  a 
y,  or  of  a  vowel  into  the  sound  of  a  w,  would  be 

the  simplest  mode  of  effecting  such  a  result.  Thus  ad- 
tribuert,  pcrTimus,  comiltiim,  would  upon  our  theory  be 
pronounced  udtribin  rf.  jwryinntx,  cnnxiliiinn,  the  last  of 
which  is  confirmed  by  Horace's  use  of  the  same  word  in 
his  odes,  and  the  Italian  consiglin,  Vr.  enns/ril,  Sp. 
consejo ;  and  at  any  rate  our  pronunciation  of  the  two 
former  is  more  consistent  with  the  quantity  of  the  vowels 
than  the  mode  usually  adopted,  viz.  prr-l-iitms,  adtribuere. 
Bentley  has  himself  observed  (Euti.,  ii.  2,  36)  that  the 
words  mui  rin.  Sec.  are  always  so  placed  in  Te- 

rence as  to  have  the  accent  on  the  first  syllable  ;  which,  by 
the  way,  is  consistent  with  the  Italian  mog/if,  and  the 
Spam  We  doubt  however  whether  the  dative 

plural  would  be  found  to  obey  the  law  laid  down  by 
Bentley.  In  those  cases  where  the  second  short  vowel  is 
followed  by  a  consonant,  the  abbreviation  proposed  be- 
comes impracticable,  if  at  least  that  consonant  be  really 
<o  be  sounded.  In  such  cases  the  right  course  is  probably 
to  drop  the  syllable  altogether.  Thus  mi>eria,famiUa,sta 
such  words,  Hermann  r Di>  Hi-  M'-lrirn)  truly  says,  are  to  be 
pronounced  with  the  accent  on  the  first  syllable,  and  this  in 
defiance  of  the  law  laid  down  by  all  the  grammarians,  that 
the  accent  cannot  be  carried  farther  from  the  end  of  a 
word  than  the  antepenult.  Hermann  has  not  attempted 
to  reconcile  the  two  assertions,  but  they  fall  at  once  into 
agreement  if  we  are  right  in  dropping  the  second  syllable, 
for  then  the  first  becomes  an  antepenultimate ;  and  we 
are  only  doing  what  is  common  in  our  own  language,  as  in 
every,  lovely.  This  principle  moreover  may  be  clearly 
traced  in  forms  acknowledged  to  be  Latin.  Thus  from 
pnpulux  should  be  formed  populicus,  but  that  becomes 
poplictu-  er  publicus.  If  pello  has  a  perfect  pepiifi,  mil,, 
a  perfect  cecidi ;  the  compounds  with  re  should  strictly 
give  us  repepuli,  rececidi ;  but  we  find  reppuli,  rec- 
cidi.  Again,  in  connection  with  opifex  we  ought  to  have 
npificium  and  opi/lcina  ;  but  these  have  been  supplanted 
by  offlcium,  officina.  So  too  the  Greek  cirtiriSov  becomes 


in  Lafm  oppiditm,  as  opposed  to  the  arx,  or  citadel ;  and 
the  adverb  «7ri7reJwj  takes  the  form  of  oppido,  an  equi- 
valent in  meaning  to  plane. 

II.  The  accent  of  a  Latin  dissyllable  or  polysyllable  will 
fall  upon  the  penult  if  long.     Where  that  penult  is  long 
by  the  nature  of  the  vowel,  and  at  the  same  time  the  final 
syllable  is  short,  the  accent  upon  the  penult  is  called  a 
circumflex ;  in  other  cases  an  acute  accent.     Secondly,  if 
the  penult  be  short,  put  an  acute  accent  upon  the  ante- 
penult, always  performing  the  previously  mentioned  ab- 
breviation, if  need  be  ;  the  necessary  effect  of  which  is  to 
give  us  a  long  antepenult,  if  the  penult  itself  be  short. 

III.  The  preceding  rules  dispose  of  every  case  except 
two  classes  of  words,  viz.  dissyllables  with  a  short  penult, 
and  monosyllables.  The  former  are  either  to  be  pronounced 
as  monosyllables,  or  else  to  be  attached  to  the  preceding 
or  following  word  ;  and  the  double  word  thus  formed  to 
be  accentuated  as  a  polysyllable.  When  a  word  is  attached 
in  pronunciation  to  that  which  precedes,  it  has  already  re- 
ceived in  common  use  the  name  of  enclitic.     Hermann, 
who  first  observed  that  there  are  also  words  which  attach 
themselves  to  those  which  follow,  has  proposed  to  give  them 
the  name  of  proclitics.     The  Greek  article,  for  instance, 
belongs  to  this  class,  as  also  not  unfrequently  the  Latin 
hie,  haec,  &c.     The  same  is  true  of  prepositions,  when 
really  prepositions,  that  is,  when  they  precede  their  noun  ; 
and   the    Latin   non    or  «<?,  like   the   Greek   ow,   should 
perhaps  in  many  cases  be  pronounced  in  immediate  con- 
nection with  the  following  verb,  just  as  we,  who  are  ac- 
customed to  place  our  not  after  a  verb,  write  cannot  as  a 
single  word.     Many  little  conjunctions  also  may  probably 
require  such  treatment,  as  si,  ut,  &c.     Again,  the  list  of 
enclitics  should  be  extended  so  as  to  include  most  of  the 
conjunctions  which  require  to  be  placed  second  in  asentence, 
and  even  conjunctions  in  general,  together  with  the  re- 
lative itself  when  they  are  forced,  if  the  word  may  be  used, 
into  a  second  place,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  first  line  of  the 
'  JEneid,'  which  acquires  additional  power  by  the  pronun- 
ciation Troiae-qui.     In  the  same  way  a  postponed  pre- 
position becomes   an   enclitic,   as  in  the  phrase  altis-de 
montibus.     In  this  way  many  dissyllables  and  monosylla- 
bles will  coalesce  into  polysyllables,  and  be  accentuated 
accordingly.    We  even  entertain  a  strong  suspicion  that  a 
verb  in  the  middle  of  a  sentence  must  often  be  treated  as 
an  enclitic  to  give  tone  to  some  important  word  before  it. 
But  a  statement  of  our  grounds  for  this  belief  would  require 
too  much  room. 

IV.  The  principle  of  elision  will  often  modify  the  accent 
of  a  word.     Thus   cumprlmum,  scribendum,  argumcnto, 
would    in    ordinary   circumstances    have   the   accent  as 
marked.     But  if  elision  take  place,  they  sometimes  have 
the  accent  displaced.     In  this  way  the  first  and  eleventh 
lines  of  the  Prologue  to   the 'Andria' should  be  read: 
'  Po£ta  cum-prim  Sm'  adscribend'  adpulit ;'  and  '  Non  yt' 
dissim'li  sunt  argument'  et  tamen.'     It  should  also  be  ob- 
served that  elision  often  destroys  the  initial  vowel  of  the 
second  word,  instead  of  the  final  syllable  of  the  preceding 
word,  as  nunc  tudmst  officium,  rather  than  nunc  tw  fst 
officinal. 

If  now  the  principles  we  have  assumed  on  the  grounds 
above  mentioned  be  applied  to  the  plays  of  Terence,  we 
arrive  at  the  result,  that  the  verses,  with  very  few  excep- 
tions, acquire  the  desired  rhythm  ;  and  that  there  should  be 
exceptions  must  be  expected  where  the  text  of  an  author 
is  not  yet  established  upon  a  careful  comparison  of  manu- 
scripts, and  where  even  the  transposition  of  two  words  will 
often  alter  the  accent.  Moreover  it  should  always  be  re- 
collected that  in  the  comic  drama  it  may  be  even  desirable 
to  avoid  the  purer  rhythm  of  verse,  and  approach  somewhat. 
to  the  prose  of  natural  conversation,  as  Cicero  has  himself 
remarked  (Orator.,  55).  That  what  we  now  say  may  be  put  to 
the  test,  we  will  give  a  list  of  those  words  requiring  abbre- 
viation which  most  commonly  occur,  observing  at  the 
same  time  that  a  word  at  the  end  of  an  iambic  trimeter,  or 
after  a  monosyllable,  is  often  to  be  pronounced  with  all 
its  syllables,  though  elsewhere  liable  to  contraction.  Of 
this  an  example  may  be  seen  in  the  tenth  line  of  the 
prologue  already  referred  to,  which  contains  both  noverit 
and  norit. 

senex       =  ten.    Compare  the  genitive. 
pater        =  pere.    Compare  parricida. 
soror        =  soeur,  as  in  French. 

voluntas  =  vountas.    Compare  vis  =  vbtts  and  invitus. 

2G2 


T  F.  i: 


T  E  R 


Compare  mat  It.,  mail  Fr.,  mas  Sp. 


as  in  French. 


lofruma  s  larma.   ComptnttrmtHl.toomtacramentum. 
kodtt       =  og ft,  •*  in  Italian. 

,{,.,          =  jri.    Compare  t»ur,  journtf. 

rg ,          =  y>-    Compare  Italian. 

,-  .•  •         SB  eon.    Compare  Cicero's  story  about  the  word 

MM. 

.' .  •'          «•  fat,  as  in  French. 
amtbtu     =  qun.    Compare  the  loss  of  b  in  the  dat.  pi.  of 

the  first  and  second  declensions. 
tiki  =  ti.  ) 

tibi          =  ii.   I  Compare  the  Romance,  Ital.,  Fr.,  Sp.,  and 

flu  =r    I.      I      mifii  =  MIL 

vtn  =  ou.) 

obi  =  01. 

j i,i,--  =  ju.    Compare  the  perfect  jutti. 

t*d*  =  in.     Compare  the  French  en,  and  Latin  dein, 

fj-in.  See. 

r>-li  =  ret. 

ma  fit  =  matt, 

minut  =  mint. 

aliut  =  alyut.    Compare  Greek  aXXoc. 

facere  =  fare.    Compare  Fr.,  Ital.,  Sp. 

rigilare.  =  rigliare.    Compare  Fr.,  Ital. 

TI./-  =  ri.    Compare  Fr.  roi'-ci,  voi-la. 

novot  =  nous.    Compare  Greek  vioc,  English  new. 

tint  =  tin.    Compare  Fr.,  Ital.,  Sp. 

duo  =  do.    Compare  Greek  tu-lma.  Fr.,  Eng. 

tile.  Sic.  =  il  or  If,  &c.     Compare  It.,  Fr.,  Sp. 

bonut  =  bon, 

bent         =  ben. 

malt         =  mat. 

homo       =r  homme,  as  in  French. 

r«  =  r«.    Compare  the  forms  of  the  fifth  declension 

used  by  Caesar,  Virgil,  &c. 
pufr         =  pur  m  par.    Compare   Greek   iroif,   Spartan 

voip,  Latin  Lucipor. 

tutu,  &c.  =  tut  or  tot. }  Compare  It.,  Fr.,  Sp.,  and  also 
mrut,  &c.=  mu»,  &c.     >     the  forms  used  by  Ennius,  and 
luut          =  tut,  &c.      J      in  Greek. 
fuit          =  fut.    Compare  It.,  Fr.,  and  Latin/ore. 
animut    —  amtit.    Compare  Ital.,  Fr. 
annut      =  anus.     Compare  Fr. 
edepol      =  epol.    Compare  ecastor,  ecere,  &c. 
legere      =  fere.    Compare  Fr. 
oculut      =  ofilut.    Compare  Fr. 
generit    =  genrit.    Compare  Fr. 
aperire    r=  aprire.    Compare  It.,  Fr.,  Sp. 
opera       =  opra.     Compare  the  form  in  Ennius,  and  Fr.. 

Sp. 

timilit     =  tim'lit.    Compare  Fr.  triable,  Eng.  resemble, 
tamen      =  tan.    Compare   tametsi  for   tamenetsi,   and 

tuiidem  for  tamendem. 
aliquit     =  alquit.    Compare  It.  alcuno,  Fr.  aucun,  from 

(i/iijiiix-u/iut. 
fiujut       =  /n't.    Compare   the   abbreviation   of  nulltua 

into  nuICfus  and  »«//i. 
ejtu          =  i>. 

For  a  more  detailed  exhibition  of  these  words  see 
Journal  rtf  Education,  vol.  ii..  p.  344  ;  and  on  the  subject 
of  Latin  prosody  generally,  the  same  work,  vol.  iv.,  p.  :ci(i. 
It  should  be  added  that  of  modern  editors  Hermann, 
Beit  he,  and  IJndemann  alone  seem  to  have  a  distinct  idea 
of  the  nature  of  the  metres  of  Terence  and  Plautus,  for  all 
that  has  been  said  applies  to  Plautus  as  well  as  Terence. 
Among  older  writers.  He'iitU'v  certainly  possessed  a  clearer 
insight  into  the  subject  than  some  of  his  notes  would  lead 
one  to  suppose.  That  this  is  (lie  case  is  proved  by  an  anec- 
dote in  Bishop  Monk  that  scholar.  The  reverend 
doctor,  dining  at  a  friend  s  house  in  London,  kept  the 
gentlemen  longer  over  their  wine  than  was  thought  proper 
by  the  ladies  in  the  drawing-room,  and  added  to  the' 
scandal  when  his  voice  was  heard,  even  above  stairs,  in 
what  wan  supposed  to  bv  a  K>ng  to  the  tune  of '  Unfortunate 
Miss  Bailey.'  The  doctor  was  only  reading  to  them  some 
specimen  of  Terences  Comie-  us,  or,  to  use  a 
Haider  phrait*,  the  Iambic  Tetrameter  Csr 

ilA'M'S  MA!  .TKKKNTIV. 

.1!  S.  01   mo,.-  fully   I'.  TKKKNTirs   AKKR. 
W«»  one  of  the  two  e-onue-  poet-  IIOM-  works  have 

come  do«n  to  us.     The  facts  ol  his  ,ile  «,  i  if  dis- 

pute pvrn  among  the  Roman*  themselves,     ll  we  may  rely 
Uw  biogiaphy  attributed    by  home  to  Donatus,  by 


others  to  Suetonius,  he  was  born  at  Carthapre,  and  became 
the  slave  of  a  Roman  senator  naim  l.u-anu.s, 

who,  pleased  with  his  abilities  and  hainlsunie  JX-I-SIMI. 
gave  him  a  liberal  education  and  afterwards  his  fieedom  at 

iy  age.     Some,  on  the  >illu-r  hand,  stated  that  he  ori- 
ginally fell  into  slavery  as  a  prisoner  ol  war.     A'  Kmne  lie 

..n  terms  of  intimacy  with  manj  nu-n  of  family,  more 
particularly  the  second  Scipio  Africanus  and  his  friend 
Lad  ins,  who  were  even  said  to  have  assisted  in  the  com- 
position of  the  six  comedies  which  bear  the-  name  of 
Terence.  There  were  even  some  who  asserted  that  • 
two  nobles  merely  borrowed  the  name  of  Terence  for  what 
was  wholly  their  own.  Before  he  had  completed  his 
thirty-fifth  year  he  left  Rome,  either  to  avoid  the  odium 
which  grew  out  of  the  suspicion  that  he  had  published  the 
writing^  of  others  as  his  own,  or  to  study  the  institutions 
and  manners  of  the  Greek  nation,  and  thus  qualify  himself 
for  fresh  exertions  in  the  field  he  had  chosen.  He  never 
returned,  but  the  accounts  of  his  death  were  various. 
Some  said  that  he  embarked  for  Asia,  and  wan  never  seen 
from  the  hour  of  his  embarkation;  others  that  he  died  on 
his  way  back  from  Greece,  where  he  had  translated  one 
hundred  and  eight  plays  til  Mcnander;  while  others 


contended  that  having  sent  his  translated  plays  in  a 
rate  ship,  he  received  the  news  that  this  ship  with  his 
valued  property  was  lost  at  sea,  and  died  through  trrief,  in 
the  consulship  of  Cn.  Cornelius  Dolabella  and  M.  Fulvius 
Nobilior,  either  at  fSlymphalus  in  Arcadia  or  at  the  Leu- 
cadian  promontory.  He  was  of  moderate  stature,  slender 
figure,  and  dark  complexion.  He  left  a  daughter,  Avho 
married  a  Roman  of  equestrian  rank,  and  a  property  of  six 
jugers  on  the  Appian  road.  But  another  authority  reports 
that  he  died  in  the  most  abject  poverty.  Eusebius.  or  rather 
St.  Jerome,  places  the  death  of  Terence  in  tin 
Ptolemy  Phnometor,  and  this  kins  died  in  the  third  year  ol 
the  158th  Olympiad,  or  the  close  of  14G  B.C. 

The  difficulties  in  the  life  of  Terence  are  chiefly  of  ,1 
chronological  character:  the  following  table  of  ascertained 
dates  hears  upon  it  :  — 

218  B.C.  Commencement  of  Second  Punic  War. 

201  B.C.  Peace  granted  to  the  Carthaginians. 

IR'J  n.c.  Birth  of  Scipio  Africanus  tlie  younger. 

184  B.C.  Death  of  Plautus. 

169  B.C.  Death  of  Ennius. 

KJS  DC.  Death  of  Ca'cilius  (partly  on  the  authority  of 
St.  Jerome). 

B.C.  The  '  Andria'  acted  at  the  Megalensian  games. 

l(i.~i  n.c.  The  '  Hecyra'  acted  at  the  same  can; 

1G3  B.C.  The  '  Hautontimonimenos'  acted  at  the  same 
sranus. 

1G1  B.C.  The  '  Eunuchos'  acted  at  the  same  games,  and 
the  '  Phormio  '  at  the  Roman  tames. 

ICO  B.f.  Death  of  .-Kmilius  Paulus.     The   'Adelphoe 
acted  at    his  funeral    games,  at  the  expence  of  his  sons 
Fahius  and  Scipio. 

l.'i.)  n.c.  Consulship  of  Cn.  Cornelius  Dolabella  and  M. 
FiiKius  Nobilior. 

1-lt)  B.C.  Commencement  of  the  Third  Punic  War. 

Thus  it  api>i;a>  that  the  whole  period  of  Terence's  life 
must  have  been  included  in  the  peace  between  theSrcoinl 
and  the  Third  Punic  wars;  so  that  if  taken  prisoner  in 
war.  that  war  could  not  have  been  one  between  Ron 
Carthage.  Again,  there  is  a  chronological  difficulty  in 
the  story  that  the  poet,  when  he  offered  his  '  Andria'  to 
the  (rdilcs,  w:^  directed  to  obtain  the  approval  of  Caecilius; 
that  be  accordingly  went  Jo  the  house  of  the  latter,  and 
was  coldly  hidden  to  seat  himself  on  a  stool  nnd  com- 
mence reading  while  the  other  dined;  but  that  aivr 
a  few  verses  Caecilius  was  so  charmed  that  he  invited 
Terence  to  take  his  seat  at  the  table  and  dine  with  him, 
after  which  he  read  through  the  remainder  of  Ih. 
and  filled  Csscilius  with  admiration.  Now  the  death  of 
CwciliiiK.  though  the  dale,  as  we  have  observed,  is  in  some 
measure  founded  upon  the  testimony  of  St.  Jerome, 
occurred  two  years  before  the  '  Andria'  was  acted.  The 
assertion  that  Scipio  and  I.wlius  assisted  the  poet  is  not 
altogether  rendered  impossible  by  the  \outh  of  the  pailus, 
although  Scipio  was  but  nineteen  when  the  •  Andria  was 
acted,  and  Lse.ins  was  of  about  the  same  age  with  his 
friend;  but  the  difficulty  b,  :iter  when  we  find  in 

the  piologue  of  the  'Adelphoe,'  that  the  nobles  who  were 
said  to  give  him  their  aid  are  spoken  of  in  terms  scarcely 
applicable  to  men  so  young. 


T  E  R 


229 


T  E  R 


Be  the  parties  charged  to  have  lent  their  aid  to  the  poet 
who  they  may,  it  is  clear  that  the  poet  gives  no  denial  to 
the  accusation,  either  in  the  words  just  alluded  to,  or  in  the 
prologue  to  the  '  Hautontimorumenos.'  Even  Cicero  (Aa 
Attitum,\\'\.  3;  mentions  the  report  that  Laelius  was  the  real 
author  :  and  Cornelius  Nepos,  who  by  the  way  makes  the 
three  parties,  Scipio,  Laelius,  and  Terence,  of  the  same  age 
(aequales),  tells  us  an  anecdote  which  confirms  the  report. 
C.  Laelius,  says  he,  happening  to  pass  the  Matronalia  (a 
festival  on  the  first  of  March,  when  the  husband  for  once  in 
the  year  was  hound  to  obey  the  lady)  in  his  villa  near  Pu- 
teoh,  was  told  that  dinner  was  waiting,  but  still  neglected 
the  summons.  At  last,  when  he  made  his  appearance,  he 
excused  himself  by  saying  that  he  had  been  in  a  peculiar 
vein  of  composition,  and  quoted  certain  verses  which  occur 
in  the  '  Hautontimorumeros.'viz.  those  beginning  Satis  pot 
prrjtrrvf  me  Syri  promissa  hue  induxerunt. 

The  fact  of  the  poet  being  called  Terentius  is  perfectly 
in  harmony  with  the  circumstance  of  his  alleged  master 
having  that  name,  as  it  was  the  ordinary  practice  of  the 
manumitted  slave  to  take  the  nomeu  and  praenomen  of  his 
late  master.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  altogether  an  error 
on  the  part  of  Orosius  to  confound  the  poet  with  the  Q. 
Terentius  Culleo,  who,  in  the  garb  of  a  manumitted  slave, 
accompanied  the  triumphal  procession  of  Scipio  after  his 
destruction  of  Carthage  m  the  year  146  B.C.  Ihe  name  of 
Afer  seems  to  confirm  his  Carthaginian  birth,  unless  indeed 
that  assertion  be  only  an  inference  from  the  name  itself. 

Terence  acknowledges  in  the  titles  to  his  plays  his  obli- 
gations to  the  Greek  comedians  Menander  and  Apollo- 
dorus  ;  but  he  was  not  a  mere  translator,  for  one  of  the 
charges  brought  against  him  was  that  he  drew  the  mate- 
rials of  a  single  play  from  two  or  more  of  the  Greek  plays. 
He  was  much  and  deservedly  admired  by  his  countrymen, 
even  by  Caesar  himself,  notwithstanding  the  phrase  in 
which  he  speaks  of  him,  as  a  '  dwarfed  Menander  '  (dimi- 
diate Menander).  From  Plautus,  with  whom  alone  we  can 
now  make  any  satisfactory  comparison,  he  differs  most 
widely.  Though  Plautus  excelled  in  powerful  but  ludi- 
crous expressions,  he  was  altogether  deficient  in  the  for- 
mation and  development  of  a  plot.  Terence,  on  the  other 
hand,  though  even  he  occasionally  introduces  the  buffoonery 
of  the  '  miles  gloriosus,'  the  '  parasitus,'  and  the  '  currens 
servus,'  to  gratify  the  prejudices  of  his  more  unpolished 
hearers,  who  were  better  able  to  appreciate  the  merits  of  a 
boxer  or  a  rope-dancer,  still  deserves  our  admiration  for 
his  efforts  to  place  before  his  countrymen  the  comedy  of 
manners.  If  he  was  not  always  successful,  the  failure  was 
due  to  the  rude  minds  of  his  spectators  and  the  magni- 
tude of  a  Roman  theatre,  and  perhaps  also  to  the  use  of 
masks,  which,  if  always  used,  must  have  been  a  serious 
obstacle  to  the  best  efforts  of  the  comic  actor.  The  best 
edition  of  Terence  is  that  of  Bentley,  Amsterdam,  1727. 
The  modern  imitations  of  Terence  maybe  seen  in  Dunlop's 
'  Roman  Literature.'  George  Colman  has  translated  tin- 
comedies  of  Terence  into  English.  There  are  French 
translations  by  Madame  Dacier  and  Le  Monnier. 
TEREZ.  [MEXICAN  STATES.] 

K'RGIPES.       [Nl-DIBRAXCHIATA,  vol.  XvL,  p.  361.] 

TERM  (Algebra).  A  simple  term  in  an  algebraical  ex- 
pression means  all  that  involves  multiplication,  division, 
and  extraction  of  roots  without  addition  or  subtraction. 
Thus  in  the  expression 

Jab  .  x4, 


the  terms  are  aWx*,  2abx>,  and  Jab  .  x4.  But  compound 
quantities  are  also  called  terms  when  they  are  put  in  such 
a  form  that  additions  and  subtractions  are  subordinate  to 
subsequent  multiplication,  division,  or  extraction.  Thus, 

(a+b)  x^*  +  V(a»-6*)  .a-y 

has  two  terms,  (a+b)  xe+d  and  J(al-b").xy.  If  the 
form  be  altered  into 

ax**4  +  bxe+d  +  */(«'-  A*)  .  xy, 

the  expression  then  has  three  terms.  Most  frequently 
however  there  is  one  letter  in  powers  of  which  the  whole 
expression  is  ananged,  and  then  all  that  involves  any  one 
power  of  this  principal  letter  is  a  term.  Thus  a+bx+cx 
+  ••'•'  has  three  terms,  namely,  a,  (b+c~)x,  and  ex". 

When  one  quantity  is  said  to  be  expressed  in  terms  of 
another,  it  generally  means  merely  that  the  first  is  to  be 
an  explicit  FUNCTION  of  the  second.  Thus,  in  x-\-y=a, 
we  have  expressed  x-\-y  in  terms  of  a  :  deduce  y=a—  37, 


and  we  have  y  expressed  in  terms  of  a  and  x.  This  is  the 
distinction  between  y  being  expressed  in  terms  of  x,  and  y 
being  a  function  of  x:  if  for  instance  y=a—z,  z=x*-\-x, 
y  is  a  function  of  x,  but  it  is  not  expressed  in  terms  of  x, 
but  of  z  •  substitute  for  z  its  value,  and  y  is  then  expressed 
in  terms  of  x.  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  by  saying  that 
a  quantity  is  expressed  in  terms  of  x,  it  is  not  meant  that 
x  is  the  only  letter  which  enters,  but  that  no  other  letter, 
if  there  be  any,  is  a  function  of  x.  Thus,  in  the  preceding, 
where  we  obtain  y=a—x—x't,  y  is  expressed  in  terms  of  x 
if  a  be  no  function  of  x.  But  if  a  be  a  function  of  x,  say 
3?+x,  then  y  is  not  expressed  in  terms  of  x,  until  the 
value  of  a  has  been  substituted,  giving  y— a;3— or*. 

TERM.  The  law  Terms  are  those  portions  of  the  year 
during  which  the  courts  of  common  law  sit  for  the  dis- 
patch of  business.  They  are  four  in  number,  and  are  called 
Hilary  Term,  Easter  Term,  Trinity  Term,  and  Michaelmas 
Term :  they  take  their  names  from  those  festivals  of  the 
Church  which  immediately  preceded  the  commence- 
ment of  each.  After  the  institution  of  Christianity,  all 
days  in  the  year,  Sundays  included,  were  among  Christians 
for  some  time  open  for  the  purposes  of  litigation.  This 
practice  continued  even  after  Christianity  became  the  reli- 
gion of  the  Roman  empire.  Eventually  however  the 
courts  of  law  were  closed  during  Sundays,  and  also  during 
the  times  of  the  solemn  fasts  and  festivals  of  the  Church. 
This  regulation  was  made  by  a  canon  of  the  Church, 
in  the  year  A.D.  517,  and  also  by  a  constitution  of  the 
ounger  Theodosius  which  appears  in  the  Theodosian  Code. 

y  these  means  one  vacation  was  created  in  the  winter 
during  the  time  of  Advent  and  Christmas,  another  in  the 
spring  during  Lent  and  Easter,  and  a  third  during  Pente- 
cost. The  long  vacation  in  the  summer  and  autumn  was 
also  found  necessary,  and  therefore  appointed  during  the 
time  required  for  collecting  the  harvest  and  vintage.  The 
same  arrangements  were  introduced  with  Christianity  into 
this  island.  The  laws  of  Edward  the  Confessor  contain 
the  same  provisions  as  to  the  observance  of  a  vacation 
from  legal  business  during  the  fasts  and  festivals  before 
mentioned.  The  necessities  of  a  people  at  that  time  so 
universally  agricultural  seem  to  have  compelled  the  ob- 
servance of  the  long  vacation.  The  Terms  therefore  con- 
sist of  what  remains  of  the  whole  year  after  the  ecclesias- 
tical and  agricultural  vacations  had  been  taken  out  of  it. 
It  was  the  commencement  of  the  Terms  which  was 
ascertained  by  the  dates  of  the  festivals  from  which  they 
take  their  names.  Various  acts  of  parliament  have  been 
passed  relative  to  the  regulation  of  the  Terms.  The  statute 
which  now  determines  them  is  the  11  Geo.  IV.  and  1 
Wm.  IV.,  c.  70,  amended  by  1  Wm.  IV.,  c.  3,  which 
enacts  that  Hilary  Term  shall  begin  on  the  llth  and 
end  on  the  31st  of  January ;  Easter  begin  on  the  15th  of 
April  and  end  on  the  8th  of  May  ;  Trinity  begin  on  the 
22nd  of  May  and  end  on  the  12th  of  June  ;  Michaelmas 
Jegin  on  the  2nd  and  end  on  the  25th  of  November.  The 
Monday  being  in  all  eases  substituted  for  the  Sunday  when 
.he  first  day  of  Term  falls  on  the  latter  day.  During  Term 
'our  judges  sit  in  each  court,  and  are  occupied  in  deciding 
sure  matters  of  law  only,  without  the  intervention  of  a 
ury.  The  fifth  judge  in  each  court  sometimes  sits 
ilone  to  determine  matters  of  smaller  importance  or  to 
:ry  causes  at  Nisi  Prius.  By  the  statute  1  and  2  Vic., 
c.  32,  the  courts  of  common  law  are  empowered,  upon 
giving  notice,  to  hold  sittings  out  of  Term  for  the  purpose 
of  disposing  of  the  business  then  pending  and  undecided 
)efore  them.  These  sittings  are  conducted  in  the  same 
manner  as  those  during  the  Term,  except  that  no  new 
jusiness  is  introduced.  The  period  during  which  they 
lave  the  power  to  do  this  is  restricted  to  '  such  times  as 
are  now  by  law  appointed  for  holding  sittings  at  Nisi  Prius 
n  London  and  Westminster.'  These  times  are  appointed 
)y  1  Wm.  IV.,  c.  70,  s.  7,  and  consist  of  '  not  more  than 
.wenty-four  days,  exclusive  of  Sundays,  after  any  Hilary, 
Trinity,  and  Michaelmas  Term,  nor  more  than  six  days, 
exclusive  of  Sundays,  after  any  Easter  Term,  to  be  reckoned 
consecutively  after  such  Terms.'  The  judges  are  also  em- 
powered by  the  same  section  to  appoint  such  day  or  days 
is  they  shall  think  fit  for  any  trial  at  bar  (that  is,  a  trial 
Before  four  judges  of  the  court)  and  the  time  so  appointed, 
f  in  vacation,  is  for  the  purposes  of  the  trial  to  be  deemed 
a  part  of  the  preceding  Term. 

There  is  also  a  provision  which  enables  the  judges,  with 
the  consent  of  the  parties,  to  appoint  any  time  not  within 


T  K  R 


the  twenty-four  day*  for  the  tri»l  of  my  cause  i 
Priii*.  The  sitting*  during  tlu  -e  twenty-four  and  six  days 
ar*  called  the  sitting  aHer  Term,  and  are  held  for  the 
trial*  for  cause*  at  Niki  Priiis  Tor  London  and  Westminster, 
which  placesdonot  form  part  of  any  of  the  circuits.  Sittings 
i  Prim  arv  alto  held  for  the  name  purpose  before  angle 
judge*  during  Term  time,  but  no  special  jury  cases  are 
taken  within  the  Term.  (Spelman,  Oftht  Tfrmt ;  3  Black- 

•«.,  278.) 

TERM  (of  year»).  in  legal  language,  •gninen  the  estate 
and  interest  which  i>a*>  to  the  person  to  whom  an  estate 
.  care  is  granted  by  the  owner  of  the  fee. 

,  art  may  be  created  by  a  conveyance  at 
common  law,  but  no  estate  it  vested  in  the  grantee,  nor 
anything  beyond  a  mere  intrrrtur  termini,  until  an  actual 
entry  i>  mmfe  by  him  upon  the  land.  The  tenant  for  a  term 
of  years  is  not  said  to  be  seised  of  the  land,  and  the  pos- 
session is  not  given  to  him  by  livery  of  seisin.  The  de- 
livery of  a  lease  for  years  gives  to  the  grantee  a  right  of 
entry  on  the  land  ;  when  he  actually  enters,  he  becomes 
possessed  of  the  term  ;  the  seisin  of  the  freehold  still  re- 
mains in  the  lessor,  and  the  possession  of  the  les- 
Tears  is  then  considered  as  the  possession  of  the  person 
entitled  to  the  freehold  or  reversion  expectant  on  tne  de- 
termination of  the  terra.  (Co.  I.itt..  200  to 

By  the  operation  of  the  Statute  of  Uses  an  estate  for  a 
term  of  years  may  be  created  without  an  entry  by  the 
termor ;  as  where  a  freehold  estate  is  conveyed  to  A  and 
his  heirs  to  the  use  of  B  for  09  years,  with  "remainder  to 
the  grantor  in  fee :  there  the  use' is  immediately  executed 
in  H.  and  the  statute  instantly  annexes  to  it  the  legal  es- 
tate, without  any  actual  entry  by  H. 
A  term  of  years  may  also  oe  created  by  devise  in  a  will. 
A  term  of  years  may  be  limited  to  commence  infuturo, 
«rhich  a  freehold  cannot ;  for  the  freehold  is  not  put  in 
abeyance  by  the  creation  of  such  a  term,  as  it  would  be 
by  the  creation  of  a  freehold  estate  to  commence  infuturo, 
but  it  continues  in  the  grantor.  ( 'o.  I.itt.,  46  a.) 

A  term  of  years  may  be  limited  so  as  to  cease  by  a  pro- 
viso in  the  conveyance  itself,  upon  the  happening  of  any 
event,  or  the  performance  of  any  particular  act  vf'o.  LitC 
46  a.) ;  and  it  is  usual,  when  terms  of  years  are  created  for 
the  purposes  of  certain  trusts,  to  insert  a  proviso  for  the 
cesser  of  the  term  upon  the  performance  and  satisfaction 
of  the  trusts  of  the  term. 

Long  terms,  as  of  500  or  1000  years,  are  frequently 
created  by  way  of  mortgage,  with  a  proviso  for  determining 
them  upon  payment  of  the  money  by  a  certain  day. 
••  are  more  advantageous  than  mortgages  in  fee 
in  one  respect,  that  there  does  not  arise,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  latter,  a  separation  of  the  legal  estate  and  the 
interest  in  the  debt  upon  the  death  of  the  mortgagee. 
ir  terms  are  also  frequently  granted  to  the  tnistees 
of  marriage  settlements  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  them 
by  sale  or  mortgage  of  the  terms  to  raise  portions  for  chil- 
dren and  for  other  purposes.  It  sometimes  happens  there- 
fore that,  though  courts  of  equity  interfere,  as  in  case  of 
mortgages  in  lee,  to  enlarge  the  period  of  redemption, 
long  terms  of  yean  of  the  kind  above  mentioned  become 
absolute  property.  Again,  it  frequently  happens  that 
when  a  redemption  does  take  place  after  the  time  fixed  in 
the  original  contract,  when,  according  to  the  theory  of 
mortgages  the  estate  has  become  absolute  at  law,  the 
instead  of  being  surrendered  to  the  owner  of  the 
inheritance,  be  assigned  to  a  trustee  for  him  and  his  heirs, 
and  retained  as  an  appendage  to  that  inheritance  under 
the  name  of  an  attendant  term.  The  advantage  of  this 
practice  is  that  it  gives  the  power  of  defeating  the  claims 
of  strangers  upon  the  inheritance,  by  setting  up  tli 
as  prior  in  creation,  and  therefore  in  right.  The  right  to 
take  advantage  of  such  terms  is  limited  by  courts  of  • 
to  such  incumbrances  as  the  owner  of  the  inheritance  had 
"f  at  the  time  when  he  acquired  it ;  otherwise  it 
is  obvious  that  great  injustice  might  be  occasioned  by  the 
use  of  them.  A  term  of  years  attendant  on  the  inheritance 
verned  by  the  same  rules  as  the  inheritance  itself  is 
t  to.  The  right  to  it  does  not  go  to  executors,  but 
follow*  UK  the  inheritance.  It  will  not  be 

Hied  at  a  chattel  by  the  felony  of  the  owner  of  the  in- 
heritance; but  if  the  inheritance  escheat,  the  term  will 

As  to  the  assignment  of 

attendant  and  outstanding  terms  to  attend  the  inheritance, 
Ato 


T  E  R 

Terms  of  years  are  considered  in  law  not  as  real  estate, 
but  as  chattel  interests  in  real  property,  ai: 
do  not  descend  to  the  heir  of  the  jM-rson  who  dies  possessed 
of  them,  but  vest  in  his  executor  or  administrator,  like  any 
other  chattel ;  and  the  is  the  same  whatever  be 

the  length  of  the  tenii.    t  a.) 

Marriage  entitles  the  husband  to  the  terms  of  years  be- 
longing to  his  wife,  as  well  as  to  tlu 

He  may  administer  to  the  estate  ol  :ised 

wife,  and  is  entitled  for  his  own  benefit   to  her  eh 
real,  whether  reduced  into  possession,  or  reversions) 
contingent ;  and  in  case  of  the  husband's  death  after  the 
wife,  his  next  of  kin,  and  not  hers,  are  entitled  to  th 
ministration.  (Co.  I.itt.,  351  a.)    The  husband  may.  during 
the  wife's  life,  dispose  of  her  chattels  real  by  a- 
but  not  by  will :   and  if  he  dies  without  having  assi 
them,  they  "ill  belong  to  the  .surviving  w ;  the 

husband  be  an  alien,  he  cannot  acquire  by  marriage  any 
right  to  a  term  of  years  belonging  to  his  wife.  (Anon.  9; 

43;  Id.  104.) 

The  tenant  for  years  is  entitled  to  the  same  . 
the  tenant  for  life  (Co.  I.itt.,  41  b.1 ;   and.  like  the  tenant 
for  life,  he  is  not  entitled  to  commit  waste  by  cutting 
down  timber,  building  houses,  opening  mines.  Sec.     (Co. 
Litt..  B3  a.)     He  is  also  punishable  for  permissive  waste, 
and  therefore  bound  to  keep  all  houses  and  other  build- 
ings on  the  land  in  good  and  tenantable  repair.  (Co.  I.itt.. 
."•7  a       If  a  woman  tenant  for  years  commits  waste  and 
marries,  the  husband,  having  acquired  the  term  by  mar- 
riage, becomes  answerable  for  the  waste.  (Co.  I. 
A  term  of  years  may  however,  like  an  estate  for  li;> 
granted  without  impeachment  of  waste,  and  such  a  clai 
the  grant  is  construed  in  the  same  manner  with  resj>. 
both  estates.  When  the  determination  of  aterm  is  certain,  as 
when  lands  are  let  for  21  years,  the  tenant  is  not  entitled 
to  embleraents,  for  it  was'  his  own  folly  to  sow  where  he 
knew  that  he  could  not  reap.     But  w'hen  an  estate   for 
years  depends  upon  an  uncertain  event,  as  when  it  is  made 
determinable   on  the   death  of  a  particular   person,  the 
tenant  will  be  entitled  to  emblements  in  the  same  manner 
as  a  tenant  for  life.     (Co.  Litt.,  53  b. ;  16  East,  71.) 

Terms  of  years,  being  chattel  interests,  are  subject  to 
crown  debts  while  they  continue  in  the  possession  of  the 
debtor,  but  not  in  the  hands  of  a  bond  fidf  purchaser  tor 
valuable  consideration  without  notice,  who  has  bought 
before  any  execution  awarded  by  the  crown.  (8  Rep., 
171.  They  are  in  like  manner  assets  in  the  hands  of  the 
executor  or  administrator  for  the  payment  of  specialty  and 
simple  contract  debts,  but  not  after  assignment  by  him  tu 
a  purchaser  for  valuable  consideration. 

Terms  of  years,  not  being  estates  of  inheritance,  cannot 
be  entailed,  but  they  may  be  limited  to  any  number  of 
persons  in  ttse  successively  for  life,  with  limitations  over. 
so  as  to  be  inalienable  for  a  life  or  lives  in  being,  and  21 
years  after.  [SETTLEMENT.] 

Terms  of  years,  like  life  estates,  may  be  merged  either 
by  becoming  vested  in   the  owner   of  the   freehold,  or 
'  by   surrender  to  the   person  in  remainder  or   reversion. 
[SlKRGKR;    SURRENDER.]      But    a    mere    interettt    ter- 
mini, not  being  an  actual   estate,    cannot    be    n: 
!  by  surrender,  though  it  may  be  extinguished  by  release. 
'  (Cro.    Jac.,    619.}      It    was    formerly   doubted    whether 
one  term  could  merge  in  another,  but  it  is  now  settled 
that  when  two   terms,   granted   out  of  the  sni 
vest    in    the    same    person,   there   being  no   intervening 
estate,  the  first  merges  in  the  term  in  reversion.  (6  Madd., 
j  66.)    Where  a  term  lias  been  created  to  answer  trusts,  a 
court  of  equity  will  sometimes  relieve  against  a  merger  of 
it,  so  far  as  to  make  it  answer  the  purposes  of  it*  creation. 
(3Swanst..  603,  608.) 
TERMES.    [TramriNA.] 

TERMINAL.     We  cannot  say  that  this  term  it  used  in 
mathematics  to  the  extent  to  which  we  shall  cam'  it :  but 
the  very  great  convenience  which  would  arise  from  an  ex- 
tension 01  its  use  is  sufficient  justification  for  coining  a  few 
[  new  meanings.    Term  is  a  word  of  geometry  very  little 
i  used,  and  signifying   boundary  or  extremity  ;    the  words 
terminal  value  and  terminal  form  are  sometimes  used  to 
v  the  last  and  most  complete  value  or  form.     When 
a  finite  expression,  added  to  a  certain  number  of  terms  of 
I  a  series,  makes  up  the  equivalent  of  the  expression  from 
which  the  series  is  deduced,  or  stands  for  all  the  subse- 
1  quent  terms  of  the  scries,  this  finite  expression  might  be 


T  E  R 


231 


T  E  R 


called  the  terminal  expression.  Thus  in  TAYLOR'S  THEO- 
REM we  have  one  terminal  expression  in  D'Alembert's 
form,  another  in  that  of  Lagrange. 

There  is  also  another  use  of  the  word,  which  would  con- 
vey a  distinction  much  wanting  words  to  express  it :  we 
allude  to  what  might  be  called  terminal  language.  All 
the  use  of  the  words  infinitely  small  and  infinitely  great 
[INFINITE  :  LIMIT]  is  entitled  to  this  name  ;  as  follows : 
When  we  say,  for  example,  that  a  circle  is  a  regular 
polygon  with  an  infinitely  great  number  of  infinitely  small 
sides,  the  language  used  is  that  of  an  end  arrived  at,  a 
transformation  actually  made :  the  circle  is  described  as 
actually  consisting  of  straight  lines ;  and  the  language  is 
terminal  (expressive  of  a  boundary  actually  attained). 
But  the  meaning  of  this  language  is,  or  is  generally  held 
to  be,  false  :  no  polygon  is  a  circle,  how  great  soever  the 
number,  or  how  small  soever  the  magnitude,  of  the  sides. 
The  proposition  which  is  really  true,  that  is,  over  which 
all  shake  hands,  whatever  their  notion  of  infinity  may  be, 
is  that  the  terminal  proposition,  true  or  false,  is  one  to 
which  an  interminable  and  unlimited  degree  of  approxi- 
mation may  be  made.  An  inscribed  regular  polygon  may, 
with  sides  enough,  be  made  to  coincide  with  the  circle 
within  any  degree  of  nearness  we  please  to  assign  :  or  the 
following  proposition— 'the  area  of  the  inscribed  polygon 
may  be  made  to  differ  from  that  of  the  circle  by  less  than 
the  nth  part  of  the  latter' — may  be  made  true  for  every 
value  of  n  that  can  be  named,  however  great.  Terminal 
language,  properly  employed,  may  be  made  the  means  of 
abbreviation  of  all  those  truths  whose  announcement  con- 
tains interminable  approximation :  the  development  of 
this  sentence  is  the  object  of  the  article  INFINITE. 

TERMINA'LIA,  the  festival  of  Terminus  [TERMINUS], 
celebrated  at  Rome  every  year  on  the  23rd  of  February. 
It  was  said  to  have  been  instituted  by  Numa  with  the 
worship  of  the  god  himself.  The  festival  was  of  a  twofold 
character,  either  public  or  private,  according  as  it  was  held 
at  the  boundaries  between  the  fields  of  private  persons,  or 
at  the  boundary  of  the  Ager  Romanus.  In  the  former 
case  persons  possessing  adjoining  lands  met  with  their 
families  and  servants  at  the  stone  which  divided  the  pro- 
perties, adorned  it  with  garlands  and  offered  sacrifices,  and 
a  feast  in  which  the  neighbours  partook  was  intended  to 
rtinewthe  friendly  relations  existing  between  them.  (Ovid., 
Fast.,  ii.  643,  &c.)  Dionysius  states  that  down  to  his  time  ! 
the  Romans  did  not  offer  any  bloody  sacrifices  on  this  j 
occasion,  but  only  cakes  and  fruit.  But  we  have  the  most 
authentic  statements  which  show  that  the  assertion  of 
Dionysius  can  only  apply  to  the  early  period  of  the 
republic,  and  that  subsequently  a  lamb  or  a  sucking  pig 
was  sacrificed.  (Dionvsius.  ii.  74  ;  Plutarch,  Numa,  10  : 
Quaett.  Rom.,  15 ;  Horatius,  Epod.,  ii.  59.)  The  public 
Terminalia  were  solemnised  in  a  similar  manner  by  the 
whole  people  on  the  boundary  of  the  Ager  Romanus. 
(Ovid.,  Fast.,  ii.  679,  &c.) 

Hartung,  Die  Religion  der  Romer,  ii.,  p.  52;  Diction- 
ary of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities,  v.  '  Terminalia.') 

TKRMIN  A'LIA  (from  terminus)  is  the  name  of  a  genus 
of  plants  belonsnng  to  the  natural  order  Combretacese. 
The  species  of  this  genus  consist  of  trees  and  shrubs,  with 
alternate  leaves,  which  are  usually  crowded  together  at 
the  ends  of  the  branches.  The  flowers  are  destitute  of 
petals,  and  are  disposed  in  spikes,  which  are  racemose  and 
panicled :  in  the  lower  part  of  the  spikes  they  contain 
both  stamens  and  pistils,  but  in  the  upper  part  they  con- 
tain only  stamens.  The  limb  of  the  calyx  is  campanulate, 
5-cleft,  with  acute  lobes.  The  stamens  "are  ten  in  number, 
arranged  in  two  series,  and  are  longer  than  the  calyx. 
The  ovary  contains  two  ovules,  the  style  is  acute,  and  the 
fruit  is  drupaceous,  containing  only  one  seed.  All  the 
species  are  inhabitants  of  the  tropical  parts  of  Asia  and 
America :  they  are  numerous,  and  many  of  them  are  used 
in  medicine  and  tht  arts. 

T.  angustifolia,  Narrow-leaved  Terminalia :  the  leaves 
are  linear-lanceolate,  very  thin  at  both  ends,  pubescent 
beneath  ;  the  petioles  are  also  pubescent,  and  have  two 
glands  at  their  apex.  This  tree  is  a  native  of  the  East 
Indies,  and  was  formerly  called  Terminalia  Benzoin,  as  it 
yields  on  tapping  a  gum-resin  very  similar  to  benzoin,  and 
possessing  the  same  properties.  This  gum  exudes  from 
the  tree  in  the  form  of  a  milky  juice,  which,  on  being  dried, 
forms  a  light  whitish  substance,  exceedingly  friable. 
When  gently  dried  it  assumes  the  form  of  a  white  powder, 


which  was  in  great  repute  as  a  cosmetic.  It  has  an  agreea- 
ble fragrance,  resembling  gum-benjamin,  which  in  a  great 
measure  depends  on  the  benzoic  acid  it  contains. 

T.  vernix.  Varnish  Terminalia,  has  linear-lanceolate 
leaves,  narrowed  at  each  end,  and  glabrous  beneath ;  the 
petioles  are  also  glabrous.  This  plant  is  a  native  of  the 
Moluccas,  and  abounds  in  a  resinous  juice,  which  is  col- 
lected by  the  inhabitants,  and  used  in  the  natural  state  as 
a  varnish.  It  is  also  used  for  the  same  purpose  in  China. 
T.  Catappa  has  obovate  leaves,  tapering  to  the  base, 
pubescent  beneath,  and  glands  on  the  under  sides  of  the 
midrib.  It  is  originally  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  but 
has  now  become  naturalised  in  the  West  India  Islands. 
Some  botanists  have  described  the  West  India  species  as 
distinct  from  the  Asiatic,  but  there  is  no  good  distinctive 
character.  The  drupaceous  fruit  of  this  tree  is  about 
three  inches  long,  and  contains  a  large  seed,  which  is 
used  for  eating  and  obtaining  an  oil,  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  almond.  This  tree,  on  account  of  its  thick 
foliaare,  is  much  planted  in  the  tropics  for  the  purpose  of 
forming  avenues  near  houses.  The  bark  and  leaves  yield 
a  black  pigment.  Indian  ink  is  manufactured  from  the 
juice  of  this  tree.  It  yields  a  light  durable  timber,  which 
is  much  used. 

T.  glabrata,  smooth  Terminalia,  very  much  resembles 
the  last,  but  the  leaves  are  glabrous  beneath  and  small. 
The  fruit  is  also  of  a  much  less  size,  oval,  and  less  fur- 
rowed. It  is  a  native  of  the  Society  and  Friendly  Islands, 
and  is  cultivated  by  the  inhabitants  near  their  huts  and  in 
their  burial-places.  The  wood  is  used  in  these  islands  for 
building  boats,  making  benches,  &c.,  and  the  seeds  are 
eaten. 

T.  Bellerica,  Belleric  Terminalia,  has  glabrous,  elliptic, 
entire,  acute,  alternate  leaves,  and  bi-glandular  petioles. 
It  is  a  native  of  mountainous  districts  of  the  East  Indies. 
Its  flowers  are  very  fetid.  The  fruit  is  reputed  to  possess 
tonic,  astringent,  and  attenuant  properties.  When  the 
bark  is  wounded  a  gum  flows  out,  which  is  insipid,  resem- 
bling gum-arabic. 

T.  Chebula  is  also  an  East  Indian  species,  it  is  distin- 
guished from  the  last  by  possessing  opposite  leaves  which 
are  pubescent  beneath.  The  fruit  of  this  species  is  more 
astringent  than  the  last  and  is  used  for  the  purposes  of 
dyeing.  A  durable  ink  is  made  by  mixing  the  salts  of 
iron  with  an  infusion  of  the  outer  rind  of  the  fruit.  Both 
this  species  and  the  last  are  subject  to  the  attacks  of 
insects  producing  gall-nuts.  These  galls  possess  the  as- 
tringent principle  in  abundance,  and  are  also  used  for 
dyeing.  They  are  called  Cadacay  by  the  Tamuls. 

The  genus  Bucida  is  very  nearly  allied  to  Terminalia, 
and  belongs  to  the  same  natural  order.  It  is  distinguished 
from  the  latter  genus  by  its  urceolately-campanulate  calyx, 
its  didymous  anthers,  baccate  fruit,  and  angulated  puta- 
men.  The  most  remarkable  species  is  the  Bucida  bucerat, 
the  ox-horn  olive-tree,  known  in  Jamaica  as  the  black 
olive,  in  Antigua  as  the  French  oak,  and  in  the  French 
Islands  as  Grignon.  It  has  obtuse  glabrous  ovato-cunei- 
form  leaves,  and  small  yellowish  flowers  disposed  in  cylin- 
drical spikes  covered  with  a  silky  pubescence.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  West  India  Islands  on  clayey  soils  near  the 
coast.  It  has  obtained  its  name  from  the  tendency  of  its 
branches  to  shoot  out  into  monstrous  spongy  excrescences 
resembling  in  form  the  horns  of  an  ox.  These  excrescences 
resemble  galls  in  their  nature,  and  are  probably  produced 
by  insects  puncturing  the  terminal  bud  of  the  branch. 
This  tree  is  remarkable  in  appearance  for  its  slender 
crooked  branches  and  tufted  leaves,  but  it  attains  a  con- 
siderable size,  and  its  timber  is  valuable.  The  bark  of  this 
tree  contains  an  astringent  principle  which  is  extensively 
used  rn  tanning. 

In  the  cultivation  of  species  of  Terminalia  and  Bucida 
a  soil  composed  of  loam  and  peat  should  be  preferred. 
Cuttings  strike  freely  when  placed  in  a  pot  of  sand  and 
covered  with  a  hand-glass. 

(Dons  Miller's  Dictionary;  Burnett's  Outlines  of  Bo- 
tany;  Bischoff,  Lehrbuch  der  Botanik;  Lindley,  Natural 
System.) 

TE'RMINUS,  a  Roman  deity  whose  worship  was  said 
to  have  been  introduced  by  king  Numa  Pompilius,  when 
he  ordered  the  fields  of  the  citizens  to  be  separated  from 
one  another,  and  the  boundaries  to  be  marked  by  stones 
which  were  to  be  considered  as  sacred  to  Terminus,  or  as 
Dionysius  calls  him,  Zt«c  opiof.  (Festus,  s.\.  Terminus. 


T  E  R 


T  E  R 


DtonvMu*.  ii.  74.)  A  careful  examination  of  the  worship 
of  thi»  god  khowi  that  Terminus  was  only  a  surname  of 
Jupiter,  who  was  wondupjx-d  under  this  name  a*  the 
guardian  of  boundaric*.  The  stone  pillars  tl.t-i:. 
were  regarded  a*  sMiibolu-nl  repNMBtatioai  of  the  god 
1  hence  'jHThapa  the  severe  law  mentioned  by 

-,  that  whoever  displaced  such  a  pillar  should,  to- 
gether with  his  oxen,  be  devoted  to  the  god.  In  the  same 
manner  in  which  the  boundaries  between  the  lands  of 
private  individuals  were  marked,  the  original  territory  of 
•  •r  Komanus)  was  separated  by  pillars  from  the 
torn-  rhbouring  tribes.  In  the'directiou  of  I.au- 

rentum"  tin-re  was  such  a  pillar  (terminus)  between  the 
fifth  and  sixth  milestones  from  Koine  on  the  J,auieiitine 
road.  Tin;,  was  the  public.  Terminus.  The  cod  had  a 
temple  on  the  Capitol,  and  the  part  of  the  roof  just  abo\e 
the  symbolical  pillar  was  left  open.  (Fcstns:  s 
A-l  .l"i..  ix.  448.)  A  story  to  account  for  this  peculiarity 
is  related  bv  Ovid  (fin//,  i'i.  071.  &c.)  and  others. 

TE'RMtNt'S,  or  TERM,  signifies,  in  sculpture  and 
architecture,  a  pillar  statue,  that  i*.  either  a  hall'  Matin-  or 
bust,  not  placed  upon,  but  incorporated  with,  and  as  it 
were  immediately  springing  out  of  the  square  pillar  which 

s  as  its  pedestal.  If  they  be  mere  busts,  liirurcs  of 
this  kind  are  usually  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Heniuc 
CEp/iai  ;  and  busts  which,  instead  of  having  a  circular 
moulded  base,  resemble  the  upper  part  of  a  terminus,  are 
called  terminal  busts.  There  are  ninny  such  busts  and  also 
some  termini  in  the  Townlev  Collection  at  the  Hritish 

uiii  :  among  others  a  double  terminal  bust  of  Bacchus 
and  Libera ;  and  a  terminal  statue  of  Pan,  nearly  a  w  hole 
figure,  with  a  deeply  moulded  base.  The  terminus  or 
pillar  part  is  frequently  made  to  taper  dmrnti-ards,  or 
made  narrower  at  its  base  than  above,  which  mode  of 
diminution,  the  reverse  of  that  employed  for  columns, 
was  no  doubt  intended  by  way  of  similarity  to  the  general 
outline  of  the  human  figure,  whose  greatest  breadth  is  at 

ouldcrs.    It  has  been  supposed  that  the  earl icst  statues 

merely  terminal  figures, — upright  stones,  erected  as 
land-marks  and  boundaries,  the  upper  end  of  which  w:is 
mdely  carved  into  the  shape  of  a  head,  which  fonn  was 
ntterwards  retained  for  occasional  purposes  after  sculpture 
had  arrived  at  perfection.  By  modern  artists  the  pedMbU 
part  is  usually  made  tapering  downwards  or  narrowest  just 
above  its  base  ;  when  it  is  called  the  gaine,  from  its  resem- 
blance to  the  scabbard  of  a  sword. 

In  architectural  design  Terms  are  employed  in  lieu  of 

itides,  not  however  as  insulated  pillars,  but  as  pilasters 
forming  a  small  order  or  attic,  or  a  decoration  to  gateways. 
doors,  Sec.  They  frequently  occur  in  what  is  called  tin 


•  •>'ntt>  and  our  own  Elizabethan  style. 
TERMINUS  is  also  now  used  to  signily  the  buildings  for 
offices,  &c.,  at  the  extremity  of  a  railroad,  whereas  those 
erected  at  intervals  along  its  course  are  called  H/iiHo/m. 
The  establishment  of  railroads  has  therefore  given  rise  to 
a  new  class  of  structures,  which  from  their  nature  and  ex- 
tent admit  of  being  rendered  very  stalking  in  character 
and  design.  One  of  the  most  monunu'iitnl  architectural 
works  of  the  kind  as  yet  erected,  is  the  Terminus  of  the 
London  and  Birmingham  Railway,  in  Euston-square, — a 
Grecian  Doric  propvlieum  (distyle  in  antis,  on  both  fronts) 
on  a  large  scale,  the  columns  being  about  70  feet  high. 
The  Terminus  at  the  Birmingham  end,  though  by  the  same 
architect  Hardwick),  is  in  the  Italian  style.  (For  views,  tec. 
of  both  structures,  see  Companion  to  the  'Almanack'  for 
1839.)  Other  termini  that  may  be  mentioned  for  their 
pretensions  to  architecture,  are — those  of  the  London  and 
Southampton  Railway,  the  one  at  Nine  '  ixhall, 

the  other  at  Southampton,  both  handsome  buildings  in 
the  Italian  style,  by  Tite  ;  that  at  Blackwall,  by  the  same 
architect .  and  in  a  similar  style ;  and  those  at  Liverpool,  York, 
and  Brighton.  The  positive  ncccs-ity  for  some  covered 
gallery,  either  colonnade  or  arcade,  and  the  obvious 
•  i t unity  afforded  for  making  a  spacious  portal,  either 
propylanim  or  gateway,  a  marked  feature  in  the  general 
design,  afford*  more  than  ordinary  scope  to  the  architect. 
Now  that  railroads  (Cfiemini  de  t-'er,  and  Kisenbahneii,  as 
the  French  and  Germans  term  them) have  been  introduced 
Ley  have  there  also  given  occasion  to 

many  architectural  constructions  lor  their  termini.     Some 

IVniuni    may    be  KOCH   in 
i-i-hcs  Album.' 
a  section  of  iS'curopterous  insects,  in 


which  I.alrcill,  includes  the  genera  Muntiipa,  Baphidia, 
«,  and  l't<"  Mallv 

regarded  as  constituting  three  distinct  families,  and  will 
be  In  as  such,  ciiimiicnciiii;  with  the  Knj.ln- 

diidee  of  Leach,  which  contains  the  two  first-mentioned 
genera.  The  nisn-ts  nf  this  family  have  the  antenna: 
slender  and  composed  of  more  than  ten  joint.-, ;  the 

from  three  to  five  joints ;  the  w;  nl\  equal 

in  si/.e  and  ha\e  numerous  nervures  inclosing  small  poly- 
gonal cells  :  the  prothorax  is  lone  and  sK-;: 

The  genus  M<i>iti*/m  is  at  once  distinguished  by  the 
peculiar  structure  of  the  anterior  paii  which  are 

large,  have  the  tilmi'  broad  and  compressed,  and  pro', 
beneath  with  spines;  the  joints  of  the  tarsi  are  indistinct, 
and  also  furnished  beneath  with  spines  :  the  tarsi  of  the 
other  four  legs  are  distinctly  live-jointed.  The  antennae 
are  short,  about  equal  to  the  head  in  length,  and  slender. 
The  prothorax  is  elongated,  slender,  and  broadest  in  front. 
The  wings,  when  at  rest,  meet  over  the  abdomen. 

The  Miintispa  pagaim   (Kabricius)   is  rather  less  than 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  of  a  browmsh-ycl- 
km  COI9Qr;    the  wings  are   transparent,  the   superior  pair 
have  the  upper  margin  yellow.     It  is  found  in  Frano 
Germany. 

In  Brazil  are  species  closely  allied  to  Manti\jm,  which 
differ  in  having  the  antenme  as  long  as  the  body:    the 
are  nearly  horizontal ;  the  body  is  depressed  and  ter- 
minated by  two  little  appendices.    They  form  the  genus 
Hnplouhora  of  Perty. 

In  the  genus  Kaphidia  the  body  is  rather  slender,  the 
prothorax  is  long  and  almost  cylindrical,  the  head  broad 
and  somewhat  depressed,  and  the  eyes  are  prominent ;  the 
antennae  are  as  long  as  the  head  and  thorax,  and  composed 
of  about  thirty-seven  joints.  The  abdomen  is  terminated 
in  the  female  by  a  long  ovipositor.  The  legs  are  slender, 
of  moderate  length,  and  the  tarsi  are  four-jointed. 

Raphidia  ophiopais  is  not  an  uncommon  insect  in  this 
country :  it  is  rather  more  than  one-third  of  an  inch  in 
length,  and  the  expanded  wings  measure  f  of  an  inch  ; 
the  head  and  body  are  black,  the  antenna:  and  legs  are 
yellow,  and  the  wings  are  transparent. 

The  larva  of  this  insect  lives  in  the  bark  of  trees  and  is 
said  to  prey  upon  other  insects.  It  is  exceedingly  acti\e 
in  its  motions,  which  are  somewhat  like  those  of  a  snake. 
The  body  is  soft,  long,  and  slender,  of  a  brown  colour, 
.-tri]>ed,  and  variegated  with  yellow  ;  the  head  and  pro- 
thorax  are  corneous  and  of  a  black  colour.  In  the  pupa 
all  the  parts  of  a  perfect  insect  are  distinct,  being  enveloped 
in  a  thin  membrane. 

Family  Trrniitidte. — This  family  is  distinguished  by  the 
following  characters  : — Wings  with  few  transverse  nei 
folding  horizontally  ;  tarsi  four-jointed  ;  antenna;  short  and 
moniliform ;  body  depressed. 

In  the  genus  f<  /•///• .%  the  head  is  large  and  rounded,  and 
besides  the  ordinary  compound  eyes,  it  has  three  ocelli,  or 
simple  eyes,  situated  on  the  upper  surface  ;  the  antenna;  are 
as  long  as  the  head  and  thorax,  inserted  in  front  ot  'tit. 
and  composed  of  about  eighteen  joints.  The  abdomen  is 
terminated  by  two  small  jointed  appendages. 

The  Termites,  or  white  ants,  as  they  are  oil  en  called, 
though  they  have  little  affinity  with  the  true  ants,  are 
chiefly  conhned  to  the  tropics  ;  some  few  species  hnwi  \  IT 
extend  into  the  temperate  regions.     Like  the  1" 
and  ants,  which  live  in  society,  the  Termites  are  con. 
of  three  kinds  of  individuals, "males,  females,  and  what  are 
termed  neuters  or  workers.     Their  ravages  in  the  warmer 
parts  of  the  globe  are  well  known.    They  unite  in  societies 
composed   <  ach  of  an   immense  number  of  indi\i<- 
li\in-r  in  the  ground  and   in  trees,  and  often  attacking  the 
wood-work  of  houses;    in  which  they  form   innunn 
galleries,  all  of  which  lead  to  a  central  point.     In  forming 
these  galleries  they  avoid  piercing  the  surface  of  the  wood- 
work, and  hence  it  appears  sound  when  the  slightest  touch 
is  sometimes  sufficient  to  cause  it  to  fall  to  pi' 

The  termites  sometimes  erect  their  domiciles  on  the 
ground  in  the  form  of  pyramids  or  cc  'hues  with 

a  roof,  and  these  nests  are  often  very  numerous,  and  resem- 
ble the  huts  of  savages. 

The  larva-  u.-arly  locmble  the  perfect  insect,  excepting 

that  they  possess  no  wind's.     The  pupse  have  rudimentary 

wings.   'The  neuters  difl'er  from  the  males  and  females  in 

mi  wimrs,  in  bavinir  the  body  stouter,  the  head 

much  longer  and  provided  with  long  jaws  crossing  at  the 


T  E  R 


233 


T  E  R 


extremity.  They  are  said  to  defend  the  nests,  and  sta- 
tioning themselves  near  the  outer  surface,  they  are  the 
first  to  make  their  appearance  when  their  habitation  is 
disturbed  :  they  will  attack  the  party  molesting  them,  and 
bite  with  considerable  strength. 

The  negroes  and  Hottentots  consider  these  insects  a 
great  delicacy.  They  are  destroyed  with  quick-lime,  or 
more  readily  with  arsenic,  which  is  thrown  into  their 
habitations. 

The  Psocidce  are  very  small  insects,  having  soft  and 
swollen  bodies:  the  head  is  very  large,  nearly  trigonal,  and 
provided  with  three  ocelli  on  the  upper  surface.  The 
wings  when  folded  meet  at  an  angle  above  the  abdo- 
men, and  are  sparingly  provided  with  nervures.  The  an- 
tenna: are  setaceous,  and  composed  of  about  ten  joints. 
The  tarsi  are  short,  and  usually  two-jointed.  They  are 
very  active  in  their  motions,  and  live  in  the  bark  of  old 
trees  and  in  dwelling-houses.  Nearly  forty  species  are 
said  to  be  found  in  this  country. 

TE'RMOLI.     [SANXIO.] 

TERMONDE.     [DEN-DKRMONDE.] 

TERN,  STERNA,  the  name  of  those  web-footed 
long-winged  birds  which  are  vulgarly  known  as  Sea-Swal- 
lows. 

Linnaeus,  in  his  last  edition  of  the  Syslema  Natures, 
places  the  genus  Sterna  between  Laru-s  and  Rhynchops. 

Cuvier  arranges  the  Hirondellt's  de  Mer  between  the 
Goefitf"/'-  Li/-//*  :>tul  Rhynchops.  He  observes  that  these 
n'ir"ii'l'!tr<s  de  Mer  derive  their  names  from  their  c 
sively  long  and  pointed  wings,  their  forked  tail,  and  their 
short  legs,  which  give  them  a  port  and  flight  analogous 
to  those  of  the  Swallows.  Their  bill,  he  adds,  is  pointed, 
compressed,  straight,  without  curvature  or  projection ; 
the.ir  nostrils,  situated  towards  the  base,  are  oblong  and 
pierced  through  ;  the  membranes  which  unite  their  toes 
are  very  much  notched,  they  therefore  swim  but  little. 
They  fly  in  all  directions,  and  with  rapidity  over  the  sea, 
uttering  loud  cries  and  cleverly  picking  up  from  its  sur- 
face the  mollusks  and  small  fishes  which  form  their  food. 
They  also  advance  inland  to  lakes  and  rivers. 


Head  and  foot  of  Tern: 


The  same  author  states  that  the  Noddies  may  be  distin- 
guished from  the  other  Sea-Swallows.  Their  tail  is  not 
forked. 

The  views  of  Mr.  Vigors,  Mr.  Swainson,  and  others,  as 
to  the  position  of  the  Terns,  will  be  found  in  the  article 
L.VRID.E. 

Mr.  Swainson  makes  the  genus  Sterna  consist  of  the  fol- 
lowing subgenera  :  —  Strrn<i,  Linn.  ;  Thalassites,  Sw.  ; 
Pha»t<i»,  Linn. :  BAynchopt,  Linn. ;  Gacia,  Briss. 

The  Prince  of  Canino  places  Sterniner,  the  second  sub- 
family of  his  Dirirlfp,  between  the  subfamilies  Rhynrh'rp- 
tina;  and  Lnrina;.  The  Sternina;  consist  of  the  following 
genera : — 

mi.    Linn. ;    Hydrochelidon,   Boie ;    Megalopterus, 
Boie  (N.B.  Sterna  Slotida  of  authors) ;  TAalaueut,  Boie  ; 
''in,  Brehm  ;    and  Stylnchelidon,  Brehm.    (Birds 
nf  Kur'ijif  and  North  America.) 

Mr.  G.  R.  Gray  'Genera,  of  Birds)  arranges  the  Ster- 
ninrr-  as  the  third  and  last  subfamily  of  Laridee,  imme- 
diately after  Rhynchopinte,  with  the  following  genera:  — 

Phatuta,  Wag].;  Gelochelidan,  Brehm;  TnoAuMUt, 
Boie;  Mi/lni-li'tiil'iii,  Brehm;  Gygis.  Wairl.;  Sti-nm, 
Linn.  /•/,  Boie;  Hydroehetidon,  Boie;  Anoiis, 

Leari  /',/nla,  of  authors) ;  O/iychoprion,  Wagl.  ; 

and  /  ,  \Vagl. 

The  l'i-l"!-<i,inlff  immediately  follow. 

Geographical  Distribution  and  Habits. — The  habits  of 
P.  C..  No.  1517. 


the  Terns,  which  are  widely  diffused  over  the  maritime 
parts  of  the  globe,  are  noticed  in  the  article  LARID.E.  The 
following  have  occurred,  some  occasionally  only  in  Eu- 
rope :— 

The  Caspian  Tern,  Sterna  Caspia  (genus  Stylochelidon, 
Brehm);  The  Sandwich  Tern,  Sterna  Cantiaca  (genus 
Thalassem;  'Boie) ;  the  Gull-billed  Tern,  Sterna  Anglica 
(genus  Gelocketidon,  Brehm) ;  the  common  Tern,  Sterna 
Hit-undo  (genus  Sterna  of  authors) ;  the  Roseate  Tern 
Sterna  Dougallii  (germs  Sterna)  •  the  Arctic  Tern,  Sterna 
Arctica  (genus  Sterna) ;  the  Little  Tern,  Sterna  minuta 
(genus  Stemula,  Boie) ;  the  Noddy,  Sterna  stolida  (genus 
Anous,  Leach;  Megalopterus,  Boie);  the  Black  Tern, 
Sterna  nigra  (genus  Hydrochelidon,  Boie;  Viralva. 
Leach)  ;  the  White-winged  Tern,  Sterna  leucoptera  (genus 
Hydrochelidon  ?  Boie) ;  and  the  Moustache  Tern,  Sterna, 
leitcopare'ia  (genus  Hydrochelidon  ?  Boie  ;  Viralva,  f 
Leach).  Of  these,  the  largest  is  the  Caspian  Tern. 

Our  limits  will  not  allow  us  to  give  more  than  two  ex- 
amples, and  we  select  the  Common  Tern  and  the  Noddy. 
We  should  premise  that  all  the  Terns  of  the  British  Islands 
are  strictly  migratory  :  many  species  visit  us  regularly  for 
the  purpose  of  breeding ;  but  those,  the  Noddy  for  instance, 
whose  home  is  far  away,  are  seen  casually  and  rarely. 

The  Common  Tern.— Description.— Forehead,  top  of 
the  head,  and  long  feathers  of  the  occiput,  deep  black ; 
posterior  part  of  the  neck,  back,  and  wings,  bluish  ash ; 
lower  parts  pure  white,  with  the  exception  of  the  breast 
only,  which  is  slightly  clouded  with  ash-colour  ;  quills 
whitish  ash,  terminated  by  ashy-brown;  tail  white,  but 
the  two  lateral  feathers  blackish-brown  on  their  external 
barbs ;  bill  crimson-red,  often  blackish  towards  the  point ; 
iris  reddish-brown ;  feet  red.  Length  13  to  14  inches. 
Such  is  M.  Temminck's  description  of  the  adult  male  and 
female. 

The  same  author  describes  the  young  of  the  year  before 
the  autumnal  moult  as  having  the  front,  and  a  part  of  the 
top  of  the  head,  of  a  dirty  white,  marked  towards  the 
occiput  with  blackish  patches  ;  the  long  occipital  feathers 
brownish-black  ;  upper  parts  of  tarnished  bluish-ash  :  all 
these  feathers  bordered  and  terminated  with  whitish  and 
irregularly  spotted  with  brown  or  bright  reddish;  the 
lower  parts  of  a  dirty  tarnished  white ;  tail-feathers  ash- 
coloured,  terminated  with  whitish  ;  base  of  the  bill  faded 
orange  ;  iris  blackish-brown  ;  feet  orange. 

This  is  the  Pierre  Garin  of  the  French  ;  Fionco  and 
Rondine  <H  Mare  of  the  Italians;  Meerschwalbe  and  Roth- 
/'imiyr  Meerschwalbe  of  the  Germans;  Zee-zwaluw  of 
the  Netherlanders  ;  Kria  of  the  Icelanders  ;  Tende,  Ten- 
il"lnl,i',  Sand-Tolle,  and  Sand-Tcerr/ie  of  the  Norwegians; 
Tec  me  of  the  Danes ;  Sea-Sicallow  of  the  modern  British ; 
and  Y  for-icennol  ftcyaf  and  Yscraean  of  the  antient 
British. 

Geographical  Di*trilnttii>n,  Habits,  $c.—'  The  Common 
Tern,'  says  Mr.  Gould,  in  his  great  work  on  the  Birds  of 
Kurnpe,  '  although  not  universally  dispersed  over  our 
coasls,  is  nevertheless  a  very  abundant  species,  being 
found  in  great  numbers  over  the  southern  shores,  but  more 
sparingly  over  the  northern,  which  are  almost  exclusively 
inhabited  by  its  near  ally,  the  Arctic  Tern.  It  is  now 
satisfactorily  ascertained  that  the  common  Tern  does  not 
extend  its  range  to  the  American  continent,  and  that  its 
place  is  there  supplied  by  another  species,  to  which  the 
Prince  of  Musignano,'  now  Prince  of  Canino,  '  has  given 
the  specific  appellation  of  IVilsoni,  in  honour  of  the 
celebrated  ornithologist  by  whom  it  was  first  described.' 
The  Prince  however  gives  both  Sterna  ffi'lgoiiiand  St<>ma 
Hinindo  as  American  species,  in  his  Birds  of  Europe  and 
North  America  ;  and  M.  Temminck  states  that  individuals 
killed  in  North  America  differ  in  nothing  from  those  of 
Europe.  In  the  fourth  part  of  his  Manuel  (18-10),  though 
he  adds  to  the  synonyms  and  references,  quoting  among 
the  rest  Mr.  Gould's  work,  he  leaves  his  own  observation 
above  noticed  uncontradicted.  'How  far,'  says  Mr.  Gould 
in  continuation,  'the  Common  Tern  is  distributed  over 
the  Old  Continent  we  have  not  satisfactorily  ascertained, 
but  we  believe  its  range  is  extended  from  the  Arctic  Cir- 
cle to  the  Mediterranean,  and  even  to  the  coasts  of  Africa 
and  India,  to  which  southern  and  eastern  countries  it  is 
supposed  to  retire  during  our  winters.  .The  Common  Tern 
does  not  confine  itself  entirely  to  the  sea,  but  frequently 
resorts  to  inland  streams,  &c.  :  and  when  thus  ascending 
our  creeks  and  rivers  these  little  fairies  of  the  ocean  fear- 

VOL.  XXIV. -2  H 


T  I 


234 


T  E  R 


with 


ftah  around  our  boaU,  nothing  cmn  be  marc  pleaaing 
than  to  observe  ilu-ir  IKHM  and  dip.  When  with  their 
M-ruliniting  eye»  th<  Mrrved  a  fish  n 

near  the  ».  .  pn-cipit.r 

.  •-._:  .      •  ..      .       .     .11.,;'    in  \  'ii:i:  i»  I:  il\  .1-1      ishing 

gl)  reminds  us  of  the  fissirwtral 

<1  be  tmly 

termed  tlio  swallow*  of  the  ocean,  their  long  and  pointed 
wing*.  and  *mii  admirably 

a.i.i^,  :   :   (   IMJ  I  H  I   I  Mliuned  flight.  and  affording  th'c 
mean*  by  •  are  enabled  to  traverse  tin-  surface 

•r-tiring  wing*.' 

ir  er.u-clul  .solutions 

to  far  inland  M  near  Oxford,  wln-.c  •  .  outimially 

dipping  in  the  I»u  lor  bleak,  as  it  npi  ..-,;<  :l  to  u~.  which 
were  alum- 

Mr.  Selby  states  that  this  tern  breeds  upon  tlie  sand  or 
•Jungle  bcj'ond  high-water  mark,  makinir  no  artificial  mM. 
but  scraping  a  slight  concavity  for  the  reception  of  two  or 
three  egg*.  which  \ary  mueh  in  colour,  the  irround  in  MIMIC 
being  of  a  deep  oil-irrccn.  in  others  of  n  cream-white,  or 
pale  wood-brown,  but  nil  blotched  with  blackish-brow  n  and 
•all-grey.  '  In  warm  and  clear  weather.'  sa\  s  Mr.  Selby 
in  continuation,  •  this  bird  inculcates  but  little  dining  the 
day,  in  such  situations  the  influence  of  the  sun  upon  tin- 
eggs  being  sufficient;  but  it  sits  upon  them  in  the  night. 

ilso  through  the  day  under  a  leas  favourable  -';>v  of 
weather.  The  young,  when  exclud.  .  .  red  with  a 

mottled  grey  anil  white  down,  and  are  assiduously  attended 
by  th.  and  well  supplied  with  food   until   able  to 

1  accompany  them  to  sea.  During  the  time  of  in- 
ciibatiun  tlie  old  birds  display  great  anxiety,  and  are  very 
clamorous  when  any  one  approaches  their  station,  in  flying 
round  and  freijnently  descending  so  near  as  to  strike  the 
hat  of  the  intn, 


The  Tem  was  fonnerly  conaidered  choice  food.     Thus, 
in  the  •  HocMehold-booh  of  the  K«rl  of  Northumberland 
find  •  Ternes'  among  the  delicacies  for  princij)ul   lea.-' 
his  lordship's  own  •  races  ;'   and  they  are  charged  at  tour- 
pence  a  dozen. 

The  \<My. — Hi'M-riiitinn. — In    this    form    of   tern    the 
wings  reach  beyond  the  rounded  tail.     Forehead  ••• 
passing  into  grey -ash  towards  the  top  of  the  head,  and  into 
a  deeper  grey  at   the  occiput,  in  front  of  the  eyes  a 
black  patch  ;"  throat  and  checks  grey-brown  ;  ill  the  uppei 
and  lower  plumage  chocolate  or  sooty-brown.     Bill  and 
feet  black.  «r  mijitial  tin-nit.)    Length  about  a 

foot 

•,Tn:ihir,il  Distribution  iitnl  Habit*. — America  prin- 
cipally, Whew  its  head-quarters  appear  to  be  the  (lull'  of 
Mexico,  tlie  coasts  of  Florida,  and  the  Bahama  Island).. 
Dr.  Latham  was  told  that  they  breed  in  great  numbers  on 
certain  small  rocky  inlands  near  St.  Helena.  Mr.  Audubon 
observed  numbers  collected  from  the  American  • 
above  mentioned  in  IKii  on  one  of  the  Tortugaa,  called, 
from  the  flocks  that  \isit  it.  Noddy  K 

Mr.  Gould  remarks  that  the  noddy,  unlike  the  generality 
of  terns,  builds  in  bushes  on  low  trees,  making  a  large 
nest  of  twigs  and  dry  grass,  while  hovering  over  or 
which  the  old  birds  utter  a  low  querulous  murmur  :  the 
eggs,  three  in  number,  are  reddish-yellow,  with  dull  red 
and  purple  patches  and  spots,  and  the  young  are  said  to 
be  \ery  good  eating.  It  does  not  take  its  prey  like  the 
other  terns,  but  as  it  skims  along  the  water;  and,  when 
full  grown,  seeks  its  food  at  much  greater  distances  from 
the  land  than  the  rest  of  the  group. 

were  shot  oil'  \Ve\ford  in  Ireland  in  1830.    Tem- 
mincK  ;t  it  has  been  seen  in  France,  but  hi 

never  seen  it  on  the  coasts  of  Holland. 


Common  Tna  :  two  adulu :  one  In  «  int-r.  tlie  other  in  itimmir  plnmairf. 
(Oould.) 


Th.-  Tern,  from 

tile  • 

tentinn.     'Hie  time  alhub  '.en  we  had  very 

;'ig   the   high   winds   that 
vailed  on  Sundir.  uir  and  floating-docks-  WCIT 

nitiful  s]n-. 
i  crn.     Tlie  liinl- 

r  three  hundred 
wen 

i-aught  H!:  that  many 

-  of  passers  bv.     Tin's 


.••I  with  in  all  the  la1 
It  i-  a  summer  \isitant  to  the  i 


on  record   of  a  specimen   ha\r  M  this 

)>ourhood.    Tlie  appearance  of  sue! 
!<,  rare  as  a  specie*,  in  the 

irence  as  remarkable  n-s  ; 
Flock*  of  •  the  same  d 

'on,  and  other  places  along  the  Channel 
Coas«  ' 


Mr.  Nuttall  gives  a  lively  description  of  its  hnbil.s. 
'  Familiar  to  mariners  who  navigate  in  the  equatorial 
regions,  the   noddy,  like   ti 

the  dist;i -.  a  tin- 

land,  and  with  many  other   liini 
Jjropensitii  -  in  great  1: 

owing  the  their  flnnv  piey.     They  pursue  mem 

by  flying  near  the  surface  of  tile  water,  and  may  now   be 
seen  continually  dropping  on  the  small  fish,  which  ap- 
proach the  surface  to  sliun  the  pcisecntion  of  the    <; 
kind-,  by  which  they  arc  also  harassed.     A  rippling  and 
silvery  wlr  marks  the  course,   of  the 

timid  and  tumultuous  shoals ;  and  the  whole  air  resounds 
with  the  e  these   gluttonous  anil   grcedv    biid>. 

who,  cxulti  t'.ir  success,  fill  the  air  with 

their  \aiicd    but    discordant    dies.      \Vhcre   the   stro 
rippling  a])]ii  ars.  then-  tl'.e  thickest  swann  of  nmlili. 

..\l  aie  uniformly  assembled.     They  frequently  fl>  on 
1    of  ships   at    -i-a.  and   are  so   stupid   or  indolent'   on 
.-casions.  as  to  suiter  them-eUes  to  be  taken  1 

on  which  they  settle  :  1hc\ 

'  however,  when  a-id  BCrateh  with  iri. 

tion,  leading  <>• 

from  flight    by  C\CCS-:M-  lumper,     v 

imagined  that  the  appeal:.  n  indicates 

the  proximity  of  land  :  but  in  the  manner  of  the  common 
tern,  they  i.dxciitiin  '  -d,  like  the  mariner 

himself,   the   shelter   of  whose  friendly   vessel    they 
I  they  often  -i.nn  for  seveial  day*  at  a  tittle, 

I  committing  tliemsflves  to  the  mercy  oft  he  boundless  ocean; 


T  E  R 


T  E  R 


and  having  at  certain  seasons  no  predilection  for  places, 
where  the  climate  suits,  the  roving  flocks  or  stragglers  find 
equally  a  home  on  every  coast,  shoal,  or  island.'  (Manual 
"f  Ornithology.) 

The  vessel  however  is  not  ahvays  friendly.  Blieh  found 
the  bird  a  seasonable  supply  to  himself  and  his  famished 
crew  in  his  celebrated  boat-voyage  after  the  mutiny  of  the 
Bounty  [BI.IGH]  ;  and  Byron  has  improved  the  incident 
in  the  terrible  scene  after  the  shipwreck  in  '  Don  Juan.' 
[BOOBY,  vol.  v.,  p.  159.] 

TERNATE,  an  island  in  the  Indian  Archipelago,  is 
traversed  by  50'  N.  lat.  and  127°  20'  E.  long.  It  is  10 
miles  long  and  from  four  to  five  miles  wide.  It  derives  its 
reputation  from  the  circumstance  that  its  sovereign  is  in 
possession  of  a  considerable  portion  of  the  islands  of 
Cilolo  and  Celebes  ;  and  on  this  account  the  Dutch  have 
thought  it  expedient  to  form  a  considerable  establishment 
on  the  island  at  Fort  Orange.  The  northern  group  of  the 
Moluccas  has  been  called  the  Ternate  Islands,  though  this 
island  is  only  one  of  the  smaller  ones  which  belong  to 
them,  some  of  which  are  of  great  extent,  especially 
Gilolo. 

The  greater  part  of  the  island  appears  to  be  occupied 
bv  a  volcano,  which,  according  to  Valentyn,  attains  an 
elevation  of  367  ruths  and  2  feet,  or  4095"  feet  English, 
above  the  sea-level.  The  remainder  of  the  island  is  very 
fertile,  and  affords  rice  and  the  other  productions  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago  :  but  we  have  very  little  information 
on  these  points,  iu  the.  Dutch  have  always  excluded 
foreigners,  and  prevent  the  natives  from  trading  with  the 
neighbouring  islands,  lest  the  spices  which  grow  on  this 
and  other  islands  of  the  group  should  be  brought  to 
other  countries  by  any  other  channel  than  their  own  com- 
merce ;  and  although  the  English  have  been  twice  in  pos- 
session of  the  Dutch  settlement,  their  attention  has  been 
more  directed  to  the  great  Dutch  colonies  than  to  this 
comparatively  small  establishment.  We  learn  only  from 
Forrest,  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  Sooloo  Archipelago 
were  permitted  to  trade  with  Ternate,  and  that  they  im- 
ported large  quantities  of  different  articles  of  Chinese 
manufacture,  which  they  exchanged  for  rice,  edible  birds'- 
irepang,  sharks'  fins,  tortoise-shells,  and  small  pearls: 
they  exported  also  a  great  number  of  lories. 

The  inhabitants  are  Malays,  who  have  embraced  Islam. 
There  are  three  mosques.  The  king,  who  possesses  also 
the  northern  part  of  Gilolo,  and  the  north-eastern  limb  of 
Celebes,  where  the  Dutch  have  two  settlements  at  Manado 
and  Gurontalu,  and  several  of  the  adjacent  islands,  lives 
in  great  state.  These  countries  however  are  governed  by 
separate  chiefs,  who  in  many  R>]," •< •;•-  resemble  the  feudal 
icracy  of  the  middle  ages  :  but  the  king  and  the  chiefs 
are  dependent  on  the  Dutch  governor  of  Amboyna,  of  which 
government  Ternate  forms  a  regency. 

Ternate  was  first  visited  by  the  Portuguese  in  1521,  and 
some  years  afterwards  they  formed  a  settlement,  which 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Dutch  in  160G  ;  who,  in  1680, 
reduced  the  king  to  a  state  of  dependence  on  them,  and 
enlarged  their  establishment.  In  1797  it  was  taken,  toge- 
ther with  Amboyna,  by  the  English,  who  restored  it  at  the 
peace  in  1801 :  it  was  again  taken  in  1810,  and  again  given 
up  to  Holland  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1814. 

(Forrest's  Voyage  to  New  Guinea  and  the  Moluccas, 
<5j-c. ;  Stavorinus's  Voyages  to  the  East  Indies :  Von 
But-h's  Phynihalische  Hcsch  reibung  der  Canarischen  Inseln, 
4-c.) 

TERNI.     [SPOLETO.] 

TERNSTROMIA'CE^,  a  natural  order  of  plants  be- 
longing to  the  Calycose  group  of  polypetalous  Dicotyle- 
dons. As  at  present  constituted,  by  Cambessedes,  who  is 
followed  by  Lindley,  this  order  consists  of  trees  or  shrubs 
with  alternate  coriaceous  leaves,  without  stipules,  mostly 
undivided,  and  sometimes  with  pellucid  dots.  The 
flowers  are  generally  white  in  colour,  sometimes  pink  or 
red,  and  arc  arranged  in  axillary  or  terminal  peduncles, 
articulated  at  the  base.  The  calyx  is  composed  of  •>  or 
7  sepals,  imbricated  in  aestivation,  the  innermost  the 
largest  :  petals  it.  (i.  or  9,  often  combined  at  the  l;:is<.-  :  sta- 
imlrtiinte  with  monadelphous  or  polyadelphous 
filaments,  and  versatile  or  adnate  anthers;  ovary  superior; 
capsule  2  7  celled  ;  seeds  few,  attached  to  a  central  axis, 
with  little  or  no  albumen,  and  a  straight  embryo,  the 
cotyledons  of  which  are  very  large,  and  often  filled  with 
oil.  This  order  includes  the"  Theaceic  of  Mirbel  and  the 


Camellieae  of  De  Candolle.  Their  closest  affinity  is  with 
the  order  Guttiferae,  from  which  they  differ  in  their  alter- 
nate leaves  ;  in  the  parts  of  their  flowers  being  5  and  its 
multiples ;  in  the  calyx  being  distinct  from  the  corolla  ; 
in  their  twisted  aestivation,  and  in  their  thin  inadherent 
cotyledons.  They  have  also  relations  with  Hypeiicaceae 
and  Marcgraaviacae.  The  plants  of  this  order  are  prin- 
cipally inhabitants  of  Asia  and  America  ;  one  species  only 
is  a  native  of  Africa. 

This  order  includes  the  genus  Thea,  and  hence  is  one 
of  great  osconomical  importance.  [THEA.]  It  is  supposed 
that  the  dried  leaves  brought  to  this  country  under  the 
name  of  tea  are  not  alone  the  produce  of  the  genus  Thea, 
but  that  the  leaves  of  some  species  of  Camellia  are  also 
mixed  with  them.  [CAMELLIA.]  Independent  of  these  two 
genera,  little  is  known  of  the  properties  of  this  order. 
The  Cochlospermuin  insigne  is  used  as  a  medicine  in 
internal  bruises  in  Brazil,  where  it  is  called  Butua  do  curvo. 
The  C.  tinctorium  yields  a  yellow  dye  ;  and  the  seeds  of 
C.  Gossypium  yield  a  gum  resembling  Tragacanth,  for 
which  it  is  substituted. 


Theft  Bohee. 

I,  brnncli  with  flower*  and  leaves;  2.  superior  ovary  with  trifid  stijjni.i; 
3,  fruit  entire  ;  4,  capsule  dehiscent. 

TERPA'MJKR  (TtnTravfyo?),  the  earliest  and  the  most 
important  historical  personage  in  the  history  of  Greek 
music  and  its  connection  with  poetry,  for  he  was  both  a 
ini'.-ician  and  a  poet.  He  was  a  native  of  Antissa,  in  the 
island  of  Lesbos,  and  his  best  period  falls  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  seventh  century  before  Christ.  There  are  few 
events  in  his  life  that  can  be  chronologically  established. 
In  B.C.  676,  at,  the  first  celebration  of  the  musical  contests 
during  the  festival  of  the  Carneia  near  Sparta,  Terpander 
was  crowned  as  victor.  (Athenapus,  xiv.,  p.  635.)  He 
afterwards  gained  four  successive  prizes  in  the  musical 
contests  at  the  Pythian  games  (Plutarch,  De  Mttsica,  4) ; 
and  these  victories  piobably  fall  between  the  years  672  and 
HI")  H.C.,  since  in  the  latter  of  these  years  he  was  at.  Sparta, 
and  there  introduced  his  nomes  (vopoi)  for  singing  to  the 
accompaniment  of  the  cithara,  and  was  engaged  in  re- 
ducing the  music  of  the  Greeks,  such  as  it  then  was,  to  a 
ir  svstcm.  (Marmnr.  Puriuin,  Epoch.  34  ;  Plutarch, 
l)i'  MHS".  9.)  At  this  time  his  fame  must  have  reached  its 
height.  His  descendants,  or  at,  least  the  musicians  of  his 
school  («3opij>(5oi).  continued  for  more  than  a  century  to 
obtain  the  prize  at  the  Carneia  every  year  without  any  in- 
terruption. 

Numerous  musical  inventions  are  said  to  have  been 
made  by  Terpander ;  many  of  them  however  may  have 
been  made  by  other  persons,  especially  such  as  belonged 
school,  and  were  subsequently  ascribed  to  the  father 
and  founder  of  the  art.  Of  '"aiiv  o'f  his  inventions  we  are 
unable  to  form  any  clear  idea.  The  most  important,  among 
them  however  is  the  seven-stringed  cithara  (heptachord). 

2H2 


T  i:  K 


236 


T  E  II 


his  time  sung*,  hymns,  and  rhaptodicslui.: 

.rnlringKtelrachuid  . 
>  on  to  make 

.pnso  n  lull  octave,  or,  as  the  Greek*  called 
il.  a  diapason.    The  heptachord  soon  i-iune  iiito  ircneral 

-.;.!..        .-.,-'    ..Ill,  ::'    .  :    tin-  (.;.  .'>,-, 

Mpecully  the  Dorian.  notwithstanding  the  vm 

iiiii  ini|iii  Aiiutln-r  very 

important  improvement  whirh  the  anticnts  unanimously 
•Mfn)  to  Terpander,  U  the  reduction  of  the  unticut  iiutlo- 
dlP,  ,  is  IKOJUUI,  which  continued  unaltered 

for  ievcml  centurie*.  These  nomes  appear  to  hnve  been 
of  a  twofold  character:  he  cither  invriiU-il  them  himself, 
or  lie  inin-ly  fixed  lliOM-  which  hud  hecti  used  he  lore  his 
time.  Tlu»  fixing  ol"  cei1;iin  tunes  and  melodies  he  is  said 
to  ha-  .ir  notes  which  he  made  over  the 

verses  of  a  poem.     In  this  manner  he  marked  the  tir 
hi*  own  poems,  an  well  as  of  portions  of  the  Homeric  rhap- 
lodies.     His  own  poetical  compositions,  which,  with  the 
tions  of  :i  uenU,  are  now  lost,  consisted  of 

hviiins.  pronernia,  and  scolia. 

Miiller,  Hislury  nf  the  Literature  of  Antient  (•> 
i..  p.  149,  See. ;  Bode,  Getchichte  der  Lyrische  Dicli: 
der  Hrllfitfn,  ii.,  p.  303,  &c.) 
TERPSTCHOKE.    [MUSKS.] 
TERRA  1)1  I.AVO'RO.     [LAVORO,  TERRA.  DI.] 
TKRlt.UTNA,  a  town  of  the  Papal  Slate,  in  the  ad- 
ministrative province  of  Frosinone,  near  the  borders  of 
the  kingdom  of  Naples,  anil  on  the  high  road  from  Rome  to 
Naples.     The  old  town,  which  is  built  on  the  site  of  the  an- 
tient  Anxur,  rises  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre  on  the  slope 
of  a  calcareous  rock  which  isa  projection  of  the  ridge  called 
Monti  Lepini,  leaving  but  a  narrow  strip  of  land  between 
it  and  the  sea,  along  which  runs  the   high  road  to  Naples 
in  the  track  of  the  antient  Via  Appia.     Along  the  road 
•ie  modern  buildings  ol'Tcmicina,  conslnicted  by  Pins 
VI..  and  ronsisti:!!;   ol  the  post-house  and  inns,  custom- 
house, granaries,  and  other  structures  for  public  use.     The 
old  harbour,  which  was  restored  by  the  emperor  Antoninus, 
li:u  been  li'iiu'  >incc  filled  up,  but  remains  of  the  mole  are 
still  seen.    The  old  town  b  en  UKmblage  of  poor-looking 
houses,  perched  one  above  another,  unrounded  ud  over- 
topped by  white  cliff's  which  are  seen   from  afar  (Horace, 
i.  5  ,     and    intermixed     with   myrtle,  orange,    and 
palm  trees,  and  with  plants  of  aloes  and  cactus.     Above 
all  rise  the  cathedral  witli   its  lolly  steeple,  an   elegant 
palace  built  by  Pins  VI..  the  remains  of  the  palace  called 
that  of  Theodoric,  which  is  a  structure  of  the  fifth  century 
of  our  a>ra,  and  is  situated  on  the  summit  of  the  hill,  and 
about. GOO  feet  above  the  sea,  and  an  old  castle  raised  in 
the  middle  ages.     The  cathedral  is  ornamented  with  some 
fine  fluted  Corinthian  columns,  which  have   been  taken 
from  a  temple  of  Jupiter  now   ruined.      Remains  of  a 
theatre  are  also  seen.     The  climate  of  Terracina  is  \  ery 
mild  and  genial  in  winter,  but  is  unwholesome  in  summer. 
The  population  of  the  town  is  4000  inhabitants.     Ter- 
racina is  30'  miles  south-east  of  Rome  and  M  miles  north- 
of  Naples.     Beyond  Terracina.  on  the  side  towards 
Naples,  is  a  detached  rock  of  a  pyramidical  form,  m-aily 
•JKI  feet  hiirh,  one  side  of  which  was  cut  perpendicularly 
by  ('.  Appius  to  make  room  for  his  road.    About  two  miles 
farther  i-  the  frontier  of  Rome  and  Naples,  where  a  mili- 
tary  post  i  y   each  respective   state.     (Tournon, 
•'//•  H'niif  ;  Vale'ry,  /''i//«»v.  /•//  Untie; 
Calindri,  Saga  i  il-//n  x/,,/',,  [>,,ntijiri<i.) 

Anxur  wai  a  •  -.11  ol  thcVolsci  long  before  the 

Roman  conquest,  waj>  taken  by  the  Romans  in  t 
403  H.I  ..  was  retaken  by  sni|  '.  and  taken  again 

by  tin-  Minimus  tluee  yean  after.     It  afterwards  became 
a  Roman  colony  by  the  name  of  Tarracina.     During  the 
second  Punic  war  the  temple  of  .Jupiter  at  Tarracina  is 
mentioned  by  Livy  as  having  been  struck  by  lightning. 
(Livy,  iv    r>:t :  \     id  1:1 ;  \\vni.  11.) 
TERRANO'N  \      I  Su  ILY.] 
TKRK.M'KNK.     [Toiui.isiM.] 

TERRA  \N,  a  French  writer  of  the  last  cen- 

tury.    He  was  horn  at  Lyon,  A.D.   I(i7<> :    his  father  was 
Pierre  TerrmHOn.  one  of  a  family  of  considciah!.'  eminence 
and  activity  in  that  city,  anil  a  man  whose  devout  temper 
led  him   to  make  all   his  four  suns  iof  whom  .lean  was  the 
embers   of   the   Conirreiration   ol    the    Oratory, 
at  Paris  in  the  house  of  that  Society  when 
their  father  died :  Uie  three  younger  remained  members  of 


.igirgation.  but  Jean  (now  a  sub-deacon)  . 
position  disinclined  him  to  I  ie.  ipiitted 

however   without    having  ac<|i. 

suh-iable   acimainlancc  w ith  theoloirv.     The   »imp'i,r 
character  which  ever  distinguished   him  rendered  him  the 
dupt-   of   men.    by   whom    Inn  small    patiiniony   wa> 
wa-led  :   but  he  found  a  shelter  in  the   house  of  a  liieiid. 
M.  Ri'moiid.   to  whose   son  he   became   tutor.      I 
((iiently  (\.u.  1714)  undertook  the  education  of  the  H 

-in  Mathiell  Terrasson,  a  celebrated  advocate  in  the 
parliament  of  Pahs.  He  had  become  an  associate  of  the 
Academie  Royale  de«  Sciences,  A.D.  17d~.  In  171">  In- 
made  his  first  appearance  as  an  author  by  taking  par!  in  the 
dispute  then  raging  on  the  value  of  the  Homeric  Poems 
and  the  comparative  merits  of  the  untients  and  nun; 
His  work  was  entitled  •  Dissertation  Critique  MU-  lliade 
d'Hon:'1  .  12mo.,  Paris:  it  met  with  a  favoiuable 

reeejition  from  those  who  joined  in  or  approved  of  the 
ittacks  then  made  on  Homer,  who  was  M-VI  rely  criticized. 
Next  year  Terrasson  published  an  addition  tohisdissertation 
on  Homer,  in  12mo..  in  reply  to  Andre  Dacier.  by  whom  he 
liad  been  attacked.  In  A.D.  1719  the  financial  system  of  Law 
enabled  Terrasson  to  obtain  a  large  fortune,  and  induced 
him  to  form  an  establishment  and  set  up  his  carriage  :  but 
wealth  was  to  him  rather  a  source  of  embarrassment  than 
of  pleasure  ;  and  when  he  lost  his  fortune  the  next  year  in 
the  financial  change  which  took  place,  he  content edly 
ohseiAcd  that  it  would  be  more  convenient  to  him  to  live  on 
a  little.  In  A.D.  17'JO  he  published  a  small  work  in  del 
of  Law's  financial  schemes,  entitled  'Trui- 1.-  I're-  -m-  le.Nou- 
veau  SystSme  des  Finances.'  f>(l  pp..  -Ito.,  Paris,  and  another 
small  work  in  defence  of  the  French  India  Company.  He 
saved  some  small  part  of  his  fortune  from  the  general 
wreck  :  and  this,  with  the  income  of  a  profes-sorship,  w 
he  obtained  next  year  (A.D.  1721)  in  the  College  Royal, 
and  a  pension  subsequently  conferred  by  the  en 
rendered  his  circumstances  easy  for  the  rest  of  Ins  life. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  Academic  Franci-.i-e  \  a. 
1732. 

In  1731  Terrasson  published  a  romance  in  imitation  of 
the  '  Telemaque '  of  Frf'nelon.  It  was  entitled  •  Set  ho*,' 
:t  vols.  12mo.,  Paris,  and  professed  to  be  a  translation  of  a 
Greek  manuscript.  The  scene  is  laid  chiefly  in  K;r\|-t. 
This  work  obtained  sufficient  circulation  to  go  through 
:  editions,  of  which  the  last  was  in  1813,  inO\ols. 
I8mo.,  but  never  became  popular.  An  English  transla- 
tion was  published  in  London  in  17;t-.  In  the  years 
17-17-44  he  published  the  seven  successive  volumes  in 
1 21110.  of  a  translation  of  Diodoms  Siculus.  This  transla- 
tion has  been  reprinted  once  or  twice,  but  is  very  inaceu- 
Mte.  This  was  his  last  work  of  any  extent.  His  memory 
and  his  bodily  strength  gradually  failed,  and  he  died  \.i>. 
17:~K),  aged  80. 

He  wrote  also  a  treatise  entitled  '  De  1'Intini  Cn'-e,'  of 
which  he  allowed  one  or  two  transcripts  to  he  taken  during 
his  life  :  but  it  was  never  published,  nor  was  the  original 
manuscript  found  among  nis  papers  at  his  deeea-e.  Hi- 
left  also  a  small  work,  published  alter  his  decease,  entitled 
-  l.:i  Philosophic  applicable  a  tons  les  Objets  de  1'Ksprit  et 
de  la  Raison'  (Pans,  8vo.,  17")  I  . 

From  an  anonymous  letter  printed,  with  one  or  two 
other  pieces,  at  the  commencement  of  this  small  volume, 
and  containing  a  biographical  notice  of  Terramon,  we  have 
derived  the  substance  of  this  article.  See  also  the  Huge  de 
T'-ri-iiiixon,  by  D'Alemhert ;  Qucrard,  La  France  Littti 

ivtrttUt. 

TERRESTRIAL  MAGNETISM.  This  term  is  used  to 
denote  the  action  of  the  magnetic  fluid  in  or  about  tlu> 
earth:  the  effects  of  that  action  being  manifested  in  tin- 
phenomena  presented  by  magnetized  needles  «  - 

The  general  polarity  of  a  magnetized  needle  when  sup- 
ported or  suspended  in  a  balanced  state,  and  its  inclination 
to  the  horizon,  with  the  slow  variations  to  which  those 
element*,  as  well  as  the  intensity  of  the  magnet  ii 
subject,  are  phenomena  which  are  conceived  to  aiisc  from 
causes  existing  in  the  earth  and  pervading  its  whole  mass; 
while  the  temporary  effects,  a.s  the  diurnal  variations  of 
the  needle,  are  supposed  to  depend  upon  clcctrieal  cur- 
rents produced  bv  variations  cil  temperature  at  the  si 
in  consequi  nee  of  the  changes  in  the  sun's  position  with 
respect  to  the  hoii/on.  and  pel  haps  from  other  circum- 
stances: finally,  great  tcmpoiary  discharges  of  electricity 
j  in  the  iipp-  "f  the  atmosphere  may  be  the  cause* 


T  E  R 


237 


T  E  K 


of  those  occasional  agitations  in  the  needle,  to  which  the 
name  oi'  magnetic  storms  has  been  lately  applied,  and 
which  are  now  known  to  extend  at  the  same  moment  over 
a  great  portion  of  the  earth's  surface. 

The  declination  (variation)  of  the  needle  is  that  element 
of  terrestrial  magnetism  which  was  first  observed,  and  the 
difference  of  its  amount  in  different  regions,  as  well  as  the 
annual  chancre  at  the  same  station,  was  early  noticed.  Dr. 
Halley,  on  his  return  to  England  after  his  second  voyage, 
during  which  he  had  made  many  observations  on  the  varia- 
tion in  different  parts  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans, 
published,  in  1701,  a  chart,  on  which  were  traced  what  have 
been  since  called  isogonal  lines,  that  is,  lines  passing 
through  the  points  on  the  earth's  surface  where  the  variation 
was  the  same  :  and  other  charts  of  a  like  kind  have  since  at 
different  times  been  constructed.  The  expectation  at  first 
entertained,  that  such  a  chart  might  serve  as  a  means  of 
ascertaining  the  longitude  of  a  ship  at  sea  by  an  observed 
variation  of  the  needle  has  not  however  been  fulfilled, 
since  as  yet  no  formula  has  been  discovered  by  which  the 
variation  at  any  given  time  and  place  may  with  sufficient 
accuracy  be  found :  but  though  the  changes  of  the  varia- 
tion have  hitherto  rendered  such  charts  of  little  use  for  the 
puqjoses  of  navigation,  yet  a  knowledge  of  the  form  of  the 


lines  of  equal  variation  at  different  periods  may  be  of  great 
importance  as  a  step  to  the  discovery  of  the  law  of  those 
changes.  The  latest  variation  chart  is  one  which  was  pub- 
lished by  Adolf  Erman,  after  his  journey,  in  company 
with  Hansteen  and  Due,  through  the  "whole  length 
of  the  Russian  empire,  and  his  return  to  Europe  by  sea. 
Erman  determined  the  positions  of  the  isogonal  lines 
from  his  own  observations,  and  from  the  most  authentic  of 
those  which  had  been  made  by  other  observers  between 
the  years  1827  and  1830  ;  and  subjoined  is  a  representation 
of  the  principal  lines  on  the  two  hemispheres  of  the  earth, 
projected  stereograph ically  on  the  plane  of  the  equator. 
The  lines  marked  o  o  pass  through  places  where  the  varia- 
tion is  zero  ;  the  positive  sign  before  a  number  indicates 
that  the  variation  is  westward,  or  that  the  needle  deviates 
to  the  west  of  the  astronomical  meridian  ;  and  the  nega- 
tive sign  indicates  that  the  variation  is  eastward.  On  an 
inspection  of  the  lines,  it  is  manifest  that  on  a  sphere  they 
must  be  curves  of  double  curvature  with  bends  in  opposite 
directions ;  that  most  of  them  converge  towards  two  points 
on  the  earth's  surface,  one  in  or  near  Baffin's  Bay,  and  the 
other  to  the  southward  of  New  Holland ;  and  that  be- 
tween the  inflexions  there  are  some  which  return  into 
themselves. 


The  dip,  or  inclination  of  the  needle  to  the  horizon, 
which  is  another  element  of  terrestrial  magnetism,  was  first 
recorded  by  Robert  Norman  [INCLINATION],  and  numerous 
.  ationshave  been  made  to  ascertain  its  value  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  world,  together  with  the  variations  to 
which  it  is  subject  in  process  of  time  ;  but  a  general  chart 
exhibiting  the  forms  of  the  isoclinal  lines,  as  those  of 
equal  dip  are  called,  is  still  wanting.  On  the  above  cut 
an-  represented  by  dotted  curves  some  of  the  lines  which 
are  best  known  ;  and  these  have  been  taken  chiefly  from 
the  partial  chart  given  by  Major  ("now  Colonel )  Sabme,  in 
the  '  Philosophical  Transactions '  for  1840.  The  data  are 
stated  to  have  been  obtained  from  above  140  observations 
made,  on  land  between  1834  and  1839,  and  from  many 
which  were  made  at  sea  by  Mr.  Dunlop  in  1K51,  and  by 
Lieut.  Sulivan  in  183!).  Some  points  have  also  been  taken 
from  the  observations  made  by  Erman  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  of  which  la-st  observations  a  table  is  given  in  the 
'Seventh  Ripoit  of  the  British  Association'  (vol.  vi.). 

".  '/,  /t,  represents  the  line  of  no  dip,  which  is  evident  I  v 
a  curve  of  double  curvature,  and  crosses  the  terrestrial 
e<)ii.it(,r  in  two  points  at  least :  b,  b,  b,  is  the  known  portion 
of  the  isoclinal  line  for  a  dip  of  30  degrees  below  Hie 
northern  nart  of  the  horizon  :  c,  c,  is  the  line  for  60"  ;  and 
d,  rl,  the  line  for  73°. 

An  inspection  of  the  cut  will  show  that  the  oval  lines  of 
equal  dip  go  on  dimini-hing  in  magnitude  northwards,  and 
the  pole  of  the  dip.  or  place  where  that  element  is  a  maxi- 


mum, may  be  fixed  at  a  point  (P  in  the  diagram)  in  long. 
263°  (117°  west),  and  in  lat.  70°  N. :  at  that  place,  by  the 
observations  of  Captain  James  Ross,  the  dip  in  1831  was 
found  to  be  89°  59'.  Professor  Hansteen,  of  Christiania, 
has  deduced,  from  the  observations  which  have  been  made 
in  the  polar  regions,  that  the  isogonal  lines  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  tend  to  two  points  in  the  vicinity  of  the  pole  of 
the  dip ;  those  which  are  on  the  north  side  uniting  in  a 
point  a  little  way  to  the  north  of  the  latter  pole,  and  those 
on  the  south  side  a  little  way  to  the  south  of  the  same 
pole. 

Till  within  the  last  fifty  years  it  was  the  general  opinion 
that  the  intensity  of  terrestrial  magnetism  was  the  same  at 
all  parts  of  the  earth's  surface  ;  and  to  the  Academic  cles 
Sciences,  in  France,  is  due  the  honour  of  having  been  the 
first  learned  body  which  proposed  that  observations  should 
be  made  for  the  purpose  of  determining  that  element.  In 
the  instructions  which  its  members  drew  up  for  the  use  of 
the  unfortunate  La  Perouse,  it  was  recommended  that  the 
intensity  should  be  observed  at  places  very  distant  from 
one  another,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  or  not  any  dif- 
ferences existed  in  its  value.  The  accounts  of  any  observa- 
tions which  may  have  been  made  during  the  voyage  pe- 
riiihed ;  but.  between  the  years  1791  and  1794,  M.  Rossel, 
who  sailed  from  France  with  the  expedition  in  search  of  La 
Perouse,  determined  with  a  dipping-needle  the  inclination 
to  the  horizon,  and  the  times  of  performing  a  vibration,  at 
different  places ;  and  from  the  latter  the  fact  of  a  difference 


T  E  R 


T  E  R 


at  intensity  was  established.     Ait>-r  that  tint*  extent*  ve 
term  at  observations  on  the  dip  and  intensity  were  nude 

mmboldt  in  South  America,  and  in  lYance,  Italy, 
and  Germany;  by  HKII-II.  .  I  in,-,  and  Knii.ni  in  the 
north  of  Euroi*  and  in  Siberia,  and  by  the  last-incu- 

•  \  gentleman  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.     ..  •loncl 

8abinr  during  liu  voyages  to  tin-  polar  was  and  the  equa~ 

Afhca  and  America  ;   I  i  the  Kuwiaii  ad- 

.-.  igalion   of  the  id   by 

captaiiu  King  and  Kit/roy  in  (lie  survey  of  the   coasts  of 
:  and  now,  no  observations  on  terrestrial 
magnetism  are  considered  complete  unless  all  tin-   tl.iv. 
•Uinn  nln    the  declination,  the  inclination,  and  tin-  inteii- 
I  determined  at  the  same  time  at  every  -uinm. 

-iy  to  the  time  when  Hmnholdt  made  his 
niagnclic.il  observation.-  in  South  A>m  n.  .  tlu>  opinion 
iienuty  was  a  miiiinrimi  at  places  when-  tin-  di]> 
of  the  needle  wan  rero  prevailed  :  and  that  philosopher,  in 
consequence,  assumed  unity  as  the  measure  of  the  inten- 
sity at  a  certain  station  in  Peru,  where  the  dipping-needle 
assumed  a  horizontal  position.  From  the  times  in  which 
a  certain  number  of  vibrations  were  made  l>y  siu-h  needle 
at  that  station,  and  subsequently  at  Paris.  Huiniioldt 
found  that  the  intensity  at  the  latter  place  was  equal  to 

_'  (that  in  Peru  being  unity) ;  and  M.  Arago  and  t.'ol. 
Sabine  afterwards,  by  a  comparison  of  experiments  made 
by  themselves,  ascertained  that  the  inten.-ity  in  London 
was  (.in  1827)  expressed  by  1-372.  The  scale  of  intensity 
which  had  been  assumed  by  Humboldt  continues  to  be 

.  though  it  is  now  known  that  the  zero  of  dip  does  not 


correspond  to  the  minimum  of  intensity,  and  it  becomes 

necessary  to  cmplo\  term-  less  than  unity  -  the 

•\    :it    many  "place.,   within   und    even    I  .  uiud    the 

L     The   intensity   is  subject    to  a  beeular  \iination; 

but   of  the  amount  and  the  law  uition  as  yet  no 

certain  knowledge  has  been 

In  the  subjoin.  .\luc-h,  like  the  former,  is 

a  stereographical  projeetion  of  the  northern  and  southern 
IsMiisphimn  of  the  earth,  are  represented  the  pnncipal 
uudynainical  lin.  i  <(iial  int.  n  the  table 

and  el  y  Col.  Sabine  in  tin:  •  Seventh  Report  of 

the  British  Association.'     That  chart  •!  from  all 

the  authenticated  experiments  on  the  intensity  which  had 
been  made  between  the  years  1798  and  lM3>i :  but  III  the 
cut,  in  order  to  avoid  contiiMon.  there  are  ii>en  only  the 
lino  eun.->|jondiiiLr  to  the  intensity  represented  by  1,  l''J. 
!•  1.  PO,  17.  anil  the  points  at  which  the  inteiiMt  v  l^  Known 
ID  !«•  1-s.  which  is  the  hi  ..'.i.  In  all 

the  tract  between  the  curve  lines  marked  ).  the  magnetic 
intensity  is  less  than  unity:  the  breadth  of  this  tract  is 
very  unequal  ;  at  points  in  long.  110"  and  ~£*\'  llir  \\  . 
the  lines  approaeh  within  :i  or  4  degrees  of  one  another, 
while  near  the  meridian  c-.f  (Greenwich  they  are  separatid 
by  an  interval  of  about  50  degrees.  In  the' middle  of  this 
band  of  low  intensity  which  surrounds  the  earth,  it  might 
be  expected  that  the  intensity  should  he  the  lowest  ;  and. 
in  fact.  M.  Krman,  in  his  leturn  tci  Kurope.  found,  at  a 
few  di  -'Wind  of  St.  Helena,  thai  the  intensity 

was  0743,  which  is  the  lowest  u-t  obtained  from  otw 
tion. 


i  no 

• 

.    A  si 

thev 


m 


Some  of  the  isodynamic  lines  in  both  hemispheres  are 

>1ill  wanting  at  places 
!>osed  to  ])ass,  but  no  doubt 
.es  which  return  into 
••MI  will   show  that   in   each 
ith  two  loops,  or 
.'•mispherc.  judg- 
•  perceived  that  i!e  western 
;  ist  be  at  a  spot 
•.?7V(WW.'.  and  latitude  about 
•  >i  Siberian 
'ude  is  nn- 
sill   readily 

''•'•'•'  •''•''••         •    •          -!i.  i  -i   h.  mil  ->\.<   .•   ;   i-  cui  •>  es, 

or.  assume  more 

hv  estimation  in 
and  m  ln-itr.  iM"'    =  l'3i"  \\    .  lat.  W  :  the  !'<•. 

latti-r  in  the  soul  hern 
p«rt 

!' 

«o  •!••  :ind  is  about   i:«i  dt ..- 


the  nearest  distance  in  longitude  between  the  Siberian  and 
the  South  American  pole  is  about   120  denrc"s  :  the  nearest 
distances  in  latitude  are  about   11(1"  and  about  130"  n 
lively,  so  that  those  poles  are  not  diametrically  opposite  to 

'(her. 

The  intensity  of  magnetism  at  the   New  Holland 
appears  to  be  nearly  ecjunl  to  that  which  has  be> 
at   the   North   American    pole,   the   observed    intensity   in 
Van  IJiemcn's  Land  nnil  at    New  York  being  1-S:  and  the 

the  Siberian  pole  is  nearly  eipi.n  to  that  :  I 
South  Pkeifio   Jiole,  the  observed   intensity  at    Vilnisk  in 
Siberia   being    1-70'.  and   the   highest    at    present  l<no 

rth  1'aeilic  l-.eing  |-~.     The  fact  that  these    last   in- 
tensiti  iha.ii  the  lonner  is  indicated   by  the  loops 

about  them  being  smaller  than  those  about  the  two  western 
and    Krman    thinks    it    probable    that    the   centres 
nf  imi'.nniie   attraction,  when'    the   loopy  are   small,  may 
depth    below    the  surface  than  thev 
.  i/n  titer  • 

•'ronger  and  one  ol  w. 
i  nf  the  hemispheres   on   the  north  and 
south  oi  the  terrestria;  it   maybe   infeircd,  as  i* 


T  E  R 


239 


T  E  R 


observed  by  Col.  Sabine,  that  the  quantities  of  magnetism 
in  the  two  hemispheres  are  nearly  equal ;  but  as  all  the 
four  poles  lie  in  one  hemisphere  of  the  earth,  which  would 
be  formed  if  the  latter  were  cut  by  the  plane  of  a  meridian 
passing  through  points  whose  longitudes  are  100°  and  280° 
(80°  W.),  it  must  follow  that  the  hemisphere  which  con- 
tains the  poles,  that  is,  the  hemisphere  which  contains 
America  and  the  Pacific  Ocean,  must  have  a  greater  quan- 
tity than  the  other. 

The  isodynamic  lines  present  the  appearance  of  double 
flexures,  like  those  of  equal  dip ;  and  in  both  systems  of 
curves  there  is  a  like  tendency  to  form  two  foci,  or  centres 
of  greatest  attraction ;  and  the  bends  gradually  become 
less  strongly  marked  as  the  lines  approach  the  equatorial 
regions  of  the  earth,  but  it  is  obvious  that  the  lines  in  the 
two  systems  are  far  from  being  parallel  to  one  another  : 
in  the  southern  hemisphere  the  isodynamical  line  1  crosses 
the  line  of  no  dip  in  two  places  at  least ;  and  each  of  the 
dip-lines,  bli,  re,  dd,  in  No.  1,  would  pass  through  several 
of  the  intensity-lines  in  No.  2.  Even  within  the  limits  of 
the  British  Isles  the  deviations  of  the  two  systems  of  lines 
from  parallelism  are  very  sensible  ('Memoir,'  by  Maj. 
Sabine,  in  the  Eighth  Report  of  the.  British  Association) ; 
and  it  may  be  inferred  that,  at  least  in  the  northern  hemi- 
spere,  the  pole  of  maximum  intensity  is  quite  distinct  from 
the  pole  of  the  dip,  the  distance  between  them  in  latitude 
being  probably  as  much  as  20  degrees.  Q  and  R  in  the 
cut  No.  2  are  the  presumed  places  of  the  two  intensity- 
poles  in  the  northern  hemisphere.  It  is  at  present  quite 
uncertain  whether  or  not  there  is  a  corresponding  difference 
between  the  poles  of  maximum  intensity  and  of  maximum 
dip  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  but  the  circumstance  is 
probable,  from  the  fact  that  the  highest  observed  inten- 
sities in  both  are  equal  at  places  (New  York  and  Van  Die- 
men's  Land)  where  the  dips  are  also  equal,  and  where  they 
want  20  degrees  of  being  the  greatest. 

Professor  Hansteen,  in  his  treatise  on  the  magnetism  of 
the  earth  (1819  ,  has  shown,  from  a  comparison  of  the  ob- 
served places  of  the  four  poles  of  the  dip  at  different  times,  ' 
that  each  of  them  has  a  slow  movement  about  the  axis  of 
the  earth.  Not  much  dependence  can  be  placed  on  the 
computed  periods  of  the  revolutions,  but  M.  Hansteen 
assigns  for  that  of  the  North  American  pole  1890  years, 
anil  for  that  of  the  Siberian  pole  8UO  years. 

The  existence  of  two  magnetic  poles  in  each  hemisphere 
is  thus  evident,  and  Gauss  of  Gottingen  observes  that 
there  must  also  be  a  third  point  between  each  pair,  which 
possesses  the  character  of  both,  and  therefore  is  a  true  pole. 
••nil  T/irnry  of  Terrestrial  Magnetism,  translated  in 
Taylors  '  Scientific  Memoirs,'  pt.  vi.)  This  is  indeed  ob- 
vious :  for  if  a  dipping-needle  were  carried  from  one  pole 
towards  the  other,  it  would  begin  to  deviate  from  the  ver- 
tical direction  towards  the  pole-  it  had  quitted :  and, 
coming  near  the  other,  it  would  be  found  to  deviate  from 
the  vertical  towards  the  pole  which  it  was  approaching ; 
and,  as  these  deviations  are  in  opposite  directions,  there 
must  be  an  intermediate  point  at  which  the  needle  would 
assume  a  vertical  position. 

Almost  as  soon  as  a  few  observations  on  the  phenomena 
of  terrestrial  magnetism  were  collected,  Dr.  Halley  (1701) 
propounded  a  theory  in  order  to  account  for  them.  He 
conceived  that  the  earth  itself  might  be  a  shell,  containing 
v  ithin  it  a  globe  which  revolved  with  it  about  the  same 
centre  of  gravity  and  the  same  axis ;  the  outer  globe,  or 
shell,  lieinar  supposed  to  perform  its  rotation  in  twenty-four 
hours,  and  the  other  in  a  time  rather  greater  or  less.  Each 
globe  was  supposed  to  have  a  magnetic  axis  passing  through 
the  common  centre,  but  the  two  axes  were  supposed  to 
he  inclined  to  each  other  and  to  that  of  the  diurnal  rota- 
tion ;  and  consequently  there  were  supposed  to  be,  in  all, 
four  magnetic  poles. 

The  deviation  of  these  magnetic  axes  from  that  of  the 
earth's  diurnal  rotation  was  supposed  to  be  the  cause  of 
the  ceneral  variation  (declination)  of  the  compass-needle, 
and  the  siuw  deviation  of  the  magnetic  axes  IVom  each 
other  was  sup|x>sed  to  be  the  cause  of  that  continual  varia- 
tion ot'the  declination  which  is  observed  at  every  place  on 
the  earth's  surface.  The  theory  is  highly  ingenious,  and 
•  I'  the  epicycles,  by  which,  in  the  infancy  of 
astronomy,  it  was  attempted  to  account  for  the  variations 
in  the  movements  of  the  planets:  but  when  observations 
were  multiplied,  and  the  variations  of  the  needle  at  con- 
siderable interval*  of  time  were  compared  together,  it  was 


found  to  be  incapable  of  representing  the  phenomena; 
and  Mayer,  of  Gottingen,  without  gaining  any  advantage, 
modified  the  hypothesis  by  assuming  that  the  centre  of 
the  small  magnet  was  placed  at  a  certain  distance  from  that 
of  the  earth. 

Subsequently  (1805)  M.  Biot,  assuming  that  there  were 
two  points  in  a  supposed  magnetic  axis  of  the  earth,  by 
one  of  which  the  magnetized  needle  was  attracted  and  by 
the  other  repelled,  investigated  a  formula  for  expressing 
the  dip  and  variation  in  terms  of  an  indeterminate  dis- 
tance between  those  points.  On  comparing  the  result 
obtained  by  computation  from  the  formula  with  the  ob- 
served phenomena,  he  found  that  the  latter  were  repre- 
sented with  tolerable  accuracy  when  the  points  of  at- 
traction and  repulsion  were  infinitely  near  to  each  other 
and  to  the  centre  of  the  earth.  From  the  result  of  the 
investigation  it  follows  that  if  a  plane,  supposed  to  pass 
through  the  centre  of  the  earth  perpendicularly  to  the 
magnetic  axis,  were  considered  as  a  magnetic  equator,  the 
tangent  of  the  dip  of  the  needle  would  be  equal  to  twice 
the  tangent  of  the  magnetic  latitude  of  the  place  on  the 
earth's  surface  ;  and  a  like  conclusion  had  been  previously 
arrived  at  by  Professor  Kraft  at  St.  Petersburgh,  from  such 
observations  as  then  existed.  It  is  here  supposed  that  the 
curve  of  no  dip  is  the  circumference  of  a  great  circle  01 
the  sphere,  and  we  have  seen  that  this  is  far  from  being 
conformable  to  observation,  yet  the  rule  just  mentioned 
may  be  advantageously  employed  when  it  is  required, 
from  any  observed  dips  of  small  magnitude,  to  determine 
the  situation  of  a  point  on  the  earth's  surface  where  the 
dip  is  zero.  The  last  attempt  to  account  for  the  pheno- 
mena of  terrestrial  magnetism  in  this  manner  was  made  by 
M.  Hansteen  (1811),  who  assumed  the  existence  of  two 
small  magnets  of  unequal  strength  at  certain  distances 
from  the  centre  of  the  earth.  He  compared  the  results, 
with  respect  to  variation,  dip,  and  intensity,  which  he  ob- 
tained by  computation  from  that  assumption,  with  the 
'  values  ol  those  elements  observed  at  different  places ;  and 
though,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  agreement  was  satisfactory, 
yet  in  several  instances  the  differences  were  such  as  to 
show  that  the  hypothesis  was  erroneous  or  incomplete. 
Professor  Gauss  of  Gottingen,  in  his  Treatise  on  the  Ge- 
neral Theory  of  Terrestrial  Magnetism  above  quoted,  has 
investigated  the  elements  independently  of  all  hypotheses 
concerning  the  distribution  of  the  magnetic  fluids  in  the 
earth,  and  assuming  only  that  the  terrestrial  force  is  the 
collective  action  of  all  the  magnetized  particles  in  the 
earth's  mass,  he  has  exhibited  the  resulting  formulae  in 
converging  series  ;  and  has  given,  for  ninety-one  places  on 
the  globe,  a  table  of  the  values  of  the  declination  and  in- 
clination of  the  needle,  and  of  the  intensity  of  magnetism, 
computed  from  his  expressions  for  the  horizontal  and 
vertical  components  of  the  force,  together  with  the  ob- 
served elements  at  the  same  places  ;  and  the  srnallness  of 
the  differences  between  these  last  and  the  computed  ele 
ments  are  satisfactory  proofs  of  the  correctness  of  the 
theory.  For  a  supposed  connection  between  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  earth's  surface  and  terrestrial  magnetism,  see 
ISOTHERMAL  LINKS. 

The  want  of  complete  success  which  has  hitherto  at- 
tended the  different  attempts  to  exhibit  the  laws  of  niag- 
netical  phenomena  make  it  evident  that  the  time  has  not 
arrived  in  which  that  can  be  done  with  respect  to  mag- 
netism which  Newton  accomplished  with  respect  to  gravi- 
tation. But  though  the  hypotheses  formed,  in  order  to 
account  for  the  phenomena  of  terrestrial  magnetism,  have 
not  brought  out  formulae  which  will  entirely  satisfy  the 
observed  elements,  it  must  not  be  understood  that  they 
are  therefore  without  utility;  since  the  approximative 
rules  which  have  been  obtained  from  them  afford  the 
means  of  computing  small  differences  in  the  elements  with 
sufficient  accuracy  to  allow  observations  made  at  times  or 
in  places  not  very  distant  from  one  another  to  be  reduced 
to  what  they  would  have  been  had  they  been  made  at  one 
time  or  station ;  and  thus  several  observations  may  be 
made  to  concur  in  the  determination  of  a  correct  mean 
value  of  the  element.  This  remark  may  be  considered  as 
applicable  to  most  of  the  hypotheses  which,  in  the  phy- 
sical sciences,  have  been  proposed  for  the  purpose  of  ex- 
hibiting the  laws  of  the  phenomena;  and  it  may  be  fur- 
ther remarked,  that  the  assumption  of  an  hypothesis,  by 
indicating  the  fittest  place  for  observing,  or  the  nature  of 
the  observations  which  are  requisite  for  verifying  it,  i-: 


T  E  R 


840 


I    K  R 


advantageous  in  lea  '  his  station* 

or  t,,  .instruction  of  In-  instruments,  so  wto  ]mt 

r-.iMi-   circumstances    lor  deter- 
mining the  la»»  from  observation. 

In  v  -is  M.  Arago,  ut  the  Observatory  of  Paris, 

niHilc  »  M  '  tin-   irregular  changes  to 

which  tin-  declination  of  tin-  needle  is  subject  :  mul  M. 
Kuptter  having  about  tht-  same  time  made  similar  ob- 
•ervir  Ls*n,  *  comparison  of  the  results  led  to  the 

that    the    perturbations    wcic    -imultancou-    at 
those  places,  though  tlu-y  (littered  in  longitude  al>ov. 

aaikable  circumstance  immeiliately  attract- 
ed the  notice  of  philosophers,  anil  a  plan  for  making 
simultaneous  observations  in  many  different  places  was 
organized  1 1\  M.  de  llumboldt  in  IN'J7.  Kor  this  purpose 
magnetic  .stations  were  established  at  Herlin  and  r  rey- 
berg:  and  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Russia,  entering  wiih 
zeal  into  the  p;  -<  <l  a  chain  of  stations  to  ! 

tended  from  St.  Petersburg  to  Pekin,  at  all  which  jilaees 
simultaneous  observations  were  appointed  to  he  made 
se\en  times  in  the  year,  at  intervals  of  one  hour,  during 
twenty-four  hours. 

In  1834  Professor  Gauss  discovered  the  fact  that  the 
synchronism  of  the  perturbations  was  not  confined  to  the 
decimation  of  the  needle,  but  that  every  deviation  at  one 
place  of  observation  had  its  counterpart  at  another  ;  and 
ne  was  therefore  induced  to  recommend  a  plan  of  simul- 
taneous observations  at  intervals  of  five  minutes  during 
twenty-four  hours,  four  times  in  the  year.  This  sug- 
gestion was  immediately  adopted,  and  on  the  Continent 
magnetic  stations  were  formed  at  more  than  twenty  cities 
of  Europe,  from  Dublin  to  St.  Petersburg.  The 'British 
Government  and  the  East  India  Company  also,  besides  tin- 
principal  observatories  of  the  former  at  Greenwich  and 
Dublin,  immediately  sanctioned  the  formation  of  magnetic 
stations,  under  the  direction  of  scientific  officers,  at  St. 
Helena  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  Canada,  the  East 
Indies  and  New  South  Wales  :  and  in  the  present  • 
ditionto  the  antarctic  regions  under  <  'aptain  .1.  C.  Ross,  one 
of  the  leading  objects  is  the  determination  of  the  magnetic 
elements  in  that  remote  part  of  the  world.  The  system  of 
simultaneous  observations  at  numerous  and  stated  times  of 
the  year,  which  has  been  organized  in  Europe,  is  to  be  con- 
formed tp  by  all  the  British  observers:  and  the  Royal 
:y  of  London  has  caused  an  able  Report  of  the  ob- 
.•ntifie  inquiry  in  physics  to  be  drawn  up  for 
the  use  of  travellers  in"  general",  and  particularly  for  the 
persons  who  have  been  appointed  to  take  part  in  the  ob- 
servations respecting  magnetism  and  meteorology. 

The  instruments  employed  for  determining  the  elements 
of  terrestrial  magnetism. 'and  the  variations  to  which  they 
are  subject,  are  of  three  kinds;  the  declination  magneto- 
meter; and  the  horizontal  and  vertical  force  magnet  o- 
:s.  The  first  is  a  needle  or  bar,  from  twelve  to 
fifteen  inches  in  length,  nearly  one  inch  broad,  and  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  suspended  in  a  horizontal  position 
in  a  stirrup  by  untwisted  silk  fibres  about  two  feet  long. 
The  apparatus  is  contained  in  a  box,  to  protect  it  from  the 
agitation  of  the  air,  with  two  apertures  in  opposite  j n-i- 
tions;  one  of  these  is  for  illuminating  the  scale,  ami  the 
other  is  used  for  the  readings,  which  are  taken  by  mean-  of 
a  telescope  at  a  distance.  For  a  description  of  such  an 
instrument  and  its  adjustments,  see  Taylor's  'Scientific 
part  v.  By  this  instrument  may  be  observed 
the'  absolute  declination,  or  the  angle  which  HIP  axis  of  the 
needle  makes  with  the  astronomical  meridian  of  the  place, 
the  variations  of  the  declination,  and  the  horizontal  com- 
ponent of  the  earth's  magnetic  force.  The  latter  is  I'nund 
nents  ol  d. -Mention  and  experiment  sol'  vibration  : 
and  the  formul ••  I  for  the  purpose  are  given 

in    the    work    of  Gauss,  entitled   •  Intensity  vi-   V, 

IKU  .      SIM-  also  the  Report  of  the  <"om- 
ihe    Royal     S<  ,11.       Hut    fiaus- 

initiations  of  intensity  by  the  vibrations  of 
a  needle  are  inaccurate  on  account  of  the  changes  which 
•nay  take  place  in  the  inten-ily  during  the  time  in  which 
the  vibrations  continue;  and  i'n  1K!7  he  invented  anew 
instrument,  which  is  called  a  Bifilar  magnetometer,  for 
the  purpose  of  determining  the  horizontal  intensity  alone. 
This  consist*  of  a  magnetised  needle  m  I  :  hori-  p 

zontally  in  a  stirrup  placed  under  n  circular  graduated 
plate,  to  the  tipper  part  of  which  are  attached  the  two 
extremities  of  a  tine  steel  thread  or  wire.  The  middle,  or 


the  bend,  of  the  thread  pasj.es  over  two  pulleys  which  are 
lived  111  the  upp'  the  building;  and  the  two  parts 

of  the  thrta.l  h:i  parallel  to  one 

another,   when  the  needle  rests  in  the  magnetic  meridian. 
Then,  on  turning   the  whole  apparati. 

to  make  the  needle  deviate   Irom   the  magnetic  meridian, 
the  tendency  ol  the  needle  to  return  to  it>  Inrnu-r  pu-ition 
causes  the  threads  to  assume   directions   i,blii|ue    to  each 
other:  and  there  is  some   position  of  the  needle   in  which 
Its  dircctiv  c  loree  is  equal  to  the  force  by  which  the  tl; 
resist  being  made  to  cross  each  others  directions:    it  is 
to   adjust    the   instrument    so   that,  when   this  equi- 
librium  takes  place,  the  needle  shall   lie   in  a  direction  at 
right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the  magnetic  meridian.     The 
torsion  of  the  threads   by  which  the  needle   is  made  : 
suuie  that  position    indicates   the  horizontal  component  of 
the  magnetic  force,   and   every  change  in   the  intensity  of 
the  latter   affects   in    a  direct    manner   the    position  of  the 
needle.     The  magnetized   bar   in  use  at  the  (iottmgcn  ob- 
servatory  weighs  i'llbs.,   and   the   length   of  the   pair  of 
suspending  threads  is  17  feet.   .Taylor's  X<  n  tttil: 
parts  vi..  vii.       Instruments  on  the  same  principle,  but  of 
smaller  dimensions,  are  made  for  ordinary  occasions. 
the  Royal  Society's  Report. 

The  vertical  lone  magnetometer  consists  of  n  magnetic 
needle  resting  on  agate  planes  by  what  are  called  knife- 
edges,  and  it  is  made  to  assume  a  horizontal  position  by 
means  of  weights  :  the  deviations  of  the  needle  from  that 
position,  when  in  the  plane  of  the  magnetic  meridian,  or  in 
a  vertical  plane  making  any  angle  with  that  meridian, 
serve  to  determine  the  variations  in  the  vertical  component 
of  the  magnetic  intensity. 

Gauss  observes  that,  on  account  of  the  simple  rela- 
tion that  the  horizontal  and  vertical  components  b. 
one  another,  these  are  more  proper  to  serve  as  the  foun- 
dation of  a  theory,  than  the  usual  expression  of  the  mag- 
netic force  by  the  total  intensity,  the  inclination,  and  the 
declination;  and  he  recommends  that,  in  all  observations, 
the  intensity  in  the  horizontal  direction  should  be  kept 
distinct  from  the  other  elements. 

TKRRIKR  (funis  /nini/iiirix   T<-rr<irin*\  a  variety  of 

the  dog  remarkable  ibr  the  eagerness  and  courage  with 

which   it  goes  to  earth,  and  attacks   all   tho-v  quadrupeds 

which   come   under  the   gamekeeper's   denomination   of 

in,  from  the  Fox  to  the  Rat. 

In  the  genealogical  table  of  the  different  races  of  dogs 
we  find  the  Hound  immediately  next  in  descent  from  the 
Shepherd  dog.  which  is  placed  as  the  immediate  descend- 
ant of  the  Lapland  dog,  the  highest  in  the  table,  and  col- 
lateral to  the  Hound,  the  '///•/•/'<•;•.  and  liirriir. 

Lieut.-Col.  Hamilton  Smith  (Nn/uni/ifl'n  Library,  Is  10  . 
treating  on  the  Cur  Dngs,  after  stating  that  in  Southern 
Africa  we  have  a  race  of  small  Sacalian  dogs  :  in  Arabin. 
one  of  Thoan  form:  in  India,  the  parent  Pariah  (need,  ap- 
parently captured  in  the  woods  of  the  country  :— that 
Southern  China,  all  Persia,  Natolia,  and  Russia  have  a 
similar  predominant  race  of  cure;  and  that  in  Europe 
there  is  everywhere  evidence  of  an  originally  indigenous 
species  of  small  dimensions,  or  at  least  ol' one.  brought  in 
by  the  earliest  colonists  of  the  west,  extending  from  I. up- 
land to  Spain, — goes  on  to  observe,  that  if  we  search  lor 
that  kind  which  now  seems  to  be  the  most  typical,  that 
possessing  innate  courage,  sagacity,  and  profitie  power. 
without  training  or  care  in  breeding. — these  qualities  are 
found  most  unquestionably  united  in  the  terrier,  and  no- 
where so  fully  marked,  vvitii  all  the  tokens  of  antient  ori- 
ginality, as  in  the  rough-haired  or  Scottish  breed.  'In 
the  terrier.  Smith  in  continuation,  '  we  still  see 

all  the  alacrity  of  innate  confidence,  all  resources  of  spirit. 
all  the  willingness  to  remain  familiar  with  subteinr 
habitations,  and  all  the  daring  and  combination  which 
makes  him  fearless  in  the  prc-cnce  of  the  most  formidable 
animals;  for  it  is  often  noticed  in  India,  that  when  the 
bull-dog  pauses,  British  terriers  never  hesitate  to  surround 
and  giapplc  with  the  hy;rna.  the  wolf,  or  even  the  pan- 
ther. .  .  .  If  there  be  an  original  and  indigenous  dog  of 
Britain,  it  is  surely  the  species  we  have  now  under  review  : 
for  if  the  Irish  wolf-dog,  or  a  questionable'  gaze-hound, 
were  derived  from  the  British  wolf,  such  a  conquest  over  a 
powerful  and  ferocious  animal  could  scarcely  have  been 
achieved  without  the  aid  and  Intelligence  of  a  previously 
domesticated  and  smaller  spe.-ies.  But  ii  is  more  likely 
the  terrier  of  antiquity  was  of  the  same,  race  with  the 


T  E  K 


241 


T  E  R 


hard-footed  dogs  of  the  Cymbers,  and  that  the  first  were 
brought  over  1'rom  the  north-west  of  Europe  with  the  pri- 
mitive inhabitants.  Certain  it  is  that  the  intermixture  of  ! 
terrier  blood  with  other  and  later  races  has  in  no  instance 
tended  to  diminish  their  courage,  hardihood,  and  fidelity : 
and  in  no  part  of  Europe  has  the  rough-haired  breed  re- 
tained so  completely  as  in  Britain  all  the  traits  which  con- 
stitute a  typical  species.' 

Terriers  may  be  divided  into  two  sections,  the  one  rough 
and  wire-haired,  the  other  smooth-haired  and  generally 
more  delicate  in  appearance.  In  courage  and  sagacity 
there  is  little  difference  if  the  dogs  be  well  bred,  but  the 
rough  and  wiry  coat  of  the  former  is  a  greater  protection 
from  the  attack  of  its  adversary,  and  it  is,  if  anything,  the 
most  severe  biter  of  the  two.  They  are  of  all  colours,  red, 
black,  with  tanned  faces,  flanks,  legs,  and  feet,  brindled, 
sandy,  brown  pied,  white,  and  white  pied.  The  Pepper 
and  Mustard  breeds,  rendered  famous  by  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
are  highly  valued. 

Kvery  pack  of  fox-hounds,  to  be  complete,  should  be 
accompanied  by  a  brace  of  terriers,  and  one  should  be 
smaller  than  the  other,  so  that  if  one  should  be  stopped 
by  a  small  earth,  the  other  may  enter.  For  terriers  going 
with  hounds,  any  colour  is  better  than  all  red,  for  a  red 
terrier  is  sometimes  mistaken  for  a  fox,  and  hallooed  off  as 
one  by  inexperienced  sportsmen. 

Mr.  Daniel,  in  his  'Rural  Sports,'  gives  the  following 
account  of  the  ferocity  and  affection  of  a  terrier  bitch  : — 
Alter  a  very  severe  burst  of  more  than  an  hour,  a  fox  was 
by  Mi-.  Daniel's  hounds  run  to  earth  at  Heney  Dovehouse, 
ill-ill- Sudbury,  in  Suffolk;  the  terriers  were  lost,  but  as  the 
fox  went  to  ground  in  view  of  the  headmost  hounds,  and 
it  was  the  concluding  day  of  the  season,  it  was  resolved  to 
die  him.  Two  men  from  Sudbury  brought  two  terriers 
fur  that  purpose,  and,  after  considerable  labour,  the  hunted 
fox  was  got  and  given  to  the  hounds.  While  they  were 
breaking  the  fox,  one  of  the  terriers  slipt  back  into  the 
earth  and  again  laid;  after  more  digging  a  bitch-fox  was 
taken  out.  The  terrier  had  killed  two  cubs  in  the  earth, 
but  three  others  were  saved  from  her  fury.  These  the 
owner  of  the  bitch  begged  to  have,  saying  he  should  make 
her  suckle  them.  This  was  laughed  at  as  impossible  ;  the 
man  how  ever  was  positive,  and  hail  the  cubs:  the  hitch 
fox  was  carried  away  and  turned  into  an  earth  in  another 
country. 

Mr.  'Daniel  then  relates  that,  as  the  terrier  had  behaved 
so  well  at  earth,  he  some  days  afterwards  bought  her,  with 
the  cubs  which  she  had  fostered.  Tin-  bitch  continued  to 
suckle  them  regularly,  and  reared  them  until  they  were 
able  to  shift  for  themselves  :  what  adds  to  the  singularity, 
Mr.  Daniel  observes,  is  that  the  terrier's  whelp  was  nearly 
five  weeks  old,  and  the  cubs  could  just  see,  when  this  ex- 
change of  progeny  was  made.  He  also  states  that  a  cir- 
cumstance partly  similar  to  the  foregoing  occurred  in  1797, 
at  the  duke  of  Richmond's,  at  Goodwood,  where  five  foxes 
were  nurtured  and  suckled  by  two  foxhound  bitches. 

The  same  author  states,  that  in  April,  1784,  his  hounds 
found  at  Bromfield-Hall  wood.  By  some  accident  the 
whipper-in  was  thrown  out,  and  after  following  the  track 
two  or  three  miles,  gave  up  the  pursuit.  As  he  returned 
home,  he  came  through  the  fields  near  the  cover  where 
the  fox  was  found.  A  terrier  that  was  with  him  whined 
and  was  very  busy  at  the  foot  of  a  pollard  oak,  and  he 
dismounted,  supposing  that  there  might  be  a  hole  at  the 
bottom  harbouring  a  polecat  or  some  small  vermin.  No 
hole  could  he  discern.  The  dog  was  eager  to  get  up  the 
tree,  which  was  covered  with  twigs  from  the  stem  to  the 
crown,  and  upon  which  was  visible  the  dirt  left  by  some- 
thing that  had  gone  up  and  down  the  boughs.  The 
whipper-in  lifted  the  dog  as  high  as  he  could,  and  the 
terrier's  eagerness  increased.  He  then  climbed  the  tree, 
putting  up  the  dog  before  him.  The  instant  the  terrier 
reached  the  top  the  man  heard  him  seize  something,  and, 
'.  found  him  fast  chapped  with  a  bitch-fox, 
secured,  as  well  as  four  cubs.  The  height  of  the 
tree  was  twenty-three  feet ;  nor  was  there  any  mode  for 
,  go  to  or  from  her  young,  except  the  outside 
the  tree  had  no  bend  to  render  the  path  easy. 
Tin  i  bs  were  bagged,  and  bred  up  tame  to  corn- 

men;  extraordinary  case:  one  of  them  belonged 

to    ML  Leigh,  and   used   to  run  tame  about  the  coffee- 
roorn  at  Wood's  hotel,  ','ovent  Garden. 

The  breed  of  terriers  recommended  in  the  old  times 
1'.  C.,  No.  1018; 


when  the  huntsman  went  on  foot,  was  from  a  Beagle  ant! 
Mongrel  Mastiff',  or  from  any  small  thick-skinned  dog  that 
had  courage.  Thus  the  coat  and  courage  were  supposed 
to  come  from  the  Cur,  and  the  giving  tongue  from  the 
Beagle.  The  time  for  entering  the  young  terriers  at  a  fox 
or  badger  was  when  their  age  was  ten  or  twelve  months, 
with  an  old  terrier  to  lead  them  on.  When  entered  at  a 
fox,  and  the  old  one  was  taken,  the  young  terriers  were 
set  to  attack  the  cubs  unassisted,  and  when  they  killed 
them,  both  young  and  old  terriers  were  rewarded  with  the 
blood  and  livers  fryed  with  cheese,  with  fox's  or  badger's 
grease  :  at  the  same  time  the  dogs  were  shown  the  heads 
and  skins  to  encourage  them.  There  were  other  cere- 
monies recommended,  too  cruel  to  be  repeated,  and  which 
could  have  been  of  little  or  no  service.  Honest  Dandie 
Dinmont's  mode  of  entering  his  Pepper  and  Mustard  gene- 
rations is  as  good  as  can  be  practised. 

A  cross  of  the  terrier  with  the  bull-dog  for  the  purposes 
of  badger-baiting,  &c.,  was  at  one  time  much  in  vogue. 
Of  this  breed  was  the  celebrated  dog  Billy,  famous  for  his 
destruction  of  rats.  He  was  often  turned  into  a  room 
with  a  hundred  of  those  animals,  and  he  frequently  killed 
every  one  of  them  in  less  than  seven  minutes. 

Of  those  inhuman  practices — it  is  degrading  the  term  to 
call  them  sports — badger-baiting,  cat-killing,  dog-fighting, 
and  the  like,  we  purposely  say  nothing  here,  except  that 
they  have  been,  most  properly,  put  down  by  law  in  the 
metropolis  and  its  vicinity. 

TERRIER,  from  the  French  word  terrier,  a  land-book, 
a  register  or  survey  of  lands.  Those  best  known  in  this 
country  are  the  ecclesiastical  terriers  made  under  the  pro- 
visions of  the  87th  canon.  They  consist  of  a  detail  of  the 
temporal  possessions  of  the  church  in  the  parish.  They 
ought  to  be  signed  by  the  parson,  and  are  sometimes  also 
signed  by  the  churchwardens  and  some  of  the  substantial 
inhabitants  of  the  parish.  Their  proper  place  of  custody 
is  the  bishop's  or  archdeacon's  registry :  a  copy  also  is 
frequently  placed  in  the  parish  chest.  If  a  terrier  is  proved 
to  be  produced  from  the  proper  custody,  and  therefore 
may  be  presumed  to  be  genuine,  it  is  in  all  instances  evi- 
dence as  against  the  parson.  And  in  those  instances  where 
it  has  been  signed  by  churchwardens  elected  by  the  parish 
or  by  the  inhabitants,  it  is  also  evidence  as  against  the  inha- 
bitants generally ;  even  against  those  occupying  lands 
other  than  the  lands  occupied  by  the  inhabitants  who 
signed  it.  The  questions  in  respect  of  which  a  terrier  is 
generally  employed  as  evidence  are  those  relating  to  the 
glebe,  tithes,  a  modus,  &c. 

(Starkie,  On  Kriili-nce.) 

TERTIARY  STRATA,  the  title  given  by  almost 
universal  consent  of  geologists  to  the  uppermost  great. 
group  of  strata.  Previous  to  the  publication  of  the  'Essay 
on  the  Geology  of  the  Basin  of  Paris,'  by  MM.  Cuvier 
and  Brongniart,  in  1810,  but  little  attention  had  been 
awakened  to  this  great  mass  of  deposits,  though  the  fami- 
liar use  of  the  terms  primary  and  secondary,  and  the 
acknowledged  dissimilitude  between  the  latest  of  these 
strata  and  modern  accumulations  from  water,  in  respect  of 
mineral  aggregation  and  organic  exuviae,  seemed  to  be 
prophetic  of  the  discovery  of  a  newer  type  more  in  har- 
mony with  existing  nature. 

The  extent  to  which,  over  great  tracts  in  all  quarters  of 
the  globe,  this  type  has  been  found  to  prevail,  is  exceed- 
ingly great :  most  of  the  capital  cities  of  Europe  are  built 
upon  tertiary  strata ;  many  of  the  broadest  plains  and 
widest  valleys  in  the  New  and  the  Old  World  are  nothing 
but  the  dried  beds  of  seas  and  lakes  of  the  tertiary  period  : 
and  some  considerable  mountain  ranges  bear  on  their 
high  summits,  and  still  more  abundantly  on  their  flanks, 
portions  of  the  shelly  tertiary  strata  which  were  uplifted 
from  their  original  horizontaiity  and  subjected  to  the  con- 
vulsive movement!  of  which  the  mountain  ranges  are  the 
result.  In  almost  every  part  of  the  globe  strata  of  this 
tertiary  series  prevail,  and  yield  astonishing  numbers  of 
shells,  corals,  Crustacea,  and  other  remains  of  marine,  fresh- 
water, and  terrestrial  invertebrata,  and  more  locally  abun- 
dant layers  of  fishes,  and  rich  deposits  of  bones  of  mam- 
malia, &c.  Possessing  so  many  attractions,  and  affording 
such  unusual  facilities  for  study,  the  tertiary  strata  of  Italy, 
France,  England,  Northern  Europe,  the  eastern  states  of 
North  America,  the  great  tracts  of  Brazil,  Patagonia,  6cc., 
have  been  the  theatre  of  great  and  laborious  investigati 
which  have  brought  forward  our  knowledge  of  these  de- 

VOL.  XXIV. -2  1 


T  E  R 


•2+2 


T  E  R 


pout*  to  at  lea*  an  equal  advance  with  that  of  the  older 
ttrata. 

Mmi-  than  thu  can  hardly  be  mid  with  jn 
tlioi  •„• 

:  producing  modern  accumulation*  of 
tediment*  and  orgai  v\'.,ich  produced 

>  strata,  the  >nmulr\. 

of  these  i»  almost  completely  known, then 

iDiprehended,  because  tl» 

>e  ktrala  was  performed  under  : 

.1-  tin-  accumulations  "I  Minds  and 
-.on  the  actual  sea-bed,  and  because,  since  tlu-u1  pro- 
duction and  elevation  from  »e;i-  :i  dry  land, 
thcv  lu\c,  I'H >in  their  mm.  :\  and  inferior  indara- 
tion,  been  IDOIT  subject  to  super  e  and  dcstinction 
than  the  older,  nit<  .,  and  more  consolidated 
strata.  The  incompleteness  of  our  knowledge  of  the 

gfnfml  history  of  the   tertian  .  ideut  by  the  in- 

completeness of  the   classification    \\liicli   represents   that 
history,  and  on   this  point,  the   only  one  which  it  appear* 
-<iry  here   to   discuss,   we  shall   otic,  marks. 

AmoiiL'tlie  primary  and  secondary  strata  [GEOUH;Y]  sub- 
divisi  iponding  to  succesnve  times  of 

have  been  found  practicable  and  definable,  and   traceable 
immense  areas  by  mean*  of  a  combination  of  m 
tural,  and   organic  characters.      Limestones  of  certain 
kinds,    as   chalk,    oolite,  magnesias-lime-  .  mipa- 

nied  with   green,   brown,  or  n 

::  I    holding   spatangi,   apiocrinites.   or   pa- 
laeom  and    disunion-  >us.    oolitic,  and 

niagne.siaii   formations  and  systems  of  -  -tiata 

ling  to  the  carboniferous  and  other  older  s\  stems 
of  nicks.  This  has  not  been  found  so  practicable,  in  "regard 
to  tli.  .  which,  though  presenting  many  dif- 

ferent sorts  of  strata,  oft'er  in  the  inuiimr  <>f  combination 
amonirv.  these  too  many  general  analogies,  and  too  much 
of  local  difference,  to  be  conveniently  ranged  into  forma- 
-  having  more  than  a  local  value,  by  means 
of  mineral  und  strnctuial  characters!. 

Some  assistance  towards  the  desired  classification  ap- 
peared to  be  furnished  by  the  alternation  of  marine  and 
•water  sediments,  as  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  in  the 
basin  of  Paris,  and  hence  the  titles  of  Upper  and  ' 
Marine,  Upper  and  Lower  Freshwater  deposits  acquired 
a  considerable  application.     Hut  the  most   successful  and 
.lily  best-founded  classification  of  tertiary  strata  rests 
:  a  study  of  their  oriranic  content*. 

It  has  been  long  remarked  that  in  those  strata,  wherever 

'(•cur.  the  forms  of  animal  and  vegetable  life  make  a 

near   approach,    even    specifically,    to    living    types,     liy 

,\    examination,  a  certain  number  <  have 

found  in  tertiary  strata  actually  identical  with  or  un- 

distinguishable   from  living  objects.     The   pioportion   in 

which  these  still  living  species  are  mixed  with  now  extinct 

••lifved  to  be  extinct)  forms  varies,  so  that  in  Sicily 

\   beds   occur  with  above  !X)  per  cent,  of  still  living 

-  ..I   shells,  but   in   the  basins  of  London   and    Paris 

others  are  found  containing  only  about  \i  per  ccnl. 

There   are   reasons    independent    of    these    proportions 
which   leave  no  doubt   that   the  strata   i  n  and 

Paris,   which  contain   only  •'i  per  cent,  of  livinLT  f'.rm-.  are 
among  the  oldest  ot  •  K  :   while  the  Sicilia- 

which   contain   only    about   r>  per  cent,  of  extinct   ^ 
are  amount  the  most  recent. 

.    this   kind   generalized   lead   to  a   speculation 

which   is  strongly   confirmed   by   the    general    current    of 

overy.  that  the  relative  antiquity  of  ter- 

.   may  be  judged   of  by  the   relative   proportion 

shells  which  air  tumid  in  them 

Ibis  i  :l    have  founded 

the  most  prevalent  modern  classification  of  tertiary  strata, 
which  may  be  thus  I  .lied: — 

it   I'l'rinil. 

Newer   Pleiocene   Period,    the   strata    containing  not 

"•»  in  a  hundred. 
Older  Pleincene  Period,  the  strata  containing  about  50 

•  in  a  hundred. 

IVnod.  the  strata  containing  about  80  extinct 
•  hundred. 

the  strata  containing  about  95  extinct 
ipecies  in  a  hundred. 

'Thews  term*  are  taken  from  the  Greek  itmvuc,  re 


combined   with    *Xti'»i-.   more.    p,i*v,  less    and  ju,c,   the 

dawn.  . 

The  principle  of  jrr  rent>i(;,  emploved  b\   Mr.  Lvi'll   in 
this   ,  .,i,UI    not   be   si. 

account   of  its  HL-OIOUS  numerical  re- 
found    locully    inapplicable.      li    i>    iui|H.s.,|.li.    ih;r 
should    be   otherwise,  for  the  mnneri. 
iranic 

ditions  a.s   well   as   to   the 
influences  ;  but  that  the  irreat  ea 
lion-  of  the  forms  of  p'anls  and  animals  in  Mice. 

I.K|S.  whether  ])iimaiv.  secondary.  i>i  teili: 

of   piiysii-al    cncmn- 

-   ihtlucntial  on   organic  life,  appears  am] 

:.t  that  tin- 

of  iudiMih..  ;iions.  and  the  numeiical  iiiojioitions 

of  their  coiiibinnlions.  are  in  harmony  with  and   iudn 
of  the  successive  physical  conditions  when  they  live.. 
•jiieiitly   of   the  ...ds    to   which    ' 

]ih\sical  conditions  belonged.     The  compaiison   of  indivi- 
dual fossil  and  living  foims  is  m  mil  that  not  the 
.il  or  important,  mode  Of  manifesting  the  I 
"tits   of   organic   life 

•Is.     By  some   other  less  obvious   arithmetical   ]iro- 
!,  the  relatr  antient  and  modern  i 

may  he  made  to  appear  numerically,  independent  of  any 
such  specific  comparisons,  and  without  limitation  o; 

•iphical    rcfriou.     Th.  n   at- 

tcmptcd   in  regard  to  the  !'  Ibcsila  L'cneially.  and 

I  of  Devonshire  specially,  und  the  result  aft'ords 
remarkable  encouragement  to  the  application, 
calculations  based  on  exact  data  repiesentinir  the  1111 

•inctly  recognisable  form*  of  different  irronps  of 
organic  remains,  whether  these  be  of  living  or  extinct 
tubes. 

We  have  only  further  to  remark,  that  the  tertiary  strata 
more  distinctly  defined  and   separated    from    the 
uppermost  secondary  strata  than  from  the  recent 
water.     In  fact  the  most  natural  classification   of  t. 

lie  products,  tertiary  strata,  and  tertiary  organn 
mains,  is  with  the  living  creation.  In  tertiary  strata 
the  phenomena  of  mineral  accumulation  seem  to  be  such 
witnessed  in  daily  operation  :  they  contain  marine, 
littoial,  and  pelagic  deposits;  actuary  and  flmiatile  sedi- 
ments: lacustrine  beds  hardlv  distinguishable  from  such 
as  are  now  in  progress.  In  these  sediments  occur  remains 
of  a  system  of  terrestrial  and  aquatic  life  as  complete  if 
we  except  reasoning  man  '  as  that  now  in  activity  :  and  if 
the  absence'  of  man.  and  the  animals  v,  Inch  seem  : 

itcd  with  him  for  his  comfort  and  ,v  in   the 

actual   creation,  be  thought  a  sufficient   reason   to  n  i 
fiom  historic  time  the  account  of  tertiary  deposits,  and   to 
justify  the   adoption   of   a    distinct    c.  Of  modern 

period  in  geological  classifications,  it  is  not  the  less  true 
that  the  geological  date  of  the  epoch  of  this  period,  the 
line  of  separation  between  it  and  the  terli  ;-  en- 

tirely unknown  by  direct  and  positive  facts,  and  ap: 
incapable  of  determination  by  reasoning  on  any  collateral 
phenomena  at  present  ascertained, 

l.\,  I!./'/-///.,.  .   DC  la  Beche,  Geol<>L 

'  :  Phillip 

TKKTU.l.IA'MS.  i.iVINTUS  SEPTIMIUS  FLO- 
1\K\S.  the  earliest  of  the  Latin  ecclesiastical  w; 
lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  second  century  and  the  be- 
ginning of  the  third.  The  exact  date  of  his  birth  is  un- 
known :  Tilleinout  supposes  that  it  was  in  !(>()  A.U.,  and 
have  fixed  it  as  carU  as  l;i.~>.  li  .  ord- 

iiiLT  to  Jerome  :!>;•  I  if.  filutt.,  ~>.l  .  at  ('arthasre.  where 
his  father  was  a  centurion  in  tin  I  the  proc 

of  Africa,     lie  ei-,ibi:!i-ed  the  profession  ol 
rhetorician,   in  which   he  ;i| 

cmini  Hi  :.,d  of  his  life  In  hen. 

.   l!l : 

19,  .Vi  :     ./ 

converted   to  ( 'hristi;:  in   nil    \<- 

though   an   cxpn  s-ion   ol    I 

been   thought,   to  imply  that  his  conversion   look    pl:> 
Rome.      Immediately  Upon  his  conversion  ! 
a  piesbjtcr.     About  the  end  of  the  second  < 
writer  i    the    vear  2lK)i.    he    !  Moii- 

tanist.  [Mo  Jeiome    /.  C. 

to  his  suffer m^  from  the  envy  and  insults  of  the  clciiry  of 
the  Koman  eliurch,  but  a  more  adequate  and  more  pro- 


T  E  R 


243 


T  E  R 


bable  reason  for  it  is  found  in  the  character  of  Tertullian 
himself.  In  his  writings  composed  before  his  Montanism 
he  shows  many  traces  of  that  zeal  and  asceticism  which 
formed  the  peculiar  characteristic  of  the  Montanists.  It 
has  been  doubted  whether  he  remained  a  Montanist  to  his 
death.  Some  have  thought  that  he  returned  to  the  catholic 
church,  and  others  suppose  that  he  at  last  settled  down 
into  opinions  intermediate  between  those  of  the  Montanists 
and  those  of  the  orthodox.  For  neither  of  these  suppo- 
sitions is  there  any  sufficient  proof.  There  existed  indeed 
at  Carthage,  in  the  fifth  century,  a  sect  called  Tertul- 
lianists ;  but  between  them  and  Tertullian  there  appears 
to  have  been  no  historical  connection. 

Whether  he  remained  a  Montanist  or  not,  he  continued 
to  be  held  in  the  greatest  respect  by  the  African  churches. 
In  fact  it  is  to  his  influence  that  we  must  trace  the  cha- 
racteristics which  distinguished  those  churches  from  other 
Christians,  and  which  at  length,  through  Augustin,  gave 
a  tone  to  the  Christianity  of  the  West.  His  influence  was 
especially  great  upon  Cyprian,  in  whose  writings  there  is 
much  which  closely  resembles  some  of  Tertullian's,  and  of 
whom  Jerome  says  that  in  asking  for  the  works  of  Tertul- 
lian he  was  wont  to  say,  '  Da  magistrum'  ('Give  me  my 
master'). 

The  date  of  Tertullian's  death  is  unknown,  but  we  are 
told  by  Jerome  that  he  lived  to  a  great  age.  One  of  his 
works  ('  Ad  Scapulam')  was  written  as  late  as  216  A.D. 

A  large  portion  of  his  works  have  come  down  to  us,  and 
these  maybe  divided  into  three  classes :  (1)  apologetic, 
(2)  practical,  and  (3)  doctrinal  or  controversial.  The  same 
iication  is  sometimes  stated  differently,  as  follows  :— 
ritings  against  the  heathen  ;  (2)  writings  on  the  na- 
ture, morals,  rites,  &c.  of  the  church ;  and  (3)  writings 
airainst  heretics.  It  is  important  to  distinguish,  if  possible, 
between  the  works  which  he  wrote  before  he  became  a 
Montanist  and  those  which  he  wrote  afterwards.  This  dis- 
tinction has  been  attempted  by  Neander  and  Biihr.  On 
the  other  hand,  a  few  writers  have  thought  that  all  the 
works  of  Tertullian  were  composed  after  he  adopted  the 
opinions  of  Montanus.  (J.  G.  Hoffmann,  Diss.  omnia 
Tertull.  in  Mvntanismo  scripta  videri,  Wittenberg,  1738.) 
I.  Of  Tertullian's  Apologetic  Works  the  following  ap- 
pear to  belong  to  the  earlier  part  of  his  life,  and  to  have 
been  written  in  the  reign  of  Septimius  Severus.  They  are 
free  from  the  peculiar  tenets  of  Montanism  :  — 

(1.)  '  Ad  Martyres;'  for  the  encouragement  and  vindica- 
tion of  those  who  suffered  for  being  Christians. 

(2.)  '  De  Speetaculis  ;'  written  about  198,  against  the 
Roman  games  and  festivals,  and  to  dissuade  Christians 
from  being  present  at  them. 

(3.)  '  De  Idololatria ;'  an  exposure  of  the  character  and 
influence  of  idolatry,  with  an  exhortation  to  Christians  to 
avoid  every  approach  to  participation  in  it. 

(4.)  '  Apologeticus  adversns  Gentes  pro  Chi istianis  ;'  his 
principal  work  of  this  class,  and  one  of  the  best  of  all  his 
works,  is  a  powerful  refutation  of  the  accusations  made 
against  the  early  Christians,  and  a  warm  remonstrance 
persecutions  they  suffered,  addressed  to  the  Ro- 
man magistrates.  It  was  written  in  the  year  198,  and  has 
been  deservedly  held  in  very  high  esteem  both  in  antient 
and  modern  times. 

(5.|  •  Ad  Nationes  Libri  II.'    These  two  books,  which 

were  discovered  in  manuscript  by  James  Gothofred,  and 

printed   by  him  at  Geneva,   162."^  4to.,   form   a   kind   of 

supplement   to  the  '  Apologeticus.'      The   first   contains 

much  the  same  matter  as  that  book,  sometimes  expanded, 

sometimes  abridged,  and  sometimes  newly  arranged  ;   the 

second  takes  up  the  general  subject  of  heathen  theology. 

The  date  of  these  books  appears  to  be  about  199,  if  they 

•.vritte.n  after  the  '  Apologeticus  ;'  but,  some  writers  of 

high  authority,  as  Neander  and  Miinter,  suppose  that  they 

were  written  before  the  latter  work,  in  the  year  198. 

(6.)  The  treatise   '  De    Testirrionio   Animae '    may  be 

riled  as  another  supplement  to  the  'Apologeticus,'  the 

17th  chapter  of  which  contains  in  fact  the  fame  argument 

er  form.     Its  object  is  to  prove  that  there  exists 

originally  in  the  human  mind,  to  a  certain  extent,  a  know- 

ue  God,  and  that  this  knowledge  of  God 

confirms  the  Christian  doctrine  of  his  character. 

Thy  remainder  of  Tertullian's  apologetic  works  appear 
e  ITCH  written  after  he  became  a  Montanist.    They 
are : 
(7.)  '  DC  Corona  Militis ;'  a  vindication  of  a  Christian 


soldier,  who  refused  to  wear  a  crown  which  had  been 
awarded  to  him,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  a  badge  of 
heathenism,  and  who  was  imprisoned  for  his  refusal.  This 
work  contains  remarks  on  other  questions  relating  to  the 
duties  of  a  Christian  citizen  under  a  heathen  government. 
(8.)  '  De  Fuga  in  Persecutione ;'  a  statement  of  the 
Montanist  opinion  that  Christians,  when  persecuted,  might 
neither  attempt  to  save  their  lives  by  flight  nor  by  money. 
Written  about  202. 

(9.)  '  Contra  Gnosticos  Scorpiace ;'  an  answer  to  the 
slurs  thrown  upon  the  martyrs  in  the  persecution  of  Septi- 
mius Severus,  by  those  scorpions  the  Gnostics. 

(10.)  '  Liber  ad  Scapulam ;'  a  defence  of  the  Christians, 
addressed  to  Scapula,  the  proconsul  of  Africa,  who  perse- 
cuted them. 

II.  Practical  Works,  relating  to  Christian  morals  and 
discipline.  The  following  were  written  before  he  became 
a  Montanist : — 

(11.)  '  De  Patientia ;'  on  Christian  patience. 
(12.)   '  De   Oratione;'   tin   prayer:   one   of  Tertullian's 
earliest  works. 

(13.)  '  De  Baptismo ;'  on  baptism :  a  defence  and  ex- 
planation of  the  rite. 

(14.)  '  De  Poenitentia ;'  on  repentance  :  a  manual  for 
Catechumens  and  newly-baptized  Christians. 

(15.)  '  Libri  Duo  ad  Uxorem  ;'  exhorting  his  wife  not  to 
marry  a  second  time,  if  he  should  die  before  her. 

The  two  following  works  were,  in  Neander's  opinion, 
most  probably  written  after  Tertullian  became  a  Mon- 
tanist : 

(16.)  'De  Cultu  Feminarum;'  on  female  attire  :  consist- 
ing of  two  books,  the  first  of  which  is  sometimes  denoted 
by  a  separate  title,  namely,  '  De  Habitu  Muliebri.' 

( 17. )  '  De  Virginibus  Velandis ;'  on  the  veiling  of  virgins  : 
in  opposition  to  the  custom  then  prevalent  at  Carthage,  of 
virgins  appearing  in  church  with  the  face  exposed. 

The  remaining  works  of  this  second  class  are  undoubtedly 
Montanistic : — 

(18.)  '  De  Exhortatione  Castitatis  ;'  dissuading  a  friend 
from  marrying  a  second  time.     To  the  same  purport  are 
(19.)  '  De  Monogamia;'  and  (20.)  '  De  Pudicitia.' 
(21.)  '  De  Jejunitate,'  or  '  De  Jejuniis ;'  recommending 
the  severe  practices  of  the  Montanists,  in  preference  to  the 
milder  doctrine  of  the  orthodox  respecting  fasts.     In  this 
work,  and  others  of  his  writings,  he  applies  to  the  ortho- 
dox the  term  '  psychici'  (i//i'x«roi),  carnal,  which  is  used  by 
Paul  ( 1  Cor.,  ii.  14)  in  opposition  to  '  spiritual.' 

(22.)  'De  Pallio,'  composed  in  the  year 208,  is  a  treatise 
recommending  the  wearing  of  the  Greek  pallium  in  pre- 
ference to  the  Roman  toga.  It  contains  much  information 
respecting  the  form  of  these  garments. 

III.  Horksnn  Christian  Doctrine  and  Polemics.  The 
only  one  of  this  class  which  seems  to  have  been  written 
before  his  Montanism  is 

(23.)  'De  Praescriptione  (or  Praescriptionibus)  Haereti- 
corum  ;'  against  heretics  in  general,  and  especially  the 
Gnostics  and  Marciouites. 

He  continued  his  attacks  upon  the  heretics,  and  espe- 
cially the  various  sects  of  Gnostics,  after  he  became  a  Mon- 
tanist, in  the  following  works: 

(24.)  '  Adversus  Marcionem  Libri  V.' 
(25.)  '  Adversus  Valentinianos  ;'  which  Semler  supposes 
to  be  a  close  imitation  of  Irenaeus,  '  Contra  Haeieses.' 

(26.)  '  De  Carne  Christ!,'  and  (27.)  '  De  Resurrectione 
Carnis,'  are  treatises  on  the  resurrection,  in  opposition  to  the 
Gnostics. 

(28.)  'Adversus  Hermogenem ;'  against  the  doctrine 
held  by  a  Gnostic  of  that  name,  that  matter  is  eternal,  and 
that  out  of  this  eternal  matter  not  only  all  sensible  things, 
but  also  the  souls  of  men  are  made,  the  latter  being 
besides  endowed  with  a  divine  principle  of  life  (irviti/ia). 
Against  this  doctrine  concerning  the  soul  Tertullian  wrote 
another  work,  from  which  only  some  quotations  have  come 
down  to  us :  '  De  Censu  Animae.'  Our  loss  is  the  less,  as 
we  have  a  fuller  treatise  by  Tertullian  on  the  same  sub- 
ject, (20.)  'De  Anima;'  in  which  he  discusses  the  theories 
of  heathen  philosophers  concerning  the  sou],  and  oppi 
to  them  all  the  doctrines  of  Christianity,  that  it  is  spiritual, 
immortal,  and  received  direct  from  God. 

There  is  also  a  work  by  him  on  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity. 

(30.)  '  Adversus  Praxean  ;'  written  about  201  or  205, 
against  the  doctrine  of  Praxeas,  which  was  in  l;-et  esscn- 

212 


T  I 


•-Ml 


T  K  S 


tially  th*  «»m*  with  that  which  afterward*  became  known 
M  Sabellianum. 

In;  put  of  his  life  he  wrote  ft  work,   31.) '  Ad- 

.leos,  in  answer  to  tin-  .ic-.u*h  objections  against 

t.:u:-'i  .•  .'•. 

alxivc  list  contains  nil  the  extant  works  of  Tt-,tullian, 
but  he  must  have  written  many  i  :nc  informs 

us  that  manv  of  Ins  work*  h:ul  been   lost   «'\rn  before  hi* 
mix.  in.,  !>>•  I'ir.  lltnsl.,  c.  Tf.\.      Amone  his  lost 
ol   which  tlio  titles  are  known,  beside*  that  'De 
Onsu  Anirnae,'  alrendy  mentioned,  are  some   \vlm-li  were 
especially  doiened  to  explain  tin-  opinions  of  the  Monta- 
nists,  namely,  •  DeSpc  Fuiehum.'  one  oft;  vorks 

in  which  was  put  forth  the  doctrine  now  known  as  Millen- 
narianisin.  of  the  personal  reign  of  Christ  on  earth  fora 
thousand  years  [MILLKN-MI-M].  and  'De  Paradiso.'  He 
also  composed  a  defence  of  the  •  ecstasies'  of  the  Monta- 
nists  in  six  books,  to  which  \va.s  added  a  seventh  against  a 
certain  Apollonius.  His  treatise  '  De  Aaronis  Vcstibns ' 
appears  to  have  been  lost  before  Jerome's  time.  (See 
Hicronym..  A/.-M/.  l\iv..  near  the  end.) 

Two  works  which  an'  sometimes  erroneously  ascribed 

rtullian  are  the  '('arniiiui  Sihyllina,'  and   the  •  Aeta 

tune   et    Kelicitatis.'     Tertulhan  holds   one   of   the 

laces,  if  not   the  MTV  first,  among  the  Ijitin  lathers, 

for  learning  and  intellectual  power.     Even  those  to  whom 

his  peculiar  opinions  were  the  least  acceptable    have  eulo- 

1  him  in  the  highest  terms.    Tints  Jerome  says  < l-'.]>i*t. 

!\v.  tec,  ">  .  'What   more   learned,  what  more  acute  than 

Tcrtullian?  whose  apology  and  hooks  aeainst  the  In 

embrace  all  the  learning  of  the  ace.'    Yincentiu*  Lirincnsi* 

imonilor.,  c.  24)   adjudges  to  him  'by  far  the  highest 

place  among  'he  Uitin  fathers,'  and  attributes  to  him  'the 

most  exten-ive  learning  both  in  thines  divine  and  human, 

and  a  grasp  of  mind  which  comprehended  all   philosophy. 

all  sects  of  philosophers,  their  authors  and  supporters,  and 

every    variety    of    historical    and    scientific    knowledge.' 

Kra-Hiiius  calls  him   -by  far  the  most   learned  of  all  the 

I-utin  theologians.'     il'rrfnt.   nit   }Iilitr.~}     In   short,    the 

lal  judgment  of  the  orthodox  in  antient  and  modern 

•>  may  be  summed  up  in  the  words  of  Jerome :  'His 

is  1   praise,  his  heresy  1   condemn '  u'jus  ingcnium 

laudo.   haeresin  dainno).      In  fact,   he  appears   liom   his 

writings  to  have  become  acquainted  with  all  the  learning 

then  taueht  in  the  schools  of  the  rhetorjtians,  while  to  this 

he   added    the   results   of  careful  observation,   and    then 

brought  all  his  knowledge  to  the  support  of  the  opinion* 

nbniced,  first  as  a  Christian  and  afterwards  as  ;•. 

tanist.     Perhaps  the   mo*t  Mriking  feature  in  his  writings 

-  intimate  acquaintance  with  all  the  ramifications  ol 

hen  theology  and  worship,  and  the   powerful  use  he 

makes  of  this  sort  of  learning  in  his  controversies  with  the 

III-.  cxccllcncic-,  and  defects  are  strangely  mingled.  \Vi 

trace  the  skill  of  the  rhetorician  in  his  forcible  reasonings 

and  his  eloquent   style,   but   he   has  also  the   rhetorician's 

fault*  in  arguing  often  with  more  sophistry  than  truth,  am" 

in  taking  liberties  with  language  till  bis  meaning  becomes 

His   warm   and    zealous    temper   eivc*   life   am 

impressiveness  to  his  wiitincs:  but   its  excess  made  him 

an  enthusiast  and  asccti  we  ought  in  truth  to 

..   fanatic.     In  his  writings  we  may  general!) 

;ui;  alter  wor, I-   !o   express  the  warmth  of  his  feeling* 

and  the  depth  of  his  convictions,  and  the  result  of  this 

effort,  combined  with  the  rhetorical  character  of  his  *i\le 

i-ii  to  render  his  eloquence  inflated  and  ob-cure.     Hi 

indulges  frequent!)  .  and  hyperboles,  a?al 

.lire  ami   irony.     Hi*  writings  cutler  crcatly  both  ii 
argument  and  ;-t\lc.    His  polemical  xvoik*  an-  the  < 
but  not  the  mii.M  i  '<  eant.   His  he*t  works  aie  his  A 

on    tin-    Prescription    of  the  Herein  ,    •_'.( 
on  Kcpc'i  .  on    l!apti-ni     l:i  .  on    l'ia\er     12  .  or 

Patience    11.  and  his  address  to  Martyrs  (1). 

The  best  editions  of  Tertullian  are  those  of  Rhcnanusv 

Itigaltius,  and  Semler.     A  full  account  of  editions  am 

illustrative  works  is  i_'iven  at  the  end  of  the  excellent  small 

Tertulhan  in  Leopold,  in  Geredorf  B  •  Hibliotheea 

Patw  >rum  Latinorum  Selects,' 4  Tola.  12mo., 

'II.  Tau.-tmitz. 

l!  whether  the  Tertullianus,  or  Tertyllianr.s 

from  two  of  whose  woi  ks  t .  • ,  in  the  •'  I  > 

U  this  Tcrtullmmu.     The   subject    is   briefly  discussed   l.j 
Zimmcni  :,tc.  dc»  KJ'.m.  Pmat:  :th  re- 


erences  toother  remarks  on  this  subject.  Tertullian,  in 
us  theological  works,  shows  that  he  was  well  acquainted 
vith  Roman  law. 

The   Church    '  der.   and 

Schiockh  ;  Haehr's  Chrntl  ..an- 

rlin, 

Hishop  Kaye.    Tin-   I 
1111,1   Third  Cm  tin  .  the 

riling*  <if  Trrtullian,  Camb.,  i  Miinter,  Pri- 

:      'I'nitie  .l/rirnnar,    Hafn..  'ther 

on  the   Life  and   \Vritings  of  Tertullian  are  uien- 
ioued  in  the  Appendix  to  Leopold's  edition.) 
TF.Itl  'M  II  s.     !  As.] 

1 1 KN.  a  circle  of  Austrian  Silesia,  is  boundi 
Ihe  north  by  Prussian   Silesia,  on  the  cast   by  (ialieia.  on 
the  south  by  Hungary,  and  on  the  west  1.x  M<-ravi:t.     Its 
area  is  stated  by  most  authors  at  about  720  or  7 

Von    l.icchtcnstern    (alone,   xve    believe     makes   it 
1360  square   miles.     The   number  of  inhabitants  is  about 
1HO,000.     The  country  consists  entirely  of  mountains  and 
valleys,  but  especially  in  the  south,  where  the  Carpathian 
chain  commences.  The  northern  part  is  flatter,  but  in; 
with    many  small   lakes  or  meres,  so  that  it  is  not  well 
adapted  fo'r  tillage.     The  Oder  forms  for  a  short  di*- 
the  north-western  boundary  towards  Prussian  Silesia,  and 
iravitza  divides  it  oii  the  west  from   Moravia.     The 
Vistula  rises  in  the  Carpathians  on  the  Hungarian  frontier, 
from  three  springs,  xxhich  unite  near  the  mountain  Tai 
floxv  to  the  village  of  Wcichscl,  and  to  the  toxxi 
M-hau   and  Schxx arzxvasser,  and  then    running   alone  Hie 
northern   frontier  of  the  circle,  p:iss    into   (ialieia.     The 
circle   has    many    forests,    and    consequently   timber    in 
abundance;  fine  pasturage;  and  a  ft  >rses, 

horned   cattle,   and   sxvine.     The    inhabitants  laisc  some 
oats  and  rye,  and  a  great  quantity  of  potatoes.     Thci- 
mines  of  'iron  and  coals,  which  are   not  so   extensively 
1  as  they  might  be.     The    inhabitants   in    ecneral 
manufacture  woollen    cloth,    linen,    and    wooden--- 
The  circle  contains  the  duchies  of  Tcschen  and   Bielil/, 
and  several  inferior  lordships.    [Hm.rrz.]     The  duchy  of 
Teschen  however  constitutes  by  far  the  ercater  part  ol  the 
circle,  having  a  population  of:  140,000  inhabitants,  who  are 
mo*tlx  of  Slavonian  origin. 

The  duchy  of  Teschen  formerly  belonged  to  the  em- 
perors, as  kines  of  Bohemia.  In  "1722  it  was  a*siencd  to 
Leopold,  duke  of  Lorraine,  as  an  indemnity  for  the  Italian 
duchy  of  Montfermt.  to  which  he  had  some  pret en-iou*. 
Upon  his  death  in  1721)  it  was  inherited  bv  his  son.  after- 
wards the  emperor  Francis  1..  xvho*e  daughter  Maria 
Christina  obtained  it  in  1770.  and  she  having  married 
Prince  Albert  of  Saxony,  he  took  the  title  of  Duke  of 
Saxe-Teschen.  Prince  Albert  dxine  February  10.  1S22. 
without  lineal  descendants,  the  duchy  was  inherited  b\  the 
Archduke  Charles,  who  governs  it  under  the  sovereignty 
of  Austria. 

TESCHKN.  the  capital  of  the  circle  and  the  duchy,  is 
situated  in  4!lu  40'  X.  hit.  and  IS"  32'  K.  lone-  at  tl; 
of  a  gentle  eminence,  an  offset  of  the  Carpathians,  on  a 
peninsula,  or  tongue  of  laud  formed  by  the  river  Kl-a  or 
Olsa,  and  a  small  stream  called  the.  Holier  or  Uobicck.  The 
ilmrbs,  which  are  not  separated  from  it. 
by  walls  or  gale*:  the  streets  are  in  general  broad  and 
straieht.  a  irrcat  fire  in  17s-'.'.  before  which  it  resembled 
an  irregular  dirty  Polish  town,  ha  vine  given  an  opportunity 
to  rebuild  it  in  a  better  style  :  there  arc  still  however 
narrow  ami  sti-c;  There  are  four  Roman  Catholic 

churches  and  one  Lutheran  church;  the  la.*t  is  a  ven 
and   handsome  edifice.     The  Oberring  is  a  regular  square, 
or  lather  parallelogram,  in  which  is  the  town-ln' 
building  with   a   loilx  tower,  at    the   back   of  which   are  a 
theatre  and  concert-room.     Tcsehen  i*  tin  1  Ihe 

courts  of  justice  and  public  offices  of  the  circle  and  the 
duchy.  There  is  a  Roman  Catholic  eynina.*ium.  with  a 
library  of  12,000  volume*,  ami  collections  of  minerals,  in- 
sect*, and  medals  ;  nnd  a  P:  um.  and  several 
schools.  The  inhabitants,  now  7IKKI.  manufacture  fine 
broadcloths,  kerseymere,  leather,  ami  a  kind  of  HIM 
known  in  German)  bx  the  name  of  Tesehiiiks.  They  have 
also  a  considerable  trade  in  leather,  wool,  broadcloths, 
Hungarian  wines,  honey,  and  wax.  The  tieaty  between 
Frederick  II.  of  nd  the  empiess  Maria  Thl 
which  terminated  what  is  called  the  war  of  the  Bavarian 
ion,  was  concluded  at  Teschen  in  1779. 


T  E  S 


245 


T  E  S 


(Hassel ;  Stein  ;  Cannabich  ;  Oesterreichische  National 
Encyclop&die.') 

TESI,  MAURO  ANTONIO,  or,  as  he  is  sometimes 
called,  after  the  name  given  him  by  his  patron  and  ad- 
mirer, Algarotti,  II  Maurino,  was  born  at  Montalbano  in 
the  territory  of  Modena,  January  15,  1730.  Though  in 
poor  circumstances,  his  parents  were  so  desirous  of  giving 
him  a  eood  education,  that  they  removed  for  that  pur- 
pose to  Bologna,  where  he  was  admitted  into  the  Scuole 
Pie.  Manifesting  a  great  taste  for  drawing,  he  was  placed 
under  Carlo  Morettini,  a  mere  heraldry  painter.  It  is 
therefore  not  without  reason  that  Algarotti  calls  him  self- 
taught,  for  though  he  afterwards  received  some  instruction 
from  an  engraver  named  Giovanni  Fabbri,  it  could  have 
contributed  but  little  towards  the  excellence  he  displayed 
in  that  branch  of  art  which  he  selected,— architectural 
design  and  painting.  For  this  he  was  doubtless  most  of 
all  indebted,  after  his  own  talent,  to  the  instruction  and 
'ance  of  Algarotti  himself,  who  made  him  the  com- 
panion of  his  journeys  to  various  places,  and  treated  him 
as  a  son.  The  attachment  was  reciprocal ;  and  it  was 
owing  to  his  attentions  to  his  patron  during  his  last  illness 
at  Pisa,  that  he  fell  into  ill  health  himself,  and  died  two 
years  afterwards  at  Bologna,  July  18,  1766. 

Algarotti  has  made  frequent  mention  of  Tesi  in  his 
letters,  where  he  has  described  many  of  his  works  at  con- 
siderable length,  and  speaks  both  of  them  and  him  in 
terms  that  would  seem  quite  exaggerated,  if  they  were 
expressed  by  a  less  intelligent  critic,  or  were  his  praises 
not  confirmed  by  the  opinions  of  others.  The  encomium 
paid  to  his  memory  in  the  inscription  on  his  monument  in 
the  church  of  St.  Petronio,  Bologna, — '  Elegantise  veteris 
in  pingendo  ornatu,  et  architecture,  restitutori,'— has  not 
been  considered  more  than  is  due  to  one  who  set  an 
example  of  more  refined  and  purer  taste  in  architectural 
design  and  composition.  His  productions  are  highly 
med,  and  though  his  pictures  are  few,  he  left  a  great 
number  of  drawings,  and  also  a  series  of  architectural  plates 
engraved  by  himself. 

(Tiraboschi,  Bibl.  Modenete  ;   Lanzi,  Storia  Ptttorica.) 

TE'SSERA,  a  small  cube  or  square  resembling  our  dice, 
which  was  used  by  the  antients  for  various  purposes, 
and  accordingly  it  consisted  of  different  materials,  as 
marble,  precious  stones,  ivory,  glass,  wood,  or  mother-of- 
pearl.  Such  small  tesserae  of  different  colours  were  used 
to  form  the  mosaic  floors,  or  pavements  in  houses,  which 
were  hence  called  tesselata  pavimenta.  (Sueton.,  Cccsar, 
46.)  The  same  kinds  of  cubes,  usually  made  of  ivory, 
bone,  or  hard  wood,  and  marked  on  all  their  six  sides,  were 
used  by  the  antients  as  dice  in  games  of  hazard,  just  as  in 
our  times.  In  the  earlier  times  three  dice  were  used  in  a 
game,  but  afterwards  only  two. 

The  word  tiwera  was  also  employed  to  signify  any  token 
which  was  given  to  persons  by  which  they  might  recognise 
one  another.  In  this  case  however  the  tesserae  were  pro- 
l.nbly  not  cubes,  but  were  of  an  oblong  form,  or  small  ta- 
blets marked  with  certain  signs.  Thus  we  find  mention  of 
/"i* j i> tu/ is,  which  strangers  when  forming  a  con- 
niTtion  of  hospitality  gave  to  one  another,  that  they  or 
their  children  might  afterwards  recognise  one  another,  and 
it  appears  that  a  tessera  in  this  case  was  marked  with  the 
figure  of  Jupiter  hospitalis.  (Plautus,  Poenul.,v.  1,  25; 
•_'.  s7,  &c.)  Tesserae  frumentariae,  or  nummariae,  were 
occasionally  given  at  Rome  to  the  poor  to  serve  as  a  token 
or  ticket,  on  the  presentation  of  which  they  received  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  corn  or  money.  (Sueton.,  Aug.,  40 ;  Nero, 
11.)  The  Roman  soldiers  also,  before  they  commenced 
a  battle,  received  a  tessera  containing  the  watchword  by 
which  they  recognised  their  comrades,  and  were  enabled 
to  distinguish  them  from  strangers.  (Virgil,  jEn.,  vii.  637, 
with  the  note  of  Servius.) 

(Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiq.,  '  Tessera.') 

TESSIN.  There  are  three  eminent  Swedes  of  this  name, 
father,  son,  and  grandson.  The  first  of  them,  Nicodemus 
the  elder,  or  NICODEMUS  VALENTINSON  TESSIN,  was  born  at 
Sti:i!sund  in  1619,  and  held  the  appointment  of  royal  or 
frown  arcnitect,  which  was  conferred  upon  him  by  Queen 
( 'luistina  in  1645,  then  vacant  by  the  death  of  Simon  de  la 
Valli'e.  Very  little  more  has  been  recorded  of  him,  except 
tiiat  he  vi-ited  Italy,  that  a  patent  of  nobility  was  granted 
to  him  in  1074  by  Charles  XL,  and  that  he  filled  the  office 
of  in  H  gist  rate  at  Stockholm.  Even  the  time  of  his  death  is 
not  precisely  stated,  but  it  appears  from  collateral  evidence 


to  have  been  somewhere  about  1G88.  As  an  architect  one 
of  his  chief  works  is  the  palace  of  Drottningsholm,  begun 
by  him  for  the  queen-dowager  Hedwig  Eleonora  (widow 
of  Charles  Gustavus),  but  completed  by  his  son.  He  also 
erected  the  royal  villa  of  Strb'msholm,  and  the  mauso- 
leum of  Charles  Gustavus.  In  fame  he  has  been  surpassed 
by  his  more  eminent  son, 

COUNT  NICODEMUS  TESSIN,  who  was  born  at  Nykoping 
in  1654,  and  had  for  one  of  his  baptismal  sponsors  the 
queen  Maria  Eleonora,  widow  of  Gustavus  Adolphus.  He 
was  carefully  educated  by  his  father,  expressly  with  a  view 
to  his  future  profession.  As  soon  as  he  had  completed  his 
studies,  first  at  Stockholm,  afterwards  at  Upsala,  he  was 
sent  at  the  age  of  eighteen  to  Italy,  whither  he  accom- 
panied the  Marquis  del  Monte,  a  nobleman  in  the  service 
of  Christina  of  Sweden.  He  studied  at  Rome  under  Ber- 
nini, and  acquired  a  taste  for  the  fine  arts  generally.  After 
four  years  thus  spent,  he  visited  Naples,  Sicily,  and  Malta, 
and  again  returned  to  Rome,  at  which  place  he  received 
from  Sweden  his  appointment  as  future  hof-architect  in 
1689.  On  his  return  he  was  allowed,  by  Charles  XL,  to 
prosecute  his  travels  conformably  with  his  earnest  wish  for 
further  improvement,  and  this  time  he  visited  England  and 
France,  in  which  latter  country  he  remained  three  years. 
On  finally  settling  in  his  native  country,  he  received,  in 
addition  to  his  former  appointment,  that  of  city-architect 
to  the  magistracy  of  Stockholm.  The  destruction  of  the 
royal  palace  by  fire  in  1697  afforded  him  an  opportunity 
for  displaying  his  ability  far  more  favourable  than  might 
else  have  offered  itself ;  and  of  which  he  so  well  availed 
himself  as  to  render  the  new  edifice  one  of  the  noblest  of 
its  kind  in  Europe,  though  not  what  it  would  have  been  had 
his  ideas  been  fully  carried  out.  He  had  also  numerous  op- 
portunities of  exhibiting  his  taste  on  a  magnificent  scale  ; 
but  unfortunately  they  were  only  of  a  temporary  nature  — 
on  occasions  of  splendid  court  pageants  and  festivals,  in 
which  his  talent  for  architectural  decoration  was  employed. 
One  of  them  was  at  the  solemnization  of  the  public  entry 
and  coronation  of  Ulrica  Eleonora,  the  wife  of  Charles  XL, 
who  was  herself  an  artist,  and  displayed  considerable  pro- 
ficiency in  portrait-painting.  By  the  queen-dowager 
Hedwig  Eleonora  he  was  employed  not  only  to  complete 
Drottningsholm,  but  to  lay  out  the  grounds  and  gardens 
both  there  and  at  Ulriksdal.  Besides  the  cathedral  at 
Calmar,  and  Oxenstiern's  monument,  he  executed  or  de- 
signed a  great  number  of  other  buildings,  including  a  pro- 
ject for  rebuilding  the  palace  at  Copenhagen,  which  was 
partly  carried  into  effect,  many  years  alter  his  death,  when  it 
was  curtailed,  and  by  no  means  improved  in  other  respects. 
Elevations  of  the  original  design  were  published  by  his  son, 
under  the  title  of  '  Regiae  Hafniensis  Facies,'  &c.  In  addi- 
tion to  his  professional  occupations,  the  count  (which  title 
was  conferred  upon  him  in  1714)  was  engaged  in  many 
offices  that  he  held  at  court,  and  he  took  a  considerable 
share  in  public  and  political  affairs.  At  the  time  of  his 
death  (1728)  he  was  chancellor  of  the  university  of  Lund. 
Count  Nicodemus  was  twice  married. 

COUNT  CHARLES  GUSTAVUS  TESSIN,  the  son  of  Count 
Nicodemus  by  his  first  marriage,  was  bern  at  Stockholm  in 
1695.  Though  not  without  talent  for  architecture,  which 
he  had  considerably  improved  by  travelling,  he  did  not 
exercise  it  professionally,  except  in  completing  the  palace 
at  Stockholm  after  his  father's  death.  His  claim  to  cele- 
brity was  of  a  very  different  kind  ;  it  was  as  a  statesman 
and  diplomatist  that  he  chiefly  distinguished  himself.  He 
was  ambassador  at  the  court  of  France  from  1739  to  1742, 
and  president  of  the  chancery  from  1747  to  1752.  As  tutor  to 
the  prince-royal,  afterwards  Gustavus  III.,  he  wrote  for  his 
instruction  a  series  of  letters  on  political  and  moral  topics, 
which  were  published,-and  of  which  there  is  a  French 
translation.  Count  Gustavus  was  a  zealous  promoter  of 
every  scheme  for  the  advancement  of  his  country ;  he  did 
much  for  the  encouragement  of  arts  and  manufactures,  and 
first  established  the  Swedish  Academy  for  Painting  and 
Sculpture  in  1735.  Some  years  before  his  death  lie  with- 
drew from  public  business  and  affairs,  and  lived  in  retire- 
ment on  his  estate  at  Akeroe  in  Sudermania,  where  he  died 
in  1771  ;  and  by  his  death-the  family  became  extinct. 

(Weinwich,  Ktmstner-Lexicon  ;  Nordin,  Minna  ofver 
Namnkunniga  Svenka  Man ;  Ehrenstvb'm,  B.  Arts  en 

/ri/i' ;  Biogr.  Vnivers.*) 

TESTACELLUS,  the  name  of  a  genus  of  testaceous 
pulmoniferous  mollusks.  For  the  views  of  authors  as  to 


T  E8 


T  E  S 


iU  place  in  the  system,  tee  the  article  LIMAX.  Mr.  J.  E. 
Ormv  an»n«»  it  oetween  Plfclrovltortu  and  /.'•'.</.  under 

-  M-COIld  111 

itrie  Character.— Animal  elongated,  .•yliiulir 
acuminated  at  eacJi  extremity  ;  no  euilBM  ;  brad  distinct. 
furnished  with  four  rv tractile  tentacles,  of  which  th 

are   tin-    longest   and   rum  tl\.  •  long  mid 

Imonary  cavity  situated  at  the  pos- 
thc  animal's  length, 

tirelv  backwards,  under  the  right  side  of  the  :i])ex  of  tile 
shell,  the  anal  apctt  near  it  :  0  ncra- 

Imn  unitcil.  and  showing  then  orifice  near  anil  behind  the 
frr*»t  right  tentacle. 

Shell  external,  solid,  auiitbrm,  depres§e<l.  with  the  spire 

nr  less   projecting,    having  a  •  I   and  oval 

aperture  :  the  right  lip  simple  and  trenchant,  the  left  con- 
vex and  reflected  :  the  shell  covers  the  posterior  part  of 
the  pulmonary  cavity. 

The  number  of  ipeeiM  given  by  I-amarck  is  one  only; 
and  though  M.  Deshayes  in  his  Tables  makes  the  number 

both  recent),  one  only  is  recorded  in  the  last  edition 
of  Lamaick."  Mr.  G.  B.  Sowerby  figures  and    de- 
three  : — Trxt'if'IH  h  iliatidni*.  Si-iilii/iim.  and  Mungri. 

-lory.  Habits,  <$-c. — This  form  appears  to  have  been 
first  noticed  by  M.  Duguf,  in  a  garden  at  Dieppe  in  1740  : 
but  it  does  not  seem  to  have  attracted  much  attention  till 
M.  Mange1,  some  years  since,  brought  home  specimens 
from  •  !  uf  Tent-rifle.  '  It  has  also  been  found.' 

Mr.  Sowerby.  •  in  several  parts  of  France,   and    in 
Spain,  and  more  lately  in  a  garden  at  Bristol.     Some  spe- 
rimi-ns  from  the  last-mentioned  place  have  been  handed 
Mr.  Miller  of  that  city.     It   feeds  upon  earth- 
worms, having  the  power  of  elongating  its  body  to  such  a 
'low  them  in  all  their  subterra- 
nean windings:  we  have  observed  them  attentively,  and 
were  rather  surprised   that  an  animal  generally  so  ex- 
tremely sluggish  in  its  motions,  after  discovering  its  prey 
by  means  ol  it-  tentacula,  thrusting  from  its  large  mouth 

hite   crenulated    revolute   tongue,   should    instantly 

upon  with  extraordinary  rapidity,  and  firmly  retain. 
an  earth-worm  of  much  greater  size  and  apparent  force 
than  itself,  but  which  by  its  utmost  exertion  is  unable  to 
escape."  Mr.  Sowerby  adds,  that  Dr  andCuvier 

consider  this  to  be  the  only  carnivorous  terrestrial  mollusk. 
De  Ferussac  remarked  that  the  simple,  gelatinous,  con- 
tractile mantle  of  the  animal,  hidden  habitually  under  the 
shell,  is  divided  into  many  lobes  capable  of  enveloping  the 
whole  body  by  an  extraordinary  development,  when  the 
animal  finds  it  necessary  to  protect  itself  from  the  conse- 
quences of  too  great  dryness. 

Localities. —  Testacelliu  haliotideus  inhabits  the  South 
of  France  ;  Test.  Maugei  is  an  inhabitant  of  Tern-rifle, 
but  naturalized  at  Bristol ;  and  Test.  Srutuliim.  which  was 
discovered  by  Mr.  Sowerby  in  a  garden  at  Lambeth,  may, 
in  the  opinion  of  Mr.  G.  B.  Sowerby,  be  considered  as  a 
native  of  this  island. 


Nlx-ll  ofTiiUrrlliH  Mau:iM  :  IT,  on' 


IVtUcrlltll  Maugrt. 
a,  .hell  in  ».tu.    (O.  D.  .V 
'AMKNT.     [War.] 

si)  NK\V  l   dis- 

pute hav.  'lit'    meaning  n 

E 

• 
n  of  God  t 

s.se*.     Tin 
.  -,v  txrith,  no  used  in  the  lii>t 


•M  of  the  sacred  writings,  and  rendered  in  the  latter 

;  »n  than  II 

the  Hibicw    is  c-oiitiiined  in   th. 
belongs  also  to  t 
the  original  of  the  ordinan 
of    the   Scriptures,   th 

ijipiopriate  designation  than  th..  '  esta- 

ment  can  be  applied   to  th  ortion.      1'- 

:  was  dcl'ciulci; 

(among  other  authorities  of  equal  weight  '<.  on  the  gi 
that   •Testanientnm  non  voluntatem   defunctorum  sonat, 
sed  pact  uni  viventium.' 

This  compact   or  covenant  was  originally  entered  into 
by  the  Almighty  with  Abraham  -although,  to'speak  strictly, 
the  outline  of  it  wits  given  on  the  fall  of  man  .     The  his- 
tory of  the  religion  of  the  Old  Testament  subsequent 
the  call  of  Abraham  may  i  I  as  that  uf  the  pro- 

gressive development  of'a  belief  in  the  One  True  Goil.     It 
18  most  fitly  contemplated   under  two   principal   pun 
view:   1,  the  kn  l   a   Kevelation   from  God  as  a 

connected  work,  and  in  its  subject-matter:   and  2,  ti 
the  attributes  of  God,  so  multiformously  but  at  the  • 
time    so    harmoniously   manifested.      'Antient    prophecy 
ended  as  it  had  begun.  The  first  discovery  of  it  in  Pan 
and   the    conclusion    of  it   in  the   book  of  Malacln 
directed  to  one  point.     In  if  it  had  multiplied  its 

disclosures,  and  furnished  \arioiissnccours1oreligion.aml 
Ian  authentic  n  and  moral 

government  to  be  committed  to  the  world.  Hut  its  c-; 
and   i:  M   was   in   the  preparatory  revelation  of 

Christianity.        D  The  other   subject,   by  winch 

t  he  ( )ld  Testament   is  taken  tip.  is,  as  we   -  ived, 

the   progressive   declaration    of    the    attributes   of   God. 
There  i-  observable  throughout  the  books  of  th> 
lament  a  >u  :\  as  a  Christian  revelation.     In  like 

manner  with  the  latter,  'the  divine  law  was  unfolded.  The 
Patriarchal  and  the  M  lantsdo  not  express  so  full 

a  model   of  the  law  of  righteousness  whereby  man 
serve   his  Creator,  as   the  later  revelation  given  by  the 
Prophets.'      Ibid.) 

The  leading  use  of  the  Old  Testament  was  the  prepara- 
•  velation  of  Christianity.     Its   one   great  lesson.  c\- 
.1    or  implied,    was    that   of    the    indwelling    guilt. 
depravity,  and  weakness  of  man.     How   deeply  rooted  in 
human  conviction  was  this  feeling,  may  be  estimated  from 
the  universality  of  sacrifice   for  sin,   and   reliance   on   (he 
;  mediatorial  ministry   of  a   priesthood.     Their   guin 
weakness,  and   consei|ncin  from   (iod. 

exhibited   to  the   .lews   b\  the   sin   offerings  of  their 
which  God  deigned  to  receive,  not  at  the  guihy  ha 
ordinary    men,   but   at   those   of  his  especially  appi 
servants.   Nor  were  even  these  favoured  servant  - 
as  free  from  the  lurking  infection  of  then  Him, 

whom  the  very  he.':\  n.      F.ven  ti 

priests  the  n  1  was  forbidden 

the  high  priest  (that  awful  and   mysterious  fur.. 
Heaven    the   Holy  Place  was  closed,  save  on  or 
under   certain    restrictions.     So    clearly    then    did 
divinely  appointed  law  show  forth  to  the  .lews  their 
and  the    in  i  difficult!:  :>ncili:ition  with 

God,  which   other   nations  saw-   but  faintly,  altli. 

i  the  truth,     lint  the 

.lewish  nation  went  a  >d  others.     All  n 

in  piactice  the  ncees-ity  of  sacrifice  and  a  priesthood, 
the  pc  :one  in  this. — that  tl 

hopefully    forwaid   to   a  time   when   the   law  which  . 
high-]  ien   having  infirmity  should  c- 

peiiod   be   put    to   the   daily  mi  'id   ott'erin 

which   can   nev  er  take  away  sin.      A  lime 
'iiiing.  when  the  won 

be  fulfilled  respecting  a  more  copious  diffusion  of  the  know- 
ledge of  the  Lord.     And  all  this  was  wrought  in  Him 
•'ring  and  priest,  God  and  man,  nan 
drat. 

This  great  doctrine  of  Oh 

to  mankind,  form   the   end   of  the   types,  the    n 
and    tl  :  t.      Hut   a 

Holy 

leavin 

a   new  and  living  way. 


T  E  S 


247 


T  E  S 


Christianity,  or  the  religion  of  both  Testaments,  is  tha 
habitual  course  of  life  which  rests  upon  a  conviction  o 
the  necesbity  of  the  redemption  of  the  world,  and  of  the 
neeJ  of  a  personal  redeemer — Jesus  Christ.  Hence  th 
inadequacy  of  various  terms  employed  occasionally  a 
synonymous  with  Christianity  (such  as  the  religion  o: 
moral  conduct ;  a  practical  belief  in  immortality  and  re- 
tribution ;  or  the  worship  of  God  according  to  the  pattern 
given  by  Jesus)  to  express  its  distinctive  peculiarities 
ie  of  the  religions  to  be  found  in  the  world  at  the  birth 
of  Christ  can  claim  alliance  with  Christianity,  save  thai 
one  which  alone  has  any  pretensions  to  be  regarded  as 
historical  and  positive,  and  which  was  directly  alluded  to 
by  our  Lord  in  the  words  that  '  Salvation  cometh  from  the 
Jews.'  Nor  are  the  reasons  of  this  difficult  to  be  traced. 
The  conviction  of  the  need  of  redemption  turns  the  mind 
upon  the  conviction  of  sin  ;  sin  leads  it  to  the  considera- 
tion of  the  law  broken  and  violated  :  and  this  last  con- 
ducts it  up  to  the  original  destination  and  capability  ol 
man  and  his  relation  to  God  ;  and  nowhere  are  these  steps 
to  be  traced  so  clearly  as  in  the  Law  and  the  Prophets — the 
writings  which  contain  the  fullest  account  of  the  existing 
disease  and  promised  remedy. 

It  is  true  that  heathenism  served  in  some  sort  to  prepare 
the  way  for  Christianity.  This  is  clear  from  two  facts : 
the  ease  with  which  heathen  converts  adopted  the  tenets 
hrintianitv;  and  the  analogy  instituted  by  the  early 
Christian  apologists  between  the  relics  of  revealed  truth, 
which  formed  the  brightest  gems  of  heathenism,  and  their 
own  purer  faith.  But  this  preparation  was  merely  nega- 
Heathenism  did  no  more  than  point  out  contraries 
which  it  could  not  reconcile,  doubts  which  it  could  not 
solve,  and  wishes  which  it  could  not  gratify.  All  ptmitirr 
preparation  for  Christianity  and  the  subject-matter  of  reve- 
lation belongs  to  the  Old  Testament  exclusively. 

The  knowledge  of  the  subject-matter  of  the  Christian 
system  is  drawn  from  one  source  exclusively,  apostolical 
tradition,  as  preserved  to  us  in  the  sacred  writings  of  the 
New  Testament.  From  these  alone  authoritative  instruc- 
tion is  deduced.  An  analytical  outline  of  the  system  of 
faith  contained  in  these  writings  is  most  properly  divided 
into  two  portions,  respectively  comprising  the  periods  of 
time  anterior  and  subsequent  to  the  coming  of  Our  Lord. 
In  considering  the  ante-Christian  period,  the  attention 
is  divided  between  Judaism  and  heathenism,  or  in  other 
words,  between  man  under  the  law  of  God,  and  man  with- 
out this  law, — the  two  great  classes  into  which  the  human 
race  was  divide  ''  lently  to  the  publication  of  the 

Mosaic  code.  But  although  different  in  many  particulars, 
both  classes  are  included  under  one  general  point  of  re- 
semblance, their  wretchedness  and  want  of  a  redeemer. 

From  this  helpless  condition  of  man  the  mind  reverts  to 
the  point  whence  this  dominion  of  sin  and  death,  inse- 
parably united,  dates  its  commencement.  But  here  a 
-lion  arises,  whence  was  derived  the  power  of  sin  to 
extend  itself  among  those  who,  like  the  Jews,  possessed  a 
knowledge  of  the  will  of  God  :'  The  considerations  arising 
from  this,  of  the  relation  of  sin  and  death  to  the  law,  lead 
tii  the  conclusion  that  the  commandment  which  was  or- 
dained unto  life  was  unto  death.  The  law,  according  to 
St.  Paul,  so  far  from  affording  deliverance  from  sin,  or  pro- 
ducing saiictification,  was  the  means  of  aggravating  both 
condemnation  and  guilt.  This  is  still  further  illustrated 
by  other  facts  laid  down  by  St.  Paul,  that  the  law  can 
never  make  man  holy  or  happy  in  the  sight  of  God.  Being 
such,  why  was  it  given  at  all  ?  The  answer  is,  that  it  be- 
longed to  the  plan  by  which  God  designed  to  make  man 
capable  of  redemption  through  Christ.  To  establish  the 
necessity  of  such  redemption,  to  impress  upon  men  a  con- 
\iction  of  the  need  of  it,  and  to  kindle  a  longing  for  it  in 
their  hearts,  is  the  object  of  the  period  anterior  to  Christ. 

Accordingly  a  survey  of  the  state  of  the  human  race 
antecedently  to  the  coming  of  Christ  leads  to  a  conviction 
of  the  need  of  a  redeemer.  The  heathens  lived  in  vice, 
without  knowledge  of  God,  serving  idols.  Their  standard 
of  action  was  litlle  higher  than  that  afforded  by  earthly 
moti-.  remaining  of  a  higher  knowledge. 

The  condition  of  the  Jews  was  very  different.  They  were 
indeed  in  i  of  Hie  divine  law,  but  they  sought  in 

vain  to  establish  their  righteousness  before  God  by  ob- 
servance of  its  precepts. 

Through  redemption,  the  difficulties  which  characterized 
the  ante-Christian  period  (and  more  especially  the  Jewish 


portion  of  it)  were  removed,  and  God  and  man  reconciled. 
The  statement  of  the  conditions  and  accomplishment  of 
this  reconciliation  leads  to  the  consideration  of  the  new 
and  holy  life  arising  from  it. 

The  primary  source  and  commencing  point  of  the  whole 
scheme  of  redemption  is  God.  According  to  his  eternal 
council,  God  decided  on  reconciling  to  himself  a  world 
which  had  become  alienated  from  him,  and  on  rescuing 
the  race  of  Adam  from  the  ruin  to  which  they  were  has- 
tening. This  decree  God  had  made  known  through  his 
prophets.  An  evidence  of  his  truth  and  faithfulness  was 
supplied  by  its  accomplishment.  The  instrument  of  this 
was  the  mission  of  his  Son,  according  to  the  eternal  pur- 
pose of  his  Father,  'that  in  the  dispensation  of  the  fulness 
of  time  he  might  gather  together  in  one  all  things  in 
Christ,  both  which  are  in  Heaven  and  which  are  in  earth.' 
This  mission  of  the  Son,  from  which  the  newer  period, 
that,  of  Christianity,  dates,  coincides  with  the  time  when 
heathenism  and  Judaism  may  be  said  to  have  filled  their 
appropriate  spheres  of  moral  action.  Although  no  dog- 
matic system,  technically  speaking,  is  to  be  found  in  the 
writings  of  the  New  Testament,  two  points  immediately 
relating  to  the  person  of  Christ  are  brought  prominently 
forward  throughout.  The  first  of  these  is  his  claim  to 
divine  honours  as  the  Son  of  God  ;  the  second,  his  meri- 
torious course  of  action,  of  which  the  crowning  point  was 
his  death,  to  which  his  resurrection  was  the  glorious 
sequel,  and  the  proof  of  the  completeness  with  which  his 
office  had  been  discharged. 

The  object  of  our  Lord's  earthly  life  was  rather  a  course 
of  blameless  and  exemplary  action  than  the  delivery  of  a 
moral  code  for  human  guidance.  Hence,  although  in  the 
hortatory  portions  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles  allusion  is  made  to 
the  excellencies  exhibited  by  Christ,  the  mode  'of  becoming 
like  him '  was  conceived  in  a  spirit,  far  deeper  than  that  of 
mere  moral  imitation.  It  is  described  as  a  putting  off  the 
old  man,  and  being  clothed  with  Christ ;  as  being  buried 
with  Christ,  and  as  rising  again  with  him.  Such  expres- 
sions arise  necessarily  from  the  inseparable  connection, 
laid  down  in  the  New  Testament  scheme,  between  the 
death  and  resurrection  of  Christ,  as  the  foundation  of  the 
ustification  of  man  in  the  sight  of  God. 

The  doctrines  of  repentance  and  a  holy  life  implied  in 
:hese  characteristics  of  the  new  covenant  are  essential 
conditions  on  the  side  of  the  human  party  to  the  contract. 
This  is  the  sum  and  substance  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount, 
which  stands  at  the  entrance  of  our  Lord's  earthly  ministry, 
a  fit  entrance  and  portal  to  the  temple  which  lies  beyond, 
and  an  unfolding  of  the  spirit  and  pure  meaning  of  the 
aw  under  which  Christ  came  to  live  and  suffer.     A  better 
observance  of  this  would  have  obviated  the  Antinomian 
Jerversions  which  have  risen  up  from  the  earliest  times. 
)ne   garment,  and   one   only,  will   make   man  meet  for 
rleaven  :the  wedding  garment  of  Christ's  parable),  which 
s  the  imputed  righteousness  of  Christ,  the  accepted  sacri- 
ice  for  the  children  of  Adam.    But  while  the  human  race 
exists,  the  essential  rules  of  that  law  which  Christ  came  to 
satisfy  will  be  binding,  and  men  will  find  their  truest 
>leasure  and  profit  in  obedience  to  its  spirit.     Christ  came 
o  found  a  new  kingdom.     Accordingly  he  opens  his  first 
liscourse  by  describing  the  members  of  it,  their  condition 
and  prospects  in  the  world.     And  yet  his  kingdom  was  not 
o  much  a  new  one,  as  a  fulfilling  and  spiritualizing  of  the 
brmer  dispensation  ;  for  which  reason  the  second  part  of 
lis  sermon  is  taken  up  in  expounding  the  law  of  Moses, 
and  its  real  obligations,  and,  in  the  words  of  Robert  Hall, 
in  animating  its  spirit,  and  in  filling  up  or  directing  its 
>ractice.'     But  essential  to  a  due  performance  of  the  con-' 
litions  of  this  law  '  must  be  reckoned  the  assistance  or 
guidance  of  God's  holy  spirit,  as  the  chief  of  all  aids,  and 
vhich  contains  all  others.     And  because  this  cannot  be 
indei  stood  without  admitting  that  the  Holy  Spirit  is  omni- 
>resent,  all-sufficient,  and,  in  a  word,  strictly  divine ;  there- 
ore  the  divinity  of  the  Holy  Ghost  is  a  fundamental  article 
>f  the  Christian  covenant.'    (Latham,  Harmonia  Paulina.') 
Christian  Society  forms  the  second  part  of  the  theologi- 
cal system  which  may  be  extracted  from  the  New  Testa- 
nent!  as  comprehending  the  origin  of  the  Christian  com- 
nunity,  its  gradual  progress  and  necessary  conditions,  the 
relation  of  its  members  to  each  other,  and  their  unity  in 
he  spirit.     We  cannot  fai-l  to  observe,  according  to  Ham- 
nond,  '  from  the  interchangeable  mixture  of  the  graces 
ICM-,  ibed  by  Christ  in  the  opening  of  the  Sermon  on  the 


248 


I 


Miimt.  tlml  to  God  belong  til.-  clu,  . 

our  !•  ct  so  as  no 

ijuir  B!M>  111  11-  lubordinaUoD 

towards  man  also;  one  intcrmixm:;  lovingly  and  liicmlly 

with  the  oil  icr,  and  neither  performed  as  it  OUght,i 

other  be  iKxlcctcd.'    The  common  bond  ofall  Chrirtww 

hi'|n-  by  which  tliey  become  parta!>. 

the  hem-tits  ami  salvation  placed  within  their  reaeb  by  the 
',  and  Hi,'  ics'irroction  of  <  'hrist.     Accord- 
•  the  partakers  of  this  common  I'nitb  and  hope  form 
ie.tively  that  spiritual  body  ul' which  Christ  is  the  head, 
namely,  the  Christian  Church,  in  which,  as  in  the  n; 
body,  various  offices  are  distiibuted  to  the  different  num- 
bers ;  but  the  most  exi-ellent  endowment  of  any  member  is 
,'k  in  Christian  love  :i:ul  ])iirity  under  the  guidance  of 
the  Holy  Spirit.    The  two  sacraments,  which  were  typified 
to  tli.  -  in  the  wilderness,   baptism  and  the  Lord's 

Supper,  are  symbols  of  the  Church's  union  with  Christ. 
In  baptism,  the  outward  sign  of  our  resurrection  to  a  new 
life  fvdin  the  death  of  sin,  and  of  our  admission  to  the 
Church,  we  art-  joined  by  the  Holy  Spirit  to  Christ  our 
:  and  the  perpetual  commemoration  of  Christ's  death, 
according  to  his  command  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  is  a  means 
whereby  we  perpetually  renew  our  spiritual  strength,  and 
draw  more  closely  our  union  with  him  and  with  each  other.' 
(Latham,  Harm.  Pun/.) 

The  conclusion  of  the  subject-matter  of  the  New  Tc-ta- 
ment  is  a  sketch  (by  prophetic  anticipation;  of  Christian 
society  in  its  completeness  of  glory,  which  shall  be  accom- 
plished by  Christ  at  his  second  coming  as  the  glorified 
Son  of  God,  when  he  shall  triumph  over  all  opposition, 
and  the  redeemed  he  united  with  God  in  cvt  rlastiui;  hap- 
pinc-s .  We  have  seen  that  Christ's  obedience  unto  death 
was  in  order  that  many  iniirht  live;  and  this  will  be  ac- 
complished at  that  resurrection  which  Christianity  alone 

.  in  the  imaire  of  the 

'y,  will  then  be  in  that  of  the  heavenly.  The  same 
spirit,' which  we  learn  from  the  New  Testament  dvYelleth 
in  our  mortal  bodies,  shall  quicken  these  that  they  shall  be 
.!  from  the  dead.  \Vheii  '  those  that  dwell  in  the  dust 
shall  awake,'  then  our  mortal  bodies  will  be  changed,  and 
made  like  unto  the  glorified  one  of  Christ.  bv  the  power 
w herewith  he  is  able  to  subdue  all  thinsrs  unto  himself. 

TKSTAMKNT.  OLD  AND  NEW.  '  The  view  of  the 
connection  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  and  the  ccnc- 
ral  theory  of  divine  revelation  iriven  in  the  pr-< 
article  aie  bv  no  means  admitted  by  all  Cluistiai  ,.  They 
are  d<  parted  from  in  various  directions  and  degrees  by  dif- 
ferein  >t  completely  opposed  by  Uni- 

tarians. They  deny  that  the  doctrine  of  hereditary  and 
total  depravity  is  either  consistent  with  reason  and  expe- 
rience or  at  all  sanctioned  by  Scripture.  They  hold  the 
nature  of  the  sacrifices,  both  in  the  patriarchal  times  and 
under  the  law.  to  be  altogether  misunderstood  by  those 
who  consider  them  •  .:  to  a  corrupted  natm 

to  an  atonement.  They  endeavour  to  prove  that  the  sacri- 
ficial lan«ru!it_re  of  the  New  Testament  is  founded  on 
figurative,  allusions  to  the  rites  and  ceremonies  under  llu 
law.  may  be  natuially  tiaced  to  the  circumstances  of  tin 
writer^,  ami  has  peculiarities  which  it  could  not  have  hai 
if  intended  literally  to  express  a  L'rcat  reliirions  doctrine 
They  maintain  that  the  whole  system  of  types  and  anli- 
i'i  the  Old  and  New  Testament  is  without  goot 
Scriptural  authority,  and  loaded  with  inconsistencies  am 

views    both  of   the  law   and   the  gospel.     Tin 
reject  the  applications  which  are  made  of  some  real  or  sup- 

.1  prophec 

The  view  which  prevails  among  modern  Unitarians  o 
the  L'encial  theory  of  revelation  and  the  connection  of  (hi 

i"    the    different    divine    inteil. 
'ed  to  different  stages  ill  the  progress  of  mankim 
from  infancy  towards  maturity  :  that  each   was  best  (ill,. 
for  the  time  in  which  it  was  gi\cn,  uniting  the  i: 
amount    of  immediate   -rood  with  the  t  iwer   t< 

the   advancement   of   the   race;  that  the  .i 
SVntein   in  particula.  ;ned    to   preserve   th- 

ine of  the  Unity  of  G.id   at  a  time  when  the  v. 
rml  was  sinking  fast    \  adini;  and  coiriipting 

in  exhibit   to  the  nations  around,  and  to  all  win 
should   aller.vaids  contemplate  the   history  of  the   chosen 
I   and  illustration   !•;,    example  of  the  morn 

,  wlii'Ti  the  world  should  be  in  a  lit  state 


.    it,  of  the  .nity, 

which  mav  :  'ed  as  a  spiritualised  and 

.  Idmi:  to  it    whatever  important   re- 
ive   Ix-cll    j 
with  advani..  ihe  iriand  doctrine  of  a  future 

,111111:  the 

faith,  and  ho])e  to  men  of  all  nations  without   distinction, 
and    without    ritual   observances.     The   knowledge    of  the 
paternal   character  of  God   and  of  hi- 
ill  his  children  who  sincerely  desire  and  endeavour  to 
inm  :    the  doctrine  of  a  future   lite  distinctly  tautrht   and 
directly  proved,  and   the  enforcement  of  the  purest  moral 
principles,   constitute,  according  to  their  view,  the  ) 
liarity  and  value  ol   Christianity;   and  the  whole  system  of 
God'.s  holiness  rcquirim:  human  punishment,  and  > 
merits  savin-;  men  from  wiath.    is  rejected  as  nnseripturaJ, 
unreasonable,  and  pernicious.     It  is  enough  for  us  In 
state  the  opposite  doctrines  which  form  the  grand  subject 
of   controversy    in    the  Christian  world.     Any  attempt   to 
trive  an  account  of  the  evidence   appealed  to  on 
would  lead  us  far  beyond  the  bounds  which  we  are  obliged 
to  prescribe  to  ourselves. 

TESTAMENTS  OF  TIIF.  'IYVF.LVE  PATKlAKclls. 
a  Greek  work  which  professes  to  contain  the  last   woi' 
the  twelve  patriarchs,  the  sons  of  Jacob,  but  which  is  con- 

.1  to  be  undoubtedly  spurious  by  all  writi 
Winston,  who  accepts  it  as  a  part  of  the  canon  of  the  Old 
Testament  ;    but  no  Weight   can  be  attached  to   his  judg- 
ment on  the  matter. 

The  age  and  authorship  of  this  work  are  much  disputed. 
It  is  once  quoted  by  Oriiren,  who  nourished  about  A.L>. 
230.  The  most  probable  opinion  is  that  ol  '  l.ard- 

ni  r.  who  suppose  it  to  have  been  written  by  a  Jewish  con- 
vert to  Christianity  about  the  end  of  the  -  ntury 
after  Christ. 

It  appears  to  have  been  the  writer's  object  to  foist  his 
work  into  the  Canon,  since,  thoiurh  he  makes  freqficnt 
quotations  from  the  books  of  the  Old  Te.-tament.  he  never 
mentions  any  of  them  by  name.  The  only  book  which  he 
quotes  by  name  is  '  the  book  of  Enoch  the  Kighteons.' 

These  testaments  have  been  frequently  published  in 
Latin.  They  were  iiist  printed  in  Greek  by  Giabc  in  his 
f</>i<-i/i'ff.  1'atr.,  and  afterwards  by  Fabricius  in  bis 

<<  pigraph.,  and  YVhiston  published  an  English  trans- 
lation of  them  in  his  Aut/i  fits. 

(Lardner's  Cri'dihility.  part  ii.,  c.2l),  $  3,  and  the  smth.  :i- 
tics  there  quoted.) 
TESTIMONY.     [EVIUKNCE.] 

TKSTIMONY.  PERPETUATION  OF.  [PKKI-KTUA- 
TION  OF  TKSTIMONY.] 

TF.STONE.  orTKSTOON.     [MONEY.] 
TF.STS,  CHEMICAL,  or  Chemical  Ke-airents.  are  those 
substances  which  are  employed  to  detect  the  \ 
other   bodies,   by  admixture   with   which   they  are   1, 
to  produce  certain  changes  in  appearance  and  properties: 
thus,  for  example,  as  the  blue  colour   of  litmus    is  turned 
red    bv    acids,    it    is   considered    as  and    used   I'm 
determine  their  presence  when  uncombinod  or  in  e\ 
so  also  litmus  which  has  been  reddened  by  an  acid   I. 
blue  colour  restored  by  the  action  of  au  alkali  :   reddened 
litmus  is  therefore  used  as  a  test  of  the  presence  of  free. 
or  uneombined  alkalis. 

We   ^'ive  these  examples  from  thousands  which  miirhl 
have  been  selected,  merely  to   explain  the  meaning  of  the 
term  chemical  test,  observ  ing  that  change  of  colour  : 
only  of  the  many  alterations  adduced  in  proof  of  chemical 
action  :   thus   the   solubility    of  certain  substances  in 

•nts  and  not  in  others,  constitutes  another  criterion  or 
test  of  the  nature  of  !>• 

We  cannot  enter  particularly  into  this  subject,  for  its 
extent  is  equalled  only  by  its  importance  j  ami  it  istl 

requisite   that    we  should   do   M>.  since,   in  de:.eiibir. 
various  metals.  ,Ve..  the  tests  of  their  pic- 
irivcn  with  the  properties  of  their  salts. 

We  refer  the  reader  who    wish  '.V  of 

the  subject  to  two  works  which   have   appealed  in  Fiance, 
Tiaite   elemcnlaiie  dcs  Kcaclils.'  Vc..   bv     I'avcn  and 
<  lu  vallier.  in  '2  vols.  Kvo..   and  '  Dictionnaire  <'.• 
Chimiques.'  bv  Lassai^ne.  in  1  v 

•IT.STl'DINA 

TKSTl    DO.     [T.urrnisKs.] 

Tl'.TANUS  (riravor.  derived   from  rnW 
both  a  generic  and  a  specific  turn  :  genciically,  it  may  be 


T  E  T 


249 


T  E  T 


defined  to  be  a  more  or  less  violent  and  rigid  spasm  of 
many  or  all  of  the  muscles  of  voluntary  motion ;  the  name 
is  also  particularly  applied  (as  will  be  seen  hereafter)  to 
one  of  the  species  of  this  affection.  Both  the  disease  and 
also  its  name  are  as  old  as  the  time  of  Hippocrates ;  and, 
as  it  is  proved  by  experience  to  be  much  more  frequent  in 
warm  climates,  the  antient  physicians  probably  had  pecu- 
liar advantages  in  observing  it,  and  accordingly  seem  to 
have  paid  particular  attention  to  it.  The  following  de- 
scription by  Aretaeus  (De  Cans,  et  Sign.  Morb.  Acut., 
lib.  i.,  cap.  6,  p.  6,  ed.  Kiihn)  is  written  in  his  usual  graphic 
style.  (The  translation  by  Dr.  Reynolds  has  been  chiefly 
followed.) 

'  Tetanic  spasms,'  says  this  author,  '  are  attended  with 
severe  pain,  and  prove  rapidly  fatal,  and  by  no  means 
readily  admit  of  relief;  they  make  their  attack  on  the 
muscles  and  tendons  of  the  jaws  and  neck,  but  impart  the 
disease  to  every  other  spot,  for  all  parts  become  sympathe- 
tically affected  with  those  which  were  primarily  assailed. 

'  There  are  three  forms  of  the  convulsions  :  the  straight, 
the  backward,  and  the  forward.  The  straight  one  is  true 
Tetanus,  when  the  patient  is  stretched  straight  and  inflexi- 
ble ;  the  backward  or  forward  varieties  have  their  name 
from  the  direction  and  locality  of  the  tension  ;  hence  the 
deflexion  of  the  patient  backwards  is  termed  opisthotonos 
(tnrtireoTovos),  'from  the  nerves  being  affected  in  this  direc- 
tion ;  while,  if  the  bending  be  forward,  by  the  nerves  in 
front,  it  is  termed  emprosthotonos  (iuirpo<r6oTovos),  for  tonos 
(TOVOS)  is  a  term  which  signifies  both  a  nerve  and  tension. 

'  The  causes  of  these  affections  are  numerous :  they  often 
follow  a  wound  of  a  membranous  part,  or  punctures  in 
muscles  or  nerves,  and  in  such  cases  the  patients  usually 
die,  for  (as Hippocrates  says,  Aphor.,  sect,  v.,  $  2,  torn,  iii., 
p.  735)  "  traumatic  spasms  are  fatal."  A  woman  may  be 
convulsed  after  miscarrage,  and  she  seldom  recovers  ;  some 
persons  are  seized  with  spasms  from  a  violent  blow  on  the 
neck  ;  intense  cold  may  prove  a  source,  and  hence  these 
diseases  are  particularly  liable  to  occur  in  the  winter;  they 
are  less  frequent  in  the  spring  and  autumn,  and  least  of  all 
in  the  summer,  unless  they  arise  from  a  wound,  or  a  visita- 
tion of  foreign  diseases.  Women  are  more  liable  to  con- 
vulsions than  men,  because  they  are  of  a  colder  tempera- 
ment, but  they  more  frequently  recover,  from  the  moisture 
of  their  temperaments. 

'  As  respects  the  various  periods  of  life,  children  are  liable 
to  this  affection,  but  do  not.  often  die,  for  it  is  one  they 
are  used  to,  and  familiar  with  ;  youths  are  less  frequently 
affected,  but  more  die  ;  adults  are  least  of  all  liable  to  be 
attacked ;  while  the  old  have  it,  and  die  from  it,  more 
than  any  other  class  of  persons :  the  cause  is  referrible  to 
the  frigidity  and  dryness  of  old  age,  which  is  also  the 
nature  of  death,  for,  if  the  cold  be  attended  with  mois- 
ture, the  spasms  are  less  injurious  and  fraught  with  less 
danger. 

'  It  may  be  said  in  general  of  all  these  affections,  that  they 
are  attended  with  pain  and  tension,  both  of  the  tendons 
and  spine,  and  of  the  maxillary  and  thoracic  muscles ;  for 
they  so  clench  the  lower  jaw  to  the  upper,  that  it  is  not 
easy  to  separate  them  either  by  lever  or  wedge  ;  and  if, 
on  forcibly  separating  the  teeth,  any  liquid  be  introduced, 
it  is  not  swallowed,  but  returned,  or  retained  in  the  mouth, 
or  ejected  through  the  nostrils,  for  the  passage  of  the 
fauces  is  closed,  and  the  tonsils,  being  hard  and  tense,  do 
not  collapse  so  as  to  depress  the  food  in  swallowing.  The 
face  is  red  and  mottled,  the  eyes  nearly  fixed,  turned  with 
difficulty  round,  there  is  a  strong  feeling  of  stifling,  respira- 
tion laboured,  the  arms  and  legs  on  the  stretch,  the  muscles 
quivering,  the  face  distorted  in  all  sorts  of  ways,  the  cheeks 
and  lips  tremulous,  the  chin  in  constant  motion,  the  teeth 
grate,  and  sometimes  the  ears  will  move,  as  I  have  myself 
witnessed  with  amazement :  the  urine  is  cither  retained 
with  violent  pain,  or  flows  off  involuntarily  from  compres- 
sion of  the  bladder.  These  appearances  are  common  to  all 
the  species  of  spasms ;  each  variety  of  this  disease  has 
however  its  pecularities. 

•In  ti'tinni*  the  whole  body  is  stretched  in  a  right 
line,  rigid  and  immovable,  while  the  legs  and  arms  are 
straight. 

'  In  opixthotnnnit  the  patient  is  bent  back,  so  that  the 
head  pulled  in  that  direction  lies  between  the  shoulder- 
blades,  while  the  throat  projects  ;  the  lower  jaw  is  usually 
open,  and  is  rarely  locked  with  the  upper ;  the  respiration 
is  stertorous,  the  abdomen  and  thorax  are  prominent,  and  in 
P.  C.,  No 


this  form  especially  there  is  incontinence  of  urine ;  the 
epigastrium  is  tense  and  resonant  when  struck,  the  arms 
are  forcibly  wrenched  back  in  a  state  of  tension,  while  the 
legs  lie  bent  together,  for  the  elbow  bends  in  a  manner  the 
reverse  of  what  the  ham  does. 

'  If  emprosthotonos  take  place,  the  back  is  bent,  the  hips 
are  forced  on  a  level  with  the  shoulders,  the  whole  spine 
is  on  the  stretch,  the  head  is  dependent  and  bent  on  the 
chest,  the  chin  fixed  upon  the  sternum,  the  arms  cramped 
up,  and  the  legs  at  full  stretch.  The  pain  is  severe  in  all 
the  forms,  and  wailing  is  the  voice,  deep  are  the  sobs  and 
groans,  and  if  now  the  disorder  has  assailed  the  chest  and 
respiration,  it  soon  hurries  the  sufferer  off — a  boon  indeed 
to  him,  as  it  relieves  him  from  pain,  distortion,  and 
humiliation,  and  serving  also  to  lighten  the  distress  of 
those  present,  even  if  they  be  his  own  father  or  son  ;  but 
if  there  be  still  respiration  enough  to  support  life,  and 
although  oppressed  it  be  still  performed,  the  patients  are 
not  merely  bowed  forward,  but  are  even  rolled  up  like  a 
ball,  so  as  to  have  their  head  on  their  knees,  and  their  legs 
and  back  parts  wrenched  forward,  so  as  to  look  as  if  the 
knee  joint  were  thrust  into  the  ham.  It  is  an  affliction 
more  than  man  can  bear,  a  sight  revolting  and  painful  to 
behold ;  and  this  cruel  disease  is  irremediable,  and  from 
the  distortion  the  sufferer  is  not  recognised,  even  by  his 
dearest  friends,  and  the  prayer  of  those  around  (which 
would  have  been  heretofore  impious,  but  hath  become 
now  righteous)  is,  that  the  wretched  sufferer  may  depart 
out  of  life,  and  be  released  at  the  same  time  from  his 
existence,  pain,  and  horrible  torment ;  and  the  physician, 
though  present  and  looking  on,  is  not  merely  unable  to 
save  his  life,  or  to  give  relief  to  his  pains,  but  he  cannot 
even  improve  his  shape  ;  for  to  attempt  to  straighten  the 
limbs  would  be  like  mangling  and  breaking  the  man  in 
pieces  while  yet  alive,  and  therefore,  no  longer  offering  his 
assistance,  he  is  reduced  to  the  sad  necessity  of  merely 
contributing  his  sympathy.' 

The  three  forms  of  the  disease  mentioned  by  Aretaeus 
are  described  by  most  of  the  antient  writers  :  the  species 
ca!led  trt'smtis,  or  locked-jaw  (which  is  the  name  applied 
to  it  when  the  spasms  are  confined  to  the  muscles  of  the 
jaw  or  throat),  forms  a  fourth  in  modern  authors ;  and  to 
these  has  been  added  a  fifth,  under  the  name  Pleitros- 
thotonos  (Tr\evpoa8oTovof},  which  signifies  that  the  body  is 
drawn  to  one  side.  These  different  terms  applied  to 
tetanic  affections  do  not  imply  so  many  particular 
diseases,  but  only  the  seat  and  various  degrees  of  one 
and  the  same  complaint.  Trismus  is  invariably  a  part  of 
each  of  the  other  varieties.  This  subdivision  of  the  disease 
is  of  little  or  no  practical  importance  ;  but  a  much  more 
essential  division  is  into  acute  or  chronic,  according  to  its 
greater  or  lesser  intensity.  The  former  kind  is  exceedingly 
dangerous  and  usually  fatal ;  while  the  latter,  on  account 
of  the  more  gradual  progress  of  the  symptoms,  affords 
more  opportunity  of  being  successfully  treated.  (Larrey, 
in  Mem.  de  Chtrurgie  Militaire,  tome  i.,  pp.  235,  236, 
quoted  in  Cooper's  Diet,  of  Pract.  Surgery.}  Tetanus  is 
also  divided  into  traumatic,  or  that  arising  from  a  wound, 
which  is  also  occasionally  termed  symptomatic;  and  into 
idiopathic,  or  that  which  proceeds  from  other  causes. 

Traumatic  tetanus  sometimes  comes  on  in  a  surprisingly 
sudden  manner,  and  quickly  attains  its  most  violent  degree. 
The  most  rapidly  fatal  case  that  has  ever  been  recorded  is  one 
that  we  have  on  the  authority  of  the  late  Professor  Robi  son 
of  Edinburgh.  It  occurred  in  a  negro,  who  scratched  his 
thumb  with  a  broken  china  plate,  and  died  of  tetanus  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  after  this  slight  injury.  (Rees's  Cyclo- 
pcedia,  art.  'Tetanus,'  quoted  by  Cooper.)  Most  com- 
monly however  the  approaches  of  the  disorder  are  more 
gradual,  and  it  slowly  advances  to  its  worst  stage.  In  this 
sort  of  case  the  commencement  of  the  disorder  is  an- 
nounced by  a  sensation  of  stiffness  about  the  neck,  a 
symptom  which,  increasing  by  degrees,  renders  the  motion 
of  the  head  difficult  and  painful.  In  proportion  as  the 
rigidity  of  the  neck  becomes  greater,  the  patient  expe- 
riences in  the  throat  a  sense  of  dryness  and  soreness,  and 
about  the  root  of  the  tongue  an  uneasiness,  soon  changing 
into  a  difficulty  of  mastication  and  swallowing,  which 
after  a  time  become  totally  impossible.  The  attempt  at 
deglutition  is  attended  with  convulsive  efforts,  especially 
when  an  endeavour  is  made  to  swallow  liquids ;  and  so 
great  is  the  distress  which  accompanies  these  convulsions, 
that  the  patient  becomes  very  reluctant  to  renew  the  trials, 

VOL.  XXIV.— 2  K 


T  1 


250 


T  ' 


ami   occasionally  refutes   all   nourishment:   somctii 

.  a-pires  him  with  a  dread  and  a 

jjreat  roscmblan. 

h  respect  t  1  >c  re- 

eaKkd,'  say*  Dr.  Or.  . 

• »»  a  very  vinsrular  fac  '•ijjv.that  an  afl'. 

i.ira  character  a-  ..  c  its  source  in  causes 

laceration  of  a  tendon,  or  an  ev 

on  the  same  kin, I  of  '.  a*  that  \- 

occasional   consequence    of  .•'.'.' 

wound,  no  matter  how  inflicti  d.  «.•   in  what  part,  or  in 

what  itage  .\liii-h 

form  i-es  are  on 


iin  lite  QM6M6  m  consequence  01  a  one  on 
tin-   finder  from  a  tame  sparrow  ;  in  which  it  supe- 
on  the  mere  stroke  of  a  whip-la 

the  •-kin  wan  not  broken  :  in  which  it  was  occasioned  hy  a 
small  :  n<r  in  the  pharv 

•innity  in  the  external  car  from  a  n 
l>v  )!  nin  of  a  seton  to  the  thorax;  by  the 

.  the  back  of  the  neck  ;  by  a  blow  on  the 
hand  from  the  .  umeui:  by  the  extraction  of  a 

tooth,  &o.     In  short,  act 
quoted  by  Dr.  ^  i-curs  in 

and  in  CYC  to  the  most 

formidable.  Grain  the  healthy  and  the  -.Inusihinir.  from  the 

.I  and  the  lacerated, 'from  the  moat  simple  and  the 
most  complicated.' 

•.t  in  frequency  to  wouuds  as  an  exciting  cause  of 
tetanus  is  exposure  to  cold  and  damp  ;  indeed  there 
are  but  very  few  cases  of  true  idiopathic  tetanus  which  are 
referrible  to  any  other.  The  irritation  of  worms  and  other 
disordered  states  of  the  alimentary  canal  have  been  con- 
sidered by  some  authors  as  the  cause  of  tetanic  after' im,-. 
To  generate  this  form  of  disease  however,  it  would  appear 
that  a  ce:'  'position  is  also  requisite,  and  it  is 

doubtless  the  same  with  that  which  operates  as  an 
tory  cans?  of  the  traumatic  tetanus.     Die  predisposition  to 
tetanic  affections   is   given,   in  the  first   place,  by  warm 
climates  and  warm  seasons.     AVithin  the  tropics  therefore 
it  prevails  to  an  extent  unheard  of  in  colder  lati 
Secondly,  tetan  I  to  prevail  when  the. 

atmosphere  is  much  loaded  with  moisture,  and  ; 
where  this  has  suddenly  succeeded  to  a  lonir  c< 

cold  and  damp  air  ot  \  been  fol- 

lowed by  an  attack  ot'  tetanus.     In  '  motes  chil- 

dren are  particularly  v.  ith  a 

few  peculiarities  which,  though  proclucin  iic  dif- 

ference, haw  been  thought  sufficient  I 
known  by  the  name  nf  trismut  natceiiJiuin.     '1 
in  Uiiscase  is  \nli;ai  iy  the  absurd  name  ot'fn/1- 

///!>•  j'lir.     It  occurs  cliiei'  i   the   nin! 

fourteenth  day  after  birth,  and  seldom  alter  the  latter 
period,  Without  any  febrile  accession,  and  otlen  without 
any  perceptible  -ks  into  an 

•  siness,  attended  with    fre- 
quent yawning*  and  with  a  slight  difficulty  of  moving  the 

i   takes  place  in  some  in- 

•i  sooner,  in  others  later,  and  soon  increases  in  intcii- 

i  while  the  infant  is  .uouth. 

there  i»  occasionally  an  iuubi  ,  or  swallow.     By 

degrees  the   lower  jaw  become*  rijpd,  and   totally  resists 

the  introduction  of  ! 

but  the  skin  assumes  a  \  .  the  eyes  appear  dull, 

the  spawns  ofte  .  >i  in  t\\o  or  tlnce 

days  the  disease  prove*  modal. 

The  prognosis  of.  this  duteaso  is  mainly  to  be  < ' 
by  the  nat 

seizure.     Tetanus  of  the'  idiopalhic  kiwi  IUM  certain!'. 
cured  in  a  larirc.r  proportion  of  cases  than  fbai 
lows  external  it.  >  •  is  a  \M  t  well-known'  (says  an 

able  writer  in  the  '  Edinburgh  Journal.'  vol.  v. ..    , 
quoted  by  Dr.  Symondtt)  '  to  every   plantar  in  th. 
ladies,  who  never  considers  liis  negroes  as  safe  when  the 
disMte   supervenes  on  a  wound,   but   is  frequent  r 
fWsful  in  alleviating  the  idiopatluc  species.'    *l 
the  disease  as  a.  .  Iu«s  important 

as  to  the  probable  '  ..     It  may  be  «ud  tlmt  re- 

covery in  a  case  of  acute  tetanus  is  almost,  if  not  alto- 


gether, hopeless:    the  chronic  form  however  is  of  a  much 
milder  character.     The  u- 

•hr  third  or  fourth  d.iv  ;    and  if 


iy  :    it   i*  ran-h 

Mr.  ('iM)pe 

of  the  this;h)who  hnirend  : 

•i   of  patients  who  h. 
little  or  no  liirht   UJK>II 
the  complaint,  as  is  indeed  the  case  in 
"i-  neu...  LJJC   dUo'ders.      Sometimes  »liL;lit    i  ffusions  are 
found  within  the  cranium.  l>ut  in   general   no  inoibid  ap- 
pearance  whatever   can    I  Yin    the   1' 

i  i    the  ivMiphacus  and    !• 
.ch  about  tin-   cardia.     These  ;\\ 
•  uinion  to  a  ijri-at  nu;  uni- 

formly met  with  in   i 
Besides  the  redness  and  inci 

Baron  Larrey  found  the   pliar_\ :  much 

contracted,  and  covered  with  a  \isciil 

also  found  numerous  lumbrici  in  the  bowels  of  several  of 
the  patients  who   died  ;    but    tin-,  as  Mr.  < 
could  oi.lv  be  an  accidental  complication,  and  n 

Dr.  M-Arthur  found  much 

inflam  in  two  of  them  ,  fluid,  of  a 

peculiar  offensive  smell,  covered  tluir  internal  sin 
but  whether  the  inflammation  was  in 

sequence  of  the  pressure  of  the  abdominal  .-.  hieh 

contract  so  violently  in  tin- 
Mi'tl.  C'/ur.  Trans.,  vol.  -ui.,  p.  4">,  quoted  1:1  Cooper's 

.   Diet.} 

The'  treatment  of  Tetanus  is  confessedly  a  subject  of 
infinite    difficulty,    as    the     di- 
every  mode  of  practice,  and,  in   certain   ins!;. 
well  under  the  employment  of  the  very  sanii 
which  decidedly  fail  in  other   similar  c;i  .1   the 

whole  it  will  probably  be  universally  admitted  tli; 
effectual  remedy  for  Tetanus  1.  .  ••,  discovei. 

jilan  has  occa.sionall\  !  every  plan  lias 

still  more  frequently  failed.     The  following  is  the  al 
of  the  opi:.  .1!  i;iven  by  ^^]•. 

-  in  his  Xotes  to  '  I'auhis 
,'nerates   \.-l]i/ior..   v.   70).    (ialeit   ( !><•   J 
lib.  ni.  ;    DC  Mflh.  Mnl.,  lib.  xii.),  Oetavius  Iloratianus 
lib.  ii.,  cap.  10%  and  Avicenna  (lib.  iii.,  fen.i  cap.  5,  6,  7) 

,;i  staling  that  a  fever  comiiiij  on  tend- 
the  tetanic  affection.  Caplins  Ainvliann-  i  U,-  Murk.  Arut., 
lib.  iii.,  c.  C)  seems  to   question  the  truth  of  this  nntient 
Hip]         .ties   disapproves  of  !  .'isioii 

.-of  traumatic  Tetanus  ;   Alexander  Api 

-    rather  fa-.  i'hi/x.. 

i.  .":)  .   Ae'lius    lib.  vi ..  .."/«-..  lib.  viii., 

c.    Hi  ,    anil    Nonmis      /' 

/.,  lib.  iii.,  c.  'Jll  ,  reeoiiimend   1 
uollieiit   fomentations,  and  the  bath  of  oil.     Archi- 
ap.  Ae'tium, /<»•.•/(•//.•  <!;i  i  the  bath. 

Mini;  a  fifth  part  of  oil  to  the  water. 

Tile  treatment  icconmicndi'd  1      ?  '.,  lib. 

ii.,    c.    1)   is  judicious,   and    not   unlike    that   of   Paulus 

.Kijineta.      He  expresses   himself  hesitatingly  about  vene- 

.  and  lorbius  the  early  use  of  wine-  :  he  approves  of 

openinu;  the  belly.  This  practice  is  strongly  recommended 

niton  of  Edinburgh. 

The  treatment  of  A.  .   .!/«///.  .lent.,  lib. 

U)  is  altogether  soothing  am!  relaxant.  lie  re- 
commends to  lay  the.  patient  upon  a  I  bed, 
and,  from  whatever  cause  the  • 

with    abstracting     blood     from    tne    arm.       Then 
:     food    is    to    b.  'iM    the    whole    body 

;  wool  moistened  with  i  :    or 

bladders  half  filled  with  tepid  oil   an:  to  In 
parts  most  affected.     He  directs  to  cup  (lie  back  p.; 
the  mvk.  but  cautions  ai:  'HIK  irritation  h\  tho 

a])]ilication  of  heat.     To  the  wound  he  recommends  -np- 
pmative  applications  containing  :tine- 

.nid  tin-  like  :    for   he  and    the   liiet  is  con- 

i    by    the   t  \)»  who 

iinends  a  similar  mode  of  piactiee    that,  when  I 
mis  supervene*,  the  sore  !•  .  ;utor 

and  assafoetida  as  anti-spasmodics ;  and,  if  these  cannot 


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251 


T  E  T 


be  swallowed,  they  are  to  be  given  in  an  injection.    H 
advises  also  to  give  hiera  in  an  injection. 

Caelius  Aurelianus  (loco  cit.)  enumerates  nearly  th 
same  causes  as  Aretaeus,  and  describes  all  the  symptom 
of  the  disease  with  the  greatest  precision.  His  treatrnen 
is  also  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  Aretaeus,  namely,  emol 
lient  applications  to  the  neck,  venesection,  and  oily  clys 
ters.  He  even  enjoins  the  bath  of  oil,  which  has  fallen 
into  disuse  in  modern  practice,  most  probably  solely  or 
account  of  the  expense  with  which  it  would  be  attended 
He  also  permits  sometimes  to  use  the  common  bath,  bu 
not  of  cold  water.  He  allows  wine  in  certain  cases.  Hi 
condemns  Hippocrates  for  giving  both  wine  and  emetics 
and  havinsr  recourse  to  venesection,  without  due  discrimi 
nation.  He  blames  him  also  for  recommending  the  att'u 
sion  of  cold  water,  inasmuch  as  he  himself  had  pronouncec 
cold  to  be  injurious  to  the  nerves,  bones.  &c.  Galen  how- 
ever remarks,  in  his  Commentary  upon  this  aphorism  o 
Hippocrates  'sect,  v.  f  21 1,  that  cold  in  this  case  is  not  the 
direct  cause  of  the  benefit  derived  from  this  remedy,  but 
'if  I  understand  him  right)  that  the  shock  which  it  imparts 
to  tht>  system  proves  beneficial  by  rousing  the  vital  heal 
and  energies  of  the  patient.  Hippocrates  however,  a* 
stated  above,  forbade  the  cold  affusion  in  traumatic  teta- 
nus. Paulus  /Egineta's  opinion  of  this  practice  is  jusl 
such  as  the  profession  in  general  now  entertains,  after  it 
has  received  another  trial  upon  the  recommendation  of  the 
late  Dr.  Currie.  (See  Medical  Reports,  and  Larrey's  Mc- 
moires  de  Chirtirgie,  t.  1.) 

Octavius  Horatianus  (loco  cit.}  recommends  bleeding, 
emollient  applications,  purgative  clysters,  the  tepid  bath, 
ant  i  spasmodic?,  and  soporifics.  The  use  of  the  last-men- 
tioned class  of  remedies  does  not  appear  to  have  been  suf- 
ficiently understood  by  the  antients;  at  all  events  they 
were  less  partial  to  them  in  this  case  than  the  modems. 

The  Arabians  enjoin  nearly  the  same  treatment  as  the 
Greeks.  Avicenna  (loco  cit.)  and  Mesue  join  the  preceding 
authorities  in  recommending  strongly  the  use  of  castor  and 
assafoetida  as  antispasmodics ;  and  yet  it  is  deserving  ot 
remark  that  modern  surgeons  do  not  repose  much  confi- 
dence in  these  medicines.  (See  Sir  James  M'Grigor's  com- 
munication in  the  Medico-Chirurg.  Transact.,  vol.  vi. 
Avicenna,  like  all  the  others,  praises  the  bath  of  oil.  Se- 
rapion  (lib.  i.,  c.  27)  speaks  of  a  bath  prepared  with  emol- 
lient herbs.  Haly  Abbas  (Theor.,  lib.  ix.,  cap.  10,  11 ; 
Pract.,  lib.  v.,  c.  31)  describes  minutely  the  two  varieties 
as  occasioned  by  repletion  or  inanition.  For  the  former, 
he  approves  of  punring  with  hot  drastic  purgatives,  of 
rubbing  the  part  affected  with  hot  oils,  and  of  using  the 
warm  bath  with  friction  after  it ;  he  also  approves  of  castor. 
For  the  other  variety  he  praises  the  affusion  of  plain  water 
in  which  lettuces,  barley,  &c.  have  been  boiled.  He  re- 
commends the  internal  use  of  milk  and  other  demulcents, 
and  the  bath  of  oil,  and  rubbing  the  body  with  oil  of  violeta. 
The  treatment  recommended  by  Alsaharavius  (Pract., 
lib.  i.,  §  2,  c.  211  is  very  similar.  Rhazes  mentions  (/Jirix., 
lib.  i.,  c.  16 ;  Contin.,  lib.  1)  Hippocrates'  proposal  of  the 
cold  affusion  ;  but,  like  Paulus  ^Egineta,  he  rather  disap- 
proves of  it.  He  himself  recommends  bleeding,  when 
there  are  symptoms  of  repletion,  emollient  applications  to 
the  neck,  the  bath  of  oil,  the  application  of  leeches  to  the 
part  affected,  purging  with  aloes,  &c.,  and  the  adminis- 
tration of  antispasmodics,  such  as  castor,  assafoetida,  and 
the  like. 

The  general  principle  of  cure,  as  Dr.  Good  remarks,  is 
far  more  easily  explained  than  acted  upon  :  it  is  that  of 
taking  off  the  local  irritation,  wherever  such  exists,  and 
of  tranquillizing  the  nervous  erethism  of  the  entire  system. 
The  former  of  these  two  objects  is  of  great  importance  in 
the  locked-jaw,  or  trismus,  of  infants ;  for,  by  removing 
the  viscid  and  acrimonious  meconium,  or  whatever  other 
irritant  is  lodged  in  the  stomach  or  bowels,  we  can  some- 
times effect  a  speedy  cure  without  any  other  medicine. 
Castor  oil  is  by  far  the  best  aperient  on  this  occasion,  and 
it  may  be  given  both  by  the  mouth  and  by  injections.  If 
this  however  do  not  succeed,  we  should  have  recourse  to 
powerful  anodynes:  of  these  the  best  is  opium,  which 
should  be  administered  in  doses  of  from  three  to  five  drops 
of  the  tincture  according  to  the  age  of  the  patient.  Opium 
has  also  been  more  extensively  resorted  to  in  the  cases  of 
adults  than  almost  any  other  remedy  ;  and  Dr.  Good,  Dr. 
Gregory,  and  others  profess  that  it  is  that  on  which  they 
place  their  chief,  if  not  their  only  reliance.  To  give  it  a 


fair  chance  of  success,  we  must  begin  its  use  from  the 
earliest  appearance  of  tetanic  symptoms.  It  must  be 
given  in  very  large  doses ;  and  these  doses  must  be  re- 
peated at  such  short  intervals  as  to  keep  the  system  con- 
stantly under  the  influence  of  the  remedy.  It  is  astonish- 
ing to  observe  how  the  human  body,  when  labouring 
under  a  tetanic  disease,  will  resist  the  operation  of  this  and 
other  remedies,  which,  in  its  healthy  state,  would  have 
been  more  than  sufficient  to  overpower  and  destroy  it.  It 
is  advisable  to  begin  with  fifty  drops  of  laudanum.,  and  to 
repeat  this  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  hours,  or  even 
oftener  if  the  urgency  of  the  symptoms  require  it,  until 
some  effect  has  been  produced  on  the  spasms.  In  the 
early  stage  of  the  disease  we  are  to  bear  in  mind  the  ap- 
proaching closure  of  the  jaw  and  difficulty  of  deglutition ; 
and  our  remedies  are  accordingly  to  be  pushed  before  such 
serious  obstacles  to  their  administration  arise.  When  they 
have  occurred,  and  are  found  to  be  insuperable,  opiate 
cnemata  and  frictions  may  be  tried ;  but  we  must  not  an- 
ticipate much  benefit  from  such  feeble  means.  Such  are 
Dr.  Gregory's  remarks  ;  but  Dr.  Symonds  considers  that 
the  employment  of  opium  is  recommended  chiefly  by  sys- 
tematic writers,  and  for  theoretical,  rather  than  for  practical 
reasons  ;  while  most  of  those  who  give  the  results  of  their 
own  experience  express  the  greatest  dissatisfaction  with 
the  remedy. 

Probably  a  much  more  efficient  class  of  remedies  than 
the  preceding  is  that  of  purgatives;  both  on  account 
of  the  obstinate  costiveness  which  attends  the  disease,  and 
also  because  we  have  in  daily  practice  such  convincing 
proofs  of  their  strong  revulsive  influence  on  diseases  of  the 
cerebro-spinal  centre.  The  testimony  of  the  army  phy- 
sicians, as  we  learn  from  the  report  of  Sir  James  M'Grigor, 
is  highly  in  favour  of  a  rigid  perseverance  in  the  use  of 
purgatives,  given  in  adequate  doses  to  produce  daily  a  full 
effect.  Dr.  Forbes  states  that  a  solution  of  sulphate  of 
magnesia  in  infusion  of  senna  was  found  to  answer  better 
than  any  other  purgative ;  and  it  was  daily  given  in  a  suf- 
ficient quantity  to  produce  a  copious  evacuation,  which 
was  always  dark-coloured  and  highly  offensive  :  and  to 
this  practice  he  chiefly  attributes  in  one  severe  case  the 
removal  of  the  disease.  (Med.  Chir.  Trans.,  vol.  vi.,  p. 
452,  quoted  by  Mr.  Cooper.)  Dr.  Good  condemns  drastic 
purgatives,  forgetting  apparently  that  mild  ones  have  no 
effect.  Strong  cathartics  have  indeed  frequently  proved 
of  great  service,  and  none  has  higher  repute  than  croton 
oil. 

The  employment  of  the  warm  bath  has  been  recom- 
mended by  numerous  writers,  but  it  would  be  difficult  to 
trace  in  their  accounts  any  facts  which  decidedly  show  that 
ts  adoption  was  ever  followed  by  unequivocal  benefit. 
C!old  bathing  has  also  been  advised,  but  it  has  generally 
>een  found  to  be  worse  than  useless ;  and  there  are  several 
cases  upon  record  of  almost  instant  death  having  followed 
ts  employment. 

The  practice  of  bleeding  is  another  that  has  been  tried, 
)ut  most  frequently  without  effect.  In  some  few  cases 
amputation  of  the  limb,  from  the  injury  of  which  the  teta- 
uis  has  arisen,  has  been  successful ;  but  as  this  extreme 
measure  is  also  very  uncertain,  it  is  not  likely  to  be  ever 
extensively  adopted. 

Numerous  other  remedies  have  been  tried,  with  no, 
or  very  imperfect,  success ;  for  instance,  acupuncture, 
trychnia,  mercury,  caustics,  blisters,  tobacco,  oil  of  tur- 
>ehtine,  aether,  camphor,  musk,  bark,  wine,  sesqui-oxide 
>f  iron,  &c.  &c.  However,  it  must,  after  all  these  have 
>een  tried,  be  confessed  that  tetanus  is  one  of  the  most 
brmidable  and  unmanageable  of  disorders,  and  that  re- 
jovery  in  the  acute  form  still  continues  to  be  almost  hope- 
ess. 

(Cooper's  Surgical  Diet. ;  Symonds,  in  the  Cyclop,  of 
'ract.   Med. ;  Good's  Study  of  Med. ;  Gregory's  Theory 
and  Practice  of  Med.;  from  which  works  most  of  the  pre- 
eding  remarks  have   been  taken.     A  reference  to  nu- 
merous other  works  on  the  same  subject  will  be  found  in 
'loucquet's  Liter.  Med.  Digetta ;  Cooper's  Surg.  Dirt. ; 
nd  Forbes's  Medical  Bibliography,  in  the   Cyclop,  of 
*ract.  Med.} 

TETBURY,  an  antient  market-town  in  Gloucestershire, 
ear  the  borders  of  Wiltshire,  situated  on  elevated  ground 
iear  the  source  of  the  Warwickshire  Avon,  99  miles  west  by 
lorth  from  London,  and  20  miles  south-east  of  Gloucester, 
'he  parish,  with  four  hamlets,  contains  a  population  of 

2K2 


T  E  T 


252 


T  E  T 


,  according  to  the  census  <>f  1K31.  The  town  consists 
of  one  long  street  intersected  by  two  shorter  ones.  \\itli  the 
market -place  and  a  spacious  market-house  in  the  c  cut  re. 
The  streets  arc  paved  and  lighted,  and  the  liouses  built 
chiefly  of  (tone.  A  bailiff  and  constable  are  annually 
appointed  at  the  court -leet  of  I  lie  feoffee*  of  the  manor. 
Tnere  arc  fain  held  three  times  a  year,  for  cheese,  cattle, 
kheep,  horses,  &c.  The  pariah  cluurli.  w  Inch  wa-  built 
•oon  after  the  Conquest,  was  taken  down  in  !7~-i.  with  the 
exception  of  the  tower,  and  rebuilt  in  the  ]>oiiited  style : 
and  a  modern  spire  was  placed  on  the  tower.  The  livinit 
is  a  vicarage,  of  the  annual  gross  value  of  903/.  The 
Baptist*  and  Independents  have  places  of  worship.  In 
Klizabeth  I  lodges  left  a  rent-charge  of  W.  li>r  the 
education  of  15  i-hildren  :  and  in  the  years  17Xt.  1795, 
and  17U7.  the  sum  of  100/.  was  left  by  three  different  per- 
mits for  the  support  of  a  Sundav-sch'ool.  In  ISH.I  there 
•en  daily  schools,  attended  i>y  173  children,  and  three 
Sunday-schools,  at  one  of  which,  in  connection  with  the 
Katabh-hcd  Church,  17-4  children  were  instructed,  and  the 
other  was  a  Baptist  school,  attended  by  153  children.  In 
the  reign  of  James  I..  Sir  William  Kouiney.  a  native  of  the 
town,  founded  alnishouscs  for  eight  poor  persons,  and  left 
property  for  the  endowment  of  a  grammar-school.  The 
traces  of  an  antient  encampment  were  \isihle  on  the 
south-eastern  side  of  the  town  up  to  the  middle  of  the 
last  century;  and  at  this  spot  fragments  of  British  wea- 
pons and  coins  of  the  Lower  Empire  have  been  found. 
TETE'.  [SKNNA-] 

TETHYS.  [NYimimM  IIUTV.  \ol.  xvi..  p.  301.] 
TETKAURANCIIIATA.  Professor  Owens  second 
order  of  the  class  Cephalopoda.  This  order  is  equivalent 
to  the  '  (.Yuhalopodes  testaces  polythalames '  of  Lamarck  ; 
to  the  '  PolvthalamaceV  of  De  Blainville ;  the  '  Siphonoi- 
des '  of  De  llaan  ;  and  the  '  Sifoniferes '  of  D'Orbigny. 

The  following  characters  of  the  order  are  given  by  the 
Professor  :— 

Eye*,  subpcdunculate.  Mandibles,  calcareous  at  the 
apex.  Arms,  abbreviated,  tubular,  and  furnished  with 
retractile  tentacles.  Mantle,  rnembranaccous,  with  two 
anterior  apertures;  a  posterior  membranaceous  tubule 
running  tlirotigh  the  siphon  of  the  multilocular  shell. 
(fills,  four.  Hranrhial  Afar/,  null.  Excretory  tube,  with 
the  walls  disconnected  below.  Shell,  internal  or  external 
multilocular. 

The  genera  comprised  by  Professor  Owen  under  this 
order,  in  his  Menunr  mi  the.  Pearly  \nnliliix  (1 81)2),  are  — 
Belemnites,  Jinn/Htm,  Lituola,  Spirufa  (J),  Ammonites, 
Orbulites,  Xuutilus,  Cibicide*,  Rotalites,  &c. 

In  the  Cyclopeedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology  (1836), 
Professor  Owen  modifies  the  views  above  given.  In  that 
work  the  ntrabninrhiatii  form  the  first  order  of  the  Cepha- 
Ittpoda.  with  the  following  synonyms  :  Poly  thai  amactt, 
Blainvillc  ;  Xiphuniferu,  D'Orbigny;  minus  the  Spirulid<e 
and  Belrmnite*. 

The  Ti'trafirnnr/iinte  Cephalopods  (of  which  the  Prarly 
\.iittilns  may  be  regarded  as  the  type)  are  described  as 
provided  with  a  large  external  univalve  shell,  symmetrical 
in  form,  like  the  body  of  the  animal  which  it  protects, 
straight  or  convoluted  on  a  vertical  plane,  and  divided  by 
a  senes  of  partitions  into  numerous  chambers,  of  which 
the  last  formed  is  the  largest,  and  alone  contains  the  body 
of  the  animal ;  a  dilatable  and  contractile  tube  is  continued 
from  the  posterior  part  of  the  animal  through  all  the  par- 
tition* and  chamber*  of  the  shell  :  but  the  attachment  of 
the  shell  to  the  body  is  effected  by  means  of  two  stroiic 
lateral  muscles  which  are  inserted  into  the  walls  of  the 
last  chamber.  The  numerous  hollow  arms  and  retractile 
tentacles  are  peculiar  to  this  order,  and  the  head  is  further 
provided  with  a  !ari;c  ligamento-muscular  plate  or  flattened 
disc,  which,  besides  acting  as  a  defence  to  the  ujtcning  of 
the  shell,  serves  also,  in  all  probability,  as  an  organ  for 
•mg  along  the  ground,  like  the  foot  of  the  Gastropods. 
There  are  no  fins  or  analogous  organs  for  swimmmir. 

The  following  nre  the  characters  given  in  the  Cyi.loptf- 
dia  of  Anatomy  by  the  Professor: — 

••«  strengthened  by  a  dense,  exterior,  calcareous  coat- 
ing, and  with  thick  dcutated  margins.  Eyes  pedunculated 
and  of  a  simple  structure.  No  organ  of  hearing,  dill.* 
four  in  number  and  without  branchial  hearts.  Circulating 
*yttrm  provided  with  but  one  \cntiicle.  which  is  systemic 
or  propels  arterial  blood.  No  ink-bag.  Inferior  parietes 
of  the  funnel  divided  longitudinally. 


The  second  order,  Dibranchiata,  has  the  following  syno- 
nyms :  Cryjilodibranchfs,  liluinv . ;  Acftabultftra,  D  Orb. ; 
plus  the  Spiniliiiie  and  Hfl<-iiiiiiti<ltr. 

The  Tstrabranchiata  are  divided  into  two  fanu 

1.    .\nittilidte:    Genen:  — .\tiutiliu.   l,am.  ;    Clynifne, 
:>i;>ii/il>->.  Deshayes;  l.ili  .      ,  u;  Ortho- 

crrntitrt.  Bre\  n. 

Imiii'iiiitiilff  :  (ienera  :  — 7f'i''M///»-x.  \M\\.;  Jlamitr*. 
I'ltrkin-on  ;  Graphites,  Parkinson  ;  Aniinunito.,  lirug.  ; 
Turrilitft,  I. am. 

Of    the  l>il>r,tnchiata.    Professor   Owen    remarks,   that 
this   order   also    had    its    representative   in    the   seas    of 
the  antient  world,  as  the  shells  called  Bekmnites,  or  thun- 
the    fossil    shells   of  the    X,;/,,,     diM-overed    by 
Cuvier.  and  the  horny  rinirs  of  the   acetabula  found  by 
liuckland  in  the  coprolites,  or  fossil  faeces,  of  J'-hthi/i 
testifv  :  but.   In-   remarks,  our  knowledge  ot'  this  order  is 
chiefly  founded  on  observation  >ii '  c \i-tini;  s]iecies.  '!'!•• 
says  the  Professor,  'are  extremely    numerous:  they 
(|uent  the  seas  of  every  clime,  from   the   ice-bound  shore* 
of  K'Kitfn-i  /•>•//>  to   the  open   main,  and  floatim;  Sargasso 
or  Gulf-weed  of  the  Equator:  they  seem  however  to  be 
most  abundant  in  temperate  latitudes.     Many  specie-  fre- 
quent the  coasts,  creeping  among  the  rocks  and  stoi 
the  bottom  ;  others  are  pelagic,   swimming  well,  and  are 
found  in  the  ocean  at  a  great  distance  from  land.' 

Professor  Owen  then  adverts  to  the  great  \aiiety  of  sire 
,'eil  by  thi'  Didi-aiirliiata,  remarking  that  although 
the  bulk  of  the  gigantic  species  has  been  undoubtedly 
evairirenited,  yet  the  organization  of  this  order  is  favoura- 
ble to  the  attainment  of  dimensions  beyond  those  pre- 
sented by  the  individuals  of  any  other  group  of  in. 
brate  animals.  He  then  alludes  to  the  I'ucinatcd  Calamary 
caunht  by  Hanks  and  Solander  in  the  southern  ocean 
[Si:iMU).K.  vol.  \xi..  i>.  253],  and  to  the  fi-agmcnt  of  the 
cephalopod  weighing  one  liundred  pounds  obtained  by 
the  Krench  naturalists  in  the  Atlantic  ocean  under  the 
line,  and  preserved  in  the  Museum  of  the  Garden  of  Plant* 
at  Pa 

The  Dibranchiate  Cephalopods  are  divided  by  Professor 
Owen  into  two  tribes,  the  Dfcapoda  and  the  Octopndii. 

The  Decapoda,  besides  the  possession  of  ten  arms,  are 
characterised  by  having  a  pair  of  fins  attached  to  the 
mantle  ;  by  having  the  funnel  either  adherent  at  the  an- 
tero-lateral  parts  of  its  base,  and  without  an  internal 
\al\e.or  articulated  at  the  same  part  by  two  ball-and- 
socket  joints  to  the  mantle,  and  provided 'with  a  valve  in- 
ternally at  its  apex;  by  having  fleshy  appendages  to  tin- 
branchial  hearts,  and  glandular  appendages  to  the  biliary 
ducts;  by  having  generally  a  single  oviduct  with  detached 
superadded  glands ;  and  lastly,  by  the  shell  or  rudiment 
being  single,  mesial,  and  dorsal. 

Professor  Owen  considers  the  Decapodous  tribe  to  be 
that  which  is  most  nearly  allied  to  the  Tetrabranchiate 
order,  and  he  regards  Spirula  as  the  type  of  the  first 
family  of  the  Decapodons  tribe,  or  that  which  immediately 
succeeds  the  Tetrabrtmrliiata. 

The  following  are  the  families  of  the  Decapoda: — 

1.  Spnu'i.ii).*; :  genus  Spimln. 

2.  Bfl'-imiitidrr :   genera,  Memnites,  Lam.;  Actinoco~ 
max.  Miller ;  Pseudobelus,  Blainv. 

3.  Sepiada-  (Cuttle-fishes) :  renusStptO. 

4.  Teiithidee  (Calamaries   :  thus  di\  ided  :  — 

A.  Funnel  with  an  internal  valve,  and  articulated  at 
its  base  to  two  ventro-lateml  cartilaginous  promi- 
nences of  the  mantle. 

Genera:  —  Xriiintfuthix.  Blainv.;  Lnligo,  Cuv.  :  Ony- 
<-fi'>ti  iithi*.  Lit  lit.  :  /imsin.  Owen  ;  N  u-h. 

B.  Funnel   unprovided    with    an    internal  va/ve,  and 
adherent  at  the  untero-lateral  jiarts  of  its  base  to 
the  mantle. 

Gener&:  —  Lr>li%opsi*,  Lam. :  Crunrhia,  Leach. 

Ol  the  tribe  O'-tn/nK/n  the  Professor  obs.  n  e~.  that  be- 
sides wanting  the  long  tentacles,  they  are  also  charac- 
!  by  the  want  of  mantle-tins,  and  consequently  are 
limited  to  retrograde  progression  whik  swimming ;  their 
acetabula,  he  adds,  are  sessile  and  unarmed,  ami  tiny  have 
t\\o  oxiduets,  but  without  detached  glands  for  secreting  a 
nidamentum  :  the  Decajxxls  have  :i  single  oviduct  and  de- 
tached glands  for  secreting  the  nidamentum. 

The  Octopods  arc  thus  arranged  by  Professor  Owen  :  — 

M  Famili  gmt»  Argonauta,  Una. 

2nd  Faauly,  Xuda:   genera  Octopus,  Leach ;  IXudone, 


T  E  T 


253 


T  E  T 


Leach.      [BELEMNITE  ;     BELLEROPHON;    CEPHALOPODA 
CORNU  AMMONIS  ;    GONIATITES  ;    NAUTILUS  ;  PAPER  NAU- 
TILUS ;  POLYTHALAMACEA  ;    SEPIAD-S  ;    SpiRULiD.*: ;    TEU- 

THID.E.] 

TETRACE'RATA.  [POLYBRANCHIATA.] 
TETRACHORD,  the  Greek  name  for  any  part  of  the 
scale  consisting  of  four  notes,  the  highest  of  which  is  a 
perfect  fourth  to  the  lowest.  Thus  in  the  common  diatonic 
SCALE  (we  assume  a  knowledge  of  this  article  throughout) 
we  have  the  following  tetrachords  : — 

CT)EF,  DEFG,  EFGA,  GABC,  ABCD,  BCDE. 

We  despair  of  giving  anything  like  a  satisfactory  account 
(if  the  Greek  music ;  not  that  we  think  the  difficulty  lies 
in  the  Greek  writers,  but  in  the  manner  in  which  they  have 
been  treated.  It  was  an  assumption  that  the  nation  which 
produced  models  such  as  the  moderns  could  not  surpass 
in  architecture,  sculpture,  and  perhaps  in  painting,  was  to 
be  considered  as  necessarily  possessed  of  a  system  of  music 
approaching  to  perfection.  Their  writers  on  the  subject 
were  to  be  taken  as  having  an  agreement  with  each  other, 
which  was  to  be  detected  and  established,  any  apparent 
discrepancy,  however  evident,  notwithstanding.  The  nu- 
merical relations  which  were  the  objects  of  inquiry  in  the 
settlement  of  the  parts  of  the  scale  gave  the  subject  the 
air  of  an  exact  science  ;  and  explanations  which  required 
the  assistance  of  the  scholar,  the  mathematician,  and  the 
musician,  were  undertaken  by  persons  who  were  deficient 
in  one  character,  if  not  in  two.  The  consequence  has  been 
such  a  mass  of  confusion  as  the  world  never  saw  in  any 
other  subject ;  writers  whose  undertakings  required  them 
to  say  something,  copying  absolute  contradictions  from 
different  other  writers ;  others  glad  to  adopt  anything 
intelligible,  whether  true  or  not ;  others  again,  unable  or 
unwilling  to  state  the  simplest  facts  of  their  own  pre- 
mises, so  that  their  readers  are  not  even  made  aware  which 
11!'  the  most  remarkable  opposite  opinions  they  mean  to 
adopt. 

We  intend  in  the  present  article,  without  looking  into 
any  modern  writer,  to  draw  from  Ptolemy  and  Euclid, 
writers  who  are  known  to  be  tuist worthy  on  other  subjects, 
;ill  concerning  the  tetrachord  that  we  can  find  to  bear  the 
character  of  certainty  and  precision,  and  to  be  likely  to  aid 
:MI  unbiassed  reader  in  approaching,  should  it  please  him 
so  to  do,  the  mass  of  different  accounts  which  have  been 
given. 

All  parties  seem  agreed  that  the  Greek  scale,  which  at 
first  consisted  of  only  two  or  three  leading  consonances, 
was  gradually  enlarged  until  it  comprehended  two  octaves, 
or  fifteen  notes.  It  is  generally  stated  that  this  scale,  when 
it  was  what  we  now  call  diatonic  (a  word  which  means  the 
same  with  us  as  with  the  Greeks),  was  minor  in  its  cha- 
racter, so  that  in  fact  it  would  be  represented  by 
A  B  C  D  E  F  G  A'  B1  C1  D>  E1  F'  Gl  A'. 
It  is  also  known  that  the  Greeks  were  early  in  possession  of 
the  mode  of  dividing  a  string  so  as  to  produce  their  several 
notes  ;  and  that,  by  the  time  of  Ptolemy  at  least,  they  took 
the  rapidity  of  the  vibrations  Con  which  they  knew  the 
pitch  to  depend)  to  be  inversely  as  the  lengths  of  the 
strings. 

Their  scales  were  numerous :  three  were  considered  clas- 
sical, if  we  may  use  the  word,  and  were  called  enharmonic, 
chromatic,  and  diatonic;  the  two  first  words  not  having 
the  same  meaning  as  with  us.  The  remaining  scales  had 
names  of  locality  attached  to  them,  Lydian,"  Dorian,  &c. 
The  distinction  between  these  lay  in  the  different  modes 
of  dividing  the  octave,  as  seems  to  be  now  generally  agreed, 
though  there  have  been  those  who  have  thought  that  these 
terms,  Lydian,  &c.,  were  the  names,  not  of  scales,  but  of 
single  notes. 

( )f  enharmonic,  chromatic,  and  diatonic  scales,  Ptolemy 
lays  down  fifteen  from  his  predecessors,  and  eight  from 
himself.  In  each  of  them  is  an  octave,  and  all  of  them 
agree  in  two  particulars :  first,  each  has  the  fourth  and 
filth  of  the  fundamental  note  perfect ;  secondly,  each  lias 
the  U-trachord  made  by  the  fundamental  note  and  its 
fourth  divided  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  that  of  the 
fifth  and  the  octave.  That  is,  if  we  call  the  notes  of  this 
octave — 

CPQFGKSC1; 

then  CF  is  a  fourth,  and  CG  a  fifth,  always ;  and  the  inter- 
vals CP,  PQ,  QF  are  severally  equal  to  the  intervals  GR, 
US,  SC1.  Thus  it  appears  that  the  fourth  was  to  the 


Greeks  what  the  octave  is  to  us,  the  unit,  as  it  were,  of  the 
scale,  in  the  subdivision  of  which  consisted  the  differences 
of  their  systems.  We  now  give  a  tetrachord  from  each  of 
these  twenty-three  scales,  assigning  the  intervals  first  by 
the  ratios  of  the  vibrations,  next  by  the  number  of  mean 
semitones  they  contain,  as  in  the  article  SCALE.  We 
prefix  the  Latin  rendering  of  Ptolemy's  appellatives  from 
Wallis. 

And  first  as  to  enharmonic  scales,  which  are  mentioned 
first,  and  seem  to  have  been  antient,  and  regarded  with 
high  approbation. 


Archytas 
Aristoxenus  ) 
Eratosthenes} 
Didymus 
Ptolemy 

It  seems  then  that  the  enharmonic  system  would  allow 
only  of  the  following  notes  in  an  octave — 

CEPFGBQC1; 

where  P  means  a  note  about  half  way  between  E  and  F, 
and  Q  one  half  way  between  B  and  C.  An  odd  scale  truly 
for  a  modern  musician  to  look  at ;  but,  it  may  be,  not  inca- 
pable of  pleasing  effects  to  ears  not  accustomed  to  music 
in  j>arts. 

The  chromatic  scales  come  next  in  order,  as  follows : 


Katie  of  Numbers  of  Vibrations         Mean  Semitones  in 
in  each  Interval.                           each  Interval. 

c  r 
5:    4 

PQ 

36  :  35 

QF 

28  :  27 

C  P 

3-86 

PQ 

•49 

QF 

•63 

19:  15 

39  :  38 

40  :  39 

4-10 

•44 

•44 

5:    4 
5:    4 

31  :  30 
24  :  23 

32  :  31 

46  :  45 

3-86 
3-86 

•57 
•74 

•55 

•38 

Ratio  of  numbers  of  Vibrations 
in  each  Interval. 

Mean  Semitones  in 
each  Interval. 

C  P 

PQ 

Q  F 

C  P 

P  Q 

Q  F 

Archytas 

32:27 

243:224 

28:27 

2-94 

1-41 

•63 

Aristoxenus, 

mollis  Chroma- 

tica 

56:45 

29:28 

30:29 

3-79 

•61 

•58 

Do.,  Sesquialterius 

Chromatica 

37:30 

77:74 

80:77 

3-63 

•C9 

•66 

Do.,tonici  Chro-  ) 

matica  Eratos-  > 

6:5 

19:18 

20:  19 

3-16 

•94 

•88 

thenes      .     .  ) 

Didymus  . 

6:5 

25:24 

16:15 

3-16 

•71 

1-12 

Ptolemy,     mollis 

Chromatica     . 

6:5 

15:14 

28:27 

3-16 

1-19 

•63 

Ptolemy,    intensi 

Chromatica 

7:6 

12:11 

22:21 

2-67 

1-51 

•80 

To  make  something  as  like  as  we  can  to  these  scales,  we 
should  write  down  in  modern  music 

C    El,     EH    F    G    Bb     8^     C1 
The  diatonic  scales,  Ptolemy  allows,  are  more  agreeable 
to  the  ear,  and  his  specimens   are  as  follows :   we  shall 
now  write  the  scale  with  the  usual  letters  throughout. 


Ratio  of  numbers  of  Vibrations 
in  each  Interval. 

Me'in  Semitones  ill 
each  Interval. 

C   D 

D  E 

E  F 

C  D 

D  E 

E  F 

Archytas  . 

9:8 

.  8:7 

28:27 

2-04 

2-31 

•63 

Aristoxenus, 

mollis  diatonica 

7:6 

38:35 

20:19 

2-67 

1-43 

•88 

Do.,  Intensi  Dia- 

tonica . 

17:15 

19:17 

20:  19 

2-17 

1-93 

•88 

Eratosthenes*     . 

9:8 

9:8 

256:243 

2-04 

2-04 

•90 

Didymus  . 

9:8 

10:9 

16:  15 

2-04 

1-82 

1-12 

Ptolemy,     mollis 

Diatonica  . 

8:7 

10:9 

21:20 

2-31 

1-82 

•85 

Do.,  tonici  Diato- 

nica 

9:8 

8:7 

28:27 

2-04 

2-31 

•63 

Do.,  intensi  Dia- 

tonica . 

10:9 

9:8 

16:15. 

1-82 

2-04 

1-12 

Do.,      aequabilis 

Diatonica  . 

10:9 

11:10 

12:11 

1-82 

1-65 

1-51 

These  scales  have  all  so  far  the  diatonic  character  that 
they  divide  the  tetrachord  into  two  larger  intervals  fol- 
lowed by  a  smaller  one  :  the  scale  of  Didymus  would  have 
been  exactly  the  modern  untempered  diatonic  scale,  if  he  had 
inverted  the  order  of  the  two  larger  intervals  in  his  second 
_•  This  is  also  Ptolemy's  Ditonici  Diatonica. 


T  l 


•J.vi 


T  £  T 


tetrachoru  other  modi-*,  the  Dorian*. 

-.'  which  v 

iag  to  him,  thi  '. 
octave,  so'mewh 

&idca  has  Ucn  started  of 
s,  or  rather  answering  to  diner- 
-.HIT  intermediate 

bemitoncs   iiist.  .id  of  some  ol   I!  it  would  In-  difli- 

AC  tliiuk,  to  produce,  authority  enough  for  thi*  con- 
jecture. 

If  it  were  true,  as  supposed,  that  the  two  octaves  of  the 
Greek  scale,  beginning,  say  with  A,  were  minor,  it  would 

.ionic  scales,  exhibited  the 
.1.1  we  ha\e  supposed.      According!/, 

the    ]iriiiei]ial    mode  of  exhibiting   the  formation  of  the 
oetu\e   from   two  tetrnchords  and  a  tone  would  be  ihe  one 
i\e  taken,  namely, 

D    B    F)    (G    A    B    C1) 
But  it  is  frequently  .supposed  that  it  was  the  following : 

0     K    V    ( G  }     A    B    C ) 
or  the  following — 

A{BCD(E}FGA). 
On  this  point  we  shall  only  say  that  there  never  was, 
we  believe,  so  strong  a  union  of  the  three  chancten  of 
scholar,  mathematician,  and  musieian.  ••'•  in  Dr. 

Smith,  the  author  of  the  Harmonics.     He  had  studied  the 
:!<•  attentixely,  and  to  him  the  first  of  these  me- 
thods was  a  matter  of  course.     'The  Greek  musicians' 
monies,  171'.',  ]'  -I"'  ,  '  alter  dividing  an  octave  into 
•n  the  diazeuctie  or  major  tone  in  thi-  middle 
in.  and  admitting  many  primes  to  the  composi- 
tion of  musical  ratios,  subdivided  the  fourth  into  three  in- 
tervals of  various  magnitudes  placed  in  various  order*,  by 
which  they  distinguished  their  kinds  of  tetrachords.' 

\Ve  do  not,  we  confess,  though  admitting  that  it  is  ex- 
ceedingly hard,  and  probably  impossible,  to  reconcile  the 
,  w'riter*  with  themselves  and  each  other,  find  that 
sort  of  difficulty  which  Dr.  Burney  owned  to,  when  he  said 
that  he  neither  understood  those  writers  himself,  nor  had 
met  with  any  one  who  did.     He  was  a  musician,  and  was 
looking  out  ibr  an  intelligible  mode  of  arriving  at  and  dis- 
tributing the  most  agreeable  concords,  with  a  strong  pre- 
determination to  arrive  at  musical  truth  or  nothing.     But 
the  Greek  writers  were  arithmeticians,  with  as  strong  a 
filiation  to  find  natural   foundations  in  integer  num- 
they  did  nut  ask  how  to  iiiul  sounds  which  would  best 
suit  the  ear,  but  bow  ti>  discover  trij  tious  which 

multiplied  together  should  produce  four-thirds  of  a  unit. 
Pleased  with  the  .simplicity  of  the  ratios  which  give  the 
fourth,  fifth,  and  octaM •,  ih>-ii-  efforts  at  musical  improve- 
ment were  confined  to  the  attempt  at  discovering  magic 
numbers  to  fill  up  theintenals.  It  was  not  until  one  of 
these  philosophers  had  laboured  at  his  abacus,  and  tasked 
his  metaphysics  to  find  a  prinri  confirmation  of  some 
question  in  arithmetic,  that  he  strung  his  monochord  and 
tried  how  his  scale  sounded:  it  would  have  been  hard 
indeed  if  his  ear  had  refused  to  sympathize  with  his  brain. 
In  all  probability  the  musicians,  whose  object  was  simply 
to  please,  laughed  at  the  arithmeticians,  as  Tycho  Brahfe 
did  .  -Alien  the  latter  had  discovered  reason  for 

the  of  the    planets    in   the    properties  of  solid 

bodies:  they  had  motive  enough,  and,  beyond  all  question, 
reason  more  than  enough. 

i  K.VHOKI)  T,TfMTtaftor,  '  four-stringed'),  in  the 
music  of  the  Greeks,  was  a  system  of  four  sounds, — as,  for 
example,  the  diatonic  tetrachord,  c,  D,  K,  K  :  the  chromatic, 
K;  and  the  enharmonic,  c.  i  ;.  u  b,  F.  The 
antienU  proceeded  from  the  key-note  to  the  octasc  by  two 
conjoint  tetrachords;  and  so  far  as  the  diatonic  scale  is 
concerned,  they  and  the  moderns  agree.  In  what  relates 
to  the  two  other  scales,  so  little  *  accurately  known,  and 
the  subject  is  so  unimportant,  to  either  the  general  or  the 
musical  reader,  that  we  should  not  further  enter  on  it, 
if  the.  (space  allotted  to  our  department  alluv 

[GK\EH\  :   Mi  sir.  HISTORY  or.] 

TETRADY'NAMOUa    from  rirrajwc, /';.'/,  and  r.Vn/uc, 
fOWtT),  a  botanical  term  emploved  by  Lii  indicate 

thi'  chmaetct  ot  those  flowers  which,  possessing  six  stamens, 
have  two  of  them  shorter  than  the  other  four.  This  pecu- 
liarity is  found  exclusively  in  the  plants  belonging  to  the 


natural  order  Crucifene,  Hence  the  Lmnean  class  Tetrady- 

uamia,  including  only  plant*  with  the  stamens  arranged  in 
tin.-  manner,  is  an  <  \  .   and   is  one  of 

the  few  in-tances  in   which   a    p.  in   the  stamens 

prevails  throughout  a  whole  family.     Ifiilytmiiiout  is  the 
term  which  expresses  Ihe  i  two 

of  which  are  short  and  two  long.     This  ch. 

'  number  of  natural  families,  as  Ijii  ph.!- 

lariaceai,    Bignoniao  :.d    i->    ai  .ilent 

throughout  a  family  where  !  class 

Didvnamia  is  Umndcd  Oil  this  peculiarity  ol 

,  rly  a  four-angled    !  '.-mi 

usually  applied   to  the  square  only,  when  used,  which   it 
seldom 

TFTK.UJt  )N  I  i  natural  order  of  plants.  ] 

by  Liudlcy  HI  his  llui  \cmbryose  group  of  incomplete  Dico- 
tyledons.    It  includes  the  genera  Tetragonia,  Aizoon.  Se- 
suvium,  and   Miltns.   which  an    geneiallx   placed  in  the 
order  Ficoidese  or  Mesembryacese.    The  reason  gi\eo  by 
Dr.  Lindley  for  this  separation  is  the  want   of  pet:. 
these  genera,  as  he  considers  that  the  tendency  to  produce 
petals  in  the  Mesembryaccas  is  of  too  powerful  a  nati 
admit  exception.     The  relation  of  thci-c  api-i.ilous  Ficoi- 
dea-  to  Chenopodiacew  is  so  stronir,  that  Dr.  l.niilU 

is  no  character  to  distinguish  them,  except   their 
ovary  being  formed  of  several  carpels.' 

Like  Ficoidese,  this  order  possesses  thick  Micenient 
leaves,  which  in  many  of  the  specie.,  might  be  used  as  a 
substitute  for  spinach.  The  '/  is  a 

native  of  New  Zealand  and  Japan,  and  is  used  by  the 
natives  of  those  countries  as  a  remedy  in  tho- 
cutaneous  disease  called  scorbutic.  It  might  be  used  in 
cookery  instead  of  spinach.  The  Aizoon  MMTtMM  and 
A.  hispanicum  grow  on  the  sea-coasts  of  the  Canary  Isles 
and  Spain,  and  are  amongst  the  plants  which  yield  soda 
after  burning. 

TETRAGON  O'LOBUS  (from  rfrrapif.four,  y»vla,a>ifrl<; 
and  \6Sof,  lobe},  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  papilio- 
naceous division  of  the  natural  order  Letruminos;e.  It  con- 
tains herbs  with  broad  lea IV  stipules,  tri foliate  lea vt-s.  winged 
petioles,  alternate  leaflets  and  flowers  seated  on  axilla 
duncles,  furnished  wit  ha  brail.  The  cah  x  is  tubular  5-cleft, 
the  wings  shorter  than  the  vexillnm  :  the  stiirma  is  funnel- 
shaped  and  beaked  :  the  legume  is  cylindrical,  furnished 
with  four  foliaceous  wings,  which  give  it  a  4-cornered  ap- 
pearance. 

T.  furjiureut  ("purple  winged-pea)  is  a  pilose  plant  with 
decumbent  stems,  entire  obovate  leaflets,  bracts  longer 
than  the  calyx,  and  a  glabrous  leirume.  with  globose  - 
It  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  and  has  dark  purple 
flowers;  a  variety  is,  however,  found  with  flowers  of  a 
dark  yellow  colour. 

There  is  also  a  variety  called  T.  p.  minor,  in  which  the 
stem,  leaves,  and  legumes  are  much  smaller.  In  southern 
rcirions.  where  this  plant  -rrows  in  perfection,  the  unripe 
letrumes  are  cooked  and  eaten  in  the  same  manner  as  we 
MU  French  beans. 

There  are  four  other  species  of  Tetrsgonolobus,  all  of 

them  inhabitants  of  Europe.     In  gem-nil  appearance  they 

very   much   resemble    the   species   of   Bird's-foot   trefoil 

Lo'tusl.  and  in  gardens  are  well  adapted  for  ornamenting 

rock-work.     They  are  best  propagated  by  s- 

TETRAHEDRON  i  ft  solid  of  lour  faces  .  a  term  usually 
applied  to  fhe  regular  tetrahedron,  f  KK(;I  I.AH  Pl»)VMS.1 

TETRAD.     [Turn  U.MO.K.] 

TKTI;.\IK;.\  I.I.I  S.  Mr.  ,}.  K.  Grny's  nnme  for  a  ceniis 
of  birds,  placed  by  Mr.  G.  K.  (lr:i\  in  the  subfamily  /."/-A</- 
:,r.   of  the  'family  1'h'miniiiilir.      Example,    '/'• 

'///.     (Ill.Ind.7L 

TKTKAO'M  !).!•:.  Dr.  Leach's  name  for  the  Grouse 
family. 

Linneus,  in  his  last  edition  of  the   N//-  '»ra>, 

-  the  genus  Tflrno  at  the  end  of  his  fiHh  order, 

next   to  the   genus  .\iiiniiln.     The    Hnllina*    come 
between  the  (im/lrr- and  the  1'astrrrt :  th>  -thin 

is  the    laM    of  the   order  Urullff,  and   th.  ,/mba 

the  first  of  the  order  Patserei. 

The  Linnean  genus  Trl,  \t.-n-i\e.  comprising 

not  only  the  true  Grouse,   but   also  the  Fraucolins. 
t ridges,  and  Quails. 

('in  in.  in  Ins  last  edition  of  11  <--/i'//m/,  urr;i. 

the  '/'.  -mi.    under  his  fomth  order.   '• 

nacte  ((jaltin<e,  Linn.;,  placinj;  them  between  the  Phea- 


T  E  T 


255 


T  E  T 


sanfs   (Phasianus,   Linn.)    and    the    Pigeons    (Coltimba 
Linn.\ 

This  great  genus  in  the  arrangement  of  Cuvier  is  mor 
comprehensive  even  than  that  of  Linnaeus,  Cor  it  include 
the  following  subgenera  :  —  1.  Les  Coqs  de  Bruyere  (Te 
trao,  Lath.,  ;  2.  the  Lagopedes,  or  Snow  Partridges  (Per 
drix  de  »ieig/>~)  ;   3.    the  Ganga,  or  Attagfit   •  i'tfrocles 
Temm.)  ;  4.  the  Partridges  (Perdix,  Briss.)  ;  comprising 
the  Francolins,  the  ordinary  Partridges,  the  Quails,  and  th 
C'tfiii*  or  Partridges  and  Quails  of  America;  5.  the  Tri 
dactyls  'Luetp.,  HrmijivJiitx,  Temm.),  including    Turnix 
(Bonap.,  (Jrlygic,  111.),  and  Syrrhaples,  111.  ;  6.  The  Tin/t 
moi/s    Tinanuu,  Lath!,  Crypturiot,  111.,  Ynambuf,  D'Azara) 
Of  this  last  submenus  Cuvier  remarks  that  some,  the  Pezii. 
of  Spix,  have  still  a  small  tail  hidden  under  the  feathers 
of  the  rurnrj  ;  others,  the  Tiimniint  of  Spix,  have  no  fail  a1 
all,  and  their  nostrils  are  placed  a  little  farther  backward  . 
and  he  adds  that  one  should  distinguish  Rhynchottis  of  Spix 
which  has  the  bill  stronger,  without  any  furrow,  slightly 
arched  and  depressed,  with  the  nostrils  pierced  towards  its 
base. 

Mr.  Vigors  places  the  Tftrannidar  among  the  RASORES, 
observing  that  the  groups  which  form  the  family  are 
chiefly  distinguished  in  modern  systems  from  those  of  the 
Phaantitidrf!  by  their  more  simple  appearance;  by  the 
absence  in  fact  of  those  ornaments  to  the  plumage,  and 
those  naked  or  carunculated  appendages  to  the  cheeks  and 
head,  so  conspicuous  in  the  latter  family,  but  which  are 
reduced  in  the  present  to  the  mere  space  that  encircles  the 
eye.  The  still  weaker  conformation  of  the  hinder  toe 
tends,  Mr.  Vigors  observes,  further  to  separate  them;  for 
this  member  in  the  Tetraonidte  becomes  shorter  and 
gradually  weaker,  Until  it  is  completely  lost  in  some  of  the 
groups.  Tims  viewed,  Mr.  Vigors  is  of  opinion  that  the 
family  under  consideration  holds  an  intermediate  station 
between  the  P/t<i*i<nn<l>r,  where  the  hind  toe,  although 
articulated  high  on  the  tarsus,  is  yet  comparatively  strong, 
and  the  Strut/iio/iiilee,  where  it  is  generally,  if  not  always, 
deficient.  He  further  remarks  that  the  groups  which  com- 
pose the  Tetraonidfe,  corresponding  with  those  that  form 
the  genus  Tetrao  of  Linnaeus,  seem  to  be  immediately 
unit  preceding  family  by  means  of  the  genus 

.mi..  which  resembles  them  in  the  similar 
of  thr  plumage  of  the  head.     This  group,  he 
thinks,   leads  directly    to    Cutiinii.r,    Bri>s..   and   tile  true 
Perdi.r,  where  it  has,  he  observes,  been  gi  mgcd, 

and  from  which  it  has  been  chiefly  .separated  by  the  defal- 
cation of  a  nail  to  the  hinder  toe.  From  Prnti.r  Mr. 
Vigors  proceeds  to  Pteroclea,  Temm.,  which,  by  its  half- 
plumed  tarsus,  is  intermediate  between  that  genus  and  the 
true  Tftran.  By  means  of  Lrignpus,  Cuv..  in  which  the 
toes  as  well  as  the  legs  are  feathered,  Mr.  Vigors  arrives 
at  tin-  singular  genus  N///r/«/;</™.  HI.,  which  is  imme- 
diately connected  with  fMtjgix  of  the  same  author  by  the 
entire  deficiency  of  the  hind  toe.  With  these  groups,  in 
his  opinion,  the  genus  Tinamun,  Lath.,  corresponds  by  the 
slight  conformation  of  the  same  member,  the  joint  of 
which  is  feeble  and  the  nail  scarcely  developed.  This 
group  leads  him  back  again  to  Cnjjiti'iii/.r,  which  has  no 
nail  to  the  joint  of  the  hinder  toe.  The  whole  of  I!K  -  • 
last-mentioned  groups,  thus  united,  correspond  also,  Mr. 
Vigors  observes,  in  the  shortness  or  weakness  of  their  tails. 
Those  of  the  Tftrnnniilif  which  exhibit  a  weakness  or  de- 
ficiency in  the  hinder  toe,  lead  Mr.  Vigors,  to  the  three- 
toed  groups  of  the  Striiilii'midrr,  with  the  bills  of  which, 
more  particularly  that  of  Rhca,  those  of  some  species  of 
Tniiimiu,  he  observes,  correspond.  (Natural  Affinities 
thai  connect  the  Orders  and  Fminlifx  <>f  Birds,  in  Linn. 
Trans.,  vol.  xiv.). 

Mr.  Swainson  makes  the  Trtr/ionidre  form  the  third 
family  of  Knxorfg,  and  states  that,  it  is  composed  of  the 
artridges,  Grouse,  and  Quails;  all  of  which  agree  in  the 
extreme  shortness  of  their  tails  and  of  their  hind-toe  : 
they  are  also,  he  observes,  remarkable  for  a  total  want  of 
that  brilliancy  of  plumage  which  so  eminently  characterises 
the  Pavonidtr,  between  which  family  and  the  fit  ruth  i«- 


nnlrr  he  places  the  Tetraonidee.  The  genus  Cryptnin/.r, 
he  observes  (a.  small  group  of  Oriental  birds  highly  beau- 
tiful from  their  elegant  form  and  the  texture  of  their 
crests),  has  been  thought,  to  connect  the  two  ;  a  supposi- 
tion, he  remarks,  by  no  means  improbable,  yet  requiring 
analogical  proof.  He  then  notices,  as  following  these,  the 
Grouse  :  those  of  the  colder  latitudes,  he  adds,  constitute 


the  genus  Tetrao,  wKile  Pteroclcs  includes  such  as  inhabi 
the  arid  sands  of  Africa  and  Southern  Europe.  The  northeri 
parts  of  our  empire,  he  observes,  still  furnish  us  witr 
several  species  ;  but  he  laments  the  extermination  ir 
Britain*  of  the  largest  and  most  noble  grouse  of  Eurcpe 
the  cock  of  the  rock  (cock  of  The  wood  must  be  meant). 

Mr.  Swainson  goes  on  to  point  out  how  sometimes  thf 
side  feathers  on  the  neck  of  the  male  grouse  are  developer 

in  a  singular  manner,  so  as  to  resemble  little  wings p 

character  mostly  confined  to  the  American  species  (Te 
traones  Umbellus  and  Cupido).  He  also  adverts  to  (he 
several  new  additions  to  this  group  brought  home  by  the 
expedition  under  Captain  (now  Sir  John)  Franklin.  The 
African  and  Indian  Grouse  (Pteroclfs)  have,  he  remarks, 
frequently  very  pointed  tails,  and  the  hind-toe  is  very 
small :  heat  with  them,  he  observes,  appeal's  to  be  as  essen- 
tial as  cold  to  the  true  grouse.  But  he  notices  one  species, 
Pt.  setaritis,  Temm.,  which  extends  its  range  to  the  South 
of  France.  He  then  proceeds  to  point  out  that  nearly  all 
the  Grouse  have  the  toes  and  legs  more  or  less  covered 
with  soft  feathers  ;  but  that  this  character  disappears  in  the 
Partridges — an  extensive  group  scattered  over  nearly  all 
parts  of  the  Old  World,  but  unknown  in  the  New,  where 
they  are  represented  by  the  genus  Qdontophorus,  Vieill. 
In  the  Quails,  he  observes,  we  have  the  miniature  resem- 
blance of  Partridges,  but  the  tail  is  so  short  as  to  be  nearly 
imperceptible.  Closely  approaching  to  the  true  quails, 
we  have,  he  remarks,  the  genus  Hemipodius,  distinguished 
by  the  total  absence  of  the  hind-toe  ;  and  he  adverts  to 
me  extreme  pugnacity  of  these  little  birds,  a  disposition 
taken  advantage  of  by  the  Javanese  and  other  Indian 
nations  with  whom  quail-fighting  is  even  a  more  fascinat- 
ing amusement  than  cock-fighting  is,  or  rather  was — for  we 
are  happy  to  say  it  is  much  on  the  decline — in  Europe. 

Mr.  Swainson  then  calls  attention  to  that  singular  race 
of  birds  in  Tropical  America  called  Tinamous  by  some  of 
the  Brazilians,  and  Ynambm  by  D'Azara.     With  scarcely 
any  tail,  their  body  is  thick,  and   Mr.  Swainson  remarks 
hat  their  whole  appearance  reminds   the  observer  of  a 
pigmy  Bustard,  whicn  group,  he  thinks,  they  probably  re- 
iresent  in  the  New  World.     '  As  for  their  flesh,'  says  Mr. 
Iwainson  in  conclusion,  '  we  have  often  tasted  it,  and  con- 
sider it  both  in  whiteness  and  flavour  infinitely  above  that 
of  the  partridge  or  pheasant.  We  believe  these  birds  never 
jerch,  as  some  suppose,  but  that  they  live  entirely  among 
lerbage,  principally  in  the  more  open  tracts  of  the  interior." 
Classification  of  Birds.*) 

In  the  Synopsis  at  the  end  of  the  volume,  Mr.  Swainson 
)laces  theTetraonidcc  in  the  same  relative  position  as  that 
ibove  assigned  to  them.  He  thus  defines  the  '  Tctraonidee, 
-•artridges  and  Grouse:'— '  Bill  and  tail  very  short.  Hal- 
ux  elevated  ;'  and  he  comprises  under  the  family  the  ful- 
owing  genera  and  subgenera : — 

Cryptonyx,  Temm. ;  Odontophorus,  Vieill. ;  Ortygis, 
11. ;  Tetrao,  with  the  subgenera  Tetrao,  Linn.,  Lagoptts, 
Villughby,  Lyrurus,  Sw.,  Pterocles,  Temm.,  and  Cen- 
rocercus,  Sw. ;  Perdix,  Briss.,  with  the  subgenera  Perdi.r, 
'hcetopus,  Sw.,  Coturni.r,  Briss.,  Ptilopachux,  Sw.,  and 
Ortyx,  Steph. ;  Cryptnrwt,  111.,  with  the  subgenera  Cryp- 
artis  and  Not  hum*,  Wagl. 

The  Prince  of  Canino,  in  his  Birds  of  Europe  and  North 
\nirrica,  makes  the  Gallinee  the  third  order  of  his  second 
ubrlass.  Grallatores ;  and  this  order  comprises  the  families 
^teroclida?,  Phasianidcc,  Tetraonidcs,  and  Crypturidep. 
Tie  order  next  in  succession  to  the  Gallinre  is  formed  by 
hie  Grallce. 

The  Pteroclides  include  the  following  subfamilies  and 
genera : — 

1.  SyrrhaptingB. 
Genus,  Syrrhaptes,  111.  . 

2.  Pteroelinas. 
Genus,  Pleroc^es,  Temm. 

*  Seft  the  article  CAPERCAILZIE.    The  attempt  at  reintnxlnction  lias  since 
een  followed  up  witli  every  prospect  of  success  bv  the  patriotic  Marquis  of 

Breadalhane.     In  183H,  and  the  early  part  of  1839,  that  nobleman  received  at 

»  teat  in  Scotland  forty-four  of  these  magnificent  Grouse  :    they  were  all 

ned  birds,  and  about  two-third*  of  them  were  hens.    They  were  col- 

eeted  in  Sweden  with  great  pains  and  expense  bv  Mr.  L   I.loyd.   Mr.  Fowell 

uxtnn  presented  them  to  Lord   Hteadalkine.     His  Lordship  turned  out  part 

itn  tli'-  forest,  and  retained  another  portion  in  a  laiL-'-  aviary,     lioth  experl 

i-iTil' -I,  ami   it  was    ascertained    that  seventy  nine  voting  birds  had 

.-en  h;ilclu  d  "nt  in  the  season  of  1839.     Forty-nine  were  hatched  out  in  tho 

vi:ir;  by  (ir.-y  Hens  (females  of  liiack  (irouse). 

In  1838  three   were  sent  to  the  Duchess   of  Athol  at  Blair,  and   several 
ere  forwarded  to  the  Earl  of  Derby  at  Knowleslcy,  where  five  yoimu  bird! 

were  hatched  in  the  aviary  in  the  Bummer  of  1839  ;  four  of  these  were  doing 

well  when  last  heard  of. 


T  E  T 


B66 


T  ET 


The  TrtranniiUf  comprehend  the  following  subfamilies 
Mid  genera : — 

1.  Perdicinae. 

Genera,  LophortuT,  Bonap. ;   Ortyr,  Su-ph. 
linut,  Bris*. ;  Perdu,  Bonap. :  Slitrnn,  Bonap.  :  ("uturnur, 
Teinm.  ;    Htimitnt,  lionap.  ;    Trtrao,  Linn. ;   and  /.-igoput, 
Vfcill. 

The  Crypturidtf  consist  of  the  subfamily  OitygUli  and 
nus  OrrjMTU,  Dl. 

Mr.  (i.  R.  (iray.  in  hit  Lift  nf  the  Genera  of  1 
arranges  the  Tetraonidif  between  tin-  I'hatianida-  and  the 
<'hi«Hididfr,  with  the  following  subfamilies  and  genera: — 

1.  Perdirine. 

Genera,  Rhisathera,  G.  K.  Gray;  PtilopachiK.  Sw. 
Jlhaginit,  Wag). ;  Lrrtfa,  Hodgs. ;  Pternistes,  Wagl. 
..-nlinut.  Briss.;  Chacura,  Hodgs. ;  Perdix,  Antiq. 
Arborophila,  Hodgs. ;  Coturnij.  Antiq.  :  Rollulut,  Bonn. 
Odontophnruf,  Vieill.;  Or/yx,  Steph. ;  Lophortyx,  Bonap. 
< ',//.-'  igl. 

2.  TetraoninjB. 

Genera,  Tetrao,  Linn. :  Lyrurut,  Sw. ;  Bonata,  Briss. 
(Bonatia,  Bonap.) ;  Centrocercux,  Sw. ;  Lagopwt,  Briss. 

3.  Pterocliiui'. 
Genera,  Pterocles,  Temm. :   Syrrhaptes,  111. 

.Mr.  G.  R.  Gray  gives  Hie  synonyms  of  all  these  genera, 
and  sufficiently  numerous  they  are.  The  same  author,  in 
his  Appendix,  states  that  ('hin-iini  should  have  before  it 
Caecabit,  Kaup ;  and  directs  the  render  to  add  near  the 
genus  Alectoris,  Kaup,  Tetran,  (1m. ;  also  to  add  the  genus 
Orriat,  Kaup.  lie  further  remarks  that  <>,-yi , 
nymous  with  Thinncnruv. 

\Ve  shall  endeavour  to  illustrate  this  article  with  exam- 
ples of  the  natural  history  of  the  grouse  properly  so  called  : 
an  account  of  some  of  the  leading  forms  of  the  family, 
taken  in  its  more  extensive  sense,  will  be  found  under  the 
respective  titles. 

EUROPEAN  GROUSE. 

The  following  species  are  European  : — Tetrao  Uroga/liix, 
the  Capercailzie,  or  Cock  of  the  Wood ;  Tetrao  hybriduc, 
Sparrm.  (Tflrua  mediu-s,  Meyer),  the  Hybrid  Grouse,  ge- 
nerally considered  by  ornithologists  to  be  a  hybrid  between 
the  Capercailzie  and  the  Black  Cock;  Telrao  Telrix  (genus 
Lyrurus,  Sw.),  the  Black  Groute  or  Block  Cock  :  Hn>iti»iii 
Eitripaa,  the  Hazel  Grouse  or  Gelinotte ;  Lagopus  Sco- 
ticut,  the  Red  Groute ;  Lagopus  mat  us,  the  Common  Ptar- 
migan ;  Lagopus  terrestris,  the  Rack  Ptarmigan  ;*  La- 
gopus talicfti.  the  Willow  Ptarmigan;  Lagopus  brachy- 
daclylut,  the  Short-toed  Ptarmigan  ;  Pterocles  arenarius, 
the  Hand-Grouse ;  Pteroclet  tetariut,  the  Pin-tailrd 
l-Grouse. 

Of  these  the  Black  Cock,  the  Red  Grouse,  and  the  Com- 
mon Ptarmigan  are  Briti>h  ;  to  which  we  trust  that  we 
may  now  add  the  Capercailzie,  restored  by  the  praise- 
worthy care  of  the  Marquis  of  Breadalbane  and  others.* 

We  select  as  an  example  the  Common  Ptarmigan,  L 
gopus  mutus. 

Description — Winter  Plumage  (Male). — Pure  white  ;  a 
black  band  proceeding  from  the  angle  of  the  bill  and  tra- 
versing the  eyes  ;  lateral  tail-feathers  black,  terminated  by 
a  white  border;  feet  and  toes  well  covered  with  woolly 
feathers;  above  the  eves  a  naked  space,  which  is  termi- 
nated by  a  small  dentilated  membrane  ;  these  naked  parts 
are  red ;  claws  hooked,  subulate,  and  black  :  bill  black  • 
iris  ash-coloured.  length  about  fifteen  inches  and  a 
quarter. 

It  inter  Plum  'f  .—Differing  from  that  of  tin 

male  in  having  the  naked  space  above  the  eyes  loss,  and 
no  black  eye-band.     Smaller  than  the  male;  the  len 
about  fourteen  inches  and  a  half. 

Per/eel'  Summer  Plumage  (Old  Male).— Top  of  the 
head,  neck,  back,  scapulars,  and  the  two  middle  tail- 
feathers,  as  well  as  the  upper  coverts,  nuty  ash  crossed  by 
numerous  zigzags  of  deep  black  ;  breast  and  sides  varie- 
gated with  feathers  of  the  «ame  colour,  among  which  are 
always  found  a  great  number  of  feathers  of  a  <le. •] 
varied  with  some  scattered  zigzags  of  a  bright  ruit-coloni  •; 
black  eye-band  always  distinctly  marked  :  throat  must  fre- 
quently white,  hut  oilcn  marked  with  blackish;  the  whole 
of  the  belly,  abdomen,  lower  coverts  of  the  tail,  wings. 
wing-covert*,  and  feet  pure  white :  eye-brows  large,  of  a 
very  lively  red. 


•  tfalMVpat 


Ante,  p.  296  (note). 


Female  always  distinguished  In  the  total  absence  of  the 
black  eye-band,  and  to  be  recognised  also  by  the  tone  ol 
her  plumage,  which  has  less  white  ;  the  head,  all  the  upp.T 
parts  of  the  body,  the  neck,  the  breast,  the  flanK- 
abdomcn  -ticaked  with  transverse  bauds  of  briirht  rusty 
and  black,  with  a  good  deal  of  regularity  :  only  the  middle 
of  the  belly,  the  feet,  and  the  wings  arc  pure  white. 

The   Yniim:  are   marked  with  .  ash-coloured, 

black  and  nistyish  strca'.-.       Tcmm.. 

N.B.  The  bird  figured  by  Mr.  Could,  in  his  great  work 
Thf  Birds  nf  Kurii/H;  under  the  name  of  hiif , 

t'fie  Rock  Ptarmigan,  with  great  doubt  by  that  acute 
ornithologist  as  to  its  identity  with  the  North  Ameiican 
according  to'Temminck,  to  be  the  female 
Ptarmigan  in  her  perfect  Mimmcr  plumage. 

The  iieicly-hatchi'd  yuan  a,  according  to  Mr.  Mncgilliv- 
ray,  are  covered  with  a  light  yellowish-grey  down  patched 
on  the  hack  with  brown,  and 'have,  on  the  top  of  the  head. 
a  light  chotnut  mark,  edged  with  darker  chestnut.    When 
first  fledged  they  are,  he  says,  very  similar  to  the  young  of 
the  Red  Grouse,  but  banded  and  spotted  with  brighter 
reddish-yellow:    but  this  plumage,  he  adds,  soon  eh;! 
so  that  in  the  beginning  of  August  many  of  the  yellow  and 
brown  feathers  of  the  back  are  exchanged  for  others  spotted 
and  barred  with  pale  grey  and  brown,  and  the  under  ; 
are  white  as  well   as  the  wings.     In  conclusion, 
that  these  young  birds  become  white  the  first  winter,  like 
the  old  ones.       ///>/-..••.•/  >,f  Hriti\h  li> 

This  Ptarmigan  is  supposed   by  some,  and  with  good 
reason,  to  be  the  Lagopus  of  Pli  lli\t.,  lib. 

10  notices  its  excellent  flavour,  and  states  that  its  feet 
with  their  'hare-like  hair'  gave  the  bird  its  name.     It  i-, 
the  TWrno/f/^opiwofLinnseus;  Lagopii*  nilgnris  of  Flem- 
ing; Pernice  de  MnntugiHi,  Pn 
liiiiiiro  of  the  modern  Italians ;    Perdrix  bfimrhf  and  - 
note  blanche  of  the  French  :   1'erdiz  hlanca  of  the  Spanish  : 
&'hiir<jiuhii   and  Himx,  /ijii*x<<r?   If'iililniihn   of  the 
mans;  Rypr  of  the  Norwegians  :  Riupkarre  (mule 

female)  of  the  Icelanders;    Tarmaefuai  of  the  Northern 
Gael ;  and  C'lrinr  i/r  Alliaii  of  the  \Velsh. 

Geographical  Distribution, — North  of  Europe:  Lap- 
land, Norway,  Sweden,  Russia.  The  Alpine  districts  of 
the  middle  and  south  of  Europe.  North  Ameiica  :  the 
islands  lying  in  the  south-west  of  Baffin's  Day  Sabine  : 
high  hills  keeping  near  the  snow-line;  Churchill  Ui\er 
iklin:  Richardson). 

In  the  British  Islands  it  was  formerly  found  in  the  North 
of  England,  and,  as  its  Welsh  name  indicates,  in  \\ 
hut  it  no  longer  occurs  in  those  localities,  nor  is  it  to  be 
met  with  in  Ireland. 

Mr.  Macgillivray  (History  nf  British  Bi,  -that 

it  inhabits  the  bare  and  weather-beaten  summits  of  the 
higher  mountains  of  the  middle  and  northern  divisions  of 
Scotland;  but,  he  adds,  that  even  in  the  transition 
of  the  south  of  that  part  of  the  United  Kingdom,  many  of 
the  mountains  of  which,  being  more  than  two  thousand 
feet  high,  seem  well  adapted  for  it.  no  individuals  ai< 
met  with.  '  I  have  frequently,'  says  this  observing  out- 
door naturalist.  •  chased  it  on  Romival  and  other  moun- 
tains in  Harris;  and  it  is  said  to  occur  on  Eachdla  in  South 
Uist,  on  the  Park  and  Uig  hills  in  Lewis,  on  the  Cuillin 
and  Strath  mountains  in  Skye.  as  well  as  in  Mull  and.'nra. 
•ed  summits  of  the  north  of  Scotland  it  is 
not  uncommon  :  and.  on  most  of  the  Grampians,  but  espe- 
cially the  great  granite  and  slaty  masses  from  which  issue 
the  sources  of  the  Dee,  the  Spcy,  and  the  Tay,  it  may  be 
said  to  be  even  abundant,  (iivut  numbers  are  annually 
killed, but  as  the  haunts  of  this  Ptarmigan  are  not  so  easily 
it  >le  as  I  hose  of  the  brown  species  (Lagopux  Nrvi//>//.\  i, 
it  is  not  at  all  likely  to  be  exterminated.' 

Food,  llaliilx,  ,V-r. — The  summer  food  of  the  Ptarmigan 

consists  principally  of  Alpine  berries,  and  in  winter  of  the 

shoots  of  \onng  heath.     Air.  Macgillivray  found  in  their 

crops  a  largo  quantity  of  fi.  .if  dilhina  n/f- 

,'niiim  Myrtilliix.   and  l-'.mj.i'l nun    nigrum,  the 

largest  fragments  not  exceeding  five-tuclflhs  of  an  inch  in 

-.    that     leBVei    and    twigs   of    >'n:\-i/iiiini 

,r  h'T/Hiri-ii,  seeds   of  \auons  Jniin;. 

Cjfperai-i-rf.  and  other  plants,  with  berries  in  autumn,  also 

form  part  of  their  food,  which  is  thus,   lie  o  trr  the 

part  the  same  as  that  of  the  Red  Grouse,  or,  as  he 

terms  it.  the  Drown  Itannigan. 

The  author  last  ((noted  givea  the  following  description 


T  E  T 


257 


T  E  T 


of  the  habits  of  this  species  from  personal  observation : 
'  These  beautiful  birds,  while  feeding,  run  and  walk  among 
the  weather-beaten  and  lichen-crusted  fragments  of  rock, 
from  which  it  is  very  difficult  to  distinguish  them  when 
they  remain  motionless,  as  they  invariably  do  should  a 
person  be  in  sight.  Indeed,  unless  you  are  directed  to  a 
particular  spot  by  their  strange  low  croaking  cry,  which 
has  been  compared  to  the  harsh  scream  of  the  missel- 
thrush,  but  which  seems  to  me  much  more  like  the  cry  of 
a  frog,  you  may  pass  through  a  flock  of  Ptarmigans  with- 
out observing  a  single  individual,  although  some  of  them 
may  not  be  ten  yards  distant.  When  squatted  however  they 
utter  no  sound,' their  object  being  to  conceal  themselves; 
and,  if  you  discover  the  one  from  which  the  cry  has  pro- 
ceeded." you  generally  find  him  on  the  top  of  a  stone,  ready 
to  spring  off  the  moment  you  show  an  indication  of  hos- 
tility. If  you  throw  a  stone  at  him,  he  rises,  utters  his 
call,  and  is  immediately  joined  by  all  the  individuals 
around,  which,  to  your  surprise,  if  it  be  your  first  rencon- 
tre, you  see  spring  up  one  by  one  from  the  bare  ground. 
They  generally  fly  off  in  a  loose  body,  with  a  direct  and 
moderately  rapid  flight,  resembling,  but  lighter  than,  that 
of  the  Brown  Ptarmigan,  and  settle  on  a  distant  part  of  the 
mountain,  or  betake  themselves  to  one  of  the  neighbour- 
ing summits,  perhaps  more  than  a  mile  distant.' 

In  winter  it  appears  that  these  birds  associate,  forming 
flocks  of  fifty  or  more ;  and  it  is  also  stated  that,  during 
this  season,  they  burrow  under  the  snow,  thus  giving  coun- 
tenance to  the  statement  and  cut  of  Olaus  Mugnus,  copied 
by  Gesner,  showing  that  the  '  Urogalli  minores'  lie  hid 
'  sub  nive  :'  to  be  sure,  this  retirement  is  said  to  be  of 
rather  long  duration — two  or  three  months,  and  '  sine  cibo.' 

Mr.  Macgillivray  states  that  early  in  the  spring  the 
Ptarmigans  separate  and  pair.  He  describes  the  nest  as 
a  slight  hollow,  scantily  strewn  with  a  few  twigs,  and  stalks 
or  blades  of  grass ;  the  eggs,  as  regularly  oval,  about  an 
inch  and  seven-twelfths  in  length,  and  an  inch  and  from  one 
to  two  twelfths  across,  white,  yellowish-white,  or  reddish, 
blotched  and  spotted  with  dark  brown,  the  markings  being 
longer  than  those  on  the  eggs  of  the  red  grouse.  He 
states  that  the  young  run  about  as  soon  as  they  leave  the 
shell,  and  are,  from  the  first,  so  nimble  and  expert  at  con- 
cealing themselves,  that  a  person  who  has  accidentally 
fallen  in  with  a  brood  very  seldom  succeeds  in  capturing  one. 
The  parent  bird  it  seems  has  recourse  to  the  same  strata- 
gems as  the  partridge  and  other  gallinaceous  birds  to  lead 
the  intruder  from  her  little  ones.  '  On  the  summit  of  the 
Harris  mountains,'  says  Mr.  Macgillivray,  '  I  once  hap- 
pened to  stroll  into  the  midst  of  a  covey  of  very  young 
ptarmigans,  which  instantly  scattered,  and  in  a  few  seconds 
disappeared  among  the  stones,  while  the  mother  ran  about 
within  a  few  yards  of  me,  manifesting  the  most  intense 
anxiety  and  pretending  to  be  unable  to  fly.  She  suc- 
ceeded so  effectually  in  drawing  my  attention  to  herself, 
that  when  I  at  last  began  to  search  for  the  young,  not  one 
of  them  could  be  found,  although  the  place  was  so  bare 
that  one  might  have  supposed  it  impossible  for  them  to 
escape  detection.' 

This  species  has  been  reared  in  confinement  without 
any  great  difficulty,  and  has  bred  in  a  tame  state.  (Selby.) 

Every  one  must  have  observed  the  numbers  of  Ptarmigan 
which  are  sent  to  this  country  early  in  the  spring.  The 
shops  of  many  of  the  London  poulterers  are  then  positively 
white  with  them.  These  are  imported  from  the  north  of 
Europe,  where  they  are  principally  taken  in  snares  made  of 
horsehair.  Mr.  Yarrell  states  that  he  has  more  than  once 
found  a  hair  noose  round  the  neck  of  Norway  Ptarmigan 
in  the  London  market,  and  that  others  have  found  the 
same.  The  numbers  taken  are  immense.  According  to 
Mr.  Lloyd,  whom  we  have  so  often  had  occasion  to  quote, 
one  peasant  will  set  from  five  hundred  to  a  thousand  of 
these  snares  in  the  winter  season.  The  captured  birds  are 
kept  in  a  frozen  state  till  the  dealers  come ;  and  one  of 
these  dealers  will  sometimes  buy  and  sell  fifty  thousand 
ptarmigan  in  a  season.  According  to  the  calculation  of 
Sir  Arthur  de  Capell  Brooke,  sixty  thousand  of  these  birds 
were  killed  during  one  winter  in  a  single  parish,  which  was 
however  large.  Mr.  Grant  informed  Mr.  Yarrell  that  he 
was  assured,  when  in  Norway,  that  the  number  of  ptar- 
migan killed  in  that  country  every  winter  was  beyond 
belief:  two  thousand  dozen,  if  Mr.  Grant  remembered 
right,  was  the  quantity  exported  from  Drammen  in  one  ship 
for  England  in  1839,  and  great  numbers,  he  adds,  are  sent 
P.  C.,  No.  1530. 


to  the  Copenhagen  market.  Mr.  Yarrell  goes  on  to  slate 
that  besides  those  brought  to  this  country  from  Drammen, 
great  quantities  are  also  received  in  London,  during  the 
months  of  February,  March,  April,  and  May,  from  Bergen, 
Drontheim,  and  other  ports  on  the  west  coast  of  Norway, 
from  whence  conveyance  is  obtained  for  them  in  the  boats 
which  bring  constant  supplies  of  lobsters  to  the  London 
market.  '  On  one  occasion,'  says  Mr.  Yarrell,  '  late  in  the 
spring  of  1839,  one  party  shipped  six  thousand  ptarmigan 
for  London,  two  thousand  for  Hull,  and  two  thousand  for 
Liverpool ;  and  at  the  end  of  February  or  very  early  in 
March  of  the  present  year,  1840,  one  salesman  in  Leaden- 
hall  market  received  fifteen  thousand  ptarmigan  that  had 
been  consigned  to  him ;  and,  during  the  same  week,  an- 
other salesman  received  seven  hundred  capercaillies  and 
five  hundred  and  sixty  black  grouse.' 


Common  Ptarmigan  in  winter  and  summer  plumage.  (Gould.) 

ASIATIC  GROUSE. 

\Vc  select  the  Pin-tailed  Sand-Grouse,  Ptcrocles  scta- 
rius,  Gungn  Cata,  as  an  example. 

Description. — Old  Male. — Throat  black  ;  sides  of  the 
lu  :ul  and  front  of  the  neck  yellowish-ash  ;  on  the  breast  a 
largo  cincture,  about  two  inches,  of  rusty  orange,  bordered 
iil.mf  and  below  by  a  narrow  black  band;  head,  nape, 
rump,  and  tail-coverts  streaked  with  black  and  yellowish ; 
back  and  scapulars  streaked  in  the  same  way,  but,  towards 
the  end  of  each  feather  there  is  a  large  band  of  bluish-ash, 
succeeded  by  another  of  a  yellowish  colour ;  lesser  and 
middle  wing-coverts  marked  obliquely  with  chestnut-red, 
and  terminated  by  a  white  crescent ;  greater  coverts  olive- 
ash,  terminated  by  black  crescents ;  belly,  sides,  abdomen, 
thighs,  and  extremity  of  the  lower  coverts  of  the  tail  pure 
while  ;  tail-feathers  terminated  with  white,  and  the  external 
one  bordered  with  that  colour ;  the  two  middle  feathers, 
which  are  very  long,  slender,  and  of  loose  texture,  are  three 
inches  longer  than  the  others.  Total  length,  without  reck- 
oning the  long  tail-feathers,  10  inches  6  lines. 

Female  differing  much  from  the  male ;  throat  white ; 
below  this  part  a  large  black  semicollar,  which  only  ex- 
tends to  the  sides  of  the  neck ;  the  cincture  large  and 
orange-coloured  as  in  the  male;  upper  parts  nearly  the 
same  ;  middle,  lesser,  and  greater  wing-coverts  bluish-ash, 
then  an  oblique  reddish  band,  and  all  the  feathers  termi- 
nated by  black  crescents ;  the  two  long  tail-feathers  or 
filaments  are  longer  than  the  others  by  an  inch  and  six 
lines. 

Young,  before  their  first  moult. — Plumage  less  varie- 
gated ;  upper  parts  olive  clouded  with  ash  ;  the  white  of 
the  sides,  the  thighs,  and  the  abdomen  is  barred  with  yel- 
lowish and  brown  zigzags.  (Temm.) 

Geographical  Distribution. — Very  numerous  on  the  arid 
plains  of  Persia.  Not  very  numerous  in  France,  on  the 
sterile  '  Landes'  near  the  Pyrenees,  and  along  the  coasts  of 
the  Mediterranean ;  less  common  in  Provence  and  Dau- 
phine,  where  they  occasionally  arrive ;  more  common  in 
Spain,  Sicily,  Naples,  and  throughout  the  Levant.  Tem- 
minck,  who  gives  these  localities,  states,  in  the  fourth  part 
of  his  Mnnuel,  second  edition,  that  it  is  common  in  Pro- 
vence, in  the  uncultivated  plains  of  Crau,  and  says  that  it 
avoids  cultured  tracts,  and  only  inhabits  the  sterile  Landes 
of  the  south ;  but  he  adds  that  it  is  abundant  in  the  Py- 
renees, and  that  it  is  to  be  found  all  the  year  round  in  the 
markets  of  Madrid.  Mr.  Gould  states  that  the  species  is 
found  in  the  North  of  Africa. 

Food,  Habits,  fyc. — Seeds,  insects,  and  the  young  shoots 

VOL.  XXIV.— 2  L 


T  K  T 


T  I 


of  plants  torm  the  food  of  this  Mod-arouse:  but  its  wild 

nmlurr  an-1  the  barren  place*  winch  r 

to  obseiration;  and  little  or  nothing  i  its  habits. 

The  nest  u  a  hollow  in  the  earth,  HI 

mmrk.  the  egg*,  newly  of  the  same  tin  at  each  •  ml,  of  an 

Isabella  grey,  maikud  with  small  brown  point*  ajid  large 

black  patches,  are  only  two  or  three,  a  small  numl»  : 

f*nd  with  those  of  the  majority  of  the  Tttraontd*. 


I'ln-Ullnl  Sud  Grcnur.  m»U-  and  fnule.  (Uould.) 

AFRICAN  GROUSE. 

Dr.  Andrew  Smith  remarks,  that  though  we  iiiul  .«•;• 
of  Plerocle*  hcvontl  (!:<•  contincs  i,f  Aliica.  yet  the  majority 
of  those  now  known  are  peculiar  to  that  quarter  of  the 
globe.  The  regions  south  of  the  equator,  he  observe-. 
have  furnished  nearly  us  many  species  as  those  to  the  north 
of  it ;  and  he  thinks"  that  both  will  doubtless  afford  many 
additional  ones  when  the  yet  unknown  districts  -hull  have 
been  thoroughly  explored.  Each  of  the  known  species,  as 
far  as  his  observations  go,  has  «  limited  range :  and  should 
the  range  of  such  a*  inhabit  the  unexplored  tracts  of  the 
interior  not  be  greater,  he  i*  of  opinion  that  we  may  in 
time  expect  great  additions  to  the  following  list  of  known 
species  which  he  gives: — 

Pteroelftarenariu^Temm.,  Barbary  and  Senegal :   /'/>•- 
roc/ft  guttatus,  Licht.,  Egypt :    /'/  •ilririiirtiix. 

Temm., Senegal ;  Pterocles  cornnalmt.  Licht..  Nubia:  l'/f- 
roctei  Lichtentteinii, Temm.,  Nubia:  Ptrrorlcx  trii'im-tn*. 
Swain.,  Senegal;  Pternclrt  tanulu*,  Temm.,  Egypt  and 
Senegal;  Pteroclrt  Turhypetm.  Temm.,  South  Africa: 
Ptenttft  bicinctus.  Teiuiu..  Smith  Al'riea:  I'tri-m-li'*  xnii- 

\.  South  Africa:    !'!"• 
South  Africa  :    Ptrrnrftt  i- 
It  will  tx-  seen  thnt  I'lernrlf*  *>•' 

BMigns  North  Africa  as  a  locality,  is  not  in  Dr.  Smith's  list. 
select  as  an  example  I'trrnrlfs  nuttiir'ili*.  Smith. 

Miilr. — Top  of  the  head  dull  green,  faintly 
•  il  with  black;    sides  of  the   head  m:d  chin  straw- 
ycllnw:    eyebrow*    yellowish-white:     f\m-  I     the 

en  and  bill  black;  neck,  breast,  and  a  portion  of  each 
•houkier  intermedia'  n  nil-irrcen  and  sulphur- 

v.-llow;  l)a»w  of  all  the  feathers  pearl-grey:  immediatelv 
behind  the  vellow  chin,  the  throat  and  si'des  of  1h' 
are  crowed  oy  a  deep  brownish-black  crescent.  Inter- 
xcapulars  and  senpulnrs  clouded  with  pale  reddish-brown, 
pearl-grty.  niul  bluinli-blaek  or  brownish-black,  the  latter 
rn)ly  prevailing  '  "ie  (mills.  upper 

••.  ith  lumvn,  and 
h  is  found  with  a  jel- 

lownh  tint  at  the  base,  and  v. ith  a  strong  satin  lustre. 
Seeondnry  win:-  Dutch  and 

rc<lii  with  the  ba«e  antl  a  tile  portion 

of  the  inner  vane  of  each  p<-arl-i:rry :  primary  wing- 
corertiiand  all '  ularie.s 

narrowly  tipped  wi"  ickish- 

brown,  th.  ne»  edged   with   penrl-irrcv,  and  all. 

:>t  the  two  middle  on  '!i  the  same 

r  a*  the  secondary  quill-cm  i  rtv     Hi-ll\   and    under 
tail-coverts  between  chestnut  and  reddish-brown.    Hill  and 
dawn  dark  horn-colour;   eyes  dark  brown  ;   toes  green  i  si  i- 
brown.     Wings  when  folded  nearly  reaching  the  tip  of  the 
tail;   frrt   qnill-fenthpr   rather  longer  than   the    -. 
longest  of  the  tertiariex  intermediate   between   the  sixth 
and  wrenth   quill-feathers;   tail  wedge-shaped.   II 
IKkMIe  feathers  rather  the  longest  and  acuminated  at  their 
extremities;  outer  and  irner  foes  of  equal  length.    Total 
length  12  inches  6  lines. 


ftmalf. — Top  of  the  head  brownish-black,  (potted  with 
nttty-whitc ;    back   of  the   m-ck   dull   en  am-vellow.  : 
dached  with  brown :    Miles  of  the  neck  anil  thioir 
honey-jrellow  ;  back,  tlioiiUU-n.  and  breast  biownish-hlack. 
with  large  eream-colouretl  spots:  bellv  dee],  hlack.  liarred 
with    iiale   chestnut.      I'nder  t:i 
towwns  their  baws  barred  with  black.     Taf 

i.  with  partial  bar*  of  light   <-i, •am-vellow  ;    and  all. 

t   the  two  middle  feathers,  tipped  with  pn 
orange.    Length  1 1|  inches.    (Smith.) 


PteroclM  gutlarnlU  :  m»lc  and  tcm\v. 


LnrttUlij.  Fnntl.  11/1.1  Hr.  Smith   stalls  th:\' 

species  wiis   first   discovered  in  lat.  !iV  4(1'.  about   eighty 
miles  to  the  eastward  of  I-ntakoo  :    and   it  was  when  he 

,ed   its  cry  to  ditfer  from  that   uttered  b-, 
Tnrhyiii'tf*.  Temm.,  that  he  was  led  to  suspect  that  r 
distinct.     1'  '.  in  common  with  the  other  South 

African  species  of  this  genus,  it   repairs  in  large  flocks  at 
10  localities  where  water  is,  and 

that   at  such  times  specimens  nre  most   readily  procured  • 
but  he  warns  the  sportsman  to  be  quick  in  his  i< 

>.  scarcely  reach   the  water  before   they  are  again  on 
the  ving.      As  they  approach  and    recede  from  such  - 
they  almost   incessantly  utter  cries  resembling  Itcrt  ttrrt, 


irrrt. 

Dr.  Smith    remarks,   that    from    olisening   'best:    birds 
when  they  nre  in  quest  of  water,  one  would  be  disposed 
to   consider   them    grcuiirious.    a   notion 
when  their  feeding-grounds  arc  discovered,  tor  then 
are  generally  dispersed  singly  or  in  pairs,  and  the 
sional  congregation  is  only  effected  by  solitary  individuals 
,   joining   others  who  arc  on  their  way  from  a 
'ttiirnlis    seeks   the   water 

about  ten  in  the  morning  and  three  in  the  afternoon,  re- 
sembling in  this  respect    I'lrrni-li^  7'  which  in- 

.1  ditl'crent  part  of  the  country.   /'//')•• 

he  tells  us.  drinks  during  the  enrly  pait   ol  the  morning. 
and  /'•  'ix  in  the  dusk   of  the  evening  and 

%-irly  part   of  the  night.     In  such  an  arrangement,  he  ob- 
serves, we  must  admit  design  ;  for  if  all  the  various  speow 


T  E  T 


259 


T  E  T 


were  to  experience  thirst  at  the  same  time,  both  delay  and 
difficulty  would  occur  in  quenching  it,  since,  owing  to  the 
general  scarcity  of  water  in  the  districts  inhabited  by  these 
birds,  hundreds  of  the  same  species,  even  as  it  is  at  present, 
are  often  to  be  seen  fringing  the  brink  of  a  pool  for  hours 
together,  and  occasionally  disputing  for  the  first  sip.  Dr. 
Smith  found  grass-seeds,  ants,  and  abundance  of  gravel  in 
the  stomachs  of  most  of  the  individuals  which  he  procured. 
The  female  lays  two  or  three  eargs,  which  are  nearly  of  the 
same  size  at  each  end,  of  a  dirty-white  or  cream-colour, 
marked  with  irregular  streaks  and  blotches  of  pale  rusty 
and  pale  grey  or  ash-colour,  upon  the  bare  ground,  without 
any  care,  once  or  oftener  during  the  warm  season  ;  and  it 
is  only  when  level  spots  fitted  for  the  reception  of  the  eggs 
cannot  be  readily  obtained,  that  the  birds  of  this  genus, 
according  to  Dr.  Smith,  bestow  any  labour  on  the  prepara- 
tion of  nestling-places.  Nothing,  he  adds,  is  ever  inter- 
posed between  the  eirss  and  the  soil ;  and  indeed  whatever 
is  calculated  to  separate  them  is  carefully  avoided.  Almost 
as  soon  as  the  young  escape  from  the  shell,  they  take  to  a 
wandering  life,  and  remove  from  place  to  place  with  the 
parent-birds  in  search  of  food.  (Illustrations  of  the  Zoo- 
Ingy  iif  South  .•{/. 

AMERICAN  GROVSK. 

America  possesses  several  species  of  grouse,  consist- 
ing of  the  genera  and  subirenera  Boiiusia,  or  Bonasa, 
ntrao,  I.":: ••/>«*,  and  Cenlrocercus.  We  have  already 
noticed  the  Ku/l'ed  Uriiutr  [UONASIA],  and  here  select  for 
example  Centr-jeerm*  «/-o/</i,/.s/o//u.y. 

l>f«-ri]>ii<>H. — .}f<ile. — General  ground-colour  of  upper 
plumage  light  hair-brown,  mottled  and  variegated  with 
dark  umber-brown  and  yellowish-white.  Each  feather  of 
the  back  with  three  bands  of  yellowish-white  at  equal  dis- 
tances from  each  other,  the  lowest  narrow,  the  middle  one 
broad,  and  the  outer  one  at  the  tip  of  the  feather  almost 
k'te  :  between  thcsr  the  colour  is  hair-brown,  prettily 
marked  with  small  ineguli'i  /i^va^s  of  light  hair-brown: 
these  colours  cross  the.  .ilmt't  ;  but  on  the  wing-covrrs  and 
scapulars  the  shafts  are  all  marked  by  a  namiw  conspi- 
cuous line  of  yellowish-white.  On  the  tail  there  are  about 
eight  bands  of  this  colour,  the  lower  onus  being  tolerably 
defined,  but  those  towards  the  ends  obscure  :  the  uiamn;-- 
aie  zigzairged,  and  bordered  by  dark  umber-brown,  with 
irregular  zigzag  Hues  ot'  the  same,  upon  a  light  hair-brown 
ground,  between  each  bar.  (Quills  light,  and  almost  un- 
spotted; narrowed  r\Uv;mties  of  the  tail  ahnoit  Mack. 
Under  plumage  white,  unspotted  on  1he  brea-t  and  part  of 
the  body;  but  dark  umber-brown,  approaching  to  black, 
on  the  lower  half  of  the  body  and  part  of  the  flanks ;  the 
latter,  towaid.s  the  vent,  marked  as  on  the  upper  plumage. 
1'nder  tail-coverts  black,  broadly  tipped  with  white. 
Feathers  of  the  thighs  and  tarsi  light  hair-brown,  mottled 
with  darker  lines.  Throat  and  region  of  the  head  varied 
with  blackrsh  on  a  white  ground.  Shafts  of  all  the  feathers 
on  the  breast  black,  rigid,  and  looking  like  hairs  ;  scale- 
like  feathers  of  the  sides  white  and  thicker.  Bill,  which 
is  thick  and  strong,  and  toes  blackish.  On  each  side  of 
the  breast  two  prominent  naked  protuberances,  destitute 
of  hair  and  feathers,  more  forward  than  the  analogous  parts 
in  Tvtnto  (,'it/iii/n.  On  each  side  ot'the  protuberances  and 
higher  up  on  the  neck,  a  tuft  of  feathers,  having  their 
a  considerably  elongated  and  naked,  gently  curved  and 
tipped  with  a  pencil  of  a  few  black  radii.  These  tufts 
occur  at  the  same  part  as  those  of  the  Rutted  Grouse,  but 
are  placed  much  In  hind  the  naked  protuberances  in  the 
specimen  from  which  the  description  was  taken,*  so  that 
they  do  not  appear  intended  to  cover  them  when  not  in- 
flated. On  the  sides  of  the  neck  and  across  the  breast, 
below  the  protuberances,  the  feathers  are  very  short,  rigid. 
and  acute,  overlying  each  other  like  the  scales  of  a  lish. 
Wings  short  in  proportion;  lesser  quills  ending  in  a  small 
point.  Tail  rather  lengthened,  considerably  rounded,  each 
leather  lanceolate  and  gradually  attenuated  to  a  fine  point. 
i  thickly  clothed  with  feathers  to  the  base  of  1he  toes. 
ih  31  inches  (i  lines. 

-Whole  upper  plumage,  tail,  wing-covers,  ter- 
tiaries,  front  of  the  neck,  and  sides  of  the  breast,  dark  vim- 
bar,  or  blackish-brown,  and  yellowish-white,  irregularly 
barred  and  mottled  m  nearly'  equal  quantities;  but  the 
dark  •  .ning  larger  blotches  towards  the  base,  and 

the  lighter  colour  bars  on  the  tips  and  stripes  on  the  shafts. 
*  Now  in  the  British  MuMnm. 


Fore  part  of  the  belly  white,  barred  with  black;  hinder 
parts  black.  Plumage  of  breast  and  neck  of  ordinary  form, 
there  being  no  scale-like  feathers  nor  projecting  shafts  as 
in  the  male.  Length  22  inches  6  lines.  (Fauna  Boreali- 
Americana,.) 

This  is  the  Tetrao  urophasianus  of  the  Prince  of  Cani- 
no,  the  Cock  of  the  Plains  of  Lewis  and  Clark,  and  the 
Pyamis  of  the  Kyuse  Indians. 

Food,  Habits,  fyc. — The  favourite  food  of  this  species  is 
said  to  be  the  pulpy-leaved  thorn,  but  it  probably  feeds 
also  on  buds  and  berries. 

This  grouse  appears  to  have  been  first  recorded  by  Lewis 
and  Clark ;  and  it  has  since  become  familiar  to  the  fur- 
traders  on  the  banks  of  the  Columbia.  Dr.  Richardson 
gives  the  following  interesting  account  of  its  habits  by  the 
late  Mr.  David  Douglas : — 

'  The  flight  of  these  birds  is  slow,  unsteady,  and  affords 
but  little  amusement  to  the  sportsman.  From  the  dispro- 
portionately small,  convex,  thin-quilled  wing — so  thin, 
that  a  vacant  space  half  as  broad  as  a  quill  appears  be- 
tween each — the  flight  may  be  said  to  be  a  sort  of  flutter- 
ing, more  than  anything  else  :  the  bird  giving  two  or  three 
claps  of  the  wings  in  quick  succession,  at,  the  same  time 
hurriedly  rising,  then  shooting  or  floating,  swinging  from 
side  to  side,  gradually  falling,  and  thus  producing  a  clap- 
ping, whirring  sound.  When  startled,  the  voice  is  "  Click, 
cuc.k,  CHC/I,"  like  the  common  Pheasant.  They  pair  in 
March  and  April.  Small  eminences  on  the  banks  of 
streams  are  the  places  usually  selected  for  celebrating  the 
weddings,  the  time  generally  about  sunrise.  The  wings  of 
the  male  are  lowered,  buzzing  on  the  ground ;  the  tail 
spread  like  a  fan,  somewhat  erect ;  the  bare  yellow  oeso- 
phagus inflated  to  a  prodigious  size, — fully  half  as  large  as 
his  body,  and,  from  its  sott  membranous  substance  being 
well  contrasted  with  the  scale-like  leathers  below  it  on  the 
breast,  and  the  flexile  silky  feathers  on  the  neck,  which  on 
these  occasions  stand  erect.  In  this  grotesque  form  he 
displays  in  the  presence  of  his  intended  mate  a  variety  of 
attitudes.  His  love-song  is  a  confused,  gialing,  but  not 
offensively  disagreeable  tone, — something  that  we  can  imi- 
tate, but  have  a  difficulty  in  expressing — "  Hurr-hitrr- 
hurr-i--r-r-huii."  ending  in  a  deep  hollow  tone,  not  unlike 
the  sound  produced  by  blowing  into  a  large  reed.  Nest  on 
the  ground,  under  the  shade  of  Purshia  and  Artemisia,  or 
near  streams,  among  Phuluris  arundinucea,  carefully  con- 
structed of  dry  grass  and  slender  twigs.  Eggs,  from  thir- 
teen to  seventeen,  about  the  size  of  those  ot  the  common 
fowl,  of  a  wood-brown  colour,  with  irregular  chocolate 
blotches  on  the  thick  end.  Period  of  incubation  twenty- 
oni1  to  twenty-two  days.  The  young  leave  the  nests  a  few 
hours  after  they  are  hatched.  In  the  summer  and  autumn 
months  these  birds  arc  seen  in  small  troops,  and  in  winter 
and  spring  in  flocks  of  several  hundreds.  Plentiful  through- 
out the  barren  arid  plains  of  the  river  Columbia;  also  in 
the  interior  of  North  California.  They  do  not  exist  on  the 
banks  of  the  river  Missouri,  nor  have  they  been  seen  in  any 


Cock  of  the  Plains.     Male.    (Swalnson.) 

place  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.'     {Fauna  Boreali- 
Americana.) 

Nuttall  says  that  the  flesh  is  dark  and  less  palatable 
than  that  of  other  species. 

TE'TRAPLA.     [OmsENEs.] 

2L2 


T  E  T 


260 


T  E  U 


TETRARCH  frrrp«wK)>  from  two  Greek  word*,  signify- 
ing /our  *'id  ">  forrm,  a  title  used  by  the  Creeks  at  a 
very  early  period  to  describe  the  ruler  of  each  part  of  a 
country  which  was  divided  into  four  parts,  either  on  account 
of  its  occupation  by  different  tribes  or  merely  a«  a  political 
•  n.  Each  of  Mich  four  parts  was  called  a  tetrarchy 
{nrpapxim  or  nrpalapxia).  In  process  of  time  the  title 
came  to  be  applied  to  the  ruler*  of  different  divisions  of 
the  same  country,  or  to  the  chiefs  of  different  tribes  inhabit- 
ing the  tame  country,  without  any  reference  to  the  mun- 
.  >ur.  In  this  sense  it  was  equivalent  to  the  titles 
flHmirch  and  phylarch.  I'nder  the  Roman  government, 
in  the  later  ages  of  the  republic  and  under  t be  emperors, 
there  were  several  such  petty  princes,  independent  of  each 
other,  but  tributary  to  Rome.  These  trtrarehs,  rthnarcht, 
or  phylarrtu,  were  either  the  legitimate  governors  of  their 
subjects,  or  persons  who  had  received  the  title  and  go\  ern- 
ment  from  Rome  as  a  mark  of  honour.  They  ranked  below 
those  other  subject  princes  who  were  permitted  to  retain 
the  title  of  king. 

The  principal  examples  of  tetrarehies  are  those  of  Thes- 
saly,  which  was  antiently  so  divided,  and  the  division  was 
again  made  by  Philip,  the  father  of  Alexander  the  Great  : 
.itia,  which  was  peopled  by  three  Gallic  tribes,  each 
of  which  was  divided  into  four  tetrarehies  :  of  Syria,  many 
of  the  petty  princes  of  which  bore  the  title  of  tctrarchs, 
especially  certain  princes  of  the  family  of  Herod  the  Great. 
Concerning  the  tctrarchs  of  Syria,  see  Niebuhr's  History 
of  Rome,  if.,  pp.  134-5. 

TETRAX,  Dr.  Leach's  name  for  one  of  the  BUSTARDS 
placed  by  Mr.  G.  R.  Gray  in  the  subfamily  Otodinte  of  the 
family  STHUTHIONID*. 

Kvample,  Otitletrax,  Linn. 

TK'TRICUS,  CAIUS  PESUVVIUS,  a  Roman  senator, 
one  of  the  numerous  usurpers  of  the  Imperial  purple 
in  the  third  century  A.D.,  who  are  distinguished  in  Roman 
history  by  the  name  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants.  He  was 
governor  of  Aquitania,  and,  after  the  death  of  several 
pretenders  in  Gaul,  was  made  emperor  there,  A.D.  268, 
by  Victorina,  said  to  be  his  kinswoman,  and  the  widow 
of  Victorinus.  He  reigned  for  a  few  years  not  unpros- 
perously ;  but  after  the  accession  of  Aurelian,  finding 
himself  unable  to  control  the  turbulent  and  licentious 
soldiery  who  sustained  his  power,  and  becoming  weary  of 
their  crimes,  he  invited  the  new  emperor  into  Gaul,  and 
resigned  his  usurped  dominion  in  the  following  manner. 
Dreading  the  resentment  of  hi*  troops  if  he  deserted  them 
openly,  he  pretended  to  prepare  for  an  engagement  near 
Chalons  in  Champagne,  and  then  betrayed  his  army  into 
the  hands  of  Aurelian.  Gibbon  places  this  event  before 
the  defeat  of  Zenobia ;  but  Vopiscus  ('  Aurelianus,'  Hintnria 
Augufta)  say*  that  it  took  place  subsequently.  The 
triumph  of  Aurelian,  A.D.  274,  was  ennobled  by  the  pre- 
sence of  the  queen  of  the  East,  and  of  Tetricus  and  his 
son,  in  the  train  of  captives.  The  deposed  emperor  was 
treated  by  his  conqueror  with  every  mark  of  distinction 
during  the  remainder  of  his  life,  and  was  mode  corrector 
of  Lucahia  according  to  Vopiscus  and  other  writers,  or  of 
all  Italy,  if  we  follow  Trebellius  Pollio.  His  son  Tetricus, 
who  had  been  made  Ca*ar  by  Victorina,  met  with  not  less 
favour  than  his  father  at  the  hands  of  Aurelian,  and  was 
honoured  with  senatorial  dignity.  On  the  coins  of  Te- 
tncus,  which  are  extant  in  gold,  silver,  and  copper,  we 
find  the  reading  IMP.C.C.PBSV.TKTRICVS.AVG,  and  also 
rap.Trrai.  >!h.onthereverse,iup.c.ci.AVDivs.\\<.. 

which,  a-  '  \'nm.     remarks,  would  im- 

ply an  all:  un  and  Claudius  Gothicus.  Spon 

(Afitcell.,  274.  Lugd.,  H1S5)  gives  an  inscription  on  a 
marble  found  at  Rouen  with  the  titles  of  Tetricus  more  at 
length  :  C.PBSVBIO.  TBTRICO.  M>IUI.IS-.I\I<>.  CAXS.P.F.  \ 
Coins  struck  in  the  name  of  the  younger  Tetricus  yet  re- 
main. (Trebelliim  Pollio,  'Trieint.Tyr..'  in  the  Ilittoria 
Augufta  ;  Eutropius,  ix.  13:  Gibbon.,  ii.) 

TKTRODON,  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  order  Pleclorna- 
thi.  These  fishes,  instead  of  having  distinct  teeth  as 
usual  in  the  class,  have  the  jaws  provided  with  a  substance 
resembling  ivory,  formed  somewhat  like  the  beak  of  a  bird, 
and  fitted  for  crushing  crustaceous  animals  and  fuci,  upon 
whicn  they  live.  Both  the  Titrwion*  and  Diodotu  (Dio- 
rf'in.  Linn.  ,  a  very  closely  allied  genus,  have  the  power  of 
Mliarm*;  the  body  with  wind,  or  rather  a  membrane  which 
extend*  along  the  under  side  of  the  abdomen,  which  causes 
them  to  float  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  without  the 


power,  it  is  said,  of  directing  their  course  :  the  membrane 
when  inflated,  gives  to  the  fish  an  almost  spherical  form, 
and  is  usually  defended  by  spines  and  prickles.     The  pec- 
toral fins  are  rather  small  ;  and  besides  these  and  the  tail- 
tin,  they  have  one  dorsal  and  a  ventral  fin.     The  Diodons 
lm\e  but  one  large  tooth  above  and  below,  and  nre  usually 
led  bv  large  strong  spines.     The  Tttr.xlons  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  possession  of  four  large  teeth,  the  jaw* 
each  divided  by  a  central  suture.    These  fishes  are 
e.nitined  to  the  seas  of  warm  climates:  some  of  them  are 
called  (JKibe-tishes. 
TK  IT  AN.     [Muiocco.] 

.1.       [TKZKLj 

TEU'CRIUM  (from  Teucer,  son  of  Scaraander,  and 
father-in-law  of  Dardamis,  king  of  Troy)  is  the  name  of  a 
genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Lamiacea- 
or  I.ahiata".  It  has  a  tubular  5-toothed,  nearly  equal,  or 
2-lipped  calyx.  The  tube  of  the  corolla  is  shorter  than 
the  calyx,  the  upper  lip  is  abbreviated  and  bipartite  ;  the 
lower  lip  is  longer,  spreading,  and  trifid.  The  stamens  are 
much  exserted,  and  the  cells  of  the  anthers  are  confluent 
and  spreading.  The  species  are  herbs  and  shrubs  inhabit- 
ing most  parts  of  the  earth,  and  having  a  variable  habit 
and  inflorescence.  Upwards  of  seventy  species  are  de- 
scribed in  Don's  Miller's  Dictionary.  Of  these  compara- 
tively few  are  known  in  this  country;  some  of  them  are 
cultivated  in  our  gardens,  and  three  are  natives  of  the 
British  Isles. 

T.  K-nriMl'inin,  Wood  Germander,  or  Sage,  has  cordate, 
downy,  petiolate,  crenate  leaves;  the  flowers  are  of  a  pale 
yellow  colour,  with  violaceous  stamens,  and  are  arranged 
in  lateral  and  terminal  one-sided  racemes ;  the  stem  is 
erect,  hispid,  pubescent,  or  nearly  glabrous.  It  is  a  native 
of  Europe  in  woody  hilly  situations,  where  the  soil  is  dry 
and  stony.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  plant  in  Great  Britain. 
The  smell  and  taste  of  this  plant  resemble  veiv  much  the 
hop.  In  Jersey,  where  it  is  called  Ambroite,  the  inhabit- 
ants use  it  as  a  substitute  for  hops  in  their  beer ;  and  by 

|  some  persons  the  bitter  given  by  the  Germander  is  pre"- 
ferred  to  that  of  the  hop. 

T.  K-iiriliiiin.  Water  Germander,  has  oblong  sessile 
downy  serrated  leaves ;  flowers  purplish,  arranged  in  axil- 
lary whorls,  2-6  flowers  in  each  ;  the  stem  is  procumbent 
and  villous.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  tin- temperate 
part*  of  Asia  in  boggy  wet  places.  It  is  a  rare  plant  in 
Britain.  Its  fresh  leaves  are  very  bitter  and  rather  pun- 
gent, having  a  smell  similar  to  garlic.  It  had  once  a  great 
reputation  in  medicine,  but  is  now  seldom  used  :  it  might 
however  be  employed  in  cases  where  an  aromatic  bit 
desirable. 

T.  Chamcedrys,  Wall  or  Common  Germander,  has  ovate 
inciso-serrate  leaves,  tapering  into  a  footstalk  ;  the  flowers 
are  reddish-purple,  and  arranged  in  axillary  whorls  of  ' 
flowers;  the  stem  is  nscending,  and  most  frequently  \illoirs. 
It  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  some  parts  of  Asia,  on  walls 
and  rocks  and  dry  places.  It  is  only  rarely  found  in  ' 
Britain.  This  plant  was  once  much  employed  in  medicine. 
and  entered  as  an  ingredient  into  the  celebrated  Portland 
powder.  It  has  the  tonic  aromatic  qualities  of  the  family 
to  which  it  belongs,  which  frequently  render  them  valuable 
in  diseases  connected  with  depressed  powers  of  the  nervous 

|  system  and  die  ,,ns. 

T.  M'iri/ii/.  Cat -Thyme,  has  small  ovate  quite  entire 
-.with  2-4  flowered  whorls:  slem  erect,  blanched. 
It  is  a  native  of  the  region  of  the  Mediterranean.  When 
the  leaves  are  nibbed  between  the  fingers,  they  emit  a  \o- 
latile  aromatic  smell,  which  excites  snec/ing,  and  on  this 
account  it  is  used  as  an  errhine,  and  forms  an  ingredient  in 
the  pulcii  atari  comjmsitus  of  the  '  Pharmacopeia.'  It 
has  been  recommended  as  a  stimulant  and  aromatic  in 
various  diseases, but  is  not  much  used.  Cats  are  very  fond 
of  it,  and  destroy  it  when  they  get  near  it. 

T.  polium,  Mountain  Poly,  has  cuneated  oblong  or  linear 
leaves  with  revolute  edges ;  whorls  few,  condensed  into  glo- 
bular terminal  heads ;  stems  procumbent,  much  branch., I. 
This  plant  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  Africa,  on  the  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean.  According  to  soil,  situation,  and 
other  circumstances,  it  assumes  a  variety  of  forma,  which 
have  been  recognised  as  species  by  many  botanists.  Mr. 
Bcntham,  in  his  monograph  on  Labiattp,  has  placed  -i\ 

'  of  these  species  under  the  present.  There  are  other 
species  of  Teucrium,  chiefly  found  on  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  called  Polies. 


T  E  U 


261 


T  E  U 


In  the  cultivation  of  the  Germander  a  dry  soil  and  shady 
situation  are  best.  The  annual  kinds  are  best  propagated 
by  seeds  sown  in  an  open  border.  The  perennial  and 
shrubby  kinds  we  readily  increased  by  division  and  by 
cuttings  of  the  young  wood. 

TEUTHIDyE,  Professor  Owen's  name  for  the  Calama- 
ries,  his  fourth  family  of  Decapadous  Cephalopods,  de- 
rived from  Teuthos  (j-tuOoj),  applied  by  Aristotle  to  the 
ton-armed  Malakia  with  an  internal  horny  plate  or  gla- 
dius.  An  outline  of  the  family  will  be  found  in  the  article 
TF.TRABRANCHIATA. 

Family  Character. — Animal,  body  sometimes  oblong  and 
depressed,  generally  elongated  and  cylindrical ;  with  a 
pair  of  fins  varying  in  their  relative  size  and  position,  but 
generally  broad,  shorter  than  the  body,  and  terminal. 

Shell  internal,  rudimental,  in  the  form  of  a  thin,  straight, 
elongated,  horny  lamina  ;  encysted  in  the  substance  of  the 
dorsal  aspect  of  the  mantle. — (Owen.) 

Professor  Owen  divides  the  family  into  the  following 
sections  : 

Section  A. 

Genus,  Sepioteuthis,  Blainville. 

Generic  Character. — Body  oval,  flattened,  with  narrow 
lateral  fins,  extending  its  whole  length  ;  anterior  margin 
of  the  mantle  unattached.  Horny  hoops  of  the  acetabula 
with  denticulated  margins.  Gladius  or  rudimental  shell 
long  and  wide.  (Owen.) 

Example  Sepioteuthis  loliginiformis,  Rtippel. 

Genus,  Loligo,  Cuvier. 

Generic  Character. — Body  elongated,  cylindrical,  pro- 
vided with  a  pair  of  rhomboidal  or  triangular  fins,  snorter 
than  the  body,  and  terminal,  their  apices  generally  con- 
verging to  a  point,  and  united  to  the  end  of  the  mantle  ; 
anterior  margin  of  the  mantle  free.  Horny  hoops  of 
the  acetabula  denticulated.  Gladius  long  and  narrow. 
(Owen.) 

Example,  Loligo  vulgaris.  The  common  Calamary,  or 
Pen-fish,  abundant  on  our  coasts. 

Genus  Onychoteuthis,  Liechtenstein. 

Generic  Character. — Body  and  fins  as  in  the  genus 
Loligo ;  long  and  narrow ;  horny  hoops  of  the  tentacular, 
and  sometimes  of  the  brachial,  acetabula  produced  into  the 
form  of  hooks  or  claws.  Gladius  long,  broadest  in  the 
middle.  (Owen.) 

Genus,  Russia,  Owen.     [SEPIAD*,  vol.  xxi.,  p.  253.] 

Genus,  Sepiola,  Leach. 

Generic  Character. — Body  rounded,  short  ;  anterior  mar- 
gin of  the  mantle  adherent  to  the  back  of  the  head  ;  fins 
advanced,  circular,  short,  subpedunculate,  distant  and  sub- 
dorsal.  Gladius  short  and  narrow.  (Owen.) 

Example,  Sepiola  Rondeletii,  Leach. ; 
Section  B. 

Genus  Loligopsis,  Lamarck. 

Generic  Character. — Body  long  and  cylindrical,  termi- 
nated by  a  pair  of  conjoined,  large,  round  fins,  forming 
generally  a  circular  disc ;  anterior  border  of  the  mantle 
adherent  to  the  back  of  the  head  for  a  small  extent.  Ten- 
tarula  very  long  and  slender  (frequently  mutilated).  Gla- 
iliui  long,  narrowest  in  the  middle,  dilated  posteriorly. 
(Owen.) 

Example,  Loligopsis  Veranii,  Fe'russac. 

Genus  Cranchta,  Leach. 

Generic  Character. — Body  elongated,  sacciform ;  ante- 
rior margin  of  the  mantle  adherent  to  the  back  of  the 
head.  Fins  short,  rounded,  subpedunculate,  approximate, 
dorsal,  and  subterminal.  Gladius  long  and  narrow. 
(Owen.) 

Example,  Cranchia  scabra.  Leach. 

Such  are  the  arrangement  and  definitions  given  by  Pro- 
fessor Owen  in  the  Cyclop&dia  of  Annlnini/  mid  Physio- 
f»gy.  The  family  appears  to  us  to  be  truly  natural ;  and 
the  definitions  are  very  accurate.  The  views  and  defini- 
tions of  other  authors  regarding  the  forms  belonging  to 
this  family,  and  an  illustration  of  the  forms  themselves, 
will  be  found  in  the  article  SEPIAD.E. 

TEUTOBURGER  WALD.     [GKRMANY.] 

TEUTON  K;  NATIONS  is  the  general  name  under  which 
are  comprised  the  different  nations  of  the  Teutonic  race, 
which  are  divided  into  three  branches.  The  first  branch 
contains  the  High  Germans,  to  whom  belong  the  Teutonic 
inhabitants  of  Upper  and  Middle  Germany,  those  of  Swit- 
zerland, and  the  greater  part  of  the  Germans  of  Hungary ; 
it  is  subdivided  into  the  Suabian  and  the  Franconian  minor 


branches.  The  second  is  the  Saxon  branch,  which  is  di- 
vided into  three  minor  branches :  the  first  of  which 
contains  the  Frisians ;  the  second  contains  the  Old  Saxons 
or  Low  Germans,  with  the  Dutch,  the  Flemings,  and  the 
Saxons  of  Transylvania ;  and  the  third  contains  the  Eng- 
lish, the  Scotch,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  United  States  of  North  America.  The  third  branch 
is  the  Scandinavian,  to  which  belong  the  Icelanders,  the 
Norwegians,  the  Danes,  and  the  Swedes.  Upwards  of 
eighty-two  millions  of  individuals  belong  to  the  Teutonic 
race.  The  Germans  amount  to  about  forty-two  millions,  thirty- 
three  of  which  live  in  Germany,  the  remaining  eight  or 
nine  millions  form  a  greater  or  less  part  of  the  population 
of  East  Prussia,  of  Switzerland,  of  Hungary,  of  Transyl- 
vania, of  France  (in  Alsace  and  north-east  Lorraine), 
of  Russia  (in  the  Baltic  provinces,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Poland,  in  the  Crimea,  in  Bessarabia,  and  in  the  German 
colonies  in  the  environs  of  Saratov  on  the  Volga),  of  the 
duchy  of  Sleswig,  and  of  the  United  States  of  North  America, 
especially  Pennsylvania.  The  English  amount  to  twenty- 
eight  millions,  there  being  about  sixteen  millions  of  English 
and  Scotch  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  two  millions  in  the 
English  colonies,  and  about  ten  millions  of  Anglo-Americans 
in  the  United  States.  The  number  of  the  Frisians  is  about 
one  hundred  and  thirty  thousand,  in  the  province  of  West 
Friesland  in  Holland,  in  the  islands  in  the  German  Ocean 
along  the  Dutch  and  the  German  shore,  in  the  Salerland 
(near  Oldenburg),  and  in  the  islands  along  the  west  coast 
of  the  duchy  of  Sleswig.  There  are  about  three  mil- 
lions of  Dutchmen  in  Holland,  and  in  her  colonies  and  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  and  there  are  about  two  millions 
five  hundred  thousand  Flemings  in  the  north  part  of  Bel- 
gium, in  the  south  part  of  Holland,  and  in  the  north-east 
part  of  France.  The  number  of  individuals  belonging  to 
the  Scandinavian  branch  amounts  to  about  six  millions, 
among  whom  there  are  nearly  fifty  thousand  Icelanders  ; 
one  million  five  hundred  thousand  Danes  in  Denmark, 
in  her  colonies  and  in  the  north  part  of  the  duchy  of 
Sleswig  ;  one  million  two  hundred  thousand  Norwegians  ; 
and  about  three  millions  two  hundred  thousand  Swedes  in 
Sweden  and  in  the  present  Russian  province  of  Finland, 
especially  along  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  in  the 
districts  of  Abo  and  Nyland,  and  on  the  Aland  islands, 
which  are  entirely  inhabited  by  Swedes. 

Light  hair  and  blue  eyes  in  the  northern  countries,  and 
brown  hair  and  brown  or  blue  eyes  in  some  of  the  southern 
countries,  are  characteristics  of  the  Teutonic  race.  Their 
stature  is  generally  tall,  although  in  those  provinces  wliere 
the  Germans  are  mixed  with  Wends,  Sorabians,  and  Bohe- 
mians, many  of  the  people  have  the  broad  shoulders  and 
the  short  square  form  of  the  north-western  Slavonians. 
The  straight  black  hair  of  some  Slavonian  tribes  also  some- 
times appears.  The  mixture  of  Germans  with  the  south- 
western Slavonians,  such  as  Winds  and  Croatians,  whose 
stature  exceeds  that  of  the  Wends  and  Bohemians,  is  more 
difficult  to  be  distinguished,  the  black  straight  hair  and  a 
darker  complexion  being  almost  the  only  indication  of 
such  a  mixture.  The  mixture  of  Germans  with  Celts  in 
Belgium  and  in  the  adjoining  part  of  France  has  formed  a 
tall  race  which  differs  from  their  Teutonic  neighbours 
only  in  the  dark  colour  of  their  hair  and  their  black  eyes. 
(Plate1,  Scenen  aim  dem  Volksleben  in  Belgien.) 

It  is  very  difficult  to  distinguish  the  descendants  of 
English  and  Irish  parents  as  belonging  either  to  the  Teu- 
tonic or  the  Celtic  race,  though  it  appears  that  wherever 
aquiline  noses  are  seen  among  the  lower  classes  they  are  a 
proof  of  Celtic  origin,  the  true  Teutonic  nose  not  being 
aquiline,  but  either  straight  or  curved  only  in  its  upper  part. 
In  general  also  the  Teutonic  forehead  is  broader  between  the 
temples  than  the  Celtic.  (Clement,  Die  Nordgermanische 
Welt ;  Herder,  Ideen  zur  Philosophie  der  Geschichte,  vol.i.) 

The  moral  and  intellectual  difference  between  the 
Teutonic  nations  is  less  remarkable  than  that  which  exists 
between  other  European  nations  of  the  same  race  with  one 
another.  Capable  of  strong  and  violent  passions,  they  do  not 
easily  lose  their  self-control,  the  intellectual  functions  being 
more  developed  than  in  most  other  races.  Southern  nations, 
confounding  liveliness  of  feeling  with  intensity,  and  nervous 
excitability  with  moral  sensibility,  have  been  deceived  by 
the  cool  character  of  the  Teutonic  nations,  and  have 
accused  them  of  indifference.  But.  the  most  superficial 
examination  will  show  their  sensibility,  a  fact  which  is  proved 
by  their  poetry.  The  Teutonic  nations  are  leas  excitable 


•I    I-    U 


T  K 


IM    Celtic,  the  Slavonian,   nml    oilier  rare*,   hut 
Mai'  .T  thought.     Souther. 

plMhtd  great  thing*  by  midden  efforts  .nic  nations 

have  .  iiicrpri-c  tor  \a»t  plan*,  which 

miir**  centime*  to  cam  »'t"  cHi  ct.  Thus  tlu-\  .!.  -• 
tin-  Roman  empire  after  a  struggle  of  three  centuries,  and 
Uiey  funned  new  kingdoms  in  Kurope  upon  new  social 
principles,  which  have  maintained  their  \igourtolhe  pre- 
sent day.  The  N'ornmiu  became  powerftil  wherever  the 
sea  permitted  them  lauding.  The  <J.  MM.IH-. 

diminished  in  innnher  after  (hoy  ha.:  -warms  to 

western  Europe.  turned  back  towmdsthe  ea-l  p:ut  of  their 
country,  then  uccnpi.  .  onian  nations,  which  thev 

conquered,  and  Germanised  upon  a  plan  ofcolonizat  ion  which 
enabled  them  to  ci\  i  -i  of  Kurope.  And  lastly. 

the  Knglish  colonies  have  spread  over  the  world  :  their 
dominion  in  the  east  and  in  the  west  is  the  result  of  plans 
which  imply  more  boldness  of  conception,  more  prudence 
in  execution,  and  more  reflection,  than  the  conqn. 

aider  the  Great  and  the  ephemeral  power  of  Najwleon. 

The  same  character  of  deep  mid  patient  reflection  cx- 
erci-cd  on  great  objects  appears  in  German  philosophy 
and  in  the  inventions  of  the  Teutonic  nations.  The 
watch,  the  irun,  and  the  art  of  printing  are  Teutonic  in- 
ventions. They  ha\e  subjugated  the  power  of  steam  ; 
and  the  first  model  of  the  modern  sea-vessel  was  con- 
structed at  the  mouth  of  the  Hider  by  the  hands  of  an  old 
Saxon  or  Frisian  ship-builder.  (Clement,  . 

The  name  of  the  Teutones  was  made  known  to  the  an- 
tienU  by  1'ytheas  of  Massilia  (Marseille  •,  who.  in  the  age 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  about  330  B.C..  discovered  a  nation 
of  that  name  in  the  Chersonesus  Cimbiica,  and  on  the  ad- 
jacent islands,  or  in  the  present  countries  of  Holstein, 
j;.  Denmark,  and  perhaps  also  in  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  Sweden.  It  seems  that  they  had  long  been 
•  1  there,  for  they  lived  in  houses,  and  were  acquainted 
with  agriculture  and  commerce.  Other  traces  of  the  name 
appear  later.  Among  the  Celtic  tribes  which  invaded 
I  Delphi  under  the  second  Brenmis 
(B.C.  2/H  .  there  was  a  people  called  Teutobodinci.  who 
altcrwards  passed  the  Hellespont  and  settled  with  the  Celts 
inGalatia,  in  Asia  Minor.  About  a  hundred  amlsixu 
later,  the  Romans  were  attacked  by  the  Cimbri  and  Teu- 
Unes,  who  came  from  the  same  country,  where  tli. 
been  seen  by  Pytheas.  The  Teutonic  origin  of  the  t  'imln-i 
has  been  disputed:  some  historians  consider  them  iden- 
tical with  the  Celtic  Cvmii.  but  this  error  has  been  long 
since  refuted,  although  it  has  been  reproduced  in  our 
days  by  Thierry,  in  his  -Hi-toiie  dcs  G.inloi-.'  Ft  is 
said,  and  it  i»  not  improbable,  that  inundations  of  t! 
compelled  the  i  mid  their  neighbours  the  Cimbii 

to  leave  their  inuntry  and  to  seek  other  abodes.  The 
choice  was  soon  made.  The  wealth  of  Homo  and  the  arts 
of  Greece  were  not  unknown  to  them.  From  the  most  re- 
mote times  adventurous  merchants,  starting  from  the  shores 
of  th'  'Unwed  the  course  of  the  Dniepr  to- 

ward* its  sources,  and  reaching  the  Diina  and  the  Nicmen. 
rivers  to  their  mouths  in  the  Haltie.  where 
they  exchanged  the  commodities  of  the  south  for  amber, 
the  electmm  of  the  antients.  The  same  trade,  as  it  serins. 
was  carried  on  by  the  merchants  of  Massilia  along  the 
Klu'ine  and  the  Khine.  and  therefore  Schlo/cr.  in  his  *Nor- 
disd  •  ays  that  but  for  the  amber  Germany 

would  have  remained  unknown  to  the  antients  for  five 
centuries  more.  Their  acquaintance  with  Koine  and  Mas- 
silia  was  perhaps  the  principal  cause  which  led  the  (  'inihii 
and  the  Teuton  uth  of  France  and  to  Itah  M.I  . 

1  i:j-!i:i  .     Then  'ii   by  Marius  has  been  related. 

[M\..  >KI.] 

When  tl  first  heard  the  name  of  th. 

they  thought  that  they  were  a  single  1ril>e.     They  did  not 
know  that  it  was  also  the  general  and  ethnographic   name 
of  all  those  nations  to  which  they  afterwards  irave  the 
vague  dc-ignation  of  Germans. 

/  thf  Him,  ,.  —  The  root  of  the  word 

Teuton  u  ihn  or  iln.  which  originally  represented  the  idea 
of  'activity,'  of  'livi  nourishing.'  ami  also 

of  'taming,  educating,  and   ruling.'     From  thi 
formed  the  lolluwiiu  .......  f  which   .•, 

in  the  popular  diuh    • 

'•"  •'•  :"  :      /'•'.•,.  •/',.,  ,1,1,1  ,,,  tluii'l.  ea:th  :   l"tl.  </<.'., 

4ofr,  godfather  :    /..,/„.  ,,ur*e  :    ' 

bed,  ruler,   king,   in   Gothic   Ihm,/,,,,*,    in  old  Ba\an;ui 


;    dirt,  people,   in  old  Swedish    Mm;// 
>KT»«**lnGothir 


Th.  'h  de- 

rived from  •  .-«ses  the  r    '  .ling, 

is  a  fact  which  proves  that  they 
a  nation  in  which  (he- 
power,  nor  absolute  submission  to  their  chiefs.     This  > 

exactly  to  the  politi.  .'onie 

nat  ions,  among  whom  the  sovereignty  v  •  i-ople.aud 

the  executive  power  of  the  chiefs  or  kings,  altho 

':.  was  always  regarded  asdcmiit  Irom  the  people. 
ruling,  expressed   by  the   root    Trul,  explains 
why  (hi-,  w  -  so  frequently  in   the  nstr 

antienl  IT  'chiefs.   Mich  as  Tcnto- 

lioch,  Thei:  i\.  Thcodonc.  Theodnmir, 

Theoilimir.  Tcnta-on.  N.C.      Ii  is  likewise  contained  in  the 

.1  name  of  all  the  Teutov,  and   in  those  of 

various  tnhc-,  a-  tin-   !  the  Tcutonoaiii.  Thnifali. 

tnd  the  Dithinarses  or  Dietmar&es.    Ii  i>  M-ihlr  in  •'! 
burger  \Vald,'  the  name  of  that   Hinge  of  uoodeil  moun- 
tains  which   stit-tihes    Irom    Detmold    westward    beyund 
().-nahi-iick,  in  which  is  situated  the  (irotenbuig.  fonncily 
•Tent"  or  'Teiitoburg,'  with  the  farm  of  •Tcutchof.'  . 

was  oveitluown  by  Arminius  ;  in  'Detmold.'  •  I 
•  Dnisburg,'  'Deiiz,'   and    in   a    great    many   other 
localities  in  '  .      HaiunierMciv  '•icht- 

fi-/i/  i/fx  1'iiriis;  Keichardt,  li<-riinniic>i,  p.  7M.  Jvc.  •    Ti-ntnn 
is  identical  with  Drutuchf  or  Trutn-hi'  :man 

1'ii'^lt.  in  Dutch  Dmtsrh,  in  Danish  7^**,  in  Knglish 
Dutch',  which  from  the  remotest  time  has  been  a. 
still  the  general  name  of  that  part  of  the  Teutonic  nations 
which  we  now  call  Germans,  who  considered  the  god  or  hero 
Tuisco  as  their  common  ancestor.  Tin  -re  arc  no  direct  proofs 
of  the  word  Teuton  having  had  thi  -c\'ensi\c  meaning  in  the 
earliest  German  history,  but  this  is  perhaps  the  result  of 
the  political  state  of  the  Teutonic  nations,  which  were  ori- 
ginally divided  into  numerous  tiibes.  each  of  which  he- 
came  separately  known  to  the  Romans.  In  the  twelfth. 
ele\  enth,  and  even  as  early  as  the  tenth  century.*  when  t  In- 
difference between  Fnnik's  and  s  well  marked  in 

the  German   empire,  these  nations,  each  of  which  had  its 
own  1.  \cr  objected  to  being  call. 

the  general  name  of  Deutsche  orTeuto'i 
there  is  no  German  tribe  which  has  the  paiticular  name  of 
Teutones.  but  although  the  Germans  are  composed  of  two 

distinct    nations,  the  High  Germans  and   the 

ins.  they  call  thcmsehe.s   Deutsche  and  their   lan- 
guage Deutscfi,  though  they  do  not  understand  each  other. 
This  is  very  different   from  the  state  of  things  in  Ki 
The  true  meaning  of  •  Krancais  '  is  political,  the  name  sig- 
nifying a  citizen  of  the  kingdom  of   France,  whether  a 
Frenchman,  a  German,  a  Briton,  or  a  liasqnc  :  in  southern 
France  the  name  of  Fiaiu-ai-  U  giu-n  to  the  people  north 
of  the  Loire;  and.   on  the  coiitran.   the   name  of  IV 
language  is  never  gi\en  to  uny  of  the  dialect*  of  the  south, 
nor  to  the  Walloon  dialect  in  Belgium.    Similar  facts  may- 
be obserxed  in  Spain.     If  however  such  cthnographi. 
tinctions  are  the  consequence  of  France  ami  Spain  h.< 
originally  been  inhabited  by  nations  of  different  origin,  the 
circumstance  that  the  name  •  Deutsch'  has  been  s] 
all  Germany  and  applied  to  all  her  dialect  sin.  in  the  remotest 
historical  period  proves  that  the  name  had  a  general  si 
tientioii  long  before  the  commencement  of  German  hi 
Another  circumstance  corroborates  this  opinion.    A  nation 
has  never  changed  its  name  for  another  except  by  some 
great    political  revolution.     Thus   the  Tata  were   called 
Mongols,    the    Italian--   Romans,   the  Romans    and   < 
Franks,  when  one  man,  or  one  city,  or  one  tribe  exei 
a  predominant  influence  over  the  remainder  of  the  people  : 
and  these  nations  have  preserved  the  niciiion  i 
Milutions.  [TARTARS.]    Bat  no  such  revolution  i 
in  the  bistort  of  Germany.     A  further  pro,  thnt 

the  Dutch  and  the  Fl.  'ike  to  hear  their  Ian  j 

called  'de  Hollamlsche  taal,'  or  -de  * 
they    prefer  gixing   it   the  name   of  'de   Ncdenlnr 


oft/if  Teutonic  Nation*.  —  The  Teutonic  race  is 
I  heTciitoncs  immigrati  d  into  Kurope 
.-..t  di:'.  ."ds  unknown  to  history,  although  it   ap- 

Ihat    the    la-t    of   them    entered    F.urojie    during   the 
migration  of  nations  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries.   Some 


•A.. 


ihei.mofLowutf* 


T  E  U 


263 


T  E  U 


account  of  their  Asiatic  origin  is  given  in  their  antient 
national  songs,  principally  in  the  Sagas  of  the  Scandina- 
vians. The  recollection  of  their  antient  homes  was  not 
entirely  lost  in  Germany  in  the  eleventh  century,  for  we 
find  the  following  verses  in  the  '  Lobgesang  auf  den  Heili- 
gen  Anno  :' 

'  Dei-en  Gcschlechte  ilere  quam  wiliu  ere 
,      Von  Armente  der  herin. 

M;m  Sii^it.  da/  dur  ill  Halvin  uoch  sin 


. 

Die  (ler  DiuttcAfn  .-prediin, 
IiiL't'i,'in  India  vili  verro.' 

'  Their  tribe  (the  Bavarians")  came  a  long  time  ago  from  the  noble  Armenii 
It  is  *aid  tli-it  in  the  Alps,  far  oft  towards  India,  there  are  still  people  who 
speak  Teutonic.'     (Schiller,  Tftfsaurus.  Antiq.  Teuton.,  p.  i.,  sect,  ult.,  p.  15) 

It  is  also  said  that  Benedict  Goesius  (Goez\  a  Jesuit, 
found  in  1003,  in  the  mountains  of  the  Hindu  Kush,  north- 

n!  <  'abul,  a  people  with  fair  hair  like  the  Dutch, 
and  who  are  perhaps  identical  with  that  tribe  of  which 
Pliny  speaks,  and  which  was  settled  in  the  Montes 
Emodi.  But  all  this  is  of  little  value,  unless  it  is  corro- 
borated by  other  facts.  Such  facts  have  been  furnished  by 
the  learned  philologists  of  our  age,  especially  by  Friedrich 
von  Schlegel,  Adelung,  Bopp,  Grimm,  and  Hammer.  A 
comparison  of  the  Teutonic  languages  with  the  Persian, 
the  /end,  and  the  Sanscrit,  has  shown  the  relationship 
which  exists  among  these  languages  [LANGUAGE;  GER- 
MANY; SA>SCRIT],  and  by  means  of  these  facts,  the  My- 
thes  and  Sairas  become  important  for  history.  According 
to  one  "I  these  mythes,  Deut  or  Diuta  were  the  names  of 
antient  Indian  goda  who  led  the  tribes  which  emigrated 
from  India  to  the  west.  (Hammer,  in  U'lrnrr  Literntur- 
£«/«/<#,  October,  1816:  Hitter,  Erdkumh,  vol.  ii.,  p.  118, 
H:)S-!XKJ;  Hitter,  Vorhall',  p.  317,  400,  G20  ;  Grimm, 
D-titxi-h"  tirtintmatik,  especially  in  the  preface,  p.  x\vi.. 
&c.  ;  Riihs,  Atufti/trlrcftt  Erlautenmg  dcr  zehn  ersten 
Knjiiti'1  il"r  thrift  d?t  Tacitus  iiber  Deut-tc/i/iiiid,  p.  88, 
ft".  :  Herder,  cited  above,  i.,  p.  400;  Mathaeus  Hiccins. 
lii'  '  '/in  tiana  I-;i-p,':liH'ii>»  npuilxiimx  suxi-rptn  a  Sorietate 
Jf.-n.  l<m,  p.  600.) 

When  the  Teutonic  nations  appeared  in  history,  they 
wen-  divided  into  many  bodies  or  confederations  of 
tribe*,  such  as,  at  a  later  period,  the  Franks,  the  Sue\i. 
the  Saxons,  the  Marcomanni,  and  the  Alemanni.  Long 
before  these  names  were  known,  there  was  a  similar  con- 
federation of  tribes  which  came  from  the  north-north- 

::id  conquered  the  countries  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Khine,  then  inhabited  by  Celtic  nations,  which  fled  to 
their  brethren  in  Central  Gaul.  The  epoch  of  this  in. 
is  not  known,  but  the  event  happened  long  time  before  (lie 
ho  found  those  countries  settled  by  a  Teu- 
tonic population.  Tribes  of  the  Condrusi,  the  Kburones, 

'aeraesi,  and  the  Paemani,  were  united  in  a  confedera- 
tion, rnd  had  adopted  the  name  of  Germani,  or  '  war-like 
men.'  This  name  was  gradually  used  by  the  Romans,  to 
di-*i<rnatp  other  nations  which  belonged  to  the  Teutonic 

Tacitus,  (ji  rm.,  c.  2),  and  subsequently  it  was  adopted 
by  the  Kntrlish  as  a  name  for  the  '  Deutsche,'  while  this 

name,  changed  into  Dutch,  now  designates  the  in- 
habitants of  Holland.  It  has  been  pretended  that  the 
name  of  Germani  was  known  long  before  the  time  of 

•-.  and  this  opinion  is  founded  upon  the  following 

'••  of  the  '  Fasti  Capitolini  :'— 

'  M.  (I.  \rnil  -,  M.  F.  M.  N.  MARCELLUS- 

cos.  DK.  U.U.I.EIS.  INST;HRIUUS.  ET.  OKRMAXEIS. 

K.  MART.  ISQUE  SPOI.IA  Oplinil  RETTUI.IT 
Dt'CE  HOSTIUM  \lKUlin,iiirn  '"I  <7</s  Til)/////; 
int-rfn-ln.' 

If  the  word  '  Germaneis'  is  here  right,  and  there  is  no 
good  reason  for  putting  'Cenomaneis'  in  its  place,  the 
acquaintance  of  the  Romans  with  the  Teutonic  nations 
commenced  long  before  the  invasion  of  the  Cimbri  and  the 
Tetitones.  There  is  a  passage  in  Livy  (xxi.  38)  which 
s  that  at  the  time  of  the  invasion  of  Italy  by  Han- 
nibal the  country  of  the  Alprs  IVnninae  was 

inhabited  by  '  nationes  semigermanae,'  by  which  expression 
writers  have  hastily  concluded  that  a  mixture  of 
Germani  and  Celts  is  meant  ;  but  the  passage  admits  of 
another  interpretation. 

Triiimijr,  Nations  after  Ctesar.  —  When  Caesar 
reached  the  Rhine,  Northern  Germany,  Holland,  Belgium, 
and  a  part  of  the  countries  on  the  Middle  Rhine  were  in- 
habited by  Teutonic  nations  which  belonged  to  the  northern, 
now  Saxon  branch.  They  had  been  settled  in  fixed  habita- 


tions for  several  centuries,  and  they  must  be  considered  as  the 
first  of  this  race  which  settled  in  Germany.  The  southern  part 
of  this  country  was  then  inhabited  by  Celts  and  Rhaetians, 
except  the  tract  between  the  Upper  Rhine  and  the  Upper 
Danube,  which  was  conquered  by  theSuevi,  who  belonged 
to  the  Teutonic  race.  The  word  '  Suevi,'  which  comes 
from  '  schweifen,'  may  be  translated  '  wanderers,'  or  people 
who  rambled  about  for  the  purpose  of  settling  in  any  con- 
venient country.  It  was  adopted  by  a  great  number  of 
tribes,  the  majority  of  which  belonged  to  the  High  Ger- 
mans, and  came  from  the  countries  on  the  Baltic  be- 
tween the  Oder  and  the  Niemen.  Caesar  was  obliged  to 
fight  with  their  leader  Ariovistus  (B.C.  58),  who  had  invaded 
Gaul.  Ariovistus  was  compelled  to  go  back  to  Germany. 
Tacitus  divides  the  Germani  into  three  great  bodies : 
the  Ingaevones,  in  the  north  ;  the  Istaevones,  in  the  west, 
from  the  mouths  of  the  Rhine  upwards  to  Basel ;  and  the 
Hermiones,  in  Middle  Germany  and  towards  the  north-east. 
This  division  seems  to  have  an  ethnographic  and  still 
more  a  political  value.  The  position  of  the  Ingaevones  tor- 
responds  to  that  of  the  later  Saxons,  and  both  the  names 
have  one  meaning,  Saxon  signifying  a  settled  people,  and 
In-sae-vones  a  people  who  live  in  a  cultivated  country 
divided  into  districts  (In-gau-wohner  or  Inwohner).  The 
Istaevones,  or  Western  Germani  (West-wohner),  correspond 
to  the  later  Franks,  and  the  Hermiones  to  the  Suevi, 
including  the  Alemanni.  Further,  the  name  of  Her- 
miones is  undoubtedly  identical  with  Hermunduri,  one  of 
the  greatest  Suevian  or  High-German  tribes,  the  name  of 
which  is  generally  supposed  to  be  the  same  with  Doringi 
or  Thuringi,  the  present  Thuringians. 

From  the  time  when  Caesar  ~  first  met  with  the  Suevi 
under  Ariovistus,  there  was  a  deadly  enmity  between  the 
Romans  and  the  Germans.  The  Romans  wished  to  make 
Germany  into  a  province,  and  the  Germans  qimcd  at  the 
possession  of  Gaul :  on  both  sides  there  was  the  passion  of 
conquest  and  the  necessity  of  self-defence.  Ambition 
pushed  the  Romans  into  Germany,  and  want  of  fertile  lands, 
and  perhaps  some  great  revolution  among  the  nations  of 
Kastern  Europe,  led  the  Germans  into  Gaul  and  Italy.  The 
Roman  eagles  were  seen  in  the  wilds  of  the  Hercjniah 
forest,  but  Arminius  saved  his  nation  from  slavery  in  the 
forest  of  Teutoburg,  where  Yarns  was  slain  with  three 
legions  (A.D.  9).  The  campaign  of  Germanieus,  who  ad- 
vanced as  far  as  the  Elbe,  led  to  no  results,  though  h« 
gained  a  complete  victory  over  the  Germans  on  the  field  of 
Idistavisus  near  the  Weser  (A.D.  16) ;  when  he  celebrated 
his  triumph  in  Rome  (A.D.  17),  the  Germans  between  the 
Rhine  and  the  Weser  were  as  free  as  before.  These  tribes 
made  a  confederation,  and  chose  Arminius  for  their  leader. 
A  war  arose  between  him  and  Maroboduus,  king  of  the 
Marcomanni,  who  was  defeated  and  obliged  to  implore  the 
assistance  of  the  Romans  (A.D.  19).  Being  attacked  by 
Catwald,  or  Catualdus,  the  chief  of  the  Gothones,  he  lost 
his  crown,  and  the  confederation  of  the  Marcomanni  was 
broken.  Arminius,  the  hero  of  Germany,  fell  by  the  hands 
of  his  jealous  kinsmen,  in  his  thirty-seventh  year.  (Tacitus, 
Annul.,  ii.  8S.) 

Notwithstanding  the  civil  wars  in  Germany,  the  Romans 
gave  up  the  idea  of  conquering  the  country,  and  Tiberius 
ordered  a  defensive  system  to  be  observed  on  the  frontiers, 
which  were  formed  by  the  Rhine  from  its  mouths  to  the 
Moselle,  and  from  the  junction  of  this  river  with  the  Rhine 
they  followed  the  Latin  as  far  as  the  present  district  of  Wet- 
terau.  The  frontier  then  took  a  southern  direction,  passed  the 
Main  at  Obernburg,  the  Jagst  at  Jagsthausen,  the  Kocher 
at  Hall,  and  joined  the  Danube  near  Pforing,  from  which 
town  it  ran  along  the  Danube  as  far  as  Pannonia.  The 
rivers  were  defended  by  castles,  and  the  tracts  between 
them  by  a  strong  rampart  with  towers,  the  Vallum  Ro- 
manum  of  Hadfianus,  a  considerable  part  of  which,  the 
Pfahlgraben,  is  still  visible.  The  Germans  west  and  south 
of  this  barrier  became  Roman  subjects,  but  those  who 
lived  east  and  north  of  it  enjoyed  their  antient  liberty. 

All  the  German  tribes  practised  agriculture,  but  warfare 
being  their  favourite  occupation,  they  abandoned  their 
fields  and  their  flocks  to  the  care  of  bondsmen.  Their 
agricultural  system,  which  is  still  practised  in  some  coun- 
ties of  Westphalia,  and  which  is  now  called  Dreifelder 
Wirthschaft,  consisted  in  cultivating  a  field  during  three 
successive  years,  after  which  it  was  used  as  pasture- 
ground  for  three  years.  The  fine  arts  were  not  exercised 
among  the  Germans,  but  they  were  acquainted  with  the 


T  E  U 


284 


T  E  U 


art  of  writing  [Rumc  LKTWM],  although  only  lor  religious 
purpOM-s.      (Rhabanus  Maunis,  in  Goldost,  s-r//<r.  Rcr. 
Y  1.7  :  Hi ••!>. MUS,  The*.  Ling.  .V/I/CH/I-.     The 
groundwork  of  their  social  anil  po'.r  itution  was 

tin-  union  of  u  certain  number  of  families  into  a  comnm- 
nity,  'Marcha,'  •  erd-iimrcha,'  now  •  Mark-Gcnossenst-haft.' 
.il   marclias   fonned  a  'now,'  now  -gau,'  a  district 
which  had  its  own  administration.     Twice  a  month,  and 
sometimes  c\cn   week,  the  members  of  a  gow  assembled 
and  held  tin-  'gowding:'  tin-    gowdinipi   were    civil    and 
criminal   courts,    and   also  incctiiu.'*    for    legislation,   and 
war  and  peace  were  decided   on    in   them.     Besides  the 
gowdings   there    were   'graven'   or  'irrevcn'     uria\ioncs. 
comites),  or  delegate-  "I    tin-  iro-.\ding.  who  were  II 
in  their  judiciary  functions  b\  a  certain  number  of  free- 
men.     The    magistrate*   were    chosen   from    the    nobles 
(edelings  or  adding*),  the  •  principes '  of  Tacitus,  who  had 
also  the  right  of  forming  a  kind  of  senate,  where  they  deli- 
berated  on   important   affairs  previously  to   their  being 
brought  before  the  gowding.  and  tliey  dispatched  matters 
of  little  importance,  which  did  not  come  before  tb*gow- 
ding.    The   nobles  had  also  the   privilege  of  keeping  a 
•  die  list  -gelblge,'  or  a  band  of  freemen  who  served  them  in 
their  feuds  and  wars:  and  they  had  individually  the  right 
of  protecting  uiifrec  people  in  the  gowding.  a  right  which 
also  belonged  to  tJie  community  as  a  body,  but  not  to  in- 
dividual freemen.     The  privileges  of  the  nobles  were  pro- 
bably connected  with  the   religions  institutions,  of  which 
we  liavc  no  positive  knowledge,  although  it  appears  that 
priests  and  nobles  formed  only  one  cla.-s.  an  opinion  which 
is  corroborated  bv  the  fact  that  wherever  Christianity  was 
introduced  into  Germany,  it  met  with  no  opposition  from 
the  common  people  as  soon  as  the  nobles  were  converted. 
Some  of  the  earlier  Teutonic  nations  had  hereditary  kings, 
the  Teges'  of  Tacitus  who  however   had   a   very  limited 
authority.    The  greater  part  of  them  chose  princes  only  as 
i  ommanders  of  the  army  in  time  of  war.     The  name  of 
commanders  was  ''herzog,'  in  low  German  '  hertog,' 
or  •  hartog,'  in  Latin  '  dux.' 

Besides  the  freemen  and  the  nobles,  there  were  bondsmen, 
'  lazzi,'  '  lati,'  or  '  liti,'  now  '  leute,'  in  low  German  •  liide,' 
or'lide,'  who  were  either  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  a 
conquered  territory,  or  prisoners  of  war,  or  freemen  who 
had  lost  or  sold  their  liberty.  Their  condition  was  in  no 
way  like  that  of  the  Roman  Servi,  who,  legally  speaking, 
were  not  considered  as  persons,  but  in  most  respect.-. 
things.  Domestic  and  personal  services,  and  especially 
agriculture,  were  their  exclusive  occupations. 

The  military  organization  of  the  Teutonic  nations  was 
founded  on  two  principles.  \Vhen  a  gow,  or  a  confedera- 
tion of  several  gows,  determined  on  war,  every  freeman 
was  obliged  to  take  up  arms  for  the  defence  of  the  com- 
monwealth. These  wars  had  rather  a  defensive  character, 
Mid  they  occurred  principally  among  the  inhabitants  of 
northern  Germany  between  the  Baltic  and  the  Rhine. 
But  war  was  sometimes  made  for  the  .private  interest  of 
some  powerful  noble,  who  carried  it  on  with  his  '  dienst- 
gefolge,'  which  was  a  numerous  body  when  the  military- 
renown  of  the  chiefs,  or  the  hope  of  easy  conquests,  pro- 
mised rich  rewards  to  the  adventurous  band.  These  were 
.ally  offensive  wars,  and  we  find  that  they  occurred 
elm-fly  among  the  Suevian  nations. 

\\"e  know  little  about  the  religion  of  the  antient  Teu- 
tonic nations.  They  worshipped  a  supreme  being  under 
the  name  of  Wodan  or  Odin,  but  the  true  character  of 
their  religion  was  the  worship  of  Nature  in  her  different 
manifestations.  Thor.  Hcrtha.  and  Freva  were  personifi- 
cations of  the  power  of  heaven,  of  earth,  and  of  love  and 
procreation. 

Such  was  the  moral,  social,  and  political  state  of  tin- 
Teutonic  nations  when  they  began  their  wars  with  Home. 
The  Vallum  Romanum  prevented  tln-m  from  inv  ailing  the 
Roman  empire  during  the  first  and  second  centuries.  In 
the  third  century  they  often  crossed  it.  In  the  fourth 
they  conquered  a  considerable  part  of  the  countries  on  the 
Danube;  and  in  the  fifth  they  invaded  and  conquered  all 
the  European  provinces  of  the  Roman  empire.  Instead 
of  following  the  chronological  order,  which  would  cause 
confusion,  we  shall  give  a  view  of  all  11.-  ms  by 

referring  them  to   their  several  heads,  according  to  the 
people  by  which  they  were  effected. 

Atrmanni.  [AuMAIun.]  Towards  the  middle  of  the 
fourth  century  swarms  of  people  belonging  to  the  Suevi 


enme  from  noith-ciistein  Germany  to  the  country  between 
the  Rhine  and  the  Dan'ibe,  when-  they  settled,  fhe  Roman 
army  and  colonists  having  retired  beyond  these  two  rivers. 
They  called  themselves  Alemanui.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
tilth  century  the  Alemanni  conquered  the  country  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Rhine,  as  well  ns  parts  nf  Noricum,  Vindelicia, 
and  Helvetia,  and  founded  the  kingdom  of  Alemannia. 
dovia,  king  of  the  Franks,  eonqueied  the  western  part  of  it 
in  -I'M:  the  eastern  and  larger  pait,  which  w«»  protected 
byTheodoric,  king  of  the  Ostro-Goths.  was  acquired  by  the 
Franks  in  :">:)(>.  >  t'assiodonis.  /  'nr.,  ii.  41.)  The  freemen 
lost  a  considerable  part  of  their  lands,  almost  all  the  nobles 
were  deprived  <if  their  estates  many  of  them  were  killed, 
and  the  i  emainder  became  vassals  of  the  Franks.  Between 
(il:}  and  (J2H  the  laws  of  the  Alemanni  were  collected 
by  order  of  the  Frankish  kins;  Clotarius,  under  the  name  of 
Lex  Alemannonim.  This  collection  is  in  Latin,  like  the 
laws  of  the  other  Teutonic  nations  of  that  period,  ei 
the  laws  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  which  are  written  m  their 
own  language. 

The  Lex  Alemannonim  was  revised  in  the  time  of  l)a- 
gobert,  king  of  the  Franks,  and  again  by  Lantfried,  the 
Frankish  duke  of  Alemannia.  in  the  hc<rinning  of  the 
eighth  century.  There  is  no  trace  of  the  Roman  law  in 
it  except  iii  one  single  case  (tit.  30).  The  Lex  Ale- 
inannoruni,  as  well  as  all  the  other  earlier  codes  of  the 
Teutonic  nations,  are  contained  in  Ferdinand  Walter's 
'  Corpus  Juris  Germaniei.'  Sichard  published  an  edition  of 
I  it  in  the  •  Leges  Ripuariorum,  Bajuvariorum,  et  Aleman- 
norum,'  1530, 8vo.  Besides  these  collections,  tlu; Teutonic 
laws  are  in  the  collections  of  Herold,  Lindenbroir,  Eccard, 
Heineccius,  Georgish,  Canciani,  and  Balu/.ius. 

BurgtmdiatU.  [BURGUNDY.]  The  Burgundians  came 
from  north-east  Germany,  and  first  assisted  the  Alemanni 
against  the  Romans;  but  they  left  Germany  as  early  as 
the  begiunin<r  of  the  fifth  century,  penetrated  into  Gaul, 
and  formed  the  powerful  kingdom  of  Burgundy  on  both 
sides  of  the  .lura,  which  was  incorporated  with  the  kingdom 
of  the  Franks  in  534.  The  collection  of  the  Burgnndian 
laws,  Lex  Burgundionum,  '  Gundobada,'  *  Gundobanla.' 
'  Loi  Gombette,'  was  made  towards  the  end  of  the.  fifth 
century,  under  king  Gundobald,  wlio  died  in  51b',  and 
was  augmented  (517)  by  king  Siegraund,  who  died  in 
523. 

The  legislation  of  Gundobald  goes  as  far  as  title  42. 
The  following  titles,  although  they  contain  laws  and  re- 
gulations of  Gundobald,  were  added  by  Siegmund,  who 
completed  the  code  by  two  '  additamenta.'  containing  his 
own  laws.  Charlemagne  made  a  third  additamentum, 
without  altering  the  code  itself.  The  Lex  Burgundionum, 
which  is  written  in  much  purer  Latin  than  most  of  the 
other  Teutonic  codes,  contains  several  of  the  rules  of  Hie 
Roman  law  concerning  donations,  and  especially  testa- 
ments (tit.  43  and  CO).  A  separate  edition  was  pub- 
lished at  I  .yon  in  1011. 

Franks.  [FRANCE.]  In  the  very  countries  which  the 
Romans  traversed  on  their  way  to  tfie  woods  where  Varus 
-lain,  the  Usipctes,  the  Tencteri,  the  Sieambri.  the 
Brncteri,  the  Ansibarii.  the  Marsi,  the  Tubantes,  the  (,'ha- 
inavi,  and  theChatti — all  tribes  belonging  to  the  noithern, 
now  Saxon  branch  (Ingaevones)of  the  Germani — fonned 
a  confederation,  and  called  themselves  Franks,  either  be- 
cause they  were  particularly '  free  and  bold,'  or  on  account 
of  their  •  barbed  lances'  (frameae).  Their  name  first 
appears  in  242,  when  some  of  them  made  an  expedition  into 
Gaul  during  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Gordianus,  whose 
ircncral.  Aurelianus,  defeated  them.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
fifth  century  they  had  conquered  Belgium  as  tar  as  the 
Somme,  and"  in  487  their  king  Clovis  put  an  end  to  the 
Roman  power  north  of  the  Loire.  The  Franks  subsequently 
conquered  Southern  Gaul,  then  divided  between  the  Bur- 
gunuians  and  the  Visigoths:  Germany,  and  the  Slavonian 
( -(.untnes  as  far  as  Poland  :  part  of  Piinnonia  ;  the  Longo- 
bard  kingdom  in  Italy  :  and  Spain  between  the  Ebro  and 
the  Pyrenees.  Charlemagne  was  the  lord  of  all  the  Teu- 
tonic nations,  except  the  Scandinavians,  the  Anglo-Saxons 
in  England,  and  the  remainder  of  the  Goths  in  (lie  moun- 
tains of  Asturias.  The  Frankish  language,  a  dialect  of  tin- 
Low  German,  was  spoken  at  the  court  of  this  emperor, 
among  the  nobles  in  France,  and  by  many  freemen.  In 
Germany  the  Franks  sell  led  among  the  Suevian  tribes  on 
the  Middle  Rhine  and  the  Main,  and  the  mixture  of  r 
languages  is  the  origin  of  the  present  Middle  German  or 


T  E  U 


L'65 


T  E  U 


Franconian  dialects.  Among:  the  Teutonic  nations  which 
settled  in  Roman  provinces,  the  Franks  were  the  last  who 
were  converted  to  the  Christian  religion  :  their  king  Clovis 
was  baptized  after  his  victory  over  the  Alemanni  at  Ziil- 
pich  (Tolbiacum)  in  496.  They  founded  a  mighty  aris- 
tocracy in  France,  the  political  influence  of  which  was 
broken  by  Louis  XI.  The  personal  and  social  influence 
of  the  Franks  lasted  till  the  Revolution  of  1789,  which  is 
justly  regarded  by  the  best  modern  French  historians  as  a 
reaction  of  the  subjugated  Celtic  people  against  haughty 
and  insolent  Frankish  invaders. 

The  Franks  were  divided  into  Franci  Salici,  who  lived 
in  the  Low  Countries  between  the  Zuider  Zee,  the  Maas, 
and  the  Somme  ;  and  Franci  Ripuarii,  who  were  settled 
along  the  Rhine  between  Nvmegen  and  Bonn.  Each  of 
them  had  their  code.  The  Lex  Salica  was  written  in  very 
barbarous  Latin,  under  Clovis,  between  484  and  496,  and 
was  never  revised,  although  it  contains  some  laws  by  the 
sons  of  Clovis,  which  begin  with  the  62nd  (63rd)  title. 
Except  one  rule  in  title  14,  about  the  rape  of  free  per- 
sons, and  another  concerning  marriage  within  the  prohi- 
bited degrees,  this  code  contains  no  trace  of  the  Roman 
law.  It  is  very  important  for  the  history  of  the  laws  of 
the  Teutonic  nations.  The  antient  Lex  Salica  is  often 
confounded  with  the  present  Salic  Law,  which  regulates 
the  right  of  succession  in  several  sovereign  and  noble  fami- 
lies in  Europe.  But  this  latter  Salic  law  is  only  a  single 
rule  of  the  Lex  Salica,  and  originally  concerned  the  suc- 
cession to  the  tax-free  estates  of  free  or  noble  Franks 
(terra  Saiica\  which  belonged  to  the  male  issue,  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  females.  It  is  contained  in  title  62, '  De  Alode,' 
1.6:  "  De  terra  vero  Salica  nulla  portio  haereditatis  mu- 
lieri  venial :  sed  ad  virihem  sexura  tota  terrae  haereditas 
perveniat.' 

This  law  was  not  peculiar  to  the  Franci  Salici :  it 
occurs  in  the  greater  part  of  the  other  antient  Teutonic 
laws. 

\Viarda,  Geschichte  und  Awlegung  des  Salisc/ien  Ge- 
xftzis;  Kc'meec'ms,Ant.  Germ.,  i.,  p.  205,  285:  a  sepiuatc 
edition  of  the  Lex  Salica  was  published  by  Pithou,  Paris, 
1602,  8vo.) 

The  Lex  Uipuaria  was  collected  by  Theodoric,  the  son 
of  Clovis,  between  511  and  534.  It  was  several  times 
revised,  especially  by  Dagobert.  It  resembles  the  Lex 
Salica,  and  contains  no  traces  of  the  Roman  law. 

(lijth.t. — AVhile  the  Alemanni,  the  Burgundians,  and 
the  Franks  invaded  the  Roman  empire  on  the  Danube 
and  the  Rhine,  its  eastern  frontiers  were  attacked  by  the 
Goths.  The  Goths  originally  inhabited  the  countries  on 
the  Baltic  between  the  Vistula  and  the  Niemen  ;  but  as 
early  as  the  close  of  the  second  century  A.D.  they  ap- 
peared on  the  shore  of  the  Pontus  Euxinus  and  the 
Maeotis,  where  they  founded  two  great  kingdoms, — that 
of  the  Ostro-Goths,  or  Greuthungi,  east  of  the  Dnieper, 
und  that  of  the  Visi-Goths,  or  Thervingi,  west  of  it.  Their 
power  was  broken  by  the  Huns,  by  whom  they  were  partly 
subjugated,  partly  forced  to  take  refuge  in  Dacia  and  in 
-1:1.  The  Visi-Goths  then  left  the  Danubian  coun- 
tries, traversed  Italy  as  far  as  Reggio,  opposite  Sicily,  and 
finally  conquered  the  southern  part  of  Gaul,  and  Spain. 
The  Ostro-Goths,  less  fortunate  in  their  attempt  on  Thrace, 
were  forced  to  go  back  to  Dacia,  where  they  became  sub- 
ject to  the  Huns.  After  the  death  of  Attila,  in  453,  they 
recovered  their  independence,  and  leaving  the  dangerous 
country  of  the  eastern  part  of  Dacia,  they  settled  in  the 
western  part  of  this  country,  which  the  emperor  Zeno  was 
obliged  to  cede  to  them  in  474.  In  488  their  king  Theo- 
dorie,  after  having  besieged  Zeno  in  Constantinople,  com- 
pelled him  to  cede  his  claims  on  Italy,  then  under  the 
dominion  of  Odoacer,  the  chief  of  the  Rugii,  the  Heruli, 
and  other  tribes,  who  had  put  an  end  to  the  Roman  em- 
pire in  Italy  by  deposing  the  last,  emperor,  Romulus 
Aug'.isttiliis,  in  475-.  [THEODORIC.]  Odoacer  was  deprived 
of  his  crown  and  his  life  by  Theodoric  in  493,  who  founded 
the  kingdom  of  the  Ostro-Goths  in  Italy  and  Illyricum, 
which  lasted  till  552,  when  Tejas,  the  last  king,  was  de- 
feated and  killed  by  Narses. 

The  Code  of  the  Ostro-Goths,  'the  Edictnm  Theodorici,' 
which  was  composed  by  order  of  Theodoric  in  500,  is  a 
collection  of  Roman  laws.  This  king  wished  to  form  one 
people  of  the  Romans  and  the  Goths  (Edictnm,  $  30),  and 
he  therefore  adopted  the  laws  of  the  most  civilised  of  his 
•ubjects.  Leaving  the  Gothic  laws  exclusively  to  the 
P.  C.,  No.  1521. 


memory  of  the  people,  he  Tcnew  that  they  would  soon  fall 
into  oblivion  without  being  formally  abolished.  In  some 
cases,  however,  he  supplanted  Gothic  customs  by  Roman 
laws.  The  IVehrgeld,  or  Wehre,— that  is,  the  fine  for 
crimes, — was  entirely  abolished,  and  in  place  of  it  the 
punishment  of  death  was  introduced  in  many  cases,  an 
innovation  which  seemed  very  hard  to  the  Goths,  who, 
like  all  the  other  Teutonic  'nations,  inflicted  the  punish- 
ment of  death  only  for  high  treason  and  a  lew  such 
crimes.  Pithou  published  a  separate  edition  of  the  '  Edie- 
tum  Theodorici'  (Paris,  1579).  Rhon,  Commentatio  ad 
Edictnm  Theodorici,  Keg.  Ostrogoth.,  Hake,  1816,  4to. 

The  Visi-Golhs  settled  in  the  southern  part  of  Gaul  in 
412,  and  invaded  Spain  in  414.  This  country  was  then  in 
the  hands  of  the  Suevi,  the  Alani,  and  the  Vandals,  who 
became  subject  to  the  Goths,  or  were  forced  to  emigrate. 
In  451  the  Visi-Goths,  together  with  the  Franks,  defeated 
Attila  and  his  700,000  Huns,  Goths,  Gepidae,  and  other 
vassals,  in  the  plain  of  Chalons-sur-Marne.  Their  king, 
Alaric  II.,  lost  Gaul,  except  the  eastern  part  of  Langue- 
doc  and  Provence,  in  the  battle  of  Vougl6  against  Clovis: 
king  of  the  Franks,  in  507.  The  kingdom  of  the  Visi 
Goths  lasted  for  three  centuries,  when  it  was  overthrown 
by  the  Arabs  in  712.  [SPAIN.] 

Among  all  the  Teutonic  nations  the  Visi-Goths  were  the 
first  who  had  written  laws.  (Isidorus Hispalensis,  '  Chron. 
ad  annum  Aer.  Hisp.  504,  A.D.  466.')  A  collection  of 
them  was  made  by  their  king  Eurie  (466-484),  which  is 
written  in  Latin  and  has  the  title  of  '  Lex  Visigothorum.' 
Its  present  form  dates  from  King  Egica,  whose  new  code 
was  translated  into  the  Gothic  language  under  King 
Reeeswind.  It  contains  many  traces  of  the  Roman  law, 
and  is  the  only  early  Teutonic  law  which  may  be  consi- 
dered as  a  code  in  the  modern  signification  of  the  word. 
The  Lex  Visigothorum  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 
Breviarium  Alarici  (Alaric  II.,  in  506),  or  the  Code  for  the 
Romans,  who  were  subjects  of  the  Visi-Goths,  and  conti- 
nued to  live  under  their  own  laws  until  they  were  abo- 
lished by  the  kings  Chindaswind  and  Reeeswind,  who 
declared  the  revised  Lex  Visigothorum  obligatory  on  all 
the  inhabitants  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Visi-Goths. 

The  Goths,  the  most  civilized  among  the  Teutonic 
nations,  were  the  first  who  adopted  the  Christian  religion. 
They  had  a  literature  from  the  time  when  Ulphilas  trans- 
lated the  Bible.  The  Visi-Goths  were  at  first  Arians,  and 
though  they  returned  to  the  Roman  Church,  they  distin- 
guished themselves  from  the  other  Roman  Catholics  by 
their  form  of  worship,  or  the  Offieium  Gothicum,  which 
was  approved  by  the  fourth  Council  of  Toledo,  A.D.  633. 
It  is  also  called  Offieium  Beati  Isidori :  Isidore  presided 
over  that  council.  It  contains  many  customs  and  forms 
which  have  been  used  in  the  Spanish  church  from  the 
earliest  times  of  Christianity.  It  was  written  in  Latin,  but 
in  old  Gothic  characters,  which  differ  from  the  Scandina- 
vian runes. 

The  Ostro-Goths  soon  disappeared  among  the  Longo- 
bards,  while  the  Visi-Goths  preserved  their  language  and 
nationality  till  the  invasion  of  the  Arabs;  and  another 
portion  of  them  maintained  their  nationality  until  a  very 
recent  period. 

These  were  the  Gothi-Tetra,ritae,  who,  after  the  emi- 
gration of  their  brethren  to  the  western  countries,  retired 
to  the  eastern  part  of  the  Chersonesus  Taurica,  now  the 
Crimea,  and  the  opposite  island  of  Taman.  There  they 
lived  for  eleven  centuries  under  the  successive  dominion 
of  Huns,  Bulgarians,  Greeks,  Khazars,  Tartars  of  Kip- 
tshak,  and  Tartars  of  the  Crimea,  and,  lastly,  of  Turks 
Osmanlis.  Their  part  of  the  Crimea  was  called  Gothia 
during  the  middle  ages.  Busbequius,  who  was  the  ambas- 
sador of  the  emperor  Rudolph  II.  at  Constantinople,  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  is  the  last  writer 
who  mentions  them.  It  appears  that  they  afterwards 
adopted  the  language,  the  customs,  and  the  religion  of  the 
Tartars.  Russian  scholars  have  traced  the  Gothic  language 
among  the  Tartars  of  the  Crimea.  {Journal  de  St.  Pcli'ru- 
bourg,  31st  January  (12th  February),  1829.) 

Another  part  of  the  Goths  invaded  Sweden,  and  founded 
the  kingdom  of  Gothland  (Gautland),  which  was  afterwards 
divided  into  East  Gothland  and  West  Gothland  (Kystra- 
Gautland  and  Vestra-Gautland).  They  mixed  with  the 
Scandinavians,  and  it  became  a  general  opinion  that  they 
were  originally  the  same  people.  But  a  comparison  of  the 
Gothic  of  Ulphilas  and  the  old  Scandinavian  language 
•  VOL.  XXIV.— 2  M 


T  E  V 


T  i:  i 


ihowi   Uiat  UiW  opinion  i-  uiifomvi 


kt  I'M 

k  Forest,  be- 


,  , 

1664:    AnUmiu*.   lt 
(ieddr*.   Mi*'  Unnto 

Ittilirn  ;  Miuco 

Sutri.  —  From  the  country  east  »!'  the  Blac 
twccn  'lu  .-uilii'   aiul    the  Alp- 

\vhich  •.:'."...   the  Quadi  and  tin1  Hermmul 
'ikevrbe  meant,  tpmd  over  <•  i-.d  and  forced  tli 
Spun  .narie  or  Herm. 

became  muter  of  Poilugal,  Galicia,  ;;'.'.l  the  v,  . 
of  Asturias,  ajul  Leon  :  i  .  near  the 

i  of  tin-  Mifio,  now  a  sin  i  Ilivtaiia. 

Ilia  suooemn  were    iudcpciid-  ~>  the 

•.me  snbjc  ig   of  the    Yi>i- 

icir  laws  have  not  In  They  were 

at  first  Catholics,  but   ki.  -iiiiul  (401)  pr. 

Arianisra  ;  Theodemir  (Ariamir    returned  to  the  Catholic 
faith  in  THil. 

.—  This  name,    which  was  known   to   Ta 
comprises  various  tribes  of  Teutonic  Slavonian 

origin,  who  lived  in  F.nstern  Pm  I'omcrauia.     The 

were  subject  to  the  Teutonic  Vandal 
are  often  confounded  with  the  Wcmls  (Vcnedi).  who 
wards  occupied  the  country  of  the  Vandals.  The  Van,  1. 
their  hour  lofthc  fourth  century,  and  apart 

of  them,  alter  a  sojourn  in  Pannonia,  traversed  Germany 
and  Gaul,  and   founded  the  Vandal   kingdom  in  Si 
•R)!).     In  417  they  subjugated  the  Alani.  who  liad  also  set- 
tled in  Spain.    1.  '  liytlu  •  Visi-Gothsto 

abandon  this  country,  and  they  went  over  to  Africa.    Their 
king  Genscric  or  Geiseric  took  Carl'  all  Mauri- 

tania. and  the  islands  of  Sardinia,  t 
and  the  western  part  of  Sicily-     On  the  12th  July.  -I.Vi. 
they  plundered  Rome,  and  their  name  became  proverbial 
•t  of  the  most  barbarous  among  the  barbarians.  Their 
kingdom  lasted  till  ~>'.\~>,  when  it  was  destroyed  by  Bclisa- 
riui,  and  became  a  part  of  the  Byzantine  empire.     All  the 
names  of  the  Vandal  kings  are  Teutonic,  and  resemble 
of  the  Gothic  ting*,  a  fact  which  proves  that  how- 
ever numerous  '  ire  among  them,  the  Teu- 

tonic tribes  were  the  ruling  nation.     Their  name  is  visible 
in  that  of  the  province  of  Andalusia  or  Vandalusia. 
pencordt,  '• 

i  .]—  The  Longobards  lived  on  the 

richt  bank  of  the  Lower,   Elbe,  and  afterwards  on  the  leit 

••f  this  river,  near  Liineburg  ami  Brunswick:  in  lan- 

!    person  !  Tilled  their  neighbours  the 

.s  a  strong  body  of  whom  appeared  with  them  in 

Italy.     Before  they  invaded   Italy  they  had  lived  in  the 

i'pper  Hungary,  in  Pannonia,  and  in 

Noricura   (4U4-'rM)8).     Their  king   Alboin   subjugated  the 

Gepidae  in  Transylvania  (5(i3'.'i.  and  in  ."»08  he  conquered. 

Hie  greater  part  oi'  Italy.     Their  last  national  king. 

derius,  wa-  MI'  his  tluone  by  Charlemagne  (774  !, 

who  assumed  the  title  of  king  of  the  LongobardU  :  but  the 

J/ongobar  i  "iMiiutinn  nor  theirestates; 

the  only  change  was  in  the  reigning  dynasty. 

When  the  Longobards  were  subjugated   hy  the  Kranks, 
they  had  posse-  •   laws  lor  1:«)  years.     Tli 

colic.  :-  i;i  UKt.      Ti  ' 

.     l.llitprai 

7l:i  and  721  :   t!i.>  I  in  7Ki,  and  tli 

Aiitulf  in  7-~>4.  heads  of  Roman 

law  concerning   pic  ion.     (Mi. 

'..  torn.  i..  p.  2:   and  especially  Hier 
zressu  Z/'_ 
i.,  p.  irx), 

These  are  the  Teutonic  nations  that  founded  permanent 
kingdoms  within  the  limits  of  the  Roman  eingiiie.    l'.\e<  pt 
the  Alcmanni.  the  vail  eaflM  in  contact  wUhapopulatiop,the 
educated  part  of  which  was  entirely  Romanized,  ultl 
except  Italy  and  some  parts  of  the  tout  h  of  Spain  and 
the  inhnhitants  of  I! 

1'V  the  Teutonic    invaders. 

(Kauriel,  Hint.  </  '  .n\.\.)    The  poli- 

:  world 

rested  on  two  great  principle*. 

Tti  LWS  were  not  (• 

but  penonal  :  a  Frank  wa  i  !n.\. 

a  Hurgnndiaii  after 
This  principle  being  applied  also  to  Uiu  K 


to  a  double  legislation,  < 

and  ti 


• 

"I    llO       Kt>     •!'     '|1        II!    lit- 


iding  a  n;;i 


,ed  nation. 

the  niiister  1  which  he 

:.om    the    Romii 
l»   their   T. 

.   the  kings  had  m* 

tary  duties.      Ti,. 

to  wliich 

sent  ;  and  they  did  h. 
were  > 
Romans,  tli 
civilized  nation  : 
emperors,  and  v. 
lute  i 
privali 

vineial  adi.  ,i,  wliich  v. 

tine  :;  ie.1  his  svuv 

varioi. 
compl 

coiKiucrors  lived 
had  a  dunhle  ndinim 

and  the  other  for  the  'ion.     But  i 

much   confusion   froi:i 

of  the  Roman  administration,  and  to  govern  in  f! 
way,  ii  'ho  names  of  1!  public  fuin 

were  Roman.     The  first  functionary  in  each  ] 
the  Krankish  kingdom  was  the  Dux,  who  had  tli 
military  co.: 

judge.     The  second  was  t! 

and  director  of  all  affairs  concerning  taxes  and  the  re-, 
of  the  liscu:..      !•' 

Dux  and  the  Comes  were  conferred  upon  one  person,  who 
is  sometimes  styled  1)  MU-. 

The  fate  of  the   V. 

of    the    Rom;,  ,1    into  the 

private  service  of  the  kins,  and  ;  portion  of  their 

on  condition  of  obedience  to  him.  The  ; 
owners   belonged  to   this   class,   which  had  tli, 

.mi  coiuivae   r  i    p.ut,  the  •  Roin.ini 

possessores.'  remained  in  po.^.\s^ioii  of  theii 

il  to  pay  taxes  for  them,  a  duty  from  which  tin: 
conqueror.-,  were  exempt:  this  class  principally  coin 
of  small   landowners.     The  thi,  ;e  the  '  K< 

tributarii.'  who  loM   their  liberty,  although  they  did 
become   Servi   in  the    Hon.  lie   \\ord: 

ilie  antient   '  coloni.'     In  many  towi^  t! 
continued  to  enjoy  their  municipal   institution 

lie  community  gradually  arose  within  the 
and  had   i:  -litution.      In  other  tow:. 

in.'  Romans  lost  thei: 
•  mini- 

1  as  the  Roman.  m  the  \illn 

The   Teutonic    nations  whic'i 

l-'rankish  K;  .  IJur- 

gundians,  the  Longobards,  and  the  J!a\arian.s  on 
their    dynn- 

.    which  were  given   to  Fninkish  nobles,    of   whom 

h  founded  , 

within  the   Roman   empire,  mam  trih.'s   niainl: 
indepi 

i.y  without   lea\ : 
1   by  others,  and  adopted   the 
tun>hcis.     Many  among  them  w<  'i  or  other 

The  Aluiii  came  from  the  C'n 

and  lived   independent   in    southern    Spain    under   their 
King  Respendial,  from   UK)  to  117.  w  ubju- 

gateil  by  the    \         .  1   into  'tin:  south  of 

(iaul.     Another  ])art   of   thtiu   settled    lul'.Mui    (). 
;uid  N.intes  under  tin 

del'eaU-d   and   d  The 

Alani  were  not   .  .    the  names  of  their 

,  ciidial,  Utace>,  Goan  have  no  resemblance  to 


T  E  U 


267 


T  E  U 


Saxon,  Frankish,  or  Gothic  names.    They  are  probably 
identical  with  the  Ossetes  or  Iron,  an  old  Persian  tribe  in 
the  central  part  of  the  Caucasus.    The  country  of  Albania, 
north  of  the  Caucasus,  \vas  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans.   The  Byzantines  called  the  tract  between  the  Terek 
and  Shirwan,  Alania.     (Procopius,  De  BeUo  Goth.,  \.  iv. ; 
Stritter,  Memoriae  Popular.  'A/miiii.'  in  lorn.  iv. ;  Suhiu, 
'•ichte  Her  Danen.  iibersetzt  von  Grater,  i.  1  ;  Xeuss, 
•sckichte  dcr  Ds/rtsc/ien,  '  Alanen.') 

The  (Juatii,  who  lived  in  Silesia  and  Moravia  in  375, 

were  a  Suevian  people.     The   Gepidae  perhaps  were  of 

Gothic   origin  :    their  kingdom  in   Transylvania  was  de- 

;•<!  by  Alboin,  who  killed  Kunimund,  the  last  king  of 

the  Gepidae. 

Odoacer,  the  commander  of  a  band  of  Scyrri,  or  Scirri, 
Jiugii,  and  Heruli.  put  an  end  to  the  Roman  empire  in 
Italy,  and  was  acknowledged  as  emperor,  but  he  was  put 
to  death  by  order  of  Theodoric  the  Great  in  493. 

The  Rugii  were  Gerrnani ;  the  origin  of  the  Seym  and 
of  the  Heruli  is  uncertain.  It  has  been  pretended  that 
the  Heruli  were  a  Lithuanian  tribe. 

Tribes  within  thelimitsnf  Germany  tr/tich  lost  their  Inde- 
pende-m-r  under  the  Franks. — The  Bojoarii,  Bojobari,  Baju- 
/•••/•ii,  or  Itunirians  [BAVARIA],  whose  name  became  known 
towards  the  year  480,  were  a  confederation  of  Suevian  tribes : 
they  lived  between  trie  Danube,  the  Lech,  and  the  Ens.  In 
540  they  were  forced  to  yield  to  the  Frankish  kings,  and 
were  governed  by  dukes  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Agilolfin- 
gians.  Their  laws,  which  were  collected  between  613  and 
resemble  the  laws  of  the  Alemanni,  though  they 
contain  many  traces  of  the  Roman  law.  (Mederer,  Leges 
Bajtivariorum,  oder  iilte*-'  .'•</•••/(  <ifr  Bajuvarier, 

&e.,  1793-8.1  The  T/mri/i^ii'mt  occupied  the  country 
north  of  the  Bavarians  as  far  us  the  Unstrut,  and  even  be- 
yond that  river.  They  were  related  to  the  Goths,  and 
their  name  seems  to  resemble  that  of  the  Thervinsri,  the 
Hormunduri,  and  Henniones.  Their  last  king,  Hermanfiid, 
was  deprived  of  his  crown  by  the  Franks  in  531.  Charle- 
magne is  said  to  have  made  the  first  collection  of  their 
i;ut  there  is  no  evidence  in  support  of  this  statement. 
Their  code  is  known  under  the  title  of  '  Lex  An^liorum  et 
Werinorum,  hoe  est  Thuringorum.'  These  Angles  and 
Warini  or  Werini  were  settled  in  the  northern  part  of 
Thuringia,  but  it  does  not  appear  why  their  names  are 
mentioned  before  that  of  the  Thiirinsinns,  who  were  the 
more  numerous  nsitinn.  This  collection  is  brief  and  in- 
complet".  I.-ilmitz.  S'T/;>,'.  li<>r.  Brini+t\r.,  i..  p.  81.) 

Tin-  SAXONY]    dwelt  north  of  the 

Thuringians.  On  the  east  their  frontiers  were  the  Elbe, 
the  Stecknitz.  and  the  Baltic:  on  Ihe  north,  Den- 
mark, the  German  Ocean,  and  Friesland ;  on  the 
they  corresponded  to  the  western  frontiers  of  the  pre- 
sent province  of  Westphalia.  Vv'hen  they  had  sent 
numerous  settlers  to  Britain,  their  power  became 
formidable  to  their  neighbours,  the  Wends  in  the 
east  and  the  Franks  in  the  west.  The  Franks  wen: 
formerly  united  with  them  asainst  the  Romans,  but  when 
they  had  conquered  Gaul,  the  Saxons  were  obliged  to 
i  from  their  incursions  into  this  country,  and  hence 
arose  jeaJc;  -;.  The  south-western  parts  wen' 

conquered  by  the   !•'.  :irly  ns  K,r>  ;  the  rich  land- 

owners were  compelled  to  (rive  a  considerable  part  of  their 
lands  to  Frankish  nobles,  and  the  common  freemen  to 
bend  under  the  yoke  of  servitude.  The  remaining  and 
Sjreater  part  of  the  population  was  free,  though  from  time 
ne  the  Saxons  paid  tribute,  until,  after  the  memora- 
ble war  with  Duke  Wittekind  f772-H().'Jj,  Charlemagne 
became  master  of  all  Saxony.  l!u:  HM  were  nol 

subjugated  like  the  Romans.    They  promised   to  adopt 
'         Uanity,  to  acknowledge  (.'harles  a>  '.heir  king,  and  to 
rovernors  (prevcs)  and  bishops.      On  the   oth<v 
hand,  Charles  granted  them  equal  •  \Vehre'  (value  of  their 
liberty  in  case  of  wounds,  muni  -!  the 

Bume  privileges  which  the  Franks  had,  especially  freedom 
!e,  and  the  privilege  of  being  tried  in  their  own 
country,  according  to  their  own  laws,  and  by  their  equals. 

:r.re 

,  .mo  <ti>ri:!ti  f.M'd'Ti!  FranriB, 
I  ih-ret  suucorclit<:r  vmu».' 

Aniimim..\\i}.  '.  Her.  linnmr., '-.,  p.  153.  ' 

i-'scfiickle,  i.  3-40,  tli 

vvork  which  has  been  published  about  the  old  Saxons  in 
Germany. 


Charlemagne  was  the  first,  king  of  the  Saxons,  who 
formed  a  great  confederation  of  free  communities  ;  they 
appointed  dukes  for  their  wars,  and  only  acknowledged 
obedience  to  the  '  gowding '  and  to  '  greves,'  chosen  by 
the  freemen  among  the  '  edelings'  of  the  communities. 
The  laws  of  the  Saxons  were  collected  by  order  of  Charle- 
magne. They  consist  of  nineteen  titles,  and  are  so  short, 
and  incomplete  as  to  justify  the  opinion  that  only  a  part. 
of  them  has  been  preserved.  Two '  Uapitularia'  of  Charle- 
magne concern  the  political  and  ecclesiastical  condition 
of  those  parts  of  Saxony  which  were  conquered  at  the  time 
of  their  publication,  788  and  797.  This  '  Lex  Saxonum ' 
must  not  be  confounded  with  the  '  Sachsen-Spieg_el,'  the 
'  Mirror  of  the  Saxons,'  a  code  of  Saxon  law  which  was 
written  in  Latin  and  afterwards  translated  into  the  Saxon 
language  by  Eicke  van  Rebgow,  between  1215  and  1218. 
(Gaertner,  Saxonum  Leges  Tres.  Accessit  Lex  Frisionum, 
1730-4.) 

Frisians  [FRISIANS]. — The  Frisians  were  brought,  under 
the  Roman  power  by  Drusus,  the  brother  of  the  emperor 
Tiberius.  Olennius,  their  governor  in  A.D.  28,  oppressed 
them  by  fiscal  measures,  and  they  cast  off  the  Roman 
yoke.  In  the  war  between  the  Romans  and  O.v.dius 
Civilis  they  joined  the  latter.  When  the  Franks  invaded 
Gaul,  the  Frisians  occupied  some  countries  which  were 
abandoned  by  the  Franks,  the  islands  between  the  mouths 
of  the  Scheme  and  the  Rhine,  and  the  present  provinces  of 
Gelderland,  Zutphen,  and  Overyssel ;  and  after  the  emigra- 
tion of  the  Anglo-Saxons  they  gradually  took  possession  of 
the  coast  and  the  islands  of  the  German  Ocean  as  far  as  Jut- 
land. In  689  they  were  attacked  by  the  Franks  and  obliged 
to  pay  them  tribute.  After  the  establishment  of  the  German 
kingdom,  the  Frisians  obeyed  the  king  femperor)  as  their 
sovereign,  but  they  chose  their  own  judges  and  other 
authorities.  During  the  middle  ages  they  formed  the 
powerful  republic  of  the  Seven  Frisian  Sealands,  which 
was  broken  by  the  counts  oi'  Holland,  of  Oldenburg,  and 
several  other  princes  of  the  empire.  The  last  independent 
Frisians  were  the  Dithmavschen  between  the  Elbe  and  the 
Eider,  who  were  subjugated  in  1559  by  Christian  III., 
king  of  Denmark,  and  Adolphus  I.,  duke  of  Holstein. 

The  laws  of  the  Frisians  were  collected  by  Charlemagne 
under  the  title  of  '  Lex  Frisionum.'  (Gaertner,  Sit.ronum 
Leges  Tres.  Accessit  Lex  Frisionum.)  The  '  Statuta  Op- 
stalbomica,'  the  laws  of  the  Seven  Sealands,  which  are 
wrilten  in  the  Frisian  language,  arc  a  different  collection. 
The  dialect  of  this  language  which  most  resembles  the 
Anglo-Saxon  language  is  that  of  the  northern  Frisian 
islands  on  the  coast  of  Sleswig.  (Clement,  cited  below.) 
•i-fa-Saxons. — An  account  of  their  history  has  been 
givrn  under  the  heads  SAXONS  and  ENGLAND.  The  first 
settlement,  of  Teutonic-  tribes  in  Great  Britain  previous  to 
the  arrival  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  has  been  treated  with 
great  learning  by  Dr.  Clement,  in  his  work  '  Die  Nordger- 
manisehe  Welt,'  Copenhagen,  1840.  The  author,  who  has 
travelled  in  all  parts  of  Great  Britain  where  he  supposed 
he  could  find  traces  of  such  settlers,  has  paid  particular 
attention  to  Caithness  and  the  eastern  coast  of  Scotland. 
With  this  book  the  reader  may  compare  Finn  Magnusen, 
Om  Picternes  og  derns  Narns  Oprindelse,  in  'Del  Skan- 
dinav.  Litteratur-Selskabs  Skrift,'  1810  and  1817. 

The  following  works  contain  full  information  concern- 
ing the  history  of  the  Teutonic  nations : — Mascov,  The 
History  of  the  Anticnt  Germans,  translated  by  Thomas 
Lediard  ;  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall ;  Eichhorn,  Deutsche 
Stoats-  und  Rechtt-Grschichtc. ;  Savigny,  Geschirhti-  des 
Ro/niar/if/i  I(/-r/it/>x  im  Mittelaller  ;  Grimm,  Deutsche 
Rerhts-Alterthumer,  and  his  Deutsche  Grammatill. 

The  Scandinavian  branch  of  the  Teutonic  nations  ap- 
pears late  in  history.  The  Sagas  tell  us  that  in  the  fifth 
iry  B.C.  Odin  led  the  Scandinavians  to  Sweden  and 
Norway :  but  this  Odin  is  a  god.  Less  fabulous  is  the 
history" of  a  second  Odin,  who,  in  the  beginning  of  our 
sera,  came  from  Asia  to  Scandinavia,  accompanied  by  his 
'  Asen,'  or  perhaps  '  Ausen,'  or  fellow-warriors.  The  name 
of  the  Suiones  or  Swedes  was  known  to  Pliny  and  to  Taci- 
tus, and  Pliny  knew  the  name  of  Scandia,  now  Scania,  the 
southern  extremity  of  Sweden,  which  name  gradually  ac- 
quired its  present  general  meaning.  Goths  came  to  Scan- 
dinavia at  a  very  early  period,  and  the  second  Odin  was 
perhaps  their  chief.  They  mixed  with  the  Scandinavians, 
and  traces  of  their  language,  have  been  found  in  the  dialects 
of  the  provinces  of  East  and  West  Gothland  in  Sweden,  and 

2M2 


TKU 

their  name  is  still  prwcnred  in  many  localities.  The  abori- 

of  Sweden 

Ttrey  fled  towanls  the  north',  but  not  without  having  their 

in  the  mountains  of  the  Kja-lenand  the  Dovre  Fjcld. 

dinavmns,   Northmen,    or   Normans,    became 

know  '.ithcrn  nations  by  their  |  1  thev 

often  leagued  with  the  *- 

Clmrlemaitne    and   Wittekiud,   the  Danes   n- 

Wittekind.  who  had  married  Gem,  the  daughter  of  their 

•fried.     As  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  eiithth 

century  the   Danes  and  ,'l  -red    in  the  north  of 

F.nitland  ;  in  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century  the  Danes 

1  on  the  south-east  coast  of  Ireland.     Normans  or 

I  the  Oiknevs    before   the  end   of  the 

ninth  century  :  in  801  they  came  to  the  Faroe  Islands,  and 

thev  sent  colonies  to  Iceland  as  early  as  870.  The  northern 

parts  of  North  America  were  known  to  these  bold   navi- 

-  four  ccntuiie-  before  the  time  of  Columbus.     Other 

Noi mainly,  Apulia,  Sicily,   and  the 

opposite  coast  of  Africa.     From  the  eighth  century  the 
.  who  came  from   Norway  and  Sweden,  pene- 

a  and  founded  the  Norman  djnastv 
.  .hike-   of   l\i,  n  :    r-omc   of  the    first   families  of  the 
-lan  nobility  are  of  Norman  origin. 

.  .inquered  the  coast  of  Finland  as  early  as 
1  in  great  numbers  in  the  districts  of  Abo 
ami  Nyland.  Although  Finland  is  chiefly  inhabited  by  a 
nation'of  Finnish  oriitin,  and  thonith  it  has  become  a  Rus- 
sian province,  the  Swedish  language  is  the  only  language 
ined  for  public  acts  and  legal  documents.  [SC.VNDIN 

».] 

Suhni  is  one  of  the  best  authorities  for  the  critical  his- 
tory of  the  Scandinavians.     He  has  written  in  Danish  on 
iiL'in  of  the  Scandinavians,  on   their  mythology,  a 
critical   history  of  Denmark,  a  history  of  Denmark,  and 
i-.il  other  work-  concernini:  this  country. 
Mtiller,  in  his  AY//MfA»'«  Kfiinu-n  der  Danim-hcn  mid 


T  E  W 


v,  and  the  citizens  in 


Ili.\l'iriii  If  ilkui. •iisiiini.  contains  an  account  of  the  exploits 
and  conquests  of  the  Scandinavians  in  Russia.  Italy,  &c.) 
nf  the  in<td"i-ii  Tfiitunic  languages  and  t/fir 

Dialects. 

\.  \\\a\\  GERMAN  LANGUAGES. 

(The  German  language  as  it  is  written  or  spoken  by  Un- 
well-educated German-,  belongs  to  the  Hiith  German  lan- 
guages, but  is  not  a  dialect.) 

A.  Sii'ifiiii/i  branch. 
a.  Sitiibiun  suboidinate  branch,  containing  the  dialect-  of 

1.  Stiab    .  that  i-.  nf  the  Hlack    Forest,  of  the  Neckar, 
and  of  the  count  n  between  the  Danube  and  th 

2,  liji-ariii,  that  is, "of  the  Alps,  of  Salzburg,  and  of  the 
Danube. 

:!.   Tyrol,  that  is,  of  Vorarlberg,  of  the  Inn,  of  the  Etsch 

(Adige),  and  of  the  Puster-Tlml. 
4.  .!«*/,  ,  of  the  archduchy  ol  .fSty- 

ria,  of  Carinthia,  of  Carniola,  of  Southern  Bohemia,  and 
of  Moravia. 
h.  Ali ''-1111111  //if,  subordinate  branch. 

1.  AH'-iii'iiiiiii-.   commonly  so  called  in  the  south-west 

IOC  ol  tile   Hlaek    Kole-t. 

_'.  i  -"/,  that  is,  of  Bern,  of  the  Ober- 

land  of  Hern,  ol  \\alh-.  of  tlie  country  of  the  Grisons, 
i  of  Appenzcll. 

;    lii.ili  >  i    c  i  KUas*  (Alsace)  and  of  Baden. 

!e   liranch.   i-ontaininc:   the 
dii,  \V:ild,  of  part  of  th.    : 

; 

It  are  Kenerally  confounded  with  those  of 
tlie  adjacent  flat  countries  of  Thiringia  and   the  I 
Palatinate,  which  belong  to  the  Franconian  branch. 

H.   l-'riitirniiHiii  branch. 

J,    |,  '•     ,          •         !  tlie  Middle 

Hhine.  and  of  Southern  Ilcwte. 

2.  Dialects  ofThiiriiii;ia,  except  the  Thiiringer  \Valcl,  of 

1  nl  the  Kidisleld. 
:i.  Diali-c -I-  ol  I^iiraine  and  Luxemburg,  which  are  much 

mixed  with  Low  German. 

1,  Dialect*  of  Upper  Saxony,  of  Meissen,  of  the  1 
birge,  and  of  Lunatia. 

i  )ialect»  of  Northern  Bohemia,  of  Silesia,  and  of  part 
of  the  German  colonies  in  Hui' 


C,  Dialects  of  the  noble*,  the  < 

II.  - 
»i'u«  branch,  which  the  dialects  of  \ 

-hind,  of  Salerlai.d.  of  the  islands  aloiii:  the  Dutch 
and  I  he  (iennan  coast,  and  of  tl  ilniig  the. 

coast  ol  v 

B.  Ltui'  (Strmiin  branch,  divided  into  six  -  */. : 

1.  i  'I  /.  ,.  containing  the  dia: 

of  Holstcin,  of  Hamburg,  of  Bremen,  of  Hrunsw . 
of  Hanover,  of  the  country  between  the  Harz  and  the 

id  of  the  Mar-he.-  with  F.iL-t  Frisia. 

-J.  Oi  II ,  \>/:/i, i/ni.  wiih  the  dialects  of  l'])]ier  Mianster- 
land,  of  Lower  Miinsterland,  of  Osnabriick.  of  the 
I  pp.  r  \\e-er,  of  Sauerland,  of  Mark,  and  of  Eastern 
Berg. 

3,  Of  the  Ijnrfr  Rhine  between  Neuwicd  and  Diisseldorf, 
i  -pecially  the  dialects  of  the  Kiu  I  .<-,  and  of 

. \i\-la-Clmpcllc. 

1.  Of  the  .\i'ltirr/iinJ*.  containing  the  Dutch  langiiace, 
llie   Flemish  language,   and   the  dialects  of  .luliri 
Cleve,  and  of  Geldern  in  Germany. 
."),  The  dialect  of  the  Saxons  in  V'/vi//*////-.////'/. 

'if  the  antient  II  fitilixh   countries,  coloni/.cd   li\  the 
Saxons,   containing  the  dialed-   of  Mcc!-. 
Pomerania,  of  Brandenburg,  of  the  Marks,  and  « 
Prussia. 

('.  English  branch.     [S \xo\s:    K M.I. AND.] 
III.  SCANDINAVIAN  languages. 

A.  Old  Norman  branch,  containing  the  dialect-  of  tin- 
mountaineers  of  Norway,  tin-   Icelandic  language,  and 
the  idiom  of  the  Kara1  islands. 

B.  Danish  branch,  containing  the  Danish  language,  with 
the  dialect-  of  the  island-,  of  Jutland,  and  of  Northern 
Sleswiit.  and  the  modern  Norwegian  laiiiruaire. 

(.'.   N//V(/I»/I  liranch,  containimt  tlie  Swedish  lanitiia^v,  with 
the  dialects  of  Gothland,  of  Dalecarlia,  of  Stockholm 
and  the  adjacent  country,  of  Finland,  and  of  the  Aland 
i-lands. 
(Adelung  und  Yater,    MitJiridutes  ;  Ballii.  At  I  ax  Ethnn- 

gnijihiqiif  :    Ober-Miillcr,  Atlas  BtMO-gtognfUlfi 

of,  Paris,  1«)1. 

TEVEKO'NE.     [PAPAL  STATES.] 
TEVIOTDALK.    [RoxBmnmnuk] 

TEWKE8BURY,  an  antient  market-t.-iwn  and  municipal 
and  pailiamentary  boroutth  in  the  north-western  part  ot 
(iloneestershire.  close  to  the  borders  of  Worcestershire. 
9  miles  from  Gloucester  and  10:t  from  London.  It  is  situ- 
ated on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Avon,  near  its  junction 
with  the  Severn:  and  tin-  small  ri\  ers(  .'arron  and  Swilgate, 
which  arc  tributaries  of  the  Avon,  flow  through  tlie  jian-h. 
The  immediate  neiithliourhood  of  the  town  is  subject  to 
floods.  Within  half  a  mile  of  the  town  i-  a  handsome 
iron  bridge  of  one  arch,  17-  feet  span,  over  the  Severn; 
and  there  is  an  antient  bridge  of  several  arches  over  the 
Avon,  with  a  causeway  leading  from  it  to  tlie  above-men- 
tioned iron  briditc.  The  ( 'arron  is  crossed  by  a  stone 
bridge,  and  1U,-  Sui'u'ii'e  by  two.  The  parish  extends 
about  4  miles  from  muth  to  south,  and  its  width  varies 
from  2(HI  yards  in  the  northern  part,  to  'J  miles,  its  ex- 
treme breadth.  Immediately  to  the  north  of  the  town 
the  width  of  the  parish  is  only  half  a  mile.  Here  the 
Avon  has  been  diverted  by  an  artificial  cutting  i 
New  Avon,  or  Mill  Avon.  The  parish  contains  ls:Xl 

with  the  hamlets  of  Soiithwick  in  the  southern 
and  that   of  Mythe  in  the  northern  part.     Tcwkcsbury  is  a 
borough  1;  'ion:    it  received   its  first   charter  ot 

incorporation  from  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1574.  By  the 
chatter  of  William  111.,  granted  in  1698,  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  borough  magistrates  was  extended  OM  r  the  \ 
of  the  paiish.  It  has  returned  two  members  to  parliament 
since  the  7  .lames  1.  Before  the  passing  of  the  Reform 
Act.  parts  of  the  town,  particularly  on  the  eastward, 
not  comprised  within  the  limits  of  the  parliamentary 
borouith.  but  the  whole  parish  is  now  included.  The  riirht 
of  \otmir  was  formerly  in  the  freemen  and  biiritsiite  holders, 
and  inhabitants  payinit  scot  and  lot.  The  number  of  elec- 
tors on  the  parliamentary  register  in  i  109,  includ- 
ing Hi)  who  possessed  double  qualiti-  and  of  the 
former  number.  'J.W  \  •  vd  at  !()/. 
and  upwards.  The  town  is  not  divided  into  municipal 
The  corporate  body  consists  of  a  inavor.  tour 
aldermen,  and  twelve  councillors.  The  old  corporation 


TEW 


269 


T  E  X 


was  composed  of  a  high-steward,  twenty-four  principal 
burgesses,  including  in  that  number  two  bailiffs  and  the 
recorder ;  and  there  were  besides  several  minor  officers, 
and  four  justices  for  the  borough.  The  appointment  of 
twenty-four  assistant  burgesses  was  directed  by  the  go- 
verning charter  of  William  III.,  but  none  had  been  elected 
for  many  years  prior  to  the  passing  of  the  Municipal  Cor- 
poration Reform  Act.  The  twenty-four  burgesses  were 
elected  by  the  bailiffs  and  burgesses  out  of  the  burgesses 
at  large.  The  annual  income  of  the  old  corporation  did 
not  exceed  22/.,  and  in  1828  it  was  in  debt  to  the  amount 
of  GOOOl.  The  sum  of  2000/.  was  advanced  by  the  recorder, 
and  the  property  of  the  corporation  conveyed  to  him,  on 
which  the  creditors  were  paid  G*.  Sd.  in  the  pound.  Quarter- 
sessions  for  the  borough  are  held,  and  there  is  a  court  for 
the  recovery  of  debts  under  50/. 

Tewkesbury  is  said  to  be  of  Saxon  origin,  and  to  derive 
its  name  from  Theot,  a  Saxon,  who  founded  an  hermitage 
here  in  the  seventh  century.  Early  in  the  eighth  century 
two  brothers,  dukes  of  Mercia,  founded  a  monastery,  which, 
in  the  tenth  century,  became  a  cell  to  Cranbourn  Abbey 
in  Dorsetshire.  In  the  twelfth  century  Robert  FitzHaimon 
enlarged  the  buildings  and  liberally  endowed  the  institu- 
tion, in  consequence  of  which  the  monks  of  Cranbourne 
made  Tewkesbury  the  chief  seat  of  their  establishment.  At 
the  dissolution  the  abbey  belonged  to  the  Benedictines, 
and  its  annual  revenue  was  1598/.  A  great  battle  was 
fought  on  the  14th  of  May,  1471,  within  half  a  mile  of 
Tewkesbury,  when  the  Lancastrians  sustained  a  most  dis- 
astrous defeat,  and  both  Queen  Margaret  and  her  son  Prince 
Edward  were  taken.  The  town  was  successively  in  the 
hands  of  the  royalists  and  parliamentarians  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  civil  war  ;  but  in  1644  it  was  taken  by 
the  latter,  and  held  until  the  close  of  the  war. 

The  town  principally  consists  of  three  good  streets,  well- 
built,  with  a  number  of  smaller  ones  branching  from  them. 
According  to  the  census  of  1831,  the  population  amounted 
to  5780.  The  principal  manufacture  is  the  cotton  and 
lambs'-wool  hosiery.  In  1810  the  number  of  stockiiiLT- 
frames  in  the  town  was  800 :  and  in  1833  there  were  600. 
The  wages  averaged  12*.  in  the  former  year,  and  7s.  in  the 
latter.  The  number  of  men,  aged  20  and  \ipwards,  em- 
ployed in  the  stocking  manufacture  in  1831  was  300  (Pup. 
cv  .  and  44  were  engaged  in  the  lace  manufacture. 
Nail-making  formerly  employed  a  considerable  number, 
but  in  1833  there  were  only  50  persons  so  occupied.  (Man. 
< "'irii.  /i'</;'/r/\.  Tewkesbury  was  and  is  still  the  centre  of 
an  extensive  carrying-trade  on  the  Severn  and  Avon  ;  but 
the  improvement  of  the  navigation  of  the  Severn  to  Glou- 
crster,  by  means  of  a  ship-canal,  is  said  to  have  been  in- 
jurious to  Tewkesbury,  and-  to  the  improved  means  of  in- 
tercourse with  other  towns  in  the  same  district  is  also 
ascribed  some  decline  in  the  attendance  at  the  corn-market. 
The  iron  bridge  across  the  Severn,  which  opened  a  com- 
munication with  Hereford  and  Wales,  counterbalances  on 
the  other  hand  the  effects  of  the  above-mentioned  im- 
provements. There  is  a  branch  railway  from  Tewkesbury 
rather  more  than  two  miles  in  length,  which  joins  the  Bir- 
mingham and  Gloucester  Railway.  The  collegiate  church 
of  the  antient  monastery  is  now  the  parish  church.  It  is 
a  noble  and  venerable  structure,  in  the  early  Norman  style, 
and  consists  of  a  nave,  choir,  and  transepts,  with  a  tower 
using  from  the  centre,  supported  on  massive  and  lofty  piers 
with  circular  arches.  The  roof  is  finely  groined  and  carved. 
There  are  several  antient  chantry  chapels  in  the  east  end 
of  the  choir,  which  is  hexagonal.  Some  of  the  monuments 
are  in  memory  of  persons  who  fell  at  the  battle  of  Tewkes- 
bury". The  living  is  a  vicarage,  of  the  gross  annual  value  of 
376/.  A  new  church  was  opened  in  1837.  All  the  principal 
denominations  of  dissenters  have  places  of  worship.  There 
i^  a  grammar-school  with  an  endowment  of  52'.  a  year.  The 
master  is  appointed  by  the  corporation.  When  the  corpora- 
tion comnii»Moncrs  visited  Tewkesbury  in  18a3,  the  master 
was  a  clergyman  and  one  of  the  borough  justices,  and  for 
many  years  the  school  had  not  been  attended  by  more  than 
three  or  four  pupils.  In  1833  there  were,  besides  the  above, 
and  two  boarding-schools,  12  daily  schools  in  the  parish, 
attended  by  6'l7  children,  and  several  Sunday-schools,  at 
which  588  children  were  instructed.  The  national  school  is 
f.artly  supported  by  an  antient  endowment  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  20  children,  and  a  Lancasterian  school  is  dependent 
on  voluntary  contributions.  There  are  almshouses  for  10 
poor  persons  and  several  medical  and  other  charities  of  com- 


paratively recent  date.  The  town-hall  was  built  in  178G : 
the  upper  part  contains  an  assembly-room  and  a  hall  for 
meetings  of  the  corporation  ;  and  the  lower  part  is  appro- 
priated to  the  borough  courts.  A  gaol,  house  of  correction, 
and  penitentiary  were  erected  under  a  local  act  passed  in 
1812.  The  market-house  is  a  handsome  building,  with  Doric 
columns  and  pilasters  supporting  a  pediment  in  front.  There 
is  a  small  theatre  and  public  library  and  news-room.  The 
town  is  paved,  lighted,  and  watched  under  a  local  act  passed 
in  1786.  The  market-days  are  Wednesday  and  Saturday :  the 
former  for  corn,  sheep,  pigs,  &c. ;  and  the  latter  for  poultry 
and  provisions.  There  are  fairs  in  March,  April,  May, 
June,  September,  October,  December ;  and  a  statute  fair  at 
Michaelmas. 

(Dyde's  Hist,  of  Teu-hesbury ,-  Pop.  Returns,  1831 ;  Re- 
ports of  Ecclesiastical  Commissioners  and  of  the  Muni- 
cipal Corporation  Commissioners,  &c.  &c.) 

TEXAS.  Since  the  publication  of  the  article  on  Mexico 
[MEXICAN  STATES,  THE  UNITED],  Texas,  which  was  then 
merely  an  insurgent  province  of  that  republic,  has  been 
recognised  as  an  independent  state  by  the  leading  powers 
of  Europe  and  America.  A  succinct  statement  of  the 
revolution  by  which  this  change  has  been  effected  is  ne- 
cessary. 

A  decree  of  the  Constituent  Cortes  of  Mexico,  dated  7th 
May,  1824,  declares  that  Texas  shall  be  annexed  to  Coa- 
huila until  it  possess  the  elements  necessary  to  the  forma- 
tion of  a  separate  state  ;  but  that  as  soon  as  it  shall  possess 
these  elements,  the  connection  is  to  be  dissolved,  and  a 
separate  state-constitution  given  to  Texas. 

At  the  time  when  this  decree  was  published,  Texas  pro- 
bably^did  not  contain  4000  inhabitants  of  the  European 
race.*  The  district  of  Bexar,  which  in  1806  contained 
6400  colonists  from  Mexico,  was  found  in  1835  to  contain 
only  3400  of  that  class,  scattered  over  the  settlement  of 
San  Antonio,  the  missions,  and  frontier  military  posts  ;  and 
this  process  of  depopulation  had  reached  its  lowest  ebb 
for  some  time  before  the  latter  date.  In  the  districts  of 
Brazos  and  Nacogdoches  there  were,  in  1824,  no  inhabit- 
ants of  European  descent,  except  at  the  military  posts. 

The  government  of  Mexico  had  made  efforts,  both  while 
the  country  was  a  Spanish  colony,  and  after  the  recognition 
of  its  independence,  to  promote  the  settlement  of  Texas 
by  the  Empressario  system  of  colonization,  i.e.  by  granting 
tracts  of  land  to  individuals,  who  were  to  forfeit  the  grant 
unless  they  settled  a  specific  number  of  colonists  on  them 
within  a  limited  period.  In  furtherance  of  this  policy, 
permission  was  given  by  the  supreme  government  of  the 
eastern  internal  provinces,  on  the  17th  of  January, 
1821,  to  Moses  Austin,  by  birth  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  to  introduce  into  Texas  from  Louisiana 300  families, 
'  being  Catholics,  or  agreeing  to  become  so  on  entering  the 
Spanish  territory,'  and  also  agreeing  to  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  the  crown  of  Spain  ;  and  a  tract  of  land  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  Brazos  river  was  granted  them  to  settle 
upon.  Some  difficulties  arose  from  the  disturbed  political 
state  of  Mexico  at  that  time  ;  but  in  1824  colonising  ope- 
rations were  begun  by  Stephen,  the  son  of  Moses  Austin 
(his  father  having  died  in  the  interim) ;  and  on  the  24th 
of  March,  1825,  a  colonization  law  for  Coahuila  and  Texas 
was  promulgated.  In  the  course  of  1825  and  1826,  seven 
more  Empressario  grants  were  made,  and  the  parties  ob- 
taining them  became  bound  to  introduce  about  2000 
foreign  families,  under  the  same  conditions  as  had  been 
prescribed  to  the  Austins. 

Under  these  grants  the  colonising  of  Texas  from  the 
United  States  proceeded  with  such  rapidity,  that  in  1835 
Colonel  Almonte,  a  commissioner  of  the  Mexican  govern- 
ment, reported  the  population  of  the  province  to  be  as 
follows:  — In  Bexar,  4000  inhabitants  of  European  origin, 
of  whom  3400  were  Spanish  Mexicans  and  600  Irish 
settlers ;  in  Brazos,  8000,  of  whom  1000  were  negroes, 
almost  exclusively  colonists  from  the  United  States ;  in 
Nacogdoches,  9000,  of  whom  1000  were  negroes,  also  An- 
glo-American colonists.  In  addition  to  these,  Texas  con- 
tained about  15,000  Indians,  of  whom  4000  were  friendly 
to  the  European  race  and  11,000  hostile.  About  10,000 
of  the  hostile  Indians  haunted  the  district  of  Brehar,  the 
rest  were  scattered  over  the  district  of  Brazos.  The 
Mexican  commissioner  remarked  in  his  report  that  the 
part  of  Texas  which  presented  the  greatest  difficulties  to 
travellers  was  that  which  lay  between  the  frontiers  of 
Coahuila  and  San  Antonio  de  Bexar:  the  province  was 


T  5 


T  B  X 


UO.iKK)  beloueed  to  tin-  S;  -can 


uolatcd  from  the  n-  I  hud 

nn  easy  commii1 

•  nterprise  and  v 
Hi,-  • 

had  been  < 

• 

.   Draco*. 
MOweit 

It 

id  concurred  b- 

diMrnst 

:can  colonists  on  the  one  bnnd.  and  tin 
Spanish   descent    and   tlu  •  nt    on   the 

other.     It  had  been  made  on,  "f  the 

Kmprcssario  irraut.s  that  sehoo1  •')>•  Spanish 

i   all   tin-   new  settlements. 

The  wealthier  B- 
i  their  children  to  be  cdu- 
-.  and  the  poorer  -_'a\i-  theirs  no  edu- 

.;  of  settling   sonic    hnnd-i 
famil:  new  eoniers   in   the   Millie 

t  tu  n  certain  d.  .itrol  IVonn  —sario, 

further  contributed  to  ;)ie\ent  their  amalgamating  with 
the  S])aniards.  They  continued  thoroughly  Kndish  in 
their  language  and  customs.  Religion  ton  became  a  means 
of  incrcasiiisr  the  mutual  repul-  new-comers  had 

no  objection  to  call  theinsehcs  Roman  i  atholics,  but  they 
lax  in  their  (>!•-  •!,!  this 

irritated  the  priests  and  hn-ntrht  t'  settlers  to 

reirard  them  as  persons  o!'  indiffervnt  character.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  ere  ulialed 

by   the    strinsrcnt    custom-house    regulations    and   semi- 
military  government  of  Mexico.     The  cnu-stion  oi 
slavery,  too,  added  to  their  sources  of  discontent.     By  the 

of  the  treaty  of  amity  and  i-ommi-: 
:  Great  Britain  and  Mexico,  the  iro\  eminent  of  the 
latter  country  cnrra>red   to   prevent   all   r  -  from 

UWnr  part  in  the  external  .ie.    The  rule  \- 

laxed  in  favour  of  the  colonists  from  the  I'niti 
l»  to  allo*  their  bringing  thei:  "ithem:  but  the 

•  tions  under  which  this  permission  was  irranted 
1   constant   collisions  between  them  and  the  • 
of  the    customs.     The   decree   of   'Jllth  Si 
•WDchinir  slaven-    throughout    the  Mexican    dom. 


wealth    of  the   An<rlo-Amcrican 
part  I \  '  t  of  then 


s   with   jca' 

lernment   of  tlie 
iff  Texas.     The 


York  ma>omc  11  had  he- 

.i-ure  mere  instruments  of  the  ; 
and    centi;  :    and    Poinsctt,    tlie    An: 

.  !iad  not  only  been  instrumental  in  t'onnd- 
ine  1 
part   in  the  internal    political    contests   and  nitric 


half  t  .Her  of  th. 

.  n  the 

In  lUff)  the  irritati>' 

1  lie  niilita: 
I  IH-W  )>o*' 

il  at   (lie  tnidinir  si: 
r  of    MiAicau   solc!i> 
almnt   l:«HI.  and  placed  u  . 

calehielnof  l!e\ar,  Hnizo-.  -.  the  tir^i -men- 

tioned  beiiiff  intrusted  with  I1 
the  (ilh  of  April,   IKiu 
'itin?  nil  <•; 

jinblic  immediai 

edict  the  newly  arrived  settlers  from  the  I 

Texas  and  those  who  were  on  I! 

serious  inconvenience  ,    On  the  remoiMran 

Colonel  Austin,  the  enlbrcemcr'  wa»  miti- 

gated by  the  local    antlnni: 
to  t«k=  'ii  of  their  lands,  bu- 

titles  in  only  two  of  :! 
already  established  in  Texas. 

After  the  government  had  th-  .d  the  property 

of  the  most  numerous  and  \  rtion  of  the  popula- 

tion, a  revolution  was  inevitable 
case,  the  tii>t  hostile  collision  between  the 
goveniment  fore. 

irrievance-.      An  attempt  made   by  the    uro\ernor  of 
hnae   1o  arrest    an   Anirlo  d   the 

military  and  the  sctti< 
each  other  in  June,  i 

captured   the  post   fit   Yc!,i-co.   intercepted   tl 
chief  i  to  relieve  the  iramson  ol 

Analn  •in-eiider.  and   obliged  the 

governor  of  that  fort  to  fly  from  the  countn 
who  had  a  short  time  before  promulgated  vh:,' 
called  •  the  jila-  '  'm/.'  and   ' 


in   1  e\r.-   tllspat  Hi  \ia  w  !'! 

that   provii  as   aei-onij 

TV\as  in  •, 
the  evjilanation  tha' 

•  ;e  \\hole  of  Texas  declared   for  '  the  *pl 

'  >. -toher.  ls:?i!.  a  com 
de  Austin  i 

for  tin  "i!a  and  fo- 

ot' the  law  -  eolci- 

:othc:-  cotnent; 
place  i 
Hpprohation  of  ' 


eentr 
dant. 
tVom  t 

• 

•  ttler*  in  '; 
jxilities.  \Vhe:i 
mode  their  mad  a'tempt 


•1  ill  the  :: 
rfjn  •• 

democrat   or  ad- 
individna] 


I- 

But  on  a 

-jiirion  as  the  i 
.''ii. 

The  oiii- 
annex  Texa 

the  , 


ana 

illusion  :  anil  nn  the  'Jnd  c 
tliem   to 

the  K 

'Hie  !  themselves  to  the  I 

• 

• 

ulvcd, 
Iftce 

.   ,,t. 


T  K  X 


271 


TEX 


The  appeal  to  arms  was  precipitated  by  a  eu&tom-hous 
brawl.  An  attack  was  made  under  some  pretext  or  an 
other  on  the  custom-house  at  Anahuac.  Captain  Thomp 
son,  dispatched  by  the  Centra]  Government,  in  June,  1835 
at  the  request  of  the  Ayuntamiento  of  that  place,  in  th( 
Correo  war-schooner,  to  inquire  into  the  affair,  precipi 
lately  attacked  and  captured  a  Texan  trading-vessel.  Thi 
proprietors  of  the  prize  armed  another  trading-ship,  tool 
the  Correo,  and  sent  the  captain  to  New  Orleans  under  a 
charge  of  piratically  interrupting  the  trade  between  the 
United  States  and  Texas.  In  the  month  of  August  Santa 
Anna  requested  the  Texans  to  deliver  up  Zavala,  a  leader 
of  the  Federal  party,  who  had  been  his  friend  and  sup- 
porter while  he  remained  faithful  to  '  the  plan  of  Vera 
t  'nu,'  but  latterly  his  enemy.  The  request  was  refused 
and  reports  soon  after  reached  Texas  that  Santa  Anna  was 
mustering  troops  to  invade  it. 

While  affairs  were  in  this  position,  Stephen  Austin 
was  entertained  at  a  public  dinner  in  Brazoria,  on  his 
return  from  his  long  captivity.  Austin  had,  as  long 
Id,  done  his  utmost  to  prevent  the  discontents 
of  the  settlers  assuming  a  political  complexion,  ant 
when  that  was  no  longer  possible,  had  steadily  opposec 
any  projects  that  seemed  to  point  at  a  separation  from 
Mexico.  The  advice  therefore  which  he  gave  on  this 
occasion,  to  organise  committees  of  safety  and  vigilance 
throughout  the  province,  was  at  once  and  implicitly  fol- 
lowed. He  was  himself  appointed  chairman  of  the  com- 
mittee of  his  own  colony,  to  which  a  degree  of  control 
over  the  other  committees  was  tacitly  conceded.  Before 
the  organisation  of  the  country  was  completed  hostilities 
wore  commenced  between  the  colonists  and  the  military  in 
the  province  :  in  consequence  of  which  Austin,  in  the  begin- 
ing  of  October,  assumed  the  command  of  an  army  hastily 
rted  at  Gonsalez,  and  Zavala  was  appointed  chair- 
man of  the  Austin  committee  in  his  stead. 

On  the  3rd  of  October,  1835,  General  Ban-agon  issued  a 
derive  abolishing  the  legislative  powers  of  the  several 
states  and  establishing  a  central  republic  in  Mexico.  A 
al  consultation  of  Texan  delegate./  was,  in  conse- 
quence of  this  measure,  held  at  Austin,  which,  on  the  7th 
of  November,  issued  a  declaration  in  favour  of  state-rights  ; 
summoned  a  convention  of  delegates  to  be  held  at  Wash- 
ington in  Galvtston,  on  the  1st  of  February  next ; 
and  organized  an  interim  government.  Henry  Smith  was 
chosen  governor  and  W.  Robison  lieutenant-governor ; 
Samuel  Houston  was  appointed  major-general  and  coni- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  regular  army  of  Texas;  and  Stephen 
Austin,  B.  T.  Archer,  and  W.  H.  Wharton  were  appointed 
commissioners  to  the  United  States. 

The   new  commander-in-chief  immediately  established 

his    head-quarters   at   Washington.      In   .January,     la'tti, 

Stephen  Austin  reported  that  he  had  concluded  a  loan  at 

New  Orleans  of  200,000  dollars,  and  had  hopes  of  raising 

another  of   400,000.      Volunteer  troops  in   aid    of   the 

:s  were    racing   in   Louisiana,  Tennessee,  Alabama, 

and  Georgia.     The  Convention  met  at  Washington  on  the 

i-nary,  and  on  the  2nd  of  March  it  published  a 

ation  of  independence,  signed  by  fitly  delegates,  of 

whom  Lorenzo  de  Zavala   was  one.      In  the  election  of 

officers  of  state  which  immediately  followed,  Zavala  was 

chosen  vice-president. 

Santa  Anna  marched  from  Saltillo  on  the  same  day  that 
the  Convention  met  at  Washington.  He  was  successful  in 
his  first  encounters ;  but  on  the  21st  of  April  he  was 
led  and  taken  prisoner  by  General  Houston.  On  the 
1  Hh  of  May  he  signed  a  convention  for  the  evacuation  of 
,  and  soon  after  not  a  Mexican  soldier  remained  in 
the  state.  The  constitution  adopted  by  the  new  state  is 
a  close  imitation  of  the  state  government  of  the  Northern 
Union  ;  and,  like  its  prototype,  presents  the  anomaly  of 
slavery  existing  under  laws  which  profess  to  regard  all 
men  as  equal. 

Texas  was  recognised  as  an  independent  republic  by  the 
.  nment  of  the  United  States  on  the  3rd  of  March,  1837. 
A  mot  ion  was  made  in  congress  for  receiving  it  into  the  Union, 
but  after  some  discussion  withdrawn.  France  recognised 
the  independence  of  Texas  and  concluded  a  treaty  with  it 
on  the  25th  September,  1839.  A  treaty  of  amity  and  com- 
merce between  England  and  Texas  was  signed  in  London, 
on  the  ICth  of  November,  1840,  and  ratified  by  the  Texan 
government  in  February,  1841.  The  Mexican  government 
Im  expressed  a  determination  to  reconquer  Texas  ;  but  it 


is  not  likely  that  in  the  distracted  and  impoverished  state 
of  that  country  it  will  be  able  to  reduce  a  population 
almost  inaccessible  by  land  from  Mexico,  possessed  of 
better  harbours  and  more  shipping,  in  a  position  to  receive 
constant  support  from  the  United  States  even  against  the 
will  of  the  government  at  Washington,  and  on  terms  of 
alliance  and  amity  with  England,  France,  and  the  United 
States.  Nor  is  it  to  be  desired  that  Texas  should  on  any 
terms  be  re-annexed  to  Mexico:  its  Anglo-American 
population  never  could  assimilate  with  the  Spanish  Mexi- 
cans. 

(Texas,  by  William  Kennedy,  London,  1840;  Colonel 
Almente's  Report  on  the  Statistics  of  Texas,  Mexico, 
1833  ;  Correspondence  of  the  daily  Papers  of  London  and 
Paris ;  Debates  in  the  British  Parliament,  the  Congress 
of  the  United  States,  and  French  Chamber  of  Deputies.') 

TEXEIRA,  or  TEXERA,  JOSEPH,  was  born  of  a  good 
family  in  Portugal,  about  the  beginning  of  1543.  Alter 
distinguishing  himself  at  the  University,  he  entered  tin- 
order  of  St.  Dominic  in  15G5,  and  obtained  general  respect. 
for  bis  learning  and  virtue.  He  was  prior  of  the  convent 
of  Santarem  in  1578,  when  King  Sebastian  undertook  his 
expedition  into  Africa. 

In  the  troubles  which  ensued,  Texeira  attached  himself 
to  the  party  of  Don  Antonio,  and  accompanied  that  prince 
to  France  in  1581,  where  he  went  to  solicit  assistance 
against  Philip  II.  Texeira  published  at  Paris,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  1582,  a  compendium  of  the  history  of  Portugal. 
The  work  is  very  scarce  (it  is  described  as  a  thin  quarto  of 
70  pages),  and  appears  to  have  been  published  for  the 
purpose  of  supporting  Don  Antonio's  claim  to  the  throne 
of  Portugal.  The  author  was  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Spaniards  in  the  naval  battle  off  Terceira  on  the  26th  of 
July,  1582,  and  carried  to  Lisbon,  whence  he  contrived  to 
make  his  escape  and  rejoin  Don  Antonio.  Duard  Nonius 
a  Leone,  a  converted  Jew,  employed  by  Philip  II.  to  re- 
fute the  '  Compendium  of  Portuguese  History,'  asserts 
:hat  Texeira,  while  a  prisoner  at  Lisbon,  denied  to  him 
:hat  he  was  the  author. 

The  partisans  of  the  League  having  obliged  Don  Anto- 
nio to  quit  Paris,  Texeira  accompanied  him  a,s  his  con- 
'essor,  tirst  to  Bretagne,  and  in  1586  to  England.  In  1588, 
laving  returned  to  France,  he  was  introduced  to  Henri  III. 
and  the  queen-mother :  the  former  appointed  him  a  court 
chaplain  ;  the  latter  dispatched  him  on  a  confidential  mis- 
sion to  Lyon,  then  in  the  possession  of  (he  League, 
jelieving  that  a  Dominican  friar  was  unlikely  to  be  sus- 
pected of  being  an  agent  of  the  court.  Texeira  rc- 
nained  at  Lyon  from  July,  1588,  to  January,  1589.  During 
his  interval  he  prepared  for  publication  a  reply  to  the 
attack  upon  his  History  by  Nonius  i  Leone.  This  pamphlet, 
or  some  indiscreet  expressions  in  conversation,  having 
given  umbrage  to  the  Leaguers,  he  was  obliged  to  fly ; 
the  papers  left  in  his  cell  were  seized,  and  the  whole  im- 
>ression  of  his  pamphlet  (with  the  exception  of  one  or 
wo  copies)  destroyed. 

He  rejoined  Henri  III.  at  Tours,  and  after  the  murder  of 
hat  prince,  in  August,  1589,  was  continued  in  his  office  of 
:ourt-chaplain  by  Henri  IV.,  to  whose  service  he  attached 
ihnself.  After  the  entry  of  Henri  into  Paris,  Don  Antonio 
vas  enabled  to  return  to  that  city,  and  Texeira  appears  to 
lave  resumed  his  office  of  confessor.  In  March,  1595,  he 
mblished  a  new  edition  of  the  work  which  had  been  de- 
itroyed  at  Lyon,  but  his  labour  was  in  vain,  for  he  was 
tailed,  in  the  August  following,  to  perform  the  last  service 
if  his  church  to  the  prince  whose  cause  he  had  advocated 
vith  such  fidelity. 

In  1596  Texeira  was  a  witness  of  the  public  abjuration 
jf  Calvinism  by  the  dowager-princess  cff  Conde.  at  Rouen. 
.'lie  Papal  legate  selected  him  to  instruct  and  confirm  the 
>rincess  in  her  new  faith  ;  and  from  that  time  till  his  death 
le  continued  attached  to  the  service  of  the  house  of 
Conde.  This  engagement  left  him  pretty  much  the  com- 
mand of  his  own  time,  and  he  employed  it  principally  in 
lis  favourite  study  of  genealogy.  A  list  of  his  published 
vorks  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  this  article  :  here  it  is 
mly  necessary  to  remark  that  to  the  second  edition  of  his 
Genealogy  of  the  House  of  Conde,'  published  in  1598,  he 
idded  an  account  of  the  public  ceremonial  of  the  princess's 
econcilialion  with  the  Roman  Catholic  church. 

In  1601  he  published  a  narrative  of  the  adventures  of 
)on  Sebastian,  '  from  his  expedition  into  Africa  in  1578, 
ill  the  6th  of  January  of  this  present  year  1601.'  We  have 


r  i.  \ 


j   i:  \ 


not  been  able  to  procure  this  work  :  but  the  following  pas- 
Mge  from  Etoiles  'Journal  of  the  Reign  of  Henri  IV.' 
throws  some  light  upon  the  expression  quoted  from  its  title- 
— •  Friday. the  1st  ol  June.  I(i01,come-the  intelligence 
that  the  I'al-e  or  true  Don  Seba-tian  (for  as  yet  one  i, 
not  which  to  call  hi  ml  has  been  sent  to  the  galleys  by 
order  of  the  viceroy  of  Naples.  .  .  .  The  Portuguese  main- 
tain that  he  is  tho'tnie  Don  Sebastian  :  they  have  solicited 
various  courts  to  obtain  his  liberty,  and  published  s. 
woik-  in  his  favour.  Among  others  Joseph  Texeira,  a 
Dominican,  has  undertaken  several  journeys  to  Bavaria. 
England,  Venice,  and  Rome,  where  he  has  disseminated 
hi- writings;  and  finally,  he  ha.-  cau-ed  to  bo  printed  at 
Paris  a  collection  of  prophecies  current  among  the  Portu- 
.  which  foretold  all  that  has  happened  to  their  king 
Sebastian.'  That  Texeira,  whose  writings  show  him  to 
have  been  an  accomplished  scholar,  whose  confidential 
employment  by  Catherine  de'  Medici  i-  a  strong  testimony 
in  favour  of  his  abilities,  and  whose  high  moral  character 
is  acknowledged  on  all  hands,  should  have  believed  the 
individual  here  mentioned  to  have  been  the  real  Don  Se- 
bastian appears  upon  first  thoughts  a  strong  testimony  in 
his  favour.  But  L'EtoileV  account  of  the  nature  of  the 
book  weakens  the  presumption,  and  Texeira's  inv,  I 
against  the  Spaniards  renders  it  probable  that  the  account 
is  correct.  He  is  said  to  have  declared  from  the  pulpit. 
when  preaching  on  the  duty  of  loving  one's  neighbour, 
that  •  we  are  bound  to  love  all  men.  of  whatever  religion, 
sect,  or  nation — even  Ca-1ilians.' 

Tcxeira  died  in  the  convent  of  the  Jacobins  at  Paris,  on 
tin-  '2!llh  or  :«lth  of  Juno,  1004.  L'Etoile,  who  mentions 
his  death,  says.  -He  had  just  returned  from  England, 
whither  he  had  been  sent  by  the  king,  who  gave  him  a 
hund  -  for  the  expenses  of  the  journey.  \Vhile 

there  he  had  seen  the  king  of  England,  to  whom  he  pre- 
sented his  "Genealogy"  which  he  had  compiled,  and  which 
wa-  well  received,  tie  was  on  the  eve  of  returning  to 
England  when  ho  was  taken  ill.'  Texeira's  frequent  visit- 
to  England,  both  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth  and  James,  gave 
rise  to  suspicions  of  his  attachment  to  the  Romish  Church. 
For  these  there  does  not  appear  to  have  been  any  i 
able  ground  :  he  was  opposed  to  the  ultra- Romanist  party 
of  the  League  in  France,  because  it  was  allied  with  Philip 
II.,  but  his  religious  opinions  never  appear  to  have 
varied. 

The  published  works  of  Texeira  are — 1,  '  De  Portugalhae 
Ortu,  Regni  Initiis,  dcniquo  de  K< •',  mis  mmer- 

soque  regno  pracclar  mipendium,'  Parisiis,  l.'i^J. 

in  4to..  77  pp.,  very  rare:  2,  'Do  Electionis  Jure  quod 
competit  viris  Portugallensibus  in  augurandissuisRegibus 
ac  Piincipibus.'  Parisiis.  IfiiX).  Svo.  :  this  is  a  reprint 
of  the  answer  to  Nonius  i  Leone,  printed  and  destroyed 
at  Lynn  in  1.X1I :  a  third  edition  was  published  at  Pan-  in 
with  the  title,  'Speculum  Tyrannidis  Philippi.  Regis 
Castillae,  in  usnrpanda  Portugallia  :'  :i.  •  Exegesis  Genea- 
logica,  sive  Exphcatio  Arboris  Gentilitiac  invictis-imi  ac 
potent  i>-.itni  Gailiarum  rcgis  Henrici  cjus  nomtnis  IV.'  This 
work  was  published  at  Tours  in  lijflO;  at  Leyden,  with  ad- 
ditions, in  15!)2;  again  at  Leydcn  in  11)17, "with  the  title, 
•  Stcmmata  Franciae  item  Navarrae  Regum  a  prima  ntri- 
wsqin  (i:igine;'  all  the  three  editions  are  in  4to. ; 

I.  •  Explicatio  Genealogiae  Henrici  II..  Comleao  Principis.' 
EL  An  edition  in  4to.,  and  another  in  8vo.,  and 
a  translation  into  French  by  .Kan  de  Montlyard,  all  ap- 
peared in  the  same  year.  To  the  edition  of  ffillH  was  ap- 
pended '  Narratio  in  qua  tractatur  de  Apparitione,  Ahjura- 
tione.  Conver-ione.et  Synaxi  lllustrissimae  Principis  Char- 
lottae  Catharinae  Trimolliae,  Pum -ipl-.ie  Condea. 
'  De  Flammula,  seu  Vexillo  S.  Diony-ii,  vel  de  Orimphla 
aut  Anriflamma  Tractatus,'  Paris,  15US,  Svo.  :  li.  -  Adven- 
ture admirable  par  dovers  toutes  aut  res  des  SuVles  pa— i'- 
ol  presents,  qni  contient  un  Discours  tonchant  le«  oucces 
du  Rx>i  de  Portugal,  D.  Sebastian,  depuis  son  voyage 
d  At'nquc.  auqnol  il  se  perdit  en  la  bataille  qu'il  cut 
contre  les  Infidclcs  en  l."i"«.  jnsqu'au  6  de  Janvier  p 
an  l«)l  ;'  traduit  du  Castillan.  Paris,  Svo. 

(Tin-  sketch  has  boon  compiled  from  the  diotinn-i. 
B»ylc  and  Moreri,  and  Nicolaus  Antonius  :  fiom  th 
fcce*  to  Texeira'i  'Genealogy  of  Henri  IV..  and  his  Reply 
i  I.e. me  ;  and  from  Pierre  de  I'Etoile's  -Journal 
in  IV.,' vol.  ii.t  pp.  069-61, nd  vol.iii., 
pp.  l»4-fl,  edition  published  at  the  Hapuc  in  1761,  in  4 
»ok  «vo.) 


I'KXEIRA,  or  TKXKKA.  PKDRO,  a  native  of  Portn 
gal,  one  of  the  earliest  cultivators  of  modern  Per-ian  litera- 
ture.    The  place  and  date  of  his  birth  and  death  are  alilie 
unknown.     The  author  of  the  notice  of  his   life   in  the 

io^iaphie  I'liiverselle.'  says  that  lie  wa-  born  in  l.'iTO, 
but  does  not  mention  the  authority  on  which  he  makes  the 
statement. 

Cotolendi,  who  translated  Texeira's  work  into  French. 

•hat  his  author.  •  instigated   by  a  vehement  desire'  to 

become    acquainted    with    the    hi-tory    of    Persia,    passed 

M-ars  in  that  country,  and  having  made  hi: 
:l\  master  of  the  language,  devoted  himself,  by  the 
advice  of  some  able  and  enlightened  Persians, to  the  study 
of  Mirkhond.  [See  the  account  of  this  historian  in  the 
article  PKKSI\.  under  the  head  I.itfrnlurr.']  Texeira  him- 
self has  informed  us  that  being  at  Malacca,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  KKK),  he  embarked  in  the  month  of  May  for  the 
Philippine  Inlands,  whence  he  took  shipping  for  Mexico, 
and  ultimately  arrived  at  Lisbon  on  the  'JOth  October, 
1601.  His  correspondents  in  the  F.a>t  having  failed  to 
transmit  to  him  some  money  which  he  had  left  in  their 
charge,  he  was  obliged  to  undertake  a  \oyagc  to  (ioa  to 
recover  it.  Di-gn>ted  with  the  sea,  he  resolved  to  return 
overland;  and  having  in  pursuance  of  his  determination 
sailed  from  (!oa,  on  the  !)th  of  February,  1COJ.  and  a 
at  Ha-rah  on  theu'th  of  August  being  detained  some  time 
at  Ormuz),  he  travelled  by  way  of  Mes-hcd-Ali  to  liagdmi, 
and  thence  to  Anna,  Aleppo,  and  Scanderoon.  where  he 
took  shipping  for  Venice.  After  a  short  stay  in  that  city. 
he  made  the  tour  of  Italy,  cro— e°l  the  Alp- into  Fi 
and  then  retired  to  Antwerp,  where  he  spent  his  time 
in  compiling  a  book,  which  he  published  in  1610. 
that  event  we  again  lose  sight  of  him  entirely. 

Hi^  work,  the  tii-st  book  of  which.  -d  by  An- 

tonio de  Leon  Pinelo.  was  composed  in  Portuguese,  but 
translated  into  Spanish,  and  the  rest  written  in  that  lan- 
guage with  a  view  to  publication,  is  entitled.  '  Relacion  do 
los  R(\es  de  Pcisia  v  Ormuz  :  Viagi  de  la  India  Oriental 
hasta  ftalia  por  Tierra  el  afio  de  10(H,'  Antwerp.  1610.  N . 
Antonio  says  it  was  published  in -ito. :  Antonio  de  I.e.  .11 
that  it  was  published  in  Svo.)  It  consists  of  three  . 
the  lirst  is  a  history  of  the  kings  of  Persia,  compiled  from 
Mirkhond  with  a  brief  continual  ion,  down  to  the  age  of  the 
compiler;  the  second  is  an  abridgment  of  the  history  of 
Ormuz,  by  Turan->liah,  one  of  the  kings  of  that  district  <:\ 
work  which  appears  to  be  known  in  Kurope  only  from 
Texeira's  abstract),  also  with  a  continuation  ;  the  third, 
an  account  of  Texeira's  overland  journey  from  India  to 
Europe.  Alfonso  Lasor  translated  the  work  into  Italian 
and  inserted  it  in  his  Orbf  I  iin-cr^il  the  same  year  in 
which  it  was  published  :  Sehikhart.  in  his  'Tarich.  sen  B 
Regum  Persiae,'  published  at  Tubingen  in  16'JK.  speaks 
in  the  highest  terms  of  Texeira's  learning  and  dilig, 
Van  Laet  appended  a  Latin  translation  of  Texeira's  Itine- 
rary from  Ormuz  to  Basrah  and  Bagdad  to  his  •  1'. 
published  at  Leyden  in  WM :  Cotolendi  published  a 
French  translation  of  the  entire  book  at  Paris  in  KIM. 
which  the  writer  in  the  '  Biographic  1  'niverselle '  justly 
characterises  as  '  asscz  mauvaise.'  In  short,  down  to  the 
time  of  Tavernier  and  Chardin.  Texeira  appear- to  have 
been  regarded  as  the  principal  authority  respecting  l'er>ia. 
The  historical  part  of  his  work  is  now  of  little  importance, 
but  his  voyage  up  the  Persian  (iulf,  and  his  route  from 
Basrah  to  Meihed-AIi,  Bagdad.  Anna,  Aleppo,  and  ^ 
dcroon,  may  still  be  studied  with  advantage. 

Antonio  and  Leon  Pinelo  mention  a  book  entitled 
fragm  de  Jorge  Albuquerque  e  Prosopopeia  a  sen   louvor,' 
published  at    Lisbon   in   lull,   by  a  Peter  Texeira,  but   do 
not  identify  him  with  our  author.     A  '  Certiticacion  del 
Discnhrimiento    de    el    Maraiion,'    bv    a    Pedio   TV\ 
•  Capilan  Maior  del  Para,' is  appended  to  the  account  of 
the   discovery  of  that  river,  published  at    Madrid   in  KM1, 
by  Christoval  dc  Acufia  :  this  was  ,i|  I  did'eront 

'..  A  third  geographer  of  the  name  of  Pcd;o  Texeira 
is  mentioned  by  Antonio  as  alive  at  Madrid  a  few  years 
previous  to  the' publication  of  his  dictionary  (Ki7^):  this 
one  compiled  a  map  of  Portugal  and  a  •  Dc-cripcion  do 
na,'  neither  of  which  appear  to  have  been 
published. 

(Voyagm  de  T< ./<•//./..<//  /'// 
traduite  d'Espagnole  en  1  .    U;sl,   rjmo.  ; 

J:/,I/<I>HI'    ill-  In  lillihnthrr.i   Orii'lttnl  If  '/,'.•/(/< ///<!/,  .\illllli-il 

-/,  ilc  Don  Antonio  de  Leon  Pinelo,  eu  Madrid, 


T  E  Z 


273 


T  H  A 


1738,  fol. ;  Bibaotheca  Hispana  Nova,  Auctore  D.  Nicolao 
Antonio,  reeognita,  emendata,  et  aucta,  Matriti,  1788,  fol. 
Turich  :  h.  e.  Series  Regum  Persiae  ab  Ardschir-Babckan 
usque  ad  Jazdigerdem,  a  Chalifitiis  expuhum,  authore 
VVilhelmo  Schikard,  Tubingae,  '1628,  4to.  ;  Persia,  seu 
Rpgni  Persici  Status,  Variaque  Itinera  in  atque  per  Per- 
siam,  Lugd.  Batav.,  1633,  24mo.) 

TEXEL,  or  TESSEL,  is  an  island  in  the  North  Sea,  at 
the  northern  extremity  of  the  province  of  North  Holland, 
from  which  it  is  divided  by  a  channel  called  the  Maas 
Diep.  Including  Eierland,  it  is  12  miles  in  length  and 
6  in  breadth.  It  has  a  large  and  secure  harbour,  and  a 
commodious  roadstead  on  fhe  east  coast.  The  northern 
part  of  the  island,  called  Eierland  (i.e.  Eggs-land,  from  the 
vast  quantity  of  eggs  laid  by  the  sea-gulls),  was  a  separate 
island  tiH  1029,  but  is  now  joined  to  Texel  by  a  sand-bank. 
Texel  is  celebrated  for  a  breed  of  sheep  (50,000)  with  a 
silky  kind  of  wool,  and  many  thousand  lambs  are  annually 
exported  to  the  different  provinces  of  Holland.  The  in- 
habitants, 5000  in  number,  make  great  quantities  of  a 
green  cheese  from  sheep's  milk  ;  many  of  them  are  engaged 
in  the  oyster  fishery.  Besides  the  petty  town  of  Texel 
there  are  C  villages  in  the  island.  Important  naval  battles 
have  been  fought  off  the  coast  ot'this  island  :  in  1053,  when 
Admiral  Blake  defeated  the  Dutch  under  Van  Tromp  ;  in 
1673,  between  the  Dutch  and  the  combined  English  and 
French  fleets,  which  was  a  drawn  battle  ;  and  in  1799,  be- 
tween the  English  and  Dutch  fleets,  when  the  latter,  being 
disaffected  to  the  republican,  government,  surrendered 
without  much  resistance. 

(Hassel,  Geography ;  Stein's  Lexicon  ;  Cannabich,  Geo- 
grtipky.') 

TEXTI'LIA,  Mr.  Swainson's  name  for  a  subgenus  of 
CONUS. — Ex.,  Conus  Ammiralin.  Mu/acology.) 
TEXTOR.     [WEAVER  BIRDS.] 

TEXTULA'RIA.  [FORAMINIFERA,  vol.  x.,  p.  348.] 
TEZA,  or  TAZA.  [MAROCCO.] 
TEZCU'CO.  [MEXICAN  STATES.]  , 
TEZEL,  or  TETZEL,  .TOHAXN,  a  Dominican  monk, 
who  lived  about  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  and  the  beginninir 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  His  name  would  have  been  for- 
gotten but  for  the  scandalous  manner  in  which  he  earned 
on  the  traffic  in  indulgences,  which  roused  the  indignation 
of  the  better  part  of  his  contemporaries,  and  thus  led  to  the 
reformation  in  Germany.  He  was  a  native  of  Leipzig. 
where  he  studied  theology,  and  afterwards  entered  the  order 
of  the  Dominicans  in  the  Pauliner  Kloster.  In  the  year 
1502  the  pope  appointed  him  preacher  of  indulgences  for 
Germany.  He  converted  this  office  into  a  most  lucrative 
traffic,  and  is  said  to  have  made  use  of  the  basest  means 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  money.  His  conduct  too 
was  so  bad,  that  he  was  condemned  at  Inspruck  to  be 
sewed  up  in  a  sack  and  to  be  drowned,  having  been  con- 
victed of  adultery.  But  the  interference  of  his  superiors 
caused  the  sentence  to  be  changed  into  imprisonment  for 
life.  Hi;  was  accordingly  conveyed  to  Leipzig,  and  con- 
fined in  a  tower  which  stood  in  that  city  near  the  Grimma- 
gate  fGrimmaer-Thor)  until  the  year  1834,  when  it  was 
pulled  down.  He  had  however  not  been  imprisoned  long 
before  he  was  set  at  liberty  at  the  request  of  Albert,  arch- 
bishop of  Mainz,  and  other  ecclesiastical  dignitaries. 
Tez.el  now  made  a  pilefrimnsje  to  Home,  and  acted  the 
part  of  a  penitent  so  well,  that  Pope  Leo  X.  not  only  ab- 
solved him  of  his  sins,  but  appointed  him  commissarius 
apoitolicus  in  Germany,  in  addition  to  which  the  arch- 
bishop of  Mainz  made  him  '  inquisitor  haereticae  pravi- 
tatis.'  In  his  capacity  of  papal  commissary  he  now  carried 
on  his  traffic  in  indulgences  more  impudently  than  ever. 
He  traversed  Saxony  in  an  open  carriage,  accompanied  by 
attendants,  and  carrying  with  him  two  chests,  one  of  which 
contained  the  indulgences,  and  the  other  the  money  raised 
from  their  sale.  This  latter  chest  is  said  to  have  had  the 
following  inscription  : — 

•  .Soliald  das  geld  im  hasten  Minjt, 
Sobald  dii-  w\'  "en  himmel  sprin^t.' 

•ma  us  thf<  gold  in  the  chest  rings. 
So  soon  tlic  soul  to  heaven  si'iings.) 

His  reputation  for  sanctity  had  become  so  great,  that  in 
several  places  the  population  of  towns  met  him  in  solemn 
procession,  and  his  entry  was  accompanied  with  the  ring- 
ing of  the  church-bells.  He  sold  indulgences  for  all 
crime',  murder,  perjury,  adultery,  and  not  only  for  crimes 
already  committed,  but  also  for  those  which  a  person 
>.  C.,  No.  15 


might  commit.  At  last,  in  the  year  1517,  Luther  openly 
opposed  him,  in  the  celebrated  theses  which  he  fixed  on 
the  church-door  of  Wittemberg.  Tezel  made  a  reply  in 
another  set  of  theses,  which  however  were  immediately 
burnt  by  the  students  in  the  market-place  of  Wittemberg. 
Tezel  seems  to  have  acted  contrary  to  the  intention  of 
his  superiors,  and  to  have  gone  beyond  his  instructions, 
for  Karl  von  Miltitz,  who  was  sent  by  the  pope  to  settle 
the  disputes  which  had  arisen  out  of  his  conduct,  repri- 
manded him  severely.  In  the  year  1518  however  Tezel, 
notwithstanding  all  this,  obtained  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Divinity  at  Frankfurt  on  the  Oder.  After  this  event,  he 
returned  to  Leipzig  to  his  convent,  where  he  died,  in  Au- 
gust, 1519,  of  the  plague,  shortly  after  the  celebrated  theo- 
logical disputation  pi'  Eck  and  Karlstadt.  He  was  buried 
in  the  church  of  his  convent  (the  present  chapel  of  the 
university) ;  but  there  is  now  no  trace  of  his  grave,  as  that, 
part  of  the  church  which  contained  his  remains  was  pulled 
down  in  the  seventeenth  century  to  make  room  for  some 
fortifications.  [LUTHER.]  Compare  P.  Melanchthonius, 
Historia  Vitae  M.  Lutheri,  i.,  p.  153,  &c. ;  Gieseler,  Lehr- 
buch  der  neuern  Kirchengeschichte,  vol.  hi.,  p.  20 ;  Loscher, 
Vollstandige  Reformations-Acta,  ii.,  p.  324;  and  more 
especially  Hechtius,  Vita  Tezelii. 

THAARUP,  THOMAS,  a  Danish  poet  and  dramatist, 
highly  esteemed  by  his  countrymen  as  one  of  the  classics 
in  their  literature,  was  the  son  of  an  ironmonger  at  Copen- 
hagen. He  was  born  21st  August,  1749,  the  very  same 
day  as  Edward  Storm,  another  poet.  This  coincidence 
would  hardly  deserve  notice,  if  something  of  the  marvel- 
lous had  not  been  founded  upon  it,  it  being  said  that 
Thaarup's  mother  dreamed  that  the  wife  of  a  clergyman  at 
Guldbrandsdalen  was  delivered  just  at  the  same  time  of  a 
son,  who  would  be  the  rival  of  her  own.  If  not  great, 
both  of  them  were  popular  and  national  poets  ;  and  though 
neither  very  numerous  nor  of  very  great  extent,  their  pro- 
ductions, especially  their  lyric  pieces,  earned  for  them  a 
reputation  which  does  not  always  fall  to  the  lot  of  writers 
of  more  ambition  and  of  higher  pretension.  This  was 
more  particularly  the  case  with  regard  to  Thaarup,  whose 
Jiree  little  musical  dramas,  '  Hostgildet,'  'Peters  Bryllup,' 
and  '  Hiemkomsten,'  are  esteemed  chefs-d'neuvre  of  their 
cind,  and  the  songs  and  airs  were  known  by  heart  by  every 
one,  and  repeated  all  over  Denmark.  Their  celebrity  was 
iot  at  all  less  than  that  of  the  '  Beggars'  Opera'  in  this 
country.  After  the  death  of  Storm  [SCANDINAVIAN  LITE- 
RATURE, p.  3],  Thaarup  succeeded  him  as  one  of  the  di- 
rectors of  the  theatre  at  Copenhagen,  in  which  situation 
ic  remained  till  1800.  But  though  he  survived  Storm 
a  full  quarter  of  a  century,  Thaarup's  literary  life  did  not 
extend  much  beyond  that  of  Storm.  If  he  did  not  en- 
irely  lay  aside  his  pen  at  the  commencement  of  the  pre- 
ent  century,  all  the  productions  by  which  he  will  be 
remembered  had  appeared  in  the  preceding  one.  He 
continued  to  reside  at  Copenhagen,  where  he  died  in  the 
summer  of  1821.  Some  of  his  hymns  have  been  trans- 
lated into  German  by  Voss. 

(Skilderic  af  Kiubenhavn,  1821 ;  Neue  Bibliothek  der 
Sclwiienieissenchaflen,  vol.  Iv.) 

THA'BET  BEN  KORRAH,  an  eminent  physician,  phi- 
losopher, and  geometrician,  whose  complete  names,  as 
given  by  Ibn  Abi  'Ossaibiah  (Fontes  Relationum  de  Clas- 
sibus  Medicorum,  cap.  10,  §  3),  were  Abu  '1-Hasan  Thabet 
Ben  Korrah.  He  was  born  at  Harran  in  Mesopotamia,  A.H. 
221  (A.D.  835-0),  where  he  at  first  carried  on  the  business 
of  a  money-changer ;  he  afterwards  however  went  to 
Bagdad  to  pursue  his  studies,  which  he  carried  on  with  so 
much  zeal,  that  he  became  one  of  the  most  celebrated  lite- 
rary and  scientific  men  of  his  age.  He  belonged  to  the 
sect  of  the  Sabians,  but  got  entangled  in  some  religious 
disputes,  and  was  expelled  from  their  communion.  In 
consequence  of  this  he  left  Harran,  where  he  had  been 
residing  for  some  time,  and  went  to  Bagdad  with  the  cele- 
brated astronomer  Mohammed  Ben  Musa.  There  he  lived 
in  his  house,  and  was  introduced  by  him  to  Mo'tadhed 
Billah,  sixteenth  of  the  'Abbaside  Khalifs  (A.H.  279-289, 
A.D.  892-602),  who  appointed  him  one  of  his  astrologers, 
and  ever  afterwards,  on  account  of  his  acquirements  and 
his  pleasing  manners,  continued  on  terms  of  great  intimacy 
with  him.  He  died  on  the  2Gth  of  Safar,  A.H.  288  (Fe- 
bruary 18,  A.D.  901),  aged  sixty-seven  lunar,  or  sixty-five 
solar  years.  His  sons  Senan  and  Ibrahim,  and  their  de- 
scendants, practised  physic  with  much  reputation  at  Bag- 

VOL.  XXIV.-2  N 


I    H  A 


274 


T  H  A 


dad  for  morethan  aociitu  >.  Thibet  himself 

appear^  tn  T  learned 

re': 
n*' 

389.) 
uaho  a  very  Tolmr 

\  the  Hiio:iMno'  >i  the  *  Am- 

Miphorum  Hibliotheca,' take  up  about  two  folio 

Dl  the  works  of 
He  wrote  also 
i  iiionic*  of 


lieal,  and  zoological  • 
talations  into  that   ' 
OaJen,  Pto! 

s*Yeral  in  E  <>us 

the  Sabians :  but  none  either  of  thc-c  or  of   his  Arabic 
far  as  the  writer  is  aware  .  been  publi-hed 
or  t.  ..  i!  c\i-t  in  mann- 

-ome  of   the   Kiirouean    libraries.      \Viistenfeld, 

//..-.Nu-oll 
.  :  p.  i->7. -!tf>: 
Of  H'»--i.  !>t:i    ',,  **'   r.  'f'-L;'i  .Lit"ri  Ai'i'-i. 

V'HKT  HI  \   SK\  \'.N.   (hi-    irrandson    of  the    pre- 
redinsr,  wi  -    arc    triven  by    Ibn    Abi   'Ossjiibiah 

urn  de  Clasiibii  mi.  cap.  Id,  $  :V. 

I'll   'l-IIasan    Thalut    Hen    Senan    Hen    Thabet     Hen 
Korrah.     I '  •  ln-ated.  like  the  other  membei-s  of  his 

family,  as  a  physician,  philosopher,   and    mathematician. 
and  wag  superintendant  of  the  hospital  at  Bagdad  during 
the  reiirn  of  Al-  Motteia,  the  twenty-third  of  the  'Abhaside 
Khalifs.  \.n.  :i:M-:iU:l  (A.D.  946-971        He  expounded  the 
writings  of  lli])pocrates  and  Galen  :  but  his  principal  work 
appeals  to  have  been  a  History  of  Ins  Own  Times,  from 
the  year  A.M.  2;M>    A.D.  !Hi:»    to  t'he  year  of  his  own  death. 
\.D.  '.>7.'»-4\  which   is    highly  praised    l>\    Alni 
//;/.   Dyna*t.,  p.  2t)H  .  and  was  con- 
tinued atler  his  death  by  his  nephew  Helal.  and  by  other 
•  >r.  Sprenser.  "in  the  notes  to  his  iran-'ation  of 
>'udr«'M  Gold  and  Mines  ot'Gems.' vol.  i., 

p.  'J4.  Lond.,  8vo..  1841.  corrects  an  anachronism  of  Haji 
Khali  -ribes  this  work  to  his  grandfather  Thabet 

Hen  Korrah. 

\Vii>1cnfeld.  fii'x-fffirntf  (/T    •  Aase- 

mani,  Bibioth.  ()ri'-n/.,  vol.  ii..  p.  317. 

THAI.AMITA.     [!'  .  vol.  xviii.,  p. -146.] 

THA'I.AMIS  from  SaX,^..,-.  the  biidal  chamb. 
botanical  term  which  was  applied  bv  Linmrns  to  the  calvv 
or  outer  whorl  of  floral  envelopes.  Tonrnefort  applied  the 
term  to  a  receptacle  that  i-  not  fleshy,  but  surrounded  by 
an  involucre.  In  this  -en-e  it  i-  u-rd  in  common  with  the 
Clinanthium  and  Phoranthinm.  Hy  some  writers,  as 
!),•  Camlolle,  the  term  is  applied  to  the  receptacle  of  all 
plants  or  that  point  of  the  rachi-  or  stem  around  which 
the  floral  envelopes  are  seated.  Thus  those  plants  in 
which  the  petals  and  stamens  are  inserted  into  the  recep- 
-titute  the  first  ThalamifiorH'.  of  the 

i  'andolle's  natural  arrangement  of  plant-, 
-o  used  in  (YyptoL'amie  botany,  in  common 
with  Thallus,  to  express  the  bed  of  fibre-  from  which  many 
funiri   spring   up.     It    i«  also   improix'rly  used   hy  some 
•e  the  shields  or  apothecia  of  lichens.     In 
term  that  has  been  applied  in  so  man;, 

d,    that    it   i-  desirable   it   should   be 
with,  or  only  used  in  a  very  obvious 

TH  AI.A'VsKM  A.  i  'u\  ier>  r-mn-  for  a  irenus  of  fo<itlc— 

;  ,          .    placed    bv   him 
!'V    him  : — 

.!;((!.     Tlv   mi. 
Hut  one  alxloniinal 


-  or  to 


'     •  ier  into  the  followim 

1.   '1  -nii:e  pru]  'led. 

placed  very  forward,  and 
no   bristle-like    pru 

'.•ffHfl 

or  r.  '.  6. 

2.  The  Kchiiiri, 
nno>  .  uiity  i-.  furnished  with  some  trans- 

V.\ 
Gm.,— Pa!  '  .  xi.  l-<).    Common  on  sandy 


bottoms  on  the  Kreiu-b  coacU»  where  the  iikhernicn  uie  it 
an  a  bait.     It  u  also  found  out!  gene- 

rally, and  is  naiil  to  •  •  tht  c..d-lisb. 

H.  ^ 

>i-,  besides  the  1  v**  of  the  il-lnuri, 

h.u.  uudei  tluir  anterior  put  a  snr- 

rounded  with  cilia. 

ixjti*  thaliusfiitoiitet,  Otl 

N.H  Mates  that  a  lie  an«- 

toim  of  the  ThaJatitma  hatl  demonstratei!  I  the 

pliue  winch  he  had  assigned  to  them  w;,- 

TH  \  line  ior  une  of  the  T.' 

1  IIAI.ASSIANTHI  S.  \|.  Ki'ipp.-rsiiaiiu-  for  a  u'eiuis  of 
Art  i  it  i  .   .iith  raiui- 

•  THAHIA.] 

THALASSI'DROMA.     [I'KIHKI.S,  \ol.  \\iii.,  p.  43.] 
THAl.ASSl'N A.      rTKAi^wiNiANs.]     N.H.— Hie  stu- 
dent should  be  careful   not   to  confound  the  crustaceou* 
ircnus    T/iii/uxxiiia    with     the     echimxiermalout.    TH.M.AS- 
SKMA. 

THAI.ASSIMANS.    'Hie  ireuus  7  CUtreille 

consi-ts    of   those    macriuous    decapods    which    hiue    the 
four  anterior  feet  terminated  by  two  finder-:  the  foliations 
of  the   lateral    fins  of  the  end  ol  the  tail  narrow  and  eloii- 
cated,  without  ridges;  and  the  last  sequent  of  the  tail,  or 
the     intermediate     piece,    ill    the    form    of    an    elongated 
triangle.    Sometimes  the  four  anterior  feet,  or  t! 
feet  and  one  of  the  second,  are  terminated  b 
finirers.  fonuinc  a  claw   perfectly.     The  I 
are  the  lonivc-t  :  the  lateral  foliations  of  the  iin  ti 
the  tail  are  in  the  form  of  ictft  at 

the  ]>osterior  border:  the  intermediate  piece,  on  the  con 
trary,  narrows  from  the  base  to  the  termination,  and  eiuLs 
in  a  point. 

M.  Milne  Edwards  arranges  the  I'amily  of  Thalassinians, 
or  Jliirrnirhiif  Mumtru,  between  the  w  and  the 

Aftaciatu. 

The  Crutituri-n  of  which  this  small  but  interestiiii:  family 
i:pn-cd    r.  -  •  h  other  in  appearance,  and  me 

remarkable  for  the  extieme  elongation  of  their  abdomen 
and  the  small  deirree  of  cousi-lcnce  ol' their  inteiruni. 

.'••///   f'/nif  small,   and    very    much 

compressi'd  laterally  ;  tenninateil.  ^cneially.  in  front  by  a 
MT\  short    rostrum,  but   somclm  1\  wiihout 

Eyes  ordinarily  vcrv  small.  Internal  miti'iiiiif  terminated 
by  two  multi-articulate  filaments;  tin:  external  ones  in- 
serted externally  and  a  little  below  the  iirst  ;  their  pe- 
duncle slender,  cylindrical,  and  without  a  spinimiform 
lamina,  carries  at  most  only  one  very  small  mo\' 
-pine,  which  icprcsents  that  appendage.  Disposition  of 
the  parts  of  the  inniith  \anabi,  linear 

thnmirhout    its  length,  and  not    constitute  -iron. 

Anterior  feel   lanre,  more  or  less  completi  ly  didactylous 
and  trianirular ;    the  next   pair  raised  on  each  fide  of  the 
thorax.     Alnlnmm  \ei\  IOIIL'.  and.  in  treueral.  \eiy  nanow  ; 
rather  depressed  vertically  than  compir-scd  luteiallj  :    the 
lateral  borders  of  the  dorsal  arch  of  its  \nrious 
but  little  prolomred.  and  do  not  incase  the 
feet  as  in  the  SIIKIMPS.  noi  dues  the  a!  donn  •  i,.nish 

much  in  si  its  posterior  pint.     The  structure  of 

its  jipn  Mi-iiiou  of  the  respiratory 

..il\  exist.-,  as  it  ordl- 

naril\  '  iioracic  branchiae,  em 

under  the  carapace  in  npecial  cavities  :    sometimes,  on  the 

thoracic  branchia'. ;  . 

ancbial  ap]>en.:  udcd  under  the  abdomen 

and  aHived  to  the  tiilse  n •< -I .    \  pun  this  important  difference, 
M.   Milne   Kdwanls.  who  is  the  antho.    of   the   clia. 
iriven  above,  founds  his  division  of  the  family  into   two 
tribes,  the  Cryptobranclnds  and  11 

1.   ( 'nplobianchiils. 

Under  this  proup  M.  Milne  Kdv, 
Thiilii\xiiiiniiK  which  are  without   it  -\ 

suspended  under  the  abdomen.    Their  in  L'e- 

neral  composed  of  cylinders,  united  after  the  manner  of  a 

brush.      All  the  species  whose  habit-  n  live  m 

nd,  ill  which  they  burrow  deeply.     The  following 

MIL:   to  this  tube  :— ' 
Axia;  Oebia  ;  and  77/n/<;*A///n. 

(iiin.  rds.) 

Get.  ',»  ovoid,  and  without 

any  roslrifprm  prolongation.     Hy*  pioji  i-tiiiir.  lar^'e.  and 
iicarlj  p\  ritbrin.    Internal  antenna  short,  cyhnch-iual,  and 


T  H  A 


275 


T  H  A 


bent  (coudees),  as  in  Pagurus ;  the  third  joint  of  thei: 
peduncle  the  longest,  and  carrying  at  its  extremity  two 
small  multiarticulate  appendages,  which  are  very  short  ant 
rather  stout,  one  of  which  is  furnished  with  many  lorn, 
hairs.  External  antenna;  inserted  lower  than  the  pre" 
ceding,  their  peduncle  bent,  and  presenting  above  a  smal 
scale,  the  vestige  of  a  palp.  External  jaw-feet  peditbrm 
The  last  thoracic  ring  not  anchylosed  to  the  preceding. 
Anterior  feet  terminated  by  a  "stout,  didactylous,  well- 
formed  hand :  they  are  of  very  different  sizes.  Second  anc 
third  pairs  slender  and  very  long :  the  two  last  pairs,  on 
the  contrary,  short  and  elevated  against  the  sides  of  the 
body,  as  in  the  Paguri ;  the  fourth  pair  are  flattened 
rather  large,  and  imperfectly  didactylous,  the  immoveable 
finger  of  their  hand  being  only  formed  by  a  slightly  pro- 
jecting tubercle  ;  the  posterior  feet,  still  smaller  than  the 
last,  nre  terminated  by  a  small  didactylous  rather  well- 
formed  hand.  The  abdomen  is  narrow,  elongated,  and 
perfectly  symmetrical :  the  first  ring,  much  narrower  than 
the  succeeding  ones,  has  no  appendages ;  the  four  nexl 
segments,  on  the  contrary,  each  give  attachment  to  one 
pair  of  rather  large  false  natatory  feet,  formed  by  a  cylin- 
drical basilary  joint  and  two  terminal  blades,  one  of  which 
is  very  small  and  obtuse,  and  the  other  large,  pointed  at 
the  end,  and  bordered  with  long  ciliary  hairs,  ('mula/  /in 
moderate  in  size  ;  the  middle  blade,  formed  by  the  seventh 
abdominal  segment,  is  rounded  and  ciliated,  and  the  ex- 
ternal blades  are  much  longer  than  the  middle  ones. 
(M.B.) 

M.  Milne  Edwards  observes  that  this  sfenus  establishes 
the  passage  between  the  Pagurians  and  C<I//-/HI/U*X<I. 

K\;imple,  Glducothoe  Peronii,  the  only  species  known. 
Its  integuments  have  little  solidity,  its  carapace  is  smooth, 
and  its  length  8  lines.  M.  Milne  Edwards  states  that  it 
appears  to  inhabit  the  seas  of  Asia.  He  is  of  opinion  that 
Latreille's  genus  Prophylax  approximates  closely  to 
tikoa,  :ind  ought  not  perhaps  to  be  distinguished 
from  it :  if  so  Latreille's  name  has  the  priority.  The  latter 
placed  his  genus  among  the  Pasuri,  but  after  the  publi- 
cation of  M.  Milne  Edwards' s  (Jtaucothoe,  was  uncertain, 
according  to  M.  Edwards,  whether  these  two  generic  di- 
visions should  not  be  united. 

CMianassa.     (Leach.) 

See  the  article  :  but  the  student  should  refer  to  the  accu- 
rate and  elaborate  description  and  figures  of  M.  Milne  Ed- 
wards, who  records  two  species. : — CouiaRotta  s-ubterranea 


Axia  SCirhymhui; 
«,  Intermediate  intenna  ;  I,  external  antenna. 


and  uncinata ;  and  he  adds  that  Callianassa  major  of  Say 
seems  to  be  distinguished  from  the  two  preceding  species. 

Axia.     (Leach.) 

Generic  Character. — Carapace  very  much  compressed, 
and  terminated  anteriorly  by  a  small  triangular  rostrum. 
Ocular  peduncles  very  small,  cylindrical,  and  terminated 
by  a  hemispherical  cornea.  Terminal  filaments  of  the 
internal  antennce  nearly  of  the  length  of  the  carapace. 
Peduncle  of  the  external  antenna;  having  above  a  small 
moveable  spine  which  represents  the  great  lamellar  palp 
observable  in  the  Shrimps.  External  jaw-feet  slender  and 
peditbrm.  Anterior  feet  compressed,  and  terminated  by  a 
well-formed  claw  ;  carpus  small.  Second  pair  of  feet  nearly 
lamellar,  and  equally  didactylous.  The  three  next  pairs 
monodactylous.  Abdomen  slightly  convex  towards  the 
middle,  and  terminating  in  a  great  fin,  the  five  blades  of 
which  are  nearly  of  the  same  length.  First  ring  of  the 
abdomen  carrying  a  rudimentary  pair  of  false  feet,  and  the 
four  succeeding  rings  provided  each  with  a  pair  of  very 
well-developed  natatory  false  feet,  each  composed  of  a 
short  and  stout  peduncle,  which  at  its  extremity  carries 
a  small  styliform  appendage  within,  and  externally  two 
great  oval,  very  large  blades,  which  are  ciliated  on  the 
borders.  (M.  E.) 

M.  Milne  Edwards  observes  that  this  genus  much  re- 
sembles Callianassa  and  Gebia,  and  he  records  the  only 
known  species,  Axia  Stirhynchus.  Its  length  is  about 
three  inches,  and  it  inhabits  the  coasts  of  France  and  Eng- 
land. 

Gebia.     (Gebios  and   Thalassina,  Risso  ;  Gebia  and 

Upogebia,  Leach.) 

<li  iit-rif  Character. — Carapace  terminating  anteriorly 
by  a  triangular  rostrum,  and  sufficiently  large  to  cover  the 
eyes  almost  entirely  ;  on  each  side  of  its  base  is  a  tooth, 
which  is  continued  with  a  crest,  and  forms  the  lateral 
border  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  stomachal  region.  In- 
ternal antennce  very  short,  but  nevertheless  their  terminal 
filaments  are  longer  than  their  peduncle.  External  an- 
tennce very  slender,  and  presenting  at  their  base  no  vestige 
of  a  moveable  scale.  External  jau- -feet  pediform.  Anterior 
feet  narrow,  terminated  by  an  elongated  and  imperfectly 
subcheliform  hand :  their  moveable  finger  is  very  large, 
and  in  bending  downwards  its  base  is  applied  against  the 
anterior  border  of  the  hand,  the  lower  angle  of  which  is 
prolonged  so  as  to  constitute  a  tooth  performing  the  office 
of  the  immoveable  finger.  The  feet  next  in  succession  are 
compressed  and  monodactyle  ;  the  second  pair  have  their 
penultimate  joint  large,  widened,  and  ciliated  below  ;  the 
succeeding  pairs  are  more  slender.  Abdomen  long  and 
much  narrower  at  its  base  than  towards  its  middle,  de- 
pressed and  terminating  by  a  large  fin,  whose  four  lateral 
:>Iades  are  foliaceous  and  very  wide.  First  abdominal  ring 
with  two  pairs  of  very  small  filiform  appendages ;  the  four 
next  segments  giving  origin  to  three  pail's  of  false  natatory 
feet,  composed  of  a  stout  and  short  peduncle,  and  two  oval 
Blades  with  strongly  ciliated  borders  :  the  external  one  very 
arsje.  and  the  other  very  small.  Branchicc  brush-like  and 
ixed  on  two  rows,  namely,  one  above  the  second  foot,  and 
.wo  above  the  four  anterior  feet  and  the  external  jaw-feet. 
M.E.) 

Example,  Gebia  stellata.     Length  1£  inch. 

Locality. — Coasts  of  England.     M.  Milne  Edwards  states 
hat  this  species  comes  very  near  to  Gebia  littoralis. 

M.  Milne  Edwards  observes  that  the  Gebice  establish  the 
jassage  between  the  Thalassince  and  the  Axia?,  which  last 
hey  resemble  in  the  general  form  of  the  body  and  disposi- 
tion of  the  caudal  fin,  whilst  they  approach  the  first  by  the 
conformation  of  the  feet. 


X£^^ 


Ocbia  siclliita. 


a,  intermediate  antenna  ;  4,  base  or  nn  extern*]  antenna. 

2N2 


T  II   A 


T  11   A 


ttalassina.     'Lativ; 
Gfnfrif  ' 
much  elevated, 
wards  by  a  deep  fun 

ually  separated   1'iom  the  branchial 
ntini:  by  their  junction  11  trianu'lc.  'he  apex   of  which  is 
'  aimed  with  a  Miial!  triangular 
small  and  cylindrical.     Internal  antenna 
-  :   their  peduncle    of  moderate 

in. I  their  terminal  lilanients  slender  anil  unfi|iml.  the 
longest  about  thiicc  tin   length  ol'the  peduncle 

small,  their    peduncle    ryliniinral.    hardly 
Beaching    beyond  the    rostrum,  and  presenting  «b< •• 

.•  of  appendages.     External  j  '-••  and 

pediform,  their  second  joint  armed  with  spimform  teeth  on 
its  internal  surface,  and  nearly  of  the  same  form  as  the 
succeeding  ones.  First  pair  of"/.'/  narrow  nnd  moderately 
elongated,  hut  rather  rohust ;  they  are  unequal,  and  the 
hand  which  terminates  them  present  at  its  anteri< 
lower  angle  a  more  or  less  strong  tooth,  which  rep: 
an  immoveable  finder,  against  whicli  the  base  of  the 
able  finger,  which  is  very  large,  is  bent  back.  Second  pair 
of  feet  very  much  compress,  a.  and  rather  wide  :  their  pen- 
ultimate joint  especially  i-  large  and  ciliated  below.  The 
succeeding  feet  have  nearly  the  same  form,  but  tin  \  arc 
narrower,  and  less  and  less  compressed.  Ab<l<»n>  //  very 
long,  narrow,  semicylimlrical,  and  nearly  of  the  same  si/e 
throughout  its  Icnirth.  Terminal  fin  small ;  the  two  pairs 
of  lateral  blades,  formed  by  members  of  the  sixth  rinsr. 
nearly  linear.  Palteffet  fixed  to  the  four  middle  rings  of 
the  abdomen  ;  they  arc  very  slender,  and  composed  of  a 
cylindrical  and  elongated  peduncle  can-vim:  two  more  or 

Hated  multiarticnlate  filaments.     (M 
Example,  Thalassinn  seorpionidtt.     Length  about  six 
inches.    Colour  brownish. 


Locality. — Coasts  of  Chili. 

M.  Mime  Edwards  remarks  that  the  abdomen  of  this 
species  reminds  the  observer  of  the  body  of  a  Scolof* 
2,  GaMrobr.im  bids. 

M.  Milne  Fxlwards  observes  that  this  small  division  of  the 
Tkalaitinittn*  is  very  remarkable,  for  it  establishes  the 
PMMgc  between  tttt  CbttMMM  and  the  Kjiu//rr>.  In 
ibe  general  form  of  tlw  body,  the  crustaceans  forming  this 


li\  ision  differ,  lie  remarks,  1  tie  from  the  first,  and 

the  conformation  per- 

mit their  separation  from  the  marmtor.s  decapods,  nor  tneir 
distant  removal  from  the  Thatassinians ;  but  they  have 
respiratory  v  vet, 

exhibiting  the  cn.-sti-l  analogy  v.  itli  the  ramose  branchise 
of  the  SrojfAPODs. 

The  type  of  this  group,  according  to  M.  Milne  Edwards. 
is  a  small  crustacean,  to  which  he  irives  il,.  name 

i  :  but  he  also  arranges  in  this  same  division  the 
"!'  M.  (iuerin.  under  the  name  of  Cnllian.- 
for  he  thinks  that  he  perceives  in  this  last   an  nnali' 

limn.      If,  he  observes,  the  chin 
to  it  by  M.  (Jiierin  be  exact,  it  would  be  difficult  to 
place  this  new  •reiitis  here,  and  it  ought  to  be  approximated 
\o\hePazurians;  but  it  appears  very  probable  to  M.  Milne 
Edwards  that  there  has  been  some  error  of  observation,  and 
that  in  reality  the  hra-  and  CaUiam'dett&ffer  but  very  little. 
These  crustaceans,  M.  Milne  Kdwm  -.have  all 

a  very  small  oval  thorax  ci  a 'do- 

men,  on  the  conlraiy.  is  extremely  lonir  and  slender.     The 

i'ioi\  of  the  e\cs  and  the  aiitcnn. 
as   in  Callianatta.     The  external  jaw-feet   are 
and  carry  externally  a  slender  and  multiarticulate 
two  fii-st  pairs  effect  are  didaeh  lous  :   the  anterior  pair  are 
long,  very  unequal,  and  terminated   by  a  stunt  r 
hand  :  the  second  are  small  and  very  delicate  :  the  third  are 
enlarged   towards   the  end    nearly    as   in    ('nlliniitiitxa,  and 
terminated  by  a  \ciyshort  tarsus,  forming,  with  a  till 
ol'the  preceding  joint,  an  imperfect  claw.  The  fourth  pair 
of  feet  are  slender  and  monodactyle  :  and  the  filth  pair, 
small    in   dimension,   arc  thrown   backward*.     As  in  the 
Crpytobratuhid»,\he  alKlomcn  is  very  long,  sufficiently  soil. 
and  composed  of  nearly  equal  rinirs.  of  which  the  dorsal 
arch  is  not  prolonged  below  so  as  to  incase  the  base  of  tin- 
false  feet.     The  caudal  fin  offers  nolhinir  remarkable  :  but 
the  false  feet,  inserted  at  its  lower  surface,  are  fun 
with  a  multitude  of  branched  filaments,  which  have  a  struc- 
ture very  analogous  to  that  of  branchia1.  and  which  cer- 
tainly must  be  destined  to  concur  in  the  work  of  respiration. 

M.  Milne  Edwards  concludes  by  observing  that  this  tribe 
comprehends  two  genera,  one  of  which  appears  to  him  to  be 
too  imperfectly  known  to  be  conveniently  characterized. 
( \illiniiiilea.   (Edwards. 

(irnerir  Chnrattrr. — Bo'ly  very  delicate,  slender,  and 
elongated.  Carapace  hardly  a  third  of  the  length  of  the 
abdomen,  and  not  covering  the  last  thoiacic  rins.  com- 
d  and  rather  elevated,  its  lower  border  applied  ex- 
actly aitainst  the  base  of  the  four  first  pairs  of  feet.  No 
rostrum,  and  the  anterior  border  of  the  carapace  notched 
on  each  side  of  the  median  line  for  the  reception  of  tin- 
base  of  thi-  i 'i/i  v.  whose  peduncles  are  very  short,  and 
formed  as  in  the  ('ii//iiiinix»rr.  Vm\rnntfnna:  slender  and 
inserted  nearly  on  the  same  transversal  line  :  the  first  pair 
terminated  b\  two  filaments  nearly  equal  in  length,  one  of 
which  however  is  the  largest,  and  slightly  convex  towards 
\ppendaL'es  ol'the  innitth  MTV  small,  occupying 
but  little  space  :  ithi/iil.li'i-x  haulh  iliil'cnnir  from  UK 

:  valvular  appendage  of  the  -econd  pair  of  _/'u//-.« 

mall  ;  external  ja'r-fi,-!  slender  and  pediform.  their 

:   joint   furnished  internally  with   a   row  of  dentiform 

tubercles  covered  with  haii-s,  and  with  their  three  last  joints 

uinch  eloiiL  /  linear  throughout  it 

tent.  Kiist  pair  of  fi-ft  long,  and  one  of  them  very  stout, 
with  the  terminating  hand  very  large,  and  nearly  of  the 
same  form  as  in  (V/,'««<i>-<j.  except  that  tin 
smaller.  The  two  succeeding  pairs  of  feet  are  small  and 
flattened  ;  the  fourth  pair  nearly  cylindrical,  and  their  ba- 
silary  joint  very  much  enlarged.  Fifth  pin:  large 

fouithjiind  terminating  in  an  imperfect  rudimentary 
claw.  composed  as  ordinarily  of  n 

neaily  of  the  same  size  throughout,  and  canyin1:  beneath 
five  pairs  of  faht-tret :  of  these  the  fiiM  are  reduced  to  a 
simple  narrow  blade  slightly  ciliated  at  the  end.  but  the 
four  succeeding  pairs  have  a  very  reinnrkabi.  lion. 

A  peduncle  is  to  be  distinguished  and  three  teiminal  la- 
minap,  two  of  which  are  very  large  and  on.  ill  on 

the  edge  of  the  preceding  ones ;  all  round  the  border  of  the 
treat  laminip  a  kind  of  tufted  fiinge  is  found,  composed  ol 
a  row  of  cylinders,  each  of  which  cues  oiii:in  to  two  smaller 
filaments,  which  again  in  their  turn  are  bifurcated  nearly 
in  the  sarnp  manner  ta  the  branchial  filaments  of  the 
an  divided.  The  five  blades  of  which  the  caudal 


T  H  A 


277 


T  H  A 


fin  is  composed  are  wide  and  rounded.  The  thoracic 
bntnchicc  are  enclosed  as  ordinarily  in  the  carapace,  and  are 
each  composed  of  cylinders  ranged  in  parallel  order  on  a 
stem,  nearly  as  in  the  lobsters,  only  these  organs  and  fila- 
ments are  less  numerous,  and  the  branchiae  themselves  very 
small.  There  are  only  ten  on  each  side  of  the  body.  (M.  E.) 

Example,    Calliahidea  typa.     Length   about   10  lines. 

Locality. — Coasts  of  New  Ireland,  where  it  was  found 
by  MM.  Quoy  and  Gaimard. 


CallianiJca  lypii,  magnified.      " 

rt,  antenna  nf  the  first  pair;  6,  exU-iual  j.iw-foot;  c,  extremity  of  one  of 
(Ve  jtmierior  feet;  d,  abdominal  false  feet,  first  pair;  e,  fa!-i-  u'ct  of  ooe  of 
tin-  f  >ur  succeeding  pairs  ;  /,  marginal  fiiutfe  of  those  false  ft-et. 

So  much  doubt  exists  relative  to  the  genus  hen,  Guerin, 
(,'al/ianixea,  M.  Edwards,  that  we  think  we  should  not  be 
justified  in  occupying  space  witli  the  very  lontr  and  elaborate 
.ption  of  M.  Guerin,  and  the  acute  criticisms  of  M. 
Milne  Edwards,  who  observes  that  Ixr-n,  having  been  pre- 
viously employed  to  designate  another  crustaceous  animal, 
cannot  be  retained.  M.  Guerin's  description  will  be  found 
in  the  '  Annales  de  la  Socic'-W  Entomologique  de  France,' 
torn,  i.,  p.  295 ;  and  also  in  M.  Milne  Edwards's  '  Histoire 
Nahirelli.'  dcs  CrustaeeV  torn,  ii.,  p.  322.  But  though  our 
limits  do  not  permit  the  insertion  of  the  details,  they 
should  be  carefully  perused  by  the  student,  for  they  are 
highly  interesting  ana  instructive. 

FOSSIL  THALASSINIANS. 

M.  Milne  Edwards  states  that  the  erustaceous  fossil  found 
in  the  chalk  formation  of  Maastricht,  and  figured  by  M. 
Desmarest  under  the  name  of  Pagurus  Favjasii,  belongs 
to  the  genus  Ca/tin>/ti\.iii. 

THALASSIO'KMS,  Mr.  Eyton's  name  for  one  of  the 
cluck*  '.Smith,  subfamily  Erismuturiitep. 

THAI  ASSIOPHYTKS  'literally  'sea-plants,'  from  dd- 
\aaaa  and  I/IVTOV,  is  the  name  given  by  Lamouroux  to  desig- 
nate the  vegetable  productions  of  the  ocean  and  of  its  rocks 
and  shores.  It  is  equivalent,  fo  the  term  Hydrophytes  of 
Lingbye,  and  the  plants  described  by  Agardh  as  Marine 
Algae.  This  division  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  compre- 
hends, in  Lamouroux's  system,  six  orders,  viz.,  Fucaceae, 
Florideae,  DictyoUse,  Ulvacea-,  Aphlomideae,  and  Phlo- 
midese.  [SEA-WEEDS;  ULVACE.E.] 

THALKS  •it./Xijs)  was  a  native  of  Miletus,  one  of  the 
chief  cities  of  Ionia,  and  descended  from  a  Phoenician 
family.  Apollodorus,  as  quoted  by  Diogenes  Laertius, 
fixes  the  year  of  his  birth  in  the  first  year  of  the  35th 
Olympiad,  or  B.C.  640.  Herodotus  (i.  74)  says  that  Thalcs 
the  Milesian  predicted  the  year  of  the  great  eclipse  which 
took  place  while  the  armies  of  Cyaxares  and  Alyattes 
king  of  Lydia  were  engaged  in  battle.  Alyattes  became 
kin!;  of  Lydia  in  B.C.  617.  Herodotus  also  says  (i.  75) 
that  Thales  was  in  the  army  of  Croesus  at  the  time  of  the 
battle  ofPteiie  between  Croesus  and  Cyrus  B.C.  547  or 
5-16 ;  at  which  time  he  would  be  ninety-four  years  old,  if 
the  date  of  his  birth  is  correctly  given  by  Apollodorus. 
Th-re  was  a  general  tradition  that  he  lived  to  a  great  age  ; 
and  Luciaii  states  that  Solon,  Thales,  and  Pittacus  all 
lived  to  be  a  hundred  years  old.  (On  the  subject  of  the 
ecl'.ps,-!  see  the  articfc  ALYATTES,  and  Oltmanns,  Ab- 
hanMungtn  der  Akad.  Berlin,  1812-13.) 


In  the  Life  of  Thales  by  Diogenes  we  find  numerous  tra- 
ditions attached  to  his  name,  the  value  of  which  it  is  some- 
what difficult  to  estimate.  Thales  is  enumerated  among 
the  Seven  Wise  Men,  whose  wisdom  was  not  the  theo- 
retical wisdom  of  philosophers,  but  the  wisdom  of  actual 
life.  [BIAS.]  Accordingly  we  find  that  Thales  took  an 
active  part  in  the  political  affairs  of  his  native  country. 
Before  Ionia  fell  under  the  Persian  yoke,  he  advised  the 
lonians  to  have  one  common  council,  and  to  establish  it 
at  Teos,  for  Teos  was  in  the  centre  of  Ionia ;  and  he  fur- 
ther suggested  that  all  the  other  Ionian  states  should  be 
reduced  to  the  condition  of  parts  dependent  on  the  go- 
vernment at  Teos.  Such  a  scheme,  if  carried  into  effect, 
might  have  checked  the  progress  of  the  Persian  arms 
(Herod.,  i.  170.)  Later  writers  say  that  he  visited  Egypt 
and  Crete  in  order  to  improve  his  knowledge,  and  that  he 
derived  from  Egypt  his  acquaintance  w'ith  mathematics. 
There  seems  no  reason  for  thinking  that  Thales  left  any 
writings.  Aristotle  at  least  was  not  acquainted  with  any 
philosophical  writings  by  Thales.  Various  sayings  of 
Thales  are  recorded  :  they  are  of  that  sententious  charac- 
ter which  belongs  to  the  proverb,  and  they  embody  truths 
such  as  the  general  experience  of  mankind  recognises : 
and  for  this  reason  they  cannot  safely  be  considered  as 
the  product  of  any  one  mind.  Thales  is  generally  con- 
sidered the  founder  of  the  Ionian  school ;  but  it  is  per- 
haps hardly  proper  to  consider  him  in  any  sense  as  the 
founder  of  a  school.  [IONIAN  SCHOOL.]  His  traditional  re- 
putation rested  on  his  physical  discoveries  and  his  philo- 
sophical speculations.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
astronomer  (among  the  Greeks)  who  predicted  eclipses ; 
and  to  have  discovered  the  passage  (irdpolot}  from  tropic 
to  tropic,  or,  in  other  words,  to  have  laid  down  the  sun's 
orbit :  and  to  have  fixed  the  length  of  the  year  at  365  days. 
He  determined  the  magnitude  of  the  sun  to  be  720  times  that 
of  the  moon  ;  which  is  apparently  the  true  version  of  the 
corrupt  passage  in  Diogenes.  His  knowledge  of  geometry 
was  said  to  be  derived  from  Egypt,  and  Pamphila  attibutes 
to  him  the  discovery  of  the  right-angled  triangle  of  the  circle 
(wpwrov  Karaypa^ai  KVK\OV  TO  rpiywvov  opQoyti)vtov\  which 
probably  means  the  demonstration  that  the  angle  in  a  semi- 
circle is  a  right  angle,  a  discovery  attributed  also  to  Pytha- 
goras. Hieronymus  says  that  he  measured  the  height  of 
the  pyramids  of  Egypt  by  observing  the  shadow  which  an 
object  cast  when  it  was  of  the  same  length  as  the  height  of 
the  object. 

The  philosophical  speculations  of  Thales,  like  the  earliest 
efforts  of  philosophers  in  all  countries,  were  an  attempt  to 
solve  the  problem  that  admits  of  no  solution — the  real 
nature  of  the  universe.  He  is  considered  by  modern 
writers  as  the  originator  of  the  dynamic  philosophy,  the 
nature  of  which,  as  opposed  to  the  mechanical,  is  explained 
in  the  article  IONIAN  SCHOOL.  Aristotle  (Metaph.,  i.  3) 
has  explained  in  a  short  passage  the  general  doctrine  of 
Thales  :  'There  must  be,' observes  Aristotle,  'some  Nature 
(0i1«c),  either  one,  or  more  than  one,  to  which  all  other 
things  owe  their  origin,  this  one  still  subsisting.  The 
number  however  and  the  character  of  such  a  first  principle 
are  not  conceived  by  all  in  the  same  way.  Thales,  the 
founder  of  this  philosophy,  says  it  is  water,  and  accord- 
ingly he  (aught  that  even  the  earth  reposes  on  water, 
founding  this  notion  probably  on  the  observation  that  the 
nourishment  of  all  things  is  moist,  and  that  heat  itself 
proceeds  from  water,  and  that  animals  live  by  it :  but 
that  from  which  things  come  is  the  origin  of  all  things. 
He  was  thus  led  to  this  notion,  and  also  by  observing  that 
the  seeds  of  all  things  have  a  moist  nature,  and  that  water 
is  the  origin  of  their  nature  to  all  moist  things.'  Thus  the 
universe  contained  an  active  principle  by  the  power  of 
which  all  things  were  developed.  He  considered  that  the 
magnet  had  life,  because  it  attracted  iron.  The  universe 
then  was  pervaded  by  life,  or,  as  Thales  expressed  it,  'full  of 
gods'  (iravra  tt-Xt/pij  Sfuiv). 

The  doctrine  of  Thales  bears  some  resemblance  to 
systems  that  have  been  promulgated  in  modern  times, 
which  have  been  viewed  as  atheistical.  The  assumption 
of  an  active  power,  such  as  gravitation  for  instance  (though 
it  is  not  here  meant  to  affirm  that  gravitation  has  ever 
been  viewed  as  a  power  sufficient  for  the  production  and 
conservation  of  all  things),  which  is  sufficient  to  maintain 
all  things  in  a  permanent  condition  (changes  such  as  we 
observe  in  limited  portions  of  time  and  being  only  con- 
tinued developments),  may  be  viewed  as  an  .hypothesis 


T  II    \ 


378 


T  II  A 


made  fur  thr  purpose  of  getting  rid  •  ssity  of  ad- 

mitting Hi'  '»>d.    ThoM  nto  propound  Mich 

an  hypothesis  without  further  cxpl  . 
not  take  much  pains  to  avoid  the  imputation  ol'  alheiam. 
It  doe-  not  appear  however  that  the  doclnn. 
was  am:':  '    .111  a  pure  physical  tlu-my  :   ami  the 

traditions  recorded  ol'  him  In   i  make  lun 

he\<-r  in  u  DieU.     -The  most  antient  of 
God,  for  he  U  uncreated  ;   tin-  most  t>v:iiitilul  Hung  is  the 
God's  creation.' — It  was  oni'  nf  the 

maxims    of   Thales,    thiit    death    did  not  differ   fn.iii   life. 

'  Why  don't   you  die  then  ?'  said  an  ohjeelor,  more  witty 

than  wise.  '  Because  there  is  no  diit'erein •»•,'  was  the  reply. 

Diogenes  Laertius,  i.  'Thales;'    Hitter,  QuokMtt  <&r 

/>/,//'„.  :lJilf.vn\. 

THAI. It   I'KUM  i  from  the  Greek  aJWrnm- •.  the  name 
nuts  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Kunun- 
isists  of  herbs  which   have   usually  u  fetid 
Hmell  and  hence  are  called  meadow  rues.     The 

perennial  roots  with  annual  stems.  The 
flowers  are  corymbose,  panicled.  and  somewhat  r;u 
of  a  green,  white,  (ir  yellow  colour.  They  have  no  invo- 
lucre and  no  petals.  "  The  cah  x  is  coiupo.-ed  of  4  or  5 
petal-like  sepals.  Carpi-is  4-15  iu  number.  Upwards  of 
.  are  enumerated,  which  are  mostly  natives  of 
the  temperate  and  colder  parts  of  the  world. 

Tk.  aqutltgifolium,  the  Feather  Columbine,  has  ovate 

stipule-.  pl*«ed   at    the  bs.se  of   the  ramification*  of  the 

,iud   a    corymbu-e    panicle.     It   is   a   native    of 

-  <>f  Germany.  France,  and  Italy. 

MS  of  this  plant  \ary  in  colour,  some- 

-h-while    and    sometimes    puip:- 

v    !•«  found   in  Austria  with  dark  purple  stems   and 

ii».  and   is  called   Th.  <i.  ntrnjiiirfiiiri'iiin.     Another 

nnotwa,  has  the  stamens  dilated  at  1  he  apex  ; 

whilst'  an..  'he  stem-,    green    and  stamens   quite 

while,  and  is  named  Th.  a.  album. 

Tit.  IIIUIHX,  Loser  Meadow-Hue,  lias  tin-  stem  round, 
mealy,  the  flowers  pauicled,  drooping,  leaflets  smooth, 
roundiih,  toothed  at  apex,  glaucous,  pericarps  acute  fur- 
1.  It  1^  a  native  throughout  Europe.  In  Britain  it 
is  found  in  chalky  pastures,  and  on  the  sea-coast  where 
shell-sand  abounds.  The  adow-rue,  That. 

.  is  also  a  native  of  Gicat  Britain,  though  rare. 
Th.jlirum,  Yellow  Meadow-Rue,  li  branched, 

furrowed  stem,  fibrous  roots,  a  somewhat  corymbose  pa- 
nicle of  cream-coloured  flowers,  with  wedge-shaped,  tritid 
acute  leaflets.  It  is  a  native  of  all  districts  in  Europe. 
In  Britain  it  occupi.  Cadowa,  the  banks  of  mcrs 

and  ditches.     It  has  a  root  of  a  yellow  colour,  and  is  said 
ih  in  appearance  and  properties,  rhubarb. 
It  vieiils  ..-,  which  may  be  employed  for  dyeing 

And  was  formerly  used    as  a   remedy  in  jaundice. 
:nh  to  which  it  belong,  it  is  very  acrid, 
and  prodii  -  upon  the  skin,  when  applied  to  it. 

Th.  /u-t  iiium.  aiple  stem, 

naked  at  the  b:\-e,  leafy  in  the  middle,  and  panicled  at 
top;  the  leaflets  are  obtuse,  toothed.  un<!  vith  a 

clanimv  pubescence.  It  is  a  native  of  France,  Switzer- 
land. ..  and  is  found  in  valleys  and  on  hill  sides, 

It  smells  more 

powerfully  thauam  :Nspccitic  name. 

Th  ;nioiis  floweis,    with 

club-shaped  •!.-.  ..vate  rpunduh  leaflets,  glaucous 

beneath.     This  u  a  North  r,,,uid 

on  the  banks  of  rivers  and  in  woody  districts  throughout 
the  whole  continent. 

The  character  of  the  leaves  ol  these  plants  and  their 
thickly-flowered  panicles  render  them   u\oiur 
dens.    They  are  readily  increased  by  \>. 
and  planting  them  out  in  autun.u. 
mant  shady  situations,  but  are  not  particular;  they  are 
•M-growing  plants  and  well  adapted  for  bord< 

•nc  for  a  ircnus  which 

he  places  amont;  the  Aplyniuiit,  apparent!)  upon  the  au- 
thority of  one  of  the  late  Rev.  Larmdown  GuildiiiK'x  draw- 
in«i.— Kx..  ThuUeput  ornattu.  (Uul 

I  HALLI'Cl  ,'.io>'Mianie  for  a  i;en. 

Pod»,  placed  as  the  first  subfamily  (wi'h  a  .'    of  hi 
bida   Turliiniilif,  we  suppose,  is  meant  ,  by  .Mr.  Swaiuson. 
It  is  lmmediately  followed  by  Uie  •ubianiily  AmpuH«rinet. 

THALLITK. 


>    in 


THAI.l.l'S    is   a   botunical    term    us.  d 

pAWin, 
of  the  plant  which  bears  llu 
stitutes  the   priii 
' 

lull,   as  iu  mosses,  with  the   n-lhdi.  arly 

lame  and  the  leaves  I  and 

at    the    li.u-e.     called     slipu'u 
tria  ;  or  it  is  a  flattened  in,. 

upon  the  ground.  In  lichens  the  parts  which  bear  the 
reproductive  omaiis.  and  which  bulk 

ot  the  plant,  is  called  ihallns  or  blastema.  In  the  Algae 
tile  term  thallus  is  applied  to  the  whole  plant  ;  whilst  in 
the  funiri  it  is  used  synonymously  with  thalamus,  to  ex- 
press the  mass  of  tibres  from  which  many  of  the  futisii 
arise.  TJutOodff  is  the  adjective  used  to  express  anything 
arising  from  the  thallus. 

THAMK.      [OMuunsiuHh..] 

THAMES,  the  most   important   ri\er  in  Great  Britain, 
rises  in  the  central   pait   of  EiiLrland.  and  flows  eastward 
into  the  German  Ocian.    Our  description  will  comprehend 
a  notice  of  ita  IIILMII,  mui-se.  and  affluents,  and  comm 
importance. 

basin.  —  The  limits  assignable  to  the  basin  of  the  Thames 
will  depend  on  the  place  at  which  the  mouth  is  fixed.  The 
openimr  between  Shcerness  in  Kent  and  Shoebun  N> 

between  five  and  six  miles  wide,  is  commonly  re- 
tranledasthe  mouth  of  the  Thames:  but  it  is  preferable  in 

respects  to   consider  as  such   the  openu_ 
\\hitstahle   in  Kent  and  the  east   extremity  ol 
Island   in    Essex,   where    the    tideway    has  a  breadth   of 
i  iirhti-en  miles.     Here  the  Thames  opens  into  I 
separating  Kent  on  the  south  from  Essex  and  Suffolk  on 
the  north,  and  having  for  its  extreme  points  the  North 
Foreland  in  Kent  and  Orl'ord  Ness  in  Suffolk,  fifty  miles 
distant  from  each  other.     Into  this  bay  several  rivei- 
sides  the  Thames,  open  :  as  the  Crouch,  the  Hlackwater, 
and  Uie  Colne.  from    Essex  :  the  Stour.   whic! 
Essex   from   Suffolk  ;  and  the  Orwell,  the  Deln  n,  and  the 
Aide,  from  Suffolk. 

The  basin  of  the  Thames,  commencing  at  \Vhitstable.  is 
bounded  by  the  high  grounds  which  there  run  down  to  the 
coast,  and  form  the  chiU  east  of  that  town.     Th' 
runs  in  a  very  irregular  lim  county  i 

the  \Veald  district  of  Kent  and  Sussex  to  the  ln,-h  _ 
on  the  southern   border   of  Ashdown   Foi.  "alter 

county.  This  pait  of  the  boumlan  is  \crv  irre(_'''.lar  from 
the  manner  in  which  the  basin  of  the  Thames  i.s  compli- 
cated with  the  basins  of  the  Kentish  Stour,  the  Mother,  and 
the  Sussex  Ouse. 

From  Ashdown  Forest  the  boundary  runs  west-north-west 
across  the  high  ground  of  Tilgate  and  St.  I 
to  Leith  Hill  ill  Sunvy.  and  thence  wesl-south-wcd,  though 
in  a  very  irregular  line,  past  the  head  of  the  Wey  in  "U'ool- 
mer  Forest  to  the   \erge   of  the  chalk  do"  \lton, 

Hants.     This  bound:!'  -  the  basin  of  the  '!  ' 

from  the  basins  of  the  Sussex  Ous(.  and  the  Arun.    >• 
all  the  waters  which  i  the  Uuindan  ,  from  its  com- 

mencement to  Tilgate  Forest,  How  into  the  Medwaj  : 
fromTilgai.  Leith  Hill,  into  the  Mdc  ;  andtliox- 

from  Leith  Hill  to  Alton,  into  the  \Vey. 

From  the  neighbourhood  of  Alton,  the  boundary  of  the 
i>  formed  liv    the   chail,    downs   v,  Inc-li    extend  across 
and  Wilts  by    IJasinu'stoke.    Kinjsrlere,    IliL'i 
and  liiirbage  near  (ireat  licdwin  ;  and  from  tin 
downs  which  run  north-westward  to  the  n. 

Keiinct  and  .Many.      These  chalk  do  v  the 

basin  of  the  Thames  from  the  basins  of  the  Anton  o; 
and   the  Hampshire  Avon:    tliat  part  of  the  basin  of  the 
Thames  which  they  l>ound  is  drained  by  the  Loddon  and 
the  Kennel. 

From  near  East  K'ennet  the  boundan  turns  north  and 
north-north-east  along  the  green-sand  hillsby  Comptou  Ha  — 
set,  Chft'e  1'ipard,  and  Chadderton  ;  and  from  thence  west- 
north-west  to  the  western  extremity  of  the  !m.-in  neai  the 
commonl\  leputed  head  of  the'  Thames  amid  the  I'niswold 
Hills  between  Cireiicester  and  Tethiin.  ^dury 

between    East    Keiuiet    and    the  the 

of  the  Thames  from  that  ol  '  i  A  urn,  or  r 

correctly  of  the  Severn,  of  which  i.s  a  tributary. 

From  the  neighbourhood  .  the  boundary  runs 

northw  the  ridge  of  ti  Is.  which  here 

separate  the  basin*  of  the  Thames  and  the  Severn,  to  the 


T  H  A 


279 


T  H  A 


head  of  the  Churn  (or  true  Thames'),  about  three  miles 
south  of  Cheltenham  :  and  from  thence  north-north-east 
along-  by  the  same  hills  to  the  head  of  the  Windrush  near 
Carapden,  and  by  Long-  Compton  Hill  and  Edge  Hill  to 
the  Arbury  hills  near  Daventry  at  the  northern  extremity 
of  the  basin.  Here  the  basin  of  the  Thames  is  contermi- 
nous with  that  part  of  the  basin  of  the  Severn  which  is 
drained  by  its  affluent  the  Warwickshire  Avon. 

From  the  Arbury  hills  the  boundary  of  the  basin  runs 
south  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Bicester,  and  thence  east- 
ward across  Buckinghamshire,  Bedfordshire,  and  Hertford- 
shire, along  the  Dunstable,  Luton,  and  Royston  downs,  to 
the  north-western  corner  of  Essex  ;  the  basin  of  the  Thames 
being  throughout  conterminous  with  that  of  the  midland 
or  Norfolk  Ouse.  This  part  of  the  basin  of  the  Thames  is 
drained  by  its  affluents,  the  Chanvell,  the  Thame,  and  the 
Lea.  An  irregular  line  drawn  through  the  county  of  Essex 
from  its  north-western  corner,  first  south-south-east  by  Dun- 
mow  and  Brentwood.  and  then  east  by  Rayleigh  and  Roch- 
ford  to  the  coast,  will  complete  the  boundary. 

The  greatest  extent  of  this  basin  from  east  to  west  is 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Thames  to  the  neighbourhood  of 
Tetbury,  about  136  miles  ;  the  greatest  extent  from  north 
to  south  is  fiom  the  neighbourhood  of  Daventry,  Northamp- 
tonshire, to  the  neighbourhood  of  Alton,  Hants,  about  78 
miles.  The  basin  comprehends  the  whole  or  part  of 
the  following  counties ;  its  area  may  be  estimated  as 
follows : — 

Sq.  Mil«. 

Kent  ^'considerably  more  than  half  the  county  ; 

the  western  part)     .  .  .  900 

Surrey  (the  whole  county  with  the  exception 
of  some  small  portions  along  the  southern 
border;  ...  .  7(1) 

Sussex  fa  small  parl  alonir  the  northern  border)  3<X1 
Hants  (the  northern  and  north-eastern  part)  .  350 
Berks  (the  whole  county )  .  .  .  750 

Wilts  (the  northern  and  north-eastern  part )  .  450 
Gloucester  the  south-eastern  and  eastern  part)  450 
Warwickshire  ('a  very  small  portion  along  the 

south-eastern  border  .  .  .50 

Northamptonshire  'a  very  small  portion  along 

the  south-western  border)     .  .  SO 

Oxon  (the  whole  county,  with  the  exception  of 
two  small  portions  on  the  north-eastern  and 
north-western  bord  .  .  .  650 

Bucks  'two-thirds  of  the  county ;  the  central 

and  southern  part)   ....       500 
Bedford  (a  small  portion  at  the  southern  extre- 
mity .  .  .  .  50 
Herts  (the  whole  county  except  some   portions 

along  the  north-eastern  border ,          .  .      550 

Middlesex    the  whole  county ,  .  .       300 

Essex  'about  one-third  of  the  county;  the 
western  and  southern  bon  i  .  .  550 

Total     6600 

We  liavc  used  round  numbers,  as  in  such  an  estimate  an 
approximation  to  the  truth  is  all  that  can  be  attempted. 

The  basin  of  the  Thames  is  occupied  wholly  by  the 
•idary  ami  tertiary  geological  formations.  The  sources 
of  the  river  and  the  course  of  its  upper  waters  are  in  the 
oolitic  beds  of  the  Cotswold  hills.  The  valley  through 
which  the  Thames  itself  flows  from  above  C'ricklade  to 
below  Oxford  is  occupied  by  the  Oxford  clay,  and  between 
Oxford  and  Goring  (a  little  below  Wall ingford;  the  river 
flows  over  the  formations  (the  coral  rn<r,  AyK'sbury  stone, 
Tetsworth  clay,  and  greensand  and  chalk  marl)  which  inter- 
vene between  the  oolific  and  cretaceous  groups.  It  traverses 
the  chalk  range  between  Ilsley  Downs  and  the  Chiltern  Hills 
by;'  winding  valley,  in  which  it  flows  from  Goring  to  Maiden- 
head, below  which  it  enters  the  chalk  basin  of  London,  and 
mainder  of  its  course  through  it.  The  affluents 
which  join  the  Thames  above  Oxford  have  their  course  chiefly 
in  the  oolitic  disl  rict ;  the  Thame  and  the  Ock  flow  through 
the  district  occupied  by  the  groups  between  the  oolites  and 
the  chalk  ;  and  of  the  remaining  affluents,  those  which 
join  it  on  the  north  bank  chiefly  rise  in  the  chalk  hills, 
and  have  their  course  in  the  chalk  basin  of  London  :  while 
'  of  those  which  join  it  on  the  south  bank  rise  in  the 
districts  occupied  by  the  subcretaceous  formations,  and 
enter  the  chalk  basin  of  London  by  openings  in  the  chalk 
range  of  the  North  Downs.  Owing  to  the  entire  absence 


of  coal,  the  basin  of  the  Thames  has  no  manufactures  ex- 
cept those  of  the  metropolis ;  but  it  contains  some  of  the 
richest  agricultural  districts  in  the  whole  kingdom. 

Course  and  Affluents. — The  spring  which  has  com- 
monly been  regarded  as  the  head  of  the  Thames  is  about 
three  miles  south-west  of  Cirencester,  near  a  bridge  over 
the  Thames  and  Severn  canal  which  is  called  '  Thames- 
head  bridge  ;'  but  that  which  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  true 
head  of  the  Thames  is  about  three  or  four  miles  south  of 
Cheltenham.  Two  streams  rise,  one  from  fourteen  springs 
at  what  is  popularly  called  The  Seven  Wells,  and  the  other 
from  four  springs  near  Ullen  Farm,  the  westernmost  of 
which  springs  is  the  real  (i.e.  the  remotest)  head  of  the 
river :  both  streams  rise  on  the  south-eastern  slope  of  the 
Cotswolds,  and  form  by  their  junction,  about  a  mile  from 
their  respective  sources,  the  river  Churn  (a  name  the  ele- 
ment of  which  is  embodied  both  in  the  antient  and  modern 
name  of  the  town  of  Cirencester  (the  Corin-ium  of  the  Ro- 
mans), by  which  it  flows  ;  and  in  the  name  of  two  villages, 
North  and  South  Cern-ey,  which  are  near  it.  At  Cricklade, 
19  or  20  miles  south-east  from  its  source,  the  Churn  joins 
the  commonly  reputed  Isis  or  Thames,  the  length  of  which 
above  the  junction  is  only  about  10  or  11  miles. 

From  Cricklade  the  river  flows  9  or  10  miles  east-north- 
east to  Lechlade,  receiving  on  the  way  the  Ray  (11  miles 
long-)  and  the  Cole  (14  miles  long),  both  on  the  south 
bank.  Just  above  Lechlade  it  receives  on  the  north  bank 
a  more  important  tributary,  the  Colne  (23  miles  long)  from 
the  Cotswold  hills  east  of  Cheltenham ;  and  just  below 
Lechlade  it  receives  the  Lech,  or  Leach  (19  miles  long), 
which  also  rises  in  the  Cotswolds,  and  gives  name  to  the 
towns  of  North  Leach  and  Lechlade.  From  Lechlade  the 
Thames  flows  14  miles  eastward  to  the  junction  of  the 
Windmsh,  receiving  accessions  of  small  brooks  on  each 
side.  The  Windrush  rises  in  the  Cotswolds  bet  ween  Winch- 
comb  and  Campden,  and  has  a  course  of  34  miles  by  Bur- 
ford  and  Witney ;  it  joins  the  Thames  on  the  north  bank. 
Below  the  junction  of  the  Windrush  the  Thames  makes  a 
bend  to  the  north  and  north-east,  receiving  on  the  north 
bank  the  Evenlode,  which  rises  in  the  Cotswolds  near 
Moreton  in  the  Marsh,  and  has  a  course  of  31  miles  by 
Charlbury,  and  receives  the  Glyme  which  flows  through 
Woodstock  and  Blenheim  park.  The  Thames  then  turns 
south,  and  flows  to  Oxford,  where  it  joins  the  Charwell. 
From  the  junction  of  the  Windrush  to  that  of  the  Charwell 
«lhe  length  of  the  Thames  is  13  miles.  The  Charwell  rises 
in  the  Arbury  hills  near  Daventry  in  Northamptonshire, 
and  flows  southward  44  miles  by  Banbury :  it  joins  the 
Thames  on  the  left  bank. 

From  the  junction  of  the  Charwell  the  Thames  flows  16 
miles  south-south-east  to  the  junction  of  the  Thame  at 
Dorchester,  making  however  a  considerable  bend  westward 
to  Abingdon,  where  it  receives  the  Oek.  This  river  rises 
at  the  foot  of  the  chalk  hills  of  Berkshire,  between  Comp- 
ton Beauchamp  and  Ashbuiy,  and  flows  eastward  18  miles 
into  the  Thames,  which  it  joins  on  the  right  or  south-west 
bank  :  the  Thame  rises  near  Stewkley  in  Buckinghamshire, 
between  Winslow  and  Leighton  Buzzard,  and  flows  39 
miles  south-west  by  the  town  of  Thame  into  the  Thames, 
which  it  joins  on  the  left  or  north-east  bank.  From  Dor- 
chester the  course  of  the  Thames  is  south-east  22  miles  in 
a  winding  channel  by  Wallingford  to  the  junction  of  the 
Kennet  near  Reading.  The  Rennet  rises  near  Broad  Hinton, 
a  village  to  the  north  of  Marlborough  Downs,  flows  south 
to  East  Kennet,  and  then  turning  eastward  flows  by  Marl- 
borough,  Hungerford,  Newbury,  and  Reading  into  the 
Thames,  which 'it  joins  on  the  right  bank  :  its  whole  course 
is  53  miles.  It  receives  the  Lambourn  and  the  Embourn 
or  Auboni. 

From  the  junction  of  the  Kennet  the  Thames  flows  east- 
ward though  in  a  very  winding  channel,  making  first  a 
considerable  circuit  to  the  north  by  Henley, Great  Marlow, 
and  Maidenhead  to  Windsor  ;  and  then  a  considerable  cir- 
cuit to  the  south  by  Staines,  Chertsey,  Kingston,  and  Rich- 
mond to  Brentford,  from  whence  it  proceeds  by  Hammer- 
smith Putney,  and  Chelsea  to  the  metropolis.  The  distance 
from  the  junction  of  the  Kennet  to  London-bridge  is  TO 
miles  In  this  part  of  its  course  the  Thames  received  several 
feeders.  The  Loddon,  24  miles  long,  rises  in  the  chalk 
downs  of  North  Hants  near  Basingstoke ;  the  Coin,  38 
miles  long,  rises,  under  the  name  of  the  Ver,  in  the  chalk 
downs  of  Hertfordshire,  and  passes  St.  Albans,  Watford, 
Rickmansworth,  Uxbiidge,  and  Colhbrook ;  the  Wey,  3G 


I  11  \ 


280 


'I    1!  A 


mile,  long  i.Hiuit>,p«j*e»Ka™h»in.Godal- 

minc.  a»d  Guildford,  and  join*  the  Thames  at  Wevbndgc  ; 

i.ile,  41  miles  long,  rW-s  on  St.  Ix-onard's  rorest,  in 

\,  piuae*  through  Leatherhead,  and  joins  the  Thames 

the  ( 'ran  and  the  Brent,  two  small  streams, 

,:•.... -i  l.s  miles  long,  rise  on  the  hord 

and  Herbs  and  join  '  the  tiiM  at  l-levvorth,the 

1  at  Brentford  ;  and  the  Wnndle.  :ily  9  miles 

\V;mdsworth.     Of  th. 

and  the  Brent  fall  into  the  Tluunes  on  the  left  or  north 
bank  ;  the  others  on  the  rii;lit  bank.   The  name  oft: 
appears  as  an  element  in  the  name  of  Ver-olainium,  an 
untient  Roman  town  close  to  St.  Albans. 

Below  London,  up  to  which  sea-borne  vessels  ascend,  the 
flows  eastward,  but  with  various  •  reaches '  or  bends, 
50  milts  to  its  mouth,  or  to  the  Nore  Light  (at  the  com- 
monly reputed  mouth 'i  48  miles.  Between  Deptford  and 
Greenwich,  about  four  miles  below  London-bridge,  the 
Thames  receives  on  the  south  or  right  bank  the  Ravens- 
bourne,  10  miles  long,  from  Keston.near  Bromley  in  Kent  : 
about  two  or  three  miles  farther  down,  on  the  north  or  left 
bank,  the  Lea.  50  miles  long,  which  rises  in  Bedfordshire, 
and  passes  Luton.  Hertford,  Ware,  and  Waltham  Abbey  : 
four  or  fiw  miles  lower,  the  Roding,  38  miles  long,  from 
near  Duntnow,  also  on  the  north  bank  ;  and  six  miles  lower, 
on  the  south  bank,  the  Darent,  20  miles  long,  which  : 
Dartford,  and  receives  the  Cray.  The  only  remaining  feeder 
of  the  Thames  which  here  requires  notice  is  the  Medway. 
above  GO  miles  Ion;:,  which  rises  in  Sussex,  and  flows  by 
Tunbridgc,  Maidstone.  Rochester,  and  Chatham.  The 
principal  arm  of  the  Medway  joins  the  Thames  at  Sheer- 
just  above  the  Nore  ;  but  the  smaller  arm,  called  the 
Swale,  which  cuts  off  the  Isle  of  Sheppy  liom  the  main- 
land of  Kent, opens  into  the  Thames  just  above  Whit.-lablc. 
The  whole  course  of  the  Thames,  from  its  source  to  its 
mouth,  is  about  220  miles,  which  is  the  aggregate  of  the 
distances  already  gi-. 

Length  of  the  Churn 

From  the  junction  of  the  Churn  and  com- 
monly reputed  Thames  at  Cricklade  to 
Let-made 

To  the  junction  of  the  Windrush 

To  the  junction  of  the  Charwell 

To  the  junction  of  the  Thame 

To  the  junction  of  the  Kennet 

To  London-bridge    . 

To  the  mouth 


20 


9 
14 
13 

HI 

7d 
50 

220 


The  principal  affluents  of  the  Thames  are  more  fully  de- 
scribed elsewnere:  theColne  under(i<  MURE;  the 
Windmill,  the  Evenlode,  the  Chanvell,  and  the  Thame, 
under  OXFORDSHIRE;  the  Kennet,  the  Loddon,  and  the 
Oek,  under  BERKSHIRE;  the  Colne,  the  Brent,  and  the 
Cran.  under  MIDDLESEX  ;  the  Wey.  the  Mole,  and  the 
Wandle,  under  SVRRKY  ;  the  Lea  with  its  tributaries,  under 
HtRTKORDsHiRK,  F.SSKX.  and  MIDDLESEX  ;  the  Roding 
under  KSSEX  ;  and  the  Ravensborne,  Darcnt.  Cray,  and 
Medway  with  its  feeders,  under  KENT.  The  Thames,  in 
the  first  part  of  its  course,  belongs  wholly  to  Glour 
.'•hire,  but  below  Cricklade  is  almost  entirely  a  border 
dividing  Gloucestershire  from  Wiltshire,  Oxfordshire  and 
Buckinghamshire  from  Berkshire,  Middlesex  from  Surrey, 
and  Essex  from  Kent.  Some  part  of  its  com 
fore  described  in  the  articles  on  those  coin 

Commercial  Iniji'irtuncr. — The  navigation  of  the  Thames 
commences  at  I.echlade,    wliea-  the  liver  is  about  '_'". 
above  low-water  mark  at  London-bridge.     It-  i 
was  early  appreciated,  and  (here  are  acts  of  Parliament 

-  early  as  the  2nd  Hen.  VI.  The  Thames 
and  Severn  Canal,  which  follows  the  valley  of  the  Churn 
and  the  Thames  from  ^ncar  (.'Irene.  u  into  the 

Thames  at  I-echlade,  thus  connecting  it  with  the  s 
and  the  W(  t   of  the  island.     The   navigation  ,,|' 

the  river  furmi'rly  extended  up    to  ( 'tickhide,   but 
Uie  opening  of  the  canal  the  upper  part,  between  « 
lade  iiiid   I.rchladc,  lias  been  abandoned.     None    of  the 
tributaries  above  Oxford  are  navigable.      At   Oxford  the 
Oxford  Canal  joins  the  Thames,  and  opens  a  cnmmunira- 
»"'n  with  the  great  canal  system  of  the  central  counties: 

"ii«e  of  the  Charwell  f which  river  i-  not 
nuvigable)  from  above  Banbury.  At  Ahingdon  the 


1  an*^  -.WHt^fc*  Tluunes,  and,  as  well  as  the 

Kennet  an  the  Kennet  nt  Ncw- 

.-.  here   tile  i  •  of  thai    liver    coin'! 

miles  above  Us  junction  with  the  Tl...  •  .s  n  com- 

munication with  the  S  Vvon,  and 

by  it  with  the  Severn.     The  Thame  r  liom  the 

town  of  Thame,  about  17  miles  above  its  junction  with  the 
Thames;  but  neither  the  Loddon  nor  the  ' 
ble.  The  Wc\  is  navigable  from  Godalming,  about  17 
miles  from  its  junction;  and  is  connected  v.ith  the  W.  v 
nnd  Arun  Canal,  and  the  BasingMoke  Canal,  the  former  of 
which  opens  a  communication  with  the  river  Arun  and 
the  S.i  No  ut hi  r  ieeder  above  London-bl 

i-  navigable  ;  but  the  Giand  Junction  Canal,  which  Ul 
with  the  Oxford  Canal  at  Braunston  in  Northamptonshiic, 
opens  into  the  Thames  by  the  month  of  the  Brent,  the 
lower  pait  of  which  isincoipoialcd  with  the  canal.  Below 
London-bridge  the  Lea,  which  is  navigable,  chiefly  l> 
artificial  cuts,  for  25  miles,  and  has  one  of  its  I'enleis  the 
Stort)  also  navigable,  ripens  into  the  Tliames ;  and  just 
above  the  Lea,  the  Regent's  Canal,  which  encircles  the 
north  and  ea.-t  side  of  the  metropolis,  and  comnimu 
with  the  1'addington  Canal,  and  so  with  the  Grand  Junc- 
tion Canal,  also  opens  into  the  river. 

The  Medway  is  nav  ijjable  below  Rochester  bridge  for  sea- 
borne vessels,  and  from  I'enshurst,  above  -13  miles  from  its 
mouth,  for  river  ciaft. 

The  navigation  of  the  Thames,  in  its  upper  pait.  is  kept 
up  by  lucks  and  wears,  the  lowest  of  which  is  at  Tedding- 
ton,  which  is  consequently  the  limit  of  the  tide.  Tedding- 
ton  is  about  18  or  19  miles  above  London  bridge.  Hitrh- 
water  mark  at  Teddin^ton  is  about  one  foot  and  a  half 
higher  than  at  London -bridge,  and  the  time  of  high-vatcr 
is  about  two  hours  later.  Low-water  surface  at  Tedding- 
ton  is  about  sixteen  feet  and  three-quarters  higher  than  at 
London-bridge. 

At  ebb-tide  there  is  a  depth  of  from  12  to  13  feet  water 
nearly  or  quite  up  to  London-bridge,  and  the  ri-^e  of  the  tide- 
is  about  17  feet,  or  at  the  extreme  springs  about  22  i 

Vessels  of  800  tons  get  up  to  the  St.  Catherine's  Docks, 
and  those  of  1400  tons  to  Blackwall,  about  six  miles  below 
bridire.  No  river  in  the  world  equals  the  Thames  in  its  com- 
mercial importance.  The  river  for  some  two  miles  or  more 
below  bridge  i>  crowded  \vithvessels,chieflv  .  ;cam- 

boats, and  colliers,  which  moor  alongside  the  quavsor  in  tier> 
in  the  stream  ;  others  are  moored  lower  down,  though  not  in 
such  numbers;  and  for  larger  vessels  1b  .era)  docks 

excavated  on  the  bank  of  the  river.  There  is  a  dorkvard  for 
the  navy  (npw  little  used)  at  Deptford,  about  four  mile.- 
below  London-bridge;  one  at  Woolwich,  nine  miles  below; 
one  at  Sheerness,  in  the  Isle  of  Sheppy.  at  the  junction  of 
the  Thames  and  Medway  :  and  one  at  Chatham,  the  most 
important  of  the  four,  on  the  Medway.  The  fortifications 
at  Sheerness  defend  the  entrance  to  both  river-.:  the  pas- 
sage of  the  Thames  is  further  protected  by  Tilbuiy  tort, 
and  that  of  the  Medway  by  Gillingham  Fort. 

The  width  of  the  river  at  London-!  rid^e  is  nearly  700 
feet.  For  nearly  the  whole  way  below  London-bridge  the 
river  is  embanked,  and  is  almost  throughout  its  lower 
course  skirted  with  marsh-lands,  which  however  have  no- 
where a  great  extent.  The  width  of  the  river  at  Woolwich 
is  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  ;  at  Graveseml.  'J(i  miles  below 
London-bridge,  and  opposite  Tilbury  Fort,  it  is  more  than 
half  a  mile:  about  four  miles  below  Graveseml  it  is  nearh 
a  mile  ;  and  then  gradually  increases  to  the  width  of  about 
six  miles  :il  the  Nore.  and  to  eighteen  at  the  point  where 
we  have  fixed  the  mouth. 

It  is  a  common  opinion  that  this  river  in  the  upper  part 
of  its  course  is  properly  called  Isis,  and  that  it  is  only  below 
the  junction  of  the  Thame  that  it  is  called  Thames,  which 
name  is  said  to  be  formed  by  combining  the  two  name.- 
Thame  and  Isis.  But  ( 'amden  observed  long  a^o  that  tlu- 
is  a  mistake  :  that  the  river  was  antiently  called  Thames  in 
its  upper  as  well  as  in  its  lower  part  ;  that  the  11:1111 
never  occurs  in  antient  records,  and  was  never  used  bv  Un- 
common people,  but  only  by  scholars.  Cu-sar  writes  the 
name  Tamc-i-  (evidently  Tames  or  Thames,  with  the  ad- 
dition of  a  J.atin  termination.  Tacitus  writes  it  Tar 
and  Dion  Cassini  To^tro,  trhich  is  the  same  name,  with 
the  appendage  of  a  diti'eient  termination.  1'toletny  i 
'lapr/aa,  or  in  some  MSS.  *In/i«rnic.  and  in  some  editions 
'la/iiaan  :  all  which  we  suspect  to  be  forms  of  the  same 
name,  'I  having  been  by  the  carcles-nc^s  of  some  early 


T  H  A 


T  H  A 


transcriber  substituted  for  T.     In  Richard  of  Cirencester  it 
is  Thamesis. 

(Ordnance  Survey ;  M'Culloch's  Statistical  Account  of 
the  British  Empire ;  Camden's  Britannia.) 

THAMES,   a  certain  jurisdiction,   though  not  undis- 
putedly  exclusive,  appears  to   have  been   immemorially 
exercised   over   both  the   fisheries  and   navigation   of  a 
large   portion  of  the  Thames  by  the  mayor  and  corpo- 
ration of  London,     In  early  times,  when  fisheries  were 
probably  of  much  greater  importance  than  they  are  at,  pre- 
sent, the  same  Kind  of  encroachments  upon  them  by  private 
individuals  which  were  so  often  made  the  subject  of  com- 
plaint in  other  parts  of  the  kingdom  were  also  practised  in 
this  river.     In   1405  an  order  was  issued  from  Sir  John 
Woodcock,  then  lord  mayor,  enjoining  the  destruction  of 
wears  and  nets  from  Staines  to  the  Medway,  in  consequence 
of  the   injury  which  they  did  to  the   fishery  and  their 
obstruction  of  the  navigation.      By  4  Hen.  VII.,   c.  15 
(1487),  the  mayor  of  London  and  his  successors  were  in- 
vested  with  the  same  authority  as  conservator  of  the  fish 
in  '  all  the  issues,  breaches,  and  ground  overflown  as  far 
«s  Hie  water  ebbeth  and  floweth  from  out  of  the  river 
Thames,'  as  he  had  within  the  river  itself.     Before  the 
river  was  artificially  embanked  and  the  adjoining  lands 
drained,  this  extension  was  probably  of  considerable  im- 
portance. During  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  in  1584,  an  order 
was  put  forth  by  the  mayor  for  the  purpose  of  settling  the 
proper  times  in  which  various  kinds  of  fish  were  to  be 
taken.     It  prohibited  fishing  in  certain  parts  of  the  river, 
and  forbade  the  taking  of  the  white-bait  or  '  bloodbag.' 
The  right  of  the  corporation  however  to  the  conservation 
of  the  river  about  this  time  was  disputed  by  the  lord-high- 
admiral,  and  some  litigation  took  place,  in  which  the  cor- 
poration were  uniformly  successful.     James  I.  in  the  third 
year  of  his  reign  granted  a  charter  to  the  city,  in  which  the 
immemorial  right  of  the  city  to  the  office  of  bailiff  and 
conservator  of  the  Thames  is  recited  and  confirmed.     The 
same  rights  are  also  confirmed  and  settled  by  various  other 
charters  and  acts  of  parliament.    The  result  of  them  is  to 
vi>t  in  the  corporation  the  conservation  of  the  river,  the 
regulation  of  the  port  and  harbour  of  London,  and,  as  is 
said,  the  actual  property  in  the  soil  of  the  river,  subject 
only  to  the  jus  regium  of  the  crown.  By  this  is  perhaps  to 
lie  understood,  that  property  with  which  the  crown  is  held 
to  be  invested  for  the  purpose  of  securing  to  the  public 
the  use  of  the  river  for  trie  purposes  of  navigation,  fishing, 
and  other  purposes.    The  portion  of  the  river  over  which 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  city  extended  seems  to  have  been 
always  much  the  same.     It  is  described  in  the  following 
terms,  in  an  article  entitled  '  Antient  Prescriptive  Jurisdic- 
tions over  the  Thames,'  by  Joseph  Fletcher,  Esq.,  in  the 
'  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Statistical  Society  of  London,' 
vol.  iv.,  p.  104 : — '  The  charters  of  James  I.  here  quoted  are 
confirmed  in  one  of  the  14th  of  Charles  I.    They  remain  to 
the  present  day  the  great  record  of  the  city's  rights  over  the 
river,  and  it  is  as  such  that  they  are  recited  in  this  statute. 
The   offices  of  meter  and  conservator  are  asserted  from 
Staines  to  the  mouth  of  the  Thames,  the  commencement 
of  the  city's  jurisdiction  being  marked  by  a  stone,  with  an 
apocryphal  date,  called  London  Stone,  placed  on  the  north 
bank   of  the  river,  a  short  distance  above   the   present 
bridge  of  Staines,  and  its  termination  on  the  south  shore, 
by  the  formerly  navigable  creek  of  Yantlet,  separating  the 
We  of  Grain  from  the  mainland  of  Kent,  and  on  the  north 
shore  by  the  village  of  Leigh,  in  Essex,  placed  directly 
opposite,  and  close  to  the  lower   extremity  of  Canvey 
Island.    The  shore  of  the  Isle  of  Grain,  which  separates 
the  mouths  of  the  Thames  and   Medway,  are  thus  wholly 
exempt  from  the  city's  jurisdiction ;  notwithstanding  that 
the  right  of  conservancy  is  still  asserted  in  the  waters  of 
the  M fd way,  from  the  southern  mouth  of  Yantlet  Creek, 
upwards  towards  Rochester,  as  far  as  Cockham  Wood, 
which  is  on  the  northern  shore,  opposite  the  marshy  point 
below  Chatham.    At  all  events,  the  corporation  of  RO- 
UT deny  the  right  of  the  city  of  London  to  conserva- 
torial  jurisdiction  in  the  Medway  below  Yantlet  Creek, 
any  more  than  in  the  Thames;  a  limitation  which  appears 
to  have  arisen  from  this  creek  having  antiently  been  the 
customary  channel  of  navigation  between  the  two  rivers, 
and  marked  the  mouths  of  both.     But  the  passage  through 
this  cn-ck  being  now  completely  stopped,  so  that  the  Isle 
of  Grain  is  connected  by  a  solid  roadway  with  the  parish 
of  Stoke,  the  mouths  of  these  rivers  are  properly  at  the 
P.  C.,  No.  1523. 


lower  extremity  of  this  island,  opposite  the  Nore  and 
Sheerness,  while  the  city's  jurisdiction,  more  antient  than 
this  geographical  change,  is  completely  cut  by  it  into  two 
separate  portions.  About  twenty  years  ago  it  was  at- 
tempted by  the  city  officers,  under  the  direction  of  a  court 
of  conservancy,  to  reunite  these  portions,  by  cutting 
through  the  bank  which  prevents  the  navigation  of  fishing- 
boats  through  Yantlet  Creek  ;  but  the  final  decision  of  the 
Court  of  King's  Bench,  given  July  8th,  1825,  on  the 
motion  for  a  new  trial,  was  against  this  proceeding. 
The  conservancy  jurisdiction  in  the  Medway  extends  a 
distance  of  only  eight  miles,  but  has  little  more  than  a 
nominal  existence.  In  the  Thames  it  extends  a  distance 
of  eighty  miles,  over  nearly  the  entire  course  of  that  river 
through  the  metropolitan  valley ;  and  this  distance  ap- 
pears to  be  divided  into  thirty-four  miles  of  inland  navi- 
gation from  Staines  to  Vauxhall  Bridge,  the  towing-path 
ceasing  at  Putney ;  three  of  town  thoroughfare,  from 
Vauxhall  to  London  Bridge  ;  and  forty-three  of  seaport, 
from  London  Bridge  to  Yantlet  Creek.' 

In  their  character  of  conservators  of  the  Thames  the 
corporation  have  the  control  and  regulation  of  the  fisheries, 
and  are  empowered  to  seize  prohibited  nets,  fish,  &c. 
They  have  also  the  regulation  and  control  of  the  water- 
men and  of  the  shipping.  They  are  entrusted  with  the 
cleansing  of  the  river,  the  removal  of  obstructions,  erec- 
tion of  stairs,  licensing  mills,  and  other  such  duties.  The 
lord  mayor,  with  the  recorder  and  other  civic  officers,  holds 
in  person  eight  courts  of  conservancy  in  the  year,  two  for 
each  of  the  counties  of  Middlesex,  Surrey,  Kent,  and 
Essex,  and  occasionally  a  court  in  London.  The  greater 
part  of  their  functions  are  at  the  present  time  intrusted  to 
a  committee  of  the  common  council,  called  '  The  Thames 
Navigation  and  Port  of  London  Committee.'  Various  acts 
of  parliament  saving  the  jurisdiction  of  the  city  of  London 
have  been  passed  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  and  punish- 
ing offences  committed  on  the  river,  and  the  maintaining 
of  a  police  and  magistrates  to  administer  the  law.  The 
latest  of  these  is  3  Wm.  IV.,  c.  19. 

(Griffiths'  Conservancy  of  the  River  Thames;  Pulling, 
On  the  Laws,  $-c.  of  the  City  and  Port  of  London  ;  Stow, 
Survey  of  London.) 

THAMMUZ.     [ADONIS.] 

THAMNO'BIA,  Mr.  Swainson's  name  for  a  genus  of 
birds  (Sylvia,  Vieill.)  placed  by  Mr.  G.  R.  Gray  in  his  sub- 
family Saxicolines,  of  his  family  Luscinidf?. 

THAMNOPHILI'NyE,  a  subfamily  of  SHRIKES. 

THAMNO'PHILUS,  Vieillot's  name  for  a  genus  of 
SHRIKES. 

THAMNO'SIA.     [SEA  WEEDS.] 

THANE,  in  Anglo-Saxon  Thfgn,  from  thegnian,  or 
tkenicm, '  to  serve,'  the  same  word  with  the  modern  German 
(lii'iifii,  is  frequently,  in  conformity  with  this  origin,  trans- 
lated minister  in  the  Latin  charters  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
period.  In  other  cases  its  equivalent  is  miles,  or  fidehs 
miles.  So  king  Alfred,  in  his  translation  of  Bede's  '  Eccle- 
siastical History,'  renders  the  king's  minister,  the  king's 
thane,  and  uses  thane  wherever  Bede  has  miles.  In  this 
general  sense  it  may  be  considered  as  nearly  the  same  with 
the  Norman  term  liege  or  liegeman  ;  and  so  it  seems  to 
have  been  sometimes  used.  The  exact  meaning  of  the 
term  when  employed  as  a  title  of  honour  is  involved  in 
considerable  obscurity  :  the  rank  or  dignity  which  it  denoted 
was  possibly  not  the  same  at  different  times,  and  there 
were  also  thanes  of  more  than  one  •kind.  The  king's  thanes, 
in  particular,  are  distinguished  from  the  medeme  (in  Latin 
mediocres),  or  inferior  thanes,  who  are  otherwise  designated 
the  thanes  of  aldermen  (the  highest  order  of  the  Saxon 
nobility),  earls,  and  other  thanes,  and  who  appear  to  have 
been  very  numerous.  After  the  Conquest  thanes  (thaini  or 
taini)  are  frequently  classed  with  barons  (barones) :  in  the 
laws  of  Henry  I.,  the  two  words  are  apparently  used  as  syno- 
nymous ;  and  where  the  Saxon  Chronicler  has  thanes  (the- 
genas),  the  Latin  annalists  have  commonly  barones.  These 
were,  of  course,  the  superior  or  king's  thanes.  The  class  of 
common  or  inferior  thanes,  again,  seems  to  have  answered 
nearly  to  that  of  the  barones  minores,  or  landed  gentry. 
One  of  the  few  things  that  are  tolerably  certain  with  regard 
to  the  rank  of  a  thane  is,  that  it  implied  the  possession  of 
a  certain  amount  of  landed  property.  Such  a  qualification 
indeed  seems  in  certain  circumstances  to  have  conferred 
the  dignity  of  thane.  One  of  the  laws  of  Athelstane  de- 
clares that  if  a  ceorl  (or  commoner)  shall  have  obtained 

VOL.  XXIV,— 2  0 


T  H    \ 


I1  II  A 


five  hides  01'  ir.nd  in  lull  property,  with  a  i-liurcli,  n  kitchen,  I  such  doubts  and  the  only  fact   which  follows   u-»m  thc-e 

- 
barri  >  agreeastothci. 


w  nit*  n 


- 


the 


a  thane  by  liifht.     ;  of  liuiil  wa«  pn 

Amount  (IcIlliUi 

altho 

also  the  quant 

to  In 

lands  are  nu  ntion.d   in    JX>mesday-13ook  as 

•.•  tainornm):  mid  i1  i 
the  oldest  of  the  Nornmn  '. 
to  a  particular 

:,  or  parliament,  but  it  is  mutter 
'.vii  right  or  as  e'eetcd 

represent!!  facts  connected  \\itli  this 

been  coll  'Ir.  Sharon 

Turner,  in  his  •  Ilisir, v  of  the  Anglo  '  aidon, 

1823,  vol.  iii..  pp.81,  187-900,  227-2:11  :  and  by  Sir  I 
Palgrave,  in  bis'  Rise  ami  ProiTe-s  of  th  '  Com- 

monwealth •  :•..  i..  \'>.  :>77-">7.> :    and  ii.. 

ccclxx\\i. 

There  is  little  mention  of  the  thanes  in  England 
the  time  of  Henry  II. ;    but  Lord  II 

nalt,  i.  28;  thnt  in  Scotland  thane  was  a  Ijitle 

down  to  the  end  of  tin-  tilteenth  century  :  the  •  ( "nurtvilary 
of  Moray'  mentions  a  thane  of  <  'awdor  In  1492.  It  appears 
from  the  first  to  have  implied  in  Scotland  a  higher  dignity 
than  in  England,  and  to  im\e  been  for  tin 
nyraous  with  earl,  which  was  a  title  generally  annexed  to 
the  tenitory  of  a  whole  county.  It  has  been  commonly 
assumed  that  thane  is  the  more  ant icnt  title,  and  th:d  it 
began  to  be  exchanged  for  earl  in  the  reiirn  of  Malcolm 
Canmore ;  but,  according  to  Pinkcrlon  ilix/m-i/ 

the  title  of  thane  was  not  intro- 
duced into  Scotland  till  after  the  time  of  Malcolm.  '  Yet,' 
he  adds,  '  the  difference  between  a  thane  and  baron  is  un- 
known: and  some  doubts  arise  that  ignorance  may  have 
blended  the  Saxon  thuiii-  and  the  Irish  Iniiitst.' 

THAXKT.  1SI.K  OF.     [KENT.] 

THAXN.     [KHiN,  HAVT.] 

THA'PSACUS,  or  TIIA'PSAi  T.M,  v.as  a  very  antient. 
populous,  and  commercial  town  in  Syria,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Euphrates,  about  21  in  the  junction  of 

the  river  Chaboras    •  Xenophon :  with   the 

Euphrates.      Thapsacns.    the   Thipb.-ach    of  the   Hible    I 
Kin:;  'lie  Taphsa  of  the  Vulgate,  and  the  Tha)i.-a 

of  Joseph  t  eastern  town  of 

the  kingdom  of  Solomon  after  Da\  id  had  conquered  the 
country  as  far  \\    an  equal  distance 

from  lyr  by  land  and  from  Habylon  by  water,  Thapsacus 
became  an  emporium,  where  the  Gcrriiaei  kept  sto 
the  commodities  and  spice,  of  Aiabia,  which  they  carried 
there  on  floats,  or  probably  Links,  nnil  which  were  after- 
ward* transported  by  land  to  Syria  and  Plia'nicia  and  their 
commercial  towns  on  the  Mediterranean.  .  Strabo.  \vi.,  p. 
76C,  Can.)  Its  military  position  .iport- 

At  the  time  of  the  expedition  of  th 

there  was  a  ford  at  Thapsacns,  but  no  In 
subsequently  there  was  a  bridge.  This  town  was  th 
southern  passage  by  which  an  army  could  >  cither 

from  Mesopotamia  into  Syria  and  Cilicia,  or  from  these 
countries  into  M  a  and  Persia,  without  being  ob- 

liged to  ti;iM-:.-e   th.-  •  inch  occupy  the 

whole  tract  betwec::  I'lurnicia  in  th. 

and  the  lower  part  of  the   Euphrates  in  the  east,     'file 
yonn:'  at  Thaps:; 

phon.C'yro/vsJ.,  i.  4  :  D«ri  -w-d  the  river  at  Thap- 

vicus  when  he  was  a>i 
and  Alexander,  win  : 

(Arrian,  2.  bo  the  In. 

Thapsacui  existed  no  I  the  jmssage  of  il 

was  made  by  the  bir  :ho.  p.  747. 

CM.)     The  circumstance  of  Tlmpsncns  being  a  town  I'roin 
which  military  and  commercial  <   in  (very  direc- 

tion, was  probably  the  cause  why  Kratosthenes 
the  centre  of  hi.-,  geographical  nicasni  Minor 

and  the  adjacen  .  of  which  Sli  :ui  ac- 

count rij..  ,,.  77.11 1,  <'u.,.  i.     It  I 
tietiU  did  not  agree  on  tin 

\rabiaDeserta.  and  P 

1  '•  '  '      It;,  /in'; in  is   :n  ,\  (,).  (  'i; i  tins     \.   1      i.i 

Srna.     But  the  town  was  too  well  known  to  allo 


v  agree  as ' 

' 
. 

led  it  'fun. 

.lies  that  ;  n  the 

ch  ha*  the  Aral  i  -iil-der,' 

IT  '  the  di-t 

I)  A::\  i      .     •  ,   vol.  iL,   141; 

:iii,  \ol.  n-. 
Til 
the  n: 

uilh  doubly  or  trebly  j  innal 
f  many  rays  without 

.Vtoolhc'.l;    petals  elliptic,  entire:    fruit   eonii:resKi(i 
the  buck:    nieiicarps  with   .')  primary  iiliform 
which  are  do: sal.  and   2   •  iiie  comniieBure, 

and  \\ith  4  secondary  ribs,  of  which  the  2  dorsal  are  fili- 

and   the  2  lateral  ones   membranous  and  wi; 
vittse  in  each  furrow  underneath  uuy  ril)s. 

The  natives  of  the  count  Hi  s  .  ,   the 

M'edii.  :iiul  are  known  under  flu 

stem;  tri-pinnate  leaves,  mam-. 

both  surfaces  lower  o 

in  Portugal,  Sjiain.  the  soutU  <.i  n  Italy,  and  the 

northern   coa.-ts  of  Africa.      PC  . 

the  root  is  acrid  and  corrosive.     In  Barbary  it  is  used  as  a 

remedy  for  some  forms  of  cutaneous  disen»e.  but  it  appears 

to  be  a  severe  application  and  attended  with  inflammation 

and  vesication  of  the  skin. 

'/'.  -'Jphium  Deadly  Carrot,  has  a  square  gla- 

brous furrowed  st ,  .  iniiny-paited  letdlets, 

all  linear,  hairy  on  bo1  .  with  revolnte  margins.    It 

is  a  native  of  the  north  of  Africa,  on  the  mount m. 

i  to  be  the  pi;';  .i  the 

juice   called   Si/iJiiiiin.  and  which  was   held    in  so  high 
repute  by  the  antieii; 

::iled  '  Silphifera.'     [SiLi-ii: 

7'.  '.'  Linian  or  Greek  Deaci. 

square  Mem:    bi- or  tri-])iiinate  slnnii 

segments  linear,  acnle.  elongated,  quite  entire  along  the 
'•: h  few  le:i\es  :    fnii  i   the 

of  Calabri 

Greece,  Sicily,  Sardinia.  Spain.  iVe.     Dr.  Sibtlm.p   li 
it  common   in  Greece  and   the   ;  .   and 

concludes  tint  it    is  the  Uavnm  of  I)i'  Mil  whose 

:  tion  it  agrees  better  than  any  (if  the  n--i.      It  i 
of  the  most  stately  planlsdf  the  faiiuly,  and  was  . 
into  the  gardens  ol   this  country  as  early  n>  lu'8().     'I 

.'her  species  nl   this  :renns  referred  to  by  Don  : 
they  possess  the   aeti'. 
seldom  employed  at  th 

In  their  cultivation  e  but 

little  i  •  in  any  common  •;: 

They  may  be  propagated  I-  l:ich  should  be  sown 

in  aiitumn  as  soon  as  they  are  ripe. 

nn  island  situ- 
ated oft'  the  const  of  Thrace,  iit   a  shoit  distance  from  the 

i.  and  a  little  to  the 

south-cast    of   the   Guli'   ot    KauiUo.      N'olgaro.  which    is 
nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  island,  is  in  41U  t.V  X.  lat.  and 
'  E.  long. 

the  time  of  11; 

;;ms.  who  came  from 
led    by  Thasos.  • 
.'.'nom   the   island    i.  s;iid   to   ba\e    taken    i 

I'ausan..  v.  'J*'>.       It  v 
Kthria   'Pliny,   iv.    1. 
K.iistath..  .-til  1 1 

nished   by  the   epithet    Ogvtia.      Il 

colon.  uiong 

whom  .  .  m  TUSor  720  i 

!/<-t/i'ii..n.  7(W.  whodi.'  the  question. 

is  enrii  the  possi 

and  at  Scapte  llyle.  on  tin 

•ding    to   II'  'odotus.    who 
iln in.  the  mo-1  .HIS,- which  had 


T    H  A 


283 


T  H  A 


vorked  by  the  Phoenicians  on  the  north-east  slue  of 
the  island,  the  excavations  for  which  were  very  evident 
\i.  47  .  Herodotus  further  states  that  from  the  proceeds 
of  these  mines,  and  of  their  continental  territory,  which 
must  have  extended  for  some  distance  along  the  Thracian 
coast,  there  accrued  to  the  Thasians  in  his  time  from  200 
to  301)  talents  yearly,  of  which  sum  the  mines  in  Scaple 
Hyle  produced  80  talents,  and  those  in  the  island  rather 
IP.-S.  (See  the  remarks  on  this  passage  in  Boeckh,  Public 
<J'r'/>i.  nf  At /!?/'$,  ii.  21,  Lewis's  translat.,  who  assigns  the 
probable  sources  of  the  remainder  of  this  revenue.) 

Being  unencumbered  with  any  taxes  on  the  produce  of 
their  lands,  the  Thasians  were  at  this  time  very  rich. 
About  B.C.  492  they  were  besieged  by  Histiisus  of  Miletus 
for  a  short  time,  anil  employed  their  wealth  in  consequence 
in  building  ships  of  war  and  strengthening  their  fortifica- 
tions. Their  independence  and  growing  power  excited 
the  jealousy  of  Persia  :  they  were  reduced  by  Mardonius  ; 
and  shortly  afterwards,  B.C.  491,  being  suspected  of  medi- 
{  revolt,  they  were  compelled  by  Darius  to  throw 
do'.vn  their  walls  and  surrender  their  ships  of  war.  (Hero- 
!,  vi.  46.)  On  the  expedition  of  Xerxes  into  Greece, 
the  burthensome  honour  of  reeehing  his  army  in  their 
continental  territory  was  imposed  upon  them,  and  on  this 
entertainment  they  expended  400  talents  of  silver.  (Hero- 
dot.,  vii.  118.)  Alter  the  Persian  war  they  became  subject 
to  Athens,  and  having  a  dispute  with  that  state  about  their 
Thracian  i  -.revolted,  B.C.  465.  (Thucy.,  i.  100.) 

(Jimon,  alter  defeating  them  at  sea,  besieged  their  island, 
and  took  it  in  the  thiul  year  of  the  siege,  B.C.  463.     The 
-inns  were  compelled  to  destroy  their  fortifications,  to 
•rider  their  ships,  to  pay  a  large  sum  of  money  at  the 
time  and  tribute  for  the  future,  and  to  give  up  their  mines 
and  settlements  on  the  continent,  among  which  must  have 
been  Stryme    fHerod.,  vii.    ION  .  Ga!cp>us   and   fEsyme 
Thuoy.,  iv.  1(17  ,  and  Datos  (Kustut.,  Ad  Dioini.,  517). 

On  i  ii-iicy  oi' the  party  of  Pisander  at  Ath< 

the  close  of  the  Pefoponnesian  war,  Diotrephes  w;i 
by  him  toThasos,  and  established  an  oligarchy  there.    This 
injudicious  policy  furnished  an  immediate  opportunity  of 
revolting  from  Athens ;  the  Thasians  fortified  their  city. 
a'id  communicating  with  an  exiled  party,  called  in  the  Spar- 
tans, B.C.  411.     (Thucy.,  viii.  04.)     Much  internal  dissen- 
usued;  the  Spartan  harmost  Eleonicus  and  his  party 
lied  shortly  afterwards,  and  the  island,  reduced  by 
famine  and  civil  war,  was  finally  restored  to  the  Athenians 
by  Thrasybulus,  B.C.  407  (Xenophon,  Hellen.,  1-4).  with 
til-   awutance  of  a   party  of  the   inhabitants  under  Ec- 
see  Demosthenes,   L?pt.,  474,  25,  Reiske,  who 
further  states  that  these  Thasians  received  in  reward  from 
1h<'    Athenians    exemption    from   taxes).      Subsequently 
the  Thasians  appear  to  have  regained  some  of  their  con- 
tinental   possessions,    and    B.C.    35!)    they   fortified   Cre- 
.  probably  as  a  frontier  post  for  their  Thracian  terri- 
-eized  by  Philip,  son  of  Amyntas,  king  of 
'•Jon,  who  placed  a  number  of  Macedonian  seti 
it,  aivl  gaw  it  the  name  Philippi  ;  under  his  management 
--old-mines  were  made  much  more   productive  than 
e.     Little  more  mention  of  the  Thasians  occurs  in 
autient   history.     When   attacked   by  Philip  V.,   king  of 
Macedon,  they  submitted  to  him,  with  the  stipulation  that 
tln'V  should   retain  their  own  laws  and  be  exempt   from 
garrison,  tribute,  or  other  burthens,  B.C.  202  (Polyb.,  xv. 
•_M  .     They  were   shortly  afterwards  released  from  his  rule 
by  the   Romans,  B.C.  1!>7.  (Polyb.,  xviii.  31.)     Under  the 
emperors  Tliasos  is  styled  Libefa,  or  a  free  state.     In  the 
Svnecdemus  of  Hierocles  it  forms  part  of  the  Provincia 
Iflyrica  I.,  and  is  placed  by  Constantino  Porphyrogennetus 
in  the  Prsefecture,  and  afterwards  in  the  Theme  ol  Thrace. 
•  I)e  Them.  II.,  Them  I.,'  Bandnr., 
Thames  was  celebrated  among  the  antients  for  its  m 

'..  HO),  its  wine  <  \  irg.,  (.l--n/;<f.,  ii.  91 :    Athe- 
"il  i,  which  was  exported  to  !!'<•  1'ontns  Kuxinug, 
»nd  i  i, inductions  mentioned  by  Athenseus. 

The  coins   of  Thasos  are   very  numerous.     The  silver 

.    be   generally   arranged   under  th 
1,  those  on  which  the  type  in  a  satyr  carrying  off  a  nymph  : 

xecution  of  these  is  ic  :  the  limbs  1 

knotty,  tin-  hair  a  globular  appearance.     But  this 

nent  gradually  disappears  in  the  improved 
art  of  the  laid  -.     To  this  archaic  cla.-rf  also  be- 

long tome  coins  on  which  are  two  fish  :  '2,  are  a  number  of 
massive  coin*  in  a  good  but  rather  heavy  style,  with  a  head 


of  Bacchus  on  the  obverse,  and  Hercules  kneuling,  shoot- 
ing an  arrow  on  the  reverse.  The  Thasians  had  a  colossal 
statue  of  Hercules  at  Olympia,  holding  in  one  hand  a  bow. 
They  originally  worshipped  the  Tyrian  Hercules,  and  after- 
wards the  Grecian  (Pausan.,  v.  25) ;  3,  the  broad  te'ra- 
drachms  of  the  Macedonian  period,  with  the  head  of  the 
young  Bacchus,  and  Hercules  on  the  reverse :  the  inscription 
HPAKAHS  2QTHP.  These  coins  are  a'bundant,  and  many 
of  them  with  letters  and  type  ill  executed  are  found  in 
Transylvania,  and  were  probably  the  work  of  barbarous 
Thracian:;  in  imitation  of  the  originals.  The  head  of 
Ceres  occurs  on  these,  coins  (Dionysius  Perieg.,  523,  calls 
Thasos  Aij^i'iT-tpoe  ciicri),  the  shore  of  Demeter  or  Ceres). 
The  inscription  9A2IQN  HOEIPO  on  a  gold  coin  implies, 
according  to  Eckhel  (Doct.  Vet.  Num., '  Thasos'),  that  it  was 
coined  from  a  continental  mine,  probably  Crenides,  which 
would  account  for  the  identity  of  its  design  with  that  of  a 
coin  of  Philippi,  on  the  supposition  that  a  Thasian  type 
was  retained  by  the  Macedonians,  when  they  occupied 
that  settlement.  No  imperial  coins  are  ascribed  to  this 
place  in  Mionnet,  except  those  of  Hadrian,  Caracalla,  -and 
Geta.  The  type  of  Perseus  mentioned  by  Pollux  (Onomdst., 
ix.  G)  has  not  been  discovered  on  any  Thasian  coin. 


Coin  of  Thasos. 
British  Museum.    Actual  size.    Silver.    Weight,  1 17  jjj  gra. 

The  antient  town  of  Thasos  is  situated  on  the  North 
coast  of  the  island,  and  occupies  three  eminences.  On  UK 
site  are  remains  of  the  Greek  walls,  mingled  in  picturesque 
confusion  with  towers  built  by  the  Venetians  during  their 
occup^ion  of  the  island  after  the  taking  of  Constantinople 
by  the  Latins,  and  overgrown  with  various  timber.  Near 
it  is  a  large  statue  of  Pan  in  a  niche  in  the  rock,  and  up- 
wards of  50  sarcophagi  of  white  marble.  Some  inscrip- 
tions found  in  the  island  are  given  by  Boeckh  (Corpus 
Iimcript.,  ii.  183).  The  longest,  No.  2161,  is  written  in  the 
Ionic  dialect,  and  speaks  of  the  theori  and  hieromnemon 
of  the  place.  The  antient  harbour  appears  to  have  been 
used  by  the  Venetians.  No  remains  of  ^Enyra  and  Co?nyra, 
and  of  the  gold-mines  situated  between  them  on  the  east 
coast,  according  to  Herodotus,  now  exist. 

Thasos  is  about  40  Italian  miles  in  circumference.  (Car- 
pacchi.  Jxii'r  </'V  Monclo.)  Its  greatest  length  is  from  north 
to  south.  In  the  northern  and  highest  part  of  the  island 
three  peaks  extend  in  a  north-west  and  south-east  direction. 
The  inhabitants,  amounting  to  5000  or  6000,  are  all  Greeks, 
and  live  in  nine  villages,  Volgaro,  Cassawith,  Sotirp,  Kai- 
karahi,  Moriess,  Kastro,  Potamia,  Liman,  or  Panagia,  and 
Theolog,  the  largest  situated  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the 
island.  These  contain  in  all  1020  houses.  The  chief  pro- 
duce of  this  fertile  country  is  oil,  maize,  honey,  timber ;  the 
.vows  in  great  abundance  and  in  picturesque  variety 
everywhere,  particularly  on  the  southern  and  western  sides, 
and  forms  the  chief  article  of  export ;  much  of  it  was  used 
for  shipbuilding  by  Mehemet  Ali,  by  permission  of  the 
Porte,  and  much  is  wasted  by  the  inhabitants  in  the  fires 
kindled  for  clearing  the  land  ;  the  plane-trees  in  particular 
are  of  great  size.  Little  wine  is  made  here,  and  some  is  im- 
ported from  Tenedos  ;  the  principal  food  of  the  inhabitants 
is  maize.  Large  herds  of  cattle  and  flocks  of  sheep  are 
kept  in  the  island :  asses  and  mules  are  more  used  than 
horses  on  account  of  the  steepness  of  the  roads.  The  in- 
habitants are  hospitable,  industrious,  and  simple  in  their 
.•'•rs.  They  are  governed  by  a  Turkish  Aga,  whom 
they  expelled  during  the  late  Greek  revolution,  but  whom 
pecdily  restored.  They  suffer  from  the  invasions  of 
pirates,  to  whom  they  pay  a  tribute. 

(D  '-.nitcn  uv<  •',',  ron  Prukesh  von 

.  1837,  ill.,  pp.  611-32  ;  C'ouanery,  Voyage 

la  Micedoiiif,  ii.  85,  p.  108.)     For  the  antient  history 

of   Thasos,    besides   the   authorities   already   quoted,    see 

Unoul    Kochette,    Ilistohr    det    Col  ,  iii. 

THATCH  is  a  covering  of  stri  ,  or  reeds,  as  a 

fute  for  tiles  or  slates  for  h-  •  ><d  princi- 

202 


T  II  A 


284 


T  II  V. 


wdly  for  sheth  for  cattle.    The  increase  of  agricultural 
proJuce  on  a  farm  mokes  the  stacking  "f  corn  out-of 
u  nia'  M-ll  as  convenience.     Tin'  tem- 

ary thatching  slacks,  us  well  as  of  ha\ 

n'i  '  ssary  thnt  sonic  of  the  regular 

.•m  should   be  capable  01'  thatching  in  :•. 
substantial  manner,  (hat  there  may  lie  no  delay  from  want 
,  ;ular  thateher.     AVe  "ill  first  describe  the  in- 
mg  hay-ricks  and  corn-stacks,  as  the  simplest. 
Tin-   nek    or  stack   having  been   formed  into   a    proper 
shape,  either  with  a  roof  slanting  from  a  rid  ire.  or  conical, 
ending  in  a  central  point,  the  straw  is  prepared  hy  moist- 
it,  that    it  may  more  easily  hencl  without   breaking, 
then  forked  up  in  a  loose  heap,  the  straws  lying  in 
direction,  and  somewhat  matted.     Portions  arc  now 
drawn  out   from    this  heap  in   handful*,   which   lays  the 
straws  again  in  a  more  parallel  order:  these  are  placed  in 
a  lof.  ..  hich  will  hold  several  of  these  bun  i 

handful*,  and  arc  thus  carried  to  the  thateher  on  the  top  of 
the  rick  or  stack.  He  seizes  a  handful,  and  bending  one 
end  into  a  kind  of  a  noose,  he  inserts  this  into  the  i 
near  the  bottom  of  the  roof,  at  one  end  if  r 
square  roof,  or  at  any  convenient  part  if  it  be  a  round  one. 
He  pics«cs  dov.n  the  straw  which  he  has  thus  inserted  to 
about  half  its  length,  in  order  to  form  the  caves,  which 
extend  a  little  beyond  the  lower  part  of  the  roof.  AYheii 
he  has  thus  laid  several  liandfuls  side  by  side  BO  as  to 
cover  about  a  yard  in  width,  that  is  as  far  as  lie  can  con- 
veniently reach  without  moving  his  ladder,  he  begins  an- 
other row  a  little  above  the  place  where  he  began,  so  that 
the  lower  end  of  the  straw  now  inserted  may  cover  the 
upper  part  of  the  first  row,  as  tiles  do  each  other.  Thus 
he  proceeds  upwards  till  he  comes  to  the  upper  rii. 
the  roof,  or  to  the  point  of  the  cone  in  a  round  stack.  In 
the  latter  case  the  covering  diminishes  to  a  point  so  as  to 
form  a  triangle.  The  ladder  is  now  shifted  a  yard  to  one 
side,  and  the  same  operation  is  performed,  care  being  taken 
that  each  fresh  handful  put  on  shall  be  interwoven  with 
that  which  lies  beside  it.  so  that  no  water  can  possibly 
between  them.  Thus  the  work  proceeds  till  the  roof 
i*  completed,  and  it  only  remains  to  secure  the  upper 
ridge  in  a  square  stack,  or  the  point  of  the  cone  in  a  round 
one.  In  the  fii>t  case  the  highest  layer  of  straw  is  made 
to  extend  beyond  the  ridge  on  both  sides,  and  the  ends 
are  brought  together  and  stand  up  like  the  bristles  on  a 
hog.  A  rope  of  straw  has  been  prepared,  and  many  small 
rods,  about  two  feet  long,  and  cut  sharp  at  the  point : 
these  are  inserted  just  below  the  ridge,  in  a  line  with  it, 
and  about  a  foot  apart  ;  one  end  of  the  straw  rope  is  in- 
serted into  the  stack,  and  twisted  firmly  round  the  pio- 
jecting  end  of  the  first  rod  ;  it  is  then  wound  once  round 
the  next  rod,  and  so  on  the  whole  length  of  the  ridge  : 
this  is  done  on  both  hides.  The  straws  which  form  the 
ridge  are  now  cut  with  shears  horizontally,  to  give  it  n 
neat  finish,  and  at  each  end  a  kind  of  ornami  i 
made  by  winding  a  straw  rope  round  a  handful  of  the  po- 
jceting  straw,  forming  a  kind  of  knot  or  bow.  according 
to  the  taste  of  the  thateher.  Hods  and  straw  ropes  t 
round  them  are  inserted  near  the  edge  of  the  slanting 
side  and  all  aJong  the  eaves,  which  prevent  the  wind  from 
blowing  oft'  the  thatch. 

The  only  difference  in  tbe  thatch  of  a  round  rick  is,  that 
brought  to  one   point,  where   it  is  tied  with  straw 
rope   wound   round  it,   and  formed  into    a   kind   of  bow: 
the  rods  are  inserted  a  little  below  in  a  circle,  and  a  straw- 
rope  twisted  round  them,  and  likewise  around  the  circular 
ra\cs.     liarley   is   generally  put    into   square   stacks,    and 
!  ones.      When  the  outside  is  neatly  trimmed 
-mooth,  so  that  no   birds   can   lodge  in  it.  wheat 
be    kept    for  years,  without   dai 
much  better  than  "in  a  barn,  or  even  in  a  granary. 

In  thatching  sheds  and  buildings  which  are  to  last  many 
years,  the  straw  is  prepared  in  the  same  manner,  but  the 

of  the  handfuls,  as  they  are  put  on  a  latin 
kept  down    by  means  of  long  rods,  which  are  tied  to  the 
nf  the  roof  by  meai  :  tar  twine.     A  much 

thicker  coat  of  stiaw  i,   put  on  ;   and  rye-straw,  which  has 
prei       d,  as  more  lastin  liable 

•I  with  water  than  hollow  straw. 

hich  are  11 

*ri>  ;  h  other  and  more  carefully  si 

A»  this  kind  of  thatching  is  n  peculiar  trade,  it  rern 
regular  apprenticeship  to  be  master  of  it.    The  thatching 


of  temporary  ric!,  done   from  m  'ion, 

and  a  very  little   practice  will   enable  any  one  to  ]  : 
his  stacks  MiflicicMlly  by  a  thatched  . 

Thatching   is   usually  paid  by  the   -  i'K.1  square 

The   thatchcr  takes  a  line  and  throws   ii 
if  it  i~  square,  the  ends  are  pushed  under  the  i 
h   side,   to  allow  for  the   trimming,   Jtc.,   and   this 
length   is  multiplied  by  the   length  ol  the  ea\es,  with  the 
same  allowance  at  tile  'ends.      The   price  varies  from  iv.  to 
7*.    or   Kv.    per    square,    according   to    the   work.       Hound 

measured   by  taking  the   circumfcrer.ee  . 
.  multiplied   by  oiic-third   of  the   slant    of  the   cone. 
with  a  similar  allow:'.: 

THArMA'.NTIAS.      [PoiJKXMUDA,   vol.  xix.,  p.  122.] 
THAI'MA'SIA.     [Sh\-\Yi.i 
Til  \\TKD.     [Kv. 

THKA.  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  tribe  Cam 
natural  family  of  Ternstioniiaccif.  which  has  been  so  named 
from  the  slightly  altered  Chinese  name  of  the  dried  Iverb 
which    now    forms   the   almost    univeisal    '  .it1  the 

Hntish  Isles.     Though  now  so  extensively  employed,  the 
introduction  of  tea   into  Europe  is  of  comparatively  re- 


origin.       Mucpherson,     in    his    'Hist..;i     ,jf     I 
pean  Commerce  with  India,'  states  that   'tea    sah    is  men- 
tioned as  the  usual   beverage  of  the  Chinese  by  Soliman, 
an  Arabian  merchant,  who  .n-count  of  his  travels 

in  the  East  about  the  year  \. n.  S5(l :'  and  that  he  had 
unable  to  find  any  mention  of  it  prior  to  the   times  of  the 

Jesuit  Missionaries,  who  entered  China  and  Japan  a  little 

before  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.      Anderson,  in 
bil  •  History  of  Commerce,'  vol.  ii.,  p.  17*.  qu' 
as  giving  the  earliest  account  in  15tK),  when  he  says  that 
'  they,'  that  is.  the  Chinese,  •  have  also  an  herb,  out  of  which 
they  press  a  delicate  juice,  which  ser  -.  drink  in- 

stead of  wine."  Texeira.  a  native  of  Portugal,  about  the 
1GOO,  saw  the  dried  leaves  of  tea  at  Malacca,  and  Olearius 
found  them  used  in  l(i:j:»  by  the  Persians,  who  obtained 
them  from  China  by  means  of  the  I'sbeck  Tartars.  Tulpius, 
in  \\isObserr.  Mi'ilifff,  Kill,  celebrates  the  virtues  of  thca. 
Anderson  says  that  no  mention  made  l(i(X>  .  in 

the  new  book  of  rates,  of  ten,  coffee,  or  chocolate,  though 
they  are  all  mentioned  in  an  act  of  parliament  of  the 
year,  whereby  a  duty  of  eight-pence  is  charged  on  every 
gallon  of  chocolate,  sherbet,  and  tea  made  for  sale.     But 
the  use  of  it  at  that  time  must   have  been  new,  for  ! 
in  his-  Diary,'  writes,   September  i'l.    KKil,  '  1   sent  fora 
cup  of  tea  (a  Chinese  drink  .  of  which  I  had  never  drank 
before.'     The  Dutch  East  India  Company  probably  first  in- 
troduced   it    into    Euiope.    and   from    Amsterdam    i 
brought  to  London.     In  the  year  1GG2  King  Charles  II. 
married  a  princess  of  Portugal,  whence,  AValler  says,  •  the 
best    of  queens  and  lies!   of   plants   we  owe  to   tha' 
nation.'  &C.     Hut  tea  must  have  continued  to  be  brought 
in  small   quantities   only,    frr    in    the   year   1P>(>4  the 
India   Company  purchased,    forthe  puipo  uting 

to  the  king,  two  pounds  and  two  ounces  of  tea.  and  in  the 
year    HJ7S  they  imported   471:!  pounds  of  tea.   wine! 
then   lor  the   firs!  time  thought   woith  their  attention  as  a 
branch  of  their  trade.     (Macpherson.  p.  131.) 

Tea  must  have  been  used  in  China  from  very  early  times. 

It  is  differently  named  in  different  parts  of  China,  iis  tcha, 

or  cha.  also  tha,  whence  we   have  tsia.  the,  and  lea.     In 

in  works  in  use  in  India,  tea   is  called  cha-khutai.  or 

tea  of  Cathay. 

The  genus  'flu  a  i-  charaHrrised  by  having  a  calyx  which 
is  persistent,  without  bracts,  five-leaved,  leaflets  imbricated, 
the  outer  ones  smaller.      Petals  of  the  corol  (i  to  !),  hypo- 
gMions,  imbricated,  the  inner  ones  tin 
together  at  the  1  nen*  numerous,  in  several 

.ng  to  the  bottom  of  the  petals;    filaments  filifoim. 
anthers  incumbent,  'J-celled,   oblong,  with  a  thiekish  con- 
neetivum,     cells     opening     longitudinally.       <> 
.'{-celled.     Ovules  -4  in  each  cell,   inserted  alternately  into 
the  central   angle,  the   upper  ones    ascending,    the    lower 
pendulous.     Style  tritid.  stigmas  ;{,  acute.     Capsule  sphe- 
roidal, two  to  three   lobed,  three  or  by  abort  io 
with  loculicidal  dehisceiiec.  or  wit  Ii  the  dissepiments  formed 
from  the  turned-in  edges  of  the  valves.     Seeds  solitary  or 

.rked  with  the  ventral 

umbilicus.     Cotyledons  thick,  fleshy,  oily.     No  albumen. 
Radicle  very  short.  \erv  near  the  umbilicus,  centripetal. 

The  genus  Camellia  is  usually  considered  to  be  vi  iv  dis- 
tinct from  Thea;  indeed  by  Cambessedes  the  two  are  sepa- 


THE 


285 


THE 


rated  from  each  other  by  several  intervening  "genera :  they 
are  however  too  closely  allied  to  allow  of  this  separa- 
tion. Distinctions  have  been  made  in  the  fruit  of  the  two 
genera.  That  of  Thea  is  three-lobed  with  obtuse  cor- 
ners and  opening  along  the  middle  of  the  lobes,  that  is, 
having  the  dissepiments  opposite  to  the  valves,  or,  as  ex- 
jircssed  by  modern  botanists,  having  a  loculicidal  dehiscence. 
Camellia,  on  the  contrary,  is  described  as  having  its  fruit 
obscurely  triangular,  without  any  tendency  to  become  deeply 
three-lobed,  with  the  margins  of  the  valves  turned  inwards 
and  forming  the  dissepiments,  which  thus  alternate  with 
the  valves,  and  have  what  is  now  called  a  septicedal 
dehiscence.  Mr.  Griffith,  on  the  contrary,  who  is  well 
qualified  to  form  a  correct  opinion,  states,  from  examina- 
tion of  the  Assamese  tea-plant  and  of  two  species  of  Camel- 
lia from  the  Khosiya  Hills,  that  there  is  no  difference 
between  Thea  and  Camellia.  The  dehiscence  in  both,  he 
says,  is  of  the  same  nature,  that  is,  loculicidal,  and  the  only 
difference  that  does  really  exist  is  simply  of  specific  value, 
consisting  in  the  fruits  of  the  tea-plant  being  three-lobed, 
of  the  Camellia  triangular. 

The  species  of  the  genus  Thea  are  few  in  number;  some 
botanists  are  of  opinion  that  even  these  are  varieties  of  a 
single  species.  Before  proceeding  to  discuss  the  question 
of  the  species  which  yield  the  teas  of  commerce,  it  is 
desirable  to  notice  those  which  are  usually  described  as 
distinct  in  systematic  works. 

T.  viridis  is  a  large,  strong-growing,  almost  hardy 
plant,  with  spreading  branches,  its  leaves  three  to  five 
inches  long,  thin,  almost  membranous,  very  broadly  lan- 
ceolate, light  green  and  wavy,  with  large  and  irregular 
serratures,  the  flowers  large,  usually  solitary,  mostly  con- 
fined to  the  upper  axil,  with  5  sepals  and  from  5  to 
7  petals  ;  fruit  nodding.  This  species  is  figured  by  Dr. 
Lettsom  in  his  account  of  the  tea-plant,  t.  1,  and  by  Dr. 
(now  Sir  W.)  Hooker,  Bot.  Mag.,  t.  3148,  and  in  Loddiges' 
But.  Cab.,  t.  227,  all  from  plants  which  have  flowered  in 
this  country.  Kaempfer  supplies  a  very  good  figure, 
Amceti.  Erot.,  p.  607,  from  a  Japanese  plant.  This  species 
is  found  both  in  China  and  Japan,  and  is  supposed  to  be 
-  which  yields  the  green  tea  of  commerce.  It 
'. 'L'en  long  introduced  into  this  country  ;  having  been 
first  sent  from  Japan  in  1687  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
and  thence  into  Europe.  Lettsom,  in  1772,  states  that  within 
these  few  years  a  few  genuine  tea-plants  had  been  intro- 
duced into  England,  that  the  largest  tea-plant  was  then  at 
Kew,  and  the  first  that  ever  flowered  was  at  Sion  House, 
but  the  seeds  never  germinated.  Murray,  App.  Medic.am . 
iv.,  p.  227,  mentions  that  the  green  tea-plant  was,  in  1778, 
sold  in  London  for  ten  shillings  and  sixpence,  but  the  black 
or  bohea  tea-plant  for  one  guinea.  The  green  tea-plants 
are  much  more  hardy  than  the  black  in  this  climate,  being 
kept  out  in  the  open  air  with  little  protection  during 
the  winter,  as  at  Kew,  at  Messrs.  Loddiges,  and  even  as  far 
north  as  Forfar. 

T.  Rohea  is  a  smaller  plant  than  T.  viridi.i:  its  branches 
•'iff  and  straight,  its  stem  erect,  the  leaves  not  above 
half  or  two-thirds  of  the  size  of  the  former  species,  elliptical 
oblong,  perfectly  flat,  more  coriaceous,  of  a  dark  green 
colour,  with  small  and  even  serratures ;  they  are  numer- 
ous, and  have  in  their  axils  two  or  three  flowers,  of  5  sepals 
and  5  petals,  these  are  smaller  and  have  a,  slight  fragrance, 
and  flower  later  in  the  season  than  T.  viridis.      The  plant 
is  much  more  tender  than  the  green  tea-plant,  and  unable 
to  stand  the  cold  of  an  English  climate.    It  is  supposed  by 
some  to  yield  the  leaves  which  are  converted  into  black 
U ••:!,  and,  notwithstanding  contrary  statements,  leaves  simi- 
lar to  those  of  this  plant  may  be  recognised  on  infusing 
and  spreading  out  the  leaves  of  some  of  the  black  teas  of 
commcire.   A  variety  of  this  is  sometimes  called  T.stricla. 
ligured  by  Lettsom,  ed.  2,  p.  41,  who  considers  it  only 
of  the  former.     It  is  also  figured  by  Loddiges, 
t .  220,  who,  as  well  as  Sir  W.  Hooker  and  Dr. 
••,  considers  it  to  be  a  distinct  species. 
The  Assam  tea-plant,  which  has  lately  attracted  so  much 
attention,  seems  to  partake  of  the  characters  of  both  the 
foregoing.     The   Calcutta  Tea  Committee  say,  in  1835, 
'  \Vt-  are  now  enabled  to  state  with  certainty,  that  not  only 
is  it  a  genuine  tea,  but  that  no  doubt  can  be  entertained 
of  its  being  the  identical  tea  of  China,  which  is  the  exclu- 
sive  source  of  all  the  varieties  and  shades  of  the  tea  of 
commerce.'   To  this  it  may  replied,  that  there  are  consider- 
able doubts  whether  the  teas  of  commerce  are  all  derived 


from  one  species  of  plant.  Mr.  Griffith  says,  in  the  size  both 
of  the  pi  ant  and  of  the  leaves,  as  well  as  inthe  texture  of  these 
last,  and  in  its  stations,  the  Assamese  plant  approaches  to  the 
green  tea-plant  of  China ;  in  its  geographical  distribution,  so 
far  as  latitude  is  concerned,  it  approaches  to  the  black  tea. 
The  inflorescence  of  the  Assamese  plant  varies,  but  perhaps 
its  usual  state  is  to  have  the  flowers  solitary  in  the  axils  of 
the  leaves,  but  the  number  of  flowers  varies  from  one  to  five. 
The  plants  introduced  into  this  country  have  their  leaves 
much  larger  and  thicker  than  those  pf  the  green  tea-plant, 
and  Messrs.  Loddiges  find  that  it  requires  a  much  greater 
degree  of  heat,  in  fact  that  of  the  hot-house,  while  the 
others  are  in  the  open  air  for  a  great  part  of  the  year. 

Two  other  species,  described  by  Loureiro,  are  little  known, 
as  T.  Cochinchinensis,  about  eight  feet  high,  having  lan- 
ceolate leaves,  flowers  of  3  to  5  sepals  and  5  petals,  solitary, 
terminal ;  found  wild  in  the  north  of  Cochinchina,  where  it 
is  also  cultivated,  being  used  medicinally  by  the  natives  as 
a  diaphoretic.  T.  oleosa  is  also  a  shrub  of  eight  feet  high, 
found  in  the  fields  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Canton,  and 
named  from  its  seeds  yielding  a  large  quantity  of  oil,  which 
is  used  for  burning  and  as  an  article  of  diet.  The  leaves 
are  lanceolate,  the  flowers,  of  6  sepals  and  6  petals,  pedun- 
cles 3-flowered  axillary ;  fruit  stated  to  be  indehiscent, 
rather  a  berry  than  a  capsule. 

The  species  of  Camellia,  which  are  so  closely  allied  to 
those  of  Thea,  have  already  been  mentioned  under  CA- 
MELLIA, asC.Japotiica,  maliflora,  reticulata.  C.Sasanqua, 
and  Euryoides  are  other  Chinese  species.  C.  drupifera  is 
a  native  of  Cochinchina  ;  while  C.  Kissi  and  Caudata,  with 
oleaefolia  and  Scottiana,  two  doubtful  species,  are  found  in 
the  mountains  near  Munnipore,  Pundua,  and  Silhet,  and  in 
those  surrounding  the  valley  of  Nepaul.  A  third  genuine 
species  occurs  on  the  Naga  range,  towards  the  eastern 
extremity  of  the  valley  of  Assam.  It  is  well  known  to 
the  Assamese  and  Singphos  by  the  name  of  Bun  Fullup, 
or  jungle  tea,  being  used  by  them  as  a  medicine.  A  fourth 
species  was  found  by  Dr.  Wallich  about  Tingrei. 

Besides  the  characters  of  the  several  species  of  Thea,  we 
have  to  notice  the  parts  of  the  country  where  the  culti- 
vated species  are  found,  as  many  practical  questions  of 
considerable  importance  are  connected  with  the  subject. 
But  here  it  is  difficult  to  be  precise  in  our  statements,  be- 
cause we  are  without  positive  information  from  the  tea 
districts  of  China,  and  also  because  it  is  still  doubtful 
whether  one  or  more  species  yield  the  teas  of  com- 
merce in  permanent  varieties,  or  whether  the  differences 
in  teas  are  owing  solely  to  differences  in  manufacture. 
Tea  is  cultivated  in  China  over  a  great  extent  of  territory. 
]>i\  Wallich  mentions  it  as  being  cultivated  in  Cochin 
China,  in  17"  N.  lat.  We  know  it  is  cultivated  in  the 
southern  provinces  of  Yunnan  and  of  Canton.  If  we 
proceed  north  we  find  the  principal  cultivation  of  teas 
for  the  foreign  trade  is  between  27°  and  31"  N.  lat. : 
but  tea  is  said  to  be  produced  in  several  places  to  the 
northward  of  31°;  even  in  36°,  and  also  in  the  Japanese 
Islands,  which  extend  from  30°  to  41°  N.  lat.  It  has 
been  disputed  whether  the  tea-plant  is  cultivated  in 
plains  or  mountainous  situations.  It  is  generally  stated 
to  be  cultivated  in  hilly  situations.  Grozier  states  that 
the  songlo-tcha  (our  green  tea)  takes  its  name  from  the 
mountain  Song-lo,  situated  in  the  province  of  Kiangnan, 
in  30°  N.  lat.,  while  the  bou-y  tcha  (bohea)  takes  its 
name  also  from  a  mountain  called  Bou-y,  situated  in  the 
province  of  Fo-kien.  Mr.  Cunningham  (when  Chusan  had 
formerly  a  British  factory)  collected  specimens  on  the  tops 
of  mountains,  where  the  tea-plant  flourished  along  with 
pines.  His  specimens  are  still  in  the  British  Museum. 
The  deputation  sent  into  Assam  to  examine  the  sites  of 
the  tea,  saw  it  growing  in  the  valley  of  Assam,  and  were 
thus  led  to  think  that  it  must  grow  in  similar  situations 
in  China  :  but  even  in  Assam  it  is  also  found  on  hills  ;  and 
there  is  no  doubt  it  is  found  in  both  situations  in  China, 
and  in  many  which  must  be  moist.  There  is  nothing  im- 
probable in  a  plant  being  so  found  which  is  so  extensively 
diffused  from  north  to  south  ;  but  it  is  probable  that  the 
finest  varieties  of  tea  are  cultivated  in  the  drier  soils,  and 
in  situations  exposed  to  light  and  air  :  in  fact,  the  Chinese 
tea-makers  in  Assam  state  that  in  China  the  teas  from  the 
sunny  tracts  are  the  best.  Some  soils  in  which  the  tea-plant 
is  cultivated  in  China  yielded,  on  analysis,  in  200  parts — of 
silex,  135  ;  alumina,  36  ;  carbonate  of  magnesia,  6  ;  car- 
bonate of  lime,  4 ;  oxide  of  iron,  13  ;  roots  and  fibres  of 


I    II  E 


288 


T  I!  i: 


plant..   '2:  water  of  ateorpUon.  4.     Dr.  Abel  thouirht  that 

i  \icld  n  tin; 

tin-  i  I  Hop«  would  afford  a  suita!< 

Tin-  >  ibt,  to  a  coruidermbl 

lioina  warm  in  the  southern  and 

I  "w  is  said  to  li 

.  lor  days  '  |ion  the  ffreen  teas,  and  the 

men  ten-plant   is   in  this  country  iihii-   to   bear  u  j 
degree  of  cold  tlum  tin-  black,  which,  in  •  :n>  to 

'iiiincd  to   tin1  more  southern  provinces:    but 
in   tlu-    Kokicn    hills    M.  dillt-ry    has    mentioned    to   Uir 
writ,  .trtiile    that    lie  "ha*   walked   on   »now   in 

the  inid-t  ul'  the  tea-plants.     The  rulturi'  of  the  tea-plant 
-   simple  cnouirh  :    the   plants   nre  raised 
from   scefls,   sown    in   the  places   v.  lu-i'1    they    are  to  re- 
main dropped    into     holes     tour    or     five 
i>  and  three  or  lour  1  r  they 
ripen  ;   or  in   November  and    December.   a<  ihey  do  not 
<•!!,  from  their  oilinexs.     The  plants  rise  up  in 
a  cluster  when  the  rain  comes  on,  and  require  little  further 
.  xrept  that   of  remount;  weeds,    till    they  nre  three 
yean*  old,  when  they  yield  their  first  crop  •  '"'hey 
arc  seldom  transplanted,  but  sometimes  four  to  six  plants 
are  put  close   totrether,  so  as  to  fonn  a  tine  bush.     Alter 
irrowim:  seven  or  ten  years  they  are  cut  down,  in  order  that 
the  numerous  youm;  shoots   which   then   spring  out    may 
afford  a  more  abundant  supply  of  leaves.     1 
tricts  the  bushes  ifrow  unrestrained,   in   othr 
regularly  pruned,  to   keep  them  low.     The  irathen 

is  performed  with  irreat  care  :  Ihcv  are  usually 
tirM  in  March  or  May     according  to  the 
i  .when  the  young  leaves  are  acaroel)  expanded:  the 
1  about  two  months  Inter,  or  May  and  June  :  and  tin- 
third  in  Auiriiat,  or  about  six  weeks  alter  •  1  :  but 
the  li:                 -:irily  differ  in  different  districts,  as  well  as 
the  number  of  Crept  which   are   obtained,   some   avoiding 
the  third,  for  few  of  injuring  the  bushes.     When  the  i 

.'In-red  they  are  dried  in  houses  which  contain  small 
furnaces,  on  each  of  which  there  is  a  flat    iron  pa; 
upon  this,  when  heutcd.  the  leaves,  partially  dried  I 
posure  to  the   sun.   me  thrown;  the    leaves    rcqiin 
i|iu-nt  shifting  ami  turninir.     When  all  are  properly  dried. 
Ihey  are   quickly  removed   either  by   the  hand   or  with  a 
shov  el,  and  either  thrown  upon  a  mat"  or  in:  which 

are  kept  ready  to  receive  them.  They  are  then  removed 
to  a  table  where  they  are  rolled  and  cooled,  and  the  pro- 
cess is  repeated  :  alter  which  they  are  silled  and  sorted 
into  several  varieties.  The  process  has  been  very  minutely 
described  a*  practised  in  Assam  and  .l.'\a  by  the  Chinese 
lea-makers.  \Ve  may  then  fore  refer  to  the  accounts  pub- 
lished by  Mr.  Bruce,  as  well  as  to  tho-«-  of  the  superintendent 
in  Java,"  translated  by  Dr.  Horstield. 

most  difficult  part  of  this  question  is  to  determine 
whether  the  art-en  and  black  teas  are  pmduced  by  one  or 
two  distinct  species  of  plants,  as  the  statements  of  appa- 
rently equalh  well  qualified  jr  not  only  contra- 
dictory, but  directly  the  reverse  'her.  The  diffi- 
culty is  owim:  to  no  competent  pel-son  havinir  visited  the 
tea  di-  iiina,  and  also  to  tin-  Chinese  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Canton  beini;  able  to  prepare  a  tea  which  can 
I  and  made  up  to  imitate 

iarije  quantities  are  thus  yearly  made  up. 

m  and  thoM-  in  Java  alike 

!  from 

Then, 

.:iie  of  the  black  anil 

teas  of  conimer  .,•  differ  verv  i 

from  •  ,,,(1  j^ 

there  -  .,,.r  (o 

the  i 
plum 

different  tea*.      \Vhetlier1'  .me  species 

or  well-established  varieties   can    on 
botanists  who  have  nn  opportunity  pi 

le  in  tlie  tea  mirserii  ,  and  of  the 

Himalayan. 
**»•  ••pects,  n 

other, 
navinif  become   so  extensive   !•••  of  com- 

ilrious 

•  •(lim- 
it  in    which   the 
'iral  experiment*  have  been  made,  as  in  Rio  Janeiro 


and  the  warm  part  of  Drn/.il.  nnd  latterly  in  the  Inlh 
ol  Java  and  Hrn/il.  in 

Dr.  Abel   reeoniincni'.  II    is 

requisite  to  have  no'  oil  and  climai. 

.  heap  and  nbui'  :.       Mnir 

opinion  that  ten  could  Vd  in  th.    • 

the  first   published  opinim 
Itutr.  linn  • 

i.iiiirt.  p.   i'l!)  .  where. 

a  similarly  in  latitude,  climate,  and  \  eiretatio; 
any  information  i/cd  on  tho.-e  snbjer 

opinion  tliat  tea  could  b.  tivated  in 

the  Himalayan   mountains.  diflerent 

nllow  p 

STH]ihical  distribution  of  tb 
and   the   natural 

beiiiLT  !ly   cultivated.'       He  nvommendcd    • 

riments  beinir  made  in  11  Hie  Hun: 

tending  from  Almora  nearly  to  the-  v 
elevations   from  tin-  valleys   up   to  7(XX)  feel,  and  th' 
that  about  ."KKH)  feet  of  elevation  would  afford 
climate.      Dr.  Falconer  formed  similar   opinions   at   the 
same  lime  in  a  report  to  £ov  eminent.    The  correct  i- 
these  opinions  has  been  clearly  proved  by  t!i 
reports  on  the  success  of  the  tea   plantations  established 
in  the  Knmaon  and  (inrhv  of  these  mountains, 

which   were   formed   when  the   I 

blished  in  As-sam.  and  the  seed?  and  plants  sent  up  which 
had  li  .!  from  China.  In  I 

by  the  Ini';.  'lent   to  the  Asrricnl'  t\   of 

la,  we  find  that   ul  •   :nid    UK  HI 

feet  there  are  some  hum!  .u;  and  heulthv 

in.i;  jilants  and  seedlings,  but   none 
to  yield  seed.     At  Almorali.  elevated  5(K; 

.   one   nf  three   and   the  oilier  of  eleven 
half  acres  in  extent,   with  1500  full-thrown  Ire, 

and  700  layers,  and  upwards  of  31.000  seedling- 
Hheemtal.  lower  in  elevation  and  nearer  to  the  ] 
results  are  equally  favourable:  'On  the  whole  1! 
incut,  in  as  far  as  the  possibility  of  •  (iliint 

in  the  proviii'-e^  of  (nirliwal  and  Kumaon  is  in  qu, 
may  be  safely  pronounced  to  have   completely  sncce. 
It  is  also  said,  'Assam  has  doubt  K  - 
over  Kumaon  as  to  facility  of  export,  but  the  lattei 
vince    will    probably  be  found  to  yield   a   pi. 
superior  quality.1    The  quality  of  the  tea   which    can  be 
prepared  here   can  only   be  ascertained  when  China  tea- 
preparers  have  been  sent  there,  a.s  they  no  doubt  will  be 
sent,  as  soon  as  the  plantations  ;.  tly  extended.. 

Tin'    value    of  the-  propcrly 

mated  in  connection  with  i 

Assam,  which  is  several  hundred  nn  from  Ku- 

maon and  Gurhwal,  and  it  is  probable  therefore  that  the 
whole  of  the  intervening;  part  of  the  Himalayas  \\  ill  be 
favourable  to  this  culture:  probab.  .'  the 

mountains  of  the  peninsula,  as  in  the  \\'_M  '  and 

".  ancore,  will  be  found  favourable. 

The  Assam  tea-plant    lii>t   attracted   public  attention  in 
IM.'tt.  in  consequence  of  replies  to  the  circulars  which  had 

ntlemen.   Captains  .lenkir 
Charlton,  in   May  of  that   yr.ir.  wrote  that  a  kind  c! 

••ndoubtedh  indigenous  in  Assam.     v 
It  has  nppeared  I 
the  I'M  0  that  Mr.  David  Scott  had,  in  .' 


lly 
Mnjor  Hruco.  \\Jiich  he  said  the  liuni: 


tion  <• 

publish 


Hut  the  plant  v  . 
.  and  no  further 

scientific  dcpu!ati»>i.  composed  of  Dr.  \\u'.< 
(iriffitli  and  .Mac(  'Inland,  wa:.  n-nt  I'o. 

!ie<l  in  tl. 

Soc.  of  India.'  and  in  the  ]i 
in  India,  publi-i  iKC). 

Tea-plantat  !-  and  Mr. 

Bruce  ajipointed  tin  ii 

lca-ti:  ..mil 

•  \eiy 
extensive-,    both    on    the     hi  on    the    p 

i  and 

that  th  '  hich 

enables  them  to  maintain  .-.nre 


THE 


'287 


THE 


1o  excessive  nioii-.'.ure.  As  tea-plants  are  capable  of 
bearing  considerable  varieties  of  temperature,  tea  may 
no  doubt  be  cultivated  in  a  variety  of  situations,  and 
in  Assam  as  well  as  elsewhere,  but  it  is  probable 
that  hilly  situations  and  the  more  open  and  elevated 
parts  of  "Assam  its.'1!1  will  be  best  suited  for  the  pro- 
duction of  the  finer-flavoured  teas.  The  tea  which  has 
been  prepared  in  Assam  has  now  been  sent  for  four  years 
to  market,  and  in  each  year  the  quantities  have  increased 
and  the  qualities  have  improved.  For  the  teas  first  sold 
in  1839,  from  the  excitement  and  competition  created  by 
the  novelty  of  the  sale,  extravagant  prices  were  paid,  as 
from  KJ-.  to  34«.  a  pound.  In  1840  the  prices  realized 
'toot  (K.  ID//,  to  10*.  10  J-.  The  probable  value  was 
:ver  from  2y.  lid.  to  3.?.  3rf.  The  produce  of  1841  in 
the  government  plantations  has  been  sold  in  Calcutta, 
and  that  from  the  Assam  Tea  Company  sent  to  this  country. 
•  reports  have  been  published  by  brokers  of 
the  quality  of  this  tea,  and  of  the  probability,  from  its 
•>:th,  that  it  may  easily  be  improved  as  its  nature  is 
better  understood.  Experimental  nurseries  continue  to  be 
carried  on  by  the  East  India  Company,  and  much  useful 
information  of  a  practical  nature  will  no  doubt  be  ob- 
tained and  promulgated.  So  many  authors  have  written 
on  the  subject  of  tea,  that  it  is  impossible  to  quote  them. 
Dr.  Lettsom.  in  his  account  of  the  tea-plant,  has  given  a 
i  them.  More  recent  information  may  be  found  in 
the  ti .•  .lie], Staunton,  Ellis,  Barrow — and  for  scien- 

tific information  sec  Uoyle,  '  Illustr.  of  Himalayan  Botany,' 
and  •  Ks-ay  on  the  Productive  Resources  of  India,'  also  the 
rs.  Griffith  and  MacCleland,  in  the  'Trans. 
;'-leutta,' whichlikewise  contain  the  re- 
brokers.  For  practical  information  on  the  nianu- 
\if  of  tea,  the  papers  of  Mr.  Bruce  give  much  valuable 
i,  derived  from  the  China  tea-makers;  also  the 
i  lie  Cultivation  and  Manufacture  ol'Tea  in  Java,' 

om  the  Dutch  by  Dr.  Horsfi  eld. 

THEA.  ,'/Vo/v  /•//>.?  of  Tea.    This 

of  which  was  for  a  long  time  confined  to 

two  countries  of  the  East,  China  and  Japan,  has  within  the 

last  two  hundred  years  become  known  and  almost  indis- 

ivilized  country  of  the  globe.     It  is 

'uleresting  to  enquire  what  are  the  properties  it 

possesses,  which  have  induced  so  large  a  portion  of  the 

in  race  to  forsake  other  articles  of  diet,  and  what  are 

the  effects  of-its  extensive  consumption. 

Whether  obtained  from  one  species  only  of  the  genus 
Thca,  or  from  several,  all  the  tea  of  China  is  in  commerce 
brought  under  two  distinct  terms.  •_<-;•<  r//  ira  ami  I'lm-h  tea, 

iier  brown  tea.    These  are  also  distinguish 
and  brjhea.     The  European  name  tfit  is  borrowed  from  the 
common   language   of  the  province   Fu-kian   CFokien  of 
ille;,  where  this  article  is  called  Tiii  in  their  patois  : 
•:i<mi   it   is  called  Tsc-ha  or  Tschai.      Black    • 
called  He-tscha,  green  tea  Lo-tscha.     The  best  sort  of  the 
,  kind  lias  been  long  known  in  commerce  under  the 
name  of  Bou-ui-Tscha  ;   hence  by  a  transposi- 
tion of  the  syllables,   the  Thea  bohea  of  LimUBUC,   the 
:ha  of  the  Chinese,  that  is.  tea  from  Vou-y-Schan, 
i  is  in  the  province  of  Fu-kian,  in  27°  47    N.  lat. 
hiefly  obtained  from  Song-lo,  which  lies  in  the 
province  of  Kiang-nan,  in  29°  58'  N.  lat. 

The  subvarieties  owe  their  names  to  other  circumstances, 

the  number  of  which  is  endless.     Thus  there  occur  in  the 

merchants  at  least  one  hundred 

and  fifty  names,  many  of  which  are  synonymes  of  other 
.  or  names  invented  to  impose  on  foreigners  and  ob- 
tain a  high   price.      The  distinguished  Oriental    scholar 
Klaproth  gives   a   list    of  about   forty   genuine   varieties, 
Viitli  an  explanation1  of  the  terms  applied  to  them.     iJiinr- 
1824,  p.  121,  and  Abel  Remusat.  a  Supple- 
ment to  it,  p.  186  of  the  same  journal;    or  Fee,   Cnura 
Pharnmrrutiqu'',  i.,  p.  507.)     Thus 
Ho,  corrupted  into  Pekoe,  or  even  Pekin,  merely  means 
,s  n,"  being  the  first  sprouts,  or  yet  hairy  leaf-buds 
plants,  three  years  old,  after  their  first  i' 
ing.     With  us  it   is  applied  only  to  a  black  tea,  but  it  is 
equally  applicable  to  a  green  tea,  and  is  by  the  Chinese 
nppli  ive  kind  called  Loong-tsing,  literally 

tgon, '  which  is  never  brought,  to 
licate  and  slightly  fired  as  to  spoil  by 
the   least    damp.'     -Davis.!     The    true  imperial  tea.  also 
called  flos  the.i',  not  that  it  i.<  tin-  flower-buds,  as  some 


suppose,  but  merely  the  perfection  of  tea,  never  reaches 
Europe,  as  the  damp  of  the  voyage  and  a  northern  climate 
would  soon  impair  its  qualities.  That  which  is  sold  under 
the  name  of  Imperial  is  Chulan,  or  Soulang,  flavoured  with 
the  lan-hoa,  which  is  the  Chinese  name  for  the  Olea  fra- 
grans,  Lin. 

Though  it  is  stated  that  black  tea  may  be  cured  as  green 
tea.  and  green  tea  as  black,  certain  it  is  that  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  respective  kinds  is  carried  on  in  different  parts 
of  the  empire,  and  different  practices  pursued  with  the 
leaves  from  the  first  stage.  In  the  green  teas  the  leaves 
only  are  taken,  being  nipped  off  above  the  foot-stalk  or 
petiole,  while  of  the  black  teas  the  foot-stalk  is  always  col- 
lected. '  Thus  black  tea  contains  much  of  the  woody  fibre, 
while  the  green  is  exclusively  the  fleshy  part  of  the  le:if 
itself ;  which  is  one  good  reason  why  it,  should  be  dearer.' 
(Davis,  ii.,  p.  351.)  Besides  this,  the"  constant  removal  of 
the  young  leaf-buds,  by  which  the  plant  is  prevented  from 
being  clothed  with  full-grown  leaves,  which  alone  can 
elaborate  the  sap,  and  contribute  to  the  further  growth  of 
the  shrub,  causes  it  to  perish  earlier,  and  compels  a  more 
frequent  renewal  of  the  plantations.  Indeed  some  cul- 
tivators restrict  the  gathering  of  the  leaves  to  two  harvests, 
instead  of  three,  to  save  their  plants. 

Those  of  the  third  gathering  are  large  a'nd  coarse,  and 
often  so  rigid  that  they  cannot  be  rolled.  This  yields  a 
tea  so  inferior  in  quality  that  it  is  consumed  only  by  the 
poorest  of  the  natives,  or,  when  very  bad,  is,  as  are  some 
of  the  finer  kinds  when  spoiled,  used  for  dyeing. 

Such  are  the  pains  taken  to  ensure  the  excellence  of 
the  finest  sorts,  that  for  two  or  three  weeks  before  the  har- 
vest commences  the  collectors,  who  are  trained  to  this 
business  from  a  very  early  age,  are  prohibited  from  eating 
fish  or  other  kinds  of  food  reckoned  unclean,  lest  by  their 
breath  they  should  contaminate  the  leaves.  They  are  also 
made  to  take  a  bath  two  or  three  times  a  day,  and  not 
allowed  to  gather  the  leaves  with  the  naked  fingers,  but 
always  with  gloves.  The  finest  tea  may,  if  the  proper 
time  for  gathering  it  be  neglected,  be  changed  into  an 
inferior  tea  in  one  night.  It  is  necessary  to  roast  the  leaves 
the  same  evening  that  they  are  collected,  for  if  kept  till  the 
following  day  they  become  black  and  lose  much  of  their 
\iiine.  Previous  to  putting  them  into  the  iron  pans  or  fur- 
naces, which  are  heated  by  charcoal,  some  writers  say  that 
they  are  dipped  for  about  half  a  minute  into  boiling  water ; 
others  do  not  mention  this.  About  half  a  pound  or  three- 
quarters  of  leaves  ore  put,  into  the  pan  at  once,  and  dili- 
gently stirred,  to  prevent  them  from  being  burnt.  They  are 
then  removed  with  a  shovel  and  thrown  on  mats  or  into 
baskets,  and  while  yet  hot  the  soft  leaves  are  rolled  be- 
tween the  palms  of  the  hands,  during  which  operation  a 
quantity  of  yellowish  green  juice  exudes  from  them.  This 
n  of  masting  and  rolling  is  often  repeated  even  to 
the  sixth  or  seventh  time.  This  method  is  called  the  dry 
way  ;  but  by  the  wet  way  the  leaves  are  first  exposed  to 
the  vapour  of  boiling  water,  after  which  they  are  rolled 
and  dried  on  the  iron  pans  like  the  others.  Leaves  prepared 
in  the  wet  way  have  a  bright  green  colour;  those  by  the 
dry,  a  dark  green  verging  to  brown.  From  the  green  tea, 
when  prepared  in  the  dry  way,  less  of  the  above-mentioned 
juice  exudes,  a  circumstance  to  which  the  greater  power 
of  green  tea  is  in  some  degree  owing.  The  larger  leaves 
are  generally  selected  to  be  prepared  in  the  wet  way.  By 
the  process  of  roasting  the  leaves  lose  two-thirds  of  their 
weight ;  so  that  three  pounds  of  fresh  leaves  dry  into  one 
pound  of  tea  fit  for  preservation.  It  is  by  the  procc 
roasting  that  the  flavour  is  first  developed,  the  leaves 
when  fresh  being  as  insipid  as  the  bean  of  coffee  before 
heat  is  applied.  Siebold  is  of  opinion  that  the  agree- 
able violet-like  flavour  of  tea  is  inherent  in  the  leaves 
themselves,  but  most  writers  ascribe  the  different  flavours 
of  the  choicer  kinds  of  tea  to  the  admixture  of  the  flowers. 
leaves,  or  oils  of  a  variety  of  different  plants.  The  chief 
of  these  are  the  Olea  fragrans,  CMormif/ti/x  /i/ri:nxjiirn- 
iis,  Gardenia  florida,  Aglaia  ndorata,  Mogorium  (Jnn- 
iiii/iinii  i  ^ambac,  Vitex  spicata,  Camellia  Sasiiiiijiiit,  and 
C.  oleifera,  Illichtm  anisalum,  Magnolia  Yulttii,  and  the 
Rosa  Indica  odoratissima,  as  well  as  with  the  root  of  the 
///,  ,;u,;-n/i»a,a.nd  Curcuma  loiiga  or  turmeric,  and  oil  of 
Jii.ni  Orellana.  A  variety  of  tea  called  Sonchi  is  often 
found  to  contain  a  large  quantity  of  ferruginous  dust,  but 
whether  by  accident,  as  Mr.  Davis  thinks  (Chiiirw,  ii.,  p. 
462),  or  a  fraud  to  increase  the  weight,  is  doubtful.  Its 


T  H  i: 


288 


T  11    K 


pretence  may  easily  be  detected  by passing  a  magnet  into 
a  suspected  sample,  when  some  of  the  particles  of  iron 
will  adhere  to  it. 

Chinese  annually  dry  many  millions  of  pounds  of 
tin'  leaves  ol  different  plant-,  to  mingle  with  the  genuine, 

.is  those  of  akh,  plum.  tec. ,  a*  tin-  name  Mci-1'ian. 
applied  to  one  of  tin-  i  tea  from  the  province  uf 

Kiang-nan.  import*;  so  that  all  the  spurious  leaves 
found  ii  parcel-  i  must  not  be  supposed  to  l>r  m- 

trodu  \  the  dealers  111  this  eountrv.      While 

the  tea-tni  •  :.U    in  the  hands  of  the  kast-Indm 

Com]  .if  tliese  adulterated  '  Chipped  for 

this  country,  a*  experienced  and  competent  inspectors 
with  large  salaries  were  kept  at  Canton,  to  prevent  the 
exportation  of  such  in  the  Company's  ships;  but  since  the 
trade  has  been  opened,  nil  kinds  find  a  ready  outlet,  and, 
as  the  demand  oil  en  exceeds  the  supply,  a  manufactured 
article  is  furnished  to  the  rival  crews. 

Tile  object  of  the  drying  and  rolling  is  both  to  diminish 
the  bulk  and  to  enable  the  leaves  to  preserve  their  flavour. 
No  ten  is  thought  tit  for  use  till  it  is  a  twelvemonth  old  ; 
and  the  rich  and  luxurious  Chinese  keep  the  tine  tea  in  jars. 
made  of  the  finest  porcelain,  some  of  which  are  thought  to 
communieate  an  additional  aroma  to  the  tea,  and  all  of 
which  have  very  narrow  rinmt  hs  as  may  be  oliscrved  in  those 
brought  to  Europe,  and  sold  at  a  high  price  ,  to  retain  the 
peculiar  odour.  If  the  tea  contracts  dump,  it  is  taken  out 
and  roasted  r.g.tin. 

The  taste  of  tea  is  more  or  less  astringent,  and,  before  it 
is  infused,  unpleasantly  acrid.  To  make  the  infusion,  the 
Chinese  pour  boiling- water  on  a  small  portion  of  the 

-,  but  do  not  allow-  it  to  stand  or  macerate,  as  is  done 
in  England,  but  instantly  pour  it  off  again,  by  which  they 
obtain  only  the  more  volatile  and  stimulating  portion  of  its 

1  *  '1M  .    ll      •  '  1  11         "ill 


The   poorer  Chinese  indeed  boil  the  very  in- 
coarse   leaves,   which  alone   are  within  their 


principles. 

ferior   and 

reach,  and  drink  the  decoction  repeatedly  during  the  day. 

This  is  doiie  not  only  to  extract  such  virtues  as  the  tea 

possesses,  but  to  qualify  the  water,  as  little  good  drinking 


strongly  of  tea,  and  which,  were  it  not  lor  the  expense  ot 
the  solvent,  and  the  t  uling  its  separation,  might 

perhaps  be  profitably  einpl. 


Green  i 


Black  Souchong 


prrlb. 

14*. 

12 
Id 

H 

7 
I.1 
10 

H 

7 
B 


iu  W.UT.    Alc.ih.il.  .ill.  J.-IU  . 


31; 
31 
BB 
34 
37 
86 

BB 


•i:f 
43 

•ll 


30 
BB 

31 


81 

•Ju 
•ji 

2H 

2B 

•JK 

M 


B7 
B7 

04 

or. 


(Brande's  M,um,il  n/  I'finniitiry.  5th  id.,  p.  121,..) 

The  fall  in  the'  prices  of  tea  docs  not  much  affect    • 
results,  as  the  same  relative  proportions  aie  preserved. 

The  alkaloid-like  principle  of  tea  can   -carcely  be   con- 
sidered the  cause   of  the   peculiar  action  of.  tea;'  bm 
very  interesting  from  the  circumstance  of  the   identity  of 

•upositiftn  with  that  of  coffee,  aud  of  the   gc, 
otticin..'.i>.  as  shown  by  l.iebig: — 


PfafTan.l  I.i.-l.ii;. 

Carbon       .  -l<)-77 

Hydrogen  .  .V:i3 

Nitrogen    .  2s -7s 

Oxygen      .  10-  12 


Tin-ill.'.  I . 

_JoI*l.  M.,,1  r.     C8,  II  :•    ' 

."••214  r>- i3i»        :. •' 

2i)-(KHI  2!)- ISO         2s- 

ir)'(i7G  1U-(H)2          10  •- 


water  is  met  with  in  China.  Travellers  find  a  supply  of 
tea  a  very  valuable  accompaniment  on  long  journeys,  as  it 
improves  the  most  brackish  waters.  The  exciting  effects  of 
fresh  tea  are  such  that  it  is  rarely  used  till  it  has  been  kept 
twelve  months,  as  already  stated  :  and  where  indulged  in.  it 
produces  great  disturbance  of  the  mind,  almost  rc.-cmbling 
inebriation,  like  the  action  oftheErythroxylon  Coca  among 
the  Peruvians,  and  inducing  a  tremulous  motion  of  the 
limbs.  This  property  is  diminished  by  repeateil  roast  ings. 
but  as  green  tea  is  less  exposed  to  heat  than  black,  it  re- 
tains more  of  this  power.  Hcsidcs.  the  green  tea  lor  ex- 
portation undergoes  some  process,  which  changes  its 
colour,  giving  it  a  bluish-green  hue.  The  Chinese  them- 
isiime  those  kinds  of  green  tea  which  arc 
prepared  for  exportation.  (Davis,  Chinese,  ii.46H.)  It  is 
altogether  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  colour  of  green 
owing  to  its  being  dried  on  copper  pans,  as  none 
such  are  used,  and  th  .  .'ching  chemical  anal\M-.  is 

unable  to  detect  a  trace  of  copper  unless  as  a  constituent  of  ( 
the  vegetable.    The  chemical  analysis  of  tea  does  not  shed 

ii-.. 


liergma  obtained  an  oil,  but  this,  as  well  as  the  distilled 
he  lound  to  have   little   peculiar   effect    on  several 
animals:  which  is  in   opposition   to   the    experiments  of 
l.clt-om.  who  represents  the  distilled  water  of  tea  ns  : 
ail  narcotic,  paralysing  the  limbs  of  frogs,  and 
causing  their  death  when  applied  to  the  exposed  iu  i 

Before  attempting  to  estimate  the  r.ction  of  tea  on  the 
human  system,  ii  is  necessuy  to  call  to  mind  that  some  of 
the  effects  are  due  to  the  plants  mixed  with  the  real  tea. 
several   of  which,  such   as  the  Chloraiithus  incoiispicuus, 
are  stimulants  of  the  highest  order;  and  in  other  in.-.;, 
deleterious   chemical   compounds  are  Used  by  the  ('!• 
to  convert  damaged  black  teas  into  saleable   green 
(l)a\is.  C/H'IH-M:  ii.  4GO.)      For  the  effects  of  these.  I 
not  justly  chargeable.     Acorrect  estimate  of  the  action  of 
tea  is  not  easily   foimed:   yet  the  most  dispassionate  in- 
quirers regard   it  as   a   narcotic,    the    stimulating    \- 
of  which  is  the  mo.-.!  conspicuous  ;imi  ,,f  ]imgc.st  duration. 
Tea  has  been  preposterously  praised  by  sonic  writers,  and 
unjustly  accused  by  others'  a.s  being  'productive    of  nu- 
merous diseases  :  abo\e  all  it  has  been  charged  with  caus- 
ing an  increase  of  nervous  diseases.     It  would  pcrhii; 
more  just  to  attribute  the  increase  of  such  complai; 
the  more  complicated  .state  of  our  social  reratious.  :i 
from  an  augmented  population,  and  an  advance  in  lu 
with  the  more   frequent   infringement  of  the  natural 
particularly  turning   night  into  day.  and  not   seldom  day 
into  night,  as  is  the   practice  of  the  votaries  of  fashion. 


much  light  on  its  action  on  the  human  system,     l-'iankand  |  That  the  universal  employment  of  tea  has  displace 


Sir  II.  l).i\y  found  more  tannin  in  black  than  in  green  tea  ; 
butt'  I  Mr.  lirande's  researches,  conducted  on  a 

more-  ft  different  mutt.    'Some 

ago  I  examined  the  varieties  of  tea  in  common  use  ((Jii-ir- 
terly  Joiinnil.  xii.  3)1  •.  and  found  that  the  quantity  of 
astringent  matter  precipitable  by  gelatine  is  son. 
greater  in  green  than  in  black  tea.'though  the  excess  is  by 
no  means  so  great  a.s  the  comparative  flavour-  of  the  two 
would  lead  one  to  expect.  The  entire  quantity  of  soluble 
matter  is  also  greater  in  green  than  in  black  tea,  but  the 
extractive,  not  precipitable  by  gelatine,  is  greater  in  tin- 
latter.' 


other  kinds  of  food  is  certain,  but  if  a  diminution  in  the 
number   of   inflammatory   diseases   be    one   of  the    con- 
sequences, it  is  much   to   it.s   credit,  as  however  distu 
nervous  diseases  may  be.  they  aie  by  no  means 
those   of  an   inflammatory  kind.     That  tea  should  not  suit 
all    constitutions   or  all  ages  is  not  remarkable.      It  i 
suited  for  young  children  than  for  adults  ;   indeed  for  very 
young  children  ii    is  extremely  improper,  producing,  like 
all  narcotics,  a  moibid  state   of  the  brain  and  in- 
tern.   It  is  also  uusuitcd  for  those  of  an  irritable  nature, 
and  likewise  for  those  of  a  leiicoiihlcgmatic  constitution. 
Such  persons  can  ill  bear  much  liquid  of  any  kind,  par- 


The   following  table  shows  the  respective  quantities  of    ticularly  in  the  evening,  and  prosper  best   on  a  very  dry 


soluble  matter  in  water  and  in  alcohol,  the  weight  of  the 
i.itate  by  isinglass,  and  the  proportion  of  inert  woody 
fibre  in  green  and  black  tea  of  various  pi  ices.      It  is  given. 
not  a*  throwing  any  important  light  upon  of  the 

different  qualities  and  effects  often,  but  its  containing  the 
result*  of  actual  experiments.  It  will  be  remarked  that 
"hen  tea-leaves  have  been  exhausted  by  water  repeatedly 
afltued,  alcohol  is  still  capable  of  extracting  a  considerable 
quantity  of  soluble  matter:  the  alcoholic  extract  infus. -d 
in  boiling  water,  furnishes  a  liquid  which  smells  aud  tastes 


diet,  to  which  growing  children  of  this  const  it  ul  ion  should 
•letly  confined.  [DlU'KNTs.]  It  may  not  be  true 
that  the  use  of  tea,  as  alleged  by  Dr.  I.ettsom,  has  been 
a  main  cause  of  the  increa-c  of  -ciophulous  diseases,  still  a.s 
diseases  of  this  class  are  the  only  dlMMe*  which  are  proved 
by  the  reports  of  the  registrar-general  to  I  y.  or 

perhaps  more  frequent  than  others,  whatever  impairs  the 
nervous  power  and  ultimately  the  digestive  function  in 
slrumous  children  should  be  avoided.  Ills  i.dviec  is  sound 
where  he  says,  'It  ought  by  no  means  to  be  the  common 


THE 


289 


THE 


diet  of  boarding-schools  ;  if  it  be  allowed  sometimes  as  a 
treat,  they  should  be  at  the  same  time  informed  that  the 
constant  use  of  it  would  be  injurious  to  'their  health, 
strength,  and  constitution.'  Those  to  whom  it  is  most 
suited  are  the  plethoric  and  sanguine.  Upon  the  same 
principle  it  is  a  proper  article  of  diet  and  perhaps  the  best 
common  drink  at  the  beginning  of  fevers  and  inflammatory 
complaints.  In  a  peculiar  state  of  brain,  termed  by  Mr. 
Newnham  (Observations  on  Medical  and  Dietetical  Pro- 
perties of  Green  Tea)  sthenic  excitement,  a  state  clearly 
bordering  on  inflammation,  especially  if  produced  by  alco- 
holic stimulants,  or  by  intense  and  long-continued  applica- 
tion of  mind  to  any  particular  object  of  literary  research, 
green  tea  acts  as  a  salutary  remedy.  On  the  contrary,  in 
states  of  diminished  excitement,  morbid  vigilance  and 
nervous  disturbance  follow  its  use.  It  is  not  an  uncommon 
practice  with  ardent  students,  when  pushing  their  studies 
lar  into  the  night,  to  resist  the  claims  of  nature  for  repose, 
and  keep  themselves  awake  by  the  frequent  use  of  tea. 
That  it  answers  the  purpose  at  the  time  cannot  be  denied, 
but  the  object  is  often  attained  at  a  fearful  price,  the  de- 
struction of  health  and  vigour  both  of  mind  and  body  being 
the  penalty.  Less  injury  results  in  these  cases  from  the 
use  of  coffee.  There  is  this  difference  between  the  morbid 
states  of  the  nervous  system  produced  by  coffee  and  those 
resulting  from  tea :  that  the  former  generally  subside  or 
disappear  entirely  on  relinquishing  its  use  ;  those  from  the 
latter  are  more  permanent,  and  often  incapable  of  being 
eradicated.  Nevertheless  many  persons  have  immediately 
found  their  health  improved  by  entirely  relinquishing  the 
use  of  tea,  or  even  omitting  it  only  at  breakfast,  for  which 
meal  it  is  certainly  less  proper  than  for  the  evening  be- 
verage. Those  for  whom  tea  is  unsuited  will  generally 
find  weak  cocoa  the  most  proper  substitute. 

Persons  of  a  gouty  and  rheumatic  nature,  above  all,  those 
prone  to  calculous  diseases  of  the  lithic  acid  diathesis,  find 
weak  tea  the  least  objectionable  article  of  common  drink. 
They  should  take  it  without  sugar,  and  with  very  little 
milk.  (Prout,  On  the  Stomach,  p.  217.)  Where  the  water 
is  hard,  the  addition  of  a  little  carbonate  of  soda  not  only 
improves  the  tea,  but  renders  it  a  more  proper  beverage 
for  such  persons.  Tea  should  not  be  used  till  about  four 
hours  after  any  solid  meal. 

The  medical  uses  of  tea  are  not  many.  In  fevers  it  is 
not  only  an  excellent  diluent  at  the  commencement,  but 
a  tincture  of  tea  made  by  macerating  tea  in  proof-spirit, 
and  adding  a  tea-spoonful  of  this  to  a  small  cup  of  water, 
and  given  at  short  intervals  during  the  night,  after  the 
acute  symptoms  have  subsided,  is  often  of  great  service. 
For  this  purpose,  in  hospitals  and  workhouses,  the  leaves 
which  have  been  used  for  the  ordinary  infusion  may  be 
macerated  in  alcohol  (as  suggested  above  by  Mr.  Brande), 
and  a  spirit  of  sufficient  strength  for  this  purpose  obtained 
at  a  cheap  rate.. 

In  some  forms  of  diseased  heart  tea  proves  a  useful 
sedative.  It  is  nearly  as  valuable  an  antidote  to  poison- 
ing by  opium  as  coffee  is.  Some  cases  of  poisoning  by 
ic  and  tartarized  antimony  have  been  prevented  prov- 
ing fatal  by  the  immediate  administration  of  tea  in  the 
form  of  a  very  strong  infusion.  Here  its  power  as  an 
antidote  depends  upon  its  tannin  decomposing  the  poison- 
ous substances.  [ASTRINGENTS.]  But  in  poisoning  by 
opium  it  is  useful  only  in  combating  the  secondary  symp- 
toms, and  should  not  be  administered  till  the  stomach- 
pump  or  other  means  have  removed  the  opium  from  the 
stomach.  (Lancet,  9th  November,  1833.)  Some  cases  of 
severe  nervous  headache  are  relieved  by  a  cup  of  strong 
green-tea,  taken  without  milk  or  sugar.  But  this  should 
be  sparingly  resorted  to  ;  it  is  a  wiser  plan  to  avoid  the 
causes  of  such  headaches.  Tea  has  been  looked  upon  as 
the  irreat  means  by  which  intoxication  was  to  be  banished, 
but  it  is  certain  that  to  relieve  the  tremblings  and  other 
unpleasant  effects  of  the  abuse  of  tea,  a  little  brandy  or 
other  alcoholic  stimulant  is  occasionally  added  to  the  cup 
of  tea,  and  so  a  habit  is  acquired  which  can  never  after- 
wards be  relinquished. 

Tea  has  frequently  been  denounced  as  a  useless  article 
of  diet  to  the  poor,  as  it  is  assumed  to  be  devoid  of  nutri- 
ment, and  the  milk  and  sugar  which  are  added  supposed 
to  be  the  only  beneficial  ingredients.  Dr.  Lettsom  has 
given  a  calculation,  partly  his  own,  and  partly  taken  from 
'  Essays  on  Husbandry,'  to  show  how  much  is,  in  his  view, 
unnecessarily  expended  by  them  in  this  way.  But  the 
V.  C..,  No.  1524.  ' 


observations  of  Liebig,  if  correct,  and  in  all  probability 
they  are  so,  offer  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  cause  of 
the  great  partiality  of  the  poor  not  only  for  tea,  but  for 
tea  of  an  expensive  and  therefore  superior  kind.  'We 
shall  never  certainly  be  able  to  discover  how  men  were 
led  to  the  use  of  the  hot  infusion  of  the  leaves  of  a  certain 
shrub  ('tea),  or  of  a  .decoction  of  certain  roasted  seeds 
(coffee).  Some  cause  there  must  be  which  would  explain 
how  the  practice  has  become  a  necessary  of  life  to  whole 
nations.  But  it  is  still  more  remarkable  that  the  bene- 
ficial effects  of  both  plants  on  the  health  must  be  ascribed 
to  one  and  the  same  substance,  the  presence  of  which  in 
two  vegetables  belonging  to  natural  families,  and  the 
produce  of  different  quarters  of  the  globe,  could  hardly 
have  presented  itself  to  the  boldest  imagination.  Yet 
recent  researches  have  shown,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  ex- 
clude all  doubt,  that  caffeine  and  theine  are,  in  all  respects, 
identical. 

'  Without  entering  minutely  into  the  medical  action  of 
caffeine  (theine),  it  will  surely  appear  a  most  striking 
fact,  even  if  we  were  to  deny  its  influence  on  the  process 
of  secretion,  that  this  substance,  with  the  addition  of 
oxygen  and  the  elements  of  water,  can  yield  taurine,  the 
nitrogenized  compound  peculiar  to  bile  : — 

1  atom  caffeine  or  theine     =     C8  N2    H5     O2 

9  atoms  water        .         .     =  H9     O9 

,    9  atoms  oxygen     .         .     =  Q9 

C8  N2  H14  O20 
=  2  atoms  taurine          .     =     2  (C4  NH9  OlO) 

To  see  how  the  action  of  caffeine,  asparagine,  theo- 
bromine,  &c.  may  be  explained,  we  must  call  to  mind 
that  the  chief  constituent  of  the  bile  contains  only  3-8 
per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  of  which  only  the  half,  or  1-9  per 
cent.,  belongs  to  the  taurine.  Bile  contains  in  its  natural 
state  water  and  solid  matter,  in  the  proportion  of  90  parts 
by  weight  of  the  former  to  10  of  the  latter.  If  we  sup- 
pose these  10  parts  by  weight  of  solid  matter  to  be  choleic 
acid,  with  3-87  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  then  100  parts  of 
fresh  bile  will  contain  0'171  parts  of  nitrogen  in  the  shape 
of  taurine.  Now  this  quantity  is  contained  in  0-6  parts  of 
caffeine;  or  2,|ths  grains  of  caffeine  can  give  to  an 
ounce  of  bile  the  nitrogen  it  contains  in  the  form  of 
taurine.  If  an  infusion  of  tea  contain  no  more  than  the  ^Jth 
of  a  grain  of  caffeine,  still,  if  it  contribute  in  point  of 
fact  to  the  formation  of  bile,  the  action,  even  of  such  a 
quantity,  cannot  be  looked  upon  as  a  nullity.  Neither 
can  it  be  denied,  that  in  the  case  of  an  excess  of  non- 
azotizcd  food  and  a  deficiency  of  motion,  which  is  re- 
quired to  cause  the  change  of  matter  of  the  tissues,  and 
thus  to  yield  the  nitrogenized  product  which  enters  into 
the  composition  of  the  bile  ;  that  in  such  a  condition  the 
health  may  be  benefited  by  the  use  of  compounds  which 
are  capable  of  supplying  the  place  of  the  nitrogenized 
substance  produced  in  the  healthy  state  of  the  body,  and 
essential  to  the  production  of  an  important  element  of 
respiration.  In  a  chemical  sense — and  it  is  this  alone 
which  the  preceding  remarks  are  intended  to  show — caf- 
feine, or  theine,  asparagine,  and  theobromine,  are,  in  vir- 
tue of  their  composition,  better  adapted  to  this  purpose 
than  all  other  nitrogenized  vegetable  principles.  The 
action  of  these  substances,  in  ordinary  circumstances,  is 
not  obvious,  but  it  unquestionably  exists.  Tea  and  coffee 
were  originally  met  with  among  nations  whose  diet  is 
chiefly  vegetable.'  (Liebig's  Animal  Chemistry,  p.  178.) 
These  facts  show  in  what  way  tea  proves  to  the  poor  a 
substitute  for  animal  food,  and  why  females  and  literary 
persons  who  take  little  exercise  manifest  such  partiality 
for  it.  They  also  explain  why  the  attempts,  and  they 
have  been  numerous,  to  find  among  other  plants  a  substi- 
tute for  tea  have  invariably  failed  of  success.  The  first 
tea-leaves  were  procured  from  the  Chinese  in  exchange 
for  those  of  the  Sal  via  officinalis,  or  garden  sage,  but  they, 
like  others,  soon  found  out  its  inferiority,  and  refused  to 
part  with  their  own  precious  leaf  except  in  exchange  for 
solid  coin.  The  poor  Chinese  make  use  of  the  leaves  of  a 
fern,  and  also  of  those  of  the  Sagaretia  (Rhamnus)  theezans ; 
but.  to  this  their  poverty,  not  their  will,  consents. 

Tea  Trade. — The  period  when  tea  was  first  introduced 
into  this  country  has  already  been  noticed.  How  little 
was  it  possible  at  the  time  to  have  foreseen  that  it  would 
one  day  become  one  of  the  most  important  avlicles  of 
foreign  production  consumed  in  England.  The  first  mi 

VOL.  XXIV.— 2  P 


T   11    I'. 


200 


I    11  E 


iifntotirm  bv  the  EIIK                                              °k  I1'81'1-' 

Ualcul 

.  '  [',  .'  |  &  «n  •  ...  Com]    :  •  •  '••  •'"'•»  ;1'  Uuiiiam.     Tlii 

Y«u.               II*         TiiiliNM.—  Mr  Cent                     —  >• 

their 
_hl  of  tli' 

i  ifrow    74  per  i-i-nt   on  grow 

IIP                  p11 

1788     13.21.- 

at  in  lh»J  *i*  1' 

. 

.,                                   „ 

ilu-  trade  ili>  not  i-on: 

.. 

.. 

. 

.. 

.  in  1720.    Tli"  fol!"  • 

17U4     ! 

•/',(/*/<•  t/iulfing  thr   Qu'intilii   "f  T-  :    n-'niii-  •<!  /«/• 

<>f  Duly  in  each   icar,frwn 

it:— 
Kale  of  Duly. 

.. 
• 
1     5jir.  ft.onnTitea  !•"• 

1708     '                              .,               Wperct.  < 

lb».          <  'ui«om«  —  1'cr  I',  ul. 

perlb.,80pertt.  al 

370.323     13/.  18*.  7K            4*.  P"  lb- 

!:i,'.Hi(i.5Hl 

»                            " 

1800     2il.35s.7ll2                  „                  15  pi-rrt.  inulri 

i,                            " 

prr  ll>.  ,;!.">  • 

5-13.02!              »                            » 

1801    a),2;i7,753               „               15  per  ct.  under  S 

172»                                   "                             " 

pt'i-lli.,45  piTcl. 

:<MIO                 ..                                 „ 

1802     21.848.245 

17:il                 i'U                »                               » 

1803    2!.617.!I22               „               00  per  ct.  under  2 

,, 

perlb.,00perct 

„                               ii 

1804     1S.5()1.!KM 

'  -71                „ 

1805     21.0'25.3SO     .V.  2s.  (i/.  on 

.033                „                                i 

XfOb*  IMR-I'. 

7-1.", 

1800    20,3."                        6/.              00  pci  ifiit.  on  all. 

• 

1807     i 

> 

.. 

17.11        1,113,361                  „                                    . 

1809      l!).8(i!),l3t                  „ 

» 

1810      l'.).0:.'3.2!l 

1711 

1811      2 

1742         .                    H                        " 

1812     20,018.2.-)]                    „ 

,. 

1813      20.4-t3.il6 

1741                  SOU 

1811      IU.2'2 

1745          730,72;)                 ..                 I*-  per  ">•  ami  -">  P1'1 

IS  15      22..T, 

c-ciit.  on  tlie  in 

1816     20.Cl(i.lil 

1740      2.358.583 

1817     2!).822,'J2<i 

;.-,     is/.  18,.  7K 

„ 

1748       'J.kCi.SIl 

1810    22,1;  J  I,.'./    C'ustoing1  duty     Under  2*.  ulb.'Ji. 

174y      2.708,807 

iTju'iiV'd.  "         above  2*.  100  per  ci. 

1701)       2,568.338 

1820     22,152,050 

\i:,\      2,774  ,8(i:) 

1821      •22.8i)2.!>13 

17-V2       2,'J76.(iJ.; 

1S22 

17.13       H.  13  1.885 

I      •.'!.,(i2,l70 

1754      3.447.017 

:•:« 

17-V)       3,556.140 

'.H5 

17J6       3.7^.5.^1 

1826 

17.".7       3.U01.V 

26.013.223 

04 

;:«; 

:!57,744      C.i/.    i 

1820     2.).4!)5.  1 

,       4.1  >72.i 

1830     3'.).047,070 

17U1       4.434.  1!M 

1SJ1      2;).!I07,101                  „ 

17ii2        1.2.;!i,I(ls 

ill!) 

;.« 

1KJ3     3I.82H.61!) 

17.6  1      4.71!),473 

1KJ4     3l.:ili/(,51      liohi'H,  Iv.  67.  ;     K\vi-.o  <!• 

HO 

•'iu.'l'v  an- 

I7(i(i      1 

17(7      :!.7ii2,«ai 

"75               ,             25  p.  ct  OB  grow  price. 

il). 

1835     :«j.574.004 

177'  i      T 

K«i     4!).H2,2:>6     AfliT   lt-1  .luiv. 

:..'.M-J. 

1772       7>.N.:M1 

per  11). 

••in              „                     u>.  ami  •_:.  p.  .  i. 

J)6 

on  li 

1838     32.:,5!.5!)3 

113 

18IJ  ' 

1775      5.(;  IS.IKS 

VMI.  .'.  PIT  ct. 

177!                218 

;77 

1777      4 

.. 

For  al)o\c  a  crntury  anil  :i  hail'  11;                           of  tlir 

177'.»              ir>4     25/.    2s.  GK    5  per  ot  additional  on 
former  du1 

India  (Join-                    v  v.illidn 

the  consumption  of  tl                        •imn.    Th. 

17«o     .-..i:.2.30a 

fiijoycd  tlii-,  trade  to  tin1  exduMon  ul'  all  c 

72      •£)!.    }'                                i-cnl.  ;ul<liliiiii:il 

ami  \vcro  bound  from  time,  lo  tinii-  i                             .1-  lea, 

://.     ((•.   KW.     5  nor  cent.  ad.: 

and  to  provide  ships  to  import  thr 

luive  a  yei'.r'r.  consumption  in  their  \                        Tin:  tens 

17N. 

were  disposed  of  in  London,  where  only  I)  icy  could  ; 

,  rrjiealed. 
1786     12,530,380    5  p.  ct.  on  gi  '                                    ifross 
price.                     j>ru 

ported  ill    '                                                                         nid  to 
bidder.  )•.                           :,ICT  ol 
one  penny  per  Ib.  wis  inudc  on  the  price  at   which  ench 

THE 


201 


T  II  K 


lot  was  put  up,  which  price  was  determined  by  adding 
together  the  prime  cost  at  Canton  and  the  bare  charges  of 
freight,  insurance,  interest  on  capital,  and  certain  charges 
on  importation  ;  but  by  the  mode  of  calculating  these 
items,  and  the  heavier  expenses  which  always  attend  every 
department  of  a  trade  monopoly,  the  upset  prices  were 
greatly  enhanced.  The  prices  realised  at  the  Company's 
sales  were  however  in  still  greater  proportion  beyond  the 
upset  prices,  a  result  easily  produced  by  a  body  who  mo- 
nopolized the  sole  supply,  as  it  was  only  necessary  that 
the  quantity  offered  for  sale  should  not  be  augmented  in 
proportion  to  the  growing  demand  of  a  rapidly  increasing 
population.  The"l8Geo.  II.,  c.  26,  passed  immediately 
alter  a  large  reduction  of  the  duty  had  taken  place,  pro- 
vided for  such  a  contingency  as  this,  by  enacting  that  if 
the  East  India  Company  faifed  to  import  a  quantity  suffi- 
•  to  render  the  prices  as  low  as  in  other  parts  of 
Europe,  it  should  be  lawful  to  grant  licences  to  other  per- 
lo  import  tea.  This  would  have  constituted  a  very 
efficient  check  if  it  had  been  acted  upon  ;  but  eventually 
the  mode  of  levying  the  duty  gave  the  government  almost 
the  same  interest  in  a  restricted  supply  as  the  East  India 
Company,  the  duties  being  collected  ad  valorem  on  the 
amount  realised  at  the  Company's  sales  ;  and  thus  the  very 
circumstance  which  enhanced  the  price  raised  the  total 
amount  of  duty.  The  duty  was  nominally  5X)  and  100  per 
cent,  ail  rn/orrni,  but  being  charged  on  a  monopoly  price. 
the  difference  on  the  cheaper  teas  consumed  by  the  work- 
ing aiid  middle  classes  amounted  to  above  300  per  cent, 
on  the  cost  price  of  the  same  teas  at  Hamburg ;  and  in 
1830  the  difference  between  the  prices  realised  at  the 
Comi  ,  and  the  Hamburg  prices  amounted  to  a 

sum  of  1,889,9?5/.  The  sales  in  the  last  year  of  the  East 
India  Company's  monopoly  are  shown  in  the  following 
table : — 

An  Account  of  the 
of  Tea  sold 


1834:— 


of  the  Quantity  and  Prices  of  several  sorts 
England  from  May  1st,  1833,  to  May  1st, 


Ibs. 

it  <i. 

Bohea    .    . 

6,170,963 

1  10 

-.'i  .    . 

18,653,835 

2     1 

Campoi  .   . 

1,003 

2    4 

Souchong  . 

354.5!.-) 

2     9 

Pekoe    .    . 

514,811 

2  10 

Twankay  . 

4.339,072 

2     1 

Hyson  Skin 

141,610 

2    2 

Ih-on     .    . 

987.052 

3    0 

Total      .    .  31,164,065 

The  Company's  sales  were  in  March,  June,  September, 
find   December,   the    latter    being   the   largest.      About 
2,000,000 Ibs.  were  offered  belonging  to  the  officers  of  the 
Company,  who  were  allowed  to  import  a  certain  quantity 
their  own  account.     In   1839  there  were  only 
:!2)bs.  offered  for  sale  by  the  East  India  Company"; 
he  change  effected  by  the  3  &  4  \V'm.  IV.,  c.  5)3, 
which,  on  the  22ml  of  April,   1834,  opened  the  trade  to 
China,  i.-;  now  complete.    The  importation  of  tea  is  no 
longer  confined  to  the  port  of  London.     In  1839  eighteen 
ed  inwards  from  China  at   different  outports, 
ifii  of  which  were  entered  at   Liverpool.     In   the  four 
ending   1K.'U  (lie  average  annual  number  of  ships 
a  China  at  the  poits  of  the  United 
Kingdom  was  23,  in  the  four  following  years  the  average 
''I!,  and  other  commodities  besides  tea  have  been  ex- 
iled, and  a  corresponding  increase  in  the 
quantity  and  variety  of  the  exports  to  China  has  taken 
place.     The  exports  of  tea  from  the  United  Kingdom, 
which  formerly  did  not  exceed  a  quarter  of  a  million  Ibs. 
annually,  amounted  to  4,347,432lbs.   in   1841,  and   have 
averaged  above  three  million  Ibs.  a  year  since  the  open- 
ing of  the  trade,  a  fact  which  shows  that  prices  here  are 
no  longer  so  much  above  those  of  the  principal  conti- 
nental ports.    The  quantity  retained  for  consumption  has 
also  considerably  increased,  although  accompanied  by  an 
extraordinary  Increase  in  the  use  of  coffee. 

The  tea-duty  produces  about  one-thirteenth  of  the  total 
revenue  ;  and  only  three  articles,  spirits,  malt,  and  sugar, 
yield  a  linger  sum.  The  tariff  of  1842  has  made  no 
alteration  in  the  tea-duty.  As  it  was  foreseen  that  on 
the  opening  of  the  tea  trade  there  would  be  a  considerable 
reduction  of  price,  and  that  an  ad  raln/vm  duty  would 
not,  even  witii  the  increased  consumption,  be  so  pro- 
ductive as  formerly,  a  fixed  duty  per  Ib.  was  imposed, 


wlncn,  from  1R34,  to  July,  1&30,  varied  according  to  tne 
different  kinds  of  tea;  but  as  this  mode  of  collection  was 
attended  with  considerable  trouble  and  difficulty,  it  was 
altered  to  an  unvarying  duty  of  2-v.  Id.  per  Ib.  on  all  kinds 
without  distinction.  Since  March,  183G,  the  tea-dealers 
have  been  relieved  from  the  vexatious  interference  of  the 
excise,  the  duty  being  collected  entirely  as  an  import  duty 
by  the  officers  of  the  customs.  Previously,  each  of  the 
hundred  thousand  tea-dealers  in  the  United  Kingdom  were 
visited  once  a  month  by  the  officers  of  excise,  who  took 
an  account  of  their  stock ;  and  no  quantity  exceeding 
six  pounds  could  be  sent  from  their  premises  without  a 
i;  rtuit,  of  which  above  800,000  were  required  in  a  year. 
In  short,  this  system  of  supervision  was  very  troublesome, 
costly,  and  answered  no  useful  purpose.  The  number  of  tea- 
dealers  in  1839  was  82,794  in  England  ;  13,G11  in  Scotland  ; 
12,774  in  Ireland  :  total,  109,179.  Tea  is  now  sold  by  the 
importing  merchants  by  public  auction  and  private  srfles. 

The  following  table  "shows  the  revenue  which  the  tea 
duty  has  yielded  in  each  year  during  the  present  century, 
and,  to  some  extent,  it  is  an  index  of  the  prices  in  each 
year : — 

Net  Amount  of  Duty  collected  upon  Tea  in  the  United 
Kingdom  in  each  year  from  1800  to  1841  inclusive  :— 

1801 £1,423,660  1822 £3,941,484 

1802 1,632;467  1823 3,848,122 

1803 1,929.613  1824 3,865,477 

1804 2,599,738  1825 4,031,018 

1 805 3,336,523  1 826 3,738,042 

1806 3,446,670  1827 3,705,588 

1807 3,525,173  1828 3,177,179 

1808 3,90.V_>;r>  182D 3,321.722 

1809 3.592,705  1KJO 3,387^097 

1810 3,647,737  1831 3,344,918 

1811 3.752,111  1832 3,509,835 

1812 3,822,979  1833 3,444,102 

1813. Records  burn!.  1834 3,589,361 

1814 3,058,054  1835 3,832,432 

1815 4,058,091  iKJij 4,674,535 

1816 4,362,496  1837 3,223,8-10 

1817 3,431.364  1838 3,362,035 

1818 3,872.693  1839 3,658,803 

1S19 3,689,805  1840 3,473,964 

1820 3,484.220  1841 3,978,188 

1821 3,707,270 

Between  1831  and  1841  the  population  increased  14  per 
cent.,  and  the  increase  in  the  consumption  of  tea  was  161 
per  cent.  The  low  prices  of  1836,  and  the  general  pros- 
perous condition  of  the  country,  raised  the  quantity  which 
paid  duty  for  consumption  to' nearly  50,000,000 Ibs.  In 

1840  prices  were  about  25  per  cent,  higher,  large  classes 
of  consumers  were  in  a  distressed  state,  and  the  consump- 
tion fell   to  32,000,000 Ibs.     In  1841  the  distress  still  con- 
tinued, but  prices  were  lower,  and  the  consumption  rose  to 
above  36,000,000 Ibs.     On  the  5th  of  Jan.,  1840,  the  stock 
of  tea  in  London,  Liverpool,  Bristol,  Glasgow,  and  Leith 
was  35,478,490!bs. ;   and  at  the  corresponding  period  in 

1841  the  quantity  was  46,545,6 10 Ibs.     The  proportion  of 
black  to  green  teas  consumed  in  England  is  about  as  5  to 
1 ;  but  in  the  United  States  the  use  of  green  tea  is  greatest. 

(Papers  issued  by  the  Chinese  and  East  Indie:  Assn/'in- 
tion  ;  Parl.  Papers,  &c.) 

The  total  export  of  tea  from  Canton  to  Europe  and 
America  exceeds  50,000,000 Ibs.  Russia  is  supplied  with 
G,500,000lbs.  via  Kiakhta ;  the  United  Slates  of  America 
require  about  8,000,000lbs. ;  France  about  2,000,0001bs. ; 
and  Holland  imports  about  2,800,0001bs.  The  green 
tea  districts  are  about  700  miles,  and  those  where  the  black 
tea  is  made  about  200  miles  from  Canton.  The  article  is 
brought  from  Canton  by  land  carriage,  chiefly  by  porters 
and  by  the  canals;  and  the  number  of  tea  merchants  who 
resort  to  Canton  in  the  season  when  the  trade  is  most 
.  that  is,  from  October  to  March.,  is  said  to  be  about, 
700.  The  functions  of  the  Hong  merchants,  through  whom 
Europeans  make  their  purchases,  have  been  already  ex- 
plained. [CANTON.]  The  trade  has  not  been  interrupted 
m  consequence  of  the  present,  dispute  between  England 
and  China,  nor  is  it  likely  to  be,  as  it  is  one  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  the  Chinese  ;  and  whenever,  in  former  dis- 
putes, it  has  been  temporarily  suspended,  no  difficulty  has 
occurred  in  obtaining  the  usual  supply  through  the  traders 
of  other  nations  at  Canton. 

2P2 


T  ii  i: 


'_>•:•„> 


T  II  E 


THKATINS.  or  TKATINS,  an  01  Jor  of  monks  founded 

at  Koine  i  •  "'"' 

.ell,  in  Naples,  the  I^itin  name 

!  who  ul\ i".  under 

th,.  ),'  IV.     Thr   institution   was  confirmed   nt 

the  time  of  its  foundation  by  thi  '    .'incut 

VII.:   and  a  final   rule,   or   CMC   "I'  regulations,  drawn  up 
by  a  general  chr.pt  cr  of  the  onlor.  was  authorised  I  ;. 
men!    VIII.   in    1G04.      The   Thcatins   were   principally 
established   in    Italy   and  in    Fiance,   into   which    latter 
country,  where  they  subsisted  till  the  Revolution  01 
they    were    broOcM    in    MVll    |.\    Caidin.il    Mazarin.    \vho 
bought  them  th.  ti  I'an-.  near  the  Louvre,  and  at 

i.ath  left  them  800,000  crowns  with  whieh  they 
built  a  ehureh.  Their  dress  was  a  lilaek  cloak  and  cassock 
with  whit.  t:ul  thc>  princi])al  peculiarity  of  tlieir 

•  ition  was  that  they  affected  to  subsist  not  only  upon 
alms,  but  upon  alms  bestowed  upon  them  without  bone 
for.  They  procured  however  considerable  support 
in  this  way,  and  they  were  at  one  time  enabled  to  maintain 
-ia.  Mingrclia,  and  other  part-, 
:a.  Their  history  has  been  written  by  John  H 
Tufrins.  under  the  title  of  •  Annales  Theatinorum.'  Tiiere 
were  also  Thcathi  nuns  (in  French,  The<iti»i'\],  so  called 
from  having  been  placed  by  Pope  Gregory  XV.  under  the 
direction  of  the  Theatin  monks,  their  original  and  proper 
designation  bavins:  been  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ceplion.  They  were  divided  into  two  classes:  the  one 
called  Theatin  nuns  of  the  congregation,  founded  at 
Naples  by  Ursula  Benincasa  in  l.'iXJ :  the  other,  of  later 
institution,  called  Theatin  Nuns  of  the  Hermitagi .  The 
latter  were  bound  by  vows  of  peculiar  solemnity  and  strict- 
ness, professing  to  spend  their  whole  time  in  solitude  and 
prayer.  The  two  societies  however  were  intimately  con- 
!  :  their  houses  adjoined  and  communicated  with 
one  another,  and  the  temporal  concerns  of  those  of  the 
Hermitage  were  managed  by  those  of  the  Congregation. 
In  1024  Urban  VIII.  withdrew  these  nuns  from  the  juris- 
diction or  superintendence  of  the  Theatin  monks,  and 
placed  them  under  that  of  the  Neapolitan  nuncio;  but 
the  former  state  of  things  was  restored  by  Gregory  IX.  in 
1608.  A  notice  of  a  controversy  between  the  Theatins 
and  the  Jesuits,  whieh  was  kept  up  for  a  great  part  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  is  given  by  Bayle,  in  a  note  to  his 
article  on  '  Ignatius  Loyola.' 

THEATRE  (from  the  Latin  thrtitrum,  which  is  from 
the  Greek  Starpov,  '  a  place  for  seeing'),  a  word  adopted 
in  all  modern  lai  •  signify  a  building  appropriated 

todramatic  representations.  Hie  oldest  edifices  of  this  class 
are  those  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  for  it  was  with  them 
that  the  European  drama  originated,  and.  in  point  of  n- 
tilde,  they  surpassed  the  most  spacious  of  their  temples.  The 
enormous  extent  of  many  of  them,  and  the  prodigious 
solidity  of  their  construction,  are  attested  by  the  numerous 
remains  of  such  edifices,  whieh  have  been  explored  not 
only  in  Greece  and  Italy,  but  also  in  Asia  Minor.  Of 
some  of  them  indeed  little  can  now  be  traced,  but  others 
are  sufficiently  perfect  to  convey  a  clear  idea  of  the  ar- 
rangement and  general  appearance  of  the  structure  in  its 
•hut  is.  however,  merely  us  regards  the  space 
appropriated  to  the  spectators,  for  scarcely  anything  re- 
mains to  explain  what  is  most  difficult,  and,  as  regards  the 
dramatic  exhibitions,  most  important  of  all  to  understand, 
namclv.  t;.  including  under  that  term  the 

whole  space  i-cqniMie  I'm   the  accommodation  of  tl. 
formers,   and  for  the  pi-cpaiation  of  the   exhibition   : 
the  audience.     Owing  to  the  want  of  any  evidence  of  the 
kind  afforded  by  the  buildings  them-, 
litlle  that   can   now  he  gathered  from  the  scanty  no!. 
antient  writers,  we  are  ignorant  of  many  things  which  can 
only  be  conjectured. 

The  very  eireu  mentioned  for  our  ad- 

miration, and  in  proof  of  the  magnificence  and  sumptuous- 
new  of  some  of  the  antient  theatres,  also  prove  how  dcsti- 

Of  anvthing  approaching  to  scenic  illusion  an.: 
effect  the  performances  must  have  been.     Whether  it   lie 
at  all  exaggerated  or  not,  it  is  evident  from  what  1'imv 
//'-/..  xxxv  i.,  c.  lii,  says  of  the  theatre  of 

\va.-  a  meic  architectural   farade,  mi- 
ll, though  luvislilj  embellished  vvitiin 

colui..  ..vith  no  fewer  than  3(Mi  of  the  loimer. 

arranged  in  thn •<•  ti ere.  and  3000  of  the  latter,  a  most  incre- 
dible number,  turpawmg  that  of  a  modern  audience ;  for  it 


is  difficult  to  conceive  how  they  could  all  have  possibly  been 

introduced.     Pliny  pe.  iil  more  when  he  says  that 

the  middle  of  th.  :ul  of  the  ' 

-    Withoi.'  to  inquire  what  can  be 

•'ass.'  perhaps  n:  Mich 

a  background  to  the  stage  could  have  been  no  better  than 

an   extravagant   absurdity,  and  that   1:  .mis!    have 

•'gmie-  upon  a  stl  !i  en.irmni. 

tent,  with  a  number  of  statues  behind  them.     This  un..-t 
always  have   been   in  some  degree  Ii  • .  n  m 

moderate-sized  antient  theatres  the  -  normously 

wide  in  comparison  with  what  it  is  in  the  very  la 
dcrn   theat  ,   too  was  ahva,  ;mcnt 

archil.  ction,   incapable  of  change,  and  instead  of 

bavin.  to  the   particular   performance,   it    iniist 

:itly  have  been  at  variance  with  it.  It  has  been  sup- 
posed that,  besides  the  permanent  scena.  the  anticnts  cm- 
ployed,  oeea-ionally  at  1.  ib!e  painted  s 
lie  of  being  let  down  before  it.  Yet  v.hile  tin 
be  only  vaguely  interred,  the  presumption  against 
founded  both  on  its  impracticability  and  it-  extreme  im- 
probability. How  is  it  possible  to  have  had  painted  move- 
able  scenes  on  canvas,  which  on  the  average  must 
been  21X1  feet  in  width,  especially  where  the  s' 
was  so  shallow  and  confined  at  and  without  any 
space  for  apparatus  or  machinery  over  it  '.'  If  again  there 
was  any  such  scenery.  "'  would  have  given  rise  to  a  branch 
of  painting  of  which  the  antients  appear  to  have  been 
nearly  altogether  ignorant.  They  seem  to  have  had  no 
idea  of  other  than  figure-painting,  with  scarcely  any  attempt 
at  expressing  background,  whereas  scene-painting  entirely 
excludes  ii  -ists  entirely  of  background,  either 
landscape  or  architecture,  and  sky,  and  requires  mure  than 
a  moderate  proficiency  in  linear  and  aerial  perspective, 
in  regard  to  both  of  which  the  antients  appear  to  have 
been  deficient.  If  we  may  judge  from  those  specimens  of 
their  painting  which  have  come  down  to  us,  they  t-ccm 
scarcely  to  have  aimed  at  general  pictorial  effect,  or  at 
more  than  representing  figures  alone,  without  anv  V 
background  1o  them.  If,  too,  there  had  been  amlliii 
be.mbling  our  modern  scenery,  more  explicit  mention  would 
probably  have  been  made  of  it.  if  only  on  account  of  the 
enormous  magnitude  of  such  paintings,  whu- 
imist  sometimes  have  contained  a  much  greater  number  of 
square  feet  than  the  sides  of  the  largest  temples.  Yitru- 
v  ins  does  indeed  make  mention,  in  the  proem  to  his  seventh 
book,  of  Agathai'clms  as  a  scene-painter,  and  of  Demoeritus 
and  Anaxagoras  a-  v. liter-  on  sccnography  and  perspec- 
tive ;  lint  it  is  with  his  usual  dryiiess  and  obscurity,  and 
with  such  vagueness  of  expression,  that  it  is  difficult  tu 
draw  any  conclusion  from  his  words.  Of  the  former  he 
merely  says  '  sccnam  fecit.'  which  probably  means  no  more 
than  that  he  was  one  of  the  first  who  introduced  some  sort 
of  decoration  on  the  scena,  or  back  wall  of  the  stage,  where, 
if  there  was  at  any  time  painting  at  all,  it  could  only  have 
been  MTV  partial. "and  as  :i.  uihellishment  to  that 
general  facade. — perhaps  in  Mich  pieces  as  the  •  I'liiloc- 
tetes'  something  was  done  to  give  to  the  centre  doorway  of 
the  scena  the  appe:..  'ii  entrance  to  a  cavern, — 

iHicient  to  indicate  the  locality  intended  to  1  . 
pressed.  The  fixed  arrangement  of  the  scena  itself,  with 
three  distinct  entrances  assigned  to  the  performers  accord- 
ing to  (heir  rank  in  the  piece,  the  centre  one  being  for  (he 
principal  characters,  the  others  for  those  supposed  to  arrive 
on  one  side  from  the  port,  on  the  other  from  the  country. 
was  not  only  a  puerile  and  awkward  conventionalism  in 
itself,  but  an  expedient  which  shows  how  imperfect  the 
antien'  nst  have  been,  how  destitute  of  all  con- 

trivance, notwithstanding  its  alleged  magnificence.  What 
v  at  all  must  have  been  con- 
fined entirely  to  two  I'frtvree  '  f,i<  ;<.— .n  at  the  sides  or 
ends  of  the  stage,  which  served  as  •  w  ing-,'  and  which  w  ere 
upright  triangular  frames  made  to  revolve  upon  a  central 
pivot,  so  that  any  of  the  three  sides  could  be  turned  to- 
wards the  audience  :  a  very  scanty  cliM  :,i  the 
best,  and  exceedingly  limited  in  effect,  it  being  no  more 
than  sufficient  to  hnii  where  the  action  was  supposed  to 
take,  place  :  whereas  the  -  bore  no  more  resem- 
blance to  the  intended  locality  of  the  piece,  than  do  the 
proscenium  and  stage-doors  in  those  modern  pia_\.h< 

the   latter  arc   sometimes  made  use  of  by  the  per- 
formers. 

From  the  use  of  the  term  Auleea  it  has  been  generally 


T  H  E 


293 


THE 


concluded  that  the  whole  stage  was  concealed  by  a  cur- 
tain both  previous  to  the  commencement  of  the  perform- 
ance and  whenever  it  was  requisite  to  make  any  change  in 
the  decorations.  But  we  agree  with  Winckelmann,  that 
such  could  not  possibly  have  been  the  case,  because  in  the 
first  place  it  could  hardly  have  been  practicable,  anil  in 
the  next  it  was  quite  unnecessary  as  regarded  the  perma- 
nent scena  or  architectural  facade.  Whatever  changes, 
says  that  writer,  were  made  at  all  could  have  been  only  in 
the  side-scenes  or  rersuree,  and  it  was  merely  before  them 
that  curtains  or  aula>a  were  drawn  at  such  times;  which 
circumstance  says  nothing  in  favour  of  what  little  stage 
machinery  there  was.  The  notion  of  there  being  painted 
moveable  scenes  like  ours,  capable  of  being  let  down  or 
drawn  up  at  pleasure,  is  completely  contradicted  not  only 
by  one,  but  by  every  circumstance  that  can  be  mentioned. 
Admitting  the  possibility  of  having  scenes  of  such  prodi- 
gious size,  how  are  we  to  reconcile  with  the  use  of  them 
the  bestowing  so  much  decoration  upon  the  scena,  or  wall 
at  the  back  of  the  stage,  behind  them? — to  what  purpose 
would  have  been  the  entrances  through  that  wall,  for  the 
performers  to  come  upon  the  stage,  if  there  had  been  a 
separate  painted  scene  before  it?  The  stage  itself  again 
was  so  exceedingly  shallow,  that  it  would  hardly  have 
borne  to  be  further  contracted  in  depth,  by  other  scenes 
being  let  down  before  the  permanent  one ;  nor  would  there 
have  been  space  for  them  and  the  versures  also.  There 
would  also  have  been  more  explicit  mention  made  of  such 
s,  and  there  would  have  been  some  particular  term  to 
distinguish  them  from  what  is  now  called  the  scena,  if  they 
had  ever  been  used.  What  Vitruvius  says 
npon  the  subject  of  stage  decoration  is  not  only 
very  brief,  but  exceedingly  obscure,  and  only 
proves  his  carelessness  in  omitting  to  describe 
or  even  mention  much  that  is  of  real  import- 
ance, while  he  goes  altogether  out  of  his  way  to 
give  us  a  chapter  De  Harmonica,  and  to  speak 
of  many  matters  that  have  no  connection  what- 
ever with  theatres  as  a  distinct  class  of  build- 
ing*. 

Even  admitting  that  there  was  painted  scenery, 
and  that  it  was  not  at  all  inferior  to  that  of  our 
own  theatres  either  in  regard  to  truth  of  per- 
spective or  anything  else,  it  still  must  have 
fallen  very  far  short  of  the  Latter  in  effect, 
if  only  for  the  reason  that  the  performances 
took  place  by  daylight.  At  the  best  the  illu- 
sion could  have  been  but  exceedingly  imper- 
fect— a  strange  mixture  of  the  artificial  with 
the  real ;  and  even  what  degree  of  effect  there 
else  might  have  been,  must  have  been  more 
or  less  counteracted  by  the  sun  shining  on  some 
part  of  the  stage  and  scene,  while  shadows 
would  be  thrown  upon  them,  in  others-,  by  the 
wall  at  either  end  or  side.  Or  if  the  stage  itself 
was  at  any  time  roofed  in,  all  the  upper  part  of  the 
e  must  have  been  thrown  into  shadow,  fhe  natural 
lights  and  shadows  and  the  painted  ones  must  frequently 
have  been  in  strange  contradiction  to  each  other  ;  nor  was 
it  possible  to  manage  any  effects  of  light,  as  in  our  theatres, 
by  either  increasing  or  diminishing  it,  or  by  concentrating 
it  on  any  particular  part  of  the  scenery.  The  only  thing 
in  favour  of  the  antient  stage  in  this  respect,  is  that  there 
were  no  '  foot-lights,'  and  consequently  the  faces  of  the 
performers  were  not  lighted  from  beneath.  Yet  even  this 
comparatively  unimportant  advantage  was  nullified  by  the 
use  of  masks,  some  of  them  so  extravagantly  grotesque  as 
to  bear  scarcely  any  resemblance  to  the  human  counte- 
nance. The  most  natural  masks  were  in  some  degree  dis- 
toitfcl,  and  a  fixed  expression  of  countenance  was  substi- 
tuted for  what  could  properly  be  only  a  momentary  one. 
Hence  one  great  excellence  in  acting  was  entirely  sup- 
•  1 :  the  face  was  as  rigidly  inanimate  as  in  wax-work. 
It  is  true  this  was  of  no  very  great  consequence,  because, 
owing  to  the  vast  extent  of  the  theatres,  the  faces  of  the 
actors  could  hardly  have  been  distinctly  seen,  or  seen  at 
all  by  the  great  majority  of  the  spectators,  more  especially 
as  such  aids  to  vision  as  opera-glasses  were  then  unknown. 
The  whole  space  was  so  great,  that  in  regard  to  it  the 
actors  could  have  been  no  more  than  as  the  figures  put 
by  a  painter  into  a  landscape.  Neither  does  what  is  said 
as  to  their  cothurni,  or  thicksoled  buskins,  being  intended 
to  make  the  actors  appear  taller,  give  us  any  very  high 


idea  of  the  effect  so  produced;  for  while  the  increase  of 
stature  could  have  been  scarcely  perceptible — or  if  it  had, 
it  would  have  caused  the  limbs  to  appear  strangely  dis- 
proportioned — the  means  employed  for  it  were  ill  calcu- 
lated to  give  ease  and  gracefulness  to  the  performer's 
movements. 

On  considering  the  audience  part,  and  the  accommoda- 
tion provided  for  the  spectators,  although  there  the  ar- 
rangement of  an  antient  theatre  was  nearly  perfect,  and  in 
some  respects  preferable  to  that  of  modern  ones,  it  was  not 
free  from  many  inconveniences.  The  most  obvious  one  is, 
that  as  there  was  no  roof,  there  was  no  shelter  from  the 
weather,  on  which  account  awnings  were  sometimes  made 
use  of  to  screen  from  the  heat  of  the  sun,  while  in  case 
of  sudden  and  heavy  rain  the  spectators  were  obliged  to 
take  shelter  in  the  corridors  behind  and  beneath  the  seats, 
where  there  were  any,  and  in  the  porticos  at  the  back  of 
the  theatre.  Besides  interruption  to  the  performance,  this 
must  have  occasioned  considerable  confusion  in  so  nu- 
merous an  assemblage  of  persons.  Beautiful  too  as  the 
arrangement  of  all  the  seats  in  concentric  rows  is  in  itself, 
it  is  attended  with  some  disadvantage,  as  will  be  perceived 
on  referring  to  the  annexed  plans,  for  instead  of  being 
placed,  as  in  the  pit  of  a  modern  theatre,  parallel  to  and 
immediately  facing  the  stage,  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
audience  must  have  sat  sideways  to  it,  with  part  of  it  be- 
hind them  ;  and  those  at  the  ends  of  the  further  or  upper 
benches  could  hardly  have  had  any  view  of  the  scena  at 
all.  at  least  not  in  the  Greek  theatre. 

The  Greek  and  Roman  theatres  so  very  nearly  resemble 


Greek  Theatre. 


\     .'-  ,' 

I          V  rx" 

tf&3&                          \ 

JPOSTSCENIUM.  \   j      }'? 

..      i    /  POSTSCEN1UM.     . 

PORTICUE.                     C*^-  1 

J—  ~"^C                PORTieiJS. 

•     * 

Roman  Theatre. 


each  other  in  their  general  form  and  principal  parts,  that 
it  is  only  by  comparing  the  plans,  for  the  purpose  of  seeing 
wherein  they  vary,  that  the  difference  between  them  can 
be  clearly  understood.  Such  difference  however  is  ex- 


T  ii  )•: 


294 


'I'  H  r. 


'.  tm1  jfer. 
till 

Th"  number  of  the 

bn 
tin 


K 

>.ppro- 
I  con- 


.!  an  odd  < 
At  P 


-n,  or 


li/iarn.  or  I'nvrinctions.  and  • 

II  to  have   been  only 
one  Pnecinction  lividing  then  intn  two 

an  equal  number  of 
I.     In  tlio  theatre  near  EpidBUTOs,  lor 

..  divided  by  a  single 

u  formed  the  first  or  lowest  tier 

:  while  in  that  ;  were 

i.-tioM   between  them. 

and  -II  we,  •    ::iit.  furthest 

from  the  .  I:i  tlie  tl  .  again. 

I'r.i'ci'.iciu.ns.  dividing  Hie  entire  number 

!.   intii    Itf,   l(i.   aiul    :  i'.  ely,   reckoning 

from  the  .  As  regards  the  distinct   'fii;:! 

.  ponn     them  : 

the   more  usual  one  was  to  break  into  separate  slopes,   re- 

:  other,  like  the  •  flights  ent  of 

the  other  was  to  plnve  them  in  a  continued  slope 

'hereby  at  eaeh  prae- 

einction  the  next,  'flight'  I  lerably  elevated  wove 

the  level  of  that  landing,  being  raised  upon  a  podium  or 

wall,  v.liieh  si.  ecu  the  lower  and  upper 

piit'ciiiclinns  /ii'liri'"H  the  seats,  there 

-Otlier  suiT.'-.mdir.g  the  v.  hole  riu-lmn,  or  auditory  of 

the  th  r  an  upper  uncovered  terrace  as 

.   or  a  covered   nailery  with 

coluni  shown  in  the  plan  of  the  Roman  theatre. 

where  such  portico  was  assigned  to  females. 

I!  tl  ween  the  Grecian  and  Komau  orchestra  there  was  a 

very  wide  difference  the  purpose  to  which  that 

space  was  appropriated.     In  the  Roman  theatre   il 

merely  a  continuation  of  the  rest  of  the  auditory,  being 

ied  with  s.  i  is,  with  no  other  difference 

than  that   the  spectators  were  senators   and   oilier  pi 

of  dignity.  and   that   benches  or  chairs  must.  have  bcvn 

ranged  parallel  to  the  stage.     The  Greek  orchestra,  on  the 

name   imports,  made  use  of  for  the 

.  w!io*c   performances  con- 

stituted so  important  a  part  of  the  entertainment;  and  so 

thing.  could  have  been  letter  planned  than  the  Greek 

theatre,   for  the    orchestra  was   \isible    from    every    part. 

when  iia  could  not  have  been  distinctly  seen,  or 

hardh  .   the  upper  -eats  at   either 

extremity  of  the  eoelum.     Hy  referring  to  the  plans  it  will 

he  seen   that  while  the  Roman   orchestra   does  not  exceed 

half  a  circle,  the  Greek  forms  three-fifths  .  .in  arc  j 

of  2H.  it*   pioportions  and  the  depth  of  the  stage 

.  '.allied  by  merely  inscribing  a  square  within   a 

taking  one  side  of  that  square  as  the  boundary  of  the 

ing  parallel   to   it  a  tangent   to  the  circle. 

Such  plan  DOUgh,   OOmplei  :>s  il    niav 

appear  in  the  cut,  where  two  other  squares  an-  also  drawn 
within  the  circle,  and  the  points  of  the  tin.  deter- 

mine how  far  the  seat-  extend,  and  the  situation  of  th> 
'rXijinnr    between  the  seat.«,  —  a  fanciful  operation.il: 
more  bein^  ller  the  first  one  than  to  divide  ii 

.....  .-licstra  into  as  many  equal  parts 

ID  tin-   number  of  a 
'  lhi>  la-st  appears  to  have  been  the  mode  pra. 

•  a>  mini;,  which  (litter  from  a.s  agree 

'   by  VitruviiiH  for  the  Greek  theatre. 
!in'^  to  that,  th'.1  divi-ion-.  the  number  of  <;ui! 

!.   would  be  uniformly  the  same.  viz. 
'i:er.  and  ei^iit  of  the  latter,  iucludiui; 
'I'hi,.  hn 

rial  differences  occur 
,  for  instance,  there  II 
••  ,  and  eleven  ascents,  consequently  an 


>.r  the  pu: 

:  the  cunei.  are  to  be. 
not  hilt 
the  or, 

J'ier  the  number  be  '1  th» 

dianu '  :       ing  given. 

that  line. 
In  \Vetter  in  his  work  on  t! 

:iat  partici, 
by  the  front  of 
of  an  ei|iiilateral  tiian  . 
only  one-half  isvisible,  while  the  triani 

•.  how  i-nperiect  the  art  <>: 

it ation  must  have  been.    In  addition  i  IVBII- 

:i ! ready  poinU'd  .  ant  ol '  mov 

ii'iicc  that  the  ^!;:L'<'  could 
..led  in  cU  : 

Takin:;  711  T  of  the   • 

which  dimeiisio1: 

our  modern  theatres,  the  depth  i.f  t! 

theatre  would  be  a  little  more  than  }<•  ;e-seveiith 

of  that  diameter;  and  in  :i   Uoma:i  ono  l~i  feet,  or  just 

one-fourth.     \Vhile  so  confine. i  lit   of 

very  little  dramatic  action,  it  would  ^ 

fhange  of  H 

some    measure    matter    of 

might  be  as  near  to  the  front  of"  th 

separated   as  they  were,   in   the  Grecian   t.  least, 

from  the  audience  by  the  intervi 

Strii  '  iioning  the  dc])th  of 

the   stage   to  tin'  At6   of  tl 

the  orchesda  to  the 

appear   to  !  abject  tc. 

considerably  in  ditt'erent   I1 

one-half,  in  ,ly  one-fillh.  or  even  little  n:on  tlian 

•  th   of  the  entire  dianiet.  .  in  the 

-  of  I'.pidaurus  and  Dramyssus,  or  Janina. 
\Vhen  it  is  said  that  the  ( 

ably  larger    than   the    Roman,    tl 

in  the  expression,  for  it  mi^ht  be  ii 

was  larger  than  the  other  in  proportion  to  ii 
m  the   meaning  is  that   the  on 

funned  a  larger  portion  of  a  <  :ding  to  '.;. 

iloman  was  only  ISO  degi 

semicircle.     In  the  Greek  theatre,  therefore,  tl. 

cuts  into  the  stage,  and  rendeis  tliat 

by  the  nl  I'ulpitum  by  the  i; 

narrower   than    the   extremities,   whereas   in    (lie   lv 

the    same    depth    throughout, 

pulpitum   being  a   mere   technical   distinction   applied    io 

that  portion  .'.ing  with  the  on  itowhieh 

the  actors  confined  themselves,  in  o 

be  bet  by  the  v. '. 

than   vvonli!  have   been    tl  j'lans 

above   given  ar:     not    d.a1.-, n    to   any  partir.ilar  scale,   bu1. 

supposing  them  to  be  upon  t!>.  le,  ,:..d  the  din- 

meter  of  the  orehe.-tra    in    tlie  Greek    plan   to    be   1(HI 

:iueter  of  the  eoelum  or  whole  auditon   will  be  .'XXI 
lie  width  of  the  stage  an.l  \  and  the  depth 

of  the  logcion  only  1">  feet,  while  in  the  other  the  diuicn- 

::!.">.  depth 

of  stage  and  ])ul])itum  il. 

Anolber   point    of  difference   betw.  eia'n  and 

Rinnan  thealie   i-.  that   in  the  former  the  ..itsi- 


*  Tli*-  aut'u-T.ts  .I!M>  -.- 

metal  or  rimliru  run.  Krni. 

l.i.i'l  in  • 

It  not  powlbU  now  U>  jmlp-. 


T  H  E 


295 


THE 


derably  elevated  above  the  orchestra,  12  feet  or  upwards, 
consequently  there  was  a  wall  of  that  height  at  the  back 
of  the  orchestra,  to  which  was  given  the  name  of  Hypo- 
scenium  (awempnov),  or  Lower  Seena,  and  which  formed 
a  sort  of  architectural  basement  to  the  stage,  and  was 
adorned  with  niches  and  statues.  This  however  is  little 
more  than  conjectural,  for  what  is  known  relative  to  this 
and  other  accessory  parts  of  the  stage  is  deiived  not  from 
any  examples  of  them  discovered  in  antient  structures  of 
j  kind,  but  merely  from  such  mention  of  the  terms  ap- 
plied to  them  as  is  found  in  a  lew  antient  writers  aad  com- 
mentators, whose  explanations  are  all  more  or  less  obscure, 
and  full  of  discrepancies.  We  shall  not  therefore  attempt 
to  say  more  relative  to  either  the  Greek  or  Roman  stage 
and  scena  than  we  have  already  done.  It  seems  to  have 
been  assumed  that,  because  the  theatres  themselves  were 
of  extraordinary  extent  and  solidity  in  their  construction — 
that  because  there  were  columns,  and  marble,  and  sta- 
tues— the  stage  exhibitions  also  must  have  been  in  the 
re  superior  to  those  in  the  comparatively  small 
theatres  of  modern  times.  Yet  the  truth  is,  that  capacious 
a.<  the  buildings  were,  being  intended  to  accommodate 
nearly  the  entire  population  of  a  city  at  each  performance, 
the  .si  was  not  at  all  in  proportion  to  the  rest. 

There  was  so  little  space  attached  to  it  either  behind  or  at 
its  sides,  that  spectacle  and  scenic  contrivance  and  effect 
must  have  been  almost  impossible  :  when  therefore  we 

:hat  -not  unfrequently  a  magnificent  compilation  of 
machinery  gradually  descended  with  the  divinities  of  Olym- 
pus,' though  we  do  not  doubt  the  fact  of  there  being  some 
contrivance  for  letting  down  performers  from  above — in 
which  case,  however,  the  stage  itself  must  have  been 

1  in — we  greatly  question  the  'magnificence,'  and 
rather  suspect  that  the  contrivance  must  have  been  some- 
what clumsy,  and  the  effect  almost  ridiculous. 

An  experiment  has  lately  been  mail,'  'November,  1841) 
in  the  theatre  of  the  new  palace  at  Potsdam,  towards  re- 
viving an  antient  dramatic  performance,  with  rigorous 
i  iimc.  The  piece  selected  for  the  purpose 
was  the  •  Antigone'  of  Sophocles,  and  the  theatre  and  all 
the  arraiiL  ere  made  to  conform  as  nearly  :' 

iible  to  classical  example.  The  pit  wits  converted  into  an 
orchestra  upon  the  Grecian  model,  and  it  was  here  that 
the  piT.-iinii  who  compiled  the  chorus  remained  until  they 
had  to  appear  on  the  stage,  when  they  ascended  to  it  iii 
tile  sight  of  the  audience,  and  descended  again  in  the  same 
manner,  so  carefully  was  all  the  antient  practice  ob.-ervcd. 
Equal  regard  to  precedent  was  shown  in  comparatively 
trifling  nialtci*:  for  instance,  instead  of  the  curtain  being 
drawn  up,  it  was  let  down,  as  was  supposed  to  have  been 
the  case  ill  the  antient  theatres,  a  circumstance  which  has 

•ly  been  questioned  by  us;  and  it  is  said  that  the 
effect  of  the  upper  part  of  the  scene  being  disclosed  before 
the  lower  was  not  a  little  striking.  Indeed,  if  we  may  be- 
lieve all  that  the  Berlin  journals  ha\e  reported  of  this 
clinical  exhibition,  it  perfectly  realized  its  prototype,  and 
no  doubt  greatly  surpassed  it.  if  it  were  only  because  it  took 

•  by  candle-light,  and  the  actors  did  not  wear  masks. 

Little  more  remains  to  be  said  on  the  subject  of  antient 

Ihcali-es,  except  to  remark  that  the  form  of  the  orchestra 

also  determined  that  of  the  exterior  of  the  building ;  while 

the  Roman  theatres  therefore  did  not  exceed  a  semicircle, 

those  of  Greece  had  a  greater  curve.  In  the  Greek  theatres 

however  the  orchestra  was  not  always  extended  beyond  a 

•'•irclc,  by  the  curve  being  continued,  but  sometimes 

\<y  straight  lines  at  right  angles  to  the  chord  (or  parallel  to 

BB,  in  the  plan  of  the  Roman  theatre,  whose  general  form 

~haped,  the  external  semicircle  being  prolonged  by 
the  i-  •<  theatres  were  almost  invariably 

built  on  the  sloping  side  of  a  hill,  so  that,  as  regards  the 
coelum,  it  was  merely  necessary  to  shape  it  out,  and  erect, 
consequently  there  was  no  other  architectural 
exterior  than  that  formed  by  the  Parascene  (napamqt/)/; 
and  colonnade  behind  the  stage  ;  for  which  reason  the 

'•a  of  curvature  did  not  manifest  itself.  The  Roman 
theatres,  on  the  contrary,  were  erected  on  level  ground, 
aad  therefore  the  curved  part  of  the  exterior  was  confined 
to  a  semicircle,  a  form  which  unites  better  with  the  rect- 
anzular  one  and  its  straight  lines. 

The  theatre  at  Athens  (called  that  of  Bacchus)  was  by  no 
means  so  -  ,  many  others,  its  diameter  being  only 

250  .  liat  of  the  orchestra  72,  which  are  very  mo- 

derate dimensions  in  comparison  with  those  of  some  of  the 


Asiatic  theatres.  The  Odeion  of  Regilla,  also  at  Athens, 
though  similar  in  its  general  plan  to  the  usual  theatre,  was 
a  music-hall,  and  was  covered  in  with  a  tent-like  roof, 
with  a  semicircular  eye  or  opening  for  light.  Both  struc- 
tures were  situated  at  no  great  distance  from  each  other, 
on  the  south  side  of  the  Acropolis  [ATHENS,  Plan]  ;  there- 
fore the  scena  of  the  theatre  had  a  northern  aspect,  and 
must  have  been  in  shadow  while  the  performances  took 
place. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  such  antient  theatres  as  are 
known,  together  with  the  respective  dimensions  of  tlreir 
general  diameter  and  of  their  orchestra  ;  which  we  have  for 
the  most  part  taken  upon  the  authority  of  a  similar  table 
given  by  Col.  Leake,  in  his  'Tour  in  Asia  Minor,'  to  which 
several  other  examples  are  here  added. 

Uiiim.  Orclit-'itra. 

Anemurium  ....         197  feet. 

Aspendus      .         .         .         .        400      25  rows  of  seats. 

(scena  Ionic  and  Corinth.) 
Athens,  Theatre  of  Bacchus    .         250  72  ft. 

„       Odeion      ...          90  36 

Cnidus  ....         400 

Delos  ....         175 

Dramyssus,  or  Joannina  .        440  78 

Ephesus         ....         660  240 

Epidaurus      ....        370  55 

Herculaneum  ...  180  16  rows  of  seats. 
Hierapolis  ....  346  100 

Laodicea,  Great  Theatre  .        364  136 

Limyia  ....         195  not  known 

Mantineia      ....         227  not  known 

Miletus          ....         474  224 

Mvia 360  120 

Nicopolis  (in  Epirus)  360  120 

Orange  (scena  only  remaining,  336 

ft.  wide,  114  ft.  high.) 

Patara  ....         265  96 

Perga   .....  25  rows  of  seats, 

Phellus          ....        400  Scena  150. 

Pol  a,  about   ....         200  68 

(destroyed  1636,  but  plan  preserved  by  Scamozzi) 
Pompeii  190  62 

Pompeiopolis          .          .         .         219  138 

Rome,  theatre  Marcellus          .         517  172 

Sardes 396  162 

Selinus  (in  Cilicia)          .         .         114 

Sicyon  ....         313  100     ' 

Side 390  120 

Sparta 453  217 

Stralonicea    ....         390  106 

Syracuse        ....         440 

Tauromenium         .         .         .        330   width  of  scena  132 

Teos 285  70 

Trail  es  ....         540  150 

Of  some  of  these  theatres  scarcely  anything  remains, 
little  more  than  their  general  shape  and  extent  being  now 
distinguishable ;  accordingly  the  statements  of  their  dimen- 
sions are  not  to  be  strictly  relied  upon,  though  they  are 
sufficient  to  enable  us  to  estimate  their  comparative  size. 

Fortunately  the  antient  theatre  was  not  taken  as  a  model 
for  modem  structures  of  the  kind.  The  revival  of  thea- 
trical representations  took  place  before  anything  was 
known  relative  to  that  branch  of  architectural  archaeology, 
and  under  very  different  circumstances.  Dramatic  enter- 
tainments were  then  either  partly  religious,  and  performed 
within  churches,  convents,  and  colleges;  or  were  acted  for 
the  amusement  of  princes  and  nobles  on  occasions  of 
and  festivity,  in  halls  merely  temporarily  lilted  up  for  thai 
pin-pose  :  consequently  spacious  and  permanent  structures, 
as  public  theatres,  were  not  required  until  long  afterwards, 
when  the  drama  had  become  a  distinct  profession.  In  the 
meanwhile  a  taste  for  scenic  display  had  developed  itself, 
which  required  a  very  different  arrangement  of  the  stage 
and  its  apparatus  from  that  of  the  antients.  Imperfect  u.~ 
they  were  in  many  respects,  the  dramatic  pageants  and 
recitations  performed  before  Leo  X.  were  '  got  up'  with 
great  magnificence,  and  some  of  the  greatest  artists  were 
employed  upon  the  decorations ;  among  others  Bakki.. 
Pemzzi  [PKRUZXI],  whose  skill  in  architecture  and  per- 
spective carried  scene-painting  almost  to  perfection  at 
once.  Even  in  the  preceding  century  diamatic  exhibi- 
liad  been  produced  at  Florence  in  a  style  then  un- 
dented ;  and  we  are  told  that  the  first  Italian  theatre 


T  I!   1 


11    I- 


wai  one  erected  in  that  city  by  Bernardo  Buontalenti  in 

1981  ;  tint  it  di>cs  not  appear'to  have  been  a  public  t: 

DOT  could  it   h  .  <-r\    -pacious.   :  forms 

ly  a  saloon  in  the  building  called  the  Utizi.    T 
on  tl  '    built   until   the   early  part 

of  tli.  ;th  century  :  ji:  hieh  time  . 

tempt   had  been  made  to  re-tore   the   form   of  the  iintient 
theiitre  and  stage,  with  the  pennnnent  architectural 
and   it*  entrance-,   by   1'alliidio.  whoso    celebrated   Toatro 
Olimpiio  at  Yicenza  is  one  oi  -.Inch  have 

pained  a  traditional  reputation  fur  beyond  their  real  merit-. 
Admired  at  first,  because  then  superior  to  anything  of  the 
kind,  it  has  continued  to  be  admired  since,  partly  on  ac- 
count of  the  character  attached  to  it,  which  few  care  to 
dispute  ;  and  partly  perhaps  on  account  of  its  -insularity, 
ana  bccrvn-e  it  sliows  thv  peculiarities  of  the  antient 
theatre.  By  no  means  however  is  it  a  very  accurate  imi- 
tation, though  its  chief  merit  lies  in  being  a  mere  imitation  ; 
it  is  semi-elliptical  instead  of  semicircular,  with  tin 
on  the  longer  axis  of  the  ellipse  :  wherefore  it  loo 
much  squeezed  up  one  way,  and  stretched  out  the  other, 
and  produces  the  same  kind  of  disagreeable  effect  an  would 
tiom  placing  the  stage  on  the  longer  side  of  a  paral- 
lelogram ot  the  same  extent  (96  X  45  feet).  It  is  said  that 
the  space  to  which  the  architect  was  restricted  compelled 
him  to  adopt  that  form,  yet  it  hardly  appears  so  from  the 
published  plans  of  the  building,  font  would  not  be  difficult 
to  .-how  how  a  semicircle  might  have  been  brought  in. 
With  regard  to  the  scena,  for  which  unlimited  admiration 
i-  claimed,  nothing  can  be  more  ta-^tele--:  it  abounds 
in  almost  as  many  architectural  barbarisms  and  solecisms 
as  could  well  be"  brought  together.  Kven  Robert  Adam 
spoke  of  it  as  mere  '  gingerbread  ;'  and  another  architect, 
Woods,  says, '  The  scene,  which  is  the  part  most  admired, 
borders  upon  trumpery  ;'  and  that  although  the  building  •  is 
too  celebrated  to  be  omitted,  for  him  it  might  have  slept 
in  oblivion.'  It  is  not  however  so  much  the  scena  or  fac- 
ciata  itself,  as  the  avenues  seen  beyond  it  through  the 
centre  arch  and  other  openings  which  attract  notice,  and 
have  been  extolled  by  some  as  greatly  superior  to  the 
'  flimsy'  painted  decorations  upon  canvas  used  in  modern 
theatres.  Those  avenues  represent  as  many  streets,  the 
fronts  of  the  buildings  being  modelled  or  carved  in  relief, 
and  attempted  to  be  shown  in  perspective  by  the  floor  and 
ceiling  sloping  verv  much  upwards  and  downwards,  and 
the  other  horizontal  lines  accordingly,  and  by  the  pa- 
themselves  being  narrower  at  the  further  end.  Tin 
trivancc  is  puerile  at  the  best  :  and  instead  of  being  more 
deceptive  or  natural  than  painted  seenerv,  the  imitative 
pcr»pcctivi  distorted  when  viewed  from  any  other 

situation  than  the  centre  of  the  theatre  and  the  level  of  the 
stage.  It  is  also  difficult  to  understand  how  these  narrow 
enclosed  passages  could  have  been  properly  lighted  at  the 
time  of  a  performance:  and  although  they  are,  in  stage 
language. '  practicable,'  hardly  could  they  have  been  made 
use  of,  at  least  not  for  their  whole  extent,  because  at  their 
further  end  an  actor  would  appear  gigantic.  This  struc- 
ture is  nevertheless  entitled  to  notice  as  an  example  of  a 
very  defective  and  faulty  system,  and  because  it  has  been 
frequently  mentioned  for  the  purpose  of  recommending, 
on  the  imposing  authority  of  the  name  of  Palladio,  what 
ought  not  to  be  imitated. 

\Ve  are  not  aware  of  more  than  one  other  attempt  to 
revive  the  antieiit  theatre  in  all  its  strictness,  which  was 
that  built  in  1588  at  Sabbionetta,  for  the  Duke  Vcspa-iano 
Gon/.  .imo//i,  who  completed  the  Teatro  Olim- 

pico  after  Palladio's  death.  Temanza,  who  gives  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  struct  fn  no  longer  remain- 
ing; but  Tirabo.-chi  point-  this  out  as  a  mistake,  sawnV 
that  the  building  still  existed,  though  very  much  out  of 
repair.  How  far  tin  •  Sahhmuctta  dill'ered  from 
that  at  Vieeiiza  in  .-i<cc.  Tcmanza  has  not  .-tatid  ;  but  it  was 
superior  to  the  latter  in  its  plan,  the  spectatory  being  semi- 
circular, and  the  orchestra  somewhat  more.  There  was  like- 
as  at  Vicenza,  a  Corinthian  loggia  or  colonnade  around 
the  upper  part  above  the  seats,  but  in  much  bettei 
all  the  intercolumus,  except  one  at  eaeh  end  • 
a  niche,  being  open;  whereas  in  the  other  building  the 

inns  are  closed.      Y. 

mrnt   Scamozzi    may  have  made   upon  1 
work   in  tl  >  mpted   none  w i 

most  of  till  wanted,  but  copied  the  permanent  scena,  with 
lU  aver.ues  of  mock  perspective  in  relief.  We  do  not  say 


that    the  antieiit   tin  nothing  for  imitation,  or 

capable   of  being  applied  to  modem  one-.     On  the 
trary,  the  L  'he  spectator)'  is  the  um.-t   ele- 

gant and  commodious  that  can  be  dcu»cd  :  the  absurdity 
lay  in  adopting.  '  ith  that,  1  I  and 

than  which  nothing  can   be   more   ill-con! ri\cd,  de 
.  and  inconvenient.      In  fact  the  antieiit  model  sup- 
,igc  at  all  in  comparison  with  what  is  now  re- 
quired for  one.  but  merely  a  proscenium;  and  such  • 

.•.ith  merely  a  stationary  architectural  •  <lro[ 
I'VIMINC],  would  answer  every  purpose  of  dramatic  re 

.tation,  just  as  well  as  the  Logeion  of  thcGi- 
the   I'lilpitum   of  the   Roman,-,  and   Palla 
architectural    background,    which    will    not     endure    the 
slightest  comparison  with  the  drop-scene  at  Covcnt  Garden. 
For  the  plan  of  a  complete  theatre,  tin  m<«  with 

•n-ivc  and  complex  scenery  and  mechani-m.  should 
be  combined  with  the  form  and  arrangement  of  the  antieiit 
spectatory,  though  not  without  nlcrable  modi- 

fication.    This  was  done  bv  l^uan-nghi   in   the  Thea' 
the   Hermitage    at    St.    1',  in   another   p 

theatre  in  Prince  Besborodko's  palace,  and  in  a  design  for 
a  public  theatre  intended  to  be  erected  at  Bassano.     A 
all,  such  plan  and  disposition  of 

well  adapted  for  a  modern  public  theatre  and  mixed  au- 
dience :  unless  many  inconveniences  were  to  be  submitted 
to,  great  loss  of  space,  or  what  would  be  considered  such, 
would  be  incurred,  and  the  number  of  spec:  <l  be 

much  less  in  proportion  to  the  width  of  the  '  house'  and 
stage.  On  tin-  other  hand,  the  form  of  the  antient  th 
maybe  applied  to  a  concert-room  with  such  very  slight 
alteration,  that  it  is  rather  surprising  it  should  not  ha\e 
been  taken  as  a  model  for  public  rooms  of  the  kind.  There 
a  permanent  scena,  either  of  painted  or  real  architecture, 
behind  the  orchestra  and  singers,  would  be  appropria' 

not  intended  to  have  any  immediate  to  the 

performance  itself.  , 

In  claiming  a  decided  superiority  for  the  modern  tl 
over  that  of  the  ant  lent  s.  we  speak  only  as  regard-' 
tive  systems:  and  as  I'goni,  in  his  Lite  of  Milizia,  oh- 
to   prefer  the  Grecian   theatre,  with  all   its  inconveni. 
'  and  the  awkward  expedients  resorted  to  in  it,  as  being  of 
more  classical  and  dignified  character  than  our  own  compa- 
ratively small  and  fragile  yet  greatly  improved  struct!! . 
the  kind,  is  to  wish  to  limit  art  and  science  within  their 
first  bounds.     There    certainly  was   good   reason    at   one 
time  for  exclaiming again.-t  modern  theatrical  architecture 
:>s  very  defective  in  regard  to  the  audience  portion  of  the 
'  house.'     Till  within  a  comparatively  late  period,  scarcely 
any  study   was   i  on   beauty   and   convenience   nf 

plan.     The  accommodations  were  hardly  so  go< 
in    many  very  ordinary  playhouses,    wlu  ; 

tio  other  scats  than  what  directly  face  the 
.     The  'house'  was  usually  an  oblong,  eithei 
angular  or  elliptical,  so  that  the  greater  part  of  the  audi- 
iliose  in  the  bu\  placed  quite  on 

the  sides.    Where  the   'house'  contracted  towards  the  pro- 
scenium, a-  rnt!\   the   MM,    the  side-boxes  were 
actually   turned  from  the   stage  ;  and   whether  such 
the  case  or  not.  they  were  allowed   to   encroach   upon  the 

ii-elfin  such  manner,  that  when  the  actor-  advanced 
to  the  front  of  tin  stage  nr  hev  end  the  line  of  the  curtain, 
they  may  be  -aid  to  have  mingled  with  the  audience,  and 

111  the  boxes  on  the  tn-unl-xi-fiir  were  actually  be- 
hind them.  If  we  may  judge  from  the  plans  and  other 
drawings  of  them,  the  two  principal  theatres  in  London 
were,  even  less  than  a  century  ago.  both  as  inconvenient 
and  as  ugly  as  can  well  be  imagined.  The  approaches 
too,  usea  formerly  to  be  exceedingly  bad  ;  not  only  imati 
and  inconvenient,  but  in  many  phu  misly 

nairow.  Such  is  strikingly  the  case  in  most  of  the  mo- 
dern Roman  theatres,  for  instead  of  the  br  -  fol- 
thc  cum-  of  the  'house,'  and  being  of  the  same 
width  throughout,  they  are  so  contracted  where  the  other 
is  wide.-t.  that  more  than  two  persons  cannot  pass. 

Vi  i\  Meal  reforms  have  now  taken  place,  yet  tin 
still  room  for  further  improvement*,  obvious,  tin. ugh  not. 
likely  to  be   adopted  so  long  as  it  i- 

of  course  that  the  space  before  the  curtain  mu-t  he  made 
to  contain  as  many  pi  he  i  acked  into 

it.    and  that   an  nudi  be   piled   up  around  the 

whole  house  to  the  very  ceiling.  We  do  not  say  th.tt 
modern  theatres  are  too  lolly  ;  the  cirordocs  not  lie 'there, 


THE 


297 


THE 


but  in  carrying  up  the  boxes,  tier  after  tier,  to  such  a 
preposterous  height  that  the  uppermost  box  is  several  feet 
above  the  top  of  the  curtain  or  stage-openings,  and  the 
back  seats  of  the  upper-gallery  are  actually  on  a  level 
with  the  ceiling  over  the  pit."  Such  accumulation  of 
diminutive  stories  gives  a  crowded  appearance  to  the  whole, 
and  leaves  no  space  for  architectural  decoration  around 
the  upper  part.  No  doubt  a  very  striking  appearance  of 
a  different  kind  presents  itself  from  the  pit  and  from  the 
stage,  when  the  house  is  entirely  filled  to  the  very  top ; 
and  if  we  consider  merely  the  coup-d'oeil  from  such  points, 
it  may  be  allowed  to  be  imposing.  But  then,  as  regards 
that  part  of  the  audience  who  occupy  the  upper  part  of 
the  house,  the  arrangement  is  bad.  From  the  seats  which 
are  at  all  above  the  level  of  the  top  of  the  curtain,  there 
Is  only  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  stage  and  the  scenery,  and 
that  only  from  the  front  seats,  and  also  facing  Hie  stage, 
lor  from  those  on  the  side  of  it  it  is  impossible  at  that 
height  to  obtain  a  sight  of  the  scene  or  even  the  actors, 
unless  when  they  come  forward  towards  the  foot-lights. 
There  should  be  no  seats  at  a  greater  height  than  midway 
that  of  the  curtain,  or  the  level  of  what  is  now  the  second 
tier  of  boxes  in  our  large  theatres  ;  for,  as  the  scenery  can 
be  painted  only  to  one  horizon, — generally  that  of  the 
stage  itself, — its  perspective  effect  is  more  or  less  impaired 
when  it  is  seen  from  either  very  much  above  or  below  that 
level.  No  less  preposterous  is  the  practice  of  continuing 
the  side-boxes  up  to  the  proscenium,  and  sometimes  (as 
in  the  Opera-house  at  London)  quite  up  to  the  very  cur- 
tain, so  that  there  is  no  proscenium  at  all,  unless  tin- 
on  the  floor  of  the  stage,  between  the  curtain  and 
foot-lights  can  be  so  called.  While  those  so  seated  lose 
the  scenery  altogether,  they  have  the  disadvantage  of 
seeing  between  the  wings  on  the  side  opposite  them  ;  and 
although  the  positive  inconvenience  resulting  from  such 
arrangement  is  felt  only  by  a  portion  of  the  audience,  the 
bad  effect  occasioned  by  it  extends  to  the  whole  theatre. 
Nut  only  ought  there  to  be  a  distinct  proscenium,  sen  ing 

n  architectural  frame  to  the  stage  and  its  scenery, 
dividing  that  part  of  the  theatre  from  the  rest,  but  it  ought 
1o  be  of  much  ampler  proportions  than  are  now  given  it. 

mid  extend  so  far  as  to  leave  some  interval — a  sort 
of  neutral  ground — between  the  curtain  and  the  boxes,  so 
as  to  remove  the  nearest  spectator  in  them  to  a  tolerable 
distance  for  properly  viewing  the  stage  as  a  picture  ;  for 
it  is  possible  to  be  as  inconveniently  near  the  stage  as 
distant  from  it.  Where,  in  order  to  contract  the  stage, 
or  to  render  the  pit  and  general  diameter  of  the  house 
considerably  greater  than  what  is  required  for  the  width 
nf  the  curtain,  the  plan  is  made  to  approach  a  circle  (as 
is  the  case  in  nearly  every  theatre  built  within  the  last 
twenty  years),  the  boxes  should  be  confined  to  the  semi- 
circle facing  the  stage  ;  and,  so  far  from  being  a  blank,  the 
curved  space  on  each  side  between  them  and  the  curtain 
might  be  made  to  contribute  very  much  to  the  architee- 
tuial  appearance  of  the  whole  house.  This  would  not 
take  away  anything  from  the  pit,  and  if  it  materially  dimi- 
nished the  number  of  the  boxes  and  seats  in  them,  it 
would  be  only  where  there  ought  to  be  nothing  of  the 
kind.  The  banishing  of  boxes  from  such  situations,  and 
making  also  no  more  than  two  tiers,  would  certainly 
greatly  abridge  the  present  capacities  of  theatres :  ;i 
house  of  the  same  size  would  not  contain  the  same  num- 
ber of  persons  as  at  present,  when  a  large  part  of  the 
audience  are  put  where  they  cannot  well  see  the  perform- 
ance. It  is  likely,  therefore,  to  be  objected  that  such  a 
system  would  be  too  expensive,  since  a  large  house  would 
be  requisite  for  a  comparatively  moderate  audience  ;  but. 
curtailments  might  very  well  be  made  elsewhere,  for  at 
present  the  whole  building  is  frequently  very  much  larger 
and  more  costly  than  actual  necessity  requires,  the  'house' 

.  be  its  dimensions  what  they  may,  taking  up  a  com- 

ively  small  area  of  the  entire  plan,  while  the  rest  is 
occupied  by  stately  approaches  and  saloons,  which,  where 
economy  rendered  it  expedient,  might  be  greatly  abridged, 

:nuch  plainer  in  style,  and  some  of  them  omitted  alto- 

-uperfluous  appendages. 

In  some  of  the  modern  continental  theatres,  the  pomp 

displayed  in  such  accessory  parts  of  the  building  far  ex- 

1 1  ling  of  the  kind  in  this  country.  In  that  at  Berlin, 

other  spacious  apartments,  is  a  music-saloon 

.is  leet  high,  44  wide,  and  100  feet  in  length  in  its  upper 

j,!,.-).  where  there  if  a  screen  of  six  Ionic  columns  at  each 

P.  <:.,   No.  ir,'2T). 


end ;  the  whole  highly  decorated,  and  forming  one  of  Schin 
kel's  richest  pieces  of  interior  architecture.  The  theatre 
at  Munich  has  two  staircases  to  the  boxes,  with  flights  of 
marble  steps  13  feet  wide ;  and  besides  two  saloons  for 
the  public  (each  82x31  feet),  there  is  a  very  magnificent 
one  communicating  with  the  royal  box — not  a  mere  ante- 
room, but  what  would  be  termed  a  noble  room  even  in  a 
palace,  its  dimensions  being  40X44  feet,  and  25  in  height. 
In  both  these  theatres,  and  in  that  of  Genoa,  the  royal  or 
state  box  is  itself  a  room  of  some  size,  about  15  by  18  feet, 
more  or  less  ;  and  according  to  the  general  custom  of  the 
continental  theatres,  this  box  (which  occupies  the  height 
of  two  tiers,  and  is  adorned  with  caryatides  in  front)  is 
directly  in  the  centre  of  the  house,  facing  the  stage,  con- 
sequently in  the  very  best  situation  of  all ;  whereas  the 
situation  assigned  to  royal  visitors  in  our  theatres  is  almost 
the  very  worst,  as  far  us  seeing  the  stage  and  the  per- 
formance is  concerned. 

In  regard  to  the  form  of  the  '  house,'  a  decided  improve- 
ment has  taken  place  of  late  years  ;  and  the  circular  plan, 
or  one  approaching  to  it  (either  extended  by  the  curtain 
being  a  tangent  to  the  circle  or  somewhat  beyond  it,  or 
reduced  by  the  curtain  intersecting  and  forming  a  chord  to 
the  segment),  may  now  be  considered  the  one  established 
as  being  the  most  pleasing  and  commodious — that  which  is 
best  adapted  for  affording  a  distinct  view  of  the  stage  to 
the  majority  of  the  audience.  But  there  is  considerable 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  its  being  the  best  form  in  regard 
to  hearing.  In  fact,  the  science  of  acoustics  i»  not  yet 
brought  to  exactness  as  regards  practical  purposes  in 
building  :  it  is  easy  enough  to  ascertain  beforehand  how 
mr.-jli  of  the  stage  will  be  visible  liom  different  parts  of 
the  theatre,  but  not  so  what  will  he  the  result  as  to  sound, 
since  that  will  depend  upon  a  variety  of  circumstances, 
some  of  them  counteracting  each  other,  and  not  everyone 
of  them  to  be  guarded  against  or  foreseen.  The  shape  of 
the  house  is  but  one  of  them  out  of  many  ;  .much  will  also 
depend  upon  size,  much  upon  the  depth  of  the  boxes  and 
galleries,  and  also  upon  accidental  and  such  trivial  matters, 
that  any  delect  or  advantage  so  occasioned  is  not  likely  to 
be  traced  to  them.  Here  the  chief  guide  is  experience; 
and  experience  seems  at.  present  to  be  in  favour  of,  at 
least  not  at  all  against,  the  circular  form;  for  the  new 
theatres  at  Mayence,  Dresden,  and  other  places  where  it. 
has  been  adopted,  are  said  to  be  perfectly  satisfactory  in 
regard  to  the  actors  being  distinctly  heard  in  every  part. 

While  in  their  internal  embellishment  and  titling  up 
theatres  afford  very  great  scope  to  the  architect,  though 
not  so  much  as  they  might  do,  they  also  afford  opportunity 
for  accomplishing  much  in  regaid  to  characteristic  exter- 
nal design.  Magnificent  as  are  the  exteriors  and  facades 
of  the  theatres  at  St.  Petersburg,  Berlin,  Munich,  Bordeaux, 
and  Nantes,  with  their  porticos  and  colonnades,  there  is 
nothing  in  them  that  very  clearly  expresses  their  particular 
purpose,  because  nothing  that  corresponds  with  or  indicates 
the  form  of  the  '  house  'itself  within.  Moller,  we  believe, 
was  the  first  who  made  the  internal  plan  discover  itself 
from  without,  by  making  the  auditory,  at  least  the  corridors 
and  saloon  surrounding  it,  project  out  as  a  spacious  semi- 
cm  lt>,  in  the  fa;ade  of  the  theatre  at  Mayence.  The  same 
form  of  exterior  has  been  given  by  Semper  to  the  new 
theatre  at  Dresden,  which  is  also  remarkable  for  the  dis- 
play it  makes  of  sculpture. 

Alter  all  it  is  the  stage  itself,  with  its  multifarious  con- 
t  ri\  ances  and  complex  mechanism,  its  scenery  and  pictorial 
effects,  which  manifest  the  extraordinary  perfection  to 
which  the  moderns  have  carried  the  scenic,  if  not  the  dra- 
matic ait;  nor  can  we  exclude  the  latter,  unless  we  choose 
to  blot  out  the  name  of  Shakspere.  It  does  not  enter  into 
our  purpose  however  to  speak  of  stage  mechanism,  which 
is  a  .subject  and  study  by  itself,  and  not  otherwise  connected 
with  theatres  and  their  architecture  than  as  being  made 
use  of  in  the  former.  Those  who  seek  for  information  of 
the  kind  will  meet  with  many  plates  showing  the  stage 
construction  and  mechanism  of  Plymouth  theatre,  in 
Foulstone's  '  Public  and  Private  Buildings  ;'  and,  with  more 
general  and  complete  instructions,  in  Stephenson's  work 
on  the  machinery  of  theatres.  Neither  can  we  make  any 
additions  here  to  what,  has  been  already  said  on  the  subject 
of  SCKNK-PAINTING.  We  will  only  observe  that  very 
great  improvements  and  numerous  contrivances  for  pro- 
ducing stage  and  sce'iic  effects  had  been  introduced  into 
theatres  at  the  commencement  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

VOL.  XXIV.— 2  <j 


T  II   I 


itret. 


THE 


Architect. 

- 

W  ..'.I   ,   ..! 

CurUlR. 

1  :    • 

lu  llock 

lirr.tc.1 
BfMdtk 

of  Hi. 

E? 

H..1  ..I 

«, 

Bologna      .     .     . 

Ant.  O.  Bib- 
hicna 

49ft. 

77ft. 

59ft. 

02ft. 

Genoa    .... 

Carlo  Barabino 

40 

88J 

64 

BO 

H2  ft. 

Kntire    building    314    by    15s   1'eit. 

deep 

Kexastyle,  Doric  portn-o.  six  tiers 

of  boxes.  ro\al  box.  oval  in  plan; 

wide 

two  tiers  in  height,  with  an: 

21  by  13'.  leet.   and  ^ 

4«l  Feet,  and  3!l  feet  hiirh. 

Imola    .... 

Cos.  Morrlh 

About 

H 

68 

42 

38 

M 

Remarkable  for   singular   arrange- 

1780 

deep 

ment  of  proscenium,  with  three 

68 

ate  openings. 

wide 

Milan,  La  Scala     . 

Gius.  Pierniarini 

About 

44 

90 

67 

75 

Six  tiers  of  boxes.    Saloon  100  by 

•-'I  leet. 

Naples,  San  Carlo 

Gior.  Metrano  ; 
restored,  &c. 

l'sl7 

BO 

83 

7:i 

SO 

If 

deep 

Burnt  1816,  rebuilt  1817.     Six  tiers 
of  boxes,  in  all  181.    Spectators 

Ant.    Nicco- 

110 

2800. 

lini 

wide 

Parma,  Great  Thea- 

Giam. Aleotti, 

1619 

36 

14H 

50 

10 

On   the   first   floor    of   the   Ducal 

tre       .... 

Bernini 

Palace.     Not  used  since.  1733. 

Parma,  New  Theatre 

Canonica   and 

1S22-3 

30 

7.-»  to 

Nic.  Bcttoli 

'a  rk  of 

boxes 

Rome,  T.  Aliberti 

Fci-d.   G.  Bib- 

li'.l 

(Hi 

52 

40  by 

Shape  very  bad,  and  staircases  and 

biena 

72 

corridors  dangerously  nai 

Rome,  La  Argentina 

Marq.  Teodoli 

39J 

66 

54 

43 

54 
deep 

No  other  proscenium  than  a  deco- 
rated pilaster  lace  between  boxes 

19 

and  curtain.     Six  ti> 

w  ide 

Pit  floor  quite  1 

Rome,   Teat,  della 

Kestd. 

30 

47 

10 

13 

No  proscenium,  the  boxes  eoming 

Valle        .     .     . 

17C6 

deep 

quite  up  to  curtain.     St;, 

usually  small  and  confiiK 

capable  of  being  extended  1'J  feet 

more  in  depth. 

Rome,  T.  Tordinona 

C.  Fontana,  but 

43 

51 

50 

75 

Six  tiers  of  boxes. 

since  altered 

deep 

72 

wide 

Turin,  Opera-House 

Ct.  Bened.  Al- 

1740 

40 

78 

53 

53 

105 

fieri 

deep 

78 

wide 

Venice,  La  Fenice 

Ant.  Selva 

About 

42 

70  to 

02 

49 

40 

Burnt  down  183o,  but  since  restored. 

1790 

backol 

deep 

Five  tiers  of  boxes. 

boxes 

91 

wide 

Vicenz«,T.  Olimpico 

Palladio 

About 

78 

50 

115 

III 

22 

1680 

width 

greats! 

deptli 

of 

width 

of 

of  sail  e 

itage 

before 

scene. 

FRANCE. 


Paris,  L'Odeon 

Baraguey, 

1H20 

424 

62 

51 

66 

An  insulated  structure,  about    17J 

Paris,  Francais 

Louis, 

partly  rebuilt 

17!H) 

88 

59 

54 

deep 

X   118  feet,    originally    built  by 
IV'  \Vailly  and  the  cld"er  P 

by  Fontaine 

U-2' 

'iilie 

Debret 

Oprnd. 

524 

07 

61 

95 

Saloon  98  by  21,  and  21  feet  In 

Km  .  de  .MiiMi|iie, 

Autrt. 

deep 

or  Opera 

1SJI 

Paris,  Venladour   . 

Huve 

49 

57 

64 

Insulated  structure,  172  by  114  feet. 

Exterior   two  orders,    Doric  and 

Ionic,  in  arcades.      Saloo  .  us  x 

Paris,  Yt  ydeau 

Leijrand     and 

About 

49. 

49 

32 

21.  and  21  high. 

inos 

17110 

deep 

Front  curved. 

78 

\viilt1 

Versailles,  in  Palace 

34 

60 

50 

44 

70 

deep 

48 

wide 

THE 


299 


THE 


From 

Height 

Architect 

Dale. 

Width  of 
Curtain. 

Curtain 
to  Hack 
of  Pjt. 

Hreadtli 
of  I'it. 

from 
Floor  of 
I'it. 

Stage. 

Bordeaux    . 

Louis 

Fin. 

39ift. 

64ft. 

02}  ft. 

57*ft. 

70ft. 

This  splendid  theatre  restored  and 

1780 

includ. 
boxes 

ditto 

deep 

refitted  up  by  Bonfin,  1832. 

Besai^on     . 

Ledoux 

About 

49 

•  64 

52 

36 

Insulated,  about  124X100  feet. 

1777 

deep 

1    65 

wide 

Lyon      .... 

Soufflot 

1754-6 

32 

63  to 

36 

35.} 

68 

Insulated  building,   180X130  feet. 

back  of 

deep 

This  theatre  has  been  rebuilt  after 

boxes 

50 

a  different  design. 

About 

wide 

Nantes 

Crucy 

1810 

37* 

62 

49 

51 

47X65 

Portico,  Corinthian  octastyle  before 

tetrastyle  in  antis. 


GERMANY  AND  BELGIUM. 

Berlin,  Opera-house 

Von  Knobels- 
dorff 

1740-3 

26 

64 

42 

58 

50 
deep 

An  insulated  building,  214  X  78  feet. 
Principal  front,  Corinth,  portico, 

52 

hexastyle  monoprostyle,  on  low 

wide 

basement. 

„    Great  Theatre 

Schinkel 

1816 

43 

62 

44 

66 

A  magnificent  structure,  with  Gre- 

deep 

cian  Ionic  hexastyle  portico  on  a 

86 

lofty  flight  of  steps. 

wide 

Dresden       . 

Semper 

1837- 

1841 

Hamburg    . 

Schinkel 

1826-7 

40 

69  to 

50 

50 

60 

Plan   of  auditory  nearly  circular, 

back  ol 

deep 

i.e.,  a  circle  of  06  feet  diameter, 

boxes 

80 

to  which  the  curtain  is  a  tangent. 

wide 

Four  tiers  of  boxes,  and  amphi- 

theatre formed  by  a  colonnade  of 

22  pillars. 

Mannheim  .      , 

Ant.  G.   Bib- 

30 

46 

71 

biena 

deep 

Mayence     .     .     . 

Moller 

Fin. 

54 

74 

60 

50 

Insulated,  about  250  X  140  feet,  with 

1833 

deep 

semicircular  projection,  140  feet 

80 

diameter  on  one  of  longer  sides 

wide 

or  facade. 

Munich  .... 

K.  von  Fischer 

Open. 

39 

78 

62 

64 

91 

Burnt  Jan.  14,  1823  ;  restored  1824- 

1818 

deep 

25.     Octastyle   Corinth,   portico, 

' 

94 

including  boxes,  the  auditory,  a 

wide 

circle  72  feet  diameter,   between 

which  and  curtain  is  a  space  of 

9  feet.     Five  tiers  of  boxes. 

Wolfenbiittel,  in  the 

Ottmer 

1836-7 

28 

44 

29 

27 

36 

Private  theatre,  fitted  up  in  Gothic 

palace 

includ. 

deep 

style,  but  detail  in  poor  taste. 

boxes 

56 

wide 

Ghent    .... 

Roelandt 

1837-9 

37 

59 

42 

60 

Fa9ade  300  feet.    Oval  saloon  91  x 

deep 

59,  making,  with  smaller  saloon 

78 

and  concert-room,  an  extent  of 

wide 

270  feet. 

RUSSIA. 

St.  Petersburg,  Great 
Theatre    .     .     . 

Tischbein;Tho 
mond 

1782-3 
1803 

52 

CO 

50 

52 

95 
deep 

Insulated  building,  150X270  feet, 
with  octastyle  Ionic  portico.    Sa- 

70 

loon  125X30  feet. 

wide 

„       Theatre   of 
'Hermitage'. 

Quarengbi 

1780 

36 

60 

60 

42 

70 
deep 
70 

Theatre  a  semicircle,  without  boxes, 
but  surrounded  by  a  Corinthian 
colonnade    of    13  intercolumns, 

• 

wide 

with  seats. 

ENGLAND. 

London,      Opera- 

Novosielsky 

1790 

40 

84 

60 

51 

35 

No    proscenium.      Corridors,    &c. 

holism  .... 

deep 

very  mean. 

80 

wide 

„    Covent-garden 

Sir  R.  Smirke 

1809 

32 

66 

51 

M 

55 
deep 

The  whole  building  about  209  X  160 
feet.     Saloon  50X19  feet. 

86 

wide 

2  Q  2 


I  II  I. 


300 


r  u  i: 


AirUtPrt. 

D.I.. 

width  or 

tnm 

1                      1  ' 
I  • 

1       -'I 

i  .  .  .,    r 

« 

London,  Drury-lane 

Ben.  V 

IK  11   :l 

32  n. 

frtfl. 

son. 

oon. 

•is  n. 

The  whole  24OX1I" 

Ben. 

wide 

'.XIX'JU  i 

8(1 

,.     English  Opera 

Beazlcy 

."Ml} 

39 

The   inner  hall,  "with  slaiu-n- 

:i   of   cohn.                     h  end, 

a  pi. 

Birmingham 
Plymouth    . 

Beailer 

.T.  Foulstonc 

•-N 

The    'house'   or   auditor)-   form>   a 

1M11 

ilcep 

vet  diameter,  of  which 

the   i     •                        ibout    three- 

\\  ide 

fourths.      Pit  :(  ..                    <'ter. 

i  ml  theatres,  all  more  or  lest  worthy  of  notice,  havt 

icd  within  tin-  present  century.  Imt  arc  omitted 

in   the  tahle,   a--  we  cannot   specify  the  respective  dinien- 

:. joined  list  of  mem,  with  their  nnhitects' 

name-*,  may  however  be  useful : — 

lica. 

ara ;  Ant.  I'oschini. 

Florence,  Teatro  Goldoni  ;  Gins,  del  Hos-o.  IS17. 
Theatre  after  uitient  plan ;  Anton  ' 

;ia:  Canoniea. 
Trento  ;  Ducati.  IHiJ. 
.  n  :  \Veinl)reniier. 

Vans,  opened  November,  lull. 
.t  :  T.udw.  Zanth.  begun  I 
-ruhe  :   \Vcinbrcnncr.   !>''. 
Coblcntz:  Von  Kralie. 

istadt:   Moller  and  Heir,  r.  1-1K-19. 
i;   Semper.  IR'17-!).     Opened  May,  IfUO. 

•  if  Tli.  :  TViicoyen.  IK j  I. 
St.  i  'rinsky  Theatre  ;  Rossi.    Opened 

Am 

THKATKK.     Before  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  theatrical 

-   :ippcar  to  have   been   subject   to  no  legal 

1  the  liability  of  tin  -e  v.  ho  conducted  them 

t"  the  \:<giant  laws.     Until  the  middle  of  tin1  seventeenth 

always  attached  to  the  establishment 

either  of  the  com)  or  of  some  \\ealthy  subject,  whose 
I  ad:.'.1  and  livery  they  wore,  and  whose  superintendence 
: -resumed  to  control  any  excesses  which  might  be  in- 
jurious to  the  public  :  but  when  their  seivices  were  not 
required  by  those  to  whom  they  especially  belonged,  it  was 
n-ual  for  such  j  '.andcr  about  the  country,  exhi- 

biting  their   performances   for  train,  and   thus  bee. 

ul  even  mendicants.    In  the  reign  of  Henry  VII. 

11:1  in~taiice  i-  recorded  of  n  gratuity  given  by  that  king  In 

1   by  th"1   way.'     The   chief  n- 

-  were  liable   previously  to 

the   statute  nf   Elizabeth    in  which    they  were  cxp 
mentioned,  were1  measures  of  police  lor  preventing  tumults 
:md    breaclles    of   tin  'Mage   ul 

numbers  of  people,  at  their  representation*.     Occasionally 
however  these   popular  exhibitions  attracted  the  animad- 

•i  of  the  government   by  holding  up  mat! 

to  public  censure  or  ridicule.     Thus  in   l.ViO.   when   the 

unpopular  mac,  M.-uy  with  Philip  of  Spain 

it  excitement   1 1n diiLrhoul  Ihe  country,  the 

council  di.-ccl  tin1  attention  of  the  lord  president  of  the 

North  to  '  certain  lev  namiiur  IhemseKcs  to  be 

ike.   iind   wearing  bis   livery   or 

on  theii  u'orth 

and    repre-eiilins:   certain    ]ila\s    and    interlud. 

fleeting  on  the  (|ueen  and  her  eon-oit    and  the  foiinalilie- 

of  1h'  Hiri'iilx,  vol.  iii.. 

Appendix,   p.  IH.'i.        K\ci-.-es  of  a  similar   character,  oc- 

currini:  at  the  beirinnini;  of  Ihe   I'ollowini;  rciirn.  and  di- 

a^aiu--l  I'  -it  religion,  were  checked  by  the 

»tat.  1  KHz.,  c.  2,  s.  0.   which    inflicted    a    penalty    of   I(HI 

marks  upon  '  persons  who  in  plays  or  interludes  declared 

or  (poke  anything  in  deic^atnm,  depr.-nin^  or  <lespisin^r  of 

Book  Of  CommOO  1'rayer.' 

•ilthoutrh  players,  as  such,  were  in  those  days 
jcct  to  no  general  letral  restiictiniis.  it  i~  probable  ti 
practice  of  granting  licences  from  the  crown  to  such  pcr- 
»on«prevni  M-  reign  of  Henry  VIII.     It  ap- 

pear* to«,  from  a  curious  paper  published   by  Malonr.  in 
tu»  •  Hutoncal  A  :   the  English  Stage,'  thai  in  the 


reign  of  Elizabeth  strolling  players,  though  bcloniv 
some  great  person,  usually   applied   for  a   licence  to  the 
local  authorities  of  any  town  in  which  thc\  meant  !.• 
form.     'When  p'ayers  of  interlude-  the  city  of 

filoucester.'  >ay.-  Ih'is  document.  •  the  mannei  is,  as  in  uther 
like  corporations,  that  they  tirst  attend  the  mayor  to  inform 
him  what  imbli  -.  anti.  they  aie.  ami 

licence  for  their  public  playing.'     'I 

n    the    crown    inr.v    e\ta:it    is    that    B 
Queen  Kli/.ahcih,  in  l.">74,  to. lames  liurbn^. 

,  i:iut-  to  the  ei  which  coii 

a  proviso  that  the  perform:! 

they  are  publicly  represented,   shall  be  seen   and   al 
by  the  ijuceu's  master  of  the  ie\eU:  a  stipulatior. 
to  the  licence  of  the  lord  chamberlain  under  tl.e 
A<-t   at   t!:e  present   day.     These   licences   fiom 
were  originally  nothing  uion1  than  authorities  to  itin 
which  exempt'ed  strolling  players  from  being  molested  by 
proceedings  taken  under  the  laws  or  proclamatio 
v  agrants,  and  also  supei-scded  thi  11  om 

local   magistrates.     The'  statute  H;)  I'.hx...  c.  4,  went  a  steji 
farther,  and  by  implication  authorised  noblemen  to  h 
]>layei-s.  by  enacting  that  'all  common  players  of  interludes 
wandering  abroad,  other  than  players  of  interludes  be' 
ing  to  any  Laion  of  this  icalni.   or  any  other  honoi; 

:iLTe'  of  greater  degree,  to  be  n;ithoii--ed  to  play 
under  the  hand  and  ins  of  such  baron  or 

.  should  be  adjudged  rogues  and  vagabonds.'  This 
slalute  has  been  frecjueiitly  ii'.i-ieprc-eiited  as  denoiinciiig 
all  players  as  rogues  and'  vagabond- 

- '.-   Howcll-  I.  iii..  p.  5()7;;  wher. 

is  obvious  that   the  enactment   applies  oriy  to 
players. 

Although  theatrical  representations  became  much  i 
i  in  the   reigns  of  .lames  I.  and  Charles  I.,  mi 
\presslyeiiacled  for  their  regulation,  with  the  single 
ion  of  the  slat.  ICar.  1..  c.  I.  which  suppre-,cd  the 
performance   of  •  interludes  and  ce.mmou   plays'  upon  the 
l.oid'-.  Day.     An  oixlinance  of  the  Long  Parliament, ID  i 

.ccied  to  the  suppression  of  all  slage-jilays   and  in- 
terludes,   but    thoiiiih    occasionally  enforced     with    much 
rigour,  it  failed  to  abolish  these  entertainments.    The  slat. 
!'_'  Ann.,  slat,  'i  c.  it,  in  geneial  terms,  classed  ])la\  i 
interludes  as  rogues  and  \agaboiuls  ;   but  the  stat.  1(1  >' 
II. .c.  '_s.  -.   I.  expounded   the   former  statute  by  enacting 
that  ' every  person,  who  should  for  hire,  gain,  or  rev 
.it,  or  perform  any  piny  or  other  cnteitaini 
)!   Ihe  stage,  or  any  part   therein,  if  he  shall  not  ha\e  any 

tlienient  \\iien1  Ihe   offence  should   be   connni: 
without  authority  by  patent  from  the  King,  or  licence  from 
the  Lord  Chamberlain,    should   be  deemed    a  rogue  and 
•  >ud  within  the  stat.  1'J  Ann."     Hut  this  provision  is 
pealed  by  the  stat.  5  Gep.  IV.,  c.  Ki.  and  ])laye 
such,  whether  stationary  or  itinerant,  are  at  the  pi . 
day  not  amenable  to   the   law   as   rogues   and    vagabonds. 
liythe  'Jnd  section  of  the  above  statute.  Id  Geo.  II..  < 
which,    with    the   exceptions  just    in,  id   in 

full    operation,    and     forms    the    law    of    the    metropoli- 
tan theatres,    it   is   eiia'-ted    generally,    thai    '  e\ , 
who  shall,  without  a  patent   or  licence,  acl  or  perform  any 
Miinenl  of  the  staL'e   for  hire.   gain.  •  -liafl 

forfeit   the   sum  of  5(1'.'      Hythe.  arcd, 

that    '  no  person   shall    for  lure.   gain,   or  rewaid  act.   per- 
form, or  repiesent   any   new    interlude,   tragedy,   comedy, 
opera,  play,  farce,  or  other  entertainment  of  the  itagft,  or 
is  therein;  or  any  new  act,  scene,  or  other  pail 


T  H  E 


301 


THE 


added  to  any  old  interlude,  tragedy,  comedy,  opera,  play, 
1'arce,  or  other  entertainment  of  the  stage,  or  any  new  pro- 
logue or  epilogue,  unless  a  true  copy  thereof  be  sent  to 
the  Lord  Chamberlain  of  the  King's  household  for  the 
time  being,  fourteen  days  at  the  least  before  the  acting, 
representing,  or  performing  thereof,  together  with  an  ac- 
count of  the  play-house  or  place  where  the  same  shall  be, 
and  the  time  when  the  same  is  first  intended  to  be  first 
acted,  represented,  or  performed,  signed  by  the  master  or 
manager.'  The  4th  section  authorizes  the  Lord  Chamber- 
lain to  prohibit  the  performance  of  any  theatrical  enter- 
tainment, and  subjects  the  persons  infringing  this  prohi- 
bition to  a  penalty  of  50^.  and  the  forfeiture  of  their  patent 
or  licence.  The  5th  section  provides,  that  '  no  person 
shall  be  authorized  by  patent  from  the  Crown  or  licence 
from  the  Lord  Chamberlain  to  act,  represent,  or  perform 
for  hire  or  reward  any  interlude,  tragedy,  comedy,  opera, 
p'ay,  farce,  or  other  entertainment  of  the  stage,  in  any 
part  of  Great  Britain,  except  in  the  city  of  Westminster  and 
within  the  liberties  thereof,  and  in  such  places  where  the 
Kins  shall  personally  reside,  and  during  such  residence 
only.'  The  7th  section  enacts,  that  '  if  any  interlude, 
tragedy,  comedy,  opera,  play,  farce,  or  other  entertain- 
ment of  the  stage,  or  any  act,  scene,  or  part  thereof,  shall 
be  acted,  represented,  or  performed  in  any  house  or  place 
where  wine,  ale,  beer,  or  otlier  liquors  shall  be  sold  or 
retailed,  the  same  shall  be  deemed  to  be  acted,  repre- 
sented, and  performed  for  gain,  hire,  and  reward.'  Within 
a  few  years  after  the  passing  of  this  act  of  parliament,  the 
clause  which  restricted  the  power  of  granting  patents  by 
the  Crown  to  theatres  within  the  city  of  Westminster  and 
places  of  royal  residence,  was  found  to  be  productive  of 
inconvenience  ;  and  special  acts  of  parliament  were  passed 
exempting  several  larsre  towns,  in  which  such  entertain- 
ments were  desired,  from  the  operation  of  that  clause,  and 
authorizing  the  King  to  grant  letters  for  establishing  thea- 
tres in  such  places.  Instances  of  statutes  of  this  kind  occur 
with  respect  to  Bath  in  stat.  8Geo.  III.,  c.  10  ;  with  re-pert 
to  Liverpool  in  the  stat.  11  Geo.  III.,  c.  16;  and  with 
respect  to  Bristol  in  the  stat.  18  Geo.  HI.,  c.  8. 

A  further  relaxation  of  the  rule  established  by  the  stat. 
10  Geo.  II.,  c.  28,  for  the  regulation  of  theatrical  perform- 
ances, was  effected  by  the  statute  28  Geo.  III.,  c.  !$0,  in 
favour  of  places  which  could  not  be  expected  to  bear  the 
expense  of  a  special  act  of  parliament.  By  this  latter 
statute,  the  justices  of  the  peace  at  general  or  quarter 
'tis  are  authorized  to  license  the  performance  of  any 
such  tragedies,  comedies,  interludes,  operas,  plays,  or  farces 
as  are  represented  at  the  patent  or  licensed  theatres  in 
ninster,  or  as  have  been  submitted  to  the  Lord  Cham- 
berlain, at  any  place  within  their  jurisdiction  not  within 
20  miles  of  London.  Westminster,  or  Edinburgh,  or  8  miles 
of  any  patent  or  licensed  theatre,  or  10  miles  of  the  king's 
nee,  or  14  miles  of  either  of  the  universities  of  Ox- 
ford or  Cambridge,  or  2  miles  of  the  outward  limits  of  any 
place  having  peculiar  jurisdiction. 

The  penalties  imposed  by  the  stat.  10  Geo.  II.,  c.  28, 
being  found  in  practice  insufficient  to  prevent  the  per- 
formance of  theatrical  entertainments  without  licence,  and 
great  evils  being  experienced  from  the  resort  of  the  lower 
*  in  London  to  such  entertainments,  the  legislature 
in  the  year  is:;:)  save  additional  powers  to  the  metropoli- 
tan police  for  their  prevention.  By  the  46th  section  of 
the  slat.  2  and  3  Viet.,  c.  47,  '  the  Commissioners  of  police 
are  empowered  to  authorize  a  superintendent,  with  such 
constables  as  he  may  think  necessary,  to  enter  into  any 
house  or  room,  kept  or  used  within  the  metropolitan  police 
district,  for  stage-plays  or  dramatic  entertainments  into 
vrhich  admission  is  obtained  by  payment  of  money,  and 
v.hich  is  not  a  licenced  theatre,  and  to  take  into  custody 
all  persons  who  shall  be  found  therein  without  lawful 
excuse.'  The  same  clause  enacts  that  'every  person  keep- 
ing, using,  or  knowingly  letting  any  house  or  other  tene- 
ment for  the  purpose  of  being  used  as  an  unlicenced 
theatre,  shall  be  liable  to  a  penalty  of  20/.,  or,  in  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  magistrate,  may  be  committed  to  the  House 
of  Correction,  with  or  without  hard  labour,  for  two  calen- 
dar months;  and  every  person  performing  or  being  therein 
without  lawful  excuse  shall  be  liable  to  a  penalty  of  forty 
shillings.' 

It  may  be  desirable  in  this  article  to  refer  to  a  statute 
which  v.a  ,  passed  in  the  year  IR'i'i  for  the  protection  of  dra- 
matic literary  property,  and  which  placed  such  property 


upon  the  same  footing  as  the  copyright  of  published  books. 
The  stat.  3  &  4  Will.  IV.,  c.  15,  enacts  that  the  author  of 
any  tragedy,  comedy,  play,  opera,  farce,  or  any  other  dra- 
matic piece  or  entertainment,  shall  have  as  his  own  pro- 
perty the  sole  liberty  of  representing  the  same  at  any  place 
of  dramatic  entertainment ;  and  that  the  author  of  any 
such  production,  published  within  10  years  before  Hie 
passing  of  the  act,  or  his  assignee,  shall,  from  the  time  of 
publication  until  the  end  of  twenty-eight  years,  and,  if 
the  author  be  living  at  the  end  of  that  period,  during  the 
residue  of  his  natural  life,  have  as  liis  own  property  the 
sole  liberty  of  representing  such  production.  The  infringe- 
ment of  this  right  is  forbidden  under  a  penalty  of  '  forty 
shillings  for  every  unauthorized  representation  of  such 
production,  or  the  amount  of  the  benefit  derived  from 
such  representation,  or  of  the  injury  sustained  by  the  author 
therefrom,  whichever  shall  be  the  greater  damages.' 

THEATRE,  ENGLISH,  FRENCH,  &c.  [ENGLISH 
DRAMA.] 

THEATRE,  HINDU.  [SANSCRIT  LANGUAGE  AND 
LITERATURE.] 

THEBAIA.     [PARAMORPHIA.] 

THEBAID,  orTHEBAIS  (Qrfaif,  sc.  X6pa,  Thebais),  sig- 
nifies the  territory  or  district  belonging  to  Thebes,  and  is 
consequently  applied  to  the  whole  territory  subject  to  the 
city  of  Thebes  in  Boeotia.  [THEBES  IN  BOEOTIA.]  In  a 
similar,  though  a  much  wider  sense,  the  name  was  given 
to  the  whole  of  Upper  Egypt,  the  modern  Said,  of  which 
Thebes  was  the  principal  city.  This  territory  extended  from 
Hermopolis  Magna  southward  as  far  as  the  first  cataracts  of 
the  Nile,  or  to  Philae ;  or,  according  to  others,  as  far  as  Hiera 
Sicamina.  This  great  province  was,  according  to  Straho 
fxvii.,  p.  787),  originally  divided  into  ten  nomes  (vo/ioi) ; 
but  Pliny  (Hist.  Nat.,  v.  9)  enumerates  eleven,  and  others 
mention  fourteen  —  the  nomos  Lycopolites,  Hypseliotis, 
Aphroditopolites,  Tinites,  Diospolites,  Tentyrites,  Phatu- 
rites,  Hermonthites,  Apollinopolites,  Antaeopolites,  Pano- 
polites,  Coptites,  Ombites,  and  the  nomos  Dodecaschoenus. 
Respecting  the  nature  of  these  nomes  and  the  physical 
features  of  the  Thebaid,  see  EGYPT. 

THEBES  (e/j/3ai,  Thebae).  Towns  and  cities  of  this 
name  occur  in  several  parts  of  the  antient  world,  but  the 
two  which  are  most  renowned  in  history  are  the  Egyptian 
and  the  Boeotian  Thebes,  of  which  we  shall  speak  sepa- 
rately, and  subjoin  a  list  of  the  other  places  of  this  name. 

TIIKBES  IN  EGYPT,  in  the  Bible  called  No,  or  No  Am- 
men,  was  situated  in  the  central  part  of  Upper  Egypt, 
which  derived  from  this  city  the  name  of  Thebais.  [TnE- 
BAID.]  This  city  consisted  of  two  main  parts,  which  were 
divided  by  the  Nile,  one  occupying  the  eastern,  and  the 
other  the  western  hank  of  the  river,  and  each  extending 
from  the  river  to  the  foot  of  the  hills  which  enclose  the 
valley  ol'  the  Nile.  This  gigantic  city,  whose  ruins  still 
excite  astonishment,  was  believed  to  be  the  most  antient 
town  of  Etrypt,  and  the  original  metropolis  of  Egypt.  Its 
foundation  was  ascribed  by  some  to  Osiris,  who  named  it 
after  his  mother  (Diodonis  Sic.,  i.  15),  and  by  others  to  the 
,ing  of  the  house  of  Busiris.  (Diodorus  Sic.,  i.  45.) 
According  to  other  authorities,  Thebes  was  an  Ethiopian 
colony.  Its  original  circumference  is  stated  to  have  been 
140  stadia.  Its  most  flourishing  period  appears  to  have 
been  about  HiOO  B.C.,  when  it  was  the  capital  of  all  Egypt, 
and  when,  according  to  Herodotus  and  Aristotle,  the  whole 
country  of  Egypt  bore  the  name  of  Thebes  (eij/3nt). 
During  that  period,  which  probably  comprises  several  cen- 
turies, Thebes  was  the  residence  of  the  Egyptian  kings, 
whose  tombs  are  still  extant  in  the  rocks  on  the  western 
side  of  the  city,  and  extend  even  to  the  borders  of  the 
desert.  (Strabo,  xvii.,  p.  816,  ed.  C'asaub.)  Homer  (Iliad, 
ix.  381,  &c.)  speaks  of  the  splendour,  greatness,  and  wealth 
of  Thebes,  and  calls  it  '  the  city  with  a  hundred  gates,' 
each  of  which  sent  out  two  hundred  men  with  horses  and 
chariots.  During  the  invasion  of  Egypt  by  the  Persians 
under  Cambyses,  Thebes,  like  other  towns,  suffered  very 
severely,  especially  the  private  dwellings,  which  were  for 
the  most  part  constructed  of  wood,  while  the  great  archi- 
tectural works  defied  the  flames  as  much  as  they  have 
defied  the  slower  influence  of  time.  (Diodorus  Sic.,  i.  4G ; 
Herodotus,  iii.,  25 ;  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.,  xxxvi.  9.)  After 
this  catastrophe  the  city  appears  never  to  have  recovered 
her  former  greatness.  During  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies, 
when  the  seat  of  government  was  in  the  northern  extremity 
of  the  country,  Thebes  appears  to  have  been  neglected  by 


r  ii  i: 


302 


T  ii  i: 


the  Kop'.ian  km-,.      In  the  re 
about  hi.  86,  n 

it   »a»  taken  mill   \> 
the  tune  o 

by  tl.- 

and  the  circuit  of  tin-  city, 

!.  amounted  to  eighty  stadia,  the 

.  .illlliiT  of  \illaire-.  iiml  wlml   remained 

of  tlu'  antieut  .  .in-fly  of  temples.       I'mler 

tin-  Kiiiuan  dominion  souicthini:  appears  to  have  been  done 

:   hut   new  cala- 

miii,  i  it  when  Christianity  was  introduced 

into  I  .1  llu-  rliristians  in  their  religion 

1  tii  themselves  as  much  a 

could  "of  the  w  ant ienl  idolater*.      At  present 

,,picil   by  tour  principal  villages, 

,.1111011  and  Mcdi- 

Uxni  on  tl..  side  ni  the  river.    The  buildings 

•culpturcs  still  extant  are  the  most  autient  of  any  that 

:ypt.  and  are  the  licst  and   mo>t   genuine  speci- 

iii  art   and  architecture,  lor  v, e  IIIIM- 
reason  to  believe  that   by  far  the   greatest  Part   ol    1lll'nl 

jit    Lad  yet   experienced  i. 

fluen.  .  'hat'  i.-.  lout:  before  the  IVrsian  inva- 

sion, iiiins.  chielly  consisting  of  tin 

!    obelisks,    occupy    nearly  the    whole 
of  the  \alley  of  the  Nile,  a  Ijp 

d  "on  the  western  .side,  where  the  mills  of 
'>  cud,  there   begins,  us  it  wcic,  the  city  of  tlu 
the  tonibs  iu  th<  !i  their  pamtint:.-.  which  are  still 

-h  as  if  (hi  !  made  on:  i.     For 

the    articles    K(,vi-r, 

,-ially  tin-  Uritisli  Museum. 

:    and  Wilkinson's  '  Topo- 

i  his  work  •  On  the  Manners  and  Cus- 

of  the  Antlent    i  chap.  v. 

TIIHIIK-.  is  BoSOTIA,  one  of  the  most  aiitient  and  most 
important  cities  of  (ireeee.  was  situated  in  the  plain  be- 
tween Lake  Hyliee  on  the  north,  and  a  range  of  low  hills 
on  the  south.  The  Acropolis  of  the  city,  built  upon  an 
eminence  in  this  plain,  was  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
Phoenician*  under  I  'admus,  whence  it  was  called  Cadmea 
;.n'a  ;  Strabo.  ix.,  p.  -101  ;  Pausania.s.  ix.  ^i.  1  :  Su- 
phatn  ..  K«r/um  .  Around  this  citadel  the  city 

at  a  later  time,  and  was  so  disposed,  that   the  L' 
portion  of  it  occupied  the  part  north  of  the  citadel.  Accord- 
ing to  an  antient   letrcnd,  the   city  was  fortified  by  /ethos, 
and    Aniphion,   the   wonderful    lyre-player,    who,    by   his 
music,  made  the  stones  mine  and  form  the.  walls  round  tin- 
city.      iPausiini:  1.  Jcc.  ;  Homer,  Odyss.,  xi.  2(i2, 
1'n  \iuus  to  the  Trojan  war  the  city  was  destroyed 
by  the   Kpitjoni.  that   is,  the  descendants  of  the  seven  Ar- 
heroes  who  had  been  defeated  by  the  Thcban-.   and 
from  tin-,  destruction  it  does  not  appear  to  have  reco\civd 
before  that  war,  as  it  took  no  part  in  the  expedition  a<:ain-t 
In  the  time  of  Homer  however,  who  calls  it  •  a  city 
with  .seven  nd  irivcs  it  the  attribute  of 
...di;.  on  account  of  the  extensive  plain  which  formed 
i.'itory.  it  appeals  in  have  again  been  in  a  flourishing 
iMon.     The  naiiie^  of  the  seven   gates  of  Theb. 
still    ;                               .-lulus.   Pausanias,   Apollodorus.   and 

eond  time, 

i-r  the  Great.     On   his  acccs-ion  to  the  throne 
:'iid  attempted  to  shake  off 
Of  the  lower  city  nothing  w: 

on  this   or  tin-  temples,   ami    the 

house  of  1'imlar  the    ,  uts    were   Killed. 

:idcr  rebuilt  the  city  ill  H.i1. 

'    • 

.  ix.  7.      '• 
a  third  lime    i 

•'liollt 

this  time  or  shortly  iilli-r,  h 

iia  in 

its  lurm   is  nearly  i-ircn;  ir,  anil  it 

•HOC  somewhat  gloomy,      ll   i-  plentifully  provided  with 
water  and  pastures,  and   the  gardens  arm:,  iictter 

than  any  i  iiinmcr,  mi 

account  of  the  plentiful  snpph 
and  the  beautiful   gardens:    in 
unplramnt .  intc  of  fuel,  ar 

to   flood*  and   cold  wind-.       At    this   season   heavy  lulls 


of    >now    v,  dirty. 

Pica  .    ed. 

Kuhi 

been   between    Ii 

i    time    ImwcMT   tin  ;ied   still    • 

Sulla  -  Mow   by  de)  .iiv  ini:  it 

of  halt  of  Its  tenitoiA,  which  he  a>»i<;iied  to  the  Pclphians 
ix.   7.     i    :     ••(••       ~  'liat    111   his 

•ije   appeaiaiii"  \..   ]). 

-.nib.  .      In   the  time  of   I' 

then  called  Thebes,  was  still   inhabited,  but   the 
itiivly  abandoned  :   and  he  only  saw  the  v. 
and  temples,  ol' which  be  irm.-a  description.       The    . 
which  now  m-cupics  the  antient    Cadmea   is  called  T 
or  1'heba,  and   in  Turkish,  Sliva:    and   here,  as  well 
tin' Mirroundini;   plain,  there   are   many  remains  of  antient 
buildings,  sculptures,  and  insciiption-..      The  inhaliitants 
of  antient   Theljes  were  distmiruishcd  above  all   the  other 

rusticity,  fierceness,  and    passion.       Hi  i 
Thebaii  was  always  ready  to  i  dispute,  either  with 

aiellow-eiti/en  or  with  a  foreigner,  by  liirlitim;  rather  than 
by  the  ordinary  course  of  justice.  The  women 

i  for  their  gentleness  and  beauty.     (Picaearchus,  as 
above.) 

In  early  times  Thebes  was  governed  by  kin^s.  who  play 
a  more  prominent  part  in  the  mythical  traditions  of  Gi 
than   the   chiefs  of  any  other  part    of  the    country.     The 
\anthus.  was  slain   in  single  combat 

..Iropompus.     Aftei    this   c\cnt   the    government    of 

Thebes    became   an    aristocracy,    or    rather  an   oligarchy. 

5,  H.)     This  Inrm  of  iriivernment.  althoui;h 

I    fie(juenlly  restored  for  a  short  tun.  .  to  a 

democracy.  \Vh.  .  ihatnoom  ed  to  hold 

any  public  office  unless  he  had.  at  least  for  ten  years,  not 
been  in  any  trade,  this  rule  seems  to 

to  tin  ic   period.     (Aristot.,    J'n/il..w.  .'(.  p.  SO; 

vi.  -1.  ]).  120:),  ed.  Glittli'i^.  Purini:  the  time  of  the  ljer- 
sian  invasion,  the  Slovenian  :  called  an 

hut  it  is  added  that   this  was  not   the  constitution  which 
the  Thebans  had   inherited  from  their  fathers.     (Tl. 
dides.  iii.  (>J ;    Plutarch,  Ari&tid.,    18.      The  democracy, 
which  must  have  been  restored  soon  -.  ,  abo- 

lished after  the  battle  of  Oenophyta.  in  n.i .  -l.">7. 
totle,  Ptilit.,  v.  2,  p.  15.").;  In  the  Peloponnesiaii  war  we 
a^amlind  mention  of  an  oligarchy  al  Tin  In.-  Thueydides, 
i\.  7(i ;  v.  :il  ;  Diodorus  Sic.,  xii.  (i'.l  :  but  this  appears  to 
refer  only  to  the  influence  of  the  magistrates,  for  through- 
out that  time, as  well  as  afterwards  in  the  time  of  l.i 
nondas  and  Pelopidas,  it  was  the  assembly  of  the  people 
which  decided  the  most  important  political  questions,  such 
as  those  relatinir  to  war  and  peace,  i  \~cnophon.  ///•//,"«., 
iii.  "),  8.  Henceforth  the  democratical  constitution  ap- 
pears to  have  continued  at  Thebes  down  to  the  time  that 
Greece  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  and  a  shadow 
of  it  remained  even  afterwards.  Aloii£  with  the  assembly, 
which,  at  least  in  later  tunes,  was  a-  tumultuous  as  that 
of  Athens  (1'olylmis.  vi.  •!•!  .  Thebes  also  had  a  senate; 
and  the  magistrates,  who  were  elected  annually  by  ballot, 
bore  the  name  of  polemarchs.  A- 

not  confined  to  the  city  and  its  immediate  neighbour- 
hood, but  comprised  the  whole  territory  between  the 
eastern  coast  of  ail  and  Mount  Cilhaeron.  and 

extended    to  the  north  as  far  as  the  Little  river  Ccpli 
which   empties  itself  in  the  sea  between  Kuboea  and  tin- 
mainland.      This  whole   territory  was   called    Thebais.  and 
contained  a  great  number  of  :  iwns  which  were  subji 

-.  Among  the  fourteen  confeden 

Tin-lies  was    Ihe   fust,  whence    it    is    gcnei.  :    the 

capital   of  Hoeotia,  which,  in  tin  the  word, 

,::ly  was  not.      [  HOKMTIA.] 

Besides  the  Kiryptian  and  Boeotian  Thebes,  the  follow- 
inu  tow  us  of  this  name  are  mentioned  by  antienl  writers  : — 

1.  Thebes  in  1'hlhiotis  in  Tin 

Thebae  I'htluoticac.or  Thebae  Phthiae  ,  wa- an  impoitant 
icial   town  with  a  good    1  -...   p. 

•i:il. -l.'Ki,  •>.'{.">:   \.\\  \ .  \\xix.  i") :   \x\\ni.7. 

2.  Thebe    U,',  i,/     in  Tin:.  '  linor  was  celeb, 

..tilled    p.:'  03  war.      ll 

situated  north  of    \.liannttiuin.and   taken  and   de>l.. 
Ii.   Ac -hiiles.     The  plain  in  which  the  town  had  I  i-,.|i  situ- 
aied  was   known  down   to  Ihe  la'  in  of 

•  :     Hoiin  i  :i(i(i  ;     \i.  ;}S)7  ; 

Stiabo,  xiii..  ]).  .  lieiodytus.  vu.  4 


THE 


303 


THE 


3.  Thebes,  in   that   part   of  Arabia   Felix  which  was 
called  the  country  of  the  Cinaedocolpitae. 

4.  Thebes  in  Lucania  in  Italy.     ( Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.,  iii. 
15.)    Stephanus  of  Byzantium  (s.  v.  6ij/3m)  mentions  seve- 
ral other  towns  of  this  name,  of  which  however  nothing 
is  known. 

THECA,  a  term  in  vegetable  anatomy.  It  was  applied 
by  Grew  to  that  part  of  the  stamen  which  contains  the 
reproductive  granules  and  which  is  now  generally  called 
the  anther.  [ANTHER.]  It  is  also  extensively  employed  in 
cryptogamic  botany.  Among  the  ferns,  it  is  applied, 
in  common  with  the  terms  capsule,  conceptacle,  and 
sporangium  [SPORANGIUM],  to  those  little  granules  which 
constitute  the  masse.-;  called  sori.  In  the  Equisetacese  it 
expresses  the  assemblage  of  cases,  which  are  attached  to 
scales  arranged  in  a  conical  manner. 

The  same  term  is  used  to  indicate  the  kidney-shaped 
two-valved  cases  that  contain  the  reproductive  matter  of 
Lyeopodiaceae  and  also  the  urn-like  organs  that  enclose  the 
sporules  of  mosses.  It  is  by  some  writers  still  further  ex- 
tended, and  used  to  express  the  parts  that  contain  the 
sporules  in  Lichens  and  Fungi. 

THECA  'in  Anatomy j  is  a  term  commonly  applied  to 
the  strong  fibrous  sheaths  in  which  certain  soft  parts  of  the 
body  are  enclosed.  Thus  the  tkeca  vertebra/if  is  the 
sheath  of  dura  mater  in  which  the  spinal  chord  is  enclosed  ; 
and  the  canals  through  which  many  of  the  long  tendons 
of  the  muscles  of  the  hand  and  foot  run  are  called  thecse. 
These  last  are  always  lined  by  a  synovial  membrane,  and 
contain  a  small  quantity  of  fluid  [SYNOVIA],  by  which  the 
sliding  of  the  tendons  is  facilitated. 

THECADAGTYLS,  Cuvier's  name  for  those  6><7«/v 
which  have  the  toes  enlarged  throughout  their  length,  and 
furnished  below  with  transverse  scales,  which  arc  divided 
by  a  longitudinal  furrow,  where  the  claw  may  tie  entirely 
hid.  [GECKO.] 

THKCIT)EA,  or  THECITJIUM.  [BRACHIOPODA,  vol. 
v.,  p.  313.]  Mr.  J.  E.  Gray  arranges  the  Thecideidte  as 
the  fourth  family  of  the  Brachinpodn,  placing  it  between 
the  l'i  and  the  Cruniadie,  and  making  it  consist 

of  the  single  genus  Thecidea. 

THECODO.NTOSAU'RUS.     [THECODONTS.] 

THECODONTS.  Professor  Owen,  in  his  '  Report  on 
li  Fossil  Reptiles,'  observes  that  among  the  inferior 
or  squamate  saunans  there  are  two  leading  modifications 
in  the  mode  of  attachment  of  the  teeth,  the  base  of  which 
may  he  either  anchylosed  to  the  summit  of  the  alveolar 
ridge,  or  to  the  bottom  of  an  alveolar  groove,  and  supported 
by  its  lateral  wall.  These  modifications  are,  he  remarks, 
indicated  respectively  by  the  terms  'acrodont'  and  '  pleu- 
rodont.'  A  third  mode  of  fixation  is  presented  by  some 
extinct  saurians,  which,  in  other  parts  of  their  organiza- 
tion, adhere  to  the  squamate  or  lacertine  division  of  the 
order,  the  teeth  being  implanted  in  sockets,  either  loosely 
or  confluent  with  the  bony  walls  of  the  cavity :  these 
ssor  Owen  has,  in  his  '  Odontography,'  termed  the 
'/'//'-'  riiitns,  the  most  antient  of  all  saurians  be- 

longing to  this  group. 

Commencing  with  the  Tkecodontotaurut  of  Dr.  Riley 
and  Mr.  Stutchbmy,  described  by  them  in  the  '  Geological 
Transactions '  of  1836,  from  remains  found  in  the  dolomitic 
conglomerate  of  Redland,  near  Bristol,  the  oldest  or  lowest 
division  of  the  new  red  sandstone  series,  Professor  Owen 
remarks  that  this  reptile  is  allied  to  the  typical  Varanian 
Monitors,  but  differs  from  them  in  having  the  teeth  im- 
bedded in  distinct  sockets;  but  that  the  /  "urn/ii,  among 
the  squamate  saurians,  approach  to  this  condition  in  the 
shallow  cavities  containing  the  base  of  their  teeth  along 
the  bottom  of  the  alveolar  groove. 

But,  in  the  extinct  genus  now  under  consideration,  the 
sockets  are,  he  states,  deeper,  and  the  inner  alveolar  wall 
is  nearly  as  high  as  the  outer  one  ;  the  teeth  are  arranged 
in  a  '  -.lightly  decreasing  in  size  towards  the 

posterior  part  of  the  jaw  ;  each  branch  of  the  lower  jaw 
is  supposed  to  have  contained  twenty-one  teeth,  which  are 
conical,  rather  slender,  compressed  and  acutely  pointed, 
with  an  anterior  and  posterior  finely  serrated  edge,  the 
lerratuifs  being  directed  towards  the  apex  of  the  tooth,  as 
;n  G.  i  It/iopa lotion  ;  the  outer  surface  is 

more  convex  than  the  inner  one  ;  the  apex  is  slightly  re- 
curved :  and  t:  |  the  crown  contracts  a  little  to 
form  the  subcyiindrical  fang.  He  then  goes  on  to  remark 
lhat  the  pulp-cavity  remains  open  in  the  base  of  the 


crown  ;  that,  in  their  microscopic  structure  the  teeth  of 
the  Thecodontosaurus  closely  correspond  with  those  of 
Varanus,  Monitor,  and  Megalosaurus ;  that  the  body  of 
the  tooth  consists  of  compact  dentine,  in  which  the  cal- 
cigerous  tubes  diverge  from  an  open  pulp-cavity  at  nearly 
right  angles  to  the  surface  of  the  tooth ;  that  they  form  a 
slight  curve  at  their  origin,  with  the  concavity  directed 
towards  the  base  of  the  tooth  ;  then  proceed  straight,  and, 
at  the  periphery,  bend  upwards  in  the  contrary  direction. 
The  diameter  of  the  calcigerous  tube  he  gives  as  l-30,000th 
of  an  inch,  and  the  breadth  of  the  interspace  of  the  tube 
as  l-8000th  of  an  inch.  The  crown  of  the  tooth  is  in- 
vested with  a  simple  crown  of  enamel.  This  microscopic 
examination,  which  Professor  Owen  was  enabled  to  make, 
by  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Stutchbury,  satisfactorily  esta- 
blishes, in  the  Professor's  opinion,  the  distinction  between 
the  saurian  of  the  Bristol  conglomerate  and  Labyrinthodon. 
[SALAMANDROIDES.] 

Of  PAL^EOSAURUS  Professor  Owen  states  that  its  tooth 
is  compressed,  pointed,  and  with  trenchant  serrated  mar- 
gins ;  but  that  its  breadth,  compared  with  its  length,  is 
much  greater  than  in  Thecodontosaurus.  The  vertebrae 
associated  with  these  teeth  were  biconcave,  with  the, 
middle  of  the  body  more  constricted,  and  terminal  arti- 
cular cavities  rather  deeper  than  in  TELEOSAURUS  ;  but, 
the  Professor  adds,  they  are  chiefly  remarkable  for  the 
depth  of  the  spinal  canal  at  the  middle  of  each  vertebra, 
where  it  sinks  into  the  substance  of  the  centrum,  and  thus 
the  canal  is  wider  vertically  at  the  middle  than  at  the  two 
ends  of  the  vertebra :  an  analogous  structure,  he  observes, 
but  less  marked,  obtains  in  the  dorsal  vertebrae  of  the 
Rht/nchosaurun  from  the  new  red  sandstone  of  Shrop- 
shire. 

Professor  Owen  then  points  out  that  besides  deviating 
from  existing  lizards  in  the  thecodont  dentition  and  bicon- 
cave vertebrae,  the  antient  saurians  of  the  magnesian  con- 
glomerate also  differed  in  having  some  of  their  ribs  arti- 
culated by  a  head  and  tubercle  to  two  surfaces  of  the 
vertebra,  as  at  the  anterior  part  of  the  chest  in  Crocodiles 
and  Dinosaurs.  The  shaft  of  the  rib,  he  tells  us,  was  tra- 
versed, as  in  the  Ichthyosaur  and  Rhynchosaur,  by  a  deep 
longitudinal  groove  ;  and  some  fragmentary  bones  indi- 
cut id  obscurely  that  the  pectoral  arch  deviated  from  the 
Crocodilian,  and  approached  the  Lacertian  or  Enaliosau 
riau  type  in  the  presence  of  a  clavicle,  and  in  the  breadth 
and  complicated  form  of  the  coracoid.  The  humerus,  h« 
observes,  appears  to  have  been  little  more  than  half  the 
length  of  the  femur ;  and  to  have  been,  like  that  of  the 
Rhynchosaurus,  unusually  expanded  at  the  two  extremi- 
ties. 

After  quoting  the  description  of  the  femur  by  the  dis- 
coverers of  the  present  thecodont  reptiles,  Professor  Owen 
remarks  that  the  tibia,  fibula,  and  metatarsal  bones  mani- 
fest, like  the  femur,  the  fitness  of  the  thecodont  saurians 
for  progression  on  land.  The  ungual  phalanges,  he  ob- 
serves, are  subcompressed,  curved  downwards,  pointed, 
and  impressed  on  each  side  with  the  usual  curved  canal. 

The  Professor  draws  the  following  conclusions  from  the 
knowledge  at  present  possessed  of  the  osteology  of  Theco- 
donlosannta  and  Paleeosaurtti;  whose  antiquity  the  disco- 
verers of  these  genera  regard  as  being  greater  than  that 
of  any  other  vertebrated  animals,  excepting  fishes  : — 

In  their  thecodont  type  of  dentition,  biconcave  vertebrae, 
double-jointed  ribs,  and  proportionate  size  of  the  bones  of 
the  extremities,  they  are  nearly  allied  to  the  Telcosau- 
rin;  but  they  combine  a  lacertian  form  of  tooth  and 
structure  of  the  pectoral  and  probably  pelvic  arch  with 
these  crocodilian  characters,  having  distinctive  modifica- 
tions, as  the  moniliform  spinal  canal,  in  which  however 
the  almost  contemporary  Rhynchosaur  participates. 

Professor  Owen  adds  that  it  would  be  interesting  to 
ascertain  whether  the  caudal  vertebrae  are  characterized, 
as  in  the  Thuringian  Protosaur,  by  double  diverging 
spinous  processes. 

Cladyodon,  Owen. — '  In  the  new  red  sandstone  (keuper?) 
of  Warwick  and  Leamington,'  says  the  Professor,  '  there 
occur  ietached,  pointed,  trenchant,  recurved  teeth,  the 
crowns  of  which  are  sometimes  1  inch  4  lines  in  length, 
and  5  lines  across  the  base  :  they  have  been  found  in  the 
same  quarries  as  those  containing  the  remains  of  J.aln/ri'i- 
thodon.  In  their  compressed  form,  anterior  and  posterior 
serrated  edges,  sharp  points,  and  microscopic  structure, 
these  teeth  agree  with  those  of  the  Saurian  reptiles  of  the 


I     I!    K 


SOI 


THE 


In  tlu-lr  breadth,  a»  compared  with 

lh  and  thickness,  tin  \  ween 

i  I'iihr-miurtu  plaiyodon ;    hut 

.Mttl  long' 

.•roach  tin-  t'oini  characteristic  ol"  tin1 

.?,/...          FlOIll    these    tcetll     llOWCVer 

ill, -r  in  :'  pression,  and  in 

:it  contraction  at  tin-  base  of  Hie  crown  ;   I  therefore 

indicHlr  the  genus,  of  which,  as  yet,  only  the  teeth  are 

known,  by  the  i  "  ii/i/««/»».  and  the  species  from 

•kshir*  Muni-loin •>  hy  the  name  of  Ctadyodnn 

uiiony  ol'  the  friendly  aid  ol'  Dr.  Lloyd  of 

iington,  to  whose  /.calous  co-operation  I  owe  the  ma- 

» for  the  description  of  the  teeth  of  tin-  present  genus, 

and  the  Mill   more  rnnarkahlr  ones  of  the  British  species 
tiyrinth'xti'H.  with  which  tin-  teeth  of  the  Clattyodon 
are  associated. 

In  conclusion.  Professor  Owen  refers  to  a  tootli  of  Clu- 
ilyotl ,i>  figured  hy  Mr.  Murchison  ami  Mr.  Strickland  in 
thoir  paper  on  the  Warwick  sandstones.  (Geol.  Tram., 
2)id  series,  vol.  \. 

TlIKi'nso  MATA.  M.  de  Blainville'*  name  for  his  first 
family  of  Aporobranchi'ita,  \\w  first  onlcr  of  his  second 

•  ii  of  his  second  subclass  (Paractpkoloptiora  U«- 
The  Aporobranchiatu,   according    to  It.  <le  Blainvillc, 
~t  of  those  Malacosaria,  or  Mollusks,  which  have  the 
hody  of  a  slightly  variable  form,  but  constantly  provided 
with"  natatory  appendages  which  arc  equal  and  lateral,  with- 
out any  foot  properly  so  called,  and  which  often  have  the 
crgans  of  respiration  but  little  evident. 

Tin-  following  genera  are  arranged  by  M.  de  Blainville 
under  the  family  of  Ttiecosomata  : — 

//y<i/«-u .-  Clfodora.  divided  into  two  sections;  1,  de- 
pressed specs.  -.  1  \  .  rifodora,  Broiririi ;  2,  conical  and  not 
depressed  species  (genus  I'uginella,  Daud.),  Ex.,  Vaginrlla 
depresta;  Cymiintiii :  and  Pyrfo  (fossil). 

Tlie  principal  forms  of  this  family  arc  treated  of  under 
llu-  article  Hy.\L.tu>.t:. 

Mr.  J.  E.  Gray,  who  makes  the  ZXecofOMOftl  the  first 
order  of  the  class  i-Jth)  PTEHOPODA,  divides  the  forms  which, 
in  his  opinion,  should  be  arranged  under  that  order,  into 
the  following  families  and  genera: — 

Fam.  1.  Cleodoridae. 

Genera : — Hyaltca  ;  Diacria  ;  Cleodora ;  Balantium ; 
Pl-uropui ;  I  "ngiiiclta  ;  Creseis ;  Brocfius  ;  Psyche ;  Eu- 
ribia. 

Fam.  2.  Liniacinidae. 
Genus,  Limaciiia. 

Fam.  3.  Cuvierida-. 
Genera: — Cttri/  /in  :   Trii<trres. 

Fain.  I.  <  Ymbuliadae. 
ais,  Cymbuliii. 

THKDKN.  .lOHANN  CHRISTIAN'  ANTON,  a  cele- 
brated Gei man  surgeon,  was  born  Sept.  13,  \7\4,  at  Stein- 
In-ck,  a  small  village  not  far  from  Wismar,  in  the  duchy  of 
Mecklenburg.  His  family  had  been  mined  by  the  dis- 
asters of  war,  and  his  father  died  when  lie  was  young.  \\liieh 
two  melancholy  events  had  an  unfavourable  influence  upon 
his  education  and  his  first  enhance  into  life.  Hi'  hail 
liartll.  1  the  bare  clement.-,  of  education,  when,  at 

the  age  of  thirteen,  he  was  reduced  to  the  necessity  of 
hiring  himself  out  as  a  servant ;  but  this  occupation  was 
so  revolting  to  his  feelings,  that  lie  determined  to  learn  a 
trade.  Accordingly  his  elder  brother,  who  was  a  tailor, 
'.cd  him  a-,  an  apprentice:  but  Thcden  did  not  find 
this  employment  more  suited  to  his  taste  and  talents 
than  his  former  one,  and,  as  he  got  nothing  but  reproofs 
liom  his  brother,  he  finally  determined  to  devote  himself 
to  the  study  of  medicine.  He  wa-.  first  place  d  by  his  friends 
with  a  surg(  mi  at  liutzow,  where  lie  spent  four  years  in  a 
barber's  shop  without  any  real  advantage  ;  and  as  soun  as 
his  apprenticeship  was  finished,  he  went  to  Rostock,  Ham- 
burg, Lfibedf,  and  Danzig.  Ill  lhi>  la-t  city  he  at  length 
!  in  obtaining  some  employment  in  the  troops  of 
the  king  of  Prussia,  and  was  attached  as  surgeon  to  a 
Miuadron  ol  iimasMcis.  The  zeal  and  punctuality  with 
which  he  performed  all  hi.->  duties  in  thi.-.  |  ::ained 

him  the  eMceni  and  friendship  of  his  sii|ieiior  ofliecis  :   tlie 
the  ehict   surgeon   .  -«<ij<,r  , 

•Mil  shown  him  by  king 

William  I.  at  a  review  »t  Kiesenbmg,  and  the 
death  of  this  prince  put  an  end  to  all  the  hopes  nf  promo- 
•Alucli  IK-  IKM!  ,ii  first  entertained.     In   171::  !  . 


.111,  where  the  celebrated  Schnnrvchmidt,  who  jiutl> 
apincciated   hi-,  talents,  hiininmd  him  with  his  Inniilship, 
and  procured  for  him  the  post  of  chief  surgeon  during  the 
second   war   in   Silt-la.      At    the  end  of  I'M 
turned   to   Herlin.  and  devoted  himself   witii  unremitting 
attention    to    the    study   of   anatomy   and    suigery.       The 
Seven  Years'  War  afterwards  furnished  him  with  num. 
opportunities  of  displaying  the  skill  that  he  had  admired, 
and  also  the  excellent  qualities  of  his  heart.   Frederick  the 

Great  raised  him  gradually  from  one  post  to  another,  till  he 

became  at  la^  hi»  chief  military  surgeon.    Thedcn,  in  this 
eminent  position,  improved  all  ihe  branches  oft' 
and  displayed  an  activity  which  contributed   still   more  to 
gain  him  the  good  opinion  of  his  -overeiirn.    The  sue. 
of  Frederick  honoured  him  equally   with    his  confid-. 
and  Theden  continued  to  enjoy  to  the  end  of  his  life  an 
esteem  and  respect   for  which   lie  was  indebted  only  to  his 
real  merit   and  eminent  Mrvicee.      He  died.  October  21, 
IT'.iT.  at   the   age  of  eighty-three.     The  continual   fatigue 
and  agitation  of  war  did  not    prevent  his  drawing  up  and 
putting  in  order  the  observations  which  an  immense  tield 
of  action   had    given   him   an   opportunity    of   collecting. 
His  works  are  not  numerous,  but  they  bear  the  -tamp  of 
experience,  and  one  n  :n  them  the  firm  and   bold 

touch  of  a  man  who  did  not  venture  to  take  up  his  pen  till 
alter  thirty  years  of  most  extensive  practice.  From  this 
eulogium  we  must  however  except  all  the  theoretical 
of  his  writings,  which,  unfortunately,  hold  a  prominent 
place  in  them,  and  which  are  only  based  upon  the  founda- 
tion of  the  antiquated  principles  of  the  humoral  theory. 
The  following  is  the  list  of  his  works  mentioned  by  M. 
Jourdan  in  the  '  Biographic  Medieale,'  from  which  work 
the  preceding  account  has  been  taken  : — •  N'eue  Bcmer- 
kungen  uiul  Ki  fahrungen  zur  Bcreichcrung  der  Wundarz- 
iieykunst  mid  Medicin.'  Herlin  and  Stettin.  1771-17'.:"'.  s\o. ; 
'  Unterricht  fur  die  Unterwundirzte  bey  Armeen,'  Herlin, 
1774,  8vo.,  and  17S2.  Hvo.  ;  •  Sendschr'ciben  an  Kichter, 
die  neu  crfundencn  Catheter  aus  der  Kesina  clastica  be- 
trclfend,1  Berlin,  1777,  Kvo. 
TIIKFT.  [LAKCKNY.] 

THEIN,  or  Tlieiua,  the  peculiar  principle  often,  which 
was  procured  and  analysed  by  M.  Jobst  of  Stuttgard.  He 
prepared  it  by  boiling  tea-leaves  in  water,  filtering  and 
concent  i  ating  the  solution,  and  adding  to  it  acetate  of 
lead  as  long  as  precipitation  occurred  ;  after  filtration 
the  excess  of  lead  wa>  precipitated  by  hydrosiilphuric 
arid,  and  by  subsequent  evaporation  crystals  of  thein 
deposited  which  possessed  the  following  properties  alter 
purification:  they  were  sort,  acicular,  snow-white,  much 
more  soluble  in  hot  than  in  cold  water,  alcohol,  or  tether; 
they  dissolved  readily  in  acids,  and  were  decomposed 
when  heated  either  in  sulphuric  or  nitric  acid.  Thein 
has  n.ii  effect  on  vegetable  blues:  alkalis  do  not  precipitate 
it  from  solution  in  acids,  and  when  boiled  in  a  strong  solu- 
tion of  potash  it  is  decomposed,  and  ammonia  is  evolved  ; 
it  contains  water  of  crytallization,  which  it  loses  at  212'. 
Thein  may  be  sublimed. 

According  to  the  analysis  of  .lobst.  thein  is  composed 
of 

Hydrogen  ... 

Carbon      ....     49'(JO 
Oxygen  .          .          .     IG'27 

Azote        ....     28-91 


too- 

1"  i  e marked  that  this  analysis  very  closely  resembles 
that,  of  Caft'ein  as  given  by  I. icing. 

THELICO'NUS.  Mr.  Swainson's  name  for  a  subgcnus  of 

CciM's.         I  '\  ..    '  '.     ,//v    iill\s,ltrltll.        (Mil! 

THKLIDKKMA,   Mr.  Swainson's  name  for  a  subgenus 
ofl'iiin.     (Malacology.)     [.NAIADKS.] 

THKI-I'DOMl'S.  a  form  placed  by  Mr.  Swainson  under 
nily     'irtfliitlic,    in    the   subfamily    Kntrlhiitr,    with 
.  ric  name  at  the  head  of  this  article. 
.iple,  Tlirliiltimn\  Hruzili: 

Mr.  Swainson  thus  describes  it.     'We  have  placeil  the 

Tri:  Ii nl,f  next   to  the  llrlicithe  under  Ihe  belief  that  they 

followed  each  other,  although  the  links  of  connection 

wanting.     It  is  clear  that  of  all  the  types  of  the  Tr'n-hidrt; 

•i    is  that   which    by    its    general    form   makes   the 

'    appioach  to   lii/ii •:    while  the  thickening  of  the 

inner  lip.  which  •  r  Ihe  umbilicus,  is  found  also, 

but  in  a    1.  <-\  mail)  of  the   land  volutes,  J.uccr- 


THE 


305 


THE 


ninee.    But  a  singular  discovery  recently  made  has  thrown 
an   entirely  new   light   upon    this    interesting    question 
Among  a  considerable   number  of  freshwater  Planorbi 
(sic)   '  all   of  one  species,  which  were  sent  to  us  from 
Brazil,  we  picked  out  two  helix-looking  shells,  so  precisely 
of  the  same  olive-brown  colour,  and  of  the  same  size,  ai> 
the  others,  that  none  but  a  conchologist  would  have  been 
led  to  examine  them.     They  appeared  in  fact  like  two 
little  land-snails  of  the  subgenus  Zonites,  that  had  fallen 
into  the  water  where  the  P/anurbi'  (sic)  '  had  been  found, 
their  outside  being  discoloured,  and  covered  with  little 
particles  of  dirt  and  sand.      On  placing  them  however 
under  the  magnifier,  a  conchologist  alone  can  judge  of  our 
astonishment  at  finding  that  the  whole  of  the  shell  was 
actually  composed  of  little  stones  and  grains  of  sand  only, 
agglutinated  together,  yet  with  so  much  skill  by  the  ani- 
mal, that  the  regular  turns  of  the  volutions  of  the  spire, 
and  the  form  of  the  umbilicus,  were  most,  accurately  pre- 
served ;    they  were,  in  short,  freshwater  carriers — absolute 
counterparts  of  their  marine  brethren,   Onustiis.     As  we 
can  find  no  notice  nor  even  allusion  to  such  an  extraordi- 
nary genus  of  shells  in  any  writer,  we  have  considered  it 
and  affixed  to  it  the  name  of  Thelidomus.     In  regard 
to  its  affinity,  we  suspect  that  it  fills  the  same  situation 
among  the  KDtellince  which  Onustus  does  among  the  Tro- 
I'lnnir  :   this  will  make  it  the  most  aberrant  type  and  con- 
sequently that  which  comes  nearest  to  the  Helicidce,  whose 
form  it  actually  possesses.     The  annexed  figures  are  taken 
from  the  only  two  specimens,  in  our  cabinet,  which  we 
have  either  seen  or  heard  of.     Thus,  there  is  ground  for 
supposing  that  the  passage  from  the  marine  JrocMda  to 
the  terrestrial  snails  is  marked  by  one  or  more  fluviatile 
types  ;  just  as  is  the  passage,  on  the  other  side,  of  the  Heli- 
cidts  marked  by  the  Limnuriiirt1.  The  accidental  discovery 
also  of  this  extraordinary  shell  will  probably  induce  natu- 
ralists to  a  more  accurate  examination   of  the   fossil   tur- 
binated  univalves;  for  it  is  clear  that  although  Tkelidomut 
opens  the  path  to  the  IMiviiltr,  there  must  be  several  other 
forms  between  the  two,  either  extinct  or  undiscovered.' 
(Malacology:  Cabinet  Cyclopaedia,  1840.) 

This  so-called  shell,  which  is  twice  figured  and  described 
as  that  of  a  mollusk  in  the  work  quoted,  is  the  cast'  of  an 
insect. 

\\u  notice  the  error,  that  a  mistake  in  a  useful  book 
bearing  the  authority  of  a  name  so  generally  known  and 
deservedly  respected  as  Mr.  Swainson's,  may  not  mislead. 

TIIEL1D'.)N'TA,  a  genus  of  pulmoniferous  gastropods, 
which  Mr.  Swainson  apparently  places  among  the  Liirri- 
nitifp,  or  Land  Volutes,  as  he  terms  them  :  but  we  do  not 
find  it  in  the  'Natural  Arrangement'  at  the  end  of  his 
vol.  on  Miil'trri/n^!/,  unlc.'-s  Tin  liilninii-t,  which  appears 
there  for  the  third  time,  following  Putiodon  at  the  end  of 
the  subfamily  Lin-i-rniinp.  be  a  misprint  for  it. 

THELLUSSON,  PETEK.  He  was  the  son  of  Isaac  de 
Thellusson,  ambassador  from  Geneva  to  the  court  of  Louis 
XV.  He  fixed  his  residence  in  London  about  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  accumulated  an  immense 
fortune  as  a  merchant.  He  died  on  the  21st  of  July,  1797. 
His  name  has  been  rendered  remarkable  by  the  extraordi- 
nary nature  of  his  will.  The  capricious  and  extensive  use 
of  the  power  of  di^posim:  of  his  property,  which  the  law, 
as  then  existing,  placed  in  his  hands,  led  to  the  restraints 
subsequently  imposed  upon  testamentary  dispositions. 

The  property  which  was  the  subject  of  his  will  consisted 
of  a  landed  estate  of  about  4000/.  a  year,  and  of  personal 
property  to  the  amount  of  about  G00,000/.  This  property 
lie  devised  and  bequeathed  to  trustees  upon  trust  for  accu- 
mulation and  investment  in  the  purchase  of  lands  during 
the  lives  of  his  sons,  grandsons,  and  the  issue  of  sons  and 
Isons  living,  or  in  rejitre  m  mere,  at  the  time  of  his 
death,  and  the  lives  of  the  survivors  and  survivor  of  them  : 
and  after  that  period,  to  be  conveyed  to  the  lineal  descend- 
ants of  his  sons  in  tail  male. 

It  had  been  long  understood  to  be  the  rule  of  law  that 
the  absolute  ownership  of  property  might  be  suspended, 
and  consequently  the  property  rendered  inalienable,  during 
in  being  at  the  time  of  the  creation  of  the  trust, 
that  is.  where  the  trust  is  created  by  will,  at  the  time  of 
the  death  of  the  testator.  This  period  was  afterwards 
extended  so  as  to  allow  for  the  cases  of  infancy,  and 
of  a  child  in  ri-iitre  sa  mere  ;  but  it  was  for  some 
time  questioned  whether  a  term  of  twenty-one  years 
might  in  all  cases  be  added  to  the  period  of  suspen- 
P.  C..  No.  |r-": 


sion,  though  it  has  since  been  determined  that  it 
may.  [SETTLEMENT.]  Restraint  on  the  accumulation  of 
income  was  unknown  to  the  common  law,  except  in  so  far 
as  the  rule  against  perpetuities  necessarily  prevented  ac- 
cumulation from  being  carried  beyond  its'limits ;  and  Mr. 
Thellusson's  will,  by  confining  the  restriction  to  existing 
lives,  escaped  the  question  which  then  existed  as  to  the 
allowance  of  an  absolute  term  of  twenty-one  years  in  ad- 
dition to  a  life  or  lives  in  being  at  the  time  of  the  crea- 
tion of  the  trust. 

This  will,  which,  in  the  events  that  happened,  had 
the  effect  of  postponing  the  usufructuary  enjoyment  of  the 
bulk  of  the  estate  till  the  expiration  of  nine  lives  in  being  at 
the  time  of  the  testator's  death,  was,  after  many  hard  strug- 
gles, occasioned  rather  by  the  immense  value  of  the  pro- 
perty implicated  (which  it  was  computed  would  have 
amounted,  with  the  expected  accumulations,  to  upwards 
of  18,000,000/.),  than  by  any  new  difficulty  in  the  prin- 
ciple, finally  established  by  the  decision  of  the  House  of 
Lords  on  the  25th  of  June,  1805.  ('fltellusson  v.  Woodford, 
11  Ves.,  112.) 

The  case  of  Thellusson  v.  Woodford  gave  rise  to  the 
act  of  the  40  Geo.  III.,  c.  98,  '  for  restraining  all  trusts 
and  directions  in  deeds  or  wills  whereby  the  profits  or  pro- 
duce of  real  or  personal  estates  shall  be  accumulated  and 
the  beneficial  enjoyment  thereof  postponed  beyond  the 
term  therein  limited."  By  the  provisions  of  this  act  no 
person  can  settle  or  dispose  of  property  by  deed,  will,  or 
otherwise,  so  as  to  accumulate  the  income  thereof,  either 
wholly  or  partially,  '  for  any  longer  term  than  the  life  or 
lives  of  any  such  grantor  or  grantors,  settlor  or  settlors,  or 
the  term  of  twenty-one  years  from  the  death  of  any  such 
grantor,  settlor,  devisor,  or  testator,  or  during  the  minority 
or  respective  minorities  of  any  person  or  persons  who  shall 
be  living  or  in  centre  xn  mere,  at  the  time  of  the  death  of 
such  grantor,  devisor,  or  testator,  or  during  the  minority  or 
respective  minorities  only  of  any  person  or  persons,  who, 
under  the  uses  or  trusts  of  the  deed,  surrender,  will,  or 
other  assurances  directing  such  accumulations,  would  for 
the  time  being,  if  of  full  age,  be  entitled  to  the  rents, 
issues,  and  profits,  or  the  interest,  dividends,  and  annual 
produce  so  directed  to  be  accumulated.  And  in  every  case 
where  accumulation  shall  be  directed  otherwise  than  as 
aforesaid,  such  direction  shall  be  null  and  void,  and  the 
rents,  issues,  profits,  and  produce  of  such  property  so 
directed  to  be  accumulated  shall,  so  long  as  the  same  shall 
be  directed  to  be  accumulated  contrary  to  the  provisions 
of  this  act,  go  to  and  be  received  by  such  person  or  per- 
sons as  would  have  been  entitled  thereto,  if  such  accumu- 
lation had  not  been  directed.'  Sect.  2  provides,  '  that 
nothing  in  this  act  contained  shall  extend  to  any  provision 
for  payment  of  debts  of  any  grantor,  settlor,  or  devisor,  or 
other  person  or  persons,  or  to  any  provision  for  raising  por- 
tions for  any  child  or  children  of  any  person  taking  any  in- 
terest under  any  such  conveyance,  settlement,  or  devise,  or 
to  any  direction  touching  the  produce  of  timber  or  wood 
upon  any  lands  or  tenements;  but  that  all  such  provisions 
shall  be  made  and  given  as  if  this  act  had  not  passed.' 
Sect.  3  provides  that  the  act  shall  not  extend  to  dispositions 
of  heritable  property  in  Scotland. 

It  has  been  sometimes  thought  that  periods  specified  in 
the  act  might  be  taken  accumulatively,  and  that  accumula- 
tion might  be  directed  for  them  all  successively.  The  lan- 
guage of  the  statute  however  is  disjunctive,  and  therefore 
seems  to  give  the  option  of  selecting  one  only  of  the  de- 
signated periods.  (9  Ves. ,130.)  And  it  has  been  determined 
:hat  the  clause  respecting  the  minority  of  persons  entitled 
under  the  limitation  in  the  instrument  does  not  authorize 

trust  for  accumulation  extending  over  the  minority  of 
an  unborn  person  to  whom  at  majority  the  accumulated 
fund  with  the  principal  from  which  it  arose  is  given. 
(4  Madd.,  275.) 

It  is  now  settled  upon  this  statute  that  a  trust  for  accu- 
mulation reaching  beyond  the  allowed  period  is  good  for 
the  period  allowed  by  law.  (12  Ves.,  295  ;  4  Kuss.,  403.) 

THELPHU'SA.     [TIIKLPHIISIANS.] 

THELPHU'SIANS,  M.  Milne  Edwards's  name  for  a 
,ribe  of  brachyurous  crustaceans  belonging  to  his  family 
of  Catometopes,  having,  as  he  observes,  considerable  an- 
alogy with  the  Cancerians,  and  evidently  forming  the 
Kissiige  between  them  and  the  Gecarcinians,  or  Land 
Jrabs.  [GECAUCINUS.]  The  general  form,  in  fact,  he 
emarks,  of  many  of  the  Thelpluisians  differs  but  little 

VOL.  XXIV.-2  R 


T  I!   I 


30T> 


T  II   K 


if  tin 


.     Ilirni    ;i' 

4,  ami  iln  nut  |n-rinit  tlu-ir  scpa 
,   .     I:,  i,  he  ODMTVM,  each  of  the  bnnch 

1  into 
I'lc  distance  from  tli. 

-  the  lining  im-inlirain-   is  covered  with  spongv 

:u-   linuu-hiii'  lire,    it 

'    reduced   to  till'  -.(Me    Ml'  VI 

In  tli.  :  lying  on  tin-  \  sides 

,    v ,-    but  tlu-ir  U-\ti:i 

they,  !  backwards  su  :  v  the  whole 

ill'  the  vault  of  tin-  li  -position  which  is  only  met 

with  in  tin-  family  of  tin-  ('<itnnii't<>pe». 
Tlii  'of  UK-  7Vi>'//./i/M.,i//A  ha-  lint  little  or  no 

ami  is  wider  than  it  is  Ion;;:   i1 

"ccupies  about  two-thirds  of  its  trail - 
atoral    holders    de-cube   a    regular    curve. 
Tho  front  is  remarkably  wider  than  the  bnccnl  frame,  ami 
more  or  le.ss  curved   downwards.     Tlu-  <•(/<>  have  a  stout 

hort    peduncle,    the    length   of  which    is    : 
than  double  the  diameter,  and  its  lower  surface  is  occupied 
by  tli.  lor  about  half  it.s  length.     The  orbits  au- 

.  and  always  present  at  their  internal  angle  a  narrow 
gap  tilled  by  the  external  antenna.  The  tiili'mn/  n/i- 
li'iiiKF  are  horizontal,  and,  in  general,  nearly  entirely  hid 
by  the  front.  The  basilary  joint  of  the  <.<•'••/,«(/  <inti'ini(f 

-  into  tin-  trap  which  occupies  the  intern;'!  angle 
of  the  orbit  and   scpaiatcs   tliis  cavity  from  the  an;. 

:  little  developed,  and  the   mo\, 

whic!.  "in  it  in  1  )i  is  vcr\  small.     TllC 

is  nearly  linear,  and  placed  on  the  same  level  a> 
tiie  lower  border  of  the  orbit.  The  liuccul  frame  is  nearly 
us  larire  1  liind.  ami  the  fourth  joint  of  the  ex- 

ternal   jaw -feet    is    insert. -d    sometimes    at    the    internal 
.  sometimes  at  the  middle  of  the  r.nterior  border  of 
the  preceding  joint,  and  sometimes  at  its  extoi  mil 
The  anterior  //••"/  are  much    stronger  and   nearly  : 
longer  than  the  succeeding  ones ;   they  are  but  little,  if  at 
all,  compressed.     The  third  pair  of  feet  are  the   '• 
of  all,  but  they  are  not  twice  the  length  of  the  post-, 
portion    of   the   carapace,    and    they   terminate,    like    the 
others,  in  a  styliform  tarsus.  The  second  joint  of  the  abdn- 
mfn  of  the  male  covers  the  corresponding  portion  of  the 
sternal  plastron  throughout  it.s  width,  an.'  to  the 

h.lsilary  joint  of  the  posterior  feet.     The  abdominal  appcti- 
s  of  the  second  pair  in  the  male  are  filiform  towards 
the  end,  and  at  least  as  long  as  those  of  the  first  pair. 
(M. 

l/,ilii/x  i.f  //,c  Tribe. — These  are  very  remarkable.  All 
the  known  species  live  in  the  earth  near  the  banks  of  rivers 
or  in  humid  forests  ;  bearing  a  strong  analogy  to  the  Land- 

M.  K. 

.M.  Milne  Edwards  divides  the  tribe  into  three  sec- 
tions : — 

1.  Third  joint  of  the  external  jaw-feet  nearly  square, 
and  giving  insertion  to  the  succeeding  joint  by  a  notch 
in  its  internal  angle. 

's.  Tlii-l),lin<,,i    Latreille). 

•riifitn-i-  wider    than    it    is 

wed    behind   and   very  slightly   convex   above.     Tin 

••arccly   separated,    but    the   .\tninnchal 

hen   it   is  distinct,   is   extremely   wide   forwards. 

The  fronto-orbital  or  anterior  border  of  the  eaiapaec.  occn- 

about  two-thirds  of  its   t universal   diameter,   and  its 

Intend   borders  arc  very  much  arched   in  their  tv.o  anterioi 

third  portions:    the    :  border  is  cijnal   in  width  to 

the  half  or  two-fifths  of  il 

y  little  inclined,  nearly  straight,  and  wider  than  the 

al    frame.      Tho   nrliiln   are   n\al:    they   present    no 

i  id  are  furnished  with  n  1;..  i  tooth 

n  their  lower  wall  near  the  internal  canthns 

of  the  eye.     The  nni  ,.nrow.     The 

•  ml  of  the  I'xlrrtiiil  ««/(•//,•  m   it»   form. 

-  a  little,  or  not  at  all,  beyond  the  ll 
iiibilal    wall   against  which   it    is  implied. 

3,   and    their  third  joint,    near!) 

m;  joint  at  its  i 

:i  'iiinealed  u  long 

•hing  in  its  form  that  of  the  Caii- 

'•     nli'l   I't/rl-mrtOfa, 


Cf riant.  Anterior  /;-/alwavs  much  longer  than  ! 
jair,  and  unequal  in  sue  :    ihe  '  A  in- 

aild   the  claw  winch  I 

nuch   elongated,   and    line'j   deiitilated.      *-  1'ivt 

ill  sligh' ly  . 

.aed  with  ve.y  stiong  lion. 

aie  much  shorter  than  the   third,  the   length  nf  wliu 
.  ipial    twice   the    length    ol 

Tin  : 
tuition  app.  wide.      The  foi 

. lia.    ( )n  •  '  ;  at 

.ud  at  1'ondiche 

.-.  ish. 

;.l.  and  S\na. 

Tliis  well 

known  to   the  antient.-..  and  to   be  that  noticed    by  II 

and  Aristotle  :   these  '/'//.  •'. 

the  Ileiarleotie  (  the  hitter 

///*/.  Am, n.,  \\ . '2  :    and  to  be  :i  an- 

tient  medals. 

Ttir/fihuxtijlii'-  Ui  on  the  I 

of  rivers. 


s  (^ 

!  \li:nml  jaw-Toot  of ;- 1 

2.  Third  joint  of  external  jav  ,uaro, 

and  giving  insertion  to  the  succeeding  joint  towards 
the  middle  of  its  anterior  border. 
Genus,  Boscia  (Edwards  :   l'u,'i> 

Generic  ('/inructrr. — General  form  ucarh  1li.    same  as  in 
some  of  the  T/ieffi/iiixer  ;    but  the  front,  which  is  sharply 
bent  downwards,  is  vertical,  and  the  third  joint  of  lli. 
It  run!  jiiir-fi'i't,   instead   of  being  square   and   havii: 
ordinary  form  o\i-ting  in  the  (\u<i'fritinx.  \-  narrowed  for- 
and   carries  the   succeeding  joint  on   the   middle  of 
its  anterior  bonier.     (M.  E.) 

M.  Milne  Kdwards  remarks  that  tliis  ge:  -trial, 

like  the  Tin  l]ilnntr,'  and  inhabits  also  the  banks  of  1 1 
He  slates  that  a  dissection  of  an  individual  well   jiM-civcd 
in  spirit  by  M.  Andouin  and  him.self,  discovered  to  them  a 
\erv  n  :   in  the  branchial  apparatus  of 

this  ei  the  cavities  which   enclose  the   breathing 

organ-  'ted    far  above    the    upper    suil: 

branchias  and  present  a  great  vacant  space,  the  walls  nf 
which  are  lined  with  a  toiuentcse  membrane  covered  with 
Vegetal 

Kvnnpli  .  «.    the    only   known     species. 

Length  about  '2  inches. 

:illes  and  South  Am. 

.'{.  Third  joint  nf  the  external  jaw-feet  having  ' 
the  form  of  a  reversed   tiiangle.  ami    giving  Insertion 
to  the  Succeeding  joint  b_>   its  external  angle. 
'..ilreillo  . 

.//•lief  nearly  horizontal   above 

and   much    less   wide    than    in    T/if//./m*<i.     /'/•<.///    wide, 
lamellar,    and    sini])Iy    inclined;    in-lnlx    neailv     circular; 
borders  of  the  < 
as  in  ThrliiliiiMi;  but  the  form  oft! 

.   ditlcrciit.   their  third 

with  its  summit  directed  in  with 

the  succeeding  joint   by  it-  .1:1!  angle. 

*    Jill!  f.-.'  (lost,  |l. 


THE 


307 


THE 


)*oscia  dentata,  reduced  one-third. 
1,  Anteimary  region  ;  2,  external  jaw-foot 

Feet  nearly  of  the  same  form  as  in  the  preceding  genera. 
(M.  E.)    ' 

Example,  Tnchodactylus  quadratus,  the  only  known 
species.  Length  about  1  inch. 

Locality. — Brazil . 

M.  Milne  Edwards  is  of  opinion  that  this  species  esta- 
blishes the  passage  between  the  preceding  genera  and  the 
tribe  of  Grapsoid/ans.  [GRAPSUS.] 

Mr.  W.  S.  MacLcay,  in  his  interesting  paper  '  On  the 
Brachyurous  Decapods  of  the  Cape'  (Smiths  Illustrations 
nf  the  Zoology  nf  South  Afrira),  in  a  note  to  the  sixteenth 
species  (Thelphitsa  perlata,  M.  E.),  remarks  that  this  ciab 
is  common  in  all  the  rivers  of  Southern  Africa,  and  grows 
to  the  size  of  nearly  three  inches  long.  'The  male. 
Mr.  W.  MacLeay  in  continuation,  'has  a  much  more  con- 
vex shell  than  the  female,  and  in  aspect  resembles  much  a 
Gegarcinut.  The  pearly  tubercles  of  the  anterior  margin 
of  the  shell  are  also  still  more  small  and  evanescent  than 
in  the  female.  I  may  take  this  occasion  to  observe,  that 
in  my  cabinet  I  separate  those  species  of  Thflpkumi  which, 
like  the  present,  have  a  tiansversal  crest  in  front  of  the 
shell,  and  call  them  Pntninn>ii< i///v.  They  are  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  true  Thi-ljihu.ifp,  of  which  the  type  is  the 
European  species  Thflphusajli 

THELWALL,  JOHN,  son  of  Joseph  Thelwall,  a  silk- 
mercer,  was  bom  on  the  27th  July,  1764,  in  Chandos-street, 
(Jo\ent  Garden,  London.  He  was  the  youngest  of  three 
children,  two  sons  and  a  daughter.  At  an  early  agf  h<> 
manifested  so  much  talent  for  drawing,  that  he  was  in- 
tended for  an  artist,  but  his  father's  decease  chuugcd  hi.-, 
prospects  before  he  had  completed  his  ninth  year.  He 
received  the  ordinary  education  of  a  tradesman's  son,  but 
was  rather  slow  in  acquiring  knowledge  and  was  re- 
moved from  school  at  thirteen  years  of  age,  his  attain- 
must.  necessarily  have  been  limited. 

The  widow   continued  to  carry  on  her  deceased   hus- 
band's  business,  and  placed  her  son   John  in  the  shop, 
where  he  remained  time'  yean,  but  spent  his  time  chiefly 
i'i  rending,  winch  was  of  a  miscellaneous  character,  con- 
:g  of  poetry,  history,  the  drama,  moral  philosophy, 

.<•»,  and  divinity.  A  distaste  for  the  bn- 
joined  to  family  discord,  induced  him  to  leave  it,  and  al- 
though he  earnestly  desired  to  be  an  artist  or  an  actor, 
he  yielded  to  his  mother,  who  apprenticed  him  to  a  tailor, 
with  whom  however  he  remained  only  a  short  time.  At 
the  suirge-tion  of  Mr.  Holt  of  the  Chancery  bar,  who  had 
(1  his  MM  IT,  lie  turned  his  attention  to  the  law,  but 
ral  years'  study  he  abandoned  it  in  consequence 
of  doubts  arising  in  his  mind  on  the  morality  of  a  hired 
advocate  pleading  to  support  a  cause  rather  than  to  dis- 
cover the  truth ;  and  now,  in  his  22nd  year,  he  embraced 
literature  as  a  profession. 

!7S7  he  published  by  subscription  poems  on  several 
subjects,  iu  2vols.,  which  introduced  him  to  some  valuable 
friendships  and  to  the  editorship  of  a  magazine.  He  was 
now  a  rising  and  prosperous  man,  and  on  the  27th  July, 
1791,  he  manicd  Miss  Susan  Vellum,  of  Rutlandshire, 
Mien  17  years  of  age.  He  took  a  house  near  the 
Borough  I  -.id  ardently  studied  anatomy,  phy- 

siology, and  chemistry,   under  Mr.  Cline,  Dr.  Haighton, 
and  Dr.  Babington. 

He  began  his.  career  as  an  orator,  before  he  was  twenty 


years  of  age,  at  the  Society  of  Free  Debate  held  at  Coach  • 
makers'  Hall.  He  had  been  educated  a  churchman  in  re- 
ligion and  a  tory  in  politics,  but  on  both  subjects  his  opi- 
nions were  changing,  and  he  now  joined  in  the  political 
struggles  of  the  period  by  becoming  a  member  of  the  Cor- 
responding Society,  where  his  boldness  and  fluency  of 
speech  attracted  the  notice  of  the  leading  men  of  the 
day.  With  Thomas  Hardy  and  John  Home  Tooke  [HoRNE 
TOOKE]  he  was  tried  for  high  treason,  and  acquitted. 
Thelwall's  trial  lasted  five  days.  On  his  acquittal  he  lec- 
tured on  politics  and  political  history  for  several  years, 
when,  after  a  retirement  of  two  years  in  Wales,  made  in 
order  to  disconnect  himself  from  public  affairs  and  to 
escape  from  extra-judicial  persecution,  he  began  his  career 
in  1801  as  a  lecturer  and  tutor  in  elocution,  and  in  the 
application  of  elocutionary  science  to  the  cure  of  stam- 
mering and  other  impediments  to  speech.  His  know- 
ledge of  anatomy  and  physiology,  his  habits  of  recitation, 
his  practice  of  public  speaking,  and  his  accuracy  of  ob- 
servation, eminently  qualified  him  for  his  new  profession, 
and  his  success  was  great.  He  communicated  papers  to 
the  'Medical  and  Physical  Journal,'  on  defective  and  diffi- 
cult utterance,  and  to  the  '  Monthly  Magazine,'  on  elocu- 
tion and  its  kindred  sciences. 

In  1816  Mrs.  Thelwall  died,  leaving  a  family  of  four 
children,  two  of  whom  are  sons,  and  both  are  in  the  church. 
Mr.  Thelwall  afterwards  married  Miss  Cecil  Boyle,  by 
whom  he  has  left  one  son.  He  died  at  Bath  after  a  few 
hours'  illness,  of  disease  of  the  heart,  to  which  he  had  been 
long  subject,  on  the  17th  February,  1834,  in  his  70th  year. 

The  researches  of  Steele,  Herries,  and  Walker,  on  human 
speech,  had  left  little  room  for  new  and  brilliant  dis- 
covery, although  much  accurate  observation  was  yet 
necessary  to  give  exactness  and  fulness  to  their  know- 
ledge. Thelwall,  unaware  of  Steele's  researches,  found 
himself  anticipated  on  rhythmus.  Steele  had  given  the 
inquiry  a  musical  direction,  which  Thelwall  ardently  fol- 
low ed  out,  and  the  extent  and  precision  of  his  observa- 
tions may  be  estimated  by  the  fact  that  he  anticipated 
nearly  all  that  is  new  and  valuable  in  Dr.  Rush's  'Philo- 
sophy of  the  Human  Voice.'  Mr.  Thelwall's  immature 
ideas  were  first  sketched  out  in  the  syllabus  of  his  lectures 
on  elocution. 

Thelwall  was  of  a  mild  and  amiable  disposition,  of  domes- 
tic habits,  open-hearted  and  generous,  of  high  moral  feeling, 
and  of  inflexible  integrity.  His  sentiments  were  exalted 
by  poetic  feeling,  and  he  was  buoyed  up  by  hope. 

Besides  magazine  contributions  and  pamphlets,  he  wrote 
poems  on  several  subjects,  in  2  vols.,  already  mentioned; 
'  Poems  written  in  the  Tower  and  in  Newgate,'  1  vol. ;  '  The 
Tribune,'  3  vols.,  and  '  Political  Miscellanies,'  1  vol. ;  '  A 
Letter  to  Mr.  Cline,  on  Stammering,'  1  vol. ;  'The  Peripa- 
tetic,' 3  vols. ;  and  a  novel,  entitled  '  The  Daughter  of  Adop- 
tion.' 

THE'MKON.     [FORAMINIFERA,  vol.  x.,  p.  348.] 

THEMIS  (el/itc),  a  Greek  divinity,  was,  according  to 
Hesiod  and  Apollodorus,  a  daughter  of  Uranus  (Heaven) 
and  Gaca  (Earth),  or,  according  to  Tzetzes,  a  daughter  of 
Helios.  She  was  a  favourite  of  Zeus,  and  bore  him  several 
d;i  ughters, — the  Horae,  Eunomia,  Dice,  Eirene,  and  the 
Mocrae.  (Hesiod,  T/icog.,  135,  001,  &c. ;  Apollodorus,  i. 

3,  1.)     These  personified  abstractions,  which   are   repre- 
sented as  her  daughters,  show  the  ideas  which  the  antients 
had  formed  of  her  character,  and  consistently  with  these 
ideas  she  appears  in  Homer  as  a  personification  of  the 
order  of  things  sanctioned  by  usage  or  by  law,  and  as  the 
goddess  who  rules  in  the  assemblies  of  the  people.  (Homer, 
Or///*.?.,  ii.  68,  &c.)      According  to  the    same  poet   she 
lived  with  the  other  great  gods  in  Olympus,  was  on  good 
terms  with  Hera,  and  occasionally  assembled  the  gods  at 
the  command  of  Zeus.     (Homer,  Iliad,  xv.  87,  &c. ;   xx. 

4,  &c.)     Diodorus  (v.  67)  states  that  she  was  believed  to 
have  made  men  acquainted  with  the  will  of  the  gods,  the 
mode  of  their  worship,  and  to  have  instituted  laws,  reli- 
gious as  well  as  civil.     As  a  deity  revealing  the  future  .-lie 
was  believed  to  have  been  in  possession  of  the  Delphic 
oracle  after  her  mother  Gaea,  and   previous  to  the  time 
that  it  came  into  the  hands  of  Apollo,  whence  the  act  of 
giving  an  oracle  was,  even  in  later  times,  frequently  called 
by  a  word  derived  from  her  name  (QtiuaTtimv'),     She  was 
worshipped  as  the  goddess  of  law  and  order  in  various  parts 
of  Greece,  as  at  Thebes,  Olympia,  Athens,  Tanagra,  and 
Troezen.     She  is  frequently  represented  on  coins  in  a  form 

2R2 


T  II  I' 


T  H    i 


Mm.:  that  oi  Athena,  Imt  earn  mi;  the  hoin  ol  plenty 
1  a  pair  ol  s,.. -les  ill  tin-  oil 

.mtieiil    physician,    who  i- 

probablx  best  known  to  in  '""• 

\\hv  JJI)— 

•  Qool  Tlirmliua  *rfn*  aurturaiio  oaakdri 
but  who  was  HI  n-alitx  the  founder  of  n  celebrated  a 

1    hi-  tune. 

.-,  born  ;it  Ijiodu T.I  in  Sxiia,  in  the  liist  cent- 
fore   Christ,    ami.    from    .Juvenal's    Hue    above     t| 

!«•   conjectured    to   huve   practised   at    Komr.     He 
was  n   pupil    of  Asclcpiadcs.    from   whose   opinion*  hOW- 
disscnted,  and   finished   In   founding 
a  new  nu-ili.-al   sect,  called  tin-    Methodic..      1'hnx.  Httt, 

hi.     \M\..    rap.  r,.    <-d.  Tan.-hn.  ;     Calcn.    liitrnd 
I.  torn.  \iv..   ],  •  '-.  Kiihn:  Cramer. 

.  vol.  i..  p.  :«).-•.  I.  'Jii.     'Hie  following  is  the  ana- 
,,f   Ihe   opinions   of  tins   school,  which  is   given  b 
ction  to  his  work  :— •  i 


lysis   Ol    ine    opinions   in    UN-    .-v  i.-".,.  ....... 

is  m  Ihe  historical  introduction  to  his  work  :— 
assert  that  the  knowledge  of  no  cause  whatever  bears  the 

relation  to  the  method  of  cure:   and  that    it    is   snl- 
tome  general  M  inptoms  of  distempers  : 
and  that  there  are  three  kinds  of  diseases,  one  bound,  an- 
other  loose,*  and  the  third  a  mixture    of  these.      For  that 

:imes    the    excretions   of    sick    people  arc    too    - 
.sometimes  too  large  :  and  sometimes  one  particular  excre- 
tion  is   deficient,  while   anoth.  live.     That    these 
kinds   of  distempers  are  sometimes  acute,  and  son 
chronic  :  sometimes  increasing,  sometime:-  at  a  sland.'J:  and 
abating.      A-  soon  then  as  it  is  known  to  which 
of  these  classes  a  distemper  belongs,  if  the  body  be  bound, 
it  mi:-'                    1  :  ii'  "'  labours  under  a  flux,  il    must  be 
-.ned  :   if  the  distemper  be  complicated,  then  the  most 
'ad-,  must  be  first  opposed.     And  that  one  kind 

..iment  is  lequired  in  acute,  another  in  inveterate  dis- 
tempers :  another  when  di-  Bother 
-.x ben  at  a  stand:  and   another  when    inclining   to   health. 
That  the  observation  of  these  things  constitute- 
inedieine.  which   they  define  as  a  certain  way  of  pi. 
ing,  xvhich  the  Greeks  call   nnlhoil  •. /itOui'oc  ••  and  affirm  it 
to"be  employed   in   considering  those  things  that  are  com- 
mon to  the  same  distempers  :   nor  are  they  willing  to  base 

themselves  classed  either  with  the  rationafists  (t.«.  tli. 

matici  ..  or  with   those  who   regard   oulx  cxpcrimeu'- 
the  Empiriei    :  for  they  dissent  from  the  1irst  :eel.  10 
they  will  not  allow  medicine  to  conr-ist  in  forming  O 
tnres  about  the  occult  things  :  and  a'-o  fiom  the  other  in 
he)  hold  the  oKsi-r\a«ion  of  experiments  to  be  a 

-mall  part  of  tl,  "  llat 

now  of  his  mode  of  treating  diseases  does  not  give  us 

h  idea  of  hi.-  skill  in  therapeutics.     lie  Ibouglit 

lie  could  cure  the   most  violent    attacks  of  pneumonia  by 

meUS  Of  Oil  and  baths;   in  pleuii>y  he    permitted    the    use 

of  wine  mixed  with  sea-water.  '  'acl.  Aim-l..  !>>•  Morb.Acut., 
lib.  i.,  cap.  10,  p.  O'i  03) ;   he  recommended  also  \i<.unt 

.  ial    acute   diseases.      Id.,  ilinl..  lib.  ii.,  cap. 
111.         He    i-   said    b\   Sprc.igcl    (Hitt.  fa  la  Mid.} 
to  have   been   ih«'  tii  -  -ho  made    use   of  leeches. 

1,1..   '  I'lirmi..  rib.  i..  cap.  1,   p.  288.       Me 

..  have  bi-en  himself  attacked  with  hydrophobia,  and 

to   1,  .  red.        Id..   Ii-    Mali.    Ann.,    lib.  iii..  cap. 

Hi,    ;  ..cap.  1.  p.  •!£!.)     He  wrote 

works,  of  which  nothing  but  the  titles  re- 

mnj,,  •'..  C/inni..  lib.  i..  cap.  1.  p. 

23;   ii.  7.   p.  liW,  &c.       I: 

of  whom  Ihe  most   i-miii  ^iranus 

rs(;];  .Ints   Aurelianus. 

-    hromi  -is'  is  one  of  the 

most  of  aiitiqm'  :  ulhor  of  the 

Work  '  '•    Iln0iir,   '  De    Muhcimn    Pas- 

biombus.' 

Sprengel, //!-«/.  '/-'  /•'  .'/.'-/.  :  PabnciUS, fnO/IOM.Gl 
Mailer,  liilioth.  M>;/,r.  /',,/-•/.  /c  :  Jfn't.  "f 

hitii/..  art.  •  Method]. 

•  In  thU  lait  puu^r  UK  name  i,  \uilli-r.  M»Oi;TUi-,  uhi-li  >-o  .t  t*  1.  ft 
annotkcd  l.v  »'-••  nlitur.  1ml   n. 
IhjU   th«  To«rl»  t  ..  '  ttoranlc  Olactly  the  aamc  ioiind.  ami  i.'.ii 

.      ,  1*1  (in  cl»   Wwttl*  have  1  '•-    ,    ,  r-  n  •-.  .  *..l.i-  •••>-  .!• 

cvntaif  Io  UM  mccrmt  and  not  ft"  .,  "(initiy ;  M>  i 

,  ,       ....      .;•.,.!.  tii.--.  ,  .  much  alikr   ..-.   l'(irni-'.--ii  .i."l  *-l"t  ,.'.-. i 

:..  .n  .1  i-  Jl"r*',  that  U,  a  ili^mlrc  altcwli-d  with  lomo 

t  Oat  uiihoc  BMUU  h<m  the  <ir/iq  of  a  diwaar.  alUr  which  It  inarouca  no 


TMKMISTIl  S.    ,.|    l'Hphla:rom.i.    v.a-    a    distin-nislu  d 
o,alor   in    the    lomlli    cent  iirisl.   and 

Mi'mt   of  hi-   skill    in    hi- 
imieh  liivinired  by  Ihe  Koimin  , 
(  'on-tantiiis  made   him   a  senator:  .lulian   appointed   him 

.nlinople  in  'M'2,  and  eorrenponded 
him  by  letters:  and  although  he  wa.s  a  heathen,  In 
intrusted  b\  Theodo-ius  Ii  .tb  the-  edueati- 

Ins   -on    Aieadms.       In   th-  appointed, 

•  oml    lime,    pielect    of    Constantinople;    and 
•nosl  l.irlx  ti  dlx 

employeil    in    cm  'id    oilier    stall- 

was  the   teacher  of  J.il.anms  and    Augustin,  and  kept   up 
a     friendly    intercouiM'    with    (.  xa/.ianzen,     who 

calls   him'  in  hi-  Ictlei-  •  the  kim:  of  arguments 

Themistius  had  deeply  studied  the  writing  of  }'l:llo  and 
tie;  and  he  taught  the  Peripatetic  phi!' 

well  as  rhetoric,  at  Home  and  Constantinople. 

Of  lhirtx-si\   orations   composed    by    him    which 
known  to  i'hotins.   thirty-three  have  come  down   to 
the  original  Cireek.  and  one  in  a  Latin  translation. 
haxe  rcl'i-ience  for  the  most  part  to  public 
xeial  of  them  arc  paneiTvrics  upon  the  emperors  by  whom 
the  orator  was  patronised. 

Kdifions    of  some    of   the   outturns    were    published   by 
Aldus     lol.   l.VM  ,    II.  Stephens    BvO.    l"'(i-  .    Kemu- 
KHI.")),  I'etau  (Kvo.  Killi.  and   Ho.    HilK  .      The    mo-t   com- 
plete edition  is  that  of   Haidnin     Pan-.    KiSJ.  lol.  .  which 
contains  thirty-three   orations.  Ihiiteeii  of  which   had   not 
been  printed  before.     Another  oration  was  disi-ox  crcd    by 
Amrdo   Mai.  and  published  by  him  at   Milan.  Isle 
\V.  Dindorf  also  published,  in  1880,  two  orations  of  Thc- 
niistiii-  I  from  a  Milan  MS. 

The  philosophical  works  of  Themistius  . 
meiitaiies,  in  the  fonii  of  paraphrase...  on 
tot],.'-  D  (iieek,  and  two  Latin  us  of 

commentaries,  one  upon  the  work  'On  Heaven,1  and  the 

other  upon  the  twelfth  book  of  Ihe  •  Mclaplu  The 

paraphrases  were  lust  published  in  a  Latin  w-r.-ion  by 
Hermolans  Harbanis,  MKl,  which  has  been  several  time.- 
reprinted:  thedieek  text  of  them  forms  part  of  theAldme 
edition  of  Themistins.  The  two  commentaries  in  Latin 
•.rinted  at  Venice  in  l.V.S,  I."i70,  and  l.'.Tl.  i 

by  Themislius    in    the   collection  of   II. 

1577. 

(S.-holl.  i;,^,-/iii-/itf  il'-r  dn.'rli.  Lilt.,  in.  90,  388.) 
THKMISTO.  M.  (iuerin's  name  for  a  genus  of  Ainjilii- 
,!„,/„„.•<  OnutOOtOlU,  placed   by  M.  Milne  Edwards  in  Hie 
Iribe  of  Ordinary  Ili/ji<-riii<'\.  the  second  tribe  of  his  farrnly 


. 

Example,  Th<-mi*t>,  GamUchandu. 

Locality.  —  Found  by  M.  Gaudichaud  at  the  Falkland 

Islands. 

N.B.  _  M.  Milne  Edwards  distinguishes  irom  this  s; 
i'mixt'i  (iiiudi:'  Sii/,fi/.  to  Sir  .John  K,.s-'s 

amini;  it  Thrmixtti  urclicii.     ('apt.  James  Ho---. 
ibimil  the  northern  species  near  the  west  coast  of 
Ihe  peninsula  of  KOOTIIIA. 

THEMI'STOCLES  (9s^i«fW(Mc)  was  born  aboul  th. 

II.  Me  was  the  son  of  Nicoclcs,  an  Athenian  of 
moderate  fortune,  xvho  however  was  connected  with  the 
j>ricstl  the  I.xeomcdu-:  his  mother.  Abrot-- 

ng  io  others.  Euteipe.  w:ts  not  an  Athenian 
<-iti/en:  and.  according  to  most  authorities,  not  exen  a 
'  .but  either  a  native  of  ('aria  or  of  Thrace. 

;ion  which  he  received  xvas  like  that  of  all  Athenians 
lk  at  the  time,  but  Theimstocles  had  no  taste   for  the 
i!  arts  which  then  beifan  to  form  a  prominent  part  in 
the   education   of  Athenian  youths:    he    applied    himself 
with  much  more  /cal  Io  the  pursuit  of  practical  and  useful 
knowledge.  This,  as  well  as  the  numerous  anecdotes  about 
.i.tbfnl  XMlfulmss  ami  waywardness,  together  with  the 
uleeplew  nights  which  he  is  said  to  h.ive  passed  in  n 
on  the  trophies  of  Miltiades,  an  more  or  lew  • 

symptoms   of   Ihe   character   which    I  lentlx    clis- 

d  as  a  general  and  a  statesman.     His  mind  was 
Dent  upon  ','ivat  tiling.  :md  was  incapable  of  bein^dixcited 
iM-m  them  by  n  ,  or  difficulties.     Th- 

of  bis   Ii  to   have   been  to  make   Athens 

that    hi'    himself  might    I"-    treat.     Tin- 

powers  with  which   naluie  had  endowed  him  xvere.  ipnck- 

judginent  of  the  i- 


THE 


309 


THE 


which  was  to  be  taken  on  sudden  and  extraordinary  emer- 
gencies, and  sagacity  in  calculating  the  consequences  of 
his  own  actions  ;  and  these  were  the  qualities  which  Athens 
(luring  her  wars  with  Persia  stood  most  in  need  of.  His 
ambition  was  unbounded,  but  he  was  at  the  same  time  per- 
suaded that  it  could  not  reach  its  end  unless  Athens  was 
the  first  among  the  Grecian  states  ;  and  as  he  was  not  very 
scrupulous  about  the  means  that  he  employed  for  these 
en, Is,  he  came  into  frequent  conflict  with  Aristides  the 
Just,  who  had  nothing  at  heart  but  the  welfare  of  his 
country:  and  no  desire  of  personal  aggrandizement.  In 
the  year  483  B.C.,  when  Aristides  was  sent  into  exile  by 
ostracism,  Themistocles,  who  had  for  several  years  taken  an 
active  part  in  public  affairs,  and  was  one  of  the  chief 
authors  oi  the  banishment  of  his  rival,  remained  in  the 
almost  undivided  possession  of  the  popular  favour,  and  the 
year  after,  B.C.  482,  he  was  elected  archon  eponymus  of 
Athens.  The  city  was  at  that  time  involved  in  a  war  with 
Aegina,  which  then  possessed  the  strongest  navy  in  Greece, 
and  with  which  Athens  was  unable  to  cope.  It  was  in  this 
year  that  Themistocles  conceived  and  partly  carried  into 
effect  the  plans  by  which  he  intended  to  raise  the  power  of 
Athens.  His  first  object  was  to  increase  the  navy  of 
Athens ;  and  this  he  did  ostensibly  to  enable  Athens  to 
contend  with  Aegina,  but  his  real  intention  was  to  put  his 
country  in  a  position  to  meet  the  danger  of  a  second  Per- 
sian invasion,  with  which  Greece  was  threatened.  The 
manner  in  which  he  raised  the  naval  power  of  Athens  was 
this.  Hitherto  the  people  of  Athens  had  been  accustomed 
to  divide  among  themselves  the  yearly  revenues  of  the 
silver-mines  of  Laurion.  In  the  year  of  his  archonship 
these  revenues  were  unusually  large,  and  he  persuaded  his 
countrymen  to  forego  their  personal  advantage,  and  to 
apply  these  revenues  to  the  enlargement  of  their  fleet.  His 
advice  was  followed,  and  the  fleet  was  raised  to  the  number 
of  200  sail.  (Herodot.,  vii.  144 ;  Plutarch,  Themist.,  4.) 
It  was  probably  at  the  same  time  that  he  induced  the 
Athenians  to  pass  a  decree  that,  for  the  purpose  of  keep- 
ing up  their  navy,  twenty  new  ships  should  be  built  every 
i  Bockh,  J'lttt/ir  1'sonomy  of  Athens,  p.  249,  Engl. 
transl.,  2nd  edit.)  Athens  soon  after  made  peace  with 
Aegina,  as  Xerxes  was  at  Sardis  making  preparations  for 
invading  Greece  with  all  the  forces  he  could  muster.  At 

me  time  Themistocles  was  actively  engaged  in  allay- 
ing the  disputes  and  hostile  feelings  which  existed  among 
u  states  of  Greece.  He  acted  however  with 
grrat  severity  towards  those  who  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
Persians,  and  a  Greek  interpreter,  who  accompanied  the 
envoys  of  Xerxes  that  came  to  Athens  to  demand  earth 
mid  water  as  a  sign  of  submission,  was  put  to  death  for 
having  made  use  of  the  Greek  tongue  in  the  service  of  the 
common  enemy.  After  the  affairs  among  the  Greeks  were 
tolerably  settled,  a  detachment  of  the  allied  troops  of  the 
Greeks  was  MT.t  out  to  take  possession  of  Tempe,  under 
the  command  of  Themistocles  of  Athens  and  Euaenetus  of 
Sparta;  but  on  finding  that  there  they  would  be  over- 
whelmed by  the  host  of  the  barbarians,  they  returned  to  the 
Corinthian  isthmus.  When  Xerxes  arrived  in  Pieria,  the 
Greek  fleet  took  its  post  near  Artemisium,  on  the  north 
coast  of  Euhoea,  under  the  command  of  the  Spartan  ad- 
miral Eurybiades,  under  whom  Themistocles  condescended 
to  serve  in  order  not  to  cause  new  dissensions  among  the 
Greeks,  although  Athens  alone  furnished  127  ships,  and 
supplied  the  Chalcidians  with  twenty  others ;  while  the 
Spartan  contingent  was  incomparably  smaller.  When  the 
Persian  fleet,  notwithstanding  severe  losses  which  it  had 
sustained  by  a  storm,  determined  to  sail  round  the  eastern 
and  southern  coasts  of  Euboea,  and  then  up  the  Eiuipus, 
in  order  to  cut  off  the  Greek  fleet  at  Artemisium,  the 
Greeks  were  so  surprised  and  alarmed,  that  Themistocles 

•/real  difficulty  in  inducing  them  to  remain  and  main- 
tain their  station.  The  Euboeans,  who  perceived  the  ad- 
\  milages  of  the  plan  of  Themistocles,  rewarded  him  with 

.urn  of  thirty  talents,  part  of  which  he  gave  to  the 
Spartan  Eurybiades  and  the  Corinthian  Adimantus  to  in- 
duce them  to  remain  at  Artemisium.  (Herodot.,  viii.  4, 5 ; 
Plutarch,  Thrmist.,  7.)  In  the  battle  which  then  took 

••,  the  Greeks  gained  considerable  advantage,  though 
tli-  \k-tnry  was.  not  decided.     A  storm,  and  a  second  en- 
i    near  Artemisium,  severely  injured  the  fleet  of 
Greeks  also  sustained  great  losses,  as 
'.i'  their  ships  were  partly  destroyed  and  partly  ren- 
dered unfit  for  further  service.    When  at  the  same  time 


they  received  intelligence  of  the  defeat  of  Leonidas  at 
Thermopylae,  the  Greeks  resolved  to  retreat  from  Arte- 
misium, and  sailed  to  the  Saronic  gulf.  Xerxes  was  now 
advancing  from  Thermopylae,  and  Athens  trembled  for  her 
existence,  while  the  Peloponnesians  were  bent  upon  seek- 
ing shelter  and  safety  in  their  peninsula,  and  upon  fortify- 
ing themselves  by  a  wall  across  the  Corinthian  isthmus. 
On  the  approach  of  the  danger  the  Athenians  had  sent  to 
Delphi  to  consult  the  oracle  about  the  means  they  should 
employ  for  their  safety,  and  the  god  had  commanded 
Athens  to  defend  herself  behind  wooden  walls.  This  oracle, 
which  had  probably  been  given  at  the  suggestion  of  The- 
mistocles, was  now  also  interpreted  by  him  as  referring  to 
the  fleet,  and  his  advice  to  seek  safety  in  the  fleet  "was 
followed.  He  then  further  moved  that  the  Athenians 
should  abandon  the  city  to  the  care  of  its  tutelary  deity, 
that  the  women,  children,  and  infirm  should  be  removed 
to  Salamis,  Aegina,  or  Troezen,  and  that  the  men  should 
embark  in  the  ships.  The  fleet  of  the  Greeks,  consisting 
of  380  ships,  assembled  at  Salamis,  still  under  the  supreme 
command  of  Eurybiades.  When  the  Persians  had  made 
themselves  masters  of  Attica,  and  Athens  was  seen  in 
flames  at  a  distance,  some  of  the  commanders  of  the  fleet, 
under  the  influence  of  fear,  began  to  make  preparations 
for  an  immediate  retreat.  Themistocles  and  his  friend 
Mnesiphilus  saw  the  disastrous  results  of  such  a  course, 
and  the  former  exerted  all  his  powers  of  persuasion  to  in- 
duce the  commanders  of  the  fleet  to  maintain  their  post : 
when  all  attempts  proved  ineffectual,  Themistocles  had 
recourse  to  threats,  and  thus  induced  Eurybiades  to  stay. 
The  example  of  the  admiral  was  followed  by  the  other 
commanders  also.  In  the  meantime  the  Persian  fleet  ar- 
rived in  the  Saronic  gulf,  and  the  fears  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesians were  revived  and  doubled,  and  nothing  seemed  to 
be  able  to  keep  them  together.  At  this  last  and  critical 
moment  Themistocles  devised  a  plan  to  compel  them  to 
remain  and  face  the  enemy.  He  sent  a  message  to  the 
Persian  admiral,  informing  him  that  the  Greeks  were  on 
the  point  of  dispersing,  and  that  if  the  Persians  would 
attack  them  while  they  were  assembled,  they  would  easily 
conquer  them  all  at  once,  whereas  it  would  otherwise  be 
necessary  to  defeat  them  one  after  another. 

This  apparently  well-meant  advice  was  eagerly  taken 
up  by  the  enemy,  who  now  hastened,  as  he  thought,  to  de- 
stroy the  fleet  of  the  Greeks.  But  the  event  proved  the 
wisdom  of  Themistocles.  The  unwieldy  armament  of  the 
Persians  was  unable  to  perform  any  movements  in  the 
narrow  straits  between  the  island  of  Salamis  and  the  main- 
land. The  Greeks  gained  a  most  complete  and  brilliant 
victory,  for  they  only  lost  forty  ships,  while  the  enemy  lost 
two  hundred ;  or,  according  to  Ctesias,  even  five  hundred. 
Very  soon  after  the  victory  was  decided,  Xerxes  with  the 
remains  of  his  fleet  left  the  Attic  coast  and  sailed  towards 
the  Hellespont.  The  battles  of  Artemisium  and  Salamis 
occurred  in  the  same  year,  480  B.C.  [SALAMIS.] 


Coin  of  Salamis. 
Biituh  Museum.    Actual  Size.     Silver 

When  the  Greeks  were  informed  of  the  departure  of 
Xerxes,  they  pursued  him  as  far  as  Andros  without  gain- 
ing sight  ef  his  fleet,  and  Themistocles  and  others  pro- 
posed to  continue  the  chase.     But  he  gave  way  to  the 
opposition  that  was  made  to  this  plan,  and  consented  not 
to   drive  the  vanquished  enemy  to  despair.     The  Greek 
fleet  therefore  only  stayed  some  time  among  the  Cyclades, 
to  chastise  those  islanders  who  had  been  unfaithful  to  the 
national  cause.     Themistocles,  in  the  meantime,  in  order 
to  get  completely  rid  of  the  king  and  his  fleet,  sent  a  mes- 
sage to  him,  exhorting   him  to  hasten  back  to   Asia  as 
speedily  as  possible,  for  otherwise  he  would  be  in  dange. 
of  having  his  retreat  cut  off.     Themistocles  availed  him- 
self of  the  stay  of  the  Greek  fleet  among  the  Cyclades  for 
the  purpose  of  enriching  himself  at  the  cost  of  the  islanders, 
partly  by  extorting  money  from  them  by  way  of  punish- 
ment, and  partly  by  accepting  bribes  for  securing  them 
impunity  for  their  conduct.     His  fame,  however,  spread 
over  all  Greece,  and  all  acknowledged  that  the  country  had 


•]•  II  I 


810 


T  ii  i: 


bren  saved  through  his  wisdom  and  resolution,     lint  the 

awarded  to  him 
he  went.    : 
•;is  say*,  to  be  honoured.  .1  a    chop 

•.i-d  which  they    had    he-town!    upon 
tlu-ir  own  admiral,   Eurybiades, — and  the  l«-st  eh;iriot  that 
the  city  po-»css,'d.  and  on  hi-,  return  IKK)  kiiiu'!.' 
him  a-  i  Arcadia. 

\Vliea    the    IYi-io.ii   arm;,    had   liee-i   sixain   di 
Platii-a-  and  Mycolc,  in  K,  i  when  the  Athenian.- 

had  rehnilt  tlieir  private  dwell) 
the  advice  of  Theini-toclcs.  to  restore  the   fortr, 

lie    than  they    had   lieen  before, 
.  ith  the  proud  position  which  the 
city  i  This   plan  c\cit 

anil  i>  I  lie   ri\al  states,   and   especially  of  Sparta. 

which  sent  an   cmlms.-y  to   Athens,   iind   under  the  veil   of 
Miip,  which  ill  concealed  its  selfish  policy,  • 

i '.ic  Athenians  not  to  fortify  their  city. 

:i  their  designs,  undertook 

the  task  !••  them  with  their  own  weapons.     He 

•itrymen  to   dismiss  the   Spartan   an: 
dors,  and  to  promise  that  Athenian  cmoys  should  1> 
to  Sparta  to  treat  with   tliem  there  respecting  the  fortifi- 
!  le  himself  ollercd  to  go  a.s  one   of  the    envoys, 
but  he  directed  the   Athenians  not  to  let  his  colleague- 
follow  him,  until  the  walls,  on  which  all   hands  should  be 
employed   during   his  absence,  should  be  raised  to  such 
a   height    as    to   all'ord    sufficient  protection  against  any 
t    might   be  made  upon   them.     His  advice  \vas 
followed,  and   Tlicmi-tocles,   after  his  arrival   at  Sparta, 
took  no  steps  towards  opening  the  negotiations,  but  pre- 
tended that  he  was  obliged  to  wait   for  the  arrival  of  his 
colleagues.     When  he   was  informed  that  the  walls  had 
reached   a  sufficient  height,  and  when  he  could  drop  the 
i-  the  Spartans  a  \vell-deser\ed 

rebuke,  returned  home,  and  the  walls  were  completed 
without  any  hindrance.  He  then  proceeded  to  carry  into 
effer  'him:  which  remained  to  be  done  to  make 

Athens  the  first  maritime  power  of  Greece.  He  induced 
the  Athenians  to  fortify  the  three  ports  of  Phalerum,  Mu- 
nychia,  and  Pira>us,  by  a  double  ransre  of  walls,  and  to 
connect  the  Piraeus  by  long  walls  with  the  city  of  Athens. 
[ATHENS.] 

When  Athens  was  thus  raised  to  the  station  on  which  it 
had  been  the  ambition  of  Themistocles  to  place  it,  his  star 
bcLMn  to  sink,  though  he  still  continued  for  some  time  to 
enjoy  the  fruits  of  his  memorable  deeds.  He  was  conscious 
of  th  -  he  had  done  to  his  country,  and  never 

scrupled  to  show  that  he  knew  his  own   value.     His  ex- 
tortion and  avarice,  which  made  him  ready  to  do  anything, 
and  by  which  he  accumulated  extraordinary  wealth,  could 
not  fail  to  raise  enemies  against  him.     But  what  perhaps 
contributed  more  to  his  downfall  was  his  constant  watch- 
fulness  in    maintaining   and   promoting   the   interc 
Athens  against  the  encroachments  of  Sparta,  which,  in  its 
turn,  was  ever  looking  out  for  an  opportunity  to  crush  him. 
The  great  men  who  had   grown  up  by  his  side  at  A 
such  as  Cimon,  and  who  were  no  less  indebted   to  him  for 
their  greatness  in  the  eyes  of  Greece  than  to  their  own 
talents,  were  his  natural  rivals,  and  succeeded  in  gradually 
supplanting  him  in  the  favour  of  the  people.     Thev  also 
endeavoured  to  represent  him  as  a  man  of  too  much  , 
and  as  dan  'he  republic.    The  consequence  of  all 

this  was,  that  in  472  u.c.  1.  ;   from  Ath 

the  »  .1  lenoe  at   AUTOS,   where 

he  wa-  still  rc.-idini:  when,  in  the  same  year  n.t:.  172,  Pan- 
baa  i  as  was  put  to  death  ;i  -  amhitio, 

;;is  fate  involved  that  ol'Thcmis- 
rcll    to 

tiie   plot,   of   I'ausaiuas,   found  a 
of  Themistocles,  from  which  it  wase\ident.  that  he 
had  b  anted  uiih  i.     Tliis  v.:: 

for  the  Spartans  to  ground  upon  it  the  charge  that  Themis- 
tocles had  been  an  a  ime,  and  ai: 
dora  wen-   forthwith                   \lhciw  to  demand  that  he 
should  suffer  the  same  punishment  as   1 '  This 
charge  was  no  :• 

ery   01    his    letter    had    been    to    th 
••  con>equently  Issued   to  arrest  and  convey  him 
'hens.     But  he  had  been  informed  in  tini' 

'     V.I          ,8  that    his  destruction 

wo»:  ••   if  he  should   fall  into  the  hands  of 


Ills  enemies,  he  fled  I.  to  the  opp 

nielus.   kin;;  of  the  M  On    his  arrival,   the  kinc 

t,   but   his   queen  Phthia   received   bun   ki 
and  pointed  out  to  him  in  what  manner  lie  nni;h',  win 
suiipothy   of  Admetus.     When  the  kint;  ret'iincd    1 
Them:  ad    on   the  hearth  ::  the  child 

of  Admehis  in  his  arms,  implored  the  king  not  to  d 
him  up  to  his  pe:  ;  him  to  li 

the  M  d   that  Thenii-' 

joined  by  his  wife  and  children.  The  kirn;  not. 
giantcd  Iiis  request,  but  jirovidcd  him  with  the  me;' 
leaching  th  be  intern! 

.iirt  of   thi' 

of  Persia,  l-'iom  P\dna  he  sailed  in  a  merchant  ship  to 
the  CO  ia  Uinor.  At  Knhe-'.o  h. 

part    of    his    piopcrty    as    his    friends    had 

i:om  the  hands   of  h. 

with  that  which  he  had  lei'  A  few  n: 

his  arrival  in  A- 

ler  a  short  led  by  Ai:  Vaii- 

ous  adventure-,  are  told  of  Then.  .idled 

the  residence  of  the  Persian  king.  On  his  arrival  he 
sent  him  a  letter,  in  which  he  acknowledged  the  evils  lie 
had  inflicted  upon  his  predecessor,  b  time 

(•'.aimed  the  merit  of  having  saved  him  from  .m  by 

his   timely  advice.      He  added   that    his    prc-ent    c\i!i 
only  the  consequence  of  h  .1    for  the  i 

the  kiiiL;  of  Pcisia.      He  di  .i  i    immediale   in- 

terview with  the  king,  as  he  was  yet  unacquainted  with  the 
language  and  th.  f  the  I'er-ians,  to  acquire  which 

he  requested  a  year's  time.    During  t!1  he  applied 

himself  so  zealously  and  with  sin- 
that  at  the  close  of  the  year,  when  he 

kiiiir.  he  is  .-aid  to  have  excited  the  jealousy  of  the 
courtiers,  and  was  most  kindly  i  hy  the  king,  to 

whom  he  held  out  prospect- 

nice.     The   kins-   became  so  attached  to   him,  that 
Themistoeles  >vas  always  in    his  company.     Alter   he   had 
spent    several   years    at  the   court.    I 
Minor,   to   wait  there   for  au   opportunity  of  earn  in. 
promises   into  effect.     A  pension  w;i- 
nim  after  the  Oriental  fashion:    three  towns  were   ixivcn 
him,  of  which  Magnesia  on  the  Maeaudcr  was  to  ]u 
him  with  bread,   M\ns  with    meal,  and   Lampsacus  with 
wine.     He  took  ii]>  hi  in  the  first  of  th 

where  he  lived  with  a  sort  of  princely  rank.  But  death 
overtook  him  at  the  I  /ore  any  of  his 

plans  were  carried  into  effect.   Most  (:f  the  ancient  v. 
state   that  he  put  an  cud  to  his  life   by  poison,  0 
inir  to  another  stiamre  stor\ .    by  drinking  the   blood  of  a 
bull,   because   he  despaired  of  l/einu;  able  U)  fulfil  hi 
miss's  to  the  king.      The   motive   for  In-,  suici 
qtiestionab,  -ions  on  his  past  life  and  upi 

glory  of  his  former  rivals  at  Athens  are  min-h  more  likely 
to  have  rendered  him  1  with  life. 

the  poison  he  is  said  to  h;: 
\ey  In  'i    Attica, 

tomb  which  .in  them  existed  in  Pi' 

In   the   market-place   of  Mnu'ii'  ulul   monument 

\   to   his  memory,  and   his  descendants   in  that 

by  certain    |iri\ 
down  to  the  tin 

(Hei  .  :  viii.  4,   6;<-. ;  Thin 

I  I,  I:!."!,  \..-.  :   I'lnlareh.  T, 
'J.    !  J.   \.e. :   (  '. 

i  :drlwall.  llixlnn/  «f  < . 

THEMISTO'G 

TlIK.NAliDlTK  -  dnAy drou* Sulphate tfStxla  — « 
lized.      1'iimary  form  a  ihrht  rhombic  prism  ;  > 
air.c   parallel   to  the   ])rimnry    planes:  colour  white  <,, 
dish ;  transparent ;  transluci  :e  ;  solnb  i 

".  ilv  27.'!. 
It  occuis  in  <•;•_',  -lalline  (  oaliiiirs  at  the    bo 

n    Mai'rid  :    it  m    of 

carbonate  of  snda.     Aceonlim;  ' 

•  d  of 
Sulphate  of  s<  .          .      !)!)7s 


100- 
TRENT'S,   Dr.  Leach's  name  for  a  genus  of  macrurons 


THE 


311 


THE 


crustaceans,  formed  at  the  expense  of  Scyllarus  of  authors 

[SCYLLARIANS,  vol.  XxL,  p.   144.] 

THEOBALD,  LEWIS,   was  born  at  Sittingbourne,  in 
Kent.     We  have  no  record  of  the  date  of  his  birth.     His 
father  was  an  attorney,  and  he  was  bred  to  his  father's 
business.     His  first  literary  production  was  'Electra,'  a 
tragedy,  which  appeared  in  1714.    As  the  writer  of  twenty 
\  cry  indifferent  plays,  he  is  utterly  forgotten.     Those  pro- 
ductions belong  to  an  age  in  which  the  true  spirit  of  dra- 
matic poetry  was  for  the  most  part  lost,  and  Theobalc 
"ssed  none    of  those  brilliant  qualities  which  could 
impart  a  lengthened   existence  to  his  attempts  in   por- 
traying the  manners  of  his  age.     But  he  has  attained   a 
celebrity  of  another  description.     He  is  most  commonly 
known  as  the  unhappy  dunce  whom  Pope  assailed  with  the 
most  inveterate  ridicule  ;  but,  after  a  century  of  prejudice 
against  his  name,  he  is  now  pretty  generally  acknowledged 
to  have  deserved  an  honourable  reputation  as  an  editor  of 
Shakspere,  having  brought  to  that  task  diligence,  know- 
ledge, and  judgment,  beyond  comparison  superior  to  the 
ciitical  talents  of  his  rival  the  author  of  the   'Dunclad.' 
IIi^  -bad  eminence'  as  the  original  hero  of  that  poem  was 
earned  by  a  pamphlet  in  which  he  pointed  out  many  of 
the  errors  of  Pope's  Shakspere.     '  Shakespear  Restored,  or 
Specimens   of  Blunders   committed   and  unamended  in 
Pope:s  Edition  of  this  Poet,'  was  published  in  1726.     The 
notice  which  Pope  took  of  this  pamphlet  was  in  his 
id   edition  of  Shakspere,  which   appeared  in    1728. 
'Since  the  publication  of  our  first  edition,  there  having 
been  some  attempts  upon  Shakspeare  published  by  Lewis 
Theobald  (which  he  would  not  communicate  during  the 
lime  wherein  that   edition  was  preparing  for  the   press, 
when  we,  by  public  advertisements,  did  request  the  assist- 
ance of  all  lovers  of  this  author),  we  have  inserted  in  this 
ID  as  many  of  'em  as  are  judged  of  any  the  least 
to  the  poet ;   the  whole  amounting  to  about 
twenty-live    words.'      In   the   same   year  came   out  the 
'  Dunciad.'    The  revenge  of  Theobald  was  the  severest 
ould  be  inflicted,  and  it  was  unexceptionable.     In 
1733  he  produced  an  edition  of  Shakspere  which  utterly 
destroyed  that   of  Pope.     It   has  been  asserted  that   of 
edition,  which  was  in   seven  volumes,  8vo., 
nearly  Thirteen  thousand  copies   were  sold.     (Steevens's 
!/"93,  vol.  i.j     In  his  preface  Theobald  thus 
notices  the  attacks  of  his  distinguished  rival  :    '  It  is  not 
with  any  secret  pleasure  that  I  so  frequently  animadvert 
0:1  Mr.  Pope  as  a  critic,  but  there  are  provocations  which 
we  can  never  quite  forget.     His  libels  have  been  thrown 
-I  much  inveteracy,  that,  not  to  dispute  whether 
they  should  come  from  a  Christian,  they  leave  it  a  ques- 
tion whether  they  could  come  from  a  man.     I  should  be 
loth  to  doubt,  as  Quintus  Serenus  did  in  a  like  case, 

:  i  bestia  nobis 
Vuln'Ti  ilriiV-  diNtit." 

The  indignation,  pernaps,  for  being  represented  a  block- 
lu-ad,  may  be  as  strong  in  us  as  it  is  in  the  ladies  for  a  re- 
flection on  their  beauties.  It  is  certain  I  am  indebted  to 
him  for  some  flagrant  civilities ;  and  I  shall  willingly  de- 
vote a  part  of  my  life  to  the  honest  endeavour  of  quitting 

l  ;  with  this  exception,  however,  that  I  will  not 
return  those  civilities  in  his  peculiar  strain,  but  confine 
myself,  at  least,  to  the  limits  of  common  decency.  I  shall 
ever  think  it  better  to  want  wit,  than  to  want  humanity; 
and  impartial  posterity  may  perhaps  be  of  my  opinion.' 
It  is  to  be  feared  that  it  was  rather  a  new  hatred  than  a 

of  justice,  however  tardy,  which  induced  Pope  in 
1743  to  dethrone  Theobald  from  the  heroship  of  the 
'Dunciad,'  setting  up  Colley  Gibber  in  his  place.  In  the 

•'|i;c-iit  year  both  Pope  and  Theobald  wore  at  peace; 
nad  f.'ir  ever  silenced  their  controversy.  Theobald 

in  September,  1744.  On  the  20th  of  the  following 
October,  hi*  library,  which  included  205  old  English 
•old  by  auction.  He  had  collected  these  pro- 
ductions, now  so  rare  and  highly  valued,  at  a  time  when 
our  early  drama  was  neglected,  if  not  despised  ;  and  he 
a  judicious  use  of  them  in  his  edition  of  Shakspere. 
.  of  his  edition  with  commendation,  we  of 
course  look  at  those  things  which  are  of  permanent  value 
in  it  :  .  cr  those  ebullitions  of  offended  pride, 

venting  itself  in  self-commendation  and  acrimonious  ob- 
jection, which  were  luitmal  to  one  who  had  been  so  hunted 

:.  Dr.  Johnson  says  that 
Ttieobald,  'by  the  gui,d  luck  of  having  Pope  for  hi.; 


enemy,  has  escaped  and  escaped  alone  with  reputation 
from  this  undertaking  [the  undertaking  of  editing  Shaks- 
pere].    So  willingly  does  the  world  support   those   who 
solicit  favour  against  those  who  command  reverence,  and 
so  easily  is  he  praised  whom  no  man  can  envy.'    This,  we 
think,  is  mere  phrase-making,  and  does  not  represent  the 
world  s  opinion  of  any  man  at  any  period  :  reputations  are 
not  made  upon  the  compassion  of  the  world.     Johnson 
has,  a  little  before,  stated  the  case  with  greater  correct- 
ness  although  not  wholly  correct.     '  Pope  was  succeeded 
by  Iheobald,  a  man  of  narrow  comprehension,  and  small 
acquisitions,    with   no   native   and  intrinsic  splendour   of 
genius,  with  little  of  the  artificial  light  of  learning,  but 
zealous  for  minute  accuracy,  and  not  negligent  in  pursuing 
it.     He  collated  the  ancient  copies,  and  rectified  many 
errors.     A  man  so  anxiously  scrupulous  might  have  been 
expected  to  do  more,  but  what  little  he  did  was  commonly 
right.'    The  great  merit  of  Theobald  as  an  editor  is  that  he 
did  not  attempt  too  much,  that  he  did  not  '  do  more,'  and 
that  therefore  he  was  '  commonly  right.'    The  great  fault 
of  nearly  all  the  editors  of  Shakspere  has  been  that  they 
set  themselves  up  above  their  author;    that  they  would 
exhibit  their  own '  native  and  intrinsic  splendour  of  genius' 
in  the  improvement  of  what  they  did  not  understand,  and 
the  adaptation  of  the  verse  of  Shakspere  to  the  standard  of 
another  age.     The  most  happy  emendations  of  Shakspere, 
almost  the  only  admissible  ones,  have  been  produced  by  the 
caution  of  Theobald.     In  his  own  preface  he  says,  '  I  have 
not  by  any  innovation  tampered  with  his  text,  out  of  an  os- 
tentation of  endeavouring  to  make  him  speak  better  than  the 
old  copies  have  done ;'  aiid  then  he  adds,  '  Where,  through 
all  the  former  editions,  a  passage  has  laboured  under  flat 
nonsense  and  invincible  darkness,  if,  by  the  addition  or  al- 
teration of  a  letter  or  two,  or  a  transposition  in  the  pointing, 
I  have  restored  to  him  both  sense  and  sentiment,  such  cor- 
rections, I  am  persuaded,  will  need  no  indulgence.'     All 
subsequent  editors  have  a  debt  to  Theobald  which  has  not 
always  been  acknowledged.     Johnson    himself  says,   'I 
li;ive  sometimes  adopted  his  restoration  of  a  comma,  with- 
out inserting  the  panegyric  in  which  he  celebrated  himself 
"or  his  achievement.' 

There  is  a  curious  matter  connected  with  the  history  of 
Theobald,  which  needs  here  only  a  slight  mention.  In  his 
edition  of  Shakspere  in  1728,  he  printed  a  play,  'The 
Double  Falsehood,'  as  an  original  by  William  Shakspere, 
t  having  been  a  short  time  before  produced  on  the  stage. 
The  play  was  stated  to  have  been  found  in  manuscript. 
3ne  passage,  which  is  certainly  not  in  the  manner  of 
Shakspere,  is  said  to  have  been  particularly  admired  :  — 

'  Strike  up,  my  misters ; 

But  touch  the  strings  with  a  religious  softness : 
Teach  souud  to  languish  through  tiie  night's  dull  cor, 
Till  melancholy  slart  from  her  lazy  cnifli. 
Ami  carelessness  grow  convert  to  attention.' 

The  admiration  was  too  much  for  the  vanity  of  Theobald  : 
le  came  forward  to  state  that  he  certainly  had  written 
hose  lines,  but  that  all  the  rest  was  genuine  Shakspere. 
)r.  Farmer  holds  that  'The  Double  Falsehood' was  not 

Shakspere's  because  the  word  aspect  was  wrongly  accen- 

uated,  that  is,  not  as  aspect,  according  to  the  usage  of 

hakspere  and  of  his  time  ;  and  he  holds  the  play  to  be 

hirlcy's.     It  is  not  worthy  even  of  that  writer.     The  pro- 

iability  is  that  Theobald  had  a  greater  hand  in  the  matter 

han  he  was  subsequently  willing  to  acknowledge.     The 

estless  vanity  and  love  of  notoriety  which,  according  to 

lis  own  account,  impelled  Psalmanazar  to  his  impostures, 

las  perhaps  in  nearly  every  case  been  the  great  motive  to 

iterary  forgery.     Theobald  was  the  author  of  a  Life  of  Sir 

Walter  Raleigh  ;  and  he  also  wrote  the  greater  part  of  the 

>eriodical  papers  entitled  '  The  Censor,'  which  appeared 

is  a  separate  work  in  1717,  having  been  previously  pub- 

ished  in  Mist's  'Weekly  Journal.' 

TIIEOBALDUS,  a  bishop  who  probably  lived  in  Fiance, 

and  whose  name  is  sometimes  written  Tebaldus  or  Tibal- 
fi/'V,  the  reputed  author  of  a  didactic  and  theological  poem 
mtitled  '  Physiologus  de  Naturis  Duodecim  Animahum.' 
t  is  written  in  hexameter,  sapphic,  and  other  kinds  of  verse, 

and  describes  first  some  one  or  more  of  the  natural  habits 
f  twelve'  different  animals,  and  then  draws  from  each  some 

moral  and  religious  reflections.    The  twelve  animals  chosen 

are  the  lion,  eagle,  serpent,  ant,  fox,  stag,  spider,  whale, 
iren  and  centaur,  elephant,  dove,  and  panther;  and  the 

whole  poem  appeal's  to  be  borrowed  in  a  great  measure 


T   11    I. 


T  11  K 


from  the  little  woik  in  prose  by  Kpiplmnius  on  the  same 
kubjeet.     The  poem  begins  thus : — 

•  TIM  bo  Mt«n>  rt  tnt  l»brt  iDdo  iruimi, 
Quo  nto.  Chrt4>,  TiU  bU  *no  araliw 
Alvr.  iid=i  iMorul  Mta^lU  lil.ri. 
D»  quiha.  mpnuii  qtu>  mrau  mjnlkrm  i 

TiA»i  in-2-*--1 1 °—  ~-**u 

NamlmlfcuM  foito  «1»«  •«»  acumte*  mooU.,'  kc. 

Anil  ends  thus: — 

•  CDeV»  MdrwlMU  ul.i  ttfiui  cum  r»tto  pruMu 

Uorm  fruir.  cunrUo  .k-  «unt  rn-drti.l"  «TUt»* 
A..t  fti«ll  ruq«f  UM  n*r  to  l|»o  Irapon  pu* 

- -•"•"";!;?,::•.•• - 


ibs. 


l,!i< 

7^7 


e  deMM.  qnl  ««U  «nr  omnim  nfnt. 
r»ni>l.K-  6mho  ril  tail,  »t  glori*  ChriMa. 

a  non  .,111  pUconl  hoe  mrlra  Titaldi.1 

The  last  two  verses  are  not  to  be  found  in  the  old  edi- 
tions,  but   only   m  Hcauirendre's   edition  of  the   works  of 
•erf.     \Vith  re-;:,  e!  to  the  author  of  the  poem,  as  it 
,,,1  i,i  a  P.:  -ript  of  the  thirteenth   century, 

ining  the  works  ot   Hildebert,   archbishop  of  Tours 
(who    lived    in    the    twefth   century),   and   has  aUo   been 
•  himself,  he  may  be  supposed  to  have 

h\ed  some  time  in  the  twelfth  century,   0  early 

MS  the  eleventh,  if  he  is  the  person  meant  in  an  epitaph  on 

',,i/,/H.v    J>  .ritteii    by    Ilil.i 

Hi'l,;  i.   p.  l:i±2,   edit.  15.  The  fust 

edition  of  this  work  to  which  a  date  is  attached   is  that  of 
Antv..  J   -Jto.,   but    five   others  are   enumerated  by 

lliiiilliii<-h  tlfr  Btich'-rkiiiuli-  fiir  itti- . I'll, 
.  which  were  probably  printed  before  this  year.  The 
iition,  in  a  separate  form,  was  published  at  I.eip/is. 
1510,  4to.  :  but  it  is  inserted  in  •  Hildebirti  Ceuomaneiisis 
..pi,   Turoncn-is    Archiepiscopi,   Opera,'   edit.    Ant. 
i-.  1 70S,  fol.,  and  erroneously  attributed  to 
HilbeberL       The    /'i-iuniiiinn    and    the    chapter    /' 
i,hn>it>-  arc   inserted  by    Kreytag   in  the   •  Analccta  I.itte- 
niria  de  Libris  Harioribus,'   I.ips..  17-V2.  SMI.     In  some  of 
the    old    editions  there   is  appended   to   the  poem  a  theo- 
logical commentary,  written  in  the  style  of  the  scholastic 
philosophy  of  I  lie  "middle  ages :  the  author  is  unknown, 
but  it  was  not  composed  by  Theobaldus  himself.   (Chou- 
lant,  IIH-II  cit.) 

'\  !IKOBR<  )'MA  (from  Snos  and  /3p<3/ia,  the  food  of  ends  , 
the  name  of  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Sterculiaceie.  the  species  of  which  yield  the  cocoa  of 
commerce.  They  are  trees  with  large  simple  loaves  and 
with  the  flower*  in  clusters.  The  calyx  is  composed  of 
I  are  5.  lengthened  into  a  strap-like 
form  at  the  apex  :  the  stamens  are  5,  each  with  double 
anthers  and  a  horn-like  appendage  between  each  filament; 
'\le  is  filiform,  with  :i  5-purted  stigma:  fruit  a  5- 
celled' i-apsiile  without  valves:  seeds  embedded  in  a  soft 
pulp;  no  albumen,  and  thick  oily  wrinkled  cotyledons. 

.  Common  Cacao   or' Chocolate-nut   tree,    has 
entire,  elliptic,  oblong,  acuminate,  unite  smooth  lea\ , 
ohloni;    smooth   fiuit.     Tins  tiee    is  indigenous    in  South 
America,  a-'d   is  L'enerally  found  at  a  height  of  (KK)  feet 
level  of  the  sea.     It  is  however  extensively  cul- 
tivated  in   the  West   Indies,   and   in   the   tropical   parts  of 
Afiica.     The    Mexicans   call   th 
:   word  chocolate  for  the  prepared  seeds.     The 
.lesof  the  fruit  are  large,   and   contain  each  about  25 
-:  the  pulp  in  which  these  are  enveloped   has  a  sweet 

not  unplea  i  frequently  eaten  where  the 

,wn.     Th.  e\cii;recn..  and   bear   fruit 

I'.owers  all  the  yew  through,  but  the  usual  tin 
gatherin!;  the  fruit  are  in  June  and  December.  The  coty- 
ledons of  the  ->  :n  a  large  quantity  of  oily  albu- 
men, which  hits  an  agreeable  flavour,  and  on  this  account 
1he\  are  not  only  used  as  a  principal  article  of  diet  by  the 
natives  of  the  countries  in  which  they  irrow.  but  are  now 
:  for  the  same  purpose  thoiiL'hout  the  civilized  world. 
The  com;.  'hese  »ecds,in  which  amylaceous  matter 
.th  oil,  and  a  principle  probably  similar  in 
••ilion  to  Thcin  and  Carl'ein,  is  well  adapted, 
when  combined  wit!  form  a  valuable  article  of 
diet.  umptioii  of  them  for  this  ;  .dready 
0:1  the  increase,  and  under  the  present  treat!. 
rate  of  duty  will  probably  go  on  in  a  greater  ratio.  The 
following  are  the  quantities  consumed  in  this  country 
lince  1835 :— 


1K41  . 

Before  the  alteration  of  the  tariff  in  1K12.  the  duty  on 
cocoa  1mm  liritish  possessions  was  i/.,  and  fromtoi. 
countries  Of/,   ner  11).  ;    now   reduced    to    I./,  and  -I'/.     On 
husk-  and  shells  the  duty   was  ^/.  and  !</.,   and  remains 
unaltered.    The  duty  on  cocoa  paste  and  chocolate,  which 
was-t'/.  per  II).    from  liritish  possessions,    and    -Iv.  -\,l.   from 
foreiirn  countries,   has  been  reduced  in  the  form 
i/.,  and   in  the  latter  to  («/.  per  Ib.     The   dut\  . 
nder  the  old  taril!'v,as  nesuly  prohibitory. 
The  chocolate   of  different  countries  \arics  according  to 
its  mode  of  preparation  and  the  ingredients  contained  in  it. 
The  most  common   form  however  in  which   they  are  con- 
sumed  in  this  count  iv  is  what   is  called  cocoa,  which  con- 
sists of  tin  .-d  into  flakes  or  reduced  ' 

It  is  to  this  paste  whilst   hot   that   the  h.  and 

other  things  are  added,  which  constitute  it  chocolate.  The 

|iicnt!\   adulterated.      IIo^V  lard    at  • 

added  to  make  up  weight,  and  red  lead  to  irivc  it  a  colour. 
On  this  account  the  flake-cocoa  is  the  best  to  be  used. 

The   largest    quantity  of  the  seeds  that   are  used  in  this 
country  are  brought   from   the  \Vest   Indies,   and  of  : 
the  Trinidad    n.  nd    the   hi-t.      Of   the 

1.  UK  1.000  Ibs.  of   cocoa   consumed    in    Kill.   -.l.V.MHX)  Ibs. 

the   \Vc-a   Indies,    :(75.(JOO   from   Colm 
ISU.IXK)  from  IJrazil.  and  l:«,000  from  Chili. 

The  oil  contained    in  the  -.imetinu-s  obtained 

separately,  and  called  cocoa  butter.     It  may  be  obtained 
easily  b\  expression,   especially  if  hot  water  is  added.      It 
is  said  to  be  very  nutritive,  and  to  act  as  an  anodyne.    It  is 
particularly  recommended  for  making  ointment*.      1 
and  (iniber,  A//HI-HI.  l'.nri/<-l..  art.  •  OBI 

In   the  cultivation  of  the  Cacao   a  wet.   soil   must  ! 

.  as.  \\here\er  planted,  it'  it  has  not  a  large  quantity 
of  water  it  perishes.  The  plants  also  require  shade,  and 
on  this  account  in  Trinidad  and  other  islands  of  the  \Ve.-1 
Indies  •  lie  placed  between  rows  of  the  Krythrina 

umbrosa,    one,    two,    or   three    rows   of    the  Cacao   being 
planted   between   the   Krythrinas.     In    sowing   them    the 
seeds  are  placed  two  or  three  together  in  the  soil,  at  about 
two  \ards  distant  in  the  rows;  and  when  the  plants  are 
about  two  feet  high,  all  except  the  strongest  are  rein 
In  rearing  them  the  only  further  care  iieces*ar\  i-  tl 
weeds  are  removed.     If  this  be  not  attended  to,  the  plants 
will  not  flourish. 

There  are  se\eial  other  species  of  Theobroma.  yielding 

seeds  possessing  the  |  .  e,  but  they  are 

not  cultivated  or  employed  to  the  same  extent.     Th- 

ai 1  of  them  natives  of  South  America,  and  used  by  the  in- 

habitants   where    they    irrow    as    food.       The    'rhr<itirnin*i 

(liiiiziini'i  of  LiniKcns.  the  liastard  Cedar  or  Orme  d'Ame- 

rique.  now  the  <iun:i'  a  native  of  the  \\Yst 

.  and   is  a  handsome  tree    re-embling  the  elm.     It. 

•••th   on    both   surfaces.      In 

Jamaica    cattle  eat    itslea\c*   when    fodder   is  Karc    .      I'- 

reel    flavour    li!,<'    LTreen   \\-^~.   and   a:. 
quently  eaten  ill  the  \Ve-t  Indies.      \\~,  wood  is  much  used 

nt  of  its  lightness.       Its   1. 

ik  yield  a  mucilaginous  decoction,  which  is  re])iited 
of  much  value  in  elephantiasis  and  in  ,  the  chest. 

'.'.//IT'.V  l>ict:i:  iinnj  :    Dii-liimiin. 

Parliamentary 

TIIKOHKO'M.V     Cocoa    nn,l  <7nmlntr.}     The  si, 
of  this  -;enus  which  \ield  articles  of  nutriment  are  t  i 
native*)  of  South  America  and  the  West  Indies.     Tin 
also  found  in  the  Philippine  Isle*.     It  is  customary  to  refer 
io  the  species  deseiiln'd  by  I.inun'iis  under  the  name 
Theobroma  Cacao  :  "/'.  >  '///•>.'.  I.amarck  ,   but   this 

yields  only  a  small   portion  of  this  mo-t  wnlcl\  consumed 
aiticlc,  and  none  of  that  used    in  Mexico,  where  the  T. 
nut    e\  en  irrow.      Besides  this  species,   the  fol- 
lowing furnish  seme  of  the  different  kinds,  si/..  :   T.  S| 
sum.    Wildcnow:     T.   subincanum,    Mart.:    T.  s\  h 
Mart.     The  Mexican  'ureil    by  Decandolli; 

to  hi'  yielded   by  T.  aniruslifolia   and   ovah:  ell  ag 

from  sonic   unci  -.      Tliat  of  Guatemala  is 

ceitainly  from  an  undeicribed  specie-,.     The  C'ohnnb.. 
yielded  by  a  species   called  by  the  natives  mnnlaras  or 


THE 


313 


T  II 


which   is  cultivated  like  the   T.   Cacao.      The 
cocoa  of  Guiana  is  yielded  by  the  T.  Guianensis.  ( Aublet.) 

The  fruits  are  collected  both  from  wild  and  cultivated 
plants ;  from  the  latter  two  harvests  are  obtained,  from 
the  former  one  only.  The  cultivation  is  easy  and  unex- 
pensive.  The  tree  begins  to  bear  about  the  age  of  seven  or 
eight  years,  and  one  slave  can  superintend  a  thousand 
plants,  the  produce  of  which  however  is  not  more  than  from 
1500  to  1000  Ibs.  of  seeds.  The  statement  of  Labat  is 
an  exaggeration — that  a  tree  in  full  vigour  will  produce 
150  Ibslof  seeds.  Notwithstanding  the  small  return  from 
each  tree,  it  is  a  very  lucrative  branch  of  culture.  The 
produce  is  always  greatest  after  the  greatest  floodings  of 
the  rivers.  The  seeds  from  the  wild  plants  are  termed  by 
the  native  Brazilians  cacao  bravo  or  cacao  do  Mato. 

The  fruits  of  the  ditf'erent  species  vary  in  size,  form,  and 
the  number  of  the  seeds  they  contain.  The  seeds,  which 
are  the  only  part  employed,  vary  in  size  and  quality  ac- 
cording to  the  species  from  which  they  are  obtained.  The 
general  number  is  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  in  each  fruit, 
In-ill'.:  mo iv  abundant,  as  well  as  of  better  quality,  in  the 
cultivated  than  in  the  wild  plants.  They  vary  much  in 
bitterness  and  in  the  quantity  of  oil  they  yield,  not  only 
according  to  the  spet-ies  from  which  they  are  obtained, 
but  the  manner  in  which  they  are  treated  after  being 
gathered  and  taken  out  of  the  pulpy  fruit.  In  some  in- 
•s  they  are  buried  in  the  earth  in  heaps,  and  allowed 
to  ferment  for  thirty  or  forty  days  ;  a  process  which  greatly 
improves  them,  and  destroys  the  germinating  power  of  the 
seed.  The  different  kinds  met  with  in  commerce  derive 
their  names  either  from  the  place  where  they  grew  or  from 
some  corruption  of  the  native  designation.  The  average 
si/e  of  good  beans  is  that  of  a  sweet  almond,  but  some- 
what thicker.  The  most  esteemed  of  the  known  sorts  is 
that  termed  Surotmzco,  or  Mexican,  with  very  small  beans, 
with  a  remarkably  fine  flavour,  and  scarcely  any  acrid 
taste.  'J  1u  M-  beans  are  always  buried.  This  sort  never 
-  to  Europe.  The  next  most  valuable  comes  from 
K.Miirialda.-..  and  h;;>  a  MTV  agreeable  flavour:  the  choco- 
late prepared  from  it  has  a  golden  colour ;  it  is  seldom  met 
with  out  of  Mexico.  The  Guatemala  cocoa  consists  of 
I:UL/'-  beans,  very  convex,  often  angular,  and  very 
much  pointed  at  the  one  end.  They  contain  much  oil, 
and  are  mild,  with  a  pleasant  flavour.  The  beans  from 
Guayaquil,  which  aie  three  times  as  large  as  those  of  So- 
conuzeo,  are  less  prized  than  those  of  Guatemala. 

The  Caracas  or  .New  Granada  cocoa,  which  is  among  the 
more  highly  prized  kinds  that  reach  Europe,  is  obtained 
from  the  'i'heobroma  bicolor  (Humboldt,  }'l.  Aequin., 
\.  3Oj,  called  by  the  natives  Bacao,  and  cultivated  at  Car- 
thago. The  beans  are  of  medium  size,  and  very  oily.  But 
chocolate  made  of  these  alone  is  not  very  agreeable,  and 
another  kind  is  commonly  mixed  with  them,  which  are 
much  smaller  and  harder.  Berbice  cocoa  beans  are  not 
unfrequently  mingled  with  those  of  Granada.  These  arc 
also  smaller  and  thinner,  but  in  other  respects  difficult  to 
dUtinguUli  :  the  shell  separates  very  easily  from  the  kernel, 
which  is  reddish-brown,  and  has  a  strong  smell,  but  a 
pleasant  flavour. 

The  Surinam  and  Essequibo  cocoas  are  not  unlike  that 
from  New  Granada,  but  are  harder,  thicker,  and  not  so 
sweet. 

All  :he  foregoing  are  earth-dried  :  the  following  are 
called  sun-dried,  being  merely  collected  in  heaps,  and 
often  turned  over  in  the  sun ;  they  are  consequently  much 
cheaper. 

Brazilian,  called  also  of  Para,  and  of  Maranham,  is  very 
extensively  employed:  the  beans  are  small,  smooth,  long, 
somewhat  flattened,  externally  reddish-brown,  with  a  bitter 
astringent  taste :  it  is  only  worth  half  the  amount  of  the 
former.  The  West  Indian,  called  Cocoa  des  lies  or  des 
Antilles,  is  still  k-ss  valuable,  and  is  employed  to  form  the 
low-priced  cocoas  and  chocolates. 

Lampadius  has  analyzed  the  West  Indian  kernels,  and 
4  tin-in  to  consist  of,  in  the  100  parts,  besides  water, 
fXJ-1  of  fat  or  oil,  16'7  of  an  albuminous  brown  matter, 
which  contains  all  the  aroma  of  the  bean,  10-91  of  starch, 
•75  of  gum  or  mucilage,  0-9  of  lignine,  and  2  01  of  a 
red'1  ill',  somewhat  akin  to  the  pigment  of  cochi- 

neal. These  proportions  vary  very  much  in  the  ditf'erent 
sorts,  the  West,  Indian  kinds  containing  far  more  of  the 
oil  or  butter  of  cocoa  than  the  kind  from  New  Granada. 
It  is  therefore  mo.-it  advantageous  to  employ  the  latter  to 
P.  C.,  No.  1527, 


form  cocoa  or  chocolate  for  nutriment,  and  the  other  to 
yield  this  solid  oil,  to  form  candles,  soap,  or  pomades. 
This  oil  contains  a  large  proportion  of  stearinc,  and  is 
therefore  solid  at  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the  air,  but 
it  melts  at  122°  Fahr.  When  purified  by  long  boiling  in 
water,  it  is  perfectly  white,  and  does  not  readily  become 
rancid.  It  is  perfectly  soluble  in  aether,  a  means  of  detect- 
ing adulterations  with  beef-fat,  suet,  marrow,  or  almond 
oil,  wax,  &c.  It  is  however  less  employed  in  this  country 
than  in  France.  Nevertheless  it  is  a  most  valuable  ma- 
terial, and  a  soap  made  with  it  and  soda,  which  is  prefer- 
able to  potass,  forms  an  article  for  the  toilet  of  great  ser- 
vice to  those  who  are  troubled  with  a  rough  harsh  skin  or 
chapped  hands.  The  soap  sold  in  this  country  under  the 
name  of  cocoa-nut  oil  must  not  be  confounded  with  that 
}ust  spoken  of,  as  this  is  obtained  from  the  Cocos  nucifera. 
The  cocoa-nut-oil  candles  are  likewise  prepared  from  the 
latter. 

The  kernels  of  the  Theobroma  are  used  as  an  article  of 
nutriment  either  in  the  natural  state  as  they  are  received 
from  America  or  prepared  in  various  ways.  The  simplest 
and  best  form  is  that  of  the  seeds  roughly  crushed,  termed 
cocoa-nibs,  which  however  require  two  hours  boiling,  as, 
owing  to  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  endosperm,  or  inner 
seed-coat,  which  passes  down  into  the  substance  of  the  co- 
tyledons, the  prolonged  application  of  heat  and  moisture 
is  necessary  to  dissolve  the  contents.  Flake  cocoa  is 
merely  the  seeds  crushed  between  rollers.  When  choco- 
late is  to  be  made,  the  beans,  after  being  carefully  picked 
so  as  to  free  them  from  mouldy  or  worm-eaten  ones,  are 
to  be  gently  roasted  over  a  fire  in  an  iron-cylinder,  with 
holes  in  the  ends  to  allow  the  vapour  to  escape.  When 
the  aroma  begins  to  be  well  developed,  the  process  is  con- 
sidered complete.  The  beans  are  then  turned  out,  cooled, 
and  freed  by  fanning  and  sifting  from  their  husks.  The 
husks,  which  often  amount  to  20  or  25  per  cent,  of  the 
beans  employed,  should  not  be  thrown  away,  as  they  con- 
tain half  their  weight  of  soluble  matter  of  a  mucilaginous 
nature,  which  furnishes  a  tolerable  nutriment  for  the  poor. 
The  seeds  are  then  to  be  converted  into  a  paste,  either  by 
trituration  in  a  mortar  heated  to  130°  Fahr.,  or  now  almost 
universally  by  a  machine  impelled  by  steam.  (See  Ure's 
Dictionary  (<f  Arts,  &c.,  p.  293.)  The  paste  is  then  put 
into  moulds  and  sent  into  the  market.  It  always  im- 
proves by  keeping.  The  colour  is  said  to  be  owing  to  the 
addition  of  arnotto,  but  this  is  probably  a  mistake,  for  if 
the  South  American  contain  as  much  colouring-matter  a* 
the  West  Indian,  any  extraneous  pigment  is  unnecessary. 
When  the  kernels  alone  are  used,  or  only  a  little  sugar 
added,  the  chocolate  is  termed  '  Chocolat  de  sante.'  But 
vanilla,  cloves,  cinnamon,  and  other  aromatics  are  frequently 
added;  as  are  also  rice,  almonds,  starch,  &c.  Simple  cho- 
colate is  mostly  preferred  in  Britain,  the  perfumed  sorts  in 
France,  Italy,  and  Spain,  in  which  countries  the  consump  • 
lion  is  immense.  For  invalids  the  plain  chocolate  is  best, 
the  perfumed  being  too  heating.  Where  tea  and  coffee 
disagree,  cocoa  or  chocolate  is  the  best  substitute.  It  is 
complained  that  it  proves  heavy  and  disturbs  the  stomach, 
and  not  unfrequently  causes  headaches.  In  almost  all  in- 
stances this  arises  from  making  the  beverage  too  strong. 
The  printed  directions  order  far  too  much  of  the  substance 
to  be  employed.  Half  the  quantity  is  sufficient.  The 
Spaniards  do  not  reckon  chocolate  very  nutritious,  and 
even  permit  the  priests,  who  should  fast  for  many  hours 
before  saying  mass,  to  drink  it.  But  this  is  a  very  con- 
venient mistake.  Schroder,  who  analyzed  cocoa,  regarded 
the  bitter  principle  as  similar  to  cuffi-m.  The  analysis  of 
Theobromine  by  Woskresensky  shows  how  nearly  he  was 
correct,  and  ajso  that  this  article,  being  one  of  the  most 
highly  azotised  vegetable  compounds,  must  be  highly  nu- 
tritious. Liebig  considers  that  this  principle  contributes 
to  the  formation  of  bile,  like  thein.  [THEA  ;  THEIN.] 

THEOCRACY  (Seoicparm,  a  government  by  God)  is  a 
term  applied  to  the  constitution  of  the  Israelitish  govern- 
ment, as  established  by  Moses,  on  account  of  its  being 
under  the  direct  control  of  God.  Michaelis  enumerates 
the  following  particulars  as  those  in  which  the  theocratic 
form  of  government  is  most  remarkable  : — 1.  The  laws  of 
the  Israelites  were  given  by  God.  2.  The  judges  arc  re- 
presented as  holy  persons,  and  as  sitting  in  the  place 
of  God.  3.  The  judges  were  usually  taken  from  the  tribe 
of  Levi,  and  the  chief  expounder  of  the  law  was  tin; 
high-priest.  4.  In  difficult  cases  of  law,  relating  both  to 

Vol.  XX.IV.-2  S 


T  II  K 


314 


T  ii  r. 


1  war.  God  was  to  be  consulted  by 


i-i  tlio  earliest  form  i  :itu- 

lillll.    '  :     mill  till'   desire  Of  til' 

:i   kin?  at    the 

.tared  to  be  an  act  of  rebellion  on 
their  )  i.  7. 

visibli 

.  •  ruler  of  tin'  .state,    [I.  0111- 
i  1 1.  J 

'•a  on  the  .  .  sec. 

.        .  .     S 

a  native  i,: 

of  his  life.     lie  i-  .-..id  to  I 

- 
pupil,  w! 

with  Aiatns  tiie 
and  i!   i-  tbimed  tl. 

ml  T 

i'hiladclphus,  and   that  the 
.    - 

Son).  B.C.  "-!H1.  In' 

of  that 

i-  mamt'e-'  •!  of  his  poems.     It  has  fuither 

.    that    he  spent    >ume    ti.  ion  in 

three  of  his  poems  is 

laid  in  that  place.  Beyond  theM'  circumstances,  which  are 
Jittle  more  than  probabilities,  we  know  nothing  of  the  life 
of  Theocritus.  The  Alexandrine  sr;auiiu  :ed  his 

works  vi-:y  highly,  anil  assigned  to  him  the  second 
in  the  plciad  of  the  -  llauoous  poets,  which  com- 

.  Apol- 

Kmius  Hhodius.  Nii-ander,  and  one  Homer,  the  son  o! 
Moero  of  Byzantium.  Several  (»i  wrote 

i  extant  in  the  scholia  on  his  poems.  There 

various   ;•• 

•which  are  all  the 

dialect,  which  is  sutler  than  the  old  Doric,  and 

the  :•  this  new  Doric    is  still    increased    in  the 

:    epic  and  Ionic 
]  v  by  which 

'{Hired    Hi'  i  j.;\i| 

.     This    pastoral    pi.  ,!ar  in 

I'liusilit 

on,  and  the  antient  cutics 
id  Viijril  for 

.i.  I  ,. 
in  the 
\.\i,i  . 

poem  imita- 

tions 

i  are   mere 
' 

...  xxui..  x\i\ 
ind  some  porti 

'•rn  •  the  work  <  ''some 

there  •  doubt  that  they  arc  i  i  liny 

arc  not  without  <;rcat   poetical   merit,  if  we   • 

XXX. 

poem  .        ,  .'.hiil  i 

ire  ascribed  to  1 

All  the  poems  which  aiv  pnxluctions  of  Theo- 

»»«  'o  I  uf  liis  art. 

H"  I"  <ua£e  U  not  lew  wondeiiul  than  hi, 

wrte  for  the  ample  I  nature,  and  the  skill  with 

which  he  handled  hw  subjects.     His  poonu  are  indeed 


.onal  shepherxl  sonirs  of  Si(  ily  in  the 

.  and 

ideal  i/ 

.     do  not  know  whether  '1  nei 
ud  a   collection   ui'   hi-   | 
a    in   the    •  . \nthol"  '     iv..    11.    'Jil")  .   we 

editions  uniler  his  name.     The  cditio  prin 

I.,  only  contains  eighteen 

ihoue 

of  .1.  -1  in  IraMslaliDii.  tl  holia 

and  in  :    'I'lunna-.   \Varton, 

with  additional   M'lmlia  and  nt  •  1,    1770.  'J 

4to.;  Valckenaer, Leydea,  I77i>  mid  I7si.    The  edition  of 

Minn  and 

u>.  N  still  In   I77:i  \  :ri  kenaer  had 

li-hcd  an  excellent   edition  of  itus. 

His  com])lete  edition  was  reprinted  at  Berlin,  IMn.  J 
with  additional  1  Toup. 

•,>7iir.  Isll. 

i>  by  K.  Y.  \\iistemami.  (iothaand    Kiiindt.    1K«).   in 
vol.  Svo.     The  intioduetory  ess'  .:it  of 

the    literature  of  Theocritus.      The   works  of  Tin  i 

i.een    translated   into   all    the   laniruaC'  s   i.f  m 

v.     There  i,h  transhr 

i7*'7.  and  a  tra 
I'olwhele.   -Ito.,   ITKli.  and  m  -J  ?ol»,    ISmo.,    1M1. 

.eiieh  translation  is  that  of  .1.  B.  Claii,  with  cxplana- 

id  eritical  note-,  1'aris.  IhOS.  :i  \nU.  4to.     Th. 

a   traiisla'ions  |  i.f  ,1.  11.   \ 

!     \Vhter     HildUirchausr 

•tintr  the  character  of  the  .-ritus,  see 

Kickstadt.  Ailnnihrati'i 


0. ;  and  Reinhold.  I> 

is,  Jena.  IS]:). 

THKODOI.KT.  or  THKODOLITK  (the  woul  is  found 
in  both  forms  ,  is  the  name  generally  srivcn  to  the  instru- 

>ed    for   measuring   hon/imtal 

:nrm  the  theodolet  consists  of  a  divided  circle,  which 
i-   to  be  set  parallel  with  the  horizon,    and   a 
which  has  so  much  motion  in  a  vertical  plane  as  to  enable 
|  the  observer  to  view  any  object  which  he  m. 
i  or  below  the  horizon.     The  derivation  of  the  word 

.  although  the  instrument  and  ii 
lively  of  recent 
divided  circles,  which  thc\ 
for   the   j>. 

spea'.  ude.      The  (|iiad:an;  \  ed    in   all 

aeein:'  -  up  to  the  latter  half  of  !!•  . ,nny. 

although    Uoemer    had    shown    by    i  injiie 

the  superiority  of  the  eiiln  The  lirxt. 

instance  of  a  survey  conducted  with  ;  •  ircle,  on  a 

.•-,  so   far  a- 

.      in    I7U--H.      The  horizontal  . 
ler.  and   < -onslrncted   bv  the  Danish 
artist  Ahl. 

Uam.-dcn    linished    his    gival    theodolite    in    17KT,    the 
circle  of  which  i-  in  diameter.     This 

fora  trianjrulation,  to  connect  the  observ:*. 
v.  ich  and  Pan-.       \  \  e,  \     hid    description  of  it    >. 
'•'unit   if  Ilii'  (tjH'rii'i 

;Ti  I/    of  l-.'l a/  i/til   (I 

..  ll!7-l:i(i.  with  four  |-  jirint,  ina 

'hil.Traiw., 
i   the  Knu 

with    tin-  it    or  with 

untieal     in    si/e    and    co'  and 

I  thou^1  minor  additions  andimpi.  havi: 

theodolite'  is  still  considered  by  the 
i  ui    the  si  infal- 

lible instiumcnt.     We  believe  thai  the  high  reputation  of 
the    treat    theodolite   depends    in    B    treat  .    the 

,-  with  which    it    has   heen  used   and   pre- 
it    is   ir  a  very   line,  well-divided  in- 

V  r.i..|  p.  <'ii,  >•  :,ri.'  tin  i>uu>  lu mcrlu. 


T  H  K 


313 


T  H  E 


strumui':,  but  in  common  hands  its  want  of  solidity  and 
firmness  xould  probably  have  been  felt.  It  would  be 
impossible  as  well  as  useless  to  give  an  account  oi'  the 
various  constructions  of  different  artists  at  home  and 
abroad.  The  general  properties  of  a  theodolite,  that  it 
should  be  firm,  well  balanced,  &c.,  will  be  easily  recog- 
nised by  a  -person  who  knows  how  to  make  good  use  oi' 
the  instrument,  and  we  shall  advert  in  the  course  of  this 
article  to  some  of  the  qualities  which  are,  and  to  others 
which  are  not,  essential. 


\\~r   have  given  here  a  sketch  of  the  theodolite  in  its 
Miupii'^  liirm.  such   as  would  be  proper  for  the  secondary 

.^•illation  of  a  national  survey,  or  for  the  nu 
private  .-uney.     The  tripod  which  cariies  the  instrument 
.siththree  foot -screws  in  brass  notches  let  into  the 
top  of  a  v  :d.    The  legs  ct  tin-  stand  are  not  fully 

d,  but  the  tuo  parts  of  which  each  is  com 
end  below  in  a  strung  and  sharply-pointed  metal  « 
The  circle  is  iixcd,  and  the  upper  works,  telescope,  vei- 
-.  turn  on  a  centre,  which  may  I 
M  of  the  telescope.     The  adjustments  arc 
\eiy  simple.     The  wooden  stand  is  first  set  down  wl 

.  ami  the  top  nearly  horizontal. 
The  i  -  are  placed  in  their  notches,  the   ]  : 

•  »ok,  below  the  centre  of  the  circle,  and 
the  Ich-M-opc  turned  round  till  one  le\el  is  parallel  to  the 
line  joining  two  foot-screws,  while  the  other  level   is  in  a 
the  third  toot-screw  to  the  centre.     Briny;  the 
bubble   d!    the    fust-mentioned   level   into  the   midd 
raising  one  of  the  two  foot-screw.-,  and  depressing  the  other, 
:iml  then  adjust  the  cross-level  by  raising  or  depressing  the 
••   alone.     Now  turn   the    telescope   round 
180°,  and  if  the  bubbles  are  not  in  the  middle,  bring  tlvm 
half  way  there  by  touching  the  foot  I  the  other 

hall' by  screws  which  adjust  the  levels  themselves.  \Vhen 
this  has  been  nicely  done,  the  bubbles  will  remain  in  the 
middle  in  cu  iv  position  of  the  telescope.  If  the  object.; 
to  be  observed  lay  all  in  the  horizon,  or  in  a  plane  parallel 
to  it,  the  above  adjustment  would  be  sufficient ;  but  when 
the  i  out  of  the  horizontal  plane  they  in 

perpendicular,  that  is,  the  plane  de- 

:-ope  must  be  a  great,  circle,  and  must, 

also  pi>.-s  through   ihe   zenith.     There   are  generally  two 

ni  the  focus  ol  the  telescope,  one  horizontal 

and  the  other  vertical.     Place  the  eye-piece  to  give  sharp 

visio  ,;  es,  and  turn  the  milled  screw,  seen  towards 


.  until  the  objects  you  are  going  to  ob- 

ai-e  distinct.  Place  the  vertical  wire  on  any  well- 
defined  object,  making  the  bisection  near  the  crossing 
of  the  wire  ;  raise  or  depress  the  telescope  until  the 
object  is  nearly  at  the  bottom  or  top  of  the  field  ;  if  it  is 
still  bisected, 'the  wire  is  rightly  placed,  but  if  not,  twist, 
the  tube  carrying  the  eye-piece  so  as  to  effect  a  bisection. 
To  make  the  telescope  describe  a  great  circle,  select  some 
well-defined  object  near  the  horizon,  and  bisect  it:  now 
take  the  telescope  very  e.trefulty  out  of  its  Y's,  reverse  it, 
and  look  a&p.in  at  the  object.  If  it  is  still  bisected,  there  is 
no  error ;  but  if  not,  the  bisection  is  to  be  effected  half  by 
the  tangent-screw  of  the  instrument  and  half  by  the  screw* 
which  carry  the  wire-plate,  screwing  up  one  and  releasing 
the  other.  Restoring  the  telescope  to  its  first  position,  it 
will  be  seen  whether  the  adjustment  is  correct,  and  if  not, 
the  process  must  be  repeated  until  the  bisection  is  the. 

in  both  positions  of  the  telescope,  the  clamp  and 

it-screw  remaining  fixed.  For  the  adjustment  of  the 
axis  of  the  telescope  a  level  would  be  convenient,  but  in 
this  instrument  the  axis  is  supposed  to  have  been  correctly 
placed  by  the  maker,  and  the  only  mode  of  correcting  any 
is  by  filing  tire  Y's.  It  may  be  ascertained  whether 
the  axis  is  tolerably  correct  as  follows  : — Bisect  an  object 
as  far  above  or  below  the  horizon  as  the  motion  of  the 

ope  will  allow.  Reverse  the  telescope,  and  if  the 
object  is  still  bisected,  the  pivots  of  the  telescope  are  the 
same  size  :  if  not,  the  observer  must  deduce  the  difference 
of  the  pivots  from  the  altitude  and  the  error  observed, 

is  not  difficult.     When  this  has  been  satisfactorily 
.  as  in  the  last  instance,  an  object  as  far  as 

'e  from  the  horizon,  and  read  off  the  verniers.  Turn 
the  instrument  round  180°,  return  the  telescope  end  for 
i.isect  the  object  again,  and  read  off  the  verniers.  If 
the  mean  readings  differ  exactly  180°,  the  axis  is  hori- 
zontal ;  but,  if  they  do  not,  the  observer  will  have  sufficient 
data  from  this,  and  the  altitude  or  depression,  for  deter- 
mining the  quantity  and  direction  of  the  error,  which  he 
may  correct,  by  the  file  or  by  calculation,  according  to  his 
pleasure.  There  is  a  much  easier  method  of  examining 
the  position  of  the  axis  by  observing  an  object  directly 
and  as  seen  by  reflexion  from  a  fluid,  as  mercury,  oil,  or 
water.  The  axis  is  truly  horizontal  when  the  vertical  wire 
bisects  the  object  and  its  reflected  image  without  moving 
the  tangent-screw.  It  must  be  recollected  that  the  ad- 
justments of  the  horizontal  circle  already  described  must  be 
previously  and  very  scrupulously  performed  before  attempt- 
ing the  examination  or  adjustment  of  the  cross-axis. 

the  objects  in  a  survey  are  at  very  different  dis- 
tances, an  adjustment  is  required  for  forming  the  image 
exactly  on  the  wires.  The  use  of  the  milled  screw,  seen 

i-   the  object-end  of  the  telescope  for  this  purpose, 

'ready  been  mentioned. 

In  use,  this  theodolite  should  be  placed  on  a  repeating 
table  or  tripod,  such  ns  is  to  be  found  figured  and  described 
in  REPEATING  CHICLE,  and  the  repeating-tripod  upon  the 
stand.  This  was  not  done  in  the  present,  plan  for  the  sake  of 
clearness.  To  adjust  the  repeating  tripod,  place  the  lev 
described  in  the  first  adjustment,  and  clamp  the  theodolite. 
Bring  the  foot-screws  of  the  theodolite  over  the  foot- 
of  the  repeating-tripod  by  the  motion  of  the  tripod,  and 
then  by  touching  the  foot-screws  of  the  tripod  or  theodo- 
lite set  the  level-bubbles  in  the  middle.     Turn  the  d] 
plate  i;f  the  tripod  half-round,  and  again  bring  the  bub- 
bles into  the  middle,  half  by  the  tripod  foot-sri 
by  those  of  the  instrument,  and  repeat  the  operation  uniil 
ulution  of  the  repeating-table  does  not  alter  the 

.n  of  the  level-bubbles.  The  rcpcaling-stund  is 
now  clamped,  and  the  instrument  itself  is  to  be  adjusted 

we  have  described  above. 

The  course  of  observation  after  the  instrument  is  ad- 
justed i,  very  simple.     The  problem  is  i 
horizontal  angle  between  two  objects.    Turn  the 
two  or  three  times  round  in  the  direction  in  \vhie!i 
intend  to  observe,  then  bisect  one  of  the  objects,  read  <.li' 
the  verniers,  and  take  a  mean ;  bisect  the  second  object, 
read  the  verniers,  and  take  a  mean.     The  diffcrem 
tween  the  two  means  is  the  angle  required.     ThU  is  :ill 
that  can  be  done  by  the  instrument  as  usually  a 
but.   with    :i    rtpeating-tftble   the   operation  is   continued 
thus.     Bring  the  telescope  back  on  the  first  object,  by 
the  motion  of  the  repeating-table,  using  its  clamp  and 
tangent-screw,  and  by  the  motion  of  the  instrument,  bring 

2S2 


T  II  E 


T  II  K 


the  telescope  on  the  sceoud  object.  It  is  clear  ihc  mo- 
tion of  th»  repcating-table  has  me:  1  the  tclc- 
-.•.ipe  to  it»  original  direction,  without  altering  t!io  read- 
inir»  of  llii-  circle:  nnil  that  if  tin-  be  turned 
on  the  fc-c  '  l'>  |K  motion  alone,  without  dis- 
tributing the  circle,  the  difference  between  Ihc 

MC  new  readings  Biul  the  preceding  mean  will 
also  be  the  angle  required.  Hy  continuing  the  process, 
the  mnglc  may  be  measured  a-  often  as  the  observer 
pleases.  It  i/ evident  tliat  nil  reiidings-off.  except  the 
first  and  la&t,  are  superfluous,  save  as  ( -hecks,  or 

•he  means  of  estimating  the  ai  :   tin-  tinal 

..mid  terminate  after  a  whole  number 

\olutions  as  nearly  as  possible,  when  the  cxccntricity 
of  the  repeating-table  will  be  eliminated,  a  matter  of 
possible  importance  if  the  object*  are  near  ami  the  repeat- 
mg-tahle  carelessly  made.  or.  if  the  objects  arc  pretty  dis- 

.uid  this  caution   mperflUOM,  when  the  \ 
nearly  at  the  divisions  at  which  \ou  set  out.  which  gets  rid 
ol  or  at  !ca>t  diminishes  any  errors  of  division.    The  latter 
condition  is  however  rather  a  speculative  than  a  pi  i 
one.     As  the  error  of  division  is  divided  by  the  num. 
observations,  and  the  casual  error  of  obsei -\ation  only  by 
the  square-root  of  the  same  number,  it  is  evident  that   a 
moderate  number  of  repetitions  in  our  excellently-divided 
circles  will  reduce  the  error  arising  from  mal-div  ision  to  a 
much  smaller  quantity  than   that  which  belongs  to  the 

-ual  error  of  observation. 

The  essential  condition  of  repetition  is,  that  the  rnotipn 
of  the  theodolite  shall  not  disturb  the  repcating-table. 
The  motion  of  the  latter  therefore  should  be  as  heavy  as 
will  admit  of  nicety  in  the  tangent-screw,  while  the  mo- 
tion of  the  parts  which  move  with  the  telescope  should 
be  as  liijlit  and  free  as  is  consistent  with  firmness.  There 
no  difficulty  whatever  in  effecting  both 
point-  :  but  lest  any  error  should  arise  from  repe- 
tition, we  should  recommend  a  careful  observer  to  deter- 
mine his  ancles  by  two  scries. — one  by  always  moving 
the  telescope  and  its  tangent-screw  forward,  and  the 
repcating-stand  and  its  screw  backwards;  and  another, 
by  reversing  the  process.  If  the  two  results  agree,  a- 
tlicy  should  do  within  the  limits  of  casual  observation. 
the"  mean  is  probably  free  from  all  other  error;  and  if 
they  do  not,  the  observation  should  be  repeated  and  \aried 
until  the  quantity  and  probable  law  of  the  error  i- 
tained.  \Ve  should  then  be  able  to  say  decidedly  where, 
when,  and  under  what  precautions  repeal inir  was  a  sale 
as  well  as  a  convenient  and  economical  piir-ess  which  at 
present  is  rath,  i/iirfxlin.  unless  the  decision  be 

supposed    to    be  again*)   all  repetition,  to  which  we  do 
not  1 

The  lurcgoing  description  has  been  confined  to  a  form 
of  theodolite  which  is  not  in  ordinary  use,  though  from  its 
simplicity  and  power  it  is  well  adapted  to  the  purpose  of 
explanation.     The    common  theodolite  is  generally  car- 
lied  by  a  pair  of  parallel  plates,  fixed  on  a  three-legged 
i-Iaff.      The   lower   of    these    circular   plates  is   screwed 
upon   the  staff,   and   has   an  aperture  above  the 
The  upper   plate  has  a  strong  descending   shank  which 
through    this    aperture.      A   button  of  a 
.  d  on  the  end  of  the  shank,  the  cur- 
vature ii]  id  rubs  against   the  under  surface  of 
the   Ii  ich   is   doiii'-shaped   to  tit    it.     Four 
ass  through  the  upper  plate  and  abut  with 
Iheii  '    Ihe    lower    plate.     When    the 

•  s  are  turned  tl  <!  until  the  button 

and  I  '-n  which  it  rubs  are  brought  into 

.M-t.     To  level  the  theodolite,  set  the  levels 

lei  to  a  diagonal   pair  of  the  parallel 

plates.     Then  screw  one  pair  until  you  come  to  a  I" 

and  by  releasing  one  screw  and  up  the  other,  but 

not  very  tight,    set  the   corresponding    level   hori/ontal  : 

leaving'this  pair  and  taking  bold  of  the  other  pair  set  the 

:nl  level  also  right,  and  if  the  first  !<••.  el  \»a< 
it  probably  will  be  a  little,  restore  its  position  ! 
up  the  proper  screw.     Turn  the  telescope  hall' round  and 

'•t  the  error,  half  by  tin-  parallel  pla'.  :id  the 

other    half   by  the    lev el-adjustments   tin  It    is 

de»irable  thnt,  when  the  final    adjustment   is  made,  the 
screws  should  bite  pretty  hard,  otherwise  tin 
chance  that  the  upper  plate  will  turn  a  little  dun 
observation.    Tin*  objection  would  I  to  the  use 

Qf  parallel  plate*  where  grea«  nicety  U  required:  they  arc 


cr  very  convenient  and  of  very  ready  use,  an.l 
haps  if  the  screws  are  strong  and  tl" 
to  give  the  tcV^-opc  three  or  four  turns  round  i-i  the 
tion    he   means  to  observe,   before  Marling,   und 
move   the   '  Lhe   same    v 

avoided.  The  first  object  observed  should  alw.v 
observed  at  the  end  of  the  service,  m  order  to  sec  w],. 
there  has  been  any  change  in  the  original  position.  I 
of  the  screws  rci-t  ill  a  notch,  perhaps  the  tendency  to 

nay  be  wholly  overcome. 

Another  contrivance  which  is  to  be  found  in  aliuc. 
theodolites   is  much   more  objectionable.      Tin 

to   save   himself  addition   or   Mihtra'-tion.   an 
quires  an    adjustment    by   which    be  can   turn  the   whole 
circle    about    and    bring    the    telescope     upon    the 
object,   the    vern.  prcv  iously  set    to  zero.     There 

is  therefore  a  motion  with   a  clamp   and    tangent- 
for  this  purpose,  which,   as  the  clamp  has  usually  a  very 
short    bearing,   is    particularly   liable   to  yield   and 
destiny   all    accuracy.     To  remedy  this  unnecessary   evil, 
id  or  watch  t'eleseopc,  as  if  is  called,  is  attached  to 
this  part  of  the  instrument   and   brought  to   bear  upon   a 
\vell-detincd  object.    Any  motion  or  wriggling  of  the  zero- 
clamp   is  betrayed   by  the  watch-telescope,  and   when   an 
angle   is  taken,   it    imi>t    be  first  ascertained   whether  the 
watel.  keeps  its  position,  and  the  position  if 

turbed  must   be  restored  to  the  zero  tangent-sen 
the  observation  is  finally  made.     In  some  theodolites  made 
I<T   the   Indian    survey.'    under  the  diree;  lonel 

Kvorr-st.  the  zero  and  slow-motion  damp  take  the   form  of 
a  repeating-tahle.  and  may  be  so  applied.     It  would  he, 
safer  to  have  this  motion  n'uide  considerably  heavier  than 
in  the  patterns  we  have  seen,  and  if  the  instrument  is 
to  fall  into  clumsy  hands  the  watch-telescope  miirbt  > 
be  added  for  greater  caution.    Such  a  theodolite  would,  ,-n 
far  as  we  can  judge,  have  no  limit  to  its  accuracy,  except 
that  depending  on  the  diminutive  telescope. 

For  many  purposes  of  surveying  it  is  desirable  that   the 
telescope  should  allow  of  being  considerably  clevar. 
depressed,   and   that  means  should  be  civ  en  for  measuring 
this  angle  with  considerable  accuracy.     A  circle,   or  por- 
tion of  a  circle,  is  then  fixed  upon  the  telescope  a\i 
the  necessary  verniers  and  level  may  be  secured  by  a  tail- 
piece or  otherwise  to  the  support.    If  the  vertical  an:;! 
to  be  measured  as  accurately  as  the  horizontal  angle 
instrument   becomes  an  altitude  and  azimuth  circle.   [Cm- 
CLE.]     Hut    such   instruments    are    rarely   applied    t 
measurement  of  terrestrial  angles.     The!  direction  of  the 
meridian  was  determined  in  the  Ordnance  Survey   by  ob- 
serving Polaris  at   its  greatest    elongations  I-'.,  and  \V.,  and 
taking  the  middle  of  the  two  readings  for  the  direction  of 
the  north.     Hence  the  telescope  required  all  the  tiansit 
adjustments  except  that  for  azimuth  [TRANSIT],  and  was 
considerably   elevated    above    llic    circle.      Though    the 
results  were    upon  the  whole   satisfactory,   yet    we  greatly 
doubt  the  prudence  of  ascertaining  this  fundamental  and 
delicate  point  from  such  an  instrument,  or  of  risking  the 
steadiness   of  the  telescope   supports  by   raising  Hi. 
much  above  the  body  of  the  instrument.     It  would  have 
been  better,  we  conceive,  to  have  determined  the  direction 
of  the  meridian  bv  a  series  of  careful  tiansit  observations, 
using  more  optical  power  with  greater   steadiness,   and   to 

'.i-pt  the  theodolite  to  its  proper  office,  that  of  mea- 
suring horizontal  angles.  hieing  the  height  of 
the  telescope  support-.  The  great  theodolite  had  origi- 
nally a  semicircle  fixed  to  the  axis  of  the  telescope,  for 
measuring  altitudes  and  depressions.  This  has  since,  very 
pro;-'  .'.ml  a  whole  circle  substituted. 
When  a  theodolite  i>  merely  used  for  survey  ing.  Ihc 

•"pe  requires  only  a  moderate  vertical  range.  Mr. 
Troughton  fixed  a  portion  of  a  circle  t  which  may  be  more 
properly  called  a  slice  than  a  sector)  to  one  or  two  ol  his 
12-indi  theodolites,  and  this  construction  is  often  found  in 
Other  makers.  The  telescope  is  thus  kept  lower,  the  in- 
strument is  firmer,  and  the  larger  radius  gives  the  portion 
eming  advantage  over  the  entire  circle  of 
smaller  radius.  There  is  I 

v  in  a  portion  of  a  circle,  and  we  should   prefer  a 
I  sort  Of  compromise,  giving  the  n-h  an  ele% 

•i'id   allow  a  vcitieal  circle  of  about    half  the  dinien- 

nf  the  horizontal  circle:   if  Hie  t  the  meri- 

dian u  to  !••••  determined  by  this  instrument,  the  sii| 
.  must  be  at  least  no  high  as  to  gee  2°  or  3"  above  the  lati- 


THE 


317 


THE 


tude  of  the  place,  and  the  vertical  circle  may  be  increased 
accordingly. 

It  is  perhaps  requisite  to  give  some  description  of 
the  mode  of  adjusting  the  vertical  circle.  Where  the 
supports  are  high  enough  to  allow  the  telescope  to 
pass  when  turned  round  in  a  vertical  plane,  all  the  ad- 
justments are  the  same  as  in  the  altitude  and  azimuth 
circle.  [CIRCLE.]  When  the  telescope  is  too  long  for  this, 
the  circle  must  be  lifted  out  of  its  Y's  in  order  to  bring 
the  line  of  sight  again  upon  the  object  to  be  bisected, 
and  then  set  down  again.  The  operation  is  in  fact  the 
same,  whatever  be  the  nature  of  the  vertical  arch,  and  the 
adjustment  is  to  be  effected  either  by  altering  the  level  or 
the  horizontal  wire  until  the  reading  is  the  same  in  both 
positions  of  the  telescope.  If  the  observer  has  a  Y  level 
or  collimator,  he  can  set  the  cross  of  his  level-wires  hori- 
zontal, and  this  being  bisected  by  the  telescope  of  the 
theodolite,  the  vernier  must  be  made  to  read  zero,  and  the 
bubble  of  the  level  be  brought  to  the  middle  by  its  proper 
screws.  Or  if  the  observer  possess  two  stands  (and  there 
is  a  great  convenience  in  having  more  stands  than  one  in 
surveying),  he  may  place  the  stands  at  a  considerable  dis- 
tance" from  each  other,  and,  fixing  the  instrument  on  one 
stand  and  a  mark  of  exactly  the  same  height  as  the  tele- 
scope-axis on  the  other,  observe  the  mark,  noting  its  eleva- 
1ion  or  depression.  Now  exchanging  the  instrument  and 
mark,  he  must  reobserve  the  depression  or  elevation  exactly 

lore.  On  drawing  the  figure,  it  will  be  seen  that  if  li^ht 
move  in  a  straight  line,  90°  —  elevation  at  lower  station=90  — 
depression  at  higher  station  +  the  angle  between  perpen- 
diculars to  the  earth's  surface  at  each  station,  which  last 
quantity  is  known  from  the  distance  between  the  stations, 
and  may  l>e  easily  calculated,  i.e.  depression  —  elevation  =r  a 
known  "angle.  But  if  the  zero  is  wrong,  depressions  will 
be  increased  while  elevations  are  diminished,  and  versd 
ricf,  so  that  depression  observed  —  elevation  observed 
—  the  known  angle,  instead  of  being  =  0,  will  be  ±  2 
error  of  the  vernier,  which  may  be  corrected  accordingly 
either  by  the  adjustment  of  the  level  or  of  the  horizontal 
wire.  Or,  lastly,  if  the  telescope  has  so  much  motion  as 
that  a  star  can  be  observed  directly  and  by  reflexion  from 
mercury  or  any  other  fluid,  the  index-error  of  the  vertical 
circle  may  be  most  accurately  determined  thus.  Take  any 
star  in  the  meridian,  and  having  observed  it  directly,  ob- 
serve it  immediately  after  by  reflexion.  If  great  nicety 
is  required,  the  observations  should  be  repeated  alternately 
several  times,  and  the  partial  results  reduced  to  the 
meridian.  The  mean  reading  between  the  meridian 
altitude  and  meridian  depression  is  the  reading  which  cor- 

nds  to  the  horizon,  and  the  difference  of  this  from  0, 
in-  HO",  according  as  the  circle  reads  altitudes  or  zenith  dis- 
tances, is  the  error  of  the  instrument,  which  may  either  be 
corrected  or  allowed  for.  This  method,  though  very  ac- 
curate, requires  some  knowledge  of  the  time,  and  is  rather 
restricted  by  the  choice  of  stars.  It  is  nearly  as  safe  to 
observe  a  star  not  far  from  the  east  or  west  point,  first  di- 
rectly, then  by  reflexion,  and  lastly  directly,  making  the 
contacts  at  following  whole  minutes,  or  at  even  or  odd  mi- 
nutes if  the  interval  of  a  minute  is  not  sufficient.  As  the 

rise  nearly  uniformly  in  this  part  of  the  heavens,  the 
mean  of  the  first  and  third  observations  should  give  an 
altitude  equal  to  the  depression  observed  midway;  the 
discrepancy  between  these  results  will  he  the  double  index- 
error  as  before,  which  may  lie  corrected  or  allowed  for. 
By  some  of  these  methods,  the  index-error  of  the  verticle 
circle  or  sector  is  to  be  found. 

In  some  of  the  older  theodolites  the  telescope  rides  in 
Y's  at  the  top  of  the  vertical  arch,  and  is  reversible  as  a 

.  The  horizontal  position  of  the  telescope  Y's  can 
therefore  be  found  as  in  any  other  level,  and  the  verniers  of 
the  vertical  circle  set  to  zero  when  the  telescope  is  hori- 
zontal. The  vertical  angles  measured  by  these  instruments 

i<>t  however  to  he  greatly  depended  on.  They  are  usu- 
ally greatly  out  of  balance  in  all  positions  of  the  telescope, 

pt  the  horizontal  position,  and  therefore  they  make 
better  levels  than  altitude  instruments.  This  error  may 
be  partially  got  rid  of  by  having  a  second  level  fixed  to 
the  ;  which  is  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  verti- 

cal circle,  and  adjusted  to  the  telescope  level  when  that 
is  hori/ontul.  If  this  supplementary  level  is  pretty  well 
graduated,  it  will  show  the  tilt  which  is  given  the  plane  of 
the  instrument  by  want  of  balance,  and  so  give  the  correc- 
tion required. 


It  may  be  as  well  to  mention  here  that  the  principal 
adjustment  being  that  of  setting  the  plane  of  the  theodo- 
lite horizontal,  or,  more  correctly  speaking,  the  principal 
axis  vertical,  any  horizontal  level  anywhere  placed  is 
sufficient  for  the  purpose,  though  the  cross-levels  are  a 
little  handier.  A  box-level  is  convenient,  if  a  stand  and 
repeating-table  are  used,  to  bring  the  planes  nearly  hori- 
zontal, and  to  make  both  ends  of  the  bubbles  visible  at  first. 

Many  surveyors  give  themselves  and  the  instrument- 
maker  a  great  deal  of  unnecessary  trouble  by  being  very 
difficult  on  the  chapter  of  excentricity,  which  they  con- 
found with  error  of  division.  The  English  dividing- 
engines,  up  to  the  present  time,  do  not  divide  the  circles 
upon  their  centres  ;  and  therefore  it  frequently  happens 
that  the  point  round  which  the  circle  turns  is  not  the  point 
round  which  it  is  divided.  When  this  error  is  not  abso- 
lutely monstrous,  the  only  effect  is  that  one  vernier  gains 
what  another  loses,  and  that  the  mean  of  two  opposite,  or 
of  three,  four,  or  more  equidistant  readings,  is  precisely  the 
same  as  if  there  were  no  excentricity.  The  advantage  of 
a  little  excentricity  is,  that  it  gives  you  the  benefit  of  an 
unbiassed  reading  at  every  vernier  as  well  as  the  first : 
again,  if  all  the  verniers  are  recorded,  it  is  a  check  on  the 
dishonest  observer,  who  might  read  one  vernier  and  set 
down  the  rest.  The  instrument-maker  must  please  his 
ignorant  customer,  and  so  either  hammer  his  circle  after  it 
is  divided,  which  may  deform  his  work,  or  have  an  adjust- 
ment, which  injures  its  solidity. 

In  Ramsden's  great  theodolite,  and  several  others  which 
have  been  made,  the  circle  is  read  off'  by  micrometer 
microscopes.  Sometimes  the  microscopes  revolve  with 
the  telescope  (as  the  verniers  do  in  our  figure) ;  sometimes 
the  microscopes  are  fixed,  and  the  circle  revolves  with  the 
telescopes,  as  in  Ramsden's  theodolite. 

Ertel  of  Munich  has  made  several  astronomical  theodo- 
lites in  which  the  rays  entering  into  the  telescope  are  re- 
flected along  the  horizontal  axis  by  a  prism.  The  observer 
therefore  looks  in  at  the  end  of  the  horizontal  axis,  what- 
ever the  position  of  the  star  may  be.  The  eye  and  body 
of  the  observer  are  more  satisfactorily  placed,  and  the  sup- 
ports are  kept  close  and  snug  to  the  horizontal  circle. 
The  instrument  is  well  adapted  to  one  of  its  principal 
objects,  observing  stars  at  their  passage  over  tne  prime 
vertical  [TRANSIT]  ;  but  there  is  some  trouble  in  finding 
an  object  when  you  have  no  better  direction  to  look  for  it 
than  your  eye  affords.  Excellent  latitudes  have  been 
determined  by  instruments  of  this  class  used  in  the  prime 
vertical,  and  even  the  small  vertical  circle  seems  from 
some  accounts  to  possess  more  power  than  from  its 
dimensions  we  should  have  thought  probable.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  greater  the  number  of  readings,  the  less 
the  effect  of  bad  division,  but  beyond  a  limited  number, 
the  trouble  and  difficulty  of  reading-off  is  found  in  practice 
to  counterbalance  the  advantage.  Two  opposite  readings 
annul  the  effect  of  excentricity ;  three  or  four  equidistant 
readings  destroy  such  an  error  as  would  arise  from  the  cir- 
cles becoming  elliptic  after  it  was  divided,  or  any  error 
which  follows  the  same  law.  In  small  stoutly-made  theo- 
dolites we  think  two  the  most  convenient  number,  and  they 
can  be  much  more  conveniently  read  off  than  a  larger 
number.  When  the  circle  is  so  much  as  8  inches  in  dia- 
meter and  the  telescope  good,  we  should  prefer  three  or 
foui1  readings.  The  vertical  circle  or  sector  may  have  two 
opposite  readings.  For  many  matters  connected  with  sur- 
veying on  the  most  extensive  and  accurate  scale,  see  the 
memoirs  published  and  to  come  of  the  English,  Scotch, 
and  Irish  Trigonometrical  Survey ;  and  the  '  Base  Me- 
trique,'  or  account  of  the  French  measurement  of  an 
arc  of  the  meridian,  although  that  survey  was  conducted 
by  a  different  instrument.  Similar  operations  have  been 
carried  on  in  many  countries  during  the  last  half-century, 
and  the  memoirs  which  relate  to  these  surveys  contain 
the  best  information  which  can  be  had  on  the  subject. 

THEODO'RA.     [JUSTINIAN.] 

THEODORE  OF  CORSICA.    [CORSICA.] 

THEODORE,  or  THEODORUS,  of  Mopsuestia,  a 
learned  bishop  of  the  Oriental  church.  He  was  descended 
from  a  rich  and  distinguished  family  at  Antioch,  and  was 
1  he  brother  of  Pol ychronius,  who  became  bishop  of  Apamca. 
He  studied  rhetoric,  together  with  his  friend  John  Chrysos- 
tom,  under  Libanius,  who  resided  at  Antioch  from  the  year 
A.D.  3.">4.  His  teacher  of  philosophy  was  Andragathns. 
After  having  finished  his  studies,  he  intended  to  marry  a 


T  II 


318 


T  I 


*l\ 

.»  I!M-:I  »  : 
life. 


and  after  he  hud  di-rha.i; 
thirty -five  \ .MI- 

urcli, 

uiul  •  ..•>  teal  lur  -linlii- 

faalh 

.1    of  the   docliiiie*   "I    lli' 

•  ihlic  apoi'  li  the 

>1  him 

:lirir  laith;    niul  this  was  thi1  cause  of  his 

nned 

I'V    ll: 

•  e  w  I  111  en 

cf  In-  come  down  tu  i!-.:    ollu'rs  exist    in 


Inundations,  and  of  .  there 

.iirmi'iitji.     A   treatise  on  the  Mnj;i   of  t':< 
sians,  and  his  commentaries  on  tin  nk  of 


, 

ml   the  Sons:  «f  Solomon  unuieiitHry 

on  the  twelve-   tfivati'r  prophcl- 
corih  .  under  the  title  of  Oti>iu(ii.r 

rot'f  Ilpofijrac.       A    tat 

which  eontaiu  1  i\en  in  Fahiieii 

the    "••  ii-nlinncd    ) 

•  Bibliotlu  Theodorus   of   MopMiestia  is 

still  one  of  tin  -iloirical    authorities  amoiiir  the 

Syiinn  Chn^'iaii-. 

:il~.  ''•:  note  kK  .          Tiile- 

mont,   Mentor.  Kcrltt.,   \ol.  xii.  ;    ( 
vol.  : 

Til  KOI  i  or  THKODOUITrs.  a  theo 

and  vliuri-h  historian,  was  horn  about  3iW  A.O.     I' 
broucht  up  under  tlie  eare  of  a  pious  mother,  to  whom  he 
acknowledges  his  obligations  in  his  writings:    and  he  had 
•  lion  from  Theodore  ol    .M  :::nl  .John  (  'ln\  - 

in  in  a  monastery,  tu  whieh  he  wa>  :-ei\e 

'.ueation  when  noi  (jiiile  seven   veins  old,  and  where 
he  hail  for  hi*  fellow-pUpilt  Ne^inrins  and  .John.  \vh« 
allenvaids    pa'  -.tantinople   mul    Antioeh. 

Theodoret  heeanie  a  deaeon  in   the  :    Antioeh, 

and  in  the  year  42it  he  w..  a  i-ily 

in  Sjiia.  near  the  Kiiplnates.      Ilisii  inded  with 

lonites  and   persons  who  held  herelie.d  ci[iinion 
•  i;  llieTiinity.     Against  the  opinin: 

tie-i  he  directed   his  eil'oits  with  so  much  success,  that, 
•tins;  to  his  own  statement,  he  baptized  ten  thousand 
M«reiomi 

In  t  .1  Neatoriui  *••  condemned  hy  the  coun- 

cil of  Epli'  •»•<!.  \\ho-e  dei  great 

offence  to  many  of  the  Oiieiiial   '1  .;huut 

beinK  avowed  followers  pi  I  to  be 

not   unfavourable  to   his   o;)ii. 
Theodoret.  who  was  a  personal   friend  of 

•hose  who   iis-vmhicd    afti  ;  ,eil   of 

;  up,  and  condemneil 

M-r  eti'eef.  ',    pii- 

.•h,    the    h 
|>art\.  i   by  which  I'yiil  ap; 

'lint  of  doctrine, 
while  Joh1 

\'>  nh  this  aif'1 

npp>  .!i  the 

to  the  l-'illileill!:: 

injustice. 

luiiiis.     But   when  John,  armt-d   with   in: 

parti«nn  of  Nestorii: 

to  Mibmit.  b'.ith  pir  ' 

and  :  hit  own  n  ,iich  it 

wan  .! 

means  in  his  power  to  indue 

nam 

•Td,  upon  thei  of  lib  ad. 


MI  to  inn.  u.-cd.     liul   when,   in  the 


ui  whom  lie  h.. 

iiuil    when  Cinl    died,   in    . 

ll,  1-oiind   to  i 

the  man  and   from  the  Chiistian  >pnit  with  wlm 
where    sju  ;i 

mi  spume, 

lieeii  '   ,iil   would  die  with  him.  ; 

-  doomed  to  In1 

poiotment. 

and  imp' 
lou».     The  new  bishop 

of  enforcing  upon  the  v, 

ihe  Deitv   in. 

ill  the  pel  son  of  Chii.-t  :  and  pi 
the  (i 

•rimined  to  air 

altaek    upon   Ihe    un  :    the 

which  was  beaded  ! 
-iip])oited  by  a  ll 

iilOllks,  wh. 

idible  of  whom  v. 
in  favour  of  the  Cviillihn  i 
alone  was  consistent  with   the - 
•  Ihe  \Vord    became    tlLsh,'    and    01 


'  in  \ii". 


olitiin  monks  w. 
jiaily  in    tii  lose  coiim 

with  the  a:;:  u  monks  of  Syria,  and 

their   great    influence  with  the  em) ••  ll., 

whom  they  had  induced  Irom  tl 

party  of  ("yril.     Theodorel 

the  contiOM  r>\.      lie    win! 

efieciinu'    a  reconciliation    between    the  t  .      In 

thi*  attempt    lie   tailed  ;  and  then.  In 

trine  of  DioM-unis  and  his  allies  aa  the 

ous  heresies  which  denied  the  true  In 

a  book  against  them  in  the  year  -147,  entitled  'The 
Many-shaj  -rijc,  or  ToXt'yiopfov)- 

li\  this  title  he   meant   to  :  ihe    Kul\i- 

i.y  <  'jril,    i 

Kutyehes,   nnd  the  monks. 
sake  i 

Ihe   work   . 

ntitled  drptrroc.  he  treats  of  tl 
divine 

aaifx*T"i:  "''  the  in  ; 
divine  mid  human)  b> 
thiid,  airaSi'it,  of  the  ini]  "f  the  divine  Di 

or  dyinir. 
mid  ).. 

.iiv  in  his  doelri 
than  a   n-\i\.d   - 

. Inarch  of  AUK 

re  letter  to  Theodoret,  mnkin^  : :  largf. 

replied   with    jricat    niilii: 

i  consult  for  Hit 

nf   the  church  lather  than  for  the  \iews  of  a  | 
This  letter  only  the   • 
milled   monks  publicly  tounntln 
church,  while  lie  himself  confirmed  their  anatli. 

;   in  chiircl' 

Pijiui.  nt    depuii-  eliureh  o: 

d  Theodor<  v. ith   ihe 

.No  immediate  decision  of  I 

;    v,  it  bin    the    limits    nl    In     IK,  n    tii, 

•  •I'  bciiiv;  :  Mined 

id. 
In  the  meantime  tin  and 

' 


THE 


319 


THE 


incurred  tho  charge  of  an  opposite  heresy,  of  which  he 
was  condemned  by  the  synod  held  by  Flavianus  -at  Con- 
stantinople, but  again  acquitted  by  the  second  Council  of 
Ephesus,  under  the  presidency  of  Dioscurus  (A.D.  449). 
[KtiTYCHiAXS.]  In  convening  this  council  every  care  was 
taken  to  exclude  the  anti-Eutychian  party.  With  respect 
toTheodoret,  the  emperor  commanded  that  he  should  only 
be  admitted  in  case  his  presence  should  seem  good  to  the 
whole  assembly.  The  hint  was  taken,  and  he  was  ex- 
cluded. The  emperor  carried  his  dislike  to  Theodoret  still 
further,  and  intimated  to  the  council  that  such  men  as 
Thecdoret  should  not  only  have  no  voice  in  it,  but  that  they 
ought  rather  to  be  visited  with  its  censures.  Accordingly 
the  council  deposed  Theodoret  from  his  bishopric,  and  he 
'.  by  an  imperial  edict,  to  retire  into  the 
monastery  where  he  had  been  educated.  As  he  had  been 
peaceful  and  moderate  in  prosperity,  so  he  was  resigned 
and  cheerful  in  adversity  :  indeed  his  amiable  spirit,  and 
his  firmness  in  obeying  the  dictates  of  his  conscience,  form 
a  most  agreeable  relief  to  the  strife  and  ambition  which 
mark  the  character  of  most  of  the  ecclesiastics  of  the  age. 
The  only  check  to  the  triumph  of  Dioscurus  and  the 
Kutyehians  was  the  influence  of  Leo  the  Great,  the  then 
bishop  of  Rome,  who  had  been  already  appealed  to  by 
Kutyehes,  after  his  condemnation  by  the  synod  of  Con- 

::ioplc.  and  whose  aid  was  now  sought  by  the  oppo- 
site party.  Flavianus  and  Theodoret  wrote  letters  to  him, 
proposing  to  submit.  the  whole  controversy  to  an  oecume- 
nical council  to  be  convened  in  Italy.  To  this  arrange- 
ment the  emperor  i  Theodosius  II.)  refused  his  consent, 
but  his  death  in  the  following  y.  united  the  state 

of  affairs.  In  the  next  year  (451  ,  an  a'cumenical  council 
was  assembled,  first  at  Nicsea,  but  very  soon  removed  to 
Chalcedon.  to  which  Theodoret,  was  summoned,  and  in 
which  he  was  leceived  by  his  friends  with  the  greatest  en- 
thusiasm. He  petitioned  the  council  for  restoration  to 

,-liopric:  at  the  eighth  sitting  his  petition  came  on 

•aring:  he  ro-e  to  plead  his  cause;  but  the  party  oi' 
nneil  that  he  must  ftnt condemn Neftorjui. 

lorct  had  never  been  a  Nc-ftoiian,  but  had  all  alone: 
held  a  middle  c-ou;  i  the  parties  oi'  Xcstoiius 

and  of  Cyril  ;  but  he  hesitated  to  pronounce  the  required 
condemnation  till  some  clear  definition  of  Nestoriauism 
>hould  I'e  iriven.  The  bishops  of  the  opposite  party  in- 
terrupted him  with  the  shout  '  He  is  a  heretic  :  Ii 

.rinn:  thniM.  tho  Xi'storian  out!'  Vpuii  this  Thco- 
doret  exclaimed  : — '  Anathema  on  X'  il  on  every 

r)    to  he  the  mother  of  God,  and  who 
divides  the  only  bcirntien  Son  into  two  sons.     I  hav 

il  the  confession  of  faith,  and  the  letter  of  the  bi.shop 
I.eo  :  and  this  is  my  faith — Farewell/  He  was  pronounced 
to  have  established  his  orthodoxy,  and  the  unanimous  vote 
of  the  council  restored  him  to  his  bi.V.ioprie. 

In  this  transaction  we  perceive  that  Theodoret'*  firm- 
ness had  at  length  given  way  before  the  furious  zeal  of  the 
Eutychians;  and  his  courage  appear*  never  to  have  re- 
vived, for  in  hi-  I  lii-tnry  oi 

,'iptTitfjf  tatopvSittc  iTirn/i/j).  he  speaks  of  his  former 
iiiend  Xostorius  in  the  haishrst  terms. 

•T  the  council  of  Chalcedon,  Theodoret  returned  to 
his  diocese.  \\\\  i  of  his  life  to  hi 

labours.  He  died  in  the  year  157.  Kven  after  his  death 
he  was  looked  upon  as  a  formidable  enemy  by  the  Mono- 

.m  procured  tho  condemna- 
tion of  his  writings  >il  by  the  council  of  Con- 
stantinople (A.D.  .V>:i  . 

His  works  were  : — 1,  '  A  History  of  the  Church,'  in  five 

-..  from  325  to  the.  death  of  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia 
in  421).  Gennadius.  a  Latin  writer,  at  tho  end  of  the  fifth 

n-y,  says  that  Theodoret's  history  consisted  of  ten 
books,  and  came  down  to  the  year  457,  but  no  other  writer 
mentions  more  than  five  books.  It  is  a  work  of 
learning  and  impartiality.  2.  *iXo9foc  \aropla,  an  account 
of  the  lives  of  thirty  celebrated  hermits,  ten  of  whom  were 
hi*  contemporaries  and  in  some  degree  personally  known 
to  him.  3,  The  work  against  the  Eutychians,  already 
mentioned.  4,  'The  History  of  Heresies,'  also  mentioned 
above.  It  is  sometimes  entitled,  'Against  all  Heresies, 
or  a  discrimination  of  falsehood  and  truth '  (K«TU  -itaauv 
rwv  a'.ii'-ntm',  >/  ^u'jSnvf  nat  akifitiac  liayvuatf}.  It,  consists 
of  fi  .  :  I  must  exclusively  to  the  heresies 

respecting  the  person  of  Christ.  5,  '  Ten  Orations  against 
the  Heathen  ;'  an  '  Apology  for  Christianity ;'  besides  146 


letters  and  commentaries  on  most  of  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  and  on  all  the  epistles  of  Paul. 

The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  of  Schnlze,  in  3 
vols.  8vo.,  Halle,  l~(J8-74. 

(Mosheim's    Ecclesiastical    History,    by   Murdock   and 
Soames,  i.,  p.  443;    Neander's   Geschichte  der  Christl. 
Kelig.  mid  Kirch.,  ii.,  passim  ;    ScholPs  Geschichi, 
Griech.  Lit/.,  iii.  318.) 

^  THEODORIC  or  THEODERIC  I.,  king  of  the  Visi- 
Goths,  was  the  elected  successor,  but  was  not  the  son,  of  king 
Wallia,  who  died  A.D.  419.  During  the  latter  years  of  the 
reign  of  the  emperor  Theodosius  II.,  Theodoric  invaded 
Gaul,  and  in  425,  just  after  the  accession  of  Valentinian 
III.,  he  laid  siege  to  the  city  of  Aries.  Ae'tius  however 
relieved  this  town,  and  made  peace  with  the  Goths,  who 
were  obliged  to  come  to  terms  because  they  were  threat- 
ened by  the  Vandals,  and  they  marched  against  the  Van- 
dals together  with  the  Romans.  After  a  peace  of  ten 
.1  new  war  arose  between  the  Romans  and  Theo- 
doric. who  in  436  besieged  the  city  of  Narbonne,  which 
was  only  relieved  in  the  following  year,  437.  The  issue 
of  this  war  proved  unfortunate  for  the  Romans,  tho  in- 
habitants of  their  provinces  in  Gaul  being  reduced  to 
despair  by  heavy  taxes  and  other  kinds  of  oppression,  and 
the  Goths  being  superior  to  the  Romans  in  courage. 
Ae'tius  therefore  enlisted  several  thousand  Huns,  in  order 
to  employ  them  against  the  Goths;  but  these  auxiliaries 
were  more  destructive  to  the  inhabitants  than  their  ene- 
mies. A  body  of  the  Romans,  together  with  these  Huns, 
commanded  by  Lit  onus,  the  best  of  the  generals  of 
Ae'tius,  having  made  some  progress,  laid  siege  to  Toulouse 
in  43!).  Theodoric  proposed  to  conclude  a  peace,  but 
Litorius,  remembering  his  former  victories  over  the  Ar- 
moricans,  refused  all  terms.  Upon  this  the  Goths  made 
a  sally ;  the  Romans  were  entirely  beaten,  and  Litorius 
himself  was  made  a  prisoner,  and  carried  in  triumph 
through  the  streets  of  Toulouse. 

The  whole  country  as  far  as  the  Rhone  was  now  open  to 
the  Goths,  and  the  inhabitants  being  well-disposed,  Theo- 
doric made  fresh  conquests.  The  remainder  of  the  Roman 
army  was  disorganized  and  in  the  greatest  consternation. 
Xevertheli",s  A  virus,  who  was  then  Prsefectus  Praetorio  in 
Gaul,  found  means  to  make  peace,  which  was  certainly 
favourable  to  the  Goths,  though  the  conditions  are  not 
known.  In  450  Gaul  was  invaded  by  Attila  with  his 
Huns  and  a  numerous  body  of  Teutonic  auxiliaries.  At- 
tila pretended  that  his  object  was  only  to  attack  the  Visi- 
Goths,  but  the  Romans  also  took  arms,  and  the  united 
a  of  Ae'tius  and  Theodoric  met  the  Huns  at  Chiilons- 
sur-Marne  (451  .  Theodoric  commanded  his  army  in  per- 
son, and  he  was  accompanied  by  his  two  sons,  Thorismund 
and  Theodoric.  The  battle  was  short,  but  bloody  and  disas- 
trous for  Attila,  who  fled  on  the  following  day,  and  thus 
•  (I  total  destruction.  King  Theodoric  was  killed  at, 
the  beginning  of  the  battle.  Prince  Thorismund  was  pro- 
claimed king  in  the  camp  of  his  lather,  whom  he  caused 
to  be  interred  on  the  field  of  battle  with  great  pomp. 
[ATTILA.]  (Mascov,  History  of  the  .[niifiit  Ui'mumx, 
ix.  11.  14,  27,  28.) 

THEODORIC,  or  more  correctly  THEODERIK,  sur- 
namcd  Mhy  Great,'  king  of  the.  Ostro-Goths,  was  the  son 
of  king  Theodemir  by  his  concubine  Eralieva  (Ehrlieb). 
lie  was  born  in  455,  and  he  was  seven  yearn  old  when  he 
ut  to  Constantinople  to  the  court  of  the  emperor 
•Injuns  (457-474)  as  a  hostage,  peace  having  just. 
been  concluded  between  this  emperor  and  Theodemir,  who 
had  engaged  to  assist  the  Romans  for  an  annual  payment 
of  two  thousand  pounds  of  gold.  Theodoric  received  his 
education  at  Constantinople,  r.nd  returned  to  his  father 
in  472. 

Without  any  orders  from  his  father,  he  attacked  and 
subjugated  some  Slavonian  tribes  on  the  Danube,  and  he 
afterwards  accompanied  Theodemir  in  his  expedition  to 
Thessaly,  which  was  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  obtain- 
ing a  larger  territory  for  the  Goths.  This  happened  at 
me-  time  as  the  death  of  Leo  (January,  474);  and 
Zeno  Isauricus  the  elder,  who  became  emperor  in  the 
month  of  February,  hastily  made  peace  with  the  Goths, 
and  ceded  to  them  the  country  of  Pautalia,  that  is.  the 
south  part  of  Pannonia  and  the  south-west  part  of  Daeia 
(474).  Theodemir  died  in  475,  and  Theodoric  became 
king  of  the  Ostro-Goths. 

Xc:io  having  been  deposed  by  another  Theodoric,  the 


T  II   K 


T  ii  E 


i  :: 

-i  ! 


ton  of  Tiiariiis.  aGot'  .-real  influx 

the  llyz:intinr  empire,    king  Tin  !  lo  his  as- 

tutam  :>»  again  a 

>  177       It  -<  i  in-  that  2<  liim- 

ul   as  hi  ice-  broke 

out  between  lain  and  I  hi-  Goth*.     Theodorie,  on  tin-  con- 
Irary,  was  loyal  utul  generous,  anil  In-  continued  to  In-  a 
il    ally    when   the    emperor   had   satisfied    his   jn.-t 
claim-,     Ii  catcd  him 

Patrirm*  and  Magistcr  Militia-  Pid'sentis  in  -IK1.  and  sub- 
led  him  to  tho  consulahip  in  -1*1,  ;i 

which  is  still  distinir  the  annul-  .ante. 

Jornandes  affirms  tha-  pled  him  as  his  son,  and 

caused  an  equcMiian  stutu.  'i.l  in  honour  ol  him 

imperial  palace.     (De  lit /HI.-  (inlhifi>:v.  57.) 
Notwithstanding   the    honours   \vhirh    Zcno    con: 
upon  the  king  of  the  Goths   Xcno   showed   Ins   insincerity 
ver   hi-   saw   an    opportunity.     To  avenge    himself. 
Tltedorie  invaded  Thrace    in  -iss" .  dispersed  the  imperial 
-.  and  besieged  Xeno  in  Constantinople.     It  is  said 
that  Zeno  saved  himself  by  ceding  to  his  adversary  Italy, 
or   his   right   to  Italy,  which  was  then  in  the  hand-  ol' 
Odoacer.    the   chief  o'f  the   Rugians.      Perhaps  he   ceded 
only  his  claims  on  this  country,  hoping  thus  to  tret  rid  of  a 
neighbour  and  friend  whom'  he  had  changed  by  Ins  own 
misconduct  into  a  dangerous  enemy.     However  this  may 
•lie   conditions  of  agreement    are   obscurely  known. 
The  Greeks  afterwards  pretended   that    Xeno  had  sent  the 
to  Italy  to  re-annex  that  country  to  the  empire  :  the 
(loths.  on  the  contrary,  aflirnied  that  he  surrendered  Italy 
to  their  king.    iPYocopius.  !)<•  Ht'lln  li'ithicn,  i.  1.)     Theo- 
dorie  had  certainly  formed  the  plan  of  conquering  Italy. 
and  he  was  bent  on  earning  it  into  execution.     It  there- 
fore he  found  it  ad\  isabl'c  to  use  the  name  of  Xeno,  he  pro- 
did  so  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  those  among  the 
Romans   who,   although  they   del. -led    forciguus.    would 
submit   to  hit)'  conqueror  whom  they   iv>  :ld  consider  as  a 
delegate  or' the  antient  legitimate  authority. 

milled  his  nation  '-is'.)  ,  that  is,  that  pait 
of  theOstro-Goths  which  obeyed  the  kings  of  the  ho 
Amuli.'   ol  which  Theodoric  was  a  descendant.  ' 
Gothic  tribes  only  remained  in  Thrace   and  in   the  Tuuric 
Chersonese.     A  whole  nation,  men.  women,  and  children. 
carrying  all  their  moveable  property  with  them,  lelt  their 
homes  and  took  the  road  to  Italy,  following  the  Danube 
as  far  as  the  tract  which   lies  between  that    river  and  the 
lake  of  Balaton  in  western  Hungary.    Trapstila,  the  kin::  of 
the  (icpidif.  appeared  with  an  army  to   prevent  them  from 
paving   through    his   dominions:  but  he  was   routed    by 
"it  the  river   Ulca    the   present   S/ula),  which 
into  the  western  corner  of  the  lake  of  Balaton.     Kn- 
during    huidships    of  all    kinds,   and    lighting   their  way 
through  the   armed  inhabitants,  the  Goths   traversed  the 
i   pait   of  Panmmia.  cursed  the  .lulian   Alps,  and 
leached  Isonxo,  where  they  met  with  the  army  of  Oil 
who  W;LS  hcai en  in  th  -'11170.  at  Verona, 

and  on  the  Adda  (490).  Odoacer.  who  fled  to  Ravenna,  wu- 
forsaken  by  his  best  general.  Tufa,  and  Krederik,  a  prince 
of  the  Rugiaii-,  and  Epiphania*,  bishop  of  Pa\ia,  also 
rnme  to  Milan  to  pay  homage,  to  the  king  of  the  Goths. 
Odoacer  was  blocked  up  in  Ravenna  by  one  part  of  the 

and  Thcodoric.   with   another  part,  took   po— . 
of  the  whole    peninsula  of  ItuK  Su-ily,   Sardinia, 

and  Corsica  to  the  Vandals.     '1 ''  l.i-ted 

-  :  hut  at  last  Odoacer  surrendered  to  Thcodoric. 
who.i  .ling   his   oath  to  spare  tile  life  of  his   pil- 

ed  him   to   be   put    to  death  in  his  own  palace 
i   and  his  whole   family  shared   the 
same  fate. 

Theodoric  was  now  acknowledged  as  king  of  Italy  by  the 

•  •  linn 

the  furniture  of  the  palace  at  Ravenna,  which  Odoaeer 
had   sent  to  Constantinople.     Theodoric  did  not  assume 
thi-    imperial    title   although    he    adopted    the    nut. 
Flavins.      In  51 X I  he   went    to   Komi1   and  c  a  tri- 

umph ;  he  convened  the  senate  '  ad  pulniam  uurcuui, 
confirmed  the  immunities  of  the  Romans,  and  gained  the 

••••  nl  the  lower  classes  by   his   liberality   and  I 
t-vhil  r  (lit  .-peet.i' 

:idy   continued    hi-    power    by    alli- 
MWe>.  tninngldao.     Gundohald  and  '  • 

hiiving  inside  an  in- 
llaly  and  carried  away  many  ol  the  inhiilji 


TlieodoiH'  sent    Kpiphama-.    bi-hop  . 

bishop  of  Turin,  as  ambassadors  to  Uurgii'ah  .     Tin 

.  in  delivering  the  eapti\.  ..c'hided  an  alli- 

ance betuecii  the-e   kniL,'-  and 

daughter  Ostrogothu  in  manias.  on  of 

(iunilobald.      lie    likewise    kept    peace   wi;h    tl. 
and  gave  b  -  nalfriila.  then  the  willow    . 

(ioth.  in  inamage  to  their  king  Thr;i»imund.     I: 
daughter,  Theodiehusa,  was  married  to  Aloric  II..  kn 

•  Ills;  and  his  niece.  Amalaberga,  became  tin- 
wife   of   llermanfiid,   the    lust    king    of   the   Thurin: 
Thendoric  himself  took  for  hi-  second  wife  Atldofleda,  the 

king  of  the  Fianks. 
In  f)Ol  Theodoric  was  at    war  with  Tni»aric,  king  of  the 

.e.  who.  alter  many  d 

viueesus  farasSiriuium,  now  Mitrowiczon  the  S  , 
junction  with  the  Danube.     The  inhabitants  of  • 
part  of  the   Alemanniau   kingdom,   which  hud    been    de- 
stroyed by  Clo\ is   [AI.KMVNM:  Txt  KIMI  -Ale- 
iiiiiniii.]  iicknowleilged  Theodoric  as  their  protector,  who 
summoned    Clovis    to    desi>t    from    any    further   violence 
against  the  Alcmanni.     i^II,                 •  contained  in  Cussio- 

i'uriiir..  ii.  41.) 

Meanwhile  a  war  had  broken  out  between  Clovis  and 
Alaric  II.,  king  of  the  \'isi-Goths.  Aluric  fell  in  tin- 
battle  of  Vouirle  in  507.  in  conse(|iience  of  which  the 
greater  part  of  the  dominions  of  the  Visi-Goths  in  Gaul 
came  into  the  hands  of  the  Franks.  Alaiic'sonly  legitimate 
son  was  a  child  named  Amalarie,  whom  he  had  by  his 
wife  Theodiehusa.  Astheie  wa>  danger  of  all  Spain  being 
invaded  by  the  Fr.inks,  the  Visi-Goths  intrusted  the 
gnardianshi])  of  their  young  king  to  Theodoric.  who  thus 
became  the  ruler  over  the  Ostro-Goths  and  the  \'isi-Goths, 
or  over  Si)iiin,  southern  (iaul,  Italy  with  the  dependent 
province  of  Illyricum,  and  part-  of  Rhuvtia.  Noricura,  and 
I'annoma.  Tlieodoric  had  previon.sly  si-nt  an  army  into 
(iaul.  commanded  by  Iha,  who  delivered  Aries,  \\liii  : 
be-ieged  by  the  Franks  ,")<)K  ;  and  the  sun  iiiade 

a  prisoner  of  Gcsalie.  the  natural  son  of  Alaric  II.,   who 

dangerous  rival  of  young  Anuluric.    Clov; 
pelled  to  content    himself  with  the   northern  and   la 

;  the  Visi-Gothic  dominions  in  Gaul.     Front  thi- 
511.  i- dated  the  icgeney  ol'Theodoric  in  the  kingdom  of  the 
\  isi-Goths,  who  however  stv  led  himself  king,  and  the  i 
cils  which  were  held  during  his  government  ui  • 
conling  to  the  years  of  his   rcii'.n.      He  took  ji. • 
the  cities  of  Provence,    peihaps  under  the   pretext   of  the 
expenses  which  he  had    been   put    to   in  saving  the 
Gothic  kingdom.     He  appointed   Liberals   his  lieutenant 
in  Gaul,  and  Theudis  in  Spain. 

The  relation  between  'I  lieodoric  and  the  cnipciv. 
Constantinople  was  maintained  to  Ui  n  of  both 

parties,  until  Justin   published    a   severe   edict  against  all 
who  were  not  of  the  Catholic  church    ."ili!  .  and 
deprived  the  Arians  of  their  churches.     About  the 
time  this  emperor  had  engaged  wiih  some  members  of  the 
Roman  Senate  in  designs  against    the  Gothic  dominion  in 
Italy.  Boi-t  bins,  then  one  of  the  lii>t  men  in  It  aly.wa.s  charged 
with  being  a  principal  conspirator,      lie  wu>  imprisoned  in 
r>_'J.  and  during  hi-  captivity  he  wrote  his  Treatise   on  the 
Consolation  of  Philosophy.     The  conspiracy  proved  ahor- 

'Iiicthins  was   put    to  death    in    .Y.M.  and  Symnia. 
his  father-in-law,  shared  the  same  fate  in  the  loll' 
at  Ravenna.     With  regard  to   religious  a  Hairs,  Tlieodoric, 
who  v  :ni.  like  all  the  Goths,  ordered  Pope  John 

with   several   hi-'  >  to  Constantinople  and  to  ob- 

tain better  conditions  for  the  Aiians  in  the  F.ustcrn  em- 
pire.    The   pope  reluctantly  obeyed,  but  it  seems  tl 
( 'onslantinople  he  spoke  rather  according  to  his  eoiiseience 
than  in   favour  of  the  Arians:  for  he  was  imp 
his  return,  by  order  ol'Theodoric,  and  died  not  D 
alter,  on   the    IKIh  of  May,  ."rjil.     On  Theodoii. 

lion.   Felix   was  elected  pope,  and  ' 

confirmed  by    \thaluric,  the  sue  .eodoiie.     This 

fact    prOVM  the   great    influence   which   Ti  .nl  in 

the   a  Hairs   of  his  time.      Not  having  obtained    favourable 
conditions  for  the  Aiiutis  inthe  Fast.  Theodoiie  was  about 
tr.  retaliate   on   the  Catholics   in    In-  dominion-,  whin  he 
ill.  d  suddenly  oil  the  2(ith  of  Auirust.  ")-(i.  in  the  72nd 
of    his    ;e_;e.        His    i  •onlenipoi  at  n  -    ha-.r    invented    many 
fables  about    the   sudden   death   of  tins  great    king, 
eopius  .-De   Hello  Gothico.'i.   I    -ays  that   the  head  of  a 

tish  being  served   up  at  table,  he  fancied  it  to  bo 


THE 


321 


T  H  E 


the  head  of  Symmachus,  whom  he  had  put  to  death,  and 
whose  participation  in  the  conspiracy  against  Theodoric 
had  not  been  proved  ;  it  is  added  that  he  was  so  terrified 
by  his  imagination,  that  he  fell  into  a  fever  and  shortly 
afterwards  died.  Others  pretend  that  his  death  was 
the  consequence  of  a  divine  judgment,  because  he  had 
deposed  and  imprisoned  Pope  John  :  this  story  savours 
of  ifs  origin.  Others  dreamt  that  the  ghosts  of  Pope  John 
and  Symmachus  had  cast,  the  soul  of  Theodoric  into  the 
burning  crater  of  a  volcano.  The  ashes  of  Theodoric  were 
deposited  in  a  porphyry  urn,  which  still  exists  in  the  wall 
of  the  castle  of  Ravenna,  and  under  it  is  an  inscription  on 
marble,  bearing  the  date  563,  which  states'  that  the  urn  once 
contained  his  remains.  Theodoric  having  left  no  male 
i^ue,  Athalaric,  the  son  of  his  daughter  Amalaswinth,  suc- 
ceeded him  on  the  throne  of  Italy,  and  Amalaric  became 
king  of  the  Visi-Goths. 

Theodoric  generally  kept  his  court  at  Ravenna,  as  the 
Roman  emperors  had  done  after  the  time  of  Honorius,  and 
thus  Ravenna  became  a  centre  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  of 
no  less  importance  than  Rome.  Among  the  high  officers 
of  Theodoric  there  were  several  verv  distinguished  men, 
such  as  Cassiodorus,  who  was  his  private  secretary,  and 
Ennodius,  who  has  written  a  eulogy  of  his  master,  which 
however  is  far  from  containing  all  the  truth.  He  was  cele- 
brated as  a  hero  in  the  old  Teutonic  songs,  and  in  the 
'  Niebelungen-Lied  '  he  appears  as  Diederich  of  Bern,  that 

i-.   Vr 

Theodoric  was  not  only  a  conqueror  ;  he  was  also  a  le- 
gislator. [TEUTONIC  NATIONS,  Got/is.]  It  is  his  greatest 
glory  that  he  was  a  friend  of  peace,  of  toleration,  and  of 
justice  ;  a  glory,  however,  which  is  somewhat  obscured  by 
some  acts  of  rashness  and  violence.  Whenever  a  war  be- 
tween Teutonic  kings  was  threatening,  he  tried  to  prevent 
it  by  mediation  ;  a  fact  which  is  proved  by  his  letters  to 
the  kings  of  the  Franks,  of  the  Visi-Goths,  of  the  Thurin- 
irians,  of  the  Burgundians,  of  the  Heruli.and  of  the  Warni. 
He  always  reminded  them  that  they  were  of  one  common 
i,  and  that  they  ought  to  maintain  peace  and  friendly 
•ourse.  Theodoric  was  especially  vigilant  in  prevent- 
ing ('lovis  from  invading  (lie  states  of  Ms  neighbours;  he 
protected  the  Thuringians  and  the  remnant  of  the  Ale- 
manni,  and  he  saved  the  kingdom  of  the  Visi-Goths  from 

•tion. 

f  Ennodius,  Panrgi/ricu*  />ir'v  Th<"''loriri.  nl.  Chr.  Cel- 

larius,  1703,  8vo.  ;  and  also  in  his  Opern,  ed.  Jac.  Sirmon- 

dus,  Paris,    1611,  8vo.  ;    Jornandes,   De  Habits  Gnthicix; 

Isidorus,  Chronicnn  Gvthorum,  &••.  ;  Procopius,  Da  Relln 

<  'ochlaeus,    Vita    T/icntl^riri  RI>X.  Ostrogoth., 

«'d.  }'•  •!.,  Stockholm,   1099,  4to.      C'ochlaeus   ha.s 

written  without  any  just  criticism  ;  and  Peringskjiild   has 

shown  no  historical  ability  in  his  additions,  which  however 

contain  very  interesting  matter  relative  to  the    language 

'iie  antiquities  of  the  Goths.     Manso's  Gearhir/itu  i/c.\ 

/{'•i'-/ii'\  in  //'('/'"«,  Breslau,  1824,  8vo.,  is  a 

very  valuable  work.) 

THEODORIC  a  bishop  and  celebrated  surgeon  of  the 

thirteenth  century,  was  a  pupil  of  Hugo  of  Lucca.     He  at 

first  belonged  to  the  order  of  the  Preaching  Friars  (Frercn 

Prcrheurx  t  ;  afterwards  he  became  chaplain  to  the  Bishop 

of  Valentia,  and  penitentiary  to  Pope  Innocent  IV.  ;  and 

lie   was  at  last  made  bishop  of  Bitonti  and  Cervia  suc- 

.  i.ly.     Towards  thu  end  of  his  life  he  settled  at  Bo- 

lugn:i,  where  he  died  in  12'JS.     He  was  especially  distin- 

guished from  his  contemporaries  by  not  resting  content 

with  imitating  his  predecessors;  on  the  contrary,  he  ap- 

!  to  have  carefully  studied  the  cases  that  presented 

themselves  to  his  notice,  and  to  have  recorded  in  a  great 

u'e  the  results  of  his  own  observations.     He  also  in- 

troduced  several   useful   innovations   in    the   practice  of 

surgery,  and  was  the  first  person  who  ventured   to   lay 

aside    the   cumbrous   and  frightful  machines  which  had 

hitherto  been  used  in  the  reduction  of  fractures  and  luxa- 

He    left  behind   him   a   surgical   work,    entitled 

mrgia  Secundum  Medicationem  Hugonis  de  Luca,' 

•lished  at  Venice  in  1490  and  1519,  in  folio. 

1  1;:  -h.  Chirurg.  ;  Sprengel's  ///*/.  de  la  Med.  ; 


THKODO'RUS  (eeo&apoc),  a  native  of  Cyrene,  was  a 
philosopher  of  the  Cyrenais  school,  who  lived  towards  the 
end  of  the  fourth  century  li.e:.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Arete, 
the  daughter  of  Aristippus,  and  afterwards  became  the 
successor  of  -Anniceris.  His  philosophical  system,  which 
L\  CV,  No.  1528. 


was  a  kind  of  medium  between  that  of  Aristippus  and  An- 
niceris, appeared  so  dangerous  to  his  fellow-citizens,  among 
whom  he  had  been  held  in  very  high  esteem,  that  they 
banished  him  from  their  city.  Theodoras  went  to  Athens, 
where  he  would  have  experienced  worse  treatment  if  De- 
metrius Phalereus  had  not  interposed  and  saved  him  ;  for 
here  too  his  doctrines  soon  came  into  disrepute,  and  a 
public  accusation  was  brought  against  him  of  moral  and 
religious  indifference.  After  the  fall  of  Demetrius  Pha- 
lereus, Theodorus  thought  it  advisable  to  withdraw  from 
Athens,  and  he  went  to  Egypt,  where  he  soon  gained  the 
confidence  of  Ptolemaeus  Soter,  who,  on  one  occasion, 
sent  him  as  his  ambassador  to  Lysimachus.  On  till, 
mission  Theodoras  is  said  to  have  shown  much  courage 
and  a  strong  feeling  of  independence  towards  Lysimachus, 
who  taunted  him  for  having  been  obliged  to  leave  Athens. 
The  time  of  his  death  is  unknown. 

We  do  not  possess  a  complete  view  of  the  philosophical 
system  of  Theodorus,  but  he  appears  to  have  been  one  of 
the  forerunners  of  Epicurus.  His  ideas  of  the  deity  were 
explained  in  a  book  which  he  wTrote  on  the  gods  (itspi 
Biuiv),  and  which  earned  him  the  name  of  atheist,  tnough 
it  is  doubtful  whether  this  opprobrious  name  was  given  him 
because  he  really  denied  the  existence  of  gods,  or  merely 
because  he  was  above  the  common  prejudices  of  his 
countrymen.  The  following  doctrines  are  especially  men- 
tioned as  characterising  his  views  of  human  affairs  : — wis- 
dom and  justice  are  desirable,  because  they  procure  us  the 
enjoyment  of  pleasure  :  friendship,  on  the  other  hand, 
has  no  real  existence  ;  for,  in  a  person  who  is  not  wise,  it 
•  as  soon  as  he  ceases  to  feel  the  want  of  it,  and  a 
wise  man  is  in  want  of  nothing  beyond  himself.  Patriotism 
is  not  a  duty,  because  it  would  be  absurd  to  make  it  in- 
cumbent upon  a  wise  man  to  sacrifice  himself  for  the  igno- 
rant ,  who  form  by  far  the  majority  of  a  state.  His  followers, 
who  constituted  one  of  the  three  branches  into  which  the 
Cyrenaic  school  was  divided,  were  called  Theodorians. 

(Diogenes  Laert., ii.  86 ;  vi.97;  Cicero,  Tusculan.,i. 43; 
v.  40  ;  De  Natura  Deorum,  i.  1,  23,  43  ;  Suidas,  s.  v.  eto- 

£wnog.) 

From  the  philosopher  Theodorus  of  Cyrene  we  must  dis- 
tinguish Theodorus  the  mathematician,  who  was  a  native 
of  the  same  place,  and  is  mentioned  among  the  teachers 
of  Plato.  (Xenophon,  Memorab.,  iy.  2,  10 ;  Maximus 
Tvrius,  Disserlut.,  22.) 

THEODO'RUS  PRISCIA'NUS,  the  author  of  a  Latin 
medical  work,  which  is  still  extant,  and  which  sometimes 
goes  under  the  name  of  'Ocfarius  Huratianus.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Vindiciauus,  and  is  supposed  to  have  lived  at  the 
court  of  the  emperors  of  Constantinople  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury alter  Christ.  He  belonged  to  the  sect  of  the  Empi- 
rici,  but  appears  to  have  also  mixed  up  some  opinions  of 
the  Methodici,  and  even  of  the  Dogmatici.  His  work, 
which  is  not  of  much  value,  is  entitled  '  Reium  Medica- 
rum  Libri  Quatuor,'  and  is  written  in  a  barbarous  Latin 
style.  The  first  book  treats  of  external  disorders,  the 
second  of  internal,  the  third  of  female  diseases,  and  the 
fourth  of  physiology,  &c.  It  was  first  published  in  1532, 
fol.,  at  Strassburg,  and  also  in  the  same  year  at  Basle, 
4to. ;  of  these  two  editions,  the  former  is  the  more  com- 
plete, the  latter  the  more  correctly  printed.  A  new  edi- 
tion was  undertaken  by  J.  M.  Bernhold,  of  which  the  iiist 
volume  was  published  in  8vo.,  without  place  or  date,  at 
Ansbach  in  1791 ;  but  which,  in  consequence  of  the  edi- 
tor's death,  has  never  been  completed.  Another  work, 
entitled  '  Diaeta,  seu  de  Salutaribus  Rebus  Liber,'  has 
been  attributed  to  Theodorus  Priscianus,  but  (as  Choulant 
thinks;  incorrectly.  It  was  first  published  together  with 
'  Hildegardis  Physica,'  Argentor.,  1533,  fol.  It  first  ap- 
peared in  a  separate  form  at  Halle,  1632,  8vo.,  edited  by 
G.  E.  Schreiner,  and  was  afterwards  inserted  in  Rivinus's 
collection  of  antient  physicians,  Leipzig,  1654, 8vo.  (Hal- 
ler's  Hiblinth.  Medic.  Pract. ;  Sprengel's  Hint,  de  la  Med.  ; 
Choulant's  Handbuch  der  Bucherkunde  fur  die  Aeltere 
Medicin.) 

THEODO'RUS,  or  DIODO'RUS,  OF  TARSUS,  of  a 
noble  and  very  distinguished  family,  lived  in  the  fourth 
century  of  our  sera,  and  was  most  probably  born  at  Antioch. 
He  studied  under  Sylvanus  Tarsensis ;  and  after  having 
taken  orders,  he  first  became  priest,  and  then  Archiman- 
drita  at  Antioch.  The  Catholic  churches  of  this  town 
having  been  shut  up  by  order  of  the  emperor  Valens  (  A.D. 
364-378),  who  was  an  adherent  of  A  nanism,  Theodorus 

VOL,  XXIV,— 2  T 


THE 


T  II    1 


in  the  fields  round  the  town,  and  he  was  always 
1  by  a  numerout  conereg  . 

•l*o  defended  the  orthodox  faith  with  jrmit    intrepidity 
»g»in»t   the   attacks   of  tin-   Annn-t  and 

iiatelv  after  the  death  of  Yaleiut,  he  wait 
appointed  bishop  of  Tartu*   :f/H  .  Gratianua,  the  nmtaaoi 

•  lonit. 

WH  at  the  Couiu-il  nl    Constantinople.     The  year  of  his 
deutli  i-  nut  kitovMi.  i  liriu*  was  chosen  biV; 

Taiv  -  •'  i-     robable   that   In-  died  in   tin 

em' 


lonis   was    much    es 
tor   his   plain   ami    lucid 
known  as  tin   i; 
In-  was  accused  of  h.i 

made  ar  HI  temporary  1 

Theodorus  of    '  -le  iniiiu 


1  .  .temporaries 

tqMMsce,  but  though  he  was 
erenderoi  the  Catholic  faith, 
wn  himself  favourable  to  the 

work* 


uorals,  none  of  which  ha. 

said   however    that   one   of  liis   win'  .vhieh 

believe*  to  be  id  •  i'h   anotlur  work  on 

.  vol.  ii.,  ]' 
:i«ii.  :isi.  i 

llll.ODO  HI'S   L.  a  unlive  o:  -:id -on  of  Theo- 

>p  of  Home 
"f  John   I  '> 

then  empeior  of  Coiistanlinop1, 
the  Longolmrds  in  Italy.    The  heresy  of  the  Mount! 
wasdisiiiibing  the   church,  and  it   was  supported  by  the 
emperor  Coiistans.  and  by  Pauhis,  patriarch  of 
nople.     Tin  odoru-   ln-ld   a    council    at    Home  in  G4H.  in 
which  Panlus  was  excominunicavd.     It    does  not    seem 
proved  however  that  Theodoms  condemned,  as  some  have 
averted,  the   typiu  or  edict   of  the   emperor  (-.'(installs,   in 
which  he  forl  ade  all  his  clergy  from  disputing  on  the  siih- 
of  tin-  two  wills  in  Christ,  the  Monothchtes  asserting 
that   there    was   only    one   v.iil    in  him.     [  KITYCIIIANS.  ] 
TheodoniH  built   several   churches  at  Home.     He  died  in 
ii-11),  and  was  succeeded  by  Martin  I.  >  Muratori,  Annuli 
'/ii :   Pamimo.  1'ilr  d  ••('.) 

THKOIHWI  S  II. ,  a  native  of  Home,  was  elected  pop,- 
titter  the  death  of  Komanus,  in  August,  S:>7,  and  dud 
three  weeks  alter  Ins  election,  and  was  succeeded  by- 
John  IX. 

THKOnO'Ht  S  I.A'SCAKIS.  emperor  of  N 
descended  from  an  antient  and  IP  b!i-  Uy/ami,ie  ! 
the  early  history  of  which  is  unknown.  In  lliix  he  mar- 
ried Anna  An:-  the  widow  of  I-aac  Com- 
uenu«  Sebastocrator.  and  the  second  daughter  of  the  em- 
peror Alexi.s  111.,  Angelus-Comneuus.  v.  J  the 
tlirone  of  ( 'oiisinntinople.  alter  having  blinded  and  thrown 
into  a  prison  the  emperor  1-aac  Angelns  f  1195J.  Alexis, 
•'ii  of  I->a a  :i:ily  mid  implored  the  protection 
ol  the  Vcstcrn  princes,  who,  in  12i  --embled  at 
Venice  for  the  purpose  of  n  nc-'.v  crusade.  They  promised 
him  assistance,  and  sailed  to  Constantinople  with  a  p 
fid  fleet,  commanded  by  Dandolo,  the  doge  of  Venice. 
They  laid  siege  to  Constantinople,  but  although  Thcodoin- 
Law:  d  a  vigorou-  n  \i-lll..  who 
was  ot  a  mean  and  ;1  his 
capital  and  lit-  id.  inarqiii  to,  in 
Italy,  who  had  eodoia.  A— ailed  by- 
bold  and  experiencci' 

peror,   tin-  .    aiann:   tiu-v  surrcn- 

dered  their  citpital,  »n<l  did  ho: 

I  July  and   1st   ,  r_M:t  . 

who  reigned  together  under  i  .  the  Ijitin 

prim-  .is  Munophlus  luid  m 

pwtv  among  the  Greeks,  who  were  enraged  at  the  haughti- 

i    l\  .. 

I--'. i  -.'•:.;'••  .1  !.:      I    M  n  '.".id    -,  mi    pi  •,eia:uit  d    IB 

1 
HJh  of  February.  I'Jol  .  Thi   l-itms  iiuniediati 

irvstantino1  .:der  of  Hi 

friend  ;  and  alt!  1  by  Tin  o- 

intimnent.      Si 
fled  with  bin  treasures  '  April,  13 M  .  and  t 

•h    hiul    re  i  the    High)    of    Alc\is  111.   once 

more    dtscoiiraged    the    •  -id     led    to    anarchy. 

•Jwh'K    •    period    ol  Isaac 

reigned  tv  .-mpeioiN    succes-ivelv  oi  cnpied    the 

and  such  wan  the  passion  for  ruling  among  the 


.1  moment 

:re  vtas  nt  stake,  two  candidates  pre- 
sented themselves  to  t  Vor  the  pur]n»se  of  obtain- 
ing the  ciovMi. 

'J'hese  caudida?.  ..lore 

Ducaa,  who  wac  ol   linpeiial   descent.     IASCHIIS  was  pro- 
claimed empcnv.  but  fearing:  some  in 
the  adherent-   of  the  fugitive   einpei 

Imperial  tllie.  niul  det  lai'cd  he  v.  :isv-ll  \\nii 

-pole'  until  he  had  re-entabh-hed   trump.- 
hile  he  eneourajfed  the  pi 
-  made  aniussault  an. 
the  Greeks  having  cowardly  aband- 
posts.   Dm.  •  of  plunder  and  viol< 

don-  I.Mraru  escaped  with  his  wife  Anna,  and  fled  to  the 

L     The  Latins  chose  Baldwin,  c 

of  Flinders,  eni[  n  the 

capita  mirth  of  the  empire;  the  remaining  ii 

fourths  were  divided  between  Venice  find   the  Franki.-h 
barons. 

ijwhile   Theodore   succeeded   in    raising   tmoi 
Asia,  and,  assisted  by  the  Turks  of  Koniah,  or  leoniiu 
made  himself  master  of  the  important  town  of  Nieai 
M.-aler  part  of  Hithvnia,  proclaiming  that   he 
only  as   despote.  and  in  tfie  name  of  Ins  father-in-lav 
;    Ali-xis   III.    Autumn,  t'Jnl  .     11^ 
wen-  .-non  taken  from  him  by  Louis,  eon 
who,  in  the  division  of  the  empire,  had  received  Hithytua. 
and  who  defeated  Theodore  at  Paemanene,  on  tin 
of   Mysia    and    Bithynia  'Oth  of   1) 
.ure  retired  to  Hrnsa,  one  of  the  few  towns  whir. 
not  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  count  of  Ulois  :  but  : 
pursued  and  obliged  to  fight  with  Henry,  con- 

i:ie  brother  of  the  emperor  Haldwin,  who  d>  ;• 

Theodore  would   have  been  ruined  but  for  the  victi 
of  the  king  of  the  Bulgarians  and  the  revo 
the  troops  of  the  emperor,  who  was  obliged  to  call  I 

nice  of  the  count    of  Jilois  and  tin- 
Hit  hynift.     Theodore  again  became  must  er  of  1 1 1 . 
and  his  father-in-law.  Alexis  111.,  being  then   kept    a   pri- 

!>y  tin-  martinis  of  M 
the    title    of   emperor.       1 ' 
lirwp  'Pui/iaiun;  W'llieli 

of  Constantinople,  and  he  thus  showed  ih 

if  a-  the  only  iegitim. 

a  right    to  the   c.own   by  I.  .  ma.   the   il. 

111.,  who  was   ]ire\i  :  ruling  on  • 

•i;tivit\ .  and  all  the  other  empi 
tion  being  then  dead.     In  order  to  solemnize  In- 

linperial  tluone.  Alexis  convoked  a  L  -  inbly 

of  the  Gieek  bisho|)s,  who  met  at  Nicaea.    The  new  patn- 
areh,  .Michael  Aii'orienus.  jiicsiiled,  who   had  b. 
patriarch   for  the  special  purpose  of  crowning   . 
the  patriarch  IVulvmoti  ned. 

Meanwhile   several  Greek  noble.-,  jirotiting  fix 

1  of  the  Greeks  against  the  Latin  i 
made  themselves  independent  in  Asia.  1 
Morotheodonis.  ndelphia,  and  Ml 

ii\atli-cd-din.  sultan  of  K 

by  tin 

'iiird  and  more  dangeron- 
OoBHM-nns,  who  hail  i 
theyi  1  whose  (>rotht  ; 

as  far  as   the  1'iopontis   and   the   Ionian   Sea.      The-' 
anil  David    were    eipial    in    military   skill,   in   activity 
in    pc  :    neither  of  them  was  dis< 

nor  made    less  vigilant    by   Midden    success.      After 
their  '  ilei.  David,  appreciating  the  cl 

v.  concluded  an   alliance  with  ! 
empcior  of  I  "01  ile.  who  ha 

brother  Haldwin.     'i 
and    some    time    al'ti-rwaids  David   v. . 

;i   by  Guido  Androm, 
of   Nieaea.      Alle r  the  truce  In  ; 

in  1210,  David,  who   had  hitherto  canitd  oil  tin    war  with 
varioi:«  •.•died   to   give   up   all    he] 

field  any  longer.     He    I" 

and  his  brother  .''  obliged  to  c,  , I,   tl      nl..fheo- 

i  Jl  I  '.who  thus  :  ister  of  tie  •  artot 

1'aphla-. 
The  truce  between  Theodore  and  Henry  was  the  cou 


T  H  K 


323 


THE 


•uce  of  various  victories  obtained  by  Theodore  over 
the  troops  of  Henry.  In  1207  the  emperor  of  Nicaea 
was  besieged  by  the  Franks  in  Nicomedia,  but  in  a  sally 
he  made  piisoner  Count  Thierry  de  Los,  or  more  cor- 
rectly Diedrik  van  Looz,  a  powerful  baron  from  the  Low 
Countries,  and  a  descendant  of  the  first  dukes  of  Lower 
Lorraine.  Henry  ransomed  the  count  by  surrendering 
several  fortified  towns  to  the  emperor  of  Nienca.  and  ar- 
rangements were  made  which  led  to  the  truce  of  1210.  In 
thi*.  year  the  old  emperor  Alexis  III.,  who  had  escaped 
from  the  marquis  of  Monteferrato,  fled  to  Asia,  to  the 
court  of  Sultan  GhaTyath-ed-dm,  and  persuaded  him  to 
support  his  claims  to  the  throne  of  Nieaea,  or  of  any  other 
part  of  the  Eastern  empire.  The  sultan  summoned  Theo^ 
dore  to  restore  his  father-in-law  to  the  throne,  and  left 
Koniah  at  the  head  of  20.000  men.  He  was  attacked  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Antioch  by  Theodore,  who  had  only 
2000  men,  but  who  charged  the  Turks  with  such  irnpe- 
tuo-ity  1liat  their  lines  weie  broken,  and  they  were  entirely 
defeated.  GhaVvath-ed-din  himself  was  killed  by  Theo- 
dore, and  old  Alexis  was  made  a  prisoner  r  1210).  He  was 
confined  to  a  monastery  at  Nieaea,  where  he  died  some 
years  afterwards.  Although  Theodore  had  acted  in  his 
father-in-law's  name  while  he  was  only  despot e,  he  had 
ascended  the  throne  in  his  own  name  am!  .  risk. 

Theodore's  wife,  Anna,  the  daughter  of  Alexis,  was  then 
dead. 

It  is  said  that  in  1214  Theodore  fell  into  the  hands  oi' 
Az-ed-din  Key-kaus,  the  succe.-.-or  ot'G'.:a'i'yiith-ed-din  :  but 
this  if  an  error,  and  Fallmerayer,  in  his  work  cited  below, 
has  shown  that  it  was  Alexis  of  Trebizcnd  who  was  made 
prisoner  by  the  sultan.  Except  one  shoit  campaign  against 
Henry  in  1213,  which  was  followed  by  a  truce  in  1214, 
Theodore  reigned  the  last  ten  years  of  his  life  in  |. 

friends  and  respected  by  his  enemies.  After 
'.he  death  of  Anna  he  married  Philippa,  an  Armenian 
cess,  whom  he  repudiated  alter  she  i.ad   home  him  n 
and   in    1_  '-hose  for  his  third   wife 

daughter  ol  '  'ourtenai  ( Kortryk\  emperor  oi 

.n.ople  after  Henry,  who  was  sister  to  Robert,  the  son 
Theodore  wished   to   give   his 

daughter  Eudoxia  in   marriage   to  Robert,  who  was  of  a 
very  mild  and  amiable  (  :t   this  in; 

strontrly  opposed  by  the  Greek  :  Vlanuel,  because 

the  two  emperors  wvrc  brothers-in-law,  and  it  was  not  car- 
ried into  el':'. 

Theodore  died  in  1222,  bring  between  forty-five  and  fifty 
years  old.  in  the  sa>,  ith  Alexis  I.  of  Trehizond. 

Although  he  left  a  son,  li.  hi.;  brother-in- 

law  John  Vatatzes.     One  of  Theodore's  daughters,  Maria, 
'.vas  married  to  Andreas,  king  of  Hungary. 

K-etan,  Alex.  Com/i.,  a,  \  cropolita,  espe- 

cially cap.  vi. ;  Hiiturin  I'  '.'it.,  lib.  in. ;  Gibbon, 

'•II:   Le  Bean,  Htntoire  <ln   />'»v   A/ • 
Fallmeraver.  (j/'trhichte  des  Kaisrrthuni*  Traprzi/nt. 

THEODORUS,  Sculptor.     [Son-PTOM.] 

THEODO'SIUS  of  Bithyma  or  of  Tripoli*  in  Lydia,  for  it 
appears  that  both  these  descriptions  are  applied  to  him 
though  there  is  another  Theodosiusof  Tripolis,  the  author 
of  an  obscure  poem  i.  was  a  mathematician,  of  whom  there 
is  some  question  whether  he  lived  about  fi ft v  years  before 
Chri  '  centuries  after.  Strabo  and  Vitruvins  both 

mention  a  1  :   the  latter  speaks  of  him  as  the  in- 

r  of  a  dial  for  even'  climate  ^or  latitude,; :    if  this  be 
the  subject  of  <.-.  .  ••<!  before  <  'hrist. 

But  on  the  other  hand,  Ptolemy  does  not  mention  him 
:s  little  either  way   :  and  Suidas,  enumerat- 
ing under  the  head  of  The'  •  shall  pre- 
.  mention,  adds  that  he   was  also  a  commentator  on 

•  parts  ot'Theudas  :  if  this  be  the  case,  he  must 

r  Christ.  The  balance  of  authorities  seems  to 
be  in  favour  of  the  former  supposition  :  if  the  writings  only 
were  looked  at,  there  would  be  little  donlil  thai 

omposed  before  the  time  of  Pto! 

We   Imve    !i  .t   of  Theodosius — 1,  S0aip(icd,  Spherics,  in 

•1.    7Tn,i    vvxn'n'   Kiri    iiftfftuiv,    in  two    books: 

:,'Tf,uv.     Tlie  first- is  a  profound  :i;  •  work 

(in  *  hould   now  call   spherical    geometry:    the 

•  •id  and  third  simply  <!  ;  ronomical  phcr.nmcim 

.pear  in  different  part*  of  the  world.  It.  is  hardly 
a  matter  of  certainty  that  the  three  works  have  the  same 
author :  the  second  and  third  add  nothing  to  the  fame  of 
the  author  of  the  first. 


The  Spherics  were  translated  by  the  Arabs,  and  from 
their  version  a  Latin  one  (of  little  worth)  was  made  at 
Venice  in  1518,  but  whether  it.  was  published  is  not  staled 
I Heilbronner).  Another  Latin  version,  probably  also  from 
the  Arabic,  was  published  by  Vogelinus  at,  Vienna,  152!), 
with  scholia.  John  Pena  gave  th'e  first  Greek  text,  with 
Latin,  Paris,  1557;  and  Barrow  gave  a  Latin  edition  in 
1675.  But  the  best,  edition  is  the  Oxford  one,  Greek  and 
Latin,  8vo.,  1707.  The  other  works  were  published  by 
Dasypodins.  in  Latin,  Strassburg,  1572,  8vo.  Joseph 
Am  in  published  the  third  work  in  Latin,  Rome,  1587; 
and  (ft/oar.  I'nir.')  the  second,  also  in  Latin,  Rome,  1591 
15S7.  according  to  Fabricius) ;  but  Heilbronner  does  not 
mention  this  last.  (Weidler  ;  Heilbronner  ;  Delambre.) 

THEODO'SIUS  I.,  FLA'VIUS,surnamed  the  Great,  was 
the  son  of  the  general  Theodosius  who  had  signalised  him- 
self greatly  during  the  reign  of  Valens  and  Valentim'an  in 
Britain  and  Africa,  but  was  put  to  death  in  A.D.  376  at 
Carthage  through  the  envy  of  the  courtiers.  The  Theo- 
dosii  were  an  illustrious  family  of  Spain,  of  the  town  of 
Italica,  near  the  modern  Sev'ille.  The  great  Theodosius 
was  born  in  A.D.  345,  and  was  educated  by  the  ablest, 
men  of  the  time,  while  his  father,  himself  one  of  the 
greatest  generals,  instructed  his  son  in  the  art  of  war,  and 
t  omed  him  to  the  strictest  and  severest  discipline. 
Me  took  him  with  him  in  his  campaigns  in  Britain,  Ger- 
many, and  Africa,  and  made  him  acquainted  with  all  kinds 
of  warfare,  so  that  the  boy  became  early  accustomed  to  the 
endurance  of  hardship.  The  various  occasions  on  which  he 
distinguished  himself  were  not  overlooked,  and  he  was 
fo  the  rank  of  duke  of  Moesia,  with  an  independent 
command.  Here  again  he  distinguished  himself  above  all 
the  other  military  commanders.  He  vanquished  the  Sar- 
matians.  and  it  was  only  owing  to  his  intrepid  character  that 
e  was  not  lost  altogether.  (Ammianus  Mar- 
eel.,  xxix.  6  ;  Zosimus,  iv.,  p.  219,  &c.)  After  the  death  of 
his  lather,  in  A.D.  876,  he  obtained  permission  to  withdraw 
from  public  affairs,  and  retired  to  Cauca  in  Spain,  where 
•i  oted  himself  to  agricultural  occupations  on  his  ex- 
e  estates,  and  won  the  affection  and  esteem  of  all 
who  came  in  contact  with  him,  for  he  possessed  no  less 
the  \irtues  of  social  and  domestic  life  than  the  talents  of 
a  general.  But  he  did  not  remain  long  in  the  enjoyment 
of  his  quiet  happiness  :  his  virtues  and  talents  had  made 
too  deep  an  impression  to  be  forgotten  in  the  hour  of  need  ; 
and  on  the  10th  of  January,  379,  the  emperor  Gratian 
raised  Theodosius  at  Sirmium  to  the  dignity  of  Augustus, 
with  the  command  over  Illyricum  and  all  the  eastern  pro- 
of the  empire.  The  immediate  object  of  this  eleva- 
tion was  the  hope  that  he  would  save  the  empire  from  the 
Goths,  who  in  the  preceding  year  had  totally  defeated  the 
Roman  army  near  AJrianople,  and  were  now  ravaging  the 
country.  Theodosius  established  his  head-quarters  at 
Thessalonica  in  Macedonia,  strengthened  the  garrisons  in 
those  parts  of  the  empire,  and  restored  discipline  among 
the  troops  :  but  he  only  ventured  upon  partial  engagements 
with  the  enemy,  and  only  on  such  occasions  when  he 
Has  -ure  of  success.  He  thus  convinced  his  soldiers 
that  the  barbarians  were  not  invincible,  and  revived  their 
courage  and  their  confidence.  The  Visi-Goths  were  thus 
gradually  and  without  any  great  battle  driven  out  of 
Thrace.  While  at  Thessalonica,  Theodosius  was  seized 
wit  ha  severe  illness.  He  was  of  a  Christian  family,  but 
had  not  yet  been  baptized,  and  he  now  celebrated  this  so- 
lemnity by  the  advice  of  his  friends,  in  the  hope  that  it 
would  contribute  to  his  recovery.  When  his  illness  had 
disappeared,  he  went  to  Constantinople,  and  the  first,  acts 
of  his  administration  were  to  expel  all  the  Allans  from 
the  capital,  to  assign  the  churches  they  had  occupied 
to  the  orthodox  Christians,  and  to  appoint  Gregorins 
Nazian/cuus  archbishop  of  Constantinople  '  A.D.  U80).  His 
persecution  of  the  Arian  sect  was  conducted  with  such 
zeal,  that  orthodoxy  was  soon  restored  throughout  his  do- 
minions. He  then  held  a  council  at  Constantinople  of  150 
bishops  to  complete  the  system,  the  foundation  of  which 
had  been  laid  at  the  council  of  Nicaea,  and  a  number  of 
edicts  were  9uccessi\cK  issued,  inllicling  the  severest  pu- 
nishments upon  all  kinds  of  heretics.  The  example  of 
these  rigid  persecutions  was  imitated  in  the  west  by 
Gratian,  and  subsequently  in  the  north  also  by  the  usurper 
Maximus. 

As  regards  his  Gothic  enemies,  Theo  .  indebted 

as  much  to  his  good  fortune  as  his  military  talents :  for 


T  II   K 


T  II   K 


»fter  tin-  death  of  .  ilitics 

broke  nut  am.  <••>,    uml  he 

in  engaging  some  of  111.  .1  the 

service  ol  tin1  finpiu  p:ujt  however  of  the 

subject*  of  Kriligern,    tirrd   of    th.  .  -.icliy, 

made  Alhanaric  thi-ir  knur,  who  conehui.  .  with 

losius  at   Constantinople      v.i).  i'.^l   .      Allianaric    in- 

ilut  not  long  Mirvive  llir  conclusion   dl    ' 

.   wlio   wnv    plciiscd  with   the    kind   treat- 
ment they  had    received   from    ']  .    willing;. 
nutted  to  him.   and   numbers  of  thriu   enlisted   undiT  the 
andard.     The    treaty  of  the  king  and  th. 

..'i-'w.d   In    ML  parate 

i.ithic  duels,  who  piuniiscd  to  become 

.lihlul   allies  ol'  the  Romans.      Lands   were   th- 

;    In    the    Vi-i-(;oth-   in    Thrace   and    Lower    Mocsia 
•i  the  banks  ol'  the  Danube 
.    and    re- 
in   Pnrygia    and     I.ydia.      The    con- 
ditions   on    which     (lie    GoUU  Hlbjectl    of    the 
Komaii  empire  are  imperl'eetlv  known:    thus  inn -h  onl\ 

:;nn.  tliat  they  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of 
Koine  without  submitting  to  her  laws  or  the  jurisdiction  of 
her  masristiatcs  ;  their  chiefs  also  still  continued  to  lm\e 
the  command  of  their  respective  tribes  in  peace  and  war. 
and  an  army  of  -KM)  Goths  was  maintained  for  the  pcr- 
,;  the  empire.  Thcudosiiis.  although  he 
had  felt  obliged,  for  the  safety  of  liis  dominions,  lo  make 

-  (1  in  persuading  tile  Goths 

that  all  were  the  voluntary  acts  of  his  own  sineeie  friend- 
ship towards  them.  The  conduct  of  the  emperor,  certainly 
the  wisest  that  he  could  adopt  under  existing  circum- 
stances, was-  praised  by  some  and  blamed  by  other-.  There 
<  .\son  for  placing  little  contidence  in 

the    )  of    the   barbarian*,   although   they   called 

themselves  the  eonfedeiates  of  the  Romans.     Their  whole 
nation  soon  became  divided  into  two    parties :    Un- 
faithful to  the  empire,  was  headed  by  Fray  it  ta ;  the  other, 
which  was  only  waiting  in  secret  for  an  opportunity 
volt,  was  headed  by  Priulf.  who,  after  he  had   di-i 

in  the  presence   of  Fravitta,  was  slain  by  him. 
Had  it  not  been  for  the  firm  but  temperate  character  of 
the  emperor  himself,  the  indomitable  spirit  of  tlu 
barians  could  not  have  been  restrained.     On  him  alone 
the  public  safety  depended. 

In  the  year  383  Theodosins  raised  his  son  Arcadius  to 
the  rank  of  Augustus:  in  the  same  year  his  benefactor 
G  rat  mil  was  murdered  in  a  rebellion.  Ma\imus,  sup) 
by  the  troops  in  liritain,  had  set  himself  up  as  emperor, 
and  had  conquered  Gaul.  Theodosiiis,  who  for  the  pre- 
sent was  unable  to  carry  on  a  war,  concluded  a  peace 
with  him,  and  left  him  in  possession  of  the  countries 
which  he  was  occupying  north  of  the  Alps,  on  con- 
dition that  he  should  not  disturb  Valentinian,  the  brother 

itian,  in  his  rule  over  Italy,  Africa,  and  western  Illy- 
ricuiu.  The  empire  was  thus  divided  among  three  em- 
perors. But  Ma\im\ishad  no  intention  to  keep  the  | 
and  his  ambition  stimulated  him  to  make  himself  master 
of  Italy- also.  In  v.n.  :i^7  he  broke  in  upon  Italy,  and 
took  lauMtibfl  residence  of  Valentinian.  by  surprise.  The 
young  emperor,  his  mother  .Tustinn,  and  his  sister  Galla, 
fled  to  Thessalonica,  to  implore  the  protection  of  Theodo- 
sius.  The  emperor  of  the  Kast  received  the  fugitives 
kindly,  and  as  his  own  wife  Flncilla  had  died,  he  married 

.linian's   sifter  Galla,  and  thus  establish  i 
interest  for  himself  in   protecting  the  exiled  family.     The' 
opportunity  of  chastising  the  faithless  .Maxiinns  wa-,  very 

MIC    to   him,    an  fur    war    wen-    made 

throughout  the  whole  extent  of  his  dominions.  In  order 
to  secure  his  empire  on  its  south-eastern  frontier,  a  treaty 
was  concluded  with  (1  in 

the  ports   01    Ivpiiii-   and   G  ml  Thcodosins,| 

himself  at  the  head  of  a  well-disciplined  army,  with  which 
he  inui died  into  Panmmia  to  meet  the  i-nemj.  who  had 
pitched  his  camp  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Siscia,  on  the 
Drave.  A  battle  wits  fonirht.  in  which  the  linn*.  Alani. 
and  Goths,  who  served  in  I  icatly 

distinguished  themselves.  Maxiinnswa-,  defeated  and  put 
to  H:..  i  ••  odosius,  determined  ion  of 

his  enemy  either  alive   or  dead,    pursued    him 

tin.  in  which  to-.vn   Maximn-  -lint  himself  up.     The 
usurper,  wlio  had  no  hold  on  the  affections  of  the  p 
was  dragged  forth  fiom  his  palace  into  the  hands  of  the 


conqueror,  him  up  us  a  \ictim  t. 

soldii 

by  the  hai 

who  made  Lin.-. 

All 
which  had   threatened   the    cinpiie    wnh    e 

calamities, 

ie  western    pi  o  . 

this  period  that  he  showed  arac- 

ter  iii  the   must    brilliant  li^rht.     He  not   < 
i  the  friends  and   u-l:itive»  of  Maxim 

them   every   support   in   their    misloitunes,    while,  on  the 
other   hand,    he    restored    to    the    op|  if  the 

west  their  lane!-,    and    i;a\e  them  ci.mpcii.-ation   in    li. 
for  the  los.se,  that  they  had  sustained.      In  liie  \ 

.1  Home  in  triumph,  together  with  his  son  Ho:. 
and  Valentinian. 

During  the  period   of  his  stay   in   Italy   an    ii. 

out   at   Antioch,  in   which   the   people   demanded 
redress   of  several    grievances,    especially  a  diminnti. 
their  hea\y  taxe>.      \Vlu-n   these   den. 

refused  b\  the  imperial  officers,  thcpopuh.  I  the 

statue-  Of Theodosius,    his    v.il'e    Flacilla.    and    ol 
Arcadius  and   Ilonorius.     The    insurrection    howevc; 
soon  put  down,  and  when  Theodosius  was  informed  . 
occurrences,  he  sent    Hellebricns   aad  Caoaiins   to   i 
the    most    severe   punishment   upon   the   city.     Hut   when 

ngcrs  came  soliciting  a  milder  treatment,  ai 
the   emperor  that  the   people  sincerely  repented  o: 
crime,    he    generously    gianted    them    a    :  ..vdon. 

Hut  thi>   gi  '   was  followed  by  another  which 

as  rash  as   it    was  cruel.      In   A.D.  3iK(  another  insurrec- 
tion  broke  out   at  Thissalunicu.  in  which  Uu 
commander   of  the    garrison,  and   several    other   (  i 
were  Cruelly  murdered  by  the  people,  because  t!. 
to  give  ii])  a  handsome  "boy  to  the  unnatural  hi 
dissolute  favourite  of  the  people.     '11 

uncertain  whether  he  should  take  vengeance  upon  tin- 
city  or  exercise  clemency  as  he  had  do  An- 
tioch. Kutinus  induced  him  to  do  the  former,  and  coni- 
mi-.siiiin-1-s  were  accordingly  sent  to  punish  the  crimi- 
nal inhabitants.  Theodosius  however  soon  rctrrcticd  his 
step,  and  countermanded  his  orders  ;  but  it  was  too  late  : 
a  general  and  indiscriminate  massacre  took  place  in 
the  devoted  city,  in  which  no  less  than  7tKH)  live - 
sacrificed  to  the  manes  of  Botheric.  When  Ambrose,  the 
archbishop  of  Milan,  was  informed  of  this  cruel  massacre, 
he  was  seized  with  indignation  and  grief:  and  i-ighl  months 
later,  when  the  emperor,  on  Christmas-day,  wanted  to 
attend  the  service  in  the  great  church  of  Milan,  h. 
stopped  in  the  porch  by  Ambrose,  and  was  not  admitted 
until  he  had  promised  to  do  public  penance  for  his  mon- 
strous cruelty.  [AMIIIUISK.]  It  was  not  till  after  the 

•  'f  eight"  months  from  tliat  day  that  the  emperor,  who 
had  performed  all  the  acts  of  public  penance  which  the 
archbishop  had  imposed  upon  him,  was  restored  to  the 
communion  of  the  faithful.  A,i  edict  was  at  the  same  time 
that  no  capital  punishment  should  hcuccfoith  be 
inflicted  on  any  one  till  thirty  davs  niter  it  had  been  pro- 
nounced. During  his  siay  in  Italy  Theodosius  acted  as  a 
kind  of  guardian  of  the  joung  emperor  Valentiniaa,  whom 
he  midit  have  deprived  of  his  empire  with  ti  • 
facility  and  perfect  impunity  if  he  had  been  le.—  magnani- 
mous. When  he  left  Italy  for  Constantinople  in  A. ».  I):)!, 
he  left  Valenlinian  in  the  apparent  h  sei 
of  the  wi  -1-  the  empire.  It  was  one  of  the 

ractcristic  features  of  Thei'dosins   to  cany  into   ctM-l   hi 
irrcat  plans  with  the  utmost  vigour  and   eneigy.  but   when 
the  object  was  attained   he  sank  into 

avc  himself  up  to  the  enjoyment  of  plea-nrcs  vvhuli. 
although  harmless  in  tin  m-cives.  in  many  •;  isled 

him  from  deriving   all   the  advantages  lion 
undertaking  that  he  might  hav,  .  the 

i-tantinople.    Th 

ant    OCI  i  i    the   v  c'ir    of   l.is  arrival    I  !   the 

final    and     total    abolition  ;hout    the 

Roman  empire.     In  the  follow  i.  '>-    \aleulininn 

was    mmdered   ill   Vienna.  who 

Kiiireiiinh.  a  rhetorician,  to  the  ini|..i  r,:A  throne,  in 
whose  name  lie  himself  hoped  to  wield  the  sceptic.    Tin  o- 

.  who   hail   allowed    himself   to   be   deceived   by    the 
id    laithliiliie-~   of   .''  was   deeply  lie 

when  he  heard  of  the  fate  of  liis  brother-in-law  and  of 


T  II  E 


325 


THE 


the  elevation  of  Eugenius.  But  he  was  at  that  moment 
not  prepared  tor  a  civil  war,  and  the  ambassadors  of  Eu- 
geniu:;  were  consequently  received  with  apparent  favour 
and  dismissed  in  a  friendly  manner.  Preparations  for  war 
however,  which  lasted  ibr  almost  two  years,  were  imme- 
diately commenced,  and  Stilicho  and  Timasius  were  charged 
with  recruiting  and  disciplining  the  forces.  In  the  spring 
of  the  year  3'J-t  Theodosms  set  out  from  Constantinople 
against  Eugenius.  The  armies  met  in  Pannonia,  and,  after 
a  long  and  dubious  contest,  Eugenius  was  defeated  on 
the  banks  of  the  Cold  River,  near  Aquileia.  Eugenius 
was  put  to  death,  and  Arbogastes  in  despair  put  an  end 
to  his  own  life.  Theodosius  was  now  sole  emperor  of  the 
Roman  world,  and  was  cheerfully  acknowledged  by  all 
the  provinces,  even  by  those  which  had  recently  paid 
homage  to  Eugenius.  The  empire  might  now  look  for- 
ward to  a  period  of  peace  and  happiness  under  the  admi- 
nUtiation  of  Theodosius.  But  he  was  suffering  from 
dropsy,  and  his  health  was  rapidly  declining.  He  died  on 
the  17th  of  January,  395,  at  Milan,  whence  his  body  was 
conveyed  to  Constantinople,  and  buried  there.  His  two 
sons  Arcadius  and  Honorius  had  been  raised  to  the  rank  of 
Augustus,  and  the  father  had  shortly  before  his  death 
.i  to  Honorius  the  empire  of  the  West,  while  Arcadius 
i  '>  occupy  the  throne  of  the  East.  The  Roman  empire 
henceforth  remained  divided  into  the  Western  and  the 
Eastern  empire.  [ROME,  p.  110.] 

(8.  Aurelius  Victor,  Epitome,  c.  48;  Orosius,  vii.  34,  35; 
Sozomen,  vii.  2 ;  Paulus  Diacon.,  ii. :  Compare  Gibbon, 
Jf<\t.  "f  //<••  Decline  and  Full,  c.  20,  27,  and  28.) 

THEODO'SIUS  II.,  or  the  Younger,  was  the  son  of 
Arcadius,  and  grandson  of  Theodosius  the  Great.  He  was 
L,/rn  on  the  10th  of  April,  401.  His  father  died  in  408  at 
Constantinople,  and  left  his  son,  then  a  child  seven 
old,  at  the  head  of  the  Eastern  empire.  There  is  a 
statement  that  Arcadius  in  his  will  made  Jezdegerd,  king 
of  Persia,  the  guardian  of  his  son  and  regent  of  the  em- 
pire during  his  minority.  (Jornandes,  De  Bell.  Pers.,  i. 
2.)  This  isolated  account  however  scarcely  deserves  credit, 
and  it  is  a  fact  that  Anthemius,  the  pra-fectus  pra?torio, 
from  the  very  iir.st  assumed  the  government  of  the  Eastern 
empire  in  the  name  of  the  young  prince,  and  carried  it  on 
in  a  praiseworthy  manner  down  to  the  year  414,  when  he 
voluntarily  resigned  it  to  Pulcheria,  the  sister  of  Theo- 
dosius, who  was  only  two  years  older  than  her  brother,  and 
had  shortly  before  received  the  title  of  Augusta.  This 
woman  continued  to  exercise  the  sovereignty  in  the  name 
of  her  brother,  not  only  after  he  had  grown  up  to  manhood 
and  down  to  his  death,  but  even  three  years  later,  until 
she  herself  died.  During  the  early  part  of  Theodosius's 
life  Pulcheria  herself  conducted  and  superintended  his  edu- 
cation ;  but  the  prince  seemed  to  possess  no  ambition,  and 
not  to  aspire  to  the  glory  of  a  monarch  :  he  passed  his 
•whole  life  in  a  perpetual  infancy,  surrounded  by  women 
and  eunuchs,  and  he  idled  away  his  time  in  hunting, 
painting,  carving,  and  making  elegant  transcripts  of  sacred 
books.  The  whole  government  was  carried  on  in  his 
name  ;  but  whether  its  acts  deserve  praise  or  blame,  he 
can  have  no  share  in  either,  as  he  blindly  acquiesced  in 
all  that  his  sister  did.  She  also  persuaded  him,  in  A.D. 
421,  to  marry  Eudocia  (before  her  baptism  her  name  was 
Athenais),  the  daughter  of  Leontius,  an  Athenian  sophist. 
This  woman,  who  was  no  less  distinguished  for  her  beauty 
than  for  intellectual  powers,  soon  gave  birth  to  a  daughter, 
Eudoxia,  after  which  she  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  Au- 
gusta. She  lived  with  her  husband  till  the  year 444,  when, 
after  having  drawn  upon  herself  suspicion  of  some  im- 
proper conduct,  she  was  obliged  to  quit  the  court,  and 
withdrew  to  Jerusalem. 

In  421  a  war  broke  out  with  Varanes,  king  of  Persia, 
which  was' successfully  concluded  by  Ardaburius,  a  general 
of  Theodosius,  and  a  peace  was  concluded  for  a  hundred 
years,  which  lasted  at  least  for  thirty.  With  this  excep- 
tion, the  long  reign  of  Theodosius  was  one  of  almost  un- 
e.  It  was  only  during  the  last  years  of  his 
life  that  the  European  parts  of  the  empire  were  harassed 
by  Attila  and  his  Huns.  [ArriLA.]  The  Asiatic  pro- 
vinces, by  far  the  most  extensive,  continued  to  enjoy  a 
profound  and  permanent  repose.  Theodosius  died  on  the 
28th  M'.Iiily.  •».')<). 

(Paulus  Diacon.,  iv. ;  Zonaras;  Socrates,  Hixtor.  Eccles., 
vii.  1,  &c.  Compare  Gibbon,  History  of  the  Decline  and 
1'W,  c.  32,  33,  34.) 


The  reign  of  Theodosius  II.  is  memorable  m  the  history 
of  jurisprudence  through  the  'collection  of  laws  that  was 
made  in  it,  and  bears  the  name  of  Codex  Theodosianus. 

THEODO'SIUS  III.,  stirnamed  Adramyteuus,  emperor 
of  Constantinople.  He  succeeded  Anastasius  II.  in  the 
year  A.D.  715,  being  proclaimed  emperor  in  the  fleet  of 
his  predecessor  near  Adramyttium  in  Troas.  He  was  a 
man  of  obscure  birth,  and  accepted  the  throne  with  reluc- 
tance. He  is  praised  for  his  unblemished  conduct,  and 
for  the  protection  he  afforded  to  the  orthodox  faith.  He 
had  not  enjoyed  his  elevation  much  more  than  one  year, 
when  Leo  III.,  a  man  of  superior  abilities,  was  proclaimed 
emperor.  Theodosius  willingly  withdrew,  and  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life,  together  with  his  son,  in  a  monastery. 
(Theophanes,  Chronographia ;  Georgius  Cedrenus,  Com- 
pendium Hi&toriarum ;  Zonaras.) 

THEODOSIAN  CODE.  In  the  year  A.D.  429  Theo- 
dosius II.  appointed  a  commission  of  eight  persons,  at  the 
head  of  whom  was  Antiochus,  to  form  a  code  out  of  all  the 
constitutions  and  other  laws  which  had  been  promulgated 
since  the  time  of  Constantino  the  Great.  The  code  was 
to  be  formed  on  the  model  of  the  private  compilations  re- 
spectively called  the  Codex  Gregorianus  and  the  Codex 
Hermogenianus.  Either  nothing  was  done  by  this  com- 
mission, or,  for  some  reason,  a  renewal  of  it  was  thought 
necessary,  and  this  renewed  commission  received  its  in- 
structions in  the  year  A.D.  435.  This  second  commission 
consisted  of  sixteen  members,  with  the  same  Antiochus  at 
its  head.  In  remodelling  their  materials  the  commission 
was  empowered  to  omit  the  superfluous,  insert  the  neces- 
sary, change  the  ambiguous,  and  reconcile  the  incongruous. 
The  code  was  completed  and  promulgated  as  law  in  the 
Eastern  empire  in  the  year  A.D.  438 ;  and  it  was  declared 
that  the  laws  enacted  since  the  time  of  Constantine  should 
only  be  in  force  so  far  as  they  were  incorporated  into  this 
code.  It  was  further  declared,  as  it  had  been  on  the  oc- 
casion of  naming  the  first  commission,  that  all  the  general 
constitutions  which  were  made  by  the  emperors  of  the 
East  and'West  should  be  sent  from  the  one  to  the  other, 
but  that  each  of  them  should  have  full  power  to  adopt. 
for  the  use  of  his  own  subjects,  or  to  reject,  what  the  other 
sent.  The  code  was  forwarded  in  the  year  438  by  Theo- 
dosius to  his  son-in-law  Valentinian  III.,  who  confirmed  it 
and  laid  it  before  the  Roman  senate,  by  whom  it  was 
received.  In  the  year  448  Theodosius  forwarded  to  Va- 
lentinian other  constitutions  which  he  had  made  since  the 
completion  of  the  code,  as  circumstances  had  arisen  ;  and 
these  new  constitutions  were  promulgated  in  the  Western 
empire  in  the  same  year.  The  new  constitutions  wore 
called  Novellae,  and  all  such  new  constitutions  which  were 
interchanged  between  the  East  and  West,  and  had  reference 
to  the  code  of  Theodosius,  were  called  by  the  name  No- 
vellae. This  interchange  subsisted  as  lo-ng  as  the  empire 
of  the  West  continued  :  "  the  last  constitution  of  the  kind 
that  we  know  is  one  of  Anthemius,  who  was  contemporary 
with  Leo  I.  in  the  Eastern  empire  :  it  belongs  to  the  year 
468,  and  relates  to  Bona  Vacantia. 

This  code  consists  of  sixteen  books,  which  are  divided 
into  titles,  and  the  titles'  are  subdivided  into  sections. 
The  arrangement  of  the  matter  differs  from  that  in  the 
subsequent  compilation  of  Justinian,  also  called  the  Code. 
The  code  of  Theodosius  treats  of  Jus  Privatum  in  the  first 
part,  and  especially  in  the  second  and  fourth  books,  both 
included,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifth :  the  following 
books  treat  chiefly  of  Jus  Publicum.  The  first  book  treats 
of  offices,  and  the  sixteenth  book  treats  of  matters  per- 
taining to  the  Christian  church.  The  code  of  Theodosius 
was  the  first  great  compilation  of  the  kind,  and  it  was 
much  used  in  the  compilation  of  the-  code  of  .histinian. 
It,  also  forms  the  basis  of  the  code  of  the  Ostrogoths,  called 
the  EdictumTheoderici :  it  \vas  incorporated  into  the  code 
of  Alaric  II.,  commonly  called  the  Breviarium,  in  an 
abridged  form,  accompanied  by  a  continual  interpretation 
or  explanation ;  and  it  was  used  in  the  compilation  of  the 
Lex  Romana  of  the  Burgundians,  which  is  often  incorrectly 
called  Papiani  Liber  Responsorum. 

The  greater  part  of  the  Theodosian  code  and  of  the  No- 
vellae Constitutiones  exist  in  their  genuine  state  :  the  first 
five  books  of  the  code  and  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  are 
chiefly  found  only  in  the  Breviarium.  The  excellent 
edition  of  J.  Gothofredus  (6  vols.  fol.,  Lyon,  1(360,  ve- 
edited  by  J.  D.  Ritter,  fol.,  Leipzig,  1736-1740),  and  also 
the  edition  of  the  Jus  Civile  Antejustinianemn,  Berlin,  1815, 


r  ii  i: 


T  II   K 


have  followed  the  text  of  the  H:  >•  first  printed   in  tin 

book*  and  t  '*iu*  and    by 


.,  nnd  particularly  to  iv 


of  the  1; 

c,  •  , 


:v      ti;ni»l  . 


K'JI 


!  hu  also  Added  to  '  MTU. 

.,.  .    :•.,  |      •  •  .     .     -   • 

ier  part  of  the  - 

bv  Jiutin  Mart  \  ;  •  '  i  >  plum 


by  Iicn;i'u-i     \.i>.    i  . 


of  t  lu- 
rt  •;  of  il 
ul  not  a 


pears  to  h  •dertskcn  for  the  pi.. 

he   Kbionitei  with  r  "*  "'" 

Hebrew  text  than  th:r 

>iich  would  render  t': 
i  in  their  . 

that  it 
deficiencies  of  that  version,  and  on. 

are  not  in  the  1 : 
competent  know-led;.' 
Hebrew  words  which  appear  to 
th.-  Ki  ionrl 

tilted  by  the  antient  church  for  the  '  i  ui  of 

that  1 

This  version  occupied  one  column  of  Oriu  ,pla.' 

THEUDO'XlS.orTHKOlMiKlS.  Montfort'a  name  for  a 
•ion  of  the  i  "'">'  •' 

V'rita  /?;/(••'•<.':  'V-.  )  « 

EOGmS  (Oiof,  poet  of  Mrjjara.  the 

capital  of  the  -  a.s  living  at  the 

close  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.;  and  it  I  :n  his 

it  he  lived  to  I:  'lie  battle  • 

,     In  one  of  those  revolutions  which  Ire- 

•curred  in  the  small  Grecian  states,  llie'dcinocra- 

tic  body  at  Me^ara  overpowered  the  arist  which 

Theopnis  belonged.     Tlieognis,  who  was  then  ab.sent  fiom 

i    his  landed  property  in  thi? 

which,  with  the   rest   of  the  Mciriirian   ti  a.s  par- 

,ed  among  the  succ.  y.     It  appears  that  he 

in  exile   at    Thebes.      The   11; 
abound  in   allusions  to   the  n-vohitr 
•nffered,  and  he  expresses  in  bitter  la 
aeainst  that  base  class  which  1 
prop,  body  to  which  !  <  d.     He  1.. 

the  n  eeing  a  ru  mean  birth  pre- 

liiin  In  ib  of  a  girl  whom  he  eoinlcd. 

"iniiied  lor  his  \ 

..ms  of  the   irirl   after  she  had  mariied 
'le  rival. 

It  appears  from  his  verses  that  he  had  been  in  S 
Ruboea.  and  Sparta;  and  it  was  in  Sicily  that   he  wrote 
one  of  hi  "hich  was  addressed    to  the  Sicilian 

riaas.    who   were   a   colony    fiom   his  native   state. 
There  seems  no  reason  to  doubt  that  his  com 

posed  on  various  occasions  ami 
that    m  far  they  resembled  th. 

A.  and  Solon.    But  as  these  e 
•ral  maxims  or  lessons  i 
i.it   in  the  course  of  time  near 
.••!  from  them  which  had  a  particular  applic 
and  <  ed  into  that 

•il  collecti.  '.  con- 

• 

•liat   nearly  all  the  p-.uiaag«s 
in  this  collection   which    have  a   political    re' 
-*cd  to  a  person  nai 
:s  appeats  ..mth  oi  ni 

"nis ha* a  tender  regard,  and  whom  I  in  tin 

in  conduct,  and  to  ti 
life. 
The  verses  of  TheogtiU  contain  many  allu.su 

iim-nts.  of  .  in  which  , 

'Wisl  libation  l«ul  been  duly  performed.  I'm 

of  the   client*  to   nine;  a  poem,  accompanied  by  the  flute. 
Thi»  :  . d    either  to  all  the 

.  or,  a*  apt  -li  the 

elegies  o("rh<-<>riii».  it  was  addressed  to  a  »iti^'' 
The  tagOMOU  of  Theognis  have  been 


m 


•  1  nu- 


vol. i.  :  Hoiim.i:. 

i. 
TIIKOI.'  .via.  the  Inch  relm 

In  .  ,;trd  against  any  mi.-conec]]tion  of  ti: 

ject    i 

M-t  that   it   i>  il.  "logy 

purely  in  . 

lit  to  fram. 
inconsistent  with  tin 

I.    Dl  :.R>tS. 

All  that  men  know  of  the  nature  of  Oo.i  .  1  ab- 

solutely, of  the  rela'  nd  on  the  one  hand, 

;:;ul   1 
with  t 

the  duties  aiisiiiL'  out    oi 
i»  described  by  tin- 

and  the   1 
'.  in  a  scientific  l 

-'anil-   to 
in  wh. 

>ophy  to 
mind.    phi!olo<r 

;   but  Mich  a  n-  in  is  incon  .i'.pare 

IOK,] 

The  above  definition  applies  to  the  word  as  il 
understood  for  - 
somewhat  different  from  this.      The  3to\ay!a  of  t! 

18  ^iXoffo^ia  x*pi    riur  Siluit;  tl\c 
of  divine  existences;  and  it  include.: 

o  the  nun1 

wider   signification    th 
tin..  J 

.  ..  u  .  IIS)  .  who  ilistinu'ui 
thculou'N  :    1    /"  nythieal  or  1 

or  i,utnr..  I,  or  relati 

of   il:.  or    popu- 

lar .  lie  first  IS  tl 

that   of  jihilonophci-s.  the   third  that,  of  the  jieople  :  or,  as 
Varro  expresses  it,  'The  first    is  clm-lly  adapted 
theatre,   the  second   to  the   universe    (ail   inn 
third  to  the 

.iid  is  not  i  - 

of  tl.  in   which  the  word  On 

to  the  author,  i.s  much   laterthan  tl 

'iplcr  term 
faith 

the  meaning  of  the  word  / 

theolo^\,  its  a  -  not   taught  in  the  New 

ment.  .  i  the  absence  of  the 

word. 

In  the  early  C'hristian  church  thi 

.lolniiical    >eii.se    of   ': 
which  rel:  ,.nd  divine  thin 

it  cmplovi  il  at  a  \ciy  ca     . 

•he    natiu-          i 
..-,  a   kind 

tbf    <(>/  il    X 

JiJtii.  i.    1  .   and    th  whidi   II 

that 

0«oXoyia,    whieh   therefore,   in   this   i 

"•    i.    in   11 

.    •   A  '•  tune 

the    word   acij!i  e\ti  nded, 

and  '  .ibethe  whole  teaching  of  the  church 

inity. 
<  4crn  usage  of  the  word,  an  expressed  in 


In  a 


T  H  E 


3-27 


THE 


the  a-ove  definition,  was  first  adopted  by  Peter  Abailard 
•"•.)b.  K42).  who  drew  up  a  system  of  scho'laslic  divinity,  to 
which  he  gave  the  title  of  'Theologia  Christiana.' 

It  should  be  remarked  tliat  instead  of  the  Greek  word 
theol-osy,  the  Latin  \\oiAdit-inify  is  often  used  to  describe 
(he  science  of  religion. 

II.    FOUNDATION'S  OF  THE  SCIENCE. 

Like  every  other  science,  theology  consists  in  the  appli- 
cation of  the  human  reason  to  certain  ascertained  truths. 
These  truths  are.  as  is  plain  from  the  definition,  the  truths 
of  reluiion.     If  therefore  the  existence  of  God,  of  attributes 
•gins:  to  him.  and  of  iclations  subsisting  between  him 
•.ien  aiid  other  beings  can  be  proved,  the  foundations 
of  theology  are  laid.     Now  all  mankind,  with  the  excep- 
>  >f  a  most  insignificant  minority    if  indeed,  which  has 
l>een  doubted,  tl  ce  of  a  real  atheist  be  pos- 

.  believe  either  that    these   subjects   are  within  the 
:d  compass  of  human  knowledge,  or  that  some  kind  of 
revelation  respecting:  these  subjects  has  been  made  by  God 
t.>  men.     [RELIGION  :  REVELATION.]     Therefore,  accord- 
-i  the  general  sense  of  mankind,  theology  is  a  possible 
••e,  founded  upon  knowledge  derived  from  nature,  or 

!ation,  or  from  both  those  souiv 

Now,  it  is  tr  mpts  have  been  sometimes  made 

to  ir-  ••itire'y  out  of  the  religious 

•d  from  natural  sources,  that  is. 

from  the  constitution  of  the  human   mine!,  and  from  the 
phenomena  of  the  mental  and   material  universe, 
truths  constitute  .\,itur<i/  It- I'-finti,  and  form  the  subject 
of  the  science  of  A  .     But  the  vast  ma- 

jority of  religious  systems  are  founded  on  the  supposed 
of  a  divine  revelation  ;  and  for  this  reason  tiie 
ice  of  theology  is  generally  understood,   to   ha\- 

Rflisi'M.      Moreover,  if  it   lie  true 

that  a  divine  revelation  has  been  given  from  God  to  man, 

it  will  follow  that  that  re\  elation  cannot  possibly  be  contia- 

y  to  any  of  the  truths  of  natural  religion  :  also  many 

reasons  might,   be  urged  to  show  that  such  a  revelation, 

i,  would   contain   in  itself  at  least  all  the 

truths  of  natural  reUgion,  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  all  the 

••I  revelations  in  existence  claim  to  teaeli  cverytlung 

which  might  be  learned  from  nature  concerning  God  :  and 

henci-  the  theology  which  is  founded  on   revelation  must 

include  within  itself  the  theology  which    is   founded  on 

natural  religion.     For  this  reason  the  grand  foundation  of 

theologv  is  usually  understood   to  be   rex  elation,  to  which 

.•rion  is  a  valuable  but  not  .  auxiliary  ; 

and  it  has  even  been  disputed  whether  it  is  an  essential 

part  of  a  theologian's  duty  to  establish  the  consistency  be- 

Uie  doctrines  of  natural  and  levelled  religion. 
Hence,  with  reference  to  the  Christian  religion,  theology 
"ided  entirely  upon  the  canonical  books  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament. 

III.    DIVISIONS  OF  THE  SclKNCE. 

1.  With  lefcr.-nce  to  its  foundation,  it  is  divided,  as  ex- 
plained in  the  preceding  paragraph,  into  Xntiinil  and  Ite- 

•••  word  is  used  to  indicate 

lie  foundations  of  revealed  theology  are  the  /'j-jircnncd 
:  God  ;  just  as  we  speak  of  poeitirr  laws. 
The  term  _•//  is  also  used  to  describe  any 

'ii   of  theology  which  rests  upon  authority,   as,   for 
example,  the   system   embodied  in  the  formularies  of  a 
•uliir  church.     See  below,  under  the  head  of  Dog- 
• 

2.  According  to  the  method  of  treating  the  subject,  it;  is 

•nf'tr  or  ln'fjtira/,  and  nyxtonat ic  or  sch<> ' 
theology. 

,'t.  According  to  the  part  of  the  subject  which  is  treated 
i-i  divided  into/.'  Mid  jirnrlinil  theology.    Of 

'•includes — (1)  The  knowledge  of  the    do- 
cuments \\hk-h  contain  the  revelation,  the  proof  of  thieir 
authority,  and  the  explanation  of  their  meaning,  that   is, 
•'•t'lyt/  ;  (2)  the  investigation,  arnuigome  nt, 
ion  of  the  truths  so  revealed,  that  is,  N//.s/<w/,'/,- 
the  workings  and  changes  of  religion  amor  \g 
0    have    pi-ni'e-M-d    it,    or    Hixtorirat    '/'//. 
/'/•"•  has  for  its  subject.*  th>  prac  - 

tical  religion,  and  the  various  modes  of  enforcing  them 
on  r.1  ice  to  the  latter,  it  is  divided  into 

(1)  Hoiniletic*,  or  preaching  ;  i  2)  (Mfchftict,  or  teaching  ; 
(3)  L'iturgict,  or  worship  and  the  administration  of  the 


sacraments,  and  (4)  Pastoral  theology,  or  the  care  and 
government  of  a  church. 

IV.  OF  DOGMATIC  THEOLOGY,  on  DOGMATICS. 

This  is  a  very  useful  term,  which  is  chiefly  employed  by 
German  writers.  It  may  be  defined  as  the  science  of  ex- 
hibiting clearly,  and  of  tracing  to  their  results,  the  doc- 
trines taught  by  revelation.  It  means  more  than  the 
term  systi'imi!  ir  l/i<"ilogy.  The  province  of  the  latter  is 
simpiy  to  give  to  the  scattered  truths  of  revelation  the 
scientific  form  of  a  connected  system,  in  whatever  manner 
may  seem  most  convenient  to  the  framer  of  the  system ; 
but  dogmatic  theology  aims  at  forming  a  system  which 
shall  be  accepted  as  binding  by  a  large  body  of  religion- 
ists, and  then  views  all  religious  truth  in  the  light  of'that 
system:  il  is  systematic  theology,  with  the  idea  of  authority 
snperadded. 

This  ma)r  perhaps  be  made  clearer  by  a  reference  to 
other  blanches  of  science.  The  natural  philosopher,  for 
example,  observes  certain  phenomena.,  which  he  soon  finds 
to  have  in  them  some  points  of  connection  or  similarity  ; 
and  by  arranging  the  phenomena  with  reference  to  those 
points,  he  lias  reduced  his  knowledge  of  natural  philosophy 
to  a  soil  of  system.  He  may  have  been  deceived  in  his 
.  ut ions  :  the  analogies  he  thinks  he  has  detected  may 
not  really  exist :  but  still  the  system  lie  has  framed  may 
be  for  him  a  convenient,  classification  of  the  observed  phe- 
nomena: his  system  is  a  theory.  But  suppose  him  to 
cd  further,  and  to  detect  (in  his  own  opinion)  the 
real  causes  of  the  observed  phenomena,  and  to  trace  them 
to  further  results:  suppose  that  lie  frames  a  system  of 
na'airal  philosophy  upon  the  principles  which  he  has  thus 
detected  :  and  that  this  system  is  received  by  a  number  of 
men  as  furnishing  a  true  explanation  of  the  observed  phe- 
nomena :  then  his  theory  has  gained  the  element,  of  au- 
th':>riti/,  and  it  may  be  called  a  dug/untie  theory.  The. 
former  kind  of  theory  may  serve  as  an  illustration  of  what 
is  meant,  by  xyx/n/iii//.-  'theology;  the  latter,  of  what  is 
m<?ant  by  dnxiiin/ir  I /s eulogy. 

Now,  in  the  case  of  the  Christian  revelation,  it  is  a  re- 
markable fact  that  the  documents  which  contain  it  present 
no  systematic  form.  The  truths  revealed  in  them,  con- 
sidered separately,  may  be  called  (/'igmux,  since  they  all 
contain  the  element  of  authority ;  but  as  they  are  not 
systematically  arranged,  they  do  not  form  a  system  nj 
fogmatic  liii'n/n!;-ii.  But  to  such  a  system  they  might  be 
reduced  by  a  person  who  fully  understood  them  in  all  their 
bearings ;  and  supposing  his  qualifications  for  the  task 
compleic,  his  system  would  be  a  perfect  system  of  dog- 
matics :  absolutely  true  if  the  revelation  were  a  true  one  ; 
and  therefore  absolutely  binding  on  all  who  accepted  the 
revelation  as  true.  Now,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  such  an  at- 
tempt has  been  made  again  and  again:  many  systems  of 
theology  have  been  framed,  each  claiming  to  give  an  ex- 
position of  the  v. ord  of  God  at  once  true  and  scientific. 
It  is  also  a  matter  of  i'act  that  these  systems  have  presented 
different  and  contradictory  results  :  but  many  of  them  have 
been  accepted  as  true  by  bodies  of  Christians;  and  they 
therefore  form,  to  those  who  accept  them,  systems  ofilug- 
I  timlngy :  and  in  many  cases  these  systems  are  em- 
bodied in  creeds,  or  confessions  of  faith,  which  then  become 
for  all  future  time  the  dogmatics,  or  positive  theolog/t.  of 
ho  accept  them. 

It  has  very  naturally  been  usual  for  persons  adopting  a 
system  of  dogmatics  to  look  upon  their  system  not  only  as 
probabh  tree,  but  as  absolutely  true  ;  and  hence  they  have 
given  to  it  the  title  u(  orthodoxy  (jp0o&>Ei'a,  the  right  be- 
lief), apphing  to  every  other  system  the  name  of  hetero- 
,'.."o?i'a,  another  belief.  i.<:  than  the  right  ontl. 
But  it  is  deserving  of  notice  that,  there  are  some  subjects 
upon  which  ii  particular  opinion  has  prevailed  so  exten- 
sively ninongC  'hristians,  that  the  word  orthodoxy  isapplied 
to  that,  opinion,  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  by  persons 
who  do  not  intend  thereby  to  give  their  assent  to  the  abso- 
lute truth  of  that,  opinion.  Such  a  use  of  the  word  is  found 
very  convenient  in  ecclesiastical  history.  [HERESY.] 

Illustrations  of  these  remarks  are  furnished  by  the  man- 
ner in  which  we  commonly  speak  of  the  dogmas  of  the 
Roman  and  English  churches,  of  Calvinistic  and  Arminian 
dogmas,  of  the  orthodox  and  heterodox  doctrines  respect- 
lie  person  of  Christ. 

Out  of  Dogiimtii:  Theology  springs  Coi//ror/'rt.ii't  Then- 
logy,  or  that  mode  of  treating  the  subject  of  religion  in 


T  n  r. 

-  U  defend- 
tarn 

V. 

ad  a 

.if  the   (  !  •  dercd 

tlleo- 

wilhin  it.     Such   11  d   lie. 

ry  of  then'.' 

'iteru- 

ture.     But  the  information  which  would   i  .n  this 

head   will  be   found  for  the  most   part   a 
throi:  •.   to   which 

All  that  will  be  attempted 

point  out  .ul    of 

which  the  prevailiiu 
formed.     Ihe  fiis!   thinir  ' 

In  the  widest  sense  of  the  word   Theoloiry,   including 
both  natural  and  rcvcalc.l  theology,  we  have  amonir  then- 

ns  who  reject   revelation  !'  I  of  i  1     . !' 

or  that  doctiinc  concernimr  God  which  njeets  his 

n  which   t 
that  God  i-  the  Creator  of  till  thinirs,  but  that  havin 

•d  them  and  impressed  upon  them  c.  lor  the 

ation  of  their  future  existence,   commonly  call.'d   the 
.   '.  u  ft   them   tc  eminent   of 

.  rn>  himself  no  more  with  his  ere 

-tein  ackn.'  -tellce 

vvhiel  ;         :'i    by   ackilowledirill!r   the 

ind.    The  8  -m  suppose 

:  an  Almighty  Creator,  whose  existence   is 

,1111111); 
m   according  to  which   the   laws 

lf-e\istent 
of  a!l   the    pin  :  and    there    i-   no 

'ive  princijile  external   to  nature.     This  system 
two  dil'i'ereiit    forms:    .)/"  "Inch    makes   all    Ihe 

phenomena  of  nature  to  result  from  the  ;  n-tiiu- 

tion  of  matter  itself:  and  the  various  shades  M  Pantheism, 
which  suppose  an  intelligent  principle  •n///mu  //nnn/i  to 

.'onnected  with  every  tiling   1ha: 
to  pervade  the  whole  creation. 

There  is  another  system  which  stand.-  apart   both  from 
Naturalism  and  Revelation,  namely 
inir  principle  of  which  is  that  in  m't •• 

in  short   in   all   subjects  which  do  not    admit    of  mathe- 
matical demonstration,  certain'  niable,  and  con- 

•ntly  that  neitli  iture   nor  from  a  MI] 

revel  -ire  reh'.'ious  belief  nor   a 

.i  of  theolo  TILISM.] 

These   sv.-terns    deserve    notice   in   connexion   with    the 

ry  of  theology,  inasmuch  :  late  to  thi 

class  of  subjects  as  those  which  are  embraced  in  tin  • 
and  they  belong  particularly  to   th. 
the' 1 

-  into  direct  collision  with 

tiav.  But  according  to   onrinoi.  I    dcti- 

nition  of  theo'"  -eience  which  is  founded  upon 

a  divine    revelation,   and    moie 

;ect  the   reliirii.  >W  and  Ne'.v 

A  ill  be  found  that  th 

ntt'erent   opinions 
If,    either  with    reference   tn 

the  i  Is  authority  or  to  the  mod  .jirela- 

tion. 

1.  With  reference  to  the  former  point,  '  !ij  if 

thi-  - 
who 

Mi,   and  consequently 

IheoloL'N   r  I'llitteil 

and  unqii.  or  this 

aiith>  iiither  inti' 

.     But   in  . 

• 

e  included  un.! 
'ilium  and  Ant 


•r  H  :•: 

ItatWitaHnn  :   tl  '•   for 


the 

cerniii  >l  mean?; 

but  in  natin 

med,  while  rationalism  (in  the  •   the 

the  Scriptures  as  ponessi 
'•.  _-iee   of  iiutliorilN.  and    ;  i]«m  I  he  v 

the  elcui. 
trut  h. 

-m  and  lation- 

ahsiu  'Hie 

adherents  of  the  former  -\>lcm.  1houi;h  they  di'id 
in;:  the  mode  in  which  supernatural   i  -  con- 

veyed  to  the  minds  of  the  sai •:  i   the 

irreat   priuci]ile  that  they  did  receive  such  information  as 

:i  all   error  in  tl 

ii-ntli.  HatiMiialiM.-,  on  the  other  hand,  cither  : 
the  doi;nia  of  inspiration  altoirether,  or  undei-stand 
nothing  more  than  that  by  the  ordinary  provider 

itural   faculties  of  the  wrii-  ronijht  int 

be   while   they  _-   the 

Si-riptr.res.      (u'llc-rally  sjieaUinL'.  the  ratioii  .t  tlu- 

wriki-s  of  the  Sciiptu 

;    on    the    -  other 

-  could   :v.  .-,  while  r. 

tliemselvcs  the  I  ':nt   they  will    1" 

and  what  they  will  disbelieve,  they  iipon  the  whole  :• 

..:id  opinions  contained  in  the  Sciipturcs  :us  the 
of  their  theology.     [RKVBLATIO!*.] 

There  is  also  a  ilitlerence   bel--.  and 

Ihe  mode  of  intcrprctinir  the  Sciijv 
tnre>:    the  former  holding  that  the  aid  of  the  Spirit  i 
vouchsafed   to  the   hnnible    inquirer  into  mill: 

the   hitler  denyiii'r   the  existence   of  any   other   me. 
understanding  the   Scriptures  than  the   natuia! 
the  human  mind. 

i  he  many  forms  which  rationah- 
durinir  the  last.  almost    iiuli-tr  from 

nf  the  form- of  naturalism.     [1!  ^M.] 

•J.  Sup|)osing  the  Scripture  to  be  recer  My  a 

divine  revelation,  the  questions  arise: — Uy  whom,  and  on 

.:re  the\  to  be  interpreted  '.' 
Thr  tins  point    may  be  called  the 

terns  of  theology.     The  fundamental  principle  of  Ih. 

'.  or  biblical   system   is   that  the  Seriptnri  - 
iuli-i]ireted    by   eaeli   individual    reader  accoidini:   '•• 
ordinary  laws  by  which  the  meaning;  of  any  other  book  is 
•ained;  while  the  Catholic  or  positive  system  sii; 

a  jiositive  moil.  M,  handi  :1 

down  liv  a  tradition  in  the  visible  church  ' 
of  Christianity,  and  foimins  in  :anatic 

tluoloir>.   fiom  which  no  individual  i- at   liberty  to  differ 
oiKin   the  evidence   derived   from   his  own   research. 
taut    theoloiry   may   be   supran. 

is  the  liiiL'ina  of  the 
(liviin  to    the    inquir, 

.  which  may  be  called 
'heoloL'\ .     The  popular  th. 

to  be  derived  fiom  the  obvious  meaning  of  the 
ol 'Scripture,  without   any  i  theo- 

•  1   upon  the   principle   that,  alt 
.  humble  and  diligent  ini|. 
from  the  Bible  it-e!faU  i'eliu:ious  truth  which 
::cccs*ary  for   hi-   safety  that    he   should    I 
yet    that    there   i:,   a   body  of  re  ; 

which  can  only  1  applying  to  itsinteri 

tion  all  th'  M'.-,:l 

!  in  order  to  the  constniction  of 

important   difference   between   I'::-  '    and 

l\  of 

Tin 

•iistnith.    In  many  of  the  autiunt  Chris- 


THE 


329 


THE 


tian  writers  it  recognises  members  of  the  true  church  and 
authorised  teachers  in  it ;  and  therefore  it  regards  the 
doctrines  taught  in  their  writings  as  the  true  doctrines  o: 
Christ.  The  obvious  difficulty  presented  by  the  different 
opinions  of  various  writers  is  removed  in  various  ways. 
Vincent  of  Linns  has  stated  the  Catholic  dogma  in  the 
following  form : — '  That  which  has  been  held  always,  every- 
where, and  by  all,  is  true.'  (Quod  semper,  quod  ubiqiie,  &c.) 
But  who  are  the  all?  All  the  orthodox:  and  it  is  the 
province  of  the  church  to  determine  who  are  orthodox 
and  who  are  heretics  ;  and  if  the  decision  of  the  church 
on  this  point  be  doubtful,  the  appeal  lies  first  to  its  autho- 
rised teachers  individually,  and  then  to  their  collective 
voice  as  given  in  the  decrees  of  a  general  council. 

On  the  other  hand  the  Protestant  system  recognises  in 
the  early  Christian  writers  nothing  more  than  persons  of 
various  degrees  of  ability  and  information,  whose  state- 
ments and  opinions  are  to  be  accepted  or  rejected  entirely 
upon  the  grounds  of  ordinary  criticism,  and  neither  their 
teachings  nor  those  of  any  other  person  whatever  are 
allowed  to  have  any  authority  beyond  that  due  to  their 
intrinsic  worth  and  to  their  agreement  with  Scripture. 

The  application  of  these  principles  to  the  canon  of  Scrip- 
tun'  is  an  important  point  of  difference  between  the  Roman 
Catholic  and  Protestant  systems.  The  former  rests  upon 
the  authority  of  those  books  which  have  been  declared 
canonical  by  the  voice  of  the  church  as  expressed  in  gene- 
ral councils ;  the  latter  looks  to  historical  and  critical  evi- 
dence to  determine  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of 
the  books  of  Scripture,  and  then  it  finds  the  evidence  of 
their  inspiration,  and  consequently  of  their  authority,  in 
the  statements  and  claims  of  the  writers  themselves,  which 
not  merely  on  the  established  honesty  of  the  writers, 
but  chiefly  on  the  attestation  of  the  miracles  they  wrought, 
v  :  MIRACLES.] 

3.  Another  mode  of  interpretation  leads  to  the  systems 
of  theology  which  are  embraced  under  the  name  of  mys- 
tiri\m,  the  irrcat  principle  of  which  is,  that  within  the 
mind  of  the  true  believer  there   exists  a  sense  of  truth 
which  will  always  lead  him  to  a  surer  and  higher  know- 

of  religion  than  he  could  ever  gain  from  his  own 
il    inquiries  or   from   the    teaching   of    other   men. 
r:cs  ;   MYSTICS.] 

4.  To  trace  the  relation  of  one  set  of  truths  to  another, 
and  to  show  the  coincidence  of  the  same  truths  when 
proved  by  different  trains  of  reasoning,  is  one  of  the  high- 
c~t  objects  of  true  philosophy:  and,  on  the  other  hand,  an 
unwillingness  to  renounce  a  cherished  belief  when  it  is 
found  opposed  to  a  newly  discovered  truth,  is  one  of  the 
strongest  tendencies  of  the  human  mind.     Hence  have 
arisen  numerous   theological   systems  according   as   men 
have  brought  the  tenets  of  Judaism,  the  systems  of  heathen 
religion,  and  the  reasonings  of  philosophy,  into  comparison 
with  the  statements  of  the  New  Testament.  From  the  first 
of  these  processes  arose  the  Judaizing  sects  of  the  first  two 
or  three  centuries,  from  the  second  many  of  the  early 

ie»,  such  as  Manichaeism  [HKHF.TICS  ;  MAMCHEES], 
and  from  the  third  the  theology  of  the  New  Platonists  and 
others  of  the  early  Alexandrian  school,  and  that  of  the 
schoolmen  of  fhe  middle  aces. 

.">.  Besides  the  classification,  which  we   have  thus  at- 
tempted, of  systems  of  theology,  according  to  the  funda- 
mental  principles   on  which   they  rest,  there    is  another 
important  division  of  them  according  to  their  actual  dif- 
"s  of  doctrine.    On  this  subject,  for  the  reasons  above 
1,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  several  articles  in  which 
an  account  is  given  of  the  tenets  and  history  of  the  prin- 
cipal doctrinal  sects. 

It  only  remains  to  give  a  slight  sketch  of  the  influence  of 

tin  -.1-  different  systems  in  the  history  of  Christianity.  At  the 

rise  of  Christianity  the  popular   biblical  system  was  that 

which  naturally  prevailed,  with  a  partial  intermixture  of  the 

live  system,  arising  out  of  the  great  deference  always 

paid  to  the  first  teachers  of  a  new  religion  by  their  dis- 

,  and  more  especially  out  of  the  authority  with  which 

the  a  reinvested.    The  novelty  and  simplicity  of 

.a  impressed  its  truths  clearly  on  the  minds  of 

!'u>t  believers,   who  had   no  historical  difficulties  to 

'••nding  sects  to  decide   between,   and   no 

•••:  to  speculate  on  the  ultimate  consequences  of  the 

doctrines  they  received,  or  on  their  relations  to  other  sup- 

l  truths.     If  a  difficulty  arose,  their  teachers  were  at 

-'.he  it.    And  accordingly  the  language  of  the 

P.  C.,  No.  1520. 


apostolic  epistles  invites  the  believers  to  examine  the  truth 
for  themselves  and  to  receive  it  in  its  simplicity,  though  it 
also  gives  hints  of  the  existence  of  a  consistent  system  of 
truth,  and  claims  on  the  part  of  the  apostles  to  be  the 
teachers  of  that  system.  But  they  did  not  teach  it '  a*  o 
system,  and  it  is  only  in  the  later  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, the  writings  of  John  and  some  of  those  of  Paul,  that 
any  tendency  to  reduce  Christian  truth  to  a  system  be- 
comes apparent.  The  degree  of  freedom  thus  left  to  be- 
lievers was  abundantly  used,  and  before  the  close  of  the 
apostolic  age  different  opinions  had  sprung  up,  exempli- 
fying nearly  all  the  principles  above  described.  [HERETICS.] 
To  restore  unity  to  the  church,  and  especially  to  settle  the 
orthodox  doctrine  respecting  the  person  of  Christ,  was  the 
object  of  the  Council  of  Nice,  in  the  creed  of  which  we 
find  the  first  appearance  of  a  system  of  positive  theology. 
[NICE,  COUNCIL  OF;  NICENE  CREED.]  The  immediate 
consequence  of  this  Council  however  was  to  exasperate 
the  very  controversy  which  it  professed  to  settle,  and 
which  continued  to  rage  during  the  following  centuries. 
[ARIANS  ;  NESTORIANS  ;  THEODORETUS.]  These  and  other 
controversies  led  to  the  frequent  meeting  of  councils  [(ECU- 
MENICAL COUNCILS],  and  to  the  settlement  of  the  canon  of 
Scripture  about  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  [CANON]  ; 
while  at  the  same  time  the  episcopal  system  became  more 
and  more  firmly  established;  and  from  all  these  causes 
theology  acquired  more  and  more  the  form  of  a  positive 
system,  the  most  complete  development  of  which  is  pre- 
sented by  the  Greek  and  •  Roman  churches.  [CATHOLIC 
CHURCH;  GREEK  CHURCH.] 

The  positive  system  evidently  leaves  little  liberty  to  the 
speculations  of  an  active  mind,  or  to  the  practice  of  scru- 
pulous or  turbulent  individuals.  Those  of  the  former  class 
sought  for  satisfaction  in  the  scholastic  philosophy ;  those 
of  the  latter  made  repeated  attacks  on  the  ruling  system, 
which  at  last  produced  the  Reformation  in  Germany  and 
England.  The  scholastic  philosophy  was  at  its  height  from 
the  llth  century  to  the  14th.  It  was  for  the  most  part  a 
revival  of  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle.  The  schoolmen 
were  in  profession  firm  believers  of  the  Catholic  doctrine, 
and  generally  succeeded  in  gaining  rather  praise  than 
censure  from  the  rulers  of  the  church.  But  within  the 
limits  thus  prescribed  for  them  they  pushed  the  application 
of  their  philosophy  to  theology  to  the  utmost  extent,  and 
occupied  themselves  especially  with  the  most  subtle  ques- 
tions on  the  nature  of  God  and  angels,  and  on  points  of 
casuistry. 

The  Reformation  was  far  from  abolishing  the  positive, 
system  in  Protestant  countries.  To  hold  their  ground 
against  the  power  of  the  church  of  Rome,  the  reformed 
churches  strove  to  make  for  themselves  a  visible  and  uni- 
ted constitution,  and  for  this  purpose  they  adopted  symbols 
of  faith  and  worship,  which  constituted  for  them  respect- 
ively bodies  of  positive  theology.  The  various  dissenters 
from  these  reformed  churches,  though  generally  leaving 
them  on  the  ground  that  their  theology  was  not  purely 
Protestant,  still  preserved  much  that  was  positive  in  their 
theology,  either  by  a  tacit  consent  or  by  a  formal  confes- 
sion of  "faith.  And  thus  it  has  happened  that,  to  the  pre- 
sent day,  theology  is  far  less  a  system  based  upon  and  con- 
tinuing to  challenge  scientific  inquiry,  than  the  exposition 
of  a  body  of  positive  law. 

Still  there  have  always  arisen  individuals  and  parties 
who  have  claimed  for  themselves  the  utmost  latitude  of 
that  right  of  private  judgment  which  is  the  basis  of  the 
Protestant  principle.  Since  the  Reformation  there  has 
always  existed,  especially  in  England,  a  large  amount  of 
biblical  theology,  which  has  been  chiefly  of  the  popular 
school,  but  which,  since  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  has 
continually  gained  more  and  more  of  the  critical  element, 
both  here,  and  still  more  in  Germany  ;  and  it  may  be  now 
safely  affirmed,  that  with  an  admixture  of  the  mystic:U 
theology,  the  adherents  of  which  have  always  formed  a 
considerable  minority  among  Christians,  the  prevailing 
theological  systems  of  the  present  day  are  the  catholic  and 
the  critical. 

It  would  be  impossible  within  the  limits  of  this  article 
to  give  a  list  of  even  the  best  writers  on  theology.  The 
following  are  taken  at  random  as  among  the  best,  and  as 
directing  to  other  sources  of  information.  The  '  Institutes' 
of  Calvin  ;  the  works  of  Turretin,  Maestricht,  Pictet,  Dod- 
dridge,  Bishop  Watson,  Richard  Watson,  Dwight,  Ernesti, 
Bertholdt,  Schleiermacher,  Bretschneider,  Nitzsch,  and 

VOL.  XXIV.— 2  U 


r  it  i. 


T    i: 


„(!-.,  ,     ,  c,  ;.:(,.  rrnan  .-..i:.:-,   :  n  mg  v.lm-h  u:a\    he   i -;u 

.:  been  u-  ompoation 

.   Ckrittlichtn  Glau- 

TIlEON.'an  eminent  Greek  painter,  who  was  a  i. 

.uid  appears  to  have  lived  in  tin-  time  of  Philip 
and  Alexander  of  Macedonia.    He  wan  reckoned  • 
the  fin*  matter*  of  his  age.  on  account  of  his  po.- 
invention  and  tin-  gracefulness  of  his  execution.     iQuinc- 
tilian,  \ii.  10.  (i.       We  know  the  subjects  of  only  a  ; 

hut  the  execution  is  spoken  of  in  such  a  man- 
ner th:it  tin  excellence  of  the  artist  c;umot  he  doubted. 
Plim  ID;  }  40)  mentions  two  of  them, 

1he  01  [  killing  his  mo- 

ther i compare  Plutarch,  De  Audteiidi*  /'..«,'..  p.  18,  ed. 
Frank)'.),  and  the  other  Thamyris  playing  the  cithara.  A 
iption  of  a  splendid  painting  by  Theon  representing 
a  youthful  warrior,  who.  animated  by  a  martial  spirit  and 
eager  to  light,  is  hastening  to  meet  the  enemy,  is  given  by 

TIIKON.  AKLIUS,  a  rhetorician  and   grammarian  of 

Alexandria,  who.  according  to  some  critics,  lived  about 

-K),  but.  accordine  to  u  more  probable  opinion,  about 

A.D.  315.     According  to  Simla*  he  wrote  a  commentary  on 

jihon,  on  tin1  orations  of  Demosthenes  ain! 
a  work  on  rhetoric,  one  on  the  structure  of  lanirna:: 
gymnasmata,  and  several  other  books.   With  th, 
oi'  the   ProtrvmnasmataCirpoyv/JvoV/wtra),  <<  rules 

on  rhetoric,  derived  from  the  examples  of  the  best  Greek 
orators,  there  is  no  work  extant  that  can  be  ascribed  to  him 
with  certainty.  Theon's  Proeymnasmata  excel  those  of  Aph- 
thonius  in  elegance,  precision,  and  clearness,  and  were,  like 
those  of  Aphthonius,  lone  used  as  a  text-book  in  schools. 
The  first  edition  appeared  a'  Home.  1520,  4to.  ;  that  of 
D.  Heinsius  at  Leyden,  1G26,  8vo.  Schcncr's  edition 
sala,  1G70  and  1C80,  is  incorrect.  The  liest  edition  of  the 

accompanied  by  Greek  scholia,  is  in  Walz's  •  Kh< 
Graeci,'  vol.  i.,  p.  L4&-262. 

Kustcr  (.on  Suidas,  ii.,  p.  1K2)  ascribes  to  Tlieon  also  the 
still  extant  scholia  on  Aratus,  Apollonius  lihodius.  Lyco- 
phron,  and  Tlieocritvis.  The  iirioroXiicoi  ri'iirot  which  are 
contained  in  Aldus's  and  Cujacius's  collections  of  ep 
are  likewise  attributed  bv  some  writers  to  Thcon,  while 
others  assign  them  to  Libanins  or  Proclus.  A  separate 
edition  of  them  appeared  at  Leyden,  1014,  12mo. 

A.  \YcsU-rmann,  Geachichte  der  Grurh.  Btredtvmktit, 

THEON.  Theon.  the  Elder,  of  Smyrna,  was  the  con- 
temporary of  Ptolemy  (who  cites  one  of  his  observations  . 
but  a  little  older.  Ihcori,  the  Younger,  of  Alexandria,  the 
commentator  on  Ptolemy,  and  father  of  Hypatia,  lived  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  fourth  century. 

<  )f  Theon  the  Klder,  or  Theon  of  Smyrna,  we  know  no- 
thing but  that  he  was  a  follower  of  Plato,  and  has  left  a 
work  entitled  TUIV  icard  /taOri/ianici/v  xp1ff'V"1"'  "'<•"  T'lv  r<"~ 
nXfirwvof  dvaywuffiv,  or,  on  the  parts  of  mathematics  which 
are  useful  towards  a  knowledge  of  Plato.  Other  works 
have  been  mentioned  written  by  some  Theon  i  there  are 
many  of  this  name;,  hut  they  are  lost.  This  worl 

:  of  four  parts,  treating  on  arithmetic,  music,  astro- 
nomy, and  the  harmony  of  the  universe  (jrtpi  TF;C  tv  unaptf 
apfioriat).  Bouillaud  (Gr.  Lat.,  Paris,  4to,  1044)  published 
the  first  two  of  thc.-e  paits.  or  what  he  found  of  them. 
from  a  manuscript  which  came  from  De  Thou's  hi 

ier    With    ' 

thud,  from  the  K  Kaac  Voisius  assured  IJonil- 

land  that  the  th  md  in  tin     ', 

library  at  Milan,    but   it  hits  never  apix 

1--J7    pulilishcd'the  arithmetic,  with  ample  notes  anil  dis- 

Of  the  private  life  of  fheon  the  Younger  (who  w. 
a  Platonist  ,  we  know  nothing,  except  that  he  professed  the 
which  led  to  the  nu  i. 
.D.  41.")  .  a  eiime  which  will  . 
disgust  and  indignation  to  the  end  of  time.     The  w, 

•lastical  histoiian  Snciatc-.  from  \\'elU's  tiansla 

ie  Latin  of  Vale-ms    Hi  iirv  of 
at  follows ;  nnd  his  simple  raa'i 

which  it  was  so  nni' 

rest  of  hii  party  to  or  at  least  to  soften,  i 

have  been  a  lewon  to  Ins  successors  in  the  task  of  writing 
BMorjr :    •  There  wa»  a  woman  at  Alexandria  by  name 


~,  and 
itinus, 

-i  who 
Mudi- 


i  The 
She  liad  arrived  to  bo 

1  all  the   phili- 
in  that   1' 

and  expounded  all  11" 
would  hear  her.     \V! 
ous  about  plulooop! 
reason 

sion  where  i  i  accomplished 

inn.  she  addrcsM'tl  freijucntly  even  to  the  magis' 

'ilar  mode-'  1  of  appi 

in  a  public  aasemhly  of  men,  for  all   persona  r- 
r  for    lu-r  c\in:i 

aan  at  that  time.     For,  In 

had    frequent    conferences    with    On>t<s,'    the    prelect  of 
Alexandria,  '  for  this  reason  a  calumn  nin&t 

her  among  the  ('1m- 

s  from  coming  to  a  reconciliation  with  the  M- 
Certain  persons  therefore,  of  fierce  and  over-hot  minds,  who 
were  headed  by  one  Peter,  a  reader,  • 
woman,  and  observed  her  returning  home  from  sonic  place  ; 
and  having  pulled  her  out  of  her  chariot,  11. 
her  to  the  church  named  Cn-siircum,  v, In  n 
her   and   murdered    her  with  shells,'  or  broken  croc 
•  And  when  they  had  torn  her  piecemeal,  they  carri< 
her  members  to  a   place  called   Cinaron  and  consumed 
them    with   fire.     This   fact   brought    no   small 
upon   Cyrillus,'   the    bishop  [CYRIL],  'and   tin 
drian   church.'     Dama-cius     the    author   of   the   I.i 
Isidore,    in    Phot  his,   says,  that  Hypatia    , 
this  Isidore,  and  that   I'vrillus  was  the   instigator  of  the 
murderers.  Some  particulars  arc  added  in  s 
who  states  that  Hypatia  was  beautiful,   and  adds  an  e 
dote  which  it  is  not  desirable  to  repeat,  but  which,  if  true, 
entitles  her  to  be  called  the   most   .singularly  straight-for- 
ward of  women.    He  says  she  wrote  commentaries  on  Dio- 
phantus,  and  the  Conies  of  Apollonius,  and  also  an  astro- 
nomical canon.     A  fuller  account  of  her  may  be  found  in 
Menage's  '  Lives  of  the  Female  Phil. 

•on  of  Alexandria  is  known  as  the   commentator  of 
Ptolemy  and  the  editor  of  Kuclid.    There  is  a  commentary 
on  Aratus  which  is  said  to  have  been   his,   but   > 
of  opinion  that  it  is  the  work  of  several  hands,  for  which 
he  gives  good  reasons.    The  whole  of  the  commentary  on 

ntaxis  is  preserved,  except  one  or  two 
lull  account  of  it  isiriveii  in  Dclambre's  Hi-toi\  of  Antiont 
Astronomy,  who  that  it  helps  but  little  in  the 

-landing  of  the  Syntaxis,  and   give-  that 

additional  information  which  is  usii::  d  from  a 

commentator.      This   commentary   was   t'u>t    printed    in 
(!reck.  in  the  Basle  edition  of  Ptolemy  :  l.'iiw.    [Sv 
PTOLEMAIC.]     J.  Baptist  Porta  published  two  books 
(.Latin.   Naples,    first   book    l.")SS.    first    and    second    , 
and  Ilalma  gave  an  edition  of  these   same   hi" 
and  French,  Paris.  1821,  2  vol*.  4to.).     Besides  the  com- 
mentary, we  have  the  navnvis  Tpox'f""-  or  manual  t 
described   by  Delambre  from  the  manuscript. 

(Jreek  and  French.  Pans.  Is-J-J  . 
•criplion   of  the   HUH! 
astronomical  calculation  in  use  at  the  time. 

It  only  remains  to  speak  of  Theon  as  a  commentator  on 
Kuclid,  a  character  which  some  ^ill  j><T-i-4  in  giving  him. 
.  that  Thcon,  as  ho  himself  in  ;  the 

eomni,  .Mi-lid,  with 

here  and  there  an  additional  proposition.  [(. 
p.  I").").]  Some  manuscript*  of  Kuclid  call  th 
mentarv.  and  our  fathers  of  the  middl. 

that  nil  thr  ilfmnnnlrntiniix    wire    commentaries   supplied 
by  Thcon,  only  the  enunciations  of  tl 
Kuelid's.    For  instance,  in  the  folio  of  1511, 
which  the  propositions  are  given  twice,  na: 
translation  i  called  Campanus's)  from  the  Arabic,  and/am- 
from  the  Cireek.   m  this  work  the   enunciations  are 

.  but. 

-'la'i'ius   a 
Again,  in  '  I  i|'  ii  di 

le.di  Greco  tradotti  in  Lingua  Th  'me,  1515. 

we  finil  nothing  but  the  ci  of  the  pi 

ft  hi-  '  'i  all  he  believed  to 

demonstrations,  his 
title  would  have  been  •  Kudid.  w  n  Ii  Thei  m's  i  'onnneii- 

:.nclid  in   (ireek   and 
IMVC  the.  cnun-  K,  a  necessary 


T  H  E 


331 


THE 


warning  to  a  person  who  wishes  to  buy  Euclid  in  the  ori- 
ginal. Hence  arises  the  pertinacious  continuance  of  the 
assertion  that  Theon  commented  Euclid :  so  late  as  the 
article  '  Theon '  in  the  '  Biographie  Universelle,'  we  fine 
this  statement  made ;  and  even  more,  namely,  that  the 
commentary  by  Theon  was  published  at  the  end  of  the 
Basle  edition  of  1533,  in  Greek,  that  it  was  translated  into 
Latin  by  Commandine,  and  has  been  often  republished 
Any  one  who  looks  into  the  Basle  edition  will  see  that  the 
commentary  at  the  end  is  by  Proclus,  not  by  Theon. 

Robert  Simson,  and  other  editors  who  alter  according  to 
their  own  ideas  of  perfection,  and  then  swear  that  they 
have  restored  Euclid,  always  lay  the  blame  of  the  sup- 
posed alterations  upon  Theon  :  Simson's phrase  is,  'Theon, 
or  some  unskilful  commentator.'  There  is  no  reason  to 
suppose  that  Theon  altered  Euclid :  all  that  is  known  is, 
that  he  added  occasionally,  and,  if  we  look  at  those  addi- 
tions which  it  is  certain  he  made,  judiciously. 

THEO'PHAN'ES.  a  native  of  Mitylene,  was  a  contem- 
porary and  friend  of  Pompey  the  Great.  During  the  war 
betwe'en  Rome  and  Mithridates,  when  the  Mitylenseans 
supported  the  king  and  delivered  up  to  him  the  Roman 
general  JManius  Aquilius,  Theophanes,  who  refused  to  take 
any  part  in  the  revolt,  was  expelled,  and  went  to  the  camp 
of  Sulla.  (Velleius  Pat.,  ii.  18.)  In  Italy  Theophanes  be- 
came acquainted  with  Pompey,  formed  an  intimate  friend- 
ship with  him,  and  henceforth  accompanied  him  in  all  his 
expeditions.  After  the  termination  of  the  war  against  Mi- 
thridates. Theophanes  endeavoured  to  perpetuate  the  ex- 
ploits of  his  friend.  His  history,  which  is  now  lost,  appears 
to  have  been  a  work  of  no  mean  order,  for  Strabo  calls 
Theophanes  the  most  distinguished  Greek  of  his  age.  Al- 
though he  is  not  charged  with  having  sacrificed  the 
truth,  yet  he  was  undoubtedly  anxious  to  w  ip*  off'  any  stain 
that  was  attached  to  the  family  of  his  friend.  Pompey  is 
said  to  have  been  so  delighted  with  the  performance,  that 
he  procured  Theophanes  the  rights  of  a  Roman  citizen. 
(Cicero,  Pro  Archia,  10.)  Although  Theophanes  had  been 
••I  from  Mitylene,  he  bore  no  sriiidge  against  his 
country,  and  on  the  return  of  Pompey  from  Asia  he 
availed  himself  of  his  influence  with  the  conqueror,  and 
induced  him  to  restore  to  the  Lesbians  their  liberty  and 
the  privileges  of  which  they  had  been  deprived  tor  having 
supported  the  king  of  Pontus.  In  B.C.  59  Theophanes 
was  sent  by  the  senate  of  Rome  as  ambassador  to  Ptole- 
marus  Auh-tes  of  Egypt,  to  carry  to  him  the  decree  of  the 
senate,  which  guaranteed  him  the  nty  of  his 

country.  His  conduct  on  this  mission  is  blamed,  because 
he  is  said  to  have  endeavoured  to  direct  events  according 
to  the  secret  wishes  of  Pompey.  During  the  civil  war 
Theophanes  continued  faithful  to  his  friend,  and  supported 
him  with  his  advice,  and  it  was  on  his  well-meant,  sug- 
u  that  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalus  Pompey  fled  to 
!,  where  he  was  murdered.  After  this  event  Theo- 
phanes returned  to  Rome,  where  he  appears  to  have  spent 
the  last  years  of  his  life  in  retirement.  After  his  death 
tbe  Letbiani  paid  divine  honours  to  his  memory  for  the 
benefits  which  he  had  conferred  upon  them.  His  son,  M. 
Pompi  IMS  Marer,  held  the  office  of  praetor  in  the  time  of 
Augustus,  and  was  afterwards  appointed  governor  of  Asia ; 
but  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius  he  and  his  daughter  put  an 
end  to  their  own  lives,  in  order  to  avoid  the  punishment 
of  exile  to  which  they  had  been  condemned. 

Theophanes  was  the  author  of  several  works,  both  in 
pnw  and  in  verse,  but  very  little  of  them  has  come  down 
to  us.  Plutarch's  Life  of  Pompey  is  chiefly  based  on  the 
historical  work  of  Theophanes,  and  we  may  thus  possess 
more  of  it  than  we  are  aware ;  but  besides  this  we  have 
four  or  five  fragments  of  it  in  Strabo,  Plutarch,  and  Sto- 
5.  The  '  Anthologia  Graeca'  (xv.,  n.  14  and  35)  con- 
tains two  epigrams  of  Theophanes,  and  Diogenes  Laer- 
tiiis  ii.  104)  mentions  a  work  of  his  on  painting,  but  of  its 
nature  and  contents  nothing  is  known. 

in,  in  the  Memoires  de  FAcadtmie  des  Inscriptions 
rf  it,-!!,  t-Lettren,  vol.  xiv.,  p.  143,  Sec.) 
THKO'I'H  \\KS  NOXNUS.     [NoxNUs.] 
THKOTHILUS,  a  Constantinopolitan  jurist,  who  lived 
in  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Justinian  f  A..D.  527-565).    He 
was  a  distinguished  teacher  of  jurisprudence  at  Constan- 
tinople |  antecessor),  and,  at  the  command  of  the  emperor, 
he  was  employed  among  those  who  compiled  the  '  Digest ;' 
and  afterwards  he  undertook,  along  with  Dorotheus  and 
Tribonian,  to  compose  the  '  Institutes,'  that  is,  the  elemen- 


tary treatise  on  jurisprudence,  which  was  part  of  Justinian's 
plan.  This  Theophilus  is  generally  supposed  to  be  the 
author  of  the  Greek  paraphrase  of  the  '  Institutes,'  though 
it  is  maintained  that  the  paraphrase  is  not  the  work  of 
Theophilus  himself,  but  was  taken  down  from  his  lectures 
by  some  pupils.  It  was  discovered  'in  the  beginning  of 
the  sixteenth  century  by  Viglius  ab  Aytta  Zuichemius  at 
Louvain,  who  published  and  dedicated  it  to  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  (Basle,  1534,  fol.).  The  work  was  frequently 
reprinted  during  the  same  century,  but  the  last  and  best 
edition  is  that  of  W.  O.  Reitz,  in  2  vols.  4to.,  Hagse,  1751. 
It  contains  a  Latin  translation  and  the  notes  of  previous 
editors,  together  with  those  of  Reitz  ;  and  also  a  very  in- 
teresting dissertation  on  the  obscure  and  much  disputed 
history  of  Theophilus.  Theophilus  also  wrote  a  commentary 
on  the  first  three  parts  of  the  '  Digest,'  which  however  is 
now  lost,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  fragments  which  are 
incorporated  in  Reitz's  edition  of  the  '  Paraphrase  of  the 
Institutes.'  The  value  of  the  paraphrase  of  Theophilus  in 
establishing  the  text  of  the  '  Institutes '  may  be  estimated 
by  an  examination  of  the  edition  of  the  '  Institutes '  of 
Gains  and  Justinian  by  Klenze  and  Bucking,  Berlin,  1829. 
t'l/ix/itiitinnum  D.  Justiniani  Sacrat.  Princip.  Proae- 
mium ;  P.  B.  Degen,  Bemerkungen  iiber  das  Zeitalter  des 
Theophilas,  Liineburg,  1808,  8vo. ;  Zimmern,  Geschichte 
des  Rom.  Priratrechts.) 

THEO'PHILUS  PROTOSPATHA'RIUS  (Geo^Xoc  npw- 
ro<rW0apioc),  the  author  of  several  Greek  medical  works, 
which  are  still  extant,  and  some  of  which  go  under  the 
name  of  '  Philotheus '  and  '  Philaretus.'  Everything  con- 
nected with  his  name,  his  titles,  the  events  of  his  life,  and 
the  time  when  he  lived,  is  uncertain.  He  is  generally 
styled '  Protospat  harius,'  which  seems  to  have  been  originally 
a  military  title  given  to  the  colonel  of  the  bodyguard  of 
the  emperor  of  Constantinople  (Spatharii,  or  vuifiaToiptiXaKts). 
Afterwards  however  it  became  also  a  civil  dignity,  or  at 
any  rate  it  was  associated  with  the  government  of  provinces 
and  the  functions  of  a  judge  ;  they  possessed  great  au- 
thority, and  were  reckoned  among  the  Magnifici.  (Further 
information  respecting  this  office  may  be  found  in  Brisson, 
De  Verb.  Sign//. ;  Calvinus,  Lex  Jurid. ;  Du  Cange,  Gloss. 
Mfd.  el  Inf.  Graecit. :  id.,  Gloss.  Med.  et  Inf.  Latinit.  ; 
Carpentier,  Gloss.  Nov.  ad  Script.  Med.  Aevi;  Goat, 
Note  on  Georg.  Codin.,  p.  29  ;  Guidot,  Note  on  Theoph., 
De  Urin.,  pp.  142,  143,  145;  Meursius,  Gloss.  Graeco- 
Barb.;  Prateius,  Lex  Juris  Civ.  et  Canon.;  Suicer, 
Thes.  Eecles.}  In  some  manuscripts  however  he  is 
called  '  Philosophus'  (Lam\)ec.,Biblioth.  Vindob.,  lib.  vii., 
p.  3;V>,  ed.  Kollar.)  ;  in  others,  '  Monachus'  (id.,  Ibid.,  lib. 
vi.,  p.  244,  494);  '' Archiater'  (Codd.  MSS.  Theoph.  De 
Puls.  ap.  Ermerins,  Anecd.  Med.  Gr.) ;  or  'latrosophista' 
('larpotro^ioroO  viol  Ovpuv,  ed.  Fed.  Morell.,  Paris,  1608, 
12mo.) 

Of  his  personal  history  we  are  told  nothing :  if,  as  is 
generally  done,  we  trust  the  titles  of  the  manuscripts  of  his 
works,  and  so  try  to  learn  the  events  of  his  life,  we  may 
conjecture  that  he  lived  in  the  seventh  century  after 
Christ ;  that  he  was  the  tutor  of  Stephanus  Atheniensis 
(Lambec.,  Ibid.,  lib.  vi.,  pp.  198,  223  492 ;  lib.  vii.,  p.  352), 
who  dedicated  his  work,  '  De  Chrysopoeia,'  to  the  emperor 
Heraclius  (Fabricius,  Biblioth.Gnxca,yo\.  xii.,  p.  695,  ed. 
vet.) ;  that  he  arrived  at  high  professional  and  political 
rank,  and  that  at  last  he  embraced  thu  monastic  life.  It 
must  however  be  confessed  that  all  this  is  quite  uncertain, 
for,  in  the  first  place,  Freind,  in  his  '  History  of  Physic' 
(Opera,  pp.  448,  449,  ed.  Lond.,  1733),  after  remarking 
bow  little  credit  is  sometimes  due  to  the  titles  prefixed  to 
manuscripts,  doubts  whether  Theophilus  was  ever  tutor  to 
Stephanus,  and  thinks,  from  the  barbarous  words  that  he 
makes  use  of  (such  as  ipta'\iov,  <rro/iofiaVi«:ov,  De  Corp.  Hum. 
Fubr.,  p.  177, 1.  1,  2,  ed.  Oxon. ;  iirox'l,  rpdva,  Ibid.,  p.  181, 
!.  11,  12;  avaKia,  Ibid.,  p.  193,  1.  11 ;  xvf*vn>  iif^ftfaanc, 
De  Urin.,  c.  6,  p.  266,  1.  34,  ed.  Ideler),  that  he  probably 
ived  later.  And,  secondly,  even  if  Theophilus  was  the 
;utor  of  a  person  named  Stephanus,  still  it  seems  probable 
;hat  this  was  not  the  alchemist  of  that  name.  [STEPHANUS 
ATHKMKXSIS.]  His  date  is  equally  uncertain.  Some  per- 
sons ('  Chronologia  inconsulta,'  as  Fabricius  says,  Biblioth. 
Greeca,  vol.  xii.,  p.  (i48  n.,  ed.  vet.)  think  he  was  the  per- 
son mentioned  by  St.  Luke  ;  others  place  him  as  early  as 
;he  second  century  after  Christ,  and  others  again  as  late  as 
;he  twelfth.  He  is  generally  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the 
ime  of  the  emperor  Heraclius,  who  reigned  from  A.D.  G10 

2U  2 


I    II  E 


,  i  r. 


to  C41  :  1'ut  this  opinion  rest*  only  on  tin-  •  <l  Ins 

having  been  the  tutor  oi'  Stephamis  Athcn: 

inor  thinks,  I'roin  the  barbarous  words  qi> 

.  l>o  the  same  person  who  it  addressed  I 
l.j  tin-  title  ProtMnothariu*  •   In  1':  j.t,  ji. 

:    who  then-Ion-    must 

:ived  in  tin-  ninlli  century  .  a  Christum,  anil  , 

a  ma  a>  appears  from  almost   all    hi-  v.ni- 

in  his  phy  '.vhere  I 

,•.  ith  admiration  the  wisdom.  pov.  • 

of  (iod  a-i  displayed  in  the   human   body.  Cur/i. 

linn,  f-ihr.,  pp.'l.  .  27,   I.'-:*.   I*"'.  -7J  :  1>,   I  r,n., 

e.  in.  p.  'J7:>:   c.  ii.  p.  '.Xf  :   /• 

,M   line.    p.  T7        11.     :<\'\ 

l  hf  Peripatetic  philosophy. 
PP.  2.  :i.  -I. 
.•i'.    tu    riiil 


.•i'.    tu    riiilut!..  nl.   in  Hijipocr. 


Five  n:  ;  main,  of  which  the  longest  and  most 

•i  anatomical  and  physiological  treat  is,-.  in 

iHH>ks,  ClltitU-ll     Ili.ii  rf;,;  T.H'  '.\l-IW<!l"jl'  Kfiruirnvqc,   De 

l-'ilirii-n.       It    contains  MTV   h'l 
it  i,  almost  entirely  noni  Galen's 

l)e  Usu  Partium  Corpon.s  Huinar.i,'  lYoni 
whom  however  he  now  and  then  differs,  anil  whom  he  somc- 
appears  to  have  misunderstood.  In  the  fifth  book 
lie  has  hiseited  large  extiarts  I'roin  Hippocrates.  •  De  Ge- 
nituia,'  and  •  l)e  Natura  Pueri.'  He  recommends  in  - 
places  the  dissection  of  animals,  but  appears  never  to 
have  examined  a  human  foody  :  in  one  passage  he  advises 

•  ulcnt  In  dUsect  an  ape.'or  else  a  hear.  or.  if  neither 
of  these1  animals  can  be  procured,  to  take  whatever  he  can 

•hut   by  all  means,'  adds  he.  '  let    him  dissect   Mime- 

thing.'     The  work  wa-  first  translated  into  Latin  by  J.  P. 

..nd   published   at    Venice.    \:>'M'>.  Svo..  together 

with  Hip;  ;ifoiis  Medieanientis.'     This 

iation  was  freimentlv  reprinted,  and  is  inserted 
phens  in  Ins  '  MedicM  Artis  Principcs,'  Paris, 
l'"ii;~.  fol.  The  mamiscript  from  which  Crassu.s  made  his 
translation  is  probably  lost  :  but,  though  <lefecti\e.  it  was 
more  complete  than  that  which  was  used  by  Guil.  Aforell 
in  editing  the  original  text,  which  was  published  at  Paris, 
l.V>.~>,  s\o..  in  aveiy  beautiful  type,  but  without  preface  or 
notes.  This  edition  is  now  become  scarce,  and  was  re- 
printed. together  with  Orassus's  translation,  by  Fabric-ins, 
in  the  twelfth  volume  of  his  '  Bifolioth.  Grwca,"  ]).  7*'i,  sq.. 
Ilainb.,  1724  and  1740.  Two  long  passages  which  were 
missing  in  the  tourth  and  filth  books  were  copied  from  a 
manuscript  at  Venice,  and  inserted  by  Andr.  Mustoxydes 
and  Denietr.  Sehinas  in  their  collection  entitled  SvXXoyi; 
'AiroffiraofiaTiitv  'Avjrtorwv  'E\\tjvtK*av  fif.rd  ~tifitti^vtnii',  Ve- 
..  The  last  and  best  edition  of  this  work  is 
that  In  Dr.  Greenhill,  which  has  lately  been  print  id  at 
the  Oxford  University  press,  Gr.  and  I.at.,  Kvo.,  1842. 
The  ,  -  in  the  preface  that  he  hits  taken  as  the 

basis  of  his  edition  the  manuscript  at  Venice  mentioned 
above,  as  being  more  complete  than  any  other  that  he  had 
met  with  ;  that  three  other  manuscripts  at  Paris  have  been 

ted;  that  several  passages  have  been  corrected  by 

ling  to  the  original  parts  of  Galen  and  Hippocrates 
from  which  they  were  copied  ;  that  Crassus's  Latin  version 
has  been  retained,  as  representing  the  readings  of  a  manu- 
script nu  longer  in  existence  ;  and  that  the  notes  are  in- 
tend. !.)  illustrate  and  explain  the  Creek  techni- 

cal terms,  than  to  correct  all  the  anatomical  errors  and 
supply  the  deficiencies  of  the  author. 

•her  of  the  works  of  Theophilus  is  entitled  'Vs-ii/t-  | 
vijfia  «iV  riirc  'iTiorpa'roi'C  'A0o(n  •  .urn/aril  in  Iliji- 

jjorrttli\  Ajihiinxinnx,  which   also  seems  to  be  taken   in  :i 
m.-asurc    from   Galen's  Commentary   on    the    same 
work.     It  was  first  published  in  a  Latin  translation  by 
Ludov.  Coradus,  at  Venice,  I.~>1!>.  Hvo.,  under  the   name 
of  '  Philotheus.'      The  Greek  text   appeared   for  the  first 
in  the  second  volume  of  F.  U.  Hi.  !ia  in 

Hippocratem  et  Galenum,'  Kcgim.  Prnss..  H\o..  1KW. 

-r.  iiipi  Oi'puv.  /'«•  I  Unix,  contains  little  or 
nothing  that  is  original,  but  is  a  good  compendium  of 
what  was  known  by  the  antients  on  the  subject,  and 

4Ini>ul..lM,p.292.b.l.c»ll<!d'A<TiraO(;ploc,l,,1Ulii.i>iiirnr]y»mUu>.,. 
of  UM  traiuerlhn,  ud  mmu>  IIpuToirraOa'pioc  ;  far  I  hi  I'angK  t«IU  us 
•OltH.  1M.  n  /./.  '  irpwroc)  Uul  Uu  word  Jrpiirof,  »  )„  „ 

tn«ud  to  Utlo..  ud  .if  nifj  inn  DM  Int  or  ohtef.  U  gpn»rally  npmwd  In 
•MWrifU  bylhi  kttota,  with  .  •bort  line  .bo.c  II,  ihui  a. 


was  hi^hlv  ages.      It  first  ap- 

.   tor   I'oiii 
N'lriiiiius   MT   \ 'minus  ,   in  dilions   of   the 

uon    known    by  the    name  of   the   '  Articella.'       It 

was  fir>t    published    in  a  «-par.,  I .">:{.'(. 

8vo.,    tian-lated    b\    Alba:.  .'tlier    with    the 

'e   Pnlsilnis;'    and    li  reprinted 

-u>.,  and  n  II.  Stephens  i;i 

his  •  M  tin  IVmcipes.'     The  Greek  text  was   pub- 

lished   without   the   name   of  Theophilus,  under  tin 

Mac  de  I'nnis  Liber   Sinirulans,'  N;c.,  at    i 
1008,  rjino..  with  a  new  Latin  tian.slation  by  l-'cd.  Morell. 
which  edition  was  inserted  entire  In  I  'hartier  m  the  eighth 
\ohmie    of  his   edition   of  the  wo.ks   o|    Hippocnites  and 

.     The  best    edition   is  that  by  Thorn.  Guidot,  Luird. 
Hat.,  17<>:».  HVO..GI-.  and  Lat.  :   and  airain  with  a  new  title- 
17:11.      The  text    is  much  improved  by  adopting  the 
readiiiL's  of  a  manuscript  in  the  Hodleian  Liliiary  at  Dxlord  : 
there  is  a  new  Latin  \ersion  by  t  ;.ioiis 

and  learned  prolegomena  and  notes.     Th.  '  only, 

from  Guidot  s  edition,   is  inserted  by  .1.    L.   Ideler  in    hi.s 
•  Physici  et  Medici  (iiaeri  Minorca,' Berol.,  Isll. 
A    short    treatise,    il<pi   Aioxupq/iaruf, 

'i-i/iix.  was  fust   publ.-  .niilot,  in  (ireek.  with 

a  Latin  t . anslatuin  by  himself,  at  the  end  of  the  edition 
'  I).-  I'nnis'  mentioned  above  :  the  (ire. -I,  text  alone  is  in- 
serted by  Ideler  in  his'  Physici  et  Medici  Giaeci  Minores.' 

The  last   of  the  works  of  Theophilus  that   remain- 
treatise,  llnii   s^i-yuwr,  l>r  J':i/\i/>,i.\.  which  tirst  appeared 
ina  Latin  tianslathm,  under  the  name  of  •  Plularetu- 

il  of  the  old  editions  of  the  •  Articella.'     It  wa 
published  in  a  separate  form  at  Basle.  l."i:{;i.  s\o. ;  • 
lated   by  Albanus  Torinus,  together  with  the  treatise  •  De 
I'rinis  '  mentioned  above.     It  was  reprinted  at  Strassburg, 
\7tX>.  Hvo.,  and   inserted   by  II.  Stephens  in   his  •  M. 
Ariis  1'iincipes.'     The  Greek  text  was  first   published  by 
I-'./.  Krincnns   in  his  •  Anecdota  Mcdica  (iraeca.'  LugJ. 
Bat.,  Svo.,    ISIO,  together  with  a  new  I-itin  translation. 
The  text  is  taken  from  one  manuscript  at  Levdenand  four 
at  Paris,  and  differs  very  consideiably  from  the  older  Latin 
translation  going  under  the  name  of  Philaretns. 

(Guidot's  Notes  to  Theoph.  D<-  ( 'rinix  :  Kabiicius,  liib- 
Hiith.  (trun-ii  :  Freind's/y/.v/.f/yV;;/.''"".'  Haller's/>'/4/«y/A. 
Aunt,  and  Hililinth.  Mi-ilir.  Pnirt.  ;  Spreii-rel's  Hint.  Je  la 
Mi'  i.  :  Dietx's  I'lel'ace  to  the  second  volnni  'inlin 

in  Iliji/.-nrr.  it  (inl. ;   Ermerin's  Preface  to  his  A 
dr.;      Choulant's    Hantlhurh    ili'r    Huchrrkunde.   fur    tin- 
Ai-ltcn-  Mfiliriii  •  (ireenhill's  Note*  to  Theoph.  De  > 
II inn.  I 

THKOPHKASTA.  the  name  of  a  genus  of  plants  dedi- 
cated to  Theophcastus.  It  was  originally  called  Kresia  by 
Plumier.  but  afterwards  altered  by  LiniKfus.  It  br 
to  the  natural  order  Myi-sinace:i\  and  is  a  small  tree  with 
a  simple  unbranchcd  stem,  furnished  with  a  tuft  of  long 
evergreen  leaves  at  top.  givinir  it  a  resemblance  to  a  palm- 
tree.  The  flower--  are  of  a  white  colour,  and  are  arranged  on 
terminal  racemes,  which  are  v  cry  short,  and  hidden  amongst 
the  leaves  of  the  plant.  The  calyx  is  campanulate  and 
cartilaginous.  The  corolla  is  also  campanulatc,  with  a 
short  tube,  and  hits  a  dilated  throat,  girded  fov  an  elevated 
angularly-lobcd,  fleshy,  arched  ring  :  the  limb  is  spreading. 

aniens  are  five,  combined  with   the   tube   of  th> 
rolla  ;  anthers  horned.     The  fruit  is  a  cmstaccous  spherical 
berry,  about  the  size  of  a  crab-apple,  with  the  seeds  half- 
immersed  in  the  placenta.  There  is  but  one  species,  named 
atler  .Inssicn.  '/'.  Juxxifiii.     This   plant    is  the  same  a.s  the 
l.imiipus.     It  is  a  native  of  the  mountains 
of  St.  Domingo,  and  is  much  cultivated  on  account  of  its 
lonur  handsome  holly-like  leaves.   It  may  be  propagated  by 
cuttings,  and  grows  well  ina  soil  of  peat,  loam,  and  sand. 
rHEOPHRASTUS  was  born  at  Eresus.  in  the  island  of 

-.  but  the  year  of  his  birth  is  uncertain :  some 
writers  state  it  to  be  B.C.  371 ;  others  place  it  much  earlic-r. 
According  to  Ilieronymus  /•,)<;'«/.,  2,  ad  Nepotianum)  he 
died  in  the  year  H.C.  285,  and,  as  some  say.  at  the  age  of 
s.~i  Diogenes'Lacrt.,  v.  40),  or,  according  to  others,  at  the 
age  of  KHi  years.  These  dill.  of  his  ace 

the  date  of  his  birth  uncertain.  When  a  youth  his 
father  Melanlas  sent  him  to  Athens  lor  the  purpose  of 
study  ing.  Here  he  was  first  a  pupil  of  Plato,  and  became 
an  intimate  fiieml  of  Aristotle,  who.  charmed  with  his 

-  and  his  beautiful  pronunciation,  is  said  to  huve 
given  liim  the  name  of  Theophrastus  (one  who  speaks  di- 


T  H  E 


333 


T  H  E 


vinely) :  his  real  name  was  Tyrtamus.      (Quinetilian,  x 
1,  83;    Cicero,  Orator.,  19.)     After  the  death  of  Plato, 
when  Speusippus  had  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
Academy,  Theophrastus,  with  a  number  of  the   formei 
disciples  of  Plato,  left  the  Academy.     Plutarch  has  pre- 
served a  bare  account  of  an  event  in  the  life  of  Theo- 
phrastus, which  must  perhaps  be  assigned  to  the  time 
which  he  spent  avva$  from  Athens  after  his  withdrawal 
from  the  Academy.     Plutarch  says  that  he  and  Phidias 
delivered  their  country  twice  from  the  oppression  of  tyrants. 
After  the  battle  of  Chaeronea,  Theophrastus  returned  to 
Athens,  from  which  he  had  been  absent  for  many  years  ; 
and  as  Aristotle  had  then  just  opened  his  school  (the 
Lyceum  .  Theophrastus  ranged  himself  among  the  hearers 
of  his  friend,  and  cultivated  most  zealously  all  the  depart- 
ments of  philosophy  and  science  of  which  Aristotle  was 
then  the  srreat  master.     When  Aristctle  himself  withdrew, 
Theophrastus  became  his  successor  in  the  Lyceum,  and  ac- 
quired great  reputation  in  his  new  sphere,  not  because  he 
created  any  new  system  of  philosophy,  but  because  he 
combined  the  knowledge  and  profundity  of  Aristotle  with 
the  fascinating  eloquence  of  Plato.     The  number  of  his 
pupils  on  one  occasion  is  said  to  have  amounted  to  two 
thousand  (Diogenes  Laert.,  v.  37),  who  flocked  around 
him  from  all  parts  of  Greece.     This  popularity,  and  the 
influence  which  it  gave  him  in  the  public  affairs  of  Greece 
through  the  practical  character  of  his  philosophy,  roused 
the  indignation  and  envy  of  those  who  saw  in  him  an  ob- 
stacle to  their  designs.     The  consequence  was  that  Agno- 
nides,   who   probably   acted   on   behalf  of  many  others, 
brought  against  him  a  charge  of  impiety.     Theophrastus 
pleaded  his  own  cause  before  the  Areopagus  with  his  usual 
eloquence,   and  convinced  that  court   of  his  innocence. 
Hia  accuser  would  have  fallen  a  victim  to  his  own  calumny, 
if  Theophrastus  had  not  generously  interfered  and  saved 
him.     After  this  event  he  enjoyed  undisturbed  peace  for 
:il   years,  and  he  saw  his  school,  which  was  visited  by 
tin-  most   eminent  men  of  the  age,  daily  increase.     The 
tranquillity  which  he  enjoyed  was  however  chiefly  owing  to 
the  influence  of  Demetrius  Phalereus,  who  had  himself  been 
a  pupil  of  Theophrastus.     After  the  fall  of  Demetrius  the 
persecutions  besan  afresh ;    and,  in  303  B.C.,  Sophocles, 
i  Amphielides,  carried  a  law  which  forbade  all  phi- 
losophers, under  pain  of  death,  to  give  any  public  instruc- 
tion without   permission  of  the  state.     (Diogenes  Laert., 
v.  38;  Athenaeus,  xiii..  p.  610;   J.  Pollux,  ix.  5.)    Theo- 
phra.stus  left  Athens  ;    but  in  the  following  year,  the  law 
bcins  abolished,  and  the  mover  condemned  to  pay  a  fine 
of  live  talents.  Theophrastus  and  several  other  philosophers 
returned  to  Athens,  where  he  continued  his  labours  without 
any  interruption  until  his  death.     The  whole  population 
of  Athens  is  said  to  have  followed  his  body  to  the  grave. 
His  will,  in  which  he  disposed  of  his  literary  and  other 
property,  is  preserved  in  Diogenes  Laertius.    His  library 
was  very  valuable,  as  it  contained  the  works  of  Aristotle, 
which  this  philosopher  had  bequeathed  to  Theophrastus. 
Theophrastus  bequeathed  them,  together  with  his  other 
literary  property,  to  Neleus  of  Scepsis. 

Theophrastus,  as  already  observed,  did  not  develop  a 
new  system  of  philosophy,  but  he  confined  himself  to  ex- 
plaining that  of  his  master  Aristotle.  With  this  view  he 
wrote  numerous  works  on  various  branches  of  philosophy 
and  on  natural  history.  His  philosophical  works  may  be 
divided  into  works  on  philosophy,  in  the  narrower  sense  of 
the  word,  works  on  historical  subjects,  and  works  on  certain 
arts,  such  as  oratory,  poetry,  and  the  like.  It  is  to  be  la- 
mented that  most  of  his  writings  on  these  departments  are 
now  lost,  and  more  especially  those  on  politics  (IloXirura), 
on  legislators  (irtpl  vofioBtTuv),  on  laws,  a  work  of  which 
Cicero  made  great  use,  and  his  works  on  orator)-,  of  which 
Theophrastus  himself  was  so  distinguished  a  master.  A  list 
of  the  lost  books  of  Theophrastus  is  given  in  Fabricius 
(Biblioth.  Graera,  iii.,  p.  445,  Sec.).  Andronicus  of  Rhodes, 
a  Peripatetic  philosopher  of  the  time  of  Lucullus,  made  a 
list  of  all  the  works  of  Theophrastus,  and  arranged  them 
in  systematic  order.  The  following  philosophical  works  of 
Theophrastus  are  still  extant: — 

1.  '  Charactercs,'  or  7)61*01  xapaKTiiptf,  consisting  of 
thirty,  or,  according  to  Schneider's  arrangement,  of  thirty- 
one  chapters.  In  this  work  the  author  gives  thirty  cha- 
racteristic descriptions  of  vices,  or  rather,  of  the  manner 
in  which  they  show  themselves  in  man.  The  descriptions 
however  are  mere  sketches,  and  form  a  gallery  of  bad  or 


ridiculous  characters.     Many  modern  critics  have  main- 
tained that  the  work  in  its  present  form  is  not  to  be  re- 
garded as  a  production  of  Theophrastus,  but  that  it   is 
either  an  abridgement  of  a  greater  work  of  this  philoso- 
pher, or  a  collection  of  descriptions  of  vicious  characters, 
compiled   either  from   the  writings   of  Theophrastus,  or 
from  those  of  others.     Neither  of  these  opinions  is  incom- 
patible with  the  statement  of  Diogenes  Laertius,  Suidas, 
and   other    late   writers   who   mention   r;0iKoi    Xap0Krijpe<,- 
among  the  works  of  Theophrastus  ;    for  the  '  Characters ' 
which  we  now  possess  may  have  been  compiled  and  pub- 
lished under  the  name  of  Theophrastus  long  before  their 
time.     Either  of  these  hypotheses  would  also  account  for 
the  fact  that  nearly  all  the  definitions  of  the  vices  that 
occur  in  the  book  contain  some  error,  which,  it  must  be 
presumed,  would  not  have   been  the   case   if  the  work 
had   been  written   by   Theophrastus.      Other   critics,   on 
the   contrary,   have   vindicated  the   '  Characteres '   as   a 
genuine  work  of  Theophrastus,  and   have  attributed  all 
its  defects  and  inaccuracies  to  the  bad  MSS.  upon  which 
the  text  is  based.    This  opinion  has  received  considerable 
support   from  the  discovery  of  a  Munich  codex,  part  of 
which  was  published  byFr.  Thiersch  in  1832,  in  the  '  Acta 
Philologorum  Monacensium '  (vol.  iii.,  fasc.  3).    This  MS. 
contains  the  titles  of  all  the  thirty  chapters,  but  the  text 
of  only  twenty-one.     The  first  five  chapters  and  the  intro- 
duction, which  were  edited  by  Thiersch,  are  considerably 
shorter  than  the  common  text,  the  language  is  perfectly 
pure,  and  there  is  very  little  doubt  that  this  is  the  genuine 
text  of  the  work  of  Theophrastus,  and  that  the  common 
one   is   only  a  paraphrase,   made   perhaps   by  Maximus 
Planudes,  who  is  known  to  have  written  a  commentary  on 
the  '  Characteres '  of  Theophrastus.    The  editio  princeps 
of  the  '  Characteres '  is  by  Wilibald  Pyrckheimer,  Ni'irn- 
berg,  1527,  8vo.     This  edition,  which  contains  only  fifteen 
chapters,  was  reprinted  with  a  Latin  translation  by  A.  Po- 
litianus,  Basle,  1531,  8vo.,  and  1541,  fol.     Chapters  10  to 
23  were  first  added  by  Camotius,  who  published  the  works 
of  Theophrastus  in   the  sixth  volume  of  his  edition  of 
Aristotle  (Venice,  1551-52).     These  twenty-three  chapters 
were  increased  by  five  new  ones  from  a  Heidelberg  MS. 
in  the  excellent  edition  of  Casaubon,  of  1599  (reprinted  in 
1612  and  1617,  8vp.).     The  last  two  chapters  were  added 
in  the  edition  which  appeared  at  Parma,  1786,  4to.    A 
still  more  perfect,  and  in  fact  the  first  complete  edition,  is 
that  of  J.  P.  Siebenkees,  which  was  edited  by  Goetz,  Niirn- 
berg,  1798, 8vo.    In  1799  there  appeared  two  new  editions, 
the  one  by  Coraes  (Paris,  8vo.),  and  the  other  by  Schneider 
(Jena,  8vo.).    The  last  edition,  which  is  very  useful,  is 
that  of  Fr.  Ast,  Leipzig,  1816,  8vo.    The  '  Characteres ' 
have  been  translated  into  French  by  Jean  de  la  Bruyere 
;Paris,  1696,  12mo.,  often  reprinted,  and  lastly  edited  by 
Schweighaiiser,  Paris,  1802),  and  by  Levesque  (Paris,  1782, 
12mo.).    The  best  German  translations  are  those  of  C. 
Rommel  (Prenzlau,   1827,  12mo.),  and  of  J.  J.  Hottinger 
(Miinchen,  1821, 8vo.).    The  reare  several  English  transla- 
tion*:   the  latest  is  by  F.  Howell,  London,   1824,  8vo. 
That  by  Eustace  Budgell,  London,  1713,  8vo.,  is  generally 
called  the  best.    There  is  also  a  translation  into  modern 
reek  by  Larbaris,  Vienna,  1815,  8vo. 

2.  A  fragment  of  a  work  on  Metaphysics,  which  consists 
of  one    book  entire   (Jtuv  /itra   ;-a   0tnrini  airoairaafidTiov  jj 
/3ij3Xi'ov  a).      This  book  was  not  mentioned  by  Andronicus 
of  Rhodes  in  his  catalogue  of  the  works  of  Theophrastus, 
jut  it  is  ascribed  to  him  by  Nicolaus  Damascenus.     It  is 
printed  in  all  the  early  editions  of  the  works  of  Theophras- 
:us  in  connection  with  those  of  Aristotle,  as  in  those  of 
Venice  (14fl7\  Basle  (1541),  Venice  (1552),  and  in  that  of 
Sylburg  (Frankfort,  1587).     The  last  edition  is  that  of  Ch. 
A.  Brandis,  who  annexed  it  to  his  edition  of  Aristotle's 

Metaphysics'  (Berlin,  1823,  8vo.). 

3.  A  Dissertation  vipi  aiVerjcKwc,  that  is,  on  the  Senses 
and  the  Imagination.   There  is  a  paraphrastic  commentary 
on  this  work  by  Priscian,  the  Lydian,  who  lived  in  the 
sixth  century  of  our  sera.    It  was  first  edited  by  Trin- 
cavelli,  Venice,  1536,  fol.,  with  Priscian's  paraphrase,  and 

Quaestiones '  by  Alexander  Aphrodisiensia.  It  is  also 
jrinted  in  the  above-^nentioned  colJections  of  the  works  of 
I'heophrastus,  and  in  that  published  by  Schneider,  Leipzig, 
1818-21. 

The  fragments  of  other  philosophical  works  are  too  brief 
and  numerous  to  be  noticed  here. 

The  'History  of  Plants,'  by  Theophrastus,   vtfi  <j>vruv 


T  11   1. 


881 


THE 


af,  in  one  of  lh«  earliest  work-  ,  that  was 

written  with  am  .tific  precision.    The  work 

is  divided  into  Ifii  books,  ol"  tin-  last  of  \\hu-li  only  a  frag- 
in,  •..;    i,   (  'llu-     matter   is  arranged    upon   a 

system   by  which    planU  are   claused   :i.  then 

mode*  of  generation,  their  localities,  their  size  u*  tree*  or 
shrubs  and  herbs,  and  according  to  their  uses  as  furnishing 
juices,  potherb*,  and  seeds  which  may  lie  eaten.    T: 
book  treats  of  jthe  organ*  or  parts  of  plaii' 
the   reproduction  of  plants,  and  the  times   iiud   mode  of 
sowing.     Here   he  mentions  the  sexes  of  plants,  und  dc- 
-  the  mode  of  reproduction  in  palms,  and  compares 
it  with  the  capriticatum  oi  Jigs.     The  third,  fourth,  and 
fifth  books  are  ih  voted   to  a   consideration  of  trees,   their 
various  kinds,  the  places  they  come  from,  mid  the  • 
mica!  uses  to  which  they  may  be  applied.    The  sixth  book 
of  underehrub*  and   spiny  plants;    the  seventh  of 
potherbs;    the   eighth   of  plants  viclding  seeds  used   I'm 
food;   and   the  ninth  of  those   plants  that  yield  useful 
juices,  gnnus,  resins,  or  other  exudation?-.     In  this  work 
there  is  much  original  and  valuable  observation,  but  at 
the  tame  time  it  is  intermixed  with  many  absurd 
ments  with  icgard  to  the  functions  and  properties  of  plants. 
It  is  probable,  that  much  of  the  valuable  matter  re, 
in  this  wo,  .rsult  of  his  own  observation,  as  he  is 

known  to  have  travelled  about  Greece,  and  to  have  had  a 
botanic  garden  of  his  own,  whilst  he  was  probably  de- 
pendent on  the  statements  of  soldiers  and  others  eunncrteii 
with  the  :i.  der  for  his  information  on  ludian, 

Kgvptian,  and  Arabian  plants. 

ophrastus  wrote  also  another  work, '  On  tli< 
Plants.'    irtpi   foriv  alnuv.     This  work  was   originally  in 
eight  books,  six  of  which  remain  entire.     It  treats  of  the 
ill  of  plants:  the  causes  which  influence  their  fecun- 
dity;   of  the  times   at  which   they  should   be  sown  and 
reaped  :  the  modes  of  preparing  the  soil,  of  manuring  it. 
and  of  the  instruments  used  in  agriculture  ;  of  the  odours, 
>,  and  properties  of  many  kinds  of  plants.     In  this,  :i> 
in  the  history  of  plants,  the  vegetable  kingdom  is  consi- 
1   more   in  reference   to  its  economical  than   to  its 
medical  uses,  although  the  latter  are  occasionally  re 
to.     In  both  works  there  is  much  valuable  matter  that 
deserves  the  attention  of  the  botanist,  and  a  very  little  know- 
ledge of  botany  will  enable  the  reader  to  separate  the  cliali 
from  the  wheat.     Doth  Hallcr  and  Adanson  complain  ol 
the  errors  which  translators  and  editors  of  these  works  have 
fallen  into  for  want  of  botanical  knowledge.     Both 
have  gone  through  several  editions  :  they  were  printed  to- 
"f  Aldus  at  Venice,  m  15.V2,  Hv  o. ;  and 
i   by  Heinsius   at    Leipzig,   in  HilJ.     The  •  History  ol 
Plants'  has  lieen  published  separately  more  frequently  than 
'tition  is  that  of  BodaMis  a  Mtape], 

which   was  published    by  his  father  alter   his  death.     It 
contains  a  preface  by  Corvinus ;   the  Greek  text,  with  \a- 
eommentaries   and    remarks  of  Con- 
did  J.  (.'.  Scaliger;  the  Latin  translation  of  Ciaxa  ; 
very    careful    commentaiies    by    Slajiel  ;    a    very    copious 
index,  and  the  whole  is   illustrated    bv    woodcuts.     The 

•M1  very  inferior,  and  are  copies  of  ti 

the  works  of  Dodonseus,  which  seem  to  have  been  copici 

into  nearly  all  the  wmks  published  on  botanv  at  this  | 

It  appeared  at  Amsterdam  in  1OI4,  folio.     The  latest  edition 

of  II.  i    at  Oxiiii-il.  ill  !Sl:t.   by  Stack- 

hou-,  rcompanicd   with   a  Syllabus   ol 

the    ircncia    and    species  of  the  fXX)  plants    described    bj 

-'us,  also  a  glossary,  und  notes,  with  a  catalog))! 

of   the   botanical   works  of  Thcuphra.stiis. 

The  .1.1  translated  into  Ccruiau  by  Kurt 

:ona.  in  IH'J:!.  s\o. 

11KUIV 

others  on  vario  natural   history,  which  are 

enumerated    with    his    |iluloso|ihical    works    in    J)< 
Laertius  (v.42,&c.).  One  of  them,  on  Stones    ^i  \&uv  «, 
from  which   I'iiny,  in  his  account  of  st<  >  d  tin 

KW  -i   his  information,  is  still  extanl.     Ji 

ha»  prefixed  it.  with  a  Latin  translation  and  notes,  to  his 
work.  -De  (Jcmmis  et  Lapidit  n,  U.I7-* 

separate   edition,  with   an   Knglish    translation.    was    ]inb 
llihed  by  Hill,  London,  174G,  Hvo. ;  another,  with  a  French 
:    .it    I'.uiv    17">l.  NVO.  :  and  n  third. 
with  a  German  translation,   by  Baumgiirtner,  N'ii 

J1  Ku'-   'l'»c  lust  ediliou  is  tliat  of  Scluieidi-i 

t,  SYO. 


( )f  his  two  books  on  Fire  (iripl  Tepuc).  only  one  u  now 
xtant  ;  of  his  other  works  on  natural  history,  which  are 
low  lost,  we  posses*  a  considerable  number  of  frag- 

.  ihtm  princcps  of  all  the  Works  of  Tlu-ophra.-' 
that  of  Aldus,  Venice,  Hltf-lK  print,  .  with   the 

'.iistotlc,  in   f>  vols.   fol.     'J  )jub- 

a  Latin  translation,  which  v.  ^-  made  from  the  same 
MS.   from    which  the  Aldine   text  was    tai. 
edition   of   this  translation    is  without  date  or    phio 
1  appeared  at  Tarvinum  in  1-1X3.     The  last  ami 
edition   u  that  of  Link  and  Schneider,    LI-JI 
4  vols.  I 

(Haller,  Bibliotlura  lii>lani,-u,  torn,  i.,   p.  31 ;  Sch- 
Geschichtt  dor  liutanik  ;    Adanson,  Fumillfx  dt-«  1'ii. 
Bischon",    Lrhrliurh    <iv    Hutumk  ;     Stackhonsc,     TI, 
//M/.  J'lmtt.  :  Fabricius,  Htt,li,,t/i.  Graeo.,  in.,  }• 
Hitter,    Ihxturi/   <if  yj/i//r»,,/i//;/ ;     Ki  tier 

Philotopkit 

THBOPHYLACTtJS  SIMOCATEA,  of  Locri,  uu  his- 
torian. so])liist,  anil  natural   philosopher,  who  wa.-,  I: 
about   <>10-u'2!>  A.D.      He    wrote    a 

(larofia  oiKiwfiii'ii ;,  in  eight  books,  from  the  death  of  the 
emperor  Tiberius  II..  in  TjS2.  to  the  murder  of  Maurice  and 
his  children  by  Phocas.  in  (Jo2.  This  work  is  known  by 
the  Latin  title  of  -Historiae  Kerum  a  Mauritio  gestarum 
Libri  VIII.'  It  was  jinnted.  with  a  Latin  translation,  by 
J.  Pontaims,  at  Ingolstadt,  1001,  4t<>.  An  impioved  edi- 
tion W;LS  published  by  Fabrotti,  i  S,  fol..  reprinted 
172U.  It  is  «lso  contained  in  iS'ieli!:  :on  of  the 
Bv/antnic  v. . 

He  also  v  lort  letters,  'Epi»tol;i  KU.S- 

ticae.  et  Anintoriae,'  which  were  published  in  the  n> 
tions  of  Aldus,  Cujacins,  and  Henry  Stephens  :  and  a  work 
entitled  •  Problems  in  .Natural  History'  (' Airopiai  0ii<Tu;m, 
O_uaestiones  Plnsicae  ,  which  was  published  at  Leyden, 
l.vjfi,  and  at  Leipzig,  l(>~>3.  The.  two  last-mentioned 
works  have  been  recently  edited  by  Boissonade,  Pans, 
MRS. 

iii-iciiis,  Jtibtiotheca  Graeca;  Scholl,  Getchichte  der 
Gni'i-h.  J. 

THEOPIIVLACTUS,  a  native  of  Constantinople,  was 
archbishop  of  Achris,  the  chief  cily  of  Bulgaria,  about  the 

MI7II   orh)77.     He  wrote   a  work   on  the  •  Kdin 
of  Pi.  ...  KI  p'niriXm-f/"),  for  the  perusal  of  Constan- 

tinus  Porphyrogennctus,  the  .sou  of  Michael  VII.  and  the 
emprcs-,  Maria.     Tliis  work  forms  a  part  of  the  collet 
of  li\/autine  writers. 

Theophylactus  is  better  known  by  his  valuable  commen- 
taries on  the  twelve  minor  prophets  and  the  grcaicr  part 
of  the  New  Testament,  which  are  chiefly  compiled  liom 
the  works  of  Chrysostom.  He  also  wrote  7"<  e])istlos  and 
several  tracts.  These  works  were  printed  in  Greek  and 
Latin,  at  Venice.  17">-1.  fol. 

•  Kahricius,  liitil.  (iri:''/\,  vii.,  p.  70'.") ;  Ijirdner's  Cri'ili- 
liilihi.  pt.  11.,  c.  103;  Scholl,  Ui-st-hichtc  </  Lilt., 

lii.  '2- 

THKOPOMPUS,  an  eminent  Greek  historian,  was  a 
native  of  the  island  of  Chios,  son  of  Damasistr.it us,  and 
brother  of  <  'aucalus,  the  rhetorician.  He  was  born  I 
n. <  .iiSO,  ;iiiil  was  instructed  in  rhetoric  In  Isocratcs  during 
his  stay  in  Chios,  i  Plutarch,  I'll.  <irr.  Unit.,  p.  Ki7  C  • 
Photi  'HI,  p.  7SM- •  I'hotius  in  another  pa 

that   Dama-islratus  and  his  son  were  obliged  to  (|uit 

i   account  of  their  paitiah; 

Sparta:  tins  seems  to  have  occurred  about  u.c.  3tiO.  when 
Chios  was  distracted  by  two  parties,  the  |  <!  the 

most  powerful  one  being  in  lav onr  of  Thebes,  while  a 
number  of  aristocrats  supported  the  interest  of  Sparl:: 
the  latter  belonged  Thcupompus  and  his  father.     Tli 
tlneiice  of  the  instruction  of  Isocrates  on  Theopom]>i! 
pears  to  have  been  very  great,  for  although   he  did   not 
apply  his  oratorical    powers  to   politics  or  to  speaking   in 

vet  he  wrote,  like  In 

-idcrablc   number  of  orations,  which  'd   at  ihe- 

eonlests,   and    in    which    he   is  said    to   have    even 
excelled  his  master.     When  he  .  i  to  leave  ( 'bios. 

lie   went  with  his  father  to  Asia   Minor,    where   lie  spent 
i  vi  ars  in  travel  and  study,  anil  ac,|uired  great  • 
lor  Ins  eloquence.     At    ti  iv«   he  ob- 

:  leave  to  return  to  his  country  through  the  inter- 
ference ol  .\lc\uiidci  it  he  took 
an  active  part  m  the  political  affairs  of  his  native  island, 


THE 


335 


THE 


and  by  his  talents  he  became  one  of  the  principal  supports 
of  the  aristocratic  party.  So  long  as  Alexander  the  Great 
lived,  his  adversaries  could  not  venture  anything  openly 
against  him ;  hut  no  sooner  had  the  king  died  than  the 
popular  party  again  expelled  Theopompus.  He  now  took 
refuge  in  Egypt  under  the  protection  of  Ptolemaeus,  the 
son  of  Lagus,  during  whose  reign  he  remained  unmolested. 
But  his  successor  Ptolemaeus  Philadelphus  was  ill  disposed 
towards  him,  and  if  Theopompus  had  not  been  advised  by 
some  friends  to  quit  the  country,  he  would  have  been  put 
to  death.  Whither  he  now  fled,  what  were  his  subsequent 
fortunes,  and  where  he  died,  are  questions  to  which  no 
answer  can  be  given,  though  it  is  highly  probable  that  he 
died  about,  or  shortly  after  308  B.C. 

The  loss  of  the  works  of  Theopompus,  of  which  we  now 
only  possess  numerous  fragments,  is  one  of  the  greatest 
that  antient  history  has  sustained.  The  following  list  con- 
tains the  works  he  is  known  to  have  written  : — 

1.  An  abridgement  of  the  work  of  Herodotus  ('ETrirn/i?} 
rwv  'Hj.or.'TLi'  iTropiwi/).  This  epitome  is  mentioned  by 
Suidas  and  several  other  grammarians.  Modern  critics 
think  it  highly  improbable  that  Theopompus  should  have 
undertaken  such  a  task,  and  that  it  was  probably  the  work 
of  some  grammarian,  who  published  it  under  the  name  of 
the  historian.  The  reasons  adduced  for  this  opinion  are 
not  satisfactory,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  Theopompus 
mav  have  made  this  abridgement  as  a  first  attempt  at  his- 
torical composition.  A  few  fragments  of  it  are  still 
extant. 

•J.  A  more  important  work  was  a  history  of  Greece 
"KXXrp'ticai  ioropiai,  or  SuiraSic  'EXXTjvucwi').  It  took  up  the 
history  of  Greece  where  Thucydides  breaks  off,  B.C.  411, 
and  carried  the  events  down  to  the  battle  of  Cnidus,  B.C. 
394.  The  work  consisted  of  twelve  books,  and  many  frag- 
ments are  still  preserved. 

:;.  The  history  of  Philip  of  Macedonia  and  his  time 
(*i\iT77W,  or  simply  'i<rropi'ai\  It  contained  in  58  books 
ice  from  the  accession  of  Philip,  or 
more  properly  from  the  foundation  of  Philippi,  down  to 
his  death.  Five  books  of  it  were  lost  as  early  as  the  time 
of  Diodoms  Siculus  fxvi.  3),  and  they  were  probably  the 
same  which  Photius  (Cod.,  176,  p.  390)  mentions  as  being 
.1  his  time,  viz.  books  6,  7,  9,  20,  and  30.  This  volu- 
minous work  not  only  embraced  the  history  of  Greece  in 
(lie  •  •  of  the  word  within  the  period  mentionrd. 

but  also  treated  of  those  earlier  parts  of  Greek  history  and 
of  the  history  of  such  barbarous  nations  as  he  had  occasion 
to  mention.  These  things  formed  numerous  and  long 
digressions  in  the  work,  and  of  their  extent  we  may  judge 
from  the  fact  that  Philip  III.  of  Macedonia,  alter  cutting 
out  these  digressions,  reduced  the  work  from  58  to  16 
books.  fPhotius,  Cod.,  176.)  We  still  possess  many  frag- 
ments of  the  work,  which  the  antient  writers  refer  to  and 
quote. 

Besides  these  historical  works,  Theopompus  wrote  many 
orations,  and  we  know  that  he  also  composed  Panegyrics 
on  Mausolus,  Philip,  and  Alexander.  As  regards  his 
character  ;us  an  historian,  the  antients  praise  him  as  a  lover 
of  truth,  but  they  also  state  that  he  was  extravagantly 
severe  in  his  censure,  and  unbounded  in  his  praise.  His 
ardent  and  vehement  temper  did  not  allow  him  to  pre- 
serve that  calmness  which  becomes  the  historian.  He  is 
also  charged  with  having  been  too  fond  of  the  marvellous, 
and  with  having  for  this  reason  dwelled  too  much  upon 
the  mythical  stories  of  Greece  wherever  he  had  occasion 
to  mention  them. 

The  fragments  of  Theopompus  have  been  collected  by 

Wirhers:  '  Theopompi  Chii  Fragmenta,  collegit,  disposuit, 

iilicavit,   fjusdemque  de  Vita  et  Scriptis  Commenta- 

;n   praemisit,'  &c.,  Lugduni  Batavorum,  1829,   8vo. 

,     •         i     •       /s      _i    T     Ti/T"ii *      i  t* i_ 


pare    F.  Kocn,   Prolegomena 

tin,  1803,  4to. ;  A.  J.  E.  Pflugk,  De  Theopompi  Chii 
l'it'li'1  Scriptis,  Berlin,  1827, 8vo. ;  Asehbach, Dissertatio 

<npO  ''hin  n/*torirr>,  Frankfort,  1823,  4to. 
TIIKORBO,  a  musical  instrument  of  the  lute  kind,  which 
has  long  fallen  into  disuse.  The  latest  employment  of  it 
that  we  can  trace  was  in  Handel's  oratorio  of  Esther  ( 1720), 
where  it  is  introduced,  with  the  harp,  as  an  accompani- 
ment to  the  air  'Watchful  Angels.'  This  instrument  has 
been  called  the  '  </"A'".  >ts  tvvo  hea(ls having  been 

erroneously  considered  as  two  necks :  and  it  was  commonly 


known  under  the  name  of  Arch-lute  on  account  of  its 
magnitude.  The  upper  and  middle  strings  were  attached 
to  the  lower  head  or  nut ;  the  lower,  or  base  strings,  to 
an  upper  or  additional  one.  According  to  Maister  Mace 
(1676),  the  Theorbo  was  the  old  English  lute  veiy  much 
enlarged,  and  used  chiefly,  if  not  only,  as  an  accompani- 
ment to  the  voice.  [LuiE..] 

THEOREM  (Siupvpa)  means  properly  a  thing  to  be 
looked  at  or  seen ;  and  is  used  in  mathematics  to  signify 
any  proposition  which  states  its  conclusion  or  makes  any 
affirmation  or  negation  ;  as  distinguished  from  a  PROBLEM, 
which  demands  or  requires  a  conclusion  to  be  arrived  at, 
without  so  much  as  stating  whether  that  conclusion  is  even 
possible.  Thus, '  Required  to  draw  a  tangent  to  a  circle  at 
a  given  point,'  is  a  problem ;  but '  If  a  straight  line  be 
drawn  at  right  angles  to  a  diameter  from  its  extremity,  that 
straight  line  is  a  tangent  to  the  circle,'  is  a  theoerm.  The 
problem  asks  discovery  both  of  method  and  demonstration ; 
the  theorem  asks  demonstration  only. 

This  distinction,  as  noticed  in  detail  in  PROBLEM,  was  not 
made  by  the  older  Greek  geometers ;  Theodosius  is  the 
first,  as  far  as  we  know,  who  uses  the  word  theorem,  but 
none  of  his  propositions  are  problems:  Pappus  is  the  fust. 
who  uses  both  terms  in  the  distinctive  sense. 

THEORIES  OF  MOLECULARITY.  This  important 
branch  of  science  is  directed  to  connect  the  known  mecha- 
nical, dynamical,  and  hydrodynamical  laws  with  those 
which  govern  the  crystallization  of  solids,  the  operation  of 
heat  in  producing  liquidity  and  gaseity,  the  action  of  ca- 
pillary tubes  on  fluids,  and  several  other  phenomena  of 
constituted  matter.  The  laws  which  regulate  the  motions 
of  great  masses  taken  as  continuous  bodies  have  been  ex- 
plored with  success  to  an  astonishing  degree  by  the  genius 
and  labours  of  -such  men  as  Newton,  D'Alembert,  and  La- 
place. On  the  contrary,  those  law's  which  govern  the  con- 
stitution or  elementary  arrangement  of  such  bodies  are  to  a 
great  extent  absolutely  unknown.  The  ordinary  senses  of 
sight,  touch,  &c.  are  sufficient  to  take  cognizance  of  the 
facts  from  which  the  former  laws  are  deduced ;  but  for  the 
latter  it  is  necessary  to  apply  the  most  delicate  instruments 
supplied  by  nature,  namely,  heat,  light,  and  electricity. 
The  minute  world  is  of  more  difficult  research  than  the 
great,  the  plane  sections  of  a  crystal  than  the  elliptic 
orbits  of  the  planets,  the  infinitely  small  than  the  infinitely 
great. 

It  is  not  therefore  wonderful  that  this  branch  of  science, 
which  should  connect  on  one  uniform  basis  the  phenomena 
of  chemistry,  of  crystallography,  and  of  the  mechanical 
action  of  masses,  should  have  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
most  able  philosophers  from  the  sixteenth  to  the  nineteenth 
century  ;  from  Boyle  to  Berzelius,  from  Newton  to  Navier 
and  Poisson ;  and  the  present  unsatisfactory  state  of  our 
knowledge  on  this  subject  must  to  a  great  degree  be  attri- 
buted to  the  neglect  of  the  inductive  method,  to  the  sub- 
stitution of  hypotheses  for  the  results  of  observation. 

The  first  theory  on  this  subject  may  be  thus  stated,  that 
the  particles  of  matter  possess  the  attraction  of  cohesion, 
but  are  repulsed  by  the  action  of  heat  or  caloric  :  when  the 
former  preponderates,  the  body  is  solid ;  when  both  are 
equal,  it  is  in  a  fluid  state  ;  and  when  the  latter  exceeds  the 
former,  the  body  is  a  gas,  and  prevented  from  total  disper- 
sion only  by  the  action  of  gravitation.  This  is  purely  hy- 
pothetic, and  forms  no  more  ground  for  mathematical  cal- 
culation in  relation  to  the  phenomena  alluded  to  above, 
than  does  the  definition  of  a  straight  line  in  Euclid's  Ele- 
ments for  the  properties  established  in  geometry.  The 
second  hypothesis,  which  of  late  has  been  more  generally 
received  both  by  chemists  and  mathematicians,  is  that  the 
particles  of  matter  are  mutually  attractive  by  a  law  ana- 
logous to  that  of  gravitation,  but  are  surrounded  by  atmo- 
spheres repulsive  one  of  the  other,  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  particles  of  elastic  fluids.  From  this  hypothesis  the  equa- 
tions of  equilibrium  and  of  progressive  and  rotatory  motions 
are  deducible ;  but  as  the  constitution  of  such  atmospheres 
mav  be  modified  very  much  at  the  will  of  the  calculator,  so 
as  still  to  obtain  the  same  mechanical  results  (in  the  manner 
in  which  the  distribution  of  the  fluid  of  light  in  crystal- 
lized bodies  has  been  by  those  analysts  who  have  developed 
the  undulatory  theory),  it  seems  probable  that  it  will  be 
long  before  the  phenomena  of  crystallization,  liquefaction, 
&c  will  from  this  hypothesis  be  explained,  and  the  absence 
of  all  external  action  in  solids,  with  the  exception  of  gra- 
vitation. The  difference  of  the  calculations  of  Navier  and 


T  II   I. 


338 


THE 


Poiuon  show  how  much  this  hypothesis  may  be  adroitly 

•     ••!  of  Mewing  the  pnenomi 

matter  is  more  »tru  tly  inductive,  and  is  similar  to  that  cm- 

.1   in   tin-  •>   cf  tli<'  latent 

in  Mr.  M  .Sir. 

we  start  from  tlif  lad  tliat  forces  M  •  >vvcr- 

Inl  to  prevent  the   i 

and  which  pi  event  tln-ir  being  turn  a.-umlcr  without  great 

being  employed,  are  yet  insensible  to  bodies  ;r 
minute   distances  irom  them.     Here  we  have  ample  data 
lor  analytical  calculation,  the  chief  difficulty  lying  in  the 
impr  .d  calculation  relative  to  definite 

.ntcirrals:   nevertheless  cnonirh   can  lie   deduced    to    show 
•li<  distribution   of  a'  nd   repuls.'.  v.ithin 

the    \  Tilled    bodies.       It    however    requires    the 

highest  strenclh  of  analv.-is  of  a  nature  somewhat  similar 
to  that  ein  the  figure  of  the  earth  and 

the  t 

Th.  >i'  the  truth  of  any  theory-  on  this  subject  is 

that  which,  with  the  ;  to  c\i-t.  shall  show 

that  the  locus  of  the  points  of  lr  ••<•,  commencing 

fioiu  a  given  point,  shall  be  a  plane  suiface,  or  .-. 
plane  surfaces,  as  exhibited  by  crystals. 

(Dr.  Yin  •.•.•;•«/  l'fnl'i\i,jihij  :  Various 

Papers  in  the  Mun'urix  </r  riimtitiit ;  and  Poissou's  Trnitt 
stir  t'.-lrtiiiH  CajnUaife.) 

THKOKY,  THEORY  AND  PRA(  TICK.  If  articles 
upon  the  mere  meaning  of  words  be  admissible,  it  is  the 
quence  of  the  manner  in  which  they  are  used.  Of  all 
the  fallacies  which  infest  society,  the  most  common  is  that 
of  applying  to  one  sense  of  a  word  ideas  or  associations 
derived  from  another;  and  of  all  the  winds  in  vise. 
there  are  few  which  are  mure  often  subjected  to  such 
process  than  those  which  stand  at  the  head  of  this  article. 

H\  theory,  properly  speakimr.  is  meant  the  mode  of 
making  seen  and  Known  the  dependence  of  truths  upon 
one  another:  a  theory  is  a  connected  body  of  such  truths 
bclongm™  to  one  or  more  common  principles.  Th- 
tbis  word  has  enlarged  with  the  boundaries  of  the  sciences. 
For  example,  before  the  discovery  of  universe]  iriavitation. 
all  that  was  known  of  any  one  planet  was  the  empirical 
formula  for  one  or  two  of  its  inequalities.  This  constituted 
the  theory  of  the  planet  'then  so  called1) :  thus  the  theory 
of  the  moon  consisted  in  t:  at  of  the  laws  of  the 

inequalities  called  the  equation  of  the  centre,  the  evcc- 
tion,  &c.  In  our  day  the  point  of  view  is  changed  ;  it  is 
no  lontrer  the  mere  exhibition  of  these  inequalities  which 
Mutes  the  theory,  but  the  deduction  of  them,  a- 
consequences,  limn  the  principle  of  (gravitation.  The 
theoretical  astronomer  now  stints  from  this  principle,  and. 
taking  only  one  position  and  velocity  for  his  inn: 
data,  finds  out  e\ery  inequality  of  the  planetary  motions, 
which  were  previously  known  from  observation  and 
more,  and  shows  how  to  form  them  into  tables.  The  prac- 
tical a-tn>nomer  makes  the.-e  table*, computes  places  from 
them  for  the  current  year,  compares  these  places  with  the 
results  of  observation,  and  returning  the  comparison  into 
the  hands  of  the  theorist,  enables  him,  if  Deed  be.  to  cor- 
rect the  original  numerical  data  to  which  lie  applied  his 
methods.  The  process  is  now  deductive  :  but  before  the 
time  of  Newton  it  was  the  other  way.  The  observer  had 
the  t  the  inequalities  were  to  be  collected  from 

comparison  of  observations,  and  their  laws,  reduced  to  their 
simplest  form,  were  the  data  for  future  tables. 

Again,  before  the  introduction  of  the  undulatory  hypo- 
thesis, the  1heoi  v  of  liifht  consisted  in  the  exhibition  of  tin- 
laws  of  reflexion  and  n  fraction,  with  a  certain  extent  of 
explanation  from  ti;.  iv  hypothesis  of  Newton 

Since  that  time  the  •'  ""hi  has  become,  thonirh  at 

>'ance,  a  resemblance  of  the  theory  of  gravitation  in 
its  character:   prediction   has  commenced,  that   is  to   say. 
the  phenomena  which  would  appear  under  certain    new 
circumstances  have   been  announced  be 
ments  were   made    to   discover   them:  and  CO 
nounced.    Thin  is  the  end  to  which  theory  ought  to  be  con- 
stantly tending  ;  namely,  the  discovery  of  laws  of  action  in 
so  complete  a  manner  that  the  •  qucnces  of 

thete  laws  never  fail  to  make  their  ap|  -o  that 

i  Ti-ry  tiling  which  i-  |   consequence  o! 

IWI  when  ,  ,,,.,.  ,,f  the 

l»w»  is  seen  in  V. 

l«l»  these  condition,  may  be  called  a  perfect  theory,  or  a 
perfect  mathematical  theory. 


The  next  step  in  the  chain  of  il  liicli  may 

in  most  case*  be  incapable  oT  attainment.  .p'1'- 

nothini;  i-  more  certain  than  that  the  as-uniptic" 
particle  of  matter  attracting  ev. 

ing  to  the  Newtonian  law,  lend-  to  tin  'ion 

-'ial  motions,  and  u;i\<  i   of 

•ion  just  alluded  to.     Hut  whether  U 

does    actually   take    place,    or   whctb.  iiatc 

agent  is  employed,  though  it   matters   nothing  <il  /'/• 
to  the  mathematical  (henry,  is  the  next  object  of  in-. 
Could  this  point  be  ascertained,  it   is  mon 
that  the  knowledge  of  the  constitution  of  matter  to  which 
it  would  lend,   would  open  hundreds  of  import: 
qucnces  even   in    the    application  of   science  to  the  aits. 
'' 


;  Jlvi-nrii 

re  comini;  to  the  distinction  between  theory  and 
practice,  we  must  observe  that  theories  maybe  divided 
into  two  classes.  the  more  perfect  and  the  1.  \V. 

cannot  say  that  any  theory  is  absolutely  perfect  ;  but  ' 
are   some   of  which  the  defects  are  hardly    ] 
others  in  which  the  contrary  is  t!  .the 

theory  of  th<  ml  dynamics  of  :uh- 

rably  perfect  ;  but  that  of  both 
acted  on  by  molecular  forces  is  in  its  infancy.     \\'e  know 

i  deal  more  of  the  connection  of  the  planetary  worlds 
with  each  other  than  we  do  of  the  particles  which,  when 
connected  together,  foim  a  bar  of  iron  or  of  oak.  AVe 
know  that  the  bar  is  not  perfectly  rigid;  that  it  bends  and 
breaks  :  and  the  demce  of  bending  which  a  given  force  will 
cause,  and  the  amount  of  pressure  ;  duce 

fracture,  must  be  sought  for  in  experiments  fiom  which, 
imperfect  a.s  they  are.  the  laws  which  would  follow  Irom 
a  good  theory,  if  we  had  one,  are  to  be  deduced.  In  such 
a  subject  our  theory,  instead  of  bcmir  an  all-sufficient 
guide,  is  only  a  help,  the  services  of  which  an 
to  an  extent  which  discrimination  derived  from  practi.-e 
and  experience  must  point  out.  Many  a  person  who  thinks 
he  is  proceeding  upon  experience  only,  i.s  really  making 
a  mixture  in  which  there  is  theory,  though  his  own 
knowledge  of  the  process  he  uses,  and  of  it-  hisloiy,  may 
not  be  sufficient  to  inform  him  of  it. 

A  prison  who  uses  an  imperfect  theory  with  the  con- 
fidence due  only  to  a  jieifcci  one,  will  naturally  fall  into 
abundance  of  mistakes:  his  predictions  will  be  crossed  by 

•ling  circm.  1  which  his  theory   is  not  able  to 

take  tCCOunt,  and  his  credit  will  be  loweied"  by  the  failure. 
And  inasmuch  aB  more  theories  an'  imperfect  than  are  per- 
fect, and  of  those  who  attend  to  anything,  the  n 
aequii'  i  judging  is  small  compared  with 

that  of  those  who  do  not  get  so  lar.  it  must  have  hap] 
as  it  has  happened,  that  a  great   quantity  of  inislal, 
been  made  by  those  who  do  not  understand  the  (me.  use  of 
nn    imperfect  Iheoiy.     Hence    much   dis< 
brought  upon  theoiy  in  general  :  and   the  schism  of  theo- 
retical and  practical  men  has  arisen.   Foitunatc 
many  of  the  former  who  attend  properly  to  the  imp 
ineni    of  imperfect  theory  by  piacticc  :  and   many  calling 
themselves  piaeticai  whosii/.c  with  avidity  all  • 
can  do  for  them.   :ind  who   know    that    st.  •. 
has  been  making  her  way  with  giant  strides  into  the  tcin- 
torv  of  practice  for  the  la.sl  centniv   and  a  half. 
Hy  piact:-  iiom  tin  ory  .  is 

by  ns,  liut  by  those  who  contend  for  the  distinction  the 
a]))  lication  of  that  knowledge  which  comes  hum  ex 
pcrience  only,  and  is  not  sufficient  1;.  '1  with  any 

general  principles  to  be  entitled  to  the  name    of  a   1: 
The  distinction  of  labourers  in  the  field  of  science   , 
into  theoretical   and   piactieal  is  not  strictly  a  j: 
there  i.s  no  theorist  whose   knowledge  is   all   theory;  and 
there  is  no  practical   man  whose  skill   is  all  derived 

icncc.  Hut  the  terms  will  do  well  enough  to  distin- 
guish (wo  classes  whose  peculiarities  it  might  be  difficult 
to  define  exactly. 

The  practical  man.  when  he  i.s  really  nothing  more,  i 

who  can  just  do  what  lie  has  been  taiiL'ht  to  do.  and   who 

has  acquired  skill  and  judgment  in  a  small  range  of  occu- 

pations.   All  who  pride  themselves  upon  the  title  would 

be  displcasid  at  tins  definition,  and  we  readily  admit  that 

many  of  them  are  entitled  to  a  higher  chaiactcr  :   but  only 

e  the  name  by  which  they  deliirht  to  describe  thcm- 

is  a  wroni;  one.     They  desire,    under   the  name  of 

a  workman,  to  claim  the  qualities  of  a  master.     The  term 

s,  as  one  of  contempt,  to  designate  any- 


THE 


337 


THE 


thing;  of  which  they  disapprove  ;  and  as  there  never  is  any 
fallacy  which  is  not  carried  to  a  fool's-cap  extent  by  the 
lower  order  of  users,  it  would  not  be  difficult  to  make  a 
most  amusing  selection  of  instances  of  the  manner  in 
which  the  distinction  has  been  worked  by  the  large  number 
who  are  at  the  bottom  of  the  class,  and  in  whose  heads  it  runs 
that  their  own  ignorance  is  practical,  and  others'  knowledge 
theoretical.  We  remember  seeing  a  theorist,  as  he  was  called, 
endeavouring  to  make  the  managers  of  a  certain  under- 
taking comprehend  that  their  profits  could  not  exceed  the 
excess  of  the  gross  returns  over  the  outlay,  after  they  had 
been  trying  to  cheat  the  equation  by  inventing  names  for 
what  they  would  have  liked  to  have,  but  which  the 
theorist  assured  them  they  would  not  get,  for  the  preceding 
reason.  The  answer  was,  'That  is  very  true  theoretically, 
but  now  let  us  look  at  it  practically.'  We  shall  say  no 
more  of  the  gross  abuse  of  the  terms,  except  to  remark 
that  were  it  worth  while  really  to  make  a  contest  between 
theory  and  practice,  it  would  be  difficult  to  say  on  which 
side  the  balance  of  absurdity  would  incline  ;  or  whether 
the  man  who  is  too  confident  in  his  theory,  or  too  con- 
fident in  his  experience,  has  done  most  mischief  for  the 
time  being. 

Coming  now  to  the  higher  class  of  practical  men,  and 
speaking  as  of  the  balance  between  two  methods,  the 
value  of  both  of  which  is  admitted,  we  observe  that  there 
are  obvious  faults  to  which  both  parties  are  subject,  both 
in  conduct,  and  in  argument  respecting  their  pursuits. 
Great  care  is  necessary  to  secure  the  theorist  from  pushing 
an  imperfect  theory  too  far,  and  neglecting  causes  of  dis- 
turbance ;  but  at  least  as  much  is  necessary  to  prevent 
the  practical  man  from  generalising  into  theory  from  im- 
perfect experience,  or  from  restraining  inquiry  by  a  notion 
formed  from  practice.  This  is  his  besetting  sin,  to  such 
an  extent  that  we  should  almost  be  inclined  to  say  that 
the  fault  of  a  practical  man  is  a  tendency  to  form  false 
theory,  as  that  of  the  theorist  is  to  make  false  applications. 
We  have  often  been  surprised  at  the  boldness  with  which 
the  former  assert  generalities,  upon  evidence  which  would 
only  make  a  pure  theorist  look  for  further  information. 
Analogies  are  of  all  things  the  most  deceptive. 

In  argument  there  is  one  mode  which  is  common  to 
both  parties,  and  which  is  exceedingly  detrimental.  It  is 
the  selection  of  instances  from  the  very  highest  minds  of 
the  two  orders,  to  illustrate  the  effects  of  theory  or  prac- 
tice upon  the  general  mass  of  understandings  :  minds  the 
superior  calibre  of  which,  and  their  power  of  adapting 
themselves  to  circumstances,  and  making  the  most  of 
what  they  have,  render  them  exceptions  to  all  rules,  and 
no  proper  examples  of  the  most  advantageous  course  of 
training.  Every  one  likes,  no  doubt,  to  draw  consequences 
about  and  concerning  his  own  self  from  a  contemplation 
of  the  minds  and  methods  of  the  Newtons  or  the  Galileos 
of  a  higher  sphere  of  intellectual  existence,  or  the  Ark- 
wi  ights  or  Telfords  of  a  better  state  of  power  of  adaptation. 
'  What  is  your  theory  good  for?'  says  the  tongue  attached 
to  some  head  which  holds  about  the  same  weight  of 
conceit  that  Telford's  did  of  sagacity ;  '  Telford  knew  no- 
thing of  it,  and  I  may  do  without  it  too.'  The  answer  is, 
'/'-  Ijui-il.  The  opinion  of  Bacon  was,  that  '  the  root  of  all 
the  mitcXiefia  the  sciences  is,  that,  falsely  magnifying  and 
admiring  the  powers  of  the  mind,  we  seek  not  its  real 
helps,'  a  maxim  full  of  meaning,  and  a  lesson  to  him 
who  rates  theory  too  highly,  and  also  to  the  one  who 
thinks  that  the  only  use  of  his  mind  is  to  arrange  the 
results  of  experience,  his  own  or  others.  What  are  the 
majority  of  men,  that  they  should  look  down  upon  any 
course  of  training,  theoretical  or  practical  ? 

Another  fault  of  argument,  but  almost  peculiar  to  the 
practical  world,  who  have  the  force  of  numbers  on  their 
own  side,  is  the  habit,  of  claiming  all  who  ara  success- 
ful in  application  as  instances  of  their  own  method 
and  knights  of  their  own  order.  Suppose  that  one  indivi- 
dual should  discover  a  mine,  work  it  with  his  own  hand, 
purify  the  ore,  and  beat  the  metal  into  a  horse-shoe  ; 
which  is  he,  a  geologist,  miner,  furnace-man,  or  black- 
smith ?  He  has  done  the  work  of  all,  but  the  community 
of  blacksmiths  would  hardly  be  allowed  to  claim  him  as 
peculiarly  belonging  to  themselves.  When  a  person  who 
has  mastered  the  difficulties  of  theory  has  also  success- 
fully applied  them,  he  is  lice  of  both  corporations;  but 
those  who  attend  to  application  only,  never  fail  to  appro- 
priate his  merits.  WATT  is  a  striking  instance  ;  he  was  a 
P.  C.,  No.  1530. 


highly  accomplished  theorist  on  every  point  on  which  he 
worked :  and  yet  his  name  has  been  frequently  cited 
as  a  proof  that  theory  could  be  dispensed  with.  And  his 
career,  when  compared  with  that  of  Telford,  will  illus- 
trate theory  applied  to  practice,  as  distinguished  from 
practice  alone,  however  acute.  It  is  impossible  to  con- 
template the  career  of  Telford  without  a  feeling  of  high 
interest,  created  by  the  comparison  of  his  apparently  in- 
adequate education  with  his  startling  successes.  Look- 
ing at  the  individual  himself,  there  is  everything  for 
his  age  to  admire ;  and  as  long  as  his  structures  last, 
each  of  them  is  the  monumentum,  but  not  cere  peren- 
nius.  The  time  will  come  when  his  name  shall  be  like 
that  of  the  builder  of  the  old  London  bridge,  who  was  no 
doubt  the  Telford  of  the  day,  a  stimulus  to  his  contempo- 
raries, useful  and  honoured,  but  not  the  remembered  of 
succeeding  ages.  On  the  other  hand,  the  discoveries  of 
Watt,  though  equally  startling  in  what  is  called  the  prac- 
tical point  of  view,  have  the  mind  of  the  discoverer  im- 
pressed upon  them,  and  have  been,  and  must  be,  the 
guide  of  his  successors,  not  merely  to  repetitions  of  what 
he  did  himself,  but  to  enlargement  of  ideas,  and  to  the 
conversion  of  principles  into  forms  useful  in  art.  Take 
away  the  honourable  qualities  which  enabled  the  two  men 
to  outstrip  their  contemporaries,  each  in  his  line,  qualities 
which  are  the  properties  of  the  individual  minds,  and  con- 
sider what  is  left,  namely,  their  modes  of  proceeding  :  con- 
sider the  effect  of  these  two  modes  upon  men  in  genera],  and 
there  is  nothing  in  that  of  Telford  which  would  raise  the 
workman  above  a  workman,  while  in  that  of  Watt  there  is 
the  vital  principle  to  which  we  owe  all  the  mechanical 
triumphs  of  civilization  and  all  the  theoretical  successes  of 
philosophy. 

This  country  has  been  long  and  happily  distinguished 
for  the  great  attention  which  has  been  paid  to  application  ; 
but  it  is  a  mistake  to  suppose,  as  some  do,  that  our  su- 
premacy in  practical  matters  has  been  coordinate  with, 
still  less  owing  to,  neglect  of  theory.  It  would  be  easy  to 
show  thai  though  the  comparative  neglect  of  theory  alone, 
as  a  pursuit,  added  to  its  diligent  cultivation  on  the  Con- 
tinent, has  given  to  foreign  countries  a  decided  prepon- 
derance of  theoretical  inquirers  and  writers,  yet  that  there 
lias  been  no  country  in  Europe  in  which  a  competent  know- 
ledge of  the  mathematics  and  their  applications  has  been 
spread  over  so  large  a  mass,  or  raised  to  so  high  an  average. 
At  any  time  since  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
:ury  the  total  amount  of  theory  in  Britain  has  been  larger 
than  in  any  other  European  country,  on  account  of  the 
numbers  who  have  possessed  a  useful  amount  of  know- 
edge  :  the  diffusion  of  education  in  Germany  may  have 
altered  our  position,  but  of  this  we  are  not  sure.  For 
jurselves  we  are  perfectly  satisfied,  however  little  those 
most  concerned  may  know  it,  that  this  greater  diffusion 
of  theory  has  been  the  original  moving  cause  of  the 
practical  excellence  to  which  we  have  alluded.  If  those 
-vho  have  become  known  for  splendid  achievements  in  the 
brmer  are  few,  the  same  may  also  be  said  of  the  latter ; 
jut  a  country  owes  its  excellence  in  either  department, 
lot  to  one  or  two  of  the  highest,  but  to  the  mass  of  those 
who  have  competent  knowledge,  producing  good  habits  of 
hought  and  action.  It  is  a  new  thing  to  near  one  branch 
set  against  the  other,  and  would  make  our  writers  of  a 
century  back  think  that  posterity  had  lost  its  senses.  The 
only  addition  wanted  has  been  some  means  of  systematic- 
ally nurturing  the  growth  of  theory,  so  that,  well  as  we 
mve  done  with  what  we  have,  we  may  do  better  with 
more.  The  efforts  which  are  making  on  every  side  to 
extend  education  will,  it  may  be  hoped,  do  what  is  wanted 
n  this  particular ;  they  will  at  least  have  the  effect  of 
making  it  clear  that,  whatever  the  force  of  genius  may  do 
or  an  isolated  exception,  the  mass  of  mankind  must  place 
.heir  best  hope  of  progress  in  the  union  of  theory  and 
practice. 

There  is  also  a  mode  of  viewing  what  we  may  call  the 
action  of  theory,  which  is  absolutely  necessary  to  a  true 
conception  of  the  value  of  their  labours  who  employ  their 
time  in  its  advancement.  Watch  the  arguments  of  a  per- 
son who  calls  himself,  distinctively,  a  practical  man,  and 
t  will  be  always  found  that  a  well-established  theory,  fifty 
fears  old,  is  practical  knowledge,  so  called.  To  this  there 
cannot  be  the  slightest  objection  in  the  non-distinctive 
sense  :  a  well-established  theory,  which  has  been  shown 
;o  be  sufficient,  is  practical,  as  opposed  to  one  of  which 

VOL.  XXIV.— 2  X 


THE 


338 


THE 


not 


theiimv  »t,MO 

K>  well  it- 

theory,  against  practice,  as  pn»' 

Utter  nttoaswu 

fchare  of  t: 

the  most  recent  practical  knowledge  -o  the  other 

•in-  ontii  of  W] 
fret  part  of  the  mass  of  <! 

that  part  which  is  not  yet  off  the  anvil.  Suppose  n  mer- 
chant cuing  into  the  bail  court  to  prove 

her   hi«   I 

•  ould    pmi1  sum: 

,d  «n- 

ssful.  if  it  would  not  ho  so.  over  and  over  again. 
he  is  further  qr  •  positively 

icss  will  make  you  worth  the  sum  in 
on.'   "'  1   cannot.'  ho  rc;ilie<.   •  swear  any 

such  thin:;  ;  but  I  have  enough  not  employed  in  business, 
in  land  and  mortgages,  and  in  the  funds!  to  pay  twenty 
shillings  in  tho  pound  five  times  over,  upon  every  risk 
which  I  sm  liable  to.1  What  would  be  thought  of  counsel 
who  should  retort,  '  That  is  nothing  to  ug ;  you  are  described 
as  a  merchant,  and  your  solvency  must  be  tried  by  tho 
state  of  that  part  of  your  property  which  is  now  under- 
going the  fluctuations  of  trade?"  S:u-h  is  and  always 
be  the  state  of  theory  ;  the  amount  which  is  actually 
realised  is  enormously  greater  than  the  floating  balance 
which  is  being:  worked  out.  Those  who  arc  encased  in 
producing:  fixed  capital  from  the  latter,  have  a  risrht  to  the 
credit  which  arises  Scorn  the  interest  of  the  former:  their 
labours  for  the  time  being  are  not  to  produce  their  return 
at  the  instant. 

We  have,  in  compliance  with  common  notions,  not  ad- 
verted to  the  consequences  of  theory  upon  the  mind  and 
thoiichts  of  men,  but  have  treated  it  as  if  its  sole 
were  to  advance  the  mechanical  arts  and  better  the  phy- 
sical condition  of  society.     But  this  is  under  protest  that 

if  it  conld  not  be  proved  that  rational  ii 
of  nature  had  added  one  single  atom  to  1  com- 

fort of  life,  there  would  remain  such  an  enormous  K 

I  ameliorations  which  can  be  traced  to  that  source  as 
would  outwejeh  even  the  triumphs  of  steam. 

THEORY  OF  COUPLES.  The  two  motions  of  which 
any  rigid  system  is  susceptible  arc  those  m '  Ti:  \N STATION 
and  of  ROTATION.  Each  of  these  has  (hi- 
namely,  that  one  particular  case  of  its  application  yields 
the  other  kind  of  motion.  Every  motion  of  a  system  can, 
for  any  one  instant,  lie  resolved,  at  most,  into"  a  motion 
of  translation  <v,  :n,  combined  with  a  motion 

of  rotation  about  an  ]  even- application  tit 

tern  of  forces  to  any  ri^id  body,  produ-  •  •-. 
impound  ion  and  r- 

equal  and  opp 

translation,  be  applied  at  tho  same  point,  or  if  equal  and 
opposite  forces,  such  as  would  produce  rotation,  be  ap- 
plied about  the  same  a\i  ,lt  is  that  the  equili- 
brium, or  previous  motion,  of  the  system  remains  undis- 
turbed. 

But  if  the  equal  and  opposite  forces  of  tr.i' 
applied  at  different  points,  the  result   is  rotation  only,  for 
the  first  instant :  and  if  the  equal  and  opposite  for 
rotation  be  applied  about  axes  not  coinciding,  but  only 
parallel,  t)  at  the  first  i  only. 

And  o  doctrine  of  motion  is  now  properly  ex- 

cluded from  si  ceding-  theorems,  to 

with  others  mentioned  in  H 
stood,  and  viewed  in  conr 
librium,  which  is  always  illustrated,  thuu 
demonstrated,  by  si  ns. 

It  was  for  a  long  time  a  o 
though  any  tw<- 
rally  speaking,  have  their  joint  < 

third  force,  yet  if  the  two  f<"  itwlc, 

and  opposite  in  direction,  no  such  single  third  force  will  do. 
If  indeed  they  he  applied  in  the  same  line.  :is  OPandQ  R 
in  the  first  figure,  they  cquililvatr  each  other:  but  if  not 
in  the  same  line,  as  O  P  and  Q  R  in  the  seeom 


them,  or  produe, 

M.   1'omsot,  aln- 


one  single  fore-  <  mj  which  will  either  equilibrate 


f  forces  to  the  establishment  of  the  theory 

:ade 
his  system  rapidly  take  its  place 

shall  in  this  article  point  out 

the  manner  in  which  this  can  be  done,  vir  'i  do- 

to  draw  the  attention  of  • 

who  have  learned  the  doctrine  of  equilil  rium  in  the  old 
AC  cannot  make  it  intel'i 

to  those  who  ha'.  '  the  piin. 

M.  Poin&ot  called  a  pair  of  equal  and  opposite  fn: 
not  equilibrating  each  other,  by  the  nam 
too  general  a  term  p,  it  is  1u  be  understood  a 

couple  which  cannot  be  made  anyt! 
cannot  be  replaced  by  one  force  :  an  ; 
The  }>/,irn'  ot  the  couple  is  the  plane  drawn  11 
parallel  forces  :  the  arm  of  the  couple  is  any  line  drawn 
perpendicular  to  the  forces  from  the  din 
that  of  the  other:  the  art's  of  the  couple  is  a' 
line  perpendicular  to  its  plane.     And  if  \ 
axis,  it  will  be  apparent  that  the  moment  or  li- 
the couple  [T.KVxi;]   to  turn  the  system  about  11 

l'\  the  product  of  one   of  the  forces  and  the 
arm.      •  •  to  the  a\is.  .r  be  ' 

one  of  the  forces,  .r^-a  is  that  of  tl 
arm  of  the  couple.     Hence  if  P  one  of  the   t 
united  leverage  is  P  (.r±n)  —  Pr  or  ±  Pa.      This  pro- 
duct Pa  is  called  the  mumrnt  of  t 
The  last-mentioned  property  will  (rive  a  high  probni 

'f  to  the  following  theorems,  which 

the  theory  of  couples,  and  can  be  proved,  the  first  by  aid 
of  the  composition  offerees  only,  the  second  by  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  lever.  Any  couple  may  have  the  direction  of 
its  arm  ch.v.iircd.  and  consequently  of  its  forces,  i:; 

,  or,  either  in  its  own  plane,  or  in  any  piano 
1  to  it.  provided  only  that  the  direction  in  which  it 
to  turn  t!.  remains  unaltered.  Secondly, 

any  couple  may  be  replaced  by  another  which  has  the 
same  moment,  the  plane  and  direction  of  turninjr  remain- 
ing unaltered;  that  is,  the  arm  nir; 

•  nod  in   any  manner,    provided  the   forces   be   in- 
I  or  diminished  in  the  same  proportion.     If  thi 
tern  were  in  equilibrium  before,  it  will  remain  in  equili- 
brium, however  its  couples  may  be  altered,  in  any  man- 
ner described  in  the  abo\c  theorems.     Hence  it  follows 
that  a  couple  is  entirely  i;iven  when  there  are  given : — 1, 
Its  axis  or  any  line  perpendicular  to  its  plane,  which  is  also 
perpendicular  to  any  of  the  planes  into  which  it  may  be 
removed.     2,  The  moment  of  the  couple  :  specific  I 
or  arms  arc  unnecessary  for  its  description,  so  Ion;:  as  their 
product  is  given.     :$.  The  direction  ih  which   r 
turn  the  system.     Tin-  :  a  couple 

is  then  as  follows  :   suppose  for  example  n  horizontal  one  : 
Take  any  vertical  line  for  the  axis  of  the  couple,  on  that 
ay  down   a   Hue   proportional   to  its  moment,  and 
\ertical   lines  drawn   upwards  shall  represent 
monic'  :   to  turn  ' 

and  downwards.  '  nj  to  turn  the  system  from 

L'n  must  also  be  agreed  upon ;  posi1 
moment  m'  m  tendency  to  turn  in  one  direction. 

;ati\o  in  the  other. 
The   composition   and  resolution   of  couples 

:i  manner  which  peru 
.    Wlu-n  tlie  couples  can  have  a  common 
the  same  plane  or  parallel  plain 
.!ant  is,  in  si<;n  and  magnitude,  the  sum  of  the 
c-omponente,  with  their  pri  To 

find   the   resultant    of  two    couples  whu '  '    nave 

take  axes  to  them  whiei 
.  and  on  these  axes  lay  down   li 

i    their    proper 

On  those   lim  -,-  a  parallelogram  : 

resulting 
' 

,:ist    be  taken   to   la\ 
properly  01 

M  the  par!  Njeofthe  : 

which  lie  in  the  an-le  made  by  the  lines  representing  mo- 
ments be  Umie.l  I))  tin  .'Its  in  opposite  directions. 


T 


HE 


339 


T  H  E 


To  the  student  to  whom  such  a  direction  would  be  usefu 
we  should  say,  appeal  in  all  cases  to  the  perceptions  de 
rived  from  ROTATION. 

To  apply  the  preceding  theorems  to  the  statics  of  a  rigid 
body,  we  first  take  the  following  conventions : — Assume  an 
origin  and  three  rectangular  axes  of  co-ordinates,  as  usual 
Let  the  forces  which  act  at  each  point  of  the  system  be 
decomposed  into   three,    parallel  to  the   axes  of  x,  y 
and  z.     Let  each  force  be  called  positive,  when  it  acts 
towards  the  positive  part  of  the  axis  to  which  it  is  parallel 
if  for  instance  the  axis  of  z  be  vertical,  and  if  its  positive 
part  tend  upwards,  all  forces  in  the  direction  of  z,  wherever 
they  act,  are  called  positive  while  they  act  upwards,  and 
negative  when  downwards.     As  to  couples,  let  their  mo- 
ments be  called  positive  when,  acting  in  the  planes  of  a;  and 
y,  y  and  z,  z  and  x,  they  tend  to  turn  the  positive  part  oi 
the  first-named  towards  the  positive  part  of  the  second 
(xy,  yz,  zx}.     Let  P,  be  the  first  point  of  the  system  ;  let 
its  co-ordinates  be  a-,,  y,,  z, ;    let  the  forces  in  the  three 
directions  acting  at  that  point  be  X,,  Y,,  Z,.     Let  P,  be 
the  second  point ;  ay  iy,,  z2,  its  co-ordinates ;  X2,  Y2,  Z2, 
the  forces  there  applied :  and  so  on.    All  co-ordinates  and 
forces  have  their  proper  signs.     At  the  origin  apply  the 
following  pairs  of  equilibrating  forces,  X,  and  —X,,  Y, 
and  -Y,,  Z,  and  -Z,;  X,  and  -X,,  Y,  and  -  Y8,  Z4  and 
—  Z2,  and  so  on  :   which  of  course  do  not  affect  the  equili- 
brium,  and  are  over  and   above   those  already  applied. 
Again,  at  the  extremity  of  a",,  in  the  axis  of  x,  apply  the 
equilibrating  forces  Y,,  —  Y, ;  at  the  extremity  of  y,,  in  the 
•  if  ;/.,  apply  Z,,  —  Z, ;    at  the  extremity  of  .r,,  in  the 
:i\i.-  <if  z.  apply  X,,  —X,,  and  so  on  for  the  other  points. 
Lastly,  let  the  points  of  application  of  the  original  forces 
X,,  ¥„  Z,,  be  changed  so  that  each  shall  act  at  the  projec- 
tion of  the  point  of  application  made  by  its  co-ordinate  : 
and  the  same  for  the  other  points.      Nothing  is  done  but 
the  application  of  mutually  destroying  forces,  or  the  change 
of  the  point  of  application  of  a  force  to  another  point  in 
its  direction,  and  the  following  figure  will  show  the  present 
arrangement  for  one  point.     The  original  forces,  trans- 
ferred, are  marked  X,  Y,  Z ;  the  original  point  of  applica- 
tion P,  and  the  other  forces,  equilibrating  two  and  two, 
have  great  and  small  letters  at  their  extremities. 


n 


We  now  see  that  the  forces  X,  Y,  Z,  are  equivalent  to 

1.  The  forces  X,  Y,  Z  (marked  A,  B,  C)  applied  at  the 
origin. 

2.  A  pair  of  couples  to  the  axis  of  z  (L,  6)  (X,  n\  the 
first  positive  with  the  moment  YJ-,  the  second  negative 
with  the  moment  Xy.     These  two  are  equivalent  to  one 
couple  with  the  moment  Yar— Xy. 

3.  A  pair  of  couples  to  the  axis  of  x  (M,  c)  (Y,  I), 
the  total  moment  of  which  is  Xy  —  \z. 

-1.  A  pair  of  couples  to  the  axis  of  y  (N,  a)  (Z,  m)  the 
total  moment  of  which  is  Xz-Zz. 

Apply  this  to  every  point  in  the  system,  and  let  SX 
stand  for  X,  +  X2  +  ,  &c.,  and  so  on :  hence  it  appears  that 
the  whole  of  the  forces  are  equivalent  to  forces  2X,  sY, 
£Z,  applied  at  the  origin  in  the  directions  of  x,  y,  and  z, 
together  with  couples  in  the  planes  of  ay,  yz,  ax,  of  which 
the  moments  are — 

Xi/X  2(Zy-Y*r),  S(X*-Z*). 
Let  A'=2X,  L  =  S(Zy-Yz) 
B=SY,  M=2(X2-/r>, 
C=SZ,  N=2(Yx-Xy) 


_   ....    ..^) 

Then  it  appears  that  all  the  forces  can  be  reduced  to 
one  force,  V,  acting  at  the  origin,  making  angles  with  the 
axes  whose  cosines  are  A :  V,  B  :  V,  C  :  V ;  and  one  couple 
having  a  moment  W,  and  whose  axis  makes  with  the  axes 
of  co-ordinates  angles  whose  cosines  are  L:W,  M:W, 
N :  W.  But  when  there  is  equilibrium,  both  the  force  and 
the  moment  of  the  couple  must  vanish,  for  the  single  force 
cannot  equilibrate  a  couple.  Consequently  the  conditions 
of  equilibrium  are  V  =  0,  W  =  0,  which  give  A=0,  B=0, 
0=0,  L=0,  M=0,  N=0,  the  six  well-known  conditions 
of  equilibrium. 

The  forces  will  have  a  single  resultant  when  V  falls  in 
the  plane  of  the  couple  whose  moment  is  W ;  that  is,  when 
the  direction  of  V  is  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the 
couple.  This  takes  place  when  AL  +  BM  +  CN  =  O,  a  well- 
known  condition. 

For  further  information  we  may  refer  to  Poinsot's  Sie- 
mens de  Statique ;  or,  in  English,  to  Pratt's  Mathematical 
Principles  of  Natural  Philosophy ;  or  Pritchard's  Theory 
of  Couples. 

THEORY  OF  EQUATIONS.  Under  this  term  is  ex- 
pressed all  that  part  of  algebra  which  treats  of  the  proper- 
ties of  rational  and  integral  functions  of  a  single  variable, 
such  as  ax  +  b,  ax^+bx+c,  ax*  +  bx*+cx+e,  and  so  on: 
a,  b,  c,  &c.,  being  any  algebraical  quantities,  positive  or 
negative,  whole  or  fractional,  real  or  imaginary.  Unless 
however  the  contrary  be  specified,  it  is  usual  to  suppose 
these  co-efficients  real,  not  imaginary. 

The  great  question  of  the  earlier  algebraists  was  the 
finding  of  a  value  for  the  variable  which  should  make  the 
expression  equal  to  a  given  number  or  fraction  :  as  what 
must  x  be  so  that  3.T*+2.^  may  be  11,  or  x*—x?+6x  may 
40,  and  so  on.  In  modern  form  it  would  be  asked 
what  value  of  x  will  make  3x*  +  2x  — 11  =  0,  or  xs-xi-}- 
6x— 40  =  0,  and  so  on.  To  find  values  of  a  variable  which 
should  make  an  expression  vanish,  or  become  equal  to 
nothing,  was  then  the  first  desideratum ;  and  these  values 
are  now  called  roots  of  the  expression.  Later  algebraists 
made  the  finding  of  these  roots  subservient  to  the  dis- 
covery of  other  properties  of  the  expressions. 

The  Hindu  algebraists  communicated  to  the  Arabs,  and 
hrough   them  to  the  Italians,  the  complete   solution  of 
equations  of  the  first  and  second  degrees.     The  Italians 
added  the  solution  of  equations  of  the  third  degree,  and 
of  the  fourth  imperfectly.    These  last  two  degrees  have 
>een  completed  m  more  recent  times,  so  that  it  may  be 
now  said  that  the  equations  of  the  first  four  degrees  have 
>een  completely  conquered :   that  is  to  say,  having  given 
he  equation  axt-{-bx3-}-cxt  +  ex-{-f  —  0,  an  algebraical  ex- 
wession  can  be  found,  having  four  values,  and  four  values 
>nly,  and  being  a  function  of  a,  b,  c,  e,  f,  which  being 
ubstituted  for  x  on  the  first  side  of  the  equation,  shall 
make  that  first  side  vanish.     But  the  student  would  look 
n  vain  through  the  books  of  algebra  to  see  this  expression : 
t  is  both  complicated  and  useless,  and  it  is  more  desirable 
o  indicate  how  it  is  to  be  found,  than  to  find  it. 
The  equation  of  the  fifth  degree  was  attempted  in  ail 
uarters,  without  success :   means  were  found  of  approxi- 
lating  to  the  arithmetical  value  of  one  or  another  root  in 
ny  one  given  equation ;   but  never  a  definite  function  of 
tie  co-efficients  which  would  apply  in  all  cases.     A  proof 
vas  given  by  Abel,  in  Crelle's  Journal  (reprinted  in  his 
vorks),  that  such  an  expression  was  impossible,  but  this 
iroof  was  not  generally  received  :   it  was  admitted  by  Sir 
W.  Hamilton,  who  illustrated  the  argument  at  great  length 
in  the  '  Transactions '  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  vol. 
xviii.,  part  ii. ;   but  the  singular  complexity  of  the  reason- 
ing will  probably  prevent  most  persons  from  attending  to 
the  subject.    We  do  not  mean  in  this  article  to  enter  intt 
the  history  of  the  theory  of  equations,  but  only  to  place  its 
general  state  before  the  reader  by  an  exhibition  of  the 
principal  theorems,  mostly  without  proof.    For  works  on 
the  subject  we  may  refer  as  follows: — Hutton,  Tracts,  vol. 
ii.,  Tract  33,  which  contains  a  full  account  of  the  earlier 
algebraists;  Peacock, '  Report  on  certain  Parts  of  Analysis,' 
in  the  Report  of  the  Third  Meeting  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion ;  or  the  recent  works  of  Murphy,  Young,  or  Hymers  ; 
all  of  which  are  good,  and  written  on  such  different  plans 
that  any  one  who  makes  a  particular  study  of  the  subject 
will  find  it  advantageous  to  consult  them  all.     In  French 
the  standard  works  are  those  of  Budan,  Lagrange,  and 
Fourier,  which  however  all  treat  of  particular  topics  ;  the 


•J  1 


340 


T  II    K 


algebraical  treatises  of  Bourdon  and  I.cfcbvre  dc  Fourey 
Uke  it  more  generally. 

The  particular  points  relative  to  equations  or  the  first 
four  degrees  are  as  follows  :  — 

1.  The  expression  of  the  first  decree  can  be  reduced  to 
the  form  ar+b  ;  it  vanishes  when  ,r=  —  b:n,  and  has 
only  this  one  root.  And  «  r+ft  is  of  the  same  sign  as  a  or 
not,  according  as  T  is  greater  or  less  than  the  root. 

i  In-  expression  of  the  second  degree  is  more  import- 
ant. It  can  always  be  reduced  to  the  form  ax*  +  t>j-  +  r, 
and  its  properties  are  best  developed  by  transforming  the 
preceding  into 


There  are  three  distinct  cases,  according  as  6*  u  greater 

•  qual  to,  or  lew  Unit: 

\Vhcn  A'  >  4<ir,  the  expression  tu  '-\-lu-+r  lias  two  real 
and  Jittering  roots,  contained  in  the  formula* 


2a 

and  has  always  the  same  sign  as  a,  except  when  x  }'.• 
tween  those  roots.     Every  change  of  signs  in  passing  from 
a  to  b  and  from  b  to  c  indicates  a  positive  root,  and  every 
continuation  a  negative  root  :    and  when  one  root  is  posi- 
tive and  one  root  negative,  the  positive  or  negative  root 
is  numerically  the  greater,  according  as  (a,  A)  sh- 
change  or  continuation.    When  x=  —  b:1/i,  the  expres- 
sion is  at  its  numerical  maximum  between  the  two  roots, 
its  then  value  being  (4ae  —  6f)  :  4a. 

When  £r  =  4>/r,  the  expression  ax?+bx+c  is  a  pcrfeei 
square  with  respect  to  a;  and  absolutely  so  if  a  be  a  square. 
The  two  roots  become  equal,  and  each  equal  to  —  p:2fl. 
Tlii>  expression  now  never  differs  in  sign  from  a. 

When  6'<4o'-,  the  two  roots  become  imaginary,  the 
expression  always  has  the  sign  of  a,  and  is  numerically 
least  when  j-=  "-6  :  '2i,  beim:  then  (4<if  —  6*)  :4/i. 

:j.  Thi>  equation  of  the  third  degree  (or  cubic)  has  been 
separately  considered  in  the  article  IRKEDVCIUI.K  CASE. 

•J.  Nothing  belongs  particularly  to  the  equation  of  the 
fourth  degree  (or  biquadratic)  except  the  recital  of  the 
various  modes  in  which  the  solution  is  reduced  to  1 
a  cubic.    The  various  modes  are   distinguished  by  the 
names  of  their  inventors. 

l-'-'rniri.  Let  ,r4  +«.<*  +  bjc+c  =  Q.  This  can  be  trans- 
formed into 

(a?  +  V')'  =  (2r  -  a)  T*  -  bi-  +  r-  -  r  : 
make  the  second  side  a  perfect  square  :  t  i  from 

b'  -  4  (r1  -  c)  (2;;  -  a), 
or  Sv*  —  4ac*  —  See  +  4<ir  —  b1 

tlir  extraction  of  the  square  root  then  reduces  the  biqua- 
dratic to  a  couple  of  quadr 

7>.v  (  •.;;•/<•*.  Let  .T'  +  cur1  +  bx  +  C  =  (a*  +  >Jp.  <*+/) 
(&  -  t/p.-r  +  i'  ,  which  gives 

g+f-P  =  a,(g-f)  >Jl>  =  '>'.fe  =  <•. 
or  ;/  +  -Ziji1  +  ;'(i«  -  1     ,:/  -  b-  =  0: 

find  a  positive  root  of  this  equation  (it  certainly  has  one). 
and  from  it  find  g  and/;  then  the  roots  of  Xs  +  +fji.  .1  -f  / 
=  0,  and  x*—  >Jp  ,x  -|-/=0,  are  those  of  the  given  equa- 
tion. 

Thomas  Simpson  gave  a  modification  of  Ferrari's 
method,  and  Kulei  one  of  that  of  Des  Cartes.  (Murphy's 
Theory  of  Equations  i  /..  U.  A.  .  pp.  51. 

Tlie  theory  of  equations  of  all  degrees  is  to  be  divided 

into  two  distinct  parts;  the  numerical  solution,  and  the 

general  properties  of  the  roots  and  the  expressions  thcni- 

i.     The  iiumi'rirnl  solution  must  be  carefully  distin- 

•  •(1    from    ''  V    miluliiin  :    the     former    term 

applying  to  any  mode  of  approximating  to  a  single  root, 

the  latter  to  any  mode  of  evhiliitiiv.- 

for  the  roots.  tVe  shall  begin  by  the  general  properties  of 
the  roots:  the  expression  in  question  being  <{>.r,  or 

a^c  +n,.r       +  a,x       +....+  rt»-i-r  +  "„• 

1.  If  r  be  a  root  of  <ftx,  or  if  $r=0,  then  <j>f  is  dh  i 
hy  r  —  r,  and  the  quotient  is  another  such  expression  nf 

'  -  1  th  degree,  every  root  of  which  is  al.-o  a  . 
4>r,  and  every  number  which  is  not  a  root  (r  except 

*  Thfo  frrmnU  •houM  be  mmmlUM  to  memory,  And  quadratic  equation) 
•!••)•»  Ml*«d  bv  H.  Nnihuut  U  mom  iraiutng  than  U>r  vitality  o! 


••*^ei^  *rf  e«»pl«ttn<  UM  iqu«n  and  cxtr*cliii«  the  root  in  • 

••«.    So  doubi  a  Xwlrat  ihouU  have  torn  training  hi  thu  lart-ni. 

*MM» 

!••  f 


:  b.1  h»  ali4B.«. 

fWMft  OI  M»  ^ 


aboald  br  thai  of  r»iDro.bctin|.  one*  for  all, 


not  a  root  of  </  i/,j    canivit  have  more  roots 

than  it  h:w  dime!  ft  than  n  roots. 

•J.  \Vhenthe  <  -  r)",  it  is 

said  to  have  m  roots  each  equal  to  r  ;  and  when  tlii- 
case,  the  substitution  of  r-f  y  for  x  would  give  an  expres- 
sion in  which  y  is  the  lo\\.  of  y. 

it.   I  '     H  ii  lias  dimen- 

sions.    Th;  i«m   is  one  which   has  only  lai 

been  demonstrated  in  elementary  works,  and  we  *ha!l 

ittion  with  tin'  view  of  extending  the 
knowledge  of  a  remarkable  theorem  of  M.  Caucliy.  which 
is  just  Mii-li  a  :':  victory  over  tile  (liflieur 

finding   how   many   \\  leral    he    Intv. 

limits,  a«  Stum'* theorem  is  relatively  to  real  roots.  \\ V 
shall  assume  the  extended  algebra  explained  in  NKGATIVK, 
&c. 

Take  any  rectangular  axes,  and  let  r  and  y  be  the  co- 
ordinates of  a  point,  and  consider   the    expression  tf>  (r 
+yV-  1)  which  can   be   reduced  to  the  form  P  +  Q ,/-  1, 
where  P  and  1)  is  each  a  real  turn  ( 
the  point  move  round  the  contour  ABCD  in  1! 
direction  of  revolution,  and  let  the  fraction  P  :  Q  be  formed 
for  all  the  points  in  the  contour  (or  a  sufficient  nun 
in  succession.    Examine  every  case  in  which  P  :  Q  passes 
through  Oand  changes  sign  :  let  it  change  sign  from  -f-  to 
— .  A  times  and  from   —  to  +,  /  times.    .\e\t.  whcin  , 
and  »/  have  such  values  that  .r  +  y  V  —  1  is  a  root  of  the 
expression,  or  <j>  (r-f-y «/—  1)  =  0.  let  the  point  whu 
ordinates  are  .r  and  y  be  called  a  radical  point  of  the 
expression.     The  theorem  to  be  proved  is  as  follows:  the 
number  of  radical  points  which  lie  irithin  the  contour 
AI((  'D  is  ^  (A  -/i.  neither  more  nor  fewer.     It  mi 
understood  that  the  contour  is  so  taken  that  no  radical 
point  lies  upon  it. 


Take  nny  point  P  within  tne  contour,  and  round  it  draw 
an  infinitely  small  contour,  round  which  a  point  is  to  be 
first  carried.     Four  cases  arise  :  neither  P  nor  Q  \;n 
within  nor  on  this  contour ;    P  vanishes,  but  not  Q ;  Q 
vanishes,  but  not  P;  or  both  vanish. 

If  neither  P  nor  Q  vanish,  there  is  never  change  of 
sign  in  either(for  being  integral  functions,  they  cannot  be- 
come infinite  for  any  finite  values  of  x  and  y).  and  the 
theorem  is  true  for  the  infinitely  small  contour;  for  ft  and 
/  are  both  =  0,  and  there  is  no  radical  point. 

If  P  alone  vanish,  the  curve  P  =  0  ''remember  that  P  is 
a  function  of  T  and  y)  passes  through*  the  contour  two  or 
somu  other  even  number  of  times.  The  fraction  P  :  Q 
may  vanish  and  change  sign  as  often  as  the  curve  passes 
through  the  infinitely  small  contour:  but  there  must 
be  as  ina ny  changes  from  -t-  to  —  as  from  —  to  +.  For 
suppose  P  to  be  positive  at  the  commencement  of  the 
revolution;  it  is  therefore  positive  at  the  end.  \V:itc 
down  the  sign  +  twice,  ana  between  it  write  any  signs 
whatever,  as 

+ +  +  -  +  -+; 

it  will  always  be  found  that  -I —  and  —  +  occur  equal 
numbers  of  times.  Hence  the  theorem  is  true  in  this 
case;  for  A  =  /,  and  there  is  no  radical  point. 

If  Q  alone  vanish,  the  curve  Q  =  0  pa>  -  tin- 

point,  and  everything  is  as  in  the  last,  except  that  P  :  Q 
always  becomes  infinite  when  it   changes  sign.     Hence 
the  theorem  is  true  ;  for  k  and  /  are  each  =  0,  and  tin 
cal  point. 

Lastly,  let  there  be  a  radical  point  within,  hut  not  on, 
the  infinitely  small  contour:  which  may  be  supposed  to 
contain  not  more  than  one  distinct  radical  point.  Let  Z  be 
the  radius  vector  drawn  from  the  origin  to  the  point  of  the 
contour  whose  co-ordinates  arc  x  and  y  ;  so  that,  using  the 

•  Prarcntlhc  curve  P=0  from  touching  the  contour  liy  (mlarptng  the 
a  little  U  neCMftrjr. 


THE 


341 


THE 


extended  algebra,  Z=x+y  V-l.  Again,  let  ft  and  v  be 
the  co-ordinates  of  the  radical  point,  and  A  its  radius  vec- 
tor; so  that  A  =  p  +  w'-l.  Let  R  be  the  radius  drawn 
from  the  radical  point  to  the  contour,  so  that  Z  =  A  -)-  R, 
R  being  infinitely  small.  By  hypothesis  p+vj-l  is 
a  root  of  <f>s  =  0 ;  let  there  be  m  equal  roots  belonging 
to  the  radical  point  (m  being  1,  or  some  other  integer) : 
then  will  e£(A  +  R)  be  capable  of  expansion  into  the 

form  BR™  +  B^+'+.&c.,  of  which,  R  being  infinitely 
small,  only  the  first  term  need  be  considered.  Now  let 
B  and  R  (taking  the  most  general  forms)  be  b  (cos  /3 

+  sin/3 .  V  -  1)  and  r  (cosp  +  sin p V—  1),  whence  BR™ 
will  be 

brm{  cos(mp-t-/3)+sin(ff!p+/3).  */-l}' 
and  P  :  Q  will  be  cot  (mp+/3),  its  remaining  terms  being 
infinitely  small.  Let  R  make  a  complete  circuit,  or  let  p 
increase  from  0  to  2ir,  whence  mp  -f-  0  will  go  m  times 
through  four  right  angles.  In  each  revolution  cot  (mp+/3) 
will  change  from  +  to  -  twice,  passing  through  nothing : 
but  never  from  —  to  4-  except  by  passing  through  infinity. 
The  theorem  is  then  true  :  for  k  =  2»i,  1  =  0,  $(k  —  l)  =  m, 
and  there  are  m  radical  points  (or  one  radical  point  be- 
longing to  m  equal  roots)  within  the  contour. 

The  theorem  is  then  true  for  every  infinitely  small  con- 
tour. Next,  let  the  whole  contour  ABCD  be  divided  into 
an  infinite  number  of  infinitely  small  figures,  with  no 
other  limitation  than  that  no  radical  point  is  to  fall  upon 
one  of  the  lines  of  division.  Let  a  point  move  round 
each  of  the  infinitely  small  figures  in  the  positive  direc- 
tion of  revolution.  It  is  clear  that  the  expression  $(2A 
—  2/1  will  not  be  altered  if  we  remove  all  the  internal 
division  lines  and  leave  only  the  external  contour  ABCD : 
for  each  internal  line  is  described  by  two  points  moving 
in  opposite  directions,  and  wherever  one  point  adds  a  unit 
to  2A,  the  other  adds  one  to  2/.  Hence  the  value  of 
2/{  — £/  can  be  found  by  finding  that  of  k  —  I  for  the  boun- 
dary only  :  and  the  theorem  is  proved. 

If  <j>Z  =  AZ  +  A,Z  +  •  •  • ,  and  if  we  make  the  con- 
tour in  question  a  circle  with  the  origin  as  a  centre,  and 

a  radius  so  great  that  the  highest  term  AZ"  need  be  the 
only  one  retained,  we  can  immediately  prove  that  <£Z  has 
neither  more  nor  less  than  n  roots.  Jor,  Z  being  z  (cos  ? 
4-  sin  ?  V  —  1 )  and  A  being  a  (cos  n  +  sin  a .  •/  —  1)>  we 
find  as  before  that  P :  Q,  or  all  of  it  that  need  be  con- 
sidered, is  cot  (n£+a),  whence  k  =  2n,  1=0,  and  -J  (k—l) 
=  n. 

4.  We  may  now  refer  to  STURM'S  THEOREM,  to  Fourier's 
theorem  (given  in  the  article  just  cited),  to  Des  Cartes' 
theorem,  a  very  limited  particular  case  of  Fourier's,  and  to 
Homer's  adaptation  of,  and  addition  to,  the  old  method  of 
numerical  solution  by  Vieta  (an  account  of  the  history  of 
this  last  problem   is   given   in  the   '  Companion   to  the 
Almanac'  for  1839).     We  have  then,  since  the  beginning 
oi  this  century,  a  complete  theoretical  mode  of  determin- 

'!ie  number  of  roots,  real  or  imaginary,  between  any 
given  limits ;  both  exceedingly  difficult  in  the  complica- 
tion of  the  operations  which  they  require.  Also,  a  mode 
of  easy  application,  though  not  theoretically  perfect,  of 
determining  the  limits  between  which  the  real  roots  lie  ; 
and  a  process  for  the  numerical  solution  which  places  that 
question  upon  the  same  footing  as  the  common  extraction 
of  square,  cube,  &c.  roots ;  making  those  extractions 
themselves,  except  only  in  the  case  of  the  square  root, 
much  easier  than  before. 

5.  The  Newtonian  method  of  approximation  is  in  the 
following  theorem.     If  a  be  nearly  a  root  of  <jix=0,  and 
if  <j>a  :  (f>'a  be  small,  then 

ipa 

~  0^ 

is  more  nearly  a  root.  See  APPROXIMATION  for  the  use  of 
this,  and  TAYLOR'S  THEOREM,  p.  129,  for  a  more  extensive 
result.  But  the  use  of  Horner's  method  is  very  much 
more  easy  than  that  of  Newton :  the  former,  in  fact,  in- 
cludes and  systematizes  the  latter.  But  this  remark 
applies  only  to  algebraical  equations  :  for  all  others  New- 
t'orm  just  given  remains  practically  unamended. 

6.  We  refer  to  the   article  ROOT  for  the   solution  of 

x  ±1  =  0.    The  following   equation,  x  "  ±  2  cos  0  .  x 


+  1  =  0,  admits  of  complete  solution  on  the  same  princi- 
ples. 

7.  If  <pa  and  06  have  different  signs,  one  or  some  other 
odd  number  of  roots  of  <?x  lies  between  a  and  b  •    but  if 
they  have  the  same  signs,  either  no  one  or  an  even  number 

)t  roots  lies  between  a  and  b.  Every  equation  of  an  odd 
degree  has  at  least  one  real  root,  negative  or  positive  ac- 
cording as  the  first  and  last  terms  have  like  or  unlike 
signs.  Every  equation  of  an  even  degree  having  the  first 
and  last  terms  of  unlike  si-gns  has  aUeast  two  real  roots 
one  positive  and  one  negative. 

8.  If  all  the  coefficients  of  $x  be  real,  and  one  of  the 
two,  a±&V-l,  be  a  root,  so  is  the  other:   and  if  all  the 
coefficients  be  rational,  and  one  of  the  two,  a±  ,76,  a  and  b 
being  rational,  be  a  root,  so  is  the  other.    If  there  be  a 
rational  fractional  root,  its  denominator  must  be  a  divisor 
of  the  first  coefficient,  and  its  numerator  of  the  last,  as 
soon  as  the  equation  p=0  is  cleared  of  fractions.     N.B. 
Among  the  divisors  of  a  number  we  reckon  1  and  itself. 

9.  In  the  equation  aa  x"+a,  x*~l+a,  x"~2  +  ...  +a 
x+an  =  0,  the  sum  of  all  the  roots  is  -a,  :  na,  the  sum 
of  the  products  of  every  two  is  at:a0,  that  of  the  products 
of  every  three  is  -o3  :  a0,  and  so  on.     Finally,  the  pro- 
duct of  all  the  roots  is  ±  a^  :  a0,  according  as  n  is  even  or 
odd.    And  if  r, ,  r,,  ...  r^  be  the  roots,  then  a0x*+  ...  is 
the  same  as  a0  (a;— r,}  (,T  — r2)  ....  (x—r  ). 

10.  If  the   preceding   expression  be   called   Ax,  and 

B—  1  n      o 

naax       +  (n  —  l)alx    '+...,  its  derived  function,  be 
called  <J>'x,  we  have 


(fix      x  —  rt      x—r,   '  '   x—r   ' 

and  if  tyx  be  any  rational  and  integral  algebraical  function 
of  a-,  the  sum  ij/r,  +  i//r2  +  ....  +  ^rn  is  the  coefficient  of 

the  highest  power  of  x  in  the  remainder  of  the  division  of 
"x  X  ^/x  by  <jix. 

11.  If  Sn  in   all   cases  stand  for  the  sum  of  the  »th 
powers  of  the  roots  of  the  equation,  we  have 

S0  =  n,  ff0S,  +  a,  =  0,  o0  S2  +  a,  S,  +  2at  =  0 

and  so  on  up  to 

*"  C*  i  Q  i  i  n 

'   U  i    O?j_  1    — f"  dn  ^5n  —  2    ~T     ••••    "T"    ??(Z      ~~   (J 

after  which,  in  all  cases, 

Hence  also  the  coefficients  of  the  expression  may  be 
found  in  terms  of  S,  S,  ....  Sn>  us  soon  as  </0  is  given. 

12.  All  rational  symmetrical  functions  of  the  roots  may 
be  easily  expressed  in  terms  of  S,  S2,  &c.,  and  thence  in 
terms  of  the  coefficients  of  the  expression. 

13.  If  it  be  required  to  find  a  function  tyy  the  roots  of 
which  shall  be  given  functions  of  those  of  Ax,  so  that  in 
all  cases  y  =  Far,  proceed  as  in  finding  the  highest  com- 
mon divisor  of  <£.r  and  Fx—y,  and  take  for  $y  the  final 
remainder.     But  if  this  final  remainder  should  be  of  a 
higher   dimension  than,  from-  the  known  number  of  its 
roots,  it  ought  to  be,  it  will  be  a  sign  that  some  of  the 
factors  introduced  in  tne   process  have  affected  the  re- 
mainder, and  these  must  be  examined  and  removed.     The 
treatment  of  this  case  belongs  to  the  general  question  of 
elimination,  but  the  following  particular  cases  are  almost 
all  that  are  necessary. 

14.  To  decrease  all  the  roots  of  Ax  by  a  given  quantity, 
or  to  make  y=x—a,  or  x=y+a,  observe  that  the  result- 
ing equation  must  be 

A*'&  A    d      _ 

'«  £.A...A 

where  the  coefficients  Aa,  A'a,  J  A"a,  &c.  may  be  most 
readily  found  by  the  process  described  in  INVOLUTION 
(p.  7).  The  same  process  maybe  applied,  by  using  —a 
instead  of  a,  to  increase  all  the  roots  of  <f>x  by  a  given 
quantity.  It  is  by  this  process  that  the  second  term  of 
an  equation  is  taken  away:  thus,  the  equation  being 

a<txn+aix"~l+  ...  =  0,  assume 


T  ii  i: 


ii  i: 


the  »uni  of  the  rooU  of  the  equation  in  x  being  -«/,  :  a,, 
that  of  the  equation  in  y  will  be  0. 

1.1.  To  umiup'v  iill  the  rout*  of  an  equation  by  in,  inul- 

..  t!u-  I'..-!.. 

.'i-  ol  ..ii  cqua- 

tion  by  »i,  multiply  all  the  ten.  .lining 

from  the  lowest.     N.B.  Term*  ai<i-  n.<  in  an 

.on  must  neve.  -r-3j: 

—  1  =  0  ought  to  be  writ:- 


This  caution  is  of  the  utmost  importance  :    in  fact  no 

process  ought  to  be  applied  to  nny  equation  without   a 

momi-nfs  tlioiiRht  an  to  whether  all  the  terms  are  formally 

n  down,  and  if  not,  whether  the  process  about  to  be 

applied  will  not  require  it. 

16.  To  change  the  signs  of  all  the  roots  of  an  equation, 
change  the  signs  of  the  coefficients  of  all  the  odd  powers, 
or  of  all  the  even  powers,  as  most  convenient. 

17.  To  change   an  equation   into  another  whose  roots 
shall  be  reciprocals  of  the  former  roots,  for  every  power 
of  x  write   its   complement   to   the    hiirlic-t    iliimn~io:i. 
Thus  in  an  equation  of  the  seventh  deirrec.  for  .r"  w  i  . 

write  a*.  for  af  write  .r1,  and  so  on;    lastly, 
write  af.     N.B.  Consider  the  independent   term  of  the 
equation  as  affected  by  ./:".     From  the  reciprocal  equation 
can  be  found  the  sums  of  the  negative  powers  of  the  roots 
of  the  original. 

18.  The'  old  methods  of  finding  limits  to  the  magnitude 
of  the  positive  and  negative  roots  of  an  equation  are  so 
rapid  that  they  can  hardly  be  said  to  be   superseded  by 
those  of  Sturm   or   Fourier.     In    enunciating    them   we 
speak  of  coefficients  absolutely,  without  their  siiriis,  when 
mentioning  any  increase  or  decrease  they  are  to  receive. 

if  A  be  the  greatest  of  all  the  quotients  made  by  divid- 
ing the  co-efficients  by  the  first  co-efficient,  no  root.  posi- 
ti\c  or  ucsrativ,  is  numerically  so  great  as  A+l.  And  if 
B  be  the  greatest  of  all  the  quotients  made  by  dividing  the 
co-efficients  by  the  last  co-efficient,  no  root,  positive  or 
negative,  is  numerically  so  small  as  1:(B+1).  Better 
thus  :  if  L  be  the  first  co-efficient,  M  the  greatest,  and  N 
the  last,  signs  not  considered,  then  all  the  roots,  numeri- 
cally speaking,  lie  between 

M+L  N 

-ITandM+N 

19.  If  L  be  the  first  co-efficient,  and  M  the  greatest  co- 
efficient which  has  a  different  sign  from  that  of  L,  no 
positive  root  is  so  great  as  (M+Li  :  L.     And  it  I,  be  the 
last  co-efficient  and  M  the  u'rcalcst  which  has  a  different 
sign,  no  positive  root  is  so  small  as  L  :  (M+L).     And  to 
apply  this  to  the  negative  roots,  change  the  signs  of  all 

ots  of  the  original  (J  1C),  and  find  limits  to  tlu 
the  roots  of  the  new  one. 

20.  If  L  be  the  first  co-efficient,  M  the  greatext  which 
has  a  different  sign,  and  if  the  jirxt  which  has  a  different 
"itrn  be  in  the  »<th  place  from  the  first  term  exclusive,  or 
bekng  to  the  (wi  +  l)th  term  ;   then  no  positive  root  is  so 
great  as 


the  original.    It  such  a  qua  he  readily  found,  the 

1  be 
greatly  diminished,  and,  pi  .. 

would  be  gained  m  numerical  solution.  \Yhat  is 
\vanted  to  add  to  both  Fourier's  and  Horuer's  method,  is  a 
ready  mode  of  finding  out  when  two  luoU  are  nearly 

I-agrange's  mode  of  approximation  is  as  folio 
Having  found  that  a  root  of  an  equation  lies  between  the 
s  .1  and  'i-f-1,  diminish  all  the  roots  of  that  equation 
ind  take  the  reciprocal  equation  to  the  result.     Find 
of  thela.it   lying  between  the  integers  b  and  4+1, 
diminish  all  the  roots  by  t>.  and  take  the  reciprocal  equa- 
tion of  the  result.     Find  a  root  of  this  last  between  c  and 
<•+!.  and  proceed  in  the  same  way.    Then  the  continued 
fraction 


is  a  root  of  the  original. 

26.  When  an  equation  has  equal  roots,  those  roots  can 
be  found  by  an  equation  depending  entirely  on  the  u 

ts  of  equal  roots.     If  fr  have  m  roots  equal  to  «,  j'x 
has  /,;-!    of  tliem,  $"x  has  m  —  2  of  them,  and  so  on; 

finally,  f  x  has  one  of  them.  If  then  f  j-  and  $'x  be 
found  to  have  a  common  measure,  every  root  of  that  com- 
mon measure  enters  in  f .r  one  time  more  than  in  the  com- 
mon i:  -elf. 

27.  \Vhen  an  equation  has  an  integer  root,  which  must 
he  one  of  the  divisors  of  the  hist  it,  it  may  be  dis- 
covered by  successive  trial,  as  follows  : — Suppose  d^j-'-f-d, 
x'+a,  a"+a,  a?+a4=0,  n0.  tic.  being  integers.     Let  A  be 
a  di\  isor  of  a,,  and  let  a, :  /t=l,  an  integer.    Then  if  A  be 
a  root,   we  have  u,J<i+iilh*+u,ti+ti1+/=0,  and  a,+l  is 
divisible  by  /t,  giving  in.  an  integer.     Hence  aJP+aIk  + 
u  -)-»;=(),  and  «,-f-'»  divided  by  /r  gives  an  integer,  HIV  ». 
Hence  a,,A-r-<',-|-"=0,  and  a,+n  divided  by  A  gives  — o0. 
If  all  these  conditions  be  fulfilled,  A  is  a  root.     All  the 
divisors  of  o4  being  tried  in  this  manner,  settle  thequ* 

of  the  integer  roots  entirely. 

28.  If  the  co-efficients  of  an  equation  read  backwards 
and  forwards  the  .-umc,  both  in  sign  and  magnitude,  every 
root  has  it.s  reciprocal  also  among  the  roots.    By  reducing 
it  to  the  form 


'-efficient  which  differs  in  sign  from  the 
first  term.  !  by  the  sum  of  all  which  preci  • 

agree  with  >n  itself  included  ',  the 

ImHeM  resulting  fraction,  inerensed  by  unity,  is  greater 
than  any  posi1:  ^nation. 

•rr  1han  the 
ilion   now    merges    in 

Fourier's  theorem.     It  consists  in  finding  a  hyinsp 
and  trial,  so  that  4*1,  <ft'ti,  <j>''a,  &c.  shall  all  be  posit. 

mode  of  ascertaining  a  limit  greater  than  the 
e  root  of  an  equation  may  l.e  thus  t 
>  riprocal  equation  (§  17),  and  tb. 
i  the  legist  posi1 

•iginal.  Apply  both  to  the  equation  of  roots  will 
ohanKcd,  and  the  results  give  limits  for  the  ne: 
of  the  original. 

84.  A  celebrated  mode  of  examining  the  roots  of  equa- 
tions, but  too  complicated  for  ordinary  use,  consists  in 
forming  the  equation  whose  roots  are  the  squares  of  the 

•ires  of  the  roots  of  the  original.  Any  quantity  ! 
found  lew  than  the  least  positive  root  of  this  new  eq'i 
it*  square  root  U  lew  than  the  difference  of  any  two  root*  of 


which  can  always  be  done  by  division,  when  the  dimen- 
sion is  even,  and  assuming  y  =  .r+.»-  ,  an  equation  of 
the  2wth  degree  can  be  reduced  to  one  of  the  «th  and 
n  quadratics.  But  when  the  dimension  is  odd.  either  —1 
or  -4-1  must  be  a  root,  and  the  equation  can  be  depressed 
to  an  even  degree  by  division  by  r-fl  or  x— 1. 

The  student  who  is  acquainted  with  the  precrdhu,'  re- 
sults, namely,  such  as  are  cither  stated  or  referred  to  in  this 
article,  will  find  no  difficulty  either  in  leading  on  the  his- 
tory of  this  subject,  or  in  its'applicntion.  It  is  peculiarly 
a  subject  on  which  selection  should  be  made  for  the 
bi'iriniier. 

THKK.V  (iWipnX  an  island  in  the  Grecian  Archipcl 
and  the  chief  of  the  group  known  by  the  name  of  Spo 
although  called  by   some  antient  'writers  one  of  tin 
Its  modern   name  is  Santu  Thiia,  which  i- 
uouneed   and    iisuallv    wiittcn    Santorini.     It    : 
Si  mho  i  \.4s4.Casaub.')  to  be  200  stadia  in  eirci 
but    by  modern   tiavcllers  thirty-six   miies.   and   in   t 

island  of  Dia,  and  distant  from  Cn-te  TIKI 
the  island  of  los,  which  lay  to  the  north  of  it,  25  R 
miles.     'Pliny,  Ilixf.  Nit..\\.  23.1     When  it  first  emerged 
from  the  sea,  it  is  said  to  have  been  railed  ('allistc  :    Tile- 
jasia,  a  small  island  to  the  west,  and  .  !   by 

.us  torn  away  from  i'.  :'iiny. 

'ion   seems  at   one  time  to  hsvc  hccii  actively 
at   work   in   this   part  of  the  sea.     S 
that  on  on  .1   the  sea 

between   Tliera  and   Thera*ia.  vdiich  lasteil  ;    r  four  . 
and  that  an  inland  was  formed   in  coiise.jiuiice,  tv 
stadia  in  circumference.     The  same  phenomenon  has  also 
taken  place  in  modem  times,  ami  is  |,  iibed 

by  .1.  fhfvenot  in  his  •  Travels  in  the  Levanf'(part  1.1. 
Pliny  also  speaks  of  an  island  which  arose  between  Tliera 


THE 


343 


T  11  E 


»nd  Therasia,  to  which  he  gives  the  names  of  Hiera  and 
Automate,  and  of  another  which  appeared  in  his  own  age, 
called  Thia.  The  former  is  now  called  Aspronisi,  or  '  the 
white  island ;'  the  latter  Kaimeni,  or  '  the  burnt.' 

Thera  was  originally  inhabited  by  the  Phoenicians,  who 
are  said  to  have  been  left  there  by  Cadmus.  It  was  sub- 
sequently colonized  by  Theras  with  a  mixed  colony  ol 
Minyans  and  Spartans  (Herod.,  iv.  147,  148),  and  always 
remained  faithful  to  its  mother-city  Sparta.  This  island 
and  Melos  were  the  only  islands  of  the  Cyclades  that  re- 
mained faithful  to  Sparta  at  the  beginning  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war.  (Thucyd.,  ii.  9.)  But  Thera  has  acquired  its 
chief  importance  from  having  founded  the  colony  of 
Cyrene  in  Africa,  under  the  guidance  of  Battus,  in  B.C.  631. 
(Herod,  iv.  150,  &c.) 

The  Doric  dialect  was  spoken  at  Thera,  as  we  learn  from 
inscriptions,  and  the  government  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
descendants  of  Minyans  and  Spartans,  who  first  settled 
there.  We  find  mention  in  inscriptions  of  a  senate  and 
a  popular  assembly. 

Coins  of  Thera  are  extant  belonging  both  to  the  time 
of  its  independence  and  that  of  the  Roman  empire. 
Those  of  the  former  kind  bear  the  letters  e  H,  with  the 
head  of  a  youth  on  one  side  and  three  dolphins  on  the 
other. 

In  the  present  day  the  island  is  covered  with  pumice- 
stone  ;  and  though  the  soil  is  dry  and  barren,  it  produces 
a  large  quantity  of  cotton  and  wine.  The  wine  is  strong, 
and  is  exported  to  all  parts  of  the  Archipelago.  There  is 
no  wood  in  the  island  ;  and  as  it  has  to  be  imported,  and  is 
dear,  the  inhabitants  hardly  ever  have  new  bread,  but  eat 
biscuits,  composed  of  wheat  and  barley,  which  they  make 
only  three  or  four  times  a  year.  They  have  hardly  any 
cattle,  and  very  little  fruit  except  grapes,  and  there  is  only 
one  spring  in  the  island.  It  contains  a  few  castles,  sur- 
rounded by  some  houses  ;  but  the  majority  of  the  inhabi- 
tants live  underground  in  caves  cut  out  of  the  pumice- 
stone,  which  are  arched  over  with  very  light  stones  of  a 
reddish  colour.  The  island  has  a  very  desolate  appearance, 
the  coast  being  craggy  and  rugged,  and  the  rocks  burnt 
and  scorched.  It  has  only  one  harbour,  in  the  shape  of  a 
half-moon ;  but  no  ship  can  anchor  in  it,  as  no  bottom  has 
yet  been  found  by  the  plumb-line. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  Tour- 
nefort  visited  the  island,  there  were  10,000  inhabitants, 
and  two  bishops,  one  of  the  Greek  and  the  other  of  the 
Latin  church.  About  two-thirds  of  the  inhabitants  be- 
longed to  the  Greek  church.  (Tournefort,  Voyage  into 
tin'  ]."vn,,t,  vol.  i.,  p.  202,  &c.) 

THERA1MENES  (9r,paMJv;,c)  was  a  native  of  Ceos,  and 
the  adopted  son  of  Hagnon,  or  Agnon,  an  Athenian.  He 
acted  a  very  prominent  part  about  the  close  and  after  the 
end  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  He  first  appears  in  the 
history  of  Greece  as  taking  a  part  in  public  atfairs  in  B.C. 
409,  when,  in  conjunction  with  Antiphon,  Phrynichus,  and 
Pisander,  he  endeavoured  to  upset  the  democratical  con- 
stitution of  Athens.  In  B.C.  410  he  took  part  with  Thra- 
sybulus  in  the  battle  of  Cyzicus,  and,  in  B.C.  40G,  in  the  ce- 
lebrated battle  of  Arginusae.  On  this  occasion,  on  which 
the  Athenians  gained  a  glorious  victory,  many  lives  were 
lost  in  the  wrecks  of  their  ships,  which  it  was  thought 
might  have  been  saved  if  proper  care  had  been  taken. 
Tlieiamencs  and  Thrasybulus  had  been  commissioned  by 
the  Athenian  generals  to  take  care  of  the  wrecks  and  to 
save  the  men,  but  they  were  prevented  by  a  storm  from 
accomplishing  this  object.  The  generals  in  their  de- 
spatch to  Athens  concealed  the  commission  they  had  given 
to  Theramenes  and  his  colleague,  as  it  was  clear  that  the 
I:iff<-r  would  be  severely  punished  for  their  apparent 
neglect.  After  the  first  report,  the  generals  themselves 
summoned  to  return  to  Athens,  and  in  self-defence. 
they  were  compelled  to  give  an  accurate  account  of  the 
occurrence,  and  the  more  so  as  they  had  reason  to  believe 
that  Theramenes  and  Thrasybulus  were  instigating  the 
people  against,  them.  That  their  suspicion  was  not  un- 
founded became  evident  afterwards,  for  when  six  of  the 
general*  were  actually  brought  to  trial,  Theramene 
base  enough  to  appear  foremost  among  their  accuseis. 
The  generals  defended  themselves ;  and  the  late  hour  of 
the  day  rendering  it.  impossible  to t  take  the  votes  of  the 
MUKpbly,  the  bunnies*  was  adjourned  to  another  da}'. 
During  the  interval,  Theramenes  and  the  other  enemies  of 
the  generals  exerted  themselves  to  excite  the  indignation 


of  the  people.  On  the  day  appointed  for  the  next  meet- 
ing a  number  of  persons  hired  by  Theramenes  appeared 
in  the  assembly  dressed  in  mourning,  to  rouse  the  sympa- 
thies of  the  people  for  the  loss  of  their  friends  and  ex- 
asperate them  against  the  alleged  authors  of  their  misfor- 
tune. After  various  debates  eight  of  the  generals  were 
condemned  to  death,  and  six  of  them,  who  were  pre- 
sent at  Athens,  were  executed  immediately.  The  blame 
of  this  act  of  cruelty  falls  mainly  upon  Theramenes,  who 
'  had  taken  advantage  of  the  uncommon  forbearance  and 
candour  of  his  victims,  and  of  his  own  reputation,  which 
had  never  before  been  stained  by  any  atrocious  crime,  to 
effect  their  destruction.' 

Soon  after  the  execution  of  the  generals,  the  eyes  of  the 
Athenians  were  opened,  it  is  said,  by  Thrasybulus,  to  their 
innocence,  and  it  was  decided  that  those  who  had  misled 
the  people  should  be  proceeded  against,  and  that  they 
should  give  security  for  their  appearance  at  the  trial. 
Theramenes,  however,  either  by  his  skill  or  by  accident, 
not  only  avoided  the  prosecution,  but  retained  his  place 
in  the  popular  favour.  In  the  following  year  (B.C. 
405),  shortly  after  the  battle  of  Aegos  P.otami,  when  an 
Athenian  embassy  had  been  rejected  by  the  Spartan 
ephors,  Theramenes,  who,  though  he  belonged  to  the  oli- 
garchical party,  yet  kept  up  the  appearance  of  a  friend  of 
the  people,  offered  to  go  as  ambassador  to  Lysander,  who 
was  blockading  the  city,  while  famine  was  raging  within. 
Theramenes  promised  to  procure  favourable  terms,  if  the 
people  would  trust  him.  The  majority  readily  acceded  to 
his  proposal,  and  he  went  to  the  camp  of  Lysander.  Here 
he  stayed  for  upwards  of  three  months,  hoping  that  in  the 
meantime  the  city  would  be  reduced  to  such  a  state  of 
weakness  as  to  accept  any  terms,  or  that  in  the  interval 
the  oligarchical  party  would  gain  the  ascendency.  There 
is  moreover  no  doubt  that  he  made  Lysander  acquainted 
with  the  plans  of  the  oligarchs.  When  he  returned  to  the 
city,  he  declared  that  he  had  been  detained  by  Lysander, 
who  himself  had  no  power  to  decide  upon  the  terms  of 
peace  with  Athens,  and  that  at  last  he  had  been  directed 
by  the  Lacedaemonian  general  to  apply  to  the  government 
at  Sparta.  He  was  accordingly  sent  thither  with  nine  col- 
leagues, and  invested  with  full  power  to  negotiate  peace 
on  any  terms.  Deputies  of  the  Spartan  allies  met  the 
ambassadors,  and  several  of  them  insisted  upon  the  total 
destruction  of  Athens  ;  but  the  Spartans,  with  an  air  of 
generosity,  declared  themselves  willing  to  grant  peace  on 
condition  that  the  long  walls  and  the  fortifications  of  Pi- 
raeeus  should  be  demolished,  that  all  ships  of  war  with 
the  exception  of  twelve  should  be  delivered  up  to  them, 
and  that  Athens  should  join  the  Peloponnesian  confede- 
racv,  and  follow  Sparta  both  by  land  and  sea.  (Xenophon, 
Ifi-Ui'ii.,  ii.  2.)  When  Theramenes  and  his  colleagues  re- 
turned to  Athens  with  these  tidings,  the  famine  had  reached 
its  heiijht,  but  there  were  still  some  who  refused  to  submit, 
to  the  humiliating  conditions.  Theramenes  and  his  party, 
anxious  to  get  rid  of  these  few  before  the  report  was  laid 
before  the  assembly,  gained  over  a  man  of  the  name  of 
Agoratus  to  bring  accusations  against  them  and  get  them 
all  arrested.  The  plan  succeeded,  and  the  assembly  was 
held  in  the  theatre  of  Piraeeus,  where  Theramenes  urged 
the  necessity  of  concluding  peace  on  the  terms  proposed. 
Notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  some  citizens  to  the 
treaty,  and  the  taunts  of  others,  who  saw  through  the  plans 
of  Theramenes,  peace  was  ratified,  and  Lysander  entered 
Piraeeus.  [LYSANDER.] 

After  the  withdrawal  of  the  Spartan  general  from 
Athens,  Theramenes,  Critias,  and  their  associates,  who 
liad  assumed  the  supreme  power,  wishing  to  upset  the  de- 
mocratical constitution,  but  to  maintain  some  appear- 
ance of  decency,  invited  Lysander  to  attend  the  assembly 
in  which  alterations  in  the  Attic  constitution  were  to  be 
discussed.  Theramenes  undertook  the  management  of 
the  business,  and  proposed  that  the  supreme  authority 
should  for  the  present,  be  placed  in  thirty  persons  who 
should  draw  up  a  new  code  of  laws.  The  presence  of  Ly- 
sander and  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Peloponnesian  troops 
overwhelmed  all  attempts  of  the  friends  of  the  people  to 
maintain  their  constitution,  and  the  proposal  of  Thera- 
menes was  adopted.  Theramenes  himself  was  one  of  the 
Thirty,  and  he  nominated  ten  of  the  others.  The  outrages 
and  atrocities  committed  by  these  Thirty  spread  general 
alarm  in  Attica,  and  the  future  was  looked  to  with  fearful 
prehensions.  Theramenes,  perceiving  the  state  of  feel- 


THE 


344 


THE 


ing  »t  Athens,  remonstrated  with  Critias,  the  nn»t  cruel 
among  his  colleagues.    This  was  not  from  a  feeling  of  hu- 
manity, but  simply  because  he  saw  that  the  im-itsi. 
the   Thirty  would  ruin  them.     Critias  was  uncon. 
about  all  consequences,  and  Theramenes  gave  way.     K. 
pealed  warnings  on  his  part  created  s..mc  icar'l 
should  betray  them  and  join  the   popular  party,  for  he 
was  notorious  for  his  political  incon-1  >i  which  he 

is  said  to  have  received  the  nirknaine  of  Cothurni. 
shoe  which  tits  either  foot).  At  the  same  time  the  Thiity 
became  sensible  of  their  dangerous  position,  and  in  older 
to  strengthen  themschcs  they  made  out  a  list  of  30UO 
Athenians  on  whom  a  kind  of  frnnchi.se  \\as  conferred, 
while  all  the  remaining  Athenian--  were  treated  as  outkiw.s. 
Theramenes  again  was  dissatisfied  with  these  proceedings, 
but  the  tyrant>  upon  disarming  the  Athenians, 

with  the  exception  of  the  three  Hum-ami  and  the  kn 
The  reckless  cruelty  and  avarice  of  the  Thirty  grew 
worse  every  day,  and  it  was  determined  that  each  of 
them  should  .select  out  one  rich  alien  who  was  to  be 
put  to  death,  and  whose  property  should  be  taken  by  hi* 
murderer.  Theramenes  refused  to  have  any  share  in  this 
crime.  This  refusal  increased  the  fears  of  his  colleagues, 
and  excited  their  hatred  against  him,  and  they  resolved 
to  get  rid  of  him  before  lie  could  become  a  dangerous 
enemy.  An  accusation  was  brought  against  him  in  the 
name  of  the  Thirty  by  Critias  before  the  council.  He  was 
charged  with  being  hostile  to  the  existing  government, 
and  with  betraying  its  interests.  Therameiu's  defended 
himself,  and  made  such  an  impression  upon  the  council, 
that  it  appeared  willing  to  acquit  him.  Critias  perceiving 
this,  called  into  the  council-chamber  an  armed  band 
of  his  followers,  whom  he  had  kept  in  readiness  out- 
Mile,  and  conversed  for  a  few  moments  with  his  colleagues. 
Hereupon  he  declared  that  with  the  consent  of  his  friends 
he  erased  Theramenes  from  the  list  of  the  Thirty  and  of 
the  three  thousand,  and  that  he  might  now  be  condemned 
to  death  without  trial.  Theramenes  rushed  to  the  Hestia 
(the  altar  of  Vesta),  and  conjured  the  members  of  the 
council  to  protect  him,  and  not  to  allow  Critias  to  dis- 
pose of  the  lives  of  citizens;  but  the  herald  of  the 
Thirty  called  in  the  Eleven  (the  executioners),  who  ap- 
prehended Theramenes  and  led  him  away  to  punishment. 
The  council  was  struck  with  amazement  at  this  bold  move- 
ment, and  Theramcnes  was  hurried  across  the  Agora  by 
Satyrus  and  the  Eleven  to  prison.  \Yhen  he  hud  drunk 
the  poison  which  was  administered  to  him,  he  dashed  the 
cup  with  the  last  few  drops  to  the  ground,  and  said,  '  This 
is  to  the  health  of  mv  dear  Critias.'  This  happened  in  B.C. 
404. 

The  manner  in  which  Theramem-s  died  has  been  admired 
by  antient  and  modern  writers.  But  his  fortitude  was  not 
based  on  the  consciousness  of  a  virtuous  life,  and  he  no 
more  deserves  admiration  than  a  criminal  to  whom  death 
is  a  matter  of  indifference.  Thucydides  (viii.  08)  says  of 
him  that  he  was  not  wanting  in  eloquence  and  ability. 
Whether  he  wrote  any  orations  is  uncertain.  (Cicero,  De 
(irat.,  ii.  22;  Brut.,  7.)  He  is  said  to  have  instructed 
Isocrates  (Dionysius  Hal.,  I^n-mt.,  \.\  and  to  have  written 
on  rhetoric.  It  may  be  true  therefore,  as  Suidas  says,  that 
he  wrote  declamations  ;  but  it  is  much  more  probable  that 
Suidas  confounds  him  with  a  late  sophist,  Thcramem  s  of 
Ceos.  (Eudocia,  231 ;  Fabric-ins,  Bibliuth.  Grace.,  ii.  748 ; 
Huhnken,  Hint,  frit.  Oral.  Graec.,  p.  40,  &c.) 

\cnophon,  Hellen..  ii.  3  ;  Plutarch.  .Y/cm.v.  -J  :  Scholiast 
on .  Aristoph.  AT«6.,  SCO;  Ranae,  47,  540;   Diodoru- 
xiii.  38,  &c. ;  Thirlwall,  History  o/  Green-,  vol.  iv.  ;    K. 
1'h.  Hinriehs,  De  Th*rameni«,Criliae,  et  Thrasybuli  Kflmi 
ft  Infenio,  Hamburg,  1820,  4to.) 

THERAPEUTICS  constitute  that  department  of  me- 
dical science  which  relates  to  the  composition,  the  applica- 
tion, and  the   modes  of  operation  of  the   reined  •• 
diseases.     Its  chief  objects  are   the   materia  medica,  or 
medicines  properly  so  called  [MATKUIA  MEDIC  A]  ;  but  it 
includes  as  subordinate  parts   hygiene   and   dietetics,  of 
which  the  particular  purpose  is  the  application  of  die 
atmospheric  and  other  ordinary  non-medical  influences,  to 
the  preservation  or  recovery  of  health. 

1 HKRESIKNSTADT    (Maria^Theretitnttadt,  Maria- 
Thert*ianop«l,^:<nt  '; ••///./»,  Szitlxilirzu)  is  a  very 

large  town  in 'the  county  of  Does,  iu  Hungary,  24  miles 
from  Sxegedin,   in  a  plain  called  'I  <-<\  the  high 

rot/1  to  &mlin,  in  «f  &  N.  lat.,  and  10"  40*  E-.  long. 


;he  battle  of  Mohacs  in  lii'Si.  the  Turks  built  a  fort 
on  the  place  where  the  town  now  stands.    The  Turks  1 
totally  defeated  at   /enta,  in  Ki'Jti,  by  I'm. 
place  was,  by  the  cmpcior  -orilc-  Lh  fourteen 

redoubts,  and   the  defence  of  th- 
confided  to    the  inhabitants.     In    1743.  as  a  n 
lor  eminent   military  services,  it  was  made 
town  or  borough,  by  the  name  n. 
privileges;  »nd  the  population  continual!', 
the  iuiiuigr.it  1011  of  Roman  Catholics  and  sc: 

i  i.dmatiu  and  Bosnia,  and  this  borough  ha-, 
•ruishcd  iUclf  by  its   lojalty  to  the  cmprc— 
Theresa,  it  was  raised  to  the  lank  of  a  liee  city  1 
January.  177'.'. 

Next  to  Pcsth  and  Debrec/.in  Thcrcsieiistadt  i*  the  la 
town    in    Hungary;  yet    it   is,    not    ])roj)erly   a   town, 
rather  an  assemblage  of  villages.     It  is  new  and  clean,  but 
built  without  any  regularity,  and  so  :  iat   many 

houses  might   be  erected 'iu   the  vacant  N  iu 

the  streets.     Pirch  says  it  is  a  good  quarter  of  au  hour's 
walk  from  one  end  of  the  market-place  to  the   otl 
but.  though  new  and  clean,  it  has  a  melanchol . 
appearance.     There  are  a  few  considerabl- 
the  principal  parish  church  of  St.  Theresa,  the  I 
church,  and  the  handsome  Greek  church,  the  Gymnasium, 
the   town-house,   and  the  barracks.     The  town  pos-- 
a  more  extensive  territ  ny  other  town  in  ihe  ! 

dom,  the  area  being  fJ.">0.   or.  a  .       ! 

square  miles  in  extent.     (Stein  makes  it   . 
miles.)      The  whole  population  does  not    •  muni, 

of  whom  35,000  are  in  the  tow. 

is  very  thinly    peopled,  there    being    only  three  villages 
in  it.     The  southern  part  of  the  territory  "produ- 
barley,   oats,    and    maize ;    the   northern   part   is  sandy, 
but  trees  of  various  kinds   have   been  planted  under  tlie 
direction  of  a  competent  person.    The  breeding  of  cattle 
is  very  flourishing,  and  numerous  herds  and   flocks, 
studs  of  horses,  constitute  the  riches  of  the  inhabit 
who  carry  on  a  brisk  trade  in  wool,  cattle,  hor- 
and  raw   hides.     There   are   no   manufactories,   but    Un- 
people work  at  their  own  houses,  chiefly  for  the  supply  of 
the  town  itself.     Many  follow  ii 

tanners,  and  the  women  make  linen  and  carpets.     They 
are  peculiarly  skilful  in  the  art  of  dyeing:    tin 
from  a  large  weed  or  herb,  the  name  of  which   is  not 
known,  the  red,  green,  and  black  dyes  for  the  worsted  of 
which  their  carpets  are  made. 

(Thiele,  pea  Konigreich  Ungam  ;  Blnmenbach. 
Oesterreichinchc.   Monarch;'':    1>  Aa- 

tnitiiil  r'.iii-i/rlnpiiilir  :  .Jenny,  llnndlii 

THERI'ACA  (Oqpinca )  was  the  name  given  original ; . 
the  anticnts  to  all  those  medicines  which  were 
;:-  antidotes  to  the  bite  of  venomous  animals 
those  which   counteracted    poisonous  dnigs  we 
d\iK'fapfiai:a  (Galen,   Comment,  in   Iliripoci-.  'De  Alim.,' 
lib.  iii.,  cap.  7,  torn.  xv.,p.  27'J,  ed.  Kiinn  ;  id..  ' 
i/i  lli)>]K,cr.  •  De  Morb.  Vulgar.  VI..'  lib.  %i..  cap.  fi.  turn, 
xvii.,  ])t.  ii.,  p.  337):  afterwards  however  the  wort!  s. 
to  have  been  somewhat  restricted  in  it-  --ignitication.  or  at 
least  Otifiiatii    in  the  singular  number']  is  applied  to  one 
jiarticuiar  com]iound.while  at  the  same  time  this  one  drug 
was  considered  to  be  a  safeguard  not  only  against  the  i 
of  venomous  animals,  but  also  against  poisonous  drugs  and 
unwholesome  food.     (Galen,  De  An/id.,  lib.  i..  c.  1,  torn. 
\i\..  p.  1.,     Many  of  these  old  preparation-  ivcd 

in  the  writings  of  the  antient  plivsicians.  hut  of  the 
will  be  enough  to  mention  here  the  two  nu 
the  Milhndiitiiun  (Widpifaniov,  or  'Arritorof  Mi0p(JaV«ioc), 
and  the  Theriarii  Andronmrhi. 

The   Mithridatium   received   its  name  from  the   great 
Milhridates,  king   of  Pontus,  who  had  »  fflfec- 

tation  of  superior   skill   in  the  powers  of  simples.     He 

;iie  effects  of  these  upon  condemned   m; 
and,  finding  that  different   drugs  counteracted  dim-rent 
poisons,  he  thought  that,   by   putting   all   of  them    to- 
gether,  he   should   be   able   to    make  a  compound    that 
would  render  him  secure  against  >  that  could  be 

given  him.  (Galen,  !>••  .Intnl.,  p.  i.  Accordingly  he  is 
commonly  said  to  have  s,,  fortified  his  own  body  by  the 
constant  use  of  this  antidote,  that  he  afterwards  tried  ill 
vain  to  put  an  end  to  his  life  ;  but  this,  if  true,  '  was  pro- 
bably,' as  Dr.  Hebcrden  says  (Antilhcr.,  p.  10),  '  less  owing 
to  the  strength  of  his  antidote  than  to  the  weakness  of  his 


THE 


345 


THE 


poison.'  However,  Pompey  seems  to  have  been  possessed 
with  the  vulgar  opinion ;  and,  after  he  had  conquered  this 
kins,  he  took  uncommon  care  to  secure  his  writings,  in 
hopes  of  some  mighty  treasures  of  natural  knowledge.  He 
was  soon  convinced  of  what  he  might  easily  have  foreseen  ; 
and  is  represented  as  laughing  at  the  disappointment  of 
his  own  credulity,  when,  instead  of  those  great  arcana,  he 
only  found  one  or  two  trifling  receipts  : 

'  Autidotns  vero  multis  Mitliridatica  fertur 
Consociata  modis:  sod  Magnus,  scriuia  regis 
Quiim  raperet  victor,  vilem  depremtit  in  illia 
Syntlicsm,  et  vulgata  satis  medicaniina  ri*il ; 
Bis  denum  rutae  folium,  snlis  et  brevu  yranum, 
Jui,'landesniic  <lu:i.-i,  totidem  cum  rorpore  ficus  : 
H;iri.'  oiienTc  die  ji;irco  conspersa  Lyaeo 
Sumebat,  metueos  dederat  quae  pncula  muter.1 

(Seron.  Samoa-,  De  Medic.,  cap.  de  Venen,  Prohib.') 

Soon  after,  however,  there  was  published  at  Rome  a  most 
pompous  medicine  under  the  name  of  Mithridates,  which 
was  pretended  to  have  been  found  among  his  papers  :  its 
principal  virtue  was  made  to  consist  in  its  being  a  most 
powerful  preservative  from  all  kinds  of  venom ;  and  who- 
ever took  a  proper  quantity  of  it  in  a  morning  was  insured 
against  being  poisoned  during  that  whole  day.  (Galen,  De 
Anliil.,  p.  3.)  By  these  representations  it  gained  so  great 
;i  reputation  that  some  of  the  Roman  emperors  prepared  it 
for  themselves  with  their  own  hands  :  several  physicians 
among  the  antients  employed  their  studies  upon  it  in  order 
to  render  it  more  perfect ;  and  it  has  been  the  subject  of 
many  volumes  among  the  moderns,  as  well  as  the  occasion 
of  many  unaccountable  medicines  made  in  emulation  of  it. 
Rut,  notwithstanding  the  supposed  improvements  of  the 
antients,  the  original  Mithridatium  continued  for  a  long 
time  to  be  prepared  according  to  a  receipt  of  Servilius 
Damocrates,  written  in  a  short  Greek  iambic  poem,  which 
is  preserved  by  Galen  ;  DC  AntiiL,  lib.  ii.,  cap.  ii.,  torn,  xiv., 
p.  115,  sq.),  arid  which  has  been  published,  together  with 
her  poems,  Greek  and  Latin,  Bonnae,  1833, 4to.,  edited 

!•'.  Harless. 

Andromachus  the  Elder   (who   was   physician   to    the 
emperor   Xero,   and   the   first   person  who   is  known   to 
h:i\c    revived  the  title  of  Archinter)  made  considerable 
:;ions  in  the  Mithridatium  by  omitting  some  of  the 
'lients,  adding  others  (especially  the  dried   flesh  of 
,  and  by  increasing  the  proportion  of  opium.     His 
)  was  embodied  in  a  Greek  elegiac  poem,  in  order 
that  it  might  be  the  more  easily  preserved  without  altera- 
tion ;  and  this  has  been  inserted  by  Galen  in  two  of  his 
works  (De  Antid.,  lib.  i.,  cap.  vi.,  et  De  Ther.  ad  Pison., 
<•.  li  ,  and  has  been  frequently  published  in  a  separate  form. 
Andromachus  likewise  changed  the  name  of  the  Mithrida- 
tium thus  reformed  to  yaXtjvij ;  but  in  Trajan's  time  it  ob- 
1  that  of  '  Theriaca,'  either  from  the  vipers  in  it,  or 
from  its  good  effects  in  curing  the  bites  of  venomous  ani- 
mals.    (Galen,    DC.  Antid.,   lib.  i.,  cap.  6 ;  De   Ther.   ad 
I'l^'in.,  cap.  5,  torn,  xiv.,  pp,  32,232.)     The  reputation 
enjoyed  by  this  drug  was  immense,  and  surpassed  even 
that  of  the  Mithridatium.     The  emperor  Marcus  Aurelius 
Antoninus  was  in  the  habit  of  taking  a  small  quantity  out 
of  honey  every  morning,  and  was  imitated  in  this  practice 
by  many  of  his  courtiers  (Galen,  Da  Antid.,  lib.  i.,  cap.  4, 
p.  24) ;  "but  at  last,  finding  that  it  made  him  drowsy  and 
lethargic,  he  left,  out  the  juice  of  the  poppy.     (Id.,  ibid., 
cap.  i.,  p.  4.)     From  that  time  to  the  present  it  has  more 
or  less  maintained  its  credit,  though  upon  no  principle  of 
combination  can  this  heterogeneous  farrago  be  vindicated; 
and  though  it  has  scarcely  ever  continued  the  same  for  a 
hundred  years  together.     Celsus  is  the  first  who  describes 
this  medicine  (De  Medic.,  lib.  v.,  cap.  23) ;  and  according  to 
him  it  consists  of  thirty-eight  simples.    Before  Nero's  time, 
five  of  these  were  struck  out,  and  twenty  others  added. 
Soon  after,  Andromachus,  leaving  out  six  ingredients,  and 
adding  twenty-eight,  increased  the  sum  total  to  seventy- 
five.    Aetius,  in  the  fifth  century  after  Christ  (Tetrab.,  iv., 
Serin,  i.,  cap.  87,  sq.,  p.  648,  ed.  H.  Steph.),  and  Nicolaus 
Myrepsus,  in  the  twelfth  (De  Compos.  Medicam.,  sec.  xxii., 
cap.  l.,  p.  639,  ed.  H.  Steph.),  give  us  very  different  de- 
scriptions of  it ;  and  since  that  time  it  has  been  in  a  state 
of  perpetual  fluctuation,  the  alterations  that  it  has  under- 
gone by  accident  being  as  great  as  those  which  have  been 
made  in  it.     For  of  the  simples  that  antiently 
composed  it,  several  are  utterly  unknown  ;  others  are  only 
guessed  at  with  great  uncertainty,  and  some  very  errone- 
ously, as  might  easily  be  shown,  and  were  so  even  in  Pliny  s 
P.  C-.,  No.  1531. 


time  (Hist.  Nat.,  lib.  xxiv.,  cap.  1).  In  the  Pharma- 
copoeia of  the  London  College  of  Physicians  both  the 
Mithridatium  and  the  Theriaca  Andromachi  retained  their 
places  certainly  as  late  as  the  year  1771  ;  and  the  edition 
of  1788  is  the  earliest  in  which  the  writer  has  found  it.  to 
be  omitted.  Its  rejection  was  proposed  by  the  late  Dr. 
Heberden  (who  wrote  a  little  work  on  the  subject,  entitled 
'  'AvTiOripiuicd :  an  Essay  on  Mithridatium  and  Theriaca,' 
1745,  8vo.,  pp.  19)  ;  and  upon  the  College  dividing  on  th<; 


sive  Pharmacopoeia  Gallica,'  published  at  Paris,  4to.,  1818, 
this  preparation  appeared  under  the  appropriate  title  of 
'  Electuarium  Opiatum  Polypharmacum.'  It  consisted  of 
seventy-two  ingredients,  which  were  arranged  under  thir- 
teen heads,viz.  :  1,  Acria,  of  which  there  were  five  species  ; 
2,  Amara,  of  which  there  were  eight  ;  3,  Saporis  Styptici, 
\\i\goAftringentia,  five  in  number  ;  4,  Aromatica  Exotica, 
fourteen  ;  5,  Aromatica  Indigena,  ten  ;  6,  Aromatica  ex 
Umbelliferis,  seven  ;  7,  Resinosa  et  Bahama,  eight  ;  S, 
Graveolentia,  six  ;  9,I~irosa,  '  sen  quae  Narcosin  inducunt,' 
of  which  there  was  only  one  species,  viz.  Opium  The- 
baicum  ;  10,  Terrea  insipida  et  inertia,  consisting  also  of 
only  one  species,  viz.  Terra  Lemnia  ;  11,  Gurnmosa,  Amy- 
lacen,  fyc.,  four  in  number  ;  12,  Dulcia,  consisting  of  Succus 
Glycyrrhizae  and  Mel  Narbonense  ;  and,  13,  Vinum,  or 
Sherry.  An  analysis  of  two  ounces  of  this  compound,  by 
M.  Guilbert,  is  given,  pp.  324,  325,  note  ;  and  we  are  told 
that  one  drachm  of  it  contains  rather  less  than  one  gram  of 
opium.  In  the  last  edition  of  the  '  Codex,  Pharmacop6e 
Frai^aise,'  published  at  Paris,  4to.,  1837,  under  the  au- 
thority of  a  commission  de  redaction,  of  which  M.  Orfila 
was  the  president,  the  medicine  still  appears,  and  under  its 
old  name  Theriaca  :  and  this,  notwithstanding  the  many 
improvements  that  have  been  introduced,  and  the  number 
of  similar  compounds  that  have  been  expelled.  (Preface, 
pp.  xvi.,  xvii.)  The  composition  appears  to  be  very  nearly 
if  not,  exactly  the  same  as  in  the  previous  edition,  but  the 
ingredients  are  not  divided  into  heads  as  before.  In  some 
parts  of  Europe  the  mode  of  preparing  this  drug  was 
reckoned  among  the  mysteries  of  the  state,  which  it  was 
forbidden  to  divulge  :  and  for  some  centuries  that  which 
came  from  Venice  was  particularly  valued. 

For  further  information  see  Heberden's  Antitheriaca 
(from  which  work  great  part  of  these  observations  are 
taken)  ;  Paris'*  Pharmacotogia  ;  and  also  Earth,  i  Ma- 
ranta,  De  Theriaca  et  Mithridatio  Libri  Duo,  &c.,  Francof., 
1576,  12mo.  ;  Nic.  Stelliola,  Theria.ce  et  Mithridntia, 
Neap.,  1577,  4to.  ;  Jo.  Bapt.  Sylvaticus,  De  Compositions 
et  Usu.  Theriacae  Andromachi,  Heidelb.,  1597,  8vo.  ; 
Anton.  Berthiolus,  Idea  Theriacae  et  Mithridatii,  Venet.. 
1601,  4to.  ;  El.  Bonvinius,  De  Theriaca  liber  ex  Andro- 
machi Senioris  Mente,  Vratislav.,  1610,  8vo.  ;  J.  Assuerus 
Ampzing,  De  Mnrborum  Differentia,  et  de  Theriaca  Se- 
nioris Andromachi,  Rostock,  1623,  8vo.  ;  Angel.  Bolzctta, 
Theriaca  Andromachi  Senioris,  &c.,  Patav.,  1626,  4to.  ; 
Charas,  Traite  de  la  Thcriaque,  Paris,  1668,  12mo., 
quoted  by  Choulant,  Handbuch  der  Biicherhuiide  fiir  die 
Aeltere  Medicin. 

THERIS'TICUS,  Wagler's  name  for  a  genus  of  birds. 
TANTALUS,  Gm. 

THERMAE.     [BATHS  ;  ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE.] 

THERMO-ELECTRICITY  is  a  name  given  to  the  fluid 
excited  by  heat  in  conducting  substances,  as  wires  or  bars 
of  metal,  generally  of  different  kinds,  when  they  are  placed 
in  close  contact  with  each  other,  end  to  end,  and  disposed 
so  as  to  form  a  periphery  or  continuous  circuit.  Since  the 
effects  of  heat  applied  to  the  ends,  or  junctions,  of  the 
bars  are  made  manifest  by  a  magnetized  and  balanced 
needle  deviating  from  its  usual  position  in  consequence  of 
the  application,  thermo-electricity  is  considered  as  a 
branch  of  electro-magnetism  ;  and  it  may  be  said  to  be 
connected  with  the  electricity  which  is  excited  by  heat  in 
tourmaline,  boracite,  and  some  other  minerals.  The  dis- 
covery of  the  principle  was  made  in  1822,  by  Dr.  Seebeck 
of  Berlin,  while  engaged  in  researches  concerning  electro- 
magnetism,  which  but  two  years  before  had  been  discovered 


and  the  name  was 
er  in  order  to 


by  Professor  Oersted  of  Copenhagen  ;  and 
given  to  the  fluid  by  the  latter  philosoph 
distinguish  it  from  that  which  is  produced  by  the  usual 
galvanic   apparatus,  which  he  proposed   to    call  hydro- 


Vor-.XXIV.-2Y 


T  Ii 


'I    1 


Some  of  the  moat  .simple  experiments  by  which  the 
l  thermo-flcctricitv  niav  be  illustrated  are  those 
lich,  soon  ir 

ill  of  Utrecht.      i.K/i/i/'-  .r//,i/,No. 

A  slip  of  copper  bent  in  the  form  of  a  semicircle 
was  attached  (in  close  contact),  at  its  extremities,  to  t he- 
end*  of  a  bar  of  antimony  about  fifteen  inches  long ;  and 
uiid  in  the  direction  of  the  magnetic  mcri- 
wire  above  it,  a  small  compass  needle  \\.-\~ 
:,  or  supported  on  a  pivot  between   them.     On 

•  mity  of  t: 

a  lamp,  the  north  end  of  the"  needle  wa-  I  to  de- 

towards  the  wot.     Again,  when  a  slip  of  rinc  and 
if  copper  v.  io  that,  nil  the  i  being 

apph-  L*  formed  a  parallelofrnon  having 

.auctions  of  the  slips  in  the  middle  of  the  shorter 
sides,  and  a  compass  needle  ;ded  within   the 

circuit,  on  placing  the  apparatus  in  a  plane  coinciding 
with  the  magnetic. meridian,  with  the  longer  sides  parallel 
to  tli-  ,'cr  slip  being  uppermost)  and 

heating  the  northern  point  of  junction,  the  needle  deviated 
toward*  the  west  :  the  apparatus  being  inverted  so  that 
the  zinc  slip  was  uppermost,  cm  heating  the  northern  junc- 
tion as  before,  the  needle  deviated  towards  the  east.  It 
follows  from  these  experiments  that  the  fluid  current,  if 
such  it  be,  which  affects  the  magnetism  of  the  needle,  cir- 
culates about  the  copper  slip  in  such  a  manner  that  when 
the  latter  is  in  a  horizontal  position  its  direction  is  from 
west  to  east,  passing  above  the  slip,  in  a  plane  perpendi- 
cular to  its  length:  this  effect  is  similar  to  that  which 
takes  place,  though  in  a  contrary  direction,  when  a  mag- 
neti/.ed  needle  is  brought  near  a  conducting  wire  joining 
the  poles  of  an  ordinary  galvanic  apparatus;  for  if  the 
conducting  wire  be  placed  in  a  horizontal  position  in  the 
lion  of  the  magnetic  meridian,  with  the  copper,  or 
the  negative  end  of  the  apparatus  towards  the  north,  and 
the  needle  be  below  the  wire,  the  north  end  of  the  needle 
deviates  towards  the  east ;  it'  above  the  wire,  towards  the 
west. 

Effects  similar  to  those  which  result  from  the  applica- 
tion of  heat  take  place  when  one  extremity  of  the  bar  of 
antimony,  or  one  of  the  junctions  of  the  zinc  and  copper, 
is  made  colder  than  the  other  by  means  of  ice. 

When  both  ends  of  the  bar  were  heated,  no  deviation 
was  produced  in  the  needle  ;  and  after  deviation  had  taken 
place  by  heating  one  end  only  of  the  bar,  in  proportion 
as  the  h'eat  tended  to  a  uniform  diffusion,  the  needle 
dually  returned  to  the  direction  of  the  magnetic  meridian. 
Thermo-electric  circuits  mav    be   formed  in  a  ring  con- 
_'  of  two  curved  bare  of  different  metals,  as  bismuth 
and  copper,  each  being  in   the  form  of  a  semicircle,  and 
the  two  being  attach  ler  in  the  direction  of  a  dia- 

meter; or  they  may  be  produced  in  a  rectangle  made  by 
gacing  in  close  contact  four  bars  of  metal,  of  two  dif- 
rent  kinds,  following  one  another  alternately.  M. 
Oersted  formed  a  hexagonal  circuit  with  si\  pieces,  three 
of  bismuth  and  three  of  antimony,  which  were  disposed 
in  alternate  order:  on  heating,  by  means  of  a  Ipirit-Iamp, 
one  of  the  places  of  junction  in  the  rimr,  or  in  th. 
angle  of  four  pieces,  a  compass-needle  placed  within  or 
below  the  plane  of  circuit  was  found  to  deviate  ;  and  it 
deviated  still  more  when  the  opposite  angles  of  the  rect- 
angle .led.  In  the.  experiment  with  the  hex- 
agonal circuit  the  uter  in  proportion  to 
the  number  of  alternate  joints  which  were  heated.  .Simi- 
lar effects  were  produced  when  the  alternate  joints  were 
artificially  cooled;  but  the  deviation  was  the  !_'. 
when  the  alternate  joints  were  heated  and  the  others  were 
cooled. 

By  doubling  the  lengths  of  the  bars  in  a  rectangle  com- 
posed of  four,  the  di  than  that  which  was 
produced  by  the  smaller  rectangle  ;  but  when  the  larger 
rectangle  was  composed  of  eight  pieces,  the  deviation 
wa*  greater. 

mntry  the  subject  of  thermo-electricity  has  been 
diligently  pursued  by  Professor  Gumming  of  Cambridge. 
who  appear*  to  have  entered  upon  it  without  any  other 
knowledge  of  the  discovery  of  Scebeck  than  the  simple 
fact  that  electro-magnetical  action  was  produced  by  heat- 

•ne  end  of  a  bar  of  antimony,  to  the  ext 
which  were  made  fast  those  of  a  brass  wire;    and   tin 
detail*  of  his  researches  are  contained  in  a  memoir  which 
u  published  in  the  •  Cambridge  Philosophical  Tran*ac 


for  1823.     From  ;ipears  that  all  jtfrfeot  conduc- 

tors of  I'lectricitv  r  cooled  i 

action,  which  is  indicated  bv  the  amount 

in  all  .substances,  and  with  some  the  direction  of  the  cur- 
rent  is   contrary  to  that   which   is   produced 
\Vheii  a  single  bar,  of  symmetn 
middle,  it  produce*  no  ell- 
cause  the  opposing  currents  counteract  IM 
in  a  ring  formed  of  two  metals,  who.  i  the 

points  of  junction,  the  fluid  seems  to  pass  from  one  : 
to  the  other;  so  that  one  loses  positive  el.  r  be- 

comes negative,  win!  irnes  positi 

Professor  Cummini;  haviiur  asccrtai;  \periments 

on  bars  of  bismuth,  which  were  mail.  v  hot  and 

cold,  and  v  I  in   contact   with  each  other 

pair  of  the  hot  and  cold  p.-i  -  the  two  , 

of  the  whole  compound  bar,  bcin-r  connected  together  by 
.  that  the  action  of  the  whole  bar  on  a  needle  vr»* 
i-  than  that  of  any  two  portions,  o:  1  the 

other  cold,  was  led  to  the'ii: 
may  be  exhibited  by  the  mere  ju\t;: 
finite  number  of  small   plate-.     He 
determine  the  thermo-electric  relations  of  different  : 
by  merely    placin<:    i:  \\ith  each   other  a  small 

portion  of  each  of  the  two  kinds  of  metal  to  be  examined, 
and  touching  first  one  of  them,  and  then  the  other,  with 

nd  of  a  silver  or  copper  wire  which  was  com; 
with  the  heated  bar.  When  the  metals  were  bismur 
antimony,  the  former,  on  being  touched,  caused  the 

ii-edle  to  deviate  so  as  to  indicate  positive  electricity, 
and  the  latter  so  as  to  indicate  negative  . 
in  the  memoir  above  quoted  there  is  given  a  us 
of  the  electrical   relations  of  metals  in  several  dill 
combinations.     In  the  same  memoir  there  is  also  an  ac- 
count of  several  curious  anomalies  which  were  observed 
in  the  magnetic  action:    one  of  thc.-e   is.  that  when  iron 
wire  is  used  to  touch  the  metals  examined,  of  which  one 
is  iron,  the  needle  deviates  a  certain  number  of 
the  positive  direction  ;    then,  as  the  heat  of  t 
increased,  the  deviation  in  that  direction  gradually  dimi- 
nishes till  it  becomes  zero  ;  after  which  the  deviation  ' 
place  in  a  negative  direction,  and  it  becomes  a  maximum 
in  this  direction  when  the  wire  acquires  a  red  h 

If  two  parallel   bars  of  bismuth  are  connected  at 
extremity  of  each    by  a  bar  of  antimony,  so  as  to  form 

ide-  uf  ;i  square,  and  the  opposite  cv 
bars  of  bismuth  are  connected  with  the  two  extremis 
the    bent   wire   forming   an   electro-magnetic   multiplier 
[KI.KITRO-MAGN-ETISM,  p.  342,  vol.  ii.],  the.  needle  of  the 
multiplier  deviates  very  little;  but  when  those  ends  of  the 
o  connected  by  means  of  a  fourth  bar.  the  effect  on 
the  needle  is  considerable.     Now  the  effect  of  the   gal- 
vanic or  hydro-electrical  current,  when  produced  by 
and  zinc,  with  common  water  as  a  conductor,  is  vcrv  small  ; 
and  hence  it   U  inferred  that  the  thermo-electrical  current 
L.'i\c>  rise  to  a  large  quantity  of  that  whiei  ise  of 

the  macnc:1  the   power  being  however  in  a  low 

state  ol 

THEKMO'MKTKK  from  the  Greek  words  Oi.ojioc,  hnt. 
and  n'lrpov.  is  an  iiistiumeiit  by  which  the  tcm- 

:cd.     It  consists  of  a 

tube  with  a  capillan  linim;  in  general  aK 

or  mercury,  which  expanding  or  contracting  by 
in  the  temperature  of  the   atmosphere,  or  on  the  instru- 
ment bi-intr  immersed  in  the  liquid  or  gas  which  is  to  be 
examined,  the  st  phere,  liquid,  or  gas,  with 

!    to   caloric-   is  indicated   by  a  scale  which   is  either 
applied  to  the  tube  or  engraven  on  its  exterior  MI; 

The  end  proposed  by  a  thermometer  istli.  ment 

temperature  of  any  body  with  relation  to  the  tem- 
perature of  Mime  other  substance,  as  .  the  point 
of  free/ing:  but  the  measure  so  obtained  must  not  be 
understood  to  express  the  absolute  miantity  or  density  of 
caloric  in  anybody,  it  being  well  1. 
substances,  though  exhibiting  the  same  apparent  tempera- 
ture, contain  very  dill.  of  caloric  according 
to  their  cttjtacitirs  for  that,  element. 

The  thermometer  must  have  been  in  use  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  seventeenth  century,  but  it  is  not  known, 
precisely,  to  whom  the  honour  of  the  invention  is  due.  A 
physician  of  Padua  named  Sautorio,  and  Cornelius  Dreb- 


THE 


847 


THE 


bel  of  Alkmaar  in  Holland,  are  the  persons  to  one  of  whoa 
that  honour  is,  with  most  probability,  ascribed,  and  th 
former,  in  his  '  Commentaries  on  Avicenna '  (1626),  actu 
ally  claims  it  for  himself :  it  may  however  have  happene 
with  this,  as  with  other  scientific  discoveries,  that  the  ide 
of  the  instrument  occurred  to  two  persons  or  more  at  th 
same  time. 

The  first  thermometers  were  intended  to  indi- 
cate variations  in  the  temperature  of  the  atmo- 
sphere merely ;  and  the  most  simple  of  them  con- 
sisted of  a  hollow  glass-ball  at  one  extremity  of 
a  long  tube  which  was  open  at  the  opposite  ex- 
tremity :  the  air  within  tlie  ball  and  tube  being 
rarefied  by  the  heat  of  a  lamp,  and  the  tube 
being  in  a  vertical  position,  the  open  end  was 
plunged  into  a  vessel  containing  a  coloured 
spirit ;   the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  this 
spirit  caused  it  to  ascend  in  the  tube  till  the 
expansive  force   of  the   air  in   the   ball   and 
the  upper  part  of  the  tube  became  equal  to 
the   pressure.      In  this  state,  an  increase   of 
the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  caused  the 
air  in  the  ball  to  expand  and  press  down  the 
spirit  in  the  tube ;  on  the  other  hand  a  diminu- 
tion of  temperature,    by  causing  that  air  to 
contract,  allowed  the  external  pressure  to  raise 
the  spirit.     A  scale  was  adapted  to  the  tube  in  Original  Air 
order  to  express  the  degree  of  temperature  by  Thsnnometer 
the  number  of  the  graduation  at  the  upper  extremity  oi 
the  spirit. 

An  effort  was  made  to  render  the  instrument  portable 
by  bending  the  lower  part  of  the  tube  upwards  and  ter- 
minating this  branch  also  with  a  ball ;  and  a  small  aper- 
ture was  made  in  the  latter  in  order  that  the  external  air 
might  have  access  to  the  lower  surface  of  the  spirit.  Mr. 
Boyle  subsequently  modified  the  air -thermometer  by 
making  the  tube  quite  straight  and  open  at  both  ends : 
the  lower  end  was  immersed  in  a  small  glass  vessel  con- 
taining both  air  and  coloured  spirit,  and  the  vessel  being 
formed  with  a  neck  which  closely  encircled  the  tube,  it 
was  hermetically  sealed  to  the  latter.  The  variations  in 
the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  caused  the  air  in  the 
vessel  to  expand  or  contract,  and  thus  to  press  with  more 
or  less  force  on  the  surface  of  the  spirit ;  the  latter  was 
consequently  made  to  ascend  or  descend  in  the  tube. 

The  air-thermometer  invented  by  Amontons  (1702)  con- 
sisted of  a  tube  nearly  4  feet  long,  open  at  both  ends  and 
curved  upwards  at  bottom,  where  it  terminated  in  a  ball  : 
this  tube  carried  a  column  of  mercury  about  29£  English 
inches  high,  so  that  the  air  in  the  ball  was  compressed  by 
the  weight  of  two  atmospheres.  A  light  body,  in  which 
was  inserted  the  lower  end  of  a  wire,  floated  on  the  upper 
extremity  of  the  column  of  mercury  in  the  tube  ;  and  near 
the  upper  end  of  the  wire  was  an  index  by  which  the  num- 
ber of  the  graduation  on  a  scale  was  shown.  The  varia- 
tions of  the  temperature  of  the  air  in  the  ball  caused  the 
mercurial  column  to  ascend  or  descend  in  the  tube  ;  and 
thus  were  produced  corresponding  movements  in  the  index. 
By  this  instrument  it  was  proposed  to  measure  high  tem- 
peratures on  a  scale  whose  length  was  only  half  of  that 
which  was  required  with  the  simple  air-thermometer. 

The  defects  inseparable  from  all  the  above  thermometers 
are,  that  the  dilatations  of  the  air  are  not  proportional  to 
the  increments  of  heat,  that  the  length  of  the  column  of 
spirit  or  mercury  varies  with  the  temperature  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, also  that  the  air  which  is  in  contact  with  the  surface 
of  the  spirit  in  the  open  vessel,  in  the  first  kind  of  instru- 
ment, or  with  the  top  of  the  column  of  the  spirit  or  mer- 
cury, in  the  others,  exerts  more  or  less  pressure  according 
to  its  density ;  and  thus  the  indications  afforded  by  the 
thermometer  are  rendered  erroneous,  or  require  corrections 
which  it  is  difficult  to  apply.  The  air-thermometer  pro- 
posed by  Dubuat,  and  of  which  the  following  is  a  brief 
description,  possesses  some  advantages  above  those  which 
have  been  mentioned ;  but  not  being  portable,  it  has  never 
been  employed. 

It  consists  of  a  column  of  mercury  in  a  tube,  like  that 
of  a  barometer,  hermetically  sealed  at  the  upper  end,  and 
bent  below  so  as  to  form  a  short  branch  inclined  at  about 
40°  to  the  straight  part  of  the  tube  ;  this  branch  terminat- 
ing with  a  hollow  ball.  The  mercury  occupies  the  straight 
part  of  the  tube  to  the  height  of  about  29$  inches  above 
the  bend ;  and  at  this  bend  it  terminates  without  entering 


into  the  ball,  which,  by  the  construction,  is  a  little  above 
the  bend.  The  part  of  the  tube  which  is  above  the  column 
of  mercury  is  free  from  air,  and  when  the  bend  is  plunged 
in  boiling  water  the  tube  is  to  be  in  a  slightly  inclined 
position,  so  that  a  vertical  line  may  pass  through  the  two 
extremities  of  the  mercurial  column :  then,  upon  the 
ball  becoming  cool,  and  the  elasticity  of  the  air  in  it  being 
diminished,  the  weight  of  the  mercury  will  cause  it  to 
descend  in  the  long  branch  and  rise  in  the  other.  The 
mercury  is  to  be  prevented  from  entering  the  ball  by 
making  the  tube  decline  farther  from  the  vertical  position, 
so  that  the  lower  extremity  of  the  mercury  may  remain  in 
the  vertical  line  before  mentioned  ;  and  the  temperature 
of  the  air  is  to  be  determined  by  the  height  of  the  top  of 
the  column  of  mercury  above  a  horizontal  line  passing 
through  the  lower  extremity,  that  is,  by  the  cosine  of  the 
declination  of  the  tube  from  the  vertical.  Since  the  air 
in  the  ball  preserves  constantly  the  same  volume,  the  elas- 
ticity communicated  to  it  by  the  caloric  in  the  atmosphere, 
or  by  the  fluid  in  which  the  instrument  is  plunged,  is 
always  in  equilibrio  with  the  pressure  of  the  column  of 
mercury,  which  is  the  force  acting  against  it,  and  is  pro- 
portional to  the  vertical  height  of  that  column. 

About  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Accademia  del  Cimento  caused  thermometers 
to  be  constructed  in  which,  instead  of  air,  alcohol  or  spirit 
of  wine  was  employed.  The  fluid  was  introduced,  as  at 
present,  into  a  glass  tube  terminating  at  bottom  in  a  hollow 
ball,  from  which  the  air  had  been  expelled  by  heat :  the 
opposite  extremity  of  the  tube  was  then  hermetically 
sealed,  and  a  scale  was  applied  for  the  purpose  of  express- 
ng  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  or  of  the  liquid 
which  was  to  be  examined.  Alcohol  dilates  and  contracts 
considerably  with  the  variations  of  temperature  to  which  it 
may  be  subject,  though  not  in  so  great  a  degree  as  air.  It 
s  also  capable  of  measuring  very  low  temperatures,  but  as 
t  is  brought  to  a  boiling  state  sooner  than  any  other  liquid, 
t  cannot  be  employed  to  ascertain  a  high  degree  of  heat. 
Spirit-thermometers  were  introduced  into  this  country  by 
Mr.  Boyle,  and  they  are  still  used  both  here  and  on  the 
Continent. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton,  being  dissatisfied  with  the  smallness 
of  the  range  of  spirit-thermometers,  employed  linseed-oil 
n  tubes  for  the  purpose  of  measuring  degrees  of  heat :  this 
iquid  has  nearly  the  same  amount  of  expansibility  by  in- 
:rements  of  caloric  as  alcohol ;  and  it  is  capable  of  bear- 
ng  very  high  degrees   of  heat  and  cold  without  either 
soiling  or  freezing ;  but  from  its  viscidity  it  adheres  so 
nuch  to  the  interior  side  of  the  tube  as  to  render  accurate 
)bservations  quite  impossible,  and  on  this  account  it  has 
lot  since  Newton's  time  been  employed  for  thermometers. 
The  thermometer  which  is  now  in  general  use  is  a  slen- 
der tube  of  glass  terminating  in  a  ball  containing  mercury, 
he  air  having  been  expelled  and  the  tube  afterwards  her- 
metically sealed.    The  idea  of  employing  this  fluid  for  the 
purpose  of  measuring  degrees  of  heat  by  its 
expansion  is  supposed  to  have  first  occurred 
to  Dr.  Halley  ;  and  the  reason  why  it  was  not. 
employed  by  that  philosopher  appears  to  have 
been  that  the  range  of  its  expansion  is  much 
less  than  that  of  alcohol.    According  to  Boer- 
haave  (Elementa  Chemia;,  1732),  the  honour  of 
having  been  the  first  to  recommend  a  mer- 
curial thermometer  is  to  be  ascribed  to  Romer, 
the  discoverer  of  the  motion  of  light,  who  is 
said  to  have  invented  it  in  1709 ;  but  it  was 
not  till  the  year  1724  that  such  a  thermometer 
was  known  in  this  country.     In  that  year  an 
account  of  a  mercurial  thermometer  which  had 
been  invented  by  Fahrenheit,  of  Amsterdam,  in 
1720,  was  read  before  the  Royal  Society,  and 
was  published  in  the  'Philosophical  Trans- 
actions'  (vol.    xxxiii.).      The   advantages   of 
mercury  over  alcohol  and  air,  as  a  measure  of 
temperature,  are  that  its  expansions  are  more 
nearly  proportional  to  the  increments  of  caloric 
than  those  which  take  place  in  cither  of  the 
other  fluids  ;  it  is  easily  deprived  of  air,  and  its 
power  to  conduct  heat  being  considerable,  the 
changes  of  itsvolume  by  changes  of  tempera- 
UT.  ture  in  the  surrounding  medium  take   place 
more  rapidly  than  those  of  any  other  fluid  except  the  gaseg. 
At  first  the  scales  for  measuring  the  degrees  of  heat  were 


cc- 


,  nil 


T  ii  r. 


348 


T  II    I 


urbitr.uy.  and  consequently  no  two  11 

>•  thermo- 

i;iarking  the  pla 
'.ood  ill  the  tutu1  when  tli< 
immersed  in  snow,  and  the  place  at  which  it  Mood  at  the 

1 

\vns  divided  into  00  parts.     Subsequently 
in  this  c» 

scale-  or  oil 

.iking   the   spac  ••(  the 

tube  equal  to  n  •  whole  volume:  thus, 

supposing  the  ball  of  the  thermometer  and  part  of  the  tube 
to    he   divide. 1  into   ten  t!  and  to  be 

wholly  occupied  by  the  oil  when  the  instrument  is  plunged 
in  melted  i  1C  found  that  by  the  heat  of  the  human 

body  the  oil  expanded  25li  such  parts,  and  by  that  of  boil- 
ater.  7i~>  parts;  then,  c.m-idciing  the  point  at  which 
;i  of  the  column  stood  in  the  tube,  when  the  latter 
was  placed  in  ice,  as  the  zero  of  the  scale,  he  divided  the 
interval  between  this  point  and  that  at  which  the  top  of 
the  column  stood  when  the  ball  of  the  thermometer  was 
placed  under  the  arm  of  n  man,  into  12  parts.  Afterward- 
by  proportion  he  found  that  the  distance  from  the  ice-point 
to  that  of  boiling  water  was  equal  to  34  such  parts  (Phil. 
Trans.,  vol.  xxii.'  :  this  method,  being  of  difficult  execu- 
tion, was  soon  abandoned. 

The  scale  which  has  been  in  general  use  in  this  country 
since  the  year  1724,  is  supposed  to  have  been  invented  by 
Fahrenheit.  It  is  quite  unknown  on  what  ground  he  made 
choice  of  the  fixed  points  on  his  scale,  qr,  of  the  number  of 
graduations  between  them  ;  but  it  is  thought  that  one  of 
the  fixed  points  was  that  of  boiling  water,  and  that  the 
other,  which  is  the  zero  of  the  scale,  was  that  at  which  the 
top  of  the  eolumn  stood  when  the  instrument  was  t-\ 
to  an  intense  cold  in  Iceland,  in  1709.  The  extent  of  the 
scale  between  this  last  point  and  that  of  boiling  water  is 
divided  into  212  parts,  and  the  point  of  freezing  water  is 
at  the  thirty-second  division  from  the  zero  point.  See  the 
scale  on  the  right  of  the  tube  in  the  above  figure. 

M.  Reaumur  constructed  a  thermometer  in  which  spirit 
of  wine  was  employed,  and  he  formed  a  scale  in  a  manner 
nearly  similar  to  that  which  had  been  put  in  practice  by 
Sir  Isaac  Newton.  He  computed  the  volume  of  the  glass 
ball,  and  graduated  the  tube  so  that  the  space  be; 
two  divisions  was  equal  to  one-thousandth  part  of  that 
volume :  he  then  found  the  zero  of  the  scale  by  marking 
the  place  where  the  top  of  the  column  stood  when  the 
thermometer  was  placed  in  water  just  freezing  :  and  after- 
wards, plunging  the  instrument  in  boiling  water,  he  ob- 
served whether  or  not  the  spirit  rose  exactly  eighty  illu- 
sions. If  not,  he  strengthened  or  diluted  the  spirit  til!  it 
did  so;  and  the  point  at  which  the  top  of  the  spirit  stood 
became  the  point  of  boiling  water.  Of  this  instniment  an 
account  was  published  in  the  '  M^moires'  of  the  Academy 
onces  for  1730,  but  the  construction  has  been  long 
abandoned;  for,  besides  the  difficulty  of  gi\ing  a 
proper  degree  of  strength  to  the  spirit,  it  is  well  known 
that  the  latter  cannot  be  made  to  take  the  temperature  of 
boiling  water,  so  that  the  determination  of  the 
point  in  the  scale  must  be  very  erroneous.  That  which  is 
now  called  Reaumur's  thermometer  is  an  improvement  mi 
the  former,  by  M.  Deluc,  who  determined  the  points  of 
freezing  and  boiling  water  by  experiment,  and  divided  flu- 
distance  between  them  into  eighty  parts,  the  zero  of  the 
scale  being  at  the  former  point.  See  the  scale  on  the  left 
of  the  tube  in  the  above  figure. 

A  third  scale,  called  '  Centigrade,' has  been  much  in  use 
among  the  philosophers  of  the  Continent  within  the  la-t 
fifty  years:   it   was  invented   1,\  Ccl-iu-.   a   Swede,   and  il 
differs  from  that   of  Ri'anmur'or  Pelvic,  only  in  tli. 
•  i-en  the  points  of   freezing  and  hoiling- 
being  divided  into  UK)  parts.    The  length  of  each  degree 
in  this  thermometer,  as  well  as  in  that  of  Reaumur,   is 
greater  than  in  the  scale  of  Fahrenheit ;  and  consequently 
the  indications  of  temperature,  when  the  top  of  the 
or  raercur\  n  the  lines  of  division,  are  rather  un- 

certain, from  the  difficulty  of  estimating  them  accurately 
2j  '•  ""'   temperatures  required   to  be  .: 

_•  often  below  the  point  <>t  .  tin 

lenitive  -igns  is  of  more  frequent  occur- 
:>  these  thermometers  than  with  those  of  Fahren- 
heit. 

The  following  formulae  will  serve  to  convert  any  given 


number  of  degrees  on  Fahrenheit's  scale  into  the  corre- 
sponding number  of  d  and  the  Centi- 
grade scales,  anil  rirt  i 

Let   F,  R,  ami  any  corresponding  numbers  of 

degrees  on  the  three  scales  respectively  :  then — 

(F-32«}g=R,  and  (F-W  ^  =  U: 


also,  i-  C  =  R,  and  7  R  =  C. 

•  >  4 

N.B.  When  F  is  between  zero  and  32°,  the  values  of  R 
and  C  are  negative,  and   express  the  required  numl 
degrees  below    yero   on    Reaumur's   and   the  Centigrade 
scale.     Also,  when  F.  R,  or  C  express.  •  n  number 

of  degrees  below  zero  on  its  proper  scale,  it  must  be 
sidered  as  negat 

The  scale  invented   by  l)e  1'Isle  ,  g,  in 

\~:\.l.   being   -till   occasionally  in  vise,  it  n, 
to  mention  that  it  is  formed  by  making  the 
in  each  degree  equal   to  one   hundred-thousandth   pail  of 
the  whole  volume   of  the   mercury:   the'   xcro  of  the 
is  at  the  point  of  boiling-water,  and  between  this  point  and 
that  of  free/ing-wa'cr  the  space  is  divided  into  IfAJ  ) 

It  may  be  observed  that  the  situation  of  the  freezing- 
point  on  the  scales  of  thermometers  can  be  determined 
with  great  accuracy  if  the  ball  and  part  of  the  tube  be 
immersed  in  pounded  ice  :  for  it  is  known  that  water  con- 
taining ice  and  snow  remains  of  the  same  temj 
the  ice  is  entirely  dissolved.  c% .  .n  nf  call, 

the  water  being  employed  in  promoting  .lion. 

Hut   the  point  of  boiling  wat.r  i-   I'.ir  from  b.  i 
cisely  known,  since  it  \aiies  with  the  deu-it\  of  the  atmo- 
sphere at  the  time  of  making  the   determination.     Dis- 
tilled water  in  an  open  vessel,  and  under  a  given  pr. 
of  the  atmosphere,  boils  at  an  invariable  temperature 
cept  as  far  a-s  the  nature  of  the  vessel  may  make  - 
difference  ;  for  if  the  heat  communicated  to  the  wa: 
increased,  the  only  effect  produced  is  that  of  driving  off  a 
greater  quantity  of  steam  in  a  given  time :  in  a  vessel  ex- 
hausted  of  the   air   the  water  will   boil  at   a  temperature 
expressed  by  :>H°  or  100°  of  Fahrenheit's  scale,  while  in  a 
•  i  ucted  so  as  to  prevent  the  steam  from  escaping 
it  will  remain  in  a  liquid  state  at  a  temperature  e\p, 
by  nbove  400°.     In  order  therefore  that  the  tcmpciaturcz 
indicated  In  different   instrument.-  mav  agree  together,  :t 
is  recommended  that  this  point  .should  be  found  from  water 
boiling  in  the  open  air  at  a  time,  if  possible,  when  the 
height  of  the  mercurial  column  in  the  barometer  i-  :«) 
inches,  and  when  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  indicated 
of  Fahrenheit's  scale. 

This  effect  of  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  the 
boiling  of  water  was  noticed  by  Fahrenheit  in  1721,  and 
M.  Deluc.  in  his  '  Recherches  sur  les  Modifications  de 
V  Atmosphere,'  has  investigated  a  formula  for  determining 
the  height  of  the  boiling-point  above  the  freezing-po; 
the  scale  in  terms  of  the  height  of  the  mercury  in  the 
barometer;  but  the  English  artist  Bird  was  the  first  who 
applied  a  correction  on  account  of  the  state  of  the  baro- 
meter, for  the  purpose  of  fixing  the  point  of  boiling  water 
on  the  scales  of  thermometers. 

The  Royal  Society  having,  in  177C,  appointed  a  com- 
nutiee  to  consider  the  best  means  of  adjusting  the  fixed 
points  of  thermometers,  the  formula  of  Deluc  wits  verified 
and  reduced  to  English  measures  for  the  benefit  of  ai; 
in  the  event  of  then   being  obliged  to  make  the  instru- 
under  different  states  of  the  atmosphere  with  respect 
to  density  and  temperature  :  and  the  following  are  some  of 
the  corrections  which  are  given  by  Sir  George  Shuckburgh 
for  determining  the    true   place  of  the  boiling-poii 
water.    The  first  column  contains  the  height  of  the  baro- 


t, ,.•]„•«. 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
81 


^o 

-  :V27 

-  :)•  is 

(I 

+   IMill 


meler  in  inches;  and  the  second,  the  correction  which  is 
to  be  applied  with  its  proper  sign  to  the  number  212  on 
Fahrenheit's  scale,  in  order  to  give  the  correct  number  of 


THE 


349 


THE 


degrees  at  which  the  water  will  boil  under  the  pressure 
expressed  by  the  height  of  the  mercurial  column.  The 
committee  observe  that  in  trying  the  heat  of  liquors,  the 
quicksilver  in  the  tube  of  the 'thermometer  should  be 
heated  to  the  same  degree  as  that  in  the  ball ;  or  if  this 
cannot  be  done,  a  correction  should  be  applied  on  that 
account.  (Phil.  Trans.,  vol.  Ixvii.) 

Thermometer-tubes  should  have  their  bo^es  very  slen- 
der, and,  if  possible,  perfectly  equable  in  the  whole  of 
their  length.  When  the»e  is  any  inequality  in  the  trans- 
verse sections,  the  best  artists  make  the  graduations  of  the 
scale  vary  so  that  they  may  correspond  to  the  equal  divi- 
sions of  a  cylindrical  tube ;  and  in  order  to  ascertain  the 
relative  dimensions  of  the  sections,  they  cause  a  small 
quantity  of  mercury,  about  an  inch  in  length,  to  slide 
along  the  interior  of  the  tube,  measuring  its  length  in  dif- 
ferent places ;  then,  since  the  lengths  are  inversely  pro- 
portional to  the  areas  of  the  sections,  the  variations  of  the 
former  will  immediately  show  the  corresponding  variations 
of  the  latter.  It  is  usual  to  give  to  the  bore  an  oval  form 
with  the  broader  side  towards  the  front,  in  order  that  the 
mercury  or  spirit  may  be  easily  distinguished  at  a  certain 
distance,  as  by  approaching  very  near  the  instrument,  the 
heat  of  the  observer's  person  may  affect  the  length  of  the 
column. 

It  is  of  course  essential  that  the  extent  of  the  thermo- 
meter-scale should  be  great  enough  to  comprehend  all 
the  temperatures  at  which  the  substances  generally  re- 
quired to  be  examined  exist  in  a  state  of  fluidity  ;  and  this 
extent  may  be  obtained  when  mercury  is  employed.  Ac- 
cording to  the  experiments  of  Mr.  Dalton,  mercury  does 
not  boil  till  it  has  acquired  a  temperature  equal  to  660°  of 
Fahrenheit's  scale  ;  and  it  does  not  freeze  till  it  is  subject 
to  a  degree  of  cold  expressed  by  39  divisions  below  the 
zero  of  that  scale,  or  71°  below  the  freezing-point  of  water. 
Pure  alcohol,  on  the  other  hand,  has  never  been  frozen, 
though  it  has  been  exposed  to  a  degree  of  cold  exceeding 
that  which  is  expressed  by  91°  below  the  zero  of  Fahren- 
heit ;  and  therefore  a  spirit-thermometer  is  to  be  preferred 
to  one  of  mercury  when  it  is  intended  to  ascertain  the 
temperature  of  the  air  in  high  northern  or  southern  lati- 
tudes :  but  since  the  spirit  boils  in  air  with  a  degree  of 
heat  expressed  by  175°  of  Fahrenheit,  it  is  unfit  for  many 
of  the  purposes  for  which  a  thermometer  is  required.  For 
instruments  capable  of  measuring  very  high  temperatures, 
see  PYROMETER. 

In  the  construction  of  a  thermometer,  the  air  should  be 
carefully  expelled  from  the  tube,  and  even  from  the  mer- 
cury or  spirit  within  it :  the  variations  in  the  density  of 
the  atmosphere  cannot  of  course  affect  the  instrument, 
since  the  tube  is  hermetically  sealed.  It  must  be  ob- 
served however  that  the  indications  of  temperature  are 
not  precisely  expressed  in  terms  of  the  dilatation  of  the 
mercury  or  spirit  only,  but  in  terms  of  the  excess  of  that 
dilatation  above  the  dilatation  of  glass.  The  apparent  di- 
latation of  mercury  in  a  glass  tube  is  equal  to  j^  of  its 

volume,  between  the  temperatures  of  freezing  and  boiling 
water ;  and  its  true  dilatation  between  the  same  limits  is 

— —  of  its  volume. 

6a'5 

A  perfect  thermometer  would  be  one  in  which  the  ex- 
pansions of  the  fluid  in  the  tube  were  exactly  proportional 
to  the  increments  of  heat  which  it  might  receive  from  the 
substance  whose  temperature  is  to  be  determined  ;  but  it 
cannot  be  said  that  any  of  the  fluids  which  as  yet  have 
been  employed  in  the  construction  of  thermometers  strictly 
possess  this  property.  Mercury  is  the  fluid  in  which  it 
exists  in  the  greatest  degree ;  but  from  the  accurate  ex- 
periments of  Deluc  it  has  been  ascertained  that,  between 
the  points  of  freezing  and  boiling-water,  the  temperature 
indicated  by  the  mercurial  thermometer  is  lower  than  the 
true  temperature,  the  greatest  difference,  which  however 
it  only  equal  to  1°.4  of  Reaumur's  scale  or  3°.15  Fahren- 
heit, being  in  the  middle  between  those  two  points  on  the 
scale.  From  the  same  experiments  it  is  also  found  that 
when  thermometers  are  regulated  so  as  to  agree  at  the 
points  of  freezing  and  boiling  water,  whether  the  liquid 
be  oil,  spirit,  or  water,  the  indications  are  always  below 
those  of  mercury  ;  the  difference  being  the  greatest  at  the 
middle  between  those  points.  With  oil  6f  olives  the  dif- 
ference is  1°  of  Reaumur's  scale  (2°.25  Fahr.)  ;  with  highly 
rectified  alcohol,  4°.9  Reaumur  (11".02  Fahr.) ;  with  half 


alcohol  and  half  water,  ft"  .7  Reaumur  <15°.07  Fahr.) ;  and 
with  water,  19°.5  Reaumur  (43°.87  Fahr.).  It  must  be  ob- 
served that  great  irregularities  take  place  in  the  expansion 
of  all  fluids  when  near  their  boiling  state,  and  that  mer- 
cury contracts  very  suddenly  when  at  the  point  of  its  con- 
gelation. The  deviations  of  the  spirit-thermometer  from 
the  true  indications  of  heat  are  known  to  be  rather  greater 
than  those  of  the  mercurial  thermometer  :  it  may  be  added 
that  the  alcohol  in  a  thermometer-tube  loses,  in  time,  part 
of  its  strength ;  and  that  in  consequence,  the  degree  of 
expansion  by  a  given  increment  of  heat  is  not  the  same  as 
when  the  instrument  was  made.  The  expansion  of  alcohol 
for  temperatures  greater  than  about  175°  Fahr.,  at  which 
the  spirit  boils,  cannot  be  ascertained  practically,  because 
the  spirit  at  that  temperature  passes  into  a  state  of  vapour ; 
and  the  comparison  between  the  mercurial  and  the  spirit 
thermometer  ought  not  to  be  carried  higher  than  that 
temperature  ;  or  the  scales  for  mercury  and  spirit  ought  to 
be  regulated  so  as  to  agree  with  one  another  at  the  freezing- 
point  of  water  and  at  the  tempeiature  of  175°  Fahrenheit : 
if  this  were  attended  to,  the  differences  between  the  indi- 
cations of  the  mercurial  and  spirit  thermometers,  above 
that  point,  would  be  less  than  they  appear  to  be  by  the 
tables  of  Deluc. 

Water,  like  other  substances,  suffers  a  diminution  of 
volume  by  the  abstraction  of  calorie,  but  when  it  is  cooled 
to  a  temperature  between  39°  and  40°  of  Fahrenheit's  scale, 
it  seems  to  have  attained  the  maximum  of  density  ;  and  if 
the  process  of  cooling  be  continued,  it  then  increases  in 
volume  till  it  is  converted  into  ice.  Therefore  if  a  ther- 
mometer were  made  with  water,  and  the  top  of  the  column 
were  at  50°  Fahr.,  it  would  be  impossible  to  know  whether 
the  temperature  were  50"  or  30°,  the  expansion  being 
nearly  equal  at  equal  distances  within  ten  degrees  above 
and  below  40°  of  the  scale.  The  cause  is  uncertain,  but.  it 
is  probably  owing  to  a  partial  crystallization,  which  may 
begin  to  take  place  in  water  when  at  a  temperature  ex- 
pressed by  about  8  degrees  above  its  freezing-point. 

The  mercurial  and  spirit,  thermometers,  regulated  as  be- 
fore said,  differ  very  considerably  at  temperatures  below 
that  of  freezing  water ;  and  at  39°  below  the  zero  of  Fah- 
renheit, or  32"  below  the  zero  of  Reaumur,  when  the  mer- 
cury is  frozen,  the  difference  has  been  computed  to  be 
about  10°  Reaumur  (22°.5  Fahr.),  by  which  the  spirit 
stands  too  low.  By  observations  made  during  Sir  Edward 
Parry's  second  voyage,  the  differences  between  the  indica- 
tions of  the  spirit  and  mercurial  thermometers  varied  from 
3°.05  to  8°  Fahr.  between  the  temperatures  +58°  and 
—30°,  the  alcohol  being  always  too  low. 

Register  Thermometers.  —  It  is  of 
great  importance  in  meteorology  that 
the  observer  shonld  be  able  to  ascertain 
the  highest  or  lowest  point  of  a  ther- 
mometer scale  at  which  the  column 
of  mercury  may  have  stood  during  his 
absence  ;  and  several  contrivances  have 
been  adopted  by  artists  in  order  to  ob- 
tain this  end.  Of  these,  one,  which  is 
still  preferred,  was  invented  by  Mr. 
Six,  whose  name  the  instrument  bears, 
and  is  described  in  the  '  Philosophical 
Transactions'  for  1782.  It  consists  of  a 
long  tube  bent  so  as  to  form  three 
parallel  branches,  A,  B,  and  C :  the  part 
A  is  an  elongated  bulb,  and  the  rest  of 
the  tube  has  a  capillary  bore.  The  lower 
portion,  b,  contains  mercury,  which  rises 
in  B  and  C  to  certain  points,  as  a  and  c, 
and  the  bulb  is  filled  with  spirit  of  wine, 
which  passing  over  the  bend  at  d,  de- 
scends to  the  upper  extremity  of  the 
mercury  in  B  :  above  c  the  branch  C  is 
also  filled  with  spirit  to  near  the  upper 
extremity,  which  is  hermetically  sealed. 

Two  small  indices  of  steel  coated  with 
glass,  which  are  represented  at  m  and  n, 
are  introduced  in  the  branches  B  and 
C :  these  are  capable  of  being  forced 
upwards  by  the  rising  of  the  column  of 
mercury  in  either  tube,  and  they  have 
about  them  a  fine  wire  or  a  thread  of 
glass ;  so  that  they  will  remain  stationary  where  they  happen 
to  be  when  the  heads  a  and  c  of  the  columns  recede  from 


if 

^ 

Of 

<0^ 

0 

Sit*- 

"Of 

C 

-- 

So 

m 

\ 

"ioo 

a 

it 

c 

:0o 

-  50 

B 

• 

150 

B 

« 

L 

Q 

W 

1 

Six's  Register 
Thermometer. 

T  ii  i; 


T  ii  i: 


point* 


Their  i.  utly  indicate  the 

at  which  the  i-niU  of  th.  have  rtood 

:lu-  expansion  iil'  (hi-  spirit  in 

' 


' 
• 


cxp» 

are 

bf'n 
and 


ards,   '  /;  remaining  : 

..it  in 
in  fo.  'i 

>rale  belo1  : ich  ( ' 

• 

indicate  the  same  degree   on  the  two 
the  indices  in  and   /; 


may  hi  n  to  tln»e  points:    from  thence  afler- 

!>y  a  decrease,  and  the  hit; 
an  inc.  npvrature. 

An  instrument  of  this  kind  is  generally  used  for  ascer- 
taining the   temperature    of    tl 
depths,  or  of  the  atmosphere  at  great  heights. 

l)if,-rcntKil  'i  r. — This  instrument,  which  was 

invented  by  M.  Sturmins,  of  Altdorf, 
and  v  d   by  Professor  Leslie'   in   1SO-4.  • 

tvT»  thermometer  tubes,  terminating,  at  one  extremity  of 
each,  in  a  hollo 

phuric  acid:  tli-  extremities  are  united  by  the 

flame  of  a  blow-pipe,  and   an  enlargement  of  the  b. 

made  at  the  place  of  junction.  The 

O/~\        tube  is  then  bent  so  as  to  form  three 
\  J        sides  of  a  rectangle,  the  two 

which  arc  of  equal  diameter,  form- 
ing  the    upper  extremities  of  two 
sides;  and  the  instrument  is  on  a 
stand  with  the  branches  of  the  tube 
in    vertical    positions.      Wl 
temperature  of  the  air  in  the  two 
i  he  same,  the  acid  occupies 
one   side  and  the  base,  and 
little  way  up  the  other  side  of  the 
|[  rectangle.     To  the  latter  . side  is  at- 

tached a  graduated  scale,  with  the 
zero  of  which  the  upper  extremity 
'  ^— .  of  the  aciJ  in  that  branch  should 

iiiir..i*niiai  Ttimnometw.    coincide.     In  HID  event  of  th 

inTeiiM  liy  M.  Murrains,  of  justment   '. 

Alldorf.  antity 

of  air  to  pass  from  one  ball  to  done 

simply  by  the  warmth  of  a  hand  applied  to  that  ball  from 
when'  .en. 

The  variations  of  temperature  in  the  apartment  wil 
dently  have  no  effect  on  the  instrument,  since  the  action 
upon  the  two  balls  will  be  equal  :  but  if  one  ball  alone  be 
•  if  the  acid  in  the  other  will   immediately 
indicate  the  difference  between  the  tern,  of  the 

media  about,  the  two  balls  by  th  f  the1  i  xpu 

of  the   air  in   one  ball  above  the  expansion   in   the   < 
The  <:  ,,-h  that  the   least   dif- 


ferenc. 

nt  of  tl 

pose  of  mea.Miring  t 
tion,  an  inst 

;  a  boll 
one  end  to  a  therm 


is  immediately  made  sensible  by 


i~  or  the  pur- 
radia- 

:-  nulled  at 
at  the  upper  extremity  by  a  ball,  wi. 

,|)  with  wax,  which  is  to  I  >  ;  when 

is  to  be  eli  ai  lid.     The  other   • 

the  s;,  itK  in  a  collar  of  v 


will,  a  ,|et  ,,   i 

and  is  enclosed  in  a  box,  which  is  blackened  on 
interiorly,  and  ha*  a  thick  gla^s  m   I 
•crew  is  to  diminish  (ir  in 
di-r  if  nccewar)',  driving  a  i 
with. 
Utr  and  tl..  :„  ut  the  th 


r  with  the  liquid 


in  an  unbroken  column.     When  the   instrument   is  to  be 
I  in  a  horizontal  position  with  the  glass 

In   :  lent  is  disposed 

n  the 

liquid  will   mour  '  in   tlie   thermometei 

should  be  allowed  to  do  so  lor  three  or  four  mi: 
which,  bv  turning  tin  the  liquid 

tie  zero  of  r  nnds 

to  minute   is   ii.  ..  the 

'he  instrument.  ' 

low  with  his  eye  the  t  .and, 

counting   i  wnteh.  when  the  six- 

Ihe  number 

to  the  top  of  the  column  ; 
then,  waiting  till   the 

niniife.   t!  -ing    eoliium  as 

ntinp  the  beats  by  his  ear.  at  the  end  of 
the    minute    he  . ately    the    height    < 

column  ot  liquid.     The  instrument  b'eiiiit  then  drawn  into 
the  shade,  or  covered  with  a  screen,  a  pair  of  observations, 
at  the  inleival  of  one  minute,  are  made  and  n 
before,  the  liquid  descending  in  the  tube  ! 
two  observations.     The  instrum>  0  that 

the  sun  may  shim-  on  it.  and  afterwar>  when 

two  other  pairs  of  observations  are  made,  and  so  on. 
A  mean  of  the  two  differences  between  the  read  in 

two  ni.  rvations while  the  sun  shone  on  the  i 

rnent,  added  to  the  difference  between  the  readings  at  the 
intermediate  observations  while  the  instrument  was  in  the 
shade,  is  taken  as  a  mra.-urc  of  the  intensity  of  tin 
radiation  at  the  middle  time  between  the  tirM  and  third 
observations  ;  and  a  mean  o'.'  such  results  for  all  the  triplets 
of  observations  is  considered  as  the  general  mean. 

approximation  to  the  measure  of  solar  radiation  may 
be  obtained    by  simply  exposing  a  register  thermometer 
with  a  blackened  ball  to  the  direct  action  of  the  sun's 
[RADIATION.]     The  thermometer  should  be  p!: 
inches  above  the  ground,  and   1  a  currents 

of  air;    and  the  graduations  should  be  made  on  the 
of  the  thermometer,  in  o: 
from  the  expansion  or  warping  of  the-  scale. 

The  force  of  terrestrial   radiation  may  be  measured   by 
the   minimum   temperature    of    a    register    HUTUUM. 
ball  is  placed  in  the  focus  of  a  parabolical  mi. 
•o  of  the  mirror  is  to  be  turned  towards  the  face  of 
.  but  awav  from  the  rays  of  the  sun. 

THERMOMETER,  DIFFERENTIAL.      [THEMIOMK- 

TEU.] 

THERMOTYL/E.     [ZuiTOt'N,  GULF  OF.] 
THERMOSTAT,    or   In,  ,-.  an  apparatus    in- 

vented and  patented  in  1831   by  Dr.  tire,  for  rcgu! 
temperature   in   the   )  ion  and  distilla- 

tion, in  heating  baths  and  hothouses,  in  adjusting  1 1n- 
draft of  .stoves  and  furnaces,  in  ventilating  apartm 
&c.  It  acts  upon  the  principle  that,  when  two  thin 
tallic  bars,  of  different  degrees  of  expansibility,  are  n. 
or  soldered  together  side  by  side,  any  change  of  tempera- 
ture will  CM  •  •  in  the  compound  bar: 
the  side  consisting  of  the  least  extensible  metal  becoming 
concave,  and  the  other  convex.  By  this  flexure  of  the 
compound  bar.  which  takes  place  wiih  considerable  force. 
a  movement  is  effected,  which,  by  the  intervention  of 
may  be  made  to  open  or  close  stop-cock*,  dampers, 
scntilators,  ~crip1iou  oi  valves,  and  thereby  to 
regulate  the  How  of  heated  liquids  or  the  admission  and 
emission  of  air.  Tin-  compound  bars  frequently  consist  of 
thin  pieces  of  >teel  and  hard  hammered  brass,  iheted  to- 
:  but  various  other  metals  may  be  employed,  anil 
nay  be  used  for  "one  part  of 'the  bar. 

The  principle  of  the  thermostat  may  be  applied  in  many 
different,  \\a\s.  of  which  the  following  may 
examples.  In  /'/i.  I,  a  is  the  compound  bar.  which  is 
firmly  ti\cd  at  //.  and,  when  exposed  to  the  ordinary  tem- 
thc  atmosphere,  remains  in  the  straight  hori- 
zontal position  shown  in  the  cut.  To  tin 

the  compound  \  eoli- 

;  rod.   the   short    end   of  a  lever  mounted  upon  the 
axis  of  a  circular  revolving  vai  :.  c ;  and 

from  the  longer  end  of  tl.  •'Hug 

valve,  or  damper.  '/.      Uy  increasing  .  rature  of 

the  chamber  or  vessel  in  which  the  them.  ;ieed, 

the  compound  bar  will  assume  the  curved  form  indicated 


THE 


351 


THE 


by  the  dotted  lines,  by  which  means  the  position  of  the 
lever  will  be  altered,  the  valve  c  will  be  turned  on  its 
axis,  and  the  damper  will  be  raised.  Fig.  2  shows  another 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


arrangement,  in  which  two  compound  bars,  <z,  a,  fixed  at 
b,  are  made  to  open  and  close  a  valve  c,  in  a  pipe  through 
which  air,  water,  or  any  other  fluid  is  passed.  By  in- 
creasing the  temperature  of  the  apparatus,  the  upper  or 
moveable  ends  of  the  bars  would  recede  from  each  other, 
and,  consequently,  alter  the  position  of  the  valve.  A 
similar  contrivance  may  be  placed  in  a  chimney,  to  modify 
the  position  of  a  damper-plate  moving  upon  its  axis,  and 
thereby  to  regulate  the  draft.  The  application  of  such  an 
arrangement  of  compound  bars  to  the  admission  of  water 
to  a  water-bath  is  described  in  the  article  DISTILLATION, 
vol.  ix.,  p.  26.  Fig.  3  shows  the  principal  part  of  a  ther- 
mostatic  apparatus  in  which  three  pairs  of  compound  bars, 
a.  are  used  to  give  motion  to  a  sliding-rod  d,  d,  with 
which  any  kind  of  valve  may  be  connected  by  a  rack  and 
pinion,  a  chain  and  pulley,  or  otherwise,  b,  b,  in  this 
figure,  is  a  straight  guide-rod,  which  is  fixed  at  one  end 
by  a  screw-nut  c  ;  a  milled  head  being  added  for  the  pur- 
pose of  adjusting  the  apparatus,  so  that  it  may  act  at  any 
required  temperature.  The  thermostatic  bars,  in  this  as 
well  as  the  previous  cases,  are  nearly  or  quite  straight 
when  cold,  and  become  more  or  less  curved  by  the  action 
of  heat ;  but  in  some  modifications  of  the  thermostat  the 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


bars  are  always  curved,  and  the  action  of  the  apparatus 
depends  upon  the  increase  or  decrease  of  the  ordinary 
flexure.  Fig.  4,  for  example,  represents  a.  thermoslati'c 
hoop,  a,  a,  winch  may  be  immersed  horizontally  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  water-bath  of  a  still.  The  hoop  is  fixed 
at  6,  and  to  its  free  ends  are  attached  short  links  c,  c,  which 
impart  longitudinal  motion  to  the  rod  d.  e  is  a  lever- 
handle  moved  by  the  sliding-rod,  and  turning  a  valve  on 
its  axis/.  The  outer  end  of  this  lever  carries  an  index, 
which  moves  against  a  graduated  scale,  g  is  a  screw-nut, 
moveable  upon  the  sliding-rod,  to  adjust  the  apparatus 
before  graduating  the  scale  or  arc  traversed  by  the  index. 
Sonic  other  forms  of  the  apparatus  are  given  in  Dr.  Ure's 
'  Dictionary  of  Arts,'  &c.,  pp.  1237-1239  ;  and  on  p.  643 
of  the  same  work  is  described  a  contrivance  in  which  the 
same  natural  principle  is  differently  applied. 

THEROUENNE.     [PAS  DE  CALAIS.] 

THE8EIUM  (eij^iov),  the  temple  of  Theseus  at  Athens, 
was  situate  in  the  north-west  part  of  the  city,  at  no  great 
distance  from  the  gate  which  led  to  Eleusis,  and  imme- 
diately above  the  gymnasium  of  Ptolemy.  It  was  built  in 
honour  of  Theseus,  soon  after  his  bones  had  been  brought 
from  Scyros  to  Athens  by  Cimon,  B.C.  469.  (Plutarch, 
<i;  dtium,  8;  Diod.  Sic.,  iv.  62.)  It  possessed 
an  inviolable  asylum,  where  runaway  slaves  in  particular 
were  accustomed  to  take  refuge,  and  was  equalled  in  sanc- 
tity only  by  the  Parthenon  and  Eleusinium.  (Plutarch, 
De  J±r*iti'i,  p.  607  A  ;  Hesychius,  and  Etymolog.  Mug., 
under  Oijmiov.)  Its  sacred  enclosure  was  so  large  as  to 
serve  sometimes  as  a  place  of  military  assembly.  (Thucyd., 
vi.  61.) 


The  temple  of  Theseus  is  in  a  state  of  greater  preserva- 
tion than  almost  any  of  the  antient  monuments  of  Athens, 
and  is  used  in  the  present  day  as  a  Christian  church,  dedi- 
cated to  St.  George.  It  is  built  entirely  of  Pentelic  marble, 
and  stands  upon  an  artificial  foundation  formed  of  large 
Quadrangular  blocks  of  limestone.  Its  architecture  is  of 
the  Doric  order.  It  is  a  peripteral  hexastyle,  or  surrounded 
by  columns,  having  six  in  each  front.  There  are  thir- 
teen columns  on  each  side,  including  those  at  the  angles, 
which  are  also  reckoned  among  the  six  belonging  to  each 
front,  so  that  the  whole  number  surrounding  the  temple  is 
thirty-four.  It  consists  of  a  cella  forty  feet  long,  having  a 
pronaos  to  the  east  and  a  posticum  to  the  west.  The  pronaos 
and  the  portico  are  together  thirty-three  feet  in  depth,  and 
the  posticum  with  its  portico  twenty-seven  feet.  The  breadth 
of  the  temple  is  forty-five  feet.  The  columns  are  three 
feet  four  inches  in  diameter  at  the  base,  and  rather  more 
than  eighteen  feet  and  a  half  high,  with  an  intercolumnia- 
tion  of  five  feet  four  inches.  The  height  of  the  temple 
from  the  summit  of  the  pediment  to  the  base  of  the 
columns  is  about  thirty-one  feet.  The  platform  upon 
which  it  is  built,  and  which  consists  of  only  two  steps,  is 
about  two  feet  four  inches  in  height. 

The  eastern  front  of  the  temple  was  the  principal  one. 
This  is  shown  not  only  by  the  greater  depth  of  the  pronaos, 
but  still  more  decisively  by  the  sculpture.  In  the  eastern 
pediment  only  are  there  any  traces  in  the  marble  of  me- 
tallic fastenings  for  statues ;  and  the  ten  metopes  of  the 
eastern  front,  with  the  four  adjoining  ones  on  each  side, 
are  exclusively  decorated  with  sculpture,  all  the  others  on 
both  sides  and  on  the  western  front  being  plain.  The  only 
other  parts  of  the  temple  adorned  with  sculpture  are  the 
friezes  over  the  entrance  of  the  prona.os  and  the  posticum. 
In  the  British  Museum  there  are  casts  of  the  greater 
portion  of  these  friezes,  and  also  of  three  of  the  metopes 
from  the  northern  side,  being  the  first,  second,  and  fourth, 
commencing  from  the  north-east  angle.  They  were  made 
at  Athens,  by  the  direction  of  the  earl  of  Elgin,  from  the 
sculptures  which  then  existed  upon  the  temple,  where  they 
still  remain.  The  marbles  have  been  greatly  injured  since 
the  time  when  Pars  made  the  drawings  for  Stuart,  but 
enough  remains  to  show  that  they  belong  to  the  highest 
style  of  Grecian  art :  they  are  almost  equal,  and,  by  some, 
considered  even  superior,  to  those  of  the  Parthenon.  The 
relief  is  bold  and  salient,  approaching  to  the  proportions 
of  the  entire  statue,  the  figures  in  some  instances  appear 
ing  to  be  only  slightly  attached  to  the  table  of  the  marble. 
It  appears  that  all  the  sculptures  were  painted,  as  was  the 
case  in  many  other  Grecian  temples.  Col.  Leake  says 
that  vestiges  of  brazen  and  golden-coloured  arms,  of  a  blue 
sky,  and  of  blue,  green,  and  red  drapery,  are  still  very 
apparent. 

The  subjects  of  the  sculptures  are  the  exploits  of  Theseus, 
and  those  of  his  friend  and  companion  Hercules.  The 
metopes  in  front  of  the  temple  relate  to  the  labours  of 
Hercules,  and  those  on  the  two  sides  to  those  of  Theseus. 
On  the  frieze  of  the  posticum  is  represented  the  combat 
of  the  Centaurs  and  the  Lapithae,  in  which  Theseus  was 
engaged ;  but  the  subject  of  the  frieze  of  the  pronaos  is 
very  doubtful,  owing  to  the  mutilated  condition  of  the 
sculptures.  Stuart  supposes  that  it  represents  part  of  the 
battle  of  Marathon,  and  especially  the  phantom  of  Theseus 
rushing  upon  the  Persians.  Col.  Leake  thinks  it  probable 
that  the  pannel  over  the  pronaos  relates  to  the  exploits  of 
Hercules,  in  the  same  way  as  the  other  frieze  relates  to 
those  of  Theseus ;  and  he  supposes  it  to  represent  the 
battle  of  the  giants,  who  are  said  to  have  been  subdued 
chiefly  through  the  exploits  of  Hercules.  Miiller  (Deiik- 
mdler  der  alien  Kunst,  p.  11)  conceives  it  to  represent 
the  contest  of  Theseus  against  the  Pallantidae,  who  wished 
to  destroy  him  when  he  was  acknowledged  by  ^Egeus  as 
his  successor.  Mr.  Hawkins  (Description  of  Axlient 
Marbles  in  the  British  Museum,  part  ix.)  however  is  of 
opinion  that  not  one  action  alone  is  intended  to  be  repre- 
sented, but  three  or  four  achievements  are  here  recorded, 
the  subjects  being  separated  from  one  another  by  groups 
of  seated  divinities. 

The  interior  of  the  temple  originally  contained  three 
paintings  on  the  walls  by  Micon,  which  Pausanias  saw  and 
describes  (i.  17,  $  2).  One  represented  the  battle  of  the 
Athenians  with  the  Amazons,  the  second  that  of  the  Cen- 
taurs and  the  Lapithse,  and  the  third  an  action  of  Theseus 
in  Crete.  The  stucco  upon  which  these  paintings  were 


T  11    1. 


executed  is  still  apparent,  and  shows  that  cadi  painting  ' 

ic  whole  wall   from  the  roof  to  two  feet   nine 
inches  short  of  till-  pavement. 

There  was  al»o  a  wnctuary  of  Theseus  in  the  Peirseeus, 
as  appears  from  an   inscription.        > 

lart's  Atheni,  vol.  iii. :  I.cakc's  TV^MTapAjr  </ 
Atkrns;  Daterijition  >./ Anlinit  Marbbt  tn  UuBritith 

..•HI.  part  ix. ;  Forchhammer,  TopograpMit  ron  Al/ien, 
Ki.-l.  1*11. 

THESEUS  (eifffiic),  the  great  national  hero  of  Athens, 
i«  said  to  i  born  ;it  Tnv/rn.  where  his  father 

.c-Egi".  -lept  one  night  with  .to lira,  the 

daughter  HI'  I'lttheus,  king  <if  the  place.  .Kgeus,  on  his 
departure,  hid  his  sword  and  shoes  under  a  large  stone, 
and  charged  .Kthrn.  if  she  brought  forth  a  son,  to  send 
him  U>  Athens  with  these  tokens,  as  soon  as  he  was  able 

1  away  the  stune.  She  brought  forth  a  son,  to  whom 
she  gave  t'he  name  of  Theseus,  and  when  he  was  grown 
up.  informed  him  of  his  origin  and  told  him  to  take  up  the 
tokens  and  sail  to  Athens,  Tor  the  roads  were  infested  by 
robbers  and  monsters.  Hut  Theseus,  who  was  desirous  of 
emulating  the  dory  of  Hercules,  refused  to  go  by  sea,  and 
after  destroying  various  monsters  who  had  been  the  terror 
of  the  country,  arrived  in  wifely  at  Athens.  Here  he 
was  joyfully  recognised  l>y  dBgeuft,  but  with  difficult]' 

cd  destruction   from  Medea    and  the  Pallantids.   the 
sons  and  grandsons  of  Pallas,  the  brother  of  .fligeus.    These 
mever   he   finally  surmounted,  and   slew    the 
Pullantids  in  battle. 

His  ne\t  exploit  was  the  destruction  of  the  great  Mara- 

thonian  bull,  which  ravaged   the  neiirhbouring  country  : 

,  ed  to  deliver  the  Athenians  from 

the  tribute  that  they  were  obliged  to  pay  to  Minos,  king  of 
Crete.     Kvery  ninth  year  the  Athenians  had  to  send  seven 
young  men  and  as  many  virgins  to  Crete  to  be  devoured 
by  the  Minotaur  in  the  Labyrinth.     Theseus  voluir 
to  go  as  one  of  the  victims,  and  through  the  assistance  ol 

!ue,  the  daughter  of  Minos,  who  became  enamoured 
of  him,  he  slew  the  Minotaur  and  escaped  from  the  Laby- 
rinth. He  then  sailed  away  with  Ariadne,  whom  he  de- 
serted in  the  island  of  Dia  or  Naxos,  an  event  which  fre- 
quently forms  the  subject  of  ant  lent  works  of  art.  The 
sails  of  the  ship  in  which  Theseus  left  Athens  were  black, 
but  he  promised  his  father,  if  he  returned  in  salety,  to 
hoist  white  sai's.  This  however  he  neglected  to  do,  and 
/Kgeus  seeing  the  ship  draw  near  with  black  sails,  sup 
that  his  son  had  peiished,  and  threw  himself  from  a  rock. 

Theseus  now  ascended  the  throne  of  Athens.  Hut  his 
adventures  were  by  no  means  concluded.  He  marched 
into  the  country  of  the  Amazons,  who  dwelt  on  the  Ther- 
modon,  according  to  some  accounts  in  the  company  of 

i  lies,  and  carried  away  their  queen  Antiope.  The 
Amazons  in  revenge  invaded  Attica,  and  were  with  diffi- 
cult', 1  iv  the  Athenians.  This  battle  was  one  of 
the  most  favourite  subjects  of  the  antient  artists,  and  is 
commemorated  in  several  works  of  art  that  arc  still  extant. 
Theseus  also  took  part  in  the  Argonautic  expedition  and 
the  Calydoniati  hunt.  He  assisted  his  friend  Pirithous  and 
the  Lapithae  in  their  contest  with  the  Centaurs,  and  also 
accompanied  the  former  in  his  descent  to  the  lower  world 
to  carry  off  Proserpine,  the  wife  of  Pluto.  When  Theseus 
was  fifty  years  old,  according  to  tradition,  he  carried  off 
Helen,  the  daughter  of  I.eda,  who  was  then  only  nine  years 
of  age.  Hut  hi  invaded  in  consequence  by 
Castor  and  Pollux,  the  brother*  ot  I.eda  :  his  own  people 
rose  against  him:  and  at  last,  finding  his  affairs  desperate, 
he  withdrew  to  the  island  of  S.-uos.  and  there  perished 
either  by  a  fall  from  the  cliffs  or  through  the  treachery  ol 

uicdcs-,  the  king  of  the  island.  For  a  long  time  his 
memory  was  forgotten  by  the  Athenians,  but  he  was  sub- 
sequently honoured  by  them  as  the  greatest  of  their  heroes. 
At  the  battle  of  Marathon  they  thought  they  saw  him 
armed  and  bearing  down  upon  the  barbarians";  and  after 
the  conclusion  of  the  Persian  war,  his  bones  were  disco- 
d  at  Scyros  by  Cimon,  who  conveyed  them  to  Athens. 
where  they,  were  received  with  great  pomp,  and  dt •;• 
in  a  tempfe  built  to  his  honour.  [TiiKsKirM.]  A  festival 
alto  was  instituted,  which  was  celebrated  on  the  eighth  day 
of  every  month,  but  more  especially  on  the  eighth  of  P\- 
•nepsion. 

The  above  is  a  brief  account  of  the  legends  prevailing 
respecting  Theseus.  But  he  is  moreover  represented  by 


T  II  K 

antient  writers  as  the  founu  \ttic  commonwealth, 

ami   even  of  its  demociatical   institutions.     It  won:  . 
waste  of  time  to  inquire  whether  there  was  an 
peisonage  of  this  name  wl  intrudiu -ed  the  poli- 

tical change*  ascribed  to  him:  it  will  be  convenient  to 
adhere  to  the  antient  account  in  describing  them  ::..  the 
work  of  Theseus. 

Before   his   time   Attica   contained   manv  independent 
townships,  which  were  only  nominally  united'.      I 
corporaled  the  people  into  •  emoved  th 


i-  people 
administ 


courts  for  the  administration  of  just  ice  to  Atln 

enlarged   thr  city,  which   had   hitherto  covered  little  nioie 
than  the  rock  which  afterwards  formed  the  citadel.    '1  • 
ment  their  union  he  institute 

ally  changed  the  . \then. i'a  into  the  Panathensea,  or  the 
val  of  all  the  Attieaus.    He  encouraged  the  nobles  to  i  • 
at  Athens,  and  surrendered  a  part  of  his  kingly  pi  < 
to  them,  for  winch  reason  he  is  jierhii] 
founder  of  the  Athenian  demoe;  ern 

ment  which  he  established  was,  and  continued  to  be  long 
alter  him,  strictly  aristocratical.    For  he  div  ided  the  ]>< 
into    the    tribe.-,    or    classes  of    Knpatrida  .   tit-onion,    and 
Demiurgi,  of  whom  the  first  were  nobli  s,  the  second  agri- 
culturists, the  third  artisans.     All  the  ofli< 
those    connected   with    religion    were    exclusively    in  the 

Of  the  lir-t  class.      Knell  tribe  v  I.  either  ill 

his  time  or  shortly  a  tier  wards,  into  three  phratria-,  and 
each  phratria  into  thirty  g  ;  .  The  meml'. 

the  separate    phi  atria-   and  gcntes  had  rc'i  -  and 

Is  peculiar  to  themselves,  which  were  preserved  long 
nfter  these  communities  had  lost  their  political  importance 
by  the  democratical  changes  of  C'leisthenes.  [( '1.1  < 

'(Plutarch's  7. /('(;/'    .  Mem-sins.   TketeiU,  ttV8  M 

cju-i    I'iltl   Rebuxqtic  nn.t.  Ultraject.. 

where  all  the  authorities  are  quoted  ;  Thirlwall's 
Hixl'iry  of  Grferf,  vol.  ii.,  p.  8,  &c.) 

THESMOPHO'RIA  (eta/iofoo'"  •  *  festival  with  mys- 
teries in  honour  of  Demet.  'o  whom  all  the  insti- 
tutions of  civilized  life,  especially  of  civil  and  religious 
laws,  were  attributed.  The  festival  of  th  iioiia. 
especially  referred  to  this  part  of  the  character  of  the  god- 
dess, as  is  clear  from  several  of  the  ceremonies  observed  at 
its  celebration,  and  from  the  surname  of  the  goddess, 
•  Thcsmophoros,'  from  which  the  festival  deiivcd  its  name. 
It  was  celebrated  in  various  towns  in  Greece,  and  in  the 
Greek  colonies,  as  Sparta,  Thebes.  Eretiia,  F.pli 

Agrieentum.  and  others.    But  the  place  where  it  was 
held  with  the  greatest  solemnity,  and  where  the  particulais 
of  its  celebiation  are  best,  known,  was  Athens.     It  was  in- 
troduced at  Athens,  according  to  some  writers,  by  Oif 
and  according  to  Herodotus    ii.  171     by  the  daugln 
Danaus    from    Fgypt.      Its   celebration    was   confin 
women,  especial  !  women.     It  commenced  . 

year   on  the  1 1th  of  1'vaiu  psion.   and    lasted    accnrdi. 
some  writers    for    four,  and    according  to  others    for  live 

da\s.  The  discrepancy  in  this  case,  as  well  as  in  that  of 
other  Greek  and  Roman  festivals,  seems  to  have  arisen 
from  the  circumstance  that  the  real  festival  was  in  many 
instances  preceded  by  one  or  more  days  devoted  to  pre- 
parations and  purifications,  and  that  some  writers  reckoned 
these  davs  as  belonging  to  the  festival.  Now  that  the 
Thesmophoiia  v.  ed  by  such  preparatory  d; 

cxprcssh  stated,  and  during  these  days  the  Athenian 
women  underwent  various  kinds  of  purifications.  Wellauer. 
in  his  little  work  cited  below,  has  rendered  il  more  than 
probable  that  the  festival  itself  did  not  last  more  than 
three  days. 

Previous  to  its  celebration  the  women  of  each  demos 

I  from  among  themselves  two  matrons  to  conduct 
the  solemnities,  whose  husbands,  provided  th  <  ived 

a  dowry  of  not  less  than  three  talents,  had  to  pay  the 
expenses  of  the  festival  as  a  liturgy.  (Isaeus,  DC  Cirnnis 

W.,  p.  208.)     The  first  day  m  the  festival 
avolot    or   itoioiJof,   that   is,    the    procession,    because    the 
women  went  from  Athens  to  Eleiisis   in  a  procession   in 
which  they  carried  on  their  heads   certain   lav 
written  either  in  books  or  upon  tablets.     During  the  night 

'•n  the  first  and  second  day  the  women  solemnized 
their  mysteries  at  Kleusis.  The  second  day.  called  vriania, 
or  •  the  Fast,'  was  a  day  of  mourning,  on  which  the  women 
were  not  allowed  to  take  any  other  food  than  cakes  of 

ie  and  honey,  and  t!i-  part  of  it  thev  spent 

sitting  in  mournful  attitudes  on  the  ground   around  the 


T  H  E 


353 


THE 


statue  of  the  goddess.  Meursius  and  others  think  that  tlie 
procession  to  the  Thesmophorion  (the  temple  of  Demeter 
Thesmophoros)  at  Athens,  which  is  alluded  to  by  Aristo- 
phanes (Thetmopbor.,  276,  &c.),  and  in  which  the  women 
walked  behind  a  waggon  laden  with  baskets  containing 
mystic  symbols,  took  place  in  the  afternoon  of  this  day, 
tli.'  whole  of  which  was  a  sacred  day  at  Athens,  on  which 
neither  the  senate  nor  the  people  were  allowed  to  hold 
their  usual  meetings.  The  third  day  was  called  KalXiyivna, 
a  surname  of  Demeter,  by  which  she  was  invoked  on  this 
occasion.  (Aristoph.,  Thesmophor.,  296,  with  the  Scholiast.) 
On  this  day  the  women  made  up  for  the  day  of  mourning, 
and  indulged  in  various  kinds  of  merriment  in  imitation  of 
lambe,  who  was  believed  to  have  created  a  smile  on  the 
lace  of  the  goddess  during  her  grief.  Hesychius  mentions 
a  sacrifice  called  Zemia  (£;;/«a)  in  connection  with  the 
Thesmophoria,  which  was  offered  to  propitiate  the  goddess 
for  :my  neglect  or  fault  that  might  have  been  committed 
during  the  celebration  of  her  festival ;  but  whether  this 
sacrifice  was  oft'ereU  at  the  close  of  the  third  day  or  after 
the  festival,  cannot  be  decided. 

( .Meursius,  Graecia  Feriata,  s.  v.  etcr/io^opia ;  Dictionary 
fif  Greek  and  Roman  Antiq.,  s.  v.  Thesmophoria ;  Wel- 
lauer,  De  Thesmophoriis,  Breslau,  1820,  8vo.) 

TIIESPE'SIA  (from  Seujrcuioc),  the  name  of  a  genus  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Malvaceae.  The 
species  are  trees  with  large  entire  leaves.  The  calyx  is 
truncate,  and  girded  by  a  3-leaved  deciduous  involucel ; 
the  fruit  is  a  capsule  with  5  cells,  each  cell  is  semi-parted, 
with  4  seeds  at  the  base. 

T.  populnea,  Poplar  Thespesia,  has  roundish,  cordate, 
pointed,  5-7-veined  leaves,  with  dot-like  scales  beneath, 
with  the  peduncles  equal  in  length  to  the  petioles.  This 
plant  is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  Guinea,  and  the  Society 
Islands ;  and  is  known,  where  it  grows  amongst  British 
colonists,  as  the  umbrella-tree.  It  attains  a  height  of 
about  40  feet,  and  has  large  yellow  flowers  with  a  dark 
red  centre.  In  the  tropics  it  has  gained  for  itself  a  sacred 
regard,  and  is  planted  about  monasteries  and  convents ; 
hence  the  name  Thespesia  (divine).  There  are  two  species 
natives  of  South  America:  they  are  all  trees,  with 
handsome,  showy  flowers.  In  their  cultivation  they  will 
thrive  well  in  a  mixture  of  loam  and  sand,  and  cuttings 
will  strike  freely  in  sand  or  mould  under  a  hand-glass  in  a 
hot-bed.  (Don's  Miller,  vol.  i.) 

THESPIS  ••  oiffjHc),  a  native  of  Icaria  in  Attica,  who 
lived  in  the  time  of  Solon  and  Pisistratus,  about  535  B.C. 
The  antient  traditions  unanimously  represent  him  as  the 
inventor  of  tragedy.  The  manner  in  which  this  invention 
is  said  to  have  originated  is  stated  differently.  According  to 
one  account,  which  is  also  adopted  by  Horace,  it  arose  from 
Thespis  travelling  during  the  festival  of  Dionysus  through 
Attica  upon  a  waggon,  on  which  he  performed  comic 
I.  This  tradition  however  is  based  upon  a  confusion 
of  tragedy  with  comedy,  the  invention  of  which  is  not 
ascribed  to  Thespis  by  any  antient  authority.  The  inven- 
tion of  Thesis  ( '(insisted  in  nothing  else  than  in  introduc- 
ing a  person  who  at  the  Dionysiac  festivals  in  the  city  of 
Athens  entered  into  conversation  with  the  chorus,  or  related 
a  story  to  it.  The  designation  of  this  actor  was  Hypocrites 
(virotpiriif),  that  is,  the  'answerer,'  because  what  he -said 
or  acted  answered  or  corresponded  with  the  songs  of  the 
chorus.  By  means  of  masks,  the  invention  of  which  was 
likewise  ascribed  to  Thespis,  he  was  enabled  to  act  different 
characters  one  after  another.  Some  writers  who  considered 
tlie  chorus  itself  as  a  second  actor,  speak  of  two  actors  in 
the  time  of  Thespis,  and  consequently  state  that  .<Eschylus 
introduced  a  third  actor.  (Themistius,  Orat.,  xxvi.,  p.  382, 
edit.  Dindorf.)  Whether  Thespis  wrote  his  plays  is  not 
quite  certain,  although  Donatus  (De  Comoed,  et  Tragoed., 
in  (Ironovius's  T/tr-.iaurus,  viii.,  p.  1387)  expressly  says  so, 
but  the  tragedies  bearing  the  name  of  Thespis  in  the  time 
ot  the  Alexandrines  cannot  be  considered  as  genuine.  It 
is  an  historical  fact  that  Heraclides  Ponticus  forged  tra- 
gedies under  the  name  of  Thespis ;  and  the  few  frajgments 
of  Thespis  quoted  by  antient  writers  are  unquestionably 
h  supposititious  works.  The  tragedies  of 
Thespis  must  have  fallen  into  oblivion  and  have  perished 
at  the  time  when  the  Attic  drama  reached  its  perfection  : 
some  of  his  choral  songs  however  appear  to  have  been 
known  as  late  us  the  time  of  Aristophanes,  as  we  may  infer 
from  ling  scene  of  the  '  Wasps.'  We  know  the 

title*  of  his  tragedies:  ' Pentheus,' ' The  Funeral 

P.  C.,  No.  1532. 


Games  of  Pelias  or  Phorbas,'  '  The  Priests,'  and  '  The 
Youths ;'  but  of  their  construction  nothing  is  known,  ex- 
cept that  each  seems  to  have  commenced  with  a  prologue. 
(Themist,  Orat.,  p.  382.) 

Respecting  the  history  of  Thespis  very  little  is  known. 
Solon  was  present  at  the  performance  of  one  of  Thespis's 
plays,  and  highly  disapproved  of  dramatic  performances,  as 
tending  to  lead  men  to  falsehood  and  hypocrisy.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  career  of  Thespis  tragic  contests,  were  in- 
troduced at  Athens,  and  Thespis  probably  contended  for 
the  prize  with  Choerilus  and  Phrynichus,  who  is  called  his 
disciple.  Thespis  is  also  said  to  have  distinguished  him- 
self in  orchestic,  or  the  ait  of  dancing  (Athenaeus,  i.,  p. 
22),  which  however  can  only  refer  to  his  skill  in  instruct- 
ing the  chorus. 

(Bode,  Geschichte  der  Dramat.  Dichtkunst  der  Hd- 
lenen,  i.,  pp.  40-57 ;  Miiller,  Hist,  of  the  Lit.  of  Greece, 
i.,  p.  292,  SEC.) 

THESPRO'TIA  (Qtawpuria),  a  district  of  the  antient 
Epirus,  around  the  river  Acheron.  Its  boundaries  are  not 
distinctly  stated  by  antient  writers,  but  the  district  seems 
to  have  included  the  coast  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ambra- 
cian  Gulf  northwards  to  the  river  Thyamis,  and  the  country 
inland  as  far  as  Mount  Tomarus.  The  south-eastern  part 
of  Thesprotia,  south  of  the  river  Acheron,  was  called  Casso- 
paea,  and  is  sometimes  reckoned  as  a  distinct  district ;  but 
the  other  statement  appears  more  correct,  since  Herodotus 
makes  the  Thesproti  neighbours  of  the  Ambraciots  and 
Leucadians.  (Herod.,  viii.  47.) 

Thesprotia  was  one  of  the  chief  abodes  of  the  Pelasgi. 
This  is  intimated  by  the  legend  which  makes  Thesprotus 
the  son  of  Lycapn.  In  Thesprotia  was  the  oracle  of  Do- 
dona  (Herod.,  ii.  56),  the  chief  seat  of  the  old  Pelasgic 
religion.  [DODONA.]  In  Thesprotia  Aristotle  found  the 
Hellenes  under  their  antient  name  of  Graeci  (rpawoi, 
Aristot.,  Mtiterolng.,  i.  14.)  From  this  country  the  Thes- 
sali  migrated  to  take  possession  of  Thessaly,  about  sixty 
years  after  the  Trojan  war,  having  previously  left,  their 
original  seats  in  Thessaly,  and  proceeded  into  Thesprotia, 
about  eight  generations  before  the  Trojan  war.  (Herod., 
vii.  176;  Thucyd.,  i.  12;  Plutarch,  Pyrrh.,  c.  i. ;  Velleius, 
i.  3 ;  Clinton's  Fasti  Hellen.,  i.  19-20,  28.) 

Its  chief  cities  were  Nicopolis,  built  by  Augustus  on  the 
peninsula  opposite  the  promontory  of  Acte,  or  Actium, 
m  commemoration  of  his  victory  over  M.  Antonius ;  Cha- 
radra,  on  the  west  of  the  Charadrus ;  Bucheta,  or  Buche- 
tima,  on  the  coast.  The  above  are  on  the  south-eastern 
side  of  the  Acheron.  Above  the  Acheron  were, — Cichyrus, 
formerly  Ephyra,  on  the  Acherusian  Gulf;  Pandosia, 
higher  up  the  Acheron  ;  Elatria  or  Elatia,  and  Batiae,  in- 
land ;  Chimerium,  on  a  promontoiy  of  the  same  name, 
west  of  the  mouth  of  the  Acheron  ;  north-west  of  this,  Sy- 
bota :  the  positions  of  Bolurus  and  Torone  are  unknown. 

[EPIRUS.] 

(Leake  ;  Pouqueville  ;  Cramer ;  Hoffmann's  Griechen- 
land.) 

THESSALONIANS,  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  to  the.  Chris- 
tianity was  introduced  among  the  Thessalonians  in  A.D.  50, 
bv  St.  Paul,  when  he  first  passed  over  from  Asia  Minor  into 
E"urope  to  preach  the  gospel.  According  to  the  account 
in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (ch.  xvi.),  St.  Paul  was  engaged 
in  communicating  to  the  churches  in  Asia  Minor  the 
decree  of  the  first  council  of  the  '  Apostles  and  elders 
which  were  at  Jerusalem,'  when  on  his  arrival  at  Troas  a 
vision  appeared  to  him  in  the  night,  in  the  figure  of  a  man 
of  Macedonia,  '  who  prayed  him,  saying,  Come  over  into 
Macedonia,  and  help  us.'  In  obedience  to  this  call,  St. 
Paul,  together  with  Silas  and  Timothy,  visited  the  cities  of 
that  country,  and  among  the  rest  Thessalonica,  which  was 
at  that  time  the  residence  of  the  Roman  governor  of  the 
province  of  Macedonia,  and  a  city  of  great  resort.  St.  Paul 
found  there  a  synagogue  of  the  Jews,  '  and  went  in  unto 
them,  and  for  three  Sabbath  days  reasoned  with  them  out  of 
the  Scriptures,'  endeavouring  to  convince  them  that  Jesus 
was  the  Christ  or  Messiah  expected  by  them.  Though 
some  of  them  believed,  his  success  with  the  Jews  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  great :  but  a  considerable  number 
of  the  '  devout  Gentiles'  were  converted,  and  many  women 
of  distinction  :  so  that  the  Christian  church  at  Thessalonica 
was  composed  both  of  Jews  and  Gentiles,  of  whom  the 
latter  were  the  more  numerous.  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
(ch.  xvii.)  informs  us  that  St.  Paul  only  spent  three  Sabbat  li 
days  in  preaching  to  the  Jews ;  but  from  some  expressions  in 

'  VOL.  XXIV.-2  Z 


T   11    I. 


8M 


T  II  E 


hit  own  letters  to  the ThenuJonians,  coupled  with  the  fact  of 
his  receiving  money  from  Plulippi  more  than  once  while 
he  was  at  Theisalonica  (Phtlijiji.,  iv.  Hi  ,  it  would  wem 
that  he  remained  fur  some  time  in  that  city.  Still  he  was 
unable  to  carry  his  designs  into  e\.  'he  uncon- 

verted Jews  stirred  up  a  persecution  against  him,  BO  that 
himself  and  hi*  companion*  •  were  tent  away  by  night  by 
the  brethren '  to  the  neighbouring  city  of  Beroea.  Here 
again  the  Jews  of  Thessalonica  stirred  up  a  tumult  against 
St.  Paul,  so  that  he  was  obliged  to  retire  to  Athene,  leav- 
ing however  Silas  and  Timothy  at  Beroea.  At  Athens  he 
was  subsequently  joined  by  them,  and  being  naturally 
anxious  about  his  recent  converts  at  Then  Monica,  and 
•  when  he  could  no  longer  forbear'  (1  Thru.,  iii.  1),  he 
sent  Timothy  from  Athens  Mo  establish  them,  and  to  com- 
fort them  concerning  the  faith.'  St.  Paul  then  visited 
Corinth,  and  on  the  return  of  Timothy  with  •  good  tidings 
of  their  faith  and  charity,  and  that  they  had  a  good  remem- 
brance of  him  always'  (.1  'Mr*.,  iii.  6),  he  wrote  his  first 
epistle  to  them,  A. D.  52.  from  Corinth,  and  not  from  Athens. 
as  the  subscription  of  the  epistle  imports. 

It  was  one  of  the  enrliot,  if  not  the  very  first,  of  all  St. 
Paul's  epistles,  and  in  chap.  v..  ver.  U7.  lie'  expresses  Ins 
desire  that  it  should  be  read  not  at  Thessalonica  only.  >>  •: 
in  all  the  churches  of  Macedonia.  Its  genuineness  has 
always  been  admitted :  together  with  the  second  epistle,  it  is 
quoted  and  recognised  as  the  work  of  St.  Paul,  by  Irenceus, 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  Tertullian,  Origen,  and  all  subse- 
quent ecclesiastical  writers.  (Lardner,  as  quoted  in  Home's 
Introduction,  vol.  iv.,  p.  372.)  The  immediate  occasion 
of  St.  Paul's  writing  this  Kpistle  was  the  favourable  intelli- 
gence brought  by  Timothy  of  the  steadiness  with  which 
the  Thessalonians  adhered  to  Christianity  in  spite  of  the 
persecution  with  which  they  were  assailed  by  their  own 
countrymen.  Besides  being  exposed  to  direct  persecution, 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  they  were  also  in  danger  of 
being  moved  by  the  reasonings  of  their  religious  adver- 
saries, to  which  the  sudden  disappearance  of  St.  Paul  from 
Thessalonica,  and  his  apparent  desertion  of  them  at  a 
critical  moment,  might  give  some  plausibility  and  apparent 
confirmation.  To  counteract  the  natural  result  of  all  this 
ue  of  the  chief  objects  of  Timothy's  mission,  and  the 
First  Kpistle  to  the  Thessalonians  was  written  with  the 
same  design.  Accordingly  in  chap,  i.,  after  a  short  intro- 
duction, in  which  he  couples  the  names  of  Timothy  and 
Sylvanus  (the  Roman  form  of  Silas)  with  his  own,  he  ex- 
presses his  thankfulness  fortheir  'work  of  faith  and  labour 
of  love,  and  patience  of  hope  in  our  Lord  Jesus  Chri>t,' 
and  then  (vers.  5-10)  reminds  them  of  the  proofs  •  of  power 
and  of  the  Holy  Ghost '  with  which  the  preaching  of  the 
gospel  among  them  was  accompanied,  as  evidences  of  its 
truth,  and  commends  them  for  the  constancy  of  their  faith. 

In  chaps,  ii.,  iii.,  as  a  further  confirmation  of  the  truth  ol 
the  gospel,  he  reminds  the  Thessalonians  of  the  conduct  and 
character  of  himself  and  the  other  preachers  of  Christianity. 
That  as  a  missionary  and  apostle  of  Christ,  '  he  had  .suf- 
fered, and  been  shamefully  entreated'— that  in  preaching 
the  gospel,  he   had  sought  neither  temporal   profit,  nor 
favour,  nor  honour.     He  also  explains  and  vindicat. 
own  conduct  in  leaving  them,  and  says  that  alth. 
from  them  in  presence,  he  was  not  iii  heart, — that  1 
endeavoured  to  see  them  again  with  great  desire,  but  had 
been  hindered :  till  at  last,  when  he  could  no  longer  fo 
he  sent  Timothy  to  them,  at  whose  good  tidings  of  them 
he  expresses  the  greatest  satisfaction  and  joy. 

In   chap.   iv.  St.   Paul   exhorts  them   to   persevere   in 
the   observance   of  the   duties   and   practical   virtu 
Christianity,  in   conformity  with  the    commandments   he 
had  given  them  at  first :    and   further  enj. 
sorrow  or  lament  over  those  that  were  dead,  but  rather 
(even  as  they  believed  that  .Tc,i.s  died  and  rose  agai 

forward  to  their  resurrection,  when  the  day  of  the 
Lord  Jews,  that  is,  the  day  of  judgment.  me. 

Inchap.  y.  (1-5)  St.  Paul  warns  the  Thc-alonians  of  the 
ncertainty  of  this  event,  and  concludes  the  epistle  with  a 
ranch  ,,)„  anj  admonitions  addr.  l\  t,. 

"hole   church,   partly   to   its    pastors  and   tea. 
ipied  with  some  reproofs,  which,  as  we  n 

*K<?r"i.ror  ^  the   "Tegularities  and   failings 
'        Thesialonians  were  not  yet  exempt. 
".    '         Mfned  coincidences  between  this  Epistle  and 
-ties '  are  commented  upon  by  Paley  in 
*»or»»  Paulino;,'  pp.  293-311. 


fi 


The  Second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalomans  was  written 
soon  after  the  first,  and  ii«>m  the  same  place.  Silvanus  and 
Timothy  being  joined  with  the  apostle  in  the  inscription  of 
this  Epistle,  as  well  as  oft:  and  an  in  chap,  in.. 

vcr.  '2.  he  request*  the  prayers  of  the  The.ssalonians  lor  ln- 
•  !i  Ir.erance  1'min  wicked  men,  it  is  not  improbable  that  he 
wrote  it  soon  after  the  insurrection  of  the  Jews  at  Corinth, 
when  they  drained  liiin  before  Gallio,  and  accused  liim  of 
persuading  men  to  worship  God  contrary  to  the  law. 

This  Epistle  seems  to  have  been  occasioned  by  tlu-  in- 
formation which  St.  Paul  received  on  t)  I  tin- 
church  at  Theesalonica  from  the  messenger  who  cm 
his  first  letter  to  the  elders  of  the  church,  and  his  report  of 
the  effect  produced  by  its  contents.  From  some  expres- 
sions in  that  Epistle  (iv.  15 ;  v.  4-6),  compared  with  chap- 
ter ii.  of  the  Second,  it  m  that  a  number  of 
Thessalonians  had  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  day  of 
judgment  was  at  hand,  and  would  happen  in  their  genera- 
linn.  To  correct  this  misapprehension,  and  to  pre\ent  the 
anxiety  and  the  neglect  of  secular  affairs  which  resulted 
from  it,  appears  to  nave  been  the  main  object  and  desimi 
of  St.  Paul  in  writing  this  Second  Epistle  to  th 

Accordingly,  in  chap.  i..  alter  a  short  introduction,  the 
apostle  proceeds  to  commend  the  growing  frith  and  chant) 
of  the  Thessalonians,  and  to  express  his  joy  at  their 
patience  under  tribulation,  of  which  he  had  heard  from 
the  messenger  who  carried  his  first  letter,  and  he  assures 
them  of  his  constant  prayers  for  their  welfare. 

In  chap.  ii.  he  rectifies  their  mistake  about  the  day  of 
judgment,  and  warns  them  against  those  who  might  at- 
tempt to  deceive  them  on  that  subject.  Ii;.  ttin^ 
their  minds  at  rest  about  it,  he  assures  them  that  the 
event  would  not  come  to  pass  until  '  a  great  apostacy '  had 
overspread  the  church,  and  the  revelation  of  -the  liian  of 
sin,  the  son  of  perdition,'  should  have  taken  pla. 
phrases  have  been  variously  interpreted,  but  the  generality 
of  Protestant  commentators  have  agreed  ii:  them 
to  the  Roman  pontiff's  and  the  Romish  church.  Some  in- 
deed understand  them  to  apply  to  the  rise  of  Mohamme- 
danism, and  others  to  the  revolt  of  the  Jews  from  the 
Romans.  The  Romish  church  contends  that  one  person 
only  is  meant,  and  not  a  series  or  succession  of  pcrs< 

Whatever  the  apostle  meant  by  these  phrases,  he  in- 
forms the  Thessalonians  that  this  mystery  of  iniquity  was 
already  secretly  at  work,  though  its  full  operation  was  pre- 
vented by  a  restraining  power  i  rrir<x<>vX  which  the  early 
Fathers  of  the  Church  generally  understood  to  be  that  of 
the  Roman  emperors  and  emp'irc.  (Tertullian,  Apolog., 
p.  31.) 

In  chap.  iii.  the  apostle  desires  their  prayers  for  himself 
and  his  fellow-labourers,  and  then  reproves  some  of  the 
Thessalonians  for  their  idleness  and  irregular  life,  lie 
concludes  with  his  apostolic  benediction,  and  writes  the 
salutation  with  his  own  hand,  which,  as  he  informs  them, 
was  a  token  of  the  genuineness  of  that  and  other  E[< 
similarly  authenticated. 

This  Second  Epistle  to  the  Thossalonians  is  the  shortest 
of  all  St.  Paul's  Kpistles,  but  not  interior  to  any  of  them  in 
style  or  spirit,  and  it  is  also  remarkable  as  containing  a 
distinct  prophecy  of  the  corruptions  and  delusions  which 
wen-  to  arise  in  the  Christian  church. 

The  undesigned  coincidences  between  this  Epistle  and 
the  '  Acts  of  the  Apostles '  are  given  in  Paley's  '  I 
Paulimi'.'  pp.  :J12-:J±J. 

(Mackrught,  On  the  Apostolical  I'.jiisilc/t,  vol.  iii..  pp. 
1-1'Jl;  Home,  Iiitn>(iu<-ti<,n  to  the  Critical  Study  qf  th 
\ol.iv.,   p.  :t72;  Collyer,  Sacra!   lnt>  I'/iri'ler, 
vol.  ii..  p.  •J7"> ;  1 '  /  to  the  New  Ti'xtnnn  nt  ;  \V : 

On  th  'it.) 

THKSS.U.n.M'CA     now  *iA;»iAi),  an  antient  city  of 

Ionia,  in    the    district    of  Mygdonia,    was   formerly 

called  Thcrme  or  Therma :    it  is  in  W  38'  N.  lat.  and 

22°  96'  E.  long.,  about  ten  miles  east  of  the  an: 

Kchcdorus.  at  the  head  of  the  modern  Gulf  of  Saloniki, 

.lied  the  Thermaic  Bay.  from  the  antient  name 

of  the  city.     It  was  at  first  an  inconsiderable  place   under 

its   old   name   of  Thcrme.   by  which   it  was   Known   in   the 

i    llemdotus  and  Thucydi,  -<  ylax, 

who,  in  his  'I'eriplus,'  ma! 

Gulf.     Herodotus,  in   his  ']  :i.   IJs  .  speaks  <>f  it. 

as  a  place  whei.  made  some  May  on   his   inarch 

into  Greece,  and  from  which  he  had  a  commanding  view 
of  the  mountains  of  Olympus  and  Ossa  in  ThegsMy.  A 


THE 


355 


THE 


short  time  previous  to  the  commencement  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war  (B.C.  432)  it  was  taken  and  occupied  by  the 
Athenians,  but  it  was  soon  afterwards  restored  to  Perdiccas, 
the  king  of  Macedonia.  According  to  an  account  in 
Strabo  (Epit.,  vii.  330),  the  name  of  Thessalonica  was 
given  to  it  by  Cassander,  the  son  of  Antipater,  in  honour 
of  his  wife  Thessalonica,  who  was  the  daughter  of  Philip, 
king  of  Macedon,  and  the  sister  of  Alexander  the  Great. 
With  a  view  to  its  aggrandisement,  Cassander  collected 
together  (about  B.C.  315)  the  population  of  several  adjacent 
towns,  so  as  to  make  it  one  of  the  most  important  cities  of 
Northern  Greece.  (Strabo,  /.  c.,  p.  330.)  After  the  battle 
of  Pydna  (B.C.  168),  in  which  the  Romans  defeated  Per- 
seus, the  then  king  of  Macedonia,  Thessalonica,  with  the 
other  Macedonian  towns,  surrendered  to  the  Romans,  and 
was  made  the  capital  of  the  second  of  the  four  regions  into 
which  Macedonia  was  divided  by  them.  (Livy,  lib.  xliv., 
c.  10  and  45 ;  lib.  xlv.,  c.  29.)  Livy  speaks  of  it  as  being 
then  a  very  celebrated  city,  to  which  its  admirable  position 
materially  contributed.  It  possessed  an  excellent  harbour, 
peculiarly  well  situated  for  commercial  intercourse  with 
the  Hellespont  and  the  JEgean  ;  and  it  had  the  additional 
advantage  of  lying  on  the  great  Roman  military  road,  the 
Via  Egnatia,  which,  commencing  at  Dyrrachium,  on  the 
western  side  of  Greece,  and  extending  to  Byzantium, 
atforded  the  easiest  land  communication  with  Thrace, 
Asia  Minor,  and  the  shores  of  the  Euxine.  In  St.  Paul's 
time  it  was  much  frequented  by  people  of  different  nations 
for  commercial  and  other  purposes,  as  appears  from  the 
fact  of  there  being  a  synagogue  of  Jews  there  ;  and  it  was 
also  the  seat  of  the  Roman  government.  Pliny  (iv.  10) 
calls  it  a  free  city  ;  and  Lucian  (Asin.,  46)  speaks  of  it  as 
the  largest  of  the  Macedonian  towns.  In  later  times, 
\mder  the  empire,  it  continued  to  be  so  flourishing  and 
important  a  city,  that  it  was  selected  as  the  residence  of 
the  prefect  of  Illyricum,  and  the  metropolis  of  the  Illyrian 
provinces.  (Theodoret,  Hist.  Eccl.,v.  17.)  In  the  reign 
of  the  emperor  Theodosius  it  was  the  scene  of  a  deplorable 
calamity  :  it  was  then  protected  against  the  assaults  of  the 
Goths  by  strong  fortifications  and  a  numerous  garrison. 
Their  commandant,  Botheric,  with  his  principal  officers, 
was  inhumanly  murdered  by  the  people  of  the  town,  in 
consequence  of  his  having  thrown  into  prison  one  of  the 
popular  characters  of  the  circus,  to  the  games  of  which 
the  Thessalonians  of  that  time  (A.D.  390)  were  passionately 
devoted.  The  emperor  Theodosius,  in  the  excitement  of 
his  indignation,  gave  orders  for  the  punishment  of  the 
people  ;  and,  according  to  the  most  moderate  accounts,  no 
less  than  7000  persons  were  massacred  by  barbarian  sol- 
diers in  a  promiscuous  carnage,  which  lasted  for  three 
hours  (Gibbon,  Roman  Empire,  c.  xxxvii.),  a  deed,  the 
guilt  of  which,  as  Gibbon  observes,  was  aggravated  by  the 
long  and  frequent  residence  of  the  emperor  at  Thessalonica. 
[THEODOSIUS  ;  AMBROSE.] 

For  an  account  of  the  ruins  and  antiquities  of  Thessa- 
loniea,  see  Clarke's  and  Holland's  Travels,  vol.  ii.,  p.  50 ; 
Dodwell's  Tour  in  Greece,  vol.  ii.,  c.  19,  p.  190 ;  Cramer's 
Antie.nt  Greece,  i.  238. 

THE'SSALUS  (flt-r-raXis),  an  antient  Greek  physician, 
son  of  the  celebrated  Hippocrates,  appears  to  have  lived 
at  the  court  of  Archelaus,  king  of  Macedonia,  about  360 
years  before  Christ.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
sect  of  the  Dogmatic),  who  also  took  the  name  of  the  Hip- 
pocratic  school,  because  they  professed  to  follow  the  doc- 
trines of  that  great  man.  However,  both  he  and  his  brother 
Dracon,  and  his  brother-in-law  Polybus,  are  accused  by 
Galen  in  several  passages  of  not  only  mixing  up  with  the 
opinions  of  Hippocrates  the  principles  of  later  philoso- 
phers, but  also  of  altering  and  interpolating  his  writings. 
Several  of  the  works  that  go  under  the  name  of  Hippo- 
crates are  by  many  critics  supposed  to  have  been  written 
by  Thessalus,  viz.  '  De  Morbis,'  the  second,  fifth,  sixth,  and 
seventh  books  'De  Morbis  Vulgaribus,'  and  the  second 
book  of  the  '  Praedictiones,'  or '  Prorrhetica ;'  but  this  con- 
jecture is  uncertain. 

(Le  Clerc,  Hint,  de  la  Med. ;  Fabricius,  Biblioth.  Grcvca  ; 
Haller,  Biblioth.  Medic.  Pract. ;  Sprengel,  Hist,  de  la 
Mcd. ;  Ackermann,  Hist.  Literar.  Hippocr. ;  Chpulant, 
Handbuch  der  Biicher kunde  fur  die  Aeltcre  Median.) 

THE'SSALUS  (&nraa\6<-),  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
antient  medical  sect  of  the  Methodici,  was  born  at  Tralles 
in  Lydia,  and  lived  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Nero,  in 
the  first  century  after  Christ.  He  was  the  son  of  a  weaver, 


and  followed  the  same  trade  himself  during  his  youth,  by 
which  means  he  lost  the  opportunity  of  receiving  a  good 
education,  and  was  never  afterwards  able  to  overcome  this 
disadvantage.  He  appears  however  to  have  soon  given 
up  this  employment,  and  applied  himself  to  the  study  of 
medicine,  by  which  he  acquired  a  great  reputation,  and 
amassed  a  large  fortune.  His  whole  character  however, 
both  intellectual  and  moral,  is  everywhere  represented  by 
Galen  in  a  very  unfavourable  light ;  but  it  must  be  con- 
fessed that  Galen  himself  appears  to  very  little  advantage 
in  these  passages,  and  goes  beyond  all  bounds  in  his  abuse 
of  him. 

Thessalus  adopted  the  principles  of  the  Methodici,  but 
modified  and  developed  them  so  much  that  he  attributed 
io  himself  the  invention  of  them.  In  fact  on  all  occasions 
le  appears  to  have  tried  to  exalt  himself  at  the  expense  of 
his  predecessors ;  lavishing  upon  the  antients  the  most  in- 
sulting epithets;  calling  himself  by  the  title  (Wpov.VcT/e 
(conqueror  of  physicians),  because  he  thought  that  he  him- 
self surpassed  all  his  predecessors  as  much  as  medicine  is 
superior  to  all  other  sciences ;  boasting  that  he  could  teach 
;he  art  of  healing  in  six  months ;  and  telling  the  emperor 
^ero,  in  the  dedication  of  one  of  his  works,  that  none  of 
;hose  who  had  been  before  him  had  contributed  anything 
;o  the  advancement  of  medical  science.  By  his  boasting 
ie  attracted  a  great  number  of  pupils,  whom  he  took  with 
lira  for  six  months  to  visit  his  patients ;  but  most  of  them 
ire  said  to  have  been  common  artisans  and  persons  of  very 
low  extraction.  Galen  accuses  him  of  knowing  nothing  of 
the  action  of  drugs,  though  he  had  written  on  the  subject. 
He  did  not  care  for  inquiring  into  the  causes  of  diseases, 
and  was  satisfied  with  certain  problematical  analogies ; 
nor  did  he  admit  the  value  of  prognostic  signs.  He  did 
not  recommend  tapping  in  cases 'of  ascites.  A  further 
account  of  his  opinions  may  be  found  in  Le  Clerc,  Hist,  de 
la  Med.  ;  Haller,  Biblioth.  Medic.  Pract. ;  Sprengel,  Hist, 
de  la  Mfd. 

THESSALY  (etowaXia),  one  of  the  principal  divisions  of 
Northern  Greece,  and  the  cradle  of  many  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Greece  in  general,  is  an  extensive  and  generally  unbroken 
plain,  about  80  miles  in  extreme  length  and  70  in  breadth, 
comprising  an  area  of  about  5500  square  miles,  and  form- 
ing an  irregular  sort  of  square.  This  description  applies 
only  to  what  may  be  called  Thessaly  Proper,  which  is 
bounded  on  the  west,  towards  Epirus  and  Athamania,  by 
the  range  of  Pindus ;  on  the  north,  towards  Macedonia, 
by  the  Cambunian  Mountains ;  on  the  south  by  the  range 
of  Mount  Othrys ;  on  the  east  by  a  range  of  mountains 
running  along  the  coast  nearly  parallel  to  Pindus,  and  in- 
cluding the  summits  of  Pelion  and  Ossa.  The  basin  of 
Thessaly  is  thus  surrounded  by  mountain-barriers,  broken  at 
the  north-east  corner  only  by  the  valley  and  defile  of 
Tempe  (or  the  Cut),  which  separates  Mount  Ossa  from 
Olympus,  and  presents  the  only  road  from  Thessaly  to  the 
north  which  does  not  lead  over  a  mountain-pass.  At  the 
eastern  base  of  the  mountain-range  which  runs  from 
Tempe  to  the  bay  of  Pagasae,  now  the  Gulf  of  Volo,  there 
is  a  narrow  strip  of  land  called  Magnesia,  between  the  hills 
and  the  sea,  interrupted  in  several  places  by  lofty  headlands 
and  ravines,  and  without  any  harbour  of  refuge  from  the 
gales  of  the  north-east.  South  of  Othrys,  the  southern 
boundary  of  Thessaly  Proper,  lies  a  long  narrow  vale, 
through  which  winds  the  river  Spercheius,  and  which, 
though  generally  considered  as  a  part  of  Thessaly,  is  sepa- 
rated from  it  by  the  range  of  Othrys,  and  is  very  different 
from  it  in  physical  features.  It  is  bounded  on  the  south 
by  the  range  of  CEta,  which  runs  from  Pindus  to  the  sea 
at  Thermopylae  in  a  general  direction  nearly  parallel  to  the 
Cambunian  Mountains ;  and  on  its  eastern  side  by  the 
shores  of  the  bay  of  Malia,  now  the  Gulf  of  Zeitoun.  Ac- 
cording to  Greek  traditions,  Thessaly  was  known  in  remote 
times  by  the  names  of  Pyrrha,  ^Emonia,  and  JEo\is.  The  two 
former  names  belong  to  the  age  of  mythology ;  the  last 
refers  to  the  time  when  the  country  was  inhabited  by  the 
.ffiolian  Pelasgi,  previous  to  the  occupation  of  any  part  of 
it  by  the  Thessalians,  who,  according  to  Herodotus  (vii. 
176 ;  Strabo,  ix.,  p.  444),  originally  came  from  Thesprotia, 
a  region  in  the  west  of  Epirus,  and  settled  in  the  country, 
which  from  them  derived  its  future  name.  At  what  time 
it  received  the  name  of  Thessaly  cannot  be  determined. 
The  name  does  not  occur  in  the  poems  of  Homer,  although 
the  several  principalities  of  which  it  was  composed  at  the 
time  of  the  Trojan  war  are  there  enumerated,  together 

2Z2 


T  11    I- 


356 


THE 


with  the  different  chiefs  I>y  wlioni  (hoy  were  eovemed  : 
it  i»  from  Homer  (//UK/,  ii.  7<*h  that  we  derive  the 
i-arhcst  information  about  this  part  at 

.r\y  time*  Thessaly  was  divided  into  lour 

.re'liies.    These  tetrarcliies  were,  according 

p.  430),   Hestia-otis,   Pelasgiotis,    '1 

and    Phthiotis :  uiul  the  division,  ttunnrh   it  was  a 

mticnt  institution,  existed  in  the  PeloponiMMM)  war 

The  first  of  these  tetrarchies,  Ilrittia-ntix,  was  the 
mountainous  country  between  Pindus  and  Olvmpus; 
having  generally  lor  its  southern  limit  tin-  river  Peneus, 
though  tliis  rivi-f  did  not  form  an  exact  boundary  through 
all  its  course.  Herodotus  (i.  150)  applies  this  name  to  the 
country  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Ossa  and  Olympus,  the 

ial  abode  of  the  Dorians  before  they  settled  in  Pelo- 

.  sus.  From  a  statement  in  Strabo  (ix.,  p.  4:t7).  it 
would  seem  that  the  name  of  Hesti:rotis  was  denved  from 

•  ict  in  Kiibcra,  whose  inhabitants  were  transplanted 
to  this  part  of  Thessaly  by  the  I'errhsrbi.  The  Perrlncbi 
themselves  however  only  occupied  a  small  part  ol'the  ter- 
ritory, and  as  they  are  mid  to  have  been  the  oiiirinal  in- 
habitants of  the  country  of  the  Lapitha-.  they  must  at  one 
time  have  been  established  in  the  lower  valley  of  the  Peneus. 
(Strabo,  p.  441.)  In  historical  times  they  dwelt  in  the 

\  of  the  Titaresius  under  Olympus,  where  they  had 
shrunk  into  a  small  mountain-people.  The  north-'.. 
part  of  Hestiseotis  was  in  ante-historical  times  (Homer,  //., 
ii.  774)  occupied  by  a  mountain-tribe  of  uncertain  origin. 
called  the  .ithices.  In  the  time  of  Strabo  (ix.,  p.  I'M) 
scarcely  any  trace  remained  of  them. 

The  most  remarkable  towns  of  Hestiirotis  were  as  fol- 
low s: — Phaleria,  or  Phaloria,  the  first  town  of  any  im- 
portance on  entering  Thessaly  from  Epinis  by  the  passes 
of  Pindus  (Liv.,  xxxii.  15) ;  Oxyneia  and  ^ginium,  the 
latter  of  which  Livy  describes  as  a  place  of  great  strength, 
ar.d  almost  impregnable.  Gomphi  (the  Wedges),  an  an- 
tient  fortress,  situated  on  the  Peneus  to  the  south  of  Pha- 
loria :  it  was  a  place  of  great  strength,  and  might  he  suid 
to  be  the  key  of  Thessaly  on  the  side  of  Epirus  to  the 
north:  it  commanded  the 'communication  by  the  gorge  of 
Clinovo,  between  this  part  of  Thessaly  and  the  Ambr.u-mn 
Gulf.  In  the  time  of  Caesar  (Bel.  Civ.,  iii.  80)  it  was  a  larjre 
and  opulent  city:  it  is  supposed  to  be  represented  by  the 
modern  Stagous.  Tricca,  now  Trikhala,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Peneus,  about  12  miles  south  of  Gomphi :  it  is  celebrated 
by  Homer  (//.,  ii.  729),  and  placed  by  him  under  the  rule 
of  the  sons  of  ^sculapius,  who  was  said  to  have  been  born 
in  the  neighbourhood.  According  to  Strabo  'ix.  4:i7  . 
there  was  a  temple  of  yEsculapius  there,  which  was  held 
Jn  great  veneration  :  about  12  miles  to  the  north  of  it  is 

-ituated  the  convent  of  Meteora,  whose  name  (the 
Hanging)  is  descriptive  of  its  situation  upon  lofty  columns 
of  roek.  Metropolis,  a  town  to  the  north  of  the  Peneus. 
which  contained  within  its  territory  the  lands  of  three 
other  places  not  so  famous,  but  more  antient,  and  which 
contributed  to  the  formation  of  the  new  city.  Metropolis, 
with  Gomphi  to  the  north-west,  Tricca  to  the  south-west, 
and  Pelinna  to  the  south-east,  formed  a  square  of  fort 
in  the  middle  of  which  was  the  antient  It  home,  called  by 
Homer  the  '  precipitous.'  Pelinna,  more  commonly  Pelin- 
naeum.  was  an  important  city  on  the  north  of  the  Peneus, 
and  about  10  miles  east  of  Tricca.  Ithome  has  been  sup- 
posed to  have  oeeiipied  the  site  of  the  convents  of  Meteora : 
but  it  seems  to  have  been  farther  south.  (Kchalia,  a  city 
celebrated  in  nntholoiry.  is  coupled  by  Homer  with  Tricca 
and  Ithome.  (Jonnus,  or  (ionni,  was  a  town  of  considerable 
importance  and  antiquity.  It  was  situated  on  the  left  or 
north  bank  of  the  river  Penens,  about  20  miles  from  the 
great  city  of  Larissa,  and  clone  to  the  entrance  of  the  irorge 
u\  Teinpc.  (Jonnocondylon,  a  stronghold  in  the  windings 
of  the  valley,  vf as  situated  in  the  defile  above  Gonnus,  pro- 
bably not  far  from  the  fortress  of  Roman  construction  called 

ieo-Castro.     The  Pelagonian  Tripolis,  also,  a  <!. 

!i  included  the  three  towns  of  Pvthmm,  Azorus,  and 
l)ohehe,  was  situated  in  the  north-east  of  1  I<  -IM  otis,  and 
i»  also  reckoned  under  Perrhsebia  by  I.ivy. 

Pekugioti*  wa»  in  the  southern  part  of  the  lower  valley 
of  the  1'encus,  and  includes  the  Pelasgian  plains  which 
ii  from  Larissa  to  Pherae,  near  Pelion,  having  for  its 
boundary  on  the  cast  the  range  of  Pelion  and  Ossa. 
According  to  Strabo  (ix.,  p.  441)  thin  part  of  Thessalv  was 
originally  occupied  by  the  Perrhaebi,  an  antient  tribe  01 


apparently  Pelasinc  origin.     It  was  1.  from 

them   by  the  I.iipith.. 

original  abode  w;  me  of  the 

IVrrha-bi  t>  ;irds  and  across  Pindus.  while 

those  who  remained   in  the   plan.  with 

under  the  common  name        I1  The 

principal  towns  of  1'ela-^iotis  wire  as  i'o!'.. 

^  one  of  the  most  antient  and  flourishing  town*  of 
Thessaly,  though  not  mentioned  by  II 

in  the  most  fertile  part  of  the  old  count r\  of  the  I'errba-bi. 
The  constitution  of  (he  city  was  democrat ical.  the  in 
(rates    beim;    elected   and    rcmoveablc    by   th. 

;.,  I'nhiir..  \.c.)    Accordingly  in  the  Peloponne- 

sian  war.  the  l.arissa'ans  supported  the  Athenians  against 
the  Laccd-.cmonians.  T|u.  Alenadir,  mentioned  by  Hero- 
dotus as  princes  of  Thessaly  at  the  time  of  t: 

in,  and  one  of  the  most  distinguished  and  antient 
families  of  the  country,  were  natives  of  I.aris-a.  The 
territory  of  this  city  was  extremely  rich  and  fertile,  but  it 
frequently  suffered  by  the  inundations  of  the  I'em  us.  Mo- 
dern travellers  are  of  0])inion  that  the  present  1 
stands  on  the  site  of  the  old  town.  The  name  is  Pcla-irian. 
Cranon,  or  (.'rannoii.  to  the  south  of  Larissfi  ('the 

most  antient  and  considerable  towns  of  this  pait  ot'Thcs-aly. 
The  inhabitants  of  this  town  are  supposed  by  the  antient 
commentators  to  be  designated  by  Homer  //..  xiii. 
301)  as  the  Kphyri.  The  Scopadee,  a  distinguished  and 
princely  family  of  Thessaly,  belonged  to  it.  Tl\c'  inhabit- 
ants supjHirted  the  Athenian!  in  the  Peloponni'sian  war, 
and  therefore  they  may  be  supposed  to  have  been  under  a 
democratical  form  of  government.  Scutussa,  to  tli 
of  Cranon,  thouirh  noticed  by  antient  an'  s  not 

appear  to  have  been  known  to  Homer.      Stiv.ho.  i\..  \i. 
\\ithin  its  territory  was  the  hill  of  ('ynoscei)halK', 
or  Don'-Heada,  where  a  \  b  :aned  by  the  Homans 

over  Philip  of  Macedon  (B.C.  197;.  It  is  one  of  the  hills 
which  separate  the  plain  of  I.ariss.i  from  that  of  Pharsalia. 
According  to  some  authors,  the  Thessalian  Dodona  w;us 
also  within  the  district  of  Scotussa.  I'lu  kt  the 

southern  extremity  of  the  lake  Boebeis.  In  the  1'elo- 
ponnesian  war  the  Pherri'ans  assi^teil  the  Athenians, 
whence  it  is  probable  that  they  then  had  a  republican  form 
of  government.  Subsequently  Jason  made  himself  master 
of  Pliers1,  his  native  town,  and  was  succeeded  in  his 
authority  by  his  brothers.  In  later  times  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Alexander,  who  continued  for  eleven  years  to  be 
the  scourge  of  his  native  citv.  and  the  whole  of  Thessaly,  till 
lie  was  checked  by  the  Tbebans,  under  Pelopidas  and 
Kpaminondas.  He  was  at  last  assassinated  by  bis  wile 
and  her  brothers,  who  continued  to  tyrannise  over  the 
country  till  it  was  liberated  by  Philip  of  Macedon.  (Dio- 
dorus,  xvi.  ">17.1  After  many  chansres  of  fortune,  it  was 
taken  by  the  Romans  under  the  consul  Acilhis.  Li\\, 
xxxvi.  14.)  Strabo  says  of  it,  that  the  continued  tyranny 
under  which  it  had  laboured  hastened  its  decav.  Its  terri- 
tory, according  toPolybius  xviii.  '-  .  was  most  fertile,  and 
the  suburbs  were  surrounded  by  irardens  and  walled  enelo- 
.  Its  port  was  1'a^asa-.  about  II  or  12  miles  distant. 
With  respect  to  its  modern  leatures.  •  Phera'.'  sa\s  Dodwcll, 
•  has  hardly  ]ircservcd  any  traces  of  antiquity  :  a  few  scat- 
tered blocks  of  stone  and  some  Doric  frusta  are  the  only 
antiquities  remaining.'  The  fountain  TI\  pereia,  mentioned 
by  Homer  Iliml.  \'\.  \~<~i  .  'is  in  the  suburbs  of  (he  modern 
town  of  Helestina,  at  the  foot  ol'the  antient  Aciopolis.  A 
small  lake  of  about  KNI  yards  ill  diameter,  and  with  water 
as  clear  as  crystal,  bubbles  up  out  of  the  ground.'  Sir  \V. 

iKIs.  that  it  runs  through  a  coffeehouse,  or  kiosk. 
The  Dotius  Campus  is  also  in  Pelasciotis,  on  its  eastern 
side:  it  is  a  considerable  plain  encircled  by  hills  to  the 
north, and  terminated  to  the  south  by  the  lake  liocbeis.  the 
most  (  \leiiM\e  in  Thessaly.  and  included  within  the  limits 
of  Pelasgiotis. 

\lit  was  MI  .inline  to  '-  'in  its 

having  been  first  occupied  byThessalians,  who  came  tmm 
Thesprotia,  and  inhabited  the  plains  In 
having  the  district  of  Pelasgiotis  on  the  ca-t.  Tnis  te- 
trarchy  contained  towards  the  sonlb-rast  the  city  ol'Phar- 
salus,  celebrated  for  the  hat  tic  fought  in  tU  plains  between 
Pompey  and  Ciesar.  It  is  situated  not  far  irom  the  junc- 
tion of"  the  Knipens  and  the  Apidanns.  and  was  a  city  of 
great  size  and  importance,  tboneh  no  mention  is  made  of 
it  previous  t<>  the  Persian  invasion  of  Greece.  During 
the  Peloponnesian  war,  the  1'harsahans  generally  favoured 


THE 


357 


THE 


the  Athenians.  Xenophon  {Hellenic.,  vi.  1)  speaks  of  it 
:is  an  independent  republic,  but  it  afterwards  fell  into  the 
hands  ol'  Jason,  tyrant  of  Pherae.  There  is  a  modern  town 
t •  .illed  Phersale  not  far  from,  if  not  on,  the  site  of  the  old 
Pharsalus  ;  but  there  are  only  a  few  antiquities  there. 
South-west  of  it  there  is  a  hill  surrounded  with  antient 
walls,  and  on  a  lofty  rock  above  it  are  other  ruins  of 
greater  magnitude,  showing  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
walls  of  an  antient  Acropolis  and  remains  of  the  Propylaea. 
Other  towns  of  Thessaliotis  were — Cierium,  supposed  by 
Miiller  to  be  identical  with  the  antient  Arne,  the  chief 
town  of  the  ^Eolian  Boeotians ;  Ichnae,  or  Achnee,  where 
the  goddess  Themis  was  especially  worshipped  ;  Proerna, 
not  far  from  Pharsalus,  mentioned  by  Strabo  (ix.,  p.  434). 
Sir  W.  Gell  observed  between  Pharsalia  and  Thaumako 
the  ruins  of  an  antient  city,  which  he  supposed  might 
belong  to  Proerna.  They  are  situated  upon  the  projecting 
branch  of  a  mountain,  where  there  are  many  vestiges  and 
walls. 

Phthiotis,  according  to  Strabo,  included  all  the  southern 
part  of  Thessaly,  stretching  lengthwise  from  the  Maliac 
Bay  on  the  east  to  Dolopia  and  Pindus  on  the  west,  and  in 
breadth  from  Mount  CEta  on  the  south  as  far  as  Pharsalus 
and  the  Thessalian  plains  on  the  north,  an  average  distance 
of  about  30  miles.  Homer  comprised  within  its  limits  the 
districts  of  Phthia  and  Hellas  properly  so  called,  and  the 
dominions  of  Achilles.  Its  inhabitants  were  the  Achaeans 
('Axaioi  *8iiirai),  a  double  name  under  which  they  were 
generally  enumerated  in  the  lists  of  the  Amphictyonic 
nations.  The  principal  cities  of  Phthiotis  were  Halos  or 
Alo.s,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Pagasae,  usually  called 
the  Phthiotic  or  Achaian,  to  distinguish  it  from  a  city  of  the 
same  name  in  Locris.  It  contained  a  temple  sacred  to  Ju- 
piter Laphystius,  which  was  visited  by  Xerxes  as  he  passed 
through  the  city ;  some  remains  of  the  town  are  thought 
to  be  still  existing.  Iton,  about  six  miles  west  of  Halos, 
on  the  river  Cuarius  (Strabo),  celebrated  for  a  temple  of 
Minerva  Itonis,  who  was  worshipped  under  the  same  name 
in  Bojotia.  The  district  of  Arne,  from  which  the  ^Eolian 
Boeotians  were  expelled  by  the  Thessalians,  is  by  some 
supposed  to  have  been  near  these  towns  and  on  the 
short.-,  of  the  Pagasaean  Bay;  but  Miiller  (Dorians,  ii. 
47");  adduces  satisfactory  reasons  for  believing  that  the 
Arne,  which  the  Thessalians  first  occupied,  lay  to  the 
north-west  in  Thessaliotis,  and  that  it  was  identical  with 
the  antient  Pierium.  Xorth  of  Halos  and  Iton  lay  Thebes, 
the  most  important  town  of  this  part  of  Thessaly.  It 

called  Phthiotic,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Thebes 
of  Boeotia.  In  a  military  point  of  view  it  possessed  con- 
siderable importance,  as  it  commanded  the  avenues  of 
Magnesia  and  the  upper  parts  of  Thessaly.  It  was  once 
in  the  occupation  of  the  ./Etolians,  but  was  wrested  from 
them  by  Philip,  the  son  of  Demetrius,  who  changed  its 
name  to  Philippopolis.  According  to  Livy  (xxxix.  25)  it 
was  once  a  city  of  great  commercial  importance.  Some 
ruins  between  the  modern  towns  of  Armiro  and  Volo  are 
supposed  by  Sir  W.  Gell  to  be  those  of  Thebes.  They  con- 

;  an  Acropolis,  with  very  antient  walls  constructed 
with  very  large  blocks  ;  some  towers  also  are  still  standing. 
The  port  of  Thebes  appears  to  have  been  Pyrasus,  about 
two  miles  and  a  half  distant.  A  little  south  of  Thebes 
was  Larissa  Cremaste,  or  the  Hanging,  so  called  from  its 
position  on  the  side  of  a  hill ;  it  was  also  called  the  Pelas- 
gian.  It  lay  in  the  dominions  of  Achilles,  whence  he  is 
called  Larissaeus  by  Virgil  (^Eneid,  ii.  198).  The  ruins  of 
ii  still  exist,  and  Sir  W.  Gell  says  of  it,  'The  form  of  La- 
rissa was,  like  that  of  many  very  ancient  Greek  cities,  a 
triangle,  with  its  citadel  at  the  highest  point.  In  the 
Acropolis  are  the  fragments  of  a  Doric  temple  ;  and  from 
it  is  seen  the  magnificent  prospect  of  the  Maliac  Gulf,  the 
whole  range  of  (Eta,  and  over  it  Parnassus.'  Melitia 

situated  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Othrys,  on  the  river 
Enipeus.  Its  antient  name  was  Pyrrha,  and  it  boasted  of 
:  the  tomb  of  Hellen,  the  son  of  Deucalion.  It 
.ibout  a  whole  day's  march  from  Pharsalus.  (Thucyd., 
iv.  "8.;  To  the  north-west  of  Melitia  lay  the  town  of 
Thaumaki  or  Thomoko,  so  called  (the  Wonderful)  from 
tin-  singularity  of  its  position  on  a  lofty  and  perpendicular 
rock.  It  «;n'<m  the  great  road  leading  from  Thermopylae 
by  Lamia  to  the  north  of  Thessaly.  '  After  a  rugged 
route  over  hill  and  dale,'  says  Livy  (xxxii.  4),  '  you  sud- 
denly open  on  an  immense  plain  like  a  vast  sea,  which 
stretches  below  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach.'  Dodwell 


says  of  it,  '  It  is  about  five  hours  from  Pharsalia.  It  must 
always  have  been  a  place  of  importance.  The  view  from 
it  is  one  of  the  most  wonderful  and  extensive  I  ever 
beheld.' 

On  the  west  of  Phthiotis,  and  close  to  it,  but  still  sepa- 
rated from  it,  lay  the  territories,  of  the  Dolopians.  Ac- 
cording to  Homer  (II.,  i.  480),  Dolopia  was  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  Phthiotis ;  but  it  does  not  follow  that  it  was  in- 
cluded in  that  district ;  nor  are  the  Dolopians  in  early  times 
ever  mentioned  as  the  vassals  of  the  Thessalians.  They 
occupied  the  extreme  south-west  angle  of  Thessaly,  formed 
by  the  chain  of  Tymphrestus,  a  branch  of  Pindus,  on 
one  side,  and  Mount  Othrys  on  the  other.  They  were 
a  very  antient  nation,  as  appears  from  their  sending 
deputies  to  the  Amphictyonic  council.  At  a  later  pe- 
riod they  were  subjects  of  Jason,  the  tyrant  of  Pherae. 
(Xenophon,  Hell.,  vi.  1.)  Afterwards  the  possession  of 
Dolopia  was  frequently  contested  between  the  jflitolians 
and  the  kings  of  Macedon,  but  it  was  finally  conquered 
by  Perseus,  the  last  king  of  that  country.  The  limits  of 
Dolopia  were  different  at  different  times.  Thucydides  (ii. 
102)  seems  to  have  extended  it  to  the  west  of  Pindus.  It 
was  a  rugged  mountainous  district,  with  few  towns  of  note. 
Ctemene,  or  Ctimene,  was  perhaps  the  most  important. 

Tlie  /Enianes  lived  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  river 
Spercheius,  being  separated  from  the  Dolopes  by  the 
hills  of  Tymphrestus  and  Othrys.  They  were  also  called 
(Eteans  from  their  position  on  the  slopes  of  Mount  O2ta. 
They  were  a  tribe  of  great  antiquity  and  of  some  import- 
ance, as  appears  from  the  fact  of  their  belonging  to  the 
Amphictyonic  council.  Their  origin  is  uncertain,  and 
they  made  many  migrations  from  one  part  of  Thessaly 
to  another.  Plutarch  says  of  them  that  they  occupied  in 
the  first  instance  the  Dotian  plain ;  after  which  they  wan- 
dered to  the  borders  of  Epirus,  and  finally  settled  to  the 
south  of  the  Dolopes,  with  Mount  O3ta  for  their  boundary 
on  the  south.  In  Strabo's  time  they  had  nearly  disap- 
peared, having  been  exterminated  by  the  ^Etohans  and 
Athamanes,  their  neighbours  on  the  west.  Their  chief 
town  was  Hypata,  on  the  banks  of  the  Spercheius. 

The  Malians,  or  Melies,  as  they  were  called  in  the 
Attic  dialect,  were  the  most  southern  tribe  connected  with 
Thessaly.  They  occupied  principally  the  shores  of  the 
Maliac  Gulf  (the  Bay  of  Zeitoun),  from  the  Pass  of  Ther- 
mopylae on  the  south  to  the  northern  boundary  of  the 
valley  of  the  Spercheius.  Their  country  is  generally  flat ; 
the  plains  in  some  parts  are  extensive,  in  others  narrow, 
where  they  are  confined  on  one  side  by  the  shores  of  the 
Maliac  Gulf,  and  on  the  other  by  the  mountains  of  Tra- 
chinia.  Thucydides  divides  them  into  three  tribes,  the 
Paralii  or  Shore-men,  the  Hierenses  or  Sacerdotal,  and  the 
Trachinians.  The  second  of  these  classes  probably  dwelt 
near  the  Amphictyonic  temple  at  Thermopylae  ;  the  third 
on  the  rocky  declivities  of  Mount  (Eta.  They  were  al- 
ways- a  warlike  people,  and  those  persons  only  who  had 
served  as  heavy-armed  soldiers  were  admitted  to  a  share  of 
the  government.  (Aristot.,  Polit.,  iv.  100.)  The  Amphic- 
tyonic council  was  held  in  their  country,  and  the  Malians 
are  included  in  the  lists  of  the  Amphictyonic  states.  They 
always  maintained  friendly  relations  with  the  Dorians  of 
Laeedsemon.  The  principal  towns  of  the  Malians  were  as 
follows : — Anticyra,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Spercheius :  it  was 
said  to  produce  the  genuine  hellebore,  considered  by  the 
antients  as  a  cure  for  insanity.  Lamia,  four  or  five  miles 
north  of  Anticyra :  it  was  celebrated  as  the  scene  of 
the  Lamian  war,  carried  on  between  the  Athenians  and 
their  confederates  against  the  Macedonians  under  Anti- 
pater.  It  is  generally  supposed  to  have  occupied  the  site 
of  the  modern  Zeitoun.  Trachis,  or  Trachin  (the  '  rough '), 
was  so  called  from  the  mountainous  character  of  the  sur- 
rounding country  :  it  was  once  the  chief  town  of  the  Tra- 
chinians, who  were  in  such  close  alliance  with  the  Dorians 
that  Diodorus  (xii.  59)  speaks  of  Traehis  as  the  mother- 
town  of  Laeedsemon.  The  friendship  between  Ceyx,  a 
Trachinian  hero,  and  Hercules,  together  with  that  of  liis 
sons,  is  the  mythological  expression  for  this  connection. 
In  later  times  Heraclea  was  the  most  important  town  of 
Trachinia.  It  was  a  colony  from  Lacedi-emon,  founded 
(B.C.  42C)  at  the  request  of  the  Trachinians,  about  three 
miles  from  the  sea.  Their  object  in  making  the  request 
was  to  gain  additional  strength  against  the  ^Enianes,  or 
(Eteans,  with  whom  they  were  at  war :  there  was  also  an 
old  enmity  between  the  CEteans  and  the  Lacedaemonians. 


T  H  i: 


3S8 


THE 


who  wen-  on  thU  account  the  more  readily  imlu 
found  the  colony.  It  toon  became  an  object  of  jealousy 
with  the  other  Theasalian  tribe*,  who  frequently  hanuwed 
it,  and  the  Lacedaemonians  often  wnt  reinforcement!  toil* 
support.  It  wan  seized  by  Jason  of  Phena,  who  caused 
the  walls  to  be  pulled  down  :  but  it  again  became  a  flou- 
ruhin  '.'linns  who  sometime*  held  the 

general  council  of  their  nation  there.  It  sustained  a  long 
siege  from  the  Roman  consul  Acilius  Glabrio,  after  tli>> 
defeat  of  king  Antiochusat  Thermopylie  <  n.r.  I'.H  .  The 
surrounding  country  was  marshy  and  woody,  but  the  \c— 
tiges  of  the  city  itself,  according  to  Sir  \\'.  Gel  I.  nrc  ob- 
servable on  a  high  flat  on  the  roots  of  Mount  CEta.  On  the 
coast  of  Trachis,  close  to  the  mouth  of  the  small  mer 
Asopus,  which  runs  through  a  gorge  in  the  mountain  en- 
closing the  Trachinian  plain,  was  the  village  of  Anthele, 
near  to  which  was  the  temple  of  the  Amphictvonie  ' 
and  the  place  of  meeting  of  the  Amphictyons.  This  locality 
was  also  famous  for  the  celebrated  Pass  of  Thermomhe. 

••ry  physically  distinct  from  Thessaly, 

but  in  historical  times  was  subject  to  it,  and  politically  in- 
cluded within  it.  It  is  a  narrow  strip  of  country  between 
the  mouth  of  the  Peneus  and 'the  Pagasaean  Bay  on  the 
north  and  south,  with  the  chain  of  Pelion  and  Ossa  on  the 
west,  and  the  sea  on  the  east.  The  people  of  this  district 
were  called  Magnetes,  and  they  were  in  possession  of  it 
from  very  early  times.  (Iliad,  ii.  7TH5.)  They  were  an 
Amphictyonie  state.  In  the  time  of  Thucvdides  they  were 
dependent  on  the  Thessalians,  but  they  .subsequently,  with 
the  rest  of  that  nation,  became  dependent  on  the  k! 
Macedon,  and  continued  so  till  the  battle  of  Cynox-ephabr, 
when  they  were  declared  independent  by  the  Romans.  The 
extreme  northern  point  of  Magnesia  was  Mount  Homole,  a 
limb  of  Ossa,  celebrated  by  the  poets  as  the  abode  of 
the  antient  Centaurs  and  Lapithae,  and  a  favourite  haunt 
of  the  god  Pan.  (Virgil,  .l-'.m-iil.  vii.  G74.)  To  the  south, 
at  the  foot  of  Ossa,  was  Meliboea,  a  town  on  the  coast, 
ascribed  by  Homer  (Iliad,  ii.  716)  to  Philoctetes.  Still 
farther  south  was  the  promontory  of  Sepias,  oft'  which  the 
fleet  of  Xerxes  was  wrecked.  Beyond  the  southern  pro- 
montory of  Magnesia,  now  called  Hagios  Georgios,  the 
coast  takes  a  south-westerly  direction  to  the  entrance  of 
the  Pagasaean  Bay,  the  Gulf  of  Volo.  Among  the  principal 
towns  of  Magnesia  were  Iolcos,Demetrias,  and  Aphetae.  The 
first  of  these  was  a  place  of  great  antiquity,  and  the  birth- 
place of  the  mythological  hero  Jason  and  his  anc> 
It  was  situated  at  the  foot  of  Pelion,  near  the  small  ri\er 
Anaurus :  it  was  once  a  powerful  city,  but  according  to 
Strabo,  its  downfall  was  hastened  by  civil  discord  and  bad 
government :  its  ruin  was  completed  by  the  foundation  of 
Demetrias  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  adjoining  shore  was 
still  called  lolcos  in  the  days  of  Strabo,  though  the  town 
no  longer  existed.  Pagasap,  the  port  of  lolcos,  and  after- 
wards of  Pherse,  was  famed  in  Grecian  story  as  the  harbour 
from  which  the  ship  Argo  set  sail  on  her  voyage  to  Colchis : 
the  name,  according  to  Strabo  (ix.,  p.  430  .  \v;\s  derived 
from  the  number  of  springs  (nnyoi)  near  it.  The  site  is 
nearly  occupied  by  the  present  castle  of  Vplo.  Demetrias 
owed  its  name  and  origin  to  Demetrius  Poliorcetes.  It  was 
lounded  about  B.C.  290,  and  the  first  population  was  derived 
from  the  neighbouring  towns  of  Nefia,  Pagas;r,  &c.,  all  of 
which  were  eventually  comprised  within  its  territory.  It 
soon  became  a  flourishing  citv.  and  was  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant fortresses  in  Greece,  being  well  situated  for  defend- 
ing the  approaches  to  the  Pass  of  Tempe,  both  on  tl 
of  the  mountains  and  of  the  plains.  Its  maritime  posi- 
tion also  contributed  to  its  importance,  Eubcea,  Attica,  and 
Peloponnesus  being  easily  accessible  from  it.  After  the 
battle  of  Cynoscephalae  it  became  the  chief  town  of  the 
Magnesian  'republic,  and  the  sent  of  government  :  sub- 
sequently it  was  at tached  to  Die  house  of  Macedon,  until 
the  battle  of  Pydna,  when  it  fell  under  the  Romans. 
xliv.  13.)  In  the  time  of  Strabo  it  had  lost  much  oi'  iN 
splendour,  but  it  was  still  the'  nio-t  considerable  town  of 
that  part  of  Thessaly.  Sir  W.  Cell  thus  speaks  of  its  modem 
— '  Pass  the  ruins  of  a  gate  and  the  walls  of  nn  an- 
'•r  ruins  mark  the  site  of  a  large  place 
f  Asia  Minor  was  a  colony 
from  the  The*salian  Magnesia,  [ANATOLIA.] 

principal  -the 

he  north  ;  1'indiis,  on  the  west  ;  the  ridges 
Kta,  on  the  couth ;  and  those  of  Pelion  and 
OM,  on  the  east. 


The  Oambunian  range  wax  a  branch  from  Mount  Pindua, 
running  in  a  dir  ly  nt  right  angles  to  it,  and 

separating  Thessaly  from  M  Hi  -lodotus  ine> 

tins  chain  under  the  name  of  Olympus.  The  principal 
road  between  the  two  countries  over  the  mountains  was 
by  the  Pass  of  Vohtstana,  marked  in  modern  maps  a.*  Vo- 
lutza.  Another  important  defile,  leading  from  Thessaly 
into  Macedonia,  passed  by  Pythium,  n  village  with  a 
temple  sacred  to  the  Pythian  Apollo,  situate  on  Mount 
Olvmpus,  at  the  north  ca'-t  extremity  of  the  ran 

Through  this  latter  defile  many  armies  marched  in 
antient  times.  Thus  Xerxes  is  said  by  Herodotus  (vii. 
l:i'Ji  to  have  crossed  over  Mount  Olympus  from  Upper 

ionia  into  the  country  of  the  Perrhapbi  in  Thessaly. 
The  road  which  led  through.  Thessaly  to  this  Pylhium  was 
called  the  Via  Pythia  ;  and,  as  Pouqueville  states,  the 
shrine  of  Apollo  may  have  been  succeeded  by  »  chapel, 
'•reeled  on  the  highest  summit  of  Olympus  'A.  D!  1HK)  .and 
dedicated  to  the  prophet  Klias.  Tin-  defile  is  still  much 
frequented  by  travellers  going  to  Larissa  from  the  north- 

u  parts  of  Macedonia.  Mount  Olympus  itself  is 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  mountains  ofGi  .  ially 

in  mythology,  the  stories  of  which  represented  it  as  being 
the  habitation  of  the  Gods,  where  Jupiter  sat  shrouded  in 
cloud  and  mist  from  the  eyes  of  mortals.     It  dividi 
north-east  of  Thessaly,  or  Perrhaebia,  from  Pieria,  the  ex- 
tremity of  Macedonia  on  the  south-east.     It  i 
height  of  about  OTKX)  Knglish  feet,  and  the  highest  parts  of 

^carcely  ever  entirely  free  from  snow.  The  part  of 
the  Cambunian  range  which  lies  to  the  west  of  Olympus 
was  called  Mount  Titarus,  an  outlier  or  limb  of  which, 
Mount  Cyphus,  rises  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Pern 

Mount  Pindus,  the  western  boundary  of  Th> 
part  of  the  range  of  mountains  which  issues  from  the 
Thracian  Scomius,  and  forms  what  may  be  called  the 
Greek  Apennines.  On  the  north  it  joins  the  Illyrian  and 
Macedonian  ranges,  and  to  the  south  it  is  connected  with 
the  branches  of  CEla  and  the  jUtolian  and  Acarnanian 
mountains.  It  separates  the  waters  which  fall  into  the 
Ionian  Sea  and  the  Ambraciau  Gulf  (now  the  Gulf  of  v 
from  those  which  empty  themseKcs  into  the  northern  part, 
of  the  ^Egean.  The  most  frequented  pass  over  Pindus  from 
Thosaly  into  Epirus  lay  over  a  part  of  it  called  Mount 

ins,  probably  not  far  from  the  modern  town  of  Me- 
rzovo.  One  of  the  highest  points  of  Mount  Pindus  was 
Tymphrestus,  forming  its  southern  extremity,  from  which 
branched  the  ridge  of  Mount  Othrys,  clo>ing  the  great  lias 


of    Thessaly   on  the  south,   and   separating    ' 
which  flow  into  the  Peneus  from  those  which  run  into  the 
southern  Spercheius.     Its  eastern  extremity  separates  the 
Maliac  from  the  Pagassean  Gulf,  sinking  gently  toward  the 
coast.     It  is  often  celebrated  by  the  poets  of  antiquity. 
It  is  now  known  by  the  different  names  of  Ildlovo.  Vari- 
bovo,  and  Goura.    To  the  south  of  Othrys  lay  the  ridge  of 
IKla.   which  however  has  no  connection   with   Tin 
Proper.     It  is  a  huge  pile  of  mountains  stretching  from  Pin- 
dcis  to  the  sea,  which  it  meets  at  the  Pass  of  Thenn<>p\  he  ; 
it  forms  the  inner  barrier  of  Greece,  as  the  Canilmniaii 
range  does  the  outer,  to  which  it  is  nearh  parallel  in  d 
tion  and  equal   in   height.     On   the  wot   it  branchc- 
into  the  country  of  the  Dorians  and  into  yKtolia.     On  Hie 
south-c;i-t.  beginning  from  Mount  Callidromus,  the  hi: 
summit  of  the  range,  it   is  continued  without,  interruption 
along  the  coast  of  the  Eubcean  Sea.  till  it  -inks  into  the 
\alley  of  the  river  Asopus.     By  means  of  imot! 
to  the  south-west,  it  is  connected  with  Parnassus,  and  after 
skirting  the  Corinthian  Gulf  under  the  names  of  Cirphu 
!lelicon,  it  forms  the  northern  boundary  of  Attica, 

the  names  of  Cit  heron  and  Pni 
I'd'  "n  of  some  extent,  running  from  the  south- 

east extremity  of  the  lake  called    Uoebcis  to  th 
south  Of  Magnesia,  I'orminga  part  of  the'  bounda 

saly  on  the  ea»t.  Homer  (J/iod,  ii.  743  i  the 

f  the  Centaurs,  and  it  was  associated  with  • 

events     m    Grecian  :rment    of 

Dicaearchus  contains  a  description  of  Mount  I'clion.aud  its 
botanical  productions,  which  appear  to  have  been  very 
numerous.       It    was    exceedingly   well    wooded.      To   the 
north  of  Pelion  and  following  the  line  oi  the  coast  h. 
chain  of  Ossa  (now  Ki  M'  which  mute  with 

one  of  the  bran>  'n.     At  its  northern 

extremity  it  towers  into  at-:  \\  peak,  and  ac< 

ing  to  the  songs  of  the  country,  rivals  its  neighbour  Olym 


T  H  E 


359 


THE 


pus  in  the  .depth  and  duration  of  its  snows,  though  it  i 
1100  feet  less  in  height.     Between  Ossa  and  Olympus  lie; 
the  celebrated  Vale  and  Pass  of  Tempe  (or  the  Cut),  thi 
Turkish  name  of  which  is  Bogaz  (or  the  Pass).     [TEMPE.] 
The   two  principal   rivers  of  Thessaly  into  which  t.h( 
smaller  streams  fall  are  the  Peneus  and  the  Spercheius.  Thi 
Peneus  rises  in  the  north-west  of  Thessaly  under  Pindus 
between  the  lower  ridges  of  which  and  the  outliers  of  tin 
Cambunian  range  its  upper  valleys  are   confined.     Nea; 
Meteora,  not  far  from  the  rocky  Ithome  of  Homer,  its  basii 
opens  somewhat  towards  the  south.     At  Tricca  it  makes  a 
turn  to  the  east,  and  its  valley  expands  into  a  vast  plain 
towards  the  south-east,  on  the  right  of  the  river,  though  i 
is  still  confined  by  the  hills  on  the  left,  till  within  abow 
10  miles  from  Larissa,  where  there  is  a  considerable  flat 
on  the  north,  the  soil   of  which  is  said   to  be  alluvial 
After  leaving  Tricca  the  course  is  generally  north-east,  anc 
passing  along  the  Vale  of  Tempe,  the  only  outlet  for  the 
waters  of  Thessaly,  it  empties  itself  into  the  /Egean  Sea, 
Though  fed  by  the  most  considerable  rivers  of  Thessaly.. 
it  is  a  very  small  stream,  and  generally  sluggish  and  shai- 
Ipw,  except  after  the  melting  of  the  snows,  when  it  some- 
times floods  the  surrounding  plains.    The  Marsh  or  Lake 
Ni'sonis,  on  the  road  between  Larissa  and  Gonnus,  is  said 
to  be  caused  by  the  floods  of  the  river.    The  principal 
tributary  of  the  Peneus  on  the  north  is  the  Titaresius,  now 
the  Saranta  Poros.     It  was  said  to  rise  in  Mount  Titarus, 
a  part  of  the  Cambunian  range,  and  it  joins  the  Peneus  a 
little  above  the  Vale  of  Tempe.    The  waters  of  the  two 
rivers  did  not  however  mingle ;    those  of  the  Titaresius 
being  impregnated  with  a  fat  unctuous  substance,  which 
floated  like  oil  on  the  surface.    (Strabo,  ix.,  p.  441.)    This 
river  was  also  called  the  Eurptas,  and  supposed  to  be  a 
branch  of  the  Styx,  one  of  the  rivers  of  the  Infernal  Regions. 
At  the  present  day  the  inhabitants  of  its  banks  are  remark- 
able for  their  healthy  complexion,  while  the  Peneus  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  sickly  population.    Its  waters  also  are  said  to 
be  clear  and  dark-coloured,  while  those  of  the  Peneus  are 
muddy  and  white.    (Miiller,  Dorians,  b.  i.,  c.  1,  s.  6.)    On 
the  south  the  affluents  of  the  Peneus  were  more  numerous. 
The  principal  of  them  were,  the  Pamisus,  the  Onochonus, 
the  Eniptus,  and  the  Apidanus.     The  Pamisus  joins  the 
Peneus  to  the  east  of  Tricca,  and  is  probably  the  modern 
Fanari.    The  Enipeus,  rising  in  Mount  Othrys,  flowed  from 
mth-west  of  Phthiotis  and  fell  into  the  Apidanus.     It 
is  now  called  the  river  of  Goura.   The  Apidanus  is  now  the 
Vlacho  lani.     Herodotus  describes  it  as  one  of  the  largest 
rivers  of  Achaia,  but  still  inadequate  to  the  supply  of  the 
Persian  army  with  water. 

The  second  great  river  of  Thessaly  was  the  Spercheius, 
now  the  Hellada.  It  flows  from  Tymphrestus,  a  branch  of 
Pindus,  and  after  winding  through  a  long  narrow  vale 
between  the  ridges  of  Othrys  and  CEta,  it  falls  into  the 
Maliac  Gulf.  It  was  much  celebrated  by  the  antient  poets, 
and  Homer  mentions  it  as  belonging  to  the  territory  of 
Achilles  round  the  Maliac  Gulf.  Its  bed  and  mouth  have 
undergone  many  changes  from  the  deposit  of  alluvial 
matter.  (Gt-11,  Itiner.,  p.  216.) 

•'Ix  <>f  Thennaly. — The  principal  road  was  that  which 
led  from  Larissa  to  Thermopylae,  by  Pharsalus,  Thaumaku 
and  Lamia.  From  the  same  point  another  road  branched 
off  to  Crannon,  Pherse,  Demetrias,  and  along  the  shores  of 
the  Pagasaean  and  Maliac  bays,  terminating  likewise  at 
Thermopylae.  From  Larissa  again  there  was  another  route 
by  the  valley  of  the  Peneus  as  far  as  Gomphi,  the  general 
direction  of  which  was  from  east  to  west.  From  Gomphi 
it  crossed  the  chain  of  Pindus  by  the  Pass  of  Clinovo  to 
Ambracia  and  Nicopolis. 

The  islands  connected  with  Thessaly  are  very  few.  They 
consist  of  a  group  lying  off  the  Magnesian  coast,  and 
stivtchini:  in  a  north-easterly  direction  towards  Mount 
Athos  and  the  isle  of  Lemnos. 

The  plains  of  Thessaly,  with  the  exception  of  those  of 
Baeotia,  were  amongst  the  most  fertile  and  productive  of 
Greece  in  wine,  oil,  and  grain,  but  more  especially  in 
grain,  of  which  it  exported  a  considerable  quantity.  The 
alians  consequently  became  very  rich,  and  luxurious 
in  their  mode  of  life  (At/ten.,  xii.  624) ;  and  so  notorious 
were  they  for  it,  that  they  were  charged  with  having  en- 
couraged'^ the  Persians  to  invade  Greece,  with  a  view  of 
rivalling  them  in  sensuality  and  extravagance.  Thcssuly 
was  also  famous  for  its  cavalry,  the  best  in  Greece :  its 
plpins  supplied  abundance  of  forage  for  horses. 


The  lands  of  Thessaly  were  not  cultivated  by  the  Thes- 
salians  themselves,  but  by  a  subject  population,  the  Pe- 
nestae.  The  account  given  of  them  is,  that  they  were  the 
descendants  of  the  ^Eolian  Boeotians,  who  did  not  emigrate 
when  their  country  was  conquered  by  the  Thessalians,  but 
surrendered  themselves  to  the  conquerors  on  condition 
that  they  should  remain  in  the  country  and  cultivate  the 
land  for  the  new  owners  of  the  soil,  paying,  by  way  of  rent, 
a  portion  of  its  produce.  Many  of  them  were  richer  than 
their  lords.  (Athenaeus,  vi.,  p.  264.)  They  sometimes 
accompanied  their  masters  to  battle,  and  fought  on  horse- 
back as  their  knights  or  vassals.  They  formed  a  consider- 
able portion  of  the  population,  and  frequently  attempted 
to  emancipate  themselves. 

History  of  Thessaly. — The  earliest  information  about 
the  history  of  Thessaly  is  given  by  Homer  (Iliad,  ii.  710), 
who  describes  the  country  as  divided  into  several  inde- 
pendent principalities  and  kingdoms,  and  enumerates  the 
chiefs  to  whom  they  were  subject  at  the  time  of  the  Trojan 
war.     This  arrangement  however  was  not  of  long  continu- 
ance, and  a  new  constitution,  dating  probably  from  that 
epoch,  was  adopted,  as  it  would  seem,  by  the  common 
consent  of  the  different  states.    They  agreed  to  unite  in 
one  confederate  body,  under  a  president  or  Tagus,  elected 
by  the  members  of  the  confederacy.     Strabo  (ix.  429)  in- 
forms us  that  this  confederacy  was  the  most  considerable 
as  well  as  the  most  antient  society  of  the  kind  established 
in  Greece.     Whether  it  was  in  any  way  connected  with 
the  Amphictyonic  body  cannot  be  determined  with  cer- 
tainty, but  it  is  deserving  of  remark  that  the  majority  of 
the  A-mphictyonic   states  were   either  Thessalian  or  in 
some  way  connected  with  Thessaly.     It  does  not  however 
seem  that  this  confederation  was  productive  of  any  great 
benefit  to  the  country ;    for,  except  during  a  very  short 
period,  under  Jason  of  Pherse,  Thessaly  never  assumed 
that  rank  among  the  states  of  Greece  to  which  it  was  by 
its  position  and  extent  entitled.     Many  of  the  cities  more- 
over were  from  time  to  time  in  the  power  of  usurpers,  or 
under  the  sway  of  powerful  families,  so  that  the  nation  had 
no  means  of  acting  as  a  body.     One  remarkable  instance 
of  this  occurred  at  the  time  of  the  Persian  war,  when  the 
Thessalian  house  of  the  Aleuadae,  the  princes  of  Larissa 
(Herodotus,  vii.  6,  calls  them  kings  of  Thessaly),  either 
because  they  thought  their  power  insecure,  or  with  a  view 
to  increase  it  by  becoming  vassals  of  the  Persian  king,  in- 
vited Xerxes  to  the  conquest  of  Greece.    That  the  Thes- 
salian nation  was  in  general   opposed  to  their  schemes 
appears  from  the  fact  that  the  Thessalians  applied  to  the 
other  states  of  Greece  for  assistance  against  Xerxes,  and 
wished  them,  in  conjunction  with  themselves,  to  oppose 
tim  at  the  Pass  of  Tempe.     The  confederate  Greeks  did 
not  think  it  expedient  to  do  this,  believing  it  impossible 
;o  make  any  effectual  resistance  to  the  north  of  Thermo- 
pylae ;    and  the  Thessalians,  being  left  to  their  own  re- 
sources, submitted  to  the  invaders,  to  whom  they  proved 
active  and  zealous  allies.     A  few  years  before  this  they 
lad  sustained  a  severe  defeat  from  the  Phocians,  which 
aggravated  the  rancour  of  an  old  enmity.    The  Thessn- 
ians,  who  were  eager  to  take  vengeance  for  this  defeat, 
availed  themselves  of  their  influence  with  Xerxes  to  direct 
lis  march  through  Phocis,  and  to  stimulate  his  fury  against 
he  inhabitants  (B.C.  480).      After  the  Persian  invasion, 
;he  Greek  historians  take  little  notice  of  the  affairs  of 
Phessaly,  except  on  the  occasion  of  the  expedition  under- 
aken   by  the  Athenians  for  the  purpose   of  reinstating 
3restes,  son  of  Echecratidas,  a  king  of  Thessaly,  as  Thu- 
cydides  (i.  Ill)  calls  him,  who  had  been  banished  from  his 
country.     The  Athenian  general  Myronides  marched  on 
hat  occasion  as  far  as  Pharsalus  ;  but  he  was  checked  in 
lis  progress  by  the  Thessalians,  who  were  superior  in  ca- 
valry ;  and  he  was  forced  to  retire,  without  having  accom- 
)lished  the  objects  of  his  expedition.     In  the  Peloponnesian 
var  the  Thessalians  did  not  as  a  nation  take  any  part, 
hough  several  of  the  towns  were  in  favour  of  the  Athe- 
nians, between  whom  and  the  Thessalians  there  was  an  old 
alliance.    It  would  seem  moreover  that  the  bias  of  the 
nation  was  in  favour  of  the  Athenians,  for  Brasidas,  the 
Spartan  general,  was  obliged  to  march  through  Thessaly 
B.C.  424)  with  secrecy  and  dispatch  when  traversing  that 
jountry  on  his  march  towards  Thrace.     (Thucyd.,  iv.  78.) 
Vot  long  afterwards,  some  troops  which  were  sent  out 
>y  the  Lacedaemonians  to   reinforce   their  army  in  that 
[uarter,  were  so  vigorously  opposed  by  the  Thessalians, 


THE 


seo 


T  11    K 


that  :  ilocl  to  return  liumc  without"  having  ] 

•.Mon.     in  n. i.  rim  tin-  i 

111  lengue  with  tlio  Roeotians  nnd  their  allies,  who 
hud  formed  a  hostile  cunlcdc,  -!  Sparta.  The 

Spartans  thought  it  necessary  to  H  c.il  from  Asia  their  great 
commander   Agexilaus,  and  on  hw  way  home   he   1 
uiarrh   through  Thessaly.      The   Thessalians,  with   their 
cavalry,  endeavonitd  to  harass  and  obstruct    linn  mi  Ins 
mnrrli.     His  skilful   man-i  'ever  thwarted  tlu-ir 

is   gained  considerable  credit   liy  dc- 

,-  on  their  own  ground,  with  horsemen  of  hi-' own 
training,  the  most  renowned  cavalry  ol'  Greece.  Kill  while 
Sparta  was  struggling  against  the  coalition  of  which 
Thebes  was  the  head,  Thessaly  was  assuming  a  new  po- 
sition  among  the  states  of  Greece.  To  explain  this  we 
must  observe,  that  though  a.  kind  of  ]>olitical  and  national 
unity  was  nominally  acknowledged  among  the  states  of 
Thessaly,  still  the  country  had  very  seldom  been  united 
under  one  government.  A  few  great  families,  such  as  life 

ulii-and  the  Aleuadse,  were  sometimes  able  1o  extend 
their  influence  even  beyond  the  cities  of  Larissa,  Crannon, 
and  Pharsalus,  about  which  their  possessions  lay.  Occa- 
sionally one  of  them  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  Tagns; 
but  their  power  was  always  liable  to  be  overthrown,  even 
in  their  own  eities.  Towards  the  close  and  after  the  end 
of  the  Peloponnesiaii  war,  most  of  the  cities  acknow- 
ledged the  ascendency  of  Pharsalus  or  1'hene,  the  latter  of 
which  was,  about  B.C.  400,  under  the  dominion  of  Lyco- 
phron.  This  prince  endeavoured  to  extend  his  power  over 
all  Thessaly  :  and  Xenophon  (Ilrtli'ii.,  ii.  4  mentions  a 
victory  which  he  gained  over  the  Thcssalians  of  Larissa 
as  one"  of  the  events  which  happened  in  the  year  of  the 
fall  of  Athens  (B.C.  404) ;  but  he  does  not  state  what  were 
the  resulls  of  it.  Ten  years  afterwards  Lycophron  was 
still  engaged  in  a  contest  with  Larissa,  then  subject  to 
Medius,  who  was  probably  one  of  the  Aleuadse.  Lyco- 
phron  was  supported  by  Sparta,  and  Medius  by  the  Bosotian 
confederacy,  by  the  assistance  received  from  which  he  was 
enabled  to"  make  himself  master  of  Pharsalus,  then  occu- 
pied by  a  Lacedaemonian  garrison. 

The  success  of  Agesilaus  on  his  return  from  Asia  pro- 
duced some  change  in  the  affairs  of  Thessaly,  for  Pharsalus 
soon  recovered  its  independence,  and  rose  to  such  eminence 
as  to  become  a  rival  of  Pheroe.  It  did  not  however  con- 
tinue, as  of  old,  under  the  power  of  the  Scopadse  :  it  was 
divided  between  contending  factions,  which,  for  the  sake 
of  peace,  agreed  to  place  themselves  under  the  power  of 
a  person  named  Polydamas,  whose  character  and  \iitue 
had  gained  the  confidence  of  all  parties.  (Thirlwall,  ///.»/. 
of  Gri'iii',  vol.  v.,  p.  iju'.'i  Polydamas  was  accordingly  en- 
trusted with  the  citadel  and  the  administration  of  the 
revenues  of  the  city,  a  trust  which  he  discharged  with  the 
strictest  integrity. 

At  Pherse  the  supreme  power  passed  into  the  hands  of 
Jason,  who  was  probably  the  son  of  Lycophron,  and  cer- 
tainly the  inheritor  of  his  ambitious  views,  which  however 
he  enlarged  into  more  comprehensive  schemes,  and,  with 
superior  energy  and  talents,  possessed  greater  means  of 
realizing.  He  kept  a  standing  army  of  6000  mercenaries, 
all  picked  men ;  and,  notwithstanding  the  opposition  of 
Phiusalus,  he  compelled  most  of  the  principal  Thcssalian 

•  to  enter  into  alliance  with  him:  moreover,  his  sv.av 
was  acknowledged  by  several  of  the  neighbouring  tribes. 
The  leading  states  «\ Greece  were  wasting  their  strength 
in  a  protracted  warfare,  and  whichever  way  he  turned  his 
eyes  he  perceived,  or  imagined  that  he  perceived,  facilities 
for  gaining  the  objects  of  his  ambition,  namely,  the  su- 
premacy of  Greece,  and  the  overthrow  of  the  Persian  em- 
pire in  the  Kast  ;  the  same  schemes  in  fact  as  were  sub- 
sequently executed  by  Alexander,  king  of  Mneedon.  The 
first  objects  which  he  had  to  gain  were  the  title  of  Tagns, 
and  the  union  of  Thessaly  under  his  authority.  To  ; 
plish  the  latter  project  it  was  necessary  to  gain  by  per- 
suasion, or  overpower  by  force,  Polydamas,  the  governor 
of  Pharsalus.  Jason  adopted  the  former  method,  and. 
after  a  frank  statement  of  his  views,  prevailed  upon  PuU- 
dama*  to  second  them.  A  compact  was  then  made  be- 
tween them;  and  Polydamas  exerted  hi-  influence  so  suc- 
cewfnlly  in  Jason's  behalf,  that  the  Phai- 
indnced  to  enter  into  an  alliance  with  him,  and  to  join  in 
a  general  pacification,  which  immediately  followed.  Not 

lAerwardt  Jaaonwu  either  elected  Tagua,  or  assumed 
the  title,  without  any  opposition,  and,  by  his  influence  and 


.al  important   .  induct  d  '. 

confcdn.i.  \ .      lie    then  fixed   t'  .'iliy 

and  cavalry  to  be  furnished  by  the  ditlVient   states,  and 

aised   them  to  a  .lom'it  than  they  had  i  vet  been 

:iy  which   he   could    I 

.    8000  cavalry  and    mine   than   'JI.IHK)   hcavy- 
11  mid  infantry  :  and  his  light  tii»> 

vi.  1,  i.  pose  the  world.      For 

their  maintenance   he   revived  the  tribute  which 
imposed  on  the  subject  tribes  of  the'l  i 
one  of  his  piedecessors.     The  extensive  coasts  ofTheasaly, 
its  fore  ,  llent  ship-limber,  and  his  Kigc  KM 

also   enabled   him   to  raise  a  considerable   fleet,  which  lie 
had  no  difficulty  in  manning  from  (he  Pci..  !>ject 

population  of  the  country.      H:-  in  fact  weie  in 

every   respect   so    great,   that   Thcssaly    seemed 
under  him,  to  become  both  by  sea  and  land  the  leading 
p«-wer  of  Greece,  and  e\en   his"  projected  conquest  o! 
ua  no  longer  impracticable.     Hut   these  schemes  were  too 
vast  for  the  ordinary  duration  of  a  human  life,  though  be 
kept    them   constantly  in  view,   and   made   all   his   actions 
uciit   to  them.     An   instance  of  this  occurs  in  his 
conduct  alter  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  in  which  the  Th. 

•ed  the  Lacedaemonian^,  and   then  invited  him   to 
join  them  in  overpowering  Laccdicmon.      Jason  joined 
them  with  his  forces,  but  lie  did  not  comply  with  their 
request.    His  policy  was  to  keep  an  even  balance  between 
the  two  states,  80  as  to  ensure  the  dependence  of  both  on 
himself,  and  therefore,  instead  of  annihilating  the  power 
of  Sparta,  be  offered  his  services  as  a  mediator  between 
the  contending  states,  and  obtained  a  truce  for  the  I 
daeroonians,  under  favour  of  which  the  remnant   of  their 
forces  decamped  by  night  (B.C.  371).     In  the  follow  in:; 
year  Jason's  career  was  terminated,     lie  hud  made 
parations  for  an  expedition  to  the  south  of  Greece,  and 
had  ordered  a  levy  of  troops,  declaring  at  the  same  time 
his  intention  of  marching  to  Delphi   and  presiding  over 
the  Pythian  games:  but  before  the  time  car.ie  he  was 
•mated  by  seven  young  men  ;  and  the  honours  which 
were  paid  in  many  of  the  Grecian  cities  to  tlu 
showed  the  alarm  which  his  ambition  had  excited.     On 
the  death  of  Jason,  Thessaly  relapsed  into  its  former  i 
nificance,  though  his  dynasty  survived  him,  and  two  of  his 
brothers,  Polydorus  and  Polyphron,  for  a  short  time  shared 
his  authority  between  them.     Polydorus  v 
sinated,  and  Polyphron  became  sole  Tagus.     15y  his  ad- 
ministration the  office  was  changed  into  a  tyranny,  and  he 
put  to  death  Polydamas  and  eight  other  principal  ci; 
of  Pharsalus.     After  a  reign  of  one  year,  he  was  murdered 
by  liis  nephew  Alexander,  who  thus  gained  the  govern- 
ment, in  which  he  became  infamous  for  his  crneltv.     The 
atrocities  which  he  committed  filled  all  his  subjects  with 
terror,  but  especially  the  antient  families,  who  were  likely 
to  be  the  objects  of  his  jealousy.    The  Aleuada;  of  I 
accordingly  applied  to  Alexander,  the  then  king  of  Maec- 
don,  who,  on  being  thus  invited  by  the  Tl  com- 

plied with  their  request.      He  defeated  the  tyrant,   and 
took  possession  of  Larissa  and  its  citadel,  and  afterws 
Crannon,  and  garrisoned  both  with  his  troops.     The  affairs 
of  his  own  kingdom  however  obliged  him  to  withdraw 
from  Thessaly ,  and  the  Thcssnlians.  being  tlms  exposed  to 
the  vengeance  of  Alexander,  solicited  aid  (B.C.  3CS    from 
the  Thcbans.  who  accordingly  sent  Pelopidas  to  assist  them. 
The  tyrant  granted  him  an  interview,  which  ended  in  Pelo- 
pidas settling  the  affairs  of  the  country  on  an  apparently 
firm  footing.     Hut  the  order  which  he  hail  establislu 
soon  deranged   by   the    i  onduct   of  Alexander ;    and  the 
Thcbans,  on  being  applied  to  again,  sent   out  IVlu 
with  his  friend    Ismenias,  but   simply  in  the  charm; 
ambassadors,  and  without  troops.    They  imprudently  put 
themselves  into  the  power  of  the  tyrant,  who  threw  them 
into  prison.   To  rescue  them  and  avenge  the  insult,  '1 ! 
sent  out  an  army,  which  however  was  reduced  to  such  a 
strait  by  bis  cavalry,  that  it  was  obliged   to  ictuat,  and 
but  for  the  interference  of  Epaminondas,  who  accompanied 
it,  though  not  as  general,  it  would  have  hi  .  i-d. 

In  the  following  year  :,n.r.  :t(i~  an  army  was  again  sent 
out  under  Kpaminondas,  through  fear  of  whom  the  pri- 
soners were  released.  Subsequently  Alexander  renewed 
his  attacks  on  the  liberty  of  the  Tln-s-aliau  cities,  and 
greatly  extended  his  dominion  in  the  tributary  districts. 
The  'I  :  appealed  to  the  Thcbans,  and  Pelo- 

pidas was  sent  out  to  aid  them  (B.C.  304),  who  fell  in  his 


THE 


361 


THE 


first  battle,  in  which  however  Alexander  was  defeated.  The 
campaign  ended  in  the  tyrant  being  obliged  to  resign  his 
conquests,  withdraw  his  troops  from  Phthiotis  and  Mag- 
nesia, and  enter  into  alliance  with  Thebes.  Still  Alexander 
did  not  cease  to  be  an  object  of  hatred  and  dread  to  his  sub- 
jects and  foreigners,  by  his  cruelties  and  piracies,  and  at 
last  his  wife  Thebc  conspired  with  her  three  half-brothers 
to  murder  him.  (B.C.  339.)  They  effected  their  purpose,  and 
one  of  them,  Tisiphonus,  under  the  direction  and  with  the 
:ion  of  Thebe,  assumed  the  government.  But  his 
reign  lasted  a  very  short  time  :  for  towards  the  end  of  B.C. 
\ve  find  Lycophron,  another  of  the  brothers,  at  the 
head  of  affaire.  The  new  dynasty  however  seems  to  have 
been  as  unpopular  with  the'fhessalians  as  the  old  one,  and 
accordingly,  with  the  Aleuadae  at  their  head,  they  applied 
to  Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  and  requested  his  assistance. 
Lycophron  applied  to  his  allies,  the  Phocians,  the  antient 
enemies  of  the  Thessalians,  at  that  time  under  the  com- 
mand of  Onomarchus.  Philip  invaded  Thessaly,  and,  after 
gaining  some  success,  wa.s  obliged  to  retire  ;  but  he  shortly 
aids  returned  at  the  head  of  a  large  army,  and  made 
himself  master  of  the  whole  country,  Lycophron  withdraw- 
ing into  Phocis.  Philip  wished  to  be  considered  as  a 
liberator;  and  accordingly  he  restored  popular  govern- 
ment at  Pherte  (Diodorus,  xvi.  38),  though  he  kept  posses- 
sion of  its  port  Pagasse,  and  garrisoned  Magnesia  with  his 
own  troops.  The  important  services  which  he  thus  ren- 
dered to  the  Thessalians  secured  their  attachment  to  his 
intere-ts,  and,  in  addition  to  this,  afforded  him  the  opppr- 
luiiit .  :ic  a  strong  footing  in  the  country,  of  which 

he  diil  not  fail  to  avail  himself.     It  would  appear  however 
'Thirl'.vall,  ///*/.  of  Greece,  vol.  vi.,  p.  12;  that  about  B.C. 
:)H,  either  the  tyiants  of  Pherae  or  their  party  there  had 
:,icd  their  ascendency,  and  Philip i  was  again  invited 
fu  dislodge  them.    This  he  effected  with  ease,  and  then 
:nself  of  the  opportunity  to  make  Thessaly  en- 
lirely  subservient  to  his  interests,  and  in  fact  to  render  it 
virtually  a  province  of  Macedonia.     After  expelling  the 
dynasty  of  the  tyrants,  he  garrisoned  the  citadel  of  Pherae 
v.ith  his  own  troops,  to  prevent,  as  he  gave  it  out,  any 
chance  of  their  restoration  to  power.  He  also  strengthened 
his  own   authority  by  effecting  what  was  professedly  a 
(i  to  the  antient  order  of  things  in  Thessaly.     This 
vival  of  the  tctradarchies  as  political  divisions 
of  the-  country,  for  though  this  antient  division  into  four 
districts  still  sub>Uted,  it  had  long  been  rather  a  geogra- 
phical than  a  political  arrangement.     At  the  head  of  the 
four  governments  he  placed  his  devoted  adherents,  the 
chiefs  of  the  Aleuad  party,  so  that  they  were  in  reality  his 
viceroys  or  deputies.    The  result  is  described  by  Demos- 
thene-     'ili/nlli..  i.  23j  as  amounting  to  a  total  subjection 
of  the  land  to  Philip,  whom  it  supplied  with  excellent  and 
numerous  troops ;  besides  which,  he  not  only  received  the 
.our  duties  and  customs  of  the  country,  but  also  appro- 
priated to  himself  the  tribute  which  had  always  been  paid 
to  Larissa  by  her  subject  Perrhsebian  cantons.     (Strabo, 
ix.,  p.  440.)     On  his  death  the  states  of  Thessaly  passed  a 
decree  confirming  to  his  son  Alexander  the  supreme  sta- 
tion which  Philip  had  held   in  their  councils,  and  also 
Minified  their  intention  of  supporting  his  claim  to  the 
title  of  commander-in-chief  of  the  whole  Grecian  con- 
federacy.    Immediately  after  the  death  of  Alexander  (B.C 
.'J'23  ,  a  confederacy  was  formed  against  the  Macedonians 
l.y  the  Athenians  and  other  states  of  Greece,  which  the 
in  were  induced  to  join.     Antipater,  the  viceroy 
!;u-edonia,  was  unable  to  raise  an   army  sufficiently 
liirge  to  cope  with  the  confederacy,  and  after  a  battle,  in 
which  some  Thessalians  deserted  him  and  caused  his  de- 
feat, he  retired  to  Lamia,  a  town  of  Tlie.ssaly,  where  he 
lioicgcd  for  some  time  by  Leosthenes,  the  Athenian 
general.     The  siege  was  however  raised  by  Leonnatus,  an 
eminent  Macedonian  general,  and  some  additional  rein- 
forcement under  Craterus  enabled  him  to  bring  to  a  suc- 
t'ul  issue  what  was  called  the  Lamian  war,  in  which 
the    ;  s  took  a  very  prominent  part,  and  which 

nearly  proved  fatal  to  the  Macedonian  influence  not  only 
in  Thesealy,   but   over  the  whole   continent   of  Greece. 
Thessaly  was  thus  preserved  to  the  Macedonian  crown  till 
the  reign  of  Philip,  son  of  Demetrius,  from  whom  it  was 
taken  by  the  Romans  after  the  battle  of  Cynoscephalae 
Hi?  .      All  The.i.-iily  was  then  declared   free   (Liv., 
xxxiii.  32;  by  a  decree  of  the  Roman  senate  and  people, 
but  from   that  time  it  may  be  considered  as  under  the 
P.  C.,  No.  1533. 


dominion  of  Rome,  though  its  possession  was  disputed  by 
Antiochus  (Liv.,  xxxvi.  9),  and  again  by  Perseus,  son  of 
Jhilip,  between  whom  and  the  Romans  it  was  the  arena 
of  more  than  one  conflict.  It  w-as  already  a  Roman  pro- 
vince when  the  fate  of  the  empire  of  the  universe  was 
decided  by  the  battle  between  Pompey  and  Caesar  on  the 
>lains  of  Pharsalus. 

The  slave-merchants  of  Greece  were  generally  Thessa- 
ians.  (Aristophanes,  Plutus,  517.)  Their  chief  slave- 
narket  was  Pagasse,  the  port  of  Pherae. 

(Clarke,  Dodwell,  and  Gell's  Travels ;  Leake's  Travels 
'n  Northern  Greece ;  Thirlwall,  History  of  Greece  ;  Cra- 
mer, Antient  Greece,  vol.  iii.,  p.  343 ;  Wachsmuth,  Helle- 
tische  Alterthumskunde,  vol.  i.,  p.  65.) 

THETFORD,  a  small  parliamentary  borough,  partly  in 
he  hundred  of  Grimshoe,  in  the  county  of  Norfolk,  partly 
n  Lackford  hundred,  in  the  county  of  Suffolk,  88  miles 
rom  London  by  the  Norwich  mail-road  through  Wood- 
brd,  Epping,  Bishop  Stortford,  Newmarket,  and  Bury  St. 
Edmunds  ;  and  30  miles  from  Norwich  by  Attleburgh.  It 
las  been  confidently  asserted  that  Thetford  existed  in  the 
ime  of  the  Romans,  or  even  antecedent  to  their  arrival ; 
:>ut  it  cannot  be  identified  with  any  of  their  towns  that 
lave  been  mentioned  in  antient  recoids.  Plot  and  Blome- 
ield  attempted  to  fix  here  the  Sitomagus  of  the  '  Antonino 
Itinerary ;'  others  have  proposed  to  fix  here  the  Iciani  of  the 
Itinerary,'  but  without  any  solid  ground  for  their  opinion. 
The  Ikeneld  or  Icknield  Street  or  Way,  and  a  road  called 
:he  Peddar  or  leddar  Way,  crossed  the  Little  Ouse  above 
Thetford,  but  not  very  near  it.  Blomefield  describes  some 
traces  of  fortifications  as  existing  in  his  time,  but  it  is  not 
clear  that  they  were  Roman.  Some  coins  of  the  earlier 
emperors,  from  Claudius  to  Antoninus  Pius,  have  been 
found.  Under  the  East  Angles  it  was  a  place  of  im- 
portance :  a  synod  was  held  here  A.D.  GG9.  When  the 
Danes  invaded  England  in  the  reign  of  Ethelred  I.,  they 
fixed  their  head-quarters,  A.D.  870,  at  Thetford  (called  in 
the  Saxon  Chronicle,  Theodford,  Theotford,  and  Theot- 
forda ;  and  by  other  old  writers  Tedford  and  Thedford), 
which  they  sacked :  and  it  is  likely  that  the  battle  in 
which  they  defeated  Edmund,  king  of  the  East  Angles,  was 
fought  not  far  off.  There  appears  to  have  been  an  abbey 
near  the  town  at  an  early  period,  for  king  Edred,  the  grand  • 
son  of  Alfred  the  Great  (A.D.  952),  'ordered  a  great 
slaughter  to  be  made  in  the  town  of  Theotforda,  in  revenge 
of  the  abbot,  whom  they  had  formerly  slain.'  (Saxon 
Chronicle;  Florence  of  Worcester.)  In  the  reign  of 
Ethelred  II.  the  town  was  burnt  by  the  Danes  (A.D.  1004) 
under  Sweyne,  but  on  their  return  to  their  ships  they  were 
intercepted  by  the  Anglo-Saxons  under  Ulfkytel,  and  did 
not  make  good  their  retreat  without  serious  loss.  They 
burned  the  town  again  A.D.  1010.  In  A.D.  1075  the  bish- 
opric of  the  East  Angles  was  transferred  from  North  Elm- 
ham  to  Thelford,  but  remained  there  not  twenty  years, 
being  transferred  (A.D.  1094)  to  Norwich.  At  this  time 
Thetford  was  a  town  of  considerable  size  and  importance  ; 
it  was  a  burgh  with  944  burgesses  in  the  time  of  Edward 
the  Confessor ;  but  at  the  time  of  the  Domesday  Survey 
there  were  only  720  burgesses,  224  houses  being  unin- 
habited. It  gave  name  to  the  hundred  in  which  it  stood. 
After  the  removal  of  the  bishopric  to  Norwich,  or  perhaps 
before,  a  Cluniac  priory  was  founded  here,  the  revenues  of 
which  at  the  dissolution  were  418/.  C*.  3d.  gross,  or 
312/.  14*.  4|rf.  clear.  There  was  also  a  house  of  canons, 
which  was  afterwards  a  nunnery,  a  Dominican  friary,  and 
several  smaller  religious  houses  or  hospitals.  Thetford  was 
the  seat  of  one  of  the  suffragan  bishoprics  established  by 
Henry  VIII.  There  have  been  as  many  as  twenty  churches  ; 
thirteen  are  mentioned  in  Domesday. 

The  borough  of  Thetford,  according  to  the  Population 
Returns  for  1831,  comprehends  three  parishes,  with  an 
area  of  8270  acres,  and  a  population  of  34G2.  The  parishes 
of  St.  Cuthbert  and  St.  Mary  are  very  much  inter- 
mingled, and  are  partly  in  Suffolk  and  partly  in  Norfolk  : 
the  whole  of  the  other  parish  (St.  Peter)  is  in  Norfolk. 
The  town  is  chiefly  on  the  north-east  or  Norfolk  bank 
of  the  Little  Ouse ;  a  smaller  part  is  on  the  opposite 
or  Suffolk  bank.  The  town  is  irregularly  built,  and  is 
neither  paved,  watched,  nor  lighted,  but  has  a  neat 
and  clean  appearance.  It  has  no  manufactures,  but  there 
is  a  good  deal  of  malting,  and  the  trade  of  the  place 
is  favoured  by  the  river  being  navigable  up  to  the  town, 
by  means  of  which  an  export  of  agricultural  produce  and 

VOL.  XXIV.— 3  A 


T  II  i: 


THE 


an  import  of  coal  are  carried  on.    St.  Peter's  church 
•uts  of  a  nave  with  two  aisle*,  chancel,  and  tower  :  the.  last 
rebuilt  A.D.  17H9.  The  antient  part  M  built  chiefly  of  flint, 
whence  it  hu  obtained  the  name  of  -the  black  church.' 
St.  Cuthbert's  churvh  in  of  ordinary  stnu-turc:  it  hat  an 

lower.     Both  the»e  churches  are  in  Norl'oi 
Mar)1'*  it  on  the  Suffolk  Mtlr  of  the  river,  and  U  meanly 
There  K  g-houses   for  Wealeyans,  Inde- 

pendents, and  Quaker*;  ami  a  Human  Catholic  chapel. 
Considerable  remain*  of  the  Cluniac  priory,  especially  the 
antient  gateway,  "till  exist  on  the  north-west  wde  of  t  he- 
town.  There  are  also  Rome  considerable  remains  of  th. 
nunnery,  comprehending  the  chapel  and  the  ruins  of  some 
other  parts,  at  what  is  called  Thetford-place  Farm,  on  the 
Suffolk  side  of  the  river,  south  of  the  town;  and  some 
•her  religious  structures  of  the  middle  ages.  The 
grammar-school  is  an  antient  building. 

The  boroueh.  as  we  have  seen,  in  as  old  as  the  time  of 
Edward  the  Confessor  :  under  the  Muntaipa]  K.-i  .rm  Act 
it  has  four  aldermen  and  twelve  councillors,  but  is  not  to 
haw-  a  commission  of  the  peace,  except  on  petition  and 
(punt.  It  tir>t  sent  members  to  parliament  in  the  time  of 
Edward  VI.,  and  still  returns  two:  the  borough  limits 
were  not  altered  by  the  Boundary  Act.  There  were  158 
voters  in  1835-6,  and  m)  in  MM* 

The  livings  of  St.  Mary  and  St.  Peter  are  rectories,  of  the 
clear  yearly  value  of  031,  and  65/.  respectively  ;  that  of  St. 
Cuthberi  is  a  perpi-tuHl  curacy,  of  the  clear  yearly  x  aim-  of 
fWl/.  :  all  are  in  the  rural  deanery  of  Thetford,  and  the 
archdeaconry  and  diocese  of  Norwich.  There  wen-  in  the 
borough  Ut  1883,  thirteen  day-schools.  with  from  :r>7  to 
387  scholars,  namely.  121  boys,  69  to  79  girls,  and  1CS  chil- 
dren of  sex  not  stated  :  and  three  Sunday-schools,  with  U'.CJ 
scholars,  namely,  180  boys  and  213  girls! 

•  Hlomefield's  Eftrtoryq/  .\>,rfi,/ft  ;  Martin's  History  of 
Thftfnnl  :  I'urUamfntary  Papert.) 

THETIS,  Mr.  Sowerby's  name  for  a  genus  of  fossil 
-h.-lls,  said  to  resemble  Martra,  but  not  to  have  the  inter- 
nal ligament.  It  is  described  as  having  several  small 
acuminated  teeth,  but  no  lateral  teeth  ;  so  that  it  in  some 
degree  resembles  Tallinn  without  the  posterior  plication. 

THK'VKNOT.  MELCHI8KDKC,  is  -aid  by  all  his  bio- 
graphers to  have  died  at  the  age  of  71  ;  and  as  his  death 
happened  in  1(>!)2.  this  places  his  birth  in  the  year  KJ21. 
An  entry  in  the  printed  catalogue  of  TheVenot's  library 
informs  us  that  he  was  uncle  of  the  traveller  Jean  The- 
venot,  but  beyond  this  we  know  nothing  of  his  family  or 
circumstances.  It  is  probable  however,  from  the  respect- 
able missions  to  which  he  was  appointed  at  an  early  age, 
from  the  large  library  he  collected,  and  from  his  being 
•<>  devote  himself  to  literary  pursuits  while  apparently 
in  the  receipt  of  no  pension,  that  his  family  was  wealthy 
and  v 

M  veral  countries 

rope,  but  the  earliest  incidents  of  his  life  concerning 
which  we  have  positive  and  authentic  accounts  are  those 
mentioned  in  the  brief  autobiographical  sketch  prefixed  to 
the  printed  catalogue  of  his  library.  He  tells  us  that  on  his 
return  from  travelling  in  1(547,  he  was  nominated  resident 
at  Genoa,  but  that  the  troubles  of  the  Fronde  interfering 
to  prevent  his  taking  possession  of  the  post,  he  continued 
to  follow  the  court  till  1652.  He  was  then  sent  to  Rome. 
where  he  continued  nearly  three  yean;  and  being  there 
at  the  commencement  of  the  conclave  which  elected 
indi-r  VII.,  the  royal  instructions  respecting  the  part 
France  intended  to  take  on  that  occasion  were  addressed 
to  him  till  the  time  of  M.  de  Lionne's  arrival.  Thevcimt 
alludes  in  mysterious  phrase  to  a  delicate  and  dangerous 
commission  with  which  he  was  intrusted  after  the  termi- 
nation of  the  conclave,  which  he  says  he  discharged  to  the 
perfect  satisfaction  of  Mazarin  and  the  other  mii: 
He  attended  Mazarin  during  the  campaign  in  Flanders, 


On  his  return  to  Paris,  Thevenot   devoted  himself  en- 
tirely to  study.     Fremcle,  a  mathematician,  and  Stenon,  a 
naturalist,  resided  with  him  ;  and  in  the  house  adjoining  ln- 
own  he  entertained  a  person  to  conduct  chenu> 
menU.    The  meetings  of  scientific  men  which  h:t<! 
held  in  the  house*  of  Pere  Mervenne  and  Montmort  were 
transferred  to  TMvenot's  mansion.     The    expenses   thus 
incurred  proved  too  heavy  for  In-  means,  and  lie  proposed 
to  Colbert  the  establishment  of  a  public  and  permanent 
of   scientific    men   under  the   patronage   of 


the  king.    The  suggestion  accorded  with  the  mini- 
inclinations,  and  a  grand  academy  was  project cd,  intended 
to  embrace    every   branch   of    knowledge.      The    1 
library  was  to  be  the   pla 

were  to  assemble  there  on  •  d  Tlmrsd:. 

every  week ;   the   amateurs  of  the  i  -  on    the 

Tuesdays  and  Fridays :   the  mat'  tural 

philosophers  on  the  Wednesdays  and  Saturdays;  and  ge- 
neral assemblies  of  all  the  three  clam  -  M  on 
the  first  Thursday  of  every  month.  'Hie  historical 
was  allowed  to  drop,  it  being  feared  that  its  inquiries 
might  occasion  dangerous  discussions  :  the  Academic  Fran- 
caise,  instituted  by  Richelieu,  remonstrat.  •  the 
foundation  of  another  literary  academy;  anil  th 
of  Colbert's  plan  that  was  realised  was  the  '  Academic  dcs 
Science*,'  which  commenced  operations  in  the  month  of 
June,  1066.  Thevenot  did  not  become  a  member  of  the 
Academy  till  1685. 

He  had  in  the  mean  time  however  been  diligently  pro- 
secuting his  favourite  studies.     'Each  of  our  cum] 
he  says,  'had  his  task  and  occupation :  mine  was  to  collect 
and  publish  in  French  whatever  useful  arts  we:. 
among  other  nations.     About  this  time   I  invented  an  air- 
lev  el,  of  which  I  caused  the  description  to  be  printed,  and 
it  is  now  acknowledged  to  be  the  most  accurate  that  ha- 
yet  been  tried.     To  render  geography  more  perfect.  I  col- 
lected and  published  three  large  volumes  of  a  collection 
of  voyages,  upon  which  I  had  been  working  for  some  time. 
I  had  the  honour  to  present  them  to  the  King,  who  exa- 
mined them  for  nearly  half  an  hour,  and. 
veral   finest  ions,    commanded   me    to  continue  the 
M.  Colbert  informed  me  that  he  had  his  majc-ty's  orders 
to  furnish  me  with  everything  necessary  to  carry  01.' 
design."     This  distribution  of  tasks  took  place  about 
before  the  Academy  had  received  its  definitive  constitu- 
tion.    The  first  volume  of  The'venot's  Voyages  was  pulv- 
lishcd  at  Paris,  in  Hi(i2.     The  author's  preface  announces 
a   translation  of  the  Voyages   nnd   Travels    published    b\ 
Hakluyt  and  Purchas.  with  the    addition  of  some  \ 
lations  from  the  Oriental  languages.     The  second  volume 
appeared  in  HXH  :    tl ••  intimate*,   that   for  tl:- 

of  the  numerous  trading  companies  that  have  of  late  been 
formed  in  the  kingdom,  he  has  added  an  account  of  the 
present   state  of  the   Indies,   noting   the    principal 
mercial  establishments  and  places  of  resort  of  the  Hutch 
and  Portuguese;   a  report  from  one  of  tl  T  the 

Dutch   Fast  India.  Company  to  the  <  M  ex- 

tract of  a  letter  from  the  governor-general  of  tin- 
India  Company  of  France.  The  third  volume 
lished  in  1066,  and  the  fourth  in  1072.  In  the  pref:i 
the  fourth  volume  The'venot  informs  the  reader  ilia- 
constant  discovery  of  travels  which  had  escaped  )r, 
search  has  obliged  him  to  abandon  the  attempt  to  cl 
the  voyages  inserted  in  his  collection,  so  that  all  rcl- 
to  one  quarter  of  the  world  should  appear  together.  'I 
four  volumes  were  in  folio  ;  and  during  the  remainder  of 
his  life  TheVcnot  published  in  the  same  form  a  number 
of  separate  accounts  of  voyages,  which,  together  with  - 
left  half  printed  at  his  death,  were  bulky  enough  to  form  a 
fifth  volume.  The  edition  of  his  collection  printed  after  his 
death  at  Paris,  in  1696,  professes  to  contain  all  these  mis- 
cellanea, but  a  complete  copy  is  rarely  to  be  met  with. 
In  1683  Thevr-not  published  a  small  book  in  12mo.,  en- 
titled «  Recueil  de  Voyages  de  M.  Th6venot.'  It  contains 
•A  Discourse  on  the  Art  of  Navigation,  with  some  Problems 
which  may  supply  in  part  the  deficiencies  of  this  useful 
art."  Among  these  problems  he  has  inserted  an  account 
of  the  level  above  alluded  to.  The  same  volume  contains 
an  account  of  the  museum  of  Swammerdam,  with  .some 
memoirs  by  that  naturalist,  said  on  the  special  title-page 
to  be  '  Extracted,  together  with  the  travels  which  precede 
it,  from  the  Transactions  of  the  Society  which  met  at  the 
house  of  M.  The'venot.'  It  will  be  advisable  to  conclude 
the  narrative  of  The'vcnot's  life  before  attempting  to  pro- 
nounce judgment  on  the  merits  of  his  publications. 

Colbert    died    in    1(>H3.  and    I...  ceding  to  the 

office  of  superintendent  of  buildings,  succeeded  likewise  to 

the  management   of  the  royal  library,  which  was  regarded 

Ur  to  that  minister'.-  department.     Louvois  aj)- 

•1   his  son,   afterwards   known   a-  the  Abln'  Lonvois, 

who  was  then  only  nine   \.  .  litnanan.     It  was 

necessary  to  find  juvenile  an  officer:    the 

Abb*  Vares  was  first  appointed,  but  he  dying  in  Septcm- 


THE 


363 


THE 


ber,  1684,  the  office  was  conferred  upon  Thevenot,  on  the 
understanding  that  such  of  his  books  as  were  not  already 
in  the  royal  library  were  to  be  purchased  for  it.  The  zeal 
which  Colbert  had  manifested  at  the  outset  of  his  ministerial 
career  for  the  augmentation  of  the  royal  collection  had 
abated  for  some  years  before  his  death :  from  1673  till  his 
death  no  important  acquisitions  had  been  made.  TheVenot 
found  the  library  extremely  deficient  in  English,  German, 
and  Dutch  works,  and  he  obtained  permission  to  make 
arrangements  for  procuring  from  those  countries  their  his- 
tories, laws,  and  accounts  of  their  customs;  in  short, 
everything  calculated  to  convey  information  regarding 
their  governments  and  transactions.  The  inquiry  after 
Greek  and  Oriental  MSS.  in  the  Levant,  begun  by  Colbert, 
was  continued  by  Louvois  ;  and  Thtvenot,  by  that  mini- 
-  directions,  prepared  and  transmitted  instructions  to 
Messrs.  Girardin  and  Galland  and  the  Pdre  Besnier  for  the 
prosecution  of  the  search.  It  was  also  at  his  suggestion  that 
a  native  of  China,  who  had  brought  some  Chinese  books  to 
Home,  was  induced  to  visit  Paris,  and  his  books  acquired 
for  the  king's  library.  Qn  the  death  of  Louvois  a  new 
arrangement  was  made  for  the  management  of  the  king's 
library,  and  about  the  same  time  The'venot  resigned  or 
was  dismissed  from  his  appointment.  There  is  reason  to 
doubt  whether  he  had  given  satisfaction  as  librarian  :  the 
historical  memoir  in  the  first  volume  of  the  printed  cata- 
logue of  the  king's  library,  which  does  ample  justice  to 
other  officials,  merely  notices  his  appointment  and  resigna- 
tion; and  the  notice  of  his  life  found  in  his  own  writing 
among  his  papers  alter  his  death,  has  very  much  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  defensive  statement  of  his  own  merits. 

Thevenot  did  not  long  survive  the  termination  of  his 
connection  with  the  king's  library  :  he  died  on  the  29th  of 
October,  1692. 

Thevenot,  in  addition  to  most  European  languages,  was 
able  to  read  Hebrew,  Syriae,  Arabic,  Turkish,  and  Persian, 
lie  commenced  a  series  of  observations  on  the  variation 
of  the  magnetic  needle  in  1663,  and  prosecuted  them  with 
great  perseverance  till  1681.  He  suggested,  in  1669,  the 
measurement  of  several  degrees  of  the  meridian  along  the 
Gulf  of  Bothnia:  he  invented  his  air-level  about  1600, 
nml  recommended  its  adoption  to  facilitate  observations  of 
the  latitude  at  sea,  and  he  endeavoured  to  discover  a  natural 
unit  of  linear  measurement  for  all  nations.  He  possessed 
however  rather  the  taste  than  the  talent  for  strict  scientific 
observation  and  reasoning,  and  this  peculiarity  was  the  cause 
in  the  first  place  of  his  anxiety  to  nave  men  of  science  for 
his  habitual  visitors,  and  of  his  eatrerness  to  collect  books 
of  travels,  printed  or  in  MS.,  such  works  being  calculated  to 
gratify  a  mind  which,  without,  a  capacity  for  severe  labour, 
I'ond  of  acquiring  knowledge.  In  books  of  travels  he 
found  information  regarding  statistics,  history,  commerce, 
natural  history,  and  science  ;  and  he  could  relish  all  these 
branches  of  knowledge  and  appreciate  their  importance, 
though  he  could  not  task  himselt  to  master  any  one  of  them. 
He  undertook  to  publish  a  systematic  collection  of  voyages 
and  travels,  as  the  task  best  suited  to  his  turn  of  mind  ;  but 
even  this  required  more  continuous  effort  than  he  was  capa- 
ble of:  in  the  fourth  volume  the  systematic  arrangement  was 
abandoned,  and  only  some  fragments  of  the  fifth  part  were 
published  at  long  intervals.  Thevenot  was  one  of  those 
who  promote  science  by  imparting  a  contagious  spirit  of 
activity  to  others  more  than  by  anything  they  accomplish 
themselves.  His  taste  for  collecting  books  has  been  the 
means  of  supplying  the  king's  library  at  Paris  with  some 
of  its  not  least  valuable  MSS.,  some  of  which  have  yet 
to  be  turned  to  account.  His  collection  of  voyages  too 
has  been  the  means  of  preserving  some  curious  and  valu- 
able narratives.  If  he  did  not,  make  a  good  practical 
librarian,  he  at  least  pointed  out  the  way  in  which  the 
library  might  be  rendered  more  complete  ;  and  besides 
preserving  materials  for  geographers  to  work  upon,  he 
directed  attention  to  the  means  of  rendering  the  science 
more  perfect.  Some  of  his  MggeBtion*  mentioned  above 
were  not  without  their  influence  in  promoting  the  appli- 
cation of  mathematics  and  astronomy  to  geographical 
research;  and  he  was  the  first,  by  directing  attention  to 
the  line  of  communication  between  the  Caspian  and  China, 
and  to  the  literature  of  China,  to  commence  that  series  of 
investigations  which  has  been  so  brilliantly  carried  on  by 
the  Jesuits  of  the  seventeenth.  And  by  the  Kemusats  and 
Klaproths  of  the  past  and  present  century. 

Sources  from  which  this  sketch  has  been  compiled : — 


1,  '  Memoire  sur  la  Collection  des  grands  et  petits 
Voyages,  et  sur  la  Collection  des  Voyages  de  Melchisedec 
Thevenot,'  par  A.  G.  Camus,  Paris,  1802,  4to.  Owing  to 
the  incomplete  condition  of  most  copies  of  Thevenot's  col- 
lection, this  work  is  necessary  to  enable  the  reader  to  know 
what  he  has  published.  2,  '  Bibliotheca  Thevenotiana, 
siye  Catalogus  Impressorum  et  Manuscriptorum  Librorum 
Bibliothecae  viri  clarissimi  D.  Melchisedecis  Thevenot,' 
Lutetiae  Parisiorum,  1694,  12mo.  This  volume  contains 
the  autobiographical  sketch  above  referred  to :  the  cata- 
logue of  TheVenot's  library  throws  light  upon  his  studies. 
3,  '  Recueil  de  Voyages  de  M.  Thevenot,'  Paris,  1681. 
This  volume  contains  the  discourse  on  navigation,  in 
which  there  are  some  incidental  notices  of  Thevenot's  pur- 
suits. 4,  '  Relations  de  divers  Voyages  curieux  qui  n'ont 
point  6te  pub)i6es  ou  qui  ont  etc1  traduites  de  Hakluyt,'  &c., 
Paris,  1663-1672.  The  'Avis'  prefixed  to  the  different 
volumes  of  this  edition  contain  matter  for  the  biography 
of  TheVenot.  5,  '  Histoire  de  1'Academie  des  Sciences.' 
Tome  i.  contains  a  corroboration  of  Thevenot's  assertions 
regarding  his  share  in  the  institution  of  the  Academic 
des  Sciences.  6,  '  Catalogue  des  Livres  Imprimez  de  la 
Jibliothe'que  du  Roi:  Theologie,  premiere  partie,'  a  Paris, 
173!):  supplies  the  dates  of  Thdvenot's  appointment  as 
librarian,  and  of  his  demission  of  the  office.  7,  Le  Long  et 
Fontette  ;  '  Bibliothfcque  Historique  de  la  France,'  iv,  66 

THE'VENOT,  JEAN,  was  born  at  Paris  the  7th  of 
June,  1633.  In  the  dedication  of  the  first  volume  of  his 
travels  to  his  mother,  he  attributes  to  her  exclusively  the 
great  care  bestowed  upon  his  education ;  and  from  this 
circumstance  it  maybe  inferred  that  his  father  died  while 
he  was  a  child.  TheVenot  distinguished  himself  as  a  stu- 
dent at  the  college  of  Navarre.  The  author  of  the  sketch 
of  his  life,  prefixed  to  the  second  volume  of  his  travels, 
states  that  his  attainments  in  the  languages,  physics,  geo- 
metry, astronomy,  and  all  the  mathematical  sciences,  were 
respectable,  and  that  he  had  studied  with  particular  atten- 
tion the  philosophy  of  Descartes.  But  it  is  doubtful 
whether  all  these  are  to  be  understood  as  having  been  his 
college  studies. 

He  left  the  college  of  Navarre  before  he  had  completed 
his  eighteenth  year.  Possessing  an  independent  fortune, 
his  attention  was  for  some  time  afterwards  engrossed  by 
the  manly  exercises  which  were  then  deemed  indispensable 
accomplishments  in  a  gentleman  ;  but  having  contracted 
a  taste  for  reading  books  of  travels,  he  caught  the  conta- 
gious spirit  of  adventure,  and  commenced  traveller  him- 
self in  1652.  He  visited  in  succession  England,  Holland, 
Germany,  and  Italy ;  and,  making  a  prolonged  stay  at 
Rome  (1654-55),  witnessed  the  solemnities  of  the  installa- 
tion of  Alexander  VII.  He  had  taken  the  pains  to  pre- 
pare an  account  of  his  observations  during  this  tour,  but 
judiciously  resisted  all  persuasions  to  publish  it,  partly  on 
account  of  his  youth  and  partly  on  account  of  the  want  of 
novelty  in  the  subject. 

At  Rome  he  became  acquainted  with  the  celebrated 
Orientalist  d'Herbelot,  who,  being  a  good  many  years  his 
senior,  and  already  distinguished  for  his  learning,  acquired 
considerable  influence  over  him.  D'Herbelot  freely  com- 
municated to  his  young  friend  the  information  he  had  col- 
lected regarding  the  East  and  its  inhabitants,  and  the  result 
of  their  conversations  was  that  Th6venot  determined  to 
devote  himself  to  exploring  Asia.  D'Herbelot  proposed 
at  one  time  to  accompany  him,  but  being  prevented  by 
some  family  matters,  Thevenot  set  out  alone. 

Thevenot  began  his  first  journey  from  Malta  on  the  1st 
of  November,  1655  :  he  arrived  at  Leghorn,  on  his  return, 
on  the  8t,h  of  April,  1659.  Having  reached  Constantinople 
in  the  beginning  of  December,  1655,  he  remained  there 
till  the  end  of  August,  1666.  Travelling  through  Brusa 
and  Smyrna,  and  visiting  Chio,  Samos,  and  Rhodes,  he 
arrived  at  Alexandria  on  the  29th  of  December.  He  pro- 
ceeded without  loss  of  time  to  Cairo,  which  he  made  his 
head -quarters  for  two  years,  making  in  the  course  of  that 
time  two  excursions,  the  first  to  Suez  and  Mount  Sinai,  the 
other  to  Jerusalem  and  some  of  the  adjoining  districts  of 
Syria.  During  his  stay  at  Constantinople  and  Cairo  he 
made  himself  master  of  the  Turkish  and  Arabic  languages. 
On  his  way  from  Egypt  to  Italy  he  touched  at  Tunis. 

From  Leghorn  TheVenot  visited  several  parts  of  Italy 
which  he  had  not  previously  seen,  and  in  particular  resided 
for  a  short  time  at  the  court,  of  Savoy,  before  he  returned 
to  France.  The  first  volume  of  his  travels,  he  says,  was 

3A2 


T  II   I 


;    H   I 


prepared  for  the  pre**  to  gratify  hi-  friend-  -ially 

in-  moilu-r :   ami  tli,  !   with  lii: 

intent  uiii'  _'  niul  ob- 

.111  publishing.      H.  assed 

_-h   the   press,  and   witho  Ins  friend- 

.  In*  intention,  lie  loft   Paru  to  renew    i 

and  sailed  from  Marseille  on  the  Ulli 
u;:i. 
Tliit.  tiini1  his  object  was  tu  \  ,nd  the  Indie*. 

the  4tli   of  February,  KKU  : 

from  Alexandria  he  sailod  in  a  few  days  to  Siilon  :  and 
from  Sulon  ho  \i»ited  Damascus.  After  a  May  of  t  \\cnty- 
Ibur  (lays  in  that  rity  ho  wont  to  Aleppo,  whore  ho  rc- 
niainod'  two  months;  and  thon,  travelling  by  Hir  a:ul 
:.,-ul.  descended  the  Tigris  t.i  From 

Bagdad  ho  travelled  to  Ispahan  by  tho  way  of  Han. 

g   romainod  tivo  months  at  Ispahan,  he  loft  it,  in 
company  with  Tavernior,  for  Schiraz  and  Gombroon,  in- 
tending "to  sail  for  India  from  that  port,  but  the  jealo 
tho  Dutoh  agents  obliged  him  to  return  to  Sohiraz. 

•ling  tin-  niins  of  Tshelminar  (Persepolis)  he  pro- 
1  to  Ha-srah,  and  embarked  at  that  port  for  Surat,' 
whore  he  arrived  on  the  12th  of  January,  1GCC.  Surat 
continued  his  brad-quarters  till  February.  KHJ7,  during 
whieh  time  ho  made  excursions  to  Guzcrat.  tho  court  of 
the  Mogul,  and  to  the  Doeoan.  On  his  return  to  Persia 
he  spent  five  nionths  at  Ispahan.  He  had  several  attacks 
of  iDneM  in  India,  and  havinir  been  wounded  by  tin 
dental  discharge  of  one  of  his  own  pistols  at  Gombroon, 
hisruro  was  tedious.  HJB  constitution  was  probably  under- 
mined ;  for.  attacked  by  fever  on  his  way  from  Ispahan  to 
Tabriz,  he  died  at  Miana,  on  the  2Kth  of  November,  1GG7- 
During  this  journey  ho  had  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the 

:.in  language. 

The  narrative  of  Thevenot's  first  journey  to  the  Ea^' 
prepared  for  the  press  by  himself,  but  was  not  published 
till  alter  hi-  departure  from  Persia.     The  account  of  his 
travels  in  Persia,  and  that   of  his  travels  in   India,  wire 
published   :tho  former  in   1(71.  the  latter  in  Ki'-'l 
«-diti,r  who  i-.  called,  in  the  '  Privilege  du  Hoi,'  the  Sinn 
Luisandre,  and  who  states  that  he  was  Thovcnot's  executor, 
and  employs  expressions  which  would  lead  us  to  believe 
that  he  ha'd  married  the  traveller*!  mother.    The  editing 
of  these  two  volumes  has  been  respectably  performed. 

Thcvenot  possessed  a  natural  talent  for  obscn  ation,  and 

the    power  of   •  itoly  and    unaf- 

dly.     Nothing  of  importance  appears  to  have  escaped 

his  notice  :    his  manner  of  tolling  his  story  impresses  the 

•  with  a  confidence  in  bis  good   faith,  and  his  statc- 

-  have   boon  corroborated  on  many   material  points. 
lhs  mastery  of  the  Turkish.  Arabic,  and  !'• 

him  an  advantage  that   scarcely  any  other  Oriental 

ier  of  his  day   possessed.      His   practice  of  residing 

for  some  time  in  the  principal  towns  of  the  countries  he 

d  familiarised  him  with  the  customs  of  the  n: 

:.-seriptions  of  external  objects  are  distinct,  and  his 

s  accurate.      He  had  collected  a   Hortus  Siecni   in 

India,  and  had  laid  beside  each  specimen  an  account  of 

the  habitat  and  characteristics  of  tho  plant,  along  with  its 

name  in  the  Portuguese,  Persian,  Malabar,  and  (what  his 

biographer  term*    the  Indian  and  Haitian  languages.    This 

collection  came  into  the  possession  of  Melohiscdee  The've- 

not,  and  is  mentioned  in  the   printed  catalogue    of   his 

library.     Jean  Thcvenot  had  also  made    a    collect: 

.In  and  Aiabic  manuscripts,  of  whieh  Ta\eniier 
aayi  the  cadi  of  Miana  k''pt  the  best  to  himself.  The 
matured  judgment,  and  talent  for  observation  and  do- 
hcription.  displaced  in  T1  -oiks,  ;ire  astonishing 

in    one    who    had     been    a   wanderer  from    bis    twentieth 

and  who    died    in    his   thirty-fourth.     IIU  t 
originally  published  in   three  volumes,    in  quarto,   which 
ly  in   16fi">.    H'TI.   and     II 


lam,  in  five  duodecimo  vohun 
JHO,  and  at  the  same  place,  in  the  same  form,  in   ITH.'i, 
mil    17'.!7.     A  Dutch  translation  of  them  was  pub- 
in  Knglish  translation  in  1687,  and  a  Gor- 
man translation  in  \< 

.is   been   compiled   from  the  account  of 

,1  to  the  second  vohm 
travels   themselves,  and  from  some   incidental 

,icr. 

i  K\V.   K<  IUKKT.  was  the  son  of  an  innkeeper  in  the 
•mall  town  of  Patrinfrton,  in  the  East  Riding  of  Yorkshire, 


he  was  born,  in  thi 

llogle- 

opor.      A. 
Tliow  continued  for  a  ' 

-brought  up:  and  ('halm,  :  the 

the   Northumberland  mill'  ..:it]e- 

man's  011- 

gi-a\ing  about  the  age  oftwi-ntv  ->i\  :   when,  it  is  stated,  he 

•  ork,  and  although  I,, 

never  pia> ••  ;iig.  lie  pnicured  a  ci,; 

ongravod  an  old  ad.  from  a   picture   by  ('• 

.  with  such  extruordinaiy  skill   that   he  was",  on  the 
recommendation  of  Charles   Ko\,  the  Due: 
shire,  and  I.ady  nnnoamion.  appoint,  d  In- 
to the  Prin,  -.     Whatever  foundation  • 
be  for  this  story,  it  nn.-  , •. ed  with  some  allov. 

indupensoble  for  the  production  of  a  goi 

ongr.ning.     A  more  probable  account  i.- : 

•'led  at  Hull,  anil  became   an  e- 

cards,   kc.      C'lialmer-  pub- 

lished a  plan  of   Hull,  which  is  dated  M 
that  shortly  afterwards  he   solicited 

of  the  dock  at  that  place.    The  latter  are  ! 
tint  prints,  drawn  ar.d  engra\ed  by  Thew,  with  the  a 
anoe  of  F.  .hikes  in  the  aqnatinting  deiiiirtment  :  an>l 
were  published  in  London  by  Thew  himself,  in  May.  17*<i. 
Copies  of  them  are  preserved  in    the   collection, 
III.,  now  in  the  HritWi  Museum.     In  17^^  Tb, 
troduced   to    Alderman   Roydoll    by  the   niarqi;-: 
maithen  'afterwards  duke   , 
had  obtained  by  the  constmction  of  a  cam 
new    principle ;    and  IJoydell   immediately  :oned 

him  to  engrave  Xorthcoic's  picture   of  the  int. 
tween  the  young  princes,  from  •  Richard  III.. 'act  iii.. 
This  plate  was  published  in  171)1,  at  which  time  Thew  held 
the   appointment   above   alluded   to,   of  < 
Prince    of  Wales.     He    subsequent!;, 
oilier  plates  for  the  Shakspore  Gallery,  and  part  of  a  nino- 

.     Several  of  these  are  among  the  best  in  the  collec- 
tion, and  display  a  high  d< 

unusual  amount   of  spirit 

entering!  M>ev    •  Henry  \  111..' 

act  iv.,  sc.  2..  from  n  picture  by  Westall.  is  particularly 
and  d,  'lebratod  us  a  :  .n-n  of  th< 

known   am  -  as  stipple  engraving:  and  in 

,ice  of  its  s\iporior   beauty,    proof-ii.  of  it 

according  to  the  'Gentleman's   Maga/ino,'  charged 
double  the  price  of  any  other  in  the  whole  work.      . 
died  in  July,  1WV.2,  at    -  !\o\le\.  accordit 

the   'Gentleman's    Magazine':   in    Hertfordshire.        ' 
.l/i/i'..  Oct..  1S02.  p.  1171  :  Chalmen' 

THIA,  Dr.   Loach's  name   I'm 

i  by   M.  Milne   Edwards  under  the  trite  C 
in  the  family  (h 

i'li-m-rif  Chut-'  nearly  cordiform,  n 

deal  narrowed  behind  ;  its  upper  surface  very  smooth,  anil 
nearly  horizontal  from  before  backwards,  but  much 
curved  Ira  :ting  no  distinct  regions. 

wide,   lamellar,   and   rather   advam 
borders  of  the  carapace  delicate  and  arched.     Orbit.- 
small.      Internal    nut'  -,  Iv    under   the 

:   external   antenna'   inserted   in  the  gap  which  » 
ralestho  front  from  the  floor  of  the  orbit,  large  and  sit, 
ciliated.     ])is]>o-sition  of  the  buccal  apparatUt  nearly  the 
siinie  as   in  .lti-lrrt/<-ltis.  a  genus  which  immediately  pie- 
>t  in  the  nrrangemcnt  of  M.  Milne  Kduards.     Third 
joint  of  the  external  j<iir-fivt  advancing  to  tho  base  of  the 
internal  antcnn:i>,  but  much  less  elongated,  and  giving  in- 

img  joint,  by  n 
angle.       Sti'rnnl  }>!.' 

foot  short  and  compressed,  but  less  fhan  in  Ali/r,,/,-lux  .- 
the  succeeding  foot  still  shorter,  and  tfrminnted  by  a 
straight  and  very  sharp  point.  Ali<l'<»n>ii  nearly  of  the 
form  in  both  sexes;  only  that  of  the  mule  is  rather 
narrower,  and  the  three  joints  which  .  t  are 

anehylosen 

fbtritt  qf  tne  Genus.— Thia  lives  buried  in  the 
a  small  distance  from  the  shore.      M.  Milne  Kdv. 
that  but  on.  i  -  known  with  any  certainty,  nan; 

Thin  jxililii.— Colour  rosy:  length  ten  lines;  localities 
the  British  Channel  and  the  Mediterranean. 


T  H  I 


3G5 


T  H  I 


M.  Milne  Edwar.ls  remarks  that  the  aspect  of  these 
small  crustaceans  is  very  peculiar,  and  approximates  them 
a  little  to  the  Anurous  section.  In  other  respects,  he  ob- 
serves, they  bear  a  strong  analogy  to  Atclecyclus,  and,  as 
well  as  that  genus,  establish  a  passage  between  the  O.ry- 
stomes  and  the  Cancerians. 


Thiapolita. 

THTAN  SHAN  MOUNTAINS.  [SONGARIA.] 
THIAN  SHAN  NANLU  is  the  name  of  a  Chinese  go- 
vernment situated  nearly  in  the  centre  of  Asia.  European 
geographers  generally  call  it  Eastern  or  Chinese  Turkistan, 
an '1  also  Little  Biicharia.  The  name  of  Turkistan  is  ap- 
plied to  it  because  the  bulk  of  tin-  inhabitants  in  that  part 
(it  \  -ia  is  composed  of  Turkish  tribes  :  and  as  these  tribes 
are  frequently  designated  by  the  collective  name  of  Bu- 
chaiiaas,  from  the  town  of  Bokhara,  Eastern  Turkistan  is 
.ailed  Little  Biicharia,  or  rather  Bokharia,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  Western  or  Proper  Turkistan.  which  is  called 
Biicharia  without  any  epithet.  Thian  Shan  Xanlu,  in 
.Chinese,  signifies  the  '  southern  road  of  the  Thian  Shan 
Mountains,'  and  has  been  applied  to  the  countries  south  of 
that  mountain -system,  because  they  are  traversed  by  the 
southern  of  the  two  great  commercial  roads  which  connect 
China  Proper  with  the  countries  of  Western  A-i;i,  whilst 
the  countries  north  of  the  Thian  Shan  are  traversed  by  the 
northern-commercial  road,  and  on  that  account  are  called 
Thian  Shan  Pelu,  'the  northern  road  of  the  Thian  Shan.' 
The  last-mentioned  countries  constitute  the  government  of 
Hi.  or  Songaria.  They  have  been  described  under  SON- 
GARIA. 

Thian  Shan  Xanlu  lies  between  36"  and  44°  N.  lat.,  and 
extends  from  71°  to  90°  E.  long.  From  west  to  east  it  ex- 
tends about  1250  miles,  and  its  width  from  north  to  south 
varies  between  550  and  300  miles.  Its  area  probably  ex- 
i  500,000  square  miles,  so  that  it  is  ten  times  as  large 
as  England  without  Wales,  and  twice  and  a  half  as  ];••. 
1'Yance.  It  is  mostly  surrounded  by  countries  belonging  to 
the  Chinese  empire  :  on  the  north  is  Songaria,  or  Thian 
Shan  Pelu,  east  the  province  of  Kansi,  and  south  Tibet. 
Only  its  western  side  is  enclosed  by  countries  independent 
'if  China.  On  the  south-west  is  Ladakh,  on  the  west 
Kunduz,  including  Badakshan  and  Bokhara,  and  on  the 
north-west  Khokan.  The  three  last-mentioned  countries 
are  within  Western  Turkistan,  or  Great  Bucharia. 

Thian  Shan  Nanlu  is  a  country  entirely  isolated  from  the 
rest  of  the  world.  On  the  north,  west,  and  south  it  is  en- 
closed by  mountain-ranges  of  such  extent  and  elevation, 
that  the  places  which  are  permanently  inhabited  can  only 
be  reached  by  passing  for  several  days  over  mountains, 
which  are  not  inhabited  except  for  two  or  three  months  in 
the  year,  when  they  are  visited  by  a  few  families  of  wan- 
dering tribes  of  mountaineers.  On  the  east  of  Thian  Shan 
Nanlu  is  an  extensive  desert,  which  appears  to  be  unin- 
habitable. The  country  enclosed  by  the  three  ranges  and 
the  desert  receives  an  abundant  supply  of  water  from  the 
mountains,  a  considerable  portion  of  which  is  always 
covered  with  snow,  and  the  numerous  rivers  which  de .  < •end 
from  them  form  a  large  river,  called  the  Tarim,  which 
Hitter  compares  with  the  Danube,  but  which  does  not 
reach  the  sea;  it  terminates  in  an  extensive  lake  situated 
on  the  wc-tern  edge  of  the  desert.  The  basin  of  the  river 
Taiirn  is  the  largest  closed  river-basin  on  the  globe,  if 
that  of  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  rivers  falling  into  it  is 
cxcepted. 

Mountain*.— At  the  south-western  angle  of  Thian  Shan 
Nanlu  stands  an  extensive  mountain-knot,  called  Push- 
tikhur,  which  occupies  the  space  between  36°  and  37°  N. 
lat.,  and  between  71°  and  74°  E.  long.  From  its  western 


side  issues  that  elevated  chain  which  is  known  in  Afghan- 
istan by  the  name  of  Hindu  Kush  ;  from  its  northern  ede;e 
another  range,  called  theTartashling,  or  Bolor  Tagh,  which 
extends  northward  ;  and  in  the  eastern  part  there  begins  a 
third  range,  which  traverses  the  whole  of  Central  Asia,  and 
extends  through  China  Proper  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific. 
This  last-mentioned  range  is  called  by  the  Chinese  Kuen- 
luen,  but  that  portion  of  it  which  is  contiguous  to  the 
mountain-knot  of  Pushtikhur  goes  by  the  name  of  Thsung- 
ling. 

The  Thsungling  maybe  considered  as  that  portion  of  the 
Kuenluen  range  which  extends  from  the  Pushtikhur  on  the 
west  (72°  E.  long.)  to  the  mountain-pass  of  Karakorum  on 
the  east  (between  76°  and  77°  E.  long.),  and  occupies 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  space  between  35"  and  37°  N.  lat. 
Very  little  is  known  of  this  mountain-region,  which  cannot 
surprise  us,  when  we  learn  that,  according  to  an  intel- 
ligent Mohammedan  traveller,  an  eternal  mass  of  snow 
occurs  in  these  parts,  which  occupies  200  cos  (equal  to 
more  than  300  English  miles)  in  length.  An  extraordinary 
phenomenon  is  stated  to  occur  on  the  northern  declivity  of 
the  mountains,  where  the  Thsungling  and  Pushtikhur  are 
contiguous — the  continuance  of  rain  for  three  successive 
months.  That  portion  of  the  Kuenluen  range  which  is 
east  of  the  Pass  of  Karakorum  is  still  less  known.  As  far 
as  the  Keriya  Pass  (84°  E.  long.)  its  snow-covered  sum- 
mits lower  towards  the  north  with  a  moderate  descent,  and 
a  hilly  tract  of  moderate  width  extends  along  their  base, 
which  is  fertilized  by  the  rivers  descending  from  the 
range ;  but  east  of  the  Keriya  Pass  no  watercourses  are 
found  along  the  base,  which  leads  to  the  supposition  that 
the  declivities  of  the  mountains  are  extremely'steep,  and  that 
they  are  in  immediate  contact  with  the  sandy  desert  which 
extends  north  of  them.  Two  roads  traverse  the  Kuenluen 
range.  The  most  western  leads  through  the  Karakorum 
Pass  from  Hindustan  and  Cashmir  by  the  way  of  Leh  in 
Ladakh,  to  Khoten  in  Thian  Shan  Nanlu.  The  road  runs 
from  Leh  north-north-east  over  a  mountain-chain,  and 
descends  to  the  valley  of  the  river  Shayuk,  the  course  of 
which  it  follows  upwards  between  the  mountain-masses  of 
the  Kuenluen  nearly  to  the  source  of  the  river.  It  passes 
by  a  narrow  valley  over  the  highest  part  of  the  mountains 
(between  36°  and  36°  30'),  and  descends  on  the  north  into 
the  valley  of  the  river  Misar,  which  is  a  tributary  of  the 
Tarim.  In  the  narrow  valley  of  the  Misar  the  road  runs 
to  Khelasten  (north  of  37°  N.  lat.),  where  the  mountains 
disappear,  and  cultivation  begins  to  be  general.  This 
mountain-road  certainly  does  not  rise  to  such  an  elevation 
as  those  which  traverse  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  for  it  is 
quite  free  from  snow  in  summer,  and,  with  the  exception  of 
the  highest  portion,  it  does  not  rise  above  the  line  of 
vegetation,  or  even  that  of  trees,  as  may  be  inferred  from 
the  fact  that  fire-wood  and  fodder  for  beasts  of  burthen  are 
generally  abundant,  and  permanent  habitations  are  met 
with  in  the  valleys  of  the  Shayuk  and  Misar  up  to  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  the  mountain-pass.  The  highest  part  of 
the  pass  probably  does  not  exceed  12,000  feet  above  the 
sea-level.  This  road  however  is  much  more  frequented  in 
winter  than  in  summer,  because  the  melting  of  the  snow 
on  the  mountains  adjacent  to  the  road  renders  travelling 
in  summer  almost  impossible.  We  have  no  account  of  the 
eastern  mountain-road  that  traverses  the  Kuenluen  range. 
We  only  know  that  it  connects  the  town  of  Lhassa  in 
Tibet  with  Khoten  in  Thian  Shan  Nanlu,  and  that  it  tra- 
verses a  very  mountainous  country  of  great  extent,  passing 
near  the  large  lake  of  Tengri-Nor,  and  issuing  from  the 
mountains  by  the  narrow  valley  in  which  the  town  of 
Keriya  is  built.  From  Keriya  it  runs  north-west  through 
a  hilly  country  to  Khoten. 

The  western  districts  of  the  Thian  Shan  Nanlu  are  occu- 
pied by  several  ranges,  belonging  to  the  Tartashling  or 
Bolor  Tagh.  This  mountain-system  extends  north  of  the 
mountain-knot  of  Pushtikhur,  from  37°  to  near  41°  N.  lat., 
where  it  descends  with  long  slopes  towards  the  valley  of 
the  river  Sihoon  or  Jaxartes.  Its  extent  from  south  to 
north  therefore  does  not  much  exceed  2GO  miles.  It  is 
difficult  to  determine  its  extent  from  east  to  west,  as  nearly 
the  whole  country  from  09°  to  74°,  between  the  upper 
courses  of  the  Sihoon  or  Jaxartes  and  that  of  the  Jihoon 
or  Oxus,  is  almost  entirely  unknown,  and  appears  to  be 
occupied  by  widely-spread  rocky  masses  of  mountain- 
ranges,  between  which  only  narrow  valleys  occur,  that 
are  visited  by  the  wandering  tribes  of  the  Kirghis  only 


T  H  I 


T  H  I 


during  the  summer.  It  doe*  not  appear  that  any  of  the 
•overcign*  of  the  contiguous  countries  have  extended  tlu-ir 
authority  over  this  extensive  mountain-region,  or  over  any 
part  of  it,  which  may  be  considered  as  a  certain  proof  that 
no  portion  of  it  is  cultivated ;  and  this  supposition  is  sup- 
ported by  the  fact,  that  it  is  not  traversed  by  any  commer- 
cial road,  and  that  the  two  roads  which  connect  Thian 
Shan  Nanlu  witli  Western  Turkistan  run  along  the  south- 
ern  and  northern  base  of  the  Tartashling  in  the  upper  val- 
leys of  the  two  rivers  .lihoon  iind  Sihoon.  \\"e  have  some 
account  of  the  mountains  enclosing  Iliese  valleys,  whii-h 
penetrate  upwards  of  200  miles  int><  Hie  mountain-^ 
but  ;i-  .'rtions  of  the  region  are  within  Turs 

they  are  noticed  under  that  head.     \Ve  .-hall  only  <il 
that  in  the  interior  of  the  mountain-region,  and  within  the 
tiunndary-line  ot'Thian  Shan  Nanlu.  ,  .ited 

plain   occurs,   which   is   called   the  Table-land   nf  Pamir. 
ding  to  Marco  Polo  it   takes  ten  days  to  tra\  crsc  it 
from  ist ;  and.  according  to  a  Chinese  traveller, 

it  is  UXX)  li  equal  to  about  :$.">(>  miles-  long,  and  in  some 
.  HM  li  or  :!.">  mills  wide,  whilst  in  others  it  narrows 
to  10  li  (or  between  :t  and  4  miles  i.  The  elevation  of  this 
table-land  is  so  great,  that  no  trees  are  found  on  it.  and 
travellers  feel  their  respiration  rendered  difficult  In  the 
rarefaction  of  the  air.  The  nomadic  Kirghis,  who  visit 
this  elevated  region  in  summer  on  account  of  its  excellent 
pastures,  keep  herds  of  camels  and  sheep,  and  of  kashgow 
or  yaks,  which  latter  are  to  the  Kirghis  what  the  rein-deer 
is  id  the  Laplander  of  Northern  Knrope,  serving  them  as 
animals  of  burden,  and  supplying  them  with  food.  Their 
milk  is  richer  than  that  of  the  common  cow.  but  the  quan- 
tity which  the  yak  yields  is  less.  The  tail  is  the  well- 
known  chowry  of  Hindustan.  On  the  table-land  of 
Pamir  its  hair,  which  is  clipped  once  a  year  in  the  spring, 
is  made  into  ropes,  which  for  strength  do  not  yield  to  those 
manufactured  of  hem]).  It  is  also  woven  into  mats,  and 
into  a  strong  fabric  which  makes  excellent  riding-tru 
Among  the  wild  animals  peculiar  to  this  region  are  the 
kutch-kar  and  the  rass.  The  kutch-kar,  or  wild  sheep, 
attains  the  height  of  a  two-year-old  colt,  and  has  two  fine 
curling  horns:  it  congregates  in  herds  of  several  hundreds, 
and  is  hunted  by  the  Kirghis  for  its  hide  and  flesh.  The 
rass  is  a  different  animal,  having  straight  spiral  horns;  it 
is  loss  numerous  than  the  kutch-kar,  but  equally  prized  as 
food. 

TheThian  Shan  range  extends  along  the  northern  boun- 
dary-line of  Thian  Shan  Nanlu,  which  is  separated  bv  it 
from  the  government  of  Hi.  This  mountain-range  has 
been  noticed  under  SONG  ARIA,  vol.  xxii.,  p.  242,  where 
also  the  range  is  described  which  forms  the  southern  bor- 
der <ii  ••]  river-basin,  and  connects  the  Thian  Shan 
.Mountains  with  the  Tartashling  range,  and  where  also  the 
road  is  mentioned  which,  leading  o\cr  the  Thian  Shan 
-.  connects  Thian  Shan  Nanlu  with  the  govern- 
ment of  Hi. 

Hirers. — The  largest  supply  of  water  is  derived  from  the 
Tartashling,  in  which  three  of  the  great  branches  of  the 
Tamil  river  rise.  The  principal  branch  originates  within 
the  mountain-region  in  a  large  lake,  called  Karakol,  which 
is  situated  near  39"  N.  lat.,  and  rect ••  image  of  a 

c  country  which  surrounds  it  on  all  sides.  The 
river  issuing  from  this  lake  rims  eastward,  and  is  called 
Y:unan-yar.  It  lea\cs  the  mountain-region  below  T:\sh- 
balik,  near  ~'.\J  :«)'  E.  long.,  ami  is  soon  afterwards  joined 
from  the  north  by  i:  Daria,  which  brings  In  it 

the    drainage   of  the   north-eastern    part    uf   tl, 
ling.     Near  the  (mint    of  continence  the  rivers  are  met  In 
a  third  river,  which  flows  in  a  direction  from  east   t. 
and  brings  down  the  waters  collected  on  the  mountain- 
chain  winch   unites  the  Tartashling  to  the  Thian  Shan. 
This  river,  which  is  called  Kezyl  Daria,  runs  about  2<X) 
mile*.     Alter  the  union  of  these  three  branches  the  river 
continue*  to  be  called  Kashgar  Daria.  and  to  flow  east- 
ward for  :«)0  miles,  without  receiving  any  supply  of  I 
until.  <4Y  and  Kl"  K.  long.,  it  is  nearly  at  the 

name  point  joined  from  the  north  bv  the  .\!>MI  |):uia.  from 
the  west  by  the  YarUiang  Darin,  and  from  the  south  hv  the 
Khotan  Daria.      The   Ak-n   Daria   brings   down   a 
volume  of  wat.  ,,n  the  southern  declivity  of  the 

Western   portion   of  the  Thian   Shan,   and    runs  about    3X) 
mile*.     The  source-i  of  II  :  Daria  are  near  those 

of  the  Jihaon.  or  ()xn»,  south  of  U7U  N.  Int..  and  the  upper 
COUTH  of  tbs  nver  i*  within  the  mountain-region  of  the. 


Tartashling,  where  it  runs  eastward,  but  it  issues  from  it 
about  70  miles  above  the  town  of  Yarkmng  by  a  northern 
course.  Its  course  in  the  plain  i-  but 

below  the  town  ofYarkiang   nearly  i!  "1  parallel 

Kashgar  Daria  for  nearly  3X)  miles.     Alt' 
80°  E.  long,  it  turns  northward,  and  joins 

the  Kashgar  Dana.     Its  course  UK)  miles  :  and 

among  its  numerous  tributaries  is  the  Misar  river,  which 
brings  down  water  derive  d  from  the  northern  declivity  of 
the  Thsnngling.      The  Khotan  Daria  co! 
limn  the  ii'  .  livityof  the  Kuenhien  ramie,  east  of 

1  runs  more  than  :«K)  miles 

•  ncrnl  north  direction.     In  this  river,  and  the  moun- 
dniined  by  its  upper  branches,  the  yew- 
stone  or  oriental  jasper  is" found,  which  is  held  in   : 
esteem  in  ( 'hina.  and   exported   in   large  i,nani 
mostly  bought   by  the  court    of  Peking,  its  the  wearing  of 
this  stone  distinguishes  the  higher  classes  of  the  man< 
from  the  lower. 

After  the  confluence  of  these  scvcial  branches  the  river 
is  called  Tarim,  or  Tarim-gol,  and  continues  to  flow  in  a 
nearly  due  east  direction  for  4<X>  miles  more.  when,  near 
88°  E.  long.,  it  is  lost  in  an  extensive  lake.  Lop  Nor,  which 
is  surrounded  by  still  more  extensive  swamps.  It  up. 
that  this  lower  part  of  its  course  is  skirted  by  svvampj, 
which  extend  to  a  considerable  distance  from  its  banks. 
The  extent  of  Lop  Nor  from  we-  \rccd 

70  miles,  but  its  width  does  not.  appear  to  be  half  these 
dimensions.  No  river  joins  the  Tarim  from  the  south.  > 
*V  K.  long.,  but  it  receives  a  considerable  supply  of 
from  the  Thian  Shan  Mountains,  by  two  rivers,  the  t'kiat, 
or  Chagar  Daria,  and  the  Barun  Y'ulduz,  or  Kaidu  Kiver. 
The  Ukiat  Daria,  which  rises  in  that  part  of  the  Thian 
Shan  Mountains  which  encloses  Lake  Issckul  on  tl, 
[SoNGARiA],  runs  more  than  200  miles  in  a  souti 
direction,  and  joins  the  Tarim  near  84°  E.  long.  The 
Kaidu  River  is  probably  the  largest  of  the  confluents  of  the 
Tarim,  as  it  collects  the  drainage  of  the  Thian  Shan  Moun- 
tains between  80°  and  87°  E.  long.  Its  upper  course  for 
about  100  miles  is  in  an  elevated  valley,  parallel  to  the 
Thian  Shan  range  from  east  to  west  :  issuing  from  the 
valley  it  turns  abruptly  to  the  east,  and  draining  another 
parallel  valley  about  200  miles  long  by  an  eastern  c 
it  falls  into  a  large  lake,  which  is  called  Uostu  Nor  or  lios- 
teng  Lake,  the  dimensions  of  which  are  stated  to  be  hardly 
inferior  to  those  of  Ixjp  Nor.  This  lake  is  surrounded  on 
the  north  and  south  by  chains  of  high  hills,  but  on  the. 
east  by  a  sandy  desert.  In  the  bills  which  enclose  the 
lake  on  the  south  is  a  break  by  which  the  Uostu  Nor  dis- 
charges its  waters  into  the  Tarim.  The  channel  by  which 
this  is  effected  is  also  called  Kaidu,  and  reaches  the  Tarim 
about  80  miles  above  its  influx  into  Lop  Nor.  The  ex- 
tensive swamps  surrounding  Lop  Nor  seem  to  begin  at 
the  conflux  of  these  two  rivers.  The  whole  course  of  the 
Tarim  amounts,  according  to  the  estimate  of  Kilter,  to 
nearly  12(K)  miles  in  a  straight  line,  and  if  its  windings  are 
taken  into  account,  and  th.  i  Dm  ia  considered  as 

it-,  principal  branch,  it  cannot  fall  short  of  l.'XX)  miles. 
The  upper  parts  of  this  river  and  its  tributaries  are  proba- 
bly too  rapid  for  navigation,  and  the  lower  parts  of  most 
of  the  tributaries  of  the  Tarim.  and  of  this  river  itself,  lie 
through  countries  which  are.  probably  uninhabited.  11  is 
also  probable  that  during  the  latter  part  of  the  summer, 
and  in  autumn  and  winter,  the  c|iiantity  of  water  is  very 
small,  the  rains  being  very  scant \,  and  the  whole  supply 
of  water  being  derived  from  the  melting  of  the  snow  on 
the  mountains  on  which  its  branches  originate.  Hut  the 
water  of  all  these  branches  is  used  for  irrigation,  though 
that  of  the  Tarim  itself  is  not. 

The  Plain  i»  of  great  extent,  measuring  on  an  :\\- 
more  than  300  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  about  !KK) 
from  west  to  east.  Its  elevation  is  not  known:  but  con- 
sidering the  peculiarities  of  its  climate  and  its  produc- 
tions, it  i<  presumed  that  it  can  hardly  be  less  than  3X>0 
evel.  The  largest  ;  it  is 

quite  unfit  for  cultivation,  and  cannot  even  be  used  as 
pasture-ground.  This  is  cspc<ially  tin-  case  with  the 
.11  districts,  which  are  a  complete  <!.  iert.  This  desert 
occupies  the  whole  country  cist  of  K8°  E.  long.,  and  sur- 
rounds the  l.i.p  Nor  and  Hostu  .Nor  on  the 
South  of  the  river  Tarim  it  extends  westward  to  the  banks 
of  the  Khotan  Daria  (,Kl°  K.  lat.),  so  that  it  covers  about 
one-half  of  the  plain.  The  worst  part  is  that  which  lies 


T  H  I 


367 


T  H  I 


east  of  88°,  and  is  called  Han-hai,  or  the  Dry  Sea :  accord- 
ins;  to  an  hypothesis  of  the  Chinese,  it  is  the  bed  of  a  lake, 
which  has  dried  up  at  some  remote  period.  Its  surface  is 
covered  with  a  very  fine  sand,  which  is  frequently  raised 
into  the  air  by  the  wind,  so  that  the  traces  of  the  caravans 
soon  disappear,  except  where  they  are  marked  by  the 
bones  of  the  beasts  of  burden  which  have  perished  in  this 
desert,  through  which  the  nearest  road  leads  from  China 
to  Kami  in  Thian  Shan  Nanlu.  It  is  however  asserted 
that  there  are  a  few  places,  generally  two  days'  journey 
from  one  another,  in  which  drinkable  water  is  found  by 
digging.  That  part  of  the  desert  which  lies  west  of  88°, 
between  the  Tarim  river  and  the  Kuenluen  range,  is  called 
the  Desert  of  Lop.  Though  equally  unavailable  for  agri- 
culture or  as  a  pastoral  country,  the  surface  is  in  many 
places  diversified  by  large  tracts  of  rocky  and  stony 
soil,  in  which  a  few  animals,  as  wild  horses  and  wild 
camels,  find  a  scanty  subsistence,  and  which  are  over- 
grown with  low  shrubs.  Water  however  is  scarce,  except 
in  spring  time.  On  the  north,  where  it  approaches  the 
Thian  Shan  range,  this  vast  extent  of  desert  is  skirted  by 
a  narrow  tract  of  hilly  ground,  which  is  fit  for  cultivation 
or  used  as  pasture-ground.  Its  width  may  vary  between 
20  and  30  miles,  and  it  is  in  many  places  abundantly  watered 
by  rivers  which  descend  from  the  mountains  on  the  north, 
but  which  as  soon  as  they  have  traversed  the  hilly  region 
are  lost  in  the  sand  of  the  Han-hai.  Only  a  small  portion 
of  this  tract  can  be  irrigated,  but  it  is  cultivated  with  the 
utmost  care.  It  produces  rice,  wheat,  millet,  and  several 
kinds  of  vegetables,  especially  pulse :  it  is  famous  all 
over  China  for  its  excellent  fruits,  especially  pomegranates, 
oranges,  peaches,  plums,  but  above  all  for  its  melons  and 
grapes,  which  are  sent  in  large  quantities  to  Peking.  In 
many  places  cotton  is  grown  on  a  large  scale.  The 
greater  part,  of  this  tract  however  is  used  as  pasture- 
ground  for  horses,  camels,  cattle,  and  sheep. 

The  country  west  of  88°  E.  long.,  and  between  the  Tarim 
river  and  the  Thian  Shan  Mountains,  contains  a  much 
larger  portion  of  cultivable  ground,  especially  in  the  valleys 
of  the  Barun  Yulduz,  or  Kaidu  river.  The  upper  valley, 
where  the  river  runs  from  east  to  west,  is  probably  very 
high,  as  it  is  mostly  used  as  pasture-ground  for  cattle  and 
horses,  which  thrive  exceedingly  well.  The  pure  and 
fresh  air  of  this  valley  is  much  commended.  The  lower 
valley,  where  the  river  flows  from  west  to  east,  is  more 
extensive,  and  a  large  portion  of  it  is  under  cultivation, 
producing  rice,  wheat,  millet,  and  sesamum,  and  contain- 
ing large  plantations  of  fruit-trees.  The  hills  enclosing 
the  valley  rise  probably  more  than  1000  feet  above  their 
base,  and  are  used  as  pasture-ground.  Along  the  base  of 
the  southern  ridge  of  hills  are  also  considerable  tracts  of 
cultivated  land  which  are  irrigated  by  the  streams  that 
descend  from  the  hills,  but  at  the  distance  of  a  few  miles 
their  waters  are  lost  in  the  sandy  plain  which  extends  along 
the  banks  of  the  Tarim  river. 

Farther  west,  between  84"  and  80°  E.  long.,  the  hilly 
country  is  not  so  wide,  extending  only  to  the  distance  of 
•H)  to  50  miles  from  the  Thian  Shan  Mountains.  The  hills 
also  have  less  elevation,  and  yield  only  a  scanty  supply  of 
water  for  irrigation.  The  country  is  only  well  cultivated  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  great  mountain-chain,  and  grows  more 
barren  as  it  recedes  from  it,  except  along  the  banks  of  the 
Chagar  Daria,  or  Ukiat  River,  where  cultivation  extends  to 
about  70  miles  from  the  Thian  Shan.  A  large  portion  of  it  is 
used  as  pasture-ground,  but  in  approaching  the  Tarim  the 
sandy  desert  occurs.  Farther  west  (between  80°  and  77° 
E.  long.)  is  the  valley  of  the  Aksu  Daria,  which  is  enclosed 
by  high  hills,  and  in  its  upper  part  contains  very  extensive 
tracts  of  fertile  land,  which  are  cultivated  with  great  care. 
They  produce  every  kind  of  grain,  especially  wheat,  millet, 
and  barley,  lentils  and  beans,  also  cotton,  melons,  and 
several  kinds  of  vegetables.  The  orchards  yield  peaches, 
apricots,  pears,  pomegranates,  grapes,  and  mulberries,  and 
the  rich  Matures  feed  herds  of  horses,  sheep,  camels,  and 
cattle.  The  lower  course  of  the  Aksu  Daria  however  lies 
through  the  desert  and  the  swamps,  which  extend  along 
the  Tarim  river  and  along  the  lower  course  of  its  principal 
branches.  A  few  tracts  are  cultivated  on  the  banks  of  the 
Lower  Aksu  Daria. 

In  the  plain,  west,  of  the  Aksu  Daria,  which  extends 
bctwci-n  the  K'ashgar  Daria  and  the  Thian  Shan  Mountains, 
the  cultivated  land  seems  to  be  almost  entirely  limits!  to 
the  bottom  of  the  Kezyl  Daria,  where  considerable  tracts 


produce  rice  and  other  grain  in  abundance,  as  well  as  rich 
crops  of  cotton.  The  uplands,  which  are  north  of  the 
river,  have  a  stony  and  rocky  soil,  covered  with  a  thin  layer 
of  earth,  sufficient  to  produce  abundance  of  grass  during 
some  parts  of  the  year,  and  consequently  they  are  used  as 
pasture-grounds  by  the  Kara  Kirghis,  or  Black  Kirghis, 
who  go  in  summer  with  their  herds  of  horses  and  camels 
to  the  Thian  Shan  Mountains.  The  uplands  between  the 
Kezyl  Daria  and  the  Kashgar  Daria  have  a  sandy  soil, 
which  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year  is  quite  destitute  of 
vegetation,  and  can  only  be  used  as  pasture  for  a  few  weeks. 

The  western  districts  of  the  Thian  Shan  Nanlu,  or  those 
which  extend  at  the  base  of  the  Tartashling,  are  not 
more  favourable  to  cultivation  than  the  northern  districts 
which  we  have  just  noticed.  Though  the  general  direc- 
tion of  the  Tartashling  is  from  north  to  south,  it  seem* 
that  the  ranges  which  compose  it  generally  extend  in 
the  direction  from  west  to  east,  and  their  wide  rocky 
masses  advance  far  into  the  plain,  leaving  only  narrow 
and  elevated  valleys  between  them,  which  do  not  admit  of 
cultivation.  These  high  ranges  extend  much  farther  to 
the  east  near  the  Kuenluen,  than  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Thian 
Shan  Mountains,  and  terminate  rather  abruptly  in  the 
plain,  so  that  only  a  very  narrow  hilly  tract  separates  them 
from  the  level  country.  Cultivation  is  limited  to  this 
narrow  tract,  and  even  here  to  the  banks  of  the  several 
rivers  which  drain  it.  The  cultivated  grounds  are  most 
extensive  on  the  Kashgar  Daria  and  Yarldang  Daria,  where 
these  rivers  issue  from  the  mountains,  and  always  yield  an 
abundant  supply  of  water  for  irrigation,  especially  in  the 
countries  surrounding  the  towns  of  Kashgar  and  Yarkiang. 
Farther  down  the  country  is  not  cultivated,  the  soil  being 
sandy,  and  the  means  of  irrigation  scanty  and  uncertain. 
The  principal  objects  of  agriculture  are  rice,  wheat,  barley, 
and  millet,  with  beans  and  vetches.  Several  plants  are 
raised  from  which  oil  is  extracted,  among  which  is 
srsamum.  The  mulberry  plantations  are  very  extensive, 
and  large  quantities  of  silk  are  collected  at  Yarkiand, 
which  is  partly  exported,  and  partly  used  in  the  manu- 
factures of  the  country ;  cotton,  hemp,  and  flax  are  also 
cultivated.  Fniit-trees  are  abundant,  and  their  produce, 
consisting  of  grapes,  pomegranates,  quinces,  peaches, 
apricots,  and  apples,  constitutes  an  article  of  internal 
commerce.  Melons  and  cucumbers  are  of  excellent 
quality.  The  greater  part  of  the  country,  though  unfit 
for  agricultural  purposes,  is  covered  with  grass,  especially 
those  tracts  which  are  mountainous,  and  accordingly  it 
abounds  in  domestic  animals,  among  which  the  horses  and 
sheep  are  distinguished.  The  wool  collected  in  these 
parts  is  hardly  inferior  to  that  of  which  the  shawl's  of 
Cashmir  are  made.  There  are  also  numerous  herds  of 
cattle  and  camels. 

We  are  less  acquainted  with  the  productive  powers  of 
the  countries  which  extend  along  the  base  of  the  Thsung- 
ling,  where  our  knowledge  is  limited  to  the  tracts  that 
surround  the  town  of  Khotan,  where  a  large  district  is 
under  cultivation,  and  produces  rice,  wheat  and  millet, 
cotton,  hemp  and  flax  ;  large  quantities  of  silk  of  the  first 
quality  are  collected.  The  vineyards  are  extensive,  and 
the  grapes  grown  here'  are  much  prized.  Some  plants 
are  raised,  which  yield  dyeing-stuffs,  which  are  exported  to 
China.  Among  the  domestic  animals  the  yak  is  numerous, 
and  also  the  horses  and  sheep  ;  cattle  are  rather  scarce. 
North  of  this  cultivated  tract  is  a  desert,  in  which  many 
bare  rocks  occur,  but  whose  surface  is  mostly  covered  with 
sand.  This  desert,  which  extends  westward  to  the  vicinity 
of  Yarkiang,  and  northward  to  the  banks  of  the  Yarkiang 
Daria,  is  known  by  the  name  of  Kara-kitai  or  Rikistan. 
From  this  rapid  survey  of  the  productive  powers  of  Thian 
Shan  Nanlu  it  is  evident  that  probably  not  more  than  one 
hundredth  part  of  its  surface  is  available  for  agricultural 
purposes.  The  deserts,  and  those  tracts  which  are  de- 
scribed as  such,  cover  at  least  three-fourths  of  the  area, 
and  the  remainder  is  mainly  occupied  with  high  mountains, 
which  produce  a  few  trees  and  good  pasture.  The  utter 
sterility  of  the  Han-hai  seems  to  depend  on  the  soil,  but 
that  of  the  other  desert  tracts  appears  partly  to  be  the 
effect  of  climate. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  the  Thian  Shan  Nanlu  is  dis- 
tinguished by  that  dryness  which  is  characteristic  of  all 
table-lands  which  are  considerably  elevated  above  the 
sea.  As  its  elevation  perhaps  does  not  differ  much 
from  that  of  the  table-land  of  Castile  in  Spain,  there 


T  H  I 


T  n  i 


would  probably  be  a  great  similarity  between  the  climate- 
if  the  table-Undo!  SJ>.MII  \,  isea,  which 

isiiot  lardi-'     :'  i. "in  il, whilst  i 

miles  from  tin-   Pacific,    which  is  tin-  in  The 

dim:.  11   Nanlu  i  -mich   drier 

than    that  of  Spain.      Though  abundant    rains    :•. 
perienccd    in    tlif     mountain-ranges   which    enclose     the 
plain,  and  MIOW  winter  to  the  dentil 

i!ii-  quanta  .uul  ruin  which  descends  on  the 

plain     is    very    small.       In    th.  MO    lain    0 

and  it  is  observed  that  when  the  ntmo-i 
with  vapour,  ami  distant  objects  au-  indistinctly  ri«il 
does  not  produce  any  other  e  It  eel  than  that  of  generatimr 

iiiely  heavy  gales,  which  arc  often  so  stion:,'  as  to 
throw  down  travellers  and  thrir  beasts  of  burden.  In  the 
Han-hai  they  raise  a  large  quantity  of  sand  to  n  consider- 
nble  height  abo\e  the  surface.  Along  the  Thian  Shan 
Mountains  only  two  or  three  showers  of  rain  are  annually 
experienced,  and  generally  they  do  not  continue  above  un 
hour.  The  lain  is  very  minute,  and  it  hardly  moistens  the 

v  of  the  ground.  A  little  snow  falls  ill  the  western 
disti -i.  iii>  never  to  oceur  east  of  the  valley  of  the 

Kaidu  river.  The  moisture  required  fur  the  growth  of 
plants  is  therefore  entirely  derived  from  the  mountains. 
The  supply  of  water  from  this  source  is  indeed  very 
abundant,  but  only  for  about  two  or  three  months  of  the 
\car,  and  it  would  only  be  sufficient  for  a  very  limited 
agriculture,  if  the  inhabitants  had  not  acquired  a  peculiar 
urt  in  husbanding  this  supply.  In  the  districts  south  of 
the  Thian  Shan  Xanlu  fiiounl  :  \oirs 

been    made,  which  are   filled  by  the  w 

the  melting  of  the  snow,  and  from  these  reservoirs 
the  greater  part  of  the  supply  is  taken,  by  which  many 
tracts  are  enabled  to  produce  abundant  crops.  The 

.ii  disti ict.i do  not  materially  differ  from  the  northern, 
except  that  a  larger  quantity  of  snow  falls.  though  it  is 
moderate  in  the  plain.     The  temperature  of  these  distiiets 
however  is  much  colder  in  winter,  and  it  is  a  remarkable 
fact  that  at  Yarkiansi  the  river  is  for  three  months  covered 
with  thick  ice,  and  caravans  pa-.,  over  it   with  their  i 
of  burden.     The  heat  in  summer  is  \ery  great  all  oxer  the 
country,  but  the  cold  of  the  winter  seems  to  < 
we  proceed  from  west  to  east,  as  fro-  Ijr  known  at 

Hami.  The  Chinese  however  state  that  the  difl. 
between  the  temperature  of  the  summer  and  v.ii 
very  consideiable.  The  country  is  subject  to  eartln; 
and  several  di.-t:  ,-d  greatly  from  them  in  IsiJ. 

when   they   were    felt    on    both    sides    of   the   Tarta.shling 
Mountains.      It  is  probable  that   this  phenomenon 
occurs  along  the  Thian  Shan   .Mountains,  as  an  extinct 
volcano  exists  in  that  range,  and  traces  of  volcanic  action 
:itly  met  with. 

-It  is  remarkable  that  Thian  Shan  Nanlu, 

h  without  doub:  .My  elevated  above  the  sea- 

.   produces  all  the  grains  and   fruits  which  a;. 
tivated  in  the  mo.-t  southern  ]  .  which  are 

situated  at  the  same  distance   from  the   equator,   and  are 
The   olive-tree    however    has    not     been 
ii'itictd  as  growing  there.     Sesamum.  which  is  cultivated 
in  in  lent,  supplies  the  place  of  the 

The  plain,  as  well  as  the  mountains  which 
'  entirely  destitute  of  trees,  and  even  of 
shnii  ni  tree-  cover  a 

small  extent  of  surface,  bn!  they  an-  short  and  crooked, 
and  only  good  for  lii  It  i>  nut  eeitaiu,  though  it 

is  no  stated  by  some  travellers,  that  the  true  rhubarb- 
plant  gn.v.s  im  the  mountains  of  the  Thstnr 

All  the  dome-tic   animals  of   Kuiope   nbound.  with   the 

jption  of  hogs,  which  are  only  kept  by  the  I 
settled   in  the   country:    all   the  other  inhabit. 
Mohammedans,  hold  tins  animal  in  abhorrcnc. 
are  kept   in  the  plains  and  on  the  mountains.     The  i. 
nl  the  Tarta>hliiig  an  I   the   native  place   of  the 

double-humped  camel.     In  the  same  mountains  ti 
b)  the  Kirghis  ;  the  larger  species  of  the  do: 

d»  are  found  in  a  wild  state   in  the  d  Tliian 

Shan   Nanlu.     This  is  expressly  stated  ol  the  horse,  the 

I,  black  cattle,  and  the  ass":  the  la-t  is  probably  the 
'•'lii.  |ims  hemionus  of  Pallas ;  ofthewild 

there  Hppcarto  be  several  kinds,  hut    the  . enol 

On  the  us  the 

argali  U  found,  and  on  th.    ,  ;,^  the   kulch-kar  and 

the  ntM  above  mentioned.     The  jackal  is  found  in  great 


numbers,  and   there  are  also  ti  .  nxcs,  and 

nut    of  tin 

aic    not    numerous,   except   water-fowl,  v. '  .1  in 

the  hikes  of  the  desert  and  the  s-.vam, 
On  the  Thian  Shall  Mountains  a  black  eagle  ol 
is  met  with,  and  on  the  Tartashling  a  still  larger  kind, 
called  sy  rym. 
Gold  is  said  to  be  found  in  the  affluents  of  the  Ki 

:oe  quantity  is  stated  to   be   collected.      H 
.iing  tothe  account  of  the  '  i  the 

:  portion  of  the  Thian  Shan  Mounts 

ever  it    is   n  :unly 

found  at  several  places,  and  aie  worked,  but   the  localities 
are  not  known.     From  the  volcanic  portion  of  the  'I 
Shan   Mountains  sulphur  and   Mil-ammoniac  aie  obtained, 
and  nearthe  same  pi.,  unids 

are  said  to  exist  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  last-mentioned 
range.     Several   other  prei 

i   them,   the   yew   and  th 

articles  of  commerce  to  china.    The  «nly  found 

ill  the  eastern  districts  of  Thian  Shan  Nanlu. 

1/i/inbitiiiitx. — The  bulk  of  the  population  is  . 
origin,  and   it  seems   that    this  nation  must    be 
as   the  aboriginal    stock  of  the    country,   as  Thian 
Nanlu  constituted  the  principal  portion  of  the  powerful 
empire    of   the    Hiongnu,    which    w::  •  .1    by    the 

(.'hine.se  in  the  first  century  alter  Christ,  and  as  the  1 
of  almost  all  the  different  Turkish   t:  v er  widely 

'    this 

country.     Travellers  generally  call  the  Turkish  inhabitants 
of  Thian  Shan   Nnnlu,  I'xbecks,   a>  they  them 

exactly  in  the  formation  of  their  body  [BOKHARA,  vol.  v., 
p.  71],  and  speak  the  same   language.     It  is  howc\e 
served,  that  the  Turkish  lanirua^e  of  Thiau  Shan  Nanlu  is 
not  intermixed,  as  that  of  the  other  Turkish  tribe.-,   vuth 
terms   derived    fioin    the  Persian    an.: 
and  it  is  t  ,  the  Turkish 

dialects.      The    Memoirs    of    Sultan    l!ai  .  :itlcn 

in  this  language.  The  Turks  of  Thian  Shan  Nanlu 
are  decidedly  superior  in  civili/ation  to  the  I 
Bokhara.  They  exhibit  no  less  industry  than  ingenuity  in 
the  cultivation  of  the  land,  and  the  articles  which  are 
made  in  their  mannl'actoiies  are  of  good  quality  and  much 
prized.  Many  of  them  aie  also  engaged  in  commc. 

They  are  at'  present,  divided  into  two  tribes,   Ak-tak  and 

ak,  which  hate  one  another,  and  frequently 
war  on  eac.li  other,  which  circumstance  is  considered  the 
principal  rca.-on  of  thi'ir  inability  to  i  -st'ully  the 

invasions  of  the  Oliiths  and  of  the  ( '1 
two   tiibes   was   governed   bv   heredii 

independent  of  one  another.     \Vlien  the  Chiuesv-  occupied 
the  country,  they  left   the  internal  attain*  in  the  ban 
these   chiel  i,r    for  themselves    only  the   military 

department  and  the  p  ira>  regarded   the  i: 

bouring  independent  states.     The  army  which  the  (":. 
ki'eji  hi  the  country,  and  which  anioii  Jii.tHKI 

and  .'iO.IKHI  men.  il  commanded  by  Mantcli' 
at  the    places  through   wlu-.'li    the   caravan-roin 

i. tries  the    .  -ed  half  of 

Chinese  and  half  of  Turks.      Uut  all    the    other   ofiic.  , 
appointed  b\  the  Hakim  \l  .ailed,  but 

the  Hakim  liegs  them  ii  or  eonlirmcd  1 

court  ol' Peking.     The  tribute  which   the   Chinew  govern- 
n|ion  the  inhabitants  is  .small,  but  is  .somewhat 
the    merchandise  which   is  im- 
ported, and  which,  according  to  the  latest  inform 

itants  lumc  ver   are  much   oppi< 

bylheirna1.  Chine.sc  governiiient  aji 

to  take  ii'j  notice  of  the   way  in   which  the  ined. 

For  this  reason   thev  arc-  ill-dispo.-ed  airain-t  th 
and  this  haired  is  still  increased   by  the  exten.-iv, 

which    have   lately   been   erected   by  the   jfrati,. 

of  the    natives.      'Ibe   Chinese    meieliants  v.l; 
i  hi'ie  are  not  permitted   to   go   to  th. 

liich  are  independent  .of  China,  and  the  foreiijn 
i-onmurce  u  therefore  carried  on  part  .  but 

mostly  by  the  Tajicks.     The  Turk 

Tin'  Tiijicks.  or  Tad-  ''ion  which  considers 

the  1'.  :  s   native    II  !uch    is    widely 

1     :      central  countries  of  Aiia,  but  inhabiti 

only  a   few  mountain  •  ly.       In  oil 

ti:"s  their  indust.  .'ted  to   the   cultivation  of 

d,  but  in  Thian  Shan  Nanlu  they  are  chiefly  engaged 


T  H  I 


369 


T  H  I 


in  trade,  and  therefore  many  of  them  are  met  with  in  all 
commercial  places.  They  are  known  to  Europeans  by 
the  name  of  Bokhaiians,  as  the  merchants  from  Bokhara 
who  visit  the  fairs  of  Nishnei  Novogorod  and  other  places 
are  Tajicks.  They  are  permitted  even  to  trade  in  the 
western  provinces  of  China  Proper,  in  Shensi  and  Shansi, 
and  some  of  them  visit  Kiachta.  They  conform  in  their 
dress  and  costume  to  the  Turks,  but  preserve  their  lan- 
guage. They  are  Mohammedans. 

Though  Thian  Shan  Xanlu  was  subject  to  the  Khalkas 
Mongols  for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  no  traces  exist 
of  this  nation  ever  having  formed  settlements  in  the  coun- 
try. The  Olb'th  Calmucks,  when  governed  by  the  Galdan 
and  his  successors  [So  N'G  ARIA,  vol.  xxii.,  p.  245],  occupiedit 
for  a  short  time,  and  as  they  expelled  the  Khalkas  wherever 
they  met  them,  the  total  absence  of  Mongol  colonies  may  be 
accounted  for.  There  are  however  in  the  eastern  districts, 
especially  in  the  town  of  Kami  and  its  vicinity,  a  considerable 
number  of  Oloth  Calmucks,  who  after  the  defeat  of  the  Galdan 
quietly  submitted  to  the  sway  of  the  Mantchoos.  The  number 
of  Chinese  is  not  large.  Besides  the  officers  of  government, 
a  small  number  are  established  in  the  large  commercial 
towns  as  merchants ;  some  of  them  also  exercise  other 
trades  ;  but.  it  does  not  appear  that  agricultural  settlements 
have  been  made  by  them  in  this  country,  as  in  Songaria. 

In  the  mountains  at  the  north-west  corner  of  Thian  Shan 
Xanlu  is  a  tribe  of  Kirghis,  called  the  Kara  Kir- 
ghis.  and  another  tribe  of  that  nation  is  met  with  in  the 
ranges  of  the  Tartashling.  Both  are  nomadic  tribes,  occu- 
py ing  during  the  summer  the  highest  portion  of  the  moun- 
tain-region with  their  herds  of  camels,  yak,  horses,  and 
sheep,  and  descending  in  winter  to  the  lower  regions. 

Commerce,  Towns,  and  Manufactures. — Nearly  1800 
years  ago  a  commercial  road  was  established,  which  tra- 
verses this  country  in  its  length  from  east  to  west,  and  by 
which  the  commerce  between  China  and  Western  Asia  has 
been  carried  on  nearly  without  interruption.  After  the 
downfall  of  the  empire  of  the  Hiongnu  under  the  dynasty 
of  Han,  when  the  dominion  of  the  Chinese  extended  to  the 
shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  nearly  met  the  eastern 
boundary  of  the  Western  or  Roman  empire,  this  road  was 
iirst  used  for  the  purposes  of  commerce,  and  silk  and  other 
articles  were  thus  brought  to  Western  Asia.  This  road 
passes  through  the  countries  which  lie  along  the  base  of 
the  Thjan  Shan  Mountains.  Another  road,  which  has 
probably  been  used  for  an  equal  length  of  time,  connects 
I'liian  Shan  Xanlu  and  China  with  the  northern  parts  of 
India,  especially  with  Cashmir,  and  is  also  much  used  at 
the  present  day.  As  almost  all  our  knowledge  of  the 
towns  of  this  country  and  their  manufactures  is  derived 
from  the  accounts  of  the  merchants  who  have  passed  along 
these  roads,  we  shall  follow  their  track  in  noticing  them. 

The  caravans  of  China,  bound  for  the  western  countries, 
or  Siyii,  as  they  are  called  there,  after  leaving  the  town  of 
Shatsheou  ami  the  gate  of  Kia-yu-kooan  [TANCUT,  vol. 
xxiv.,  p.  32],  pass  through  the  desert  of  Han-hai  and 
arrive  after  20  days'  journey  at  Hami  (42°  53'  N.  lat.  and 
!i:r  50'  E.  long.;.  "  Hami,  or  Khamil,  as  it  is  called  by  the 
natives,  is  a  fortified  place,  being  surrounded  by  high  walls, 
which  enclose  a  space  about  two  miles  and  a  half  in  cir- 
cuit. The  town  is  surrounded  by  large  suburbs,  where  the 
caravans  stop  before  they  proceed  for  the  west,  and  is 
populous.  The  streets  are  straight  and  regular,  but  the 
nouses  low  and  built  of  dried  clay.  The  country  which 
surrounds  the  town  is  not  distinguished  by  fertility,  but 
it  is  cultivated  with  extraordinary  care  and  industry. 
C!  rapes,  melons,  and  other  fruits  are  sent  to  China  in  great 
quantities. 

About  240  miles  west  of  Hami  is  Pidshan,  a  fortress 
which  is  nearly  two  miles  in  circuit,  and  near  which  the 
caravan  road  passes.  About  60  miles  farther  is  Turfan,  a 
considerable  place,  which  however  suffered  much  in 
the  wars  of  the  last  century.  Karashar  is  290  miles  west 
of  Turfan.  Its  fortress  is  not  large,  not  exceeding  one 
mile  in  circuit.  The  town  is  rather  populous,  and  built  on 
the  banks  of  the  Kaidu  river,  which  is  said  to  be  navigable 
at  this  place.  Its  commerce  is  considerable,  but  manu- 
factures are  not  mentioned,  except  that  the  inhabitants  ex- 
<•,•]  in  1  he  art  of  embroidery.  Kuril,  or  Kurungli,  is  situated 
on  that  portion  of  the  Kaidu  river  which  connects  the 
Bostu  Xor  with  Lop  Nor,  and  contains  a  population  of 
about  4(XK>  individuals.  The  country  round  the  town  is 
P.  C.,  No.  1534. 


very  fertile.  The  town  is  50  miles  distant  from  Karashar 
to  the  south-west.  Bukur  or  Bugur,  nearly  200  miles 
distant  from  Kurli,  contains  2000  families,  or  10.000  in- 
dividuals, and  has  a  considerable  commerce  in  copper,  oil, 
sheep-skins,  butter,  and  furs,  especially  lynx-skins. 

Kutshe,  which  is  100  miles  distant  from  Bugur,  is  a 
large  town  which  is  three  miles  in  circumference,  and 
contains  a  great  population,  of  which  6000  are  Turks. 
The  mountains  north  of  the  town  contain  several  mines, 
from  which  copper,  saltpetre  and  sulphur,  and  sal  ammo- 
niac, al-e  obtained.  At  this  town  begins  the  road  which 
leads  across  the  Thian  Shan  Mountains  to  Kuldsha  in  Hi, 
by  the  mountain-pass  called  Mussur  Dabahn.  Before  it 
reaches  the  mountain-pass,  it  runs  through  the  town  of 
Sailim,  which  is  built  in  an  elevated  valley,  and  near  some 
mines.  South-west  of  Kutshe  is  the  town  of  Shayar,  in  a 
district  producing  abundance  of  rice,  melons,  and  fruit. 
It  contains  a  population  of  4000  individuals. 

In  the  valley  of  the  Aksu  Daria  are  the  towns  of  Aksu 
and  Ushi.  Aksu  is  a  large  commercial  and  manufacturing 
town,  which,  according  to  one  statement,  contains  COOO 
houses,  and,  according  to  another,  a  population  of  20,000 
families.  It  is  not  fortified.  Its  commercial  importance 
is  not  only  derived  from  its  being  one  of  the  largest  places 
of  depot  on  the  great  caravan-road  from  China,  but  also 
from  another  road,  which  leads  in  a  north-eastern  direc- 
tion to  the  mountain-pass  of  Mussur  Dabahn,  by  which 
it  communicates  with  Kuldsha,  the  capital  of  Hi,  and  by 
which  it  not  only  receives  the  produce  of  that  country, 
but  also  several  articles  brought  from  Russia.  [SONGARIA, 
vol.  xxii.,  p.  245.]  Buchanan  merchants  from  -Tobolsk 
sometimes  proceed  as  far  as  this  place,  and  it  is  likewise 
visited  by  traders  from  Khokand,  Tashkend,  and  Bokhara. 
Its  manufactures  are  numerous,  especially  those  of  cotton- 
stuffs,  among  which  one  called  bumaseya  is  in  great  request 
in  Siberia  and  Turkistan,  and  a  kind  of  stuff,  half  silk  and 
half  cotton.  Several  articles  made  of  leather,  especially 
those  of  deer-leather,  as  harness  and  saddles,  which  are 
embossed  with  great  art,  are  also  highly  valued,  and 
exported  to  distant  places.  There  are  also  some  potteries, 
and  many  persons  are  employed  in  cutting  and  polishing 
precious  stones.  The  Chinese  garrison,  consisting  of  3000 
men,  inhabits  a  separate  quarter  of  the  town.  Ushi, 
which  lies  higher  up  in  the  valley  of  the  Aksu  Daria,  is 
built  in  the  centre  of  an  extensive  country  of  great  fertility, 
and  is  stated  to  contain  10,000  families.  This  place  has  a 
mint,  in  which  copper  coin  is  made,  and  it  appears  to  carry 
on  a  considerable  commerce. 

The  town  of  Kashgar  is  situated  in  the  north-western 
angle  of  Thian  Shan  Nanlu,  and  at  the  commencement  of 
the  mountain-road  which,  traversing  the  chain  that  con- 
nects the  Thian  Shan  with  the  Tartashling,  leads  to  Fer- 
ghana and  the  towns  of  Khokand  and  Tashkend.  This 
road  rftns  in  a  north-north-western  direction.  At  this  place 
also  begins  the  other  caravan-road,  which,  running  south- 
east and  passing  along  the  eastern  declivity  of  the  Tartash- 
ling, and  passing  through  the  towns  of  Yarkiang  and  Kho- 
tan,  leads  over  the  Karakorum  Pass  to  Leh,  Gertope,  and 
Cashmir.  Besides  these  two  lines  of  communication  and 
the  great  caravan-road  to  China,  a  fourth  road,  commenc- 
ing at  Kashgar,  runs  north-east  over  the  Thian  Shan  Moun- 
tains by  the  Rowat  Pass,  and,  skirting  the  western  shorn 
of  Lake  Issekol,  leads  to  Kuldsha  and  the  banks  of  the 
Irtish  river.  This  last  road  appears  to  be  much  frequented 
by  Russian  merchants.  The  advantages  derived  from  all 
these  roads  concentrating  at  Kashgar  render  this  town  one 
of  the  most  commercial  in  the  interior  of  Asia.  It  is  said 
to  contain  15,000  houses,  and  a  population  of  80,000  indi- 
viduals. In  the  Chinese  geography  the  population  is  said 
to  consist  of  16,000  persons  paying  a  capitation-tax,  which 
would  carry  it  to  rather  more  than  is  stated  by  Russian 
travellers.  The  Turkish  and  Bucharian  merchants  of  Kash- 
gar visit  the  countries  north  of  Hindustan,  Bokhara,  and 
Tobolsk ;  and  numbers  of  merchants  who  are  settled  in  the 
neighbouring  independent  states  are  always  found  in  the 
town.  All  those  who  are  of  Turkish  origin  have  free 
access  to  it ;  but  the  entry  of  Europeans  is  prevented  by 
the  Chinese  authorities.  In  the  middle  of  the  town  is  a 
large  square,  from  which  four  extensive  bazars  brinch  oft'. 
The  Chinese  garrison  consists  of  8000  men,  wh  i  are  sta- 
tioned here  to  repress  any  invasion  from  the  side  of  Kho- 
kand, and  are  quartered  in  a  strong  fortress,  which  is  con 

VOL.  XXIV.— 3  B 


I  11  I 


370 


T   H    I 


tiguoiu  to  the  town.  The  manufacture*  are  numerous  and 
,\o  :  -lit-  largest  are  those  of  *ilk,  in  which  several 
knitU  of  Mutt's,  a*  satin,  damask,  &c.,  are  made,  and  some 
of  them  are  interwoven  with  gold  and  silver  tin 
manufacture.*  of  cottons  are  lew  important,  but  thru  colours 
are  much  praised.  The  jewellers  are  very  expert  in  cutting 

.  w  and  in  working  gold.     Many  articles  are  exported 
to  China.    The  latest  accounts  however  Mate  that  K.. 
and  its  commercial  and  manufacturing  industry  had  sul 
much  liy  the  invasion  and  rebellion  of  the  Kodjas  1 1SJ7  . 
and  that  Yarkiang  had  become  a  much  more  comn. 
place  than  Kashrar.     It  is  very  probable  that   the  town 
has  reco\  ei  ed  its  former  importance.  South-west  of  Kashgar 
is  the  town  of  Tashbaliif,  wind-  lie  an  important 

.  built   on  the  banks  of  the  Yaman-var   river,  where 
it  issues  from  the  mi  Tartashting.    On 

o;ul    leading    from    Ka.sh.gar   to   Yarkiang   is  Yengi 

md,  may  be  considered  the  capital 
of  Tliian  Shan  N.inlu,  as  the  Chinese  military  go-. 

-  here.     It  consists  of  the  cit\ 

which  is  surrounded  by  a  high  wall  of  stone,  and  is  more. 
than  three  miles  in  circumference,  and  numerous  suburbs 
which  lie  round  it.  In  the  fortress  a  garrison  of  7<K» 

.  t.     The  houses  are  mostly  built  of  sun-dried  bricks ; 
but  as  rain  is  very  rare  in  this  country,  they  may  b. 
sidered  substantial.      The  river  Yarkiaiu  ivided 

into  two  arms,  and  numerous  canals  have  been  mad. 
them,   by  which  all  the  -  abundantly  supplied 

with  water.     There  are  numerous  public  building-. 
cmlly  mosques  and  n  •  !•  colleges:  the  nun. 

the  medrasses  is  stated  to  exceed  ten.    There  are  t\v 
bazars,  one  in  the  city  and  the  other  in  the  suburbs,  which 
are  more  than  three  miles  long,  and  contain  a  great  num- 
ber of  shops,  well  supplied  with  various  article.-,  of  mer- 
chandise.    Most  of  the  shopkeepers  are  Chin. 
are  also  several   large  ca  s.      The  conni 

rounding  the  town  supplies  it  with  three  important  articles 
•  minerce.   silk,   line  wool,  and    !  which   last 

great  numbers  go  to  other  places,  and  as  far  as  China. 

-e  horses  are  mostly  of  the  Kirghis  breed,  rather 
but  very  strong,  and  much  prized.     The   commcrc- 
the  countries  north  of  Hindustan  and  with  Tibet   > 
considerable.     It   is  stated  that  there  are  several  kinds  of 
manufactures,  but   only  cotton-stutl  itied.     The 

number  of  inhabitants  who  pay  capitation -tax  is  Mat  ed  to  be 
between  iiO.IKXIand  4O.UX).  which  would  gi\ea  population 
of  between  180,000  and  240,000.  Many  foreigners  are 
settled  in  this  place.  The  number  of  ( 'hiuesc  merchants 
is  only  'JX),  but  there  are  many  others  engaged  in  trade 
and  manufactures.  A  great  number  of  merchants  from 
Sheiisi  and  Slian-i  \isit  Yarkiang.  There  are  also  a  con- 
siderable number  of  natives  of  ( 'a-hmir  settled  here  :  but 
•inly  a  small  number  of  Hindus,  and  no  .lews  or  Armenians. 
I'he  foreign  merchants,  who  are  met  with  in  considerable 
nun.:  ,  and  Cashmir. 

Khiitan  a  :i:uc  been  formerly  the  name  of  the 

town  wlir  i  llitsi  or  Kelcbi,   whilst  tin 

name..!  khotati  is  applied  to  the  country  which  cxtenih, 
along  the  northern  ba>c  ot  the  Th-ungling.  This  country 
i-ontaiiis,  according  to  the  latest  information,  TtXUXX)  per- 
jiitalion-tax.  which  would  give  a  populatioi 
of  between  3,50UOOO  sad  l.ixxuxxi  individuals.  Thus  it 
app.  i-  by  far  the  most  populous  am 

important  part  of  Tliian  Shan  N'aiiln.      A  large  number  o 
theinhabi 

them  are  mini'  i.--e.  who  settle. 

there  at  a  \ery  carl\  llitsi  is  d. - 

as  large  ami  populous  :  but  we  ha\e  no  peculiar  aceoun 

of  it.      It   derives    its   enmniercial    importance  parti 
the  productions  of  the  country,  and   partly  from    the  cir 
cum*tance   that  the  great  n.ads  meet  at  tliis  place.     Tin 
eastern  road  passes  from  llitsi  to  Kcriya.  and  through  tht 
DM*  .   into  Tibet,  nnd  seem*  to  be  the  pi. 

line  of  communication  between  the  last-mentioned  country 
and  the   northern  provinces  of  China.     The  western  roai 
."•''  •'    •    ."ea1  caiman  n..id  which  I. -ads  fioin  Yai  iviang  !i 
iir:     Tlie  pimeipal  articles  which  the  conn 
:  are  the  \  nd  silk,  tht 

.11   in    large  ijiianlities.      It 
•    •.'    UM    ••  lire    111:11, .,  ,,f   e..p|ier    ill   tin-  ncighhi  nn  hood,  a 

vtMtcb  of  copper  are  named  among  the  articles  manufac 


in,  I  in  this  place.     Silk  and   c ott on  stuffs  are  sJ*o  made 
o  a  great  extent,  and  there  are  glass-house^ 

is  held,  which  is  sometimes  attended  b\  'Ji.iMci 
sons.     Horses  arc  e\).  .  at  niinibi 

ess  pri/ed  than  fho-  i    the  town  of 

.  through  which  the  road  passes  to  Tibet,  me  some 
;old-nii 

The  articles  which  are  sent  from  Yarkiang  to  Cashmir 
are  silver,   goats' and  sheep's  wool,   leather  tanned   in  the 
manner  of  what   is  called  Russian  leather,  . 
gold  and  silver,  rice,  and  some 

nanufactuiv  :    there  are  taken  in  return   shawls  of  .: 
nt  qualities,  cotton  stuffs,  sheep-skins  and  and 

.»ne  minor  article*. 

Onl;.  ues  annually  from  \ 

lakshan,  which  carries  a  large   quan' 

•ially  rubles.       It    appears   from  \V.  that 

his  intercourse   has  of  late   been   interrupted   by  the   un- 
settled state  of  Hadakshan  and  of  \Vakhan.     [Ti  KKISTAN.] 
The  intercom's*;  with  Khokand,  which  li..  u  m- 

erruptcd  !• 

The  articles  exported  to  that  com 

ea  in  boxes,  and  i,  of  which  laige  quantitii 

consumed  by  the  inhabitants  of  Turkistan.     The  imports 

rom  Khokand  are  raw  silk   and  different   kinds  of  cotton 

The   Hncharian  merchants  settled  in  K< 
!   in  advancing 

;hey  bung   broad-cloth,   i 

gold  coin,  cop]>er.  iron,  steel,  and  fur:  and  they  take  back 
J    kinds   of   cotton   s'  :   am- 

moniac. 

We  are  very  imperfectly  acquainted  with   th. 
eial    intercourse    between  China   1'roper  snd  Thian  Shan 
Nanlu.     It  does  not  li  iliat  the  govern: 

puts  any  difficulties  in  the  way  of  it.  and  it  i  .1  the 

commerce  of  Yarkiang  with  the  northern  piovi:. 
active.     The  principal  articles  which  are  sent  to  Chi: 
raw  silk,  great    numb, 
other  precious   stones,  and   some  dyeing  stuffs:    m   ri 

are   sent,   to    Yarkmng   tea,  elm  ,d  several 

manufactured  art. 

History. — The  country  of  Thian  Shan  Nanlu 
in   any  way  been   connected   with   the  political    ever 
Europe   and   Western  Asia,   but  frequently   with   thi 
i  China,  and  it  is  oiih   irom  the  ( 'liincse  and  M. 
ansthat  we  learn  the  political  ehi 

i.     Thus  we  are    informed    thai 

our  u-ra  this  part  of  »  led  a 

portion  of  the  powerful  empire  of  the  Hiongnu.  a  Turkish 

..liich  for  more  than  two  centuries  made  war  on  China, 

.t   in 
the    first   century  after  Christ   was   overthrown   by  th 

.if  the  Man  emperors.    It  seems  that  the  (  'hinese  thus 
for  the  first  time  .  and  they 

soon   :  in    extending   their 

.ud   the    d.  round  the  Aial.   so 

'    that,   period  their  empire   extended  to  t; 

Hut  in  the  fiilh  cent.  hrist  the  Chinese  were 

dispossessed  of  this  country  by  the  Tang-hiang.  a  Til 

and  tins   and    .  of    the   B&1 

tinned   to    go\  ern    Thian    Shan    .Nanlu  up    to   the   til. 
(ieligis   Khan.      From   the  tenth   to  the  thirteenth  c, 

\ten-ive   empire  of  the   Ilia  or 

of  Tangut  which,  in 

l'-!'J7.  was  the  last    of  I 

the  Mongol  conqueror.      [(ii-\c.is  Kiivv.  \ol.  xi..  p.   117.) 
As   the  Mongols  soon   afterwards  go'  .  .if  China. 

Thian    Shan    wits  again    united  to  that    countrv.   and    ri  - 
mained  so  as  long  a.s  the  descendants 

.s  of  China,      lint  when  the  Yuan  d\ 

thrown,   in    I  he    fourteenth   ceni  .  by   the    Ming 

dynasty,   and   the    Mongol    eni| 

-.  Thian  Shan  became  indc|  •  .  ral    small 

sovereign* i.  -uler  chiefs  of  Turkish  origin.     The 

Ming  emperor  would  probably  ha\c  succeeded  in  subject- 
ing them,  but  for  the  conquests  of  Tinmr  l!eg.  or  Tamerlane, 

ntered  the'  com  i.  nirteeiith 

centurv,  and  brought  it  under  his  dominion  death 

the    Turkish  chiefs  gradually  resumed  their  independent 

.,  and  preserved  it  to  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 


T  H  I 


371 


T  H  I 


century,  when  the  Galdan  or  emperor  of  the  Oloth  Cal- 
mucks, who  subjected  to  his  sway  all  the  tribes  north  of  the 
Thian  Shan  Mountains,  began  to  extend  his  conquests  to 
the  south  of  that  range.  The  petty  Turkish  sovereigns,  not 
being  able  to  make  resistance,  yielded,  and  became  tri- 
butary to  the  Ototh  Calmucks. "  When  the  Galdan  had 
been  defeated  by  the  Chinese,  and  had  died  (1697),  the 
power  passed  from  the  Oloth  Calmucks  to  the  Songare.-. 
[SoxGAKiA,  vol.  xxii.,  p.  345],  who  soon  established  their 
authority  among  the  Turkish  princes  in  Thian  Shan  Nanlu, 
and  even  subjected  Tibet.  They  kept  it  until  their  widely 
extended  empire  was  destroyed  by  the  Chinese  in  1756,  and 
their  sovereign,  Amursana,  fled  to  Tobolsk,  where  he  died 
17~<7  .  Tin1  most  powerful  of  the  Turkish  princes,  the 
Kodjas  of  Yarkiang  and  Kashgar,  considered  this  event 
favourable  to  the  establishment  of  their  independence,  as 
they  thought  it  impossible  that  the  Chinese  could  send  an 
army  sufficiently  numerous  for  the  subjection  of  Thian 
Shan  Nanlu  through  the  wide  desert  which  separates  Pro- 
per China  from  their  country,  and  they  refused  to  submit  to 
the  authority  of  the  Mantchoo  emperor.  But  the  emperor 
sent  two  armies  from  Hi  over  the  Thian  Shan  Nanlu 
Mountains.  The  first  was  only  partly  successful,  and  took 
Kutshe  ;  but  the  other,  under  the  command  of  Tshaohoei, 
subjected  the  whole  of  the  country,  and  in  1759  the  Kodjas 
were  obliged  to  retire  to  Badakshan. 

In  1703  an  insurrection  broke  out  in  the  town  of  Ushi, 
but  it  was  soon  put  down.  In  1826  the  descendants  of  the 
Kodjas,  having  insinuated  themselves  into  the  favour  of  the 
Khun  of  Khokand,  and  obtained  from  him  the  support  of  a 
small  army,  entered  Thian  Shan  by  the  Terek  Pass,  and 

•  dcd  in  taking  Kashgar,  Aksu,  Yarkiang,  and  Khotan ; 
but  a  Chinese  army  of  00,000  men  being  sent  against  them, 
they  were  defeated  in  three  battles,  and  again  retired  to 
Badakshan,  where  Wood,  in  his  journey  to  the  source  of 
the    river  Oxus,  found   one   of   these   Kodjas   living  in 
exile. 

iDu  Halde's  History  of  China;  Mailla's  Histoire  Gf- 

df   In    Chin/';    Klaproth's    Magasin    Asiatique ; 

Wathen's   Memoir  on    Chinese   Tartary  and  Khokan,  in 

J'lurinil  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  vol.  iv. ;  Wood's 

••;/'  >i  Jiiurni'i/  tn  tin'  Source  of  the  R/ri'r  n.i-nx  : 

Ritter's  Erdkuiiii  •»,  vol.  i.,  ii.,  and  v.) 

THIBAUT  V.,  count  of  Champagne,  and  first  king  of 
Navarre  of  that  name,  occupies  a  respectable  rank  among 
the  Troubadours.  It  has  been  pretty  satisfactorily  shown 
by  recent  writers  on  the  subject  that  the  scandalous 

-  told  of  this  king  by  Matthew  of  Paris  and  others 
rest,  upon  no  satisfactory  evidence.     They  have  however 
been  more  successful  in  disproving  the  tales  of  their  pre- 
decessors  than   in  substituting  anything  in   their   place. 
They  have  rendered  Thibaut's  biography  in  a  great  mea- 
sure negative. 

He  was  born  about  the  beginning  of  the  year  1201,  and. 
has  been  called  Theobaldus  Posthumus,  on  account  of 
his  lather  having  died  before  his  birth.  His  mother, 
Blanche,  daughter  of  Sancho  the  Wise,  king  of  Navarre, 
took  charge  of  and  governed  his  extensive  territories  as 
regent  for  twenty  years.  A  taste  for  literature  was  here- 
ditary in  the  family  of  Thibaut.  His  grandmother,  Marie 
of  France,  held,  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  '  Courts  of  Love,'  and  some  of  her 
judgments  have  been  preserved  by  Andre  le  Chapelain. 
Ilis  mother  Blanche  induced  by  her  commands  Aubein 
•ie  Sezane  to  compose  several  songs,  after  he  had  solemnly 
renounced  the  practice  of  poetry.  With  such  examples 
before  him  it  was  natural  enough  that  the  young  count  of 
Champagne ^hould  contract  a  taste  for  rhyming. 

An  attempt  was  made  in  the  year  1214  to  wrest  the 
territories  of  Champagne  from  the  widow  and  her  son. 
The  father  of  Thibaut  was  a  younger  son:  his  elder 
brother  Henry  followed  Philippe  Auguste  to  the  Holy 
Land,  and,  marrying  there  a  sister  of  Baldwin  IV.,  king  of 
Cyprus  and  Jerusalem,  had  by  her  two  daughters,  Alice, 
queen  of  Cyprus,  and  Philippa,  who  married  Airard  de 
Brienne.  The  father  of  Thibaut  V.,  after  his  brother's 
departure  foi  Palestine,  took  possession  of  Champagne 
and  Brie,  which  were  held  without  challenge  by  him,  and 
by  his  widow  in  name  of  her  son,  till  1214.  Airard  de 
Urieniie  then  claimed  them  in  right  of  his  wife.  Philippe 
Auguste  decided  in  favour  of  Thibaut,  and  the  sentence 
was  confirmed  by  the  peers  of  France,  in  July,  1216,  on 


the  ground  that  Henry,  when  departing  for  the  East,  had 
ceded  all  his  lands  in  France  to  his  brother,  in  the  event 
of  his  not  returning.  In  November,  1221,  the  seigneur  of 
Brienne  was  persuaded  to  abandon  his  claims  upon  receiv- 
ing a  compensation. 

In  the  same  year  Thibaut  took  upon  himself  the 
management  of  his  domains,  which  rendered  him,  bv 
their  extent,  and  the  title  of  count  palatine,  which  they 
conferred  upon  their  holder,  the  most  powerful  vassal  of  the 
crown.  During  the  brief  and  troubled  reign  of  Louis  VIII 
(July,  1223,  to  November,  1226),  Thibaut  distinguished 
himself  by  nothing  but  the  pertinacity  with  which  he  in- 
sisted upon  his  feudal  rights.  At  the  siege  of  Hochelle 
he  consented  to  remain  till  the  town  was  taken,  but 
exacted  in  return  a  declaration  from  the  king  that  by  so 
doing  he  did  not  render  himself  liable  on  any  future  occa- 
sion for  more  than  the  40  days'  service  in  arms  due  by 
the  vassals  of  the  crown.  In  the  crusade  against  the 
Albigenses  (induced  probably  by  regard  for  the  count  of 
Toulouse,  who  was  his  kinsman)  he  resisted  every  en- 
treaty of  the  king  to  remain  with  the  army  after  the  40 
days  had  expired ;  and  his  departure  from  it  was  one  of 
the  foundations  for  the  stories  afterwards  circulated  to  his 
disadvantage. 

On  the  death  of  Louis  VIII.  a  league  was  formed  by  a 
number  of  the  most  powerful  French  nobles  to  prevent 
the  queen  from  acting  as  regent.  Thibaut  was  at  the 
outset  a  party  to  this  confederacy.  There  are  extant 
letters  of  Pierre,  duke  of  Bretagne,  and  Hugues  de 
LoMgMIi  (dated  March,  1226,  which,  as  the  year  is  now 
made  to  commence,  would  be  called  1227),  authorizing 
him  to  conclude  in  their  name  a  truce  with  the  king.  The 
regent  however  found  means  to  detach  the  count  of 
Champagne  from  his  allies ;  for  an  attempt  which  they 
made  soon  after  to  obtain  possession  of  her  person  and  the 
king's  was  frustrated  by  the  opportune  arrival  of  Thibaut 
at  the  head  of  a  strong  body  of  horse. 

The  duke  of  Bretagne  and  his  coadjutors  were  much 
incensed  at  the  desertion  of  the  count  of  Champagne,  and 
appear  to  have  soon  after  formed  the  project  of  harassing 
him  by  supporting  the  claims  of  the  queen  of  Cyprus  upon 
Champagne  and  Brie.  He  was  however,  on  account  of 
his  wealth,  too  desirable  an  ally  to  be  lost  without  an  en- 
deavour to  regain  him.  Overtures  of  reconciliation  were 
made,  in  consequence  of  which  count  Thibaut  engaged, 
in  1231,  to  take  to  wife  the  daughter  of  Pierre  of  Bretagne. 
Thibaut  had  been  twice  married  before ;  in  his  18th 
year,  to  Gertrude,  daughter  of  the  count  of  Metz,  from 
whom  he  was  divorced,  and  afterwards  to  Agnes  de 
Beaujeu,  by  whom  he  had  a  daughter.  The  regent,  fear- 
ing the  consequences  of  this  reconciliation,  interfered  to 
break  it  off.  The  marriage-day  had  been  fixed,  and  the 
bridegroom  was  already  on  his  way  to  the  place  where  it 
was  to  be  celebrated,  when  letters"  from  the  king,  forbid- 
ding him  to  conclude  the  engagement,  were  delivered  to 
him.  He  obeyed  the  royal  mandate. 

This  insult  determined  the  confederates  to  carry  into 
execution  their  original  project.  They  sent  for  the  queen 
of  Cyprus,  and  invaded  Champagne,  avowedly  for  the  pur- 
pose of  putting  her  in  possession  of  it.  The  king  marched 
to  the  assistance  of  Thibaut,  and  under  his  auspices  a 
compromise  was  arranged.  Thibaut  ceded  to  the  queen 
of  Cyprus  lands  to  the  value  of  2000  livres  yearly,  and 
paid  her  in  addition  20,000,000  of  livres  in  money.  This 
sum  was  advanced  by  the  king,  who  received  in  return 
the  estates  of  Sancerre  and  others,  which  Thibaut's  father 
had  held  before  he  acquired  Champagne. 

Here  seems  the  proper  place  to  notice  the  stories  told  bv 
Matthew  of  Paris  regarding  the  loves  of  Thibaut  and  queen 
Blanche,  and  the  poisoning  of  Louis  VIII.,  laid  to  the 
charge  of  the  former.  Matthew  only  mentions  the  accusa- 
tions as  a  rumour  he  had  heard.  No  other  historian  o. 
equal  antiquity  mentions  them.  Had  Thibaut  been 
suspected  of  being  the  murderer  of  the  king,  the  charge 
would  probably  have  been  urged  against  him  by  one  or 
other  of  the  rival  factions,  with  whom  he  played  fast  and 
loose  immediately  after.  There  is  not  a  passage  in  his 
poems  that  can  be  interpreted  into  a  declaration  of  attach- 
ment to  Blanche,  who  was  moreover  thirteen  years  his 
senior.  But  it  is  easy  to  see  how  the  rumour  mentioned 
ay  Matthew  ef  Paris  arose.  A  rhymed  chronicle,  appa- 
rently of  the  age  of  Thibaut,  represents  him  as  going 

3B2   " 


T  II    1 


T  II    I 


•bout    1230.  in  disguise  to  learn  how  men  spoke  <>r  him. 

lit-  hail  no  friends.     About  tins  time  there 

between  tin1  ii  i"  Paris  and 

tin-  papal  legate,  and,  the  queen  supporting  the  legate,  'In- 
wild  stud.  ::'.-  iiinde  and  sang  ribald  song*  attributing  this 
report  to  a  guilty  passion  Tor  his  peraon.  In  times  oi'  ci\  il 

crally   found   that  parties  otlu 

totally  unconnected  cati-li  up  mid  spread  each  others'  lies 
when  it  wit*  their  purpose.  Tin-  queen,  tin-  legate,  and 

•unt  of  Champagne  were  all  unpopular;   the  disso- 

•  ndent.s  had  circulated  imputations  against  the  chastity 
ot'llie  two  Ibrmer;  and  the  interference  ol'thc  king  to  pre- 
vent the  marriage  of  the  last  -mentioned  with  the  dugnter 
of  the  duke  of  Hrctagne  would,  under  such  circumstances, 
be  easily  intciprctcd  into  a  plot  of  the  queen-mother  to 

him  for  herself.  It  was  amongst  the  students  that 
the  first  story  was  invented,  and  that  is  the  quarter  whence 

.ew  of  Paris  most  probably  obtained  much  of  his  in- 

.tiuri  regarding  French  affairs. 

In  li>2  Thibaiit  married  a  daughter  of  Archambaud 
VI  II.  ui  liourbon.  In  April,  1234.  h«  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  Navarre,  on  the  death  of  Sancho  the  Strong.  In 
liSKi  he  quarrelled  with  Saint  Louis  about  the  ten: 
lie  had  ceded  to  the  king  at  the  time  of  the  arrangement 
with  the  queen  of  Cyprus,  representing  them  as  merely 
transferred  to  the  king  in  security  for  the  money  he  ad- 

,1,  while  the  latter  asserted  that  they  had  been  sold 
to  him  for  that  sum.  It  came  to  blows,  and  Thibaut  was 
beaten. 

In  1239  Thibaut  took  the  cross,  and  set  out  at  the  head 
of  an  expedition  to  the  Holy  Land.  He  displayed  none  of 
the  talents  of  a  general.  Unable  to  procure  ships  to 
transport  his  fortes  to  the  scene  of  action,  he  marched 
through  Hungary  and  Thrace.  Arrived  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Byzantium,  his  treasure  was  so  completely  ex- 
pended, that  his  followers  had  to  support  themselves  by 
plunder.  In  an  engagement  near  C'acsarca  the  division 
of  the  army  under  his  immediate  command  was  beaten, 
although  the  other  was  victorious,  lie  got  involved  in 
the  defiles  of  Taurus,  and  lost  two-thirds  of  his  men. 
Lastly,  at  the  final  defeat  near  Ascalon,  he  fled  inglorious!^ 
before  the  battle  was  ended,  leaving  his  followers  to  their 
fate. 

He  returned  to  Pampeluna,  which  he  had  made  his 
capital,  in  1242,  and  died  in  1253,  having  done  nothing 
worthy  of  notice  in  the  interim,  leaving  a  widow  and  six 
children. 

The  poems  attributed  to  Thibaut  are  in  number  sixty- 
xix,  and  there  appears  no  reason  for  questioning  the 
authenticity  of  any  of  them.  Thirty-eight  aro  devoted  to 
the  expression  of  passionate  complaints  and  ecstasies; 
three  recount  his  amorous  adventures  with  peasant-girls; 
twelve  are  what  may  be  called  rhymed  law-cases  in  mat- 
ter* of  love  ;  the  rest  are  exhortations  to  engage  in  the 
Crusade,  or  invectives  against  the  immorality  of  the  age. 
The  passion  of  the  amorous  poems  is  not  very  intense  : 
there  scarcely  needed  the  lew  lines  appended  to  most  of 
them,  addressed  to  some  brother-troubadour,  to  show  that 
they  an-  men'  displays  of  the  author's  cleverness.  The 
cages  for  the  Court  of  Love  are  ingenious  and  insignificant, 
like  all  other  compositions  of  that  kind.  The  fifty-fourth 
song,  an  exhortation  to  join  the  Crusade,  is  spirited.  The 

fifth,  in  which  the  God  of  Christian-  is  compared  to 
the  pelican  feeding  its  young  with  its  blood,  is  charac- 

d  by  a  blended  tone  of  toleration  and  enthusiasm. 
In  the  sixty-sixth  he  starts  a  theory  that  the  law  of  (Jod 
is  ripe  ana  wholesome  fruit,  and  'that  Adam  sinned  by 
.g  unripe  fruit.  Thihant's  versification  is  correct  and 
sweet.  There  is  a  spirit  of  generosity  about  his  poems 
that  is  creditable  to  himself:  the  neatness  and  finish  ot 
his  verses  are  more  attributable  to  the  degree  of  perfection 
to  which  the  art  had  been  previously  carried  by  others 
than  to  the  author's  own  talents.  Altogether  his  literary 
productions  leave  a  more  favourable  impression  of  }\\< 
character  than  the  part  he  played  as  a  warrior  and  politi- 
cian. There  is  tergiversation  and  something  worse  in  his 
public  conduct,  but  the  disposition  evinced  by  his  writings 
le«d»  to  the  conclusion  that  he  sinned  more  through  want 
of  firm  nem  than  from  ill-will. 


Po'ftif*  du  Roy  d«  Nurarrr,  par  Levesque  de  la 
JUvahere,  Pari-.    17  IJ.    12mo;    //;.«  J,  Lnys,  IX. 

Ju  nvm,  liny  de  France,  par  Messirc  Jean,  Sire  de  Joinville  ; 


par  M.Claude  Menard,  '.  1'aii-.  Kil7. 

l.ilin  I'/..   Hasilm  Johannc  Herede 

authore.  liasiliae.  l.'iOi,  !•.!.:   H.tyle:  Morcri  ;   and  Hiugra- 
:  ln>   I  tin :  r*> •!!<•.  in  voce  '  Thib.. 

TI1IKKT.     [TIIIKT.] 

TIIIEL,  or  TIKL.  is  the  chief  town  of  a  district  in  the 
province  of  (ieldcrland  in  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands. 
It   is  situated  in  51°  THr1  N.  lat.  and  .V  2C'  K.  long.,  on  the 
river  Waal,  about    !.">  miles  from   Nimcgcn,   in 
called   the    Bctnwe.   which    is   celebrated  for  its  fertility. 
The  town  of  Thiel  contains  5000  inhabitants  ;    the  district 
of  which  it  is  the  chief  place.  -ls.2(K).       The  chi. 
tionsof  the  inhabitant  'lure  and  the  1 

cattle;  they  ha\ e  also  manufactures  ol  w oolleii,  linen. 
water-colours.    (Stein,  Lexicon  ;  Has&cl ;  Cannabich.) 

THIKI.KN.  .IAN    I'HII.II'  \  ,-hlin 

in   1018.     He  was  of  a  noble  family,  and  lord  of  t'owcn- 
burg.     Though   hi-    received    an  education  suitable    t. 
rank,  and  was  instructed  in   every  bianeh  of  polite     . 
ture,  his  predilection  for  the  art  of  painting  induced  him 
to  become  a  disciple  of  Daniel  So  gen.. 

Having  voluntarily  placed  himself  under  so  able  an  in- 
structor, his  improvement,  as  might  have   been 
was  rapid.   His  subjects  were  usually  in  the  • 
garlands  of  flowers,  with  some  historical   design   in 
centre,    or   festoons   twining   round   vases   enriched    with 
representations  in  bas-relief.     He  alv.  ••[  na- 

ture, and  chose  his  flowers  in  the  entire  perlection  of  their 
beautv,  grouping  them  with  great  taste.     His  pictm> 
very  highly  finished,   with   a   light    touch,    perhap- 
spiritcd    than    the   works  of  Segers :     but    it    is   sufficient 
praise  to  say  that  his  performances  rivalled  those  of  his 

He  was  much  employed  by  Philip  IV.,  king  of  Spain, 
and  most  of  his  finest  performances  are  (or  at  least  were*) 
in  the  Spanish  royal  collection.      Two  of  his  capital  pie- 
were  at   Mechlin  ;    they  represented    garlands  and 
flowers,  and  many  insects  of  different  kinds  on  the  l> 
all   finished  with  exquisite  delicacy.      The  figure  of  St. 
Bernard  is  in  the  centre  of  the  one,  and  that  ol  St.  A 
in   the  other.     Weycrmann   also   highly  commends 
which  has  in  the  centre  a  nymph  sleeping,  watched  by  a 
satvr,  the  figures  being  painted  by  Poelenil 

Von  Thielen  seldom  inscribed  his  name  on  any  of  his 
works;  he  generally  marked  them  .1.  or  P.  ( 'onweiiburg. 

THIELT  is  the  chief  town  of  the  district  ol  the  same 
name  in  the  province  of  West  Flanders,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Belgium.  It  is  about  15  mile*  south-wed  of  Urugi 
the  road  from  Ghent  to  Dixnindcn.  Thielt  is  a  cheerful 
town,  with  two  churches,  1700  houses,  amor.;;  -Ahieh  are 
many  handsome  modern  buildings,  and  rj.lXKl  inhabitants, 
and  is  the  chief  market  for  the  (lax-trade  of  Flanders.  At 
the  weekly  market  there  is  a  great  sale  for  linen,  corn, 
cattle,  and' butter.  The  inhabitants  h;i\f  H  Mish- 

inents   for  bleaching   wax   and    linen,   six    breweries,   and 
many  flourishing  manufactories.     There  are  an 
several  literary  societies,  a  musical    society,  and  s* 

Ii.     [  Fi. \Mn.iis',  \\KST.] 

Stein.     /  i  'atmabich,     Ishrhiirh  ;    Hoffmann, 

/)ri/t.M-/i/nint  mill  xi-ini'  /Ifim/nii'i;  \ol.  iii.) 

THIKKS,  a  town  in  France,  capital  of  an  anondisseinent 
in  the  department  of  Puy  de  Dome,  27.i  miles  from  I'.uis 
by  \e\iTs.  Moidins,  and  Koanne,  Hud  24  from  Clcmiont- 
Ferrand,  the  capital  of  the  department  :  it  is  in  4.V  51'  \. 
lat.  and  3*  :t:i'  K.  long.  Thiers  originated  in  the  middle 
There  was  a  stiong  castle  here  in  the  earlier  periods 
of  the  French  monarchy ,  which  became  under  the  feudal 
system  the  head  of  one  of  the  principal  fiefs  of  Anvirgne. 
The  town  stands  on  the  crest  and  side  of  a  hill  sloping 
down  to  the  northern  or  right  bank  of  the  Durole,  a  little 
stream  flowing  into  the  Dore,  which  itself  flows  into  the 
Allier.  It  is  in  a  picturesque  situation,  amid  wild  so 
and  commanded  byloftyand  well-wooded  hills  on  the  north, 
down  the  side  of  which  the  road  from  Lyon  to  Thiers  runs 
by  a  remarkably  steep  slope.  The  houses  at  this  cut , 

•  So  m«ny  valuable  picture!  wore  carried  off  or  drtlrm  isl.  not  nn\\ 
the  Fn-nc h  <Mv;ijt,,tiitn,  luit  in  thr  diiordiT*  of  lat«  year*,  that  it  ii  »li(Firnlt  t> 
•prnk  |«>iitively.    Tbiu  the  Frrnch  king,  I 

IhaChcialicr  Tuylor  loS|wiii  to|i«  icn  Ilin  rxn  of 

tho  popular*  wa«  ilirfciiil  n^»in*i  '>  Tlio  chevalln  .1  -•  ,i.[iti;l/ 

s|«in.  atul  pun-hum)   Imn  i  n-litref;  many 

of  oliii-h  «ir«  IhiTfliy  M\M|    friMn  (  hr»«hpr  Taylor  in)* 

Dial  hr  uw  MOM  finv  jitcturM  by  I'aul  VCIUUOM  dotroyed,  in  ipitc  of  hl> 
entreaUra  and  ooen  to  parchaw  lliora. 


T  H  I 


373 


T  H  I 


of  the  town  present  a  pleasing  appearance,  from  their  being 
painted  in  fresco  in  a  manner  similar  to  those  of  Nice  ;  but 
on  proceeding  into  the  town  the  steep,  narrow,  dark 
streets,  bordered  by  gloomy  houses,  disappoint  expectation. 
There  is  no  public  building  worthy  of  notice,  and  no 
public  square  or  place  except  one  at  the  entrance  of  the 
road  from  Lyon :  the  town  is  inhabited  by  workpeople, 
and  presents  very  few  ('  not  a  score,'  says  one  of  our 
authorities)  decent  houses.  The  chief  manufactures  are 
of  paper  and  playing-cards,  fine  cutlery  and  hardwares, 
leather,  and  candles.  The  paper-mills  are  on  the  Durole, 
in  the  steep  rocky  banks  of  which  excavations  have  been 
made  for  the  sites  of  the  mills  :  this  branch  of  industry  has 
been  established  in  the  town  from  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  quality  of  the  paper  manufactured  here  is  good,  and  a 
large  portion  of  it  is  sent  to  Paris.  The  razors,  knives,  and 
scissors,  though  of  ordinary  quality,  command  a  good  sale, 
and  are  exported  to  Spain,  Italy,  the  Levant,  and  the  East 
and  West  Indies  :  the  iron  is  brought  from  Nivernais, 
Berry,  and  Tranche  Comte.  There  are  in  and  round  the 
town  GOO  manufactories  or  workshops  for  cutlery,  employ- 
ing, it  is  said,  6000  persons.  The  candles  are  made  from 
the  fat  of  the  goats  reared  on  the  surrounding  hills. 
There  is  a  large  poor-house,  in  which  woollen  cloths,  lace, 
and  trimmings  are  made,  and  other  manufactures  are  car- 
ried on.  These  various  manufactures  employ  three- 
fourths  of  the  population  of  the  town  and  the  villages 
for  many  miles  round.  The  population  of  the  com- 
mune of  Thiers,  in  182G,  was  11,613;  in  1831,  9836,  of 
whom  G5HG  were  in  the  town  itself;  and,  in  183G,  9982. 
There  are  an  inferior  court  of  justice,  a  tribunal  de  com- 
merce, a  chamber  of  manufactures,  a  council  of  prud'- 
hommes ;  some  fiscal  or  administrative  government  offices, 
an  hospital  or  poor-house,  and  a  high  school,  or  college. 
There  are  eight  yearly  fairs. 

The  arrondissement  of  Thiers  has  an  area  of  332  square 
miles,  and  comprehends  only  39  communes,  with  a  popu- 
lation, in  1831,  of  67,870  ;  in  1836,  of  70,657  :  it  is  divided 
into  six  cantons  or  districts,  each  under  a  justice  of  the 
peace. 

(Vaysse  de  Villiers,  Itiiieraire  Dcscriptif  de  la  France; 
Malte-Brun,  Giographie ;  Dictionnaire  Gcographique 

THIMBLE,  a  metallic  cap,  in  the  shape  of  a  hollow 
truncated  cone,  worn  on  the  finger  in  sewing,  in  order  to 
allow  the  needle  to  be  pressed  through  the  work  with  ade- 
quate force,  without  injury  to  the  finger.  Thimbles  used  by 
sempstn  ~M  s  usually  have  slightly  convex  tops,  which,  as 
well  as  the  upper  part  of  the  Circumference  of  the  cone,  are 
pitted  with  numerous  small  indentations  symmetrically  ar- 
ranged, which  serve  to  prevent  the  end  of  the  needle  from 
slipping :  but  those  used  by  tailors,  upholsterers,  and  needle- 
men  generally,  have  no  tops,  but  have  the  like  indentations 
upon  the  sides  of  the  cone,  with  which  alone  the  necessary 
pressure  is  applied  to  the  needle.  Although  occasionally 
made  of  other  materials,  as  porcelain  and  ivory,  for  orna- 
mental purposes,  thimbles  are  most  commonly  formed  of 
sheet  silver,  steel,  white  alloys,  or  brass  ;  or  of  silver  and 
steel  so  combined  as  to  retain  the  advantage  of  the  su- 
perior hardness  of  the  latter  metal  for  the  parts  which 
come  in  contact  with  the  needle,  while  those  which  are  in 
contact  with  the  finger  are  of  silver.  This  is  sometimes 
done  by  making  the  cap  and  tipper  part  of  the  cone  of 
steel  and  the  lower  part  of  silver ;  and  sometimes  by 
making  the  body  of  the  thimble  entirely  of  iron  or  steel, 
and  lining  it  with  silver  or  gold.  As  thimbles  form  an 
indispensable  part  of  the  furniture  of  a  lady's  work-table, 
much  ingenuity  is  often  displayed  in  their  decoration  by 
embossing,  engraving,  and  inlaying  with  gold.  They  are 
usually  formed  by  means  of  a  stamping-machine,  but  the 
following  process,  for  the  description  of  which  we  are  in- 
debted to  Dr.  Ure's  '  Dictionary  of  Arts,'  Sec.,  p.  1239,  has 
been  practised  by  MM.  Rouy  and  Berthier,  of  Paris:  — 
Sheet-iron,  one  twenty-fourth  part  of  an  inch  thick,  after 
being  cut  into  strips  of  convenient  size,  is  passed  under  a 
!>•  inch-press,  by  which  it  is  cut  into  circular  discs  of  about 
two  inches  diameter.  These  discs  are  then  made  red-hot, 
and  laid  in  SIUTI-MOII  upon  a  series  of  mandrils,  with  hol- 
lows of  successively  increasing  depth,  into  which  the 
softened  discs  are  forced  by  striking  them  with  a  round- 
t'uri'd  punch,  about  the  size  of  the  finger.  After  IK  in  / 
thus  brought  to  the  required  shape,  the  thimble  is  placed 


in  a  lathe,  when  the  inside  is  polished  and  the  outside  is 
turned,  cut  with  circles  for  the  reception  of  gold  orna- 
ments, and  indented  or  pitted  with  a  kind  of  milling-tool. 
After  this  the  thimbles  are  annealed,  brightened,  and  gilt 
inside  with  a  very  thin  cone  of  gold-leaf,  which  is  firmly 
united  to  the  surface  of  the  iron  simply  by  the  strong 
pressure  of  a  smooth  steel  mandril.  Gold  fillets  are  then 
fixed  by  pressure  in  the  grooves  turned  to  receive  them. 

Sail-makers,  in  those  coarse  kinds  of  sewing  which  re- 
quire the  application  of  considerable  force  to  the  needle, 
employ,  in  lieu  of  thimbles,  circular  plates  of  cast-iron,  in- 
dented or  pitted  on  the  surface.  These  are  called  palms, 
and  are  secured  to  the  palm  of  the  hand  by  straps. 

The  name  'thimble'  is  applied  to  the  metallic  eyes,  in 
the  form  of  rings  with  a  groove  in  their  circumference  to 
receive  a  rope,  which  are  used  in  rigging  where  it  is  de- 
sired to  form  a  loop  or  eye  at  the  end  of  one  rope,  through 
which  another  may  slide  with  very  little  friction. 

THINOCORI'IsLE,  Mr.  G.  R.  Gray's  first  subfamily  of 
the  family  Chionididce,  containing  the  genera  Attagis, 
3.  Geoff,  and  Less. ;  Ocypctes,  Wagl. ;  and  Thmomrus, 
Eschseh. 

THINO'CORUS,  Eschscholtz's  name  for  a  genus  of 
birds  placed  by  Mr.  G.  R.  Gray  in  his  subfamily  THINO- 

CORIXJE. 

THION  DE  LA  CHAUME,  CLAUDE-ESPRIT,  an  emi- 
nent French  physician,  was  born  at  Paris,  January  10,  1750. 
His  lather,  who  was  a  banker,  gave  him  an  excellent  edu- 
cation, and  destined  him  originally  for  the  bar,  but  he 
himself  preferred  the  study  of  medicine.  He  commenced 
his  studies  at  Paris  with  great  success,  but,  for  some  un- 
known reason,  took  his  doctor's  degree  at  Rheims.  In 
1773  he  was  appointed  physician  to  the  military  hospital 
at  Monaco  in  Italy,  which  was  then  occupied  by  a  French 
garrison  ;  and  in  1778  to  that  at  Ajaccio  in  Corsica.  His 
zeal  and  talents  were  rewarded  by  the  rank  of  chief  phy- 
sician to  the  troops  destined  to  lay  siege  to  Minorca  and 
shortly  afterwards  to  Gibraltar.  Here  he  had  to  treat  a 
fatal  epidemic  which  prevailed  among  the  combined 
French  and  Spanish  forces  in  a  typhoid  form,  the  descrip- 
tion of  which  same  disease  immortalised  the  name  of 
Prince  towards  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  This  same 
squadron  had  already  put  ashore  and  left  at  Cadiz  a  great 
number  of  Frenchmen  that  had  been  attacked  by  the  dis- 
ease, when,  in  the  beginning  of  September,  1782.  it.  came 
to  the  bay  of  Algesiras.  Here  the. naval  hospital  could 
only  receive  fifty  of  their  sick,  while  as  many  as  five  hun- 
dred were  in  want  of  admission ;  and  to  place  these  in 
private  houses-was  not  only  a  very  difficult,  but  also  an 
undesirable  proceeding.  In  these  embarrassing  circum- 
stances Tliion  de  la  Chaume  conceived  the  happy  idea  of 
making  the  sick  encamp  under  tents  as  soon  as  tney  landed, 
an  arrangement  which  was  dictated  by  the  climate,  the 
season,  and  the  nature  of  the  disease,  and  of  which  the 
boldness  was  justified  by  success.  La  Chaume  himself 
w;ts  attacked  by  the  epidemic,  and  a  great  number  of  me- 
dical officers  of  all  ranks,  as  well  as  the  nurses,  were  car- 
ried off  by  it.  When  peace  was  concluded  La  Chaume 
returned  to  France,  and  was  received  with  distinction  by 
the  Comte  d'Artois  (afterwards  Charles  X.),  who  had  been 
a  witness  of  his  self-devotion  and  success  at  Algesiras,  and 
who  appointed  him  to  be  one  of  his  own  physicians. 
Shortly  afterwards  he  married,  but  in  the  winter  of  1785-6 
he  found  that,  in  consequence  of  the  rapid  progress  made 
by  a  pulmonary  disease  which  had  for  some  time  threatened 
him,  it  was  necessary  for  him  to  go  to  the  south  of  France. 
Here  he  met  with  the  kindest  attentions  from  the  officers 
of  the  regiment  which  he  had  formerly  taken  charge  of  at 
Ajaccio,  who  were  at  this  time  in  garrison  at  Montpellier ; 
at  which  place  he  died,  October  28,  1786,  at  the  early  age 
of  thirty-six.  Thion  de  la  Chaume  wrote  but  little,  though 
he  is  said  to  have  carefully  noted  down  every  night  what- 
ever he  had  seen  during  the  day  worth  recording ;  he 
nevertheless  occupies  a  high  rank  in  the  list  of  army  sur- 
geons. His  writings  consist  almost,  entirely  of  articles  in 
medical  dictionaries  and  periodicals,  of  vyhich  the  most 
interesting  is  the  account  of  the  epidemic  at  Algesiras, 
which  was  published  in  the  second  volume  of  the  '  Journal 
de  Medicine  Militaire.'  (Biographic  Medicals.} 

THIONURIC  ACID.  When  nitric  acid  is  made  to 
act  upon  uric  acid,  both  are  decomposed,  and  alloxan,  a 
compound  of  hydrogen,  carbon,  oxygen,  and  azote,  is  ob  • 


T  II  I 


T  II  I 


tained   in   crystal*.     If  sulphurous   acid   ca-   ho  passed 
through  a  saturated  solution  ot'  alloxan  r  dliant 

white  crystals  are  obtained,  which  :•.  itc  of  am 

nioma :  these  are  to  be  decomposed  by  m  •  • 
tin-  thionurate  of  lead  formed  is  to  be  dci 

i.     Hy  separating  the  sul]>hun't  of  lead, 
:  tlio  lii|iior.  thionuric  aci>! 

properties  are,  that  it  is  a  vrliitt1  semi-crystalline  mass, 

readily  soluble  in  water,  and  the  solution  reddens  litmus 

it  contain*  the  elements  of  two  e<]uivulenti  of 

sulphurous  acid,  one   equivalent  of  ammonia,  and  one  of 

alloxan,  or — 

11  equivalents  of  hydrogen    .         .        7 

!HJ 

Fourteen  equivalents  of  ov  .      \\'2 

Three  equivalents  of  .         .       -I- 

Two  equivalents  of  sulphur         .        .      :w 

Kqnivalcnt  .         .     Ulii 

\Vhen  heated,  it  is  decomposed,  much  sulphuric  acid 
remains  in  solution,  and  :i  crystalline  compound  is  formed, 
which  is  termed  iiramil. 

Thionnric  acid  combines  with  bases  to  form  salts,  which 
i  med  thionunitcx  ;  they  are  not  however  of  sufficient 
importance  to  require  description. 

THIONVILLK,  an  important  town  in  France,  capital 
i>f  nn  arromlissemcnt  in  the  department  of  Moseli 
miles  east-north-east  of  Pans,  by  Me:iu\.  Chateau  Thierry, 
Chilons-snr-Marne,  Ste.  MiW-hould,  Verdun,  and    Met/: 
it  is  in  41°  2i>'  N.  Int.  and  C"  1 1' E.  1. 
Thionville  (Latinized,  Theodonis  Villa)  was  a  place  of 
•  (ueiH-e  in  the  time  of  the  kings  of  France  of  theCar- 
lovingian  dynasty,  who  had  a  palace  here :    several  im- 
portant councils  were   held  at   Thionville  in  the  reign  of 
Charlemagne  and  his  son  Louis  le  Debonnair.     After  the 
extinction  of  the   C'arlovingian  dynasty,  the  place  came 
'y  into  the  hands  of  the  counts  of  Luxembourg, 
the  dukes  of  Hor.rgognc,  and  the  house  of  Austria,  p 
to  the  Spanisli  branch  of  that  family.     The  duke  of  Guise 
it  from  the  Spaniards,  A.II.  l.V>S.  but  it  was  restored 
the  following  year.     In  A..D.  l(i;!!l  i:  :cd   by  the 

h,  who  v,  ere  entirely  defeated  by  an  army  sent  to  its 
relief:  it  was  however  taken  by  the  prince  of  Condf,  A.D. 
.  after   the   battle  of  Kocroy,  and  hits   ever   since   re- 
mained in  the   power  of  the  French.     It  was  bombarded 

vi>.  17'.I2,  and  again  by  the  al' 

!s!4.     Thioiivi!  ••muled  by  strong  fortilica- 

--  of  the   thinl   class,  and   one  of  the 

•  it-  Khenish  province- of  l'i 
tin'  left  or  west   bank  of  the  .Moselle  :   the 
i   the   right  bank  :    the  two   commir 

which    arc    of  stone,  and  the   np'per 

|«irt  ••  it  pleasure.     The  town  is  skirted 

ie  south-east  side  by  tlie  canal  of  YuU,  over  which 
-  of  stone  and  one  of  wood.     The  entrance 
into  the  town  i-  - :  the  houses  have  little  •• 

a  Rood  parade,  a  parish  church  whicii 

•animation,  a  riding-school,  a  corn-market,  a 

theatre,  an  arsenal,  a  college  or  high  school,  which  occii- 

"f  the  monks  of  St.  Augustine,  an 

v  prison.     There  are  some  manufac- 

llen  cloth,  hats,  household  furniture, 

cs,   tan-yards,  and  oil  and 

bark  mill*.     There  is  one  yearly  fair. 

population  of  the  commune  of  Thionville,  in  1826, 
in  IKM.5lVI.~i   of  whom  1 112  were  in  (lie  town): 

a  subordinate   court   of  j 
•1  admini-'  •  rnment  office",  and  n 

:eulture  and  industry. 

The  arroiidisscnicnt    of  Thionville   has  an  a> 
Mquare  miles,  an  1 17  communes :    it! 

nd,  in  IK:<  0:    it 

•  'iis   or   districts,  each   mi- 
ni music,  classed  among  the  imper- 
•blc   to  alteration  ;  that    is.   the 
'her  niiijnr  or  minor.     The  ratio  of  the 
Major  Tin  :|,e   Mm,,r  Thinl,  (i  :  5.      The 

f'jrmer  comprises  one  major  and  one  minor  tone,  as  c  «. 


The  latter  comprises   a  major  tone  and   a  semitone,  as 
A  c.     Kxample  : — 


Major  Thinl. 


Minor  Third. 


-O- 


<>r.  according  to  the  mode  of  description  adopted  by 
writers  on  the  subject,  the   Major  Thinl  compri-es,  inchi- 
.  five  semitone* ;  the  Minor  only  four,     Kxample  • — 


M..J,,,. 


Minor. 


THIRLAGE.  a  tenure  or  custom  former!'.  mon 

in  Scotland,   by  which  the  owi: 

lands  were    compelled   to  take   their   corn  to  a  parli 
mill,  to  which  the  lands  were  said  to  be  tin,  icteil. 

and  to  pay  a  certain  proportion  of  it,  \arying  in  iht! 

as  a   remuneration   for   the    grinding,  and    for    the 
expense    ol  ;ion  and    maintenance    of  the   mill, 

lants  of  thirlage  also  bound  the   occupiers  of  the 
iLstricted    lands    to    the    performance    of    eeitain    ~^ 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  mill  and  mill-dam,  the  c:i 
of  millstones   from   the    place   at    which   they   were    pm- 
!.   iSce.     Thu-lage  was  of  three   kinds,   ol    which   the 

-   the    thirlage   of    gi 
by  whicii  the  tenants  or  posses-  iauds 

merely    compelled    to    carry    to    the    mill    sii' 
thi-ir  corn  as  they  might  require  to  use  for  food, 
thirlage  of  growing  corn  extended   to  all  the  corn  n 
upon  the  thirled  lands,  with  the  exception  of 
and   such  as  might   be  used    as  food  for   hoi- 
farms   in   the   state   of  grain.      I  lea  this  kind   of 

t hii-lngi!  was  modified  by  a  provision  to  enable  the  i;i 
on  payment    of  a  certain  proportion  of  co' 
tion,  to  sell  the  remainder  of  his  grain  without  t. 
the  mill  to  be   converted  into  meal.     The   third  kind   of 
thirlacc,  called  thirlage  of  inrprtu  ft  it/ntn.  required  that 
all   corn   brought,  within  the  thirled  district,  wheiei 
might   have  been  raised,  should  be  taken  to  the  ilom 
mill,  that   is  to   say.  the    mill    to  which    the 
astricted  or  bound.     This  kind  of  servitude,  lun  ing  be 
in  many  cases  r  .  has  fallen   int. 

•:  annual   payment    in   grain  he:  .ted  for  it. 

Further  particulars  respecting  this  ten  <•  found  in 

dia,'   ait.  •  Thirlngc  :'    and  in   i 
in  the  fourth   edition  of  1i 
eloiia  ilia  Hritanr 

TIIIRO'P-PKKA.  Spix's   name   for   a   genus  of  CujU- 
HOPTERA  which,  according  to  Cuvier,  seems  to  Imvc  main 
charactei-s  in  eonimon  vvith  .\ttiln\\ii.i:  its  thnifil 
small  concave  palette  which  is  peculiar  to  it,  and  ei: 
it  to  hook  itself  better  than  it  ot[ier\M-e  could. 
mple,  T/iiri>)>ti-m  Irii-nlnr.  Spix.  :«i,  f.  9. 
(  'UVIIT  remarks  that  he  p'  -'.ihgenus  with  doubt, 

iption  is  incomplete. 
TIIIKSK.     [YdKKsiiiKK.] 

TH1KST   is  the    peculiar  sensation  which  excites  the 
desire  to  drink.      \\  ater  is  the    proper  object    of  this  de- 
sire.    Of  all  the  warm-blooded  animals  which  are  subject 
to  thirst,  man  alone  is  either  disposed,  or,  by  the  circum- 
stances of  his  artificial  mode  of  life,  compelled, 
it  with  any  other   liquid;    and  in  all   the  variety  of  1 
rages  which  man  has  invented,  the  water  with  which  0 
Ingredients  are  combined  is  the  only  part  which  is  essential 
to  the  ^itist'acliiin  of  th 

The  times  and   degrees  in  which  thirst  is  felt  during 
health  are.  in  general,  such  that,  by  satisfying  it.  the 

•  idcd  with   the  quantity  of  wa'  iy  for  the 

repair  of  its  tissues  and   the  mar  <>t'  their  p: 

id   for  the  replacement  of  the   fluid  whicii   is 
constantly  lost   bv  perspiration  and  other  di-  lint 

the  quantity   of  water  necessary    for    this    pui  | 
.  according  to   the  diti'ciciit   circumstaiir 

sex,   and    temperament,  and   still    more   aci In.-   (,,   ||u. 

nature  of  the  food  taken,  t:  'he  atmo-plieie,  the 

mode  of  life,  and  the  custom  of  the  individual.     Dry  anil 


T  H  I 


375 


T  H  I 


hard  or  salted  food  excites  great  thirst,  probably  because 
a  large  quantity  of  fluid  is  abstracted  from  the  blood  for 
its  digestion ;  but  fruits  and  soft  vegetables  assist,  by  the 
quantity  of  water  which  they  contain,  in  quenching  thirst ; 
and  infants,  receiving  their  food  and  drink  at  once  from 
the  milk  which  is  naturally  provided  for  them,  are  perhaps 
not  sensible  of  thirst  as  a  healthy  sensation  different  from 
that  of  hunger.  Strong  drinks,  again,  excite  thirst,  but  in 
a  peculiar  manner  ;  either  by  their  irritation  of  the  nerves 
of  the  digestive  canal,  or  by  the  great  quantity  of  fluid 
which,  by  exosmosis,  they  withdraw  from  the  blood. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  degree  of  thirst  during  health  is 
directly  proportioned  to  the  rapidity  of  the  exhalation  of 
fluid  from  the  skin  and  lungs.  Hence  the  naturally  greater 
thirst  in  summer,  and  the  desire  for  the  fresh  fruits  of  the 
season,  which  both  supply  water  and  produce  moisture  of 
the  mouth  by  exciting  a  flow  of  saliva ;  hence  also  the 
less  natural  thirst  which  is  produced  by  remaining  in  hot 
and  crowded  rooms,  arid  that  which  is  so  painfully  felt  by 
who  work  about  iron-forges  and  steam-engines,  and 
which  they  can  satisfy  only  by  frequent  and  enormous 
draughts  of  water.  Of  the  same  kind  is  the  thirst  which 
many  have  felt  in  ascending  high  mountains,  on  which,  as 
the  atmospheric  pressure  diminishes,  the  evaporation  from 
the  skin  is  increased  ;  and  that  which  is  produced  by  ex- 
posure to  a  dry  brisk  wind. 

The  sensations  and  other  circumstances  accompanying 
ordinary  thirst  need  not  be  described.  The  sensation 
of  dryness  of  the  mouth  and  throat,  which  most  strongly 
characterizes  it,  is  not  always  the  result  of  those  parts 
being  really  deficient  in  moisture,  nor  is  it  removed  by 
supplying  the  mouth  alone  with  fluid.  It  is  an  example 
cif  that  class  of  local  sensations  which  are  indicative 
of  peculiar  general  conditions  of  the  body,  or  of  the 
state  of  some  other  part  in  which  no  sensation  is  per- 
il. These  have  been  called  reflex  sensations;  and 
one  of  the  characters  common  to  many  of  them,  as  well  as 
to  thirst,  is  that  the  animal  perceiving  them  is  impelled  to 
actions  which  tend  to  the  health  of  the  body.  For 
example,  the  irritation  which  is  felt  at  the  upper  part  of 
the  throat,  and  which  induces  one  to  cough,  is  often  due, 
not  to  a  direct  excitement  of  that  part,  but  to  the  existence 
of  some  irritating  substance,  such  as  mucus,  in  a  distant 
and  insensible  part  of  the  air-passages.  From  the  latter 
part  an  impression  is  conveyed  to  the  nervous  centre  ; 
thence,  without  directly  giving  rise  to  a  sensation,  it  is 
supposed  to  be  reflected  to  the  sensitive  nerves  of  the 
glottis;  and  the  sensation  which  is  perceived  through  these 
excites  the  desire  to  cough,  and  thus  leads  to  the  expul-  I 
sion  of  the  irritating  substance.  In  like  manner  the  sen- 
sation of  dryness  in  the  mouth  induces  one  to  drink,  and 
so  to  remove  not  merely  the  sensation,  but  the  more  im- 
portant condition,  such  as  a  deficiency  of  water  in  the 
blood,  of  which  it  is  a  SIL'H. 

But  as  cough  may  be  produced  by  a  direct  irritation  of 
the  upper  part  of  the  larynx,  so  a  sensation  similar  to  that 
of  thirst  is  often  due  only  to  a  rapid  evaporation  from  the 
mouth  and  throat,  as  in  long  speaking  or  singing  ;  but  this 
may  be  removed  by  merely  washing  the  mouth  and  throat, 
or  by  exciting  a  flow  of  saliva  ;  means  which  are  insuffi- 
cient for  the  remedy  of  real  thirst.  That  the  introduction 
of  water  into  the  blood  is  necessary  for  quenching  thirst 
has  been  often  proved  in  persons  who  in  attempting  suicide 
have  divided  the  pharynx  or  oesophagus,  so  that  they  could 
no  longer  swallow  in  the  ordinary  mode.  Repeated  wash- 
ing of  the  mouth  has  been  altogether  unavailing  to  relieve 
their  thirst;  but  the  injecting  of  water  through  the  wound 
into  the  stomach  has  quickly  removed  the  sensation  of 
dryness  in  the  mouth,  though  none  of  the  water  passed 
through  it.  Similar  facts  have  been  observed  in  those  \\  ho,- 
being  unable  to  swallow  or  to  have  liquids  forced  into  their 
stomachs,  have  been  long  immersed  in  baths,  and  in  ship- 
wrecked sailors  who  have  had  no  fresh  water  and  have  re- 
lieved their  thirst  by  keeping  their  clothes  soaked  with  sea- 
water. 

The  thirst  of  many  diseases,  such  as  acute  fevers  and 
important  inflammations,  affords  another  proof  of  the  sen- 
sation peculiar  to  it.  being  chiefly  a  sitrn  of  some  general 
condition  ;  for  in  these  the  sensation  often  continues  not 
only  when  the  mouth  is  moist,  but  after  large  quantities 
of  water  have  been  imbibed,  being  here  probably  depend- 
ent on  some  condition  of  the  blood  which  dilution  does 


not  remedy.  In  certain  cases  also  the  sensation  seems  to 
be  entirely  subjective,  and  dependent  on  a  peculiar  condi- 
tion of  the  nervous  system.  This  is  remarkably  the  case 
in  a  disease  of  which  the  true  pathology  is  unknown,  and 
which  has  been  named  polydipsia,  from  its  chief  symp- 
tom being  an  excessive  and  insatiable  thirst.  Several  ex- 
amples have  been  recorded,  in  some  of  which  the  thirst 
probably  depended  on  a  constant  discharge  of  fluids  from 
diabetic  Blood,  or  by  dropsical  effusions,  or  otherwise  :  but 
in  many  it  could  not  be  traced  to  such  an  origin.  One  of 
the  most  remarkable  of  them  is  described  by  Mr.  Ware,  in 
the  '  London  Medical  and  Physical  Journal '  for  1816  :  the 
patient  was  a  man  22  years  old,  whose  health  was  in  other 
respects  good,  but  who  was  compelled  to  drink  six  gallons 
of  water  daily.  He  had  been  accustomed  to  drink  nearly 
as  much  from  his  childhood  ;  and,  if  deprived  of  a  suffi- 
cient supply,  his  head  was  always  affected,  and  fainting 
and  dullness  of  the  senses  ensued.  Nearly  all  the  cases  of 
the  same  kind  which  have  been  published  are  collected 
in  a  paper  by  M.  Lacombe,  in  the  French  medical  jour- 
nal 'L'Experience,'  for  May  and  June,  1841,  and  re- 
ferences to  several  are  given  by  Tiedemann,  in  his  '  Physio- 
logic des  Menschen,'  Band  iii.,  p.  71. 

If  thirst  be  long  unallayed,  it  produces  one  of  the  most 
dreadful  states  which  a  man  can  be  compelled  to  bear. 
Those  who  have  attempted  suicide  by  starvation  have  been 
unable  to  resist  the  desire  to  drink,  though  they  have  en- 
dured many  days  of  abstinence  from  food,  and  have  been 
compelled  thus  for  a  time  to  protract  their  lives.  The 
same  tortures  have  been  endured  by  sailors  wrecked  far 
from  land.  As  the  thirst  increases,  the  mouth  and  throat 
become  painful  and  burning  hot,  the  respiration  grows 
difficult,  and  the  expired  air  feels  hot  and  dry.  The  voice 
becomes  hoarse,  the  speech  thick  and  indistinct,  and  the 
pulse  small  and  rapid.  All  secretion  diminishes  or  is  sup- 
pressed, the  skin  is  hot  and  dry,  and  the  eyes  become 
painful  and  inflamed.  The  sensibility  of  every  part  of  the 
body  seems  exalted,  at  the  same  time  that  the  power  of  the 
muscles  fails  ;  the  mind  passes  slowly  from  restlessness  and 
anxiety  to  despair,  and  at  last,  as  the  body  grows  weaker, 
begins  to  wander  in  a  low  delirium.  At  the  close  of  life 
there  is  an  utter  prostration  of  strength,  and,  in  general, 
insensibility  ;  but  the  inflammation  of  the  mouth  and  eyes, 
and  of  all  the  parts  that  are  not  projected  from  the  air  by 
a  thick  cuticle,  increases,  and  proceeds  sometimes  to  gan- 
grene. The  time  during  which  so  miserable  a  state  can  be 
endured  varies  with  the  strength  of  the  sufferer.  Haller 
;  Eli-nx'iiln  I'hiiaioliiffiee,  t.  vi.)  has  collected  examples  of 
men  who  lived  for  at  least  fifteen  days  without  drinking  ; 
but  the  more  ordinary  period  is  eight  or  ten  days. 

THIRTY  TYRANTS  (of  Athens).  In  the  year  404  B.C., 
when,  after  the  Peloponnesian  war,  Athens  had  fallen  into 
the  hands  of  Sparta  through  the  treacherous  designs  of 
the  oligarchical  party,  the  Spartans  themselves  did  not 
interfere  in  any  direct  way  with  the  political  constitution 
of  Athens  (Diodorns,  xiv.  4),  but  their  negotiations  with 
Theramenes  and  others  of  the  same  party  had  convinced 
them  that  even  without  their  interference  the  democracy 
would  soon  be  abolished.  In  this  expectation  they  were 
not  disappointed,  as  this  was  really  the  object  of  the  oli- 
garchical party.  But  as  this  party  did  not  sufficiently  trust 
its  own  power,  Lysander,  who  had  already  sailed  to  Samos, 
was  invited  to  attend  the  Assembly  at  Athens,  in  which 
the  question  of  reforming  the  constitution  was  to  be  con- 
sidered. The  presence  of  Lysander  and  other  Spartan 
generals  with  their  armies,  and  the  threats  that  were 
uttered,  silenced  all  opposition  on  the  side  of  the  popular 
party,  and  on  the  proposition  of  Theramenes  a  decree  was 
•.I  that  thirty  men  should  be  elected  to  draw  up  a  new 
iHition.  (Xenophon,  Hellen.,  ii.  3,2.)  Lysias  (in 
A'/w/<«/7i.,  p.  126,  ed.  Steph.)  gives  a  more  satisfactory 
account  of  the  proceedings  on  that  memorable  day  than 
Xenophon.  These  thirty  individuals  were  invested  with  the 
sovereign  power  of  the  republic.  Theramenes  himself  nomi- 
ten,  the  Athenian  ephors  ten  others,  and  the  election 
of  the  remaining  ten  was  left  to  the  people.  The  names  of 
the  Thirty  are  preserved  in  Xenophon  (Hi'llfn.,  ii.  3,  2). 
Their  government,  a  real  reign  of  terror,  which  fortunately 
did  not  last  more  than  one  year,  was  called  in  Athenian 
history  the  year  of  anarchy,  or  the  reign  of  the  Thirty 
Tyrants.  From  the  moment  that  they  had  thus  acquired  an 
apparently  legal  power,  they  filled  the  vacancies  in  the 


T  H  I 


378 


T  H   I 


setiBt.-nr.il  tho  magistracies  with  their  own  friends  and 

•  .••    code   of  laws  which  th. 

drew  \er  made,   tlnit   they   might   nut   put    am 

>nts  upon  '  .  and  might  always  be  at  liberty 

:.-y  pleased.     A  -tins:  often 

moil,    perhaps  appointed    by    I.ysander   liiinsclr.  \\a.s    in- 
trusted with  tlic  government   .  Tlir   oh/ 
the  l                                        '        us  to   (lie  condition   ol'  nn 
unimportant    town,  and  to  make   the    people    forget  the 

.,•--  in  which  it  had  been  raised  byThenn- 

fho  splendid   arsenal   of    \ 

pulled  do-.  .  .-r.il  ui'  the  fortresses  of  Attica  were 

dosti  'isli  their  Uranny  the  Thirty  found  it 

•  riil  of  a  numl  •  -ns  obnoxious  to 

them.  Tin- first  that  wore  put  to  death  were  the  syco- 
phants, who  during  the  time  of  the  democracy  had  con- 
tributed i:  .throw  by  their  shameful 
praet  'lie  senate,  as  well  as  every  well-mcaninir 
citi/en,  was  glad  to  see  the  republic  delivered  of  such  a 
pestilence1.  The  senate  acted  in  the.-e  trials  as  the 
supreme  court  of  justice,  and  the  Thirty  presided  in  it. 
AH  the  votes  of  the  senators  however  wen1  gi-.cu  openly, 
that  the  (wants  misrht  be  able  to  sec  which  way  each  senator 
voted.  This  mode  of  proceeding,  though  it  was  at  first 
onU  directed  against  individuals  equally  obnoxious  to  all 
parties,  became  alarminir  when  all  the  distinguished  men, 
who  had  been  imprisoned  before  the  day  on  which  the  new 
constitution  was  established,  in  order  that  they  might  not 
frustrate  the  plans  of  the  oligarchs  by  their  oppo-it  ion,  were 
in  like  manner  sentenced  to  death.  The  apprehensions  of 
the  people  were  but  too  well  founded,  and  Critias,  the 
most  cruel  among  the  Thirty,  gave  sufficient  indications 
that  the  Tyrants  did  not  mean  to  go  on  with  the  same 
moderation.  That  they  might  aiwa\s  have  at  band  an 

I  force  to  support  them,  they  sent  an  embassy  to 
Sparta  to  ask  for  a  garrison  to  occupy  the  Acropolis. 
Tins  was  granted,  and  came  under  the  command  of  Calli- 
bius  as  harniostes.  His  arrival  rendered  the  Thirty  secure. 
They  courted  the  Spartan  hannostcs  in  the  most  ob- 
sequious manner,  and  he  in  return  placed  his  troops  at 
their  disposal  for  whatever  purpose  they  might  wish  to 
employ  them  in  establishing  their  dominion  more  firmly. 
The  assistance  of  the  senate  in  the  trials  for  political 
offences  began  to  be  dispensed  with,  and  the  number  of 
the  unhappy  victims  increased  at  a  fearful  rate.  Not 
only  persons  who  opposed  or  showed  any  dissatisfaction 
with  the  rule  of  the  Tyrants,  but  all  who  liy  their  merits 
had  piined  favour  with  the  people,  were  regarded  as 
dangerous  persons,  who,  if  they  could  choose,  would  piefer 
.•alar  government,  and  were  condemned  to  death  in  a 
very  summary  manner.  Tho  reign  of  the  Thirty  now 
bewail  to  display  all  its  horrors,  and  no  one  could  feel 
safe.  To  be  possessed  of  wealth,  especially  in  the  case 
ofali  .fficient  to  bring  a  man  to  ruin,  for  the 

tyrants,  independent  of  all  political  considerations,  I 
t'o  murder  for  no  other  purpose  than  that  of  enriching 
themselves  by  the  confiscation  of  the  property  of  their 
victims.  The  remonstrances  of  Therameiies  against  this 
reckless  system  of  bloodshed  were  not  followed  by  any 
other  consequence*  than  that  the  Thh1  :  :!iK)ii 

Athenians  who  were  to  enjoy  a  kind  of  franchise,  and  who 

.  not  be  put  to  deatli  without  a  trial  before  the  senate. 

The  rest  Of  the  Cltizei  •impelled    to    uue   up   their 

arms,  and  were  treated  as  outlaws.  By  this  expedient  the 
Thirty  hoped  to  strengthen  t;  and  to  become 

incident  of  the  Spartan  garrison.  The  opposi- 
tion ot  Thcramonc-.  to  this  arrangement  involved  bis  own 
destruction.  [TllBlLV  i  he  horrors  which  were  now 

perpetrated  became  every  day  more  numerous  and  fearful. 
and  numbers  of  Athenians  fled  from  their  native  country 
to  seek  refuge  at  Argos,  Megara.  Thebes,  and  other 
placi  n't  with  an  hospitable  and  kind  rcccp- 

The  tyrants  soon  began  to  be  uneasy  at  the  crouds 
of  exiles  who  thus  gathered  round  the  frontiers  of  Attica, 
and  applied  to  Sparta  to  i:  The  Spartans  issued  a 

••ring  the  Thirty   to    arrest    the 

in  any  part  of  G  elding  any  ((reeks' 

interfere  on    their   behalf.     This   command  was  entirely 

disregarded  by  the   <  ,  i-cially   the   Thehiins.  who 

declared  that  the   Athenian   fugitives  should  I 

1  and  protected  in  all  the  towns  of  Hosotia.     Tl 

whose  mode  of  action  was  not  dictated  by  a  generous  and 


humane    I  but 

rather  arose   fiom   jo:  •/.,  thus  became  the 

rallying  point  for  n   great  numl» 

i>riiing.      In  what  manner 

the  rule  of  the  Thirty   T;  >wn, 

and  the  dcnii.eratieal  constitution 
Mole  TilK.vsviM 

iiiphon.    //'•//,;;.,    ii.    '.i ;    Diodorus.     xiv.    3,    8 
Thirl,  e,  i\ ..  ]).  17-1.  & 

THIRTY    TYRANTS     under    >,'• 

This  name  has  I  to  a  set  of  usurpers  who  sprung 

up  in  vario  the  Unman   empire   in  the 

Tins 

appellation  of  the  Thi:  .  in  imitation  of  the  Thiity 

Tyrants  of  Athens,  is  highh  improper,  and  1  .iiogy 

to   the  Thirty   of  Athcn-.'    They    lose   m  different    ;• 
assuming    the    title   of   emperor,   in    irregular  - 
and   were  pift   down   one   after   another.     Their  number 
moreover  does  not   amount  to  thirty,  unless  women  and 
children,  who  were  honoured  with   the   imperial   title, 
included.     Trebellins  Pollio,  who,  in  his  wink  on  the  •  Tri- 
ginta  Tyranni.'  describes  the  adventures  of  each  of  ' 
has   taken    great    pains   to   make    out    that  their   number 
was  thirty.     There  were  however  only  nineteen  real  nsiir- 
pers, — ('\iiadcs.    Macii::nns.   Balis'a.  Odcnatlms.   and   '/.<•- 
nobia.   in   the   eastern    provinces;    Posthumns,    I. oil: 
Victorinus  and  his  mother  Victoria,  Marius,  and  Tot 
in  Gaul,  Britain,  and  the  western  provinces  in  go: 
Ingemuis,  Hegillianus,  and   Bureohis.  in  Ilhrienm  ai 
count;  ;hc  Danube:  Saturninns.  in  1'ontus:  Tre- 

bellianus,  in  Isauria  :  1'iso.  inThe.siU  :   \alons.inAe. 
Aemilianns,  in  Kgypt  ;    and   (Vlsii-,  in  Africa.     Th. 
jority  of  these  usurpers  were  persons  of  low  birth,  wr 
any  talent  or  virtue,  and  scarcely  any  on 
a  natural  death.     The  best  among   tliem  were   1'iso  and 
Oderrathns,  and  the  latter,  who  maintained  himself  at  Pal- 
myra, received  the  title  of  Augustus  from  the  Uoman  senate, 
and  was  enabled  to  bequeath  his  empire  to  his  widow,  the 
celebrated  Zenobia. 

(Trebellius  Pollio,   Trigiiita   Tyranni ;    Gibbon, 
of  the  Declu/f  and  lull.   chap.  \.  :   Man-o,   I. 

&tiiii//n'\  a  .  ]).  4:<:i.  x 

THIRTY  YKAUS-  WAR  is  the  name  of  that  memo- 
rable contest  which  lasted  from  K11K  to  1<; ,  n  the 
emperor  and  the  Uoinau  <                             of  Germany  on 
one  side,  and  the  Protestant  stales,  with  their   allies, 
mark,   and  afterwauls  Sweden   and   Franco,  on   the    • 
side.     Spain,  Holland,  and  Transylvania  also  took  part  in 
it,  but  their  interference  was  less  direct.  This  long  struggle 

has  generally   been    considered  a   religious   war.      1 
indeed   its   origin   in   religious  differenec.-.   but   political 
ambition  afterwards  became  the   real    motive  of  the   con- 
tending parties,  and  religion  was  used  to  veil   tile   d< 
of  the  leaders,   and  to   keep  up   the    enthusiasm  of  ihe 
people.     The  Thirty  Years'  War  arose  out   of  the   si, 
political   and   religions  confusion   into  which  the  German 
empire  was  thrown  b\  the   Hi-formation,  and  which  in  the 
beginning  0  uteonth   century  had   become   so  in- 

extricable, that    a   civil  war,  without   foreign   intcifci 

illy  the  shortest    if  not    the  only  means  to 

uin. 

In  •  understanding  of  the  history  of 

the  Thirty  Year-'  \\ar.  we  shall    iir-1  cm-  a   short  view  of 
the   state   of  rch  •    political    alt'ans   in   Germany 

dining  the  latter  part  of  the,  sixteinth  century. 

When  the  war  between  Charles  V.  and    Maurice  elector 
of  Saxony  was  terminated  l.\  the  IreaU  of  Passui 
and  after  the  conclusion  of  the   Second  IV:  Ivion 

l.'i.Vi  ,  the    memory  of  the   dangers  from  which   Germany 
had  escaped    preserved  the    empire    during   a    long    p, 
from  the  calamity  of  a  new  religious  war.     The  Proli 
religion  was   propagated,   without    am    uolcnoc.  in    i 

provinces  which  had  until  then  been  faithful  to  Komi 

early  as  1.1.SO  the  most  powerful   hereditan   princes   of  the 
empire,  i  \ocpt  the  archdukes  o!  ml  the  duke,-  of 

Bavaria  and  of  ('loves,  were  all  converted  to  the  docilities 
of  Luther;  the  Koman  Catholic  ,  .d  even  tin-  (  ni- 

perots    Ferdinand  L.  and   Maximilian  II..  '1   to 

make  many  concessions  in   religious   matters   in    order  to 
In  i  p  i ;  is  in  ohedii 

liy   the   Second   Peace    of  Hehgion  the  princes  had  ac- 
ijnired  the  '  HIS  reforiuandi,'  iha-l  is.  the  light  of  jiruteoting 


T  H  I 


377 


T  H  I 


their  subjects  in  religious  affairs,  which  right  was  gradually 
considered  by  them  as  a  right  of  reforming  the  state  of 
religion.  For  this  purpose  the  Roman  Catholic  princes 
employed  the  Jesuits  and  the  Capuchins ;  the  Jesuits  were 
active  in  the  conversion  of  men  distinguished  by  birth, 
bv  knowledge,  or  by  their  social  position,  and  the  Capu- 
chins worked  upon  the  mass  of  the  people.  Their  zeal 
and  success  occasioned  bitter  complaints  among  the  Pro- 
testants, who'  however  gave  causes  of  complaint  equally 
numerous  and  equally  well  founded  to  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics. The  dissatisfaction  of  the  people  was  augmented  by 
the  selfish  policy  of  their  princes. 

The  ecclesiastical  dignity  of  a  bishop  having  lost  all  its 
signification  in  the  Reformed  religion,  the  Protestant 
bishops  became  mere  temporal  princes.  Among  their 
number  were  the  archbishops  and  bishops  of  Bremen,  of 
Magdeburg,  of  Verden,  of  Liibeck,  of  Osnabriick,  of 
Ratzeburg,  of  Halberstadt,  and  of  Minden.  There  being,  at 
the  same  time,  some  hope  that  the  Protestant  bishops 
might  become  hereditary  princes  in  their  bishoprics,  the 
Roman  Catholic  bishops  of  Miinster,  of  Paderborn,  of 
Hildesheim,  and  the  elector  archbishop  of  Cologne,  mani- 
fested their  intention  to  adopt  the  Protestant  faith. 
Availing  themselves  of  the  privilege  granted  them  by 
the  '  jus  reformandi,'  they  encouraged  their  subjects  to 
adopt  the  Protestant  religion.  The  Roman  Catholic  princes 
tried  all  in  their  power  to  prevent  such  changes,  but  the 
Protestant  princes  favoured  them,  and  each  party  had  its 
motive  for  doing  so,  as  the  younger  sons  of  the  princes  and 
nobles  of  both  parties  were  usually  appointed  bishops, 
abbots,  and  canons. 

The  Roman  Catholic  party  recovered  its  political  influ- 
ence towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The 
Protestant  elector  archbishop  of  Cologne,  Gebhard,  count 
of  Truchsess,  was  driven  from  his  see,  and  his  successor, 
Ernst,  duke  of  Bavaria,  who  held  together  the  bishoprics 
of  Cologne,  of  Liege,  of  Miinster,  and  of  Hildesheim, 
oppressed  the  Protestants  in  all  his  extensive  dominions. 
The  bishops  of  Wiirzburg  and  of  Bamberg,  assisted  by  the 
Jesuits,  compelled  their  Protestant  subjects  to  emigrate, 
and  the  archbishop  of  Salzburg  treated  the  Protestants 
with  unheard-of  cruelty.  In  Strassburg  there  were  at  the 
same  time  a  Protestant  and  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop, 
who,  after  a  bloody  feud,  were  both  sustained  by  the 
emperor  Rudolph  II.  in  those  parts  of  the  bishopric 
which  they  had  conquered  ( 1593).  The  Roman  Catholic 
people  were  equally  persecuted  by  the  bishops  of  Halber- 
stadt  and  of  Osnabriick,  and  the  troubles  were  increased 
by  the  differences  which  arose  in  the  Protestant  party 
itself  between  the  Lutherans  and  the  Calvinists. 

The  leader  of  the  Calvinists  was  the  elector  palatine 
Frederick  IV.,  who,  with  a  small  number  of  Calvinist 
princes,  refused  to  appear  at  the  diet  of  Regensburg 
(  1.VJ4),  which  was  assembled  by  Rudolph  II.  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  the  assistance  of  the  empire  against  the 
Turks.  Frederick  and  his  party  declared  that  they  would 
not  assist  Rudolph  in  the  Turkish  war,  unless  he  satisfied 
all  the  claims  of  the  Protestants,  and  at  the  same  time 
they  promised  a  subsidy  of  400,000  gulden  to  Henri  IV. 
of  France  if  he  would  restore  the  Protestant  bishop  of 
Strassburg  to  the  entire  bishapiic.  The  Lutheran  princes 
expressed  the  utmost  indignation  at  the  treacherous  con- 
duct of  Frederick  IV.,  and  they  sent  their  contingents  to 
the  Turkish  war.  But  from  that  moment  there  was  a 
French  party  among  the  princes  of  the  empire,  and  we 
shall  afterwa'rds  see  how  dexterously  France  managed  her 
influence  over  Germany. 

The  diet  at  Regensburg  was  dissolved  in  1608  without 
any  results  with  respect  to  the  peace  of  the  empire.  The 
Roman  Catholic  states  claimed  the  restitution  of  all  the  tej-- 
ritories,  bishoprics,  abbeys,  and  churches,  which  had  been 
seized  by  the  Protestants  since  the  treaty  of  Passau  (1552) ; 
but  so  far  were  the  Protestant,  and  especially  the  Calvinist, 
princes  from  yielding  to  these  claims,  that  they  resolved  to 
t  them  by  every  means  in  their  power.  For  that  pur- 
pose they  concluded  the  '  Protestant  Union  '  on  the  4th  of 
May,  1008,  of  which  however  the  elector  of  Saxony  de- 
clined to  become  a  member.  The  elector  palatine  Fre- 
derick IV.,  a  Calvinist,  was  the  leader  of  the  Union.  The 
members  of  the  Union  immediately  levied  troops,  and 
sent  ambassadors  to  England,  France,  and  Venice,  thus 
giving  the  example  of  a  well-organized  rebellion,  and 
P.  (;.,  No.  1535. 


showing  that  they  would  resist  the  emperor  and  break 
:he  constitution  of  the  empire  with  the  assistance  of 
foreigners. 

The   confusion   of  political  and  religious  interests  in- 
creased after  the  death  of  John  William  duke  of  Jiilich, 
Cleves,  and  Berg  (1609),  one  of  the  most  powerful  princes 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  party.     The  succession  to  his  rich 
and  extensive  territories  was  disputed  between  John  Si- 
gismund,  elector  of  Brandenburg,  a  Lutheran  ;   the  count 
palatine    of    Neuburg,   Philip   Louis,   a   Calvinist ;    and 
Christian  II.,  elector  of  Saxony,  a  Lutheran,  but  a  friend  of 
the  emperor.     Alarmed  by  this  latter  circumstance,  the 
elector  of  Brandenburg  and  the  count  palatine  resolved 
to  govern  those  duchies  in  common,  until  they  could  find 
an  opportunity  to  settle  this  affair ;  and  they  immediately 
took  possession  of  Jiilich,  Cleves,  Berg,  and  the  dependent 
counties.    This  act  was  declared  by  the  emperor  to  be  a 
breach  of  peace  ;  he  ordered  the  vacant  inheritance  to  be 
sequestrated,  and  he  appointed  Leopold  of  Austria,  bishop 
of  Strassburg  and  Passau,  to  carry  the  measure  into  effect. 
He   was   assisted   by  the  whole    Roman   Catholic  party, 
which,  alarmed  at  the  loss  of  such  a  powerful  member  as 
the  duchy  of  Cleves,  concluded  a  union,  to  which  they  gave 
the  name  of  the  '  Liga'  (llth  July,  1C09).     This  Liga  was 
afterwards   the  strongest  support  of  the  emperor  during 
the  Thirty  Years'  War  ;  Maximilian,  duke  of  Bavaria,  was 
at  the  head  of  it.     But  as  early  as  the  llth  of  February, 
1610,  the  Union  concluded  an  alliance  with  Henry  IV.  of 
France,  and  occupied  the    bishoprics   of  Wiirzburg  and 
Bamberg.     French  troops  entered  the  duchy  of  Jiilich. 
King  Henry  seemed  to   have   found   an   opportunity  of 
carrying  into  effect  his  plans  of  a  European  republic,  but 
he  was  murdered  on  the  14th  of  May,  1610.   Frederick  IV. 
died  only  five  months  later,  and  the  Union  concluded  a 
peace  with  the  Liga  at  Munich  on  the  34th  of  October, 
1610.     In  the  mean  time  a  deadly  personal  animosity  had 
broken  out  between  the  elector  of  Biandenburg  and  Wolf- 
gang William,  the  son  and  successor  of  the  count  palatine 
Philip  Louis,  owing  to  their  common  government  in  the 
states  of  the  late  duke  of  Cleves.    Wolfgang  William,  in 
order  to  obtain  assistance  against  Brandenburg,  adopted  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion  ;  and  the  elector  of  Brandenburg 
made  himself  a  Calvinist  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the 
assistance  of  the  Union,  which  was  chiefly  composed  of 
Calvinist  princes.    The  confusion  which  arose  from  these 
sudden  changes  became  still  greater  by  the  interference 
of  the  king  of  Spain,  Philip  III.    This  king  became  afraid 
of  new  religious  troubles  in  his  provinces  of  the  Nether- 
lands, situated  on  the  boundaries  of  the  duchies  of  Cleves 
and  of  Jiilich,  and  he  therefore  ordered  his  general,  Spi- 
nola,  to  occupy  them  for  the  count  palatine  with  a  body 
of  30,000  Spaniards.     But  no  sooner  had  his  army  entered 
these  territories  than  the  United  States  of  the  Netherlands, 
then  at  war  with  Spain,  sent  troops  into  the  same  countries 
under  the  pretence  of  occupying  them  for  the  elector  of 
Brandenburg  (1614).     This  was  the  first  example  of  a  war 
between  foreign  powers  being  carried  on  in  Germany. 

The  empire  was  now  on  the  eve  of  a  general  war.  It 
was  generally  expected  that  it  would  begin  on  the  banks 
of  the  Lower  Rhine,  but,  on  the  contrary,  it  broke  out  in 
Bohemia. 

By  a  solemn  declaration  of  the  emperor  Rudolph  II., 
liberty  of  religion  had  been  granted  to  the  Utraquists,  a 
numerous  Protestant  sect  in  Bohemia  (9th  of  July,  1609). 
The  document  containing  this  declaration  had  the  name 
of  the  '  Majestats-Brief.'  Civil  troubles  having  broken  out 
in  Bohemia,  and  Rudolph  II.  having  taken  arbitrary  mea- 
sures to  put  an  end  to  them,  the  Bohemians  deposed  him, 
and  chose  his  brother  Matthias  king  in  his  stead,  in  1611. 
Rudolph  II.  died  of  grief  in  the  following  year,  and 
Matthias  likewise  succeeded  him  on  the  Imperial  throne 
(1612).  The  number  of  Lutherans  and  Calvinists  having 
greatly  increased  in  Bohemia,  they  claimed  the  same  re- 
ligious liberties  with  the  Utraquists.  Matthias  refused  to 
yield  to  these  claims,  and  serious  differences  arose  between 
him  and  the  Lutheran  and  Calvinist  Bohemians.  They 
were  joined  by  the  Utraquists,  who  were  afraid  the  em- 
peror might  abolish  the  '  Majestiits-Brief.'  Matthias  sent 
commissioners  to  Prague,  who  assembled  the  deputies  of 
the  Bohemian  states  in  the  royal  castle  of  the  Hradshin, 
and  declared  to  them  that  their  king  and  emperor  would 
not  extend  the  '  Majestiits-Brief '  to  the  Lutherans  and 

VOL.  XXIV.— 3  C 


T  H  I 


878 


T  II   I 


Cmlvimsts.    Suddenly  :ci  .1,111.  -i  p.ui\  of  Bohemian  noble*. 

11  tin-    room 

nert  andtl  a.s»cinbled. 

isMartinitz 

henna,  and  they  and 

thru, 
ami 

T!u-  happened  mi  ',  -,  and  this  day  is 
justly  ic'_'.udcd  ;is  the  bc;:ininni;  ot  the  TlilrU    Years'  War. 

The    conduct   nl    tin-   Bohciii  .!•>  tin-  Imperial 

com1                         '-.I-    bv     in  -in    act  <il    i  i-hness  Of 

anger.    The  party  of  the  Utiaiu;,  ->lvcd 

upon  it,  because  they  wanted  In  i;ivc   the  signal  for  iin    in- 

.'.  ill.'ll     bad     tl.  alllOU!*     all 

tin'  1'  ,f  Bohemia  anil  her  dependent  provinces 

Mora  ilia,  a*  well  a>  ,»e  of 

the  archduchy  Tilt-  in»urifents  immediately 

organised  ;i  rcirular  administration  of  the  kingdom.     They 
also  levied  an  army,  which  wa>  commanded  by  the  count 
,ud  whirh  was  icirfiirccd  by  a  hod)  of  the  troops 
ot'  tin-  Union,  commanded    by  Christian,  prince  of  Anhalt, 

1    his   time.      The    emperor 
•Jillh  <if  March.  IGlil  ,   and 

:aml  II..  aivluh.Kc  ot  Austrian  v  •!  liim 

as  emperor.      Pnvi,m-\  lo  tbj  lie   2Nt  of  May, 

crowned  o«  future  .-; 
Matthias  in  Bohemia. 

The  leaders  nf  the  Union   encouraLred   tlie   Bohemians 
to  further  ,  h  Ferdinand   II.   promised 

rclidoiw  liberty  to  all   tl,  its  of  Hoheinia,  tliey 

nevertheless  sent  their  troops  agaiwl  him,  and  declared  the 
throne  vacant.  Frcdiric!,  palatine,  the  son-in- 

law  of  James  I.  ol'  England.  «as  chosen  tun:,'  ut'  Bohemia, 
and  he  was  crowned  ut  Prague  on  the  4th  of  November, 
liil'.t.  In  the  mean  time  the  count  of  Thurn  had  mad- 
progress  in  Austria.  In  the  month  of  .Inly.  lOlil,  he  was 
under  the  walls  of  Vienna,  and.  although  this  city  was  re- 
lieved, he  remained  with  his  army  in  the  adjacent  country. 
There  he  was  joined  by  Betlen  (labor,  the  sovereign  prince 
of  Transylvania,  who  had  overrun  Hunirai  y  and  vv  bo  took  up 

his  winter-quarters  in  ith  the  count  of 

Thurn.  In  the  same  winter  Hil'.i  Ki2ii  the  new  kins;  of 
Bohemia  made  a  defensive  and  offensive  alliance  with  the 
ol'  Hungary,  and  he  proposed  a  si- 
milar alliance  to  Sultan  Ahmed  I.  This  imprudent  and 
unpatriotic  policy  made  bis  cause  unpopular  among  all 
parties  in  Germany. 

Ferdinand  II.  took  vigorou*  though  arbitrary  i: 
recover  Bohemia  and  her  dependencies,  those  extensive  and 
rich  countries  which  are  now  inhabited  by  upwards  of  ten 
millions  of  inhabitants.  The  pope,  Spam,  Bavaria,  and 
even  the  Protestant  elector  of  Saxony,  promised  their 
nee  to  the  emperor.  In  the  autumn  of  Hi'JO  the 
Lower  Palatinate  was  occupied  by  the  Spaniards  under 
Spinola  :  the  dnke  of  Havana  overran  the  Upper  Palatinate 
and  entered  Itohemia:  John  G  ot'  Saxony 

(since   Kill  .  conquered  I.nsatia;   and  AuMiia 
by  the  emperor  himself,  who  had  made  peace  with  Betlen 
Gabor.     At  !a-t  the    i:  commanded  by  their  duke 

and  the  celebrated  Tilly,  forced  the  Bohemians  to  make  a 
stand  on  the  V.  _r  under  the  walls  of  I' 

Then  ,iletely  defeated  on  the  Mill  of  Novem- 

ber, 10aO.  Frederick  tied  from  his  capital,  and  after  a  short 
«tay  in  his  second  capital.  Bre.slan,  he  abandoned  his  kinj- 
di.m  and  took  refuse  in  Holland. 

Bohemia,  with  all  her  dc|>  m  the  hands 

of  the   emperor,  who  rewarded  Ins   ally,    the 
Saxony,  with  the  province  of  I.n^itia.     He   punished  the 
mians  severely .        V    urieat    number   of   i, 
and  their 

iiiber   of   fugitives   wen-    contiscate.l  ;    but    an 
-|uoad  vitamet  honoreiu')  was  ^'iveii  on  the  4th 

all   tho*'   who   bad    not  been    ciind. 
before  that  day.    The  Lutheran  andCalvim-t  nm 

x-d,  and  their  churches  were  ihnt  up;  but  not 
of  ll  '  IIIIL;   the    •  Ntajestiits-Biiel  ' 

•  '     'I  IK   Roman  OathoUei  iren  restored  to  all 

UMirriKfaU;  and  the  university  of  Prague  and  the  whole 
»aUonal  education  were  put  und.-r  the  direction  of  the 
J««uU.  The  emperor  then  put  king  Frederick  under  tin- 


ban  of  the  empire,  declared  hia  electorship  to  be  for:. 
and  proposed  the  dn 
This  pic, position  IIOVM 

m,   Yfho   conadi  I'anishmeiit    of    KredencU 

^al  because  the  conm-il  ot 

ally   pronounced  it  according  to  the  constitution  of  th« 
emin 

Tlie  power  of  the  emperor  increased  ao  much  by  hi* 
coni|iie-t  of  Bohemia,  ami  the  K  "iic  stale*  were 

h  enco\iraifed.  that  they  claimed   those 
abbeys,  and   churches  which   had   been    reforn 
-inee  the  Second  Peace  of  Religion. 

Bel  liohcmirv  v,  i  I\"., 

kinir  of  Denmark  and  duke  of  1 

northern    Germany,     and    the    ainbiosiulo.  land, 

'i.  and  the  United  States  of  the  Netherlands,  held  a 
congress  at  Seireberir  m  Holstem  for  the  pi  ;,]mi- 

in^  an  alliance  against  any  ambition- 
peror.      After     the    battle      on    the   \Vei.sse    I' 

rick  also  ca  .  and  claimed  th, 

of  the  northern  princes  in  order  to  recover  his 
These  princ  ,  r  had  assembled  cx< 

own   interests.     The  bishopric's  of  I.ubei  k 
Verden.  of  Scbvverin,  of   Halberetadt,  an, 
had  been  bestowed  on  youmrcr  M)ns  of  the  reiirniui;  b 
of  Holstein  and  of   Brnnswicli,  and   1 
them  if  the  Roman  Catholic  party  had  i 

Mem.    Frederick  therefore  found  only  one  li 

iiristian,  duke  of  Brunswick    and  'bishop  of  11 
stadt,  an  unprincipled  man,  who  lovi 

land,  the  wifeoftne  unhappy  kins;  of  the  Boheiniaii*.  ajul 
svvore    he  would   die   for   her.     With  a   - 
entered  the  Palatinate.   He.  was  beaten  by  Tilly  at  I1 
(tith  June.  1022  .  Christian  now  joined  the  count  of  Mans- 
fcld,  a  man  not   less  unprincipled  than   himself,  and 
retired   to   northern  Germany  as    far    as 
They  plundered  and  robbed   friends  as  well  :^ 
but,  pressed  bv  Tilly,  they  disbanded  their  i  tied 

to    Knirlaud      December,    lu'lit  .       Maximilian    of    1!;, 

^  been  chosen  elector  at    the  diet  of    lli-i.    and  Tilly 
bt-ini;  then  in  possession  e  northern  bishojiiies, 

kini;   Christian  concluded  an  alliance  with   England  and 

nited   States  of  the    Netherlands   for  the    purpose  of 
obtainini;   subsidies   for  the   war   which    he    intended   to 
declare    airaiii-t    tlie    i-ni])eror.       Christian   of  Halbe 
and  the  count  of  ManslVld  promised  their  assistance.     The 
former  went  to  France  and  levied  troops  there,  and  Mans- 
feld,  who  had  obtained  a  commission  as  an  Er.: 
ral.  levied  a  strong   force  in   England.     They  united  i. 
Netherlands,    and.    al'ter  many   adventures   and    dar 
Mansfeld  succeeded  in  joining  the  duke  of  Mecklen 
who    w:us    an  ally  of  the  kins:  of   Denmark.     Mear 
the  latter  kin:r  bad  been  appointed  eommander-in-chii  t  ol 
the  united  forces  of  the  ciicle  of  I  ,  ny,  and.  tboui.'h 

the  greater  part  of  the  ])rinces  of  this  circle  shortlj 

made    their    peace    with   the  emperor,  the  kinir  ad- 
vanced into  Hanover,  where  Tilly  was  ready  to  receive  him 

The  emperor  was  then  in  a  very  embarrassed  situation. 
The  war  in  northern  Germany  was  carried  on  by  the 
troops  of  th  nl  principally  by  those,  of  li;r 

commanded  by  Tilly,  who  was  at  the  same  time  com- 
mandcr-in-chict  of  the  force*  of  the  Union.  The  duke 
of  Bavaria  had  consequently  an  immense  influence  in 
public:  nll'nirs  ;  the  emperor  was  obliged  to  cede  to  bun  the 
•it  of  ins  archduchy  as  an  in- 

demnification for  his  expenses  in   the    Bohemian   war.  and 
to  appoint  him  bis  biirh  commissioner  in  the  clectom 
the    Palatinate.      On    the    other  > Inland    11.    v\:,-. 

threatened   by   the  count  of    Mansfeld,  who   uas  ll:, 
lift  head  of  a  atroni;  army  in  the  duchies  of  Me, 
and  who  was  ready  to  invade  1. 
join    Betlen   Gabor.    prince  of  T 

had  airain  taken  nun-  .  and  there   was  only 

a  small  ln«ly  of  Imperial  troops  to  check  him. 

Albrechl  "of  Waklstein   [\V\ii  :    the 

Thirty  \ears'    War.  SJIV.M!    the  cinpcior    and  pi.  --crM'd  the 
empire.      Known  sts  a  skilful   general,  and  in   possession  of 

iuke  of  Kiiedland  in 

In   1  ( ;•_•.-!  Kerdmand  II.  ap]iMiiited    him   eommaiidei- 
in-chief  of   an    Impeiial   :\nn\    which    did  .   but 

winch  was  created  by  VValdstein  in  a  very  short  time. 


T  H  1 


379 


T  H  I 


Waldstein  advanced  towards  the  Lower  Elbe,  and  took 
a  fortified  position  at  Dessau.  There  he  was  three  times 
attacked  by  Mansfeld.  On  the  1st  and  on  the  llth  of 
April,  1626,  Mansfeld  was  beaten ;  on  the  25th  of  the 
same  month  he  was  put  to  the  route.  He  reinforced  his 
army  in  Mecklenburg,  and  in  June  invaded  Silesia  with 
20,000  men,  in  order  to  join  Betlen  Gabor.  Waldstein 
marched  in  a  parallel  direction,  and  weakened  his  enemy 
liy  skirmishes.  On  the  8th  of  September  Mansfeld  was  on 
the  banks  of  the  Waag  in  north-western  Hungary,  with 
only  one-fourth  of  his  army,  while  Waldstein  with  fifty 
thousand  men  stood  between  him  and  Betlen  Gabor.  This 
prince  made  peace  with  the  emperor,  and  Mansfeld,  leav- 
ing the  remainder  of  his  army  to  the  command  of  John 
Ernst,  duke  of  Saxe-Weimar,  fled  to  Venice,  but  died  on 
his  way,  in  a  village  in  Dalmatia.  Christian  of  Halberstadt, 
his  fellow-adventurer,  had  died  before  him,  in  the  27th 
year  of  his  age. 

While  Waldstein  was  victorious  in  eastern  Germany, 
Tilly  carried  on  the  war  in  the  country  west  of  the  Elbe 
against  the  king  of  Denmark.  In  consequence  of  a  fall  from 
his  horse,  which  had  affected  King  Christian's  mind  to  an 
alarming  degree,  he  firmly  believed  that  God  had  chosen 
him  to  be  the  champion  of  the  Protestant  religion.  But 
half  of  his  army  was  destroyed  by  the  skilful  manoeuvres  of 
Tilly,  and  at  last  the  king  was  obliged  to  make  a  stand  at 
Lutter  am  Barenberg,  between  Goslar  and  Hildesheim. 
A  battle  ensued,  in  which  the  Danes  were  completely 
dd'eated  17th  of  August,  1626),  and  Christian  fled  beyond 
the  Elbe  into  his  dominions. 

Tilly  employed  the  following  year  (1627)  in  besieging 
and  taking  the  towns  on  the  left  side  of  the  Elbe,  which 
were  occupied  by  Danish  garrisons.  In  the  month  of 
July  he  was  joined  by  Waldstein,  who,  after  his  victories 
over  Mansfeld,  had  driven  the  Danes  from  the  countries 

•if  the  Elbe.  Waldstein,  after  having  put  the  dukes 
(if  Mecklenburg  to  flight,  attacked  the  king  of  Denmark, 
who  had  assembled  a  new  army  (1628),  and  in  one  cam- 

i  his  troops  conquered  all  the  continental  possessions 

liristian  IV.,  who  was  compelled  to  beg  for  peace 
before  the  end  of  the  year.  A  congress  assembled  at 
Liibeck,  and  on  the  22nd  of  May,  1629,  Waldstein  granted 
peace  to  the  king  of  Denmark,  on  conditions  unex- 
pectedly favourable  :  Jutland,  Slcswik,  and  Holstein  were 
restored  to  Christian,  who  promised  not  to  interfere  in  the 
German  affairs  nor  to  make  any  furl  her  claim  on  bishoprics 
on  behalf  of  his  kinsmen.  Immediately  after  the  peace  of 
Liibeck,  Waldstein  was  invested  with  the  duchies  of  Meek 
lenburg,  the  dukes  having  previously  been  dispossessed 
and  put  under  the  ban  of  the  empire  for  their  adherence  to 
the  king  of  Denmark. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  events  in  the  Danish  war 
was  the  siege  of  Stralsund  on  the  Baltic,  a  town  which 
belonged  to  the  Ilimseatic  confederacy,  though  it  was  sub- 
ject to  the  duke  of  Pomerania.  Stralsund  being  occupied 
by  a  Danish  garrison,  it  was  besieged  by  the  troops  of 
Waldstein,  who  conducted  the  siege  during  the  months 
of  June  and  July,  1G28.  On  the  14th  of  July  the  town 
capitulated ;  but  before  the  Imperial  troops  had  taken  pos- 
m  of  it,  a  Swedish  fleet  appeared  off  Stralsund,  and 
landed  a  strong  body  of  troops,  who  took  possession  of  the 
fortress.  Although  the  inhabitants  of  Stralsund  had  pro- 
mised obedience  to  the  emperor,  the  Imperial  troops  were 
not  allowed  to  enter  the  town,  which  remained  under  the 
command  of  a  Swedish  general.  Of  this  most  unfair  and 
insulting  interference  on  the  part  of  the  Swedes,  Wald- 
htcin  was  previously  aware ;  and  this  was  one  of  the 
reasons  why  he  allowed  such  favourable  terms  to  the 
king  of  Denmark  at  the  peace  of  Liibeck  ;  another  cause 

-.i  daring  design  of  the  emperor  on  the  liberty  of 
the  Protestant  religion.  Encouraged  by  the  success  of  his 
armies,  and  misled  by  imprudent  counsellors,  Ferdinand 
II.,  on  the  6th  of  March,  1029,  issued  the  '  Edictum  Resti- 
tutitmU.'  By  this  edict  he  deprived  the  Calvinists  of  their 
religious  liberties  ;  and  he  declared  that,  conformably  to  the 
Mid  Peace  of  Religion,  all  the  bishoprics,  abbeys,  and 
churches  which  had  been  taken  from  the  Roman  Catholics 
since  that,  peace  should  be  rentored  to  them  ;  and  that  the 
Roman  Catholic  pOMewon  of  Protestant  territories  should 
not  be  hindered  from  the  enjoyment  of  the  privilege-- 
granted by  the  '  Jus  Refotmandi.'  The  ecclena 
states  which  had  been  ceded  to  members  of  the  house  of 


the  elector  of  Saxony,  who  -was  still  an  ally  of  the  em- 
peror, -were  alone  excepted  from  this  ordinance.  If 
the  '  Edictum  Restitutionis1*  had  been  executed,  a  general 
civil  war  would  have  been  the  immediate  consequence; 
but  it  met  with  much  opposition.  Only  a  few  Protestant 
bishoprics  were  conferred  upon  Roman  Catholic  princes, 
and  the  legal  execution  of  the  Edict  was  made  dependent 
upon  the  arbitration  of  a  general  meeting  of  all  the 
states.  This  meeting  was  called  the  '  Day  of  Composi- 
tion,' and  was  fixed  for  the  month  of  February,  1631. 

The  religious  troubles  seemed  now  to  be  nearly  at  an 
end.  All  the  states  of  Germany  wished  for  peace;  and  all 
hoped  that  this  peace  was  to  be  settled  on  the  '  Day  of 
Composition.'  The  Protestant  party  was  still  powerful 
enough  to  obtain  favourable  conditions  for  their  religion. 
The  emperor's  power  had  much  increased,  but  the  ambi- 
tion of  his  counsellors  and  the  haughtiness  of  his  generalis- 
simo, Waldstein,  met  with  vigorous  opposition  among  the 
members  of  the  Liga,  who  obliged  the  emperor  to  deprive 
Waldstein  of  his  rank  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  Im- 
perial forces  M030).  Foreign  interference  was  not  at  all 
necessary.  But  foreign  interference  was  nevertheless  pre- 
pared by  France  and  Sweden. 

Gustavus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden,  was  master  of  all 
the  countries  which  lie  around  the  northern  and  eastern 
parts  of  the  Baltic,  and  his  favourite  plan  was  to  make  this 
sea  into  a  Swedish  lake.  He  was  also  a  pious  man,  and 
sincerely  attached  to  the  Protestant  faith.  Deeply 
afflicted  by  the  dangers  to  which  this  religion  was  exposed 
in  Germany,  he  formed  the  plan  of  becoming  its  protector, 
and  he  pursued  this  plan  with  the  more  zeal  and  persever- 
ance, as  he  was  convinced  that  by  becoming  protector 
over  the  Protestant  religion  he  would  also  become  master 
of  the  Baltic.  Immense  influence  in  Germany,  and  the 
possibility  of  being  raised  to  the  dignity  of  emperor,  would 
nave  been  the  consequence  of  success  in  either  of  his 
iimbitious  designs.  (Extracts  of  documents  contained  in 
Breyer,  Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  des  Drtissigjdhrigen 
Kntget,  pp.  210,  219,  221,  252.)  France,  then  weakened 
hy  civil  troubles,  was  unable  to  interfere  directly  in  the 
German  war,  and  her  minister,  Richelieu,  employed 
every  means  id  his  power  to  persuade  the  king  of 
Sweden  to  make  the  first  attack.  Gustavus  Adolphus 
being  then  at  war  with  the  Poles,  Richelieu  tried  to  nego- 
tiate a  truce  between  the  belligerent  parties ;  but  the 
emperor,  anxious  to  prevent,  any  such  peace,  sent  his  gene- 
ral, Arnheim,  to  Poland,  with  those  troops  who  had  been 
employed  in  the  siege  of  Stralsund.  Although  the  Swedes 
had  first  violated  the  German  territory  by  occupying  that 
fortress,  they  nevertheless  considered  the  assistance  which 
the  emperor  gave  to  the  Poles  as  a  declaration  of  war. 
But,  instead  of  attacking  the  hereditary  states  of  the  em- 
peror on  the  Polish  frontier,  Gustavus  Adolphus,  by  the 
mediation  of  the  French  ambassador,  Charnacc,  made  a 
truce  with  the  king  of  Poland  for  six  years,  at  Altmark,  in 
the  month  of  September,  1629.  He  then  made  great  pre- 
parations for  an  attack  on  the  German  countries  along  the 
Baltic,  and  ordered  his  fleet  to  blockade  the  towns  of  Wis- 
mar  and  Rostock  in  Mecklenburg,  which  were  occupied 
by  the  troops  of  Waldstein.  The  king  of  Sweden  was  the 
more  active  because  he  was  checked  in  his  designs  on  the 
Baltic  by  Waldstein,  who  had  assumed  the  title  of  Imperial 
admiral  of  the  Baltic,  and  who,  by  means  of  the  Hanseatic 
towns,  wished  to  restore  the  supremacy  of  the  German  navy 
in  the  northern  seas.  But,  having  been  deprived  of  his  mili- 
tary command  by  the  emperor  in  1G30,  Waldstein  saw  him- 
self compelled  to  defer  the  execution  of  these  gigantic  plans. 

French  subsidies  enabled  Gustavus  Adolphus  to  be  ready 
for  the  new  war  as  early  as  the  spring  of  1630.  On  the 
24th  of  June  he  landed  16,000  men  on  the  island  of  Use- 
dom,  on  the  coast  of  Pomerania.  He  styled  himself  Pro- 
tector of  the  Protestant  Faith,  and  came  to  Germany  at  a 
moment  when  the  princes  were  assembled  at  Regensburg 
for  the  purpose  of  settling  their  religious  affairs,  and  when 
the  Protestant  party  itself  had  sufficient  power  to  protect 
its  faith.  The  first  act  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  was  to 
compel  Bogislav  XIV.,  duke  of  Pomerania,  a  Protestant 
prince,  to  appear  in  his  camp,  and  to  surrender  to  him  his 
capital,  Stettin,  a  town  equally  important  by  its  fortifica- 
tions and  by  its  situation  near  the  mouth  of  the  Oder.  He 
then  gradually  occupied  all  Pomerauia,  and  on  the  13th  o£ 
January,  1631,  concluded  a  treaty  with  France,  by  which 

3C2 


T  H  I 


360 


T  H  I 


ho  engaged  himself  to  cam-  on  the  war  against  Austria 
with  10,000 cavalry  mul  30,000  fi>ot,on  tin-  condition  of  an 
anni:  "l  -MIO,(KX)  thalers.  Meantime  In-  sum- 

•  •tcstant  princes  to  join  him,  but  when 
Membled  at  Leipzig  (10th  of  Fcbraary  to  12th  of  April. 
Hill  they  declared  the  king  of  Sweden  an  intruder,  and 
they  promised  to  a-ssist  tlic  emperor  \\itli  all  their  i 

p,  duke   cil'    Bnuiswick     Liinchurg,    was    the    only 
prince    who  joined   the   Swedes,    m   the   hope    of  obtain- 
ing  some    ecclesiastical    territory  as    an    addition    to  his 
Vcciv  cd  in   his  ••  pro- 

•ant  faith  attacked   (:  'liam. 

elector  of  Unit  ••• .ho  was  his  brother-in-law  and 

one  of  the  first  Protestant  princes  of  the  empire.    He  com- 
1  him  to  surrender  his  fortress  of  Spamlau,  and  he 
then  made  an  alliance  with  the  citv  of  Magdeburg. 

This  rieh  and  populous  Imperial  town  joined  the  Swedish 
party  for  the  purpi  -  i'ing  the  dancer  of  being 

nceiipied  by  the  Imperialists,  who  were  ordered  to  defend 
that  fortress  against  the  Swedes.  Kor  this  conduct  Mag- 
deburg was  put  under  tin  ban  of  the  empire.  Tilly  having 
been  chanted  to  execute  the  ban.  and  to  take  the  town  by 

the  citizens  of  Magdeburg  hoped  to  be  n 
by  the  king  of  Sweden,  who  had  promised  his  assistance, 
but  Gustavus  durst  not  advance  as  far  as  the  Elbe,  unless 
his  rear  was  secured  by  an  alliance  with  the  electors  of 
Brandenburg  and  of  Saxony.  Magdeburg  was  taken  by 
storm  by  Tilly  and  Pappeuhcim.  whose  troops  plundered 
the  town  during  three  davs  and  dest roved  it  by  fire  (20th 
of  .May.  l(i;il  .  The  unhappy  fate  of  this  opulent  town  was 
made  the  subject  of  a  charge  against  the  king  of  Sweden, 
who  however  had  pained  such  influence  over  the  princes 
of  northern  Germany,  that  his  political  credit  was  in  no 

•••.  eakened  by  this  event.  He  forced  the  elector  of 
Brandenburg  to  conclude  an  alliance  with  him  :  he  drove 
the  Imperial  garrisons  from  Mecklenburg,  and  restored  the 
dukes;  and  he  ravaged  the  electorate  of  Saxony  until  the 
elector  surrendered  his  towns  and  concluded  a  defensive 
and  offensive  alliance  with  (itistavus  Adolphus  14th  of 
September,  1631).  Previously  to  this,  William  V.,  land- 
grave of  Hesse-Cassel,  had  voluntarily  attached  himself  to 
the  Swedes,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  profiting  by  the 
confusion  into  which  the  empire  was  thrown  by  their  in- 
terference. Hernhard,  duke  of  Saxe-Weimar.  offered  his 
services  as  general  to  Gustavus  Adolphus.  and  he  was 
immediately  put  at  tli  •  part  of  the  Swedish  army. 

While  the  king  of  Sweden  thus  had  his  power  increased 
by  the  forced  or  voluntary  adherence  of  the  princes,  Tilly 
reinforced  his  armv,  and  occupied  Leipzig.  But  on  the 
17th  of  September,  liw  •  N.  S.),  Tilly  lost  the  battle  of 
Leipzig  against  the  united  force-  of  the  Swedes  and  Saxons  ; 
and  such  was  the  disorganization  of  the  Imperial  army,  that 
Gustavus  Adolphus  found  no  enemy  to  oppose  his  march 
to  southern  Germany.  However,  instead  of  invading  the 
hereditary  states  of  the  emperor,  the  king  of  Sweden  con- 
quered the  bishoprics  of  Wurzburg  and  Bamberg  in  Frnn- 
conia.  which  he  intended  to  keep  for  himself.  He  then 
took  the  archbishopric  of  Main/  and  the  Palatinate,  but 
did  not  restore  it  tn  ter,  the  ba 

of  Bohemia.  Frederick  V.      At    last    he   marched   to 

ia.  and  forced  his  wayacio-s  the  l.ecli  after  :i  bloody 

victory  over  the    Bavarians,  who   lost  ther  general,  Tilly 

il.   lliii'^  .      Aui'-bnrg.  a  free  lni])erial  towu.wa's 

i    to  pay  homage  to  '  \<l.>]phus.  who  on  the 

7th  of  May  made    In-  mto  Munich,  the  capital  of 

During  tbi«  time  1  .  thecompulson  allies 

of  tb'  iable  part  of  Bohemia 

and  Silesia.     The  great  d.  -  G  "Iphus  now 

became  manliest.     He  proposed  to  George  William,  elector 

indcnburg,  that  Krederick  William,  the  elector's  son. 
:d  marry  his  only  daugliter  Christina.     Frederick  Wil- 
liam  WM  thus  to   become    ma-tcr    of    Sweden.    Finnland, 

inannlanil.  F.-thonin.  I.ivonia,  Ctirland.  Prussia.  Bian- 
denbiirg.   Mccklcnlmig.    Pomerania,   of   the   bishop 
Kainberg.    Wijrzburg.    Mainz.     Magileburg,     Hsilbi-i 

r.  !ind  Worms,  of  the  Palatinate,  and  of  all  the  conn- 
tnen  which  the  king  hoped  to  conquer  in  southern  ('•••r 
ninny.     But    this   biilliant    offer  was    refused    by   (• 
\\ilham.     It   ii  said   that    this  prince,  who  wn- 
Calvinut,  would   not  allow  Ins  s,,,,  to  become  a  Lutheran. 
diti.in  of  tins  marringe  being  to  assist  the 
King  of  Sweden  in  his  designs  on  the  Imperial  crown,  it 


seems  that  the  elector  refused  the  proposals,  because  he 
would  not  make  himself  the  instnuueir 

The  emperor  was  then   in   tin  He 

had  no  army  to  oppose  to  •  -.  and  if  he  had   hail 

one.  the  only  general  who.  -after  Tilly's  death,  was  able  to 
lead  it  with  success  Hgainsi  '  Vlnlplm-.  Wa!.: 

had  been    deprived   of  his  rank   as   commander-in-chicf, 
and  had  become  a  deadly  enemy  of  the  emperor.    1 
nand  was  obliged  to  humiliate  himself  before  his  \ 
and  at   last  Waldstcin  consented  to  resume  tin-  command 
of  the  Imperial  armv  .  ,  but  U  it 

and  independent    master.      This   army  however   did   not 
exist,  but  was  to  be  created  by  Waldstein. 

When  Gustavus  Adolphus  occupied  Miini< -h.  Wali: 
had  already  levied  a  strong  body  of  troops,  with  which  he 
expelled   the  Saxons  from   Bohemia.     'Hie  defeat  of  his 
ally  obliged  the  king  i  'o  relinquish  the  atta- 

Austria,  to   leave  Bavaria,  and  to  hasten   to  tin 

.<>ny.   then   exposed    to  the   victorious   Impcri; 
lie  made  a  stand  at  Nuraberg,  in  order  to  o  Im- 

perial army   .January,  1032'.     In  the  month  of  .luly  Wald- 
stein arrived  at  Fu'rth,  near  Ni'imbcrg.  and  took  u] 
•  ui,  by  which  he  checked  the  king,  and   i- 
the   supplies   of   provisions   which   were   destined    for    the 
Swedish  camp.     Gustavus  Adolphus  assaulted  the  cam])  of 
Aersary  on  the  24th  of  August,  but   his  troops  were 
driven  back  with  great  slaughter:    and  the  king,  seen 
army  exposed  to  hunger  and  disease,  left  his  camp  on  the 
8th  of  September,  and  retired  to  Sa\on\.     Waldstcin  fol- 
lowed him,  and  in  the  month  of  October  both  the  a: 
were  in  Saxony.  Waldstein  divided  his  army  into  two  b- 
in  order  to    enter   into  winter-quarters,  thinking  that  the 
'.  king  of  Sweden  had  renounced  hostilities  for  that  winter. 
But  on  the  (ith  of  November  lie  va*  suddenly  attacked  by 
the  Swedes  at   J.iitzcn.  a   small   town   in  the  environs  of 
Leipzig,  and  he  lost  the  battle  in  consequence  of  a  part  of 
his   army    having    been   separated    from    the   main    body. 
This  victory  however  was  fatal   to  tli. 

of  the  death  of  Gustavus  Adolphns.  who  was  killed  ;    and 
the  battle  v  i  by  Bcrnhard.  <!  ••-Weimar, 

whoimmcii  the  command  of  the  Swedish  armv. 

Waldstein  retired  to  Bohemia,  where'  lie  remained.  Strangely 
inactive,  although  he  soon  repaired  bis  losses  at  the 
of  Liitzcn. 

The  death   of  Guslavus  Adolphus   did   not    lessen   the 
edes,  nor  change  their  polities  :  the  chan- 
cellor OxciMienia  directed  their  atl'airs  with  the  same 
and  the  same  skill  a-,  the   late   king  :    and  the  new  ; 
ralis-iino,  Bernhard  of  Saxi'-Weimar.  wa-.  one  of  the  ino-t 
<listinguisheil  captains  of  his   time.     In  1033  Oxenstierna 
concluded   an   alliance    with    the    states    of  the   cii. 
Suabia,  of  Franconia,  of  the  I'pper  Khinc.  and  of  the  Lower 
Khine.  and  duke    Bernhard  got  , 
Waldstein  however  dest  roved  the  Swedish  armv 
conquered   I.n-atia.   and   entered   into  negotiations  for  the 
purpose  of  concluding  a  separate  pi  are  with  Biamlcnburg 
and  Saxony,  those  compulsory  allies  of  the  Swedes,  wim 
were  afraid  of  the  dangers  to  which  Germany  w . 
bv  the  Swedish   protection  of  the  Protestant  church.     But 
Waldstcin.  whose   pride    heeann    insupportable,  anil  whose 

I  of  high   treason   l>- 

numerous  enemies  :  and  he  was  assassinated  in  the  midst 
of  his  armv,  on  the  i"ith  of  February.  !(>.'M.  Ferdinand  of 
•  the  emperor,  succeeded  Wald- 
stein as  commander-in-chicf  of  the  Imperial  and  Bavarian 
armies:  his  lieutenants  w  .mil  John  von  \\ 

both    experienced    generals.       Reinforced    bv    a    cor; 
Spaniards,    he  attacked    the  Sw,  i    the 

7th  of  September.    1(1:14.     The  Swedes  were   routed,   their 
1 1,  Horn,  was  made  prisoner,  and   southern  Germany 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Imperialists,  who.  though  tin 
acted   heavy  contributions  from  the  Protestant  mhabi' 
ie-peeted    the    liberties   of  the    Prote-taut    church.       The 
Protestant    princes  of  southern  Germany,  who   Imped  to 
iidize   their    states    by   means    of   the    Suedes,   were 
linted   bv  the   defeat    of  their   protectors;   but    they 
found  another  powerful    ally,   who   v  ready   to 

encourage  (lie   German   princes  in   their  rebellious  under- 
takings airainst  the  authority  of  their  emperor.     Tins  ally 
••  .anee.      !.•'•  •  llor  of  the  duke  of 

Wiirtcmberg.  and  Streif,   n   privy   counsellor  of  the  mar- 
grave of  Baden,  negotiated   an  alliance  between  their 


T  H  I 


381 


T  H  1 


sovereigns  and  France  (llth  of  November,  1634).  The 
kin?  of  France  being  one  of  the  first  Catholic  princes,  he 
durst  not  assume  the  title  of  protector  of  the  Protestant 
church,  as  the  king  of  Sweden  had  done,  and  he  there- 
fore styled  himself  the  protector  of  the  liberties  of  the 
states  of  Germany  against  the  tyranny  of  the  emperor. 
His  policy  was  nevertheless  severely  blamed  by  his  fellow- 
believers.  Jacob  Keller,  a  German  Jesuit,  wrote  a  book 
concerning  the  policy  of  Louis  XIII.,  who,  at  the  same 
time,  protected  the  Protestants  in  Germany,  and  persecuted 
them  in  his  own  kingdom ;  but  this  book  was  burnt  in 
Paris  by  order  of  the  Sorbonne.  Duke  Bernhard  of  Saxe- 
Weimar  at  the  same  time  having  sold  himself  and  his 
army  to  France,  Saxony  and  Brandenburg  saw  at  last  that 
any  longer  adherence  to  the  Swedish  alliance  would  be  the 
ruin  of  themselves  and  of  all  Germany.  Saxony  concluded 
peace  with  the  emperor  on  the  30th  of  May,  1635,  at 
Prague  ;  and  Brandenburg  gave  in  its  adherence  to  this 
peace  on  the  27th  of  August  following  :  the  favourable  con- 
ditions which  they  obtained  proved  that  the  emperor  had 
given  up  all  schemes  of  oppressing  the  Protestant 
church.  The  landgrave  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  the  dukes  of 
Mecklenburg,  of  Brunswick,  and  of  Saxe-Weimar  (duke 
William),  the  cities  of  Frankfort,  of  Erfurt,  &c.,  the  Hanse 
towns,  and  at  last  the  whole  circle  of  Lower  Saxony, 
became  parties  to  the  peace  of  Prague  in  the  course  of 
the  same  year.  Among  all  the  Protestant  states  of  im- 
portance, Hesse-Cassel,  Wiirtemberg,  and  Baden  were  the 
only  states  which  continued  their  alliance  with  the  foreign 
invaders.  This  fact  also  proves  that  the  Swedes  had 
not  armed  for  the  sake  of  the  Protestant  religion,  as  they 
pretended ;  and  that  their  sole  purpose  was  conquest. 
If  they  had  taken  arms  for  the  liberty  of  their  faith,  they 
would  have  made  that  liberty  a  principle,  and  they  would 
have  withdrawn  from  Germany  as  soon  as  this  principle 
had  ceased  to  be  interfered  with.  Such  disinterested  conduct 
is  indeed  rare  in  history,  and  is  often  regarded  as  contrary 
to  the  substantial  welfare  of  that  nation  which  adopts 
it.  But  is  the  rarity  of  the  fact  a  proof  of  its  absurdity  ? 
To  veil  ambition  with  moral  or  religious  pretexts  is  a 
common  practice,  but  it  deserves  to  be  stigmatized  with 
the  name  of  public  hypocrisy  ;  and  such  was  the  Swedish 
interference  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

The  most  important  event  from  the  year  1635  to  1639 
was  the  conquest  of  Alsace  by  duke  Bernhard   of  Saxe- 
Weimar,  who  hoped  to  posses-,  that  Austrian  province  as  an 
hereditary  dnchy.     His  plans   however  were  contrary  to 
the  policy  of  France,  who  herself  aimed  at  the  possession 
of  Alsace,  and  had  bribed  the  duke  for  the  sole  purpose  of 
employing  him  as  an  instrument.     No   sooner  had  the 
duke's  intentions  become  manifest,  than  he  fell  suddenly 
ill,  and  died  on  the  8th  of  July,  1639.     His  army,  a  strong 
and  experienced  body,  was  bought  by  France,  who  imme- 
diately occupied  Alsace.    The  Imperialists  however,  rein- 
forced by  the  Saxon  troops,  gained  a  victory  at  Haseliinre 
over  the  Swedish  general  Knyphausen,  who  was   killed 
(December,   1635);  and  they  forced   Magdeburg   to  sur- 
render H636  .    They  and  the  Saxons  were  beaten  in  their 
turn  at  Wittstock  by  the  Swedish  general  Baner  (24th  of 
S  j.tember,  1636);  and  duke  Bernhard  defeated  them  at 
Kheinfelden  (21st  of  February,  1638),  and  made  prisoners 
generals   Savelli  and   the   celebrated  John  von   Werth. 
Previously  to  this  the  emperor  Ferdinand  II.  died  (15th  of 
February,  1637),  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ferdinand 
III.,  who  had  been  king  of  the  Romans  since  1636.     Leo- 
pold William,  the  brother  of  Ferdinand  III.,  was  appointed 
generalissimo  of  the  Imperial  army ;  and  as  early  as  the 
spring  (if   1640  he  succeeded  in  driving  the  Swedes,  under 
iian«'r,  from  Bohemia,  and  he  pursued  them  as  far  a.s  Hesse 
and  Hanover.     In  the  autumn  of  1640  the  emperor  issued 
a    proclamation,    granting   to   the   rebellious    Protestant 
princes  a  general  amnesty  and  the  sovereignty  over  their 
temporal  dominions  on  the  status  quo  of  1630,  and  over 
their  ecclesiastical  territories  on  the  status  quo  of  1627. 
But  these  princes  treated  the  proclamation  with  neglect, 
still  hoping  that  by  their  alliance  with  the  foreigners  they 
would  acquire  some  privileges  and  some  little  territory 
more.     They  sent  new  contingencies  to  the  army  of  Bane>, 
who,  in  January,  1641.  advanced  as  far  as  Hegensburg. 
He  was  reinforced  by  a  French  corps,  commanded  by  the 
Marshi'.l  <le  (tm'briand,  but  their  united  forces  were  de- 
feated by  the  Imperialists,  and  on  their  retreat  they  lost 


half  of  their  troops.  Baner  died  in  the  month  of  May, 
1641,  and  his  successor  was  Torstenson,  who  led  the  Swedes 
to  new  triumphs. 

The  war  had  now  lasted  for  twenty-three  years. 
Swedes,  Danes,  Spaniards,  Dutchmen,  Frenchmen,  half- 
savage  warriors  from  Hungary,  Transylvania,  and  Croatia, 
had  ravaged  Germany  from  one  sea  to  the  other.  Adven- 
turers from  all  the  countries  of  Europe  flocked  to  Germany 
to  learn  warfare,  and  to  enrich  themselves  by  the  plunder 
of  the  country.  The  foreigners  pretended  to  protect  the 
churches,  but  the  churches  were  laid  in  ruins;  they  pro- 
fessed to  defend  the  liberties  of  the  cities,  but  the  cities 
were  deserted ;  they  promised  to  maintain  the  privileges 
of  the  princes,  and  they  robbed  them  of  their  dominions, 
and  led  them  to  disobedience  and  anarchy. 

Before  the  war  commenced,  the  people  were  told  that 
they  were  on  the  eve  of  a  religious  contest,  but  they  hesi- 
tated to  believe  it ;  no  deep  religious  hatred,  no  fanaticism 
disturbed  their  domestic  peace.  After  the  war  had  lasted 
some  years,  their  passions  were  roused,  and  their  warlike 
spirit  excited  them  to  take  up  arms,  some  for  the  defence 
of  their  hearths,  and  others  to  follow  Waldstein  or  any 
other  leader  of  the  time.  The  pretext  which  the  princes 
made  of  religion  was  shown  by  their  attacks  on  the  pro- 
perty of  the  church,  and  thus  the  people  lost  their  respect 
for  religion.  The  example  of  Christian  of  Halberstadt, 
of  Mansfekl,  of  Waldstein,  who  supported  their  armies  by 
robbing  indifferently  Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants, 
corrupted  both  peasants  and  citizens  ;  and  commerce  and 
industry  being  ruined,  and  agriculture  becoming  an  uncer- 
tain means  of  living,  they  formed  bands  of  robbers,  who 
ravaged  the  country.  From  these  bands  the  Swedes  re- 
cruited their  troops,  who,  after  the  death  of  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  were  chiefly  composed  of  Germans.  The  armies 
presented  an  aspect  like  those  of  the  Goths  when  they 
invaded  the  Roman  empire.  One-third  and  often  only  one- 
fifth  of  them  were  soldiers :  the  remainder  were  vagabonds, 
women,  and  children,  who  followed  the  army,  carrying  with 
them  on  carts  the  property  which  they  had  stolen  on  their 
march.  The  greater  part  of  the  women  were  prostitutes, 
who,  in  the  army  of  Waldstein,  had  a  perfect  military 
organization.  They  were  divided  into  regiments,  companies, 
and  sections,  each  body  being  commanded  by  a  prostitute, 
and  the  women  having  the  same  rank  among  these  female 
adventurers  which  their  lovers  had  in  the  army.  The  pro- 
vinces which  were  the  principal  theatre  of  war  were  laid 
waste,  and  the  inhabitants  fled,  or  were  killed,  or  died  of 
hunger  and  disease.  Of  500,000  individuals,  the  population 
of  the  duchy  of  Wiirtemberg  in  1618,  only  48,000  remained 
at  the  end  of  the  war  in  1648. 

Torstenson,  the  new  generalissimo  of  the  Swedes,  con- 
quered, or  rather  traversed,  in  the  spring  of  1612,  Saxony, 
Silesia,  and  Moravia,  and  his  light  horse  appeared  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Vienna.  At  the  same  time  the  Marshal 
de  Guebriand  penetrated  into  Suabia,  in  hope  of  joining 
the  Swedish  army  under  the  walls  of  the  emperor's  capital. 
The  Imperial  generals  however  succeeded  in  delivering  the 
hereditary  states  of  Ferdinand ;  and  while  Torstenson  re- 
tired to  the  north,  where  his  presence  became  urgent  on 
account  of  a  new  war  with  Denmark,  the  French  army  was 
compelled  to  cross  the  Rhine.  Gu6hriand  was  killed  in  an 
engagement  near  Rotweil,  and  his  successor,  the  count  of 
Rantzau,  a  German  nobleman  in  the  French  service,  who 
had  again  appeared  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  was 
surprised  by  the  Imperialists  under  John  von  Werth,  Mercy, 
and  the  duke  of  Lorraine.  The  battle  was  fought  on  the 
24th  of  November,  1643,  near  Duttlingen,  and  the  French 
army  was  almost  annihilated.  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark 
was  not  more  fortunate  in  his  war  with  the  Swedes  than  he 
had  been  against  Tilly  and  Waldstein ;  but  while  he  was 
fighting  with  Torstenson  in  Jutland,  Gallas,  the  general  of  the 
emperor,  suddenly  appeared  in  Holstein,  with  the  view  of 
placing  the  Swedes  between  two  fires.  From  this  dangerous 
position  Torstenson  escaped  by  a  bold  manoeuvre,  which  he 
executed  with  his  usual  rapidity.  He  advanced  as  if  to 
attack  Gallas,  but  suddenly  turned  to  the  right,  crossed 
Holstein,  and  penetrated  by  rapid  marches  into  the  heart 
of  Germany,  thus  obliging  the  Imperial  army  to  follow  him 
in  order  to  protect  the  hereditary  states  of  the  emperor.  The 
Swedes  often  made  a  stand  to  engage  in  skirmishes  which 
proved  disastrous  to  the  Imperialists,  and  Gallas  brought 
only  half  his  army  back  to  Austria.  In  the  mean  time 


1  II  1 


382 


T  H  I 


France  h;id  levied  H  , h  was  put  under  the 

roinmand 

lllldc 

attacked  the  Imperialists  under  Mercv,  who.  nllant 

nee  and  Mirious  success,  v 

the  east  of  the  Black  Forest,  leaving  Ihe  Palntmate,  Alsace, 
nnd  Baden  in  the  hands  of  the  French  autumn,  1044  >.  The 
Imperialists  were  still  more  unfort  •!  Germany. 

Torst.  'hem  am!  -  nt   Jankau  in 

a  bloody  battle  -(itli  of  March.  li>-t.">  ,  ami  thi-ir  ircneral. 
HaUfcld,  was  made  prisoner.  In  one  campaign  Torsten- 
son  made  himself  master  of  Sile-iii  and  Monma.  iind  en- 
camped near  Vienna:  and  his  lieutenant.  Kiinicsmark, 
i-onquered  the  bishoprics  of  Bremen  and  Verden.  Tlie 

<r  of  Saxony,and  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  Frederick 
William,  who  liad  succeeded  hi*  father  Georire  William 
in  1640,  renounced  their  alliance  with  the  emperor,  and 
made  their  separate  peace  with  Sweden:  nnd  their  ex- 
ample was  followed  hv  Maximilian,  elector  of  Bavaria. 
This  hitherto  faithful  ally  abandoned  the  emperor  in  1C47. 
after  the  victory  of  Tureiine  at  Allerheim.  and  after  the  con- 
quest of  Suabia  by  Tureiine,  who  advanced  towards  Miinich. 
The  defection  of  "the  elector  of  Bavaria  excited  the  discon- 
tent of  his  army,  and  was  considered  an  act  of  hiirh 

11  by  his  trenerals.  John  von  Werth,  the  idol  of  the 
soldiers,  conceived  the  plan  of  putting  the  Bavarian  army 
under  the  command  of  the  emperor,  and  of  seizins:  the 
elector  and  his  ministers  for  the  purpose  of  Confining  them 
in  order  to  secure  their  fidelity.  The  plot  was  betrayed  at 
the  moment  when  it  was  to  have  been  carried  into  effect. 
But  John  von  Werth  escaped,  and  Ferdinand  created  him  a 
count  of  the  empire.  This  event  was  followed  by  a  victory 
of  the  Swedes  at  Susmarshauseu,  near  Augsburg  (7th  of 
1048'.  Kiiniifsniark,  their  gen?111!!  now  invaded 
Bohemia,  and  on  the  Hist  of  July  conquered  that  separate 
part  of  Pi-ague  which  is  called  the  Kleinseite.  This  con- 
quest was  the  last  important  event  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
which  beean  and  ended  at  Prague. 

Pence  »f  ffe«tpfuU(a.—\»  early  as  1640  the  Diet  at 
Reirenshiir::  was  occupied  in  putlinir  an  end  to  this  awful 
war.  nnd  in  1041  preliminaries  were  prepared  at  Hamburg 
under  the  mediation  of  Denmark.  Miinstcr  and  Osua- 
briick  were  afterwards  chosen  for  the  places  of  congress, 
and  the  meeting  was  to  be  held  in  the  spring- of  1042.  but 
it  was  not  organised  before  the  sprinsr  of  104.'».  The  count 
of  Auersbern  was  the  emperor's  ambassador  at  Osnabnick. 
where  he  was  to  negotiate  n  peace  with  the  Swedish 
ambassador,  John  Adler  Salvius ;  and  the  count  of  .N 
met  at  Miinster  the  count  d'Avaux,  the  ambassador 
of  the  kine  of  France.  The  states  of  Germany  sent  like- 

.-linisicrs  or  agents  to  both  these  towns  ;  ambu- 
of  Venice  and  of  the  pope  came  as  mediators:  and  Spain 
and  the  United  States  of  the  Netherlands  sent  their  ple- 
nipotentiaries for  the  purpose  of  settling  their  private 
differences,  and  interfering  in  those  of  Germany.  The 
negotiations  lasted  three  years  :  the  various  chances  of  the 
~jr«i  prevented  the  parties  from  aetinir  upon  an  invariable 
principle,  and  the  troublesome  intervention  of  the  German 
States  were  an  obstacle  to  private  interests  beinc  made 
subordinate  to  the  general  interest.  At.  last  the  count  of 
Trautmannsdorf,  '  the  most  honest  amonir  all  the  amhas- 
i'i:i  with  full  powers,  and  on  the 

14-24th  of  October,  HV4H,  a  double  peace  was  concluded 
at  Miinster  and  at  O-nabriiek.  which  was  legally  <'11"- 
-ider.  under  the  name  of  the  1'eace  of  Wc-t- 

phalia.     Previously  to  this  Spain  nnd  the  United  St: 
the  Netherlands  hat!  likewise  made  pence  at  Miinster,  on 
the  an-3()th  of  January,  104H.     These  are  the  principal 
conditions  of  the  peace  of  Westphalia : — 

I.  Conditiont  concerning  the  cession  of  territories  and 
rig/its  to  foreign  power ». 

1,  Sweden,  an  '  an  indemnification   for  her  expense   in 
the  war  and  for  ceding  several  of  her  conquest.*  to  their 
former  pOMemorR,'  acquired    1'omrrania.  except  a  pail    of 
Pomerania   ('iterior  (duke    Boirislav    XIV.   had    <h, 
1837,:  the  town  of  Wismar  in   MecUcnburtr :    the  arch- 
hi»hopric  of   Bremen,    and  the    bishopric  of  Vcid. 
hereditary   duchieH :   a   sum   of  five   millions  of  tl 
which  win   not   to   !»•   paid   |)v  the   i-mperor,  but  by  those 
'  >wh«re<fciirt«vii»  Adolphus  had  promised  to  protect 


the   Protestant   church.       In  respect  of  these  tcni1 
Swedi  -i  member  of  the  empire. 

I  -Vance  acquired  the  sovereignty  in  er   the 
of  Met/.  Toul,  and  Verdun,  the  pov 
been  ceded   to   kinir  Henry   II.   in  I." 
over  Piirnenil  :  the.   town   of  By. 

•>n   in  Philippsbnrc  ;  the  land. 

I'ppcr  and    !..<«,  r  A  .          .,:,<|  the  1m; 

rights  OMT  ten  free  towns  in   Alsace,  but  not  ovi 

These    territoi  1    to   France    in    full 

L'nty.  and  the  kin>r  of  France  consequently  did  not 
become  a  member  of  the  empire. 

:f.  The  Tinted  States   of  the  Netherlands  and  tin 
federacy  of  the  cantons  of  Switzerland  wen 
by  the  emperor  as  independent   states;    lei;all\ 
these  countries  were  parts  of  Germany  until  tin 
Westphalia. 

II.  Conditi  aim?  tlii'  i-i-\\inn  nf  trrr' 

right*  tn  member*  nf  Iff 


These  indemnifications  were  effected  by  secularising 
bishoprics  and  other  ecclesiastical  temturii 

1,  Hesse-Casse!  acquired  the  abbey  of  Hersfeld,  some 
of  the  fiefs  of  Suhaucnburg,  and  six  hundred  thu 

-  which  were  to  be  paid  by  Roman  Catholic  bishops. 

•2.  Brandenburg  acquired  the  bishoprics  of  HalherMadt, 
of  Minden,  and  of  Camin,  :LS  hereditary  principalities  ;  and 
the  archbUhopric  of  Ma^deburi;  ;LS  an  liereditaiy  duchy. 

.'t,  Mecklenburg  acquired  the  bishoprics  of  Rat/. 
and    of   Schwerin    ;i»    liereditaiy    principalities,    arm 
commanderics  of  Mnow  and  Ncmerow,  which  were  taken 
from  the  Knights  of  St.  John. 

4,  Brunswick  acquired  the  convents  of  Walkenried  and 
Gronin^en,  and  the  privilege   of  appointing  a  jirin.- 
Ihe   lei^nini:  house  bishop  of  Osnabiiick  ;    on    this  con- 
dition, however,  —  that  the  bishopric  was  to  In 
alternately  by  a  Protestant  bishop  of  the  House  of  li 
wick,  and  by  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop,  who 
chosen  by  the  chapter. 

I'lic  duke  of  Bavaria  was  confirmed  as  elector,  and 
rewarded  with  the.  Upper  Palatinate  and  the  county  ol 
(/ham. 

0,  Charles  Louis,  the  .successor   of  the,   banished  elector 
palatine  Frederick  V.,  wits  restored   to  his  dominion- 
cept  that  pad  of  them  which  was  reded  to  lta\; 

the  electorship  of   his  father  \v;is  forfeited,  an  eighth 
torship  wa>  created  and  bestowed  upon  him. 

III.  Conditions  rnm-crning  religion  and  the  constitution 

of  the  em  i 

The   principle    of    these    conditions    was. 
amnesty  with  regard  to  those  who  had  rebelled  ai^air, 
emperor,    though   the   word   'rebel'  was   not     cmp'. 
and  the  maintainins  of  the  status  quo  of  Kiln. 
beirinuine  of  the  Bohemian  war,  with  iciravd  to  the 
tutiou    of   bishoprics,    churches,  »Scc.,    which     had 
seized  by  either  of  tie- 

A.  Ki-liginn. 

1,  The   treaty   of    Pa^au     and    the    Second 
Religion  were  contirmed. 

J.    The    religious    qualitj    of   n    territory    or 

decided  alter  the  status  quo   of  the    1st    .,:'  Jannan  , 

-.  .S.  . 

;-),  Kqualily  of  political  riirhts  between  the  Homan 
Catholics,  the  Lutherans,  and  the  Calvinists  or  Reformed. 

4,  The    Jus    Reformandi    was  reduced    to    its    original 
meaninir  as  a  mere  protection   of  religion.     This  principle 

.lecked  by  numerous  and  complicated  cxcejitions, 
wliieh  al'terwanls  led  to  many  complaints. 

5,  The    .  :il   jurisdiction    of  ti 

confeired  iijion  the  Protestant  princes  as  a  risrlit  of 
lu'iity:  in  the  Roman  Catholic  territories  it  remained 
in  the  hands  of  the  bis! 

li.  Constitution  nf  /  • 

I.  The  princes  acquired  theriirhl  of  concludiu:'  se|iarate 
defensive  and  otfensive  alliances  with  loi-ci^n  states; 
anil  they  became  almost  so\ereii_fn  with  regard  to  their 
subjecls. 

'J,  The  Clerman  en:  chanced  into  a  kind  cf 

the  emperor 
becoming  a  mere  director  of  the  public  affairs. 


T  H  I 


383 


T  H  I 


IV.  Conditions    concerning    the   relations    between 
Germt'.i/y  and  foreign  poteen. 

1,  The  peace  of  Westphalia  was  guaranteed  by  Sweden 
and  France. 

The  Thirty  Years'  War  was  the  Peloponnesian  War  of 
Germany,  and  by  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  the  German 
princes  prepared  the  destruction  of  their  independence 
and  the  downfall  of  the  empire.  The  German  princes 
were  originally  rich  landowners  appointed  by  (Tie  em- 
perors as  high  judges  ("graven,  comites)  and  military  com- 
manders (herzoge,  duces).  From  the  eleventh  century  they 
endeavoured  to  obtain  possession  of  these  functions  as 
hereditary  ngnr,s.  During  five  centuries  they  carried  on  a 
system  of  rebellion  against  the  Imperial  authority,  and 
gradually  usurped  rights  and  privileges  which  the  em- 
perors were  compelled  to  confer  upon  them  in  due  form. 
Thus  both  legislation  and  administration  became  here- 
ditary in  the  princes.  Having  succeeded  with  regard  to 
political  rights,  they  considered  the  Reformation  of  Luther 
as  an  opportunity  of  usurping  ecclesiastical  legislation. 
It  was  granted  to  a  great  number  of  them  by  the  Peace  of 
Westphalia.  Luther's  reforms  gave  birth  to  the  Protestant 
faith,  but  this  faith  required  to  be  supported  by  a  church. 
A  Protestant  church  did  not  exist  before  the  Peace  of  West- 
phalia, nor  was  it  established  by  this  peace,  nor  is  there 
now  any  general  Protestant  church  in  Germany.  The 
princes  considering  themselves  as  legal  successors  of  the 
bishops,  the  episcopal  rights  became  a  part  of  political 
sovereignty,  and  the  ministers  of  the  faith  gradually 
became  functionaries  of  the  princes.  Their  first  duty  was 
to  obey  them  ;  they  not  only  obeyed,  but  they  crouched 
before  them  and  their  ministers  ;  their  abject  behaviour 
is  shown  by  numerous  works  published  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  seventeenth  centviry  and  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. When  the  people  saw  the  dependence  of  the  minis- 
ters on  the  temporal  authority,  they  confounded  the  com- 
mands of  their  faith  with  the  laws  of  their  princes,  and,  not 
discovering  any  divine  character  in  these  laws,  they  forgot 
the  divine  origin  of  their  religion.  Thus  they  fell  into  that 
remarkable  indifference  concerning  religious  matters  which 
now  prevails  in  the  greater  part  of  the  Protestant  coun- 
tries of  Germany.  This  religious  state  is  a  consequence  of 
the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

The  political  consequences  of  that  war  are  still  more 
evident.  Germany  was  a  wilderness— its  material  strength 
wag  ruined — its  political  power  was  broken — its  intellec- 
tual development  was  checked — and  the  fierce  and  manly 
spirit  of  the  nation  was  broken  by  their  thousand  arbitrary 
rulers,  who  themselves  became  slaves  of  the  French. 
Divided  into  factions  by  the  private  interests  of  the  princes, 
Germany  became  the  theatre  where  the  armies  of  all  Europe 
met  to  settle  the  differences  of  their  kings.  This  state  of 
things  lasted  a  hundred  and  fifty  years,  and  ended  with 
the  destruction  of  the  German  empire  by  Napoleon. 

rK.  A.  Menzel,  Geschichte  den  Dreusigjdhrigen 
Krifafx,  2  vols.  Kvo.,  Breslau,  18*5-37  ;  Breyer,  Ge- 
nrhichte  den  Dreitsisjrihrigen  Kriegesnachungedruckten 
Ptipieren,  1st  vol.,  Miinchen,  1811,  8vo. ;  Breyer,  Beitrage 
zur  Gexchichte  den  Dreittigja/ingen  Krieges  aui  bisher 
ungfflrurktfn  Papien-n,  Miinchen,  1812,  8vo.  ;  Schiller, 
QetchichtG  den  Dreixsiffjahrigen  Krieges  :  this  work, 
distinguished  by  the  beauty  of  its  style,  contains  the  most 
interesting  description  pf  the  Thirty  Years' War;  but  its 
historical  value  is  not  very  great ;  Leo,  Li'hrliurh  der 
Universal  Genchichte,  vol.  iii. :  the  author's  description  is 
remarkable  for  the  application  of  philosophical  principles 
to  history;  Eichhorn,  />«/«•//>•  Ktnatu-  und  Rechts-Ge- 
nchichtf,  vol.  iv.  :  the  author  starts  from  a  legal  point  of 
view,  but  he  treats  political  and  religious  rights  rather  as 
a  lawyer  than  as  a  publicist  ;  Woltmann,  Geschichte 
liiilixrhi'ii  fr'rii'dens,  Leipzig,  1808-9,  2  vols. 
8vo. ;  Meiern,  Acta  Pacts  WestpnOMat  /mf/lica,  oder 
Wettphizlitche  Friedemhandlun  gen,  Gottingen,  1734-6, 
fi  vols.  Ibl.i 

THISTLE,  the  common  name  of  Cardmu,  a  genus  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  large  natural  order  Composite. 
From  the  time  of  Theophrastus  down  to  that  of  Caspar 
Bauhin,  all  plants  that  possessed  a  spiny  involucre  were 
comprehended  in  the  genus  Carduus.  The  artichoke 
'Cynara)  and  the  teasel  fDipsacus)  were  included  in  it  by 
Tragus  and  Lobelius.  Morison  confined  the  genus  to 


those  plants  that  Had  spiny  scales  of  the  involucre  and  a 
crown  of  feathery  down  (pappus)  surmounting  the  seed. 
Plants  resembling  them,  but  without  a  spiny  involucre,  he 
called  Cirsium,  and  those  without  the  feathery  pappus 
Carduus  improprie  dictus.  Tournefort  adopted  these  dis- 
tinctions. Vaillant  defined  Carduus  more  accurately, 
giving  it  to  plants  with  a  globular  involucre  composed  of 
spiny  scales,  with  compound  flowers,  tubular  florets, 
stamens  united  by  the  anthers,  a  hairy  receptacle,  and  a 
hairy  pappus  on  the  seeds.  If  the  pappus  was  feathery, 
he  called  the  genus  Acama ;  and  when  the  receptacle  was 
not  hairy,  but  honeycombed,  he  used  the  term  Ono- 
pordon,  a  name  previously  applied  to  thistles  by  Pliny. 
When  the  scales  and  receptacles  were  fleshy,  he  named 
the  genus  Cynara.  Linnseus  adopted  these  genera,  but 
changed  Vaillant's  Acama  into  Cm'cus,  a  name  which  had 
been  previously  employed  by  Tournefort  for  another  genus. 

The  genus  Carduus,  Common  Thistle,  consists  of  upwards 
of  30  species,  most  of  which  are  inhabitants  of  Europe. 
None  of  them  are  found  in  the  New  World. 

C.nutans,  Musk-Thistle,  has  decurrent  spiny  leaves,  with 
handsome  drooping  flowers ;  the  scales  of  the  involucre 
cottony,  the  outer  ones  spreading.  It  is  a  common  plant 
on  waste  ground,  in  dry,  stony,  or  chalky  soils,  in  Great 
Britain.  It  gives  out,  especially  in  the  evening  in  warm 
weather,  a  strong  smell  of  musk. 

C.  marianus,  Milk-Thistle,  has  spinous  leaves  embracing 
the  stem ;  the  scales  of  the  involucre  leaf-like,  recurved 
and  spinous  at  the  margin.  It  is  a  native  of  England  ; 
scarce  in  Scotland.  The  leaves  are  distinguished  by  the 
milky  whiteness  of  their  veins.  This  milkiness  is  said, 
according  to  an  absurd  story,  to  have  been  produced  by  a 
drop  of  the  Virgin  Mary's  milk,  just  as  the  Milky-Way 
was  supposed  to  arise  from  that  of  Juno.  This  plant  is  an 
esculent,  and  may  be  eaten  young  as  a  salad,  or  boiled  and 
eaten  as  greens.  The  young  stalks,  when  peeled  and 
soaked  in  water,  are  also  excellent. 

The  root  may  be  prepared  like  salsify  and  skirret,  and 
the  receptacle  maybe  cooked  and  eaten  as  the  artichoke. 
When  cultivated,  the  seeds  should  be  sown  in  spring,  and 
the  plants  kept  at  a  foot  and  a  half  distance  from  each 
other,  and  the  earth  thrown  up  round  them  till  they  are 
etiolated. 

The  genus  Cnicus,  Plume-Thistle,  is  known  by  the  fea- 
thered down  that  crowns  the  seeds.  It  is  a  large  genus : 
nine  of  the  species  are  inhabitants  of  Great  Britain. 

The  Cotton-Thistle  is  the  Onopordon,  which  is  known 
by  its  honeycombed  receptacle.  The  O.  Acanthium  is  a 
British  species.  The  leaves  are  ovato-oblong,  sinuated, 
spinous,  decurrent,  and  woolly  on  both  sides.  It  attains  a 
height  of  from  four  to  six  feet.  It  is  cultivated  in  Scot- 
land as  the  Scotch  Thistle ;  but  it  is  doubtful  whether 
this  national  badge  has  any  existing  type,  as  the  repre- 
sentations of  the  Scotch  Thistle  on  ancient  wood-carvings, 
coins,  and  armorial  bearings,  differ  more  from  each  other 
than  any  known  species  of  thistles.  The  receptacle  and 
stalks  of  the  Cotton-Thistle  are  sometimes  eaten,  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  artichoke  and  cardoon.  [CYNARA.] 

The  Carline  Thistle  forms  the  genus  Carh'na,  which 
obtained  that  name  from  a  tradition  that  the  root  of  the 
Common  Carline  (C.  vulgarit)  was  shown  by  an  angel  to 
Charlemagne  as  a  remedy  for  the  plague  which  prevailed 
in  his  army.  The  genus  is  known  from  the  others  by  the 
inner  scales  of  the  involucre  being  spreading  and  mem- 
branous, and  of  a  yellow  colour.  The  Common  Carline  is 
a  frequent  plant  in  Great  Britain  on  dry  hilly  pasture  and 
in  fields.  It  is  about  one  foot  high. 

The  Blessed  Thistle  is  the  Centaurea  benedicta,  the 
Ciinliiiix  hftiedictus  of  old  writers.  The  involucre  of  the 
genus  Centaurea  is  not  spiny,  and  the  seeds  have  a  very 
simple  pappus,  or  none.  The  Blessed  Thistle  is  a  native  of 
the  Levant,  and  in  the  middle  ages  was  held  in  extravagant 
estimation  on  account  of  its  supposed  virtues.  It  is  still 
cultivated  in  some  places  on  account  of  its  medical  pro- 
perties. 

For  Sow  Thistle,  see  SONCHUS. 

Some  of  the  species  of  thistles  are  admitted  into  gar- 
dens. They  form  a  pretty  variety  for  borders,  and  require 
little  care  in  their  cultivation.  They  sow  themselves  very 
extensively  by  means  of  their  winged  seeds.  On  this 
account  they  are  great  pests  to  the  farmer.  In  fields  the 
annual  kinds  may  be  got  rid  of  by  the  weeding  hook,  but 


T   II    I 


384 


T  II  L 


the  perennial  kinds  must  be  ploughed  and  the  roots  ; 
out.     The  Cardtnu  arrrnti»  has  not  the  imiiif  of  <  'nr-.-.l 
Thistle,   on   acrount    of    tin-   difficulty  of  eradicating    it 
grown.     Although  injurious  In    ninn, 

\haustmg  ttu-  xiil  of  that  nutriment  which  plants  sup- 

g  food  require,  thi'ir  seeds  are  generally  eaten  by 
birds,  and  the  larvte  of  many  insects  live  entirely  on  their 
leaves. 

THISTLE.  The  thistle,  with  its  strong  prickly  leaven  and 
stem,  establishes  itself  in  the  meadows  and  corn-fields, 
when  it  is  not  very  carefully  eradicated,  and  oeeupii •>  the 
place  of  more  useful  plant*.  There  are  many  vancticsof  the 
thistle,  some  of  which  are  not  destitute  of  elegance  when 
in  lull  blossom.  Considered  as  a  weed  in  our  nel.l- 
principal  olijeet  is  to  eradicate  it,  which,  in  consequence  of 
the  ready  dispersion  of  the  seeds  by  the  wind,  is  nut  easily 
done,  as  a  slovenly  fanner  may  seed  the  whole  country 
around  ;  and  where  the  thistles  are  not  eradicated  from  the 
hedge<  and  sides  of  roads  and  paths,  it  is  imposMble  to 

•'V  them  entirely:  wherever  the  soil  is  newly  turned 
up.  especially  when  it  is  of  a  nature  where  wheat  will 
grow  well,  thistles  invariably  arise:  hence  the  saying  of  the 
blind  man  in  choosing  land.  '  Tie  me  to  a  thistle.' 

Those  crops  which  are  usually  hoed  can  readily  be 
cleared  of  thistles :  but  where  the  seed  is  sown  broadcast, 
the  labour  of  weeding  them  out  is  much  greater.  If  they 
are  not  extracted  with  the  root,  they  will  soon  grow  again 
with  redoubled  vigour.  In  a  moist  season  the)  max  be 
pulled  up  by  means  of  a  wooden  or  iron  forceps,  which 
grasps  them  strongly  near  the  crown  of  the  root,  and.  as  it  has 
a  projection  which  serves  as  a  fulcrum,  a  pressure  on  the 
handles  draws  the  root  out  when  they  are  brought  to- 
gether. When  a  field  has  been  long  infested  with  thi-tles. 
the  best  way  of  clearing  it  is  to  watch  when  the  thistle  is 
in  full  bloom  and  the  seed  is  just  forming  :  if  it  be  then  cut 
off  at  the  root  it  will  die.  Thus  in  two  years  a  field  may 
be  entirely  cleared  of  thistles. 

It  is  chiefly  in  arable  land  that  thistles  are  most  trouble- 
some. In  pastures  it  is  sufficient  to  eradicate  them  once, 
and  to  permit  none  to  grow  along  the  hedges  and  ditches. 
The  seed  does  not  readily  update,  unless  it  finds  a  loose 
soil  :  and  little  birds  are  so  fond  of  it,  that  they  will  lea\  e 
none  that  is  not  covered  with  earth,  especially  in  the  be- 
ginning of  winter.  In  some  countries  there  are  penalties 
inflicted  on  those  who  allow  thistles  to  remain  in  their 
hedges  or  along  the  high  road  which  borders  their  land ; 
and  a  man  may  complain  to  a  magistrate  of  a  neighbour 
who  will  not  destroy  the  thistles  on  his  land,  when  the 
delinquent  will  be  admonished  or  fined,  as  the  case  may 
require.  Such  a  laxv  would  be  very  advantageous  in  many 
parts  of  the  country,  where  no  attention  is  ever  paid  to  the 
weeds  which  grow  in  the  hedges  or  in  waste  .spots. 

TIIISTI.K.    OKDKK    OK    T11K,    an   antient    Scottish. 
order  of  knighthood,   sometimes   called   the  order  of  St. 
Andrew.     The  early  history  of  this  order  is  involved  in 
some  obscurity,  and  the  most  absurd  attempts  have  been 
made  to  establish  its  claim  to  high  antiquity,  of  which  it 
is  sufficient  to  allude  to  the  legendary  account   recited  111 
the  warrant   for  the  restitution  of  the   order  in    10X7.  and 
given    most    minutely  by  sev  cral    Scottish    antiquari. 
tributing   its  formation   to  Admins,   king  of  the  Sc . 
commemoration  of  a  victory  obtained  by  himself  and  llun- 
gus,  king  of  the  I'icts.  over  Athelstan."    Nicolas  obs, 
as  a  fitting   illustration  of  this   legend,  that    Achains  died 
upwards  of  a  century  before   the  reign  of  Athelstan 
he  further  shows  that  the  thistle  was  not  the  acknoxvl. 
badge  or  symbol  of  Scotland  until   the  latter   part    of  the 

nth  century.      Kven  alter  it   became  a  national 
mcnt.  and   formed  a  distinguishing  feature  of  a  coll. 

iing  that  now  worn  by  Knights  of  the  Thistle,  it  is  by 
no  means  certain  that  it  was  considered   the   badge  of  an 
'.f  knighthood;    and   the  searching   inv  otigation  of 
I  irris  Nicolas,  which   in  detailed   at    gnat 
length  in  the  third  volume  of  his  recently  published  •  His- 
tory of  the  Orders  of  Knighthood  of  the  British  Kmpiie.' 
leads  him  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  difficult  to  beh- 

ustcricc  of  the  Order  of  the  Thistle,  as  an  orgam/.i  .1 
fraternity,  until  the  reign  of  .lames  \  ]].  ,,|  Scotland  and 
Kngland.  Whether  it  had  any  such  prior  existence 
or  not,  '  it  in  admitted.'  he  adds.  -  even  by  the  assertors  of 
the  antiquity  of  the  order  themselves,  that,  alter  the  K. 
formation  orders  of  knighthood  being  considered  in  Scot- 


|  land  as  relics  of  popery,  it  fell  into  desuetude  ; 
queutly  it  is  not    pretended  that   there  w, 
of  St.  Andrew."  or  "  of  the  Thi- 
King  .lames  VI.,  in  l."><;7.'     Tl..- 

Uie   re-in-stitution  of  the    '  most    ancii  nt    and    honourable 
order   of  the  Thi>tlc,'  which  is  printed  nt  full   by  Nicolas, 
and  which  asserts  that  by  authentic  proofs,  docu; 
records,  the  order  '  continued  in  spK  ndour 

lor  many  hundreds  of  \eais,1  bears,  date  Windsor,  Ma)   —I. 
U.sT:   but,  although  statutes  were  issued,  and  eight  ki 

nominated  bx  .lames  11..  the  patent  or  diploma  lor 
the  restitution  of  the  order  never  passed  the  great 
Owing  to  the  abdication  of  James,  the  order  a  gam  fell  into 
abeyance,  until  it  was  finally  revived  by  Anne  in  17113. 
In  the  warrant  of  1(>K7  it  is  staled  that  the  order  consisted 
originally  of  the  king  and  twelve  brethren  in  allusion  to 
the  Saviour  and  the  twelve  apostles  .  and  the  same  number 
XMLS  ordained  as  the  full  complement  by  Anne,  although  it 
was  not  filled  up  for  several  years.  This  continued  with- 
out alteration  until  July  10.  is21.  when,  in  consequence  of 

'lonation  of  George  IV..  an   ordiuane 
the  appointment  of  four  extia  members,  who  shoul, 
come  regular  knights  as  vacancies  should  occur ;  and  in 
May,  1827.  the  number  of  knights  brethren  was  pcima- 
nently  extended  to  sixteen.     Originally  none  but   Scottish 
noblemen  were  admitted  to  the  Older:   b-.it   since  the  time 
of   Cleorge    I.    it    has    also    been    conferred    upon    several 
English  peers.     No  foreigners  have  been  admitted  to   the 
order  :  nor  have  any  comni.  pting  a  few  win 

heirs-apparent  (o  dukedoms.     It  is  usual  for  knights  of  the. 
Thistle  to  resign  the  ensigns  of  the  order  when  elected  into 
that  of  the  Garter,  although  the  statutes  contain  no  c 
provision  to  that  effect  :   but  in  a  few  instances  this  custom 
has  been  dispensed  with,  as  a  special  mark  of  royal  favour. 
The  decorations  worn  by  the  knights  consist  of  a  collar  of 
enamelled   gold,  composed  of  sixteen  thistles,  intei 
with  sprigs  of   rue.   fastened    to    the   mantle    by  a  white 
riband  ;  a  small   image  of  St.  Andrew,  also   of  enamelled 
gold,  suspended  from  the  collar;    a  medal   or  badge  of 
gold,  having  an  image  of  St.  Andrew  within  a  circle 
taming  the    motto  of  the  order,  •  NKMO  MK  IMW.N  i 
i  I..SMI •'    ! .No  one    provokes    me   with    impunity':,   and    a 
thistle;  a  green  riband,  to  which   the   medal   is  attached, 
and  which   is  thrown  diagonally  over  the  left   shoulder: 
and  a  star,  consisting  of  a  thistle  enamelled  in  its  na- 
colours  upon  a  ground  of  gold,   and   surrounded   by   the 
motto  and   raxs  of  silver.     The   star   is  worn   on   the   left 
shoulder,  on  a  mantle  of  green  velvet,  which,  with   other 
parts   of  the  dress,   arc   minutely  desciibed    by  Nicolas. 
Although  the  original   statutes  of  the  order,  which  were 
printed  by  Sir  N.  II.  Nicolas  in  IS'JS.  do  not  strict!)  deiinc 
the  method  of  admission,  it  was  oidained  by  (Jeorge  I.,  in 
1717,  that  vacancies  should   be  tilled  up   by  election   in  a 
chapter  of  the  order;    but  the  usual  practice  has  been  for 
the  sovereign  to  appoint  to  vacancies  xvithout   summoning 
a  chapter.     His   late  Majcstx .  William   I V.,  re-established 
the  practice  of  election  in  a  chapter  of  the   knights  bre- 
thren, but  it  has  been  again  dispensed  with  by  her  pi< 

..     The  officers  of  the  order  are  the  dean,  the  chan- 
cellor, the  secretary,  the  king-al-anns.  and  the  usher,  each 
of  whom  receives  an  annual  salary,  and  a  fee  on  the  . 
tion   of  a   knight,    excepting   only  the    chancellor, 
officer  never  having  been  appointed,  although  he  is  men- 
tioned in  the  statutes  of    Kis7.   I71K1.   1717.  and    IKCi  : 
duties  arc  performed  by  the  secretary.      A  complete  list  of 
knights  of  the  Thistle,  from   the  revival  or  creation  i 
order   in    His7  to  1SIO,   is   given   in  the  work  abov c  cited, 
from  which  thisbiief  account  is  condensed. 

TIILASl'I'DIvK,  a  tribe  of  plants  of  the  natural  01 
Oucifera-,  having  for  its  t\  pe  the  genus  Thlaspi.  It  is 
also  called  I'leurorhizir.  from  having  the  radicle  of  the 
embryo  nt  the  side  of  the  cotyledons.  The  silii 
xx ilh  a  very  narrow  dissepiment,  and  has  keeled  navieular 
valves.  Tile  seeds  are  oval,  with  flat  aceiiinbent  cotxledons. 
The  principal  gcncia  of  this  tiibe  are.  T/I/HI-JI',  the  IJaMaid 
Cress;  Il»>ris.  the  Candy-tuft  :  lliili-lui.-xni  .-and  Hm-tilr/lti, 
the  Itucklcr-Mustard.  1  he)  are  most  of  them  insignificant 
plants,  po.ssi-»ing  the  acrid  biting  properties  of  the  whole 
order.  The  genus  Thlaspi  is  known  by  its  siliclcs  being 
cmarginatc  at  the  apex  with  the  valves  winged  at  the 
bi'i-k  :  the  petals  are  equal,  the  pedicels  bract  less,,  and  the 
flowers  arc  white.  Sunic  of  them,  as  the  TMunpm  urventit, 


T  H  O 


385 


T  H  O 


Penny  Cress,  have  a  strong  alliaceous  odour.  They  grow 
on  rocks  and  barren  places,  and  are  frequently  found 
amongst  collections  of  rubbish  from  mines,  &c.,  and  are 
inhabitants  of  most  parts  of  the  world  in  cold  and  tempe- 
rate regions. 

Hnichinsia  was  named  by  Sir  J.  E.  Smith  after  Miss 
Hutchins  of  Belfast,  who  contributed  many  observations  on 
marine  plants  to  the  '  English  Botany.'  It  has  an  ellip- 
tical silicle  with  wingless  valves,  equal  petals,  entire 
leaves,  bractless  pedicels,  and  variously-coloured  flowers, 
bnt  never  yellow.  All  the  species  are  mountainous  plants. 
They  possess  no  active  properties,  but  are  pretty  little 
plants,  and  will  grow  on  rock-work  or  in  small  pots.  They 
are  best  grown  in  a  soil  composed  of  sand,  loam,  and  peat. 
The  annual  kinds  may  be  propagated  by  seeds;  the  peren- 
nial, by  dividing  the  roots  or  by  cuttings. 

The  Candy-tuft  is  known  by  two  of  its  petals  being 
larger  than  the  other  two  :  they  are  of  a  white  or  purplish 
colour,  but  never  yellow.  They  are  mostly  mountainous 
plants,  but  grow  well  in  gardens  ;  and,  if  the  seeds  are  sown 
at  different  periods,  will  blossom  all  the  summer,  and  even 
through  a  mild  winter.  The  shrubbery  species  are  also 
well  adapted  for  rock-work,  and  may  be  propagated  by 
cuttings.  [IBKRIS.] 

Biseatella  has  a  flat  silicle  with    one-seeded   cells,    a 

long  permanent   style,    a   compressed  seed,   and  yellow 

flowers,     fhey  are  also  alpine  plants.      In  the 

garden  they  form  a  pretty  variety  with  the  other  plants,  on 

int  of  their  yellow  flowers.     A  dry  sunny  situation  in 

a  light  sandy  soil  suits  them  best.     They  are  best  propa- 

eated  l.y  seeds  and  may  be  kept  in  blossom  during  the 

summer  by  sowing  at  different  periods  of  the  year. 

THOA,  a  genus  of  Polypiaria  ;  included  by  Linnaeus  in 
Sertularia. 


THOMAS,  e«>/uc.  XQN.TI  (in  Greek, 


John, 


xi.  16;  xx.  24),  one  of  the  twelve  apostles  of  Christ. 
(Matt.,  x.  3.)  The  Hebrew  and  Greek  names  both  sig- 
nify a  twin.  St.  Thomas  is  presumed  to  have  been  a 
Galilean  :  but  no  particulars  of  his  birth-place  or  call  to 
the  apostleship  are  given,  and  the  first  notice  of  him  indi- 
vidually is  in  John,  xi.  40.  Christ  having  expressed  an 
intention  of  returning  to  Judaea,  in  order  to  raise  his  friend 
Lazarus  from  the  dead,  Thomas  encouraged  the  other 
•les  to  attend  him,  although  he  regarded  death  as 
the  certain  consequence  of  this  step.  The  impulsiveness 
of  character  thus  indicated  was  not  long  after  very  differ- 
ently displayed.  Thomas  happened  to  be  absent  when 
Christ,  after  his  resurrection,  first  appeared  to  the  apostles  ; 
and  when  made  acquainted  with  the  fact,  he  expressed 
an  incredulity  which  could  only  be  satisfied  by  the  manual 
evidence  of  inserting  his  finger  in  the  holes  which  the 
spear  and  the  nails  had  made  in  the  body  of  his  crucified 
master.  Eight  days  after,  when  Christ  again  appeared, 
Thomas  was  present  ;  and  the  reaction  in  his  mind  was 
very  strongly  expressed  by  him,  when  he  was  pointedly 
rolled  upon  by  Jesus  to  stretch  forth  his  hand  and  take 
the  desired  proof.  (John,  xxi.  24-29.)  Thomas  is  not 
again  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament.  Doubtless  he 
laboured,  like  the  other  apostles,  in  the  propagation  of  the 
Christian  doctrines  :  and  ecclesiastical  traditions  make  him 
one  of  the  apostles  of  the  Gentiles.  It  is  alleged  that  he 
travelled  eastward,  and  laboured  among  the  various  nations 
which  then  composed  the  Parthian  empire.  (Euseb.,  iii. 
1  ;  Rufin.,  x.  9;  Recognit.,  ix.  29.)  There  is  a  singular 
concurrence  of  Oriental  and  Western  testimony  (which 
may  be  seen  in  Assemanni  and  Baronius),  to  the  effect 
that  St.  Thomas  extended  his  labours  farther  eastward, 
and  then  southward,  until  he  reached  the  coast  of  India 
and  Malabar,  where,  having  exercised  his  apostolic  labours 
with  success,  he  passed  on  to  the  coast  of  Coroman- 
del  ;  and  having  made  great  conversions  to  the  faith  in 
those  parts,  he  proceeded  over  to  some  coast  on  the  east, 
called  China  (which  may  possibly  have  been  the  country 
now  called  Cochin-China),  and  afterwards  returned  to  Co- 
romandel,  where,  having  suffered  martyrdom,  he  was 
buried  in  the  mount  since  called  St.  Thomas's  Mount. 

In  the  quarters  indicated  there  are  Christian  churches 
which  bear  the  name  of  St.  Thomas,  and  claim  him  for  their 
founder.  If  they  derive  their  existence  as  a  church  un- 
interrupted from  the  apostolic  age,  this  fact  may  be  taken 
as  a  corroboration  of  the  above  traditions.  But  if  the 
P.  C.,  No.  1536. 


effects  which  resulted  among  them  from  the  labours  of 
Mar  Thoma  and  other  Nestorian  missionaries,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  sixteenth  century,  were  really  an  original 
conversion,  or  at  least  a  re-conversion,  and  not,  as  is  often 
supposed,  the  revival  of  a  fallen  but  not  extinct  church — 
then  this  claim  is  to  be  regarded  only  as  an  echo  of  the  tra- 
dition which  has  always  prevailed  in  the  Syrian  churches, 
and  which  must  be  estimated  by  its  intrinsic  probability 
and  value. 

(Besides  Assemanni  and  Baronius,  see  Tillemont,  i.  397, 
sq. ;  Cave's  Antiq.  Apostolical ;  Winer's  Biblisch.es  Real- 
icorlerbuch,  art.  Thomas;  Buchanan's  Christian  Re- 
searches ;  Yeate's  Indian  Church  History ;  and  Principal 
Mill's  Letter  to  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel  (July  29,  1822),  'inserted  in  Christian  Remem- 
brancer for  Nov.,  1823.) 

THOMAS  A^  KEMPIS.     [KEMPIS.] 

THOMAS  AQUI'NAS.     [AQUINAS.] 

THOMAS,  ANTOINE  LE'ONARD,  was  born  at  Cler- 
mont  in  Auvergne,  on  the  1st  of  October,  1732.  His 
father,  it  has  been  generally  believed,  died  while  Thomas 
was  an  infant,  leaving  a  widow  with  three  sons  and  a 
daughter.  The  eldest  son,  Joseph  Thomas,  who  embraced 
the  clerical  profession,  died  in  1741  :  he  composed  a  dra- 
matic piece,  entitled  '  Le  Plaisir,'  which  was  acted  with 
success  in  1740.  The  second,  Jean  Thomas,  died  in  1755, 
professor  in  the  college  of  Beauvais  :  he  published  some 
Latin  verses,  and  introduced  into  his  college  an  improved 
method  of  teaching  Latin.  It  appears  therefore  that  the 
taste  for  literature  was  common  to  the  whole  family. 

Antoine  Leonard  was  educated  at  home  till  he  had  com- 
pleted his  ninth  year,  and  was  then  sent  to  prosecute  his 
studies  at  Paris,  where  his  brothers  preceded  him.  In  a 
letter  which  he  addressed,  in  1767,  to  Madlle.  Moreau,  he 
mentions  that  his  second  brother  had  taken  great  pains 
with  his  education.  They  were  an  attached  family :  An- 
toine retained  all  his  early  devotion  for  his  mother  till  her 
death,  in  1782 ;  and  his  sister,  the  only  member  of  the 
family  who  survived  him,  lived  with  him  till  his  death. 

Antoine  Leonard  Thomas  distinguished  himself  at  the 
university.  In  1747  he  carried  off  two  of  the  prizes  dis- 
tributed in  his  class  in  the  college  of  Duplessis :  in  1748 
and  1749  he  studied  rhetoric  in  the  college  of  Lisieux,  and 
obtained  four  prizes  :  from  October,  1749,  to  August,  1751, 
he  studied  philosophy  with  equal  distinction,  at  first  in  the 
college  of  Lisieux,  subsequently  in  that  of  Beauvais. 
When  he  finished  his  university  career,  his  friends  wished 
him  to  study  for  the  bar,  and  he  did  so  far  comply  with 
their  desire  as  to  attend  law  classes  and  the  office  of  a 
solicitor.  This  continued  till  the  death  of  his  second 
brother,  in  1755,  at  which  time  he  had  retired,  apparently 
on  account  of  his  health,  which  was  always  infirm,  to  his 
native  district.  A  short  time  after  he  accepted  the  offer 
of  a  professorship  in  the  college  of  Beauvais.  He  con- 
tinued to  discharge  the  duties  of  his  appointment  till 
1761,  when,  finding  them  injurious  to  his  health,  he  re- 
signed, and  was  appointed  private  secretary  to  the  Due  de 
Praslin. 

Thomas  commenced  his  career  as  author  in  1756  by  pub- 
lishing '  Reflections  Philosophiques  et  Litteraires  sur  le 
PoSme  de  la  Religion  Naturelle.'  This  was  throwing  clown 
the  gauntlet  to  the  whole  school  of  Voltaire  :  the  patriarch 
himself  took  no  notice  of  the  publication,  and  Grimm  spoke 
of  it  as  the  work  of  '  a  silly  lad  -just  escaped  from  the 
school  of  the  Jesuits.'  In  the  same  year  Thomas  addressed 
an  ode,  full  of  hyperbolical  compliments,  to  Sechelles, 
controller-general  of  finance  :  the  flattery  was  successful ; 
it  obtained  from  the  minister  an  addition  to  the  revenues 
of  the  college.  In  1757  Thomas  composed,  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  great  earthquake  at  Lisbon,  a  '  Memoire  sur  les 
Causes  des  Tremblemens  de  Terre,'  which  was  crowned  by 
the  Academy  of  Rouen.  In  1759  he  published  '  Jumar- 
ville,'  a  poem  in  four  cantos,  on  the  death  of  a  French 
officer,  killed,  as  the  French  alleged,  under  circumstance* 
of  peculiar  atrocity,  in  the  war  between  the  French  and 
English,  in  the  backwoods  of  America.  Freron  praised 
this  poem  in  the  '  Annee  Litteraire,'  a  tribute  of  thanks  to 
the  young  author  who  had  ventured  to  attack  Voltaire. 
These  early  works  of  Thomas  are  remarkable  only  for  their 
turgid  style,  commonplace  ideas,  and  for  the  eagerness 
of  the  author  to  avail  himself  of  the,  popular  topic  of  tho 
day. 

VOL.  XXIV.-3  D 


T  II  O 


T  H  O 


About  tin*  ti 
render  tl> 
brgnn  to 


,!..    I' 
ron: 

Pell 


time.       Jli- 
crow  tied     in 

17«''l.        In    IT' 
HI   w-ts  assign,  d.      In  these  eotn- 


it  more  matter,  more 

tlation  in  • 

The  connection  with  the  I)uc>  (It1  Praslin  was  less  ;i.1\ mi- 
Thomas  than  it  promised  to  ! 
tuke  procured  for  him  th-  appoint  in. 

uterpreter  to  tli>  '!llt  ;l  v 

nay,  this  minister,  \vlio 
personal  quarrel  w-jth  Marmontel,  soiiffht  to  obtain  it 

liaii  tlio  masrnanimi';. 

the  appointment,  nrginirthe  superior  claims  of  Marmontt -I. 
This  art  of  ho-  him  the  lavoiir  of  tin-  D 

;' office  winch  was  op- 

to  him.     The  admission  to  the  Academy  was  not  ho 
lonir  deferred.      lie  delivcreil    his  inaugural   address  to 
that  body  on  the  'J2nd  of  January.  !7<i7. 

Hot  ween    17IU    and    I7fi7    h>  d— '  Ho.- 

finllv.'  crowned  in   17G3  :    '  Elosre  <!, 
in  17(>f>:    in  17(J(i.  '  Kloire  de  l.ouis.  Dauphin  de  I-'i 
composed    and   published   at   the  request    of  the   Cointe 
iviller:    and  his  inaugural  discourse.     In  October, 
17».7.  his  opera  of  Amplr.  Touirht  out,  but  with- 

i    by  a  pro- 

•nprovonient    in    execution.      They   differ   also 
from  his  juvenile  productions  in  an  attempt  to  adopt  the 

.ling  and  antithetical  style  of  the  Encycloi 
in  the  complete  appropriation  of  their  hold  satirical  tone 
in  respect  to  politics,  although  much  of  the  author's  juve- 
nile respect  for  reliirion  remained  with  him  to  the  last.    As 
ot'the  change. Grimm  h:ul  by  thistime 

begun  to  praise  Thomas,  and  Freron  had  cooled  in  his  ad- 
miration ot'him  :  Voltaire  had  written  a  complimentary  lettpr 
mi  the  •  K  ut  had  on  the  othei 

remarked  to  hi-  •  y  ouirht.  now  to  substitute 

the  word  ifii/ii/inmnx  \\IT  ffii/iniiithinn  :    Diderot  continued 
implacable.      It  was  rumoured  that   the  court,   enra 
the   tree   strain  of  the  '  Epilre   au   Peuplc,'  and   tli 
-    launched  and    the    feudal     8 

in  the    •  KLij-e    (hi    Dauphin,'   threatened   the    lib. 


principal  publications  of  Thomas,  from  the  IP 
his  admission  into  th«  Academy  till  his  death,  arc — •  Eloge 

my  in  17711.  and  pub- 
lished in  177").  His  reply,  as  director  of  '  ny.  to 
the  i':  Of  Toulon-. 

in  17,  et  I'K.sprit 

177-.      '  K.ssai  sur  les 
'  de   rEloquence 

d '( )u\  raL'e.'  published  in  177-f.  in  an 

lie  comiii.  "in  on 

a  tilill 

eompleted  his  death.     The    in. 

ical    skill  ovy    itself  in 

''empts 

!  ima- 
jrinat  ipt  to 

•  ll.  II;-  .  •-  •.  on  the 
character  and  man- 

have   swelleil    his    d 
;•  a  bulk,      i 

!    them    1. - 

nder  the  '• 

•.-.  ork  ; 

-  but  utiai. 

Ubotire  i:,  -v  and   art  iatiire 

which  haa  all  tht  falsehood  of  oratory  without  the  interest 


which   attaches  to  the   eloquence   oV  the  bar  or  »e 

from    its    power    of    producing 
The  partial'v 

th.   but  th.    ' 

rule  poems,   in  the  manner    Illonirh  n  -.nld- 

sinith  s  •  'J'raveller.'     They  never  could  lm\e  been  made 
parts  of  an  . 

nas  died    on    the    17th   of  Septcml 

'K-en   uiulermineil    by    m- 
d  U  supposed  to  Ilin  > 

!.-nt  which  ha]))' 
: .  That  he 

ble  01  'ion  he  showed 

when  i  'ur  of  the  Due  de  Praslin  by 

'•  a  x-at   in  the  Academy  to  the  exclusion 
ot  Mannontel.     That  !  jble  ol  sincere  atted  i 

d  by  the  footing  on  which  .M'ti  Ins  family 

and  friends.     The  iiisimiat.  .    and 

veracity  thrown  out   by   Diderot   >eem  to 
foundation  than  the  ehamre  of  tone   in  Ins  later  Iron 
earlier  publications.    The  truth  is,  that,  like  many  other  in- 
ferior littfrtiti-iirs,  Thomas  was  a  men-  • 
which  he  was  surrounded.    He  took  his  colonnn. 
from  his  pi.  of  whom  were  e  -  :    in 

after-life',  from  the  sceptical  literary  conversation  of  the 

works,  a  kind  of  composition  too  inaccurate  to  have 
as  history,  too  cold  and  remote  from  the  real  hnsin. 

•  oratory.  He  stands  however  hinh  anioiii: 
writers.  The  hitrh  finish  and  some  of  the  bril- 
liancy of  the  r'rench  school  cannot  be  denied  him;  though 
for  this  he  was  indebted  quite  as  much  to  the  company  In- 
kept  as  to  natural  talent,  or  even  his  unquestionable  i 
taking. 

r/vi  de   M.  Thomas,  Paris,   1702:    '7J/r;vv    Post- 
de  M.  Thorna-;.   Paris.  An  \.     Iso-J   :    -Sketch  of 
Thomas."  hy  Saint  Sunn,  in  the  Itinunifihi. 

THOMAS.  ST.  .Santo  Thome  ,  an  island  in  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea,  extends  from  1'  to  -V  X.  lat.,  and  from  (iu  iV  to 
liM:i'  K.  lunur.  It  is  about  Ml)  miles  west-north. 

Lope?.      The  is'und   is  nf  an  o\  al  shape  : 
length  is  about  'M  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  about   IK 
miles.     Its   area   may    be   estimated   at   about   -i'JU    square 
miles.      It   is   of    basaltic   formation,    and    mountainous: 
the   Pico    ile   Santa  Anna   de    ('h,.\es   is   7«XHi   feet    hiL'h. 
The  mountains  arc   mostly  covered  with  wood,  and    • 
are  m  ,  anls  well   supplied  with  lish.      The   . 

tation  is  abundant.  The  chief  exports  are  sugar,  indigo, 
and  cotton.  The  island  i  ihe  PortuL'uese;  and 

the  inhabitants,  who  are  chiefly  comp.i-cd  .'I    I'oitu. 
and  of  negro  slaves,  amount   to  about  1S.IXH).     A  number 
of  inn  live   iu    the   mountains.     The   chief 

town  is  called  Santo  Thome. 

•IHOMAS.  ST..   Island.      [Ynic.lN  ISLANDS.] 
THO.MASIN.orTOMASlN.surnamedT.  .ir.or 

Zerkler,  a  German  jioet  of  the  thirteenth  century.   He  was  a 

native  ut'tiic  Italian  province  of  Knnli,  and  born  about  the 
Hein-r  thus   an    Italian    by    birth,    or.  n»   he 
liinis.  \Valich,   he   wrote   in    his    earlier  da\ 

Italian   work,  probably   a  didactic    poem.  'On   Courteous 
Manners,'  which  is  no  longer  extant.      In  the  course  of  the 
.Jlii.  when    he-   had  just    reached    his   thirtieth   year, 
lie  wrote  in  the  space  of  ten  moi  :    didactic  poem 

in  German,  which  fiom  his  native  country  he  called  •  The 
Welsh  .'1  which  consists  of 

ten    books.      This    poem,     of    which    there    exist    many 

niie    of   the   most    splctidl.1 

duet]..  the  thirteenth  ecntnn, 

and,  although  llu-authoi  i-  er,  the  work  br> 

throughout    a    ].  in   spirit,  and   displays    all   the 

depth  and  intensity  of  German  thought  and  leclim:.  In 
the  beginning  of  his  poem  Thomasin  admits  that  he  is  not 
a  pen  which  he  used  :  bir 

i   sliirht.  tl. 

nd  knowledge  of  the  old   Gem.  .  di»- 

ncr.      Kschenburi;   tl"  ;  poses  that 

ills    native   eonnlrv    is    a 

mere  fiction.    Hut  this  MIJ.J.  i  well  as  another,  that 

the  •  Welfh  Gi-est  '  is    meicK  a  (iermaii   lianslation   of  the 

itlioiit    lounda- 

tion.  mill  contradicted  bj  numerous  p  ilie  lormer 

work.    The  object  of  this  poem  is  to  show  m  what  virtue. 


T  H  O 


387 


T  H  O 


piety,  and  good  conduct  consist,  and  why  man  should 
strive  after  them.  It  shows  that  a  remarkable  progress 
had  taken  place  in  the  mind  of  Thomasin  during  the 
interval  between  the  composition  of  the  Italian  and  that 
of  the  German  work.  In  the  former,  as  he  himself  states. 
he  had  proceeded  from  the  idea  that  courteous  conduct 
and  nobility  of  birth  were  always  combined  with  a  noble 
mind,  or,  in  other  words,  that  the  changeable  rules 
respecting  good  manners  were  of  greater  value  than  the 
eternal  law  of  morality  which  is  implanted  in  every 
man's  heart.  This  prejudice  is  altogether  given  up 
in  his  German  poem,  where  he  declares  that  a  man  is 
foolish  who  thinks  himself  great  because  he  is  of  noble 
birth  and  possesses  courteous  manners,  and  that  it  is  only 
a  man's  heart  and  real  character  that  make  him  worth 
anything.  Virtue  with  him  is  now  a  fundamental  prin- 
ciple, and  not  a  mere  expedient.  He  describes  virtues 
and  vices,  and  their  respective  consequences,  with  a  truly 
Socratic  spirit  and  dignity.  Thomasin  was  well  acquainted 
with  the  history  of  antiquity,  and  it  is  among  the  antients 
that  he  found  his  best  models  of  really  virtuous  men. 
The  whole  poem  is  a  sublime  and  altogether  practical 
system  of  morality  :  it  is  a  philosophy  in  the  garb  of  poetry 
and  occasionably  embellished  by  figurative  language. 
But  he  does  not  write  in  the  spirit  of  any  particular  school ; 
his  object  is  in  general  to  instruct  man  on  matters  con- 
cerning his  physical  and  spiritual  welfare. 

This  masterpiece  of  early  German  poetry  and  phi- 
>liy  has  never  yet  been  published  entire,  but  it  is  .-aid 
that  Frornmann  is  preparing  an  edition  of  it.  Fragments 
of  it  are  printed  in  Eschenburg's  '  Denkmaler  Altdeutscher 
Dichtkunst,'  p.  121,  &c.  ;  compare  Gervinus,  '  Geschichte 
der  Poetischen  National  Literatur  der  Deutschen,'  vol.  i., 
p.  450,  &c. 

THOMA'SIUS,  CHRISTIAN.  The  real  name  of  this 
author  is  Thomas,  and  in  the  works  which  he  published  in 
his  mother  tongue  he  always  calls  himself  Christian 
Thomas.  He  was  born  at  Leipzig,  on  the  12th  of  January, 
1055.  and  was  the  son  of  Jacob  Tliomasius  1022-1084,),  a 
distinguished  professor  of  philosophy,  and  some  time 
rector  of  the  celebrated  Thoinasschule  at  Leipzig,  under 
whose  auspices  Leibnitz  was  educated.  The  education  of 
Christian  Tliomasius  was  conducted  by  his  lather,  whose 
knowledge  of  philosophy  and  its  history  gave  his  mind  at 
an  early  age  a  decided  turn.  Christian  had  scarcely 
attained  his  fourteenth  year  when  he  was  found  sufficiently 
prepared  to  enter  the  university.  In  his  sixteenth  year  he 
obtained  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts,  and  the  year  after 
that  of  master  of  arts.  The  chief  subjects  of  his  studies 
were  philosophy  and  law,  more  especially  the  law  of  nature, 
which  he  regarded  as  the  basis  of  all  other  laws.  The 
instruction  of  his  father  and  his  own  experience  at  the 
university  had  convinced  him  that  the  methods  of  teaching 
then  followed  were  pedantic  and  deficient,  and  he  de- 
termined to  remedy  these  delects  as  much  as  was  in  his 
power.  In  1075  he  went  to  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  where 
he  began  a  course  of  lectures  on  law,  but  they  do  not 
appear  to  have  been  well  received  by  his  colleagues,  and 
a  few  years  after,  in  1079,  after  having  obtained  the  degree 
of  doctor  of  laws,  he  left  Frankfort,  and  made  a  literary 
journey  to  Holland.  On  returning  to  Leipzig  he  com- 
menced the  practice  of  the  la\\'.  But  this  occupation  did 
not  offer  sufficient  scope  for  hiln,  and  he  again  became  an 
academical  teacher,  in  which  capacity  he  brought  about 
the  most  beneficial  reforms.  The  law  of  nature,  which 
had  until  then  bten  almost  entirely  neglected  in  the  uni- 
versities, continued  to  be  the  principal  subject  of  his 
studies.  The  older  professors,  who  found  themselves  di.-- 
turbed  in  their  routine  of  teaching  by  the  energy  and 
boldness  of  the  young  man,  began  to  clamour  against  him. 
So  long  as  his  father  lived,  violent  outbreaks  were  pre- 
vented, partly  because  he  restrained  his  son's  eagemi's* 
for  reforms,  and  partly  because  the  other  professors 
med  him  too  much  to  hurt  his  feelings  by  open 
attacks  upon  his  son.  When  however  his  father  died, 
in  10H4,  the  bitterness  and  boldness  with  which  young 
Thomasius  attacked  antiquated  prejudices  of  all  kinds 
together  with  their  champions,  involved  him  in  numerous 
disputes.  This  enmity  was  not.  only  provoked  by  the 
matter  and  the  manner  "of  his  teaching,  but  also  by  several 
publications  which  tended  to  destroy  established  opinions. 
One  of  them,  on  polygamy,  especially  gave  great  offence  ; 


he  asserted  that  polygamy  was  at  least  not  contrary  to  any 
law  of  nature. 

Up  tQ  this  time  it  had  been  the  general  custom  in  all 
German  universities  to  deliver  lectures  in  Latin,  and  to 
make  all  public  announcements  of  them  in  the  same 
language.  In  the  year  1087  Thomasius  published  his  pro- 
gram in  German,  and  announced  that  he  would  deliver  a 
course  of  lectures  in  German,  and  on  a  subject  which 
appeared  altogether  foreign'  to  a  university, — viz.  on  the 
manner  in  which  the  Germans  should  follow  the  example 
of  the  French  ('  Diseours,  welcher  Gestalt  man  denen 
Franzosen  im  gemeinen  Leben  und  Wandel  nachahmen 
soil,'  published  at  Leipzig,  1087,  4to.).  This  daring  inno- 
vation was  regarded  by  his  colleagues  as  a  perfect  heresy, 
though,  after  the  example  was  once  set,  it  was  gradually 
followed  by  other  professors,  until  it  became  the  universal 
practice  in  all  German  universities  to  lecture  in  German. 
It  was  a  necessary  consequence  of  this  that  books  of  a 
scientific  character  now  began  to  be  written  in  German. 
Notwithstanding  both  the  open  and  secret  attacks  to 
which  Thomasius  had  thus  exposed  himself,  he  continued 
to  combat  prejudice,  pedantry,  and  error.  He  was  un- 
sparing in  his  censure,  which  was  usually  combined  with 
wit  and  satire,  and  even  his  former  teachers  did  not 
escape.  In  the  year  after,  1C88,  he  established  a  German 
Monthly  Review,  under  the  title,  '  Freimiithige,  jedoch 
vernunft-  und  gesetzmassige  Gedanken  fiber  allerhand, 
fiirnemlich  aber  neue  Biicher,'  which  he  conducted  from 
1C88  till  1690,  and  which  gave  him  immense  influence  in 
all  parts  of  Germany,  and  the  means  of  chastising  his 
enemies.  His  enemies  in  their  turn  tried  every  means  to 
avenge  themselves  ;  and  although  Thomasius  at.  first  suc- 
ceeded in  averting  the  danger  that  was  gathering  around 
him,  yet  the  disputes  became  daily  more  vehement  und 
serious,  especially  with  two  divines,  Pfeifer  and  Carp- 
zovius,  who  charged  him  with  atheism.  The  theological 
faculty  of  Leipzig  was  likewise  gained  over  to  their  side. 
H.  G.  Masius,  court  preacher  to  the  king  of  Denmark, 
who  had  been  rather  severely  dealt  with  by  Thomasius  in 
his  Journal,  and  who  made  a  reply,  to  which  Thomasius 
answered  in  a  very  energetic  manner,  persuaded  the  king 
of  Denmark  to  have  all  the  published  parts  of  Thomasius's 
Journal  burnt  in  the  market-place  of  Copenhagen  by  the 
hangman,  1089.  Such  proceedings  in  a  foreign  country 
were  treated  by  Thomasius  with  contenpt ;  but  the  storm 
was  gathering  over  his  head.  In  the  sanje  year  he  became 
involved  in  disputes  with  the  Pietists,  and  also  came 
forward  to  justify  marriages  between  two  persons  of 
different  religions,  which  enraged  the  divines  of  Witten- 
berg to  such  a  degree,  that  the  chief  consistory  was 
induced  by  various  charges  which  were  made  against  him 
to  issue  an  order  for  tiie  apprehension  of  Thomasius.  He 
escaped  the  danger  and  fled  to  Berlin,  where  he  met  with 
a  kind  reception  and  the  protection  of  Frederick  III.,  the 
great  elector  of  Brandenburg  (afterwards  King;  Frederick  1. ;, 
who  not  only  permitted  him  to  settle  at  Halle,  but  also 
to  lecture  in  the  Ritteracademie  (academy  for  young 
noblemen)  of  that  place.  He  began  his  lectures  here  in 
1090,  and  met  with  the  same  approbation  on  the  part 
of  the  students  as  at  Leipzig ;  and  the  increase  in  the 
number  of  students  induced  the  elector  in  1094  to  found 
the  university  of  Halle,  in  which  he  appointed  Thomasius 
professor  of  jurisprudence,  and  conferred  upon  him  the  title 
of  councillor,  with  a  salary  of  500  thalers.  In  this  new 
position  too  Thomasius  continued  to  be  annoyed  by  nu- 
merous disputes,  partly  with  his  former  adversaries  and 
partly  with  others.  In  the  year  1709  he  had  the  satisfac- 
tion to  receive  an  invitation  to  the  chair  of  jurisprudence 
in  the  university  of  Leipzig,  which  however  he  refused. 
King  Frederick  I.  of  Prussia,  pleased  with  the  determina- 
tion of  Thomasius  not  to  leave  his  service,  rewarded  him 
with  the  title  of  privy-councillor.  In  1710  Thomasius  was 
elected  rector  of  the  university  of  Halle,  and  dean  of  the 
faculty  of  jurisprudence.  He  died  on  the  23rd  of  Sep- 
tember, 1728,  in  the  seventy-third  year  of  his  age. 

If  ever  a  man  exercised  a  beneficial  influence  upon  his 
age  and  country,  an  influence  which  will  extend  to  the 
latest  posterity,  it  is  Thomasius.  He  was  one  of  the  few 
men,  like  Luther  and  Lessing,  who  now  and  then  rise  up 
in  a  nation,  give  it  an  impulse,  and  determine  its  course. 
At  the  time  when  Thomasius  began  to  make  himself  known, 
philosophy  and  theology  were  studied  and  taught  in  such  a 

'3D2 


T  II  O 


388 


T  II  O 


manner  1) 
created  by  the  1 
All   philosophic 
Latin,  wh. 


,'irit  which  hail  been  ' 
ther.  ; 
••vritten  in  | 

an  ina  .'i  for  commum- 

ircqncntly 

nl  imperfect  on   that    account,  or   tin-   Ian: 
barbarous.     In  the  universities  also  Latin  was 
tin1    ordinary    language    for    communicating   knowledge, 
which  thus  remained  in  tin-  exclusive  possession  ol  'a  small 
numlx-r,  and  without  influence  upon   the  nation  at 
Thomasius  prepared  the  way  tor  better  thinirs,  first    by 
communicating  knowledge  in  his  native  language,  and  b\  ex- 
tending the  sphere  within  which  -peculation  had  until  then 
been  carried  on.     At  the  >aine  time  he  urgi-d  the  nc< 
of  writing  in  a  clear  and  intelligible  style,  whrch  many  of 

'intiymcn   in   recent    times   have   greatly    neglected. 

.vn  sHle.  thonirh  not  always  pure,  is  precise  and 
vigorous.  As  in  places  of  learning  Ihomasius  destroyed 
old  prejudices  and  pedantry,  he  also  boldly  combated 
superstition  and  hypocrisy  in  the  affairs  of  common  life, 
such  as  the  belief  in  ghosts,  spectres,  and  witchcraft  ;  and 
il most  entirely  owing  to  his  exertions  that  trials  tor 
witchcraft  and  torture  were  abolished  in -Germany.  In 
reference  to  this,  Frederick  the  (treat  says  of  Thomasius, 
•  11.  denounced  trials  for  witchcraft  so  loudly.that  persons 
began  to  be  ashamed  of  them,  and  from  that  time  the 
female  sex  ha.-,  been  permitted  to  crow  old  and  die  in 
peace.'  All  this  would  alone  be  sufficient  to  immortalize 
his  name,  even  if  he  had  no  claim  to  it  by  what  he  did  in 
philosophy.  Here  lie  indeed  found  things  in  such  a  state, 
that  it  required  all  bis  energy  to  clear  the  field  from  the 
weeds  with  \\hich  it  was  overgrown,  before  it  was  fit  to 
receive  the  seed,  and  accordingly  his  philosophy  is  more 
of  a  destructive  than  of  a  constructive  character.  But  in 
this  negative  way  he  has  done  incalculable  sen  ice  to  his 
nation,  and  Frederick  the  Great  justly  says,  that,  among  all 
the  philosophers  of  Germany,  none  have  contributed  more 
to  render  its  name  illustrious  than  Leibnitz  and  Thomasius. 
The  number  of  works  of  Thomasius  is  considerable. 
I)c>idcs  those  mentioned  above,  the  following  must  be 
noticed :  '  Kinleitung  zu  der  Yernunftlehre,  worinncii 
durch  eine  leichte,  und  alien  vemiinftigen  Menscheii. 
vvascrlci  Standes  oder  Geschlechts  sie  seyu,  verstiindliche 
Manier.  der  AYcg  gczeigct  wird,  ohne  die  Syllogistica,  das 
\\ahrc.  'Wahrschcinliche  und  Falsche  von  emander  zu 

iciden  und  neue  AYahrheiten  zu  erfinden,'  i 
1091, 8vo.  The  fifth  and  last  edition  of  this  work  appeared 
at  Halle,  1~1!»,  Hvo. ;  it  was  the  first  readable  book  that 
had  ever  been  produced  iu  Germany  on  logic.  '  Von  der 
Kunst  vemiinftig  und  lugendhnft  zu  lichen,  als  dcm  cin- 
zigen  Mittel  zu  einem  gliickscligcn.  galanten,  und  xer- 

•  n  Lebcn  zu  gelangcn,  oder  Einleitung  der  Sitten- 

li-hre.1    Sec..    Halle,    l(i!li    Hvo.;    an    eighth    edition    of   it 
appeared  in  172G.     This  work  contains  a  system  of  • 
better  than  any  that  had  appeared  before  him.     '  II 
der  Wcisheit  imd  Thorheit,'  in  three  parts.  Halle. 
Hvo.     •  \Veitere    Krliiutcrung   durch   untei-schie,!,  ,ie     l'.\- 
cmpel,   anderer  Menscheii  Gcmiithcr  keniien  n\  1< 
Halle.  l(i:«,  Kvo.,  reprinted  in    1711.     'Der  Kern  wahrcr 
und   niitziicher  vYeltweishcit,'  Halle.  Hi!):!,  Svo.  :   this  i>  a 
translation    of    Xenophon's    •  Memorabilia     of    S,., 
which  Thomasius  strangely  enough  took  from  the  I'rcnch 
translation  of  Charpentier,  although  he  himself  w; 
acquainted   with    the  Greek.     '  Versuch   vom   'Wcscn   lies 
.•s,   oder   Gnindlehren  die  einem    Studioso  Juris  /u 
wissen  und  auf  I'liiversitiitcn  zu  lerneii  niithig  siud,'  Halle. 
Svo..    reprinted    in    l~lli).     '  1  aber    doeh 

muntere   und    verniinftige    Gedanken   und    Krinnci 
iibcr    allerhand    auserlesene   juristische    Hiiudel,'   -1 
Halle,    172D-J1.     His    miscellaneous   and    smaller    • 
appeared  in  a  collection  under  the   title  '  Kleine  1). 
Sciinftcn  mil  Kleiss  niMnunengetragen,1  Halle,  17ol.  Byo. 
A  complete  list  of  his  works  is  given  in  I.uden's  f'hri\linii 
Thonuuiu*   nach  teinrn    tv-hirkfili'ii    unit   St-hrijtrn   ilnr- 
>ll,  with  a  preface  by  Johannes  von   Miiller,   Berlin, 
:   and   in   JBlden'l   I.<:i-ilu,n   Drulxrlu-r    Uirhti'r 
unit  i.  vol.  v.,  p.  :fi.-7i'.l. 

TIloM.vsirs.  .IACOH.     [THOMASIUS,  CHRISTIAN.] 

TH'IM ASTON.      [MMNK.  p. 

THoMuM).  THOMAS,  an  architect  who  practised  at 

and    held  the  rank  of  a  major  in  tl>. 
«un  Krviee,  wa»  a  native  of  France,  and  bom  at  Nancy, 


•Illillll      ill      till       WUUUV,     UI1U      III        ,1.  M   .  >I  111  I  IL 

w  here  he  at  tirst  siippdrtert  him-. 
!'  his  pencil, which  not  only  l>iun.; 
ivourablv  known  to  t  i-burs:  imlilic. 


•Jl.  17-V.i.     Scaicelv  had   1  .1  Ins  pro- 

fessional  education  at  Paris,  wh.  •'•.•••\  rciuli-ii  il 

.r   him,   he   and   his 
remain  in  the  countn,-.  and   ho 

.  where  he  at  first  sup 
o!'  his 

favourably  known  to  the  St.  lYtcr-hu: 
he  displayed  in  architectural  .1  k-nirth  t. 

beini:  employed   bv  the  government  in  that    lua 
which  he  had  original  i  to  follow,  and  one  of  the 

.'rks  of  any  importance  intnistcd  t<i  hii:: 
Thiatre     eieelcd    by    the   German    architect    Tiscll- 
bcin.   17^--s:r,  which   he'v.as  c<immi>siijned  to  ini) 
and  partly  remiK'.el.  in  lst)l.    Although  not 
from  the  peculiarities  of  the  French  school,  the  ta.-adc  and 
octastyle  Ionic   portico  which    h.  that    stni 

is  one  of  the  noblest  \  .  .  liitectnre  in  the  northern 

capital  of  Ku-sia,  and.  of  its  kind  .und  date.  inKuroj.,  .  Had 
he  executed  nothing  els*',  that  alone  would  have  entitled 
him  to  rank  higher  in  his  j.  hau  many 

who  owe   their  celebrity  as  much  to  the   number  as  : 
merit  of  their  works,     lint   he  h.. 
displaying  his  taste  and  ability  in  another  ve: 
public   edifice  at    St.   I'ctersburi:.  namely,   the    Im; 
Birzha,  or  Exchange,  erected  by  him  between  the 

md    l^Hi.   which    is  an    insulated  structure  (about 
of  the  Roman  Doric  order,  peripteral  and 
dcca-t\lc   at  each  end    although   without    prdiin 
lumng  altogether  -I  I   columns.      Situated    at    the  southern 
point   of  the   \  a-- ilievskii  Island,  immediately  I'ai-ing  the 
N'cva.  it  stands  in  the  centre  of  a  spacious  '•tilntrlind,  or 
'place,'  upon  a  rich  architectural  terrace,  wnii 
out  so  as  to  form  a  semicircular  esplanade  in  front,  at 
extremity  of  which  is-  a  fliirht  of  steps  leading  down  to  the 
river,  and  amasshc  rostral  column  1'3)  feet  high.     Taken 
altogether,  the  architectural  combination  thus  produced  is 
exceedingly  picturesque,  and  may  be  said  to  be  unique. 

Thomond  ,d  tome  private  mansions  and  other 

buildings  at  St.  1'etersburi:.  the  mausoleum  oft] 
Paul  at  Pavlovska,  the  theatre  at  Odessa,  and   the  Pultava 
monument.     In  INSS  he   published  some  of  his  buildings 
and  architect  in  al  designs  in  a  quarto  volume,  very  iin 
:  y  executed  howc\.-r:   and   he  also  wrote   a    ti 
on  paintiuir.  an  art  to  which  he  was  i;rcatlj  attached.     He 

.-.lu'iist  2;{,  1813. 
Kukolnik.  in  K/uitl'i;Jir\ti:  inn/n  G:izrl<i,  1S37.) 

THOMPSON.  SIR  )!.     [Rrv 

THOMSON,  JAMBS, wai  born  at  Kdnam  in  Roxburgh- 
shire on  the  llth  Sc])tember,  17<X).    His  lather  was  c' 
man  of  the  place,  and  distinguished  for  his  piety  and 
(oral    character,     .lames   was  fii>t    sent    to   the    grammar- 
:  ;il  .ledliiiix'h.  and   completed   his   education   at   the 
T'liiveisity  of  Edinburgh,  where   in  1711)   he  was   admitted 
as  a  student  of  divinity.     In   1720  his  father  died.  '  and 
this,'  says  Dr.  Murdoch,   '  affected   him   to  an   i 
decree,  and  his  relations  still  remember  some  e\li:i!..:dinary 
instances  of  his  irriel  and  filial  duty  on  that 

Thomson  turned  from  divinity  to  poetn  o\\mir  to  the 
following  incident: — The  Rev.  Mr.  Hamilton,  who  then 
tilled  the  chair  of  divinity. 

psalm  in  which   the   majesty  and    power    0 

ed.     ( it'  thi«  ] 

and  illustration  as  the  exercise  required,  but  in  so  poetical 
and  figurative  a  styl'  'onish  the  audience.  Mr. 

Hamilton  complimented  the  performance  and  pointed  out 
to   the   s'udcnls   its  most   strikinu'    point™:  but,  tnnn 
Thorn  '1,'isti-d    that    it'   he  intenil. 

minis:  ;  beep  a  stricter  rein  over  his  imagination 

and  learn  to  be  intelliirible  to  an  ordinary  eoiiL. 

•ement    held   out    to  hiiii    by  )..- 

Bailie  following  this  intimation  of  the  Professor,  he  detiT- 
mined  to  u'ivc  up  divinity  and  try  his   fortune   in    London. 
Slender  as  this   pretext  of  •  encouragement ' 
have  been  main   poi  t .  who  have   thus  sought  their  fortune 
from  no  st i.  on.     The  truth   is.  Thomson   wanted 

to  try  his  capacity  in  Loud.  ,  ed  on  tin-  U   a   pre- 

text. Aimed  there,  says  Dr.  Johnson,  he  was  one  day 
loitering  about  'with  the  irapinir  curiosity  of  a  new-comer, 
his  attention  upon  e\.  kd,' 

when    Ins   handkerchief,    containint:    hi  .  om- 

mendation   to  scveial  -tolen 

from  him.     And  now  the  lonely  poet  in  the  va.st  city 


T  H  O 


389 


T  H  O 


felt  his  inexperience  and  his  poverty.  A  pair  of  shoes 
was  his  first  want ;  his  manuscript  of  '  Winter '  his  only 
property.  A  purchaser  for  this  poem  was  found  with 
great  difficulty  ;  but  Mr.  Millar  consented  to  give  a  trifle 
for  it,  and  it  was  published  in  1726.  It  was  little  read 
till  Mr.  Whately  and  Mr.  Spence  spoke  so  favourably 
pf  it  that  attention  was  attracted,  and  it  rose  rapidly 
into  popularity,  and  one  edition  very  speedily  followed 
another. 

This  success  procured  him  many  friends,  among  whom 
was  Dr.  Rundle,  who  introduced  him  to  the  lord  chancellor 
Talbot ;  and  some  years  after,  when  the  eldest  son  of  that 
nobleman  made  a  tour  on  the  continent,  Thomson  was 
appointed  his  travelling  companion.  Meanwhile  his 
poetical  powers  were  fully  employed,  and  in  1727  appeared 
his  'Summer;'  in  1728,  his  'Spring;;'  and  in  1730,  his 
'  Autumn.'  Besides  these  he  published,  in  1727,  '  A  Poem 
sacred  to  the  Memory  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,'  and  '  Britan- 
nia,' a  poetical  invective  against  the  ministry  for  the  in- 
difference they  showed  to  the  depredations  of  the  Spaniards 
in  America.  By  this  piece  he  declared  himself  a  favourer 
of  the  opposition,  and  therefore  could  expect  nothing  from 
the  court. 

The  tragedy  of  '  Sophonisba'  was  acted  in  1727,  Wilks 
taking  1he  part  of  Masinissa,  and  Mrs.  Oldfield  that  of 
Sophonisba.  So  high  were  the  expectations  raised,  that 
every  rehearsal  was  dignified  with  a  splendid  audience 
collected  to  anticipate  the  pleasure  that  was  preparing  for 
the  public.  Its  success  however  was  very  equivocal. 
'  There  is,'  says  Johnson,  '  a  feeble  line  in  the  play : — 

"  O,  Sophonisba,  Sophonisba,  0 1 " 

This  gave  occasion  to  a  waggish  parody, 

"  O,  Jemmy  Thomson,  Jemmy  Thomson,  O !  •' 

•vhich  for  awhile  was  echoed  through  the  town.' 

At  this  time  long  opposition  to  Sir  Robert  Walpole  had 
filled  the  nation  with  clamours  for  liberty,  and  Thomson, 
instinctively  seizin;;  the  poet's  office  to  utter  in  verse  the 
wants  of  the  nation,  determined  on  writing  a  poem  on 
'  Liberty.'  He  spent  two  years  on  this  undertakin<r,  and 
viewed  it  as  his  noblest  work,  probably  because  it  had  cost 
him  the  most  trouble.  It  was  divided  into  five  parts, 
which  were  published  separately,  thus :  '  Antient  and 
Modern  Italy  compared  ;  being  the  first  part  of  "  Liberty," 
a  poem,'  1735.  '  Greece ;  being  the  second  part,  &c.,' 
!":»•">.  '  Rome ;  being  the  third  part,  &c.,'  1735.  '  Bri- 
tain ;  being  the  fourth  part,  &c.,'  1736.  '  The  Prospect ; 
li<  -ing  the  fifth  part,  &c.,'  1736.  The  poem  of '  Liberty'  does 
not  now  appear  in  its  original  state,  having  been  shortened 
by  Sir  George  'afterwards  Lord)  Lyttelton.  Of  all  Thomson's 
works  this  is  the  least  read,  and  deservedly  so  ;  for,  inde- 
pendent of  the  feebleness  of  its  execution,  it  is  obvious,  as 
Johnson  remarked,  that  '  the  recurrence  of  the  same 
images  must  tire  in  time  ;  an  enumeration  of  examples  to 
prove  a  position  which  nobody  denied  must  quickly  grow 
disgusting.' 

His  friend  Talbot  appointed  him  secretary  of  briefs,  a 
place  requiring  little  attendance,  suiting  his  retired  indo- 
lent way  of  life,  and  equal  to  all  his  wants.  When  his 
patron  died.  Lord  Hardwicke  succeeded  him,  and  kept  the 
office  vacant  for  some  time,  probably  till  Thomson  should 
apply  for  it ;  but  either  his  modesty,  pride,  or  depression 
of  spirits  prevented  his  asking,  and  the  new  chancellor 
would  not  give  him  what  he  would  not  request.  This 
reverse  of  fortune  increased  his  literary  activity.  In  1738, 
besides  editing  his  own  works  in  two  volumes  and  writing 
a  preface  to  Milton's  '  Areopagitica,'  he  produced  the 
tragedy  of  '  Agamemnon,'  with  Quin  for  his  hero.  For 
this  hr  iriit  '  no  inconsiderable  sum,'  though  it  had  but 
poor  success.  Johnson  says  that  on  the  first  night  Thom- 
son seated  himself  in  the  upper  gallery,  and  was  so  inter- 
in  its  performance,  that  '  he  accompanied  the  players 
by  audible  recitation,  till  a  friendly  hint  frighted  him  to 
silence.' 

Thomson's  next  tragedy  was  '  Edward  and  FJeonora,' 
which  was  not  allowed  to  be  represented  on  account  of 
(•••itain  pretended  allusions.  He  then  wrote,  conjointly 
with  Mallet,  the  masque  of '  Alfred,'  which  was  represented 
re  the  prince  and  princess  of  Wales  at  Clifden  in 
1740.  This  masque  contains  the  national  song  of  '  Rule 
Britannia,'  which  Mr.  Bolton  Coniey  ascribes,  'on  no  slight 
evidence,"  to  Mallet, 


Thomson's  next  work  was  another  tragedy,  'Tancred 
and  Sigismunda,'  which,  being  taken  from  the  interesting 
stoiy  in  '  Gil  Bias,'  instead  of  the  Grecian  mythology,  as 
were  his  other  pieces,  had  more  success.  Garrick  and  Mrs 
Gibber  played  the  principal  parts.  His  friend  Sir  George 
Lyttelton  now  appointed  him  surveyor-general  of  the  Lee- 
ward Islands,  from  which,  after  paying  a  deputy,  he  re- 
ceived about  300/.  a  year. 

The  'Castle  of  Indolence,'  which  was  many  years  under 
his  hands,  was  now  finished  and  published  (1748).  It  was 
at  first  little  more  than  a  few  detached  stanzas,  in  the 
way  of  raillery  on  himself,  and  on  some  of  his  friends  who 
reproached  him  with  indolence,  while  he  thought  them  at 
least  as  indolent  as  himself.  But  the  subject  grew  under 
his  hands  till  it  became  his  masterpiece. 

A  violent  cold,  which  from  inattention  became  worse, 
at  last  carried  him  off,  on  the  27th  August,  1748. 
He  left  behind  him  a  tragedy  of '  Coriolanus/  which  was 
brought  on  the  stage  by  Sir  George  Lyttelton  for  the 
benefit  of  his  family.  A  considerable  sum  was  gained, 
which  paid  his  debts  and  relieved  his  sisters.  The  remains 
of  the  poet  are  deposited  in  Richmond  churchyard. 

Thomson  was  '  more  fat  than  bard  beseems;'  of  a  simple, 
unaffected,  indolent,  sensual  character ;  silent  in  com- 
pany, but  cheerful  among  friends,  of  whom  he  had  many 
and  true.  This  character  is  discernible  in  his  writings. 
His  simplicity  is  seen  in  the  purity  and  warmth  of  his  sen- 
timents, sometimes  even  childish;  his  indolence  in  the 
slovenliness  of  his  versification,  and  the  inappropriateness 
of  so  many  of  his  epithets :  he  never  seems  to  have  thought 
anything  worth  the  toil  of  polishing,  and  hence  the  per- 
petual use  of  pompous  glittering  diction  substituted  for 
thought  or  description  ;  his  sensuality  appears  in  the  gusto 
with  which  he  describes  all  luxuries  of  the  senses,  and  the 
horrors  of  deprivation.  Amidst  much  that  is  truly  exqui- 
site both  in  feeling  and  expression,  he  mingles  the  ab- 
surdities of  a  schoolboy's  trite  commonplaces  and  mecha- 
nical contrivances  to  piece  out  his  verse.  A  sweet  line  of 
almost  perfect  beauty  is  followed  by  a  bombastic  allusion, 
or  some  feeble  personification  as  tiresome  as  the  first  was 
bewitching.  A  touch  of  nature  is  overloaded  by  super- 
fluous epithets — a  picturesque  description  is  often  marred 
by  pedantry  or  carelessness.  Hazlitt  says  that  '  he  is 
affected  through  carelessness — pompous  from  unsuspecting 
simplicity  of  character.  He  is  frequently  pedantic  and 
ostentatious  in  his  style,  because  he  had  no  consciousness 
of  these  vices  in  himself.' 

In  spite  of  these  drawbacks,  Thomson  is  a  charming 
poet,  and  one  whose  works  have  always  been  the  delight 
of  all  classes.  The  popularity  of  his  '  Seasons'  equals  that 
of  any  poem  in  the  language,  and  it  is  said  that  some  one, 
finding  a  .shabby  copy  of  it  lying  on  the  window-seat  of  a 
country  ale-house,  exclaimed,  '  That's  true  fame  !'  Thom- 
son's beauties  are  genuine  :  his  descriptions  of  nature  often 
come  with  the  force  of  reality  upon  the  mind  ;  and  no  one 
ever  painted  more  successfully  the  '  changing  scene'  and 
the  '  rustic  joys'  of  England. 

His  '  Castle  of  Indolence'  may  be  regarded  as  his  best- 
sustained  effort,  for,  although  separate  passages  of  the 
'  Seasons'  may  be  superior,  yet  on  the  whole  it  has  fewer 
defects,  while  some  of  the  stanzas,  especially  in  the  first 
canto,  fill  the  mind  with  lazy  luxury. 

Of  his  tragedies  we  need  say  little  :  their  neglect  has. 
been  so  signal,  that  we  may  accept  so  unanimous  a  ver- 
dict without  further  examination ;  indeed  the  genius  of 
Thomson  was  eminently  undramatic. 

(Dr.  Johnson,  Lives  of  the  Poets;  Murdoch's  Life  of 
Thomson  ;  Thomson's  Seasons,  edited  by  Bolton  Corney ; 
Hazlitt's  Lectures  on  the  English  Poets  ;  Campbell's  Spe- 
cini"tis  of  the  British  Poets.) 

THOMSONITE.  This  mineral  occurs  generally  in 
masses.  Structure  fibrous  and  radiated,  the  fibres  prolonged 
into  small  columnar  crystals  in  the  occasional  cavities. 
Primary  form  a  right  rhombic  prism.  Cleavage  parallel 
to  the  diagonal  planes  of  the  primary  form.  Fracture  un- 
even. Hardness — scratches  fluor  spar,  or  5-  0.  Colourless, 
translucent,  and  in  small  fragments  transparent.  Lustre 
vitreous.  Brittle.  Specific  gravity  2-35  to  2 '37. 

Before  the  blow-pipe  it  intumesces  and  becomes  opaque, 
but  does  not  fuse  ;  at  a  red  heat  it  loses  water. 

It  occurs  at  Kilpatrick,  near  Dumbarton,  in  trap  asso- 
ciated with  analcime  and  prehnite. 


TH  O 


390 


T  H  O 


I'- 


. 
. 
. 


le  of  iron  . 

. 


1.-.  .1(1 

II  I.I 
l:t  m 

1TT3G 


l'1«- 

0-40 

13-10 

100-07 


TMONOX. 
TIHW  VCK 


JS.l 

DUCT  is  the  principal  trunk  of  the  lym- 
•n,  and  Ihe  canal  through  which 
part  of  the  chyle  and  lymph  u  1  into 

the  blood.  It  commences,  below,  at  what  is  called  the 
hyli.  which  receives  all  the  principal  absor- 
ni  the  intestines  and  from  the  1. 

tor  and  middle  part  of  the 
abdomen,  on  the  upper  lumbar  vertebra  and  on  the  right 
•.the  aorta.  In  man  the  diameter  of  the  reeeptacu- 
lum  it  but  little  greater  than  that  of  the  thoracic  duct, 
which  is  continued  from  it  :  in  most  other  animals  it  is 
considerably  greater,  and  the  d  in  them  to  com- 

mence  in  a   large   pouch.      From  the  receptaculnm   ehyli 
the  thoracic  din  ..wards,  on  the  right  side  of  the 

.  and  behind  it,  from  the  abdomen  into  the  chest. 
being  joined  in  it*  conise  by  the  lymphat;  ••!'  the 

.•lit  organs.  Opposii,.  th,'  sixth  doisal  vertebra  it 
begins  to  bend  to  the  left,  and,  alter  passing  behind  the 
arch  of  the  aorta,  it  o  the  level  of  the  seventh 

forwards   and  downwards,  and 
:<•!!   subclavian  vein,  usually  near  its  junc- 
tion with  the  left  jugular  vein.     At  this  orifice  of  the  tho- 
dnct    there   are  two  valves,  like    those    of  the   veins, 
which  open  to  permit  fluid  to  pass  from  the  duet,  but  close 
when  any  is  forced  against  them  from  the  vein.  Other  valv  es 
in  uncertain  number  are   found  in  different  parts  of  the 
duct,  and   have  all  the  same  direction  a-s  those  of  veins. 
[AHM.KMKMS  ;  CMYI.K;  DKJKSTION.] 
THORAX.     [RKSPIRUION.] 
THORDO  is  the  Latinized  name  of  a  celebrated  Danish 
.  al   name  wasThord,  or,  more  completely, 
Jin.     He  lived  in  the  rcicn  of  \Valdemar  III., 
king  of  Denmark,  and  was  descended  from  an  antient  family 
of  that    country.       Concerning    his   life   little   is  known 
beyond  the  fact' that  he  was  chief  judge  of  the  province  ol 
Jutland.     His  name  ha-  come  down  to  us  through  a  col- 
i  laws  which  he  formed  into  a  kind  of  code, 
earliest  Danish  laws,  to  which  DO  Historical 
I  be  assigned.  as  well  iis  the  subsequent  laws  which 
V.D.  13M)  and  1377.  by  the 

ir'.ianiciit,  and  sanctioned  by  the  kinirs.    They  are 
.•I   chronological    order,    but    systematically, 
and   comprise  civil  as   well   as   constitutional   laws.     The) 
are  ol  '  value  to  the  student  of  the  social  and  po- 

litical hist  or)  of  Denmark.     Danish  editions  of  this  unai! 

at  Ripen,  l.'KM,  -Ho.  :  and  at  ('open'!. 
Ho.  Lndewiir,  in  his  •  Reliquiae  Maiuiscriptonnn 
o mills  aevi  diplomalnm  ac  monunientoruni  incditnrnm, 
vol.  xii.,  pp.  HlG-JKi,  has  published  a  Latin  translation  ol 
this  code  of  laws.  In  the  title  to  them  Thordo  calls  him- 
self, •  Thordo  Icgifcr  Daciae,'  where  Daciae  must  mean 

.  that  is.  JVni! 

THORDSO.V   S'lTKLA.     belonged    to    the    celebrated 
Icelandic  family  of  the  Simla:    bis  name  Thordson  indi- 
that    hi!  was   a   son  of  Thoido.      He  was  a  nepli 
ihison.     and    born    about    A.I).    121S.       i 
a  man  of  Inch  rank  and  treat  knowledge,  hcwasapp 

most   important  offices  by  the   Danish   kings  llaem 
•    their    command  that  he   wroti 

the    history    of   '.  :i,l    Noiway.    lionitln 

time  where  the  work  -  broke  off.     This 

history  bears  the  title  of  •  HUloria  Stnrlungorum,'  but   the 
work   which   is   now  extant   under   that    n  ily   an 

flbri'1  •  atter  part  isal- 

i'ice  ol  tin  .11  Tor- 

.  arum.'  who.  MI  In.  1'rolego- 

rnii.  alsoeivi  ulnngoinm. 

lordnun  died  _'-••<.  at  the  age  of  Seventy. 

THOHKR.     [To,,,M-s] 
THORESBY,  RALl'H  (born  1888,  died  1725),  a  virtuoso 


It  cunt 
origin 

no 


and  antiquary,  ami  an  early  Fellow  of  Ihe  Royal  Society. 
was  the  son  of  a  merchant  at  Leeds,  and  born  in  that  town. 
He  hail  his  early  education  iU  grammar-school, 

but,  lieinir  intended  hv  .it  life,   lie 

did  not  pass  to  any  ol  the   lii.:h  II 

had  however  what  m.n  a  liljeral  eommeieial  edu- 

•iter  to  Holland  lor  the  pu 

of  becoming  acquainted  with  the  mode  of  conducting  I>UM- 

.ilrv.   and  of   ac(|uirini;  the    modern   lan- 

,s  to   London  lor   a  similar   pin; 
"led  in   his  native  town,   where  his   i. 

nected  with  some  of  the  principal  persons  who  titeit  formed 
the  society  .  id  wheie  he  hail  a  busiin  ss  |ir,  j. 

for  him,   winch   had  I  his 

lather,  vvlto  died  when  the  son  was  ji. 

Thoresby  possessed  fioiii  a  Tery  early  pi-nod  of  In 
ea^er  curiosity   respecting  the  things  and   ,  ound 

him  which  presented  any  lealures  of  historical  interest,  and 
a  desire  of  collecting  ubjeels  ol  c  niioMtv,  natttial  or  artifi- 
cial. His  father  bad  soinethinit  of  th  ivin? 
pureha-sed  the  collection  of  coins  and  medals  which  had 
Been  formed  by  the  family  of  Lord  Kairtax,  the  parlia- 
mentary general,  and  this  collection  :  the 
miiseiim  formed  in  a  lew  \eais  by  the  son 
\\as  a  means  of  bringing  him  acquainted  with  all  the 
biated  antiiniarie.s  and  naturalisi.s  of  the  time,  and  wan  a 
perpetual  attraction  to  persons  of  curiosity,  who  oftvn 
visited  Leeds  for  no  other  purpose  than  to  see  it.  It  is  not 
too  much  to  say  of  it  that  it  was  perhaps  the  best  museum 
ever  lornied  in  KnirUuul  by  a  gentlemen  of  private  and 
rather  small  fortune:  contaminj.  il  "ine  things 
which  would  now  be  esteemed  of  not  the  smallest  v 
but  also  many  object!,  of  very  hi^h  value,  especi- 
ally in  the  two  grand  departments  of  manuscripts  and 
coins. 

As  lie  advanced   in  life,  the  curiosity  which  had  at  first 
been  directed   upon  the  objects  more  immediately  around 
him  became   expanded    so  as    to    comprehend   objci 
suore  general  interest,  and  in  fact  the  whin  what. 

is  usually  understood  to  be  comprehended  in  the  term  an- 
tiquarian literature.  In  the  department  of  natural  history 
he  was  also  not  merely  a  collector,  but  an  observer, and  he 
made  many  communication!,  esteemed  of  value,  to  Ills 
private  friends  or  to  the  Royal  Si  . 

With  this  turn  of  mind,  it  will  hardly  be  supposed  that 
he  was  very  .successful  in  his  mercantile  affairs.  He  had 
however  the  good  sense  In  withdiaw  houi 

:mie  was  entire!)   lost   to   him,  and  about  Ihe 

sixth  year  of  his  ms  to  have  wliollv   letned  from 

it,  and  to   have  formed  the  determination  of  living  on  the 

little  income   which   the  portion  of  his  propeitj    that  re- 

1  would  afford  him. 

Besides  ain.i"in_'  Mich  manuscript  matter  as  he  eouJd  by 
any  means  become  possessed  of,  lie  wax  himself  a  labo- 
rious transcriber,  ami  accustomed  to  commit  to 
vvi;tiiiLT  notes  of  things  which  he  observed,  or  information 
eollectid  liom  his  iriciid-.  or  the  old  people  of  Ins  time. 

U'hei:  com  the  can  new,  he  had  leuura  to 

il  he   entered  upon  the  prepaia- 

tion  for  the  piess  of  two  vvoiks.  which  It  w;i.s  intended  by 
him  should  contain  all  that  he  had  gathered  in  what  hud 
been  from  the  first  his  iavourite  subject,  the  illustration  of 
the  history,  and  whatever  belonged  to  it,  of  his  nativetown. 
One  of  them  was  to  be  in  the  form  of  a  topographical 
survey  of  the  whole  of  the  laryc  parish  ol  LIMN,  and  of 
a  few  of  the  smaller  parishes  which  are  supposed  to  have 
been  comprehended  under  the  \eiy  anlient  local  term 
•Khnete:'  t  he  other,  a  history  of  the  various  transactions 
of  which  that  district  had  been  the  id  more  enn 

nent    inhabilani-  "'factors,    and   of  the 

changes  which  had  taken  place  in  the  state   or   fortin 
its  inhabitants.      The   liist  of  il 

eomplished.       The  work   appr;:  volume   in 

17 lii.  under  the  title  of  'I)i  i  opo- 

iTraphy   of  the   Town   and    1'arish   of   Leeds.'      This   woik 

little  for  the  inhabitants  of  the  town  to  desire   in  this 

,.1  that  he  h  also, 

to  which    Ihe    author    is    perpetual!)    icicnnii;    the    i. 

The  woik  is  mole  than  its  :  .ce  it  contanrsii 

odv  of  genealogical  infora  <  udm;,'  the. 

lUofnearl]  all  the  tannin  jiu-ni-e   who    III- 

habilcd  the  central  paits  of  the  West  Hiding.   There,  in  also 


T  H  O 


391 


T  H  O 


a  very  large  descriptive  catalogue  of  the  treasures  deposited 
in  his  museum. 

The  '  Ducatus '  is  the  principal  literary  work  for  which  we 
are  indebted  to  him.  As  a  kind  of  supplement  to  it,  he 
published,  in  1724.  a  history  of  the  Church  of  Leeds,  under 
the  title  '  Vicaria  Leodiensis,'  which,  like  his  former  work, 
has  many  things  not  strictly  belonging  to  his  subject,  bill 
in  themselves  valuable.  A  new  edition  of  the 'Ducatus,' 
containing  also  all  the  matter  of  the  'Vicaria'  which  pro- 
perly belonged  to  Leeds,  was  published  by  Thomas  Dun- 
ham Whitaker,  LL.D.,  in  1816. 

The  writings  of  bishop  Nicolson,  bishop  Gibson,  Oba- 
diah  Walker,  Calamy,  Strype,  Hearne,  and  many  other 
persons,  show  how  willing  Ihoresby  was  to  give  assistance 
to  any  of  his  literary  friends  in  their  various  publications. 

Thoresby  kept  during  the  greater  part  of  his  life  an  exact 
diary  of  each  day's  occurrences.  Large  extracts  from  the 
portions  which  remain  of  it  were  published  in  two  octavo 
volumes  in  1830,  and  two  more  volumes  were  published 
at  the  same  time  of  selections  from  the  letters  of  his  various 
friends :  these  were  published  under  the  care  of  Mr. 
Hunter.  They  exhibit  the  peculiar  features  of  a  somewhat 
remarkable  character,  and  the  particular  incidents  of  his 
life.  A  large  account  of  him  may  be  found  in  the  '  Bio- 
graphia  Britannica,'  and  another  prefixed  to  Dr.  Whitaker' s 
edition  of  his  topographical  work. 

THORITE,  a  mineral  in  which  thorina  was  discovered 
to  exist  by  Berzelius.  It  occurs  massive  and  compact. 
Fracture  uneven,  very  brittle,  and  full  of  cracks.  Hardness 
about  5-0.  Lustre  resinous:  vitreous;  opaque.  Colour 
black.  Specific  gravity  4'63  to  4- Ml. 

Before  the  blow-pipe,  gives  off  water,  and  becomes  yel- 
low, but  does  not  fuse. 

It  is  found  in  syenite,  in  Norway.  It  contains  nearly  58 
per  cent,  of  thorina,  mixed  with  thirteen  metallic  and 
other  bodies. 

THO'RIUM,  or  THORI'NUM,  a  metallic  body  dis- 
covered by  Berzelius  in  an  earth  to  which  he  had  given 
the  name  of  thurinn.  When  this  was  converted  into 
chloride  of  thorium,  and  treated  with  potassium,  after 
washing  the  mass  a  heavy  metallic  powder  was  left  of  a 
deep  leaden-grey  colour,  which,  when  pressed  in  an  agate 
mortar,  acquired  an  iron-grejttint  and  a  metallic  lustre.  It 
i^  not.  oxidized  by  water,  either  hot  or  cold,  but  when 
heated  in  the  air  it  burns  brilliantly,  and  is  converted  into 
oxide  of  thorium,  or  thorina.  which  is  perfectly  whn< 
devoid  of  any  trace  of  fusion.  Thorium  is  scarcely  at  all 
acted  upon  by  nitric  acid,  and  slowly  by  the  sulphuric; 
but  hydrocloric  acid  dissolves  it  readily  with  the  evolution 
of  hydrogen  gas. 

ii'.iijL'i-n  i' ml  Thorium  combine  to  form  oxide  of  thorium, 
or  thorina,  by  heating  the  metal  in  the  air,  or  by  decom- 
posing the  chloride  by  means  of  an  alkali.  When  it  has 
been  strongly  heated,  its  density  is  il-402,  and  it  is  then  in- 
soluble in  any  acid  but  the  sulphuric,  and  in  that  with 
difficulty.  It  is  precipitated  in  the  state  of  hydrate  from 
••hitioiis  by  the  alkalis,  and  in  this  state  it  is  readily 
soluble  in  acids,  and  is  converted  into  carbonate  by  ex- 
posure to  the  air.  The  alkaline  carbonates  dissolve  the 
hydrate,  carbonate,  and  subsalts  of  thorma;  thorina  is 
precipitated  from  solution  by  the  ferrocyanide  of  potas- 
sium. Thorina  probably  consists  of — 

One  equivalent  of  oxygen    ...       8 
One  equivalent  of  thorium  .         .         .0(1 

Equivalent,    .         .     (is 

Besides  combining  readily  with  oxygen,  as  already  men- 
tioned, thorium  unites  energetically  with  chlorine,  sulphur, 
and  phosphorus ;  but  the  compounds  which  they  form 
have  not  been  minutely  examined. 

THORX.     [CRAT.KOUS.] 

THORN-APPLK.     [DATURA.] 

THORX  •  in  Polish,  Tnruiiini  is  a  celebrated  fortress  in 

the  government    of    Marienwerder,   in   the   province   of 

ia.     It  is  .situated  in  53°  N.  lat.  and  30°  25'  E.  long., 

on  the  right  bank  of  the  Vistula,  over  which  there  is  a 

bridge,  which  is  the  only  standing  bridge  over  the  Vistula 

in  its  whole  course.     (The  others  are  floating  bridges.;     It 

ita  .>f  H..,,  |,;uts,  the  German  and  the  Polish  bridge, 

which  are  separated  by  an  island  called  the  Mazarkiimpe. 

The  German  part,  from  the  town  to  the  island,  is  1246  feet 

long ;  the  Poluh  part  is  927  feet  long.  The  whole  distance 


from  Thorn  to  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Vistula  (including 
296  feet  for  the  island)  is  2409  feet:  the  breadth  of  the 
carriage-way  is  18  feet ;  it  is  17  feet  above  the  river  at  its 
ordinary  level. 

Thorn  is  divided  into  the  old  and  the  new  town.  There 
are  two  Lutheran  and  three  Roman  Catholic  churches,  two 
monks' convents  and  one  of  Benedictine  nuns,  a  celebrated 
Lutheran  gymnasium,  a  Roman  Catholic  school  (formerly 
a  Jesuits'  college),  four  elementary  schools,  one  girls' 
school,  four  hospitals,  an  infirmary,  and  a  house  of  correc- 
tion. The  most  considerable  buildings  are  the  cathedral, 
built  in  the  Gothic  style  ;  St.  John's  church,  containing  the 
monument  of  Copernicus,  who  was  born  here  in  1473 ; 
the  town-house,  built  in  16Q2,  on  the  model  of  that,  at 
Amsterdam  (the  doors,  inlaid  with  ebony  and  ivory,  the 
marbleHables,  and  the  paintings  on  the  walls  are  memo- 
rials of  former  splendour) ;  the  well-known  leaning  tower, 
like  that  at  Pisa  ;  and  the  house  in  which  Copernicus  was 
born. 

Thorn  is  indebted  for  its  foundation  to  Herman  Balk, 
master  of  the  Teutonic  order,  who  immediately  on  his 
arrival,  in  1231,  fortified  the  antient  castle  of  furno,  at 
Old  Thorn,  about  five  miles  from  the  present  town.  In 
the  following  year  he  founded  the  town,  but,  finding  the 
situation  inconvenient,  pulled  it  down  in  1235,  and  chose 
another  site  eight  miles  farther  up  the  Vistula.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  fourteenth  century  Thorn  joined 
the  Hanseatic  League,  and  during  the  dominion  of  the 
Order  became  rich  and  flourishing  through  its  extensive 
commerce.  It  afterwards  joined  '  The  Union  of  the  Prus- 
-1:111  •  'ities,'  and  with  it  threw  otf  the  authority  of  the 
Knights:  it  took  an  active  part  in  the  sanguinary  war 
arising  from  this  step,  which  ended  with  the  peace  con- 
cluded in  its  walls  in  14(iO,  by  which  West  Prussia  was 
annexed  to  Poland.  Commerce  continued  to  flourish 
under  the  Polish  government,  but  the  city  suffered  severely, 
partly  from  the  internal  troubles  of  the  kingdom,  partly  by 
flie  wars  with  Sweden,  during  which  it  was  twice  plun- 
dered by  the  Swedes  (1655,  1703).  Charles  XII.  entirely 
destroyed  the  fortifications.  The  Reformation  was  favour- 
ably received  at  an  early  period,  but  led  to  very  harsh 
measures  on  the  part  of  the  Roman  Catholics,  and  to  in- 
ternal troubles.  These  dissensions  continued  from  the 
time  of  Sigismund  I.  ('1506-1548),  through  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries:  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century  occasioned  what  is  called  the  '  Thorn 
Tnigedy,'  a  persecution  excited  by  the  Jesuits,  which 
ended,  on  the  7th  December,  1724,  with  the  execution  of 
the  burgomaster  John  Ressner  and  eleven  of  the  principal 
citizens. 

When  West  Prussia  was  separated  from  Poland  in  1772, 
Thorn  and  Danzig  remained  under  the  Polish  govern- 
ment, but  their  prosperity  declined  in  consequence  of  the 
many  obstructions  to  their  commerce  caused  by  the 
regulations  of  Prussia  for  the  navigation  of  the  Vistula. 
Alter  its  union  with  Prussia,  on  the  second  partition  of 
Poland,  in  17'J3,  its  commerce  and  prosperity  revived 
Since  180!)  it  has  been  again  converted  into  a  fortress.  It 
is  also  important  as  a  commercial  port  for  the  exportation 
of  the  produce  of  the  country,  corn,  timber,  linen,  raw 
lides ;  especially  however  corn.  The  population,  in- 
cluding the  garrison,  is  nearly  12,000  inhabitants. 

(A.  E.  Pri-uss,  J!r\i-'/i/-fi/ii/iiff  rim  1'ri-iiaxi'H ;  Brockhaus, 

iiri'i-xiilinns  Lexicon,  7th   edit.;   Hassel ;  Cannabich  ; 
Hursclielmauii. 

Tl  K  )RN  BURY.     [GLOUCESTERSHIRE.] 

TMORNE.       [YORKSHIRK.] 

THORX  EY.     [CAMBRIDGESHIRE.] 

THORNHILL,  SIR  JAMES,  an  eminent  painter (Juring 

he  reigns  of  Queen  Anne  and  George  I.,  and,  says  Wal- 

x>]e,  'a  man   of  much  note  in  his  time,  who  snivelled 

^errio,  and  was  the  rival  of  Laguerre  in  the  decorations  of 

our  palaces  and  public  buildings,'  was  descended  of  a  very 

antient  family  in  Dorsetshire,  and  was  born  at.  Weymoutli 

u  107(i.      Through^  the   extravagance   of  his  father,  who 

lisposed  of  the  family  estate,  Thornhill  was  compelled  to 

support  himself  by   his  own   exertions.     He  adopted  the 

mil'ession  of  a  painter,  and,  by  the  liberality  of  an  uncle, 

)r.  Sydenhiim.  the  eminent  physician,  he  was  enabled  to 

his  studies   in    London,' where   lie  placed   himself 

a   painter,   whose  name   is  not  known,   with  whom 

iowever  he  did  not  remain  long.     Thornhill  appears  to 


T  II  O 


392 


T  II  0 


made  rapid  progress  in  the  public  favour,  for  in  his 
•:cn  hi'  umde  a  tour  throu;:  .  IIol- 

,«nd,  and  France,  lit-  was  sufficient' 
many  valuable    pictures   of   the   old   master*,   ami    . 

his  return  hi'   received  tin-  roiimr.  Ouccii 

to   paint    the   interior   of  tin-   cupola   of   Si.   Paul's 
cathedral,  in  which  1  illustrating 

(li,.  :  St.  Paul,  painted  in  rhiar'otcuro,  with  the 

lights  hatched  in  gold:  for  this  work  hr  w:is  appointed 
historical  painter  to  the  quct  •  paid  only  toity 

shilh  :uare  ynnl  lor  Ins  production.     Tliornlnll's 

reputation  was  now  established,  and,  through  the  favour  of 
the  carl  of  Halifax,  lie  received  the  commission  to  paint 
the  prim  ••  ilampton  Court,  which  the 

lord  chamberlain,  the  Duke  of  Shrewsbury,  hail  intended 
should  be  painted  by  Scbastiano  Ricci.  then  in  g.> 
vour  with  the  court  'in  England  ;  but  the  Earl  of  Halifax, 
who  was  then  first  commissioner  of  the  treasury,  declared 
that  il  Ricci  painted  it  he  would  not  pay  him.  Sir  .James 
executed  many  other  great  w  le  staircase,  the 

gallery,  and    several   ceilings  in  the    palace   at    Kensing- 
ton, a' hall  at   Blenheim,  the  chapel  at  Lord  < 
Wimpole  in  Cambridgeshire,  a  saloon  for  Mr.  Styles   al 
Moor  Park  in  Hertford-hire,  and  the  ceilings  of  tin 
hall  at  Greenwich  Hospital.     Sir  .lames  commenced  the 
•••.  ork  in  1703,  and  was  occupied   upon  it  for  - 
ijiient   years,  but  it  was  not  entirely  painted  by  his 
own  hands.  "The  paintings  are  allegorical :  on  the  ceiling 
of  the  lower  hall,  which  is  1 12  feet  by  ">U,  are  represented 
the  founders  of  the   institution,  William  III.  ;.ml 

..  in  the  centre,  surrounded  by  the  attributes  of  na- 
tional prosperity;  in  the  other  compartments  are  figures 
whieh  represent  the  zodiac,  the  four  seasons,  and  the  four 
elements,  with  naval  trophies  and  emblems  of  science, 
among  which  are  introduced  the  portraits  of  famous  ma- 
thematicians who  have  advanced  the  science  of  naviga- 
tion, as  Tycho  Brain'.  ( 'npernicus,  Newton,  and  others. 
On  the  ceiling  of  the  upper  hall  are  represented  Queen 
Anne  and  her  husband  Prince  George  of  Denmark ;  other 
figures  represent  the  four  quarters  of  the  world ;  on  the 
side  walls  of  the  same  apartment  arc  the  landing  of  Wil- 
liam III.  at  Torbay,  and  the  arrival  of  George  I.  at  Green- 
wich ;  on  the  end"  wall  lacing  the  entrance  are  portrait 
groups  of  George  I.  and  two  generations  of  his  family, 
with  accessories,  and  Sir  James  Thornhill's  own  portrait. 
These  works,  which  are  executed  in  oil,  have  little  to 
iiuncnd  them  bc-ides  their  \astness  ;  yet  in  invention 
and  arrangement  they  are  eqvial  to  the  majority  of  Mich 
works  in  the  great  buildings  on  the  continent :  in  design 
and  colouring  however  they  arc  inferior. 

Walpole  has  preserved  some  interesting  details  respect- 
ing the  remuneration  Thornhill  received  for  some  of  his 
works :  he  says,  '  High  as  his  reputation  was,  and  laborious 
as  his  works,  b  from  being  generously  rewarded 

for  some  of  them,  and  for  others  lie  found  it  difficult  to 
in  the  stipulated  price-.      His  demands  were  co- 
.  * rnwich  ;  and   though  I.  >-eivcd  21KXI/.   for 

his  work  at  Montague  Ilou-e.  and  w;ls  allowed  "HKI/.  for 
his  d  -  could  obtain  but  fortv  shillings 

a  square  vard  for  the  cupola  of  Si.  I'aul's,  and  \  think  no 
more  for  Greenwich.     When  the  affairs  of  the  Son' 
Company  were  made  up,  Thornhill,  who  had  painted  thcii 
ease  and  a  little  hall,  by  order  of  Mr.  Knight,  thcii 
ca-hier.  demanded  l.VK)/.,  but,  the  directors  Icarui- 
he   had   been  paid  but  twenty-five  sliillii  lor  the 

hall  at  Blenheim,  they  would  allow  no  more."  He  had  a 
longer  contest  with  Mr.  v  o  hail  agreed  to  give 

him  350U/.,  but,  not  <-ticd  with  Hie  execution,  a 

lawsuit    was    commenced,    and    Dahl,    Kiel, 
others  were  appointed  to  inspect  the  work.  They  appeared 
in  court   bearing  testimony  to  the  merit  of  the   perform- 
ance ;   Mr.  Styles  was  condemned  to  pay  the  money,  and, 
by  their  arbitration,  .VK)/.  more,  for  dcco.  mt  the 

'•.  and  for  ThornhJH'i  acting  as  surveyor  of  the  build- 
ing.'    Thornhill  obtained  permission,  through  the  ' 

'. \.    to   copy   the   Cartoons   of   Raphael    at    Hampton 
'.   upon  winch   he   bestowed   t'  labour;   he 

al- i  a  -mailer  -et.  one-fourth   Ilie   size  of  t! 
id  di-tinct  studies  of  the  heads,  hail'1 

i.  t  account  ol  tbe  whole  for  the 

.ipptared.     Tin 
wto  of  the  Cartoons  were  sold  the  year  after  his  de..th, 


with  his  collection  of  pictures,  among  which  were  a  few 
capital  specimens  ol  the  gieat  uiii>t. 

-old   for   -c'M'iity-livc   gum..  :iy,  a 

puce,  says  Walpole,  which  can  haw  'y  to 

the    cncunistancc    .'i    lew    ]  their 

large  enough   to   receive   tin"  pur- 

chased  by  the   duke   of  Hedlord.  ami  i   his 

gallery  at  Bedford  House  in  Bloom-' 

emained  until  that  house  was  pulled  down,  when 
they  v  led  by  the  owner  to  the  K 

'ihornhill   painted::  port  raits  a. 

painted   the  altar-piece   of  tin  All 

at  Oxford;    and  one  which    he    pi' 
church   of  bis  native   tn\\n.  \Veymouth.     There   i- a: 
Oxford,    at  '  Dall.iv.ay.   a    good    portrait    of   Sir 

Christopher  Wren  by  Thornhill  :  and  in  the  hall  of  Green- 
wich Hospital  there  is  by  him  th>  of  .John  Worlcy, 
in  his  ninety-eighth  y  pcu-ionc:- 

mitted  into  the  hospital:   it  u  painted  in  a  bold  can 

style,  and  was  prc-cnted  to  the  hospital  by  Thornhill  him- 
self. In  172-1  lie  opened  an  academy  for  drawing  at  his 
bouse  in  Cos  cut  Garden.  He  bad  prc\iotisl\  proposed  to 
the  earl  of  Halifax  the  foundation  of  a  Royal  A 

Is,  with  ap.  '  without  ]•' 

Sir  James  estimated  the  cost   at  31W/.  ;     for,  among-1 
other  occupations,  he  occasionally  '  dabbled'  in  an  i 
(lire.     At   the   end   of  bis   life    he   was   afflicted   with  the 
gout,  and  in  the  spring  of  1734  he  retired  to  his  paternal 

t  Thornhill,  oearWeymouth,  which  he  had  the 
faction  of  repurchasing;    but  his   period  of  repose   was 

uely  short,  for,  says  Walpole,  *  four  days  after  his 
arrival,  he  expired  in  his  chair,  May  4,  17  fifty- 

seven,  leaving  one  son  named  .James,  whom  he  had  pro- 
cured to  be  appointed  Serjeant-painter  and  painter  to  the 
navy  ;  and  one  daughter,  married  to  that  original  and  un- 
equalled genius,  Hogarth.' 

Sir  James  Thornhill  amas-ed  considerable  property 
a  man  of  agreeable   manners,  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and   represented   bis   native  town,  Weymouth,  in 
parliament    for   several    years  until    his  death.      II. 
Knighted  by  George  I. :    his  widow,  Lady  Thornhill,  died 
at  Chiswick'  in  I7">7. 

D'Argrnville,  .Ibrcge  de  la  Vie  des  p/i/.s  fitineti.r  Frin- 

Walpolc,  Ain-ril'ili-x  i  if  I'nJHtinif  in  .  .  Pil- 

kington,  l>irtiniiiiri/  "/"  1'ninti-n.) 

THORNTON,  BONN  ELL,  was  born  in  London,  in  the 
year  \~1\.  He  was  educated  at  'Westminster  School,  and 
at  Christchurch,  Oxford.  In  compliance  with  the  wish  of 
his  father,  who  was  a  physician,  he  studied  medicine,  but  he 
-reins  not  to  have  liked  the  proles-ion,  and  left  it  for  1 
ture.  '  "Inian  the  Klder  was  his  fellow-student  both 

at  Westminster  School  and  at  Clni.-tchuich.  though  about, 
nine  ycais  younger  than  Thornton.  Similarity  of  taste  led 
to  friendship,  and  they  commenced  in  conjunction  the 

of  periodical  essays  called  'The  Connoi-.-eur.'  which 
was  continued  from  January  HI.  17.~>l.  till  September  30, 
17-Vi.  The  papers  are  chiefly  of  a  humorous  character, 
and  the  wit  and  shrewd  observation  of  life  which  they 

y  well  entitle  them  to  the  place  which  they  still 
ictain  among  the  works  of  British  cs-a\is',».  Thornton 
contributed  largely  to  'The  St.  Jame-'s  Magazine,' 
•The  Public  Advertiser.'  'The  Covent-Garden  .Journal,' 
and  other  periodic::!  lie  published  separately 

•An  Ode  on  St.  Cecilia'-  Day.  adapted  to  the  anlient 
British  music,  viz.  the  salt-box,  the  .Jews'-harp.  the  mar- 
row-bones and  cleavers,  the  hum-strum  or  hurdy-gurdy, 
Sec.,  with  an  Introduction  giving  an  account  of  those  truly 
British  instruments.'  London,  1"(>2,  -Ito. 

In  17C7,  in  conjunction  with  Colman  and  Richaid 
Warner,  he  published  two  volumes  of  an  Kugli-ll  transla- 
tion of  Plautus.  'The  Comedies  of  Plautus.  translated  into 
familiar  Blank  \'ei:.e.'  Of  the  plays  contained  in  these  two 
volumes.  Thornton  translated  'Amphitryon,'  '  The  Brag- 
gart Captain,1  'The  Treasure.'  'The  Miser,'  ami  •  The 
Shipwreck;'  'The  Merchant'  was.  tn  y  Colman, 

and    'The  Captive- '   by,    Warner.       'I  i  the    play- 

tiaiiilatcd    by    V  lied,    alter 

Thornton's  death,  in  two  :ties.      In   171>S 

Thornton  published  'The  Baltleol'th  additional 

Canto  to  Dr.'GartJ 

Thornton,  who  appears  to   have   inje  institution 

by  habitual  indulgence  in  drinking,  died  May  9,  1768,  at 


T  H  O 


393 


T  H  O 


the  age  of  44.     There  is  an  inscription  to  his  memory,  by 
Thomas  Warton,  in  the  cloisters  of  Westminster  Abbey. 
(Baker's  BiograpMa  Dramatica,  by  Reed  and  Jones.) 
THOROUGH-BASE,  the  art  of  playing  (on  keyed  in- 
struments,  and   according  to  the  rules  of  harmony)  an 
accompaniment   from   figures   representing   chords,   such 
figures  being  placed  either  over  or  under  the  notes  of  the 
instrumental  base  staff.     This  is  one  of  the  many  absurd 
terms  employed  in  music,  and  its  meaning  is  altogether 
arbitrary. 

The  figures  used  in  Thorough-Base  are  the  nine  units. 
These  represent  certain  intervals  or  sounds.  Thus  a  6 
placed  over  a  c  in  the  base,  points  out  A  as  an  accompani- 
ment :  and  that  figure  also  implies  two  other  notes  attend- 
ant on  it,  namely,  the  3rd  and  8th,  which  are  called  the 
accompaniments  of  the  6th.  A  0  and  a  5  placed  under 

it  (r\  indicate  the  intervals  of  the  6th  and  5th  played 

together  ;  and  also,  as  accompanying  notes,  the  3rd  and 
8th.  The  figures  3,  5,  and  8,  singly,  or  together,  represent 
the  perfect  or  common  chord.  But  in  Thorough-Base  a  base 
note  without  any  figure  is  supposed  to  carry  a  perfect  chord. 
The  chords  are,  as  a  general  rule,  assigned  to  the  right 
hand  of  the  performer,  and  the  intervals  are,  in  most 
cases,  counted  from  an  octave  above  the  figured  note. 
This  will  be  more  clearly  understood  by  referring  to  the 
articles  ACCOMPAMMENT,  CHORD,  and  HARMONY. 

The  following  is  a  tabular  view  of  the  figures  used  in 
Thorough-Bate  io  represent  chords,  together  with  those, 
not  written,  but  understood,  representing  the  accompani- 
ments which,  with  the  base,  form  the  chords:  — 


(  'lionls  ilniirnatrd 

3rd,  accompanied  by  a 
5th,  „ 

8th,  » 

Oth,  „ 


7th, 


2"<1,} 

,  ('sometimes  called  the  llth), 
|     accompanied  by  a  . 

'?th,|accompanied  by  an    .         . 


6th  (sharp  6th) 
Oth,  , 


Jth,} 


7th) 


Accompanying 
intervals. 

5th  and  8th. 
3rd  and  8th. 
5th  and  3rd. 
3rd  and  8th. 

8th. 

3rd,  5th,  and  8th. 

3rd  and  8th. 

major  6th. 
6th. 

\5th  and  8th. 
8th. 

3rd  and  5th. 
5th. 

3rd. 

5th,  4th,  and  2nd. 


BH  other  chords  of  an  extraordinary  kind  are  occa- 
•  I  :    but  they  are  always  clearly  denoted,  in 
Thorough-Base,  by  an  ample  number  of  figures. 


The  above  chords  exemplified. 


\\heh  two  figures  are  placed  in  succession  over  one  base 
P.  C.,  No.  1537. 


note,  the  time  of  the  latter  is  divided  between  them. 
Example : — 


56          43          08 


A  sharp,  or  flat,  or  natural,  placed  alone  over  a  base 
note,  relates  solely  to  the  3rd.     Example  : — 


When  other  intervals  are  to  be  raised  or  lowered,  the  pro- 
per characters  for  the  purpose  are  prefixed  to  them.  A 
dash  through  a  figure  is  equivalent  to  a  sharp. 

The  practice  of  figuring  a  base  staff,  whether  in  a  score 
or  in  the  part  assigned  to  a  keyed  instrument,  has  fallen 
into  disuse,  the  harmony  being  now  fully  and  clearly  pre- 
sented to  the  eye  of  the  accompanyist  in  notes  placed  in  a 
treble  staff  over  the  base.  But  a  knowledge  of  what  is 
yet  too  commonly  misnamed  Thorough-base,  that  is  to  say, 
harmony,  is  absolutely  indispensable  to  the  good  musician, 
and  very  much  abbreviates  the  labour  of  those  who,  as 
amateurs,  only  aspire  to  a  practical  skill  either  as  vocal  or 
instrumental  performers.  The  rules  of  harmony  stand  in 
the  same  relation  to  music  as  those  of  grammar  do  to  lan- 
guage. 

The  invention  of  a  Figured  Base  (Basso  Cifrato,  as  the 
Italians  so  well  denominate  it)  has  been  stated  to  have 
taken  place  in  1605,  and  is  commonly  attributed  to  Ludo- 
vico  Viadana,  Maestro  di  Cappella  at  the  cathedral  of 
Mantua.  But  this  kind  of  musical  abbreviation  was  earlier 
practised,  and  by  an  English  composer,  Richard  Deering, 
who,  in  1597,  published  his  Cantiones  Sacrce,  at  Antwerp, 
in  which  a  figured  base  appears.  And  we  have  now  before 
us  Jacopo  Peri's  serious  opera  Euridice,  printed  at  Flo- 
rence in  1GOO,  in  which  the  base  is  figured  throughout. 
Lying  by  us  also  is  Caccini's  Nuove  Mitsiche,  likewise 
printed  at  Florence,  but  one  year  later,  and  here  we  find 
the  base  regularly  figured.  The  edition  of  the  latter  work 
referred  to  by  Dr.  Burney,  is  dated  Venezia,  1615 ;  it  is  to 
be  presumed  therefore  that  the  active  historian  of  music 
was  not  so  fortunate  as  to  have  met  with  the  first  edition 
of  Caccini's  remarkably  curious  and  now  very  rare  work. 

THOU,  JACQUES-AUGUSTE  DE  (or,  as  he  culled 
himself  in  Latin,  Jacobus  Augustus  Thuanus),  was  born  at 
Paris,  on  the  8th  of  October,  1553:  he  was  the  third  son 
of  Christophc  de  Thou,  first  president  of  the  parlement  of 
Paris,  and  of  his  wife  Jacqueline  Tuellen  dc  Celi.  Besides 
their  three  sons  and  four  daughters,  who  grew  to  be  men 
and  women,  De  Thou's  parents  lost  six  children  in  infancy ; 
and  he  himself  was  so  weak  and  sickly  a  child  till  he 
reached  his  fifth  year,  that  he  was  not  expected  to  live. 
In  the  exemption  which  this  state  of  health  procured  him 
in  his  childhood  and  early  boyhood  from  severer  task- 
work, he  amused  himself  in  cultivating  a  turn  for  draw- 
ing, which  was  hereditary  in  his  family  ;  and  in  this  way, 
he  tells  us  himself,  he  learned  to  write  before  he  had 
learned  to  read.  Although  originally  intended  for  the 
church,  he  went  in  his  early  studies  the  whole  round  of 
literature  and  science  as  then  taught ;  and  while  yet  only 
in  his  eighteenth  year  he  had  conceived  from  the  perusal 
of  some  of  his  writings  so  great  an  admiration  of  the  cele- 
brated jurist  Cujacius,  that  he  proceeded  to  Valence  in 
Dauphinc-,  and  attended  his  lectures  on  Papinian.  Here 
he  met  with  Joseph  Scaliger,  with  whom  he  contracted  an 
intimate  friendship,  which  was  kept  up  for  the  thirty-eight 
remaining  years  that  Scaliger  lived.  In  1572,  after  he  had 
been  a  year  at  Valence,  he  was  recalled  home  by  his 
father ;  and  he  arrived  in  Paris  in  time  to  be  present  at  the 
marriage  of  Henry,  the  young  king  of  Navarre,  and  to  wit- 
less  the  horrors  of  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  which 

VOL.  XXIV.-3  E 


•I1  11  <> 


894 


T  H   <> 


PMMB 

in  that  c 
the  accc 

them  ut 


e  reWes  that  hr  saw  the  dead  body  of  Co- 
(  from  tin-  gibbet  <>n  Moutmarlrc.    The  next 

in  tin1 
\ .  on  n 

•named 

rv  till  '  71.  and 

•irv  III.,  tin-    I.. 
,  u  IV   !-'(>i\  home.       Ill    1  .'>, 

a  journey  to  Flanders  and  IIoll;viul.     In  l.*7 
Jean  dc  la  Garde,  Sieur  - 

iral  counsellors  "n  entrance 

public  life  "Inch,  li 
withdrawing  him  in  p» 
and  the  cultivation  of  literature,  in  which  he  would  have 
been  much  better  pica.-,  -d  to  spend  his  days.     The  next 
e  l,»t  his  .  .;u  this  time  it  began 

proposed  that,  for  ::  chance  of  continuing 

the  family,  his  original  destination  should  be  changed, ana 
that  he  should  quit  his  ecclesiastical  for  a  ci\ii  career. 
Some  years  elapsed  however  before  this  scheme  was 
finally  "determined  upon.  Meanwhile  he  continued  to 
pursue  his  usual  studies  :  and  he  states  that  he  had  already 
conceived  the  project  of  his  great  historical  work,  and 
begun  industriously  to  collect  materials  for  it  wherever  he 
went. 

It  was  in  the  year  1582,  while  on  a  \i~it  to  Bord 
that  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Montaigne,  whose  cha- 
racter ns  well  a.s  genius  he  lias  warmly  eulogized. 
tame  year  his  lather  died:  and  having  alto  by  this  time 
lost  his  second  brother,  he.  in  1"  1  his  rank 

-Kisticid  counsellor,  and  on  the  10th  of  April  in 
pointe<l  by  the  king  to  the  office  of  master  of  rc<. 
which  1  he'll  wa>  wont  to  be  held  indill'erently  by  eccle- 

ct   or  laymen.     Two  years  after  he  obtained  the  re- 

•n  of  the  place  held  by  bis  uncle,  of  one  of  th. 
sidcnts  au  mortier  in  the  parlement  de  Paris  ;  and  in  l.>7 
he  married  Marie,  daughter  of  Francois  Harbanson,  Sieur 
de  Cam.  \Vhcn,  in  the  next  vear.  in  the  increasing  dis- 
tractions of  the  state,  Henry  III.  found  himself  obliged  to 
I'an-.  He  Thou,  who,  as  well  as  bis  lather  and  his 
brothers,  adhered  steadily  throughout  the  troubles  of  tin- 
time  to  the  royal  party,  accompanied  his  majesty  to  Nor- 
mandy, and  alters  aids  to  1'icardv.  At  Chart  res,  in  August, 
lie  was  admitted  a  counsellor  of  state  :  and  from  this 
date  he  took  a  leading  part  in  all  the  principal  public 

Actions  which  followed.  When  the  estates  of  the 
kingdom  were  assembled  at  BloU.  in  October  of  this  year. 
De  Thou,  as  he  tells,  was  there  couited  with  much  bland- 
ishment by  the  duke  of  Guise,  but  steadily  resisted  the 
attempt  to  seduce  him  from  his  loyalty.  He  had  left  Blois 
and  was  in  Paris  when  the  news  of  the  murders  of  the 
duke  of  Guise  and  his  brother  the  cardinal  (on  the  j:!:d 
and '.Mill  of  December  readied  the  capital;  and  li 
(Treat  difficulty  in  effecting  his  escape  from  the  popular 
••ceded  however  in  rejoining  tile  king  at 

:   and  having  soon  alter  been  dispatched  on  a  mission 
into   Germany   and    Italy  iccours  of   men    and 

money  for  the  royal  cause,  he1  was  at  Venice  when  he 
heard' of  the  death' of  Henry,  in  August,  i:>s:i.  II,  imme- 
diately set  out  bv  the1  way  of  Swit/erland  for  ' 
met  the  king  of  rsavarre,  now  calling  himself  Henry  IV.. 
dun.  He  wa"  received  very  graciously;  and 
lor  some  years  from  tliis  time  he  was  constantly  with 
Henry,  or  employed  on  m:  -  •  ittcrent  quarters  in  his 

In  1591,  while  Henry   was  at    Nantes,  he   received  no- 
counts  of  the  death  n.  I   A  n  \erre    reiv 
for  his  translations  of  Plutarch  and  other  (ireek  autl 
upon  winch  his  majesty  immediately  bestowed  his  office 

the  royal  De  Thou.     It   was  in  the 

year  1503,  as  he  has  noted,  that   he  at  last   actually  com- 

.(I    the    composition   of   his   History .  which   I. 
4«te»  he  had  conceived  in  bis  mind  so  loi 

•'U  the  diatti  of  his  uncle  opened  to  him  hi> 
reversionary  office  of  one  of  thi 

'.HIS. 

Among  other  important  transactions  in  which   he   1 
part  after  this.  :   the  Kdiet  of  Nantes,  pn! 

in  15;)H.  which  IK  was  greatly  instrumental  ii 
i an  left  an  account  of  his  own  life. 

•i    lull,   in  which  tb. 
li  the  di-atli  ol  .    •      .  ! 

he  published  the  first  eigv  .'  The 


was  r, 

public  thro:  and, 

•juvc    umbrage    t 
Catholic    faith,    it    was  not    till 


erary 

in  it 


.          . 

:\'..  in  ItilO,  did   not  deprive  DC  Thou  of  1  -  the 

mnistry;    but  he   had    no  longer  the  same  inf 

'  and  a  new  appointment,  which  he  received  the 
following  year,  of  one  of  the  three  directors  charged  with 
he  management  of  the  finances,  on  the  retirement  of  the 

•v  as  felt  by  himself  to  he  not  so  much  mi  :: 
•  cr  or  honour,  as  a  burdensome   and   obno-. 
oilice  forced  upon  him.  for  which  he  was  titled  neither  by 
habits,   nor  cr..  -.     In    tin-   same   year  Ins 

brother-in-law,  Ac-hill- 
first  president  of  the  -, 
De  Tnou  would  be  nominated  hi 

.en  to  another.   These  disappointment.1;  ai:> 

er  with  the  loss  of  a  second  wife,  n 

hortened   the  life  of  De  T! 
the  7th  of  May,    1017,  in  his  sixty-fourth  year.     V, 

I  wife,  whose  family  name  • 

three  sons  and  three  daughters,  one  ol    '  'iOm, 

Francois   Auguste  de  Thou,  the   inheritor   of  1 
virtues  and   of  a    considerable   share  of  hi-  U   a 

snciitice  to  the   inexorable  revengeofCiudiir.il  Richelieu, 
one  of  whose  last   acts  was  his  putting  this  nnfor' 
young  man  to  death  for  his  alleged  participation  in 

vied  tin    conspiracy   of  (  'in(|innrs  :  —  1 

at  l.yon,  in  hi.s  thirty-fifth  year,  on  the  121!'  nber, 

1(!4'2.  not  three  months  before  Richelieu's  own  death. 

The  president  De  Thou  is  the  author  of  a  i 
Latin     poems,    one   of    the    principal   of    which,  entitled 
•  De     He    Accipitraria'  (on  Hawking  ,  was  published  in 

:    but    his   lame    rests,    upon   bis  •  Ilistona  sni  ", 
jioris,'    or   'History    of    his    own    Time,'    written    :il 
Latin,  in    Ills   books,    of  which  Hie  th.-l   sn  :i| 
his  lifetime,   the  remainder   not  till  l(i'3>.     The  space  over 
which  it  extends  is  from  the  year  1044  to  1C07.  compre- 
hending the  closing  years  of  the  reign  of  Francis  I.,  the 
entire  reigns  of  Hein'y  II.,  Francis  II..  Chailes  IV. 
Henry   HI.,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  that   of  Henry  IV. 
For  about  one-half  of  this  period  of  sixty  -tin. 
has  the  value  belonging  to  the   narrative  of  one  wh 
himself  a  principal  actor  in  many  of  the  affairs  which  he 
relates,  and  who  with  regard  to  many  others  was  so  placed 
as  to   have  air  opportunity  of  seeing  much   that  was  con- 
cealed   from  the.  common   eye:    hut    in   truth,   from  the 
author's  family  connections,  anil  his  extended  acquaintance 
among  the  eminent  and   remarkable  persons  of  his  time, 
this  is  an  advantage  which   belongs  in  some  degree  ' 
earlier  a.s  well  as  to  the  later  part  of  the  woik.      It  i- 
admitted   to   have  throughout   the   merit  of  a  rare  ii. 
tiality  :   with  no  deficiency  of  patriotic  feeling,  and  j  • 
steadiness  to   his   own    political    principles.  De  Th. 
always  ready    liunkly  to   recognise   the   high  oualiti 
what'ever    kind,   thai    may    have    belonged    either    to   the 
citizen  of  a  rival  state  or  a  part)  opiionmt.    As  for 
oils  prejudice,  he  shows  so  little  of  that,  aslo  haveev 
himself  to  tin-  imputation  ol  having  i 
of  not  being  really  a  believer  in  the   form 
the  Uomai.  which  he    professed.      Bn' 

of  tbi  us  In  be  no  ground. 

tation  of  his  •]!  •,  ever  stands    not  so   milch 

the    i.  ined    in   it.  that  are  not   elsewhere  ' 

found,  as  upon  the  skill  displaced  in  its  composition 

.•li  upon  the  material  as  upon  the  workmanship; 
and   it   is  vciy  evident  that  with  all   the   pains  1 
the  collecting  of  information,  this  was  the  praise  of  which 
lie   was    t!  nbitions,  .is   indeed   may    ] 

with  the  most  fainiM.* 

t  i    Hume    and   Gibbon   an.-  Hut  De  Thon's 

T  of  wilting,   though  flowing   and    eloquent,   i 

;  iiing 
--..  by 

writii.  '  'it  in   style,  with 

till  if-  '  lie  has 


T  H  O 


395 


T  H  R 


taken  great  pains  to  give  it  as  uniformly  classical  an  air  as 
possible,  not  only  by  metamorphosing  all  his  modern  names, 
both  of  places  and  persons,  so  as  to  give  them  antique  forms, 
o  It  en  to  the  no  small  perplexity  and  hindrance  of  the 
reader,  but,  what  sometimes  produces  still  more  obscurity 
or  ambiguity,  by  generally  endeavouring  to  describe 
modern  proceedings  and  transactions  in  the  established 
legal,  political,  and  military  phraseology  of  the  old  Ro- 
mans. The  best  edition  of  De  Thou's  '  History'  is  that 
published  at  London  in  1733,  in  seven  volumes,  folio, 
under  the  superintendence  of  Samuel  Buckley,  Esq.,  and 
at  the  expense  of  Dr.  Mead.  The  last  volume  of  this  edi- 
tion contains  De  Thou's  autobiographical  memoir  (first 
published  in  1620,  and  also  written  in  Latin),  in  six  books, 
together  with  a  mass  of  additional  materials  illustrative  of 
the  history  of  his  life  and  works. 
THOUARS.  [SKVRKS,  DEUX.] 

THOUARS,  LOUIS  MARIE  AUBERT  DU  PETIT, 
an  eminent  French  botanist,  was  born  at  the  chateau  de 
Boumois,  in  Anjou,  1756.  His  family  was  wealthy  and 
noble,  and  being  destined  for  the  army,  he  was  early  sent 
to  the  school  of  La  Fleche.  He  was  made  a  lieutenant  of 
infantry  at  the  age  of  1G.  This  was  in  a  time  of  peace, 
and  he  occupied  Ins  leisure  in  studying  the  science  of 
botany  and  its  literature.  At  the  time  of  the  loss  of 
La  Perouse  and  his  companions.  Aristide  du  Petit  Thouars 
proposed  to  his  brother  Aubert  that  they  should  go  in 

a  of  him.  To  this  he  willingly  con^i'iiled.  hoping  to 
add  t  -\i  of  plants  and  his  fame  by  the  vo;. 

The  two  brothers  sold  their  patrimony,  raised  a  subscrip- 
tion, and  having  secured  the  patronage  of  Louis  XVI., 
were  ready  to  start  on  their  voyage,  when  a  curious  acci- 
dent separated  them.  The  ship  that  was  to  have  taken 
them  lay  at  Brest,  and  Aubert,  with  his  vasculum  (the  tin 
box  which  botanists  carry  to  put  their  plants  in)  at  his 
back,  intended  to  botanise  on  liis  way  from  the  capital  to 
the  port.  He  was  however  found  by  some  gens  (formes 
in  the  woods,  and  being  suspected  as  an  enemy  of  his 
country  in  those  days  of  disorder,  he  was  arrested  and 
thrown  into  prison  at  Quimper.  He  was  however  soon 

>cd,  but  too  late,  as  his  brother  had  sailed.  He  fol- 
lowed him  to  the  Isle  of  France,  but  his  brother  had  again 
departed ;  and  being  here  without  money  and  without 
friends,  his  only  resource  was  hia  botanical  knowledge, 
and  he  accordingly  applied  for  employment  to  some  of 
the  rich  planters  of  that  island.  He  quickly  obtained  an 

.vinent.  and  remained  in  the  island  nearly  ten  years. 
On  this  spot  he  was  very  favourably  placed  for  making 
those  observations  for  which  his  previous  studies  had  so 
well  prepared  him  ;  and  during  his  sta\  here  he  collected 
most  of  the  materials  for  the  numerous  works  which  he 
published  on  his  return.  Whilst  a  resident  in  the  Isle  of 
France  he  made  a  voyage  to  Madagascar,  and  collected 
plants  from  that  island.  He  returned  to  Paris  in  1802. 
Many  of  the  results  of  his  researches  in  the  Isle  of  France 
and  Madagascar  were  communicated  to  the  Institute  and 
other  scientific  bodies  in  Paris.  His  first  work  on  the 
botany  of  the  islands  which  he  had  visited,  was  published 
at  Paiis  in  1804,  with  the  title  '  Plantes  des  lies  de 
I'Afrique  Australe  formant  des  Genres  nouveaux,'  &c.,4to. 
He  also  published  on  the  same  subject  the  '  Histoire  des 
\  eLrrt;iux  (les  lies  de.  France,  de  Bourbon,  et  de  Madagas- 
car,' 1804,  4to.  In  the  same  year  Bory  St.  Vincent  gave 
an  account  of  the  vegetation  of  the  African  islands,  in  his 
Voyage  dans  les  quatre  principales  lies  des  Mers 
il'Afrique,'  Paris,  4to.,  although  he  did  not  go  out  till 
Du  Petit  Thouars  had  returned.  In  1800  Du  Petit 
Thouars  was  appointed  director  of  the  royal  nursery- 
ground  at  Paris,  which  office  he  held  till  the  closing  of 
this  institution  a  short  time  before  his  death,  which  took 
place  in  May,  1831.  In  1806  he  published  another  work 
on  the  plants  of  Africa,  with  the  title  '  Histoire  des  Vdge- 
t;mx  recueillics  dans  les  lies  Australes  d'Afrique,'  Paris,  4to. 
In  181(1  his  'Genera  nova  Madagascariensia '  appeared, 
in  which  the  Madagascar  plants  were  arranged  according 
to  the  system  of  .lussieu.  His  latest  work  on  systematic 
botany  was  one  on  the  Orchidaceie  of  the  African  islands, 
'  Histoire  des  Plantes  Orchidces  recueillies  dans  les  trois 
lies  Australes  d'Afrique,'  1822,  Paris,  8vo.  His  publications 
on  vegetable  physiology  are  equally  numerous.  Most  of 
these  had  their  foundation  in  observations  and  experiments 
which  he  made  whilst  in  the  Isle  of  France.  In  1805  he 
published  his  'Essai  sur  ['Organisation  des  Plantes,'  Paris, 


8vo. ;  in  1809,  another  essay  on  the  vegetation  of  plants ;  in 
1811, '  Melanges  de  Botanique  et  de  Voyages,'  Paris,  8vo. ; 
in  1819,  a  kind  of  botanical  miscellany,  passing  in  review 
his  own  labours,  under  the  title  '  Revue  generate  des  Mate- 
riaux  de  Botanique  et  autres,  fruit  de  trente-cinq  annees 
d'observations,'  Paris  8vo. 

As  a  systematic  botanist  the  views  of  Du  Petit  Thouars 
were  uncertain  and  speculative,  and  the  delay  in  the  pub- 
lication of  his  works  on  African  botany  deprived  him  of 
the  merit  of  introducing  to  the  world  many  new  species. 
In  his  physiological  works  his  views  are  ingenious,  but  in 
most  cases  wanting  in  sufficient  data  to  establish  them. 
His  views  on  the  formation  of  buds,  the  motion  of  the  sap, 
and  the  origin  of  wood,  are  those  which  have  excited  most 
attention.  But  each  of  these  is  perhaps  more  indebted 
to  the  speciousness  of  its  reasoning  than  to  the  correctness 
of  the  facts,  for  the  importance  that  botanists  have 
attached  to  it.  But  at  the  same  time  his  great  activity  of 
mind,  his  extensive  erudition  and  original  observation, 
have  had  a  great  influence  on  the  progress  of  botany  in 
the  present  century.  He  was  a  contributor  to  the  '  Bio- 
graphie  Universelle,'  and  wrote  the  lives  of  many  of  the 
botanists  in  that  work.  The  genus  of  plants  Thouarea  was 
named  after  him,  and  Bory  St.  Vincent  named  Anbertia  in 
honour  of  him. 

King.  Univ.,  Supp.  ;  BischofF,  Lehrbuch  der  Botanik.) 

THOURET,  MICHEL-AUGUSTIN,  an  eminent  French 
physician,  was  born  in  1748,  at  Pont-1'Evfique,  in  the  an- 
tient  province  of  Normandy  and  the  modern  department  of 
Calvados,  where  his  father  was  royal  notary  (notaire 
royal).  His  education  was  commenced  at  his  native  town, 
and  finished  at  the  university  of  Caen.  He  afterwards 
went  to  Paris,  and  in  1774  w-as  admitted  gratuitously  by 
the  Faculty  of  Medicine  in  that  city  to  the  degree  of  M.D., 
an  honour  which  was  gained  by  public  competition  (con- 
nuti-x).  A  few  years  later,  upon  the  foundation  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Medicine,  Thouret  became  one  of  its 
earliest  members,  and  enriched  the  Memoirs  of  the  Society 
by  several  valuable  essays.  The  most  important  public 
work  in  which  he  took  a  part  was  the  exhumation  of  the 
bodies  in  the  cemetery  of  the  Holy  Innocents,  of  which  he 
drew  up  a  most  interesting  report.  This  cemetery,  toge- 
ther with  a  church  of  the  same  name,  stood  on  the  spot 
now  occupied  by  the  Marchc  des  Innocens,  and  had  be- 
come in  process  of  time  so  unhealthy  from  being  the  prin- 
cipal burial-ground  in  Paris,  that  it  was  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  destroy  it.  This  great  work  had^een  several  times 
attempted,  but  as  often  abandoned  on  account  of  the  dan- 
gers and  difficulties  of  the  undertaking  ;  at  last  however, 
in  17K5,  a  committee  was  named  for  directing  the  works, 
v.  Inch  were  carried  on  without  any  intermission  by  night 
and  by  day  for  more  than  six  months,  and  which  were  at 
length  completely  successful.  Thouret  afterwards  filled 
several  public,  situations  with  equal  zeal  and  integrity; 
and  in  the  midst  of  the  labours  of  his  numerous  employ- 
ments was  carried  off,  after  a  few  days'  illness,  by  a  cerebral 
atteelion,  at  Meudon,  near  Paris,  June  19,  1810.  Great 
honours  were  paid  him  after  his  death  by  the  Faculty  of 
Medicine  at  Paris,  of  which  body  he  was  dean.  His  works 
consist  almost  entirely  of  essays  published  in  the  '  Histoire 
et  Memoires  de  la  Societe  Royale,'  of  which  perhaps  the 
most  interesting  are  the  '  Rapports  sur  les  Exhumations.  iiu 
C'imetiere  des  SS.  Innocens,'  mentioned  above.  These  were 
afterwards  published  in  a  separate  form  at  Paris,  1789, 
12mo.  ( Biogruphie  Mcdicale.) 

THOUROUT  is  a  town  in  the  province  of  West  Flan- 
ders, in  the  kingdom  of  Belgium,  in  the  district  of  Bruges, 
on  the  high  road  from  that  city  to  Menin  and  Courtray. 
It  is  a  well-built  town,  with  a  population  of  8000  inhabit- 
ants, who  have  a  considerable  trade  in  linen,  flax,  and  lin- 
leed.  They  also  manufacture  hats,  starch,  and  wooden  shoes. 
[FLANDERS,  WEST.]  (Stein,  Lexicon;  Schulz,  Allgemeine 
Knlliunde,  vol.  xvii.) 

THRACE     (epy'itj;,     Thracia)    was    in    earlier    times 

the  name  of  the   country  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 

Danube,  on  the  south  by  the  Propontis  and  the  ^Egean 

Sea,  on  the   east  by  the   Black  Sea,  and   on  the    west 

by  the  river  Strympn  and  the  chain  of  mountains  which 

form  the  continuation  of  Mount  Rhodope.      This  coun- 

i  divided  into  two  parts  by  Mount  Hsemus  (now  the 

Balkan),   which  runs  from  west  to  east,   separating   the 

of  the  lower  Danube  from  the  rivers  which  flow  into 

the  /Egean  Sea.     This  mountain  probably  derived  its  name 

3  E  2 


I    I!  11 


T  H   H 


from  ihi  cold  and  snowy  lop,  since  Hn>mii»  sc. 
tainthe  same  root  n^  '•  •'  whence 

atoconMthc   nwne  of  the    Ibm.ilava   Mountains.     T-.M. 
range*  branch  lr   of 

at  about  a  hundred  mile*  1'rom  the 
:e,  which  runs  in  ft  south-eastern  direction  towards 
•imtinople;  the  other,  \vliic-h  is  far  inches 

ices  of  the  llehre.s.  and 
.uth-enst.      The  latter  bor>    the-  n:; 
and  is  now  called  the  Desj 
two  ranges  there  are  many  plum-,  which  an 
the  I1  principal   river  of  'I 

and  i  t'lirthcr  account  of  the  i>!< 

the   reader  is  referred  to  the  articles  BALKAN 

!T*A. 

In  ancient  times  there  was  a  great  quantity  of  corn  and 
wine  grown   in  the  valley  of  the  Hebnis.     In  the  'Iliad' 
.  !'  the  Ach  scans  arc  described  a>  bringing  wine 
•imcnmon  from  Thrace   (\\.  7-   :  Mid  the 
.vine,  which  retained  its  reputation  in  the  time  of 
Pliny   //.-»/.  A,//.,  xn.li  .  is  spokenof  in  tl  y'(ix. 

l'.<7  ".     In  the  mount.  -  of  the  country  there  were 

also  mines  of  precious,  metals.    '.hist  in,  viii.  3.) 

The  Thraeians  were  divided  into  many  separate  and  in- 
dependent tribes;    hut   the  name  of  Tii:  ins  to 

h.i\e    been    applied   to  them    collectively  in    very  early 
times.     Thrace,  according  to  Stephanus  Uyzantinu- 

.  :,\  was  previously  called  Perec   (Ilfpiri;).     It   signifies 
onntry  in  the  north,  according:  to  Vkcrt  {Ci'i^ni^ltn- 
'i-n   inn/  llniiifr,    I.,  i..  p.  2H2  .  who   quotes  the 
"k  of  Andron  of  Halicarnassus  (Schol.  att  Lycophr., 
inus  had  four  daughters.  A-ia.    Libya. 
Europa.  and   Thrace,   from    whom   the    four  pails  of  the 
worl<:  icd  :  and  thence  he  conehules  that  Asia  sig- 

nitic.l   the   cast.   Libya  the    south.   Europa  the    west,   and 
Thrace  the  north.    This  conclusion  however  hardly  amounts 


to  asmal)  probability.    Jpsephus  and  many  Biblical  scholars 
tnippose  that  the  name  is  derived  from  Tiras  I.DTJT1.  the 

son  of  Japhet  (Genfsit,  x.  2  ,  but  this  opinion  rests  on 
little  moie  than  an  apparent  similarity  of  sound. 

The  Thraeian  nation,  according  to  Herodotus  (v.  3),  was, 
next  to  the  Indians,  the  most  numerous  of  all,  and  if  united 
under  one  head  would  have  been  imincihlc.  He  observes 
that  the  usages  of  the  different  tribes  were  similar,  with 
the  exception  of  the  (ictir  [(TKT.E],  the  Trausi.  and  those 
who  dwelt  above  the  (  'rc.-toiwi.  The  account  which  he 
fives  of  the  most  striking  national  peculiarities  of  the 
Thracians.  represents  them  as  a  barbarous  and  savage 
people,  which  is  supported  by  other  antient  writers,  though 
the  districts  on  the  southern  co;  0  have  attained  to 

some  degree  of  civilization,  owing  to  the  numerous  Creek 

-  which  were  founded  there  at   various  times.     The 
Thracuns,  says  Herodotus  (v.  (i  ,  sell  their  children  to  be 
carried  out  of  the  country  as  slaves:    they  do  not  guard 
their  young  women,  but  permit  them  to  have  intercourse 
with    whatever   men    they   please:    they   purchase    their 
wives  with    great    sums:     they  puncture    or  tattoo   their 
bodies,  winch  they  regard  as  a  sign  of  noble   birth 
culture  they  despise,  and  consider  it   most    honourable   to 
li\e  by  war  and  robbcn.     Deep  drinking  prevailed  among 
them  extensive!),  and   the  quarrels  over   their   cups    be- 
came almost  proverbial.  .•;..  i.  Is  and  27.)    In 
earlier  times,  however,   there  must   have   been  a   greater 

•  e  of  civilization  among  some  of  their  tribes  ill 
than  prevailed  at  a  i  I.     The  eai 
Orpheus,  I.inus,  Musceus,  and  others,  are  all 

W  coming  from  Tin;  '  nmolpus  too,  who  founded, 

according  to  tradition,   the  Eleiisinian  mysteries  at 

M  also  said  to  have  been  a  Thraeian.     At  an  early  period 

likewise  the  Thraeians  spread  extensively  over  southern 

Tlmeydidcs    ii.  2!»  .  says  that    they  once  dwelt    ill 

•rabo  (Ix.  401.  4  In    speaks  of  their  settlement  in 

Ba-utia;   and  their  invasion  of  Attica  under  Kumolpiis,  who 

iit  against  Ereeht  hens,  is  mentioned   b\  many  v. 
Strabo,  .  M.cvd.,  11.  l.-i:   1'au.san.'.  i.  : 

Thiacians  are  (aid  to  have  been  subdued  hv  Sesos- 

1..   11.    KM;,  and  subsequently   by   ti 
and    )  ;     ,  ,,-',.  the 

frojan  war.  and   penetrated   as  fur  as   the    Ionian  Sea  and 

Hut  the  first  real  tn-t 
"incut    by  Mega! 
the  general  of  Dan  us,  who  conquered  all  the  separate 


tribes,  with  the  exception  of  the  Satrn-.  w! 
Tluacian    jieople   thn' 

down  to  the  time  of  Herodotus.      11  .n.  ill. 

Atler  the  failure   of  the   expedition   0 

..ppear  to   '  .  ervd   their  indi •[• 

in  the  time  of  the  Peloponncsian  war  we  find    n   powerful 
native  empire  in  Thrace,  which  was  under  the 
Ices,  who  i-  called    by  Thueyii 

-      • 
- 

1    the  Thia, 

coast  from  Abdera  to  the  mouth  of  the  Danube,  a  distance 
of  four  days'  and  four  nights'  sail  with  a  favourable  • 
and  was  by  land  a  journey  of  eleven  days  by  t! 
road  for  an  active  man:"  it    extended    inland 
zantium  to  the  I.a-a-i  and   t  m,  a  jouni. 

tern   da\s.     The  tribute   p.-- 
Sitalces,  was  4(»0  t alen' 

to  himself  and  the  Odrysian  nobles.     Time, 
of  all   the   kingdoms    between  the  Ionian  (iul. 
Euxine,   this  was  the   greatest    in   revenue  and   opul, 
but  that  it  was  inferior  to  the  Scythians  in  milit;;: 
and  numbers.     In   the   third   year  of  the  i'el' 
war.  n. c.  4'Jil.  Sitalces,  who  had  foniied  an   alliance  with 
Athens,  invaded  the  1,  of  Perdiccas, king 

donia.  with  an   army  of  l.">(),000  men:    but   being  d 
pointed  of  the  co-operation   of  an  Athenian  fle. 
persuaded   by  his  nephew  Seuthes  to  accept  the  overtures 
of  Perdiccas.  and  return  home  with  his  army.  all. 
ing  in  Macedonia  thirty  days.    In  the  year  ii.t  .  !_' 
fell  in  battle  against  the  TYiballi,  the  most  powerful  Thni- 
eian  people  between  Mount  Ihtmus  and  the  Da 
was  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Seuthes.     The  power  . 
.an   empire  however   did    not    last    long.       In 
more  than  twenty  years  from  the  den  had 

lost  its  former  greatness;    and   when  Xenophon  ci. 
over  into  Thrace,  in  H.C.  4<K),  he  found  Medonis.  the  reign- 
ing   king    of   the   Odrysians.   unable    to    command    the 
obedience  of  his  Thraeian  subjects.     '.Compare  Amib..  vii. 
2.  s.  :i±  ,Vc.       In  the  reign  of  Philip,  the  lather  of  Alex- 
ander, Cotys  was  the  i  ml  of  the  Thraeian  c 
and  is  usually  called  king  ot'Tlnaee:   but  he  vva 
by  Philip  of  almost  all  his  dominions  between  tli.   v 
and    the  Nestiis.   and   became  little  else  than  a 
the  Macedonian  kingdom.     He  v\as  ;id  vindic- 
tive   barbarian,  and  v                     ated  in  n.f.  :>5S.     Hi 
Cersoble]ites  succeeded  to  the  throne  :   but  he  was  evcntu- 

•  lipped  of  all  his  territories  by  Philip,  who  red 
in  n.(  .  :H:i.  the  whole  of  Southern  Thnu  I,  and 

compelled  it  to  pav  tribute.       Diodonts,  xvi.  710     On  the 
dealh  of  Philip  there  was  a  general  movement    : 

ans  to  throw  off  the  Macedonian  su;  '    the 

head  of  which  the  Triballi  placed  tin  :  ii;.;   Alex- 

ander, bv  his  activity,  suppressed  this  rising:    1 
the  Hicmus.  marched  into  the  eoun'i  iballi,  and, 

after  defeating  them,  advanced  as  far  as  the  Danube,  which 
he   crossed,  and  offered   11;  its   right    bank. 

(Arrian.  .lit<>/>.,  i.  2.  9  .  ii.:«HO     On  tb. 

Alexander,  Thrace    fell  to   the   share   of  I.v  simachns,  who 

•  1   it  into  an   independent    monarchy:    but    it   • 
qncntly  came  under  the  dominion  of  the  Macedonian  !. 
They  seem    however  to  have   left   the   coiintr. 
government    of  its   native   rulers,  and   were  prohahlv 

!  with  what  the  Cricks  called  a  hegemony.      In   the 
Roman  war  against  1'  ftheThrftc 

is  in,  ig  :   though  the  llini. 

just   bel'ore  the  war   broke  out,  had  sought  the  alliai 
the  Komans.       I, ivy.  \lii.  2!t.  ~>\  :    compare  xlii.  1!). 
the  conclusion  of  the  war.  however.  Cotys  was  allowed   to 
continue   in   possession   of  his  kingdom,   notwithstanding 
the  assistance  he  had  rendered  to  Peisens.        l.r. 

At  vvliat    time  Thrace  was  reduced  to  tin  K<>- 

man  province  M  uncertain,  but   it  seems  not  to  have  con- 
stituted  a  distinct    province  till   a  late    period.      Vnder 

<l|s.  (lie   p:.  'h  lif  the  Ha'lll 

(juered  by  the  Koina'r-.  and  wa-  :1o  a 

ite   jirovinee  under  the  name  of  M,r-ia.      [M.i 
The  name  of  Thrace  was  tli,  1  to  the  co- 

ol'the  Ilirmus,  and  between  llie  Kuxine.  the  I'ropontis.  and 
the  ,'Kgean   Sea.       Us    boundary  on   tin'   west    ditl'eii 
various  times  :    in  the  time  of  Ptolemv     ni.  II 

:  hut   as  the  Strymon  was  anti 
the  boundary  between  Macedonia  and  Thrace,  it  will  be 


T  H  R 


397 


T  H  R 


convenient,  in  the  following  description  of  the  principal 
places  in  Thrace,  to  consider  the  district  between  the  Stry- 
mon  and  the-  Xestus  as  belonging  to  the  latter  country. 

Beginning  then  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Strymon,  the 
first  town  we  come  to  is  Amphipolis,  which  was  founded 
by  the  Athenians,  and  was  one  of  the  most  important 
towns  in  Thrace.  [AMPHIPOUS.]  It  was  situated  in  the 
countiy  of  the  Edones,  who  dwelt  between  the  Strymon 
and  the  Nestus,  but  originally  inhabited  the  Macedonian 
district  of  Mygdonia.  (Thucyd.,  ii.  99.)  The  next  town 
of  importance  east  of  Amphipolis  was  Philippi,  which 
was  founded  by  Philip  of  Macedonia :  it  was  previously 
called  Crenides,  but  was  then  only  a  small  place  in- 
habited by  the  Thasians,  who  settled  there  for  the  pur- 
of  working  the  gold  and  silver  mines  in  its  neigh- 
bourhood. West  of  Philippi  the  country  was  an  extensive 
•plain  stretching  towards  Amphipolis,  which  has  become 
memorable  on  account  of  the  battle  fought  there  by 
Antony  and  Octavius  (Augustus)  against  Brutus  and  Cas- 
Mii-i.  "Under  the  Romans  Philippi  became  a  colony,  and 
v.  as  the  chief  city  in  that  part  of  the  country,  when  it  was 
visited  by  the  Apostle  Paul.  (Acts,  xvii.  12.J  It  still 
retains  the  name  of  Filibi,  but  is  only  a  village. 

West  of  the  Nestus  the  first  town  of  importance  on  the 
c-oa»t  is  Abdera.  [ABDERA.]  Next  comes  Dic-ira  or 
Dicii-opol  is,  which  was  a  Greek  city  on  the  shores  of  the 
lake  Bistonis  (Herod.,  vii.  109)  ;  and  then  Maroneia  and 

rus,  which  were  both  in  the  country  of  the  Cicones, 
wheiv  J'ivssc*  landed  and  was  defeated  by  the  inhabitants, 
after  lie  had  taken  their  city.  CMys.,  xi.  39,  &c.)  The 
Maronean  wine  has  been  already  mentioned,  and  the  city 
was  in  consequence  sacred  to  Dionvsus,  as  may  be  seen 
from  its  coins.  It  was  originally  called  Orthagoria.  Its 
ruins  are  still  named  Maroni.  Ismarus  is  not  mentioned 
by  later  writers  as  a  city,  but  only  as  a  mountain  cele- 
brated for  its  wine.  Following  the  coast  we  next  come  to 
Stryme,  a  colony  of  the  Thasians;  then  to  Mesembria, 
built  by  the  Samothracians  (Herod.,  vii.  108) ;  and  next 
to  Dori-scas.  situated  in  a  large  plain,  in  which  Xerxes  num- 
bered his  army.  (Herod.,  v.  59.)  Crossing  the  Hebrus  we 
come  to  A'nos,  which,  according  to  Virgil  (/£'«.,  iii.  17, 
>K:e.  ,  was  founded  by  j*Eneas,  but  it  is  mentioned  under 
this  name  by  Homer,  as  the  place  from  which  Pirous  came 
to  the  Trojan  war  (//.,  iv.  520;.  It  was  a  place  of  con- 
siderable importance  in  later  times,  and  under  the  Romans 
was  a  free  town.  (Pliny,  Nat.  Hist.,  iv.  18.)  It  is  still 
called  Knu>. 

After  passing  round  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Melas,  now 
the  Gulf  of  Saros,  we  come  to  the  Thracian  Chersonese 
(Xtppvvriaoc,  or  Xtpaovrjaoz  T;  iv  Opdrp),  now  Gallipoli, 
which  was  very  early  colonized  by  Greek  settlers,  and 
though  but  of  small  extent  is  of  considerable  importance 
in  antient  history.  In  early  times  it  was  inhabited  by  the 
Dolonci,  a  Thracian  tribe,  who  being  hard  pressed  in  war 
by  the  Apsinthii,  were  led  to  invite  Miltiades,  the  son  of 
( 'yp.-i.-lus,  an  Athenian,  to  be  their  king,  in  consequence  of 
an  answer  given  them  by  the  oracle  at  Delphi.  This  was 
about  the  year  B.C.  560.  Miltiades  complied  with  their 
request,  and  took  with  him  to  the  Chersonese  a  colony  of 
Athenians.  On  his  deatli  he  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew 

i;oras,  and  he  by  his  brother  Miltiades,  the  son  of 
Cimon.  who  fled  to  Athens  to  escape  the  vengeance  of 
Darius,  on  account  of  the  advice  he  had  given  to  the 
Ionian  chiefs  in  the  Scythian  expedition  of  Darius.  (Herod., 
vi.  34,  &c.)  [MILTIADES.]  When  the  Persians  were 
driven  out  of  Greece,  the  Chersonese  came  into  the  hands 
of  the  Athenians,  who  retained  it  till  the  end  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  war.  Shortly  afterwards  the  Lacedaemonians,  at 
the  request  of  the  inhabitants,  built  a  strong  wall  across 
the  isthmus  to  protect  the  country  from  the  incursions  of 
the  Thiacians.  (Xenoph.,  Hell.,  iii.  2,  s.  8-10.)  It  sub- 
sequently came  under  tne  power  of  Athens,  who  wrested  it 
from  Cersobleptes,  the  son  of  Cotys,  when  he  was  deprived 
of  his  other  dominions  by  Philip.  Afterwards  it  formed 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Lysimachus,  who  founded  the  city 

.ysimachia  on  the  isthmus,  which  he  made  his  capital. 
It  wiw  on  the  western  side  of  the  isthmus,  not  far  from  the 
antient  Cardia,  the  inhabitants  of  which  he  removed  to  his 

<-ity.  (Diodorus,  xx.  29 ;  Pausan.,  i.  9,  s.  10.)  South 
of  Lysimachui  were  Agora,  Ide,  Paeon,  and  Alopecon- 
nesus,  the  last  of  which  only  was  of  any  importance.  It 
was  an  TEolian  colony,  and  was  one  of  the  chief  towns  of 
the  Chersonese  in  t'hu  time  of  Demosthenes.  On  the 


eastern  side  of  the  Chersonese,  upon  the  Hellespont,  the 
most  southerly  town  was  Cynossema,  near  which  the 
Lacedaemonian  fleet  was  defeated  by  the  Athenians  under 
the  command  of  Thrasybulus  and  Thrasyllus,  in  B.C.  411. 
(Thucyd.,  viii.  104,  &c.)  Above  Cynossema  was  Madytus, 
which  was  also  one  of  the  chief  towns  of  the  Chersonese  in 
the  time  of  Demosthenes  (Demosth.  pro  Cor.,  p.  256) ;  and 


nian  fleet  was  totally  defeated  by  Lysander,  in  B.C.  40"), 
who  was  enabled  in  consequence  to  obtain  possession  of 
Athens  and  put  an  end  to  the  Peloponnesian  war.  Above 
.fljgospotamoi  were  Callipolis,  now  Gallipoli,  which  has 
given  its  name  to  the  peninsula,  and  Pactya,  opposite  Ly- 
simachia. 

As  the  other  towns  are  not  of  so  much  importance  as 
the  preceding,  a  brief  notice  of  them  will  be  sufficient.  On 
the  Propontis  the  chief  seaport  was  Perinthus,  afterwards 
called  Heraclea,  and  sometimes  also  Heraclea  Perinthus. 
(Zosimus,  i.  62 ;  Diodorus,  xvi.  76.)  On  the  Bosporus  (not 
Bosphorus,  as  it  .is  frequently,  but  incorrectly,  written  in 
modern  maps  and  works),  which  connected  the  Propontis 
and  the  Euxine,  the  antient  Greek  city  of  Byzantium  was 
situated,  which  occupied  part  of  the  site  of  the  modern 
Constantinople.  [BYZANTIUM.] 

On  the  European  coast  of  the  Euxine  the  chief  towns 
were  Salmydessus,  Apollonia,  and  Mesembria.  The  two 
former  were  colonies  of  the  Milesians,  and  the  last  of  the 
Megarians.  (Strabo,  vii.,  319.) 

In  the  interior  of  the  country  the  towns  most  worthy  of 
mention  are  Trajanopolis,  on  the  Egnatian  road  to  the  west 
of  the  Hebrus ;  Plotinopolis,  so  called  in  honour  of  Plo- 
tina,  the  wife  of  Trajan,  to  the  north  of  Trajanopolis ; 
Hadrianopolis,  on  the  Hebrus,  originally  called  Orestias, 
and  now  Adrianople  [ADRIANOPLE]  ;  and,  lastly,  Philip- 
polis,  also  on  the  Hebrus,  now  called  Filibi.  The  names  of 
these  towns  sufficiently  show  by  whom  they  were  built  or 
enlarged. 

The  Via  Egnatia,  which  was  the  great  road  of  com- 
munication between  the  Ionian  Sea  and  Byzantium,  and 
which  is  spoken  of  under  MACEDONIA  (p.  243),  entered 
Thrace  at  Amphipolis,  and  passed  by  the  towns  of  Phi- 
lippi, Neapolik  Abdera,  Maximianopolis,  Trajanopolis, 
Cypsela,  Apri,  Heraclea,  till  it  reached  Byzantium. 

Xenophon,  in  his  '  Anabasis '  (vi.  4),  speaks  of  Thrace  in 
Asia,  which  he  describes  as  extending  from  the  junction 
of  the  Bosporus  and  the  Euxine  along  the  Asiatic  coast  as 
far  as  Heracleia:  the  country  within  these  limits  was  iVi- 
habited  by  Thracei  Bithyni.  The  harbour  of  Calpe  was 
about  the  middle  of  this  coast-line.  [BITHYNIA.] 

THRA'CIA,  Dr.  Leach's  name  for  a  genus  of  testa- 
ceous mollusks  described  as  intermediate  between  Anatina 
and  Mya,  and  as  having  some  resemblance  to  Corbulu. 

THRAPSTON.     [NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.] 

THRASA'ETOS,  Mr.  G.  R.  Gray's  name  for  a  genus  of 
Eagles,  Harpyia,  Cuv.,  FALCO  destructor,  Daud.  [FALCO- 
NID.E,  vol.  x.,  p.  174.] 

THRA'SEA  PAETUS.  His  praenomen  is  uncertain  ; 
some  writers  call  him  Lucius,  and  others  Publius,  but  he 
is  generally  called  simply  Thrasea  Paetus  or  Thrasea.  He 
was  a  native  of  Patavium,  Padua  (Tacitus,  Annal.,  xvi.  21 ; 
Dion  Cass.,  Ixii.  26),  and,  like  most  men  of  talent  at  the 
time,  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  afterwards  became  a 
senator  and  a  member  of  the  priestly  college  of  the  quin- 
decimviri.  The  first  time  that  Thrasea  came  prominently 
forward  in  the  senate  was  in  A.D.  59,  when  a  senatus- 
consultum  was  passed  by  which  the  city  of  Syracuse 
obtained  permission  to  employ  a  greater  number  -of 
gladiators  in  the  public  games  than  had  been  fixed  by  a 
law  passed  in  the  time  of  S.  Caesar.  (Tacitus,  Annul.,  xiii. 
49;  Dion  Cass.,  liv.  2 ;  Sueton.,  Caes.,  10.)  Although  the 
matter  was  of  no  importance,  Thrasea  took  an  active  part 
in  the  deliberation,  merely  to  impress  upon  his  colleagues 
the  necessity  of  paying  attention  even  to  the'  smallest 
matters  belonging  to  the  administration  of  the  senate. 
In  the  same  year  Nero  determined  to  carry  into  effect  his 
design  of  getting  rid  of  his  mother  Agrippina.  [NERO  ; 
AGRIPPINA.]  When  the  crime  was  committed,  and  when 
the  emperor  sent  a  letter  to  the  senate  in  which  he 
endeavoured  to  exculpate  himself,  the  degraded  senators 
congratulated  him  upon  having  got  rid  of  so  dangerous 
a  woman.  The  only  man  who  on  that  occasion  had  the 


II  R 


T  II  i: 


courage  to  »how  his  d 

Caw.,  )xi. 


,  Nildly  claim 

'    tot 

I  lorn-   of 
emperor,  thouj 


crime  wa*  Tin 

«•.. 

:   in 

!    in- 

OVI1H 

pro- 

u  their   iir                             •  >  had 
'..in.     The 
the  pro- 

ll  iiiTh  Ihl   quaestor  atn.ed   .1  .  i   .  ::'    i.il  v    a  MOW 

red  the 

ii'iammoiis 

-  him  virt 
...I.   •  I    would  t!                                1    me  ; 

Juven 

which  LTllided  hii 

which  Plutart                              hisbu 

iti  .r^c. 
rom  the 

Pint;                                          .nil  '.\~t  :    ( 
!nu  i'/ii/ui-i-fii,  p.  His.       Husti.1 
work  on  Thrasea  and  Ileh  idins,  in  which  ! 

conducted   the 
ambition  t 

ils  of  their  independence,  and  degraded  them  into 
flatterers  of  influential   provincials,   who  thus  obtai 
improper  power.      '!  1    lo    the 

measure  to  remedv  the  evil,  hut   although  it    met   with 


imscii.       laei 


alter  on  tne  proposal  ot   .\ 

\V.  -jr)-±!.         Nero   iihca  ' 

I'oppaca.   the   wife   of  Nero,  was  expecting  her   contine- 
.  iitiurn,  and  all  • 
n1.   Thra- 

philosopher  bore    this    insult    with    his   usual 
calm'  o    afterwards   indeed   declared    to    S 

that  '  '•  :M  this   was  probably 

no  more  than  an  expression  of  his  1,-ar.     Tlie  inflexible 
character  of  Thra>ea.  Iris  refusal  to  take  any  part  in  t. 
grading  proceedings  of  the  senate,  and  the  esteem  which  he 
enjoyed  amoii£  his  contemporai  ••'  i'od  of 

Nero,  who  only  waii.  mirable  opportunity  ' 

rid  of  him.     li  A.D.  63*11; 

'.(led  the  meetings  of  the    senate.     'I 

a.ssed  away,  w  hen  at  length,  in  A.D.  (K).  his  old  enemy 
CoautianiU  brought  forward  a  number  of  char 
Th.ras.ca.  the  substance  of  which  was  that  lie  took  lr 
no  part  in  public  ati'aiis,  and  that   when  he  did  so.  it  was 
only  to  oppos*  thu  n  .  nmcnt  ;  that  he 

of  tlie  emperor,  and  fulfilled  neither 
his  political  dutie^  as  a  senator  nor  his  leliirious  chr 
a    pne-l.  :i    personal    interview 

with'  >r,  \\liich   was  refused.     lie  then   wrote  to 

him.  asking  for  a  statement  oft!.  ',i,and 

decl;!  he    would   refute   them.     When  Ni 

read  this  letter,  instead   of  which  he  had  expected  a  con- 
fession of  guilt  nnd  an  humble   petition  for  pardon,  he 

-.•nate.  to  decide  upon  the  chmi 
Tlirasea  and  others.     Some  of  Thru 
him  to  attend  the  meeting,  but  :aded  him 

it.     One  yonni  and  ;Viend,    Kusticus  Arulenus, 

WM  tribune  rif  the  people.  uttered  to  put  hi 
upon  the  *enatu*-ron*ultnm,  which  however  Tl 
prevented.  Tin  'hdrevv  to  1 

home.     In  the  mdcd  by  : 

upon   Co«-  -i    their  attacks   upon 

Jnnwea. 

soldi 

Id  choo»e  their  ;  :  ' 

'''irawa,  an-!     ' 
Italy.      The   : 

tor  o'f  the  . 

was  ira-va.  who   had   a^einbled  aronnd  him  a 

turn! 

he  armed,  a  friend.    ' 
him  of  the  decree   of  tin 

• 

her  ! 
the  la»t  iupport  which  n 


them  as  men  uf  the  puie.-t  integrity—  -ion  which 

became  fatal  to  the  author.  i><uint.,  10  ;  Tacitus, 

TIIU  \SlIl.N(i.     Tl  i  from  the 

com  has 

simpl'  I'he 

of  the   tcrain  may   be    read1 

llirushini;  is  still  in  onler  to  obtain  the  liiu  - 

\  arda 

with   the  Jliil,  which  is  the  in&tru- 

nient  most  generally   adopted    for  thra.-hin:r  corn,     ll   is 
iieedl-  die  this  instrument,  which  rally 

known.     It   requires   some   pra>  :nally 

and  to  avoid  accidents  to  the  thrasher  himself  or  ti.> 
>taudcrs.     The  flail  bcins;  swmiir  round  the  head,  the  hi.il- 
t  of  it  is  ;  :  hori/ont;;:  •  iiich 

.  ad  on  tin1  tin. i-  p  tlu>  ]>art 

onally  under  th 

'.\\   up  to  be  beaten.     This  is  dune  without 

'iine  when  M-veral   men  are  thrashini; 

icr.     If  it  were  not  that  thrashing  is  nn»tly  done  in 

winter,  when  no  out-door  work   could  well   be  done,  few 

labourers  would  submit  to  .,    difficult 

me  the  entire  separation  of  the  i;rain   without  | 

;:id  attention  on  the  part  of  the  ma>ler  or  over- 

li'the  labour  is  paid  by  the  day,  much  time  a  usually 

ind  if  it  hi1  by  tlie  ijuantity  of  irniin   lhia--hed  or  by 

the  number  of  sheaves,  tin  ti    temptation  for  the 

to  hurry  over  the  work,  as  d  out 

Win  1  out  11111:1 

jiut  into  a  . 

e\ti  n-i\c  tiacts  of  lich  land  arc  soun  \\it\i  <-orn  two 
or  three  times  without  much  tillage  or  manuring,  and  then 

icst  and   i1. 

most  common  p  la  poilion   of  a  field,  and 

lajini:   the   corn   in  the   straw   in   a   larije.   circle,  to  drive 

all   trodden  out.     T 

thu   method  alluded  to  in  Scripture,  and   can  only  take 
where    th.  Till    in- 

1  ines  to  (.upcrsede  the  thn 
) 

i   imitating  the  motion  of 

of  the  tl'i; 

that  no  mechanism  could   well   imitate   the   motion   of  his 

iven  up.  ami  an  imitation 

rubbing   •  nn   the   eai>   between   the 

hand*,    combined    with   tl  of    a    fl;.\ 

machine,  irradnally  produced  the  preat-nt  improved  thrash- 

iout   a  figure    it  would   be  difficult  lo  describe   the 
different  pai l.s  and  motion  innr-maelnn.'.     They 

lire  however  now   MI   common.  Unit   it  will   virli 
the  f  .  and  to   mention  .soil 

lest  improvements  in  it.      A  rapid  motion  is  -riven  to 

a  hollow  cylinder  round   a    .  :   on   the   outer 

'jocting  rib»  parallel  to  the  axi-  .it 


T  H  R 


399 


T  H  R 


equal  distances  from  each  other;  the  width  of  these  is 
from  two  to  six  inches.  Around  half  the  cylinder  is  a 
case  the  inner  surface  of  which  is  lined  with  plates  of  cast- 
iron  grooved  in  the  direction  of  the  axis.  The  ribs  or 
beaters  come  quite  close  to  these  grooves,  so  that  an  ear 
of  wheat  or  other  corn  cannot  well  pass  between  them 
Without  being  flattened.  The  sheaves  of  corn,  having 
been  untied,  are  spread  on  a  slanting  table,  and  in  some 
machines  are  drawn  in  between  two  iron  rollers,  of  which 
one  is  plain  and  the  other  fluted.  The  motion  of  these 
rollers  i»  slow,  while  that  of  the  cylinder  or  drum  is  very 
rapid.  The  beaters  act  on  the  straw  as  it  comes  through 
the  rollers,  and  beat  out  most  of  the  corn  ;  but  what 
remains  is  carried  in  between  the  beaters  and  the  fluted 
case,  and  when  it  has  made  half  a  revolution  all  the  grain 
has  been  beaten  and  nibbed  out.  It  falls  on  a  sieve  which 
lets  the  grain  through,  but  retains  the  straw,  which  is 
raked  off  by  hand  or  by  circular  rakes  moved  by  the 
machine!}.  Some  of  the  best  implement-makers  in  Eng- 
land have  found  the  1\vo  rollers  superfluous,  and  have 
accordingly  dispensed  with  them.  The  straw  is  at  once 
subjected  to  the  beaters,  and  the  machine  may  be  fed 
more  or  less  rapidly  according  to  circumstances.  It 
requires  a  little  more  attention  in  the  person  who  feeds 
the  machine,  but  more  work  is  done  and  some  power 
saved.  The  great  perfection  of  a  thrashing-machine  is  to 
rub  out  every  grain  and  to  break  the  straw  as  little  as  pos- 
sible ;  the  larger  the  scale  of  the  machine  the  better  it 
this.  Hand-machines  have  been  made  on  the  same 
principle,  but  they  do  not.  effect  any  saving  in  the  expense, 
requiring  many  men  to  produce  the  effect,  of  one  horse. 
The  great  advantage  of  hand-machines  is  that  men  and 
women  can  be  employed  to  thrash  who  could  not  use  the 
flail  skilfully.  Movenble  thrashing-machines  are  very 
generally  in  use  in  Ens-land  where  farms  are  small.  They 
itcii  the  property  of  an  industrious  labourer  or  me- 
chanic, who  undertakes  to  superintend  the  work,  the 
farmer  finding  horses  and  men.  Thus  he  goes  from  farm 
tn  farm  and  earns  his  livelihood  from  a  small  capital  laid 
out  in  the  purcba~c  tit  a  machine.  The  price  of  tin; 
in  this  \i  ay  is  about  half  of  what  is  usually  paid  for  I ! 
ing  with  the  flail  :  it  is  more  rapidly  done,  there  i 
chance  of  pilfcrinsr.  and  fewer  grains  remain  in  the  straw. 
On  very  large  farms  it  hnx  been  found  economical  to 
erect,  a  ';ie  to  work  the  thrashing-machine, 

chatt'-cutter,  and  other  domestic  implements.  Where 
coals  are  cheap  there  is  a  great  saving.  A  steam-i 
costs  little  to  keep  it  in  order.  When  not  working,  tin 
interest  on  the  original  price  is  the  only  loss,  whereas 
I  mint  be  fed  whether  they  work  or  not.  The  price 
of  steam-engines  is  so  much  reduced  and  their  construc- 
tion so  simplified,  that  they  will  probably  soon  form  an 
essential  part  of  the  implements  on  every  farm. 

There  are  some  thrashing-machines  on  a  new  principle 
which  are  said  to  work  well.  The  drum  is  furnished  with 
rows  of  spikes,  and  similar  spikes  are  fixed  into  the  cover 
which  work  in  the  intervals  between  the  first.  The  corn 
in  the  straw  is  drawn  in  by  the  spikes  on  the  drum,  vhicl 
revolves  rapidly,  and  the  ears  being  beaten  in  all  directions 
by  the  fixed  and  the  revolving  spikes,  the  grain  falls  onto 
the  ear  and  is  coll( '-tc<l  below.  Such  a  machine  was  ex 
hibitedat  the  Agricultural  Meeting  at  Cambridge  in  1840 
but  it  seemed  to  break  the  straw  more,  and  to  be  more  ap 
to  clog,  than  the  machines  in  general  use.  These  will  no 
doubt  be  made  gradually  simpler  and  cheaper,  till  the; 
entirely  supersede  the  flail,  even  in  very  small  farms. 

THRASYBU'I.US   OoaT/^nuXoc),  the  son  of  Lycus,  was 

born  at  Steiria  in  Attica.    In  the  year  B.C.  411  the  oligar 

dial  party  at  Athens  trained  the  ascendency,  and  tbnnei 

a  new  senate  of  400  member*.     The  oligarchs  in  the  flee 

"ined  at    Samos  ende,  bring  about   a  siinila 

ilution  there,  but  their  efforts  failed  ;  and  among  tin 

men  who  exerted  themselves  to  maintain  the  demon-alien 

utuiiou,  ThriLsybulus,  who  then  had  the  command  of  a 

triri  t.     He  and  his  friend  Thrasyllus  com 

peli  is  to  swear  to  keep  quiet,  and  not  t< 

attempt  anv  alteration  in  the  constitution.     The  geneial 

j'.vn  to  belong  to  the  oligarchs  were  removed 

and  Thra«vbulus  and  Thrasyllus  were  appointed  in  thei 

steail.   The  army  under  their  command  assumed  the  right 

anil  of  Athens,  and  in  an  assembly  o 

the  i-ainpThru  '  a  decree  passed,  by  which  AIci 

bia  a  the  chief  support  of  the  demo 


ratical  party,  and  who  was  living   in  exile  with  Tissa- 
>hernes,  should  be  recalled.     Thrasybulus  set  out  to  fetch 
lira  to  the  camp.     (Thucyuides,  viii.  81.)     In  410  B.C.  he 
greatly  contributed  to  the  victory  which  the  Athenians 
gained  in  the  battle  of  Cyzicus.     In  B.C.  408,  when  Alci- 
)iades  returned  to  Athens  from  Byzantium,  Thrasybulus 
was  sent  with  a  fleet  of  eighty  galleys  to  the  coast  of 
Thrace,  where   he   restored  the  Athenian  sovereignty  in 
nost  of  the  revolted  towns ;  and  while  he  was  engaged 
lere  he  was  elected  at  Athens  one  of  the  generals,  "toge- 
ther with  Alcibiades  and  Cpnon.     In  B.C.  400  Thrasybulus 
was  engaged  as  one  of  the  inferior  officers  in  the  Athenian 
leet  during  the  battle  of  Arginusae-;  and  after  the  battle. 
le  and  Theramenes  were  commissioned  by  the  generals  to 
save  the  men  on  the  wrecks :  but  a  storm  prevented  their 
executing  this  order.     Respecting  the  fate  of  the  generals 
and  the  conduct  of  Theramenes  on  this  occasion,  see  THE- 
RAMENES.    Thrasybulus  is  not  charged  with  any  improper 
act  during  the  proceedings  against  the  generals,  and  for  two 
years  after  his  name  does  not  occur  in  the  history  of  Attica. 
During  the  government  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants  at  Athens, 
he  was  sent  into  exile,  and  took  refuge  at  Thebes.    The 
jalamities  under  which  his  country  was  suffering  roused 
;iim  to  exertions.     The  spirit  which  prevailed  at  Thebes 
igainst  Sparta,  and  against  its  partisans  at  Athens,  em- 
[widened  him  to  undertake  the  deliverance  of  his  country. 
With  a  band  of  about  seventy,  or,  according  to  others,  of 
only  thirty  fellow-exiles,  he  took  possession  of  the  fortress 
of  rhyle,  in  the  north  of  Attica.     The  Thirty,  sure  of  vic- 
tory over   so  insignificant  a  garrison,  sent  out  the  3000 
Athenians  whom  they  had  left  in  the  enjoyment  of  a  kind 
of  franchise,  and  the  knights,  the  only  part  of  the  population 
of  Athens  who  wore  allowed  to  bear  arms.     On  their  ap- 
proach to  Phyle  some  of  the  younger  men,  eager  to  dis- 
tinguish themselves,  made  an  assault  upon  the  place,  but. 
were  repelled  with  Considerable  loss.     The  oligarchs  then 
determined  to  reduce  the  fortress  by  blockade  ;  but  a  heavy 
fall  of  snow  compelled  them  to  return  to  Athens.     During 
their  retreat  the  exiles  sallied  forth,  attacked  the  rear,  and 
cut  down  a  great  number  of  them.     The,  Thirty  now  sent 
the  greater  part  of  the  Lacedaemonian  garrison  of  Athens 
and  two  detachments  of  cavalry  to  encamp  at  the  distance  of 
about  fifteen  stadia  (nearly  two  miles)  from  Phyle,  for  the 
purpose  of  keeping  the  exiles  in  check.    The  small  band 
of  Thrasybulus  had  in  the  meantime  increased  to  700,  as 
the  Athenian  exiles  flocked  to  him  from  all  parts.     With 
this  increased  force  he  one  morning  descended  from  Phyle, 
surprised  the  enemy,  and  slew  upwards  of  120  hoplitesand 
a  lev,-  horsemen,  and  put  the  rest  to  flight.    Thrasybulus 
erected  a  trophy,  took  all  the  arms  and  military  imple- 
ments which  he  found  in  the  enemy's  camp,  and  returned 
to  Phyle. 

The  Thirty  now  began  to  be  alarmed  at  the  success  of 
the  exiles,  and  thought  it  necessary  to  secure  a  place  of 
refuge  in  case  the  exiles  should  succeed  in  getting  pos- 
on  of  Athens.  For  this  purpose  they,  or  rather  Critias, 
devised  a  most  atrocious  plan.  By  fraud  and  force  he  con- 
trived to  secure  300  citizens  of  Eleusis  and  Salamis  capa- 
ble of  bearing  arms ;  and  after  they  were  conveyed  to 
Athens,  he  compelled  the  3000  and  the  knights  to  condemn 
them  to  death.  All  were  accordingly  executed,  and 
Kleusis  was  deprived  of  that  part  of  its  population  to 
which  it  might  have  looked,  for  protection.  In  the 
meantime  the  number  of  exiles  at  Phyle  had  continued  to 
increase,  and  now  amounted  lo  one  thousand.  With  these 
Thrasybulus  marched  by  night  to  Piraeeus,  where  he  was 
joyfully  received,  and  great  numbers  of  other  exiles  imme- 
diately increased  his  army.  The  Thirty  no  sooner  heard 
dl' this  movement  than  they  marched  against  Pirn-ens  with 
all  their  forces.  Thrasybulus  by  a  skilful  manreuvre 
obliged  the  enemy,  who  was  .superior  in  numbers,  to  oc- 
cupy an  unfavourable  position  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  of 
Munychia.  In  the  ensuing  battle  the  army  of  the  tyrants 
was  put.  to  flight  and  driven  back  to  the  city.  Critias  fell 
iu  the  con' 

The  consequences  of  this  success  showed  that  there  had 
been  little  unity  among  the  oligarchs,  and  that  an 
open  breach  had  only  been  prevented  by  fear  of  Critia.s. 
Some  of  the  Thirty  and  a  great  many  of  the  3000  were  in 
their  hearts  opposed  to  the  atrocities  which  had  been  com- 
mitted, and  had  avoided,  as  much  as  they  could,  taking 
part  in  the  rapine  and  bloodshed.  They  also  were  aware 
that  the  hatred  and  contempt  under  which  they  we.ru 


T  H  i; 


•UN) 


T  H  K 


:   their  col- 
power  they  now  resolved  to  kacrifice  thoir  colleagues.    An 
!d  in  \\hii-h  tho  Tin;  posed,  and 

i  men,  one  from  each  tribe,  .mted 

uiient.   Two  of  these  ten  luul  formerly 
v.and  tin'  rest  of  the  Thirty  withdrew 

i  s   under  '1 

buhls,  the  new  government  ot'  Athens  "as  no  less  deter- 
mined to  put  them  down  than  the  Thirty  had  Urn. 
Thrasybulus  11;  >:itinucd  to  strengthen  himself. 

nnd  to  prepare  for  further  operations.      H  !  gra- 

dualiv  for  he 

,-ed  alien*  in  hi-  1   them,  incase 

immunities  at  Athens  as   those 
.'toriXfin',.       Anns,    tit'  which   lie 
•ill  in  want,  were  generally  supplied  by  the  wealthy 
citizens  of  Pirnceiis  and  other  places,  and  by  the  ingenuity 
of  his  own  men.    As  the  danger  from  the  exiles  became  at 
.iimincnt.  the  Ten  i«t'  Athens  applied  to  Sparta 
for  assistance.     At  the  same  time  the  faction  at  Klcusis 
•  .    Spr.rta  :     but    the     government    of 
Sparta  refused  to  send  an  army  for  .in  undertaking  from 
which  it  could  reap  no  advantages.     However  l.vsamler, 
as    harmostcs.    ob'ained   leave   to  le\y  an    army,  and  his 
brother  Libys  was  appointed  admiral  to  blockade  Pi: 
;der  went   to  Kleiisis.  and  got  together   a  mini 
army.     Hcing  thus  enclosed  by  land  and  ihrasy- 

buhis  and  his  army  had  no  prospect  except  to  surrender. 

But   their  deliverance  came  from  a  quarter  whence  it 
could  have  least  1  ecu  expected.   The  power  and  influence 
which  Lysander  had  gradually  acquired,  had  excited  the 
of  the  leading  men  at  Sparta,  even  of  the  ephors  and 
kings,  nnd  they  were  now  bent  U]X>n  thwarting  his  plans. 
-  was  accordingly  sent  out  with  an  army  to 
ivvedly  to  :ider  in  his  operations,  but 

in  reality  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  accomplish- 
ment of  his  designs.  He  encamped  near  Piraeeus,  as  if  he 
designed  to  besiege  the  place  in  conjunction  with  I.vsan- 
der.  After  several  sham  manoeuvres  against  the  exiles, 
inias  chained  a  victorj'  over  them  without  following  it 
up.  He  now  sent  sccreth  an  embassy  to  them,  requesting 
them  to  send  a  deputation  to  him  and  the  ephors;  and  he 
also  suggested  the  language  which  the  deputies  should 
use.  At  the  same  time  he  invited  the  pacific  party  at 
Athens  to  meet  and  make  a  public  declaration  of  their 
sentiments.  Hereupon  a  (nice  was  concluded  with  the 
•putation  of  them,  as  well  as  of  the  pacific 
party  at  Athens,  was  sent  to  Sparta  1"  negotiate  a  general 
settlement  of  affair*.  As  soon  as  the  Ten  of  Athens  heard 
nl  this,  they  al-  •  ovs  to  Snarta  to  oppose  the  other 

embassy.     Hut   this   attempt   failed,    and  the  ephors  ap- 
pointed  fifteen  miners  with   full    [lowers,  in    con- 
junction with  king  I1  He   all  the   differences 
bclv                            -  in  Attica.     In  accordance  with  the 
wish'                              and  the  peaceful  party  of  the  city,  the 
commissioners  proclaimed  a  general  amnesty,  from  which 
none  were   to  be  excluded  except  the  Thirty,  the  Kleven, 
and  tin-  Ten  who  had  formed  the  government  of  Piraeeus. 
Any  one  who  might  not  think  it  safe  to  return  to  Athens 
•  tiled   to  take  up  his  residence  This 
nintclligiblc.  unless  we  suppose   that    the   Spar- 
-till  wished   to   see  Klcusis  in   the   hands  of  a   party 
which  mijrlit  check  the  reviving  spirit  of  Independence 

•sparta  guaranteed   the   exeention 

of  the  proclamation.     Pa  Mich-ew  his   forces,  and 

Tlirasylmhis  at  the  head  of  the  exiles  entered  All •• 
triumph,  and  matched  up  the  Acropolis  to  offer  thanks  to 
Athena.     An  assembly  was  then  held,  in  which  Thra-j - 
btilus  impressed  upon  all  parties  th.  •,  uf  strictly 

observing  the  conditions  of  the  ]- 

-,vas  now  the  seat  of  the  most  violent  of  the  oli- 
garchical   party,  and  they  still    indulge'!  pc    ..i 
.  cring  vvh.r                   They  assembled  a  body  of  mer- 
cenaries to  renew  th'-  civil   war;    but   A'                 •   out  a 
strong  force  against  them.   Xenophon  says  that  the 

oft  -MI  to  a  conference  and  then 

put  to  death.    This  isolated  statement  is  rather  - 
in  all  olln  ipular  party  sh 

''•',\  after  the  quelling  of  tli< 
•"in  '  lueed  the  Athenians  to  pro- 

Hmnnrty,  from  which  no  one  was  to  ' 
eluded.    This  amnesty  was  faithfully  observed.    The  first 


step  after  the  abolition  of  t: 

-•orcd  the  demo  icnt. 

'I'linwybulus  acquired  the  esteem  <.l  Ins  fellow-citizens 
by  the  courage  and   perseverance   which  he  had  shown   in 
the   deliverance  of   his   country,   and  althouirh   lor  many 
jears  he  docs  not  come  forth  very  prominently  in  thu  his- 
'.i,   lie  was   no   less  active  in    i.  'hens 

to  her  former  greatness,  than  he  had  been  in  wresting  her 
from  the   hands  of  her  enemies.      His   la-t   inihtarv  undcr- 

the  \car  H.C-.  :W!l.   when  ll 
of  Ati 

with  which  he  was  to  support  the  deinocratical  party  in  the 

island  of  HhiHles.     On  his  arrival   there  be   found  that   no 

eded,  and  he  sailed  to  the  north  part  of 

_,'ean.     In  Thrace  he  settled  a  di.spu'  two 

princes,  and  iraim-d  them  a- 

tium   and   Clmlcedon    also    the    influence    of   Athens   was 
restored,  and  with  it  n  .emu-  to  the  republic 

were  opened.     After  this  he  sailed  to  MiUlcnc,  the  only 
town  in  the  island  of  Ix-sbos  in  which  the  Spa- 
had  not  gained  the  ascendency.     Thrasybulus  lu 
a  battle  with  Therimachus,  the  Spartan  harmostes,  who 

leated  and  slain.      Several  towns  were  now  red' 
Mid  a  Her  he  had  plundered  the  lands  of  those  win- 
submit  to  Athens,  he  pn  pared  to  sail  to  Rhodes ;  but  before 
he  landed  there,  he  sailed  alone  the  southern  eo 
Minor  to  levy  some  contributions  there.     His  flee! 
anchor  in  the  mouth  of  the  river  Eurymedon  in  Pamphylia, 
near  Aspendus.     In  consequence  of  some  outrage  com- 
mitted by  his  soldiers  on  land,  the  Aspcndians 
panted,  and  during  the  night   they  surprised  and  killed 
rhrasyhnlns  in  his  tent,  in  n.c.  .'ML 

(.Thucydides,  vni.;  Xenophon,  Helhn..  i.  1,  12;  i.  G,  36; 
ii.  :t.  -12  :  ii.  4,  2,  Sec.  ;  iv.  K.  '25.  &c.  :    Diodorus  Sic.,  xiv. 
32,  &c.  ;  94  and  ! Ml :   ('.  Nepos,  Thrnxybulus ;  i 
1'h.    Ilinrichs,   De    T/ifru 

ft  Ingenio,  Hamburg,  1820, 4to. ;  Thirlwall,  History 
i,f  lir-'i'i-i:  ^(l\.  iv.) 

'  THK  \s\  HI  LUS  (epoffw/SouXoc),  of  Collylus  in  Attica, 
<-onteniporary  of  Thrasybulns,  the  deliverer  of 
Athens,  from  whom  he  is  usually  distinguished  by  the 
epithet  of  the  Collytian..  He  was  one  of  the  Athenian 
exiles  who  joined  his  namesake  at  Phyle  and  afterwards  at 
Piraeens.  Demosthenes,  in  Tinini-riit..  p.  742.  In  the 
war  against  Antaleidas  he  commanded  eight  Athenian 
galleys,  with  which  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Spartan 
admiral. 

\enophon,  Hellen.,\.  1.  2(i.  i>ce. :    compare   Aischmes 

'..  p.  7:i.  ed.  Steph. 

THRASYBU  I.I  S  o;,,mr.-!m-\m; i.  a  tyrant  of  S\  racu.se. 
IK  was  a  son  of  Gelo,  and  brother  of  Hiero  the  Klder, 
who  ruled  over  Syracuse  till  the  year  H.C.  4(J<;.  Hiero 
was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Thrasybulus.  who  was  a 
bloodthirsty  tyrant,  and  CM  the  people  still  more 

than  Hiero:    great  numbers  of  eiti/cns  were  put  to  death 
and  others  sent  into  exile,  and  their  property  tilled  the  pri- 
vate  cotters  of  the  tyrant.     In  order  to  protect    In; 
against   the  Mizens,  he  got  together  a  large 

force  of  mercenaries,  and   relying  on   tins  new  support,  he 
carried   his   reckless   cruelties  so  far.  that   at    !a-1  the   ! 
ciisaus  determined  to  rid  themselves  ,,f  their  tyrant. 
chose     leaders    to    give    them     a     military   orgatn/ 
that    they    might    be    enabled    to    resist    the    men  i  ; 
of  Thrasybulus.       The   tyrant    at     first     endeavoured   to 
stop  the  insurrection  by  pci-Mm-ion.  but  this  attempt  fail- 
ing, he  drew  reinforcements  fromCatana  and  other  places, 
and  also  engaged  new   mercenaries.      With  this  : 
sisting  of  about    15.(IUI  men.   he  occupied  that  pail  of  the 
city  which   was  called  Achrndina,  and  the  fortified  island, 
and   harassed   by  frequent   sallies    the  citizens,   who  lorti- 
in  a   quarter  of  their    city    called  Ilyce. 
Tin-  S.  sent  rmov  ..1  Greek  towns  in  the 

interior  of  Sicily,   soliciting  their  aid.      The  request    was 
readily  complied  with,  and  they  soon  had  an   army  and  a 
fleet  at  their  disposal.     Thrasylmlus  attacked   them   both 
by  sea  and  land,  but  his  fleet  was  compelled  to  sul 
to   the   island  alter  the   los-   of  .several   triremes,  and   his 
-.MLS  obliged  to  retreat  to  Achrndina.     Seeing  no  i>os- 
sihihtv  of  maintaining  himself,   he  sent  ambassadors  to  the 
with    offers    of   ten  .  liich     was 

lition  of  Ins  quitting  S  !-\lm- 

ius  submitted  to  these  terms,  alter  having  scarcely  reigned 
one  year,  and  went  toLocri  in  Southern  Italy,  in  "B.C.  4WJ, 


T  H  R 


401 


T  H 


in  exile.  After  the  Syracusans  had  thus  delivered  them- 
selves of  the  tyrant,  they  granted  to  his  mercenaries  free 
departure,  and  also  assisted  other  Greek  towns  in  Sicily  in 
recovering  their  freedom.  (Diodorus  Sic.,  xi.  67  and  68.) 

THRASYMEXE  LAKE  (Trasimenus  Lacus,  in  the  best 
Latin  MSS. ;  in  Greek  writers,  »}  X/^vi;  Tfavvplvij,  or  6pa- 
mfiivij),  the  antient  name  of  the  Lago  di  Perugia  in  Italy. 
It  was  in  Etruria,  and  was  the  scene  of  the  third  defeat  of 
the  Romans  by  Hannibal  after  he  had  crossed  the  Alps. 
rHANXiBAi..]  "  The  lake  itself  is  fully  described  under 
'•-.KroiA. 

THRAULITE.  Hisingerite.  Hydrated  Silicate  of  Iron. 
Occurs  in  roundish  nodules.  Fracture  uneven  or  imper- 
fect conchoidal.  Structure  curved,  foliated.  Brittle. 
Splendent.  Nearly  opaque.  Lustre  vitreo-resinous.  Colour 
brownish-black. 

Gives  out  water  when  heated  in  a  glass  tube ;  imper- 
fectly fused  by  the  blowpipe,  and  is,  after  heating,  attracted 
by  the  magnet. 

It,  occurs  at  Riddarhyttan  in  Westmanland  (1)  and  at 
Bodenmais  in  Bavaria  (2),  accompanying  iron  pyrites. 

Analysis  by 

(1)  HUinger.         (2)  Kobell.     • 

Silica  .         .         36-30  31-28 

Peroxide  of  Iron  .        44-39  50-86 

Water  20-70  10-12 


101-39          101-26 

THREAD  (French,  Fil ;  German,  Zicirn  ;  Dutch,  Garen  ; 
Italian,  R-/K  ;  Spanish,  Hilo,  Torzal ;  Russian,  Nitki},  a 
small  line  formed  by  twisting  together  fibres  of  vegetable 
or  animal  substances,  as  flax,  cotton,  or  silk.  Sewing- 
thread,  and  the  various  kinds  of  thread  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  bobbin-net,  lace,  and  some  other  kinds  of  textile 
fabric,  consist  of  two  or  more  yarns,  or  simple  spun  threads, 
firmly  united  together  by  twisting,  just  as  a  rope-strand 
consists  of  several  yarns  or  distinct  cylinders  of  hemp. 
[RopK.  vol.  xx.,  p.  154  ;  SPINNING,  vol.  xxii.,  p.  34!).] 

In  a  paper  on  the  manufactures  of  Paisley,  printed  in 
the  Appendix  to  Anderson's  '  History  of  Commerce'  (.edi- 
tion of  I~s7-!)),  it  is  stated  that '  the  manufacture  of  thread 
\va-i  first  attempted  in  this  country  by  Mrs.  Millar,  of  Bal- 
garran,  in  1722,  on  having  received  some  information  and 
machinery  from  Holland.'  Her  example  was  speedily  fol- 
lowed by  several  families  in  Paisley,  where  the  manufac- 
ture soon  became  of  considerable  importance.  The  first 
manufacturers  imitated  the  kind  called  Nuns'  or  ounce 
thread,  which  was  made  up  in  hanks  of  forty  threads  each, 
reeled  upon  reels  a  yard  in  circumference  ;  but  when 
the  profits  of  the  manufacture  were  diminished  by  com- 
petition, it  was  injured  by  the  surreptitious  practices  of 
some  of  the  manufacturers,  who  reduced  the  number  of 
threads  in  each  hank  from  forty  to  thirty,  and  when  this 
became  notorious  in  the  market,  put  but  twenty-eight 
threads  in  the  hank,  or  reduced  the  diameter  of  their  reels, 
and  consequently  the  length  of  the  threads.  These  frauds 
were  carried  to  such  an 'extent  that  it  became  necessary, 
in  1~8«,  to  pass  an  act  of  parliament  requiring  all  manu- 
facturers of  this  description  of  thread  to  use  uniform  stand- 
ard reels  of  thirty-six  inches  in  circumference,  and  to  put 
thirty  threads  or  rounds  of  the  reel  in  each  hank.  From 
the  statement  above  referred  to,  it  appears  that  the  num- 
ber of  machines  employed  at  Paisley  in  twining  thread,  in 
1784,  was  not  less  than  120 ;  and  that  the  number  employed 
in  the  thread  manufacture  in  the  whole  of  Scotland  at  that 
time  was  at  least  500,  of  which  about  200  were  engaged  in 
the  production  of  the  different  species  of  ounce  threads. 
These  consumed  upon  an  average  2400  spindles  of  yarn 
each,  or  480,000  in  the  whole  ;  and  these  spindles,  valued 
at  4*.  Gil.  each,  when  manufactured  into  thread,  amounted 
to  108,000/.  The  300  machines  employed  in  making  other 
kinds  of  thread  consumed  upon  an  average  2000  spindles 
each,  or  600,000  spindles  in  the  whole,  which,  estimated 
.  !)-/.  each  when  manufactured,  amounted  to  112.000/. 
Thus  the  total  annual  value  of  the  thread  manufactured  in 
land  about  1784  was  220,000/. ;  and  it  is  stated  that 
the  manufacture  gave  employment  in  its  various  operations, 
from  the  ginning  of  the"  flax  to  the  finishing  of  the 
thread,  to  upwards  of  20,000  women,  besides  4000  or  5000 
men. 

The  manufacture  of  thread  from  fibres  of  cotton-wool,  for 
sewing  and  other  purposes,  is  one  of  the  many  important 
dep;t:  lintish  industry  called  into  exercise  by  the 

;'.  C.,  No.  1538. 


improvements  effected  by  Arkwright  and  his  successors  m 
spinning-machinery,  and  forms  a  considerable  branch  of 
business  both  in  Manchester  and  in  Scotland,  for  exporta- 
tion as  well  as  for  home  consumption. 

The  operation  of  combining  yams  of  cotton  or  linen  into 
thread  is  performed  by  a  mauilme  called  a  doubling  and 
twisting  frame,  somewhat  resembling  the  throstle  of  the 
cotton-spinner.  Engravings  of  this  machine,  with  a  minute 
description,  are  given  in  Dr.  Ure's  '  Cotton  Manufacture  of 
Great  Britain,'  vol.  ii.,  pp.  226-234,  and  '  Dictionary  of 
Arts,'  pp.  1239-1241,  from  which  authorities  the  following 
account  is  derived.  Along  the  centre  of  the  machine  is 
an  elevated  creel  or  frame-work,  which  supports  two  parallel 
rows  of  cops  or  bobbins  of  yarn,  one  row  towards  each  side 
of  the  macnine.  The  cops  or  bobbins  arc  placed  vertically, 
or  nearly  so,  and  the  lower  ends  of  their  axes  rest  in  oiled 
steps  or  hollows,  while  the  upper  ends  are  supported  by 
wire  eyes,  so  that  they  may  revolve  with  facility.  The 
number  of  cops  or  bobbins  of  yarn  is  twice  as  great  as  that 
of  the  twisting  spindles  when  the  thread  is  to  consist  of 
two  yarns,  three  times  as  great  for  thread  formed  of  three 
yarns,  &c. ;  and  the  yarn  with  which  they  are  charged  is 
frequently  gassed,  or  passed  quickly  through  a  series  of 
coal-gas  flames,  to  singe  off'  any  loose  downy  fibres,  before 
it  is  taken  to  the  doubling  and  twisting  frame.  From  the 
cops  the  yarns  are  conducted  over  horizontal  glass  rods, 
which  are  fixed  parallel  with  the  creel,  and  thence  down- 
wards into  troughs  filled  with  water  or  very  thin  starch- 
paste,  which  by  moistening  the  yarns  facilitates  the  sub- 
sequent process  of  twisting.  To  ensure  the  equal  moisten 
ing  of  the  yarns  they  are,  while  being  drawn  through  the 
troughs,  made  to  pass  either  under  a  glass  rod,  or  through 
eyes  which  may,  if  necessary,  be  lifted  out.  of  the  trough 
without  wetting  the  fingers,  by  means  of  upright  stems 
provided  for  that  purpose.  The  wetting-troughs  and  other 
apparatus  are  alike  on  each  side  of  the  machine ;  but  in 
further  tracing  the  progress  of  the  thread  we  shall  confine 
our  attention  to  one  side,  and  to  the  apparatus  necessary 
for  producing  one  thread,  although  a  great  number  of  such 
trains  of  apparatus  are  combined  in  one  frame,  and  set  in 
motion  by  one  train  of  impelling  machinery.  After  being 
wetted  the  yarns  pass  over  the  rounded  edge  of  the  trough, 
which  is  covered  with  flannel  for  the  purpose  of  absorbing 
the  superfluous  moisture ;  and  thence  under  and  partly 
around  an  iron  roller,  which  is  made  to  revolve  with  any 
required  velocity  by  a  train  of  wheel-work.  Upon  this 
roller  rests  another,  of  box-wood,  which  revolves  solely  by 
contact  with  the  iron  roller,  its  axis  playing  in  vertical 
slots.  In  passing  under  the  iron  roller,  then  between  it 
and  the  wooden  roller,  and  finally  over  the  latter,  the  yarns 
required  to  form  the  thread  are  brought  together  and 
slightly  compressed ;  but  although  thus  prepared  for  a 
more  intimate  union,  they  are  not  yet  twisted  together. 
The  action  of  the  winding  and  twisting  apparatus  may  be 
illustrated  by  a  diagram,  in  which  none  but  the  essential 
parts  are  shown.  In  this  figure  a  a  represents  the  un- 
twisted thread,  or  rather  the  united  yarns  which  are  to 
form  the  thread,  and  b  is  a  fixed  eyelet  through  which 
they  are  conducted  to  the  flyer  c,  which  is  mounted  upon 
and  revolves  with  a  long  vertical  spindle  set  in  motion  by 
a  whorl  or  pulley  and  strap  at  d.  e  is  the  bobbin  upon 
which  the  finished  thread  is  wound  by  the  revolution  of 
the  flyer,  which  also  gives  to  it  any  predetermined  degree 
of  twist.  The  spindle  passes  freely  through  a  hole  in  the 


centre  of  this  bobbin,  which  rests  upon  a  bar  called  the 
copping-rail,  the  transverse  section  of  which  is  indicated 

VOL.  XXIV.— 3  F 


I    11    K 


402 


T  H 


by  u  tint  in  the  cut ;  and  the  copying-rail,  which  extends 
ttif  whole  \viilth  ol"  tin-  machi:  -.1  intervals 

..f  \vliirli  is  si  To  these 

rods,  and  consequently  to  the  copping-rail  and  bobbins 
supported  by  them,  ;i  .  citiciilni 

parted  through  the  connecting  pie  ;n  the 

MOt  lever  11.  which  i>  pr-  bj   mo- 

tion  •  •   •  adjustable  friction-roller /.from  an  ei 

trie    or  hemrt  wheel   m.     Thus  by  (lie   eomhim  il  rotatory 

motion  of  the  spindle  and  flyer,  and  rising  and   falling 

motion   of  the  bobbin,  the  thread  is  ;it   once   twisted  and 

wound  regularly  upon  the  bobbin*,  \vhieli  may  K-  easily 

removed  when  full.      [I  :l   the  cou- 

'.y  which   motion   is  communicated  to  various 

•.•  liine.  and  it  is  sufficient  to  add  that,  by 

the  relative  sizes  of  some  ofthe  toothed  wheels 

liich  the  moving-power  is  di>trihuted  from  the  main 

.  the  spindle-,  winch  always  revolve  much  faster  than 
the  rollers,  may  he  made  to  do  so  t 

so  as  to  impart  a  greater  or  li  of  twist  to  the 

thread. 

Silk  thread  i*,  according  to  Dr.  Ure,  commonly  t 
in  length*  of  from  lilty  to  a  hundred  feet,  with  band-reels 

-hat  similar  to  those  employed  in  rope-making. 
(Anderson,  Hist/try  of  r<, //,„/, nv,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  70:!-4  ; 
Dr.  I're's  I'.ittnn  Manufacture  if  (imit  Uritdiv,  vol.  ii., 
pp.  226-2U  :  Di'-t.  "f'.lrts;  &C.) 

THREATS  AN'l)  THREATENING  LKTrKHS.  By 
the  criminal  law  of  England,  threats  of  personal  violence, 
or  any  other  threats  by  \vhich  a  man  of  ordinary  firmness 
and  prudence  may  be  put  in  fear,  and  by  means  of  which 
money  or  other  property  is  extorted  from  him,  amount  to 
the  crime  of  robbery.  [RoBBBBY.]  And  by  the  statute 
7  Will.  IV.  &  1  Viei..  c.  «7,  sect.  7,  a  person  demanding 
by  menaces  any  property  of  another  with  intent  to  steal 

ame,  is  declared  to  be  guilty  of  felony,  and  is  liable  to 
imprisonment  for  any  term  not  exceeding  three 
Besides  these  offences,  it  is  a  misdemeanor  at  common 
law  to  threaten  another  in  order  to  deter  him  from 
doing  some  lawful  act,  or  to  compel  him  to  do  an  un- 
lawful one,  or  to  extort  money  or  goods  from  him,  or 
to  obtain  any  other  benefit  to  the  person  who  makes  the 
threat. 

The  offence  of  sending  or  delivering  letters  or  wi-i' 
threatening  to  kill  or  injure  the  person  to  whom  they  are 

or  delivered,  or  to  burn  his  house,  or  to  accuse  him  of 
some  heinous  crime  for  the  purpose  of  extorting  i 
was  formerly  Considered   to  be  high  treason     -lat.SHen. 
V.,  c.  6)  ;  and  under  the  stat.  9  Geo.  I.,  c.  22,  continued 
for  more  than  a  century  to  be   punishable  as  a  capital 
felony.     By  the  stat.  4  Geo.  IV.,  c.  54,  s.  3,  it  v 
to  be  desirable  that  a  less  punishment  should  be  substituted 
for  that  of  death  ;  and  it  was  enacted  that,  'if  any  i 
shall  knowingly  and  wilfully  send  or  deliver  any  writinir. 
with  or  without  any  name  or  signature  subscribed  thereto, 
or  with  a  fictitious  name  or  signature,  threatening  to  kill 
or  murder  any  person,  or  to  burn  or  destroy  his  house,  out- 
house, barns,  or  stacks  of  corn  or  grain,  hay  or  straw,  the 

•ler  shall  be  guilty  of  felony,   punishable  with  trans- 
portation for  life,  or  not  less  thrui  seven  years,  or  im;- 
ment  for  any  term  not  exceeding  seven  years."    By  a  more 

it  statute,  7  .V  s  Geo.  IV.,  c,  2'.),  Met.  H.  it  is"  enacted 
that,  'if  any  person  shall  knowingly  send  or  deliver  any 
l.tiei  or  writing,  demanding  of  any  person  with  menaces. 
and  without  any  reasonable  or  probable  cause,  any  chattel, 
money,  or  valuable  security  :  or  if  any  person  shall  accuse. 
or  threaten  to  accuse,  or  shall  knowingly  send  or  deliver 
any  letter  or  writing  accusing  or  threnteiiini;  to  accuse. 
any  person  of  any  crime  punishable  by  law  with  death, 
transportation,  or  pillory,  or  of  any  assault  with  intent  to 

mil  any  rape,  or  of  any  attempt  or  endeavour  to  com- 
mit  any  rape,  or  of  any  infamous  c>nne    tin-  meaning  o 
which  term  is  specially  defined  in  the  !Mh  sei 
same  statute),  with  a  view  or  intent  to  extort  or  train  from 
mich  person  any  chattel,  money,  or  valuable  sccuritv . 
such    offender   shall    he    guilty   of  felony,  and  shall   be 
punishable  with  transportation  for  life  or  not  lex*  than 
•even  years,   or  with  imprisonment    not  exceeding  four 
yearn,  with  or  without  whipping. 

TUKKK.  un.K  OF,  the  technical  name  of  the  rule 
in  arithmetic  by  which,  three  quantities  beini:  given,  the 
first  and  second  ol  one  kind,  a  fourth  is  found  such  that 
the  four  afc  in  proportion,  or  that  the  first  is  the  »arne 


multiple,  part,  or  part*,  of  i  which  the  third  is  of 

.rth. 

Ill  the  earliest  mod,  -,  arc  fimiu'.  the  explana- 

tory headings  of  this  piuve-vs  from  which  the  denomina- 
tion nil-  </  //</•»•  has  been  formed   by   sbbicviation. 
most    all    such    .  :    >m    the   time    uhcll 

systems  of  commercial  arithmetic  began  to  be  written,  that 
is,  about  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,     i; 
that   time.    -  nncd 

demonstrations  from  full  definitions  ;  and  it  was  not  ji: 

iry   to   provide   the  simple  :'•  :;ding   a   fouith 

'tional  to  three  ifiven  numbers  with  a 
or  to  divide  the  I   from   oth< 

ever  was  done  by  trail  :  daily  practice,   vvli 

parated  the  rule  of  three  from  the  other  pa:1 
and   called   it  th  an   older  term, 

than  /•«/••'///<;•.•(•.   Bishop  T 
his   chapter  on  the     . 

•:in   eomni'  this   iiKUinii: 

omnium  re  iae  detiibus  notis  quartum  i 

noticiam   eu  -    ah  Anthmeticis  traditui. 

'in  niiri'iim  voeat  ;     quia  1 

reirulis    velut    c;eteri.s    metallis  auruill    pra-stct.'       H 
Recoiile   i  154<)    calls  it   the  '  feate  of  the  rule  of  pi' 
tions,  whiche  for  his  excclleneic  is  called  the  gulden  rule.' 
Humphrey  Baker     l.'ii'J   uses  the  phrase  •  rule  of  three,'  and 
sayt  that  'the  philosophers  did  name  it  the  golden  rule....  I  nit 
nowe  in  these'  latter  daies,  by  us  it  is  called  the  rule  of 
three.' 

The  immense  variety  of  questions  which  are  to  be  solved 
by  finding  a  fourth  proportional  del.  --iticatiun: 

but  they  may  all  be  reduced  to  one  form,  though  it  may 
in  particular  eases  not  be  •  the  mode  of  reduc- 

tion.    That  form  is  : — A  produces  B  ;  what  will  ( 
It  may  be  that  it  is  money  which  produces  iroo.i- 
whicli  produce  money,  or  money  which  produces  im. 
or  money  of  one  country  which  produces  money  of  another, 
or  time  which  produces    distance    travelled.   Xc.  ice.  X.-. 
The  difficulty  to  beginners  is  the  reduction  of  the  question 
given    to   the   above    simple   form,   which    must   be   done 
what  is  i  or  used  to  be,  called  the  nt/itrtiii'iit  of  I  he 
question  can    be    made,    namely,   the    writiiiir   down    the 
numbers  A,  B,  C,  in  the  proper  order,  with  the  mar 
proportion  between  them  : 

A  :  B  :  :  C  :  the  answer  requiied. 
It  is  proper  enough  to  say  that  this  is  a  question  of  pro- 
'ii  when  numbers  only  are  considered:    but  absurd 
when  the  things  represented  by  the  numbers  are  used  in- 
stead of  the  numbers.     Thus,  if  fi  pence  buy  10  apples, 
7  pence  will  buy  14  apples,  and  the  number  S  is  t 
In  is  to  14,  or  5  in  the  ,-aine   fiaction  of  7  as    10  is  of  14. 
But  it  is  absurd  to  say  that  ")  pence  bear  the  same  propor- 
tion to  10  apples  that  7  pence  bear  to    14  apples:    simply 
because  .">  pence  are  not    any  assignable  traction   of    10 
apples.     That  there  is  a  ri'lutmn  i.s  true  :   but  that  relation 
is  not  proportion.     Thus,  it   is  not   absurd  to  say,  in  the 
common   language  of  the    rule.   As   ~>  pence   are   to    10 
apples,  so  are  7  pence  to  14  apples;  for  the  tiisl 
to   the  second   in   the   same   relation   as   the   third    to  tin- 
fourth:   ;">  pence  must,  at  all  rates,  do  as  much  I 
i>urchase  of  10  apple*        ,  towaids  that  ol   1  1  a; 

With  this  understanding  there  is  no  objection  to  the 
mon  mode  of  statement,  and  the  proof  of  the  rule  is  H 
lows: — If  A  of  the  fn>t  produce  H  of  the  second,  then,  at 
the  same  rate  of  production,  1  of  the  first  must  produce. 

n 

-T-  of  tlie  second ;    whence  C  of  the  first  must  produce 

II         CB 
C  X  -7-,  or  -j-  of  the  second. 

The  importance  of  the  mle  of  tin,  I   arithme- 

ticians to  attach  two  other  rules  to  it :  the  inverse  rule  of 
three  i  called  by  Heeorde.  Uakcr.  N;e..  the  //••  :  and 

the  double  rule  of  three.     Some  of  the  writers  of  Cocker'*, 
school,  apparently  by  an  abbreviation  of  his  un; 
that  the  rule  of  tlircc  inverse  is  used  '  when   less  i, 
more  and   more  requires   less;'    meaning  that  ' 
the  third  of  the  given  numbers,  UM  less  will  be  the  an 

and  i-i'  r  VtrtH.  Thus,  suppose  that  K)/.  ha-  been  lent  me 
for  :t  months,  and  I  want  to  know  how  loin;  I  ouirht  to 
lend  a  given  sum  : other  than  Ml.  in  retmii  :  i  \  idently  the 
more  I  lend,  the  less  the  time  for  which  I  01  Lrht  to  lend 

it.    If  the  sum  be  !•>/.,  then  8  months  is  to  the  tin 


T  H  R 

quired,  not  as  10  to  15,  but  in  its  inverse  ratio,  as  15  to  10 
or  15  :  10  :  :  3  :  3X  10-:-  15,  or  2;  and  2  months  is  th 
answer  required. 

The  double  rule  of  three  (at  least  in  the  class  of  ques 
lions  which  are  usually  considered  as  falling  under  it)  i 
applied  where  time  is  an  element  in  the  production  which 
the  question  supposes.    For  example  :  supposing  it  known 
that  A  men  can  pave  B  square  feet  in  C  days,  it  may  be 
asked  how  many  men  can  pave  b  square  feet  in  c  days,  o 
how  many  square  feet  can  a  men  pave  in  c  days,  or  hou 
many  days  will  it  take  <i  men  to  pave  b  square  feet.     I 
we  write  down  the  data  and  answer  in  two  lines,  and  in  th 
following  order— force  employed — effect  produced — tini 
of  production — thus, 

ABC 

a  b  c 

the  rule  is — Take  such  an  answer  as  will  make  the  ex- 
tremes of  each  line  multiplied  by  the  mean  of  the  other 
the  xime  in  both.  That  is,  let  A6C=aBc,  and  according 
f>,  or  c  is  to  be  found,  the  mode  of  working  is  as  fol- 
lows : — 

_  A6C      _  a  Be      _  A6C 

The  proof  is  as  follows : — One  man  in  C  days  could  pave 
-£  square  feet,  and  in  one  day  .—,  square  feet.  By  similai 

b 
reasoning  one  man  in  one  day  could  pave  —  square  feet 

Hence 

B        b 

TT<  = — ;  °r  °Bc 

AC     «c  ' 

The  principal  caution  which  a  beginner  requires  is; — not 
to  suppose  that  the  rule  of  three  (or  the  rule  of  finding  ;i 
fourth  quantity  which,  with  three  others,  shall  constitute 
a  proportion  is  to  be  applied  in  all  cases  in  which  three 
quantities  are  given  to  find  a  fourth.  That  such  a  caution 
i-  Decenary  nrU".  from  the  defect  of  works. on  arithmetic; 
which  frequently  exhibit  this  rule  without  any  mention  of 
proportion,  and  leave  it  to  be  inferred  that  there  is  but  one 
way  of  obtaining  a  fourth  quantity  from  three  others. 

THREE  RIVERS.     [CANADA.] 

THRIOTHORUS,  M.  Vieillot's  name  for  a  genus  of 
birds,  Si/lrin,  Lath.,  and  placed  by  Mr.  G.  R.  Gray  in  his 
subfamily  TROGLODYTIN/K.  of  his  family  Certhiiln-. 

TIlRlbTHUTUJS,  M.  Vieillofs  name  for  a  genus  of 
Birds  'Xi/lrin,  Lath.),  placed  by  Mr.  G.  R.  Gray  in  his 
subfamily  TROGLODVTIN.K. 

THROCMORTON,  SIR  NICHOLAS,  was  descended 
from  an  antient  family  in  Warwickshire,  and  his  ancestors 
had  been  employed  in  the  higher  offices  of  stale  for  some 
rentuiies.  His  father,  Sir  George  Throcmorton,  had  been 
in  favour  with  Henry  VIII. ,  but,  being  a  zealous  papist,  lie- 
incurred  the  king's  displeasure  by  refusing  to  take  the  oath 
•jiremacy,  and  about  1338  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower 
nf  London,  where  he  remained  several  yeais. 

Nicholas,  who  was  Sir  George's  fourth  son,  was  born 
about  the  year  1513.  Having  been  appointed  page  to  the 
Duke  of  Richmond,  the  king's  natural  son,  he  accompanied 
Ins  master  to  France,  and  remained  in  his  service  till  the 
ilukr's  death  in  1536. 

Sir  George  Throcmorton  was  released  from  the  Tower  in 
15 13.  His  sou  Nicholas  was  then  appointed  sewer  to  the 
king,  in  which  it  was  his  duty  to  atlcnd  the 

'  marfthall'd  feast, 
Serv'd  up  in  liall  with  sewer  and  seneschal.' 

In  1544  he  headed  a  troop  in  the  armament  against 
France  which  Henry  VIII.  commanded  in  person  ;  he  as- 
!  at  the  siege  of  Boulogne,  and  after  his  return  re- 
il  a  pension  from  the  king  as  a  reward  for  his  s<  r\  ices. 
After  the  king's  death  he  attached  himself  to  the  queen- 
dowairer  Catherine  Parr,  and  to  the  Princess  Elizabeth. 
In  l.~>47  I'6  distinguished  himself  in  the  campaign  in  Scot- 
land under  the  Protector  Somerset ;  he  was  present  at  the 
hat'le  of  Pinkey  (or  Mnsselburgh),  and  Somerset  sent  him 
to  London  with  the  news  of  the  victory.  He  was  soon 
afterwards  created  a  knight,  appointed  to  a  place  in  the 
privy-chamber,  and  admitted  to  great  intimacy  with 
Edward  VI.  The  king  bestowed  upon  him  some  valuable 
manors,  and  made  him  umler-treasuref  of  the  Mint.  He 
sat  in  parliament  during  Edward's  reign  as  member  for 
Northampton. 


)3  T  H  R 

A  short  time  before  the  king's  death,  Sir  Nicholas  mar- 
ried the  daughter  of  Sir  Nicholas  Carew,  and  on  taking 
his  wife  to  visit  his  father  at  Coughton  in  Warwickshire 
he  was  received  with  coldness  by  the  old  knight ;  partly 
perhaps  on  account  of  his  Protestant  principles,  but  chiefly 
because  he  had  been  knighted  before  his  eldest  brother 
lp  remove  this  cause  of  otFence,  he  took  his  brother  back 
with  him  to  court,  and,  at  the  request  of  Sir  Nicholas,  the 
king  raised  him  to  the  dignity  of  a  knight. 

Sir  Nicholas  Throcmorton  was  present  when  Edward  VI 
died  at  Greenwich  in  1553.  He  was  aware  of  the  designs 
of  the  partisans  of  Lady  Jane  Grey,  but,  though  a  Protes- 
tant, he  was  too  much  attached  to  law  and  legitimacy  to 
give  the  least  sanction  to  them.  He  therefore  came  im- 
mediately to  London,  and  despatched  Mary's  goldsmith  to 
announce  to  her  the  king's  demise. 

On  the  2nd  of  February,  1554,  Sir  Nicholas  Throcmorton 
was  arrested  and  committed  to  the  Tower  on  a  charge  of 
being  concerned  in  the  rebellion  of  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt. 
On  the  17th  of  April  he  was  brought  to  trial  at  Guildhall, 
London.  This  trial  is  the  most  important  and  interesting 
event  in  his  life.  A  report  of  it,  taken  from  Holinshed, 
is  given  in  the  'Library  of  Entertaining  Knowledge— Cri- 
minal Trials.'  It  is  certain  that  he  was  acquainted  with 
Wyatt's  intentions,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  he  was  to 
some  extent  implicated  in  the  rebellion.  He  was  tried 
before  commissioners,  some  of  whom  were  bitterly  inimi- 
cal to  him,  and  who  seemed  to  regard  his  trial  as  merely  a 
form  necessary  to  be  gone  through  previous  to  his  execu- 
tion. Sir  Nicholas  however  conducted  his  own  defence; 
and  this  he  did  with  such  admirable  adroitness,  such 
promptness  of  reply  and  coolness  of  argument,  intermixed 
with  retorts,  spirited,  fearless,  and  reiterated,  in  answer  to 
the  partial  remarks  of  the  lord  chief  justice  and  other  com- 
missioners, and  followed  up  by  an  impassioned  earnestness 
of  appeal  to  the  jury,  that,  in  defiance  of  the  threats  of  the 
chief  justice  and  the  attorney-general,  he  obtained  a  ver- 
dict of  acquittal.  Sir  Nicholas  was  directed  to  be  discharged, 
but  was  remanded,  and  kept  in  prison  till  the  18th  Jan., 
1555.  The  jury  were  made  to  suffer  severely  for  their  in- 
dependent verdict.  Two  were  fined  2000/.  each,  six  were 
fined  1000  marks  each,  and  four,  who  expressed  contrition, 
were  not  fined.  All  were  remanded  to  prison,  where  they 
remained  till  the  12th  of  December,  when  five  were  dis- 
charged on  payment  of  the  reduced  tine  of  220/.  each, 
three  on  payment  of  GO/,  each,  and  four  without  fine. 

Sir  Nicholas  Throcmorton,  after  his  release,  avoided  the 
approaching  storm  of  persecution  by  going  to  France, 
where  he  remained  till  1556.  Though  he  afterwards  served 
in  Queen  Mary's  army  under  the  iCarl  of  Pembroke,  he 
ievoted  himself  chiefly  to  the  princess  Elizabeth,  whom 
lie  visited  privately  at  Hatfield.  When  Queen  Mary  died, 
fie  was  admitted  to  see  her  corpse,  and,  as  Elizabeth  had 
requested,  took  from  her  finger  the  wedding-ring  which 
lad  been  given  to  her  by  Philip,  and  delivered  it  to  Eli- 
zabeth. Elizabeth  gave  him  the  office  of  chief  butler  of 
England,  a  situation  of  some  dignity,  but  inconsiderable 
emolument,  and  afterwards  made  him  chamberlain  of  the 
exchequer.  In  1559  he  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  France, 
and  remained  at  the  French  court  as  resident  ambassador 
ill  the  beginning  of  1563.  Dr.  Forbes  has  published  the 
greater  part  of  Throe-morion's  correspondence  with  his 
>wn  government  while  he  was  in  this  confidential  situa- 
ion.  It  displays  great  diplomatic  skill  and  management, 
)ut  perhaps  rather  too  much  tendency  to  intrigue  ;  and  he 
iiipported.  the  cautious  aud  somewhat  doubtful  policy  of 
-lecil  with  zeal  and  discretion.  Indeed  he  was  on  the  most 
confidential  terms  with  Cecil  during  the  whole  of  this 
>eriod,  but  after  his  return  a  coolness  arose  between  the 
wo  statesmen,  which  increased  till  it  became  a  strong 
>ersonal  animosity. 

In  1565  Throcmorton  was  sent  on  a  special  embassy  to 
Scotland,  to  remonstrate  with  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  against 
ler  intended  marriage  with  Darnley  ;  and  when  Mary  was 
mprisoned  at  Lochleven  in  1567,  Throcmorton  was  com- 
mssioned  by  Elizabeth  to  negotiate  with  the  rebel  lords 
or  her  release. 

In  1569  Throcmorton  was  sent  to  the  Tower  on  a  charge, 
which  indeed  appeal's  to  have  been  well  founded,  of  ha.v- 
ng  been  engaged  in  the  intrigue  for  a  marriage  between 
ilary  Queen  of  Scots  and  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  Though 
le  was  not  kept  long  in  confinement,  he  never  afterwards 
egained  the  confidence  of  Elizabeth,  and  the  distress  of 

3F2 


T  H  R 


•101 


T  H  R 


roinil  occasioned  by  the  loss  of  her  favour  has  been  thought 
to  have  hastened  his  death,  which  took  place  at  tin-  house 
of  the  Earl  of  I.,  u-.-i.-r.  Feb.  l-j.  i:>7l.  in  his  3hth  year. 

.ilsiugliam,  in  a  letter  to  tin-  Knrl  <«t'  l.ci- 
OMter,  on   the  occasion  of  Th  ;li.  says  of 

him  that  •  for  counsel  in  peace  and  for  conduct  in  war  he 
hath  not  left  of  like  sufficiency  that  1  know.'  Camdeii 
says  he  wa»  'a  man  of  large  •  .  piercing  judg- 

ment, iiinl  .  luckily  fur 

himself  :u:  iy.  \n-  III.'  and  estate  being  in  great 

danger  by  reason  ..i  his  turbulent  spirit.' 

in     l.iliniry  of  Kiitrrtiiininif  Kii'ur- 
Ifilgt ;    I'irturial  llittory  if  Kiiylmid.) 

II I  ROM  BUS  is  a  tumour  formed  by  blood  effused  from 
a  vein  after  bleeding,  and  coagulated  in  the  adjacent  ei •!- 
lular  tissue.  It  is  a  kind  of  intense  ccchyinosis  or  bruise. 
and  usually  arises  from  the  puneture  in  the  vein  nut  having 
been  made  exactly  opposite  that  in  the  skin,  so  that  some 
of  the  blood,  instead  of  flowing  out,  is  infiltrated  between 
the  vein  and  the  surface.  It  is  rarely  of  sufficient  impor- 
tn  require  treatment,  and  is  usually  removed  like  the 
effused  blood  of  an  ordinary  bruise.  Sometimes  however 
inflammation  ensues  around  the  tumour,  which  should  be 
treated  by  leeches  and  cold  ;  or,  if  it  proceed  to  suppura- 
tion, should  be  managed  like  a  common  abscess. 

THKOSTLK.     [THKUSHKS.] 

THRUSH,  or  Aphthae,  is  a  disease  which  commonly 
appears  in  the  form  of  minute  opaque-white  vesicles 
scattered  over  the  interior  of  the  mouth  and  fauces. 
Vesicles  or  blisters  of  this  kind  often  appear  in  a  succe»ion 
of  eruptions,  those  which  were  lirst  formed  bursting  and 
leaving  tender  and  raw  surfaces,  while  others  are  breaking 
diit  :  and  thus  continuing  through  the  whole  course  of 
some  general  disorder  of  the  svslein. 

The  only  variety  of  thrush  in  which  the  eruption  is  tin 
most  obvious  sign  of  disease  is  that  which  is  called  milk- 
thrush,  or  aphtha  infantum,  or  sometimes,  in  the  suppo- 
sition that  it  is  the  primary  disease,  idiopathic  thrush. 
This  however  is  almost  alwajs  connected  with  disturbance 
of  the  digestion  and  other  functions,  anil  is  usually  traceable 
to  some  error  of  diet.  It  is  most  frequently  observed  in 
children  that  are  brought  up  '  by  hand  ;'  and.  in  ordinary 
.  requires  only  the  means  adapted  to  correct  tin  dis- 
turbed digestion,  such  as  small  doses  of  magnesia  and 
gentle  purgatives.  In  very  weakly  children  however,  and 
in  those  that  are  ill  fed  and  clothed,  the  surface  of  the 
mouth  and  faun  i  by  the  bursting  of  the  vesicles, 

may  slough  or  ulcerate;  and  this  condition  is  alwa\s  a 
sign  of  the  necessity  of  administering  tonics,  nutritious 
i  powerful  stimulants,  such  as  wine  or 
brandy.  It  is  this  form  of  thrush  which  is  usually  de- 
scribed as  aphtha  maligna. 

In  adults,  thrush  is  a  vciv  common  occurrence  in  the 
advanced  stages  of  many  diseases,  such  as  typhoid  and 

other  acute  feven,  the  luctic  fever  accompanying  phthisis, 
diabetes,  fcc.  :  in  short,  in  nearly  all  cases  in  which  there 
is  great  prostration  of  strength,  thrush  may  occur.  In 
these  cases,  the  only  treatment  that  can  be  applied  pecu- 
liarly to  it  is  local.  (ire at  relief  is  often  afforded  by 
lightly  sponging  the  affected  surfaces  with  a  solution  of 
nitra-  .  in  the  proportion  of  eight  or  ten  grains  to 

an  ounce  of  water.  Gargles,  consisting  of  a  drachm  of 
alum  to  a  pint  of  water  or  acidulated  infusion  of  roses,  or 
of  one  or  two  drachms  of  sub-borate  of  soda  to  half  a  pint 
of  water,  are  oil  en  beneficial  ;  and  so  is  the  inel  boracis 
of  the  Pharmacopoeia,  when  a  small  quantity  of  it  is 
held  for  a  few  minutes  in  contact  with  the  all 
part. 

THRUSHES.      Under  this  name  many  ornithologists 

treat  of  the  whole  of  the  MKKITI.IU.V,  in  which  article  the 

viewi  of  Mr.  Vigors,  Mr.  Swainsou.  and  the  1'rince  of  Mu- 

itgnano,  now  Prince  of  Canino,  with  regard  to  this  family, 

fen. 

Since  the  articje  Aferulidrc  was  written,  Mr.  (i.  H    ' 
ha*  published  his  •  List   of  the  Genera  of  Muds,"  and  we 
prut 

Mr.  G.   H.  Gray  makes  the    Tiinlnln-     '/'<//</</*,  I. inn. 

family  of  his  third   tribe    Itriitinntn-x    of  In- 

•ecoml   'i. der    /',,   i. •,•(•.*  i.     The  I)rnlir»xtr<'x  arc  placed  In 

him   IM-I-AI-CII  (lie  T<-iiiiirn*trcx   ami    the    ('miinitlfi-x,   anil 

thir  /  ..n-I  the  Mii--,,;,j,i,l,i-. 

>id  genera  into  which 
Mr.  G.  H.  Gray  divide,  the.  Tin-did*  :_ 


Subfam.  I.     Formicannip. 

Genera: — \nt  lYiuui.:  .(;•;  r.Ix-ss. ; 

Dasycephaln.  Sw.  :     I'lthy*.    Yieill.  ;     l-'urmirn 
Myrmrrisa,  (i.  H.  Grav  :    / 
Curytkopif,  Snndev.  ;    Hrnrhyfiti-ryr,   Hoi  • 
.lard,  and  Selby  ;  Tinnrtnr.  ,,.  Hodd.  : 

t'httnnrza,\"\\z.\    (.Inillariu,  Vieill.  :    CIXHI.   li, 
f/tyuriix,    Thiinb. ;     Myio]>hontu.v,    Teniin.  ;     llydrnlmtn, 
Vieill. 

Subfam.  2.     Turdinse. 

(icnera  -.—Pi-trocosxyiihus,  Boie  ;  Orocftet,  G.  R.  Gray ; 
hiri-iniru,    Hodgs.;    Betsonorni\.    Smith;     >  • 
Less.;  ''/(>«•/"/<>.  Sw. ;    Geocichla.  Kuhl  ;   '/.<«>thi  -ru,  Vig.  ; 
Mi/iii/!.1!.'^-'.   Less.;    tiri'iM-itir/u,  Gould  ;    T/in/ux,   l.inn.  ; 
Mcritlti    U.iv   .  Hoic  ;   Muniix.  Hriss.  ;    'I',,  i  n\imna,  Wag]. 

Subfam.  3.     Timal. 

icra: — Doaacobiut,  Sw.  ;    I'rlliir>n'uui,Sv;.;    .lijiu- 
in'Hiiii,  Sw.  ;  Crateroput,  Sw.  ;    (jnrruti.i  tiim- 

i/in-ii,  Gould  ;  Ci/i<-l<ixt>Hiti,  Vig.  and  Horsf.  ;  >'////•;.  1 1> 
Si/iin,   Hodgs.;     Trm'u,  Hodgs.  ;     .17"  :      Ti- 

inaliu.  Ilorsf.  ;     PomatorhinUt,  Hoist'.;  ;'     I'tilinli- 

culu,  Hodgs.  ;  Ictcr/n.  Vieill.  ;   Tiiriiiigrii,  Leas. 
Subfam.  4.     Orioli 

Genera: — Du/uf,  Vieill. ;  >'///(«-o,' lifi-i: v,  Vieill. ;  < trial u\, 
Linn.;  Mime.ta,  Vig.  and  Horsf.;  Analciput,  Sw. :  Sri- 
culus,  Sw.  ;  Oi'inlni.  .].  Geoff. 

Subfam.  :").     Pycnonotinse. 

Genera : — Microscelis,  G.  R.  Gray ;  Microtarsua,  Eyton  ; 

Mnlacopter<in,  Kvton  :   Trii-lmiilmrux.  Teniin.  ;  llyjixipetett 

yiihinii,    Hodgs.  ;     PhyUattTtphut,  Sw.  ;    Ilrfina- 

tnrni.-t.Sv;.;  J'i/c/i'i/i'i/nx.K\\}\\;  Andrupttduy,  Sw. ;  ?  Tn- 

Xi't'iriu'it.  I 

Mr.  G.  H.  Gray,  with  his  usual  diligence  and  acci 
givesthe  suionyius  of  all  these  genera;   and  observes*  with 
i  to  some  of  them,  that    Dryiiinjtliiln,  Sw..    has,  been 
used   in   botany:    that    LeptorhynchuS,  Mi-m-str..  was   pre- 
viously employed;    Pi-tn,]iliiln,  Sw.,  used  in  bo'; 
*.V;.'//ii,  ^'ig.,  used   in  entomology,  only  the  termination  is 
there   in   «,v :    Cirhhi.    Wagl.,   ]iie\i(Uisly   used    in    ichthy- 
ology :    Paludii-oln,  Hodgs.,  previously  eni))loyed   in   her- 
jjetology  ;   and    Mii-rii]iii.\.  and  Hr<trhy]ii<*,  Sw.,  previously 
used  in  other  branches  of  natural  history. 

Some  of  these  forms  have  already  been  noticed  in  detail 
in  this  work,  and  we  shall  here  confine  ouisclvcs  to  the 
tine  thrushes,  or  those  so  nearly  allied  to  them,  that,  iu 
common  parlance,  they  arc  so  termed. 

KruorxAN  Timrsii 

The  following  thrushes  are  European  : — 
Jilack  Ouzel,  or   BLACKBIRD,    Manila    ni/ffuri.-.,    Kay  : 
the  Hiiiff  ftuzrl,   .If/'ru/d  lon/itntn,  liriss.  ;    the  Mi^nilnry 
.    .M'riilit    /iiiifi-a/iirin,    Sw. ;      the     lil<irh-thi-<niti-d 
7'// /•«»/(,  Tun/iti  atrorularis,  Teniin.  ;  the  l'ni(tjnr<>,  7'nr- 
du.t  pilaris,  Linn.  ;    the  lii'ilirin^,  Tur-l<i*  I'liu-ii*.  Linn.; 
the  Missrl   77//-/M/I,  Tiirilii*   rixrirm-u*.  Linn.  ;    : 
'rhru\li,  or    T/irn.\//f,  Tiirilux  mtixicii\.  Linn.  ;    .\ 
Thruxh.  Tunlitx  .\niii/iiirnii,  Teniin.  ;  the  Pullid  Tliruxh, 
Turdux  )in//iilii.t.  Pall.  :   ll'liitr's  Thnnh.  Tunlnx  It'hilri, 
Kvion:  tlu  •>'///<•/•/<///  ThrwhtTurd*t  Sibericus,  Pall.:  the 

OHZI-/,    or     ('illinium     Uij/'i'.    Cinclut    ii(jii-i' 
t.  :  the  Black-bellied  It'iili-r-Ouzr/,  ('uiclii*  iiii-Iiiiin- 
.    lirelim  :     I'.ili.is's  Il'u/i  /•    Duzt'l,    ('nirlu 
Tc-uiiu.  :    the  Hi-i-h-Tlu-iixli,   P<-tfn<-iiicI,i    Mi.rnlitix,   ^ 
and  the  Blue-Thrush,  Petncincla  fi/iim-itx,  Vig. 

Of  these,  (he  WATKU  Of/KL,  or  Common  Itijijx-r  ;  I  he 
.l//\v/  Ttn:"*/i  ;  ///;///•"*•  Thruxh  occasional  only  :  the 
>'<;/;•,'  Thriixh;  the  I'trlilfitrr  ;  the  Hrilii-nig  ;  the  Ji/m-h- 
luni;  and  the  Ring  (}n:i:l,  or  Hive;  HI.ACKHIKD,  are 
British. 

We  select  as  an  example  the  sweetest  songster  among 
tins  tribe,  in  our  opinion  at  least,  and  we  write  it  without 
[iect  to  the  rich  mellow  whistle  of  the  blackbird,  n 
the  loud  .stirring  notes  of  the  missel  thrush. 

The  Tlii'nxtli-  or  Xmix  Tin •;/.*/(. 

This  well-known  bird  neeils  no  description.  It  is  the 
(irii-i-  and  J'rtili'  (inn'  of  the  Kreuch  :'--ri/n  rom- 

HIHIII-.  and  Tnrdu  Hnttm-rni  of  the  Italians:  Siii^-,/ri/M.f/, 
in  //  'i-<.\*-i/n,\\i'/.  of  the  Germans;  M.in-..  \\  ilh  the  other 
names  above  given,  of  the  mcxicrn  lirilisli  ;"  and  AJ»ryn 
nlk  of  the  antient  Uiitisli. 

Geographical  Distribution.- — Inhabits  evciy  country  in 
Europe,  haunting  gardens  and  woods  near  streams  or  tuea- 
•  N  U.  'Hie  tlatcu  of  the  French  ii  the  KcdKitg. 


T  H  R 


405 


T  H  R 


dows.  Bechstein  says  that  in  Germany,  as  soon  as  the  au- 
tumnal fogs  appear,  the  throstles  collect  in  large  flights  to 
seek  a  warmer  climate,  the  principal  time  of  passage  being 
from  the  15th  of  Sept.  to  the  15th  of  October,  and  the 
return  about  the  middle  or  end  of  March,  when  each  pair 
seeks  its  own  district.  In  Britain  it  is  permanent,  and 
spread  over  England,  Wales,  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  its 
islands.  Russia,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway  possess 
.it.  In  the  south,  besides  Germany,  France,  Italy,  and 
Greece  have  it.  It  has  been  seen  in  winter  at  Smyrna  and 
Trebizond.  Professor  Nilsson  states  that  it  leaves  Sweden 
for  the  winter,  and  comes  farther  south.  Mr.  Selby  ob- 
serves that  such  visitors  arrive  in  Britain  with  a  north  or 
north-east  wind,  and,  after  staying  a  few  days  to  recruit, 
move  southward. 

11 '  :bils,  Food,  <$-c. — Worms,  insects,  snails,  and  fruits 
form  the  food  of  the  throstle.  The  common  garden-snail, 
Helix  liortenxix,  and  the  wood-snail,  Helix  nemoralis,  are 
killed  and  eaten  in  great  numbers  by  this  species.  The 
bird  beats  and  breaks  the  shells  against  a  stone  to  get  at 
the  animals.  The  nest  is  made  of  green  moss  generally, 
and  fine  root-fibres  on  the  outside,  and  is  lined  within  with 
cow-dung  and  decayed  wood,  the  lining  forming  a  cement, 
so  perfectly  spread  that  it  will  hold  water.  Eggs  four  or 
iive,  of  a  light  blue,  the  larger  end  having  a  few  small 
black  specks  or  spots.  Time  of  incubation  thirteen  days. 
The  first  hatch  generally  comes  forth  in  April,  but  the 
young  have  been  known  to  be  out  at  the  end  of  March. 
There  are  generally  two  broods  in  the  year.  Both  the 
cock  and  the  hen  sit,  but  the  former  less  than  the  latter. 
He  often  feeds  her  on  the  nest.  A  holly,  a  thick  bush — a 
tall  one  is  mostly  preferred — a  dense  and  somewhat  high 
shrub  or  a  fir,  is  usually  selected  ;  but  the  bird  has  been 
known  to  breed  in  an  open  shed  or  tool-house,  and  does 
nut  seem  to  shun  the  neighbourhood  of  man.  In  1833  a 
pair  built  their  nest  in  a  low  tree  at  the  bottom  of  Gray's 
Inn  Gardens,  near  the  gates  where  passengers  are  going 
by  all  day  long.  The  hen  laid  her  complement  of  esrgs, 
and  was  sitting  on  them,  when  a  cat  climbed  up  and  killed 
her  on  the  nest.  The  cock  immediately  deserted  the  place. 
Bechstein  states  that  in  captivity  the  Throstle  is  easily 
taught  to  perform  airs.  For  taking  it  he  recommends  a 
perch  with  a  limed  twig  as  the  best  mode  of  capturing  a 
fine-toned  male:  but  in  September  or  October  he  says  that 
they  may  be  caught  in  the  water-traps,  where  they  repair  at 
sunrise  and  sunset,  so  late  that  they  sometimes  cannot  be  seen, 
and  the  bird-catcher  is  only  guided  by  his  ear.  He  observes 
that,  when  the  birds  enter  the  water,  there  must  be  no  haste 
on  the  part  of  the  fowler,  because  they  like  to  bathe  in 
company,  and  assemble  sometimes  to  the  number  of  ten  or 
twelve  at  once,  by  means  of  a  peculiar  call.  Bechstein 
tells  us  that  the  first  which  finds  a  convenient  stream,  and 
wishes  to  go  to  it,  cries  in  a  tone  of  surprise  or  joy,  'sik, 
* //i,  .v//,j,  \>ki.  t-\in',  txnr,  txac  .•'  then  all  the  thrushes  in  the 
iibourhood  immediately  reply  in  concert  and  repair  to 
tin-  place.  The  bath  is  entered  however  with  a  good  deal 
oi'  circumspection  on  their  parts,  and  they  seldom  venture 
till  they  have  seen  a  Red-breast  bathe  without  danger. 
Hut  the  first  that  bathes  is  soon  followed  by  others,  and 
they  begin  to  quarrel  among  themselves  if  the  bath  is  not 
large  enough  to  accommodate  all  satisfactorily.  Bechstein 
further  remarks  that  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have  a  tame  bird 
running  and  fluttering  on  the  banks  of  the  stream,  as  a 
decoy  to  attract  them. 

ASIATIC  THRUSHES. 

Example,  Turdus  erythrngirxter. 

Description.  —  Male.  —  Grey-c;rrulescent  above;  the 
cheeks,  the  sides  of  the  neck,  and  the  quills  black  ;  breast, 
abdomen,  and  rump  red  ;  beak  and  tarsi  black. 

Female  differs  in  being  cirrulescent-brown,  the   lower 

part  of  the  back  obscurely  banded  with  brown;  neck  in 

front  whitish  marked  with  dark  browrt ;  breast,  abdomen, 

rump  reddish-white  marked  with  undulations.  Length 

H*  inches. 

Mr.  Gould  (Century  <>J  Mirth  from  the  Himalaya.  Moun- 
tain*,  states  that,  this  beautiful  species  exhibits  a  marked 
departure  in  the  style  of  colouring  from  its  more  typical 
emi<ri-n<  rs;  and  were  it  not  that  its  form  dictated  the 
situation  in  which  it  is  retained,  it  would  otherwise  seem 
to  be  allied  in  many  respects  to  the  genus  Petrocimla, 

I/ir/ility. — The  rocky  districts  of  Himalaya ;  never  found 
in  the  low  lands. 


AFRICAN  THRUSHES. 

Example,  Turdus  strepitans,  Smith  (Merula  Letsitsi- 
rupa  of  the  same). 

Description. — Male. — Front  and  top  of  head  brownish- 
grey  ;  occiput,  upper  aspect  of  neck,  interscapulars,  sca- 
pulars, and  shoulders  deep  yellowish-grey,  faintly  shaded 
with  brown  ;  back,  rump,  and  upper  tail-coverts  dirty  ash- 
grey.  Under  parts  white,  tinted  in  places  with  ochre- 
yellow  ;  sides  of  the  neck,  whole  of  the  breast,  flanks,  and 
belly  variegated  with  blackish-brown  pyriform  spots,  one 
on  each  feather,  the  large  end  reaching  nearly  to  its  point. 
Sides  of  the  head  white,  slightly  tinted  with  ochre-yellow, 
variegated  below  the  eyes  with  three  blackish-brown 
bands ;  the  foremost  proceeds  from  the  base  of  the  lower 
mandible,  the  second  from  the  middle  of  the  under  eyelid, 
and  the  third  from  the  outer  angle  of  the  eye ;  the  first 
extends  nearly  horizontally,  and  the  two  others  obliquely 
downwards  and  backwards  till  they  unite  with  the  hori- 
zontal one.  Primary  wing-coverts  and  primary  quill- 
feathers  deep  brownish-red,  the  latter  tipped  and  edged 
externally  with  yellowish-white ;  the  first  two-thirds  at 
least  of  the  inner  vanes  of  these  feathers  are  of  a  clear 
buff-colour,  darkest  towards  the  shafts ;  secondary  wing- 
coverts  and  secondary  and  tertiary  quill-feathers  dark 
greyish-brown,  the  outer  vanes  lightest,  all  margined  ex- 
ternally and  tipped  with  dirty  white.  Eyes  reddish  brown ; 
upper  mandible  and  tip  of  lower  inferiorly  as  well  as  the 
claws  liver-brown ;  lower  mandible  elsewhere,  and  the 
cutting  edge  of  upper,  pale  saffron-yellow.  Feet  and  in- 
sides  of  the  bill  deep  straw-yellow. 

Figure  robust  and  rather  short.  Bill  long,  and  mode- 
rately strong  ;  upper  mandible  broad  and  slightly  depressed 
towards  the  base,  narrow  and  distinctly  notched  near  the 
tip ;  culmen  between  nostrils  elevated  and  rounded, 
towards  the  point  of  the  bill  strongly  curved ;  nasal 
fossae  large  and  membranous,  the  nostnls  narrow  longi- 
tudinal slits  near  to  the  edges  of  the  mandible  ;  wings  short 
and  rounded,  and  when  folded  they  reach  over  tte  first 
half  of  the  tail ;  the  first  quill-feather  rudimentary,  the 
third  rather  the  longest ;  the  second  and  fourth  of  equal 
length,  and  scarcely  shorter  than  the  third ;  the  fifth  a 
little  shorter  than  the  fourth,  and  the  remaining  primaries 
diminish  in  length  successively'.  Tail  short  and  slightly 
forked.  Legs  long,  tarsi  robust,  anteriorly  indistinctly  scu- 
tcllatcd,  posteriorly  entire ;  toes  strong,  the  inner  and 
outer  toes  of  the  same  length  ;  claws  strong,  much  curved 
and  pointed.  Length  Irom  point  of  bill  to  tip  of  tail  eight 
inches  six  lines 


T  H  R 


T  I!   K 


pied,  its  resort 
n  m,  i-  Baku 


n.n 
rut 


female  differing  but  little  in  colour,  if  at  all,  from  the 
male.     (SmitlO 

itity,  HMts,  Fowl,  fr.— Dr.  Smith  state-,  thit  iin 
mediately  upon  reaching  KnrichaO^M  tl:  MI  to 

appear  in  the  thickets,  mui 

sionaJIv  a  specimen  even  in  the  \icr  'roi>ic.     It 

seeks,  he  says,  its  food  upo:  1.  and,  \v)i 

uhlx  by  the  natives  ii-om  the 

"T   in   displacing 
the  insects  it  i-, 
the  country 
•lio  vigour 
i  rest  translation 
lio  can  give  is  'Ground-Scraper.' 

Dr.  Smith  further  remarks  that  the  form  of  its  bill,  par- 
ticularly towards  the  bast-,  the  length  of  its  legs,  and  the 
fchortness  ul' its  tail,  an- all  characters  which  reinoxcit  from 
the  more  typical  species  of  the  ireiius  Tunliu  :  but  yet 
there  is  in'its  structure  and  habits  what  necessarily  con- 
a  true  thaib.!i.  I/lti*lr<itiunt  of  the  Zim/'U*y  nf 
S-mt/i  .-Africa.) 


Tiintni  itrepifeni,  male.    (Smith.) 

AMERICAN  THRUSHKS. 

Kx-runjile.  Tirnlii*  »iti\trlinux,  Om. 

!>•  ^-njiti'in. — Above,  bright  cinnamon  brown,  bright- 
ruing  into  rufous  <m  Hie  head,  and  inclining  to  olive  on 
the  rump  nnd  tail.  Heneath,  whitish,  thickly  marked 
with  pencil-shaped  dusky  spots.  Vent  jinre  wfiitc.  Or- 
bils  of  the  eye  white,  liill  dusky  brown,  slightly  nolelud. 
lower  mandible  flesh-coloured  towards  the  base. 
and  cla  ••. s  very  pale  flesb-folour.  Iris  dark  chocolate. 
Length  H  inches :  a!:tr  extent  l:t  inches.  iNuttall.! 

This  appears  to  be  the  '/'»;•</•  in   nnd 

Tin-ill/  Thrush  of  Pennant,  nnd  is  generally  known  us  tin- 
'  Tlirn^. 

•  till/,   Jlubils.    I  -\uttall    states   that    this 

solitary  and  retiring  sinister  inhaliits,  during  summer,  the 

whole  continent   from    Hudson's    Max    to    Florida,  air 

cording  to  his  friend  Mr.  Ware,  nth  a-  the 

vicinity   of  Natchex,    in    i  ippi.       II' 

Ks  that   it   is  not    satisfactorily   ascertained   whether 

•  mils  (lie    boundaries  of  the   United   States   in 

winter,  because  the  bird  is  then  silent,  and  ahva\s  difficult 

ess.     Hi-  thinks  it    probable  that  this  Thrush  may 

'hi-  Southern  States,  as    a  you  us;   bird,    gl. 

iad  been  caught  in  a  garden  in  Boston 

Oil  the   2fit!l   October. 

1  Thrush  may  winter,  it   »\ 
from  the    1st  to  the    15th  of  April. 

-onj;  and  habits : — 

'  At  the  dawn  of  morning  lie  announces  hi*  pn  -> 
the  Wuods,  nud  from  the  top  of  some  fail  tree. 
Urn.  :<  ,in,|  si,;,  ' 

clear  and   harmonious   note*   in   a   ]• 
inspired  by  the  enthusiasm  of  renovated  nature.    The 


prelude  to  this  tana  resembles  almost  the  double  ton/uini; 
of  the  flute,  blended  with  a  tinkliui;.  shrill,  and  solemn 
warble,  which  re-echoes  from  h 

nf  s,.iiU'    sad    recluse    who   slur  haunts  of 

life.     The  whole  air  consists  itMmlly   of  foi 
which  in    deliberate    tinie,    and    finally     i 

together  in   im]>ressivu  and  soothini;   harmony,  bi  eoniini; 

mellow  and  RW. 

formers  seem  to  challenge  each  jiarls 

of  the   wood,    vxiii!?   for  the   favour  of  their  ma) 
sympathetic  responses  and  softer ' 

life,  terminate   the   warm  .li-p»' 

to  combat  and  violence.  Like  the  Hobin  and  the  Thni 
in  dark  nnd  gloomy  weather,  when  other  bird- 
shell.  rut,  the  clear  notes  of  the  \Vood  Thrvish 

are  heard  through  the  dropping  woods,  from  dawn  to 
ip  that,  the  taddi    I  the  sweeter  and  mote  i 

hissonir.   His  clear  and  interrupted  whistle  is  hi,. 
nearly  the  only  voice  of  melody  heard  by  the  traveller,  to 
mid-day,  in  the  heat  of  summer,  as  he  tra\erses  the  silent, 
dark,  and  wooded  wilderness,  remote   from   the   ham.' 
men.      It    is  nearly  impossible   by  words  to  ci 
idea    of   the    pecnliar  warhlc   of 'this    \ocal    hermit. 
amonest  his  phi.  .md  of  'uirli  •.-.  peculiarly  liquid, 

and  followed  Dy  a  trill,  repeated  in  two  interrupted 

is  readily  recosrnisablc.  Attunes  tlinr  notes  bear  a  con- 
siderable resemblance  to  those  of  Wilson's  Thrush,  such  as 
i'h  rlu-hu  'rrrhii,  then  varied  to  '<h  i-tlliu  rilliii,  V/i  rillin 
rri'/ni.  then.  '<-h  rilln  rilln.  hiu!i  and  shrill. 

•  The  Wood  Thrush  is  always  of  a  shy  and  retiring 
disposition,  appearinir  alone,  or  only  in  single  pairs,  and, 
while  he  willingly  charms  us  with  his  sonir,  lie  is  content 
and  even  solicitous  to  remain  concealed.  His  favourite 
haunts  are  low  shady  glens  by  water.-  i  rendered 

dark  with  alder-bushes,  mantled  with  the  trailing  giape- 
vme.     In  quest  of  his  insect  prey  he  delights  to  follow  the 
meanders  of  the  rivulet,  through   whose   IcaiV   shades  the 
sunbeams  .-teal  only  in  a  lew  uninterrupted  rays  oxer   the 
sparkling  surface  of  the  running  brook.     So  partial  is  this 
bird  to  si.litnde,  that   I  have  known  one  to  sing  ai 
uniformly  in  the  same  place,  though   nearly  half  a  mile 
from   his  mute    and  nest.       At    times,    indeed,    he    would 
venture    a    few    faltering   low  notes    in    an   oak   near  his 
consort,  but    his  mellowest   morning  and    evening   v. 
was  always  delivered  from  a  tall   hickory,  overtop] 
grove  of  hemlock  firs,  in  which  the  dimness  of  twilight 
prevailed  at  noon.     The  Wood  Thrush,    like   the  Night- 
ingale, therefore,  feels  inspired  in  darkness,  but,  instead  of 
waiting  for  the  setting  sun.  he  chooses  a  retreat  where  the 
beams  of  day  can  seldom  enter.   These  shady  re' 
also  an  additional  attraction  to  our  Thrush  :  it  is  here  that 
the  most,  interesting  scene  of  his  instinctive  labour  I.: 
and  ends,  here    he   first   saw  the    light,  and   breathed  into 
"ice,  and  here  he  now  bestows  his  nest  in  a  sapling 
oak.  or  in  the  next  thick  laurel  or  blooming   alder,  xvbose 
berries  afford  him  an  ample  repast  in  the  coming  autumn. 
Outwardly  it  presents   a  warm   bed    of  withered   beach   or 
oak  leases,  above   these   a   layer  of   coarse   old   grass    and 
leaf-stalks   is  laid,    tempered  with    a   mixture  of  mud  :md 
decayed  wood    smoothly    plastered,   sxi  as    to    form  a 
like  the  nest  of  the  Kobin.     The  whole  is  then  surmounted 
by  a  thin  lining  of  the  black  fibrous  radicles  of  the  fern.' 


. 
Th«>  same,  author  states  that  the  eggs,  which  arc  four  or 


T  H  U 


407 


T  H  U 


five  in  number,  are  scarcely  distinguishable  from  those  of 
the  Robin,  and  of  an  uniform  bright  greenish  blue  destitute 
of  spots.  Beetles,  caterpillars,  and  other  insects,  and  in 
autumn  berries,  constitute  the  principal  food  of  the  species. 
Nuttall  further  states  that  the  young  remain  for  weeks 
around  gardens  in  quest  of  berries,  and  that  they  are 
particularly  fond  of  those  of  the  various  species  of  cornel 
and  ribiirtiiim.  At  this  season,  he  says,  they  occasionally 
leave  their  favourite  glens,  and  in  their  devious  wander- 
ings, previous  to  their  departure,  sometimes  venture  to 
visit  the  rural  suburbs  of  the  city.  The  young,  it  appears, 
are  easily  reared,  and,  like  our  Throstle,  sing  nearly  as  well 
in  the  cage  as  in  their  native  wilds.  (Manual  of  the 
Ornithology  of  the  United  States  and  of  Canada.) 

THUA'NUS.     [Tnoi-,  DE.] 

THUCY'DIDES  (eot*«>fc«i,e),  the  son  of  Olorus,  or  Oro- 
his,  and  Hegesipyle,  was  a  native  of  the  demus  of  Alimus 
in  Attica.  He  was  connected  by  his  mother's  side  with 
Hit-  family  of  the  great  Miltiades,  and  the  name  of  his 
lather  was  a  common  one  among  the  Thracian  princes. 
It  he  was  forty  years  old  at  the  commencement  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  war,  according  to  the  statement  of  Pamphila 
(Gellius,  xv.  23 j,  lie  was  born  in  B.C.  471.  In  his  own 
work  he  nowhere  mentions  his  age  or  the  time  of  his 
birth,  but  he  says  that  he  lived  through  the  whole  of  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  and  that  he  was  of  the  proper  age  for 
observing  its  progress  (v.  20  . 

Our  principal  information  respecting  the  life  of  Thucy- 
dides  is  a  biography  of  him  written  by  Marcellinus,  which 
is  however  fnll  of  contradictions  and  doubtful  stories. 
There  is  also  an  anonymous  biography  of  him  prefixed  to 
manv  editions  of  his  works,  which  is  still  worse  than  that 
of  Alarcellinus.  Thueydides  mentions  incidentally  a  few 
tacts  concerning  himself,  which  is  almost  all  that  we  know 
with  certainty  about  his  life. 

There  is  a  well-known  story  that  when  a  boy  he  heard 
Herodotus  read  his  History  at  Olympia,  and  was  so  much 
moved  that  he  burnt  into  tears.  Hut  there  is  good  reason 
for  believing  that  this  recitation  of  the  History  of  Herodo- 
tus never  took  place  at  the  Olympic  games  [HERODOTUS]  ; 
and  if  there  is  any  foundation  for  the  story  of  Thucydides 
having  heard  him  read  it,  we  would  rather  refer  it  to  a 
later  recitation  at  Athens,  which  is  mentioned  by  Plutarch 
and  Eusebius.  Snidas  is  the  only  writer  who  says  that 
Thucydides  heard  Herodotus  at  Olympia  ;  Marcellinus  and 
Photius  relate  the  same  tale  without  mentioning  where  the 
recitation  took  place. 

There  seems  nothing  improbable  in  the  accounts  of  the 
antient  biographers  that  Thucydides  was  taught  philoso- 
phy by  Anaxagoras  and  rhetoric  by  Antiphon  ;  but  their 
statement  that  he  accompanied  the  Athenian  colony  to 
Tliurii  is  probably  a  mistake  arising  from  their  confound- 
ing him  with  Herodotus,  who,  we  know,  was  of  the  colo- 
nists. But  whether  he  went  to  Thurii  or  not,  it  is  certain 
that  he  was  in  Athens  in  the  second  year  of  the  Pelopon- 
iicsiiin  war,  H.C.  4.'W,  when  he  was  one  of  those  who  had  the 
plague.  (Thucyd.,  ii.  48.)  In  the  eighth  year  of  the  war, 
B.C.  424,  he  was  in  command  of  an  Athenian  fleet  of  seven 
ships,  which  lay  otf  Thasos.  Hrasidas,  the  Lacedaemonian 
commander,  made  an  attempt  to  obtain  possession  of  Am- 
phipolis  on  the  Strymon,  which  then  belonged  to  Athens  ; 
and  Thucydides,  as  soon  as  he  heard  of  it,  sailed  to  protect 
Amphipolis,  but  was  only  in  sufficient  time  to  save  Eion,  a 
seaport  at  the  mouth  of  the  Strymon.  Amphipolis  had 
fallen  before  he  could  arrive  there.  (Thucyd.,  iv.  102,  &c.) 
For  this  he  was  either  condemned  to  death  or  banished  by 
the  Athenians  in  the  year  following,  H.C.  423  ;  and  in  con- 
sequence of  the  sentence  passed  upon  him  he  spent  twenty 
years  in  exile,  namely,  till  B.C.  403.  (Thucyd.,  v.  20.)  This 
year  coincides  exactly  with  the  restoration  of  the  democracy 
by  Thrasybulus,  when  a  general  amnesty  was  granted,  of 
which  Thucydides  seems  to  have  availed  himself.  Where 
In-  pn-wc'd  the  time  of  his  exile  is  not  mentioned  by  him- 
cellinus  says  that  he  first  went  to  JEgina,  and 
afterwards  to  Scapte-Hyle  in  Thrace,  opposite  the  island  of 
Tliasos,  where  he  had  some  valuable  goM-mines.  (Compare 
Plutarch,  />/•  /  /  //0,  p.  605.)  It  appears  however  not  im- 
probable that  he  visited  several  places  during  his  exile: 
the  intimate  knowledge  which  he  shows  respecting  the 
history  of  the  Italiotes  and  Siceliotes  almost  inclines  one 
to  suppose  that  he  may  have  visited  Italy  and  Sicily  after 
the  failure  of  the  Athenian  expedition  in  the  latter  island. 
His  property  in  Thrace  would  however  naturally  lead  him 


to  pass  the  greater  part  of  his  time  in  that  country.  This 
property,  which  was  very  considerable  (.Thucyd.,  iv.  105), 
was  probably  derived  from  his  family,  which  came  from 
!  Thrace,  though  Marcellinus  says  that  he  obtained  it  by 
marrying  a  Thracian  heiress. 

How  long  he  lived  after  his  return  from  exile,  and 
whether  he  continued  at  Athens  till  the  time  of  his  death, 
is  quite  uncertain.  According  to  some  accounts  he  was 
assassinated  at  Athens,  according  to  others  he  died  at 
Thasos,  and  his  bones  were  carried  to  Athens.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  buried  in  the  sepulchre  of  the  family  of  Mil- 
tiades. 

The  Peloponnesian  war  forms  the  subject  of  the  History 
of  Thucydides.  He  tells  us  that  he  foresaw  it  would  be 
the  most  important  war  that  Greece  had  ever  known,  and 
that  he  therefore  began  collecting  materials  for  it$  histoiy 
from  its  very  commencement ;  that,  where  he  had  to  rely 
upon  the  testimony  of  others,  he  caremlly  weighed  and 
examined  the  statements  that  were  made  him ;  and  that  he 
spared  neither  time  nor  trouble  to  arrive  at  the  truth,  and 
that  in  consequence  of  his  exile  he  was  enabled  to  obtain 
information  from  the  Peloponnesians  as  well  as  his  own 
countrymen  (i.  22;  v.  26).  Though  he  was  engaged  in 
collecting  materials  during  the  whole  of  the  war,  he  does 
not  appear  to  have  reduced  them  into  the  form  of  a  regular 
histoiy  till  after  his  return  from  exile,  since  he  alludes  in 
many  parts  of  it  to  the  conclusion  of  the  war  (i.  13 ;  v. 
20,  KO.)I  He  did  not  however  live  to  complete  it :  the 
eighth  book  ends  abruptly  in  the  middle  of  the  year  B.C. 
411,  seven  years  before  the  termination  of  the  war.  Even 
the  eighth  book  itself  does  not  seem  to  have  received  the 
last  revision  of  the  author,  although  there  is  no  reason  at 
all  for  doubting  its  genuineness,  as  it  bears  on  every  page 
indubitable  traces  ni'  his  style  and  mode  of  thought.  Some 
antient  writers  however  attributed  it  to  his  daughter,  others 
to  Theopompus  or  Xenophon.  As  the  work  of  Thucydides 
is  evidently  incomplete,  it  would  appear  that  it  was  not 
published  in  his  lifetime  ;  and  there  is  therefore  great  pro- 
bability that  the  statement  is  correct  which  attributes  the 
publication  of  it  to  Xenophon.  Niebuhr  has  brought  for- 
ward reasons  which  seem  to  render  it  almost  certain  that 
Xenophon's  '  Hellenics'  consist  of  two  distinct  works,  and 
that  the  last  five  books  were  not  published  till  long  after 
the  first  two.  The  first  two,  which  seem  to  have  borne 
the  title  of  the  '  Paralipomena '  of  Thucydides,  complete 
the  histoiy  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  and  were  not  impro- 
bably published  by  Xenophon,  together  with  the  eight 
books  of  Thucydides.  (Niebuhr,  in  Philological  Museum, 
i.  4STi,  &c.) 

The  first  book  of  Thucydides  is  a  kind  of  introduction  to 
the  history.  He  commences  by  observing  that  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian war  was  more  important  than  any  that  had  been 
known  before  ;  and  to  prove  this,  he  reviews  the  state  of 
Greece  from  the  earliest  times  down  to  the  commencement 
of  the  war  (c.  1-21).  He  then  proceeds  to  investigate  the 
causes  which  led  to  it,  of  which  the  real  one  was  the 
jealousy  which  the  Peloponnesians  entertained  of  the 
power  of  Athens  ;  and  interrupts  his  narrative  to  give  an 
account  of  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  Athenian  empire 
down  to  the  commencement  of  the  war  (c.  89-118).  He 
had  an  additional  reason  for  making  this  digression,  since 
this  history  had  either  been  passed  over  by  previous  writers 
altogether,  or  had  been  treated  briefly,  without  attention 
to  chronology  (c.  97).  He  resumes  the  thread  of  his  nar- 
rative at  c.  1 19,  with  the  negotiations  of  the  Peloponnesian 
confederacy  previous  to  the  declaration  of  the  war  :  but 
the  demand  of  the  Lacedaemonians,  that  the  Athenians 
should  drive  out  the  accused,  which  was  answered  by  the 
Athenians  requiring  the  Lacedaemonians  to  do  the  same, 
leads  to  another  digression  respecting  the  treason  and 
death  of  Pausanias  (c.  128-134) ;  and  as  proofs  were  found 
implicating  Themistocles  in  the  designs  of  the  Spartan 
king,  he  continues  the  digression  in  order  to  give  an  ac- 
count of  the  exile  and  death  of  Themistocles  (c.  135-138). 
He  then  resumes  the  narrative,  and  concludes  the  book 
with  the  speech  of  Pericles  which  induced  the  Athenians  to 
refuse  compliance  with  the  demands  of  the  Peloponnesians. 
The  history  of  the  war  does  not  therefore  begin  till  the 
second  book ;  but  it  would  be  out  of  place  to  give  here  an 
abstract  of  the  remainder  of  the  work. 

Thucydides  had  formed  a  high  opinion  of  the  value  and 
importance  of  the  work  he  had  undertaken.  It  was  not 
his  object  to  afford  amusement,  like  former  writers,  but  to 


T  H  U 


406 


T  H  U 


give  »<ich  a  faithful  representation  of  the  part  at  would 
•crre  a*  a  guide  for  the  future    i.   ."_'       Hi-  ..b-eivalion 
of  human  character  wa§  profpuiul :  he  penetrates  wit 
traordmary  elcanBghtednei*  into  tlie  motives  ami  policy  of 
the   leading   actors  of  the  war:    and    lie   draws   fruin   the 
:.-lates  those  leasons  of  political  wisdom  which 
ilwaysmadc  his  work  a  favourite  study  with  thought- 
ful men  of  all  count  i 

1. urn- for  himself  the  merit  of  the  strictest  accuracy, 
and  it  is  impossible  to  read  his  Ilistm-y  without  being  cou- 
I  of  tn#  trustworthiness  of  his  statements.  His  im- 
partiality also  it  conspicuous :  although  he  had  hem 
banished  from  hit  native  city,  he  does  not.  like  Xenophon, 
turn  renegade,  and  try  to  misrepresent  the  conduct  and 
ni.it;  nwii  countrymen.  Although  a  contempo- 

rary, and  one  who  had  taken  an  active  part  in  public 
affairs,  he  writes  at  free  from  prejudice  and  party-feeling 
as  if  he  had  lived  at  a  time  long  subsequent  to  the  events 
he  narrate*. 

Ih-  Ili-tory  is  constructed  on  entirely  different  principle* 
from  those  of  his  predecessors.  He  confines  himself 
y  to  his  subject,  and  seldom  makes  any  digressions. 
H.  feel-  deeply  the  importance  of  his  work,  and  constantly 
strives  to  impress  the  same  feeling;  upon  his  readers.  He 
had  proposed  to  himself  a  noble  subject,  and  writes  with 
the  consciousness  of  the  value  of  his  labours,  and  the  pre- 
sentiment that  his  work  will  be  read  in  all  future 
There  U  consequently  a  moral  elevation  in  his  style  and 
mode  of  treating  a  subject,  which  is  scarcely  to  be  found 
in  any  other  writer  except  Tacitus. 

In  narrating  the  events  of  the  war,  Thueydides  pays 
particular  attention  to  chronology.  He  divides  each  year 
into  two  portions, the  summer  and  the  winter,  and  i- 
ful  to  relate  under  each  the  events  that  took  place  respect- 
ively during  that  time.  The  speeches  which  he  introduces 
are  not  mere  inventions  of  his  own,  but  contain  the  general 
sense  of  what  the  speakers  actually  delivered,  although 
the  style  and  the  arrangement  are  his  (i.  22). 

Ihe  style  of  Thueydides  is  marked  by  great  strength  and 
energy.  "  Not  only  his  expressions,  but  even  single  words 
teem  to  have  been  well  weighed  before  they  were  used  ; 
each  has  its  proper  force  and  significance,  and  none  are 
used  merely  for  the  sake  of  ornament  and  effect.  The 
style  is  not  easy,  and  it  is  probable  that  Thucydides  never 
intended  it  should  be  so,  even  to  his  own  countrymen  :  his 
work  was  not  to  be  read  without  thought.  Still  his  style  is 
open  to  serious  objevtigns.  He  does  not  sufficiently  con- 
sult perspicuitv,  which  is  the  fir-t  virtue  in  all  writ- 
ing. His  sentences  too  are  frequently  unnecessarily 
long,  and  the  constructions  harsh  and  involved.  These 
remarks  are  more  especially  applicable  to  the  speeches 
inserted  in  the  History,  which  Cicero  found  as  difficult 
at  we  do.  (Orator,,  9.) 

The  Greek  text  was  first  published  by  Aldus,  Venice. 
I  ."mi  and  the  scholia  in  the  following  year.  The  first 
Latin  translation,  which  was  made  by  Lanrcntius  Valla, 
app  \~tVA,  fol.  The  first  Greek  and  Latin 

edition  was  that  of  Henry  Stephens,  the  Latin  being  the 
translation  of  Valla,  with  corrections  by  Stephens,  1.">(U. 
fol.  Among  the  modern  editions,  those  most  worthy  ot 
notice  are  Poppo's.  which  contains  two  volumes  of  prole- 
gomena, with  the  scholia  and  numerous  notes.  Leipzig, 
111  vols.  8vo.,  1821-1838;  Haack's,  with  selections  from  the 
k  scholia  and  short  notes,  which  the  student  will  find 
very  useful, 2 vols.  ftvo.,  Leipzig,  ]S3>.  rcpiinled  in  London, 
in  3  volt.  8vo.  1823  ;  GollcrV,  2  vols.  s\o.,  Leipzig,  1836, 
2nd  edition,  reprinted  in  London ;  and  Arnold's,  3  vols. 
8vo.,  Oxford,  1K«I-1K}5,  of  which  a  second  edition  is  in 
course  of  publication. 

There  are  translations  of  Thueydides  into  most  of  the 
modern  European  languages.     In' Kngli-.li  the  first   trans- 
lation was  made  by  Thomas   Nicolls,  from    the   1 
version  of  Seysel,  and  was  published  in  Ix>ndon,  1550,  fol. 
Thi*  wat  succeeded    by  the    translations  of  Hobbes  and 
William  Smith,   which    have   been    frequently  reprinted. 
The  most  recent  it  by  S.  T.  Bloomfteld,  3  vols.  8vo.,  Lon- 
don, 1H29.     The  most  recent  translation  in  German 
Klein.  Miinchcu.  1H2<>,  Kvo.  ;    and   in  French  one  of  the 
best  i-  -aid  to  hi'  '•••:  ' 

ofThucydidet,  the  reader  may  consult 
Dpdwell,'  et  Xenophonteii,'&c.,Oxf. 

17"i  4to.  ;   at  <  hungcn  iiber  das  Le- 

ben  de»  Thucydidtk,'  Merlin,  i 


THUG  (liom  Hindu-lain •••  <n»  a 

--r.  and  is  the  sp. 

in  India,  whom  since  the  year  1*111  it  has  twcn  the  >•::< tea \our 
of  the  British  government  to  root  out.  (>: 
can  be  said  with  any  decree  .if  certain^ '  .em- 

it  to  the   remotest   antiquity,  and   there   is  no 
doubt  that  the  ceremonies  with   which   Hi,.  'heir 

murderous  trade  can  be  traced   as   fai 
I'urana,  where  we   find   them  described   with  1 
accuracy.    Hut  before  we  proceed  to  ii 
history,  of  which  we  hnve  only  a  slight  and  1111- 
knowli  he   them  •    tin- 

time  of  their  discovery.     Their  gangs,  counting  ol   from 
ten  to  two  or  three  hundred  men  of  all  me. 
and  religions,  yet  all  joining  in  the  worship  of  Kali,  in 
about  all  parts  ol'  India,  sacrificing  to  their  tiitela 
every  \ietini  that  they  could  «ci/e.  and  sharing  the  plunder 
vill  the\  -lied  no  bin.  -.hen 

forced  by  circumstances;   murder  being  their  religion,  the 
performance  of  its  duties  re-  .uid  the  instru- 

ment of  death  was  a  rope  or  a  handkerchief,  which  • 
excite  no  suspicion.     They  were   strangle: 
had  its  leader,  the  Ji-in/nlur  or 

(turn,  whose  duty  it   was  to   initiate   the   novice  into   the 
secret  of  using  the  r<x»nnl,  or  handkerchief.     Then  < 
the  Ji/iuttdtrx.  that   is  stranglers.  and  the  Si.l/iax,  or  cn- 
trappers.  and  at  last  the  /.iii'/im-es,  or  gravediggcrs.     In  a 
country  like  India,  the  striking  character  of  whose'  in! 
ants  is  an  almost  incredible  apatln,  it  ,  ;n  to 

commit  the  most  is  murders  without  exciting  the 

interest  of  the  victim's   iclations.     The  immen- 
which  border  the  roads  afforded  the  Lughm  ility 

for  effectually  concealing  the  bodies  :    and   the  prevailing 
custom  of  travelling  in  parties  prevented  the  designs  of  the 
Sotha   from  being  suspected,  whenever   he  sin- 
offering  the  protection  of  his  Jemadar  to  travellers  whom 
their  wealth  induced  him  to  entrap.    The  Thugs  generally 
assume  the  appearance  of  merchants,  which  increases  the 
confidence  of  their  victims,  whom  they  despatch  with  the 
greatest    celerity  whenever  they  find   a   convenient    j 
Whilst  the  Hlmttotes  arrange  themselves  in  a  man- 
effect  their   purpose  with  facility,  the  Lnghaecs  dig  the 
hole;    and  at  a  given  signal  the.  mm-  -d  the 

neck    of  the   traveller,   and.  being   taken  unawares,  he   is 
strangled  without  being  able  to  make  any  resistance.     Ib- 
is then  thrown  into  the  hole,  and   large  incisions  are  made 
in  the  abdomen  to  prevent  the  corpse  from  swelling,  and 
the  whole  is  covered  over  with  a  layer  of  dry  sand,  another 
of  thorns  and  bushes,  and  over  all  is  thrown  the 
which  had  been  dug  out,  which  they  smooth  down 
not  to  attract  the  notice  of  travellers.     Alter  every  murder 
they  offer  a   sacrifice,  to  Kali,   which   they  call    , 
It  is  performed  in  the  following  manner :— A  large  si; 
spread  over  the  cleanest    spot  they  can  se! 
is  cast  a  pile  consisting  of  one  rupee  and  lour  annas'  \\oith 
of  coarse  sugar :    near    this    th> 

:\e    all  instrument  sacred  to  Siva  and  Hhavani  .  and 
a  piece  of  siKi  <.   or  silver  oft'- 

The   leader    then    sits  down  on  the  sheet,  and   tlu 
stranglers  place  themselves  on  each  side  of  him  with  their 
i.     They  then  distribute   the  sugar  and  cat 
it  in  solemn  silence.      Hut    for  this  as  well   as  other 
monies  we  must  refer  to  the  works  of  ( 'olonel  Sleeman  and 
( 'aptain  Meadows,  as  well  as  to  an  article  in  the  \'M\\\  num- 
ber of  the  Minlmr!!/!  Hi-rifir.     Here  it  will  suffice  to 
that    many  ceremonies    to    which    the  Thugs  attach    the 
gnatcst   importance  are   scrupulously  performed   by  them 
both  before  and   after  the   murder   is  committed;    s'u 

ling  the  omens,  propitiating  Devi,   thanksgiving.ke. 
We    have    already   observed     that     Thugs    were     found 
exercising  their  fearful  trade  in  all  parts  of  India.      In  the 
Dcecan  they  are  called   IMuinsTgars  ;  from   6 
noose)  or  noosers,  and  on  them  we  have  a  very  inten 
paper  in  the  13th  volume  of  the  '  Asiatic  Ucsearclics.'  Their 
customs  are  the  same  as  tho-e  of  the  northein  TlniLrs  ;   but, 
having  fewer  Mohammedans  among   them,  the;  are  more 
strict  observers  of  the  duties  which  their  religion  imposes; 
they   kill    neither   women,  nor  old   men.    n.  r   any   of   the 
subjects  which  the  K'lliUa  I'ur.lna    in  the  llu<t/iii-<i  .lli/,ii/,i 
U-  ii'ifit    i< 

there     i.,   nil' 

them,  by   Mr.  Shaiespear:    both  w 
in  1810. 


T  H  U 


409 


T  H  U 


The  origin  of  this  atrocious  worship  is  undoubtedly 
Hindu.  The  Thugs  maintain  that  their  occupation  is 
represented  in  the  caves  of  Ellora,  as  well  as  all  other 
trades.  Moreover  the  terms  they  use  are  chiefly  of  Sans- 
crit origin  ;  and  the  worship  of  Kali  corresponds  so  well  to 
the  religious  ceremonies  of  the  Thugs,  that  there  can  be 
no  doubt  as  to  their  identity.  To  satisfy  the  reader  on 
this  head  we  refer  to  the  5th  volume  of  the  '  Asiatic  Re- 
searches,' where  a  chapter  from  the  Kalika  Purana  has 
been  translated  and  communicated  by  Mr.  Blaquiere. 

All  the  ceremonies  of  the  Thugs  are  fixed  by  this 
Puntna,  the  date  of  which  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain,  but, 
frequent  allusions  being  made  to  it  in  the  Vira  Charita,  a 
drama  of  Bhavabhuti,  who  lived  at  the  court  of  king 
Bhoja  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century  of  our  aera, 
we  have  sufficient  reason  to  refer  it  at  least  to  his  time,  if 
not  to  a  previous  period. 

The  Thugs  then  are  a  degenerate  sect  of  Kalt  wor- 
shippers. They  are  very  numerous  in  Bengal ;  but  they 
offer  only  buffaloes  and  kids  (Colebrook,  '  Essays,'  i.  Ill), 
and  shed  their  blood,  which  they  present  to  the  idol  in 
cups  that  are  kept  for  that  purpose.  In  like  manner  as 
the  Sakta-s  left  the  pure  worship  of  Siva  in  order  to  indulge 
their  gross  sensuality,  the  Thugs  abandoned  the  original 
wor-hip  of  Kali  to  get  a  livelihood  by  plunder.  Both 
nevertheless  adhere  strictly  to  the  injunctions  of  their 
re hgion,  which  is  taught  in  the  Tantras  of  the  Saktas  and 
in  the  tradition  of  the  Thugs,  and  thereby  convert  crime 
into  a  sacred  duty.  As  well  may  be  expected,  secrecy 
was  dictated  by  prudence,  and  hence  it  is  that  we  find 
the  Thugs  seldom  mentioned  by  travellers. 

Thevenot,  in  his  Travels  (part  iii.,  eh.  22),  is  the  first  to 
notice  them ;  he  describes  them  as  infesting  the  road 
from  Agra  to  Delhi,  and  using  a  long  rope  furnished  with 
a  noose,  which  they  throw  with  great  dexterity  round  the 
traveller's  neck,  and  he  relates  that  their  Sothas  were 
frequently  women.  About  ten  years  after  Thevenot,  Dr. 
Fryer  found  them  at  Surat,  where  a  gang  of  them  were 
executed.  He  describes  them  as  Thevenot  does,  and  it 
appears  from  the  description  that  they  belonged  to  the 
laooltaneat,  a  peculiar  class  of  Mohammedan  Thugs. 

Although  the  whole  of  the  ceremonial  is  Hindu,  the 
Thuirs  tin  m-elves,  whether  Hindu  or  Mohammedan, 
maintain  that  they  descend  from  seven  Mohammedan 
clans,  Thu^s,  lilivs,  Bnrsote,  Kachunee,  Huttar,  Ganoo, 
and  Thumlee  ('  Rama>eeana,'  p.  11);  the  seven  clans  are 
admitted  to  be  the  most  antient  and  the  original  stock  on 
which  all  the  others  have  been  engrafted.  This  circum- 
stance may  lead  us  to  suspect  that  Mohammedams  were 
indeed  the  first  to  give  a  sort  of  political  system  to  the 
Thugs;  and  tin:  seven  clans  of  Ismailis,  whose  occupation 
v.  ;is  murder  as  dreadful  as  that  of  the  Thugs,  may,  when  per- 
secuted in  the  last  days  of  their  political  existence,  have 
joined  themselves  to  the  Hindu  Phansigars,  and,  adopting 
their  ritual,  have  given  rise  to  their  present  institution. 
This  point  is  investigated  with  much  ingenuity  in  an 
article  on  the  '  Secret  Societies  of  Asia,'  in  the  49th  vol. 
of  '  Blackwood's  Magazine'  (part  civ.).  Shah  Jehan  and 
Aurengzebe  instituted  criminal  proceedings  against  them. 
After  this  we  again  lose  si<;ht  of  them  until  the  time  of 
Hyder  AH,  who  proceeded  against  them  in  a  summary  way. 
Mysore  however  seems  to  have  been  their  favourite  resi- 
dence ;  for  in  order  to  suppress  them,  in  the  reign  of  Tippoo 
Sultan,  many  of  them  were  apprehended  and  sentenced  to 
hard  labour,  and  others  suffered  mutilation.  It  was  in 
Mysore  also  that  the  English  government  first  discovered 
them  soon  after  1791)  ;  but  it  was  not  before  1810  that  any 
measures  were  taken  for  their  extermination  ;  and  a  plan 
for  their  suppression,  which  promises  success,  was  adopted 
in  1830  by  the  then  governor-general,  Lord  William 
Bentinck.  Since  that  time  their  numbers  have  rapidly 
diminished,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  they  will  soon  be 
.  extinct. 

.  or  Vocabulary  of  the  Peculiar  Language 

'  Iii/  tin-  Thugs:,  Calcutta,  1836;  this  work  is  written  by 

Col.  Slceman  ;    The  Confessions  of  a   Thug,  by   Captain 

,  1840,  London  ;  Illustrations  of  the  History  and 

1'rnrnrfn  nf  t/ir>  Thugs,  London,  1837-) 

THUJA,  or  THUYA,  the  name  of  a  genus  of  plants  be- 
longing to  the  natural  order  Coniferae.  This  name  is  derived 
from  Oi'ia,  as,  on  account  of  the  pleasant  odour  given  out  by 
the  wood  in  burning,  it  was  used  in  antient  sacrifices.  The 
species  01  is  are  more  commonly  known  by  the 

P.  C.,  No.  1539. 


name  of  Arbor  Vita;,  but  why  this  name  has  been  given 
to  it  is  a  matter  of  uncertainty.  Clusius,  who  wrote  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  gives  it  this  name,  and  Dr.  Royle  says 
that  the  Cypress,  an  allied  genus,  is  called  the  tree  of  life 
in  the  East.  It  belongs  to  the  section  of  Coniferse  called 
Cupressinae  by  Richard,  in  which  Cupressus,  Callitris, 
Taxodium,  and  Juniperus  are  also  included.  The  pistils 
and  stamens  are  in  separate  flowers  on  the  same  tree.  The 
male  catkins  are  terminal  and  solitary ;  the  pollen  of  each 
flower  is  included  in  four  cases  that  are  attached  to  the 
inner  face  of  the  scale  towards  its  base.  The  female  cat- 
kin is  terminal ;  the  ovary  is  united  to  the  bractea,  form- 
ing together  a  kind  of  receptacle ;  each  receptacle  has 
two  ovules ;  the  receptacles  are  semipeltate,  imbricated, 
and  smooth,  or,  in  some  cases,  have  a  recurved  beak  near  the 
tip  ;  the  seeds  in  some  are  slightly  winged.  The  leaves  are 
scale-like,  closely  imbricated  or  compressed.  The  species 
are  evergreen,  either  trees  or  shrubs,  and  are  inhabitants  of 
Asia,  Africa,  and  North  America. 

T.  occiderttalis,  the  Western  or  American  Arbor  Vitae, 
has  the  branchlets  2-edged  ;  the  leaves  imbricated  in  four 
rows,  ovato-rhomboid,  adpressed,  and  tuberculated ;  the 
cones  are  obovate  with  the  interior  scales  truncate  and 
gibbous  beneath  the  apex.  This  plant  is  a  large  shrub  or 
small  tree,  and  is  a  native  of  North  America,  from  Canada 
to  the  mountains  of  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas.  It  is  not  so 
frequent  in  the  Southern  states,  and  is  found  there  on  the 
steep  banks  of  mountain-torrents.  In  the  Northern  states 
of  America  it  is  sometimes  called  the  white  cedar,  but 
more  commonly  arbor  vitse.  It  grows  best  in  cool  moist 
places,  on  the  borders  of  rivers  and  lakes,  and  in  swamps, 
some  of  which  it  covers  to  the  extent  of  50  to  100  acres. 
The  stem  of  this  tree  seldom  rises  straight  from  the  ground, 
but  makes  a  short  bend  before  it  becomes  straight.  On 
this  account  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  trunks  of  any  length, 
and,  although  the  timber  is  very  durable,  it  is  not  much 
used  in  building.  It  makes  good  posts  and  rails,  which  last 
three  or  four  times  as  long  as  any  other  species.  Its  branches 
are  used  for  making  brooms,  a  recommendation  of  which 
is,  that  they  exhale  an  agreeable  odour.  In  Great  Britain 
the  American  arbor  vitae  is  planted  as  an  ornamental  shrub, 
for  which  purpose  it  flourishes  best  in  low  moist  and  shel- 
tered situations.  It  will  bear  cutting  well,  and  hence  is 
employed  for  making  hedges.  It  grows  slowly,  making 
6  or  8  inches  of  stem  in  a  year  ;  the  largest  specimens  in 
this  country  have  attained  a  height  of  from  30  to  45  feet. 

T.  Drift/tail's,  the  Oriental  or  Chinese  Arbor  Vitae,  has 
2-edged  branchlets ;  imbricated,  ovato-rhomboid,  adpressed 
haves,  furrowed  in  the  middle  and  in  4  rows ;  the  cones 
are  elliptic  with  the  interior  scales  blunt,  and  mucronate 
beneath  the  apex.  It  is  a  native  of  rocky  situations  in 
Siberia  and  China,  and  on  the  mountains  of  Japan.  It  is 
a  low  tree  and  easily  distinguishable  from  the  American 
species  by  its  denser  foliage  and  lighter  green  colour.  It 
has  a  straight  trunk-,  and  seldom  exceeds  18  or  20  feet  in 
height.  It  is  a  hardy  plant,  and  flourishes  in  the  gardens 
about  London,  where  it  was  first  introduced  by  Miller  in 
1762. 

T.  pendula,  the  Pendulous  or  Weeping  Arbor  Vitse,  has 
opposite,  decussating,  spreading,  lanceolate,  mucronate, 
keeled,  somewhat  distant  leaves;  globose  cones;  convex 
smooth  scales  ;  filiform  pendulous  branches.  It  is  a  native 
of  Tartary,  and  is  an  elegant  shrub,  but  only  a  few  speci- 
mens exist  at  present  in  this  country. 

T.  articulata  of  Desfontaines  is  now  ca-lled  Callitrifi 
quadrivalvis,  four-valved  Callitris.  The  genus  Callitris 
differs  from  Thuja  in  having  the  scales  of  the  female  cat- 
kins, from  4  to  6  in  number,  opening  like  the  valves  of  a 
regular  pericarp,  and  the  seeds  at  the  base  of  these  scales 
winged  on  the  margin.  The  four-valved  Callitris  has  flat- 
tened articulated  leaves ;  the  female  catkin  with  four  oval 
pointed  valves,  two  of  which  have  seeds.  It  is  a  native  of 
Barbary,  and  attains  a  height  of  from  15  to  20  feet.  It 
was  first  discovered  by  Desfontaines  on  Mount  Atlas  in 
17!)(i.  The  Kiini-sandarac  of  commerce  [SANDARAC], 
according  to  Broussonet,  Brongniart,  and  others,  is  the 
produce  of  this  tree,  although  it  is  often  ascribed  to  the 
Juniperus  communis.  This  substance  is  brought  into  the 
market  in  tears,  which  are  clear,  shining,  and  diaphanous, 
and  of  whitish-yellow  colour.  When  reduced  to  a  fine 
powder,  it  makes  an  excellent  pounce.  Dissolved  in 
spirits  of  wine,  it  forms  a  delicate  varnish.  Under  the 
name  of  alerce,  the  wood  of  this  tree  is  in  great  repute  in 

VOL.  XXIV.— 3  G 


T  ii  r 


T  ii  r 


tin-   K.u-l   fur  Imildi:..  I  edifices.     Captain  b.   K. 

:i»cert»ined  that  tin-  root'  of  th. 
;  lie  cathedral  of  Cordo\ a,  which  was  built  in  the  ninth 
-  constructed  of  the  wood  It  ap- 

pears to  he  a  hardy  tree,  and  would  probably  grow  well 
in  this  climate  in  the  open  inr. 

:-f!itin<t  l-'rutiertiun  ttritnniiirnn'.  :  Lilld- 

.•;;/. 

"THI  LDEN,  THEOOOB  VAN,  born  al  Due  in 

'11117.  w.i.->  one  of  the  most  distinguUhcd  scholars  and  as- 
sistant* of  Hubens,  with  whom  lie  wan  also  a  favounte. 
He  was  with  Rubens  in  Paris,  and  is  said  to  ha\e  executed 
the  greater  part  of  the  celebrated  .-erics  of  Ihe  so-called 
v  of  tlie  Luxembourg,  painted  in  honour  of  Man  lie' 
Medici,     Yan  Thulden   is  distinguished   both  as  a  painter 
and  iu>  an  etcher.     A*  a  painter  he  excelled  in   various 
.lie   several    larire    pictures,  both   historical 
and  allegorical,  by  him,  dispersed  over  Germany  and  the 
painted  also  small  pictu;  inmon 

life  in  the  manner  of  Teniers,  such  as  markets,  fairs,  and 
the  like  ;  and  he  was  frequent ly  employed  by  architectural 
and  landscape  painters  to  embellish  'their  pictures  with 
small  appropriate  figures,  in  which  he  was  excellent  ;  he 
painted  many  such  in  the  pictm  I  and  Slceuwyck. 

i  Thulden's  style  in  his  greater  works  is  altogether 
that  of  Rubens,  and,  although  inferior  in  boldness  of  de- 
sign and  colouring,  his  works  may  easily  be  mistaken  lor 
those  of  Rubens;  the  Martyrdom  of  St.  Andrew,  in  St. 
Michael's  church  at  Ghent,  was  long  thought  to  be  a  work 
of  Rubens.  In  chiar'oscuro.  \  an  Thulden  was  quite  equal 
to  his  master.  A  St.  Sebastian,  in  the  church  of  the  Ker- 
nardines  at  Mechlin,  and  an  Assumption  of  the  Yinrin,  in 
the  church  ofthe  Jesuits  at  Bruges,  were  considered  two  ol 
his  best  altar-pieces.  While  at  Paris  he  painted  twenty- 
four  pictures  of  the  Life  of  St.  John  of  Mat  ha  in  the  church 
of  the  Mathnrins,  which  he  himself  etched  on  copper  in 
!(>;{;$;  the  pictures  have  since  been  painted  over.  \ 'an 
Thulden's  etchings  are  numerous,  and  in  a  masterly  stvle  : 
he  published  a  set  of  .X  plates  from  (he  painting's  of  Nic- 
colo  Abati  at  Fontainebleau,  after  the  designs  of  Prima- 
tieeio,  which  are  srreatly  valued,  for  as  the  paintim 
destroyed  in  173K,  they  are  all  that  remains  of  the  original 
designs.  They  have  been  copied  several  times;  tl 
ginal  set  appeared  under  the  following  title  :  '  Lcs  Travaux 
d  I  lysse,  uesseignez  par  le  Sicur  de  Sainct-Martin,  de  In 
facon  qu'ils  se  voyent  dans  la  Mnison  Royalc  de  Fontaine- 
bleau, peint  par  le,  Sienr  Nicolas,  et  craves  a\i  cuivre  par 
Theodore  van  Thulden,  avee  le  suject  et  1'explication 
morale  de  cliaquc  iiirnre.'  He  etched  also  -42  plates  after 
Rubens,  of  the  entrance  of  Ferdinand  the  Cardinal-Infant 
into  Antwerp  :  '  Pompa  introitus  Ferdinandi,'  &e.  The 
plates  of  the  History  of  the  Prodigal  Son.  to  which  he 
put  Rubens'  name,  are  now  said  to  be  from  his  own  designs  ; 
they  are  entitled,  'De  verlooren  Soon,  door  P.  P.  Rubens. 
Th.  \  an  Thulden  fee.'  Van  Thulden  died  in  his  native 
place,  Bois-le-Duc,  in  1676. 

(Descamps,  La  /";<••/'•*  I'rintrrs  Flamandt,  &c. ;  1 
Alliifiin-itirit  Kiinstler  Lea >• 

THULITE,  a  mineral,  the  texture  of  which  is  usually 
granular.  Lustre  vitreous.  Translucent  on  the  edges. 
Hardness  between  5  and  (i:  but  the  grains  separate  so 
easily  that  it  is  rather  difiicult  to  determine  it.  Colour 
rote-red;  streak  creyish-wlnle.  Specific  gravity  :H(».V». 

Before  the  blowpipe  fuse-  with  carbonate  of  soda  into  a 

;-.h-whitc  bead  ;    with  hoiax  forms  a  colourless  • 
parent  bead  ;  but  on  the  addition  of  nitre  become-  \iolrl. 

It  has  been  found  in  Norway:  and  to  Gmelin, 

consist*  of— sih  ;  alumina,  31-144;  lime,  ls-7-<i; 

soda  and  a  trace  of  potash.  1-sin  :    u\id,-  of  iion.   . 
Olid*  pf  IBmganeM,   l(i:r>;    water,  (HMO:   tdlal.  '.IH  , 

TIM  MMF.I..  MO  KIT/  AHM'ST  VON.  a  (icrman 
writer  win'  l\  nil;iiired  by  In-  eontemporari' 

who  still  continue-  to  hold  a  hiirh  literary  rank  with  his 
own  roiintrvnien.  He  was  born  at  Schiinfcld.  near  I.eip 

_7th.    I~.'W.    where    hi*   father    po— cs-cd    • 

demble    property,  but   lost  much  of  it   by  the  plund 

iroo]»  in  Saxony.  I7-I">.     Moritl,  wh 

the  second  wn  of  a  family  of  nineteen,  was  sent  to  the 
univ.  i|,7i.r  in  1750.  There  he  found  in  (, 

not  only  an   in  'a  friend  :    a"d    he 

»n  acquaintance  with    \Veisse.  Habcner.  von    I 

Md.  among  othm,  with  an  old  «  : 

at  hi* death,  in   1776.  left  him  the  itunc, 


twenty-four  thousand   dollain.     This  acccx-iou  nf  wealth 
'   up  the  places  he  held  under  Duke 
Ernest  of  Sax< -i  Kammer-junker,  and,  • 

1768,  a-  .    in  17Kt 

•leborn,  an  estate  of  Ins  wife,  ut  which  place  and 
at  (iothu  he  continued  ch  :itil  Ins  death, 

which   hap]icued  while  he  was  on  a  visit  at   Colmr: 

•JUtll,    1H17.       Thiinr.'iers    literary    n-pul 
e-lalihshed  by  his  •  Wiihelniine,'  a  'comic  jioem  in  ]  : 
tii-st  published  in   171>1.     This  short  production,  for  it   is 
in  only  live  cantos  or  chapters,  was  received  as  some' 
alloirethcj-  new  in  (icrmnn  literature,  and  as  a  in 
ol  polished  humour  and  plaU'uUatire.    It  w.  'I  not 

only  into  French,  but  Dule'li,  Italian,  and  Russian  :    w 
has  been  reprinted  entire  111  Wolff's  •  F.ncyclopa^ 
His  poetical   tale,  •  Die  Inoculation  der   l.iebe.'   177  i 
other  pieces  in  verse,  did  not  add  much  to  his  fame  ;    but 
his   last   and   longest  work,  '  llcise  in  den   Mitta-rliehen 
Provinzen  von  Frankreich  '  (Travels  in  tin  i  Pro- 

vinces of  France  ,  in  '.(  vols..  17:l!)-lMl.">.  is  also 
chef-d'osuvre.  Instead  of  being,  as  its  title  would  import, 
the  mere  record  of  his  tours  in  that  country,  it  is,  like 
Sterne's  '  Sentimental  Journey.'  to  a  great  extent,  a  work 
of  fiction,  interspersid  with  frasrinciits  in  verse,  which 
breathe  more  of  poetry  than  his  other  productions  of  that 
kind.  It  abounds  with  satiric  humour  and  pleasantry, 
with  witty  and  shrewd  ob-ervations.  and  shows  the  author 
to  have  been  an  accomplished  man  of  the  world,  inti- 
mately acquainted  with  human  nature.  That  it  is  n  work 
of  no  ordinary  merit  and  pretension  mny  be  suj  : 
from  the  notice  it  has  obtained  from  Schiller,  in  bi- 
er Naive  und  Sentimentulische  Dichtiunr;'  who,  if 
he  praises  it  with  ercater  reserve  than  other  critics,  admits 
that,  as  a  work  of  amusement,  it  is  one  of  a  superior  kind, 
and  will  as  such  continue  to  enjoy  the  character  it  bus 
obtained.  A  portrait  of  Thiimmei.  alter  t  )eser.  i-  pre- 
fixed to  the  Gth  volume  of  the  'Nene  Bibliothek  der  Sch.'i- 
nen  'Wis.-cnschuften,'  a  complete  edition  of  his  works,  in 
six  volumes. 

.liiiden's  Ij'.i-irnn  :  Schiller's  Kfritirrt*  Prti*<iinrhffirhrif- 

Wiichler's  i'(ir/t'tti>in 

THl'N,  :i  town  in  the  canton   of  Hern  in  Switzerland, 
situated  on  the  river  Aar,  about  a  mile  below 
from  the  lake  of  the  same  name.     Part  of  the  town  Mam! 
on  an   island  formed  by  the  liver,  and  part  is  on  the  ri<rht 
bank,  at  the  foot  of  a  hill,  on  which  is  built  the  castle,  the 
keep  of  which  was,  in  the  middle  aces,  the  reside'; 
the  counts  of  Thun.     On  the  opposite  or  southern  side  are 
seen  the  Alps  of  the  Uberland,   covered  with   perpetual 
snow.     The   parish  church,  with  its  loftv  tower,   is  a  re- 
markable buildinic.      There  are  also  a  handsome   town- 
au   hospital,  an  orphan   asylum,  a   public  library  of 
7(XK)  volumes,  and  a  military  school   tor  the  artillery  and 
cntrinecr    corps   of  the    federal    sen  ice.      [SWITZERLAND.] 
The  population  of  Thun  amounted,  by  the  la-t   ecu 
4833  inhabitants.     fLen-ihe.  nirlnnintin  'liqtir 

Xl'i/ixtn/ii"  (/-•  /'i  S,/(*,v,  1-. 

The   lake  of  Thun.  Thnuersee  in  German,  is   14  miles 
long  from  south  ih-wesl.  about  three  miles  in  its 

-1  width,  and  about  7lX'  feet  deep.  Its  surface  is 
17^1  feet  abo\e  the  sea.  The  Aar.  coming  from  the  lake 
ol'Bn<  Hiilh-ea-t  end.  and  issues  from 

it  at  the  opposite  cMrcmiH.  Ttie  Kander,  swelled  by  the 
Simmen.  also  entei-s  the  lake  from  the  south.  The  lake 
abounds  with  fish  :  and  its  banks,  planted  with  vineyards 
in  some  places,  and  risiujr  abruptly  to  steep  mountains  in 

.  afford  a  variety  of  scenery.  '  A  steam-boat  plies  on 
the  lake. 

TIMMiKRO,   CARL    PF.TTF.R.   an  eminent  Sw, 
traveller  and  botanist,  and  professor  of  natural  history  in 
the  mmersily  of  I'psil.  was  born  on  the  llth  ol 
her,  17-W.  at  .lonkopini:  in   Sweden,  where   his  father  was 
a    eleriryman.       He  was   early  scut   to  the   un; 

for  the  purpose  of  studying  luedicinc,  and  became 
a  pupil  of  the  creat  Linnnrus'.  Vnder  his  instruction  he 
acquired  that  taste  for  natural  histoiy  which  ably 

iiished  the  school  of  l.iun:ens.  und  whii-h  has  ^ivcn 
to  the  world  so  many  famous  naturalists.  . uni- 

pleted  his  course  of  study,  lie  irii'dnateil  in  1770.  and 
WM  honoured  by  havii  d  upon  him  the  Kohrcnn 

i  lor  the  spac<'  of  three  years.  Although  the  sum 
WM  small,  about  fifteen  pound-  per  annum,  he  determined 
to  use  it  for  the  purposes  of  improvement,  and  accordingly 


U 


411 


T  II  U 


left  Upsal  for  the  purpose  of  visiting  Paris  and  the  uni- 
versities of  Holland.     Whilst  in  Amsterdam,  he  became 
acquainted  with  the  botanists  and  florists  of  that  city,  and, 
they  suggested  to  him  the  desirableness  of  some  person 
visiting  Japan  for  the  purpose  of  exploring  its  vegetable 
treasures.     Thunberg  immediately  offered  his  services,  and 
a  situation  as  surgeon  to  one  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Com- 
pany's vessels  having  been  obtained  for  him,  he  left  Am- 
sterdam for  Japan  in  the  year  1771.    He  landed  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  for  the  purpose  of  learning  amongst 
the  Dutch  settlers  there  the  Dutch  language,  which  is  the 
only  European  language  spoken  extensively  in  Japan,  and 
also  in  the  hope  of  adding  to  his  knowledge  of  natural  ob- 
jects by  researches  in  Africa.     Here  he  made  several  ex- 
cursions into  the   interior,   visiting  various  of  the  native 
tribes,  and  after  having  remained  at  the  Cape  three  winters, 
where  he  collected  much  valuable  information,  he  set  sail 
in   1//3  for  Java  and  the  Japan  Isles.     He  remained  in 
these  islands  five  years,  making  large  collections  of  the 
plants  of  these  countries,  as  well  as  observations  on  the 
habits,  manners,  and  language  of  their  inhabitants.     His 
ability  to  labour,  however,  during  his  residence  both   in 
i  and  Asia,  was  very  much  diminished  by  a  frightful 
accident  which  he  met  with  on  first  leaving  Holland.    The 
keeper  of  the   stores   in   the  ship,  having  inadvertently 
given  out  white  lead  instead  of  flour,  it  was  mixed  with 
flour  and  used  for  making  pancakes,  of  which  the  whole 
crew   partook.      All   were   ill,   and   many  suffered   very 
severely  at  the  time,  but  none  was  so  bail  as  Thunberg"; 
he  only  gradually  recovered  his  health,  and  through  his 
long  life  always  laboured  under  the  debility  and  derange- 
ment his  system  had  thus  received.     He  returned  to  his 
native  country  in  1779,  making  first  a  short  stay  in  Eng- 
land.    Here  he  iormed  the  acquaintance  of  Sir  Joseph 
Banks,  Dryander,  and  Solander,  and  availed  himself  of  the 
extensive  collection  of  plants  from  all  parts  of  the  world, 
and  valuable  library  of  Sir  Joseph,   for  the  purpose    of 
adding  to  his  botanical  knowledge.    During  his  absence 
he  had  been  made  demonstrator  of   botany  at  Upsal   in 
1777,  and  in  1784  was  installed   in  the  chair  of  the  great 
Liniwus  as  professor  of  botany.      In  1785  he  was  made  a 
knight  of  the  order  of  Wasa,  and  in  1815  commander  of 
the  same  order. 

On  gaining  his  home,  Thunberg  immediately  com- 
menced arranging  the  vast  mass  of  materials  he  had  col- 
lected in  his  travels  for  the  purpose  of  publication.  His 
first  important  work  was  a  description  of  the  Japanese 
plants,  which  was  published  at  Leipzig  in  1784,  with  the 
title,  '  Flora  Japonica,  sistens  Plantas  Insularum  Japonica- 
rum,  secundum  Systema  Sexuale  emendatum,'  8vo.,  and 
illustrated  with  thirty-nine  engravings.  In  this  work  a 
great  number  of  new  plants  were  described  and  arranged 
according  to  the  Linnaean  system,  in  which  he  ventured  to 
dispense  with  the  three  classes  called  Monoscia,  Dioacia, 
and  Polyjramia.  He  subsequently  published  some  bota- 
nical observations  on  this  '  Flora,'  in  the  second  volume  of 
the  '  Transactions  '  of  the  Linnaean  Society. 

In  1788  he  commenced  the  publication  of  an  account  of 
his  travels,  under  the  title,  '  Resa  uti  Europa,  Africa,  Asia, 
forattad  aren   1770-1779,'   Upsal.,   8vo.     This   work  was 
completed  in  four  volumes,  and  contains  a  full  account  of 
his  eventful  life,  from  the  time  he  started  from  Upsal  with 
his  Kohrean  pension,  till  he  returned  to  the  same  place 
laden  with  treasures  from  a  hitherto  unexplored  region. 
In  these  volumes  he  has  taken  great  pains  to  collect  all 
possible  information  on  the  medicinal  and  dietetic  proper- 
ties of  plants  in  the  countries  he  visited,  as  well  as  their 
uses  in  rural  and  domestic   economy.     He   recommends 
al  new  plants  for  cultivation  in  Europe  as  substitutes 
for  those  in  present  use.    This  work  also  gives  a  simple 
and  pleasing  account  of  the  original  natives  of  the  places 
in  which  he  sojourned,  as  well  as  of  the  European  settlers. 
It  has  been  translated  into  German  by  Groskund,  and 
published  at  Berlin  in  1792.     It  appeared  in  English  at 
in  in  1793,  and  in  French  at  Paris  in  1796.    His  next 
work  was   a   '  Proilromus    Plantarum  Capensinm,   Annis 
1772-1775  eollectarum,'   Upsaliae,   1794-1800;    being    an 
account  of  the  plants  he  had  collected  at  the  Cape.    From 
to  ist)5  hi'  published  in  folio,  under  the  title  '  Icones 
arum  Japonicarum,'  Upsaliae,  a  series  of  plates  illus- 
(!  of  the  Botany  of  the,  Japan  Isles.     Tin- 
lowed  by  the  '  Flora  Capensis,'  Upsaliae,  1807-1-'!   «'•'>-     In 
thi»  work  the  most  complete  view  of  the  botany  of  the 


Cape  of  Good  Hope  is  given  that  has  hitherto  been  pub- 
lished. In  1807,  in  conjunction  with  Billberg,  he  pub- 
lished the  '  Plantarum Brasiliensium  Decas  Prima,'  Upsali.v;, 
4to.  In  this  work  the  plants  collected  by  Freireiss  arid 
SauerlUnder,  in  the  province  of  Minas  Gerae's  in  Brazil,  are 
described  ;  but  the  subsequent  parts  were  published  by 
other  hands. 

Besides  the  above  works,  on  which  the  reputation  of 
Thunberg  as  a  traveller  and  a  botanist  mainly  rests,  he  was 
the  author  of  almost  countless  memoirs  and  academical 
dissertations.  The  subjects  of  these  were  chiefly  those 
which  his  long  residence  in  Africa  and  Asia  atforded. 
The  majority  of  them  are  upon  botanical  topics,  not  a  few 
however  are  devoted  to  a  consideration  of  zoological  sub- 
jects. Although  botany  was  his  primary  object  in  his 
travels,  he  yet  lost  no  opportunity  of  obtaining  a  know- 
ledge of  the  new  animals  he  met  with,  and  several  of  his 
papers  are  descriptions  of  these.  He  published  several  me- 
moirs in  the  London  '  Philosophical  Transactions,'  and  the 
'  Transactions '  of  the  Linnsean  Society,  also  in  the  Trans- 
actions of  Russian,  German,  French,  and  Dutch  scientific 
Societies  and  Journals,  and  a  much  greater  number  in 
those  of  Sweden.  The  academical  dissertations  bearing 
his  name,  and  presented  at  the  university  of  Upsal,  are 
nearly  one  hundred  in  number,  and  were  published  be- 
tween the  years  1789  and  1813. 

Thunberg  was  elected  an  honorary  member  of  sixty-six 
learned  societies.  He  died  at  the  advanced  age  of  eighty- 
five,  on  the  8th  of  August,  1828. 

Retzius  named  a  genus  of  plants  in  the  natural  Order 
Aeanthaceae,  in  honour  of  him,  Thunbergia.  The  follow- 
ing genera  of  plants  have  species  named  after  him : — 
Ixia,  Isolepis,  Cyperus,  Imperata,  Spatalla,  Convolvulus, 
Campanula,  Gardenia,  Atriplex,  Hydrocotyle,  Rhus,  Cras- 
sula,  Berberis,  Erica,  Passerina,  Thalictrum,  Cocculus, 
Equisetum,  Hypnum,  Fissidens,  Cystoseira,  Gyalecta,  and 
Endocarpon.  Of  insects,  the  genera  Harpalus,  Lygeeus, 
Pyralis,  and  Tinea  have  specific  names  after  Thunberg. 

Thunberg  was  an  amiable  kind  man,  and  highly 
esteemed  by  his  friends  and  pupils.  The  great  additions 
that  he  has  made  to  our  knowledge  of  the  plants  of  the 
world,  as  well  as  their  uses  to  man,  place  him  amongst 
the  most  distinguished  botanists  of  the  last  and  present 
century.  He  was  not  great  as  a  vegetable  physiologist, 
nor  did  he  attempt  anything  more  in  systematic  botany 
than  a  slight  emendation  of  the  system  of  Linnaeus.  In 
this  he  was  followed  by  very  few  ;  and  those  who  at  the 
present  day  have  recourse  to  that  system  for  arranging 
plants,  generally  adopt  the  primitive  plan  of  Linnaeus. 
As  a  traveller,  Thunberg  is  remarkable  for  the  accuracy 
of  his  observations  on  the  manners,  habits,  and  domestic 
economy  of  the  people  that  he  visited. 

(BiscnotT, Lehrbuch  dcr  Botanik  ;  Resa  uti  Europa,  &e. ; 
Kongl.  Vetensk.  Acad.  Handlingar,  1829.) 

THUNDER  is  an  explosion  accompanied  by  a  loud 
noise,  which  is  heard  after  a  discharge  of  lightning  from 
the  clouds.  The  character  of  the  noise  is  variable :  it 
sometimes  resembles  that  which  is  produced  when  a  single 
piece  of  ordnance  is  fired;  at  other'times  it  is  a  rolling 
sound  like  the  successive  discharges  of  several  great 
guns  ;  and  occasionally  it  may  be  compared  to  a  series  of 
sharp  reports  from  a  fire  of  musketry. 

The  identity  of  lightning  with  the  electric  fluid  is  now 
well  known  [LIGHTNING],  but  the  physical  cause  of  the 
detonation  which  accompanies  the  flash  is  still  the  subject 
of  conjecture  ;  in  general  it  is  considered  that  lightning, 
by  its  heat,  creates  a  partial  vacuum  in  the  atmosphere. 
and  that  the  sudden  rushing  of  air  into  the  void  space- 
produces  the  sound;  but  various  reasons  have  been  as- 
signed for  its  prolongation.  It  was  formerly  supposed  that. 
the  rolling  noise  is  merely  the  result  of  several  echos 
caused  by  the  sound  being  reflected  from  mountains, 
woods,  buildings,  or  clouds,  or  from  the  latter  alone  when, 
a  thunder-storm  takes  place  over  the  ocean  :  this  opinion 
seems  to  have  been  founded  upon  the  fact  that  the  report 
of  a  fire-arm  discharged  in  a  mountainous  tract  is  prolonged 
by  the  echos  during  at  least  half  a  minute,  which  is  about 
the  time  that  the  rolling  of  thunder  continues.  But  though 
the  reflections  of  sound  are,  very  probably,  in  part,  or  at 
times,  the  causes  of  the  prolongation  of  the  report  arising 
from  the  explosion,  yet  it  must  be  admitted  that  these  will 
not  always  afford  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  pheno- 
mena. It  may  hapnen,  for  example,  that,  when  the  sky  is 

3G2 


T  H   U 


ua 


T  M  r 


uniformly  covered  \\ith  clouds,  a  fla-h  of  lightning  will 
durt  from  tin-  zenith,  ami,  after  a  !•  w  seconds,  (lit-  crash  of 
thuiuler  will  take  place  accompanied  by  n  rolling  sound  : 
MOO,  a  second  flash  may  pn-u  •  U  in  iln-  /.  mill 

and  thunder  may  follow,"  but  nnw  tlio  c-nu>h.  though  loud, 
may  not  be  prolonged.     It  is  justly  observed  In  M.  Arago 
that  this  u  very  different  from  the  phenomena 
and   the   explanation    which    was   iirst   proposed  by  Dr. 
Hooke  C  Posthumous  Work-.     .  hum  that  which 

pOSMSseathi  I,.:'.  -'  degree  of  piobabilnv .  Tin-  lla-h.  -  oi 
lightning,  I  >  <  s,  are  cither  simple  or  multiple: 

tin-  lii  -  but  une  small  portion  of  space,  uin! 

rise  to  an  i  i-  report  ;    the  multiple  tla-h  takes 

place  at  ditl'eiviit  parts  of  one  long  line:  n  thc-c  parts 
should  be  situated  in  a  circular  arc.  and  the  observer  should 
be  in  iu>  centre,  all  the  reports  would  arrive  at  his  car  at 
the  same  time,  and  still  one  loud  crash  only  would  be 
heard;  but  if  the  pails  were  nearly  in  a  straight  line,  and 
the  observer  were  at  one  of  its  extremities,  the  reports, 
whether  they  take  place  at  the  .same  instant  or  in  s 
Mon,  would  arrive  at  his  ear  at  different  times,  depending 
wholly  or  partly  on  the  distances.  It  may  be  MHUidereQ 
therefore  that  the  rolling  arises  from  the  circumstance 
that  the  points  of  explosion  are  at  different  distances  from 
the  observer;  and  it  will  follow  that  the  duration  of 
the  noise  is  equal  to  the  time  in  which  sound  travels 
through  nn  interval  equal  to  the  difference  between  the 
lengths  of  two  lines  drawn  from  the  observer  to  the  two 
uities  of  the  flash.  The  flush  of  lightning  and  the 
report  of  the  thunder  take  place  in  reality  at  the  same 
moment;  but  since  sound  travels  at  the  rate  of  IKK)  feet 
per  second,  while  the  passage  of  light  from  the  cloud  to 
the  observer  may  hi'  considered  as  instantaneous,  it  fol- 
lows that,  on  counting  the  number  of  seconds  which  elapse 
between  the  time  of  seeing  the  flash  and  hearing  the 
report,  the  distance  of  the  thunder-cloud  from  the  ob- 
may  be  ascertained  if  1100  feet  be  multiplied  by  that  num- 
ber of  seconds. 

The  experiment*  of  Lavoisier  and  La  Place  have  shown 
that  the  molecules  of  water,  in  evaporating,  convey  away 
from  the  earth  a  portion  of  the  electricity  which  It  con- 
tains, and  which  the  water  has  acquired  in  being  converted 
into  vapour.  This  electricity  becomes  diffused  in  the  upper 
regions  of  the  atmosphere,  and,  when  the  vapours  again 
become  condensed  so  as  to  form  globules  ot  water,  the 
electricity  disposes  itself  on  the  surface  of  the  globules  in 
different  quantities  according  to  their  magnitudes,  When 
these  globules  have  equal  volumes,  those  quantities  are 
equal ;  and,  an  equilibrium  then  subsisting  with  respect  to 
electricity,  no  sensible  ett'ect  is  produced:  but  when  a  con- 
siderable difference  takes  place  between  the  quantities  of 
electricity  on  the  different  globules,  the  tendency  of  that 
element  to  return  to  a  state  of  equilibrium  causes  it  to 
pan  rapidly  in  flashes  from  those  globules  which  have 
more,  to  those  which  have  less,  than  their  mean  quantity  : 
and  thus,  if  the  condensation  be  great  and  take  place  sud- 
denly, vivid  flashes  of  lightning  and  loud  peals  of  thunder 
may  take  place.  The  effect  is  probably  the  greatest  when 
two  masses  of  clouds  in  opposite  states  of  electricity  are 
carried  rapidly  against  one  another  by  winds  blowing  in 
contrary  direction!. 

An  opinion  prevails  that  thunder  has  been  heard  when 
the  sky  was  without  a  cloud,  but  the  fact  can  scarcely  be 
said  to  be  satisfactorily  established  :  for  the  sounds  which, 
in  countries  subject  to  earthquakes,  have  been  supposed  to 
be  thunder,  proceed  from  under  the  ground,  and  may  result 
from  a  different  cause.    Volm-y  however  relates  that,  being 
one  day  at  Pontchartrain  near  Versailles,  when  no  cloud 
was  visible,  he  heard  distinctly  four  or  five  claps  of  thun- 
der: he  adds  that  about  an  hour  afterwards  the  sk\  1 
overcast,  and  a  violent  hail-storm  followed.  On  this  relation 
M.  Arago  observes  that  the  sounds  could  not  have 
heard  if  they  had  come  from  clouds  at  a  greater  distance 
than  six  leagues;   and  if  the  clouds  bad  been  at,  or  a  little 
within,  tliat  distance,  they  must  have  been  v  isible,  unless  it 
be  supposed  that  they  were  not  more  than  a  few 
fhe  ground:   but  the' hail  which  followed  the  thunder  must 
have  proceeded  from  clouds  having  great  elevation,  though 
at  the  time  the  chips  were  heard  they  were  too  rein 
allow  any  sound  I'mm  them  to  reach  the  ear;  and  th. 
he  concludes  that  the  sounds  must  have  been  . 
the  air  itself.  For  an  account  of  death  caused  bv  electricity 
in  the  air  when  the  thunder-cloud  was  very  distant,  and 


for  the  theory  of  the  retumn 

•-!,<, m.  \ol.  Ixx. 
From  the  meteorological  i 

by,  and  Captains  I'ln;  :  pean  that 

neither  thunder  nor  lightning  u  known  to  • 
\ond  the  7i>th  degree  of  north  latitude  :  cv 
7dth  i1  e  phenomena  are  very  rare  ;    and  in  the 

tables  of  Captain  Parry    the  o.  l    thunder   and 

lightning  U  mentioned   hut  once  bctwun  June.   1821,  and 
September,  1KH.     < '.iptam  Fr.uikhn  also,   in  UTi°  N. 
beard  thunder  on  one  day  only  between  September, 
and  August.   IK.'(i. 

THrM>KK-KOI),  a  bar  of  metal  attached  generally  to 
aside  of  a  building,  and  extending  from  below  the  level  of 
the  ground  to  a  point  several  fi-et  above  the  higln-' 
of  the  roof,  or  of  the  steeple,  if  the  buildi!  ie,  in 

order  to  secure  the  edifice  from  the  effect-  of  thiiiii 
lightning:  the  upper  extremity  of  the  rod  or  bar  term; 
in  a  point. 

When  a  thunder-cloud  passes  above  an  elevated  oi 
it  produces  in  the  nearest  part   of  the   object   the  k: 
electricity  which  is  opposite  to  that  of  the  cloud  its. 
that  a  rapid  and  abundant  communication  take*   ] 
cither  the  electric  matter  in  the  cloud  rushes  towards  (In- 
earth, or  that  of  the  earth  rushes  towards  the  cloud  :  and  if 
the  materials  of  the  building  are  not  good  coi. 
the  fluid,  the  latter  in  its  passage  exerts  an  explosive  action 
IA  which  the  building  is  destroyed  or  greatlj  injured.  The 
thunder-rod,  from  the  conducting  property  of  its  metallic' 
substance,   selves   to    convey    the   fluid    harmlessly  to  tin- 
earth  or  air.     When  it  has  happened  that  there 'is  an  in- 
terruption of  the  communication,  by  the  rod  being  bi 
or  even  by  being  much  diminished  in  magnitude  in 
part  of  its  length,  the  electric  fluid  has  been  observed  to 
pass  between  the  parts  of  the  rod  above  and  below  the 
place  of  fracture. 

Buffon,  and  Dalibard,  at  bis  suggestion  <  IT")-  .  appear 
to  have  been  the  first  persons  who  drew  lightning  from  the 
atmosphere  by  means  of  pointed  rods  of  imlal  :  and  in  (he 
following  year  M.  de  Romas  elevated  a  paper  kite  to  the 
height  of  iVH)  feet  for  the  like  purpose:  this  was  about 
twelve  months  before  Dr.  Franklin,  without  any  know- 
ledge of  what  had  been  done  in  Europe,  performed  the 
like  experiment  in  America.  The  object  of  the  French 
pliilosoplu  rely  to  obtain  by  tho-i-  m- 

trieal  sparks  or  flashes  of  fire  ;  but  it  is  to  Dr.  Franklin 
that  the  world  is  indebted  for  the  idea  of  raising  pointed 
rods  in  order  to  secure  buildings  from  the  effects  of  atmo- 
spherical electricity;  and  the  recommendation  was  imme- 
diately adopted  both  for  edifices  on  land  and  ships  on  tin- 
water. 

Soon   after   the   first    employment   of  thunder-rods   in 
Europe, an  opinion  prevailed  that  when  their  extrei 
were   pointed   thev  created   a  danger  which   did   not  exi-t 
before,  and  that   they  attracted  lightnings  which  would, 
without  the  rods,  have  discharged  themselves  at  a  diet 
and  in  order  to  diminish  the  risk,  it  was  proposed  to  crown 
the  .summits  of  the  roils  with  knobs  or  balls  of  metal.  This 
notion    vva.-  entertained  by  the    Abbe   Nollet,    in   France; 
but  in  the  Royal  -Ion  the  question  concern- 

ing the  relative  efficacies  of  pointed  and  knobbed  con- 
ductors was  agitated  with  great  vehemence,  chiefly  through 
the  obstinacy  of  Mr.  Wilson,  one  of  the  Fellow-,  who,  in 
1TTS,  made  himself  the  head  of  a  party  in  support  of  tin- 
latter  kind  of  conductors,  in  opposition  to  the  president. 
!  1'nisiji.r.,  JOHN.]  It  is  remarkable  that  both  George  III. 
of  F.nglaud  and  Frederick  of  Prussia  placed  thein-elves  on 
the  side  of  the  opponents  of  Franklin;  the  first  king 
giving  the  preference  to  balls  over  points,  and  tin-  , 
while  he  consented  to  have  conductors  raised  on  hi- 
racks  and  powder-magazines,  prohibited  the  enrti 
them  on  his  palace  of  Sans  Souci.  It  is  now  admitted  that 
the  prejudice  against  pointed  thunder-rods  was  entirely 
without  foundation  :  those  conductor  ha\  e  been  found  not 
only  to  protect  buildings  when  struck,  but  also  to  diminish 
the  number  of  shocks  which  in  a  given  time  the\  have  ex- 
perienced. An  experiment  which  was  made  b\  \\^  ecaria, 
in  IT">:l.  might  have  shown  the  superiority  of  pointed  con- 
ductors over  those  with  balls  :  for  that  distingni.-hcd  elec- 
trician set  up  on  the  roof  of  the  church  c.:  San  (Jiovanni, 
at  Turin,  a  metallic  rod  bent  near  the  top  and  terminating 
in  a  point:  the  upper  part  was  capable  0  lirned 

round  by  means  of  a  silk  line,  so  that  the  point  could  be 


T  H  U 


413 


T  H  U 


directed  upwards  or  downwards  at  pleasure,  and  the  lowei 
part  of  the  rod  terminated  upon  substances  which  were 
imperfect  conductors  of  electricity.  On  directing  the 
point  towards  the  sky  when  a  thunder-cloud  passed  over 
the  church,  electrical  sparks  issued  in  abundance  from 
the  foot  of  the  rod ;  but  when  the  point  of  the  rod  was  re- 
versed so  that  the  bend  was  upwards,  few  or  none  were 
obtained.  The  conducting-rod  set  up  by  Professor  Rich- 
man,  at  St.  Petersburg,  may  be  said  to  have  been  the 
cause  of  his  death  (in  1753)  ;  but  the  house  would  most 
probably  have  been  struck  if  there  had  been  no  conductor. 
The  immediate  cause  of  the  melancholy  accident  was  that 
the  rod  led  into  the  apartment,  and  the  unfortunate  Pro- 
fessor was  standing  too  near  its  lower  extremity.  (Phil. 
Tmns.,  vol.  xlviii.) 

Some  doubt  however  still  exists  concerning  the  distance 
to  which  the  protecting  influence  of  the  rod  extends,  but 
it  is  generally  supposed  that  this  influence  is  limited  by 
the  circumference  of  a  circle  described  about  the  rod  with 
a  radius  equal  to  double  its  height  above  the  top  of  the 
building. 

When  the  magazine  at  Purfleet  was  struck  by  lightning 
in  1777,  the  shock  took  place  on  an  iron  cramp  which 
united  two  stones  of  the  cornice,  at  the  distance  of  24  feet 
from  the  thunder-rod,  measured  horizontally ;  and  the 
upper  extremity  of  the  rod  was  11  feet  above  the  top  of 
the  roof  on  which  it  was  erected.  Again,  in  1781,  the 
workhouse  at  Heckingham  in  Norfolk,  though  provided 
with  eight  rods,  was  si  nick  by  lightning  at  a  spot  which 
was  distant  5."i  feet  measured  horizontally  from  the  nearest 
rod,  while  the  pointed  summit  of  the  latter  was  22  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  part  struck  ;  and  many  other  in- 
stances might  be  cited  in  confirmation  of  the  supposition. 
It  may  be  inferred  therefore  that  large  buildings  ought  to 
be  secured  by  several  rods,  and  that  the  less  these  are 
elevated  the  greater  ought  to  be  their  number ;  also  that 
no  point  of  the  building  ought  to  be  at  a  greater  horizontal 
distance  from  the  nearest  rod  than  twice  the  height  of  the 
rod  above  the  top  of  the  building.  Mr.  Cavendish,  Dr. 
Priestley,  and  other  English  philosophers,  recommend  them 
to  stand  10  feet  above  the  roof;  but  in  France  their 
height  is  sometimes  more  than  30  feet. 

The  most  elevated  objects  are  not  always  those  which 
are  struck  by  lightning ;  for  in  1829,  the  sails  of  a  mill  at 
Toothill  in  Essex  being  at  rest,  the  electric  fluid  left  un- 
touched the  arm,  which  was  in  a  vertical  position,  and  fell 
on  a  knob  of  iron  at  the  middle  of  one  of  those  which  wits 
inclined  to  the  horizon  in  an  angle  of  45° ;  and  it  has  fre- 
quently happened  that  buildings  containing  in  their  walls 
conducting  substances  have  been  struck  much  below  their 
summits  by  a  lateral  action  of  the  fluid;  bars  or  plates  of 
metal  in  the  side  walls  having  served  to  attract  it  more 
powerfully  than  the  materials  on  the  roof.  This  happened 
to  the  cathedral  at  Lausanne  in  1783. 

In  order  that  the  points  of  rods  may  not  become  blunt 
by  rust,  they  are  generally  made  of  copper  and  covered 
with  gilding ;  but  it  appears  to  be  the  practice  of  late  to 
make  the  upper  part  of  the  rod  of  platinum,  this  metal 
being  not  only  unaffected  by  the  corrosive  power  of  the 
air  or  rain-water,  but  also  incapable  of  fusion  by  heat.  As 
the  erection  of  a  thunder-rod  requires  in  general  an  ex- 
pensive scaffolding,  the  latter  metal,  even  though  more 
costly  than  iron  or  copper,  will  from  its  durability  be  in 
reality  more  economical  than  either  of  the  others. 

Thunder-rods  are  frequently  made  to  terminate  at  the 
upper  extremity  with  one  point  in  a  vertical  position,  and 
about  this  a  number  of  points  diverge  from  the  rod  at  dif- 
ferent inclinations  to  the  horizon :  by  this  construction 
there  is  not  only  a  probability  that  some  of  the  points  will 
be  acute  when  others  may  have  been  blunted  by  the  action 
of  the  atmosphere,  but  also  among  them  there  will  always 
be  one  which  presents  itself  in  the  most  favourable  posi- 
tion for  attracting  the  electric  fluid.  Observations  have 
not  yet  however  been  sufficiently  multiplied  to  enable  phi- 
losophers to  decide  whether  conductors  so  terminated  have 
any  advantage  over  the  more  simple  rods  of  Franklin. 

The  thunder-rod  should  be  thick  enough  to  carry  the 
electric  fluid  to  the  ground  without  being  melted  by  it ; 
in  general  a  cylindrical  rod  about  half  an  inch  in  diameter 
will  be  sufficient  to  prevent  this  effect  from  taking  pi. 
whether  of  iron  or  copper,  it  should  be  covered  above 
ground  with  a  coating  of  paint  ;  and  the  part  undur  ground 
u  usually  formed  with  two  or  more  branches  in  order  to 


facilitate  the  passage  of  the  electric  fluid  into  the  earth. 
It  must  be  observed  however  that,  if  the  lower  part  of  an 
iron  thunder-rod  descends  into  water,  it  is  liable  to  become 
corroded  by  rust  ;  and  a  dry  soil  is  not  a  good  conductor 
of  electricity.  On  the  Continent  it  has  been  the  practice 
to  let  the  lower  part  of  the  rod  enter  into  a  pit  filled  with 
ashes  of  burnt  wood  or  powdered  coke.  If  the  rod  is 
made  of  a  kind  of  metal  which  does  not  become  corroded 
in  water,  its  lower  extremity  may  be  allowed  to  enter 
about  three  feet  below  the  surface  :  the  water  should  be 
that  of  a  natural  pond,  for,  if  it  be  in  an  artificial  reservoir, 
the  walls  of  the  latter,  being  sometimes  formed  of,  or 
covered  with,  conducting  substances,  may  prevent  the 
electric  fluid  from  diffusing  itself  in  the  earth. 

When  a  building  is  provided  with  several  rods,  each  of 
these  should  be  continued  quite  to  the  ground :  at  the 
level  of  the  parapet  the  several  rods  should  be  connected 
together  laterally  by  slender  iron  bars  ;  and  the  plates  of 
iron  which  enter  into  the  construction  of  roofs  should  in 
like  manner  have  a  metallic  communication  with  each 
other.  As  the  thunder-rod  is  necessarily  made  to  follow 
the  outline  of  a  cornice  and  roof,  the  part  below  that 
which  projects  above  the  roof  may  be  made  of  metallic 
cords,  in  order  to  avoid  the  formation  of  angles  in  its 
length  ;  for  experience  has  shown  that  lightning  in  de- 
scending a  rod  has  quitted  the  latter  at  its  angles,  and, 
after  passing  through  the  air,  has  struck  objects  which 
were  situated  in  the  line  of  its  first  direction.  In  the  ex- 
pectation of  being  able  to  attract  the  lightning  entirely 
away  from  powder-magazines,  or  any  building  containing 
explosive  materials,  thunder-rods  have  been  attached  to 
masts  at  the  distance  of  a  few  yards  from  the  building : 
this  practice  has  many  advocates,  and  the  only  objection  to 
it  is,  that  it.  is  attended  with  considerable  expense. 

Many  lofty  buildings  contain  in  their  construction  the 
means  of  securing  them  from  the  effects  of  lightning,  and 
such  is  the  case  with  the  Monument  on  Fish-Street  Hill ; 
this  building,  whose  height  is  more  than  200  feet,  is 
crowned  with  a  metallic  ball  surrounded  by  bands  which 
terminate  in  points  tending  upwards.  From  the  ball 
descend  four  bars  of  iron  which  serve  to  support  a  flight  of 
steps,  of  the  same  metal,  and  one  of  them  is  in  connection 
with  the  iron  railing  which  extends  from  the  balcony  to 
the  ground.  In  1764  lightning  struck  the  steeple  of  St. 
Bride's  Church  in  Fleet  Street,  and  descended  from  thence 
along  an  iron  bar  about  20  feet  in  length  and  two  inches 
in  breadth,  which  was  almost  buried  in  the  stones  :  the 
electric  fluid  left  no  traces  of  its  passage  along  this  bar, 
but  at  the  place  where  the  metal  terminated  the  damage 
commenced,  the  stones  being  destroyed  or  thrown  to  a  con- 
siderable distance.  A  similar  accident  has  this  summer 
(1842)  occurred  to  the  church  of  St.  Martin  in  Westminster. 

A  ship  at  sea,  like  an  edifice  on  land,  may,  when  there 
is  an  accumulation  of  electric  matter  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  atmosphere,  be  struck  alofl ;  or,  when  the  atmosphere 
is  in  a  contrary  state,  the  lower  part  of  the  ship  may  be 
struck,  the  lightning  in  the  latter  case  ascending  along  the 
mast :  and  ships  unfurnished  with  metallic  conductors 
have  frequently  suffered  serious  injury  during  thunder- 
storms, while  those  which  have  been  so  provided  have  ge- 
nerally escaped.  When  Captain  Cook  was  at  Batavia, 
lightning  fell  on  the  sliip  with  such  force  that  the  shock 
resembled  an  earthquake  ;  the  conductor,  which  was  very 
slender,  appeared  to  be  on  fire  from  the  mast-head  to  the 
sea,  yet  no  damage  was  done  to  the  ship.  In  1814,  while 
a  great,  storm  raged  at  Plymouth,  of  all  the  ships  then  in 
port  only  one  was  struck  by  lightning,  and  this  alone  was 
not  provided  with  conductors.  And  in  the  roads  at  Corfu, 
three  violent  flashes  struck  the  ship  Etna,  which  had  conduc- 
tors, without  doing  any  injury,  while  two  ships  not  far  dis- 
tant, being  destitute  of  such  protection,  were  much  damaged. 

The  rigid  bars  of  Franklin  are  oonsidered  inapplicable, 
as  conductors,  to  ships,  and  instead  of  them  chains  of 
copper  have  been  generally  employed  ;  these  are  attached 
to  the  masts  at  their  upper  extremities  ;  and,  following  the 
standing  rigging,  they  pass  down  the  ship's  sides  into  the 
water.  Objections  have  been  made  to  them  on  account  of 
their  want  of  continuity,  and  their  liability  to  be  injured  or 
broken  during  storms  ;  and  copper  links  attached  to  the 
masts  by  flexible  spiral  wires  were  suggested  by  Mr.  Singer. 
M.  le  Roy  also  recommended  a  chain  of  copper  rings 
which  were  to  encircle  the  main-topmast  backstay ;  but 
neither  of  these  methods  has  been  put  in  practice.  In 


T  ii  r 


414 


T  II    I 


Mr.    Snow    Harris   proposed  (•  ()b»e  >  the 

ng  on  Float  me  I  ' -ntly 

d  to  be  executed  for  ships,  conductor*  consisting  of 
i  sufficient  thickness  to  prevent  them  from 
being  fused;   those  slips  are  inserted,  in  two  layen.  in  a 
groov  itudinally  along  the  mast,  the  joints  < 

layer  the  middle  purls  of  the  other,  and 

:ire  fastened  to   the    nut-'  The 

whole  hue  of  metal  passe*  down  from  the  ce,pp,-r  spindle 
at  the  top  of  the  mast-head,  and  at  the  junctions  of  the 
upper  and  lower  masts  the  slip  is  made  to  join  a  cylinder 
of  copper  which  lines  each  sheave-hole:  the.  lower  part  of 
the  line  is  connected  with  :i  plate  of  copper  which  i- 
on  the  keelson,  at  the  step,  and  from  thence  then*  is  a  com- 
munication with  the  three  copper  bolts  which 
past)  quite  through  the  keel. 

THURGAU,  a  canton  of  Switzerland,  hounded  on  the 
north  partly  by  the  lak<-  .d  parUrBytb* 

Rhine,  which  divides  it  from  thu  canton  of  Schatthau-cn  : 
on  the  east  and  south  by  the  canton  of  St.  Gullen,  ami  on 
the  west  by  that  of  Zurich.    The  river  Thur,  which  • 
from  the  canton  of  St.  Gallon  and  is  joined  by  tlu 
from  Appenzell,  has  given  its  name  to  the  canton  'Thur- 
iraii.'  or  •  district  of  the  Thur,'  the  river  crossing  the  middle 
part  of  it  from  east  to  west,     The  N;H  Thur  is  se- 

parated from  the  basin  of  the  ln!> 

siou  of  lulls  which  i!  ices  on  both  Miles,  and  are 

intersecteel  -1   \allcys.     On   the  south  and   west 

aides  other  hills  divide  the  Thin-gnu  from  the  valley  of  the 
Toss  in  the  canton  of  Zurich.  The  whole  country  belongs 
to  the  plateau  or  table-land  of  Switzerland,  and  is  a  con- 
siderable distance  from  the  Alpine  region.  The  clu; 
the  Thurgau  is  comparatively  mild  :  a  great  part  of  the 
country  is  planted  witli  fruit-trees,  especially  apple,  pear, 
and  cherry:  the  vine  also  thrives  in  several  localities. 
The  produce  of  corn  is  not  sufficient  for  the  consumption. 

•  .dim;  to  a  late  return,  there  were  in  Thurgau  about 
28,000  head  of  horned  cattle,  3TXX)  sheep  and  goats,  and 
2550  hones.  The  rivers  and  the  lake  abound  with  fish. 
The  area  of  the  canton  is  estimated  at  about  IJGo  English 
square  miles;  and  the  population  in  !S3Ti  was  84.12-1  inha- 
bitants, of  whom  about  66.000  follow  the  tenets  of  the 
Reformed  or  Protestant  communion,  and  the  rest  are 
Roman  Catholu  "i  is  the  language  of  the  coun- 

try. About  one-third  of  the  population  is  employed  in 
trade  and  manufactures.  The  principal  manufactures  cem- 
sist  of  cotton  poods,  in  which  above  3000  looms  are  em- 
ployed. The  average  wanes  of  a  workman  are  about  7J 
batxen,  or  eleven  pence  sterling  per  day.  About  3000  , 
of  tine  linen  from  native  t\;i\  are  made  annually  :  but  this 
manufacture  is  on  the  decline.  There  are  also  spinning- 
factonus  which  produce  yarns  ,  ,  the.  quality  from  Xo.  40 
to  00.  The  tariff'  of  the  (ierman  commercial  league  has 
much  diminished  the  exportation  of  manufactured  goods 
Some  silks  are  manufactured  for  the  French  market.  The 
other  exuort.s  consist  of  wine,  cattle,  oats,  dried  fnu 
cider.  The  principal  imports  are — iron  and  metal  ware 
in  England;  coarse  woollen  goods  from  (ie-i 
maiiy  .  fine  woollen  from  France  and  Delirium:  fine  cottoi 
yam  :  salt  from  Bavaria  and  \Yiirtcrabcrg 

The  revenue  of    th-  •   about     1  Oil  XX 

florin-,  or  K.VXI/.  sterling,  and  is  deiu.-d  from  ehr 
salt  an-1  other  articles  imported,  stamps,  transfers  of  pro- 
perty, and  an  income' 

mention  has   be-cu   ini])roved  of  late  • 
There  arc  abwr  u  of  which  nrc  for  I' 

tanU,  58  for  He. man  ( '.ithohe-s.  and  six  mixed  of  both  coin 
munions.     About  17,000  children  attend  the  i 
school  for  teachers  has  been  established  at  Kreiit/h 

Thai*  is  a  fund,  the  capital  of  which  amounts  to  abou 
half  a  million  of  florins,  for  the  -.nppi.it  of  the  JKIOI-.  be 
•We»  -'e  it  a  small  poor's;  rate  on  property.  Tin 

annual   expendituie    for  tin-   pour  van.-,  from    l.">.000  to 
30,000  HoniH.     There  is  a  special   fund  I'm-  I. 
sJso  a  benevolent  fund.     Switzerland  in  general  is  a 
try  remarkabl.  :,it. 

Thurgau    it    divided  -Krauenfrld. 

Steck- 

•aenhofrn.     'I'he   ;•!  'tin  are — 1. 

Krauenfrld,  which  i*  the  h.  ad  town  of  the 
in  a  fertile  valley  near  the  eon!' 
wrth  th*  Thur.     It  consists  of  162 


mildings,   formi  '-;    the    inhabitants 

iinount    to    about     1300.     '!  'a-rlv     the 

esiilelii'e    of  the  '  .:au  ; 

he  town-house,  where  the    Helvetic  diet  used  to  Msenblt) 

n  the  time  of  the  e>ld  e  :  and  the 

iiomuii  Catholic  clum-he*,  are-  the  chief 

mildiii  -••eckborn,  a  small   busy  town   pleasantly 

situaleel  on  the   b.mks  of  the  '/,<  :  L.isin  of 

he-  la!,  iiice-,  has  M'\  eral  mm, 

1900  inbabiUnts,  Int!  irhoodofs  ,the. 

line  e  e-  called  ArenalxTir.  which  wan  pur- 

e-base ii  ,'lune' 

Ueauharnais    and   wife    of   Loin  \-Kini;   of 

Holland,  and   in    which   she   died   in    l*i! 
heil'cn.   on   the   left  or  southern   bank   of  the    Rhine-, 

rable  trade  in  agricultural   produce,  unel 
bout  1000  inhabitants.     4.     Hi-  the  cem- 

e-ne'e'  of  the-  Sitter  ami  the  Thur,  is  a  walled  town,  with 
a  collegiate  church  of  the  ninth  century,  an  old  ca- 
lontr  biidire  on  the  Thur,  sv\einl  schools,  and  about  lot") 
inhabitants.      ',.  Arbon,   a   small   town   em  the- 
bank  of  the  Bexlensee,  or  i  nitaaee,  of  which  it 

enjoys  a  splendid  view,  is  KIH!  te>  be  built  on  the  site  of  a 
Roman  station  i.  lii. 

Thu  canton  of  Thin  ile'inocracy 

with  a  legislative  assembly,  -Grosser  R;ith,'  and  an  c\ 
I.    '  Kleiner    Rath.'     The   right    of   votin:: 
elections  of  members  of  the  legislature  is  subject  to   - 
qualifications;  but  by  the  last  accounts  we  have  seen  the 
constitution  was  undergoing  a  revisal. 

tionnaire  (jrn^r<i),h  :iquedelii 

:  J.  Bow-ring's  Report  on  the  Commerce  und  Muitti- 
.'•x  <f  Sicitzerlana.) 

THttRINGER  \VAI.D.     [GHRMANY:  PRT-SSIA.] 
THt'RINGIA  (Thurinsi'ii  <  is  the  antient  name  of  an 
ive  tract  of  country  in  the  central  part  of  Germany, 
situated    between    the  Han    Mountains,   the   ri 
and  Werra,  and  the  Thiiringcrwald.     These-   luiuevcr  an- 
not  the  boundaries  of  the  great  Kingdom  of  Thi'irinuia. 
which  extended  to  the  Elbe,  and  northwards  nearly  to 
deburp.  southwards   to  the   vicinity  of  the  Danube,  and 
--bended  on  the  west  the-  greater  part  of  the  country 
afterwards  called  Franconia.    It  cunnot  be  positively  M 
tained  what  people  originall  IThnringia.  Ace 

ing  to  (lale-tti,  it  was  formerly  inhabited  b;  :  ac- 

coreliriL'    to    F.  \Vachter   and  Wilhelm,    by  the  Cheruse-i. 

ins  mentions  the  Thoringi  about  the  year  -KM.  \-.-. 
conjectures  have  been  made  respecting  the-  derivation  of 
the  name  ;    and  author*,  misled  b\  a  similarity  of  m: 
have  confounded  them  with   others.     The   history  of  the 
count-  and    h;is   hee-n    the   subjee 

numerous  work's,  such  •  of  Thurir 

:  and  \\  ae-hte-r's  History,  in  3  \ols.     Thin 
gave   the    title   of  m.  to   the-    elector   ol 

:  ly  speaking,  there  is  no  country  now  called  Thu- 
rhiL'ia  :  '  it     is     elivi.le'el     amonir     Pru-sia.     S;i\e--\Veim:u-. 

Ichwaxburg-Sonderhausen,    and  Ke-hwarr- 
burg-Rudolstadt.      The  name  is  still    jM-e-scrve-el   in  Tln'i- 
.•..-\!e!,   a    continuation    of  the    Fichte'lirebirge'.  tiom 
which    it   bmnches  out  near  Miinchberg  anil  < 
the-    kingdom    of    Ha\aria:    ne'nr  Kise-nae-li.   Marksuli1. 
Salzuniren    it    rises   above    the   \Venathal  ;    runs    sonth- 
leini:   the-  frontier  of  the  former   circle's  ,,t'  Vppe-r 
Saxony    and     Fraiu-emia,    till     it    turns,    n,  -tein, 

however  it  rece-i\e-s  the-   imnie- 

of    l-'ranke-nwald  ,  and   decline"-,    near   Kmnnch.  intei    the- 
Maintti.il.      The'    length    is    7n    F.nglish    miles,    and   its 
from    '.I   to    IN   miles.      It    covers   nbmit 
:tl(Ml  se|uare-  miles,  ami  has  a   j  of  'J'JIKX: 

in  'JH  te)wiis  anel  ">70  villa:.'!1-.      It  i<  . 
mountain-chain  with  a  nam  mel  it  is  only  near  the 

Schiieeko]if.  e>n  the  road  between  Suhl  and  Ohrdnif.  tint 
is  a  pl.itcnu  two  or  three   mi!  'Hi.-  two 

:    punts   arc   the-  Schneckopf.   'JTtlO   !<•<•<.    and    the 
•_t«)l    feet,   above   tt 

'•''<••  nn<1  princi- 

sin,rmi!    with  'pinc-forrsts,  mixed   in   n    fi  with 

Ihis  chain, 
\\hichilowon  one  side  into  th  i   mi  the-  other 


Stein's 
•in.) 


Hrock 


T  II  II 


415 


T  II  U 


THURLOE,  JOHN,  who  held  the  office  of  secretary  of 
state  during  the  Commonwealth,  was  born  in  1616,  at 
Abbots  Roding,  in  Essex,  of  which  place  his  father,  the 
Rev.  Thomas  Thurloe,  was  rector.  He  was  designed  for 
the  profession  of  the  law.  Through  the  interest  of  Oliver 
St.  John,  who  was  his  patron  through  life,  he  was  ap- 
pointed, in  1045,  one  of  the  secretaries  to  the  parliament 
commissioners  for  conducting  the  treaty  of  Uxbridge.  He 
was  called  to  the  bar  after  this,  in  1647,  by  the  society  of 
Lincoln's  Inn;  and  in  March,  1048,  he  received  the 
appointment  of  receiver  or  clerk  of  the  cursitors'  fines, 
'  worth  at  least  350/.  per  annum,'  says  Whitelocke;  '  and 
m  this  place  was  Mr.  Thurloe  sen-ant  to  Mr.  Solicitor  St. 
John.'  (Afrmoriafx,  p.  296.) 

Thurloe  has  left  behind  him  a  distinct  denial  of  know- 
ledge of  or  participation  in  King  Charles's  death,  which 
took  place,  as  is  well  known,  in  January,  1649.  Writing 
to  Sir  Harbottle  Grimston  for  the  purpose  of  contradicting 
reports  that  St.  John  had  been  Cromwell's  counsellor  on 
that  and  on  other  occasions,  and  '  that  I  was  the  medium 
or  hand  between  them  by  which  their  counsels  were  com- 
municated to  each  other,'  he  says,  '  I  was  altogether  a 
stranger  to  that  fact  and  to  all"  the  counsels  about  it, 
having  not  had  the  least  communication  with  any  person 
whatsoever  therein.'  (Thurloe's  State  Papers,  vol.  vii., 
p.  014. )  It  was  very  unlikely  that  a  person  in  Thurloe's 
subordinate  position  at  that  "time  should  have  been  con- 
.-ulted  ;  and  if  it  were  :i  question  of  any  importance  whe- 
ther he  approved  of  the  king's  death  or  not,  his  subse- 
quent continual  identification  with  the  authors  of  that 
event  is  more  than  sufficient  to  fix  him  with  responsibility. 

On  the  llth  of  February,  1650,  Thurloe  was  appointed 
one  of  the  officers  of  the  treasury  of  the  Company  of  un- 
dertakers for  draining  Bedford  Level,  a  new  effort  to  drain 
this  tract  of  country  having  been  set  on  foot  the  year 
before.  [BEDFORD  LEVEL.]  In  a  letter  from  St.  John  to 
Thurloe,  dated  April  13,  1652  (Staff  Papers,  vol.  i.,  p. 
•3).";  .  which  is  interesting  as  showing  the  terms  on  which 
Thurloe  and  St.  John  were,  we  find  that  Thurloe  was  then 
on-an  official  tour  of  inspection  :  '  Now  you  are  upon  the 
place,  it  would  be  well  to  see  all  the  works  on  the  north 
of  Bedford  river  to  be  begun.  Pray  by  the  next  let  me 
know  whether  Bedford  river  be  finished  as  to  the  bottom- 
ing.' In  the  same  letter  are  directions  from  St.  John,  now 
lord-chief-justice,  for  the  purchase  of  a  place  for  him  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  London,  from  which  it  would  appear 
that  Thurloe  v.as  in  the  habit  of  managing  St.  John's 
private  affairs  for  him.  The  same  letter  contains  St.  John's 
congratulations  to  Thurloe  on  his  appointment  as  secretary 
to  I  tie  council  of  state,  which  appointment  had  just  taken 
place :  '  I  hear  from  Sir  Hen.  Vaync,  and  otherwise,  of 
your  election  into  Mr.  Frost's  place,  with  the  circumstances. 
God  forbid  I  should  in  the  least  repine  at  any  his  works  of 
,  ulence,  much  more  at  those  relating  to  your  own  good, 
and  the  sood  of  many.  No,  I  bless  him.  As  soon  as  I 
heard  the  news,  in  what  concerned  you,  I  rejoiced  in  it 
upon  those  grounds.  No,  go  on  and  prosper:  let  not 
your  hands  faint :  wait,  upon  Him  in  his  ways,  and  he  that 
'hath  called  you  will  cause  his  presence  and  blessing  to  go 
along  with  \ •<)«.'  In  the  course  of  the  previous  year,  1651, 
Thurloe  had"  been  to  the  Hague,  as  secretary to  St.  John  and 
Strickland,  ambassadors  t  o  the  states  of  the  United  Provinces. 

When  Cromwell  assumed  the  Protectorship,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1653,  Thurloe  was  appointed  his  secretary  of  state. 
In  consequence  of  his  attaining  to  this  distinction,  he  was, 
in  the  February  succeeding,  elected  a  bencher  of  the 
society  of  Lincoln's  Inn.  Thurloe  was  elected  member  for 
the  Isle  of  Ely  in  Cromwell's  second  parliament,  called  in 
June,  1634,  and  framed  on  the  model  prescribed  by  the 
Instrument  of  Government.  He  was  re-elected  for  the  Isle 
of  F.ly  in  the  next  parliament,  called  in  September,  1056. 
Cromwell  obtained  from  this  parliament  an  act  settling 
the  office  of  post  of  letters,  both  inland  and  foreign,  in 
;>>r  ever,  and  granting  power  to  the  Protector  to 
for  eleven  years  at  such  rent  as  he  should  judge 
.nable  ;  and  it  was  let  by  him  to  Thurloe,  at  a  rent  of 
4000'.  a  veur,  as  we  learn  from  a  memorandum  drawn  up 
by  him  wh-ii  the  Rump  Parliament  had  cancelled  the 
mint.  (I  /-.»,  vol.  vii.,  p.  788.)  It,  is  to  be  in- 

ferred (hut  he  made  much  profit,  by  this  farming  ol  the 
postage.  The  salary  of  hi-  -»>!'  (lt'  state  W!ls  ***>'• 

a  year.  He  is  d-srribi-d  in  a  '  Narrative  of  the  Late  Par- 
liament,' reprinted  in  the  '  Hnrleian  Miscellany'  vol.  m., 


p.  453),  as  '  secretary  of  state  and  chief  postmaster  of  Eng- 
land, places  of  a  vast  income. 

There  is  the  following  entry  in  Whitelocke's '  Memorials,' 
under  the  date  of  April  9,  1657  : — '  A  plot  discovered  by 
the  vigilancy  of  Thurloe,  of  an  intended  insurrection  by 
Major-General  Harrison  and  many  of  the  Fifth-Monarchy 
men '  (p.  655).  Thurloe  afterwards,  by  Cromwell's  desire, 
reported  on  the  subject  of  this  plot  to  the  parliament, 
and  received  in  his  place  the  thanks  of  the  house,  through 
the  Speaker,  for  his  detection  of  the  plot,  and  '  for  the 
great  services  done  by  him  to  the  commonwealth  and  to 
the  parliament,  both  m  this  and  many  other  particulars.' 
On  the  13th  July,  1657,  he  was  sworn  one  of  the  privy 
council  to  the  Protector,  appointed  in  accordance  with 
the 'Humble  Petition  and  Advice.'  Honours  now  came 
thick  upon  him.  In  the  year  1658  he  was  elected  one  pf 
the  governors  of  the  Charter-House  and  chancellor  of  the 
university  of  Glasgow. 

In  September,  1658,  Cromwell  died,  and  his  son  Richard 
was  proclaimed  in  his  stead.  In  the  parliament  that  was 
called  in  December,  Thurloe  was  solicited  to  sit  ibrTewks- 
bury,  in  a  letter  which  is  worth  extracting,  as  showing  his 
estimation  and  position  at  this  time,  and  the  spirit  of  con- 
stituencies:—' Noble  Sir,  We  understand  that  you  are 
pleased  so  much  to  honour  this  poor  corporation  as  to 
accept  of  our  free  and  unanimous  electing  you  one  of  our 
burgesses  in  the  next  parliament,  and  to  sit  a  member  for 
this  place.  Sir,  we  are  so  sensible  of  the  greatness  of  the 
obligation,  that  we  know  not  by  what  expressions  suffi- 
ciently to  demonstrate  our  acknowledgments;  only  at 
present  we  beseech  you  to  accept  of  this  for  an  earnest, 
that  whomsoever  you  shall  think  worthy  to  be  your  part- 
ner shall  have  the  second  election ;  and  our  zeal  and 
hearty  affections  to  serve  and  honour  you  whilst  we  are, 
as  we  shall  ever  strive  to  be,  Sir,  your  most  humble  and 
obliged  servants,'  &c. :  signed  by  the  bailiffs  and  justices  of 
Tewksbury.  (State  Papers,  vol.  vii.,  p.  572.)  He  was  not 
after  all  chosen  for  Tewksbury.  He  was  elected  for  Wis- 
bech,  Huntingdon,  and  the  university  of  Cambridge.  His 
election  for  the  last  was  communicated  to  him  in  a  letter 
from  the  celebrated  Dr.  Cuclworth,  who  wrote  to  him  in 
this  strain  :— '  We  being  all  very  glad  that  there  was  a  per- 
son of  so  much  worth  and  so  good  a  friend  to  the  university 
and  learning  as  yourself,  whom  we  might  betrust  with  the 
care  of  our  privileges  and  concernments.'  (Stata  Papers, 
vol.  vii.,  p.  587.)  Thurloe  made  his  election  to  sit  for  the 
university  of  Cambridge.  . 

The  meeting  of  this  parliament  was  the  beginning  of 
discontents  and  of  Richard  Cromwell's  fall.  We  find 
Thurloe,  in  a  letter  to  Henry  Cromwell,  viewing  the  com- 
plaints of  the  army  and  of  the  opposition  in  parliament  as 
pointed  principally  against  himself,  and  stating  that  he 
had  asked  the  Protector's  permission  to  retire  from  his 
office  '  I  trust,'  he  adds,  '  other  honest  men  will  have 
their  opportunity,  and  may  do  the  same  thing  with  myseli 
with  better  acceptance,  having  not  been  engaged  in  many 
particulars,  as  I  have,  in  your  father's  lifetime,  which  must 
be  the  true  reason  of  these  stirrings  ;  for  they  were  a  1  set 
on  foot  before  his  now  highness  had  done  or  refused  one 
single  thing,  or  had  received  any  advice  from  any  one 
perlon  whatsoever.'  Thurloe  remained  however  secretary 
of  state.  It  was  one  of  the  objects  set  before  themselves 
by  the  royalists  in  this  parliament,  who,  by  uniting  with 
the  republican  party,  formed  a  most  troublesome  oppo- 

tion  to  Richard  Cromwell's  government,  to  impeach 
Thmloe  but  this  object  was  yet  undeveloped  when  the 
parliament  was  dissolved.  Thurloe  appears  to  have  given 
Ftrong  counsel  against  the  dissolution.*  .  The  immediate 
consequence  of  the  dissolution  was  the  summoning  by 
Fleetwood  and  the  council  of  officers,  of  the  Rump  of  the 
Long  Parliament,  and  Richard  Cromwell's  deposition. 


. 
One  of  the  •  mmiy  h..n-st  men    v.ns  ,loubtlc»s 


Thurloe. 


at      .        ne 
Clarendon's  •  Stute  Vapet.,'  Tol.  in.,  pp.  «0  60. 


T  II  U 


416 


T  II  U 


The   letter*  written   during  Richard  Cromwell's  short 
Piotcclorale,  in  the  third  voh,  Mendon's  •  State 

Paper*,'  are  lull  ui'  acknowledgments  of  Thurloc's  influ- 
with  Kit-hard  Cromwell,  and  of  the  importance  at- 
tached to  him  by  the  intriguing  Royalist*.  Thus,  Cooper, 
one  of  Hyde's  spies,  writes  to  him,  February  l;i.  HiV.t, 
:iwell  is  governed  by  Thurloe,  whether  for  fear  or 
!  l,iiiiv.  not  ;  but  .sure  it  is.  lu>  hath  power  to  dispose 
him  against  the  sense  of  right,  or  indeed  his  own  interests. 
Thurloe 's  malice,  I  doubt,  will  never  suffer  him  to  do  us 
pood '  p.  4i">  i.  Again  Hyde  writes  to  another  of  his 
txgents,  Brodrick,  •  There  is  nothing  we  have  thought  of 
more  importance,  or  have  given  more  in  charge  to  our 
friends  inner  the  beginning  of  the  parliament,  than  that 
they  should  advance  all  charges  and  accusations  against 
Thurloe  and  St.  John,  who  will  never  think  of  serving  the 
king:  and  if  they  two  were  thoroughly  prosecuted,  and 
some  of  the  members  of  the  High  Court  of  Justice,  Crom- 
well's spirits  would  fall  apace '  (p.  428).  '  It  is  strange,' 
Hyde  write*  a  month  after,  March  10,  1659,  '  they  have 
not  in  all  this  time  fell  upon  Thurloe  and  those  other  per- 
sons who  advanced  Cromwell's  tyranny '  (p.  436).  Then 
overtures  to  Thurloe  to  aid  the  king  are  thought  of.  '  I 
do  confess  to  you,'  Hyde  writes,  '  I  cannot  comprehend 
why  Thurloe,  and  even  his  master  St.  John,  should  not  be 
very  ready  to  dispose  Cromwell  to  join  with  the  king,  and 
why  they  should  not  reasonably  promise  themselves  more 
particular  advantages  from  thence  than  from  anything  else 
that  is  like  to  fall  out '  (p.  449).  After  the  dissolution  of 
the  parliament,  serious  thoughts  seem  to  have  been  enter- 
tained of  soliciting  Thurloe's  and  St.  John's  aid  (p.  177  . 
Hut  Thurloe  afterwards  becomes  again  an  object  of  fear  to 
Hyde.  During  the  government  by  the  army,  he  writes. 
'  I  do  less  understand  how  Thurloe  shapes,  and  i>  in  dan- 
ger to  be  exempted  out  of  the  Act  of  Oblivion,  and  at  the 
same  time  employed  in  the  greatest  secrets  of  the  govern- 
ment, for  I  have  some  reason  to  believe  that  he  meddles  as 
much  as  ever  in  the  foreign  intelligence '  (p.  532). 

On  the  14th  of  January,  1660,  Thurloe  was  succeeded  in 
his  office  of  secretary  of  state  by  Scot,  one  of  the  repub- 
lican party ;  but  he  was  reappointed  on  the  27th  of  Feb- 
ruary. His  patent  as  chief  postmaster  had  been  cancelled 
in  the  interval,  on  the  2nd  of  February.  (Common*  Jnur- 
nalt,  vol.  vii.,  p.  533.)  In  the  movements  that  followed  for 
the  restoration  of  Charles  II.,  Thurloe  made  an  offer  of 
his  services  to  those  who  were  bringing  about  that  event. 
Sir  E.  Hyde  writes  to  Sir  John  Grenville,  April  23rd,  1660, 
'  \Ve  have,  since  I  saw  you,  received  very  frank  overtures 
from  Secretary  Thurloe,  with  many  great  professions  of 
resolving  to  serve  the  kinc.  and  not  only  in  his  own  en- 
deavours, but  by  the  i;  lends,  who  are  easily 
enough  guessed  at.  This  comes  through  the  hands  of  a 
person  who  will  not  deceive  us,  nor  is  easily  to  be  de- 
ceived himself,  except  by  such  bold  dissimulation  of  the 
other,  which  cannot  at  first  be  discerned.  .  . .  The  king  re- 
turned such  an  re  fit,  and  desires  to  sec  some 
effects  of  his  good  affection,  and  then  he  will  find  his 
service  more  acceptable.'  (Thurtoe's  Slate  Papers,  vol. 
vii..  p.  807.)  And  Hyde  goes  on  to  instruct  his  correspond- 
ent to  consult  Monk  as  to  Thurloe's  character,  and  as  to 
his  power  to  be  of  use,  supposing  lie  were  sincerely  will- 
ing. On  the  ir.lli  uf  May  Thurloe  was  accused  by  the 
parliament  of  high  treason,  and  ordered  to  be  secured  ; 
uf  .hme  a  vote  was  passed  allowing  him 
'  liberty  to  attend  the  secretary  of  slate,  at  such  times  :i 
[the  House]  shall  appoint,  and  for  so  long  a  time  as  they  shall 
own  his  attendance  for  the  service  of  the  state,  wit  hoiit  any 
trouble  or  molestation  during  such  his  attendance,  and  iii 
his  going  and  returning  to  and  from  the  seeietary  ol 
state,  any  former  order  of  this  House  notwithstanding. 

After  his  release  from  Imprisonment,  lie  retired  t<>  Great 
Milton  in  Oxfordshire,  where  he  generally  resided,  except 
in  term-time,  when  I  i  his  chamber*  in  l.im-oln's- 

Inn.  It  is  said  that  he  was  often  solicited  l>y  Charles  II. 
to  resume  public  business,  and  always  refused,  telling  the 
king  that  he  despaired  of  sen-ing  him  as  he  had 

•.ell,  whose  rule  was  to  seek  out  men  for  \ 
not  place*  for  men.     (Birch's /.//-•</   Thiirlo-;  prefixed  to 
-rt,  p.  xix. ,     Thurloe  died  at  J.incoln's-Inn  on 
the  21 

He  had  been  twice  married,  and  left  four  sons  and  two 

•UfMen,  all  by  his  second  wife,  a  sister  of  Sir  Thomas 

Overbury.    He  WM  possessed,  during  the  days  of  power, 


of  the  manors  of  VVhittlesey  -  and  \\  1, 

Andrews,  and  the  rectory  of  \Vli  i  the 

Isle  of   Ely,   and  of  \Visliech    Castle,'  w'h  tiilt. 

Hut  alter  the  Restoration  they  reverted  to  the  Bishop  of 
Kly.  There  is  an  entry  in  the  Commons'  Journals  ol  the 
isth  of  May,  KM!  :  -'.Mr.  Thurloe  |>ut  out  of 

the  ordinance  for  assessment  ot  the  islt  •  >l.\iii.,  p. 

36.)  Dr.  Hirch  says  he  had  an  estate  of  about  41MI/.  a-ycar 
at  Astwood  in  Huckinghumshire.  In  a  monumental  in- 
scription to  the  memory  of  his  son-in-law  in  St.  Paul's 
Church,  Bedford  (<•<,/,•'*  .1/NS.,  vol.  iii.,  p. 43),  Thurloe  it 
described  as  of  Astwood,  Bucks. 

Thurloe  does  not  appear  to  have  possessed  any  sinking 
qualities,  either  moral  or  intellectual,  to  impress  the  minds 
of  his  contemporaries  ;  and  we  know  little  else  of  him  than 
that  he  had  great  powers  of  business.  Burnet  describes 
him  as  'a  very  dexterous  man  at  getting  intelligence.' 
(Hist,  of  his  oicn  Timet,  i.  66.)  From  a  story  in  Burnet 
relative  to  Syndercombs  conspiracy  against  Cromwell, 
and  from  what  is  said  by  Pepys  of  Morland,  when  assistant 
to  Thurloe,  who  played  Ins  master  false,  and  gained  a 
baronetcy  from  Charles  II.  for  his  treachery,  it  might 
appear  that  he  was  not  of  a  very  genernns  disposition, 
or  much  liked  by  those  who  were  under  him.  Morland 
attributed  his  misconduct  to  'Thurloe's  bad  usage  of 
him.'  (Pepys,  vol.  i.,  p.  133.)  [MoHi.\M>,  SIR  SAMI:KI..] 
Burnet's  story  is,  that  Thurloe  treated  lightly  information 
which  had  been  given  him  of  the  design  on  Crom- 
well's life,  and  that  when,  on  the  subsequent  discovery  of 
this  design,  Cromwell  became  aware  that  information  had 
been  given  to  Thurloe,  on  which  he  had  not  acted,  and 
blamed  Thnrloe  lor  his  conduct,  Thurloe  availed  himself 
of  his  influence  w  ith  the  Protector  to  malign  his  informant  ; 
'So  he  (the  informant)  found,'  says  Burnet,  ' how  danger- 
ous it  was  even. to  preserve  a  prince  so  he  called  him1, 
when  a  minister  was  wounded  in  the  doing  of  it,  and  that 
the  minister  would  be  too  hard  for  the  prince,  even  though 
his  own  safety  was  concerned  in  it '(vol.  i..  p.  79). 

Thurloe's  'State  Papers,'  7  vols.  fol..  174'J.  contain  a 
large  mass  of  records  of  his  official  transactions,  together 
with  a  number  of  private  letters  and  papers.  They  were 
edited  by  Dr.  Birch,  who  gives  the  following  history  of 
Thurloe's  papers :  'The  principal  part  of  this  collection 
consists  of  a  series  of  papers  discovered  in  the  reign  of 
King  William,  in  a  false  ceiling  in  the  garrets  belonging  to 
Seeietary  Thurloe's  chambcis,  .No.  xiii.,  near  the  chapel  in 
Liucoln's-Inn,  by  a  clergyman  who  had  borrowed  those 
chambers,  during  the  long  vacation,  of  his  friend  Mr. 
Thomlinson,  the  owner  of  them.  This  elergvinan  soon 
after  disposed  of  the  papers  to  the  Right  Honourable  John 
Lord  Somers.  then  lord  high  chancellor  of  Kngland.  who 
caused  them  to  be  bound  up  in  (i?  volumes  in  folio.  1 
afterwards  descended  to  Sir  Joseph  Jckyll,  master  of  the 
rolls;  upon  whose  decease  they  were  purchased  by  the 
late  Mr.  Fletcher  Gyles,  bookseller.'  They  were  published 
by  Mr.  Gyles's  executors.  Dr.  Birch,  the  editor,  received 
many  other  papers  from  diti'erent  individuals,  especially 
from  Lord  Shelburne  and  the  then  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, which  he  has  iucoipoiated  in  the  collection.  For 
historical  purposes  this  is  an  invaluable  collection. 

THl'RLOW,   KinVAKl).    LORD,  was  born  in  the  year 
1732.  at  Little  Ashlield   near  Stowmarket  in  Suffolk,    'ills 
father,  Thomas  Thurlow,   was  a  clergyman,  and   held 
.  l\   the  In  ings  of  Little  Ashliel'd,  and  of  Strati 
Mary's  In  Norfolk.     After  receiving  the  rudiments  of  his 
education  from   his  father,  young  Thurlow  was  sent  t. 
grammar-school  at  Canterbury  at  th 
Donne,  who  sought  (as  Mr.  Southey  states  in  his  •  Life  of 
Cow  per'  upon  the  authority  of  Sir  Egerton  1! 
gratify  a  malignant  feeling  towards  the  head-niaster.  by- 
placing  under  his  care  '  a  daring,   refractory,  clever  boy. 
who  would  be  sure  to  torment  him.'    The  motive  ascribed 
to  Donne  is  far-fetched,  and  seems  improbable  :    but.  there 
is  no  doubt  that  Thurlow  was  educated   at  the  ( 'anterbury 
school,  and  that  he  continued  there  several  years,    and 
until  he  was  removed  to  Cains  <  .imbndgc.     ll-.s 

character  and  conduct  at  the  university  did  nut  promise 
any  meritorious  eminence  in  future  life.  He  gained  no 
academical  honours,  and  was  compelled  to  leave  Cam- 
bridge abruptly  in  consequence  of  turbulent  and  indeco- 
rons  behaviour  towards  the  dean  of  his  college.  Soon  after 
he  quitted  Cambridge  he  was  entered  as  a  member  of  the 
Society  of  the  Inner  Temple.  In  Michaelmas  term,  1754, 


T  H  U 


417 


T  H  U 


he  was  called  to  the  bar,  and  joined  the  Western  circuit  in 
the  ensuing  spring. 

Thurlow  immediately  applied  himself  to  the  practice  of 
his  profession  with  great  assiduity ;  and  although  he 
brought  with  him  an  indifferent  character  from  the  uni- 
versity, he  attained  unusually  early  to  reputation  and  em- 
ployment both  in  Westminster  Hall  and  on  the  circuit. 
His  name  appears  frequently  in  the  Law  Reports  soon  after 
he  was  called  to  the  bar  ;  and  his  success  in  the  profession 
he  had  chosen  was  clearly  ascertained  in  less  than  seven 
years  from  the  commencement  of  his  practice.  In  1761 
he  obtained  the  rank  of  king's  counsel ;  and  it  may  per- 
haps be  inferred  from  an  anecdote  which  is  related  by  his 
early  friend  and  associate  Cowper,  in  one  of  his  letters 
(Cowper's  Works,  vol.  v.,  p.  254,  Southey's  edit.),  and 
which  refers  to  this  period,  that  Thurlow  had  then  acquired 
a  degree  of  reputation  which  suggested  the  prediction  that 
he  would  eventually  rise  to  the  highest  office  in  his  profes- 
sion. A  more  convincing  proof  of  his  position  in  the  law 
is  however  recorded  in  the  Reports,  from  which  it  appears 
that  immediately  after  his  appointment  as  king's  counsel 
his  practice  in  the  courts  rapidly  increased,  and,  during  ten 
years  preceding  his  appointment  as  solicitor-general,  was 
exceeded  only  by  that  of  Sir  Fletcher  Norton,  and  one  or 
two  others  of  the  most  eminent  advocates  of  his  time.  To 
have  succeeded  so  early  and  to  so  great  an  extent,  without 
adventitious  aid  from  influence  or  connection,  and  in  com- 
petition with  advocates  of  unquestioned  ability  and  learn- 
ing, is  a  substantial  argument  of  professional  merit.  His 
employment  in  preparing  and  arranging  the  documentary 
evidence  for  the  trial  of  the  appeal  in  the  House  of  Lords 
against  the  decision  of  the  Court  of  Session  in  the  Great 
Douglas  Cause  fwhich,  according  to  professional  tradition, 
resulted  from  mere  accident)  may  have  had  the  effect  of 
bringing  his  talents,  industry,  and  legal  acquirements  under 
the  immediate  notice  of  persons  of  power  and  influence, 
and  of  thus  opening  the  way  to  his  subsequent  elevation. 

In  the  new  parliament  called  in  1768  he  was  returned 
as  member  for  the  borough  of  Tamworth,  and  became  a 
constant  and  useful  supporter  of  Lord  North's  administra- 
tion. Upon  Dunning's  resignation  of  the  office  of  solicitor- 
general  in  March,  1770,  and  Blackstone's  refusal  to  accept 
it  ('  Lite  of  Sir  William  Blackstone,'  prefixed  to  Blackstone's 
yi''7/ort«),Thurlow  received  the  appointment,  and  in  January, 
1771,  he  succeeded  Sir  William  De  Grey  as  attorney-gene- 
ral. Soon  after  his  introduction  to  office,  he  attracted  the 
particular  notice  of  George  III.  by  the  zeal  and  energy 
displayed  by  him  in  supporting  the  policy  of  Lord  North's 
government  respecting  America,  and  in  which  the  king  is 
known  to  have  taken  the  warmest  interest.  Thurlow's 
strenuous  and  steady  support  of  the  minister  in  the  great 
parliamentary  contest  which  ensued  respecting  that  policy, 
procured  for  him  a  degree  of  confidence  and  even  of  per- 
sonal regard  on  the  part  of  the  king,  which  continued  un- 
abated for  upwards  of  twenty  years,  and  had  unquestion- 
ably great  influence  in  \\tf  remarkable  vicissitudes  of  party 
which  occurred  in  that  period. 

In  the  summer  of  1778  lord  chancellor  Bathurst  resigned 
his  office  ;  and  on  the  2nd  of  June  in  that  year  Thurlow 
was  appointed  his  successor,  and  raised  to  the  peerage 
with  the  title  of  Baron  Thurlow  of  Ashfield  in  the  county 
of  Suffolk.  Four  years  afterwards,  in  March,  1782,  when 
Lord  North  was  removed  from  power,  and  the  ephemeral 
Rockingham  administration  was  formed,  Thurlow  remained 
in  possession  of  the  great  seal  by  the  express  command  of 
the  king,  and  in  spite  of  Mr.  Fox's  opposition  to  his  con- 
tinuance in  office  ;  thus  furnishing  an  instance  without  a 
parallel  in  the  history  of  English  party,  of  a  lord  chan- 
cellor retaining  office  under  an  administration  to  all  the 
leading  features  of  whose  policy  he  was  resolutely  op- 
posed. Nor  was  he  content  in  this  inconsistent  association 
to  differ  from  his  colleagues  in  opinion  only ;  on  the  con- 
trary, he  took  no  pains  to  conceal  his  hostility  to  their 
principles,  and  even  opposed  in  the  House  of  Lords  with 
all  his  characteristic  energy  the  measures  which  they 
ui.animously  supported.  Thus,  after  the  bill  for  prevent- 
ing government  contractors  from  sitting  in  the  House  of 
Commons  had  been  introduced  into  the  House  of  Lords, 
where  it  was  supported  by  Lord  Shelburne  and  all  the 
ministers  in  that  house,  the  lord  chancellor  left  the  wool- 
sack, and  himself  moved  that  '  the  bill  be  not  committed,' 
denouncing  the  measure  as  '  an  attempt  to  deceive  and 
betray  the  people,'  and  designating  it  '  a  jumble  of  con- 
P.  C..  No.  1540. 


tradictions.'  (Hansard's  Parl.  Hist.,  vol.  xxii.,"pp.  135G- 
1379.)  The  inconvenience  produced  by  this  embarrassing 
disunion  of  councils  was  deeply  felt,  and  was  one  of  the 
principal  reasons  for  Mr.  Fox's  retirement  from  administra- 
tion on  the  death  of  the  marquis  of  Rockingham ;  and 
when  the  administration  was  dissolved  in  February,  1783, 
upon  the  coalition  formed  between  Lord  North  and  Mr. 
Fox,  Lord  Thurlow  was  compelled  to  retire  from  office, 
notwithstanding  the  exertions  of  the  king  to  retain  him. 
But  though  no  longer  chancellor,  he  still  continued  to  be 
one  of  those  who  were  described  by  Junius  as  '  the  king's 
friends,'  and  was  supposed  to  have  been  his  secret  and 
confidential  adviser  during  the  short  reign  of  the  Coalition 
ministry.  Upon  the  dissolution  of  that  ministry  at  the 
end  of  the  same  year  in  which  it  was  formed,  the  great  seal 
was  restored  to  Lord  Thurlow  by  Mr.  Pitt,  who  then  be- 
came prime  minister.  He  continued  to  hold  the  office  of 
lord  chancellor  for  nine  years  after  his  reappointment ; 
and  until  the  occurrence  of  the  king's  madness  in  1788, 
appeared  to  act  cordially  with  the  rest  of  the  cabinet ;  but 
when  that  event  rendered  a  change  of  councils  by  means 
of  a  regency  probable,  he  was  suspected,  with  good  reason, 
of  some  intriguing  communications  with  the  Prince  of 
Wales  and  the" Whigs  (Moore,'s  Life  of  Sheridan,  vol.  ii., 
chap,  xiii.),  and  was  always  subsequently  regarded  with 
distrust  by  Mr.  Pitt  and  his  colleagues.  On  the  other 
hand,  Lord  Thurlow  took  no  pains  to  conceal  his  dislike  of 
Mr.  Pitt ;  and  that  minister  felt  himself  so  embarrassed  by 
the  chancellor's  personal  hostility  to  him,  that  in  1789  he 
complained  to  the  king,  who  immediately  wrote  to  Thur- 
low upon  the  subject,  and  obtained  from  him  a  satisfactory 
answer.  His  angry  feeling  however  still  continued,  until 
at  length,  in  1792,  probably  relying  upon  his  personal  in- 
fluence with  the  king,  he  ventured  to  adopt  a  similar 
course  to  that  which  he  had  followed  in  very  different  cir- 
cumstances under  the  Rockingham  administration,  and 
actually  opposed  several  measures  brought  into  parliament 
by  the  government.  In  particular  he  violently  opposed 
Mr.  Pitt's  favourite  scheme  for  continuing  the  Sinking 
Fund,  and  voted  against  it  in  the  House  of  Lords,  though 
he  had  never  expressed  his  dissent  1'rom  the  measure  in 
the  cabinet.  This  kind  of  opposition,  though  submitted  to 
from  necessity  by  a  weak  government  like  that  of  the 
marquis  of  Rockingham,  could  not  be  endured  by  so  pow- 
erful a  minister  as  Mr.  Pitt ;  and  on  the  next  day  he  in- 
formed the  king  that  either  the  lord  chancellor  or  himself 
must  retire  from  the  administration.  The  king,  without 
any  struggle  or  even  apparent  reluctance,  at  once  con- 
sented to  the  removal  of  Lord  Thurlow,  who  was  ac- 
quainted by  command  of  his  majesty  that  he  must  resign 
the  great  seal  upon  the  prorogation  of  parliament.  Lord 
Thurlow  is  said  to  have  been  deeply  mortified  by  this 
conduct  on  the  part  of  the  king ;  and  he  is  related  to  have 
declared  in  conversation  that  'no  man  had  a  right  to  treat 
another  as  the  king  had  treated  him.'  Subsequently  to 
his  notice  of  dismissal,  and  before  he  quitted  office,  his  ill 
humour  was  displayed  by  his  opposition  to  another  mea- 
sure prepared  and  supported  by  Mr;-  Pitt,  the  object  of 
which  was  the  encouragement  of  the  growth  of  timber  in 
the  New  Forest.  On  this  occasion  he  reflected  severely 
upon  those  who  had  advised  the  king  upon  this  measure, 
and  went  so  far  as  to  say  that  his  majesty  had  been  im- 
posed upon.  (Tomline's  Life  of  Pitt,  vol.  iii.,  p.  398-9.) 
One  of  his  latest  acts  as  lord  chancellor  was  to  sign  a  pro- 
test in  the  House  of  Lords  against  Mr.  Fox's  Libel  Act. 
The  opportunity  of  his  retirement  from  office  was  taken  to 
grant  him  a  new  patent,  by  which  he  was  created  Baron 
Thurlow,  of  Thurlow,  in  the  county  of  Suffolk,  with  re- 
mainder, failing  his  male  issue,  to  his  three  nephews,  one 
of  whom  afterwards  succeeded  to  the  title  under  this 
limitation. 

After  his  retirement  from  office  in  1792,  Lord  Thurlow 
ceased  to  take  any  leading  part  in  politics,  and  having 
little  personal  influence  with  any  party,  became  insignifi- 
cant as  a  public  character.  He  occasionally  spoke  in  the 
House  of  Lords  on  the  subjects  of  interest  which  were  dis- 
cussed at  the  period  of  the  French  revolution ;  and  it  is 
worthy  of  remark  that  he  frequently  opposed  the  measures 
adopted  by  the  Tory  government  at  that  time  for  the  sup- 
pression of  popular  disturbances.  Instances  of  this  occur 
with  respect  to  the  Treasonable  Practices  Bill  and  the 
Seditious  Meetings  Bill,  in  1795  ;  and  a  comparison  of  the 
sentiments  expressed  by  him  on  these  occasions,  with  his 

VOL.  XXIV.— 3  H 


I    II  U 


T  11   U 


spee?he*  respecting  America  during  I/>rd  North*  admi- 
nistration, afford*  a  striking  example  of  political  ineon- 
•stenrv.  A  circumi.tanc,  I  m  the  ' 

Sir  Samuel  Romilly  '    vol.  ii..  \>.  124 \  which  proves  that 
till  within  n  few  month*  of  liis  death  I/>rd  Thurlow  was 
Mill   confidentially   consulted  l>.v  members  of  the 
fcmilr.    On  occasion  of  the  first  comnv  r  the 

charge*  made  by  Lady  Douglas  against  ••*»  of 

Wale»  in  1808,  tlie  p.  ected 

that  Thurlow  should  he  consulted,  and  the  particulars  of 

.Mterview  between  him  and  Sir  Samuel  Romilly  are 

lintr. 

died  :i1  Brighton,  on  the  12th  of  Septem- 
ber. 1826,  after  an  illness  of  two  years. 

1'H,   a  German   architect  of  some 

note,  was  bom  at  Munich,  November  :<.  17*'.'.  '"it  did  not 
begin  to  apply  himself  to  architecture  professionally  until 
when  he  became  a  pupil  of  Professor  Fischer's,  and 
had  for  hU  fellow-students  Gartner,  Ziebland,  Ohlmuller 
[ihiLMi-LLKR],  and  many  others  who  have  since  rendered 
themselves  more  or  less  di-  i.  At  the  end  of  the 

foil,,  :i  previous  visit  to  Home  at  the  com- 

mencement of  it  h- joined  Hubsch,  Heger  (died  1837), 
and  Koch,  in  a  professional  excursion  to  Greece,  where  lie 
•pent  five  months  in  studying  and  drawing  the  remains  of 
hml.i  theomsome  fc-.v  nf  which  he  published  on 

hn  return,  with  the  title  of  •  Ansiehten  von  At  hen  vind 
seine  Denkmaler,'  18:23-0.     He  did  not  however  confine 
of  the  Grecian  style,  nor  v 
•r  of  it   as  to  have   no  relish  lor  any 
other;    on  the  cunt!  nan  style  ol 

the  time  of  I.t-o  \.  to  l>e  equally  worthy  of  the  architect's 
attention,  and  to  deserve,  to  lie  far  better,  more  faithfully 
and  tastefully,  represented  by  menus  otmgrwriafp  than  it 
previously  had  been,  lie  accordingly  joined  with  Guten- 
sonn  in  bringing  out  a  '  Samrnlung  von  Deukmaler,'  &c., 

lection  of  Architectural  Studies,  and  Decoral ions  from 
Buildings  at  Home,  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centu- 
ries/the first  number  of  which  appeared  in  !S2(i  :  but. 
unfortunately,  it  did  not  meet  with  the  encouragement  it 
deserved,  aikl  was  therefore  given  up,  when  very  little 
progress  had  been  made  with  it.  The  publication  how- 
ever was  BO  far  advantageous  to  Thurmer,  since  it  i 
mended  him  to  notice,  and  led  to 

at  the   same  time    two    different    invitations,    one    from 
Frankfort,  the  other  from  Dresden,  to  which  la-t    li- 
the preference.     He  was  there  made  professor-extraordi- 
nary at  the  school  of  architecture,  and  in   1K12  was  pro- 
moted to  be  first  professor  of  architecture,  in  which  capa- 

he  did  very  much  for  the  advancement  of  the  art  am' 
the    improvement  of  taste.      Though    he   has   left    \er\ 
little   executed  by  himself  in  that   city,  the  only  public 
building  in  it   entirely  by  him   being  the  post-onV 
though  the  '  Banptwache,'  or  guard-housi  led  by 

him,  it  was  after  Schinkel's  designs  .  his  opinions  bad  a 
very  beneficial  influence.     That   he  should   have 
few'  opportunities  for  displaying  his  ability,  is  not  very  sur- 
prising, nor  doe-  '  I'roin  his  reputation,  since  fie  dii 
not  lone  survive  the  completion  of  his  first  edifice  :  he  iliei 
November  13th.  1KJ3.  while  Maun-  at  Miinich.     What  hi 
might  have  done,  had  a  longer  life  been  granted  him.  is 
ritown  by  the  number  of  designs  he  left,  all  more  m-  l<— - 
stamped  by  originality  and  artist ical  feeling.     Tliat  the 
grateful  regard  expressed  for  his  memory  and  his  talents 
by  hi*  friends  and  pupils  was  not  a  mere  temporary  <-r!V 

.  in  proved  by  their  ImMiiir  erected   a.  bronze  bust  am 
monument  to  him,  ii:  ie  Academy  <if  Art*. 

-.  LST.  der  Nru<  .  Morgenblatt,  183fO 

TlirUNKVSSKR  /I'M  Till  UN.  LK<  INAK1).  : 
braled  alchcmi-'  <>loger,  was  horn  in  !.">:« i  ai 

where  his  father  carried  on  the  trade  of  a  goldsmith.     1 1 
wa»  himself  brought  up  to  this  employment,  but  he  > 
obliged  to  leave  his  native  place  when  • 
age,  on  account  of  having  sold  to  a  Jew  a  piece  of  cilt  le:u 
ire  goW.    He  ftrrt  went  to  England,  t hence  to  France 
and  afterward*  to  (Germany,  whc-i v  he  enlisted  nmong  th< 
troops  of  the  margrave  of  Brandenburg.     The  following 
year  he  was  taken  prisoner :  from  that  tun.    ii. 
military  life,  nml  having  visited  the  mines  nn>! 
Ctcrniany  and  the  north  of  Kurope,  he  came  t 

•  'irnberg,  Htrasuburg.  and   Hnstmt/.      H. 
carried  on  the  trade  of  a  goldsmith,  and  made  much  money 


skill  in  the  art 

tit  end  dif- 

I558  he  went  to 


ill,  on  account  of  his  reputation  I 
ii'  mining,  he  was  scut  for  to  tin 
'••rent  mineral  works. 
I'arenz   in    Upper  Innthal.  ami 
account  in  that  place,  as  well  as  at  8t. 

' 

mted  still  more  ' 
lad  so  much  confidence  in  him  that  he  sent  bin; 

-it land,   the   Orkney    I 
rhurneysser  also  visited  the  coasts  <>; 
Egypt,  Arabia,  Svria,  and  1' 

Tyrol  in   1507.     Two  years  afterwards,  at  the  request  of 

ne  prince,  he  apiin  visited  the  mines  of  Hungary 

md  Bohemia.     Tlie  publication  of  his  works  made  him 

nne  to  go  to  Miinster  and  Frankfort  on  t! 
which  latter  place  he  became  acquainted  with  l; 
of  Brandenburir.  whose  wife  he  cured   of  a  dangerous  ill- 
ness, and  v- '  -1  to  attach  him  ; 
hope  that  he  might  discover  in  )  ^omc  unknown 
mineral   treasures.      Thurneysser   accepted   the    offi< 
])hvsieian  to  the  prince,  and  accompanied  him  to  Berlin, 
where,  from  his  skill   in  profiting  by  the   prejudices  and 
weaknesses   of  his   contemporaries,   and  from   l>cing  ac- 
quainted with  all  the  resources  of  charlatanism,  he  soon 
succeeded  not   only  in  acquiring  considerable  wealth,  hut 
also  in  passing  himself  oft'  for  one  of  the  most  learned  and 
scientific  men  of  his  acre.    At  length  however,  by  the 
of  others,  and  still  more  by  his  own  imprudence,  his  d. 
tions  were  discovered,  and  he  was.  in  15s!.  obliged  to  leave 
Berlin.     He    v.,nt    to  Prague.  Cologne,  and  Home:  and 
after  bavins  thus  led  a  wandering  life  for  sonn- 
died  at  last  in  a  convent  at  < 
in  l.">'.(0.     He  was  an  advocate  for  the  pret 
of  alchemy  and  uromaney,  and  his  whole  hi  tlfat 
of  most  similar  characters    is  a  proof  of  tlie   infh 
that  may  be  acquired   in  an  icrnorar.t 
enterprising  man,  when  he  po- 
tion above   the   generality   of    his   contemporaries. 
writings  were  numerous,  hut   of  little  worth,  and  tin  • 
now  very  seldom  looked  into.  The  titles  of  twelve  of  them 
.en  in  the  Binffnijifiir  .^fft^^ra^f,  from  which  work 
the  preceding  account  is  taken. 
Till  HOT/,  or  THUHo                  ^11  count;-  in  Hun- 

iii  the  circle  on  this  side  the  Danube.     It  is 
on  the  north  by  Arva.  on  the  east  In   l.eiitan  :<nd  Su1 
the  south  by  liars,  and  on  the  wi^t  In 

Its  area  is  4-15  sipiare  mi!i-s.  and  the  population  -J2.000  in- 
•  •hiefly  Slowacs.  of  whom  about  two-thirds  are 
ians  and  one-third  Roman  Catholics,  except  about 
T>00  Jews.     '  This  country  is  justly  called  a  beautiful 
den  '    says   the  anonymous  author  of  the  description  of 
Hungary,  Croatia,  and  Slavonia',  for  it  is  surrounded  on 
all  sides"  with  lofty  mountains.  ;us  with  walls,  within  which 
nature   has  been '  lavish  of  the  mo.st    beautiful    scenery. 
Tliis  only  two  entrances  in  the  northern  part, 

through  which    the  "river   Waaf  enters   and    Icavi 
country.     The  first  entrain  -  inountai'i- 

chailU  called  theGreat  and  the  Little  Fatra.  and  the  other 
it  Fatra  has  two  summits,  the 
StocV  lii-'h.  and  the  Tlmrocz  Krivan.  'hJo 

The  climate  is  cold,  but  healthy.     Though  the  soil 

.-  no  superfluity  of  natural  product!"- 
pi-odi-  6,  but  nearly  s'uificicnt  corn  !chicfl\  I 

imntion  of  the  inhabitants:    and  so 
much  -  that  some  portion  can  K 

.if  different  kinds  abounds,  especially  lap-. 
1    peas.      Potatoes  are    extensively  cultivated,  and 
also  a  species  of  turnip  peculiar  to  this  country.     Tlie  in- 
habitants collect  a  considerable  quantity  of  a  balsam  from 

tin-  m 

and  extolli  --ing   great  medicin. 

cvportcd  to  <;,>ni y,  and  even  toAmei. 

numerous  I'  '-lieep   on   the  lin  "•]  the 

numerous  MiUiv-.     ( if  i:isi.s-ji  acics  of  productive  land, 
only  <i-.  I  i/  ivered 

-.     The  chief  town  is  St.  Martin,  on  the  river 
Thurocz,  which  ha.-  m  inhabitants.      It    lias  a 

handsome:    count} -hall,  and    Ii  Itomnn  Catholic 

,  ,-     Blumculiacli.     <> 


TIH  -      KK.] 

THURSO. 


THY 


419 


THY 


THUS.       [BOSWKLLIA.] 

THYATEIRA.     [LYDIA.] 

TIIYLA'CINUS.     [MASSUPIALIA,  vol.  xiv.,  p.  455.] 

THYLACOTHE'RIUM.      [MARSUPIALS,    vol.    xiv., 
p.  404.] 

THYME.    [THYMUS.] 

TIIYMELA'CE^E,  a  natural  order  of  plants  belonging- 
to  the  tubiferous  group  of  Incomplete  Exogens.  The  name 
of  this  order  is  derived  from  Thymelaea,  a  plant  spoken  of 
by  the  antients,  and  which  some  have  supposed  to  be  the 
Daphne  Gnidium,  a  plant  belonging  to  the  present  order. 
This  order  consists  of  shrubs  or  small  trees.very  rarely  herba- 
ceous, with  non-articulated,  sometimes  spiny  branches 
ha\  ing  a  very  tenacious  bark.  The  leaves  are  entire,  simple, 
without  stipules,  and  alternate  or  opposite.  The  flowers  are 
capitate  or  spiked,  terminal  or  axillary,  occasionally  solitary. 
The  calyx  is  tubular,  coloured,  4-cleft  with  an  imbricate 
ation ;  the  stamens  2-4  or  8  in  number,  inserted  into 
the  tube  with  2-celled  anthers,  dehiscing  lengthwise  in  the 
middle ;  the  ovary  is  solitary,  with  a  solitary  pendulous 
ovule  ;  the  fruit  is  hard  and  dry,  or  drupaceous ;  the  seed 
has  little  or  no  albumen,  a  straight  embryo,  with  a  short 
radicle  and  entire  cotyledons.  This  order  is  related  to 
Santalaceae,  from  which  it  differs  in  its  inferior  calyx.  It 
is  also  allied  to  Elaeagnaceae  and  Proteaceae,  from  both  of 
which  it  is  distinguished  by  its  pendulous  ovules.  Lindley 
-  to  this  order  Bartliug's  Anthoboleae,  on  account  of 
tlu'ir  superior  fruit.  [Exoc.vHPUs.]  The  species  are 
found  in  Europe,  but  are  not  common ;  they  occur  in 
greatest  abundance  in  the  cooler  parts  of  India  and 
South  America,  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  in  New 
Holland. 

The  most  prominent  property  of  this  order  is  their  caus- 
ticity, which  resides  in  their  bark.  When  applied  to  the 
skin,  it  products  vesication,  and  pain  in  the  mouth  when 
chewed.  The  bark  of  several  of  the  species  is  very  tough, 
and  may  be  manufactured  into  cordage.  Passenna  tinc- 
toria  yields  a  dye  which  is  used  in  the  south  of  Europe  to 
colour  wool  yellow.  The  various  species  of  Daphne  pos- 
sess active  properties ;  some  are  used  for  dyeing,  some  are 
poisonous,  and  the  Daphne  Lagetta  is  the  Lace-bark-tree 
of  Jamaica. 


<!  Mewrrum. 

ilh   flown;    2,   ditto  with  fruit;    3,   sinslc   flower;  4.  calyx 
.    ih.r»-ins  Hie  insertion  of  the  etarocru ;  5,  section  of  ovary,  thowing  the 
,119  seed. 

THYMUS  (Mpot),  the  name  of  a  genus  of  plants 
.. urine  to  the  natural  order  Lamiaceae  or  Lahiatae.  It 
ha*  an  ovate  bilabiate  calyx  with  thirteen  ribs  ;  the  upper 
lip  is  trifid,  the  lower  lip  is  bifid  with  ciliated  subulate 
segments,  and  throat  villous  inside  ;  the  corolla  with  the 
upper  lip  erect,  nearly  plane,  notched,  lower  jmtenl  anil 
tnAd  :  stamens  straight,  exserted  ;  anthers  ^-ccllc.1  ;  styles 
bifid  at  apex.  All  the  species  are  small  un 


with  usually  purplish  flowers.  Between  twenty  and 
thirty  species  have  been  described  by  botanists,  most 
of  them  inhabitants  of  Europe,  especially  the  region  of 
the  Mediterranean :  one  only  is  a  native  of  the  British 
Isles. 

T.  vulgaris,  Common  or  Garden  Thyme,  is  an  erect 
plant,  or  sometimes  procumbent  at  the  base,  or  clothed 
with  a  hoary  pubescence  ;  the  leaves  are  sessile,  linear,  or 
ovato-lanceolate,  acute,  with  revolute  edges,  fascicled  in 
the  axils  ;  the  teeth  of  the  upper  lip  of  the  calyx  are  lan- 
ceolate, but  the  segments  of  the  lower  lip  are  subulate  and 
ciliated.  This  plant  is  a  native  of  the  south-west  parts  of 
Europe,  in  dry  plains  and  on  hills,  and  uncultivated  places 
free  I'rora  woods.  The-  plant  is  very  much  branched,  and 
has  purplish  flowers.  This  species  is  cultivated  for  culinary 
purposes,  and  many  varieties  of  it  are  met  with  in 
gardens.  It  has  a  pungent  aromatic  odour  and  taste.  These 
properties  are  communicated  to  water  by  infusion  only  to 
a  slight  extent.  They  depend  upon  an  essential  oil,  an 
ounce  of  which  may  be  obtained  from  thirty  pounds  of  the 
plant. 

T.  serpyllum,  Wild  Thyme,  or  Mother-of-Thyme,  is  a  suf- 
fruticose  plant,  with  capitate  flowers,  branched  decum- 
bent stems,  with  plain,  ovate,  obtuse,  entire,  petiolate 
leaves,  more  or  less  ciliated  at  the  base.  It  is  a  native  of 
Great  Britain,  on  hills  and  in  dry  pastures,  and  throughout 
Europe  and  the  north  of  Asia.  This  plant  has  the  same 
sensible  properties  as  the  last,  but  is  more  inclined  to 
produce  varieties,  several  of  which  have  been  described  as 
species.  These  vary  principally  in  the  colour  of  the 
flowers  and  the  size  of  the  leaves  and  plant.  One  of  the 
varieties,  T.  s.  citrutu*,  is  known  by  the  name  of  Lemon- 
Thyme  on  account  of  its  scent  resembling  the  lemon.  The 
seeds  will  not  however  maintain  this  property  :  if  required 
to  be  preserved,  the  plants  must  be  propagated  by  means 
of  slips  or  cuttings. 

Both  this  and  the  former  species,  when  cultivated,  are 
best  raised  by  means  of  seeds,  although  they  may  be  easily 
propagated  by  parting  the  roots  or  planting  slips  and  cut- 
tings. The  seed  may  be  sown  in  March  or  April,  in  a  light 
tinr  soil,  and  when  the  plants  are  two  or  three  inches 
high,  they  should  be  transplanted.  Roots  or  slips  should 
be  planted  in  the  autumn.  The  plants  produce  abundance 
of  seeds  in  the  summer  and  autumn,  which,  when  gathered, 
should  be  rubbed  out,  and  preserved  for  planting  in  the 
following  spring. 

These  plants  are  not  so  much  used  in  medicine  as  for 
culinary  purposes.  The  volatile  oil  is  frequently  used  as 
an  application  to  carious  teeth.  Linnaeus  recommends 
them  as  a  remedy  for  dissipating  the  effects  of  intoxicating 
liquors,  and  a  decoction  is  used  in  France  as  an  application 
for  the  itch. 

T.  maslichina,  Mastich-Thyme,  or  Herb-Mastich,  has 
ovate  or  oblong,  obtuse,  petiolate  leaves,  narrowed  at  the 
base  and  not  ciliated  ;  the  calyx  is  villous,  with  feathery  sub- 
ulate teeth,  which  are  longer  than  the  tube.  It  is  a  native 
of  dry,  sandy,  uncultivated  places  in  Spain,  Portugal,  and 
Barbary.  It  exhales  a  scent  resembling  mastich.  It  is 
the  Ma  rum  vulgare  of  older  botanists,  and  at  one  time 
had  some  reputation  as  an  errhine.  Several  other  species 
of  thyme  are  cultivated ;  they  do  not  require  much  care  ; 
the  more  delicate  and  rarer  kinds  are  found  amongst  col- 
lections of  alpine  plants. 

THYMUS  GLAND,  which  in  the  calf  and  lamb  is 
called  the  sweetbread,  is  an  organ  situated 'behind  the 
ntrrnum,  in  the  anterior  mediastinum,  in  front  of  the  peri- 
cardium and  the  large  vessels  arising  from  the  base  of  the 
In  the  embryo  and  the  infant  it  has,  in  proportion 
to  the  rest  of  the  body,  a  very  considerable  size  ;  in  after- 
life it  becomes  comparatively  smaller,  and  at  last  near'y 
disappears.  It  is  of  an  elongated  form,  its  greatest  dimen- 
sion being  from  above  downwards,  and  is  composed  of  two 
chief  portions,  which,  by  careful  dissection,  may  be  sepa- 
rated in  the  middle  line.  At  each  end  it  bears  two  pro- 
cesses or  horns,  of  which  the  upper  are  longer  and  more 
slender  than  the  lower,  and  the  right  are  usually  longer 
than  the  left.  It  is  supplied  by  several  branches  from  the 
internal  mammary,  inferior  thyroid,  and  mediastinal  arte- 
ii  which  veins  of  considerable  size  correspond.  Its 
absorbent  vessels  are  numerous  and  large,  but  not  more 
so  than  in  other  glands  of  equal  vascularity. 

The  thymus  gland  is  composed  of  a  great  number  of 
similar  small  masses  or  lobules,  which  may  be  separated 

3H  2 


T  11  Y 


4-20 


T  I  A 


by  di*wtion,  and  are  held  together  by  fine  cellular  tissue 
continued  from  that  which  invests  the  whole  glund.  The 
tubules  va; .  rom  half  a  line  to  three  lines  in  dia- 

meter, and  have  simple  or  complex  cavities  filled  with  a 
nirrky  flu;  '  "<>|»-r  ,  T/if  .Imttnmy  of  thf 

Tfiymu*  Gland)  says  that  the  lobules  are  arranged  in 
spiral  lines  so  that  the  eland  may  be  unravelled  into  a  sort 
of  knotted  rope  of  lobules,  which  are  wound  around  a 
central  cavity  or  reservoir,  with  which  the  cavities  of  the 
lobules  communicate.  But  the  existence  of  such  a  cen- 
tral cavity  is  not  generally  admitted. 

The  fluid  contained  in  the  cells  of  the  thymus  gland  is, 
in  \oung  and  healthy  animals,  opaque  and  creamy.  It 
has  been  particularly  examined  by  Mr.  Gulliver  (Appendix 
to  Gerber's  General  Anatomy),  who  has  found  that  both  in 
its  chemical  composition,  and  in  the  abundance  and  struc- 
ture of  the  globules  which  it  contains,  it  closely  resembles 
the  fluid  of  the  lymphatic  elands. 

Of  the  function  of  the  thymus  gland  scarcely  anything 
probable  is  known.  Whatever  it  be,  it  is  performed  most 
actively  during  fcetal  life  and  the  first  year  of  extra-uterine 
life  :  for  during  this  time  the  thymus  gland  grows  at  the 
same  rate  as  the  rest  of  the  body,  its  cells  are  full  of  fluid, 
and  the  fluid  is  thick  and  abundant  in  globules.  From  the 
end  of  the  first  to  the  end  of  the  third  year  its  size  does 
not  materially  vary;  but  after  this  time  it  gradually  di- 
minishes, and  after  the  twelfth  or  fourteenth  year  it  is  rare 
to  meet  with  more  than  a  slight  trace  of  it.  It  is  also  of 
considerable  size  and  is  full  of  fluid  in  hybernating  animals  : 
and  this,  together  with  its  activity  during  foetal  life,  has 
suggested  that  its  office  is  in  some  way  connected  with  the 
preparation  of  the  blood,  when  respiration  is  either  inac- 
tive or  has  not  commenced.  But,  in  these  same  circum- 
stances, digestion  is  not  going  on,  and  it  is  therefore  just 
as  probable  that  the  thymus  gland  may  have  the  office  of 
preparing  a  fluid  and' globules,  like  those  of  the  chyle, 
from  the  materials  which  have  served  for  the  nutrition  of 
the  body  and  have  been  re-absorbed  ;  in  other  words,  that 
its  function  is  analogous  to  that  of  the  lymphatic  glands. 
This  was  the  opinion  of  Hewson  (Experimental  Eiiifn 
it  is  supported  by  the  observations  of  Mr.  Gulliver  and 
many  others,  and  is  on  the  whole  more  probable  than  any 
other  yet  advanced. 

The  thymus  gland  is  rarely  diseased.  The  only  affec- 
tions of  it  yet  described  are  an  unnatural  enlargement  of 
it,  and  its  persistence  in  the  dimensions  which  it  has  in 
fcetal  life.  When  it  is  enlarged  there  is  generally  a  more 
than  usual  development  of  all  the  lymphatic  glands;  and 
not  unfrcquently  there  are  at  the  same  time  signs  of  serious 
general  disorder  of  the  health,  such  as  rickets,  hydro- 
cephalus,  &c.  It  has  been  supposed,  especially  by  the  Ger- 
man pathologists,  that  a  peculiar  affect  ion  of  the  respira- 
tion, which  has  been  called  Thymic  Asthma,  is  the  gene- 
ral result  of  enlargement  of  this  gland;  but  the  connec- 
tion of  the  two  affections  is  not  yet  clearly  established. 

THYO'XK.     [HOI.OTHURIA,  vol.  xii.,  p.  2<j<>.] 

THYROID  GLAND  is  an  organ  situated  in  the  middle 
and  fore  part  of  the  neck,  in  front  and  by  the  sides  of  the 
thyroid  cartilage  of  the  larynx  (from  which  it  has  its 
name),  and  of  the  cricoid  cartilage  and  the  upper  part  of 
the  trachea  [LARYNX],  to  which  it  is  closely  fixed  by 
cellular  tissue.  It  is  composed  of  two  chief  lateral  por- 
tions or  lobes,  and  a  smaller  portion  or  isthmus  connect- 
ing  them.  A  fourth  portion,  which  is  long  and  slender, 
•ned  the  middle  column  or  horn,  usually  passes 
upwards  from  the  isthmus  in  front  of  the  larynx.  The  la- 
teral lobes  are  of  a  somewhat  pyramidal  form,  about  two 
inches  long,  and  an  inch  wide  at  their  bases.  The  whole 
gland  is  proportionally  larger  in  the  embryo  than  in  the 
adult,  and  in  women  than  in  men. 

The  substance  of  the  thyroid  gland  is  firm,  fleshy,  and 
v»ry  vascular.  It  receives  a  copious  supply  of  blood  from 
two  superior  and  two  inferior  thyroid  arteries ;  the  former 
are  branches  of  the  external  carotid,  the  latter  of  the  snb- 
clavian  arteries;  their  branches  communicate  freely  in  the 
•jliiud,  and  they  are  accompanied  by  veins  and  lymphatics 
.•responding  size.  The  interior  of  the  gland  contains 
mimci'UM  very  minute  cells,  lined  by  polished  membranes, 
and  in  young  persons  filled  by  a  clear  albuminous  fluid,  in 
which,  or  in  the  walls  of  the  cells,  there  are  numerous 
granular  corpuscles. 

Of  the  function  of  the  thyroid  gland  no  more  is  known 
than  of  those  of  the  spleen  and  thymus  gland,  between 


which  it  seems,  in  structure,  to  hold  an  intermediate 
place  ;  resembling  the  spleen  in  its  va*cularity.  which  is 
far  greater  than  u  required  for  \\>  nutrition,  and  the  thymus 
in  tin-  existence  of  cells  cont.iiiimg  a  fluid,  and  in  its  dcve- 
lop.nciit  during  early  life.  \Vhiit  has  been  said  of  their  pro- 
bable functions  might  be  repented  hen1. 

The  thyroid  ghrul  is  subject  to  several  chances  of  struc- 
ture, most  of  which,  being  attended  with  enlargement,  are 
comprehended  in  the  name  of  bronchocele  or  gottre 
[DKII.M  HOCKLK],  to  which  the  reader  is  referred.  In  many 
cases  the  cells  of  the  gland  are  enlarged,  and  its  structure, 
which  in  health  is  with  difficulty  discernible,  may  in  these 
be  easily  demonstrated. 

THYSANO'PODA.     [STOMAI-ODS,  vol.  xxiii.,  p.  81.] 

TIA'HA  niijm  or  rn'iftac  ,.  a  high  kind  of  hat,  which  was 
in  antient  times  worn  by  the  inhabitants  of  Middle  and 
:n  Asia,  especially  bv  the  Persians,  Paithian-.  Ar- 
menians, and  Phrygians,  'flu-re  were  two  kinds  of  1' 
the  upright  tiara  was  only  used  by  kings,  priests,  and  oilier 
persons  of  the  highest  rank,  and  the  upper  part  had  Ire 
quently  the  shape  of  a  crown;  the  tiara  worn  by  other 
people  was  of  a  son  and  flexible  material,  so  that  it  hung 
down  on  one  side,  as  in  the  case  of  the  so-called  Phry- 
gian bonnet.  (Hesychius  and  Suidas,  s.  r.  j-capa.)  The 
tiaras  of  persons  of  high  rank  were  of  the  most  costly 
colours,  such  as  purple,  and  adorned  with  gold  and  pre- 
cious stones.  (Ovid,  Metnnwrph.,  xi.  1H1  ;  Valerius 
Klaccus,  vi.  699  ;  compare  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Rom. 
Aiitiq.,  under  'Tiara.') 

In  modern  times  the  term  tiara  is  applied  to  the  head- 
dress of  the  popes,  which  is  worn  on  solemn  occasions,  and 
consists  of  a  triple  crown.  Hence  it  is  also  used  in  a  figu- 
rative sense  to  designate  the  papal  dignity. 

TIA'RA,  Mr.  Swainson's  name  for  a  genus  of  '  Mitrinse," 
his  term  for  the  subfamily  of  testaceous  mol'usks.  the 
shells  of  which  are  termed  '  Mitres'  by  collectors.  fVoLU- 
•nn.t:.]  N.B.  This  generic  name  comes  too  near  to  FIAKM. 

TIARl'NI,  ALESSANDRO,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
painters  of  the  Bolognese  school,  was  horn  at  Bologna  in 
l.~>77.  He  first  studied  under  Prospero  Fontana.  and,  after 
Fontana's  death  in  l"i!)7,  under  Hartolonico  (Vsi :  but 
having  in  a  quarrel  discharged  a  pistol  or  similar  weapon 
at  a  fellow-scholar,  without  however  doing  him  any  injury, 
he  was  obliged  to  fly  from  Bologna.  He  went  to  Flui 
and  there  engaged  himself  with  a  port  rait -painter,  for 
whom  he  painted  hands  and  draperies,  and  some  of  his 
performances  having  attracted  the  notice  of  Domenico  da 
Passignuno,  he  was  admitted  by  that  painter  into  his  studio 
as  a  scholar.  Tiarini  remained  with  Passignano  seven 
years,  and  by  (hat  time  acquired  so  great  a  reputation,  that 
he  received  invitations  from  Bologna  to  return  to  that  city. 
In  Bologna  his  works  excited  universal  admiration  for  their 
invention  and  earnestness  of  character,  and  for  their  bold- 
ness of  foreshortening,  correctness  of  design,  and  propriety 
of  colouring:  the  tone  of  Tiarini's  pictures  is  sombre  :  he 
used  little  red,  and  avoided  gay  colours  generally.  His 
works,  which  are  very  numerous,  consist  chiefly  in  oil- 
paintings;  he  executed  comparatively  little  in  fresco: 
tln>>e  in  public  places  alone,  in  Bologna  and  its  vicinity, 
and  in  Mantua.  Modcna,  Kcggio,  Parma,  Cremona,  and 
Pavia,  amount  to  upwards  of  two  hundred:  their  subjects 
are  generally  of  a  melancholy  or  serious  nature.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  most  celebrated  : — A  Miracle  of  St.  Domi- 
nic, in  the  Capella  del  Rosario,  in  the  chinch  of  San  Do- 
menico  at  Bologna,  painted  iu  competition  with  Lioncllo 
Spada,  in  which  the  saint  restores  a  dead  child  to  life  ;  the 
exhumation  of  a  dead  monk,  in  the  convent  of  San  Mi- 
ehele  in  Bosco ;  and  St.  Peter  repenting  his  Denial  of 
Christ,  standing  outside  the  door  of  the  house  of  the  high 
1'iiest,  with  the  Mocking  of  Christ  in  the  background, 
illuminated  by  torchlight. 

LudovicoCarracci.  MUM  style  Tiarini  ultimately  adopted. 
was  a  great  admirer  of  his  works  :  when  hi  first'  saw  Tia- 
rini's picture  of  the  Miracle  of  San  Domenico,  he  is  re- 
ported to  have  exclaimed  that  he  knew  no  living  master 
that  could  be  compared  with  Tiarini.  ."M.  ini's 

pictures,  out  of  Bologna,  have  been  attributed  to  one  or 
other  of  the  Carrac.ci :  such  was  tin  case  with  the  cele- 
brated Deposition  from  the  Cross,  now  in  the  Gallery  of 
the  Academy  of  Bologna,  formerly  in  the  church  of 'the 
college  of  Montalto  :  it  is  engraved  in  the  work  of  Rosas- 
11111:1,  •  I-ii  Pmacoteca  della  Ponteficia  Accadenua  delle 
Belle  Arti  in  Bologna.' 


T  I  B 


421 


T  I  B 


Several  of  Tiarini's  pictures  have  lost  their  colour,  owing 
to  his  practice  of  plazmg ;  in  some  the  colouring  consists 
entirely  of  glazed  tints,  the  design  being  executed  in  grey 
He  opened  a  life  academy  in  Bologna,  and  had  many 
scholars.  Malvasia  has  preserved  the  name  of  a  famous 
model  that  he  used  frequently  to  engage,  Valstrago.  Tia- 
lini  died  in  1668,  aged  ninety-one. 

(Malvasia,  Felsina  Pittrice;  Lanzi,  Storia  Pitturica, 
&c.) 

TIA'RIS,  Crestlet,  Mr.  Swainson's  name  for  a  genus  of 
FKIMGILLID.E,  placed  by  him  in  the  subfamily  Cocco- 
thraustinee,  between  Amadina  and  its  subgenera  and 
Carduelis. 

Generic  Character. — Bill  perfectly  conic,  entire  ;  com- 
missure sinuated,  and  consequently  angulated.  Nostrils 
almost  naked,  round.  Wings  moderate  ;  first  quill  rather 
shorter  than  the  second,  third,  and  fourth,  which  are  equal 
and  longest.  Tail  even  or  slightly  rounded.  Feet  mode- 
rate. Middle  toe  and  tarsus  of  equal  length  ;  lateral  toes 
equal ;  hinder  toe  much  shorter  than  the  tarsus.  Claws 
small,  fully  curved.  Head  crested.  Locality,  South 
America  only. 

Example,  Tiaris  nrnatus.  PI.  Col.,  208  (Classification 
of  Bird*). 

Mr.  G.  R.  Gray  arranges  this  genus  in   the  subfamily 
Frnigillinee,  between  Pytelia,  Sw.,  and  Carduelis  (Antiq.), 
Briss.     (list  of  the  Genera  of  Birds.} 
TIBALDEO.     [TEBALDEO.] 

TIBALDI,  PELLEGRFNO,  otherwise  called  PeDegrino 
Pellegrini,  or  sometimes  Pellegrino  da  Bologna,  distin- 
guished himself  both  in  painting  and  in  architecture.  He 
was  born  in  1527,  at  Bologna,  where  his  father,  who  ori- 
ginally came  from  Valsolda  in  the  Milanese  territory,  \v;is 
only  a  common  mason.  How,  so  circumstanced,  the  father 
was  able  to  bring  up  his  son  to  a  profession  requiring 
means  beyond  those  of  his  own  condition  in  life,  does  not 
appear ;  neither  is  it  known  from  whom  Tibaldi  received 
his  first  instruction  in  painting.  In  1547  he  visited  Rome, 
with  the  intention,  it  is  said,  of  studying  under  Pierino  del 
Vajra,  but  as  the  latter  died  in  that  same  year,  he  could 
hardly  have  received  any  lessons  from  him.  Whether  he 
became  a  pupil  of  Michael  Agnolo  is  unknown  :  he  cer- 
tainly studied  his  works  very  successfully,  lor  while  he 
caught  from  them  grandeur  of  style  and  energy  of  forms, 
he  so  attempered  their  severity  by  the  freedom  and  grace 
of  his  pencil,  that  he  afterwards  acquired  from  the  Car- 
racei  the  name  of  '  Michelagnolo  Riformato,'  and  may  be 
considered  as  the  originator  of  that  style  which  they  per- 
fected. We  must,  however,  conclude  that  although  he 
was  employed  there  in  the  church  of  S.  Lodovico  di  Fran- 
cehi,  he  did  not  display  any  great  ability  with  his  pen- 
cil during  his  residence  at  Rome,  it  being  related  of  him 
that  he  felt  so  discouraged  as  to  have  determined  to  starve 
himself  to  death,  from  which  desperate  resolution  he  was 
withheld  only  by  Ottaviano  Mascherino,  who  advised  him 
to  give  up  painting  and  devote  himself  entirely  to  archi- 
tecture, for  which  he  had  shown  considerable  taste.  In  all 
probability  this  anecdote  has  been  strangely  exaggerated, 
nor  are  we  informed  how  he  set  about  putting  Mascherinp's 
advice  into  practice.  That  he  partly  adopted  it,  is  certain, 
and  equally  certain  that  if  he  renounced  painting  for  a 
while,  he  returned  to  it :  in  fact,  not  very  long  after  the 
circumstance  just  spoken  of,  he  was  sent  to  Bologna  by 
Cardinal  Poggi  to  adorn  his  palace  (afterwards  occupied  by 
the  Academia  Clementina),  where  he  painted  the  history 
of  Ulysses.  For  the  same  prelate  he  also  painted  the  Poggi 
Chape),  which  had  been  erected  after  Tibaldi's  own  de- 
signs, and  it  was  those  productions  which  excited  the  ad- 
miration of  the  Carracci.  He  was  next  employed  at  Lo- 
retto  and  Ancona,  where  he  executed  several  works  in  fresco, 
and  among  them  those  with  which  he  adorned  the  Sala  de' 
Mcrcaiiti,  or  Exchange,  in  the  last-mentioned  city. 

HLs  reputation  as  an  architect  in  the  meanwhile  increased, 
and  after  being  employed  to  design,  if  not  to  execute,  se- 
veral buildings  at  Bologna,  and  the  Palazzo  della  Sapienza, 
or  Collegio  Borromeo,  at  Pavia  (which  last  was  begun  by 
Cardinal  Carlo  Borromeo  in  1564),  he  restored  the  Archi- 
1'alace  at  Milan,  and  was  appointed  chief  archi- 
tect of  the  Duomo,  or  cathedral,  in  that  city  (1570).  He 
suggested  the  idea  or  first  design  of  the  modern  facade 
lied  to  that  celebrated  Gothic  structure, — a  design 
which  has  obtained  him  both  praise  and  censure  in  almost 
equal  degree.  Among  other  buildings  by  him  at  Milan 


are  the  church  of  San  Lorenzo,  that  of  S.  Fedele,  and  that 
of  the  Jesuits.   But  the  work  which,  if  less  celebrated  than 
some  of  his  others,  is  considered  by  one  of  his  critics  his 
chef-d'oeuvre,  and  a  masterpiece  for  the  contrivance  and 
ability  shown  in  it,  is  the  '  Casa  Professa, '  or  that  of  the 
Jesuits  at  Genoa,  with  its  church,  &c.,  where  he  completely 
mastered  all  the  difficulties  arising  from  the  inconvenience 
of  the  site.     Neither  his  fame  nor  his  works  were  confined 
to  Italy,  for  the  former  caused  him  to  be   invited  to  Spain 
in  1586,  by  Philip  II.,  where  he  was  employed  both  in  his 
capacity  of  architect  and  in  that  of  painter,  in  which  last 
he  executed  many  admirable  frescoes  in  the  Escurial.     Li- 
berally rewarded  by  Philip,  who  also  conferred  on  him  the 
title  of  Marquis  of  Valsolda  (his  birth-place),  Tibaldi  re- 
turned to  Italy  after  passing  about  nine  years  in  Spain, 
and  died  at  Milan  in  1598 ;  such  at  least  is  the  date  assigned 
by  Tiraboschi,  though  some  make  it  much  earlier,  luiio  or 
1591,  and  others  about  as  much  later,  viz.  1606. 
(Tiraboschi ;  Lanzi ;  Milizia ;  Nagler.) 
TIBALDI,  DOMENICO,  younger  brother,  not  son  of 
the  preceding,  as  he  is  sometimes  called,  was  born  in  154Z, 
and  was,  if  not  equally  celebrated,  like  him  both  a  painter 
and  architect,  but  ranks  far  higher  in  the  latter  than  in  the 
other  character.      He  executed  many  buildings  at   Bo- 
logna, the  principal  among  which  are  the  Palazzo  Mag- 
nani,  the   Dogana,  or  custom-house,  the  chapel  in   the 
cathedral,  so  greatly  admired  by  Clement  VHI.  as  being 
superior  to  anything  of  the  kind  at  Rome,  and  the  small 
church  of  the  Madonna  del  Borgo.    Domenico  also  prac- 
tised engraving  with  success,  and  in  that  branch  of  art 
was  the   instructor  of  Agostino   Carracci.      He  died  at 
Bologna  in  1583. 
(Milizia;  Nagler.) 
TIBBOOS.     [SAHARA.] 
TIBER.     [PAPAL  STATE.] 
TIBE'RIAS.     [PALESTINE;  SYRIA.] 
TIBE'RIUS  CLAU'DIUS  NERO  was  born  in  Rome, 
on  the  16th  November,  42  B.C.,  according  to  Suetonius. 
He  belonged  to  the  gens  Claudia,  an  old  patrician  family 
of  great  distinction,  which  was  known  for  its  aristocratical 
pride.    Tiberius  belonged  to  this  house  by  the  side  of  his 
lather,  Tiberius  Claudius  Nero,  as  well  as  his  mother,  Li  via 
Drusilla,   who  was  the  niece  of  her  husband,  being  the 
daughter  of  Appius  Pulcher.    This  Appius  Pulcher  was  a 
Brother  of  Tiberius  Claudius  Nero  the  elder,  and  they  were 
both  sons  of  Appius  Caecus.    His  father  was  quaestor  to 
C.  Julius  Caesar,  and  distinguished  himself  as  commander 
of  the  fleet  in  the  Alexandrian  war.     He  became  succes- 
sively praetor  and  pontifex,  and  in  the  civil  troubles  during 
the  triumvirate  he  followed  the  .party  of  M.  Antonius. 
Being  compelled  by  Octavianus  to  fly  from  Rome,  he  es- 
caped by  sea,  and  hastened  to  M.  Antonius,  who  was  then 
n  Greece.     His  wife  and  his  infant  son  accompanied  him 
n  his   flight,   and  they  happily   escaped.     Tiberius   the 
;lder  soon  made  his  peace  with  Octavianus ;  he  gave  up 
:o  him  his  wife,  Livia  Drusilla,  who  was  then  pregnant 
with  Nero  Claudius  Drusus,  and  he  died  shortly  afterwards 
(38  B.C.).   Thus  Tiberius  the  younger  and  his  brother  Nero 
Claudius  Drusus   became  step-sons  of   Octavianus,  who 
"rom  the  year  27  B.C.  was  Augustus. 

The  great  talents  of  Tiberius  were  developed  at  a  very 
early  age.  In  his  ninth.year  he  delivered  a  public  speech 
in  honour  of  his  father ;  in  29  B.C.  he  accompanied  Octa- 
vianus in  his  triumph  after  the  battle  of  Actium,  and  rode 
on  his  left  side,  Marcellus  being  on  the  right.  After  having 
assumed  the  togavirilis,he  distinguished  himself  bysplendid 
entertainments  which  he  gave  to  the  people.  He  married 
Vipsania  Agrippina,  the  daughter  of  Agrippa,  and  the 
granddaughter  of  Cicero's  friend  T.  Pompomus  Atticus. 
She  brought  him  a  son,  Drusus,  and  she  was  again  with  child 
when  Tiberius  was  obliged  to  sacrifice  her  to  the  policy 
of  Augustus,  who  compelled  him  to  marry  his  daughter 
Julia,  the  widow  of  Marcellus  and  of  Agrippa,  and  the 
mother  of  Caius  and  Lucius  Caesar.  (12  B.C.)  Tiberius 
obeyed  reluctantly,  but  he  never  ceased  to  love  Vipsania. 
Such  was  his  affection  for  her,  that  whenever  he  saw  his 
repudiated  wile  he  would  follow  her  with  tears  ;  and  ac- 
cordingly an  order  was  given  that  Agrippina  should  never 
appear  in  sight  of  Tiberius.  For  some  time  Tiberius  lived 
in  harmony  with  Julia,  and  had  a  son  by  her,  who  died 
young.  But  the  scandalous  conduct  of  Julia  soon  dis- 
gusted him,  and  he  withdrew  from  all  intimate  intercourse 
with  her. 


T  I   H 


'I1  I    M 


part  in  public 

,   ami    .'i   Hi, 

•••>•  the  in- 


st  cam- 


During  thU  time  Tiberius  took  a 
affairs.    He  defended  the 

.1     |f  .,.    ,       ,.;    (    tff  ;    .-    i         :    '  •  > 

TheauJiMM  :  he  WM  active  in  obU 
habitanU  of  1-aodic,  iti 

X  suffered  from  an  cartl 
•MuUace  of   the    senate:    i 
C*pio,  who  had  conspired  against 
lor  hih  treason     and 


....  .    ..       .. 

:or.   and  succeeded  in  Watering 

lUMMI  to   lhe    Ihron*   <•!'  Ann.  ma.    i-.nil   in    Imciug   the 
uan»  to  surrender  the  eagles  which  they  Imd  t;iken 
issiis.    He  returned  to  Home  in  IS  in.    During 
inniand  in  Gallia  Comata,  the  peace 
n-h  proM:  '.bird    b\    depute-   between   the 

princes  a  .  Uuians, 

In  1")  u.r.  lie  and  his  brother  Dm-us  brought  the  Alpine 
nations  of  Rhaetia  to  obedience.     He  also  put  an  end  to 
the  war  in  Pannonia,  which  had  lasted  since   18  B.C.,  and 
viminatcd  by  subduing  the   Brcuei,  the  Scor- 
.  and  the  Dalmatae,  who  were  allied  with  the  Pan- 
noni,  The    Germani    having   defeated    M. 

Lollius  and   taken    ;  •>!'  the    fifth  legion  in    10 

HIS  Paterculus,  li.  117  ,  Drusus  was  sent  to  the 
Rhine,   and  Tiberius   returned   to  Rome,  where  lie 

.1  his  first  triumph.  In  the  Rhaetian  war  Tiberius 
had  shown  irreat  military  skill,  but  the  Romans  carried 
on  the  war  with  unheard  of  cruelties  against  the  inha- 
bitants, of  whom  the  majority  were  killed  or  c 

In  memory  of  liis  victories,  a  monument 
reeled  at  Torba    now  Monaco,  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Ni//a  .  on  which  the  n  ty-live  Rhaetian  tribes 

were   inscribed.       I'hnius.    Hixt,  \nt.,   in.  '24.}     In  13  B.C. 
Tiberius  was  appointed  consul,  together  with  1'.  Quintilius 

'ied  on  the  war  in  Germany 

with  irreat  Micros  ;  but  in  9  H.C.,  on  his  retreat  from  the 
banks  of  the  Kibe  to  the  Rhine,  he  had  a  fall  from  his 
horse,  which  proved  fatal.  Tiberius  was  then  at  Puvia, 
but  as  soon  as  he  was  informed  of  this  accident,  he 
ied  to  Germany,  and  arrived  in  the  camp  of  his 
brother,  near  the  Ysse'l  and  the  Rhine,  just  before  he  died. 
Tiberius  led  the  army  to  Mainz  '  Moiruntiacum  .  He 
ordered  the  body  of  his  brother  to  be  carried  to  Rome, 
Mild  he  accompanied  it  on  foot.  Alter  discharging  this 
pious  duty,  lie  returned  to  Germany.  In  the  new  war  with 

.  iherius  at    first   defeated    them,   and 

planted  -lu.iHHl  SiL'ainbri  from  the  right  bank  of  the  lower 
Rhine   to   the    left    bank:    but   lie  afterwards    em 
peace  ures,  and  by  negotiation  he  obtained  more 

influence  over  them  than  his  brother  Drusus  by  all  his 
:ies.  (VclleiusPatercnhis.ii.y7:  Tacitus.  Annul.. 
ii.  2<i.  He  !••!!  tin;  command  in  Germany  in  7  H.I:.,  and 
returned  to  Rome,  where  he  celebrated  his  second  triumph, 
and  i.  .;-ul  lor  the  second  time  in  the  same,  year. 

Tiberius  was  now  at  the  height  of  his  lame  :  lie  was  re- 
spected bv  the  army,  and  admired  by  the  people  ;  and  he 
enjo^  the  emperor.  He  nevertheless 

'•nly  abandoned  his  important  functions,  left  Rome, 
and,  •  i  ng  his  motives  to  anylnxi 

tired  to  the  island  of  Rhodes.     So  firm  was  his  resolution 
tore:;  ublic  alfairs.  that,   he  refused   to  take  any 

nourishment  for  lour  days,   in   order  to  show  his  mother 

Her  prayers  and  tears  could  not  keep  him  any 
in    Rome.  in.      During 

ytflM  he   led   a  private    life  at    Rhodes,  renouncing   all 
honours,  and  livinir  in  tl>.  11   terms  of 

equality  with  those  around   him.  with  whom  he  kept  up  a 
thendly  i>  .'k   plulo- 

poets.    The  Romans  were  surprised  to  see  lh> 
their  emperor  retire  to  a  di-tanl  island  ;  and  various  hy- 
potheses were  raised  to  explain  the  motive  of  his  voluntary 
.     The  disgusting  conduct  of  his  wife  Julia  was  »up- 
poted  to  be  a  sufficient  cause  for  thU  extraordinai  , 
lution  ;  but  Tiberius  himself  afterwards  avowed  that  he 
had  renounced   public    business  in  order  to  escape   all 
chmntcs  of  having  formed  ambitious  schemes  again 
•Upton*.    Oatus  and   Lucius  C»sar,    who   were  created 
'  principes  juventiitis,'  and  appointed  successors  <> 
rust  in  m  tn«  very  ye»r  in  rius  went  to  H: 

It  teems  that  he  wns  dtssatisfled  with  the   elevation  of 
these  two  young  men,  and  that  there  was  discord  between 


ued  to  go  back 

tu  Rome,  Augusti;.  would  i.  :esar 

hud  conscir  .iiiuld 

take  no  part  in  1  ;    all 

this  »e  may  COIP  .nisand   Ins  me' 

had  ]• 

Casar  from  the  NUCCCS-UIII,  and  t:  la  volun- 

tary exile   •  .   banishment,  such  us  was  in- 

his  own  <i.  But 

•osition,  aii'  on  which  a 


iiiishcd    wife    Julia,  Tiberius  acted   with 
.-li'-acy.  notwithstanding  her  conduct,  and  In 
sough'  i  to  leave  her  all  those  presents  win. 

.en    to    her.       Suetonius.    .  .  .  12, 

was  received  by  the   , 

-  (  'si-sar   died  a 

Marseille',    and   Ins   death  was  lull 
Inothcr.  who  died  in  4  A.D.,  m 

which  he  had  leceived  in  the  Parthian  war.  Au- 
gustus then  adopted'1  hi-  futu  n-.  in 

4  A.U.,  and  Tiberius   in  his  tun  ipelled  In 

-  to  adopt  Drusus  Germanicns,  the  late 

brother  Drusus  x  ippa, 

the  posthumous  son  of  Agrippa  and  Julia,  but  he  did  uot 
designate  him  as  a  successor  in  the  empire.  The  impirial 
throne  W:LS  thus  secured  to  the  house  of  the  Claudii.  In  the 
same  your  -  4  A.U.)  Tiberius  was  appe  .i.ander-in- 

chief  in  (iermany,  and  he  w  ::  by  the  historian 

Velleius  Paterculua,  who  was  )>  |uitum.     After 

having  subdued  the  Bructeri.  and  renewed  the  alliance 
with  the  Chatti,  Tiberius  in  .">  A.D.  made  a  cam; 

it  the  I.ongobards  ;  who  were  defeated,  and  he  u! 
the  whole  north-  •  rmaiiy  to  acknowledge  the  Un- 

man authority.      In  the  following   year    ti  A.D.  i  he   led 
70,000  foot  and  4000  horse  against   Maroboduus,  the  king 
uf  the  Marcoinanni,  who  was  saved  from  ruin   i 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Pannonia  and   northern   Illui 
who  intercepted  the  commiiiiications  of  the  Roman  army 
with  Italy.     Tiberius  employed  fifteen  legions  and  an  equal 
number  of  auxiliaries  against  these  nations,  and,  in  spite 
of  difficult;  .  ry  description,  he  quelled  the  out- 

break within  tin  -tally  dan- 

gerous because  the  Germani  threatened  to  join  the  Pan- 
nonians,  but  Tiberius  prevented  their  junction  by  nego- 
tiations and  by  tin-  his  arms.  After  having 

celebrated  his  third  triumph,  he  was  again  sent  agMMt 
the  Germani,  who  had  slain  Yarns  and  his  army  (9 
Tiberius,  who  was  accompanied  by  Gei  •nianicus. 
in  preventing  the  Germani  from  invading  the  countries  on 
the  left   bank   of  the   Rhine,  anil    he  then   celebrated    his 
fourth   triumph.     Velleius   Paterculus,   an   able   jiul 
military  talents,   gives  us  a  most  favourable   idea  of  him 
as  a  general.      Suetonius  says  also  that,  sharing   in  all 
the  hardships  of  the  common  soldiers,   he  maintained  a 
seven-  discipline,  but  that  at  the  same  time   he  carefully 
watched  over  the  security  and   the  comfort  of  the  soldiers. 

Augustus  died  at  Nolaon  his  return  from  Naples.  • 
he  hail  accompanied  Tiberius,  who  was  going  to  conduct 
the  war  in  Illyria  cJDth  of  Aiuru-t.  A.D.  1  i  us  to 

see  her  son  at.  1  in    Koine. 

;  the  emperor's  death  until  Tiberius,  w  !  •  :-med 

of  it  by  messengers,  had  arrived  at  Nola.    (Dio.  Cassii 
30,  JW 

Tiberius  becamo    emperor  iu   his  fifty-fifth  year,  at  an 
both    tho  \irtne<   and   the  vices   have   acii 

ill  from  habit,  and  when  a  man's  clmrae. 

es.     Until  that  time  he  \  -rd  to 

•-  irtiioiis   man;    his  virtues  were   imbued   with   the 
severe  gravity  of  his  character.     Among  hi-,  i 
none    has   blamed    his    early   li!  M   he 

•!    with    cril  most. 

I  and  di-:  !  lis  former  life  is  rep' 

dissimulation  and   hypocrisy.     An  cxami^  dis- 

simulation is  known  in  In  I  his 

real  intentions  for  thirty  years  ;    however.  o\   his 

real  character  which  he  thus  concealed.  l>\it  by  retiring 
from  aftairs.  and  by  simulating  disease  and  intirinitr,  he 
made  the  cardinals  bclicM-  thai  by  choosiiur  him  pope 
they  would  make  him  their  instrument,  i  ITS  m- 

tirmitics    would     not    allow    him    to     act     with     en' 
Tiberius  h"  ight  years  that  he  spent 


T  I  B 


423 


T  I  B 


in  Rhodes,  was  constantly  employed  in  matters  which, 
although  they  would  have  allowed  him  to  conceal  his 
real  disposition,  he  could  never  have  managed  with  such 
success,  unless  his  conduct  had  been  directed  by  the  force 
of  his  real  character. 

Augustus  succeeded  in  making  himself  master  of  the 
republic  by  accumulating:  in  his  person  the  different 
high  functions  of  the  state.  Tiberius,  proud  and  energetic, 
abolished  even  the  shadow  of  the  sovereignty  of  a  nation 
which  he  despised.  The  Romans  being  sufficiently  dis- 
posed to  obedience,  the  only  obstacles  in  his  way  were 
the  worn-out  institutions  oi'  the  nntient  republic.  Imme- 
diately upon  the  accession  of  Tiberius,  Agrippa  Postumus 
was  put  to  death,  probably  by  order  of  Tiberius  (Sue- 
tonius, Tiberius,  c.  22;  Tacitus,  Amial.,  i.  6.)  About 
this  time  the  supreme  power  was  ottered  by  the  troops  on 
the  Lower  Rhine  to  Germanicns,  who  however  refused  it ; 
and  the  mutiny  was  quelled  by  him  and  by  Drusus,  the  son 
of  Tiberius,  who  commanded  in  Pannonia.  Tiberius  began 
by  some  enactments  which  tended  to  ameliorate  the  state 
of  morals ;  he  abolished  the  comitia  for  the  election  of 
the  various  officers  of  the  state,  and  transferred  the  elec- 
tion to  the  senate,  the  members  of  which  were  subservient 
to  liim.  It  has  been  already  said  that  Tiberius  intended 
to  destroy  the  last  remnants  of  the  antient  sovereignty  of 
the  people,  and  to  supplant  the  majesty  of  the  Roman 
nation  by  the  majesty  of  the  emperor.  Augustus  had 
already  employed  the  Lex  Julia  Majestatis  to  punish  the 
authors  of  libels  against  his  person  (Tacitus,  Annul., 
i.  72) ;  and  his  example  was  followed  by  Tiberius,  who 
established  the  .Indicia  Majestalis.  by  which  all  those  who 
were  suspected  of  having  impugned  the  majesty  of  the 
emperor,  either  by  deeds  or  by  words,  were  prosecuted  with 
the  utmost  severity.  The  number  of  the  delatores,  or 
denouncers  of  such  crimes,  daily  increased,  and  a  secret 
police  was  gradually  established  in  Rome,  as  well  organ- 
1 1  supported  by  spies,  as  the  secret  police 
ot  Napoleon.  The  property,  honour,  and  life  of  the 
citizens  were  exposed  to  the  most  unfounded  calumnies, 
and  a  general  feeling  of  anxiety  and  moral  disease  pre- 
vailed through  the  empire.  The  natural  severity  of 
Tiberius  gradually  degenerated  into  cruelty,  and  he  showed 
symptoms  of  that,  misanthropy  and  that  gloomy  state  of 
mind  which  increased  with  years.  In  the  mean  time  Ger- 
manicus,  the  favourite  of  the  army,  had  avenged  the  de- 
feat of  Varus.  but  Tiberius  recalled  him  from  Germany, 
ami  sent  him  into  the  East  (17  A.D.).  Germanicus  con- 
quered Cilicia  ami  Commagene,  and  he  renewed  the  alli- 
ance with  the  Parthians.  but  he  died  suddenly  at  Antioch 
(19  A. D.)  :  public  opinion  accused  (Jneius  Piso,  the  com- 
mander in  Syria,  of  having  poisoned  Germanicns  by  order 
of  the  emperor  ;  but  before  Piso  could  be  sent  to  trial,  he 
was  found  dead. 

.inus,  the  son  of  a  Praefectus  Praetorio,  succeeded 
in  obtaining  the  confidence  of  the  emperor  (19-22 
A.D.\  who  henceforth  gradually  abandoned  to  him  the 
direction  of  public  affairs,  of  wnich  Seianus  became  the 
absolute  master  from  the  year  22  A.D.  Drusus,  the 
son  of  Tibvriiis.  who  had  governed  the  Roman  part  of 
Germany  with  great  ability,  was  poisoned  by  Seianus 
-i  A.D.),  and  this  crime  was  followed  by  a  great  many 
others,  with  which  it  is  po~-iblc  that  (he  emperor  was  very 
imperfectly  acquainted.  His  practice  was  to  shut  himself 
up  within  his  palace,  and  to  spend  his  time  in  the  most 
revolting  debauchery.  After  the  death  of  Drusus,  Tiberius 
nmended  to  the.  senate  as  his  successors,  Nero  and 
Drusus,  the  sons  of  the  unfortunate  Germanicus  and  of 
Aerippina,  who  was  still  alive.  In  2G  A.D.,  Seianus  at 
last  persuaded  him  to  retire  from  public  affairs.  Tiberius 
fiillo'.vfd  his  advice  and  went  to  Capua  and  Nola,  until  at 
last  he  fixed  his  residence  on  the  island  of  Capreae  in  the 
Gulf  of  Naples.  The  life  which  he  led  at  Capreae  was  a 
series  of  infamous  pleasures. 

From  this  time  all  public  affairs  were  directed  by  Seianus ; 
the  emperor  was  inaccessible.  T.  Sabinus,  a  friend  of  Nero, 
was  put  to  death;  statues  were  erected  to  Seianus,  and  re- 
ceived divine  honours.  Afterthe  death  of  Livia,  in  29  A.D., 
the  authority  of  Seianus  was  at  its  height ;  but  at  last  An- 
tonia.the  aged  mother  of  Germanicus,  penetrated  through 
the  barriers  ot  ( 'aprcoe,  and  informed  the  aged  Tiberius  that 
-ins  had  left  him  only  the  name  of  emperor.     She  was 
.oiled  by   Macro,  the  commander  of  the  Praetorian 
guard.      In  consequence  of   this  information,    Tiberhis 


ordered  the  senate  to  condemn  Seianus;  and  the  senate 
obeyed  :  Seianus,  his  family,  and  his  friends  were  put  to 
death  in  31  A.D.  Some  time  after  this  event,  Tiberius 
retired  from  Capreae,  and  took  up  his  residence  at  a  villa 
near  Misenum,  which  had  formerly  belonged  to  Lucullus. 
(Suetonius,  Tiberius,  c.  73.)  On  the  16th  March,  37  A.D., 
he  fell  into  a  lethargy,  and  everybody  believing  him  to  be 
dead,  Caligula,  the  third  son  of  Germanicus,  the  favourite 
of  old  Tiberius,  was  proclaimed  emperor.  However 
Tiberius  recovered,  and  Macro,  in  order  to  save  himself 
and  the  new  emperor,  ordered  him  to  be  suffocated  in  his 
bed.  Thus  died  Tiberius,  at  the  age  of  seventy-eight,  after 
a  reign  of  twenty-three  years.  (Tacitus,  Anna/.,  vi.  50 ; 
Suetonius,  Tiberiv»,  c.  73.) 

There  is  little  doubt  that  the  crimes  said  to  have  been 
committed  during  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  either  by  himself 
or  by  others  in  his  name,  are  real  facts.  But  the  question 
is  whether  they  are  all  to  be  imputed  as  crimes  to 
Tiberius.  His  insanity  is  a  fact  which  can  hardly  be 
doubted  ;  a  dark  melancholy,  disgust  of  life,  and  misan- 
thropy, had  taken  possession  of  him,  and  his  struggle  with 
the  idea  of  self-destruction  often  threw  him  into  wild 
despair.  He  found  consolation  in  the  sufferings  of  others, 
and  thus  gave  those  bloody  orders  which  he  afterwards 
regretted.  The  unnatural  pleasures  to  which  he  was 
addicted  were  only  another  mode  of  soothing  the  despair 
of  his  soul.  It  is  prolKible  that  his  insanity  was  complete 
when  he  retired  to  Capreae.  Sometimes  he  had  lucid 
intervals,  in  which  he  wrote  those  letters  of  which  Sue- 
tonius gives  some  extracts  (Tiberius,  c.  67), and  in  which 
he  confesses  the  wretched  state  of  his  soul.  His  physical 
health  was  excellent,  until  some  days  before  his  death. 
Tiberius  loved  the  arts  and  literature.  According  to  Sue- 
tonius he  wrote  a  lyric  poem,  '  Conquestio  de  L.  Csesaris 
Mortc  ;'  he  also  wrote  poems  in  Greek,  choosing  for  his 
models  Euphorion,  Rhianus,  and  Parthenius,  the  author  of 
an  erotic  poem  which  has  come  down  to  us. 

(Suetonius,  Tiberius  i  Velleius  Paterculus,  ii.,  c.  94,  &c. ; 
Tacitus,  Annal.,  lib.  i.-vi. ;  DionCassius,  lib.  xlvi.-xlviii. ; 
Horn,  Tiberius,  ein  Historisches  Gem'dlde.  The  character 
of  Tiberius  has  been  defended  by  Buchholz,  Philosophische 
Untersuchungen,  vol.  ii.,  p.  49,  &c.) 

TIBE'RIUS  II.,  ANI'CIUS  THRAX,  FLA'VIUS  CON- 
STANTI'NUS,  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  virtuous 
emperors  of  the  East.  He  was  born  in  Thrace  towards 
the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  A.D.,  and  belonged  to  a 
rich  and  very  distinguished  family,  the  history  of  which  is 
unknown  to  us.  He  was  educated  at  the  court  of 
.histinian,  whose  successor,  Justin  II.  (565-578),  loved 
him  as  his  son,  and  employed  him  in  various  civil  and 
military  offices.  In  573  Tiberius,  who  was  then  general 
of  the  Imperial  guards,  commanded  the  army  against  the 
Avars,  who  were  powerful  north  of  the  Save  and  the 
Danube.  His  lieutenant  having  neglected  to  watch  the 
passages  of  the  Danube,  Tibenus  was  surprised  by  the 
Avars  and  lost  a  battle.  However,  he  recovered  this  loss, 
and  concluded  a  peace,  by  which  the  possession  of  the 
important  fortress  of  Sirmium,  now  Mitrowicz,  on  the 
Save,  near  its  junction  with  the  Danube,  was  secured  to 
the  Romans.  This  was  one  of  the  few  advantages 
obtained  by  the  Greek  armies  during  the  unfortunate 
;  of  Justin  II.  Italy,  which  had  been  conquered  by 
Justinian,  was  overrun  by  the  Longobards ;  the  Berbers 
ravaged  the  kingdom  of  Carthage,  which  had  been  taken 
from  the  Vandals ;  and  on  the  Persian  frontier  Chosroes 
^Khosrew)  made  various  conquests.  Justin,  feeling  his 
incompetency,  and  having  lost  his  son,  looked  for  a  co- 
regent,  and  his  choice  fell  upon  Tiberius.  The  great 
talents  of  Tiberins,  his  amiable  character,  his  generosity 
and  love  of  justice,  and  his  sincere  piety,  had  won  him 
the  hearts  of  the  nation,  and  the  esteem  of  the  emperor 
and  his  ministers.  Justin  was  confirmed  in  his  choice  by 
the  empress  Sophia,  whose  private  views  on  this  occasion 
harmonised  with  the  interest  of  the  state.  Tiberius  was 
the  handsomest  man  at  the  court,  and  it  seems  that 
Sophia  intended  to  marry  him  on  the  death  of  Justin. 
However  this  may  be,  before  she  declared  in  his  favour, 
she  asked  him  whether  he  was  married.  Tiberius  imme- 
diately guessed  the  motive  of  the  question,  and  answered 
that  he  was  not,  although  he  was  secretly  married  to  a 
lady  named  Anastasia.  He  thus  gained  the  protection 
dl  the  empress,  and  was  proclaimed  Caesar  by  Justin  on 
the  7th  of  December,  574,  in  a  most  solemn  assembly  of 


T  I  B 


T  1  B 


tin-  civil  and  military  officers,  and  of  the  clergy  under  the 

pmiilt -:ic\    "I   Hi*'  patriarch  Eutvchiu>.  liy  whom  T 

was  crowned"  with  the  imperial  UMJML     In  this  a.v,cinbl> 

nperor  Justin  addressed  to  his  future  successor  the 
following  remarkable  speech  Theophvhetua,  ni.  11), 
which  Gibbon  translates  thus: — •  You  MOoU  tin-  ensigns 
of  supreme  power.  Yon  are  alxiut  to  rccci\c  them,  not 
from  my  hand,  but  from  the  hand  of  God.  Honour  tin-in, 
and  from  them  you  will  derive  honour.  Respect  the 
empress  your  motlicr — you  arc  now  her  son — befon 
were  her  servant.  Delight  not  in  blood,  abstain  from 
revenge,  avoid  those  actions  by  which  I  have  incurred  tin- 
public  hatred,  and  consult  the  experience  rather  than  the 
example  of  your  predecessor.  As  a  man,  I  have  sinned  ; 
as  a  sinner,  even  in  this  life  I  have  been  severely  punished  : 
but  these  servant*  ,  his  ministers',  who  have  abused  my 
confidence  and  inflamed  my  pas-ion,  will  appear  with  me 
before  the  tribunal  of  Christ.  I  have  been  dazzled  by  the 
splendour  of  the  diadem :  be  thon  wise  and  u'> 

iiber  what  you  have  been,  remember  what  you  are." 
To  this  speech  of  a  dying  sinner,  Tiberius  answered : — 
'  If  von  consent,  I  live  ;  if  you  command,  I  die  :  may  the 
God  of  heaven  and  earth  infuse  into  your  heart  whatever 
I  have  neglected  or  forgotten." 

The  burden  of  government  devolved  upon  Tiberius, 
whose  authority  was  never  checked  by  Justin.  The  war 
with  Persia  prevented  Tiberius  from  expelling  the  I.ongo- 
bards  from  Italy  ;  but  he  sent  there  all  the  troops  he  could 
dispose  of,  and  succeeded  in  maintaining  the  imperial 
authority  in  the  Exarchate  of  Ravenna,  on  the  Lignrian 
coast,  in  the  fortified  places  in  the  Cottian  Alps,  in  Rome, 
in  Naples,  and  in  the  greater  part  of  Campania  and  of 
Lucama.  He  saved  Rome  and  pope  Pelagius  II.  from 
the  Longobards  by  sending  a  fleet  laden  with  provisions 
(775).  Some  years  later  he  concluded  an  alliance  with 
the  Franki>h  king  Chilperic,  who  checked  the  Longobards 
in  the  north  of  Italy,  and  Tiberius  succeeded  in  bribing 
several  of  the  thirty  Longobardian  dukes,  who,  after  the 
murder  of  king  Clepho  .".7;>-.~>7l  and  during  the.  minority 
of  Antharis,  imitated  in  Italy  the  Thirty  Tyrants  of  Athens. 
The  daughter  of  king  Alboin  and  Rosamond,  who  had  fled 
from  Italy,  was  then  living  at  the  court  of  Constantinople. 
The  most  important  event  in  the  reigns  of  Justin  and 
Tiberius  was  the  war  with  Persia.  Klu»rew.  the  kin<;  of 
Persia,  had  made  extensive  conquest.-  in  Asia  Minor  during 
the  reign  of  Justin.  In  575  Tiberius  concluded  a  partial 
truce  for  three  years  with  him,  on  condition  that  hostilities 
should  cease  except  on  the  frontiers  of  Armenia,  where 
the  war  was  still  carried  on.  These  frontier*  being  easily 
defended  on  account  of  the  great,  number  of  defiles  in  the 
Armenian  mountains.  Tiberius  levied  a  strong  army  while 
Khosrew  lost  time  in  forcing  passages  or  in  besieging 
small  fortified  places.  For  several  centuries  the  Eastern 
empire  had  not  seen  such  an  army  as  was  then  raised  by 
Tiberius.  A  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men,  among 
whom  were  many  Teutonic  and  Slavonic  barbarians. 
crossed  the  Bosporus  in  570,  under  the  command  of  Jus- 
tinian, and  advanced  to  the  relief  of  Theodosiopolis,  tin- 
key  of  Armenia.  Theodore,  the  Byzantine  general, 
defended  the  fortress  against  the  whole  army  of  Khosrew. 
At  the  approach  of  Justinian  the  Persian  king  left  the 
siege  ana  advanced  to  meet  the  Greeks.  The  encounter 
took  place  near  Melitene  (in  the  district  of  Melitem- 
in  Armenia  Minor).  The  Persians  were  routed,  and 
many  of  them  were  drowned  in  their  retreat  across 
the  Euphrates;  twenty-four  elephants,  loaded  with  the 
treasures  of  Khosrew  and  the  spoil  of  his  camp,  were  sent 
to  Constantinople.  Justinian  then  advanced  as  far  as  the 

in  Gulf,  and  a  peace  was  about  to  be  concluded  in 
•"•77  :  but  Khosrew  broke  off  the  negotiations  on  account 
of  a  victor}-  which  his  general  Tamchosroes  (Tam-khosrew) 
unexpectedly  obtained  over  Justinian  by  surprising 
him  in  Armenia.  Tiberius  now  recalled  Justinian,  and 
appointed  in  his  place  Mauritius,  who  was  afterwards 
emperor.  Mauritius  restored  the  old  Roman  precaution 
of  never  passing  the  night  except  in  a  fortified  ramp  ;  In- 
advanced  to  meet  the  Persians,  who  had  broken  tin-  truce 
"t  575,  and  attacked  the  empire  on  the  sidi 
PoUn  ,  ,  The  Persians  retired  at  the  approach  of 
Mauritius,  who  took  up  his  winter-quarters  in  Mesopo- 
tamia 577 

On  the  28th   of  September,  578,  Tiberius  became  sole 
emperor  by  the  solemn  abdication  of  Justin,  who  died  on 


the  5th  of  October  next.  After  tl, 
when  the  new  emperor  appeared  in  the  Hippodii-me.  Un- 
people became  impatient  to  we  the  empress.  The  widow 
of  Justin,  who  was  in  the  Hippodrome,  expected  to  lu- 
lled to  the  people  as  empress;  but  she  was  soon 
undeceived  by  the  sight  of  Anastasia,  who  suddenly  ap- 
peared at  the  side  of  Tiberius.  In  revenge,  Sophia  formed 
a  plot  against  Tiberius,  and  persuaded  Justinian,  the 
r  commander  in  the  Persian  war.  to  put  himself  at 
the  head  of  the  conspiracy.  Tiberius  however  was  informed 
of  this  design.  Justinian  was  arrested,  and  the  emperor 

:doning  him  made  him  for  ever  his  faithful  li 
Sophia  was  deprived  of  her  imperial  pension  and  pa.. 
and  slu-  died  in  neglect  and  obscurity. 

A  quarrel  broke  out  between  Knt \  chins,  the  patriarch, 
and  Gregorius,  the  apocrisiarius  of  Constantinople,  who 
could  not  agree  on  the  state  of  the  soul  after  death.  The 
Greeks  were  then  the  most  disputatious  people  in  the 
world  about  religious  matters,  and  their  disputes  often 
led  to  serious  trouble.  The  emperor  accordingly  under- 
took to  settle  this  dispute.  Adhering  to  the  opinion  of 
Gregcrius,  he  convinced  the  patriarch  that  he  was  wrong, 
and  he  persuaded  him  to  burn  a  book  which  h 
written  on  the  corporeal  nature  of  the  soul  after  death. 

Khosrew  died  in  57!!.  after  a  reign  of  forty-eight  \ 
He  had  entered  into  negotiations  with  the  Greeks,  but  his 
successor,  Hormisdas  (.Onnuz).  broke  them  oft'  and  re- 
commenced the  war.  Hormisdas  was  defeated  by  Mauri- 
tius and  his  lieutenant,  Narses,  a  great  captain,  who  must 
not.  be  confounded  with  Narses.  the  victor  of  the  Ostro- 
Goths.  They  overran  Persia  in  one  campaign 
in  5SO  they  routed  the  army  of  Hormisdas  in  a  blood  . 
tie  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  and  took  up  their  winter- 
quarters  in  Mesopotamia.  At  the  same  time  the  Greeks 
obtained  great  advantages  in  Africa.  Gasinul,  king  of  the 
MauritaiiL  or  Berbers,  had  defeated  and  killed  three  ( 
generals,  Theodore,  Theociiatea,  and  Amabilis.  But  in 
580  he  was  defeated  by  the  exarch  Geimadius,  and  put 
to  death.  Tiberius  was  less  fortunate  in  Europe,  the  Avars 
having  surprised  and  taken  the  town  of  Sirmium.  Hut  in 
the  following  year  5s  1  Mauritius  destroyed  the  Persian 
army  in  the  plain  of  Constantine,  and  their  general,  Tain- 
Khosrcw,  lust  his  life.  Mauritius  had  a  triumph  in  Con- 
stantinople, and  on  the  5th  of  August  he  was  crr;i;,-d 
i  by  Tiberius,  who  was  then  worn  out  by  illness,  and 
who  had  no  male  i— ue.  Alter  having  given  his  daughter. 
Constantina,  in  marriage  to  Mauritius.  Tiberius  died  on 
the  14th  of  August.  5Si  and,  since  the  time  of  the 
Theodosius,  no  emperor's  death  caused  regret  so  mm 
It  i.-.  a  remarkable  circumstance  in  the  reign  of  this  em- 
peror, that  he  was  always  provided  with  money  without 
oppressing  the  people  by  taxation  ;  and  yet  his  liberality 
wa>  so  great  that  the  people  used  to  say  that  he  had  aii 
inexhaustible  treasure.  But  all  the.se  resources  did  not 
enable  him  to  save  Italy,  which  may  be  accounted  for 
thus: — During  the  invasions  of  Italy  and  other  parts  ot  the 
Roman  empire  by  the  barbarians,  many  rich  men  s;i\cd 
great  quantities  of  gold  and  silver,  which  they  carried  to 
Constantinople,  then  the  only  sale  place  in  Europe.  This 
city  being  the  centre  of  the  arts,  and  the  commerce  and 
industry  of  the  East  being  very  cxtcn>i\e,  e\en  the  money 
which  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  barbarians  gradually  found 
its  way  into  the  Greek  empire,  where  the  barbarians  pur- 
chased all  those  articles  which  they  had  not  skill  <  i 
to  fabricate  themselves.  This  view  is  corroborated  1-y  the 
fact,  that  notwithstanding  the  immense  tribute,  which  the 
Greek  emperors  often  paid  to  the  barbarians,  thciv 
always  a  want  of  coin  in  the  barbarian  kingdoms.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Greeks  having  lost  their  martial  habits,  the 
emperors  were  obliged  to  recruit  their  armies  among  the 
barbarians.  These  people  however  were  as  ready  to  fight 
against  the  emperors  as  for  1 1  icin  ;  audit  would  ha\ 
dangered  the  existence  of  the  empire  if  too  large  a  num- 
ber hod  been  engaged  in  its  service.  Tin:  pre- 
ferred bribing  the  l.ongobardian  dukes  to  laising  a  large 
army  of  barbarians,  who  would  probably  have  joined  the 
Longobards  as  soon  as  they  had  got  their  pay. 

(Cedrenus  ;  Theophanes  ;  Thcophylaclu- :  Xonara*  ; 
Gregorius  Turoncnsis;  Paulus  Diaconus;  Gibbon,  Decline 
and  Full ;  I,e  Beau,  Ilntnin'  tin 

TIBE'RIUS  AI.!-:\A\PI-:R.  prefecl  of  Kgypt ,  was  the 
son  of  Tiberius  Alexander  who  was  alabareha  of  Alex- 
andria, and  the  brother  of  Philo  Judams,  the  well-known 


T  I  B 


425 


T  I  B 


writer.  Tacitus  calls  him  an  Egyptian,  but  this  only  means 
that  he  was  a  native  of  Alexandria ;  for  he  was  a  Jew, 
though  he  afterwards  adopted  paganism.  Nero  appointed 
him  governor  of  Judaea,  where  he  succeeded  Cuspius 
Fadus,  and  he  made  him  a  Roman  eques.  In  the  last 
campaign  of  Corbulo  against  the'  Parthians,  Tiberius  Alex- 
ander and  Vinianus  Annius,  the  son-in-law  of  Corbulo, 
were  given  as  hostages  to  king  Tiridates,  who  came  to  the 
Roman  camp  for  the  purpose  of  settling  his  differences 
with  the  Romans  (A.D.  63).  Tiberius  Alexander  was 
afterwards  appointed  prefect  of  Egypt,  in  which  capacity 
he  quelled  a  dangerous  insurrection  of  the  Jews  of  Alex- 
andria, who  were  jealous  of  the  favour  which  Nero  showed 
the  Greek  inhabitants  of  that  town.  The  resistance  of  the 
Jews  was  so  obstinate,  that  Tiberius  was  obliged  to  employ 
two  legions  and  five  thousand  Libyan  soldiers  against 
them  ;  and  it  is  said  that  more  than  fifty  thousand  Jews 
perished  on  this  occasion.  On  the  1st  of  July,  69,  Tiberius 
Alexander  proclaimed  Vespasian  emperor,  pursuant  to  a 
scheme  which  had  been  concerted  by  Vespasian,  Titus, 
and  Mucianus,  the  proconsul  of  Syria.  In  consequence  of 
this  event,  the  1st  of  July,  69,  is  regarded  as  the  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  Vespasian,  who  showed  great  regard  for 
his  governor  of  Egypt.  When  Titus,  the  successor  of  Ves- 
pasian, was  about  to  undertake  the  siege  of  Jerusalem, 
which  resulted  in  its  capture,  he  was  accompanied  by  Ti- 
berius Alexander. 

(Josephus,  A  ii  tiff.  Jud.  and  De  Bella  Jud.;  Suetonius, 
its;  Tacitus,  Annul.,  xv.  28;  Hist.,\.  11;  ii. 74, 
79  ;  the  notes  of  Ernesti  to  Suetonius  and  Tacitus.) 

TIBERIUS  (Ti/Stpioc),  an  Alexandrine  grammarian,  who 
probably  lived  in  the  fourth  century  of  our  aera.  Suidas 
(,«.  ».  Tt0t(xof),  who  calls  him  a  philosopher  and  a  sophist, 
ascribes  to  him  a  long  list  of  rhetorical  works,  all  of  which 
are  lost,  with  the  exception  of  one,  which  formerly  used  to 
be  called  iripi  ruv  wapa  ^fioaSivti  a\i}^ar>i>v,  and  which  is 
one  of  the  best  works  of  the  kind  that  were  produced  at 
the  time.  The  cditio  princeps  of  it,  which  is  ascribed  to 
Leo  Allatius,  appeared  at  Rome  in  1643.  The  next  edi- 
tion is  that  of  Gale,  who  incorporated  the  work  of  Tiberius 
in  his  '  Rhetores  Selecti,'  Oxford,  1676,  8vo.  A  reprint  of 
this  collection  of  rhetoricians  was  edited  by  J.  F.  Fischer, 
Leipzig,  1773,  8vo.  In  all  these  editions  the  work  of  Ti- 
berius contains  only  22  short  chapters,  which  treat  on  Sche- 
mata, that  is,  those  forms  of  expression  which  are  not  the 
natural  forms,  but  are  adopted  for  ornament  or  use.  In 
the  year  1815,  J.  F.  Boissonade  published  at  London  a  new 
edition,  in  8vo.,  from  a  Vatican  manuscript,  in  which  the 
work  is  called  irtpi  a^miartav  ptiropuciav,  and  in  which  there 
are  26  chapters  more  than  had  ever  before  been  pub- 
lished ;  and  this  second  part  of  the  work  treats  on  the  so- 
called  '  figurae  elocutionis,'  or  the  ornamental  forms  of 
elocution.  This  edition  of  Boissonade  also  contains  a  work 
of  Rufus,  entitled  ri-^vi]  (>i]Topu:ij,  the  author  of  which  has 
only  become  known  through  the  Vatican  MS.  containing 
the  complete  work  of  Tiberius :  in  the  editions  of  Gale  and 
Fiadier  it  was  called  the  work  of  an  anonymous  writer.  A 
few  fragments  of  other  works  of  Tiberius  are  preserved  in 
the  scholiast  on  Hermogenes,  ii.,  pp.  385  and  401,  edit. 
Aldus. 

'Ooddeck,  Initia  Hixtnriae  Graecorum  Literariae,  ii., 
p.  173:  Westermann,  Geschichte  der  Griech.  Beredtsam- 
keit,  p.  251,  &c.j 

TIBE'RIUS  ABSI'MARUS  became  emperor  of  the  East, 
in  A.I).  698,  under  the  following  circumstances: — Leontius 
dethroned  and  banished  the  tyrant  Justinian  II.,  and  having 
ned  the  imperial  title  in  095,  continued  the  war  with 
the  Arabs  in  Africa.  Notwithstanding  the  Greeks  were 
v  the  Berbers,  they  lost  Carthage  in  697;  they 
reconquered  it  shortly  afterwards,  but  in  698  the  Arabs 
retook  the  town  from  the  Greeks  and  entirely  destroyed  it. 
A  powerful  fleet,  commanded  by  the  patrician  John,  was 
then  off  Carthage  ;  but  although  John  entered  the  harbour 
with  a  division  of  his  fleet,  and  landed  a  body  of  troops, 
his  measures  had  only  a  partial  effect,  and  he  was  obliged 
to  leave  Carthage  to  her  fate.  The  destruction  of  this 
famous  town  was  attributed  by  the  Greek  officers  to  the 
incoi.  nf  John,  and  they  were  afraid  to  return  to 

Constantinople  without  having  prevented  the  ruin  of  Car- 
thage. Ali.-iimarus,  the  commander  of  the  Cibyratae,  or 
the  trii.ip,  ,if  the  province  of  Cibyra,  then  the  collective 
r.ami-  of  ('aria  and  Lyoia,  turned  the  discontent  of  the  sol- 
diers to  hii  own  profit.  He  persuaded  his  men  that  the 
P.  C.,  No.  1541. 


emperor  would  punish  them  severely  for  not  having 
obtained  some  advantage  over  the  Arabs,  and  that  thejr 
ran  the  risk  of  suffering  for  the  faults  of  their  commander- 
in-chief.  When  the  fleet  was  off  Crete,  a  mutiny  broke 
out.  The  Cibyratae  proclaimed  Absimarus  emperor,  the 
rest  of  the  fleet  followed  their  example,  and  John  was 
massacred. 

Absimarus  having  arrived  at  Constantinople,  cast  anchor 
in  the  bay  of  Ceras  (now  the  Golden  Horn),  between  this 
city  and  the  suburb  of  Sycae.  .  Leontius  prepared  a  vigor- 
pus  resistance  ;  but  the  courage  of  his  soldiers  and  of  the 
inhabitants  was  weakened  by  an  epidemic  disease,  and  at 
last  Absimarus  found  his  way  into  the  town  by  bribing 
some  sentinels. 

Absimanis  assumed  the  name  of  Tiberius  and  was 
acknowledged  emperor :  his  rival,  Leontius,  had  his  nose 
and  his  ears  cut  off,  and  was  confined  in  a  monastery. 
Tiberius  Absimarus  continued  the  war  with  the  Arabs, 
and  appointed  his  brother  Heraclius  commander-in-chief. 
This  experienced  general  conquered  Syria  in  699  and  700, 
and  treated  the  Mohammedan  inhabitants  most  barbar- 
ously :  it  is  said  that  two  hundred  thousand  of  them  lost 
their  lives  by  the  sword  of  the  Greeks.  This  war  continued 
during  701,  702,  and  703 ;  and,  although  the  Greeks  did 
not  recover  Carthage,  they  obtained  many  signal  advan- 
tages. Tiberius  Absimarus  had  great  influence  in  Italy, 
where  popes  Sergius  and  John  VI.  were  continually 
harassed  by  John  Platys,  and  afterwards  by  Theophylact, 
the  Greek  exarch  of  Ravenna. 

Tiberius  Absimarus  lost  his  crown 1)y  a  sudden  revohi  • 
tion.  When  Leontius  dethroned  Justinian  II.,  this  prince 
had  his  nose  cut  oft',  and  was  banished  to  the  town  of 
Cherson,  in  the  present  Crimea.  Some  years  after,  he 
fled  to  the  khaghan,  or  khan,  of  the  Khazars  [TARTARS, 
Khaxurs],  who  received  him  respectfully,  and  assigned  for 
his  residence  Phanagoria,  once  an  opulent  city,  on  the 
island  of  Tamatarcha.  ^TAMAN.]  The  khaghan,  whose 
name  was  Busirus,  gave  him  in  marriage  his  sister  Theo- 
dora; but  Tiberius  Absimarus  bribed  the  khan  with  a 
large  sum  of  gold,  and  Justinian  was  only  saved  by 
the  affection  of  Theodora,  w'ho  discovered  to  him  the 
treacherous  design  of  her  brother.  After  strangling  with 
his  own  hand  the  two  emissaries  of  the  khaghan,  Justinian 
rewarded  the  love  of  his  wife  by  repudiating  her  and  send- 
ing her  back  to  her  brother  Busirus  ;  and  he  fled  to  Ter- 
belis,  or  Terbellus,  the  king  of  the  Bulgarians.  He  now 
formed  the  plan  of  recovering  his  throne,  and  he  purchased 
the  aid  of  Terbelis  by  promising  him  his  daughter  and  a 
part  of  the  imperial  treasury.  At  the  head  of  fifteen  thou- 
sand horse,  they  set  out  for  Constantinople.  Tiberius 
Absimarus  was  dismayed  by  the  sudden  appearance  of  his 
rival,  whose  head  had  been  promised  by  the  khaghan,  and 
of  whose  escape  he  was  yet  ignorant.  Justinian  had  still 
some  adherents  in  Constantinople,  who  introduced  his 
troops  into  the  city  by  means  of  an  aqueduct.  Tiberius 
escaped  from  Constantinople,  but  he  was  seized  at  Apol- 
lonia  on  the  Pontus  Euxinus  (705),  and  Justinian  ordered 
him,  his  brother  Heraclius,  and  the  deposed  Leontius,  who 
was  still  alive,  to  be  dragged  into  the  Hippodrome.  Before 
their  execution,  the  two  usurpers  were  led  in  chains  to  the 
throne,  and  forced  to  prostrate  themselves  before  Justinian, 
who  had  sworn  not  to  spare  one  of  his  enemies.  Planting 
his  feet  on  their  necks,  the  tyrant  watched  the  chariot-race 
for  more  than  an  hour,  while  the  people  shouted  out  the 
words  of  the  Psalmist,  '  Thou  shall  trample  on  the  asp  and 
basilisk,  and  on  the  lion  and  dragon  shalt  thou  set  thy 
foot.'  He  then  gave  orders  to  behead  Tiberius,  Leontius, 
and  Heraclius.  Justinian  II.  reigned  till  711.  The  Greeks 
gave  him  the  surname  of  Rhinptmetus,  that  is,  '  he  whose 
nose  is  cut  off.'  Tiberius  Absimarus  had  two  sons,  Theo- 
dore and  Constantine,  who  probably  perished  with  their 
father.  It  is  said  however  that  Theodore,  who  is  also 
called  Theodosius,  survived  his  father,  and  became  bishop 
of  Ephesus  and  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Iconoclasts  ;  but 
this  is  doubtful. 

(Theophanes ;  Cedrenus ;  Zonaras ;  Gibbon,  Decline  and 
Fall ;  Le  Beau,  Histoire  du  Bus  Empire.) 

TI'BET  is  the  most  southern  of  the  three  great  table- 
lands of  Middle  Asia.  The  name  Tibet  is  derived  from 
'  Thu-pho,'  that  is,  the  country  of  the  '  Thu,'  who  founded 
an  empire  in  Northern  Tibet  in  the  sixth  century  A.D. 
The  name  '  Thu-pho '  has  been  mutilated  by  foreigners, 
and  especially  by  the  Mongols,  into  Thupo,  Tobut,  Tobbt, 

VOL.  XXIV.— 3  I 


i  n 


I    I    I', 


d  Tli 


of  III 

ami  I 


north.'      Sanang   Se1-i 

which  signifies   the  •  country  of  the  snow  '  in 
i  mime  which   is  analogous  • 


M  hlCU, 

in   the 

ail    viil  ' 


I  I  111  \ 

wlm 

•'i 
this 

t..  r. 

ol    t' 

to  t 
thro 
U'h 
del 
ner, 


t-t .       V> 

points 


are  almost  unknown 

inning 
.rust,  ]~\~>, 
March,'  i; 
nearly  thi'  whole   '  '••  from 

i:  in  Tibet  :   anil  ir.  our  own  ilays  Tur- 

.  rciofl.  ami  (iciaul  liavi  arts  of  it. 

Tibet,  in  the  largest  sense  of  the  word, 
Tlif  Holor  Mountains,  a  branch 
of  the  Hindu  Rush,  \vhii'  the   uorth- 

..  form    tlir    western    lion:. 
Tile  length  of  this  frontier  is  about  K7  miles.     It 
mi  the  south-west  by  the  llimlu  Kush.  fioiii  M 
kan  Mutlami  and  th.  -tern  part  . 

as  fur  -•'•in  frontier  of  Nepal,  a  d1 

INI  mile-.     The  southern   boun  II  J   by  the 

of  the  Himalaya  from  the  western  froiih, 
to  the  eastern  iioiitiVr  of  Bnotan,  a  distaure  of  about  710 
-.  and  by  the  northern  boundaii  111,   Burma, 

,irt  of  the  Chinese  province  of  Yunnan.     Thi-  latter 
part,  which  is  nearly  unknown,  runs  in  a  south-i 
direction,  anil  m  l':"'  ^  "»'  junction  of  the 

Yu-lcang-Ho.    or    Ld-tchou,   with   the   Kincha-Kiang,    or 
Yanj;  .  in  Yunnan,  between  1(12°  and  1(M"K.  long. 

The  length  of  this  part  of  the  frontier  in  a  straight  line  be- 
tween the  two  extremities  is  about  320  miles.     The  whole 
111  of  the  southern  frontier,  according  to  a  roui;: 

•  in  miles,  but  as  this  frontier  I'uim-  a  curve,  its 

real  length  is  much  more.    Tin  on  tier  of  Tibet  is 

n  boundaries  of  the  Chinese  provinces 

i.  and  Kansu.    This  frontier 

has  !  i  leans  only  know 

i.ed  in  the  Itineraries  of  the 

Chili-  'in  the  junction  of  the  Yu  •!• 

Ho  with   the   Kmeha-Ku;  mirthwaul- 

probably  alone  the  ri\er  Ya-long-Ki  .1-  the  :UMh 

>•  of  N.  Int.     It  then  takes  a  north-eastern  din 
farasKiai.  Mgc  of  \\i]i: 

E  malis,  are  called   the  Yun-ling 
i.    At  Kiai  il  takes  a  north-west  direct  ion,  <• 

tile   llolil! 

chin,  and  then  takes  a  north-west  direct i> 

m  the  mountain))  of  Amegancar,  in  3 

ong.      That  part  01  ivc\er 

lat.,  and  east  of 

the  Kincha  Kiang,  or  the  mom: 
to  China  in    1727.  and  is  now  under  the  hum. 

.tyof  the  emperor  of  China.     The  whole  extent  of  the 

:;tieis  of  Tibet  is  at  U  iL^t  <.KN)  inile^.      \Vehaveno 

noilherii  frontiers.     They  begin 

in  tl.  which  they  were  tra 

bj  I",  i  iw<://y/;/'.  tom.\iii.,  p.  117. 

on  h:  :"  I.eh.      From  thence  11 

Mid  t  •  a-t  along  the  mountains  of  K;'i- 

nikorum  U  far  as  a  point  situateil   in  (lie   mount:: 

'a,  or  kulkoun).  in  :t.V  N.  lat.  and 

.ong.,  acrowi  thi  .  Klior  anil  of  Katehi,  or  Katchc. 

Til*  1 1  :i  north-ea.-t    and  east,  until  they  reach  the 

eastern  li  ••. hich  we  ha\e   mentioned 

above,  a*  situated  in  US*  25'  N.  lat.  and   10(>0  K.  long. 
Tin  i.iilier.   including   the 

:   l:«Hl  miles.     II  is  le 
.  i   Khu-kli 
in  north-.  ,  el  in  the   political 

:  IK  in    Iron' 
Ka»t.  Hitter. 

northtrn 


.      :u  a 

althoug 


on  the  we-t  by  I 

( 'hi; 

Tibet,    comprised   between   these    limits, 
imme 

-In  Kiish  and  the  mountain  <uim, 

and  through  it  t,  the 

:.i   flow,    n 
nbundaiK  i  .a. 

Mountains. — Tibet  . 
which  are  more  than   h 

This  table-land  is  divided  into  •• 
tinct  parts.     The  first,  which  i- 
begins  in  the  east,  near  M 
and    stretchi's  to    the    noil 
Himalaya  and  of  the  Hind 
the  range  of  the  mountai:  n  in  the   r 

:u  its  whole  length  In 

of  the   Iiul  <\ver  or  north-western  pa;' 

lialtistan,  is  also  called  the  l-'irst  Tibet,  or  1 

-t  state.      Its  upper   . 

has  the  name  of  Ladakh,  and  is  also  called  t 
or  Great  Tibet,  because  it  is  larger  than  Haltistaii.     v 


times  the  name  of  Little  Tibet  is  j_ 

of  the  Indus,    l.adakh  is  a'- 

most  eastern  pa: 

belongs  to  China,     liallistan  and  Lai' 

scribed  under  the  heads  of  Ilimalava  : 


xii.,  p.  2111,  -Ve.  .      Iialti>tan    and    t.adakh   bclo' 

in    the    mo>t    cxtcii- 

second  great  division  of  Tibet   begins  in  the  » 
Mount  Kailasa,  and   is  an  iimii. 

n  part  of  which  is  called  Khoi. 

Katehi.    Its  boundaries  are  the  r;  i  tlie 

the  Kueiduu  mountains  on  the  north;    the  snowy 
mountains  around  tli  .if  the  Kincha   i< 

Om-Tsiu,  and  the  lake  of  Tcngri-Nor  in  tl.  !  the 

mountains  of  Dcang  and   Nga:i  in  tlie  south.     Khor  and 
Katehi  have  never  been  vi-  [h  the 

i  Jiait  is  traversed  In  '  >iad  which  : 

.ud.  in  Chinese  Turkistan.    Tlie  ' 
division  of  Tibi'  :lu-   remainder  of  tl: 

which  lies  ,  nth  of  Khor  and  Katehi. 

The  second  and  third  natural  di\isi. 
name  of  Kastern  or  Tliinl  Tibet,  oi1  Tibi •• 

i  tlie  word.      E:usterii  iiina. 

All  that  we  can  say  about  Kb. 
are  an  immense  table-land,  some  parts  of  which 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  >ca.      J'ln- 
is  not  a  level  plain.     It  is  a  cmmta  '. 
mountains,    winch   have  a  height    \. 
4000  feet   above  their  base.  [3,000  to    I 

above  the  sea.     The  midd!.  ated 

than  the  boundaries.  ;us  the  countiy  conta. 
which  terminate  in  the  table-laid ;  and  the  southern  and 

e   higher   than   the    eastern   and  northern 
parts,  the  direct'  >  r  number  of  th 

hi  ing  from  the  west  to  tlu  rom  the  south  to  the 

north. 
The  aspect  of  th«  southern  and  ea-  ihinl 

Tibet    is    \cry    ditt'erent   1'n'in   that    of  Kb'  tehi. 

Third    Tibet    is    travciscd   by    luimc: 

mountains,  the  direction   of"  which   . 

and    from  north-west    to    south-c;:-'..      I-'HHII   tl 

am  out   in  different  direc 

tainii.  between  them.    In  p  prin- 

cipal chains  advance  towaids  thi 
towards  one   another,  and  thus  the  \ 
grndunlly  become  narrower,  until  all:. 
Yunnan  an<l  Hnrma.  they  . 

;iot  there  ai  allel  vallc  ' 

of  th'  world,  and  the  ! 

four  %.  •  hun- 

dred miles.      Hut  the  lange  ol  the  molinl:  ii  and 

diverges   from  the  Uinialav.-i  :    and   the   \alley  bc- 
hich  is  traversed   by  the  Dzangbo',   be- 


T  I  B 


427 


T  I  B 


comes  broader  as  it  advances  towards  the  east.     The 

chain    which,   in    the     south-eastern    corner    of    Tibet, 

separates  the  Kincha-Kiang  in  the  east  from  the  Lang- 

t.-ang-Kiang  in  the  west,  has  the  name  of  Ning-tsing-Shan, 

or  Mang-li  '  Moung-lan) ;    and,  since   1727,  the  frontiers 

between   Tibet   and   China   run   along   the    foot   of  this 

chain,  the  summits  of  which   are   covered  with  eternal 

snow.     The  height  of  the  mountains  in  south  and  eastern 

Tibet  is  much  greater  than  in  the  northern  and  central 

parts  of  the  country,  and  the  whole  tract  towards  China, 

Nepaul,  and  Bootan,  is  an  immense  alpine  country.     Se- 

passes  in  the  Mang-li  mountains  are  from  10,000  to 

11,000  feet  above  the  sea;  the  region  of  perpetual  snow 

is  to  begin  at  12,500  feet,  and  as  the  snow  always 

^  an  immense  number  of  summits  and  whole  ranges, 

it  is  evident  that  the  number  of  summits  which  have  an 

lute  elevation  of  above  12,500  feet  must  be  very  con- 

able.     Some   of   them   probably   attain  the   height 

.OOO  feet  above  the  sea.     The  extent  of  the  Mang-li 

mountains  between  Bathang  on  the  Kincha-Kiang,  and 

.idp  on  the  Lang-tsan-Kiang,  according  to  the  Chine  e 

itineraries,  is  140511.  of  250  to  a  degree.    I  Hitter,  iv.  202.) 

All  this  country  is  intersected  by  deep  valleys  and  chasms. 

The  summits  of  the  mountains  are  covered  with  denial 

snow,   and  the   traveller   CTO-.  e.-.    thr    cha-ms   by    means 

of  bridges  which  are  enveloped  in  the  clouds.    The  moun- 

north  of  the  Mang-li,  around  the  sources  of  the  Lan- 

tsan-Kiang,  in  the  province  of  Tsiamdo.are  no  less  elevated, 

but  they  have  never  been  visited  by  Europeans.     A  very 

extensive  lange  begins  at  Mount  Kailasa  in  the  Himalaya, 

-t retches  to  the  east  as  far  as  the  ninetieth  degree  of 

ea>l  longitude,  in  a  direction  di-  M  the  Himalaya 

in  Nepaul  and  Bootan.    These  are  the  mountains  of  Xirari 

and  Dzang,  the  most  western  part  of  which  is  called  Gang- 

ilisri,  or  the  country  of  the  snow  mountains.     At  the  be- 

this  westernmost  part,  and  in  the  north-eastern 

province  of  Xgari,  is  situated  the   celebrated 

Mount  Kailasa,  which  is  said  to  be  higher  than  the  Dhav.  a- 

.     The  Kailasa  is  steep  on  all  sides,  and  is  140  li  in 

inference;  its  summit  is  always  covered  with  - 

lie  water  tumbles  down  from  it  in  cataracts  into  the 

This  mountain  has  also  the  name  of 

Oneuta.      Ka>t  of  the  Kailasa  are  situated  four  moun- 

l.iins,  or  perhaps  groups  of  mountains,  the  K  liabhabhs, 

of  winch  resembles  a  different  animal.     The  first   is 

the  Horse-mountain,  or  Tam-tsiogh-K'habhabh  :   the  se- 

is  the   Elephant-mountain,  or  Lang-tsieii-K'h  ;    the 

third   is   the   Lion-mountain,    or  Sengghe-K'h ;    and  the 

fourth  is  the  Peacock-mountain,  or    Mabghia-K'h.     The 

length  of  these  four  mountains  is  said  to  be  800  li,  and 

v,  itli  respect  to  the  valleys  which  begin  at  their  foot  and 

stretch  in  different  directions,  they  resemble  Mount  St. 

Gothard  iu  Switzerland.     The  mountains  on  the  southern- 

of  Tibet  have  been  described  in  the  article 

HIMALAYA. 

r». — The  sources  of  the  Dzangbo  are  on  the  east 
.,!'  the  K'habhabhs,  in  the  province  of  Ngari.     Its 
complete    name  is  Yaru-Dzangbo-lsu,    that   is,  the   pure 
front  i •  the  went.     According  to  the  Chinese  geo- 

grap!  ource  of  the  Dzangbo  is  on  Mount  Tam- 

il, in  30°  10'  north  latitude,  and  79°  35'  longituil. 
1 1  is.  It  flows  in  an  cast-south-eastern  direction,  through 
tlie  whole  of  Southern  Tibet,  a  distance  of  about  700  miles, 
and  waters  the  provinces  of  Ngari,  Dzang,  and  Wei.     The 
\alley  of  this  river  is  formed  by  the  Himalaya   on   the 
,    and   the   mountains  of   Ngari  and  Dzang  on   the 
north.     The  country  through  which  it  flows  being  very 
extensive,  and  all  the  mountains  bein:'  covered  in  winter 
v.ith  snow,  of  which  an  immense  quantity  melts  in  the 
summer,  the  volume  of  water  in  this  river  must  be  very 
lerable.     The  tributary  rivers  of  the  Dzangbo,  on  its 
left  or  northern  side,  are :  the  Nauk-Dzangbo  ;  the  Dzang- 
1-.il,  or  Galdjao-muren,  that  is,  the  '  furious  river,' which 
:<-e.s  in  the  north-east,  about  200  miles  from  its 
junction  with  the  Dzangbo   near  H'Lassa,  anil    which  is 
sometimes   confounded  with  the  Dzangbo   itself.     There 
insideiable  rivers  between  the  Nauk-Dzangbo 
;he  Dziant:-Nii.     The  tributary  rivers  on  the  right  or 
ire:  the  Guyang,  which  has  its  source  near 
n  the  Himalaya  (there  are  five  other  consider- 
i:ome   down   from  the   Himalaya  of 
Xep:il , :    and  the  Vai-nom-tsu,  or  Fuaug-dze,  along  which 
Turner  travelled,  from  its  source  at  Phaii  to  its  junction 


with  the  Dzangbo,  and  which  has  a  fine  iron  bridge  of 
thirteen  arches.  An  iron  suspension-bridge  is  thrown  over 
the  Dzangbo,  south  of  H'Lassa,  on  the  great  road  from  the 
west  to  this  town.  The  course  of  the  Dzangbo  is  known 
as  far  as  a  point  which  is  situated  about  100  miles  east  of 
H'Lassa,  in  26°  30'  N.  lat.  according  to  D'Anville  ;  in 

3  30'  N.  lat.  according  to  Klaproth  ;  and  in  29°  15'  N.  lat. 
according  to  Berghaus.  It  has  been  conjectured  that  the 
Brahmaputra  is  the  continuation  of  the  Dxangbo  [Bu.\HMA- 
PUTRA],  but  it  is  now  known  that  they  are  different  rivers. 
The  continuation  of  the  Dzangbo  is  the  Irawaddy.  We 
owe  this  discovery  to  Julius  von  Klaproth,  who  published 
several  memoirs  on  the  course  of  the  Irawaddy,  of  the 
Brahmaputra,  and  the  Dzangbo. 

All  that  we  know  about  the  Southern  Nu-kiang  is  con- 
jectural. Ritter  says  that  the  Nu-kiang  is  a  southern  tribu- 
tary river  of  thaDzangbo,  but  this  is  impossible,  and  instead 
uthern'  we  must  read  '  northern.'  (Ritter,  iv.,  pp.  212- 
223.)  The  sources  of  the  Gakbo-dzangbo-tsu,  or  the  clear 
river  of  Gakbo,  are  situated  in  31°  30'  N.  lat.,  between  the 
mountains  of  Sangtsen-sum-do-ri  and  Barkala,  on  the 
frontiers  of  the  provinces  of  K'ham  and  of  Wei.  Its  upper 
course  has  the  name  of  Sang-chu  or  Dziangbo-tsiu.  Its 
direction  is  at  first  south-east.  The  great  road  from  China 
to  H'Lassa  crosses  this  river  some  distance  cast  of  the  cele- 
brated temple  of  H'Lari.  The  Gakbo-dzangbo-tsu  then 
enters  the  country  of  Gakbo,  where  it  receives  a  considera- 
ble river  called  Bo-Dzangbo,  which  enters  it  on  the  left  or 
eastern  side.  Alter  having  entered  the  country  of  H'Lokba, 
it  probably  takes  a  southern  direction,  but  we  have  no 
positive  knowledge  of  it.  According  to  the  Chinese  map  of 
the  emperor  Khien-Long,  of  which  the  '  Carte  de  1'Asie 
i  'eiitrale'  of  Klaproth  is  a  reduction,  the  Gakbo-dzangbo- 
tsu  enters  the  Chinese  province  of  Yunnan,  and  there  re- 
the  name  of  Lung-ehuan-Kiang.  As  to  the  Om-tsu, 
or  Oui-tsu,  another  great  river,  there  is  great  difference  of 
opinion.  According  to  the  Chinese  maps,  the  Om-tsu  is 
formed  by  the  junction  of  three  rivers,  the  Ser-Sumbu,  orSer- 
tsu,  in  the  east,  the  Uir-chu  in  the  west,  and  the  Kara-us-su, 
the  largest  river,  in  the  middle.  The  source  of  the  Kara-us-su. 
is  said  to  be  in  the  table-land  of  Middle  Tibet,  about  32" 
30*  N.  lat.  and  90°  to  91°  E.  long.  The  Om-tsu  has  a  south- 
east course,  and  flows  in  a  very  deep  and  narrow  valley, 
enclosed  by  steep  rocks  of  an  immense  height ;  it  enters  the 
province  of  Yunnan  in  China,  where  it  receives  the  Chinese 
name  Nu-Kiang,  that  is,  '  the  river  of  the  barbarians.' 
The  latter  part  of  its  course  within  Tibet  is  unknown 
to  European  geographers.  The  Lang-tsang-Kiang  tra- 
alfflost  the  whole  extent  of  eastern  Tibet,  from 
north-west  to  south-east.  Two  rivers,  the  Om-chu  in  the 
and  the  Dzo'chu  in  the  east,  the  sources  of  which 
are  situated  north  of  the  upper  part  of  the  Om-teu,  in  the 
province  of  K'ham,  join  at  Tsiamdo,  and  thus  form  the 
Lang-fsang-Kiang,  the  direction  of  which  is  from  north-west 
to  south-east.  From  the  30th  to  the.  27th  degree  of  N.  lat. 
tin'  l.ang-tsang-Kiang  traverses  a  country  quite  unknown 
to  Europeans.  This  river  is  also  called  La-chou,  La-tsu, 
Lo-tsau,  and  Lo-tsu.  After  having  traversed  Yunnan,  it 
enters  Lao,  forms  the  frontier  between  Siam  and  Cochin- 
China,  and  flows  into  the  Chinese  Sea  in  10°  N.  lat.,  after 
a  course  of  more  than  1700  miles.  The  sources  of  the 
Kincha-Kiang,  or  Yang-tse-Kiang,  which  traverses  China 
from  west  to  east, are  situated  between  37°  and  38"  N.  lat., 
and  between  89"  and  92°  E.  long.,  on  the  table-land  to- 
wards the  north-western  frontiers  of  Eastern  Tibet.  Its 
upper  part  is  called  Muru-us-su  by  the  nomadic  Mongols 
of  that  country;  its  middle  part  has  the  Tibetan  name  of 
Bourei'-tsu  ;  and  it  is  only  in  China  that  it  is  called 
Kincha-Kiang.  Its  direction  is  east  as  far  as  95°  E.  long. ; 
from  this  point  to  Batang  the  direction  is  south-east  and 
south ;  from  Batang  to  its  junction  with  the  Litchtu 
(the  old  frontier  of  Tibet),  it  is  again  south-east.  This  latter 
part  of  the  Kincha-Kiang  forms  a  part  of  the  present  fron- 
tier between  Tibet  and  China.  The  Ya-long-Kiang  is  an 
important  tributary  of  the  Kincha-Kiang.  Its  source 
about  29°  N.  lat.  and  97°  30'  E.  long.,  in  the  Bayan-Khaia, 
a  range  of  high  and  wild  mountains  itretching  in  a  south- 
east direction,  between  the  Kincha-Kiang  and  the  Ya- 
long-Kiang  in  the  south,  and  the  sources  of  the  Hoang-Ho 
in  the  north.  The  direction  of  the  Ya-long-Kiang  is  at 
first  south-east  for  about  200  miles  :  east  of  100"  E.  long. 
it  runs  southward  for  about  300  miles:  during  the  latter 
naif  of  ita  course  the  direction  is  at  first  cast,  as  it  seems, 

312 


T  I 


438 


'I    1   15 


«nd  then  again  south  for  about  1UU  ;  :  all  this  is 

turnl.     The   Hoang-Ho,  or   Yellow  :a  iU 

I-M    north    of   thr    Bnian-Khnra.   in   thr    province   i'l' 

•ul  a  part  of  its  upper  com  - 
in   Tilu't    anil    in    Khu-Klm-N 
northern  part  of  Tibet,  of  which  wo  liavi-  alre.i 
The  do«oription  of  this  river  ha- 
Thc  whole  country  between  the  up]. 

Ho  in  the  north  and  in  the  west,  the  '.  m  the 

south-west,  and  tin   I'rontier  of  China  in  .  'Mho 

eailcrn  pa  n  and  Khu-Khu-No:  .  -.  d  h\ 

inch   mountains  covered  with  perpetual  snow  ; 
it  is  an  unknown  country  to  u-. 

Laka.—1'\w  IT,  the   largest  hike  of  Tibet,   is 

nine  days'  journey  noiih  of  Il'Lassa.     The  Chinese  cull  it 
Thian-chhi,   or  the  Celestial  Lake.     This  lake  app 
bo  Mirounded  by  high  mountains  and   r<»  '.with 

snow  and  ice.  It  ivoncs  the  Tarku-DAngbo,  a  river 
which  comes  from  the  west.  The  lake  of  Paltc,  which  is 
situated  south-west  of  H'I,assu,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Dzamrbo.  resembles  a  large  ditch  surrounding  an  extensive 
inland  which  tills  up  the  middle  of  the  lake.  On  the 
Tibetan  maps  it  has  the  name  of  Bhaldi-Yumtso,  and  the 
Chinese  call  it  Yar-brok-Yumtso.  According  to  the  Chi- 
nes*. geographers  there  is  a  nunnery  on  that  Island  which 
mie  of  Dhordze-phagh-mo,  or  the  •  1'alace  of  the 
Holy  Sow.'  which  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  finest  in  Tibet. 
It  is  said  that  north  of  this  lake  there  is  a  high  mountain 
railed  Kambala,  from  the  summit  of  which  c\i 
ranges  of  high  snowy  Al]>s  may  be  seen  to  the  north. 
-.-  an-  nmst  probably  the  mountains  which  surround 
Lake  Tengri-Nor.  In  the  extreme  north  of  Tibet  is  situ- 
ated the  Lake  Khu-Khu-Nor,  or  Koko-Nor.  that  is.  -the 
Hlue  or  the  Celestial  Uiko.'  which  name  has  been  given 
to  all  the  surrounding  country.  The  lakes  of  Kailasa,  in 
the  southern  part  of  Tibet,  nave  been  described  under 


ds,  lynxes. 


(  'iimatf.  —  Til>et  is  known  in  India  and  China  as  a  coun- 
try of  hunger  and  misery,  and  as  such  it  is  represented  by 
the  Mongol  historian  Sanani:  Setsen.  However  cold  and 
barren  the  table-lands  and  the  mountains  may  be,  on 
account  of  their  extreme  elevation  and  of  the  snow  which 
•  etually  covers  whole  tracts,  the  climate  of  the  valle\s. 
and  especially  of  the  valley  of  the  Dzangbp,  is  hot.  From 
March  to  September  the  weather  is  fair,  interrupted  only 
by  some  showers  ;  the  winds  are  not  wgular,  as  in  India. 
In  H'Lahsa  the  trees  bud  at  the  end  of  April  and  in  the 
beginning  of  May.  Corn  and  peas  are  sown  towards  the 
end  of  the  spring  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  summer: 
and  the  harvest  is  reaped  in  the  months  of  August  ami 
Scptcmt>er.  Dew  falls  in  the  summer  nights;  it  hails 
ulleii:  Hie  snow  is  not  deep  in  the  winter.  On  the  high 
table-lands  the  climate  is  very  different.  Turner,  who 
visited  a  part  of  them  on  his  way  from  Bootan  to 
Toshu  Liimtiu,  gives  an  interesting  description  of  it.  From 
May  to  October  the  sky  is  always  clear,  and  the  sun  shines 
with  uncommon  brightness.  FYom  October  to  May  there 
are  violent  gales.  'I  11  rocks 

breaks  in  pieces,  which  the  air  dissolves  into  fragments  as 
small  a*  dust  ;  and  clouds  of  this  1  by  whirl- 

winds, are  driven  from  the  plain  to  the  summits  of  the 
mountains,  and  from  the  mountains  down  to  the  houses  of 
the  inhabitant*,  The  air  is  excessively  dry,  and  its  effects 

nble  those  of  the  dry  heat    of  the  Sahara.     Th. 
wither  ;  their  leaves  maybe  ground  to  pnwd 
the  I  anks  and  beams  break,  and  the  inhabitants 

the  timbers  of  their  houses  with  wet  towels  in  ordei 
to  preserve  them  against  the  destructive   cft'e.  •• 

Thr  timber  never  rots.     T 
•   the  open  air  becomes  dry.  and  ma\   !»• 

like  bread,  and  Huts  preserved  during  yean.  This  flesh 

i  mon  food  in  Ti! 
-Among    the    minerals    then 
tin  :  salt,  which  is  taken  from  the  »ai 
l>eng-t-a\ga  :  corundum  stone,  l.ipis  la/nli. 
tunjuois,  and  agate.     Besides  a  great  number  of  grasses 
whu  non   in  Kurope,  Tibet   produce- 

ipeiiin  Bathamr.  and 
•«,  rhubarb,  madder,  saftiowor.  apples   nut 

.rranate.,  and  (•,-,„•  .     the 

ir,  buffaloca,  the  bnflalo  which  is  called 
IK-  jak,  goat*  with  a  very  fine  fleece,  goat»  with  lon£ 


tine  hair,  silk-worms,  wild-cats 

.\itli    horns   ot 
white   .  ''.    swans. 

known  in  Tibet,  and   the  1  irnt.     Fi^< 

::it  in  the  '.hey  are  not  eaten,  being  pro- 

:     id'ha. 

-1.  The  territory  of  the  Dalai-tama 

contains  the  eastern  and  north-eastern  parts  of  Tibet.  The 
capital,    H'Lassa  or  Lassa,  is  situated  in  a  beautiful  ; 
on  the  banks  of  the  l)/ang-tsn,  about  twel\,  '10111 

its   junction  with    the  ])/.angbo.     It    is   a   pepuiout    and 
town,  and    distinguished    by   many  fine 
public   bull  lally  convents,  among  which  then- 

is  the  first  temple   of  the  Buddhists.      Tin  :.  -mall- 

pox  hospital,  a  printing-office,  and  several  schools,  i 
cially  for  divinity.     'J'he  town   has  walls  and  five   fortified 
In  the  neighbourhood  ol'  the  town,   in   the   north, 
the  east,  the  south,  and  the  are  four  n. 

convents,  the  largest  amonu'  the  :UKK)  convents  oi'  Til 
great  number  of  which  contain  several  thousand  monks. 
The    residence    of   the    Dalai-I-ama   is  in   the   convent   of 
PobnOK-Marbu  ithe   red   town)  on   Mount   Holala,  north- 

II'Lassa.     It  is  said  that  the  principal  huildiii 
this  residence,  or  the  Lapninga.  hiirli,  and 

it  contains  10,(XK)  rooms.  ,  Hitter,  iv.  'J-13.1  On  tlie  walls  oi 
one  of  its  large  rooms  are  most  probably  suspended  those 
chorographieal  tables  which  Father  de  la  Penna  admired 
when  he  was  in  II  I,assa.  Tile  environs  of  H'Laasa  arc 
full  of  convents  and  palaces,  of  which  the  most  magnificent. 
is  that  of  Dznndzio-lu-Khang.  Besides  the  capital  we  only 
know  some  points  on  the  iireat  mails  which  lead  to  HI 
from  the  e;ust  and  from  the  west,  but  no  considerable  to  win 
are  mentioned  on  these  re  -.i-u'iinu'-Lrhar,  a 

town  which  is  inhabited  by  '20.(XK)  families,  and  which  is 
situated  east  of  Il'Lassaon  the  Dzang-bo. 

'2.  Tlie  territory  of  the  Teshu-Lauia  contains  the  pro\  inces 
of  D/aiiLr  and  Nirari.and  perhaps  also  the  countries  of  Khor 
and  of  Katchi.  His  residence  is  at  the  palace,  or  rather 
the  convent  of  Teslui-U'Luinbu,  in  29°  4'  N.  Int.  and 
'-t.i"  7'  K.  long.,  accordini:  to  Turner,  who  visited  this  place 
in  17S3.  It  was  founded  in  1  H7.  on  a  small  plain  sur- 
rounded by  lofty  mountains  ;  but  as  this  plain  is  a  part  of 
the  high  table-land,  the  environs  are  cold  and  i! 
Teshu-H'Lumbu  lies  almost  opposite  to  a  pa>saeioss  the 
Himalaya  of  Bootan,  which  is  defended  by  the  fortr. 
D/iLrsdxe-.Tcuni:.  Teshu  H'Lumbu.  or,  more  correct  H, 
FI'Lunibo,  contains  from  :«HI  to  -4<XI  houses,  con- 
vents, temples,  and  palaces,  which  are  surrounded  by 
a  wall,  and  all  communicate  with  each  other.  The  chief 
building,  where  the  Lama  resides,  has  the  name  of 
Lapianira,  the  most  remarkable  pad  of  which  is  the 
ilenm  of  the  Teshu-Lama,  who  died  in  Peking  in 
1~N1.  This  mausoleum,  of  which  Turner  iri\c-~  a  careful 
description,  has  a  most  beautiful  appeaiai  a  fine 

specimen  of  Tibetan  sculpture.  It  is  said  that  :»7i*l(!'. 
or  monks  are  daily  occupied   in   the   performance   Of  their 
various  religious  duties  in  the  palace  of  Teshu  H'Lunilni. 
The  trreater  part    uf  the  country  between  Teshu  H'Llinil/u 
and  II  1-a.ssa  is  a  feitile  and  beautiful  tiact.  which  extends 
along  the  river  Dzangbo  from  well  to  east.     At  one. 
journc)   east  of  Teshu  H'l.umbu  is  1'ina    Hainani  .  a  smaH 
town  with  a  fortified  castle.      Haldi  or  Bedi.  another  small 
town,  lies  on  the  northern  bank  of  Lake  1'alte. 

fnhabtfantt   <iml   Ilixlury.  —  According  to   the    lecrend 
Tibet  was  originally  inhabited  by  animals  and  demons.    At 
•cut  toTibel  the  king  of  the  monkeys, 
who  led  there  the  life   of  a    hermit  : 

tion   WiLs  the  performance   of  religious  duties,  and   he  was 
absorbed  in   the   pursuit   of  the  knowledge  of   nonentity. 
\Vhcn  he  was  just  on  the  point,  of  attainim:  the  object  of 
liis    pursuit,   he    was  disturbed    in    his  contemplation 
the   \isit    of  a    female   Munggus.     The    Mam:: 
Sanscrit  name  IB  Rakihaa,  are  ugly  demons,  who 

..  dopt  any  iiirure  they  please.  The  MaiiL'gus  who 
came  to  the  king  ol  the  monkeys  had  assumed  a  beautiful 
Iiirure,  and  propost-d  to  the  kini;  to  marry  her.  The  king 
•  ulleired  hi«  moi'.a-tical  duties,  but'  at  last  he  nirtr- 
i  led  the  Mani;i.rus.  and  their  descendants  are  the  pi  i.plr  of 
Tibet.  Schmidt.  l'<iri'-hnnii<'ii,  p.  -II.  'l"h,-  aeeniint. 
however,  ridiculous  as  li  iiiu\  appear  to  a  Kuropcan,  is  all- 
important  to  a  nation  which  helioses  in  the  metempsy- 
chcisis,  and  is  proud  n.  '  lioni  a  monl\e\,  bd 

one  of  the  most  cunning  of  animals.     The   first  ac- 


T  I  B 


429 


T  I  B 


counts  of  the  history  of  Tibet  are  in  the  annals  of  the  Mon- 
gols and  of  the  Chinese.  The  Tibetans  belong  to  the  Mon- 
gol race  :  they  were  at  first  divided  into  many  independent 
tribes  which  led  a  nomadic  life,  like  all  the  other  Mongol 
1 1  ibes  before  the  time  of  Genghis  Khan.  The  first  king  of 
Tibet,  according  to  Sanang  "Setsen,  was  Seger-Sandiiitu- 
Khaghan-Tiil-Esen,  whose  youth  resembles  that  of  Moses, 
for  he  was  exposed  by  his  father,  and  afterwards  found  in 
a  copper  box  swimming  on  the  river  Ganga.  He  became 
king  in  313  B.C.,  and  united  the  four  great  tribes  of  Ngari, 
of  Dzang,  of  K'ham,  and  of  H'Lassa  or  Wei.  One  of  his 
descendants  was  H'latotori,  who  was  born  in  348  A.D.,  and 
who  became  king  in  367  A.D.  In  the  fortieth  year  of- 
his  reign  (407)  Buddhism  was  introduced  into  Tibet. 
[  BUDDHA.]  The  history  of  Tibet  becomes  more  certain 
from  the  reign  of  king  Srongdsan-Gambo,  who  was  born  in 
617,  and  who  ascended  the  throne  in  629.  He  founded  the 
Town  of  H'Lassa,  where  he  held  his  residence,  and  he  built 
a  splendid  palace  on  Mount  Pudala.  His  reign  is  par- 
ticularly remarkable  for  the  invention,  or  rather  introduc- 
tion, of  the  Tibetan  alphabet.  Tongmi  Sambhoda  invented 
this  alphabet,  which  is  only  a  modification  of  the  Sanscrit 
alphabet ;  and  he  made  the  first  Tibetan  grammar.  Srong- 
(Uan-Gambo,  who  is  also  renowned  as  a  legislator  and  ad- 
ministrator, died  in  699.  His  successors  earned  on  war 
with  China,  in  which  they  were  often  successful ;  but  in 
821  Tibet  was  compelled  to  pay  tribute  to  China.  Under 
king  Dharma,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  901,  Buddhism 
«:ts  almost  destroyed,  the  king  having  adopted  the  Black 
•ion,  or  the  Islam.  Buddhism  again  became  the  do- 
minant religion  after  Dharma  had  been  murdered  by  a 
priest  in  <J25. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century  each  of  the 
seven  grandsons  of  king  Bilamgur-Dzang  became  an  in- 
dependent prince  ;  and  from  this  event  dates  the  entire 
decline  of  the  kingdom  of  Tibet,  the  power  of  which  had 
been  already  broken  by  the  civil  troubles  which  accom- 
panied the  persecution  of  Buddhism.    One  of  the  new  king- 
doms was  Tangut,  in  the  northern  part  of  Tibet.     Genghis 
Khan  subdued  all  Tibet  in  1206,  according  to  Sanang  Setsen, 
but  Schmidt  affirms  that  the  Chinese  and  Mohammedan  his- 
torians do  not  mention  this  fact.     It  is  nevertheless  a  fact 
that  Tibet  was  conquered  and  ravaged  by  the  Mongols ; 
and  it  was  not  before  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century 
that  the  country  recovered  from  the  calamity  of  the  Mon- 
gol war  by  the  careful  administration  of  Khublai-Khan. 
The  easternmost  parts  of  Tibet,  which  during  the  middle 
extended  much  farther  to  the  east  than  they  do  at 
present,  were  gradually  conquered  by  the  Chinese  in  H25, 
]255,  1362,  and  1371;  and  in  1727  another  part   of  Tibet 
incorporated  with  China,  which  has  been  mentioned 
above.     Since  the  year  1720  all  Tibet  has  been  a  vassal 
state  of  China,  and  Chinese  garrisons  are  in  its  towns,  and 
they  watch  the  passes  in  the  frontier  mountains :  the  number 
of  Chinese  troops  in  Tibet  amounts  to  64,000  men.     The 
tribute  which  Tibet  pays  to  the  emperor  of  China  is  com- 
'1    of  a   great   many  ditt'erent   articles,  which   Rittei 
;l,   enumerates,     The  national  government 
<jf  Tibet  is  supported  by  a  perfectly  organized  hierarchy. 
The  name  of  the  chief  priests  is  Lama;  and  the  Dalai- 
Lama  is  the  first  of  them.     The  second  is  the  Teshu,  or 
!<.>-Lama.     The  people  are  kind,  tolerant,  polite,  and 
much    more   civilized  than   the    Mongols,  although  they 
ally  poor.  They  live  in  a  state  of  polyandry,  thai 
•veral  men  cohabit  with  one  woman;  but  it  is  only 
brothel's  who  are  allowed  thus  to  have  one  woman  in  com- 
mon.    Arts  and   literature  are  cultivated,  but  the  works 
and  Hie  language  (it  the  Tibetans  are  almost  unknown  in 
Kurope.     The  extreme  north  of  Tibet  is  inhabited  by  no- 
madic Mongols,  and  Turkish  hordes  sometimes  appear  in  the 
deserts  of  Khor  and  of  Katchi.     Both  the  Lamas  are  abso 
lute  princes  in  religious  matters,  but  their  sovereignty  is 
checked  by  the  authority  of  the  emperor  of  China,  who 
•units  or  generals  in  Tibet,  who  control  the 
Lamas,  and  who  have  the  command  of  the  army  and  the 
direct  ion  ol  'temporal  affairs.     The  high  functionaries  an, 
almost  all  Chinese.     A  great  number  of  officers  are  em- 
uloyed  in  the  administration    of  the  studs  for  breeding 
hoi  ;  ihe  stores  for  the  army. 

: liter,  Knlkmxli;  vol.  iv.  ;  Turner,  Embassy  tit  the 
Court  </  Ti'uh'trt  Lama  in  Tihet ;  Moorcroft,  in  Asiat 
Journ.,  1826,  vol.  xxi. ;  Klaproth,  Tableaux  Historiquet 
dc  I' Aw ;  Abel  Hemusat,  Rucherches  sur  let  Languvs 


rartares,  vol.  i. ;  Kircher,  China  Illustrata,  cap.  iv. ; 
Sanang  Setsen,  History  of  the  Mongol,'!,  ed.  Schmidt ; 
Schmidt,  Forschungen  iin  Gebiete  der  Volker  Miltel- 
asiens.') 

TI'BIA.     [SKELETON.] 

TIBIA'NA,  a  genus  of  Polypiaria.     [SERTULARLKA.] 
TIBULLUS,  A'LBIUS,  lived  in  the  time  of  Augustus, 
and  was  a  friend  and  contemporary  of  Horace.     He  was  of 
equestrian  rank,  and  originally  possessed  considerable  pro- 
perty, of  which  he  lost  the  greater  part  (Tibull.,  i.  1,  19, 
&c. ;  iv.  1,  128,  &c.),  probably,  as  it  is  conjectured,  in 
consequence  of  the  assignments  of  lands  among  the  vete- 
•ans  of  Augustus ;  and  this  supposition  is  rendered  still 
nore  probable  by  the  circumstance  that  Tibullus  never 
celebrates  the  praises  of  Augustus,  like  the  other  poets  of 
lis    time.     He   was   not    however   reduced    to    absolute 
loverty  ;  the  estate  on  which  he  resided  at  Pedum  (Horace, 
Kp.,  i.  4),  a  town  between  Praeheste  and  Tibur,  appears  to 
lave  been  his  own,  and  to  have  descended  to  him  fvom  his 
ancestors.    (Tibull.,  i.  10,  15,  &c.)     Here  he  passed  the 
greater  part  of  his  time  in  the  enjoyment  of  a  quiet  country- 
ife,  which  had  for  him  the  greatest  charms.     He  left  "it 
lowever  to  accompany  his  patron,  Valerius  Messalla,  into 
Aquitania,  and  was  present  with  him  through  the  cam- 
paign, either  in  B.C.  28  or  27.  (Tibull.,  i.  7,  9.)     He  after- 
wards set  out  with  him  to  Asia,  but  was  taken   ill  at 
Corcyra;    but  that  he  died  at  Corcyra,   as   is  stated  by 
some  modern  writers,   is  only  a  conjecture,  unsupported 
by    any   antient    authority,   and   is  directly  contradicted 
by  what  Ovid  says.     It  appears  from  an  epigram  of  Domi- 
tius  Maraua  (in  Tibull.,  iv.  15),  who  lived  in  the  age  of 
Augustus,  that  Tibullus  died  soon  after  Virgil ;    and  as 
Virgil  died  in  u.c.  19,  we  may  perhaps  place  the  death  of 
Tibullus  in  the  following  year,  B.C.  18.   It  has  been  already 
mentioned  that  Tibullus  was  the  friend  of  Horace ;  two 
poems  have  come  down  to  us  addressed  to  him  by  the 
latter  (Cli/v/i.,  i.  33 ;  Epist.,  i.  4).     Ovid  too  laments  his 
death  in  a  beautiful  elegy,  from  which  it  appears  that  his 
mother  and  sister  were  present  at  his  death  (Amor.,  iii.  9). 
It  is  difficult  to  determine  at  what  time  Tibullus  was 
born ;  and  we  can  but  at  best  make  some  approximation 
to  it.   In  the  epigram  of  Domitius  Marsus,  already  referred 
to,  he  is  called  juvenis,  and  Ovid  deplores  his  untimely 
death.    We  must  not  however  be  misled  by  the  expression 
juri'iiis  into  supposing  that  he  was  quite  a  young  man,  in 
our  sense  of  the  word,  at  the  time  of  his  death,  since  the 
antients  extended  the  meaning  of  juvenis  to  a  time  which 
we  consider  to  be  that  of  mature  manhood.   Several  circum- 
stances tend  to  show  that  he  could  not  be  much  less  than 
forty  at  his  death.     Ovid  speaks  of  Tibullus  as  preceding 
Propertius,  and  of  Propertius  as  preceding  himself ;  and 
as   Ovid  was  born  B.C.  43,  we  must  place  the  birth   of 
Tibullus  a  few  years  at  least  before  that  time.     Again. 
Horace  in  the  first  book  of  his  Odes  addresses  Tibullus  as 
an  intimate  friend,  which  hardly  allows  us  to  suppose  that 
Tibullus  was  a  mere  youth  at  the  time.     If  Bentley's  sup- 
position is  correct,  that  the  first  book  of  the  Odes  was 
published   about  B.C.  30  or  28,  Horace  was  then  about 
35,  and   Tibullus  may  have  been   a  few  years  younger. 
Moreover  he  does  not  appear  to  have  been  a  very  young 
man  when   he  accompanied  Messalla  into  Aquitania  in 
B.C.  28  or  27.     We  may  therefore  perhaps  place  his  birth 
at  about  B.C.  57.     There  are  indeed  two  lines  in  Tibullus 
(jii.  5,  17,  18),  which  expressly  assign  his  birth  to  B.C.  43, 
the  same  year  in  which  Ovid  was  born ;  but  these  are, 
without  doubt,  an  interpolation  derived  from  one  of  Ovid's 
poems  (Trist.,  iv.  10,  6). 

We  have  thirty-six  poems  of  Tibullus,  written,  with  one 
exception,  in  elegiac  metre,  and  divided  into  four  books. 
The  first  two  books  are  admitted  by  all  critics  to  have 
been  written  by  Tibullus,  but  of  the  genuineness  of  the  last 
two,  considerable  doubts  have  been  raised.  ,T.  H.  Voss 
and  others  attribute  the  third  book  to  a  poet  of  the  name 
of  Lygdamis,  but  the  style  and  mode  of  treating  the  sub- 
jects resemble  the  other  elegies  of  Tibullus,  and  there  do 
not  appear  sufficient  reasons  for  doubting  that  it  is  his 
composition.  There  are  however  stronger  grounds  for 
supposing  the  first  poem  in  the  fourth  book,  written  in 
hexameters,  not  to  be  genuine.  It  differs  considerably  in 
style  and  expression  from  the  other  poems,  and  is  attri- 
buted by  some  writers  to  Sulpicia,  who  lived  under  Domi- 
tiau,  by  others  to  a  Sulpicia  of  the  age  of  Augustus  ;  but 
I  we  know  nothing  with  certainty  respecting  its  author.  Of 


T  I  C 


T  I  C 


the  other  pooms  in  thin  book,  almost  all  bear  traces  of  I 

kind. 

In  the  earlier  period 

Nvmrsu,  ami  their  i 
m  his  po. 

.ilia.  Init  those  are  tho   ! 
his  \\nrk-,  lor  he  iloe»   not  aopcar  to  h 

Tibiillus  is  placed  by  Qiiinctilian  at  the  head  of  the 

•  t.  'Inil.,  \ 

M  of  fccline,  which 

same 
warmest  sympathies.     He  ~ecui^  !•• 

••eminent,  and  to  lui\e  looked  at 

.;s  from  a  gloomy  point  of  view;  hence  we  lintl  the 
subject  of  death  "  frequently  introduced,  and  the  enjoyment 
,,f  |i  interrupted  by  (lark  forebodings  of  the 

future     II.   .  o',-t ant ly  describes  the  pleasures  of  a  co 

••f  nature,  for  \vhieh  lie  had   the  mo-t 
i-\i|iii-ite  relish  :  ami  tiiere  is  in  these  descriptions  a  natu- 

-s  and  truthfulness  which  place  him  above   hi- 
lemporury  1'ropcitins.    His  si  vie  too  is  not  ol' the  artificial 
character  which  distiniruishcs  the    elegies  of  1'ropcilius; 
anil  his  subjects  are  not,  like  the  latter,  mere  imita' 
translations   of  the  Greek  poets,  but  essentially  original 

Tihnllus  was  formerly  edited  together  with  Catullus  and 
I'l-opei-lius.  the  earlier  editions  of  which  are  mentioned 
undi  '  The  principul  sepaiatc  editions  are 

by  H  Ani-t..  17IK  4to. '..  Vulpii:s    1'adua.   174i», 

n  reprinted,  of  which 

the   fourth    edition,  containing  the   notes  of  \Vinulerlieh 
and   Dissen.   appeared    in    1S17-III,    2 

.1.  H.  Voss    'Heidelberg,    lull.  Kvo.\   Uach     Lcipz..  1SIJI, 
(ini. ili.V  ..  ilcrlin. 

l«2'.>.  Kvo.  .  and    Dissen    idotlingen.   KC>.  'J  vol-.  Svo.),  of 
which  the  two  last  contain  the  best  text. 

Tibullns   has   been    translated   into     Knglish    by   Dart 

I73i>,  and  d  r59).     The  moft  modem  German 

Utions  are  by  .1.  II.  Vi».s    Tiibuiircn,  Islil  .  Giinther 

..-..    1*2.-..  arid   Kichter   '  Masjdcbiirg.    ls:jl  .     There 

are  also  French  nnd  Italian  translations. 

Respecting  the'  life  of  Tibullns  and  the  Roman  elegy  in 
Oder  may  con-nit    with   ad.  uppc's 

•  Die  Komische  Elegie,'  Leipz.,  IKW. 
TIIJUK.     FTr. 

TIC  Don.oruKiA.    i \.M-n\t.oiA.] 

'I'K   HK1KI.D.      [TirciiKiKi.D.] 

TICH(yDROMA.     [CKKKPKH,  vol.  viii.,  p.  147.]     M 
•rcnus  in  the  Mibfamily  Troglodylina 

lain  Mr.  Cr.  H. 

::   under  the  siibfamily  <'i-rthinn:  h. 
:nm..anil'.  v.v.  (Lilt  of  tin' <, 

of  Bit 

TICI'NO.  CANTON  O!  and  Ger- 

man \.  one  of  tin1  cantons  of  the  Swiss  Confederation,  is 
I  the  I.epontiiu1  and  Khii'tian  Al])s,  and  the 
;>c-   towards  and  mcrces    in    the    L'reat    ])l:iin   of 
•  ai.lv.      It  ':ton  in  tin  Contrdeia- 

.bard    diHli 

Milanese,  and  are  Italian  in  their  hal'i 
manners:    they    are    all    Uornan   Catholics.     The    canton 

. om  the  inerTicino.  which  basitssoir 

the  irrcat  central  irronp  of  the  St.  fiothanl,  flows  southward 
nlon.  it  inn,    pas.se>   by  llellin/ona.  and   then 

enters   the   Lairo  M:i  's  noithe' 

ii»uc-  .  !i«l  hy  tin 

. 'iardy.     [!'  MIOUII- 

valle  Mid    -mall,    lie    ' 

lariT'  ly  pamlle1  • 

Hi.     The  pnm  i 

ineulione>>.  iial    in 

Inch  nms  in  a  southern  direction  through  the 
centre    of   the   canton.      Kast    of  the  Val  I.eventin:i 

and 

which  i»  a 

•w  canton  ol  '   the  VBJ   Morobbia,  winch 


down  fron.  iltel- 

lina,  nnd  11 
licllinzona.     \\'. 

li  d    Val    I.avi/zara ;  il  th.c  river 

m,  which  . 

• 

•:icm.hu1  :  .  the 

i  >ntcnione  and  • 

.(ii'h  the}  both  join  at  its  lowi  .  the  lAgo 

ore. 
A   lidge  called  M> 

bank  • 

basin  of  the  lake  of  Lugano,  which  is  thus  from 

the  rest  or  northern  part  of  the  canton,  the  hich 

run  into  tin  ailed 

.  lies  within  the  territory  of  11  with 

nity.  whic'. 

.   is  about  '20  miles,  but  the  breadth  is  lit 
than  a  mile,  except  in  front  of  the  town  of  Lug; 
it  is  about  two  miles  wide:  the  surface   i- 

:d  the  greatest  depth  num- 

ber of  trading-boats  ply  on  the  lake.     Its  outK' 
by  the   riv.  ,u-h   runs  into   the    I 

TTie  lake  of  Lugano  separates  the 

canton,   con-isii:ig   of   the    district    of    Memhisio   and   the 
circle.  which  form  part  of  the  district  of  Liu 

from   the   rest  of  the    canton,    which   lies   north   of  the 
lake. 

Only  the  northern  extremity  of  1h 

''i   the   canton   Tieino.       [L.\<;u    M\<:c;ir. 
canton  of  Tieino  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 

•  alais.  and  the   Orisons;  on    the  cast  partly  by  tin 
:••  and  partly  by  the  province   of  Como  i 
Lombardy,  on  the"  soiilh  by  the  province  of  Milan,  and  on 
the  west  bv  the  Sardiniai  The  wirfa 

canton  of  Tieino  mav  he  divided  into  five 
region  of  the  vine,  the  tig,  and  the  peach,  which  in, 
the  lower  valleys  and  hills,  and   extends  ••• 
•2100    feet    above   the  Lap.  .      The  oli 

and  lemon-trees   thri 

.   of  the   chestnut,  the   pear,  the   apple,  and   i ' 
•.•.hich  rise-,  about   In.! 

.  which  rises  to  about  -l.'j'JO  fee!  level 

lake.  -1.  The  Alpine  pastures,  which  reach  a.s  1 
6000  feet.  5.  The  region  of  perpetual  snow. which  iin 

!  Alpine  summits  between  HOOO  nnd  !HHX>  feet   high. 
There  is  consequently  a  great  variety  of  c' 
of  productions  in  the  canton,  but  the  people  are  not,  . 
rally   speaking,    as    Indus'  The 

horned  cattle  amount  to  about  52,000  head,  1! 
i'J.(HH).  goats  to  •'>,( KK),  and  pigs  to  27.<XH>.     The   number 
of  horses  and  mules  is  about  20OO.      \Volves  and  be:. 

I  in  the  mountain*.     The  rivers  and  :md  in 

tish.     The  prim 

wine  :  n  the  nuin 

<|uarn  Hie  ninnu- 

imporlan. 

chief!  cloth,  leather,  platted  straw,  and  tobacco. 

Tlie  silkworm  is  reared  in  some  loeaii' 

The  population   of  Tieino  amounted  ill  1833  to  lOO.IHXt. 

jnited  at  about    1  1IH)  square  mi!, 
•nd   peopl.  ar   to  work  in 

i"cola1c-n]. 
<  Hers  of   barometers.      Many   of  them   return  homo 

p,  bringing  with  them  some  sa . 
n  is  div  ided  into  eight  districts,  which  are  sub- 

ntina, 
the   no 
the  high  Aljis;   2.  liellinzonn,  south  of  the  ' 

lino,   at    the   n.  ly  of  the  1 

on   the  border-,  of  the  canton  of  tin   ' 
which   stretches   on    both   banks  of  H. 

name 

upon  the  lowland  of  ' 

:i  on  the  north- 

ine.  in  n  lovely  silua- 

I  lion,  enjoying  an  Italian  climate,  has  some  fine  churches 


T  I  C 


431 


T  I  C 


with  paintings  by  Luvini,  a  pupil  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 
some  large  mansions  or  palaces,  as  they  are  called  in  Italy, 
an  hospital,  a  theatre,  manufactories  of  silk,  paper, 
tobacco,  leather,  and  iron  and  copper  works,  and  4500  in- 
habitants. There  are  at  Lugano  many  merchants,  it  being 
one  of  the  great  hia;h  roads  between  Switzerland  and  Italy. 
The  fair,  which  is  held  in  the  month  of  October,  is  well 
attended.  Lugano  has  a  college  under  the  direction  of 
the  Fathers  Spmaschi,  which  is  attended  by  more  than  one 
hundred  pupils,  several  elementary  schools,  a  school  of 
drawing,  a  reading-room,  and  three  newspapers  in  the 
Italian  language.  The  country  around  Lugano  is  planted 
with  \incs,  olives,  and  other  southern  trees,  and  full  of 
country-houses.  2,  Bcllinzona,  a  walled  town  situated 
in  the  valley  of  the  Ticino,  on  the  high  road  of  the  St. 
Gothard.  has  a  very  fine  church,  a  college,  an  arsenal,  and 
about  1500  inhabitants.  There  are  several  rained  castles 
of  the  middle  a<res  in  the  neighbourhood.  3,  Locarno,  a 
small  town  with  a  fort  on  the  Lago  Maggiore,  in  a  ro- 
mantic situation,  has  several  churches  worthy  of  notice,  a 
castle,  which  is  now  the  government-house,  and  about 
1700  inhabitants.  It  was  once  a  thriving  town  with  5000 
inhabitants,  but  many  of  the  principal  families,  bcins; 
banished  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  for 
having  unbraced  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation,  carried 
away  their  fortunes  and  their  industry  to  Zurich  and  other 
places,  and  Locarno  has  never  since  recovered  from  the 
blow.  The  families  of  Orelli  and  Muralt,  long  established 
at  Zii  originally  from  Locarno.  4,  Mendrisio,  a 

town  of  1700  inhabitants,  in  a  fertile  country,  and  on  the 
hiirh  road  to  Como  and  Milan,  has  a  college,  s> 
churches  and  convents,  a  printing-press,  and  some  silk 
manufactories.  5,  Capolago,  at  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  lake  of  Lugano,  known  lor  its  printing-press,  where 
many  Italian  works  are  printed  to  avoid  the  censorship  of 
the  government  of  Italy. 

The  valleys  and  highlands  of  which  the  canton  of  Ticino 
consists  were  inhabited  in  the  antc-Romantimes  bytheLe- 
pontii  and  other  aboriginal  tribes  of  mountaineers,  who  were 
finally  reduced  to  subjection  under  Augustus.  After  the 
fall  of  the  empire,  the  Longobards  spread  their  dominion 
over  the  country.  After  several  more  vicissitudes  in  subse- 
truent  centuries,  we  find  the  country  partly  under  the 
dominion  of  the  Visconti,  dukes  of  Milan,  and  partly  under 
the  feudal  barons  of  Sax  and  other  Kh;i-tian  lords,  till  the 
fifteenth  century,  when  the  Swiss  of  the  Forest  cantons 
conquered  the  YU  Leventina,  and  soon  after  acquired  Bel- 
linzona  and  the  country  north  of  Mount  (,'enere  by  a  formal 
cession  from  the  barons  of  Sax.  In  the  Italian  wars  of 
Louis  XII.,  at  the  bet;innin<r  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the 
S \vi-s  obtained  possession  of  Locarno,  Lugano,  and  tin: 
rest  of  the  country,  which  they  formed  into  several  Land- 
vogteyen,  or  bailfiages,  some  of  which  were  under  the  ex- 
clusive dependence  of  the  three  Forest  cantons,  and  others, 
such  as  Lugano  and  Locarno,  were  subject  to  -the  whole 
•tion.  This  state  of  things  continued  till 
the  French  invasion  of  Switzerland  and  the  dissolution  of 
the  old  confederation  in  1798 ;  the  Cisalpine  republic  at- 
tempted to  annex  them  by  force  to  its  territory,  but  the 
people  of  Lugano  stood  firm  to  their  Swiss  connection  and 
repulsed  the  Cisalpines,  and  took  i'rom  them  several  stand- 
which  are  still  seen  in  tht>  church  of  San  Lorenzo  of 
Lugano.  The  distinction  between  sovereign  and  subject 
i  having  at  the  same  time  disappeared  from  Switzer- 
land, the  whole  district  was  united  into  one  canton  of  the 
new  Swiss  confederation  by  the  name  of  Ticino,  and  as 
such  it  was  acknowledged  by  Bonaparte  in  his  Act  of  Me- 
diation, and  afterwards  by  the  allied  powers  in  yH4.  In 
June,  1830,  the  canton  of  Ticino  changed  its  constitution 
and  adopted  one  by  which  the  franchise  is  (riven  to  all 
natives  of  the  canton  not  younger  than  twenty-five  years, 
and  who  are  burgesses  of  a  commune  and  are  possessed  of 
real  property  or  capital  placed  at  interest  of  the  value  of 
at  least  300  francs.  The  qualification  required  for  mem- 
bers of  the  Great  Council  is  four  thousand  francs.  The 
mcil,  or  legislature,  consists  of  114  members, 
elected  for  four  years,  and  appoints  the  members  of  the 
Little  Council,  or  Kxecutive,  as  well  as  the  judges  of  the 
\ari<.  In  ecclesiastical  matters  the  canton  of  Ticino 

depends  partly  mi  the  bishop  of  Como  and  partly  on  the 
archbishop  of  Milan.  The  public  revenue  amounts  to 
about  800,000  francs,  derived  chiefly  from  customs,  stamps, 


salt  monopoly,  and  other  taxes.  There  is  a  public  debt  of 
about  four  millions  of  francs.  New  codes  have  been 
lately  framed,  but  much  remains  to  be  done  to  ensure  the 
proper  administration  of  justice  in  the  canton,  where 
venality,  corruption,  and  infractions  of  the  laws  are  evils  of 
antient  date,  and  still  of  not  unfrequent  occurrence.  The 
standard  of  the  intellectual  and  moral  condition  of  the 
people  in  general  is  considered  to  be  lower  than  that  of 
most  other  cantons  of  Switzerland.  Yet  the  canton  of 
Ticino  has  produced  several  distinguished  men  in  various 
branches,  such  as  Professor  Soave,  the  Abbe  Fontana, 
Franscini,  who  is  still  living,  the  architects  Fontana,  Borro- 
niini,  Maderna,  Albertolli,  and  Bianchi,  several  sculptors 
and  painters,  several  members  of  the  family  of  Quadn,  one 
of  the  principal  families  in  the  canton,  and  others.  The 
people  of  Ticino  are  not  deficient  in  intelligence,  but  they 
want  instruction. 

(Leresche,  Dictionnaire  Geographiqite  Statistique  de  la 
Suisse ;  Franscini,  Stalistica  delta,  Svizzera,  and  his  more 
especial  description  of  his  native  canton.) 

TICINO,  River.     [Po,  BASIN  OF  THE.] 

TICKELL,  THOMAS,  an  English  poet  of  unblemished 
mediocrity.  He  was  bom  in  168G,  at  Bridekirk  in  Cum- 
berland. He  was  sent  to  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  and  he 
took  his  degree  of  Master  of  Arts  in  1708.  Two  years  after- 
wards he  was  chosen  fellow  of  his  college,  and  as  he  did 
not  comply  with  the  statutes  by  taking  orders,  he  obtained 
a  dispensation  from  the  crown  for  holding  his  fellowship, 
till  he  vacated  it  by  marrying  in  17'2G. 

His  praises  of  Addison  were  so  acceptable  that  they  pro- 
cured him  the  patronage  of  that  writer,  who  '  initiated 
him,'  says  Johnson,  '  into  public  affairs.'  When  the  queen 
was  negotiating  with  France,  Tickell  published  '  The  Pro- 
spect of  Peace,'  in  which  he  raised  his  voice  to  reclaim  the 
nation  from  the  pride  of  conquest  to  the  pleasures  of  tran- 
quillity. This,  owing  perhaps  to  AddisOn's  friendly  praises 
of  it  in  '  The  Spectator,'  had  a  rapid  sale,  and  six  editions 
were  speedily  exhausted. 

On  the  arrival  of  King  George  I.  Tickell  wrote  '  The 
Royal  Progress,'  which  was  printed  in  the  '  Spectator.' 
Johnson  says  of  it  that  '  it  is  neither  high  nor  low,'  a  very 
equivocal  criticism,  considering  Johnson's  habitual  tastes. 

The  translation  of  the  first  book  of  the  '  Iliad '  was  the 
most  important  thing  in  Tickell's  poetical  career,  having 
been  published  in  opposition  to  Pope's ;  both  appeared  at 
the  same  time.  Addison  declared  that  the  rival  versions 
were  both  excellent,  but  that  Tickell's  was  the  best  that 
was  ever  made.  This  praise  ceases  to  surprise  us  when 
we  find  strong  suspicions  of  Addison  himself  being  the 
translator,  as  Pope,  Young,  and  Warburton  asserted.  Dr. 
.Johnson  says,  '  To  compare  the  two  translations  would  be 
tedious  ;  the  palm  is  now  universally  given  to  Pope.  But 
I  think  the  first  lines  of  Tickell's  were  rather  to  be  pre- 
ferred ;  and  Pope  seems  since  to  have  borrowed  something 
i'rom  them  in  connection  with  liis  own.' 

During  the  dispute  on  the  Hanoverian  succession  Tickell 
assisted  the  royal  cause  with  his  '  Letter  to  Avignon,'  of 
which  five  editions  were  sold.  Addison  now  employed 
him  in  important  public  business,  and  when,  in  1717,  he 
himself  rose  to  be  secretary  of  state,  he  made  Tickell  under 
secretary.  On  Addison's  death,  Tickell  published  his  works, 
to  which  he  prefixed  an  elegy  on  the  author,  which  John- 
son pronounces  to  be  equal  to  any  funeral  poem  for 
sublimity  and  elegance  in  the  English  language.  Con- 
sidering that  we  have  the  '  Lycidas'  of  Milton,  this  sounds 
oddly :  on  turning  to  this  elegy,  we  are  forced  to  admit,  with 
Steele,  that  it  is  only  '  prose  in  rhyme,'  and  very  bad  prose 
too.  Such  lines  as — 

'  O'er  my  dim  eyeballs  glance  Uie  smUli-n  tears ' 

indicate  the  substitution  of  sound  for  sense,  which  writers 
like  Tickell  delight  in.  He  never  asked  himself  whether 
it  was  his  eyeballs  that  were  dim  or  whether  tears  glanced  • 
all  he  knew  was  that  dim,  eyeballs,  glance,  tears,  were 
common  poetical  phrases,  and  therefore  suited  his  purpose. 
In  1725  Tickell  was  made  secretary  to  the  Lords  Just  ires 
of  Ireland,  a  place  of  honour  in  which  he  continued  till 
his  death,  on  the  23rd  April,  1740. 

(Johnson's  Lives  of  the  Poets  ;  Campbell's  Specimens  of 
British  Pnets.} 

TICKHILL.     [YORKSHIRE.] 

TICONDERO'GA.    [NEW  YOKK.] 


T  I  D 


TH'O'X/I.  STK'KANO,  Lorn  in  17<'.i  in  theVal  Sawina, 
in  Hi.  studied  at  Milan,  and  aftei 

at   Pa 

pointed  in.  untry  parish  n.       :  m  his 

mitiv.  When  tlie  Kreiu-li  invaded  I.ombardy  in 

lie  nnd  his  brother  Cesaic    F.  ;io  was  an 

ndvo  .  il  tin-  revolutionary  movement :  but  when 

ime    back  in  IT'.l'.l.  Tun//!  .-d   to 

emigrate    into    F;;ricc,   and    his  brother 

ti  to  ('attain.     Ticozzi   returned  with   thcvic- 

-  French  in  the  following  M-ar.  and  was  Upointed  to 

:l   political  offices  under  the  Italian  republic,  and   in 

IS  Hi  was  :  .elect  ot'the  department  of  the  I'iaM- 

nude:    N  n.     In  Isld  he   published 

i    monastic,   institutions:     •  Degli    Is- 

tituti  Olaustrali  Dialoghi  Tn-.'  SMI.,  Hcllnno.  He  lost  his 
situation  on  the  tall  of  Napoleon,  and  retired  to  Milan, 
where  he  lived  mainly  In  literary  labour.  He  tiiinslated 
into  Italian  Sisniondi's  '  History  pf  the  Italian  Republics,' 
LJorente's  'History  of  the  Inquisition,' Agineourt's  •  History 
ol'  the  Arts,'  and  other  works.  In  1H1K  he  published  his 

•  Di/ionario  dei  Pittori  dal  Rinnovamento  dclie  Arti  fino  al 

which  he  afterwards   merged    in   his   larger  work, 
iiiario  dcgli  Architelti.  Scultori,  Pittori,  Intagliatori 
in  ranic  e  in  pietra,    t'oniatori  di   Mcdaglie,   Musaieisti, 
Niellatori,  Intarsiatori  d'ogni  Kta  e  d'ogni  Na/.ione,'  Milan, 
-.  s\o.     This  i>  a  really  useful   compilation,  although 
not  always   exact   about   dates.     He   also   published — 1, 
'  Memone  Storiehe,'  Florence,  1'*  vols.  8vo.,  being  a  scries 
of  historical  tales  taken   from  the  history  of  Italy  in  the 
middle  ages;  2,  'Viaggi  di  Messer  Francesco  Novello  da 
( 'air;;  di  Padova.  e  di  Taddea  d'Kste,  sua  consortc, 

n  diverge  parti  d'Europa.'  J  -..  a  work  also  ill 

tive  of  the  same  period  ;  3,  a  continuation  of  Corniani's 
biographical  work,  '  I  Secoli  della  Lctteratura  Italiana.' 
down  to  our  own  times,  and  also  a  continuation  of  li. 
collection  of  letters  concerning  the  arts  :  '  Haccolta  di  Let- 
ten-  sulla  Pittura.  Scultura,  cd  Arehitettura,  scritti  dai  pid 
celebri  Pcrsonaggi  dei  Secoli  \\..  xvi..  e  xvii..  eontinuata 
lino  ad  nostri  Giorni.'  H  vols.  Kvo.  ;  and  likewise  a  con- 
tinuation ol'Vcni's  -History  of  Milan:'  '  Storia  di  Milano 
del  <  'onto  Pietro  Verri,  dai  suoi  piu  rimotiTempi  fino  al  l.")2.~>. 
eontinuata  tino  alia  presente  Kta,'  Milan,  0  vols.  12mo., 
besides  several  dissertations  upon  various  paintings  and 
other  minor  works.  He  left  medited  and  unfinished  a 
\  !  foe  on  the  Art  of  distin- 
guishing Copies  from  the  Originals  in  Painting.' 

Ticozzi  died   in  IKki.     He  married   a   granddaughter  of 
the  historian  Giannone,  by  whom  he  had  several  children. 
.  Hinynijin  </!'i'/i  lt<ili<uii  lllustri.} 

T1DF.-MII.L.  a  kind  of  water-mill  in  which  the  ma- 
ehineiy  is  im]>elled  by  the  alternate  flow  and  ebb  of  the 
title,  instead  of  a  stream  continually  flowing  in  one  direc- 
tion and  at  a  nearly  uniform  level.  Although  tide-mills 
ha\e  never  been  brought  into  very  common  use  in  this  or 
in  other  countries,  they  arc  by  no  means  of  recent  origin. 
Hcckmann.  in  his  •  History  of  Inventions  '  < :  English  edition 
of  1H14,  vol.  i..  p.  il.V,  states  that  '  at  Venice  and  other 
places  there  were  mills  which  righted  themselves  by  ebb- 
nnl  flowing  of  the  tide,  anil  which  CM-IT  six  hours 
chanced  the  position  of  the  wheels;'  and  he  adds  that 

•  /anctti    h;ts   shown,   from  some   old   charters,   that  such 
mills  e\i-ted  about  the  year  KM  I.  and  with  still   more  ccr- 

1070.  MM  1107.'     Helidor,  ill  his 'Architcc- 

i-iliquc.'  d-  •  'de-mill  which  W;LS  used  at 

Dunl,  y  in  the  last  century,  and  attributes  the  in- 

arpcnter  of  that  place,  named    i 

The  expense  attending  the  constniction  of  tide-mills  ren- 
'licir  adoption  (inadvisable  in   ordinary  cases  :  but    in 
many  situations  in  which    other   mills   are    Inapplicable, 
owing  to  the  want  of  a  sufficient  current,  or  the  ne. 
of  avoiding    any    in'-  with    the   na\igation 

iv  be   erected  with   advantage.     The  water 
required   for   impelling  their  machinery  may  be  admitted 
either  from  the  side  of  a  tidal  liver  or  immc.; 
the  sea. 

Tlie  late  T)r.  Gregory,  in  the  second  volume  of  his 
'  Treatise  on  Mechanics.'  has  devoted  several  pages  to  an 
account  of  various  plans  for  obtaining  a  moving-pou.  r 
i. '.MI  the  rising  and  falling  of  the  tide  ;  and.  although  he 
doe*  not  pretend  to  notice  all  the  contrivances  which  have 
been  proponed  for  the  purpose,  he  divides  the  most  im- 


T I  D 

portant  into  four  classes,  varying  from  each  other  in  the 
manner  in  which  the  motion  of  the  water--.- 
and  applied  to  the  machinery  of  the  null.     In  • 

•he  wheel  turns   in   <• 

rising,  and  in  the   opposite  direction  while  it  tails;   in  the 
second  the  passage  of  the  water  is  so  regulated  by  si 
that  the  wheel  may  always  turn  in  one  direction  ;  in  the 
third  the  wheel  itself  rises  and  falls  with  the  tin 

ve  a  tolerably  equal  degree  of  immersion,  or  a  uni- 
form head   of  water  to   act    upon   its  float-hoards  :  an.l  in 
the  fourth  the  axle   of  the  wheel   is   permanently  1i\ 
one  level,  and  the  wheel   is   so   constructed  as   to  revolve 
whether   partially  or  completely   immersed   in  the   v. 
Of  these  conditions   it  ,  ed   that  the  first  and  third 

have  been  usually  exemplified  in  one  machine,  and  that 
the  second  and  fourth   may  icadilv  be   united   in   another. 
Dr.    Gregory    therefore     treats     uf    tide-nulls    under     two 
heads,  which  are  as  follow  : — 1.  Tide-mills  in  which  the 
water-wheel  rises  and  falls,  and  turns  one   way  with  flu- 
rising  tide,  and  the  contrary  when  it   ebbs:  and.  'J.  Tide- 
mills  in  which  the  axle  of'  the  water-wheel   neithei 
nor  falls,  and  in  which  that  wheel  is  made  always  t 
volve  in  the  same  direction. 

Of  the  first  of  these  v  arieties  of  tide-mill  a  good  example 
is  given  from  acorn-mill  erected  on  the  hank  of  the  Thames. 
-t  Greenwich,  by  Mr.  Lloyd.     Tin-  details  of  the  me- 
chanism are  fully  explained  by  Gregory,  and  al- 
fessor  Barlow,  in  his  'Treatise  on  Manufactures  and 
chinery'  in   the   '  Encyclopedia   Metropolitana :'    but   flu- 
essential   features  of  the   contrivance    may  be   briefly  de- 
scribed.    The   side   of  the    mill  which   is   parallel   to   the 
river  is  forty  feet  wide,  and  is  capable  of  being  opened  to 
the   river  by  shuce-galcs  which  are  carried  down  to  low- 
water  mark".     Thus   there   is  a  water-way  forty   feet   wide 
through  the  mill,  bv  which  the  rising  tide  cnl> 
voir,  which  covers  about  four  acres  of  land.     A  smaller 
reservoir   beyond   the  principal   one  affords  the  means  for 
cleansing  the  whole   apparatus   by  flushing  or  scoun 
low-water.     The  water-wheel   is  a  cylinder  twenty-si  v 
long  and    eleven    feet    in   diameter,  with    thirty-two   float- 
's, arranged  in  four  divisions  on  the  same  priiicr,  • 
the  divided  paddle-wheel   described  under  STKAM-\'  • 
vol.  xxii.,  p.  f><)9.  in   order  to  equalize  the  action   of  the 
water:   and  its  axis  is  laid  in  a  position  parallel  to  the  side 
of  the  river,  so  that  it  may  be  turned  with  equal  facility  by 

in  flowing  from  the  river  into  the  reservoir,  or 
the   reservoir  into  the   river,  according  to  the  direction  in 
which  the   tide  is  moving,  and  the  positions  of  : 
for  admitting  the  head  of  water  on  one  side,  and  al'.i 
free  vent  for  the  tail-water  on  the  other.     At  each  end  of 
the  water-wheel    is  fixed,   upon   the    same    axis,   a   large 
bevil-wheel,  from  which  the  rotatory  motion  is  communi- 
cated  to   an   upright    shaft,  bv  means   of  two  small   hori- 
zontal bevil-whcels.  called  wallowcrs,  either  of  which  may 
he   readily  thrown  into  connection  with  the  large  wheel, 
while  the  other  revolves  freely,  without  coming  in  contact 
with  it.     Thus,  by  throwing  the  upper  wallower  into 
while  the  water-wheel    icvolvcs   in   one  direction,  and   t  In- 
lower  one  when  its  motion   is  reversed,  the  vertical  si 
m:ulc  to  revolve  continually  in  one  direction.     The  v. 
wheel,  and  the  parts  immediately  connected  with  it,  form- 
ing an  apparatus  of  the  weight  of  nearly  twenty  Ion- 
go  mounted  as  to  rise  and  fall   by  the  action  of  tin-  water, 
with  very  little  attention:  the  bottom  of  the  whccl-i. 
being   connected  with    a   kind   of  horizontal   folding-door, 
which  prevents  any  communication  between  tl>. 
the  re  ecpting  in  the  required  direction,  wh,; 

maybe  the  position  of  the  wheel-frame.     The  moti. 
the  vertical   shafts  is  communicated   to  the   machinery  of 
the  mill  by  large  horizontal  wheels  which  turn  with  the 
but  do  not   rise  and  fall  with  them.     The  weight  of 
upportcd  by  a  »  'ion- 

rollers  resting  upon  a  stationary  part  of  tli 
that  the  vertical  shafts,  which  are  squared  to  fit  the  i 
may  slide  freely  up  and  down,  although  they  cannot  turn 
round  without  turning  the  wheels. 

Of  the  means  for  effecting  the  objects  required  in  flu- 
second  of  the  above-i  'ii-s  of  tide-nu- 

light  notice  will  suffice.  Helidor  describes  a  water- 
wheel  contrived  by  MM.  Go-set  and  DC  hi  Deliille.  in 
which  the  float  hinged  in  such  a  manner  tha-t, 

while  at  Ihe  bottom  of  the  wheel,  they  would  press  against 


T  I  D 


433 


T  I  E 


the  radii  or  arms  of  the  wheel,  and  would  present  thei» 
full  surface  to  the  action  of  the  current,  while  in  any  other 
position  they  would,  by  turning  on  their  hinges,  present  little 
more  than  their  edges  to  it.  Such  a  wheel  will  revolve 
when  completely  immersed  in  water,  although  an  ordinary 
water-wheel  would  be  quite  stationary.  Gregory  describes 
also  a  bucket-wheel  invented  by  Mr.  Dryden,  which  will 
work  with  nearly  equal  force,  whether  the  head  of  water 
lie  within  one  or  two  feet  of  the  top  of  its  periphery,  and 
the  tail-water  above  the  level  of  the  axle,  or  the  tail-water 
ievel  with  the  bottom  of  the  wheel,  and  the  head  at  a  pro- 
portionate elevation,  but  below  the  level  of  the  axle.  The 
float-boards,  or  divisions  between  the  buckets,  are  all  set 
at  one  angle  with  the  radii  of  the  wheel,  and  asmall  space 
is  left,  between  each  float  and  the  drum-boarding,  or  sol- 
ing of  the  wheel,  to  allow  air  to  enter  the  buckets  freely 
as  they  rise  out  of  the  water,  and  thereby  to  prevent  the 
loss  of  power  occasioned  by  the  formation  of  a  partial 
vacuum  in  the  rising  bucket,  causing  it,  in  the  language 
of  the  miller,  to  '  suck  up  the  tail-water.'  The  uniform 
rotation  of  the  wheel  in  one  direction  must  be  provided 
for  by  having  two  passages,  provided  with  sluices,  from 
each  end  of  the  water-way  in  which  the  wheel  is  placed  ; 
one  passage  leading  to  the  river,  and  the  other  to  the 
voir.  By  opening  and  closing  the  sluices  alternately, 
the  current,  whether  from  the  river  to  the  reservoir  or 
from  the  reservoir  to  the  river,  may  always  be  made  to 
pass  under  the  wheel  in  the  same  direction.  M.  Navier, 
in  his  notes  to  the  new  edition  of  Belidor,  published  at 
Paris  in  1819  (in  which  tide-mills  are  treated  of  at  con- 
siderable length  .  states  that  the  former  kind  of  wheel, 
with  hinged  floats,  had  been  tried  successfully  in  Spain, 
by  M.  Dussaussoy,  an  officer  of  artillery.  A  work  by  AJ- 
dini  on  the  tide  as  a  moving-power  for  mills  was  published 
early  in  the  present  century. 

T'lDEMAN,  PHILIP,  was  a  native  of  Niirnberg,  where 
he  was  born  in  the  year  1657.  lie  studied  first  under  a 
painter  named  Nicholas  Raes,  with  whom  he  remained 
eight  years,  and  was  distinguished  by  his  diligent  appli- 
cation to  his  art,  in  which  he  attained  great  proficiency. 
Desiring  however  to  improve  his  knowledge  and  taste,  he 
went  to  Amsterdam  to  study  the  capital  works  of  the  great 
s  in  the  collections  in  that  city.  ' 

I.airesse  being  at  that  time  in  great  esteem  at  Amster- 
dam, Tidcman  resolved  to  place  himself  under  his  direc- 
tion :  and  so  gained  the  good  opinion  of  his  teacher  by  his 
-ing  manners  and  his  talents,  that  Lairesse  conceived  a 
great  affection  for  him,  and  not  only  gave  him  the  best 
instruction  in  the  art,  but  employed  him  to  assist  in  some 
important  works  on  which  he  was  engaged.  In  executing 
these  works  Tideman  gave  such  evident  proof  of  his  abili- 
ties, that  he  soon  obtained  sufficient  employment  inde- 
pendent of  Lain 

His  compositions  of  fabulous  history  and  allegory  in- 
dicate a  lively  fancy,  genius,  and  invention;  insomuch 
that  in  thi^  respect  Ins  designs  have  been  recommended  as 
models  lo  succeeding  artists.  Two  of  his  capital  composi- 
tions were  Venus  complaining  to  Jupiter  of  Juno's  persc- 
is,  and  Juno  applying  to  /Kolus  to  destroy 
the  Trojan  fleet.  He  died  in  1715,  at  the  age  of  fifty-eight, 
leaving  a  very  great  number  of  sketches  and  designs,  which 
afford  proofs  both  of  his  industry  and  the  fertility  of  his  in* 
vention. 

Pilkington  ;  Fuseli ;  Bryan.) 

TIDES.     [WAVE.] 

Tl  DKSVVELL.     [DERBYSHIRE.] 

TIDORE,  one  of  the  Moluccas,  is  situated  in  the  strait 
which  divides  the  island  of  Gilolo  from  that  of  Celebes, 
and  is  traversed  by  45'  N.  lat.  and  by  127°  25'  E.  long.    It 
is  only  about  21  miles  in  circumference.  Near  the  southern 
coast  rises  a  mountain  in  the  form  of  a  cone,  which  is  of 
'. olcanic  origin.    According  to  an  estimate  its  summit  may 
be  about  4000  feet  above  the  sea-level.     The  soil  is  com- 
posed of  volcanic  matter  mixed  with  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  vegetable  mould,  and  abundantly  watered  by  nu- 
merous rivulets  which  descend  from  the  mountain :  it  is  of 
'  fertility,  well  cultivated,  and  produces  rice  in  abun- 
dance.    The  sago-tree,  as  well  as  the  clove  and  nutmeg- 
grow  wild,  though  the  Dutch  have  been   at    great 
pains  to  otirpalf  the  trees,  to  secure  the  monopoly  in 
*.     Tlie  inland  is  \  ery  populous,  and  governed  by  a 
sultan,  who  alxi  |)(),M..,,.S  the  southern  and  middle 
tions  oi '(;•!.,!::,"  hi Te  the  towns  of  Maba,Wida,  and  Patang 
P.  C.,  No.  1542. 


oelong  to  him.  He  claims  also  the  islands  which  are 
situated  between  Gilolo  and  Papua,  namely,  Wageeow, 
Battanta,  and  Mysole,  and  lives  in  great  state.  The  in- 
habitants are  Malays  and  Mohammedans.  At  the  time  of 
Forrest's  visit  (1774)  there  were  twenty-five  mosques  oil 
the  island. 

This  island  was  first  visited  by  the  vessels  with  which  Ma- 
galhaens  sailed  round  the  globe  in  1521,  and  the  Spaniards 
loaded  their  ships  with  spices.  They  returned  five  years 
after,  and  found  that  the  Portuguese  had  begun  to  establish 
their  authority  on  the  Moluccas.  This  gave  rise  to  a  war  be- 
tween the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese,  which  ended,  in  1529, 
by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  renouncing  his  rights  to  the. 
Moluccas,  and  receiving  from  the  king  of  Portugal  as  an 
equivalent  a  loan  of  350,000  ducats.  Tidore  was  visited  by 
Sir  Francis  Drake  in  1579.  In  1613  the  Dutch  tookallthe  Por- 
tuguese settlements  on  these  islands,  and  began  to  subject, 
their  sovereigns  to  a  more  strict  obedience  for  the  purpose  of 
establishing  their  monopoly  in  the  spice  trade.  They  treated 
them  for  some  time  with  great  harshness.  In  1778  the  sultan 
of  Tidore  was  dethroned  and  exiled  to  Batavia,  but  he  was 
afterwards  re-established.  In  1796,  when  the  British  took 
Amboyna  under  Admiral  Rainier,  Tidore,  being  dependent 
on  its  government,  fell  also  into  their  power :  it  was  re- 
stored by  the  peace  of  1801.  In  1808  the  sultan  of  Tidore, 
disagreeing  with  the  Dutch  at  Amboyna,  was  expelled  and 
obliged  to  fly  to  Papua.  He  applied  to  the  English  for 
assistance,  and  with  their  aid  he  recovered  the  greater  part 
of  his  possessions.  Soon  afterwards  (1810),  the  English 
having  again  taken  possession  of  Amboyna,  the  sultan  of 
Tidore  became  dependent  on  them ;  but  in  1814  all  the 
settlements  on  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago  which 
had  been  taken  by  the  English,  were  again  restored  to  the 
Dutch,  and  the  sultan  of  Tidore  is  now  dependent  on  the 
Dutch  government. 

(Forrest's  Voyage  to  New  Guinea  and  the  Moluccas; 
Stavorinus,  VOI/U^PS  to  the  East  Indies.) 

TIEDEMANN,  DIETRICH,  a  German  philosopher,  was 
born  the  3rd  of  April,  1748,  at  Bremervorde,  near  Bremen, 
where  his  father  was  burgomaster.  He  received  his  ear- 
liest  education  at  home,  and  as  he  was  scarcely  allowed  to 
have  any  intercourse  with  other  children,  his  leisure  hours 
were  spent  in  reading.  His  father  sent  him  in  1703  to 
Verden,  where  he  was  chiefly  engaged  in  acquiring  a 
knowledge  of  the  antient  and  some  modern  languages. 
After  a  stay  of  two  years  there  he  entered  the  Athenseum 
of  Bremen.  The  system  of  education  and  the  distinguished 
masters  of  this  institution  had  great  influence  on  young 
Tiedemann.  It  was  here  that  he  first  conceived  a  love  for 
philosophy  and  its  history,  and  he  began  his  philosophical 
studies  by  reading  the  works  of  Descartes,  Locke,  Hel- 
vetius,  and  Malebranche.  After  spending  eighteen  months 
at  Bremen,  he  entered  the  university  of  Gottingen,  with 
the  intention  of  studying  theology  pursuant  to  his  father's 
wish ;  but  he  continued  the  study  of  classical  literature, 
mathematics,  and  philosophy.  Ihe  study  of  philosophy 
raised  in  his  mind  strong  doubts  respecting  certain  main 
points  of  the  Christian  religion,  which  he  was  unable  to 
overcome,  and  this  led  him  to  abandon  the  study  of  theo- 
logy. He  now  tried  jurisprudence,  but  notwithstanding 
the  entreaties  of  his  father  to  devote  himself  to  some  pro- 
fession, he  abandoned  the  study  of  the  law  also,  and  at  last 
determined  to  follow  his  own  inclinations,  and  to  give 
himself  up  entirely  to  philosophy  and  its  history.  His 
father,  dissatisfied  with  his  son's  conduct,  refused  to  send 
him  further  means  of  subsistence.  After  having  spent  two 
years  and  a  half  at  Gottingen,  Professor  Eyring  proposed 
to  him  to  take  the  place  of  tutor  in  a  nobleman's  family  in 
Livonia,  which  Tiedemann  accepted  very  reluctantly.  In 
1769  he  entered  his  new  situation,  in  which  he  remained 
four  years,  although  he  was  shut  out  from  all  means  of 
prosecuting  his  own  studies,  and  had  to  devote  almost  all 
his  time  to  his  pupils.  Nevertheless  he  found  time  to 
write  a  little  work  on  the  origin  of  language,  a  favourite 
topic  with  the  philosophers  of  that  time.  It  was  pub- 
lished under  the  title,  '  Versuch  einer  Erkliirung  des  Ur- 
sprungs  der  Sprache,'  Riga,  1772,  8vo.  In  the  year  follow- 
ing he  returned  to  his  native  place,  and  after  having  spent 
a  year  there  in  studying  various  subjects  which  he  had 
neglected  in  Livonia,  he  again  went  to  Gottingen.  His 
friend  Meiners,  who  was  now  a  professor  in  the  university, 
introduced  him  to  Heyne,  who  immediately  made  him  a 
member  of  the  philological  seminary.  The  small  income 

VOL.  XXIV.— 3  K 


T  I  B 


T  I   K 


< 


had  rec 


.  \\\w 
:e  publication.     In  ' 


:lc\uc 
was  applu 

IDUIll 

II<  \  in-  i  i  •  pled 

:a  without  telling  him  of  it.     TiciUmann 

'ed  with  tin'  place,  as  it  iliil  not  i  niiirli 

put  him  in  connei  '  of  the 

philo- 
li  zeal 

igour.     Tin-  pni)o»O]  u-li  hr  hail  im- 

nrs  whom  lie  hiul  most    studied  tended 

:     luit    his    irici  vigorously 

..1  tin-in.  ;nul  at  length  succeeded  in  turning  liis 

mind  in  a  different  diivctiun.     In  tin1  year  17^'.  when  tin1 

ii  up,  Tk'ilrlliuim  v,a  1  \\ilh 

to  W  iiburg.     Ii'"'1'  he  lectured  at  dif- 

tinic-  iii!  'lu1  law  of  natuic.  on 

moral  phi'..  ,]  .  ::mversal  history,  hisi 

philosophy,  and"  sonk'tiim-.s  also  on  smile   classical  (ircck 

r.     His  lectures  were  MTV  popular,  ami  his  kind  ill-- 

petition made  hi.->  hearers  luok'upon  him  more  as  a  friend 

than  as  a  muster.     Sometimes,  especially  during  ihr  la-t 

,1  of  his  lite,  ho  did  not  conduct   himself  with  the 

a  philosopher  in  combating  the 

jihi'.i  Kant,  to  which  he  w  L     lie  died 

in  the  mioat  of  literary  undertakings,  after  a  short  illness, 

on  the  'Jllh  of  .May.  Isoii. 

Icmann  wits  beloved  and  esteemed  by  all  who  knew 
him.  His  life  was  spent  in  intellectual  occupations  and 
1'odiK  exercise,  of  which  he  was  MTV  fond.  His  striking 
(juaJiiies  were  great  self-control,  cheerfulness,  and  a  total 

all  pretension  to  literary  superiority,  alt 
hu  works  were  extremely   popular.     Hi  works 

alre.ulv  mentioned,   the   following  deserve   noticcj- 

•linngcii  iiher  den  Menschcn,'  Leipzig,  1777.  tee.. 
;jvnls.  SMI.  :  '  Griechonlands  erete  Philosophen,  odei 


Ucr  in  tin 

'1  a 

and 

Till'    imme- 


Bcihn  and  Stettin.  17sl.  Svo.     This  work   i-   a   tianslation 

•  Ceist  der  Spe- 

.vcn     1'lu!  -       17'.U-'.i7.   <i  Mils.   Hvo. 

•  •y  of  philosophy    from    the    time    of 
•  LcilimU  and  t'hristian  \VoHf,  and    il 

:,ieh   it  contains.     In   style  and 

lent,  and  the  author  did  not  possess 

knowledge  of  ]>hilosi>phy  which 

abled  him  tu  p--rcii\c  the  oigame  conucc- 

tion  and  the   necessary  succession   of  the  \arions  philoso- 

•!er   iibcr    da-    mciinchliclu.' 

'7!M.  8vo. ;  •Handbuch  der  I'sycho- 

•iitcd    alter    the    author's    death 

:;y  L.  \Vuchlcr.  who   h;us   prefixed    to 

naun.      He-ides  thc.-c 

Ihu    I'n-nch  :    he    nlso 
1  K  is  the  author 
which  wi 

.Hum 

:  pi  nit,   I7SU, 

It  ae  fuerit  artiiim  ma- 

raecm 

li   his  ad  '  pmpa- 

•    . 

demami.  in  his  Hun <//<//,  li 

'  '       /  'j  '       '    '  .       .       M   .       ,       .      p.       |   I  .     M,. 

IIUISIOI'II     A I  <-l  ST.     The 
• .  an  .  .akcn   his   place 

among  the  (ierman  an  horn  :i: 

Altin  17'iJ.     II  .    life 

.   la-  father 
;    nt  1  1,1 

'  hildren  in 
wtutc 
but   QutViitrwta.:ding   the  lavouiubk-   opinion 


nil   of   the   prosperous   I 

ailllcil  '•  '  !n  i|iultinLr  Hindi  he  was 

by  (ileim  I  ,  ith  him  ai 

•  ul    171U,  v.  hen  he   i 

:ry  to  Don-.1  a  :   and  though  he  died  ill 

the  followii  .-Hied   in  the  family  upon 

the  same  footing  during  the  life  of  Madame  Mm  Stedern, 

•    her  diath,   in    \TM.  secured   to   him  a 
competency.     Being  thus  placed  peu  I   his 

circuit;  through  the  noitli  of  (lerinany  . 

and  visited   Berlin,  where  it  was  his  mind  lortuue  a:rain  to 
meet  with  Madame  \on  der  Keeke.  and  the  intimacy  thus 
resumed  continued   for   life.     Though   not    in   ac 
with  the   ordina,  1   society,   it    \vi 

from  the  slightc-  i  of  impropriety,  and  no  more 

10   it   than  -nilnr  domesticatioii  of  C'owper 

with  Mrs.  I'nwin.     This  union,  of  a  kind   so   exeeedinsrly 
rare  that    Q)  at   been   invented    fur  it.  was  that    ol 

two  noble  and   pure  minds,  congenial  in  their  tastes,  and 
equal:.  Mtha  feeling  for  poetry  and  those  pui 

which',  wliile  they  rctine.  also   elevate   our   natuic. 
author  of  •  I'rania'  was  as  well   shielded  from  seaml 
was  the  author  of  the  •  Task  :'   for  although  very  diii 
in  form,  the  iirst-mentioned  poem  is.  like  the  other,  deeply 
tinged  by  religious  sentiment :    and  its  m 
immediately  recognised,  for  it.  went  through  several  edi- 
tions within  a  very  short  time  fiom  i!-  i  aranee  in 

In  ISO-I  Tit-dire  and  his  female  friend  visited  Italy,  where 
they  remained  about  two  years:    and   of  this  journey  we 
11  account  from  the    pen  of  Madame  xon  der  1! 

.:ch   ciner   Rcisc.'  tec..  -I  vols.  s\c-..  with  a 
:   and  notes  by  Hiitliirer,  which,   besides   i 
superior  to  the  gcticial  ela.-s  of  tour-books,  ntt'ord 
of  her  being  a  zealous  thoinrh  candid  1'rotestaut.  and  a 
woman    of   strict    pictv.       On   their    return    to  Oermany. 
Madame  von  der  Heckc  ninde  Berlin,  and  aUcrwards    Islll 
Dresden,  her  chief  place  of  residence,  pa.-sing  the  summer 
months  at   Teplitz  or  Carlsbad.     The   mil)  chanire '[  i 
henceforth  experienced  was  that  occasioned  by  the  le 
his  companion   and  benefactress,  for   she   had  taker, 
that  her  death    lKt;)i  should  ean-e  no  chantre  whatever  in 
his  outward  ciieum-lanees,  not  even  that  of  bis  resid; 
as  she  directed   that  her  establishment  should   be  kept  up 
for  him  precisely  as  before,  and  that  he  should  continue  to 
enjoy  the  luxuries  and   comforts  he   had  so  long   been  ac- 
customed   to.       Nor   wa.-    her    anxious   solicitude    for   her 
friend's  welfare  i  pre-eminently  -, 

favoured  beyond  the  ordinary  lot.  that  he  not  only  attained 
an   unusual  age,   but   nearly   free   from   all    infirmities  of 
mind.      In   his  eiirhl) -ninth   v  i  ar.  sav  -  one 
have  known  him   personally,  he  did   not 
to   be  much  more  than  sixty  :  the  onlv  alteration   in 
him  was.  that  for  some  year-  he  could  not  take  exercise  on 
or  stir  out    except    in   a   carriairc   or   a   wheel-chair, 
but    a  week    before   his  death     March  Nth.   IS-H      he 
:  the  biitl,  i  one  of  his  frien 

death,   his  •  Life  and   Literary  Ken: 
Liivcn  to  the  world  by  Dr.  K.  FHlkenstein.  in  -4  Vi 

all   his  works,  in  111  vols..  i 
uf  publication.      After  In 
original   production   is   perhaps   his  •  \\  ;r 
des   Lcbens.    IKt(i.  which,   like 

.  and  siniilarin  fcnden- 
-niedly  religions   ehaiacter.  the 

its  moial    preci  pi's  beniLT  n-lieved   by  the;  :i\ful 

irony  which  pervades  many  part  em.     Hi*  prin- 

cipal   other    productions  I 

•  KIcLMc:-,'  and    his  •  Kiaucn-pieirel.'  all  which  have  eontri 
buli-d  iitation.     'I  •  in  which  the  p 

•  iniir  M|' liis 
n,  has  just 

Or  .if  which. 

,.    liti  ia       ;  -.   and 


T  I  F 


435 


T  I  F 


another  to  make  some  provision  in  their  declining  years 
for  meritorious  writers  who  may  have  fallen  into  adversity 
in  consequence  of  age  and  infirmities^ 

(df  t  L,:r:con  ;  Wolff's  Encyclopadie ;  Mor- 

genblatt,  1842;  Litteraturblatt,  1842.) 
~  TIEL.     [THIEL.] 

TIETOLO,  GIOVANNI  BATTISTA,  a  celebrated 
Italian  painter  of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  born  of  a 
good  family  at  Venice  in  1003.  Tiepolo,  says  Lanzi,  was 
the  last  of  the  Venetians  who  acquired  a  European  fame  ; 
celebrated  in  Italy,  in  Germany,  and  in  Spain.  He  studied 
as  a  boy  under  Gregorio  Lazzarini,  painted  at  first  in  his 
manner,  then  imitated  the  style  of  Piazzetta,  but  attached 
himself  eventually  to  that  of  Paul  Veronese.  Already  at 
the  age  of  sixteen  he  was  known  even  out  of  Venice, 
and  when  still  young  he  received  invitations  from  various 
Italian  cities  to  decorate  their  churches  and  their  pub- 
lic buildings.  His  works  in  the  north  of  Italy,  both 
in  oil  and  in  fresco,  are  numerous  :  one  of  his  first  works 
of  note  was  the  Shipwreck  of  San  Satiro,  in  the  church  of 
St.  Ambrose,  at  Milan  :  he  excelled  chiefly  in  fresco,  and 
his  colouring  and  the  folds  of  his  draperies  bear  great  re- 
semblance to  those  of  Paul  Veronese.  In  Germany  also 
Tiepolo  executed  several  works  :  at  Wiirzburg  he  painted 
the  staircase  and  the  saloon  of  the  bishop's  palace  and  two 
altar-pieces.  He  was  afterwards  invited  by  Charles  III. 
to  Spain,  where,  in  .Madrid,  he  painted  the  ceiling  of  the 
saloon  in  the  new  palace  of  the  king,  and  the  hall  of  the 
rojal  guard,  by  winch  he  is  said  to  have  excited  the 
jeahx  igs:  he  executed  also  the  chief  altar-piece 

in  oil  for  the  convent  church  of  St.  Paschal,  at  Aranjuez. 
He  died  in  Madrid  in  1709  or  1770. 

Tit-polo's  style  was  slight  and  brilliant,  yet  his  colouring 
was  not  glaring :  the  effect  of  his  paintings  was  not  pio- 
duced  by  a  recourse  to  bright  colours,  but  by  a  judicious 
contrast  of  tints:  his  drawing  was  however  feeble,  yet 
this  weakness  was  nearly  concealed  by  the  gracefulness  of 
liis  attitudes.  One  of  his  best  pictures  in  oil  is  the  Mar- 
tyrdom of  St.  Agatha,  in  the  church  of  St.  Antonio,  at 
Padua.  He  etched  several  plates  in  a  very  free  and 
spirited  manner.  He  left  two  sons,  Giovanni  Domenico 
ami  Lorenzo,  who  were  both  painters:  the  elder  etched 
some  of  his  lath.  ; 

ictli,  Itrllit  I'ltliir/i  I '/ •m:/,'n,i.  Sar.  ;    Lanzi,  fiturin 
1'itt'irirn.  tec.;   Kiorillo,  Getchichte  der  Mnhlerry,  vol.  li.) 

TIFLIS.  orTKFI.lS.  the  capital  of  the  Rus-ian  province 
of  Georgia,  is  in  about,  41°  43'  N.  lat.,  according  to  (.'apt. 
Monteith.  In  182!)  Mr.  Federof,  who  accompanied  Pro- 
i  his  \isit  to  Mount  Ararat,  found  the  lati- 
tude of  the  cathedral  church  to  be  41°  41'.  The  longitude, 
according  to  Birdin,  is  02°  34'  E.  from  Ferro,  or  44°  50' 
E.  of  London.  Professor  Parrot  fixes  the  elevation  of  the 
stone  bridge  over  the  river  Kur  at  exactly  1100  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  Hlack  Sea,  and  31  feet  above  the  mean 
level  of  the  river.  The  Kur  flows  throim-h  a  valley  confined 
between  two  ranges  of  lofty  mountains.  The  river  i 
the  valley  on  the  north,  and  '  at  the  extremity  of  the  defile,' 
says  Sir  K.  K.  Porter,  •  we  saw  the  capital  of  Georgia,  the 
Tiflis  rising  on  the  precipitous  and  sub- 
lime hanks  of  the  Kur.  lint  the  effect,  produced  here  is 
of  a  deeper  tinge.  The  town  itself  stands  at  the  foot  of  a 
line  of  dark  and  barren  hills,  whose  high  and  caverned 
sides  irlooun'ly  overshadow  it.  Every  house,  every  build- 
ing within  its  walls,  seems  to  share  the  dismal  hue  of  the 
surrounding  heights  ;  for  a  deep  blackness  rests  on  all. 
The  heavy  battlcmc-i.1  ml  the  still  majestic  towers 

of  the  ancient  citadel,  the  spires  of  Christian  churches,  and 
other  marks  of  European  residence,  could  not  for  some  time 
the  horrible  dungeon  impression  of  Asiatic  dirt  and 
barbarism  received  at  first  view  of  the  town.'     Th: 
i  in  1K17. 

The  town  is  liuilt  on  both  sides  of  the  river;  but  the 
larger  portion,  which  is  on  the  ritrht  or  west  bank,  contains 
ttie  houses  of  th;  wealthiest  inhabitants,  the  great  bazar, 
the  principal  squares,  the  finest  churches,  the  public  offices, 
the  residence  of  the  military  governor,  and  of  the  com- 
niander-in-cbief.  This  is  the  city  properly  so  called,  which 
again  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  old  and  new  town. 
The  limits  of  the  old  'own  are  distinctly  marked  by  the 
ruins  of  tin-  antient  fortifications.  The  new  town  extends 
to  the  north  and  w.>t  beyond  these  walls,  and  is  distin- 

d   from  the  old  knvii  by  its  new  buildings  in  tli 
ropean  style  and  broader  streets.    The  greater  part  of  it 


is  called  by  the  Georgians  Goretuban,  that  is,  the  street 
out  of  the  city.  On  the  left  bank  is  the  extensive  suburb 
Awlabar,  a  large  caravansary,  the  barracks,  a  long  icw 
of  houses  inhabited  by  colonists  from  Southern  Gem 
and  the  fortress  or  citadel,  built  by  the  Turks  in  1570. 
Toward  the  south  the  town  leans  against  the  chain  of 
hills  running  from  the  south-west,  on  the  summit  of  which 
are  extensive  ruins  of  a  veiy  antient  fortress ;  its  highest 
point  at  the  western  end  of  the  old  wall  is  392  feet  above 
the  bridge  ;  towards  the  west  it  rises  higher,  and  from 
thence  a  small  stream  of  water  is  conducted  to  the  city 
the  bed  of  which  however  is  generally  quite  dry,  except 
immediately  after  rain. 

There  are  in  Tiflis  15  Greek  churches,  20  Armenian,  and 
2  Roman  Catholic,  some  of  which  are  very  handsome.  At 
A.  point  where  the  river  in  its  course  through  the  town  is 
hemmed  in  by  rocks,  a  bridge  of  a  single  arch  connects 
the  town  with  the  suburb  of  Awlabar.  Here  also  are 
the  ruins  of  an  antient  fort,  church  and  houses,  and  about 
two  miles  farther  from  this  side  of  the  city  stand  the  re- 
mains of  another  sacred  edifice,  on  the  summit  of  a  lofty 
hill. 

The  houses  in  Tiflis  are  ill-built,  and  the  streets  so  nar- 
row that  only  one  carriage  can  pass  through  the  widest, 
and  in  the  smaller  streets  there  is  scarcely  room  for  a 
horseman.  \Ve  must  not  however  derive  our  ideas  from 
the  description  of  travellers,  before  or  for  a  few  years  after 
the  incorporation  of  Georgia  with  the  Russian  empire  in 
JSOl.  The  letters  on  the  Caucasus  and  Georgia  in  1812, 
written  by  the  wife  of  a  Russian  envoy,  speak  of  Tiflis  as 
'a  mass  of  nuns,  melancholy  monuments  of  the  ravages  of 
Aura  Mahomet  and  the  Persians.'  Sir  Robert  Ker  Porter, 
in  1817,  says  that  the  governor  was  making  great,  improve- 
ments, ordering  all  ruinous  houses  to  be  repaired,  or  en- 
tirely pulled  down  to  make  way  for  the  erection  of  new 
ones.  Among  these  improvements  are  the  alterations  in 
the  great  bazar,  along  narrow  \\indiugstreet  with  shops 
on  both  sides,  which  he  had  caused  to  be  entirely  roofed  in, 
with  circular  apertures  to  admit  air  and  light.  Professor 
Kichwald,  who  visited  Tiflis  in  1825  and  1820,  and  gives 
some  particulars  as  late  as  1829,  says,  'Since  the  year  1801 
tranquillity  and  security  have  returned,  and  are  now  firmly 
established  in  Georgia  ;  civilization  and  commerce  increase 
every  year;  since  that  time  Tiflis  has  been  improving  in 
its  appearance,  is  continually  enlarged  by  new  buildinsls, 
and  its  inhabitants  have  easily  become  familiar  with  all  the 
comforts  and  even  the  luxuries  of  European  life.'  Profes- 
sor Parrot,  who  was  there  in  1K29,  speaks  in  similar  terms 
of  the  improvements  introduced  by  the  Russian  govern- 
ment, but  does  not  appear  to  be  so  .satisfied  with  the  intro- 
duction of  European  fashions. 

One  of  the  worst  effects  of  the  habitual  intercourse  with 
Europeans  is  the  change  that  has  been  made  in  the 
manners  of  the  women,  who  have  thrown  off  their  former 
Asiatic  restraint,  without  adopting  the  reserve  and  de- 
corum of  European  manners.  This  effect  is  much  more 
decided  among  the  lower  orders,  because  the  troops  arc 
quartered  in  the  houses  of  the  inhabitants,  so  that  the 
customary  line  of  separation  between  the  women  and  the 
men  could  no  longer  be  preserved.  This  circumstance 
greatly  disgusts  the  Georgians,  and  they  accordingly 
hailed  with  delight  the  judicious  ukase  of  182i>,  by  which 
the  proprietors  of  newly-built,  houses  are  exempted  from 
receiving  soldiers  into  tlieir  houses  for  six  years. 

Tiflis  has  been  chiefly  indebted  for  its  celebrity  to  its 
warm  baths,  and  its  Georgian  name,  Tphilisk  Alaki,  is 
equivalent  to  '  warm  town.'  Parrot  says,  its  name  is  derived 
from  the  Georgian  word  tbili,  warm,  which  may  have 
"i\en  il  either  on  account  of  the  warm  springs,  or 
from  the  contrast  of  the  great  warmth  of  the  climate  of 
Tiflis,  with  the  preceding  residence  of  the  Georgian  Kin. 
ul  Mx.rhct,  which  lies  on  the  declivity  of  the  Caucasus, 
and  has  a  much  cooler  temperature.  The  building  of  Tiflis 
and  the  transferring  of  the  royal  residence  to  this  place 
were  effected  about  the  year  455,  by  king  Waktang  I., 
Gork-Aslan.  (Klaproth,  Ri-iw,  i.  715;  ii.  104.)  The 
mineral  springs  rise  in  considerable  numbers  at  the  south 
end  of  the  city,  between  the  strata  of  limestone,  whence 
they  are  conducted  into  the  cavern  excavated  in  the  solid 
rock,  under  one  immense  roof,  divided  into  different  apart  - 
ui'-nis  for  the  men  and  the  women,  into  which  not  a  ray 
of  day-light  is  admitted,  and  which  are  merely  rescued 
from  total  daikness  by  the  faint  glimmerings  of  a  few 

3K2 


T  I   1- 


496 


T  1  O 


twinkling  lamp*  struggling  with  the  vapour  arising  from 
,]„.  „  and  the  dis.udcr  and 

fill),  .imimition  lenders  visible. 

the    who'e 

having  been  lei'  .ivvever  lh.it  this 

ider  and  cleanliness  is  not    to   be  wondi 

.  the   baths   i,   fi,  <•   I.)   all.   and   they 
:\    into   every   chauil 

•    these   baths,   ami   wits  much  smpiised   at 

bring   niged   by  a    gentleman  who  accompanied    him,    to 

view  the  Iwiths'of  the  women,  to  which  tln-j    wire  -hown 

by  an  old  -.  I'heir  eiitnince  did  not  stem  to 

aiiy  alarm  or  astonishment.     These  waters  are    leputed  to 

:i.  ficial  in  rheumatic  complaints  and   cutaneous 

chemical  analysis  that  can  be  depended  on 

en  made.  Pairot,  who   examined  17 

ditfcrcut    baths,   states  the  hottest    at    :f7°. 

and    the   coolest    at    1'J"  Reaumur.     There    are    only  two 

springs  below  :hr  ,  the  temperature  of  the  air  in  the  khnde, 

:  the  baths,  was  from  15"  to  1(1°  Reaumur. 
The  situation   of  Tillis  would  certainly  make   it   one  of 
the  most  delightful  spots  in   the  world,   if  the  mountains 
between  which   it   lies  were  not   totally  destitute  <>l 
fhcv  no-.v  only  relied  the  rav so!  the  sun  from  the  southern 
iiich   also   keeps  off  the   cooling 

north  and  north-east  winds  .and  thus  produce  in  the  valleys 
an  oppressive  lu-at.  which  often  strikes  like  the  glow  of  a 
furnace,  and  may  perhaps  be  the  cause  of  the  bilious  dis- 
eases prevalent  here.     The  greatest  heat  during  th. 
drni  .  n  the  28th  of  .lulj ,  between 

3  and  ~>  in  the  afternoon.  :tOu  -I'  Reaumur. 

Though  Professor  Parrot  state,  that  •  notwithstanding 
the  great  advantages  held  out  by  the  Russian  gov  eminent, 
which  cut.  ini  from  Russia  and  other  coun- 

II,  from  the  eounsello.  :id  general  down 

to  the  clerk  and  common  <  'o.ssick,  often  long  in  a  few- 
weeks  to  return  to  their  native  country  as  to  a  lost  para- 
dise ;'  jet  the  population  is  constantly  and  rapidly  in 
ing.  I'll  IH'JU  it  was  stated  not  to  exceed  l."..(KK).  and  is 
now  probably  nearly  -45.1HK).  it  having  been  -!(),<XX)  three 
Full  one-half  are  Armenians,  the  remainder 
cliiiflj  Georgians,  that  is,  old  Greek  Christians,  some 
Koma'n  Catholics,  and  about  a  hundred  Mohammedans. 
It  is  the  residence  of  a  Georgian  patriarch,  a  Georgian 
metropolitan,  anil  an  Armenian  archbishop.  There  are 
some  manufactories  of  woollen,  cotton,  and  silk. 

Tillis   is  most    favourably  situated   to  be  the  medium  of 

an  extensive  trade  between  Kurope  and  Asia,  but  it  is  only 

since   the   arrival   of  the   Russians  snd   the   peace   of  Gu- 

hslan    that    there    has    been    any   direct    commerce   with 

At  first,  and  till  the  emperor  Alexander  : 

to  the  trans-Caucasian  province,  the  Armenians 

merely  purchased  such  goods  as  they  wanted  for  eommon 

.1  the  fair  of  Nishnci  Novgorod,  to  which  they  brought 

.01  goods.  .iwls,  and  pearls,  which 

they  exchanged  for  woollens,  linen,  printed  calicoes,  kc.  : 

they  often   bought  with  ready  inoncv.     In  1K21  the  ukase 

granting   freedom  of  trade  was  published,  and   commerce 

greatly    increased.      In    1S23    a    rich    Armenian   went    to 

sa,  where  lie  purchased  goods  to  the  amount  of  many 

thousand  pounds,  which  he  disposed  of  to  great  adv;i 

atTitli-. 

In  the  following  year  for  the  first   time,  six  Armenian 
merchants   came  to    Lrip/ig    fair,   where    they   pun 
Kuropenn  manufactures  to  the  amount   of  UX).(XN)  rubles 
banco    i'l.lXXl/. ,.  which  they  conveyed  through  Galicia  and 
the  south  of  Russia  to  Odessa,  where  they  w  ere  embarked  for 
Ucdout    Kale.     In  the  year  lsi">  the  value  of  the  goods 
purchased  at  Leipzig  was  1,200,000  rubles,  and   in  the 
following  year  twice  a*  much.     Pmli-ssor  Kichvvald 
i-   much   to    be   wished    that    some   Kuropean    merchants 
might  settle  in  Tiflis,  and  endeavour  to  improve  th. 
from  that  city  to  Persia,  Afghanistan,  Hokhara,  and  Tibet. 
Then    the   caravans    from    Cashmere.   Cabul,    and    Tibet 
would   no  longer   go  to  Tauris  and    Ispahan,  but  cross  the 
Caspian  Sea, and  so  up  the  Kur  to  Tiflis.  whence  the  goods 
would  be  forwarded  over  the  Hlack  Sea  to  Kuropc. 

Tlir  trade  with  Persia  in  very   important,  and  is  almost 
Mitirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Armenians  of  Hushirc  on   the 
ill  and  of  Tillis.    The  former  trade  chiefly  to  the 
K**t  In.h.  part  ol    the  ships  which  n;. 

in  the  I  in. mm  t  ' 
cat:    only  a  it-  mi:   to  Uushire..    The 


value  of  giKxls  brought    from  India   to   lYis.a  w.-u  two 

millions  of  iluc:r 

India  "rtXMNK)  dn< -.,t         A    , 

takes  the  .-iah.   iKmi  which   p'. 

factures  of  Kngland  and  India  go  up  the 

are  disposed   of  in  Turkey.     The  \iansit   I, 

which    chiefly  come  from  I.clp/ig,    is  an 
i   of  the   tiade   between  Tillis   and   Persia.     On    the 
the  commerce  of  Titli.s  is   inn 
ind  value. 
Sir  Robeit    Ker  Porter.    .'     . 

;;;  !/<•,/ 

lierlin,  lKi4  ;  Eichwald,  li. 

TIGA.    Piofess<,r    Kaup's    name    for    a    genus   of    : 
i(*/try>.i>H'iti<\,   S\v.  ;    J'li-iit,   Ho i    . 

. 
[WoODPBCKKR8.1 

TIGER-BITTERNS.     [TICKISOMA.] 

TIG  KIM 'ATS.     [TIGKK. 

TIGERS.      Although  there   is  but  one  s; 
]>.operlj-  so  called,   th. 
genus  relit  in  which  the  ligerine  eh.. 
may  he  also  treated  of  under  the  title  before  us. 

Tile  Hnj/iil  Tif;i-r,  1'flix  Tigris,  claims  our  first  no- 
and,  although  poets  and  poetical  zoologists  have  join 
elevate  the  lion  with  hi.s  majestic  mane  to  the  M 
it  may  be  doubted   whether  the  Tia<-r  is  not  thcU|K.'o( 
the  lerociou-,  and  blood-t hirst \  g. 

Some  havi'  thought  that  this-;  ,,u(  little  known 

to  the  antients:  but.  we  think,  with  no  sufi 
The  numerous  pits-ages  in  which  the  wonl 

in  Greek   and    Latin  authors,   leave   litil. 
doubting  this  knowledge  ;   and   Hjrcania,  with  which  it  is 
so  ficijucntly  associated  by  the  latter,  is  a    locality   well 
suited  to  what  we  now  know  of  its  geographical  distribii- 
tron. 

When  Aii-totle  ///.»/..//,///).,  \iii.28X  treat  ing  of  In - 
brid  animals  which  spiing  from  an  intermixture  of  diHe- 
rent  laces,  sjij's  that  \  end  that  the  dogs  of  India 

are  bred  tiom  the  tiger  (rov  n'ypiof)  and  a  bitch,  not  indeed 
lit  the  first  union,  but  at  the   third,  we  sec  no  n 
sidenng  the  locality  which   he   assigns  to   the   //i'/i\.   and 
the    opportunities   which    the 

gave    lum   of   knowing  the    animals    of   India,    wh\ 
word    should    be    rendered   otherwise    than   by    '/V.t/r    in 
our  pi-  .ilation  of  the  term.     '  The  ti- 

Pliny    .V.i/.   ///.v/.,  vih.  IS:.  •  is  produced  in   H\ 
India;'    following  this  up  with  an   allusion  to  the 
meiulous  swiftness  '  of  the  animal,   and  the  strong  attach- 
ment which   the  Tigress,   notwithstanding  accidental    ex- 
ception, is  known  to  manifest  for  her  nibs.     Again    l/m/., 
vi.  'Jl  .    he  notices  the    Indian  nati'  -.nuli'ig  in 

wild   tigei-s.      Of  course  he  does  not  omit    the  - 
origin  of  the  Indian  dogs  from  the  Tiger,  and  the  rejection 
of  the   two  first  In:,  i-  as  ion  feiocions.    while   the  thild    1- 
takcn   and   brought  up.   i  Iliiil..  viii.  40.        lint,    luttl'er.  it 
is  (|iiite   clear   from   the  same   authority,   that    the    '/' 
had   been   exhibited    at    Rome,   and  that  Pliny  and  n 
well  knew  the  distinction  between  tha-  o.irds 

and  panthers.    After  mentioning  the  two  last,  and  referring 
to  an   ancient   decree   of   the   senate   that    African   I 
should    not    be    imported,  but  stating    that    the   tribuni 
Cneiuf  Aufidim  i  plebbcitum  to  b  liich 

permitted  their  importation  for  the  Circensiaii  games,  he 
stales  the  numb*!*  brought,  fin!  1>\  Scanrns.  and  then  bj 
Pompey  the  (Jreat  and  Augustus:  adding  that  Auguslii> 
was  the  first  who  showed  a  t.nne  tigi.  .1  den 

at  Rome,  upon  the  dedication  of  the  Theatre  of  Marcclhis, 
during  the  consulship  of  ().  Tub. TO  and  l-'ahins  Maximus  ; 
and    that    the    emperor    Claudius   showed    four   together. 
'  l/iid.,  viii.  17.)     Suetonius  :An.<f.,  \\i\\. :  slates  that  it  was 
the    habit    of    Augustus,    besides    the    exhibitions    at     tin- 
great     spectacles,    to     show    to     the    public    any     rantv 
that    Wits    brought    over,    'ut    rhinocerotem    a  pud    septa; 
•  :     anguem   c|uin<|iiaginta   ciibitonnn   pro 
eomitio  :'    and    Dion     remarks    that     the     tigers     (rr) 
first   seen    In    the    Romans,    and.    as    he    thinks,    bv    the 
s  also,  were  those   sent  bj  tile  Indians   a-,  gilts  when 
they  were  suing  for  peace   from   Augustus.     The  emperor 
,  Philip    on    one    occasion    exhibited    ten    tigers,    together 
.  with   thirty-two   elephants,   ten    elks,    r-ixty   lions,    thirty 


TIG 


437 


T  I  G 


leopards,  ten  hyaenas,  one  hippopotamus,  one  rhinoceros,  I 
forty  wild  horses,  twenty  wild  asses,  and  numbers  of  deer,  ' 
goals,  antelopes,  and  other  beasts  ;  the  brutal  exhibition 
being   crowned  by   the  mortal  combat  of  two  thousand 
gladiators. 

Gordian  III.  also  exhibited  ten  tigers,  and  they  were 
present  in  the  shows  of  Antoninus  and  Elagabahis.  Aure- 
lian,  in  his  triumph  over  Zenobia.,  showed  lour,  together 
with  a  giraffe,  an  elk,  and  other  rare  animals. 

Oppian  cannot  be  mistaken  when  he  writes  (Cyneg.,  iii. 
130), 


Tt  Soai,  irat  n'ypiff  moXovwroi  ; 
for  here  we  have  leopards  and  tigers  in  the  same  line,  and 
the  epithet  aioXovwroc  (having  a  variegated  back)  is  quite 
applicable  to  the  latter. 

The  Latin  poets  abound  with  allusions  to  the   Tiyri-i. 
that,  in  most  instances,  can  hardly  be  allotted  to  any  animal 
lut  the    Royal  Tiger;  for,  though  Virgil,   in    his  fourth! 
•Georgic'  (1.407;,applies  the  epithet  'atra'  (black)  to  Migris'  i 
in  the  passage  where  (Jyrene  is  warning  Arisheus  as  to  the 
forms  into  which  Proteus  will  transform  himself,  the  word, 
evidently,  does  not  there  allude  to  colour,  but  to  ferocity. 
In   the  fourth  '  jfineid,'  Dido,  in  her  exclamation  against 
/Kneas,  says, 

-  *  Duri3  ifenuit  tc  cautibus  horrcns 
Caucasus,  tlyrcanff'iuc  aJiuoriint  ubvra  ttfVM.' 

The  tig*rs  of  Bacchus  may  be  considered  more  doubtful. 
In  the  '(lemmie  et  Sculpture  Antiquae'  there  is  a  repre- 
sentation of  a  large  female  1'i-lin  with  the  thyrsus  from  a 
carnelian  (corgnola),  with  the  superscription,  'Tigre  di 
Bacho  ;'  but  though  the  figure,  generally,  might  pass  for  a 
Tiger,  the  tail  of  the  animal  is  terminated  by  a  shagiry 
lul't,  and  ro  tiger's  tail  is.  Claudian  comes  much  nearer 
to  the  murk  where  he  describes  lacchus  as  marching 
Crowned  with  ivy,  dnd  clad  fin  the  skin)  of  the  Parthian 
TiLTfi.  When  Virgil  describes  Orpheus,  as  '  mulcentem 
litres'  as  •  soothing  tigers'  (Georg.  iv.,  1.  510),  and  Horace, 
with  nearly  the  same  thought,  addresses  Mercury, 

'  To  poles  tigre*  comttesque  sylvaa 
Duoere' 

•;.  iii.,  O<le  ii.  :  ;  and  airain,  in  his  epistle  to  the  Pisos 
Arte  Poctica,'  1.  393),  says  of  Orpheus, 

'  Diaus  ah  hoc  lenire  tigres,  rabidusque  leones  ;' 

they  make  the  Tiger  personify  the  greatest  ferocity,  and 
they  certainly  could  not  have  chosen  a  more  apt  represen- 
tative. 

Martial  speaks  of  the  Tiger  in  the  time  of  Titus  and 
Domitian.  (Spect.,  Epig.  18,  and  lib.i.,  Epig.  lOfi.j 

To  conclude  this  branch  of  the  subject,  we  shall  advert 
to  one  more  literary  proof,  and  one  piece  of  pictorial  evi- 
dence :  and  we  think  that  no  doubt  can  exist  that,  al- 
though the  Royal  Tiger  was  not  so  abundant  in  the 
Koman  shows,  particularly  the  earlier  ones,  as  the  leo- 
pard and  the  panther,  its  form  and  colouring,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  other  great  cats,  were  as  well  and  fami- 
liarly known  to  that  people. 

Piinj,  in  his  chapter  '  De  Atlantis  Arboribus  et  Oedrinis 
Meiisis,'  Sic.  \n/.  ///-,/.,  xiii.  15  ..speaking  of  the  grain  or 
pattern  of  these  tallies,  says  that  where  it  was  oblong  or 
lengthened,  they  were  called  tigrine,  but  where  it  was 
v.  real  lied  or  curfed  '  ii-turtu',,  they  were  termed  pantherine. 

The  pictorial  evidence  (so  to  speak)  was  furnished  by 
tin-  mosaic  found  at  Uoi'.ie  near  the  arch  of  Gallienus.  In 
this  woik  of  art,  executed  not  improbably  in  commemora- 
tion of  the  exhibition  of  Claudius  above  noticed,  four 
Royal  Tigers,  each  devouring  his  prey,  are  well  re- 
presented. 

Our  Zoological  Societies  and  menageries  have  so  in- 
creased in  number  during  a  long  period  of  peace,  that  it 
I  c  mines  almost  superfluous  to  describe  a  form  so  well 
knuun.  But  as  a  description  of  an  animal  holding  so  im- 
portant. a  rank  in  the  animal  kingdom  may  be  expected, 
we  select  that  of  Mr.  Bennett,  who,  in  the  Tuirnr  Menu- 
ie,  remarks  that  the  Tiger,  closely  allied  to  the  Lion  in 
in  power,  in  external  form,  in  internal  structure,  in 
zoological  characters,  in  prowling  habits,  and  in  sangui- 
nary propensities,  is  at  once  distinguished  from  it,  and 
from  every  other  of  their  common  genus,  by  the  peculiar 
miii-kiii^s  of  its  coal.  'On  a  ground  which  exhibits  in 
ditSVrent  individuals  various  shades  of  yellow,'  says  Mr. 
Bennett,  '  he  is  elegantly  striped  by  a  series  of  transverse 
black  bands  or  bars,  which  occupy  the  sides  of  his  head, 


neck,  and  body,  and  are  continued  upon  his  tai!  in  the 
form  of  rings,  the  last  of  the  series  uniformly  occupying 
the  extremity  of  that  organ,  and  giving  it  a  black  tip  of 
greater  or  less  extent.  The  under  parts  of  his  body  and 
the  inner  sides  of  his  legs  are  almost  entirely  white ;  he 
has  no  mane  ;  and  his  whole  frame,  though  less  elevated 
than  that  of  the  Lion,  is  of  a  slenderer  and  more  graceful 
make.  His  head  is  also  shorter  and  more  rounded.' 

There  is  a  paler  variety,  almost  approaching  to  whitish, 
and  with  the  stripes  visible  only  in  particular  lights  :  this 
has  been  exhibited  in  this  country.  According  to  Du 
Halde,  the  Chinese  Tiger  (Lou-chu,  or  Lau-hri)  varies  in 
colour,  some  being  white,  striped  with  black  and  grey. 

The  size  of  the  Tiger  varies  also  ;  but  the  dimensions  of 
the  form,  when  fully  developed,  are,  if  we  are  to  give  credit 
to  some  accounts,  the  veracity  of  which  has  not  been  im- 
pugned, most  formidable.  Buffon  notices  an  individual 
which  was  (tail  included)  15  feet  long ;  and  it  is  on 
record  that  Hyder  Ali  presented  to  the  Nabob  of  Arcot 
one  which  measured  18  feet  in  length.  The  average 
height  varies  from  about  four  feet  to  about  three  feet,  and 
the  length  from  about  eight  or  nine  feet  to  six. 

Geographical  Distribution. — Asia  only,  and  not  the 
south  of  Africa,  as  BufFon  erroneously  states  ;  but  authors 
generally  agree  that  the  Tiger  is  now  rarely,  if  ever,  met 
with  on  this  side  of  the  Indus.  It  is  said  to  be  found  in 
the  deserts  which  separate  China  from  Siberia,  and  as  far 
as  the  banks  of  the  Oby  ;  and  in  the  south  of  China,  and 
the  larger  East  Indian  Islands  (Sumatra,  for  instance),  it  is 
common.  Pennant  states  that  it  is  found  as  far  north  as 
China  and  Chinese  Tartary,  and  about  Lake  Aral  and  the 
Altaic  Mountains.  '  It  inhabits  Mount  Ararat,'  says  the 
same  author  in  continuation,  '  and  Hyrcania,  of  old  famous 
for  its  wild  beasts ;  but  the  greatest  numbers,  the  largest, 
and  the  most  cruel,  are  met  with  in  India  and  its  islands. 
In  Sumatra  the  natives  are  so  infatuated  that  they  seldom 
kill  them,  having  a  notion  that  they  are  animated  by  Ihe 
souls  of  their  ancestors.  They  are  the  scourge  of  the 
country ;  they  lurk  among  the  bushes  on  the  sides  of 
rivers,  and  almost  depopulate  many  places.  They  are 
in-idioiis,  blood-thirsty,  and  malevolent,  and  seem  to 
prefer  preying  on  the  human  race.'  Hindustan  may  be 
considered  the  head-quarters  of  this  destructive  animal ; 
there  it  is  that  he  reigns  unawed  even  by  the  lion,  with 
which  he  disputes  the  mastery,  and  which  is  comparatively 
rare  in  that  peninsula. 

Habits,  Chase,  cf-c. — The  bound  with  which  the  am- 
bushed tiger  throws  himself  upon  his  prey  is  as  wonderful 
in  its  extent  as  it  is  terrible  in  its  effects.  Pennant  justly 
observes  that  the  distance  which  it  clears  in  this  deadly 
leap  is  scarcely  credible.  Man  is  a  mere  puppet  in  his 
gripe  ;  and  the  Indian  buffalo  is  not  only  borne  down  by 
the  ferocious  beast,  but  carried  off  by  his  enormous 
strength.  If  he  fails,  it  has  been  said  that  he  makes  off. 
This  may  be  true  in  certain  instances,  but  in  general  he 
does  not  slink  away,  but  pursues  the  affrighted  prey  with  a 
speedy  activity  which  is  seldom  exerted  in  vain.  This 
leads  us  to  the  observation  of  Pliny  celebrating  its  swift- 
ness,* for  which  the  Roman  zoologist  has  been  censured, 
most  unjustly,  apparently ;  nor  is  he  the  only  author 
among  the  ancients  who  notices  its  speed.  Oppian 
(Cyneg.,  i.  323)  speaks  of  the  swift  Tigers  as  being  the 
offspring  (yevsOXjj)  of  the  zephyr.  '  Pliny,'  saysPennant, '  has 
been  frequently  taken  to  task  by  the  moderns  for  calling 
the  Tiger  "animal  tremendae  velocitatis  ;"  they  allow  it 
great  agility  in  its  bounds,  but  deny  it  swiftness  in  pursuit. 
Two  travellers  of  authority,  both  eye-witnesses,  confirm 
what  Pliny  says  :  the  one  indeed  only  mentions  in  general 
vast  fleetness ;  the  other  saw  a  trial  between  one  and  a 
swift  horse,  whose  rider  escaped  merely  by  getting  in  time 
amidst  a  circle  of  armed  men.  The  chase  of  this  animal 
was  a  favourite  diversion  with  the  great  Cam-Hi,  the 
Chinese  monarch,  in  whose  company  our  countryman 
Mr.  Bell,  that  faithful  traveller,  and  the  Pure  Gerbillon, 
saw  these  proofs  of  the  tiger's  speed.'  •)• 

In  the  '  'EKa-iwrac,  sen  Centuria  Imaginum  Hierogryphi- 
carnm '  (do.  lac.  xxiii.)  is  a  wood-cut  (here  copied;  that. 
may  refer  to  such  a  scene. 

Ferocious  as  the  Tiger  is,  and  much  as  it  may  deserve 
the  odium  heaped  upon  it,  the  general  chorus  of  the  herd 
of  authors  who  eulogize  '  the  courage,  greatness,  clemeridy, 
and  generosity '  of  the  lion,  contrasting  it  with  the  unpro- 

*  Ante,  p.,436.  t  Bell's  •  Travels,'  ii.  01 ;  Du  HaUe,  ii.  2 13. 


T  I  G 


T  I   C, 


Tifrr  ponuiaf  a  m»n  on  honcbacV.. 

voked  ferocity,  unnecessary  cruelty,  and  poltroonery  of 
th*  T: 

".t.     The  lion  has  owed  a  good  deal 
to   his   mane  and   his   nohk'    and    dignified    a-;  '    '  :    !".' 

trances  are  not  always  to  lie  trusted.     Mr.  I'  . 
with  '  truth,  characterizes  the   king 

powerful  but  treacherous.     •  Happ\  .oiler, 

'  for  the  pca-antn .  the  I'  mma!-  that 

are  th  ,   and  gene- 

rous nature,  that  so  oft  has  fired  the  imagination  of 
ii>ali/ed.  and  that  his  royal  ]>aw  disd:  If  in 

the  blood  of  any  sleeping  creature  !  The  lion.  i;i  fact,  is 
one  of  the  most  indolent  of  all  the  beasts  of  prey,  and 
never  gives  himself  the  trouble  of  a  pursuit  unless  hard 
pressed  by  hmii: 

1'eimnnt  gives  the  following  as  an  instance,  alter  stating 
that  there  is  a  sort  of  cruelty  in  the  de\  I   the 

unknown  to  the  generous  lion,  as  well  as  poltn 
in    its   Midden    retreat    on    any  disappointment  :     '  I  was 
inforn.  .1  authority,  that  in  the  beginning  of 

this  eenti:.  .  d  ladies,  being  on  a  party 

of  pleasure  under  the  sha  -.  mi   the  hanks  of  a 

ri\iT  in  Bengal,  observed  a  tiger  preparing  for  its  fatal 
-prinir :  one  of  tin-  ladie.-.  wi'h  amazing  p..  mind, 

Inid  hold  of  an  umbrella  and  furled  it  full  in  the  animal's 
which  instantly  retired,  and   gave  the  company  an 
opportunity  of  removing  from  so  terrible  a  neighbour/ 

This  is  a  verj  pivtu  (he   heroine  deserves  all 

praise,  though  It  is  not  \ery  dear  what  is  meant  by// 
an  umbrella,  so  as  to  make  re  with  the 

context,  and  the  tiirer  was  undoubtedly  vcrv  polite.     Hut 

om  a  con~ 

••in  ambush  :  and  we  suspect  that  a  iTo-s-cvaininatioii 

of  the  part.  ;ed  might  base  slighth  'damaged  the 

(Granting,  however,  that  tin-  boiil  lady  walked 

up  to  a  crouch,  .d   suddenly  opened  an  "umbrella 

in  it*  1  iat,  we  prcKimie.  is  tile  action   meant  .  we 

may  easily  conceive   that  the  •-  >a\  have   utterly 

.uncled  him  ;  but  this  is  not  poll  Indeed  the 

author    immediately    all. 

proof  of  the  animal's  daiiic  Ujer  party  had  not  the 

hirer  daited  among  them  while  they 

it  dinner,  «eixed  on  one  genii,  led  him  off, 

and  hi  .,d  of." 

•.    sad   one,   which   is 

'g  hardihood  ;    we  allude  to 

son.     Mr. 

-   the   horrible   .  •.•   in  a 

'  'tins  unfortunate  gentl.  Mi.  Wood,  •  accmn- 

mined 

>on.    when   they   retired   to  the 
"here   they  had 

-ho.it  a  deer,  heaid   a  dreadful  roar,  and 

rn.  and  rush  with  him  into 
With    the  g    him    tin 

made 
.  hit  aman  among 

WM  to  fire  at  the  tiger:  and  it   is  evident  that  theii 

...     a  few  ni       li       fler,  Mr.  MI.M.I  stag- 

1  with  blon.'.  and   fell. 
that  the  -hi|i  af>  i  n, cured  lor 

'  in  vain  ;   he  expired  in  i 
:is  in  the   . 

torn.   In,   »kull    fmc. 

covered  with  wounds  made  by  the  claw*  of  the  savage 


beast.    It  !  tint  neither 

fire    that   w-  (hem.   nor  the   I'.oiv 

laughter  which   i 

inert  tin*  purpose.'  Con- 

ns with  the  story  told  ! 

•'  ! 

which  the  Lion,  though  warmed  with1 

the    terrified  .l:i.  j  when,    in 

1  from   a 

liic  butt-end   of  hi*  shot  less   gi> 
enemy.  This  im.\  poltroonery,  if  such  a  'crni  be 

Hut  it  any  doubt  an  to  the  courage  of  the  tigi 
tained.   l-'atlivr  Tach..  ,it  of  a  i-onib;:1 

that   bca>t    and   two  eleiibants  at   Siam  will   be  suit: 
pronf.    He:  :ihoo  pa:i*ade  wa.->  ei  v 

occuj)ying  an  an'a  of  about  l(M)  l.-et  M|iiaie.  Into  this 
cneld  le])hant.s  were  introduced  v. ilh  their  i 

and  trunks  shielded  by  a  kind  nf  ma.-k.      A  -rwat 

now  brought  from   its  den,  and  held  with  cords 
the  eli  .  lied  and  inflicted  two  or  tl 

on   its  hack  with  his  trunk,  so  heavily  laid  on 
stunned,  as  if  dead.     Then    tl  No 

sooner  did  he  recover  than  he  spiang  wilh  a   dreadful 
at  the  elephant's  trunk  stretched  out  him; 

but  the  wary  elephant   drew  up  hi.s   trunk,  and 
the    tiger   on   hi.-    tn»ks.  hurled  him  into   the   air.     This 
cheeked  the'  fmy  of  li> 
up  the  contest  with  the  elephant ;  but 
round  the  palisade,  frequently  springing  at  the  - 
Allcrwards  three  elephants 
turn  dealt  him  such  heavy  blows  that  . 
and  would   have   been  killed,  it'  • 

incorrectly  called,  had  not  been  tupped.  .Nothing  could 
be  more  unfair  towards  the  tiger  than  the  whole  of  this 
proceeding:  and  we  will  venture  to  sty  that  no  quad 
except  a  liritish  bull-dog  could  have  shown  more  -pluck,' 
to  use  a  vulgar  but  expressive  term,  than  this  shamefully 
treated  ben 

The  older  authors  generally  state  that  after  the   tiger 
has  secured    its   prey  it    plunges  its  head  into  the    be 
the  animal  up  to  its  with 

blood  till  the  corpse  i-  exhausted,  before  it  teals  it  to 
pieces.  The  best  modern  accounts  tend  to  prove  that  (he 
tiger  is  not  more  bloodthirsty  and  has  no  more  blood- 
sucking propensities  than  the  other  great  cats:  and  that 
this  blood-drinking  habit  is  gross  iled. 

Th.  our  or  the  cubs 

at  a  time  :   and  she    i-  ..ud  niother,'bra\  ing   i 

them,  and  fnrioiislv  attacking  man  ai 

their  .I  The  anticnts  knew  this  well.     Sec  Martial 

lib.  iii.,Kpig.  4-J) : — 

•  Noa  ttgtii  catulli  citata  raptit,'  &c. ; 
and  Juvenal    x//.,  \i.) :  — 

'  Time  grivlt  III.i  Tiro,  tune  orlx  ligrMr  |K-j.>r  :' 

and  though  it  is  on  record  that  I  iinu-s 

devoured    her  cub,  one   should    :  this  unna- 

tural act  was  done  ill  captivity. 

cats  have  done  the  same.      Hut    that    in    a    state    ol'ii 
the  maternal  feeling  i-  .g  in  the  tigress,  tin  i 

be   no   doubt.     Captain  U'illianison.    for  example,    r 
that    tv.o   tiger-cubs  were    brought    to    him  when    In 
stationed   in   an  Indian  district.     The  country-people  had 
found  four  in  th.  --.     The  t 

to  the  put   in   a  stable,  where  they  made  a 

loud  noise  .    uiL'ht-.     The   bereaved   nii.tlicr  ar- 

rived at  last,  replying  to  their  cries  with  fearful  hou  . 
and  tin  .    under  the   apprehension 

the  infuriated  tiirress  might  break  in.     In  mg  it 

ind  that  she  had  earned  them  away. 
For  an   .  ;lie   hi/briil*   between  th. 

the  aitiele  I.iux,  vol.  xiv..  ; 
ousilevic  n  put  in  requisition  l 

annihilate  this  destructive  quadruped,  and  we  shall  men- 
tion one  or  two  of  them  before  we  advert  to  the  clmce  i  f 
the  animal  upon  a  grander  mei-ly 

d    bv  the    ! 

d  within   the   p-  here   their   pov.cr  and  in- 

fluence ex'  '  icwanl,  hi.'  conjointly 

with  the  poorer 

i)  it. 
A  kind  of  spnng-bow  was  formerly  luid.  in  its  way  and 


T  I  G 

discharged  a  poisoned  arrow,  generally  with  fatal  effect, 
when  the  animal  came  in  contact  with  a  cord  stretched 
across  its  path,  and  this  method  is  said  still  to  he  in  use  in 
some  places.     Again,  a  heavy  beam  was  suspended  over 
the  way  traversed  by  the  tiger,  which  fell   and  crushed 
him  on  his  disengaging  a  cord  which  let  the  beam  i'all. 
A  Persian  device  is  said  to  consist  of  a  large  spherical 
strong  interwoven   bamboo  cage,  or  one  made  of  other 
sble  materials,  with  intervals  throughout,  three  or  four 
inches  broad.     Under  this  shelter,  which  is  picketed  to  the 
ml  in  the  tiger's  haunt,  a  man  provided  with  two  or 
thn-e  short  strong  spears  takes  post  by  night,  with  a  dog 
or  a  goat  as  his  companion,  wraps  himself  in  his  quilt  and 
to  sleep.     A  tiger  arrives,  of  whose  presence  the  man 
is  warned   by  the  (log  or  the  goat,  and   generally,  after 
:ing  about,  rears  himself  up  against  the  cage,  upon 
which  the  man  stabs  him  resolutely  with  his  short  spear 
through  the  interstice  of  the  wicker-work.     It  seems  hidi- 
';:lk  of  taking  a  tiger  with  birdlime  ;  but  it  is  said 
aptured  in  Oude.     When  a  tiger's  track  is 
taintd,  the  peasants,  we  are  told,  collect  a  quantity  of  leaves 
:ibling  those  of  the  sycamore,  and  common  in  most 
Indian  underwoods;  these  they  smear  with  a  kind  of  bird- 
lime which  is  made  from  the  berries  of  an  indigenous  and 
by  no  means  scarce  tree,  and  strew  them  with  the  adhesive 
Kubat&nce  uppermost  in  some  gloomy  spot  to  which  the 
resorts  m  the  heat  of  the  day.     If  he  treads  on  one  of 
the  limed  leaves,  he  generally  begins  by  trying  to  shake  it 
from    his   paw,    and  not  succeeding,   proceeds   to   rub  it 
'st  his  jaw  in  order  to  get   rid  of  it.    Thus  hi 

'utinated,  and  the  uneasy  animal  rolls, 

perhaps  among  many  more   of  the  smeared  leaves,  till   he 

.11  -s  ( M\cloped  :    in  this  state  he  has  been  compared 

to  a  man  who  lias  been  tarred  and  feathered.     The  tiger's 

irritation  and  uneasiness  find  vent  in  dreadful  howlings  ;  on 

ants  hasten   to   the    spot,  and  shoot  him 

without  difficulty. 

plan  of  the  box-trap  and  looking-glass,  a  device  to 

b  ind  in  antient  sculpture  according  to  Montfaucon.  i.s 

to  be  practised  among  the  Chinese  at  the  present  day. 

So  much  for  the  trapping  of  the  Tiger.     The.  tiger-lnmt 

is  perhaps  the  grandest  and  most  exciting  of  wild-sports. 

i  sin-h  occasions  the  whole  neighbourhood  is  on  the 

mo\e,  and  two  hundred  elephants  have   been   known  to 

take  the  Held  ;  from  ten  to  thirty  of  these  gigantic  animals, 

-portsmcii  armed  with  rifles,  have   not  un- 

;  art  eel  fur  the  jungle. 

itain   Mundy  gives  a  short  but  spirited  description 
uf  a  tiger-hunt.     The  party,  he  tells  us,  found  immense 
quantities   of  game,  wild-hogs,   hog-deer,  and  the    Ncil- 
gliie ;"    they,    however,    strictly   abstained    from    firing, 
i  heir  whole  battery  for  the  nobler  game  of  which 
in  pursuit.    They  had  to  pass  through  a  thick 
finest,  and  the  author  gives  a  very  interesting  description 
of  the  power  and  dexterity  of  the  elephants  in  overthrow- 
ing trees  to  make  a  road  : — '  On  clearing  the   wood, 

we  entered  an  open  space  of  marshy  grass,  not  three 

feet  high  ;   a  large  herd  of  cattle  were  feeding  there,  and 

the  herdsman  was  .silling  singing  under  a  bush,  when,  just 

as  the  former  began  to  move  before  ns,  up  sprang  the  \cry 

tiger  to  whom  our  visit  was  intended,   and    cantered  otf 

i  a   bare  plain  dotted  with  small  patches  of   Im-h- 

juiigle.     He  took  to  the  open  country  in  a  style  which 

1  have  more  become  a  fox  than  'a  tiger,  who  is  ex- 

<1  by  his  pursuers  to  light  and  not  to  run,  and  as  he 

''ushed  on  the  flank  of  the  line,  only  one  bullet  was 

fired  at  him    ere    he   cleared   the   thick   grass.     He  was 

unhurt ;  and  we  pursued  him  at  full  speed.  Twice  he  threw 

M  out  by  stopping  short  in  small  strips  of  jungle,  and  then 

."ig  back  after  we  had  prised  :    ;>i,d  he  had  given  us  a 

;ast  trot  of  about  two  miles,  when  Colonel  Arnold, 

who  ild,  at   last  reached  him  by  a  capital 

ng  in  full  career.     As  soon  as  he  felt  him- 

•ied,  the  tiger  crept  into  a  close  thicket  ol 

and   bushes,  and   crouched.     The  two  leading  sportsmen 

t  where  he  lay,  and  us   I   came    up    I    saw 

him,  throiiuh  an  aperture,  rising  to  attempt  a  charge.     Aly 

mahout  had  just  before,  in  the  heat  of  the  chase,  dropped 

Inch  1  had  refused  to  allow  him  to 

iliant  being  notoriou  ,  and 

•  by  the  goading  he  had  undergone,  be 

consequently  un  .le;  he  appeared  to  see  the  tiger 

•  Nyl-ffl  «u.     [kinnotr.,  vol.  ii,  p.  76.] 


T  I  G 

as  soon  as  myself,  and  I  had  only  time  to  fire  one  shot, 
when  he  suddenly  rushed  with  the  greatest  fury  into  the 
thicket,  and  falling  upon  his  kneesj  nailed  the  tiger  with 
his  tusks  to  the  ground.  Such  was  the  violence  of  the 
shock,  that  my  servant,  who  sat,  behind,  was  thrown  out, 
and  one  of  my  guns  went  overboard.  The  struggles  of 
my  elephant  to  crush  his  still  resisting  foe,  who  had  fixed 
one  paw  on  his  eye,  were  so  energetic,  that  I  was  obliged 
to  hold  on  with  all  my  strength,  to  keep  myself  in  the 
houdah.  The  second  barrel  too  of  the  gun,  which  I  still 
retained  in  my  hand,  went  off  in  the  scuffle,  the  ball 
passing  close  to  the  mahout's  ear,  whose  situation,  poor 
fellow,  was  anything  but  enviable.  As  soon  as  my  ele- 
phant was  prevailed  upon  to  leave  the  killing  part  of  the 
business  to  the  sportsmen,  they  gave  the  roughly  used  tiger 
the  coup-de-grace.  It  was  a  very  fine  female,  with  the 
most  beautiful  skin  I  ever  saw.' 

In  the  'Asiatic  Annual  Register,'  fur  1804,  a  gentleman 
who  had  been  present  at  the  killing  of  above  thirty  tigers 
gives  an  account  of  a  hunting-party  of  fhe  Nawab  Asuf- 
ud-Dowlah.  After  describing  the  immense  cavalcade  of 
the  Nawab,  he  says  : — '  The  first  tiger  we  saw  and  killed 
was  in  the  mountains  ;  we  went  to  attack  him  about  noon  ; 
he  wii-.i  in  a  narrow  valley,  which  the  Nawab  surrounded 
with  above  two  hundred  elephants ;  we  heard  him  growl 
horribly  in  a  thick  bush  in  the  middle  of  the  valley.  Being 
accustomed  to  the  sport  and  very  eager,  I  pushed  in  my 
elephant;  the  fierce  beast  charged  me  immediately ;  the 
elephant,  a  timid  animal,  turned  tail,  and  deprived  me  of 
the  opportunity  to  fire.  I  ventured  again,  attended  by 
two  or  three  other  elephants ;  the  tiger  made  a  spring,  and 
,  reached  the  back  of  one  of  the  elephants  on  which 
liiree  or  four  men;  the  elephant  shook  himself  so 
forcibly  as  to  throw  these  men  off  his  back,  and  they  tumbled 
into  the  bush  ;  I  gave  them  up  for  lost,  but  was  agreeably 
surprised  to  see  them  creep  out  unhurt.  His  Excellency 
was  all  this  time  on  a  rising  ground  near  the  thicket,  look- 
ing on  calmly,  and  beckoning  to  me  to  drive  the  tiger 
towards  him.  I  made  another  attempt,  and  with  more 
success  ;  he  darted  out  towards  me  on  my  approach,  roaring 
furiously  and  lashing  his  sides  with  his  tail.  I  luckily  gut. 
a  shot  and  hit  him  ;  he  retreated  into  the  bush,  and  ten  or 
twelve  elephants  just  then  pushed  into  the  thicket,  alarmed 
the  tiger,  and  obliged  him  to  run  towards  the  Nawab,  who 
instantly  gave  him  a  warm  reception,  and  with  the.  assist- 
ance of  some  of  his  omras,  or  lords,  laid  the  tigersprawling 
on  his  side.  A  loud  shout  of  wha  !  irha  !  proclaimed  the 
victory.' 

There  is  in  Bishop  Heber's  '  Journal '  a  most  graphic  de- 
scription of  a  tiger-hunt,  but  our  limits  will  not  permit  us 
to  indulge  in  more  of  these  stirring  accounts. 

Those  who  have  represented  the  tiger  as  untameablo 
have  no  ground  for  the  assertion.  It  is  as  capable  of  being 
tamed,  and  of  attachment,  even  to  fondness,  for  its  keeper, 
as  any  other  animal  of  its  kind.  We  have  seen  many  in- 
stances of  this  mutual  good  understanding  between  the 
man  and  the  beast,  and  Mr.  Bennett  mentions  a  remarkable 
example  in  his  '  Tower  Menagerie.'  A  tigress  of  great 
beauty,  in  the  Tower  when  he  wrote,  and  scarcely  a  j-ear 
old,  had  been,  during  her  passage  from  Calcutta,  allowed 
to  range  about  the  vessel  unrestricted,  and  had  become 
perfectly  familiar  with  the  sailors,  showing  no!  the  slightest. 
symptoms  of  ferocity.  On  her  arrival  jn  the  Thames,  the 
irritation  produced  by  the  sight  of  strangers  instantly 
changed  her  temper,  rendering  her  irascible  and  dangerous. 
So  sulky  and  savage  was  she,  that  Mr.  Cop.-,  who  then  kept 
the  lions  in  the  Tower,  could  hardly  be  prevailed  on  by 
her  former  keeper,  who  came  to  see  her,  to  allow  him  to 
enter  her  den  ;  but  as  soon  as  the  tigress  recognised  her 
old  friend,  she  fawned  on  him,  licked  him,  caressed  him, 
and  manifested  the  most  extravagant  signs  of  pleasure ; 
and  when,  at  hist,  he  left  her,  she  cried  and  whined  for  the 
remainder  of  the  day.  The  tame  tigers  of  the  mendicant 
priests,  or  Fakirs,  of  Hindustan,  are  weU  known. 

But  whilst,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  tameable  quali- 
ties of  the  tiger,  and  indeed  of  all  the  great  cats,  they  are 
not  to  be  incautiously  trusted.  The  natural  disposition 
is  always  ready  to  break  out;  and  the  mildest  of  them, 
though 

'  Ne'er  so  tame,  so  clierish'J,  and  lock'd  up, 

Will  h;Lve  ;i  »ild  trick  of  his  ancestors.' 

Thus  Bontius  states  that,  in  1628,  a  tiger  at  Batavia, 
which  had  been  brought  up  from  a  cub,  and  accustomed 


T  I  O 

t,>  rm-;i  Ml  its  Hfr.  escaped  from  its  eas?,  fastened  on  a 

img  near,  and   killed  it  ;    so  that  the 

•  with  tiri'-arms  and  dew  it  in  its 

liief. 

;,;,rt   iif  our  sketch  with   the  account 
bv  -.John    Mason,  who   formerly   kept    the    Leasts  in 
to  Mr.  Wood,  of  Ins  fearful  encounter  with 
thc-v  en)  ' 

t   the  vear   IHO'2  a  tiger  had  been  purchased  by 

to  sVnd  to  the  emperor  of  Germany,  and  placed 

in  the  Tower,  there  to  remain  for  a  few  days,  till   the  ship 

destined   to  eonvev  the   animal  abroad   was   ready.       Hie 

onliucdin  a  large. sufficiently  ventilated,  wooden 

lined  with  iron   hoops,  some  of  which  he  ripped  oil 

ni"lit  of  his  confinement,  and  gnawed  the 

CMe^nrt  -ig  perceived,  the  next  day 

;ue  was  repaired  by  the'  addition  only  of  a  strong  piece 

nailed  on  the  outside.     •  The  consci|i 

Mr.  Wood.  '  might    well  be  expected.     The  turer  renewed 
his  efforts,  and  in  the  course  of  the  following  night  made 
.and  sprung  upon  a  wall  ten  feet  high,  where  he 
remained  till  Mason  came  in  the  morning.     1  he  tear  ot 
l.-Miigsueh  a  valuable  animal  induced  this  poor  lellow,  fo 
a  reward  of  ten  guineas,  to  hazard  his  life  in  an  attempt 
•cure  the  tiger.     For  this  purpose  he  engaged  a  ser- 
in- other  persons  to  assist    him.  whom   he 
1  in  a  room,  the  door  of  which  opened  upon  the 
.  from  whence   he  could  reach  the  animal.     He  then 
provided   himself  with  a  strong  rope,  one  end  ot  which  he 
throush  the  window  to  his  companions,  and  with  the 
.   having   a  running   noose   upon   it,  he  slowly  ap- 
hed  the  tigei,  and  threw  it  over  its  neck.     This  was 
the  critical   moment:    the   people  within  were  directed  to 
pull    the   rope  and   si-cure   the    beast  :    untortunately  the 
noose   slipped    off',   and    the   enraged   animal    immediately 
ig  upon  the  keeper,  fixing  Ins  teeth  into  the  llcshy 
of  his  arm,  and  tearing  his   breast    and  hand  in   a 
dreadful  manner  with  his  claws.     In  this  shocking  situ- 
ation the  poor  man  lay  under  the  tiirer :  while  the  s 

>  bullet  into  four  parts,  and,  having  loaded  his  mi 
he  fired  through  the  window  at  the  animal  :  who.  the  mo- 
men!    he   received  the  shot,  quitted  his  hold;    and.  alter 
-eiiug  for  a  few  minutes,  expired.     The  bullet  however 
which  destroyed  the  tiger  had  nearly  been  equally  fatal  to 
the  man.  one  of  the  quarters  having  glanced  against  his 
:e,  and  deprived   him  of  all  sense  and  motion  for  a 
lerable   time.     Nevertheless,   after   keeping  his  bed 
a  fortnight,  he  gradually  recovered,  and  is  now    1*117    pcr- 
'!.  thouirh  hew-ill  carry  the  marks  of  his  enemy 
about  with  him  as  long  as  he  lives.'     (Zoography,  vol.  :.) 


Royal  Tiger. 

In  the  Kant  the  tiger  is  associated  emblematically  with 
power.     Thus  tin-  l'lnn.->e  mandarin-,  covered  their  s. 
with  its  skin.     In  pi.  17  of  the  atlas  to  Sir  <; 
'o:i's  '  Kmba-.sy  to  China."   representing   a  military 
pod,  two  swordsmen  are  habited  and  shielded  -»  as  to  ex 
I  lie   tiL'cr  soldiers  of  ll\< 
ong  the  choicest   of  their  I 
is  with  jewels,  that   formed  the 
of  the   thniiie  of  Hydei    and    Tippoo. 
!>•,    the    Hritish    aiiiong    the    spoils   of   the 
at  Seriiigapatum.  is  well  known  :  ait  is  th< 
.••illation,  clumsy  enough  it  must  he  admitted,   of  a 


T  I  G 

royal  tiger  tearing  to  pieces  a  soldier  in  the  pay  of  tin; 
British,  and  imitating   the  u'rowlmir  of  the    beast   aim 

•  I'  the   man,  taken  also  upon    the    same 
Sec  the  Museum  at  the  India  ii 

The  term  •  Tii;  .isly  applied  to 

;uar.     [LEOPARDS,  vol.  xiii..  p.  430.J 

Fossil.  Tic;  ms,  NIC. 

Professor  Buekland  notices  the  remains  of  the  Turer  in 
•    Kilkdale,  at  Plymouth,  and  in  a  of 

Phe    great    fossil" 'Hirer   or    Linn     Felft 

Goldfi  :ier  extinct  cats,   lived  before  man  was   in 

Dee.     The  following  fossil  cats  are  enumerated  by 
Von  M 

•iv.  :   /'.    / 
'.oiz.  and  .i 

.lob.:   /•'.  .Irrr/i  >..  and  Job.;   /.    tf 

Brav.  ;    !•'.   i-itltruli-its,  Brav. ;    /•'.   nj,!- 

•.Kaup;    and  /•'.  prisca,  Kaup.     [FKLIDX,  vo: 
JL] 

Dr.  Lund,  in  his  -View  of  the  Fauna  of  Brazil  pie. 
to  the  last  Geological  Revolution,'  remarks  that  the  Hunt- 
ing Leopard  /•'/•//.•.  jiifi,it,i.  Linn.;  I'ynni.'iirii!.,  Wagl.  . 
which  differs  from  the  rest  of  the  Cats  in  many  essential 
characters,  has  been  very  properly  formed  into  a  separate 
genus:  for  its  claws  are  not  retractile,  it  is  gregarious,  and 
of  so  mild  a  disposition  that  it  is  frequently  tamed  and 
employed  in  thechaee.  Hut.  he  observes,  as  a  remarkable 
contrast  to  this,  that  its  dental  system  is  upon  a  more  mur- 
derous plan  than  that  of  the  true  ./•'•/<*,  not  having  the  flat 
projection  on  the  large  tearing  molar  of  the  upper  jaw, 
which  is  found  in  all  the  other  predacecnis  gencia.  and  the 
development  of  which  is  in  inverse  proportion  to  the  ani- 
mal's carnivorous  propensities.  Dr.  Lund  icco-miscd  this 
form  of  dentition  in  a  small  animal  of  the1  extinct  Fauna 
of  the  Brazilian  region,  which  was  the  scene  of  his  valuable 
labours,  not  exceeding  a  domestic  cat  in  size  ;  and  h 
named  it  Cifiiiiiliiriin  iniiniliix.  Besides  this  he  discovered 
the  remains  of  two  species  of  the  normal  feline  form,  one 
-  the  long-tailed  tiger-cat  l-'i/i.-  macroura,  IV. 
Max.  ,  the  other  larger  than  the  .lagnar  /•'-•//.%  Onpi, 
Linn.  ,  and  comparable  to  the  Tiger  and  the  Lion,  the 
largest  species  uf  the  Old  World. 

TlGKK-L'ATS. 

Under  this  title  may  be  classed  all  those  lesser  striped 
and  spotted  Asiatic.  African,  and  American  Cats  which 
do  not  come  under  the  well-understood  dcnominalio 

.  and  Panthers. 

Before  we  proceed  to  any  description  or  illustration  of 
this  beautiful  trroup.it  will  be  advantageous  to  the  student, 
to  he  put  in  possession  o:  M.  Temminck's  well-cm^  ideicd 
and  digested  monograph  of  the  genus  1','lix  divided  into 
Actions  according  to  their  coographical  distribu- 
tion. 

Section  1. 

This  comprises  the  l'clnl<r  of  the  Old  Continent  and  iU 
archip. 

1.  /  including   the   three  varieties  of  Hiiifiiiry, 

'.  and  Pertia.     [  l.i 

2.  1  -.  the  Kovai  Tiger  (here  treated 

;{.  .'  to,  the  Hunting  Leopard.     [LKOI-ARDS,  vol. 

\in..  p.  -4H3.] 

I.    /'  »t,  the    Panther.      |  LKOT  VKOS.  |      Of    this 

M.  T,  inminck  gives  the  following  character  : — When  adult, 
less  than  the  Lcopaid  :  tail  as  long  as  the  body  and  Un- 
its extremity  when  turned  back  reaching  to  the  tip 
of  the  nose:  colour  of  the  fur  deep  y<  llowish  t'ulvoi.- 
internal  part  marked  with  lose  like  spots  of  the  same  hue 
as  the  ground-colour  of  the  fur:  the  numerous  spois 
closely  approximated  :  the  rose-like  spots  from  12  to  II 

at    the    utmost    in    diameter:    caudal    vc 
N.B.  The    number   of   caudal    vcrti'  -d    to    the. 

Leopard  by  M.  Teinminck   is  'J'J.     It  would  appear  that 
there  is  no  correct  Jigiire  of  the  true  Paul 

The  Black  Ti.  '""  Kvatbanf.  of  Sir 

Stamford   Rattles,   is  considered  as  only  a  dark  varieu  of 
the  Leopard. 

-  considered  as  also  to  be  erased  from  the 
list  of  species,  as  it  is  only  the  youmr  of  the  Leopard  or 
Panther. 

(i.  /•;•/'/ v  i/Kii-ruetlu,  the  RmMU-D.ihaii.  [Ltui'AKDi, 
vol.  xiii.,  p.  -1'M.J 


T  I  G 


441 


T  I  G 


7.  Fells  Sereal,  comprising  F.  Serral  and  F.  Capemis, 
Linn.,  the   Chat-pard  of  Desmarest,  and  the  Caracal  ot 
Bruce. 

8.  Felis  cervaria.    For  the  characters  of  this  and  the 
seven  species  of  Lynx  which  follow  it  in  M.  Temminck's 
monograph,  see  LYNX,  vol.  xiv.,  p.  217. 

16.  Felis  Cat  us.     [FELID.E,  vol.  x.,  p.  221.] 

17.  Felts  mtiniculata.     [FELID.«,  p.  222.] 

18.  Felis  minula,  identical  with  the  Felis  Javanensis 
of  Horsfield's  '  Zoological  Researches  in  Java,'  and  there- 
fore not  to  be  adopted. 

Section  2. 
This  comprises  the  Felidte  of  the  New  Western  World. 

19.  Felis  concolor,  the  Puma.     [LioN.] 

20.  Felis   Onca,   the  Jaguar.      [LEOPARDS,   vol.  xiii., 
p.  434.] 

21.  Felis  Jagifarondi. 

22.  Felis  celidogantcr.   Bought  by  M.  Temminck  at  the 
sale  of  Mr.  Bullock's   collection,  for  the  museum  of  the 
Netherlands. 

2J.  Felis  rufa,  Guldenst.  Bay-Cat  of  Pennant :  with 
this  M.  Temminck  describes  also  a  specimen  brought  from 
Mexico,  which  may  prove  distinct.  Bought  by  51.  Tem- 
minck at  Mr.  Bullock's  sale  for  the  museum  of  the  Nether- 
lands. 

24.  Felis  pardali.i,  the  Ocelot. 

25.  Felis  macroura, — N.B.  These  two  last  confounded 
together  by  Linnaeus  under  the  name  of  F.  pardalis.     The 
Mexican  Tiger  of  Pennant  is  said  to  appear  to  be  a  repre- 
sentation of  F.  macroura. 

26.  Felix  miti*,  the  Chati,  F.  Cuv. 
27-  Felis  tigriiiit. 

This  monograph,  as  far  as  it  goes,  has  been  of  great 
benefit ;  but  the  student  should  examine  the  menageries 
and  museums,  as  well  as  the  works  of  other  authors,  and  he 
will  find  several  cats  noticed  both  before  and  since  the 
publication  of  M.  Temminck'a  catalogue.  Among  other 
authorities  the  publications  of  d'Azaia,  of  Sir  Stamford 
Raffles,  of  M.  F.  Cuvier,  of  M.  Desmarest,  of  Mr.  .1.  E. 
Gray,  of  Dr.  Horsfield,  and  Mr.  Vigors  in  the  Znolnffienl 
Journal,  of  Dr.  Horslicld  in  the  Xoo/oyicul  Hem-arches  in 
Jnni,  of  Prince  Maximilian,  of  M.  Lesson,  of  Sir  William 
Jardine  (Naturtt/ixf\  /.i/n-nri/.  Miinii/in/iii.\dl.  \\.,Felina-), 
and  of  Mr.  1  lanvin  (Zoology  of  the  Beagle),  may  be  con- 
sulted with  advantage. 

Dr.  Horsfield  and  Mr.  Vigors  (Zool.  Jour.,  vol.  iv.,  p. 
380)  remark  that  they  are  not  of  M.  Temminck's  opinion, 
that  the  determination  of  species  in  such  groups  us  these 
re-K  upon  any  examination,  however  acute,  of  preserved 
specimens  in  cabinets,  or  in  any  research,  however  exten-J 
sive.  into  the  stores  of  furriers.  Such  examination,  they  | 
think,  leads  to  conjecture  ;  probable  and  plausible  conjec- 
ture, it  may  be  true,  but  still  conjecture,  and  not  facts. 
They  add  that  we  are  in  this  way  as  likely  to  fall  into  (he 
error  of  confounding  true  species  as  into  that  of  creating 
nominal  ones,  and  they  express  their  opinion  that  the 
truth  can  be  satisfactorily  attained  only  by  diligent  re- 
searches in  the  native  country  of  these  animals,  or  by 
accurate  observations  on  their  changes  and  differences  as 
to  sex,  age,  and  season,  when  in  a  living  state  and  in  con- 
finement. 

M.  Temminck,  in  his  Tableau  Methodique  (1827),  states 
that  then  there  were  known  thirty  distinct  species  of  cats 
and  seven  or  eight  other  doubtful  indications. 

ASIATIC  TIGKR-CATS. 

Example,  Felis  Nepalensis,  Horsf.  and  Vig. 

Description. — Size  of  Felis  Jiiennenxin,  Horsf.,  but  its 
habit  more  slender,  the  tail  and  neck  proportionally  elon- 
gate. Ground-colour  grey,  with  a  very  slight  admixture 
of  tawny  ;  bands  and  spots  of  the  head,  back,  neck,  throat, 
abdomen,  and  thighs,  deep  black ;  superior  longitudinal 
bands  resembling  those  of  F.  Javanentu.  Ground-colour 
of  throat  and  abdomen  nearly  white  ;  the  lower  flanks 
marked  with  a  faint  tawny  longitudinal  streak.  Cheeks 
streaked  with  two  parallel  longitudinal  lines,  at  the  ter- 
mination of  which  follows  a  transverse  lunar  mark  which 
passes  with  a  bold  curve  to  the  angle  of  the  mouth,  near 
which  a  very  narrow  band  cresses  the  throat.  Sides  of  the 
neck  appearing  marked  with  two  broad  waving  bands,  at 
the  termination  of  which  stands  an  oblong  regularly 
band.  Neck  underneath  nearly  immaculate. 
Shoulder  and  flanks  exhibiting  irregular,  diversified  marks, 
P.  C.,  No.  1543. 


the  anterior  oblong,  the  posterior  angular,  of  a  mixed 
tawny  and  black,  and,  individually,  above  or  posteriorly 
with  a  broad  dash  of  saturated  black:  they  are  scattered 
over  the  sides  without  any  regular  longitudinal  disposition ; 
but  they  have  generally  an  oblique  direction.  Abdomen 
marked  throughout  with  uniform  oval  spots  ;  anterior 
thighs  within  exhibiting  one,  the  posterior  thighs  two 
broad  black  bands.  Hump  and  thighs  marked  externally 
with  roundish  or  oblong  spots.  Tail  above,  to  within 
about  an  inch  of  the  tip,  with  uniform  roundish  spots, 
arranged  posteriorly  in  regular  transverse  bands.  Plead 
above  and  ears  agreeing  generally  with  those  of  F.  Javan- 
ensis.  Length  from  extremity  of  nose  to  root  of  tail,  1  foot 
10.}  inches.  Length  of  tail  10$  inches.  (Vig.  and  Horsf.) 
Dr.  Horsfield  and  Mr.  Vigors  observe  that  the  distin- 
guishing characters  of  this  species  are,  its  comparatively 
lengthened  habit;  the  slenderness  and  proportional  length 
of  the  tail  ;  the  disposition  of  the  marks  on  the  flanks,  and 
the  character  of  these  marks  as  far  as  regards  their  diversi- 
fied form ;  and  the  saturated  black  patch  with  which 
they  are  individually  marked  at  their  upper  or  posterior 
edge. 

'  In  the  Bengal  Cat,'  say  those  zoologists,  '  these  marks 
have  a  different  disposition ;  they  are  oblong,  and  arranged 
on  the  flanks  in  regular  succession  longitudinally.  The 
materials  contained  in  the  museum  at  the  India  House 
have  enabled  us  to  make  this  statement,  which  is  founded 
on  the  examination  of  a  specimen  brought  by  General 
Hardwicke,  and  on  a  careful  drawing  prepared  under  the 
eyes  of  Dr.  Hamilton.  We  have  thus  two  distinct  species 
of  small  cats  from  India,  and  the  elucidation  of  this  point, 
is  of  some  importance,  as  it  appears,  from  the  following 
remark  in  M.  Temminck's  monographs,  "  texistence  de 
cette  espece  ilniia  I'l/nle  ii'rst  pas  constatee"  that  he  enter- 
tained some  doubts  on  the  existence  of  the  Bengal  Cat. 
It  is  not  our  intention,  at  present,  to  give  a  comparative 
analysis  of  all  the  species  which  resemble  our  animal.  The 
discrimination  of  many  species  of  Felis  is  at  all  times  a 
difficult  subject;  and  on  many  of  them  naturalists  still 
disagree.  Our  immediate  object  is  to  indicate  a  new  form 
of  Felis,  from  the  upper  provinces  of  India,  differing  essen- 
tially from  that  which  is  found  in  the  plains  of  Bengal ; 
and  so  direct  the  attention  of  naturalists  in  that  country  to 
a  more  careful  investigation  of  the  various  Oriental  species 
of  this  interesting  genus.' 

The  same  authors  state  that  the  specimen  in  the  collec- 
tion of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London  was  presented  by 
Captain  Farrer,  of  the  East  India  Company's  service.  It 
came  immediately  from  Calcutta,  where  it  was  said  to  have 
been  sent  from  Nepal.  It  lived  some  time  in  the  Society's 
gardens,  but  was  extremely  wild  and  savage.  It  generally 
remained  in  a  sitting  posture,  like  that  of  the  common 
Domestic  Cut,  and  never  paced  its  den  in  the  manner  of 
most  other  animals  of  the  group.  (Zool.  Journ.,  vol.  iv.)  • 


Felis  Ncpali'il  is. 

AFRICAN  TIGER-CATS. 

Example,  Felis  fit-mil,  the  Serval. 

Description. — Upper  parts  clear  yellowish,  with  black- 
spots ;  lower  parts  white,  with  black  spots  also,  but.  they 
are  less  numerous.  Upon  the  head  and  neck  the  markings 
are  most  conspicuous,  and  form  symmetrical  lines  on 
each  side  directed  towards  the  shoulders.  On  the  other 
parts  of  the  body  they  are  placed  irregularly.  On  the 
back  they  are  lengthened,  and  show  a  disposition  to  form 
four  rows;  on  the  body  and  thighs  they  are  larger  and 
round,  and  they  are  smaller  but  equally  round  on  the  ex- 
tremities. Upon  the  face  and  muzzle  they  are  minute, 

VOL.  XXIV.— 3  L 


T  I  G 


1IJ 


T  I  0 


Buk  of  the  ean  black  at  the  '.  l.yatmns- 

.  tips  of  tlir  ground-colour  of  tin-  body. 

.urns   black 

bars  :  Ilic'    hind   limbs  with  similar  marking*. 
•  joints  (if  the  limbs  of  a  paler  tint 
than  '  the  body,  the  spots  on  them  round  anil 

il  with  eight  black  rinirs.  tip  of  tin-  name 
colour.    1  of  tail,  1  Unit  11}  inches:  tail '.I 

inches.     Height  when  standiiu  it    1-  inc 

th'1  shoulder,  and  l.'i  inches  at  the  hind  (|uarters.  [  K.  Cuv. 
The  animal  from  which  the  above  description  w:i.»  taken 
,-  male.     It-  temper  was  mild  and  -Tenth-, 
and  r  n  sportive.     It  played  like  a  domestic  eat. 

I,  chasinsr   its  tail,  and  amnsinir   itself  with 
•tint  it  could  roll  with  its  paw. 

locality. — The  Serval  is  a  IK. live  of  southern  Africa. 
Tlicrc  arc  generally  seme   living  specimens  in  our  mena- 
.       It  h:us  been  exhibited    in   that    of  the   Zoological 
ty  of  London,  and  may  be  seen  there  now    IsfJ  . 


The  < 

AMERICAN  TIOER-C 

But  it  is  in  America  that  the  tiger-cats  are  most  nnme- 
-.nd  beautiful,  and  there  their  manners  have  bevn  lu--t 

•  d   by  competent   observers:   \\  Inn \ain- 

ples  of  th-  ties  of  fonn  aud   colouring  exhibited  by 

this  group  in  that  quarter  of  the  globe. 

lUI.      The     Ocelot.      This,    the     must 
beautiful  perhaps  of  all  the  //•.  hnost   deti- 

•uui.  Mr.  K.  Hennctl  has  howe\er  given  a  very  faith- 
ful account  from  two  living  specimens,  one  existing  when 
he  wrote  in  the  Town  of  London,  and  the  other  in  the 

'the  Zoological  Society  in  the  Keirent's  Park. 
1><  H  full  grown   nearly  three  feet 

in  length;  tail  rather  more  than  one:  medium  hei;rh! 
about  18  inches.  Ground-colour  of  fur.  grey,  miiurlcd 
with  a  slight  tiiiire  of  fawn,  clcirantly  marked  with  nume- 
rous longitudinal  band.s,  tin-  dursal  .  nnioiiH  and 
cnth  i  he  lateral  <  six  or  seven  on  rach  side)  eon- 
-i-lii  ]  spots  with 

:\    distinct,  sometimes 

r.     The  cei  !   a   deeper 

•'.rnal  to  tin  m  :  this  deeper 

HI    tin-   brad    mid    neck,  and  on 

l.s,  all  of  which  parts  an-   incirularly 

'iiics    and    spots   ci|    v: 

'.  or  more  frei|neiltlv 
.  which  are  full  black 
— Icnorly.  and  enclose 

a    narrow    fawn-coloured    space   with    a   black   margin ; 

these    there   i-.   a   single   longitudinal,   somewhat 

',   narrow   black   line,   occupying  the   centre   of 

the  neck  above.     Kara  short  and  rounded,  externally  mar- 

wifh  black,  surrounding  n  larirc  ccuhal  vvhiti.-'. 

•hili-h,  spotted  with  black,  and 
d,  which  is  of  the  same  ground-colour  with  the  ' 
aUo  covered  with  black  upots.     Hennett,   Tuin-r 

remark*  that  he  has,  in  th 

:th  of  the  tail  at  morp  than  a  foot  :  and 
in  nil  the  known  ocelot-,  a-  well  a ,  in  all  the  »] 
which  then  arc  severnl}  that  approach  it  in  form  and 
«wounng,  the  proportionate  length  of  the  tail  i»  at 


equal  to  that  which  lie  has  irivcn  ns  its  average  measure- 
ment.    The  tail   however  of  tl:  n  u  did  not 

.uality 

and  he  felt 
as  a  new 

uf 


throughout  and  it- abnipt   slui:, 
that  this   :.' 

by  no  means  inclined   to  regard  that 
-.  tn  be  distinguished   by  the 


that  appendage,  by  the  unusually  pale  colour  oi 

-lit  peculiarity  in  the  mode  of  their 
nl.  which.  1  .  \arie-  in  every  individual 

-••en. 

and  probably  I1. 

J/nliitx.  .\v.— Tb.-  ocelot   remain*  in  the'  d. 
during  the  day.  sallying  forth  at  nijrht   in  -mall 

quadrupeds  and  birds,  the   latter   of  which   it    sticecs-fully 
chases  in  the  trees,  for  it  i-  \pcrt   climber.     It  it 

be,  as  is  generally  supposed,  the  'r/nr<,<,zi'lntl.  Tlnl^n-hll, 

Pardiu  Mtxicanus  of  Hernandez,  it  is  sniii 
iiself  out  as  if  dead  on  the  limb  of  some  tree  when  il 
monkeys  in  the  neighbourhood.   They,  urircd  by  cun 
proceed  to  examine  the  supposed  defunct,  and  fall  \ 
to  their  curiosity. 

The  Ocelot  has  been  so  completely  tamod  as  to  be  left 
at  liberty,  and  it  it  said  to  be  capable  of  stronir  attachment 
to  its  master.  Mr.  Bennett  states  that  the  specimen  in  the 
Tower,  a  male,  was  perfectly  u'ood-tcmpered,  cxcecilinsrly 
fond  of  play,  and  had  much  of  the  diameter  and  ma. 
of  the  domestic  cat.  Its  food  consisted  principally  of 
rabbits  and  birds;  the  latter  it  plucked  with  irreat  clex- 
terity,  and  always  commenced  its  meal  with  the  1»  .id,  of 
which  it  seemed  particularly  fond  :  but  it  did  not  eat  with 
the  ravenous  avidity  which  characterizes  nearly  all  the 
animals  of  this  tribe. 


The  Owlot. 

<   W///.V.    F.   Cuv.;     The    Chnti.       Cfiiliiffinrzu   of 
I)'. l~ir r<i:'   !•'/•/ i.\  ('hibigittizu,  Desm. 

OK, — About  a  third  larger  than  the  domestic 
eat:  length,  exclusive  of  tail,  rather  more  than  two  feet  : 
tail  eleven  inches,  height  to  middle  of  back,  about  one 
foot  two  indies.  Ground-colour  of  fur  on  the  upper 
pale  \ello\vish:  on  the  lower,  pure  white:  at  the 
dull  grey,  anil  very  thick  and  close.  Body  covered  with  ir- 
regular dark  patches  :  those  upon  the  back  entirely  black 
and  disposed  longitudinally  in  four  rows;  those  upon  the 
sides  surrounded  with  black,  with  the  centres  of  a  clear 
fawn,  arransrcd  in  nearly  five  row-.  Spots  upon  the  lower 
pa  it  of  the  bodv,  where  the  ground-colour  of  the  fur  is 
white,  full,  and  arranged  in  two  lines  composed  of  six  or 
'•even  patche- on  each  side.  Limbs  covered  with  nearly 
round  spots  of  smaller  dimensions  :  on  the  fore-legs,  near 
the  body,  two  transverse  bauds.  On  the  >rt  of 

-'liar,    and    on    the    under-jaw  two  crescent-vliaj.ed 
sp->ts.      Behind  cadi  eve  two  bands  about  two  ii 
terminating  Opposite  the   ear.      Forehead  bordered    bv  two 

between  which  are  numerous  spots.  :md.  at  their 
firi-rin,  a  blackish  mark  from  which  the  whiskers  spiing. 
Outside  of  the  ear.  black,  with  a  white  spot  upon  the 
small  lobe.  l!a-e  ..f  the-  tail  spotted  with  small  blotches, 
which  towards  the  end  run  into  half-rings,  which  are 
broadest  on  the  upper  surface.  1'upil  round.  F.  Cuv.) 
This  animal  (a  ten:  i-'K  gentle;  and  if 

frith  whom  it  wa*  familiar  paisi  or  did  not 

approach  it,  it  w  ss  its  discontent  by  a  short  cry. 

It  manifested  gr.  •  when  it  was  caressed. .  It  lived 


T  I  G 


443 


T  I  G 


Felis  mills. 

in  the  Paris  menagerie,  and  was  procured  from  a  dealer  ii 
Brest.     Locality.— South  America. 

Desmarest  and  others  identity  this  animal  with  the  Chi 
biijuazu  of  D'Azara.  Temminck,  who  received  a  skii 
from  Rio  de  Janeiro,  considers  it  distinct. 

D'Azara's  description  conies  very  near  to  that  above 
given  as  far  as  colouring  is  concerned  ;  but  lie  gives  tin 
average  length  as  three  feet  six  inches;  the  individual 
which  he  described,  the  largest  male  lie  hail  seen,  was  foui 
feet  all  but  an  inch  in  length  ;  tail  thirteen  inches;  height 
at  shoulders  one  foot  and  a  half,  and  behind  one  foot  seven 
inches  and  a  half.  It  was  so  fat  that  immediately  aftei 
death  it  weighed  five-aiid-thirty  pounds ;  the  females,  he 
arc  rather 

The  same  acute  observer,  speaking  of  his  ftlribigwi, 
remarks  that  some  of  the  Guaranese  call  the  domestic 
cat  Clubi,  and  others  Mbrac.nyd.  In  the  same  manner,  he 
says,  some  gi\c  the  wild  animal  of  which  he  is  treating 
the  name  of  Chibi-guuzu,  and  others  that  of  M/nintcayd- 
lit;  both  appellations  signifying  Gi-  Many 

Spaniard*,  he  add.-,,  call  it  (iiizu  'Ounce,. 

He  states  that  the  species  is  so  common,  that  his  friend 
Nosed*  captured  eighteen  individuals  in  two  years,  within 
two  leagues  of  his  jiueblo ;  but  he  adds  that,  notwith- 
standing this  abundance,  few  are  acquainted  with  it,  the 
huntsman  and  docs  never  falling  in  with  it,  and  being 
unable  to  penetrate  to  it.-  haunts :  he  very  much  doubts 
whether  any  quadruped  hides  itself  more  effectually.  He 
describes  it  as  remaining  by  day  in  the  most  impenetrable 
places,  and  as  coming  forth  after  dusk,  especially  on  dark 
stormy  nights,  when  the  chibignazus  daringly  enter  the 
corrals  and  court -yards,  though  no  instance  is  known  of 
their  detection  by  the  dogs.  When  the  moon  shines  they 
abstain  from  visiting  inhabited  spots,  and  never  are  trapped  : 
to  lie  in  wait  for  them  with  a  gun  is  hopeless,  so  sharp  a 
look-out  do  they  keep.  They  carry  oft  domestic  fowls 
from  trees  which  they  climb,  sometimes  six  in  one  night, 
and  often  leave  several  dead.  Men  and  dogs  are  avoided 
by  them  with  extreme  caution,  and  each  pair  is  supposed 
to  live  in  a  separate  district,  for  a  male  and  female,  and  no 
linn  e,  are  always  caught  in  the  same  place.  Noseda  formed 
a  trap  of  strong  stakes,  with  three  divisions  :  in  the  middle 
dmsion  he  placed  a  white  fowl,  so  that  it  might  not  only 
be  heard  but  seen  at  a  distance  :  the  other  divisions  were 
.•.iiied  as  to  shut  by  the  falling  of  the  planks  as  soon 
as  the  cliibiguazus  entered.  This  trap  was  set  in  the 
place.-,  to  which  they  resorted  for  prey,  and  those  caught 
were  turned  into  a  great  den  in  Noseda's  court-yard.  Some 
uf  these  cot  away,  and  were  taken  again  two  or  three  times 
in  the  same  trap :  they  were  recognised  by  ear-marks  and 
other  proofs:  D'Azara  infers  from  this  that  the  idea  of 
danger  was  obliterated  from  their  recollection  by  their 
pos.-ess  the  fowl.  He  remarked  that  all  which 
were  kept  in  the  den  deposited  their  excrements  in  their 
drinkirnr-place.  and  when  he  substituted  a  narrow-necked 
jug  to  prevent  this,  they  mounted  to  its  edge  for  that  pur- 
.  and  never  missed  th"  vessel  or  its  immediate  neigh- 
bourhood. Nearlv  the  whole  day  was  spent  by  them 
up  in  a  ball,  and,  when  a  chibiguazu  wished  to 
stretch  hiniitelf.  In- first  licked  the  one  at  his  side.  When 
straw  was  put  into  their  den,  or  so  that,  they  could  reach  it 
by  thrusting  their  paws  through  the  bars,  it.  was  always 
found  tliat  on  the  day  following  they  had  placed  it  in  a 


heap,  after  having  divided  it  into  bits  some  quarter  of  an 

inch  long,  and  on  this  they  reposed.    The  small  sticks  and 
twigs  with  which  the  inside  of  their  den  was  furnished 

were  broken  and  torn  to  pieces  in  like  manner.     Twilight 
and  mght  were  passed  in  pacing  to  and  fro  close  to  the 
sides  ot  their  den ;  and  if  crossed  or  interrupted  by  an- 
other, they  fuffed  and  gesticulated  like  an  angry  cat    but 
without,  using  their  paws.     They  never  quarrelled,  unless 
they  were  very  much  irritated,  and  then  they  struck  at 
each   other  with  their  fore-paws.      They  devoured   live 
pounds  of  flesh  per  day  when  first  caught,  hut  afterwards 
three  sufficed.     A  portion  was  prepared  for  each  of  the 
twelve  or  fourteen  individuals  confined,  and  they  took  it 
with  their  paws  according  to  the  length  of  time  they  had 
been  there,  without  any  interference  on  the  part  of  the 
others.     It' however  the  animal  whose  turn  it  was  did  not 
take  his  portion,  or  disregarded  it,  another  immediately 
snatched  at  it  without  any  defence  on  the  part  of  the  right 
owner  except  by  sneezing,  and  sometimes  by  blows  with 
its  fore-paws.     A  walk  was  made  for  them,  enclosed  by  a 
sort  of  hurdle,  so  that  rats,  fowls,  ducks,  or  young  dogs 
could  be  introduced  into  it :  upon  opening  the  cage  it  was 
observed  that  usually  one  only  went  out  for  each  victim,  and 
almost  always  according  to  the  order  of  their  confinement. 
Cats  and  dogs  they  seized  with  their  mouth  by  the  nape 
Of  the  neck,  overlaid  them,  and  then  kept  them  so  that 
they  could  not  stir,  till  they  were  dead.     Cats'  flesh  ap- 
peared to  produce  the  mange,  fretting  the  chibiguazus, 
making  them  mew  like  cats,  and  at  last  destroying  them. 
Snakes,   vipers,  and  toads  were  also  eaten  by  them,  but 
this  diet  occasioned  violent  and  continual  vomiting;  they 
wasted  to  skeletons,  and  died  in  a  few  days.     If  the  dog 
introduced  equalled  them  in  size,  they  touched  him  not, 
for  it  appears  that  they  do  not  assist  each  other.     If  a 
chibisruazu  cannot  master  any  prey  alone,  he  leaves  it. 
Birds  were  caught  by  the  head  and  neck,  and  thoroughly 
stripped  of  their  feathers  before  they  were  eaten.      No 
unnecessary  cruelty  was  manifested.      Noseda  observed 
that  one  did  not  kill  a  fowl  put  into  his  den  till  the  third 
day.     D'Azara  and  his  friend  frequently  closed  the  doors 
of  the  yard,  and  opened  the  den  that  the  ehibiguazus 
might  leave  it:  those  most  lately  caught  went  iirst  :  and 
sometimes  the  old  ones  would  not  go  out  even  when  their 
len  was  entered  that  it  might  be  swept.     They  were  left 
at  liberty  for  several  hours,  during  which  they  examined 
every  crevice,  and  then  lay  down  to  sleep.     When  boys 
persecuted  them  with  sticks,  they  retreated  to  their  den 
without  turning  on  their  persecutors,  even  when  severely 
jeaten.     A  male  on  one  occasion  becoming  very  lazy,  on 
•utering  his  den   he  was  abused  and  bitten  by  l)'is  Cemale, 
is  it'  to  punish  him.     Some  individuals  were  incarcerated 
'or  more  than  a  year  without  exhibiting  any  sign  of  love. 
Tn  the  night  their  eyes  shone  like  those  of  a  domestic  cat, 
aid  they  resembled  that  animal  in  their  form  and  habits, 
n  lying  down,  licking  and  cleaning  themselves,  washing 
heir  faces  with  their  paws,   flitting,  sneezing, — in  fact  in 
every  way.     D'Azara  concludes  by  stating  that   his  friend 
•aught  a  young  one,  and  it.  became  so  thoroughly  tame 
hat  it.  slept  in  the  skirts  of  his  clerical  gown,  and  went 
ibout  loose.     He  affirmed  that  no  animal  could  be  more 
ractable  :  but  it  devoured  the  poultry  of  his  neighbours, 
nd  they  killed  it. 

Felis  1'iiji'ros. — The   Pampas  Cat,  Pajero,  or  Jungle- 

l)<  -.rriji/i'i/i. — Fur  of  great  length  :  longer  hairs  of  the 
jack  upwards  of  3  inches,  and  those  of  the  hinder  part  of 
lie  back  from  4J  to  4J  inches  in  length.  General  colour 
>ale  yellow-grey.  Numerous  irregular  yellow  or  some- 
imes  brown  stripes  running  obliquely  from  the  back  along 
he  sides  of  the  body.  On  each  side  of  the  face  two  stripes 
f  yellowish  or  cinnamon  commencing  near  the  eye,  and 
xtending  backwards  and  downwards  over  the  cheeks,  on 
le  hinder  part  of  which  they  join,  and  form  a  single  liiu  , 
vhich  encircles  the  lower  part  of  the  throat.  Tip  of  the 
iiizzle  and  chin  white;  a  spot  in  front  of  the  eje,  and  a 
ne  beneath  the  eye,  of  the  same  colour;  belly,  inner  side 
nd  hinder  part,  of  fore-legs,  white  also.  An  irregular  !>!:,• 
ne  running  across  the  lower  part  of  the  chest,  and  extend- 
ig  over  the  base  of  the  fore-legs  externally :  above  this 
ne  two  other  transverse  dark  markings  more  or  less  dc- 
ued  on  the  chest.  On  the  fore-legs  three  broad  black 
ands,  two  of  which  encircle  the  leg  :  on  the  posterior  legs 
jout  five  black  bands  externally,  and  some  irregular  dark 

3L2 


T  I  G 


HI 


T  I  G 


»poU  inv.  I  yellowish,  and  und 

Of  „  .  hue.     On  the   belly  numerous   lartrc 

with   Ion-  \vliitr 

i  xternall .  -  tin-  head, 

i^nck.  ami  form  a 

umev.hat    bushy,  and  devoid   of 

those 

on  tl  .  ':i   tin'   upper   part    of  the  body  each   hair 

.   at    the   base,  then   yellow,  and   at   tin-  :ipr\   black. 
ie  liind.-r  pait   ol'  tin-  back  the  hairs  ahnmt  black  at 
I hr  base,  and,  mi  the  sides  of  tin-  body,  each  hair  L- 
tin-  1  is  then  a  considerable  space  ol'  yellowish- 

\vhitc  colour:  towards  the  apex  they  are  while,  ami  at  the 
black.      'Hie    irrcaler    number  of   the    hairs   of  the 
moustaches  white.      I.cn-th   from   nose  to  root    of  tail.  'J(i 
inches;   'of  tail    fur  included  ,  1 1  inch.  s.      Ilci-hto! 
at  shoulders,  13  inches.     Six,'  about    equal   to  (hat   of  the' 
:i>n  wild-eat  of  Europe  :  hut  the  1'anipas  cat  is  stouter, 
i.l  smaller,  and  its  tail  shorter.       \Yaterh.. 
Mr.  \Vatcrhoi;  ••/';/'  Hi'1   H-'niffi-    oliservcs  that 

the  markings  of  this  animal  \ary  sli-htly  in  intensity: 
those  on  the  body,  he  remarks,  are  -cnci-.illv  indistinct  ; 
but  the  black  rings  on  the  legs  are  alwa\s'\cry  conspi- 
cuous. 

ulily. — D'Azara  says  that  he  knows  not,  nor  has  he 
I.  that  this  spi  cii---  exists  in  Para-nay,  although  it  for- 
merly mav  have  been  seen  there  :  but  as  the  country 
became  tolerably  well  peopled,  and  there  were  fewer  plains, 
the  inhabitants  nrobably  extirpate. 1  it.  He  can-hl  four  in 
the  Pampas  of  Buenos  Ayrcs.  between  3.V  and  3U"  S.  hit., 
nnd  three  others  on  the  to.  He  -ays  they  are 

found  on  both  sides  of  the  La  Plata. 

Darwin  i  Air.  ril.'    -i\c-;  as  its  habitat    Santa  Crux,  Pata- 
gonia f  April),  and  Hahia  Blanea    Auirn.sf  .     He  states  that 
common  o\er  the  whole,  of  the   -real    plains  which 
compose  the  eastern  side  of  the  southern  part  of  America  : 
anil  lie  says  he  has  reason  to  believe,  from  the  accounts  he 
received,  that    it    is  found   near   the  Strait  of  Magellan, 
which  would  srive  it  a  ransje   of  nearly   1-HX)  miles  in  a 
north  and  south  direction,  D'Ar.ara  having  stated   that   it 
.vis  northward  as  far  as  30°  S.  lat.     One  of  Mr.  Darwin's 
specimens  was  obtained  in  50°  S.  lat.,  at  Santa  Cruz. 

//• 'A//*-.  I-'ood,  $-c. — D'Azara  says  that  the  natives  call 
this  animal  ^ntn  jmjrrn,  because  it  lives  on  the  plains. 
concealing  itself  in  jungles,  without  entering  into  the  woods 
and  thickets.  Aiirrrax,  or  iruinea-pi-s,  according  to  him, 
form  its  principal  food.  Mr.  Darwin  states  that  it  takes 
its  name  from  •  paja,'  the  Spanish  word  for  straw,  from  its 
habit  of  frequenting  reeds.  The  specimen  taken  by  him 
at  Santa  Cnu  was  met  witlv  in  a  valley  whcie  tliickets  were 
crowing.  \Vlien  disturbed  it  did  not  run  away,  but  drew 
itself  up  and  hissed. 


Punpu  Ca».    (Zool. 

We  here  conclude  our  notice  of  the  Hirer-cats,  a  race 
•illy  appointed   as   the    principal    a-ents   for  kcepin- 
down   the  birds  and  smaller  mammalia,  which  abound  in 
Warm  Him 

TI'GLIUM.     -CKOTON.-] 

TIM!  \'\KS.  km-  Of  Armenia,  the  ally  of  Mith; 
1  he  (i  real,  who  i,'iue  him  hi  s  daughter  Cleopatra  in  marriaste. 
He  wits  master  of  the  Inr-e  tract  between  Kjrypt.  in  the 
M>llth-weft  and  the  Caspian  Sea  in  the  north-ea«t,  wlii<-!i 
vrai  bounded  by  Assyria  and  Media  on  the  east,  and  In 
the  kingdoms  of  Pontus  and  of  Cappadocia  on  tin 


and  north-west.  The  earlier  history  of  Titfrancs,  is  little 
known;  Strabo  (p.  532,  Cas.)  and  .lustm  \x\iii.  :»••  state 
that  he  was  sent  in  h,  a  hostage  to  the  king  of 

•he    Parthian-,    V  Mm    to    liberty. 

He  conquered  Gordyene  ai:  .niia.  and  the  S\  nans 

chose  him  for  their  kin:;  in  H.c.  84, or.  .  to  A'ppian 

De  Reb.  Syr.,70  .in  n.f.  HO.      Uefore  H.c.  7-1  lie  cone.'ided 

an  alliance  with  Mithridatea,  who  was thi  n  his 

thiid  war  with  the  Romans.     The  conilition- 
NMTC,  that    Mithridates  should  be  master  of  th' 
which  Ihey  hoped  to  conquer,  and  that  < 
the  inhabitants  and  ail  the  nioveahle  ]iroperty  that  he  could 
carry  oil'.     Plutarch  slates    Lun.  '. 'Xyland.'  that 

my  of  Ti-iranes  VMIS  composi-d  of  -JWI.iKH)  men, — 
20.1KH)  nrchei-s,  fw.tXK)  hor>e.  i:*UXK)  foot,  and  ItVlKK) 
pionee'-s  and  train, — and  that  Arabs  and  warlike  Albani 
from  the  Caucasus  abounded  in  the  Aimeiiian  camp.  The 
campaign  was  opened  in  H.C'.  7-t.  Cap|)adocia  and  Bithy- 
nia  were  conquered,  anil  .Mithridates  laid  sie-e  to  C\/iciis 
in  Bithynia,  but  Lucullus  came  to  relieve  it.  and  alter  vari- 
ous reverses  Mithridates  was  compelled  to  My  to  Tu- 
(i:i  .  The  conduct  of  the  Armenian  kin-  had  I  . 
cere  during  thoe  events,  and,  the  Honians  hein-  now 
victorious,  he  not  only  refused  to  receive  his  father- 
in-law,  but  set  a  prize  of  a  hundred  talents  on  his  head, 
on  the  pretext  that  the  kinsr  had  persuaded  his  son,  who 
was  likewise  called  Ti^ranes,  to  rebel  a-;unst  his  father 
and  to  join  the  Romans.  .Milhridates  nevertheless 
cecded  in  pacilYiii!;  his  son-in-law,  and  they  joined  their 
armies  to  meet  f.ucnllus,  who  had  crossed  the  Kuphrates 
and  theTi-ris,  and  had  laid  sie-e  to  Tiirraiiocerta.  the  new 
capital  of  the  Armenian  kingdom.  [TUJKAMH.-KKTA.]  A 
battle  ensued  near  this  town,  in  which  Tiirrancs  was  com- 
pletely defeiitcd  ^(ith  October,  Git  .  and  his  capital  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Romans.  Tiirranes  and  .Mithridates 
luuim;  entered  into  negotiations  with  ljhn«ite>  III.,  kin- 
of  the  Parthians,  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  him  into 
their  alliance,  I.ucullns,  who  had  now  carried  his  con- 
quest in  Armenia  as  far  as  Artaxata  on  the  upper  part, 
of  the  Aiaxes.  marched  to  Mesopotamia  to  attack  the 
Parthians.  lint  a  mutiny  of  his  soldiers  compelled  him  to 
retreat  to  Cappadocia,  where  the)  dispersed,  as  it  seems,  by 
the  instigation  of  Pomjx'y,  who  aimed  at  the  supreme,  com- 
mand in  the  war  (C>7  .  The  Romans  lost  Cappadocia,  and 
Ti-ianes  carried  on"  a  t;reat  number  of  the  inhabitants  of 
this  piovincc,  as  well  as  of  Cilicia  and  Galatia.  Pompey 
entered  Asia  Minor  in  B.C.  tiU.  and  in  the  sune  year  he 
defeated  Mithridates  in  a  irreat  battle  on  the  Kupl 
Mithridates,  having  e\])erieiiced  the  faithless  character  of 
i-in-lavv,  fled  to  Phana-oria  in  the  island  of  Tainan, 
while  Tiirranes  humiliated  himself  before  the  Romans, 
then  encamped  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Artaxata.  He 
went  to  the  tent  of  Pompey.  and,  kneelinj;  before  his  vie- 
torious  enemy,  took  oft'  his  royal  diadem,  which  Pompey 
however  would  not  accept.  The  policy  of  the  Romans 
required  an  independent  kingdom  between  their  dominions 
and  the  dan-emus  power  of  the  Parthians.  Ti-ranes  :! 
fore  wa--,  reinstated  in  Armenia,  t  xcept  the  districts  of  (ior- 
dycne  and  that  of  Sophcne,  or  the  westernmost  part  of 
Armenia  Maiina,  which  he  was  obli-ed  to  cede  to  his 
rebellions  son  Ti-iancs,  then  an  ally  of  the  Romans. 
Besides  these  districts,  he  ceded  to  the  Romans  his  king- 
dom of  Syna,  includintr  Phirnieia  and  all  his  conquests 
in  Cilicia,  (ialalia.  and  Cappadocia:  he  ]mid  six  thousand 
talents,  and  he  ir;i*c  half  a  miiia  to  each  Homan  soldier,  ten 
mirni-  to  each  centlirion.  and  sixty  miiia1.  or  one  talent,  to 
carhtiibnne.  Plutarch,  l.in-ulliix.  p.  637,  Nylatid.  ;  com)). 
Aj'pian,  J>>'  Hclln  Mithrid.,  c.  KM.  It  seen, s  that  alter 
this  humiliation  Ti-ianes  led  an  obscure  and  tranquil  life, 
for  his  name  disappears  from  history,  and  the  year  of  his 


Coin  of  Tarawa. 
Britiili  Mmrum.    Actual  ittc.    Sihcr.    WcljW,  2J3J  Jrniiu. 


T  I  G 


445 


T  I  L 


death  is  unknown.  His  successor  was  Artavasdes.  [MiTHRt- 
DATES  ;  POMPKIUS  ;  LUCULLUS.] 

(Valerius  Maximus,  v.  1,  9  ;  Velleius  Paterculus,  ii.  33, 
1,  and  c.  37;  Cicero,  Pro  Lege  Manilla ;  Woltersdorf, 
I'ninmentatio  Vitam  Mithridatis  M.  per  annos  digestam 
sintetix,  Goettingae,  1812.) 

TIGRA'NES,  prince  of  Armenia  and  lord  of  Sophene, 
was  the  son  of  Tigranes,  king  of  Armenia.  During  the 
last  war  between  the  Romans  and  Mithridates  aided  by 
his  ally  king  Tigranes,  prince  Tigranes  forsook  his  father  and 
went  over  to  the  Romans.  When  his  father  humiliated 
himself  before  Pompey,  he  sat  by  the  side  of  the  Roman 
general,  but  he  did  not  rise  before  his  father,  nor  did  he 
show  him  the  slightest  degree  of  filial  respect.  Having 
been  created  lord  of  Sophene  and  Gordyene,  he  refused  to 
Mirrender  the  treasures  of  Sophene  to  Pompey,  who 
suspected  him  of  being  in  secret  communication  with 
Phraates,  the  king  of  the  Parthians,  whose  daughter  he  had 
married.  Tigranes  also  became  suspected  of  having  formed 
a  plan  for  seizing  or  putting  to  death  his  father,  and 
accordingly  he  was  arrested  by  order  of  Pompey,  who  sent 
lu'm  to  Rome.  He  figured  in  the  triumph  of  Pompey. 

Appian  (De  Bella  Mithrid.,  c.  105  and  117)  states  that 
Tigranes  was  afterwards  put  to  death  in  his  prison.  [Ti- 

t,UA.\ES.] 

TIGRANO'CERTA  (T.rpavo«pra),  for  some  time  the 
capital  of  Armenia,  was  built  by  king  Tigranes  after  he 
had  extended  his  dominion  over  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  and 
Phoenicia.  Artaxata,  the  old  capital  on  the  Araxes,  being 
situated  in  the  north  and  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Cauca- 
sian nalions,  then  the  allies  of  Armenia,  Tigranes  seems 
to  have  thought  it  convenient  to  have  his  capital  near 
those  countries,  which  often  required  his  presence  on 
account  of  their  possession  being  still  insecure.  This 
danger  arose  principally  from  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Romans,  who,  from  the  time  when  Attains  left  them  his 
kingdom  of  Pergamus  by  testament  (B.C.  133),  formed 
designs  on  all  Asia  Minor,  and  at  the  time  of  the  founda- 
tion of  Tigranocerta  (between  84  and  74  B.C.,  but  nearer 
ti.i  SI,  were  at  war  with  Mithridates,  the  neighbour  and  ally 
of  Tigranes.  Tigranocerta  was  situated  a  short  distance 
from  (he  Upper  Tigris,  on  the  Nicephorius,  a  river  of  con- 
siderable breadth,  as  Tacitus  states.  Stert  or  Sered,  a 
small  town,  surrounded  by  antient  ruins,  is  generally  sup- 
posed to  be  on  the  site  of  Tigranocerta.  Sered  is  situated 
on  the  banks  of  a  small  river,  the  modern  name  of  which 
is  unknown,  and  which  flows  into  another  river  of  consider- 
able length,  the  Bedlis  of  Haji  Khalfah,  which  has  its 
sources  south-east  of  lake  Van,  and  flows  into  the  Tigris. 
This  latter  river  is  called  Khabur  by  D'Anville,  but  this  is 
a  mistake,  the  Khabur,  according  to  Haji  Khalfah,  cited 
by  Rennell,  being  another  tributary  river  of  the  Tigris 
nearer  its  middle  course.  It  has  been  supposed  that  the 
river  C'entrites  was  also  called  Nicephorius,  and  this 
opinion  is  principally  founded  on  the  circumstance  of 
tin:  river  which  parses  Sered  being  a  very  small  stream, 
while  the  Nicephorius  at  Tigranocerta  was  of  a  consider- 
able breadth.  This  opinion  however  is  rejected  by  Ren- 
nell, and  indeed  no  mins  have  been  found  on  the  banks 
of  the  C'entrites,  though  it  has  not  yet  been  shown 
that  there  are  none.  We  are  likewise  ignorant  as  to  the 
changes  which  may  have  taken  place  in  the  direction  of 
theCentrites,  which,  after  having  left  the  mountains  at  the 
village  of  Kala  Zerke,  flows  through  an  open  and  level 
country  at  some  leagues  distance  east  from  Sered.  Ac- 
confing  to  Tacitus,  Plutarch,  and  Appian,  Tigranocerta 
had  very  strong  fortifications  ;  its  suburbs  contained  gar- 
dens arid  fish-ponds.  The  town  was  inhabited  partly 
by  barbarians,  and  partly  by  Greeks,  the  inhabitants 
of  twelve  Greek  towns  who  were  transplanted  thither  by 
Tigranes  after  he  had  ravaged  Cappndocia.  The  mili- 
tary position  of  Tigranocerta  was  admirably  chosen.  By 
(nation  opposite  the  passage  formed  by  the  narrow 
valley  of  1he  C'entrites  in  the  C'arduchian  Mountains,  it 
commanded  one  of  the  principal  roads  which  led  and  still 
leads  from  the  valley  of  the  Tigris  into  Armenia  across 
the  mountains.  It  was  also  opposite  the  gorge  in  the  Cardu- 
chian  Mountains,  which,  it  short  distance  south  of  the 
junction  of  the  Ccntrites  with  the  Tigris,  came  so  close  to 
the  Tigris  as  to  render  it  impossible  for  an  army  to 
move  along  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  Xenophon,  in  con- 
flicting the  retreat  of  the  ten  thousand,  apparently  in- 
tended to  enter  Armenia  by  the  valley  of  the  C'entrites, 


but  he  found  this  passage  between  the  Tigris  and  the  Car- 
duchian  Mountains  impracticable  ;  and  taking  suddenly  a 
north-east  direction,  he  ascended  the  steep  Carduchian 
Mountains,  and  crossed  the  Centrites  in  its  upper  part. 

Master  of  Tigranocerta,  the  king  of  Armenia  could  sud- 
denly invade  Cappadocia,  Mesopotamia,  and  Syria  ;  and 
in  case  of  defeat  he  could  retreat  under  the  walls  of 
Tigranocerta  and  defend  the  defiles  in  the  mountains 
against  a  superior  army.  Lucullus,  in  his  campaign 
against  Mithridates  and  Tigranes,  laid  siege  to  this  key  of 
Armenia  before  he  ventured  to  enter  the  defiles.  The 
united  kings  hastened  to  relieve  the  town,  but  they  were 
beaten,  and  Tigranocerta  with  immense  treasures  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  victor  (6th  October,  69  B.C.),  who  sent 
the  greater  part  of  the  Greek  inhabitants  back  to  their 
homes  in  Cappadocia.  After  the  fall  of  Tigranocerta,  all 
Armenia  was  open  to  the  Romans,  who  overran  the  coun- 
try as  far  as  Artaxata.  But  no  sooner  was  Lucullus  in- 
formed that  Phraates,  the  king  of  the  Parthians,  was  about 
to  attack  him,  than,  instead  of  descending  the  Araxes  and 
making  an  attack  on  the  northern  part  of  Media,  he  hast- 
ened back  to  Tigranocerta.  If  he  had  remained  a  little 
longer  on  the  Araxes,  the  Parthians  would  have  forced 
the  position  of  Tigranocerta,  and  the  Roman  army  would 
have  been  shut  up  within  Armenia.  Strabo  (p.  532,  Cas.) 
says  thatj  when  Lucullus  took  Tigranocerta,  it  was  only  half 
finished,  and  that  after  its  destruction  there  was  nothing 
but  a  little  village  on  the  spot.  However  it  soon  became 
again  a  town,  and  in  the  wars  of  Corbulo,  63  A.D.,  it  was 
a  considerable  and  well-fortified  place.  (Tacitus,  Annal., 
xv.  4.)  Hesychius,  s.  v.  Kepra,  says  that  xipra  signifies  a 
town,  in  Armenian,  and  this  opinion  is  corroborated  by 
Stephanus  Byzantinus  s.  r.  Ttypaw5«pra,  who  says  that,  in 
the  language  of  the  Parthians,  Ttypavoicepra  is  the  same  as 
TiypaiWiToXic  in  Greek.  The  word  '  certa '  also  occurs  in 
Carcathiocerta,  a  town  which  is  also  called  Amida,  and  is 
now  known  by  the  name  of  Kari-Amid  and  Diyarbekir. 
Soping,  in  his  notes  to  Hesychius,  says  that  «pra  or  cripra 
is  the  root  of  Carthago.  [TIGRANES;  LUCULLUS;  POMPKY.] 

.Strabo,  p.  532,  539,  747,  Cas.  ;  Appian,  De  Bella 
Mithrid.;  Plutarch,  Lucullus;  Pompeius ;  Tacitus,  An- 
nul., xii.  50;  xiv.  24;  xv.  4,  &c. ;  Rennell,  Illustra- 
tions of  the  History  of  the  Expedition  of  Corns,  'and  the 
Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand  Greeks;  Rennell,  Geo- 
graphy of  Asia  Minor.) 

TIGRIS,  River.     [See  End  of  Letter  T.] 

TIGRISO'MA,  Mr.  Swainson's  name  for  the  Tiger- 
Bitterns. 

Subgeneric  Character. — Bill  as  in  Ardca.  Face,  and 
sometimes  the  chin,  naked.  Legs  almost  feathered  to  the 
knees.  Inner  toe  rather  shorter  than  the  outer.  Claws 
short,  stout,  regularly  curved.  Anterior  scales  reticulate 
or  hexagonal.  Mr.  Swainson  considers  this  to  be  the 
rasorial  type,  and  he  arranges  it  as  a  subgenus  of  the 
family  Ardeadee  [HEROXS],  between  Butor,  Antiq.,  and 
Nyctiardea.  Example  Tigrisoma  lineatum, '  PI.  Col.'  860. 

(N.B.  According  to  the  principle  generally  received 
among  zoologists,  neither  Butor  nor  Nyctiardea  can  be 
retained  as  generic  names.  The  first  is  identical  with  the 
Botaurus  of  Brisson  and  Stephens :  for  the  reasons  against 
admitting  the  second,  see  NYCTICORAX.) 

TI.IU'CA,  M.  Lesson's  name  for  a  genus  of  birds 
(Chrysopteryx,  Sw. ;  Attila,  Less. ;  Ampelis,  Nordm). 
Mr.  G.  R.  Gray  arranges  it  between  Calyptomena,  Raffl., 
and  Procnias,  Hoffm.,  under  the  Ampelincc,  Mr.  Gray's 
third  subfamily  of  the  Ampelidee. 

TILBURG  is  an  inland  town  in  the  kingdom  of  the 
Netherlands,  in  the  province  of  North  Brabant  and  district 
of  Bois-le-Duc :  it  is  situated  in  a  heath  on  the  banks  of 
the  river  Ley,  13  miles  east  of  Breda,  14  south-west  of 
Bois-le-Duc,  and  38  north-east  of  Antwerp.  It  has  three 
churches,  a  large  castle,  and  12,000  inhabitants,  of  whom 
between  5000  and  6000  are  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
fine  woollen  cloth  and  kerseymeres.  They  likewise  manu- 
facture calmucs,  beaver  coating,  baize,  and  cloth  for  the 
army.  Extensive  barracks  have  been  built  by  the  present 
king  of  Holland.  Lying  out  of  the  great  road  from  Flan- 
ders to  Holland,  it,  is  little  visited  by  travellers. 

TILBURY  FORT,  a  fortification  erected  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  river  Thames,  opposite  to  Gravesend,  for  the 
purpose  of  commanding  the  navigation  of  the  river.  It 
was  originally  formed  as  a  mere  block-house  in  the  time 
of  Henry  VIII. :  but  after  the  Dutch  fleet,  under  De  Ruy- 


TI  L 


H6 


1    i    I. 


partially 


into  the  Thames  and  Medway  in  1007, 
into   a    :•  >u,  to 

fort  stands  principally  in  the  paii.-l.  ''•  ilbury,  but 

in  the  adjoinin.  '.     It  is  »ur- 

vvhich  may  be  filled 

tor  when  necessary;  and  i'  ut  for- 

eamion  toward  the  river.     The 
k  ;  biit  it  has  a  portal, 

whicli  renders  it  a  prominent  object  fiom 
she  river,  which  is  I:  mile 

\Vithin  t:  commodious  barracks  BIU!  other 

.'iding  of  ! 

, criUnvinir  during  floods  and   b| 
n  i>  by  no  means  salubrious.    A  view  of  Tilbury 
the  river,  is  given   in  No.  120  of  th-  •  Penny 

TII.E.  a  kind  of  thin  brick,  or  plate  of  baked  clay. 

chiefly   for   covering   roofs,  but  ally    for   paving 

drains,  .Vc.     The  Knsrlish  name,  and 

by  which  known  in  other  European  lan- 

••>,  arc  derived  from  the  Latin  tfgiila.  which  contains 

r.      This  becomes,  in 
Dutch,  tt'ifi'l,  t'-ghcl,-  tii : 

^el ;    in   Italian, 
ilia  ;  and  in  French, 

An  account  of  the  use  of  tiles  among  the  antients,  illus- 
:  tiles  found  at  Pompeii,  is 

in  ilii-  •  Dicti,.  k  and  Roman  Antiquities,' 

Tegula,'  in  which  it  is  stated  that  roofing-tiles  were 
originally  made,  like  bricl 

luced  tiles  of  marble   about  the 

year  (ii)  in:.    In  addition  to  the  superior  beauty  and  dura- 
bility of  such  tiles,  they  were  made  of  much  larger  dimcu- 
practicable  in  clay,  and  consequently  the 
effect  produced  by  their  parallel  joints  might  be  brought 
into  harmony  with  the  rest  cf  the  building.     A  still  more 
aaLrmticcut  method  of  roi>:  mally 

adop'    •  '"d  in  the  use  of  tiles  made  of  bronze  anil 

gilt.  Tiles  were  originally  made  perfectly  Hat,  or  with 
nothing  more  than  the  Iiook  or  nozlo  underneath  the 
upper  border,  which  fulfilled  the  purpose  of  fixing  them 
upon  the  rafters.  They  were  subsequently  formed 'with  a 
1  bonier  alons;  each  side,  on  the  upper  snrfac. 

!   th.'    tile  were  made   to  com  erirc  towaids  tlie 

lower  end,  in  order  tl  might 

not  prevent  the  slice  -  of  tiles  from  overlapping 

each  other  neatly.     The  lines  of  junction  between  the  Hat 

ivd  by  small  semi-cylindrical  tiles,  called 

;   which,  extending  from  the  ridge  to 

.  divided  the  surface  of  the  roof  into 

along    which    water  descended    to    the    gutter. 

the  iiiilirii-i->.  terminated  at  th 

of  tl.  o  nameiital   pieces;  mid  the  whole  appear- 

i Was  hand-nine.     Another  kind  of  antient 
tiling,  me  i.  Pliny  under  the  name  of/ 

imchcular   form    at   their 

winch,   when   laid  in  overlapping  rows,   somewhat 
le-cinbK  the  train  of  a  peacock. 

of   maki.  -iniilar  to  ' 

brick-making  [HmiK,  vol.  v.,  p.  4(17],  that  it  will  be  sufii- 
Ihat  only  the  best  qualities  of  bricl. 
'since  the  year    iKKf   no   . 
;  upon  thv  manufacture  of  tiles,  the 

prejudicial,  esp. 

of  the  duty  on  sfatcs,  although   it    produci 

•  •cl  in  tins  . 

Df    two    MM1-  lat,   ol 

i  Mil   u.-ually  about,  ten   inches  and  a 
wide,    and  five-eiirhtlis   of  an  inch 
Menhir  uut- 
.      that,  when  laid  on  the 

'•ile  on«  si., 
iian 

'      1      n  Mid  a  hall  or  Ibm- 

"'d  a  hall  ut    nine  inches  wide, 

i  SR|,.  to   side.      Plan. 
are  made  with  a  hole  near  their  upji. 


the. 
ha! 


ft  wooden  peg,  by  which  they  are  Itung  upon  the  laths  of 
the  r.. 
in  such  a  i: 

other  about  si \  inches.     Pun-tiles  have   iu>   holes,  liu 
liiuig   upon  the    laths   by   !  ried    ut    tl 

:   they  do   not    requii. 

quently    form    a    lig: 

.  the  two  kinds  ol'tihi. 
kinds  .  and  the  snitabh 

.  vol.  XX.,  p.   I  .  of  a 

form,  laid  in  mortar  with  tlieii  . 

•    commonlj  made  in  the  form  a 
arch,  and  laid  or  bedded  upon  flat  till 

information  will  be  found  in  a  paper  •  On  tin 
noniical  Manufacture  of  Drainin 

Robert  Heart,  in  the  second  volume  of  the  •. Journal  of  the 
Royal  Agricultural   Society  ;'  and  in  the  same  volum 
of  the  admirable  tile-making  machinery  invent 
the  marquis  of  Twceddale,  which  has 
into  extensive  operation. 

and  of  greater  thickness  than  those  r  .     In 

antient    as  well  as  in  more  recent   times  paving  I 
frequently  decorated   with   ornamental    devices  in  various 
colour!),  so  as  to  produce  an  effect  resembling  that  of  mo- 

nt. 

TILK'SIA,  a  genus  of  Polypiaria  mentioned   by   I.a- 
mouroux. 

TII.GATK  HKDS.    A  portion  of  the  irreat  sen. 
in  the  \Veald  of  Kent  and  Sussex,  interposed  between  the 
green-sands  and  the  Portland  oolite,  is  thus  named   by   l'i. 
Mantell,  who  has  described  the   numerous  and  inlen 
orgaiii*  which  it    c  The  reptil, 

-  d   iu   Professor   U-.M  .  t  to  the    1! 

Association.'  1S41. 

TI'LIA,  the  name  of  a  srenns  of  plants  belonging  to  the 

1  order  Tiliacca'.     The  trees  in  Kngland  are   called 

l.iiiii'-tr<-i'f.  in  Sweilish  Linn,  and  in  (ierinan  and  Dutch 

I.iinl'  n.     They  are  characterised  by  ;  ;.rted 

deciduous  calyx:    ~>  petals;    numerous   free   or  sonn 

polyadelphous  stamei  .-elled 

All  the  species  -u    hiiiidsoine  trees,  with  alte: 
-ii.ijud,  acute,  serrated,  decidi.  •   fra- 

grant   yellowish    panicled  flowcj-s.      Tlie    wood  is 
smooth,  and  white,  and  their  sap   pi- 
quantity  of  sugar.     The)  are  principally  natives  of  Kurope 
and  Amen 

'/'.  l-Mr'i]:rfit,  the  Kuropean  or  Common  Lime-trei  . 
petals  without   scales,  and    cordate,    acuminate,   serrated 
-.  which  are  smooth,  with  the  exception  of  a  tuft  of 
hair  at    the   origin  of  the  , 

of  the  petioles;  tlie  cymes  are  many-flinvercd.  and 
the  fruit  iscoria  :    downy.     This  tree  is  abu;. 

in  the  middle  and  north  of  Europe.     It  is  very  common  in 

Uiitain,  althoc.  'nave   been  exp: 

as  to  its  In-ill^  truly   il  nlted 

intoall  li.itish  !"  ilure  can  lie  no  doip 

•  \\  naturalised   in   this  country, 
well  known   to   the  antients,  and   is  spoken   • 
both  'I  !  Plinv.     It  1  favourite, 

in   Kr  is   planted   in   pub!;- 

in   1'iaur 

and*  .1.     Forth  -i/e.  hand- 

some  >-.   and    prnfiisioii    ol  well 

adapt  it.     The  v.  to  in  cons!  il  is 

white,  ight,  and  smooth,  and   i- 

by  the    cabinet-nii'.i.t  l!    is 

easily  .  vvell   A*  durable,  and  on  this  accouii 

the  line  i 

.    the    lihr.. 

Trinit;.  lidge,  and  at  Chatswoilh,  arc  of  this 

wood.      Il  is  also  used  for  wood-cutting.     The  librcs  of  the 

ry  tough,  and  rones  and  mals  are  manufactured 

iinm  them.     The;,  are  employed  for  tl  niny 

I  Kngland,  but  in  Russia  and  S 

il  .sideiable  '.  lien 

for  ibis  purpose  the  tn  led  in  tin 

nl'  tin-  year,  and  the  bark  is  -lecped  in  water,  alt.  i  which 
it  is  hung  up  to  dry  ;   and  ihe  I;  rk,  beiir.' 

rated,  are  cut  into  ni 
art   twisted  into 

and  uplk.  .    The.  flow. 


T  I  L 


447 


T  I  L 


a  large  quantity  of  nectar,  and  exhale  a  delicious  scent. 
On  this  account  they  are  great  favourites  with  bees,  and 
when  expanded  they  are  constantly  beset  with  these  insects. 
The  honey  thus  procured  is  in  great  repute,  and  has 
given  celebrity  to  the  honey  of  Kowno,  on  the  Niemen,  in 
Lithuania,  a  small  town  which  is  surrounded  by  a  torest  of 
limes.  It  is  chiefly  used  for  making  liqueurs.  The  seed 
of  the  lime  possesses  a  large  quantity  of  albumen,  which 
is  nutritious  and  perfectly  innocuous.  It  was  proposed  by 
Missa,  a  French  physician,  to  use  it  in  the  same  way  as 
that  of  the  cocoa-tree.  It  was  found  to  answer  this  pur- 
pose, but  when  prepared  it  will  not  keep  ;  hence  any 
extensive  manufacture  of  it,  although  it  was  attempted  in 
Germany,  has  been  abandoned.  Cattle  will  eat  the  leaves 
cf  the  lime,  but  it  is  said  to  communicate  a  bad  flavour  to 
the  milk  of  cows.  The  flowers  were  considered  anodyne 
and  antispasmodic  by  older  physicians,  and  were  adminis- 
tered in  fevers  when  the  Cullenian  doctrine  of  spasm  pre- 
vailed. Hoffman  strongly  recommended  them,  and  relates 
cures  effected  by  them,  and  they  entered  as  an  ingredient 
into  most  of  his  prescriptions.  They  are  not  much  used 
in  modern  medicine. 

The  linden  attains  a  great  age  ;  and  many  specimens, 
celebrated  for  their  age  and  size,  exist.  '  At  Neustadt,  in 
Wirtemberg,  there  is  a  prodigious  lime-tree,  which  gives 
its  name  to  the  town,  which  is  called  Neustadt  an  der 
Linden.  This  tree  is  said  by  Evelyn  to  have  had  in  his 
time  a  trunk  above  27  feet  in  circumference,  and  the  dia- 
l>ace  covered  by  its  branches  to  have  been 
403  feet.  It  was  'set  about  with  divers  columns  and  mo- 
numents of  stone  ?K-i  in  number,  and  formerly  above  100 
more),  which  several  princes  and  noble  persons  have 
adorned,  and  which  as  so  many  pillars  serve  likewise  to 
•  rt  the  umbrageous  and  venerable  boughs  ;  and  that 
even  the  tree  had  been  much  ampler,  the  ruins  and  dis- 
tances of  the  columns  declare,  which  the  rude  soldiers 
luive  greatly  impaired.'  Evelyn  adds  copies  of  many  of 
the  inscriptions  on  the  columns,  the  oldest  of  which  is 
dated  l."»O,  and  the  column  on  which  it  is  inscribed  now  sup- 
ports one  of  the  largest  limbs,  but  was  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  tree  300  years  ago.  (London.)  This  tree 
is  si  ill  in  existence.  There  are  many  other  very  aged  in- 
dividuals in  this  country  and  on  the  Continent.  The  family 
name  of  Linnaeus  is  said  to  have  been  derived  from  an  an- 
tient  linden  that  grew  near  their  residence.  The  principal 
street  of  Berlin  is  called  1'nti'r  dfn  Linden,  from  the  lime- 
trees  which  are  planted  on  each  side. 

Many  varieties  of  this  tree  are  described ;  and,  as  is 
usual  in  these  eases,  some  authors  have  elevated  them  to 
the  rank  and  importance  of  species.  The  following  are 
found  in  collections :  T.  E.  l<irinintn,  in  which  the  leaves 
are  smaller  than  those  of  the  common  species,  and  are 
deeply  and  regularly  cut  and  twisted.  It  seldom  attains 
a  large  size.  T.  E.  aurea,  which  differs  only  in  its  twigs 
having  a  bright  yellow  colour.  T.  E.  dasyityla,  possesses 
a  toin  le,  and  differs  from  the  species  in  the  form 

uf  its  fruit.  Some  botanists  admit  only  one  European 
species,  thu  Tiliu  Europ&a..  Koch,  in  his  'Flora  Ger- 
manica.'  has  two,  tin-  T.  <;r<indifolia  and  T.  parvifMa, 
and  give-  '/'.  l-'.iirnjifii  as  a  synonyme  of  the  latter.  Hooker, 
in  the  'British  Flora,'  admits  all  three;  and  De  Candolle, 
in  lii-> '  Prodromus,"  has  three  species,  besides  the  European, 
which  are  as  follows  : — • 

T.  »iii'rn)i/iytl<i.  Small-leaved  Lime,  lias  its  petals  with- 
out nectaries  or  srales,  cordate,  roundish,  acuminated,  ser- 
rated leaves,  smooth  above  and  glaucous  beneath,  with 
scattered  as  well  as  axillary  hairy  blotches,  and  compound 
inanv-llowcred  umbels.  This  is  identical  with  the  T.  par- 
:  of  Ehrbart  and  other  writers.  It  is  a  native  of  sub- 
alpiue  districts  in  the  north  of  Europe.  In  Great  Britain 
it  i>  common  in  the  woods  of  Essex  and  Lincolnshire;  and 
Mr.  K.  Foister  thinks  it  probable  that  this  is  the  only  true 

T.  rit/i/-ii.  Hod  Lime,  has  cordate  leaves,  unequal  at  the 
base,  bairv  beneath  as  well  as  the  petioles,  with  a  tuft  ot 
hair  at  the  ba-,e  of  the  veins  ;  the  fruit  globose  and  smooth. 
I  native  of  Taurida,  and  some  few  specimens  are  grow- 
ing in  England.  The  young  branches  are  of  a  beautiful 
i,  thence  it  nas  been  called  T.  i-nnillimi. 
Thi-,  by  most  other  writers  considered  a  variety 

of  T  or  T.  gr'indifolta. 

T.  /  ul-ieaved  Lime-tree,  has  petals  with- 

«ut  nectaries;  cordate,  serrated  leaves,  downy  beneath; 


origin  of  the  veins,  woolly;  branches,  hairy;  un 
three-flowered  ;  fruit  woody,  downy,  turbinate,  with  promi- 
nent angles.  This  is  the  T.  grandifolia  of  Ehrhart  and 
other  botanists.  It  is  more  common  than  the  other  species 
in  Switzerland  and  the  south  of  Europe.  There  are  se- 
veral specimens  of  this  tree  in  England  and  Scotland,  but 
they  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  wild.  Specimens  of  this 
tree  exist  in  the  churchyard  of  Seidlitz  in  Bohemia,  with 
leaves  contracted  to  the  form  of  a  hood.  They  are  said  to 
have  miraculously  assumed  this  character  from  the  time 
that  the  monks  ot  a  neighbouring  convent  were  all  hanged 
upon  them. 

All  the  foregoing  species  are  distinguished  by  not  having 
nectaries  or  scales  at  the  base  of  their  petals ;  there  are 
six  other  species  characterised  by  possessing  nectaries. 
Four  of  these  are  inhabitants  of  North  America. 

T.  alba,  the  White  or  Silvery  Lime,  has  cordate,  ser- 
rated leaves,  unequal  at  the  base,  clothed  with  white  down 
beneath,  but  smooth  above,  and  four  times  longer  than  the 
petioles  ;  fruit  ovate,  with  five  obscure  ribs.  This  is  the 
T.  argentpa  of  Desfontaines ;  T.  panonica  of  Jacquin ; 
and  T.  tumentosa  of  Moench.  It  is  a  native  of  the  woods 
of  Hungary,  and  is  very  readily  distinguished  from  the 
other  species  by  the  whiteness  of  its  leaves,  which  becomes 
especially  evident  when  ruffled  by  the  slightest  breeze. 
It  was  introduced  into  this  country  in  1767,  and  there  are 
now  existing  several  very  fine  specimens,  one  at  Walton- 
on-Thames,  60  feet  high,  and  a  number  at  Highclere  in 
Berkshire.  T.  petiolaris  was  described  by  De  Candolle 
from  dried  specimens  sent  to  him  from  Odessa,  where  the 
tree  is  cultivated  in  gardens.  The  leaves  are  twice  the 
length  of  the  petioles,  and  their  under  surface  downy  like 
the  last. 

T.  glabra,  the  Black  or  Black  American  Lime-tree,  has 
leaves  deeply  cordate,  serrated,  and  somewhat  coriaceous 
and  smooth  ;  the  petals  are  truncate  and  crenate  at  the 
apex,  and  equal  in  length  to  the  style  ;  the  fruit  ovate  and 
somewhat  ribbed.  This  tree  is  a  native  of  North  America 
in  ( ,'anada  and  the  northern  parts  of  the  United  States  ;  in 
the  Southern  states  it  is  only  found  at  a  considerable  ele- 
vation on  the  Alleghany  mountains.  In  external  cha- 
racter it,  very  much  resembles  the  European  species  ;  its 
flowers  and  leaves  are  however  larger.  Although  it  was 
introduced  into  this  country  by  Miller  as  early  as  1752,  it. 
is  not  much  grown,  and  very  few  specimens  exist.  In 
America  the  wood  and  bark  are  lised  for  much  the  same 
purposes  as  that  of  its  representative  in  Europe. 

T.  la.ciflora,  Loose-flowered  American  Lime,  has  cor- 
date, serrated,  smooth  leaves,  loose  panicles  of  flowers, 
emarginate  petals,  and  globose  fruit.  It  is  a  native  of 
America,  from  Maryland  to  Georgia.  It  has  been  known 
in  this  country  only  since  1820,  and  but  few  specimens 
are  at  present  planted.  London,  in  his  'Arboretum'  (vol. 
i.,  p.  374),  states  his  conviction  that  this  and  the  other 
species  of  American  limes  are  only  varieties  of  T.  glabra, 
and  he  has  arranged  them  accordingly.  He  has  however 
assigned  no  other  reason  for  this  opinion  than  their  general 
resemblance. 

T.  juilx'scoix,  the  pubescent  American  Lime,  has  some- 
what cordate  and  oblique  leaves,  truncate  at  the  base,  and 
pubescent  beneath;  the  petals  emarginate,  shorter  than 
the  style,  and  the  fruit  srlobose.  II  is  a  native  of  the 
son! hern  parts  of  the  United  States,  from  Virginia  to 
Georgia,  where  it  is  found  principally  on  the  banks  of 
rivers.  It  is  a  much  less  vigorous  tree  than  the  two  last, 
and  has  much  smaller  leaves  and  more  slender  branches. 
There  is  a  variety  called  by  Ventenat  T.  p.  leptop/iylla, 
which  has  very  thin  leaves  and  delicate  serratures. 

T.  heterophylla,  the  White  American  Lime,  has  ovate 
leaves,  downy  beneath,  sometimes  cordate  at  the  base, 
sometimes  obliquely  or  equally  truncate  ;  globose  fruit 
with  5  ribs.  This  tree  is  abundant  in  Maryland,  Dela- 
ware, and  the  Western  states  of  America,  and  is  found  on 
the  banks  of  the  Susquehanna,  Ohio,  and  Mississippi.  The 
leaves  and  flowers  of  this  species  are  larger  than  any  other. 
It  seldom  attains  a  height  of  more  than  forty  feet  in  its 
native  districts,  and  specimens  in  Europe  do  not  exceed 
more  than  twenty  feet.  It  is  a  handsome  ornamental  tree, 
and  deserving  of  cultivation.  It  has  been  known  in  France 
nearly  a  century,  but  was  not  introduced  into  England  till 
1811. 

In  the  cultivation  of  the  lime  it  should  be  placed  in 
moist  situations,  in  an  argillaceous,  loamy  soil.  It  grows 


T  I  L 


4-ls 


T  I  L 


•  on  plains  than  hill*,  and  in  moist  than  dry  placet. 
Tin-  tree*  may  be  propagated  by  seeds,  which  should  be 
sown  at  soon  as  they  an-  gathered :  bnt  this  is  a  veij 
proce**,  and  the  mort  frequent  mode  of  propagating  them 
i*  by  layers.     In  France  H  tree  is  cut  down  to  the  roots. 
and  the  shoots  are  encouraged  to  grow,  niul  in  the  < 
of  two  or  three  years  they  may  be  planted  in  tin-  positions 
in  which  they  lire  to  stand.     Lime-trees  will   ; 
planting  ut  a  greater  age  than  most  lives  ;  when  large  trees 
minted,  they  .should    have    their   roots   cut    rounil 
three,  or  four  feet  from  the   stem  the   year   before  they  are 
taken  up.     This  stunts  their  growth,  and  makes  them  bear 
removal  better. 

(Loudon,  Arbor,  rt  Frut.  Itril..  vol.  i.  and  iv.  :  Hischoff, 
lj  hrlnt.-h  ili-r  li-.tnink  :  Koeh.  /  i-tni<->i  ;  Hooker. 

Itnlish  l'l»r,i  ;   Don's  Miller's  Diet.,  &C.) 

TIU.U'K.li,  a  natural  order  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
nip  of  polypctalouB  Dicotyledons,  This 
order  consists  of  trees  or  shrubs,  seldom  of  herbaceous 
plants,  with  simple,  toothed,  alternate  leaves,  furnished 
with  stipules.  The  Mowers  are  axillary.  The  calyx  con- 
sists of  four  or  five  sepals,  which  are  valvular  in  a-st na- 
tion :  the  petals  four  or  live,  with  mostly  a  little  pit  at 
their  base;  the  stamens  are  hypogynons,  mostly  indefinite, 
with  oval  or  roundish  two-celled  anthers  bunting  length- 
wise :  the  disk  is  formed  of  glands,  which  arc  equal  in 
number  to  the  petals  and  opposite  to  them:  Uje  Ovary  M 
single,  composed  of  from  four  to  ten  carpels,  with  a  single 
s  Me  and  stigma  divided  into  lobes  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  the  carpels;  seeds  numerous,  with  erect  embryo, 
and  abundant  albumen.  This  order  is  nearly  allied  to 
StcrculiaecK  and  Malvace;p,  from  which  it  differs  in  its 
glandular  disk,  distinct  stamens,  and  two-celled  anthers. 
The  species,  of  which  there  are  about  two  hundred  and 
fifty,  are  arranged  in  thirty-two  genera,  and  are  generally 
diffused  throughout  the  tropical  and  temperate  parts  of 
the  globe. 

Tiliaeca'  possess  no  active  properties;  they  abound  in  a 
mucilaginous  wholesome  juice.  The  fibres  of  the  inner 
bark  are  very  tough,  and  are  used  for  a  variety  of  economi- 
cal purposes.  [Til.n.]  The  wood  is  genei  ally  white,  light, 
and  tough  ;  that  of  (liviri.i  i-lm-tii-it  is  used  for  making 
bows  iu  India.  The  Trincomalee-wood  used  at  Madras 
for  making  the  Ma>soola  boats  is  the  produce  of  Bcrrya 
Auunonilla.  The  (!orchorus  olitoiius  is  cultivated  in 
i'.gypt  for  use  as  a  pot-herb. 


1.  ami  if ,  with  aowrn  tii.1  tcif ;  9.  wrtion  of  ovary.  iWing  lh«  «Ui; 
:t.  ilnirli-  flowiT  ;  4.  «M 


TI'I.lQr.V.  Mr.  J.  K.  Cray's  name   for  a  genus  of  SKM- 
'I'ln  :III\NS.] 


K,  applied  to  arable  land,  is  the  stirring  and 
of  the  surface  of  the  soil,  so  as  to  render  it  lit 


for  the  vegetation  of  the  s,.,.i]s  Committed  io  it :  its  object 
-  tlie  destruction  of  n. 

The  whole  art  of  culli\ation  consists  in  tillage  and  ma- 
nuring, and  the  profit  of  the  husbandman  depends  on  the 

perfection  of  the  tillage  and  the  economy  of  labour  i' 
duciug  the   effect.     A  defect   in  tillage  will  c.t 
deficiency  in  the'  crops  in  online 

the  soil  should  be  in  such  a  state  that  the 
and  dews  may  readily  be  diffused  through  it.  without 
giving  it  a  wet  appearance,  or  cv aporating  too  rapidly. 
It  requires  great  knowledge  and  expcric 
particular  soil  the  exact  portion  of  tillage  which  is  suited 
to  it.  A  fine  garden-tilth,  as  it  is  called,  is  th 
feet  for  light  soils  which  have  been  long  cultivated  and 
manured;  when  they  can  be  biought  to  such  a  stale  that 
after  continued  rains  the  surface  dries  without  forming  a 
crust,  and  crumbles  of  its  own  accord,  the  tillage  has  been 
good  ;  and  the  deeper  this  soil  is  stirred,  the  more  it  will 
produce  :  but  where  clay  abounds  in  the  soil,  which  in 
dry  weather  can  be  readily  pulverised  by  crushing  the  dry- 
clods,  and  be  reduced  to  the  finest  powder,  too  much  til- 
lage may  do  more  harm  than  good.  The  fine  ell 
Converted  into  mud  at  the  snrfae.-  \,\  the  least  rnin,  be- 
lt is  not  sufficiently  porous  to  let  the  water  through 
it;  it  dries  into  a  hard  crust,  which  effectually  precludes 
the  access  of  air,  and  consequently  stops  the  vegetation 
of  the  seed.  It  is  only  by  abundant  manuring  with  organic 
matter,  especially  of  animal  origin,  that  this  natural  tend- 
ency in  clays  to  cohere  can  be  overcome  ;  and  until  this 
is  effected  il  is  best  to  stir  clay  soils  as  deep  as  possible  by 
means  of  subsoil-ploughs,  but  the;/  should  not  be  pul- 
\criscd  so  that  the  water  cannot  run  down  between  the 
lumps  and  clods,  and  especially  the  surface  should  be  left 
in  such  a  stale  of  roughness  that  heavy  lains  cannot  cover 
it  with  a  coat  of  mud.  The  clods  which  are  left  on  the  sur- 
face imbibe  the  moisture  more  gradually,  and  in  drying 
fall  to  pii  ccs,  by  which  the  young  plants  are  imigo 
and.  as  it  were,  moulded  up.  This  is  particularly  the 
in  winter  after  a  frost,  as  all  clay-land  farmers  are  well 
aware.  It  is  very  easily  ascertained  whether  a  soil  will 
bear  much  tillage  or  not.  It  is  only  necessary  to  try  some 
of  it  in  a  large  pot  or  box  :  make  the  surface  very  fine  Iry 
breaking  the  clods,  then  water  it  abundantly,  and  let  ft 
dry  in  the  suiu  if  a  crust  is  formed  in  drying,  that  soil  will 
not  bear  too  much  harrowing  and  pulverising,  and  should 
be  left  in  a  moderately  rough  state  after  sowing  or  drilling 
the  seed;  but  if,  a  Her  it  dries,  the  surface  is  Km-. 
porous,  then  the  liner  the  f  jJlage  the  better  the  seed  will 
\cgetate.  The  whole  depends  on  the  ready  admission  of 
air  or  its  exclusion.  \\'hcn  grass-seeds  are  sown,  tlu 
face  should  be  well  pulverised  ;  but  this  cannot  be  safely 
done  if  the  soil  is  apt  to  run  together  when  much  rain  falls 
soon  after  the  seed  is  sown.  S.nne  plants,  like  beans,  will 
their  way  through  a  very  hard  surface;  but  small 
seeds  are  too  weak  to  do  ^o,  a:id  their  growth  is  entirely- 
stopped  by  the  least  crust  on  the  surface.  H, •sides  the 
preparatory  tillage  Of  the  soil  before  sowing  the  seed,  there 
is  a  great  advantage  in  the  stining  of  il  as  the  plants  are 
growing.  On  this  depends  all  the  meiit  of  the  row-culture 
for  every  kind  of  ,  .  cia'ly  those  which  have  escu- 

lent roots  or  extensive  foliage,  and  which  are  chiefly  cul- 
tivated for  the  sustenance  of  cattle.  The  effect  of  deep 
tillage  is  here  most  remarkable.  If  rows  of  turnips  or  cab- 
bages lie  sown  at  such  a  distance  that  a  small  plough  Or 
other  stirring  implement  can  be  used  between  them,  and 
the  intervals  be  stirred  more  or  less,  and  at  different 
depths,  it  will  be  found  that  the  deeper  and  more  frequent 
the  tillage,  until  the  foliage  covers  the  whole  interval  or 
the  bulbs  swell  to  a  great  sixe.  the  heavier  and  • 
abundant  the  produce  will  be.  It  is  worth  while  to  try 
the  experiment  :—  Sow  Swedish  turnips  or  mangold-wurzel 
in  rows  three  feet  apart  :  let  some  of  the  rows  be  m 
kepi  clear  of  w  eeds  by  -surface-hoeing,  and  the  plants  be 
thinned  out  to  the  distance  of  a  foot  apart  :  let  other  inter- 
val, lie  stirred  to  different  depths;  some  three  inches, 
some  six  iuchi  s.  and  some  nine  inches  or  more.  The 
result  v. ill  be.  that  the  first  rows  will  appear  to  have  bccii 
sown  much  too  far  from  each  other,  not  half  the  ground 
being  covered  with  the  foliage  of  the  plants;  the  others 
will  lie  covered  more  and  more  as  the  tillage  has  been 
r,  and  the  last  will  completely  cover  the  whole  in- 
tervals. The  roots  or  bulbs  will  be-  in  exact  proportion 
to  the  richness  of  the  foliage,  and  the  weight  of  the  deeply 


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449 


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tilled  rows  will  far  exceed  that  of  any  of  the  others,  while 
the  first  will,  by  comparison,  appear  a  poor  and  scanty 
crop,  however  clear  of  weeds  the  surface  may  have  been 
kept.     The  soil  best  suited  for  fhis  experiment  is  a  good 
light  loam  on  a  dry  or  well-drained  subsoil ;  for  stagnant 
moisture  under  any  soil  will  chill  the  fibres  and  check  the 
growth  of'the  plants,  however  dry  the  surface  may  be.    It 
was  this  which  led  Tull,  the  father  of  drill  husbandry,  to 
the  conclusion  that  tillage  was  all  that  the  soil  required  to 
maintain  perpetual  fertility.   He  carried  his  conclusion  too 
far ;  but  we  shall  not  be  wide  of  the  truth  if  we  assert 
that  with   proper  tillage   the  soil  will    be  gradually  im- 
proved, and  a  much  smaller  quantity  of  manure  occasion- 
ally added  to  recruit  the  waste  produced  by  vegetation 
will  render  the  soil  much  more  fertile  than  it  would  be 
with  more  manure  and  less  tillage  :  and  as  tillage  can  be 
increased  by  mechanical   contrivances  where  labourers  are 
scarce,  whereas  the  supply  of  manure  must  generally  be 
limited,  it  follows  that,  as  a  general  rule,  the  land  should 
be  well  and  deeply  tilled,  due  attention  being  paid  to  the 
nature  of  the  soil  and  its  property  of  retaining  or  transmit- 
ting  moisture.    Very  loose   sands  should  not   be  much 
stirred  until  they  are   consolidated  by  the  admixture  of 
marl,  clay,  chalk,  or  well-rotten  dung ;  but  in  all  cases  the 
manure  should  be  mixed  as  intimately  as  possible   with 
the  soil,  and  as  deep  as  the  tillage  has  gone,  not  including 
the  stirring  of  the  subsoil  ;  for  the  roots  will  always  pene- 
trate thus  far,  and  find  the  nourishment  which  they  re- 
quire.    Those   plants   which    throw   out  roots  from   the 
bottom  of  the  stem,  as  wheat,  barley,  and  oats,  require  the 
surface  to  be  most  pulverised  and  enriched  to  allow  these 
roots  to  spread  ;  a  spring  tillage  is  therefore  highly  advan- 
tageous, which  can  only  be  given  when  the  seed  has  been 
deposited  in  rows  by  drilling  or  in  patches  by  dibbling. 
This  last  method  is  found  to  give  much  finer  crops,  from 
the  circumstance  that  the  hoe  not  only  loosens  the   earth 
between  the  rows,  but  also  between  the  different  patches 
of  the   growing  corn,    by   which   the   coronal   roots   are 
strengthened  and  the  tillering  of  the  stems  so  much  en- 
couraged, that  it  is  not  uncommon  to  sec  twenty,  thirty, 
or  more  strong  stems  a"  bearing  fine  ears  arising  from  one 
tuft  of  plants,  the  produce  of  one  or  more  seeds,  whose 
roots  are   matted  together  and  send  out  fibres  in  every 
direction.     The  crowding  of  several  plants  does  not  pre- 
vent their  growth,  provided  the  fibres  can  spread  around 
in  a  rich  mellow  soil,  weU  pulverised,  and  admitting  the 
air  and  moisture  readily. 

A*  a  perfect  tillage  requires  much  labour  and  minute 
attention,  and  in  many  situations  where  the  farms  are  large 
labourers  cannot  be  procured  at  moderate  wages,  nor  can 
;  !\v;iys  be  depended  upon  to  perform  the  work  with 
mflicient  care,  mechanical  ingenuity  has  been  taxed  to 
invent  implements  oi'  tillage  by  which  it  may  be  more 
pel  Cecily  accomplished,  and  at  a  smaller  expense,  by  using 
the  power  of  horses  instead  of  that  of  men,  and  making 
implements  which  will  till  a  considerable  breadth  at  once, 
ami  thus  save  time. 

The  old  plough,  and  which,  however  it  may  be  improved, 
still  acts  on  the  same  principle  of  turning  up  a  fresh  por- 
tion of  the  soil,  burying  that  which  has  for  some  time 
:it  the  surface,  will  probably  always  continue  to  be 
hief  implement  of  tillage  ;  but  the  minuter  operations, 
which  are  taken  from  garden  culture,  require  particular 
contrivances  to  effect  them  by  instruments.  The  harrows 
are  but  an  imperfect  substitute  for  the  garden  rake,  and  do 
not  stir  the  soil  to  a  sufficient  depth.  Other  implements 
have  therefore  been  invented,  which  by  means  of  wheels 
can  be  regulated  so  as  to  act  at  a  greater  or  less  depth. 
These  have  received  the  different  names  of  scarifiers, 
grubbers,  cats'-claws,  or  cultivators,  according  to  the  fancy 
of  the  inventors.  Many  of  these  answer  the  purpose  well, 
and  save  labour.  They  can  be  used  in  all  directions  so  as. 
to  pulverize  the  soil  to  any  degree.  Heavy  rollers  with 
ami  without  spikes  around  them  are  used  when  many  clods 
require  breaking;  and,  although  not  yet  adopted  in  this 
try,  the  Hclgian  tniiiienit,  a  strong  frame  -of  wood 
boarded  over,  and  loaded  with  weights  if  required,  is  a 
most  effectual  instrument  in  levelling  tho  surface  and 
crushing  duds,  without  pressing  them  into  the  soil  as  the 
roller  frequently  does. 

It  would  be  endless  to  enumerate  all  the  implements  of 
tillage  which  arc  daily  invented  :  some  of  the  most  u 
have  been  already  described.  [ARABLE  LAND;  PLOUGH.] 
IJ.  C.,  No.  154  1. 


As  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  approaches  more  to  that  of 
the  garden,  more  perfect  instruments  will  be  used  ;  such  as 
can  be  directed  with  great  accuracy  between  parallel  rows 
of  growing  plants  without  danger  of  injuring  them.  When 
the  width  of  the  stetches  or  beds  accurately  corresponds 
with  the  width  of  the  instrument,  so  that  the  wheels  will 
run  in  the  intervals  and  the  horses  step  in  the  same,  the 
soil  may  be  tilled  perfectly,  although  the  rows  of  plants 
have  but  a  small  interval  between  them  :  and  the  largest 
field  will  thus  present  to  the  eye  extended  seed-beds  or 
equal  rows  of  growing  plants,  as  we  are  accustomed  to  see 
in  a  kitchen-garden.  The  result  will  be  the  same  as  when 
for  the  sake  of  experiment  we  sow  the  common  grains  and 
leguminous  plants  of  the  fields  in  a  plot  of  garden-ground  • 
in  such  case  the  produce  is  so  far  greater,  that  it  quite  baffles 
our  calculation  when  extended  to  a  large  surface,  and  hence 
the  incredible  results  which  we  continually  meet  with  in  the 
reports  of  experiments  on  some  new  produce  lately  intro- 
duced :  everything  is  on  a  magnified  scale,  owing  to  supe- 
rior tillage.  No  doubt  many  fields  possessed  of  fertile 
soils  might,  by  attentive  tillage,  be  made  as  productive  as 
the  Uest  garden-ground.  The  Chinese  have,  as  we  are 
told,  already  accomplished  this  by  their  incredible  num- 
bers and  indefatigable  labour  ;  but  science  and  mechanical 
contrivance  are  a  substitute  for  millions  of  labourers  when 
judiciously  applied- as  our  manufactures  fully  prove. 
The  same  ingenuity  applied  to  tillage  might  increase  the 
produce  of  the  earth,  if  not  indefinitely,  at  least  far  beyond 
what  we  may  now  suspect. 

In  the  early  ages  of  agriculture  tillage  was  almost  con- 
fined to  the  ploughing  of  fallows  to  clean  the  land,  which 
was  very  imperfectly  executed,  and  in  ploughing  the 
stubble  of  one  crop  to  prepare  for  the  seed  of  another,  as 
long  as  the  land  would  give  a  return  for  the  labour.  The 
idea  of  tillage  for  the  sake  of  a  permanent  improvement  of 
the  soil  was  only  entertained  by  a  few  men  who  reflected, 
and  that  of  encouraging  the  vegetation  while  the  crop  was 
growing  was  not  even  thought  of.  The  plough  to  stir  and 
the  harrows  to  cover  the  seed  were  the  only  instruments  in 
use,  and  they  were  very  rude  of  their  kind.  A  return  of 
three  or  four  times  the  seed  sown  satisfied  the  farmer  and 
the  landlord  ;  and  yet  the  first  was  hardly  repaid  for  his 
toil,  and  the  landlord  received  for  rent  what  now  would 
scarcely  satisfy  the  tithe-owner.  Trie  present  state  of  agri- 
culture may  be  contrasted  with  this,  and  perhaps  hereafter 
the  comparison  may  be  as  diaadvanfogeoui  to  us  as  it  now 
appears  in  our  favour  when  we  look  back  a  few  centuries. 

TILLA'NDSIA,  the  name  of  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  natural  order  Bromeliacese.  Linnaeus  says  of 
the  plants  belonging  to  this  genus,  'Tillandsise  cannot  bear 
water,  and  therefore  I  have  given  this  name  to  the  genus 
from  a  professor  at  Abo,  who  in  his  youth  having  an  un- 
propitious  passage  from  Stockholm  to  that  place,  no  sooner 
set  his  foot  on  shore  than  he  vowed  never  again  to  venture 
himself  upon  the  sea.  He  changed  his  original  name  to 
Tillands,  which  means  ore  Or  by  land;  and  when  he  had 
subsequently  occasion  to  return  to  Sweden,  he  preferred  a 
circuitous  journey  of  200  Swedish  miles  through  Lapland 
to  avoid,  going  eight  miles  by  sea.'  Dr.  Elias  Tillands, 
whose  name  and  idiosyncracy  have  thus  been  perpetuated, 
was  professor  of  physic  at  Abo,  and  died  in  1692,  at  the 
age  of  fifty-two.  He  published  in  1683  an  alphabetical 
catalogue  of  plants  in  the  neighbourhood  of  his  residence, 
which  was  afterwards  followed  by  wood-cuts  of  158  of  the 
plants  in  the  catalogue. 

The  genus  Tillandsia  of  Linnaeus  comprehends  the  plar.ts 
described  by  Sloane  as  viscuin  caryophylloides,  and  by 
Plumier  as  Caragata,  and  is  characterised  by  possessing  a. 
persistent  calyx  divided  into  three  oblong,  lanceolate, 
pointed  segments ;  a  corolla  tubular,  longer  than  the  calyx, 
with  the  limb  divided  into  three  segments  ;  six  stamens  not 
so  long  as  the  corolla,  and  inserted  into  it,  and  the  anthers 
sagittate  ;  the  ovary  superior,  surmounted  by;  a  style  with 
a  trifid  obtuse  stigma;  the  fruit,  a  trilocular  capsule  con- 
taining several  seeds,  each  of  which  is  supported  on  a  long 
stalk  of  aggregate  fibres,  which  in  the  end  constitutes  a 
feathery  wing.  The  species  are  most  of  them  parasitical, 
and  are  natives  of  South  America. 

T.  utriculata,  the  Wild  Pine  of  the  colonists  of  Jamaica, 
has  linear,  channelled,  recurved,  dilated  leaves,  inflated  at 
the  base  ;  stein  closely  panicled.  It  is  found  growing  on 
old  and  decaying  trees  in  the  forests  of  Jamaica.  The  stem 
is  three  or  four  feet  high,  and  the  leaves  are  a  yard  long, 

VOL.  XXIV.— 3  M 


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and  place.)  within  one  another  in  -  v  that   the 

water  which  runs  down  th  aided 

baton  Thu  Uur*  then  swell  out  and  form  a  rewnoir  or 
botth  'ted  "I  tlio  neck,  prcve.its  the 

he»t  ill'  tb>  a  evaporating  th, 

vain  will  each  hold  ubuut  a  <ju:  .-.  and  during  the 

dry  M-amin  they  arc  the  resort  of  all  kuuU  of  uniiuals  lor 
>be  take  of  the  water,  and  travellers  are  often  able  to  oh- 
tain  »  stipplv  o:  i  this  source  when  all  oth, 

Dampicr.  iii  his  Travel-,  gives   the  folio  -nt  of 

tin*  plant : — '  The  wild  pine  is  a  plant  so  i 
somewhat  resembles  the  Imsh  of  MM  rround  the 

true  pirn -apple.  The  \vild  pines  commonly  grow  from 
some  hunch,  knot]  or  excresci  'rec,  where  they 

lake  ring  upright.     The  root  is  short  and  thick, 

from  whence   t>  one  within  the 

other,  spreading  ofcii  to  the  top  of  the  tree.  They  are  of 
a  good  tin  v,  and  so  compact  as  to  c-atch  and 

i  he  nun-water  when  it  falls.     They  will    contain  a 
pint,  or  a  pint  and  a  half,  or  a  quart;  and  tl 
frc-hcs  the  leaves  and  no:,.  mot.      When  \vc  tind 

these  pines,  we  stick  our  knives  into  tile  leaves  just  above 
the  roots,  and  let  out  the  water,  which  we  catch  in  our 
hats,  as  1  have  done  many  times  myself  to  my  great  relief.' 
Tin1  s,-e(U  of  these  plants  are  furnished  with  whiffs,  by 
which  they  are  blown  from  tree  to  tree,  on  which  they 

,  I'nlcss  they  possessed  such  means  of  transportation, 
they  would  fall  to  the  ground,  where,  being  parasitical,  the 
i,  011111:  plants  would  perish. 

T.  iniirniili-ii.    the    Long-Moss  Tillandsia,  or 

1  iril  of   the   French,   the   .'  •ri/nphylltiidet  of 

Sloane,   has  a  twisted,  thread-slur,  -tern,  much 

branched,  with  channelled  leave.-.  This  plant  is  a  native  of 
the  forests  of  .North  America,  fioiii  Virginia  to  Florida. 
also  of  the  \\Y-t  India  Islands  and  the  liiazils.  It  has 
\ery  minute  roots,  and  its  long  wiry  •  icms  creep 

the  stems  and  branches  of  old 'trees,  sometimes  hang- 
ing down  in  a  bunch  like  the  hairs  of  a  horse's  tail.  The 
flowers  are  small  and  of  a  blue  colour,  and  are  developed 
at  the  ends  of  the  branches.  This  plant  grows  on  other 

in  dry  and  arid  plains,  as  well   as  in   alpine   di-1 
It  attains  a  larger  si/c  in  the  mure  temperate  localiti- 
filamcnton-  steins,  when  deprived    of  their  bark.   1.1 
used  for  the  -nine  puiposi  s  as  horsehair,  and   are   used   in 
this   manner  in   America.     They  are   also  in  some    places 
made    into    cordage.     The   only    preparation   thuy  require 
previous  to  being  used  is  being  put   into  water  for  a  fort- 
night  or  more,  according  to    the    temperature,   when,  on 

;  taken   out  and  diied.  the  bark  easiU  from 

the  t'ibie-.  and  they  are  lit  for  use.  In  medicine  this  plant 
hat  been  recommended  as  a  remedy  in  hn-morrhoii1 

.  tl'cctnal  diaphoretic. 

T.  .>/.  Single-spiked  Tillandsio,  has  the-  radicle 

leaves  linear,  channelled,  recurved,  broad,  and  sheathing 
at  the  base;  the  stem  simple,  clothed  with  imbn 

•imple  ;    the   hractca  'icave. 

This  plant  is  a  native  of  the  AVest  Indies.    The  flow, 
of   a   snow-white   colour.  \ils    of   the 

bract-,  which  surround  a  rachis  two  or  three  inches  lonir, 
and  this  ari-es  from  a  mass  of  1,  ,:i  the  form 

(if   a  \sthelea\esaiid   bracts  are  eolouied  \  ari- 

-,nd  white,  the  whole  plant  loo! 

r ;  and  when  numerous  upon  the 

•Hi  which  t:  ,  odnce  a  very  handsome  and 

,1  this  as  well  as  most 

of  II,.-  oil'  serve  as  reservoirs  for  water, 

thin*  its:  most  of 

then  III  America,  especially  o! 

and  of  th,  tin1  Audi-:  two  or  three  of  the 

speci  "ind   in  the  southern  states  of  North 

America. 

TII.I.KMl'Vr.  SKHASTIKN    I.KNAIN  DK.  U  b 
ral  writer  of  coiiMdeiable  no!  n  at  Pans  liotli 

November.  Hi.'t".      II-  i  I.enain.  i 

yftb-  R 

a  child  he  alwii\  >  hicvous  pranks 

in   which  children  commonly   indulge.      \Vhen    be1 

nine  are  of  age  he  w.i 

of  tt ••  icty  then  established 

*M   the  vacant  al  anil   under  these  in- 

strin  '  him-clf  to  the   e\ci< 

w>d  ]  ,'ithor,  while  at  school,  was  I 


a  prclcicnce  indi 
studies.     He  studied  logic  and  , 
Nicole  ;    and    ln- 

cvinucd  the  carne-tnt--,  with  which  he  pursued  it,  and  put 
the    knowledge  of   his  instructor  to  He 

i   the   tin  0  iiom   which,  when   about 

eighteen  years  uf  age,  he  turned  with  mm •!• 
the  .study  of  the  Scriptures  tin  msehes,  and  oft  I, 
and  while  thus  cngau  a  to  collect  the   hi-toiical 

notices  of  the   Apostles  and    Apostolical    Katheis,  and  to 
arrange  them  alter  the  plan  of  L  - 

-  of  his  conscience,  anil  the  stricl 
notions  of  duty,  kept  him  lor  some  time  imdetermined 
the  choice  of  a  |-  Al    llie  age  of  '-{ 

the  Episcopal  seminary  of  licau-. . 

with  such  respect  from  his  for  historical    k 

.  fearing  it  migh  'us  humilit  . 

contemplated  leaving   it.  but  was  pcisiiadcd   to  rein:.,' 
le  of  the  members  of  the  Society  ol 

Royal,  whom  he  had  cho.-en  t'oi  his  spiri:  H,. 

remained  three  or  four  years  in 
and  then  spent  rive  or  six  with  Godet'roi  Hermant,  e 
of  that  city.     He  was  much  respected  ami 
bishop  of  licauvais,  Choart  de  l!u/anval.  and  i 
that  this  estimation  would  male  him  \ain,  In 
left  the   place  and   leturned  to  Paris,    win 
two   yeais   with  his  intimate   friend   and   school-fell 

Uoval,  Thomas  du  Foss.'  ;    but   not   findin 
that  retiremenl  which  he  desired,  he  witlnl-  l.am- 

X-rt,  a  country  parish  in  the  neighbourhood  of  thai  city. 

In  September.  \f>7'2.  at  the  mature  age  of  thirty-fiv 
became  subdeacon.  and  iifteen  nionlhs  ait 
The  following  extract  from  a  letter  an 
Pierre  Lenain,  then  or  an 

evinces  at  once  his  piety  and  his  humility.     After  htiiting 
that  it  was  at   the  desire  "of  Isaac   de  Sacy,   his   friend  and 

guide,  that  he  had  become 'Subdeacon  and  v.,-, 
take  on  him  the  dcaconship,  he  goes  on.  •  I 
dearest  brother,  that  it  is  with  great  agitation  ai. 
I  have  resolved  to  comply  with  his  wish,  for  1 
am  far  from  those  dispositions  which  I  in 

-ary  for  entering   upon  this  ofh'ce  :    and  n 
am  obliged  to  confess  that  I   have  profited  little   from  Ihe 
grace  which   I   might   have   received    from   the 
duties   of  the   subdeaconship.     Hut  on   the   ol: 
could  not  resist  one  whom   I  believe  I  ought  toolny  in 

:hing,  and   who,  I   am  well   aware,   has   11: 
love   forme.      I    beg  of  you  then,   my  dearest  : 
pray  to  God   for  me,   and   to  ask   him   either  to   can 
de  Sacy  to  see  things  in  a  different   light.  ,  lo  me 

such  dispositions  that  the  advice  of  my  friend  may  be  for 
my  salvation  and  not  for  my  condemn 

In  \.D.  KiTli  lit   received  pric  .  at   the  further 

•,sion  of  De  Sacy,  who  contemplated  making  him  his 
—or  in  the  office  of  spiritual   director  of  the  li 
dine  nuns,  now  re-established   in  their  original  scat,  tin; 
abbey  of  Port  Hoyal.  to  the  immediate'  neighbourly 
which  establishment  Tillemont    removed.       He   was  how- 
ever,  in    I(i7!l,   obliged   to    remove,    and    he   took   up   his 
residence  at  the  estate  of  Tillemont,  a  sho:t  distance    from 

near  Vincemie.-,  which  belongidto  his  familv 
from   which  he  too\  his  name.     In    \.n.  Kisl    he  visited 
Flanders  and  Holland  :    and  in  ,v.i>.    Kis-j  undcitook  the 
charge  of  the  parish  of  St.  l.am! 

I.  but  soon   gave  it  up  at    the  desire  of  his  fall: 
whom  he  ever  j 

Having  prepared  the  first  volume  of  his  irical  v.ork  OH 
•  d    luston.  .lout    to   publish  il  when  it 

was  stopped  by  the  censor,  under  wlu>.-c  notice,  as  a 
'.vitfi  theology,  it    had   to   pass,  ami  who  : 

Vuactcr.     Tillc 

mciiit  rel'usi-d   to  alter  the   parts  specified,  deeming  them 
not  justly  within   the  censor's  province-  ;    and  chi 

I  he  work,  uponwhicl.  he  continued  to 

labour  diligently,  though  without  any  imni  ntion 

of  publishing  it. 

This   e\erci-e   of  the  censorship   led  to  an  alteration  of 

his  plan  :   he  determined  ;  from  the  rest  of  hii 

work  Ihe  history  of  the  Koman  en  .nces 

ere    inter-  in  of   the 

Clni-tian   church,   and   to   publish   ii 

volumi   of  this  work,  which,  as  not  being  theological,  was 
exempt  from  tho  censorship,  appeared  in    1090,  and  was 


T  I  L 


451 


T  I  L 


•oceived  with  general  approbation.  It  excited  a  desire  for 
the  appearance  of  his  Church  history,  and  the  chancellor 
Boucherat,  in  order  to  remove  the  obstacle  to  its  publica- 
tion, appointed  a  new  censor.  Thus  encouraged,  he  brought 
ont  the  first  volume  in  1693,  under  the  title  of  '  ,Mc- 
moires  pour  servir  a  1'Histoire  Ecclesiastique  des  Six  Pre- 
miers Siecles.'  A  note  to  this  volume,  on  the  question 
whether  Jesus  Christ  celebrated  the  Passover  the  evening; 
before  his  death,  in  which  he  examined  the  views  of  Ber- 
nard Lami,  a  learned  priest  of  the  Oratory,  on  that  question, 
involved  him  in  a  controversy  with  that  writer,  who  read 
Tillemont's  note  before  publication,  and  examined  the 
arguments  contained  in  it  in  a  subsequent  work  of  his  own. 
Tillemont  in  consequence  addressed  to  Lami  a  letter, 
which  is  printed  at  the  close  of  the  second  volume  of  his 
'  Memoires,'  and  is  remarkable  for  its  spirit  of  modesty  and 
meekness.  Lami  replied,  but  Tillemont  declined  to  con- 
tinue the  discussion,  thinking  that  he  had  said  enough  to 
enable  those  interested  in  the  question  to  form  a  judgment. 
Faydit  de  Riom,  an  ecclesiastic  whom  the  Congregation  of 
the  Oratory  had  expelled  from  their  body,  a  man  of  con- 
Mderable  talent,  but  of  jealous  disposition,  published  at 
li;Vu-,  A.ri.  1695,  the  first  number  (28  pp.  4to.)  of  a  work,  to 
be  continued  every  fortnight,  entitled  '  Memoires  centre 
K's  Memoires  de  M.  Tillemont.'  It  contained  several 
violent  and  unjust  strictures  on  the  work,  to  which  Tille- 
mont  did  not  reply,  though  some  of  his  friends  with  need- 
h-"  Apprehension  procured  the  stopping  of  Faydit's  work, 
which  never  proceeded  beyond  the  first  number.  Faydit 
repeated  his  attack  in  a  subsequent  work,  but  it  produced 
little  effect. 

The  remainder  of  Tillemont's  life  was  passed  in  the  quiet 
pursuit  of  his  studies.  He  was  attacked  by  a  slight  cough 
at  the  end  of  Lent,  1697,  and  in  the  course  of  the  summer 
was  seized  with  fainting,  owing  to  a  sudde.i  chill  while 
hearing  mass  in  the  chapel  of  Notre  Dame  des  Anges : 
toward  the  end  of  September  his  illness  increased  so  as  to 
excite  the  anxiety  of  his  friends.  He  consequently  removed 
to  Paris  for  the  sake  of  medical  advice;  and  there,  after 
an  illness  which  rendered  his  piety  and  submissiveness  to 
the  divine  will  more  conspicuous,  he  breathed  his  last,  on 
Wednesday,  10th  January,  1G9H.  aged  sixty  years.  He 
was  buried  in  the  abbey  of  Poit  Royal,  in  which  the  Ber- 
nardiup  or  Cistertian  nuns,  to  whom  the  abbey  had  origi- 
nally belonged,  were  n<<w  u^ain  established. 

The  works  bv  which  Tillemont  is  known  are,  his  '  His- 
toire  des  Kmpercnrs,'  and  his  '  Memoires  pour  servir  a 
1'ITistoire  Keclexiastiquc.'  The  first  was  published  in  G 
vils.  tto. :  the  fiist  four  during  the  author's  life,  at  inter- 
vals from  1690  to  1697  :  the  remaining  two  after  his  death, 
in  1701  and  1738.  The  earlier  volumes  were  reprinted 
at  Brussels  in  12mo.,  in  1707,  et  seq.,  and  a  new  edition 
appeared  at  Paris,  in  4to.,  in  17:*)-23,  with  the  author's 
latest  corrections.  He  explains  his  plan  in  the  '  Aver- 
nent'  to  the  first  volume  :  his  intention'was  to  illns- 
llie  history  of  the  Church  for  the  first  six  centuries; 
bi't  instead  of  commencing  with  the  first  persecutor,  Nero, 
lie  noes  baek  to  Augustus,  whose  edict  occasioned  the 
journey  of  Joseph  and  Mary  to  Bethlehem,  and  thus  deter- 
mined the  place  of  our  Lord's  nativity.  The  history  ends 
with  the  Byzantine  emperor  Anastasius  (A.D.  518).  The 
is  unpretending,  and  consists  for  the  most  part  of^a 
tiniislation  of  the  original  writers  with  slight  modifications, 
and  with  such  additions  (marked  by  brackets)  as  were 
needed  to  form  the  whole  into  one  continuous  narrative, 
fh  reflections  as  the  author  deemed  requisite  to  cor- 
rect the  false  morality  of  heathen  writers.  To  each  volume 
are  appended  notes  relating  to  difficulties  of  history  or 
chronology  which  require  diseusssion  of  a  kind  or  extent 
unsuited  for  insertion  in  the  body  of  the  work.  '  There  is 
nothing,'  says  Dupin,  '  which  has  escaped  the  exactness  of 
M.  Tillemont  ;  and  there  is  nothing  obscure  or  indicate 
which  his  criticism  has  not  cleared  up  or  disentangled.' 

The  '  M6moires,'  &c.  extend  to  1(!  vols.  4to.,  of  which 

the  iir^t  appeared    in  1093;    three  volumes  more   during 

the  author's  lifetime,  in   1094-5-6;    and  the  fifth  was  in 

the  press  at  the  time  of  his  death.     These  five  volumes 

,nd  edition  in  1701-2,  and  were   followed 

in  1702-1711  by  the  remaining  eleven,  which  the  author 

had  left  in  manuscript.     This  great  work  is  on  the  same 

being  composed  of  translations  from 

•  •iL'inal  writers,  connected  by  paragraphs  or  sent- 

in  brackets.   Dupin  characterizes  it  as  being  not  a  continu- 


ous and  general  history  of  the  Church,  but  an  assemblage 
of  particular  histories  of  saints,  persecutions,  and  heresies, 
a  description  accordant  with  the  modest  title  of  the  work, 
'  Memoires  pour  servir  i  1'Histoire,'  &c.  The  author  con- 
cerns himself  chiefly  with  facts,  without  entering  into 
questions  of  doctrine  and  discipline  ;  and  notices  not  all 
the  saints  in  the  calendar,  but  only  those  of  whom  there 
are  some  antient  and  authentic  records.  Each  volume  has 
notes  of  similar  character  to  those  given  in  '  L'Histoire  des 
Empereurs.' 

Tillemont  supplied  materials  for  several  works  published 
by  others,  as  for  the  Life  of  St.  Louis,  begun  by  De  Sacy 
and  finished  and  published  by  La  Chaise  ;  for  the  lives  or 
St.  Athanasius  and  St.  Basil,  by  GodetVoi  Hermant ;  of  Ter- 
tullian  and  Origen,  by  Du  Fosse1,  under  the  name  of  La 
Mothe,'  &c. 

(Vie  deM.  Lenain  de  Tillemont,  by  his  friend  Trouchay, 
afterwards  canon  of  Laval,  Cologne,  A.D.  1711  ;  Dupin, 
Bibliothcque  des  Auteurs  Ecclgsiastiques  du  Dixseptieme 
.SYtV/f  .-  liiosi-ajtliic  I ?niverselle.) 

TILLOCH,  ALEXANDER,  LL.D.,  was  born  at  Glasgow 
on  the  28th  of  February,  1759,  and  was  educated  with  a 
view  to  following  the  business  of  his  father,  who  was  a 
tobacconist,  and  for  many  years  filled  the  office  of  magis- 
trate in  that  city.  He  was,  however,  more  inclined  to  the 
pursuit  of  scientific  knowledge  than  to  the  routine  of  busi- 
ness. His  biographer  states  that  in  early  life  his  attention 
was  greatly  attracted  by  the  occult  sciences,  and  that  al- 
though he  was  not  long  subject  to  their  delusions,  he  never 
was  inclined  to  treat  judicial  astrology  with  contempt.  One 
of  the  earliest  subjects  to  which  Tilloch  applied  himself  was 
the  improvement  of  the  art  of  printing;  his  experiments 
have  been  alluded  to  in  a  previous  volume.  [STEREOTYPE, 
vol.  xxiii.,  pp.  42  and  43.]  After  carrying  on  the  tobacco  bu- 
siness for  a  time  in  his  native  city  in  connection  with  his 
brother  and  brother-in-law,  Tilloch  abandoned  it,  and  for 
several  years  exercised  that  of  printing,  either  singly  or  in 
partnership  with  others.  In  1787  he  removed  to  London, 
where  he  subsequently  resided  ;  and  in  1789  he,  in  connec- 
tion with  other  parties,  purchased  the  '  Star,'  a  daily  evening 
newspaper,  of  which  he  became  editor.  This  office  he 
continued  to  hold  until  within  a  few  years  of  his  death, 
when  bodily  infirmities  and  the  pressure  of  other  engage- 
ments compelled  him  to  relinquish  it.  The  political 
opinions  of  Tilloch  were  temperate.  For  many  years  he 
devoted  attention  to  means  for  the  prevention  of  the  for- 
gery of  bank-notes,  and  in  1790  he  made  a  proposal  to  the 
British  ministry  on  the  subject,  which  met  with  an  unfa- 
vourable reception.  He  then  offered  his  invention  to  the 
French  government,  who  were  anxious  to  apply  it  to  the 
printing  of  assignats  ;  but,  after  some  experiments  had 
been  made,  and  negotiations  had  been  urgently  sought 
by  the  French  authorities,  all  communication  on  the  sub- 
ject was  cut  short  by  the  passing  of  the  Treasonable  Cor- 
respondence Bill.  In  1797  he  presented  to  the  Bank  of 
England  a  specimen  note,  produced  by  block  or  relict' 
printing,  which  was  certified  by  the  most  eminent  en- 
gravers to  be  impossible  of  imitation ;  yet  nothing  was 
done  towards  the  adoption  of  his  or  of  any  similar  plan. 

Considering  that  there  was  room  for  a  new  scientific 
journal,  in  addition  to  that  published  by  Nicholson,  Til- 
loch published,  in  June,  1797,  the  first  number  of  the  '  Phi- 
losophical Magazine,'  a  periodical  which  has  ever  since 
maintained  a  high  reputation  as  a  record  of  the  progress 
of  science,  and  a  digest  of  the  proceedings  of  learned 
societies  at  home  and  abroad.  Of  this  work  he  was  sole 
proprietor  and  editor  until  a  few  years  before  his  death, 
when  Mr.  Richard  Taylor,  who  succeeded  him  in  its 
management,  became  associated  with  him.  In  the  earlier 
numbers  of  the  '  Star '  Tilloch  published  several  essays  on 
theological  subjects,  some  of  which,  relating  to  the  pro- 
phecies, were  subsequently  collected  into  a  volume  by 
another  person,  and  published  with  the  name  '  liiblicus  ;' 
and  in  1823  he  issued  an  octavo  volume  entitled  '  Disserta- 
tions introductory  to  the  study  and  right  understanding  of 
the  language,  structure,  and  contents  of  the  Apocalypse,  in 
which  he  endeavours  to  prove  that  that  portion  of  Scripture 
was  written  much  earlier  than  is  usually  supposed,  and 
before  most  of  the  apostolical  epistles.  His  views  on  this 
and  other  points  are  discussed  at  length  in  a  notice  of  this 
work,  published  soon  after  his  death,  in  the  '  Eclectic 
Review.'  The  last  work  undertaken  by  Tilloch  was  a 
weekly  periodical  entitled  the  '  Mechanic  s  Oracle,'  devoted 


T  I  L 


T  I  L 


principally  to  the   instruction   and  improvement   of  the 
working  classes.     The  first  number  appeared  in  .Tnlv 


and  it  was  discontinued  soon  afler  Ins  death,  which  took 

.1,  on  the  20th  of  January, 

Tilloch  married  early  in  life.     His   wife  "died  in   17*.!. 

who  becau;  Gait. 

uliar,   and  he  was  one  of 

.ot  a  small  body  who  took 

the  name  of  Cb  -.  and  nut  for  worship  in  a 

private  ho 

of  many  learned  'ritain  and  elsewhere, 

and  was  propo- 

a  fellow  Of  the  K  ut  his  nan. 

withdrawn  :nmg  to  the   ballot,  in  co:iseqn« 

anii.-  at  he  would  be  objected  to,  not  on  ao 

of  a;r  v  in  talent  or  character,  hut  solely  because 

tor  of   a    newspaper.      A  memoir   of  Dr. 

Tilloch  appeared  in  the  'Imperial  Magazine '  foKMarch, 

from  which,   with  the  ;•.-  i  other  obituary 

notices,  the  above  account  is  condensed.     This  was  re- 
printed in  the  last  number  of  the  '  Mechanic's  U. 
with  a  portrait. 

TII.LOTSOX.  .10I1N,  D.D.  born  UxJO,  died  1C 
prelate  and  one  of  the  most  celcbiated  divines  of  the 
Church  of  Kngland.  He  was  born  at  Soweihy  in  York- 
shire, a  member  of  the  great  parish  of  Halifax,  of  a  Puritan 
family.  His  father,  who  was  engaged  in  the  clothing  trade, 
belonged  to  that  extreme  section  i>f  the  Puritans  who 
-tablishing  a  genera!  system  of  Independency,  and 
be  belonged  himself  to  an  Independent  church,  of  which 
Mr.  H  Alter  having  been  a  pupil  in 

the  grain';,  ntry,  the  writers  of  his  Life 

not  having  told  us  what  scb  :•  an,  but  doubtless  the 

grammar-school  at  Halifax  became  a  pensioner  of 

.bridge,  in  1017.  and  a  fellow  of  the  c 

in  Ki-'il.      It  appears  that  he  remained  in  the  University  till 

IC57.      Puritanism  was  at  that,  period  in  the  ascendency  at 

Cambridge  :    but  Tillotson  very  early  freed  himself  from  his 

educational    prejudices,   became    a    great   admirer   of  the 

writings  of  Chillingwoith,  and  soon  showed  himself  one  of 

a  class  of  per-ons  who  were  then  beginning  to  be  coii-idcr- 

able  in  Kngland.  who,  taking  their  stand  on  the  Scriptures, 

opposed    themselves    at    once   to   Homanism   on   the    one 

hand  and  to  Calvinism  on  the  other.      This    position  he 

ever  after  maintained,  and  his  celebrity  arises   principally 

from  the  ability  with  which  he  illustiated   and  defended, 

both    from    the   pulpit   and   the   press,  the'    principles  of 

••-in.  and  of  a  rational  and  moderate  orthodoxy. 

It  may  he  .  that    -o  much   of  the  effects   of  his 

original   Puritan  education  remained  with  him,   that   he 

Whig,  although  it  must  be  owned  that  he 

Mined  and  occasionally  expressed  notions  of  the  duly 

liich.  if  acted  upon,  would  have  maintained 

on  the  throne. 

ore  he  entered  holy  ordeis,  he  was  tutor  in  the 
family  of  Prideanx.  the  attorney-general  to  Cromwell. 
This  led  to  his  residence  in  London,  and  brought  him  into 
acquaintance  with  several  eminent  persons.  I  Ie  w  as  thirty 
yeaw  of  age  before  h.  ordination,  and  the  service 

:rs  to  have  been  performed  with  sonic  drg 
privacy,  n-  it  is.  we  believe,  not  known  when  or  where  it 
:ined,  and  only  that  the  bishop  fiom  whose  hands 
lie  received  it  vvas  not  a  bishop  of  the  Kuglisli  church, 
but  the  bishop  of  (talway  in  Scotland.  Dr.  '1  homas  Sydserf. 
All  tl  !  iinperleclioiis  'of  his 

asserted  t!  ought 

before  the   public  by  the  noii-juring  paitv.  when  tl  • 
him  elevated  to  the  prii  :    which  Bancroft  had 

retired. 

li  is  said  by  his  biographer.  Dr.  Thomas  Uirch.  that  he 
was  not  p.  'islied    with    the    terms   of    m'lM 

conformity    required  by  the  act    of   ICIiJ,   which  i 

'•linrch  of  Km:!  ..n   the  whole  he 

r  to  nccc|  'ime   a 

nt'oimable  III'IM  '  church. 

H.    y.a,    for  a  short    tune    curate    at    Cheshunt.  and  also 
'  time  rector  of  Kcttoii   in  Suffolk,  a   living  to 
which  h. 

of  tiw  Puritan  friend*.     Hut   IP  Mo  a  wider 

1.  in   llidl.    the    preacher  at 
's  Church  in 


the  Je  •  ,s  that  those  sermons  were  iirca. 

which  attracted  crowds  of  the  most  accomplished  and  the 
learned  of  the  time,  and  which  have  been  since  read  and 
studied  by  many  succeeding  divines  of  eminence,  and  are 
at  this  day  the  basis  of  Ins  fame. 

The  course  of  his  preferment    in   the   church   during  the 
reign  ot  Charles  11.  was — l(i(ii).  a  prebendary  in  the  church 
.lerbury;    ll>7'-!.  anterbnry  ;    1<;7~>,   a    pre- 

bendary  in  the  church  of  St.  Paul  ;  and  1U77.  a  canon 
residentiary  in  the  .-.anie  cathedral.  Hut  as  soon  as  Kim,' 
\Villiam  was  established  on  the  throne  he  was  made 
of  St.  Paul's  and  clerk  of  the  closet  ;  and  in  April.  lOill, 
he  was  nominated  by  the  king  to  the  arclibishopric  of 
Canterbury,  an  appointment  which  appears  to  have  been 
really  received  by  him  with  reluctance,  and  winch 
posed  him  to  no  small  share  of  envy  from  very  ditt'erent 
parties.  The  truth  is.  that  besides  bis  eminent  merits  »» 
having  been  the  ablest  opposer  both  of  popery  and 
irreli^ion,  in  a  reisjn  when  the  tendencies  of  ' 

\alted  stations  were  in  one   of  these  direct 
he  had  a  strong  personal  interest   in   the   new  ki. 
lions,  who  is  .said,  on  credible  authority,  to   have 
that  there  was  no  honcster  man  than  Dr.  Tillostoii.  nor 
had  he  ever  a  better  friend.    He  was  archbishop  only  three 
years  and  a  half,  dyiiiLT   at   the  ai;e  of  sixty-four,      lie  was 
interred  in  the  church   of  St.  Lawrence  Jewry,  which  had 
been  the  cli:  :  his  hiirh  popularity. 

He    ilied   ()0or.     He   had  survived   both    his    children: 
but  he  left  a  widow,  who  \\as  a  :  '.]  and  the 

isrhter  of  Hisho|>  \Vilkins,  without   any 
exi'ept  the  copyright  of  his  works,  which  it  issaidprmi 

The  kin^  granted  her  a  peiiMon,  fii-st  cf -1(M)/..  and 
afterwards  of  200.'.  more,  which  she  enjoved  till  her  death 
in  1702. 

An  account  of  the  Life  of  Dr.  Tillotson  was  published  in 
s\o..  1717-  There  i-  a  n.uch  larger  Life  of  him  by  Dr. 
liirch.  prefixed  to  an  edition  of  the  works  of  Tillotson,  and 
published  also  in  an  Svo.  volume,  the  second  edition  of 
which  was  printed  in  l7-~':i,  containing  additional  m;  ' 
There  is  also  an  account  of  him  in  Le  Xeve's  •  Lives  of  the 
Prote>1ant  Archbishops  of  Kngland.'  Hirch's  edition  of 
the  Works  is  in  :>  vols.  folio,  17^)2. 

TILLY,  or  T1I.LI,  .JOHN  TSKKCLAS  Count  of,  was 
the  s  in  of  Martin  'IVerclas,  of  Tilly.  The  Tserclas,  whose 
is  also  written  T'Seiclaes,  were  an  old  patrician 
family  of  Hrussels  ;  John,  a  member  of  this  family,  ac- 
quired, in  14  IS.  the  lordship  of  Tilly,  in  South  lirai 
John  Tilly  was  born  in  155!),  at  the  castle  of  Tilly,  and  he 
early  entered  the  order  of  •'•  'i  whom  he  acquired 

that  spirit  of  fanaticism,  of  blind  obedience,  and  of  abso- 
lute command,  which  distinguished  him  during  his  whole 
life.  He  soon  abandoned  1.  -lical  profession,  and 

of  Philip  II. ,  kiiii:  i'f  Spain  and   K:itl   of 
the    Netherlands,   and    he    learned   the   pi:  war 

under  Alba,* Requeaens,  the  governor  of  th'  -inds. 

Don  Juan  of  Austria,  and  Alexander  ' 

of  the  Spaniards  auain-t  the  Pmlestaiit    inl.abitants  of  the 

MI  Netherlands  he  acquired  that  hatred  of  heretics 
and  thai  warlike  enthusiasm  for  the   Roman  Catholic  reli- 
gion, which  became  one  of  the  most  prominent  features  of 
his  ehaiacter.      Towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth   century 
ilie   service   of  the   emperor   Rudolph  II. ,  and 
distinguished     himself,     first     its     lieutenant-colonel,    ami 
'loncl   and  commander  of  a   regiment  of 
Walloons,  in  the   wars   against   the   Hungarian   insni: 
and  II:  1  III.  and  Ahmed  I.    Alter  the  ] 

of  Sitvatorok  in  KKH}.  between  Rudolph  II.  and  Ahmed  I.. 
•  pointed    roiiimamlcr-in-cliicf   of  the    ainn     of 
uilian.  duke  of   Havana,  which  was  in   a  veiy  d 

'e.     In  HiO!)  Tilly  commanded  the  ex|icdition 
against   Donauwcilh,   an   ini]ierial   town   which   had   I 
put    under    the    ban    for    having    persecuted    the    Roman 
Catholics,  and  which  surrendered  to  Tilly  without  ileti 
The  I.ig.i.  or  the  union   of  the  Roman  Cathohi 

appointed    him    <-omniaiider-in-chicl'  of    • 
.  and  he  held  this   high  office  until  his  death.      Tilly 
gained    the    (ii-st    great    victory    in    the  Thirty  Years'  Uar, 
which  broke  out  in  KilH.     [T'liiicrv   YKAUS'  WAR.]     After 
having  coii(]iiercd  the'  Upper  Palatinate  with  the  troo: 
\\>c  I.ig.i  and  those  of  the  duke  of  Havana,  he  i.n.po-, 

ipeiuil    geiieials  to    pursue    the   armv    of  I-'rederiek, 

king   of  Itoheinia.   insteail   of  taking   wint.  |   and 

all  the  fruits  of  their  comjuc.sts.     Warfare  in 


T  I  L 


453 


T  I  L 


winter  was,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  a  very  uncommon 
thing,  and  Tilly  met  with  much  opposition  to  his  plan ; 
but  at  last  the  Imperial  generals  consented  to  continue 
the  war.  Tilly  attacked  the  Bohemians,  who  had  taken 
up  a  fortified  position  on  the  Weisse  Berg,  near  Prague, 
and  in  a  few  hours  the  Bohemian  army  was  nearly  de- 
stroyed (8th  of  November,  1620),  while  only  some  hun- 
dreds of  the  Bavarians  were  killed.  Several  of  the  Bohe- 
mian nobles,  who  lived  at  Prague  or  resided  in  their 
castles,  were  warned  by  Tilly  to  fly  if  they  would  avoid 
the  vengeance  of  the  emperor ;  but  they  paid  no  attention 
to  this  generous  advice,  and  were  surprised :  twenty -seven 
of  them  were  beheaded. 

After  the  brilliant  victory  on  the  Weisse  Berg,  Tilly 
hastened  to  the  Rhine  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the 
count  of  Mansfield  from  joining  the  margrave  of  Baden. 
He  succeeded  in  this  object  by  his  skilful  manoeuvres.  The 
margrave  of  Baden-Durlach  was  attacked  in  the  defiles  of 
Wimpt'cn,  and  defeated,  after  an  heroic  resistance  (1622). 
On  the  2nd  of  June,  1622,  he  defeated  Christian  of  Halber- 
stadt  at  Hoohst ;  he  pursued  Christian  and  Mansfield  to 
Westphalia ;  defeated  them  at  Stadt-Loo,  near  Miinster,  in  a 
battle  which  lasted  three  days  (4th  to  the  6th  of  August, 
16215 :,  and  forced  them  both  to  disband  their  troops  and 
to  take  refuge  in  England.  For  his  victory  at  Stadt-Loo, 
Tilly  was  created  a  count  of  the  empire.  It  has  been 
related,  in  the  article  THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR,  how  skil- 
fully Tilly  first  weakened  and  then  destroyed  the  army 
of  kini^  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark ;  but  the  principal 
glory  of  this  campaign  was  earned  by  Waldstem,  WOO, 
alter  having  joined  Tilly  on  the  banks  of  the  Lower 
Elbe,  persuaded  Tilly  to  turn  his  arms  against  Holland, 
and  to  leave  him  the  conquest  of  Denmark.  After  Wald- 
stein  had  been  deprived  of  his  command  in  1630,  and 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden,  had  landed  in  Ger- 
many, Tilly  was  appointed  field-marshal  and  commander- 
in -chief  of  the  imperial  army.  He  appreciated  so  justly  the 
military  talents  of  his  new  opponent,  that  in  the  assembly 
of  the  electors  at  Ratisbon  he  declared  Gustavus  Adolphus 
to  be  so  great  a  commander,  that  not  to  be  beaten  by  him 
wa>  as  honourable  as  to  gain  victories  over  other  generals. 

The  first  great  event  of  the  new  campaign  was  the  cap- 
ture of  Masfdeburir,  on  the  10th  of  May,  1631.  The  Croats 
and  the  Walloons  in  the  imperial  army  committed  unheard- 
of  cruelties  against  the  unhappy  inhabitants ;  30,000  of 
them  were  killed,  and  the  town  was  entirely  destroyed  after 
three  days'  plunder.  It  has  generally  been  believed  that 
some  Imperial  officers  besought  Tilly  to  stop  the  atrocities  of 
the  soldiers,  and  that  he  coolly  answered, '  Let  them  alone, 
and  come  back  in  an  hour.'  But  this  is  a  mere  invention, 
and  however  severe  Tilly  was,  he  cannot  be  charged  with 
having  urged  the  commission  of  cruelty,  although  he  con- 
sidered the  plunder  of  a  conquered  town  as  the  fair  reward 
of  the  soldier.  On  the  14th  of  May  Tilly  made  his  en- 
trance into  the  smoking  ruins  of  Magdeburg.  In  a  letter 
to  the  emperor  he  said  that  since  the  destruction  of  Troy 
and  Jerusalem  there  had  been  no  such  spectacle  as  that 
which  Mairdi-burg  presented.  Six  months  later  Tilly,  who 
was  in  a  fortified  camp  at  Breitenfeld  near  Leipzig,  was 
forced,  by  the  impetuosity  of  his  lieutenant,  Pappenheim, 
to  engage  in  battle  with  Gustavus  Adolphus  before  his 
reinforcements  had  arrived.  Tilly  himself  was  successful 
in  his  attack  on  the  left  wing  of  the  Swedes,  which  was 
broken,  and  the  elector  of  Saxony,  who  commanded  it, 
fled  as  far  as  Eilenburg.  But  Gustavus  Adolphus,  who 
had  beaten  the  left  wing  of  the  Imperialists,  under  the 
command  of  Pappenheim,  stopped  the  progress  of  Tilly, 
and  alter  a  long  and  bloody  straggle  the  imperial  army 
was  routed.  When  Tilly  saw  the  flight  of  his  .soldiers,  he 
swore  that  he  would  not  survive  the  day  on  which  he,  the 
victor  in  thirty-six  battles,  was  to  fly  for  the  first  time  in 
hi*  life.  Alone  on  the  field  the  old  field-marshal,  bleed- 
ing from  three  wounds,  shed  tears  of  despair,  and  looked 
for  death  as  his  only  consolation.  However  Duke  Rudolph 
of  Saxc-Lauentmrg  persuaded  him  to  withdraw;  and 
Tilly,  putting  himseh'  al  the  head  of  fonr  regiments  of 
fought  his  way  through  the  main  body  of  the 
SwulUh  army.  He  narrowly  escaped  from  the  bold 
attack  of  a  Swedish  captain,  called  'Long  Fritz,'  who  was 
killed  by  a  pistol-»hot  at  the  moment  when  he  was  seizing 
the  field-marshal  (17th  of  September,  1631).  After  the 
loss  of  tlie  battle  of  Leipzig,  fortune  abandoned  Tilly  for 
ever.  Although  he  afterwards  succeeded  in  driving  the 


Swedes  from  Francor.ia,  Gustavus  Adolphus  compelled 
him  to  retire  beyond  the  Lech.  In  order  to  prevent  the 
Swedes  from  penetrating  into  Bavaria,  Tilly  took  up  a  very 
strong  position  near  Ram,  on  the  right  bank  of  that  river. 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  having  arrived  on  the  left  bank  oppo- 
site Rain,  opened  a  fire  from  all  his  batteries  on  the  Bava- 
rian camp,  while  his  pontooniers  endeavoured  to  construct 
a  bridge  over  the  river  (5th  of  April,  1632).  Tilly  made 
the  most  active  resistance,  but  a  ball  broke  his  thigh,  and 
he  was  removed  from  the  field  and  carried  to  Ingolstadt. 
After  the  fall  of  Tilly,  the  elector  of  Bavaria  abandoned 
his  invincible  position,  and  the  Swedes  crossed  the  river. 
Tilly  died  on  the  day  after  the  battle,  in  his  seventy-third 
year,  without  leaving  any  issue. 

Tilly  was  a  little  ugly  man,  with  red  hair,  large  whiskers, 
a  pale  face,  and  piercing  eyes.  He  continued  to  lead  a 
monastic  life  in  the  midst  of  the  noise  and  the  licence  of 
his  camp ;  he  boasted  that  he  had  never  touched  wine  nor 
women  ;  he  spoke  little,  but  thought  much ;  he  despised 
honours  and  money ;  the  emperor  wished  to  confer  the 
duchy  of  Brunswick-Calenberg  upon  him,  but  Tilly  refused 
it,  and  he  died  poor. 

(Julius  Bellus,  Laurea  Austriaca ;  Breyer,  Geschichte 
des  Dreissigjdhrigen  Krieges ;  Schiller,  Geschichte  des 
Dreiuigjanrigen  Krteges ;  Leo,  Univerml-Geschichte.~) 

TILSIT  (more  correctly  TILSE),  the  chief  town  of  Prus- 
sian Lithuania,  is  situated  in  55°  4'  N.  lat.  and  21°  56'  E. 
long.,  in  a  fertile  country  on  the  south  bank  of  the  river 
Memel  (called  in  Russia  the  Niemen).  The  little  river 
Tilzele  (pronounced  Tilshele)  forms  on  the  south  side  of 
the  town  a  large  basin,  and  discharges  itself,  between  the 
town  and  the  suburbs,  into  the  Memel,  over  which  there  is 
a  bridge  of  boats,  which  is  1150  feet  long  without  the  ap- 
proaches. The  thirty-six  boats  or  pontoons  are  removed  at 
the  approach  of  winter  into  the  Tilzele,  and  replaced  in 
spring.  The  master  of  the  Teutonic  Order  built  the  old 
castle  in  1289,  which  was  repaired  and  enlarged  in  1356 ; 
but  the  present  castle,  to  the  east  of  the  town,  was  not  built 
till  1537-  In  process  of  time  a  considerable  town  grew  up 
round  the  castle  ;  favoured  by  its  excellent  situation  it 
became  the  channel  for  the  great  trade  between  the  in- 
terior of  Russian  Poland  and  the  port  of  Memel,  so  that  it 
was  one  of  the  most  flourishing  towns  in  the  province. 
The  principal  buildings  and  public  institutions  are,  the 
castle,  the  town-hall  (built  in  1752-55),  the  German  Lu- 
theran church,  with  a  very  lofty  and  curious  steeple,  the 
very  pretty  Lithuanian  church,  the  Calyinist  church,  and 
the  Roman  Catholic  chapel  on  an  eminence  at  a  short 
distance  from  the  town  ;  the  gymnasium,  founded  in  1586  ; 
a  Lutheran  and  a  Roman  Catholic  hospital,  a  poor-house 
and  infirmary,  and  other  charitable  institutions.  The  bar- 
racks, COO  feet  in  length,  36  in  breadth,  and  two  stories 
high,  were  erected  in  1794-1800,  by  a  society  of  the  citi- 
zens, that  the  troops  might  not  be  quartered  in  the  houses. 
The  inhabitants,  about  12,000  (exclusive  of  the  garrison), 
chiefly  draw  their  subsistence  from  the  trade  in  corn,  lin- 
seed, and  timber ;  many  are  engaged  in  agriculture  (the 
town  possesses  lands  of  its  own,  and  many  of  the  citizens 
have  considerable  estates) ;  and  there  are  likewise  brew- 
eries, distilleries,  tanneries,  and  all  the  trades  usually 
carried  on  in  large  towns.  The  shoes  of  Tilsit  are  cele- 
brated for  durability  and  neatness,  and  great  quantities 
of  them  are  exported.  There  are  many  good  gardens  in 
the  town  and  environs,  particularly  those  of  the  Horticul- 
tural Society. 

Tilsit  has  acquired  historical  celebrity  by  the  treaties  of 
peace  concluded  on  the  7th  and  9th  of  July,  1807,  between 
France,  Russia,  and  Prussia,  the  terms  of  which  are  too 
well  known  to  be  stated  in  this  place :  yet  in  five  years 
after  this  peace,  which  seemed  to  have  laid  continental 
Europe  prostrate  at  the  feet  of  Napoleon,  a  part  of  that 
immense  army  which  was  to  have  subdued  Russia  (Mac- 
donald's  division)  was  seen  to  return  desponding,  silent, 
and  miserable  over  that  same  river  which  had  so  lately  wit- 
nessed the  triumph  and  splendour  of  the  conqueror. 

(Miiller,  Handbuch ;  Preuss,  Beschreibung  von  Preussen  ; 
Hassel,  Ge.ogr. -Handbuch.) 

TILT-HAMMER,  a  large  hammer  worked  by  machinery, 
impelled  either  by  a  water-wheel  or  a  steam-engine.  Such 
hammers  are  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  iron 
and  steel,  and  the  name  tilt-mill  is  sometimes  applied  to 
the  mechanism  of  which  they  form  the  principal  feature. 

In  the  process  ol  shingling  or  blooming  [laoN,  vol- 


T  !    M 


T  i  M 


H.  the  heated  iron  is  subjected  (n  a  very  heavy 

.1  ne\j 

Iross.     Tho   kind   of   lilt-l  nnerly 

•irpose  i»  rppri  '       i'id.   in  hfs 

in  Ijirdner's  M'aliinrt 

've    ul'  the 

hammer  as  nine  feet  in  length,  ami  thirtv  inches 

in  circumfprenc  and  rlamned  at   intervals 

with  stout  iron  hoops.   This  shtifl  passed  through  the  head 
of  the  hammer,  which  was  a  mas>  •  in,  weighing 

nr  eight  rwt..  and  was  secured  at  the  opposr 
to  a  r  .   the   hum!,  the  pro- 

which  formed  the  axis  or  centre  of 
motion,  and  were  sustained  by  a  strong  frame-work  of 
tiinl  the  hammer  was  placed  a  very  strong  hut 

igh  ash  bound  with  iron  i 

;>ring  to  increase  the 
•  .>ke.  the  head  of  the  hammer  was 

thrown  up  '  -,  a  ponderous  circular  frame 

of  iron,  with  lour  projecting  arms  or  teeth,  which  came  in 

contact   with  the   shaft  very  near  to  the   head    of   the 

hammer.      '11, is   circular  frame,   or   nrm-rasp,    was   fixed 

immediately   upon   the    axis   of  tin  heel   which 

•ied  the  mo\ing-power.     In  modern  iron-works,  the 

.ally  formed  entirely  of  iron,  the 

:ing   the   actual    head   of  the    hammer    being 

east-iron  helve  in  such  a  manner 

that  it  may  ho  remo\ed  when  worn  out.     The  spring-beam 

•  mently  dispi -us, -d  with,    and  the   hammer  is  lifted 

anus  acting  upon  the  extremity  of  the 

helve,  beyond  the  hammer-head,  or  by  an  eccentric,  or 

cam.  revolving  in  contact  with  a  projection  from  the  under 

side  of  the  hehe,  between  the  hammer-head  and  the  axis 

or  centre  of  motion.     Holland  represents  a  tilt-hamn 

the  latter  construction,  which   is  about  six  tons  in  weight, 

and  nine  feet  five  inches  long  from  the  axis  to  the  centre 

of  the  head.     The    hammer-head    itself  is   circular,   and 

nit   eight,  cwt.     Such  a  hammer  makes  about 

one  hundred  and  fifty  si  yokes  per  minute. 

'Hie  tilt-hammers  iised  in  tfie  manufacture  oi'  steel  are 

smaller  and  much  more  rapid  in  their  action.     Instead  of 

receiving  the  impulse  of  the  cams  near  their  head. 

hammers  are  set  in  motion  by   tappets  or  cogs  striking 

downwards  upon  the  tail   of  the  hehe  or  shall,   which  is 

iigcd  beyond  the  axis.     The  tail  of  the  helve  is  thus 

11    down    forcibly   upon    an   anvil,    from    which    it 

rebound)  with  great  velocity,  causing  the  hammer  to  make 

from  three  to  seven  hum:  -  in   a  minute.     Tilt- 

hium  plied  with  great  advantage  to  the  forging 

When  tilt-hammers  are   impelled  by  water-wheels,  it  is 

ible  to  fix  the  cams  or  arms  upon  a  separate  shaft. 

which  may  revolve  at  any  required  velocity  without  in- 

;ig    the    \eloeity   of   the    water-wheel   itself,   by  the 

intervention  of  snilai  wheels.     Without  Inch  an 

arrangement  much  of  the  useful  effect   of  the  water  may 

he  Ic-'.  owing  to  the  the  wheel  to  a 

TniAKl'S   T.>n.,.r  .the  son  of  Andromachus,  was  born 
:it   Tauromenium  in  Sicily,  whence  he  is  sometimes  called 
-romenian.  and  sometimes  a  Sicilian,  to  distinguish 
him  ,ns  of  the  same   num. 

hi-   birth  was  B.C.  Tt.V.2.     Tie  ,vas  a  disciple  of  I'hili'sciis  of 
Miletus,   who  had  hiinselr  been   instructed   b\ 

.  ..null)  In 
.1)1011  he  wc'nt  "t  This 

11   in-.  :tl(),  when 

Ihocle*,  af  ';    iH-ra,  and  before  taking  his 

arirn  iou*  pretext*  the 

f  hiswcalt  •-,  and  endeavoured  l 

i-scs.ioii-  in  SieiK  by  putting  to  death  or  sending 
ichai  he  thought  il  Id  .-.ardshim.    Din- 

Sic.,  xx.   :  arsatAth. 

drtudving.     ,  Polybii  -  About  the  year 

n.<.  •_><;<).  when    Athens  WU  taken   by  Antigomi*.  Timaeus 

•   his  native  country,  cither  to  'I'auromenium   or 

.t  the  remainder  of  bis  life,  and 

•>l,  the  main  subject 
Sicily.     It  began  at  the  c 

i    down    to   Olyiupiiid    U'.i 
J04'.  where  the  woik  of  Polybius  begins.    (Polybius, 


i.  5.^    How  many  hook*  the  rtain, 

though  we  know  that  (her. 

.•en    divided   into   la- 
which  formed  in  itself  a  - 
spoken  of  by  several  writers  as  so  m»'  - 
Thtiii  one  section  bore  the  •  and 

contained  the  early  history  of  Sicily  in  connection  with  that 
of  Italy  ;  another  was  called  'SitiXii.-.!  rni'KKXqi-irri.  and  con- 
tained the  history  of  Sicily  and  > 

the  Athenian  expedition*  to  Sicily.     An<  again 

contained  the  history  of  Airatboeles  :   ami  the  last  t!i 
lory  of  Pvrrhus.  especially  his  campaign*   in    Italy  and 
Sicily.     Tins  last   section  was,  according  to  the  testimony 
of  Cicero   A>l  l-'umil..  \ .  1'J  .  a  separate  work,  thongh,  sj 
regards   the   period  which  it    comprehended,    it    m,. 

1  as  a  continuation  of  the  great  historical  work. 
This  history  of  Timaeus,  which,  with  the  exception 

vrablc  number  of  fi  .  "as  com- 

menced by  him   during  his  exile  at  Athens,  and  »'  : 
advanced 'age  ;  but   he  did  not   complete  it  till   after  hfs 
return  to  his  own  country  ;  and  it  was  here  that  be  ndded 
the  history  of  the  last  years  of  the  reign  of  Agathocles  and 
wrote  the  history  of  Pyrr! 

and  value  of  the  work   the  antients  do  not  ngr 
bius  is  a  vehement  opponent  of  Timaeus.  and  compla- 
ins ignorance  of  political  as  well  as  military  a  flairs;  he 
furthe:  .it  Timaeiis  made    blunders  in   the 

graphy  even  of  places  and  countries  which  he  himself  had 
visited.     His  knowledge,  he   says,  was  altogether  d 
from  books;  his  judgment  was  puerile;    and    the  whole 
work    bore   strong   marks    of  credulity   and   superstition. 
But  this  is  not  all  that  Polybius  blan 
him    with    wilfully   perverting  the    truth.     Tin 
which  Timaeus  himself  had  for  censuring  others  is  said 
to    have   drawn   upon  him  the    nickname   of   Kpiti, 
(fault-finder).    (Athentrus,  vi.,  p.  272.'     Most  parts  of  this 
severe  criticism  of  Polybius  may  be  perfectly  just ;  but  in 

1  to  others  we  should  remember  thst  these  two  his- 
torians wrote  their  works  with  such  totally  different  \ 
that  the  work  of  Timaeus,  who  knew  the  world  only  from 
his  books,  must  in  many  respects  have  appeared  absurd  to 
the  author  of  a  '  pragmatical'  history,  and  to  a  statesman 
and  general  like  Polybius.  Hut  the  lo<s  of  the  work  of 
Timaeii-.  e\cn  if  lie  did  no  more  than  make  an  uncritical 
compilation  of  what  others  had  told  before  him,  is  one  of 
the  greatest  in  antieut  history.  Other  ancient  w 
such  as  Diodorus,  Agatharchidi  <.  Cicero,  and  others,  judge 
far  more  favourably  of  Timaeus.  The  style  of  the  work. 
as  far  as  we  can  judge  from  the  fragmem  -.cen- 

sured by  some  antient  critic  ril  and  dec'. 

lory  character  ;  although    others,   like    Cicero     !>••  'Intl.. 
ii.  14  ;  Hmtii*.  !).">  .  speak   of  it   with  praise.     Timaeus  i- 
the  first  ('.reek  historian  who  introdr.- 
of  ehronoli-.  .  he  regularly  n  .•  cord- 

ing  to  Olympiads  and  1h.  :    and  al- 

i.  in    the  ear!}  his   history,  his  want    of 

-in  led  him  into  gloss  rhn  '  the 

example  which  .  '  .  fill   and   convenient. 

It  must  ha\e  been  with  a  view  to  an  accurate  study  of 
chronology  that  he  wrote  a  work  on  the  \ictois  in  the 
Olympian Camis,  of  which  we  still  possess  a  few  frag- 

The  fragments  ol'Ti.  in  (ililler's  work, 

.'  ]).  'Jd7.  <Ve..  which  also 

contains  'pp.  ]"!>  'Jnr.  'lion  on  the  life 

and   writings   of  Timaens.     The   1'ia^nnnl 

1   T.   Miiller.    •  .rtim 

1 1.   pp.  l!i:. 
I >f  II.  .  p.   1  i7.  edit.  \Ycsti -rmami  :  Clinton. 

fcc. 

'I'l.MAl-'.I  s    i,, a  Greek  Sophist,  who.  according  to 

the  supposition  of  Kulinkcn.  lived  in  the  third  century  uf 
the  Clnistian  MT:I.     ( 'oneerning  his  life  nothing  is  known  : 
me   has  onh   come  d.  i.m  with  a 

little  vocabulary  containing  the  explanation  of  words  and 
phrases  which  occur  in  the  writings  of  Plato.  11  heals  the 
title  it  TUIV  TOV  nXoVuvoc  XJJ/i.u.  and  is  iledieaied  to  one 
Gentianus,  of  who  ".  \Vhether 

9eH    I  he    gemo  :|ry  pf  Ti- 

miiens   is   doubtful  ;   a  i   »<   from 

[n  it    which  ha\e   no   leference   to  Plato, 

and   in  .  one 

might  feel  iMaMI  WbflHer  the  \vork  as  it  now  stands 


T  I  M 


455 


T  I  M 


as  an  abridgment  of  the  Glossary  of  Timaeus,  if  Photius, 
who  must  huvi'  had  the  genuine  work  before  him,  did  not 
describe  it  as  a  very  little  work  ((Spax*  irovi)fidrcov  iv  ivi 
\vfif).  But  notwithstanding  its  brevity,  the  work  is  very 
valuable;  and  Ruhnken  owns  that  he  has  not  discovered 
in  it  a  single  instance  of  a  word  or  a  phrase  being  ex- 
plained incorrectly.  There  is  only  one  MS.  of  this  Glos- 
sary, which  appears  to  have  been  made  in  the  tenth  cen- 
tury of  our  aera,  and  which  was  unknown  until  Montfaucon 
drew  attention  to  it.  It'was  first  edited,  with  an  excellent 
commentary,  by  Ruhnken,  at  Leyden,  1754, 8vo. ;  a  second 
and  much  'improved  edition  appeared  in  the  same  place, 
1783,  8vo.  Two  other  editions  have  since  been  published 
in  Germany,  with  additional  notes  by  G.  A.  Koch  (Leip- 
zig, 182H  and  1833,  8vo.). 

Suidas  (s.  v.  Ti/imos)  ascribes  to  Timaeus,  the  Sicilian 
historian,  a  rhetorical  work,  called  2t/XXoy»}  pi/ropuwv  a<fa>(j- 
ftwi;  in  sixty-eight  books,  which  Ruhnken,  with  great 
probability,  attributes  to  Timaeus  the  Sophist,  who  wrote 
the  Glossary  to  Plato. 

Uuhnken,  Praefatio  ad   Timaei  Glossarium  Platoni- 

rnni. 

TIMAEUS  (Ti'paiof ";,  of  Locri,  a  Pythagorean  philosopher. 
He  was  a  contemporary  of  Plato,  who  is  mentioned  among 
hi  pupils,  and  is  said  to  have  been  connected  with  him  by 
friendship.  (Cicero,  De  Finibus,  v.  29 ;  DC  Re  Publ., 
i.  10. j  There  exists  a  work,  Fltpi  rijc  roO  c6<r/jou  ^"Xijc 
•l)e  Anima  Mundi ;'  or,  on  the  Soul  of  the  Universe ;, 
written  in  the  Doric  dialect,  which  is  usually  ascribed  to 
Tiinaous  the  Locrian.  It  contains  a  brief  exposition  of  the 
Kiine  ideas  which  are  developed  in  the  Dialogue  of  Plato, 
which  is  called  after  him  Timaeus.  (Tenneraann,  Si/*t<-ni 
i/i'i-  1'lntoiiiM-lii'n  P/>i/r,s<iphie,i.,  p.  93,  &C.1  Sepaiate 
editions  of  it  have  been  published  by  D'Argens,  at  Berlin, 
1702,  Hvo.,  with  a  French  translation  ;  and  by  J.  J.  de 
(icMcr.  at  Leyden,  1830,  8vo. 

This  Timaeus  of  Locri  is  said  by  Suidas  to  have  also 
wrilteu  the  Life  of  Pythagoras  :  but  the  usual  carelessness 
of  Suidas  renders  this  a  doubtful  point,  as  be  may  possibly 
have  confciundL'd  the  Locrian  with  the  Sicilian  Timaeus, 
who  in  his  great  historical  work  must  have  treated  of  the 
History  uf  Pythagoras  at  considerable  length. 

(Fabricius,  Itililinth.Uruir..  iii..  p.  !»4,  &;<•.;  Goller,  De 
nrisinf  Si/r/ii-iitiii-iim,  p.  200,  &c.) 

TIMA'LIA,  a"  genus  of  birds  characterized  by  Dr. 
..•Id. 

fj'rnri  ir  f'/mracter. — Bill  strong  compressed,  deep 
altuml.  Nnxtrilx  subrounded.  Wings  short,  rounded. 
Tail  elongated  and  graduated.  Feet  strong  :  hind-claw 
twice  as  large  as  the  middle  anterior  claw. 

Dr.  Horsfield  states  that  a  peculiar  character  is  ex- 
hibited in  bothjhe  species  of  Tininlin  recorded  by  him,  in 
the  structure  of  the  plumes,  which  cover  the  back  and  the 
upper  parts  of  the  neck,  as  well  as  the  breast,  belly,  vent, 
ami  thighs.  He  remarks  that  the  separate  filaments 
'  of  Illiger),  which  constitute  the  vanes  or  webs  of 
those  plumes,  are  not  in  close  contact,  as  is  generally  the 
case,  but,  being  inserted  into  the  shaft  at  a  small  distance 
from  each  other,  they  diverge  with  perfect,  regularity. 
'  The  parts  which  they  cover,'  says  Dr.  Horsfield  in  con- 
tinuation, '  are  accordingly  marked  with  delicate  parallel 
lines,  and  wherever  several  plumes  lie  over  each  other, 
they  form  a  beautiful  reticulation.  On  the  posterior  part 
of  the  abdomen,  the  vent,  and  the  thighs,  the  plumes 
have  a  similar  structure  ;  but.  the  filaments  are  greatly 
rated  and  pendulous,  so  as  to  envelop  those  parts 
with  a  lax  plumose  covering,  which  on  near  inspection 
appears  covered  with  delicate  hairs.  This  appearance  is 
•u-rd  by  a  series  of  very  minute  parallel  villi,  on  each 
of  the  separate  filaments,  arranged  with  great  regularity 
and  beauty.  Plume*  in  which  this  structure  can  be 
i  tied  with  the  naked  eye  are  named  decompound  by 
id  described  as  those  whose  radii  are  pinnated 
ei  lateral  radii  ;  and  the  effect  which  the 
arrangement  of  these  decompound  plumes  has  in  the 
nrance  of  the  bird  is  exhibited  with  accuracy  both  in 
the  figure  of  Tii,/">m  pilrata  and  Timalia  guluri*: 

nil',    Tiil"ili"  /  if'-nf". 

/i  -Body  ovate,  rather  stout.   General  colour 

above,  brown  with  an  olivaceous  tint ;  underneath,  testa- 
::rey.      Head   capped  with  saturated 
•mt  and  "cheeks  white.     Breast   white    in- 
clining to  grey,  marked  with  intensely  black  stripes  by  the 


shafts  of  the  plumes.  A  narrow  white  band  commences 
at  the  forehead,  near  the  base  of  the  bill,  passes  back- 
ward, encircles  the  eye,  and  unites  with  the  white  plumes 
of  the  cheeks.  Axillae  white  ;  which  colour  al.-o  shows 
itself  in  a  narrow  border  of  the  wing.  Quills  and  tail- 
feathers  of  a  more  pure  brown  colour  than  the  other  parts  ; 
very  narrow  transverse  undulations,  of  a  darker  colour,  ob- 
servable on  the  tail-feathers  by  close  examination.  Plumes 
of  the  hypochondriac,  thighs,  and  vent,  long,  pendulous, 
decompound,  and  villose.  Lesser  wing-coverts,  as  well  as 
the  plumes  which  cover  the  nape  and  back,  greyish-blue  at 
the  base ;  which  colour  shows  itself  on  the  separate  fila- 
ments or  radii,  if  the  plumes  are  accidentally  deranged. 
Tail  underneath  brown,  with  a  hoary  tint.  Bill  black  and 
shining.  Feet  brown.  (Horsf.) 

Locality,  Habits,  $c. — Dr.  Horsfield  observes  that  the 
species  is  not  unfrequent  in  the  groves  and  small  woods 
which  abound  throughout  Java.  It  often,  he  says,  ap- 
proaches villages  and  plantations,  constructing  its  nest  in 
the  hedges  ;  and  he  speaks  of  it  as  one  of  the  social  birds 
that  delight  to  dwell  in  the  vicinity  of  cultivation.  In 
large  forests  he  did  not  notice  it.  .  He  describes  its  flight 
as  low  and  interrupted,  and  adds  that  wherever  it  resides 
it  is  a  welcome  neighbour,  in  consequence  of  the  peculi- 
arity and  pleasantness  of  its  note,  which  consists  of  a  slow 
repetition  of  the  five  tones  of  the  diatonic  scale  (c,  n,  E, 
F,  G),  which  it  chants  with  perfect  regularity,  several 
times  in  succession,  and  at  small  intervals  of  time.  Dr. 
Horsfield  further  remarked  that  the  sixth  tone  was  some- 
times added  ;  but  as  this  required  apparently  an  extraor- 
dinary effort,  it  was  by  no  means  so  agreeable  to  a  musical 
car  as  the  simple  repetition  of  the  five  notes,  which 
appeared  to  be  the  natural  compass  of  the  bird's  organs. 
(Zooiogvtfi  Researches  in  Java.} 


Timalia  pileata.    (Horef.) 

TIMALI'N^E,  Mr.  G.  R.  Gray's  name  for  his  third  sub- 
family of  Tiii-didee.  [THRUSHES  ;  TIMALIA.] 

TIMANBE8.     [SIERRA  LEONE.] 

TIMANTHES,  a  native  of  Sicyon  or  of  Cytlmos,  was 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  painters  of  Greece ;  he  was 
contemporary  with  Zeuxis  and  Pan-basins,  and  lived  about 
400  B.C.  The  works  of  Timanthes  were  distinguished  par- 
ticularly for  their  invention  and  expression,  and  one  of  the 
chief  merits  of  his  invention  was,  that  he  left  much  to  be 
supplied  by  the  imagination  of  the  spectator.  There  is  a 
remark  in  Pliny  (Hint.  Nat.,  xxxv.  30),  probably  a  quota- 
tion, which  bestows  the  highest  praise  upon  Timanthes  :  it 
says,  though  in  execution  always  excellent,  the  execution 
is  invariably  surpassed  by  the  conception.  As  an  instance 
of  the  ingenuity  of  Timanthes'  invention,  the  same  writer 
tells  us  of  a  picture  of  a  sleeping  Cyclops,  painted  upon  a 
small  panel,  but  in  which  the  painter  had  conveyed  a  per- 
fect idea  of  the  giant's  huge  size,  by  adding  a  few  satyrs 
measuring  his  thumb  with  a  thyrsus. 

Though  Timanthes  was  evidently  one  of  th™  greatest 

painters  of  antiquity,  antient  authors  have  mentioned  only 

••I' his  works:  Pausanias  makes  no  mention  of  him  at 

all,  and  Cicero  classes  him  among  the  painters  who  used 

only  four  colours.*    He  painted  a  celebrated  picture  of  the 

•  See  '  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities,'  art. '  Colores.' 


T  I  M 


45C 


r  i  M 


stoning  to  death  of  the  unfortunate  Palamed**,  the  victim 
of  thr  ignoble  revenge  of  Ulysses  for  having  proclaimed 
Im  apparent  insanity  to  be  feigned  =  »  subject  worthy  of 
tin-  pencil  of  a  great  master.  This  picture  is  said  to  have 
made  Alexander  shudder  when  he  saw  it  at  V.\-' 

•cs,  C/iil..  \iii.  !!>«:  Junius,  Cat.  Arti/.,  v.  •Tinmn- 
Tinmnthcs  entered  into  competition  with  Parrha- 
snis  at  -S«m<*,  and  gained  the  vntorv  .  the  sub-. 
the  paintings  was  the  contest  of  Ajax  and  I'lysses  for  the 
arms  of  Achilles.  [PARRHASH-V!  Hi*  most  eel. 
work  however  was  that  with  which  he  bore  away  the 
palm  from  Colotes  of  Teos;  the  subject  was  tin-  c 
tire  of  Iphigenia  ;  and  perhaps  no  other  work  of  antient 
art  has  been  tlie  object  of  so  much  criticism,  for  and 
against,  as  this  painting,  on  account  of  the  concealment  ol 
the  face  of  Agamemnon  in  his  mantle.  Theantients  have 
all  given  the  incident  their  unqualified  approbation,  but 
its  propriety  has  been  questioned  by  several  modem  critics. 
especially  by  Falconet  and  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  :  Fuseli 
however,  in  an  elaborate  and  excellent  criticism  in  In 
lecture,  has  probably  finally  settled  the  matter  in  favour  of 
the  painter.  The  Sacrifice  of  Iphigcnia  was  given  as  the 
subject  of  a  prize-picture  to  the  students  of  the  Royal 
Academy  in  177H,  and  ail  the  candidates  imitated  the 
•  trick '  o'f  Timanthes,  as  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  terms  it, 
which  was  the  origin  of  his  criticism  upon  the  subject  in 
his  eisrhth  lecture:  he  says,  'Supposing  this  method  of 
leaving  the  expression  of  grief  to  the  imagination  to  he,  its 
it  was  thought  to  be,  the  invention  of  the  painter,  and 
that  it  deserves  all  the  praise  that  has  been  given  it,  still  it 
is  a  trick  that  will  serve  but  once  :  whoever  does  it  a 
second  time  will  not  only  want  novelty,  but  be  justly  sus- 
pected of  using  artifice  to  evade  difficulties.' 

The  shallow  remark  of  Falconet  about  Timanthcs' ex- 
posing his  own  ignorance  by  concealing  Agamemnon's  lace, 
is  scarcely  worthy  of  an  allusion.  It  may  be  questioned 
whether  Agamemnon,  under  such  circumstances  as  he  was 
placed,  could  have  been  well  or  even  naturally  repre- 
sented in  any  other  way  :  although  many  things  might 
combine  to  render  his  presence  at  the  sacrifice  absolutely 
necessary,  still  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  he  could 
calmly  stand  by  and  be  un  eye-witness  of  his  own  daugh- 
ter's immolation  ;  notwithstanding  his  firm  conviction  that 
his  attendance  was  m-ces-ary  to  sanction  the  deed,  he 
could  not  look  upon  it ;  it  would  be  unnatural.  The  cri- 
ticism of  Quintihan,  Cicero,  and  others,  that  the  painter, 
having  represented  Calchas  sorrowful,  Ulysses  much  more 
so,  and  having  expressed  extreme  sorrow  in  the  coun- 
tenance of  Menelaus,  was  in  consequence  compelled  to 
conceal  the  face  of  the  father,  is  not  more  pertinent  than 
that  of  the  modem  critics.  'They  were  not  aware,'  says 
.i, 'that  by  making  Timanthes  waste  expression  on 
inferior  actors  at  the  expense  of  a  principal  one,  they  rail 
him  an  improvident  spendthrift,  and  not  a  wise  econo- 
mist.' 

Falconet   observes  that  Timanthes  had  not  even  the 
merit  of  inventing  the  incident,  but  that  he  copied  it  from 
Euripides:  upon  this  point  Fuseli  remarks — 'It  is  oh-. 
by  an  ingenious  critic  that  in  the  tragedy  of  Euripides  the 

C  cession   is  described;    and  upon    Iphigenia's   looking 
k  on  her  father,  he  groans  and  hides  his  lace  to  conceal 
his  tears:  whilst  the   picture  gives  the  moment  .that   pre- 
cede* the  sacrifice,  and  the  hiding  has  a  different  object, 
and  arises  from  another  impression  '    v.  1550). 

'  I  am  not  prepared  with  chronologic  proofs  to  deride 
whether  Kuripides  or  Timanthrs.  who  were  contemporaries 
nbout  the  period  of  the  Peloponncsiaii  war.  fell  li 
tins  expedient  ;  though  the  silence  of  Pliny  and  Quintilian 
on  that  head  seems  to  be  in  favour  of  the  painter,  neither 
of  whom  could  be  ignorant  of  the  celebrated  drama  of 
Kuripides,  and  would  not  willingly  have  suite  red  the  ho- 
nour of  this  master-stroke  of  an  art  they  were  so  much 
better  acquainted  with  than  painting,  to  be  transferred 
to  another  from  its  real  author,  had  the  poet's  claim  been 
prior.'  As  far  as  regards  priority,  the  'expedient'  was 
made  use  of  by  Polycnotus  long  before  either  Timanthes 
or  Kuripides;  in  the  Destruction  of  Troy,  in  the  I.esche  at 
Delphi,  an  infant  is  holding  his  hands  over  his  eyes,  to 
avoid  the  horrors  of  the  scene.  (Pausanias,  1'hnr.,  x.  13!. 

The  fifth  work  ol'Timanthcs  mentioned  by  the  aiitienN 
was  the  picture  of  a  hero,  preserved  in  the  time  of  Pliny 
in  the  Temple  of  Peace  at  Rome,  an  admirable  per- 
form ance. 


There  was  another  antient  painter  of  the  name  of  Ti- 
manthes :  he  was  contemporary  with  Aiatiis,  and  distin- 
guished himself  for  a  painting  of  the  battle  ul  lY!lcnc.  in 
Arcadia,  in  which  Aratus  . 

Hans.  ( (lun.  l:i.1.l  -'-Jll  M.c.  .  Plutarch  'praise,  tin'  pic- 
ture ;  he  terms  it  an  exact  and  animate  representation 
(Aral nt.  :t'J  . 

TIMBER-TRADE.    Several   centuries  ago  the  woods 
and   forests  of  Kngland  were   sufficient    to   supply  all   the 
timber  required   for  the  building  of  ships  and  hou-> 
well   as  for  fuel.      In   the   sixteenth   century  we   begin   to 
hear  complaints  ot  their  exhaustion.     An  act  having  been 
passed   in    ITi.'tl  requiring   coopers  to  sell  their 
fixed  prices    it  11.  n.  \  111.,  c.  -I  .  they   were  allowed  by 
another  act     :t.">  Hen.  VI 1:  piuofd  twelve 

afterwards,  to  increase  their  prices.  Various  circumstances 
rendered  this  change  necessary  ;  but  at  the  time,  t In- 
great  er  scarcity  of  timber,  though  only  n::  :'  the 
rise  of  the  material,  was  regarded  as  the  sole  i 
evident  from  an  act  passed  during  the  ».u  .  •  lor 
the  preservation  of  woods'  uC>  Hen.  VIII..  <•.  17  .  in  the 
preamble  of  which  '  the  decay  of  timber  and  woods  uni- 
versally within  this  realm  of  Kngland 'is  said  to  ; 
great,  •  that  unless  speedy  remedy  in  that  behalf  be  pro- 
vided, there  is  great  and  manifest  likelihood  of  scarcity 
and  lack  as  well  of  timber  for  building,  making,  repairing 
of  houses  and  ships,  as  also  for  fuel  and  tire-wood.'  The 
act  relating  to  the  price  of  barrels  required,  amongst  other 
things,  that  the  exporters  of  beer  should  import  • 
sufficient  to  replace  the  barrels  sent  out  of  the  country  ; 
and  the  other  act  was  designed  to  entorre  certain  iv 
tions  respecting  the  felling  of  trees,  and  to  prevent  the 
conversion  of  woodlands  into  pasture  or  tillage.  The 
wealds  of  Kent,  Sussex,  and  Surrey,  where  iron-works  had 
been  carried  on  from  very  antient  times,  were  excluded 
from  the  provisions  of  this  act.  In  15.~>rt  however  an  act 
was  passed  (1  Eliz.,  c.  15  ,  entitled  'An  Act  that  timber 
shall  not  he  felled  to  make  coles  for  the  making  of  iron,' 
which  prohibited  the  use  of  timber  one  foot  square  in 
iron-works  within  fourteen  miles  of  the  sea,  or  within  the 
same  distance  of  eight  of  the  principal  rivers  of  Kngland, 
or  any  navigable  stream  having  an  cutlet  on  the  coast  : 
but  the  three  .southern  counties  previous! v  mentioned 
exempt  from  the  operations  of  the  act.  The  design  seems 
to  have  been  to  encourage  the  trade  in  timber  fit  for 
building,  and  to  benefit  those  parts  of  the  country  which 
did  not  possess  a  sufficient  supply.  Iron-works  having 
been  subsequently  erected  not  far  from  London,  and 
within  the  prescribed  distance  of  the  Thames. 
within  other  limits,  and  which  required  so  much  fuel  that, 
the  woods  'daily  decav  and  become  scant,'  an  act  was 
1  in  l.'isil  ii  Kli/...  <•.  ">  to  prevent,  the  erection  of 
new  iron-works  within  the  limits  mentioned  by  the  act  of 
I.ViH,  and  tile  restrictions  respecting  felling  trees  vvcio 
renewed.  In  151)2  the  subject  again  attracted  notice,  and 
an  act  was  passed  :r>  Khz.,  c.  II  ,  which,  amongst  other 
things,  prohibited  aliens  exporting  fish,  unless  they  im- 
ported clapboards  :  and  altogether  prohibited  the  exporta- 
tion of  wine-casks.  In  the  following  century  the  scale  of 
prices  turned  in  favour  of  pit-coal.  Defore  the  discovery 
of  the  process  of  smelting  iron  with  pit-coal,  the  transfer 
of  tins  branch  of  industry  to  the  colonies  in  North  Ame- 
rica was  seriously  entertained,  and  Wits  carried  into  effect 
to  some  slight  extent.  It  was  also  suggested  that  the 
waste  lands  of  Kngland  should  be  planted  :  and  the  v 
of  Ireland  being  less  exhausted  than  those  of  Kngland,  a 
considerable  quantity  of  iron  was  for  some  time  smelted 
there. 

During  the  decline  in  the  internal  supply  of  timber,  it 
gradually  became  an  article  of  extensive  demand  from 
oilier  countries.  In  1K«),  according  to  a  statement  of  .Mr. 
Huskisson,  the  fir  timber  used  in  Kngland  for  building 
purposes  was  nearly  all  brought  from  abroad.  The 
portion  of  timber  of  native  production  used  for  similar 
objects  is  not  known  or  even  guessr(l  at.  >  th  of 

Kurope,  especially  the  countries  on  the  Haltic.  and  our 
colonies  in  Uritish  North  America, are  the  great  source.-  of 
supply.  Teak  is  brought  from  the  v.  :rica, 

maboganv  from  theHa\  of  Honduras  and  other  places,  and 
fane\   and    dye  woods    from  a   number   of   other  quail 
but  none  of  these  come  into  competition  with  the  building 
timber  of  the  Haltic  or  of  our  North  American  possessions. 
The  timber  of  the  north  of  Europe  is  generally  of  excellent 


T  I  M 


457 


T  I  M 


quality,  and  much  superior  to  the  colonial  timber.  Sir 
Robert  Seppings,  formerly  surveyor  of  the  navy,  stated 
before  a  parliamentary  committee,  '  that  Canada  timber  is 
peculiarly  subject  to  "dry-rot;  that  frigates  built  of  fir, 
the  growth  of  North  America,  did  not  average  half  the 
durability  of  other  timber ;  and  that  the  Royal  Navy  had 
suffered  so  much  from  the  use  of  Canada  or  North  Ameri- 
can timber,  that  its  use  was  now  altogether  discontinued, 
except  for  deals  and  masts.'  A  number  of  timber-mer- 
chants, builders,  and  carpenters  gave  evidence  before  the 
-same  committee  as  to  the  inferior  quality  of  the  colonial 
timber.  One  of  the  witnesses  said : — '  It  is  not  allowed  to 
be  used  in  government  buildings,  nor  is  it  ever  used  in  the 
best  buildings  in  London.  It  is  only  speculators  who  use 
it,  from  the  price  of  it  being  much  lower  than  the  Baltic 
*iruber.'  The  inferior  colonial  timber  is  forced  into  use 
by  enormous  differential  duties,  which,  before  the  recent 
alteration  of  the  tariff,  amounted  to  a  bonus  of  1000  per 
cent,  in  some  cases,  as  the  following  table  shows  : — 

Duty  on      Ditto  from  Differential 


Foreign 
Timber. 
£.    s.    d. 
Battens,  per  120    .         .         .         .       10    0    0 

UritUh 
possessions. 
£.  s.   d. 
1     0    0 
200 
0  15    0 
0  10    0 
060 
0  15    0 
0  10    0 
0  10    0 
0  12    0 
050 

duty 
per  cent. 

1000 
1000 
566  J. 
550 

1000 

533t 
550 
550 

625 
560 

Lath-wood,  por  fathom 
M  i  ts,  12  incite*  and  upwards 
,  average  duty  per  12U 
inks.  JMT  load     . 

,  eac 

450 
i        2  15    0 
300 
400 
2  15    0 

<  t.ik  ditto,  ditto     . 
-        .         • 
l'u  enumerated  timber  . 

2  15    0 
3  15    0 
1     8    0 

In  1787  the  duty  on  foreign  timber  was  only  6*.  8rf.  the 
load  of  fifty  cubic  feet,  but  it  was  raised  at  different  times, 
until,  in  1804,  it  amounted  to  25*.  In  1810  the  duty  was 
raised  to  54s.  8</. ;  and  from  1814  to  1820  it  was  64*.  llrf. 
and  65*.  the  load.  The  trade  in  colonial  timber  had 
:'ly  any  existence  before  1803,  although  until  1798 
it  had  been  admitted  free  of  duty ;  and  the  duty  imposed 
in  that  year  was  only  3  per  cent,  ad  valorem,  which  was 
changed  in  1803  to  a  specific  duty  of  2s.  the  load.  In 
consequence  of  the  war  there  was  a  great  rise  in  the  price 
of  European  timber,  and  Memel  fir  advanced  from  78*.  to 
320*.  the  load.  In  order  therefore  further  to  encourage 
the  supply  from  our  own  colonies,  North  American  timber 
was  asrain",  in  1806,  admitted  duty  free.  The  stimulus  was 
no  doubt  justifiable,  but  it  was  continued  after  the  tempo- 
rary causes  in  which  it  originated  had  passed  away.  The 
following  table  shows  the  effect  of  the  differential  duties 
in  substituting  colonial  timber  for  that  of  the  north  of 
Europe : — 


'juantitieg 
•iU  of 
I  iv  Year.. 

l!,iltic.     N.  A.  Colonies.     Total. 
Ld>.                  Lds.                 I/1-. 

Per  Centa^o 
proportion. 
Baltic.  Colonial. 

>  1793 

219,396 

9.660 

22_',i»5r 

y.i 

1 

I'O.'i 

1797 

164,000 

1  ^2.» 

165,825 

99 

1 

2,916 

180,935 

99 

1 

1803 

1D07 

1C.533 

W9.070 

94 

1 

1SI2 

73.718 

IZO.S37 

191,^55 

38 

62 

1814 

1H1S 

IL'S.MS 

147,597 

273,453 

46 

M 

ISl'J 

1823 

H«,6XM 

335,556 

452,158 

X 

74 

If  24 

1KJM 

I'.M.H'.H. 

410903 

602,"»93 

3-2 

64 

1W.7S3 

411,682 

5:::.,4iV, 

24 

76 

The  return  to  a  sounder  principle  of  taxation  has  been 
very  slow.  In  1821,  in  consequence  of  recommendations 
from  both  Houses  of  Parliament,  the  duty  on  European 
timber  was  reduced  from  G5v.  to  55*.  the  load,  and  a  duty 
ol  UK.  was  imposed  on  colonial  timber,  leaving  a  prefe- 
rence duty  of  45*.  still  in  operation.  In  1831,  the  govern- 
ment of  Karl  Grey  proposed,  by  gradual  reductions,  spread 
over  three  years,  to  lower  the  duty  on  European  timber 
15*.,  which  would  still  have  left  it  at  40*.,' or  30*.  higher 
than  colonial ;  but  the  measure  was  defeated  in  the  House 
of  Commons  by  a  majority  of  236  to  1!K).  A  committee 
of  the  House  of  Commons  which  inquired  into  the  timber 
duties  in  1835,  recommended  a  very  inadequate  reduction 
;u-  to  that  proposed  by  Earl  Grey's  government),  but 
it  was  not  followed  by  any  result ;  and  in  1841  the  govern- 
ment of  Lord  Melbourne  proposed  a  reduction  from  5.~>v. 
on  foreign  timber,  and  an  increase  from 
Id  .  the  load  to  15*.  on  colonial;  but  subsequent  party 
changes  prevented  this  alteration  being  effected.  In  the 
tariff  of  in  12  5  &  6  Viet.,  c.  47),  the  duty  on  colonial 
timber  has  been  reduced  to  a  merely  nominal  sum, 
namely,  1*.  the  load,  and  to  2v.  on  deals,  and  tid.  on  lath- 
wood.  The  reduction  on  foreign  timber  is  partly  prospec- 
tive. Until  the  loth  .  1843,  the  duty  will  be  3().v. 
*,he  load  on  timber,  and  after  this  date  25*. ;  on  foreign 
P.  C.,  Is 


deals  the  reduction  in  the  first  instance  is  to  35*.,  and  after 
October,  1843,  it  will  be  30*.,  and  the  duty  on  lath-wood  is 
at  once  reduced  to  10*.  the  load.  In  1841  the  duty  bn 
timber  produced  1,566,291/.,  and,  without  allowing  for  an 
increase  of  consumption  in  the  first  year,  the  loss  of  reve- 
nue is  estimated  at  601,4911. ;  and  for  the  year  ending 
October,  1844,  when  the  reduced  duties  will  be  fully  in  ope- 
ration, the  loss  to  the  revenue  will  be  589,99H.  according 
to  the  estimate  of  the  minister,  who  allows  for  an  increase 
of  12  per  cent,  on  foreign  and  20  per  cent,  on  colonial  tim- 
ber, and  20  per  cent,  on  foreign  and  24  per  cent,  on  colonial 
deals.  (Speech  of  Sir  R.  Peel,  llth  March,  1842.)  The 
mode  of  charging  the  duty  has  been  improved  and  rendered 
less  complex  under  the  present  arrangement.  Plankst 
deals,  and  battens  were  formerly  charged  by  the  great  hun- 
dred (120)  in  classes,  and  the  duty  was  disproportionably 
heavy  on  the  smallest  and  least  valuable  kinds.  In  mea- 
suring timber  in  logs,  or  unsawn,  the  cubic  contents  were* 
it  is  alleged,  not  fairly  calculated,  but  were  over-estimated 
to  the  extent  of  from  10  to  20  per  cent. ;  and  the  sawyers 
complained  that  timber  partly  cut  up  was  charged  with  a 
lower  proportional  duty  than  in  the  log,  by  which  their 
interests  were  needlessly  injured.  The  public  however 
have  still  reason  to  complain  that  the  duties  are  calculated, 
as  before,  to  interpose  restrictions  on  the  use  of  superior 
timber,  in  order  to  benefit  those  who  are  engaged  in  sup- 
plying the  inferior  article.  The  direct  loss  sustained  pre- 
vious to  the  recent  alteration  of  duty  was  estimated  at 
1,500,000^.  annually ;  and  a  great  sacrifice  of  revenue  has 
now  been  made  without  attaining  the  benefits  which 
might  have  attended  a  return  to  a  better  policy,  though 
the  disproportion  will  be  only  24*.  instead  of  45*.  the  load. 
Prussia,  Norway,  Sweden,  and  other  countries  are  still 
restricted  in  the  means  of  exchanging  their  products  for 
British  manufactures ;  the  preference  duty  on  Canadian 
timber  prevents  a  supply  of  timber  being  derived  from 
the  forests  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube  and  on  the  coun- 
tries bordering  the  Bk,ck  Sea ;  and  the  general  shipping 
interests  have  been  sacrificed  to  the  owners  of  six  or 
seven  hundred  half  worn-out  ships.  In  the  colonies 
the  monopoly  duty  has  diverted  industry  from  agriculture. 
It  has  been  repeatedly  shown  that  neither  to  any  portion 
of  the  shipping  interest  here  nor  the  timber  interest  of  the 
colonies  would  a  complete  equalization  of  the  timber 
duties  be  more  than  temporarily  injurious.  'The  fixed 
capital  embarked  in  saw-mills  does  not,  it  is  believed, 
exceed  200,000/.,  and  some  descriptions  of  Canadian  timber 
would  command  the  English  market  under  any  circum- 
stances, while  there  is  a  growing  demand  for  all  kinds  in 
the  Northern  states  of  the  American  union.  The  floating 
capital  now  engaged  in  the  trade  of  '  lumbering '  could  of 
course  be  transferred  with  little  difficulty  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  soil,  and  the  export  of  flour,  tobacco,  hemp, 
flax,  and  ashes,  would  fill  up  the  vacuum  occasioned  by 
the  diminished  export  of  timber,  and  would  require  the 
shipping  which  had  not  found  full  employment  in  the 
new  channels  to  which  the  timber-trade  would  be  directed. 
The  consumption  of  timber  in  the  United  Kingdom  in 
1841  was  as  follows  : — 


Battens  and  Batten  Ends 
Deals  and  Deal  Ends  from 

British  America 
Deals   and   Deal  Ends   from 

other  parts 

Staves  

Timber  8  in.  sq.  and  upwards 

from  British  America  . 
from  other  parts. 


Great  Hunda.      Gross  Herenne. 

18,969         £156,120 
44,148  90,113 


24,242 
89,699 

l/i, ills. 

613,079 
131,479 


491,980 
40,777 

337,795 
370,302 


Other  sorts  are  technically  called  '  woods,'  meaning  fancy 
woods  for  furniture,  &c.,  and  dye-woods.  Of  mahogany 
the  consumption  was  18,170  tons  in  1841,  having  been 
20,451  tons  in  1840.  (Report  of  Committee  on  Timber 
Duties,  1835  ;  British  and  Foreign  Reciew,  No.  4  ;  Por- 
ter's Progress  of  the  Nation,  vol.  ii.) 

TIMBER  AND  TIMBER-TREES.— Timber-trees  are 
those  the  wood  of  which  is  used  for  building  or  repairing 
houses.  Oak,  ash,  and  elm,  of  the  age  of  twenty  years 
and  upwards,  are  the  trees  most  generally  included  undev 
that,  denomination  ;  but  there  are  many  other  kinds  of 
trees,  such  as  beech,  cherry,  aspen,  willow,  thorn,  holly, 
horsechesnut,  lime,  yew,  walnut,  &c.,  which  are,  by  the 

VOL.  XXIV.— 3  N 


T  I    M 


TI  M 


i  of  certain  parts  of  Knglaud.  •  i  as  timber- 

trc«*,ai  betoff  those  used  ir 

Most  of  the  c«-  '  as  to 

what  trees  are  to  be  i 
fcrcnce  to  UM- stat.  46  Edw.   111.. 
enacted  tint  great  jr  groftx;  wood  of  th. 
ihirU  or  upwards,  should 

ipduti,  or  underwood,  should  1> 
Miy«  that  • 

first,  what  should  In-  considered  as  h: 

1  age  thoM  gion«  or 
rst,  the   answer  was, 

that  in  this  art  the  word  frot  «d  as 

luul  been  or  was  custom  of 

lor  the  act   di>.  ".d   to  other 

•  •r  would  nut  serve  for  li 
Ihou.  •  >s  or  greatness  of  timber. 

i  hose   gro- 

ild  lu'.  the  statute  resolved  tin 
theae  words:  -Great  wood  of  the  a  ire  of  ; 

,ls:'  which  words  w.  cd  a-s  dc 

the   common   law   on  the  subjcit.        -  I/a.:..  u-TJ. 

li  appears  now  to  be  settled,  though   there 
'.-ontiadictory  decisions  on  the  point,  that  ti 

-  and  upwards,  spume  from  old 
•ithin  the  exemption  of  i 

in  consequently  to  be  considered  as  timber.   (4  M.  & 

The   timber-trees   growing    upon  land   belong   to    tin- 
owner  of  the  inheritance.     A   tenant    tor  life 
qualified   i  llu-m.   ill  so   far   as    they   afford   him 

and  shelter,  and  a  right  to  take  the  mast  mid  fruit.    If 
unit  lor  life  fells  timber-trees  on  the  land  to  any  amount 
cr  than  he  is  entitled  '  hat  is  to  say,  the 

•ud  necessary  for  the  reparation  of  ! 
us,    he    becomes  liable    to   an    action  of  watte 
-IK];    and  the  trees,  which   by  these  or  any 
means,  accidental  or  otherwise,  have  become  severed  trom 
•cd  by  the  owner  of  the  inheritance, 
iin'may  be  brought  by  him  for  them.     <;t  P.  \\ . 
•. er.   the  estate'  of  the   tenant  for  life   be 
\\iihout   impeachment  of  waste,  he   ha.s  the   full  right   to 
fell  timber,  and  also  the  property  in  all  timber-trees  felled 
and  blown  down  during  hi- 

The  Court  of  Chancery  has  sometimes  directed  the 
timber  growing  on  an  esta'te.  whereof  a  person  was  tenant 
for  life,  to  be  cut  down,  for  tli  debts 

•rtred  upon  the  inheritance.    2  Vcrn.,  I.Vj. 
••cry  has  also  directed  timber  in  a  slate 
of  decay  to  be  cut  down  for  the  benefit  of  the  person  en- 
titled to  the  ini  provided  no  damage  were  done 
to  the  tenant  i.                  2  Ycrn.,  Jls. .     The   prac> 
these  cases  is  to  order  the  mom  from  the  sale  of 
the  timber  to  be  invested,   and'the  interest   of  it  paid  to 
the  tenant  for  1: 

In  leases  for  lives,  when  timber  is  included,  if  the  li 
tells  the  trees,  the  lessee  may  maintain  an  action  oi 
pass  against  him,  because  the  lessee,  though  he  may  not 
cvit  down  the  trees  without  being  subject  to  an  action  of 
waste,  has  an  interest  iu  them  for  shade  and  shelter,  and  a 
to  take  the  mast  and  fruit,  and  may  also  lop  them  if 
be  not   thereby  injured.     Hut  v. 

d  in  a  lease,  which  is  usually  done,  the  lessee  has  no 
hatevcr  in  them,  and  the   lessor  may  bring  an 
action  of  trespass  against  bun  if  he  tells  or  damage.-  them. 
The  lessor  has  also  a  power,  incident  to  the  except 

me  on  the  land  in  order  to  fell  a,nd  take  away  the 
trees;  though  tint  power,  for  the  sake  uf  molding  ques- 
tions, is  olti-n  c\pi. 

The  timber  growing  on  copyhold  estates  is,  by  the 
neral  custom  ot  most  manors,  the  property  ot  the  lord, win. 
i.  provided  he  leaves  a  sufficient  quantity 
,urs  of  the   copyhold,   which   the  copyholder   is 
entitled  to  of  -  lini   the 

the  copyholder  to  ha 

and  for  ploughbote  nnd  lu-dgcbntc.  maybe  i. 
custom,  namely,  that  he  shnll  not  take  it  wit 
ment  from  the  lord  or  his  bailiff,  ( l:(  /.'  * 

the  custom  of  the  manor  is  th;.  li   em- 

ploy the  timber  cut  down  in  the  r<  :    bis  tene- 

••>,  he  may  sell  the  tops  and  bark  toward 
the  expenses  ol  the  repairs.  U»  Hulx..  282.)    A  cop)  ! 
in  fee  may,  by  the  particular  custom  of  the  manor,  have  a 


right  to  but 

.-ell  th 

his  M 

but    a 
limb 


hold,  nnd 

long 
no- 

r   in 

lion 


•!•,   and   contrary  to   the   nalmc   ol    a  life 

•ng  consid. 
of  the  lancU  held  In 

•ii  (ieo.  MI..   0.  "i'J.  the  incumbent    of  am 

cut    from   the    i 

equality  of  exchange,   or   for  tin  -  or   lands 

purchased   by  him  under  the  statutory  powers   vested  in 
him  for  Mich" pur] 

Trustees  to  preserve  contingent  remainders  are  bound  to 
preserve  not  only  the  limitations  of  the  settlement  under 
which  they  are  trust'.-.  the  inheritance  of  which 

the  timber  is  part  ;  and  the  Court  of  '  will  inter- 

fere at  their  suit  to  prevent  the   owner  of  the  particular 
estate  joining  with  the  person  entitled  to  the   inheritance 
for  the  time  being  to  cut  down  the  timber  on  the  i 
(2Swan-t.. 

T1MHKK1,.  a  musical  instrument  of  the  highest  anti- 
quity; the  (yinjiiii/iiw  Icre  of  the  Roman  poets,  ai'd,  in  the 
opinion  of  all  writers  of  any  authority,  '  in  an 

almost  unaltered  state,  as  that  now  known  in  every  part  of 
e  under  the  names  of  tabor,  tambourine,  ttn/iltuitr  dc 

VV~'    TKMBOCTU,  TOMBOOKTOO,  ^ 

placed  by  Mr.  Arrowsnuth. 

of"  a  number  of  routes,   in  17"  8'  X.  lat. 

Air.  M'Qui'en,  to  whom  we  arc  s>o  much   in- 
debted for  the  extension  a 

i'rica.  had  placed  it   in  17 
2"  30' "\V.  long. ;  but  •  readily  yields  tl 

The)-  .  j;ncd  by  ,M.  .nith  may  be  assumed 

id  until  tl: 
by  astioiHiinic.il   ubscrwitions   on  the   sp(.'  ihca, 

thanti  .Micics  among  the  statements  of  tliose  who 

•ertain  the  positions  .  on  the 

.  .Niger  show  some  or  all  of  these  ijcntlciucu  to  ha\  c 
been. 

The  position  of  Timbuctii  is  one  which  is  most  impor- 
tant to  nave  ascertained, not  merely  on  aco 
the  ccnlrc  of  sn  mar.1. 

e  to  calculate  the  hori/oii>  -  and 

distances  ol"  many  places:   but  also  as  being,  what  the  cir- 
cumstance of  so  many  routes  meeting  there  might  ol' 
ha\e    shown,    the   index    of   tin 

.  and  dcpi  the  interior  of  Western  A. 

It   is  for  tie  in   important   position   relati 

to  the  history  of  the  > 

OBtnentof  the  trade  of  Africa,  and  of  its  progn 
ral  <-i\ili7ation. 

The  rude  map  of  the  northeni  curve  of  the  Kowara  by 
the  seh.Mihuaster  ot  Sultan  Hello,  the  sketch  of  the  po- 
of Timbnctii  given  to  Mr.  Park  by  an  old  Somonil  Moor, 
and  th  inn  of  central  1. 1  •-  :.>  Ptolemy, 

all  concur  i  'ing  the  Niger  at  the  most  northern 

point  ol  il-  :  .wing  fn>,t 

to  the  north,  then  to  the  cast,  and  ultimately  to  the  south. 
The  d:  .•!'  modern  English  tiavellers  on  the  Upper 

nnd    I.  r  place  it   beyond  a  doubt  that  tin 

iiatioiH  must  be  in  the  main  and    tJic 

.it  number  of  different  •  lined 

from  Arab  travellers  from  the  c:  o,  Al- 

giers. Tunis,  and  Tripoli,  to  the  interior,  as  well  as  from  the 
the  interior  themselves,  all  harmonize  with  and 

UN.     It  is  h.  HMlts 

cp  with  this  \  lew  that  -•  ;rcd  he  has 

not   intentional!)  deviated   from  \ciacih.  atnl    ; 

a  int  of  the  •  and  con- 
dition ol  irdividnal  places.  hwc  can  by  no 

to  stand  on  the  declivity  of  an  incon 

miles  north  of  the  N 
•  Not!  he,  '  is  to  be  seen  iu  all 


T  I  M 


459 


T  1  M 


but  immense  plains  of  loose  shifting  sands  of  a  yel- 
lowish-white colour.'  From  the  point  where  Caillig 
quitted  the  Niger,  to  Cabra,  the  port  of  Timbuctu,  a  dis- 
tance of  three  miles,  he  passed  along  a  narrow  canal,  and 
as  he  remarks  that  '  the  negro  slaves  hauled  the  canoe 
along  by  a  rope,  as  the  pole  would  not  have  been  suffi- 
cient to  move  it,'  the  natural  inference  is  that  he  was  pro- 
ceeding up  the  stream.  Between  Cabra  and  Timbuctu  he 
passed  two  lakes.  These  appearances  coincide  with  the 
statements  of  Arabian  geographers  that  a  wady,  filled 
during  the  rainy  season  with  a  stream  of  water,  extends 
from  north-east  of  Timbuctii,  and,  passing  to  the  south  of 
that  town,  disembogues  into  the  Niger  to  the  south-west 
of  it.  The  same  authorities  mention  a  number  of  similar 
wadys  at  a  distance  of  eight  or  ten  days'  journey  to  the 
north-east  of  Timbuctu,  extending  over  a  tract  of  country 
nearly  60  miles  iu  breadth,  and  all  apparently  converging 
as  they  descend  towards  it  as  to  a  central  point.  TheGozen 
Zair,  which  falls  into  the  Niger  a  short  way  to  the  south- 
east of  Kabra,  flows  from  the  west.  All  these  circum- 
stances concur  to  indicate  a  strong  analogy  between  the 
great  northern  curve  of  the  Niger  south  of  Timbuctu  and 
the  great  northern  bend  of  the  Hoanghu.  Both  rivers, 
descending  from  elevated  mountain  ridges  in  a  general 
northerly  direction,  are  encountered  by  the  slope  of  an  ex- 
tensive elevated  plain,  run  some  time  in  a  direction  from 
west  to  east  at  its  side,  and  then  turning  to  the  south  flow 
off  through  mountain  defiles.  It  is  this  peculiarity  in  the 
structure  of  the  plain  on  which  Timbuctu  is  situated  that 
has  rendered  that  site  from  a  remote  antiquity  the  meeting- 
place  of  so  many  converging  lines  of  traffic.  It  is  the 
nearest  point  at  which  the  traders  from  the  commercial 
di.-tricts  that  skirt  the  coasts  of  the  Mcditenanean  west  of 
Barca,  and  of  the  Atlantic  north  of  Cape  Nun,  can  strike, 
after  crossing  the  great  desert,  the  fertile  lands  extending 
to  the  south-east  and  south-west  along  the  Upper  and 
Lower  Niger. 

Leo  Africanus  states  that  Timbuctu  was  built  by  Mansa 
Suleiman,  about  the  year  610  of  the  Hejira  (A.D.  1214),  and 
that  it  soon  became  the  capital  of  a  powerful  state.  See- 
ing however  that  Ptolemy  places  towns  of  the  name  of 
Kiipha  K<«p(()  and  Nigeira  Metropolis  (Niysipa  MqrpoiroXif ), 
tlu'  former  nearly  in  Hie  probable  meridian  ol  Timbuctu,  and 
the  latter  somewhat  to  the  east,  at  the  confluence'  oi  a  tri- 
butary with  the  Niger,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
town  built  by  Mimsa  Suleiman  was  not  the  first,  important 
commercial  station  iu  those  regions.  Indeed  an  author 
quoted  by  Cooley  (Negroland  <>j  the  Arabs,  p.  68)  would 
load  us  to  believe  that  a  town  bearing  the  name  Tombuti 
'  (1  in  those  regions  as  early  as  the  year  297  of  the 
Hejira.  Rulers  with  the  title  Mansa  continued  to  govern 
Timbuctu  from  610  to  792  of  the  Hejira. 

The  chiefs  of  Marocco  and  Fez  rendered  Timbuctii  tri- 
butary, and  from  that   time   the  communications  of  the 
Arabs  with  that  country  became  more  frequent  and  re- 
gular.    Leo  Africanus  mentions  that  the  grand  mosque  of 
tin-  town  and  the  palace  of  the  king  were  built  by  an  ar- 
chitect from  Granada.    The  Arab  conquerors  allowed  how- 
ever the  native  dynasty  to  remain  on  the  throne.    The  ex- 
jiulsion  of  the  Arabs  from  Spain,  and  the  weakening  of  the 
Arab  power  in  North  Africa  by  the  Turkish  conquests  in 
Tunis,  Tripoli,  and  Algiers,  in  the  course  of  the  fifteenth 
iry,  increased  the  impunity  of  the  predatory  nomade 
hordes;  and  about  the  same  time,  or  a  little  later,  the  for- 
mation of  settlements  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  first  by 
the  Portuguese  and  afterwards  by  the  English  and  French, 
by  creating  a  new  line  of  traffic  with  the  interior,  diminished 
the  importance  of  Timbuctu  as  a  commercial  entrepot. 
About  the  year  1500  a  negro  general  of  Soniheli,  king  of 
Timbuctii,  raised  the  standard  of  revolt  on  the  death  of  his 
master,  overturned  the  Moorish  supremacy,  conquered  a 
number  of  the  neighbouring  provinces,  and  recalled  to  Tim- 
buctii a  part  of  the  trade  which  had  left  it  for  Jenne.  on  the 
r.    When  Leo  Africanus  visited  this  part  of  Africa,  the 
•ones  of  Abu-Bekr-Ishieh,  the  negro  conqueror,  ex- 
tended nom  Agadez  on  the  north  to  Kashnah  on  the  south. 
^Etnol  ',  1">73;  describes  the  commerce  of  Timbuctu  as  in 
a  flourishing  coiniilion  in  his  day.    According  to  the  infor- 
mation collected  by  Mr.  Jackson,  Timbuctii  would  appear, 
about  Hi(jH  or  I07U.  to  have  fallen  under  the  dominion  ot 
the  king  of  Bambana:    for   Mullah  Arshid,  of    Talilet. 
having  driven  Sidi  Ah  of  Suz  from  his  territories,  the 
live  was  protected  by  the  king  of  Bambarra,  and  created 


by  him  commandant  of  Timbuctu.  Sidi  AH  made  his 
peace  with  Mullah  Ismael,  successor  of  Mullah  Arshid, 
and  the  consequence  was  that  Timbuctii  became  tributary 
to  the  prince  of  Tafilet.  This  connection  terminated  with 
the  death  of  Mullah  Ismael  (1727),  and  since  that  time 
Timbuctu  appears  to  have  been  governed  by  a  negro  ruler, 
that  is,  by  one  who  is  neither  an  Arab,  nor  a  Tuarik,  nor  a 
Fellatah.  The  security  of  person  and  property,  and  the 
commerce  of  Timbuctii,  appear  to  have  fallen  off  since 
the  accession  of  the  negro  dynasty. 

Caillie  estimates  the  permanent  inhabitants  of  Timbuctu 
at  from  10.000  to  12,000.  After  the  arrival  of  the  caravans 
the  town  assumes  for  a  portion  of  the  year  a  much  more 
populous  and  probably  a  much  more  bustling  appearance. 
During  his  stay  it  was  dull  and  listless.  The  streets  are 
clean,  and  wide  enough  to  allow  three  horsemen  to  pass 
abreast.  The  houses  are  of  sun-dried  bricks,  and  consist 
entirely  of  a  ground-floor ;  in  some  a  sort  of  closet  is  con- 
structed over  the  entrance ;  the  apartments  are  built  on 
the  four  sides  of  an  open  court  in  the  centre.  Both  within 
the  town  and  round  about  it  there  are  numerous  straw  huts 
of  a  conical  form.  The  town  is  not  walled.  In  the  centre 
of  the  town  is  a  square  surrounded  by  circular  huts,  and 
planted  with  a  few  trees:  in  the  middle  of  it  a  large  hole 
is  dug  as  a  receptacle  for  filth.  Two  enormous  heaps  out- 
side of  the  town  appeared  to  be  accumulations  of  rubbish. 
Some  buildings  on  the  east  side  of  the  town  are  over- 
whelmed with  sand.  There  are  seven  mosques ;  two  of 
them  large,  and  part  of  the  largest  apparently  of  consider- 
able antiquity  ;  each  is  surmounted  by  a  brick  tower.  To 
the  west-south-west  of  the  town  are  large  excavations  from 
35  to  40  feet  deep,  which  collect  in  the  rainy  season  the 
supplies  of  water  which  serve  the  inhabitants  for  drinking 
and  culinary  purposes  throughout  the  year.  There  is  no 
spontaneous  vegetation  near  the  town  except  some  stunted 
mimosa-trees.  Near  the  reservoirs  are  some  small  planta- 
tions of  bad  tobacco.  The  inhabitants  of  Timbuftn  draw 
from  Jenne  their  supplies  of  millet,  rice,  vegetable  butter, 
honey,  cotton,  Soudan  cloth,  pepper,  onions,  dried  fish, 
pistachias,  &c.  Fire-wood  and  timber  for  building,  and 
provender  for  cattle,  are  brought  from  Cabra.  They  pur- 
chase cattle  from  the  nomades  of  the  tribe  of  Zawat,  who 
-s  the  country  two  days'  journey  distant  from  Tim- 
buctu to  the  north-east ;  from  the  people  of'Sala,  ten  days 
journey  to  the  east;  and  from  the  Tuariks,  who  are  thp 
most  powerful  race,  on  all  sides.  They  procure  salt.  I'oi 
their  own  consumption  and  for  the  trade  with  Soudan  from 
Tadeini,  which  lies  twenty  days'  journey  north-west  of  the 
town. 

The  negro  and  Arab  inhabitants  of  Timbuctii  are  ex- 
clusively engnared  in  trade.  Great  part  of  the  MOP 
from  the  sea-einist  ;  they  start  with  an  adventure  to  Tim- 
buctu, reside  for  some  years  there,  and  when  they  have 
acquired  enough,  return  to  their  native  country.  The  negro 
inhabitants  dress  like  the  Moors,  and  are  zealous  Moham- 
medans. They  have  several  wives,  whom,  as  well  as  their 
slaves,  they  employ  in  menial  affaire.  The  Moors,  who  are 
only  temporary  residents,  cohabit  with  their  slaves.  Caillie 
represents  all  classes  of  the  inhabitants  as  cleanly  both  in 
their  persons  and  houses.  Several  villages  on  the  Niger 
are  subject  to  Timbuctu.  Cabra,  the  port  of  Timbuctu,  is. 
secured  against  the  inundations  by  being  slightly  elevated 
above  the  marshes;  the  sandy  desert  commences  imme- 
diately to  the  north  of  it.  This  place  appeared  to  Caillie 
to  contain  about  1000  or  1200  inhabitants,  all  of  the 
poorer  class,  engaged  in  the  service  of  the  merchants  of 
Timbuclu.  The  dwellings  are  either  mean  houses  or  small 
huts;  the  street  is  neat,  but  the  landing-place  is  dirty. 
The  merchandize  is  conveyed  between  the  port  and  Tim- 
buctii on  asses  and  camels :  these  belong  in  general  to  the 
inhabitants  of  Cabra ;  but  sometimes  the  poorer  Tuariks 
hire  their  camels  for  the  purpose.  The  Tuariks  are  the 
terror  of  the  surrounding  country:  they  exact  tribute  from 
the  inhabitants  of  Timbuctii,  and  tolls  from  all  merchant*; 
who  pass  to  the  town  overland  or  by  the  Niger.  The 
nomade  Arab  tribes  appear  to  stand  in  awe  of  them  :  the 
Fellatah  to  the  south  keep  their  ground  against  them ; 
but  as  they  surround  Timbuctii  for  some  distance  on  all 
sides,  they  hold  the  entire  trade  of  these  regions  at  their 
mercy. 

(C.  Ptolemaei  Oeographia,  lib.  viii. ;  James  M'Queen, 
A  Geographical  Surrey  of  Africa ;  C.  A.  Walckenaer, 
Recherches  GSographiques  sur  I'Interieur  de  FAfrique ; 

3N  2 


T  I  M 


460 


TI  M 


kr  Arab* ;    Tratelt  of  Park,  Lyon, 

11 M  K.     Thu  w  oru  may  be  considi 

ence  to  our  abstract  idea  of  ilu-  thnu  hj  it.  or  lo 

the  measures  of  it  which  have  been  contrived  for  use  in  the 
buaine*  of  life.  Something  on  the  first  point  of  \  icw  will 
be  found  in  the  article  SHACK  AND  TIMK,  to  which  the 
following  intiv  be  added. 

When  we  think  of  time  in  the  usual  manner,  it  is  of  a 

real  thing   external   to  ounelves,  which  we  cannot  help 

imagining  to  have  an  existence  and  a  measure,  both  of 

which   would   iciniiin    though  tliosc  who   now  speculate 

upon  the  conception    were   annihilated.     A   little   more 

I  hat  we  are  indebted  for  the  idea  to 

.  nts.  or  at  least  for  the  power  of 

appi.  ica    to  external  objects.      No   description 

.•i-  adequate  ;  if  we  say  thai  fhaiige  necessarily  im- 
plies tun:;  aiul  t!i:it  the  perception  of  that  which  /»•  being 
different  Iroin  that  which  trust,  *  ie  notion  of  an  in- 

:it  we  have  already  i u  1 1  y  assumed  the  idea  of 
time  in  the  vuuds  /»•  and  /r.iv.    liut  we  may  say   that  space 

and  the  objects  which  lill  it  exist  independently  of  our- 
selves, and  would  undergo  changes  though  we  were  not  in 
existence  to  perceive  them,  and  that  therefore  the  times 
which  those  changes  require  would  also  exist  :  this  in- 
volves the  whole  of  the  most  abstruse  part  of  metaphysics, 
and  is  much  beyond  the  scope  of  our  article.  \\  e  shall 
•  >iv  turn  to"  the  mode  of  moa-ming  time  :  we  have 
a  thorough  comiction  that  time  i»  a  magnitude,  that 
is,  has  its  more  and  less.  We  must  ask  oun-clvcs  in  the 
first  instance  what  we  mean  by  a  greater  or  a  smaller 
time. 

In  the  perception  of  time  as  a  magnitude,  that  is,  of  in- 
tervals of  time  as  containing  more  or  less  of  duration, 
we  lefer  in  the  first  in-tance  to  a  habit  derived  from  con- 
tinual acquaintance  with  those  great  natural  successions 
on  which  the  usual  actions  of  our  lives  depend,  with 
which  we  can  constantly,  though  unconsciously,  compare 
tlie  duration  of  our  thoughts  and  actions.  There  is  no 
more  an  absolutely  long  or  short  time  than  there  is  an 
absolutely  great  or  little  space ;  these  words  are  only 
comparative.  If,  for  example,  any  one  were  to  affirm 
that  the  universe  was  continually  grow  HI  i.l  less, 

a!l  its  pails  altering  in  the  same  proportion,  and  the 
dimensions  of  the  human  race  with  the  rest,  in  such 
manner  that  the  whole  solar  system  would  now  go  into 
a  nut-shell,  such  as  nut-shells  were  a  thousand  years  ago, 
it  would  be  impossible  cither  for  him  to  prove  it,  if  true,  or 
for  any  one  else  to  prove  the  contradiction,  if  false.  In 
like  manner  if  any  one  were  to  say  that  the  revolutions  of 
all  the  heavenly' bodies  were  continually  accelerating,  but 
that  the  properties  of  matter  were  also  continually  altering, 
and  the  speed  with  which  ideas  are  formed  and  communi- 
cated, and  muscular  efforts  made,  continually  increasing: 
it  would  be  impossible  to  prove  a  contradiction.  The 
oriental  story  is  tin  beat  illustration  of  this  : — A  prince  was 
ridiculing  the  legend  of  Mohammed  being  taken  up  by  an 
angel,  and  holding  many  long  conferences  with  his 
views  of  heaven  and  hell  to  the 
•  i  short  a  time,  speak inir  with  rei' 

to  thines  upon  earth,  that  on  his  being  brought  back,  the 

water  had  not  (juite  flowed  out  of  a  jug  which  lie  had 

dropped  from  his  bund  when  the  angel   cauirht  him.     A 

at  the  court  of  this  pi'mr.  liis  laughtei 

prove  the  possibility   of  the  story,   if  his 

-.mill   only  dip  his    head   into  a  basin   o'f  water. 

.'ed,    and    the    instant    his   head    was 

1.  found  himself  lying  by  the  sea-shore  in  a  st  ran  ire 

r  a  reasonable  quantity  of  malediction  upon 

..agician,  he  found  himself  obliged  by  hunter  to  iro 

limning  town,  and  seek   the   means  of  support. 

In  time  h  link-pendent,  married,  and   brought  up 

a  family,  but  was  gradually  stripped  of  all   his  substance 

anil  buried  his  wife  and   children.     One  day  he 

.isclf  into  the  sea  to  bathe,  and  on  hiti 

head  out    of   t.  that  he  had  only  lifted  i! 

out  .in   and  th  .irtiers 

On  his  bitterly  reproaching  I! 

il   him,  and   was  confirmed  by  all  tl: 

•tenders    that    he    had    done    nothing    but    just    dip  his 

-,•    the 

Is    about  11  • 

i  of  the  two  tales 


may  think  that  neither  t*  true,  a  little  reflection  will  show 
lhat    either  iiiixht  be   so.     Perhaps    U  ;y    might 

have  been  suggested   by  what   is  known  to  Ink 
dreams  ;  there  ?s  e\  ulem-c  enough  that  man . 
of  these  illusions  reully  occupy  r..  ,.  if  so  much  as, 

a  second  or  two  by  the  pendulum.     [l)ni:vxi,  p.   143.] 

In  the  laws  of  motion  it  sc-cms  as  if. 

took  cognizance  of  time:    a  particle  of  matter  will  con- 
tinue to  describe  equal  spaces  in  fqiial  times,  until  I 
on  by   force  from  without.     Yet   it  would  be   possible  t.i 
state  this  law  as  follows,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  avoid  the 
comparison  of  quantities   of  duration.     If  two   paj' 
acted  on  by  no  external  forces,  are  at  A  and  a  at  the 
epoch  of  duration,  and  at  B  and  b  at  the  same  - 
epoch,  then  if  A  (,'  be  in  times  A  B,  and  if  a  c  be  m  i 
a  b,  the  law  of  motion  is  that  ('  and  c  will   be  i. 
attained  at   the   same    instant.     The   mathematician   wifl 
readily  see  that  the  equations  of  motion  do  not  depend 
upon  the  absolute  recognition  of  time  as  a   mcasuiablc 
quantity,  but  that  any  moving  particle,  as  A.  beiiur  acted 
on  by  no   force,  the  distance  A  ( '.  described  in  1: 
might  be  introduced  into  all  formula'  instead  of  the  tune, 
without  any  question  as  to  whether,  time  being  phys! 
considered,  the  space  AC  varies  as  the  time.  It  is  ei 
that  the  uninfluenced  motion  of  any  other  particle  should 
be  connected  with   that    of   the   standard  particle   b\ 
law  above  described.     But  though  we   can  thus  avoid  the 
idea  of  measurement  of  time,  we  cannot  get  rid  of  its 
existence  or  of  the  notion  0  !is  ;    grant, 

that  we  can  reduce  dynamics  to  a  ihi'iiry  </  siiniiltui. 

'ii,i  of  particles  of  matter,  without  reference-  to  the 
absolute  length  of  time  employed   in  passing  from 
position  to  another,  there  is  still  the  notion  of  time  in  tin- 
notion  of  simultaneous.      But,  nevertheless,  the  idea  of 
succession  thus  introduced  is  hardly,  if  at  all,  more  ph. 
than  that  which  comes  into  most  of  the  branches  of  pure 
mathematics,  a  point  on  which  it  will  be  worth  while  to 
dwell  for  a  moment. 

When  Newton,  in  his  doctrine  of  fluxions,  or  flowing 
quantities,  imagined  length,  space,  solidity,  and  oven  num- 
ber, to  be  generated  by  a  continual  and  gradual 
line  by  the  motion  of  a  point,  a  surface  by  that  of  a  line, 
and  so  on,  it  was  objected  that  he  introduced  the  ideas  of 
time  and  motion,  both  of  which  were   foreign  to  pure  ma- 
thematics, and   properly  belonged  to   mechanics.     T. 
rid  of  these  intruders,  {he  theory  of  limits,  which  th. 
tion  of  fluxions  immediately  requires,  was  attached,  not  to 
flowing  quantities,  but   to  variable  quantities.     Let  .r  be  ft 
variable  quantity,  is  one  of  the  most  common  phra.- 
the  systems  which  have  supciseded  that  of  Newton.    Now 
variation  means  change  ;  it  is  never  pretended  that  a  va- 
riable has  two  values  at  once.     All  the  difference  is,  that 
by  Newton  the  object  of  consideration  is  supposed  to 
larger  or  smaller,  while  the  moderns  pass  in  thought  from 
a   larger  quantity  to   a  smaller,  or   ri<-/'   «v/-.wi.  taking  one- 
first  and  the  other  afterwards.      If  so  slight  a  difl 
this  be  worth  a  contest,  the  distinction  of  pure  and  mixed 
science  must   be  trivial  enough:  the  fact  is.  that  bot1 
terns  con>;  -'.vc   values,  and   xnrrfsnion    is  timr. 

If  two  computers  were  to  quarrel  which  was  the  purer 
arithmetician,  the  one  who  stood  still  and  counted  the  car- 
-  as  they  passed  by  him.  or  the  other  who  walked  from 
one  to  another  and  counted  them  as  they  stood  still,  they 
would,  to  us.  much  resemble  some  of  the  disputant 
and  against  the  piinciplc  of  flux:. 

The  actual  measure  of  time  depends  upon  our  being  abfu 

TC  successions  of  similar  events  which  si  : 
epochs  separated   by  equal  intervals  of  time.     We  cannot 
do   this   by  our  thoughts,  except    approximately,   and   for 
short   periods.     The  memory  of  a  musician,  aided   1 
sentiment    or   feeling  of  tune  which  is  part  of  a  good  tur 
for  music,  will  do  remarkably  well  for  a  short  period  :  a 
pel-sou  who  could  not  well  preserve  the  division  of  a  second 
into   eight    parts   at   least  would   make  a  )  in   an 

As  to  the  judgment,  of  considerable 

time,  it  is  materially  influenced  by  the  manner  in  which  it 
has  been  spent  :    u  time  which  .V/V/HA-  to   have 
through   weariness  linx   been    long,   and   the   contraiy.   mi 
ground*  already  alluded  to.    Tin  of  mature  a 

reallv,  to  the  thoughts,  of  a  different  length  from  one  of 
childhood.  Again,  when  we  talk  of  a  long  period  of  time 
having  pa.-scd  quickly  or  slowly,  we  speak  not  of  the  time, 
but  of  our  mode  ot ''remembering  it.  A  person  of  rapid 


T  I  M 


461 


T  I  M 


recapitulation  always  says  that  time  has  passed  quickly, 
another  of  a  contrary  habit  the  contrary  ;  and  this  whether 
the  rapidity  is  a  consequence  of  quickness  of  ideas,  or  ol 
having  little  to  recall. 

In  all  the  more  correct  machines  which  have  been  in- 
vented to  measure  time,  there  is  but  one  principle  :  a  vi- 
bration is  kept  up  by  the  constant  application  of  forces 
only  just  sufficient  to  counteract  friction  and  other  resist- 
ances, and  machinery  is  applied  to  register  the  number 
of  vibrations.  The  remarkable  law  noted  under  ISOCHRO- 
NISM  and  VIBRATION  makes  it  comparatively  immaterial 
whether  the  vibrations  are  of  precisely  the  same  extent. 
But  the  imperfections  of  such  instruments,  or  rather,  our 
ignorance  of  the  precise  action  of  disturbing  causes,  and 
particularly  of  changes  of  temperature,  renders  them  com- 
paratively useless  for  measuring  long  periods,  so  that  if  we 
could  not  have  recourse  to  the  motion  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  there  would  be  no  permanent  measure  of  time. 
And  even  in  astronomical  phenomena  there  is  no  absolute 
recurrence  at  equal  intervals,  though  nearly  enough  for 
common  purposes.  The  value  of  such  phenomena  for  the 
most  accurate  measures  consists  in  most  of  their  irregulari- 
ties being  truly  distributed  about  a  uniform  mean,  so  that 
the  excesses  of  some  periods  are  compensated  by  the  de- 
fects of  others,  giving,  in  the  long  run,  power  of  determin- 
ing that  mean  with  as  much  accuracy  as  our  modes  of  mea- 
surement can  appreciate.  The  determination  of  time  for 
civil  reckoning  may  be  divided  into  two  parts :  first,  the 
mode  of  making  the  different  periods  derived  from  the  sun 
and  moon  agree  with  each  other  so  as  to  afford  an  easy 
method  of  reckoning  co-ordinately  by  both  [PERIODS  OF 
REVOLUTION]  :  secondly,  the  mode  of  procuring  true  and 
convenient  subdivisions  of  the  natural  unit  consisting  of  a 
day  and  night.  To  the  second  of  these  we  now  turn  our 
attention. 

The  actual  revolution  of  the  earth,  as  measured  by  the 
time  elapsed  between  two  transits  of  the  same  star  over  the 
meridian,  is  called  a  sidereal  day.  It  is  divided,  as  are  all 
other  days,  into  twenty-four  hours  of  sixty  minutes  each, 
&c.  The  time  so  given  is  called  sidereal  time.  If  the  sun 
were  a  fixed  star,  this  sidereal  time  would  be  the  common 
mode  of  reckoning.  But  the  sun  having  its  own  slow 
motion  in  the  ecliptic,  in  the  same  direction  as  the  revolu- 
tion of  the  earth,  the  interval  between  one  meridian  transit 
of  that  body  and  the  next  is  [SYNODIC]  longer  than  the 
simple  revolution  of  the  earth,  for  just,  the  same  reason 
that  the  time  which  the  minute-hand  of  a  watch  moves 
from  coincidence  with  the  hour-hand  to  coincidence  again 
is  longer  than  the  hour,  or  simple  revolution  of  the  minute- 
hand.  If  the  sun  moved  uniformly,  and  in  the  equator, 
the  real  solar  day,  which  means  the  interval  between  two 
meridian  transits  of  the  sun,  would  always  be  of  the  same 
length,  and  a  little  longer  than  the  sidereal  day.  But  the 
gun  neither  does  move  uniformly,  nor  in  the  equator ;  and 
each  of  these  circumstances  causes  a  slight  irregularity  in 
the  absolute  length  of  the  solar  day,  or,  as  it  is  called,  the 
real  solar  day.  This  is  the  reason  why  the  time  shown  by 
a  sundial  does  not  agree  with  the  watch.  To  remedy  this 
inconvenience,  a  fictitious  sun  is  supposed  to  move  in  the 
ecliptic,  and  uniformly,  while  another  fictitious  sun  moves 
in  the  equator,  also  uniformly.  Both  the  fictitious  bodies 
have  the  average  motion  of  the  real  sun,  so  that  the  years 
of  the  three  are  the  same;  and  the  fictitious  sun  of  the 
ecliptic  is  made  to  coincide  with  the  real  sun  at  the  perigee 
and  apogee,  or  nearest  and  farthest  points  from  the  earth  ; 
while  the  fictitious  body  in  the  equator  is  made  to  coin- 
cide with  the  fictitious  body  of  the  ecliptic  at  the  equinoxes 
(from  which  it  arises  that  there  is  also  a  coincidence  at  the 
solstices).  This  fictitious  sun  of  the  equator  is  that  to  which 
clocks  are  adjusted ;  the  interval  between  two  of  its  transits, 
which  is  always  of  the  same  length,  is  called  a  mean  solar 
day,  which  is  divided  into  twenty-four  mean  solar  hours,  &cc. 
The  difference  between  time  as  shown  by  the  real  sun  and 
the  fictitious  sun  in  the  equator,  is  called  the  equation  of 
time. 

The  determination  of  the  equation  of  time  is  a  mathe- 
matical problem  of  some  complexity :  what  we  have  here 
to  notice  is,  that  owing  to  the  joint  action  of  the  two 
sources  of  difference,  it  presents  a  very  ii-egular  series  of 
phenomena  in  the  course  of  the  year.  If  the  sun  moved 
regularly,  but  in  the  ecliptic,  there  would  be  no  equation 
lit'  time  at  the  equinoxes  and  solstices :  if  the  sun  moved 
with  its  elliptic  irregularity,  but  in  the  equator  instead  of 


the  ecliptic,  there  would  be  no  equation  of  time  at  the 
apogee  and  perigee.  Between  the  two  the  equation  of 
time  vanishes  only  when  the  effect  of  one  cause  of  irregu- 
larity is  equal  and  opposite  to  that  of  the  other ;  and  this 
takes  place  four  times  a  year.  In  this  present  year  (1842) 
the  state  of  the  equation  of  time  is  as  follows : — January 
1,  the  clock  is  before  the  sundial  3m  51s,  and  continues  to 
gain  upon  the  dial  until  February  11,  when  there  is 
14m  35s  of  difference.  This  then  begins  to  diminish,  and 
continues  diminishing  until  April  15,  when  the  two  agree, 
and  there  is  no  equation.  The  dial  then  is  before  the 
clock  until  May  14,  when  the  equation  is  3m  55s,  which 
diminishes  until  June  15,  when  there  is  again  no  equation. 
The  clock  is  now  before  the  dial,  and  the  equation  increases 
till  July  26,  when  the  equation  is  6m  10s,  which  diminishes 
until  the  1st  of  September,  when  there  is  no  equation,  for 
the  third  time.  The  dial  is  now  again  before  the  clock  j 
and  by  November  2  the  equation  has  become  16m  18s,  from 
which  time  it  falls  off  until  December  24,  when  it  is 
nothing  for  the  fourth  and  last  time.  The  clock  then  gets 
gradually  before  the  dial  till  the  end  of  the  year.  The 
phenomena  of  the  next  year  present  a  repetition  of  the 
same  circumstances,  with  some  trivial  variations  of  mag- 
nitude. There  are  several  slight  disturbing  causes  fa 
which  we  have  not  thought  it  worth  while  to  advert  in  a 
popular  explanation :  in  particular,  the  slow  motion  of  the 
solar  perigee  [YEAR;  SUN],  which  will  in  time  wholly 
alter  the  phenomena.  For  instance,  when  the  perigee 
comes  to  coincide  with  the  equinox,  there  will  be  only  two 
periods  at  which  the  equation  of  time  vanishes,  namely, 
when  the  sun  is  at  either  equinox. 

The  sidereal  day  is  23'>  5Cm  4s.  09  of  a  mean  solar  day, 
and  the  mean  solar  day  is  24'>  3m  56s. 55  of  a  sidereal  day. 
We  have  in  this  article  only  to  do  with  the  mode  of  obtain- 
ing a  uniform  measure  of  time,  or  of  intervals  of  time ;  this* 
being  premised,  the  subject  will  be  taken  up  again  in  the 
article  YEAR. 

TIME  BARGAIN.     [STOCKS.] 

TIME  OF  DESCENT,  the  technical  term  for  the  time 
employed  by  a  material  particle  in  falling  down  an  arc  of 
a  curve  under  the  action  of  gravity,  the  mode  of  obtaining 
which  is  explained  in  VELOCITY.  When  any  number  of 
curves  are  drawn  from  a  given  point,  and  another  curve  isi 
so  drawn  as  to  cut  off  from  every  one  of  them  an  are  whichi 
is  described  by  a  falling  particle  in  one  given  time,  that 
curve  is  called  tautochronous,  or  a  tautocttron.  But  when 
a  curve  is  such  as  the  cycloid,  namely,  that  a  particle, 
wherever  placed,  will  fall  to  the  lowest  point  in  the  same 
time,  such  a  curve  is  also  called  tautochruiinus  by  various 
writers,  and  isochronous  by  others.  Our  only  object  in. 
inserting  this  article  has  been  to  note  this  confusion  of 
language. 

TIME  (in  Music)  is  :— 

I.  The  measure  of  the  duration  of  sound. 

II.  That  which  divides  a  bar  into  two  or  three  equal/ 
parts,  and  subdivides  these. 

III.  The  movement — i.e.  the  quickness  or  slowness — of 
a  composition. 

1.  The  degree  of  sound,  or  pitch,  is  shown  by  the  place1 
on  the  staff  of  any  one  of  the  characters  called  notes ;  but 
its  duration  is  known  by  the  particular  note ;  that  is,  as 
minim,  or  crotchet,  &c.  The  longest  note,  in  relation  to: 
time,  used  in  modern  music,  is  the  senlibrevc,  which  is 
considered  the  measure-note,  and  its  average  length  is 
about  four  beats  of  a  healthy  man's  pnlse.  The  five  other- 
notes  are  proportionate  parts  of  this.  Thus  the  minim  is. 
in  duration  £  of  a  semibreve  ;  the  crotchet  is  £ ,  &e. :  con- 
sequently two  minims,  or  four  crotchets,  &c.,  are  equal  to> 
one  semibreve,  as  exhibited  in  the  annexed  table  : — 


T  I  M 


T  I  M 


2.  Time  i*  either  duple  or  triple.  The  former  divides 
•very  bar,  or  mea*u  jual  pails;  the 

Utter  inti-  .     Time*  are  marked  !•;. 

C, — also  by  this  letter  barred  (CK  )•  an(^  '  "^c 

C,  whether  barred  or  not,  indicate*  Common  Turn' ;    that 

M.  duple  time.  I,  mug  one  semibreTe,  or  it§  e<( 

note*,  in  each  bar.    Figures  represent  the  fraction 

acmibrcvc.  the  uiipt  i 

denominator.     When  1:.>  iinnierator  is 'J  • 

dupK-  or  1'J.  it  i- 

common ;    anil  when  compound-triple,      lint  in 

reality,  there  are  only  two  times, — binary  tint!  ternary ;  or, 

duple'  and  triple  :  a  i'act  which  would  lo'nir  ago  have  been 

recognised  and  acted  on,  had   music,  UK  A  system,  made 

advances  which  have   long  been  witnessed  in  the 
other  arts  and  sciences. 

has  hitherto  had  a  third  meaning 

annexed  to  it  in  musical  language,  by  its  employment  in 
the  sense  of  movement,  a  practice  which  has  produced 
some  confusion.  The  Italian  word  Tempo,  signifying  the 
came,  is  now  growing  into  nst — a  manifest  improvement, 
which,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  will  not  have  to  encounter  those 
professional  prejudices  under  which  music  has  so  long 
laboured.  [MKTBONOM.B.] 

On  the  subject  of  Time  (Temt)  Rousseau  has  well  re- 
marked, that  a  succession  of  sounds,  however  skilfully 
arranged  as  to  high  and  low,  produces  only  vague  effects. 
It  is  measure,  the  duration,  relative  and  proportional,  of 
sounds,  wluch  fixes  the  true  character  of  the  music,  and 
endows  it  with  all  its  energy.  Time  (under  which  tenn 
ne,  of  course,  includes  rhythm  is  the  soul  of  sonsr.  Airs 

make  us  pensive;    but  a 

spirited,  and   well   eadenc.  IH  with  joy,  and 

our  feet  can  hardly  be  r.  :.»m  dancing.     Break 

the  measure,  confound  tint  relative  limes  of  the  sounds, 
and  the  very  same  airs  which  proportion  had  rendered  so 
agreeable,  at  once  lose  all  their  character,  all  their  charms, 
and  are  incapable  of  exciting  tli  it  decree  of  plea- 

sure.  Time,  on  the  contrary,  possess.  a  power,  in 

itself,  and  acts  independently  of  a  diversity  of  sounds.  The 
dnim  furnishes  a  proof  of  this,  rough  and  imperfect  as  the 
instrument  is,  because  (the  author  ought  to  have  said  its 
beats  are  in  rhythm,  though  the  sound  is  unvaried. 

TIMO'LKON  general    and  8 

man.  He  was  a  native  of  Corinth,  and  the  son  of  Timo- 
demus  and  Timariste.  Respecting  his  youth  we  know 
nothing,  except  that  he  v  ;  distinguished  by  his 

noble  character  and  his  love  of  freedom  than  by  his  illus- 
trious descent.  When  he  had  grown  up  to  manhood,  his 
elder  brother  Timophanes,  who  nad  been  elected  general 
by  the  Corinthians,  assumed  the  tyrannis  in  his  native  city 
by  the  hell)  of  hi-  friend.-  and  his  mercenaries.  Timolcon 
at  first  only  remonstrated  with  his  brother,  but  when  this 
was  useless,  he  formed  a  plot  against  him,  andTimoj 
was  killed.  Soon  after  this  event,  which  threw  nil  Corinth 
into  a  state  of  violent  agitation,  some  extolling  the  con- 
duct of  Timoleon  as  magnanimous  and  worthy  of  a  real 
patri"  -'irsing  :md  condemning  him  as  a  fratricide, 

there  arrived  at  Corinth  ambassadors  from  -olicit- 

ing  the  aid  ot  the  l.Vrintln  :  its  oppressor*.    This 

was  a  favourable  opi  Timo- 

•-f  his  followers,  while  at  the  same  time  il 
con  a  field   of  action   in  f 
Ung  to  his  principles  and  deliver  the 
-  ors.      Timoleon  was  accordingly  s. 
Syracuse  with  a  small  band  of  mercenaries,  which  he  him- 
self had  raised,  344  B.C.     -  *as  then  dividrd  into 

parties:    the  popular  party,  which  hud  engaged  the 
service  of  Timoleon  ;  a  ( larthaginian  party  ;  and  the  paih  of 
DionvMiis,  the  tyrant,  who  had  returned  from  Italy  in  ii.c. 
346.  Dionysius  had  already  been  driven  out  of  a  pan 
city  by  Hiectas,  the  tyrant  of  Lcontini,  who  support. 
Carthaginian  party.     On  the  arrival  of  Timuleoii,    Iliceta- 
w««  compelled  to  withdraw  tu  I 
was  reduuedtosurrender  himself  an.  Ithe  citadel  lo 
was  allowed  to  ijint  the  island  in  safety,  and  he  withdrew 

mth.  in  B.C.  343.  [ni<.Nv,irs.  i 
become  dc-  ••  cessive  r< 

warfare,     i  r  and  the  sprii. 

wa»u,  :.j.,-:.>:-c 

ing  those  w.. 


from  other  part*  o 

thish 

tginians  an 


in  oni 

HlCi-'.l-.    ~>I! 


i  inns- 
•  hot 


oat  against  the  enemy,  ana  i  > 
ralnhip  he  succt. 
Carthaginians  on  the  bank- 
tiiicd  them  to  the  pan 

and  the  western  coast,  n.<  .  . 
couclnsion  ofu  peace  with 

;  the  tyrants  in  nther  I  .  whom  he  < 

pelled  to  surrender  or  withdraw,  partly  by  the  terror 
name  and  partly 

s.incr,  and  condemned  to  death  by  the  Syracuse:: 
wife  and  family. 

:•  freedom  and  the  ascendency  of  Syracuse  wen 
restored  in  the  greater  part  of  Sn-ily.  Ti 
his  attention  to  the  restoration  of  the  prospei 
towns  and  the  country.     The  former,  esp. 
were  still  thinly  peopled,  and   he  invited  colonists 
Corinth  and   other  parts  to  settle  there,  end  distr; 
lands  among  them.     He  himself,  with  the  con* 
Symciisans,  undertook  to  revise  and  amend  their  constitu- 
tion and  laws,  and  to  adapt  them  to  t 
circumstances  of  the  state.      Although  it  would 
easy  tor  him  to  establish  himself  as  tyrant  and  to  sec 
his  descendants  the  kingly  power  at  Syracuse,  he  fi. 
the  duties  of  the  office  entrusted  to  him  with  a  1.. 
which  has  rarely  been  equalled.     He  had  no  ot 
view  but  the  establishment  of  popular  libi : 
prepared  and  trained  the  people.    Some  acts  of  c 
apparent  injustice  with  which   he.  is  chin 

•  in  the  character  of  those  whom  he  had  to  deal  with, 
for  the  Syracu.-ans  at  that  time  were  a  motley  and  i 
ralized  people,  who  could  not  be  managed  without  Timo- 
leon's  assuming  at  times  the  very  power  which  it  w;. 
wish  to  destroy.     Hut  Syr:!  cily  felt  the  b 

of  his  institutions  for  main  .   his  di  ath.  an.! 

tinned  to  enjoy  i.i 

During  the"  latter  part  Timoleon  was  blind 

and    lived   in  retirement,  respected    and  beloved    by  the 
Sicilians  as  their  liberator  and  benefactor.  in  the 

.  .  :n7.  and  was  buried  in  the  Agora  ol 
where  subsequently  his  grave  was  sin 
and  adorned  with  a  gymnasium  called  the  Tin; 

(Plutarch,  and  C.  Nepos,  Life  of  Timoleon :  and  ]>io- 
dorus  Siculus,  lib.  xvi.) 


IVcadrnchra  of  Syraeue,  lurrlod  M  a  ram|>lr  of  tile  Coins  of  Kyracuie. 
Muslim.     Actual  Kir.     Si  .  lailu. 

TIMO'MAi'lirs.  a  celebrated  antient  painter,  a  ' 
ofHyrantium.  and  -aid  to  have   been 

it.  Hit.!.,  i\\\. 
'*sar  purchased  two  pictp 

maohus.  for  SO  I7.'2M)/.  ;    . 

Itutlllg  Ajax   the  -on  of  Telftmon  broodiiur  nver  In- 
fortunes;  the  other.  Medea  about  to 
'bcaU'd    them   in    11. < 

much   celebrated  b\ 

there  are  several  c|  igram-  ii|ion  them  in  the  fircel;  antbo- 
ind  they  are  all  (hid  in  the  two  following 

- 


I  ir  int. 


<•  Aj« 

iii.l  I',.-  1. 


barbarous 


.«..  ii.  525.) 

; .'-.v-.r.-1  •:,•••:  ••i:'-:1""-1"" 


T  I  M 


463 


T  I  M 


We  learn  from  Pliny  also  that  the"  picture  of  Medea  was 
not  finished  ;  its  completion  was  interrupted  apparently 
by  the  death  of  the  painter,  yet  it  was  admired,  he  says, 
more  than  any  of  the  finished  works  of  Timomachus,  as 
was  the  case  likewise  with  the  Iris  of  Aristides,  the  Tyn- 
daridfe  of  Nicomachus,  and  a  Venus  by  Apelles,  which 
were  more  admired  than  any  of  the  finished  works  of  their 
respective  masters.  This  picture  is  noticed  also  by  Plu- 
tarch <  D,°  And.  Poet.,  3)  in  a  passage  where  he  speaks  of 
the  representation  of  improper  subjects,  but  which  we  ad- 
mire on  account  of  the  excellence  of  the  execution. 

In  the  common  text  of  Pliny,  Timomachus  is  said  to  be  the 
contemporary  of  Caesar  ('  Julii  Caesaris  aetate '),  but  Durand, 
in  his  '  Histoire  de  la  Peinture  Ancienne,'  &c.,  expresses 
an  opinion  that  the  word  aetate  is  an  addition  of  the 
;^t,  for  which  he  a.s=i<rns  several  reasons.  The  con- 
jecture has  much  in  its  favour ;  the  price  of  these  pictures 
i  17.2HU/.  i  is  enormous,  if  we  suppose  it  to  have  been  paid 
to  a  living  painter ;  but  on  the  contrary  it  is  a  case  with 
many  parallels  if  we  suppose  the  money  to  have  been 
paid  tor  two  of  the  reputed  masterpieces  of  antient  paint- 
incr.  The  fact  of  the  Medea  being  unfinished  puts  it 
beyond  a  doubt  that  the  picture  was  "not  purchased  of  the 
painter  himself;  and  from  a  passage  in  Cicero  <  In  lrerr.,  \. 
iv.,  c.  60)  it  seems  equally  clear  that  both  pictures  were 
purchased  of  the  city  of  Cyzicus  ;  and  from  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  mentioned  with  many  of  the  most  celebrated 
productions  of  the  antient  Greek  artists,  it  would  appear 
that  they  were  works  of  .similar  renown,  and  were  likewise 
of  an  artist  long  since  deceased.  Timo- 
machus was  therefore  most  probably  a  contemporary  of 
I*au»ias,  Nicias,  and  other  encaustic  painters,  about  300  B.C. 
Pliny  himself,  elsewhere  speaking  of  fimomaehus,  mentions 
him  together  with  the  more  antient  and  most  celebrated 
pain1  <-e,  with  Nieomachus,  Apelles,  and  Aris- 

tUNt,  M  in  the  passage  above  quoted. 

Pliny  mentions  also  the  following  works  of  Timoma- 

:   an  Orestes;   an  Iphigema  in  Tauris  ;  Lecythion,  a 

gymnasiast ;    a  'eognatio  nobilium  ;'  two  philosophers  or 

others,  with  the  pallium,  about  to  speak,  one  standing,  the 

othci  -id  a  very  celebrated  picture  of  a  Gorgon. 

TIM  ,i/),  a  Greek   poet  and   philosopher  who 

lived  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemaeus  Philadetphus,  about  270 

1J.C.     He  v.  i  of  Timarchus,  and  a  native  of  Phlitis 

•  territory  of  Sicyon.     He  studied  philosophy  under 

•ra,  and  under  Pyrrho,  in  Elis.     1U" 
'ly  spent  some  time  in   the  countries  north  of  the 
•  n,  and  thence  went  to  Athens,  where  he  passed  the 
remainder  of  his  life,  and  died  in  the  ninetieth  year  of 

ige. 

Diogenes  Laertixis,  who  has  written  an  account  of 
Timon  (ix..  <•.  12:,  ascribes  to  him  epic  poems,  60  tragedies, 
sntyric  dramas,  30  comedies,  silli  'T<\AOI),  and  cinaedi 
(fivnifot)  or  licentious  songs.  The  silli  however  appear  to 
have  been  the  kind  of  poetry  in  which  he  excelled.  They 
were  satires  directed  against  the  arrogance  and  pedantry 
<>!'  the  learned.  Timon  wrote  th;re  books  of  silli  fAthe- 
naeiis,  vi.,  p.  2ol :  vii.,  p.  279),  in  which  he  parodied  all 
the  dogmatic  philosophers  of  Greece:  he  himself  was  a 
tic.  The  metre  of  these  poems  was  the  hexameter, 
and  it  appears  that  sometimes  he  took  whole  passages  from 
Homer  which  he  applied  as  parodies.  In  the  first  book 
Timon  spoke  in  his  own  person  ;  in  the  second  and  third 
the  form  of  the  poems  was  that  of  a  dialogue,  in  which  he 
.on versed  with  Xenophanes  of  Colophon,  who  was  sup- 
;  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  the  silli.  (Diogenes 
I.aert.,  ix.  1110  We  now  only  possess  a  few  fragments  of 
these  poems,  which  show  that  in  their  way  they  must 
have  been  admirable  productions.  They  are  collected  in 
II.  Sit-phaniis,  '  Poesis  Philosophica  ;'  in  F.  Paul,  '  De 
Sillis  Graecorum,'  Berlin,  1821,  p.  41,  &c. ;  in  Branck's 
it.  <>7;  and  iv.  139.  Respecting  the  other 
;s  ascribed  to  him  we  possess  no  information. 

•inrich,  De  Timone  Sillographo,  in  3  parts, 
Linaiac,  1720-23.) 

I'l  \IO\  'Tiptav'),  surnamed  the  Misanthrope,  was  a  son 

•hecratidos,  and   a   native  of  Colyttus,  a  demos  in 

i,    Tiiwin,  c.  7;    Tzetzes,   Ch.il.,  vii.  273.) 

He  lived  during  the  Peloponnesian  war,  and  is  said  to 

have  iiointcd  in  the  friendships  he  had  funned, 

lie  conceived  a  bitter  hair 

all  man\ivl.    i!  c  period  tlr.it  his  mind 

\VM  i  was  very  extraordinary.    He  lived  almost 


entirely  secluded  from  society,  and  his  eccentricities  gave 
rise  to  numerous  anecdotes,  which  were  current  in  anti- 
quity. The  sea  is  said  to  have  separated  even  his  grave, 
which  was  on  the  sea-coast,  from  the  mainland,  by  forming 
it  into  an  island  and  thus  rendering  it  inaccessible,  i, Plu- 
tarch, Anton.,  70;  Suidas,  s.  v.  airopp&jas.)  The  comic 
poets,  such  as  Phrynichus  (Bekker,  Anecdota,  p.  344), 
Aristophanes  (Lysistr.,  809,  &c. ;  Aves,  1548),  Plato,  and 
Antiphanes,  ridiculed  him  in  their  comedies.  Antiphanes 
wrote  a  comedy  called  '  Timon,'  which  perhaps  furnished 
Lucian  with  the  groundwork  for  his  dialogue  in  which  this 
misanthrope  acts  the  most  prominent  part.  His  name  has 
remained  proverbial  to  designate  a  misanthrope  down  to 
the  present  day,  and  is  immortalized  by  the  genius  of 
Shakspere. 

(Hemsterhuis,  On  Lucian,  voK  i.,  p.  99,  of  the  smaller 
edition.) 

TIMOR.  [SUNDA  ISLANDS,  LESSER.] 
TIMORLAUT.  [SUNDA  ISLANDS,  LESSER.] 
TIMOTE'O  DA  URBl'NO,  or  DELLA  VITE,  a  cele 
brated  Italian  painter  of  the  Roman  school,  was  born  at 
Urbino  in  1470,  or  rather  1480.  In  about  his  20th 
year,  by  the  advice  of  a  brother  living  in  Bologna,  he  re- 
paired to  that  city  to  learn  the  business  of  a  jeweller,  &c. ; 
but  displaying  a  power  of  design  worthy  of  a  greater  pur- 
pose, he  devoted  himself  to  painting,  and  according  to 
Malvasia  attended  the  school  of  Francia  in  Bologna  for 
about  five  years :  Vasari  however  says  that  Timoteo  was 
his  own  master.  At  the  age  of  26  he  returned  to  Urbino, 
where  in  a  short  time  he  so  far  distinguished  himself,  says 
Vasari,  as  to  receive  an  invitation  from  his  cousin  Raphael 
in  Rome  to  repair  thither  and  assist  him  in  some  of  his  ex- 
tensive works.  This  statement  creates  a  difficulty  not 
easy  to  be  cleared  up :  Vasari  says  that  Timoteo  died  in 
1524,  aged  54  ;  yet  we  find  him  in  his  27th  or  28th  year, 
consequently  in  1497  or  1498,  going  to  Rome  to  assist 
Raphael,  who  however  did  not  go  to  Rome  himself  until 
1508:  1524  was  very  probably  therefore  a  misprint  for 
1534  in  the  original  edition  of  Vasari,  and  the  error  has 
found  its  way  into  all  the  later  works.  By  this  supposition 
and  by  allowing  a  year  or  two  to  have  elapsed  between  his 
return  to  Urbino  and  his  visit  to  Rome,  the  various  dates 
may  be  easily  reconciled,  and  what  Vasari  says  about  Ti- 
moteo's  assisting  Raphael  to  paint  the  Sibyls  in  the  Chiesa 
della  Pace,  which  were  painted  in  1511,  becomes  quite  con- 
sistent. He  did  not  remain  long  in  Rome,  but  returned 
to  his  native  place  at  the  solicitation  of  his  mother,  much 
to  the  displeasure  of  Raphael.  He  remained  however 
quite  long  enough  to  learn  to  appreciate  and  to  imitate  the 
beauties  of  Raphael's  style,  and  to  become  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  painters  of  the  Roman  school ;  yet  there  are 
in  all  his  works  traces  of  the  style  of  Francia,  a  certain 
timidity  of  design,  a  delicacy  of  execution,  and  a  richness  of 
colouring.  His  chief  works  are  at  Urbino,  at,  Forli,  and  in 
the  neighbourhood ;  he  executed  many  of  them  in  com- 
pany with  Girolamo  Genga,  as  a  chapel  at  Forli  and  part 
of  the  paintings  in  the  chapel  of  San  Martino  in  the  Ca- 
thedral of  Urbino  ;  the  altar-piece  was  painted  entirely  by 
Timoteo  :  he  executed  also  some  excellent  works  in  fresco 
at  <  'a.stel  Durante.  Further,  in  Urbino  there,  are — in  the 
Cathedral,  a  Magdalen;  in  San  Bernardino,  outside  (he 
city,  a  celebrated  picture  of  the  Annunciation  of  the  Virgin  ; 
and  another  fine  picture  with  several  figures  in  Santa 
Agata ;  also  in  the  residence  of  the  Dukes  of  Urbino,  an 
Apollo  and  two  of  the  Muses,  extremely  beautiful  ;  besides 
many  other  works.  Vasari  remarks  that  he  left  some 
works  unfinished  at  his  death,  which  were  afterwards  com- 
pleted by  others,  and  he  adds  that  there  could  not  be  a 
more  satisfactory  evidence  of  the  general  superiority  of 
Timoteo.  He  was  of  a  cheerful  disposition,  and  used  to 
play  every  kind  of  instrument,  but,  especially  the  lyre, 
which  he  accompanied  with  his  voice,  with  extraordinary 
grace  and  feeling.  Lanzi  says  that  the  Conception  at  the 
Observantines  at  Urbino,  and  a  Noli  me  tangere  in  the 
church  of  Sant'  Angelo  at  Cagli,  arc  perhaps  the  best  of 
his  works  that  remain.  The  same  writer  observes  that 
Pietro  della  Vite,  the  brother  of  Timoteo,  also  a  painter, 
was  probably  the  priest  of  Urbino  mentioned  by  Baldi- 
nucci  (vol.  v.)  as  Raphael's  cousin  and  heir. 

(Vasari,  Vite  de'  Pitlori,  &c. ;   Lanzi,  Storia  Pittorica 
Mia  Italia.) 

TIMO'THEUS  (Ti/i69toC),  son  of  Conon  of  Athens.     He 
inherited  from  his  father  a  considerable  fortune,  and  if  we 


T  I  M 


104 


T  I  M 


•  .  '  s        irith    l-o<  ;  V.c.s.    P',.1'0.    and 
ic  manner  in  which  others 

trticulan  are  known  rcsp- 

,    .  ird  in 

l)u-   t  'iintrv,   was  durini;  the  war  between 

ThelH-s  and  Spatta.     In  tii  :i7-"».  after  the  battle 

<\os,  the  Thcbanv   who  were  threatened  with  an  in- 

;  bj  the  I-acedirmonians,  requested  the  Athenians  to 

i' 

:us  they  had  done  at  tile  beginning  of  the  Pcloponnesian  war. 
The  .  -  implied  with,  and  1'imotlicus  was 

appointed  commander  of  a  fleet  'lips,  with  which 

is  to  sail  round  Peloponnesus  and  along  the  v, 
coasts  of  Greece.    In  this  expedition  he  first  took  Coivua, 
which  he  treated  with  the  utmost  mildness  and  without 
•ig  any  use  of  his  right  as  conqueror.     The  conse- 
quence was,  that  he   had  work  with  Cephalcnia 
and  Acaruania,  and  that  even  Alcettt,  king  of  tin  Molos- 
ttians,  was  induced  to  join  the  Athenian  alliance.      But 
while  Timotheus  was  thus  reviving  the  power  of  Athens 
in  that  part  of  Greece,  the  Ixiccdamonians  sent  out  a  fleet 
st  him,  under  the  command  of  Nicolochus.     A  battle 
was  fought  near  the  bay  of  Alyzia,  in  which  the  Spartans 
ated.     Soon   after  Nicolochus   offered   another 
battle,   but  as  the   fleet  of  Timotheus   had   suffered  too 
much   to   allow   him  to   accept    it,   Nicolochus  raised  a 
trophy.      But  Timotheus   soon  restored   his  fleet,   which 
mforcements  of  the  allies  to  seventy 
ships,  against   which  Nicolochus  could  not  venture  any- 
thing.    The  original  object  of  the  expedition  howev 
now  accomplished,  as  the  Spartans  had  not  been  able  to 
make   their  projected   invasion   of   Boeotia,   and   Thebes 
was  thus  enabled  to  direct  her  forces  against  the  Bosotian 
towns  wh.                 d  their  independence.    Timotheug  af 
the  head  of  his  large  fleet  had  no  means  of  maintaining 
it,   for  Thebes   herself  had  contributed  nothing   towaid 
it,   and  Athens,    which   was    not   in   a   very   prosperous 
condition,  had  been  obliged  to  bear  all  the  cxpi 
the  fleet,   with  the   exception  of  what   Timotheus  him 
self  had  furnished  from  his  private  purse.     Athens  there 
fore  concluded  a  separate   peace  with  Sparta,  and   sen 
orders  to  Timotheus  to  return  home.     On  his  way  (hit he 
he  landed  at  Zacynthus  a  body  of  exiles  who  probably  be 
lonired  to  the  democratical  party  of  the  place,  and  who  hai 
lit  his  protection.     He  provided  them  with  the  mean 
of  opposing  and  annoying  their  enemies,  the  oligarchic^ 
party  of  Zacynthus,  which  was  in  alliance  with  Sparta 
The  oligarchs  sent   envoys   to  Sparta  to   complain,  am 
Sparta  sent  envoys  to  Athens  to  remonstrate  against  th 
conduct  of  her  admiral.     But  no  satisfaction  was  given,  as 
Athenians  would  not  sacrifice  the  Zaeyiithian  exile 
for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  the  peace.     The  Spartan 
therefore  looked  upon  the  peace  as  broken,  and  prepared 
for  new  hostilities. 

Soon  after  these  occurrences  Corcyra  was  hard  pressed 
by  the  Peloponnesian  fleet,  and  implored  the  Athenians 
for  protection.  Timotheus,  who,  on  his  former  expedition, 
had  given  such  £reat  proofs  of  skill  and  talent.  wa~ 
entrust-  d  with  the  command  of  sixty  ships,  lint  Athens, 
which  was  itself  in  great  financial  difficulties,  had  not  the 
means  to  equip  them,  and  Timotheus  in  t  of  373 

B.C.  failed   to  the  coasts   and   islands   of  the  .Ksrean   to 
iciiian  allies  to  provide  him  with  the  means 
of  aiwi-1ing  the  < 'orcvrae:.  pears  to  b.- 

•!i..  p.l  iss  . 

and  in  Macedonia  1  'atious  with  king 

Arm  gs  however  went  on  very  slowly, 

and  apparently  with  •  -.s.   tor  he  \MIS  of  ton 

gentle  a  disposition  to  force  the  allies  to  furnish  what  they 
d  not  give  conveniently.      At  last  however  he   had 
tailed  M  far  as  the  island  of  Calaurea,  where  his  men  began 
to   murmur   beeausi:   they    wen-   nut.   paid.     T 
affairs  in  Corcyra  had  irrown  wor-  .     Ilisinc- 

1  upon  the  slowness  of  his  progress  as 
a  favours!  ': nity  for  aiming  a  blow  nt  him.     Iphi- 

tnitus  came  forward  to  accuse  him,  where- 
upon he  was  recalled,  nnd  the  command  of  his  fleet 
to  bin  accusers  and  C'habrias.     His  trial  was  deferred  tiH 
late  in  the  autumn  ;    but  he  was  acquitted,  not  ind- 
account  of  his  innocence,  though  it  was  well  attested,  but 
onu'  ii  i'  <>l  'Alci  t  as,  the  M< 

Jiuon  of  Pherar,  who  had  come  to  Athens  to  pr< .'•  •  t  hrn. 


In  ii. c.  301.  after  the  removal  of  his  rival  Iphicrafc*. 

'imothi  ;is    n  rined    the    ciimmand    <;f    the    licet   on    the 
i.     He   tonk  1'utidaea  and  Torone   from 
Jlynlhus.  and  the-e  conquests  were  followed  by  the  rcduc- 
ion  of  all   tin1   Chalcidian   towns.      From   thence   he   pre- 
ceded to  the  Hi-lies; -out,  where,  with  the  as-  \rio- 
>arzanes,  he  again  gained  posses-                          owns.    In 
'.r  following   he  commenced   his  opeiations  aiMinst 
Amphipolis,  in  which  however  he  had  no  success  at  all, 
>robabiv  on   account  of  the   interference   of  the   Maccdo- 
lians,  who  .supported  the  town,  and  Timotheus  was  nearly 
•ompellid  to  take  to  flight. 

In  the  year  ;C>7  B.C.  Timothens  and  Iphicrates,  who  had 
"or  some  time  been  reconciled  to  each  other  through  the 
marriage  between  a  daughter  of  the  former  and  a  son  of 
he  latter,  obtained  the  command   of  a  fit  ct   of  GO  sail 
iLrainst  the  rebellious  allies  of  Athens,  especial!)  airainst 
Samos.     But  the  Athenian  arms  were  unsucccsslnl,  and  a 
.•.  as  concluded  between  tl  Inch  put 

in  end  to  the  Social  War.   The  Athenian  generals  however, 
Timotheus,  Iphicrates,  and  Mcnesthci:-  .uired  with 

having  caused  the  ill-luck  of  the  Athenians,  and  brought 
to  trial.  Timotheus  in  particular  was  accused  of  having 
leccived  bribes  from  the  Chians  and  Hhodians.  His  col- 
leagues, who  were  themselves  in  the  greatest  dantrer.  were 
so  convinced  of  his  innocence,  that  they  declared  they 
were  willing  to  take  all  the  responsibility  upon  themselves. 
But  he  was  nevertheless  condemned  to  pay  a  fine  of  100 
talents.  As  lie  was  unable  to  pay  the  sum.  he  withdrew 
to  Chalcis  in  Kubnea,  where  he  died  soon  after,  in  B.C.  354. 
The  injustice  of  this  sentence  was  tacitly  acknowledged  by 
the  Athenians  after  the  death  of  Timotheus,  by  the  manner 
in  which  his  son  Conon  was  allowed  to  settle  the  debt  of 
his  father. 

Timotheus  was  no  less  distinguished  as  a  man  than  as  a 
general.  He  was  of  a  very  humane  and  disinterested  cha- 
racter. He  sacrificed  all  nis  property  in  the  service  of  his 
country,  while  other  men  of  his  age,  used  public  offices 
only  as  a  means  of  enriching  themselves.  When  A 
and  Jason  came  to  Athens  to  protect  him,  they  lodged  in 
his  house,  at  which  time  he  was  so  poor,  that  he  was 
•d  to  borrow  furniture  to  receive  Ins  illustrious  friends 
in  a  manner  worthy  of  their  station.  Kveu  his  enemies, 
when  they  came  to  know  him,  could  not  help  feeling 
attachment  and  esteem  for  him. 

(Xenophon,  Hellen.,  \.  4,  63,  &c. :  vi.  2,  11,  &c. ;  Iso- 
!>:•  I'cninttuli'iiii' :  (,'.  Nepos,  Timnlhfus;  Diodorus 
Sic.,  xv.  and  xvi.  ;    compare  Thirlwall,  History  qf  6, 
vol.  v.) 

TIMOTHEUS  (T.,io3eoc)  of  Miletus,  a  Greek  musician 
and  lyric  poet.  The  time  when  his  reputation  had  reached 
its  height  was  about  the  year  it.r.  ;f'.is.  Diodorus  Sic., 
xiv.  46.)  He  was  a  contemporary  of  Kuripides,  and  spent 
the  last  years  of  his  life  at  the  court  of  .Macedonia,  where 
he  died  in  in.  ;t->7.  at  the  advanced  age  of  H7.  He  in- 
creased the  number  of  the  strings  of  (lie  lyre  to  eleven,  an 
innovation  which  w.i  i  d  by  the  Spartans,  who 

would  not  LTO  beyond  the  number  of  seven  stiino,  to  be  a 
corruption  of  music,  and  a  decree  was  passed  at  Si 
which  is  siill  extant  in  Boi-'thius,  condemnatory  of  his  inno- 
vation. :  Plutarch,  7V  .!/»*.,  p.  1 1  11,  ed.  Frank!'.  ;  Atlu- 
naeus,  xiv.,  p.  CM\.  Suida.s  mentions  a  great  number  of 
poetical  compositions  of  Timotheus,  which  were  in  tluir 
lime  very  popular  in  Greece;  among  them  are  nineteen 
nomes,  thirty-six  proocmia.  ci:::itccu  dith\  rHinbs,  and 
twenty-one  hymns.  All  these  \\oiks  are  now  lost,  witii 
the  exception  of  a  few  fragments  which  are  preserved  in 
Athenaeiis  and  the  iriammaiians. 

v- •  ssius,  De   i  p.  4(i ;    Bode,  (ii-srhirhtr 

:/'/•   l/,ll:ni'ii,   vol.    ii.,    p.   .'«)•">, 

TIMOTHEUS  (T><tt«oc  ,  an  Athenian  poet  of  tl.. 
called    middle    comedy.       Suidas    mentions    the    till1 

:-.nd  Athenaeiis    M.,  p.  2-U    Ims  pre- 
•irment  of  one  which  bme  the  title  '  The  Little 
\.  MeiiuUi-.  llintvi-.  'irum 

"ruin.  ]}.    l'_'-v. 
TIMOTIH.   Kl'Isfl.KSOFST.  I'Al 'I.  To.     Timothy, 

to   whom    t! Kpistle.  B  -'<!.   was   a  native  of 

;         niia.  in  Asia  .Minor.     His  father  was 
:i  Greek,  or  Gentile,  but  his  mother.  Kunn  v,e-s. 

Uoth   his   mother   and   grandmother  Lois  were  Christian 
believers  i, «  Tannt/i..  1.5),  who  were  probably  coin  cited 


T  I  M 


465 


T  I  M 


to  the  faith  by  the  preaching  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  on 
the  occasion  of  their  first  apostolical  journey  among  the 
Gentiles.  Whether  Timothy  was  himself  converted  by  St. 
Paul  or  by  the  teaching  of  his  mother  does  not  appear ; 
but  it  is  certain  that  she  had  taken  great  pains  with  her 
son's  education,  for  from  a  child,  as  St.  Paul  says,  '  he  had 
known  the  Holy  Scriptures.'  (2  Tiinoth.,  iii.  15.)  His 
devotion  to  his  new  faith  was  so  ardent,  and  the  progress 
he  made  in  the  knowledge  of  the  gospel  so  great,  that  he 
gained  the  esteem  and  good  word  of  all  his  Christian 
acquaintance.  Accordingly  when  St.  Paul  paid  his  second 
visit  to  Lystra,  the  believers  both  of  that  city  and  Iconium 
commended  him  so  highly  to  Paul,"  that  he  '  would  have 
Timothy  go  forth  with  him'  as  the  companion  of  his 
travels.  Previously  to  commencing  them  however  St.  Paul 
circumcised  Timothy,  'because  of  the  Jews,'  who  were 
numerous  and  powerful  in  those  parts,  and  likely  to  take 
offence  at  the  preaching  and  ministration  of  an  uncircum- 
ci*ed  teacher.  (Acts,  xvi.  1-3.)  He  was  then  solemnly  ad- 
mitted and  set  apart  to  the  office  of  an  evangelist,  or 
preacher  of  the  gospel,  by  the  elders  of  Lystra  and  St.  Paul 
himself  laying  their  hands  upon  him  (1  Tim.,  iv.  14; 
2  Tim.,  i.  61.  though  he  was  probably  not  more  than 
twenty  years  of  age  at  the  time.  From  this  period 
(A.D.  46)  mention  is  frequently  made  of  Timothy  as  the 
companion  of  St.  Paul  in  his  journeys,  as  assisting  him  in 
preaching  the  gospel,  and  in  conveying  his  instructions  to 
the  different  Christian  churches.  His  first  mission  was  in 
company  with  St.  Paul  and  Silas,  when  they  visitad  the 
churches  of  Phrygia  and  delivered  to  them  the  decrees  of 
the  council  of  elders  at  Jerusalem,  by  which  the  Gentiles 

released  from  the  obedience  to  the  law  of  Moses  as  a 
requisite  for  salvation.  From  Phiygia  he  proceeded  in  the 
same  company  t«  Troas,  and  thence  to  Macedonia,  where 
lie  assisted  in  foundingthe  churches  of  Philippi,  Thessalo- 
nica,  and  Beroea,  at  the  last  of  which  cities  he  and  Silas 
were  left  when  St.  Paul  was  driven  from  Macedonia  by 
the  persecution  of  the  Jews  in  that  country  and  retired  to 
Athens.  In  this  city  St.  Paul  was  subsequently  joined  by 
Timothy  1  T/ii'in.,  iii.  1),  who  gave  him  such  an  account 
of  the  afflicted  state  of  the  Thessalonian  Christians  as  in- 
dutvd  him  to  send  Timothy  back  to  '  establish  and  comfort 
them,  concerning  their  faith" :  a  charge  both  of  difficulty 
and  danger.  From  Athens  St.  Paul  went  to  Corinth,  where 
he  was  joined  by  Timothy  and  Silvanus,  who  both  assisted 
hint  in  converting  the  Corinthians  and  establishing  the  Co- 
rinthian church,  for  a  period  of  a  year  and  a  half.  (2Cor.,i.) 
When  St.  Paul  left.  Corinth,  Timothy  appears  to  have  accom- 
panied him  on  his  return  to  Asia,  where' they  resided  nearly 
three  yea.s,  without  interruption,  except  during  the  visit  of 
St .  1'aul  to  Jerusalem,  to  keep  the  feast  there,  in  which  how- 
ever it  does  not  appear  that  he  was  accompanied  by 
Timothy.  Towards  the  expiration  of  their  residence  at 
Kphcsus,  St.  Paul  despatched  Timothy  and  Erastus  to- 
U'ethei  to  precede  himself  on  a  journey  to  Macedonia. 

,  xix.  22.)  It  would  also  seem  (1  Cor.,  iv.  17)  that  St. 
Paul  at  the  same  time  charged  Timothy  to  visit  the  church  of 
Corinth.  On  returning  from  Corinth  to  Macedonia, Timothy 
was  joined  by  St.  Paul  from  Ephesus,  and  henceforward 
they  were  frequently  together,  till  Timothy  was  appointed 
by  St.  Paul  to  govern  the  church  of  Ephesus.  In  the  in- 
terval between  St.  Paul's  joining  Timothy  in  Macedonia 
and  the  appointment  of  the  latter  to  the  superintendence 
of  the  church  at  Ephesus,  Timothy  appears  either  to  have 
accompanied  St.  Paul  on  his  first  journey  to  Rome,  or  to 
have  visited  him  there.  St.  Paul,  as  is  well  known,  was  a  pri- 
soner at  Rome,  though  under  but  little  restraint,  and  from 
Hebrews  (xiii.  23)  we  may  conclude  that  Timothy  also  suf- 
fered imprisonment  either  at  Rome  or  elsewhere  in  Italy  ; 
and  that  he  was  released  before  St.  Paul  left  that  city. 
The  subsequent  history  of  St.  Paul  and  Timothy  is  not 
clearly  given  either  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  or  the 
Epistles  of  the  New  Testament ;  but  it  is  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  when  they  were  both  set  at  liberty,  they  re- 

il  the  journeys  made  for  founding  new  churches  and 

.tint;  old.  (See  Hebrews,  xiii.  23 ;  Philipp., i.  1 ;  ii.  19 ; 
1  Tim.,  1.  3.) 

Timothy  was  eventually  left  with  the  charge  of  the 
church  at  Kphesus,  where  St.  Paul  had  made  his  head- 
quarters in  Asia.  How  long  Timothy  exercised  this  office 
in  not  known,  nor  can  we  determine  the  time  of  his 
death.  A  tieal  tradition  relates  that  he  suffered 

martyrdom,  being  killed  with  stones  and  clubs  (A.D.  97) 
P.  C.,  No.  Kilfj. 


while  he  was  preaching  against  idolatry  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus.  His  supposed 
relics  were  removed  to  Constantinople,  with  great  pomp, 
A.D.  356,  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Constantine.  Shortly 
after  Timothy's  appointment  to  the  superintendence  of  the 
church  at  Ephesus,  St.  Paul  wrote  to  him  his  first  Epistle  ; 
the  date  of  which  was  probably  about  A.JO.  64,  after  St. 
Paul's  first  imprisonment  at  Rome.  Some  critics  indeed 
assign  to  it  as  early  a  date  as  A.D.  56,  supporting  their 
opinion  by  1  Tim.,  i.  3,  from  which  it  appears  (1.) 
that  Timothy  was  in  Ephesus  when  the  Apostle  wrote  his 
first  letter  to  him  ;  (2.),  that  he  had  been  left  there  when 
Paul  was  going  from  Ephesus  into  Macedonia.  A  careful 
examination  however  of  the  narrative  in  the  Acts  will 
convince  the  reader  that  the  contemplated  journey  into 
Macedonia,  of  which  the  Apostle  speaks  (1  Tim.,  i.  3), 
is  some  journey  not  mentioned  in  the  Acts,  and  therefore 
subsequent  to  St.  Paul's  release  from  his  first  confinement 
at  Rome.  But  whatever  doubt  there  may  be  as  to  the 
date  of  the  first,  there  is  none  about  the  genuineness 
of  either  of  the  two  Epistles  to  Timothy.  They  have 
always  been  acknowledged  to  be  the  undisputed  pro- 
duction of  the  Apostle  Paul.  The  object  and  design  of 
the  First  Epistle  to  Timothy  were  such  as  we  might  have 
expected  from  the  relation  between  St.  Paul  the  writer, 
and  Timothy,  to  whom  it  was  addressed.  It  was  written 
with  the  view  of  guiding  and  directing  the  latter  in  his 
responsible  and  difficult  ministry  as  the  head  of  the  church 
at  Ephesus,  to  instruct  him  in  the  choice  and  ordination  of 
proper  officers,  and  to  warn  him  against  the  false  teachers 
(Michaelis  thinks  they  were  Essenes)  who  had  '  turned 
aside '  from  the  simplicity  of  the  gospel,  to  idle  con- 
troversies and  '  endless  genealogies,'  and  who,  setting 
themselves  up  as  teachers  of  the  Law  of  Moses,  had 
insisted  upon  the  necessity  of  obedience  to  it  as  a 
requisite  for  salvation. 

In  chap,  i.,  accordingly,  St.  Paul  alludes  to  the  com- 
mission given  by  him  to  Timothy  at  parting,  and  specifies' 
the  particular  errors  which  he  was  to  condemn,  together 
with  the  truths  which  he  was  to  inculcate. 

In  chap.  ii.  the  apostle  describes  the  manner  in  which 
the  public  worship  of  the  church  at  Ephesus  was  to  be 
conducted. 

In  chap.  iii.  St.  Paul  explains  the  qualification  of  the 
persons  whom  Timothy  was  to  ordain  as  bishops  and 
deacons,  and  tells  him  that  he  had  written  the  letter  with 
a  view  of  teaching  him  '  how  he  ought  to  behave  himself 
in  the  house  of  God,  which  is  the  church  of  the  living 
God,  the  pillar  and  the  ground  of  truth.' 

The  last  verse  of  this  chapter  has  occasioned  much 
controversy  respecting  the  reading  of  the  word  6101;,  or 
'  God,'  for  which  one  MS.  has  bj,  '  who,'  and  another  u, 
'which.'  The  majority  of  the  MSS.  read  Gtoc,  or  '  God,' 
and  several  of  the  antient  versions  express  the  8  or 
'  which,'  instead  of  6e6f. 

In  chap.  iv.  St.  Paul  foretells  the  heresies  which  were 
to  arise  in  the  church  in  after-times,  and  strongly  condemns 
them.  He  also  exhorts  Timothy  to  a  faithful  and  ex- 
emplary discharge  of  his  duties,  and  to  a  steadfast  con- 
tinuance in  the  doctrines  of  the  Gospel. 

In  chap.  v.  St.  Paul  instructs  Timothy  in  the  right 
method  of  admonishing  the  old  and  the  young  of  both 
sexes.  He  also  describes  the  age  and  character  of  such 
widows  as  were  to  be  employed  by  the  church  in  teaching 
the  younger  women  the  principles  of  religion,  for  which  it 
would  seem  that  the  former  received  some  recompense 
from  the  funds  of  the  church. 

In  chap.  vi.  St.  Paul  describes  the  duties  which  he 
wished  Timothy  to  inculcate  on  Christian  slaves,  as  owing 
from  them  to  their  masters,  whether  infidels  or  believers. 
He  also  reprobates  strifes  about  words,  and  perverse  dis- 
putings,  which  seem  to  have  been  rife  in  the  Ephesian 
church ;  condemns  an  inordinate  love  of  money,  exhorts 
Timothy  to  charge  the  rich  to  be  '  rich  in  good  works,' 
and  concludes  with  a  most  solemn  charge  before  God  and 
Jesus  Christ,  that  he  should  keep  '  the  commandment,' 
without  spot  and  unblameable.  « 

The  Epistle  was  written  from  Nicopolis  in  Macedonia 
(Titus,  ill.  12),  and  not  from  Laodicea,  as  the  subscription 
informs  us.  The  undesigned  coincidences  between  it  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  are  given  in  Paley's  'Horar 
Paulinae,'  p.  323-338. 

The  Second  Epistle  of  Paul  to  Timothy.— Prom  chap,  i., 

VOL.  XX.IV. — o  O 


T  I  M 


T   I    M 


ether  he 

:ll    much 

i  ol'  the 
omtinc- 


ncr  bis  lu'st  imprison: 

•  ••••  '.'•/  i!  t.  hta 

\,  :   to   1 1   •     i  m  form   ' :  i 

the  seci 
tin 

iris :  ' 

the  latter  not  knowing  how 
•  name  in  the  siilnta- 

Kome.     Ti  .night 

"i  the  opinion  of  tin1 
t   church  are.  we  think,  concl 

.liter  his  first   impri- 
.-.  here,  after  being  kept  in 

as  an  •  •'  '•' 

martwdom,    A.P.    »)(!.     As    tli. 
-  Timothy     iv.   21     to    come  to   him    at 
ire   white:.  •!>•  writt«>n   in  July  or 

-ed  that  Timothy 
was  at  Kphe.stis  when  St.  \  il  to  him. 

The  immediate  desiiru  of  St.  Paid  in  writing  thisKpistle 
was,  it  would  seem,  to  apprise  Timothy  of  the  circum- 
stances that  had  recently  happened  to  himself  at  Rome, 
and  to  request  his  immediate  presence  tin 

ither  from  the  last  chapter  of  this  Kpistle.  that  St. 
Paul  was  closely  confined  as  a  malefactor  for  some  crime 
laid  to  his  chaise:  that  when  he  was  brought  before  the 
Roman  in  to  make  his  first  answer,  •  no  man 

stood  by  him,  but  all  men  forsook  him  ;'  that  only  Luke 
was  with  him  :  that  beimr  thus  deserted  by  almost  all,  he 
was  great!  Timothy,  -his  dearly  be- 

loved son  in  the  irospcl."  before  the  Mime  of  his  departure,' 
which  he  knew  •  was  at  hand.'      He  therefore  req 
him  to  come  to  Home  immediately,  but  being  uncertain 
whether  he  should  live  to  see  Timothy  again,  he  gave  him 
in  this  Epistle  a  variety  of  adi>  .id  en- 

This  Kpistle  in  fact  is  an  appropriate  and 
affecting  sequel  to  the  first,  the  principal  injunctions  and 
waning!  of  which  it  re  peats,  but  with  addition:!  I 
and  fervour.  St.  Paul,  as  if  for  the  last  time   chap.  i.\  con- 
jures Timothy  to  apply  himself  with  all  his  s\\ 
to  his  holy  work,  to  hold  fast  the  doctrine  which  he  had 
•oin  him.  and   not  to  ••!'  the 

my  of  the  Lord  or  of  St.  Paul's  own  suit. 
In  chap.  ii.  St.  Paul  airain  cautions  Timot  i  here- 

tics and  'foolish  qin  d  exhorts  him  to  personal 

holiness.  In  chap.  ili.  he  irivcs  a  description  of  the  '  perilous 
which  should  come.'  and  which  we  mtici- 

ni  in  performing  the  duties 

of  a  Christian  minister.     To  this  work,  in  chap,  iv.,  he  ev- 
1  him  by  a  solemn  charge  before  'God  and  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  the  juil  quick  and  the  dead.'    He 

then  depicted  hi  nt   state,  and   his  presentiment 

of  an  approaching  maitvidom:  and  alter  requesting  the 
immc  ;iig  to 

him  '  rcn  at 

Komi  Timothy  arrived  at  Rome  in  time  to  find  St. 

Paul  air.  e.doe-  not  any  where  a;  •  iientic 

information  we   havi  JLT  him  being  given  in  this 

'•I  Timothy,  in  conjunction  with  those  to 
\tremely  valuable,  as 

10  the  truth  of  many  of  the 

iigned 

'/'//« ')//i//  and  the 

Their  value  in  a  Mac- 

knight.  Preface  to  1  Timothy — • 

i  the  church,  M  they  exhibit   to  Christian 
H-ons  in  every  age  the  mo- 

thc  duties  of  their  functi.  the  manner  in  which 

duties  should  be   performed:  describe  the  qualifica- 

-lary  in   those  who   aspire   to   Mich   oltic< 
explain   t!  which  they  were  instituted,  and  are 

still  .  i  the  church.' 

l',ni<,lhi/,\\  Paul 

toTr  ;  companion  and 

an  il!  Tm,  j,, 

if  these 

'  '    inliiiKitc    ail'!  ;..  v.. 

>iy  doctrine  or  precept  at  all  di;! 


is  enforced  in  the  KpUtlei  addressed  • 

ws  and   hopes   and    motu. 
:hc    sime    in    both:  a    proof   of  th. 
•y.   and    an    evidence     th  li    il 

double  doctrine,  one  for  the  learned  and  th  t  the 

vulgar. 

1 1  "rue's    Iiitriiiliiclin,!    In     th 

•.ol.  iv.,  p.  :\~K:   Mackiiight,  \. 
Prefece   to    1   and  'J  Tinmihy  . 

TIM'dTIi  •    so   called    liom   a  p.-rxm   ol'   thai 

name  who  succes-lully  cultivated    it    ill   Ninth    Am. 
where   it  seems  to   irrow  mine   luxuriantly  than  any  • 
kind   of  grass.      I 
and  it*  common  Kuirhsh  name  i- 
It  has  been  hitrl'  by  manv  agriculturists  for  the 

MM  of  hay  which  it    niaki 
L'rowth  when    depastured.      It    i 

stand  till  it  is  tit  for  I  .LI her 

it  so  readily  imbibes  moisture,  that  11  • 
carious.     This  is  a  principal  reason  why  its  cult; 
not  been  much  extended  in  England,     it 

and  early   heil  and. 

mixed  with  other  grasses,  may  be  very  useful  in  la; 
down  land  to  p;i>turc  for  a  C 

The  soil  which  suits  timothy-:  .-  a  good  i: 

and  rather  stitt'  loam.     On  gravel  or  chalk  it  soon  du  - 

arcely  to  be  recommended  without   a  mixture  of 
other  grasses,  although  very  heavy  crops  nf  it  have 
grown;    and  from  its  strong  stem,  v.hcn   full    srrown,   it 
should  always  be  fed  off  when 
horses  and  cattle  before   the  stem   i 
growth.     That  it  is  not  a  crass  naturally  suited  to  ti.- 
mate  of  Great  Britain  appears  iVom  its  not- 
found  in  the  best    natural    pastures.     In  rich  land  v 
1  of  clover  it  may  form  a  very  good  substilr 
cut  up  srreen  and  de]>a-Uin 

which   have  been  made  with  timotli  not   suili- 

ciently  satisfactory  to  form  a  decided  opinion  ol  its  real 
merits,  and  it  well  deserves  the  attention  of  experimental 

ITMIR.     srj-TAN.     KIAMKAM     KOTli-KD-Dl'N 
GUROAN   s.\'lll-;il-KIRA'N  .UHA'NCilR.  t) 
tan  Timur,  the  fortunate,  the  axis  of  the  faith, 
wolf.the  masterof  tini:     I  nf  the  world.'   'l 

a  name  which  frequently  occurs  among  the  pn 

n   Turks,  iron'  in    the    .lacata'i    di 

and  corresponds  to  theOsmanli  'demur.'    Timn 
on  the  5th  Or  25th  of  Sha'b.in.  "7'MJ  A.H. 
Srb/.   a   suburb    of  Kesh,  a   town    south-east    of  S. 
kand.     Ho  was  the   son  of  T;u;'ii:hai'-Nowiaii,    win 
chief  of  the  Tnrkish  tribe  of  II  uhich  inhabited 

the    district    of   Kesh.       Timur    was    descended     from     a 
yonnser  son  of  Hardam-Khan  Behadir,  or  lia^hatur,  •• 
eldest    son.   YessiigaV,   was  the    lather    of   Gensihis-Khan, 
and    he    W;LS   a   direct    desccmlaiit    of    Cenirhis-Khan    on 

male  side.     lie  was  consequently  ol  liirin, 

and.  beimr  :ood,  he  held  a  hiixh  rank  amon: 

Mongol  nobility  which  was  founded  by  Cengtns-Khan 
amonir  tin  [TARTARS.]  This  rank  is  cx- 

il  by  the  title  Nowian,  which  was  added  to  the  name 

father.     Yet  the  power  of  his  family  was  not   ; 
Timur  was  a  soldier  at  the  airc  of  twelve  v  ears,  and  he 
spent    his  youth  in  the  continual  feuds  betwiVn  the  nobles 
Of  those  different    kingdoms  and    principalities   into  which 

upire  of  Genghis-Khan  was  divided  In  lii-surcess«». 
Allcr  the  death  of  his  father,  his  imcl 

chief  of  the  Herlas,  being  the  eldest    of  the  I'amiK  ;    but  a 
war  havini:  broken  out  between  Husein.  khan  c 
Khurasan,  and  Maweniinn. 

and  Timur-Togluk,  khan  ol  the  (ides  Cii-tur  .  in  Ni.r 
Turkistan,  young  Timur  activelyslipported  Husein,  an. 
appointed  chief  of  the  Iribe  of  "the  Herlas  i,,  A.n.  7i,;( 
l:iiil  .  In  this  war  Timur.  t  wound  in  his  thigh, 

in   consvqiieiiee   of   which    he   i  ::ie.      Krom  this 

he  was  called  Timur-lcnk.  or  the  lame  Timor,  which  has 
been  corrupted  \>\  Knropeans  into  Tamerlane,  by  whieh 
name  Timur  is  as  well  known  in  Kn  ,  i  his  real 

name.  Ilusrin  rewarded  him  also  with  the  hand  of  his 
sisier  Turkan,  A.M.  705  (A.I>.  I'.M  .  Notwithstanding 
I  imnr  intrigued  againd  his  ]iroteetor;  and 
niter  the'  death  of  his  wile  he  openly  rebelled  against  him, 
A.H.  707  (A.U.  13W5).  With  a  body  of  only  iX)  horsemen 


T  I  M 


467 


T  I  M 


he  surprised  and  took  Nakhshab,  a  town  which  was  de- 
fended by  a  garrison  of  12,000  men,  among  whom  there 
were  most  probably  a  great  number  of  traitors.  In  A.H. 
768  (A.D.  13GG !  he  defeated  Husein  near  his  capital,  Balkh, 
and  this  prince  was  murdered  by  some  emirs,  who,  seeing 
their  former  master  forsaken  by  fortune,  endeavoured  to 
obtain  the  favour  of  Timur  by  putting  his  rival  to  death. 
Balkh,  which  was  defended  by  the  adherents  of  Husein, 
was  taken  by  storm  and  destroyed  by  fire  after  a  siege  of 
three  years,  A.H.  771  (A.D.  1369),  and  Timur  was  proclaimed 
khan  "of  JagataV  in  the  same  year  by  the  KumltaT,  or  the 
general  assembly  of  the  people.  He  chose  Samarkand 
for  his  capital.  Husein-Sofi,  khan  of  Khowaresm  (Khiwa), 
having  imprisoned  Timur's  ambassadors,  was  attacked 
by  Timur,  who,  after  five  campaigns,  at  last  succeeded 
in  taking  the  town  of  Khowaresm,  in  A.H.  781  (A.D. 
1379).  The  town  was  destroyed,  and  the  principal  inha- 
bitants, especially  artists  and  scholars,  were  transplanted 
to  Kesh,  which  became  the  second  capital  of  Timur's 
empire.  Previously  to  this  the  khan  of  the  Getes,  who 
was  master  of  the  country  between  the  Sihun,  or  Jax- 
and  the  Irtish,  had  likewise  been  compelled  to 
pay  homage  to  Timur,  who  thus  became  master  of  a 
part  of  Siberia  and  of  the  whole  country  which  we 
now  call  Turkistan,  and  which  was  formerly  known  by 
the  name  of  Great  Tartary.  After  these  conquests 
Timur  thought  himself  strong  enough  to  carry  into 
effect  the  plan  of  making  himself  master  of  all  those 
countries  which  had  once  obeyed  his  ancestor  Genghis- 
Khan.  He  first  attacked  Khorisan,  or  the  north-eastern  part 
of  Persia,  which  was  then  divided  between  Gaiyath-ed-dtn- 
Pir-'Ali,  who  resided  at  Herat,  and  Khojah-'Ali-Murjid, 
whose  capital  was  Sebsewir.  Khojah-'Ali-Murjid,  whose 
dominions  were  on  the  boundaries  of  JagataV,  paid  homage 
to  Timur  as  soon  as  he  was  summoned ;  but  the  master  of 
Herat  prepared  a  vigorous  resistance.  Timur  took  Herat 
by  storm,  but  did  not  destroy  it.  He  carried  off  as  his 
only  trophy  the  iron  gates  of  this  town,  which  were  noted 
for  their  beautiful  workmanship,  and  which  he  ordered  to 
be  transported  to  his  birthplace,  Kesh.  The  larger  towns 
of  Khorisin  surrendered  without  resistance,  and  Timur  was 
only  checked  by  several  strong  fortresses,  such  as  Shabur- 
k'm,  Kabushin,  and  especially  Kahkaha,  between  Balkh 
and  Kelat,  in  the  mountains  of  the  Hindu-Kush.  When 
these  fortresses  fell,  all  Khon'isiin  was  under  his  yoke.  The 
inhabitants  of  Sebsewar  having  revolted,  Timur  took  the 
town  by  storm:  two  thousand  of  the  inhabitants  were 
placed  alive  one  upon  the  other,  till  they  formed  a  mass 
like  a  tower,  and  each  layer  of  human  beings  was  fastened 
to  the  rest  by  mortar,  as  if  they  were  so  many  bricks. 

Beginning   his  career  at  an  age  when  other  conquerors 
are  satisfied  with  their  laurels,  Timur  had  employed  twenty 
in    reflecting   on  the   principles  of  warfare.      He 
led    his   armies   with  the    prudent   boldness  of   an   ex- 
perienced general,  but  not  with  the  superiority  of  genius. 
The  differences  between  the  numerous  successors  of  Gen- 
ghin-Khan  enabled  Timur  to  attack  them  one  after  another, 
and  each  was  pleased  with  the  fall  of  his  rivals.     He  em- 
il  the  same  policy  in  his  war  against  Persia.     This 
country  was  governed  by  several  princes.     Shah-Sheja,  of 
the  dynasty  of  .Miwaffer,  who  reigned  in  Pars  and  southern 
Irak,  or  in  that  part  of  Persia  which  was  most  exposed  to 
any  army  from  the  east,  submitted  to  Timur  without  re- 
sistance.    Thus  Sultan  Ahmed,  of  the  house  of  the  Ilkhans, 
the  master  of  Northern  Irak  and  Azerbijan,  or  Western 
Persia,  had  alone  to  sustain  the  attacks  of  the  Tartars,  A.H. 
788  (A.D.  13865.     Timur  entered  the  dominions  of  Ahmed 
by  following  the  coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea.     In  one  cam- 
paign he  conquered  the  provinces  of  Mazanderan,  Rei, 
amf  Rustemdar,  and  took  the  towns  of  Sultania,  Tabris,  and 
Nakhshiwan.     He  crossed  the  Araxes  at  Julfa  on  a  mag- 
nificent bridge,  which  was  strongly  fortified  on  both  sides, 
but  which  is  now  destroyed.    Kars,  now  the  key  of  Eastern 
Turkey,  fell  into  his  hands;    Tiflis  surrendered,  and  the 
prince  of  Georgia  purchased  his  protection  by  adopting 
the  Mohammedan  faith.     The  prince  of  Shirwan  sent  tri- 
bute to  the  camp  of  Timur,  nine  pieces  of  each  thing  sent 
'nine  was  a  holy  number  among  the  Mongol  princes),  but 
only   eight  slaves;    the   ninth  was   himself.      On   these 
terms  he  was  allowed  to  remain  in  possession  of  his  do- 
minions.   Taherten,  king  of  Armenia,  submitted  to  Timur 
without,  any  resistance;  but  Kira-Yiisuf,  prince  of  Diyar- 
bckir,  and  master  of  the  country  round  Lake  Wan,  prepared 


to  defend  himself.  A  body  of  Timur's  army  marched 
against  him,  and  took  the  fortresses  of  Akhlat  and  Adil- 
juwaz  by  storm ;  and  Timur  himself  conducted  the  Metre. 
of  Wan.  This  famous  fortress  fell  after  a  siege  of  twenty 
days,  the  garrison  was  cast  from  the  steep  rock  on  which 
this  town  is  situated,  and  the  fortifications  were  razed  by 
ten  thousand  miners  and  pioneers.  Ready  to  cross  the 
Carduchian  Mountains  and  to  descend  into  the  valley  of 
the  Upper  Tigris,  Timur  was  obliged,  by  a  revolt  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Ispahan,  to  march  suddenly  to  southern 
Persia.  He  took  Ispahan  by  a  general  assault :  he  spared 
the  lives  and  the  houses  of  artists  and  scholars,  but  the  re- 
mainder of  the  city  was  destroyed,  and  the  inhabitants 
were  massacred.  More  than  70,000  heads  were  laid  at  the 
feet  of  the  conqueror,  who  ordered  his  soldiers  to  pile  them 
up  on  the  public  places  of  the  town,  A.H.  789  (A.D.  1387). 

Satisfied  with  having  conquered  the  greater  part  of 
Persia,  Timur  turned  his  arms  towards  the  north,  and  over- 
ran the  kingdom  of  Kiptshak,  which  was  then  governed  by 
Toktamish-Khan.  This  war  lasted  from  A.H.  789  to  799 
(A.D.  1387  to  1396).  [TARTARS,  Kiptshak.'}  We  shall 
here  only  mention  the  march  of  Timur  in  the  campaign  of 
A.H.  793  (A.D.  1391).  According  to  Sheref-ed-din,  Timur 
started  from  Tashkend,  on  the  Jaxartes,  on  the  13th  of 
Safer,  A.H.  793  (19th  of  January,  1391).  He  marched  in 
a  northern  direction,  and  passed  by  Kura-suma,  Yazi, 
Kara-chuk,  and  Sabran,  until  he  reached  Sarik-Uzen,  on 
the  river  Arch :  thence  he  proceeded  as  far  as  Mount 
Kuchuk-dagh,  and  subsequently  crossed  Mount  Ulu-dagh, 
or  the  range  of  the  Altai.  He  then  took  a  north-western 
direction  until  he  reached  the  upper  part  of  the  river 
Tobol  in  Siberia,  and  thence  proceeded  westward,  crossing 
the  Ural  Mountains,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  river  Ural, 
or  Yai'k,  where  he  drew  up  his  army  on  the  banks  of  the 
Bielaya,  a  southern  tributary  of  the  Kama,  which  flows 
into  the  Wolga.  Toktamish,  who  awaited  Timur  in  the 
environs  of  Orenburg,  was  not  a  little  astonished  to  find 
him  so  far  advanced  towards  the  north  ;  but  being  informed 
of  his  having  taken  that  direction,  he  hastened  to  the 
country  of  the  Bielaya  (Bashkiria  >,  and  fought  that  dreadful 
battle  which  took  place  on  the  15th  of  Rejeb,  A.H.  793 
(18th  of  June,  1391),  in  which  his  whole  army  was  slaugh- 
tered. 

In  the  following  year  (A.H.  794;  A.D.  1392)  Timur  re- 
turned to  his  residence  at  Samarkand,  and  he  left  the  war 
with  Kiptshak  to  his  lieutenants ;  he  only  appeared  in  the 
field  in  A.H.  797  (A.D.  1315)  in  order  to  stop  the  progress  of 
Toktamish  in  the  Caucasian  countries.  Meanwhile 
troubles  broke  out  in  northern  Persia,  which  were  put  down 
by  Timur's  generals,  who  committed  unheard-of  cruelties, 
especially  in  the  town  of  Amul,  where  the  whole  tribe  of 
the  Fedayis  was  massacred.  Timur  himself  attacked 
southern  Persia  after  his  first  return  from  Kiptshak.  The 
country  of  Fars  was  governed  by  several  princes  of  the 
dynasty  of  Mozaffer,  vassals  of  Timur,  who  aimed  at  inde- 
pendence. After  having  occupied  Loristan,  Timur  entered 
Fars  by  the  mountain-passes  east  of  Shiraz,  which  were 
defended  by  the  stronghold  of  Kalai'-zefid  ;  but  this  for- 
tress and  the  capital  Sniraz  were  taken,  the  princes  were 
put  to  death  or  fell  in  battle,  and  Timur's  son  Mir&n- 
Shah  was  invested  with  the  government  of  Fars  and  Khu- 
zistan.  From  Shiraz  Timur  marched  westwards  to  attack 
the  king  of  Bagdad,  Ahmed  Jelair,  of  the  house  of  Ilkhan. 
Bagdad  surrendered  without  resistance,  and  Sultan  Ahmed 
and  his  family  fled  towards  the  Euphrates,  accompanied 
by  a  small  body  of  cavalry.  Timur  and  forty-five  emirs 
mounted  on  the  swiftest  Arabian  horses  pursued  the  sultan, 
and  came  up  with  him  before  he  had  reached  the  Eu- 
phrates. In  the  engagement  which  ensued  Ahmed  was 
again  defeated  and  compelled  to  fly,  leaving  his  harem  and 
one  of  his  sons  in  the  hands  of  the  victor.  The  scholars 
and  artists  of  Bagdad  were  transplanted  to  Samarkand ; 
Timur  remained  at  Bagdad  for  two  months,  allowing  so 
little  licence  to  his  soldiers  that  he  ordered  all  the  wine 
which  was  found  in  the  town  to  be  thrown  into  the  Tigris. 

During  this  time  Kara-Yusuf,  prince  of  Diyarbekir,  had 
recovered  part  of  those  districts  round  Lake  Wan  which 
Timur  had  taken  from  him  in  a  former  campaign  ;  and  se- 
veral princes  in  Armenia  and  Georgia  were  still  indepen- 
dent. Timur  resolved  to  bring  them  to  submission,  and 
after  having  succeeded  in  this,  to  attack  the  kingdom  of 
Kiptshak  on  its  boundaries  in  the  Caucasus.  Starting  from 
Bagdad  in  A.H.  797  (A.D.  1394),  he  marched  to  the  Upper 

302 


T  I  M 


468 


I  M 


liv  Tcknt,  lloha  or  Ede«i*,Ho-s<i,  and  Keif,  nil  situ- 

•.imia.     lit- laid  niece  to  Mardin,  H 
plant  in  (In-  movintnin-pHwes  south-. -,.~i  <  .'.  but 

.Mi-  In    t.lke  It.  l\<-    contented    himself   with    the 

>oof  an  annual  tribute  which  Sullnn  Iza,  thr 

..red  tn  ]iay.  ami  In-  marrhril  In  Divaibckir. 
Tills  town  \\ii-.  taken  and  plundered.  From  Diyarbckir 
Tiiiuir  mar. •!»•.!  to  Akhlat,  north  ol  ,.  eroding 

the  mountains,  a.-  it  seems,  by  tin-  passes  of  the  Hedhs.  or 
Cfiitnt--.-.  [Ti(.n  \MK-KKTA.]'  Alter  having  rabdued  all 
Armenia  and  Georgia,  Timur  rearhed  the1  river  Terek  in 
ills,  and  there  fought  another  bloody  battle  willi 
the  khan  ol  Kiptshak.  In  v.iv  l:t'i:>  and  1  :»!)<;  Timur  con- 
quered all  Kiptshak.  and  pep.  ;ar  as  M. 
whereupon  lie  left  the  ronitnaml  of  these  countries  to  his 
lieutenants,  and  returned  to  Samarkand,  in  order  to  pre- 

'..ir  a.  campaign  ilia. 

•i-r  the  deatli  of  I'irus-Shah.  the  master  of  India 
•iie  Indus  and  the  Ganges,  several  pretenders 
made  claims  to  the  vacant  throne.  At  last  Mahmud  suc- 
making  himself  master  of  Delhi,  and  in  esta- 
blishing his  authority  all  over  the  empire  of  r'irns-Shah. 
I'nder  the  ]iretext  of  supporting  the  ii\a!s  of  Mahmud, 
Timur  declared  war  against  India  ;  and  such  was  the  re- 
nown of  his  name,  that  ambassadors  from  all  the  countries 
of  the  East  arrived  at  Samarkand  and  congratulated  him 
on  his  new  conquests  before  he  had  obtained  any  triumph. 
Timur  left  his  capital  in  A.M.  801  (A.D.  1398).  He  took 
his  way  through  the  passes  in  the  Ghur  Mountains,  or  the 
western  part  of  the  Hindu-Kush  ;  and  on  the  Klh  of  Mo- 
harrem.  A.M.  X01  (19th  of  September,  1398),  he  < 
the  Indus  at  Attock,  where  Alexander  had  entered  India 
f  ALEXANPKK  THE  GREAT],  and  where  Genghis  Khan  had 
been  compelled  to  give  ii])  his  plan  of  advancing  farther. 
Timur  traversed  the  Punjab  in  a  direction  from  north-west 
to  south-east,  crossing  the  rivers  Uchut.  Chunab.  Ra\ee,  the 
Beeali,  the  Hyphasis  of  the  antienls,  where  Alexander  ter- 
minated his  conquests,  and  the  Sutlej,  the  easternmost  of 
the  five  treat  rivers  of  the  Punjab.  Although  no  great 
battle  had  been  fought,  the  Tartars  had  already  made 
mere  than  100,000  prisoners  ;  and  as  their  number  daily- 
increased,  Timur  ordered  them  all  to  be  massacred,  to  pre- 
vent any  mutiny,  which  might  have  become  fatal  to  him 
in  case  of  a  defeat.  At  last  the  Indian  army  was  defeated 
in  a  battle  near  Delhi,  and  this  town,  with  all  its  immense 
treasures,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror.  Delhi  was 
plundered,  and  a  part  of  it  was  destroyed,  the  inhabitants 
having  set  fire  to  their  houses,  and  thrown  themselves 
with  their  wives  and  children  into  the  flames.  Several 

inds  of  artists  and  skilful  workmen  were  transplanted 
to  Samarkand.  Timur  pin-sued  the  army  of  Mahmud  as 
far  as  the  sources  of  the  Ganges,  and  after  having  esta- 
blished his  authority  in  the  conquered  countries,  returned 

markand  in  the  same  year  in  which  he  had  set  out 
for  the  conquest  of  India. 

Meanwhile  troubles  had  broken  out  between  the  vassal 
princes  in  Persia  and  the  countries  west  of  it ;  and  Timur's 
own  sons,  who  were  (fovernore  of  this  part  of  his  empire, 
had  attacked  each  other,  and  one  of  them  was  accused  of 
having  made  an  attempt  to  poison  his  brother.  These 
events  became  as  many  occasions  of  new  conquests  for 
Timur,  who  overran  the  whole  country  between  Persia  and 
Syria.  Siwas  Scha-ste),  one  of  the  strongest  towns  of 
Asia  Minor,  which  belonged  to  the  Osmanlis.  was  taken 
after  a  siege  of  eighteen  days.  The  Mohammedan 
inhabitants  were  spared  ;  the  Christians,  among  whom 
were  more  than  4(HKI  Armenian  horsemen,  were  in- 

I  alive.  \.ii.sut;  A.D.  1400.)  Among  tl>. 
•oners  was  Krtoghrul.  the  son  of  !iaya/id.  sultan  of  the 
Osmanlis,  who  defended  the  town  for  "his  father,  and  who 
wai  put  to  death  after  a  short  captivity.  The  fall  of 
Siwas  and  the  murder  of  Krtoghrul  were  the  signals  for 
war  i  imur  and  Baya/id.  who  had  filled  I- 

with  the  terror  of  hin  name,  and  who  was  tin 

•  mtinoplc.     The  rapidity  of  his  marches  and  the  1111- 

-ity  of  his  charges  |iad  procured  him  the  surname  of 
1  lid. Tim,'  or  the  '  Lightning  •'  and  accustomed  to  \u 
over  the  knights  of  Hungary,  Poland,  France,  an.! 
many,  he  did  not  dread  the  Tatars  of  Timur. 

he  h.id  negotiated  withTimnr  about 

Turkish  emirs  in   Asia  Minor,  and  especially  about 

(Armenia,  a  vassal  of  Timur,  who  hi'i.i 
deprived  by  IJayazid  of  several  of  their  bust  towns,  and 


whom  Timur  protected.     To  humble   his    pride,   Bayazid 
imprisoned  the  Tatarian  ambassadors,  and  Timur  in  rev  • 
carried  de\astation  into  the  dominion--  of  the  Osmanlis. 

lieforc  Baya/id  had  crossed  the  Ho-|>oni-,  Timur.  otl'cnded 
by  Fcrruj.  Sultan  of  Kvypt.  'hen  a  depend- 

ence of  Kgypt.  The  aimy  of  Fcrmj  was  routed  with  dread- 
ful slaughter  at  Haleb,  and  this  populous  town  was  taken 
by  tin  -ho  entered  it  with  the  flying  F.gypt. 

Plunder,  blood-hed,  and  cruelties  -ignali/.cd  this  new  con- 
que-t(llth   to    14th   of  Kebuil-ew \val,    A.H.   Sl>:t  :  3Olh  of 
October  to  2nd   of  November.    1400  A.!).",  which  wa- 
lowed   by  the  fall  of   Damascus  (9th  of  Sha'ban,  A.H. 
tilth  of  March.  Mill  .     Aiti«1s  and  workmen  w<- 
earned  off  to  Samarkand  and  other   towns  of  Turk. 
Ferruj    became   a    vassal   of   the  Tatars.     Bagdad   having 
revolted,  Timur  took   it    by  storm  on   the  27th  of  /ilkide, 
•suj  v.ic.  i  !Hh  iif.luly.  1  !<>l"  A.H.  ,  and  00,000  human  1 

.led  up  on  the  public  places  of  the  town. 
Hitherto  negotiations  had  still   been  earned  on  be' 
Timur  and    Baya/id,   who   had  adv. -meed   into   Asia  Minor 
with  a  well-disciplined  although  not  very  numerous  army. 
But   Baya/id   having  discovered  that   lirnur  had    bribed 
several   regiments  of  Turkomans  that  were  in  the  army  of 
tin-  Osmanlis.   the   negotiations  were   broken   oil',   and   the 
two  greatest   conquerors  of  their  time  advanced  to  meet 
each  other  in  the  field. 

After  the  fate  of  Haleb,  Damascus,  and  Bagdad,  Timur 
had  assembled   his  army  near   Haleb,  and.    cro--mg   the 
range  of  the  Taurus,  he  had  proceeded  north-wcstwaids 
to  the  northern  part  of  Anatolia.     At  Angora  he  met  with 
Baya/id.     The  battle,  one  of  '.he  moM  eventful  which 
ever  been  fought,  took  place  on  the   1'Jth  of  Xilhiji 
\.H.    JHh  of  .Inly,    1402  A.D.).     After  an  ob>tinatc   : 
ance  the  Osmanlis,  who  were  much  less  numerous  than  the 
Tatars,  were  routed.    Old  l!aya/id,  to  whom  flight  was  un- 
known, dcspUcd   every  opportunity  of  saving  himself,  and 
so  strong  was  the   habit  of  victory  in   him,  that   he  could 
not  conceive  his  defeat  even  when  he  saw  the  general  rout 
of  his  warriors.     At  the    head  of  his  janU-:irie«.   H, 
maintained  himself  on  the  top  of  a  hill;    his  soldiers  died 
of  thirst  or  fell  by  the  sword  and  the  arrows  of  the  T 
at  last  he  was  almost  alone.     When   the  niirht  came   her 
tried  to  escape  ;    his  horse  fell,  and   Bayazid  t 
prisoner  by  the   hand    of  Mahmud   Khan,    a   descendant 
of  Genghis  Khan,    and   who  was  umler-khan   of  Jauatai'. 
One  of  his  sons.  Mu/a.  was  likewise  made  prisoner:  another, 
Mustafa,  fell  most  probably  in  the  battle,  for  he  was  never 
more  heard  of;   three  others,  Soliman,  Mohammed,  and 
Iza,  escaped  with  part  of  their  troops.    Timur  received  his 
royal   prisoner  with  kindness  and  generosity.     Alter 
when  some  faithful  Osmanlis  tried  to  save  their  master,  he 
was  put   into  chains,  but  only  at  night.     Accompanying 
Timur  on  his  march,  he  sat  in  a  •  kales.'  that  is.  in  a  sedan 
hanging  between   two  horses,   and   this   was   the  origin  of 
the  fable  that  Timur  had  put  Bayazid  in  an  iron  •  - 
like  a  wild  beast,  a  table    which  has   chiefly 

'. 'd  by  Arabshah  and  the  Byzantine  Phran/cs  i..  0, 
26).  Bayazid  died  in  his  captivitv  at  Akshehr.  about  a 
year  after  the  battle  of  Angora  (14tVi  of  Sha'l.an,  sii:>  v.n.  ; 
8th  of  March,  1403  A.D.),  and  Timur  allowed  Prince  Mu/a 
to  carry  the  body  of  his  father  to  Bnisa. 

The-  sons  of  Timur  pursued  the  sons  of  liavax.i.l  as  far  as 
the  Bosporus,  but  ha v  ing  nofleet,  they  did  not  cross  this  chan- 
nel. Thc\  ravaged  the  country,  and" afterwards  joined  llieir 
father  Tinmr.  who  with  the  main  body  of  his  army  took 

us  and  laid  siege,  to  Smyrna.     This  town,  which  he- 

1  to  the  Knightsof  St.  .lohn  at  Khoeles.  fell  alii  r  a  gal- 

OCe,  in  the  month  of  December.  1-102.    Ilo 
the  conquest  of  Asia  Minor  from  the  Osmanlis  was  einly  a 
temporary  triumph,  for  a  short   time  allcrwanis    >• 
n  ru\|.red    by    Mohammed   I.,    the  son  and  successor  of 
the  unfortunate  Bayazid.     After  having  thus  carried  his 
arms  as  far  as  the  shore  of  the  Ionian  Sea.  Timur  withdrew 
to  Persia  to  quell  an  insurrection,  and  then  rctircel  to  Samar- 
kand,   lie  was  preparing  for  the  conquest  of  I  'hina.  but  he 
died  on  his  inarch  to  that  country,  at  Otraron  the.  la  \artes,  on 
the  17th  of  ShaVm,  807  A.M.  ..'I'.lth  of  February.   I •!().")  .  in 

e-nty-first  year, after  a  reign  of  thirty-six  years,  leaving 
thirty-six  sons  and  grandsons,  anil  seveiitee-n  giand- 
claughters.  A  considerable  pait  of  Timur's  western  and 
northern  conquests,  Ar-ia  Minor,  llagelael.  Syria,  (uiirgia, 
Armenia,  and  the  whole  kingdom  of  Kiptshak,  were  lo^t  by 
his  successors  almost  immediately  alter  his  death.  In 


T  I  N 


469 


T  I  N 


Persia  and  Jagatai  his  descendants  reigned  for  a  century; 
and  for  three  centuries  they  ruled  over  Northern  India 
under  the  name  of  the  Great  Moguls. 

Timur  has  been  compared  with  Alexander,  but  he  is  far 
below  him.  It  is  true,  that  except  in  India,  Alexander 
found  only  effeminate  nations  on  his  way,  while  Timur 
fought  with  the  most  warlike  nations  of  the  world;  but 
the  enemies  of  Alexander  formed  great  political  bodies 
which  were  governed  by  one  absolute  master,  while  the 
warlike  nations  which  were  subdued  by  Timur  were  divided 
into  a  multitude  of  tribes  and  governed  by  numerous 
princes,  each  of  whom  was  jealous  of  his  neighbour.  Timur 
overran  the  territory  of  two  mighty  nations,  the  Turks- 
Osinanlis,  and  the  latars  of  Kiptshak,  but  he  was  not  able 
to  subdue  them.  Both  Alexander  and  Timur  protected 
Hie  arts  and  sciences,  but  Timur  could  only  transplant 
them  by  force  from  one  place  to  another,  while  poets  and 
scholars  flocked  to  Alexander  because  he  could  appreciate 
their  talents.  Timur's  cruelty  was  the  consequence  of  his 
savage  and  barbarous  temper  ;  Alexander  only  forgot  the 
laws  of  humanity  when  he  was  overpowered  by  wine  or  by 
.'in.  Timur  was  a  man  of  extraordinary  talents,  who  ac- 
complished great  things  after  long  experience  and  severe 
struggles  :  Alexander,  a  true  genius,  came,  saw,  and  van- 
quished. The  greatness  of  Timur  inspires  awe,  and  we 
shrink  from  it  with  terror ;  the  greatness  of  Alexander 
attracts  us  because  it  is  adorned  with  the  amiable  qualities 
of  his  character. 

The  life  of  Timur  is  the  subject  of  many  valuable  works. 
Sheref-ed-din-'Ali  wrote  the  history  of  Timur  in  Persian, 
which  has  been  translated  into  French  by  Petis  de  la  Croix, 
under  the  title  '  Histoire  de  Timur-Bec,  connu  sous  le  nom 
du  Grand  Tamerlan,'  &c.,  Paris,  1722.  This  is  the  best. 
work  concerning  Timur,  although  the  author  often  flatters. 
Arabshah,  a  Syrian,  on  the  contrary,  depreciates  the  cha- 
rt'-tei-  of  Timur;  his  history,  or  rather  his  epic,  has 
hern  translated  under  the  title  '  Ahmedis  Arabsiadae 
Vita  ct  Rerum  Gestarum  Timuri  qui  vulgo  Tamerlanes 
dicitur,  Historia,'  Lugduni-Batavorum,  1636.  Longdit, 
Arirote  de  Molina,  Petrus  Perundinus  Pratensis,  Boekler, 
Kicherius,  &c.,  have  also  written  the  life  of  Timur. 
Among  the  Byzantines,  Ducas,  Chalcondylas,  and  Phran- 
•  iintain  many  valuable  accounts,  though  Phranzes 
critical  than  the  others.  A  very  interesting  book  is 
'  Schildtbererer,  eine  Wunderbarliche  und  Kurzweilige  His- 
toric,' &c.,4to.  The  same  book  was  translated  into  modern 
German  by  Penzel,  Miinchen,  1813.  Schildtberger,  a 
German  soldier,  was  made  prisoner  by  the  Turks  in 
the  battle  of  Nicopolis  (139G),  when  he  was  only  sixteen 
years  old.  In  the  battle  of  Angora  he  was  taken  by 
the  Tatars,  and  became  a  kind  of  secretary  to  Shahrokh 
and  Miran-Shah,  the  sons  of  Timur.  He  finally  returned 
to  Gei  many  in  1427,  after  a  captivity  of  thirty  years,  and 
then  wrote  the  history  of  his  adventures. 

Gibbon  gives  a  splendid  view  of  Timur's  conquests  in 
the  'Decline  and  Fall,'  chap.  Ixv.  Another  most  valuable 
work  is  Clavijo,  '  Historia  del  gran  Tamerlan,  e  Itineiario," 
&c.  Clavijo,  ambassador  of  king  Henry  III.  of  Castile  at 
the  court  of  Timur,  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Angora. 
'  I,  ll'mtniri"  <l«x  llunx,  vol.  ii.)  Timur  may  be 
( -onsidered  as  the  author  of  the  '  Tufukat,  or  the  Code  of 
Laws.'  This  work  was  originally  written  in  the  East- 
Turkish  language,  and  was  translated  into  Persian.  The 
Persian  version,  with  an  English  translation  and  a  most 
valuable  index,  was  published  by  Major  Davy  and  Professor 
White,  Oxford,  1783,  4to.  ;  and  Langles  has  translated  the 
,n  version  into  French,  under  the  title,  'Instituts 
Politiques  et  Militaires  de  Tamerlan,'  Paris,  1787.  This 
work  is  of  great  importance  for  the  history  of  Timur ;  we 
at  this  Tatarian  conqueror  was  provided  with  maps 
and  works  concerning  geography,  which  were  composed 
by  his  order. 

TIN.    This  metal  is  one  of  those  which  were  earliest 

known,  though  it  occurs  in  comparatively  few  countries  : 

mtance  of  the  antients  with  this  metal,  though 

'  occur  in  the  native  state,  is  accounted  for  by 

iiTiunstdtices  that  the  ore  is  found  frequently  near  the, 

i''e,  and  is  easily  reduced  by  charcoal  and  a  moderate 

degree  of  heat  to  the  state  of  meial. 

AI-.  !ius,  tin  is  found  in  England,  Saxony, 

Bohemia,  Hungary,  the  isle  of  Banca,  the  peninsula  of 
Malacca,  in  chili"  M-J\  .Mexico:  Malacca  furnishes  the 
purest  tin,  and  Cornwall  the  largest  quantity. 


Tin  occurs  in  two  states  of  combination,  the  peroxide 
and  double  sulphuret  of  tin  and  copper:  this  last  is  rath  IT 
a  rare  substance,  and  it  is  from  the  former  that  the  metal 
is  almost  entirely  obtained. 

The  peroxide  of  tin  is  found  in  Cornwall  in  two  forms  : — 
1.  In  veins  in  primitive  countries,  where  it  is  intimately 
mixed  with  several  other  metals,  as  arsenic,  copper,  zinc-, 
and  tungsten :  this  is  common  tinstone.  2.  In  loose 
rounded  masses,  grains,  or  sand  in  alluvial  soil,  in  which 
state  it  is  called  stream-tin.  The  former,  when  reduced  to 
the  metallic  state,  yields  block-tin  ;  while  the  latter  yields 
grain-tin,  which  is  the  purer  of  the  two. 

Oxide  of  Tin — Tinstone — Occurs  in  attached  and  im- 
bedded crystals,  and  massive.  Primary  form  a  square 
prism,  which  is  commonly  terminated  by  four-sided  pyra- 
mids. Cleavage  parallel  to  the  lateral  planes  and  both 
diagonals.  Fracture  uneven  or  imperfectly,  conchoidal. 
Hardness  6  to  7 :  gives  sparks  with  steel,  and  is  brittle. 
Colour  white,  yellow  of  various  shades,  red,  brown,  and 
black.  Streak  paler.  Lustre  adamantine,  vitreous.  Trans- 
parent, translucent,  opaque.  Specific  gravity  6-96.  In- 
soluble in  acids.  Before  the  blow-pipe,  in  powder  on 
charcoal,  it  is  reduced  to  the  metallic  state.  Fine  crystals 
of  this  substance  occur,  more  especially  in  Cornwall  and 
Saxony. 

Analysis  of  the  oxide  of  tin  of  Cornwall  by  Klaproth : — 
Tin  ...  77-5 


Oxygen 

Iron 

Silica 


21-5 
0-25 


100-0 

The  Masiii'i'  Varieties  of  (aide  of  tin  are  called  stream- 
tin.  What  is  termed  wood-tin  is  found  in  reniform  and 
botryoidal  masses,  or  in  wedge-shaped  pieces,  which  have 
arisen  from  their  partial  destruction  :  the  surfaces  are  gene- 
rally water-worn.  Wood-tin  exhibits  various  shades  of 
brown,  which  sometimes  appear  in  concentric  bands, 
giving  it  a  ligneous  appearance,  whence  its  name. 

Stream-tin  has  evidently  been  derived  from  the  de- 
struction of  tin  veins  or  "lodes,  the  lighter  portions  of 
stony  matter  having  been  carried  away  by  the  water, 
which  has  rounded  the  fragments  of  the  ore. 

At  Finbo  in  Sweden  oxide  of  tin  has  been  met  with 
containing  nearly  2'  5  per  cent,  of  oxide  of  columbium. 

Tin  Pyrites. — Stilphuret  of  Tin,  a  double  Sulphuret  of 
Tin  and  Copper,  is  a  rare  substance,  having  been  found 
only  in  Cornwall  at  Huel  Rock,  in  the  parish  of  St. 
Agnes. 

Occurs  crystallized  and  massive.  Primary  form  of  the 
crystal  a  cube.  Cleavage  parallel  to  the  faces  of  the  pri- 
mary form.  Fracture  uneven,  with  a  metallic  lustre. 
Hardness :  readily  scratched  and  reduced  to  powder ; 
brittle.  Colour  steel-grey,  mixed  with  yellow.  Specific 
gravity  4-3."). 

Massive  Variety. — Fracture  granular  and  uneven,  with 
a  metallic  lustre.  Hardness  4.  Brittle.  Opaque.  Spe- 
cific gravity  4'35  to  4'76. 

Analysis  by  Klaproth  : — 

Tin     ....         34 
Copper        .         .  36 

Iron    ....  2 

Sulphur       ...        25 

97 

Having  now  described  the  ores,  we  proceed  to  state  the 
Properties  of  Tin. — This  metal  is  of  a  silver-white 
colour,  very  soft,  and  so  malleable  that,  it  may  be  re- 
duced into  leaves  l-1000th  of  an  inch  thick,  called  tin- 
foil :  it  suffers  but  little  change  by  exposure  to  the  air, 
and  that  which  does  occur  arises  rather  from  impure  sul- 
phurous vapours  than  from  oxidation  ;  for  it  is  not  oxidized 
even  by  the  combined  action  of  air  and  moisture.  Its 
tenacity  is  but  slight,  so  that  a  wire  l-15th  of  an  inch  in 
diameter  is  capable  of  supporting  only  about  31  pounds : 
a  bar  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter  was  broken  by  296 
pounds  weight.  Tin  is  inelastic,  but  very  flexible,  and 
when  bent  it  produces  a  peculiar  crackling  noise.  When 
rubbed  it  imparts  to  the  fingers  a  peculiar  smell,  which 
remains  for  a  considerable  time.  Its  specific  gravity  is 
about  7-29;  at  442"  Fahr.  it  fuses,  and  if  exposed  at 
the  same  time  to  the  air,  its  surface  is  tarnished  by  oxi- 
dizement,  and  eventually  a  grey  powder  is  formed.  When 


T  I  N 


470 


T  I  N 


to  whiteness  it  takes  fire,  and  burns  with  a  white 
fUme,  an.!  :tcdinto;  .   tin.     If  slowly 

•11,  il  exhibits  a  crystalline  »p]> 

nut  Tin  do  not  readily  combine  at  common 

unite  in  three    proportions,   |., ruling 

If.  sometimes  called  acid,  tlir  sesqui- 

.er-or  bin-oxide,  riri|ui-ntly  termed  stannic 

•:n  cannot  he  proeuud  perfectly  pure 

.rtion:    the  best  niclhoil  ,11;  it'  is  to 

•!'    protochloride    of   tin.   fvn]ionito  it 

mill  then  t  lit  unite  it  in  a  mortar  with 

.!'i/.ed  curb  -la.  which  decomposes 

d  le:ive-i  tile  protoxide  of  tin. 

\Yhcn  th  i  washed,  and  dried  run-fully  on  the 

if  ;i  fine  bluish-hlai  k  colour,  is  very  soluble 

in  hydrochloric  ncid,  and  when   heated  in  the  air  it  takes 

fin-. "burns,  :»nd  is  converted  into  peroxide:  the  d'-usity  of 

\ideoftin  isU-GGC:  it  is  soluble  in  solution  ol  potash 

:mil  soda,  hut  not  in  ammonia,  nor  do  the  alkaline  carbo- 

it.     It  N  composed  of — 
( )ne  equivalent  of  oxygen         .         .          8 
One  equivalent  of  tin        .          .         .         ">S 

Equivalent         .         .         66 
The  alkaline  solutions  of  this  oxide  gradually  deposit 
metallic-  tin.  mid  peroxide  remains  in  solution.     Its  salts 
icadily  absorb  oxygen  from  the  air,  and  form  corn- 
Is  which  readily    yield   oxygen;    and   it   is  on  this 
ai-eount  tliat  it  converts  the  scsquioxidc  of  iron  into  prot- 
oxide, and    precipitates  silver,   mercury,  and   platimi   in 
their  metallic,  state.     With   gold  a  purple  compound  is 
d,   known  by  the  name  of  the   purple   powder  ol 
1'he  hydrate  of  this  oxide  of  tin  is  white. 

'  Tin  is  formed  by  mixing  fresh  precipi- 
tated and  moist  hydrate  of  peroxide  of  iron  with  a  solution 
of  protochloride  of  tin,  as  free  as  possible  from  hydro- 
chloric acid  :  by  the  mutual  action  of  these  substances  a 
slimy  grey  matter  is  thrown  down,  which  is  generally 
slightly  yellow,  from  the  of  a  little  peroxide  o 

iron,    "it'is  composed  of — 

( )ne  equivalent  and  a  half  of  oxygen          12 
One  equivalent  of  tin  .         .        58 

Equivalent         .         .        70 

It  is  soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid,  and  also  in  ammonia 
which  last  property  distinguishes  it  from  the  protoxide 
and  it  is  distinguished  from  the  peroxide   by  giving  a 
purple  precipitate  with  the  salts  of  gold. 

J'i  '  "!'•  "f  Tin,  in-  Maniiir  Arid. — This  i 

readily  prepared  by  the  action  of  strong  nitric  acid  slightly 
diluted  upon  tin:  violent  action  occurs,  and  the  binoxidi 
formed  remains  in  the  state  of  hydrate  :  after  washing  and 
drying  and  exposure  to  a  red  neat,  the  binoxide  remain 
pure,  and  is  of  a  straw-yellow  colour :  the  pcrchloride  o 
tin,  when  decomposed  liy  an  alkali,  also  yields  binoxide  o 
tin  :  when  it  has  been  rendered  red-hot  it  is  quite  in 
soluble  in  acids,  and  acts  as  an  acid  by  forming  solubl 
compounds  with  the  alkalis,  which  are  called  ttanimlrx 
the  moistened  hydrate  acts  as  an  acid  also  in  reddeniiiL, 
litmus-paper,  when  melted  with  glass  it  forms  a  whit 
enamel. 

It  is  composed  of— 

Two  equivalent*  of  oxygen       .        .       ie 
equivalent,  of  tin        ...         58 

Kqmvalent         .          .         71 

f'hlnrini'  unil   Tin  combine  to  form  the   protochlorid 
and  the   pcrchloridp.     The   protochloride   is   pn-paied  li 
dimtolving  the  metal  in  hot  hydrochloric  acid  till  tl 
lution  nl   hydn  ascs  :    the  solution  i 

and  deposits  crystals,  which  -ometimes  arc  ncicii1. 
at  others  prisms"  of  considerable  size.     They  consist  of— 
One  equivalent  of  chlorine         . 

One  equivalent  of  tin       .        .        .        ~M 

Three  equivalents  of  water        .         .         -J7 

Kquivalent        .         •       1-1 
When  heated  to  about  212°.  the  whole  of  the 

a    exiielled:     nt    a   higher    temperature  hydrochlon 

I.   an. I   oxiehloride   of   tin    remains.       It    i 

soluble  in  a  ninall  quanli  .  but   decomposed   1. 

» large  quantity,  oxiehloride  of  tin  being  prccipitat 


The  protochloride  of  tin  is  used  as  a  nioidant  in  ca 
rrintiiig.  and  in  chemical   i  .1  de-oxidi 

rting  ill  the  mode  ah  ulrvd. 

1'rotoehloride  of  tin  may  I  i  by  distilling  a 

nixture  of  equal  weigh!  i  tin  and  bieh! 

>!'  mercury,  or  of  protochloilde   of  inereuiy.    or   liy  I 
nitting  hydrochloric  acid  ga<  over  tin  healed  in   a 
uhe  ;  in  all  these  ca.-i  .  and 

s  a  grey  solid,  of  a  resinous  lustre,  which  I-.  icd- 

16M  anil  sublimes  at  a  high  temperature. 

Itir/ii  /':,•/   may  be  prepared  in  several  mn 

.ir.-t.  by  heating  the  ]irotoeliloride  ill  chlorin 

-..King  tile  hydrated  peroxide  ill  hydrochloric  acid; 
third,  by  putting  tin  into  the  mixture  of  hydrochloric  and 
litric  acid,  called  uijuti  rrffiii,  which  yieli 
line  ;    fourth,  when  a  mixture  of  1  part  of  tin  with  -1  : 
of  bichloride  of  mercury  is  distilled  with  a  gentle  heat,  a 
colourless  limpid  liquid  is  obtained,  which  fumes  strongly 
in  moist  air;    this  is  the  bichloride  of  tin,  formerly  ki 
by  the  name  of  the  fuming  liquor  of  I.ibavins  :    it  boils  at 
•j'lH".   is.   rendered    solid   by   the   addition   of  one    third   of 
its  weight  of  water,  and  dissolves  in  a  larger  quantity  :    by 
the  action  of  alkalis  it  is  decomposed,  hjdrated  j 
tin  being  precipitated. 
It  consists  of — 

Two  equivalents  of  chlorine  72 

One  equivalent  of  tin          .         .         ")S 

Equivalent^  .         .       130 

A  solution  of  this  salt  under  the  name  of  mtromuriate  of 
tin  is  extensively  used  in  dyeins;  and  calico-pin, i 

>V//j/i«r  and  fin  combine  in  three  proportions  :  the  ];ro- 
tosulphuret  is  prepared  by  adding  to  melted  tin  ai:  equal 
weight  of  sulphur,  and  stirring  the  mixture  till  combina- 
tion is  effected;  the  product  is  to  be  powdered  when  cold, 
mixed  with  an  equal  weight  of  sulphur,  and  thrown  in 
small  portions  into  a  hot  crucible  and  eventually  heated 
to  redness.  Its  properties  are.  that  it  is  of  a  bluish-black 
colour,  has  a  metallic  lustre,  fuses  at  a  red  heat,  and  when 
cooled  has  a  lamellated  texture.  When  bydrotulphurio 
acid  ::as  is  passed  into  a  solution  of  protochloride  of  tin,  a 
similar  compound  is  obtained  ;  hydrochloric  acid  dissolves 
proto.sulpluuet  of  tin  with  the  evolution  of  hydrosulphurie 
acid  gas,  a  solution  of  the  protochloride  of  tin  being 
Conned* 

It  is  composed  of — 

One  equivalent  of  sulphur  .         16 

One  equivalent  of  tin          .  .        58 

Equivalent        .  .         74 

Sesqiiixiiljilniri't  if  Tin. — To  prepare  this,  finely  pow- 
dered protosulphuret  of  tin  is  to  be  mixed  with  a  third  of 
icht  of  sulphur,  and  the  mixture  is  to  be  heated  to 
moderate  redness  until  sulphur  is  no  ion'jvr  volatilized. 
It  has  a  deep  greyish-yellow  colour,  and  when  strongly 
heated  is  reconverted  to  the  state  of  protosulphuret; 
when  heated  in  hydrochloric  acid,  hydrosulphurie  iras  is 
given  out. 

It  is  constituted  of — 

One  and  a  half  equivalent  of  sulphur  -I 
One  equivalent  of  tin 

Kquivalent       .          .          .     S'J 
JliMi/ji/niri't  "f  Tin  may  be  prepared  in  diil'erent  in 
when  hydi-osiilphuric  acid  or  hvdrosulphatc  of  ammonia  is 
added  to  a  solution  of  bichloride  of  t.m.a  bulky  precipitate 
of  a  dirty  yellow  colour  is  obtained  ;  this  is  hydralcd  bisul- 
phuret  of  liu  :    in  the  dry  way  it  is  procured  D]   heating  in 

a  retort  twelve  parts  of  tin  amalgamated  with  .six  p.,. 
mercury,  rubbed  up  with  seven  parts  of  sulphur  Mi 
of  hydrochlorate  of  ammonia;   the  mercury  facilitati 
combination  of  the  tin  and  sulphur,  and  the  ammoniaeal 
salt,  1  iiation,  appears  to  prevent  the  1< 

becoming  so  high  as  to  decompose  the  bisulphuiet  of  tin 
formed.  This  substance,  formerly  known  to  the  alche- 
mists by  the  name  of  .•turn/it  nniMriuii,  or  ,'d,  is 
in  crystalline  scales,  and  sonietu  nle  plates,  of  a 
golden-yellow  colour  and  metallic  lustre.  It  is  not  soluble 
in  any  aeid,  but  mi-eent  chlorine,  in  the  form  of  what  was 
I'oimerly  called  <njii:i  i-i'ain,  dissolves  il  :  it  is  soluble  also 
in  solution  of  potash  and  soda,  forming  what.  1m. c  been 
called  suli 


T  I  N 

It  consists  of — 

Two  equivalents  of  sulphur 
One  equivalent  of  tin 


471 


T  I  N 


32 

58 


Equivalent  .         .         90 

Phosphuret  of  Tin  is  readily  formed  by  adding  phosphorus 
to  the  melted  metal  ;  it  is  of  a  silvery-white  colour,  am 
soft  enough  to  be  cut  with  the  knife.  After  fusion  it  crys- 
tallizes on  cooling ;  when  thrown  upon  a  red-hot  coal,  the 
phosphorus  burns.  This  compound  does  not  appear  to  havi 
been  accurately  analyzed;  but  when  phosphuretted  hydro- 
gen is  made  to  act  upon  a  solution  of  protochloride  of  tin, 
a  terphosphuret  is  formed,  which  is  readily  oxidized  by  the 
action  of  the  air. 
It  consists  of — 

Three  equivalents  of  phosphorus          48 
One  equivalent  of  tin         .         .         58 

Equivalent          .         .         IOC 
I'ulides  rif  Tin.— To  prepare  the  protiodide,  two  parts  of 
granulated  tin  are  to  be  heated  witn  five  parts  of  iodine  ; 
the  resulting  iodide  is  a  red  translucent  substance,  very 
fumble,  soluble  in  water,  and  volatile  at  a  high  tempera- 
ture. 
It  consists  of — 

One  equivalent  of  iodine  .         126 

One  equivalent  of  tin  .          58 

Equivalent  .          .         184 

The  Periodic!/'  nf  Tin  is  formed  by  dissolving  the 
hydrated  peroxide  of  tin,  precipitated  by  an  alkali  from 
the  solution  of  the  bichloride,  in  hydriodic  acid ;  it  forms 
crystals  of  a  silky  lustre,  which  are  resolved  by  boiling 
water  into  peroxide  of  tin  and  hydriodic  acid. 

X •  A •niiiri't  i if  Till. — When  tin  is  fused  with  selenium, 
they  combine  with  the  evolution  of  light.  The  compound 
formed  is  a  spongy  mass,  of  a  grey  colour  and  metallic 
lustre  ;  when  heated,  selenium  is  expelled  and  peroxide  of 
tin  remains. 

OXISALTS  OF  TIN. 

Protonitrate  of  Tin  is  formed  by  dissolving  either  the 
metal  or  the  protoxide  in  dilute  nitric  acid  ;   a  yellow  un- 
cry^allizable  solution  is  obtained  ;   by  exposure  to  the  air 
it  absorbs  oxygen,  and  peroxide  of  tin  is  precipitated. 
It  is  probably  composed  of — 

One  equivalent  of  nitric  acid      .         54 
One  equivalent  of  protoxide  of  tin       66 

Equivalent  .          .          .        120 

fprnitrate  of  Tin. — When  tin  is  acted  upon  by  strong 
nitric  acid,  the  peroxide  formed  remains  entirely  insoluble 
in  the  acid ;  to  procure  the  pernitrate  it  is  best  to  cause  the 
hydrated  peroxide  to  dissolve  in  dilute  nitric  acid.  The 
solution  is  colourless  and  yields  no  crystals ;  when  diluted 
or  heated,  it  is  rendered  turbid. 

Xiiijihiiti-f  i  if  Tin. — By  boiling  excess  of  tin  in  sulphuric 
acid,  a  solution  is  obtained  from  which  colourless  acicular 
..Is  of  sulphate  of  tin  are  deposited.  When,  on  the 
other  hand,  tin  is  boiled  in  excess  of  sulphuric  acid,  or 
hydrated  peroxide  of  tin  is  dissolved  in  the  acid,  persul- 
phate of  tin  is  obtained  in  solution,  but  it  cannot  be  made 
to  crystallize. 

Carbonate  of  Tin. — When  carbonate  of  potash  is  added 
to  protochloride  of  tin,  a  white  precipitate  is  formed,  which, 
supposing  it  to  contain  carbonic  acid  while  moist,  loses  it 
during  washing  and  drying ;  it  appears  therefore  that  a 
permanent  carbonate  of  this  metal  is  not  attainable. 

I'hoxphates  of  Tin. — When  phosphate  of  soda  is  added  to 
a  solution  of  protochloride  of  tin,  an  insoluble  white  pre- 
cipitate of  protophosphate  is  obtained  ;  the  perphosphate, 
also  an  insoluble  colourless  precipitate,  may  be  procured 
by  adding  the  phosphate  of  soda  to  a  solution  of  perchlo- 
nde  of  tin. 

Having  described  the  principal  and  best  known  oxisalts 
of  tin,  we  shall  mention  the  characters  of  the  salts  of  tin, 
as  given  by  Dr.  Thomson  ;  they  are  as  follows : — The  proto- 
salts  of  tin  are  white,  and  the  solutions  of  them  are  usually 
colourless ;  their  taste  is  astringent  and  metallic,  and 
highly  disagreeable  ;  when  in  solution,  they  rapidly  absorb 
oxygen,  and  are  converted  into  the  corresponding  per- 
salts. 

When  a  plalc  of  lead  or  zinc  is  put  into  a  solution  of 
tin,  it  is  thrown  down  in  the  metallic  state.  Ferrocyanide 


of  potassium  occasions  a  white  gelatinous  precipitate  when 
dropped  into  these  solutions,  and  sulphuret  of  potassium 
occasions  a  coffee-brown  precipitate  in  the  salts  of  the 
protoxide  of  tin ;  but  neither  gallic  acid  nor  infusion  of 
galls  occasions  any  precipitate.  When  chloride  of  gold  is 
poured  into  solutions  of  protoxide  of  tin,  a  purple-coloured 
precipitate  falls.  A  solution  of  potash  throws  down  a 
white  precipitate,  which  dissolves  in  excess  of  tHI  alkali 
If  the  solution  be  boiled,  a  black  powder  falls,  which  is 
metallic  tin  ;  while  a  compound  of  peroxide  of  tin  and 
potash  remains  in  solution.  Ammonia  throws  down  a 
white  precipitate,  not  soluble  in  excess  of  the  alkali. 

ALLOYS  OF  TIN. 

Most  of  the  malleable  metals  are  rendered  brittle  by 
alloying  with  tin  ;  it  combines  readily  with  potassium  and 
sodium,  forming  brilliant  white  alloys,  which  are  less 
fusible  than  tin  ;  the  potassium  alloy  burns  readily  when 
it  contains  more  than  one-fifth  of  potassium.  With 
arsenic  it  forms  a  metallic  mass  which  is  whiter,  harder, 
and  more  sonorous  than  pure  tin.  With  antimony  tin 
forms  a  white,  hard,  and  sonorous  alloy.  Bismuth  forms 
with  tin  an  alloy  which  is  more  fusible  than  either  of 
the  metals  separately,  a  mixture  of  equal  weights  melt- 
ing at  212°  ;  this  compound  is  hard  and  brittle.  Copper 
and  tin  form  alloys  which  are  well  known  and  highly  use- 
ful ;  they  are  bell-metal  and  bronze.  With  mercury  tin 
readily  amalgamates,  and  the  compound  is  used  for  silver- 
ing mirrors.  With  iron  tin  forms  white  compounds  which 
are  more  or  less  fusible  according  to  the  proportion  of 
iron  they  contain  ;  tinplate  is  of  all  the  alloys  of  tin  the 
most  useful,  and  the  preparation  of  this  and  of  pewter  are 
the  most  extensive  applications  of  this  very  valuable 
metal. 

TIN,  MANUFACTURE  OF.  Under  this  head  may 
be  noticed,  first,  the  processes  required  to  bring  tin  into  a 
marketable  state,  embracing  the  smelting  and  refining  of 
the  metal ;  secondly,  the  manufacture  of  tin-ware,  or  of 
articles  of  tin-plate  ;  and,  thirdly,  a  few  of  the  manufac- 
tures of  compound  metals  in  which  tin  forms  the  principal 
ingredient.  The  process  of  TINNING,  or  of  covering  plates 
of  iron,  the  inner  surfaces  of  vessels  of  iron  or  copper,  &c., 
with  a  thin  coat  of  tin,  forms  the  subject  of  a  separate 
article. 

Smelting  and  Refining  of  Tin  ;  preparation  of  Block 
and  Grain  Tin. — The  processes  by  which  tin-ores  are  me- 
chanically separated  from  the  grosser  impurities  which  are 
usually  found  with  them,  and  broken  into  fragments  con- 
venient for  the  subsequent  operations,  are  briefly  noticed 
in  the  article  MINING,  vol.  xv.,.  pp.  244  and  245.  After 
being  thus  reduced  to  a  coarse  powder,  the  ore  is  roasted 
or  calcined  in  a  reverberatory  furnace,  until  it  ceases  to 
exhale  arsenical  vapours,  by  which,  together  with  some 
subsequent  processes,  it  is  further  cleansed  from  the  admix- 
ture of  foreign  matter  and  prepared  for  smelting.  A  very  full 
account  of  all  the  processes  connected  with  the  prepara- 
:ion  and  smelting  of  tin-ore,  as  practised  about  sixty  years 
since,  is  given  in  the  '  Mineralogia  Cornubiensis '  of  Pryce, 
of  Redruth  ;  but,  although  most  of  the  processes  are  still 
performed  with  little  alteration,  we  have  depended  more 
;br  the  following  account  of  them  upon  an  extensive 
article  on  '  Tin,'  in  Dr.  Ure's  recently  published  '  Dic- 
tionary of  Arts,  Manufactures,  and  Mines,'  in  which  the 
previous  operations  of  mining  are  also  minutely  described. 

The  ores  of  tin  raised  in  Cornwall  and  Devonshire  are 
always  reduced,  or  smelted,  within  those  counties,  their 
exportation  being  prohibited  ;  but  this  arrangement  is 
stated  not  to  be  injurious  to  private  interests,  because  the 
vessels  which  bring  the  fuel  from  Wales  for  the  smelting- 
furnaces  return  to  Swansea  and  Neath  laden  with  copper- 
ores.  The  smelting-works  do  not  generally  belong  to  the 
proprietors  of  the  mines,  but  to  other  parties  who  pur- 
chase the  ore  from  them,  their  value  being  determined  by 
a  kind  of  assay.  When  several  bags  of  ore,  of  nearly  uni- 
ibrm  quality,  are  taken  to  the  smelting-works,  a  small 
sample  is  taken  from  each,  and  these  samples,  after  being 
tended  together,  are  mixed  with  about  four  per  cent,  of 
ground  coal,  placed  in  an  open  earthen  crucible,  and 
leated  in  an  air-furnace  until  the  ore  is  reduced.  As  the 
\irnace  is  made  very  hot  before  the  crucible  is  introduced, 
;he  assay  is  finished  in  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour  ;  after 
which  the  melted  metal  is  poured  into  a  mould,  and  the 
drossy  substances  which  remain  in  the  crucible  are  pounded 


T  I  N 


472 


T  I  N 


in  *  mortar,  in  oi.k:  to  separate,  and  to  add  to  the  ingot, 
•ny  minute  granules  of  tin  remaining  :.mong  Hum.     Dr. 

In    fusing  tlir   on-,   mixed   with   five   per   rent,  of  ground 
i  a  crucible  liui-il  with  hard-rammed  char- 
coal.    A  gentle  hi-at   should   In-   applied   to  the   rrurible 
during  the   first   hour.  11  stronger  heat   during  the   m 
hour,  i*d,  finally,  an  intense  heat  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour. 
tit  from   four  to   five    per   edit,  more 

tin  than  tin1  oilier ;  but  it  is  .-tated  that  it  IIILS  the  incon- 
\fiiieiiee  oi'  reducing  the  iron,  if  any  1  .  which 

,  lent  solution  in  nitric 
aciil.  1  milted,  would  be  too 

.1*  for  ordinar)-  adoption,  as  the  smelter  may  have 
.1  samples  in   one  day;   and  that  fust 

.iied.  wlulc   imperfeet   iii  a  chemical  point   of  view, 

U  :i  similar  result  to  that  nv.Uised  by  the  smelter  On  a 
large  scale. 

The  smelting  of  tin-ores  is  effected  by  two  different 
methods,  whieh  may  be  briefly  deseribed  by  staling  that  in 
the  (ir>t  and  most  common,  the  ore,  previously  mixed  with 
I'ulin,  is  expo>ed  to  heat  upon  the  health  of  a  icvcrbcratory 
furuaee.  in  which  ])it-eoal  is  used  as  fuel  ;  while  in  the 

.1.  whieh  is  applied  merely  to  strriim  tin  (the  tin 
procured  from  stream-works \  and  which  is  followed  in 
order  to  obtain  tin  of  the  finest  quality,  the  ore  is  fused  in 
a  blast-furnace,  called  a  blowing-house,  in  which  wood- 
charcoal  is  used  for  fuel. 

In  the  former  process  the  prepared  ore,  which  is  called 

h.  is  mixed  with  from  one-fifth  to  one-eighth  of  its 
weight  of  powdered  anthracite,  or  culm,  to  which  a  little 
slaked  lime  or  fluor-spar  is  sometimes  added  as  a  flux. 
These  substances  are  carefully  blended  together,  and  a 
little  water  is  added  to  the  mixture  to  facilitate  the  opera- 
tion of  charging  the  furnace,  and  to  prevent  the  charge 
I: om  being  blown  away  by  the  draft  at  the  commencement 
of  the  smelting  process.  From  twelve  to  sixteen  cwt.  of 
the  above  mixture  forms  an  ordinary  charge  :  but  in  the 
smcltiiig-furnaces  at  St.  Austle,  or  Austell,  in  Cornwall,  of 
which  rcpicsciitations  are  given  by  Dr.  Ure,  each  charge 
amounts  to  from  fifteen  to  twenty-four  cwt.  The  charge 
is  -;>read  ujwn  the  concave  hearth  of  the  furnace,  and  then 
the  apertures  by  whieh  it  is  inserted  are  closed  and  luted, 
and  tiie  furnace  is  gradually  heated,  and  kept  hot  for  six 
or  eight  boms,  by  which  time  the  reduction  of  the  ore  is 
"omplete.  The  gradual  application  of  the  required  tem- 
peiature  i-  necessary  to  prevent  the  tin  oxide  from  uniting 
with  the  quartz  of  II.  or  refuse  poition  of  tl 

and  forming  a  kind  of  enamel.  \Vheii  the  fusion  or  reduc- 
tion of  the  ere  is  considered  to  be  finished,  one  of  the 
apertures  of  the  furnace  is  opened,  and  the  melted  mass  is 
I  it])  to  complete  the  separation  of  the  tin  from  the 
'lieh  aie  then  drawn  out  by  means  of  an  iron 
rake.  These  bcoii;r  consist  principally  of  masses  of  lel'use 
matter  from  which  no  more  tin  can  be  profitably  extracted. 
and  which  are  therefore  immediately  thrown  awax  :  but 
among  them  are  pieces  which  yet  retain  a  consiuYiablc 
quantity  of  tin,  and  which  are  separated  and  resei  . 
further  pro  So  soon  as  these  refuse  matters  are  re- 

moved, a  channel  is  opened,  by  which  the  melted  tin  (lows 
from  the  hearth  into  a  large  vessel  called  the  basin  of 

•lion,  where  it  is  allowed  to  rest  for  some  time,  in 
order  that  the  impurities  vet  remaining  with  the 

separate,  by  their  different  specific  gravities.  \Vlieii 
it  ha.s  si  tiled,  the  tin  is  ladled  into  moulds,  so  as  to  form  it 
into  large  blocks  or  i 

The  ingots  produced  b)  the  above  process  frequently 
contain  po  iron,  copper,  .: 

together  with  small  quantities  of  sulphurets  and  avsciiiurcl.s 
that  have  escaped  decomposition,  unreduced  oxide  of  tin, 
and  earth-.  which  have  not  pa-scd  off  with  the 

•corite.     To  remove  these  the  tin  is 

to  the  process  of  njnting,  whieh  conmii  ir  cs  h\  plaeinir 
the  block*  or  ingots  on  the  hearth  of  a  second  revcrbc- 
ratory  furnace,  similar  to  that  used  ng  the1  me. 

and  applxing  a  moderate  heat,  which  causes  the  tin  to 
melt,  and  to  flow  into  a  basin  provided  for  it.  leaving  upon 
the  health  a  residuum  whieh  consist,  ol  a  vcix  ferruginous 
alloy.  Fresh  blocks  ar<' then  placed  in  t  .with- 

out removing  the  unmcltcd  remains  of  the  foiiuer,  until 
about  five  tons  of  tin  have  flowed  into  the  basin.  This 
part  of  tl  .-i ned  a  ////H.I//-/H.  and  is  followed 

by  Uie  actual  refining,  which  is  usually  effected  by  plung- 


ing billets  Of  gfMn  WOOd  into  the  melted  tin  in  the  refining 

basin,  by  n;t  apparatus  erected  bx   it.      The'   heat 

us  the   di-  Me   vohim 

•n  the  wood,  and  thus  a  kind  of  ebullition  is  pro- 
duced in  the  tin,  which  causes  the  lighter  impuriti< 

the  Mil  luce  in  a  trolhy  form,  and  the  heavier  to  fall 
to  the  bottom.  The  froth  or  scum,  which  consists  chiefly 
of  the  oxides  of  tin  and  foreign  metals,  is  slummed  oil' 
and  returned  into  the  furnace  ;  and  when  the  1m  is  suffi- 

,  boiled,  the  green  wood  is  lifted  out.  and  the  v 
is  allowed  to  settle,  ill  doing  which   the  purest    tin    n 
the    top.  that  with  a  trifling  admixture  of 
remains    in    the    middle,   while    the   foule.st    portion 
to  the  bottom.     \Vlienthc  mass   1. iconics   so   cool  that  no 
Imther  separation  can  take  place,  the  tin   is  again   ladled 
into    moulds:    the    quality  of   the    blocks   thus    produced 
varxing  according  to  tin-  order  in  whieh  the   n 
filled.     The  blocks  formed  from  :  part  of  the  tin 

aie  usually  so  impure  as  to  need  a  repetition  of  the  K  lining 
process.     The  operation   as  above  dcscrib, 
or  six  hours;   of  which  the  first    is   occupied   in  tillim- 
basin,  the  three  following  in  boiling  the  tin  with  the  billets 
of  wood,  and  the  remaining  time  in  subsidence.    A  Bl 
effect  is  sometimes  produced  by  an  operation  called 
in'j.  in  which,  instead  of  the  ebullition  produced  b 
green  wood,  the  mass  of  melted  tin  is  agitated  by  a  work- 
man repeatedly  lifting  a  quantity  of  tin  in  a  ladle,  ar.i: 
ting   it  fall    iiito    the   basin   fiom    a    considerable    height. 
After  continuing  this  agitation  for  some  time,  the  M. 
is  skimmed  carefully  :  and  if  the  upper  part  of  the  tin  be 
yet  too  impure   for   the   market,  the  refining   is   ren. 
more  perfect  In  keeping   the   metal  in  a  fr.scd  slate,  wilh- 
out  agitation,  until  the  impurities  sej  nslx. 

After  refining,  the  tin  is  cast  into  blocks  of  about  thicc 
cwt.  each.  The  moulds  used  for  this  purpose  aie  fre- 
quently made  of  granite  ;  and  the  tin  thus  prepared  i- 
as  blw-k  tin.  From  avciy  remote  period,  almost  to  the 
it  time,  a  duty  was  paid  upon  all  tin  raised  in  Corn- 
wall to  officers  appointed  by  the  duchy,  who  required  all 
blocks,  before  being  sent  to  market,  to  be  taken  to  them 
for  the  purpose  of  being  r-jiii<-tl.  or  marked  with  a  distin- 
guishing stamp.  The  mode  of  collecting  the  duty  on  tin 
was  very  inconvenient,  as  it  required  all  tin  to  be  cast  inlo 
blocks  ibr  coining,  although  it  might  have  to 
quently  re-cast  into  some' other  form  for  sale  in  foreign 
markets:  besides  which  the  miner  or  smelter  had  to  bear 
the  expense  of  sending  it  to  one  of  the  places  appointed 
for  coining,  and  the  inconvenience  of  waiting  for  one  of 
the  periodical  coinages,  xvhieh  were  usually  three  months 

These  duties  weie  abolished  by   1    Jsi   12  Viet  . 
120,   which   set  lies  a    peipi-tnal    annuity  on   the   duchy  of 
Cornwall    equal    to   the  axciuge    produce  of  the.  tin  i: 
for  ten  years  previous  to  its  coming  into  operation. 

It.  has   been   stated  that  the'  richer 

left  by  the  process  of  smelting;  is  reserved  for  further  opera- 
tions.    Such  as  contain  small  grains  of  tin  among  tin 
or   refuse   are   taken   to  a  stamping-mill,  and  broken   and 
washed  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  ore  :  while  those  which 
contain  much  tin  are  re-smelted  without  any  previous  pre- 
paration.    From  these  scoriic.  which  aie  called  pri/liun* 
an   inferior  kind    of  tin   is  produced  bx  a  second  smelting. 
The   inferiority  of  this  product    max    lie    readily  imagined, 
observes  Dr.  I're.  since   the  metal  which  forms  the  granu- 
lations among  the   scoria' is  what,  being  less  fusible  than 
.re  tin,  solidified  quickly,  and  could  not  flow  off  into 
the  metallic   bath,  or  basin  Of  reception.     The  < 
siduiim  of  the  i  efining  fuinace   is  fused   b\   incrcasii: 
file   alter  the  removal  ol  the   refined   tin.  and    is   then    run 
out   into  a  separate  basin,  in  which  it  is  allowc  : 
The  upper  poition  is  then  cast   into  mouM  •    tin, 

which  needs  a  second  refilling,  and  the  int. 
mixli.  -  deposited  on  the  bottom 

in  the  form  of  a  brittle  white   alloy,  with 
line    fi  act  lire,    which    contains    so    large    a    pro; 

•ii  metals  that  no  use  is  made  of  it. 

The   average  quality  of  the  tin-on'.  the 

smelting-turnaccs,  is  such  that  'JO  \n\,  I  from  12J 

to  13   parts  of  metallic   tin.  or  fiom   • 
and  the  quantity  of  coal  required  for  producing 

•SoDl.rr.-;    lull    i  ,<•-   ll'.f  w  linl 

pillion,   or  jtilliim-ti»t   ntl't    .i. 

I!       [  illu->!1  ''"-'  buiuc/"*i7/ U)  ci<]>|>cr  ill      >. 


T  I  N 


473 


T  I  N 


tin  is  about  a  ton  and  three-quarters.  Respecting  thi 
time  when  this  economical  fuel  was  substituted  for  wood 
charcoal  in  the  smelting  of  tin-ores,  authorities  are  at  va- 
riance. Pryce,  in  his  '  Mineralogia  Cornubiensis,'  p.  282, 
says  that  '  Necessity  at  last  suggested  the  introduction  o 
pit-coal  for  the  smelting  of  tin-ore,  and,  among  others,  to 
Sir  Bevil  Granville,  of  Stow,  in  this  county  (Cornwall) 
temp.  Car.  I.,  who  made  several  experiments,  though  with- 
out success ;'  and  he  adds  that  the  '  effectual  smelting  o 
tin-ore  with  pit-coal'  did  not  take  place  till  the  seconc 
year  of  Queen  Anne,  '  when  a  Mr.  Liddell,  with  whom 
Mr.  Moult,  a  noted  chemist,  was  concerned,  obtained  her 
majesty's  patent  for  smelting  block  tin  with  fossil  coal  in 
iron  furnaces.'  '  The  invention  of  reverberatory  furnaces 
built  with  brick,  stone,  sand,  lime,  and  clay,  soon  followed 
this  discovery ;  the  form  of  which,'  he  states,  writing  about 
1778,  '  has  admitted  little  improvement  to  the  present 
time.'  Holland,  after  observing  that  the  commencement 
of  this  important  substitution  is  generally  supposed  to 
have  been  about  1680,  states  that  the  question  as  to  the 
discovery  of  the  fitness  of  pit-coal  for  the  purpose  lies 
between  Pryce's  account,  as  above  cited,  and  that  of  Becher 
(whose  name  he  incorrectly  gives  Beecher),  an  ingenious 
German  who,  in  consequence  of  persecutions  in  his  own 
country,  visited  England  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  and 
introduced  several  improvements  in  the  art  of  mining ;  and 
he  quotes  a  passage,  but  without  referring  to  his  authority, 
in  which  Becher  claims  for  himself  the  credit  of  the  in- 
troduction of  coal  for  smelting  tin.  Whatever  may  have 
been  the  precise  time  or  manner  of  this  improvement,  its 
importance  is  indisputable  ;  and  such  is  the  effect  of  the 
superior  economy  of  this  and  other  metallurgic  operations 
as  performed  in  England,  that  experiment  has  shown  the 
possibility  of  bringing  tin-ore  from  the  Malay  countries  to 
this  island  for  the  purpose  of  smelting,  and  sending  the 
tin  back  to  the  East  at  a  lower  price  than  it  can  be  pro- 
duced for  on  the  spot. 

The  smelting  or  reduction  of  tin  by  the  blast-furnace, 
with  wood-charcoal,  is  practised  on  a  limited  scale  for  the 
production  of  tin  of  the  greatest  possible  purity.  The 
fim-t  ores  supplied  by  stream-works,  and  the  finer  tin 
sands,  are  selected  for  this  operation,  and  as  these  are  free 
from  many  of  the  impurities  found  in  other  ores,  they  do 
not  require  calcination.  The  works  in  which  blast-fur- 
naces are  employed  are  commonly  called  blowing-houses. 
The  furnaces  used  are  about  six  feet  high,  from  the  con- 
cave  hearth  to  the  throat,  or  commencement  of  the  long 
narrow  chimney,  which,  after  proceeding  for  some  distance 
in  an  oblique  direction,  contains  a  chamber  in  which  the 
metallic  dust'  carried  off  by  the  blast  is  deposited.  The 
furnace  is  lined  with  a  vertical  cylinder  of  cast-iron,  coated 
internally  with  loam ;  and  it  has  an  opening  called  the 
liii/f-rc  near  the  bottom,  by  which  the  blast  is  introduced, 
i  ither  from  large  bellows  or  from  cylinders.  No  substance 
is  added  to  the  ore  and  charcoal,  unless  it  be  the  residuary 
matter  of  a  previous  smelting ;  and  the  proportion  of  char- 
coal consumed  is  about  one  ton  and  six-tenths  for  every 
ton  of  tin  produced.  The  melted  tin  runs  from  the  furnace 
into  an  open  basin,  whence  it  is  run  off  into  a  large  vessel 
in  which  it  is  allowed  to  settle.  The  scoriae  which  run 
with  the  metal  into  the  basin  of  reception  are  skimmed 
off,  and  separated  into  two  portions,  one  consisting  of  such 
as  retain  tin  oxide,  and  the  other  of  such  as  have  no  oxide, 
but  contain  tin  in  a  granulated  state.  The  subsequent 
operations  of  refining  by  allowing  the  mass  of  metal  to 
rest,  and  then  submitting  the  upper  and  purer  portion  to 
the  refining  basin,  and  re-melting  the  lower  part,  and  of 
agitating  the  tin  by  the  green-wood  ebullition,  are  much 
the  same  as  with  block  tin  prepared  in  a  reverberatory  fur- 
nace with  pit-coal.  In  order  to  convert  the  blocks  of  tin 
produced  by  the  blast-furnace  process  into  the  form  known 
a*  grain  tin,  or,  according  to  the  more  appropriate  French 
term,  (tain  en  larmes,  '  tears  of  tin,'  they  are  heated  until 
they  become  brittle,  and  made  to  fall  from  a  considerable 
height  in  a  semi-fluid  state,  thus  producing  an  agglomerated 
mas»  of  elongated  grains. 

From  a  comparison  of  the  results  of  the  two  methods  of 
smelting  above  described,  Dr.  Ure  shows  that  the  rever- 
beratory furnace  with  pit-coal  occasions  less  loss  of  metal 
than  the  blast-furnace,  and  is  by  far  the  most  economical. 
To  produce  a  ton  of  metal  by  the  former  process  requires, 
v  before  stated,  a  ton  and  three-quarters  of  pit-coal,  while 
a  ton  and  six-tenths  of  wood-charcoal  is  consumed  in  pro- 
P.  C.,  No.  V 


ducing  the  like  quantity  of  metal  by  the  blast-furnace ; 
and  as  one  ton  of  wood-charcoal  is  about  equivalent,  in 
calorific  effect,  to  two  tons  of  pit-coal,  the  difference  in 
favour  of  the  reverberatory  plan  is  very  great.  The  supe- 
rior quality  of  the  tin  produced  by  the  other  process  is 
attributable  partly  to  the  greater  purity  of  the  fuel,  and 
partly  to  the  finer  quality  of  the  ore  selected  for  the  pur- 
pose. 

Manufacture  of  Tin-ware. — It  is  unnecessary  here  to  enu- 
merate the  various  purposes  to  which  tin  is  applied  in  the 
useful  arts,  either  as  an  ingredient  in  many  useful  alloys,  for 
which  its  ready  fusibility,  its  cleanliness,  and  its  beautiful 
appearance  render  it  especially  valuable,  or  as  the  basis  of 
chemical  compounds  used  in  dyeing,  &c.  It  is  rarely 
employed  alone  in  our  metalline  manufactures,  but  when 
laid  in  a  thin  coat  upon  the  surface  of  sheet-iron  by  the 
process  of  TINNING,  it  produces  a  material  of  such  exten- 
sive use  in  the  manufacture  of  culinary  and  other  articles, 
that  a  more  detailed  notice  may  be  given.  Holland  ob- 
serves that  in  this  country  the  greater  portion  of  the  tin 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  articles  composed  exclusively 
of  that  metal  is  that  which  is  expanded  by  rolling  or  ham- 
mering, or  by  a  combination  of  the  two  operations  into 
leaves  or  sheets  barely  one-thousandth  part  of  an  inch  in 
thickness,  under  the  name  of  tin-foil.  This  is  the  sub- 
stance which  is  laid  upon  the  back  of  glass  mirrors,  and 
there  amalgamated  with  mercury,  so  as  to  form  what  is 
called  the  silvering. 

The  art  of  tin-plate  working,  or  of  forming  sheets  of 
tinned  iron  into  an  almost  endless  variety  of  useful  vessels 
and  utensils,  depends  more,  observes  the  author  just  cited, 
on  the  manual  dexterity  of  the  workman  than  upon  any 
peculiarity  in  the  tools  which  he  requires,  which  are  few 
and  simple,  consisting  of  bench  and  hand-shears,  mallets 
and  hammers,  steel  heads  and  wooden  blocks,  soldering- 
iron  and  swages.  In  the  formation  of  a  vessel  the  first 
operation  is  to  cut  the  plate  to  the  proper  size  and  form 
with  shears ;  and  when  the  dimensions  of  the  article  re- 
quire it,  to  join  them  together,  which  is  done  either  by 
simply  laying  the  edge  of  one  plate  over  that  of  the  other, 
and  then  soldering  them  together,  or  by  folding  the  edges 
together  with  laps,  and  then  soldering  them.  Similar  joints 
are  required  when  gores  or  other  pieces  are  to  be  inserted, 
and  also  at  the  junction  by  which  a  cylinder  is  closed  in. 
The  usual  method  of  forming  laps,  bends,  or  folds  for  this 
or  other  purposes  is  to  lay  the  plate  over  the  edge  of  the 
bench,  and  to  bend  it  by  repeated  strokes  with  a  hammer ; 
but  as  it  is  impossible  by  this  means  to  make  the  bend  as 
even,  or  at  as  true  an  angle  as  is  desirable,  Mr.  J.  Basset, 
of  Birmingham,  contrived  a  simple  and  effectual  apparatus 
Tor  the  purpose,  for  which  he  was  rewarded  by  the  Society 
of  Arts  in  1831.  An  end  view  of  this  apparatus  is  given 
in  the  subjoined  cut,  in  which  a  a  represents  a  metal  block 
screwed  down  firmly  to  a  bench,  and  having  a  longitudinal 
cylindrical  cavity,  within  which  is  laid  a  long  iron  cylinder, 
:he  end  of  which  is  distinguished  in  the  cut  by  a  tint.  The 


liameter  of  the  cylinder  is  such  that  it  will  turn  freely 
upon  its  axis  within  the  cavity  in  which  it  lies,  and  which 
las  a  slit  or  opening  about  half  an  inch  wide  along  the  top 
if  the  cylinder  at  b.  A  squared  axis  projects  from  each 
nd  of  the  cylinder  to  receive  a  handle  c  c ,  which,  when 
he  instrument  is  at  rest,  lies  in  an  horizontal  position,  and 
s  supported  by  the  block  d.  These  handles  are  not  fixed 
the  square  axes  of  the  cylinder,  but  are  capable  of  being 

VOL.  XXIV.— 3  P 


T  I  N 


474 


T  I   \ 


taken  off  and  put  on  a^nin  in  any  position  of  the  cylinder,  | 
the  length  of  whi  -h  -li..,iM  be  equal  to  that  of  the  K 
lap*  or  bcnd».     Longitudinal  ruts,  ••• 
the  edge  of  a  tin-plate,  arc  mail.-  in  the  cylinder  from  the 
circti:  'ivards  the  centre  to  any  required  depth  or  ; 

•tan)  mglc,  as  at  b,  t.  nnd  /."    In  order  to  make 

a  right -angled  Inp, such  as  is  shown  in  the  marginal  figure 
G,  the  c\  Under  is  turned  into  the  position  shown  in  tho 
figure,  with  one  of  the  radial  cuts  under  the  longitudinal 
opening  in  the  block  a  a  ;  the  handles  nre  put  on,  and  the 
edge  of  the  tin-plate  g  it  inserted  in  the  uppermost  slit  in 
the  cylinder.  The  handles  are.  then  moved  in  the  direction 
indicated  by  the  arrow  and  dotted  lines,  and  the  plate  is 
forced  to  assume  the  position  of  the  dotted  lines  K',  re- 
ceiving at  the  some  time  the  required  lap  or  bend.  By 
returning  the  handles  towards  their  original  position,  the 
plate  may  be  easily  removed.  If,  in  addition  to  the  making 
of  the  lap,  the  plate  is  to  be  bent  so  as  to  form  a  hollow 
cylinder  or  tube,  the  motion  of  the  handles  is  continued 
until  the  cylinder  is  turned  completely  round,  by  which 
means  the  plate  will  be  wrapped  or  rolled  round  it.  The 
cavity  in  the  block  a  a  is  made  large  enough  to  receive  the 
cylinder  with  this  addition  to  its"  thickness ;  and  if  this 
operation  be  intended,  one  side  or  cheek  of  the  cavity  is 
made  moveable  on  a  pivot,  so  that  it  may  be  opened  for 
the  purpose  of  lifting  out  the  cylinder.  The  pipe  is  sub- 
sequently removed  from  the  cylinder  by  detaching  the 
handles  and  sliding  it  off  longitudinally.  Appended  to  the 
description  of  this  apparatus,  In  the  Society's  •  Transactions,' 
is  an  account  of  a  method  of  bending  pipes  of  tin,  copper, 
or  brass,  by  filling  them  with  hard  solder,  and  passing  them 
through  two  thick  rings  of  the  same  substance,  one  of 
which  is  fixed  in  a  vice  or  work -bench,  while  the  other  is 
attached  to  a  handle  of  such  length  aato  give  the  operator 
sufficient  leverage  for  bending  the  pipe  in  that  portion 
which  intervenes  between  the  rings.  As  the  solder  is 
softer  than  the  material  of  the  pipe,  the  rings  will  give  wa\ 
to  any  dangerous  pressure  sooner  than  the  pipe  itseli'. 
When  the  required  curvature  is  obtained,  the  solder  is 
melted  from  the  inside  of  the  pipe.  It  is  observed  that  in 
performing  this  operation  upon  brass  pipes,  they  should  be 
previously  tinned  on  the  inner  surface,  in  order  to  - 
a  perfect  union  between  the  tube  and  the  core  of 
solder. 

After  a  tin  vessel  has  been  rounded  upon  a  block  or 
mandril,  by  striking  it  with  a  wooden  mallet,  and  the 
seams  finished  as  above  described,  all  its  exterior  edges  are 
sticngthened  by  bending  a  thick  iron  wire  into  the  proper 
form,  applying  it  to  what  would  otherwise  be  the  raw 
of  the  metal,  and  dexterously  folding  them  over  it 
with  a  hammer.  By  this  mean*  the  :i;  of  the 

articles  is  improved,  and  their  durability  and  strength  are 
greatly  increased.  A  superior  kind  of  tin-ware,  commonly 
known  as  block-tin,  is  carefully  finished  by  beating  or 
planishing  with  a  polished  steel  hammer  upon  a  metal 
stake  ;  by  which  means  the  surface,  which  otherwise  ap- 
pears somewhat  wavy,  is  made  very  smooth  and  silvery, 
especially  after  it  has  been  polished  with  dry  whiting.  It 
is  principally  in  the  production  of  block-tin  wares  that 
acaging  ^  revolted  to  an  a  ready  means  of  producing 
grooved  or  ridged  borders  or  other  embossed  ornaments. 
This  piocess  consists  in  striking  the  metal  between  two 
steel  dies  or  swages,  the  facw  of  which  bear  the  desired 
pattern,  and  are  made  counterparts  to  each  other.  The 
mouldings  round  the  edges  of  dish-covers  and  other  similar 
articles  are  produced  in  this  way:  the  swages  embossing 
the  pattern  in  short  lengths,  and  the  article  being  gradually 
turned  round  until  every  part  of  its  circumference  has  been 
(ubmitteil  to  their  action.  It  was  formerly  usual  to  make 
Mich  mouldings  separately  for  large  articles,  and  to  attach 
them  with  solder;  and  Holland  Mates  that  the  practice  ol 
swaging  them  was  introduced  by  Mr.  King,  a  tinman  in 
Holburti,  who  executed  very  bold  and  handsome  mould- 
ings by  placing  the  outside  of  the  article  upon  a  concave 
bul  or  Ic  ad,  having  a  hollow  line  or  groove  sunk  into  it, 
into  which  the  rim  of  the  cover  or  vessel  was  forced  by 
the  application  of  a  huge  hammer  on  the  inner  side,  until 
the  required  degree  of  projection  was  obtained.  The 
border  wa,  then  completed  by  the  application  of  swages. 
•»  1  •  iibed.  The  lower  die  is  usually  fixed  in 

an  apparatus  to  which  moveable  guides  are  attached  to  in- 
sure the  •  -ion  i.t  the  article  to  be  operated  on, 
and  the  upper  is  made  in  the  form  of  a  hammer,  the  handle 


aud 

;  tin 


of  which  is  pivoted  no  as  t  i-ely 

the  right  p'  -  ap- 

.•'iply  working  the  \i\  ag.'-lmm- 

iner  itself;  but  in 

mer  is   struck   with   a  mallet.     Very   rni1.1 
articles  are  produced  by  enit  . 
in  the  same  manner 

press  or  other  machinery.     Many  cheap  • 
manufactured  at  Birmingham  in  this  way;  and  t 
similar  articles  lire  s. 

panned.  A  very  beautiful  method  of  orname 
wares  by  producing  a  crystallized  appearance  on  the  sur- 
face was  much  practised  a  few  years  since,  under  the  name 
o(rnoirf>'  metattimu,  <  rd  tin-pi 

in  applying  diluted  nitro-mnriatic  acid  to  the  surfs > 
the  plate  while   slightly  heated,   and   then  with 

water,  and  covering  witn  a  lacquer  varnish,  without  which 
the  lustre  of  the  crystalline  appearance  is  speedily  lost  by 
the  action  of  the  air.     Dr.  t're  observes  that   -it  would 
seem  that  the  acid  merely  lays  bare  the  crystalline  rt 
ture  really  present  on  ever)'  sheet,  but  masked  by  a  film  of 
redundant  tin  ;'  and  he  gives  the  following  directions  for 
performing  the  process  :— The  tin-plate,  slightly  heai- 
to  be  placed  over  a  tub  of  water,  and  to  have  it 
rubbed  with  a  sponge  dipped  in  a  liquor  composed  <>; 
parts  of  aquafortis  and  two  of  distilled  water,  holding  one 
part  of  common  salt  or  sal-ammoniac  in  solution.     V 
the  crystalline  spangles  appear  to  be  thoroughly  brought 
out,  the  plate  should  be  immersed  in  water,  washed  wiih  a 
feather  or  a  little  cotton    taking  care  not  to  rub  so  hard  as 
to  disturb  the  crystallized  film  of  tin  which  constitutes  the 
feathered  surface  ,  dried  with  a  gentle  heat,  and  imme- 
diately coated  with  lacquer.     If  the  whole  surface  be 
plunged  at  once  in  cold  water,  but  parti  it  by 

sprinkling  cold  water  upon  it,  the  crystallization  will  be 
variegated  with  large  and  small  figures.     •  Similar  i. 
will  be  obtained."  he  ailds,  •  by  blowing  cold  air  through  a. 
pipe  ou  the  tinned  surface,  while  it  is  jusi   pa 
the  fused  to  the  solid  state;  or  a  variety  of  <! 
may  be  traced  by  playing  over  the  surface  of  the  plate 
with   the  pointed  flame  of  a  blow -pipe.'     '.  IHrt.  nf  Arl/t, 
p.  KM  and  pp.  li">.f,  r_'5l.<     By  using  col 
very  beautiful  boxes  and  other  ornamental  >v  be 

produced  by  this  process. 

•  nri"  i'f  Tin   Allni/x. — Rritnnnin    M'tul. — Tin 
forms  the  principal  ingredient  in  various  kinds  of  j 
and  other  white  metallic   alloys,  which  are  manufactured 
into  domestic    utensils  by   cast ; 

n  which  much  ingem  Hand 

gives  ail  interesting  account   of  the  manufacture  of  tea- 
pots and  similar  articles  of  Britannia  metal,  which  111 
briefly  noticed  here.     This  manufacture  was  comm. 
on  a  large  scale  at  Sheffield,  where  it  is  still  carried  on, 
about  the  year  177*1.  by  two  individuals  of  the  nan 
Jessop  and  Hancock ;   nnd  the  brilliancy,  lightness,  and 
cheapness  of  the  wares,  which,  when  well  made,  greatly 
resemble  silver,  have  secured   for  them  a 
sale  in  this  and  other  countries.      The   extreme    facility 
with  which  such  allot  shape 

leads  however  to  the  manufacture  of  many  articles  of  so 
flimsy  a  character  that  they  speedily  lose  their  form  nnd 
beauty.  Various  authorities  differ  gn  •  the  com- 

position of  Britannia  metal,  but  the  proportions  given  by 
Holland  are  SJcwts.  of  the  best  block- -tin,  2S  Ibs.  of  mar- 
tial regulus  of  antimony,  S  Ibs.  of  copper,  and  8  1! 
brass.  The  tin  isfirst  melted  and  raised  to  a  red  heat  in  a 
stout  cast-iron  pot,  and  then  the  antimony,  copper,  and 
brass  are  successively  poured  into  it  from  the  crucibles  in 
which  they  have  been  melted  ;  the  mass  being  stirred 
during  the  operation,  to  complete  the  mixture.  The  fusion 
i  by  the  continued  application  of  fire  under 
the  pot,  the  metal  is  removed  by  ladles  to  cast-iron  boxes 
or  moulds,  in  which  it  is  cast 'into  slabs  fifteen  inches 
Jong,  six  inches  wide,  and  one  inch  thick  ;  or  if  for  cast- 
ing small  articles,  into  smaller  moulds  to  form  it  into  con- 
The  thick  slabs  of  metal  are  then  ex- 
tended bypassing  them  betwi  'Hers 
until  they  are  reduced  to  the  r>  mity. 
This  operation  is  performed  without  any  annealing  or 
softening;  and  the  edge<  of  tht  me  a  little shat- 

(  racked  by  it. 

Although  most  article's  manufactured  in  silver  are  also 
produced  in  Britannia  metal,  and  in  other  alloys  of  sirailw 


T  I  N 


475 


T  I  N 


character,  the  principal  consumption  is  in  candlesticks, 
tea-pots,  coffee-bigs^ns,  and  other  vessels  for  containing 
liquids.  The  feet  of  candlesticks,  the  bodies  of  tea-pots, 
and  other  articles  containing  embossed  work,  are  stamped 
between  dies ;  and  when  the  shape  of  the  article  will  not 
allow  it  to  be  stamped  in  one  piece,  as  in  the  case  of  a 
cylindrical  vessel  with  raised  work  upon  the  sides,  it  is 
sometimes  stamped  in  halves,  which  are  subsequently  fitted 
and  soldered  together.  Articles  approaching  the  globular 
form  may  in  like  manner  be  stamped  in  three  or  more 
pieces.  In  stamping  brass,  silver,  and  plated  metal  the 
dies  must  in  almost  every  case  be  of  steel,  and  the  patterns 
upon  them  are  executed  at  a  very  great  expense,  but  in 
the  manufacture  of  Britannia  metal  a  cheaper  process  is 
followed.  Plaster  casts  are  produced  of  the  required  pat- 
terns, either  from  original  models  or  designs,  or  from  ma- 
nufactured articles  of  silver,  and  from  these  are  made 
moulds  or  dies  of  fine  hard  pig-iron,  which,  with  a  very 
little  finishing,  form  dies  fit  for  stamping  so  tractable  a 
metal.  When  very  thin,  it  may  even  be  stamped  in  dies 
of  brass  or  of  spoon-metal. 

The  great  facility  with  which  this  alloy  maybe  moulded 
to  any  required  form  is  illustrated  by  the  operation  termed 
a  ing,  by  which  the  bodies  of  tea-pots  with  concentric 
circular  swells  are  usually  formed.     A  wooden  chuck  or 
model  of  so  much  of  the  intended  vessel  as  may  be  slipped 
off  the  chuck  when  completed  is  fixed  in  a  lathe  worked 
by  steam-power,  and  to  this  is  applied  a  circular  piece  of 
sluvt-metal   cut  to  the  proper  «ize  with  shears.     This  is 
•d  against  the  centre  of  the  chuck  by  a  circular  piece 
of  wood  with  a  blunt  centre-pin  ;  and  as  the  whole  re- 
volves rapidly,  the  workman   bends   the  plate  over  the 
model-chuck  by  pressing  it  with  tools  of  haul  wood  or 
polished  steel  until  it  is  brought  into  precisely  the  same 
form,     'ihc  tools  are  applied  at  first  very  gently,  so  a»  to 
avoid  crumpling  or  lacerating  the  metal ;  and  such  is  the 
dexterity  acquired  by  some  workmen,  that  Holland  states 
that  some  individuals  can  spin  twenty  dozen  of  these  tea- 
•odies  in  a  day.    The  form  is  perfected  upon  a  second 
chuck:  and  in  some  cases  articles  are  partially  formed  by 
ike  in  a  die  previous  to  the  spinning.     Spherical  ar- 
ticles are,  a*  in  the  case  of  stamping  with  dies,  usually 
formed  in  two  or  more  parts  ;  but  in  some  instances  they 
,nde  to  overlap  the  model,  which  is  then  composed  of 
al  segments,  that  may  be  taken  out  of  the  finished 
i  by  removing  a  centre-piece,  in  a  similar  manner  to  a 
boot-last. 

Many  small  vessels,  spoons,  and  other  articles  are  cast  in 
an  alloy  somewhat  harder  than  that  which  is  roiled  into 
sheets.  The  facility  with  which  Britannia  rnetal  may  be 
nil)  into  any  shape  and  cut  in  the  lathe,  as  for  turning 
ures  and  small  vessels  previously  formed  by  casting,  is 
a  great  recommendation  to  the  manufacturer.  Articles  <>r 
this  metal  are  cleaned  from  the  oil,  rosin,  and  other  im- 
.es  acquired  during  their  formation,  by  boiling  in 
water  containing  sweet  soap;  after  which  they  are  po- 
lished, either  by  hand,  or  more  commonly  by  the  buff  and 
brush  set  in  motion  by  a  steam-engine.  The  buff  is  a 
solid  cylinder  of  wood,  resembling  a  grindstone  in  form, 
the  rim  or  periphery  of  which  is  covered  with  buff  leather 
dressed  with  fine  sand  from  the  bed  of  the  river  Trent, 
which,  after  being  dried  and  sifted,  is  mixed  with  oil.  The 
brush  is  a  similar  but  smaller  circle  of  wood  set  all  round 
with  four  (>;•  li\e  lows  of  briMlcs  ;  it,  as  well  as  the  buff,  is 
d  with  sand  and  oil,  and  afterwards  for  finishing 
with  powdered  rotten-stone  and  oil.  The  brush  is  used 
generally  for  such  articles  as  from  their  form  cannot  he- 
applied  to  the  buff,  and  also  for  all  stamped  or  embossed 
work.  After  buffing  and  brushing,  the  articles  are  boiled 
in  a  solution  of  pearlash,  and  finally  hand-brushed  and 
hand-polished  by  an  application  of  soft  soap,  a  little  oil, 
and  powdered  rotten-stone.  This  operation  is  usually  per- 
formed by  fern  is  found  that  no  instrument  can 
supply  an  effectual  substitute  lor  a  soft  hand,  which  is  one 
of  the  first  requisites  inquired  into  when  persons  apply  for 
work  in  this  department. 

••!n,iiiir>i  fif  Arts,  SfC.;  Manufactures  in  Metal 
cby  Mr.  Holland  ,  in  Lardners  Cabinet  Cyclopaedia,  vol. 
iii. ;  'i  iiis  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  vol.  xlviii.,  pp. 

24-4-2  is. , 

TIN'  TIJADK.    The  history  of  the  trade  in  tin  com- 
•'*  with  the  very  earliest  records  of  commercial  i 

Urititih  islands.   [(JASSITERIDKS  ;  and  Pict. 


History  of  England,  vol.  i.,  pp.  91-95.]  We  shall  only 
notice  this  trade  as  it  has  existed  within  the  last  two  cen- 
turies. Davenant  gives  some  interesting  information  con- 
cerning it  soon  after  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
In  1003  our  exports  of  tin  to  all  foreign  countries  amounted 
to  153  tons;  in  1669  to  240  tons;  in  the  three  years  of 
peace,  from  1698  to  1700,  on  an  average  to  1297  tons'  ;  and 
in  the  ten  years  of  war,  from  1700  to  1710,  on  an  average  to 
1094  tons.  In  these  last  ten  years  the  annual  purchases  of 
the  Dutch  amounted  to  300  tons,  of  the  estimated  value  of 
21,374^.  Davenant  accounts  for  the  great  increase  in  thu 
exportation  as  follows  :  —  '  All  our  neighbours,'  says  he,  '  as 
well  as  ourselves,  have  increased  in  the  luxurious  way  of 
living  ;  such  who  heretofore  were  content  with  pewter  are 
now  served  in  plate  ;  and  such  as  made  use  of  trenchers, 
wooden  platters,  and  earthenware,  will  now  have  pewter  ; 
all  which  is  visible  within  forty  years,  and  has  occasioned 
this  great  call  of  a  commodity  almost  peculiar  to  us.'  But 
the  produce  of  the  mines  more  than  kept  pace  with  the  in- 
creased demand  ;  and  when  Davenant  wrote,  Queen  Anne 
had  between  4000  and  5000  tons  of  tin  on  hand,  a  quantity 
equal  to  four  or  five  years'  consumption.  'As  the  case 
stands  at  present,'  he  adds,~<  Holland  is  the  great,  magazine 
for  tin  :  the  necessities  of  such  as  have  it  upon  their  hands, 
either  in  merchandize  or  security,  drive  it  thither,  and  the 
Dutch  set  what  price  they  please  upon  this  rich  product  of 
England,  to  the  damage  of  the  public.'  He  proposed  that 
a  thousand  tons  of  the  dead  stock  should  be  coined  into 
tin  half-pence  and  farthings.  The  produce  of  the  mines 
went  on  increasing,  and  the  accumulation  to  which  Dave- 
nant alludes  is  only  about  a  year's  produce  of  the  mines  at 
present. 

In  the  '  Journal  of  the  Statistical  Society  of  London  ' 
(vol.  ii.,  part  iv.),  there  is  a  valuable  paper,  by  Joseph 
Carne,  Esq.,  on  the  '  Statistics  of  the  Tin-Mines  in  Corn- 
wall, and  of  the  Consumption  of  Tin  in  Great  Britain,'  from 
which  we  borrow  some  of  the  following  statements.  From 
17"<!)  to  1785  the  produce  of  the  mines  varied  from  2273 
tons,  the  lowest  amount,  to  3005  tons,  which  was  the 
great  est  quantity  in  any  one  year  :  the  average  production 
for  this  period  was  2757  tons,  and  the  average  price  64*.  Qii. 
per  cwt.  From  1789  to  1816  the  annual  average  quantity 
was  2875  tons,  at  79*.  M.  per  cwt.  From  1817  to  1&37 
inclusive,  the  annual  average  was  4211  tons,  and  the  aver- 
age price  paid  to  the  tinner  was  73.*.  the  cwt.  In  1787 
Banca  tin  was  imported  into  this  country'  for  the  first  time, 
and  the  price  of  Cornish  tin  soon  fell  to  58s.  the  cwt., 
and  would  have  declined  still  further  if  a  new  market  had 
not  been  opened.  It  appeal's  that  the  purser  of  an  India- 
m%n,  who  took  some  tin  from  the  Molucca  islands  to 
China  in  1787,  found  the  speculation  so  profitable  that  the 
East  India  Company  were  induced  to  direct  their  atten- 
tion to  the  trade,  and  the  Company  shortly  entered  into 
arrangements  with  the  Cornish  tinners  for  an  annual  sup- 
ply. The  purchases  of  the  Company  were  made  at  low 
prices,  but  the  tinners  were  indemnified  by  the  artificial 
scarcity  which  raised  prices  in  the  home  market.  At  first 
the  Company  paid  only  68/.  13.».  4J,  the  ton,  delivered  on 
board  in  London  ;  in  1792  they  gave  "ill.  ;  and  on  the  re- 
newal of  the  Company's  charter  they  agreed  to  purchase 
800  tons  annually  at  75/.,  and  offered  to  take  half  as  much 
more  at  68/.  13s.  4d.  In  1809  the  difference  between  the 
prices  paid  by  the  Company  and  the  prices  in  the  home 
market  was  so  great  that  the  tinners  refused  to  supply  the 
Company,  and  their  exports  ceased;  but  in  1811  they 
agreed  to  pay  78/.,  and  in  1812,  80/.  per  ton.  The  con- 
nection finally  ceased  in  1817,  as  the  supply  of  the  home 
market  had  become  more  profitable. 

The  gradual  increase  in  the  consumption  of  tin  in  Great 
Britain  is  shown  in  the  following  table  :  — 

Periods.  Annual  Avevaerr. 

1783  to  1790  920  tons. 


1791  to  1800  754 

1800  to  1810  1118 

1811  to  1820  1600 

1821  to  1830  2616 

1830  to  1837  3303 

Until  1838  all  the  Cornish  tin  paid  a  duty  of  4.?.  per 
120  Ibs.  to  the  duchy  of  Cornwall,  which,  with  the  fees, 
was  equivalent  to  5s.  This  duty  is  now  abolished.  About 
10,000  men,  women,  and  children  are  supposed  to  be  em- 
ployed in  the  Cornish  mires. 

From  1783  to  1790  the  proportion  of  British  tinexported 

3P2 


TI  N 


•17(1 


T  I  N 


wa*7-10thsof  the  produce  of  the  mines;  in  thr  next  ten 
year*  it  was  3-4tl>8;  from  1MK)  1»  IsJ)  one  huh:  from 
1821)  to  1830  it  luul  dimintMud  to  -J-.Mhh;  and  from  IKiU 
to  18H7  to  l-5th.  The  quantity  of  foreign  tin  imported, 
the  greater  part  of  which  is  intended  t>  tation, 

since  1815,  was  as  follows :— From  1815  to  1831  the  annual 
average  quantity  imported  was  213  tons;  <  M ••.•.••  .1  annu- 
ally daring  tin-  same  pi  nod  -J24  tons.  From  1831  to  1838 
the  imports  of  foreign  tin  averaged  annually  1.VJ7  tons,  and 
the  exports  were  1482  tons.  This  foreign  tin  c-an  IK-  sup- 
plied cheaper  in  Europe  and  America  than  the  Cornish 
tin.  In  1841  the  imports  were  :N.i:U  i-wt.,or  14-1  tons,  of 
which  1 7,913 cwt.  were  from  Singapore,  <il!)7  cwt.  from  Java, 
and  r>:tji .  -«t.  from  the  East  India  Company's  territories.  In 
the  same  year  the  exports  of  forviirn  tin  w.r.  i">.."U4  cwt.. 
or  1287  tons,  principally  to  the  United  States,  Holland, 
Russia,  France,  Italy,  and  Germany.  Tin'  exports  of 
British  tin  in  1841  were  12H7  tuns.  France  took  8905 
cwt.  :  Turkey,  4OGI  cwt.  ;  Russia,  2780  cwt.  ;  the  United 
-.  1783  CWt.;  and  Italy,  13211  cwt.  :  l>ein<;  more  than 
three-fourths  of  the  whole.  In  the  ( 'ustom-House  records  the 
quantity  of  tin  manufactures  exported  is  not  distinguished, 
but  in  1840  the  exports  of  •  tin  and  pewt er  wares  and  tin 
plate'  were  valued  at  3oUHl(i/.  Under  the  tariff  of  1842 
(5  &  6  Vict.,c.  17  ,1'oreiiriit ill-ore  will  he  admissible  for  the 
first  time,  on  paying  a  duty,  which  is  UK.  the  ton  if  from 
a  British  possession,  and  if  of  a  foreign,  50*.  But  as  none 
of  the  British  possessions  contain  tin  likely  to  be  brought 
into  the  English  market,  the  real  duty  is  5<Vv.  The  former 
duty  of  10.v.  the  cwt.  was  prohibitory.  The  quantity  of 
tin  annually  produced  in  Banca  is  estimated  at  2700  tons, 
and  in  the  Malayan  peninsula  about  1300  tons :  and  these 
are  the  parts  from  which  a  supply  of  ore,  if  any,  is  likely 
to  be  received. 

TIM    (Medical    Propertiet    of}.      It  cannot  be    con- 
fidently asserted  that  tin  in  a  metallic  state  has  no  influ- 
ence over  the  human  system,  as  many  respectable  writers 
afHnu  that  tin-filings  are  decidedly  anthclmintic,  and  that 
this  is  not  owing  to  mechanical 'irritation  of  the  worms 
causing  them  to  be  detached  from  the  surface  of  the  intes- 
tines; it  is  stated  that  water  in  which  tin  has  been  boiled, 
and  wine  digested  in  a  tin  vessel,  are   also  anthelmintic. 
Others,  denying  to  tin  any  inherent  power  over  worms,  have 
attributed  these  effects  to  the  presence  of  a  small  portion 
of  arsenic.     Be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  a  very  crude  method  of 
treating  worms  to   exhibit  such  a  material  as  tin-filings. 
[AvuiKi  MIMICS.]      Even    oxide    of   tin   is   of  doubtful 
efficacy,  as  might  be  expected  from  its  extreme  insolubility. 
Its  powers  may  be  heightened  by  occasionally  meeting 
with    ncids   in   the   stomach,    such   as   the     hydrOchloHC, 
ami   therewith  forming  a  chloride.      Two  compounds  oi 
chlorine  with  tin  are  Known,  one  the  protoehloride.  the 
other    the   bichloride.      Both   of  these   are   exc  i . 
soluble;    the   latter   so   much  so   that   it  can  with  diffi- 
culty  1)6  kept    in   the    solid    state,    and    more    frequently 
oceuis  in  the  liquid  state,  and  is  then  called  the  spiriiiis 
finnans  I.ilmii.or  butter  of  tin.     The  former  is  much  used 
by  dyers,  among  whom,  when  in  the  solid  state,  it  is  called 
/  tin,  and  when  liquid,  spirit  nf  tin.     In  the  former 
condition,  it  has  sometimes  been  mistaken  for  common  salt : 
it  has  t  Ims  1  icen  the  source  of  poisoning,  though  it  is  not  very 
active  when  introduced  into  the  stomach.     A  few  grain's 
injected  into  the  juirular  vein   prove  rapidly  fatal  to 
In  case  of  any  of  it  being  swallowed,   emetics  or 
toraRch-pump,  demulcent  drinks,  and,  if  nee. 
moderate  •  .  followed  after'a 

time  by  vital  stimulants.    'Il  has  been  thought  by  some  to 
to  allow  fluids  containing  acids,  such  as  the 
weak  acid  wines,  or  cyder,  or  even   fatty,  saline',  or  albu- 
minous substances,  to  remain  long  in  1  ill-vessel*,  as  an  in- 
jurious action   of  these   on  the  tin  is  supposed  to   occur. 
If  any  serious  effects  hav«  ever  followed  from  such  a  cause, 
it  is  most  likely  that  these  vessels  were  only  coated  super- 
ficially with  tin,  which  being  rubbed  off, exposed  the  more 
potent  metal  beneath  to  the  solvent  power  of  these  sub- 
stances. It  is  therefore  prudent  to  examine  from  time  to  time 
all  copper  and  other  vessels  to  see  that  the  tinning  is  entire. 
TIN   1'I.ATK.     [TiNxiNo.] 
i'YKI'iT.s.     jTm.] 

|R.  I'lince  Maximilian's  name  for  one  of  the 
Ant -Thru-Oie*  (Formicarinef,  (I.  R.  Gray).  This  genus  is 
the  Oxyvygo,  Men.  and  belongs  to  Muiothera, 

Cuv.,  and  nmtmofkOut,  \  ieill. 


Example,  Tiimclor/utcu*,  Guer.    .l/<ir.  i/<  /.aul.,  t.  10. 

•UK-.] 

*    ll.\  A  MID.i:.     [TiNKMuti.] 

TI.N.VMO'TIS.  Mr.  a  of  birds 

(Kutlrniiiin.  D'Orb.  and  .1.  (nottr.\     i  I 

TI'NAMOU   (TiiHiiiiiix,   ].ath  l.mn..   Tridac- 

tylun.   Lace  p.,    Cryjituruv,    111.. 

birds  placed  by  Cuvicr,  Mr.  A  mso-i 

among  the  TKTRAOMU.K,  in  which  article  the  account 
iri\en  by  the  hust  mentioned  zoologist  of  their  liabils  and 
utility  to  man  will  be  found. 

The  I'lin  :io  (Birds  of  Europe  and  .Yo/Y/i  Atne- 

ha>a  family  t'rijjituriiltf,  noticed   in  the 
iKur.  \\i\..  p.  2.V)  ,   and,  we   pre.Mi, 

there  ]ilace  the  Tinamous. 

Mr.  (}.  H.  (iray  makes  the  'Fiinunitltr,  the  sixth   family 
of  the  (ialliiiff.  according  to   his  ai 
the  following  subfamilies  and  genera: — 
Subfam.  1.    Turnii . 

Genus : — Turnir,  Bonn. 

Subfam.  2.     Tiiiamin.-e. 

Genera: — Tinamus,   Lath.:    .N'//  \.  •    Khyn- 

r/inln\:  S]iix  ;    'fiiniiii/ili\.  \  lLr. 

This  family  is  placed  by  Mr.  G.  R.  Gra\ 
to  the  Chronididee,  aiul  at  the  end  of  the  I, 
next  order  to  which  is  formed  by  the  Strut/iitir- 

\\'e   i>roeeed    to   illu>tiutc  the    pivi-ciit    :; 
the  Tinamous  pro[:i'rly  MI  called. 

(iriii-rir    C/iiinirtfr    i,f     Tintimus. — Bill    nun'. 
pressed,  broader  than  hiirh.  tip  obtuse,  back  bioad. 
trils  lateral,   medial,  o\ate,   exjiandt^l,   and    ojien. 
four-toed,  cleft ;    hind  toe  very  short.     Tail  no; 
short,   concealed    by   the   rump-feathei.s.      \\  n 

Example,  Tinnmuis  Tn/aupa,  Var. 

Description. — Tmamou    with   the    body   above   du>kv- 
nifous,  immaculate.     Head   and   neck  dusky-black;    chin 
while  ;  throat,  neck,  and  breaM  cinereous  :    body  beneath 
whitish;  \cnt  and  flanks  lufous-black,  tb 
gincd  with  white.     Bill   and  irides  red.     Total  lenu 
inches.     (Sw.) 

Mr.  Swainson,  in  his  work  on  the  '  Classification  of  liinls." 
•es  bi>  ojiinion  that  the  Tinamous  probably  repre- 
sent the  trump  of  Uustaids  in  the  New  World 
NID.K,  vol.  xxiv.,  p.  255];  but  in  a  previous  pubhcaliuii 
J.ni>l<i<riciil  Illustrations,  1st  series j,  he  says  that  they 
there  '  seem  to  hold  the  same  scale  in  creation  whicli 
the  partridges  do  in  the  Old  Continent."  He  refers,  in  the 
book  la>t  mentioned,  to  the  work  of  M.  Temminck  (I1, 

[//.:,  who,  he  obseue.-.  has  described  tweht 
and  he  st.:tes  tliat  the  bird  under  con-i.li'ialion  is  the 
smallest  of  its  family.  He  found  it  only  once  in  the 
interior  01'  1'aliia,  where,  he  says,  it  mils!  lie  very  rare,  or 
frequent  in  particular  districts  only.  Though  differing  in 
•.ome  res])eels  from  M.  Temininck's  description,  he  is  in- 
clined to  consider  it  only  a  variety. 


Tiimnui  T.iUupa.  Vjr.     i 

Mr.  D.irwin,  in   his  irrajihic  descii]>liiMi   ol   the   country 
around  Maldonado,  when   he   had    reached   the    l;ulhest 


T  I  N 


477 


T  I  N 


point  which  he  was  anxious  to  examine,  says : — '  The 
•  country  wore  the  same  aspect,  till  at  last  the  fine  green 
turf  became  more  wearisome  than  a  dusty  turnpike -road. 
We  everywhere  saw  great  numbers  of  partndgea  (TVnoMW 
ntfi'(cens).  These  birds  do  not  go  in  coveys,  nor  do  they 
conceal  themselves  like  the  English  kind.  It  appears  a 
very  silly  bird.  A  man  on  horseback,  by  riding  round  anil 
round  in  a  circle,  or  rather  in  a  spire,  so  as  to  approach 
closer  each  time,  may  knock  on  the  head  as  many  as  he 
pleases.  The  more  common  method  is  to  catch  them  with 
a  running  noose  or  little  lazo,  made  of  the  stem  of  an 
ostrich's  feather,  fastened  to  the  end  of  a  long  stick.  A 
boy  on  a  quiet  old  horse  will  frequently  thus  catch  thirty 
or  forty  in  a  day.  The  flesh  of  this  bird,  when  cooked,  is 
delicately  white.'  (Journal  of  Researches  in  the  Countries 
rixited  by  H.  M.  S.  Beagle.) 

TIXCA,  a  genus  of  fishes  founded  by  Cuvier,  and  which 
has  for  type  the  common  tench,  Cyprinus  tinea,  Linn. : 
TnK-a.  rulgaris,  Cuv.  This  fish  belongs  to  the  carp  family 
(Cyprinidee'),  and  is  separated  genetically  on  account  of  the 
small  size  of  the  scales  with  which  the  body  is  covered, 
combined  with  the  small  antero-posterior  e'xtent  of  the 
dorsal  and  anal  fins,  both  of  which  are  destitute  of  the  ante- 
rior bony  spine  or  any  such  as  are  observable  in  some  allied 
fishes — as  in  the  dorsal  fin  of  the  barbel  for  instance ;  the 
barbules  to  the  mouth  are  very  small. 

The  tench,  observes  Mr.  Yarrell,  inhabits  most  of  the 
lakes  of  the  European  continent.  In  this  country,  though 
frequent  in  ornamental  water  and  ponds,  it  is  but  sparingly 
found  in  the  generality  of  our  rivers.  There  is  some  doubt 
whether,  like  the  carp,  its  origin  be  not  foreign,  and 
whether  those  rivers  that  can  now  boast  of  it  are  not  in- 
debted for  it  to  the  accidental  escape  of  fish  from  the  pre- 
served waters  of  neighbouring  gentlemen.  The  rivers  it  is 
mostly  in  are  those  which  are  slow  and  deep,  and  in  such 
situations  it  does  not  appear  to  be  so  prolific  as  in  ponds. 
Cuvier  observes  that  the  tench  inhabits  by  preference 
stagnant  waters.  This  is  in  accordance  with  the  observa- 
tions of  .Mr.  Yarrell,  and,  rivers  being  an  unnatural  habitat 
for  the  fish,  will  account  for  their  being  less  prolific  in 
such  situations. 

The  author  of  the  interesting  work  on  British  Fishes, 
just  mentioned,  quotes  the  following  account  illustra- 
tive of  the  habits  of  the  tench  and  of  its  tenacity  ofr  life  : 
it  U  from  Daniel's  '  Rural  Sports :' — '  A  piece  of  water 
which  had  been  ordered  to  be  filled  up,  and  into  which 
wood  and  rubbish  had  been  thrown  for  years,  was  directed 
to  be  cleared  out.  Persons  were  accordingly  employed  ; 
and,  almost  choked  up  by  weeds  and  mud,  so  little  water 
remained,  that  no  person  expected  to  see  any  fish,  except- 
ing a  few  eels,  yet  nearly  two  hundred  brace  of  tench 
of  all  sizes,  and  as  many  perch,  were  found.  After  the 
pond  was  thought  to  be  quite  free,  under  some  roots  there 
seemed  to  be  an  animal  which  was  conjectured  to  be  an 
otter ;  the  place  was  surrounded,  and  on  opening  an  en- 
trance among  the  roots,  a  tench  was  found  of  most  singular 
form,  having  literally  assumed  the  shape  of  the  hole,  in 
which  he  had  of  course  for  many  years  been  confined. 
Hi*  length  from  eye  to  fork  was  thirty-three  inches ;  his 
circumference,  almost  to  the  tail,  was  twenty-seven  inches  : 
his  weight  eleven  pounds  nine  ounces  and  a  quarter;  the 
colour  was  also  singular,  his  belly  being  that  of  a  char,  or 
veimilion.  This  extraordinary  fish,  after  having  been  in- 
spected by  many  gentlemen,  was  carefully  put  into  a  pond, 
and  ;it  the  time  the  account  was  written,  twelve  months 
afterwards,  was  alive  and  well.' 

Experiments  have  shown  that  a  tench  is  able  to  breathe 
when  the  quantity  of  oxygen  is  reduced  to  a  five-thousandth 
part  of  the  bulk  of  the  water:  ordinary  river  water  gene- 
ral ly  containing  one  per  cent,  of  oxygen. 

The  general  colour  of  the  tench  is  greenish  brown,  or 
olive  having  a  golden  hue,  which  latter  tint  is  most  con- 
ipicuous  on  the  under  parts  of  the  fish.  From  the  carp 
it  is  readily  distinguished  by  the  small  size  of  its  scales,  and 
also  the  small  extent  of  the  dorsal  fin :  its  form  is  rather 
i-c])  in  proportion  to  the  length.  It  spawns  usually 
about  the  middle  of  June,  and  deposits  its  ova  on  weeds. 

TINCTURES  are  solutions  of  the  active  principles, 
mostly  af  vegetables,  sometimes  of  saline  medicines,  and 
more  rarely  of  animal  matters,  in  certain  solvents.  From 
possessing  more  or  less  of  colour,  they  have  obtained  this 
.  They  are  distinguished  according  to  the  kind  of 
solvent  employed.  When  alcohol  is  used,  they  are  termed 


alcoholic  tinctures,  or  more  generally  simply  tinctures, 
when  sulphuric  asther  is  used,  they  are  denominated 
(ctherial  tinctures.  When  wine  is  used,  though  differing 
little  from  pure  alcohol,  the  term  medicated  urines  is 
applied  to  them ;  and  when  the  process  of  instillation  is 
employed  to  aid  the  extraction,  particularly  of  volatile  oils, 
the  result  is  termed  a  spirit,  such  as  of  rosemary.  Ammo- 
nia is  sometimes  conjoined,  and  the  proceeds  termed  an 
ammoniated  tincture.'  In  some  cases  less  of  the  principal 
ingredient  is  taken  up  or  dissolved  when  ammonia  is  used, 
than  when  simple  alcohol  is  employed,  as  in  the  tinctura 
guaiacum  ammoniatum.  Formerly  some  tinctures  were 
called  essences,  from  the  term  esse,  it  being  thought  that 
they  contained  only  the  purer  or  more  refined  portion,  the 
alcohol  leaving  all  the  baser  principles,  such  as  the  starch, 
gum,  woody  fibre,  &c.,  undissolved :  quintessence  was  a 
still  higher  degree  of  this.  These  terms  are  now  disused 
by  pharmaceutists,  though  retained  by  the  people.  Elixirs 
differ  only  from  being  of  a  greater  consistence  :  they  are  not 
uni'requently  turbid  from  the  extractive  matter  suspended 
in  them.  Tinctures  are  further  distinguished  into  simple  and 
compound.  They  are  called  simple  when  one  substance 
only  is  submitted  to  the  solvent ;  compound,  when  two  or 
more  are.  Another  important  distinction  among  tinctures 
is  founded  upon  the  degree  of  strength  of  the  alcohol  em- 
ployed. Where  the  active  principle  is  nearly  pure  resin, 
a  strong  spirit  is  needed ;  when  much  gum  is  associated 
with  the  resin,  a  weaker  is  required.  Hence  some  tinc- 
tures are  prepared  with  proof  spirit,  as  the  greater  num- 
ber ;  a  few  with  spirit  above  proof;  and  some  with  rec- 
tified spirit. 

A  well-prepared  tincture  should  be  clear,  possessing  the 
colour  of  the  article  which  is  its  base,  and  partaking  in  an 
eminent  degree  of  its  characteristic  odour  and  taste.  As  a 
general  rule,  five  or  six  parts  of  the  liquid  chosen  is  to  be 
used  for  one  part  of  the  solid  material,  which  is  to  be 
bruised  or  comminuted  before  being  submitted  to  macera- 
tion. The  maceration,  which  should  be  conducted  in 
well-stopped  glass  vessels,  is  generally  continued  for  four- 
teen days,  during  which  the  ingredients  are  to  be  frequently 
shaken,  and  at  the  end  strained.  The  pure  tincture  is 
then  to  be  preserved  in  a  tightly-stopped  bottle,  which 
should  be  opake,  or  sheltered  from  the  light.  From  seve- 
ral tinctures  a  deposit  falls  down,  either  from  some  slow 
chemical  change  taking  place  among  the  ingredients,  or 
from  the  evaporation  of  some  of  the  spirit.  This  renders 
old  tinctures  not  uni'requently  turbid,  and  of  variable 
strength.  Thus  tincture  of  opium  When  newly  prepared 
contains  one  grain  of  opium  in  nineteen  minims,  but  after 
some  time  one  grain  of  opium  is  contained  in  only  fourteen 
minims.  This  inconvenience  may  be  avoided  with  all 
recent  vegetables,  by  forming  what  are  termed  '  vegetable 
juices.'  These  are  merely  the  juices  of  the  fresh  plant 
expressed  by  a  powerful  wooden  press,  and  the  juice 
allowed  to  stand  twenty-four  hours,  during  which  a  copious 
precipitation  of  feculent  matter  takes  place,  which  is 
further  promoted  by  adding  alcohol  56°  over  proof,  in  the 
proportion  of  four  fluid  ounces  to  every  sixteen  fluid 
ounces  of  the  juice.  After  standing  for  twenty-four  hours, 
the  juice  is  to  be  filtered  through  bibulous  paper  (prepared 
from  wool),  when  it  will  keep  unimpaired  for  a  length  of 
time. 

These  vegetable  juices  always  retain  their  purity,  and 
are  of  the  same  degree  of  strength  at  last  as  at  first.  By 
this  means  not  only  is  the  process  simplified,  and  the  time 
required  for  their  preparation  greatly  abridged,  being 
reduced  from  fourteen  days  to  two ;  but  their  medicinal 
efficacy  is  greater  than  that  of  the  ordinary  tinctures,  and, 
from  containing  less  alcohol,  they  can  be  given  in  cases 
where  the  stimulating  action  of  this  principle  interferes 
with  the  effect  of  the  substance  dissolved  in  it,  or  renders 
its  exhibition  improper,  as  in  the  case  of  young  children. 

In  preparing  the  officinal  spirits,  the  directions  ot  the 
Pharmacopeia  are  rarely  complied  with.  Most  chemists 
content  themselves  with  dissolving  some  of  the  essential 
oil  of  the  plant  in  alcohol  of  the  requisite  strength,  by 
which  much  expense  and  trouble,  as  well  as  loss  ot  time, 
are  sivoidcd. 

(See  a  pamphlet  on  The  Best  Method  of  Obtaining  the 
Most  Puwerful  Vegetable  Preparations  for  Medical  ( 
In   IMward  Bentley.) 

TINDAL,  MATTHEW,  LL.D.,  was  the  son  of  the  Rev. 
John  Tindal,  parish  clergyman  at  Beer-Ferres  in  Devon- 


T  I  N 


478 


TI  N 


*hir«,  whrrf  Matthew  WM  bom  about  the  year  1057.  In 
Ifl7i  he  w$»  admitted  of  Lincoln  Cnllc-irc.  Oxford,  where 
Dr.  Hicke*  was  hi*  tutor;  hut  he  afterwards  removed  to 

r  College ;  and  he  was  finally  fleeted  to  a  law  fel- 
lowship at  All  Soul*,  *oon  alter  h«  had  taken  his  degree 

V.,  in  1070.  He  proceeded  I.I.  H.  in  1079,  and  wan 
created  I.L.D.  in  10«f>.  If  we  may  believe  certain  charges 
which  were  lone  afterwards  made  in  print  by  the  oppo- 
nent* of  his  theological  opinion*,  tos  debaucheries  while 
he  redded  at  Oxford  were  no  scandalous  as  to  have  drawn 
down  upon  him  on  one  occasion  a  public  reprimand  from 
lij-<  college.  Soon  after  ho  obtained  his  doctor's  degree 
In1  went  over  tu  the  Church  of  Koine,  not  without  subject- 
ing himself  (o  the  imputation  of  Imvinsr  an  eye  to  the 
worldly  advantages  which  such  a  stop  might  seem  to  pro- 
mine  u'nder  the  popish  king  just  come  to  the  throne.  It 
does  not  appear  however  that  he  actually  obtained  any 
court  favour  or  patronage  by  hit  change  of  reliirion  ;  and, 

ding  to  his  own  account,  given  in  a  pamphlet  he 
published  in  his  own  defence  in  1708,  he  reverted  to  the 
l.'hnrch  of  Kngland  some  months  before  the  Revolution, 
having  attended  mass  for  the  last  time  at  Candlemas, 
low.  and  publicly  recei\ed  the  sacrament  in  his  college 
chapel  at  Easter  following.  He  asserts  that  his  mind, 
which  cHine  a  tabula  rota  to  the  university,  had  been  pre- 
pared for  being  seduced  by  James's  Romish  emissaries  by 
the  notions  as  to  the  high  and  independent  powers  of  the 
clergy  which  then  prevailed  there,  and  which  he  had 
adopted  without  examination.  Accordingly,  when  he 
threw  off  popery,  he  abandoned  his  high-church  principles 
at  the  same  tinie  :  or  rather,  as  he  puts  it.  he  discovered 
that  these  principles  were  unfounded,  and  that  at  once 
cured  him  of  his  popery.  '  Meeting,'  he  says,  '  upon  his 
going  into  the  world,  with  people  who  treated  that  notion 
of  the  independent  power  as  it  deserved,  and  finding  the 
of  popery  to  be  much  greater  at  hand  than 
they  appeared  at  a  distance,  he  began  to  examine  the 
whole  matter  with  all  the  attention  he  was  capable  of: 
and  then  he  nuic.kly  found,  and  was  surprised  at  the  dis- 

V, that  all  his  fill  then  undoubted  maxims  were  so  far 
from  having  any  solid  inundation,  that  they  were  built  on 
as  great  a  contradiction  as  can  be,  that  of  two  independent 
powers  in  the  name  society.  Upon  this  he  returned,  as  he 
had  good  reason,  to  the'  Church  of  England,  which  he 
found,  hy  examining  into  her  constitution,  disclaimed  all 
that  independent  power  he  had  been  bred  up  to  the  belief 
of."  The  Revolution  having  taken  place,  he  now  also,  na- 
turally enough,  became  a  zealous  partizan  of  that  settle- 
ment. The  history  of  the  rest  of  his  life,  during  which  he 
appears  to  have  resided  mostly  in  London,  consists  almost 
entirely  of  that  of  his  successive  publications  and  of  the 
controversies  in  which  they  involved  him. 

He  first  appeared  aa  an  author  in  November.  1C93,  by 
the  publication,  in4to..of '  An  Essay  concerning  Obedience 
to  the  Supreme  Powers,  and  the  Duty  of  Subjects  in  ail 
•Revolutions,  with  some  considerations  concerning  the  pre- 
sent juncture  of  affairs.'  This  was  followed  in  March, 
1GU4.  bv  '  An  Essay  concerning  the  Law  of  Nations  and 
the  I  'a  second  edition  of  which,  with 

additions,  wan  brought   out  in  Uie  same  year.     This  year 
•:tcr  to  the  Clergy  of  both  Uni- 
i;-ndation  of  certain  alterations  which 
WM  then  some  talk  of  making  in  the  Liturgy ;  and 
in    lUffi  another  pamphlet  in  support  of  the  same  views. 
Hut  the  first  work  by  which  he  attracted  general  attention 
WM  an  Hvo.  vol  :     i   he    published  in  1700.  entitled 

•  The  Right*  Of  imrch  Asserted,  agai- 
Komi-h  and  all  other  priest*  who  claim  an  independent 
power  over  it.'    This  work,  which  is  an  elaborate  »u.i.  \ 
upon  the  theory  of                   al  impremacy,  or  what  are 
commonly   called    high-church    principles,    immediately 
raked  avast  commotion.     Itisielated  that  to  a  friend  who 
found  him  one  day  engaged  upon  it,  pen  in  hand,  he  said 
that  he  wan  writing  a  book  which  would  make  the  clergy 
mad.     Replies  to  it  were  immediately  published  by  the 

;itcd  \VilliamWotton,  by  Dr.  Hickes  ( Tindal's  old 
college  tutor  i.  and  others;    the  controversy  continued  to 
liir  several  years:  a  bookseller  and  his  shopman  were 
indicted  for  selling  the  book.     In  I7(»7  Tindal  pu!' 

•  A  Defence'  of  his  work,  and,  a  few  months  aft« 

.' butli  Hi' which  he  republished- tor 
addition*,  in  1709:    tho  same  year  he  also  rcj 
hk  two  Ba*ay*  on  Obedience  and  thu  Law  of  Nations,  alou^ 


with  •  A  Discourse  for  the  Liberty  of  the  Press,  and  an 
Essay  concerning  the  Rights  of  Mankind   in  matters  of 
Religion  :'  about  the  same  time  he  i  -a- 
pamphlet,  entitled  '  New  High  Church  turned  Old  Pres- 
byterian,' in  exposure  of  the  pr 
Sachevercll  and  his  party  :  upon  which  the'  i 
mom,  which  the  day  before  had  condemned  SH 
sermons  to  be  burned,  on  the  25th  of  March.  17 111,  impar- 
tially ordered  Tindal's  '  Rights  of  the  Christian  Church' 
and  the  second  edition  of  his  two  •  Defences'  to  be  com- 
mitted to  the  flames  at  the  same  time.     Tins  proceeding 
drew  from  Tindal  the  same  year  three  more  pamphU  ' 
the  first,  entitled 'A  High-Chun 
•  The  .lacohitism,  Perjurv,  and  Popen 
Priests:'    the   third,  -The   Merciful   Judg 
(.'Imrch  triumphant,  on  Offending  Clergymen  an  s 
the  reign  of  Charles  I.'     The   next   year,  on   the  1 
House  of  Convocation  having  drawn  "up  and  printed  '  A 
Representation  of  the  present  state  of  Religion,  with  re 
gard  to  the  late  excessive  growth  of  Infidelit  \ .  Hi-n  ~y,  and 
Profaneness,'  Tindal    forthwith   replied   in   •  The   Sation 
Vindicated   from  the  Aspersions  cast   on  it '  in  the  Mid 
representation.    The  second  part  of  this  perlbrman 
occupied  with  an  explanation  and   defence  of  wha: 
since  been  called  the  doctrine  of  philosophical  in-i 
in  opposition  to  the  assertion  of  the  Convocation,  that  Midi 
views  went  to  overturn  the  foundations  of  all  morality,  and 
of  all  religion,  natural  as  well  as  revealed.      For  - 
years  from  this  date  Tindal's  active  pen  was  < 
occupied  with  the  politics  of  the  day ;  but  . 
do  not  appear  to  have  been  very  effective  at  the  tune,  and 
have  been  long  forgotten.     It  i-  remarkable  however  that 
in  so  voluminous  a  work  as  I  •  moirs  of  Sir  K 

Wnlpole,'  no  notice  should  be  taken  of  a  personal  contro- 
versy in  which  Tindal  became  involved  with  that  mi- 
after  his  resignation  in  1717.  and  which  produced  various 
pamphlets  on  both  sides.  Tindal  considered  himv 
have  been  ill-used  by  Walpole,  who,  according  to  his  ac- 
count, liad  first  courted  his  alliance,  and  then  suddenly 
dropped  him  alter  he  had  so  far  committed  himself  in 
writing  that  it  was  imagined  his  hostility  in  print  was  not 
to  be  dreaded.  Walpole,  on  the  other  hand,  or  his  friem's. 
d  Tindal  of  a  treacherous  desertion  to  the  opposite 
faction  as  soon  as  he  found  that  Walpole  had  been  or  was 
about  to  be  deprived  of  power.  It  is  probable  that  then1 
was  some  misunderstanding  on  both  sides.  In  any  case 
this  ministerial  rupture  was  merely  a  personal  quarrel,  in 
which  little  or  no  public  principle  was  invoked:  and  it 
implies  therefore  no  political  versatility  or  ir,< 
in  Tindal  that  a  few  years  alter  this,  i'n  17:!  1.  17±i  and 
1723,  when  Walpole  was  at  the  head  of  the  mmi-tiv,  he 
carne  forward  as  a  strenuous  defender  of  1m  government 
in  a  succession  of  pamphlets.  He  did  not  return  Ul 
original  field  of  theological  polemics  till  n  he 

published  '  An  Address  to  the  Inhabitants  of  the  two  great 
-  of  London  and  \\  iMimn.-U -r.'  in  reply  to  a  pastoral 
letter  which   the  bishop  of  London,  Dr.  Gibson,  dad  ad 
dressed  to  the  people  of  his  diocese  on  the  subject  of  An- 
thony Collins'*  '  Scheme  of  Literal  Prophecy  Consii!. 
and  other  recent  deistical  writings.     A  '  Second  Pastoral 
Letter,'  soon  after  published  by  the  bishop,  called  forth  a 
'  Second  Address'  from  Tindal :    and  both  addresses  were 
reprinted  the  same  year,  in  an  Hvo.  volume,  with  alterations 
and  additions. 

From  this  date  Tindal  seems  to  have  remained  quiet  till 
the  year  17_H(),  when  he  produced,  in  a  4to.  volume,  the 
work  by  which  he  is  now  chiefly  remembered,  his  'Christ- 
ianity aa  Old  as  the  Creation,  or  the  Gospel  a  Republica- 
tion  of  the  Religion  of  Nature.'  The  object  of  this  work. 
[  as  is  indeed  sufficiently  declared  in  its  title,  is  !o  contend 
that  there  in  nothing  more  in  Christianity,  prop 

than  what   the  human  reason  i<  quite  capable  of 
discovering  for  itself,  and  b\  implication  to  deny  that  any 
special    revelation   has  ever   been  made  by  tli 
man.     It  did   not  however  con  \press  denial  of 

tlu-  truth  nl' Christianity;  of  win-  :  the  author  and 

his  partisans  rather  professed  to  think  that  he  bail   found 
out  a  new'  defence  stronger  than  >  pre- 

\ion>K  thought  of.     'Tindal,' amid  Wsrbn.  VMM 

alter.  •  n   kind  of  bastard  •  our  spe- 

culations from  heaven   to  • 

advancing  the  antiquity  of  Christ  -mred  to  under- 

mine  its  original.'    The   book  made  a  great  noise,  and 


T  1  N 


479 


t  I  N 


various  answers  to  it  goon  appeared,  the  most  noted  of 
which  were — Dr.  Waterland's  '  Scripture  Vindicated,'  1730 ; 
'The  Usefulness,  Truth,  and  Excellency  of  the  Christian 
Revelation  defended,'  by  Mr.  (afterwards  Dr.)  James 
Foster  (the  eminent  dissenting  clergyman),  1731 ;  'A  De- 
fence of  Revealed  Religion,'  by  Dr.  Conybeare  (afterwards 
bishop  of  Bristol),  1732 ;  and  '  An  Answer  to  Christianity 
as  Old  as  the  Creation,'  by  the  Rev.  John  (afterwards  Dr.) 
Leland  fanother  learned  and  distinguished  dissenting 
divine),  1733.  The  book  is  also  discussed  in  the  last-men- 
tioned writer's  more  celebrated  work,  his  'View  of  the 
Principal  Deistical  Writers,'  published  in  1754.  Tindal 
defended  himself  in  '  Remarks  on  Scripture  Vindicated, 
and  some  other  late  Writings,'  published  along  with  a 
new  edition  of  his  '  Second  Address  to  the  Inhabitants  of 
London  and  Westminster,'  in  1730.  But  this  was  his  last 
publication;  his  health  now  began  to  give  way,  and  he 
expired  on  the  16th  of  August,  1733,  at  a  lodging  in  Cold 
Bath  Fields,  to  which  he  had  been  prevailed  upon  to  re- 
move a  few  days  before  from  his  chambers  in  Gray's  Inn. 
Tindal  never  held  any  preferment  except  his  fellowship ; 
but  it  ii  stated,  in  the  'Biographia  Britannica,' that  in  the 
:  of  King  William  he  frequently  sat  as  judge  in  the 
Court  of  Delegates,  and  had  a  pension  of  200/.  a  year 
gi  anted  to  him  by  the  crown  for  his  services  in  that  capa- 
city. It  is  added  that  he  'rarely,  if  ever,  practised  as  an 
advocate  in  the  courts  of  civil  or  ecclesiastical  law  ;'  which 
would  seem  to  imply  that  he  had  been  called  to  the  bar,  or 
been  admitted  an  advocate  at  Doctors' Commons,  although 
that  fact  is  not  mentioned.  A  new  edition  of  his  '  Essay 
on  the  Law  of  Nations'  was  published  the  year  after  his 
death  ;  but  the  publication  of  a  second  part  of  his  '  Christ- 
ianity as  Old  as  the  Creation,'  which  he  left  ready  for  the 
press,  is  said  to  have  been  prevented  by  the  interference'  of 
Bishop  Gibson.  A  will,  in  which  he  left  nearly  all  he  had 
1o  Eustace  Budgell,  in  whose  hands  he  was  for  some  time 
before  his  decease,  was  contested  by  his  nephew,  the  Rev. 
Nicholas  Tindal,  and  was  at  last  set  aside :  the  will  was 
printed  in  a  pamphlet,  with  a  detail  of  circumstances  con- 
nected with  it,  in  1733. 

Of  the  amount  of  talent  and  learning  shown  in  Tindal's 
writings  very  different  estimates  have  been  formed  by  his 
admirers  and  his  opponents.  Waterland,  in  the  Introduc- 
tion to  his  'Scripture  Vindicated,' characterises  his  anta- 
gonist in  the  following  terms  : — '  His  attacks  are  feeble,  his 
artillery  contemptible. ;  he  has  no  genius  or  taste  for  lite- 
rature, no  acquaintance  with  the  original  languages,  nor 
so  much  as  with  common  critics  or  commentators  ;  several 
of  his  objections  are  pure  English  objections,  such  as  affect 
only  our  translation  :  the  rest  are  of  the  lowest  and  most 
trifling  sort.'  Dr.  Conyers  Middleton,  on  the  other  hand, 
in  a  letter  which  he  addressed  to  Waterland  immediately 
after  the  latter  had  published  his  book,  says,  '  For  my  own 
part,  to  observe  our  English  proverb,  and  give  the  devil 
his  due,  I  cannot  discover  any  such  want  of  literature  as 
you  object  to  him  ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  see  plainly  that 
his  work  has  been  the  result  of  much  study  and  reading  ; 
his  materials  collected  from  a  great  variety  of  the  best 
writers ;  his  pages  decently  crowded  with  citations ;  and 
his  index  of  authors  as  numerous  as  that  of  most  books 
which  have  lately  appeared.'  Tindal's  English  style  is 
unaffected  and  perspicuous. 

TINDAL,  REV.  NICHOLAS,  was  the  son  of  a  brother 
of  Dr.  Matthew  Tindal,  and  was  born  in  1687.  Having 
studied  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  and  taken  his  degree  of 
M.A.  in  1713,  he  was  afterwards  elected  a  Fellow  of  Tri- 
nity College  in  that  university.  In  1722  he  was  presented 
by  his  college  to  the  vicarage  of  Great  Waltham  in  Essex  ; 
in  1738  Sir  Charles  Wager,  then  first  lord  of  the  admiralty, 
with  whom  he  appears  to  have  some  years  before  sailed  for 
a  short  time  as  cnaplain,  appointed  him  chaplain  to  Green- 
wich Hospital ;  in  1740  he  is  said  to  have  been  presented  to 
the  rectory  of  Colbourne  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  upon  which  he 
resigned  Great  Waltham  ;  and  very  soon  after  he  appears  to 
have  obtained  his  last  preferment,  the  rectory  of  Alverstoke 
in  Hampshire,  from  the  bishop  of  Winchester  (Hoadley). 
lie  died  at  Greenwich  Hospital  on  the  27th  of  June,  1774. 

Mr.  Tindal's  first  literary  attempt  was  a  work  published 

in  monthly  numbers  in  1724,  under  the  title  of '  Antiquities, 

1  and  Profane,  being  a  Dissertation  on  the  excellency 

History  of  the  Hebrews,'  &c.,  which  is  described  as 

a  translation  from  the  French  of  Calmet.    This  was  fol- 


lowed  by  two  numbers  of  a  History  of  Essex,  which  \VBS 
then  dropped.  He  then  engaged  in  his  most  memorable 
undertaking,  the  translation,  from  the  French,  of  Rapin's 
'History  of  England,' which  appeared  in  a  successson  of 
octavo  volumes  in  1726  and  following  years,  and  was  re- 
printed in  two  volumes  folio  in  1732.  This  second  edition 
was  dedicated  to  Frederick,  prince  of  Wales,  who  in  return 
presented  the  translator  with  a  gold  medal  of  the  value  of 
forty  guineas.  In  1744  a  Continuation  of  Rapin,  by  Tindal, 
began  to  be  published  in  weekly  folio  numbers,  which  was 
completed  in  two  volumes  (commonly  bound  in  three),  in 
1747,  the  history  being  brought  down  to  the  end  of  the 
reign  of  George  I.  A  second  folio  edition  of  this  Con- 
tinuation appeared  in  1751,  and  a  third,  in  21  vols.  8vo.,  in 
1757,  with  the  addition  of  the  reign  of  George  II.  down  to 
that  date.  The  translation  and  continuation  of  Rapin  were 
very  successful  speculations ;  and  the  publishers,  the 
Messrs.  Knapton,  of  Ludgate  Street,  evinced  their  gra- 
titude by  making  Tindal  a  present  of  200/.  It  is  generally 
stated  that,  he  was  assisted  in  both  undertakings  by  Mr. 
Philip  Morant,  to  whom  solely  is  attributed  the  Abridg- 
ment or  Summary  of  the  History  and  Continuation  given 
at  the  end  of  the  latter,  and  also  printed  in  3  vols.  8vo.  in 
1747 ;  but  it  does  not  appear  upon  what  authority  it  is 
asserted  by  Coxe,  in  the  Preface  to  his  '  Memoirs  of  Sir 
Robert  Walpole,'  that  the  Continuation,  though  published 
under  the  name  of  Tindal, '  was  principally  written  by  Dr. 
Birch.'  There  is  no  hint  of  this  in  the  very  full  and  ela- 
borate Life  of  Birch,  in  the  second  edition  of  the  '  Bio- 
graphia Britannica,' which  is  stated  to  be  compiled  from 
his  own  papers  and  the  communications  of  surviving  rela- 
tions and  friends.  '  His  papers,' Coxe  proceeds,  'in  the 
Museum  and  in  the  Hardwicke  Collection,  which  I  have 
examined  with  scrupulous  attention,  and  various  other 
documents  which  were  submitted  to  his  inspection,  and  to 
which  I  have  had  access,  prove  great  accuracy  of  research, 
judgment  in  selection,  and  fidelity  in  narration.  He  de- 
rived considerable  assistance  from  persons  of  political 
eminence,  particularly  the  late  Lord  Walpole,  the  late  earl 
of  Hardwicke,  and  the  Honourable  Charles  Yorke.  The 
account  of  the  Partition  Treaty  was  written  by  the  late 
earl  of  Hardwicke.  The  account  of  Lord  Somers's  argument 
in  Barker's  case  was  written  by  his  great-nephew  the  late 
Mr.  C.  Yorke.  I  can  also  trace  numerous  communica- 
tions by  Horace  Walpole,  though  they  cannot  be  so  easily 
specified.  Birch  was  a  stanch  Whig,  but  his  political 
opinions  have  never  led  him  to  forget  his  duty  as  an  his- 
torian. He  has  not  garbled  or  falsified  debates,  or  mis- 
stated facts ;  he  has  not  wantonly  traduced  characters,  or 
acrimoniously  reviled  individuals  because  they  espoused 
the  cause  which  he  disapproved  ;  but  in  his  whole  work, 
whether  he  praises  or  blames,  there  is  a  manly  integrity 
and  candid  temperance,  which  must  recommend  him  to 
the  discerning  reader.'  This  is  a  sufficiently  just  character 
of  the  Continuation  of  Rapin  :  but,  although  in  some  parts 
the  work  has  a  claim  to  be  considered  as  an  original  au- 
thority, it  is  in  the  greater  part,  not  only  a  compilation,  but 
a  mere  transcription  from  preceding  writers.  The  authors 
indeed  frankly  state  in  their  prefatory  notice  that  they 
have  not  scrupled  to  copy  or  imitate  any  part  of  the  se- 
veral authors  they  have  made  use  of,  when  conducive  to 
the  usefulness  of  the  work,  or  where  there  was  no  occasion 
to  alter  or  abridge.  The  numerous  documents  inserted  at 
full  length  make  the  Continuation  a  convenient  repertory 
of  authentic  information;  and  the  notes  which  accompany 
the  translation  of  the  preceding  part  of  the  work  add 
greatly  to  the  value  of  the  original  text.  Tindal's  other 


translation,  from  the  Latin,  of  Prince  Cant  emir's  'History 
of  the  Growth  and  Decay  of  the  Othman  Empire,'  which 
appeared  in  a  folio  volume  in  1734. 

TINIAN  is  one  of  the  Ladrone  or  Mariane  Islands  [vol. 
xiii.,  p.  269]  :  it  lies  near  15°  N.  lat.  and  146°  E.  long.  It 
is  uninhabited  and  of  small  extent.  It  owes  its  name  in 
the  world  not  to  its  real  importance,  but  to  the  circum- 
stance that  Lord  Anson,  just  one  hundred  years  ago, 
remained  there  nearly  two  months,  from  26th  of  August,  to 
the  21st  of  October,  1742,  and  that  in  the  account  of  his 
voyage  a  description  of  the  island  is  given  in  glowing 
colours.  It  extends  about  12  miles  from  south-south-west 


T  I  N 


480 


T  I  \ 


to  north-north-east,  ami  Uie  breadth  it  about  half  a*  much. 
The  soil  u  som  y  antl   healthy. 

The  land  rise*  in   gentle  alopM  from  the   brach  to  the 
middle  of  the   island,  but  the  .  i'tcii  interrupted 

\s,  many  ol  which  wind  irregularly 
through  Un-  country.  These  valleys  nod  the  gradual 
•  >f  tho  ground  are  most  beautifully  diversified  by 
an  alternation  of  woods  and  lawns,  which  traverse  the 
island.  The  woods  consul  of  tall  and  well-spread  tree*, 
mostly  without  under-wood,  and  the  lawns  are  covered 
with  a  clean  turf  composed  of  \cn  fine  trefoil  and  inter- 
mixed with  a  variety  of  flowers.  There  are  no  running 

ins,  but  good  water  is  found  by  digging  a  fe 
In-low  the  surface,  and  near  the  middle  of  the  island  there 
.ire  three  small  lakes.  Black  cattle,  in  a  wild  state,  are 
numerous,  and  at  the  time  of  Anson's  \i-n  :ln-  number  was 
computed  to  amount  to  at  least  ten  thousand.  Our  com- 
mon domestic  fowl  is  plentiful  in  the  woods,  and  several 
kinds  of  wild  fowl  are  found  in  the  lakes.  There  is  also  an 
abundance  of  wild  hogs.  Besides  the  cocoa-nut  palm  and 
the  bread-fruit  tree  there  are  guavas,  limes,  and  sweet  and 
sour  oranges,  and  antiscorbutic  plants  in  mvat  abundance, 
by  the  use  of  which  the  crew  of  the  Centurion,  the  vessel 
commanded  by  Lord  Anson,  which  suffered  much  by  the 
-<ored  tp  health  in  a  short  time.  Tin-re  is 
no  harbour,  but  only  an  open  roadstead  near  the  south- 
western extremity  of  the  island,  which  is  dangerous  during 
the  prevalence  of  the  western  monsoon,  from  .June  to  Oc- 
tober, but  tolerably  safe  during  the  remainder  of  tin 

^f  round  the  ll'nriil ;  Kotzcbuc's  Voyage 
•  •wry  i'nt'i  tin-  S>,uth  Sfd,  $c.) 
'  TINNKVKI.I.Y.     [HiNjH  STAN,  p.  203.1 

TINNING,  TIN-I'I.ATK  MANUFACTURE.  The  art 
of  tinning,  or  of  coating  other  metals  with  a  thin  layer  of 
tin,  so  as  to  protect  them  from  oxidation,  was  known  to 
the  antients.  although  it  does  not  appear  to  have 
very  extensively  practised.  Professor  Beckmann,  in  his 
investigation  into  the  early  history  of  tin  and  tinning  Hit- 
lory  'if  Inrrntinns,  English  edit,  of  1814,  vol.  iv..  pp.  1-45), 

-  that  we  have  no  account  of  the  process  antien; 
ployed  in  tinning,  although  the  use  of  the  words  incoquere 
and  tiir<jcti/iii  by  Pliny  seems  to  indicate  that  it  was  per- 
formed by  immersing  the  vessels  in  melted  tin.  The  de- 
gree of  perfection  to  which  the  process  was  carried  is  indi- 
lement,  accompanied  by  an  expression  of 
wonder,  to  the  effect  that  the  tinning  did  not  increase  the 
weight  of  the  vessels,  which  shows  that  the  tin  must  have 
been  applied,  as  at  present,  in  a  very  thin  layer. 

The  art  of  tinning  plate-iron  is  more  modern  than 
that  of  coating  copper  vessels  with  tin,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  invented  either  in  Bohemia  or  in  Ger- 
many. Mr.  Parkes,  in  a  paper  on  the  manufacture  of  tin- 
plate,  or  tinned  sheet-iron,  addressed  to  the  Literary  and 
Philosophical  Society  of  Manchester,  in  1818,  which  was 
published  in  their  '  Memoirs'  (Second  series,  vol.  iii.,  pp. 
:M7-380),  states  that  our  ancestors,  from  time  immemorial, 
procured  that  article  from  Bohemia  and  Saxony,  where 
the  manufacture  was  established  near  the  tin-mines  of  the 
Erzgebirge  mountains,  which  were  the  most  extcnsi\c  in 
F.urope  after  those  of  Cornwall.  From  the  time  of  the  in- 
vention of  tin-plate  down  to  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
•iry,  if  not  later,  both  Kngland  and  the  whole  conti- 
nent of  Europe  depended  upon  the  above-named  countries 
for  their  supply  of  tin-plate  ;  but  about  the  year  1665  an 
attempt  was  made  to  introduce  the  manufacture  into  Kuir- 
land.  cntlemen  who  sent  the  ingenious  Andrew 

.'iton  int»  •  obtain  information  respecting  it. 

Yarranton's  account  of  the  experiment .  which  is  quoted  at 
length  by  Parkes,  was  published  in  li;s|.  in  the  second 
part  of  his  curious  work  entitled  '  England's  Impro-. 
by  Sea  and  Land,'  now  very  ran-.  lie  was  allowed  freely 
to  inspect  the  tinning  establishments,  and  li<- 
well  acquainted  with  the  process,  that  alter  his  return  to 
i  ml  he  made  many  thousand  plates  of  iron,  from  the 
-t  of  Dean,  tinned  with  Cornish  tin,  the  quality  oi 
which  wai  admitted  to  be  even  auperior  to  that  of  the 
an  tin-plates,  which  they  surpassed  in  toughness  and 
flexibility.  Before  however  the  new  manufacture  could 
be  fairly  established,  its  promoters  were  stopped  by  a 
patent,  which  Yarranton  says  was  'humped  up' for 'the 
purpose  by  parties  possessing  court  influence.  The  pa- 
tentees did  not  understand  the  art  sufficiently  to  enable 


them  to  succeed,  and  thus  England  remained  dependent 
for  some  years  upon  the  ('.  r  a  mann!; 

which  she  possessed  the  create--  Parkes 

that   he  does  not  liml 

was  established   in   this  country  until   between  17-"  and 
17.><).  and  that  the  first  wn  .  ponl.  in  Monmouth- 

shire, where,  according  to  Watson's  •Chemical 
was  practised  as  early  as  1730.     Shortly  before  thru  time 
t  was  introduced  into  France  by  M.  Ke.mniur.  v.  ho 
communicated  an  account  of  the  process,  as  practised  by 
the  Germans,  to  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  in  the 

7-">.  in  a  paper  which  was  translated  by  I 
published  iii  the  .T>th  volume  rf  the  '  Philosophical  Trans- 
uctions'  (No.  406,   published   in  December.  172H).      I 
introductory  remarks  Hutty  states  that  the  making  of  tin- 
plates,  or,  as  they  were  sometimes  called,  ltttt< -i>  or  lutlin, 
was  not  commonly  practised  in  Kngland,  notwithstanding 
the  great  consumption  :  and  that  we  were  obliged  ' 
port  our  own  tin  to  Germany,  and  to  receive  it  ! 
when  manufactured.     Anderson  (Hilt,  of  Cominerot,  1O\. 
iii.,  p.  220)  states  that  about  17-10  the  manufacture  of  tin- 
plate  was  brought  to  such  perfection  in  England  thai 
little  was  imported  from  foreign  countries,  and  thai 
British  manufacture  was  superior  to  the  foreign  in  glossi- 
ness of  surface,  owing  to  the  plates  being  drawn  um 
rolling-mill,  instead  of  being  hammered,  as  was  common 
in  those  made  beyond  sea.     The  difficulty  of  extending 
iron,  in  what  may  be  deemed  the  infancy  of  the  manulac- 
ture,  into  thin  uniform  sheets,  with  a  \  nooth  and 

clean  surface,  which  is  essential  to  the  adhesion  of  the  tin 
in  an  equal  film,  was  one  of  the  principal  «  the 

progress  of  this  department  of  the  art  of  tinning. 

The  process  of  tinning  depends  upon  the  strong  affinity 
which  exists  between  tin  and  the  metals  to  which  it  is  ap- 
plied, and  it  co:  tially,  in  rendering  the  si 
to  be  tinned  perfectly  clean  and  free  from  oxide,  and  then 
bringing  it  into  contact  with  melted  tin,  which  forms  an 
alloy  with  the  harder  metal,  imparts  to  it  a  bright  B 
appearance,  and  protects  it   from  oxidation.     The  tinning 
of  sheet-iron,   as  the  most   important  application  of  the 
process,  will  be  first  noticed.     This  operation  is  min 
described  by  Mr.  Parkes.  in  the  paper  above  cited,  liom 
which,  with  occasion:*'  t"  more  recent  accounts, 
the  following  description  iscondeix  d.    Reaumur's  account 
of  the  German  pi-ore--,  in  the  •  Philosophical  'IV.- 
may  also  be  consulted  by  those  who  are  curious  as  to  the 
details  of  the  earlier  method  of  tinning,  which 
that  about  to  be  described  in  all  essential  points. 

The  finest  English  or  Welsh  bar-iron,  prepared  with 
charcoal,  instead  of  mineral  coke,  and  known  to  the  trade 
as  tiii-inm,  is  used  for  making  tin-plates.  This  material 
is  first,  made  into  flat  bars,  or  slabs,  about  thirty  inches 
long,  six  inches  wide,  and  weighing  eighty  pounds.  These 
bars  are  made  red-hot,  and  exit  issing  them  re- 

dly between  rollers,  until  they  are  rcducul  to  about 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  thickness.    YA'hen  cooled,  these 
are  cut  by  shears,  worked  by  machinery,  into  plates 
about  ten  inches  by  six,  which  are 
and  rolled,  until  they  are  reduced  to  as  thin  a  s- 
process  will  conveniently  allow.   The  sheet  is  then  d(n 
and  again  rolled  until  reduced  in  thickness  one-half. 
which   it   is  doubled  again,  and  rolled  until  still  further 
diminished  in  thickness.     When  thus  brought  to  the  re- 
quired tenuity,  the  thin  sheet  is  cut  into  plates  of  the 
required  to  suit  the  market  (most  commonly  about  thirteen 
inches  by  ten'i.  and  then  the  several  thicknesses  or  lamimr 
paiated, — an  operation  which  needs  the  application 
.-I    considerable   force,   as  the   compir-Mcm   of  the 

-   them   to   adhere   strongly  together.     Pa 
that  the  cutting  of  the  plates  wa-.  wlun  he  wn  •• 
performed  with  hand-shears,  but  that  an  ingenious  white- 
smith in  Glamorganshire  had  invented  a  machine  for  the 
purpose,  which  wa>  impelled  by  a  \\: ••  :§nd  would 

cut  A  quantity  equal  to  a  hundred  boxes  (of  two  hundred 
and  twenty-five  plates  e:<.-h  in  a  day,  which  is  four  limes 
as  much  a.s  a  hand-shearer  could  accomplish.  Alter 
shearing,  the  plates  are  piled  in  h<-.ips.  one  being  laid 
cross-wise  at  intervals,  to  separate  the  number  required  to 
form  a  box.  That  name  is  technically  applied  to  the 
number  of  plates  just  mentioned  in  all  the  subsequent  pro- 
.  although  it  is  not  until  they  arc  completed  that 
the  plates  are  actually  placed  in  boxes. 


T  I  N 


481 


T  I  N 


The  next  operation  to  be  performed  is  the  removal  of 
every  particle  of  oxide  or  other  impurity  from  the  surface 
of  the  plates.  For  this  purpose  each  is  bent  to  an  angle 
of  about  GO0,  so  as  to  bring  it  into  the  form  of  an  inverted 
\  or  n,.and  then  steeped^  for  a  few  minutes  in  a  leaden 
trough  containing  a  weak  solution  of  muriatic  acid.  Four 
pounds  of  acid  to  three  gallons  of  water  makes  a  mixture 
of  the  proper  strength,  and  sufficient  for  eighteen  hundred 
plates.  After  being  immersed  for  four  or  five  minutes  in 
this  cleansing  liquid,  the  plates  are  taken  out,  arranged  on 
the  floor  in  rows,  and  then  removed,  by  means  of  an  iron 
rod,  to  a  reverberator}'  furnace  or  oven,  in  which  they  are 
submitted  to  a  red  heat.  The  reason  for  bending  the 
plates  now  becomes  obvious,  because  if  they  were  flat,  the 
two  sides  could  not  be  equally  exposed  to  the  flame  by 
which  the  furnace  is  heated  ;  whereas  by  bending  them,  and 
placing  them  upon  their  edges,  the  flame  is  allowed  to 
play  upon  both  sides.  The  heat  to  which  the  plates  are 
exposed,  combined  with  their  previous  washing  in  the  acid, 
causes  them  to  throw  off  a  scale  of  rust  or  oxide,  whence 
this  operation  is  termed  scaling.  If  well  performed,  it 
gives  to  the  iron  a  mottled  blue  and  white  surface,  some- 
what resembling  marbled  paper.  The  plates  are  then 
flattened  by  beating  them  upon  a  cast-iron  block,  and  sub- 
mitted to  a  second  or  cold  rolling,  which  removes  any 
warpinir  acquired  in  the  previous  processes,  gives  a  high 
degree  of  smoothness  to  their  surfaces,  and  imparts  elas- 
ticity to  the  iron.  The  rollers,  or  rolls,  employed  in  this 
operation  are  formed  of  cast-iron,  rendered  very  hard  by 
casting  in  thick  cold  iron  boxes  or  moulds,  and  their  sur- 
faces are  carefully  polished.  Parkes  states  that  rollers  of 
about  thirty  inches  diameter  are  much  better  than  those  of 
smaller  dimensions  for  this  purpose  :  the  length  of  the  rolls 
.ally  seventeen  or  eighteen  inches.  After  the  cold 
rolling  the  plates  are  immersed  singly,  in  a  vertical  posi- 
tion, in  an  acidulous  preparation  called  the  ///>•*,  consisting 
of  water  in  which  bran  has  been  steeped  for  nine  or  ten 
days,  until  it  has  fermented  and  become  slightly  acid.  In 
this  the  plates  are  kept  for  ten  or  twelve  hours,  and  occa- 
sionally turned,  to  insure  an  equal  exposure  of  every  part 
of  their  surface  ;  and  from  the  lye-trough  they  are  trans- 
ferred to  a  leaden  vessel  containing  diluted  sulphuric  acid, 
the  strength  of  which  is  varied  according  to  the  judgment 
of  the  workman.  This  trough  is  divided  into  compart- 
ments, which  will  contain  a  box  of  plates  each;  and  both 
it  and  the  1;.  •  • -trough  are  slightly  heated  by  flues,  to  assist 
the  acti«n  of  the  acid  menstrua.  Parkes  states  that  a  tem- 
perature of  90"  or  100' Fahrenheit  is  sufficient  for  this  ope- 
ration, which  is  called  pickling,  and  which  requires  some 
nicety,  to  prevent  the  plates  from  being  strained  or  blis- 
tered by  remaining  too  long  in  the  acid.  They  are  usually 
agitated  in  the  weak  sulphuric  acid  for  about  an  hour, 
until  they  become  bright  and  free  from  black  spots.  They 
aie  then  removed  into  pure  water,  in  which  they  are 
scoured  with  hemp  and  sand,  to  remove  any  remaining 
oxide;  and  in  this  bath  of  pure  water  the  plates  remain 
until  wanted  for  tinning,  because,  even  if  left  for  months, 
they  will  remain  perfectly  free  from  rvist. 

As  the  sole  object  of  these  operations  is  to  cleanse  the 
iron  plates  from  rust  and  dirt,  it  is  evident  that  the  details 
may  be  varied  considerably ;    but  it  is  not  necessary  to 
notice  particularly  any  deviations  from  the  usual  process. 
The  tinning  of  the  plates  is  effected  in  a  range  of  cast- 
iron  pots  heated  by  flues,  and  forming  together  an  appa- 
ratus called  the  stow.    The  plates  are  removed  one  by  one 
from  the  last-mentioned  bath  of  pure  water,  and  dried  by 
rubbing  with  bran,  after  which  they  are  immersed  singly 
iii  a  pot  filled  with  melted  tallow  or  grease,  in  which  they 
are  left  for  about  an  hour.     The  grease  preserves  the  sur- 
face from  oxidation,  and  appears  also  to  increase  the  affi- 
nity of  the  iron  for  tin  ;   and  for  this  purpose  burnt  grease, 
Or  any  kind  of  c-mpyreuinaiic  fat,  is  found  preferable  to 
pure  fresh  tallow.     From  the  grease-pot  the  plates  are  re- 
1,  wi'h  the   grease  which  adheres  to  their  surfaces, 
into  the  metallic  bath,  which  contains  a  mixture  of  block 
and  grain  tin,  covered  with  a  quantity  of  grease  sufficient 
four  inches  deep.     Parkes  states  that  the 
mixture  of  block  and  grain  tin   usually  contains  about 
i  of  each  ;  but  he  conceived  that  manui'ac- 
iil  tind  it  advantageous  to  use  grain-tin  alone  ; 
sim-t'.  although   it  would  be  rather  more   expensive,   its 
.uid  fluidity  would  occasion  it  to  adhere  to 
tut:  inm  in  a  thinner  film.     The  tin-bath  or  pot  is  heated 
I'.C.,  No.    - 


to  such  a  degree  as  almost  to  inflame  the  fatty  mixture 
upon  the  surface  of  the  tin;  and  its  dimensions  are  such 
that  it  will  receive  two  or  three  hundred  plates  standing 
upright  on  their  edges.  The  precise  size  is  immaterial,  so 
that  the  number  of  plates  put  in  is  such  as  to  prevent  any 
from  falling  down  ;  but  it  is  convenient  to  make  it  large 
enough  to  hold  a  box  and  a  half  of  plates,  or  about  three 
hundred  and  forty.  When  the  plates  have  remained  in 
the  tin-bath  a  sufficient  time  (usually  about  an  hour  and 
a  half,  but  more  for  thick  plates),  they  are  lifted  out  with 
tongs,  and  placed  upon  an  iron  grating,  to  allow  the  super- 
fluous tin  to  drain  off;  but  as  there  still  remains  upon 
them  much  more  than  the  proper  quantity  of  tin,  they  are 
afterwards  subjected  to  a  process  called  washing,  which 
consists  in  dipping  them  into  a  pot  containing  a  quantity 
of  pure  grain-tin  in  a  melted  state,  then  rubbing  them 
with  a  peculiar  kind  of  brush  made  of  hemp,  plunging 
them  again  for  a  moment  into  the  melted  tin  in  the  wash- 
pot,  and  then  into  a  pot  filled  with  clean  melted  tallow,  or 
lard  free  from  salt,  which  contains  pins,  to  prevent  the 
plates  from  touching  each  other.  The  heat  of  this  second 
tin-bath  melts  and  detaches  the  superfluous  and  coarser 
portions  of  the  tin  from  the  plates,  and  the  drossy  impu- 
rities rise  to  the  surface  ;  while  the  other  portions  unite 
with  the  grain-tin,  and  so  deteriorate  its  quality,  that,  alter 
washing  sixty  or  seventy  boxes,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
remove  about  three  cwt.  of  tin  from  the  wash-pot,  antf  to 
supply  its  place  by  a  block  of  pure  grain-tin.  The  impure 
tin  thus  removed  from  the  wash-pot  is  put  into  the  bath 
in  which  the  plates  receive  their  first  tinning.  As  it  is 
desirable,  in  the  final  dipping  of  the  plate,  to  preserve  it 
from  contact  with  the  dross  or  scum  which  collects  upon 
the  surface  of  the  bath,  a  partition  is  inserted  in  the  wash- 
pot,  to  keep  one  compartment  free  of  scum.  The  last  dip 
serves  to  eradicate  the  marks  of  the  brush,  and  to  replenish 
the  coat  of  tin  wherever  it  may  have  been  rubbed  too  thin  ; 
and  the  subsequent  immersion  of  the  plates  in  the  grease- 
pot  causes  any  superfluous  metal  to  run  off.  The  heat  of 
the  tallow-bath,  and  the  period  of  immersion  in  it,  must 
be  regulated  with  care.  Thick  plates  require  the  tallow 
to  be  cooler  than  for  thin  ones,  because  they  retain  mo(re 
heat  in  themselves ;  and  if  a  thick  plate  were  placed  in  a 
bath  of  proper  temperature  for  thin  plates,  it  would  come 
out  of  a  yellow  instead  of  a  silvery-white  colour ;  while, 
on  the  contrary,  a  bath  intended  for  thick  plates  would  be 
too  cool  to  eft'ect  the  tequired  purpose  upon  thin  sheets. 
Too  short  a  period  of  immersion  has  a  similar  eft'ect,  and. 
leaves  too  much  tin  upon  the  surface,  and  that  in  a  wavy 
irregular  film  ;  while  if  left  too  long  in  the  grease-pot,  the 
tin  would  run  off  to  such  a  degree  as  to  render  another 
dipping  necessary.  So  soon  as  the  workman  employed  in 
washing  has  placed  five  plates  in  the  grease-pot,  a  boy  lifts 
the  first  from  it  into  a  draining-pan  with  a  grated  bottom  ; 
and  when  the  man  has  placed  the  sixth  in'the  tallow,  the 
boy  removes  the  second.  Notwithstanding  the  apparently 
complicated  character  of  the  operations  just  described, 
they  are  performed  so  rapidly,  that  an  expert  wash-man 
will  wash  and  brush  twenty-five  boxes,  or  five  thousand 
six  hundred  and  twenty-five  plates,  in  twelve  hours. 

Owing  to  the  vertical  position  of  the  plates  during  the 
preceding  operations,  a  selvage  of  tin  accumulates  along 
their  lower  edge,  which  is  removed  by  the  process  called 
lixtiiig.  This  is  performed  by  taking  the  plates  one  by 
one,  as  soon  as  they  are  cool  enough  to  handle,  and  dipping- 
their  lower  edges  into  a  pot  called  the  list-pot,  or  listing- 
pot,  which  contains  enough  melted  tin  to  form  a  layer  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  thick.  The  selvage  of  tin  being  thus 
melted,  is  shaken  off  by  a  smart  blow  with  a  stick,  leaving 
only  a  faint  stripe,  which  may  be  discerned  upon  all 
finished  tin-plates.  After  listing,  the  plates  are  cleaned 
from  grease  by  rubbing  them,  while  yet  warm,  with  dry 
bran ;  after  which  they  are  packed  in  boxes  of  wood  or 
sheet-iron. 

The  tinning  of  the  inner  surfaces  of  cooking  utensils  and 
otln'T  vessels  of  capacity  is  performed  by  scouring  the  sur- 
face until  it  is  perfectly  bright  and  clean ;  then  heating- 
the  vessel,  pouring  in  some  melted  tin  and  rolling  it 
about,  and  rubbing  the  tin  all  over  the  surface  with  a 
piece  of  cloth  or  a  handful  of  tow :  powdered  rosin  is 
used,  as  in  soldering,  to  prevent  the  formation  of  oxide, 
which  would  impair  the  mutual  affinity  of  the  metals. 
Pure  grain-tin  should  be  used  for  this  purpose,  but  it  is 
frequently  adulterated  with  lead.  By  this  means  vessels. 

Vol..  XXIV.— 3  Q 


T  1   \ 


:    • 


T  I  \ 


ol'  cvp|*T.  Draw,  and  cast-iron  are  u  i.ally.  and 

i  fit    for  the  most  dell,  ate  culinary  '• 
similar  way  any  small  portion*  °oi 

-.M'il     till. 

other  small  articles,  are  tim.ed  bv  immcr-i::- 
in  ttiiid  tin.     Mr.  Gill,  in  tl 
nic-al  Repository,'  p. 

of  tinning  nails  or  tacks  and  other  small  v  < 
aiM*  in  cleaning  the  surface  by  pickling  the  artii 
diluted  sulphuric,  muriatic,  or  nitnc  acid,  washing  • 
afterwards  in  water,  and  then  puttinir  them  into  H  gallon 
bottle  of  stone-ware,  with  an  oval  body  and  a  narrow  neck, 
..T  with  a  quantity  of  bar  or  grain  tin,  and  of  sal- 
>el  is  then  to  be  closed,  and  laid  on 
its  aide  over  a  charcoal  fire,  made  upon  a  forge-hearth, 
and  by  turning  it  round,  and  frequently  shaking  it.  the  tin 
is  to  be  uniformly  distributed  over  the  surfaces  of  the  in- 
closed articles.     \Vheii  tinned  they  are  taken  out,  washed 
in  water  to  remove  the  sal-ammoniac,  and  dried  :n 
sawdust.      The   great  advantage  of  the  process   c< 
in  the  employment  of  the  stone-ware  bottle,  which  pre- 
vents the  dissipation  of  the  fumes  of  the  sal-amm 
and  gives  up  the  whole  of  the  tin,  which  no  metallic 
would  do.    The  method  of  tinning  pins  is  described  under 
PIN,  vol.  xviii.,  p.  161. 

(Memoirs  nf  thr  Lit?r<iry  and  Philosophical  Swii'ty  nf 
MiHr/ii-.iirr,  second  series,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  347-HU  :  Pfilkso- 
fthirttl  '/'/•  December.  172S  :  .!/</;/// 

Mi'tnl  (in  Lardn.  :iet  Cyclopaedia,' vol.  iii.   : 

Dir.ti 

TINNITUS  AU'HIUM,  ringing  in  the  ears,  ma\ 
from  many  different  conditions.     It  is  sometimes  \\ 
an  unnatural  state  of  the  circulation  in  some  part  of  the 
cor,  the  movement  of  the  blood  producing  a  vibration  ot 
the  nerve  which  the  mind  does  not  distinguish  from  that 
produced  !  -  vibrations  of  the  air.     Hut  mo 

quently  the  sensation  is  due  to  some  di 
the  auditory  nerve,  and  is  entirely  subject  i. ,.     It   is  thus 

.  .ed  in  some  discuses  of  the  brain,  in  nervous1  p 
and  in  those  who  are.  much  debilitated;   and  is 
!'  organic  disease  of  the  auditory  nerve  it 
analogous,  in  11.  -.  to  the  subjective  sensii; 

sparks  and  flashes  of  light  which  is  perceived  in  ca 
disease  of  the  retina  or  optic  nerve.     It  may  tin 
sign  of  a  dangerous  condition,  or  :i  preli  iplete 

deafness;  but  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  it  is  unimport- 
ant, depending  on  some   local  temporary  affect  ion  ol  the 
disluibance  of  the  digc'stivc  or-a::s  with 
which  pait  of  the  brain  sympathizes. 

Tl.VNU'NCUU  S,  Vieillofs  name,  after  the  an?: 
iidee.    Type,  Tiiiiiiiiirnliix  <ilnn,i 
'ninuni-ultir,  Linn.,  of  which  we  proceed  to 
•1.  Tcmminck's 

1','vi-i/itnni. — Wings  reaching   to  three-fourths  of  the 
length  of  the  tail  ;  upper  plumage,  of  the  male  varied 
numerous   black  spots;   quills  striped   internally;    . 
always  black. 

I'eniminck  states  that  this  short  indication  is  in 
to  enable  the  observer  to  n  at  the  fi- 

this  s| 

or  L<-*  ,  and  he  then  proceeds  to  give  the  fol- 

lowing details  : — 

head  bluish-grey ;  upper  parts  red- 
dish-bro.vn,  regularly  sprinkled  with  angular  black  spots; 
l..wer  parts  white,  sBghtly  tinged  v.ith  reddish  and  wjlh 
oblong  l.ronn  spots;  tail  ash-coloured,  with  a.  wide  black 
band  towards  ji  .dilated  with  while; 

bill  bl  ,es,  iris,  and  fee; 

low.     Length  about  14  inches. 

larger  than  the  male  ;   all  the  upper  parts  of  a 

bnghter  reddish  ;   lower  narts  yellowish  rusty,  with  oblong 

spots;   tail  reddish,  wit'h  nine  or  ten  narrow  black 

kind  of  that  colour  near  its  ex- 

ticimty,  win.  i  with  reddish-white. 

illi    the    upper   pints    of    a    reddish    hue 
-pott.  -ck  ;    the   ton  (if  the  head   ni. 

clouA  .gilt  blue;   the  plumage  variegattd  with 

ntirelv  white. 


e  oppninjF  ot  the  bill  a  small  black 


iris  brown  ;  cere  yellowish-green. 

can  be  little  or  no  doubt,  the  Kiytpic 
"f  Aristotle  (Hitt.  Anim.,  ii.  17;  vi.  1  ;  \ 
.  and  so  most  loologtsts  are  disposed  to  con.-i>: 
.  unculu*  of  the  antient  lu. 
.-.,  x.  37.)    It  is  the  fbei/M 

incvio,  Acen  lh,    Kilchetto  tit   Torre.  Ukgpfjio,  and 
ellit  of  the  modern  Italians;    CercreUe,  (Juerct 

•n-IL-     anil      l-iirrri,'r    rlrv     4lnllfttft    nf    thp    Vi . 


h  ;   and   I'udyll  cSch 

•iirajihictil  Dittribulton. — Riuupe  eenerally,  but  not 
habitually  beyond  the  regions  01  : 
place  is  occupied  bythc  .MERLIN.   Kne;lai. 
Ireland.     Smyrna,  in   winter  at  least    Strickl. 
from   the  north  to   the   south.  ;iiu-k. 

,d,  accordiiii;  t> 

India  iSelby'! ;  bank 

old  ;:nd  l!i: 
that  iiyiires  of  it,  occur  in  dunvin. 


mantle   brow 
form  the  angl 


the  top  of  the  bead,  the  nape,  and  the 
J  ttrtaked  with   black ;    these   streaks 
ick  ;   on  the  first  quills  are 


reddish  and  whitish  npota ;   tail  reddish,  undulated    ivith 
grey-««h  and  tratMrerscly  striped  as  in  the  female ;  throat 


l.  mule  ftiifl  fr 


,  Food,  iV-r.  —  The  •  name  '  Wind! 

well    expresses    the  this 

Mr.  Mudie 
iittcn 
-.I'.ins  with 


liawk.  h?r,<l  to 

fail  and  winnowinjj  v.  : 

:    uhen  t!  1 

nnei-rinirlypn  the  surprised  ])iey.  AVhen  ti 
the  fields  •• 

.ird  farmers  exult  in  brin:  little 

thinking  that  the  bird  was  the::  'c  of 

their    :  Ir.   ^'ater.  :    the 

rel  well,  and  shown  :  <.'  is  the 


of  the  agricnltut 
it  nndoubledly  pi 
and    their   larva?,  and   eftrthv 
liawkinc;  nfler  eockcli: 
the  evening.     Tic  watched  o 


i£rh  mi. 

"II  beetles 

l\1r.    Sclby   saw   one 

ilgaris)  late  in 

a  glass,  and  saw  the 


TI  N 


483 


T  I  N 


bird  dart  through  a  swarm  of  those  insects,  seize  one  in 
each  claw,  and  eat  them  on  the  wing.  The  kestrel  returned 
to  the  charge  again  and  again,  and  Mr.  Selhy  ascertained 
the  fact  beyond  doubt,  for  lie  afterwards  shot  the  bird. 

If  a  kestrel  can  find  the  nest  of  a  crow  or  a  magpie  as  a 
receptacle  for  its  eggs,  it  will  not  take  the  trouble  to  make 
one  ;  indeed,  it  probably  never  does  build  :  sometimes  it 
lays  upon  the  bare  ledges  of  rocks  and  in  old  ruined 
towers.  The  number  of  eggs  is  four  or  five,  and  their 
ground-colour  reddish-white,  which  is  mottled  closely  with 
dark  reddish-brown  and  sometimes  blotched  with  reddish- 
brown.  The  young  come  forth  from  the  egg  towards  the 
end  of  April  or  beginning  of  May,  and  are  covered  with  a 
yt>llowi.-,li-v 

In  the  F'urli-in'/x  d'Oij-i au.r,  the  following  quatrain  sums 
up  the  qualities  of  the  Kestrel : — 

t*,  ft  antre  vermine 

1          "iv]le. 
i.  Colonihelle, 
QuV  ,  ,  uyseaiix  de  rapine. ' 

The  allusion  here  made  to  the  friendship  of  the  Kestrel 
for  the  Dove  is  probably  taken  from  the  passage  in  Pliny 
to  which  we  have  above  called  attention. 

N.B.  M.  Brchm  would  make  three  distinct  species  from 
tin-  hawk,  under  the  names  of,  1st,  Hochkopjiger  (high- 
headed);  2nd,  Mitllvrcr  ('middle);  and  3rd,  Plalthopfiger 
'flat-headed).  Upon  this  M.  Temminck  drily  observes, 
that  those  who  wish  to  multiply  the  catalogue  of  names 
and  of  species  in  favour  of  each  accidental  or  local  variety, 
may  consult  the  work  of  M.  Brehm.  [FALCONID.E,  vol. 
x.,  p.  182;  KESTREL.] 

TINO.     [TEN-OS.] 

TIXOTOKUS.     [FoRAiiiN-iFERA,  vol.  x..  p.  348.] 

TIXTAGELL.     [BOSSIXKY.] 

TIXTERN  ABBEY.     [MOXMOUTHSHIRK.] 

TIXTORETTO,  JA'COPO,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
painters  of  modern  times,  and  one  of  the  heads  of  the 
Venetian  school,  was  the  son  of  a  dyer  (Tintore),  whence 
the  agnomen  of  Tintoretto :  his  family  name  was  Robusti; 
and  he  was  bora  at  Venice  in  1512.  He  exhibited  a 
remarkable  facility  for  drawing  at  a  very  early  age,  which 
induced  his  parents  to  place  nim  in  the  school  of  Titian. 
Ten  days  however  after  young  Tintoretto  had  entered  the 
school  of  the  great  painter,  he  was  sent  home  again  to  his 
parents ;  Titian's  attention  being  attracted  by  some  very 
spirited  drawings  hi;  saw  in  his  studio,  he  inquired  who  did 
them,  and  upon  Tintoretto's  acknowledging  himself  the 
author,  Titian  ordered  one  of  his  scholars  to  conduct  the 
boy  h 

This  remarkable  rebuff  in  the  career  of  the  young  painter 
tii  have  added  vigour  to  his  energies,  and  he  com- 
menced a  course  of  indefatigable  application.  He  pur- 
chased some  casts  from  flu  antique  and  some  from  the 
models  of  Daniel  da  Volterra,  from  the  statues  of  Michael 
o  of  Morning,  Twilight,  Night,  and  Day,  at  the 
lii-i,  in  San  Lorenzo  at  Florence,  resolving 
ti>  follow  the  .-ty'.c  ol'  Michael  Angelo  in  design,  and  to 
combine  with  it  the  colouring  of  Titian, — whioh  intention 
he  proclaimed  to  his  visitors  by  the  following  line,  which 
he  wrote  upon  the  wall  of  his  apartment : — 

'  II  div^no  di  Michel  Angelo,  e  '1  colorito  ili  Tiiiano.' 

By  day  he  copied  pictures  by  Titian  ;  and  by  night  he 
made  drawings  upon  coloured  paper,  with  chalk,  from  his 
casts,  lighted  merely  by  a  candle ;  by  which  means  he 
acquired  a  taste  for  strong  contrasts  of  light  and  shade,  a 
peculiarity  for  which  all  his  works  are  conspicuous.  To 
these  studies  he  added  the  occasional  study  of  the  living 
model  and  of  anatomy;  and  to  attain  a  still  greater  mastery 
of  chiar'oscuro,  he  used  to  make  models  of  figures  in  wax, 
and  place  them  in  pasteboard  cases,  making  apertures  for 
the  light  as  he  required  it :  he  also  suspended  models  and 
trom  the  ceiling,  for  the  purpose  of  becoming  familiar 
with  various  p(.  .  iews  of  the  figure.  In  addition 

to  these  studies,  he  is  said  to  have  received  much  gratuitous 
assistance  from  Schiavone  in  colouring.     Tintoretto's  first 
'traded  notice  was  one  containing  portraits 
of  himself  and  his  brother,  by  candle-light,  himself  hold- 
ing a  cast  in  his  hand,  and  his  brother  playing  the  guitar, 
lie  exhibited  this  picture  in  public,  and  shortly  afterwards 
he  exhibited  a  large  historical  piece  upon  the  Kialto,  which 
him  a  rank  amongst  the  great  painters  of  Venice, 
undertook  every  commission  which  offered  itself,  and 
frequently  painted  large  works  merely  for  the  price  of  the 


materials.  It  would  be  impossible  to  enumerate  all  his 
works  here  ;  they  amounted  to  many  hundreds.  One  of 
his  first  great  works  in  fresco  was  a  facade  in  the  Arsenal, 
which  he  painted  in  1546,  representing  Balshazzar's  Feast 
and  the  Writing  upon  the  Wall.  Of  his  first  oil  pictures, 
the  following  were  most  remarkable : — The  Tiburtine  Sibyl, 
for  the  church  of  Santa  Anna  ;  the  Last  Supper,  and  the 
Washing  of  the  Disciples'  Feet,  for  the  church  of  Santa 
Marcola  ;  for  San  Severe,  a  Crucifixion,  very  large  ;  and 
in  the  church  of  the  Trinita,  the  Temptation  of  Eve  and 
the  Death  of  Abel,  besides  some  others. 

Tintoretto  was  so  eager  for  employment,  and  so  desirous 
of  public  notice  and  applause,  that  rather  than  be  inactive 
or  unoccupied  with  any  public  work,  he  frequently  volun- 
teered his  services,  or  at  most  required  no  further  outlay 
from  his  employer  than  would  cover  the  cost  of  the  ma- 
terials. He  painted  upon  such  terms  the  facade  in  fresco 
of  a  large  house  near  the  Ponte  dell'  Angelo  ;  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  house  he  painted  a  very  spirited  representation 
of  a  cavalry  battle,  above  which  he  placed  an  ornamental 
cornice  in  bronze  ;  over  this  he  painted  a  large  historical 
composition  containing  many  figures ;  between  the  win- 
dows he  introduced  various  figures  of  women  ;  and  at  the 
top  a  rich  frieze  :  the  great  extent  and  the  boldness  of 
these  paintings  astonished  the  Venetian  painters  of  that, 
period.  Upon  very  similar  terms  he  executed  two  of  his 
greatest  works,  at  Santa  Maria  dell'  Orto,  where  he  painted, 
for  100  ducats,  two  immense  pictures  fifty  feet  high.  In 
one  was  the  Procession  of  the  Jews  with  the  Golden  Calf, 
and  Moses  upon  a  rock  in  the  background  receiving  the 
Tables  ol'  the  Law,  which  were  supported  by  a  group  of 
naked  angels  ;  the  other  was  a  representation  of  the  Last 
Judgment,  containing  an  immense  number  of  figures ;  an 
extraordinary  work,  which,  in  the  opinion  of  Vasari,  would 
have  been  perhaps  without  its  rival  as  a  work  of  art,  if  the 
execution  of  the  parts  had  been  equal  to  the  conception  of 
the  whole. 

The  following  works  also  are  accounted  amongst  Tinto- 
retto's masterpieces : — Saint  Agnes  restoring  to  life  the  son 
of  the  Prefect,  painted  for  the  chapel  of  Cardinal  Conta- 
rino ;  the  Miracle  of  St.  Mark,  called  '  II  Miracolo  dello 
Schiavo,'  where  the  saint  delivers  a  Venetian,  who  had  be- 
come a  Turkish  slave,  from  a  punishment  ordered  by  his 
master,  by  rendering  him  invulnerable,  so  that  hammers 
and  other  instruments  of  torture  were  broken  upon  his 
body  without  hurting  him ;  this  picture,  which  is  gene- 
rally considered  the  best  of  all  Tintoretto's  works,  was 
painted  in  his  thirty-seventh  year,  for  the  brotherhood  of 
St.  Mark,  and  when  it  was  finished  and  put  up,  the  worthy 
friars  disputed  with  one  another  about  the  price,  a  dispute 
which  Tintoretto  settled  by  ordering  the  picture  to  be 
taken  down  and  sent  home,  and  telling  the  brotherhood 
that  they  should  not  have  it  at  any  price.  He  however, 
after  some  entreaty,  restored  it  to  its  place  and  received 
his  own  price,  and  the  friars  further  gratified  him  by 
ordering  him  to  paint  three  other  subjects  from  the  life 
of  the  same  saint, — the  Exhumation  of  the  Body  of  the 
Saint  at  Alexandria,  through  the  two  Venetian  merchants 
Buono  da  Malamocco  and  Rustico  da  Torcello  ;  the  Trans- 
port of  the  Body  to  the  Ship  ;  and  the  Miraculous  Preser- 
vation at.  Sea  of  a  Saracen  Sailor  through  the  Saint :  the 
miracle  of  the  slave  is  in  the  Academy  of  Venice  ;  it  has 
been  engraved  by  J.  Mathan  ;  the  other  three  are  in  the 
Scuola  di  San  Marco.  Pietro  di  Cortona  is  reported  to  have 
said,  that  if  he  lived  in  Venice,  he  would  never  pass  a 
holiday  without  going  to  see  these  works ;  he  admired 
chiefly  the  drawing.  The  pictures  he  painted  for  the  Scuola 
di  San  Rocco  are  equally  celebrated  :  they  consist  of  the 
famous  Crucifixion,  which  was  engraved  by  Agostino  Car- 
racci,  to  the  greatest  satisfaction  of  Tintoretto ;  the  Resur- 
rection of  Christ,  engraved  by  E.  Sadeler;  the  Slaughter 
of  the  Innocents  and  the  Miracle  of  the  Loaves  and  Fishes, 
engraved  by  L.  Kilian ;  and  several  others  of  less  note. 
To  these  must  be  added  three  painted  for  the  Padri  Groci- 
feri,  an  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,  and  a  Circumcision  of 
the  Infant  Christ,  painted  in  competition  with  Schiavone  ; 
and  a  Marriage  at  Cana,  now  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria 
della  Salute.  .The  Miracolo  dello  Schiavo,  the  Crucifixion 
at,  San  Rocco,  and  the  Marriage  at  Cana,  are  said  to  be 
the  only  pictures  to  which  Tintoretto  put  his  name.  There 
is  an  engraving  of  the  Marriage  at  Cana,  by  Volpato,  and 
a  spirited  etching  by  E.  Fialetti. 

Tintoretto  executed  many  great  works  for  the  govern 

3Q2 


T  I  N 


T  I  P 


went  of  Venire,  Ixith  in  oil  and  fresco  ;  a- 
i\  -'uity.  perseverance,  and  success,  that  1  to  be 

'  • orked 

with  iiupled   rapidiu   tha 

11  1''  .a   del    Piombo  said  that  Tin' 

could  do  as  much  in  two  days  as  lie  could  do  i  • 
IK-  jointed  for  the  senate,  in  the  council-hall,  the  C Corona- 
lion  of  Frederick  Barbarossa,  by  Pope  Adi  i  Uome ; 
ami  in  consequence  of  1'aul  Veronese  painting  n  pit  turc  in 
the  same  half,  Tintoretto  procured  i  it  an- 
olher,  in  which  lie  reprcM'ntc  ier  111.  sur- 
rounded by  cardinals  and  .i:iii;nie«ling  the 
>«  me  emperor:  the  pope  was  represented  throwing  the  ex- 
tinguished candle  amount  the  populace,  and  a  crowd  of 
ing  forward  to  endeavour  to  catch  it.  He 
pain'.  'In-  senate,  in  the  hall  dello  Sciiitiuio,  the. 
celelir.ited  naval  victory  of  the  Venetians  orec  the  Turks  in 
1.171.  He  painted  many  other  works  in  the  ducal  palace, 

.ical  and  allegorical,   commemorating  the  history  of 
Venice,  of  which  the  most  famous  arc  the  capture  of  Zara 
by  storm;  and  the  great  picture  of  Paradise,  upon  can\as, 
74  feet  liy  .HJ.  containing  a  surprising  numbti 
This  was  his  last  great  work  ;  he  comiuenceil  it  in  • 
pieces  in    the   Scuola  Vecchia  della   Misericordia,   and 
finished  it,  with  the  help  of  his  son,  in  its  place  on  the 
ceiling  of  the  great  council-hall  of  the  Senate,  now  the 
libra 

Tintoretto  painted  at  Venice  eight  friezes  for  the  duke  of 
Mantua,  recording  the  duke's  feats,  to  be  placed  in  his 
castle,  and  he  \i-itcd  the  duke  at  Mantua,  with  all  his 
family,  and  was  splendidly  entertained  by  him.  He  painted 

the  portrait  of  Henry  III.  of  France  and  Poland, 
when  that  king  visited  Venice ;  of  which  picture  Hidolfi 
relates  a  curious  history.  Tintoretto  was  engaged  with  Paul 

nese  in  painting  xmie  figures  in  chiar'oscuro  upon  the 
arch  of  triumph  erected  !>v  Palladia  at  Venice  in  honour 
of  the  landing  of  Henry  III.,  king  of  Finnic  and  Poland  ; 
but  wishing  to  take  a  portrait  of  the  king  as  he  landed,  he 
prevailed  upon  Paul  \  eronese  to  complete  the  arch  ;  und 
he  dressed  himself  as  one  of  the  doge's  attendants,  anil  went 
in  the  Hucintoro,  the  state  barge,  with  the  others  to 

•  e   the   king,   whose   portrait  he  drew  in  small,  in 
crayons,  unknown  to  the  king,  whilst  he  was  pn  ".-ceding 
in  the  barge  to  the  landing-place.     This  portrait  he-  after- 
wards enlarged  in  oils,  and  procured  permission  from  tin- 
king  to  retouch  it  from  life.     The  king  exprcs-e.l  him-cif 

:!\uch  pleased  with  the  po  -H-ccplcd  it  from 

.  whom  he  wished  to  en-ate  acavaliere;  but 
Tint'.!  :|ie  honour,  upon  the  plea  that  ', 

•ut  with  his  habits.     Henry  III.  aftcr- 

-  presented  the  portrait  to  the  doge  Luigi  Mocenigo. 
Tintoretto   painted   many  portraits,   all    in  a  remarkably 
bold  style ;   he  painted  several  of  the  series  of  doges'  por- 

.dong  the  frieze  of  the  great  council-hall. 
It  has  been  said  above  that  Tintoretto  was  a  remarkably 
iapid  painter:  he  was  however  as  careless  about  tin-  i 
lion  of  the  parts  as  he  wa>  bold.    There  are  pictures  by  him 
painted  in  his  youth  thai   are  extiemely  carefully  1'u 

.v  :  Susanna  at  the  Bath  with  the  two 
.  i>  of  thin  cla  of  his  large  pictures  are 

.•!  coloured,  and  many  of  them  were  painted  oil' 
without  th  ,  .        ; : 

'.   pioductiniis    v.  ijiieiit 

source  of  complaint  to  his  fello  Upon  one  occa- 

liocco  reqi 

us  lor  a  picture  of  t!i<   Apolln 
-,  that  they  mi..'  -t  of  iliem,  Tin, 

sent  his  finished  -  soon  as  the  others  ei-nt  in  (heir 

•i-,  uffirmin  had  no  other  way  of  diawing; 

and  to  ensure  it*  being  rived  in  its  de  ••••.  he  made' 

the  institution  a  present  of  the  work.  Although  Tintoretto 
professed  to  draw  in  the  style  of  Michel  Angclo,  and  to 
colour  like  Titian,  there  are  few  traces  of  either  quality  in 
the  great  majority  of  his  works;  they  are  however  all 

his  own    peculiar   style   0 

which   it  frequently  both  heavy  and  cold.     In   his  larger 
principal  <  the  number  of 

figure*,  which  are  often  crowd  ,d  the 

;n  vain  for  a  spot  of  .  ••  the 

not  the  case  with  such  pictures  as 
i.r.o  and   other 
..id  C'arracci  feM  eloquently  expressed  the  i; 


tlu's  great  paint,  r— that  if  he  wa-. 
he  was  ofte: 

say  that   he  had  three  pen 

and  the  other  of  iron.     In  his  design   . 

eular,  but  lean,  and  often  i 

his  draperies  frequently  mean  an 

wait  not  gaudy,  like  that  of  ma:: 

ollen  e\en  cold,  and  shadow  pi. 

lures.     He  was  once  asked  win 

colours,  and  he  answered  'black  and  while.'     It  was  : 
maxim   of  his  that  none  but  .  i  inii-'- 

draw  from  the  living  model,  as  they Vr ere  not  cap:.; 
distinguishing  between  the  .';id  the  inij 

of  an  individual  model.     Tintoretto  painted  Aretin's  por- 

-.!id  Kidolfi  relates  the  following  am.' 
with  it  :— Aretin  nd  of  Titian's,  and  v. 

the  habit  of  abusing  Tintoretto  oeca.-ionaliy  :   the  latt. 
day  meeting  the  poet,  invited  him  to  com  .  i'im 

for  his  portrait,  to  which  Aretin 
sooner  seated  himself  in  the  paint 
pulled  out  with  great  violence  a  pistol  from  i 

•!   and  came  towards  him  :  up  jum, 
great  fright,  and  cried  out  '  .Tacopo,  what 
•Oh!  don't  alarm  yourself.'  t,aid  Tintoretto. '  I  am 
to  measure  you;'  and  suiting  the  action  to  th- 
said,    'you   are  just    two    pistols   and  a  half.'     •  \'. 
mountebank  you  are ! '  returned  Aretin  ;  '  you  are  alw . 
to  some  frolic.'     The  por' 

and   they  became   friends.     Kidolfi   records   a  few    . 
whimsical  feats  of  Tintoretto's.  He  di 
aged  eighty-two.     He  had  two  children — a  SOL,  Dorn 
and  a  daughter,  Marietta — who   both  practised   pai 
Domenico  was  born  in   15G2,  and  died  in  10:i7.     He  fol- 
lowed in  the  steps  of  his  father  both  in  history  and  por- 
trait ;  but,  says  Lan/i,  as  Ascanius did  those  of  .  i 
passihus  acqnis.     Marietta  \-..is  Lorn  in  1500.  and  died  be- 
fore her  father,  in  1590.     She  painted  very  excellent  por- 
traits. 

(Kidolfi,  I."  Murariglif  i/<>!'  Arl<\  urnm  I,-   ]'<!,• 

•i  1'ittori  Veneti,  e  dello  Stato ;  Xanctti.  . 
turn    Veneziana,  e  delle  Opcre  pubbliche  de'  ]'fin';iani 

'n'.  &c.) 

TIOO.MKN.     [Su.ERi.v.] 
TIPEKAH  MOUNTAINS.     [HINDI-STAN,  p.  216;  SIL- 

HKT.] 

TIPPKKAKY.  an  inland  county  of  the  province  of  Mnn- 
Ireland.     It  is  on  the  northern  border  of  the  pro- 

•ndcd  on  the  north-east  by  Ki- 

and  Queen's  County,  and  on  the  r.  count  v  of 

Kilkenny,  all  in  the"  province  of  Leinster.     On  the  south- 

i.ita  it  ij  bounded  by  the  count- 
on  the  south-west  by  that  of  Cork,  and  on  t: 
of  Limerick  and  Clare, all  in  Mnn-tcr.     O.i  the  nort'li 
i!  is  bir.inded  by  the  county  of  Galway  in  Conn: 
which,  as  well   as  from  Cln  pnraled   I 

Shannon  or  th>-   lakes  through  which  it  I'.. 
of  tin-  i'  the  Irish  '  only 

• 

iiiaught,  and  Donegal  in  l~  -ill  is 

from  north  to  south,  from  the  junction  of  the  Lower  Hi 
with  the  Shannon  to  the  Arm  glen,  (is  mi! 
breadth  is  from  the  border  of  I  he  eou  i  ;ty  of  Li ; 
Tipperary   and    iimii'     in    i  lo   the  border  oi 

county  of  Kilkenny,  north  of  Cr.rriek-on-Suir,  aboi 

The  area  ,  lifted.      In  the  Pojiulii- 

ID  ICnglish  ; 


on  Tithe     Lordt' Sessional  Papert, 
acres  (=1583  square  miles   :  con 

- -timate    H19,(ii)8    acres    f  =  12-. 
of   cultivated    land  .    IS'J.  117  a. 

of  unimproved  mountain  or  bog,  and   II.  —18 

square  mil  -.     The   c 

above  the  ]  lemarknblc,  and  won'.! 

it   liable    to  suspicion   if  it   v.  less 

eminent  authority.     The  population,  in  ls;ti.  v. 

.'or  254   i-ihnhitantx   toasijuaic   in 

. 
('lonmell  orClonmel. '  on  thcSuir,  'JOmilei 


T  I  P 


485 


T  I  P 


in  a  direct  line  south-south-west  of  Dublin,  or  103  miles 
by  the  road  through  Naas,  Castle-Dennot,  Carlow,  Leighlin 
Bri  lire.  Kilkenny,  and  Callen. 

Surface;  Geology  ;  Bngs.— The  Knockmeledown  Moun- 
tains, on  the  south  border  of  the  county,  where  it  is  conter- 
minous with  Cork,  rise  to  the  height  of  2700  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  They  are  placed  in  '  a  table-land  of 
clay-slate,  partly  bordered  on  the  flanks  by  sandstone,  and 
on  the  higher  grounds  sustaining  isolated  caps  of  the  same 
rock,  or  upholding  more  continuous  mountain-masses.' 
The  position  of  the  sandstone  on  the  flanks  is  generally 
conformed  to  the  inclination  presented  by  the  surface  of 
the  subjacent  clay-slate,  but  the  masses  on  the  higher 
grounds  approach  more  and  more  to  a  horizontal  arrange- 
ment. This  tract  (of  clay-slate)  is  surrounded  by  floetz 
limestone  on  the  north,  the  west,  and  the  south :  '  this 
limestone  tract  on  the  north  separates  the  Knockmeledown 
Mountains  from  the  Galtees,  of  which  the  principal  sum- 
mils  (3000  feet  high)  are  in  this  county.  The  general 
direction  of  these  two  ranges  is  nearly  east  and  west :  tlie 
intermediate  limestone  plain  or  valley  is  watered  by  two 
streams  (with  their  respective  affluents),  one,  the  Tar, 
flowing  eastward  into  the  Suir ;  the  other,  the  Puncheon, 
•westward  into  the  Blackwater.  North  of  the  Galtees,  from 
which  they  are  separated  by  a  narrow  valley  (the  Glen  of 
Aherlow),  rise  the  Slievh-na-Muck  Mountains,  which  form 
a  subordinate  and  lower  range,  and  have  the  same  general 
direction  of  east  and  west.  Both  the  Galtees  and  the 
Slievh-na-Muck  are  composed  wholly  of  sandstone,  and 
the  intermediate  valley  or  glen  appears  to  be  occupied  by 
the  same  formation.  The  northern  face  of  the  Galtees, 
towards  this  narrow  valley,  is  in  many  parts  extremely  pre- 
cipitous, and  even  inaccessible:  the  southern  face,  towards 
the  broader  valley  or  limestone  plain,  which  separates  them 
from  the  Knorkmeledown  Mountains,  is  of  atamer  character. 
The  strata  of  the  sandstone  are,  in  the  upper  region  of  the 
Galtees,  almost  horizontal,  yet  gently  curved,  following 
the  form  of  the  summit,  and  precipitously  broken  off  on 
the  sides,  where  they  frequenfly  crop  out.  On  the  flanks, 
where  they  are  not  abruptly  broken  off,  they  become  more 
inclined,  and  appear  to  be  conformed  to  the  surface  of  the 
•ate  on  which  they  rest.  The  sandstone  varies  much 
in  character,  but  in  general  it  is  a  fine-grained  rock,  com- 
posed of  grains  of  quartz  closely  aggregated.  The  sand- 
stone of  S!ievh-na-Muck  yields  excellent  flags. 

In  the  south-eastern  corner  of  the  county,  north  of 
Clonmell  and  Carrick-on-Suir,  is  a  group  of  hills  called 
Slie\  h-na-Man,  the  geological  character  of  which  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  mountains  already  described  :  the  group 
4  consists  of  a  nucleus  of  clay-slate,  surrounded  and  sur- 
mounted by  sandstone.' 

In  the  centre  of  the  county  is  another  important  range. 
It  commences  in  the  county  of  Limerick,  north  of  the 
little  river  Mulkerne,  or  Bilboa,  which  joins  the  Shannon 
a  short  distance  above  Limerick.     At  this  extremity  the 
range  is  known  as  the  Doon  Mountains ;  but  as  it  extends 
north-eastward  into  Tipperary,  the  most  important  summits 
nown  as  the  Bilboa  and  Keeper  Mountains  (the  latter 
2100  feet  high)  and  the  Devil's  Bit :  it  crosses  the  county 
of  Tipperary  in  a  north-eastern  direction  by  Templederry 
:m<l  Hoscrea,  becoming  narrower  as  it  advances,  and  enters 
Queen's  County  and  King's   County,  which  it  separates 
from  each  other,  and  where  it  is  known  under  the  desig- 
nation of  Slievh  Bloom.     The   geological   character  of 
these  mountains  is  similar  to   those  already  described : 
Keeper  and  Bilboa  and  the  adjacent  parts  of  the  range 
.;  of  clay-slate,  generally  flanked  by  sandstone,  except 
small  space  on  the  north-west  side,  near  the  village 
of  Sih  ermines,  where,  at  the  foot  of  the  hills,  the  clay-slate 
ontact  with  and  immediately  supports  the  floetz 
'one.     To  the  north-east  of  Templederry  the  range  is 
entirely  composed  of  sandstone.      The  direction  of  the 
i  of  the  clay-slate  varies  in  this  mountain-range.     The 
in  one  part,  near  Newport,  on  the  west  side  of 
.  is  a  coarse  red  conglomerate,  and  rests  uncon- 
<,n  the  clay-slate.     Copper  was  formerly  dug  in 
.itnins,  at  Lackamore,tive  miles  east  of  Newport. 
•  •  three  veins,  one  of  them  thicker  than  the  rest, 
Bg  rich  copper-ore  in  bunches.     The  workings  on 
this  vein  extended  above  700  feet  in  length  anil   LID  fret. 
nth.    An  attcin.  •  de  early  in  the  present  cen- 

to renew  the  works,  but  the  machinery  was  insufficient 
to  keep  the  mine  free  from  water. 


Considerable  quantities  of  lead  mixed  with  silver  w  ere 
obtained  last  century  in  an  opening  at  the  junction  of  the 
clay-slate  with  the  floetz  limestone,  near  the  village  of 
Silvermines.  This  opening  had  been  filled  with  clay, 
sandy  clay,  sand,  decomposed  slate,  and  scattered  blocks 
of  limestone,  Lydian-stone,  and  sandstone,  the  whole  mass 
being  penetrated  or  cemented  by  metallic  depositions  of 
various  kinds ;  and  in  this  '  softness,'  as  the  miners  termed 
it,  the  operations  were  conducted. 

Near  the  lower  part  of  Lough  Derg,  one  of  the  lakes 
through  which  the  Shannon  flows,  are  the  Arra  Mountains, 
a  group  occupying  a  small  part  of  this  county  on  the 
western  side,  and  extending  across  the  Shannon  into  the 
county  of  Clare  (where  they  are  known  by  the  name  of 
Slievh  Bernagh)  ;  they  consist  partly  of  clay-slate  and 
partly  of  sandstone.  There  are  quarries  in  these  mountains 
which  yield  slate  not  inferior  to  that  of  North  Wales. 

The  rest  of  the  county  is  occupied  by  the  fioetz  lime- 
stone, except  a  portion  of  the  district  between  the  southern 
groups  of  mountains  (Slievh-na-Man  and  the  Galtees)  and 
the  Central  range,  which  is  occupied  by  the  coal-field  of 
Killenaule ;  and  one  or  two  small  tracts  on  the  western 
side  of  the  county,  where  trap  rocks  appear  interstratified 
with  the  limestone.  This  floetz  limestone  presents  in  its 
connection  with  other  rocks  and  in  its  organic  remains 
several  features  similar  to  those  of  the  mountain  limestone 
of  Derbyshire  and  the  north  of  England ;  but  differs  in 
this,  that  the  tract  occupied  by  it  forms  an  extensive  plain, 
marked  only  by  slight  undulations. 

The  coal-field  of  Kiljenaule  extends  about  eighteen 
miles  in  length  from  north-east  to'  south-west,  from  near 
the  river  Nore  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Cashel,  and  about 
six  miles  in  breadth.  It  is  partly  in  this  county  and  partly 
in  that  of  Kilkenny.  There  are  two  very  small  outlying 
portions  near  Cashel.  This  coal-field  forms  a  low  range 
of  hills,  placed  upon  the  floetz  limestone,  and  elevated 
above  it.  It  varies  in  its  elevation,  being  highest  and 
most  abrupt  on  the  north-western  side,  where  the  hills  rise 
from  300  to  600  feet  above  the  limestone  plain.  On  this 
side  the  dip  both  of  the  limestone  and  superincumbent 
coal  strata  is  greater  than  on  the  other  side.  Towards  the 
south-east  the  surface  declines  gradually,  and  the  streams 
which  water  the  tract  mostly  flow  in  that  direction.  The 
strata  are  more  gently  inclined  here.  The  aspect  of  the 
hills  varies,  but  they  are  commonly  rounded  with  inter- 
vening hollows.  The  junction  of  the  limestone  with  the 
coal-formation  is  generally  at  the  foot  of  the  hills,  but 
sometimes  half-way  up  their  side.  Immediately  above  the 
limestone,  shale  and  gritstone  alternate,  there  being  two 
beds  of  each  :  the  upper  gritstone,  when  not.  covered  by 
the  superior  beds,  constitutes  the  main  body  of  the  elevated 
part  of  the  coal-hills  :  it  is  marked  by  repeated  undulations, 
forming  unequal  ridges,  with  intervening  hollows  or  troughs, 
having  their  greatest  extension  or  length  generally  from 
north-east  to  south-west.  In  these  troughs  the  coal-beds  are 
found  resting  upon  fire-clay,  which  intervenes  between 
them  and  the  gritstone  and  forms  the  floor  of  the  coal, 
and  covered  by  shale,  grit,  and  then  shale  again. 
Sometimes  this  series  is  repeated  so  as  to  give  two  seams 
of  coal.  The  troughs  are  generally  from  fifty  to  seventy 
yards  deep  from  the  surface  to  the  coal,  near  the  centre  of 
the  trough,  and  from  500  to  700  yards  wide  at  the  surface. 
The  coalis  of  the  nature  of  blind-coal  or  anthracite.  The 
coal-works  have  been  earned  on  with  increased  activity  of 
late  years :  before  1825  the  yearly  produce  was  valued  at 
about  12,000/. ;  since  that  period  it  has  been  nearly  doubled. 

The  principal  bogs  are  m  the  eastern  and  central  part  of 
the  county  :  one  continuous  line  of  bog  extends  from  near 
the  border  of  the  coal-field,  near  Killenaule,  to  the  south- 
eastern foot  of  the  central  range  of  hills  at  Roscrea,  a  dis- 
tance of  nearly  30  miles  ;  and  there  are  smaller  detached 
bogs  westward  of  this,  and  some  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  county,  between  the  Lower  Brusna  and  the  Shannon. 

Hydrography  and  Communications. — The  greater  part 
of  the  county  is  comprehended  in  the  basin  of  the  Barrow 
and  the  Suir,  two  rivers  which  unite  in  Waterford  Haven. 
A  small  part  on  the  eastern  border  is  drained  by  the  Min- 
ster, or  Kincr's  River,  a  small  affluent,  of  the  Npre,  which 
itself  is  an  affluent  of  the  Barrow.  The  Nore  rises  in  this 
county,  but  has  its  course  chiefly  in  that  of  Kilkenny.  But. 
most  of  the  waters  flow  into  the  Suir,  which  rises  north  of 
Templemorc,  on  the  south-eastern  slope  of  the  mountains 
that  there  cross  the  county,  and  flows  by  Thv.rles,  Golden, 


TI  I' 


'I  I  P 


and    Cuhir.    to  the  junclior 
in  along  th 


after 


' 


Urge,  and  arc 

urn!  .urn: 


Its  course  in ' 

•mall.     On  the 
Golden  Bridge ; 
Aherlow,  between   tin 
the  Tar,  which  drain*  ' 
KIIU)  knock 


11.    The 
county,  on  the 
lamk,  belongs  to  the  1.    Two  i' 

>•  border.  1;>  !ow  Carrick.      The  Suir  is  navigable  by 
Urge  barges  up  to  Clonmcll. 

That  part  of  the  county  which  lies  north-west  from  the 
central    chain   of   mountains   (the   Keeper.    Dilboa,   and 

of  the  Shannon.     The 


Shannon  r 

s.!>irt  the  norlh-wastcrn  bord 

ible  throughout.     Tin. 

!<>n, 

cipal  arc  th< 
and  I 


which  it  flows, 
for  al 

.-.  liich  flow  1'rom  the 
tral  c : 

n  are  navigable  :  the  prin- 

-hc  town  of  Xciiasih. 

'.hi-  1101  th- 


and  unites  with  the  Shannon  at  the  north- 

Tnere  sre  TIO  lakes  in  this  county ;  hut  Lough  Berg  is  on 

re  are  no  navigable  canals.     The  road  from 

.  !e  of  the  comity, 

•j»»c*  through  Clonmell  a:  n.    Another  road 

i  'oik  by  Athy 

.;!  from  Dublin  through  Kildare  and  Mary- 

mtVj  to  l.imcri.  the  nortli- 

•:ra,  and  Nenagh:  an- 

.:\  through Tullamore  andParsonstown 

(both   in  •  ith   the    foregoing  at 

in  Limcric' 

county  on  the  k-on-Suir,  and  ; 

through  Clonmcll,  Cahir,  and  Tipperary.     There  are  roads 
from  '  'l.iTimcli  '  -id  to  Cahir,  and  from  Tip; 

.ds  of  less  importance,  win- 
>:i.     In  the  evidence  taken  befoie  the 
1S30,  vol.  xxxiii.j, 

Is  in  tli,  .  Middlethird — which,  as  compre- 

part  of  the  mountainous  country  (including  Siicvh- 

valley  or  plain  bet  ween  t!. 
>  m  mountains,  may  be  taken  to  rep 
•vge — arc  described  as  good  and  sufficiently 

tjllitrr  •''-. — The    in- 

•  1  from 

H-ndix  •  licport 

\xiii.),  has  lefricnce  to  the 
•id,  from  which  aln-  s  were 

•d  ;  but  it  m  .  in  a  great 

ible  to  the  rest  of  the  county. 

and  m   Hie  barony  was  estimated  in  the  county 
iit  was  old,  and  regarded  :LS 
.;  plantation  acres  :   the  plantation  or 
;iii  Kuglisl  re  and 

to  la. -Jr.  ll»,-!,p.    The  land  was 
held  an  follow*: — 

70  persons  held  above  100  acres. 


I!     ' 

Ill- 
UK 

na- 

tr; 


'  • 
do; 


31 

idr 

B61 

759 
746 
IOM 

2«0 

The  soil  of  the  bai 
•  at  urn 

'age  or  pasture 
mon  any  • 

acres  in   cenlli 
I  or  GOO  acrcK  of 


m    80  to  100. 
&0  to  HO. 
20  to  60. 
10  to  20. 
R  to  10. 
1  to  6. 
leas  than  1  acre. 

>ny  is  chiefly  a  rich  loam  of  some 

ally  adapted 
no    pnbh 


hi" 

e:  here   are   < 

,  and  (bat  in  the  nortl  • 
irony:  in  the  southern  part  the  wanl    of 

imlerof  the  barony,  alter 

triflmir  deductions,  one-third   or   one-fourth   is   pn 
land,  nnd  the  rest  in  tillage.     Grazinfr-fnrnu  are  chief!  •. 


pasture   having 

•  illv  hound 


than  in  uthen. 
Kent*  liave  been  decreasing  :  it  was  that  th 

.. 

but  the  prantinp  i  .»  troiiii^  i:  «nd  fan 

of  which  the  leases  hail  fallen  in  during  the 

years  v 

term  of  fa;-  years,  or  tl, 

tagc  and  glebe  lands  an  comim-'; 

Since  the  subletting  act,  it  i  i!to"grant1ea»e» 

•:mts  in  common;  si;< 

OUF;  tliey  had  prevented  draining  and  inclosing,  and  other 
improvement*.  About  one-fourth  of  the  barony  was  at  \!;.- 
time  of  the  inquiry  held  under  iniddh  - 
is  going  into  disuse  ;  ain1  :ot  usually 

-tand- 

iug  that  the  le-  iblet.     There   lia*  l)een  a 

disposition  in  the  landowners  to  consolidate  small  . 

but  whc>  ive  tnk«n  place  lliey  have 

been  resisted  by  the  peasantry,: 

and  outrages  committed  upon  those  who  s--.ceecd  to  the 
occupation  of  the  vacated  land  :  considerable  difficult 
thus  been  placed  in  the  way  of  consolidation. 

The  average  rent  of  Inml  is  not  iriven  :  the  competition 

•all  holdings  is  howi  \  '  that  whe:; 

occurs  men  will  bid  more  than  will  allow  them  to  make  a 

from  the  land :  and  in  most  cases  t 

tenant   cannot   obtain  nion  Tile 

rent  of  these  small  holdings  is  gcr 
This  competition  for  land  lias  In  c:i  a   fruit fi  .1 
crime.     Good  land  may  probably  be  worth  from  -/.  l(l\.  to 
U'.  per  acre  ;  but  when  let  as  cu. 
rent,  which  is  usually  paid  in  rm< 

•id  to  his  own  labourers.     T);ury-laml  is  wort! 
an  acre  more  than  tillage-land,  and  grazing-land 
more  valuable. 

The  usual  rotation  of  crops  is  threefold  ;  potat' 
and  oats  form  tli  nl  if  the  land  will  bear  it.  t 

•A!.    The  potatoes  are  manured  chiefly  with 
manure.,'  which  sells  in  the  towns  for  2v.  a; 
cwt.     The  farm  i  lly  the  smaller  < 

little  stock  ;  and  stall-feeding  for  the  pur 
manui 

and  lioer-caith  are  carried  to  the  dune-yard  to  ; 
down.  .'.ut   of  the   lain 

expedients  are  resorted  to  in  order  to  pioc 
potatoes  trrown  both  by  11 
cominonly  the  white  potatoes,  becau- 

miality.  thi  1)  and  on  i  '  land. 

Potat  i 

practi  ,ii>j  them  in  by  the  plough  i.\ 

more  common :  fi 
a-  nrich  to  give 
ol  the  potato  crop  as 

ally  manured  with  lime,  winch  is  bur: 
small-coal  from  the  collieries  in  ' 

Wheat    i.i  more  commonly  crown   alter   potatoes 

Billow:  the  seed  is  ge.ncra 
serve  it  from  smut ;  and  the  crop  win 

1  once,  and  rolled.     Many  d  tin- 
break  the  lumps  with  a  wooden  mallet.  iV 
i*  of  the  first  (junlity :  n  good  deal  is  threshed  out  by  the 
small   farmers  immediately  after  bar 
or  other  debts :  the  large  farmers  do  i 
fore  November. 

The  cultivation  of  clover,  rye-frrM*.  an 
much   increased   of  late   years  :  er   turnips  nor 


Alter   the    common  rotation  < 

"  best  lands  three  or  four 
times,  the  grouivl   is  ].-f«   to  ^rass  for  six 


T  I  P 


487 


T  I  P 


Grass  or  clover  seeds  are  usually  sown  with  the  oats  the 
last  crop  of  the  tillage  course;  and  for  the  two  following 
years  the  produce  is  mown,  and  then  grazed  until  the  land 
is  again  broken  up  by  the  plough.  Small  farmers  fre- 
quently do  not  sow  any  grass  seeds  nor  mow  the  crop ; 
they  also  break  up  the  ground  after  a  shorter  interval. 
Owing  to  the  warmth  and  moisture  of  the  climate,  and 
from  the  later  period  (the  month  of  August)  at  which  they 
are  cut,  the  crops  of  hay  are  heavier  than  would  be  pro- 
duced by  land  of  equal  goodness  in  Great  Britain  ;  but  it 
is  probable  that  from  its  more  succulent  nature  the  hay  will 
not  support  or  fatten  cattle  better  than  a  smaller  quantity 
of  English  hay. 

The  long-horned  Leicester  breed  of  cattle  was  intro- 
duced many  years  ago ;  but  the  Durham  and  Hereford 
breeds  are  more  in  request.  The  common  Irish  (Limerick) 
breed  is  however  most  generally  used,  as  being  the  most 
hardy.  The  stock  of  all  kinds  is  very  good.  There  are 
not  so  many  cattle  fattened  for  export  as  there  were  for- 
merly, still  some  are  ted  for  the  English  market,  and  are 
exported  from  Waterford  to  Liverpool.  Cattle  are  fit  for 
slaughter  from  three  years  and  a  half  old ;  they  weigh 
when  fat  from  four  cwt.  to  six  cwt.  Many  young  bullocks 
are  sold  at  a  year  old  to  Roscommon  and  Gahvay  men ; 
others  for  grazing  are  bought  in  the  neighbourhood  or  at 
Ballinasloe.  The  Ayrshire  and  Kerry  cows  are  not  much 
used  except  by  gentlemen.  The  quantity  of  butter  made 
is  not  great,  but  the  quality  is  in  general  good,  and  the 
mode  of  preserving  it  is  improving  :  Clonmell  is  the  prin- 
cipal market.  Very  little  cheese  is  made. 
There  are  not  many  sheep  kept :  they  are  in  general  a 
of  the  Leicester  breed,  and  are  large  well-made  ani- 
mals. There  are  no  large  flocks,  and  folding  sheep  is  not 
in  use  ;  the  small  fanners  keep  two  or  three  sheep  for  the 
sake  of  the  wool ;  and  those  who  have  dairies  mix  some 
sheep  in  their  pastures  with  their  homed  stock. 

The  horses  are  of  an  active  light-boned  sort,  very  useful 
i'ur  all  fanning  purposes.  Oxen  are  never  employed  in 
labour.  Pig's  are  numerous,  and  of  an  improved  breed : 
they  are  considered  to  be  still  improving. 

Agricultural  implements  have  undergone  much  improve- 
ment of  late  years.  An  iron  plough,  after  the  form  of  the 
Scotch  plough,  has  superseded  the  old-fashioned  one,  which 
is  now  seldom  seen  in  Use :  the  harrows,  though  not  so 
well  made,  yet,  from  I  nature  of  the  soil,  do  their 

work  efficiently:    ro'  liing  more  common  every 

year ;  and  these,  as  well  as  the  harrows,  are  borrowed  by 
the  farmers  from  each  other.  The  carts  are  of  cheap  con- 
struction, with  narrow  wheels  and  low  sides  formed  of  rails  ; 
Uiey  carry  only  a  small  load,  and  are  drawn  by  one  horse. 
The  plough  is  used  in  the  cultivation  of  every  crop  except 
potatoes,  for  which,  among  the  small  farmers,  the  spade 
it  used;  but  the  use  of  the  spade  is  diminishing  eu.y 
year.  The  flail  is  used  in  threshing,  except  when  the  straw 
Is  wanted  for  thatching,  and  then  the  corn  is  often  knocked 
out  against  a  board  by  the  hand. 

The  dairy-farmer  have  in  general  more  capital  than 
other  farmers.  They  have  better  houses,  and  these,  with 
their  cattle-sheds  and  other  farm  buildings,  are  usually  in 
good  condition.  Mud-walls  are  found  to  answer  best  for 
dairies,  and  little  air  is  admitted. 

Many  of  the  resident  gentry  have  set  an  example  of 
;or  cultivation,  and  have  been  the  means  of  introduc- 
ing improved  stock  and  implements.  They  crop  the  land 
less  severely  than  the  common  farmers,  and  give  it  longer 
intervals  of  rest  or  more  manure,  in  which  they  are  fol- 
lowed by  the  larger  farmers. 

The  con-ai'i'c  system  is  common;  these  allotments  are 
commonly  taken  by  the  cottiers  to  raise  their  own  food, 
but  a  considerable  number  are  taken  by  servants  and 
women  with  a  view  to  profit  from  the  sale  of  the  produce. 
The  usual  quantity  taken  by  a  family  is  a  quarter  to  hall' 
an  acre;  and  the  labouring  class  are  always  anxious  to 
obtain  it. 

The  demand  for  labour  at  the  time  of  the  inquiry  was 

i  to  have  <;  while  the  population  had 

increased.     W;i  h  had  in  the  course  of  ten  years 

.inution  of  about  two-pence  per  day,  were 

v  for  men  li</.  a  day  with  food,  and  in  harvest  1*.  a 

day  with  food  ;  or  when  hired  for  a  whole  year,  7i^-  a  day 

in  sii  a  day  in  winter,  without  food.     Hoys 

i    I'ceived  Hi/,  a  day  in  harvest-time,  or  if  hired 

by  the  year  13*.  per  quarter,  or  in  some  baronies  20*-.  per 


quarter.  If  a  labourer  worked  250  days  in  the  year,  at  8il.  a 
day,  he  received  8!!.  6s.  8rf.,  which  may  be  considered  as  the 
full  average  of  the  yearly  earnings  of  the  class.  In  the  sea- 
sons when  work  is  slack,  mid-winter  and  a  month  before 
harvest,  many  of  them  resort  to  begging.  To  this  the  labourer 
may  add  a  little  by  eggs  and  about  3^.  by  his  pigs.  When 
food  is  dear,  the  labourer  has  to  work  sometimes  for  six 
weeks  in  July  and  August,  merely  for  his  food,  consisting 
generally  of  potatoes  and  milk.  When  a  farmer  feeds  his 
labourer,  he  gives  him  commonly  better  food  than  he  would 
have  at  home.  If  a  labourer  has  a  cottage,  potato-garden, 
and  milk  from  his  employer,  as  is  usual,  these  are  con- 
sidered equivalent  to  a  third  or  a  half  of  his  wages.  The 
labourers  in  the  richest  grazing  districts  are  the  worst  otf. 
The  labourers  when  they  obtain  permanent  employment, 
at  fixed  wages,  exhibit  generally  increased  cleanliness  and 
decency  of  appearance,  and  their  cabins  are  better  fur- 
nished. 

There  is  no  employment  for  women,  except  in  some  of 
the  baronies  in  harvest-time,  and  perhaps  in  the  potato- 
planting  and  digging  seasons,  when  they  earn  about  (J</. 
a  day.  Formerly  they  spun  wool  for  their  own  clothes, 
but  this  practice  has  ceased  for  several  years,  probably 
because  the  manufactured  article  can  now  be  purchased 
cheaper.  The  rearing  of  fowls  is  the  source  of  some  profit ; 
and  a  couple  of  pigs  will  bring  in  about  3/.,  which  is 
depended  upon  to  pay  the  rent  of  the  potato-garden. 
There  is  no  work  for  children  under  fourteen  years  of  age  : 
they  are  not  employed  in  hoeing  or  weeding  corn  or  other 
crops. 

The  cottier  tenants,  occupiers  of  less  than  ten  acres  of 
land,  are  enabled  to  feed  and  clothe  their  families  better 
than  a  labourer,  but  are  themselves  worse  fed  than  the 
labourers  who  are  dieted  by  the  fanners.  Cottiers  seldom 
keep  a  cow ;  they  hold  their  land'  from  year  to  year,  and 
are  generally  in  arrear  for  rent,  which  is  always  (if  a  man 
holds  five  acres  or  more)  expected  to  be  paid  in  money. 

The  potatoes  which  the  labourer  or  small  cottier  grows 
constitute  the  food  of  his  family  ;  he  himself  is  frequently 
fed  by  his  employer.  Milk  is  not  used  in  more  than  one 
half  of  the  families.  The  greatest  expenditure  on  tobacco 
is  Gd.  a.  week.  Candles  for  six  months  amount  to  3;/.  per 
week,  and  other  necessaries,  under  the  general  designation 
of  kitchen,' cost  from  M.  10s.  to  21.  10.$.  for  the  year. 
The  labourers  do  not  consume  any  description  of  groceries. 
The  fees  to  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  form  an  important 
item  in  a  labourer's  outlay.  The  fee  for  marriage  is  liw., 
for  churching  a  woman  2?.  Gd.,  and  for  blessing  the  clay 
and  saying  mass  at  a  funeral  5*. ;  at  confession  at  Easter 
and  Christmas  Is.  is  expected :  but  these  fees  are  often 
remitted. 

The  dwellings  of  the  labourers  are  of  the  most  Wretched 
description,  nor  has  any  perceptible  improvement  taken 
place  of'late  years.  During  the  alarm  of  cholera  they  were 
whitewashed,  but  that  is  now  neglected.  They  are  gene- 
rally 20  feet  long  by  12  broad,  with  walls  from  7  to  8  feet 
high,  divided  into  two  or  perhaps  three  very  small  apart- 
ments, and  never  having  a  second  story ;  covered  only 
with  a  thatch  of  straw,  and  having  nothing  but  the  bare 
ground  for  the  floor,  and  that  often  full  of  holes,  which  in 
wet  weather  become  little  pools  of  water.  A  hole  in  the 
roof  allows  the  escape  of  the  smoke,  and  their  windows, 
15  inches  square,  are  more  commonly  without  glass  than 
with  it,  and  almost  universally  destitute  of  shutters.  They 
have  rarely  any  outhouse  except  a  pigsty,  and  in  many  cases 
where  they  have  not  even  that,  the  pig  sleeps  in  the  house. 
These  wretched  hovels  usually  cost  in  erection  about  It)/., 
and  the  tenant  pays  from  20s.  to  30*-.  a  year  as  rent ;  with 
a  rood  of  land,  the  rent  is  near  21.  10s.  The  cabins  are 
always  kept  in  repair  by  the  tenant.  They  are  usually 
built  separate,  not  grouped  in  villages  or  hamlets,  and  for 
convenience  near  the  road-side. 

It  rarely  happens  that  there  is  more  than  one  bed  for 
the  whole  family;  a  bedstead,  a  dresser,  two  chairs,  a  large 
iron  pot,  and  some  crockery,  all  of  the  worst  description, 
usually  complete  the  catalogue.  In  some  wretched  cabins 
even  these  are  not  found,  and  the  family  lie  on  the  floor. 

The  chief  article  of  food  is  the  potato :  the  peasantry 
grow  this  in  preference  to  corn,  because  it  yields  a  more 
abundant  supply  with  less  care  and  less  manure.  A 
labourer,  when  employed,  gets  three  meals  of  potatoes  a 
day,  his  wife  and  children  only  two.  In  July  and  August, 
when  the  old  potatoes  have  become  unfit  for  food,  and  the 


T  I  P 


488 


T  I  P 


new  CIOTM art  ready,  colic  or  otlicr  bowel  complaints  are 
-omenew  of  the  diet ;   and  the 

.1  dis- 
.ision 

I,  which  h,  -id  by 

]>.iving  double  the  market-price. 

'•lothim;.  •  le  improvement  has 

taken  place,  though   the  peasantry  are   still   very  mditt'er- 

luiao- 

ture,  but  the  women  generally  make  up  their  own  dresses: 

iiowcver  t:.  able  to  do  this,  uud  h 

pay  f,  made.     The  use  of  shoes  and 

•  in  and 

\pcnditure  of  a 
labourer's  family  on  clothes  is  seldom  less  than  a  pound. 

,el   is  turf:    ne:.  -;,eap, 

but  to  one  living  at  a  distance  of  H  or  ID  miles  from  a  tur- 

\Vhen  fuel  is  scarce,  pi' 

and    the  destruction  of  woods  and  fences   are  common. 

and  dried  cow -dung  are  i.  for  turf. 

Tlie  county  ha.s  always  been  one  of  the  most  disturbed  in 

d  :    •  although  there  is  an  ebb  and  flow  of  crime  in 

Tippcrary  has  always  kept  up  steadily  to 

hiirh-watcr-inarlc.'     This  \  .'incut  of  the  n 

istiate  of  Cashel.    (See  Parliamentary  j 

p.  :i57.) 

\-r. — Tlie  county  is  divided  into  eleven 
baronies,  a.s  follows  : — 

.nv.  Situation.         Pop.  in  1831. 

Clanwilliam'.     .     .  \V.  152 

Elio_'.itiy  ....         Central         38,531 

Ilia  and "l )i!a  :!  S.E.  38,702 

West  s.\v.  1.12 

Ike,  in.            .      .  .  N.K.  27.H77 

Kilnemana-h       .  .             \\  •  30.771 

Middlcthird     .      .  .  Central  .11.103 

id    Lower).  .             N.  45,006 

Ormond  (Upper)  .  Central  21, SOT 

Owney  and  Am.  .          W.  32.454 

Slievardagh    ...  E.  32.7(15 

402,5(13 

It  contains  the  county-town  of  Clonmell  or  Clonmel 
[CI.ONMKI.];   the  city  of  Cashel  [CASHKI.]  ;    the  ex-bo- 
ro-.lirh  (formerly   parliamentary)  of  Fethard  ;    the   maiket- 
-  of  Cahir',  Carrick-on-Su'ir  [CAKKH  K-oN-Suiu],  Clog- 
.  Killenaule,  Nenasrh.  Koserea,  Tern; •'.  more,  Thuilcs. 
and  Tippcrary  ;  the  post-towns  of  1!  iinriis- 

o'-Kane,  Cloghjordan,  Golden,  Littleton.  N'e-.v  Birmingham, 
and  Nfwpoit  :  and  the  villairc-.  ,  dy,  Mullina- 

hone,  Silvermines,  Toomavaia.  and  others.     Some  o. 
are  d  ,red  to  above  :    of  the  others  w  . 

some  account  here. 

Kelhaid  is  in  the  barony  of  Middlcthird,  W>  miles  from 
Dublin  by  Kilkenny  and  ('alien,  and  '.)  miles  north  from 
Clonmell.  The  town  contained,  in  1S31,  5S2  houses,  in- 
habited by  OH;)  famiiies:  3;>  houses  uninhabited,  and  5 
l.nilding,  with  a  population  of  3405:  the  whole  parish 
.OHM'!,,  inhabited  by  7!'7  families  ;  -II  houses 
iniiii:  .',d  7  buihlinsr  :  with  a  population  of  4050. 

i  on  both  banks,  but  chiefly 

on  the  left  or  north-eastern  bank  of  a  small  stream,  the 

Glashall,  which  ulti::  li  the  Suir  below  Clonmell. 

ard  Ls  an  ai  •  •',•<•. ived  town,  in  a  b\c  situation. 

with  little  trade.     Of  the  IMU.M-S  about  120  arc  slated,  and 

ire  that  chid  cabins,  and  of 
the   poorest   description.     There   arc   a    parish   church:    a 

I'rimitive    .Methodist    meetini;-!. 

two    Roman    Catholic    chapels,    one     the    regular    parish 

i  1,  the  other  attached  to  an  Aiigustinian  friary.    The 

:i  church,  of  which  the  chancel   is  in  ruins,  und  the 

friary  chapel,  are   autient   structures.      There    U  a  good 

1  school-house.    Tlie  town  was  formerly  walled,  and 

some  portions  of  the  walls  an  I  •••.•, -\  !,iv. 

main.     Then1  are    ,.r  »eie  lately   four  mills  und  a  Ian-yard 

or  two:  the  principal  tnde  i* snoemaking;   but  the  chief 

.ilion  of  the  labouring  class  is  agriculture. 

to.vn    was    im  :i»d  :     the 

.itcd    lil  Kd'.vard   ill..  A.D.  1370: 

but  the  corporation  has  .1  \cd  l:y  the  late  Iri-h 

Mr,:,,  uibi'is 

to  Hi  'it,  but  was  disfranchised  at  the  I 

'  t  on  Saturday,   but   it   is  of  minor  inipor- 


tance  :  the  yearly  sale  of  wheat  i«  about  8UOO 

oats  about   3000 

and  a  charitable'  loan-fund 

.ntcd  in  Is  of  all  kind- 

cluditiir  a  national  school  with  ISO  boys  on  Ih.'  Uiok 
an  avei;i'j;e  daily  attendance'  uf  l:ui. 

Cahir,  or  Caller,  is  in  the  barony  of  I  Ha  and  Oiia  \ 
11 1  miles  south-west  from  Dublin  by  Clonincll.  from  - 
it  is  distant  7  :  n  had,  in 

i,  inhabited  by  7OO  families:  Gl  hou 
and    10  building,  with  a  population  • 
parish  had    12:11  houses,  inhabited  by  11.. 

-  uninhabited,  and   23  building,  v.  ilh 
Cahir  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  b: 
Suir,  at  tin 

and  the  Kiun-kincledown  :    it   is.  ).. 

toun,  very  clean,  and  has  been  stiadily  incniLsinir,!!'. 
not  rapidly  :   the  new  houses  are  chiefly  01 

.-.  oith  I'roin  H)/.  to-U)/.  per  annu:t; 

a   parish   chur,  liolic 

chajH'!,  and  a  (Quakers'  meeting-house.     Near  tlu 

• -valry  barracks;    and  on  the  1.. 
are  the  demesne  and  residence  of  the  Karl  ol  G 
atteni])t  w;is  made  many  years  .11:0  to  establish 
manufacture,  but  it  failed:  since  then   the   straw-p!:,. 
introduced,  an.!  .j.loYnieiit    to  a  nun.: 

females:    there  are  also  some  exten 
market  is  on  Friday,  and  is  an   importa: 
the  Vi'arly  silos  of  wheat  had  increased  from  ii.1 
in  182G,  to  50.131  in  i 

steady  through  the  ssimo   period,  at  :i7,(MK)  barn 
is  a  bridewell,  and  a  body  of  co 
town  :    there  are  also  a  dispensary  and  i'evcr-h 
(by  returns  to  parliament  in  lsa.">   tiller 
kinds;    one  of  them  a  national  school,  with  2KO  clu 
(boys  and  girls)  on  the  books,  and  an  average  : 
of  i."M) ;    and  two  others  on  Erasmus  Smith's  !• 
one  with  51  girls  on  the  books,  and  an  a\  i 
of  25  ;    the  other  containing  11  boys.     Near  ti 
an  island  of  the  Suir,  are  the  picturesque  ruins  of  the 
of  Cahir. 

Clogheen  is  in  the  barony  of  Iffa  and  Offa  (West),  120 
miles  south-west  of  Dublin  through  Clonmell,  and    IH 
miles  from  Clonmell.     The  town  is  chiefly  in  tl. 
Shanraghan  :  it  contained,  in  ]s31,  2!tl   nouses,  inh; 
by  357  families  :    17  houses  uninhabited,  and   3 
with  a  population   of  l'.)2S :    the  whole  parish  hai'. 
houses,  inhabited  by  11!)'.)  families;  31)  Inn 
and  4  building:    tne  parish  of  Tulla£horlon.  into 
the  town  extends,  had   -JT  housi's.  inhabited    !•' 
Ik's;  ">  liuuses  uninhabited,  and  5  bnildiii!:.  wit; 
lion  of  1  !)<;.">.     \Vhat  portion  ut 
we  have  no   means  of  ascertaining.     There  is  a   !! 

ic  chapel  in  the  town:    the  paiisli  church  ol 
raghan  is  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood.    Tu 
parish  has  no  church.     A  lar«;<'  corn-market 
Saturday,  at  which  the  yearly  a 
from  42,125  barrels  in  I H2C,  to  02,824  in    : 

ley  had  decreased  from  .'{'iKI  barrels  in  Is 
in  Is35:  li  .  en  Hour-mills  in  and  round  the 

the  flour  from  which  is  sent  by  laud  to  ( 'lonmell.  anil 
thence  down   the  Snir  to  \Vaterford,  where   it 

laix'e   brewery.     A  body 
arc  po-tcd  in  the  town  ;  and  there  are  a  small  ,  . 

I  small  bridewell,  and  a  dispensary  and  fe\ : 
Near  the  town  are   the  ruins  of  an  antieiit    parish   , 
and   of  an   antient    abbey.      Shanbaliy  Castle,  the   - 
Lord  Lismorc.   is  also  in  the  neighbourhood.     Uyt: 
turns  to  parliament  in  ls:r>  there  were  in  the  two  parishes 
eiu'ht  private  schools,  but  not  any  national  or  otl 
Bupported  by  subscription  or  endowment. 

Killenaule   is  in  the   barony  of  Slievai-daiih. 
south-west  from  Dublin  by  Urlingford,  and    111  a 
Clonmell  by  Fethard.    The  town,  in  1S31,  coi ' 
bouses,  occupied   by  321  families;  31  ho: 
and  2  Imildinir.  with  a  po|)ulatio:i  of  ;    , 
parish  had  27''  houses,  inhabited  by  300  families  :  :i  In 
uninhabited,  and  :i  building,  with  a  population  of  lss;i; 
making  a  total  population  of  3l(i7.     Th.Te  aie  a  church, 
a  Roman  Catholic   chapel,  and  a  dispensary:    the  church 

ill  and  antient.     Tin  i 

ral  yearly  fairs  are  held  :  a  portion  of  tne  county  constabu- 
lary is  stationed  in  the  town.    Several  of  the  collieries  of 


T  I  P 


489 


T  I  P 


the  Killenaule  coal-field  are  in  this  parish.  By  the  returns 
to  parliament,  A.D.  1835,  there  were  in  the  parish  six 
schools,  all  supported  by  the  payments  of  the  children : 
school-houses  had  been  built  by  subscription  for  two  of 
these  schools. 

Nenagh  is  partly  in  Upper  Ormond,  but  chiefly  in  Lower 
Ormond  barony,  between  95  and  90  miles  south-west  of 
Dublin,  on  the  road  to  Limerick.  The  town  qontained,  in 
1831,  1282  houses,  inhabited  by  1703  families;  55  houses 
uninhabited,  and  9  building,  with  a  population  of  84G6 : 
the  remainder  of  the  parish  contained  104  houses,  inhabited 
by  104  families,  and  2  houses  uninhabited,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  693 ;  making  a  total  population  of  9159.  This 
town  antiently  belonged  to  the  Butler  family,  who  had  a 
strong  castle  here :  it  had  two  ecclesiastical  foundations ; 
an  hospital  for  the  canons  of  St.  Augustin,  founded  A.D. 
1200  ;  and  a  friary  for  conventual  Franciscans,  deemed  the 
richest  foundation  of  that  order  in-Ireland,  founded  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  III.  The  town  was  burned,  A.D.  1550,  by 
the  natives  under  O'Carrol,  and  the  friary  was  included  in 
Ihe  destruction,  but  the  castle  was  saved  by  the  garrison. 
The  town  was  repeatedly  taken  and  retaken  in  the  great 
civil  war  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  It  was  taken  by  the 
native  forces  of  James  II.,  A.D.  1688,  but  after  a  time  aban- 
doned and  burned  by  them.  The  town  stands  on  the  river 
Nenagh,  which  flows  with  a  circuitous  course  from  the 
Keeper  Mountains  into  Lough  Derg,  and  consists  of  four 
streets  meeting  in  the  centre.  The  ruins  of  the  castle, 
consisting  chiefly  of  a  large  circular  donjon  or  keep,  called 
Nenagh  Round,  are  on  one  side  of  one  of  the  streets, 
i  e  Street.  There  are  a  barrack  for  cavalry  ;  a  fever- 
hospital  and  dispensary ;  a  church,  rebuilt  some  years 
since ;  a  Roman  Catholic  chapel ;  and  a  bridewell,  unless  it 
has  been  disused  since  the  completion  of  the  county  gaol, 
lately  erected  here.  Some  remains  of  the  Franciscan  friary 
may  be  traced.  A  portion  of  the  county  constabulary  are 
stationed  here.  There  is  a  well-attended  market  on  Thurs- 
day for  corn  and  cattle.  The  number  of  barrels  of  wheat  sold 
on  the  average  of  the  years  1826  to  1835  was  above  45,000, 
of  barrels  of  u;its  about  4500,  and  of  barrels  of  barley  1300. 
The  salt:  of  bere,  which  was  about  1000  barrels  in  1826, 
had  quite  ceased  before  1835.  There  are  in  or  near  the 
town  a  brewery,  a  flour-mill,  and  a  small  stuff  manufac- 
tory. There  are  several  yearly  fairs.  There  were  in  the 
parish,  by  the  return  made  to  parliament  in  1835.  eight 
schools  of  all  kinds,  including  a  national  school,  with  an 
average  attendance  of  190  boys;  a  parish  free-school, with 
an  average  attendance  of  40  boys  and  girls ;  and  a  school 
mi  Kiusmus  Smith's  foundation,  with  an  average  attendance 
of  28  boys  and  girls. 

Roscrea  is  in"the  barony  of  Ikerin,  75  miles  west-south- 
west of  Dublin,  on  the  road  to  Limerick,  and  about  50  to 
r>2  north  of  Clonmell.  A  monastery  for  regular  canons  is 
>;iid  to  have  been  founded  here  by  St.  Cronan  as  early  as 
the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century,  which  became  sub- 
sequently the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  afterwards  united  to 
Kiilaloe.  According  to  Keating  (Histnry  of  Ireland)  there 
.uitii-ntly  a  great  fair  held  at  Roscrea  on  the  festival 
of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  at  which  fair,  about  the  middle 
of  the  tenth  century,  an  army  of  Danes,  collected  from 
Limerick  and  Cuiimutght,  attempted  to  surprise  the  natives ; 
•  liese,  having  sonic  suspicion  of  the  attack,  had  brought 
arms  with  them,  and  made  so  stout  a  resistance,  that  they 
repulsed  the  enemy,  with  the  loss  of  their  leader  and  four 
thousand  men.  In  1213  King  John  erected  a  castle  at 
Roscrea,  of  which  a  circular  tower  remains  ;  and  there  is 
in  the  centre  of  the  town  a  square  castle  of  the  Ormond 
family,  occupied  as  a  depot  for  the  troops  quartered  in  the 
infantry  barracks.  About  A.D.  1490  a  Franciscan  friary 
was  founded. 

The  town  of  Roscrea  is  in  a  fertile  and  pleasant  situation  : 

it  consists  of  several  streets,  irregularly  laid  out,  and  had, 

in  1831,  907 houses,  inhabited  by  1136  families;  Gl  houses 

uninhabited,  and  6  houses  building,  with  a  population  of 

:V,12.   the  whole  parish,  which  extends  into  the  baronies 

of  Ballybrit  and  Clonlisk  in  King's  County  (Leinster),  had 

].">!(;  houses,  inhabited  by  1797  families ;   79  houses  unin- 

md  12  building  ;  with  a  population  of  9191).    The 

:<!roh  is  an  antient  building,  with  Norman  dpor- 

1  several  sepulchral  crosses  and  curious 

jui'lii  :ilions.     Near  the  church   is  a  round 

nd  15  feet  in  diameter,  with  a  window 

with  an  arch  of  (in-  UMUI!  form,  15  feet  from  the  ground, 

P.  C'.,  No.  1549. 


and  a  window  with  a  pointed  arch,  about  30  feet  from  the 
ground.  There  are  some  remains  of  the  antient  monastery 
of  canons  of  St.  Augustin,  consisting  of  the  western  gable, 
having  an  arched  doorway,  which  forms  an  entrance  to  the 
present  churchyard.  There  are  also  some  remains  of  the 
Franciscan  convent,  which  are  (or  at  least  were  some  years 
since)  in  good  preservation  :  the  tower  of  the  conventual 
church  forms  the  entrance  to  the  present  Roman  Catholic 
chapel.  There  are  a  Primitive  and  aWesleyan  Methodist, 
chapel  and  a  Quakers'  meeting-house  in  the  ecclesiastical 
union  of  Roscrea  (comprehending  the  parishes  of  Roscrea 
and  Kyle),  but  we  are  not  aware  whether  they  are  in  the 
town. 

The  town  has  considerable  trade  as  the  mart  for  the  sur- 
rounding district.  Formerly  there  was  a  considerable 
manufacture  of  woollens,  especially  serges  and  stuff's,  in 
which  a  thousand  looms  are  employed ;  but  this  had  so 
fallen  off  about  1835,  that  it  gave  employment  only  to  a 
hundred  looms.  There  were  at  that  time  a  distillery  and 
three  breweries.  There  are  -two  weekly  markets  and  se- 
veral yearly  fairs  for  cattle  and  farming  stock :  there  an; 
public  shambles  and  a  commodious  market-house.  The 
sale  of  grain  at  the  markets  is  considerable :  the  average 
yearly  sale  of  wheat  had  increased  in  the  ten  years  from 
182G  to  1835,  both  inclusive,  from  4140  barrels  to  6700  ; 
and  that  of  oats  from  18,500  to  22,100  barrels  ;  the  yearly 
sale  of  barley  had  continued  steady  at  13,000  barrels.  There 
is  a  savings'  bank,  the  deposits  in  which  had  (in  1835)  con- 
siderably increased  :  the  depositors  were  chiefly  farmers, 
small  tradesmen,  and  servants :  there  were  at  the  same 
time  a  fever  hospital,  a  cholera  hospital,  and  a  dispensary. 
The  number  of  places  where  spirits  were  sold  was  very 
great,  amounting  to  above  two  hundred  in  the  town  alone  ; 
of  these  nearly  half  were  licensed  public-houses.  There 
are  a  small  bridewell,  an  infantry  barrack,  and  a  station  of 
the  county  constabulary.  There  were,  by  the  Parliamentary 
Returns  for  1835,  ten  day-schools  in  the  parish,  including 
a  national  school,  with  an  average  attendance  of  52  boys ; 
a  school  on  Erasmus  Smith's  foundation,  with  an  average 
attendance  of  91  boys ;  and  a  day-school  for  young  girls  in 
connection  with  the  Ladies'  London  Association  and  the 
Hibernian  Society,  with  an  average  attendance  of  45. 

Templemore  is  in  the  barony  of  Eliogarty,  about  87  miles 
south-west  of  Dublin,  and  about  39  or  40  north  of  Clonmell. 
It  is  supposed  to  derive  its  name  from  the  Knights  Tem- 
plars, who  had  a  house  here,  of  which  the  remains  form  an 
entrance  to  the  demesne  of  the  Garden  family.  There  were 
in  the  town,  in  1831, 404  houses  inhabited  by  609  families ; 
12  houses  uninhabited  and  7  building ;  with  a  population 
of  2936 :  the  whole  parish  had  664  houses,  inhabited  by 
885  families ;  15  houses  uninhabited,  and  18  building ; 
with  a  population  of  4583.  The  town  is  pleasantly  situ- 
ated near  the  right  or  west  bank  of  the  Suir,  and  is  (com- 
paratively at  least)  a  well-built  and  neat  town.  The  church, 
which  has  a  handsome  tower  and  spire,  was  rebuilt  about 
fifty  or  sixty  years  ago  ;  there  are  a  handsome  and  spacious 
Roman  Catholic  chapel,  a  good  market  and  court-house,  a 
bridewell,  extensive  barracks,  a  fever  hospital  and  dispen- 
sary, and  ball  and  news-rooms.  The  town  is  approached 
on  all  sides  by  avenues  of  ash-trees ;  and  there  are  several 
gentlemen's  seats  and  the  remains  of  some  very  antient 
castles  in  the  neighbourhood.  There  were,  according  to 
the  returns  of  1835,  seven  schools  in  the  parish,  including 
a  free-school  on  Erasmus  Smith's  foundation,  with  an  ave- 
rage attendage  of  47  scholars,  boys  and  girls. 

Thurles  is  in  the  barony  of  Eliogarty,  96  miles  south- 
west from  Dublin  by  Templemore,  and  about  32  from  Clon- 
mell. It  is  a  place  of  considerable  antiquity,  and  was  in 
the  tenth  century  the  scene  of  a  severe  battle  between  the 
native  Irish  and  the  Danes.  There  is  a  tradition  that  the 
Knights  Hospitallers  had  a  house  here,  but  no  record  of  it 
has  been  discovered.  A  Carmelite  monastery  was  founded 
here  about  A.D.  1300 ;  and  in  the  fourteenth  century  a 
castle  was  built  by  the  Butler  family,  which  in  the  ciVil 
war  of  Charles  I.  was  garrisoned  by  the  Royalists  and 
taken  by  the  Parliamentary  forces.  Of  these  buildings 
there  are  some  remains :  a  tower  and  some  part  of  the 
north  transept  of  the  church  of  Ihe  monastery  stand  on  the 
east  side  of  the  Suir ;  and  there  are  considerable  portions 
of  the  walls  of  the  castle,  inclosing  an  extensive  area,  and 
flanked  by  towers,  some  round,  others  square.  There  were 
not.  long  since  (and  perhaps  still  are)  some  remains  of  St. 
Mary's  church,  built  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  very 

VOL.  XXIV.-3  R 


T  I  P 


490 


•I    1   1 


•,\  e  mansion. formerly  I  brewr;  •  ,-arly  fnirs  arc  I.  con- 


afHMnt  .of  the 

,  hbishop  i 

the  other  of  the 

.,iu»e,  a  good  in  lor  in- 

fantry. *•  '•  well. 

and  a  "i  ""• 

town  :  the  :i  monthly 

::\  in  the  t; 
.ilile";  the'whcat  sold  in  the  year  increased  from 

in    l*2i  >  to  rio.iim  in  1835;   and  i 
.   f,.im  '.Mint  ha.  I  1,000   in  Is3r> :    that 

of  oats  had  continued  stationary  at  from  :iOOO  to  HXK)  bar- 
rels. Some  brcv 
bytl, 
including  •  .'-ms  of  tb. 

, '1  of  ('•<>  irirls.  and  a 

•hool  of  120  t:iil-.  Kept  by  the  nuns  of  the  Ursuline 
-chool  with  an"  "endance  of  200 

'ion  of  the  Helicons  Brothers;   and  a 
:   under  the  superintendence  of  the  curate 
:  church  and  some  of  the  parishioners,  with  nearly 
40  children. 

Tipperary  is  in  the  barony  of  Clamvilliam,  110  miles 
i -west  of  Dublin,  and  23  miles  west-north-west  ofrl.in- 
mell.    A  monastery  for  Eremites  of  the  rule  of  St.  AM. 
iiinded  here  in  the  rei^n  of  Henry  III.     In  th. 
Hvard  III.     \.i>.  132:1    the  town  "was  burned  by  the 
'  ;en  (VBii  nier  impoitanc. 

en  name   to  the  county,  and  by 
n  antiently  incorporated  ;  but  it 

no  longer  the  same  relative  importance,  and  the 

corporation   has   Ion.  .111    is 

chiefly  in  the  parish  of  Tippemrv.  but  t  tho-e 

"rdangan  and  Kilshane  :  it  hail,  in  1H31, 
inhabited  by  12SI  families  ;  3(i  houses  uninhabited  and  IS 
building;  with  a  population  of  0072:  the  whole  parish  of 
Tipperary  had  1113  houses,  inhabited  by  137!)  Jamil'.. 
houses  uninhabited,  and  1G  building  ;  with  a  population  of 
7'JiXi. 

The  town  of  Tipperary  stands  near  the  little  river 
which  flows  into  the  Suir,  and  consists  of  one  principal  street, 
from  which   smaller   streets   branch  oft'  at  n 
.al  of  the  houses  are  well  built,  and  of  b;,; 
pearance  :  many  old  buildings  have  been  taken  down  and 
:1  m  their  place,  so  that  the  town  has  a  neat 
.     The   inhabitants  are   supplied 
with  water  from  a  public  fountain.  The  church  is  a  i; 

;.nd  there  is  a  Roman  ( 'atholic  chapel.  Then-  are 
:ins  of  the  Augustinian  monastery,  chief! 
an  arehii.  in  front  of  the  buildil 

cupicd  by  Erasmus  Smith's  classical    school,    which  has 
obtained  "from  this  circumstance  the  popular  designation 
of  'the  abbey  school.'     The  principal  trade  is  in  bir 
which  a  large  quantity  is  sent  to  Limerick  and  to  Water- 
ford  for  exportation.     There  are  two  weekly  i;; 
which  tlu-ie   a.e  a  in  at   market-house  with   a 
o\er  it,  in  the  cciihe  of  the  town,  and  shambles    and   four 
yearly  fairs.     Ti  -mall  :  but  it  had  in 

;   the  tin  years    from   lK2(>to  1KT>,  from  U2r>  t.) 
;liat  of  oaU   had    increased    from  77<)S  to 
Ill.tiT  ile  of  barley  had  declined  from 

(11(1  to  250  1m;  ny.  u  fever  hos- 

pital, a  temporary  barrack,  and  a  small  bridewell  :  a  por- 
tion •  'ationed  here.     There 
were  in  Tippcrarv  paiish,  according  to  the  return  M. 
parliament  m  1K3T),  nineteen  schools  of  all  kinds,  iucludiu_r 
a  classical  boarding-school  on  Iva-mus  Smith's  Inundation 

Abbey  School  i,  with  about  30 se: 
on  the  same  foundation  with  about  ,'t-l  childi, 
girl*,  and  national  scho> 
each  by  about  1 10  <;c]  olan.  Kil-hane  parish  had  no 
and  CurdanKan  on! .  hool,  with  21  scholai-s 

in  winter  ana  about  , 

Burri»-o'-L«a;:  isillegli,  is  in  the  pari 

keen,  in  t  .1.  !i-j  miles  sou' 

ablin.     It  bail,  in  Iv  .nhabiled   i 

iMinilie.,  J  1  building,  with  a  po- 

pulation  of    13O1.     The    parish  church  and    the    H 
Catiiolio  chapel  am  botU  in  llio  town.    There  is  a  small 


'   >    'JJl   cbiUlren  : 

-.•.lib  i!  children,  partly  supported  by  private  < 
trilnit.. 

Uunis-u'-Kane,  or  Bnriis-o'-Kean,  or  Burros-n'-Ki-ai 
in  the  :  "iml,  !M  111 

of  Dublin.     The  town  had,  in  1KS1.  JHi  houses,  inha 
liv  217  •  uninhabited  and   1   I  uiKlinc  ; 

w'ith  a 

inhabi  .  nninhabi' 

buildi:  population  of  2634. 

much  improved  i 
built.  a  Human  ' 

chape!.  'lie  jiRiish  chn 

y  and   l'i-\  • 

!i-d  Tumb. 

LT.    There  were  in  the  jiarish.  by  the  retu,- 
six  schools,  including  Hire, 

childi.  led  with  tin-   Bapti-1  :  an- 

other with  :«t  boys,  in  connection  with  the  l  di.-- 

COuntenancine  Vice ;  »nd  a  third,  with  an  attendance  in 
sunmu  Is,  supported  by  prival  ,,:!ion. 

in  Hie  parish  of  Modereny,  in  the  barony 
of  Lower   Ormond,    nearl\    '.Ki    mill  s  west-soutli-wi 
Dublin.     It    had,   in    1S31,   12!)  M I 

families.  6  houses  uninhabited  and  3  building,  with  a  po- 
pulation of  S24.     There  are  a  district,  church  of  the 
blishmcnt.  of  lit;ht   and  elegant    nn-hitecture,   built  A.D. 

and  niec1. '.  3   i'or  Bapt  .  and 

l'iimiti\e   Methi  .   a  dispensary   and   fev, ; 

jiital.    There  i-  .able   di-tiller\.     Tb 

irty  for  the  relief  snd  diminution  of 
pauperism,  called  '  the  deacons' poor  fund,' exists  in  this 
and  the  adjacent   parishes.     There  were  no  schools  i 
district   pari.-h  of  (.'loubjordan  in  ls:T):    but  in  the  whole 
of  Modereny  pnrish  there  were  the  day-schools,  including 
twu    parochial    schools,  one  with   about    50   Inn 
other  with  about  CO  L  e  were  also  tliree  Sunday- 

schools  for  reliici.  'ion. 

(loldcii  is  in  the  jiarish  of  Kclickmurry.  or  llelifrmurrj-, 
in  the  barony  of  ( 'lanwilliam,  about.  102  mil. 
Dublin,  between  Cashel  and   Tipper  e.  in 

i.i  the  town.  101   houses  inhabited  by  It1"' 
1  houses  uninhabited,  and  5  buildiiiir  :  with  "a  popula: 
(iS-l.     It   is  a  neat  and  improving  place,  situated  in  'the 
(iolilcn  Vale.'  one  of  the  most  ferl  ts  of  the  county, 

and  is  divided  into  tv. •  the  river  Suir,  over  which 

is  a  stone  bridge.     It  ha^thc  mills  of  an  old  castle;  and  in 
the  neighbourhood  :ue  the  remains  of  Athassd  Auinistinian 
Abbey,  originally  one  of  the  most  splendid  eci 
structures  in  th.  i  :    the  ruins  ai.  and 

worth}  of  notice.  The  pari.-h  church  and  a  Roman  Catholic 
chapel  are.  in  the  town.  There  are  flour  and  oatmeal 
mills;  and  four  held  yearly.  There  is  :i 

tin-   conn'  ,  ..!ai}  Hie   ) 

here.     The  united  parishes  of  Helii  knuiny  and  Atl 
had,  in  1S3.~>.  six  day-  le,  with  00  children,  partly 

suppoil  .'hew. 

Littleton  is  in  the  )  .rislcidl.  in  the  barony  of 

:,ty,  !X>  miles  S.\V.  of  Dublin.    It  contained,  in 
•II  houses  inhabited  1  >  uninhabited, 

and  1  building;  \\itli  a  jmpulation  of  2K5.  It  i-.  a  place 
quite  ol  modem  origin,  cliii  fly  erected  by  the  late  1'ev. 
Tliomas  Grady.  The  parish-cnurch,  a  handsume  building, 
is  in  the  town  ;  and  there  .  •iMteiisai}  :  a  1  •• 

iinfy  constabulary  a.  cd   hue.   "'i 

in   lKi."i,  five    da  :  one  of  them  was  the  parish- 

sehool  with  about  M  child;  held 

in  a  school-room  creeled  bv  subscription, 

.  Birmingham  is  in  "K 

-.arda^li.  !15  mi 

. 

i'or  two  weekly  m  -    but  these 

•  •nlrmicd,  and   the   pi:  .paralively 

.  d.    There  are  a  Human  ( 'alholic  chapi  I  and  a  small 

i.     There   were,  in  1s  .i...bitcil  by  (J2 

families,  and   1  IIOUMI   uninhabited :   with   a  population 


TIP 


491 


TI  P 


Newport  is  in  Kilvolane,  or  Killevolane,  parish,  in  the 
barony  of  Owney  and  Arra,  109  miles  S.W.  of  Dublin,  on 
the  road  to  Limerick.  It  had,  in  1831,  127  houses  inha- 
bited by  162  families,  24  houses  uninhabited,  and  12 
building ;  with  a  population  of  852.  The  houses  are  for 
the  most  part  neatly  built.  The  parish-church  is  in  the 
town ;  and  there  are  a  Roman  Catholic  chapel,  a  bride- 
well, a  dispensary,  and  infantry  barracks.  There  are  four 
yearly  fairs,  one  of  them  a  large  cattle-fair. 

Ballina  is  in  Templeichally,  Temple  Ichally,  or  Temple- 
kelly  parish,  in  the  barony  of  Owney  and  Arra,  on  the 
bank  of  the  Shannon,  near  where  it  leaves  Lough  Derg, 
opposite  Killaloe.  This  village  is  connected  with  Killaloe, 
of  which  it  may  be  considered  as  a  suburb,  by  a  bridge  of 
nineteen  arches  over  the  Shannon.  The  population  of  the 
village,  in  1831,  was  832.  There  is  a  Roman  Catholic 
cliapel ;  and  a  body  of  the  county  constabulary  are  posted 
here.  There  is  a  yearly  fair  for  pigs.  Near  the  bridge 
are  the  remains  of  a  castle  erected  to  defend  the  passage 
of  the  river. 

Emly  is  in  the  barony  of  Clanwilliam,  near  the  western 
border  of  the  county,  about  9  miles  west  of  Tipperary. 
It  is  of  great  antiquity.  An  abbey  of  regular  canons  of 
St.  Augustin  was  early  founded  here ;  and  the  town  sub- 
sequently became  the  seat  of  a  bishop's  see.  Some 
of  the  prelates  appear  to  have  exercised  temporal  power 
as  well  as  spiritual ;  and  one  of  them  in  particular,  in 
the  ninth  century,  distinguished  himself  as  a  warrior 
against  the  Danes.  King  John  granted  to  the  town  the 
privilege  of  holding  markets  and  fairs;  but  the  privilege 
of  a  market,  if  ever  used,  is  now  disused.  The  diocese  was 
united  to  that  of  Cashel  A.D.  15C8,  and  the  removal  of  its 
episcopal  seat  caused  the  decline  of  the  place.  It  had,  in 
1H31,  a  population  of  701.  A  body  of  the  county  consta- 
bulary are  posted  here  ;  and  there  are  two  yearly  fairs. 
The  parish  church  is  in  the  village,  and  there  is  a 
Roman  Catholic  chapel.  There  are  the  ruins  of  a  church 
and  a  large  stone  cross.  Some  antiquities  have  been 
dug  up  in  the  neighbourhood. 

Mullinahone  is  in  Kilvemnon  parish,  in  the  barony  of 
Slievardagh,  on  the  road  between  Callen  and  Fethard ; 
it  is  also  between  Carrick-on-Suir  and  the  Killenaule 
coal-district,  so  that  it  is  a  common  resting-place  for 
the  car-drivers  in  their  way  from  Carrick.  A  consider- 
able quantity  of  butter  is  sold  here  in  a  weekly  market 
(though  the  '^Aave  ranks  only  as  a  village),  held  on  Thurs- 
day, and  Bent  to  Kilkenny,  Clonmell,  or  Carrick.  There 
are  several  well-attended  yearly  fairs  for  cattle  and 
pigs,  and  a  body  of  the  county  constabulary  are  posted 
lere.  There  are  a  Roman  Catholic  chapel  and  a  dis- 
ry.  The  population  of  the  village,  in  1831,  was 
1 17r>. 

Silvermines  is  in  the  parish  of  Kilmore  and  the  barony 
of  Upper  Ormond,  about  5  or  6  miles  south  of  Nenagh. 
It  is  at  the  foot  of  the  north-western  slope  of  the  cen- 
tral hills,  and  takes  its  name  from  the  lead-mines  for- 
merly worked,  the  produce  of  wfiich  yielded  an  unusual 
quantity  of  silver.  The  population,  in  1831,  was  791. 
Some  of  the  houses  are  neatly  built :  the  parish  church 
and  a  Roman  Catholic  chapel  are  in  the  village,  and  there 
is  a  dispensary.  There  are  four  yearly  fairs. 

Toomavara,  or  Toomavarra,  is  in  the  parish  of  Aghna- 
meadle,  in  the  barony  of  Upper  Ormond,  between  Nenacrh 
and  Burris-o'-Leagh  ;  it  had,  in  183),  a  population  of  790  : 
are  a  Roman  Catholic  chapel,  a  national  school,  and 
a  dispensary  in  the  village.  There  are  at  least  two  yearly 
fairs,  and  a  body  of  the  county  constabulary  are  posted 
here. 

Divisions  for  Eccleticutical  and  Legal  Purposes. — This 
county  was  formed  at  what  is  commonly  deemed  to  be 
the  first  establishment  of  counties  in  Ireland,  by  King 
John,  A.n.  1210;  though  Sir  James  Ware  has  shown  that 
counties  or  some  equivalent  divisions  must  have  existed 
before  that  time.  The  county  was  subsequently  enlargeq* 
by  the  annexation  of  what,  was  called  '  Cross-Tipperarv ,'  :i 
district  having  a  sheriff  and  other  officers  distinct  from  the 
••y.  Antient  records  speak  of  the  '  Vice-Comes 
Crorcao  Tippcrjiry.' 

It  contains  the  whole  or  part  of  a  hundred  and  sixty- 
three  parishes.    (Pop.  Returns  for  1831.)     These  p:u 
ituti;  or  are  comprehended  in  one  hundred  and 
unions  or  other  ecclesiastical  benefices,  in  several  dioceses, 
08  follows  :— 


r 

h 


Diocese. 

Cashel 
Emly  . 
Killaloe 
Lismore 

Meath 


Total  Number 

of 
Beuetires. 

49 

9 

28 
22 

1 

10D 


Rectories 
and 

'  39  *"" 

7 

24 

20 

1 

91 


Perpetual 
Curi-s. 

2 
1 
2 


Cures. 

6 


P.irisltes 

e      \virtiout 

cure  of  souls. 

2 

1 

2 

1 


Cashel  was  an  archbishopric,  having  in  its  province  the 
united  dioceses  of  Cashel  and  Emly,  the  diocese  of  Cloyne, 
the  united  dioceses  of  Cork  and  Ross,  of  Killaloe  and 
Kilfenora,  of  Limerick,  Ardfert  and  Aghadoe  (which 
last  two  were  incorporated),  and  of  Waterford  and  Lis- 
more. By  the  Act  3  and  4  William  IV.,  c.  37,  a  further 
union  of  the  dioceses  of  Cashel  and  Emly  with  Waterford 
and  Lismore  was  enacted,  to  take  place  on  the  next  avoid- 
ance ;  and  this  union  has  now  been  effected.  The  greater 
part  of  the  county  is  in  this  united  diocese.  The  same 
Act  deprived  Cashel  of  its  archiepiscopal  rank,  on  the  de- 
cease of  the  then  existing  holder  of  the  see,  and  added  the 
province  to  that  of  Dublin  :  this  change  has  been  effected. 
The  only  part  of  the  county  in  the  diocese  of  Meath  is  the 
parish  of  Eglish,  which  is  partly  in  this  county  and  partly 
in  King's  County,  and  is  comprehended  in  the  ecclesiastical 
union  of  Fircal.  The  diocese  of  Meath  is  in  the  ecclesias- 
tical province  of  Armagh  ;  but  with  the  exception  of  the 
small  part  included  in  that  diocese,  the  rest  of  the  county 
is  in  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Dublin. 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  church  the  archbishop  of  Cashel 
retains  his  dignity,  and  is  primate  of  Munster.  His  cathe- 
dral is  at  Thurles.  His  province  includes  the  united  dio- 
ceses of  Cashel  and  Emly,  of  Cloyne  and  Ross,  and  of 
Waterford  and  Lismore,  and  the  dioceses  of  Cork,  Kerry, 
Killaloe,  and  Limerick.  In  which  of  these  dioceses  the 
county  is  included  we  have  no  means  of  ascertaining  ex- 
actly ;  but  the  greater  part,  if  not  the  whole,  is  included 
in  those  of  Cashel  and  Emly,  Killaloe,  and  Waterford  and 
Lismore. 

The  county  is  included  in  the  Leinster  circuit ;  the 
assizes  are  held  at  Clonmell :  the  county-gaols  are  at  Clon- 
mell and  Nenagh,  the  latter  very  lately  erected;  and 
there  are  bridewells  at  Cahir,  Clogheen,  Tipperary,  Cashel, 
New  Birmingham,  Thurles,  Templemore,  Roscrea,  Nenagh 
(we  are  not  sure  if  this  is  continued  since  the  completion 
of  the  county-gaol),  Burris-o'-Kane,  Newport,  and  Carrick- 
on-Suir.  The  county-gaol  at  Clonmell  comprehends  a 
gaol,  house  of  correction,  and  sheriffs'-prison :  the  house 
of  correction  is  under  very  good  management ;  the  silent 
system  of  prison  discipline  is  acted  upon,  the  prison  not 
being  adapted  for  the  introduction  of  the  separate  system. 
Considerable  improvements  had  been  made  in  the  sheriffs'- 
prison  according  to  the  '  Nineteenth  Report  of  the  Prison 
Inspectors '  (1841),  the  last  we  have  seen ;  but  a  complete 
system  of  discipline  could  not  be  introduced  until  the  re- 
moval of  part  of  the  prisoners  to  Nenagh  gaol,  which  was 
not  then  completed.  The  bridewells  are  many  of  them  in 
a  bad  state ;  those  of  Cahir,  Cashel,  and  Templemore  are 
miserably  dilapidated,  and  that  at  Cahir  very  badly  ma- 
naged ;  those  of  New  Birmingham,  Burris-o'-Kane,  and 
Tipperary,  insecure  and  altogether  insufficient:  Carrick 
bridewell,  though  new,  is  badly  finished  and  ill-managed 
by  the  keeper  ;  and  that  at  Clogheen,  though  in  tolerable 
good  order,  falls  very  far  short  of  the  well-regulated  bride- 
wells of  other  counties  :  those  of  Newport,  Nenagh,  Roscrea, 
and  Thurles  (the  last  a  large  prison)  are  in  good  order. 
(Inspectors'  Report,  1841.)  It  is  stated  in  a  note  to  that 
Report,  that  great  improvement  has  been  made  in  seve- 
ral of  these  prisons  since  the  inspectors'  visit. 

The  number  of  criminal  offenders  committed  for  trial  in 
1839  was  2110,  being  greater  than  in  any  county  of 
Ireland,  except  the  metropolitan  county  (including  the 
city)  of  Dublin  ;  and  more  than  twice  as  great  as  in  any 
other  county,  except  only  Cork  (including  the  city  of 
Cork) ;  Gahvay  (including  the  town  of  Galway) ;  Limerick 
(including  the  city  of  Limerick),  and  Kerry ;  and  of  these 
the  only  one  which  approached  it  was  Cork  (1932  com- 
mittals), which  had  more  than  twice  the  population  ;  the 
others  barely  exceed  half  the  number  in  Tipperary,  though 
Gahvay  rather  exceeds  it  in  population ;  Limerick  has 
about  three-fourths  of  the  population  of  Tipperary,  and 
Kerry  nearly  two-thirds.  So  far  therefore  as  the  number 
3  J  3  R  2 


T  i  r 


of  committals  is  a,  test  of  the  state  of  crime,  Tipperary  thnt 
.  xceeded  all  other  counties  in  Ireland,  c\c.  pt  that 
lilin,  and  in  most  cases  vcr.  them.  <  >'. 

j  I  in  person*   committed,    IMC   wen  nml 

1  liil  aciiuitlcd  or  discharged  ;  9  of  the  convi'  • 
lor  capital  offences,  and  4  of  the  criminals  were  executed. 
- 10  the  number  of  committals  was   1  , unity 

(.till  retaining,  or  nearly  so,  its  unhappy  pre-eminence :  of 
live  persons  committed,  718  were  convicted,  and  02 
c|»iltfd  or  discharged ;  5  of  the  convictions  were  for  capital 
ottcuce.s,  but  no  piT-oiis  were  executed.  A  large  propor- 
tion ol  Ilit'  olt'r  murders,  manslaughter*,  assaults, 
and  other  violent  oli'cnces,  indicative  of  the  prevalent 
tendency  to  di-'nrl.ance  and  insubordination. 

The  county   returns  two  members  to  parliament,  who 

1  at  Clonmell ;  and  one  incmher  each  is  returned 

irom  the  borough  of  Clonmell  and  the  city  of  Cashel.   The 

HiimlH-r  of  registered  eleetors  for  the  county  in  February  of 

•7,  and  18-H,  was  ;LS  follows:— 

SOI.  SOI.  20f.  lot.  in/.      llolilrnof 

Free-  Lmi«-        Free-        Ix-asc-     a rent- 

holder*.        holders,      holtlero,    huM*r».    holders,    charge.    1V;J. 

I*i5       COO         lUil  '2          1-15!)  2  1 

1837      rtl        437          13         177:!        51  5 

isn     7;>2      3io        K>      1217     120      44     2302 

The  number  of  voters  in  Clonmell  and  Cashel,  in  the 
same  three  years,  was  at>  follows  : — 


w. 


IK35 
1S37 
1841 


1RJ3 

1H37 
isll 


1X11 

MQ 

302 

207 


TKI.L. 
:/. 

Freemen. 

'.  '.  '.Mi 

100 


TiH.il. 

686 

7!  »5 

C87 


308 
353 


Bcfore  the  Union  the  county  returned  eight  memK 
the  Irish  parliament,  namely.  two  for  the  county  itself,  and 
two  lach  tor  Clonmell,  Cashel,  and   Kotlmrd,  but   the 
was  disfranchise  nion,  and  Cashel  and  Clonmell 

rcdured  to  one  member  each  :  no  change  in  the  number 
of  members  was  made  by  the  Reform  Act. 

The  amount  of  grand  jury  presentments  for  the  years 
nl  1H40  was  as  follows  :— 

IMC. 

New  roads,  bridges,  &c.     .£  2,21!)  13    5    £3,10513    (I 
Impairs  of  roads,  &c.     .      .    ln.s/1    17    7      2-I.S3I     8 
(  'uiirt  and  Sessions  houses, 

lion  anil  repair*  ol     .         :••*>     I)     ()         C.IKK!   10     0 
Gaols,  bridewclli-,  S:e.. 

tion  and  repairs  of     .      .     3,!)!)!)   17     1         4,098     0  11 
County  gaol  and  bridewell, 

.     0,77C    8     1         8,001  13    2 

Salaries  to  ulliccrs  in  u'aoU         237     0     8  :«)2  13     0 

Constabulary    police.    puy- 

nienls  to  witnesses,  Jiic.   .    17,i!l5   11      2       17,337   15     4 
Salaries  to  county  of) 

1 
1 
i 


lectors'  poi  .      5,071     3     3          5,518     (i 

Public  charities        .      .      .     (..His   17     1         '/.  I-',!  18 

L!.;*(>7  11 

2.33s   13     ( 


Repayments  to  goveraoMal     1,1)5:)    1  n 

.  -llancuu*      ....     2,834   13     7 


527    3  10    £82,241)     2  11 

The  county  constabulary  on  the  1st  January,  1840,  and 

1H|  I.  :  :— 

Hi-ad 
T«.  Coofttaljln.  ConiUblci.    Cxnutul-li-it.        Horse*. 


•    '2nd  3rd       lit    1'u.l 
rale    rate.  rate.  rntc.  mte.  rnle. 


l.l 


Sod 

r  .'.• 


IRIO    2      445      2     15  I     170        not 

J       .".    7     3       2     1  r.:!l       7!l          17 

The  whole  expenditure  on  the  constabulary  force  in  the 
yearlK3:i  nd  in  1840,1  •-.  lo,/ 

The    amount  of  the  constabulary  force   and  the  cost  ol 
maintaining  it  ore  greater  than  in  any  other  county  in 
Ireland. 
There  is  a  county  lunalic  asylum  at  Clonmell;  which  in 

'•i,   I'-.ll.  i-onl-.i 
an  expense  of  'i-^l. : : 
ur  ZU.  (i».  9rf.  for  each  patient.    There  i*  a  county  in- 


T  i  r 

iirnmry  fit  Clonmell,  into  which  the  following  number  of 
patient!  were  admitted:  — 

In-l'atirnu.        IhiM'.itimU.  TnUl. 

470B 

1830  27H  -17.'!) 

326  7700 

There  are  liver  hospitals  at  Hurris-o'-Kane.  Cahir, 
Carrick-on-Suir,  Cashel,  Clogheen,  Clonmell,  Clou'lijoulan, 
Nenagh,  Uoscrea,  Templemore,  and  Tippcrarv  :  and  dis- 
pensaries at  Ballinsriirry.  liallymackay,  HaliynKin'y  and 
Kilcooley,  Hallyporcen.  BirdMll,  Houruey,  Uurris-o'-l.i-auh, 
Hunis-o'-K:uH^  Cahir.  Ca])])airhwlnte,  Carrick-on-Suir, 
Cloirheen.  (Monniell,  Cloghjonlan,  l)rancan.  Hundnim, 
l-'ethard.  Golden,  Grancemoekler,  Killcnaulc.  Kilshelan, 
Littlt'on,  Lorrha,  Mnlliiiahone,  Ni'iiairh.  Newcastle,  New- 
port, Portroe,  Poulmucca,  Koserca.  Rosegreen,  Sil  vejmiaeti 
1'emplemore,  Teni]>letuohy,  Thomastown,  Thurles,  Tippc- 
rary.  and  Toomavara. 

History  and  Anlii]ititirs.  —  Sir  .lames  \Vnre  siipposes  that 
the  Coriondi  i  Kopioi^oc)  and  the  Udiae,  or  rather  I  odi 


I  odiac 

11),  of  Ptolemy,  occupied  this  county  and  the  adjacent 
ones  to  the  west  anil  south-west.  We  think  it  not  impro- 
bable that  the  Briirantes  Hp/ynrr^  may  have  occupied 
the  south-eastern  parts,  while  the  Uodiae  occupied  the 
south-western. 

In  the  division  which  prevailed  before  the  Enuli-Oi  con- 
quest the  following  territories  are  noticed  by 
Ware  as  corresponding  to  portions  of  this  comity  :  — 

.Irailli-i'liarh:  probably  the  half-barony  of  Arm.  in  the 
western  part  of  the  county,  on  the  bank  of  Lough  Dcrij 
and  of  the  Shannon. 

Corca-Eatlir'icli:   the  territory  round   Cashel,  compre- 
hending part  of  the  Vale  of  Goulin,  or  Golden  Vale.  Some 
I  consider  the  territory  of  North  Desiesto  be  identical 
with  this. 

KiiS'marht:  a  name  common  to  a  sept  or  clan,  and  to 
the  territory  occupied  by  them  near  Thurles. 

Hij-Fiigurta:  the  country  of  the  sept  of  OTogarty,  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Thurles. 

Hy-Kfri»  :  the  country  of  the  sept  of  O'Meneher.  This 
territory  has  retained  its  name  with  little  alteration,  being 
now  the  barony  of  Ikerin. 

Mufi-iaifn-Tliii-i-,  or  .Vnsrniighe-TMre:  the  country 
the   sept    of   Kennedy,  now   the    baronies   of  Upper  and 
Lower  Ormond,  :i  name  which  signifies  East  .Minister. 

In  tin    iaiU    periods  of   Irish   history  these   tern' 
appear  to  have    been   divided    between  the    kimrdo 
Thomond  or  North  Minister,  governed  by  princes  o'l   the 
-Man  race;   and  Desmond,  01  South  Minister,  held  l'\ 
princes  of  the  Koganacht  or  Kugeniau  family;  the  ]••• 
of  which  two  kingdoms  appear  to   have  possessed   in  alter- 
nate   succession    the    paramount    dominion    of    Minister. 
Karly  in  the  ninth  century,  soon  after  the  landing  of  tl  e 
Northmen  or  Dams    or  as  they  are  usually  termed  in  Irish 
history,  from  the  position   of  their  Original   country  with 
;rr    to   Ireland,    the    (•si-men,   or   Ka-t-men      under 
their  king  Tnrgesius,  Feidlim  Mac-Crimthan.  king  o: 
monil.  held  the  paramount  sovereignty  of  Minister.     The 
capital   of  his  kingdom  was  Ca-hcl.     His  course,  which 
was  one  of  violence  and  tyranny,  was  marked  by  success  : 
he   was   victorious  over  tlie   chieftains  of  Connaught   and 
over  the  king  of  Meath,  the  nominal  sovereign  of  all  Ire- 
land.     At  the   •  .iient    ol   the   tenth   century  the 

were    united    ill    Cormac 

MacCulimui,  bishop  of  Cashel  and  kiiiir  of  MunMer.  of  the 
act  race.    He  was  not  the  iirst  of  his  family  in  whom 
had   been  combined.     In  907  he  defeated 
Klann-Siona,  king  of  Meath  and  titular  monarch  of  Ireland, 
on  the  heath  of  Moylcna,  in  King's  County;    but  having 
attempted    to    enforce    the    tribute   which  'the    people  of 
Leinster  had  been  compelled  reluctantly  to   pay   i 
I  Munster,  he  was  defeated  and  siain     \.K'.  IKi'- 
nister  forces,  supported  by  the  monarch  of  Ireland 
and  the  princes  of  the  northern  part  of  the  island.   Coimae 
built  a  chapel  at  Ca-hel,  which  still   retains   his  name,  and 
1'iiled  author  of  the  history  commonly  called 
•  The  Psalter  of  Cashel.' 

Callachan,  who  was  king  of  Cashel  towards  the  middle 
of  the  tenth  century,  appears  in  the  history  of  this  troubled 
period  a,  an  acfi\i>  but  unprincipled  \vairior.     II 
render  v,-n  subjects  into  the  hand  •  ol  Miirkrrlach, 

of  to  the  monarchy  of  Ireland.    In  the  latiei 
part  of  the  same  century  the  throne  ol  Munster  was  occu- 


TIP 


493 


T  I  P 


pied  successively  by  Mahon  and  his  brother  Brian  Borornh, 
or  Bp>nimhe,  or  Boru,  two  princes  of  the  Dalcassian  family, 
the  latter  of  whom  acquired  the  monarchy  of  Ireland.  At 
the  commencement  of  the  twelfth  century  (A.D.  1101) 
Murkertach,  king  of  Munster,  gave  over  the  city  of  Cashel 
to  the  church,  dedicating  it  to  God  and  St.  Patrick.  The 
holders  of  the  see  of  Cashel  had  previously  assumed  the 
rank  of  archbishops. 

In  the  English  invasion,  Henry  II.  (A.D.  1172)  summoned 
an  assembly  of  the  Irish  prelates  and  princes  at  Cashel, 
where  the  sovereignty  of  the  English  king  was  recognised, 
and  various  regulations  made,  increasing  the  power  of  the 
clergy,  and  more  completely  assimilating  the  practices  of 
the  Irish  church  to  those  of  the  church  of  Rome.  Tip- 
perary, or  part  of  it  at  least,  seems  to  have  remained  under 
the  dominion  of  Donald  of  the  sept  of  O  Brien,  native 
prince  of  Thomond  and  Ormond,  subject  to  the  nominal 
sovereignty  of  the  English  king.  In  the  irregular  warfare 
which  followed  Henry's  departure  from  Ireland,  a  body  of 
Anglo-Normans  under  Richard,  earl  of  Strigul,  surnamed 
Strongbow,  and  governor  or  commander  in  Ireland,  and  of 
Hervey  of  Mount-Morris,  entered  the  county  (A.D.  1174) 
to  attack  Donald  O'Brien,  and  advanced  as  far  as  Cashel, 
where  they  were  to  be  joined  either  by  a  department 
from  the  Anglo-Norman  garrison  of  Dublin  or  by  a  body 
of  Ost-men  from  that  city :  but  this  detachment  was  sur- 
prised near  Thurles  by  Donald,  and  put  to  the  sword  almost 
without  resistance  ;  and  Strongbow  and  Hervey  retreated 
to  \Vaterford.  The  invaders  appear  to  have  crossed  the 
county  again  the  same  year,  in  their  march  to  Limerick 
(which  was  also  under  the  dominion  of  Donald),  which 
they  succeeded  in  taking.  In  A.D.  1175  a  consider- 
able Anglo-Norman  force  with  a  body  of  native  allies 
entered  the  county  under  Raymond  Le  Gros,  marching  to 
the  relief  of  Limerick,  to  which  Donald  O'Brien  had  laid 
siege.  The  Irish,  hearing  of  their  approach,  advanced,  and 
entrenched  themselves  in  a  defile  near  Cashel,  where  they 
were  defeated  with  great  slaughter :  the  garrison  of  Lime- 
rick was  relieved,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Shannon  or  of 
Lough  Derg,  near  Killaloe,  the  victorous  Raymond  received 
the  submission  not  only  of  Donald  O'Brien,  but  of  Roderick 
O'Connor,  titular  king  of  Ireland ;  and  exacted  hostages 
from  both  for  the  faithful  performance  of  the  engagements 
into  which  they  entered. 

This  county  was  probably  included  in  the  grant  of  the 
principality  of  Thomond  to  Philip  de  Braosa  (A.D.  1177), 
but  the  prudence  or  the  cowardice  of  that  noble  prevented 
his  dispossessing  Donald  O'Brien,  who  still  retained  posses- 
sion. In  A.D.  1185,  while  prince  (afterwards  king)  John 
was  in  Ireland,  sent  over  by  his  father,  as  lord  of  the 
island,  the  Anglo-Normans  erected  castles  at  Tipperary 
and  Ardfinnan  in  this  county;  that  of  Ardflnnan  was  how- 
i'ver  soon  taken  by  Donald,  who,  in  A.D.  1190,  defeated  the 
Anglo-Normans  under  William,  earl-marshal  (who  had 
married  Strongbow's  only  child  and  succeeded  to  the  Irish 
•  s  of  that  nobleman)  near  Thurles.  Donald  died  A.D. 
1194.  The  oldest  part  of  the  present  cathedral  of  Cashel 
was  built  by  him.  Tipperary  appears  to  have  passed  in 
the  course  of  a  few  years  afterwards  into  the  hands  of  the 
Anglo-Normans,  as  it  was  one  of  the  counties  erected  by 
King  John  (A.D.  1210),  during  his  expedition  to  Ireland, 
:it  the  head  of  a  considerable  army.  It  is  probable  that 
the  northern  part  at  least  of  the  county  was  part  of  the 
seat  of  war  (A.D.  1274-1277)  between  the  O'Briens,  who 
retained  a  portion  of  Thomond,  and  the  Anglo-Norman,  or 
e  may  now  term  them,  Anglo-Irish  family  of  the  De 
Clares. 

It  is  probable  that  the  Septs  and  their  Irish  allies  were 

iu  this  county  (A.D.  1317)  in  the  invasion  of  Ireland  by 

Edward  Bruce  and   his  brother  King  Robert,  since  they 

ravaged  the  country  from  Kilkenny  as  far  as  Limerick. 

In  A.D.   1328  the  royal   privileges  in  the   county  were 

granted  to  James  Butler,  earl  of  Carrick,  now  created  also 

if  Ormond ;  these  royalties  were  long  retained  by  the 

carls  of  Oimond.     In  A.D.  1330  Brien  O'Brien,  prince  of 

Thomond,  ravaged  the  county  and  burned  the  towns  of 

Athsuwel  (near  Cashel)  and  Tipperary  to  the  ground.     In 

the  i  Diarchy  which  was  contemporaneous  with 

the  war  of  the  Roses  m  England,  and  continued  long  after 

war  was  closed,  the  county  was  included  in  the  scene 

ronlf>N  between  the  rival  septs  or  families 

of  the  duraldines,  to  which  belonged  the  earls  of  Desmond 

ICildare,  and  of  the  Butlers,  at  the  head  of  which  was 


the  earl  of  Ormond.  The  burning  of  the  cathedral  of 
Cashel  was  one  of  the  charges  brought  against  the  Earl  of 
Kildare  in  his  examination  before  the  privy  council  (A.D. 
1496).  His  reply  to  the  charge  was  characteristic  :  '  Spare 
your  evidence,'  said  he ;  '  I  did  burn  the  church :  for  I 
thought  the  bishop  had  been  in  it.' 

In  the  great  civil  war  in  1642,  Clonmell,  Cashel,  Carrick- 
on-Suir,  Fethard,  and  all  the  other  towns  in  Tipperary,  were 
seized  by  the  insurgents,  or,  as  they  were  termed,  '  the  Con- 
federates,' almost  at  the  first  outbreak  in  the  central  and 
southern  provinces.  At  Cashel,  Fethard,  and  Silvermines 
there  were  some  murders  committed :  those  at  Cashel  were 
perpetrated  by  the  relatives  of  some  persons  recently  put 
to  death  by  Sir  W.  St.  Ledger,  president  of  Munster,  who 
had  previously  entered  the  county  with  two  troops  of  horse 
and  exercised  great  severity.  The  Ear]  of  Inchiquin,  who 
commanded  in  Munster  for  the  parliament,  invaded  the 
county  A.D.  1647,  took  Cahir  by  capitulation,  and  stormed 
Cashel,  where  he  mercilessly  slaughtered  twenty  priests 
and  an  unresisting  multitude  who  had  taken  shelter  in  the 
cathedral.  He  levied  contributions  in  all  the  neighbour- 
hood, and  was  prevented  from  taking  Clonmell  only  by 
Want  of  provisions.  When  Cromwell  invaded  Ireland,  and 
(A.D.  1649)  was  opposed  by  the  Royalists  and  Confederates, 
now  united  under  the  Earl  of  Ormond  (to  whom  Lord 
Inchiquin,  shocked  at  the  execution  of  the  king,  had  joined 
himself),  a  detachment  from  his  army  took  Carriek-on-Suir, 
where  Cromwell  himself  crossed  the  river  to  besiege 
Waterford.  A  body  of  Royalists  under  Lords  Inchiquin 
and  Taafe,  attempting  to  retake  Carrick  (24th  October), 
was  repulsed  with  severe  loss.  Ormond  with  the  main 
body  of  his  army  was  about  this  time  near  Clonmell  watch- 
ing Cromwell,  whom  sickness  and  the  approach  of  winter 
obliged  to  raise  the  siege  of  Waterford ;  soon  after  which 
Ormond  withdrew  to  Kilkenny,  having  posted  a  consider- 
able body  of  Ulster  men  at  Clonmell. 

About  the  latter  end  of  February,  1650,  Cromwell 
opened  the  campaign  by  taking  Cahir,  Cashel,  Fethard, 
Clogheen,  and  other  places  in  this  or  the  adjacent  counties ; 
and  in  the  course  of  the  following  April  laid  siege  to  Clon- 
mell. This  siege  cost  him  more  trouble  and  loss  than  any 
other  part  of  his  Irish  expedition :  he  lost  above  2000  men 
in  a  fruitless  assault ;  however  after  a  siege  of  two  months 
the  place  was  obliged  to  surrender  for  want  of  ammuni- 
tion :  the  garrison  had  previously  withdrawn  to  Waterford 
without  Cromwell's  knowledge,  and  the  townsmen  obtained 
good  conditions,  Cromwell  supposing  that  the  garrison 
was  still  in  the  town.  In  1651  Ireton,  who  was  after  Crom- 
well's departure,  general-in-chief  for  the  parliament,  con- 
centrated his  army  at  Cashel  and  marched  to  the  bank  of 
the  Shannon,  over  which  he  forced  a  passage  at  Killaloe. 
On  the  restoration  of  royalty  in  Ireland,  which  rather  pre- 
ceded its  restoration  in  England,  Clonmell  was  one  of 
the  towns  occupied  by  the  Royalists. 

In  the  war  ot  the  Revolution  Clonmell  was  abandoned 
by  the  Jacobites  on  William's  advance  toward  the  south 
after  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  (A.D.  1690).  William,  after  his 
unsuccessful  siege  of  Limerick,  retired  with  his  army  to 
Clonmell,  and  there  leaving  them,  proceeded  to  Duncannon 
and  embarked  for  England. 

In  the  rebellion  of  1798  this  county  was  not  involved ; 
and  though  it  has  been  the  scene  of  much  agrarian  disturb- 
ance, there  has  been  no  serious  outbreak  to  require  particu- 
lar record. 

{Map  of  Ireland,  by  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of 
Useful  Knowledge ;  Second  Report  of  the  Irish  Railway 
Commissioners;  Geological  Transactions;  Lewis's  anil 
Carlisle's  Topographical  Dictionaries  of  Ireland ;  The  Tra- 
veller's New  Guide  through  Ireland ;  The  Scientific  Tourist 
in  Ireland;  Parliamentary  Papers ;  Ware's  History  and 
Antiquities  of  Ireland;  Cox's  HiberniaAnglicana;  Moore's 
History  of  Ireland ;  Gordon's  History  of  Ireland;  Dr.  W. 
C.  Taylor's  Civil  Wars  of  Ireland ;  &c.) 

TIPPOO  SAIB,  sultan  of  Mysore,  was  born  in  the  year 
1749.  His  father  Hyder  Aly  Khan  [HYDER  ALY],  sensible 
of  the  disadvantages  under  which  he  himself  laboured  from 
want  of  education,  procured  for  his  son  the  best  masters 
in  all  the  sciences  which  are  cultivated  by  the  Moham- 
medans. But  Tippoo,  although  he  had  acquired  a  taste 
for  reading,  did  not  make  any  considerable  progress,  and 
he  preferred  martial  exercises,  into  which  he  was  initiated 
at  an  early  age.  The  French  officers  in  the  employment 
of  his  father  instructed  him  in  tactics ;  and  in  1767,  when 


T  I  P 


194 


T  I  P 


Hrder  Aly  overran  the  Carnal  ic,  Tippoo  was  enfolded  with 
the  command  of  a  corp*  of  cavalry.  He  was  at  thai  time 
niiii-tovii  yean  of  nge  ;  but  the  success  with  which  he  car- 
ried on  the  war  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Madraaauflk-icutly 
1  how  m.ich  he  liiul  profited  by  bin  European  teachers. 
During  tin-  war  with  the  Mahrattaa,  which  luted 

ppoo  acquired  the  universal  esteem  of  tlir 

i  high  in  the  fevourof  his  father  ami 

mi's,  that  the  left  division  of  the  Mysore  army, 

put  under  hit  commainl.     With  this  farce  Tipp< 

.iley  in  the  neighbourhood  of  1'cmiihaknm.  on 
^eptember,  17-M'      il  -d  to  retire;  but 

on  ti.  'he  same  month  an  engagement .  in  which 

-aid  to  have  taken  an  active  part,  ended  in 
defeat  of  the  English  army,      i  ^r  tin- 

war  .  natic  |?ave  him  opportunities  of  perfecting 

himself  in  the  art  of  war;  and  on  the  18th  of  February, 

he  showed  hi*  skill  in  the  attack  and  complete  de- 
feat of  Colonel  Braithwaite,  on  Uie  banks  of  the  Kolerun. 
This  was  undoubtedly  his  greatest  stroke  of  generalship.  A 

uonths  afterwards  he  was  obliged  to  move  towards  the 
south,  in  order  to  meet  the  English  troops  in  the  provinces 

.njore  and   Malwa,  under  the  command  of  Colonel 
Humbert.son.     On  the  20th  of  November  Tippoo  found 
the  K:i_-iish  at  1'aniany.     He  made  a  vigorous  attack,  but 
id  compelled  to  retreat.    He  crossed  the 
river  I'.iniany.  and  prepared  himself  for  another  engage- 
ment, when,  on  th«  llth  of  December,  1782,  he  received 
intelligence  of  the  death  of  his  father.     On  the  lS)th  he 
iganatam,  where  he  mounted  the  musnud  with- 
.mny.  Hehadscarcely  performed 

the  Imu-ral  rites  of  liis  father  when  he  returned  to  A  root. 
and  assumed  the  command  of  his  army.  But  whilst  he  was 
engaged  in  the  Carnatic  General  Matthews  took  On  or*, 
and  the  country  of  Hednore  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Ens  - 
lish.  In  order  to  regain  these  more  valuable  possession;, 
Tippoo  was  obliged  to  relinquish  his  conquest  in  the  <  'ar- 
HHtic,  and  by  the  end  of  March,  1783,  scarce  a  Mys 
was  left  in  that  country.  His  operations  were  so  rapid 
Kiul  successful,  that  on  the  2Hth  of  April  Tippoo  Sail)  had 
already  reduced  the  garrison  of  Hednore  to  the  ni 

.minting.  General  Matthews  and  several  of  the 
pnncipal  officers  were  barbarously  put  to  death.  After  the 
reduction  of  this  city,  it  was  Tippoo's  object  to  repossess 
himself  of  Mangalorc,  the  principal  seaport  in  his  do- 
minions. But  the  place  was  well  defended  ;  and  in  the 
midst  of  his  preparations  for  the  assault  accounts  were  re- 

1  in  the  camp  of  peace  having  been  concluded  be- 
tween Kngland  and  France.     It  was  early  in  July,  17K'i, 
when  M.  de  Hussy,  in  consequence  of  this  news,  declined 
to  act  any  lunger  against  the  English.     He  quitted  the 
ramp  with  his  detachment.    A  considerable  reinforcement 
having  arrived  under  General  Macleod,  Tippoo  agreed  to 
a  suspension  of  arms  ;  and  early  in  the  year  17Ht  Sir  George 
iStaunton  and  two  other  ambassadors  from 
in  the  camp,  and  on  the  llth  of  March  a  treaty  of  \- 
which  stipulated  for  the  liberation  of  all  the  pnsoners  and 
the  restitution  of  all  places  taken  by  either  party  during 
the  war,  was  concluded.    About  the  end  of  the  sain. 
Tippoo    concluded  a  treaty  of  pi-ace  with    the  court  of 

ih.  He  then  returned  to  Seringapatam,  and  assumed 
the  title  of . Sultan,  thereby  throwing  off  all  dependence  on 
or  all'  i  he  captive  llaja  'imprisoned  by  his  fatherl 

or  the  Great  Mogul. 

In  1788  he  occupied  himself  with  internal  n 
and  from  an  inventory  made   at  this  pen  !   that 

the  treasure,  jewels,  and  other  valual  esti- 

mated at  eighty  millions  sterling.     He   i  >ni  ele- 

phants. lilKK)  camels,  11,000  horses.   -KNMKKI   Imllorks  au-l 

KKMHHI  buffaloes,  (XIO.UMI   sheep.  :«XUK« 
300,000  matchlocks,   'JdO.OttO   sword-,  and   Sum 
iid   an    immense   quantity   of  gunji 

military  stores.  HU  regular  army  consisted  of  IK.INHI 
c*val  »)  artillery,  and  7(1. (KM')  infantry,  li 

also  "il Mi  roelii.-t-men.  and  40,1X10  irregular  infantry. 

ing   the    yearn   17*7  and  17KK  the  attention  of  the 
Sultan  was  principally  engaged  in  the  conversion  ai 
jeqtion  of  the  Nairn,  or  <•:  abar.     lie  i-  siid  to 

have  carried  aw  70.IMXH  'lni-tian-.  and 

<ve  made  Muwi  IIKMKKI   Hindus.     This  he 

effected  by  forcible  circumcision,  and  compelling  them  to 
eat  beef. 


It  was  about  IhU  time  th*t  he  published  an  edict  forlhc 

destruction  of  rill  the   llil'dll  temples  I'.i   til-  dolun I-.  i'\- 

ih.      Por- 

-  officers  did  in ••  'ibnrous  regula- 

tion. 

Although  Tippoo  Sultan  did  not  show  any  overt  hos- 
tility toward  the    English  after  he  had  sigi  .ry  of 

>t  in  17<7  he  sent  an  cmbns-y  to   i 
into  an  otlcn-i\.-  and  defensive   : 
the  court    of  Versailles   to   a   i>]'. 
with    Kngland.      The    ambassadors    returned    t 
patam  in  the  month  of   May.   I7^!>.   without   1 
tamed    their   iibjt-ct.     The  disappointed    Si 
rage  by  putting  two  of  them  to  death 
his  inte-,  -•-.    Tipjioo  hated  1l>;  lintish  ]u>  • 
he  took  every  opportunity  to  annov  such    of  the   i 
as  were  under  its  protection.  The  Raja  of  Tra\» 
hud  by  the  treaty  of  Mangalore  stipulated  fur  the  security 
of   his   territories.      In    April.    1"!HI,  Tippoo   invnrled   the 
country  and  subjected  the  whole  of  the  northern  district. 
The  reasons  assigned  by  Tippoo  for  the  infraction  of  the 

of  the   treat v  were   that    two  fort-, 
and  .lyacotta,  which  were  on  the  northern  hoi 
the  RJija's  possession,  had  belonged  to  his  father, 
aggression  was  considered  by  the  English  equivalent  to 
a  declaration  of  war,  and  Colonel  II;'  -'-nt  with  a 

considerable  detachment  to  the  ja.    At 

this  intelligence  Tippoo  withdrew  his  army  from  Travan- 

iiul  returned  to  Seringapatam,  when,  to  his  d:- 
he  heard  that,  the  Mahrattas  and  the  Ni/am  had  piv 
the  English  a  zealous  co-o)ieration  with  their  Ic 

On  the  15th  of  June,  17!K),  the  English  troops,  under  the 
command  of  General  Met!  d  the  Sultan's  terri- 

tory, and  took  possession  of  the  fort  of  Carur  without  re- 
sistance.    Daraporani  and  Coinibatore  were  shortly  aller- 
\\aids  reduced.  About  the  same  time  a  detachment,  under 
Colonel  Stuart,  captured  Dindigul  and  1'aligantehery.  The 
movements  and  operations  of  the  English  forces  were  so 
well  conducted,  that  Tippoo  found  himself  unab1' 
them,  and  he  resolved  to  follow  the  plan  of 
by  his  father  :  instead  of  defending  his  own  te- 

tste  those  of  his  enemy.  Tins  he  did  with  considerable 

ability;  for  in  the  beginning  of  1~!>1  the  English,  instead 

of  being  masters  of  great    part  of  Mysore,  as  they  bad  ex- 

i.  found  themselves  attacked  and  annoyed  in  the  very 

neighbourhood  of  Madras. 

On  the  'Jittli  of  January,  1791,  Lord  Cornwallis  assumed 
the  command  of  the  army,  and  on  the  llth  of  the 
month  he  was  at  Vellore."    On  the  21st  of  March  the  fort 
df  Bangalore  was  taken  by  storm.    On  thi-  :m>oo 

retired    to   some   distance,  and  wrote   to   Lord  Cornwallis, 
requesting  a  truce.    This  was  refused,  and  he  proceeded  to 

.mi,  leaving  his  army  under  the  comm 

of  his  generals,  to  watch  t.  of  tin-  l-'n  -'>li.      On 

the  3rd  of  May  Lord  Cornwallis  \\  •.  ithin 

sight  of  tin  .Mpital :   but  his  : 

great  deal  from  want  of  fond  and  forage,  and  he  was  coni- 
towards Bangalore.    The  Mahratia- • 

rer  to  his  assistance,  and  the  warfare  was  carried  on 
with  great  slice 

.ever,  whilst  the  English  were  earning  on  their  suc- 

ins    in    the    north-w. 
the  Sultan  made  a  diversion  (<"• 
to  the   south  of  v 

with  the  whole  i  era  made   •  The 

skill  of  Tip;  i  enabled   him  to  protract  the  war  till 

the  month  of  February,  17!'-,  when  the  allies    Hie  K< 
the  Mahrattas,  and  tl.:  "-imped  iu 

of  the  capital.      Hut    it  was  not  until  General  Aber- 
1  united   his  fon  of  Lord  Cornwallis, 

and  bad  determined  to  take   the  town   by  storm,   that   the 
haughty  mind  of  the  Sultan  was  humbled.     He 

me  half  of  his  dominions,  and  to  pay  thorn 
in  the  course  of  twel.  IM  of  three  Kroies  and 

thirty  lacs  of  rupees    :i,o:tl).(KHI/.  all  the  i 

ers.  and  to  deliver  up  I  dul- 

khalik   and    M«  i   the  two 

princes,  and   the   attention   and  kindii-  ''  by  Lord 

Cornwallis  towards  t:  iiii.rh- 

est  gratification  to  the  Sul' 

definitive  treaty  of  the  Ifatl  the  Sultan 

one  half  of  his  dominions.  L  .itteil 

the  neighbourhood  of  Scrin.gnpatain,  and  Tippoo  sought 


T  I  R 


495 


T  I  R 


the  means  of  replenishing  his  treasury.  This  was  soon 
done  by  imposing  exorbitant  and  extraordinary  taxes, 
which  were  chiefly  levied  upon  the  agriculturists. 

Notwithstanding  this  seeming  tranquillity  from  1792  to 
1796,  the  Sultan  was  engaged  in  inciting  all  the  native 
chiefs  against  the  British  power  in  India ;  but  it  was  not 
until  1798  that  the  whole  extent  of  his  secret  machina- 
tions and  intrigues  became  known.  At  the  commence- 
ment of  this  year  ambassadors  were  sent  from  Seringapa- 
tam  to  the  Mauritius.  Their  object  was  to  renew  the 
Sultan's  relations  with  Fiance,  and  to  solicit  the  aid  of 
10,000  European  and  30,000  negro  troops.  The  proceed- 
ings of  the  embassy  were  first  made  known  in  the  month 
of  June  to  the  Marquis  Wellesley,  the  governor-general. 
About  the  same  time  intelligence  was  received  in  India 
of  the  operations  of  the  French  in  Egypt.  Circumstances 
like  these  left  no  doubt  as  to  the  intentions  of  the  Sultan, 
and  on  the  3rd  of  February,  1799,  orders  were  issued  for 
(he  British  armies  and  those  of  the  allies  immediately  to 
invade  the  dominions  of  Tippoo.  Hostilities  commenced 
on  the  5th  of  March ;  and,  on  the  5th  of  April,  General 
Harris  took  a  strong  position  opposite  the  west  side  of 
Senngapatam.  Alter  besieging  the  place  some  time,  a 
ral  attack  was  made  on  the  4th  of  May,  1799.  The 
Sultan  had  scarcely  finished  his  repast  when  he  heard  the 
noise  of  the  assault.  He  instantly  repaired  towards  a 
breach  which  the  English  had  succeeded  in  making  a  few 
l>efore.  His  troops  lied ;  he  endeavoured  to  rally 
them ;  and  so  long  as  any  of  his  men  remained  firm,  he 
continued  to  dispute  the  ground  against  an  English  column 
which  had  forced  the  breach  and  gained  the  ramparts. 
1'inding  all  his  efforts  against  the  enemy  fruitless,  he 
mounted  his  horse,  and,  in  endeavouring  to  effect  his 
retreat,  arrived  at  a  bridge  leading  to  the  inner  fort ;  but 
the  place  was  already  occupied  by  the  English,  and  in 
his  attempts  to  proceed  he  was  met  by  a  party  of  Eu- 
ropeans from  withinside  the  gate,  by  whom  he  was  at- 
!.  Owing  to  two  wounds  which  he  received  in  his 
1 .  he  fell  from  his  horse ;  his  attendants  placed  him 
upon  a  palankeen,  in  one  of  the  recesses  of  the  gateway, 
and  entreated  him  to  make  himself  known  to  the  English. 
This  he  disdainfully  refused  to  do.  A  short  time  after- 
wards some  European  soldiers  entered  the  gateway,  and 
one  of  them  attempting  to  take  off  the  Sultan's  sword-belt, 
the  wounded  prince,  who  still  held  his  sword,  made  a 
thrust  at  him  and  wounded  him  in  the  knee  ;  upon  which 
the  soldier  levelled  his  musket  and  shot  him  through  the 
hrad.  On  the  afternoon  of  the  5th  of  May  he  was  buried 
in  the  mausoleum  of  Hyder  Aly.  Four  companies  of  Eu- 
ropean troop  escorted  the  funeral  procession,  which  was 
strikingly  solemn. 

When  Tippoo  met  his  death  he  was  in  his  fiftieth  year. 
He  was  of  dark  complexion,  and  about  five  feet  nine 
inches  high  ;  he  had  a  round  face,  with  large  black  eyes, 
and  an  aquiline  nose,  which  gave  much  animation  and  ex- 
>n  to  his  countenance.  Although  after  his  misfor- 
tunes in  1792  he  oppressed  the  people  more  than  they  had 
ever  been  in  the  time  of  his  father,  he  was  nevertheless 
very  popular;  and  even  now  the  Mysoreans  consider  him 
as  a  martyr  to  the  faith,  and  as  a  prince  who  fell  gloriously 
in  the  cause  of  his  religion.  He  used  to  pass  a  great  por- 
tion of  his  day  in  reading,  and  his  library,  consisting  of 
about  12,000  volumes,  was  well  selected.  About  one-hall 
of  this  collection  is  preserved  at  the  East  India  House, 
London;  the  other  half  was  left  at  Fort  William  for  the 
of  the  college.  The  Museum  and  the  Library  of  the, 
Ivi^f  India  House  contain  many  articles  both  of  value  and 
c-.urio<ity  which  once  belonged  to  Tippoo  Saib. 

lemoirs  of  Tippoo  Sultan,'  in  Stewart's  Descriptive 
Catalogue  nf  th  ary  of  the  fate  Tippoo  SM- 

l.in  i,f  Mi/xore,  Cambridge,  1809.     This  is  the  most  au- 
account  of  Tippoo's  life.) 

TIPTON.     [STAFFORDSHIRE.] 

TIKABOSCHJ,  GIRO'LAMO,  born  at  Bergamo  in  1731, 

studied  in  the  college  of  Monza,  and  afterwards  entered 

the  order  of  the  Jesuits.     About  17(56  he  was  made  pro- 

•  •  in  the  university  of  Milan,  where  he  wrote 

-t  work,  the  history  of  a  monastic  order  long  since 

mppreMed,  under  peculiar  circumstances :  '  Vetera  Huniili- 

.    Milan,   1766.     In  1770  he   was  ap- 

poiii1  ,dcna librarian  of  his  rich  lil 

in  tli  nclli,  deceased.    Henow  applied 

himself  to  the  undertaking  of  his  great  work, '  Storia  della 


Letteratura  Italiana,'  published  at  Modena,  1772-1783, 
which  he  completed  in  eleven  years.  The  subject  was  vast 
and  intricate  ;  the  only  author  who  had  yet  attempted  to 
write  a  general  history  of  Italian  literature,  Gimma  of 
Naples,  had  only  sketched  a  rough  and  very  defective  out- 
line of  it  in  his  '  Storia  dell'  Italia  Letterata.'  There  were 
however  local  histories  and  biographies  concerning  parti- 
cular towns  and  districts,  and  the  rest  of  the  materials  had 
to  be  sought  among  the  archives  and  libraries  of  Italy. 
Tiraboschi  undertook  to  write  the  history  of  the  literature 
of  autient  and  modern  Italy  in  the  most  extended  sense 
of  the  word,  including  most  of,  if  not  aU,  the  individuals 
deserving  of  mention  in  every  department  of  learning, 
who  have  flourished  in  Italy,  from  the  oldest  times  on 
record,  beginning  from  the  Etruscans  and  the  Greek  colo- 
nies of  Magna  Graeciaand  Sicily,  and  then  proceeding  with 
the  history  of  Roman  literature  through  its  rise,  progress, 
and  decay,  down  to  the  invasion  of  the  northern  tribes,  with 
which  the  second  volume  concludes.  The  author  distri- 
butes the  great  divisions  of  learning  in  separate  chapters ; 
poetry,  grammar,  oratory,  history,  philosophy,  medicine, 
jurisprudence,  and  the  arts ;  he  gives  an  account  of  the 
principal  libraries,  and  of  the  great  patrons  of  learning,  and 
although  he  does  not  profess  to  write  biography,  properly 
speaking,  yet  he  gives  biographical  notices  of  the  more  il- 
lustrious writers  and  of  their  productions.  The  third  volume 
comprises  the  literary  history  of  Italy  during  the  dark 
ages,  as  they  are  commonly  called,  from  the  fifth  to  the 
twelfth  century.  The  author  makes  bis  way  through  the 
scanty  and  obscure  records  of  those  times,  and  brings  to 
light  much  curious  information  concerning  the  intellectual 
state  of  Italy  under  the  Goths,  the  Longobards,  and  the 
Franks.  The  ecclesiastical  writers  come  in  for  a  great  share 
of  this  part  of  the  work.  The  fourth  volume  includes  the 
period  (rom  1183  to  the  year  1300.  The  revival  of  studies, 
the  formation  of  the  Italian  language,  the  foundation  of  uni- 
versities, notices  of  the  civilians  and  canonists  who  flou- 
rished in  that  age,  an  account  of  the  Italian  troubadours, 
of  the  earliest  Italian  poets,  and  of  the  Italian  Latinists,  and 
a  view  of  the  splendid  architectural  works  of  Arnolfo  di 
Lapo,  of  Niccol6  and  Giovanni  of  Pisa,  and  other  artists, 
impart  a  cheering  aspect  to  this  period.  The  fifth  volume 
embraces  the  14th  century,  the  age  of  Dante,  Petrarca,  and 
Boccaccio.  The  author  is  particularly  diffuse  in  speaking 
of  Petrarca.  The  sixth  volume  concerns  the  15th  century, 
an  age  of  classical  studies  ;  the  age  of  Cosmo  and  Lorenzo 
de'  Medici,  of  Poggio,  Filelfo,  Niccoli,  Palla  Strozzi, 
Coluccio  Salutati,  Paolo  Manetti,  Cardinal  Bessarion, 
and  other  collectors  of  MSS.,  founders  of  libraries,  and 
encouragers  of  learning,  and  the  age  also  of  distinguished 
jurists  and  ecclesiastical  writers.  Thisvolunieis  veiy large 
and  is  divided  into  three  parts,  whilst  the  preceding 
volumes  are  divided  each  into  two  parts,  each  part  being 
subdivided  into  books  and  chapters.  We  cannot  help 
thinking  that  this  mode  of  division  is  too  formal  and  cum- 
bersome, and  that  it  might  have  been  simplified  and  made 
clearer. 

The  seventh  volume  of  Tiraboschi's  history  treats  of  the 
16th  century,  the  age  of  Leo  X.,  the  Augustan  age,  as  it 
is  sometimes  called,  of  Italian  literature.  This  volume, 
which  is  still  more  bulky  than  the  one  preceding,  ia  divided 
into  four  parts.  After  giving  a  sketch  of  the  general  con- 
dition of  Italy  during  that  period,  of  the  encouragement  to 
learning  afforded  by  the  various  princes,  of  the  universities, 
academies,  libraries,  and  museums,  the  author  treats  first 
of  the  theological  polemics  which  arose  with  the  Reforma- 
tion, then  of  the  philosophical  and  mathematical  studies, 
of  natural  history  and  medicine,  of  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
jurisprudence,  of  historical  writing,  and  of  the  Italian  Hel- 
lenists and  Orientalists.  He  passes  next  in  review  the 
Italian  poets,  among  whom  Ariosto  and  Tasso  hold  a  con- 
spicuous place,  and  afterwards  the  Latin  poets,  the  gram- 
marians, rhetoricians,  and  pulpit  orators,  and  lastly  the 
artists,  among  whom  Michael  Angelo,  Raffaello,  Tiziano, 
and  Correggio  stand  prominent.  It  is  impossible  to  peruse 
this  long  list  of  illustrious  names  without  being  struck  with 
the  seemingly  inexhaustible  fertility  of  the  Italian  mind  in. 
almost  every  branch  of  knowledge. 

The  eighth  volume  embraces  the  17th  century,  which  in 
Italy  is  scornfully  styled  the  age  of  the  '  seicentisti,'  or  the 
age  of  bad  taste,  a  reproach  however  which  applies  mainly 
to  the  poets,  and  not  even  to  the  whole  of  them.  The 
department  of  history  is  filled  with  good  names,  as  well  as 


T  I  U 


T  I  It 


that  of  the  mathematical  H  :  which  Galileo  hoia» 

the  first  rank.  \Ynli  the  17th  c, 

hi*  work.     Various  reasons  prevented  his  < 

of  contemporary  hirtory.    1  >iu  b«*n  ii 

late  years  by  Lombanii,  in  his  contin 

work  :  '  Storia  della  I.  .an*  nel  Secolo  \ 

TiraboK-hi'i    work    was  went 

through  numerous  editions  in  \.  The 

uuthor  bin  .ntcnded  the  second  edition  ol'  •  Mo- 

in  wlu'ch  he  made  correction* and  «dditiona, 
chiefly  in  the  shape  of  notes  to  the  text.     Antonio  I-amli 
made  an  abridgment  nt'  the  work  in  French,  which  was  pub- 
:  at  Paris,  and  at  Betn.  in  17*4  ;  and  .1.  Ketzer  made  ;i 
similar  abridgment  ol  it  in  the  German  language.     \Vhen 
the  work  of  Tiraboschi  aiipeareil.  no  other  country  of  Europe 
had  a  general  history  nt  its  own  literature.     The  learned 
Benedictines  of  St.  Nlaur  had  begun  a  work  of  this  kind 
literature   of   France,  which  however  they 
The  work   of  Tiraboscln  does  not  give  aO 
the  infoniiation  that  one  might  wish,  but   it   contains   pro- 
.     as   niucli    infoniiation    ;is   could    l>e    collected   and 
Mlier    by    any  one   nuui   upon   the    sub- 
It  has  been  slid  to  be  deficient  in  crilici.sin,  and  in 
s  of  conspicuous  works,  of  which  he  has  not 
;  extracts:  but  this,  ii-s  be  >ay>  in   his  preface,  did  not 
tiirm  part  of  his  plan,  which  wits  already  extensive  enough, 
or  the  work   would  have  had  no  end.     His  accuracy  and 
icntiousiic-s     arc     undisputed.       The     tone     of     his 
renia  ally  on   religions   matters.    is    perh. 

..ilid    be    expected   from  a  man   of  hif 

i,  times,  and  country,  who  was  a  sincere  believer  in 

of  his  church,  though  not  a  bigot.     For  a  proof 

of  this  we  might  refer  the  reader  to  Tiiaho>clii's   U  Iter  to 

Fall  ii.  a  Dominican,  who  edited  at   Home  an 

edition  of  Tiruboschi's  great,    work    with    corrections    and 

10  iliose  passages  which  were  not  consonant  with  his 
high    notions    of    Papal    prerogative    and     Koman 
maey,  buth    spiritual    and    temporal.      Tiraboschi's 

Ished  at   Modena  in    17ST»,  and  \VILS  after- 
il  the  end  of  the  last  volume  of  the  - 
.iilion  of  the  •  Ilistoiy  of  Italian  Lite 
of  refined  cutting  irony,  half  veiled,   under  a  most 
-tvle    of     .  pervades  the   whole  of  the 

.    T!u- French  writer  Ginjruen6  has  followed  • 
Tiraboschi's  footsteps    in   his  '  Ilistoire  Littt'raire   d'ltalie',' 
which    however  contains  only  the  modern  part,   or   the 
y  of  the  literature  of  the  Italian  language.     [Gi.N- 
*«'.] 

The  duke  of  Modena,  Krcole  III.  of  Este,  in  consider- 
ation d  labours,  made  him  a  knight, 
and  ap|x>intcd  him   nicmber   of  his  council   in    I7^>.      B\ 
-ipprcssioii   of  the    older   of  Jesuits.   Tiraboschi    had 
ilar  pnest.     Ill    17M    he   began   to   publish 
another  work  of  bibliography  and  biography:  '  liiblioteca 
M(Mleiie>e.  o  Notiria  della  Vita  e  delle  Uperv  degli  ScriUori 
del  Seienissinio  Duca  di  Modeiia,'  0  \ols. 
!7M-sii:  to  which  he  afterwards  added   a 
•ice.-,  of  the  artist.-- who  were 

born  in  the  dominions  of  the  house  of  Este.     Having  thus 

illustrated  the  literary  history  of  Modcna.  and  of  the  other 

territories  of   the   house   of   Este,  he  all  el  -wards  wrote  the 

ral    history   of  the  same  country,  in  his  •  Mcmoric 

.  lie  Modcncsi.  col  eodice  diplomatico,   ilhisliato  con 

!  le  also  published    the 

antieiit  nuiniisteiA  and  abbey  of  Nonantola 

in  the  duchy  of  out  the  middle  of  the 

11  eciitnrv  'inns.  Duke   of  Frmli.   and   after- 
:     L-rcatlv  enriched  bv  nd  oilier  ] 

and   which  'became   n   poweiinl    community   during   the 

middle  aged:  '  Storia  dell'  au^u-ta  Bailia  di  S.  Sil\i 

Nonantola,  aggiuntovi  il  <  loinatico    di-lla   mede- 

.illustiato  con  i  17M.    The 

,  •  world  of  Tiraliosdii  are  :   1, '  Vita  del  Contc  I).  Fnlvio 

Te«ti.'    Testi  wa»  a  lyric  poet  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

and   enjoyed  for  a  lime   a  high   office   nt  the  court  of 

.  na,  but   ended  his  day»  in   pri-on  for  state  reasons. 

c-   intorno  ai  viaggi  del   Sigr.  1! 

the  '  Notizie  Lettcrarie '  of  Cesenn.   17;'-':    :'•.  '  Memoria 
delle  cogni/ioni    che  si  avevano  di  nti  del  Nilo 

prima  del  \'iaggio  del  Sigr.  .lacopo  Hnic,  :  in  the 

l-i  sol.  of  the  •  Memorie  dell'  Aceademia  delle  Scienze  di 
Mantova;'  4,  Two  memoirs  on  (ialileo,  h 
L-i  coudvianatiuu  by  the  IiujuiwUwi,  inserted  in  the  last 


vol.  of  the  second    Modcna   cd.uoii 
Italian  J.iteratun  n   S. 

.a   e 

iessa  della   I'hiesa  d 
Kambnldo  de  Conti 
r    writing  •   in  answ, 

of    Ins   •  HiMory   of  Italian    Literature.'       He    K-ft   unpub- 
lished:    1.    '  Dizionario    To|ioi:ialieo   ilegh 
published  since  at  Mourn; 
del  l.ibri  del  gii  L'ollegio  del  (ie>uiti  di  Hi  c 
sulla  Venn!  olio  in  Italia  ;'  -1.  •  Vila  di  < 

nandr.  :   Ferrarese  :'    :>.  •  Noti/ie 


Tiniboschi   du  i  .Tune,  17  sea§» 

brought    oil    by    sedentary    lil'e 
lie  was  buried   in   the   church   < 
outside  of  the  city,   and   a   Latin  inscription   •. 
on   his  tomb,   written   by  Kalhei-  l'o//..-'.ii.  who   succeeded 
him   :us   librariaM.    coninicmoiati\c  of  his   laliours  and   his 
virtues,  among  which  modesty  and  charit)  con- 

s)iii'UOU8. 

iliwhi.  by  Pozzetti,  • 

the  later   editions  of  the  '  History  of  Italian   Liter:.' 
I  goni.    Sturiii   di'llii    i 

ini'ti'i  •  \  /"///.;    Lombardi,   ,S/ur/t(   delta  It! 

turn  Italian  .  A'/  ///. 

TIRA'.NO.     [\AI.IU.I.INO.] 

TlHHfT.        [HlM>l'STAN.    p.  217.] 

'JTHIDATES,  ])rince  of  Medi 

Armenia,  was  the  brother  of  \  .ng   nf  the  1'ar- 

thians.  that  is.  of   Media.      He    i 
A.I).  5:i.    in   the   first   war   of  Corbui 
(Tacitus.  //;>/.,  xii.  M;,  who  was  compelled  to  desist   Irom 

upon  Armenia  in  v.».  ">4.    In  A.D.  ;">S,  hov. 
the  Parlhians  again  overran  Armenia,  having  been  invited 
by  the  inhabitants  of  that  country,  ami  \ 

his   hiother  Tiiidates.  who   tin 

king  of  Armenia.      As  the  Hon.  .  not    allov. 

country  to  become  a  .  of  the  Parthians.  Corbulo 

directed  his  forces  against  the  n  .  s,  knowing  thai 

..as  pieM-utcd  i  iiis  ai  my  against 

him  in  consequence  of  aniusmi.  the  ]>rovince  ol 

Hxrcauia.     ( 'oil iido  therefore  soon  persiiadi'd  Tiridatcs  to 
submit  to  tin  rmpci'or  Nero,  and  to  prefer  a  moderate  de- 
pendence  to   an   uncertain   and   dangerous   indrpen.: 
When  they  were  about  to  i;  e  the  ci  n- 

ditions  of  the   peace,  Tiridate-i  suddenly  became  aliaid   of 
some  treacherous  design   on   the  part  of  the  Komai'- 
lie    therefore   broke   oh'  the   negotiations  and  renewed   the 
war.     Corbulo   however  defeated  him   at  Artavita  on  the 
Araxes,  took   and   destroyed   this  old  capital  of  Armenia, 
and  forced  the  new  capital,  Tigranocerta  [TICKAMH  i •, 
to  surrender  after  a  short   siege,     i  Tacit  us,  JJint.,  \i , 
Frontimis,  Strn/n.  '.cmpl.  ."). 

Tiridatcs  fled  to  his  brother,  who  bad  taken  the  field 
against    the  ll\i>.  ,dwho  entrusted   him  with   tint 

command   of  a  new  army,  with  which  Tiiidates  hop. 
c\pc!  the  Komans  from  Annenia.     He   attacked   them  on 
the  side   of  Mesopotamia,   but   the  strong  position  which 
the  Romans  kept  at  Tigiaiiocerta,  and  the  care  which  they 
•  •ing  the   passages  of  the   F.uphrutcs,  prc- 

1  him  from  either  pi  ;  lie  valley  of  tht- 

I'ppi  r   from    invadi:  niana'i'r. 

which  Corbulo  would  ba\.  'en  tcithe- 

il  province,  and  to  leave  Annenia  to  the  incur- 

s.    Tiridir 

to  the  pacific  ])roposals  of  the  Romans,  who  we 
to  avoid  any  war  with  the  Parthian*,  if  they  could  do 
conditions  winch  would  secure   their  inll 
nienia.     Their  intention  was  not    to  make   a   Roman  pro- 
vince of  Armenia.      A  J  in 
ibulo,  and  they  declared,  in   the  name  of 
Tiridates  and    his  brother  was 
1'iiiit  to  Nero,  as  a  \                      -md   that   Volo- 

.vuiild  kc(  \  Ii  the 

Romans  than  bel'ori'.      In  day 

was  fixed  on  which  Tiridati  s  was  to  :ip|,,  ai   in  !  lie  camp  ot 
Corbulo,  who  sent  Tiberius   Alexander    [TniKKi- 

. )   and  his  son-in-law    > 
iuto  Uie  camp  of  Tirid»tc»  (\.D,  UJ,.     \\  hen  Tiudatcs  cu- 


T  I  R 


497 


T  I  R 


tered  the  tent  of  Corbulo,  he  took  off  his  royal  diadem,  and 
placed  it  at  the  foot  of  a  portrait  of  the  emperor  Nero, 
taking;  an  oath  that  he  would  not  exercise  any  right  of 
sovereignty  in  Armenia  till  he  had  again  received  the 
same  diadem  from  the  hands  of  the  emperor  in  Rome. 
(Tacitus,  Hist.,  xv.  28,  29.)  Tiridates  arrived  in  Rome  in 
A.D.  66,  and  when  he  approached  the  city  a  great  number 
of  people  came  out  from  the  gates  to  behold  the  entrance 
of  an  oriental  king  descended  from  the  mighty  sovereigns 
of  the  Parthians.  In  Zumpt,  '  Annales  veterum  Reg- 
norum  et  Populorum,  imprimis  Romanorum,'  the  Arme- 
nian king  who  entered  Rome  in  A.D.  66  is  called  Tigranes, 
but  this  is  a  typographical  error.  (Tacitus,  Hist.,  xvi.  23.) 
The  latter  circumstances  of  the  life  of  Tiridates  are  un- 
known. [PARTHIA.] 

TIRLEMONT  (in  Dutch,  Tienen),  situated  in  50°  50' 
N.  lat.  and  in  4°  50'  E.  long.,  is  an  inland  town  in  the 
kingdom  of  Belgium,  in  the  province  of  South  Brabant, 
on  a  small  river  called  the  Great  Geete.  It  is  a  pretty 
well-built  town,  and  has  8000  inhabitants,  who  have  con- 
siderable manufactures  of  flannel  and  stockings.  There 
are  also  brandy  distilleries,  and  breweries  which  produce 
a  celebrated  kind  of  beer.  It  is  said  to  have  been  for- 
merly more  populous  and  thriving  than  at  present.  In 
the  wars  of  the  French  revolution,  several  battles  took 
place  here  between  the  French  and  the  Austrians  ;  first,  in 
November,  1792,  when  the  Austrians  were  defeated ;  se- 
condly, on  the  16th  of  March,  1793,  when  they  again  sus- 
tained a  check,  for  which  they  took  ample  revenge  two 
days  afterwards  by  the  decisive  victory  of  Neerwinden. 
(Hassel ;  Stein ;  Cannabich ;  Hbrschelmann.) 
TIRO.  [CICERO.] 

TIRVALORE,  TABLES  OF.  [ViGA  GANITA.] 
TIRY,  or  TYREE.  [HEBRIDES.] 
TIRYNS  was  an  antient  city  of  Argolis,  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, situated  in  37°  40'  N.  lat.  and  41°  1'  E.  long.,  at  no 
.great  distance  from  the  head  of  the  Argolic  Bay,  now  the 
Gulf  of  Napoli  di  Romania.  According  to  a  legend  in 
Strabo  (viii.,  p.  373,  Casaub.),  it  was  built  by  Proetus,  an 
antient  king  of  Argolis,  who  in  the  construction  of  the 
citadel  employed  masons  from  Lycia,  who  were  called 
Cyclopes.  The  Greeks  attributed  most  architectural  works 
which  were  characterised  by  rude  massiveness  and  great 
antiquity  to  the  Cyclopes,  and  such  works  were  conse- 
quently described  as  Cyclopean.  Homer  (Iliad,  ii.  559) 
calls  Tiryns  the  '  walled,'  or  rather  the  '  wally '  Tiryns  :  and 
Pausanias  (ii.  25),  1000  years  after  him,  thus  describes  the 
remains,  as  they  existed  in  the  second  century  of  our  sera. 
'  The  ruins  of  Tiryns,'  he  observes,  '  were  on  the  right 
of  the  road  leading  from  Argos  to  Epidaurus.  The  wall 
<it'  the  fortification,  which  still  remains,  is  the  work  of  the 
Cyclopes,  and  is  built  of  unwrought  stones,  so  large  that 
not  even  the  least  of  them  could  be  even  moved  by  a  pair 
of  mules.  The  intervals  between  them  have  been  long 
since  filled  up  with  smaller  stones,  so  as  to  make  the  whole 
mass  solid  and  compact.'  No  cement  or  mortar  was  used 
in  these  constructions,  and  it  is  evident  that  they  were  the 
first  rude  attempt  at  building  with  stone  among  the  Pe- 
lasgic  Greeks,  and  constituted  their  first  style  of  architec- 
ture. The  second  is  still  visible  in  the  remains  of  MY- 

CENjE. 

The  ruins  of  Tiryns  are  thus  described  by  Col.  Leake,  in 
his  '  Morea,'  vol.  ii.,  p.  350 : — '  They  occupy  the  lowest  and 
flattest  of  several  rocky  hills,  which  rise  like  islands  out  of 
the  level  plain.  The  length  of  the  summit  of  that  of 
Tiryns  is  about  250  yards,  the  breadth  from  40  to  80 ;  the 
height  above  the  plain  from  20  to  50  feet ;  the  direction 
nearly  north  and  south.  The  entire  circuit  of  the  walls 
Mill  remains  more  or  less  preserved.  Some  of  the  masses 
of  the  stone  are  shaped  by  art,  some  of  them  are  rect- 
angular ;  but  these  are  probably  repairs,  and  not  a  part  of 
the  original  work  described  by  Pausanias.  The  finest  spe- 
cimens of  the  Cyclopean  masonry  are  near  the  remains  of 
the  eastern  gate,  where  a  ramp,  supported  by  a  wall  of  the 
same  kind,  leads  up  to  the  gate.  The  ruined  wall  of  the 
fortress  still  exists  to  the  height  of  25  feet  above  the  top 
of  the  ramp ;  but,  this  is  the  only  part  in  which  the  \yalls 
rise  to  any  considerable  height  above  the  table  summit  of 
the  hill  within  the.  fortress.  On  one  side  of  this  gateway 
I  measured  a  stone  of  10. 0  by  3.9  by  3.6.  Here  the  wall 
N  2Ji  feet  in  tlm-lou^s ;  in  other  parts  from  20  to  23.  But 
tin',  principal  <!iili;mee  was  not  here,  I  think,  but  on  the 
kouthern  side,  adjacent,  to  the  south-east  angle  of  the 
P.  C.,  No.  1550. 


fortress,  where  a  sloping  approach  from  the  plaiii  is  still  te 
be  seen,  leading  to  an  opening  in  the  walls.' 

In  its  general  form  the  fortress  appears  to  have  consisted 
of  an  upper  and  a  lower  enclosure  of  nearly  equal  dimen- 
sions, with  an  intermediate  platform.  The  southern  en- 
trance led,  by  an  ascent  to  the  left,  to  the  upper  level,  and 
by  a  direct  passage  between  the  upper  inclosure  and  the 
eastern  wall  of  the  fortress  into  the  lower  inclosure,  having 
also  a  branch  to  the  left  into  the  middle  platform,  the 
entrance  into  which  last  was  nearly  opposite  to  the  eastern 
gate  already  described.  There  was  also  a  postern  on  the 
western  side.  In  the  eastern,  as  well  as  in  the  southern 
wall,  there  were  galleries  in  the  body  of  the  wall  of  sin  • 
gular  construction,  the  angle  of  the  roof  being  formed  by 
merely  sloping  the  courses  of  the  masonry.  In  the  eastern 
wall  there  are  two  parallel  passages,  of  which  the  outer 
has  six  recesses  in  the  exterior  wall.  These  niches  were 
probably  intended  to  serve  for  the  protracted  defence  of 
the  gallery  itself,  and  the  galleries  for  covered  communi- 
cations leading  to  places  of  arms  at  the  extremities  of 
them.  One  of  these  places  of  arms  still  exists  at  the  south- 
west angle  of  the  fortress,  and  there  may  have  been  others 
on  either  side  of  the  great  southern  entrance.  The  passage 
which  led  from  this  entrance  to  the  lower  division  of  the 
fortress  was  about  12  feet  broad ;  and  about  midway  there 
still  exists  an  immense  door-post,  with  a  hole  in  it  for  a 
bolt,  showing  that  the  passage  might  be  closed  upon  oc- 
casion. In  these  contrivances  for  the  progressive  defence 
of  the  interior  we  find  a  great  resemblance  not  only  to 
Mycenae,  which  was  built  by  the  same  school  of  engineers, 
but  to  several  other  Grecian  fortresses  of  remote  antiquity. 
A  deficiency  of  flank  defence  is  another  point  of  resem- 
blance :  it  is  only  on  the  western  side,  towards  the  south, 
that  this  essential  mode  of  protection  seems  to  have  been 
provided.  On  this  side,  besides  the  place  of  arms  at  the 
south-western  angle,  there  are  the  foundations  of  another 
of  a  semicircular  form,  projecting  from  the  same  wall,  fifty 
yards  farther  to  the  north ;  and  at  an  equal  distance,  still 
farther  in  the  same  direction,  there  is  a  retirement  in  the 
wall,  which  serves  in  aid  of  the  semicircular  bastion  in 
covering  the  approach  to  the  postern  of  the  lower  inclo- 
sure.  This  latter  division  of  the  fortress  was  of  an  oval 
shape,  about  100  yards  long  and  40  broad :  its  walls  formed 
an  acute  angle  to  the  north,  and  several  obtuse  angles  on 
the  east  and  west.  Of  the  upper  inclosure  very  little  remains. 

The  fortress  itself  is  only  a  third  of  a  mile  in  circum- 
ference, so  that  in  all  probability  it  must  have  been  no 
more  than  the  citadel  of  the  Tirynthii,  the  town  itself  being 
situated  in  a  plain  of  two  or  three  hundred  yards  in  breadth, 
on  the  south-west  of  the  fortress  :  beyond  this  plain  lies  a 
marsh,  extending  a  mile  farther  towards  the  sea. 

Proetus,  the  reputed  founder  of  Tiryns,  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Megapenthes,  who  is  said  to  have  transferred  it 
to  Perseus.  Perseus  transmitted  it  to  his  descendant 
Electryon,  whose  daughter  Alcmena  married  Amphitryon. 
The  latter  prince  was  expelled  from  Tiryns  by  Sthenelus, 
king  of  Argos ;  but  his  son  Hercules  recovered  his  inherit- 
ance, and  was  in  consequence  called  Tirynthius.  (Dio- 
dorus,  iv.  10 ;  Pindar,  Olymp.,  x.  37.) 

From  Perseus  to  Amphitryon,  Tiryns  was  a  dependency 
of  the  neighbouring  city  Mycenae.  At  the  time  of  the 
Trojan  war,  Homer  (Iliad,  ii.  559)  represents  it  as  being 
subject  to  the  kings  of  Argos.  Subsequently  it  was  par- 
tially destroyed  by  the  Argives.  The  date  of  that  event 
is  uncertain ;  but  from  two  passages  of  Herodotus  (vi. 
83,  and  ix.  28),  in  which  mention  is  made  of  Tiryns, 
it  appears  that  it  existed  up  to  B.C.  480,  and  it  is 
probable  that  it  was  overthrown  about  the  same  time  as 
Mycenae,  B.C.  4G8.  (Clinton,  Fasti  Hell.,  ii.,  p.  425.)  Ac- 
cording to  Strabo  (viii.,  p.  373),  the  Tirynthians,  on  leaving 
their  homes,  retired  to  Epidaurus  :  according  to  Pausanias 
(ii.  25),  the  greater  part  of  them  were  sent  to  Argos. 

Pausanias  also  notices  what  he  calls  the  chambers 
(flaXauoi)  of  the  daughters  of  Proetus  lying  between  Tiryns 
and  the  sea ;  but  he  gives  no  description  of  them.  Strabo 
speaks  of  some  artificial  caverns  near  Nauplia,  which  he 
places  at  the  distance  of  only  12  stadia  from  Tiryns,  and 
says  that  they  were  attributed  to  the  Cyclopes.  It  is  not 
improbable  that  he  alludes  to  the  same  excavations  as 
Pausanias ;  but  Strabo  had  probably  not  seen  them,  for  he 
never  saw  Mycenae.  The  Tirynthian  citadel  was  also 
called  Licymnia,  from  Licymnius,  a  son  of  Electryon,  and 
brother  of  Alcmena.  (Pindar,  Oh/mp.,  vii.  49.) 

VOL.  XXIV.-3  S 


Tl  S 


T  1  S 


H.363;   Cramer*  GY 

a  onrf  Argoiit;  Dodwcll, 


,  one  of 

entury, 
.  where 
d  to  an 

but  he 
brother. 

and  dc- 


>.fl 

OM* 

•iIJKl.N..H>HN  HKNH 
the  mo*t  celebrated   pn, 
wa*  tin    t 

he  was  born  in   17-'J.      He  w 
le  on  the  n. 

him.  in  hi-  i  year,  w 

lot  in  Cassel,  of  the  name  of  Zimmermann.      He 

:*)  »ome  instruction  from  Van  Freese.  the  court 

painter  at  Casae),  and  soon  gave  proof  of  his  ability.  Tisch- 

uith  an  early  and  a  valuable  patron  in  Count 

n.  through  whose  assistance  he  was  enabled,  in  1743, 

.here  he  remained  five  yean  with  < 

V'unloo,  and  acquired  his  style  of  painting.     From  Paris  he 

.  and  there  studied  tight  months  with  Piaa- 

letta:  from  Venice  he  went  to  Home,  where  he  remained 

two  years;  he  again  visited  i'l.izzetta  in  Venice,  and  after  a 

7.")1.  he  returned  to  Cas»el,  where,  in  17^-, 

'.met  painter  to  the  landgrave. 
:bcm  excelled  in  historical  and  mythological  sub- 
in  which  lines  are  his  In  s,  painted  from 
about  17li2  until  1785 ;  he  died  in  17H9,  as  director  of  the 
Academy  of  Cassel,  and  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Bologna.  A  biographical  no!;  •  hein  with  criti- 
cisms upon  his  works  was  published  in  .Niirnhcrg  in  !,••,. 
ught  r  bis  death,  by  J.  F.  Engelschall,  entitled 
•  .1.  H.'  Tisehbein,  als  Men&ch  und  Kiinsth  r  dargcsleilt.' 
In  that  work  there  is  a  list  of  141  historical  pin 
TUchbein,  of  wl  ich  tlie  following  liave  been  considered 
;  est: — the  Resurrection  of  ChrUt.  very  large  figures, 
painted  in  1763,  for  the  altar  of  St.  Michael's  chu. 
Hambuig:  the  Transfiguration,  in  the  Lutheran  church 
at  Cassel,  17Ui> ;  Hermann's  Trophies  after  his  A 
over  Varus  in  the  year  9,  in  the  palace  of  Pyrmont,  1768 ; 
ten  pictures  of  the  Life  of  Cleopatra,  painted  in  the  palace  of 
Wcfssenstein,  17<>'.>-70;  sixteen  from  the  life  of  Telemac.hu*. 
in  the  palace  of  \\ilhelmsthal ;  an  Ecce  Homo,  in  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  chapel  at  Cassel,  177H;  a  Deposition  from 
the  Cro.*,  and  an  Ascension,  altar-pieces  in  the  principal 
church  of  StraUund,  1787;  Christ  on  the  Mount  of  < 
an  altar-piece  presented  by  him  to  the  church  of  his  native 
place  Hayna,  1788;  the  Death  of  Alcestis.  17H<) :  and  the 
Restoration  of  Alcestis  to  her  husband  by  Hercules,  1777. 
Tischbein  painted  many  pictures  from  the  antient  poets, 
and  some  from  Tasso ;  several  of  which  are  now  in  the  I'ie- 
ture-gallery  at  Cassel.  He  painted  also  a  col  lection  of  female 
portraits,  selected  chiefly  for  their  beauty,  which  is  now  at 
the  palace  of  Wilhelmsthal  near  Cassel.  He  also  fre- 
quently copied  his  own  pictures.  Nearly  all  his  works 
remain  in  his  own  country,  on  which  account  he  is  little 
known  out  of  it.  It  is  remarkable  that  of  all  the  great 
galleries  of  Germany,  Munich  is  the  only  one  that  pos- 
sesses a  specimen  of  his  works,  and  that  is  only  u  portrait, 
slowly,  but  he  was  very  indus- 
trious :  he  was  generally  at  his  easel  by  five  in  the  morn- 
ing in  the  nted  until  four  in  the 
afternoon.  He  painted  in  the  l-'rench  style:  his  col.. 
was  a  mixture  of  t:  and  thc'\  md  in 

•;wing  and  ehiar'- 

OSOUi'  -in me   In,-  as   in- 

conv.  as  his  soui 

'nation  would  allow  I.  and   it   is  a  fault  that 

elsJIy  the  '•  t.)  the  critics  he  gene- 

rally contrived   in   his  aiitienl 

look  much  moi.  n  hnicn  and  Germans  than' 

or  Unman-.     In  his  relign  IIP  was  more  success- 

ful :   he  was  no  follower  of  Leasing'*  theory  of  bean- 

I..       '  .     .;     ill  ••  e.,:;-    >pn  r.-e.      H.    etched'*,  v, 
Jars*  ntv  ics: — Venus  ; 

•Mil 
fans;   Tlietii 

Tischbein  WM  a  mi  :>rl  an 

<»H  «erv*nt  named  Conra.. 

s*y  In'  should  ho  In  had  a  cook  also  wh. 

with  him  21  yen  .is  twice  married,  and  yet  was  a 

husband  »•  i  year* :    I . 

1786,  bjr  whom  he  had  two  dattghters ;  he  lived  with  her 


his  great  picture  of  Hie 


three  year*,  when  she  died,  and  in  1750  he  married  her 

with  whom  however  .  month*. 

;i  r  daughter  Amalia  waa  a  diver  p  .  wa* 

a  member  of  the  Ac;.  ;uisel ;  she 

to  her  lather  for  many  of  the  It-male*  in  hi* 

hi-toncal  work*.   After  Tisehbein'*  death,  the  Landgrave  of 

Catiel  purchased  all  the  work*  that  were  in  hi*  house,  and 

planed  them  tnLTi'thrr  iii  the  palace  ol 

(Meuiel,  .Mttccliantfn  Artntuchfii  Inha/ts;  t'iMi,AU* 

.HilIN   ilKNKV   \V1I.T.IAM.  called  the 
Younger,  the  youngest  *on  of  John  Conrad  Tischhcin,  and 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  with  whom  he  i*  sometimes  run- 
founded,  wa*  born  at  Hayna  in  1751.    He  wan  iiis.li 
by  his  uncle  .John  Henry  at  Cassel  in  historical  painting, 
and  he  afterwards  .studied  landscape  painting  three  yean 
with  his  unclu  John  Jacob  at  Hambui 
to  Holland,  when-  he  remained  two  yean,  and  in 
return  1  and  painted   p»rtraiu  and  lands* 

I  :inner  and  Berlin,  and  painted  mam 

traits  in  both  places.     In  1779  he  left  Cassel.  by  thedeiiire 
of  the  Landgrave,  lor  Italy,  but  i'  ul  two  years  in 

/iirich,  where  ho  painted  ni:uiy  pert  raits  and 
lebnited  picture  of  Conradin    • 

phiyiiu;.  after  his  sentence   to  death,   a   irame  at  dn. 
wil'h  Frederick  of  Austria.     In  17K1  TiM-hbein  arri\ 

lirat  studies  were  some  ( -opie»  in  oil  after 
Haphnel  and  Guercino,  and  some  drawinu- 

lichino.  and  Ltotmrdn  da  Vinci.     His  ftnit-  on 
picture  wa*  Hercules  clnu 

alter  which  be  painted  his  picture  of  Conradin  of  Suabia, 
now  in  the  palace  of  Pyrnumt.  In  17KT  he  went  to 
Naples,  and  the  next  year  painted  the  portrait  of  the 
crown-prince  for  the  queen,  who  presented  Tisehbein  with 
a  valuable  snuff-box  and  200  ducats,  expressing  her  com- 
plete satisfaction  with  the  picture.  In  N,  'pears 
to  have  acquired  laurels  rapidly,  for  in  17'.«> 
pointed  director  of  the  Academy  with  a  sain:;  of  ii<*l 
ducats  per  annum,  which  however  1  in  in  17'.i'.i, 
at  the  breaking  out  of  th.  it  he 
found  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  ]HTrnis-ion  from  the  French 
authorities  to  r«turn 

to  take  with   him.     He  accordingly  ei.il  aikeil.   with 
the  painter  Hackert  and  another,  for   '  king  with 

him  the   plates  of  his   illustrations   to  Homer,   his  design* 
for  Sir  \V.  Haiiiillnn's  second  collection  of  vascn.  and 
other  works  of  art:  but  the  ship  wan  driven   by  a  utorm 
upon  the  coast  of  Corsica,  and  was  captured  by  a  I 
ship  of  war :   it  was  however  set  at  liberty  aeuin,  and 
a  troublesome  journey  of  four  months  Tisehbein  at.  last 
reached  Cassel  in  safety.     During  his  resilience  in  Naples 
he  published  there,  in  1790.  a  remarkable  work  upon  ani- 
mals, in  two  parts,  folio,  entitled  'TOtes  des  Different*  Ani- 
mau\,  dessines  d'apres  Nature,  pour  donncr  une  id  fa  plus 
exacte  de  leiirs  caract.V. •-..'      The  first   part  contains  Hi 

s  of  animals,  and  the  first  plate  of  this  part  is  the 
celebrated  design  called  in  Italy  Tisehbein's  I-aocoon  ;  it 
r*prt*«ntl  a  Inr^e  -i!:il,e  tittacKiiiLr  ainl  dettTO]  nr.r  a  liuiie-s 
and  her  young  in  their  den:  R  design  of  remarkable  power 
and  spin't  :  the  second  part  contain-  X  plates  on 
ingot  chai.  ads  of  men  and  gods,  as—  ! 

:<ir  Rosa,  Michael  Anpelo,  Kaphnel.  Sci]iio  Africanns, 

ilia,  .ln|iiter,  and  Apollo.    Tisehbein  after  Ins  i 

icipally  at   Ha:;:  l-'.utin 

in  Oldenburg  near  I.iib.  ek  :    the  m;O 
in  the  possession  of  <  e  of  OMenb  HL'  :    tlie 

following  paintings  arethn  >st  celebrated  >• 

t  Cassandra,   painted   in   !•• 
Children  come  unto  me.' painted  in  ISMi.  fort 
the  church  nf  St.  Angari   at   Uremen  :    an<l   He. 

in  ]«!().      II 
Of  II.-v  ne.  iiiul  . 

In  C;;;ttingen   in   IKIM-1   he  published    in  '  bin 

favourite  work   on  Homer,  with  explanati. 
'  Homer,  nachAntiken  gi'xeichn  i'ein, 

Direektur.  K  .in-.n  \on  Chr.  ('•••"  .   !i 

i.-vi..  each   number  containing  (I  p 

:oes  were  c  n.  Tiscli- 

on  of 
vase*,  published   at   Naples  from  1791,  in  4  vols. 

tied  •  A  Collection  of  Kn- 

gravings  from  Antient  Vases,   mostly  of  pure  Greek  wurk- 
I  manship,  discovered  in  Sepulchres  in  the  Kingdom  of  the 


T  I  S 


499 


T  I  S 


Two  Sicilies,  but  principally  in  the  environs  of  Naples, 
daring  the  years  1789  and  1700  ;  now  in  the  possession  of 
Sir  W.  Hamilton,  published  by  William  Tischbein,  direc- 
tor of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Painting  at  Naples.'  The 
text,  which  is  in  French  and  English,  is  by  Italinsky. 
Tischbein  published  other  works,  and  etched  also  several 
plates,  after  Paul  Potter,  Roos,  Rosa  di  Tivoli,  Rem- 
brandt, &c.  As  a  painter  his  drawing  was  correct,  and 
his  expression  and  colouring  good,  and  he  excelled  in 
drawing  animals.  He  died  in  1829.  There  were  many 
other  artists  of  this  family,  of  various  degrees  of  merit, 
but  they  are  unknown  beyond  their  own  circles. 

(Fiissli,  Allgemeines  Kiinstler  Lexicon;  Kugler,  Hand- 
buck  der  Geschichte  der  Malerei.) 

TI'SIAS.     [ORATORY.]        \ 

TISSAPHERNES.     [CVRUS  THE  YOUXGER.] 

TISSOT,  SIMON  ANDREW,  an  eminent  Swiss  phy- 
sician, was  born  at  Lausanne,  in  the  canton  de  Vaud,  in 
1728.  He  studied  first  at  Geneva,  and  then  at  Montpellier, 
from  1746  to  1749,  where  he  took  his  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Medicine.  He  then  returned  to  Switzerland  and  settled  at 
Lausanne,  where  he  joined  to  an  extensive  practice  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  theoretical  knowledge.  His  reputation 
spread  rapidly  through  Europe  in  consequence  of  his  me- 
dical publications,  and  caused  him  to  be  consulted  from  all 
parts.  He  was  also  offered  at  various  times  several  im 
portant  situations  at  different  foreign  courts  and  univer- 
sities, all  which  he  declined,  and  remained  satisfied  wilh 
the  respect  and  comfort  which  he  enjoyed  at  home,  and 
with  the  office  of  professor  of  medicine  at  the  college  of 
Lausanne.  However,  in  1780,  he  could  not  resist  the  warm 
solicitations  of  the  emperor  Joseph  II.,  who  conferred  on 
him  the  professorship  of  clinical  medicine  at  the  university 
of  Pavia.  Being  thrown  thus  late  in  life  into  so  difficult  a 
post,  and  being  naturally  of  a  modest  and  shy  disposition, 
he  did  not  at  first  answer  the  expectations  formed  of  him. 
However  there  soon  after  broke  out  in  the  province  an 
epidemic  bilious  fever,  as  to  the  treatment  of  which  the 
physicians  of  the  place  were  not  agreed.  On  this  occasion 
the  Count  de  Firmian,  the  celebrated  minister  under  the 
archduke,  gave  orders  that  Tissot's  directions  should  be 
followed,  as  he  had  treated  a  similar  disorder  with  great 
success  in  the  canton  of  Le  Valais  in  1755.  His  system 
was  again  successful,  and  the  students  not  only  celebrated 
his  triumph  with  ffites,  but,  wishing  to  render  the  memory 
of  it  more  durable,  they  caused  a  marble  inscription,  be- 
ginning with  the  words  Immortali  Pra'<-rptt>ri,  to  be 
placed  under  the  portico  of  the  school.  After  holding  his 
professorship  for  three  years,  Tissot  obtained  permission  to 
retire  from  office.  During  his  stay  in  Italy  he  had  made 
use  of  the  vacations  to  travel  through  the  finest  parts  of 
that  country,  and  was  everywhere  received  with  the  most 
marked  and  flattering  attention.  Pope  Pius  VI.  signified 
his  desire  of  seeing  so  estimable  and  eminent  a  man  ;  he 
accordingly  received  him  with  much  kindness,  excused 
him  i  as  being  a  Protestant)  from  the  ceremonial  customary 
at  presentations  at  the  Papal  court,  and  made  him  a  pre- 
sent of  a  set  of  the  gold  medals  struck  during  his  pontifi- 
cate. 

Having  always  lived  economically  and  without  any  dis- 
play, Tissot  had  saved  while  in  Italy  a  sum  of  money  suf- 
ficient for  the  purchase  of  a  country-seat,  which  he  in- 
tended to  be  the  retreat  of  his  old  age.  He  had  only 
engaged  himself  in  the  Austrian  service  for  a  very  limited 
period  ;  he  had  now  finished  the  medical  education  of  a 
favourite  nephew  ;  and,  lastly,  as  he  himself  with  charac- 
teristic playfulness  expressed  it,  having  received  the  title 
of  '  Immortal,'  he  thought  it  prudent  not  to  run  any  risk 
of  descending  from  such  a  height,  and  of  outliving  (as  he 
might  easily  do)  his  apotheosis.  He  was  succeeded  in  his 
professorship  at  Pavia  by  the  celebrated  J.  P.  Frank,  and 
tlii-d  unmarried,  on  the  15th  of  June,  1797,  in  his  native 
land,  at  the  age  of  sixty-nine.  A  complete  list  of  his  works 
:  .en  in  the  '  Biographic  Mcdicak','  from  which  work 
the  abb  ve  account  is  taken  :  of  these  the  following  are  the 
•  interesting  :  '  Tentamen  de  Morbis  ex  Manustupra- 
tione  Ortis,'  Louvain,  8vo.,  1760;  which  was  translated 
into  French,  and  has  been  frequently  republished.  'Dis- 
gertatio  dr  Uiliosix,  sen  Historia  Epidemiae  Lau- 

aanensis  anni  1755,'  Lausanne,  1758,  8vo.   '  Avis  au  Peuple 
l.anaanne,  1761,  12mo.,  which  was  translated 


into  no  loss  than  seven  different  languages,  and  in  loss 
i  six  years  reached  the  tenth  edition.   It  has  since  been 


frequently  reprinted,  and  contributed  more  than  any  of  his 
other  works  to  make  the  author's  name  known  throughout 
Europe.  It  served  also  as  the  model  and  foundation  for 
many  similar  popular  works  in  more  recent  times.  '  De 
Valetudine  Litteratorum,'  Lausanne,  8vo.,  1766,  which  was 
translated  into  French,  and  frequently  reprinted,  and  of 
which  the  latest  and  best  edition  is  that  by  F.  G.  Boisseau, 
Paris,  1826,  18mo.,  with  notes  by  the  editor,  and  a 
memoir  of  the  author.  '  Essai  sur  les  Maladies  des  Gens  du 
Monde,'  which  has  also  gone  through  several  editions.  There 
is  a  complete  edition  of  his  works  by  J.  N.  Hall6,  in  11 
vols.  8vo.,  Paris,  1811,  with  notes  by  the  editor  and  a  me- 
moir of  the  author.  Besides  these  original  works  Tissot 
edited  at  Yyerdun,  1779,  in  three  volumes  4to.,  the  treatise 
of  Morgagni,  'DeSedibus  et  Causis  Morborum  per  Ana- 
tomen  Indagatis,'  to  which  he  prefixed  a  history  of  the 
Life  and  Works  of  the  author. 

TISSUES,  VEGETABLE.  The  various  organs  of  plants, 
as  the  leaves,  flowers,  roots,  stem,  &c.,  are  composed  of 
certain  ultimate  structures,  which  are  called  elementary 
organs  or  vegetable  tissues.  Most  parts  of  a  plant,  when 
cut  into,  present  to  the  naked  eye  an  almost  perfectly  ho- 
mogeneous character ;  and  it  is  only  by  calling  to  our  aid 
the  microscope  that  we  can  distinguish  the  various  struc- 
tures of  which  they  are  composed.  On  taking  a  leaf  or  a 
portion  of  the  stem  of  one  of  the  higher  plants,  and  sub- 
mitting it  to  the  microscope,  it  will  be  found  to  consist, 
1,  of  a  thin  transparent  homogeneous  membrane,  which  is 
arranged  in  the  form  of  cells  or  cylindrical  tubes;  2,  of 
fibres,  which  are  arranged  in  a  spiral  form  in  the  interior 
of  the  cells  or  tubes  ;  and  3,  a  fluid  of  varying  density, 
filling  the  cells  and  existing  between  them,  and  containing 
in  it  globules  of  various  sizes  and  kinds.  These  parts 
constitute  what  are  known  respectively  as  '  elementary 
membrane,'  '  elementary  fibre,' and  'organic  mucus.'  Ele- 
mentary membrane,  and  the  fluid  from  which  it  is  developed, 
are  the  only  two  which  are  constantly  present  in  all  plants. 
Fibre  is  only  found  in  the  higher  forms  of  plants. 

The  primary  form  in  which  organization  appears  is  that 
of  a  simple  cell  containing  or  surrounded  by  a  fluid  ;  and 
however  complicated  may  be  the  forms  which  the  tissues 
of  plants  may  assume,  they  mostly  originate  in  this  primi- 
tive form.  Some  late  researches  on  the  development  ot 
tissues  in  animals  seem  to  lead  to  the  conclusion  that, 
some  of  these  tissues  are  formed  from  a  primitive  fibre ; 
and  from  analogy  it  has  been  supposed  that  the  same  may 
occur  in  vegetable  organization.  Whether  however  the 
coll  or  the  fibre  shall  be  determined  to  be  the  primitive 
form  of  tissue  in  the  animal  kingdom,  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  the  cell  is  so  in  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

The  development  of  the  cell  itself  is  a  subject  of  much 
interest,  and  great  light  has  been  thrown  on  this  obscure 
department  of  physiology  by  the  late  researches  of  Dr. 
Schleiden.  It  was  long  since  observed  by  Robert  Brown 
that  in  the  cells  of  the  tissue  of  Orchidaceous  plants  there 
was  an  opaque  spot,  or  '  areo/a,'  in  the  interior  of  the  cell : 
Schleiden,  finding  this  spot  very  constant  in  the  cells  of 
certain  plants,  concluded  that  it  must  have  some  important 
relation  to  them,  and  submitted  it  to  a  very  strict  exami- 
nation. He  found  that  these  bodies  were  the  original 
particles  from  whence  the  cells  were  formed  ;  hence  he 
called  them  cytoblasts.  The  best  parts  of  the  plant  for 
observing  the  phenomena  to  \yhich  these  bodies  give 
rise  are,  the  large  cell  which  exists  between  the  embryo 
and  the  membranes  of  the  seed,  and  in  which  the  albu- 
men is  subsequently  deposited,  the  embryonal  sac,  and 
the  end  of  the  pollen-tube,  from  which  the  embryo  itself 
is  developed.  In  the  gummy  fluid  that  exists  in  these 
parts  in  the  process  of  growth  a  number  of  granules  are 
developed,  rendering  this  transparent  homogeneous  fluid 
opalescent,  or  almost  opaque.  It  is  among  these  granules, 
which  assume  a  brownish-yellow  colour  under  the  influence 
of  tincture  of  iodine,  that  the  cytoblasts  make  their  appear- 
ance. Whilst  in  this  state  the  cytoblasts  increase  con- 
siderably in  size,  becoming  larger  than  the  granules  of  the 
gum;  and  as  soon  as  they  have  attained  their  full  size,  a, 
delicate  transparent  vesicle  rises  upon  their  surface  :  this 
is  the  young  cell,  which  at  first  represents  a  very  flat  seg- 
ment of  a  sphere,  whose  plane  side  is  formed  by  the  cvto- 
blast,  and  the  convex  side  by  the  young  cell,  which  is 
situated  on  it,  somewhat  like  a  watch-glass  on  a  watch. 
In  its  natural  medium  it  is  almost  distinguished  by  this 
circumstance  alone,  that  the  space  between  its  convexity 

3S2 


T  I  « 


500 


T  I  S 


•nd  the  cytob.a»t  is  perfectly  clear  and  transparent,  and 
prubalily  tilli-il  with  an  aqueous  fluid,  luid  i»  boiiiuli-il   by 
the  surrounding  mucous  granules,  pressed  back  by 
puuion.     Rut  i  il  u-' mucous 

granule*  may  almost  shaking  the 

•Uge  of  the' micros.,  long 

..•il.  a»  they  cntirclv  dissolve  in  a  few  minutes  in  dis- 
tilled water,  leaving  the  cytoblasts  behind.  The  vesicle 
gradually  gets  larger  an.!  -  mure  consistent,  its 

},  mg  formed  entirely  of  vegetable  gelatine  (Gal- 
.  jit  tlir  cvtohlast.  which  alwavs  forms  a  portion 
of  tin1  wall.  The  whole  cell  now  gradual!  v  enlarges  !•• 
the  edges  of  the  cytoblast.  ami  gets  so  large,  that  at  last 
t!u-  latter  appears  as  a  small  body  enclosed  in  one  of  the 
side  this  jioiiit  the  cyt'oblast  assumes  the  cha- 

racter  of  the  nreula  described  by  Hrown.  'Hie  young  eell 
frequently  presents  great  irregularities,  a  proof  th;it  the 
expansion  does  not  proceed  regularly  from  a  fixed  jiiiint. 
The  cell  groin  progressively,  and  become*,  under  the  in- 


flucnce of  surrounding  objects,  more  rcgvilar,  and  most 
frequently  assumes  tin-  form  of  a  rhomboidal  do  i 
The  cytoolast  still  remains  in  the  cell,  partaking  of  the 
life  inherent  in  the  cell,  unless  it  is  in  cells  destined  to  a 
higher  development,  when  it  is  either  reabsorted  in  the 
walls  of  the  cell,  or  cast  off  into  the  cell  as  a  useless  mem- 
ber, and  there  reabsorbed.  It  is  only  after  the  rcabsorp- 
tionof  the  cytoblaM  that  seconda.'V  K  positions  are  observed 
to  commence  on  the  inside  of  the  ivalls  of  the  cell. 
(Schleiden.) 

The  cytoblast  remains  in  the  cells  in  only  a  small  num- 
ber of  cases.  They  are  found  in  a  portion  ofthe  cellular  tissue 
of  Orchidacc;e.  also  of  < 'aclai  ,  :e.  In  hairs  likewise,  and 
cells  in  which  the  function  of  c\  ;  vied  on,  they  arc 

very  frequently  permanent:  also  in  the  pollen  granules  ol 
Abietin:e.  Di.  Schleiden  always  found  them  present  in 
recently-formed  cellular  tissue. 

The  increase  of  the  bulk  and  -i/.\-  of  plants  depends  upon 
the  development,  in  the  interior  of  the  old  or  oiigiimlh 
formed  cells,  of  several  new  cvtohlasts.  each  of  which 
develops  a  new  cell,  and  causes  b\  its  presence  tlu 
absorption  or  destruction  ofthe  old  one. 

But  all  the  parts  of  plants  do  not  cou-i-t  of  simple  cells : 
the  cells  become  elongated,  forming  libioiis  or  woody  tis- 
sue, and  spiral  tilircs  are  generated  both  in  cells  and  lubes, 
i'uting  tin-  various  forms  of  til.ro-ccllular  and  vascu- 
lar tissue,  and  it  will  he  i  a  lew  words  on 
their  development.  One  great  error  that  lias  arisen  from 
the  naming  and  classification  of  the  tissues  of  the  plant: 
has  been  the  supposition  that  they  were  essentially  distinc 
and  possessed  a  dill  in.  This  is  seen  in  the 
theories  of  the  origin  of  wood.  Woody  fibres  are  nothing 
more  than  elongated  cells  with  thickened  walls;  but  the) 
opposed  to  originate  in  a  different  manner  from  tin 
cellular  tissue;  and  an  ingenious  theory  of  Du  Peti' 
Thouars  has  been  adopted  by  many  eminent  botanists  foi 
the  purpose  of  explaining  this  phenomenon. 

In  referring  to  Du  Petit  Thouars'  views.  Dr.  Ijndleysays, 
'The  wood  is  not  formed  out  of  the  bark  as  a  mere  deposi- 
tion, but  it  is  produced  from  matter  elaborated  in  the  leave. 
downwards,   cither  through  tin  i  the   inne 

bark  along  with  the  matter  for  forming  the  liber,  by  vvhicl 
it  is  subsequently  parted  with,  or  it  and  the  liber  are 
•nitlcd  distinct  from  one  another,  the  one  adhering  It 
the  albumen,  the  other  to  the  bark.  I  know  of  no  proo 
ofthe  former  supposition;  of  the  latter  there  is  every  rea 
ton  to  believe  the  truth.'  And  again,  'It  is  not  merely  in 
the  property  of  increasing  the  species  that  bud-  arrec  v'vitl 
seeds,  but  that  they  emit  roots  in  like  manner  :  and  Ilia 
the  wood  and  liber  are  both  formed  by  the  dow- 

nt  of  bud-roots,  at  first  nourished  by  the  moi- 
the  cambium,  and   finally  imbedded  in  the  ccllula 
which  is  the  result  of  the  organization  of  that  set-ration. 
This  theory  then  supposes  that  woody  tissue  is  sent  dowi 
as  a  deposit  from  buds  and  leaves.     But  it   is  much  too 
general,  anil  whatever  may  be  the  agency  of  the  leaves  ii 
-ating  the  sap,  and  preparing  the  secretions  of  plants 
they  are  certainly  not  the  only  agent*  engaged  in  develop 
ing  the  woody  tissue.   There  are  many  parts  of  plan' 
pOMe«  no  leaves,  and  some  whole  orders,   u  Cactacea- 
that   potftcss  no   leaves    that    yet   develop   woody  tissue 
Trees  alto  that  have  the  hark  removed  in  a  circle  from  tin 
•tern  at  the  spring  of  the  year,  before  the  leaves  are  de 
TelopeU,  will  at  the  end  of  the  year  exhibit  between  thi 


«rk  and  wood  new  woody  tissue.      This  was  proved  by  a 
of  experiments  performed    on  Dr. 

-inkester.      Tin-   existence  of  w  t|1(. 

•ark  of  trees  is   also  another  fact    oppos  IVtit 

fliouars' theory.     These  ex  i  '-\i-t  in  the  ('..-m  of 

cnobs.  and  are  most  frequent  on  the  beech,  projecting  from 
lie  bark  of  the  tree.     » >n  e\amining  them  it  will  be  found 
hat  they  have  no  connection  with  th 
mil  consist  of  several  layers  of  contoii 

.1  in  a  bark  ot'lheir  own,  consisting  of  liber  aiu! 
ular  integument.     They  are  of  all  si/cs.  from  a  men'  point 

i  he  smallest  consist  of  cellular  1 

.n  the  centre  of  which  a  darker  spot  is  seen,  as  though. the 
lissue  wns  injured  or  diseased.  It  is  around  this  spot  that 
ihe  fibres  of  woody  tissue  develop  themselves.  These 
liodies  a])|X':ir  to  have  their  origin  in  an  undeveloped  bud  : 
lience  they  are  called  by  Dnt rochet  rniliri/n-l,inl\ ;  but  as 
they  goon  increasing  in  size,  and  development  occurs  in 
a  circular,  rather  than  a  longitudinal  direction,  they  are  de- 
scrihcd  by  I.inkester  as  abortirt-  hrunrhes.  From  th. 
searches  of  Schleiden  there  can  be  little  doubt  but  that  the 
elongated  tissue  is  developed  in  the  same  manner  as  i 

•tion  that   still  arises,  and  requires  solution 
whether  the  single  lihrcs  of  woody  tissue   are  the   produce 
of  a  single  cvtoblast  or  of  several.      In   t  ailed 

pitted  or  lSothrcnch\ma.  there  are  evident  indications  of 
its  cylindrical  tubes  being  form-  ,al  cells  i; 

together,  and  the  walls,  being  absorbed  at  their  point  of 
union,  have  thus  produced  a  continuous  tube. 

The  above  observations  of  Schleiden  have    set  aside  the 
supposition   that   the    cell  •  d   entirely   of  spiral 

fibres  intimately  siipci  |Ki-cd.  liut  still  the  question  recurs 
a.s  to  whether  tibre  may  not  be  generated  independent  of 
membrane.  Meycn  found  fibres  without  membrane  in  the 
genus  Sti-H* ;  I,mdley  obscived  them  in  Cnllnmiti  :  and 
many  oilier  instances  are  known  in  which  fibres  are  found 
in  punt* without  anv  apparently  enveloping  membrane. 
The  late  researches  of  Dr.  Martin  Harry  on  the  develop- 
ment of  animal  tissue  from  the  spiial  fibre  of  the  hlood- 
b'loliule  have  induced  some  botanists  to  examine  this  < 
tion  ;  and  Dr.  'U'illshirc,  in  a  paper  in  the  ilth  volume  of  the 
•Annals  of  Natural  ll\^«,  •dcavourcd  to  prove 

that  the    irregular-shaped  liodies  marked  with   dark   lines, 
and  found  in  the  juices  of  many  plants,  arc  tin 
of  pure  lihrous  tissue.      If  such  a  development  of  fibre  ' 
place,  it  can  lie  only  in  exceedingly  i:  Schleiden 

in  his  memoir  on  Phylogenesis  stales  that  lihrcs  arc  never 
formed  free,  but  always  in  the  interior  of  cells,  and  that  the 
walls  of  these  cells  in  thcjmmg  state  are  simple  and  of 
a  very  delicate  texture'. 

\Vhclher  tibrc  is  formed  independent    of  membrane  or 
not.  there  is  no  doubt  of  ils  formation  in  a  large  number  ol 
-  in  the  inside  of  cells  and  tubes  forming    the   fibro- 
11  and  fibro-vascular  tissues,     A<  Schk-idcn. 

the  cells  in  which  the  development  of  iihre  take-,  place  are 
in  the  commencement  of  the  formation  of  the  fibres  tilled 
with  starch,  rarely  with  mucus  or  gum,  although  the  starch 
passes  into  the  state  of  mucus  or  gum.  and  then  into  that  of 
gelatin  i  gallcrtc  i.  From  this  latter  vegetable  fibn - 
formed  which  in  their  development  always  follow  the  direc- 
tion of  a  spiral  line,  whose  coils  are  narrower  or  widei 
iiiigto  circumstances.  The  development  of  the  tilue 
is  the  same  in  the  spiral  vessel  as  in  the  spiral  cell,  there 
being  no  difference  between  the  two  but  in  their  dimen- 
In  tlu>  first  volume  of  the  'Transactions  of  the 
Microscopic. il  Society  of  London"  (1*1-.!  .  Mr.  Quekctt 
give- the  following  account  of  the  development  of  fibre  in 
the  vascular  tissue  of  plants: — 'When  the  voung  \< 
;that  is.  membranous  tulles'!  are  n  co-  ar  as 

pellucid  glossy  tubes,  with  a  rylohlast    in   some   part  of 
their  interior:  earlier  than  this  they  arc  not  to  lie  icadiiy 
recognised  from  cell*.     As  they  grow  older  tin 
diminishes,  and  the  contents,  which  at  fiisl  and 

gelatinous,  become  le-,  tiansparcnt  Irani  containing  thou- 
sands of  granules,  which  are  too  small  In  allow  of  the  pas- 
sage of  light,  and  consequent >'.  nits: 
these  atoms  are  about  (lie  ,^,0!'  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 
have  the  motion  known  aa"  act  i  vi  .''  If  the  vessel 
be  wounded  at  this  period  contents  pour 
slowly  out,  and  then  the  of  these 
molecules  are  still  more  cl'  These  atoms,  from 
their  freedom  of  motion,  are  arranged  nn!  iy  in 
the  interior  of  the  vc^d,  but  in  a  short  time,  some  of  them 


T  I  S 


501 


T  I  S 


enlarge,  and  then  transmit  a  little  light,  which,  on  account 
of  their  minute  dimensions,  is  not  suffered  to  pass  as  a 
white  pencil,  but  is  decomposed  in  its  course,  the  granule 
thereby  becoming  of  a  greenish  hue.  The  granules  ex- 
hibiting this  greenish  hue  are  now  in  a  fit  state  to  enter 
into  the  composition  of  the  fibre  that  is  to  exist  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  membranous  tube.'  This  is  effected  in  the 
following  manner : — '  The  granules  which  are  in  active 
motion  in  the  viscid  fluid  near  one  of  the  ends  become 
severally  attracted  to  the  inner  wall  of  the  vessel,  begin- 
ning at  the  very  point ;  those  granules  first  attracted  ap- 
pear as  if  cemented  to  the  spot  by  the  viscid  fluid  in  that 
direction  losing  some  of  its  watery  character;  for  there 
appears  a  string  of  a  whitish  colour,  besides  granules,  in  the 
line  which  the  fibre  is  to  occupy.  As  the  other  granules 
are  attracted  to  those  already  fixed  in  an  inclined  direction, 
the  spiral  course  is  soon  to  be  seen,  and  the  same  action 
progressively  goes  on  from  the  end  where  it  began  towards 
the  other,  around  the  interior  of  the  tube  in  the  form  of  a 
spiral ;  the  fibre  being  produced,  like  a  root,  by  having  the 
new  matter  added  and  continually  attached  to  the  grow- 
ing point,  thereby  causing  its  gradual  elongation.'  Spiral 
cells  and  vessels  thus  formed  exhibit  a  great  variety  of 
appearance,  depending  on  the  period  in  the  age  of  the 
cell  or  tube  at  which  the  development  of  the  fibre  takei 
place,  as  well  as  the  modifications  that  occur  in  the 
chemical  changes  of  the  substances  from  which  the  fibres 
are  formed.  The  cause  of  the  arrangement  of  the  par- 
ticles in  a  fibrous  form  is  still  got  satisfactorily  explained, 
and  it  is  most  commonly  referred  to  an  attraction  between 
the  sides  of  the  membrane,  of  the  cell,  and  the  particles  it 
contains,  but  why  they  form  a  spiral  is  a  mystery  yet  to  be 
solved.  [SPIRAL  STRUCTURE  OF  PLANTS.] 

The  various  forms  of  vegetable  tissue  found  in  the  dif- 
ferent organs  of  plants  are  included  in  the  following  ar- 
rangement : — 

I.  FIBROUS. 

Tissue  in  which  elementary  fibre  is  alone  apparent. 

II.  CELLULAR. 

Tissue  composed  of  membrane  in  the  form  of  cells  whose 
length  does  not  greatly  exceed  their  breadth. 

1.  Merenchyma,  the  cells  of  which  touch  each  other  only 
at  some  points. 

2.  Parenchyma,  the  walls  of  the  cells  of  which  are  ge- 
nerally united. 

3.  Prosenchyma,  the  cells  of  which  are  always  fusiform, 
and  overlie  each  other  at  their  ends. 

III.  VASCULAR. 

Tissue  composed  of  cylindrical  tubes  of  membrane  con- 
tinuous, or  overlying  each  other  at  their  ends. 

1.  Pleurenchyma,  with  the  sides  of  the  tubes  thickened 
and  tapering  to  each  end. 

2.  Cinenchyma,  the  sides  of  the  tubes  of  which  anasto- 
inoze,  and  convey  a  peculiar  fluid. 

IV.  FIBRO-CELI.ULAR. 

Tissue  composed  of  cells,  in  the  inside  of  which  fibres 
are  generated. 

a.  Genuine. 

1.  Fibrous  cells. 

b.  Spurious. 

2.  Porous  cells. 

3.  Dotted  cells. 

V.    FlBRO-VASCULAR. 

Tissue  composed  of  tubes,  in  the  inside  of  which  one  or 
more  spiral  fibres  are  more  or  less  perfectly  developed. 

a.  Genuine. 

1.  Spiral  vessels. 

2.  Annular  vessels. 

3.  Moniliform  vessels. 

b.  Spurious. 

4.  Scalariform  vessels. 

5.  Porous  vessels. 

(Bothrenchyma.) 
G.  Dotted  vessels. 

This  arrangement  includes  the  principal  forms  of  tissue 
observed  in  plants,  but  the  divisions  are  not  founded  upon 
any  pssrutiM  difference  in  the  structure  or  functi 

.    The  most  important  distinction    exists 


I  between  membrane  and  fibre,  which  arc  apparently  deve- 
loped under  the  influence  of  different  forces.  The  cell  and 
the  tube  differ  but  in  their  dimensions,  and  the  same  is 
true  of  them  when  fibre  is  generated  in  their  inside. 

Fibrous  Tissue. — Although  the  development  of  fibre  in- 
dependent of  membrane  is  still  undecided,  many  of  the 
parts  of  plants  exhibit  fibres  divested  of  membrane.  Fibres 
spirally  arranged  and  adhering  only  together  by  vegetable 
mucus,  which  is  dissolved  away  by  the  application  of  water, 
were  discovered  by  Brown,  in  the  seed-coat  of  Casuarina, 
and  by  Lindley,  in  the  same  position  in  Collomia  iincaris. 
Meyen,  who  maintains  that  all  cells  may  be  composed  of 
minute  fibres,  records  many  instances  of  vegetable  struc- 
ture in  which  fibre  of  a  spiral  form  alone  is  most  apparent, 
as  the  parenchyma  of  a  species  of  Stelis,  in  the  external 
layer  or  bark  of  the  aerial  roots  of  many  species  of  Orchi- 
daceae,  and  also  in  species  of  Melocactus  and  Mammillaria. 
Fibres  not  assuming  a  spiral  form,  and  independent  of 
cells  or  tubes,  have  been  described  by  Purkinje.  In  the 
lining  of  the  anthers  of  Polygala  Chamsebuxus  they  are 
found  short,  straight,  and  radiating ;  in  the  anthers  of  Li- 
naria  cymbalaria  they  form  distinct  arches ;  and  in  those 
of  some  species  of  Campanula,  they  are  arranged  like  the 
teeth  of  a  comb.  The  fibre  in  all  cases  is  very  minute, 
varying  from  ^  to  -^  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  It  is  most 
commonly  transparent  and  colourless,  but  in  some  cases 
has  been  observed  of  a  greenish  colour.  Purkinje,  who 
has  recently  investigated  it  very  attentively,  asserts  that  it 
is  hollow ;  but  Lindley,  Schleiden,  and  Morren  are  of 
opinion  that  it  is  solid. 

Cellular  Tissue;  also  called  utricular  and  vesicular  tissue  • 
the  Parenchyma  of  Lindley  and  Morren,  tela  cellulosa  ot 
Link-,  and  contextus  and  coinplexus  cellulosus  of  older 
writers ;  Zellgewebe,  Germ. ;  TuiU  cellulaire,  French. — 
This  tissue  consists  of  cells  or  cavities,  which  are  closed  on 
all  sides,  and  are  formed  of  a  delicate,  mostly  transparent 
membrane  developed  from  a  cytoblast.  It  is  present  in  the 
whole  vegetable  kingdom  ;  and  all  the  lower  forms  of  plants, 
constituting  the  class  Acrogens,  are  composed  entirely  of  it, 
and  have  hence  been  called  Cellulares.  In  the  higher 
plants  it  is  most  abundant  in  fruits  and  succulent  leaves. 
It  exists  in  larger  quantity  in  herbs  than  trees,  and  the 
younger  the  plant  is  the  more  it  abounds,  and  constitutes 
the  entire  structure  of  the  embryo. 

The  normal  form  of  the  cells  is  spheroidal,  and  when 
they  exist  in  this  or  in  an  elliptical  form,  and  only  touch 
each  other  at  a  few  points  without  exerting  pressure,  they 
constitute  the  tissue  called  by  Meyen  Merenchyma.  The 
cells  in  this  case  may  form  a  regular  or  irregular  layer,  a 
distinction  which  may  be  of  some  importance.  Such  tissue 
is  found  in  many  parts  of  plants,  especially  those  which 
are  delicate  and  easily  torn,  as  in  the  pulp  of  fruits  like  the 
strawberry,  in  the  petals  of  the  white  lily,  in  the  stem  of 
Cactus  pendulus,  where  they  are  spheroidal,  and  in  the 
leaf  of  the  Agave  Americana,  where  they  are  elliptical. 
The  cells  also  which  constitute  the  entire  of  many  of  the 
lower  plants  belong  to  this  division  of  cellular  tissue. 
They  are  seen  separate  or  loosely  adhering  to  each  other 
in  the  Protocqccus  nivalis,  the  plant  of  the  Red  snow 
[SNOW,  RED],  in  many  of  the  smuts  and  brands,  as  Ustilago 
and  Uredo.  Chroolepus,  and  many  of  the  lower  forms  of 
alga:  and  fungi,  consist  of  filaments  which  are  entirely 
composed  of  spheroidal  cells  arranged  one  upon  another. 

In  the  higher  forms  of  plants  the  vegetative  force  is 
greater,  and  a  greater  number  of  cells  being  generated  in 
a  given  space,  they  press  on  each  other  on  all  sides, 
assuming  a  variety  of  forms,  and  constituting  the  tissue 
called  by  Meyen  Parenchyma.  The  most  common  form 
which  the  cells  present  under  these  circumstances  is  the 
rhomboidal  dodecahedron,  which  is  the  mathematical  form 
that  a  globe  assumes  when  subjected  to  the  pressure  of  a 
number  of  globes  touching  each  other  at  the  same  time. 
These  cells  when  cut  through,  as  in  the  section  of  a  por- 
tion of  pith,  or  the  leaf  of  a  plant,  will  present  their  cut 
margins,  when  seen  through  the  microscope,  in  the  form 
of  hexagons,  (a  and  b.  Fig.  1.)  But  the  pressure  is  not 
always  equal  on  all  sides  of  the  cells,  so  that  a  great  mir.i- 
ber  of  secondary  forms  are  the  result.  When  the  vesicles 
are  elongated,  the  dodecahedrons  assume  the  form  of  right- 
angled  prisms,  terminated  by  four-sided  pyramids,  whose 
faces  replace  the  angle  of  the  pyramids  at  varying  degrrcs 
of  inclination  to  the  axis.  Many  of  the  forms  thus  iisMimed 
characterise  parts  of  plants,  and  are  very  constant  in  the 


T  I  S 


502 


TIS 


Dune  specie*  of  plant*.    The  principal  rarictie*  of  Paren- 
chyma distinguished  by  Meyen  are 

Fig.  I. 

a  4 

V*  1 


1.  The  cubical,  which  exists  in  the  cuticle  of  some 
leave*,  and  is  not  unfrcquently  met  with  in  bark  and  pith, 
as  in  the  pith  of  Viscum  album,  (c,  Fig.  1.) 

The  rnlamnar,  of  which  there  arc'  two  varieties:  the 

rifHnrlrir<tl    'cylindrenrhymu  of    Morrcn  ,    examples     of 

which  may  be  seen  in  Cham  nnd  in  Agaricus  inuscarius  ; 

.  ,-i,tii,iiii\i  .hymn;,  frequently  seen   in  the 

•lie  hark  of  plants,  and  when  compressed  it  be- 

inuriform   tissue  (t,  Fig.  1;,  which  is  constantly 

:  in  the  medullary  rays,  and  has  its  name  from  the 

beitv.;  arranged  as  bricks  in  a  wall. 

:t.  The  ii  ••<! :  the  natural  form  of  parenchyma 

when  the  cells  are  of  equal  size  and  exert  on  each  other 
equal  pressure,  and  when  cut  present  a  hexagonal  form. 

1 

1.  The  strllatrd  (actinenchyma),  in  which  the  cells, 
from  the  irregularity  of  their  walls,  assume  a  star-like  form, 
seen  in  Musa. 

The    tubulated,    seen   in    the   epiphlaeum   of  many 

plants:  other  forms,  as  conical  (conencnyma ;  ft,  Fix.  1  . 

oval    {iimichyimi  ,     fusiform     (atractgnchymd),     sinuous 

branched  :i;jled    (d<e- 

;ive  been  described  b\  Morren. 

differs  from  Parenchyma  in  the  cells 
always  having  an  elliptical  form  which  taper  to  theii 
extremities,  where  they  overlie  each  other.  This  form  of 
tissue  is  found  only  in 'the  bark  and  wood,  and  is  a  tran- 
sition from  cellular  to  what  is  called  woody  tissue.  Meyen 
applies  this  term  esp< .  ially  to  the  tissue  finning  the  wood 

In  these  families  thi- 
is  marked  with  do'ts,  which  are  surrounded  by  a  circle. 

Fig.  '2. 


(Fir.  Z)    These  dots  were  formerly  supposed  1  •  • 
ana  to  seci.  -inoiis  matter  which  abound-,  in  them, 

and   hence  it  was  called  •  glandular  woody  ti--ue.'     Tin 
nx-arche.-  have  hov.  u  (hit 

dobt  are  the  result  of  the  development  of  fibre  wilhii 
alls  of  the  cells,  and  in  this  Mrw  the  Prosenchyma 
not  only  constitutes  a  transition  from  cellular  to  \: 
tissue,  but  also  a  transition  from  libro-cellular  to  fibro- 
vascular  tissue. 

-  'if  Cells. — The  vesicle  of  cellular  tissue 
it  rises  from  its  cytoblast  is  a  thin  transparent  m.'i 
which  as  it  eniarsres  becomes  thirki-ncd  from  within  b\ 
the  i,  rr  nutriment  which  is  contains 

in  the  cell.     This  cell  in  the  early  ktagcs  of  its  growth  is 
filled  with  a  fluid,  at  fir»t  clear,  but  afterward*  opa' 
f. "in  tin-  development  in  it  of  minute  granules, 
granule*  are  of  various  shapes  and  sizes,  and  always  exces- 
sively minute.     In  their  early  stages  they  possess  the 


characters  of  starch,  more   particularly  the   proper' 
assuming   a  blue  colour  when 
tincture  of  iodine.     In  the  older  . 

>e  character  of  starch,  nnd  possess  nv 
Some  of  them,  and  these  more  minute  than  thos* 
arc  not  coloured  by  iodine,  and  arc  soluble  in  alcoho! 
partake  of  a  resinous  character.     They  jr  iliar 

colour  to   the   elaborated   sap,  v  and 

in   plants  with   milky  juices   constitute   the    ca 
which  they  yield.     They  seem   also  to  be  ' 
of  the  volir  sins,  balsams,  rums,  &c.  t 

yield.    [SECRETK  nothcr  set  of  glubiiUi 

are  also  found  present  in  old  cells,  and  these  conv 
what  is  called  chlnrophyl,  or  chromulf,  and  exist  espc 
in  the  cells  of  plants  < 

[Su'.l    It  is  from  t': 

vh  that  the  cc! 

appropriated  by  the  walls  of  the  cell  they  are 
into  a  substance 

It  is  from  tl  vini:  in  :i 

plants,  that  the  cells  arc  • 

uembrane  in  many  eases  bccon.  hard, 

as  in  the  stones  of  manyfru  I  oflhe  ]' 

Maerocarpa,  and  the  wood  of  r.:  In  simpl* 

lular  tissue  and  in  woody  tissue  this  material  is  ap]<lied 
equally  to  the  whole  e  pillar 

:  in  the  tibro-cellular  and  fibro-vascular  tissues  it  is 
appropriated  in  the  form  of  fibre. 

Another  class  of  bodies  found  in  the  interior  of  < 
and  which  appear  to  have  nothing  to  do  with  tl!' 
of  the  plant,  are  those  crystalline  bo. I  llaphides. 

They  occur  singly  or  in  bundles,  and  have  an  aeieular 
form,  and  are  long  or  short  according  to  ciituiu>1: 
In  length  tl  :-e  from  J^th  to  Tjmth  part  of  an  inch. 

These  crystals  were  first  obsened  in  tin1  proper  juices  of 
plants  and  have  been  subsequently  found  in  all  paru  ut 
plants  where  celluln:  They  \\ere  formerly 

supposed  to  exist  between  the  cells,  but  later  ohs. 
have  seen  them  in  cells,  and  they  probably  exist  in 
situations.    The  form  of  these  bodies  is  not  satisfactorily 
determined.      Mold  describe*  thorn  ;  four- 

sided  prisms  vanishing  into  poiir 
the  latest  ol 

four-sided  prisms,   but  not  always   n<,'ht 
which  are  conglomerated  are  called  crystal -glands  '.'kryutal- 

i     bv  Mcvcn.     They  seldom  present  more  than  the 
pyramid  of  each  little  crystal  composing  them.     Tin 
portion  in  which  they  exist  in  plants  is  sometimes  very 
ureat.     In  some  spec:,  cec,  according  to  Qui 

the  crystals  equal  the  wcicM  of  th<-  ilried  ti 
hundred  grains  of  Tu  .irb-root  31 

and  40  grains  oi 
Seilla  maritima  yielded  10  grains.     In  m 

Is  are  composed  of  • 
lime.  Raspail  says  the  cr. 
four-sided  prisms  will 

of  the  phosphate,  six-siiied  prisms.     In  (.'ham  crystals  of 
carbonate  of  lime  occur  in  preat  abundance  on  the  out- 
side of  tht    •  I  we  ha\t- ohscncd  them  in  the  in- 
tercellular passages    immediately   under    the    epidermis, 
but  they  do  not  occur  in  the  interior  parts  of  the   plant. 
Schiible'r  found  that  the  crystal-glands  of  Hydiuius 
tallophorus  consisti  d  of  carbonate  of  lime,  and  Saigey  and 
De  la  Fosse  found  silica  in  th.  l  the   Mi:. 
Jalapa.      Silica  the 
Graminacca-,  but  is  .- 
the  hardness  to  ' 

i  article  of  commerce  und. 

'tl  leu  ill  of  the  c 

in  plants  it  may  be  inferred  that  -  form  tin  : 

side 's  the  above.     Thene  bixlies  do  in  : 
:irts  of  the  tissues  in  which  tlu\ 

.^red  by  Link  to  calculi  and  oil1..  >:is  in 

the  animal  kingdom.   This  view  is  rendcreii 
by  the   fact 

nients  wliieh  the  plants  tal, 

nutriment.     Mejeii   h:ui   pointed   out  ,  'ants 

.11:  near  the  sea  will   thn>  iMtvi; 

of  clil  •<Iium  in  II.  '  I_M> 

nd  we  have  fon 

i  wliich  it 
'ance.  JL'hosphate  of  lime 


T  I  S 


503 


X  I  S 


is  necessary  to  the  nutrition  of  many  plants,  and  the  ele- 
ments of  oxalic  acid  exist  in  the  sap  of  all  plants;  and 
when  these  are  in  greater  abundance  than  the  vital  ener- 
gies of  the  plant  can  appropriate,  the  laws  of  chemical 
affinity  come  into  play,  and  crystallization  is  the  result. 

Growth,  Form,  $c.— The  vesicles,  of  cellular  tissue  are 
very  small,  and  cannot  lie  distinguished  with  the  naked  eye  ; 
and  in  fact  all  investigations  on  the  structure,  development, 
and  functions  of  the  tissues  of  plants,  can  only  be  con- 
ducted with  the  aid  of  the  microscope.  The  measure- 
ments of  the  cells  give  them  a  size  varying  from  3yh  to 
?'le  TjW1  °f  an  inch  in  diameter.  In  the  lower  tribes,  as 
in  the  Fungi,  their  generation  is  very  rapid,  and  it  is  well 
known  that  mushrooms,  puffballs,  &c.  will  attain  a 
groat  size  in  the  course  of  .a  single  night.  The  force  too 
with  which  they  are  generated  is  very  great,  and  there  are 
many  well-authenticated  instances  of"  agarics  springing 
up  beneath  pavements  and  displacing  stones  of  great 
weight  and  size. 

The  walls  of  the  loose  spheroidal  cells  in  merenchyma 
consist  of  a  single  membrane,  but  the  walls  of  the  more 
closely-pressed  cells  of  parenchyma  consist  of  two  mem- 
branes, originally  distinct,  but  fused  into  one  by  growth. 
It  frequently  happens  that  the  walls  of  the  cells  are 
not  accurately  applied  to  each  other,  and  consequently 
spaces  of  various  kinds  occur  between  the  cells.  These 
are  called  intercellular  passages.  They  occur  in  the 
greatest  abundance  in  the  loose  merenchymatous  tissue. 
When  these  passages  exist  between  the  walls  of  two  cells 
whose  sides  are  united  in  their  middle  and  recede  towards 
their  margins,  they  are  called  by  Link  meatus  intercel- 
lulares.  These  are  most  frequently  met  with  in  the  epider- 
mis of  piants.  Where  the  passages  are  formed  of  three  or 
more  cells  the  sides  of  whose  walls  do  not  touch,  they  are 
called  (Indus  intercellulures.  These  are  very  well  seen  in 
the  parenchyma  of  the  stem  of  the  iris  and  hyacinth,  and 
Heracleum.  These  passages  have  been  supposed  by  De 
Candolle  and  others  to  convey  the  sap ;  but  this  has  pro- 
bably arisen  from  an  error  in  observation,  as  they  are  easily 
iilled  with  sap  when  cut  through.  Others  again  confound 
these  passages  with  the  peculiar  vascular  tissue  described 
by  Schultes  as  Laticiferous  tissue  (Cinenchyma). 

Another  kind  of  intercellular  formation  are  the  air-cells, 
the  lucunif  nitfrcMulares  of  Link,  which  are  large  cavi- 
1  ie.s  formed  in  the  tissue  of  plants,  and  whose  walls  are 
entirely  formed  of  cellular  tissue.  They  may  be  very  dis- 
tinctly divided  into  two  kinds,  the  regular  and  the  irregu- 
lar. The  regular  exist  under  the  epidermis  of  many  plants 
and  vary  in  size,  but  have  in  all  cases  a  regularity  of  struc- 
ture, their  sides  being  formed  of  equal-sized  cells  of  cellu- 
lar tissue.  They  may  be  seen  in  the  leaf-stalk  of  Calla 
sethiopica,  the  stem  of  CEnanthe  Phellandrium,  and  the 
petioles  of  Nymphaea.  They  are  very  common  in  water- 
plants.  They  are  always  filled  with  air  in  these  plants, 
and  serve  as  a  means  of  buoying  them  up  in  the  water. 
The  irregular  air-cells,  lacuncs  of  Link,  are  found  in  old 
plants ;  they  arise  from  the  growth  of  the  plant  tearing 
asunder  the  cellular  tissue,  or  from  a  deficient  develop- 
ment or  even  the  absorption  of  this  tissue  in  particular 
directions.  They  may  be  seen  in  the  stem  of  the  fronds 
of  the  Aspidium  Fihx  Mas,  of  Hippuris  and  Equisetum, 
and  in  nearly  the  whole  of  the  family  Umbelliferae. 

The  other  organs  which  are  formed  by  and  found  in  the 
midst  of  the  cellular  tissue  are  the  sap-cells  and  gland*. 
The  sap-cells,  the  opangia  of  Link,  consist  of  enlarged 
cells  of  tissue,  varying  much  in  size,  but  always  filled  with 
elaborated  sap.  They  are  found  in  the  skin  of  the  fruit  of 
the  citron,  pomegranate,  &c.  These  are  regular  in  form, 
but  in  the  roots  and  rhizomata  of  such  plants  as  the  ginger, 
Archangelica,  and  Aristolochia,  they  are  found  of  an  irre- 
gular form.  The  glands,  which  are  by  some  supposed  to 
be  the  agents  by  which  the  peculiar  secretions  of  the  plant 
immediately  separated  from  the  latex,  are  composed 
iU  pressed  together,  and  assuming  a  variety  of  forms. 
When  examined,  these  cells  are  found  to  contain  in  many 
iii^Hm-cr,  the  ri-sin,  sum,  oil,  &c.  which  give  to  the  plant 
some  of  its  peculiar  physical  properties. 

The  organs  just  enumerated  as  present  in  the  cellular 
tissue  are  met  with  chiefly  in  the  merenchymatous  and 
parenchynintotis  forms. 

Vascular  or  Tabular  Tissue  consists  of  continuous  I 
of  simple  membrane,  and  comprehends  the  woody  and  the 
laticifercus  tissues.  On  the  one  hand  they  are  distinguished 


by  their  length  from  the  forms  of  cellular  tissue,  and  on 
the  other  hand  by  their  plane  membrane  from  those  tissues 
of  which  fibre  forms  a  constituent  element. 

Pleurenchyma,ot  Woody  Tissue  (vasajibrosa  of  Link,  ana 
Fasergefasse,  German),  is  found  abundantly  in  the  wood, 
and  especially  the  liber,  of  all  plants.  It  is  composed  of 
very  long,  thin,  tough,  transparent,  membranous  tubes. 
No  bars  or  dots  are  seen  in  their  walls,  although  when 
they  cross  each  other  the  points  at  which  they  touch  may 
be  taken  for  such  markings.  They  taper  acutely  to  each 
end,  and  do  not  appear  to  have  any  communication  one 
with  the  other,  although  they  arc  occasionally  seen  with 
open  extremities,  which  Slack  supposes  to  arise  from  the 
breaking  off  of  one  fibre  where  it  was  united  to  another. 
In  the  wood  and  bark  of  dicotyledonous  plants  they  are 
frequently  mixed  with  prosenchyma,  and  in  monocotyle- 
donous  plants  with  parenchyma.  They  grow  by  increasing 
in  length  both  above  and  below.  Their  diameter  varies 
from  T^J  to  3^55  of  an  inch.  The  walls  increase  in  thickness 
by  the  deposition  of  vegetable  jelly,  called  by  Turpin 
sclerogen,  to  their  insides,  and  in  the  woody  tissue  of 
Betula  alba  and  other  trees  the  sclerogen  may  be  seen 
forming  successive  layers  around  the  sides  of  tho  tubes. 
Their  form  is  mostly  cylindrical,  but  in  Cycas  revoluta 
Link  has  observed  them  assuming  a  prismatic  form. 

The  tubes  of  woody  tissue  are  very  tough,  and  will  resist 
considerable  force  without  breaking.  It  is  on  this  account 
that  they  are  used  extensively  in  the  manufacture  of  cloths 
of  various  kinds.  The  plants  used  most  commonly  for  this 
purpose  are  the  hemp  and  flax.  The  fibres  of  Tilia,  Daphne, 
Lagetta,  and  of  many  of  the  plants  of  the  order  of  Mal- 
vaceae, are  used  for  making  mats,  cordage,  whips,  &c.  The 
following  is  a  comparative  statement  of  the  relative  strength 
of  silk  and  some  woody  fibre  : — 

Silk  supported  a  weight  equal  to         34 
New  Zealand  Flax  23J 

Hemp     .....         10J 

Flax llj 

Pita  Flax  (Agave  Americana)   .          7 
Woody  tissue  gives  firmness  and  tenacity  to  the  plant, 
and  assists  in  conveying  the  sap  from  the  roots  to  the 
leaves. 

Cinenchyma,  or  Laticiferous  Tissue,  consists  of  tubes 
which  are  mostly  branched  and  anastomosing  ;  their  walls 
are  exceedingly  delicate  in  young  plants,  and  thicker  in 
old  ones  ;  and  they  are  characterised  by  conveying  a  fluid 
called  the  latex,  which  differs  from  the  sap  in  other  parts 
of  the  plant.  [SAP.]  The  older  botanists,  Spigelius,  Mal- 
pighi,  and  Grew  described  them,  but  they  were  generally 
confounded  with  woody  tissue,  till  they  were  very  fully 
investigated  by  Schultes.  In  older  writers  they  are  called 
vasa  propria  or  peculiar  ia  ;  by  Link,  v asa  opophora.  Some 
writers  have  supposed  that  they  are  nothing  more  than 
intercellular  passages,  and  have  denied  that  they  po- 
membranous  parietes ;  but  their  existence  has  been  ascer- 
tained, and  the  observations  of  Schultes  on  their  structure 
confirmed  by  Link,  Meyen,  Mohl,  and  others.  The  walls 
of  these  vessels  are  mostly  plain,  but  have  been  sometimes 
observed  marked  with  bars  and  fibres.  They  do  not  exist 
in  all  plant*,  and  have  not  been  found  at  all  in  the  lower 
forms  of  Cryptogamia,  nor  in  some  of  the  Phanerogamous 
plants,  as  Valisneria  and  Stratiotes.  Their  most  frequent 
position  is  on  the  sides  of  spiral  vessels,  or  amongst  the 
bundles  of  this  tissue  found  in  the  midrib  and  nerves  of 
leaves.  They  are  most  obvious  in  the  order  Euphorbiaceee, 
where  the  latex  is  of  a  white  colour.  This  juice  is  not 
always  coloured  or  opalescent,  but  is  sometimes  quite  clear. 
The  tubes  are  not  always  regular  in  size.  In  some  species, 
as  in  Glycine  Apios,  they  are  irregularly  contracted  and 
expanded  ;  in  Papaver  nudicaule  they  have  a  moniliform 
appearance ;  in  Acer  platanoides  they  are  very  regular. 
In  the  stem  they  are  generally  simple,  but  in  very  young 
plants  and  the  younger  parts  of  plants  they  are  branched, 
and  anastomose.  (Fig.  3.)  Link  has  observed  their  termi- 
nating in  blind  extremities.  In  their  distribution  they 
gradually  diminish  in  size,  and  have  been  traced  into  the 
most  delicate  parts  of  plants,  as  the  hairs. 

Schultes  supposes  that  these  vessels  perform  the  same 
functions  in  the  plant  as  the  arteries  and  veins  in  animals. 
The  fluid  in  them  has  a  peculiar  motion,  which  he  calls 
cyclosis.  [SAP.] 

Fibro-ceitular  Tissue,  or  Inenchyma,  consists  of  cells 
formed  of  membrane,  in  the  inside  of  which  fibre  is  de- 


T  J  S 


504 


T  I  S 


veloped.  This  tissue  maybe  divided  into  two  kinds,  ge- 
nuine and  spurious  ;  the  genuine  being  that  in  which  tin- 
fibre  is  distinctly  marked  on  the  inside  of  the  cell,  and  the 
spurious  that  in  which  the  fibre,  either  by  absorption  or 
the  union  of  its  various  parts,  forms  rings,  bars,  dots,  and 
other  appearances  on  the  sides  of  the  cell.  The  genuine 
fibro-cellular  tissue  is  mostly  found  in  parenchymatous 
and  prosenchymatous  cells.  It  lias  been  known  for  a  long 
tune  amongst  botanists,  and  was  first  described  by  Hedwig, 
who  was  followed  by  Moldenhawer  and  others.  Th. 
hbumlant  in  the  external  parchment-like  layers  of  aerial 
roots  of  Orchidaceie,  and  nave  been  described  by  Mcyrn 
in  Oncidium  altissimum.  Acropera  Loddigcsii.  Hni.-sav  ola 
cordata,  &c.  They  occur  in  the  hairs  of  the  pericarp  of 
many  of  the  Composita-,  as  in  Perdicium  taraxaci,  Se- 
.  flaccidus,  and  Trichocline  humilis.  Horkel  has  de- 
.-cribed  them  in  the  epidermis  of  many  Labials-,  us  Zizi- 
phora,  Ocymum,  and  many  Salvi»>.  The  seed-coats  of 
many  plants  possess  them,  as  Gilia  Ipomopsis,  Polemonium 
( 'anfua,  and  Caldaria;  and  Kippist  has  lately  demonstrated 
their  presence  in  many  of  the  species  of  Acanthaceae.  In 
some  of  these  cases,  and  many  others  might  be  mentioned, 
the  fibre  appears  to  constitute  the  whole  of  the  cell,  as 
Mated  under  fibrous  tissue. 

The  fibre  in  these  cells  varies  in  its  position  and  form. 
In  the  cells  of  the  leaf  of  Oncidium  altissimum  they  are 
v cry  distinct,  and  occasionally  branched.  In  the  testa  ol 
the  seed  of  Maanandya  Barcleyana,  where  thcv  were  first 
pointed  out  by  Lindley,  the  fibres  run  in  different  direct  ion- 
ovcr  each  other,  forming  a  network.  In  the  endothecium 
of  Calla  a-thiopiaca  they  are  parallel,  and  in  this  form  are 
eomimm  in  the  Mime  onran  of  other  plants.  Jn  the 
endothccium  of  Nymphza  alba  the  fibres  form  regular 
arelies  arising  from  a  plane  base.  In  the  elaters  of  .Inn- 
trermnnnia  and  in  the  testa  of  Acanthodium  the  cells  arc 
•iy  elongated,  with  a  silicic  spiral  fibre  in  their  inte- 
rior. 

The  spurious  fibro-ccllular  tissue  includes  the  porous 
and  dotted  cells  of  many  authors ;  the  rcllultr  pnrosee  et 
i:iiitr/nltf>  of  Link.  If  a  portion  of  the  parenchyma  ol 
Viucum  album  be  examined,  the  inside  of  the  cells  will  be 
found  to  possess  a  number  of  bright  spots.  They  were  first 
discovered  by  Treviraiuis  in  C'ycas  revoluta,  and  supposed 
by  him  to  be  granule-.  Tln-y  \\ere  thought  by  other 
observers  to  l>e  pores:  hence  their  name  porous  cells. 
Sprengel,  Mold,  and  Link  consider  them  little  vesicles, 
but  Meyen  has  given  a  different  explanation  of  theii 
nature.  He  ascribes  their  existence  to  a  metamorphosis 
"f  tlr  Derated  in  cell*.  They  are  ol  ten  met  with 

in  the  name  cells  an  fibres,  and  it   is  by  the  union  of  some 
part*  of  the  fibre  and  the  absorption  of  others  that  tin 
space*  are  produced,  which  when  tirsl    viewed  appear  at> 
though  they  were  granules,  pores,  or  vesicles.     Tin 
appearance  i*  frequently  found  in  the  various   forms   ol 
fibre- vascular  tissue,  where  there   can  be  little  doubt  of  tin 
spots  arising  from  the  irregular   formation  of  the 
hren  thow  botanists 
on  this  point  with  regard  to  cellular 

rectneM  in  vascular  U«ue.  As  it  must  be  admitted  thai 
there  U  no  essential  ditleiem-e  between  the  cellular  am: 
vascular  tJMues,  it  is  undoubtedly  a  correct  inference  thai 
these  spoU  have  the  same  origin  in  both  ti- 

A  transition  from  porous  e,-iU  to  porous  tubi-.-t  is  seen  ii 
the  tiwue  which  has  been  called  IJothrcnchyma.    In  this 


Usuc,  which  can  be  well  seen  in  I'hytorrene,  as  well  a* 

cas,  a  number  of  truncated   porous  "eel  Is  an   placed    oiu: 
on  the  other  no  as  to  form  arvln:  .  mbe 

>y  the    absorption    or   rein-  ;.:irlitions. 

Porous  vascular  t  :.nvd  to  tins  form   by  l.indley 

imler  the  n;i  <tinuous  Hothrenchyma,  as'thc   pur 

jtions  or  union  of  the  cells  are  not  visible.  When  the, 
joints  of  union  of  the  cells  are  evident,  lie  calls  it  articu- 
lated Hothrenchyma. 

Dotted  cells  have  their  walls  marked  with  dark  spots, 
l -ei-n  observed  in  the  pith  of  ('alvcanlhus 
loridus  and  in  the  stem  of  Drac;i>na  terminal!*.     They  ap- 
jiear  only  to  ilitt'er  from  the  porous  cells  in  the-  matter  from 
which  they  are  fornn  trreater  opacity,  and  not 

transmitting  the  liiiht  so  fr, 

l'ilirii-i-iiM-iil<ir  Ttxmi".  or  Trnrhrtn-hijiiin    rxvi  xjiii- 
of  Link),  consists  of  tubes,  in  the  ii:  nch  spiral 

fibres  are  generated.  The  fibres  of  this  tissue,  like  the 
last,  are  subject  to  metamorphosis,  the  consequence  of 
which  is,  the  tubes  present  the  appearances  of  nngs,  bars, 
and  bright  and  dark  spots. 

The  tubes  consist  of  a  very  delicate  membrane,  which  is 
mostly  cylindrical  ;  it  may  MweTer  UBUM  a  pnsmatical 
form  when  the  tubes  are  in  bundles  and  closely  pr< 
together,  as  in  ferns  and  many  monocotyledonous  plants. 
The  fibres  generated  in  this  tissue  are  mostly  comprised, 
and  wind  up  the  sides  of  the  tube  in  aspiral  form.  \Vhen 
the  membrane  i*  broken,  the  fibre  in  most  cases  may  be 
unrolled.  It  is  in  the  younser  tubes  that  this  is  most  , 
effected  ;  as  in  the  older  tubes  those  changes  sro  on  which 
connect  the  membrane  and  the  fibre  firmly  together,  and 
convert  the  latter  into  bars,  dots,  £cc.  fhe  numl" 
fibres  included  in  a  tube  varies;  it  is  frequently  single, 
but  in  some  instances  as  many  as  twenty-two  have  been 
counted.  They  have  no  fixed  direction  ;  some  pas-  limn 
right  to  left,  others  from  left  to  right.  Some  difference  of 
opinion  luis  existed  as  to  whether  the  fibres  are  tubular  or 
not.  Schleiden  says  in  most  instances  they  are  solid,  but 
where  they  are  formed  from  large  globules  of  jelly  they 
appear  to  be  tubular  in  both  vascular  and  cellular  ti 

Link   divides    fibro-vascular   tissue    into    grunt  in-   and 
spurious;    the  former   includes   all   those    re*ad*   which 
possess  perfect  fibres.     The  principal  forms  of 
the  xjiiral,  aiinulur,  and  niiuiilijnriii  vessels.     The 
(•CAM'/  consists   of  a  tr.be,  m  which  one  or  more  fibres  run 
continuously  along  its  sides   from  one   end   to    the    other. 
(ti,e,f,  Fig.  4.)  When  the  fibres  are  single,  they  are  called 

Fig.  4. 


:  when  there  is  more  than  one.  ciinijn>ini<l.     The 
spiral  vessels  are  most  abundant  in  young  plants,  as  their 
character  becomes  changed  by  :n;e.'    When  the  fibres  ad- 
here  to   the  sides    ol"  the   membiaiie,  they  are  said  to  lie 
The  spiral   vessel   v\ as  at   one  time  considered    a 
veiy  important  tissue,  performing   especial  vital  functions, 
the  circumstance  of  air  being  frequently   found  in 
them,  and  this  air  containing  a  larger  quantity  of  oxyjren 
than  the  atmosphere,  they  were  supposed  to  cany  on  tin- 
function  of  respiration.     Subsequent  observation  "however 
proves  that  they  as  frequently  convey  liquid  as   air.  and 
Meyen  supposes  that   they  are  only  filled  with  nir  when  a 
larger  quantity  of  fluid  ceases  to  be  required  by  the  plant. 
Anntiliir  ri'Mi'/x  or  </urt.\  consist   ol  tubes  with   perfect 
nni_rs  of  fibre  on  their  sides,   (g,  1'ig.  4.)    These  arc  evi- 
dently formed  from  the  interruption  of  the  spirit,  and  the 
union  of   the  broken  ends,   as  they  are  lieqm-ntly  found 
t   with  a  spiral  fibre  m  I:  be.      They  are 

mostly  larircr  than  the  spiral  vessels,  and  the   fibre  is  also 
thicker:    they   arc   very  abundant  in   mouocotylcdonouij 


T  I  S 


505 


T  I  T 


plants;    amongst  dicotyledons  they  are  found  chiefly  in 
quick-growing  plants,  as  Cucurbitacese. 

Moniliform  vessels  have  successive  dilatations  and  con- 
tractions of  the  tube,  and  a  perfect  spiral  fibre  in  their  in- 
side. It  has  been  proved  by  Slack  that  these  vessels  de- 
rive their  peculiar  form  from  accidental  compression.  They 
are  found  in  the  knots  of  trees  where  branches  are  given 
off,  in  roots,  and  other  parts  where  they  meet  with  obsta- 
cles to  their  longitudinal  development. 

Spurious  fibro-vascular  tissue  includes  scalariform, 
porous,  and  dotted  vessels.  The  spurious  vessels  are  not 
found  in  the  tissues  of  young  plants,  and  are  either  de- 
veloped after  the  appearance  of  the  genuine  spiroids,  or 
are  formed  from  them.  Meyen  maintains  the  latter  view, 
but  Link  and  other  botanists  are  still  inclined  to  give  to 
some  of  the  barred  and  dotted  tissues  an  original  develop- 
ment. In  the  medullary  sheath,  the  spurious  spiroids  are 
never  found  in  the  young  plant,  although  they  are  some- 
times in  the  albumen  and  bark ;  but  it  is  not  necessary 
that  a  pure  spiral  fibre  should  always  be  visible  previous 
to  its  being  converted  into  some  one  of  the  forms  of  spurious 
spiroids.  If  in  a  very  large  number  of  cases  there  is  evi- 
dence that  lings,  bars,  and  dots  are  formed  from  the 
metamorphosis  of  spiral  fibres,  we  may  fairly  conclude  that 
in  those  cases  where  no  observation  proves  to  the  con- 
trary, the  same  effect?  are  to  be  attributed  to  the  same 
cause. 

Scalariform  vessels  consist  of  tunes  mostly  prismatical, 
with  spots  on  their  walls  resembling  bars  or  straps.  These 
bars  are  placed  one  above  another  in  a  ladder-like  form  ; 
hence  their  name.  They  are  abundant  in  ferns,  where  the 
prismatic  form  of  the  spfroid  is  most  frequently  seen. 

Porous  vessels  are  tubes  with  bright  spots  upon  their 
walls  (A,  i,  Fig.  4) ;  they  constitute  the  continuous  Both- 
renehyma  of  Lindley.  They  are  found  in  greatest  abun- 
dance in  the  old  wood  of  Coniferae,  in  the  same  positions 
where  spiral  vessels  are  found,  in  the  young  wood,  and 
also  in  the  roots  of  plants.  The  dots  constituting  what 
were  erroneously  thought  to  be  pores,  have  the  same 
character  as  those  of  fibre-cellular  tissue.  These  vessels 
often  attain  a  great  size,  measuring  as  much  as  a  quarter  of 
a  line  in  diameter. 

Dotted  vessels  constitute  the  tissue  which  has  been  called 
'  glandular  u-O'idi/  tisstn;'  and  to  which  Meyen  applies  pe- 
culiarly the  term  Prosenchyma.  (F/g.  3  ;  t>,  Fig.  4.)  The 
dotted  vessel,  like  the  dotted  cell,  has  dark  spots  on  the  in- 
side of  its  membranous  walls  ;  but  in  addition  to  the  dot 
there  is  also  a  circle.  This  dot  does  not  appear  to  be  formed 
by  the  remains  of  a  pai  tly-absoibed  fibre,  or  the  crossing  of 
the  fibres,  as  in  some  of  the  forms  of  porous  cel!s  and 
vessels,  but  from  the  sinuous  flexures  of  one  or  more 
fibres  uniting  together  and  forming  between  them  a  little 
cavity  or  depression :  this  is  attended  with  depression  of 
the  external  membrane,  which  gives  the  appeaiance  of 
the  larger  circle  surrounding  the  depression.  (Fig.  2; 
b,  Fig. 4.)  These  phenomena  make  their  appearance  veiy 
early  in  the  tissues  of  Coniferous  plants ;  but  if  buds  and 
very  young  plants  are  examined,  the  sinuous  spiral  vessels, 
called  by  Link  vasa  tfiroida Jlbrota,  may  be  easily  seen. 

Function. — The  function  of  the  tissues  of  vegetables  is 
not  so  varied  as  their  forms  have  led  botanists  to  suppose. 
As  a  summary  of  them  we  give  the  following.  In  the 
simple  cell  we  have  the  type  of  all  the  other  tissues,  and 
in  the  lowest  forms  of  plants  it  alone  performs  all  the 
functions  of  the  higher  plants.  The  cell  of  the  Ustilago 
absorbs  nutriment  from  without :  this  nutriment  undergoes 
the  changes  that  fit  it  for  becoming  a  part  of  the  structure 
of  the  cell.  This  is  the  process  of  nutrition.  Within  this 
cell  another  is  generated,  which  is  capable  of  performing 
the  same  functions  as  its  parent.  This  is  reproduction. 
As  we  ascend  in  the  scale  of  organization  of  plants,  the 
structure  becomes  more  complicated.  Cells  are  accumu- 
lated together ;  some  simply  absorb  sap,  others  expose  the 
sap  to  the  atmosphere  ;  whilst  others  separate  peculiar 
secretions,  and  another  set  are  employed  as  the  depositaries 
of  these  secretions.  As  the  functions  of  the  plant  become 
more  localised  in  the  organs  called  leaves  and  flowers, 
tissues  strong  enough  to  bear  them  up  in  the  air  are  re- 
quired, and  the  cells  are  elongated  and  strengthened  by 
an  increase  of  thickness  in  their  membrane,  and  woody 
tissue  is  formed.  Where  the  same  objects  are  required, 
and  at  the  same  time  space  for  a  large  quantity  of  fluid  to 
pass  through  the  cells,  fibre  is  generated  within  the  mem- 
P.  C.,  No.  1551. 


brane ;  and  for  this  reason  fibre-cellular,  and  especially 
fibro-vast-ular,  tissue  is  found  abundant  in  succulent 
plants,  and  in  those  which  require  a  large  supply  of  mois- 
ture. These  tissues  are  absent,  or  very  small  in  dry  plants, 
as  well  as  those  which  are  constantly  immersed  in  water. 
In  the  higher  plants  the  conveyance  of  the  prepared  juices 
from  one  part  of  the  plant  to  another  is  provided  for  by 
the  Laticiferous  tissue.  It  is  upon  the  cell  of  the  ovule 
in  the  Dicotyledonous  and  Monocotyledonous  plants  that 
the  mysterious  dynamic  agency  is  exerted  by  another  cell 
from  the  anther,  the  result  of  which  is  the  pioduction  of 
another  plant,  similar  to  the  one  from  which  it  is  deve- 
loped. It  will  thus  be  seen  that  all  the  tissues  ot  plants 
partake  more  or  less  of  the  functions  of  the  simple  cell, 
which,  as  the  fundamental  form  of  vegetable  organization, 
performs  in  all  cases  the  most  impoitant  functions.  It  is 
not  so  much  by  a  difference  in  the  form  as  by  a  difference 
in  the  function  of  particular  cells  that  the  complicated 
organs  of  the  highest  plants  are  distinguished  fiom  one 
another. 

(The  principal  works  consulted  in  preparing  this  article 
have  been  Meyen,  Pflanzen-Physiulogie,  band  i. ;  Link, 
E'ementa  Philosophies  Botanical;  De  Candolle,  Organo- 
graphie  Vggttale ;  Lindley,  Elements  of  Botany, and  Intro- 
duction to  Botany  ;  Guadichaud,  Rccherches  stir  I'Organo- 
graphie,  $c.  des  Vgggiaus;  Bischoff,  Lehrbuch  der  Botanik. 
Papers  :— Quekett,  On  the  Development  of  Vascular  Tissues 
of  Plants,  in  '  Trans.  Microscop.  Soc.,'  vol.  i.,  1842;  Kip- 
pist,  On  the  Spiral  Cells  of  Acunthucea?,  '  Linnaean  Trans- 
actions,'vol.  xix.,  1842 ;  Schleiden,  Beitr'dge  zur  Phylo- 
genesis, Miiller's  '  Archiv,'  1838;  Willshire,  On  Vegetable 
Structure,  '  Annals  of  Natural  History,'  vol.  ix. :  Sc-hultes, 
Sur  la  Circulation  duns  les  Plantes ;  Lankester,  On  the 
Origin  of  Wood,  '  Ann.  of  Nat.  Hist.,'  1840.) 
TITANIC  ACID.  [TITANIUM.] 

TITA'NIUM.  This  metal  was  first  recognised  by 
Mr.  Gregor,  in  1701,  as  a  distinct  substance  ;  he  detected  it  in 
a  black  sand  found  in  the  bed  of  a  rivulet  near  Menaccan 
in  Cornwall.  In  1795  Klaproth  discovered  it  in  some 
other  mineials,  and  he  gave  it.  the  name  it  now  bears.  The 
properties  of  titanium  were  not  however  satisfactorily  de- 
termined until  1822,  when  Dr.  Wollastou  examined  and 
described  it  as  it  occurred  in  its  perfect  metallic  and  n\s- 
tallized  state,  in  the  slag  of  an  iron-furnace  at  Merthyr 
Tydfil  in  South  Wales.  The  form  of  the  crystals  is  the 
cube  ;  their  colour  resembles  that  of  bright  copper  ;  they 
are  sufficiently  hard  to  scratch  rock-ciystal,  and  their  spe- 
cific gravity  is  5-3. 

Titanium  is  not  acted  upon  by  nitric,  hydrochloric,  or 
sulphuric  acid,  either  cold  or  hot,  concentiated  or  di.uted; 
aqua  regia,  or  nascent  chlorine,  is  also  powerless,  but  a 
mixture  of  nitric  and  hydrofluoric  acid  dissolves  titanium  : 
for  fusion  an  extremely  high  tempeiature  is  required: 
when  strongly  heated  with  nitre,  titanium  is  oxidized  and 
rendered  soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid,  and  it  is  precipitated 
from  solution  by  the  alkalis  in  the  state  of  a  while  oxide. 

We  shall  now  describe  the  principal  minerals  known  to 
contain  titanium,  except  PYROCHLORE,  POLYMIGNITE,  ZIR- 
CON IA,  &c.,  which  aie  described  under  these  heads. 

Anatase,  Octaedrite,  or  Oisanite. — This  is  protoxide  of 
titanium  nearly  pure.  It  occurs  in  attached  and  imbedded 
acute  octohedral  crystals.  Primary  form  a  square  prism. 
Cleavage  parallel  to  the  terminal  planes,  and  to  those  of 
the  octohedron.  Fiacture  conchoidal.  indistinct.  Hard- 
ness :  scratches  phosphate  of  lime,  and  is  scratched  by 
quartz.  By  friction  becomes  negatively  electrical,  and 
when  heated  gives  out  a  reddish"  yellow  phosphorescent 
light.  Colour,  various  shades  of  brown,  more  or  less  dark, 
sometimes  indigo  blue.  Streak  white.  Lustre  adaman- 
tine. Translucent,  transparent.  Specific  gravity  3-826. 
It  occurs  in  Cornwall,  in  Dauphiny,  at  Bourg  d'Oisans, 
in  Spain,  Switzerland,  and  some  other  places.  It  consists 
almost  entirely  of  oxide  of  titanium,  probably  the  prot- 
oxide. 

Rutile,  or  Titanite :  Peroxide  of  Titanium,  or  Titanic 
Acid. — Occurs  crystallized  and  in  crystalline  masses.  Pri- 
mary form  a  square  prism.  Cleavage  parallel  to  the  lateral 
planes.  Crystals  frequently  geniculated.  Fracture  uneven. 
Hardness  :  scratches  glass,  and  sometimes  quartz.  Colour 
red,  reddish  brown,  and  occasionally  yellowish.  Streak 
very  pale  brown.  Lustre  adamantine.  Translucent,  trans- 
parent, opaque.  Specific  gravity  4'249  to  4-4.  Occurs  not 
unfrequently  inclosed  in  quartz,  in  fine  red  filamentous 

VOL.  XXIV.-3  T 


T  I  T 


50fi 


T  I  T 


ervrtals     Rutile  is  found  in  Perthshire,  Bohemia,  Switzer- 

land. specially  at  St.  Golhard,  and  "ther  parts 

f  Furope;  and  also  in  Brazil  and  No.th  America.      It 

cotuUts  of.  according  to  H.  Rose-oxy,  iita, 

n  G6t>  .requently  more  or   lev,  nu\«d   with 

oxide  of  iron  and  of  manganese,  and  sometimes  with  oxide 


-  a  dimorphous  variety  of   rutile. 

Occurs  in  atlacl.  "an  I'"-''1  -\  "K111  ™*£ 

xism      Cleavage  parallel  to  the  latc.al  p'.anes  ami  short 
diagonal.    Fracture  uneven.    Hardness  :   scratches  fluor- 
spar.  and   is   scratched    bv  phosphate   ol    lime.     Brittle 
dolour,  deep  red,  and  reddish  or  yellowish  brown.     S 
yellowiah  white  adwnMtine.  Translucent,  t.ans- 

b*rent.  opaque.     Specific    gravity   unknown.     Occurs   in 
bauphinv  and  Switzerland,  but  in  la.  J»  al  Snow- 

don  in  Wales.     It  has  not  been  completely  analyiM,  but 
appears  to  be  titanic  acid  with  traces  ol  iron  and  111:111-. 

The  minerals  which  wo  shall  next  describe  are  the  tita- 
niate* of  iron  :  they  vary  greatly  both  in  form  and  com- 
•lon,  some  being  crystallized  and  other*  granular;  the 
fatter  are  frequently  termed  titaniferous  iron-sand. 

Kibitelophan  ;  Axolomous  Iron.—  Occurs  in  imbedded 
crystals.  Primary  form  a  rhomboid.  Cleavage  perpen- 
dicular to  »he  axis  ;  distim-t.  Fracture  conchpidal.  Hard- 
ness 5-0  to  5-5.  Brittle.  Colour  dark  iron  black,  weak 
black.  Lustre  imperfect  metallic.  Opaque.  Specific 
gravity  4-661.  Found  at  Gastein  in  Salzburg  ;  in  Sweden, 
and  Siberia.  Analysis  of  a  specimen  from  Gastein,  by 
Kobell  :—  titanic  acid,  53-00;  protoxide  of  iron,  30-00- 
peroxide  of  iron,  4-23  ;  protoxide  of  manganese.  l'G.>. 

Jlmfrtite—  Occurs  in  imbedded  crystals.  Primary  form 
a  right  rhombic  prism.  No  cleavage  observed.  Fracture 
uneven  to  conehoidal,  with  a  vitreous  lustre.  Hardness 
50-  scratches  glass  slightly.  Colour  black.  Opaque.  Spe- 
cific gravity  5-43.  It  is  found  near  Lake  Ilmen  in  Siberia. 
Analysis  by  Mosander:—  titanic  acid,  40-92:  protoxide  of 
iron,  37-86  ;  peroxide  of  iron,  1074  ;  protoxide  of  manga- 
nese, 2-73;  magnesia,  1-14. 

Crichtonite.—  Occurs  in  attached  crystals.  Cleavage 
parallel  to  the  axis.  Fracture  concnoidal,  splendent 
Hardness:  scratches  fluor-spar,  but  not  glass.  Brittle 
Does  not  obey  the  magnet.  Colour  shining  black.  Streak 
black.  Lustre  imperfect  metallic.  Opaque.  Specific 
gravity  4.  It  has  not  been  completely  analyzed  ;  but,  ac- 
cording to  Berzclius,  it  consists  of  titanic  acid  and  oxide  o 
iron. 

Mohtite.—  Occurs  in  attached  muled  crystals.  Pn 
mary  form  a  rhomboid.  No  visible  cleavage.  Fracture 
conchoidal,  shining.  Hardness  :  scratches  glass  readily 
Brittle.  Does  not  affect  the  magnet.  Colour  iron  black- 
Streak  black.  Lustre  metallic;.  Opaque.  Found  in  Dau- 
phiny.  It  appears  to  be  a  titaniate  of  iron,  but  has  not 
been  completely  analyzed. 

Of  granular  titaniate  of  iron  and  titaniferous  iron-sand 
we  shall  describe  three  varieties  :  — 

Nigiin.—  Occurs  in  flat  rounded  grains  of  about  the  size 
of  a  pea,  with  occasional  indications  of  a  crystalline  form 
Stiucture  foliated.  Very  hard.  Brittle.  Colour  greyish 
black.  Lustre  metallic.  Specific;  gravity  4-44.~>.  Ana- 
lysis by  Klaproth  :—  titanic  acid,  84  ;  protoxide  of  iron 
14  :  protoxicle  of  manganese,  2.  Found  in  Transylvania. 
mite.  —  Occurs  in  small  angular  grains.  Struc 
tnre  imperfectly  lamellar.  Fracture  fine-grained,  uneven 
Hardness—  yields  to  the  knife.  Colour  greyish  black 
Lustre  glistening.  Opaque.  Specific  tenuity  4'427.  Oc 
curs  in  rivulets  in  the  parish  of  St.  Kvverne,  Cornwall 
it  has  also  been  found  in  New  South  Wales.  The  picket 
grains,  analyzed  by  Dr.  Colquhoun,  gave  —  titanic  acid 
&7-1H7;  protoxide  of  iron,  39-780;  protoxide  of  manganese 

- 


hfrtnf.  —  Occurs  in  very  small  flatfish  angular  grains 
which  have  a  rough  glimmering  surface.  Structure  la 
mellar.  Crosi  fracture  conchoidal.  Very  hard.  Slight); 
attracted  by  the  magnet.  Opaque.  Lustre  semi-metallic' 
Specific  gravity  about  4-5.  Found  on  the  Kicscngcbirge 
rn-nr  the-  origin  ol  the  river  Iser  in  Silesia  :  in  Bohemia 
ir.  the  river  Don  in  Scotland,  and  that  of  the.  Mersey  op 
•  Liverpool.  By  the  analysis  of  H.  Ko-c,  it  consist 
of—  titanic  acid,  SV)  12  :  protoxide  of  iron,  40-88.  It  i 
probably  a  variety  of  Mi  im.'cAiuto. 

ite:  Titaninle  nf  M'inganett.  —  Occurs  in  smal 
amorphous  mattes  and   crystallized.     Primary  form  pro 


ably  an  oblique  rhombic  prism.    Hardness,  greater  than 
liatof  fluor-spar  or  phosphate  nf  lime,  but  does  not  scratch 
glass.     Colour  deep  io-c  red  :  tin-  crystals  are  splendent, 
xcept  the  terminal  laces,  which  are  often  dull  and  tar- 
nshcd.     Specific    gravity  3'4  I.     It    is  found  in  the  man- 
ganese deposit  of  St.  Marcel   in  Piedmont.     Analysis  by 
M.  < 'arcane.: — titanic  acid,  7-1  •"> :    oxide    of  manga' 
24-8. 

/./n'-iif  ;  S]>inthtrp:  Silir/t-litaniatfnfLimt. — Occurs  in 
ittached  and  imbedded   crystals,  and  massive.     Primary 
brm   an   oblique    rhombic    prism.      Cleavage   indi-i 
•'racture  even,  slightly  concnoidal.     Hardness  :  sci;r 
ihosphatc  of  lime,  but   is  scratched  by  felspar.     Colour, 
.aiious  shades  of  grey,  green,  yellow,  and  brown.     Streak 
white    or   greyish-white.      Lustre    adamantine,    resinous, 
ria.isparcnt,  translucent,  opaque.     Specific   giavity:- 
o  3'0.     Sphene  is  found  interspersed  in  primary  rocks,  as 
,n  granite  and  gneiss  and   more  particularly  in  syenite,  in 
Norway.  Germany.  Switzerland,  and  also  in  America.     The 
"of  the   analysis  of  spheiio  vary  considerably  ;    the 
following  is  by  Klaproth : — titanic  acid,  33  ;    silicic  acid, 
3,") ;  lime,  33. 

Aeschymte. — Titaniate  of  zirconia  and  cerium,  &c. 
Occurs  crystallized.  Primary  form  a  right  rhombic  prism. 
Cleavage  difficult,  and  only  parallel  to  the  basis  of  the 
primary  form.  Fracture  conchoidal.  Hardness:  scratches 
phosphate  of  lime,  and  is  scratched  by  felspar.  Colour 
black  :  streak  greyish-black.  Lustre  resinous.  Opaque. 
Specific  gravity  5*  14.  Found  at  Miask,  in  the  Uialian 
IVIountains,  Siberia.  Analysis  by  Hartwall : — titanic  ai:id, 
56-0;  zirconia,  20'0;  oxide  of  cerium,  15-0;  lime,  3-8; 
oxide  of  iron,  2-  6 ;  oxide  of  zinc,  0  •  5. 

The  principal  natural  substances  containing  titanium 
being  now  described,  we  proceed  to  consider  its  artificial 
compounds. 

Oj-ygni  mill  Titanium. — It  has  already  been  stated 
that  these  combine  with  difficulty  by  direct  means.  When 
rutile,  or  titanic  acid,  is  dissolved  in  hydrochloric,  acid,  a 
piece  of  zinc,  immersed  in  the  solution  occasions  the  form- 
ation and  precipitation  of  a  deep  purple-coloured  powder, 
which  is  protoxide  of  titanium  :  so  great  however  is  the 
facility  with  which  it  returns  to  the  state  of  peroxide,  that 
it  cannot  be  collected;  and  hence  the  composition  of  this 
oxide  has  not  been  perfectly  determined.  It  is  however 
probably  composed  of — 

One  equivalent  of  oxygen      .         8 
One  equivalent  of  titanium    .      21 

Equivalent       .         .       32 

When  also  titanic  acid  is  exposed  to  a  strong  heat,  a 
portion  of  it  loses  oxygen,  and  a  black  mass  is  formed, 
which  is  the  protoxide  ;  it  has  an  earthy  fracture,  i- 
luble  in  acids,  and  difficult  to  reconvert  to  the  titanic  acid. 
It  lias  been  already  mentioned  thai  auata>c  is  probably  the 
protoxide  of  titanium. 

Peroxide  of  Titanium,  Titanic  Acid. — Rutile  is  tii 
acid  nearly  pure  :  when  it  is  reduced  to  fine  powder  and 
fused  in  a  platina  ciucible,  with  three  times  its  weight  o( 
carbonate  of  potash,  titaniate  of  potash  is  obtained,  mixed 
with  some  excess  of  carbonate  of  potash  ;  this  is  to  be  re- 
moved by  washing  with  water,  and  titanic  acid  is  then 
precipitated  by  dilution  and  heat ;  and  after  washing  with 
dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  is  nearly  pure  titanic  acid 
properties  are,  that  when  pure  it  is  quite  white,  very  infuri- 
ble,  and  after  it  hag  been  heated  is  soluble  only  in  hydio- 
fluoric  acid.  Its  acid  powers  are  feeble ;  it  is  insoluble  in 
water,  and  does  not  act  on  vegetable  blues ;  it  combines 
however  with  alkalis  and  metallic  oxides,  forming  salts 
which  are  termed  titaniatet.  It  is  probably  composed 
of— 

Two  equivalents  of  oxygen    .       16 
One  equivalent  of  titanium    .      24 

Equivalent       .         .      40 

<'lilorin»  and  Titanium  combine  when  the  gas  is  passed 
over  metallic  titanium  at  a  red  heat.  It  is  a  colourless 
tiansparent  fluid,  and  boils  at  a  little  above  212',  is  vola- 
tilized, and  condenses  unchanged.  When  c \po.-cd  to  the 
air  it  deliquesces  and  when  a  lew  drops  of  it  are  mixed  with 
an  equal  bulk  of  water,  combination  takes  place  with  con- 
nide.able  violence  and  the  evolution  of  intense  heat.  It 
absorbs  dry  ammoniacal  gas,  and  from  the  compound  so 


T  I  T 


507 


T  I  T 


jbtained  Liebig  prepared  metallic  titanium.     It  appears 

to  consist  of — 

Two  equivalents  of  chlorine          72 
One  equivalent  of  titanium  .         24 

Equivalent     .         .         90 

Tincture  of  galls,  when  added  to  a  solution  of  titanic 
acid,  occasions  an  orange-red  colour,  probably  owing  to 
the  tannic  acid  which  the  tincture  contains  ;  this  is  very 
characteristic  of  the  presence  of  titanic  acid. 

The  other  compounds  of  titanium  are  but  little  known  ; 
the  peroxide,  or  titanic  acid,  unites  both  with  bases  and 
acids  to  form  saline  compounds :  the  former  are  called 
titaniates. 

TITANS  CftTavif,  fern.  TiraWac)  is  the  name  by  which 
in  the  mythology  of  antient  Greece  a  certain  class  of  sons 
and  daughters  of  Uranus  and  Gaea  are  designated.  The 
original  name  of  Gaea  was  said  to  have  been  Titaea,  from 
which  Titans  was  derived.  (Diodorus  Sic.,  iii.  5(5.)  The 
beings  generally  comprised  under  the  name  of  Titans  were 
Oceanus,  Coeus.  Ciius,  Hyperion,  lapetus,  Cronus,  Thetys, 
Rhea,  Themis,  Mnemosyne,  Phoebe,  Dione,  and  Them. 
(Apollodor.,  Bibliolli.,i.  1,  3;  Diodorus  Sic.,  v.  66.)  Other 
writers,  as  Stephanus  of  Byzantium  (*.  r.  "Alava\  Pausa- 
nias  (viii.  37,  3),  and  others,  differ  both  in  the  names  and 
numbers  of  the  Titans.  Uranus  had  by  Gaea  t«o  other 
sets  of  children,  viz.  the  Hecatoncheires  'centimani,  or 
beings  with  a  hundred  arms),  and  the  Cyclops;  and  these 
two  he  east  into  Tartarus,  at  which  Gaea,  their  mother, 
was  so  indignant,  that  she  induced  the  Titans  to  revolt 
against  their  lather,  Uranus,  and  gave  to  Cronus  an  ada- 
mantine sickle  with  which  he  castrated  his  father.  Ocea- 
nus took  no  part  in  this  rebellion.  After  Uranus  was 
deprived  of  the  sovereignty,  and  the  Hecatoncheircs  toge- 
ther with  the  Cyclops  were  led  back  from  the  lower  world, 
the  supreme  power  was  gh  in  by  the  brothers  to  Cronus. 
But  Cronus  again  threw  them  into  Tartarus,  and  married 
his  sister  Rhea  ;  as  however  Gaea  and  Uranus  had  prophe- 
sied to  him  that  he  would  be  deprived  of  the  sovereignty 
by  his  own  children,  he  devoured  all  the  children  whom 
Rh";i  bore  him.  But  when  she  was  pregnant  with  Zeus, 
she  withdrew  to  Crete,  where  she  gave  birth  to  him  in  a 
cavern,  and  afterwards  had  him  educated  by  the  Curetes 
and  nymphs.  To  deceive  Cionus,  she  had  given  him  a 
stone  wrapt  up  like  a  child,  which  he  devoured.  When 
Zeus  had  grown  up,  he  took  Metis,  the  daughter  of  Ocea- 
nus, and  with  her  assistance  he  administered  a  poison  to 
Cronus,  which  made  him  vomit  out  the  children  he  had 
swallowed,  viz.  Hestia,  Demeter,  Hera,  Pluto,  and  Poseidon, 
and  with  their  aid  Zeus  now  commenced  a  war  against  his 
father,  which  lasted  for  ten  years.  This  straggle,  celebrated 
in  mythology  as  the  war  of  the  Titans,  wa*  terminated  by 
Zeus  relieving  the  ( 'yclops  from  Tartarus,  and  by  his  gain- 
inj  with  their  weapons  the  victory  over  the  Titans,  who 
were  now  cast,  into  Tartarus,  and  were  guarded  there  by 
the  Hecatoncheires.  Zeus  and  his  brothers  now  divided 
the  sovereignty  of  the  world  among  themselves.  (Apollo- 
dor.,  Bibiioth.,  i.  1  and  2.) 

The  name  Titan  has  also  been  given  to  those  superhuman 
beings  who  were  desc-ended  from  the  Titans,  such  as  Pro- 
metheus, Hecate,  Latona,  Pyrrha,  Helios,  &c.  It  more- 
over occurs  as  a  designation  "of  a  very  early  race  of  men  in 
Crete  and  Egypt. 

(Lobeck,  Aglaophamat,  p.  763;  BiHtiger,  Ideen  zur 
Kunntmythfjlngie,  p.  217,  &c.  ;  Viilcker,  Mythologie  des 
filer  files,  p.  280,  &c.) 

TITC'HFIELD.     [HAMPSHIRE,  vol.  xii.,  p.  32.] 

TITHES  are  the  tenth  part  of  the  increase  yearly 
arising  and  renewing  from  the  profits  of  lands,  the  stock 
upon  lands,  and  the  personal  industry  of  the  inhabitants, 
and  are  offerings  payable  to  the  church  by  law. 

Under  the  theocratic  government  of  the  Jews  the  tenth 
part  of  the  yearly  increase  of  their  goods  was  due  to  the 
priests  by  divine  right.  '  And  behold  I  have  Riven  the 
children  of  Levi  all  the  tenth  in  Israel  for  an  inheritance, 
for  their  service-  which  they  serve,  even  the  service  of  the 
tabernacle  of  the  congregation.'  (Numbers,  xviii.  21.)  And 
again,  'Thou  shall  truly  tithe  all  the  increase  of  the  seed, 
that  the  field  bringeth  year  by  year.'  (Deut.,  xiv.  22.) 
•And  all  the  tithe  of  the  land,  whether  of  the  seed  of  the 
land  or  of  the  fruit  of  the  tree,  is  the  Lord's ;  it  is  holy 
unto  the  Lord.'  '  And  concerning  the  tithe  of  the  herd  or 
of  the  flock,  even  of  whatsoever  passeth  under  the  rod, 


the  tenth  shall  be    holy  unto   the  Lord.'    (Levit.,  xxvii. 
30.  32.) 

In  the  earliest  ages  of  the  Christian  church  offerings 
were  made  by  its  members  at  the  altar,  at  collections,  and 
in  other  ways,  and  such  payments  were  enjoined  by  decrees 
of  the  church  and  sanctioned  by  general  usage.  For  many 
centuries  however  they  were  voluntary,  and  not  enforced 
by  any  civil  laws.  When  the  church  was  struggling 
against  persecution,  the  Christians  brought  all  their 
worldly  goods  into  a  common  stock  for  the  benefit  of  all. 
'  And  the  multitude  of  them  that  believed  were  of  one 
heart  and  of  one  soul :  neither  said  any  of  them  that  aught 
of  the  things  which  he  possessed  was  his  own  ;  but  they 
had  all  things  in  common.'  '  Neither  was  there  any  among 
them  that  lacked  ;  for  as  many  as  were  possessors  of  lands 
or  houses  sold  them,  and  brought  the  prices  of  the  things 
that  were  sold,  and  laid  them  down  at  the  apostles'  feet : 
and  distribution  was  made  unto  every  man  according  i»s 
he  had  need.'  (Acts,  iv.  32,  34,  35.)  They  then  had  no 
other  object  than  the  defence  and  support  of  their  faith ; 
they  required  no  compulsion  to  make  offerings  to  their 
infant  church.  But  when  the  church  had  increased  in 
power,  and  began  to  number  amongst  its  members  many 
who  adhered  to  it  because  it  was  the  prevailing  religion, 
rather  than  on  account  of  any  enthusiasm  or  reverence  for 
its  divine  origin  and  doctrines,  it  was  found  necessary  to 
enforce  certain  fixed  contributions  for  the  support  of  the 
ministers  of  religion.  The  church  relied  upon  the  example 
of  the  Jews,  and  required  a  tenth  to  be  paid.  Meanwhile 
the  conversion  of  temporal  princes  to  Christianity,  and  their 
zeal  in  favour  of  their  new  faith,  enabled  the  church  to 
obtain  the  enactment  of  civil  laws  to  compel  the  payment 
of  tithes.  In  Easjland  the  first  instance  of  a  law  for  the 
iiC  of  tithes  was  that  of  Off'a,  king  of  Mercia,  towards 
the  >odcfthe  eighth  century.  He  first  gave  the  church 
a  civil  right  in  tithes,  and  enabled  the  clergy  to  recover 
them  as  their  legal  due  by  the  coercion  of  the  civil  power. 
The  law  of  Oft'a  was  at  a  later  period  extended  to  the 
whole  of  England  by  king  Ethelwulph.  (Prideaux,  On 
Tithes,  167.) 

At  first,  though  every  man  was  obliged  to  pay  tithes, 
the  particular  church  or  monastery  to  which  they  should 
be  paid  appears  to  have  been  left  to  his  own  option.  In 
the  year  1200,  however,  Pope  Innocent  III.  directed  a 
decretal  epistle  to  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in  which 
he  enjoined  the  payment  of  tithes  to  the  parsons  of  the 
respective  parishes  in  which  they  arose.  This  parochial 
appropriation  of  tithes  has  ever  since  been  the  law  of 
the  land.  (Coke,  2  Inst.,  641.1  The  same  pope  gave 
similar  instructions  in  other  countries  at  about  the  same 
time. 

The  tithes  thus  payable  were  of  three  kinds,  viz.  prreciial, 
mixed,  and  personal.  Precdiul  tithes  are  such  as  arise 
immediately  from  the  ground,  as  grain  of  all  sorts,  fruits, 
and  herbs.  Mired  tithes  arise  from  things  nourished  by 
the  earth,  as  colts,  calves,  pigs,  lambs,  chickens,  milk, 
cheese,  and  eggs.  Personal  lithes  are  paid  from  the 
profits  arising  from  the  labour  and  industry  of  men  engaged 
in  trades  or  other  occupations ;  being  the  tenth  part  of  the 
clear  gain,  after  deducting  all  ciiarges.  (Watson,  On 
Tithes,  c.  49.) 

Tithes  are  further  divided  into  great  and  small.  The 
former  consist  of  corn,  hay,  wood,  &c. ;  the  latter  of 
the  prsedial  tithes  of  other  kinds,  together  with  mixed  and 
personal  tithes.  This  distinction  is  arbitiary,  and  not  de- 
pendent upon  the  relative  value  of  the  different  kinds  of 
tithe  within  a  particular  parish.  Potatoes,  for  instance, 
grown  in  fields  have  been  adjudged  to  be  small  tithes,  in 
whatever  quantities  sown  (Smith  v.  Wyatt,  2  Atk.,  364), 
while  corn  and  hay,  in  the  smallest  portions,  still  continue 
to  be  treated  as  great  tithes.  The  distinction  is  of  ma- 
terial consequence,  as  great  tithes  belong,  of  right,  to  the 
rector  of  the  parish,  and  small  tithes  to  the  vicar. 

No  tithes  are  paid  for  quarries  or  mines,  because  their 
products  are  not  the  increase,  but  are  part  of  the  substance 
of  the  earth.  Neither  are  houses,  considered  separately 
from  the  soil,  chargeable,  as  having  no  annual  increase. 
By  the  common  law  of  England  no  tithe  is  due  for  things 
that  are/mz?  naturec,  such  as  fish,  game,  &c. ;  but  there 
are  local  customs  by  which  tithe  has  been  paid  from  such 
things  from  time  immemorial,  and  in  those  places  such 
customary  tithes  may  be  exacted.  Tame  animals  kept  for 
pleasure  or  curiosity  are  also  exempt  from  tithes. 

3T2 


T  1  'I 


T  i  r 


Tithe*  were  all  originally  paid  in  kind,  i.e.  the  tenth 
whrat-shcaf.  Iho  tenth  lamb  or  pig.  ns  the  case  might  In-, 
1-eloiigcd  "f  right  to  the  parson  of  the  parish  as  his  tithe. 
The  inconvenience  and  vexation  of  such  a  mode  ": 
raent  are  obv  ions.  Tin-  practice  could  only  have  ongin- 
m  times  and  in  countries  in  which  barter  formed  the 
only  means  of  exchange,  and  the  products  of  the  c.irtli 
the  >i>le  tc-t  uf  value.  The  unproved  habits  anil 
civilization  of  eenturies  were  nevertheless  unable  t. 
what  had  been  sanctioned  1>V  custom  since  the  memory 
of  raan,  and  no  attempt  had  been  made  in  this  country, 
until  very  recently,  to  introduce  a  general  improvement 
in  the  mode  of  collection.  The  inconvenience  of  paying 
tithes  in  kind  must  long  since  have  been  felt,  and  certain 
modes  of  obviating  it  were  occasionally  practised.  Some- 
times the  owner  of  land  would  enter  into  a  composition 
with  the  parson  or  vicar,  with  the  consent  of  the  ordinary 
and  the  patron  of  the  living,  by  which  certain  land  should 
be  altogether  discharged  from  tithes,  on  conveying  other 
land,  or  making  compensation.  In  other  words,  the 
r  of  the  land  purchased  an  exemption  from  tithes. 
Such  arrangement*  between  landowners  and  the  church 
were  re -cognised  by  law,  but  it  was  found  that  they  were 
often  injuiious  to  the  church  by  reason  of  an  insufficient 
value  being  given  for  the  tithes.  The  acts  1  Elizabeth, 
c.  19,  and  13  Elizabeth,  c.  10,  were  accordingly  ]i 
which  disabled  bishops,  colleges,  chapters,  parsons,  and 
vicars  from  making  any  alienation  of  church  property  for  a 
longer  term  than  twenty-one  years  or  three  lives.  In  order 
to  establish  an  exemption  from  tithes  on  the  ground  of  a 
real  composition,  it  is,  therefore  necessary  to  show  that 
such  composition  had  been  entered  into  before  the  statute 
of  Elizabeth.  Since  that  time  compositions  have  rarely 
been  made,  except  under  the  authority  of  private  acts  of 
parliament. 

Another  method  of  avoiding  the  payment  of  tithes  in 
kind  was  that  of  a  tiiodiu  decimaiidi,  commonly  known  as 
a  modus.  This  consists  of  any  custom  in  a  particular 
place,  by  which  the  ordinary  mode  of  collecting  tithes  has 
been  superseded  by  some  special  manner  of  tithing.  In 
some  parishes  the  custom  has  prevailed,  time  out  of  mind, 
of  paying  a  certain  sum  of  money  annually  for  every  a. -re 
of  land,  in  lieu  of  tithes.  In  others  a  smaller  quantity  of 
produce  is  given,  and  the  residue  is  made  up  in  labour,  as 
every  12th  sheaf  of  wheat  instead  of  the  10th,  but  to  be 
housed  or  threshed  by  the  owner. 

A  large  portion  of  the  land  of  this  country  is  tithe-free, 
from  various  causes.  Some  has  been  exempted  under 
real  composition,  as  already  explained,  and  some  by  pre- 
scription, which  supposes  a  composition  to  have  been  for- 
merly made.  The  most  frequent  ground  of  exemption  is 
that  the  land  once  belonged  to  a  u-ii^ious  house,  and  was 
therefore  discharged  in  this  manner.  All  abbots,  priors, 
and  other  chief  monks  originally  paid  tithes  from  the 
lands  belonging  to  them,  until  Pope  Paschal  II.  exempted 
all  spiritual  persons  from  paying  tithes  of  lands  in  their 
own  hands.  This  general  discharge  continued  till  the  time 
ol'King  Henry  II.,  when  Pope  Adrian  IV.  icstraiucd  it  to 
the  three  religious  orders  of  Cistercians,  Templars,  and 
Hospitalers,  to  whom  Pope  Innocent  III.  added  the  Prae- 
monstratenses.  These  four  orders,  on  account  of  their 
exemption,  were  commonly  called  the  privileged  order-. 
The  Council  of  Lateran,  in  1215,  further  restrained  this 
exemption  to  lands  in  the  occupation  of  those  religious 
orders  of  which  they  were  in  possession  before  Hint  coun- 
cil. Bulls  were  however  obtained  for  discharging  parti- 
cular monasteries  from  the  payment  of  tithes,  which  would 
not  otherwise  have  been  exempt  ;  by  which  means  much 
land  has  been  ever  since  tithe-free.  Another  mode  by 
which  lands  belonging  to  religious  houses  became  not 
liable  to  the  payment  of  tithes,  v.as  that  of  unity  </  pos- 
tcition;  as  where  the  lands  and  the  rectory  belonged  to 
the  same  establishment,  which  would  not,  of  course,  pay 
tithes  to  itself.  Yet  the  lands  were  not  absolutely  dis- 
charged by  this  unity  of  possession,  for  upon  any  disunion 
the  payment  of  tithes  was  revived ;  so  that  the  union  only 
suspended  the  payment.  The  act  31  Hen.  VIII.,  c.  13, 
which  dissolved  several  of  the  religious  houses,  continued 
the  discharge  of  their  lands  from  tithes,  though  in  the 
possession  of  the  king  or  any  other  person.  Many  mo- 
nasteries had  previously  been  dissolved  by  act  of  parlia- 

•nt,  but  as  no  such  clause  as  that  contained  in  the  31 
Hen.  VIII.  had  been  introduced  into  other  acts,  the  lands 


of  the  nun  them  became  chargeable 

with  ti1 

\\  e  have  stated  enousrh  concerning  the  r.i'r.ic   of  i 
and  the  various  circumstances  affecting  them,  to  show  how 
complicated  mu.-t  be  the  laws,  and  how  cut  in- 

-  of  different    parties  who   had   ; 

them,  lint  apart  from  such  considciations  it  may  be  well 
to  inquire  whether  tithes  be,  in  their  original  nature,  a  lit 
mode  of  supporting  a  religious  establishment  ;  and  if  not, 
in  what  manner  they  might  be  made  so.  i 

'.v  be  a  doubt  that  the  pavmciit  of  tithes  in  Kind  is  a 
cause  of  constant  irritation  and  dispute  between   a   (•]• 
man  and  his  parishiom  is.     \Vith  the  best   intentioi 
both  sides,  the  very  nature  of  tithes  is  such,  that  i:< 
and  difficulties  must  a  ,-u  them  ;  and  even  v. 

there  is  no  doubt,  the  form  and  principle  of  paymen' 
odious  and  discouraging.     The  haulship,   and  injust: 
tithes  upon   the   agriculturist  are  well  described  by   Dr. 
Paley  : — 'Agriculture  is  discouraged  by  every  constitution 
ot  landed  property  which  lets  in   thoM  who  iiave  no  con- 
cern in  the  improvement  to  a  participation  of  the  profit  : 
of  all  institutions  which  are  in  this  way  adverse   to  culti- 
vation and  improvement,  none  is  so  noxious  as  Hi 
tithes.     A  claimant  here  enters  into  the  produce  who 
tributed  no  assistance  whatever  to  the  production.     When 
years  perhaps  of  care  and  toil  have  matured  an  improve- 
ment :  when  the  husbandman  sees  new  crops  ripening  to 
his  skill  and  industry  ;  the  moment  he  is  ready  to  p. 
sickle  to  the  grain,  he  finds  himself  compelled  to  divide 
his  harvest  with  a  stranger.'       .Mural  mid  J'"liticnl  Philo- 
sophy, chapter  xii.) 

If  tithes  then  be  in  principle  an  injurious  and  restrictive 
tax  upon  agriculture,  and  if  the  mode  of  collection  be 
vexatious  and  unpopular,  it  became  the  duty  of  a  h 
tureto  provide  a  remedy  for  these  evils.  But  tithes  are  un- 
like any  othertax,  which  being  found  injurious  to  the  slate, 
may  be  removed  on  providing  others.  They  are  not  the 
property  of  the  state,  but  of  its  subjects  ;  they  are  payable 
not  only  to  the  church,  but  to  lay  impropriators  :  they  have 
been  the  subject  of  innumeiahle  private  bargains:  land  has 
been  sold  at  a  higher  price  on  account  of  it-  ,  I'rom 

tithe  ;  the  value  of  the  patronage  of  the  greater  portion  of 
the  livings  of  this  countiy  is  dependent  upon  the   existing 
liability  of  land  to  tithes  ;  in  shoit.  the  various  nlalx 
society  have  been  for  centuries  so  closely  connected  with 
the  receipt  and  payment  of  tithe?,  that  to  have  abolished 
them  would  have  been  a  gross  injustice  and  spoliation  to 
I  many,  and  no  advantage  to  the  community  ;  for  the  whole 
!  profit  would  immediately  have  been  enjoyed  by  t' 
|  lands  were  discharged  from  payments  to  wh'ich  tlicv  bad 
always  been  liable,  and  subject  to  which  they  hnd 
probably  been  purchased. 

As  for  these  reasons  the  extinction  of  tithes  was  imprac- 
ticable, a  commutation  of  them  has  been  attempted  and 
has  been  found  most  i.  l)r.  Paley.  who  v. 

clearly  the  evils  of  tithes,  himself  suggested"  this  im; 
ment.     '  No  measure  of  such  extensive  i 
to  me  so  practicable,  nor  any  single  alteration  s,,  |, 
cinl,   as  the   conve'rsion  of 'tithes  into  eorn-ri 
commutation.  I  am  convinced,  might  be  so  adjusted  as  to 
secure  to  the  tithe-holder  a  complete  and  peipetual  equi- 
valent for  his  interest, and  to  leave  to  iudnstrv  its  full 
ration  and   entire  reward.'     (Moral  n/id  Political  I'luin- 
.vo////y,  chapter  xii.)     This  principle  of  commutalion 
lirst  proposed  to  be  applied   by  the   legislature  to  Ireland. 
In  addition  to  the  common  evils  of  a  tithe   system,  that 
country  was  labouring   under  another.     Its   people 
pay ini:  tithes  for  the  support  of  a  clerin  possessing  a  reij_ 
gion  at  variance  with  their  own.     Resistance  to  the  pay- 
ment of  tithes  occasioned   by  this  appropriation   ol   I 
had  become  so  general,  that  a  commutation   w;> 
absolutely  necessary  for  the  safety  of  the  church  of  Ireland. 
It  was   recommended   by  committees  of  both  houses  of 
parliament  in  1832,  but  not  finally  carried  into  effect  until 

isaa 

The  statutes  for  the  general  commutation  of  tithes  in 
England  are  the  6  &  7  Will.  IV.,  c.  71.  the  7  Will.  IV. 
and  1  Viet.,  c.  69,  the  1  &  2  Viet.,  c.  64,  the  2  fc  :i  Viet., 
c.  32,  and  the  5  &  6  Viet.,  c.  54.  Their  object  is  to  sub- 
stitute a  rent-charge,  payable  in  money,  but  fluctuating 
according  to  the  average  price  of  corn  for  seven  preceding 
years,  for  all  tithes,  whether  payable  under  a  modits  or 
composition,  or  not.  A  voluntary  agreement  between 


T  I  T 


509 


T  I  T 


the  owners  of  the  land  and  of  the  tithes  was  first  promoted, 
and  in  ease  of  no  such  agreement,  a  compulsory  commuta- 
tion was  to  be  effected  by  commissioners.  Incase  of  dis- 
pute, provision  was  made  for  the  valuation  and  apportion- 
ment of  tithe  in  every  parish.  The  rent-charge  was  to  be 
thus  calculated : — The  comptroller  of  corn  returns  is  re- 
quired (o  publish  in  January  the  average  price  of  an  impe- 
rial bushel  of  Biitish  wheat,  barley,  and  oats,  computed 
from  the  weekly  averages  of  the  corn  returns  during  seven 
preceding  years.  Every  rent-charge  is  to  be  of  the  value 
of  such  number  of  imperial  bushels  and  decimal  parts  of 
an  imperial  bushel  of  wheat,  barley,  and  oats,  as  the  same 
would  have  purchased  at  the  prices  so  ascertained  and 
published,  in  case  one-third  of  such  rent-charge  had  been 
invested  in  the  purchase  of  wheat,  one-third  in  barley,  and 
the  remainder  in  oats.  For  example,  suppose  the  value 
of  the  tithe  of  a  parish  to  have  been  settled  by  agreement 
or  by  award  at  300/.,  and  that  the  average  price  of  wheat 
for  the  seven  preceding  years  had  been  llis.  a  bushel,  of 
barley  5s.,  and  of  oats  2*.  Gd. ;  the  300/.  would  then  repre- 
sent 200  bushels  of  wheat,  400  bushels  of  barley,  and  800 
bushels  of  oats.  However  much  the  average  prices  of 
corn  may  fluctuate  in  future  years,  a  sum  equal  in  value 
to  the  same  number  of  bushels  of  each  description  of  corn, 
according  to  such  average  prices,  will  be  payable  to  the 
tithe-owner,  and  not  an  unvarying  sum  of  300/.  The 
quantity  of  corn  is  fixed,  but  the  money  payment  to  the 
tithe-owner  varies  with  the  septennial  average  price  of 
com.  Land  not  exceeding  20  acres  may  also  be  given 
by  a  parish,  on  account  of  any  spiritual  benefice  or  dignity, 
as  a  commutation  for  tithes  to  ecclesiastical  persons,  but 
not  to  lay  impiopriators.  (6  &  7  Will.  IV.,  c.  71, 
s.  26-28.) 

By  the  last  Report  of  the  tithe  commissioners,  it  appears 
that  already  voluntary  proceedings  have  commenced  in 
9381  tithe  districts ;  6348  agreements  have  been  received, 
of  which  5804  have  been  confirmed  ;  2178  notices  for 
making  awards  have  been  issued  ;  1355  drafts  of  compul- 
sory awards  have  been  received,  of  which  1030  have  been 
confirmed ;  5220  apportionments  have  been  received,  of 
which  4347  have  been  confirmed.  Of  the  whole  business 
of  assigning  rent-charges  and  apportioning  them,  about 
half  is  completed. 

The  complete  and  final  commutation  of  tithes  must  be 
regarded  a.-*  a  most  valuable  measure.  It  is  perfectly  fair 
to  all  parties,  and  is  calculated  to  add  st/i-uiity  and  perma- 
nence to  the  property  of  the  church,  and  to  remove  all 
grounds  of  discord  and  jealousy  between  the  clergy  and 
their  parishioners.  Nor  must  we  omit  to  mention  an  im- 
provement in  the  mode  of  recovering  tithes,  consequent 
upon  the  commutation.  There  were  formerly  various 
modes  of  recovery,  in  the  ecclesiastical  as  well  as  in  the 
civil  courts,  and  before  justices  of  the  peace,  all  more  or 
less  leading  to  unseemly  litigation.  The  present  mode  of 
recovering  the  rent-charge,  if  in  arrear,  is  by  distraining  for 
it  in  the  same  manner  as  a  landlord  recovers  his  rent ;  and 
if  the  rent-charge  shall  have  been  forty  days  in  an-car, 
possession  of  the  land  may  be  given  to  the  owner  of  the 
rent-charge  until  the  arrears  and  costs  are  satisfied. 
Indeed  the  whole  principle  of  the  tithe  commutation 
Acts  is  to  strip  tithes  of  the  character  of  a  tax,  and  to 
ilate  them  as  much  as  possible  to  a  rent-charge 
upon  the  land. 

[AGRICULTURE  ;  BEXEFICE  ;  FIRST-FRUITS  ;  IMPROPRIA- 
TIONS  ;  TAX,  TAXATION  ;  TAXATIO  ECCLESIASTICA  ;  TENTHS.] 

TITHING  (Tithinga  ;  from  the  Saxon,  Theothunge)  is 
an  antient  municipal  division  of  land  in  England  under  the 
Saxon  kings.  The  whole  country  was  divided  into  tithings 
and  hundreds  by  Alfred  the  Great.  The  former  was  ;i  dis- 
trict containing  ten  heads  of  families  ;  the  latter  comprised 
ten  tithings,  or  one  hundred  heads  of  families.  Every 
tithing  had  its  chief  man  annually  appointed  to  preside 
over  the  rest,  who  was  called  the  tithing-man  or  borsholder, 
and  sometimes  the  headborough  or  borough's  elder.  Each 
of  these  little  communities  was  bound  to  keep  the  peace 
within  their  own  jurisdiction,  and  the  members  were  re- 
sponsible for  each  other.  So  important  were  these  asso- 
ciations deemed  to  be,  that  no  man  was  allowed  to  abide  in 
England  above  forty  days  without  being  enrolled  in  some 
tithing.  Although  the  institution  has  long  ceased,  the  name 
and  division  are  still  retained  in  many  parts  of  England. 

TITI,  SANTI  DI,  an  Italian  painter  and  architect,  born 
of  a  noble  family  at  Borgo  San  Sepolcro  in  Tuscany,  1538, 


was  a  scholar  of  Bronzino's,  and,  according  to  Lanzi,  also 
studied  under  Cellini.  While  at  Rome  he  was  employed 
upon  some  subjects  in  the  chapel  of  the  Palazzo  Salviati, 
and  painted  a  St.  Jerome  in  San  Giovanni  de'  Fiorentini, 
besides  executing  several  works  in  the  Belvedere  of  the 
Vatican.  He  returned  to  Florence  in  1566,  with  a  reputa- 
tion for  great  ability  in  design  ;  nor  was  such  reputation  at 
all  diminished  by  the  works  he  there  produced,  for  among 
them  are  some  of  his  best,  including  his  Resurrection  and 
Supper  at  Emmaus,  in  Santa  Croce ;  of  which,  and  of  his 
other  performances,  a  full  account  is  given  by  Borghini,  in 
his  '  Reposo.'  It  was  also  at  Florence  that  he  chiefly  exer- 
cised his  profession  of  architect.  The  Casa  Dardanelli,  the 
Villa  Spini  at  Peretola,  and  his  own  house  at  Florence,  are 
enumerated  among  his  works  of  that  class,  but  without 
much  commendation ;  although  he  is  said  to  have  dis- 
played great  taste  in  some  of  his  architectural  backgrounds 
in  painting,  in  which  he  also  showed  great  knowledge  of 
perspective.  His  pencil  was  frequently  employed  on 
merely  temporary  decorations,  either  on  occasions  of 
solemn  funeral  obsequies  or  splendid  festivities,  of  which 
latter  kind  were  those  which  he  painted  at  the  celebration 
of  the  nuptials  of  the  duke  of  Bracciano.  Santi  died  in 
1603,  leaving  a  son  named  Tiberio,  who  was  also  an  artist, 
and  who  did  not  long  survive  him. 

(Biogr.  Universelle  ;  Lanzi ;  Milizia ;  Vasari.) 

TITIAN.     [VicELuo,  TIZIANO.] 

TITICA'CA,  LAKE.     [BOLIVIA,  vol.  v.,  p.  86.] 

TITLARKS.  Mr.  Swainson  characterises  the  Titlarks 
(genus  Anthus)  as  slender-shaped  birds,  having  the  plu- 
mage and  long  hinder  toes  of  the  true  larks,  but  with  the 
slender  bills  of  the  Wagtails;  and  he  places  the  former 
next  to  the  East  Indian  genus  Enicurus,  which  in  his  view 
succeeds  to  the  Wagtails  (Motacilla.  and  Budytes).  Anthus 
indeed  seems  to  him  to  have  its  position  at  the  very  ex- 
tremity of  the  DENTIROSTRES,  just  as  the  family  of  the 
Alaudince,  or  True  Larks,  is  in  the  circle  of  the  Coniros- 
tres ;  '  in  other  words,  they  are  not  only  analogous,  but  this 
analogy  actually  blends  into  an  affinity.'  (Classification 
of  Birds.  [LARKS.]  In  the  Synopsis,  at  the  conclusion  of 
the  work,  Anthus  is  arranged  as  the  last  genus  of  the  Mo- 
tacillinep,  with  the  following 

Generic  Character.— Bill  very  slender,  the  sides  com- 
pressed, the  upper  mandible  longest,  with  the  tip  deflected 
over  the  lower,  and  distinctly  notched.  Wings  moderate  ; 
the  four  first  quills  nearly  equal :  tertials  obtuse,  length- 
ened. Tail  moderate,  slightly  forked.  Legs  slender,  black. 
Tarsus  and  middle  toe  equal.  Lateral  toes  and  claws  of 
the  same  length  and  size.  Example,  Anthus  aquatictts 
(Fauna  Boreal i-Americana,  pi.  44).  The  Prince  of  (,':i- 
nino  also  places  the  genus  Anthus  among  the  Motacillina*, 
which,  in  his  arrangement,  is  the  sixth  subfamily  of  the 
Turdidce. 

The  True  Larks  are  placed  by  the  Prince,  in  the  saniR 
highly  useful  work  (Birds  of  Europe  and  North  Amcru ,-  , 
under  the  Alaudince,  the  fourth  subfamily  of  the  Frin- 
gillidce,  standing  between  the  Emberizincs  and  the 
Loxinee. 

The  Alaudince  of  the  Prince  comprise  the  following 

Genera.  -  Cerlhilauda,  Sw.  ;  Alaitda,  Linn.;  Galerida, 
Boie ;  Phileremos,  Brehm  (Eremophilus,  Boie) ;  and  Me- 
lanocorypha,  Boie.  Mr.  G.  R.  Gray  (List  of  the  Genera 
of  Birds)  also  makes  Anthus  one  of  the  genera  of  his  Mo- 
tacillince,  placing  it  between  Ephthianttra,  Gould,  and 
Corydalla,*  Vigors.  The  MotacilliiKC,  in  Mr.  Gray's 
arrangement,  form  the  seventh  subfamily  of  his  Lus- 
cinidce. 

The  True  Larks  (Alaudince')  are  arranged  by  him  as  the 
sixth  subfamily  of  the  Fringillidce,  with  Ihe  following 

Genera. — Alauda,  Linn.  ;  Galerida,  Boie ;  Otocoris, 
Bonap. ;  Melanocorypha ,  Boie  ;  Saxilauda,  Less. ;  Erana, 
G.  R.  Gray  ;  Mirafra,  Horsf. ;  Calandrella,  Kaup  ;  Frin- 

falauda,  Hodgs. ;  Megalophonus,  G.  R.  Gray ;  macronyx, 
w.  ;  and  Certhilauda,  Sw. 

The  Alaudince  are  placed  by  this  zoologist  between  the 
Emberizincc  and  the  Pyrrhulmce. 

But  we  must  now  return  to  the  Titlarks,  and  we  quite 
agree  with  Mr.  Yarrell,  who,  in  his  British  Birds,  observes 
that  it  would  assist  correct  definition  if,  among  ourselves, 
the  term  Titlark  could  be  discontinued  entirely;  'the Tree 

•  In  Ihe  Appendix  Mr.  Gray  itatea  th;it  Ptpastrl,  Kaup.  and  f-t-inumiitirn 
Kaup,  bhnuM  come  next  to  Antlmi,  aucl  that  Mr.  Swuiawu's  jenus 
should  be  placed  here. 


T  I  T 


510 


T  I  T 


Pipit  being  called  the  Titlark  by  M>me,  the  Meadow  Pipit 

a  Titlark  by  other*;  and  round  the  sea-coast ,  where  the 

•  i*  generally  the  most  frequent  of  the  three,  that 

it  alio  called  Titlark.' 

Bedutein  tcparated  the   Pipits  from  the  true   I.arks, 

Othe  fonner  the  generic  appellation  of  Anlhut,  and 
arr«ll  elevates  them  into  a  family,  Anlhidtf. 
-  mi'  linti»h: — 

The  Tree  I'lpi!.  .Imfim  trniaiit;  the  Meadow  Pipit, 
Anlhut  praienttt  ;  the  K»<-k  Pipit,  Anlhut  obtcurut  (An- 
tkutpetronu, Klein..  Jen. ;  Anthiu  uijutiticut,  Selby, Gould ; 
Ala*da  obtcura,  Auct.  i ;  and  Richard*  Pipit,  Ant/tut  Ki- 
ocrdi. 

The  Titlark  of  Pennant  is  the  Mtadotr  Pipit  of  the 
above  list ;  and  Mr.  Yarrell  well  observe*  that  scarcely  any 
two  British  birds  have  been  so  frequently  confounded  toge- 
ther ai  the  Tree  and  the  Meadow  Pipits;  but  when  the 
two  sprue*  are  examined  in  hand,  obvious  and  constant 
distinctions  appear;  and  there  are.  he  adds,  bt sides,  dif- 
c»  in  the  habit*  of  these  birds,  as  well  as  in  the  lot  a- 
lities  they  each  frequent.  •  The  Tree  Pipit  is  rather  the 
larger  bird  oi  the  two  ;  the  beak  is  stouter  and  stronger; 
the  spots  on  the  breast  longer  and  fewer  in  number :  the. 
claw  of  the  hiutl  :..e  !•>  not  so  long  a*  the  toe  itself:  the 
tertial  feathers  of  the.  wings  are  rather  longer  in  propor- 
tion to  the  primaries;  the  white  on  the  outer  t:iil-i> 
on  each  side  is  neither  so  pure  in  colour,  nor  is  it  t\ 

-.)  large  a  portion  of  the  feather;  and,  as  far  as  my 
own  observation  goes,  it  doe*  not  appear  to  be  so  nu- 
merous as  a  specie*  as  the  Meadow  Pipit.' 

Unlike  the  Meadow  Pipit,  the  Tree  Pipit  is  a  summer 
visitor,  only  arming  in  our  well-wooded  enclosures  to- 
wards the  end  of  April.  The  male  generally  begins  his 
agreeable  song  from  the  top  of  a  bush  or  an  upper  branch 
of  some  'hedge-row  elm ;'  fn>m  his  perch  he  uses  into  the 
air,  his  wings  shivering,  till  he  has  reached  an  elevation 
about  as  high  again  as  the  tree  from  which  he  started.  As 
soon  a*  he  has  attained  his  greatest  height  he  poises  his 
wings,  spreads  his  tail  and  slowly  descends,  singing  all  the 
while,  to  the  same  station  whence  he  rose,  or  the  top  of 
some  neighbouring  tree.  The  nest,  placed  generally  en 
the  ground,  is  framed  of  moan,  root-fibres,  and  withered 
grass,  lined  scantily  with  bents  and  hairs.  The  eggs,  four 
•romber,  vary  much  bi  colour  in  different  nesU. 


J  oat  rfihi  Tr«.  Pipit.  (V 


Mr.  Varn-ll  considers  the  mo:-'  :stic  hue  to  be 

•!i-white   clouded  and  spotted  with  jn:i  pie-brown  or 
purple-red  ;  the  length  of  the  egg  about  10  lines,  diai. 
H.     Fc  tl   and   worm*.     Total   length   uf  the  bird 

about  (ty  inches.    This  bird  must  not  ..icii  with 

OD-LAKK. 

The    winter-quartern   of  this   species   are   probably    in 
Northern  and  Western  Afrieii.     It  is  a  Miulena  biiii 
also  inhabits  Japan. 

The  Mean  remain*  wit  hut  throughout  the 

and  is  the  smallest  and  most  common  -  'total 

length  being  0  inches  only.     It  haunts  heathy  and  hilly 
district*,  a*  well  a*  meadows  and  marsh-lands.     Mr. 
rell  thu*  describe*  its  habit*: — 'When  progressing 
place  to  place,  the  flight  of  this  bird  is  performed  bysho.t 
unequal  jerks;  but  when  in  attendance  on  its  man  and 
undisturbed,  it  rises  with  an  equal  vihiatory  motion,  and 
sings   some   musical    soft   notes   on   the   wing,  sometime* 
whilst  hoveling   over   its  nest,  and  return  round 

after  singing.  Occasionally  it  may  be  seen  to  settle  on  a 
low  bush  ;  but  is  rarely  observed  sitting  on  the  bianchof  a 
•  •i  perched  on  a  rail,  which  i^  the  common  habit  of 
the  Tree  Pipit.  The  Meadow  Pipit,  when  standing  on  a 
si  ight  mound  of  earth,  a  clod,  or  a  sto  moves 

his   tail  up  and  down  like  a  wagtail  ;    and  Mr.  Neville 
Wood  mentions  that   he  has  hraid  him  sine;  while  thug 
situated  on  or  very  near  the  earth.     The   Meadow  Pipit 
seek*  its  food  on  the  ground,  alum;  which  it  runs  nimbly  in 
pursuit  of  insects,  worms,  and  small  slugs.  In  the  stomach 
of  one  of  these  birds,  examined  in  the  month  of  Din  : 
.Mr.  Thompson,  of  Hellast.  found  two  specimci 
mu*  lubricus.     It  is,   according  to  the  laM-named  zoolo- 
gist, the   Mots-cheeper  of  the  north  of  Ireland,  a   name 
which  Sibbald  gives  as  applied  to  it  in  Scotland. 

Nest  on  the  ground,  generally  among  grass,  made  of 
dried  bents  on  the  outside,  with  a  lining  oi  tnu-r  onesand  a 
few  hairs:  eggs  from  four  to  six,  reddish  brown  mottled 
with  darker  ;  length  nine  lines  by  seven. 

Pennant  gives  Cor  Hedydd  an  the  Welsh  name  of  the 
Titlark,  and  Hedydd  y  cue  as  that  of  the  Field-lark,  Aland,-. 
minor. 


Tr»t  PifH.  (ClMM  ) 


Pipit,  mulr  ami  frm.ilc.  (Could.) 
'lil'I.K  UASKRS.] 

Di.l.DS.       [VKNDOM  AND  PURCHAJIW.] 


.   OF    VoLUJII  THK  TWKNTY-FOUJITH. 


l-oulon:   I'rin'.'li.j  WMIIAM  Cu'wn  inJ  Soin,  Siamford-Mmt,